nonhuman p eric delson https archivetoday http www intersciencewileycom cgi bin jissue evolutionary anthropology issues news reviews volume issue pages https webarchiveorg web http wwwhuman evolcamacuk members foley pubs ea pdf stony ground lithic technology human evolution emergence culture p robert foley marta miraz n lahr http xcelabnet rmpubs henrich mcelreath ea pdf evolution cultural evolution p joseph henrich richard mcelreath http anthropologytamuedu faculty alvard downloads culturepdf adaptive nature culture p michael alvard http anthropologytamuedu faculty alvard anth fall week laland hopitt pdf animals culture p kevin n laland william hoppitt external links http pespmc vubacbe socevolhtml sociocultural evolution principia cybernetica web http higheredmcgraw hillcom sites student view chapter chapter summaryhtml classical sociological theory comte spencer http repositoriescdliborg imbs socdyn wp wp secular cycles millennial trends cultural concepts memetics


Social science
Sociology
Evolutionary sociology


'''soteriology''' '''' salvation '''' savior preserver '''' study word study religious doctrines salvation salvation theory occupies place special significance many religions academic field religious studies soteriology understood scholars representing key theme number different religions often studied comparative context comparing various ideas salvation obtained buddhism buddhism devoted primarily liberation suffering breaking free ' 'samsara'' cycle compulsory rebirth


attaining ''nirvana'' many types buddhism theravada mahayana vajrayana tantric emphasize individual 's meditation subsequent liberation ' 'samsara'' become enlightened however pure land traditions mahayana buddhism generally focus saving nature celestial buddha amit bha buddhist eschatology believed currently living latter day law period years corrupt nature people means teachings buddha listened era ''bodhisattva'' amit bha made vows including vow accept


sentient beings called allow take refuge pure land teach pure ' 'dharma'' therefore considered ineffective trust personal meditational even monastic practices trust primal vow amit bha christianity christianity salvation also called deliverance redemption saving human beings sin consequences variant views salvation among main lines dividing various christian denominations point disagreement eastern orthodoxy roman catholicism protestantism well within protestantism notably


calvinist arminian debate lines include conflicting definitions depravity predestination atonement pointedly justification christian soteriology ranges exclusive salvation universal reconciliation concepts differences widespread christianity overwhelming majority agrees salvation made possible life crucifixion death resurrection jesus ref name cdos christian doctrines salvation religion facts june http wwwreligionfactscom christianity beliefs salvationhtm ref hinduism soteriology discussed hinduism principle ''moksha'' also called nirvana kaivalya india wrote mircea eliade metaphysical knowledge always soteriological purpose moksha refers freedom


request forgiveness avoid punished god asked listening satan muslims believe well everyone else vulnerable making mistakes thus need seek repentance repeatedly times muhammad said allah seek forgiveness allah turn repentance seventy times day narrated al bukhaari god wants servants repent forgives rejoices muhammad said person repents allah rejoices one


found camel lost desert agreed upon narrated al bukhaari islamic tradition generally held relatively straightforward enter ''jannah'' paradise quran god says avoid great sins forbidden shall wipe minor misdeeds let entrance honor paradise jainism jainism soteriological concept ''moksha'' explained differently similar term found hinduism moksha blissful state existence soul completely free karmic


salvation humanity provided individual honours god observing precepts redemption salvation depends individual judaism stresses salvation cannot obtained anyone else invoking deity believing outside power influence ref name malekar passages jewish religious texts assert afterlife exists even good book ecclesiastes telling faithful dead know nothing reward even memory lost many centuries rabbis jewish laypeople often wrestled


passages mystery religions mystery religions salvation less worldly communal mystical belief concerned continued survival individual soul death savior gods associated theme dying rising gods often associated seasonal cycle osiris tammus adonis dionysus complex soteriological beliefs also feature cult cybele attis similarity themes archetypes religions found antiquity later christianity pointed many authors including fathers early christian church one view


early christianity borrowed myths motifs contemporary hellenistic mystery religions possessed ideas life death rebirth deities sexual relations gods human beings christ myth theory accepted mainstream historians proponents attempt establish causal connections cults mithras dionysus osiris among others epicurean philosophy century establishment garden school epicurus samos taught philosophy begin see people roman world calling epicurus savior prominent soul saved epicurus


roman empress pompeia plotina lucretius author de rerum natura also depicts salvific power philosophy scholarch epicurus employing literary devices like broken jar parable scholarch credited helping mortals easily enjoy pleasure poetry imagery salvation epicurus otherworldly connotations whatsoever judging principal doctrines letter menoeceus salves disciples supernatural fears excessive desires natural gives disciples clear ethical guidelines lead happiness lucretius says epicurus set boundaries


limits nature followers roman times developed epicurus culture hero revered founding figure school first developed fully naturalistic cosmology emancipated mortals fear based superstition sikhism sikhism advocates pursuit salvation disciplined personal meditation name message god meant bring one union god person 's state mind detached world understanding world temporary abode soul remain untouched pain


pleasure greed emotional attachment praise slander egotistical pride thus thoughts deeds become ''nirmal'' pure merge god attain union god drop water falling skies merges ocean religions shinto tenrikyo similarly emphasize working good life cultivating virtue virtuous behavior age still saw salvation primarily collective based religion family clan state rather emerging province individual popularized buddhism mystery


religions mithraism hellenistic ruler cults bce sometimes promoted revering king savior people prominent examples included ptolemy soter egypt seleucids antiochus soter demetrius soter egyptian context deification ruler built traditional pharaonic religious ideas see also comparative religion salvation references reading john mcintyre ''shape soteriology studies doctrine death christ'' clark theology


called '''mathematical biology''' '''biomathematics''' stress mathematical side '''theoretical biology''' stress biological side theoretical biology focuses development theoretical principles biology mathematical biology focuses use mathematical tools study biological systems even though two terms sometimes interchanged mathematical biology aims mathematical representation modeling biological processes using techniques tools applied mathematics useful theoretical practical research describing systems quantitative manner means behavior better simulated hence properties predicted

Natural science
Biology
Mathematical biology


might evident experimenter requires precise mathematical models complexity living systems theoretical biology employs several fields mathematics contributed development new techniques history early history mathematics used biology early th century fibonacci used famous fibonacci series describe growing population rabbits th century daniel bernoulli applied mathematics describe effect smallpox human population thomas malthus' essay growth human population based concept


exponential growth pierre fran ois verhulst formulated logistic growth model fritz ller described evolutionary benefits called llerian mimicry account notable first use mathematical argument evolutionary ecology show powerful effect natural selection would unless one includes malthus 's discussion effects population growth influenced charles darwin malthus argued growth would exponential uses word geometric resources environment 's carrying capacity could grow arithmetically ref name mallet ref term theoretical biology first used


johannes reinke one founding text considered growth form d'arcy thompson early pioneers include ronald fisher hans leo przibram nicolas rashevsky vito volterra recent growth interest field grown rapidly onwards reasons include rapid growth data rich information sets due genomics revolution difficult understand without use analytical tools recent development mathematical tools chaos theory help understand complex non linear mechanisms biology increase computing power


facilitates calculations simulations previously possible increasing interest silico experimentation due ethical considerations risk unreliability complications involved human animal research areas research several areas specialized research mathematical theoretical biology ref name ref ref name research mathematical biology ref well external links related projects various universities concisely presented following subsections including also large number appropriate validating references list several thousands published authors contributing field many included examples characterised highly complex nonlinear supercomplex


mechanisms increasingly recognised result interactions may understood combination mathematical logical physical chemical molecular computational models abstract relational biology abstract relational biology arb concerned study general relational models complex biological systems usually abstracting specific morphological anatomical structures simplest models arb metabolic replication mr systems introduced robert rosen abstract relational models cellular organismal organization approaches include notion autopoiesis developed maturana varela kauffman 's work constraints cycles


recently notion closure constraints algebraic biology algebraic biology also known symbolic systems biology applies algebraic methods symbolic computation study biological problems especially genomics proteomics analysis molecular structures study genes ref name cogprintsorg ref complex systems biology elaboration systems biology understand complex life processes developed since connection molecular set theory relational biology algebraic biology computer models automata theory monograph topic summarizes extensive amount published research area


including subsections following areas computer modeling biology medicine arterial system models neuron models biochemical oscillation networks quantum automata quantum computers molecular biology genetics cancer modelling neural nets genetic networks abstract categories relational biology metabolic replication systems category theory applications biology medicine automata theory cellular automata tessellation models complete self reproduction chaotic systems organisms relational biology organismic theories ref name cogprintsorg '''modeling cell molecular biology''' area received boost due growing importance molecular biology ref name research mathematical biology mechanics biological tissues theoretical enzymology


enzyme kinetics cancer modelling simulation modelling movement interacting cell populations mathematical modelling scar tissue formation mathematical modelling intracellular dynamics mathematical modelling cell cycle mathematical modelling apoptosis '''modelling physiological systems''' modelling arterial disease multi scale modelling heart modelling electrical properties muscle interactions bidomain monodomain models computational neuroscience computational neuroscience also known theoretical neuroscience mathematical neuroscience theoretical study nervous system ref name ref evolutionary biology ecology evolutionary biology traditionally dominant fields mathematical biology evolutionary biology


subject extensive mathematical theorizing traditional approach area includes complications genetics population genetics population geneticists consider appearance new alleles mutation appearance new genotypes recombination changes frequencies existing alleles genotypes small number gene loci infinitesimal effects large number gene loci considered together assumption linkage equilibrium quasi linkage equilibrium one derives quantitative genetics ronald fisher made fundamental advances statistics analysis variance via work quantitative genetics


another important branch population genetics led extensive development coalescent theory phylogenetics phylogenetics area deals reconstruction analysis phylogenetic evolutionary trees networks based inherited characteristics traditional population genetic models deal alleles genotypes frequently stochastic many population genetics models assume population sizes constant variable population sizes often absence genetic variation treated field population dynamics work area dates back th century even far thomas malthus formulated


adaptive dynamics mathematical biophysics earlier stages mathematical biology dominated mathematical biophysics described application mathematics biophysics often involving specific physical mathematical models biosystems components compartments following list mathematical descriptions assumptions deterministic processes dynamical systems fixed mapping initial state final state starting initial condition moving forward time deterministic process always generates trajectory two trajectories cross state space difference equations maps nbsp discrete time continuous state space ordinary differential equations nbsp


continuous time continuous state space spatial derivatives ''see also '' numerical ordinary differential equations partial differential equations nbsp continuous time continuous state space spatial derivatives ''see also '' numerical partial differential equations logical deterministic cellular automata nbsp discrete time discrete state space ''see also '' cellular automaton stochastic processes random dynamical systems random mapping initial state final state making state system random variable corresponding probability distribution non markovian processes nbsp generalized master equation nbsp continuous time memory past events discrete state space waiting times events transitions states discretely occur jump markov


process nbsp master equation nbsp continuous time memory past events discrete state space waiting times events discretely occur exponentially distributed ''see also '' monte carlo method numerical simulation methods specifically dynamic monte carlo method gillespie algorithm continuous markov process nbsp stochastic differential equations fokker planck equation nbsp continuous time continuous state space events occur continuously according random wiener process spatial modelling one classic work area alan turing 's paper morphogenesis entitled ''the chemical basis morphogenesis'' published philosophical transactions royal society travelling waves


wound healing assay swarming behaviour mechanochemical theory morphogenesis biological pattern formation spatial distribution modeling using plot samples turing patterns mathematical methods model biological system converted system equations although word 'model' often used synonymously system corresponding equations solution equations either analytical numerical means describes biological system behaves either time equilibrium many different types equations type behavior occur dependent model equations used


model often makes assumptions system equations may also make assumptions nature may occur molecular set theory molecular set theory mst mathematical formulation wide sense chemical kinetics biomolecular reactions terms sets molecules chemical transformations represented set theoretical mappings molecular sets introduced anthony bartholomay applications developed mathematical biology especially mathematical medicine ref name planetphysicsorg ref general sense mst theory molecular categories defined categories molecular sets chemical transformations


represented set theoretical mappings molecular sets theory also contributed biostatistics formulation clinical biochemistry problems mathematical formulations pathological biochemical changes interest physiology clinical biochemistry medicine ref name planetphysicsorg organizational biology theoretical approaches biological organization aim understand interdependence parts organisms emphasize circularities interdependences lead theoretical biologists developed several concepts formalize idea example abstract relational biology arb concerned study general relational models complex biological systems usually abstracting specific morphological anatomical structures


simplest models arb metabolic replication ''' mr ''' systems introduced robert rosen abstract relational models cellular organismal organization model example cell cycle eukaryotic cell cycle complex one studied topics since misregulation leads cancers possibly good example mathematical model deals simple calculus gives valid results two research groups produced several models cell cycle simulating several organisms recently produced generic eukaryotic cell cycle


model represent particular eukaryote depending values parameters demonstrating idiosyncrasies individual cell cycles due different protein concentrations affinities underlying mechanisms conserved csikasz nagy et al means system ordinary differential equations models show change time dynamical system protein inside single typical cell type model called deterministic process whereas model describing statistical distribution protein concentrations population cells called stochastic process obtain equations


iterative series steps must done first several models observations combined form consensus diagram appropriate kinetic laws chosen write differential equations rate kinetics stoichiometric reactions michaelis menten kinetics enzyme substrate reactions goldbeter koshland kinetics ultrasensitive transcription factors afterwards parameters equations rate constants enzyme efficiency coefficients michaelis constants must fitted match observations cannot fitted kinetic equation revised possible wiring diagram modified parameters fitted validated


using observations wild type mutants protein half life cell size fit parameters differential equations must studied done either simulation analysis simulation given starting vector list values variables progression system calculated solving equations time frame small increments px analysis properties equations used investigate behavior system depending values parameters variables system differential equations represented


vector field vector described change concentration two protein determining fast trajectory simulation heading vector fields several special points stable point called sink attracts directions forcing concentrations certain value unstable point either source saddle point repels forcing concentrations change away certain value limit cycle closed trajectory towards several trajectories spiral towards making concentrations oscillate better representation handles large


number variables parameters bifurcation diagram using bifurcation theory presence special steady state points certain values parameter eg mass represented point parameter passes certain value qualitative change occurs called bifurcation nature space changes profound consequences protein concentrations cell cycle phases partially corresponding g g mass via stable point controls cyclin levels phases phases concentrations change independently phase


changed bifurcation event cell cycle checkpoint system cannot go back previous levels since current mass vector field profoundly different mass cannot reversed back bifurcation event making checkpoint irreversible particular checkpoints regulated means special bifurcations called hopf bifurcation infinite period bifurcation societies institutes national institute mathematical biological synthesis society mathematical biology http wwwesmtborg esmtb european society mathematical theoretical biology https webarchiveorg web http bioinformaticsweizmannacil istmb israeli society theoretical mathematical biology https webarchiveorg web http wwwneckerfr sfbt soci


term '''woodcraft''' '''woodlore''' denotes skills experience matters relating living thriving woods hunting fishing camping whether short long term basis traditionally woodcraft pertains subsistence lifestyles implications hunting gathering recent times developed countries relates either outdoor recreationalism survivalism techniques partial list recreational woodcraft techniques might include knowledge wildlife behavior identifying utilizing wild plants animals especially food camp cooking orienteering including hiking skills use map compass fire making including

Human physical performance and recreation


procurement firewood selecting preparing campsite lashing knot techniques use tents wilderness first aid contexts significance scouting movement adopted woodcraft techniques core skill set known scoutcraft united states woodcraft techniques military context taught part sere survival evasion resistance escape training traditional woodcraft particular importance american folklore especially relating early american frontier uk woodcraft folk organisation founded principles woodcraft see also batoning bushcraft ernest seton list outdoorsmen


outdoor educators scoutcraft woodcraft youth movement woodcraft folk woodcraft indians woodcraft league america references kephart horace https archiveorg details campingwoodcraft kephrich ''camping woodcraft handbook vacation campers travelers wilderness'' new york new york outing publishing company procedural knowledge simple living survival skills traditions scoutcraft


'''sociology poland''' developing sociology throughout europe since mid th century although due partitions poland country exist independent state th century end world war polish scholars published work clearly belonging field sociology interbellum second polish republic sociology popularized works scholars florian znaniecki much polish sociology substantially influenced marxism see marxist sociology number jewish polish sociologists including zygmunt bauman subjected

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Sociology in Poland


anti semitic government campaign contemporary polish sociology vibrant social science experts currents thought jan stanis aw bystro wrote polish sociology national sociology notable distinct field ref name kwa niewicz term 'polish sociology' justified science universal know state national borders academics given nationality deal problems often nationalities turn attention polish sociological theories one cannot fail notice evoked


needs problems produced different theoretical answer western science history history theory polish sociology significant academic discipline poland body work published polish language ref name mucha biographical dictionary polish sociology first published though dealing scholars surnames h died includes list sociologists early history early polish sociological thought would reflect three founding fathers auguste comte positivism karl marx


mile durkheim ref name mucha prominent among first polish sociologists ludwik gumplowicz leon petra ycki edward abramowski kazimierz kelles krauz ref name mucha economist j zef supi ski would write publish first polish sociological text titled ''general thought universal physiology'' ref name mucha sociology poland developed significantly interbellum period emerging respectable mainstream science chairs sociology would created poland around including pozna warsaw krak w ref name kwa niewicz first chair would founded florian znaniecki notable polish sociologist


also published period ref name kwa niewicz world war ii communist poland world war ii interrupted development polish science nazi germany soviet union occupied poland closing polish educational research institutions well persecuting polish intelligentsia including social scientists early years communist poland ie stalinist period sociology would banned authorities bourgeois pseudoscience ref name kwa niewicz polish sociology however revived following gomu ka 's thaw foundation polish sociological association warsaw becoming major


centers sociological studies ref name kwa niewicz later polish sociology social sciences eastern bloc would deal marxist influence political interference ref name mucha ref name muchaza ecki due developments marxist thought represented studies censored allowed example prevent scholars openly advocating ideas might undermined communist government research restricted political organization society ref name muchaza ecki would also lead circulation underground illegal publications eg bibu ref name muchaza ecki notable names early postwar period include stanis aw ossowski


wife maria ossowska julian hochfeld j zef cha asi ski andrzej malewski ref name kwa niewicz ref name mucha zygmunt bauman would flee university warsaw work university leeds united kingdom western influence throughout history even times partition communist regime polish sociology influenced developments western sociological theory ref name mucha poles found among international sociological association including jan szczepa ski would president stanis aw ossowski vice president magdalena soko owska vice president ref name muchaza ecki polish sociological association


approach became quickly marginalized resulting closure two major research institutions advocated marxist approach sociology institute basic problems marxism leninism academy social sciences ref name muchaza ecki marxist themes remain present polish sociology however dominant onward although single theory ideology replaced marxist influence many polish sociologists adherents theoretical liberalism ref name muchaza ecki also trend retreat ''theory such'' general methodology social sciences ref name muchaza ecki studies methodology empirical


research qualitative quantitative popular ref name muchaza ecki since methodology qualitative research becomes popular poland many publications appeared specialized qualitative methodology journal created http wwwqualitativesociologyrevieworg eng index engphp since common themes among polish sociologists include ref name muchaza ecki socioeconomic transformation within poland ie communist capitalist focus issues privatization private entrepreneurship rise new social classes poverty unemployment corruption changes political life poland evolution new political parties elections public sphere etc gender research religiosity ethnic groups number sociological books


market grown rapidly since publishing houses specializing sociology polish sociologists institutions also increased participation various international organizations research programs end altogether people majored sociology ba levels public private schools moreover major polish universities offer degrees sociology ref name muchaza ecki journals class wikitable journals published polish academy sciences pan original title translated title pan department archives history philosophy social thought rowspan institute


philosophy sociology ask society research methods ''sisyphus sociological studies'' small see https wwwjstororg pss english review via jstor small culture society institute political science committee sociology people committee ethnology polish ethnographic society ''studia socjologiczne'' sociological studies institute philosophy sociology committee sociology annals marine sociology gda sk class wikitable journals original title translated title publisher ''polish sociological review'' small formerly ''the polish sociological bulletin'' small polish sociological association small also qsr international edition small http wwwqualitativesociologyrevieworg qualitative sociology review sociology organization management dept


lodz university sociological review dzki rodek socjologiczny annals family sociology adam mickiewicz university press juridical economic sociological movement adam mickiewicz university poznan university economics see also history philosophy poland history sociology polish sociological association polish sociologists references ref ref name mucha mucha janusz http jcssagepubcom cgi reprint poland central eastern europe polish sociology within central european context ''journal classical sociology'' ref ref name muchaza ecki mucha janusz pawe za cki http wwwcee socialsciencenet archive sociology poland report html sociology poland ''social science knowledge base country reports'' http wwwcee socialsciencenet archive sociology poland report review html commentary ref reading abel theodore sociology


postwar poland ''american sociological review'' gli ski piotr https webarchiveorg web http cejshicmedupl cejsh cgi bin getdoccgi plaaaa polish sociology polish sociological association anno domiuni ''studia socjologiczne sociological studies '' https wwwceeolcom search article detailid lay summary ''ceeol'' kennedy michael http wwwiiumichedu umich crees home governance kennedypsr pdf poland american sociological imagination ''college literature science arts'' university michigan konecki krzysztof http hrcaksrcehr indexphpshow clanak id clanak jezik lang en visual grounded theory methodological outline examples empirical work ''croatian sociological review'' socjologia poza socjologi postdyscyplinarno z perspektywy socjologicznej dylematy socjologii w epoce p nej nowoczesno ci pp nbsp ''spo ecze stwo edukacja praca'' edited w w kruszy ska university


publishing konecki krzysztof anna kacperczyk lukasz marciniak http wwwqualitative researchnet indexphp fqs article view polish qualitative sociology general features development ''qualitative social research'' krawczyk zbigniew kazimierz z sowa ''socjologia w polsce'' sociology poland rzesz w wsp kubiak hieronim http csisagepubcom cgi content citation ck nck hopes illusions deceptions half century political sociology poland ''current sociology'' kurzewska j https webarchiveorg web http cejshicmedupl cejsh cgi bin getdoccgi czaaaa polish sociology 'october' 'june' ''sociologicky casopis'' czech sociological review kwa niewicz w adys aw dialectics systemic constraints academic freedom polish sociology socialist regime pp nbsp ''eastern europe


transformation impact sociology'' edited f keen j mucha westport ct greenwood mach bogdan w wlodzimierz wesolowski professionalism polish sociology late ' ''contemporary sociology'' mucha janusz polish sociology society breakthrough sociology evolution pp nbsp ''sociology central eastern europe transformations dawn new millennium'' edited f keen j mucha westport ct greenwood mokrzycki edmund http asjsagepubcom cgi content abstract social knowledge social research case polish sociology ''acta sociologica'' piotrowski micha nauczanie socjologii w polsce


wydawnictwo naukowe szafraniec krystyna winc awski w odzimierz ''socjologia w szko ach wy szych w polsce'' nicolaus copernicus university press szcepa ski jan ed ''empirical sociology poland'' warsaw polish scientific publishers https wwwjstororg pss lay summary ''jstor'' walaszek zdzislawa https wwwannualreviewsorg doi abs annurevso recent developments polish sociology ''annual review sociology'' wejnert barbara family studies politics case polish sociology ''marriage family review'' winc awska berenika polish sociology citation index principles creation first results ''scientometrics'' znaniecka eileen markley sociology poland ''american sociological review'' external


durkheim luk cs theory novel important first step sociology literature taken georg luk cs 's ''the theory novel'' first published german ''zeitschrift fur aesthetik und allgemeine kunstwissenschaft'' republished book form version strongly influenced frankfurt school second edition published similarly influential french structuralism ''the theory novel'' argued whilst classical epic poem given form totality life pregiven reality social integration classical civilisation

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of literature


modern novel become 'the epic age extensive totality life longer directly given' novel form therefore organised around problematic hero pursuit problematic values within problematic world luk cs 's second distinctive contribution sociology literature ''the historical novel'' written german first published russian appeared english translation luk cs argued early th century historical novel 's central achievement represent realistically differences pre capitalist past capitalist present matter


individual talent collective historical experience french revolution revolutionary napoleonic wars made history first time mass experience went argue success revolutions led decline historical novel 'decorative monumentalization' 'making private history' key figures historical novel thus early th century especially sir walter scott luk cs important influence lucien goldmann 's ''towards sociology novel'' alan swingewood 's discussion sociology novel


part laurenson swingewood 's ''the sociology literature'' franco moretti 's ''signs taken wonders'' frankfurt school founded institute social research university frankfurt developed distinctive kind 'critical sociology' indebted marx weber freud leading frankfurt school critics worked literature included adorno walter benjamin leo l wenthal adorno 's ''notes literature'' benjamin 's ''the origin german tragic drama'' l wentahl 's ''literature image man'' influential studies sociology literature l wenthal continued work university california berkeley


adorno 's ''notes literature'' collection essays influential probably 'on lyric poetry society' argued poetic thought reaction commodification reification modern life citing goethe baudelaire examples benjamin 's ''the origin german tragic drama'' argued extreme 'sovereign violence' th th century german 'trauerspiel' literally mourning play less literally tragedy playwrights expressed historical realities princely power far better classical tragedy habermas succeeded adorno chair sociology philosophy frankfurt habermas 's first


major work ''strukturwandel der ffentlichkeit'' published german english translation ''the structural transformation public sphere'' attempted explain socio historical emergence middle class public opinion seventeenth eighteenth centuries developing new kind institutional sociology literature argued public sphere organised around literary salons france learned literary societies germany coffee houses england institutions sustained early novel newspaper periodical press sociology avant garde peter b rger professor french comparative literature


university bremen ''theorie der avantgarde'' published german english translation like habermas b rger interested institutional sociology literature art postulated historical typology aesthetic social relations measured along three main axes function artwork mode production mode reception gave three main kinds art sacral courtly bourgeois bourgeois art argued function individual self understanding produced received individually became celebration form liberation


art religion court eventually even bourgeoisie modernist art thus autonomous social 'institution' preserve increasingly autonomous intellectual class 'historical avant garde' inter war years developed movement within modernism concluded ultimately unsuccessful revolt precisely autonomy habermas adopts similar approach account avant garde sociology book trade robert escarpit held position professor comparative literature university bordeaux founded centre sociology literary facts works included ''the


genetic structuralism lucien goldmann director studies school advanced studies social sciences paris founding director centre sociology literature free university brussels like escarpit goldmann influenced durkheim hence definition subject matter sociology 'study facts consciousness' also interested developing sociology text central task literary sociologist argued bring objective meaning literary work placing


historical context studied whole goldmann defined creating subject transindividual instance durkheim 's 'collective consciousness' following marx luk cs however goldmann also assumed group consciousness normally class consciousnesses mediating agency social class work literature became 'world vision' binds individual members social class together ''le dieu cach '' study blaise pascal jean racine published french english translation ''the hidden god'' identified 'structural homologies' jansenist 'tragic


early novel argues concerned individual biography problematic hero competitive capitalism evolves monopoly capitalism problematic hero progressively disappears period first second world wars witnesses temporary experiment community collective hero goldmann 's example andr malraux main line development characterised effort write novel 'the absence subjects' goldmann 's example ''nouveau roman'' alain robbe grillet nathalie sarraute andrew milner 's ''john milton english revolution'' essentially application goldmann 's genetic


structuralism study seventeenth century english literature sociocriticism goldmann 's sociology literature remains significant source inspiration positive negative kind 'sociocriticism' developed edmond cros pierre zima co workers france canada neo marxian ideology critique marx used term ideology denote inner connectedness culture including literature class philosopher louis althusser elaborated notion early arguing ideology functions constitute biological individuals social 'subjects' representing imaginary relation real conditions existence


althusser art ideology theory applied literature macherey france eagleton britain jameson united states central novelty eagleton 's ''criticism ideology'' argument literature could understood 'producing' ideology sense performing jameson 's ''the political unconscious'' argued literary analysis focussed three distinct levels 'text' 'ideologeme' 'ideology form' socio historical corollary equivalent 'semantic horizon' political history society mode production version ideology jameson applies


three levels essentially althusserian novelty position however argue 'double hermeneutic' simultaneously concerned ideology utopia macherey eagleton jameson literary critics profession applications ideology critique literature sociological character insofar seek explain literary phenomena extra literary terms bourdieu bourdieu professor sociology coll ge de france director centre de sociologie europ enne first major contribution sociology literature arts ''la distinction'' published french english translation


based detailed sociological surveys ethnographic observation social distribution cultural preferences bourdieu identified three main zones taste 'legitimate' 'middle brow' 'popular' found dominant respectively educated sections dominant class middle classes working classes described legitimate taste centred 'aesthetic disposition' assert primacy form function 'popular aesthetic' contrast based continuity art life 'a deep rooted demand participation' hence hostility representations objects real life


either ugly immoral artistic social 'distinction' inextricably interrelated concluded 'pure gaze' implies break ordinary attitudes towards world 'social break' ''the rules art'' specifically focussed literature especially significance gustave flaubert making modern french literature bourdieu postulated model 'the field cultural production' structured externally relation 'field power' internally relation two 'principles hierarchization' heteronomous autonomous modern literary artistic field site


contestation heteronomous principle subordinating art economy autonomous resisting subordination bourdieu 's map french literary field late nineteenth century autonomous genre least economically profitable poetry left whilst heteronomous economically profitable drama right novel located somewhere additionally higher social status audiences govern upper end field lower status audiences lower end flaubert 's distinctive achievement ''l' ducation sentimentale'' bourdieu 's account understood


puritan individualism also argued form addressed interests capacities new middle class reading public new book trade evolving response tradesmen defoe richardson 'consult standards' know work would appeal large audience cultural materialism raymond williams professor drama cambridge university one founders contemporary cultural studies described distinctive approach 'cultural materialism' meant theory culture 'as social material productive process'


arts 'as social uses material means production' clearly sociological distinct literary critical perspective hence general exposition united states ''the sociology culture'' britain ''culture'' title fontana 's new sociology series although williams 's interests ranged widely across whole field literary cultural studies major work concentrated literature drama thus sociologist culture specialising sociology literature ''the long revolution'' williams developed pioneering accounts sociology book trade


sociology authorship sociology novel ''the english novel dickens lawrence'' argued modern novel articulated distinctively modern 'structure feeling' key problem 'knowable community' ''the country city'' developed social history english country house poetry aimed demystifying idealisations rural life contained literature 'it poems country life social compliment familiar hyperboles aristocracy attendants' ''marxism literature'' simultaneously critique


marxism 'literature' extensive formal elaboration williams 's theoretical system alan sinfield 's ''faultlines cultural materialism politics dissident reading'' ''literature politics culture postwar britain'' clearly indebted williams andrew milner 's ''literature culture society'' world systems theory franco moretti turn professor english literature university salerno comparative literature verona university english comparative literature stanford university first book ''signs taken wonders'' subtitled ''essays sociology literary forms''


essentially qualitative method later work however became progressively quantitative applying immanuel wallerstein 's world systems theory literature moretti argued ''atlas european novel'' nineteenth century literary economy comprised 'three europes' france britain core countries periphery variable semiperiphery located measured volume translations national bibliographies found french novelists successful catholic south british protestant north whole continent nonetheless read leading figures london paris 'rule


entire continent century' concluded publishing half european novels moretti 's theses prompted much subsequent controversy collected together christopher prendergast 's edited collection ''debating world literature'' moretti expanded argument ''distant reading'' recent developments building earlier work production culture reception aesthetics cultural capital sociology literature recently concentrated readers' construction meaning new developments include studying relationship literature group identities concerning institutional reader response analysis reintroducing role intentions author literature reconsidering


role ethics morality literature developing clearer understanding literature like media sociology literature also recently taken interest global inequality first world third world authors latter tend strongly dependent editorial decisions publishers paris london new york often excluded participation global literary market journal http musejhuedu journals new literary history toc nlh html new literary history devoted special issue new approaches sociology literature spring recently drawing


https ccsyaleedu strong program strong program cultural sociology ang lica thumala olave established cultural sociology reading following school thought jan v inaugurated strong program sociology literature notes references theodor w adorno ''notes literature'' vol trans shierry weber nicholson ed rolf tiedemann new york columbia university press theodor w adorno ''notes literature'' vol trans shierry weber nicholson ed rolf tiedemann new york columbia university press walter benjamin ''the origin german tragic drama'' trans john osborne london new left books carlo bordoni ''introduzione alla sociologia della letteratura''


pisa pacini pierre bourdieu ''distinction social critique judgement taste'' trans richard nice london routledge kegan paul pierre bourdieu b ''the rules art genesis structure literary field'' trans susan emanuel cambridge polity press elizabeth tom burns eds ''sociology literature drama'' harmondsworth penguin peter b rger ''theory avant garde'' trans michael shaw minneapolis university minnesota press pascale casanova ''the world republic letters'' trans mb debevois cambridge mass harvard university press lewis coser charles kadushin walter w powell ''books culture


tragedies racine'' trans philip thody london routledge kegan paul lucien goldmann ''towards sociology novel'' trans alan sheridan london tavistock j rgen habermas ''the structural transformation public sphere inquiry category bourgeois society'' trans burger cambridge polity press john hall ''the sociology literature'' london longman fredric jameson ''the political unconscious narrative socially symbolic act'' london methuen diana laurenson alan swingewood ''the sociology literature'' london mcgibbon kee leo l wenthal ''literature image man'' new jersey transaction publishers


study sociology literature'' london macmillan andrew milner ''literature culture society'' second edition london new york routledge franco moretti ''signs taken wonders essays sociology literary forms'' second edition trans susan fischer david forgacs david miller london verso franco moretti ''atlas european novel '' london verso franco moretti ''distant reading'' london verso christopher prendergast ed ''debating world literature'' london verso jane routh janet wolff eds ''the sociology literature theoretical approaches'' keele sociological review monographs alan sinfield ''faultlines cultural materialism


politics dissident reading'' oxford oxford university press alan sinfield ''literature politics culture postwar britain'' second edition london athlone press http ressources sociusinfo socius ressources sur le litt raire et le social diana spearman ''the novel society'' london routledge kegan paul ian watt ''the rise novel studies defoe richardson fielding'' harmondsworth penguin raymond williams ''the long revolution'' london chatto windus raymond williams ''the english novel dickens lawrence'' london chatto windus raymond williams ''the country city'' new york oxford university press raymond williams


''marxism literature'' oxford oxford university press raymond williams ''culture'' glasgow fontana pierre v zima ''manuel de sociocritique'' paris et montr al l'harmattan literature literature sociology art


'''tactical objective''' immediate short term desired result given activity task mission tactical objectives usually entrusted lower positioned management three tier organisation 's structure field front desk middle executive management historically term applied military operations th century increasingly applied fields public safety policing fire fighting commerce trade planning political international relations policy tactical objective often intermediate step achieving operational objective requires decision making problem

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics
Tactical objective


anti internet censorship protest frankfurt germany '' 'sociology internet''' involves application sociological theory method internet source information communication overlapping field '' 'digital sociology''' focuses understanding use digital media part everyday life various technologies contribute patterns human behavior social relationships concepts self sociologists concerned social implications technology new social networks virtual communities ways interaction arisen well issues related cyber crime internet newest

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of the Internet


series major information breakthroughs interest sociologists various ways tool research example using online questionnaires instead paper ones discussion platform research topic sociology internet stricter sense concerns analysis online communities eg found newsgroups virtual communities virtual worlds organizational change catalyzed new media internet social change large transformation industrial informational society information society online communities studied statistically network analysis


time interpreted qualitatively virtual ethnography social change studied statistical demographics interpretation changing messages symbols online media studies emergence discipline internet relatively new phenomenon robert darnton wrote revolutionary change took place yesterday day depending measure ref name darnton robert darnton '' http wwwnybookscom articles library new age '' new york review books volume number june retrieved december ref internet developed arpanet dating back


term coined world wide web know shaped mid graphical interface services like email became popular reached wider non scientific non military audiences commerce ref name darnton ref name dimaggio paul dimaggio eszter hargittai w russell neuman john p robinson ''social implications internet'' annual review sociology vol volume publication date august http arjournalsannualreviewsorg doi abs annurevsoc ref internet explorer first released netscape year earlier google founded ref name darnton ref name dimaggio wikipedia founded facebook myspace youtube


mid web still emerging amount information available net number internet users worldwide continued grow rapidly ref name dimaggio term 'digital sociology' becoming increasingly used denote new directions sociological research digital technologies since web digital sociology first scholarly article term ' 'digital sociology'' title appeared author reflects ways digital technologies may influence sociological research teaching 'digital sociology' described richard neal terms bridging growing


academic focus increasing interest global business first purely academic book tackling subject 'digital sociology' published first sole authored book entitled ''digital sociology'' published ref name lupton ''digital sociology'' london routledge ref first academic conference digital sociology held new york ny year although term ' 'digital sociology'' yet fully entered cultural lexicon sociologists engaged research related internet since inception sociologists addressed many social issues relating online communities


sciences seems replaced 'digital' 'digital sociology' related sub disciplines digital humanities digital anthropology beginning supersede incorporate titles well including newest web digital technologies purview wearable technology augmented reality smart objects internet things big data research trends according dimaggio et al ref name dimaggio research tends focus internet 's implications five domains inequality issues digital divide public social capital issues date displacement


ict ref name dimaggio social impact internet created social network services forums social interaction social relations facebook myspace meetup couchsurfing facilitate online offline interaction though virtual communities thought composed strictly virtual social ties researchers often find even social ties formed virtual spaces often maintained online offline ongoing debates impact internet strong weak ties whether internet creating less social capital internet 's role trends towards social isolation whether


name charles study ref analyzed female students electrodes measure social anxiety prior meeting people students shown pictures subject expected meet researchers found meeting someone face face looking photos increases arousal study linked increase social anxiety findings confirm previous studies found socially anxious people prefer online interactions study also recognized stimulated arousal associated positive emotions could lead positive feelings recent research taken internet things within purview global networks


interconnected everyday objects said next step technological advancement ref name atzoriiera ref certainly global space earth based networks expanding coverage iot fast pace wide variety consequences current applications health agriculture traffic retail fields ref name matternfloerkemeier companies samsung sigfox invested heavily said networks social impact measured accordingly sociologists suggesting formation socio technical networks humans technical systems ref name technology review ref ref name kranz kranz matthias luis roalter florian michahelles things twitter social


networks internet things internet things citizen ciot workshop eighth international conference pervasive computing pervasive ref issues privacy right information legislation content creation come public scrutiny light technological changes ref name matternfloerkemeier ref ref name weber ref digital sociology data emotions digital sociology connected data data emotions ref name ref data emotions happens people use digital technologies effect decision making skills emotions social media platforms collects users data also effecting emotional state mind


causes either solidarity social engagement amongst users social media platforms instagram twitter evoke emotions love affection empathy viral challenges ice bucket challenge ref name viral memes brought people together mass participation displaying cultural knowledge understanding self mass participation viral events prompts users spread information data one another effecting psychological state mind emotions link digital sociology data emotions formed integration technological devices within everyday life activities impact children


technological devices used intensivelyresearchers investigated use technology opposed internet children used excessively cause medical health psychological issues ref name auto ref use technological devices children cause become addicted lead experience negative effects depression attention problems loneliness anxiety aggression solitude ref name auto obesity another result use technology children due children may prefer use technological devices rather form physical


activity ref name pediatricsaappublicationsorg http pediatricsaappublicationsorg content pediatrics fullpdf ref parents take control implement restrictions use technological devices children decrease negative results technology prioritized well help put limit used excessively ref name pediatricsaappublicationsorg children use technology enhance learning skills example using online programs improve way learn read math resources technology provides children may enhance skills children cautious get due cyber bullying may occur cyber


bullying cause academic psychological effects due children suppressed people bully internet technology introduced children forced accept instead children permitted input feel either deciding use technological device social exclusion classroom occurs children associate using computers causes exclude classroom 's everyday context due grow attached device children socially popular


ones try get away using form technological skills possibly develop due believe technological devices computer threat social identities routines children changed due use technological device introduced children 's health quality life benefited technology time demands care routines lack compatibility social institutional timeframes negative implications children prioritizing technological device put limit


capabilities take part employment school social life overall technology negative impacts lives children essential learning tool encourage cognitive linguistic social development children use technological devices greater gains problem solving intelligence language skills structural knowledge comparison children incorporated use technology learning research conducted studies find improvements student scores tests closely related material covered computer assisted instructional packages demonstrates technology positive


influences children improving learning capabilities problems arisen children parents well parents limit children use technological devices specifically cannot watch devices making children frustrated ref name komunikasiunsoedacid http komunikasiunsoedacid sites default files handbook family communicationpdf page communication conflict quality family relationships alan sillars daniel j canary melissa tafoya ''handbook family communication'' edited anita l vangelisti mahwah new jersey lawrence erlbaum aassociates publishers ref studies found average child country spends hours day form


mediated communication meaning children spend time technological device rather spending time family friends ref name komunikasiunsoedacid introduction technology children positive outcome increasing child 's learning capabilities negative outcome affecting child 's behavior acting isolated rest society political organization censorship internet achieved new relevance political tool presidential campaign howard dean united states became famous ability generate donations via internet campaign


distribution certain material child pornography illegal use filtering software countries internet service providers agreed restrict access sites listed police economics much written economic advantages internet enabled commerce also evidence aspects internet maps location aware services may serve reinforce economic inequality digital divide electronic commerce may responsible consolidation decline mom pop brick mortar businesses resulting increases income inequality philanthropy spread low cost internet access


loans choice receive money back borrowers repay kiva falls short pure peer peer charity loans disbursed funded lenders borrowers communicate lenders however recent spread cheap internet access developing countries made genuine peer peer connections increasingly feasible us based nonprofit zidisha tapped trend offer first peer peer microlending platform link lenders borrowers across international borders without local intermediaries inspired interactive websites facebook ebay zidisha 's microlending platform


means communication sharing ideas pornography gambling industries taken full advantage world wide web often provide significant source advertising revenue websites although governments made attempts censor internet porn internet service providers told governments plans feasible also many governments attempted put restrictions industries' use internet generally failed stop widespread popularity one area leisure internet online gaming form leisure creates communities bringing people


relaxation discussed paid unpaid sources using centralized servers distributed peer peer technologies discretion needed sources take care original artists' rights copyright laws others many use world wide web access news weather sports reports plan book holidays find random ideas casual interests people use chat messaging e mail make stay touch friends worldwide sometimes way previously pen pals social


networking websites like myspace facebook many others like also put keep people contact enjoyment internet seen growing number web desktops users access files folders settings via internet cyberslacking become serious drain corporate resources average uk employee spends minutes day surfing web work according study peninsula business services subfields four aspects digital sociology identified lupton '''professional digital practice''' using digital media tools professional purposes build


networks construct e profile publicise share research instruct students '''sociological analyses digital use''' researching ways people 's use digital media configures sense selves embodiment social relations '''digital data analysis''' using digital data social research either quantitative qualitative '''critical digital sociology''' undertaking reflexive critical analysis digital media informed social cultural theory professional digital practice although reluctant use social digital media professional academics purposes sociologists slowly beginning adopt teaching


research increasing number sociological blogs beginning appear sociologists joining twitter example writing best ways sociologists employ social media part academic practice importance self archiving making sociological research open access well writing wikipedia sociological analyses digital media use digital sociologists begun write use wearable technologies part quantifying body social dimensions big data algorithms used interpret data others


directed attention role digital technologies part surveillance people 's activities via technologies cctv cameras customer loyalty schemes well mass surveillance internet conducted secret services nsa 'digital divide' differences access digital technologies experienced certain social groups socioeconomically disadvantaged lower education levels women elderly preoccupied many researchers social scientific study digital media however several sociologists pointed important


acknowledge identify structural inequalities inherent differentials digital technology use concept rather simplistic fails incorporate complexities access knowledge digital technologies growing interest ways social media contribute development intimate relationships concepts self one best known sociologists written social relationships selfhood digital technologies sherry turkle recent book turkle addresses topic social media argues relationships conducted via platforms authentic


encounters take place real life visual media allows viewer passive consumer information viewers likely develop online personas differ personas real world contrast digital world 'cyberspace' 'real world' however critiqued ''' 'digital dualism'''' concept similar 'aura digital' sociologists argued relationships conducted digital media inextricably part 'real world' augmented reality interactive experience reality altered way use


reproduce social inequalities digital data analysis digital sociologists use varied approaches investigating people 's use digital media qualitative quantitative include ethnographic research interviews surveys users technologies also analysis data produced people 's interactions technologies example posts social media platforms facebook reddit chan tumblr twitter consuming habits online shopping platforms techniques data scraping social network analysis time series analysis textual analysis employed analyze data produced byproduct users' interactions


digital media create contents analysis yukihiko yoshida study called leni riefenstahl german expressionism research visual cultural studies using trans disciplinary semantic spaces specialized dictionaries study took databases images tagged connotative denotative keywords search engine found riefenstahl 's imagery qualities imagery tagged degenerate title exhibition degenerate art germany emergence social media provided sociologists new way studying social phenomenon social media networks facebook


twitter increasingly mined research example twitter data easily available researchers twitter api twitter provides researchers demographic data time location data connections users data researchers gain insight user moods communicate one another furthermore social networks graphed visualized ref name ref using large data sets like obtained twitter challenging first researchers figure store data effectively database several tools commonly used big data analytics disposal ref


name since large data sets unwieldy contain numerous types data ie photos videos gif images researchers option storing data non relational databases mongodb hadoop ref name processing querying data additional challenge however several options available researchers one common option use querying language hive conjunction hadoop analyze large data sets ref name internet social media allowed sociologists study controversial topics discussed time otherwise known issue mapping ref name ref


sociologists search social networking sites ie facebook twitter posts related hotly debated topic parse analyze text ref name sociologists use number easily accessible tools visualize data mentionmapp twitter streamgraph mentionmapp shows popular hashtag twitter streamgraph depicts often certain words paired together relationship changes time ref name digital surveillance digital surveillance occur digital devices record people 's daily activities collecting storing personal data invading privacy ref name advancement


new technologies act monitoring watching people online increased years invasion privacy recording people without consent leads people doubting usage technologies suppose secure protect personal information storage data intrusiveness digital surveillance effects human behavior psychological implications digital surveillance cause people concern worry fear feeling monitored time digital data stored within security technologies apps social media platforms technological devices used various ways various


reasons data collected people using internet subject monitored viewed private public companies friends known unknown entities critical digital sociology aspect digital sociology perhaps makes distinctive approaches studying digital world adopting critical reflexive approach sociologists able address implications digital sociological practice argued digital sociology offers way addressing changing relations social relations analysis relations putting question


social research indeed sociology social relations society become many respects mediated via digital technologies sociology respond emergent forms 'small data' 'big data' collected vast amounts part people 's interactions digital technologies development data industries using data conduct social research suggest coming crisis empirical sociology might horizon identities work practices sociologists becoming implicated within disciplined digital technologies


citation metrics questions central critical digital sociology reflects upon role sociology analysis digital technologies well impact digital technologies upon sociology four aspects add following subfields digital sociology public digital sociology public sociology using digital media form public sociology involves publishing sociological materials online accessible spaces subsequent interaction publics spaces referred e public sociology social media changed ways public sociology perceived


given rise digital evolution field vast open platform communication provided opportunities sociologists come notion small group sociology publics vast audience blogging initial social media platform utilized sociologists sociologists like eszter hargittai chris bertram kieran healy amongst started using blogging sociology new discussion groups sociology related philosophy consequences social media impact vast number comments discussions thus became part understanding sociology one famous groups


http crookedtimberorg crooked timber getting feedback social sites faster impactful disintermediation visibility measurement major effects e public sociology social media tools like twitter facebook also became tools sociologist https kieranhealyorg files papers soc social mediapdf public sociology age social media digital transformation sociological theory information communication technology well proliferation digital data revolutionizing sociological research whereas already much methodological innovation digital humanities computational social sciences theory development social sciences humanities still consists mainly print theories


computer cultures societies analogue theories digital transformation however fail account profoundly digital transformation social sciences humanities changing epistemic core fields digital methods constitute providers ever ''bigger'' digital datasets testing analogue theories also require new forms digital theorising ambition research programmes digital transformation social theory therefore translate analogue digital social theories complement traditional analogue social theories digital transformation digital theories digital societies see also anthropology


cyberspace computational social science cyber dissident digital anthropology digital humanities digital revolution social informatics social web sociology science technology sociology internet software studies technology society tribe internet notes references john bargh katelyn mckenna ''the internet social life'' annual review psychology vol volume publication date february http arjournalsannualreviewsorg doi abs annurevpsych journalcode psych allison cavanagh ''sociology age internet'' mcgraw hill international christine hine ''virtual methods issues social research internet'' berg publishers rob kling ''the'' internet sociologists'' contemporary sociology vol jul


pp nbsp joan ferrante wallace joan ferrante ''sociologynet sociology internet'' thomson wadsworth daniel menchik xiaoli tian http menchikcom menchik tian ajspdf putting social context text semiotics email interaction ''the american journal sociology'' pp nbsp carla g surratt internet social change mcfarland r wilson ''researching sociology internet'' thomson wadsworth cottom tm ''why digital sociology'' nowiki https tressiemccom uncategorized digital sociology nowiki lupton ''digital sociology'' routledge park square milton park abingdon oxon ox rn third avenue new york ny nowiki https edisciplinasuspbr pluginfilephp mod resource content lupton digital sociology pdf nowiki fussey p roth ''digitizing sociology continuity change internet


era'' nowiki https journalssagepubcom doi full nowiki external links https blogdegruytercom internet sociology matter internet sociology matter http internetsoziologiede internet sociology germany website germanys first internet sociologist stephan g humer established http wwwsociologyorguk olinsethtm sociology internet short introduction originally put together delegates atss conference https webarchiveorg web http wwwsociositeorg index enphp peculiarities cyberspace nbsp building blocks internet sociology articles social structure dynamic internetcommunities presented dr albert benschop university amsterdam http citasaorg communication information technologies section american sociological association https webarchiveorg web http wwwallacademiccom meta p mla apa research citation p indexhtml impact internet sociology importance communication information


technologies section american sociological association https webarchiveorg web http camden wwwrutgersedu wood sylhtml sociology internet course https webarchiveorg web http geocitiescom researchtriangle sociology internet link collection https webarchiveorg web http wwwvtsintuteacuk tutorial sociologist internet sociologist https webarchiveorg web http www frdfslnoaagov moninger noaatech relaxationhtml sociology internet http wwwdigitalsociologycom digital sociology http culturedigitallyorg culture digitally blog http thesocietypagesorg cyborgology cyborgology blog https webarchiveorg web http storifycom dalupton digital sociology digital sociology storify internet culture social networks internet


''''' stika''''' '''''n stika''''' concepts used classify indian philosophies modern scholars well hindu buddhist jain texts various definitions '' stika'' ''n stika'' philosophies disputed since ancient times consensus ref name andrew nicholson andrew j ''unifying hinduism philosophy identity indian intellectual history'' columbia university press ch ref ref name wendy doniger wendy ''on hinduism'' oxford university press p ref current indian languages like hindi bengali '' stika'' derivatives usually mean 'theist' ''n stika'' derivatives denote 'atheist' however


two terms ancient medieval era sanskrit literature refer 'theism' 'atheism' ref name andrew terms used differently hindu philosophy example ''s khya'' atheist explicitly affirm existence god classical formulation '' stika'' vedic philosophy though god often used epithet consciousness purusa within doctrine similarly though buddhism considered ''n stika'' gautama buddha considered avatar vishnu hindu traditions ''''' stika''''' sanskrit ''asti'' 'there exists' means one believes


existence self brahman etc defined one three ways ref name andrew ref name gsghurye gs ghurye indian sociology ghurye dictionary ed devadas pillai page ref accept epistemic authority vedas accept existence '' tman'' accept existence ''ishvara'' '''''n stika''''' sanskrit ''na'' 'not' '''' contrast deny respective definitions '' stika'' ref name andrew believe existence self ref name mw six studied stika schools


indian philosophies sometimes referred orthodox schools ny vai e ika khya yoga ved nta four studied ''n stika'' schools indian philosophies sometimes referred heterodox schools buddhism jainism c rv ka j vika however orthodox heterodox terminology construct western languages lacks scholarly roots sanskrit recent scholarly studies state various heresiological translations stika n stika th century literature indian philosophies quite many unsophisticated flawed ref name andrew etymology '' stika'' sanskrit adjective noun derives ''asti'' 'there


exists' ref name mw ref meaning 'knowing exists' 'pious' word ''n stika'' ''na'' '''' negative one traditional etymologies term '' stika'' based p ini 's ''a dhy '' ''astin stidi mati '' defines concept whose opinion vara exists ''asti vara iti matir yasya'' ref name squarcinisquarcini ref according sanskrit grammarian hemachandra '' stika'' synonym believes definitions include 'opposite ''n stika'' nowiki ' ''n stika bhinna'' 'he whose idea vara exists' '' vara asti iti v '' 'he considers vedas authorities' ' 'vedapr yav '' used hindu philosophy differentiation


'' stika'' ''n stika'' refer theism atheism ref name andrew terms often always relate accepting vedic literature authority particularly teachings self veda hinduism subscribe include concept almighty separate oneself ie concept god christian islamic sense n n bhattacharya writes believe god believe vedas hence n stikas buddhists jains c rv kas believe


vedas hence n stikas '' stika'' also name vedic scholar born goddess nas 'mind' sage jaratkaru classification schools terms stika n stika used classify various indian intellectual traditions stika list six systems '' dar ana' 's also spelled ''sad darshan'' consider vedas reliable source knowledge authoritative source nyaya vaisheshika samkhya yoga vedanta schools hinduism classified '' stika'' schools ny school logic


vai e ika atomist school khya enumeration school yoga school pata jali assumes metaphysics khya tradition vedic exegesis vedanta uttara mim upani adic tradition often coupled three groups historical conceptual reasons ny vai e ika khya yoga mim vedanta n stika main schools indian philosophy reject vedas regarded heterodox tradition buddhism jainism c rv ka j vika aj na use term ''n stika'' describe buddhism jainism india explained gavin


flood follows ref tantric traditions hinduism '' stika'' ''n stika'' lines banerji writes ''tantra bengal'' banerji usage religion hinduism manusmriti verse defines n stika accept vedic literature entirety based two roots science reasoning ruti smriti ref name andrew th century indian scholar medhatithi analyzed definition stated n stika mean someone says vedic literature untrue rather one says vedic literature immoral medhatithi noted verse manusmriti provide another


aspect definition n stika one believes world purpose giving charity purpose rituals teachings vedic literature ref name andrew manusmriti define imply definition astika also silent contradictory specific rituals animal sacrifices asserting ahimsa non violence non injury dharma verses verse based upanishadic layer vedic literature even though older layer vedic literature mention sacrifices unlike later layer vedic literature indian scholars


samkhya yoga nyaya vedanta schools accepted astika include '' abda'' ''aptavacana'' testimony vedic literature reliable experts reliable means epistemology accepted later ancient layer vedic literature superseding earlier ancient layer ref name andrew without reference vedas contrast ''manusmriti'' th century ce jain scholar doxographer haribhadra provided different perspective writings astika n stika haribhadra consider reverence vedas marker astika st millennium


ce jaina scholars defined astika one affirms exists another world transmigration exists virtue ''punya'' exists vice ''paap'' exists ref name andrew ref name wendy th century scholars jayaditya vamana ''kasikavrtti'' p ini tradition silent role authority vedic literature defining astika n stika state astika one believes exists another world opposite n stika ref name andrew similarly widely studied nd rd century ce buddhist philosopher nagarjuna chapter verses ratn val wrote vai e ika khya schools hinduism n stika along jainism


school buddhism pudgalavadins ''v ts putr ya'' school buddhism based belief atman astika texts defined believe existence ''atman'' self nastika deny self human beings living beings ref name gsghurye six schools hinduism classified astika philosophies hold premise atman exists buddhism contrast holds premise atman exist ref name johnplott john c plott et al global history philosophy axial age volume motilal banarsidass page quote buddhist schools


reject tman concept already observed basic ineradicable distinction hinduism buddhism ref asanga tilakaratna translates ''astika'' 'positivism' nastika 'negativism' astika illustrated brahmanic traditions accepted self god exists nastika traditions buddhism denied self god exists jainism according g ghurye jain texts define ''na'' ''astika'' one denying exists school philosophy denies existence self ref name pillai ref vedanta sub traditions hinduism astika accept existence


self buddhist traditions denying referred nastika ref name pillai one earliest mentions ''astika'' concept jain texts manibhadra states ''astika'' one accepts exist another world ''paraloka'' transmigration self virtue vice affect self journeys time ref name nicholson p ref th th century jainism scholar haribhadra states andrew nicholson mention anything accepting rejecting vedas god criterion ''astika'' ''nastika'' instead haribhadra explains ''nastika'' manner ancient jain scholar manibhadra


stating nastika one says worlds purpose charity purpose offerings ref name nicholson p ''astika'' haribhadra one believes purpose merit ethical life ''ahimsa'' non violence ritual actions ref name nicholson p exposition word ''astika'' ''nastika'' haribhadra similar one sanskrit grammarian hindu scholar p ini section ''astadhyayi'' th century jaina scholar hemachandra similarly states text ''abithana chintamani'' ''nastika'' philosophy


presumes argues virtue vice buddhism nagarjuna according chandradhar sharma equates ''nastikya'' nihilism th century buddhist scholar asanga ''bodhisattva bhumi'' refers nastika buddhists ' 'sarvaiva nastika'' describing complete deniers asanga ''nastika'' say nothing whatsoever exists worst kind ''nastika'' deny designation reality ref name nicholson p ref astika accept merit practice religious life ref name nicholson p according andrew nicholson later buddhists understood asanga targeting madhyamaka buddhism ''nastika'' considering


yogacara buddhist tradition ''astika'' ref name nicholson p initial interpretations buddhist texts term ''astika'' ''nastika'' composed nagarjuna vagho interpreted directed hindu traditions however states john kelly later scholarship considers incorrect ''astika'' ''nastika'' terms directed towards competing buddhist traditions intended audience texts buddhist monks debating array ideas across various buddhist traditions charges ''nastika'' serious threat social standing buddhist could


lead expulsion buddhist monastic community thus states nicholson colonial era indologist definition astika nastika schools indian philosophy based narrow study literature version ''manusmriti'' truth terms complex contextually apply within diverse schools indian philosophies ref name nicholson p common meaning astika nastika buddhism hinduism jainism acceptance adherence ethical premises textual validity doctrinal premises states nicholson likely astika translated orthodox nastika heterodox


early european indologists carried baggage christian theological traditions extrapolated concepts asia thereby distorting complexity indian traditions thought ref name nicholson p see also atman buddhism atheism hinduism atman hinduism atman jainism stra pram hinduism notes references hindu philosophical concepts movements ancient indian philosophy


'''planetary cartography''' '''cartography extraterrestrial objects''' '''ceo''' cartography solid objects outside earth planetary maps show spatially mapped characteristic topography geology geophysical properties extraterrestrial surfaces products planetary cartography '''albedo map''' shows measured difference surface reflectivity surface celestial body '''atlas''' special collection images celestial body surface images may either ground based spacecraft sources usually single scale set scales used throughout atlas atlases specific themes eg photographic specialized

Social science
Geography
Cartography
Planetary cartography


certain problems thematic etc '''complex integrated atlas''' groups celestial bodies systematic collection maps group celestial bodies eg terrestrial planets satellites gas giant planets etc giving capability analysis collected information comparative planetology '''geochemical map''' shows distribution chemical elements minerals surface celestial body '''geologic map''' graphic representation generalizing geological history area covered map includes information structure distribution age genetic type rocks surface celestial


body '''geologic morphologic map''' shows spatial distribution geologic geomorphologic tectonic features celestial body '''geomorphic map''' graphic representation distribution surface morphological types portrayed landforms planetary body geomorphic maps attempt infer geologic history rocks rather processes generated present surface features '''geophysical map''' shows variety geophysical information spatial representation gravimetric seismic magnetic anomaly maps '''globe''' cartographic representation surface planetary body three dimensional shape


spherical non spherical tri axial ellipsoid preserving geometric similarity locations outlines features globes spherical planets irregular objects eg martian moon phobos asteroid eros produced imaging remote sensing data obtained variety sources '''hypsometric map''' shows macro relief features planetary surface maps produced russia relief represented means contours isolines show areas relative elevation color coded contour intervals countries term also describe distribution elevations


extraterrestrial object '''landing site map''' planetary cartography graphic representation region surrounding site spacecraft came rest planetary surface generally shown large scale '''map planetary cartography''' generalized image surface extraterrestrial solid body excluding earth indicates location objects projected mathematically according adopted coordinate system used projection symbols represent subject phenomena process chosen cartographer illustrated map legend defining symbols included aid map


user maps extraterrestrial territories represent solar system bodies exception earth portrayed variety forms electronic eg digital conventional printed multilingual orthophoto drawing eg shaded relief outline topographic contoured thematic '''outline map''' planetary cartography map representing relief help outlines special symbols maps used base maps thematic schematic mapping allows user link visually represented attribute relief feature surface '''physical properties map''' maps various measured attributes


extraterrestrial surface albedo see albedo section thermal anomalies eg distribution hotspots earth facing hemisphere moon polarimetric measurements '''synoptic map''' planetary cartography graphic representation attributes eg pressure temperature etc describe weather planetary surface eg map weather mars '''tectonic map''' planetary cartography graphic representation structural elements related tectonic history upper crust planetary body different structural areas separate elements eg faults folds shown various symbols


combined geologic map data regarding age type rocks comprising structural elements given along development time '''thematic map''' planetary cartography map showing spatial representation physical properties planetary surface eg hypsometric geophysical geologic morphologic geochemical maps '''terrain map''' planetary cartography graphic representation distribution boundaries mapped regions planetary body showing presence absence characteristic details surface eg impact craters hills faults lava flows aeolian cover etc maps usually produced


data obtained remote sensing see also geologic morphologic map photogeologic map see also cartography moon planetary coordinate system references reading hargitai h ed planetary cartography gis lecture notes geoinformation cartography springer cham external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwnasmsiedu ceps ica infohtml ica commission planetary cartography http planetarymappingeltehu digital museum planetary mapping http planetarymappingeltehu tables mapdb international catalog planetary maps cartographic products http planetologiaeltehu cikkekephtmlcim terkepekehtml planetary maps planetary cartography working group cosmic materials space reserarch group e tv lor nd university cartography planetary science


'''occupational health psychology''' '''ohp''' interdisciplinary area psychology concerned health safety workers ref name schonfeld schonfeld chang c h ''occupational health psychology work stress health'' new york ny springer publishing company ref ref name houdmont houdmont j leka introduction occupational health psychology leka j houdmont eds ''occupational health psychology'' pp john wiley hoboken nj ref ohp addresses number major topic areas including impact occupational stressors physical mental health impact involuntary unemployment physical mental health work family

Social science
Psychology
Occupational health psychology


balance workplace violence forms mistreatment psychosocial workplace factors affect accident risk safety interventions designed improve protect worker health ref name schonfeld ref name houdmont although ohp emerged two distinct disciplines within applied psychology namely health psychology industrial organizational psychology ref name everly everly gs jr introduction occupational health psychology pa keller lg ritt eds ''innovations clinical practice source book'' vol pp sarasota fl professional resource exchange ref long time psychology establishment including leaders industrial organizational psychology rarely dealt occupational


stress employee health creating need emergence ohp ref name spector http paulspectorcom organizational behavior employee mental physical health occupational health psychology spector p occupational health psychology ref ohp also informed disciplines including occupational medicine sociology industrial engineering economics ref name everly well preventive medicine public health ref name q ref name spector ohp thus concerned relationship psychosocial workplace factors development maintenance promotion workers' health families ref name schonfeld ref name q tetrick le quick jc overview occupational health psychology public health


name christie christie barling j short history occupational health psychology biographical approach c cooper antoniou eds ''new directions organizational psychology behavioural medicine'' pp washington dc gower publishing ref well mayo 's research late early workers hawthorne western electric plant helped inject impact work workers subject matter psychology addresses time taylorism arose hartness reconsidered worker machine interaction impact worker psychology ref name hartness republished hive publishing company hive management history


series ref creation institute social research isr university michigan important research occupational stress employee health research uk trist bamforth suggested reduction autonomy accompanied organizational changes english coal mining operations adversely affected worker morale arthur kornhauser 's work early mental health automobile workers michigan also contributed development field ref name christie pp christie barling j short history occupational health


men undergoing job loss preliminary report ''psychosomatic medicine '' ref recognition field study number individuals associated creation term occupational health psychology occupational health psychologist include ferguson ref name ferguson ferguson psychologist occupational health ''proceedings annual conference ergonomics society australia new zealand'' pp adelaide south australia australia department psychology university adelaide ref feldman ref name feldman feldman rhl promoting occupational safety health g everly rhl feldman eds ''occupational health promotion health behavior


workplace'' pp new york wiley ref everly ref name everly raymond wood patrick ref name raymond j raymond js wood patrick wk psychology doctoral training work health ''american psychologist '' ref response dramatic increase number stress related worker compensation claims us national institute occupational safety health niosh recognized stress related psychological disorders leading occupational health risk p nbsp ref name sauter sauter sl hurrell jj jr fox hr tetrick le barling j occupational health psychology emerging discipline ''industrial health ''


ref ref name apatimeline milestones history occupational health psychology february ''monitor psychology'' american psychological association http wwwapaorg monitor feb milestonesaspx retrieved july ref increased recognition impact job stress range problems niosh found stress related programs significantly increasing prominence ref name sauter raymond et al ref name raymond j argued widely read ''american psychologist'' time come doctoral level psychologists get interdisciplinary ohp training integrating health psychology public health creating healthy workplaces goal psychology emergence discipline


established ''work stress'' first longest established journal fast developing discipline occupational health psychology p nbsp ref name cox tisserand cox tisserand editorial work stress comes age twenty years occupational health psychology ''work stress '' ref three years later american psychological association apa niosh jointly organized work stress health conference washington dc first international conference devoted ohp conference since become biennial ref name b g barling j griffiths history


occupational health psychology jc quick le tetrick eds ''handbook occupational health psychology'' nd ed pp washington dc american psychological association ref first issue ''journal occupational health psychology'' published apa year international commission occupational health created work organisation psychosocial factors icoh wops scientific committee focused primarily ohp ref name b g european academy occupational health psychology ea ohp established first european workshop occupational health psychology lund sweden ref name houdmont houdmont j across pond


history european academy occupational health psychology ''newsletter society occupational health psychology '' https sohp onlineorg wp content uploads sohpnewsletterv october pdf ref workshop considered first ea ohp conference first continuing series biennial conferences ea ohp organizes devotes ohp research practice ref name houdmont informal international coordinating group occupational health psychology icgohp founded purpose facilitating ohp related research education practice well coordinating international conference scheduling ref name b g also ''work stress'' became associated ea ohp ref name cox


tisserand society occupational health psychology sohp established united states sohp joined apa niosh co sponsoring work stress health conferences ref name hammer hammer lb sauter limanowski j work stress health ''society occupational health psychology newsletter '' https sohp onlineorg wp content uploads sohpnewsletterv january pdf ref addition ea ohp sohp began coordinate biennial conferences schedules organizations' conferences would take place alternate years minimizing scheduling conflicts ref name hammer sohp springer began publish ohp related journal ''occupational health science''


research methods main aims ohp research understand working conditions affect worker health ref name kasljones kasl sv jones ba epidemiological perspective research design measurement surveillance strategies j c quick l e tetrick eds ''handbook occupational health psychology'' nd ed pp washington dc american psychological association ref use knowledge design interventions protect improve worker health evaluate effectiveness interventions research methods used ohp similar used branches psychology standard research designs self report survey methodology


used approach ohp research cross sectional designs commonly used case control designs employed much less frequently longitudinal designs including prospective cohort studies experience sampling studies examine relationships time ref name stansfeld stansfeld candy b psychosocial work environment mental health meta analytic review ''scandinavian journal work environment health '' ref ohp related research devoted evaluating health promoting workplace interventions relied quasi experimental designs less commonly experimental approaches rarely natural experiments quantitative methods statistical methods commonly used areas psychology also used ohp related research


context growth modeling ''organizational research methods '' ref meta analyses used aggregate data modern approaches meta analyses rely hlm draw conclusions across multiple studies ref name stansfeld ohp researchers studying structural validity commonly used assessment instruments employ exploratory structural equation modeling bifactor analyses qualitative research methods qualitative research methods used ohp research include interviews focus groups self reported written descriptions stressful incidents work first hand observation workers job also used participant observation important theoretical models ohp research three


job demands job decision latitude mental strain implications job redesign ''administrative science quarterly '' ref model suggests two job factors related poorer health high levels decision latitude job buffer reduce adverse health impact high levels demands research clearly supported idea decision latitude demands relate strains research findings buffering mixed studies providing support demand control model asserts job control come two broad forms skill discretion decision


authority ref name bean bean cg winefield hr sargent c hutchinson ad differential associations job control components waist circumference body mass index ''social science medicine '' ref skill discretion refers level skill creativity required job flexibility worker permitted deciding skills use eg opportunity use skills similar job variety ref name karasek de ara jo tm karasek r validity reliability job content questionnaire formal informal jobs brazil ''scandinavian journal work environment


health '' suppl ref decision authority refers workers able make decisions work eg autonomy ref name karasek two forms job control traditionally assessed together composite measure decision latitude however evidence two types job control may similarly related health outcomes ref name bean decade karasek first introduced demand control model johnson hall theorell ref name johnson johnson j v hall e theorell combined effects job strain social isolation


lack social support exact combination represented iso strain adverse effects physical mental health ref name schonfeld effort reward imbalance model dcs model second influential model ohp research effort reward imbalance eri model links job demands rewards employees receive work model holds high work related effort coupled low control job related intrinsic eg recognition extrinsic eg pay rewards triggers high levels activation neurohormonal pathways cumulatively thought exert adverse effects mental


physical health job demands resources model alternative model job demands resources jd r model grew dcs model jd r model category demands workload remains less dcs model although jd r model specifically includes physical demands resources however defined job relevant features help workers achieve work related goals lessen job demands stimulate personal growth control support per dcs model subsumed resources resources external provided organization internal part worker 's personal make example


self confidence quantitative skills addition control support resources encompassed model also include physical equipment software realistic performance feedback supervisors worker 's coping strategies etc however much research jd r model constituents dc dcs model ref name schonfeld person environment fit model person environment p e fit model concerned extent worker abilities personality dovetail tasks job requires closeness person job match influences individual 's health


one scholar observed element p e fit research program loosely motivated darwinian theory namely importance fit person environment p ref name schonfeld best possible outcomes important employees' skills attitudes abilities resources complement demands job wider gap misfit misfit either subjective objective worker work environment greater risk worker experiencing mental physical health problems ref name schonfeld misfit also lead


lower productivity work problems p e fit model popular early since late interest model diminished largely problems representing p e discrepancies mathematically statistical models linking p e fit strain research psychosocial risk factors poor health outcomes cardiovascular disease research identified health behavioral biological factors related increased risk cardiovascular disease cvd risk factors include smoking obesity low density lipoprotein bad cholesterol lack exercise blood pressure psychosocial working conditions also risk


brain axes play important role regulation blood pressure particularly ambulatory blood pressure meta analysis systematic review involving samples linked jobs combine high workload little autonomy discretion decision latitude high strain jobs elevated ambulatory blood pressure belki et al found many studies covered review revealed decision latitude psychological workload exerted independent effects cvd two studies found synergistic effects consistent strictest version demand control model review longitudinal studies reasonably high internal validity found showed