field neuropsychology would flourish next decades jean baptiste bouillaud jean baptiste bouillaud towards late th century belief size ones skull could determine level intelligence discarded science medicine moved forward physician name jean baptiste bouillaud expanded upon ideas gall took closer look idea distinct cortical regions brain independent function bouillaud specifically interested speech wrote many publications anterior region brain responsible


carrying act ones speech discovery stemmed research gall also one first use larger samples research although took many years method accepted looking hundred different case studies bouillaud came discover different areas brain speech completed understood observing people brain damage theory made concrete bouillaud along many pioneers time made great advances within field neurology especially

Social science
Psychology
Neuropsychology


came localization function many arguable debates deserves credit discoveries often people remain unmentioned paul broca perhaps one famous well known contributors neuropsychology often referred father discipline paul broca inspired advances made area localized function within brain paul broca committed much study phenomena speech understood produced study discovered expanded upon articulate


removed called ''mass action'' believed general rule governed brain tissue would respond independent type learning know mass action misinterpretation empirical results order run maze rats required multiple cortical areas cutting small individual parts alone impair rats' brains much taking large sections removes multiple cortical areas one time affecting various functions sight motor coordination memory making animal unable run


maze properly lashley also proposed portion functional area could carry role entire area even rest area removed called phenomenon ''equipotentiality'' know seeing evidence plasticity brain within certain constraints brain ability certain areas take functions areas areas fail removed although extent initially argued lashley approaches experimental neuropsychology approach uses methods experimental psychology


uncover relationship nervous system cognitive function majority work involves studying healthy humans laboratory setting although minority researchers may conduct animal experiments human work area often takes advantage specific features nervous system example visual information presented specific visual field preferentially processed cortical hemisphere opposite side make links neuroanatomy psychological function clinical neuropsychology application neuropsychological knowledge assessment see neuropsychological test neuropsychological assessment management rehabilitation people


indicating possible dementia patient name prompting eg given categorical clue told item could name fruit allows specific diagnosis simply dementia appears vascular type due brain pathology usually least somewhat reversible clinical neuropsychologists often work hospital settings interdisciplinary medical team others work private practice may provide expert input medico legal proceedings cognitive neuropsychology relatively new development emerged


distillation complementary approaches experimental clinical neuropsychology seeks understand mind brain studying people suffered brain injury neurological illness one model neuropsychological functioning known functional localization based principle specific cognitive problem found injury specific area brain possible part brain way involved however may reason believe link mental functions neural regions simple


alternative model link mind brain parallel processing may explanatory power workings dysfunction human brain yet another approach investigates pattern errors produced brain damaged individuals constrain understanding mental representations processes without reference underlying neural structure recent related approach cognitive neuropsychiatry seeks understand normal function mind brain studying psychiatric mental illness connectionism use artificial neural networks model specific cognitive processes using considered


simplified plausible models neurons operate trained perform specific cognitive task networks often damaged 'lesioned' simulate brain injury impairment attempt understand compare results effects brain injury humans functional neuroimaging uses specific neuroimaging technologies take readings brain usually person particular task attempt understand activation particular brain areas related task particular growth methodologies employ cognitive testing within established functional magnetic


normative data data collected analyzed used comparative standard individual performances compared examples neuropsychological tests include wechsler memory scale wms wechsler adult intelligence scale wais boston naming test wisconsin card sorting test benton visual retention test controlled oral word association brain scans use brain scans investigate structure function brain common either simply way better assessing brain injury high resolution pictures examining relative activations


different brain areas technologies may include fmri functional magnetic resonance imaging positron emission tomography pet yields data related functioning well mri magnetic resonance imaging computed axial tomography cat ct yields structural data global brain project brain models based mouse monkey developed based theoretical neuroscience involving working memory attention mapping brain activity based time constants validated measurements neuronal activity various layers brain methods also map decision states behavior simple tasks involve


binary outcomes electrophysiology use electrophysiological measures designed measure activation brain measuring electrical magnetic field produced nervous system may include electroencephalography eeg magneto encephalography meg experimental tasks use designed experimental tasks often controlled computer typically measuring reaction time accuracy particular tasks thought related specific neurocognitive process example cambridge neuropsychological test automated battery cantab cns vital signs cnsvs see also behavioral neurology biological psychology clinical neuropsychology cognitive


neuropsychiatry cognitive neuropsychology cognitive neuroscience cognitive psychology comparative neuropsychology list important publications neuropsychology list neurological conditions disorders neurology neuropsychoanalysis neuropsychiatry neuroscience psychiatric genetics references external links


'''live action''' '''live action''' form cinematography videography uses photography instead animation works combine live action animation create live action animated film live action used define film video games similar visual media photorealistic animation particularly modern computer animation sometimes erroneously described live action case media reports disney 's remake ''the lion king'' according cambridge english dictionary live action involves real people animals models images drawn produced computer overview normal

Humanities
Performing arts
Film
Live action


process making visual media involves live action term usually superfluous however makes important distinction situations one might normally expect animation work adapted video game animated cartoon ''scooby doo'' ''the flintstones'' '' dalmatians'' films ''the tick'' television program phrase live action also occurs within animation context refer non animated characters live action animated film ''space jam'' ''who framed roger rabbit'' ''looney tunes back action'' ''mary poppins'' humans cartoons co exist case


live action characters real actors michael jordan bob hoskins julie andrews opposed animated actors roger rabbit use computer generated imagery cgi films become major trend critics mark langer discussed relationship overlap live action animation new films use computer generated special effects compared live action films using cartoon characters perceived realism styles combined live action vs animation producing movie live action animation present pros cons


unlike animation live action involves photography actors actresses well sets props making movie seem personal close reality possible drawback one 's budget hand animation works well conveying abstract ideas generally takes much longer produce see also animated cartoon films live action animation footage list live action films based cartoons comics list live action puppet films live action role playing game list short live action films references film video terminology television terminology sv spelfilm


''statuta mutine reformata'' parchment codex bound wood leather brass plaques worked corners center clasps '''medieval literature''' broad subject encompassing essentially written works available europe beyond middle ages one thousand years fall western roman empire ca ad beginning renaissance th th th century depending country literature time composed religious writings well secular works modern literature

Humanities
Languages and literature
History of literature
Medieval literature


complex rich field study utterly sacred exuberantly profane touching points works literature often grouped place origin language genre languages outside europe medieval literature written ethiopic syriac coptic japanese chinese arabic among many languages western europe latin common language medieval writing since latin language roman catholic church dominated western central europe since church virtually source education case even parts


europe never romanized eastern europe influence eastern roman empire eastern orthodox church made greek old church slavonic dominant written languages europe common people used respective vernaculars examples old english ''beowulf'' middle high german ''nibelungenlied'' medieval greek ''digenis acritas'' old east slavic ''tale igor 's campaign'' old french ''chanson de roland'' well known day although extant versions epics generally considered works individual anonymous poets doubt


based peoples' older oral traditions celtic traditions survived lais marie de france ''mabinogion'' arthurian cycles another host vernacular literature survived old norse literature specifically saga literature iceland anonymity notable amount medieval literature anonymous due lack documents period also due interpretation author 's role differs considerably romantic interpretation term use today medieval authors often deeply respected classical


writers church fathers tended tell embellish stories heard read rather invent new stories even often claimed handing something auctor instead point view names individual authors seemed much less important therefore many important works never attributed specific person types writing religious theological works dominant form literature typically found libraries middle ages catholic clerics intellectual center society middle ages


literature produced greatest quantity countless hymns survive time period liturgical paraliturgical liturgy fixed form numerous competing missals set individual conceptions order mass religious scholars anselm canterbury thomas aquinas pierre ab lard wrote lengthy theological philosophical treatises often attempting reconcile teachings greek roman pagan authors doctrines church hagiographies lives saints also frequently written encouragement devout


secular literature period produced equal quantity religious literature earliest tales based oral traditions british ''y gododdin'' ''preiddeu annwfn'' along germanic ''beowulf'' ''nibelungenlied'' relate myths certain th century events surviving manuscripts date centuries later ''y gododdin'' late th century ''preiddu annwfn'' early th century ''beowulf'' c ''nibelungenlied'' th century makers performers ''bards'' british welsh ' 'scops'' germanic elite professionals attached royal noble courts praise heroes legendary


history prose tales first emerged britain intricate four branches ''mabinogi'' princely families notably anti war theme romantic adventure ''culhwch olwen'' ''mabinogi'' ''mabinogion'' collection disconnected prose tales however include ''mabinogi'' ''culhwch olwen'' works compiled earlier oral tradition c time new poetry courtly love became fashionable europe traveling singers troubadours trouv res made living love songs french spanish galician portuguese catalan proven al greek germanic culture


minnes nger tradition songs courtly love often express unrequited longing ideal woman also aubades dawn farewells lovers humorous ditties following earliest epic poems prose tales romances long poems crafted ''chansons de geste'' late th early th centuries extolled conquests ''the song roland'' part matter france ''digenis acritas'' one acritic songs rather different chivalric romance tradition concerns adventures marvels love chivalry tell matter britain matter


rome political poetry threads throughout period early ''armes prydein'' th century britain goliard rebels th th centuries church trained clerics unable unwilling employed church travel literature highly popular middle ages fantastic accounts far lands frequently embellished entirely false entertained society supported sea voyages trading along coasts rivers well pilgrimages destinations jerusalem canterbury glastonbury england st david 's wales santiago de compostela spain geoffrey chaucer 's ''canterbury tales''


became popular end th century prominent authors jewish secular poetry middle ages solomon ibn gabirol yehuda halevi also renowned religious poets women 's literature true women medieval period never accorded full equality men women able use skill written word gain renown religious writing easiest avenue mdash women would later canonized saints frequently published reflections revelations prayers much known women


middle ages known works nuns clare assisi bridget sweden catherine siena frequently however religious perspectives women held unorthodox power mystical visions authors julian norwich mechthild magdeburg hildegard bingen provide insight part medieval experience less comfortable institutions ruled europe time women wrote influential texts secular realm well mdash reflections courtly love society marie de france christine de pizan


continue studied glimpses medieval society women patrons books owners significant book collections female book collectors fifteenth century included alice chaucer duchess suffolk cecily neville duchess york lady margaret beaufort countess richmond derby lady margaret beaufort may also completed translations testament piety bishop father john fisher noted sermon dedicated death modern historical reflection dh green 's historical work entitled ''women readers middle ages'' explores literacy literature terms


women medieval society book reviewed radical reassessment women 's contribution medieval literary culture allegory medieval literature makes use many literary devices allegory prominent period deserve special mention much medieval literature relied allegory convey morals author mind writing representations abstract qualities events institutions thick much literature time probably earliest influential allegory ''psychomachia'' ''battle souls'' aurelius clemens prudentius important examples include


siena ''digenis acritas'' anonymous greek author ''the diseases women'' trotula salerno ''la divina commedia'' ''the divine comedy'' dante alighieri ''dukus horant'' first extended work yiddish ''elder edda'' various icelandic authors ''das flie ende licht der gottheit'' mechthild magdeburg ''first grammatical treatise'' th century work old norse phonology ''gesta danorum'' saxo grammaticus ''heimskringla'' snorri sturluson ''historia ecclesiastica gentis anglorum'' ''the ecclesiastical history english people'' venerable bede ''holy cross sermons'' anonymous polish author ''the knight panther skin'' shota rustaveli ''the lais marie de france'' marie de france ''the letters abelard


divine love'' julian norwich ''le roman de perceforest'' ''roman de la rose'' guillaume de lorris jean de meun ''sadko'' anonymous russian author ''scivias'' hildegard bingen ''sic et non'' abelard ''sir gawain green knight'' anonymous english author ''the song roland'' anonymous french author ''spiritual exercises'' gertrude great ''summa theologiae'' thomas aquinas ''t b c ailnge'' anonymous irish author ''the tale igor 's campaign'' anonymous russian author ''tirant lo blanc'' joanot martorell ''the travels sir john mandeville'' john mandeville ''tristan'' thomas d'angleterre ''tristan'' b roul ''tristan'' gottfried von strassburg ''troilus criseyde'' geoffrey chaucer ''waltharius'' ''younger


edda'' snorri sturluson ''yvain knight lion'' chr tien de troyes specific articles region language anglo norman literature classical arabic literature medieval armenian literature medieval bosnian literature old breton literature byzantine literature medieval bulgarian literature medieval catalan literature medieval croatian literature old middle dutch literature old english literature middle english literature early english jewish literature medieval french literature sicilian school old high german literature middle high german literature medieval georgian literature medieval hebrew literature icelandic literature medieval irish literature medieval italian literature medieval latin literature latin translations th century occitan literature old norse literature pahlavi


literature medieval persian literature medieval portuguese literature medieval serbian literature medieval scottish literature medieval spanish literature medieval welsh literature genre medieval poetry medieval drama medieval allegory medieval mysticism fabliau medieval travel literature arthurian literature alexander romances chanson de geste chivalric romance eddic poetry skaldic poetry alliterative verse miracle plays morality plays mystery plays passion plays period early medieval literature th th centuries th century literature th century literature th century literature th century literature th century literature references external links http mcllibraryorg medieval classical literature library http labyrinthgeorgetownedu labyrinth resources


medieval studies http wwwfordhamedu halsall sbookhtml internet medieval sourcebook project https webarchiveorg web http cdiuvmedu collections getcollectionxqlpid manuscripts title medieval renaissance manuscripts medieval renaissance manuscripts vulgates books hours medicinal texts th century center digital initiatives university vermont libraries http wwwluminariumorg medlit luminarium anthology middle english literature http wwwsagadborg medieval nordic literature icelandic saga database literature


adic integers selected corresponding characters pontryagin dual group mathematics '''''p'' adic analysis''' branch number theory deals mathematical analysis functions ''p'' adic numbers theory complex valued numerical functions ''p'' adic numbers part theory locally compact groups usual meaning taken ''p'' adic analysis theory ''p'' adic valued functions spaces interest applications ''p'' adic analysis mainly number theory significant role diophantine geometry diophantine approximation applications required development ''p'' adic

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Analysis
P-adic analysis


functional analysis spectral theory many ways ''p'' adic analysis less subtle classical analysis since ultrametric inequality means example convergence infinite series ''p'' adic numbers much simpler topological vector spaces ''p'' adic fields show distinctive features example aspects relating convexity hahn banach theorem different important results ostrowski 's theorem ostrowski 's theorem due alexander ostrowski states every non trivial absolute value rational numbers '''q''' equivalent either usual real absolute value p adic absolute value mahler 's theorem '''mahler 's theorem''' introduced kurt mahler expresses


continuous ''p'' adic functions terms polynomials field characteristic one following result let math delta f x f x f x math forward difference operator polynomial functions ''f'' newton series math f x sum k infty delta k f x choose k math math x choose k frac x x x cdots x k k math ''k''th binomial coefficient polynomial field real numbers assumption function ''f'' polynomial weakened cannot weakened way mere continuity mahler proved following result '''mahler 's theorem''' ''f'' continuous p adic valued function ''p'' adic


integers identity holds hensel 's lemma hensel 's lemma also known hensel 's lifting lemma named kurt hensel result modular arithmetic stating polynomial equation simple root modulo prime number root corresponds unique root equation modulo higher power found iteratively lifting solution modulo successive powers generally used generic name analogues complete commutative rings including ''p'' adic fields particular newton method solving equations


since ''p'' adic analysis ways simpler real analysis relatively easy criteria guaranteeing root polynomial state result let math f x math polynomial integer ''p'' adic integer coefficients let ''m''''k'' positive integers ''m'' ''k'' ''r'' integer math f r equiv pmod p k math math f' r equiv pmod p math exists integer ' 's'' math f equiv pmod p k math math r equiv pmod p k math furthermore ' 's'' unique modulo ''p'' sup ''k'' sup computed explicitly math r tp k math


math frac f r p k cdot f' r math applications p adic quantum mechanics '''p adic quantum mechanics''' relatively recent approach understanding nature fundamental physics application p adic analysis quantum mechanics p adic numbers intuitive arithmetic system geometrically counterintuitive discovered german mathematician kurt hensel german mathematician ernst kummer earlier elementary form closely related adeles ideles introduced claude chevalley andr weil study transformed major branch mathematics occasionally


applied physical sciences n't publication russian mathematician volovich subject taken seriously physics world hundreds research articles subject ref name integral v vladimirov iv volovich ei zelenov ''p adic analysis mathematical physics'' world scientific singapore ref ref name r l brekke p g freund ''p adic numbers physics'' phys rep ''' ''' ref along international journals well two main approaches subject ref name repeat ref first considers particles


p adic potential well goal find solutions smoothly varying complex valued wavefunctions solutions certain amount familiarity ordinary life second considers particles p adic potential wells goal find p adic valued wavefunctions case physical interpretation difficult yet math often exhibits striking characteristics therefore people continue explore situation summed one scientist follows simply cannot think sequence amusing accidents dismiss 'toy


model' think work needed worthwhile ref name freund ref local global principle helmut hasse 's local global principle also known hasse principle idea one find integer solution equation using chinese remainder theorem piece together solutions modulo powers different prime number handled examining equation completions rational numbers real numbers ''p'' adic numbers formal version hasse principle states certain types equations rational solution


solution real numbers ''and'' ''p'' adic numbers prime ''p'' see also locally compact space real analysis references reading http citeseerxistpsuedu viewdoc summarydoi preprint course p adic analysis alain robert springer ultrametric calculus introduction p adic analysis w h schikhof cambridge university press p adic differential equations kiran kedlaya cambridge university press number theory fields mathematical analysis p adic numbers


'''andrology''' ''an r'' genitive ''andros'' man '' logia'' medical specialty deals male health particularly relating problems male reproductive system urological problems unique men counterpart gynaecology deals medical issues specific female health especially reproductive urologic health process andrology covers anomalies connective tissues pertaining genitalia well changes volume cells genital hypertrophy macrogenitosomia reproductive urologic viewpoints male specific medical surgical procedures

Applied science
Medicine and health
Urology
Andrology


include vasectomy vasovasostomy one vasectomy reversal procedures orchidopexy circumcision well intervention deal male genitourinary disorders following human male anatomy history unlike gynaecology plethora medical board certification programs worldwide andrology none andrology studied distinct specialty since late first specialist journal subject german periodical ''andrologie'' called ''andrologia'' published onwards next specialty journal covering basic clinical andrology ''international journal andrology'' established became


official journal european academy andrology american society andrology launched ''journal andrology'' two society journals merged one premier journal field named ''andrology'' first issue published january see also men 's health reproductive health urology references external links ''andrology'' journal https onlinelibrarywileycom journal http wwwandrologysocietycom american society andrology https wwwandrologyacademynet european academy andrology https webarchiveorg web http wwwbritishandrologyorguk british andrology society http andrologyorg international society andrology https wwwandrologyaustraliaorg andrology australia http wwwandrologypk chinese andrology department andrology


'''noncommutative geometry''' '''ncg''' branch mathematics concerned geometric approach noncommutative algebras construction ' 'spaces'' locally presented noncommutative algebras functions possibly generalized sense noncommutative algebra associative algebra multiplication commutative math xy math always equal math yx math generally algebraic structure one principal binary operations commutative one also allows additional structures eg topology norm possibly carried noncommutative algebra functions approach giving deep

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
Noncommutative geometry


insight noncommutative spaces operator algebras ie algebras bounded linear operators hilbert space perhaps one typical examples noncommutative space noncommutative tori played key role early development field lead noncommutative versions vector bundles connections curvature etc motivation main motivation extend commutative duality spaces functions noncommutative setting mathematics ' 'spaces'' geometric nature related numerical functions general functions form commutative ring


instance one may take ring ''c'' ''x'' continuous complex valued functions topological space ''x'' many cases ''eg'' ''x'' compact hausdorff space recover ''x'' ''c'' ''x'' therefore makes sense say ''x'' ''commutative topology'' specifically topology compact hausdorff topological spaces reconstructed banach algebra functions space gelfand naimark commutative algebraic geometry algebraic schemes locally prime spectra commutative unital rings grothendieck every quasi separated scheme math x math reconstructed isomorphism schemes category


quasicoherent sheaves math x math modules p gabriel rosenberg grothendieck topologies cohomological properties site invariants corresponding category sheaves sets viewed abstractly topos grothendieck cases space reconstructed algebra functions categorified version category sheaves space functions topological space multiplied added pointwise hence form commutative algebra fact operations local topology base space hence functions form sheaf commutative rings base space


dream noncommutative geometry generalize duality duality noncommutative algebras sheaves noncommutative algebras sheaf like noncommutative algebraic operator algebraic structures geometric entities certain kinds give interaction algebraic geometric description via duality regarding commutative rings correspond usual affine schemes commutative c algebras usual topological spaces extension noncommutative rings algebras requires non trivial generalization topological spaces non commutative spaces reason talk non commutative topology though term also meanings applications


mathematical physics applications particle physics described entries noncommutative standard model noncommutative quantum field theory sudden rise interest noncommutative geometry physics follows speculations role theory made motivation ergodic theory theory developed alain connes handle noncommutative geometry technical level roots older attempts particular ergodic theory proposal george mackey create ''virtual subgroup'' theory respect ergodic group actions would become homogeneous spaces extended kind


subsumed noncommutative c algebras von neumann algebras formal duals non commutative c algebras often called non commutative spaces analogy gelfand representation shows commutative c algebras dual locally compact hausdorff spaces general one associate c algebra ''s'' topological space '' '' see spectrum c algebra duality finite measure spaces commutative von neumann algebras noncommutative von neumann algebras called ''non commutative measure spaces'' noncommutative differentiable manifolds smooth riemannian manifold ''m'' topological space lot extra structure


algebra continuous functions ''c'' ''m'' recover ''m'' topologically algebraic invariant recovers riemannian structure spectral triple constructed smooth vector bundle ''e'' ''m'' eg exterior algebra bundle hilbert space ''l'' sup sup ''m'' nbsp ''e'' square integrable sections ''e'' carries representation ''c'' ''m '' multiplication operators consider unbounded operator ''d'' ''l'' sup sup ''m'' nbsp ''e'' compact resolvent eg signature operator commutators ''d'' nbsp ''f'' bounded whenever ''f'' smooth recent deep theorem states ''m'' riemannian manifold recovered


data suggests one might define noncommutative riemannian manifold spectral triple ''a'' nbsp ''h'' nbsp ''d'' consisting representation c algebra ''a'' hilbert space ''h'' together unbounded operator ''d'' ''h'' compact resolvent ''d'' nbsp ''a'' bounded ''a'' dense subalgebra ''a'' research spectral triples active many examples noncommutative manifolds constructed noncommutative affine projective schemes analogy duality affine schemes commutative rings define category '''noncommutative affine schemes''' dual category


associative unital rings certain analogues zariski topology context one glue affine schemes general objects also generalizations cone proj commutative graded ring mimicking theorem serre proj namely category quasicoherent sheaves modules proj commutative graded algebra equivalent category graded modules ring localized serre 's subcategory graded modules finite length also analogous theorem coherent sheaves algebra noetherian


theorem extended definition '''noncommutative projective geometry''' michael artin j j zhang add also general ring theoretic conditions eg artin schelter regularity many properties projective schemes extend context example exists analog celebrated serre duality noncommutative projective schemes artin zhang l rosenberg created rather general relative concept '''noncommutative quasicompact scheme''' base category abstracting grothendieck 's study morphisms schemes covers terms categories quasicoherent sheaves flat localization functors also another interesting approach via


character map theory characteristic classes smooth manifolds extended spectral triples employing tools operator k theory cyclic cohomology several generalizations classical index theorems allow effective extraction numerical invariants spectral triples fundamental characteristic class cyclic cohomology jlo cocycle generalizes classical chern character examples noncommutative spaces phase space formulation quantum mechanics symplectic phase space classical mechanics deformed non commutative phase space generated position momentum operators noncommutative standard model proposed extension


standard model particle physics noncommutative torus deformation function algebra ordinary torus given structure spectral triple class examples studied intensively still functions test case complicated situations snyder space noncommutative algebras arising foliations examples related dynamical systems arising number theory gauss shift continued fractions give rise noncommutative algebras appear interesting noncommutative geometries see also commutativity phase space formulation moyal product fuzzy sphere noncommutative algebraic geometry noncommutative topology citations references reading


'''field theory''' may refer science field mathematics theory algebraic concept field field theory physics physical theory employs fields physical sense consisting three types classical field theory theory dynamics classical fields quantum field theory theory quantum mechanical fields statistical field theory theory critical phase transitions grand unified theory social science field theory psychology psychological theory examines patterns interaction individual environment field theory sociology sociological theory concerning relationship social actors local social

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Field theory


'''hindi literature''' includes literature various hindi language writing systems broadly classified four prominent forms styles based date production vir gatha kal poems extolling brave warriors th th century bhakti kal poems devotional poems th th century riti shringar kal poems poems romance th th century adhunik kal modern literature th century onwards literature produced dialects khariboli braj bundeli awadhi kannauji well marwari magahi bhojpuri chhattisgarhi th century works produced standard hindi

Humanities
Languages and literature
Hindi Literature


siddha nathpanthi poetical works belonging period also found genuineness doubted siddhas belonged vajrayana later buddhist sect scholars argue language siddha poetry earlier form hindi magadhi prakrit nathpanthis yogis practised hatha yoga jain ''rasau'' heroic poets poetry works also available period deccan region south india dakkhini hindavi used flourished delhi sultanate later nizams hyderabad written persian


script nevertheless hindavi literature considered proto hindi literature many deccani experts like sheikh ashraf mulla vajahi used word ''hindavi'' describe dialect others roustami nishati etc preferred call deccani shah buharnuddin janam bijapuri used call hindi first deccani author khwaja bandanawaz gesudaraz muhammad hasan wrote three prose works mirazul aashkini hidayatnama risala sehwara grandson abdulla hussaini wrote ''nishatul ishq'' first deccani poet nizami later part period early bhakti kala many saint poets like ramanand gorakhnath became


famous earliest form hindi also seen vidyapati 's maithili works bhakti kaal c medieval hindi literature marked influence bhakti movement composition long epic poems awadhi braj bhasha dialects literature developed main works avadhi malik muhammad jayasi 's ''padmavat'' tulsidas 's ''ramacharitamanas'' major works braj dialect tulsidas 's ''vinaya patrika'' surdas 's ''sur sagar'' sadhukaddi also language commonly used especially kabir poetry dohas bhakti period also


marked great theoretical development poetry forms chiefly mixture older forms poetry included verse patterns like ''doha'' two liners ''sortha'' ''chaupaya'' four liners etc also age poetry characterised various rasas unlike adi kaal also called vir gatha kaal characterised overdose poetry ''vir rasa'' heroic poetry bhakti yug marked much diverse vibrant form poetry spanned whole gamut http wapediamobi hi e b e b e e e b e e af e b e e b e e e e b rasas ''shringara rasa'' love ''vir rasa'' heroism bhakti poetry two schools ''nirguna''


school believers formless god abstract name ''saguna'' school believers god attributes worshippers vishnu 's incarnations kabir guru nanak belong nirguna school philosophy greatly influenced advaita vedanta philosophy adi sankaracharya believed concept nirgun nirakaar brahma shapeless formless one saguna school represented mainly vaishnava poets like surdas tulsidas others logical extension dvaita vishishta advaita philosophy propounded likes madhavacharya etc school


chiefly vaishnava orientation seen main compositions like ''ramacharitamanas'' ''sur saravali'' ''sur sagar'' extolling rama krishna also age tremendous integration hindu islamic elements arts advent many muslim bhakti poets like abdul rahim khan khana minister mughal emperor akbar also great devotee krishna nirgun school bhakti poetry also tremendously secular nature propounders like kabir guru nanak large number followers irrespective caste religion riti kavya


kal c ''ritikavya'' ''ritismagra kavya'' period erotic element became predominant hindi literature era called riti meaning 'procedure' age poetic figures theory developed fullest emphasis poetry theory greatly reduced emotional aspects poetry main characteristic bhakti movement actual content poetry became less important saguna school bhakti yug split two schools rama bhakti krishna bhakti somewhere interregnum bhakti reeti eras although


reeti works outwardly related krishna bhakti emphasis changed total devotion supreme shringar erotic aspects krishna 's life leela pranks gopis braj description physical beauty krishna radha krishna 's consort poetry bihari ghananand das fit bill well known book age bihari satsai bihari collection dohas couplets dealing ''bhakti'' devotion ''neeti'' moral policies ''shringar'' love first hindi books using devanagari script n gar script


one heera lal 's treatise akbari called e akbari ki bhasha vachanika rewa maharaja 's treatise kabir books came munshi lallu lal 's hindi translation sanskrit hitopadesha published lala srinivas das published novel hindi pariksha guru n gar script shardha ram phillauri wrote hindi novel bhagyawati published chandrakanta written devaki nandan khatri considered first authentic work prose modern hindi person brought realism hindi prose literature munshi premchand


considered revered figure world hindi fiction progressive movement adhunik kal c onwards british east india company established fort william college calcutta college president j b gilchrist hired professors write books hindustani books ''prem sagar'' lallu lal ''naasiketopaakhyan'' sadal mishra ''sukhsagar'' sadasukhlal delhi ''rani ketaki ki kahani'' munshi inshallah khan depiction surya book ''indrajalakala'' art magic jwala prakash press meerut person brought realism hindi


prose literature munshi premchand considered revered figure world hindi fiction progressive movement premchand hindi literature revolved around fairy magical tales entertaining stories religious themes premchand 's novels translated many languages dwivedi yug ''dwivedi yug'' age dwivedi hindi literature lasted named mahavir prasad dwivedi played major role establishing modern hindi language poetry broadening acceptable subjects hindi poetry traditional ones religion romantic love


labelled much poetry period versified propaganda according lucy rosenstein verse public statement language functional aesthetically unappealing earnestly concerned social issues moral values puritanical poetry aesthetic considerations secondary imagination originality poetic sensibility expression wanting metre restrictive idiom clumsy adds however period important laying foundations modern hindi poetry reflect sensitivity social issues time however also adds inelegance


typical feature young poetry considers modern hindi ref name lmnph without poetic tradition modern hindi poets often modeled forms braj later sanskrit urdu bengali english forms often ill suited hindi subjects poems tended communal rather personal characters often presented individuals social types ref name lmnph chhayavaadi yug th century hindi literature saw romantic upsurge known ''chhayavaad'' ' 'shadowism'' literary figures belonging school known ''chhayavaadi'' jaishankar prasad suryakant tripathi 'nirala' mahadevi varma


sumitranandan pant four major ''chhayavaadi'' poets poet ramdhari singh 'dinkar' another great poet chayavaadi element poetry although wrote genres well period neo romanticism represents adolescence hindi poetry marked beauty expression flow intense emotion four representative poets era represent best hindi poetry unique feature period emotional sometimes active attachment poets national freedom struggle effort understand imbibe vast spirit magnificent ancient culture


mehta poets note right ref name lal ref apart poets nalin vilochan kesari kumar also brilliant critics wide perspective literary history ref name lal critical attitude marked synthesis coordination various disciplines human knowledge philosophy history art culture pressed service literary appraisal analysis ref name lal genres hindi literature hindi kavita poetry hindi rich legacy poetry several genres kavita based ras chhand alankar eg shringar karun veer


journalists celebrities film television theatre come forward support cause take vyangya hindi satire rhetoric satire called vyangya hindi vyangya writings includes essence sarcasm humour better known writers genre harishankar parsai hindi august hindi writer noted satirist humorist modern hindi literature known simple direct style sri lal sukla suryakumar pandey etc hindi travel literature rahul sankrityayan bhadant anand kausalyayan sachchidananda hirananda


vatsyayan 'ajneya' baba nagarjun great indian writers dedicated entirely hindi travel literature ''yatra vritanta'' rahul sankrityayan one greatest travelled scholars india spending forty five years life travels away home known '' father hindi travel literature '' baba nagarjun major hindi maithili poet also penned number novels short stories literary biographies travelogues known ''janakavi people 's poet'' hindi playwriting pioneer hindi theatre well playwrighting bhartendu harishchandra


wrote ''satya harishchandra'' ''bharat durdasha'' ''andher nagari'' late th century jaishankar prasad became next big figure hindi playwriting plays like ''skanda gupta'' ''chandragupta'' ''dhruvswamini'' independence struggle gathering steam playwrights broaching issues nationalism subversive ideas british yet dodge censorship adapted themes mythology history legend used vehicle political messages trend continues date though employed bring social personal psychological issues rather clearly political though street


theatre broke trend coming decades post independence era like ipta inspired naya theatre habib tanvir jana natya manch safdar hashmi post independence emerging republic threw new issues playwrights tackle express hindi playwriting showed greater brevity symbolism prolific case hindi poetry fiction yet playwrights like jagdish chandra mathur ''konark'' upendranath ashk ''anjo didi'' displayed steadily evolving understanding stagecraft followed another generation pioneers hindi playwrighting mohan


indian folk literatures preference agricultural society age machines romantic outlook aesthetic sensibility keen eye contemporary reality classical style place high among contemporary essayists hindi ref name datta prominent figures chand bardai author ''prithviraj raso'' amir khusro ad author hindavi dialect vidyapati prominent poet eastern dialects kabir major figure bhakti devotional movement surdas author ''sahitya lahari'' ''sur saravali'' ''sur sagar'' etc malik muhammad jayasi author ''padmavat''


etc mirabai author ''mira padavali'' etc tulsidas author ''ramacharitamanas'' ''vinay patrika'' etc keshavdas author ''rasikpriya'' etc raskhan major figure bhakti devotional movement banarasidas known poetic autobiography ''ardhakath naka'' half story bihari became famous writing ''satasai'' seven hundred verses bhushan author ''shivabavani'' ''chhatrasal dashak'' etc vrind author ''nitisatsai'' ''vrind satsai'' etc guru gobind singh author ''bichitra natak'' etc dan author ''suj n charitra'' etc lallu lal translator ''baital pachisi'' ''shakuntala'' etc author


poet novelist playwright stalwart literary ''chhayavaadi'' movement greatest works ''kamayani'' ''dhruvswamini'' ''skandagupta'' etc makhanlal chaturvedi first recipient sahitya akademi award hindi work ''him taringini'' works include ''yug charan'' ''pushp ki abhilasha'' etc rahul sankrityayan father indian travelled literature suryakant tripathi 'nirala' one four pillars ''chhayavaad'' movement sumitranandan pant eminent hindi poet wrote mainly nature yashpal author ''jhutha sach'' ''meri teri uski baat'' etc jainendra kumar extremely influential figure th century hindi literature hazariprasad dwivedi novelist


literary historian mahadevi varma one four pillars ''chhayavaad'' movement ramdhari singh dinkar hailed rashtrakavi nagarjun hailed janakavi people 's poet bhisham sahni novelist playwright author ''tamas'' madhavi etc nalin vilochan sharma one pioneers ''nakenwad'' movement phanishwar nath 'renu' novelist best known ''maila anchal'' ''juloos'' etc harishankar parsai known satirical works naresh mehta poet playwright one pioneers ''nakenwad'' movement mohan rakesh novelist playwright known ''ashadh ka ek din'' ''andhere band kamre'' ''na aane wala kal''


etc dharmavir bharati renowned writer author ''gunaho ka devta'' ''suraj ka satvan ghoda'' etc raghuvir sahay versatile hindi poet translator short story writer journalist nirmal verma one founders ''nai kahani'' literary movement kamleshwar author ''kitne pakistan'' dushyant kumar prominent hindi poet snd composer ghazals kashinath singh author ''rehan par ragghu'' ''kashi ka assi'' etc narendra kohli known reinventing ancient epic writing modern prose eminent hindi journalists '''bharatendu harishchandra''' bharatendu harishchandra began career journalist


age published kavi vachan sudha monthly dedicated ancient medieval poetry published harishchandra magazine general interest magazine published bala bodhini women young girls kvs acknowledged finest literary journal indian language time par best english journals bharatendu kept journal death extraordinary achievements considered prolific hindi journalist '''madan mohan malaviya''' madan mohan malaviya born allahabad


brahmin family editor indian opinion strong supporter congress helped launch newspaper dainik hindustan editor close friend many eminent hindi writers like gopalram gehmari amrutlal chakravarty pandit pratap narayan mishra along bal mukund gupta launched urdu journal 'kohinoor' lahore days gupta facile hindi scholar malviya 's training gupta became editor bharat mitra malviya founded new revolutionary journal abhyudaya prayag


renowned writer purushottam das tandon frequent contributor abhyudaya malviya founded monthly magazine 'maryada' founded daily 'leader' later another daily 'bharat' malviya great patriot love country seen writings also contributed aaj helped found hindustan times along hindi counterpart hindustan babu gulabrai january april pen name gulabrai one greatest literary figures modern hindi literature '''durgaprasad mishra''' born kashmir


inspiration many journalists particularly bal mukund gupta '''dharmvir bharati''' born december dharamvir bharati graduated ba first class completed hindi literature first class finally phd allahabad university time principal allahabad university began journalist career abhyudaya journal padmakant malviya joined sangam edited ilachand joshi became editor dharmayug thanks bharati journal became popular war bharati reported frontlines battle


covered horrors war series reports finest hindi war journalism published title 'yudh yatra' honest dedicated reporter bharati unrivaled war became editor journals aalochana nikarshak bharati also famous short story writer poet essayist novelist best known works 'band galli ka aakhiri makaan' 'andha yug' 'kunpriya' see also mahatma gandhi antarrashtriya hindi vishwavidyalaya indian central university literary focus hindustani orthography references bibliography reading ''hindi


co external links http wwwcscolostateedu malaiya hindiinthtml hindi language literature hindi indian literature hindi language literature literature language indian literature language


literatures written languages used britain also articles various literatures latin literature britain anglo norman cornish guern siais j rriais latin manx scottish gaelic welsh etc irish writers played important part development literature england scotland though whole ireland politically part united kingdom january december controversial describe irish literature british includes works authors northern ireland british identity nature british identity changed

Humanities
Languages and literature
World literature
British literature


time island contains england scotland wales known britain time roman pliny elder c ad ref name plinye pliny elder 's ''naturalis historia'' book iv chapter xli https wwwperseustuftsedu hopper textdoc plin nat fromdoc perseus atext latin text https wwwperseustuftsedu hopper textdoc perseus atext abook achapter english translation numbered book chapter perseus project ref english national language beginnings anglo saxon invasion started around ad inhabitants mainly spoke various celtic languages various constituent parts present united kingdom joined different times wales annexed kingdom england


acts union however treaty england scotland kingdom great britain came existence merged january kingdom ireland form united kingdom great britain ireland fairly recent times celtic languages continued spoken widely scotland wales cornwall ireland languages still survive especially parts wales subsequently irish nationalism led partition island ireland thus literature republic ireland


british although literature northern ireland irish british ref name deane ref works written english language welsh writers especially subject matter relates wales recognised distinctive entity since th century need separate identity kind writing arose parallel development modern welsh language literature britain colonial power use english spread world th century earlier united states later former colonies major writers english began appear beyond


th centuries vikings norse settlers descendants colonised parts modern scotland old norse poetry survives relating period including ''orkneyinga saga'' historical narrative history orkney islands capture norwegian king th century old english literature c first page facsimile beowulf old english literature anglo saxon literature encompasses surviving literature written old english anglo saxon england settlement saxons germanic tribes england jutes angles around


soon norman conquest c works include genres epic poetry hagiography sermons bible translations legal works chronicles riddles others ref name doma angus cameron anglo saxon literature ''dictionary middle ages'' v pp ref surviving manuscripts period ref name doma oral tradition strong early english culture literary works written performed epic poems thus popular including ''beowulf'' survived present day ''beowulf''


famous work old english achieved national epic status england despite set scandinavia nearly anglo saxon authors anonymous twelve known name medieval sources four known vernacular works certainty c dmon bede alfred great cynewulf c dmon earliest english poet whose name known c dmon 's known surviving work ''c dmon 's hymn'' probably dates late th century chronicles contained range historical literary accounts notable example ''anglo saxon chronicle'' poem ''battle


maldon'' also deals history name given work uncertain date celebrating real battle maldon anglo saxons failed prevent viking invasion classical antiquity forgotten anglo saxon england several old english poems adaptations late classical philosophical texts longest king alfred 's translation boethius' ''consolation philosophy'' late medieval literature sir bedivere casts king arthur 's sword excalibur back lady lake arthurian cycle influenced british literature across languages centuries linguistic


diversity islands medieval period contributed rich variety artistic production made british literature distinctive innovative ref name companion ''language literature'' ian short ''a companion anglo norman world'' edited christopher harper bill elisabeth van houts woodbridge ref works still written latin include gerald wales 's late th century book beloved wales ''itinerarium cambriae'' norman conquest anglo norman literature developed introducing literary trends continental europe ''chanson de geste'' however indigenous development anglo norman literature precocious comparison continental l


literature ref name companion geoffrey monmouth c c one major figures development british history popularity tales king arthur best known chronicle ''historia regum britanniae'' history kings britain spread celtic motifs wider audience wace c wrote norman french earliest known poet jersey also developed arthurian legend end th century layamon ''brut'' adapted wace make first english language work


easily middle english bible translations notably wycliffe 's bible helped establish english literary language wycliffe 's bible name given group bible translations middle english made direction instigation john wycliffe appeared period ''piers plowman'' ''visio willelmi de petro plowman'' ''william 's vision piers plowman'' written c middle english allegorical narrative poem william langland written unrhymed alliterative verse divided sections called pass latin steps ''piers'' considered


united common moral political themes women writers also active marie de france th century julian norwich early th century julian 's ''revelations divine love'' around believed first published book written woman english language ref name ec ref margery kempe c known writing ''the book margery kempe'' work considered first autobiography english language major scottish writers th century include henrysoun dunbar douglas lyndsay


works chaucer influence scottish writers medieval drama middle ages drama vernacular languages europe may emerged religious enactments liturgy mystery plays presented porches cathedrals strolling players feast days miracle mystery plays along moralities interludes later evolved elaborate forms drama seen elizabethan stages another form medieval theatre mummers' plays form early street theatre associated morris dance concentrating themes saint george


chester mystery play cycle four complete nearly complete extant english biblical collections plays late medieval period complete ''york cycle'' forty eight pageants performed city york middle th century besides middle english drama three surviving plays cornish known ordinalia grown religiously based mystery plays morality play genre medieval early tudor theatrical entertainment represented shift towards secular base european theatre morality


penetrate england scotland elizabethan era usually regarded height english renaissance however many scholars see beginnings early reign henry viii italian literary influences arrived britain sonnet form introduced english thomas wyatt early th century developed henry howard earl surrey also introduced blank verse england translation virgil 's ''aeneid'' c spread printing affected transmission literature across britain


ireland first book printed english william caxton 's translation ''recuyell historyes troye'' printed abroad followed establishment first printing press england thomas book ''utopia'' illustration imaginary island latin continued use language learning long reformation established vernaculars liturgical languages elites ''utopia'' work fiction political philosophy thomas published book written latin frame narrative primarily depicting fictional island


society religious social political customs elizabethan era william shakespeare 's career straddled change tudor stuart dynasties encompassed english history emerging imperial idea th century poetry later th century english poetry used elaborate language extensive allusions classical myths sir edmund spenser author ''the faerie queene'' epic poem fantastical allegory celebrating tudor dynasty elizabeth works sir philip sidney poet courtier soldier include ''astrophel stella'' ''the defence poetry'' ''arcadia'' poems intended


influence william shakespeare brought much italian language culture england also translator montaigne english earliest elizabethan plays include ''gorboduc'' sackville norton thomas kyd 's revenge tragedy ''the spanish tragedy'' highly popular influential time ''the spanish tragedy'' established new genre english literature theatre revenge play revenge tragedy jane lumley first person translate euripides english translation ''iphigeneia aulis'' first known dramatic work woman english william shakespeare


stands period poet playwright yet unsurpassed shakespeare wrote plays variety genres including histories tragedies comedies late romances tragicomedies works written elizabethan era include comedy ''twelfth night'' tragedy ''hamlet'' history ''henry iv part '' jacobean period drama shakespeare 's career continued reign king james early th century wrote called problem plays like ''measure measure'' well number best known tragedies including ''king lear'' ''anthony cleopatra''


plots shakespeare 's tragedies often hinge fatal errors flaws overturn order destroy hero loves final period shakespeare turned romance tragicomedy completed four major plays including ''the tempest'' less bleak tragedies four plays graver tone comedies end reconciliation forgiveness potentially tragic errors important figures elizabethan jacobean theatre include christopher marlowe thomas dekker c john fletcher francis beaumont marlowe 's subject matter different


shakespeare 's focuses moral drama renaissance man play doctor faustus c scientist magician sells soul devil beaumont fletcher less known may helped shakespeare write best dramas popular time beaumont 's comedy ''the knight burning pestle'' satirises rising middle class especially ''nouveaux riches'' shakespeare 's death poet dramatist ben jonson leading literary figure jacobean era jonson 's aesthetics hark back


shakespeare also popularised english sonnet made significant changes petrarch 's model collection sonnets dealing themes passage time love beauty mortality first published quarto francis bacon besides shakespeare major poets early th century included metaphysical poets john donne george herbert influenced continental baroque taking subject matter christian mysticism eroticism donne 's metaphysical poetry uses unconventional unpoetic figures compass mosquito achieve surprise effects george chapman


successful playwright remembered chiefly translation homer 's iliad odyssey english verse first ever complete translation either poem english language profound influence english literature prose philosopher sir francis bacon wrote utopian novel ''new atlantis'' coined phrase ''knowledge power'' francis godwin 's ''the man moone'' recounts imaginary voyage moon regarded first work science fiction english literature reformation translation liturgy bible


vernacular languages provided new literary models ''book common prayer'' ''authorised king james version'' bible hugely influential king james bible one biggest translation projects history english time started completed continued tradition bible translation english original languages began work william tyndale previous translations english relied vulgate became standard bible church england consider one


greatest literary works time late renaissance samuel pepys took diary beyond mere business transaction notes realm personal metaphysical poets continued writing period john donne george herbert died second generation metaphysical poets andrew marvell thomas traherne henry vaughan style witty metaphysical conceits far fetched unusual similes metaphors marvell 's comparison soul drop dew donne 's description effects absence lovers


action pair compasses another important group poets time cavalier poets important group writers came classes supported king charles wars three kingdoms king charles reigned executed best known poets robert herrick richard lovelace thomas carew sir john suckling formal group influenced ben jonson cavalier poets courtiers notable exceptions example robert herrick


''comus'' masque ''lycidas'' later major works ''paradise regained'' ''samson agonistes'' milton 's works reflect deep personal convictions passion freedom self determination urgent issues political turbulence day writing english latin italian achieved international renown within lifetime celebrated ''areopagitica'' written condemnation pre publication censorship among history 's influential impassioned defences free speech freedom press william hayley 's biography called greatest english author remains generally regarded one


preeminent writers english language thomas urquhart translation rabelais' ''gargantua pantagruel'' english described greatest scottish translation since gavin douglas 's ''eneados'' ref name scotlandsbooks ref restoration drama restoration monarchy launched fresh start literature celebration new worldly playful court king reaction theatres england reopened closed protectorship oliver cromwell puritanism lost momentum bawdy restoration comedy became recognisable genre restoration comedy refers english comedies written


performed restoration period ref name george henry nettleton p george henry nettleton arthur ''british dramatists dryden sheridan'' p ref addition women allowed perform stage first time restoration monarchy ireland enabled ogilby resume position master revels open first theatre royal dublin smock alley katherine philips went dublin completed translation pierre corneille 's ''pomp e'' produced great success smock alley theatre printed


year dublin london although women translated written dramas translation pompey broke new ground first rhymed version french tragedy english first english play written woman performed professional stage aphra behn one women writers dubbed fair triumvirate wit prolific dramatist one first english professional female writers greatest dramatic success ''the rover'' poetry aphra behn behn 's depiction character willmore ''the rover'' witty poetry reciting


rake dorimant george etherege 's ''the man mode'' seen satire john wilmot nd earl rochester english libertine poet wit restoration court contemporary andrew marvell described best english satirist generally considered considerable poet learned among restoration wits ''a satyr reason mankind'' assumed hobbesian critique rationalism ref name fisher ref rochester 's poetic work varies widely form genre content part mob gentlemen


wrote ease continued produce poetry manuscripts rather publication consequence rochester 's work deals topical concerns satires courtly affairs libels parodies styles contemporaries sir charles scroope also notable impromptus voltaire spoke rochester man genius great poet admired satire energy fire translated lines french display shining imagination lordship could boast john dryden english poet literary critic


first conferred letters patent john dryden post became regular british institution prose diarists john evelyn samuel pepys depicted everyday london life cultural scene times works among important primary sources restoration period england consists eyewitness accounts many great events great plague london great fire london publication ''the pilgrim 's progress'' part established puritan preacher john bunyan notable writer bunyan 's ''the


pilgrim 's progress'' allegory personal salvation guide christian life bunyan writes individual prevail temptations mind body threaten damnation book written straightforward narrative shows influence drama biography yet also shows awareness grand allegorical tradition found edmund spenser th century augustan age late th early th century english literature known augustan age writers time greatly admired roman counterparts imitated works frequently


drew parallels contemporary world age roman emperor augustus ad bc see augustan literature ancient rome major writers period anglo irish writer jonathan swift william congreve joseph addison richard steele alexander pope henry fielding samuel johnson birth britain portrait tobias smollett union parliaments scotland england form single kingdom great britain creation joint state acts union little impact


literature england national consciousness among english writers situation scotland different desire maintain cultural identity partaking advantages offered english literary market english literary standard language led described invention british literature scottish writers english writers considered britain tended assume merely england writ large scottish writers clearly aware new state cultural amalgam comprising england ref name crawford ref james thomson 's rule britannia example


scottish championing new national literary identity invention british literature came development first british novels contrast english novel th century continued deal england english concerns rather exploring changed political social literary environment ref name crawford tobias smollett scottish pioneer british novel exploring prejudices inherent within new social structure country comic picaresque novels ''the adventures roderick random'' first major novel written english


prose earlier part period overshadowed development english essay joseph addison richard steele 's ''the spectator'' established form british periodical essay inventing pose detached observer human life meditate upon world without advocating specific changes however also time english novel first emerging restoration developed major art form daniel defoe turned journalism writing criminal lives press writing fictional criminal lives ''roxana'' ''moll flanders'' daniel defoe 's


castaway novel ''robinson crusoe'' crusoe standing man friday freeing cannibals english novel generally seen beginning daniel defoe 's ''robinson crusoe'' ''moll flanders'' though john bunyan 's ''the pilgrim 's progress'' aphra behn 's ''oroonoko'' also contenders major th century british novelists samuel richardson author epistolary novels ''pamela virtue rewarded'' ''clarissa'' henry fielding wrote ''joseph andrews'' ''the history tom jones foundling'' addison steele dominant one type


prose jonathan swift author satire ''gulliver 's travels'' another ''a modest proposal'' ''drapier letters'' swift reluctantly defended irish people predations colonialism provoked riots arrests swift love irish roman catholics outraged abuses saw ref name ousby ousby et al ''the cambridge guide literature english'' cambridge cambridge university press ref english pictorial satirist editorial cartoonist william hogarth credited pioneering western sequential art work ranged realistic portraiture comic strip like series


pictures called modern moral subjects much work satirises contemporary politics customs drama although documented history irish theatre began least early earliest irish dramatists note william congreve one interesting writers restoration comedies author ''the way world'' playwright george farquhar ''the recruiting officer'' restoration comedy refers english comedies written performed restoration period comedy manners used synonym restoration comedy ref name george henry nettleton p anglo irish


drama th century also includes charles macklin arthur murphy ref name deane age augustan drama brought end censorship established licensing act authors strong political philosophical points make would longer turn stage first hope making living novels began dramatic structures involving normal human beings stage closed serious authors prior licensing act theatre first choice wits novel


poetry pope outstanding poet age alexander pope whose major works include ''the rape lock'' enlarged translation ''iliad'' translation ''odyssey'' ''the dunciad'' since death pope constant state evaluation high artifice strict prosody times sheer cruelty satire object derision romantic poets reputation revived pope considered dominant poetic voice


century model prosodic elegance biting wit enduring demanding moral force ''rape lock'' ''the dunciad'' masterpieces mock epic genre time poet james thomson produced melancholy ''the seasons'' edward young wrote poem ''night thoughts'' roots romanticism robert burns inspired many vernacular writers across britain ireland second half th century sometimes called age johnson samuel johnson often referred dr johnson english author made lasting contributions


english literature poet essayist moralist literary critic biographer editor lexicographer johnson described arguably distinguished man letters english history nine years work johnson 's ''a dictionary english language'' published far reaching effect modern english described one greatest single achievements scholarship ref name bate ref works dictionary edition shakespeare ''lives poets'' particular helped invent call english literature ref name britannica samuel johnson encyclop dia britannica encyclop dia britannica online


academic edition encyclop dia britannica inc web nov http wwwbritannicacom ebchecked topic samuel johnson ref period th century saw emergence three major irish authors oliver goldsmith richard brinsley sheridan laurence sterne goldsmith settled london published novel ''the vicar wakefield'' pastoral poem ''the deserted village'' two plays ''the good natur 'd man'' ''she stoops conquer'' sheridan born dublin family moved england first play ''the rivals'' performed covent garden


instant success went become significant london playwright late th century plays like ''the school scandal'' ''the critic'' sterne published famous novel ''tristram shandy'' parts sentimental novel novel sensibility genre developed second half th century among famous sentimental novels english samuel richardson 's ''pamela virtue rewarded'' oliver goldsmith 's ''the vicar wakefield'' laurence sterne 's ''tristram shandy'' another novel genre also developed


period frances burney wrote ''evelina'' one first novels manners fanny burney 's novels' indeed enjoyed admired jane austen graveyard poets number pre romantic english poets writing later whose works characterised gloomy meditations mortality skulls coffins epitaphs worms context graveyard added later practitioners feeling 'sublime' uncanny interest ancient english poetic forms folk poetry often considered precursors gothic genre poets


include thomas gray ''elegy written country churchyard'' william cowper christopher smart thomas chatterton robert blair edward young ''the complaint night thoughts life death immortality'' precursors romanticism poets james thomson james macpherson gothic novel novel sensibility also foreshadowing romanticism gothic fiction works horace walpole 's novel ''the castle otranto'' gothic fiction genre combines elements horror romance pioneering gothic novelist ann radcliffe author ''the mysteries


udolpho'' ''the monk'' matthew lewis another notable early work gothic horror genres james macpherson first scottish poet gain international reputation claiming found poetry written ancient bard ossian published translations acquired international popularity proclaimed celtic equivalent classical epics robert burns walter scott highly influenced ossian cycle robert burns pioneer romantic movement death became cultural icon scotland among poems


songs burns remain well known across world auld lang syne red red rose man 's man a' mouse tam o' shanter ae fond kiss romanticism william blake 's tyger published ''songs innocence experience'' work romanticism romanticism artistic literary intellectual movement originated europe toward end th century various dates given romantic period british literature publishing ''lyrical ballads'' taken


beginning crowning queen victoria end even though example william wordsworth lived william blake published writers period however think 'romantics' term first used critics victorian period romantic period one major social change england depopulation countryside rapid development overcrowded industrial cities took place period roughly movement many people england result


two forces agricultural revolution involved enclosure land drove workers land industrial revolution provided employment factories mills operated machines driven steam power indeed romanticism may seen part reaction industrial revolution though also revolt aristocratic social political norms age enlightenment well reaction scientific rationalisation nature french revolution especially important influence political thinking many romantic poets landscape often


lifetime considered seminal figure history poetry visual arts romantic age among important works ''songs innocence'' ''songs experience'' profound difficult 'prophecies' ''visions daughters albion'' ''the first book urizen'' jerusalem emanation giant albion blake among earliest romantics lake poets small group friends including william wordsworth samuel taylor coleridge robert southey journalist thomas de quincey


however time walter scott famous poet scott achieved immediate success long narrative poem ''the lay last minstrel'' followed full epic poem ''marmion'' set distant scottish past early romantic poets brought new emotionalism introspection emergence marked first romantic manifesto english literature preface ''lyrical ballads'' poems ''lyrical ballads'' mostly wordsworth although coleridge contributed long rime ancient mariner among wordsworth 's important poems


michael lines composed miles tintern abbey resolution independence ode intimations immortality recollections early childhood long autobiographical epic ''the prelude'' robert southey another called lake poets poet laureate years death although fame long eclipsed contemporaries friends william wordsworth samuel taylor coleridge thomas de quincey english essayist best known ''confessions english opium eater'' autobiographical account laudanum effect


life second generation mary shelley second generation romantic poets includes lord byron percy bysshe shelley john keats byron however still influenced th century satirists perhaps least romantic three preferring brilliant wit pope called 'wrong poetical system' romantic contemporaries though john keats shared byron shelley 's radical politics best poetry political especially noted sensuous music imagery along concern material beauty transience life among famous works


eve st agnes la belle dame sans merci ode nightingale autumn percy shelley known contemporaries radical politics association figures byron mary wollstonecraft shelley daughter radical thinkers william godwin mary wollstonecraft third major romantic poet second generation generally regarded among finest lyric poets english language shelley perhaps best known poems ''ozymandias'' ''ode west wind'' ''to skylark'' ''adona s'' elegy written death keats mary shelley


highly successful british novelist greatest single influence fiction th century european figure scott 's novel writing career launched ''waverley'' often called first historical novel followed ''ivanhoe'' waverley novels including ''the antiquary'' ''old mortality'' ''the heart midlothian'' whose subject scottish history generally regarded scott 's masterpieces victorian literature victorian fiction novel victorian era novel became leading literary genre english women played important part


rising popularity authors readers monthly serialising fiction encouraged surge popularity due combination rise literacy technological advances printing improved economics distribution circulating libraries allowed books borrowed annual subscription factor rising popularity novel charles dickens charles dickens emerged literary scene late soon became probably famous novelist history british literature dickens fiercely satirised various aspects society including workhouse


''oliver twist'' failures legal system ''bleak house'' recent years dickens admired later novels ''dombey son'' ''bleak house'' ''little dorrit'' ''great expectations'' ''our mutual friend'' early rival dickens william makepeace thackeray victorian period ranked second much less read known almost exclusively ''vanity fair'' bront sisters emily charlotte anne significant novelists novels caused


sensation first published subsequently accepted classics charlotte bront 's work ''jane eyre'' broke new ground written intensely first person female perspective emily bront 's novel ''wuthering heights'' according juliet gardiner vivid sexual passion power language imagery impressed bewildered appalled reviewers third bront novel anne bront 's ''agnes grey'' deals lonely life governess elizabeth gaskell also successful writer ''north south'' contrasts lifestyle industrial north


intellectual breadth removes narrow geographic confines often depict led comparisons tolstoy george meredith best remembered novels ''the ordeal richard feverel'' ''the egoist'' reputation stood high well th century seriously declined ref name english literature pp ''the oxford companion english literature'' pp ref h g wells studying london taken circa interest rural matters changing social economic situation countryside seen novels thomas hardy victorian realist


tradition george eliot also influenced novels poetry romanticism especially william wordsworth gained fame author novels ''far madding crowd'' ''the mayor casterbridge'' ''tess d'urbervilles'' ''jude obscure'' another significant late th century novelist george gissing published novels best known novel ''new grub street'' also late first novel polish born immigrant joseph conrad important forerunner modernist literature published


conrad 's ''heart darkness'' published short story early european examples short stories published separately first true collections short stories appeared several countries around period first short stories united kingdom gothic tales like richard cumberland 's remarkable narrative poisoner montremos major novelists like sir walter scott charles dickens also wrote short stories genre fiction important developments occurred genre fiction era adventure novels popular including sir john barrow 's descriptive


account mutiny bounty lost world literary genre inspired real stories archaeological discoveries imperial adventurers sir henry rider haggard wrote one earliest examples ''king solomon 's mines'' contemporary european politics diplomatic manoeuvrings informed anthony hope 's swashbuckling ruritanian adventure novels ''the prisoner zenda'' robert louis stevenson also wrote works genre including ''kidnapped'' historical novel set aftermath jacobite rising ''treasure island'' classic pirate adventure wilkie collins' epistolary novel ''the moonstone'' generally


considered first detective novel english language soon sir arthur conan doyle began sherlock holmes series london based consulting detective doyle wrote four novels fifty six short stories featuring holmes final case sir arthur conan doyle born scotland h g wells 's writing career began science fiction novels like ''the war worlds'' describes invasion late victorian england martians wells along frenchman jules verne major figure


vampire count dracula penny dreadful publications alternative mainstream works aimed working class adolescents introducing infamous sweeney todd premier ghost story writer th century irish writer sheridan le fanu children 's literature lewis carroll literature children developed separate genre victorian era works became internationally known lewis carroll ''alice 's adventures wonderland'' end nineteenth century author illustrator beatrix potter known children 's books featured animal characters including ''the tale peter rabbit''


latter years th century precursors modern picture book illustrated books poems short stories produced illustrators randolph caldecott walter crane kate greenaway larger proportion pictures words earlier books many pictures colour ''vice versa'' f anstey sees father son exchange bodies body swaps popular theme various media since book published victorian poetry alfred lord tennyson leading poets victorian period alfred lord tennyson robert browning


elizabeth barrett browning matthew arnold poetry period heavily influenced romantics also went directions particularly notable development dramatic monologue form used many poets period perfected browning tennyson poet laureate united kingdom much queen victoria 's reign described eliot greatest master metrics well melancholia finest ear english poet since milton elizabeth barrett browning wife


second generation artists writers influenced movement notably william morris edward burne jones arthur clough minor figure era described fine poet whose experiments extending range literary language subject ahead time george meredith remembered innovative collection poems ''modern love'' ref name english literature pp second half century english poets began take interest french symbolism two groups poets emerged ''yellow


book'' poets adhered tenets aestheticism including algernon charles swinburne oscar wilde arthur symons rhymers' club group included ernest dowson lionel johnson irishman william butler yeats irishman yeats went become important modernist th century also e housman published expense ''a shropshire lad'' poems' wistful evocation doomed youth english countryside spare language distinctive imagery appealed strongly late victorian edwardian taste nonsense verse edward lear along novels poems


lewis carroll regarded precursor surrealism lear published ''a book nonsense'' volume limericks went three editions helped popularise form writers comic verse included dramatist librettist poet illustrator w gilbert best known fourteen comic operas produced collaboration composer sir arthur sullivan famous include ''hms pinafore'' ''the pirates penzance'' one frequently performed works history musical theatre ''the mikado'' victorian drama oscar wilde much


genre th century end century main figures also irish born last decade century major playwrights emerged including george bernard shaw ''arms man'' oscar wilde ''the importance earnest'' irish writers lived mainly england wrote english exception works french wilde twentieth century year marked significant change relationship great britain ireland setting predominantly catholic irish free state


ireland predominantly protestant northern ireland remained part united kingdom separation also leads questions extent irish writing prior treated colonial literature also question whether literature northern ireland irish british nationalist movements britain especially wales scotland also significantly influenced writers twentieth twenty first centuries modernism cultural revivals around modernist movement began influence british literature victorian predecessors usually happy cater mainstream


middle class taste th century writers often felt alienated responded writing intellectually challenging works pushing boundaries acceptable content first world war statue hedd wyn trawsfynydd experiences first world war reflected work war poets wilfred owen rupert brooke isaac rosenberg robert graves siegfried sassoon ''in parenthesis'' epic poem david jones first published notable work literature first world war influenced welsh traditions despite jones born england


posthumously published robert bridges free verse stylistic innovations came forefront era eliot ezra pound especially associated eliot born american migrated england arguably important english language poet th century ref name collini ref produced best known poems english language including waste land ''four quartets'' ref name eb http wwwbritannicacom ebchecked topic eliot thomas stearns eliot ''encyclop dia britannica'' accessed november ref indeed writer georgian poets like rupert brooke


walter de la mare john masefield poet laureate maintained conservative approach poetry combining romanticism sentimentality hedonism edward thomas sometimes treated another georgian poet auden group sometimes called simply ''the thirties poets'' important group politically left wing writers included w h auden two anglo irish writers cecil day lewis louis macneice auden major poet similar influence subsequent poets w b yeats eliot earlier generations keith


rudyard kipling also successful poet h g wells john galsworthy nobel prize literature whose novels include ''the forsyte saga'' arnold bennett author ''the old wives' tale'' g k chesterton em forster popular british writer early years th century arguably rudyard kipling highly versatile writer novels short stories poems date youngest ever recipient nobel prize literature h g wells highly prolific author best known


work science fiction genre notable science fiction works include ''the war worlds'' ''the time machine'' written forster 's ''a passage india'' reflected challenges imperialism earlier works ''a room view'' ''howards end'' examined restrictions hypocrisy edwardian society england virginia woolf writing virginia woolf influential feminist major stylistic innovator associated stream consciousness technique novels include ''mrs dalloway'' ''the waves''


personal life could adapt social norms time ''sons lovers'' widely regarded earliest masterpiece followed ''the rainbow'' sequel ''women love'' published ref name english literature p ''the oxford companion english literature'' p ref important development beginning really tradition working class novels actually written writers working class background essayist novelist george orwell 's works considered important social political commentaries th century dealing issues


poverty ''the road wigan pier'' satires totalitarianism included ''animal farm'' malcolm lowry published best known ''under volcano'' evelyn waugh satirised bright young things notably ''a handful dust'' ''decline fall'' ''brideshead revisited'' theological basis aiming examine effect divine grace main characters aldous huxley published famous dystopia ''brave new world'' year john cowper powys 's ''a glastonbury romance''


graham greene 's first major novel ''brighton rock'' published late modernism though seen modernism ending around regard english literature modernism petered postmodernism began contested almost hotly transition victorianism modernism occurred fact number modernists still living publishing including eliot dorothy richardson john cowper powys furthermore northumberland poet basil bunting born published little ''briggflatts'' novel malcolm lowry published ''under


volcano'' george orwell 's satire totalitarianism ''nineteen eighty four'' published essayist novelist orwell 's works important social political commentaries th century evelyn waugh 's second world war trilogy ''sword honour'' published period graham greene 's works span convert catholicism novels explore ambivalent moral political issues modern world novelists writing later anthony powell ''a dance music time'' nobel prize laureate sir william golding anglo irish philosopher dame iris


murdoch prolific writer novels dealing sexual relationships morality power unconscious scottish novelist dame muriel spark ''the prime miss jean brodie'' anthony burgess especially remembered dystopian novel ''a clockwork orange'' mervyn peake published gothic fantasy gormenghast trilogy angela carter novelist journalist known feminist magical realism picaresque works writing doris lessing cologne sir salman rushdie among number post second world war writers


former british colonies permanently settled britain rushdie achieved fame ''midnight 's children'' controversial novel ''the satanic verses'' inspired part life muhammad doris lessing southern rhodesia zimbabwe published first novel ''the grass singing'' immigrating england initially wrote african experiences lessing soon became dominant presence english literary scene publishing frequently nobel prize literature sir v naipaul another immigrant born trinidad nobel prize


literature also west indies george lamming wrote ''in castle skin'' pakistan came hanif kureshi playwright screenwriter filmmaker novelist short story writer nobel prize winner kazuo ishiguro born japan parents immigrated britain six became british citizen adult martin amis one prominent british novelists end th beginning st century pat barker many awards fiction english


novelist screenwriter ian mcewan highly regarded writer drama important cultural movement british theatre developed late early kitchen sink realism kitchen sink drama art novels film television plays term angry young men often applied members artistic movement used style social realism depicts domestic lives working class explore social issues political issues drawing room plays post war period typical dramatists like sir terence rattigan sir l coward


challenged angry young men plays like john osborne 's ''look back anger'' theatre absurd profoundly affected british dramatists especially irishman samuel beckett 's play ''waiting godot'' among influenced harold pinter ''the birthday party'' tom stoppard ''rosencrantz guildenstern dead'' theatres act abolished system censorship stage existed great britain since new freedoms london stage tested howard brenton 's ''the romans britain'' first


staged national theatre subsequently focus unsuccessful private prosecution playwrights whose careers began later century sir alan ayckbourn ''absurd person singular'' michael frayn playwright novelist david hare david edgar dennis potter 's distinctive dramatic work produced television many major british playwrights either effectively began careers bbc works adapted radio many major british playwrights fact either effectively began careers bbc works adapted


radio including caryl churchill tom stoppard whose first professional production fifteen minute ''just midnight'' programme bbc radio showcased new dramatists ref name autogenerated ref john mortimer made radio debut dramatist adaptation novel ''like men betrayed'' bbc light programme notable radio dramatists included brendan behan ireland novelist angela carter among famous works created radio dylan thomas 's ''under milk wood'' samuel beckett 's ''all fall'' harold pinter 's ''a slight ache'' robert bolt 's ''a


man seasons'' poetry poets eliot w h auden dylan thomas still publishing new poets started careers including philip larkin ''the whitsun weddings'' ted hughes ''the hawk rain'' northern ireland produced number significant poets famous nobel prize winner seamus heaney however heaney regarded irish british others poets northern ireland include derek mahon paul muldoon james fenton michael longley medbh mcguckian martian poetry


aimed break grip 'the familiar' describing ordinary things unfamiliar ways though example eyes martian poets closely associated craig raine christopher reid martin amis important novelist late twentieth twentieth centuries carried fiction drive make familiar strange another literary movement period british poetry revival wide reaching collection groupings subgroupings embraces performance sound concrete poetry leading poets associated movement include j h prynne eric mottram tom raworth denise riley


lee harwood reacted conservative group called movement liverpool poets adrian henri brian patten roger mcgough work self conscious attempt creating english equivalent beats tony harrison explores medium language tension native dialect case working class leeds acquired language ref name nonmetropolitan ref simon armitage geoffrey hill considered among distinguished english poets generation ref name harold bloom harold bloom ed ''geoffrey hill bloom 's modern critical views '' infobase publishing ref


charles tomlinson another important english poet older generation though since first publication built career seen notice international scene native england ref name carcanet ref literature children young adults j k rowling roald dahl prominent author children 's fantasy novels like ''charlie chocolate factory'' often inspired experiences childhood often unexpected endings unsentimental dark humour popular school stories period include ronald searle 's ''st trinian 's'' j k rowling 's ''harry potter'' fantasy


series sequence seven novels chronicle adventures adolescent wizard harry potter best selling book series history series translated languages ref name translations harry potter ref placing rowling among translated authors history cressida cowell wrote ''how train dragon'' series twelve books set fictional viking world scottish literature scotland late th century produced several important novelists including james kelman like samuel beckett create humour grim situations l kennedy whose novel ''day''


named book year costa book awards alasdair gray whose ''lanark life four books'' dystopian fantasy set home town glasgow highly anglicised lowland scots often used contemporary scottish fiction example edinburgh dialect lowland scots used ''trainspotting'' irvine welsh give brutal depiction lives working class edinburgh drug users northern ireland james fenton 's poetry written contemporary ulster scots ref name robinson robinson ''the historical presence ulster scots ireland'' ''the languages ireland'' ed cronin michael


cuillean cormac dublin four courts press ref poet michael longley born experimented ulster scots translation classical verse collection ''the ghost orchid'' ref name ferguson ferguson frank ed ''ulster scots writing'' dublin four courts press ref twentieth century genre fiction early twentieth century among significant writers genre early twentieth century erskine childers' ''the riddle sands'' wrote spy novels emma orczy baroness orczy author ''the scarlet pimpernel'' historical romance recounted adventures member english gentry


french revolutionary period title character established notion hero secret identity popular culture john buchan wrote adventure novels like ''prester john'' novels featuring gentleman adventurer popular wars exemplified series h c mcneile ''bulldog drummond'' leslie charteris whose many books chronicled adventures simon templar alias ''the saint'' dame agatha christie medieval scholar r james wrote highly regarded ghost stories contemporary settings called 'the golden age detective fiction' dame agatha christie writer crime novels


lewis 's ''space trilogy'' j r r tolkien early late informal literary discussion group associated english faculty university oxford ''the inklings'' leading members major fantasy novelists j r r tolkien cs lewis lewis known ''the screwtape letters'' ''the chronicles narnia'' ''the space trilogy'' tolkien best known author ''the hobbit'' ''the lord rings'' ''the silmarillion'' later twentieth century among important writers genre fiction second half twentieth century


thriller writer ian fleming creator james bond fleming chronicled bond 's adventures twelve novels including ''casino royale'' contrast larger life spy capers bond john le carr author spy novels depicted shadowy world espionage counter espionage best known novel ''the spy came cold'' often regarded one greatest genre frederick forsyth writes thriller novels ken follett writes spy thrillers well historical novels notably ''the pillars earth'' war novels include alistair


banks created fictional anarchist socialist utopian society culture nobel prize winner doris lessing also published sequence five science fiction novels ''canopus argos archives'' fantasy sir terry pratchett best known ''discworld'' series comic fantasy novels begins ''the colour magic'' includes ''night watch'' philip pullman 's famous fantasy trilogy ''his dark materials'' follows coming age two children wander series parallel universes backdrop epic events neil gaiman


sword stone'' mary norton wrote ''the borrowers'' featuring tiny people borrow humans inspiration frances hodgson burnett 's novel ''the secret garden'' kent hugh lofting created character doctor dolittle appears series twelve books dodie smith 's ''the hundred one dalmatians'' featured villainous cruella de vil st century literature novel st century outstanding concern historical fiction noted ref name eb https wwwbritannicacom art english literature st century english literature st century encyclopedia britannica ref dame hilary mantel highly successful writer historical novels winning booker prize


twice ''wolf hall'' ''bring bodies'' one ambitious novelists emerge period david mitchell whose far reaching novel ''cloud atlas'' spans th century future influences earlier literary styles techniques english literature notable writers ian mcewan novel ''atonement'' ref name eb julian barnes another prominent writer man booker prize book ''the sense ending'' theatre theatrical landscape reconfigured moving single national theatre


end twentieth century four result devolution cultural policy genre fiction e l james' erotic romance trilogy ''fifty shades grey'' ''fifty shades darker'' ''fifty shades freed'' along companion novel ''grey fifty shades grey told christian'' sold nbsp million copies globally set record united kingdom fastest selling paperback time perceived success promotion genre fiction authors scotland provoked controversy james kelman criticised speech edinburgh international book festival


attention afforded upper middle class young magicians detective fiction anglocentric scottish literary establishment literary institutions original literature continues promoted institutions eisteddfod wales welsh books council royal society edinburgh includes literature within sphere activity literature wales welsh national literature promotion agency society writers administers wales book year award imported eisteddfod tradition channel islands encouraged recitation performance tradition continues today formed cheltenham literature festival longest running


festival kind world hay festival wales attracts wide interest edinburgh international book festival largest festival kind world poetry society publishes promotes poetry notably annual national poetry day world book day observed britain crown dependencies first thursday march annually literary prizes british recipients nobel prize literature include rudyard kipling john galsworthy eliot bertrand russell winston churchill william golding v naipaul harold pinter


doris lessing kazuo ishiguro literary prizes writers united kingdom eligible include man booker prize commonwealth writers' prize international dublin literary award carnegie medal costa book awards formerly whitbread awards orange prize fiction queen 's gold medal poetry see also references reading partridge c ''tudor augustan english study syntax style caxton johnson'' series ''the language library'' london deutsch p without sbn isbn external links european literature english language literature history literature united kingdom


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