ancients could found east west authoring influential ''isis unveiled'' ''the secret doctrine'' co founded theosophical society subsequent leaders society namely annie besant charles webster leadbeater interpreted modern theosophy form ecumenical esoteric christianity resulting proclamation indian jiddu krishnamurti world messiah rejection breakaway anthroposophical society founded rudolf steiner another form esoteric christianity spiritual science danish mystic martinus popular scandinavia


contemporaries developed esoteric schools thought entail magic namely greco armenian teacher george gurdjieff russian pupil pd ouspensky emergent occult esoteric systems found increasing popularity early th century especially western europe occult lodges secret societies flowered among european intellectuals era largely abandoned traditional forms christianity spreading secret teachings magic practices found enthusiastic adherents chaos germany interwar years notable writers guido von list spread neo pagan nationalist ideas based wotanism kabbalah


many influential wealthy germans drawn secret societies thule society thule society activist karl harrer one founders german workers' party ref name gilbhard hermann gilbhard http wwwhistorisches lexikon bayernsde artikel artikel ''thule gesellschaft'' ref later became nazi party nazi party members like alfred rosenberg rudolf hess listed guests thule society adolf hitler 's mentor dietrich eckart rise power nazis persecuted occultists many nazi party leaders like hitler joseph goebbels hostile occultism heinrich himmler used karl maria wiligut clairvoyant regularly


year nazi government world war ii reformed fraternitas saturni several religious scholars hugh urban donald westbrook classified scientology modern form western esotericism later th century sculpture horned god wicca found museum witchcraft boscastle cornwall esotericism came increasingly associated growing counter culture west whose adherents understood participating spiritual revolution marked age aquarius currents millenarian currents come


widely known new age movement became increasingly commercialised business entrepreneurs exploited growth spiritual market conversely forms esoteric thought retained anti commercial counter cultural sentiment namely techno shamanic movement promoted figures terence mckenna daniel pinchbeck built work anthropologist carlos castaneda trend accompanied increased growth modern paganism movement initially dominated wicca religion propagated gerald gardner wicca adopted members second wave feminist movement notably starhawk


developing goddess movement wicca also greatly influenced development pagan neo druidry forms celtic revivalism response wicca also appeared literature groups label followers traditional witchcraft opposition growing visibility wicca claim older roots system proposed gerald gardner trends emerged western occultism later th century included satanism exposed groups church satan temple set well chaos magick illuminates thanateros group additionally since


start countries inside former iron curtain undergone radiative varied religious revival large number occult new religious movements gaining popularity gnostic revivalists new age organizations scientology splinter groups found way much former soviet bloc since cultural political shift resulting dissolution ussr hungary significant number citizens relative size country population compared neighbors practice adhere new currents western esotericism april fifth esoteric


even though previous scholarship ignored effect pre christian non rational schools thought european society culture worthy academic attention one key centres warburg institute london scholars like frances yates edgar wind ernst cassirer p walker began arguing esoteric thought greater effect renaissance culture previously accepted work yates particular notably book ''giordano bruno hermetic tradition'' cited important starting point modern scholarship esotericism succeeding one


fell swoop bringing scholarship onto new track bringing wider awareness effect esoteric ideas modern science instigation scholar henry corbin cole pratique des hautes tudes sorbonne established world 's first academic post study esotericism chair history christian esotericism first holder fran ois secret specialist christian kabbalah though little interest developing wider study esotericism field research faivre assumed secret 's chair sorbonne


us based hermetic academy founded robert mcdermott outlet american scholars interested western esotericism members hermetic academy participated panels annual meeting american academy religion rubric esotericism perennialism group faivre could comment academic study western esotericism taken france italy england united states lamented done germany university amsterdam established chair ''history hermetic philosophy


related currents'' occupied hanegraaff university exeter created chair ''western esotericism'' taken goodrick clarke headed exeter center study esotericism thus three dedicated university chairs subject amsterdam exeter also offering master 's degree programs several conferences subject held quintennial meetings international association history religions peer reviewed journal ''aries journal study western esotericism'' began publication also saw foundation


north american association study esotericism ase european society study western esotericism esswe established shortly within years michael bergunder expressed view become established field within religious studies asprem granholm observing scholars within sub disciplines religious studies begun take interest work scholars esotericism asprem granholm noted study esotericism dominated historians thus lacked perspective social scientists examining contemporary forms esotericism situation


attempting correct building links scholars operating pagan studies study new religious movements basis english culture literature traditional strongholds western esotericism pia br nzeu gy rgy sz nyi urged english studies also role interdisciplinary field emic etic divisions emic etic refer two kinds field research done viewpoints obtained emic within social group perspective subject etic outside perspective observer wouter hanegraaff follows distinction


emic etic approach religious studies emic approach alchemist theosopher etic approach scholar historian researcher critical view empirical study esotericism needs emic material etic interpretation arthur versluis proposes approaching esotericism imaginative participation many scholars esotericism come regarded respected intellectual authorities practitioners various esoteric traditions many esotericism scholars sought emphasise esotericism single object practitioners read scholarship begun regard


materials'' granholm argued problems field draws distinction esotericism non esoteric elements culture draw upon esotericism cites extreme metal example noting extremely difficult differentiate artists properly occult superficially referenced occult themes aesthetics writers interested occult themes adopted three different strategies dealing subject knowledgeable subject including attractive images occult occultists work disguise occultism within web intertextuality


http wwwesotericmsuedu volumeviii esotericaviiipdf viii http wwwesotericmsuedu volumeix esotericaixpdf ix hanegraaff wouter j https booksgooglecom booksid oysk ztjamic pg pa lpg pa dq e cthe study western esotericism new approaches christian secular culture source bl ots icmnmdcpww sig xx jraty jl drwxjnlyaauvgs hl fr ei ya tb ynymj qa qk cg sa x oi book result ct result resnum ved cb q aewaa v onepage q e cthe study western esotericism new approaches christian secular culture f false study western esotericism new approaches christian secular culture peter antes armin w geertz randi r warne ''new approaches study religion'' vol ''regional critical historical approaches'' berlin new york walter de gruyter kelley james l ''anatomyzing divinity studies science esotericism political theology'' trine day martin pierre ''esoterische symbolik heute alltag sprache und einweihung'' basel edition oriflamme illustrated martin pierre ''le symbolisme esot rique actuel au quotidien dans le langage


et pour l'auto initiation'' basel edition oriflamme illustrated external links http wwwsacred textscom eso indexhtm esoteric archive http wwwamsterdamhermeticanl center history hermetic philosophy related currents university amsterdam netherlands http wwwwesternesoterictraditioncom western esoteric tradition research site http wwwaseweborg association study esotericism ase http wwwessweorg european society study western esotericism esswe http wwwhussexacuk research exeseso university exeter centre study esotericism exeseso https webarchiveorg web http wwwbrillnl aries aries journal study western esotericism http wwwesotericmsuedu ''esoterica'' academic journal http esotericbasicscouk esotericism https shwepnet secret history western esotericism podcast shwep esotericism philosophical movements philosophical theories schools thought


'''ancient egyptian religion''' complex system polytheistic beliefs rituals formed integral part ancient egyptian culture centered egyptians' interactions many deities believed present control world rituals prayer offerings provided gods gain favor formal religious practice centered pharaohs rulers egypt believed possess divine powers virtue positions acted intermediaries people gods obligated sustain gods rituals offerings

Humanities
Theology
Ancient Egyptian Religion


great efforts made ensure survival souls death via provision tombs grave goods offerings preserve bodies spirits deceased religion roots egypt 's prehistory lasted years details religious belief changed time importance particular gods rose declined intricate relationships shifted various times certain gods became preeminent others including sun god ra creator god amun mother goddess isis brief period theology


promulgated pharaoh akhenaten single god aten replaced traditional pantheon ancient egyptian religion mythology left behind many writings monuments along significant influences ancient modern cultures beliefs beliefs rituals referred ancient egyptian religion integral within every aspect egyptian culture egyptian language possessed single term corresponding modern european concept religion ancient egyptian religion consisted vast varying set beliefs practices linked common focus interaction world humans world


system complex deities believed exist many different manifestations multiple mythological roles conversely many natural forces sun associated multiple deities diverse pantheon ranged gods vital roles universe minor deities demons limited localized functions could include gods adopted foreign cultures sometimes humans deceased pharaohs believed divine occasionally distinguished commoners imhotep also became deified depictions gods art meant literal


representations gods might appear visible gods' true natures believed mysterious instead depictions gave recognizable forms abstract deities using symbolic imagery indicate god 's role nature iconography fixed many gods could depicted one form many gods associated particular regions egypt cults important however associations changed time mean god associated place originated instance


god montu original patron city thebes course middle kingdom however displaced role amun may arisen elsewhere national popularity importance individual gods fluctuated similar way deities complex interrelationships partly reflected interaction forces represented egyptians often grouped gods together reflect relationships one common combinations family triad consisting father mother child worshipped together groups wide ranging importance one group


ennead assembled nine deities theological system involved mythological areas creation kingship afterlife relationships deities could also expressed process syncretism two different gods linked form composite deity process recognition presence one god another second god took role belonging first links deities fluid represent permanent merging two gods one therefore gods could develop multiple syncretic


connections sometimes syncretism combined deities similar characteristics times joined gods different natures amun god hidden power linked ra god sun resulting god amun ra thus united power lay behind things greatest visible force nature many deities could given epithets seem indicate greater god suggesting kind unity beyond multitude natural forces particularly true gods various points rose


supreme importance egyptian religion included royal patron horus sun god ra mother goddess isis new kingdom c bc amun held position theology period described particular detail amun 's presence rule things deity embodied encompassing power divine cosmology air god shu assisted gods holds nut sky geb earth lies beneath egyptian conception universe centered ''ma'at'' word encompasses several concepts


english including truth justice order fixed eternal order universe cosmos human society often personified goddess existed since creation world without world would lose cohesion egyptian belief ''ma'at'' constantly threat forces disorder society required maintain human level meant members society cooperate coexist cosmic level meant forces nature


gods continue function balance ref name allen ref latter goal central egyptian religion egyptians sought maintain ''ma'at'' cosmos sustaining gods offerings performing rituals staved disorder perpetuated cycles nature ref name shafer ref important part egyptian view cosmos conception time greatly concerned maintenance ''ma'at'' throughout linear passage time cyclical pattern recurred ''ma'at'' renewed periodic events echoed original creation among events


annual nile flood succession one king another important daily journey sun god ra thinking shape cosmos egyptians saw earth flat expanse land personified god geb arched sky goddess nut two separated shu god air beneath earth lay parallel underworld undersky beyond skies lay infinite expanse nu chaos existed creation egyptians also believed place


called duat mysterious region associated death rebirth may lain underworld sky day ra traveled earth across underside sky night passed duat reborn dawn egyptian belief cosmos inhabited three types sentient beings one gods another spirits deceased humans existed divine realm possessed many gods' abilities living humans third category important among


pharaoh bridged human divine realms statue khafre old kingdom pharaoh embraced horus kingship egyptologists long debated degree pharaoh considered god seems likely egyptians viewed royal authority divine force therefore although egyptians recognized pharaoh human subject human weakness simultaneously viewed god divine power kingship incarnated therefore acted intermediary egypt 's people gods key upholding ''ma'at''


kingdom also associated amun supreme force cosmos upon death king became fully deified state directly identified ra also associated osiris god death rebirth mythological father horus many mortuary temples dedicated worship deceased pharaohs gods ref name shafer afterlife egyptians elaborate beliefs death afterlife believed humans possessed ''ka'' life force left body point death life ''ka'' received sustenance


food drink believed endure death ''ka'' must continue receive offerings food whose spiritual essence could still consume person also ''ba'' set spiritual characteristics unique individual unlike ''ka'' ''ba'' remained attached body death egyptian funeral rituals intended release ''ba'' body could move freely rejoin ''ka'' could live ''akh'' however also important body


deceased preserved egyptians believed ''ba'' returned body night receive new life emerging morning ''akh'' maat wearing feather truth early times deceased pharaoh believed ascend sky dwell among stars course old kingdom c bc however came closely associated daily rebirth sun god ra underworld ruler osiris deities grew important fully developed afterlife beliefs


new kingdom soul avoid variety supernatural dangers duat undergoing final judgement known weighing heart carried osiris assessors maat judgement gods compared actions deceased alive symbolized heart feather maat determine whether behaved accordance maat deceased judged worthy ''ka'' ''ba'' united ''akh'' several beliefs coexisted ''akh'' nowiki ' nowiki destination often dead


said dwell realm osiris lush pleasant land underworld solar vision afterlife deceased soul traveled ra daily journey still primarily associated royalty could extend people well course middle new kingdoms notion ''akh'' could also travel world living degree magically affect events became increasingly prevalent atenism new kingdom pharaoh akhenaten abolished official worship gods favor


sun disk aten often seen first instance true monotheism history although details atenist theology still unclear suggestion monotheistic disputed exclusion one god worship radical departure egyptian tradition see akhenaten practitioner monolatry rather monotheism actively deny existence gods simply refrained worshipping aten akhenaten 's successors egypt reverted traditional religion akhenaten came reviled


myths according stories world emerged dry space primordial ocean chaos sun essential life earth first rising ra marked moment emergence different forms myth describe process creation various ways transformation primordial god atum elements form world creative speech intellectual god ptah act hidden power amun regardless variations act creation represented initial establishment ma'at


pattern subsequent cycles time ref name shafer important egyptian myths osiris myth tells divine ruler osiris murdered jealous brother set god often associated chaos osiris 's sister wife isis resurrected could conceive heir horus osiris entered underworld became ruler dead grown horus fought defeated set become king set 's association chaos identification osiris horus rightful


rulers provided rationale pharaonic succession portrayed pharaohs upholders order time osiris 's death rebirth related egyptian agricultural cycle crops grew wake nile inundation provided template resurrection human souls death another important mythic motif journey ra duat night course journey ra met osiris acted agent regeneration life renewed also fought night apep


serpentine god representing chaos defeat apep meeting osiris ensured rising sun next morning event represented rebirth victory order chaos ritual magical texts procedures religious rituals frequently written papyri used instructions performing ritual ritual texts kept mainly temple libraries temples also inscribed texts often accompanied illustrations unlike ritual papyri inscriptions intended instructions meant symbolically perpetuate


rituals even reality people ceased perform magical texts likewise describe rituals although rituals part spells used specific goals everyday life despite mundane purpose many texts also originated temple libraries later became disseminated among general populace hymns prayers egyptians produced numerous prayers hymns written form poetry hymns prayers follow similar structure distinguished mainly purposes serve hymns written praise particular deities ref name foster ref like ritual texts written papyri


temple walls probably recited part rituals accompany temple inscriptions structured according set literary formula designed expound nature aspects mythological functions given deity ref name foster tend speak explicitly fundamental theology egyptian religious writings became particularly important new kingdom period particularly active theological discourse prayers follow general pattern hymns address relevant god personal way asking blessings help forgiveness wrongdoing


prayers rare new kingdom indicating earlier periods direct personal interaction deity believed possible least less likely expressed writing known mainly inscriptions statues stelae left sacred sites votive offerings ref name ockinga ockinga boyo piety ref funerary texts section book dead scribe hunefer depicting weighing heart among significant extensively preserved egyptian writings funerary texts designed ensure deceased souls reached pleasant afterlife


book gates book caverns amduat unlike loose collections spells netherworld books structured depictions ra 's passage duat analogy journey deceased person 's soul realm dead originally restricted pharaonic tombs third intermediate period came used widely practices pylon colonnade temple isis philae temples temples existed beginning egyptian history height civilization present towns


could turn maintain universe ref name wilkinson ref thus temples central egyptian society vast resources devoted upkeep including donations monarchy large estates pharaohs often expanded part obligation honor gods many temples grew enormous size however gods temples dedicated many gods important official theology received minimal worship many household gods focus popular veneration rather temple ritual earliest egyptian


temples small impermanent structures old middle kingdoms designs grew elaborate increasingly built stone new kingdom basic temple layout emerged evolved common elements old middle kingdom temples variations plan used temples built survive today adhere standard plan temple built along central processional way led series courts halls sanctuary held statue


temple 's god access sacred part temple restricted pharaoh highest ranking priests journey temple entrance sanctuary seen journey human world divine realm point emphasized complex mythological symbolism present temple architecture well beyond temple building proper outermost wall two lay many subsidiary buildings including workshops storage areas supply temple 's needs library temple 's sacred writings mundane records kept also


state pharaoh final say appointments however wealth temples grew influence priesthoods increased rivaled pharaoh political fragmentation third intermediate period c bc high priests amun karnak even became effective rulers upper egypt temple staff also included many people priests musicians chanters temple ceremonies outside temple artisans laborers helped supply temple 's needs well farmers worked temple estates


paid portions temple 's income large temples therefore important centers economic activity sometimes employing thousands people official rituals festivals state religious practice included temple rituals involved cult deity ceremonies related divine kingship among latter coronation ceremonies sed festival ritual renewal pharaoh 's strength took place periodically reign ref name thompson thompson stephen e cults overview redford vol ref numerous temple rituals including rites took place across country rites limited


single temples temples single god performed daily others took place annually rare occasions ref name wilkinson ref common temple ritual morning offering ceremony performed daily temples across egypt high ranking priest occasionally pharaoh washed anointed elaborately dressed god 's statue presenting offerings afterward god consumed spiritual essence offerings items taken distributed among priests ref name thompson less frequent temple rituals festivals still numerous dozens occurring


every year festivals often entailed actions beyond simple offerings gods reenactments particular myths symbolic destruction forces disorder events probably celebrated priests took place inside temple ref name wilkinson however important temple festivals like opet festival celebrated karnak usually involved procession carrying god 's image sanctuary model barque visit significant sites temple related deity commoners gathered watch procession sometimes received portions


unusually large offerings given gods occasions animal cults apis bull many sacred sites egyptians worshipped individual animals believed manifestations particular deities animals selected based specific sacred markings believed indicate fitness role cult animals retained positions rest lives apis bull worshipped memphis manifestation ptah animals selected much shorter periods cults grew popular later times many temples


knowledge guidance egyptian oracles known mainly new kingdom afterward though probably appeared much earlier people classes including king asked questions oracles common means consulting oracle pose question divine image carried festival procession interpret answer barque 's movements methods included interpreting behavior cult animals drawing lots consulting statues priest apparently spoke means discerning god 's gave great influence priests


spoke interpreted god 's message popular religion state cults meant preserve stability egyptian world lay individuals religious practices related directly daily life popular religion left less evidence official cults evidence mostly produced wealthiest portion egyptian population uncertain degree reflects practices populace whole ref name wilkinson ref popular religious practice included ceremonies marking important transitions life included birth danger involved process


piety sparse new kingdom probably due cultural restrictions depiction nonroyal religious activity relaxed middle new kingdoms personal piety became still prominent late new kingdom believed gods intervened directly individual lives punishing wrongdoers saving pious disaster ref name ockinga official temples important venues private prayer offering even though central activities closed laypeople egyptians frequently donated goods offered temple deity objects inscribed prayers placed temple


courts often prayed person temple statues shrines set aside use ref name wilkinson yet addition temples populace also used separate local chapels smaller accessible formal temples chapels numerous probably staffed members community households often small shrines offering gods deceased relatives deities invoked situations differed somewhat center state cults many important popular deities fertility goddess taweret household protector bes


temples however many gods including amun osiris important popular official religion individuals might particularly devoted single god often favored deities affiliated region role life god ptah instance particularly important cult center memphis patron craftsmen received nationwide veneration many occupation magic amulet shape eye horus common magical symbol word ''magic'' normally used translate


egyptian term ''heka'' meant james p allen puts ability make things happen indirect means ''heka'' believed natural phenomenon force used create universe gods employed work humans could also use magical practices closely intertwined religion fact even regular rituals performed temples counted magical individuals also frequently employed magical techniques personal purposes although ends could harmful people form magic considered inimical


instead magic seen primarily way humans prevent overcome negative events magic closely associated priesthood temple libraries contained numerous magical texts great magical knowledge ascribed lector priests studied texts priests often worked outside temples hiring magical services laymen professions also commonly employed magic part work including doctors scorpion charmers makers magical amulets also possible peasantry used simple magic purposes magical knowledge would passed


orally limited evidence language closely linked ''heka'' degree thoth god writing sometimes said inventor ''heka'' therefore magic frequently involved written spoken incantations although usually accompanied ritual actions often rituals invoked appropriate deity perform desired action using power ''heka'' compel deity act sometimes entailed casting practitioner subject ritual role character mythology thus inducing god act toward person


myth rituals also employed sympathetic magic using objects believed magically significant resemblance subject rite egyptians also commonly used objects believed imbued ''heka'' magically protective amulets worn great numbers ordinary egyptians funerary practices opening mouth ceremony performed tomb considered necessary survival soul preservation body central part egyptian funerary practices originally egyptians buried dead desert


tomb funeral procession included relatives friends along variety priests burial priests performed several rituals including opening mouth ceremony intended restore dead person 's senses give ability receive offerings mummy buried tomb sealed afterwards relatives hired priests gave food offerings deceased nearby mortuary chapel regular intervals time families inevitably neglected offerings long dead relatives mortuary cults lasted one two


generations however cult lasted living sometimes wrote letters asking deceased relatives help belief dead could affect world living gods first egyptian tombs mastabas rectangular brick structures kings nobles entombed contained subterranean burial chamber separate ground chapel mortuary rituals old kingdom mastaba developed pyramid symbolized primeval mound egyptian myth pyramids reserved royalty accompanied large mortuary temples sitting base


middle kingdom pharaohs continued build pyramids popularity mastabas waned increasingly commoners sufficient means buried rock cut tombs separate mortuary chapels nearby approach less vulnerable tomb robbery beginning new kingdom even pharaohs buried tombs continued used decline religion tombs could contain great variety items including statues deceased serve substitutes body case damaged believed


deceased would work afterlife life burials often included small models humans work place deceased human sacrifices found early royal tombs probably meant serve pharaoh afterlife tombs wealthier individuals could also contain furniture clothing everyday objects intended use afterlife along amulets items intended provide magical protection hazards spirit world protection provided funerary texts included burial tomb walls also bore


artwork images deceased eating food believed allow magically receive sustenance even mortuary offerings ceased history predynastic early dynastic periods narmer predynastic ruler accompanied men carrying standards various local gods beginnings egyptian religion extend prehistory though evidence comes sparse ambiguous archaeological record careful burials predynastic period imply people time believed form afterlife time animals ritually buried practice


may reflect development zoomorphic deities like found later religion evidence less clear gods human form type deity may emerged slowly animal shape region egypt originally patron deity likely small communities conquered absorbed god defeated area either incorporated god 's mythology entirely subsumed resulted complex pantheon deities remained locally important others developed


universal significance early dynastic period began unification egypt around nbsp bc event transformed egyptian religion deities rose national importance cult divine pharaoh became central focus religious activity horus identified king cult center upper egyptian city nekhen among important religious sites period another important center abydos early rulers built large funerary complexes old middle kingdoms old kingdom priesthoods major deities attempted organize


complicated national pantheon groups linked mythology worshipped single cult center ennead heliopolis linked important deities atum ra osiris set single creation myth meanwhile pyramids accompanied large mortuary temple complexes replaced mastabas tombs pharaohs contrast great size pyramid complexes temples gods remained comparatively small suggesting official religion period emphasized cult divine king direct worship deities funerary rituals architecture time greatly


influenced elaborate temples rituals used worshipping gods later periods pyramid complex djedkare isesi ancient egyptians regarded sun powerful life force sun god ra worshipped early dynastic period bce n't old kingdom bce ra became dominant figure egyptian pantheon sun cult took power early old kingdom ra grew influence cult center heliopolis became nation 's important religious site


fifth dynasty ra prominent god egypt developed close links kingship afterlife retained rest egyptian history around time osiris became important afterlife deity pyramid texts first written time reflect prominence solar osirian concepts afterlife although also contain remnants much older traditions texts extremely important source understanding early egyptian theology symbols 'winged disc' took new features originally solar disk wings


hawk originally symbol horus associated cult delta town behdet sacred cobras added either side disc old kingdom winged disc protective significance found temple ceilings ceremonial entrances nd century bc old kingdom collapsed disorder first intermediate period eventually rulers thebes reunified egyptian nation middle kingdom c bc theban pharaohs initially promoted patron god montu national importance middle kingdom


eclipsed rising popularity amun new egyptian state personal piety grew important expressed freely writing trend continued new kingdom ref name shaw callender gae middle kingdom ref new kingdom middle kingdom crumbled second intermediate period c bc country reunited theban rulers became first pharaohs new kingdom new regime amun became supreme state god syncretized ra long established patron kingship temple karnak


thebes became egypt 's important religious center amun 's elevation partly due great importance thebes also due increasingly professional priesthood sophisticated theological discussion produced detailed descriptions amun 's universal power increased contact outside peoples period led adoption many near eastern deities pantheon time subjugated nubians absorbed egyptian religious beliefs particular adopted amun akhenaten family worshipping aten new kingdom religious order disrupted akhenaten acceded replaced amun


aten state god eventually eliminated official worship gods moved egypt 's capital new city amarna part egyptian history amarna period named akhenaten claimed unprecedented status could worship aten populace directed worship toward atenist system lacked well developed mythology afterlife beliefs aten seemed distant impersonal new order appeal ordinary egyptians thus many probably continued worship traditional gods private nevertheless


withdrawal state support deities severely disrupted egyptian society akhenaten 's successors restored traditional religious system eventually dismantled atenist monuments amarna period popular religion trended toward personal relationships worshippers gods akhenaten 's changes reversed trend traditional religion restored backlash populace began believe gods much directly involved daily life amun supreme god increasingly seen final arbiter human destiny true ruler egypt pharaoh


correspondingly human less divine importance oracles means decision making grew wealth influence oracles' interpreters priesthood trends undermined traditional structure society contributed breakdown new kingdom later periods serapis st millennium bc egypt significantly weaker earlier times several periods foreigners seized country assumed position pharaoh importance pharaoh continued decline emphasis popular piety continued increase animal cults characteristically egyptian form worship


greek deities became popular among greek population nevertheless part two belief systems remained separate egyptian deities remained egyptian ptolemaic era beliefs changed little egypt became province roman empire bc ptolemaic kings replaced distant emperors cult isis appealed even greeks romans outside egypt hellenized form spread across empire egypt empire weakened official temples fell decay without centralizing influence religious practice became fragmented localized meanwhile


christianity spread across egypt third fourth centuries ad edicts christian emperors iconoclasm local christians eroded traditional beliefs persisted among populace time egyptian religion slowly faded away legacy egyptian religion produced temples tombs ancient egypt 's enduring monuments also influenced cultures pharaonic times many symbols sphinx winged solar disk adopted cultures across mediterranean near east deities bes connections


difficult trace greek concept elysium may derived egyptian vision afterlife late antiquity christian conception hell likely influenced imagery duat egyptian beliefs also influenced gave rise several esoteric belief systems developed greeks romans considered egypt source mystic wisdom hermeticism instance derived tradition secret magical knowledge associated thoth modern times altar thoth kemetic follower traces ancient beliefs remained egyptian folk traditions modern


times influence modern societies greatly increased french campaign egypt syria seeing monuments images result westerners began study egyptian beliefs firsthand egyptian religious motifs adopted western art egyptian religion since significant influence popular culture due continued interest egyptian beliefs late th century several new religious groups going blanket term kemetism formed based different reconstructions ancient egyptian religion see also prehistoric religion religions ancient


'''educational psychology''' branch psychology concerned scientific study human learning study learning processes cognitive behavioral perspectives allows researchers understand individual differences intelligence cognitive development affect motivation self regulation self concept well role learning field educational psychology relies heavily quantitative methods including testing measurement enhance educational activities related instructional design classroom management assessment serve facilitate learning processes various educational settings across lifespan ref name snowman snowman jack educational psychology teach

Social science
Psychology
Educational psychology


teach educational psychology ref educational psychology part understood relationship disciplines informed primarily psychology bearing relationship discipline analogous relationship medicine biology also informed neuroscience educational psychology turn informs wide range specialities within educational studies including instructional design educational technology curriculum development organizational learning special education classroom management student motivation educational psychology draws contributes cognitive science learning sciences universities departments educational psychology usually housed within faculties education


last twenty years ref name farrell farrell p school psychology learning lessons history moving forward school psychology international ref school psychology began concept intelligence testing leading provisions special education students could follow regular classroom curriculum early part th century ref name farrell however school psychology built fairly new profession based upon practices theories several psychologists among many different fields educational psychologists working side side psychiatrists social workers teachers speech language therapists counselors attempt


result important understanding human cognition learning social perception ref name berliner ref plato aristotle educational psychology dates back time aristotle plato plato aristotle researched individual differences field education training body cultivation psycho motor skills formation good character possibilities limits moral education educational topics spoke effects music poetry arts development individual role teacher relations teacher student ref name berliner plato saw knowledge acquisition


innate ability evolves experience understanding world conception human cognition evolved continuing argument nature vs nurture understanding conditioning learning today aristotle observed phenomenon association four laws association included succession contiguity similarity contrast studies examined recall facilitated learning processes ref name lott toomas lott plato rationality belief trames ref john locke john locke considered one influential philosophers post renaissance europe time period began around mid locke considered father


english psychology one locke 's important works written named ''an essay concerning human understanding'' essay introduced term tabula rasa meaning blank slate locke explained learning attained experience born without knowledge followed contrasting plato 's theory innate learning processes locke believed mind formed experiences innate ideas locke introduced idea empiricism understanding knowledge built knowledge experience late john locke advanced hypothesis people learn primarily


proposed induction method study believed direct observation investigation study nature studies focused humanistic learning opposed scholasticism influenced variety sources including philosophy psychology politics religion history ref name zimmerman zimmerman bj schunk dh eds ''educational psychology century contributions'' mahwah nj us erlbaum ref one first prominent thinkers emphasize location school important learning ref name vives vives j watson f education translation de tradendis disciplinis juan luis


aristotle 's ideas responsible different operations function distinctively first book covers different souls vegetative soul soul nutrition growth reproduction sensitive soul involves five external senses cogitative soul includes internal senses cognitive facilities second book involves functions rational soul mind memory lastly third book explains analysis emotions ref name casini casini lorenzo quid sit anima juan luis vives soul relation body renaissance studies ref johann pestalozzi johann pestalozzi


swiss educational reformer emphasized child rather content school ref name glover glover j ronning r ed ref pestalozzi fostered educational reform backed idea early education crucial children could manageable mothers eventually experience early education would lead wholesome person characterized morality ref name horlacher horlacher rebekka schooling means popular education pestalozzi 's method popular education experiment paedagogica historica ref pestalozzi acknowledged opening institutions education writing books mother 's teaching home education elementary books students


mostly focusing kindergarten level later years published teaching manuals methods teaching ref name horlacher time enlightenment pestalozzi 's ideals introduced educationalization created bridge social issues education introducing idea social issues solved education horlacher describes prominent example enlightenment improving agricultural production methods ref name horlacher johann herbart johann herbart considered father educational psychology ref name hergenhahn hergenhahn br introduction history psychology belmont ca wadsworth ref believed learning influenced


interest subject teacher ref name hergenhahn thought teachers consider students' existing mental sets already know presenting new information material ref name hergenhahn herbart came known formal steps steps teachers use review material already learned student ref name hergenhahn prepare student new material giving overview learning next ref name hergenhahn present new material ref name hergenhahn relate new material old material already learned ref name hergenhahn


million people immigrated united states ref name zimmerman created expansion elementary schools secondary schools increase immigration also provided educational psychologists opportunity use intelligence testing screen immigrants ellis island ref name zimmerman darwinism influenced beliefs prominent educational psychologists ref name zimmerman even earliest years discipline educational psychologists recognized limitations new approach pioneering american psychologist william james commented james father psychology america also made contributions educational psychology famous series


lectures ''talks teachers psychology'' published james defines education organization acquired habits conduct tendencies behavior ref name james states teachers train pupil behavior ref name james fits social physical world teachers also realize importance habit instinct present information clear interesting relate new information material things student already knows ref name james also addresses important issues attention memory association ideas alfred binet alfred binet published ''mental fatigue''


attempted apply experimental method educational psychology ref name zimmerman experimental method advocated two types experiments experiments done lab experiments done classroom appointed minister public education ref name zimmerman began look way distinguish children developmental disabilities ref name zimmerman binet strongly supported special education programs believed abnormality could cured ref name zimmerman binet simon test first intelligence test first distinguish normal children


developmental disabilities ref name zimmerman binet believed important study individual differences age groups children age ref name zimmerman also believed important teachers take account individual students' strengths also needs classroom whole teaching creating good learning environment ref name zimmerman also believed important train teachers observation would able see individual differences among children adjust curriculum students ref name zimmerman binet also emphasized practice material important


lewis terman revised binet simon average score always ref name hergenhahn test became known stanford binet one widely used tests intelligence terman unlike binet interested using intelligence test identify gifted children high intelligence ref name zimmerman longitudinal study gifted children became known termites terman found gifted children become gifted adults ref name hergenhahn edward thorndike edward thorndike supported scientific movement education based teaching practices empirical evidence measurement ref name zimmerman thorndike developed theory instrumental


conditioning law effect law effect states associations strengthened followed something pleasing associations weakened followed something pleasing also found learning done little time increments learning automatic process principles apply mammals thorndike 's research robert woodworth theory transfer found learning one subject influence ability learn another subject subjects similar ref name zimmerman discovery led less emphasis learning classics


problems realistic relevant studied improve general intelligence ref name zimmerman developed tests standardized measure performance school related subjects ref name zimmerman biggest contribution testing cavd intelligence test used multidimensional approach intelligence first use ratio scale ref name zimmerman later work programmed instruction mastery learning computer based learning john dewey john dewey major influence development progressive education united states believed classroom prepare children good


citizens facilitate creative intelligence ref name zimmerman pushed creation practical classes could applied outside school setting ref name zimmerman also thought education student oriented subject oriented dewey education social experience helped bring together generations people stated students learn believed active mind able educated observation problem solving enquiry book ''how think'' emphasizes material provided way stimulating interesting student since encourages


old formal operational stage years old ref name zimmerman also believed learning constrained child 's cognitive development piaget influenced educational psychology first believe cognitive development important something paid attention education ref name zimmerman research piagetian theory carried american educational psychologists present number people receiving high school college education increased dramatically ref name zimmerman jobs available teens coming eighth grade


increase high school attendance ref name zimmerman progressive movement united states took time led idea progressive education john flanagan educational psychologist developed tests combat trainees instructions combat training ref name zimmerman work kenneth clark wife effects segregation black white children influential supreme court case brown v board education ref name hergenhahn present day educational psychology switched behaviorist perspective cognitive based perspective


influence development cognitive psychology time ref name zimmerman jerome bruner jerome bruner notable integrating piaget 's cognitive approaches educational psychology ref name zimmerman advocated discovery learning teachers create problem solving environment allows student question explore experiment ref name zimmerman book ''the process education'' bruner stated structure material cognitive abilities person important learning ref name zimmerman emphasized importance subject matter also believed subject structured important student 's understanding


subject goal teacher structure subject way easy student understand ref name zimmerman early bruner went africa teach math science school children influenced view schooling cultural institution bruner also influential development macos man course study educational program combined anthropology science ref name zimmerman program explored human evolution social behavior also helped development head start program interested


ideas problem also found students differ process problem solving approach attitude toward problem ref name zimmerman nathaniel gage nathaniel gage important figure educational psychology research focused improving teaching understanding processes involved teaching ref name zimmerman edited book ''handbook research teaching'' helped develop early research teaching educational psychology ref name zimmerman gage founded stanford center research development teaching contributed research teaching well influencing education important educational psychologists ref name zimmerman perspectives behavioral


applied behavior analysis research based science utilizing behavioral principles operant conditioning effective range educational settings ref name alberto alberto p troutman ''applied behavior analysis teachers'' th ed columbus oh usa prentice hall merrill ref example teachers alter student behavior systematically rewarding students follow classroom rules praise stars tokens exchangeable sundry items ref name mcgoey mcgoey ke dupaul gj token reinforcement response cost procedures reducing disruptive behavior preschool children attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ''school psychology quarterly'' ref ref name theodore theodore la bray kehle tj jenson wr randomization


group contingencies reinforcers reduce classroom disruptive behavior ''journal school psychology'' ref despite demonstrated efficacy awards changing behavior use education criticized proponents self determination theory claim praise rewards undermine intrinsic motivation evidence tangible rewards decrease intrinsic motivation specific situations student already high level intrinsic motivation perform goal behavior ref name lepper lepper r greene nisbett undermining children 's intrinsic interest extrinsic reward test overjustification hypothesis ''journal


personality social psychology'' ref results showing detrimental effects counterbalanced evidence situations rewards given attaining gradually increasing standard performance rewards enhance intrinsic motivation ref name cameron cameron j pierce wd banko km gear achievement based rewards intrinsic motivation test cognitive mediators ''journal educational psychology'' ref many effective therapies based principles applied behavior analysis including pivotal response therapy used treat autism spectrum disorders cognitive among current educational psychologists cognitive perspective widely


held behavioral perspective perhaps admits causally related mental constructs traits beliefs memories motivations emotions cognitive theories claim memory structures determine information perceived processed stored retrieved forgotten among memory structures theorized cognitive psychologists separate linked visual verbal systems described allan paivio 's dual coding theory educational psychologists used dual coding theory cognitive load theory explain people learn multimedia presentations ref name mayer mayer ''multimedia learning'' cambridge uk cambridge university press ref three experiments reported krug davis glover ref name krug krug davis


tb glover ja massed versus distributed repeated reading case forgetting helping recall ''journal educational psychology'' ref demonstrated advantage delaying nd reading text passage one week distributed compared delay readings massed spaced learning effect cognitive phenomenon strongly supported psychological research broad applicability within education ref name dempster dempster fn spacing effects implications theory practice ''educational psychology review'' ref example students found perform better test knowledge text passage second reading


passage delayed rather immediate see figure ref name krug educational psychology research confirmed applicability education findings cognitive psychology benefits using mnemonics immediate delayed retention information ref name carney carney rn levin jr fading mnemonic memories 's looking anew ''contemporary educational psychology'' ref problem solving according prominent cognitive psychologists fundamental learning resides important research topic educational psychology student thought interpret problem assigning schema retrieved long term memory problem


students run reading called activation student 's representations text present working memory causes student read material without absorbing information able retain working memory absent reader 's representations working memory experience something called deactivation deactivation occurs student understanding material able retain information deactivation occurs first reading reader need undergo deactivation second reading reader need


reread get gist text spark memory problem assigned wrong schema student 's attention subsequently directed away features problem inconsistent assigned schema ref name kalyuga kalyuga chandler p tuovinen j sweller j problem solving superior studying worked examples ''journal educational psychology'' ref critical step finding mapping problem pre existing schema often cited supporting centrality analogical thinking problem solving cognitive view intelligence example item


cognitive abilities test person individual profile characteristics abilities challenges result predisposition learning development manifest individual differences intelligence creativity cognitive style motivation capacity process information communicate relate others prevalent disabilities found among school age children attention deficit hyperactivity disorder adhd learning disability dyslexia speech disorder less common disabilities include intellectual disability hearing impairment cerebral palsy epilepsy blindness ref name woolfolk although theories intelligence discussed philosophers since plato intelligence testing invention educational psychology


enriched programs children identified deficits may provided enhanced education specific skills phonological awareness addition basic abilities individual 's personality traits also important people higher conscientiousness hope attaining superior academic achievements even controlling intelligence past performance developmental developmental psychology especially psychology cognitive development opens special perspective educational psychology education psychology cognitive development converge number crucial assumptions first psychology cognitive development defines human cognitive competence successive phases development


education aims help students acquire knowledge develop skills compatible understanding problem solving capabilities different ages thus knowing students' level developmental sequence provides information kind level knowledge assimilate turn used frame organizing subject matter taught different school grades reason piaget 's theory cognitive development influential education especially mathematics science education direction neo piagetian theories cognitive development suggest addition


change principles underlying intra inter individual differences could educationally useful knowing students differ regard various dimensions cognitive development processing representational capacity self understanding self regulation various domains understanding mathematical scientific verbal abilities would enable teacher cater needs different students one left behind ref name demetriou constructivist constructivism category learning theory emphasis placed agency prior knowing experience learner often


mathematician using tools solve mathematical problems order master particular domain knowledge enough students learn concepts domain exposed use concepts authentic activities practitioners domain ref name dominant influence social constructivist paradigm lev vygotsky 's work sociocultural learning describing interactions adults capable peers cognitive tools internalized form mental constructs zone proximal development zpd term vygotsky used characterize individual 's mental development


believed task individuals give complete understanding mental development originally defined zpd distance actual developmental level determined independent problem solving level potential development determined problem solving adult guidance collaboration capable peers ref name ref cited famous example make case two children school originally solve problems eight year old developmental level typical children age might different developmental levels


process vice versa vygotsky rejected three major theories believed learning always precede development zpd according vygotsky assistance knowledgeable child able learn skills aspects skill go beyond child 's actual developmental maturational level lower limit zpd level skill reached child working independently also referred child 's developmental level upper limit level potential skill child able reach assistance


four stages sensorimotor stage pre operational stage concrete operational stage formal operational stage ref name huitt ref conditioning learning abacus provides concrete experiences learning abstract concepts understand characteristics learners childhood adolescence adulthood old age educational psychology develops applies theories human development often represented stages people pass mature developmental theories describe changes mental abilities cognition social roles moral reasoning beliefs nature knowledge example educational psychologists conducted research instructional applicability jean piaget 's theory development according children


mature four stages cognitive capability piaget hypothesized children capable abstract logical thought older years therefore younger children need taught using concrete objects examples researchers found transitions concrete abstract logical thought occur time domains child may able think abstractly mathematics remain limited concrete thought reasoning human relationships perhaps piaget 's enduring contribution insight people actively construct understanding self regulatory


required explain bullying rudolf steiner 's model child development interrelates physical emotional cognitive moral development ref name uweacuk rr findings woods ashley woods http wwwdfesgovuk research data uploadfiles rr pdf ''steiner schools england'' university west england bristol research report rr section findings survey case studies ref developmental stages similar later described piaget developmental theories sometimes presented shifts qualitatively different stages gradual increments separate dimensions development epistemological beliefs beliefs knowledge described terms gradual changes people 's belief certainty permanence


knowledge fixedness ability credibility authorities teachers experts people develop sophisticated beliefs knowledge gain education maturity ref name cano cano f epistemological beliefs approaches learning change secondary school influence academic performance ''british journal educational psychology'' ref motivation motivation internal state activates guides sustains behavior motivation several impacting effects students learn behave towards subject matter provide direction towards goals enhance cognitive processing abilities performance direct behavior toward particular goals lead


increased effort energy increase initiation persistence activities educational psychology research motivation concerned volition students bring task level interest intrinsic motivation personally held goals guide behavior belief causes success failure intrinsic motivation deals activities act rewards extrinsic motivation deals motivations brought consequences punishments form attribution theory developed bernard weiner ref name weiner weiner b interpersonal intrapersonal theories motivation


sdt focuses importance intrinsic extrinsic motivation driving human behavior posits inherent growth development tendencies emphasizes degree individual 's behavior self motivated self determined applied realm education self determination theory concerned primarily promoting students interest learning value education confidence capacities attributes motivational theories also explain learners' goals affect way engage academic tasks ref name elliot elliot aj approach avoidance motivation achievement goals ''educational psychologist'' ref


''mastery goals'' strive increase ability knowledge ''performance approach goals'' strive high grades seek opportunities demonstrate abilities ''performance avoidance'' goals driven fear failure avoid situations abilities exposed research found mastery goals associated many positive outcomes persistence face failure preference challenging tasks creativity intrinsic motivation performance avoidance goals associated negative outcomes poor concentration studying disorganized studying less self regulation shallow information processing test anxiety performance approach


goals associated positive outcomes negative outcomes unwillingness seek help shallow information processing ref name elliot locus control salient factor successful academic performance students ' cassandra b whyte significant educational research studying locus control related academic achievement students pursuing higher education coursework much educational research publications focused upon theories julian b rotter regard importance internal control successful academic performance ref name whyte whyte c integrated counseling learning assistance


center new directions sourcebook jossey bass inc san francisco ref whyte reported individuals perceive believe hard work may lead successful academic outcomes instead depending luck fate persist achieve academically higher level therefore important provide education counseling regard technology bloom 's taxonomy educational objectives categories cognitive domain ref name anderson anderson lw krathwohl dr ''a taxonomy learning teaching assessing revision bloom 's taxonomy educational objectives'' new york usa addison wesley longman ref instructional design systematic design materials activities


interactive environments learning broadly informed educational psychology theories research example defining learning goals objectives instructional designers often use taxonomy educational objectives created benjamin bloom colleagues ref name anderson bloom also researched mastery learning instructional strategy learners advance new learning objective mastered prerequisite objectives bloom ref name bloom bloom bs two sigma problem search methods group instruction effective one one tutoring ''educational researcher'' ref discovered combination mastery learning one one tutoring highly effective


psychologist far testing organization resources also students educational psychologists reside k setting focus majority time special education students found students disabilities learning technology ipad applications videos engaged motivated learn classroom setting liu et al explain learning based technology allows students focused learning efficient learning technologies authors explain learning technology also allows students social emotional disabilities participate


distance learning ref name liu liu gi zen wu wei chen ye wen identifying emerging trends implementing learning technology special education research development disabilities ref applications teaching class size experiment united states found attending small classes years early grades increased high school graduation students low income families ref name finn finn jd gerber sb boyd zaharias j small classes early grades academic achievement graduating high school ''journal educational psychology'' ref research classroom management pedagogy conducted guide teaching practice form


foundation teacher education programs goals classroom management create environment conducive learning develop students' self management skills specifically classroom management strives create positive teacher student peer relationships manage student groups sustain task behavior use counseling psychological methods aid students present persistent psycho social problems ref name emmer emmer et stough lm classroom management critical part educational psychology implications teacher education ''educational psychologist'' ref introductory educational psychology commonly required area study north american teacher education programs


taught context content varies typically emphasizes learning theories especially cognitively oriented ones issues motivation assessment students' learning classroom management developing wikibook educational psychology gives detail educational psychology topics typically presented preservice teacher education special education secondary education lesson plan counseling training order become educational psychologist students complete undergraduate degree choice must go graduate school study education psychology counseling psychology school counseling students today also receiving doctorate degrees


order hold psychologist title educational psychologists work variety settings work university settings carry research cognitive social processes human development learning education educational psychologists may also work consultants designing creating educational materials classroom programs online courses educational psychologists work k school settings closely related school psychologists us canada trained master 's doctoral levels addition conducting assessments school psychologists provide services academic behavioral intervention counseling teacher consultation crisis


intervention however school psychologists generally individual oriented towards students ref name love love p educational psychologists early search identity educational psychology practice ref many high schools colleges increasingly offering educational psychology courses colleges offering general education requirement similarly colleges offer students opportunities obtain phd educational psychology within uk students must hold degree accredited british psychological society either undergraduate masters level applying three year doctoral course involves education placement research thesis


secondary schools us may ref name ooh bureau labor statistics us department labor ''occupational outlook handbook'' edition psychologists retrieved http wwwblsgov oco ocos htm june ref recent decades participation women professional researchers north american educational psychology risen dramatically ref name evans evans j hsieh pp robinson dh women 's involvement educational psychology journals ''educational psychology review'' ref methods research educational psychology much field psychology heavily relies balance pure observation quantitative methods psychology study education


generally combines studies history sociology ethics theoretical approaches smeyers depaepe explain historically study education child rearing associated interests policymakers practitioners within educational field however recent shift sociology psychology opened door new findings education social science academic discipline educational psychology proven helpful social science researchers ref name smeyers smeyers paul depaepe marc lure psychology education educational research journal educational philosophy ref quantitative research


backing observable phenomena psychology involves observing creating understanding distribution data based upon study 's subject matter researchers use particular variables interpret data distributions research employ statistics way creating data tables analyzing data psychology moved common sense reputations initially posed thomas reid methodology approach comparing independent dependent variables natural observation experiments combinations two though results still statistical methods objectively true based upon significance variables p values ref name smeyers see also


'''econometrics''' application statistical methods economic data order give empirical content economic relationships ref name pesaran hashem pesaran econometrics ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' v p pp reprinted j eatwell ''et al'' eds ''econometrics new palgrave'' https booksgooglecom booksid gbsgr bpjsoc dq econometrics printsec find pg pa false v onepage q f false p pp http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde e edition current q econometrics topicid result number abstract revision j geweke j horowitz h p pesaran ref precisely quantitative analysis actual economic phenomena based concurrent development theory observation related appropriate methods inference introductory economics textbook


describes econometrics allowing economists sift mountains data extract simple relationships jan tinbergen one two founding fathers econometrics ragnar frisch also coined term sense used today basic tool econometrics multiple linear regression model ref name greene econometrics multiple linear regression model ''econometric theory'' uses statistical theory mathematical statistics evaluate develop econometric methods ref name greene econometrics mathematical statistics statistical theory ref ref name wooldridge econometrics mathematical statistics ref econometricians try find estimators desirable statistical properties including


unbiasedness efficiency consistency ''applied econometrics'' uses theoretical econometrics real world data assessing economic theories developing econometric models analysing economic history forecasting basic models linear regression basic tool econometrics multiple linear regression model ref name greene econometrics multiple linear regression model modern econometrics statistical tools frequently used linear regression still frequently used starting point analysis ref name greene econometrics multiple linear regression model ref estimating linear regression two variables visualised fitting line data points representing paired values independent


dependent variables okun 's law representing relationship gdp growth unemployment rate fitted line found using regression analysis example consider okun 's law relates gdp growth unemployment rate relationship represented linear regression change unemployment rate math delta text unemployment math function intercept math beta math given value gdp growth multiplied slope coefficient math beta math error term math varepsilon math math delta text unemployment beta beta text growth varepsilon math unknown parameters math beta math math beta


math estimated math beta math estimated math beta math estimated means gdp growth increased one percentage point unemployment rate would predicted drop points things held constant model could tested statistical significance whether increase gdp growth associated decrease unemployment hypothesized estimate math beta math significantly different test would fail find evidence changes


growth rate unemployment rate related variance prediction dependent variable unemployment function independent variable gdp growth given polynomial least squares theory econometric theory uses statistical theory mathematical statistics evaluate develop econometric methods ref name greene econometrics mathematical statistics statistical theory ref name wooldridge econometrics mathematical statistics econometricians try find estimators desirable statistical properties including unbiasedness efficiency consistency estimator unbiased expected value true value parameter consistent converges


true value sample size gets larger efficient estimator lower standard error unbiased estimators given sample size ordinary least squares ols often used estimation since provides blue best linear unbiased estimator best means efficient unbiased estimator given gauss markov assumptions assumptions violated statistical properties desired estimation techniques maximum likelihood estimation generalized method moments generalized least squares used estimators incorporate prior beliefs advocated favour


bayesian statistics traditional classical frequentist approaches methods ''applied econometrics'' uses theoretical econometrics real world data assessing economic theories developing econometric models analysing economic history forecasting econometrics may use standard statistical models study economic questions often observational data rather controlled experiments ref name introductory econometrics ref design observational studies econometrics similar design studies observational disciplines astronomy epidemiology sociology political science analysis data observational study guided study protocol although exploratory data analysis may


useful generating new hypotheses economics often analyses systems equations inequalities supply demand hypothesized equilibrium consequently field econometrics developed methods identification estimation simultaneous equations models methods analogous methods used areas science field system identification systems analysis control theory methods may allow researchers estimate models investigate empirical consequences without directly manipulating system one fundamental statistical methods used econometricians regression analysis regression methods important


econometrics economists typically cannot use controlled experiments econometricians often seek illuminating natural experiments absence evidence controlled experiments observational data may subject omitted variable bias list problems must addressed using causal analysis simultaneous equation models addition natural experiments quasi experimental methods used increasingly commonly econometricians since order credibly identify causal effects example simple example relationship econometrics field labour economics math ln text wage beta beta text years education varepsilon math example


assumes natural logarithm person 's wage linear function number years education person acquired parameter math beta math measures increase natural log wage attributable one year education term math varepsilon math random variable representing factors may direct influence wage econometric goal estimate parameters math beta mbox beta math specific assumptions random variable math varepsilon math example math varepsilon math uncorrelated years education equation estimated


ordinary least squares researcher could randomly assign people different levels education data set thus generated would allow estimation effect changes years education wages reality experiments cannot conducted instead econometrician observes years education wages paid people differ along many dimensions given kind data estimated coefficient years education equation reflects effect education wages effect variables wages variables correlated


education example people born certain places may higher wages higher levels education unless econometrician controls place birth equation effect birthplace wages may falsely attributed effect education wages obvious way control birthplace include measure effect birthplace equation exclusion birthplace together assumption math epsilon math uncorrelated education produces misspecified model another technique include equation additional set measured covariates


instrumental variables yet render math beta math identifiable ref name pearl ref overview econometric methods used study problem provided card ref name card ref journals main journals publish work econometrics ''econometrica'' ''journal econometrics'' ''the review economics statistics'' ''econometric theory'' ''journal applied econometrics'' ''econometric reviews'' ''the econometrics journal'' ''journal business economic statistics'' limitations criticisms like forms statistical analysis badly specified econometric models may show spurious relationship two variables correlated causally unrelated study use


econometrics major economics journals mccloskey concluded economists report p values following fisherian tradition tests significance point null hypotheses neglect concerns type ii errors economists fail report estimates size effects apart statistical significance discuss economic importance also argues economists also fail use economic reasoning model selection especially deciding variables include regression cases economic variables cannot experimentally manipulated treatments randomly assigned subjects ref name leamer ref cases economists rely observational


studies often using data sets many strongly associated covariates resulting enormous numbers models similar explanatory ability different covariates regression estimates regarding plurality models compatible observational data sets edward leamer urged professionals properly withhold belief inference shown adequately insensitive choice assumptions ref name leamer see also augmented dickey fuller test choice modelling cowles foundation econometric software financial econometrics financial modeling granger causality important publications econometrics macroeconomic model methodological individualism predetermined variables single equation methods econometrics spatial econometrics unit root reading econometric theory book


wikibooks giovannini enrico http wwwoecdorg sdd pdf ''understanding economic statistics'' oecd publishing references external links https academicoupcom jfec journal financial econometrics https wwweconometricsocietyorg econometric society https wwwresorguk journals econometrics journalhtml econometrics journal https sbevunl en econometric links https wwweconomicsnetworkacuk subjects econometricshtm teaching econometrics index economics network uk https webarchiveorg web http aea eucom applied econometric association http sofiesternnyuedu society financial econometrics https philpapersorg rec bracai interview clive granger nobel winner econometrics


'''espionage''' '' 'spying''' act obtaining secret confidential information non disclosed sources divulging without permission holder information tangible benefit person commits espionage called ''espionage agent'' ' 'spy'' individual spy ring cooperating group spies service government company criminal organization independent operation commit espionage practice clandestine definition unwelcome circumstances may legal tool law enforcement others may

Applied science
Military sciences
Espionage


illegal punishable law espionage often part institutional effort government commercial concern however term tends associated state spying potential actual enemies military purposes spying involving corporations known industrial espionage one effective ways gather data information targeted organization infiltrating ranks job spy espionage agent spies return information size strength enemy forces also find dissidents within organization influence


provide information defect times crisis spies steal technology sabotage enemy various ways counterintelligence practice thwarting enemy espionage intelligence gathering almost nations strict laws concerning espionage penalty caught often severe however benefits gained espionage often great governments many large corporations make use history espionage recognized importance military affairs since ancient times oldest known classified document report made spy disguised diplomatic


envoy court king hammurabi died around bc ancient egyptians developed secret service espionage mentioned ''iliad'' bible amarna letters well recordings story old testament ''the twelve spies'' ref name foo ref espionage also prevalent greco roman world spies employed illiterate subjects civil services thesis espionage intelligence central role war well peace first advanced ''the art war'' ''arthashastra'' middle ages european states


excelled later termed counter subversion catholic inquisitions staged annihilate heresy inquisitions marked centrally organised mass interrogations detailed record keeping renaissance european states funded codebreakers obtain intelligence frequency analysis western espionage changed fundamentally renaissance italian city states installed resident ambassadors capital cities collect intelligence renaissance venice became obsessed espionage council ten nominally responsible security even allow doge consult government archives freely council ten barred venetian government officials


making contact ambassadors foreigners revealing official secrets could face death penalty venice became obsessed espionage successful international trade demanded city state could protect trade secrets elizabeth francis walsingham appointed foreign secretary intelligence chief american revolution nathan hale benedict arnold achieved fame spies considerable use spies sides american civil war though spy george washington america 's first spymaster utilizing espionage tactics british ref name foo madame minna craucher ''right'' finnish


socialite spy chauffeur boris wolkowski ''left'' th century height world war great powers except united states elaborate civilian espionage systems national military establishments intelligence units order protect country foreign agents us congress passed espionage act mata hari obtained information germany seducing french officials noted espionage agent world war prior world war ii germany imperial japan established elaborate espionage nets office strategic


services founded gen william j donovan however british system keystone allied intelligence numerous resistance groups austrian maier messner group french resistance witte brigade milorg polish home army worked nazi germany provided allied secret services information important war effort since end world war ii activity espionage enlarged much growing cold war united states former ussr russian empire successor soviet union


long tradition espionage ranging okhrana kgb committee state security also acted secret police force united states national security act created central intelligence agency cia coordinate intelligence national security agency research codes electronic communication addition united states intelligence gathering agencies us expenditures intelligence gathering budgeted various defense dept agencies programs intelligence reorganization director national intelligence responsible overseeing


coordinating activities budgets us intelligence agencies cold war espionage cases included alger hiss whittaker chambers rosenberg case communist chinese captured two cia agents francis gary powers flying u reconnaissance mission soviet union cia shot captured cold war many soviet intelligence officials defected west including gen walter krivitsky victor kravchenko vladimir petrov peter deriabin pawel monat oleg penkovsky gru soviet military intelligence among western officials defected soviet


union guy burgess donald maclean great britain otto john west germany william h martin bernon f mitchell us cryptographers harold kim philby great britain us acknowledgment u flights exchange francis gary powers rudolf abel implied legitimacy espionage arm foreign policy china cost effective intelligence program especially effective monitoring neighboring countries mongolia russia india smaller countries also mount effective focused espionage


efforts instance vietnamese communists consistently superior intelligence vietnam war islamic countries including libya iran syria highly developed operations well savak secret police pahlavi dynasty particularly feared iranian dissidents iranian revolution today today spy agencies target illegal drug trade terrorists well state actors united states charged least defendants attempting spy china intelligence services value certain intelligence collection techniques others former soviet union example preferred human


sources research open sources united states tended emphasize technological methods sigint imint soviet union political kgb military intelligence gru officers judged number agents recruited espionage efforts knowledge nation often used countries hiring intelligence employees united arab emirates one major countries relying technique hired former employees us national security agency white house veterans agents hired


hack emirates former rival nation qatar royals even fifa officials others asked conduct surveillance governments human rights activists social media critics even militants however spying efforts uae using americans also used target us including former first lady michelle obama september three former intelligence officials america admitted working united arab emirates darkmatter hacking computers servers electronic devices including computers servers united states according court documents three operatives daniel gericke ryan adams


assessment food energy materials agents usually found among bureaucrats administer resources countries popular sentiment towards domestic foreign policies popular middle class elites agents often recruited field journalistic crews exchange postgraduate students sociology researchers strategic economic strengths production research manufacture infrastructure agents recruited science technology academia commercial enterprises rarely among military technologists military capability intelligence offensive defensive manoeuvre naval air space agents trained military espionage education facilities posted area operation covert identities minimize prosecution counterintelligence operations targeting opponents'


espionage disclosure sensitive information classified people cleared information access sensitive information unlike forms intelligence collection disciplines espionage usually involves accessing place desired information stored accessing people know information divulge kind subterfuge exceptions physical meetings oslo report insistence robert hanssen never meeting people bought information us defines espionage towards act obtaining delivering transmitting communicating


officer special agent may diplomatic status ie official cover non official cover supports directs human collector cut outs couriers know agent case officer transfer messages safe house refuge spies spies often seek obtain secret information another source larger networks organization complex many methods avoid detection including clandestine cell systems often players never met case officers stationed foreign countries recruit supervise intelligence agents ref name bar turn spy targets


countries assigned spy need citizen target country hence automatically commit treason operating within common practice recruit person already trusted access sensitive information sometimes person well prepared synthetic identity cover background called ''legend'' ref name bar tradecraft may attempt infiltrate target organization agents moles recruited get access secrets defectors recruited get access secrets leave country defectors place


organizations groups also targeted governments want retrieve information use proactive protecting nation potential terrorist attacks communications necessary espionage clandestine operations also great vulnerability adversary sophisticated sigint detection interception capability spies rely covcom covert communication technically advanced spy devices ref name foo agents must also transfer money securely industrial espionage reportedly canada losing billion german companies estimated losing billion billion jobs


industrial espionage every year agents espionage espionage jargon agent person spying may citizen country recruited country spy another citizen country recruited country carry false flag assignments disrupting country citizen one country recruited second country spy work country third country popular usage term sometimes confused ''intelligence officer'' ''intelligence operative''


''case officer'' recruits handles agents among common forms agent agent provocateur instigates trouble provides information gather many people possible one location arrest intelligence agent provides access sensitive information use special privileges used ''corporate intelligence'' gathering may include gathering information corporate business venture stock portfolio ''economic intelligence'' economic analysts may use specialized skills analyze interpret economic trends developments assess track foreign financial activities develop new econometric modelling methodologies ref name economic intelligence ciagov ref


may also include information trade tariff agent influence provides political influence area interest possibly including publications needed intelligence service agenda ref name bar use media print story mislead foreign service action exposing operations surveillance double agent engages clandestine activity two intelligence security services joint operations provides information one wittingly withholds significant information one instructions unwittingly manipulated one


significant facts withheld adversary peddlers fabricators others work rather service double agents agents fact double agents agent relationship sides distinguishes penetrations normally placed target service staff officer capacity ref name double agent ref redoubled agent forced mislead foreign intelligence service caught double agent unwitting double agent offers forced recruit double redoubled agent process recruited either


third party intelligence service government without knowledge intended target intelligence service agent useful capturing important information agent attempting seek allegiance another country '' 'double agent''' usually knowledge intelligence services identify operational techniques thus making third party recruitment difficult impossible knowledge operational techniques also affect relationship operations officer case officer agent case transferred operational targeting officer new operations officer leaving


new officer vulnerable attack type transfer ''may'' occur officer completed term service ''cover'' blown sleeper agent recruited ''wake up'' perform specific set tasks functions living undercover area interest type agent ' 'deep cover operative'' continually contacts case officer file intelligence reports sleeper agent contact anyone ''activated'' triple agent works three intelligence services less common lesser known forms agent include access


agent provides access potential agents providing offender profiling information help lead recruitment intelligence service confusion agent provides misleading information enemy intelligence service attempts discredit operations ''target'' operation facilities agent provides access buildings garages offices used staging operations resupply etc illegal agent lives another country false credentials report local station nonofficial cover operative dubbed illegal ref name illegal https wwwmi govuk output spies operatehtml illegal mi gov spies operate ref working another country without


diplomatic protection principal agent functions handler established network agents usually considered blue chip law espionage nation crime legal code many nations united states covered espionage act risks espionage vary spy violating host country 's laws may deported imprisoned even executed spy violating country 's laws imprisoned espionage treason united states jurisdictions occur take arms aids


enemy country wartime even executed rosenbergs example aldrich ames handed stack dossiers us central intelligence agency cia agents eastern bloc kgb officer handler kgb rolled several networks least ten people secretly shot ames arrested us federal bureau investigation fbi faced life prison contact diplomatic immunity declared ''persona non grata'' taken airport ames' wife threatened life imprisonment husband cooperate


given five year sentence hugh francis redmond cia officer china spent nineteen years chinese prison espionage died operating without diplomatic cover immunity united states law treason espionage spying separate crimes treason espionage graduated punishment levels united states world war passed espionage act years many spies soble spy ring robert lee johnson rosenberg ring aldrich hazen ames ref name jyaames robert philip hanssen ref name fashans jonathan pollard john anthony walker


james hall iii others prosecuted law history espionage laws ancient times penalty espionage many countries execution true right era world war ii example josef jakobs nazi spy parachuted great britain executed espionage modern times many people convicted espionage given penal sentences rather execution example aldrich hazen ames american cia analyst turned kgb mole convicted espionage serving life


sentence without possibility parole high security allenwood us penitentiary ref name federal bureau prisons '' search result '' ref ames formerly year cia counterintelligence officer analyst committed espionage country spying soviet union russia far known ames compromised second largest number cia agents second robert hanssen also serving prison sentence use non spies espionage laws also used prosecute non spies united states espionage act used socialist politician eugene v debs


time act much stricter guidelines amongst things banned speech military recruiting law later used suppress publication periodicals example father coughlin world war ii early st century act used prosecute whistleblowers thomas andrews drake john kiriakou edward snowden well officials communicated journalists innocuous reasons stephen jin woo kim ref name josh gerstein india pakistan holding several hundred prisoners 's country minor violations like trespass visa overstay often accusations


espionage attached include cases pakistan india deny citizenship people leaving stateless bbc reported one case mohammed idrees held indian police control approximately years overstaying day visa days seeing ill parents much years spent prison waiting hearing time spent homeless living generous families indian people 's union civil liberties human rights law network decried treatment


bbc attributed problems tensions caused kashmir conflict espionage laws uk espionage illegal uk official secrets acts uk law legislation considers espionage concerning intend help enemy deliberately harm security nation according mi person commits offence 'spying' purpose prejudicial safety interests state approaches enters inspects prohibited area makes documents plans intended calculated


could directly indirectly use enemy obtains collects records publishes communicates person secret official code word password sketch plan model article note document calculated might intended directly indirectly useful enemy illegality espionage also includes action may considered 'preparatory to' spying encouraging aiding another spy penal codes uk found guilty espionage liable imprisonment


term years although multiple sentences issued government intelligence laws distinction espionage government intelligence much distinct espionage illegal uk providing organisations individuals registered often ico acting within restrictions regulation investigatory powers act ripa 'intelligence' considered legally information sorts gathered government organisation guide decisions includes information may public private obtained much different public secret


sources could consist entirely information either publicly available secret sources combination two however espionage intelligence linked according mi website foreign intelligence officers acting uk diplomatic cover may enjoy immunity prosecution persons tried spying indeed criminal offence diplomatic immunity waived beforehand officers operating without diplomatic cover immunity prosecution also laws surrounding government organisational intelligence surveillance generally body involved issued form


warrant permission government enacting procedures interest protecting national security safety public citizens carrying intelligence missions act within ripa also data protection act human rights act however spy equipment laws legal requirements around intelligence methods vary form intelligence enacted war painting french spy captured franco prussian war war espionage considered permissible many nations recognize inevitability opposing sides seeking intelligence dispositions


make mission easier successful combatants wear disguises conceal true identity enemy penetrating enemy lines intelligence gathering however caught behind enemy lines disguises entitled prisoner war status subject prosecution punishment including execution hague convention addresses status wartime spies specifically within laws customs war land hague iv october chapter ii spies article states person considered spy acts clandestinely false pretences infiltrates enemy lines


intention acquiring intelligence enemy communicate belligerent times war soldiers penetrate enemy lines proper uniforms purpose acquiring intelligence considered spies lawful combatants entitled treated prisoners war upon capture enemy article states spy captured behind enemy lines may punished following trial however article provides spy successfully rejoined military captured enemy lawful combatant cannot punished


permissible groups wear enemy uniforms civilian clothes order facilitate escape back friendly lines long attack enemy forces collect military intelligence engage similar military operations disguised soldiers wearing enemy uniforms civilian clothes simply sake warmth along purposes rather engaging espionage similar military operations attired also excluded treated unlawful combatants ref name protocol saboteurs treated spies wear disguises behind enemy lines


days later six executed electric chair district columbia jail two given evidence others sentences reduced president franklin roosevelt prison terms released president harry truman deported american zone occupied germany us codification enemy spies article uniform code military justice provides mandatory death sentence person captured act proven lurking spy acting spy place


vessel aircraft within control jurisdiction armed forces shipyard manufacturing industrial plant place institution engaged work aid prosecution war united states elsewhere spy fiction spies long favorite topics novelists filmmakers early example espionage literature ''kim'' english novelist rudyard kipling description training intelligence agent great game uk russia th century central