anderson loftsgaarden ed ''undergraduate programs mathematics computer sciences survey'' mathematical association america john lane bell ''a primer infinitesimal analysis'' cambridge university press uses synthetic differential geometry nilpotent infinitesimals florian cajori history notations calculus ''annals mathematics'' nd ser vol sep pp nbsp leonid p lebedev michael j cloud approximating perfection mathematician 's journey world mechanics ch tools calculus princeton univ press cliff pickover ''calculus pizza


math cookbook hungry mind'' michael spivak september '' calculus'' publish perish publishing tom apostol ''calculus volume one variable calculus introduction linear algebra'' wiley tom apostol ''calculus volume multi variable calculus linear algebra applications'' wiley silvanus p thompson martin gardner ''calculus made easy'' mathematical association america ''calculus new century pump filter'' association stony brook ny ed thomas finney ''calculus analytic geometry th'' addison wesley weisstein eric w http mathworldwolframcom secondfundamentaltheoremofcalculushtml second fundamental theorem

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calculus'' university minnesota retrieved may http wwwmathumnedu garrett calculus first year notespdf nowiki http wwwmathumnedu garrett calculus first year notespdf nowiki faraz h ''understanding calculus'' retrieved may understandingcalculuscom url http wwwunderstandingcalculuscom calculus online book html keisler hj ''elementary calculus approach using infinitesimals'' retrieved august http wwwmathwiscedu keisler calchtml nowiki http wwwmathwiscedu keisler calchtml nowiki mauch ''sean 's applied math book'' pdf california institute technology retrieved may https webarchiveorg web http wwwcacrcaltechedu sean applied mathpdf nowiki https webarchiveorg web http wwwcacrcaltechedu sean applied mathpdf nowiki sloughter dan ''difference equations differential equations introduction calculus'' retrieved march http synechismorg drupal de de http synechismorg drupal de de stroyan kd ''a brief introduction infinitesimal calculus'' university iowa retrieved may


https webarchiveorg web http wwwmathuiowaedu stroyan infsmlcalculus infsmlcalchtm backgndctlchtm html strang g ''calculus'' massachusetts institute technology retrieved may http ocwmitedu ans resources strang strangtexthtm http ocwmitedu ans resources strang strangtexthtm smith william v ''the calculus'' retrieved july http wwwmathbyuedu smithw calculus free calculus html external links http djmcc library calculus made easy thompsonpdf calculus made easy silvanus p thompson full text pdf http wwwcalculusorg calculusorg calculus page university california davis nbsp contains resources links sites http wwweconomicssotonacuk staff aldrich calculus analysis earliest useshtm earliest known uses words mathematics calculus analysis http wwwericdigestsorg pre calculushtm role calculus college mathematics ericdigestsorg https ocwmitedu courses mathematics sc single variable calculus fall opencourseware calculus massachusetts institute


technology http wwwencyclopediaofmathorg indexphptitle infinitesimal calculus oldid infinitesimal calculus nbsp article historical development ''encyclopedia mathematics'' ed michiel hazewinkel http wwwimomathcom indexphpoptions calculus training materials imomathcom http wwwwdlorg en item excursion calculus


oil painting chemist ana kansky painted henrika antel '''chemistry''' scientific study properties behavior matter ref name brown ref natural science covers elements make matter compounds composed atoms molecules ions composition structure properties behavior changes undergo reaction substances ref name definition ref scope subject chemistry occupies intermediate position physics biology sometimes called central science provides foundation understanding basic


applied scientific disciplines fundamental level example chemistry explains aspects plant chemistry botany formation igneous rocks geology atmospheric ozone formed environmental pollutants degraded ecology properties soil moon cosmochemistry medications work pharmacology collect dna evidence crime scene forensics chemistry addresses topics atoms molecules interact via chemical bonds form new chemical compounds two types chemical bonds primary chemical bonds eg covalent bonds atoms share one electron ionic


bonds atom donates one electrons another atom produce ions cations anions metallic bonds secondary chemical bonds eg hydrogen bonds van der waals force bonds ion ion interaction ion dipole interaction etc etymology word ''chemistry'' comes modification word ''alchemy'' referred earlier set practices encompassed elements chemistry metallurgy philosophy astrology astronomy mysticism medicine alchemy often seen linked quest turn lead base metals gold though alchemists also interested many questions


modern chemistry modern word ''alchemy'' turn derived arabic word may egyptian origins since derived ancient greek turn derived word ancient name egypt egyptian language ref name oed alchemy entry ''the oxford english dictionary'' ja simpson esc weiner vol nd ed ref alternately may derive 'cast together' modern principles laboratory institute biochemistry university cologne germany current model atomic structure quantum mechanical model traditional


chemistry starts study elementary particles atoms molecules substances metals crystals aggregates matter matter studied solid liquid gas plasma states isolation combination interactions reactions transformations studied chemistry usually result interactions atoms leading rearrangements chemical bonds hold atoms together behaviors studied chemistry laboratory chemistry laboratory stereotypically uses various forms laboratory glassware however glassware central chemistry great deal experimental well applied industrial chemistry


done without solutions substances reagent bottles including ammonium hydroxide nitric acid illuminated different colors chemical reaction transformation substances one different substances basis chemical transformation rearrangement electrons chemical bonds atoms symbolically depicted chemical equation usually involves atoms subjects number atoms left right equation chemical transformation equal number atoms either side unequal transformation referred


nuclear reaction radioactive decay type chemical reactions substance may undergo energy changes may accompany constrained certain basic rules known chemical laws energy entropy considerations invariably important almost chemical studies chemical substances classified terms structure phase well chemical compositions analyzed using tools chemical analysis eg spectroscopy chromatography scientists engaged chemical research known chemists chemists specialize one sub disciplines several concepts essential


study chemistry matter chemistry matter defined anything rest mass volume takes space made particles particles make matter rest mass well particles rest mass photon matter pure chemical substance mixture substances atom diagram atom based bohr model atom basic unit chemistry consists dense core called atomic nucleus surrounded space occupied


electron cloud nucleus made positively charged protons uncharged neutrons together called nucleons electron cloud consists negatively charged electrons orbit nucleus neutral atom negatively charged electrons balance positive charge protons nucleus dense mass nucleon approximately times electron yet radius atom times nucleus atom also smallest entity envisaged retain chemical properties element electronegativity


ionization potential preferred oxidation state coordination number preferred types bonds form eg metallic ionic covalent element standard form periodic table chemical elements colors represent different categories elements chemical element pure substance composed single type atom characterized particular number protons nuclei atoms known atomic number represented symbol ''z'' mass number sum number protons neutrons nucleus although nuclei atoms belonging


one element atomic number may necessarily mass number atoms element different mass numbers known isotopes example atoms protons nuclei atoms chemical element carbon atoms carbon may mass numbers standard presentation chemical elements periodic table orders elements atomic number periodic table arranged groups columns periods rows periodic table useful identifying periodic trends compound


abstracts service devised method index chemical substances scheme chemical substance identifiable number known cas registry number molecule ball stick representation caffeine molecule c sub sub h sub sub n sub sub sub sub ''molecule'' smallest indivisible portion pure chemical substance unique set chemical properties potential undergo certain set chemical reactions substances however definition works well substances composed molecules true many substances see molecules typically set atoms


common sulfate nitrate ions generally considered molecules chemistry molecules contain one unpaired electrons creating radicals radicals comparatively reactive nitric oxide stable structural formula benzene molecule c sub sub h sub sub inert noble gas elements helium neon argon krypton xenon radon composed lone atoms smallest discrete unit isolated chemical elements consist either molecules networks atoms bonded way identifiable molecules compose familiar substances water air


mineral salts table salt solids like carbon diamond metals familiar silica silicate minerals quartz granite one main characteristics molecule geometry often called structure structure diatomic triatomic tetra atomic molecules may trivial linear angular pyramidal etc structure polyatomic molecules constituted six atoms several elements crucial chemical nature substance mixture chemical substance kind matter definite composition set properties collection substances


called mixture examples mixtures air alloys mole amount substance mole unit measurement denotes amount substance also called chemical amount one mole defined contain exactly particles atoms molecules ions electrons number particles per mole known avogadro constant molar concentration amount particular substance per volume solution commonly reported mol dm sup sup phase diagram showing relationships among phases terms used describe phase changes addition specific chemical


system goes rearranging structure system instead changing bulk conditions sometimes distinction phases continuous instead discrete boundary' case matter considered supercritical state three states meet based conditions known triple point since invariant convenient way define set conditions familiar examples phases solids liquids gases many substances exhibit multiple solid phases example three phases solid


iron alpha gamma delta vary based temperature pressure principal difference solid phases crystal structure arrangement atoms another phase commonly encountered study chemistry ''aqueous'' phase state substances dissolved aqueous solution water less familiar phases include plasmas bose einstein condensates fermionic condensates paramagnetic ferromagnetic phases magnetic materials familiar phases deal three dimensional systems also possible define analogs two dimensional systems received attention relevance systems


biology bonding animation process ionic bonding sodium na chlorine cl form sodium chloride common table salt ionic bonding involves one atom taking valence electrons another opposed sharing occurs covalent bonding atoms sticking together molecules crystals said bonded one another chemical bond may visualized multipole balance positive charges nuclei negative charges oscillating simple attraction repulsion energies distributions characterize availability electron


bond another atom chemical bond covalent bond ionic bond hydrogen bond van der waals force kinds bonds ascribed potential potentials create interactions hold atoms together molecules crystals many simple compounds valence bond theory valence shell electron pair repulsion model vsepr concept oxidation number used explain molecular structure composition ionic bond formed metal loses one electrons becoming positively charged cation


electrons gained non metal atom becoming negatively charged anion two oppositely charged ions attract one another ionic bond electrostatic force attraction example sodium na metal loses one electron become na sup sup cation chlorine cl non metal gains electron become cl sup sup ions held together due electrostatic attraction compound sodium chloride nacl common table salt formed methane molecule ch sub sub carbon atom shares pair valence electrons four


hydrogen atoms thus octet rule satisfied c atom eight electrons valence shell duet rule satisfied h atoms two electrons valence shells covalent bond one pairs valence electrons shared two atoms resulting electrically neutral group bonded atoms termed molecule atoms share valence electrons way create noble gas electron configuration eight electrons outermost shell atom atoms tend combine way


eight electrons valence shell said follow octet rule however elements like hydrogen lithium need two electrons outermost shell attain stable configuration atoms said follow ' 'duet rule'' way reaching electron configuration noble gas helium two electrons outer shell similarly theories classical physics used predict many ionic structures complicated compounds metal complexes valence bond theory less applicable alternative approaches


molecular orbital theory generally used see diagram electronic orbitals energy context chemistry energy attribute substance consequence atomic molecular aggregate structure since chemical transformation accompanied change one kinds structures invariably accompanied increase decrease energy substances involved energy transferred surroundings reactants reaction form heat light thus products reaction may less energy


reactants reaction said exergonic final state lower energy scale initial state case endergonic reactions situation reverse reaction said exothermic reaction releases heat surroundings case endothermic reactions reaction absorbs heat surroundings chemical reactions invariably possible unless reactants surmount energy barrier known activation energy ' 'speed'' chemical reaction given temperature related activation energy e boltzmann 's


population factor math e e kt math probability molecule energy greater equal e given temperature exponential dependence reaction rate temperature known arrhenius equation activation energy necessary chemical reaction occur form heat light electricity mechanical force form ultrasound related concept free energy also incorporates entropy considerations useful means predicting feasibility reaction determining state equilibrium chemical reaction


chemical thermodynamics reaction feasible total change gibbs free energy negative math delta g le math equal zero chemical reaction said equilibrium exist limited possible states energy electrons atoms molecules determined rules quantum mechanics require quantization energy bound system atoms molecules higher energy state said excited molecules atoms substance excited energy state often much reactive


amenable chemical reactions phase substance invariably determined energy energy surroundings intermolecular forces substance energy surroundings sufficient overcome occurs ordered phase like liquid solid case water h sub sub liquid room temperature molecules bound hydrogen bonds whereas hydrogen sulfide h sub sub gas room temperature standard pressure molecules bound weaker dipole dipole interactions transfer energy


substances reaction compound reacts carbon monoxide form iron one chemical elements carbon dioxide chemical substance transformed result interaction another substance energy chemical reaction said occurred ''chemical reaction'' therefore concept related reaction substance comes close contact another whether mixture solution exposure form energy results energy exchange constituents reaction well system environment


may designed vessels often laboratory glassware chemical reactions result formation dissociation molecules molecules breaking apart form two molecules rearrangement atoms within across molecules chemical reactions usually involve making breaking chemical bonds oxidation reduction dissociation acid base neutralization molecular rearrangement commonly used kinds chemical reactions chemical reaction symbolically depicted chemical equation non nuclear chemical reaction number kind atoms sides equation equal nuclear


reaction holds true nuclear particles viz protons neutrons sequence steps reorganization chemical bonds may taking place course chemical reaction called mechanism chemical reaction envisioned take place number steps may different speed many reaction intermediates variable stability thus envisaged course reaction reaction mechanisms proposed explain kinetics relative product mix reaction many physical chemists specialize exploring


use term also changes involving single molecular entities ie 'microscopic chemical events' ions salts crystal lattice structure potassium chloride kcl salt formed due attraction k sup sup cations cl sup sup anions note overall charge ionic compound zero ''ion'' charged species atom molecule lost gained one electrons atom loses electron thus protons electrons atom positively charged ion cation atom gains electron


thus electrons protons atom negatively charged ion anion cations anions form crystalline lattice neutral salts na sup sup cl sup sup ions forming sodium chloride nacl examples polyatomic ions split acid base reactions hydroxide oh sup sup phosphate po sub sub sup sup plasma composed gaseous matter completely ionized usually high temperature acidity basicity hydrogen bromide exists gas phase diatomic molecule substance often classified acid base several


different theories explain acid base behavior simplest arrhenius theory states acid substance produces hydronium ions dissolved water base one produces hydroxide ions dissolved water according br nsted lowry acid base theory acids substances donate positive hydrogen ion another substance chemical reaction extension base substance receives hydrogen ion third common theory lewis acid base theory based formation new chemical bonds lewis theory explains acid


substance capable accepting pair electrons another substance process bond formation base substance provide pair electrons form new bond according theory crucial things exchanged charges several ways substance may classified acid base evident history concept acid strength commonly measured two methods one measurement based arrhenius definition acidity ph measurement


hydronium ion concentration solution expressed negative logarithmic scale thus solutions low ph high hydronium ion concentration said acidic measurement based br nsted lowry definition acid dissociation constant k sub sub measures relative ability substance act acid br nsted lowry definition acid substances higher k sub sub likely donate hydrogen ions chemical reactions lower k sub sub values redox redox ' 'red''uction ''ox''idation reactions include chemical reactions


atoms oxidation state changed either gaining electrons reduction losing electrons oxidation substances ability oxidize substances said oxidative known oxidizing agents oxidants oxidizers oxidant removes electrons another substance similarly substances ability reduce substances said reductive known reducing agents reductants reducers reductant transfers electrons another substance thus oxidized donates electrons also called electron donor oxidation reduction properly refer


change oxidation number actual transfer electrons may never occur thus oxidation better defined increase oxidation number reduction decrease oxidation number equilibrium although concept equilibrium widely used across sciences context chemistry arises whenever number different states chemical composition possible example mixture several chemical compounds react one another substance present one kind phase system chemical substances equilibrium even though


unchanging composition often static molecules substances continue react one another thus giving rise dynamic equilibrium thus concept describes state parameters chemical composition remain unchanged time chemical laws chemical reactions governed certain laws become fundamental concepts chemistry avogadro 's law beer lambert law boyle 's law relating pressure volume charles 's law relating volume temperature fick 's laws diffusion gay lussac 's law relating pressure temperature le chatelier 's principle henry 's law hess 's law


law conservation energy leads important concepts equilibrium thermodynamics kinetics law conservation mass continues conserved isolated systems even modern physics however special relativity shows due mass energy equivalence whenever non material energy heat light kinetic energy removed non isolated system mass lost high energy losses result loss weighable amounts mass important topic nuclear chemistry law definite composition although many systems notably biomacromolecules minerals ratios tend require large numbers frequently represented


fraction law multiple proportions raoult 's law history history chemistry spans period old times present since several millennia bc civilizations using technologies would eventually form basis various branches chemistry examples include extracting metals ores making pottery glazes fermenting beer wine extracting chemicals plants medicine perfume rendering fat soap making glass making alloys like bronze chemistry preceded protoscience alchemy intuitive non scientific approach understanding constituents matter interactions


developed law conservation mass demanded careful measurement quantitative observations chemical phenomena history chemistry intertwined history thermodynamics especially work willard gibbs definition definition chemistry changed time new discoveries theories add functionality science term chymistry view noted scientist robert boyle meant subject material principles mixed bodies chemist christopher glaser described chymistry scientific art one learns dissolve bodies draw


different substances composition unite exalt higher perfection definition word chemistry used georg ernst stahl meant art resolving mixed compound aggregate bodies principles composing bodies principles jean baptiste dumas considered word chemistry refer science concerned laws effects molecular forces definition evolved came mean science substances structure properties reactions


change substances characterization accepted linus pauling recently professor raymond chang broadened definition chemistry mean study matter changes undergoes discipline democritus' atomist philosophy later adopted epicurus bce early civilizations egyptians babylonians indians amassed practical knowledge concerning arts metallurgy pottery dyes n't develop systematic theory basic chemical hypothesis first emerged classical greece theory four elements propounded definitively aristotle stating fire air earth water


fundamental elements everything formed combination greek atomism dates back bc arising works philosophers democritus epicurus bce roman philosopher lucretius expanded upon theory book ''de rerum natura'' nature things unlike modern concepts science greek atomism purely philosophical nature little concern empirical observations concern chemical experiments early form idea conservation mass notion nothing comes nothing ancient greek philosophy found


empedocles approx th century bc impossible anything come cannot brought heard utterly destroyed epicurus rd century bc describing nature universe wrote totality things always always th century artistic impression j bir ibn hayy n geber perso arab alchemist pioneer organic chemistry hellenistic world art alchemy first proliferated mingling magic occultism study natural


substances ultimate goal transmuting elements gold discovering elixir eternal life work particularly development distillation continued early byzantine period famous practitioner th century greek egyptian zosimos panopolis alchemy continued developed practised throughout arab world muslim conquests byzantine remnants diffused medieval renaissance europe latin translations development modern scientific method slow arduous early scientific method chemistry began emerging among early muslim chemists beginning


th century perso arab chemist j bir ibn hayy n popularly known father chemistry arabic works attributed introduced systematic classification chemical substances provided instructions deriving inorganic compound sal ammoniac ammonium chloride organic substances plants blood hair chemical means arabic jabirian works eg book mercy book seventy later translated latin latinized name geber th century europe anonymous writer usually referred pseudo geber started produce alchemical metallurgical writings name later


influential muslim philosophers ab al rayh n al b r n avicenna disputed theories alchemy particularly theory transmutation metals influence new empirical methods propounded sir francis bacon others group chemists oxford robert boyle robert hooke john mayow began reshape old alchemical traditions scientific discipline boyle particular regarded founding father chemistry due important work classic chemistry text ''the sceptical chymist'' differentiation made claims alchemy empirical scientific


discoveries new chemistry formulated boyle 's law rejected classical four elements proposed mechanistic alternative atoms chemical reactions could subject rigorous experiment antoine laurent de lavoisier considered father modern chemistry theory phlogiston substance root combustion propounded german georg ernst stahl early th century overturned end century french chemist antoine lavoisier chemical analogue newton physics establish new science


proper theoretical footing elucidating principle conservation mass developing new system chemical nomenclature used day work though many important discoveries made specifically relating nature 'air' discovered composed many different gases scottish chemist joseph black first experimental chemist flemish jan baptist van helmont discovered carbon dioxide black called 'fixed air' henry cavendish discovered hydrogen elucidated properties joseph priestley independently carl wilhelm scheele isolated pure oxygen english scientist john


dalton proposed modern theory atoms substances composed indivisible 'atoms' matter different atoms varying atomic weights development electrochemical theory chemical combinations occurred early th century result work two scientists particular j ns jacob berzelius humphry davy made possible prior invention voltaic pile alessandro volta davy discovered nine new elements including alkali metals extracting oxides electric current periodic table dmitri mendeleev predicted existence new


elements placed elements known time correct places british william prout first proposed ordering elements atomic weight atoms weight exact multiple atomic weight hydrogen jar newlands devised early table elements developed modern periodic table elements ref name webelements dot com ref dmitri mendeleev independently several scientists including julius lothar meyer inert gases later called noble gases discovered william ramsay collaboration lord rayleigh


couple pierre marie curie investigated phenomenon radioactivity series pioneering scattering experiments ernest rutherford university manchester discovered internal structure atom existence proton classified explained different types radioactivity successfully transmuted first element bombarding nitrogen alpha particles work atomic structure improved students danish physicist niels bohr henry moseley electronic theory chemical bonds molecular orbitals developed american scientists linus pauling gilbert n lewis


year declared united nations international year chemistry initiative international union pure applied chemistry united nations educational scientific cultural organization involves chemical societies academics institutions worldwide relied individual initiatives organize local regional activities organic chemistry developed justus von liebig others following friedrich w hler 's synthesis urea proved living organisms theory reducible chemistry crucial th century advances understanding valence bonding edward frankland


application thermodynamics chemistry j w gibbs svante arrhenius practice subdisciplines chemistry typically divided several major sub disciplines also several main cross disciplinary specialized fields chemistry analytical chemistry analysis material samples gain understanding chemical composition structure analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods chemistry methods may used subdisciplines chemistry excluding purely theoretical chemistry biochemistry study chemicals chemical reactions chemical interactions take place living organisms biochemistry organic chemistry closely


related medicinal chemistry neurochemistry biochemistry also associated molecular biology genetics inorganic chemistry study properties reactions inorganic compounds distinction organic inorganic disciplines absolute much overlap importantly sub discipline organometallic chemistry materials chemistry preparation characterization understanding substances useful function field new breadth study graduate programs integrates elements classical areas chemistry focus fundamental issues unique materials primary systems


study include chemistry condensed phases solids liquids polymers interfaces different phases neurochemistry study neurochemicals including transmitters peptides proteins lipids sugars nucleic acids interactions roles play forming maintaining modifying nervous system nuclear chemistry study subatomic particles come together make nuclei modern transmutation large component nuclear chemistry table nuclides important result tool field organic chemistry study structure properties composition mechanisms reactions organic compounds


organic compound defined compound based carbon skeleton physical chemistry study physical fundamental basis chemical systems processes particular energetics dynamics systems processes interest physical chemists important areas study include chemical thermodynamics chemical kinetics electrochemistry statistical mechanics spectroscopy recently astrochemistry physical chemistry large overlap molecular physics physical chemistry involves use infinitesimal calculus deriving equations usually associated quantum chemistry theoretical chemistry physical chemistry distinct discipline chemical


physics strong overlap theoretical chemistry study chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning usually within mathematics physics particular application quantum mechanics chemistry called quantum chemistry since end second world war development computers allowed systematic development computational chemistry art developing applying computer programs solving chemical problems theoretical chemistry large overlap theoretical experimental condensed matter physics molecular physics disciplines within chemistry traditionally grouped type matter studied


kind study include inorganic chemistry study inorganic matter organic chemistry study organic carbon based matter biochemistry study substances found biological organisms physical chemistry study chemical processes using physical concepts thermodynamics quantum mechanics analytical chemistry analysis material samples gain understanding chemical composition structure many specialized disciplines emerged recent years eg neurochemistry chemical study nervous system see subdisciplines fields include agrochemistry astrochemistry cosmochemistry atmospheric chemistry chemical engineering chemical biology chemo informatics electrochemistry


environmental chemistry femtochemistry flavor chemistry flow chemistry geochemistry green chemistry histochemistry history chemistry hydrogenation chemistry immunochemistry marine chemistry materials science mathematical chemistry mechanochemistry medicinal chemistry molecular biology molecular mechanics nanotechnology natural product chemistry oenology organometallic chemistry petrochemistry pharmacology photochemistry physical organic chemistry phytochemistry polymer chemistry radiochemistry solid state chemistry sonochemistry supramolecular chemistry surface chemistry synthetic chemistry thermochemistry many others industry chemical industry represents important economic activity worldwide global top chemical producers sales us billion profit margin ref name c en ref professional societies american chemical society american society neurochemistry chemical


institute canada chemical society peru international union pure applied chemistry royal australian chemical institute royal netherlands chemical society royal society chemistry society chemical industry world association theoretical computational chemists list chemistry societies see also comparison software molecular mechanics modeling glossary chemistry terms international year chemistry list chemists list compounds list important publications chemistry list unsolved problems chemistry outline chemistry periodic systems small molecules philosophy chemistry science tourism references bibliography reading popular reading atkins pw ''galileo 's finger''


best selling single year million singles reached oricon charts five albums reached day released streak broken kinki kids' album ''h album hand'' scoring rank ''fo u r'' chemistry also known korea popular collaboration song let 's get together featuring talents korea japan collaborating korean singer lena park appears b side dance kimi ga iru single march


kaname kawabata married model miki takahashi met appeared pv night single period selected fourth opening anime series ''fullmetal alchemist brotherhood'' chemistry worked together person dance group synergy release shawty another joint work two groups released november titled keep love chemistry tapped bandai visual record song ova series ''mobile suit gundam unicorn'' due title song rd episode ghost laplace merry go round due


release march follow ova 's actual release march th single wings words used fourth opening theme ''mobile suit gundam seed destiny'' phase going hiatus members could focus pursuing solo careers pair resumed activities musical duo new single windy used second ending theme song anime adaptation ''altair record battles'' discography albums class wikitable year album details


oricon chart ref name oricon albums ''oricon'' japanese https wwworiconcojp prof rank album chemistry albums oricon ref rating '''''the way are''''' released november align center rowspan '''''second none''''' released january align center '''''between lines''''' released june align center '''''one x one''''' released february align center rowspan '''''hot chemistry''''' released january align center '''''fo u r''''' released november


align center rowspan '''''re fo u rm''''' released august align center '''''all best''''' released november align center rowspan '''''face face''''' released january align center allmusic '''''winter love''''' released november align center allmusic '''''the chemistry joint album''''' released march align center allmusic '''''regeneration''''' released february align center


allmusic '''''chemistry ''''' released march align center '''''trinity''''' released january align center '''''chemistry''''' released september align center singles class wikitable rowspan year rowspan title colspan oricon chart ref name oricon singles ''oricon'' japanese https wwworiconcojp prof rank single chemistry singles oricon ref rowspan album style font size smaller style width px peak br position style width px weeks br chart rowspan pieces dream align center align center


align center align center rowspan ''one x one'' name never gone align center align center rowspan vain align center align center mirage blue align center align center long long way align center align center align center ''fo u r'' shiroi toiki br align center align center align center ''hot chemistry'' rowspan kimi ga iru br align center align center align center rowspan ''fo u r'' wings


words align center align center almost love align center align center rowspan yakusoku basho br align center align center align center rowspan ''face face'' kage small feat john legend small br align center align center top world align center align center align center ''all best'' rowspan sora kiseki br align center align center align center rowspan ''face face'' night align center align center


saigo kawa align center align center kagayaku yoru small supported monkey majik small br align center align center rowspan life goes align center align center align center ''regeneration'' koisuru yuki aisuru sora br align center align center align center ''winter love'' rowspan place us small toko furuuchi small align center align center align center ''the chemistry joint album'' ano hi small feat dohzi small br small feat dohzi small align center


align center align center rowspan ''regeneration'' rowspan period align center align center shawty small chemistry synergy small align center align center align center rowspan ''chemistry '' keep love small chemistry synergy small align center align center rowspan better tomorrow align center align center merry go round align center align center independence align center align center align center rowspan ''trinity'' eternal smile align center align center angel still


walking align center align center videos class wikitable year title oricon chart ref name oricon dvds ''oricon'' japanese https wwworiconcojp prof rank dvd chemistry dvds oricon ref ref name oricon blu rays ''oricon'' japanese https wwworiconcojp prof rank blu ray chemistry blu rays oricon ref '''''raw respect wisdom chemistry acoustic live''''' released april formats dvd vhs align center rowspan '''''chemistry videos see get ''''' released february formats dvd vhs align center '''''two stand live documentary ''''' released september formats dvd vhs


align center '''''chemistry suntory hall hibiki ''''' released january formats dvd umd align center rowspan '''''chemistry videos sing therefore ''''' released august formats dvd vhs align center '''''chemistry tour fo u r''''' released november formats blu ray align center references external links sony music japan defstar records artists japanese musical duos japanese pop music groups musical groups tokyo male musical duos japanese boy bands


common law arises precedent cases parties disagree law common law court looks past precedential decisions relevant courts synthesizes principles past cases applicable current facts similar dispute resolved past court usually bound follow reasoning used prior decision principle known ' 'stare decisis'' however court finds current dispute fundamentally distinct previous cases called matter first impression legislative


equal footing statutes adopted legislative process regulations promulgated executive branch interactions among different sources law explained later article ''stare decisis'' principle cases decided according consistent principled rules similar facts yield similar results lies heart common law systems common lawso named common king 's courts across englandoriginated practices courts english kings centuries following norman conquest


british empire later spread english legal system far flung colonies many retain common law system today common law systems legal systems give great weight judicial precedent style reasoning inherited english legal system ref name blacks thdef ref ref name garnerusagedef ref ref name charles arnold baker ''the companion british history'' sv english law london loncross denholm press ref today one third world 's population lives common law jurisdictions systems mixed civil law including antigua barbuda australia bahamas bangladesh barbados belize botswana burma


definitions term ''common law'' many connotations first three set common usages within legal community connotations past centuries sometimes seen sometimes heard everyday speech common law opposed statutory law regulatory law first definition common law given ''black 's law dictionary'' th edition body law derived judicial decisions rather statutes constitutions synonym caselaw contrast statutory law ref name blacks thdef usage given first definition modern legal dictionaries


characterized common usage among legal professionals usage frequently seen decisions courts ref name garnerusagedef ref name duhaimedef ref name washingtonprobatedef ref name usvtexas example usage decision united states supreme court see quote ''united states v texas'' section interaction constitutional statutory common law ref connotation common law distinguishes authority promulgated law example law anglo american jurisdictions includes statutory law enacted legislature regulatory law us delegated legislation uk promulgated


executive branch agencies pursuant delegation rule making authority legislature common law case law ''ie'' decisions issued courts quasi judicial tribunals within agencies ref name salmond ref first connotation differentiated general common law arising traditional inherent authority courts define law even absence underlying statute regulation examples include criminal law procedural law th century even today contract law law torts ref name speiserlawoftorts stuart speiser et al american law torts nbsp


thompson reuters describing common law development tort law england united states little reluctance courts overrule disapprove statements decisions tort law either deemed wrong inadvisedly considered disinclination toward contention change must legislation ref ref name generalcommonlaw w nostatute ''eg'' hadley v baxendale exch defining new rule contract law basis statute ''marbury v madison'' us emphatically province duty judicial department say law ''macpherson v buick


motor co'' ny ne ny discussed elsewhere article adjudicating tort negligence existed statute expanding law cover parties never addressed statute alexander hamilton ''the federalist'' nos j cooke ed interpretation laws proper peculiar province courts constitution fact must regarded judges fundamental law therefore belongs ascertain meaning well meaning


particular act proceeding legislative body see rule perpetuities judicially created law originating governs validity trusts future interests real property rule shelley 's case rule created judges life estate fee simple rules real property ownership judicially created late th century crown began give law making power courts ref b interstitial common law court decisions analyze interpret determine fine boundaries distinctions law promulgated bodies


body common law sometimes called interstitial common law includes judicial interpretation constitution legislative statutes agency regulations application law specific facts ref name garnerusagedef publication decisions indexing essential development common law thus governments private publishers publish law reports decisions common law jurisdictions precedent varying levels scope discussed throughout article precedent become leading cases landmark decisions cited especially often common law legal systems opposed civil law legal systems


''black 's law dictionary'' th ed definition differentiates common law jurisdictions legal systems civil law code jurisdictions ref name blacks thdef ref name garnerusagedef common law systems place great weight court decisions considered law force law statutes nearly millennium common law courts authority make law legislative statute exists statutes mean courts interpret mean contrast civil law jurisdictions legal tradition prevails combined common law europe non islamic non common law countries courts lack authority


act statute civil law judges tend give less weight judicial precedent means civil law judge deciding given case freedom interpret text statute independently compared common law judge circumstances therefore less predictably ref name lawgovpol example napoleonic code expressly forbade french judges pronounce general principles law role providing overarching principles common law jurisdictions provided judicial opinions civil law jurisdictions filled giving greater weight scholarly literature


explained common law systems trace history england civil law systems trace history napoleonic code back corpus juris civilis roman law law opposed equity ''black 's law dictionary'' th ed definition differentiates common law law equity ref name blacks thdef ref ref name salmond ref name garnerusagedef ref england two complementary court systems courts law could award money damages recognized legal owner property courts equity courts chancery could issue injunctive relief court order


party something give something someone stop something recognized trusts property split propagated many colonies including united states states delaware mississippi south carolina tennessee continue divided courts law courts chancery new jersey appellate courts unified trial courts organized chancery division law division purposes jurisdictions including us federal system states merged two courts ref name friedmanxix ref additionally even separate courts


merged courts permitted apply law equity though potentially different procedural law nonetheless historical distinction law equity remains important today case involves issues following categorizing prioritizing rights property example article property often legal title equitable title two groups ownership rights may held different people united states determining whether seventh amendment 's right jury trial applies determination fact necessary resolution common law claim


sense first connotation principles binding precedent archaic meanings historical uses addition several historical archaic uses term longer current provide background context assists understanding meaning common law today one usage archaic gives insight history common law common law referred pre christian system law imported saxons england dating norman conquest consistent law applied ref name jeffersontocooper one


example usage letter thomas jefferson dr thomas cooper ref ref name jeffersontocartwright another example usage another letter jefferson john cartright ref common law term used today common law countries contrasts ''ius commune'' historically ''ius commune'' became secure point reference continental european legal systems england point reference ref name ius commune' p david john ibbetson ''common law ius commune'' p ref english court common pleas dealt lawsuits monarch


interest ie commoners ''black 's law dictionary'' th ed definition general law common country whole opposed special law local application ref name blacks th ref least th century continuing several centuries several different circuits royal court system served itinerant judges would travel town town dispensing king 's justice assizes term common law used describe law held common circuits different stops circuit ref name blacks th


widely particular law recognized weight held whereas purely local customs generally subordinate law recognized plurality jurisdictions ref name blacks th misconceptions imprecise nonlawyer usages used non lawyers popular culture term common law connotes law based ancient unwritten universal custom people ref name westenc west 's encyclopedia american law defines common law ancient law england based upon societal customs recognized enforced judgments decrees courts ref ancient unwritten universal custom view foundation


derive authority solely usages customs immemorial antiquity judgments decrees courts recognizing affirming enforcing usages customs sense particularly ancient unwritten law england definition removed late th century remains absent th edition ref ref name garnerusagedefnone states twelve definitions common law none reflect ancient unwritten universal custom view ref modern view common law grounded custom ancient usage rather acquires force law instantly without delay implied


term custom ancient pronounced higher court extent proposition stated judicial opinion ref name holmessouthernpacificbrooding ref name carpentercolumbiacourtdecisions ref name blacks thdef earliest times late th century dominant theory common law pre existent law system rules social standard justice existed habits customs thoughts people ref name carpentercolumbiacourtdecisions older view legal profession considered part judge 's duty make new change existing law expound apply


old ref name carpentercolumbiacourtdecisions early th century largely urging oliver wendell holmes discussed throughout article view fallen minority view holmes pointed older view worked undesirable unjust results hampered proper development law ref name carpentercolumbiacourtdecisions century since holmes dominant understanding common law decisions law rather rules courts lay making decisions constitute law ref name carpentercolumbiacourtdecisions holmes wrote opinion common law brooding omnipresence


sky articulate voice sovereign quasi sovereign identified ref name holmessouthernpacificbrooding among legal professionals lawyers judges change understanding occurred late th early th centuries explained later article ref name carpentercolumbiacourtdecisions though lay non legal dictionaries decades behind recognizing change ref name westenc reality modern view implausibility old ancient unwritten universal custom view seen practical operation pre view common law absolutely static centuries evolved b


jurisdictions could logically diverge nonetheless today c new decision logically needed operate retroactively standard decide english medieval customs law five tensions resolve modern view common law evolved meet needs times ''eg'' trial combat passed law early b common law different jurisdictions may diverge c new decisions may need retroactive operation court decisions


effective immediately issued years later become custom questions custom might ancient time simply irrelevant ref name carpentercolumbiacourtdecisions common law term used among lawyers present day grounded custom ancient usage common law acquires force law pronounced court similar tribunal opinion ref name holmessouthernpacificbrooding ref name carpentercolumbiacourtdecisions ref name blacks thdef common law frozen time longer beholden th th th century english law rather common


law evolves daily immediately courts issue precedential decisions explained later article parties legal system courts lawyers others responsible date knowledge fixed reference point example th th centuries definition common law except handful isolated contexts much customary th th th century part common law today much common law today antecedent earlier centuries common law unwritten common


law exists writing must law applied consistently written decisions judges ref name garnerusagedef ref name blacks thdef ref name carpentercolumbiacourtdecisions common law product universal consent rather common law often anti majoritarian basic principles common law common law adjudication common law jurisdiction several stages research analysis required determine law given situation first one must ascertain facts one must locate relevant statutes cases one must extract principles analogies statements


various courts consider important determine next court likely rule facts present case later decisions decisions higher courts legislatures carry weight earlier cases lower courts finally one integrates lines drawn reasons given determines law one applies law facts practice common law systems considerably complicated simplified system described decisions court binding particular jurisdiction even within given


jurisdiction courts power others example jurisdictions decisions appellate courts binding lower courts jurisdiction future decisions appellate court decisions lower courts non binding persuasive authority interactions common law constitutional law statutory law regulatory law also give rise considerable complexity common law evolves meet changing social needs improved understanding oliver wendell holmes jr cautioned proper derivation general principles common constitutional law arise gradually emergence


consensus multitude particularized prior decisions justice cardozo noted common law work pre established truths universal inflexible validity conclusions derived deductively ts method inductive draws generalizations particulars common law malleable statutory law first common law courts absolutely bound precedent extraordinarily good reason shown reinterpret revise law without legislative intervention adapt new trends political legal social philosophy second common law evolves series


gradual steps gradually works details decade law change substantially without sharp break thereby reducing disruptive effects contrast common law incrementalism legislative process difficult get started legislatures tend delay action situation intolerable reasons legislative changes tend large jarring disruptive sometimes positively sometimes negatively sometimes unintended consequences one example gradual change typifies evolution common law gradual change liability negligence


traditional common law rule th century plaintiff could recover defendant 's negligent production distribution harmful instrumentality unless two privity contract thus immediate purchaser could recover product defect part built parts parts manufacturers ultimate buyer could recover injury caused defect part english case ''winterbottom v wright'' postal service contracted wright maintain coaches winterbottom driver


great danger many people carefully properly constructed yet privity rule survived ''cadillac motor car co v johnson'' decided federal appeals court new york several neighboring states court held car owner could recover injuries defective wheel automobile owner contract automobile dealer manufacturer even though question wheel made dead dozy wood quite insufficient purposes ''cadillac'' court willing acknowledge


case law supported exceptions article dangerous nature likely become course ordinary usage contemplated vendor however held ''cadillac'' court one manufactures articles dangerous defectively made installed eg tables chairs pictures mirrors hung walls carriages automobiles liable third parties injuries caused except case willful injury fraud finally famous case ''macpherson v buick motor co'' judge benjamin cardozo new york 's


progression wild departure cardozo continues adhere original principle ''winterbottom'' absurd outrageous consequences must avoided drawing new line last sentence quoted must knowledge danger merely possible probable adhering underlying principle ' 'some'' boundary necessary ''macpherson'' overruled prior common law rendering formerly dominant factor boundary privity formality arising contractual relationship persons totally irrelevant rather important factor boundary


would nature thing sold foreseeable uses downstream purchasers would make thing example evolution law negligence preceding paragraphs illustrates two crucial principles common law evolves evolution hands judges judges made law hundreds years ref name speiserlawoftorts b reasons given decision often important long run outcome particular case reason judicial opinions usually quite long give rationales policies


balanced judgment future cases rather bright line rules usually embodied statutes publication decisions law systems rely written publication law ref name bostonsociallawcommonorcivil accessible common law decisions published law reports use lawyers courts general public american revolution massachusetts became first state establish official reporter decisions newer states needed law often looked first massachusetts reports authoritative precedents basis common law ref name bostonsociallawcommonorcivil social


law library common law civil code boston mass ref united states federal courts relied private publishers civil war began publishing government function west publishing minnesota largest private sector publisher law reports united states government publishers typically issue decisions raw private sector publishers often add indexing including references key principles common law involved editorial analysis similar finding aids interaction constitution statute executive branch regulation common law common law legal systems


common law crucial understanding almost important areas law example england wales english canada states united states basic law contracts torts property exist statute common law though may isolated modifications enacted statute another example supreme court united states held michigan statute established rules solemnization marriages abolish pre existing common law marriage statute affirmatively require statutory solemnization silent


legislatures operate assumption statutes interpreted backdrop pre existing common law united states supreme court explained ''united states v texas'' us longstanding principle tatutes invade common law read presumption favoring retention long established familiar principles except statutory purpose contrary evident ''isbrandtsen co v johnson'' us ''astoria federal savings loan assn v solimino'' us cases congress


write upon clean slate ''astoria'' us order abrogate common law principle statute must speak directly question addressed common law ''mobil oil corp v higginbotham'' u ''milwaukee v illinois'' u example us states criminal statutes primarily codification pre existing common law codification process enacting statute collects restates pre existing law single document pre existing law common law common law remains relevant interpretation


statutes reliance assumption modern statutes often leave number terms fine distinctions unstated example statute might brief leaving precise definition terms unstated assumption fine distinctions would resolved future courts based upon understand pre existing common law reason many modern american law schools teach common law crime stood england centuries old english common law necessary foundation interpreting modern criminal statutes transition


english law common law crimes new legal system us constitution prohibited ''ex post facto'' laws federal state level question raised whether could common law crimes united states settled case ''united states v hudson'' ref name usvhudson ''united states v hudson'' ref decided federal courts jurisdiction define new common law crimes must always constitutional statute defining offense penalty still many states retain selected common law crimes


example virginia definition conduct constitutes crime robbery exists common law robbery statute sets punishment virginia code section establishes continued existence vitality common law principles provides common law england insofar repugnant principles bill rights constitution commonwealth shall continue full force within rule decision except altered general assembly contrast statutory codification common law


statutes displace common law example create new cause action exist common law legislatively overrule common law example tort wrongful death allows certain persons usually spouse child estate sue damages behalf deceased tort english common law thus jurisdiction lacks wrongful death statute allow lawsuit wrongful death loved one wrongful death statute exists compensation remedy available limited


remedy specified statute typically upper limit amount damages courts generally interpret statutes create new causes action narrowly limited precise terms courts generally recognize legislature supreme deciding reach judge made law unless statute violate second order constitutional law provision ''cf'' judicial activism principle applied strongly fields commercial law contracts like predictability relatively higher value less torts courts recognize greater responsibility justice


landmark decision judicial power ''marbury v madison'' later cases interpreted judicial power article iii establish power federal courts consider overturn action congress state conflicts constitution interactions decisions different courts discussed article precedent interactions common law either statute regulation discussed articles ''skidmore'' deference ''chevron'' deference ''auer'' deference overruling precedent limits ' 'stare decisis'' united states federal courts divided


twelve regional circuits circuit court appeals plus thirteenth court appeals federal circuit hears appeals patent cases cases federal government without geographic limitation decisions one circuit court binding district courts within circuit circuit court persuasive authority sister circuits district court decisions binding precedent persuasive us federal courts appeal adopted rule event conflict decisions panels


courts appeal almost always sit panels three earlier panel decision controlling panel decision may overruled court appeals sitting ''en banc'' active judges court higher court courts older decision remains controlling issue comes third time courts example court customs patent appeals supreme court always sit ''en banc'' thus ''later'' decision controls courts essentially overrule previous cases new case


lower courts final court appeal civil law cases three uk jurisdictions criminal law cases scotland power lay house lords granted practice statement canada 's federal system described avoids regional variability federal law giving national jurisdiction layers appellate courts common law foundation commercial economies reliance judicial opinion strength common law systems significant contributor robust commercial


systems united kingdom united states reasonably precise guidance almost every issue parties especially commercial parties predict whether proposed course action likely lawful unlawful assurance consistency ref name lawgovpol justice brandeis famously expressed matters important applicable rule law settled settled right ability predict gives freedom come close boundaries law example many commercial contracts economically efficient create greater


wealth parties know ahead time proposed arrangement though perhaps close line almost certainly legal newspapers taxpayer funded entities religious affiliation political parties obtain fairly clear guidance boundaries within freedom expression rights apply contrast jurisdictions weak respect precedent fine questions law redetermined anew time arise making consistency prediction difficult procedures far protracted necessary parties cannot rely written statements law reliable guides ref name lawgovpol jurisdictions


relating corporate law issues merger acquisitions companies rights shareholders include delaware choice law clause deep body law delaware issues hand jurisdictions sufficiently developed bodies law parties real motivation choose law foreign jurisdiction example england wales state california yet fully developed parties relationship jurisdiction choose law outside united states parties different jurisdictions


often choose law england wales particularly parties former british colonies members commonwealth common theme cases commercial parties seek predictability simplicity contractual relations frequently choose law common law jurisdiction well developed body common law achieve result likewise litigation commercial disputes arising unpredictable torts opposed prospective choice law clauses contracts discussed previous paragraph certain jurisdictions attract unusually high fraction


cases predictability afforded depth decided cases example london considered pre eminent centre litigation admiralty cases say common law better every situation example civil law clearer case law legislature foresight diligence address precise set facts applicable particular situation reason civil law statutes tend somewhat detailed statutes written common law legislatures conversely tends make statute difficult read


united states tax code example history origins common lawso named common king 's courts across englandoriginated practices courts english kings centuries following norman conquest prior norman conquest much england 's legal business took place local folk courts various shires hundreds variety individual courts also existed across land urban boroughs merchant fairs held courts universities oxford cambridge


courts common pleas king 's bench written latin rolls made bundles law term hilary easter trinity michaelmas winter spring summer autumn currently deposited uk national archives whose permission images rolls courts common pleas king 's bench exchequer pleas th century th viewed online anglo american legal tradition site o'quinn law library university houston law center doctrine precedent developed th th


centuries collective judicial decisions based tradition custom precedent form reasoning used common law known casuistry case based reasoning common law applied civil cases distinct criminal cases devised means compensating someone wrongful acts known torts including intentional torts torts caused negligence developing body law recognizing regulating contracts type procedure practiced common law courts known adversarial system also development common law


medieval english common law view westminster hall palace westminster london early th century henry ii became first plantagenet king among many achievements henry institutionalized common law creating unified system law common country incorporating elevating local custom national ending local control peculiarities eliminating arbitrary remedies reinstating jury system citizens sworn oath investigate reliable criminal accusations civil claims jury reached verdict evaluating common local knowledge necessarily presentation evidence distinguishing factor


today 's civil criminal court systems time royal government centered ''curia regis'' king 's court body aristocrats prelates assisted administration realm ancestor parliament star chamber privy council henry ii developed practice sending judges numbering around curia regis hear various disputes throughout country return court thereafter ref name ref king 's itinerant justices would generally receive writ commission great seal ref name would resolve


disputes ad hoc basis according interpreted customs king 's judges would return london often discuss cases decisions made judges decisions would recorded filed time rule known ' 'stare decisis'' also commonly known precedent developed whereby judge would bound follow decision earlier judge required adopt earlier judge 's interpretation law apply principles promulgated earlier judge two cases similar


facts one another judges began regard 's decisions binding precedent pre norman system local customs law varying locality replaced system least theory though always practice common throughout whole country hence name common law king 's object preserve public order providing law order also extremely profitable cases forest use well fines forfeitures generate great treasure government ref name eyres norman french word judicial circuit originating latin


''iter'' courts would supervise local government raise revenue investigate crimes enforce feudal rights king ref name complaints ''eyre'' reducing kingdom poverty cornishmen fleeing escape eyre henry ii 's creation powerful unified court system curbed somewhat power canonical church courts brought england conflict church famously thomas becket archbishop canterbury murder archbishop gave rise wave popular outrage king henry


forced repeal disputed laws abandon efforts hold church members accountable secular crimes see also constitutions clarendon english court common pleas established magna carta try lawsuits commoners monarch interest judges sat open court great hall king 's palace westminster permanently except vacations four terms legal year judge made common law operated primary source law several hundred years parliament acquired legislative powers create statutory law


important understand common law older traditional source law legislative power simply layer applied top older common law foundation since th century courts parallel co equal authority make law ref name william burnham william burnham ''introduction law legal system united states'' th ed st paul thomson west ref legislating bench traditional essential function courts carried us system essential component judicial power specified article


iii us constitution ref name generalcommonlaw w nostatute justice oliver wendell holmes jr summarized centuries history judges must legislate ref name holmessouthernpacificlegislate ''southern pacific co v jensen'' us holmes j dissenting ref legitimate debates powers courts legislatures balanced however view courts lack law making power historically inaccurate constitutionally unsupportable england judges devised number rules deal precedent decisions early development case law thirteenth century traced bracton 's ''on laws


roman canon law one first throughout history one significant treatises common law bracton 's ''de legibus et consuetudinibus angliae'' laws customs england heavily influenced division law justinian 's ''institutes'' impact roman law decreased sharply age bracton roman divisions actions ''in rem'' typically actions ''thing'' property purpose gaining title property must filed court property located ''in personam'' typically


actions directed person affect person 's rights since person often owns things property used bracton lasting effect laid groundwork return roman law structural concepts th th centuries signs found blackstone 's ''commentaries laws england'' roman law ideas regained importance revival academic law schools th century result today main systematic divisions law property contract tort extent unjust enrichment


found civil law well common law coke blackstone first attempt comprehensive compilation centuries common law lord chief justice edward coke treatise ''institutes lawes england'' th century next definitive historical treatise common law ''commentaries laws england'' written sir william blackstone first published propagation common law colonies commonwealth reception statutes reception statute statutory law adopted


former british colony becomes independent new nation adopts ie receives pre independence common law extent explicitly rejected legislative body constitution new nation reception statutes generally consider english common law dating prior independence precedent originating default law importance using extensive predictable body law govern conduct citizens businesses new state us states partial exception louisiana either implemented reception statutes adopted common law


judicial opinion examples reception statutes united states states us canada provinces hong kong discussed reception statute article yet adoption common law newly independent nation foregone conclusion controversial immediately american revolution widespread distrust hostility anything british common law exception ref name bostonsociallawcommonorcivil jeffersonians decried lawyers common law tradition threats new republic jeffersonians preferred legislatively enacted civil law control political


loyalist expatriation ability print books limited lawyer later president john adams complained suffered much want books bootstrap basic need common law system knowable written law lawyers massachusetts donated books found law library ref name bostonsociallawcommonorcivil jeffersonian newspaper criticized library would carry forward old authorities practiced england centuries back whereby new system jurisprudence founded high monarchical system become common law commonwealth


library may hereafter unsocial purpose ref name bostonsociallawcommonorcivil several decades independence english law still exerted influence american common law example ''byrne v boadle'' first applied res ipsa loquitur doctrine decline latin maxims blind imitation past adding flexibility ' 'stare decisis'' well th century ancient maxims played large role common law adjudication many maxims originated roman law migrated england introduction christianity british isles typically stated latin even


english decisions many examples familiar everyday speech even today one cannot judge one 's cause see dr bonham 's case rights reciprocal obligations like judicial decisions treatises th th centuries lord chief justice edward coke presented common law collection maxims reliance old maxims rigid adherence precedent matter old ill considered came critical discussion late th century starting united states oliver wendell holmes jr famous article


path law commented revolting better reason rule law laid time henry iv still revolting grounds upon laid vanished long since rule simply persists blind imitation past justice holmes noted study maxims might sufficient man present man future man statistics master economics lecture harvard wrote


blockquote life law logic experience felt necessities time prevalent moral political theories intuitions public policy avowed unconscious even prejudices judges share fellow men good deal syllogism determining rules men governed law embodies story nation 's development many centuries cannot dealt contained axioms corollaries book mathematics blockquote early th century


louis brandeis later appointed united states supreme court became noted use policy driving facts economics briefs extensive appendices presenting facts lead judge advocate 's conclusion time briefs relied facts latin maxims reliance old maxims deprecated common law decisions today reflect precedent policy judgment drawn economics social sciences business decisions foreign courts like degree external factors ' 'should'' influence adjudication subject active debate indisputable


judges ' 'do'' draw experience learning everyday life fields jurisdictions th century procedural merger law equity early th century became practice litigants felt cheated common law system would petition king person example might argue award damages common law opposed equity sufficient redress trespasser occupying land instead request trespasser evicted developed system


equity fashioning remedy fit situation including injunctive relief heard judge survived well th century united states federal courts procedurally separated law equity judges could hear either kind case given case could pursue causes law equity two kinds cases proceeded different procedural rules became problematic given case required money damages injunctive relief new federal rules civil procedure combined law equity one form action civil action fedrcivp


distinction survives extent issues common law opposed equity date adoption seventh amendment still subject right either party request jury equity issues decided judge states delaware illinois mississippi south carolina tennessee continue divided courts law courts chancery example delaware court chancery new jersey appellate courts unified trial courts organized chancery division law division


common law pleading abolition early th century centuries th century common law recognized specific forms action required careful drafting opening pleading called writ slot exactly one debt detinue covenant special assumpsit general assumpsit trespass trover replevin case trespass case ejectment initiate lawsuit pleading drafted meet myriad technical requirements correctly categorizing case correct legal pigeonhole pleading alternative permitted using specific


magic words encrusted centuries old common law pleading standards suit ''pro se'' oneself without lawyer party impossible often considerable procedural jousting outset case minor wording issues one major reforms late th century early th century abolition common law pleading requirements plaintiff initiate case giving defendant short plain statement facts constitute alleged wrong reform moved attention courts technical scrutiny


common law jurisdictions nearly every case presents ''bona fide'' disagreement law resolved written opinion legal reasoning decision known ''ratio decidendi'' determines court 's judgment parties also stands precedent resolving future disputes contrast civil law decisions typically include explanatory opinions thus precedent flows one decision next common law systems single decided case binding common law connotation extent statute regulation principle ' 'stare


give weight separation powers judicial branch executive branch contrast civil law systems typically tolerant allowing individual officials exercise powers one example contrast difference two systems allocation responsibility prosecutor adjudicator ref name lawteacherinquisitorialadversarial ref ref name portsmouthadversarialinquisitory ref common law courts usually use adversarial system two sides present cases neutral judge ref name lawteacherinquisitorialadversarial ref name portsmouthadversarialinquisitory contrast civil law systems criminal proceedings proceed inquisitorial system examining magistrate serves two roles


developing evidence arguments one side investigation phase ref name lawteacherinquisitorialadversarial ref name portsmouthadversarialinquisitory examining magistrate presents dossier detailing findings president bench adjudicate case decided trial shall conducted therefore president bench 's view case neutral may biased conducting trial reading dossier unlike common law proceedings president bench inquisitorial system merely


umpire entitled directly interview witnesses express comments trial long express view guilt accused proceeding inquisitorial system essentially writing witnesses would given evidence investigation phase evidence contained dossier form police reports way accused would already put case investigation phase free change


matters jurisdiction standing perform independent research reformulate legal grounds analyze facts presented united states supreme court regularly decides based issues raised amicus briefs non parties one notable cases ''erie railroad v tompkins'' case neither party questioned ruling case ''swift v tyson'' served foundation arguments led supreme court overturn ''swift'' deliberations ref name duke party presentation ref avoid lack notice


courts may invite briefing issue ensure adequate notice however limits appeals court may introduce theory contradicts party 's contentions many exceptions directions example proceedings us federal state agencies inquisitorial nature least initial stages ''eg'' patent examiner social security hearing officer even though law applied developed common law processes contrasting role treatises academic writings common law civil law systems role


legal academy presents significant cultural difference common law connotation civil law jurisdictions systems treatises compile decisions state overarching principles author 's opinion explain results cases neither system treatises considered law weight given nonetheless quite different common law jurisdictions lawyers judges tend use treatises finding aids locate relevant cases common law jurisdictions scholarly work seldom cited authority law chief justice roberts noted great disconnect


academy profession common law courts rely scholarly work almost always factual findings policy justification history evolution law court 's legal conclusion reached analysis relevant statutes common law seldom scholarly commentary contrast civil law jurisdictions courts give writings law professors significant weight partly civil law decisions traditionally brief sometimes paragraph stating wins loses rationale come somewhere else academy often filled role


narrowing differences common law civil law contrast civil law common law legal systems become increasingly blurred growing importance jurisprudence similar case law binding civil law countries growing importance statute law codes common law countries examples common law replaced statute codified rule united states include criminal law since ref name usvhudson us federal courts states held criminal law must embodied statute


public fair notice commercial law uniform commercial code early procedure federal rules civil procedure federal rules evidence note case statute sets general principles interstitial common law process determines scope application statute example convergence direction shown decision ''srl cilfit lanificio di gavardo spa v ministry health'' european court justice held questions


already answered need resubmitted showed historically distinctly common law principle used court composed judges time essentially civil law jurisdiction alternatives former soviet bloc socialist countries used socialist law system although controversy whether socialist law ever constituted separate legal system much muslim world uses legal systems based sharia also called islamic law many churches use system canon law canon law catholic church influenced common law


singapore south africa united kingdom england wales northern ireland united states federal system individual states partial exception louisiana many generally english speaking countries commonwealth countries except uk 's scotland bijuridicial malta essentially every country colonised time england great britain united kingdom uses common law except formerly colonised nations quebec follows bijuridicial law civil code france part south africa sri lanka follow roman dutch law


prior civil law system retained respect civil rights local colonists guyana saint lucia mixed common law civil law systems remainder section discusses jurisdiction specific variants arranged chronologically scotland scotland often said use civil law system unique system combines elements uncodified civil law dating back corpus juris civilis element common law long predating treaty union england see legal institutions scotland high middle


ages founded customary laws tribes residing historically scottish common law differed use ''precedent'' subject courts' seeking discover principle justifies law rather searching example ''precedent'' principles natural justice fairness always played role scots law th century scottish approach precedent developed ' 'stare decisis'' akin already established england thereby reflecting narrower modern approach application case law subsequent instances


criminal law system rest uk high court justiciary final court criminal appeals highest court appeal civil cases brought scotland supreme court united kingdom october final appellate jurisdiction lay house lords united states states united states th century centuries old authority common law courts england develop law case case apply statute law ref name william burnham legislating bench traditional function


courts carried us system essential component judicial power specified article iii us constitution ref name generalcommonlaw w nostatute justice oliver wendell holmes jr summarized centuries history judges must legislate federal courts interstitially state courts full limits common law adjudicatory authority ref name holmessouthernpacificlegislate new york th century original colony new netherland settled dutch law also dutch english captured pre existing colonies continued allow local settlers


keep civil law however dutch settlers revolted english colony recaptured dutch colony new york two distinct legal systems manhattan island along hudson river sophisticated courts modeled netherlands resolving disputes learnedly accordance dutch customary law long island staten island westchester hand english courts administering crude untechnical variant common law carried puritan new england practiced without intercession lawyers english finally regained


control new netherland imposed common law upon colonists including dutch problematic patroon system land holding based feudal system civil law continued operate colony abolished mid th century new york began codification law th century part codification process considered complete known field code applying civil procedure influence roman dutch law continued colony well late th century codification


code latter enacted one year louisiana purchase however two codes similar many respects due common roots louisiana 's criminal law largely rests english common law louisiana 's administrative law generally similar administrative law us federal government us states louisiana 's procedural law generally line us states turn generally based us federal rules civil procedure historically notable among louisiana code 's differences common law role property rights among women


particularly inheritance gained widows california us state california system based common law codified law manner civil law jurisdictions reason enactment california codes th century replace pre existing system based spanish civil law system based common law similar states california number western states however retained concept community property derived civil law california courts treated portions


codes extension common law tradition subject judicial development manner judge made common law notably case ''li v yellow cab co'' cal california supreme court adopted principle comparative negligence face california civil code provision codifying traditional common law doctrine contributory negligence united states federal courts official compilation codification federal statutes united states federal government opposed states variant common law system united states federal courts


act interpreters statutes constitution elaborating precisely defining broad statutory language connotation b unlike state courts generally act independent source common law federal courts like almost common law courts decided law issue relevant legislature either us congress state legislature depending issue acted looking courts system federal courts even issues state law even express grant authority


reason state 's highest court would rule presented issue certify question state 's highest court resolution later courts limited ''erie'' slightly create situations united states federal courts permitted create federal common law rules without express statutory authority example federal rule decision necessary protect uniquely federal interests foreign affairs financial instruments issued federal government ''see eg'' ''clearfield trust co v united states'' giving federal courts authority fashion common law rules


respect issues federal power case negotiable instruments backed federal government ' 'see also'' ''international news service v associated press'' http caselawlpfindlawcom scripts getcaseplnavby case court us vol page us creating cause action misappropriation hot news lacks statutory grounding ''but see national basketball association v motorola inc'' f cir noting continued vitality ''ins'' hot news tort new york state law leaving open question whether survives federal law except constitutional issues congress free legislatively overrule federal courts' common law


united states executive branch agencies executive branch agencies united states federal government adjudicatory authority greater lesser extent agencies honor precedent ensure consistent results agency decision making governed administrative procedure act example national labor relations board issues relatively regulations instead promulgates substantive rules common law connotation india pakistan bangladesh th century law india pakistan bangladesh largely based english common law long


india british east india company british india came direct rule crown british parliament passed government india act effect set structure british government india ref name wdl ref established britain office secretary state india parliament would exercise rule along council india aid also established office governor general india along executive council india consisted high officials british government


result present judicial system country derives largely british system little correlation institutions pre british era post partition india constitution india longest written constitution country containing articles schedules numerous amendments words post partition india retained common law system much contemporary indian law shows substantial european american influence legislation first introduced british still effect modified form today drafting indian constitution laws ireland united states britain


france synthesized produce refined set indian laws indian laws also adhere united nations guidelines human rights law environmental law certain international trade laws intellectual property also enforced india exception rule state goa annexed stages goa portuguese uniform civil code place religions common law regarding marriages divorces adoption post partition pakistan post partition pakistan retained common law system post partition bangladesh


common law system civil matters exception quebec uses french heritage civil law system issues arising within provincial jurisdiction property ownership contracts canadian federal legal system canadian federal courts operate separate system throughout canada deal narrower range subject matter superior courts province territory hear cases subjects assigned federal statutes immigration intellectual property judicial review federal government decisions admiralty federal court appeal appellate court federal courts hears cases


multiple cities unlike united states canadian federal court appeal divided appellate circuits canadian federal statutes must use terminology common law civil law civil matters referred legislative bijuralism canadian criminal law criminal law uniform throughout canada based federal statutory criminal code addition substance also details procedural law administration justice responsibilities provinces canadian criminal law uses common law system matter province case proceeds nicaragua


nicaragua 's legal system also mixture english common law civil law situation brought influence british administration eastern half mosquito coast mid th century william walker period usa interventions occupations period influence usa institutions somoza family administrations considerable importation present usa culture institutions israel israel common law legal system basic principles


inherited law british mandate palestine thus resemble british american law namely role courts creating body law authority supreme court reviewing necessary overturning legislative executive decisions well employing adversarial system one primary reasons israeli constitution remains unwritten fear whatever party holds power creating written constitution combined common law elements would severely limit powers knesset following doctrine parliamentary sovereignty holds


near unlimited power roman dutch common law roman dutch common law bijuridical mixed system law similar common law system scotland louisiana roman dutch common law jurisdictions include south africa botswana lesotho namibia swaziland sri lanka zimbabwe many jurisdictions recognise customary law south africa constitution requires common law developed accordance bill rights roman dutch common law development roman dutch law courts roman dutch common law jurisdictions napoleonic wars


kingdom netherlands adopted french ''code civil'' however dutch colonies cape good hope sri lanka time called ceylon seized british prevent used bases french navy system developed courts spread expansion british colonies southern africa roman dutch common law relies legal principles set roman law sources justinian 's institutes digest also writing dutch jurists th century grotius


law statutory law gold coast section ordinance formalised application common law tradition country ghana independence away common law system inherited british today enshrined constitution country chapter four ghana 's constitution entitled laws ghana article list laws applicable state comprises constitution b enactments made authority parliament established constitution c orders rules regulations


made person authority power conferred constitution existing law e common law thus modern day constitution ghana like embraced english common law entrenching provisions doctrine judicial precedence based principle ' 'stare decisis'' applied england pure common law countries also applies ghana scholarly works sir william blackstone illustrated ''commentaries laws england'' edward coke th century lord chief justice english court


common pleas member parliament mp wrote several legal texts collected integrated centuries case law lawyers england america learned law ''institutes'' ''reports'' end th century works still cited common law courts around world next definitive historical treatise common law ''commentaries laws england'' written sir william blackstone first published since facsimile edition first edition available four paper bound volumes today superseded


english part united kingdom halsbury 's laws england covers common statutory english law still massachusetts supreme judicial court named us supreme court justice oliver wendell holmes jr published short volume called ''the common law'' remains classic field unlike blackstone restatements holmes' book briefly discusses law ''is'' rather holmes describes common law ''process'' law professor john chipman gray 's ''the nature sources law'' examination survey common


law also still commonly read us law schools united states restatements various subject matter areas contracts torts judgments edited american law institute collect common law area ali restatements often cited american courts lawyers propositions uncodified common law considered highly persuasive authority binding precedential decisions corpus juris secundum encyclopedia whose main content compendium common law variations throughout various state jurisdictions scots ''common law'' covers matters including murder


theft sources custom legal writings previous court decisions legal writings used called ''institutional texts'' come mostly th th th centuries examples include craig ''jus feudale'' stair ''the institutions law scotland'' see also outline law common law national legal systems today list common law national legal systems common vs civil laws civil law common law offences development english legal system case law books authority lists case law early common


columbia university press milsom sfc ''historical foundations common law'' nd ed lexis law publishing va external links https archiveorg details historycommonla hallgoog ''the history common law england analysis civil part law'' matthew hale https archiveorg details historyofenglish polluoft ''the history english law time edward i'' pollock maitland select https webarchiveorg web http legacyfordhamedu halsall basis maitland formsofactionasp select writs fwmaitland https archiveorg details commonlawpleadin perr page n mode ''common law pleading history principles'' rross perry boston http biotechlawlsuedu books holmes claw chtm ''the common law'' oliver wendell holmes jr http scholarshiplawupennedu cgi viewcontentcgiarticle context penn law review ''the principle stare decisis'' american law register http ausiclcom australian institute comparative


legal systems http wwwiilssorg international institute law strategic studies iilss http legislationnswgovau ''new south wales legislation'' https webarchiveorg web http xmllibhkuhk gsdl db oelawhk searchshtml historical laws hong kong online university hong kong libraries digital initiatives http wwwlawfulpathcom ref bouvier maximsshtml maxims common law bouvier 's law dictionary legal history legal systems


'''civil law''' major branch law ref name williams glanville williams ''learning law'' eleventh edition stevens p ref common law legal systems england wales united states term refers non criminal law ref name williams law relating civil wrongs quasi contracts part civil law law property property related crimes theft vandalism civil law may like criminal law divided substantive law procedural law rights duties persons natural persons legal persons amongst primary


concern civil law often suggested civil proceedings taken purpose obtaining compensation injury may thus distinguished criminal proceedings whose purpose inflict punishment however exemplary damages punitive damages may awarded civil proceedings also formerly possible common informers sue penalty civil proceedings courts civil criminal jurisdiction civil proceedings cannot defined taken civil courts united states expression civil courts used shorthand trial courts


civil cases england common law countries burden proof civil proceedings general number exceptions committal proceedings civil contempt proof balance probabilities civil cases law maldives burden proof requires plaintiff convince court plaintiff 's entitlement relief sought means plaintiff must prove element claim cause action order recover see also outline civil law common law civil code administrative law federal law federal rules civil


procedure law natural law legal treatise references law


research distinct computer programming algorithms data structures called heart computer science theory computation concerns abstract models computation general classes problems solved using cryptography computer security study means secure communication prevent security vulnerabilities computer graphics computational geometry study generation images programming language theory considers approaches description computational processes database theory concerns management repositories data human computer interaction investigates interfaces humans computers interact software engineering focuses


gottfried leibniz demonstrated digital mechanical calculator called stepped reckoner leibniz may considered first computer scientist information theorist among reasons documenting binary number system thomas de colmar launched mechanical calculator industry ref group note ref invented simplified arithmometer first calculating machine strong enough reliable enough used daily office environment charles babbage started design first ''automatic mechanical calculator'' difference engine eventually gave idea first ''programmable mechanical calculator'' analytical engine


started developing machine less two years sketched many salient features modern computer ref name hyman ref crucial step adoption punched card system derived jacquard loom ref name hyman making infinitely programmable ref group note introduction punched cards new engine important convenient form control drums programs could unlimited extent could stored repeated without danger introducing errors setting machine hand


important also served crystallize babbage 's feeling invented something really new something much sophisticated calculating machine bruce collier ref translation french article analytical engine ada lovelace wrote one many notes included algorithm compute bernoulli numbers considered first published algorithm ever specifically tailored implementation computer around herman hollerith invented tabulator used punched cards process statistical information eventually company became part ibm following babbage


although unaware earlier work percy ludgate published nd two designs mechanical analytical engines history one hundred years babbage 's impossible dream howard aiken convinced ibm making kinds punched card equipment also calculator business develop giant programmable calculator ascc harvard mark based babbage 's analytical engine used cards central computing unit machine finished hailed babbage 's dream come true development new