comfortable idea god worked evolutionary process god 's image human book genesis also teaches human beings male female created image god exact meaning subject theological debate throughout church history origin transmission soul two opposing views soul originates human ''creationism'' teaches god creates fresh soul within human embryo time shortly conception note confused


creationism view origins life universe ''traducianism'' contrast teaches soul inherited individual 's parents along biological material human nature christian theology traditionally teaches human nature originates holy corrupted fall part development church doctrine historically concerned discerning role human plays redemption fall ref name ref debate human nature augustine pelagius nature sin relation state

Humanities
Theology
Theological Anthropology


human pelagius believed man 's nature inherently good taught children born fresh creation god therefore good ref name pelagius freedom constitute part human nature humanity capacity choose inherited therefore untainted human capable following divine laws ten commandment live morally inherited ability choose grace creation augustine believed humans born sin inherited sinful nature due adam original sin without grace god humanity


followers jacobus arminius arminians nature grace process salvation calvin arminius follow augustine doctrine total depravity however arminians hold god restores humanity free concerning ability choose salvation classic calvinism holds strict monergism synergism affirmation participation human salvation classic patristic position well position roman catholic eastern orthodox church well many arminian influenced protestant churches whereas monergism become position churches part


reformed tradition death afterlife christian anthropology implications beliefs death afterlife christian church traditionally taught soul individual separates body death reunited resurrection closely related doctrine immortality soul example westminster confession chapter xxxii states bodies men death return dust see corruption souls neither die sleep immortal subsistence immediately return god gave intermediate state


unrighteous sent lake fire gehenna traditionally christians believed hell place eternal physical psychological punishment last two centuries annihilationism universalism become popular see also human nature person philosophical anthropology theological anthropology list important publications anthropology christian psychology references bibliography blasquez n ''el concepto de substantia segun san agustin'' augustinus pp nbsp pp nbsp pp nbsp english translation ''theology new testament'' vols london scm leading scholarly


borla p nbsp external links mick pope https webarchiveorg web http wwwiscastorgau papers action detailed id losing souls anthropology anthropology anthropology


'''culturology''' '' 'science culture''' branch social sciences concerned scientific understanding description analysis prediction cultures whole ethnology anthropology studied different cultural practices studies included diverse aspects sociological psychological etc need recognized discipline focused exclusively cultural aspects ref name leslie russia notion culturology interdisciplinary branch humanities may traced soviet union late associated work mikhail bakhtin aleksei losev sergey averintsev georgy gachev juri

Social science
Sociology
Cultural studies
Culturology


lotman vyacheslav ivanov vladimir toporov edward markarian others kind research challenged marxist socio political approach culture culturology received official recognition russia legalized form science subject study institutions higher learning dissolution soviet union introduced higher attestation commission 's list specialties scientific degrees may awarded russia subject study first year institutions higher education secondary schools defined study


human cultures integral systems influence human behavior may formally compared western discipline cultural studies although number important distinctions past decades following basic cultural schools formed philosophy culture nbsp arnold g nbsp v nbsp drach n nbsp nbsp zlobin nbsp nbsp kagan v nbsp nbsp mezhuyev nbsp n nbsp solonin nbsp b nbsp turov others theory culture b nbsp nbsp yerasov nbsp nbsp karmin v nbsp nbsp lukov nbsp nbsp pelipenko e nbsp v nbsp sokolov nbsp ya nbsp fliyer others cultural history nbsp n nbsp ikonnikova nbsp v nbsp kondakov e nbsp nbsp shulepova nbsp g nbsp yakovenko others sociology culture nbsp akhiezer l nbsp g ionin l nbsp n nbsp kogan nbsp nbsp shendrik others cultural anthropology nbsp nbsp belik ye nbsp nbsp orlova nbsp nbsp orlov kretschmer yu nbsp nbsp reznik others applied cultural studies astaf'eva nbsp nbsp bykhovskaya others


cultural studies art k nbsp e nbsp razlogov n nbsp nbsp hrenov others semiotics culture juri lotman v nbsp n nbsp toporov v nbsp v nbsp ivanov e nbsp nbsp meletinsky others cultural education g nbsp nbsp zvereva nbsp nbsp kravchenko nbsp f nbsp kuznetsova l nbsp nbsp mosolova others research started russian institute cultural research today along line central office located moscow three branches ric opened siberian opened omsk st petersburg department opened southern branch opened krasnodar culturology studies moscow lomonosov university faculty philosophy chair history theory


world culture created many prominent soviet russian scholars like v v ivanov averintsev gurevich l gasparov g knabe e miletinskiy v n romanov v vasilyeva n v braginskaya v v bibikhin alexander dobrokhotov worked yuri rozhdestvensky founded school culturology department language studies moscow lomonosov university rozhdestvensky 's approach development culture accumulation mutual influence layers compared approach used media ecology uses anglophone contemporary social sciences word ''culturology'' coined american


anthropologist leslie white defined field dedicated study culture cultural systems white notices culturology earlier known science culture defined english anthropologist edward burnett tylor book ''primitive culture'' ref name leslie ref white also notices introduced term first time term appeared english dictionaries also remarks corresponding german term ''kulturwissenschaft'' introduced wilhelm ostwald ref name leslie following white philosopher science mario bunge defined culturology sociological economic political historical


study concrete cultural systems synchronic culturology said coincide anthropology sociology economics political ideology cultures contrast diachronic culturology component history according bunge scientific culturology also differs traditional cultural studies latter often work idealist literary critics pseudo philosophers ignorant scientific method incompetent study social facts concrete social systems bunge systemic materialist approach study culture given birth variety new fields research social sciences fabrice rivault instance


first scholar formalize propose international political culturology subfield international relations order understand global cultural system well numerous subsystems explain cultural variables interact politics economics impact world affairs scientific approach differs radically culturalism constructivism cultural postmodernism based logic empiricism systemism emergent materialism international political culturology studied scholars around world see also cultural studies cultural anthropology references references external links http wwwricurru russian institute cultural research http kulturologorgua culturology department


national university ostroh academy https webarchiveorg web http newphilosmsuru kaf itmk chair history theory world culture lomonossov moscow state university russia http culturehseru en school cultural studies national research university higher school economics moscow russia cultural studies science technology russia


'''biochemical systems theory''' mathematical modelling framework biochemical systems based ordinary differential equations ode biochemical processes represented using '''power law''' expansions variables system framework became known biochemical systems theory developed since michael savageau eberhard voit others systems analysis biochemical processes according cornish bowden regarded general theory metabolic control includes metabolic control analysis flux oriented theory special cases representation dynamics species represented differential equation

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems theory
Biochemical systems theory


structure center math frac dx dt sum j mu ij cdot gamma j prod k x k f jk math center ''x'' sub ''i'' sub represents one ''n'' sub ' 'd'' sub variables model metabolite concentrations protein concentrations levels gene expression ''j'' represents ''n'' sub ''f'' sub biochemical processes affecting dynamics species hand math mu math sub ''ij'' sub stoichiometric coefficient math gamma math sub ''j'' sub rate constants ''f'' sub ''jk'' sub kinetic orders two different kinds parameters defining dynamics system principal difference power law models respect ode models used biochemical systems kinetic orders non integer numbers kinetic order even negative value


inhibition modeled way power law models higher flexibility reproduce non linearity biochemical systems models using power law expansions used last years model analyze several kinds biochemical systems including metabolic networks genetic networks recently cell signalling see also dynamical systems ludwig von bertalanffy systems theory references literature '''books ''' savageau ''biochemical systems analysis study function design molecular biology'' reading addison wesley eo voit ed ''canonical nonlinear modeling system approach understanding complexity'' van nostrand reinhold ny eo voit ''computational


pp nbsp f alvarez vasquez et al ''simulation validation modelled sphingolipid metabolism saccharomyces cerevisiae'' ''nature'' pp nbsp pp nbsp j vera et al ''power law models signal transduction pathways'' cellular signalling eberhart voit http asetuftsedu chemical documents newsworkshopvoit saturdaypdf ''applications biochemical systems theory'' external links https savageaulabbmeucdavisedu savageau lab uc davis http wwwbstbmegatechedu voit lab ga tech systems biology


ford motor company 's factory willow run utilised production engineering principles achieve record mass production b liberator military aircraft world war ii '''manufacturing engineering''' branch professional engineering shares many common concepts ideas fields engineering mechanical chemical electrical industrial engineering manufacturing engineering requires ability plan practices manufacturing research develop tools processes machines equipment integrate facilities systems producing quality products optimum expenditure capital manufacturing production engineer 's primary

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Manufacturing engineering


focus turn raw material updated new product effective efficient economic way possible example would company uses computer integrated technology order produce product 's faster uses less human labor overview manufacturing engineering based core industrial engineering mechanical engineering skills adding important elements mechatronics commerce economics business management field also deals integration different facilities systems producing quality products optimal expenditure applying principles physics results


manufacturing systems studies following craft putting system british factory system american system manufacturing mass production computer integrated manufacturing computer aided technologies manufacturing time manufacturing lean manufacturing flexible manufacturing mass customization agile manufacturing rapid manufacturing prefabrication ownership fabrication publication set six axis robots used welding manufacturing engineers develop create physical artifacts production processes technology broad area includes design development products manufacturing engineering considered subdiscipline industrial engineering systems engineering strong overlaps mechanical engineering manufacturing engineers' success


failure directly impacts advancement technology spread innovation field manufacturing engineering emerged tool die discipline early th century expanded greatly industrialized countries introduced factories numerical control machine tools automated systems production advanced statistical methods quality control factories pioneered american electrical engineer william edwards deming initially ignored home country methods quality control later turned japanese factories world leaders cost effectiveness production quality industrial robots


factory floor introduced late computer controlled welding arms grippers could perform simple tasks attaching car door quickly flawlessly hours day cut costs improved production speed history history manufacturing engineering traced factories mid th century usa th century uk although large home production sites workshops established china ancient rome middle east venice arsenal provides one first examples factory modern sense word founded


republic venice several hundred years industrial revolution factory mass produced ships assembly lines using manufactured parts venice arsenal apparently produced nearly one ship every day height employed people many historians regard matthew boulton 's soho manufactory established birmingham first modern factory similar claims made john lombe 's silk mill derby richard arkwright 's cromford mill cromford mill purpose built accommodate equipment held take material various manufacturing processesford assembly line


one historian jack weatherford contends first factory potos potosi factory took advantage abundant silver mined nearby processed silver ingot slugs coins british colonies th century built factories simply buildings large number workers gathered perform hand labor usually textile production proved efficient administration distribution materials individual workers earlier methods manufacturing cottage industries putting system cotton mills used inventions steam engine power loom pioneer


industrial factories th century precision machine tools replaceable parts allowed greater efficiency less waste experience formed basis later studies manufacturing engineering non mechanized factories supplanted traditional artisan shops predominant form manufacturing institution henry ford revolutionized factory concept thus manufacturing engineering early th century innovation mass production highly specialized workers situated alongside series rolling ramps would build product ford 's case automobile concept dramatically decreased production costs


lead times simplification production reduced handling improved work flow improved worker morale robotics application mechatronics automation create robots often used manufacturing perform tasks dangerous unpleasant repetitive robots may shape size preprogrammed interact physically world create robot engineer typically employs kinematics determine robot 's range motion mechanics determine stresses within robot robots used extensively manufacturing engineering robots allow businesses save money labor perform


tasks either dangerous precise humans perform economically ensure better quality many companies employ assembly lines robots factories robotized run outside factory robots employed bomb disposal space exploration many fields robots also sold various residential applications education manufacturing engineers manufacturing engineers focus design development operation integrated systems production obtain high quality economically competitive products systems may include material handling equipment machine tools robots even computers


networks computers certification programs manufacturing engineers possess associate 's bachelor 's degree engineering major manufacturing engineering length study degree usually two five years followed five years professional practice qualify professional engineer working manufacturing engineering technologist involves applications oriented qualification path academic degrees manufacturing engineers usually associate bachelor engineering beng associate bachelor science bs bsc manufacturing technologists required degrees associate bachelor technology


manufacturing engineering initially topics cover subdisciplines manufacturing engineering students choose specialize one subdisciplines towards end degree work syllabus foundational curriculum bachelor 's degree manufacturing engineering production engineering includes mentioned syllabus syllabus closely related industrial engineering mechanical engineering differs placing emphasis manufacturing science production science includes following areas mathematics calculus differential equations statistics linear algebra mechanics statics dynamics solid mechanics fluid mechanics materials science strength


countries professional engineer term registered licensed engineers permitted offer professional services directly public professional engineer abbreviated pe usa peng canada designation licensure north america order qualify license candidate needs bachelor 's degree abet recognized university usa passing score state examination four years work experience usually gained via structured internship usa recent graduates option dividing licensure process two segments


mating interfaces tolerances cae programs commonly used product manufacturers include product life cycle management plm tools analysis tools used perform complex simulations analysis tools may used predict product response expected loads including fatigue life manufacturability tools include finite element analysis fea computational fluid dynamics cfd computer aided manufacturing cam using cae programs mechanical design team quickly cheaply iterate design process develop product better meets cost performance constraints physical prototype need created design nears completion allowing hundreds


thousands designs evaluated instead relatively addition cae analysis programs model complicated physical phenomena cannot solved hand viscoelasticity complex contact mating parts non newtonian flows manufacturing engineering linked disciplines mechatronics multidisciplinary design optimization mdo also used cae programs automate improve iterative design process mdo tools wrap around existing cae processes allowing product evaluation continue even analyst goes home day also utilize sophisticated optimization algorithms intelligently explore


possible designs often finding better innovative solutions difficult multidisciplinary design problems manufacturing engineering around world manufacturing engineering extremely important discipline worldwide goes different names different countries united states continental european union commonly known industrial engineering united kingdom australia called manufacturing engineering subdisciplines mechanics mohr 's circle common tool study stresses mechanical element mechanics general sense study forces effects matter typically engineering mechanics used analyze


predict acceleration deformation elastic plastic objects known forces also called loads stresses subdisciplines mechanics include statics study non moving bodies known loads dynamics kinetics study forces affect moving bodies mechanics materials study different materials deform various types stress fluid mechanics study fluids react forces continuum mechanics method applying mechanics assumes objects continuous rather discrete engineering project design vehicle statics might employed design


frame vehicle order evaluate stresses intense dynamics might used designing car 's engine evaluate forces pistons cams engine cycles mechanics materials might used choose appropriate materials manufacture frame engine fluid mechanics might used design ventilation system vehicle design intake system engine kinematics kinematics study motion bodies objects systems groups objects ignoring forces cause


motion movement crane oscillations piston engine simple kinematic systems crane type open kinematic chain piston part closed four bar linkage engineers typically use kinematics design analysis mechanisms kinematics used find possible range motion given mechanism working reverse used design mechanism desired range motion drafting mechanical double seal drafting technical drawing means manufacturers create


computer aided manufacturing cam combined cad cam program optionally engineer may also manually manufacture part using technical drawings becoming increasing rarity advent computer numerically controlled cnc manufacturing engineers primarily manufacture parts manually areas applied spray coatings finishes processes cannot economically practically done machine drafting used nearly every subdiscipline mechanical manufacturing engineering many branches engineering architecture three dimensional models created using cad software also commonly used finite element analysis fea


computational fluid dynamics cfd machine tools metal fabrication machine tools employ sort tool cutting shaping machine tools means constraining workpiece provide guided movement parts machine metal fabrication building metal structures cutting bending assembling processes computer integrated manufacturing computer integrated manufacturing cim manufacturing approach using computers control entire production process computer integrated manufacturing used automotive aviation space ship building industries mechatronics scorbot er u workbench cnc mill cnc lathe mechatronics


engineering discipline deals convergence electrical mechanical manufacturing systems combined systems known electromechanical systems widespread examples include automated manufacturing systems heating ventilation air conditioning systems various aircraft automobile subsystems term mechatronics typically used refer macroscopic systems futurists predicted emergence small electromechanical devices already small devices known microelectromechanical systems mems used automobiles initiate deployment airbags digital projectors create sharper images inkjet printers create nozzles high definition


printing future hoped devices used tiny implantable medical devices improve optical communication textile engineering textile engineering courses deal application scientific engineering principles design control aspects fiber textile apparel processes products machinery include natural man made materials interaction materials machines safety health energy conservation waste pollution control additionally students given experience plant design layout machine wet process design improvement designing creating textile products throughout textile


engineering curriculum students take classes engineering disciplines including mechanical chemical materials industrial engineering advanced composite materials advanced composite materials engineering acms also known advanced polymer matrix composites generally characterized determined unusually high strength fibres unusually high stiffness modulus elasticity characteristics compared materials bound together weaker matrices advanced composite materials broad proven applications aircraft aerospace sports equipment sectors even specifically acms attractive aircraft aerospace structural parts manufacturing acms multibillion dollar industry


usable valuable product desk produced efficiently economically manufacturing engineers closely connected engineering industrial design efforts examples major companies employ manufacturing engineers united states include general motors corporation ford motor company chrysler boeing gates corporation pfizer examples europe include airbus daimler bmw fiat navistar international michelin tyre industries manufacturing engineers generally employed include aerospace industry automotive industry chemical industry computer industry engineering management food processing industry garment industry industrial engineering mechanical engineering pharmaceutical industry process engineering pulp paper industry systems engineering toy industry frontiers


operation part well system 's ability absorb large scale changes volume capacity capability fms systems comprise three main systems work machines often automated cnc machines connected material handling system optimize parts flow central control computer controls material movements machine flow main advantages fms high flexibility managing manufacturing resources like time effort order manufacture new product best application fms found production


small sets products mass production computer integrated manufacturing computer integrated manufacturing cim engineering method manufacturing entire production process controlled computer traditionally separated process methods joined computer cim integration allows processes exchange information initiate actions integration manufacturing faster less error prone although main advantage ability create automated manufacturing processes typically cim relies closed loop control processes based real time input sensors also known flexible design manufacturing friction stir


welding close view friction stir weld tack tool friction stir welding discovered welding institute twi innovative steady state non fusion welding technique joins previously un weldable materials including several aluminum alloys may play important role future construction airplanes potentially replacing rivets current uses technology date include welding seams aluminum main space shuttle external tank orion crew vehicle test article boeing delta ii delta iv expendable launch vehicles spacex falcon rocket armor plating amphibious assault ships welding


wings fuselage panels new eclipse aircraft eclipse aviation among increasingly growing range uses areas research product design mems micro electro mechanical systems lean manufacturing intelligent manufacturing systems green manufacturing precision engineering smart materials etc see also industrial engineering mechanical engineering automation computer aided design manufacturing industrial revolution mechatronics robotics associations society manufacturing engineers informs institute industrial engineers notes external links http wwwinstituteofmanufacturingorguk institute manufacturing uk http wwwmanufacturinggatechedu georgia tech manufacturing institute industrial engineering de fertigungstechnik fi tuotantotekniikka


colonial setting postcolonial literature deals migration question current debate extent postcolonial theory also speaks migration literature non colonial settings terminology significance prefix post postcolonial matter contention among scholars historians postcolonial studies unified consensus colonialism began ended numerous scholars contending however majority scholars agreed term postcolonial designates era colonialism ended contention

Humanities
Languages and literature
History of literature
Post-colonial literature


influenced history colonialism commonly divided several major phases european colonization americas began th century lasted th colonisation africa asia reached peak th century dawn th century vast majority non european regions european colonial rule would last second world war anti colonial independence movements led decolonization africa asia americas historians also expressed differing opinions regards postcolonial status nations


established settler colonialism united states canada australia new zealand ongoing neocolonialism global south effects colonialism many persisted end direct colonial rule made difficult determine whether nation longer colonial rule guarantees 's postcolonial status ref name ref pramod nayar defines postcolonial literature negotiates contests subverts euro american ideologies representations evolution term term postcolonial literature gained currency among scholars commonwealth literature used refer writing


suggested texts category frequently presented short sighted view legacy colonialism ref name ref terms used english language literature former british colonies include terms designate national corpus writing australian canadian literature numerous terms english literature british american new literatures english international literature english world literatures coined however dismissed either vague inaccurate represent vast body dynamic writing emerging british colonies period direct colonial rule


term colonial postcolonial continue used writing emerging period colonial rule respectively post colonial postcolonial consensus field post colonial hyphen signifies period comes chronologically colonialism postcolonial hand signals persisting impact colonization across time periods geographical regions ref name hyphen implies history unfolds neatly distinguishable stages pre post colonial omitting hyphen creates comparative framework understand varieties local resistance colonial impact arguments favor


hyphen suggest term postcolonial dilutes differences colonial histories different parts world homogenizes colonial societies body critical writing participates debates called postcolonial theory critical approaches orientalist ernest renan advocated imperial stewardship civilising non western peoples world postcolonial fiction writers deal traditional colonial discourse either modifying subverting ref name ref postcolonial literary theory examines colonial postcolonial literature especially concentrating upon social discourse colonizer colonized shaped produced


literature ref name ''orientalism'' edward said analyzed fiction honor de balzac charles baudelaire lautr amont isidore lucien ducasse exploring shaped influenced societal fantasy european racial superiority pioneered branch postcolonial criticism called colonial discourse analysis another important theorist colonial discourse harvard university professor homi k bhabha born developed number field 's neologisms key concepts hybridity third space mimicry difference ambivalence ref name huddart huddart david homi k bhabha routledge critical thinkers ref western canonical works like shakespeare 's ''the tempest'' charlotte bront 's ''jane


eyre'' jane austen 's ''mansfield park'' rudyard kipling 's ''kim'' joseph conrad 's ''heart darkness'' targets colonial discourse analysis succeeding generation postcolonial critics focus texts write back colonial center ref name general postcolonial theory analyzes anti colonial ideas anti conquest national unity ''n gritude'' pan africanism postcolonial feminism forged promulgated literature ref name ref prominent theorists include gayatri chakravorty spivak frantz fanon bill ashcroft ng g wa thiong'o chinua achebe leela gandhi gareth griffiths abiola irele john mcleod hamid dabashi helen tiffin khal torabully robert j c young nationalism


sense identification nation nationalism fueled anti colonial movements seeking gain independence colonial rule language literature factors consolidating sense national identity resist impact colonialism advent printing press newspapers magazines helped people across geographical barriers identify shared national community idea nation homogeneous imagined community connected across geographical barriers medium language became model modern nation postcolonial literature helped consolidate national identity anti colonial struggles also critiqued


european colonial pedigree nationalism depicted salman rushdie 's novels example homogeneous nation built european models exclusion marginalized voices made religious ethnic elites spoke behalf entire nation silencing minority groups negritude pan africanism pan nationalism ''n gritude'' literary ideological philosophy developed francophone african intellectuals writers politicians france initiators included martinican poet aim c saire l opold dar senghor future president senegal l damas french guiana n gritude intellectuals disapproved french colonialism


claimed best strategy oppose encourage common racial identity native africans worldwide pan africanism movement among english speaking black intellectuals echoed principles n gritude frantz fanon martinique born afro caribbean psychiatrist philosopher revolutionary writer one proponents movement works influential fields postcolonial studies critical theory marxism intellectual fanon political radical marxist humanist concerned psychopathology colonization human social cultural consequences decolonization back africa movement marcus mosiah garvey jr


another proponent pan africanism jamaican political leader publisher journalist entrepreneur orator founded universal negro improvement association african communities league unia acl ref name backtoafrica ref also founded black star line shipping passenger line promoted return african diaspora ancestral lands prior th century leaders prince hall martin delany edward wilmot blyden henry highland garnet advocated involvement african diaspora african affairs however garvey unique advancing pan african philosophy inspire global mass movement economic empowerment focusing


africa philosophy came known garveyism ref name backtoafrica promoted unia movement ''african redemption'' garveyism would eventually inspire others ranging nation islam rastafari movement sects proclaim garvey prophet advocates literature promoted african racial solidarity accordance negritude principles frantz fanon argued national literature aimed achieving national liberation ref name paul gilroy argued reading literature expression common black racial identity representation nationalist sentiments rather argued


black cultural forms including literature diasporic transnational formations born common historical geographical effects transatlantic slavery ref name ref anti conquest anti conquest narrative recasts indigenous inhabitants colonized countries victims rather foes colonisers ref name revie ref depicts colonised people human light risks absolving colonisers responsibility assuming native inhabitants doomed fate ref name revie book ''imperial eyes'' mary louise pratt analyzes strategies european travel writing portrays europe secure home space contrasting representation colonized


outsiders proposes completely different theorization anti conquest ideas discussed one traced edward said instead referring natives resist colonization victims pratt analyzes texts european narrates adventures struggles survive land non european ref name imperial eyes travel writing transculturation chapters titled narrating anti conquest anti conquest ii mystique reciprocity ref secures innocence imperialist even exercises dominance strategy pratt terms anti conquest anti conquest


function narrator writes self responsible agent direct indirect colonization colonialism different notion anti conquest used analyze ways colonialism colonization legitimized stories survival adventure purport inform entertain pratt created unique notion association concepts contact zone transculturation well received latin america social human science circles terms refer conditions effects encounter colonizer colonized ref name


postcolonial feminist literature postcolonial feminism emerged response eurocentric focus feminism accounts way racism long lasting political economic cultural effects colonialism affect non white non western women postcolonial world ref name weedon ref postcolonial feminism simply subset postcolonial studies another variety feminism rather seeks act intervention changes assumptions postcolonial feminist studiesaudre lorde 's foundational essay master 's tools never dismantle master 's house uses metaphor master 's tools master 's house explain


western feminism fails make positive change third world women uses tools patriarchy postcolonial feminist fiction seeks decolonize imagination society ref name ref global debt labor environmental crises one rise precarious position women especially global south become prevalent concern postcolonial feminist novels common themes include women 's roles globalized societies impact mass migration metropolitan urban centers pivotal texts including nawal el saadawi 's fall iman lynching women chimamanda adichie 's ''half


oceania burgeoning group young pacific writers respond speak contemporary pasifika experience including writers lani wendt young courtney sina meredith selina tusitala marsh reclamation culture loss culture diaspora themes common postcolonial literature present within collective pacific writers pioneers literature include two influential living authors region witi ihimaera new zealand 's first published ori novelist ref name dompost profile ref samoan poet albert wendt born wendt lives new zealand among works ''leaves banyan tree''


inspiration career samoan novelist poet albert wendt australia point first colonization australia indigenous australians aboriginal torres strait islander people developed system writing first literary accounts aboriginal peoples come journals early european explorers contain descriptions first contact violent friendly early accounts dutch explorers english buccaneer william dampier wrote natives new holland barbarous savages time captain james cook first fleet marine watkin


tench era jean jacques rousseau accounts aboriginal peoples sympathetic romantic people may truly said pure state nature may appear wretched upon earth reality far happier europeans wrote cook journal august father james unaipon c contributed accounts aboriginal mythology written south australian missionary george taplin david unaipon provided first accounts aboriginal mythology written aboriginal person


active contemporary contributors australian literature voices indigenous australians continue increasingly noticed include playwright jack davis kevin gilbert writers coming prominence st century include kim scott alexis wright kate howarth tara june winch poetry yvette holt popular fiction anita heiss indigenous authors australia 's high prestige miles franklin award include kim scott joint winner thea astley ''benang'' ''that deadman dance'' alexis wright award novel ''carpentaria'' bruce pascoe 's ''dark


''the timeless land'' first ''the timeless land'' trilogy novels european settlement exploration australia narrative told european aboriginal points view examples include poems judith wright ''the chant jimmie blacksmith'' thomas keneally ''ilbarana'' donald stuart short story david malouf speaker tongue africa colonialism african colonies european empires postcolonial contemporary political boundaries decolonized countries amadou hamp b malian writer ethnologist ayi kwei


armah born ghana author ''two thousand seasons'' tried establish african perspective history another significant african novel ''season migration north'' tayib salih sudan doris lessing southern rhodesia zimbabwe published first novel ''the grass singing'' immigrating england initially wrote african experiences lessing soon became dominant presence english literary scene frequently publishing right century nobel prize literature yvonne vera author


one representative regular writers might referred second generation emergent cameroonian literature english cameroonian playwrights anne tanyi tang bole butake nigeria nigerian author chinua achebe gained worldwide attention ''things fall apart'' late achebe wrote novels english defended use english language colonisers african literature lecture image africa racism conrad 's ''heart darkness'' featured famous criticism joseph conrad thoroughgoing racist titled igbo chieftain


achebe 's novels focus traditions igbo society effect christian influences clash western traditional african values colonial era style relies heavily igbo oral tradition combines straightforward narration representations folk stories proverbs oratory also published number short stories children 's books essay collections wole soyinka nigerian playwright poet nobel laureate wole soyinka born playwright poet awarded nobel prize literature first african honored


category soyinka born yoruba family abeokuta studying nigeria great britain worked royal court theatre london went write plays produced countries theatres radio took active role nigeria 's political history campaign independence british colonial rule seized western nigeria broadcasting service studio broadcast demand cancellation western nigeria regional elections nigerian civil war arrested federak government general


yakubu gowon put solitary confinement two years ref name vistas theresia de vroom http wwwlmuedu page aspx many dimensions wole soyinka ''vistas'' loyola marymount university retrieved april ref soyinka strong critic successive nigerian governments especially country 's many military dictators well political tyrannies including mugabe regime zimbabwe much writing concerned oppressive boot irrelevance colour foot wears ref name ousting ref chimamanda ngozi adichie born novelist nonfiction writer short story writer macarthur genius grant recipient


adichie called prominent procession critically acclaimed young anglophone authors succeeding attracting new generation readers african literature buchi emecheta obe nigerian novelist based britain published books including ''second class citizen'' ''the bride price'' ''the slave girl'' ''the joys motherhood'' themes child slavery motherhood female independence freedom education considerable critical acclaim honours south africa apartheid sign english afrikaans elleke boehmer writes nationalism like patriarchy favours singleness one identity


one growth pattern one birth blood promote specifically unitary 'one eyed' forms consciousness first problem student south african literature confronted diversity literary systems gerrit olivier notes unusual hear academics politicians talk 'south african literature' situation ground level characterised diversity even fragmentation robert mossman adds one enduring saddest legacies apartheid system may one white black coloured meaning mixed race south africa


asian ever speak 'south african problem however pre dates apartheid significantly south africa country made communities always linguistically culturally diverse cultures retained autonomy extent making compilation controversial ''southern african literatures'' michael chapman difficult chapman raises question blockquote w hose language culture story said authority south africa end apartheid raised challenging questions south african live


new south africa whether south africa nation mythos requires forgotten remembered scour past order understand present seek path forward unknown future blockquote south africa national languages afrikaans english zulu xhosa sotho pedi tswana venda siswati tsonga ndebele definitive literary history south africa could argued discuss literature produced eleven languages literature ever adopt characteristics said national


afrikaans olivier argues literatures south africa afrikaans literature one become national literature sense developed clear image separate entity way institutional entrenchment teaching distribution review culture journals etc could ensure continuation concept part problem english literature seen within greater context english writing world english 's global position ''lingua franca'' seen autonomous indigenous


near distant future since reason country interference european colonial powers racial issue rather culture heritage tradition indeed constitution celebrates diversity rather seems sensible discuss south african literature literature produced within national borders different cultures language groups inhabiting borders otherwise danger emphasising one literary system expense another often beneficiary english african languages ignored


distinction black white literature remnant colonialism replaced drawing distinctions literary systems based language affiliation rather race first texts produced black authors often inspired missionaries frequently deal african history particular history kings chaka modern south african writing african languages tends play writing realistically providing mirror society depicts conflicts rural urban settings traditional modern norms racial conflicts recently problem aids


first half th century epics largely dominated black writing historical novels sol plaatje 's ''mhudi epic south african native life hundred years ago'' thomas mofolo 's ''chaka'' trans epic plays including h e dhlomo heroic epic poetry work mazizi kunene texts evince black african patriarchy traditional form men authority often warriors kings women background figures dependency mothers nation female literature african languages severely limited


strong influence patriarchy last decade two society changed much expected female voices emerge following notable white south african writers english athol fugard nadine gordimer j coetzee wilbur smith andr brink written afrikaans english breyten breytenbach writes primarily afrikaans though many works translated english dalene matthee 's another afrikaner best known four ''forest novels'' written around knysna forest including ''fiela se kind'' ''fiela 's child''


kingdom united states canada order make living work cases spending greater parts careers away territories birth critics adopted territories might argue instance v naipaul ought considered british writer instead trinidadian writer jamaica kincaid paule marshall american writers west indian readers critics still consider writers west indian west indian literature ranges subjects themes wide national literature general many west indian


writers share special concern questions identity ethnicity language rise caribbean historical experience one unique pervasive characteristic caribbean literature use dialect forms national language often termed creole various local variations european languages became established west indies period european colonial rule languages modified years within country developed blend unique country many caribbean authors writing switch liberally local variation nbsp commonly


termed nation language nbsp standard form language two west indian writers nobel prize literature derek walcott born st lucia resident mostly trinidad ' partly united states since v naipaul born trinidad resident united kingdom since saint john perse nobel prize born french territory guadeloupe notable names anglophone caribbean literature included earl lovelace austin clarke claude mckay orlando patterson andrew salkey edward kamau brathwaite


seven killings'' well ''john crow 's devil'' ''the book night women'' unpublished screenplay dead men short story cover darkness antiguan marie elena john lasana sekou st maarten st martin famous writer island dominica british dominican author jean rhys best known novel ''wide sargasso sea'' written prequel charlotte bront 's ''jane eyre'' novel deals themes women living patriarchal society race assimilation november ''bbc news'' listed ''wide sargasso sea'' list


influential novels novel adapted stage film radio numerous times recently radio play bbc radio ref name bbc ref earl lovelace born trinidadian novelist journalist playwright short story writer particularly recognized descriptive dramatic fiction trinidadian culture using trinidadian dialect patterns standard english probes paradoxes often inherent social change well clash rural urban cultures bernardine evaristo notes lovelace unusual among celebrated caribbean writers always lived


trinidad writers leave find support literary endeavours elsewhere arguably shapes literature especially long periods exile lovelace 's fiction deeply embedded trinidadian society written perspective one whose ties homeland never broken united states indian born american writer bharati mukherjee american david henry hwang 's play ''m butterfly'' addresses western perspective china french well american perspectives vietnam vietnam war inspired giacomo puccini 's opera ''madama butterfly'' maxine hong kingston born


chinese american author written three novels several works non fiction experiences chinese immigrants living united states bharati mukherjee although east indian ancestry gone record considers american writer indian expatriate writer interview amanda meer mukherjee said totally consider american writer big battle get realize roots writer longer ever among indian writers writing


territory feelings new kind pioneer america first among asian immigrants making distinction immigrant writing expatriate writing indian writers prior still thought indians literary inspiration come india india source home whereas saying wonderful roots roots emotions north america jhumpa lahiri born indian american author lahiri 's debut short story collection ''interpreter maladies''


pulitzer prize fiction first novel ''the namesake'' adapted popular film name ref name atlant chotiner isaac https wwwtheatlanticcom doc u jhumpa lahiri interviews jhumpa lahiri atlantic retrieved ref african american literature throughout american history african americans discriminated subject racist attitudes experience inspired black writers least early years african american literature prove equals european american authors henry louis gates jr said fair describe subtext history black letters urge refute


american society literary acceptance traditionally intimately tied power dynamics perpetrated evils racial discrimination borrowing incorporating non written oral traditions folk life african diaspora african american literature broke mystique connection literary authority patriarchal power producing literature african americans able establish literary traditions devoid white intellectual filter view african american literature tool struggle black political cultural liberation stated decades perhaps famously w


e b du bois ref name jhu theory mason http wwwpressjhuedu books hopkins guide literary theory free african american theory criticism html african american theory criticism accessed july ref puerto rico giannina braschi born puerto rican writer credited writing first spanglish novel ''yo yo boing '' post modern poetry trilogy ''empire dreams'' philosophical fiction ''united states banana'' chronicles latin american immigrants' experiences united states puerto rican battle spanish american colonialism canada canadian writer margaret atwood post colonial writer dealt themes identity seeking southern ontario gothic style


writing canadian michael ondaatje internationally acclaimed author sri lankan roots explored works like ''running family'' ''the cat 's table'' cyril dabydeen born guyana born canadian writer indian descent grew sugar plantation sense indian indenture rooted family background african canadian george elliott clarke promoted black authors ''directions home approaches african canadian literature'' well poetry novels plays decade canadian indigenous writers published many works critics called


renaissance phenomenon studied ''introduction indigenous literary criticism canada'' eds heather macfarlane armand garnet ruffo canadian scholar joseph pivato promoted study ethnic minority authors ''comparative literature new century'' eds giulia de gasperi joseph pivato small east asia small ''' big korea big ''' chunghee sara soh 's book ''the comfort women sexual violence postcolonial memory korrea japan'' shed new light practice forced sexual slavery called comfort women imperial japanese army world war ii ''' big taiwan big '''


west asia middle east egyptian novelist naguib mahfouzmajor figures postcolonial literature middle east included egyptian novelist naguib mahfouz palestinian american scholar edward said said published famous work ''orientalism'' discussing depiction asia western world mahfouz inspired write large part experiences egyptian revolution seven years old including witnessing british soldiers firing crowds demonstrators effort disperse according mahfouz could say one thing shook security


childhood revolution recounted interview ref name paris ref south southeast asia philippines philippine literature includes legends prehistory colonial legacy philippines pre hispanic philippine literature actually epics passed generation generation originally oral tradition however wealthy families especially mindanao able keep transcribed copies epics family heirloom one epic ''darangen'' epic maranaos lake lanao epics known spanish era notable literature philippines written


spanish period first half th century spanish language philippine literature written spanish english indigenous philippine languages notable authors include f sionil jos jose dalisay jr n v gonzalez nick joaquin indonesia dutch east indies dutch indies literature includes dutch language postcolonial literature reflecting era dutch east indies indonesia much postcolonial literature genre written dutch eurasians known indos important authors translated english include tjalie robinson maria dermout marion bloem singapore bonny


hicks singapore eurasian model writer garnering fame model gained recognition contributions singaporean post colonial literature anthropic philosophy conveyed works first book ''excuse model'' recognised significant milestone literary cultural history singapore ref name journal ref india one key issues superiority inferiority indian writing english iwe opposed literary production various languages india key polar concepts bandied context superficial authentic imitative creative shallow deep critical uncritical elitist parochial


views salman rushdie amit chaudhuri expressed books ''the vintage book indian writing'' ''the picador book modern indian literature'' respectively essentialise battle rushdie 's statement book nbsp ironic proposition india 's best writing since independence may done language departed imperialists simply much folks bear nbsp created lot resentment among many writers including writers english book amit chaudhuri questions nbsp true indian writing endlessly rich complex problematic entity


represented handful writers write english live england america one might met party chaudhuri feels rushdie indian writing english started employing magical realism bagginess non linear narrative hybrid language sustain themes seen microcosms india supposedly reflecting indian conditions contrasts works earlier writers r k narayan use english pure deciphering meaning needs cultural familiarity also feels indian theme constructed iwe


articulate vernacular literature adds post colonial novel becomes trope ideal hybrid west celebrates much indian whatever infinitely complex thing historical quest reinterpretation arguments form integral part called postcolonial theory categorisation iwe nbsp iwe post colonial literature nbsp seen limiting amitav ghosh made views clear refusing accept eurasian commonwealth writers prize book ''the glass palace''


withdrawing subsequent stage renowned writer v naipaul third generation indian trinidad tobago nobel prize laureate person belongs world usually classified iwe naipaul evokes ideas homeland rootlessness personal feelings towards india many books indian authors like amitav ghosh anita desai hanif kureishi rohinton mistry meena alexander arundhati roy kiran desai written postcolonial experiences hungry generation literary movement bengali language launched known today


hungryalist quartet ''ie'' shakti chattopadhyay malay roy choudhury samir roychoudhury debi roy alias haradhon dhara kolkata india due involvement avant garde cultural movement leaders lost jobs jailed incumbent government challenged contemporary ideas literature contributed significantly evolution language idiom used contemporaneous artists express feelings literature painting nissim ezekiel foundational figure postcolonial india 's literary history specifically indian writing english mahashweta devi ref name ram http wwwrmaforgph awardees biography biographydevimahhtm detailed biography


similar themes within three novels notably british empire form sequence storytelling ''the siege krishnapur'' inspired events sieges cawnpore lucknow details siege fictional indian town krishnapur indian rebellion perspective city 's british residents ''the singapore grip'' satirical book events following japan 's entry second world war occupation singapore story centres british family one colony 's leading trading companies novelist e


forster 's ''a passage india'' takes subject relationship east west seen lens india later days british raj forster connects personal relationships politics colonialism story englishwoman adela quested indian dr aziz question happen marabar caves ''the raj quartet'' four volume novel sequence written paul scott also deals subject british colonial rule india case concluding years british


raj series written period ''the times'' called one important landmarks post war fiction story ''the raj quartet'' begins world war ii zenith south east asia allied forces suffered great losses burma captured japan japanese invasion indian subcontinent east appears imminent year also marked indian nationalist leader mahatma gandhi 's call quit india movement british colonial government ''the raj quartet'' set


tumultuous background british soldiers civilians stationed india duty manage part british empire one recurrent theme moral certainty older generation contrasted anomie younger another theme treatment indians britons living india reflection themes british characters let trapped codes principles part keep fears doubts bay ''an outpost progress'' ''heart darkness'' polish british writer joseph conrad based


experiences congo free state also ''the congo diary uncollected pieces'' wales wales gradually annexed kingdom england middle ages fully incorporated within english legal system laws wales acts distinctive welsh politics developed th century welsh nationalism grew th century welsh nationalist party plaid cymru formed welsh language society welsh poet novelist dramatist saunders lewis prominent support nationalism wales rejected possibility


anglo welsh literature due language 's status official tongue british state affirming literature people called anglo welsh indistinguishable english literature saunders lewis born wallasey england welsh speaking family attitude post war generation welsh writers english towards wales differs previous generation sympathetic welsh nationalism welsh language change linked nationalist fervour generated saunders lewis burning bombing school lleyn peninsula


along sense crisis generated second world war poetry r thomas important figure throughout second half th century beginning ''the stones field'' concluding ''no truce furies'' learn welsh language wrote poems english ref name latimesobit ''los angeles times'' obituary september ref wanted welsh language made official language wales policy anglo welsh bilingualism abolished wrote autobiography


government wales act wales local autonomy central government london welsh language act government wales act provide english welsh languages treated basis equality english spoken almost people wales ' 'de facto'' main language northern western wales retain many areas welsh spoken first language majority population english learnt second language census showed people welsh population


able speak welsh ref name census language ref ireland walter paget depicting dublin general post office shelled easter uprising english language introduced ireland th century following norman conquest ireland however english rule extend whole island th th century tudor conquest led plantation ireland protestant anglo irish started become dominant catholic majority extended th century irish language however remained dominant language irish literature th century


despite slow decline began th century expansion english control ireland th century saw tightening english control ireland suppression irish aristocracy meant literary class lost patrons since new nobility english speakers little interest older culture elaborate classical metres lost dominance largely replaced popular forms age social political tension expressed poet ibh bruadair anonymous authors ''pairliment chloinne tom is''


prose satire aspirations lower classes prose another sort represented historical works geoffrey keating seathr n c itinn compilation known ''annals four masters'' consequences changes seen th century poetry still dominant literary medium practitioners poor scholars often educated classics local schools schoolmasters trade writers produced polished work popular metres local audience particularly case munster south west ireland notable names included eoghan


rua illeabh aog n rathaille sliabh luachra certain number local patrons still found even early th century especially among surviving families gaelic aristocracy first half th century dublin home irish language literary circle connected neachtain naughton family group wide ranging continental connections acts union ireland became part united kingdom latter part th century saw rapid replacement irish english


greater part country though irish still urban language continued well th century end th century however cultural nationalism displayed new energy marked gaelic revival encouraged modern literature irish generally irish literary revival war independence early th century followed partition island creating irish free state became increasingly sovereign following decades northern ireland remained part united kingdom poland


clare cavanagh believes literature poland postcolonial dariusz sk rczewski supports reveals experiences foreign domination history empire shaped contemporary polish culture society criticize marxist basis postcolonialism romania see also breton literature catalan literature colonial cinema caribbean literature caribbean poetry francophone literature ori poetry tsar publications book publisher focusing canadian multicultural literature vernacular literature references bibliography clarke george elliott ''directions home approaches african canadian literature'' university toronto press de gasperi giulia joseph pivato eds ''comparative literature new century''


mcgill queen 's u p gerald moore ulli beier eds ''penguin book modern african poetry'' tobias ring '' postcolonial literatures english introduction'' prem poddar david johnson ''a historical companion postcolonial literature english'' alamgir hashmi ''the commonwealth comparative literature world'' john thieme ''the arnold anthology post colonial literatures english'' ''chelsea world literature english'' ''poetry international '' eugene benson l w conolly eds ''encyclopedia post colonial literatures english'' john mcleod ''beginning postcolonialism'' second edition mup alamgir hashmi ''commonwealth literature essay


towards definition popular counter culture'' elleke boehmer ''colonial postcolonial literature migrant metaphors'' britta olinde ''a sense place essays post colonial literatures'' peter thompson ''litt rature moderne du monde francophone'' chicago ntc mcgraw hill homi bhabha ''the location culture'' routledge jaydeep sarangi ''indian novels english texts contexts language'' authorspress new delhi ''postcolonial theory arab israeli conflict'' edited philip carl salzman donna robinson divine routledge friedman amy l ''postcolonial satire indian fiction reimagining menippean satire'' lexington external links literature literary criticism postmodern literature postmodern theory


loss weight recovery diabetes improvement cardiovascular risk factors mortality reduction ref name robinson ref us national institutes health recommends bariatric surgery obese people body mass index bmi least people bmi least serious coexisting medical conditions diabetes ref name robinson however research emerging suggests bariatric surgery could appropriate bmi comorbidities bmi significant comorbidities recent american society metabolic

Applied science
Medicine and health
Surgery
Bariatric surgery


bariatric surgery guidelines suggest position statement consensus bmi indication bariatric surgery recent guidelines suggest person bmi comorbidities candidate bariatric surgery risk death period following surgery less meta analysis found bariatric surgery associated reduction cause mortality among obese adults without type diabetes respectively ref name ref meta analysis also found median life expectancy years longer obese adults diabetes


utah studies seven years randomized controlled trials bariatric surgery exist limited short follow periods medical uses biliopancreatic diversion medical guideline american college physicians concluded ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref surgery considered treatment option patients bmi nbsp kg sup sup greater instituted failed adequate exercise diet program without adjunctive drug therapy present obesity related comorbid conditions hypertension impaired glucose tolerance diabetes mellitus hyperlipidemia obstructive sleep apnea doctor patient discussion surgical options


include long term side effects possible need reoperation gallbladder disease malabsorption patients referred high volume centers surgeons experienced bariatric surgery surgery contraindicated patients end stage disease also patients committed make lifestyle changes considered ideal surgery international diabetes federation issued position statement suggesting circumstances people bmi eligible surgery determining eligibility bariatric surgery extremely obese patients psychiatric screening critical also critical


topic debate centered concerns safety population relative benefits risks population known ref name cochrane given remarkable rate diabetes remission bariatric surgery considerable interest offering intervention people type diabetes lower bmi generally required bariatric surgery high quality evidence lacking optimal timing procedure uncertain ref name cochrane laparoscopic bariatric surgery requires hospital stay one two days short term complications laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding reported lower


laparoscopic roux en surgery complications laparoscopic roux en surgery lower conventional open roux en surgery ref name robinson ref name labs ref meta analysis participants published lancet found bariatric surgery associated reduction cause mortality among obese adults without type diabetes respectively ref name meta analysis also found median life expectancy years longer obese adults diabetes received bariatric surgery compared routine non surgical care whereas life expectancy gain years longer obese adults without diabetes ref name fertility


pregnancy position american society metabolic bariatric surgery clearly understood whether medical weight loss treatments bariatric surgery effect responsiveness subsequent treatments infertility men women bariatric surgery reduces risk gestational diabetes hypertensive disorders pregnancy women later become pregnant increases risk preterm birth psychiatric psychological studies suggested psychological health improve bariatric surgery adverse effects weight loss surgery adults associated relatively large risks


secondary hyperparathyroidism reported roux en gastric bypass surgery due reduced calcium absorption highest concentration calcium transporters duodenum since ingested food pass duodenum bypass procedure calcium levels blood may decrease causing secondary hyperparathyroidism increase bone turnover decrease bone mass increased risk fracture also linked bariatric surgery ref name ahlin ref rapid weight loss obesity surgery contribute development gallstones well increasing lithogenicity bile adverse effects kidneys studied


hyperoxaluria potentially lead oxalate nephropathy irreversible renal failure significant abnormality seen urine chemistry studies rhabdomyolysis leading acute kidney injury impaired renal handling acid base reported bypass surgery nutritional derangements due deficiencies micronutrients like iron vitamin b fat soluble vitamins thiamine folate especially common malabsorptive bariatric procedures seizures due hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia reported inappropriate insulin secretion secondary islet cell hyperplasia called pancreatic nesidioblastosis might explain syndrome self harm behaviors suicide appear increased people


mental health issues five years bariatric surgery done ref name bhatti ref addition alcohol problems reported common patients undergone gastric bypass surgery ref name svensson ref pulmonary embolism another common adverse complication bariatric surgery pulmonary embolism occurs due result deep vein thrombosis blood clots form deep veins extremities usually legs treated clot travel heart lung adverse effect simply prevented heparin lmwh blood


thinning medications types diagram biliopancreatic diversionbariatric procedures grouped three main categories blocking restricting mixed latter understood work altering gut hormone levels responsible hunger satiety ref name pmid ref retrospective observational cohort study explored bariatric procedures comparative effectiveness found different procedures may help patients lose weight others increased chances adverse events standard care united states industrialized world laparoscopic opposed open procedures future trends attempting


duodenum jejunum around patients severe malabsorption nutritional deficiency requires restoration normal absorption malabsorptive effect bpd potent restrictive procedures undergo procedure must take vitamin dietary minerals beyond normal population ref name ref without supplements risk serious deficiency diseases anemia osteoporosis ref name gallstones common complication rapid weight loss following type bariatric surgery surgeons remove gallbladder preventive measure


bpd others prefer prescribe medications reduce risk post operative gallstones diagram vertical banded gastroplasty far fewer surgeons perform bpd compared weight loss surgeries part need long term nutritional follow monitoring bpd patients jejunoileal bypass procedure longer performed surgical weight loss procedure performed relief morbid obesity nbsp cm nbsp nbsp cm nbsp small bowel detached set side endoluminal sleeve flexible tube


inserted mouth stomach upper small intestine purpose block absorption certain foods calories involve actual cutting designed lower risks infection etc ref however results conclusive device issues migration slipping study recently done netherlands found decrease bmi points months endoluminal sleeve restrictive procedures procedures restrictive shrink size stomach take space inside stomach making people feel full eat


less ref name smd ref diagram adjustable gastric banding vertical banded gastroplasty vertical banded gastroplasty also called mason procedure stomach stapling part stomach permanently stapled create smaller pre stomach pouch serves new stomach adjustable gastric band restriction stomach also created using silicone band adjusted addition removal saline port placed skin operation performed laparoscopically commonly referred lap band weight loss predominantly due


restriction nutrient intake created small gastric pouch narrow outlet considered somewhat safe surgical procedure mortality rate sleeve gastrectomy sleeve gastrectomy sleeve gastrectomy gastric sleeve surgical weight loss procedure stomach reduced original size surgical removal large portion stomach following major curve open edges attached together typically surgical staples sutures leave stomach shaped like tube


sleeve banana shape procedure permanently reduces size stomach procedure performed laparoscopically reversible found comparable effectiveness roux en gastric bypass intragastric balloon intragastric balloon involves placing deflated balloon stomach filling decrease amount gastric space balloon left stomach maximum months results average weight loss bmi half year intragastric balloon approved australia canada mexico india united states received


fda approval several european south american countries intragastric balloon may used prior another bariatric surgery order assist patient reach weight suitable surgery also used several occasions necessary three cost categories intragastric balloon pre operative eg professional fees lab work testing procedure eg surgeon surgical assistant anesthesia hospital fees post operative eg follow physician office visits vitamins supplements quoted costs intragastric balloon surgeon specific vary region average


quoted costs region follows provided united states dollars comparison australia us canada us mexico us united kingdom us united states us stomach folding basically procedure best understood version popular gastric sleeve gastrectomy surgery sleeve created suturing rather removing stomach tissue thus preserving natural nutrient absorption capabilities gastric plication significantly reduces volume patient 's stomach smaller amounts food provide feeling satiety procedure producing significant results published recent study


''bariatric times'' based post operative outcomes patients female gastric sleeve plication procedure january march mean patient age mean bmi follow visits assessment safety weight loss scheduled regular intervals postoperative period major complications reported among patients weight loss outcomes comparable gastric bypass study describes gastric sleeve plication also referred gastric imbrication laparoscopic greater curvature plication restrictive technique eliminates complications associated


adjustable gastric banding vertical sleeve gastrectomy creating restriction without use implants without gastric resection cutting staples mixed procedures mixed procedures apply block restrict time roux en gastric bypass gastric bypass surgery common form gastric bypass surgery roux en gastric bypass designed alter gut hormones control hunger satiety complete hormonal mechanisms still understood widely accepted hormonal procedure addition restriction malabsorption properties ref name gastric bypass permanent


procedure helps patients reset hunger satiety altering stomach small intestine handle food eaten achieve maintain weight loss goals surgery stomach smaller increase baseline satiety hormones help patient feel full less food ref name gastric bypass commonly performed operation weight loss united states approximately gastric bypass procedures performed market share decreased since frequency gastric bypass


thought less weight loss surgery market ref name smd factor success bariatric surgery strict post surgical adherence healthy pattern eating certain patients cannot tolerate malabsorption dumping syndrome associated gastric bypass patients although earlier considered irreversible procedure instances gastric bypass procedure partially reversed diagram sleeve gastrectomy duodenal switch sleeve gastrectomy duodenal switch variation biliopancreatic diversion includes duodenal switch part stomach


along greater curve resected stomach tubulized residual volume ml volume reduction provides food intake restriction component operation type gastric resection anatomically functionally irreversible stomach disconnected duodenum connected distal part small intestine duodenum upper part small intestine reattached rest nbsp cm colon like roux en bypass understood results largely due significant alteration


gut hormones control hunger satiety addition restriction malabsorption properties ref name addition sleeve gastrectomy causes gut hormone set point alterations reducing levels hunger hormone ghrelin ref name implantable gastric stimulation procedure device similar heart pacemaker implanted surgeon electrical leads stimulating external surface stomach studied usa electrical stimulation thought modify activity enteric nervous system stomach interpreted brain give


hours general anesthesia blood transfusions often another surgeon assist possible risks include infections reactions complications due anesthesia longer six hours person may also experience ' 'seroma'' buildup fluid ' 'dehiscence'' wound separation deep vein thrombosis blood clots forming legs rare complications include lymphatic injury major wound dehiscence hospital stay procedure require one four days recovery require month eating bariatric surgery immediately bariatric surgery patient restricted clear liquid diet


intake reduced calorie intake higher incidence vomiting diarrhea factors significant contribution dehydration youth childhood obesity doubled recent years tripled adolescents according centers disease control prevention bariatric surgery youth become increasingly common across various types procedures ref name hofmann ref ref name cdc ref worry decline life expectancy might occur increasing levels obesity providing youth proper care may help prevent serious medical complications caused obesity related diseases


difficulties ethical issues arise making decisions related obesity treatments young otherwise unable give consent without adult guidance ref name hofmann children adolescents still developing physically mentally makes difficult make informed decision give consent move forward treatment ref name pmid ref patients may also experiencing severe depression psychological disorders related obesity make understanding information difficult ref name hofmann ref name zeller ref history open weight loss surgery began slowly intestinal bypass


involved anastomosis upper lower intestine bypasses large amount absorptive circuit caused weight loss purely malabsorption food later drs j howard payne lorent dewind robert r commons developed jejuno colic shunt connected upper small intestine colon laboratory research leading gastric bypass begin dr edward e mason b dr chikashi ito ndash university iowa developed original gastric bypass weight reduction led fewer complications intestinal


bypass reason mason known father obesity surgery see also revision weight loss surgery endoscopic sleeve gastroplasty references external links surgery digestive system surgery surgical specialties


'''physical organic chemistry''' term coined louis hammett refers discipline organic chemistry focuses relationship chemical structures reactivity particular applying experimental tools physical chemistry study organic molecules specific focal points study include rates organic reactions relative chemical stabilities starting materials reactive intermediates transition states products chemical reactions non covalent aspects solvation molecular interactions influence chemical reactivity studies provide theoretical practical frameworks understand changes structure solution

Natural science
Chemistry
Physical organic chemistry


solid state contexts impact reaction mechanism rate organic reaction interest application physical organic chemists use theoretical experimental approaches work understand foundational problems organic chemistry including classical statistical thermodynamic calculations quantum mechanical theory computational chemistry well experimental spectroscopy eg nmr spectrometry eg ms crystallography approaches field therefore applications wide variety specialized fields including electro photochemistry polymer supramolecular chemistry bioorganic chemistry enzymology chemical biology well commercial enterprises involving process chemistry chemical engineering materials science nanotechnology


pharmacology drug discovery design scope '''physical organic chemistry''' study relationship structure reactivity organic molecules specifically physical organic chemistry applies experimental tools physical chemistry study structure organic molecules provides theoretical framework interprets structure influences mechanisms rates organic reactions thought subfield bridges organic chemistry physical chemistry physical organic chemists use experimental theoretical disciplines spectroscopy spectrometry crystallography computational chemistry quantum theory study rates


organic reactions relative chemical stability starting materials transition states products ref name anslyn ref chemists field work understand physical underpinnings modern organic chemistry therefore physical organic chemistry applications specialized areas including polymer chemistry supramolecular chemistry electrochemistry photochemistry ref name anslyn history term ''physical organic chemistry'' coined louis hammett used phrase title textbook chemical structure thermodynamics thermochemistry organic chemists use tools thermodynamics study bonding stability energetics chemical systems includes experiments


strain found acyclic cyclic molecules manifesting diverse systems torsional strain allylic strain ring strain ' 'syn'' pentane strain ref name anslyn values provide quantitative basis predicting conformation substituted cyclohexane important class cyclic organic compounds whose reactivity strongly guided conformational effects value difference gibbs' free energy axial equatorial forms substituted cyclohexane adding together values various substituents possible quantitatively predict preferred conformation cyclohexane derivative addition molecular stability


conformational analysis used predict reaction products one commonly cited example use conformational analysis bi molecular elimination reaction e reaction proceeds readily nucleophile attacks species antiperiplanar leaving group molecular orbital analysis phenomenon suggest conformation provides best overlap electrons r h bonding orbital undergoing nucleophilic attack empty antibonding orbital r x bond broken ref name isaacs ref exploiting effect conformational analysis used design molecules possess


enhanced reactivity physical processes give rise bond rotation barriers complex barriers extensively studied experimental theoretical methods number recent articles investigated predominance steric electrostatic hyperconjugative contributions rotational barriers ethane butane substituted molecules non covalent interactions cryptand metal cation demonstrating host guest chemistry cryptands tricyclic compounds tightly encapsulate guest cation via electrostatic interactions ion dipole interaction chemists use study intramolecular intermolecular non covalent bonding interactions molecules evaluate reactivity interactions include limited


hydrogen bonding electrostatic interactions charged molecules dipole dipole interactions polar cation interactions stacking donor acceptor chemistry halogen bonding addition hydrophobic effect association organic compounds water electrostatic non covalent interaction interest chemists precise physical origin hydrophobic effect originates many complex interactions believed important component biomolecular recognition water ref name anslyn example xu melcher ''et al'' elucidated structural basis folic acid recognition folate acid receptor proteins strong interaction folic acid folate receptor attributed


primarily concerned br nsted lowry acids bases proton donors acceptors lewis acids bases electron acceptors donors organic reactions chemists use series factors developed physical chemistry electronegativity induction bond strengths resonance hybridization aromaticity solvation predict relative acidities basicities hard soft acid base principle utilized predict molecular interactions reaction direction general interactions molecules type preferred hard acids associate hard bases soft acids soft bases concept hard acids bases often exploited synthesis inorganic coordination complexes kinetics physical organic


ground state structure determination rate law historically accomplished monitoring concentration reactant reaction gravimetric analysis today almost exclusively done fast unambiguous spectroscopic techniques cases determination rate equations simplified adding large excess flooding one reactants catalysis intermediates study catalysis catalytic reactions important field physical organic chemistry catalyst participates chemical reaction consumed process ref name mcquarrie catalyst lowers


leads change rate reaction isotopic substitution changes potential energy reaction intermediates transition states heavier isotopes form stronger bonds atoms atomic mass affects zero point vibrational state associated molecules shorter stronger bonds molecules heavier isotopes longer weaker bonds molecules light isotopes ref name isaacs vibrational motions often change course reaction due making breaking bonds frequencies affected substitution isotope provide insight reaction mechanism


rate law substituent effects study substituents affect reactivity molecule rate reactions significant interest chemists substituents exert effect steric electronic interactions latter include resonance inductive effects polarizability molecule also affected substituent effects analyzed linear free energy relationships lfers common hammett plot analysis ref name anslyn analysis compares effect various substituents ionization benzoic acid impact diverse chemical systems parameters


hammett plots sigma rho value indicates acidity substituted benzoic acid relative unsubstituted form positive value indicates compound acidic negative value indicates substituted version less acidic value measure sensitivity reaction change substituent measures inductive effects therefore two new scales produced evaluate stabilization localized charge resonance one sup sup concerns substituents stabilize positive charges via resonance


sup sup groups stabilize negative charges via resonance hammett analysis used help elucidate possible mechanisms reaction example predicted transition state structure build negative charge relative ground state structure electron donating groups would expected increase rate reaction ref name anslyn lfer scales developed steric polar effects analyzed taft parameters changing solvent instead reactant provide insight changes charge reaction grunwald winstein plot provides quantitative


equilibrium system instance case keto enol tautomerizations non polar aprotic solvents enol form strongly favored due formation intramolecular hydrogen bond polar aprotic solvents methylene chloride enol form less favored due interaction polar solvent polar diketone protic solvents equilibrium lies towards keto form intramolecular hydrogen bond competes hydrogen bonds originating solvent '''solvent effects epimerization chiral grignard reagent''' ref name gaojacs ''cis'' form reagent stabilized


strongly favored reaction solvent thf diethyl ether larger equilibrium constant observed thf modern example study solvent effects chemical equilibrium seen study epimerization chiral cyclopropylnitrile grignard reagents ref name gaojacs ref study reports equilibrium constant ''cis'' ''trans'' isomerization grignard reagent much greater preference ''cis'' form enhanced thf reaction solvent diethyl ether however faster rate ''cis trans isomerization'' thf results loss stereochemical purity


case understanding effect solvent stability molecular configuration reagent important regard selectivity observed asymmetric synthesis quantum chemistry many aspects structure reactivity relationship organic chemistry rationalized resonance electron pushing induction eight electron rule p hybridization helpful formalisms represent physical reality due limitations true understanding physical organic chemistry requires rigorous approach grounded particle physics quantum chemistry provides rigorous theoretical framework capable predicting


properties molecules calculation molecule 's electronic structure become readily available tool physical organic chemists form popular software packages power quantum chemistry built wave model atom nucleus small positively charged sphere surrounded diffuse electron cloud particles defined associated wavefunction equation contains information associated particle ref name mcquarrie information system contained wavefunction information extracted wavefunction use


mathematical operators energy associated particular wavefunction perhaps important information contained wavefunction extracted solving schr dinger equation wavefunction e energy hamiltonian operator ref name mcquarrie appropriate hamiltonian operator applied various forms schr dinger equation overall size particle 's probability distribution increases decreasing particle mass reason nuclei negligible size relation much lighter electrons treated point charges practical applications quantum chemistry due


complex interactions arise electron electron repulsion algebraic solutions schr dinger equation possible systems one electron hydrogen atom h sub sub sup sup h sub sub sup sup etc however simple models arise familiar atomic spdf bonding orbitals systems multiple electrons overall multielectron wavefunction describes properties wavefunctions generated linear addition single electron wavefunctions generate initial guess repeatedly modified associated energy minimized thousands guesses often required satisfactory solution found


calculations performed powerful computers importantly solutions atoms multiple electrons give properties diameter electronegativity closely mirror experimental data patterns found periodic table solutions molecules methane provide exact representations electronic structure unobtainable experimental methods instead four discrete bonds carbon hydrogen atom theory predicts set four bonding molecular orbitals delocalized across entire molecule similarly true electronic structure butadiene shows delocalized bonding molecular orbitals stretching entire molecule


rather two isolated double bonds predicted simple lewis structure complete electronic structure offers great predictive power organic transformations dynamics especially cases concerning aromatic molecules extended systems bonds metal ions organic molecules molecules containing nonstandard heteroatoms like selenium boron conformational dynamics large molecules proteins wherein many approximations chemical formalisms make structure reactivity prediction impossible example electronic structure determination useful tool physical organic chemist metal catalyzed dearomatization benzene chromium tricarbonyl highly electrophilic


due withdrawal electron density filled chromium orbitals antibonding co orbitals able covalently bond face benzene molecule delocalized molecular orbitals co ligands inductively draw electron density benzene chromium atom dramatically activate benzene nucleophilic attack nucleophiles able react make hexacyclodienes used transformations diels alder cycloadditons chromium 's unoccupied orbitals mediate electron withdrawal benzene greatly enhancing electrophilicity quantum chemistry also provide insight mechanism organic transformation without


course reaction interaction molecules light afford wealth data properties nondestructive spectroscopic experiments light absorbed energy photon matches difference energy two states molecule emitted excited state molecule collapses lower energy state spectroscopic techniques broadly classified type excitation probed vibrational rotational electronic nuclear magnetic resonance nmr electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy addition spectroscopic data structure determination often aided complementary data collected


x ray diffraction mass spectrometric experiments ref name drago ref nmr epr spectroscopy splitting nuclei spin states external magnetic field one powerful tools physical organic chemistry nmr spectroscopy external magnetic field applied paramagnetic nucleus generates two discrete states positive negative spin values diverging energy difference energy probed determining frequency light needed excite change spin state given magnetic field nuclei indistinguishable given molecule absorb different frequencies integrated


peak area nmr spectrum proportional number nuclei responding frequency ref name keeler ref possible quantify relative concentration different organic molecules simply integration peaks spectrum many kinetic experiments easily quickly performed following progress reaction within one nmr sample proton nmr often used synthetic organic chemist protons associated certain functional groups give characteristic absorption energies nmr spectroscopy also performed isotopes nitrogen carbon fluorine phosphorus boron host


elements addition simple absorption experiments also possible determine rate fast atom exchange reactions suppression exchange measurements interatomic distances multidimensional nuclear overhauser effect experiments bond spin spin coupling homonuclear correlation spectroscopy addition spin excitation properties nuclei also possible study properties organic radicals fundamental technique unpaired electrons also net spin external magnetic field allows extraction similar information electron paramagnetic resonance epr spectroscopy ref name anslyn vibrational spectroscopy vibrational spectroscopy infrared ir spectroscopy


allows identification functional groups due low expense robustness often used teaching labs real time monitoring reaction progress difficult reach environments high pressure high temperature gas phase phase boundaries molecular vibrations quantized analogous manner electronic wavefunctions integer increases frequency leading higher energy states difference energy vibrational states nearly constant often falling energy range corresponding infrared photons normal temperatures molecular vibrations closely resemble harmonic oscillators allows crude identification functional


groups organic molecules spectra complicated vibrational coupling nearby functional groups complex molecules therefore utility structure determination usually limited simple molecules complicating matters vibrations induce change molecular dipole moment observable standard ir absorption spectroscopy instead probed raman spectroscopy technique requires elaborate apparatus less commonly performed however raman spectroscopy relies light scattering performed microscopic samples surface heterogeneous


catalyst phase boundary one microliter l subsample within larger liquid volume ref name drago applications vibrational spectroscopy often used astronomers study composition molecular gas clouds extrasolar planetary atmospheres planetary surfaces first eight states quantum harmonic oscillator horizontal axis shows position ''x'' vertical axis shows energy note even spacing energy levels excitations adjacent states require energy therefore absorb wavelength light electronic excitation spectroscopy electronic excitation spectroscopy ultraviolet visible uv vis spectroscopy


apart resulting data show parent mass number smaller fragment masses fragmentation give rich insight sequence proteins nucleic acid polymers addition mass molecule fragments distribution isotopic variant masses also determined qualitative presence certain elements identified due characteristic natural isotope distribution ratio fragment mass population parent ion population compared library empirical fragmentation data matched known molecular structure combined gas chromatography mass


enantiomeric substance also way identify position bonding elements lack nmr active nucleus oxygen indeed x ray structural determination methods made available early th century organic structures entirely conjectural tetrahedral carbon example confirmed crystal structure diamond delocalized structure benzene confirmed crystal structure hexamethylbenzene crystallography provides organic chemists highly satisfying data everyday technique organic chemistry perfect single crystal target compound must


grown complex molecules nmr data cannot unambiguously interpreted require technique example structure host guest complex would quite difficult solve without single crystal structure protons fullerene covalent bonds two halves organic complex spectroscopy alone unable prove hypothesized structure single crystal structure fullerene caught molecular tweezers reading general peter atkins julio de paula physical chemistry th edn new york ny usa macmillan see https booksgooglecom booksisbn accessed


organic chemistry'' sausalito calif university science books modernized streamlined treatment emphasis applications cross disciplinary connections michael b smith jerry march march 's advanced organic chemistry reactions mechanisms structure th ed new york ny usa wiley sons see https booksgooglecom booksisbn accessed june francis carey richard j sundberg advanced organic chemistry part structure mechanisms th edn new york ny usa springer science business media see https booksgooglecom booksisbn accessed june history outstanding starting point history field critically important contributor


referencing discussing early hammett text etc thermochemistry l k doraiswamy estimation properties organic compounds ch pp nbsp refs ''organic synthesis engineering'' oxford oxon eng oxford university press see https booksgooglecom booksisbn accessed june book chapter surveys wide range physical properties estimation including narrow list thermochemical properties appearing june wp article placing benson et al method alongside many methods l k doraiswamy ''anson marston distinguished professor engineering'' iowa state university see also ''journal physical organic chemistry'' https wwwgaussiancom


gaussian example commercially available quantum mechanical software package used particularly academic settings references organic chemistry


berea college president wd weatherford received ford foundation grant underwrite exhaustive regional study '' https webarchiveorg web http communitybereaedu hutchinslibrary specialcollections saa asp southern appalachian region survey '' published many see beginning modern appalachian studies movement blaustein west virginia university librarian robert f munn noted nonsense written southern mountains comparable area united states also observed distressingly little way useful primary secondary materials available historical research appalachia munn four decades

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Appalachian studies


since munn comments wealth excellent appalachian scholarship published appalachian studies interdisciplinary befits study complex diverse region people appalachian studies includes disciplines history literature anthropology music religion economics education environment folklore folk customs labor issues women 's issues ethnicity health care community organizing economic development coal mining tourism art demography migration urban rural planning appalachian scholarship addressed continues address various issues within academic disciplines several academic journals dedicated appalachian studies including ''appalachian journal'' published appalachian


state university ''journal appalachian studies'' published appalachian studies association ''now then'' published east tennessee state university ''appalachian heritage'' published berea college larger list pertinent appalachian studies journals magazines refer https webarchiveorg web http wwwappalachianstudiesorg resources bibliographies tedesco indexphp marie tedesco selected bibliography appalachian studies association website much scholarship research appalachia done scholars members appalachian studies association academics number colleges universities around appalachia offer https webarchiveorg web http wwwappalachianstudiesorg syllabi programsphp courses degrees appalachian studies range master arts appalachian


mind southern mountains mountaineers american consciousness '' henry shapiro chapel hill university north carolina press ''appalachia making mountain south nineteenth century'' ed mary beth pudup dwight b billings altina l waller chapel hill university north carolina press ''appalachia social context past present'' fifth edition ed phillip j obermiller michael e maloney kendall hunt publishers ''appalachians race mountain south slavery segregation'' ed john c inscoe lexington university press kentucky ''back talk