without characteristics become leaders people like mahatma gandhi abraham lincoln nelson mandela share traits average person includes people choose participate leadership roles opposed research indicates leader emergence genetic basis current research indicating leadership gene instead inherit certain traits might influence decision seek leadership anecdotal empirical evidence support stable relationship specific traits leadership


five personality factors emerge leaders tend order strength relationship leadership emergence extroverted conscientious emotionally stable open experience although tendencies stronger laboratory studies leaderless groups ref name judge ta agreeableness last factor big five personality traits seem play meaningful role leadership emergence ref name judge ta birth order born first families children hypothesized driven seek leadership control social settings middle born children tend accept follower

Applied science
Military sciences
Leadership


roles groups later borns thought rebellious creative ref name character strengths seeking leadership positions military organization elevated scores number indicators strength character including honesty hope bravery industry teamwork dominance individuals dominant personalities describe high desire control environment influence people likely express opinions forceful way likely act leaders small group situations emotional intelligence individuals high emotional intelligence


increased ability understand relate people skills communicating decoding emotions deal others wisely effectively ref name people communicate ideas robust ways better able read politics situation less likely lose control emotions less likely inappropriately angry critical consequence likely emerge leaders intelligence individuals higher intelligence exhibit superior judgement higher verbal skills written oral quicker learning acquisition knowledge


likely emerge leaders ref name correlation iq leadership emergence found however groups generally prefer leaders exceed intelligence prowess average member wide margin fear high intelligence may translated differences communication trust interests values self efficacy leadership confidence one 's ability lead associated increases willingness accept leadership role success role self monitoring high self monitors likely emerge leader group


low self monitors since concerned status enhancement likely adapt actions fit demands situation social motivation individuals success oriented affiliation oriented assessed projective measures active group problem solving settings likely elected positions leadership groups narcissism hubris negative traits number negative traits leadership also studied individuals take leadership roles turbulent situations groups facing threat ones


status determined intense competition among rivals within group tend narcissistic arrogant self absorbed hostile self confident absentee leader existing research shown absentee leaders rise power necessarily skills marginally engaging role actually worse destructive leader takes longer pinpoint mistakes leadership styles leadership style leader 's style providing direction implementing plans motivating people result philosophy personality experience leader rhetoric specialists


also developed models understanding leadership robert hariman ''political style'' philippe joseph salazar ''l'hyperpolitique technologies politiques de la domination'' different situations call different leadership styles emergency little time converge agreement designated authority significantly experience expertise rest team autocratic leadership style may effective however highly motivated aligned team homogeneous level expertise democratic laissez faire style may effective style adopted one effectively achieves objectives


group balancing interests individual members ref name lewin ref field leadership style gained strong attention military science recently expressing holistic integrated view leadership including leader 's physical presence determines others perceive leader factors physical presence military bearing physical fitness confidence resilience leader 's intellectual capacity helps conceptualize solutions acquire knowledge job leader 's conceptual abilities apply agility judgment innovation interpersonal tact domain knowledge domain knowledge leaders encompasses tactical technical knowledge well


cultural geopolitical awareness autocratic authoritarian autocratic leadership style decision making powers centralized leader dictators autocratic leaders ask entertain suggestions initiatives subordinates autocratic management successful provides strong motivation manager permits quick decision making one person decides whole group keeps decision feels needs shared rest group ref name lewin participative democratic democratic leadership style consists leader sharing decision making abilities


group members promoting interests group members practicing social equality also called shared leadership laissez faire free rein leadership laissez faire free rein leadership decision making passed subordinates style leadership known laissez faire means interference affairs others phrase laissez faire french literally means let subordinates given complete right power make decisions establish goals work problems hurdles followers given high degree independence


freedom formulate objectives ways achieve task oriented relationship oriented task oriented leadership style leader focused tasks need performed order meet certain production goal task oriented leaders generally concerned producing step step solution given problem goal strictly making sure deadlines met results reaching target outcomes relationship oriented leadership contrasting style leader focused relationships amongst group generally concerned overall well satisfaction


group members relationship oriented leaders emphasize communication within group show trust confidence group members show appreciation work done task oriented leaders typically less concerned idea catering group members concerned acquiring certain solution meet production goal reason typically able make sure deadlines met yet group members' well may suffer leaders absolute focus goal tasks cut member relationship oriented leaders focused developing team relationships


goals sometimes specific methodology style different laissez faire leader constantly works towards reaching common goals team without giving explicit directions tasks leadership differences affected gender another factor covaries leadership style whether person male female men women come together groups tend adopt different leadership styles men generally assume agentic leadership style task oriented active decision focused independent goal oriented women hand generally communal assume leadership


position strive helpful towards others warm relation others understanding mindful others' feelings general women asked describe others newly formed groups emphasize open fair responsible pleasant communal qualities give advice offer assurances manage conflicts attempt maintain positive relationships among group members women connect positively group members smiling maintaining eye contact respond tactfully others' comments men conversely describe influential powerful proficient task needs done tend


place focus initiating structure within group setting standards objectives identifying roles defining responsibilities standard operating procedures proposing solutions problems monitoring compliance procedures finally emphasizing need productivity efficiency work needs done leaders men primarily task oriented women tend task relationship oriented however important note sex differences tendencies manifest within men women across groups situations meta analyses show people associate masculinity agency strongly leadership


femininity communion stereotypes may effect leadership evaluations men women times crisis women tend lead better men due show empathy confidence briefings forms communication critical covid pandemic female governed states showed fewer deaths male led states barriers non western female leaders many reasons contribute barriers specifically affect women 's entrance leadership barriers also change according different cultures despite increasing number female leaders world


small fraction come non westernized cultures important note although barriers listed may severe non western culture imply westernized cultures barriers well aims compare differences two '''research literature''' although many studies done leadership women past decade little research done women paternalistic cultures literature research done women emerge society prefers males lacking ultimately hinders women


knowing reach individual leadership goals fails educate male counterparts disparity '''maternity leave''' studies shown importance longer paid maternity leave positive effects female employee 's mental health return work sweden shown increased flexibility timing mothers return work decreased odds poor mental health reports non western cultures mostly follow paternalism lack knowledge benefits maternity leave impacts support given women important time


mentality males carry leadership characteristics term glass cliff refers undesired projects often given women increase risk failure undesired projects given female employees likely fail leave organization performance past researchers argued actual influence leaders organizational outcomes overrated romanticized result biased attributions leaders meindl ehrlich despite assertions however largely recognized accepted practitioners researchers leadership


important research supports notion leaders contribute key organizational outcomes facilitate successful performance important understand accurately measure leadership performance job performance generally refers behavior expected contribute organizational success campbell campbell identified number specific types performance dimensions leadership one dimensions identified consistent overall definition leadership performance yukl many distinct conceptualizations often lumped together umbrella leadership performance including outcomes leader effectiveness leader advancement leader emergence kaiser et


subordinates superiors occasionally peers parties type effectiveness measures objective indicators follower unit performance measures productivity goal attainment sales figures unit financial performance bass riggio p blockquote toxic leader someone responsibility group people organization abuses leader follower relationship leaving group organization worse condition joined measuring leadership measuring leadership proven difficult complex even impossible attempts assess leadership performance


via group performance bring multifarious different factors different perceptions leadership may lead differing measuring methods nevertheless leadership theoreticians proven perversely reluctant abandon vague subjective qualitative popular concept leaders traits julius caesar one world 's greatest military leaders theories th century argued great leaders born made current studies indicated leadership much complex cannot boiled key traits individual years observation study indicated one trait set traits


make extraordinary leader scholars able arrive leadership traits individual change situation situation traits include intelligence assertiveness physical attractiveness ref name howell jon p ref however key trait may applied situations differently depending circumstances following summarizes main leadership traits found research jon p howell business professor new mexico state university author book ''snapshots great leadership'' determination drive include traits initiative energy assertiveness perseverance sometimes dominance people


traits often tend wholeheartedly pursue goals work long hours ambitious often competitive others cognitive capacity includes intelligence analytical verbal ability behavioral flexibility good judgment individuals traits able formulate solutions difficult problems work well stress deadlines adapt changing situations create well thought plans future howell provides examples steve jobs abraham lincoln encompassing traits determination drive well possessing cognitive capacity demonstrated ability adapt continuously changing environments ref name howell jon p


self confidence encompasses traits high self esteem assertiveness emotional stability self assurance individuals self confident doubt abilities decisions also ability project self confidence onto others building trust commitment integrity demonstrated individuals truthful trustworthy principled consistent dependable loyal deceptive leaders integrity often share values followers trait mainly ethics issue often said leaders keep word honest open cohorts sociability describes individuals friendly extroverted


model one recent definitions leadership comes werner erhard michael c jensen steve zaffron kari granger describe leadership exercise language results realization future n't going happen anyway future fulfills contributes fulfilling concerns relevant parties definition ensures leadership talking future includes fundamental concerns relevant parties differs relating relevant parties followers calling image single leader others following rather


chiefs administrative subdivisions organization endows authority attached position contrast appointed head chief administrative unit leader emerges within context ''informal organization'' underlies formal structure informal organization expresses personal objectives goals individual membership objectives goals may may coincide formal organization informal organization represents extension social structures generally characterize human life spontaneous emergence groups organizations ends


prehistoric times humanity preoccupied personal security maintenance protection survival humanity spends major portion waking hours working organizations need identify community provides security protection maintenance feeling belonging continued unchanged prehistoric times need met informal organization emergent unofficial leaders ref name henry ref leaders emerge within structure informal organization personal qualities demands situation combination factors attract followers accept leadership within one several overlay structures


instead authority position held appointed head chief emergent leader wields influence power influence ability person gain co operation others means persuasion control rewards power stronger form influence reflects person 's ability enforce action control means punishment ref name henry leader person influences group people towards specific result scenario leadership dependent title formal authority ogbonnia defines effective leader


confronted emergent leader challenge role organization reduce figurehead however authority position backing formal sanctions follows whoever wields personal influence power legitimize gaining formal position hierarchy commensurate authority ref name henry leadership defined one 's ability get others willingly follow every organization needs leaders every level management years terms management leadership organizational context used synonyms clearly


differentiated meanings debate fairly common whether use terms restricted generally reflects awareness distinction made burns transactional leadership characterized emphasis procedures contingent reward management exception transformational leadership characterized charisma personal relationships creativity ref name burns group contrast individual leadership organizations adopted group leadership called shared leadership one person provides direction group whole furthermore characterized shared responsibility cooperation mutual influence among team members organizations taken approach


hopes increasing creativity reducing costs downsizing others may see traditional leadership boss costing much team performance situations team members best able handle given phase project become temporary leaders additionally team member opportunity experience elevated level empowerment energizes staff feeds cycle success leaders demonstrate persistence tenacity determination synergistic communication skills bring qualities groups good leaders use inner mentors energize team


priorities members know needs done next achieve team goals roles members know roles getting tasks done allow skillful member certain task decisions authority decision making lines clearly understood conflict conflict dealt openly considered important decision making personal growth personal traits members feel unique personalities appreciated well utilized norms group norms working together set seen standards every one groups effectiveness members find team meetings efficient


productive look forward time together success members know clearly team met success share equally proudly training opportunities feedback updating skills provided taken advantage team members self leadership self leadership process occurs within individual rather external act expression people self leadership developed sense achieve goals coupled ability affect emotions behaviors communication center


leadership person motivated make difference self leadership way toward effectively leading people biology evolution leadership mark van vugt anjana ahuja ''naturally selected evolutionary science leadership'' present cases leadership non human animals ants bees baboons chimpanzees suggest leadership long evolutionary history mechanisms underpinning leadership humans appear social species also suggest evolutionary origins leadership differ dominance study mark van


position contentious many animals apart apes territorial compete exhibit violence social structure controlled dominant male lions wolves etc suggesting wrangham peterson 's evidence empirical however must examine species well including elephants matriarchal follow alpha female meerkats likewise matriarchal sheep follow sense castrated bellwethers many others comparison bonobos second closest species relatives humans ''not'' unite behind chief male land bonobos show deference alpha top ranking female support


coalition females prove strong strongest male thus leadership amounts getting greatest number followers among bonobos female almost always exerts strongest effective leadership incidentally scientists agree allegedly peaceful nature bonobo reputation hippie chimp myths leadership although largely talked described one least understood concepts across cultures civilizations years many researchers stressed prevalence misunderstanding stating existence several flawed


assumptions myths concerning leadership often interferes individuals' conception leadership gardner bennis leadership innate according leadership determined distinctive dispositional characteristics present birth eg extraversion intelligence ingenuity however according forsyth evidence show leadership also develops hard work careful observation ref name forsyth forsyth r ''group dynamics'' th ed pacific grove california brooks cole ref thus effective leadership result nature ie innate talents well nurture ie acquired skills leadership possessing power others although leadership certainly


employing stringent manipulative leadership styles often make difference usually negative means leaders entirely control group outcomes western cultures generally assumed group leaders make ''all'' difference comes group influence overall goal attainment although common romanticized view leadership ie tendency overestimate degree control leaders groups groups' outcomes ignores existence many factors influence group dynamics example group cohesion communication patterns among members individual personality traits group context nature orientation


work well behavioral norms established standards influence group functionality varying capacities reason unwarranted assume leaders complete control groups' achievements groups designated leader despite preconceived notions groups need designated leader groups primarily composed women limited size free stressful decision making ref name guastello ref exist short period time eg student work groups pub quiz trivia teams often undergo diffusion responsibility leadership tasks roles shared amongst members


schmid mast berdahl anderson guastello group members resist leaders although research indicated group members' dependence group leaders lead reduced self reliance overall group strength ref name forsyth people actually prefer led without leader berkowitz need leader becomes especially strong troubled groups experiencing sort conflict group members tend contented productive leader guide although individuals filling leadership roles direct source resentment followers people


appreciate contributions leaders make groups consequently welcome guidance leader stewart manz action oriented environments one approach team leadership examines action oriented environments effective functional leadership required achieve critical reactive tasks small teams deployed field words leadership small groups often created respond situation critical incident cases teams tasked operate remote changeable environments limited support backup action environments leadership people environments requires different set


skills front line management leaders must effectively operate remotely negotiate needs individual team task within changeable environment termed action oriented leadership examples demonstrations action oriented leadership include extinguishing rural fire locating missing person leading team outdoor expedition rescuing person potentially hazardous environment examples include modern technology deployments small medium sized teams client plant sites leadership teams requires hands experience lead example attitude empower team members make


well thought concise decisions independent executive management home base decision makers early adoption scrum kanban branch development methodologies helped alleviate dependency field teams trunk based development method time action oriented development deployment allowed remote plant sites deploy date software patches frequently without dependency core team deployment schedules satisfying clients need rapidly patch production environment bugs needed critical thought carlyle 's great man theory emphasized role leading individuals met opposition herbert spencer leo tolstoy others


th th centuries karl popper noted leaders mislead make mistakes warns deferring great men noam chomsky others subjected concept leadership critical thinking provided analysis asserts people abrogate responsibility think actions conventional view leadership may satisfy people want told critics say one question subjection intellect one 's leader subject matter expert sme


concepts autogestion employeeship common civic virtue etc challenge fundamentally anti democratic nature leadership principle stressing individual responsibility group authority workplace elsewhere focusing skills attitudes person needs general rather separating leadership basis special class individuals similarly various historical calamities world war ii attributed misplaced reliance principle leadership exhibited dictatorship idea leaderism paints leadership excesses negative light see also references


'''notes''' '''books''' murray hiebert bruce klatt ''the encyclopedia leadership practical guide popular leadership theories techniques'' ed mcgraw hill jay w lorsch spring book review ''leadership decision making'' vroom yetton mit sloan management review '''journal articles''' ahlquist john levi margaret https wwwannualreviewsorg doi full annurev polisci leadership means want know ''annual review political science'' ''' ''' avolio bruce j walumbwa fred weber todd j https wwwannualreviewsorg doi full annurevpsych intcmp trendmd leadership current theories research future directions ''annual review psychology''


''' ''' hadley cantril effective democratic leadership psychological interpretation journal individual psychology pages ''psychology humanism scientific inquiry'' edited albert h cantril transaction books strategic management industrial organizational psychology political science terminology social concepts majority minority relations


economics political science '''fiscal policy''' use government revenue collection taxes tax cuts expenditure influence country 's economy use government revenues expenditures influence macroeconomic variables developed result great depression previous laissez faire approach economic management became unpopular fiscal policy based theories british economist john maynard keynes whose keynesian economics theorized government changes levels taxation government spending influences aggregate demand level economic activity fiscal monetary policy key

Applied science
Public administration
Economic policy
Fiscal policy


strategies used country 's government central bank advance economic objectives combination policies enables authorities target inflation considered healthy level range increase employment additionally designed try keep gdp growth unemployment rate near natural unemployment rate ref name kramer ref implies fiscal policy used stabilize economy course business cycle changes level composition taxation government spending affect macroeconomic variables including aggregate demand


level economic activity saving investment income distribution allocation resources fiscal policy distinguished monetary policy fiscal policy deals taxation government spending often administered government department monetary policy deals money supply interest rates often administered country 's central bank fiscal monetary policies influence country 's economic performance monetary fiscal policy since became clear monetary policy performance benefits fiscal policy due fact reduces political influence


set central bank expanding economy general election politicians might cut interest rates additionally fiscal policy potentially supply side effects economy reduce inflation measures increasing taxes lowering spending would preferred government might reluctant use monetary policy generally quicker implement interest rates set every month decision increase government spending might take time figure area money spent ref name pettinger recession


decade shows monetary policy also certain limitations liquidity trap occurs interest rate cuts insufficient demand booster banks want lend consumers reluctant increase spending due negative expectations economy government spending responsible creating demand economy provide kick start get economy recession deep recession takes place sufficient rely monetary policy restore economic equilibrium ref name pettinger ref side two policies


differences therefore combining aspects policies deal economic problems become solution used us policies limited effects however fiscal policy seems greater effect long run period monetary policy tends short run success ref name schmidt ref survey members american economic association aea found percent generally agreed statement fiscal policy significant stimulative impact less fully employed economy percent also generally agreed statement management


business cycle left federal reserve activist fiscal policy avoided ref name fuller geide stevenson ref follow survey aea members found previous consensus latter proposition dissolved roughly evenly disputed ref name fuller geide stevenson ref stances depending state economy fiscal policy may reach different objectives focus restrict economic growth mediating inflation turn increase economic growth decreasing taxes encouraging spending different projects act stimuli economic growth enabling


borrowing spending three stances fiscal policy following ''' neutral fiscal policy''' usually undertaken economy neither recession expansion amount government deficit spending excess financed tax revenue roughly average time changes occurring would effect level economic activity '''expansionary fiscal policy''' used government trying balance contraction phase business cycle involves government spending exceeding tax revenue


tended usually undertaken recessions examples expansionary fiscal policy measures include increased government spending public works eg building schools providing residents economy tax cuts increase purchasing power order fix decrease demand '''contractionary fiscal policy''' hand measure increase tax rates decrease government spending occurs government deficit spending lower usual potential slow economic growth inflation caused significant increase aggregate demand


supply money excessive reducing economy 's amount aggregate income available amount consumers spend also reduced contractionary fiscal policy measures employed unsustainable growth takes place leading inflation high prices investment recession unemployment healthy level however definitions misleading even changes spending tax laws cyclic fluctuations economy cause cyclic fluctuations tax revenues types government spending altering deficit situation considered policy


changes therefore purposes definitions government spending tax revenue normally replaced cyclically adjusted government spending cyclically adjusted tax revenue thus example government budget balanced course business cycle considered represent neutral effective fiscal policy stance methods fiscal policy funding governments spend money wide variety things military police services education health care well transfer payments welfare benefits expenditure funded number different ways


taxation seigniorage benefit printing money borrowing money population abroad dipping fiscal reserves sale fixed assets eg land selling equity population borrowing fiscal deficit often funded issuing bonds treasury bills gilt edged securities also funded issuing equity bonds pay interest either fixed period indefinitely funded taxpayers whole equity offers returns investment interest realized discharging future tax liability individual taxpayer


traded later resources needed additional debt needed fiscal straitjacket concept fiscal straitjacket general economic principle suggests strict constraints government spending public sector borrowing limit regulate budget deficit time period us states balanced budget rules prevent running deficit united states federal government technically legal cap total amount money borrow meaningful constraint cap raised easily


spending authorized cap almost always raised debt gets high economic effects governments use fiscal policy influence level aggregate demand economy certain economic goals achieved price stability full employment economic growth keynesian view economics suggests increasing government spending decreasing rate taxes best ways influence aggregate demand stimulate decreasing spending increasing taxes economic expansion already taken place additionally keynesians argue expansionary fiscal policy used


times recession low economic activity essential tool building framework strong economic growth working towards full employment theory resulting deficits would paid expanded economy expansion would follow reasoning behind new deal curve shifts right increasing real interest rates r expansion real economy real gdp lm model another way understanding effects fiscal expansion government increases spending shift


curve right short run increases real interest rate reduces private investment increases aggregate demand placing upward pressure supply meet short run increase aggregate demand firms increase full employment output increase short run price levels reduces money supply shifts lm curve back thus returning general equilibrium original full employment fe level therefore lm model shows overall increase price level real interest rates long run due fiscal expansion governments


borrowing monetizing debt governments fund deficit issuing government bonds interest rates increase across market government borrowing creates higher demand credit financial markets decreases aggregate demand goods services either partially entirely offsetting direct expansionary impact deficit spending thus diminishing eliminating achievement objective fiscal stimulus neoclassical economists generally emphasize crowding keynesians argue fiscal policy still effective especially liquidity trap argue crowding minimal ref name cliff notes economic


effecs fiscal policy ref classical view expansionary fiscal policy also decreases net exports mitigating effect national output income government borrowing increases interest rates attracts foreign capital foreign investors things equal bonds issued country executing expansionary fiscal policy offer higher rate return words companies wanting finance projects must compete government capital offer higher rates return purchase bonds originating certain country foreign investors must obtain country 's currency


therefore foreign capital flows country undergoing fiscal expansion demand country 's currency increases increased demand turn causes currency appreciate reducing cost imports making exports country expensive foreigners consequently exports decrease imports increase reducing demand net exports economists oppose discretionary use fiscal stimulus inside lag time lag involved implementing almost inevitably long substantial legislative effort involved outside lag time implementation time


effects stimulus felt could mean stimulus hits already recovering economy overheats ensuing h rather stimulating economy needs economists concerned potential inflationary effects driven increased demand engendered fiscal stimulus theory fiscal stimulus cause inflation uses resources would otherwise idle instance fiscal stimulus employs worker otherwise would unemployed inflationary effect however stimulus employs worker otherwise would job


stimulus increasing labor demand labor supply remains fixed leading wage inflation therefore price inflation see also econometrics fiscal observatory latin america caribbean fiscal policy united states fiscal union functional finance interaction monetary fiscal policies monetary policy national fiscal policy response late recession policy mix tax policy references bibliography simonsen mh econometrics state brasilia university editor heyne p boettke p j prychitko l economic way thinking th ed prentice hall larch j nogueira martins


fiscal policy dotdash macek r jank j impact fiscal policy economic growth depending institutional conditions external links https wwwbritannicacom topic fiscal policy fiscal policy topic page britannicacom


ruins allied accidental bombing bezuidenhout included deaths dutch civilians tokyo massive firebombing attack night march single destructive raid military aviation history tokyo firebombing killed around civilians city 's industrial productivity primary target bombing cut half '''collateral damage''' death injury damage inflicted incidental result activity originally coined military operations ref name holland ref also used non military contexts since development precision

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Collateral damage


''lateralis'' ''latus'' ''later '' side otherwise mainly used synonym parallel additional certain expressions eg collateral veins meaning veins running parallel collateral security meaning security additional main obligation contract oldest known usage term collateral damage context occurred article written may c schelling entitled dispersal deterrence damage term collateral damage likely originated euphemism vietnam war referring friendly fire intentional killing non combatants


destruction property non military uses phrase actually invented military common however term since widely adopted non military cases particular covid pandemic large number medical government sources media use term widely relation deaths caused indirectly result government policy lockdowns directly virus significant debate pandemic strategy ensued advocating restrictions lockdowns save lives others claim 'collateral damage' caused enforced lockdowns


masks distancing may fact cause deaths longer term example great barrington declaration purportedly signed medical professionals mentioned uk parliament ref name volume debated tuesday october ref media faq page titled 'lockdowns collateral damage' refers phrase several times term also borrowed computing community refer refusal service legitimate users administrators take blanket preventative measures individuals abusing systems example realtime blackhole lists used combat


email spam generally block ranges internet protocol ip addresses rather individual ips associated spam deny legitimate users within ranges ability send email domains related term ''collateral mortality'' also becoming prevalent probably derives term collateral damage applied spheres addition military context fisheries example bycatch species dolphins called collateral mortality species die pursuit legal death fishing targets tuna controversy


german un word year jury linguistic scholars choice criticized term used nato forces describe civilian casualties kosovo war jury considered inhuman euphemism international humanitarian law military necessity along distinction proportionality three important principles international humanitarian law governing legal use force armed conflict relates collateral damage luis moreno ocampo chief prosecutor international criminal court investigated allegations war crimes invasion iraq


'''history literature''' historical development writings prose poetry attempt provide entertainment enlightenment instruction reader listener observer well development literary techniques used communication pieces writings constitute literature recorded materials compilations data eg check register considered literature article relates evolution works defined start literature literature writing though connected synonymous first writings ancient sumer reasonable definition

Humanities
Languages and literature
History of literature


constitute literature true early egyptian hieroglyphics thousands logs ancient chinese regimes scholars often disagreed concerning written record keeping became like literature anything else definition largely subjective moreover given significance distance cultural isolator earlier centuries historical development literature occur even pace across world problems creating uniform global history literature compounded fact many texts lost millennia either deliberately accident


total disappearance originating culture much written example destruction library alexandria st century bc innumerable key texts believed lost forever flames deliberate suppression texts often authors organisations either spiritual temporal nature shrouds subject stone tablet containing part epic gilgamesh certain primary texts however may isolated qualifying role literature 's first stirrings early examples include ''epic gilgamesh''


sumerian version predating bc ''egyptian book dead'' written ''papyrus ani'' bc probably dates th century bc ancient egyptian literature included early studies history literature writings ancient egypt translated european languages rosetta stone deciphered early th century homer 's ''iliad'' ''odyssey'' date th century bc mark beginning classical antiquity also stand oral tradition stretches back


late bronze age antiquity china classic poetry shijing oldest existing collection chinese poetry comprising works anonymous authors dating th th centuries bc chu ci anthology songs chu volume poems attributed considered inspired qu yuan 's verse writing qu yuan first author verse china name associated work also regarded one prominent figures romanticism chinese classical literature first great author military


tactics strategy sun tzu whose ''the art war'' remains shelves many modern military officers advice applied corporate world well philosophy developed far differently china way greece rather presenting extended dialogues ''analects'' confucius lao zi 's ''tao te ching'' presented sayings proverbs directly didactically ''zhuangzi'' composed large collection creative anecdotes allegories parables fables masterpiece philosophical literary skill significantly influenced writers poets


years han dynasty present among earliest chinese works narrative history zuo zhuan gem classical chinese prose work shiji records grand historian regarded ultimate models many generations prose stylists ancient china hebrew literature books constitute hebrew bible developed roughly millennium oldest texts seem come eleventh tenth centuries bce whilst texts somewhat later edited works collections various sources intricately


carefully woven together old testament compiled edited various authors period centuries many scholars concluding hebrew canon solidified rd century bc ref name philip r page philip r davies ''the canon debate'' page many scholars conclude fixing canonical list almost certainly achievement hasmonean dynasty ref works subject various literary evaluations secular religious friedrich nietzsche wrote jewish old testament men things speeches grand


style greek indian literature nothing compare one stands awe reverence tremendous remnants man taste old testament touchstone 'greatness' 'smallness' classical antiquity greek literature ancient greek society placed considerable emphasis upon literature many authors consider western literary tradition begun epic poems ''the iliad'' ''the odyssey'' remain giants literary canon skillful vivid depictions war peace honor disgrace love hatred notable among later greek poets


sappho defined many ways lyric poetry genre playwright named aeschylus changed western literature forever introduced ideas dialogue interacting characters playwriting essentially invented drama ''oresteia'' trilogy plays seen crowning achievement refiners playwriting sophocles euripides sophocles credited skillfully developing irony literary technique famously play ''oedipus rex'' euripedes conversely used plays challenge societal norms mores hallmark much western literature next years beyond works


''medea'' ''the bacchae'' ''the trojan women'' still notable ability challenge perceptions propriety gender war aristophanes comic playwright defines shapes idea comedy almost aeschylus shaped tragedy art form aristophanes' famous plays include ''lysistrata'' ''the frogs'' philosophy entered literature dialogues plato converted give take socratic questioning written form aristotle plato 's student wrote dozens works many scientific disciplines greatest contribution literature likely ''poetics'' lays understanding


drama thereby establishes first criteria literary criticism new testament unusual collection texts john 's ''book revelation'' though first kind essentially defines apocalypse literary genre latin literature many respects writers roman republic roman empire chose avoid innovation favor imitating great greek authors virgil 's ''aeneid'' many ways emulated homer 's ''iliad'' plautus comic playwright followed footsteps aristophanes tacitus' ''annals'' ''germania'' follow essentially historical approaches thucydides devised christian historian eusebius


also although far influenced religion either tacitus thucydides greek roman polytheism ovid ''metamorphoses'' explore greek myths new ways argued roman authors far mindless copycats improved genres already established greek predecessors example ovid 's ''metamorphoses'' creates form clear predecessor stream consciousness genre undeniable romans comparison greeks innovate relatively literary styles satire one


roman additions literature horace first use satire extensively tool argument juvenal made weapon augustine hippo ''the city god'' religious literature essentially plato done philosophy augustine 's approach far less conversational didactive ''confessions'' perhaps first true autobiography gave rise genre confessional literature popular ever india knowledge traditions india handed philosophical gleanings theological concepts two traditions shruti


smriti meaning ''that learnt'' ''that experienced'' included vedas generally believed puranas earliest philosophical writings indian history although linguistic works sanskrit existed earlier bc puranic works indian epics ramayana ''mahabharata'' influenced countless works including balinese kecak performances shadow puppetry wayang many european works pali literature important position rise buddhism classical sanskrit literature flowers maurya gupta periods roughly spanning nd century bc th


century ad classical tamil literature also emerged early historic period dating bc ad earliest secular literature india mainly dealing themes love war middle ages europe fall rome roughly many literary approaches styles invented greeks romans fell favor europe millennium intervened rome 's fall florentine renaissance medieval literature focused faith faith related matters part works written greeks


preserved europe therefore models classical literature learn move beyond little became changed distorted new forms beginning develop distortions distorted beginnings new styles seen literature generally described matter rome matter france matter britain although much lost ravages time catastrophe burning library alexandria many greek works remained extant preserved copied carefully muslim


scribes europe hagiographies lives saints frequent among early medieval texts writings bede ''historia ecclesiastica gentis anglorum'' others continue faith based historical tradition begun eusebius early th century playwriting essentially ceased except mystery plays passion plays focused heavily conveying christian belief common people around ad ''prudenti psychomachia'' began tradition allegorical tales poetry flourished however hands troubadours whose courtly romances ''chanson de geste'' amused entertained upper classes patrons geoffrey monmouth


wrote works claimed histories britain highly fanciful included stories merlin magician king arthur epic poetry continued develop addition mythologies northern europe ''beowulf'' norse sagas much common homer virgil 's approaches war honor poems dante 's ''divine comedy'' geoffrey chaucer 's ''the canterbury tales'' take much different stylistic directions november pope urban ii preached first crusade council clermont crusades would affect everything europe middle east


many years come literature would along everything else transformed wars two cultures instance image knight would take different significance also islamic emphasis scientific investigation preservation greek philosophical writings would eventually affect european literature augustine ''the bible'' religious authors numerous aspects christianity needed explication interpretation thomas aquinas single person able turn theology kind science part heavily influenced aristotle whose works


called arabian nights translated english regardless whether appeared ''the book one thousand one nights'' version number tales known europe arabian nights despite existing arabic manuscript ref name arabiannights epic influential west since translated th century first antoine galland many imitations written especially france ref name arabiannights john grant john clute ''the encyclopedia fantasy'' arabian fantasy p ref various characters epic become cultural icons western culture aladdin


fiction little connection actual times places number elements arabian mythology persian mythology common modern fantasy genies bahamuts magic carpets magic lamps etc ref name arabiannights l frank baum proposed writing modern fairy tale banished stereotypical elements felt genie dwarf fairy stereotypes avoid arabic manuscript ''one thousand one nights'' number stories within ''one thousand one nights'' ''arabian nights'' also feature science fiction elements one example adventures bulukiya protagonist bulukiya 's


quest herb immortality leads explore seas journey garden eden jahannam travel across cosmos different worlds much larger world anticipating elements galactic science fiction ref name irwin ref along way encounters societies jinns mermaids talking serpents talking trees forms life ref name irwin another ''arabian nights'' tale protagonist abdullah fisherman gains ability breathe underwater discovers underwater submarine society portrayed inverted reflection society land underwater society follows


form primitive communism concepts like money clothing exist ''arabian nights'' tales deal lost ancient technologies advanced ancient civilizations went astray catastrophes overwhelmed city brass features group travellers archaeological expedition across sahara find ancient lost city attempt recover brass vessel solomon used trap jinn along way encounter mummified queen petrified inhabitants lifelike humanoid robots automata seductive marionettes dancing without strings brass horseman robot directs party


towards ancient city ebony horse features robot ref name pinault form flying mechanical horse controlled using keys could fly outer space towards sun third qalandar 's tale also features robot form uncanny boatman ref name pinault ref city brass ebony horse considered early examples proto science fiction dante alighieri 's ''divine comedy'' considered greatest epic italian literature derived many features episodes hereafter directly indirectly arabic works islamic eschatology ''hadith'' ''kitab al miraj''


translated latin shortly ref name heullant heullant donat polo de beaulieu histoire d'une traduction ''le livre de l' chelle de mahomet'' latin edition french translation gis le besson mich le brossard dandr collection ''lettres gothiques'' le livre de poche p note ref ''liber scale machometi'' book muhammad 's ladder concerning muhammad 's ascension heaven spiritual writings ibn arabi moors also noticeable influence works george peele william shakespeare works featured moorish characters peele 's ''the battle alcazar''


shakespeare 's ''the merchant venice'' ''titus andronicus'' ''othello'' featured moorish othello title character works said inspired several moorish delegations morocco elizabethan england beginning th century arabic literature ibn tufail abubacer ibn al nafis pioneers philosophical novel ibn tufail wrote first fictional arabic novel ''hayy ibn yaqdhan'' ''philosophus autodidactus'' response al ghazali 's ''the incoherence philosophers'' ibn al nafis also wrote novel ''theologus autodidactus'' response ibn tufail 's ''philosophus autodidactus''


generation futurology end world doomsday resurrection afterlife rather giving supernatural mythological explanations events ibn al nafis attempted explain plot elements using scientific knowledge biology astronomy cosmology geology known time main purpose behind science fiction work explain islamic religious teachings terms science philosophy use fiction ref name roubi dr abu shadi al roubi ibn al nafis philosopher ''symposium ibn al nafis'' second international conference islamic medicine islamic medical organization kuwait cf http wwwislamsetcom isc nafis drroubihtml ibnul nafees


philosopher ''encyclopedia islamic world'' ref latin translation ibn tufail 's work ''philosophus autodidactus'' first appeared prepared edward pococke younger followed english translation simon ockley well german dutch translations translations later inspired daniel defoe write ''robinson crusoe'' candidate title first novel english ref name amber amber haque psychology islamic perspective contributions early muslim scholars challenges contemporary muslim psychologists ''journal religion health'' ''' ''' ref ref name wainwright martin wainwright http booksguardiancouk review story html desert island scripts ''the guardian'' march ref


''philosophus autodidactus'' also inspired robert boyle write philosophical novel set island ''the aspiring naturalist'' ref name toomer gj toomer ''eastern wisedome learning study arabic seventeenth century england'' p oxford university press ref story also anticipated rousseau 's ''emile education'' ways also similar mowgli 's story rudyard kipling 's ''the jungle book'' well tarzan 's story baby abandoned taken care fed mother wolf among innovations arabic literature ibn khaldun 's perspective chronicling past events fully


rejecting supernatural explanations khaldun essentially invented scientific sociological approach history persian literature ferdowsi 's ''shahnameh'' national epic iran mythical heroic retelling persian history longest epic poem ever written persian culture book would eventually become famous west ''rubaiyat omar khayyam'' rub iy collection poems persian mathematician astronomer omar khayy rubaiyat means quatrains verses four lines ''amir arsalan'' also popular mythical persian story influenced modern works fantasy


fiction ''the heroic legend arslan'' examples early persian proto science fiction include al farabi 's ''opinions residents splendid city'' utopian society elements flying carpet ottoman literature two primary streams ottoman written literature poetry prose two divan poetry far dominant stream th century ottoman prose contain examples fiction counterparts instance european romance short story novel though analogous genres extent exist


turkish folk tradition divan poetry th century ottoman prose never managed develop extent contemporary divan poetry large part reason much prose expected adhere rules ' 'sec''' also transliterated ' 'seci'' rhymed prose type writing descended arabic ' 'saj''' prescribed adjective noun sentence must rhyme jewish literature medieval jewish fiction often drew ancient jewish legends written variety languages including


hebrew judeo arabic liturgical jewish poetry hebrew flourished palestine seventh eighth centuries writings yose ben yose yanai eleazar kalir later jewish poets spain provencal italy wrote religious secular poems hebrew particularly prominent poets spanish jewish poets solomon ibn gabirol yehuda halevi addition poetry fiction medieval jewish literature also includes philosophical literature mystical kabbalistic literature ethical musar literature legal halakhic literature commentaries bible india early medieval gupta period literature india sees flowering sanskrit drama classical


sanskrit poetry compilation puranas sanskrit declines early nd millennium late works ''kathasaritsagara'' dating th century benefit literature composed middle indic vernaculars old bengali old hindi china li po chanting poem liang k'ai th century lyric poetry advanced far china europe prior multiple new forms developed han tang song dynasties perhaps greatest poets era chinese literature li bai du fu printing began tang dynasty china


year ad true vernacular novel developed china ming dynasty ad commentators feel china originated novel form ''romance three kingdoms'' luo guanzhong th century although others feel epic distinct novel key ways fictional novels published ming period include water margin journey west represent two four great classical novels chinese literature japan classical japanese literature generally refers literature produced heian period would


consider golden era art literature ''the tale genji'' early th century murasaki shikibu considered pre eminent masterpiece heian fiction early example work fiction form novel sometimes called world 's first novel first modern novel first romance novel first novel still considered classic important works period include ''kokin wakash '' waka poetry anthology ''the pillow book'' latter written murasaki shikibu 's contemporary rival sei sh nagon essay


life loves pastimes nobles emperor 's court ''iroha'' poem one two standard orderings japanese syllabary also written early part period th century japanese narrative ''the tale bamboo cutter'' considered early example proto science fiction protagonist story kaguya hime princess moon sent earth safety celestial war found raised bamboo cutter japan later taken back moon real extraterrestrial


europe least would change literature forever texts longer precious expensive produce could cheaply rapidly put marketplace literacy went prized possession select much broader section population though means universal result much literature europe radically altered two centuries following gutenberg 's unveiling printing press william caxton first english printer published english language texts including ''le morte d'arthur'' collection oral tales arthurian knights


even present day form writing commonplace across world novel originated early modern period grew popularity next century modern novel became established form first transitional stage novelty began appear style epic poem plays entertainment opposed religious enlightenment returned europe 's stages early modern period william shakespeare notable early modern playwrights numerous others made important contributions including moli pierre corneille jean racine pedro calder n


de la barca lope de vega christopher marlowe ben jonson th th century commedia dell'arte performers improvised streets italy france commedia dell'arte plays written written plays improvisation influential upon literature time particularly upon work moli shakespeare drew upon arts jesters strolling players creating new style comedies parts even female ones played men ''en travesti'' would change first france england end


th century epic elizabethan poem ''the faerie queene'' edmund spenser published first part completed form ''the fairie queen'' marks transitional period novelty begins enter narrative sense overturning playing flow events theatrical forms known spenser 's time masque mummers' play incorporated poem ways ''twist tradition'' turn political propaganda service queen elizabeth earliest work considered opera


first novel many literary scholars first modern european novels published two parts first part published second might viewed parody ''le morte d'arthur'' examples chivalric romance case novel form would direct result poking fun collection heroic folk legends fully keeping spirit age enlightenment began time delighted giving satirical twist stories


ideas past 's worth noting trend toward satirising previous writings made possible printing press without invention mass produced copies book would possible assume reader seen earlier work thus understand references within text new style english poetry th century metaphysical movement metaphysical poets john donne george herbert andrew marvell others metaphysical poetry characterised spirit intellectual investigation spiritual rather


mystical reverence many earlier english poems metaphysical poets clearly trying ''understand'' world around spirit behind instead accepting dogma basis faith middle century king england overthrown republic declared new regime lasted arts suffered england rest british isles oliver cromwell 's rule temporarily banned theatre festivals jesters mummers plays frivolities ban lifted monarchy restored charles ii drury lane theatre


favorite king charles contrast metaphysical poets john milton 's ''paradise lost'' epic religious poem blank verse milton oliver cromwell 's chief propagandist suffered restoration came ''paradise lost'' one highest developments epic form poetry immediately preceding era modern prose novel allegorical novel ''the pilgrim 's progress world come'' published john bunyan early novelists include daniel defoe born jonathan swift born modern period th century


germany ''sturm und drang'' period late th century merges classicist romantic period epitomized long era goethe 's activity covering first third century conservative ''biedermeier'' style conflicts radical ''vorm rz'' turbulent period separating end napoleonic wars revolutions denmark early th century golden age produced prolific literary authors ren kierkegaard hans christian andersen later th century romanticism countered realism naturalism late th century known ''belle poque''


''fin de si cle'' retrospectively appeared golden age european culture cut short outbreak world war th century main periods th century literature captured bipartite division modernist literature postmodern literature flowering roughly respectively divided rule thumb world war ii popular literature develops genres fantasy science fiction ignored mainstream literary criticism genres develop establishments critical awards ''nebula award'' since ''british


fantasy award'' since ''mythopoeic awards'' since history book related forms literary history history book field interdisciplinary enquiry drawing methods bibliography cultural history literary criticism media theory principally concerned production circulation reception texts material forms book history seeks connect forms textuality material aspects among issues within history literature book history seen intersect development authorship profession formation


reading audiences constraints censorship copyright economics literary form see also history books history theater history fantasy history science fiction history ideas intellectual history literature country references external links http wwwlitencyccom literary encyclopedia


diagram used snake lemma basic result homological algebra '''homological algebra''' branch mathematics studies homology general algebraic setting relatively young discipline whose origins traced investigations combinatorial topology precursor algebraic topology abstract algebra theory modules syzygies end th century chiefly henri poincar david hilbert development homological algebra closely intertwined emergence category theory large homological algebra study homological functors intricate

Formal science
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Algebra
Homological algebra


algebraic structures entail one quite useful ubiquitous concept mathematics '''chain complexes''' studied homology cohomology homological algebra affords means extract information contained complexes present form homological invariants rings modules topological spaces 'tangible' mathematical objects powerful tool provided spectral sequences origins homological algebra played enormous role algebraic topology influence gradually expanded presently includes commutative algebra algebraic geometry algebraic number theory representation


theory mathematical physics operator algebras complex analysis theory partial differential equations ''k'' theory independent discipline draws upon methods homological algebra noncommutative geometry alain connes history homological algebra homological algebra began studied basic form branch topology n't became independent subject study objects ext functor tor functor among others ref name weber ref chain complexes homology notion chain complex central


homological algebra abstract '''chain complex''' sequence math c bullet bullet math abelian groups group homomorphisms property composition two consecutive maps zero math c bullet cdots longrightarrow c n stackrel n longrightarrow c n stackrel n longrightarrow c n stackrel n longrightarrow cdots quad n circ n math elements ''c'' sub ''n'' sub called ''n'' '''chains''' homomorphisms ' 'd'' sub ''n'' sub called '''boundary maps''' '' 'differentials''' '''chain groups''' ''c'' sub ''n'' sub may endowed extra structure example may vector spaces modules fixed ring ''r'' differentials must preserve extra structure exists


example must linear maps homomorphisms ''r'' modules notational convenience restrict attention abelian groups correctly category '''ab''' abelian groups celebrated theorem barry mitchell implies results generalize abelian category every chain complex defines two sequences abelian groups '''cycles''' ''z'' sub ''n'' sub nbsp nbsp ker ' 'd'' sub ''n'' sub '''boundaries''' ''b'' sub ''n'' sub nbsp nbsp im ' 'd'' sub ''n'' sub ker nbsp ' 'd'' im nbsp ' 'd'' denote kernel image ' 'd'' since composition two consecutive boundary maps zero groups embedded math b n subseteq z n subseteq c n math


''c'' sub ''n'' sub ''k'' formal linear combinations ''n'' simplices ''k'' ''a'' nbsp nbsp ''f'' ''r'' presentation abelian group ''a'' generators relations ''f'' free abelian group spanned generators ''r'' subgroup relations letting ''c'' sub sub ''a'' nbsp nbsp ''r'' ''c'' sub sub ''a'' nbsp nbsp ''f'' ''c'' sub ''n'' sub ''a'' nbsp nbsp ''n'' defines sequence abelian groups cases natural differentials ' 'd'' sub ''n'' sub making ''c'' sub ''n'' sub chain complex whose homology reflects structure topological space ''x'' simplicial complex ''k'' abelian group ''a'' case topological spaces


arrive notion singular homology plays fundamental role investigating properties spaces example manifolds philosophical level homological algebra teaches us certain chain complexes associated algebraic geometric objects topological spaces simplicial complexes ''r'' modules contain lot valuable algebraic information homology readily available part technical level homological algebra provides tools manipulating complexes extracting information two general illustrations two objects ''x'' ''y'' connected map ''f ''


homological algebra studies relation induced map ''f'' chain complexes associated ''x'' ''y'' homology generalized case several objects maps connecting phrased language category theory homological algebra studies functorial properties various constructions chain complexes homology complexes object ''x'' admits multiple descriptions example topological space simplicial complex complex math c bullet x math constructed using 'presentation' ''x'' involves non canonical choices important know effect


change description ''x'' chain complexes associated ''x'' typically complex homology math h bullet c math functorial respect presentation homology although complex actually independent presentation chosen thus invariant ''x'' standard tools exact sequences context group theory sequence math g xrightarrow f g xrightarrow f g xrightarrow f cdots xrightarrow f n g n math groups group homomorphisms called '''exact''' image homomorphism equal kernel next math mathrm im f k mathrm ker f k math note sequence


case ''a'' subobject ''b'' corresponding quotient isomorphic ''c'' math c cong b f math ''f '' im ''f'' short exact sequence abelian groups may also written exact sequence five terms math xrightarrow xrightarrow f b xrightarrow g c xrightarrow math represents zero object trivial group zero dimensional vector space placement 's forces fnof monomorphism ''g'' epimorphism see long exact sequence long exact sequence exact sequence indexed


natural numbers five lemma consider following commutative diagram abelian category category abelian groups category vector spaces given field category groups image fivelemmapng five lemma states rows exact ''m'' ''p'' isomorphisms ''l'' epimorphism ''q'' monomorphism ''n'' also isomorphism snake lemma abelian category category abelian groups category vector spaces given field consider commutative diagram file snakelemma png rows


exact sequences zero object exact sequence relating kernels cokernels ''a'' ''b'' ''c'' math ker ker b ker c overset operatorname coker operatorname coker b operatorname coker c math furthermore morphism ''f'' monomorphism morphism ker nbsp ''a'' ker nbsp ''b'' ''g''' epimorphism coker nbsp ''b'' coker nbsp ''c'' abelian categories mathematics '''abelian category''' category morphisms objects added kernels cokernels exist desirable properties motivating prototype


example abelian category category abelian groups '''ab''' theory originated tentative attempt unify several cohomology theories alexander grothendieck abelian categories ' 'stable'' categories example regular satisfy snake lemma class abelian categories closed several categorical constructions example category chain complexes abelian category category functors small category abelian category abelian well stability properties make inevitable homological algebra beyond theory major applications


algebraic geometry cohomology pure category theory abelian categories named niels henrik abel concretely category '''abelian''' zero object binary products binary coproducts kernels cokernels monomorphisms epimorphisms normal ext functor let ''r'' ring let mod sub ''r'' sub category modules ''r'' let ''b'' mod sub ''r'' sub set ''t'' ''b'' hom sub ''r'' sub ''ab'' fixed ''a'' mod sub ''r'' sub left exact functor thus right derived functors ''r sup n sup t'' ext functor defined


math operatorname ext r n ab r nt b math calculated taking injective resolution math rightarrow b rightarrow rightarrow rightarrow cdots math computing math rightarrow operatorname hom r ai rightarrow operatorname hom r ai rightarrow cdots math ''r sup n sup t'' ''b'' homology complex note hom sub ''r'' sub ''ab'' excluded complex alternative definition given using functor ''g'' ''a'' hom sub ''r'' sub ''ab'' fixed module ''b'' contravariant left exact functor thus also right derived functors ''r sup n sup g'' define math operatorname ext r n ab r ng math calculated choosing projective resolution math dots rightarrow p rightarrow p rightarrow rightarrow math proceeding


dually computing math rightarrow operatorname hom r p b rightarrow operatorname hom r p b rightarrow cdots math ''r sup n sup g'' ''a'' homology complex note hom sub ''r'' sub ''ab'' excluded two constructions turn yield isomorphic results may used calculate ext functor tor functor suppose ''r'' ring denoted ''r'' '''mod''' category left ''r'' modules '''mod''' ''r'' category right ''r'' modules ''r'' commutative two categories coincide fix module ''b'' ''r'' '''mod''' ''a'' '''mod''' ''r'' set ''t'' ''a'' ''a'' otimes sub ''r'' sub ''b'' ''t'' right exact functor '''mod''' ''r'' category


abelian groups '''ab''' case ''r'' commutative right exact functor '''mod''' ''r'' '''mod''' ''r'' left derived functors ''l sub n sub t'' defined set math mathrm tor n r ab l nt math ie take projective resolution math cdots rightarrow p rightarrow p rightarrow p rightarrow rightarrow math remove ''a'' term tensor projective resolution ''b'' get complex math cdots rightarrow p otimes r b rightarrow p otimes r b rightarrow p otimes r b rightarrow math note ''a'' otimes sub ''r'' sub ''b'' appear last arrow zero map take homology


complex spectral sequence fix abelian category category modules ring '' 'spectral sequence''' choice nonnegative integer ''r'' sub sub collection three sequences integers ''r'' ''r'' sub sub object ''e sub r sub '' called ' 'sheet'' sheet paper sometimes ''page'' ''term'' endomorphisms ' 'd sub r sub '' ''e sub r sub '' ''e sub r sub '' satisfying ' 'd sub r sub '' small small ' 'd sub r sub '' called ''boundary maps'' ' 'differentials'' isomorphisms ''e sub r sub '' ''h'' ''e sub r sub '' homology ''e sub r sub '' respect ' 'd sub r sub '' e sub sub sheet cohomological spectral sequence


spectral sequence ''n'' runs diagonally northwest southeast across sheet homological case differentials bidegree minus ''r'' nbsp ''r'' nbsp minus nbsp decrease ''n'' one cohomological case ''n'' increased one ''r'' zero differential moves objects one space similar differential chain complex ''r'' one differential moves objects one space left right ''r'' two differential moves objects like knight 's move chess higher ''r'' differential


acts like generalized knight 's move derived functor suppose given covariant left exact functor ''f'' '''a''' '''b''' two abelian categories '''a''' '''b''' ''a'' ''b'' ''c'' short exact sequence '''a''' applying ''f'' yields exact sequence ''f'' ''a'' ''f'' ''b'' ''f'' ''c'' one could ask continue sequence right form long exact sequence strictly speaking question ill posed since always numerous different ways continue given exact sequence


right turns '''a''' nice enough one canonical way given right derived functors ''f'' every ''i'' functor ''r sup sup f'' '''a''' '''b''' sequence continues like ''f'' ''a'' ''f'' ''b'' ''f'' ''c'' ''r'' sup sup ''f'' ''a'' ''r'' sup sup ''f'' ''b'' ''r'' sup sup ''f'' ''c'' ''r'' sup sup ''f'' ''a'' ''r'' sup sup ''f'' ''b'' see ''f'' exact functor ''r'' sup sup ''f'' sense right derived functors ''f'' measure far ''f'' exact


''n'' morphism chain complexes induces morphism math h bullet f math homology groups consisting homomorphisms math h n f h n c h n math ''n'' morphism ''f'' called '''quasi isomorphism''' induces isomorphism ''n''th homology ''n'' many constructions chain complexes arising algebra geometry including singular homology following functoriality property two objects ''x'' ''y'' connected map ''f'' associated chain complexes connected morphism math f c f c bullet x c bullet math moreover composition math g circ f math


maps ''f'' nbsp ''x'' nbsp rarr nbsp ''y'' ''g'' nbsp ''y'' nbsp rarr nbsp ''z'' induces morphism math c g circ f c bullet x c bullet z math coincides composition math c g circ c f math follows homology groups math h bullet c math functorial well morphisms algebraic topological objects give rise compatible maps homology following definition arises typical situation algebra topology triple consisting three chain complexes math l bullet bullet n bullet math two morphisms math f l bullet bullet g bullet n bullet math called '''exact triple''' '' 'short exact sequence complexes''' written math longrightarrow l bullet


overset f longrightarrow bullet overset g longrightarrow n bullet longrightarrow math ''n'' sequence math longrightarrow l n overset f n longrightarrow n overset g n longrightarrow n n longrightarrow math short exact sequence abelian groups definition means ''f'' sub ''n'' sub injection ''g'' sub ''n'' sub surjection im ''f'' sub ''n'' sub nbsp nbsp ker ''g'' sub ''n'' sub one basic theorems homological algebra sometimes known zig zag lemma states case '''long exact sequence homology''' math cdots longrightarrow h n l overset h n f longrightarrow h n overset h n g longrightarrow h n n overset delta n longrightarrow h n l overset h n f longrightarrow h n longrightarrow cdots math homology groups ''l''


derived functor basic examples functors ext tor diverse set applications mind natural try put whole subject uniform basis several attempts subject settled approximate history stated follows cartan eilenberg book homological algebra authors used projective injective module resolutions 'tohoku' approach celebrated paper alexander grothendieck appeared second series ''tohoku mathematical journal'' using abelian category concept include sheaves


abelian groups derived category grothendieck verdier derived categories date back verdier 's thesis examples triangulated categories used number modern theories move computability generality computational sledgehammer ''par excellence'' spectral sequence essential cartan eilenberg tohoku approaches needed instance compute derived functors composition two functors spectral sequences less essential derived category approach still play role whenever concrete computations necessary attempts 'non commutative'


theories extend first cohomology ''torsors'' important galois cohomology see also abstract nonsense term homological algebra category theory derivator homotopical algebra list homological algebra topics references henri cartan samuel eilenberg ''homological algebra'' appendix david buchsbaum reprint original princeton landmarks mathematics princeton university press princeton nj xvi pp saunders mac lane ''homology'' reprint edition classics mathematics springer verlag berlin x pp peter hilton stammbach u ''a course homological algebra'' second edition graduate texts mathematics springer verlag new


york xii pp gelfand sergei yuri manin ''methods homological algebra'' translated russian edition second edition springer monographs mathematics springer verlag berlin xx pp gelfand sergei yuri manin ''homological algebra'' translated russian original authors reprint original english edition series encyclopaedia mathematical sciences ''algebra'' v encyclopaedia math sci springer berlin springer verlag berlin iv pp


management trauma intensive care respiratory therapists initiate manage life support people intensive care units emergency departments stabilizing treating managing pre hospital hospital hospital patient transport air ground ambulance outpatient setting respiratory therapists work educators asthma clinics ancillary clinical staff pediatric clinics sleep disorder diagnosticians sleep clinics also serve clinical providers cardiology clinics cath labs well working pulmonary rehabilitation clinical practice respiratory therapist intensive care unit '''respiratory therapy''' done respiratory therapists large variety

Applied science
Medicine and health
Respiratory therapy


maintenance mechanical ventilation care artificial airways outpatient clinical practice respiratory therapists also primary clinicians conducting tests measure lung function teaching people manage asthma chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder among cardiac lung functions internationally respiratory therapists provide lung function testing termed respiratory scientists north america may respiratory therapist home health care outside clinics hospitals respiratory therapists often manage home oxygen needs patients families providing around clock support home ventilators equipment conditions like sleep apnea


asthma spot emergency united states legislation introduced several times allow respiration therapists certified asthma specialists registered respiratory therapist certification prescribe manage previously diagnosed respiratory patients physician clinics ref name th congress ref ref name th congress ref sleep clinics respiratory therapists work physicians diagnosis sleep related illnesses respiratory therapists united states migrating toward role autonomy similar nurse practitioner extension physician like physician assistant ref name pmid ref respiratory therapists frequently


utilized complete cardiovascular specialists utilized place manage arterial accesses along peripherally inserted central catheters ref name pmid ref respiratory therapist gives immunization shot patient pulmonary rehabilitation pulmonary rehabilitation may initiated treatment source continuity improvement hospital stay therapeutic way increase quality life pulmonary rehabilitation intended educate patient family improve overall quality life prognosis patient pulmonary rehabilitation involves therapies evaluations respiratory therapists occupational therapists physical therapists


credentialing licensure united states canada united states canada respiratory therapists healthcare practitioners receiving least associate science respiratory care complete credentialing process become '' 'registered respiratory therapists''' '''rrts''' satisfactorily completing required examinations added registry practitioner eligible apply license practice region governed respective licensing body united states specialist respiratory therapists clinicians hold national board respiratory care specialty credentials may include neonatal pediatric specialist


crt nps rrt nps adult critical care specialist rrt accs sleep disorder specialist crt sds rrt sds pulmonary function technologist cpft rpft nbrc 's rrt accs examination newest nbrc examination introduced united states must obtain degree respiratory care must sit board exams become rrt rrt issued national board respiratory care passing therapist multiple choice examination nbrc tmc clinical simulation examination nbrc cse examinations ref name pmid ref eligibility nbrc cse examination based scoring high enough nbrc tmc


holding least associate science respiratory care professional credentials denoted certified asthma educator ae c may also earned passing national asthma educator certification board naecb parts canada one may practice provisional respiratory therapist graduating writing passing cbrc exam rrt certification granted examination canadian society respiratory therapists scope practice registered respiratory therapist typically governed medical director clinical services licensing body laboratory rehabilitation home health services trained cardiology


pulmonology medicine registered respiratory therapist prepared didactically clinically perform advanced procedures emergency management actual scope practice varies region institution international respiratory care except united states canada countries dedicated professional role respiratory health countries respiratory care provided physiotherapists nurses physicians chosen specialize field many countries recognition transition stage example hospitals beijing china began recruitment drive acquire respiratory therapists


intensive care units previously nurses clinician ref name pmid ref canada upon graduation accredited school respiratory therapy graduate eligible write national exam administered canadian board respiratory care success examination allow respiratory therapist register licensing body canada alberta manitoba new brunswick newfoundland labrador nova scotia ontario quebec saskatchewan canadian provinces provincial licensing bodies provinces illegal practice profession respiratory care without first licensed


respiratory care specialty regulated f ration fran aise des masseurs kin sith rapeutes r ducateurs germany german respiratory society first issued resolution develop dedicated respiratory therapist rt role means increase quality patient care delegate physician duties respond observed increase respiratory conditions diseases year long pilot training program offered established nurses physiotherapists researchers report significant additional work necessary define position role respiratory therapist within current healthcare system


italy italy title respiratory therapist acquired applying master 's degree respiratory therapy consists frontal lessons various internships throughout italian hospitals philippines philippines respiratory therapists clinicians awarded minimum bachelor science respiratory care degree ref name aarcfil ref licenses practice respiratory care regulated professional regulatory board respiratory therapy professional regulation commission established legally maintained philippine respiratory therapy act republic act ref name manillab ref united arab emirates


united arab emirates respiratory therapists must awarded bachelor science respiratory care additional two years experience required foreign applicants licenses maintained awarded dubai health authority dubai health authority restricts respiratory therapists working physical medicine rehabilitation centers hospitals surgical clinics cardio thoracic surgeons physicians family general practice pulmonology saudi arabia saudi arabia utilizes respiratory therapists similar fashion canada us respiratory therapists north america


travel saudi arabia temporary need singapore singapore respiratory therapist allied health professional plays integral role care critically ill patients intensive care units part duties respiratory therapists also routinely assigned staff diagnostic polysomnography laboratories well pulmonary function test laboratories help diagnostic procedures patients respiratory therapists singapore baccalaureate degree respiratory therapy awarded accredited institutions across region united states association


state licensing board either medical examiner 's board special state respiratory care board practitioner eligible apply license practice region governed respective licensing body two recognized governing bodies united states state board respiratory care state respiratory therapist licensed practice national board respiratory care nbrc non profit organization regulates two levels certification along additional specialist certifications certified respiratory therapist crt certification given successfully passing


therapist multiple choice nbrc tmc exam registered respiratory therapist rrt certification given first making rrt cut score tmc exam passing clinical simulation exam nbrc cse state boards respiratory care require proof appropriate nbrc credential award various license titles including limited respiratory care practitioner licensed registered respiratory therapist licensed certified respiratory therapist substantial push standardize state licensure american association respiratory care ref name pmid nbrc credential renewed every years fee addition


fees assessed state boards respiratory care united kingdom respiratory therapy uk recognized specific profession specialization route available physicians nurses physiotherapists occupational therapists common titles include cardio respiratory physiotherapist clinical respiratory physiologist respiratory nurse cardio respiratory occupational therapist uk trained physiotherapists receive advanced training respiratory therapy theory practice core component pre registration physiotherapy degree program following qualification period rotations throughout core areas physiotherapy practice may follow career pathway specializing respiratory physiotherapy areas


practice include critical care respiratory medicine cystic fibrosis asthma hyperventilation syndrome general specialized surgery non invasive ventilation ventilation weaning cardiac pulmonary rehab respiratory therapy outpatient clinics community respiratory therapy association chartered physiotherapists interested respiratory care specialist interest group uk physiotherapists working within field respiratory therapy physiotherapists working within united kingdom must registered health care professions council regardless area clinical practice order allowed work public private sectors respiratory physiotherapy postgraduate master 's


degree phd programs exist within united kingdom suitably qualified experienced therapists respiratory physiologists bachelor science clinical physiology issued specialist option respiratory physiology beyond degree level master science programs respiratory care respiratory disease management advanced cardiology clinical respiratory physiology available taiwan taiwan respiratory therapist one allied health professionals need minimum four years bachelor science respiratory therapy care license according health professionals act respiratory therapist act lawed ref name wwwnpoiscomtw ref respiratory


therapists require senior professional technical examinations ministry examination get license respiratory therapists taiwan participate adult neonatal pediatric icu care artificial airway maintenance invasive non invasive ventilation management aerosol therapy oxygen therapy inhaled nitric oxide therapy cpr chest physiotherapy artery blood gas analysis pulmonary rehabilitation lung expansion therapy etc respiratory therapists also available pft pulmonary function testing room rcc respiratory care center rcw respiratory care ward built focusing difficult weaning patients' ventilator weaning moreover years experience hospital respiratory


therapists set home respiratory care office nowadays five colleges department respiratory therapy including chang gung university taipei medical university kao hsiung medical university chang gung university science technology chiayi campus fu jen catholic university ref name wwwnpoiscomtw specialist respiratory therapists anesthesia assistants anesthesia vaporizer traditional role operating room respiratory therapist included providing technical support anesthesiologist proper use maintenance anesthetic gas machine addition also providing airway management ontario canada role


anesthetist asthma specialists asthma specialists work clinics hospitals schools educator teachers parents patients practitioners asthma allergies respiratory therapists role asthma educator additionally help diagnose treat asthma respiratory illness additionally asthma educator resource clinician inpatient outpatient environments evaluating advising physicians treatment plans helping facilitate patient understanding compliance plan ref name pmid ref united states certified asthma educators ae c credentialed national asthma education certification board naecb


canada canadian network respiratory care administers two certifications specialization respiratory therapist asthma educator certified asthma educator cae preferred practitioners pediatric focus certified respiratory educator cre comprises cae program additional training copd cystic fibrosis respiratory therapists work people suffering cystic fibrosis clinics hospitals educating disease working treatment plan admitted hospital patients cystic fibrosis treatment schedule modified maintained respiratory therapists


maintaining healthy schedule pharmacokinetic physical therapeutic airway clearance typically frequent home treatment plans admissions usually due increased need therapy stay cardiovascular perfusionist cabg surgery cpb respiratory therapists able fulfill role perfusionist appropriate training perfusionist highly trained member cardiothoracic surgical team often time rt extra training consists cardiac surgeons anesthesiologists physician assistants surgical technicians respiratory therapists nurses perfusionist 's main responsibility support physiological


oxygenator related equipment ecmo specialist also responsible clinical needs patient ecmo may include bedside management oxygenation carbon dioxide removal maintenance normal acid base balance administration medications blood blood products maintenance appropriate anticoagulation therapies blood ref name pmid ref ecmo clinical specialist may bedside critical care nurse specifically trained ecmo patient circuit management ref name organization guidelines b version ref ecmo system may primarily managed registered respiratory therapist physicians training ecmo clinical specialists ref name organization guidelines


b version neonatal pediatric intensive care much like adult intensivist respiratory therapists neonatal pediatric specialists deal primarily managing life support pediatric neonatal patient ref name pmid ref pediatric respiratory therapists trained extensively antenatal intrapartum patients family ref name pmid united states specialist certification exists awarded national board respiratory care available respiratory therapists holding certification certified respiratory therapist registered respiratory therapist however registered respiratory therapist preferred institutions ref name pmid ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref sleep disorder specialist


pediatric patient prepared polysomnogram respiratory therapist respiratory therapists monitor interpret diagnose findings sleep study well medical history physical exam make diagnosis decide treatment related sleep disorders sleep study also help diagnose narcolepsy ref name pmid ref united states sleep disorder specialist registered respiratory therapist sleep disorder specialist certification rrt sds performs sleep disorders testing therapeutic intervention along diagnosis sleep related disease obstructive sleep apnea central apnea canada


often rt additional training become registered polysomnography technician rpsgt case management case management collaborative process assesses plans implements coordinates monitors evaluates options services required meet client 's health human services needs characterized advocacy communication resource management promotes quality cost effective interventions outcomes eligibility certification maintained commission case management certification body certifying healthcare professionals united states surface air transport specialist premature infant ecmo form


heart lung machine transferred hospitalsrespiratory therapists work nurses physicians paramedics emergency flight ground transport vital practitioner delivering care inside helicopters air ambulance ground ambulance working pick patient move facility need united states certification transport c npt currently awarded national certification corporation pulmonary research science respiratory therapists sometimes referred respiratory scientists specialists pulmonary function ref name pmid ref respiratory therapists work pulmonologists


clinical general research respiratory system ranging anatomy respiratory epithelium effective treatment pulmonary hypertension pediatrics scientific research also takes place look causes possible treatment diseases asthma lung cancer ref name pmid ref history respiratory care profession respiratory care officially established united states c ref name pmid ref respiratory research officially existed since early ref name smother ref early years respiratory therapists referred oxygen technicians activities involved


direct care patient education care coordination academically trained respiratory nursing respiratory medicine practice acute care facilities long term acute care facilities skilled nursing facilities assisted living centers subacute care units rehabilitation centers diagnostics units home respiratory therapist training also dramatically changed current accreditation standards require respiratory therapists minimum associate science respiratory care degree accredited program legal requirements practice respiratory therapy also dramatically changed states legally recognize respiratory therapists limited


november ref legislation introduced aarc help improve use respiratory therapists clinical applications allowing manage patients suffering asthma copd seeing clinic routine checkups similar bills introduced died committee ref name th congress ref name th congress see also list respiratory therapy organizations american association respiratory care canadian society respiratory therapists references rehabilitation team


usd fluoroscopic image common bile duct '''hepatology''' branch medicine incorporates study liver gallbladder biliary tree pancreas well management disorders although traditionally considered sub specialty gastroenterology rapid expansion led countries doctors specializing solely area called '''hepatologists''' diseases complications related viral hepatitis alcohol main reason seeking specialist advice two billion people infected hepatitis b virus point life approximately million become

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Medicine and health
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Hepatology


likely referred family physicians ie gp physicians different disciplines reasons might drug overdose paracetamol overdose common gastrointestinal bleeding portal hypertension related liver damage abnormal blood test suggesting liver disease enzyme defects leading bigger liver children commonly named storage disease liver jaundice hepatitis virus positivity blood perhaps discovered screening blood tests ascites swelling abdomen fluid accumulation commonly due liver disease diseases like heart failure patients advanced liver disease eg cirrhosis


specialist care undergo ercp diagnosing diseases biliary tree management fever features suggestive infection involving mentioned organs exotic tropical diseases like hydatid cyst kala azar schistosomiasis may suspected microbiologists would involved well systemic diseases affecting liver biliary tree eg haemochromatosis follow liver transplant pancreatitis commonly due alcohol gallstone cancer organs usually multi disciplinary approach undertaken involvement oncologist experts history dr b blumberg awarded nobel prize discovery hepatitis b virus evidence autopsies egyptian


mummies suggests liver damage parasitic infection bilharziasis widespread ancient society possible greeks may aware liver 's ability exponentially duplicate illustrated story prometheus however knowledge liver disease antiquity questionable important advances field made last years bc hippocrates mentioned liver abscess aphorisms roman anatomist galen thought liver principal organ body also identified relationship gallbladder spleen around nbsp ce aretaeus


cappadocia wrote jaundice ref name lee ref medieval period avicenna noted importance urine diagnosing liver conditions french anatomist antoine portal noted bleeding due oesophageal varices gabriel valentin showed pancreatic juices break food digestion justus von leibig discovered pancreatic juice tyrosine ref name lee austin flint described production stercorin victor charles hanot described cirrhotic jaundice diseases liver moore developed standard technique canine orthotopic liver transplantation first human liver transplant performed dr thomas e starzl


three year old male afflicted biliary atresia perfecting technique canine livers baruch blumberg discovered hepatitis b virus developed first vaccine awarded nobel prize physiology medicine investigators cdc daniel w bradley chiron michael houghton identified hepatitis c virus previously known non non b hepatitis could detected blood supply ref name hcvadvocateorg ref blood test created could detect hepatitis c donated blood ref name hcvadvocateorg word ''hepatology''


ancient greek ''hepar'' ''hepato '' meaning liver '' logia'' meaning study disease classification '''international classification disease icd classification''' chapter xi diseases digestive system k k diseases liver k k disorders gallbladder biliary tract pancreas '''mesh medical subject heading sam''' g ' 'same gastroenterology '' c liver diseases c biliary tract diseases c pancreatic diseases '''national library medicine catalogue''' wi liver biliary tree diseases wi pancrease ''also see hepato biliary diseases'' important procedures endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography ercp transhepatic pancreato cholangiography tpc transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt


tipss liver transplant pancreas transplant references gastroenterology


'''assignment problem''' fundamental combinatorial optimization problem general form problem follows problem instance number ''agents'' number ''tasks'' agent assigned perform task incurring ''cost'' may vary depending agent task assignment required perform many tasks possible assigning one agent task one task agent way ''total cost'' assignment minimized alternatively describing problem using graph theory

Applied science
Transportation
Operations research
Assignment problem


assignment problem consists finding weighted bipartite graph matching given size sum weights edges minimum numbers agents tasks equal problem called ''balanced assignment'' otherwise called ''unbalanced assignment'' ref name ref total cost assignment tasks equal sum costs agent sum costs task thing case problem called ''linear assignment'' commonly speaking


''assignment problem'' without additional qualification ''linear balanced assignment problem'' meant examples suppose taxi firm three taxis agents available three customers tasks wishing picked soon possible firm prides speedy pickups taxi cost picking particular customer depend time taken taxi reach pickup point ''balanced assignment'' problem solution whichever combination taxis customers results least total cost suppose


''four'' taxis available still three customers ''unbalanced assignment'' problem one way solve invent fourth dummy task perhaps called sitting still nothing cost taxi assigned reduces problem balanced assignment problem solved usual way still give best solution problem similar adjustments done order allow tasks agents tasks multiple agents must assigned instance group customers


constraints contain linear terms algorithms naive solution assignment problem check assignments calculate cost one may inefficient since ''n'' agents ''n'' tasks ''n'' factorial ''n'' different assignments fortunately many algorithms solving problem time polynomial ''n'' assignment problem special case transportation problem special case minimum cost flow problem turn special case linear program possible