degree rather principle trade remote regions one country thus methodology international trade economics differs little remainder economics however direction academic research subject influenced fact governments often sought impose restrictions upon international trade motive development trade theory often wish determine consequences restrictions branch trade theory conventionally categorized classical consists mainly application


deductive logic originating ricardo 's theory ''comparative advantage'' developing range theorems depend practical value upon realism postulates modern trade analysis hand depends mainly upon ''empirical analysis'' classical theory theory ''comparative advantage'' provides logical explanation international trade rational consequence comparative advantages arise inter regional differences regardless differences arise since exposition david ricardo techniques neo classical economics applied model patterns

Social science
Economics
International economics


capital referred factor endowments resulting theorem states assumptions country relative abundance capital would export capital intensive products import labour intensive products theorem proved limited predictive value demonstrated came known leontief paradox discovery despite capital rich factor endowment america exporting labour intensive products importing capital intensive products nevertheless theoretical techniques many assumptions used deriving h model subsequently used derive theorems


stolper samuelson theorem often described corollary h theorem early example general form states price good rises falls price factor used intensively industry also rise fall price factor fall rise international trade context devised means trade lowers real wage scarce factor production protection trade raises another corollary h theorem samuelson 's factor price equalisation


considered provide valuable insights seldom proved directly applicable task explaining trade patterns modern analysis modern trade analysis moves away restrictive assumptions h theorem explores effects upon trade range factors including technology scale economies makes extensive use econometrics identify available statistics contribution particular factors among many different factors affect trade contributions differences technology evaluated several studies temporary


advantage arising country 's development new technology seen contributory factor one study researchers found research development expenditure patents issued availability skilled labor indicators technological leadership enables countries produce flow technological innovations found technology leaders tend export hi tech products others receive imports standard products another econometric study also established correlation country size share exports made goods production


scale economies study suggested internationally traded goods fall three categories different type comparative advantage goods produced extraction routine processing available natural resources coal oil wheat developing countries often advantage compared types production might referred ricardo goods low technology goods textiles steel tend migrate countries appropriate factor endowments might referred heckscher ohlin goods high technology goods high scale economy goods computers aeroplanes


comparative advantage arises availability r resources specific skills proximity large sophisticated markets strong presumption exchange freely undertaken benefit parties exclude possibility may harmful others however assumptions included constant returns competitive conditions paul samuelson proved always possible gainers international trade compensate losers moreover proof samuelson take account gains others resulting


wider consumer choice international specialisation productive activities consequent economies scale transmission benefits technological innovation oecd study suggested dynamic gains resulting better resource allocation deepening specialisation increasing returns r technology spillover authors found evidence concerning growth rates mixed strong evidence per cent increase openness trade increases level gdp per capita per cent per


cent suggested much gain arises growth productive firms expense less productive findings others contributed broad consensus among economists trade confers substantial net benefits government restrictions upon trade generally damaging factor price equalisation nevertheless widespread misgivings effects international trade upon wage earners developed countries samuelson 's factor price equalisation theorem indicates productivity countries effect trade would bring equality


wage rates noted theorem sometimes taken mean trade industrialised country developing country would lower wages unskilled industrialised country however unreasonable assume productivity would low wage developing country high wage developed country study found international differences wage rates approximately matched corresponding differences productivity ref name questiacom https wwwquestiacom pmqsta stephen golub ''labor costs international trade'' american enterprise institute ref discrepancies remained


probably result valuation valuation exchange rates inflexibilities labour markets argued although may sometimes short term pressures wage rates developed countries competition employers developing countries expected eventually bring wages line employees' ''marginal products'' remaining international wage differences would result productivity differences would difference unit labour costs developing developed countries downward pressure wages developed countries


terms trade also concern international trade could operate interests developing countries influential studies published argentine economist raul prebisch british economist hans singer suggested tendency prices agricultural products fall relative prices manufactured goods turning ''terms trade'' developing countries producing unintended transfer wealth developed countries findings confirmed number subsequent studies although


suggested effect may due ''quality bias'' index numbers used possession ''market power'' manufacturers prebisch singer findings remain controversial used time used subsequently suggest developing countries erect barriers manufactured imports order nurture infant industries reduce need export agricultural products arguments policy similar concerning ''protection'' infant industries general infant industries term infant industry


used denote new industry prospects gaining comparative advantage long term would unable survive face competition imported goods situation occur time needed either achieve potential ''economies scale'' acquire potential ''learning curve'' economies successful identification situation followed temporary imposition barrier imports principle produce substantial benefits country applies policy known import substitution industrialization whether policies succeed depends upon governments skills


picking winners reasonably expectations successes failures claimed south korea 's automobile industry owes existence initial protection imports study infant industry protection turkey reveals absence association productivity gains degree protection might expected successful import substitution policy another study provides descriptive evidence suggesting attempts import substitution industrialisation since usually failed empirical evidence question contradictory inconclusive argued


case import substitution industrialisation bound fail subsidies tax incentives job better also pointed case trade restrictions could expected correct domestic market imperfections often hamper development infant industries trade policies economists findings benefits trade often rejected government policy makers frequently sought protect domestic industries foreign competition erecting barriers tariffs import quotas imports average tariff levels around


per cent late th century rose percent following passage united states smoot hawley tariff act mainly result international agreements auspices general agreement tariffs trade gatt subsequently world trade organization wto average tariff levels progressively reduced per cent second half th century trade restrictions also removed restrictions remain nevertheless major economic importance among estimates world bank estimated


removal trade restrictions would yield benefits billion year largest remaining trade distorting policies concerning agriculture oecd countries government payments account per cent farmers receipts tariffs per cent common oecd economists estimate cutting agricultural tariffs subsidies would set chain reaction realignments production consumption patterns would add extra billion annual world income quotas prompt foreign suppliers raise prices toward


domestic level importing country relieves competitive pressure domestic suppliers foreign suppliers gain expense loss consumers domestic economy addition ' 'deadweight loss'' world economy quotas banned rules general agreement tariffs trade gatt united states britain european union made use equivalent arrangements known ''voluntary restraint agreements'' vras voluntary export restraints vers negotiated governments exporting


countries mainly japan banned tariffs considered less harmful quotas although shown welfare effects differ significant upward downward trends imports governments also impose wide range non tariff barriers similar effect quotas subject wto agreements recent example application ''precautionary principle'' exclude innovatory products international finance scope methodology economics international finance differ principle economics international


trade significant differences emphasis practice international finance tends involve greater uncertainties risks assets traded claims flows returns often extend many years future markets financial assets tend volatile markets goods services decisions often revised rapidly put effect share presumption transaction freely undertaken benefit parties much greater danger harmful others example


mismanagement mortgage lending united states led banking failures credit shortages developed countries sudden reversals international flows capital often led damaging financial crises developing countries incidence rapid change methodology comparative statics fewer applications theory international trade empirical analysis widely employed also consensus among economists concerning principal issues narrower open controversy consensus international trade exchange rates capital mobility


banking crises countries another banking crises currency crises mixed banking currency crises many times previous post war years outcome expected making influential case flexible exchange rates milton friedman claimed resulting instability would mainly consequence macroeconomic instability empirical analysis found apparent connection neoclassical theory led expect capital flow capital rich


developed economies capital poor developing countries returns capital would higher flows financial capital would tend increase level investment developing countries reducing costs capital direct investment physical capital would tend promote specialisation transfer skills technology however theoretical considerations alone cannot determine balance benefits costs volatility question tackled empirical analysis international monetary fund working paper offers


summary empirical evidence authors found little evidence either benefits liberalisation capital movements claims responsible spate financial crises suggest net benefits achieved countries able meet threshold conditions financial competence others benefits likely delayed vulnerability interruptions capital flows likely increased policies institutions although majority developed countries


floating exchange rates together many developing countries maintain exchange rates nominally fixed usually us dollar euro adoption fixed rate requires intervention foreign exchange market country 's central bank usually accompanied degree control citizens access international markets governments abandoned national currencies favour common currency currency area ''eurozone'' denmark


retained national currencies pegged fixed rate adjacent common currency international scale economic policies promoted international monetary fund imf major influence especially upon developing countries imf set encourage international cooperation monetary matters stabilise exchange rates create international payments system principal activity payment loans help member countries overcome ''balance payments problems'' mainly restoring depleted currency reserves loans however conditional upon


introduction economic measures recipient governments considered fund 's economists provide conditions favourable recovery recommended economic policies broadly adopted united states major developed countries known ''washington consensus'' often included removal restrictions upon incoming investment fund severely criticised joseph stiglitz others consider inappropriate enforcement policies failing warn recipient countries dangers arise volatility capital


movements international financial stability time great depression onwards regulators economic advisors aware economic financial crises spread rapidly country country financial crises serious economic consequences many decades awareness led governments impose strict controls activities conduct banks credit agencies many governments pursued policy deregulation belief resulting efficiency gains would outweigh ' 'systemic risk' 's extensive financial innovations followed described


article financial economics one effects greatly increase international inter connectedness financial markets create international financial system characteristics known control theory complex interactive stability system difficult analyse many possible failure sequences internationally systemic crises followed included equity crash october japanese asset price collapse asian financial crisis russian government default brought long term capital management hedge fund


sub prime mortgages crisis symptoms generally included collapses asset prices increases risk premiums general reductions liquidity measures designed reduce vulnerability international financial system put forward several international institutions bank international settlements made two successive recommendations basel basel ii concerning regulation banks coordinating group regulating authorities financial stability forum set identify address weaknesses system put forward proposals


interim report migration elementary considerations lead presumption international migration results net gain economic welfare wage differences developed developing countries found mainly due productivity differences ref name questiacom may assumed arise mostly differences availability physical social human capital economic theory indicates move skilled worker place returns skill relatively low place relatively high produce


enhanced technical know return one study introduces offsetting factor suggest opportunity migrate fosters enrolment education thus promoting brain gain counteract lost human capital associated emigration however factors counterweighed turn depending intentions remittances used evidence armenia suggests instead acting contractual tool remittances potential recipients incentivize emigration serving resource alleviate migration process whereas studies suggest


parent countries benefit emigration skilled workers generally emigration unskilled semi skilled workers economic benefit countries origin reducing pressure employment creation skilled emigration concentrated specific highly skilled sectors medicine consequences severe even catastrophic cases trained doctors emigrated crucial issues recently acknowledged oecd matter return reinvestment countries origin migrants thus government policies europe increasingly focused upon facilitating


costs alongside lower tax receipts globalization term globalization acquired variety meanings economic terms refers move taking place direction complete mobility capital labour products world 's economies way becoming totally integrated driving forces process reductions politically imposed barriers costs transport communication although even barriers costs eliminated process would limited inter country differences social capital


process ancient origins gathered pace last fifty years far complete concluding stages interest rates wage rates corporate income tax rates would become everywhere driven equality competition investors wage earners corporate personal taxpayers threatened migrate search better terms fact signs international convergence interest rates wage rates tax rates although world integrated respects possible argue


whole less integrated first world war many middle east countries less globalised years ago moves toward integration occurred strongest financial markets globalisation estimated tripled since mid recent research shown improved risk sharing developed countries developing countries increased macroeconomic volatility estimated resulted net welfare gains worldwide losers well gainers


increased globalisation also made easier recessions spread country country reduction economic activity one country lead reduction activity trading partners result consequent reduction demand exports one mechanisms business cycle transmitted country country empirical research confirms greater trade linkage countries coordinated business cycles globalisation also significant influence upon conduct macroeconomic policy mundell fleming model


extensions often used analyse role capital mobility also used paul krugman give simple account asian financial crisis part increase income inequality taken place within countries attributable cases globalisation recent imf report demonstrates increase inequality developing countries period due entirely technological change globalisation making partially offsetting negative contribution


parent countries social stresses resulting immigration receiving countries extensive critical analysis contentions made martin wolf lecture professor jagdish bhagwati surveyed debate taken place among economists see also list international trade topics arbitrage comparative advantage gains trade notes references stanley w black international monetary institutions ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' nd edition http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde q international topicid result number abstract june flanders international economics history ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' nd edition http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde q international economics topicid result number abstract james rauch


growth international trade ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' nd edition http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde g q international trade topicid result number abstract henry thompson international economics global markets competition rd edition http wwwworldscientificcom worldscibooks aboutbook articleid pde g q international trade topicid result number abstract external links alan deardorff '' http www personalumichedu alandear glossary glossary international economics '' links z much micro macro carnegie endowment international peace https webarchiveorg web http wwwcarnegieendowmentorg publications special periodicals ieb international economics bulletin analysis global economy council foreign relations https waybackarchive itorg http wwwcfrorg global governance global governance monitor p iigg interactive guide global finance international economics great outsourcing shift http wwwinternational economics great outsourcing shiftcom essential guide understanding domestic companies soon change outsourcing focus china mexico historical documents https fraserstlouisfedorg subject international trade


https fraserstlouisfedorg subject international finance available fraser http oiereu organization international economic relations oier


'' 'social economy''' formed rich diversity enterprises organisations cooperatives mutuals associations foundations social enterprises paritarian institutions sharing common values features primacy individual social objective capital voluntary open membership democratic governance combination interests members users general interest defence application principles solidarity responsibility autonomous management independence public authorities though cross sector collaboration common ref name reinvestment least profits carry sustainable development objectives services interest


renew local neighbourhoods demonstrating new ways deliver public services developing inclusive society active citizenship embracing competitors competition may indicate greater overall market productivity achieving social goals ref name ref defining limits social economy sector difficult due shifting politics economics time organisations may partly partly moving among sub sectors social economy social enterprise compass organisations may placed social enterprise compass measures enterprises organisations continuum private public sectors px horizontal axis horizontal axis enterprise


organisation categorized ownership left side ownership public authorities right side private industry private industry encompasses economic activity capital one many private owners view making profit personal benefit owners supply financial capital bear risk public authorities encompass economic activity public authorities possess capital national federal regional local level includes nationalised public industries vertical axis vertical axis enterprise organisation categorized primary


objective social purpose top commercial purpose bottom social purpose primary objective enterprise meets following criteria ''ethical concept '' core definition ''mission key identification '' enterprise 's primary objective improve lives disadvantaged people provide support advance social cohesion improve environment ''social economic creation value appropriation earnings qualitative key identification '' profits resources verifiably reinvested benefit disadvantaged people criteria met organisation top vertical axis one criterion descriptive


feature ''intermediary function '' social economical enterprises organisations intermediary function public private none criteria met primary object enterprise commercial located bottom vertical axis social commercial purposes criteria partially met enterprise located along vertical axis according self definition international comparisons canada definition social economy used chantier de l' conomie sociale quebec follows social economy made association based economic activities founded values


service members community rather generating profits seeking financial returns autonomous management government controlled democratic decision making primacy persons work capital based principles participation empowerment individual collective responsibility social economy includes social assets housing childcare centres etc community organizations social enterprises including co operatives revenue generating programs non profit groups credit unions social financing organizations like community loan funds training skills development enterprises sectoral regional organizations eg renewal energy associations canadian community economic development network ccednet national


member led organization committed strengthening canadian communities creating economic opportunities enhance social environmental conditions canadian social economy hub csehub acted facilitator promoting collaboration among six regional research centres across canada qu bec atlantic southern ontario prairies northern ontario bc alberta north creating opportunities exchanges international networks canadian social economy research partnerships cserp established five year social sciences humanities research grant researchers drawn universities social economy organisations created products including e books occasional


papers paper series france term social economy derives french '' conomie sociale'' first recorded sector comprises four families organisations cooperatives mutuals associations voluntary organisations foundations france must public utility social economy major sector representing percent employment spain first law social economy europe approved spain early social economy spain represented gross domestic product businesses employees impacting associated people producing


million gross sales consequently concept ''econom social'' firmly embedded country 's academic political economic institutions process national political integration social economy spain started creation national institute promotion social economy instituto nacional de fomento de la econom social infes law spain 's parliament december year infes replaced former directorate general cooperatives worker owned societies direcci n general de cooperativas sociedades laborales spanish ministry labour social security among


housing agricultural services seafarers credit education health insurance transport cooperatives worker owned societies associations foundations mutual societies insertion companies special employment centers agricultural processing companies fishermen 's associations share guiding principles social economy organizations covered directly indirectly aforementioned articles spanish constitution principles confer distinct specific character regard types commercial companies organizations spain ref name cepes national confederation social economy enterprises established cepes confederaci n empresarial espa ola de econom social represent interests


cuba concept ''econom social'' accepted government hugo ch vez believed informal sector could absorbed social economy venezuela strictly controlling nationalising large firms creating new forms private enterprise accessible poor wage labour seen source exploitation government hoped reduce eliminate promoting corporate governance family cooperative businesses restricting labour contracts government planned provide technology training finance exclusive contracts small enterprises could survive national


marketplace european union european level french concept predominates delors commission established social economy unit coordinate movement european level however official texts adopted term co operatives mutuals associations foundations cmafs social economy one nine themes nbsp billion equal community initiative european economic social committee published study drawn ciriec international centre research information public social cooperative economy social economy european union available official languages union


recent study carried focused emerging new concepts related social economy new public policies related social economy european parliament established social economy intergroup seig integrating meps political groups countries social economy represents million enterprises including mutuals cooperatives employs million paid employees european union ireland social economy well funded example rural transport schemes assist socially disadvantaged isolated locations united kingdom uk social enterprise movement


discussions much social economy centred social economy alliance created support ecosystem social impact focused businesses charities also phrase used labour party describe economy surrounding social enterprises uk minister civil society uk expressly responsible social enterprise social investment new zealand new zealand office community voluntary sector however research programme progress study nz non profit sector united states


united states rapid social change led shifts purpose organizational forms actors within social economy diverse array organizations companies constitute social economy including profit businesses c non profits cooperatives credit unions limited liability companies social enterprises benefit corporations fit neatly aforementioned categories may considered hybrid organization scholars define hybrids organizations maintain social mission pursuing profit others define specifically profit ventures operate generate revenues partner nonprofit ref name ref ref name ref hybrids primarily


existed sectors job training health care microcredit recently expanded include environmentalism technology even consulting organizational differences acknowledged tax codes several states entities benefit corporations organisation economic co operation development oecd defines sectors differently depending purpose sector grouping institutions government taxing authority business taxable profit making philanthropy untaxed nonprofit household taxable personal income however due increasingly hybridized institutions within social economy categorization may clearly fit within social enterprise compass designation


may depend upon legal financial structures well organization 's purpose goals policy makers may need shift legal boundaries adapt dynamic social economy ref name ref rise social economy sometimes referred fourth sector began president ronald reagan drastically cut public spending significantly decreased amount funding non profits received yet neoliberal shifts privatized previously public services non profit sector became increasingly necessary provide goods services third sector blossomed tax exempt charitable organizations registered


irs number grew continued stagnation funding throughout late despite growing number nonprofits meant increased competition limited grants available third sector non profits became increasingly entrepreneurial means survival giving rise social economy called fourth sector fourth sector differs third sector location united states emphasis business opposed government leadership contemporary neoliberal socioeconomic political environment united states' market based mechanisms emphasized


social economy enterprises section european union http wwwsocialeconomynetworkorg social economy network http socialeconomyinstitute social economy greek institute http koinseporg network greek social enterprises http socialeconomybristolorg social economy bristol http wwwsocialeconomyhubca canadian social economy hub https ccednet rcdecca en canadian community economic development network http wwwsocialeconomyca bc social economy roundtable http wwwsocialeconomicsorg divisionphppage ase membership association social economics ase http wwwdictionnaireenapca dictionnaire index par motenap word id lng en encyclopedic dictionary public administration social economy http wwwaim mutualorg association internationale de la mutualit aim http wwwsocialeconomyeuorg social economy europe reading ''for people uncovering hidden history cooperation cooperative movements communalism america'' pm press john curl


like rational choice theory conflict theory functionalism '''pure sociology''' sociological paradigm strategy explaining human behavior developed donald black alternative individualistic social psychological theories pure sociology initially used explain variation legal behavior since black pure sociologists used strategy explain terrorism genocide lynching forms conflict management ref name autogenerated black donald social structure right wrong san diego academic press ref well science art religion epistemology pure sociology explains

Social science
Sociology
Social control
Pure sociology


groups individuals reference mental constructs psychology purposes action teleology pure sociology reconceptualizes human behavior social life something exist mind explainable aims actions supraindividual pure sociology distinguished sociological paradigms absent psychology teleology even people pure sociology 's focus unique social reality may sound durkheimian black views approach durkheimian durkheim explanations https wwwamazoncom behavior law donald black dp ''the behavior law '' published


donald black introduced first example pure sociology general theory law governmental social control theory seeks explain variation law one aspect legal variation amount law attracted case conflict conflict situation one person grievance another assault occurred contract broken offended parties may may appeal police civil courts resolve cases may attract law


attract law may less police make arrest assault case instance law merely call police someone convicted sentenced law merely arrest pure sociology law explains variation identifying number sociological variables associated variation quantity law include various forms social status wealth integration culture conventionality organization


respectability well various forms social distance relational distance cultural distance aspects social structures cases cases disputants high status different social structures handled differently cases involving low status disputants whether disputants socially close distant one another also determines amount law case attracts example one theory 's predictions within society law varies directly relational distance relational distance refers amount intensity


interaction parties theory predicts law conflicts strangers intimates aspect theory explains numerous facts kill strangers punished severely kill intimates women raped strangers likely report police'' since publication https wwwamazoncom behavior law donald black dp ''the behavior law'' black pure sociologists applied theoretical strategy numerous subjects notably black developed general theory social control


goes beyond law explain generally handling human conflicts ref name autogenerated conflicts handled without appealing legal system theory thus explains law avoidance gossip therapy feuding numerous forms non governmental social control addition extending subject matter later work also extends theory focus social characteristics initial disputants conflict also third parties knowledge conflict example https webarchiveorg web http ugaedu soc people faculty cooney markphp mark cooney examines third party behavior shapes


violence whether third parties involve conflict determine likelihood violence also form violence takes example social configurations characterized close distant group ties conducive feud like behavior violence occurs back forth groups long period time situation third parties members groups relationally close fellow group members distant others conflicts groups occur thus support one side oppose may join


retaliatory violence members rival groups social configurations conducive forms violence even peace example cross cutting ties people relationally close members groups third parties likely promote peace recently black moved beyond study conflicts handled examine origin conflict https webarchiveorg web http wwwoupcom us catalog general subject sociology theorymethods view usa ci ''moral time'' identifies causes clashes right wrong human relationships theory invokes new explanatory concept idea movement


' 'social time'' thus extends pure sociological approach black others also moved beyond conflict social control develop explanations ideas predation welfare research forms social life example black 's theory ideas explains content ideas social structures conflict social structure consists social characteristics disputants third parties every idea every statement reality social structure consisting characteristics source subject audience example subject idea may


intimate distant source people ideas family members friends well strangers subject may also high low social status people ideas senators businessmen well skid row vagrants ideas vary depending social structures black 's explanation voluntarism determinism example states ideas high status subjects likely voluntaristic invoke free theory would predict people would offer voluntaristic explanations senators businessmen deterministic explanations


skid row vagrants practitioners scholars number sociologists used least elements black 's theoretical strategy work including professors mp baumgartner marian borg bradley campbell https webarchiveorg web http sociologyugaedu people faculty mark cooney mark cooney https webarchiveorg web http wwwcsunedu csbs departments sociology faculty pages godardhtml ellis godard https webarchiveorg web http wwwihhcparrutgersedu us membersaspv allan horwitz http wwwcechucedu criminaljustice employees jacquest scott jacques http cssloynoedu sociology faculty staff marcus kondkar marcus kondkar https webarchiveorg web http socawvuedu faculty staff faculty directory jason manning jason manning joseph michalski http wwwlawberkeleyedu php programs faculty facultyprofilephpfacid calvin morrill http wwwduedu ahss schools sociology facultystaff phillips scotthtml scott phillips https webarchiveorg web http wwwwluedu x xmlinsertfile x roberta senechal de la roche http pubpagesunhedu jetucker site homehtml james tucker criticism prominent sociologists randall collins https webarchiveorg web http sociologyrutgersedu faculty cerulohtml karen cerulo https webarchiveorg web http sociwebtamuedu facultyphpfaculty id david sciulli jonathan h turner praised aspects pure sociology approach


also criticized kam c wong criticizes pure sociology 's scientism david f greenberg use covering law explanations thomas j scheff attempt disciplinary purity symposium http wwwsouthalabamaedu syansw dmarshallhtml douglas marshall offers extended critique system marshall argues contrary black 's stated goal making sociology scientific approach actually antithetical modern scientific values practices theme reiterated stephen turner symposium response criticism https webarchiveorg web http ugaedu soc people faculty cooney markphp mark cooney http wwwrcirutgersedu avhorw allan horwitz joseph michalski responded specific criticisms pure sociology donald


black epistemology pure sociology well writings responded generally critics' claims provided extensive defense pure sociological approach noting ideological nature many attacks black says theory fact politically morally neutral ref name autogenerated black donald epistemology pure sociology law social inquiry ref according black nonetheless attracts politicized hostility due unconventionality blockquote work shocking politically incorrect epistemologically incorrect violates conventional


conceptions social reality general legal moral reality particular therefore shocks epistemologically shocks many inflicted disturb universe may worthy contempt may appear favorite political enemy conservative radical radical conservative ref name autogenerated blockquote black also discusses aims approach unconventional sociology conventional science striving provide simple general testable valid original explanations reality criteria


alone black maintains judged blockquote wish criticize work tell predict explain legal related behavior better tell work testable something else tell general something else tell less elegant something else tell already published tell wrong tell something relevant trying accomplish something scientific blockquote references reading '''baumgartner mp''' law


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executive way conflict management corporations chicago il university chicago press '''mullis jeffrey''' medical malpractice social structure social control sociological forum '''peterson elicka s''' murder self help women intimate partner violence homicide studies '''phillips scott''' social structure vengeance test black model criminology racial disparities capital punishment blind justice requires blindfold american constitution society law policy issue briefs '''phillips scott mark cooney''' aiding peace abetting violence third parties management


conflict ''american sociological review'' '''senechal de la roche roberta''' beyond behavior law law social inquiry collective violence social control sociological forum sociogenesis lynching pages sentence death lynching south edited w fitzhugh brundage chapel hill university north carolina press collective violence collective sociological theory modern lynchings pages violence theory research edited margaret zahn henry h brownstein shelly l jackson cincinnati anderson publishing company '''silberman


matthew''' ''the civil justice process sequential model mobilization law'' academic press '''tucker james''' employee theft social control deviant behavior virginia review sociology law conflict management greenwich ct jai press inc editor preface page ix virginia review sociology law conflict management edited james tucker greenwich ct jai press inc everyday forms employee resistance sociological forum therapeutic corporation new york oxford university press therapy organization state


blackian perspective pages counseling therapeutic state edited james j chriss new york aldine de gruyter worker deviance social control research sociology work becoming pure sociologist contemporary sociology new age religion cult self society january february explain murder global crime new age healers therapeutic culture pages therapeutic culture edited jonathan imber new brunswick transaction publishers '''tucker james susan ross''' corporal


punishment black theory social control corporal punishment theoretical perspective edited michael j donnelly murray strauss new yale university press '''wong kam c''' black 's theory behavior law revisited ''international journal sociology law'' '''wong siu kwong''' crime clearance rates canadian municipalities test donald black 's theory law ''international journal law crime justice'' sociological theories rational choice theory


timnit gebru wants replace us census costs b year implement simply analyzing cars seen google street view images ai fintech forum stanford icme '''public sociology''' subfield wider sociological discipline emphasizes expanding disciplinary boundaries sociology order engage non academic audiences perhaps best understood ' 'style'' sociology rather particular method theory set political values since twenty first century term widely associated university california berkeley sociologist michael burawoy

Social science
Sociology
Applied sociology
Public sociology


delivered impassioned call disciplinary embrace public sociology american sociological association asa presidential address ref name address burawoy contrasts public sociology terms professional sociology form sociology concerned primarily addressing academic sociologists burawoy advocates public sociology encourage discipline engage issues significant public political concern include debates public policy political activism purposes social movements institutions civil society public sociology considered movement within


public sociologists included david riesman author ''the lonely crowd'' one best selling books sociology ever written robert bellah lead author another best selling work ''habits heart'' four years burawoy 's asa address sociologist ben agger wrote book ''public sociology social facts literary acts'' called sociology addressed major public issues however northwestern university race scholar aldon morris argues book ''the scholar denied w e b du bois birth modern sociology'' w e b du bois


practicing public sociology long term incorporated mainstream disciplinary vocabulary scientific racism prevented du bois' contributions recognized discipline nearly century morris argues du bois built first actual scientific department sociology tenure atlanta university historically black college predating scientific revolution chicago school often credited turning sociology rigorous empirical social science ref name ref du bois robust empirical sociological research necessary order emancipate american blacks tyrannies oppressions built


racist fabric american society thorough inductive research du bois sought dismantle delegitimize social darwinist biological cultural deficiency explanations racial inequality grounded empirical evidence relied grand deductive narratives basis scientific analysis ref name du bois colleagues made use scientific method robust empirical inquiry dual goals turning sociology real social science committed empirical investigation using findings liberate empower emancipate american blacks violence racist oppression ref name debates


public sociology rekindled questions concerning extra academic purpose sociology public sociology raises questions sociology goals ought even could debates science political advocacy scholarship public commitment long history american sociology american social science generally historian mark c smith instance investigated earlier debates purpose social science book ''social science crucible american debate objectivity purpose '' stephen p turner jonathan h turner argue book ''the


impossible science institutional analysis american sociology'' sociology 's search purpose dependence external publics limited discipline 's potential today one definition public sociology term come widely associated burawoy 's particular perspective sociology ref name excerpt burawoy 's asa presidential address provides succinct summary understanding term blockquote mirror conscience society sociology must define promote inform public debate deepening class racial inequalities new gender regimes environmental degradation market fundamentalism state non state violence


believe world needs public sociology sociology transcends academy ever potential publics multiple ranging media audiences policy makers silenced minorities social movements local global national public sociology stimulates debate contexts inspires revitalizes discipline return theory research give legitimacy direction substance public sociology teaching equally central public sociology students first public carry sociology walks life finally critical imagination exposing gap


polanyi public sociology progressive impact hold continuously accountable vision democratic socialism blockquote mark jacobs amy best write mission public sociology michael burawoy formulation strengthen institutions civil society encroachments state market indeed burawoy maintains since last half twentieth century twenty first political stance sociology drifted leftward encompassing influence neoliberalism dragged rest world rightward


aftermath reaganomics state market begun work collusion propagate ideals market fundamentalism replacing state 's role redistributing resources providing social welfare services one creating economic opportunities enterprise view devastating consequences civil society subject sociology unless discipline embraces call unashamedly engage world 's diverse risk publics achieve greater good thus resisting perverse allure neoliberalism one example seen vast increase adjunct professors


universities impact inability professors publish articles would give credence eyes publics also within discipline even face adversity many sociologists remain optimistic potential latent within sociology develop alternative paradigm market fundamentalism heart burawoy 's critique sociological discipline dynamic ever changing long history incorporating new theoretical empirical insights analyses often goal empowering marginalized publics indeed sociology


work evolved processes adaptation study domination labor movements concepts stratification theory shifted study mobility within hierarchy occupational prestige examination changing structures social economic inequality along axes class race gender sociology race moved theories assimilation political economy study racial formations social theory allowed introduced radical interpretations canonical figures max weber emile durkheim karl marx incorporated subaltern subfields


feminism ethnic studies significant impact discipline sociologists alone debating public role social science similar debates occurred recently disciplines economics political science anthropology geography history various sub disciplines including political ecology effort move various disciplines toward public social science craig calhoun president social science research council encouraged sociologists social scientists ask better social science questions encourages scientific innovation makes knowledge useful pursue


york city contained many facets public sociology many presentations engaged directly public sociology debate constituting practical public sociology reflections participatory research citizenship project paul johnston new public sociology punishment heather schoenfeld activists want public sociology feminist scholars reproduction danielle bessett christine morton developing public sociology lay knowledge civic intelligence health impact assessment eva elliott gareth williams lambros fatsis' doctoral thesis public sociology http srosussexacuk making sociology public critical analysis


old idea recent debate also recommended critical review contemporary disciplinary debate public sociology incorporating developments e public sociology scholarly discussion e public sociology form public sociology involves publishing sociological materials online accessible spaces subsequent interaction publics spaces debate public sociology far reaching consequences many sociology departments teach ' 'do'' sociology several reorienting programs encompass elements public sociology example sociology department university minnesota begun advocating


would include birmingham city university queen margaret university edinburgh nottingham trent university university exeter cardiff university bishop grosseteste university 's newly established https webarchiveorg web http wwwbishopgacuk study courses pages sociologyaspx ba sociology program indeed many programs incorporating ideals public sociology curriculums significant consequences future sociologists trained ' 'do'' sociology criticism significant number practice sociology either public intellectuals academic professionals subscribe specific version public sociology defended michael burawoy version public sociology


wake burawoy 's presidency american sociological association put theme public sociology limelight project public sociology vigorously debated web conversations among sociologists variety academic journals specifically burawoy 's vision public sociology critiqued critical sociologists representatives academic sociology various discussions public sociology included forums devoted subject academic journals ''social problems'' ''social forces'' ''critical sociology'' ''british journal sociology'' https webarchiveorg web http sociologyberkeleyedu faculty burawoy workingpapershtm public sociology faces fierce criticism


name tittle others argue public sociology based uncritical overly idealistic perception public sphere ref name brady brady david public sociology may fail ''social forces'' vol jun pp ref even stronger critiques come academics believe program public sociology unduly politicize discipline thus endanger legitimacy sociology public dialogue ref name tittle tittle charles http cooleyadwsuedu schwartj pdf publicsocpdf arrogance public sociology ''social forces'' june ref critics argue project building reliable body knowledge society


fundamentally incompatible goals public sociology extent orient work around moral principles less likely attend theoretical issues greater extent favor particular outcomes less able design work actually access outcomes ideologically oriented objectives less chance recognize assimilate contrary evidence words rather good professional sociology mutually interactive public sociology believe public sociology gets way good professional sociology ref name tittle one


outspoken critic public sociology sociologist mathieu deflem university south carolina wrote various papers public sociology argued public sociology blockquote neither public sociology public sociology plea make sociology relevant many publics society connect sociology democratically political activity course sociologists public intellectuals public intellectuals practitioners science practice activists left right yet public sociology instead quest subsume sociology politics


politics specific kind order foster sociological activism narrow sociological discipline activist sociology blockquote opposition public sociology deflem used maintain website http wwwsavesociologyorg savesociologyorg applied sociology applied sociology sociological practice also referred policy sociology come refer intervention using sociological knowledge applied setting applied sociologists work wide variety settings including universities government private practice using sociological methods help communities solve everyday problems improving community policing crime prevention evaluating improving drug courts assessing


needs inner city neighborhoods developing capacity educational system promoting development housing related resources aging populations sociological practice different pure academic sociology sociologists work academic setting university teaching pure research orientation although common origins sociological practice entirely distinct social work increasing number universities attempting gear curricula toward practical sociology way clinical sociology courses give students skills able work effectively clients teach basic counseling skills


give knowledge useful careers victims assisting drug rehabilitation teach student integrate sociological knowledge fields may go marriage family therapy clinical social work defined applied social sciences forum assf applied social science ass seeks highlight processes social political transformation taking place particular society characterized operational aspect knowledge produces unlike pure academic knowledge applied social sciences try steer debate towards scientific priorities social political


reform accompanying social transformations point view applied social sciences seen complementary knowledge enrich action academic sciences objectives ass deepen reflection practical issues related objective support major decision making society enable researchers support knowledge enrich range possible solutions action research framework choice applied social sciences action research defined process involves intervention researcher beyond return single


diagnostic assay type inventory researcher may way several hats within search role developer issues logical actions issues different actors expert accompanies action methodology science role facilitator role pilot working groups aims progress work analyzes confront realities stakeholders power feed mediator brings back speak different stakeholders action system role facilitator help build collective courses action relevant remaining outside issues discussed


methodological tools ssa qualitative approaches different types interviews collective quantitative methods using questionnaires literature searches data processing statistics analysis practices action research participatory methods notable applied public clinical sociologists jane addams john g bruhn elizabeth j clark w e b du bois ref name jonathan friedman jan fritz c margaret hall rand l kannenberg abdelwahab ben hafaiedh roger straus lester f ward tressie mcmillan cottom michael eric dyson melissa harris perry cornel west see also public anthropology sociotherapy sociologists without borders international organization public


criminology references reading agger ben ''public sociology social facts literary acts'' nd edition ed lanham md rowman littlefield publishers robert bellah richard madsen william sullivan ann swidler steven tipton ''habits heart'' berkeley university california press c wright mills ''the sociological imagination'' oxford university press burawoy michael http burawoyberkeleyedu ps asa presidential addresspdf public sociology american sociological review february burawoy michael http burawoyberkeleyedu ps critical sociology critical turn public sociologypdf critical turn public sociology critical sociology summer deflem mathieu http deflemblogspotcom public sociology hot dogs apple pie andhtml public sociology hot dogs apple pie chevrolet journal professional


public sociology deflem mathieu http deflemblogspotcom comment public sociology html comment public sociology contemporary sociology fatsis l http srosussexacuk fatsis c lambrospdf making sociology public critical analysis old idea recent debate phd thesis school law politics sociology university sussex external links http wwwpublicsociologycom publicsociologycom http wwwasanetorg american sociological association asa http sociologicalimaginationorg resources public sociology bibliography sociologicalimaginationorg public sociology bibliography public sociology community building sociology


'''nursing theory''' defined creative rigorous structuring ideas project tentative purposeful systematic view phenomena systematic inquiry whether nursing research practice nurses able develop knowledge relevant improving care patients theory refers coherent group general propositions used principles explanation nursing theory importance early part nursing 's history little formal nursing knowledge nursing education developed need categorize knowledge led development nursing theory help nurses evaluate increasingly complex client care situations nursing

Applied science
Medicine and health
Nursing Theory


theories give plan reflection examine certain direction plan needs head ref name nursing theories overview ref new situations encountered framework provides arrangement management investigation decision making nursing theories also administer structure communicating nurses representatives members health care team nursing theories assist development nursing formulating beliefs values goals help define different particular contribution nursing care clients nursing theory guides research practice borrowed shared theories


theories nursing unique nursing theories many borrowed shared disciplines theories developed neuman watson parse orlando peplau considered unique nursing theories theories concepts originated related sciences borrowed nurses explain explore phenomena specific nursing ref name types grand nursing theories ''grand nursing theories'' broadest scope present general concepts propositions ref name barnum ref theories level may reflect provide insights useful practice designed empirical testing limits use grand nursing


theories directing explaining predicting nursing particular situations however theories may contain concepts lend empirical testing theories level intended pertinent instances nursing grand theories consist conceptual frameworks defining broad perspectives practice ways looking nursing phenomena based perspectives mid range nursing theories ''middle range nursing theories'' narrower scope grand nursing theories offer effective bridge grand nursing theories nursing practice present concepts lower level abstraction guide theory based research nursing


practice strategies one hallmarks mid range theory compared grand theories mid range theories tangible verifiable testing functions middle range theories includes describe explain predict phenomenon middle range theories simple straightforward general consider limited number variables limited aspect reality ref name ref nursing practice theories ''nursing practice theories'' limited scope level abstraction developed use within specific range nursing situations nursing practice theories provide frameworks nursing interventions predict outcomes impact nursing practice


adaptation model nursing carl helvie helvie energy theory nursing health dorothea orem self care deficit nursing theory faye abdellah patient centered approach nursing helen erickson hildegard peplau theory interpersonal relations imogene king isabel hampton robb kari martinsen adequate care must involve objective observation perceptive response katharine kolcaba theory comfort madeleine leininger katie love empowered holistic nursing education marie manthey primary nursing martha e rogers science unitary human beings ramona mercer maternal role attainment theory virginia henderson henderson 's need theory jean watson nancy roper winifred w logan alison j tierney roper logan tierney


model nursing phil barker tidal model purposely omitted list florence nightingale nightingale never actually formulated theory nursing science posthumously accredited formulating others categorized personal journaling communications theoretical framework also included many nurses improved theorists' ideas without developing theoretical vision see also nursing nursing assessment nursing process nursing research references http intranettdmueduteua data kafedra internal magistr lectures stud english first year nursing diagnosis nursing theory history modernityhtm nursing theory history modernity prominent theories nursing http currentnursingcom nursing theory nursing theories overviewhtml nursing theories companion nursing theories models http wwwcoxhealthcom nursingtheoryandtheorists nursing theory theorists


external links http wwwsandiegoedu academics nursing theory nursing theory page http wwwtopnursingcollegescom nur nursing theories sub theorieshtml nursing theories sub theories http wwwnursesinfo nursing theoryhtm nursesinfo https wwwgutenbergorg ebooks nightingale 's ''notes nursing'' project gutenberg


'''network centric warfare''' also called '''network centric operations''' '''net centric warfare''' military doctrine theory war seeks translate information advantage enabled part information technology competitive advantage robust computer networking well informed geographically dispersed forces pioneered united states department defense background history network centric warfare trace immediate origins admiral william owens introduced concept 'system systems' paper published institute national security studies owens described

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Network-centric warfare


serendipitous evolution system intelligence sensors command control systems precision weapons enabled enhanced situational awareness rapid target assessment distributed weapon assignment also joint chiefs staff released ''joint vision '' introduced military concept full spectrum dominance full spectrum dominance described ability us military dominate battlespace peace operations outright application military power stemmed advantages information superiority ''network centric warfare'' term network centric warfare associated concepts first appeared department navy 's


publication copernicus c isr st century ideas networking sensors commanders shooters flatten hierarchy reduce operational pause enhance precision increase speed command captured document distinct concept however network centric warfare first appeared publicly us naval institute proceedings article vice admiral arthur k cebrowski john garstka however first complete articulation idea contained book ''network centric warfare developing leveraging information superiority'' david alberts john garstka frederick stein published command control research


program ccrp book derived new theory warfare series case studies business using information communication technologies improve situation analysis accurately control inventory production well monitor customer relations ''understanding information age warfare'' ''network centric warfare'' followed ''understanding information age warfare'' uiaw jointly authored alberts garstka richard hayes evidence based research david signori rand ''uiaw'' pushed implications shifts identified network centric warfare order derive operational theory warfare starting series


''power edge'' also published ccrp ''power edge'' speculative work suggesting modern military environments far complex understood one individual organisation even military service modern information technology permits rapid effective sharing information degree edge entities essentially conducting military missions able pull information ubiquitous repositories rather centralised agencies attempt anticipate information needs push would imply major flattening traditional military hierarchies


eventually linked via gig term system systems often used describe results types massive integration efforts topic net centric enterprise services addresses applications context gig number significant us military programs taking technical steps towards supporting network centric warfare include cooperative engagement capability cec united states navy bct network united states army net centric enterprise solutions interoperability nesi provides phases acquisition net centric solutions actionable guidance meets network centric warfare goals


united states department defense guidance nesi derived higher level abstract concepts provided various directives policies mandates net centric operations warfare reference model ncow rm asd nii net centric checklist doctrinal tenets united states doctrine network centric warfare united states armed forces draws highest level guidance concept team warfare meaning integration synchronization appropriate capabilities across various services ranging army air force coast guard part


principle joint warfare tenets network centric warfare tenet robustly networked force improves information sharing tenet information sharing collaboration enhance quality information shared situational awareness tenet shared situational awareness enables self synchronization tenet turn dramatically increase mission effectiveness net centric operations compatible mission command doctrine theoretically allows considerable freedom action combat troops decentralized approaches command control c architectural design challenges complexity joint tactical radio system jtrs offers insight challenges


integrating numerous different communications systems unified whole intended software defined radio battlefield communications backwards compatible large number military civilian radio systems april gao report http wwwgaogov newitems tpdf gao fcs report highlighted scalability network major risk factor network centric fcs program proposed system unable network units one self forming self healing network problem coordinating bandwidth usage battlespace significant challenge every piece mobile equipment


human participant becomes potential source relay rf emissions difficult efficiently transfer information networks different levels security classification although multi level security systems provide part solution human intervention decision making still needed determine specific data cannot transferred accurate locational awareness limited maneuvering areas global positioning system gps coverage weak non existent areas include inside buildings caves etc well built areas urban canyons also settings many modern military operations


much work reliable fusion positional data multiple sensors remains done providing secure communications network centric warfare network centric operations difficult since successful key management encryption typically difficult aspect cryptography especially mobile systems problem exacerbated need speedy deployment nimble reconfiguration military teams respond rapidly changing conditions modern battlespace international activities significant need harmonize technical operational aspects net centric warfare net centric operations among multiple nations order support coalition activities


joint operations etc nato command structure many nato non nato nations joined federated mission networking fmn initiative work together fmn framework process coordinate design development delivery operational technical capabilities required conduct net centric operations within alliance nato interoperability standards profiles nisp provides necessary guidance technical components support project implementations federated mission networking individual ''standardization agreements'' coordinating vehicle establishing shared technical standards among nato nations see also partnership peace information extending coordination efforts non nato nations


e mail aircraft already flight desert storm battalion brigade division commanders rely maps grease pencils radio reports track movements forces today commanders real time display armed forces computer screen blockquote former vice president richard cheney blockquote net centric warfare 's effectiveness greatly improved years desert storm forces involving troops supported mbit bandwidth today oif forces warfighters mbit satellite bandwidth times bandwidth force


percent smaller us troops essentially used weapon platforms used operation desert storm significantly increased effectiveness blockquote lieutenant general harry raduege jr director defense information systems agency contradictory views aspiration australian defence force adf embrace network centric warfare outlined document ''adf force '' vision criticized aldo borgu director australian strategic policy institute aspi developing interoperability us systems view three arms australian defence force could end operating better sister united states services


reused amplifying initial error orders magnitude subsequent generations result sets see chaos theory possible failure modes problem areas network centric warfare include occurrence byzantine generals' problem peer peer systems problems caused inadequate shallow understanding general disregard self regulation self organization systems theory emergent behavior cybernetics addition potential issues arising nature complex rapidly developed artificial system arising complexity theory implies possibility failure modes congestion collapse cascading failure


see also autonomous logistics battlespace c istar cyberwarfare information warfare list cyber warfare forces network simulator references external links http wwwdodccrporg oasd nii command control research program ccrp https webarchiveorg web http nesipublicspawarnavymil net centric enterprise solutions interoperability nesi https webarchiveorg web http stschillafmil crosstalk raduegehtml ncw related article crosstalk defense software engineering journal army war college article principles warfare network centric battlefield http wwwglobalsecurityorg globalsecurityorg https webarchiveorg web http wwwc iorg c iorg computer security intelligence net centric command control united states department defense doctrine information operations warfare


multiply viruses unable go cell division acellular meaning lack genetic information encode necessary tools protein synthesis generation metabolic energy hence rely host replicate multiply using host cell 's machinery virus generates copies genome produces new viruses survival kind infection new hosts viral replication process varies depending virus 's genome ref name classification david baltimore nobel prize winning biologist created system called baltimore

Natural science
Biology
Virology
Molecular virology


intermediate formed replication process serves template synthesis virus 's single stranded dna ref name class iii double stranded rna viruses class segmented genomes segment transcribed individually produce monochromatic mrna codes one protein ref name class iv single stranded rna positive sense genome viruses positive sense rnas rna directly translated viral protein viruses subdivided two groups depending translation process viruses polycistronic mrna rna translates


multiple protein products b viruses complex transcription first group either subgenomic rnas two rounds translation necessary produce genomic rna ref name class v single stranded rna negative sense viruses class negative sense rnas rna complements mrna transcribes positive sense rna via viral polymerase translates viral protein viruses class either segmented unsegmented rna either way replication occurs within cell 's cytoplasm ref name class vi single stranded positive sense rna dna intermediate viruses use reverse transcriptase


convert positive sense rna template dna retroviruses well known family among class ref name class vii double stranded dna rna intermediate genome viruses gapped double stranded subsequently become filled form cccdna covalently closed circular dna group also use reverse transcription process maturation ref name viral replication cycle simplified replication cycle regardless differences among viral species share six basic replication stages ref name '''attachment''' cycle 's starting point consists specific bindings anti receptors


virus attachment proteins cellular receptors molecules glyco proteins host range virus determined specificity binding attachment causes viral protein change configuration thus fuse host 's cell membrane thereby enabling virus enter cell ref name penetration virus happens either membrane fusion receptor mediated endocytosis leads viral entry due rigid cellulose made chitin case fungal cells cell walls plants fungal cells get infected differently animal cells often cell wall trauma required


virus enter cell ref name dimmock nj easton andrew j leppard keith ''introduction modern virology'' sixth edition blackwell publishing ref uncoating removal viral capsid makes viral nucleic acids available transcription capsid could degraded either host viral enzymes releasing viral genome cell ref name replication multiplication virus 's genetic material process includes transcription mrna synthesis assembly viral proteins regulated protein expression ref name assembly process involves putting together modifying newly made viral nucleic acids


name ref name viral pathogenesis pathogenicity ability one organism cause disease another specialized field study virology called viral pathogenesis studies viruses infect hosts molecular cellular level ref name order viral disease develop several steps need taken first virus enter body implant tissue eg respiratory tissue second virus reproduce extracellular invading order make ample copies third synthesized viruses


must spread throughout body via circulatory systems nerve cells respiratory syncytial virus rsv infection usually produces widespread bronchiolitis interstitial pneumonia may sometimes associated giant cells image shows non specific interstitial pneumonia pattern giant cells present regards viral diseases essential look two aspects direct effect virus replication b body 's responses infection course severity viral infections determined dynamic virus host common symptoms virus infections fever body aches inflammation


skin rashes symptoms caused immune system 's response infection direct effect viral replication ref name cytopathis effects virus often possible recognize virus infected cells number common phenotypic changes referred cytopathis effects changes include ref name altered shape shape adherent cells cells attach cells artificial substrates may change flat round addition cell 's extensions resembling tendrils involved cell 's mobility attachments withdrawn cell ref name


detachment substrate happens result adherent cells' damage cell damage due partial degradation cytoskeleton ref name lysis case entire cell breaks absorption extracellular fluid swelling viruses cause lysis ref name membrane fusion adjacent cells' membranes fuse together produce mass called syncytium cytoplasm contains one nucleus appears giant cell cells short lifespan compared cells ref name increase membrane permeability viruses increase membrane permeability


allows many extracellular ions eg iodine sodium ions enter cell ref name viral infections five different types viral infections ref name abortive infection kind infection occurs virus successfully invades host cell unable complete full replication cycle produce infectious viruses ref name ebola virus virion created gc microbiologist cynthia goldsmith colorized transmission electron micrograph tem revealed ultrastructural morphology displayed ebola virus virion acute infection many common viral infections fallow pattern acute infections brief since


often completely eliminated immune system acute infection frequently associated epidemics since virus replication happens onset symptoms ref name chronic infection infections prolonged course hard eliminate since virus stays host significant period ref name persistent infection delicate balance host virus pattern virus adjusts replication pathogenecitiy levels keep host alive benefit possible virus live replicate inside


lower intensity viral illness developing vaccines smallpox polio hepatitis b past years significant impact world health thus global population nevertheless ongoing viral outbreaks ebola zika viruses past years affecting millions people around globe therefore advanced understanding molecular virology viruses needed development new vaccines control ongoing future viral outbreaks ref name alternative way treat viral infections would antiviral


value chemotherapeutic index clinical practice index used produce safe clinically useful drug ref name references references additional links molecular biology phage virus bacteria prokaryotes viral plaque important publications virology virus classification virology


'''athletic training''' recognized american medical association ama allied health care profession since june athletic trainers ats health care professionals render service treatment direction collaboration physician accordance education training state 's statutes rules regulations practice athletic training encompasses health promotion wellness examination diagnosis immediate care rehabilitation clients patients emergent acute chronic health conditions five domains athletic training listed th edition athletic training practice analysis injury

Human physical performance and recreation


illness prevention wellness promotion examination assessment diagnosis immediate emergency care therapeutic intervention healthcare administration professional responsibility athletic trainer functions integral member health care team clinics secondary schools colleges universities professional sports programs athletic health care settings overview athletic trainers function members health care team wide variety settings including secondary schools colleges universities clinics hospitals including physician practices professional sports performing arts industrial corporate settings academia youth sports military government law enforcement


services nurses physicians dentists podiatrists physician 's assistants physical therapists strength conditioning specialists biomechanists exercise physiologists nutritionists psychologists massage therapists occupational therapists emergency medical technicians paramedics chiropractors orthopedists prosthesis equipment personnel referees social workers nata code ethics national athletic trainers association code ethics states principles ethical behavior followed practice athletic training intended establish maintain high standards professionalism athletic training profession employment settings clinic hospital industrial occupational corporate college university two year institution secondary school professional sports amateur recreation youth sports performing


arts military law enforcement government health fitness sports performance enhancement clinics clubs independent contractor education undergraduate course descriptions courses may prerequisites completed taking coursework also prerequisites content courses vary upon institute professor courses listed commonly taken increase knowledge regarding athletic training human physiology course designed provide students understanding function regulation human body physiological integration organ systems maintain homeostasis human anatomy anatomical structures body studied


course including muscular systems organs respiratory bony anatomy veins arteries course help learn components body almost always accompanied lab section reinforce lectures exercise physiology course investigates acute responses chronic adaptations physiological functions wide range physical exercise conditions involving people ages abilities kinesiology structural applied musculoskeletal anatomy relative human movement sports skills course concentrates muscles origins insertions actions nutrition course emphasizes basic nutritional principles concepts


upper extremity intense depth study upper extremities including physical examination history prom palpation neuro exam special tests injury recognition diagnosis treatment taping bracing rehab modalities clinical experiences emphasize techniques skills taught evaluating upper extremity conditions injuries undergraduate athletic training programs commission accreditation athletic training education caate http wwwcaatenet website provides list https webarchiveorg web http wwwcaatenet imis caate accredited programs core directoryaspxhkey b f b ed b e cc ac fc accredited programs united states provides name college contact link institution 's website undergraduate athletic training degree received


accredited school athletic training athletic training transitioned master 's program within next years master 's program needed order sit boc exam entry level masters programs although majority athletic trainers receive bachelor 's degree athletic training taking board certification exam boc way receive education athletic training entry level master 's program two year program covers material undergraduate athletic training degree common prerequisite classes human


anatomy human physiology kinesiology biomechanics exercise physiology nutrition personal health along certain number observation hours completed supervision certified athletic trainer atc prerequisites vary institution sure research prerequisites institutions interest accredited entry level master 's programs usa see link list institutions graduate school athletic training related fields approximately accredited athletic training masters programs programs consist students


already certified athletic trainers want advance academic clinical experience two year programs culminate master science degree ms athletic training graduate programs athletic training always specifically athletic training related field fields may include limited kinesiology biomechanics sports management sport exercise psychology exercise physiology health promotion etc programs also two years length enrolled one programs athletic trainer may gain clinical experience


receive stipend make money obtaining graduate assistant internship link schools http rkbodyandsoulcom personal trainer certification fitness trainer certification http wwwnataorg education educational programs accredited programs post professional programs athletic training caate website also list accredited programs state graduate assistant position graduate assistant athletic trainer position position graduate athletic training student able work assistant athletic trainer taking graduate courses graduate assistant athletic trainers responsible providing medical coverage select teams institution


working responsibilities may vary include administering daily medical coverage selected intercollegiate athletic teams practice event traveling assigned team evaluation documentation athletic injuries administrative responsibilities serving approved clinical instructor aci clinical instructor ci caate accredited atep duties assigned head athletic trainer responsibilities may include working high school clinic teaching research graduate assistant positions generally month appointments renewable first year may include additional summer work visit national athletic trainers association career center


job postings accredited programs athletic training programs evaluated caate ensure follow standards entry level athletic training programs evaluations may take place every three seven years depending results last visit successfully completing caate accredited education program part criteria determines candidate 's eligibility board certification boc examination organizations national athletic trainers association nata professional membership association certified athletic trainers others support athletic training profession founded nata


grown members worldwide today majority certified athletic trainers choose members nata support profession receive broad array membership benefits joining forces group nata members accomplish athletic training profession individually formation nata athletic trainers occupied somewhat insecure place athletic program since time direct result standards ethics established nata considerable professional advancement every year nata works behalf


national athletic trainers association links state associations found regional websites current topics due physicality athletics campaign healthy well issues become hot topics media athletic trainers continually aware changes laws position statements national athletic trainers association institutional policies current hot topics topics keep eye include https webarchiveorg web http wwwnataorg press room news releases nata press room https webarchiveorg web http wwwnataorg statements publisher nata concussion laws position statements policies youth sports legislation guidelines prevention chronic overuse injury pediatric


patients https webarchiveorg web http wwwnataorg sites default files using certified athletic trainers physician extenderspdf athletic trainers physician extenders education public safety workplace http wwwnataorg sites default files atc partnerpdf certified athletic trainer partner athletic department mental health athletes providing equality patient care references external links sports medicine rehabilitation medicine physical exercise manual therapy massage therapy


'''social choice theory''' '' 'social choice''' theoretical framework analysis combining individual opinions preferences interests welfares reach ''collective decision'' ' 'social welfare'' sense ref name sen amartya sen social choice ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' nd edition http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde q social choice topicid result number abstract toc ref whereas choice theory concerned individuals making choices based preferences social choice theory concerned translate preferences individuals preferences group non theoretical example collective decision enacting law set laws constitution

Social science
Economics
Social choice theory


dropping axiom ref name sen overlap public choice theory public choice social choice heavily overlapping fields endeavor social choice public choice theory may overlap disjoint narrowly construed journal economic literature classification codes place social choice microeconomics jel clubs committees associations whereas public choice subcategories jel economic models political processes rent seeking elections legislatures voting behavior social choice theory public choice theory dates condorcet 's formulation voting paradox though arguably goes back


ramon llull 's publication kenneth arrow 's ''social choice individual values'' arrow 's impossibility theorem often acknowledged basis modern social choice theory public choice theory ref name sen addition arrow 's theorem voting paradox gibbard satterthwaite theorem condorcet jury theorem median voter theorem may 's theorem among well known results social choice theory amartya sen 's nobel prize winning work also highly influential see interpersonal utility comparison section sen 's work later work also considers approaches compensations fairness liberty


rights axiomatic domain restrictions preferences agents variable populations strategy proofing social choice mechanisms natural resources ref name sen capabilities functionings welfare justice poverty interpersonal utility comparison social choice theory study theoretical practical methods aggregate combine individual preferences collective social welfare function field generally assumes individuals preferences follows modeled using utility functions much research field assumes utility functions internal humans lack meaningful unit measure ''cannot'' compared across