store proved successful operated three years closed warren could pursue establishing colonies based mutualism including utopia modern times new harmony failed warren shifted ideological loyalties socialism anarchism great leap given owen 's socialism predicated godwin 's anarchism warren widely regarded first american anarchist ref name slate palmer brian december http wwwslatecom id anarchists want us ''slatecom'' retrieved december ref four page weekly paper ''the peaceful revolutionist'' edited first anarchist periodical published ref


david thoreau important early influence individualist anarchist thought united states europe best known book ''walden'' reflection upon simple living natural surroundings essay ''civil disobedience'' ''resistance civil government'' argument individual resistance civil government moral opposition unjust state ''walden'' thoreau advocates simple living self sufficiency among natural surroundings resistance advancement industrial civilization ref name thoreau su obra representativa es walden aparecida en aunque redactada entre cuando thoreau decide instalarse en el aislamiento de una

Humanities
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Libertarianism


buber leo tolstoy ref name ppuorguk ref george woodcock attitude also motivated certain idea resistance progress rejection growing materialism nature american society mid th century ref name thoreau zerzan included thoreau 's excursions edited compilation anti civilization writings ''against civilization readings reflections'' ref name ref ref individualist anarchists thoreau speak economics simply right disunion state foresee gradual elimination state social evolution agorist author j neil schulman cites thoreau primary inspiration many


economists since adam smith argued unlike taxes land value tax would cause economic inefficiency ref name adam smith ref would progressive tax ie tax paid primarily wealthy increases wages reduces economic inequality removes incentives misuse real estate reduces vulnerability economies face credit property bubbles ref name mccluskey franzsen ref early proponents view include thomas paine herbert spencer hugo grotius ref name oxfordcompanion kymlicka libertarianism left honderich ted ''the oxford companion philosophy'' new york city oxford university press p 'left libertarianism' new term


old conception justice dating back grotius combines libertarian assumption person possesses natural right self ownership person egalitarian premise natural resources shared equally right wing libertarians argue right self ownership entails right appropriate unequal parts external world unequal amounts land however according left libertarians world 's natural resources initially unowned belonged equally illegitimate anyone claim exclusive private ownership resources detriment others private


appropriation legitimate everyone appropriate equal amount appropriate taxed compensate thereby excluded common property historic proponents view include thomas paine herbert spencer henry george recent exponents include philippe van parijs hillel steiner ref concept widely popularized economist social reformer henry george george believed people ought fruits labor value improvements make therefore opposed income taxes sales taxes taxes


improvements taxes production labor trade commerce george among staunchest defenders free markets book ''protection free trade'' read ''congressional record'' nonetheless support direct management natural monopolies right way monopolies necessary railroads last resort advocated elimination intellectual property arrangements favor government sponsored prizes inventors ''progress poverty'' george argued boasted freedom necessarily involves slavery long recognize private property land abolished declarations independence acts


emancipation vain long one man claim exclusive ownership land men must live slavery exist material progress goes must grow deepen early followers george 's philosophy called single taxers believed legitimate broad based tax land rent term georgism coined later though modern proponents prefer term geoism instead ref name casal ref leaving meaning geo earth greek deliberately ambiguous terms earth sharing geonomics geolibertarianism used georgists represent


difference emphasis real differences land rent spent agree land rent recovered private owners benjamin tucker individualist anarchist publisher periodical ''liberty'' individualist anarchism found united states important space discussion development within group known boston anarchists ref name levy ref even among th century american individualists monolithic doctrine disagreed amongst various issues including intellectual property rights possession versus property land ref name watner watner carl ''journal libertarian studies'' ''' '''


p ref boston anarchists including benjamin tucker identified socialists th century often used sense commitment improving conditions working class ie labor problem lysander spooner besides individualist anarchist activism also anti slavery activist member first international tucker argued elimination called four monopolies land monopoly money banking monopoly monopoly powers conferred patents quasi monopolistic effects tariffs would undermine power wealthy big business making possible widespread property ownership


de cleyre steven byington john beverley robinson jo labadie lillian harman henry appleton later tucker others abandoned traditional support natural rights converted egoism modeled upon philosophy max stirner ref name watner number natural rights proponents stopped contributing protest several periodicals undoubtedly influenced ''liberty'' 's presentation egoism including ''i'' published clarence lee swartz edited william walstein gordak j william lloyd associates ''liberty'' ''the ego'' ''the egoist'' edited edward h fulton among egoist papers


tucker followed german ''der eigene'' edited adolf brand ''the eagle'' ''the serpent'' issued london latter prominent english language egoist journal published subtitle ''a journal egoistic philosophy sociology'' georgism geolibertarianism henry george influential among left libertarians advocated value derived land belong members society henry george american political economist journalist advocated economic value derived land including natural resources belong equally members society


strongly opposed feudalism privatisation land george created philosophy georgism geoism influential among many left libertarians including geolibertarians geoanarchists much like english digger movement held material possessions common george claimed land financial properties belong everyone hold land private property would lead immense inequalities including authority private owners ground prior states assigning property owners slices either populated uninhabited land world 's earth held common resources derive land


put achieving higher quality life employers landlords serve general interests comforts wider community geolibertarians claim vastly higher qualities life reached especially ever advancing technology industrialised agriculture diggers early libertarian communists held things common including land often violently seized european aristocracy levellers also known diggers th century anti authoritarian movement stood resistance english government feudalism pushing forced privatisation land known


enclosure around time first english civil war devout protestants gerrard winstanley prominent member community progressive interpretation religion sought end buying selling instead inhabitants society share material possessions hold things common without money payment complete abolition private property including private land english levellers created pool property properties belonged equal measure everyone often seen first practising anarchists digger movement


magazine time supportive liberal capitalism lifelong admirer henry george nock went become co editor ''the freeman'' publication initially conceived vehicle single tax movement financed wealthy wife magazine 's editor francis neilson critic h l mencken wrote h editorials three brief years ''freeman'' set mark man trade ever quite managed reach well informed sometimes even learned never slightest trace


pedantry ref name mencken ref executive vice president cato institute david boaz wrote one lowest points liberty humanity history three remarkable women published books could said given birth modern libertarian movement isabel paterson 's ''the god machine'' rose wilder lane 's ''the discovery freedom'' ayn rand 's ''the fountainhead'' promoted individualism capitalism none three used term libertarianism describe beliefs rand specifically rejected label criticizing burgeoning american libertarian movement hippies right ref


name ari ref rand 's philosophy objectivism notedly similar libertarianism accused libertarians plagiarizing ideas ref name ari rand stated leonard e read founded foundation economic education fee american nonprofit educational organization promotes principles ''laissez faire'' economics private property limited government according gary north former fee director seminars current mises institute scholar fee granddaddy libertarian organizations initial officers fee leonard e read president austrian school economist henry hazlitt vice president david goodrich b


rand 's ''atlas shrugged'' wrote introduced whole field natural rights natural law philosophy prompting learn glorious natural rights tradition ref name enemy ref soon broke rand various differences including defense anarchism calling philosophy anarcho capitalism rothbard influenced work th century american individualist anarchists sought meld advocacy free markets private defense principles austrian economics ref name autogenerated rothbard murray n https wwwmisesorg journals jls pdf spooner tucker doctrine economist 's view ''journal libertarian studies'' ''' '''


body thought known 'austrian economics' scientific explanation workings free market consequences government intervention market individualist anarchists could easily incorporate political social weltanschauung worldview ref karl hess speechwriter barry goldwater primary author republican party 's platforms became disillusioned traditional politics following presidential campaign goldwater lost lyndon b johnson parted republicans altogether rejected employment party began work heavy duty welder hess began reading


american anarchists largely due recommendations friend murray rothbard said upon reading works communist anarchist emma goldman discovered anarchists believed everything hoped republican party would represent hess goldman source best essential theories ayn rand without crazy solipsism rand fond hess rothbard founded journal ''left right journal libertarian thought'' published george resch leonard p liggio edited ''the libertarian


left right line two dimensional chart classifying political spectrum degrees personal economic freedom vietnam war split uneasy alliance growing numbers american libertarians conservatives believed limiting liberty uphold moral virtues libertarians opposed war joined draft resistance peace movements well organizations students democratic society sds hess joined others including murray rothbard robert lefevre dana rohrabacher samuel edward konkin iii former sds leader carl oglesby speak two conferences brought together activists


new left old right emerging nascent libertarian movement part effort unite left right wings libertarianism hess would join sds industrial workers world iww explained used labor movement country iww leaders killed imprisoned could tell labor unions become captive business government began praise 're destroying militant black leaders way slaughter continues long liberals


failure pitch libertarian message middle america might result loss tight assed majority left libertarian tradition carried present day konkin iii 's agorists contemporary mutualists kevin carson roderick long others gary chartier charles w johnson sheldon richman ref name libertarianleft richman sheldon february http wwwtheamericanconservativecom blog libertarian left libertarian left free market anti capitalism unknown ideal ''the american conservative'' retrieved march ref chris matthew sciabarra brad spangler former congressman ron paul self described libertarian whose presidential campaigns garnered significant support youth libertarian


editor newspaper according maureen tkacik hess moved radical left ideological grandfather anti pro movement direct antecedent thinkers like ron paul tea party movement occupy movement modern libertarianism gained significant recognition academia publication harvard university professor robert nozick 's ''anarchy state utopia'' received national book award response john rawls 's ''a theory justice'' nozick 's book supported minimal state also called nightwatchman state


nozick grounds ultraminimal state arises without violating individual rights transition ultraminimal state minimal state morally obligated occur specifically nozick wrote argue first transition system private protective agencies ultraminimal state occur invisible hand process morally permissible way violates one 's rights secondly argue transition ultraminimal state minimal state morally must occur would morally impermissible persons maintain monopoly ultraminimal state without providing


protective services even requires specific 'redistribution' operators ultraminimal state morally obligated produce minimal state early rothbard wrote one gratifying aspect rise prominence first time memory 'our side' captured crucial word enemy 'libertarians' long simply polite word left wing anarchists anti private property anarchists either communist syndicalist variety taken project spreading libertarian ideals united states


distinction part libertarian party united states libertarian small 'l' held libertarian values belonged republican party united states contemporary libertarianism contemporary libertarian socialism members spanish anarcho syndicalist trade union confederaci n nacional del trabajo marching madrid surge popular interest libertarian socialism occurred western nations anarchism influential counterculture anarchists actively participated protests included students workers' revolts international


petered without increased profile movement unity ideas left communist groups existing today include international communist party international communist current internationalist communist tendency housing employment crisis western europe led formation communes squatter movements like barcelona spain denmark squatters occupied disused military base declared freetown christiania autonomous central copenhagen around turn st century libertarian socialism grew popularity influence part anti war


anti capitalist anti globalisation movements ref name rupert ref anarchists became known involvement protests meetings world trade organization wto group eight world economic forum anarchist factions protests engaged rioting property destruction violent confrontations police actions precipitated ad hoc leaderless anonymous cadres known black blocs organizational tactics pioneered time include security culture affinity groups use decentralized technologies internet ref name rupert significant event period confrontations wto conference seattle ref


name rupert english anarchist scholar simon critchley contemporary anarchism seen powerful critique pseudo libertarianism contemporary neo liberalism one might say contemporary anarchism responsibility whether sexual ecological socio economic flows experience conscience manifold ways west ravages rest ethical outrage yawning inequality impoverishment disenfranchisment palpable locally globally might also motivated collapse 'really existing socialism' capitulation neo liberalism western social democracy libertarian socialists early


st century involved alter globalization movement squatter movement social centers infoshops anti poverty groups ontario coalition poverty food bombs tenants' unions housing cooperatives intentional communities generally egalitarian communities anti sexist organizing grassroots media initiatives digital media computer activism experiments participatory economics anti racist anti fascist groups like anti racist action anti fascist action activist groups protecting rights immigrants promoting free movement people border network worker co operatives countercultural artist groups peace movement contemporary libertarianism united states


united states polls circa find views voting habits voting age americans may classified fiscally conservative socially liberal libertarian ref name libertarian vote ref name anes based pollsters researchers defining libertarian views fiscally conservative socially liberal based common united states meanings terms government intervention economic affairs expansion personal freedoms ref name libertarian vote gallup poll figure risen ref name gallup reuters poll found


movement american political movement known advocating reduction united states national debt federal budget deficit reducing government spending taxes significant libertarian component ref name libertarian ref despite contrasts libertarian values views areas free trade immigration nationalism social issues ''reason'' rupe poll found among self identified tea party supporters percent leaned libertarian percent socially conservative named boston tea party also contains conservative populist elements sponsored multiple protests supported various political candidates since


tea party activities declined since number chapters across country slipping ref name huffpostdec https webarchiveorg web http wwwhuffingtonpostcom tea party n html tea party look conservative movement 's last three years ref ref name dbdec http wwwthedailybeastcom articles tea party dead movement fizzled gop primarieshtml tea party 'is dead' movement fizzled 's gop primaries ''the daily beast'' february ref mostly tea party organizations said shifted away national demonstrations local issues ref name huffpostdec following selection paul ryan mitt romney 's vice presidential running mate ''the new york times'' declared tea party lawmakers longer fringe


conservative coalition indisputably core modern republican party anti war pro drug liberalization presidential candidates libertarian republican ron paul libertarian party candidate gary johnson raised millions dollars garnered millions votes despite opposition obtaining ballot access democrats republicans libertarian national convention saw johnson jim gray nominated presidential ticket libertarian party resulting successful result third party presidential candidacy since best libertarian party 's history vote number


johnson received popular vote amounting million votes ref name million ref johnson expressed desire win least percent vote libertarian party candidates could get equal ballot access federal funding thus subsequently ending two party system libertarian national convention saw johnson bill weld nominated presidential ticket resulted successful result third party presidential candidacy since best libertarian party 's history vote number johnson received popular vote amounting


million votes contemporary libertarian organizations current international anarchist federations identify libertarian include international anarchist federations international workers' association international libertarian solidarity largest organized anarchist movement today spain form confederaci n general del trabajo cgt cnt cgt membership estimated around active syndicalist movements include central organisation workers sweden swedish anarcho syndicalist youth federation sweden unione sindacale italiana italy workers solidarity alliance united states solidarity


federation united kingdom revolutionary industrial unionist industrial workers world claiming paying members well international workers' association remain active united states exists common struggle libertarian communist federation since many american libertarian organizations adopted free market stance well supporting civil liberties non interventionist foreign policies include ludwig von mises institute francisco marroqu n university foundation economic education center libertarian studies cato institute liberty international activist free state project formed works bring libertarians


theory liberty ref name lester argued ''laissez faire'' capitalism necessarily produce best efficient outcome philosophy individualism policies deregulation prevent abuse natural resources critics corey robin describe type libertarianism fundamentally reactionary conservative ideology united traditionalist conservative thought goals desire enforce hierarchical power social relations ref name robin similarly nancy maclean argued libertarianism radical right ideology stood democracy according maclean libertarian leaning charles david koch used anonymous


dark money campaign contributions network libertarian institutes lobbying appointment libertarian pro business judges united states federal state courts oppose taxes public education employee protection laws environmental protection laws new deal social security program moral pragmatic criticism libertarianism also includes allegations utopianism ref name landauer landauer carl ''european socialism history ideas movements'' university california press ref tacit authoritarianism ref name debord debord guy knabb ken trans ''society spectacle'' london rebel press ref ref name libcom http libcomorg library problem organisation notion synthesis problem organisation notion synthesis libcomorg december


retrieved february ref vandalism towards feats civilisation ref name authority engels friedrich http wwwmarxistsorg archive marx works authorityhtm authority marxists internet archive retrieved february ref see also fusionism green libertarianism libertarian feminism list libertarian political ideologies neoclassical liberalism non aggression principle outline libertarianism paleolibertarianism property theft taxation theft references bibliography attas daniel libertarianism bevir mark ''encyclopedia political theory'' thousand oaks ca sage publications pp nbsp carlson jennifer libertarianism miller wilburn r ed ''the social history crime punishment america'' london sage publications


doherty brian ''radicals capitalism freewheeling history modern american libertarian movement'' publicaffairs graham robert ''anarchism documentary history libertarian ideas anarchy anarchism'' montr al black rose books gu rin daniel ''anarchism theory practice'' new york monthly review press hospers john ''libertarianism'' santa barbara ca reason press hunt e k ''property prophets evolution economic institutions ideologies'' new york e sharpe inc kinna ruth anarchism bevir mark ''encyclopedia political theory'' thousand oaks ca sage publications pp nbsp marshall peter


many clients implemented long period time example damage caused unplanned mineral extraction one early reasons public demand landscape planning europe alberti wrote need town squares markets specific implementations make use space north europe developed idea residential squares planned around green spaces first space type place des vosges residential squares also made britain planning developed idea incorporating

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public open space public parks within towns frederick law olmsted gave momentum idea proposal park systems boston famous emerald necklace patrick abercrombie took idea incorporated great open space plan county london example landscape planning use plans rwe wake mining operations plan use leftover detritus soil cultivation efforts restore damaged ecosystems landscapes created open pit mines eg garzweiler surface mine


us united states landscape architects provide landscape planning services focused natural environment along urban planners unlike canada europe us national land use planning system frederick law olmsted ian mcharg two influential american landscape architects also worked planners mcharg 's work overlay landscape planning contributed development gis foundation esri jack dangermond legislation principles landscape planning incorporated various types legislation policy documents america national environmental policy act


influenced work ian mcharg environmental impact assessment germany federal nature conservation act requires preparation landscape plans europe union whole european landscape convention wide ranging implications design planning relationships development landscape asia major development projects taking place illustrating need good landscape planning three gorges dam example extensive impacts landscape planned degree future monitoring project likely show better landscape


planning design would possible methodology conventional planning process linear progression activities common steps identification problems opportunities establishment goals inventory analysis biophysical environment human community inventory analysis development concepts selection options adoption plan community involvement education detailed design plan implementation plan administration landscape planning always means ecological planning method must considered planning process uses scientific technical information considering reaching consensus range


choices ecology study relationship living things including people biological physical environments ecological planning may defined use biophysical sociocultural information suggest opportunities constraints decision making use landscape steiner common steps listed process landscape planning adaptable many situations useful many ways depending goals used impacts implications results proper implementations landscape planning practices limited


functional landscapes also influence better many aspects environment community used potential chief purpose landscape planning ecological reasons impact much used effectively tool ecology landscape planning mainly used ecological purposes functions best result planning process least amount interruption ecological factors implementation ever went place practice landscape planning used maintain status


existing environment also used improve aspects previously performing ecosystems example designing increase biodiversity example landscape planning could used create additional habitat endangered species reclamation previously used depleted lands eg old agricultural spaces expansion natural ecosystems also includes planning order reduce impact changes environment proper landscape planning greater speed recovery ecosystems interrupted spaces achievable health similar impacts healing gardens positive healing effects


proper implementations planned landscapes great benefit people exposed nature would find overall mood improved recover stress illness accelerated rate proper use landscape planning health within urban leaning environment regards stress recovery greatly improved unplanned alternative landscape planning used properly conserve ecological systems may displaced makes recreational use environment maintained conserving systems people enjoy use


technologies context development gis technology developed esri great import practice landscape planning use assisting technology allows conditions factors existing landscape easily aggregated analyzed use gis technology able answer many questions landscape question functional landscape extent factors outside site affect planning needs done use technology


developing greater greater accuracy ability make sustainable developments easier common across globe br see also footnotes http wwwsciencedirectcom science article pii x landscape planning education america retrospect prospect ''ecological design planning'' george f thompson frederick r steiner wiley ''landscape planning introduction theory practice'' hackett brian oriel ''landscape planning environmental impact design'' tom turner nd ed ucl press ''design nature'' ian l mcharg wiley ''the living landscape ecological approach landscape planning'' steiner frederick r mcgraw hill college references external links


https webarchiveorg web http wwwcoeint e cultural co operation environment landscape european landscape convention official statement council europe landscape landscape architecture environmental design sustainable design


united nations peace education right increasingly emphasized peace researchers betty reardon douglas roche also recent meshing peace education human rights education definition ian harris john synott described peace education series teaching encounters draw people desire peace nonviolent alternatives managing conflict skills critical analysis structural arrangements produce legitimize injustice inequality james page suggests peace education thought encouraging commitment peace settled disposition

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Peace education


enhancing confidence individual individual agent peace informing student consequences war social injustice informing student value peaceful social structures working uphold develop social structures encouraging student love world imagine peaceful future caring student encouraging student care others often theory philosophy peace education assumed articulated johan galtung suggested theory peace education


existed clearly urgent need theory recently attempts establish theory joachim james calleja suggested philosophical basis peace education might located kantian notion duty james page suggested rationale peace education might found virtue ethics consequentialist ethics conservative political ethics aesthetic ethics care ethics robert l holmes claims moral presumption violence exists among civilized nations basis presumptive prohibition outlines several philosophical values including pacifism relevant


nonviolent resolution international conflicts since early th century peace education programs around world represented spectrum focal themes including anti nuclearism international understanding environmental responsibility communication skills nonviolence conflict resolution techniques democracy human rights awareness tolerance diversity coexistence gender equality forms conflict resolution training peace education programs centered conflict resolution typically focus social behavioural symptoms conflict train individuals resolve inter personal disputes negotiation peer mediation main elements programs include learning manage anger fighting fair improving communication skills listening turn taking


identifying needs separating facts emotions participants encouraged take responsibility actions brainstorm together compromises general approaches type aim alter beliefs attitudes behaviours negative positive attitudes toward conflict basis preventing violence van slyck stern elbedour various styles approaches conflict resolution training adr verbal aikido nvc give practitioner means accept conflictual situation orient towards peaceful resolution one peer mediation coordinator put conflict natural normal


ca n't go entire life beating everybody learn different ways resolve conflict democracy education peace education programs centered democracy education typically focus political processes associated conflict postulate increase democratic participation societies less likely resolve conflict violence war time democratic society needs commitment citizens accept inevitability conflict well necessity tolerance us department state culture democracy emphasis added programs kind foster conflict positive orientation


community training students view conflict platform creativity growth approaches type train participants critical thinking debate coalition building promote values freedom speech individuality tolerance diversity compromise conscientious objection seek produce responsible citizens hold governments accountable standards peace primarily adversarial processes activities structured students assume role citizen chooses makes decisions takes positions argues positions respects opinions others skills sustain multi party democracy assumed


decrease likelihood violence war assumed necessary create culture peace justice education education justice process promoting rule law rol educational activities levels education justice teaches next generation crime prevention better understand address problems undermine rule law approach promotes peace encourages students engage actively communities future professions ref name ref making rol culture lawfulness priority transmitting


knowledge also values behaviours modelled enforced daily 'hidden curriculum' hidden curriculum classroom school transmits norms values beliefs learners ways formal teaching learning processes ensures learners develop skills engage society ethically responsible citizens ref name human rights education peace education programs centered raising awareness human rights typically focus policies humanity ought adopt move closer peaceful global community aim engender commitment among participants vision


unless part comprehensive approach fact education counterproductive lead greater conflict people become aware rights realized respect human rights education increase potential conflict '' blockquote prevent negative outcomes many programs combined aspects conflict resolution democracy education schools thought along training nonviolent action worldview transformation approaches peace education start psychological insights recognize developmental nature human psychosocial dispositions conflict promoting attitudes behaviours characterize earlier phases


human development unity promoting attitudes behaviours emerge later phases healthy development hb danesh b b proposes integrative theory peace peace understood psychosocial political moral spiritual reality peace education says must focus healthy development maturation human consciousness assisting people examine transform worldviews worldviews defined subconscious lens acquired cultural family historical religious societal influences people perceive four key issues nature reality human nature purpose


existence principles governing appropriate human relationships surveying mass material danesh argues majority people societies world hold conflict based worldviews express conflicted intrapersonal interpersonal intergroup international relationships subdivides conflict based worldviews two main categories correlates phases human development survival based worldview identity based worldview acquiring integrative unity based worldview increases human capacity mitigate conflict create unity context diversity establish sustainable cultures peace home school work international community


critical peace education modern forms peace education relate new scholarly explorations applications techniques peace education internationally plural communities individuals critical peace education bajaj bajaj hantzopoulos trifonas wright emancipatory pursuit seeks link education goals foci social justice disrupting inequality critical pedagogy freire critical peace education addresses critique peace education imperial impository mimicking 'interventionism' western peacebuilding foregrounding local practices narratives peace education salomon macginty richmond


golding project critical peace education includes conceiving education space transformation students teachers become change agents recognise past present experiences inequity bias schools become strategic sites fostering emancipatory change criticism toh swee hin observes various streams peace education inevitably dynamics 'autonomy' terms theory practice salomon described challenges goals methods peace education differ substantially areas characterized intractable conflict interethnic tension relative tranquility salomon


raises problem consequences blockquote imagine medical practitioners would distinguish invasive surgery remove malignant tumors surgery correct one 's vision imagine also surgeries practiced research evaluation differential effectiveness accompany field would considered neither serious trustworthy luckily enough state affairs describe field medicine comes pretty close describing field peace education first many profoundly different kinds activities taking place exceedingly wide array contexts


lumped category label peace education belong together second whatever reason field 's scholarship form theorizing research program evaluation badly lags behind practice absence clarity peace education really different varieties relate unclear experience one variant peace education one region usefully inform programs another region blockquote according clarke habibi general integrated theory peace needed one holistically account intrapersonal inter personal inter group


international dynamics peace well main principles pre requisites essential component integrated theory must also recognition culture peace result authentic process transformation individual collective see also anne frank educational centre children 's peace pavilion cisv international culture peace culture peace news network el hibri peace education prize feminist peace research global citizenship education institute economics peace building blocks peace program international year culture peace list peace activists peace peace conflict studies


peace psychology school day non violence peace teaching social justice unesco prize peace education university peace world peace references reading external links http wwwpeaceca canadian centres teaching peace http wwwvillanovaedu artsci peaceandjustice center peace justice education villanova university http wwwcultureofpeaceca culture peace programme canada http wwwpeace ed campaignorg global campaign peace education http wwwtccolumbiaedu peaceed peace education center columbia university https tprforg peace education program peace education program https webarchiveorg web http www wilmingtonedu prc wilmington college peace resource center http wwwupeaceorg us association university peace https wwwunorg cyberschoolbus peace indexasp un peace education website https webarchiveorg web http wwwcopojca culture peace online journal http wwwonearthpeaceorg earth peace http wwwpeaceeducationorg peace education foundation http wwwpeaceedupk


peace education system pakistan https webarchiveorg web http wwweducandoparalapazcomar fundaci n educaci n para la paz http wwwpeaceculturenet strange war stories use peace education languages education global citizenship articles containing video clips


ecological analysis co sub sub ecosystem '''systems ecology''' interdisciplinary field ecology subset earth system science takes holistic approach study ecological systems especially ecosystems systems ecology seen application general systems theory ecology central systems ecology approach idea ecosystem complex system exhibiting emergent properties systems ecology focuses interactions transactions within biological ecological systems especially concerned way functioning ecosystems influenced

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems ecology


human interventions uses extends concepts thermodynamics develops macroscopic descriptions complex systems overview systems ecology seeks holistic view interactions transactions within biological ecological systems systems ecologists realise function ecosystem influenced human economics fundamental ways therefore taken additional transdisciplinary step including economics consideration ecological economic systems words rl kitching ''systems ecology defined approach study ecology organisms using techniques philosophy


closely related fields deep ecology deep ecology ideology whose metaphysical underpinnings deeply concerned science ecology term coined arne naess norwegian philosopher gandhian scholar environmental activist argues prevailing approach environmental management anthropocentric natural environment complex imagine complex imagine naess formulated deep ecology environmental conference budapest joanna macy john seed others developed naess' thesis branch called ''experiential deep ecology'' efforts


motivated need perceived development ecological self views human ego integrated part living system encompasses individual sought transcend altruism deeper self interest based biospherical equality beyond human chauvinism earth systems engineering management earth systems engineering management esem discipline used analyze design engineer manage complex environmental systems entails wide range subject areas including anthropology engineering environmental science ethics philosophy core esem looks rationally design manage coupled human natural systems


two fundamental axioms relating need submit ecological laws see humanity part larger living system ecosystem ecology riparian forest white mountains new hampshire usa ecosystem ecology integrated study biotic abiotic components ecosystems interactions within ecosystem framework science examines ecosystems work relates components chemicals bedrock soil plants animals ecosystem ecology examines physical biological structure examines ecosystem characteristics interact relationship systems ecology ecosystem ecology complex


systems resource capital investments move system become waste closed loop system wastes become inputs new processes see also agroecology earth system science ecosystem ecology ecological literacy emergy energy flow ecology energy systems language holism science holon philosophy holistic management landscape ecology antireductionism biosemiotics ecosemiotics musiasem references bibliography gregory bateson ''steps ecology mind'' kenneth edmund ferguson ''systems analysis ecology'' watt pp efraim halfon ''theoretical systems ecology advances case studies'' j w haefner ''modeling biological systems principles applications'' london uk chapman


hall pp richard f johnston peter w frank charles duncan michener ''annual review ecology systematics'' pp jorgensen sven e introduction systems ecology crc press rl kitching ''systems ecology'' university queensland press howard odum ''systems ecology introduction'' wiley interscience howard odum ''ecological general systems introduction systems ecology'' university press colorado niwot co friedrich recknagel ''applied systems ecology approach case studies aquatic ecology'' james sanderson larry harris ''landscape ecology top approach'' pp sheldon smith ''human


systems ecology studies integration political economy'' shugart hh neil rv eds ''systems ecology'' dowden hutchinson ross inc van dyne george ''ecosystems systems ecology systems ecologists'' ornl oak ridge national laboratory oak ridge tn pp nbsp patten bernard c editor systems analysis simulation ecology volume academic press patten bernard c editor systems analysis simulation ecology volume academic press patten bernard c editor systems analysis simulation ecology volume academic press patten bernard c editor systems analysis simulation ecology volume


academic press external links organisations http wwwecologysuse systems ecology department stockholm university https webarchiveorg web http wwwfalwvunl onderzoeksinstituten indexcfm home subsectioncfm subsectionid b e b b c c f ddb systems ecology department university amsterdam http wwwesfedu efb hall se systems ecology lab suny esf http wwweesufledu homepp brown syseco systems ecology program university florida http wwwdbsumtedu systemsecology systems ecology program university montana http wwwsysecolethzch terrestrial systems ecology eth z rich environmental science environmental social science formal sciences ecology


antikythera mechanism believed early mechanical analog computer ref name antikythera mechanism ref designed calculate astronomical positions discovered antikythera wreck greek island antikythera kythera crete dated ''circa'' bc ref name antikythera mechanism mechanical analog computer devices appeared thousand years later medieval islamic world developed muslim astronomers mechanical geared astrolabe ab rayh n al b r n ref name usc ref torquetum jabir ibn aflah according simon singh muslim mathematicians also made important advances

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
History of computer science


cryptography development cryptanalysis frequency analysis alkindus programmable machines also invented muslim engineers automatic flute player ban brothers ref name koetsier ref al jazari 's programmable humanoid automata castle clock considered first programmable analog computer ref name ancient discoveries ref technological artifacts similar complexity appeared th century europe mechanical astronomical clocks ref name insearchoflosttime ref john napier discovered logarithms computational purposes early th century followed period considerable progress inventors scientists making calculating tools wilhelm schickard designed


calculating machine abandoned project prototype started building destroyed fire around blaise pascal leading french mathematician constructed mechanical adding device based design described greek mathematician hero alexandria gottfried wilhelm leibniz invented stepped reckoner completed ref name meyer p translated edited ref charles babbage first described analytical engine accepted first design modern computer analytical engine expandable memory arithmetic unit logic processing capabilities


able interpret programming language loops conditional branching although never built design studied extensively understood turing equivalent analytical engine would memory capacity less kilobyte memory clock speed less hertz considerable advancement mathematics electronics theory required first modern computers could designed binary logic '''gottfried wilhelm leibniz''' developed logic binary number system gottfried wilhelm leibniz developed logic formal mathematical sense writings


binary numeral system system ones zeros also represent ''true'' ''false'' values ''on'' ''off'' states took century george boole published boolean algebra complete system allowed computational processes mathematically modeled ref name tedre ref time first mechanical devices driven binary pattern invented industrial revolution driven forward mechanization many tasks included weaving punched cards controlled joseph marie jacquard 's loom hole punched card indicated binary


success idea babbage worked develop machine could compute numbers decimal places babbage devised plan develop machine could use punched cards perform arithmetical operations machine would store numbers memory units would form sequential control means one operation would carried another way machine would produce answer fail machine known analytical engine first true


representation modern computer ref name charles babbage ada lovelace augusta ada byron credited pioneer computer programming regarded mathematical genius lovelace began working charles babbage assistant babbage working analytical engine first mechanical computer work babbage ada lovelace became designer first computer algorithm ability compute bernoulli numbers moreover lovelace 's work babbage resulted prediction future computers perform mathematical calculations also manipulate symbols mathematical


never able see results work analytical engine created lifetime efforts later years beginning go unnoticed ref name ada lovelace contributions babbage 's analytical engine first half th century following babbage although first unaware earlier work percy ludgate clerk corn merchant dublin ireland independently designed programmable mechanical computer described work published two inventors leonardo torres quevedo


vannevar bush also follow research based babbage 's work ''essays automatics'' torres quevedo designed babbage type calculating machine used electromechanical parts included floating point number representations built prototype bush 's paper ''instrumental analysis'' discussed using existing ibm punch card machines implement babbage 's design year started rapid arithmetical machine project investigate problems constructing electronic digital computer charles sanders peirce electrical switching circuits '''charles sanders peirce''' described logical operations could carried


electrical switching circuits letter charles sanders peirce described logical operations could carried electrical switching circuits ref name p peirce c letter peirce marquand dated ''writings charles peirce'' v pp see burks arthur w review charles peirce ''the new elements mathematics'' ''bulletin american mathematical society'' v n pp see http projecteuclidorg dpubs repository disseminateview body id pdf handle euclidbams pdf eprint ref showed gates alone alternatively nand gates alone used reproduce functions logic


part nobel prize physics first modern electronic gate konrad zuse designed built electromechanical logic gates computer z electrical engineers able build electronic circuits solve mathematical logic problems ''ad hoc'' manner lacking theoretical rigor changed switching circuit theory akira nakashima claude shannon viktor shetakov published series papers showing two valued boolean algebra describe


operation switching circuits ref name historical radomir stankovi university ni jaakko astola tampere university technology mark g karpovsky boston university http citeseerxistpsuedu viewdoc summarydoi historical remarks switching theory doi ref ref name nakashima radomir stankovi jaakko astola http ticspcstutfi reports reprint nakashima rrpdf reprints early days information sciences ticsp series contributions akira nakashima switching theory ticsp series tampere international center signal processing tampere university technology ref concept utilizing properties electrical switches logic basic concept underlies electronic digital computers switching circuit theory provided mathematical


foundations tools digital system design almost areas modern technology ref name nakashima taking undergraduate philosophy class shannon exposed boole 's work recognized could used arrange electromechanical relays used telephone routing switches solve logic problems thesis became foundation practical digital circuit design became widely known among electrical engineering community world war ii alan turing turing machine ''computers'' sometimes ''computors'' human clerks performed computations usually


pencil long necessary without ingenuity insight machines computed continuous values became known ''analog'' kind used machinery represented continuous numeric quantities like angle shaft rotation difference electrical potential digital machinery contrast analog able render state numeric value store individual digit digital machinery used difference engines relays invention faster memory devices phrase ''computing machine'' gradually gave way late ''computer'' onset electronic digital machinery


limits could proved disproved within formal system led work g del others define describe formal systems including concepts mu recursive functions lambda definable functions alan turing alonzo church independently also together introduced formalization algorithm limits computed purely mechanical model computing ref name church turing thesis ref became church turing thesis hypothesis nature mechanical calculation devices electronic computers thesis states calculation possible performed


algorithm running computer provided sufficient time storage space available ref name church turing thesis alan turing also published seminal work turing machines abstract digital computing machine simply referred universal turing machine machine invented principle modern computer birthplace stored program concept almost modern day computers use ref name platostanfordedu ref hypothetical machines designed formally determine mathematically computed taking account limitations computing ability turing machine complete


task considered turing computable ref name turing stanford los alamos physicist stanley frankel described john von neumann 's view fundamental importance turing 's paper letter ref name platostanfordedu john v atanasoff''' creator first electric digital computer called atanasoff berry computer early computer hardware world 's first electronic digital computer atanasoff berry computer built iowa state campus john v atanasoff professor physics mathematics clifford berry engineering graduate student konrad zuse developed world 's first


functional program controlled computer z shown turing complete principle zuse also developed computing machine considered first process control computer founded one earliest computer businesses producing z became world 's first commercial computer designed first high level programming language plankalk l ref name hz talk given horst zuse computer conservation society science museum london november ref manchester baby completed world 's first electronic digital computer ran programs stored memory


like almost modern computers ref name platostanfordedu influence max newman turing 's seminal paper turing machines logico mathematical contributions project crucial successful development baby ref name platostanfordedu britain 's national physical laboratory completed pilot ace small scale programmable computer based turing 's philosophy operating speed nbsp mhz pilot model ace time fastest computer world ref name platostanfordedu turing 's design ace much common today 's risc architectures called high speed memory


roughly capacity early macintosh computer enormous standards day ref name platostanfordedu turing 's ace built planned full would different league early computers ref name platostanfordedu '''claude shannon''' helped creating field information theory first actual computer bug moth stuck relays harvard mark ii ref name mark ii bug ref invention term 'bug' often erroneously attributed grace hopper future rear admiral us navy


supposedly logged bug september accounts conflict least details according accounts actual date september operators filed 'incident' along insect notation first actual case bug found see software bug details ref name mark ii bug shannon information theory claude shannon went found field information theory paper titled mathematical theory communication applied probability theory problem best encode information sender wants


back ipu instruction fetched alu data fetched ref name von neumann von neumann 's machine design uses risc reduced instruction set computing architecture means instruction set uses total instructions perform tasks contrast cisc complex instruction set computing instruction sets instructions choose von neumann architecture main memory along accumulator register holds result logical operations ref name dictionary two memories addressed operations


carried simple arithmetic performed alu include addition subtraction multiplication division conditional branches commonly seen code code statements code code loops branches serve code go code statements logical moves different components machine ie move accumulator memory vice versa von neumann architecture accepts fractions instructions data types finally von neumann architecture simple one register management also simple architecture uses set seven registers manipulate interpret fetched


research naming artificial intelligence also led birth new field computer science august research project proposed consisting john mccarthy marvin l minsky nathaniel rochester claude e shannon official project began consisted several significant parts felt would help better understand artificial intelligence 's makeup ref name ref mccarthy colleagues' ideas behind automatic computers machine capable completing task confirmed computer compiling program perform desired results


also discovered human brain complex replicate machine program knowledge produce program sophisticated yet ref name concept behind looking humans understand language structure form sentences giving different meaning rule sets comparing machine process ref name way computers understand hardware level language written binary 's written specific format gives


computer ruleset run particular hardware piece minsky 's process determined artificial neural networks could arranged similar qualities human brain however could produce partial results needed research idea ref name mccarthy shannon 's idea behind theory develop way use complex problems determine measure machine 's efficiency mathematical theory computations however receive partial test results ref name idea behind self improvement machine would use self modifying code make


smarter would allow machine grow intelligence increase calculation speeds group believed could study machine could improve upon process completing task abstractions part research ref name group thought research category could broken smaller groups would consist sensory forms information artificial intelligence ref name abstractions computer science refer mathematics programing language idea computational creativity program machine seen


similar ways human thinking wanted see machine could take piece incomplete information improve upon fill missing details human mind machine could needed think machine determine outcome ref name see also computer museum list computer term etymologies origins computer science words list pioneers computer science history computing history computing hardware history software history personal computers timeline algorithms timeline women


computing timeline computing references ref ref name von neumann ref ref name dictionary ref ref name ada lovelace ref ref name charles babbage ref sources reading kak subhash computing science ancient india munshiram manoharlal publishers pvt ltd http csjoensuufi pub dissertations tedrepdf development computer science sociocultural perspective matti tedre 's phd thesis university joensuu external links http wwwcomputerhistoryorg computer history museum http wwweingangorg lecture computers past present https wwwhistorynavymil collections photography numerical list images nhhc series nh series nh nh knhtml first computer bug naval history heritage command photo archives http wwwbitsaversorg bitsavers effort capture salvage archive historical computer


software manuals minicomputers mainframes https conservancyumnedu handle oral history interviews computer science history computing


'''paleoanthropology''' '''paleo anthropology''' branch paleontology anthropology seeks understand early development anatomically modern humans process known hominization reconstruction evolutionary kinship lines within family hominidae working biological evidence petrified skeletal remains bone fragments footprints cultural evidence stone tools artifacts settlement localities field draws combines primatology paleontology biological anthropology cultural anthropology technologies methods advance genetics plays ever increasing role particular examine compare dna structure vital tool research

Social science
Archaeology
Palaeoanthropology


evolutionary kinship lines related species genera etymology term paleoanthropology derives greek palai old ancient nthr pos man human suffix log study hominoid taxonomies hominoids primate superfamily hominid family currently considered comprise great ape lineages human lineages within hominoid superfamily homininae comprise human lineages african ape lineages term african apes refers chimpanzees gorillas terminology immediate biological family currently flux term hominin refers genus human


surmised humans shared common ancestor african apes fossils ancestors would ultimately found africa ref name caroli linn systema natur th century charles darwin science arguably began late th century important discoveries occurred led study human evolution discovery neanderthal germany thomas huxley 's ''evidence man 's place nature'' charles darwin 's ''the descent man'' important early paleoanthropological research modern field paleoanthropology began th century discovery neanderthal man eponymous skeleton


found finds elsewhere since evidence called cave men idea humans similar certain great apes obvious people time idea biological evolution species general legitimized charles darwin published ''on origin species'' though darwin 's first book evolution address specific question human evolution light thrown origin man history darwin wrote subject implications evolutionary


theory clear contemporary readers debates thomas huxley richard owen focused idea human evolution huxley convincingly illustrated many similarities differences humans apes book ''evidence man 's place nature'' time darwin published book subject ''descent man'' already well known interpretation theory interpretation made theory highly controversial even many darwin 's original supporters alfred russel wallace charles lyell balked idea human beings could evolved


apparently boundless mental capacities moral sensibilities natural selection asia five seven known fossil teeth ''homo luzonensis'' found callao cave philippines prior general acceptance africa root genus ''homo'' th century naturalists sought origin humans asia called dragon bones fossil bones teeth chinese apothecary shops known early th century german paleontologist max schlosser first described single human tooth beijing although schlosser cautious identifying tooth ''anthropoide g et sp


paleoanthropology ivpp chinese academy science took modern form first major project finds attributed young swedish paleontologist anders birger bohlin serving field advisor zhoukoudian recovered left lower molar black identified unmistakably human compared favorably previous find made zdansky subsequently coined ''sinanthropus pekinensis'' news first met skepticism many scholars reservations single tooth sufficient justify naming new type early hominin yet


within little two years winter pei wenzhong field director zhoukoudian unearthed first complete calvaria peking man twenty seven years schlosser initial description antiquity early humans east asia longer speculation reality zhoukoudian site excavations continued site remained fruitful outbreak second sino japanese war decade long research yielded wealth faunal lithic materials well hominin fossils included complete calvaria large cranial fragments facial fragments


people republic china excavations resumed zhoukoudian political instability social unrest brewing china beginning major discoveries olduvai gorge east turkana koobi fora paleoanthropological spotlight shifted westward east africa although china opened doors west late national policy calling self reliance coupled widened language barrier thwarted possibilities renewed scientific relationships indeed harvard anthropologist k c chang noted international collaboration developing nations often disguise western domination became thing past


africa skull ''australopithecus africanus'' first paleoanthropological find made africa discovery kabwe skull kabwe broken hill zambia initially specimen named ''homo rhodesiensis'' however today considered part species ''homo heidelbergensis'' ref name ref limestone quarry taung professor raymond dart discovered remarkably well preserved juvenile specimen face brain endocast named ''australopithecus africanus'' ''australopithecus'' meaning southern ape although brain small nbsp cm shape rounded unlike brain shape chimpanzees


gorillas like shape seen modern humans addition specimen exhibited short canine teeth anterior placement foramen magnum like placement seen modern humans placement seen chimpanzees gorillas suggesting species bipedal traits convinced dart taung child bipedal human ancestor transitional form ape human however dart 's conclusions largely ignored decades prevailing view time large brain evolved bipedality took discovery additional


australopith fossils africa resembled specimen rejection piltdown man hoax dart 's claims taken seriously paleontologist robert broom discovered described new species kromdraai south africa although similar ways dart 's ''australopithecus africanus'' broom 's specimen much larger cheek teeth difference broom named specimen ''paranthropus robustus'' using new genus name established practice grouping gracile australopiths genus ''australopithecus'' robust australopiths genus ''paranthropus'' robust variety commonly


moved ''australopithecus'' recent consensus return original classification ''paranthropus'' separate genus ref name ref second half twentieth century saw significant increase number paleoanthropological finds made africa many finds associated work leakey family eastern africa mary leakey 's discovery zinj fossin oh olduvai gorge tanzania led identification new species ''paranthropus boisei'' leakeys discovered fossil oh also olduvai


human lineage ref name richard leakey alan walker discovered specimen called black skull found near lake turkana specimen assigned another species ''paranthropus aethiopicus'' team led meave leakey announced new species ''australopithecus anamensis'' based specimens found near lake turkana ref name numerous researchers made important discoveries eastern africa possibly famous lucy skeleton discovered donald johanson maurice taieb ethiopia 's afar triangle site hadar basis skeleton


subsequent discoveries researchers came new species ''australopithecus afarensis'' ref name colin groves vratislav maz k announced new species human called ''homo ergaster'' ''homo ergaster'' specimens found numerous sites eastern southern africa ref name tim white announced new species ''ardipithecus ramidus'' based fossils ethiopia two new species announced berhane asfaw tim white named ''australopithecus garhi'' based specimens discovered ethiopia 's awash valley meave leakey announced new species ''kenyanthropus platyops'' based cranium knm wt


lake turkana ref name st century st century numerous fossils found add current knowledge existing species example zeresenay alemseged discovered ''australopithecus afarensis'' child fossil called selam site dikika afar region ethiopia find particularly important fossil included preserved hyoid bone something rarely found paleoanthropological fossils important understanding evolution speech capacities ref name ref name two new species southern africa discovered described recent years


team led lee berger announced new species ''australopithecus sediba'' based fossils discovered malapa cave south africa ref name team also led lee berger announced another species ''homo naledi'' based fossils representing individuals rising star cave system south africa new species also found eastern africa brigitte senut martin pickford described species ''orrorin tugenensis'' based fossils found kenya yohannes haile selassie announced specimens previously labeled ''ardipithecus ramidus'' made


different species ''ardipithecus kadabba'' ref name haile selassie announced another new species ''australopithecus deyiremeda'' though scholars skeptical associated fossils truly represent unique species although hominin fossils africa found eastern southern africa exceptions one ''sahelanthropus tchadensis'' discovered central african country chad find important widens assumed geographic range early hominins ref name renowned paleoanthropologists fossil hominid skull display museum osteology oklahoma city usa robert ardrey lee berger davidson


black robert broom michel brunet j desmond clark carleton coon raymond dart eugene dubois johann carl fuhlrott ale hrdli ka glynn isaac donald c johanson kamoya kimeu gustav heinrich ralph von koenigswald jeffrey laitman louis leakey meave leakey mary leakey richard leakey andr leroi gourhan kenneth oakley david pilbeam john robinson jeffrey h schwartz chris stringer ian tattersall pierre teilhard de chardin phillip v tobias erik trinkaus alan walker franz weidenreich


human evolution max planck institute leipzig http humanoriginssiedu evidence human evolution timeline interactive human timeline interactive smithsonian national museum natural history august anthropology biological anthropology


study sanskrit western world began th century ref name gaurinath sastri bhart hari 's poems translated portuguese ref name gaurinath sastri ref legal code known translated nathaniel brassey halhed persian translation published ''a code gentoo laws'' charles wilkins published english translation bhagavad gita first time sanskrit book translated directly european language sir william jones founded asiatic society two years earlier delivered third annual discourse

Humanities
Theology
Hindu theology
Sanskrit Studies


often cited philologer passage noted similarities sanskrit ancient greek latin event often cited beginning comparative linguistics indo european studies sanskrit philology common source indo european languages eventually came known proto indo european following work franz bopp others jones published translation k lid sa 's ''the recognition sakuntala'' translation captured admiration many notably goethe expressed admiration sanskrit play shakuntala goethe went borrow device play ''faust part one'' introduction


sympathetic reader bhagavad gita even beyond humanities ralph waldo emerson also influenced sanskrit literature early days periodic table scientists referred yet undiscovered elements use sanskrit numerical prefixes see mendeleev 's predicted elements j robert oppenheimer met indologist arthur w ryder berkeley learned sanskrit read bhagavad gita original language later cited one influential books shape philosophy life quotation bhagavad gita become


united states parliament world 's religions references reading chaudhuri k sanskrit china japan new delhi international academy indian culture aditya prakashan rajiv malhotra ''battle sanskrit dead alive oppressive liberating political sacred'' publisher harper collins india external links https wwwlivemintcom leisure bhl tbxvn jh bvpkll finally sanskrit pockethtml finally sanskrit pocket chandrahas choudhury https archiveorg details sanskritenglishd capprich sanskrit english dictionary based upon st petersburg lexicons https archiveorg details introductiontogr wilsrich introduction grammar sanskrit language use early students sanskrit


'''human behavioral ecology''' '''hbe''' '''human evolutionary ecology''' applies principles evolutionary theory optimization study human behavioral cultural diversity hbe examines adaptive design traits behaviors life histories humans ecological context one aim modern human behavioral ecology determine ecological social factors influence shape behavioral flexibility within human populations among things hbe attempts explain variation human behavior adaptive solutions competing life history demands growth development reproduction parental care mate acquisition hbe overlaps evolutionary

Social science
Anthropology
Human Behavioral Ecology


psychology human cultural ecology decision theory prominent disciplines anthropology psychology human evolution considered relevant holistic understanding human behavior economics self interest methodological individualism maximization key elements modeling behavioral responses various ecological factors evolutionary theory human behavioral ecology rests upon foundation evolutionary theory includes aspects general evolutionary theory established middle level evolutionary theories well aspects general evolutionary theory include natural selection process individual organisms favorable traits likely


protecting offspring discriminating mating sex invests less offspring compete access higher investing sex parent offspring conflict predicts genetic interests parents offspring identical offspring selected manipulate parents order ensure higher investment conversely parents selected manipulate offspring theory reciprocal altruism form altruism one organism provides benefit another expectation future reciprocation trivers willard hypothesis proposes parents


invest sex gives greatest reproductive payoff grandchildren increasing marginal investment r k selection theory ecology relates selection traits organisms allow success particular environments r selected species unstable unpredictable environments produce many offspring individual one unlikely survive adulthood k selected species stable predictable environments invest heavily fewer offspring better chance surviving adulthood evolutionary game theory application population genetics inspired models change


gene frequency populations game theory evolutionarily stable strategy refers strategy adopted population cannot invaded competing alternative strategy basic principles ecological selectionism ecological selectionism refers assumption humans highly flexible behaviors furthermore assumes various ecological forces select various behaviors optimize humans' inclusive fitness given ecological context piecemeal approach piecemeal approach refers taking reductionist approach opposed holistic approach studying human socioecological behavior human behavioral ecologists assume taking complex social


least amount energy life history theory postulates many physiological traits behaviors individuals may best understood relation key maturational reproductive characteristics define life course sex allocation theory predicts parents bias reproductive investments toward offspring sex generating greatest fitness return polygyny threshold model suggests polygyny driven female choice mates control resources relative potential mates population see also behavioral ecology biocultural evolution dual inheritance theory evolutionary developmental psychology evolutionary educational psychology


foraging autonomous foraging hypergamy mating system psychogenomics references reading borgerhoff mulder schacht r https wwwacademiaedu human behavioural ecology human behavioural ecology nature encyclopedia life sciences hames r http wwwunledu rhames ms behavioral ecology hamespdf search 'human behavioral ecology' human behavioral ecology ''international encyclopedia social behavioral sciences'' elsevier science ltd cronk l human behavioral ecology ''annual review anthropology'' smith eric alden http facultywashingtonedu easmith threestylespdf three styles evolutionary analysis human behavior lee cronk napoleon chagnon william irons https shoppingyahoocom p adaptation human behavior anthropological perspective ylc x odmtb c tcdhkbf tazk njmyota bhnlywnmzwvkbhnsawnib rcw ''adaptation human behavior anthropological perspective'' new york aldine de gruyter winterhalder bruce smith eric alden https wwwresearchgatenet publication analyzing adaptive strategies human behavioral ecology twenty five file bpdf


western roman empire transitioned renaissance age discovery middle ages middle period three traditional divisions western history classical antiquity medieval period modern period medieval period subdivided early high late middle ages population decline counterurbanisation collapse centralized authority invasions mass migrations tribes begun late antiquity continued early middle ages large scale movements migration period including various germanic peoples formed new kingdoms remained western roman empire

Applied science
Military sciences
Military history
Medieval


franks carolingian dynasty briefly established carolingian empire later th early th centuries covered much western europe later succumbed pressures internal civil wars combined external invasions vikings north magyars east saracens south high middle ages began population europe increased greatly technological agricultural innovations allowed trade flourish medieval warm period climate change allowed crop yields increase manorialism organisation peasants villages owed rent labour


services nobles feudalism political structure whereby knights lower status nobles owed military service overlords return right rent lands manors two ways society organised high middle ages period also saw formal division catholic orthodox churches east west schism crusades first preached military attempts western european christians regain control holy land muslims also contributed expansion latin christendom baltic region


iberian peninsula kings became heads centralised nation states reducing crime violence making ideal unified christendom distant west intellectual life marked scholasticism philosophy emphasised joining faith reason founding universities theology thomas aquinas paintings giotto poetry dante chaucer travels marco polo gothic architecture cathedrals chartres among outstanding achievements toward end period late middle ages late middle ages marked difficulties


modern period ref name power power ''central middle ages'' p ref middle ages first appears latin ''media tempestas'' middle season ref name miglio miglio curial humanism ''interpretations renaissance humanism'' p ref early usage many variants including ''medium aevum'' middle age first recorded ref name albrow albrow ''global age'' p ref ''media saecula'' middle centuries first recorded ref name murray adjective medieval sometimes mediaeval ref name random medi val ref name oed mediaeval ''compact edition oxford english dictionary'' ref meaning pertaining middle ages derives ''medium aevum'' ref name random flexner ed ''random house dictionary'' p ref medieval


light classical antiquity ref name mommsen mommsen petrarch 's conception 'dark ages' ''speculum'' pp ref leonardo bruni first historian use tripartite periodisation ''history florentine people'' middle period fall roman empire revival city life sometime late eleventh twelfth centuries ref name brunixvii bruni ''history florentine people'' pp xvii xviii ref tripartite periodisation became standard th century german historian christoph cellarius divided history three periods ancient medieval modern ref name murray murray middle ages abolished ''essays medieval studies'' p ref


commonly given starting point middle ages around date first used bruni ref name brunixvii later starting dates sometimes used outer parts europe europe whole often considered end middle ages universally agreed upon end date depending context events conquest constantinople turks christopher columbus 's first voyage americas protestant reformation sometimes used ref name davies english historians often use


battle bosworth field mark end period spain dates commonly used death king ferdinand ii death queen isabella castile conquest granada historians romance speaking countries tend divide middle ages two parts earlier high later low period english speaking historians following german counterparts generally subdivide middle ages three intervals early high late ref name power th century entire middle ages often referred dark ages ref


name mommsen mommsen petrarch 's conception 'dark ages' ''speculum'' p ref adoption subdivisions use term restricted early middle ages least among historians ref name mommsen later roman empire depicting four tetrarchs venice italy ref name tansey tansey et al ''gardner 's art ages'' p ref roman empire reached greatest territorial extent nd century ad following two centuries witnessed slow decline roman control outlying territories ref name cunliffe cunliffe ''europe oceans'' pp ref economic issues including inflation external pressure frontiers combined


create crisis third century emperors coming throne rapidly replaced new usurpers ref name collins collins ''early medieval europe'' pp ref military expenses increased steadily rd century mainly response war sasanian empire revived middle rd century ref name heather army doubled size cavalry smaller units replaced roman legion main tactical unit ref name brown brown ''world late antiquity'' pp ref need revenue led increased taxes decline numbers curial landowning


ref name collins collins ''early medieval europe'' p ref period civil war constantine great r refounded city byzantium newly renamed eastern capital constantinople ref name collins collins ''early medieval europe'' p ref diocletian 's reforms strengthened governmental bureaucracy reformed taxation strengthened army bought empire time resolve problems facing excessive taxation declining birthrate pressures frontiers among others ref name cunliffe cunliffe ''europe oceans'' pp ref civil war rival emperors became common middle th century diverting soldiers


empire 's frontier forces allowing invaders encroach ref name collins collins ''early medieval europe'' pp ref much th century roman society stabilised new form differed earlier classical period widening gulf rich poor decline vitality smaller towns ref name brown brown ''world late antiquity'' p ref another change christianisation conversion empire christianity gradual process lasted nd th centuries ref name brown brown ''world late antiquity'' pp ref ref name brown brown ''world late antiquity'' pp ref map


approximate political boundaries europe around ad goths fleeing huns received permission emperor valens r settle roman province thracia balkans settlement go smoothly roman officials mishandled situation goths began raid plunder valens attempting put disorder killed fighting goths battle adrianople august ref name bauer bauer ''history medieval world'' pp ref addition threat tribal confederacies north internal divisions within


burgundians ended northern gaul angles saxons jutes settled britain ref name cunliffe vandals went cross strait gibraltar conquered province africa ref name collins collins ''early medieval europe'' p ref huns began invading empire king attila r led invasions balkans gaul italy ref name james james ''europe 's barbarians'' pp ref hunnic threat remained attila 's death hunnic confederation led fell apart ref name bauer bauer ''history


medieval world'' pp ref invasions tribes completely changed political demographic nature western roman empire ref name cunliffe cunliffe ''europe oceans'' p ref end th century western section empire divided smaller political units ruled tribes invaded early part century ref name wickham wickham ''inheritance rome'' p ref deposition last emperor west romulus augustulus traditionally marked end western roman empire ref name wickham wickham ''inheritance rome'' p ref


italian peninsula conquered ostrogoths gothic tribe ref name collins collins ''early medieval europe'' pp ref eastern roman empire often referred byzantine empire fall western counterpart little ability assert control lost western territories byzantine emperors maintained claim territory none new kings west dared elevate position emperor west byzantine control western empire could sustained reconquest mediterranean periphery italian peninsula


gothic war reign justinian r sole temporary exception ref name collins collins ''early medieval europe'' pp ref early middle ages new societies barbarian kingdoms tribes end western roman empire political structure western europe changed end united roman empire although movements peoples period usually described invasions military expeditions migrations entire peoples empire movements aided refusal western roman elites support army pay taxes


would allowed military suppress migration ref name brown brown ''world late antiquity'' pp ref emperors th century often controlled military strongmen stilicho aetius aspar ricimer gundobad partly fully non roman background line western emperors ceased many kings replaced background intermarriage new kings roman elites common ref name wickham wickham ''inheritance rome'' pp ref led fusion roman culture


customs invading tribes including popular assemblies allowed free male tribal members say political matters common roman state ref name wickham wickham ''inheritance rome'' pp ref material artefacts left romans invaders often similar tribal items often modelled roman objects ref name collins collins ''early medieval europe'' p ref much scholarly written culture new kingdoms also based roman intellectual traditions ref name collins collins ''early medieval europe'' pp ref important difference gradual loss tax revenue new polities many


new political entities longer supported armies taxes instead relying granting land rents meant less need large tax revenues taxation systems decayed ref name wickham wickham ''inheritance rome'' pp ref warfare common within kingdoms slavery declined supply weakened society became rural ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' pp ref ostrogothic leader theoderic great struck milan italy th th centuries new peoples individuals filled political void left roman centralised government ref name collins ostrogoths settled


britons set small polities francia centred northern gaul first king much known childeric grave discovered remarkable grave goods included weapons large quantity gold ref name james james ''europe 's barbarians'' pp ref childeric 's son clovis r founder merovingian dynasty frankish kingdom expanded converted christianity britons related natives britannia nbsp modern day great britain nbsp settled brittany ref name james james ''europe 's barbarians'' pp ref monarchies established


visigothic kingdom iberian peninsula suebi northwestern iberia vandal kingdom north africa ref name james sixth century lombards settled northern italy replacing ostrogothic kingdom grouping duchies occasionally selected king rule late sixth century arrangement replaced permanent monarchy kingdom lombards ref name collins collins ''early medieval europe'' pp ref invasions brought new ethnic groups europe although regions received larger influx new peoples others gaul instance invaders


settled much extensively north east south west slavs settled central eastern europe balkan peninsula settlement peoples accompanied changes languages latin literary language western roman empire gradually replaced vernacular languages evolved latin distinct collectively known romance languages changes latin new languages took many centuries greek remained language byzantine empire migrations slavs added slavic languages eastern europe ref name davies davies ''europe'' pp ref byzantine survival mosaic


showing justinian bishop ravenna italy bodyguards courtiers ref name adams adams ''history western art'' pp ref thumb right western europe witnessed formation new kingdoms eastern roman empire remained intact experienced economic revival lasted early th century fewer invasions eastern section empire occurred balkans peace sasanian empire traditional enemy rome lasted throughout th century eastern empire marked closer relations political state christian church doctrinal matters assuming importance


eastern politics western europe legal developments included codification roman law first effort ''codex theodosianus'' completed ref name wickham wickham ''inheritance rome'' pp ref emperor justinian r another compilation took place ''corpus juris civilis'' ref name bauer bauer ''history medieval world'' pp ref justinian also oversaw construction hagia sophia constantinople reconquest north africa vandals italy ostrogoths ref name bauer belisarius ref name collins collins ''early medieval europe'' pp ref conquest italy complete deadly outbreak


troops difficult ref name brown brown transformation roman mediterranean ''oxford illustrated history medieval europe'' pp ref eastern empire slow infiltration balkans slavs added difficulty justinian 's successors began gradually late slavic tribes thrace illyrium defeated imperial army near adrianople avars began expand base north bank danube end th century dominant power central europe routinely able force eastern


lost territories ref name collins collins ''early medieval europe'' pp ref western society western europe older roman elite families died others became involved ecclesiastical secular affairs values attached latin scholarship education mostly disappeared literacy remained important became practical skill rather sign elite status th century jerome dreamed god rebuked spending time reading cicero bible th century gregory tours similar dream instead chastised reading


cicero chastised learning shorthand ref name brown brown ''world late antiquity'' pp ref late th century principal means religious instruction church become music art rather book ref name brown brown ''world late antiquity'' p ref intellectual efforts went towards imitating classical scholarship original works created along lost oral compositions writings sidonius apollinaris cassiodorus boethius c typical age ref name brown brown transformation roman mediterranean ''oxford illustrated history medieval europe'' pp ref changes also took


place among laymen aristocratic culture focused great feasts held halls rather literary pursuits clothing elites richly embellished jewels gold lords kings supported entourages fighters formed backbone military forces family ties within elites important virtues loyalty courage honour ties led prevalence feud aristocratic society examples included related gregory tours took place merovingian gaul feuds seem ended quickly payment


sort compensation ref name wickham wickham ''inheritance rome'' pp ref women took part aristocratic society mainly roles wives mothers men role mother ruler especially prominent merovingian gaul anglo saxon society lack many child rulers meant lesser role women queen mothers compensated increased role played abbesses monasteries italy appear women always considered protection control male relative ref name wickham wickham ''inheritance rome'' pp ref left peasant society


free peasant 's family rise aristocracy several generations military service powerful lord ref name wickham wickham ''inheritance rome'' p ref roman city life culture changed greatly early middle ages although italian cities remained inhabited contracted significantly size rome instance shrank population hundreds thousands around end th century roman temples converted christian churches city walls remained use ref name brown brown transformation roman mediterranean ''oxford illustrated history medieval europe'' pp ref northern europe cities also


roman empire iran flux late sixth early seventh centuries judaism active proselytising faith least one arab political leader converted christianity active missions competing persians' zoroastrianism seeking converts especially among residents arabian peninsula strands came together emergence islam arabia lifetime muhammad ref name collins collins ''early medieval europe'' pp ref death islamic forces conquered much eastern roman empire persia starting syria continuing persia


reaching egypt north africa later seventh century iberian peninsula ref name collins collins ''early medieval europe'' pp ref islamic forces controlled much peninsula region called al andalus ref name reilly reilly ''medieval spains'' pp ref islamic conquests reached peak mid eighth century defeat muslim forces battle tours led reconquest southern france franks main reason halt islamic growth europe overthrow umayyad caliphate replacement


abbasid caliphate abbasids moved capital baghdad concerned middle east europe losing control sections muslim lands umayyad descendants took iberian peninsula aghlabids controlled north africa tulunids became rulers egypt ref name brown brown transformation roman mediterranean ''oxford illustrated history medieval europe'' p ref middle th century new trading patterns emerging mediterranean trade franks arabs replaced old roman economy franks traded timber furs swords slaves return silks


fabrics spices precious metals arabs ref name cunliffe cunliffe ''europe oceans'' pp ref trade economy migrations invasions th th centuries disrupted trade networks around mediterranean african goods stopped imported europe first disappearing interior th century found cities rome naples end th century impact muslim conquests african products longer found western europe replacement goods long range trade local products trend throughout


old roman lands happened early middle ages especially marked lands lie mediterranean northern gaul britain non local goods appearing archaeological record usually luxury goods northern parts europe trade networks local goods carried simple little pottery complex products around mediterranean pottery remained prevalent appears traded medium range networks produced locally ref name wickham wickham ''inheritance rome'' pp ref various germanic states west


coinages imitated existing roman byzantine forms gold continued minted end th century replaced silver merovingian kingdom basic frankish silver coin denarius denier anglo saxon version called penny areas denier penny spread throughout europe ad copper bronze coins struck gold except southern europe silver coins denominated multiple units minted ref name coin grierson coinage currency ''middle ages'' ref church monasticism gregory


great dictating secretary christianity major unifying factor eastern western europe arab conquests conquest north africa sundered maritime connections areas increasingly byzantine church differed language practices liturgy western church eastern church used greek instead western latin theological political differences emerged early middle th century issues iconoclasm clerical marriage state control church widened extent cultural religious differences greater similarities ref name collins collins ''early medieval


first england scotland continent monks columba columbanus founded monasteries taught latin greek authored secular religious works ref name colish colish ''medieval foundations'' pp ref early middle ages witnessed rise monasticism west shape european monasticism determined traditions ideas originated desert fathers egypt syria european monasteries type focuses community experience spiritual life called cenobitism pioneered pachomius


carolingian europe left frankish kingdom northern gaul split kingdoms called austrasia neustria burgundy th th centuries ruled merovingian dynasty descended clovis th century tumultuous period wars austrasia neustria ref name bauer bauer ''history medieval world'' pp ref warfare exploited pippin mayor palace austrasia became power behind austrasian throne later members family inherited office acting advisers regents one descendants charles martel


ireland varying importance ref name wickham wickham ''inheritance rome'' pp ref carolingian dynasty successors charles martel known officially took control kingdoms austrasia neustria coup led r contemporary chronicle claims pippin sought gained authority coup pope pope pippin 's takeover reinforced propaganda portrayed merovingians inept cruel rulers exalted accomplishments charles martel circulated stories family 's great piety time death pippin left


pp ref charlemagne conquered lombards freed papacy fear lombard conquest marked beginnings papal states ref name brown brown transformation roman mediterranean ''oxford illustrated history medieval europe'' p ref charlemagne 's palace chapel aachen completed ref name stalley stalley ''early medieval architecture'' p ref coronation charlemagne emperor christmas day regarded turning point medieval history marking return western roman empire since new emperor ruled much area previously controlled western emperors ref name backman backman ''worlds


arts architecture jurisprudence well liturgical scriptural studies english monk alcuin invited aachen brought education available monasteries northumbria charlemagne 's chancery writing office made use new script today known carolingian minuscule allowing common writing style advanced communication across much europe charlemagne sponsored changes church liturgy imposing roman form church service domains well gregorian chant liturgical music churches important activity scholars period copying correcting dissemination


basic works religious secular topics aim encouraging learning new works religious topics schoolbooks also produced ref name colish colish ''medieval foundations'' pp ref grammarians period modified latin language changing classical latin roman empire flexible form fit needs church government reign charlemagne language diverged classical latin later called medieval latin ref name lang loyn language dialect ''middle ages'' p ref breakup carolingian empire alt caption


image carolingian territorial divisions png width alt caption image carolingian territorial divisions png width alt caption charlemagne planned continue frankish tradition dividing kingdom heirs unable one son louis pious r still alive charlemagne died crowned louis successor louis 's reign years marked numerous divisions empire among sons


civil wars various alliances father sons control various parts empire eventually louis recognised eldest son emperor gave italy louis divided rest empire lothair charles bald youngest son lothair took east francia comprising banks rhine eastwards leaving charles west francia empire west rhineland alps louis german middle child rebellious last allowed keep bavaria


suzerainty elder brother division disputed pepin ii aquitaine emperor 's grandson rebelled contest aquitaine louis german tried annex east francia louis pious died empire still chaos ref name bauer bauer ''history medieval world'' pp ref three year civil war followed death treaty verdun kingdom rhine rhone rivers created lothair go lands italy imperial title recognised louis german


control bavaria eastern lands modern day germany charles bald received western frankish lands comprising modern day france ref name bauer charlemagne 's grandsons great grandsons divided kingdoms descendants eventually causing internal cohesion lost ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' p ref carolingian dynasty replaced western lands crowning hugh capet r king eastern lands dynasty died earlier death louis child ref name collins collins ''early medieval europe'' pp ref selection


unrelated conrad r king ref name collins collins ''early medieval europe'' p ref breakup carolingian empire accompanied invasions migrations raids external foes atlantic northern shores harassed vikings also raided british isles settled well iceland viking chieftain rollo c received permission frankish king charles simple r settle became normandy ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' pp ref eastern parts frankish kingdoms especially germany italy continual


magyar assault invader 's defeat battle lechfeld ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' pp ref breakup abbasid dynasty meant islamic world fragmented smaller political states began expanding italy sicily well pyrenees southern parts frankish kingdoms ref name bauer bauer ''history medieval world'' pp ref new kingdoms byzantine revival efforts local kings fight invaders led formation new political entities anglo saxon england king alfred great r came


agreement viking invaders late th century resulting danish settlements northumbria mercia parts east anglia ref name collins collins ''early medieval europe'' pp ref middle th century alfred 's successors conquered northumbria restored english control southern part great britain ref name collins collins ''early medieval europe'' p ref northern britain kenneth macalpin c united picts scots kingdom alba ref name davies davies ''europe'' p ref early th century ottonian dynasty established germany engaged driving


back magyars efforts culminated coronation r holy roman emperor ref name collins collins ''early medieval europe'' pp ref secured recognition title byzantine empire sealed marriage son otto ii r theophanu daughter earlier byzantine emperor romanos ii r ref name davies davies ''europe'' p ref late th century italy drawn ottonian sphere period instability ref name wickham wickham ''inheritance rome'' pp ref otto iii r spent much