produced either tone vocal folds closed noise vocal folds open phonetic principles grammar considered primitives basis theoretical analysis rather objects theoretical analysis principles inferred system phonology modern advancements phonetics p ini contemporaries limited modern era save limited investigations greek roman grammarians millennia indic grammarians modern phonetics focus shifted difference spoken written language


oral education deaf children widespread availability audio recording equipment phoneticians relied heavily tradition practical phonetics ensure transcriptions findings able consistent across phoneticians training involved ear training recognition speech sounds well production training ability produce sounds phoneticians expected learn recognize ear various sounds international phonetic alphabet ipa still tests certifies speakers ability accurately produce phonetic patterns english though discontinued practice languages

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several interdependent processes transform nonlinguistic message spoken signed linguistic signal linguists debate whether process language production occurs series stages serial processing whether production processes occur parallel identifying message linguistically encoded speaker must select individual words known lexical items represent message process called lexical selection words selected based meaning linguistics called semantic information lexical selection activates word 's lemma contains semantic grammatical information word


ease description language production process described series independent stages though recent evidence shows inaccurate descriptions interactive activation models see utterance planned evidence production message completely planned goes phonological encoding stage language production mental representation words assigned phonological content sequence phonemes produced phonemes specified articulatory features denote particular goals closed lips tongue


particular location phonemes coordinated sequence muscle commands sent muscles commands executed properly intended sounds produced thus process production message sound summarized following sequence message planning lemma selection retrieval assignment phonological word forms articulatory specification muscle commands articulation speech sounds place articulation sounds made full partial constriction vocal tract called consonants consonants pronounced vocal tract usually


mouth location constriction affects resulting sound close connection position tongue resulting sound place articulation important concept many subdisciplines phonetics sounds partly categorized location constriction well part body constricting example english words ''fought'' ''thought'' minimal pair differing organ making construction rather location construction f ''fought'' labiodental articulation made bottom


lip teeth th ''thought'' linguodental articulation made tongue teeth constrictions made lips called labials made tongue called lingual constrictions made tongue made several parts vocal tract broadly classified coronal dorsal radical places articulation coronal articulations made front tongue dorsal articulations made back tongue radical articulations made pharynx divisions sufficient distinguishing describing speech


sounds example english sounds coronal produced different places mouth account detailed places articulation needed based upon area mouth constriction occurs labial articulations involving lips made three different ways lips bilabial one lip teeth labiodental tongue upper lip linguolabial depending definition used kinds articulations may categorized class


labial articulations bilabial consonants made lips producing sounds lower lip moves farthest meet upper lip also moves slightly though cases force air moving aperture opening lips may cause lips separate faster come together unlike articulations articulators made soft tissue bilabial stops likely produced incomplete closures articulations involving hard surfaces like teeth palate bilabial stops also unusual articulator


upper section vocal tract actively moves downwards upper lip shows active downward movement linguolabial consonants made blade tongue approaching contacting upper lip like bilabial articulations upper lip moves slightly towards active articulator articulations group symbols international phonetic alphabet rather formed combining apical symbol diacritic implicitly placing coronal category exist number languages indigenous vanuatu tangoa labiodental consonants made


lower lip rising upper teeth labiodental consonants often fricatives labiodental nasals also typologically common debate whether true labiodental plosives occur natural language though number languages reported labiodental plosives including zulu tonga shubi coronal coronal consonants made tip blade tongue agility front tongue represent variety place posture tongue coronal places articulation represent areas


made tip blade tongue upper teeth divided two groups based upon part tongue used produce apical dental consonants produced tongue tip touching teeth interdental consonants produced blade tongue tip tongue sticks front teeth language known use contrastively though may exist allophonically alveolar consonants made tip blade tongue alveolar ridge behind teeth


similarly apical laminal crosslinguistically dental consonants alveolar consonants frequently contrasted leading number generalizations crosslinguistic patterns different places articulation tend also contrasted part tongue used produce languages dental stops laminal dentals languages apical stops usually apical stops languages rarely two consonants place contrast laminality though taa x counterexample pattern language one dental stop alveolar stop usually


articulations tip tongue curled upwards degree way retroflex articulations occur several different locations roof mouth including alveolar post alveolar palatal regions underside tongue tip makes contact roof mouth sub apical though apical post alveolar sounds also described retroflex typical examples sub apical retroflex stops commonly found dravidian languages languages indigenous southwest united states contrastive difference dental alveolar stops slight retroflexion


alveolar stop acoustically retroflexion tends affect higher formants articulations taking place behind alveolar ridge known post alveolar consonants referred using number different terms apical post alveolar consonants often called retroflex laminal articulations sometimes called palato alveolar australianist literature laminal stops often described 'palatal' though produced forward palate region typically described palatal individual anatomical variation precise articulation palato alveolar stops coronals general vary widely within speech community dorsal dorsal consonants


made using tongue body highly affected coarticulation vowels produced far forward hard palate far back uvula variations typically divided front central back velars parallel vowel space hard distinguish phonetically palatal consonants though produced slightly behind area prototypical palatal consonants uvular consonants made tongue body contacting approaching uvula rare occurring estimated percent languages large regions americas


africa languages uvular consonants languages uvular consonants stops frequent followed continuants including nasals pharyngeal laryngeal consonants made constrictions throat pharyngeals made constriction larynx laryngeal laryngeals made using vocal folds larynx far throat reach tongue pharyngeals however close enough mouth parts tongue reach radical consonants either use root tongue epiglottis production


produced far back vocal tract pharyngeal consonants made retracting root tongue far enough almost touch wall pharynx due production difficulties fricatives approximants produced way epiglottal consonants made epiglottis back wall pharynx epiglottal stops recorded dahalo voiced epiglottal consonants deemed possible due cavity glottis epiglottis small permit voicing glottal consonants produced using vocal folds larynx vocal folds


source phonation oro nasal vocal tract number glottal consonants impossible voiced glottal stop three glottal consonants possible voiceless glottal stop two glottal fricatives attested natural languages glottal stops produced closing vocal folds notably common world 's languages many languages use demarcate phrase boundaries languages like arabic huatla mazatec contrastive phonemes additionally glottal stops realized laryngealization following vowel language glottal stops especially vowels


usually form complete closure true glottal stops normally occur 're geminated larynx alt see caption larynx commonly known voice box cartilaginous structure trachea responsible phonation vocal folds chords held together vibrate held apart positions vocal folds achieved movement arytenoid cartilages intrinsic laryngeal muscles responsible moving arytenoid cartilages well modulating tension vocal folds vocal folds close


tense enough either vibrate sporadically vibrate sporadically result either creaky breathy voice depending degree n't vibrate result voicelessness addition correctly positioning vocal folds must also air flowing across vibrate difference pressure across glottis required voicing estimated cm h sub sub pascals pressure differential fall levels required phonation either increase pressure


construct functional level representation items retrieved according specific semantic syntactic properties phonological forms yet made available stage second stage retrieval wordforms provides information required building positional level representation articulatory models producing speech articulators move contact particular locations space resulting changes acoustic signal models speech production take basis modeling articulation coordinate system may internal body intrinsic external extrinsic intrinsic coordinate systems model movement


articulators positions angles joints body intrinsic coordinate models jaw often use two three degrees freedom representing translation rotation face issues modeling tongue unlike joints jaw arms muscular hydrostat like elephant trunk lacks joints different physiological structures movement paths jaw relatively straight lines speech mastication movements tongue follow curves straight line movements used argue articulations planned extrinsic rather intrinsic space though extrinsic coordinate systems also include


acoustic coordinate spaces physical coordinate spaces models assume movements planned extrinsic space run inverse problem explaining muscle joint locations produce observed path acoustic signal arm example seven degrees freedom muscles multiple different joint muscle configurations lead final position models planning extrinsic acoustic space one many mapping problem applies well unique mapping physical acoustic targets muscle movements required achieve concerns inverse


positions represented points space equilibrium points spring like action muscles converges gestural approaches speech production propose articulations represented movement patterns rather particular coordinates hit minimal unit gesture represents group functionally equivalent articulatory movement patterns actively controlled reference given speech relevant goal eg bilabial closure groups represent coordinative structures synergies view movements individual muscle movements task dependent groupings muscles work together single unit reduces degrees


done articulators different places manners articulation producing different acoustic results posture vocal tract position tongue affect resulting sound manner articulation important describing speech sound words ''tack'' ' 'sack'' begin alveolar sounds english differ far tongue alveolar ridge difference large affects air stream thus sound produced similarly direction source airstream affect sound


common airstream mechanism pulmonic using lungs glottis tongue also used produce airstreams voicing phonation types major distinction speech sounds whether voiced sounds voiced vocal folds begin vibrate process phonation many sounds produced without phonation though physical constraints may make phonation difficult impossible articulations articulations voiced main source noise periodic vibration vocal folds articulations like voiceless plosives acoustic source noticeable silence


voiceless sounds like fricatives create acoustic source regardless phonation phonation controlled muscles larynx languages make use acoustic detail binary voicing phonation vocal folds vibrate certain rate vibration results periodic acoustic waveform comprising fundamental frequency harmonics fundamental frequency acoustic wave controlled adjusting muscles larynx listeners perceive fundamental frequency pitch languages use pitch manipulation convey lexical information tonal languages many languages use pitch


flow freely breathy voice whispery voice exist continuum loosely characterized going periodic waveform breathy voice noisy waveform whispery voice acoustically tend dampen first formant whispery voice showing extreme deviations holding vocal folds tightly together results creaky voice tension across vocal folds less modal voice held tightly together resulting ligaments vocal folds vibrating pulses highly irregular low pitch frequency amplitude


precise measurements obtained acoustic analysis spectrogram spectral slice spectrographic analysis voiced segments show voicing bar region high acoustic energy low frequencies voiced segments examining spectral splice acoustic spectrum given point time model vowel pronounced reverses filtering mouth producing spectrum glottis computational model unfiltered glottal signal fitted inverse filtered acoustic signal determine characteristics glottis visual analysis also available using specialized


medical equipment ultrasound endoscopy vowels vowels broadly categorized area mouth produced produced without constriction vocal tract precise description relies measuring acoustic correlates tongue position location tongue vowel production changes frequencies cavity resonates resonances known formants measured used characterize vowels vowel height traditionally refers highest point tongue articulation height parameter divided four primary levels


danish 's possible languages might even need five vowel backness dividing three levels front central back languages usually minimally contrast two levels vowel backness languages claimed three way backness distinction include nimboran norwegian languages lips vowel production classified either rounded unrounded spread although types lip positions compression protrusion described lip position correlated height backness front low vowels tend unrounded whereas back high vowels


usually rounded paired vowels ipa chart spread vowel left rounded vowel right together universal vowel features described languages additional features nasality length different types phonation voiceless creaky sometimes specialized tongue gestures rhoticity advanced tongue root pharyngealization stridency frication required describe certain vowel manner articulation knowing place articulation enough fully describe consonant way stricture happens equally important


manners articulation describe exactly active articulator modifies narrows closes vocal tract stops also referred plosives consonants airstream completely obstructed pressure builds mouth stricture released small burst sound articulators move apart velum raised air cannot flow nasal cavity velum lowered allows air flow nose result nasal stop however phoneticians almost always refer nasal stops nasals affricates


sequence stops followed fricative place fricatives consonants airstream made turbulent partially completely obstructing part vocal tract sibilants special type fricative turbulent airstream directed towards teeth creating high pitched hissing sound nasals sometimes referred nasal stops consonants 's closure oral cavity velum lowered allowing air flow nose approximant articulators come close together extent allows


turbulent airstream laterals consonants airstream obstructed along center vocal tract allowing airstream flow freely one sides laterals also defined consonants tongue contracted way airstream greater around sides center tongue first definition allow air flow tongue trills consonants tongue lips set motion airstream stricture formed way


closed trapping body air allows remaining air vocal tract moved separately upward movement closed glottis move air resulting ejective consonant alternatively glottis lower sucking air mouth results implosive consonant clicks stops tongue movement causes air sucked mouth referred velaric airstream click air becomes rarefied two articulatory closures producing loud 'click' sound anterior closure released


release anterior closure referred click influx release posterior closure velar uvular click efflux clicks used several african language families khoisan bantu languages pulmonary subglottal system lungs drive nearly speech production importance phonetics due creation pressure pulmonic sounds common kinds sound across languages pulmonic egress air exhaled lungs opposite possible though language known pulmonic


ingressive sounds phonemes many languages swedish use paralinguistic articulations affirmations number genetically geographically diverse languages egressive ingressive sounds rely holding vocal folds particular posture using lungs draw air across vocal folds either vibrate voiced vibrate voiceless pulmonic articulations restricted volume air able exhaled given respiratory cycle known vital capacity lungs used maintain two kinds pressure simultaneously order


produce modify phonation produce phonation lungs must maintain pressure nbsp cm h sub sub higher pressure glottis however small fast adjustments made subglottal pressure modify speech suprasegmental features like stress number thoracic muscles used make adjustments lungs thorax stretch inhalation elastic forces lungs alone produce pressure differentials sufficient phonation lung volumes percent vital capacity percent vital capacity respiratory muscles used check


elastic forces thorax maintain stable pressure differential volume used increase subglottal pressure actively exhaling air speech respiratory cycle modified accommodate linguistic biological needs exhalation usually percent respiratory cycle rest increased percent respiratory cycle metabolic needs relatively stable total volume air moved cases speech remains quiet tidal breathing increases speech intensity nbsp db loud conversation relatively little impact


volume air moved respiratory systems developed adults children tend use larger proportion vital capacity compared adults deep inhales source filter theory source filter model speech theory speech production explains link vocal tract posture acoustic consequences model vocal tract modeled noise source coupled onto acoustic filter noise source many cases larynx process voicing though noise sources modeled


way shape supraglottal vocal tract acts filter different configurations articulators result different acoustic patterns changes predictable vocal tract modeled sequence tubes closed one end varying diameters using equations acoustic resonance acoustic effect articulatory posture derived process inverse filtering uses principle analyze source spectrum produced vocal folds voicing taking inverse predicted filter acoustic effect supraglottal vocal tract


undone giving acoustic spectrum produced vocal folds allows quantitative study various phonation types perception language perception process linguistic signal decoded understood listener order perceive speech continuous acoustic signal must converted discrete linguistic units phonemes morphemes words order correctly identify categorize sounds listeners prioritize certain aspects signal reliably distinguish linguistic categories certain cues prioritized others many aspects signal contribute


perception example though oral languages prioritize acoustic information mcgurk effect shows visual information used distinguish ambiguous information acoustic cues unreliable listeners use variety information segment speech signal relationship acoustic signal category perception perfect mapping coarticulation noisy environments individual differences high degree acoustic variability within categories known problem '''perceptual invariance''' listeners able reliably perceive categories despite variability acoustic instantiation order listeners rapidly accommodate


contains basilar membrane basilar membrane increases thickness travels cochlea causing different frequencies resonate different locations tonotopic design allows ear analyze sound manner similar fourier transform differential vibration basilar causes hair cells within organ corti move causes depolarization hair cells ultimately conversion acoustic signal neuronal signal hair cells produce action potentials release neurotransmitter synapses fibers auditory nerve


produce action potentials way patterns oscillations basilar membrane converted spatiotemporal patterns firings transmit information sound brainstem prosody besides consonants vowels phonetics also describes properties speech localized segments greater units speech syllables phrases prosody includes auditory characteristics pitch speech rate duration loudness languages use properties different degrees implement stress pitch accents intonation example stress english spanish correlated changes


pitch duration whereas stress welsh consistently correlated pitch duration stress thai correlated duration theories speech perception early theories speech perception motor theory attempted solve problem perceptual invariance arguing speech perception production closely linked strongest form motor theory argues speech perception ' 'requires'' listener access articulatory representation sounds order properly categorize sound listener reverse engineers articulation would produce sound identifying


object based signal reduced necessary components normalizing signal counteract speaker variability episodic theories exemplar model argue speech perception involves accessing detailed memories ie episodic memories previously heard tokens problem perceptual invariance explained episodic theories issue familiarity normalization byproduct exposure variable distributions rather discrete process abstractionist theories claim subdisciplines acoustic phonetics acoustic phonetics deals acoustic properties speech sounds sensation sound caused pressure fluctuations cause


eardrum move ear transforms movement neural signals brain registers sound acoustic waveforms records measure pressure fluctuations articulatory phonetics articulatory phonetics deals ways speech sounds made auditory phonetics auditory phonetics studies humans perceive speech sounds due anatomical features auditory system distorting speech signal humans experience speech sounds perfect acoustic records example auditory impressions volume measured decibels db linearly match difference sound pressure mismatch acoustic analyses


listener hears especially noticeable speech sounds lot high frequency energy certain fricatives reconcile mismatch functional models auditory system developed describing sounds human languages use many different sounds order compare linguists must able describe sounds way language independent speech sounds described number ways commonly speech sounds referred mouth movements needed produce consonants vowels two gross categories phoneticians define movements


speech sound fine grained descriptors parameters place articulation place articulation manner articulation voicing used describe consonants main divisions international phonetic alphabet consonant chart vowels described height backness rounding sign language described using similar distinct set parameters describe signs location movement hand shape palm orientation non manual features addition articulatory descriptions sounds used oral languages described using acoustics acoustics consequence articulation methods


description sufficient distinguish sounds choice systems dependent phonetic feature investigated consonants speech sounds articulated complete partial closure vocal tract generally produced modification airstream exhaled lungs respiratory organs used create modify airflow divided three regions vocal tract supralaryngeal larynx subglottal system airstream either egressive vocal tract ingressive vocal tract pulmonic sounds airstream produced lungs


subglottal system passes larynx vocal tract glottalic sounds use airstream created movements larynx without airflow lungs click consonants articulated rarefaction air using tongue followed releasing forward closure tongue vowels syllabic speech sounds pronounced without obstruction vocal tract unlike consonants usually definite places articulation vowels defined relation set reference vowels called cardinal vowels three properties needed define vowels tongue height tongue backness lip


roundedness vowels articulated stable quality called monophthongs combination two separate vowels syllable diphthong ipa vowels represented trapezoid shape representing human mouth vertical axis representing mouth floor roof horizontal axis represents front back dimension transcription phonetic transcription system transcribing phones occur language whether oral sign widely known system phonetic transcription international phonetic alphabet ipa provides standardized set symbols oral phones standardized


nature ipa enables users transcribe accurately consistently phones different languages dialects idiolects ipa useful tool study phonetics also language teaching professional acting speech pathology sign language standardized writing system linguists developed notation systems describe handshape location movement hamburg notation system hamnosys similar ipa allows varying levels detail notation systems komva stokoe system designed use


dictionaries also make use alphabetic letters local language handshapes whereas hamnosys represents handshape directly signwriting aims easy learn writing system sign languages although officially adopted deaf community yet sign languages unlike spoken languages words sign languages perceived eyes instead ears signs articulated hands upper body head main articulators hands arms relative parts arm described terms proximal distal proximal refers part closer


torso whereas distal part away example wrist movement distal compared elbow movement due requiring less energy distal movements generally easier produce various factors muscle flexibility considered taboo restrict considered sign native signers look conversation partner 's hands instead gaze fixated face peripheral vision focused center visual field signs articulated near face allow subtle differences finger movement


location perceived unlike spoken languages sign languages two identical articulators hands signers may use whichever hand prefer disruption communication due universal neurological limitations two handed signs generally kind articulation hands referred symmetry condition second universal constraint dominance condition holds two handshapes involved one hand remain stationary limited set handshapes compared dominant moving hand additionally common one hand two handed sign


dropped informal conversations process referred weak drop like words spoken languages coarticulation may cause signs influence 's form examples include handshapes neighboring signs becoming similar assimilation weak drop instance deletion see also motor theory speech perception exemplar theory articulatory phonology references notes citations works cited reprinted external links https userscastleuncedu jlsmith phonetics resourceshtml collection phonetics resources university north carolina https wwwpeterroachnet uploads english phonetics phonology glossarypdf little encyclopedia phonetics peter roach https doodal pinktrombone pink


trombone interactive articulation simulator neil thapen branches linguistics


media certain individuals soapboxers th century term ''propaganda'' often associated manipulative approach historically propaganda neutral descriptive term ref name brit bls ref name diggs brown p wide range materials media used conveying propaganda messages changed new technologies invented including paintings cartoons posters pamphlets films radio shows tv shows websites recently digital age given rise new ways disseminating propaganda example bots algorithms currently used create computational propaganda fake biased news spread

Journalism, media studies and communication


social media etymology ''propaganda'' modern latin word ablative singular feminine gerundive form meaning 'to spread' 'to propagate' thus ''propaganda'' means ''for propagated'' originally word derived new administrative body catholic church congregation created part counter reformation called ''congregatio de propaganda fide'' ''congregation propagating faith'' informally simply ''propaganda'' ref name diggs brown p diggs brown barbara https booksgooglecom booksid c ycysng yc pg pa lpg pa ''strategic public relations audience focused practice'' p ref activity aimed propagating catholic faith non catholic countries ref name diggs brown p


term propaganda writing expression opinions actions carried deliberately individuals groups view influencing opinions actions individuals groups predetermined ends psychological manipulations garth jowett victoria o'donnell theorize propaganda persuasion linked humans use communication form soft power development cultivation propaganda materials literary debate edward bernays everett dean martin argues propaganda making puppets us moved hidden strings propagandist manipulates


propaganda sometimes described powerful example bernays acknowledged book ''propaganda'' conscious intelligent manipulation organized habits opinions masses important element democratic society manipulate unseen mechanism society constitute invisible government true ruling power country governed minds molded tastes formed ideas suggested largely men never heard history poster depicting winston churchill british bulldog primitive forms propaganda human activity


time another early example propaganda genghis khan emperor would send men ahead army spread rumors enemy cases army actually smaller opponents finnish propaganda leaflet signed general mannerheim circulated whites urging reds surrender finnish civil war ''to residents troops tampere resistance hopeless raise white flag surrender blood citizen shed enough kill like reds kill prisoners


send representative white flag '' propaganda reformation helped spread printing press throughout europe particular within germany caused new ideas thoughts doctrine made available public ways never seen th century era american revolution american colonies flourishing network newspapers printers specialized topic behalf patriots lesser extent behalf loyalists academic barbara diggs brown conceives negative connotations term propaganda


associated earlier social political transformations occurred french revolutionary period movement start middle portion th century time word started used nonclerical political context propaganda newspaper clipping refers bataan death march first large scale organised propagation government propaganda occasioned outbreak first world war defeat germany military officials general erich ludendorff suggested british propaganda


instrumental defeat adolf hitler came echo view believing primary cause collapse morale revolts german home front navy see also dolchsto legende ''mein kampf'' hitler expounded theory propaganda provided powerful base rise power historian robert ensor explains hitlerputs limit done propaganda people believe anything provided told often enough emphatically enough contradicters either silenced smothered calumny


true germany backed army making difficult allow propaganda flow propaganda nazi germany produced ministry public enlightenment propaganda joseph goebbels goebbels mentions propaganda way see masses symbols used towards propaganda justice liberty one 's devotion one 's country world war ii saw continued use propaganda weapon war building experience wwi goebbels british political warfare executive well united states office


war information early th century invention motion pictures movies diafilms gave propaganda creators powerful tool advancing political military interests came reaching broad segment population creating consent encouraging rejection real imagined enemy years following october revolution soviet government sponsored russian film industry purpose making propaganda films eg film ''the battleship potemkin'' glorifies communist ideals wwii nazi filmmakers produced highly emotional films create popular support occupying


sudetenland attacking poland saw rise totalitarian states second world war arguably golden age propaganda leni riefenstahl filmmaker working nazi germany created one best known propaganda movies ''triumph will'' propaganda song ''niet molotoff'' made finland continuation war making fun red army 's failure winter war referring song 's name soviet 's minister foreign affairs vyacheslav molotov us animation became popular especially winning youthful audiences aiding


us war effort eg''der fuehrer 's face'' ridicules hitler advocates value freedom american war films early designed create patriotic mindset convince viewers sacrifices needed made defeat axis powers others intended help americans understand allies general films like ''know ally britain'' ''our greek allies'' apart war films hollywood part boost american morale film intended show stars stage screen remained home front


citizens third world nations george orwell 's contemporaneous novels ''animal farm'' ''nineteen eighty four'' portray use propaganda fictional dystopian societies cuban revolution fidel castro stressed importance propaganda propaganda used extensively communist forces vietnam war means controlling people 's opinions yugoslav wars propaganda used military strategy governments federal republic yugoslavia croatia propaganda used create fear hatred particularly incite serb population ethnicities bosniaks croats albanians non serbs


serb media made great effort justifying revising denying mass war crimes committed serb forces wars ref name boston university ref public perceptions early th century term propaganda used founders nascent public relations industry refer people literally translated latin gerundive things must disseminated cultures term neutral even positive others term acquired strong negative connotation connotations term propaganda also vary time example portuguese spanish


language speaking countries particularly southern cone word propaganda usually refers common manipulative media nbsp advertising scandinavist movement english ''propaganda'' originally neutral term dissemination information favor given cause th century however term acquired thoroughly negative meaning western countries representing intentional dissemination often false certainly compelling claims support justify political actions ideologies according harold lasswell term began fall favor due growing public suspicion propaganda wake use


world war creel committee united states ministry information britain writing lasswell observed democratic countries official propaganda bureau looked upon genuine alarm fear might suborned party personal ends outcry united states mr creel 's famous bureau public information 'inflammation' helped din public mind fact propaganda existed public 's discovery propaganda led great lamentation propaganda become epithet contempt


hate propagandists sought protective coloration names 'public relations council' 'specialist public education' 'public relations adviser' political science professor dayton david mckean wrote world war word came applied 'what like fellow publicity' edward l bernays said contestation term essentially contested argued neutral definition ref name briant p ref arguing ethics depend intent context ref name briant ref others define necessarily unethical negative emma briant defines deliberate manipulation representations


including text pictures video speech etc intention producing effect audience eg action inaction reinforcement transformation feelings ideas attitudes behaviours desired propagandist ref name briant p author explains importance consistent terminology across history particularly contemporary euphemistic synonyms used governments' continual efforts rebrand operations 'information support' strategic communication ref name briant p scholars also see benefits acknowledging propaganda interpreted beneficial harmful depending message sender target audience message context ref name types poster


north korean primary school targeting united states military korean text reads playing military games beat american photographed identifying propaganda always problem main difficulties involved differentiating propaganda types persuasion avoiding biased approach richard alan nelson provides definition term propaganda neutrally defined systematic form purposeful persuasion attempts influence emotions attitudes opinions actions specified target audiences ideological political commercial purposes controlled transmission one sided


messages may may factual via mass direct media channels definition focuses communicative process involved precisely purpose process allow propaganda interpreted positive negative behavior depending perspective viewer listener propaganda often recognized rhetorical strategies used design institute propaganda analysis identified variety propaganda techniques commonly used newspapers radio mass media time period propaganda techniques


include name calling using derogatory labels bandwagon expressing social appeal message glittering generalities using positive imprecise language rise internet social media renee hobbs identified four characteristic design features many forms contemporary propaganda activates strong emotions simplifies information appeals hopes fears dreams targeted audience attacks opponents propaganda sometimes evaluated based intention goals individual institution created according historian zbyn k zeman propaganda defined either white


grey black white propaganda openly discloses source intent grey propaganda ambiguous non disclosed source intent black propaganda purports published enemy organization besides actual origins ref name new ref compare black operation type clandestine operation identity sponsoring government hidden scale different types propaganda also defined potential true correct information compete propaganda example opposition white propaganda often readily found may slightly discredit propaganda source opposition


grey propaganda revealed often inside source may create level public outcry opposition black propaganda often unavailable may dangerous reveal public cognizance black propaganda tactics sources would undermine backfire campaign black propagandist supported propagandist seeks change way people understand issue situation purpose changing actions expectations ways desirable interest group propaganda sense serves corollary censorship purpose achieved filling


title kissing pope 's feet german peasants respond papal bull pope paul iii caption reads n't frighten us pope ban n't furious man otherwise shall turn around show rears ref name edwards ref religious propaganda often used influence opinions beliefs religious issues particularly split roman catholic church protestant churches line religious roots term propaganda also used widely debates new religious movements nrms people defend


people oppose latter pejoratively call nrms cults anti cult activists christian counter cult activists accuse leaders consider cults using propaganda extensively recruit followers keep social scientists late jeffrey hadden cesnur affiliated scholars accuse ex members cults anti cult movement making unusual religious movements look bad without sufficient reasons wartime us office war information poster uses stereotyped imagery encourage americans work hard contribute war effort post world war ii usage word propaganda typically


refers political nationalist uses techniques promotion set ideas propaganda powerful weapon war used dehumanize create hatred toward supposed enemy either internal external creating false image mind soldiers citizens done using derogatory racist terms eg racist terms jap gook used world war ii vietnam war respectively avoiding words language making allegations enemy atrocities goal demoralize


reinforce mindsets people already believe propagandist wishes eg first world war main purpose british propaganda encourage men join army women work country 's industry propaganda posters used radios tvs common time assumption people believe something false constantly assailed doubts since doubts unpleasant see cognitive dissonance people eager extinguished therefore receptive reassurances power


reason propaganda often addressed people already sympathetic agenda views presented process reinforcement uses individual 's predisposition self select agreeable information sources mechanism maintaining control populations ref propaganda may administered insidious ways instance disparaging disinformation history certain groups foreign countries may encouraged tolerated educational system since people actually double check learn school disinformation repeated journalists well parents thus reinforcing idea disinformation


item really well known fact even though one repeating myth able point authoritative source disinformation recycled media educational system without need direct governmental intervention media permeating propaganda may used political goals giving citizens false impression quality policies country may incited reject certain proposals certain remarks ignore experience others britannia arm arm uncle sam symbolizes british american alliance world war soviet


union second world war propaganda designed encourage civilians controlled stalin insisted heavy handed style educated audiences easily saw inauthentic hand unofficial rumors german atrocities well founded convincing stalin georgian spoke russian heavy accent would national hero starting new visual portraits stalin retouched erase make generalized soviet hero eyes famous moustache remained unaltered zhores medvedev roy


medvedev say majestic new image devised appropriately depict leader times peoples article international covenant civil political rights prohibits propaganda war well advocacy national religious hatred constitutes incitement discrimination hostility violence law simply enough covenant specifically defining content propaganda simplest terms act propaganda used reply wartime act prohibited advertising propaganda shares techniques advertising public relations


thought propaganda promotes commercial product shapes perception organization person brand example claiming victory lebanon war hezbollah campaigned broader popularity among arabs organizing mass rallies hezbollah leader hassan nasrallah combined elements local dialect classical arabic reach audiences outside lebanon banners billboards commissioned commemoration war along various merchandise items hezbollah 's logo flag color yellow images nasrallah shirts baseball caps war memorabilia marketed ages uniformity


messaging helped define hezbollah 's brand world war propaganda poster enlistment us army journalistic theory generally holds news items objective giving reader accurate background analysis subject hand hand advertisements evolved traditional commercial advertisements include also new type form paid articles broadcasts disguised news generally present issue subjective often misleading light primarily meant persuade rather inform normally use subtle propaganda techniques obvious ones


used traditional commercial advertisements reader believes paid advertisement fact news item message advertiser trying communicate easily believed internalized advertisements considered obvious examples covert propaganda take appearance objective information rather appearance propaganda misleading federal law specifically mandates advertisement appearing format news item must state item fact paid advertisement edmund mcgarry illustrates advertising selling audience


type propaganda trying persuade public balanced judgement politics manipulation found television news programs influence mass audiences example ''dziennik'' journal news cast criticised capitalism communist polish people 's republic using emotive loaded language propaganda become common political contexts particular refer certain efforts sponsored governments political groups also often covert interests early th century propaganda exemplified form party slogans propaganda also much common


public information campaigns governments intended encourage discourage certain forms behavior wearing seat belts smoking littering forth emphasis political propaganda propaganda take form leaflets posters tv radio broadcasts also extend medium case united states also important legal imposed law distinction advertising type overt propaganda government accountability office gao arm united states congress refers covert propaganda


roderick hindery argues propaganda exists political left right mainstream centrist parties hindery argues debates social issues productively revisited context asking propaganda overlooked link propaganda indoctrination terrorism counterterrorism argues threats destroy often socially disruptive physical devastation since appearance greater media fluidity propaganda institutions practices legal frameworks evolving us britain briant shows included expansion integration


apparatus cross government details attempts coordinate forms propaganda foreign domestic audiences new efforts strategic communication subject contestation within us government resisted pentagon public affairs critiqued scholars ref name briant national defense authorization act fiscal year section amended us information educational exchange act popularly referred smith mundt act foreign relations authorization act allowing materials produced state department broadcasting board governors bbg released within us


borders archivist united states smith mundt act amended provided secretary broadcasting board governors shall make available archivist united states domestic distribution motion pictures films videotapes material years initial dissemination material abroad nothing section shall construed prohibit department state broadcasting board governors engaging medium form communication either directly indirectly united states domestic audience may thereby exposed program


spread politically motivated rumors false news stories point considered commonplace contemporary political strategy around world implement bots achieving political goals techniques anti capitalist propaganda common media transmitting propaganda messages include news reports government reports historical revision junk science books leaflets movies radio television posters propaganda campaigns follow strategic transmission pattern indoctrinate target group may begin simple transmission leaflet advertisement dropped plane advertisement generally messages contain directions obtain information via


website hotline radio program etc seen also selling purposes among goals strategy intends initiate individual information recipient information seeker reinforcement information seeker opinion leader indoctrination number techniques based social psychological research used generate propaganda many techniques found logical fallacies since propagandists use arguments sometimes convincing necessarily valid time spent analyzing means propaganda messages transmitted work important


clear information dissemination strategies become propaganda strategies coupled ''propagandistic messages'' identifying messages necessary prerequisite study methods messages spread propaganda also turned makers example postage stamps frequently tools government advertising north korea 's extensive issues presence stalin numerous soviet stamps another example third reich hitler frequently appeared postage stamps germany occupied nations british program parody nazi inspired stamps involved airdropping


germany letters containing anti nazi literature scandal broke journalist carole cadwalladr several whistleblowers academic dr emma briant revealed advances digital propaganda techniques showing online human intelligence techniques used psychological warfare coupled psychological profiling using illegally obtained social media data political campaigns united states aid donald trump firm cambridge analytica company initially denied breaking laws later admitted breaking uk law scandal provoking worldwide debate acceptable use data propaganda influence models


persuasion social psychology public reading anti semitic newspaper ''der st rmer'' worms germany field social psychology includes study persuasion social psychologists sociologists psychologists field includes many theories approaches understanding persuasion example communication theory points people persuaded communicator 's credibility expertise trustworthiness attractiveness elaboration likelihood model well heuristic models persuasion suggest number factors eg degree interest recipient communication influence degree people allow superficial factors persuade


nobel prize winning psychologist herbert simon nobel prize theory people cognitive misers society mass information people forced make decisions quickly often superficially opposed logically according william w biddle 's article psychological definition propaganda four principles followed propaganda rely emotions never argue cast propaganda pattern versus enemy reach groups well individuals hide propagandist much possible recently studies behavioral science become


significant understanding planning propaganda campaigns include example nudge theory used obama campaign adopted uk government behavioural insights team behavioural methodologies became subject great controversy company cambridge analytica revealed applied millions people 's breached facebook data encourage vote donald trump haifeng huang argues propaganda always necessarily convincing populace message may actually fail instead also function means intimidating


citizenry signalling regime 's strength ability maintain control power society investing significant resources propaganda regime forewarn citizens strength deterring attempting challenge propaganda theory education educators united states around world became concerned rise anti semitism forms violent extremism institute propaganda analysis formed introduce methods instruction high school college students helping learners recognize desist propaganda identifying persuasive techniques


work built upon classical rhetoric informed suggestion theory social scientific studies propaganda persuasion propaganda theory education examined rise american consumer culture work popularized vance packard book ''the hidden persuaders'' european theologian jacques ellul 's landmark work ''propaganda formation men 's attitudes'' framed propaganda relation larger themes relationship humans technology media messages serve enlighten inspire argued merely overwhelm arousing emotions oversimplifying ideas limiting human reasoning


judgement academics recognized news journalism could function propaganda business government interests amplified mass media propaganda model theory advanced edward herman noam chomsky argues systemic biases exist mass media shaped structural economic causes argues way commercial media institutions structured operate eg advertising revenue concentration media ownership access sources creates inherent conflict interest make act propaganda powerful political commercial interests ref first


presented book ''manufacturing consent political economy mass media'' propaganda model analyses commercial mass media businesses sell product nbsp access readers audiences nbsp businesses advertisers benefit access information government corporate sources produce content theory postulates five general classes filters shape content presented news media ownership medium reliance advertising revenue access news sources threat litigation commercial backlash flak anti communism fear ideology first three ownership funding


sourcing generally regarded authors important although model based mainly characterization united states media chomsky herman believe theory equally applicable country shares basic political economic structure model subsequently applied scholars study media bias countries ref name propaganda model today ref topic propaganda longer part public education relegated specialist subject secondary english educators grew fearful study propaganda genres choosing focus argumentation


reasoning instead highly emotional forms propaganda found advertising political campaigns european commission funded mind media digital learning platform teaching learning contemporary propaganda study contemporary propaganda growing secondary education seen part language arts social studies education self propaganda self propaganda form propaganda refers act individual convincing self something matter irrational idea may self propaganda makes easier individuals justify


actions well actions others self propaganda works oftentimes lessen cognitive dissonance felt individuals personal actions actions government line moral beliefs self propaganda type self deception ref name gambrill ref self propaganda negative impact perpetuate beliefs created using self propaganda ref name gambrill children new state depicting brazilian president get lio vargas flanked children text reads children learning home school cult fatherland bring chances success life


love builds strongly loving brazil lead greatest destinies among nations fulfilling desires exaltation nestled every brazilian heart potential targets propaganda children vulnerable least prepared critical reasoning contextual comprehension need determine whether message propaganda attention children give environment development due process developing understanding world causes absorb propaganda indiscriminately also children highly imitative studies albert bandura dorothea ross


sheila ross indicated degree socialization formal education standardized television programming seen using propaganda purpose indoctrination use propaganda schools highly prevalent germany form hitler youth anti semitic propaganda children nazi germany education system thoroughly co opted indoctrinate german youth anti semitic ideology nazi party targeted german youth one special audience propaganda messages schools texts mirrored


nazis aimed instilling german youth use promotion racial theory julius streicher editor ''der sturmer'' headed publishing house disseminated anti semitic propaganda picture books schools nazi dictatorship accomplished national socialist teachers league german teachers members ref name nizkor ref league encouraged teaching racial theory picture books children ''trust fox green heath jew oath'' ''der giftpilz'' translated english ''the poisonous mushroom'' ''the poodle pug dachshund pincher'' widely


circulated copies ''trust fox'' nbsp circulated late contained depictions jews devils child molesters morally charged figures slogans judas jew betrayed jesus german jews recited class nuremberg trial ''trust fox green heath jew oath'' ''der giftpilz'' received documents evidence document practices nazi 's following example propagandistic math problem recommended national socialist essence education jews aliens


germany inhabitants german reich jews see also agitprop big lie cartographic propaganda fake news incitement misinformation music political warfare overview st century propaganda political warfare propaganda country propaganda model public diplomacy psyops sharp power smear campaign spin propaganda references sources reading books altheide david l john johnson ''bureaucratic propaganda'' boston allyn bacon bernays edward ''propaganda'' new york h liveright see also version text website ''wwwhistoryisaweaponcom'' propaganda borgies lo c ''le conflit propagandiste entre octavien et marc antoine de


l'usage politique de la uituperatio entre et c n'' brussels latomus brown jac ''techniques persuasion propaganda brainwashing'' harmondsworth pelican chomsky noam herman edward ''manufacturing consent political economy mass media'' new york pantheon books chomsky noam ''media control spectacular achievements propaganda'' seven stories press cole robert ''propaganda twentieth century war politics annotated bibliography'' london scarecrow cole robert ed ''encyclopedia propaganda'' vols armonk ny sharpe combs james e nimmo dan ''the new propaganda dictatorship


palaver contemporary politics'' white plains ny longman cull nicholas john culbert welch eds '' propaganda mass persuasion historical encyclopedia present'' cunningham stanley b ''the idea propaganda reconstruction'' westport conn praeger cunningham stanley b reflections interface propaganda religion ''the future religion'' eds p rennick cunningham rh johnson newcastle upon tyne cambridge scholars pub pp nbsp delhagen jacob ''modern propaganda art influencing society individuals news media digital communication'' dimitri kitsikis ''propagande et pressions en


propaganda everyday use abuse persuasion'' new york wh freeman company rutherford paul ''endless propaganda advertising public goods'' toronto university toronto press rutherford paul ''weapons mass persuasion marketing war iraq'' toronto university toronto press shanahan james ed ''propaganda without propagandists six case studies us propaganda'' hampton press shaw jeffrey ''illusions freedom thomas merton jacques ellul technology human condition'' eugene wipf stock sproule j michael ''channels propaganda'' bloomington edinfo press stauber john


'''phonology''' branch linguistics studies languages dialects systematically organize sounds constituent parts signs sign languages term also refers sound sign system particular language variety one time study phonology related study systems phonemes spoken languages may relate linguistic analysis either level beneath word including syllable onset rime articulatory gestures articulatory features mora etc b levels language sound signs structured

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Phonology


convey linguistic meaning sign languages phonological system equivalent system sounds spoken languages building blocks signs specifications movement location handshape terminology word 'phonology' ''the phonology english'' also refer phonological system sound sign system given language one fundamental systems language considered comprise like syntax morphology vocabulary phonology often distinguished ''phonetics'' phonetics concerns physical production acoustic transmission perception sounds sign language ref


articulatory phonology laboratory phonology derivation definitions word ''phonology'' comes ancient greek ''ph n '' voice sound suffix '' logy'' greek ''l gos'' word speech subject discussion definitions term vary nikolai trubetzkoy ''grundz ge der phonologie'' defines phonology study sound pertaining system language opposed phonetics study sound pertaining act speech distinction ''language'' ' 'speech'' basically saussure 's distinction ''langue'' ''parole'' ref name gdp trubetzkoy n ''grundz ge der phonologie'' published translated c baltaxe


'' https booksgooglecom booksid ej endugs uc dq grundz c bcge der phonologie hl pl source gbs navlinks principles phonology '' university california press ref recently lass writes phonology refers broadly subdiscipline linguistics concerned sounds language narrow terms phonology proper concerned function behavior organization sounds linguistic items ref name lass according clark ''et al'' means systematic use sound encode meaning spoken human language field linguistics studying use ref name clarketal history early evidence systematic study sounds language appears th century bce


''ashtadhyayi'' sanskrit grammar composed p ini particular ''shiva sutras'' auxiliary text ''ashtadhyayi'' introduces may considered list phonemes sanskrit language notational system used throughout main text deals matters morphology syntax semantics ibn jinni mosul pioneer phonology wrote prolifically th century arabic morphology phonology arabic works ''kit b al mun kit b al mu tasab and'' study phonology exists today defined formative studies


th century polish scholar jan baudouin de courtenay together students miko aj kruszewski lev shcherba shaped modern usage term ''phoneme'' series lectures word ''phoneme'' coined years earlier french linguist dufriche desgenettes paper read may meeting soci de linguistique de paris dufriche desgenettes proposed ''phoneme'' serve one word equivalent german ''sprachlaut'' baudouin de courtenay 's subsequent work though often unacknowledged considered starting point modern phonology also


recognized de courtenay trubetzkoy also developed concept ''archiphoneme'' another important figure prague school roman jakobson one prominent linguists th century noam chomsky morris halle published ''the sound pattern english'' spe basis generative phonology view phonological representations sequences segments made distinctive features features expansion earlier work roman jakobson gunnar fant morris halle features describe aspects articulation perception universally fixed set


binary values least two levels representation underlying representation surface phonetic representation ordered phonological rules govern underlying representation transformed actual pronunciation called surface form important consequence influence spe phonological theory downplaying syllable emphasis segments furthermore generativists folded morphophonology phonology solved created problems natural phonology theory based publications proponent david stampe explicitly view phonology based


us geoffrey nathan principles natural phonology extended morphology wolfgang u dressler founded natural morphology john goldsmith introduced autosegmental phonology phonological phenomena longer seen operating ''one'' linear sequence segments called phonemes feature combinations rather involving ' 'some parallel sequences'' features reside multiple tiers autosegmental phonology later evolved feature geometry became standard theory representation theories organization phonology different lexical phonology optimality theory government phonology originated early


attempt unify theoretical notions syntactic phonological structures based notion languages necessarily follow small set principles vary according selection certain binary parameters languages' phonological structures essentially restricted variation accounts differences surface realizations principles held inviolable though parameters may sometimes come conflict prominent figures field include jonathan kaye jean lowenstamm jean roger vergnaud monik charette john harris course lsa summer institute alan


name halereiss ref name halereiss integrated approach phonological theory combines synchronic diachronic accounts sound patterns initiated evolutionary phonology recent years analysis phonemes important part traditional pre generative schools phonology studying sounds grouped distinctive units within language units known phonemes example english p sound ''pot'' aspirated pronounced ' 'spot'' aspirated pronounced however english speakers intuitively treat sounds variations allophones phonological category phoneme traditionally


would argued aspirated interchanged unaspirated ' 'spot'' native speakers english would still hear words two sounds perceived languages however two sounds perceived different consequently assigned different phonemes example thai bengali quechua minimal pairs words aspiration contrasting feature two words different meanings difference pronunciation one aspirated sound


unaspirated one vowels modern standard arabic israeli hebrew phonemic point view note intersection two circles distinction short ''a'' ''i'' ''u'' made speakers arabic lacks mid articulation short vowels hebrew lacks distinction vowel length vowels modern standard arabic israeli hebrew phonetic point view note two circles totally separate none vowel sounds made speakers one language made speakers part phonological


study language therefore involves looking data phonetic transcriptions speech native speakers trying deduce underlying phonemes sound inventory language presence absence minimal pairs mentioned frequently used criterion deciding whether two sounds assigned phoneme however considerations often need taken account well particular contrasts phonemic language change time one time two sounds place


manner articulation differ voicing allophones phoneme english later came belong separate phonemes one main factors historical change languages described historical linguistics findings insights speech perception articulation research complicate traditional somewhat intuitive idea interchangeable allophones perceived phoneme first interchanged allophones phoneme result unrecognizable words second actual speech even word level highly co articulated problematic expect able


splice words simple segments without affecting speech perception different linguists therefore take different approaches problem assigning sounds phonemes example differ extent require allophones phonetically similar also differing ideas whether grouping sounds purely tool linguistic analysis reflects actual process way human brain processes language since early theoretical linguists moved away traditional concept phoneme preferring consider basic units abstract level


component morphemes units called ''morphophonemes'' analysis using approach called morphophonology topics phonology addition minimal units serve purpose differentiating meaning phonemes phonology studies sounds alternate ie replace one another different forms morpheme allomorphs well example syllable structure stress feature geometry intonation phonology also includes topics phonotactics phonological constraints sounds appear positions given language phonological alternation pronunciation sound changes


application phonological rules sometimes given order feeding bleeding well prosody study suprasegmentals topics stress intonation principles phonological analysis applied independently modality designed serve general analytical tools language specific ones principles applied analysis sign languages see phonemes sign languages even though sub lexical units instantiated speech sounds see also accent sociolinguistics absolute neutralisation cherology english phonology list phonologists also phonologists morphophonology phoneme


phonological development phonological hierarchy prosody linguistics phonotactics second language phonology phonological rule neogrammarian notes ref ref name clarketal ref ref name lass ref ref name halereiss ref ref name halereiss ref bibliography anderson john ewen colin j ''principles dependency phonology'' cambridge cambridge university press bloomfield leonard ''language'' new york h holt company revised version bloomfield 's ''an introduction study language'' brentari diane ''a prosodic model sign language phonology'' cambridge mit press chomsky noam current issues linguistic theory j fodor j j katz eds ''the structure language readings


philosophy language'' pp nbsp englewood cliffs nj prentice hall chomsky noam halle morris ''the sound pattern english'' new york harper row clements george n samuel j keyser ''cv phonology generative theory syllable'' linguistic inquiry monographs cambridge mit press pbk hbk donegan patricia natural phonology vowels new york garland goldsmith john aims autosegmental phonology dinnsen ed ''current approaches phonological theory'' pp nbsp bloomington indiana university press goldsmith john ''autosegmental metrical phonology


new synthesis'' oxford basil blackwell gussenhoven carlos jacobs haike understanding phonology hodder arnold nd edition halle morris ''the sound pattern russian'' hague mouton harris zellig ''methods structural linguistics'' chicago chicago university press hockett charles f ''a manual phonology'' indiana university publications anthropology linguistics memoirs ii baltimore waverley press jakobson roman fant gunnar halle morris ''preliminaries speech analysis distinctive features correlates'' cambridge mit press kaisse ellen shaw patricia theory lexical phonology e colin


j anderson eds ''phonology yearbook '' pp nbsp kenstowicz michael ''phonology generative grammar'' oxford basil blackwell ladefoged peter ''a course phonetics'' nd ed london harcourt brace jovanovich napoli donna jo ''linguistics introduction'' new york oxford university press sandler wendy lillo martin diane ''sign language linguistic universals'' cambridge cambridge university press de saussure ferdinand ''cours de linguistique g n rale'' paris payot stampe david ''a dissertation natural phonology'' new york garland trubetzkoy nikolai ''grundz ge der phonologie'' travaux du cercle linguistique de prague twaddell william f defining


nasa true color image earth 's surface atmosphere '''physical geography''' also known '''physiography''' one two fields geography physical geography branch natural science deals processes patterns natural environment atmosphere hydrosphere biosphere geosphere opposed cultural built environment domain human geography sub branches natural arch physical geography divided several branches related fields follows '''geomorphology''' ref name dcl ref ref name unr ref concerned understanding surface earth processes

Social science
Geography
Physical geography


shaped present well past geomorphology field several sub fields deal specific landforms various environments eg desert geomorphology fluvial geomorphology however sub fields united core processes cause mainly tectonic climatic processes geomorphology seeks understand landform history dynamics predict future changes combination field observation physical experiment numerical modeling geomorphometry early studies geomorphology foundation pedology one two main branches soil science meander formation '''hydrology''' ref


fields physical geography sub fields examine specific bodies water interaction spheres eg limnology ecohydrology '''glaciology''' study glaciers ice sheets commonly cryosphere ice phenomena involve ice glaciology groups latter ice sheets continental glaciers former glaciers alpine glaciers although research areas similar research undertaken dynamics ice sheets glaciers former tends concerned interaction ice sheets present climate


latter impact glaciers landscape glaciology also vast array sub fields examining factors processes involved ice sheets glaciers eg snow hydrology glacial geology '''biogeography''' ref name dcl ref name unr science deals geographic patterns species distribution processes result patterns biogeography emerged field study result work alfred russel wallace although field prior late twentieth century largely viewed historic outlook descriptive approach main


stimulus field since founding evolution plate tectonics theory island biogeography field largely divided five sub fields island biogeography paleobiogeography phylogeography zoogeography phytogeography '''climatology''' ref name dcl ref name unr study climate scientifically defined weather conditions averaged long period time climatology examines nature micro local macro global climates natural anthropogenic influences field also sub divided largely climates various regions study specific phenomena time periods


eg tropical cyclone rainfall climatology paleoclimatology '''soil geography''' deals distribution soils across terrain discipline fundamental physical geography pedology pedology study soils natural environment deals pedogenesis soil morphology soil classification soil geography studies spatial distribution soils relates topography climate water air temperature soil life micro organisms plants animals mineral materials within soils biogeochemical cycles '''palaeogeography''' ref name dcl cross disciplinary study examines preserved material stratigraphic record determine distribution continents


geologic time almost evidence positions continents comes geology form fossils paleomagnetism use data resulted evidence continental drift plate tectonics supercontinents turn supported palaeogeographic theories wilson cycle '''coastal geography''' study dynamic interface ocean land incorporating physical geography ie coastal geomorphology geology oceanography human geography coast involves understanding coastal weathering processes particularly wave action sediment movement


ocean across boundaries chemical oceanography diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines oceanographers blend knowledge world ocean understanding processes within '''quaternary science''' ref name unr interdisciplinary field study focusing quaternary period encompasses last million years field studies last ice age recent interstadial holocene uses proxy evidence reconstruct past environments period infer climatic environmental changes occurred '''landscape ecology''' sub discipline ecology geography address spatial variation


landscape affects ecological processes distribution flow energy materials individuals environment turn may influence distribution landscape elements hedgerows field largely funded german geographer carl troll landscape ecology typically deals problems applied holistic context main difference biogeography landscape ecology latter concerned flows energy material changed impacts landscape whereas former concerned spatial patterns species chemical cycles '''geomatics'''


interactions humans natural world branch bridges divide human physical geography thus requires understanding dynamics geology meteorology hydrology biogeography geomorphology well ways human societies conceptualize environment although branch previously visible research present theories environmental determinism linking society environment largely become domain study environmental management anthropogenic influences journals literature physical geography earth science journals communicate document results research carried


universities various research institutions journals cover specific field publish research within field however unlike human geographers physical geographers tend publish inter disciplinary journals rather predominantly geography journal research normally expressed form scientific paper additionally textbooks books magazines geography communicate research laypeople although tend focus environmental issues cultural dilemmas examples journals publish articles physical geographers historical evolution discipline birth geography science greek classical period


late nineteenth century birth anthropogeography human geography geography almost exclusively natural science study location descriptive gazetteer places known world several works among best known long period could cited example strabo ''geography'' eratosthenes ''geographika'' dionisio periegetes ''periegesis oiceumene'' ancient age modern times works include alexander von humboldt ''kosmos'' nineteenth century geography regarded physical natural science work ''summa de geograf a'' mart n fern ndez de


enciso early sixteenth century indicated first time new world eighteenth nineteenth centuries controversy exported geology supporters james hutton uniformitarianism thesis georges cuvier catastrophism strongly influenced field geography geography time natural science two historical events nineteenth century great effect development physical geography first european colonial expansion asia africa australia even america search raw materials required industries industrial revolution fostered creation


geography departments universities colonial powers birth development national geographical societies thus giving rise process identified horacio capel institutionalization geography exploration siberia example mid eighteenth century many geographers sent perform geographical surveys area arctic siberia among considered patriarch russian geography mikhail lomonosov mid lomonosov began working department geography academy sciences conduct research siberia showed organic origin


soil developed comprehensive law movement ice thereby founding new branch geography glaciology initiative founded moscow university promoted study geography training geographers appointed director department geography academy sciences post would develop working methodology geographical survey guided important long expeditions geographical studies russia contributions russian school became frequent disciples nineteenth century


great geographers vasily dokuchaev performed works great importance principle comprehensive analysis territory russian chernozem latter introduced geographical concept soil distinct simple geological stratum thus found new geographic area study pedology climatology also received strong boost russian school wladimir k ppen whose main contribution climate classification still valid today however great geographer also contributed paleogeography work climates geological past considered father


discipline country revolutionized field develop cycle erosion theory proposed paradigm geography general although actually served paradigm physical geography theory explained mountains landforms shaped factors manifested cyclically explained cycle begins lifting relief geological processes faults volcanism tectonic upheaval etc factors rivers runoff begin create v shaped valleys mountains stage called youth first stage terrain steeper


irregular time currents carve wider valleys maturity start wind towering hills senescence finally everything comes plain flat plain lowest elevation possible called baseline plain called davis' peneplain meaning almost plain river rejuvenation occurs another mountain lift cycle continues although davis 's theory entirely accurate absolutely revolutionary unique time helped modernize create geography subfield geomorphology implications prompted myriad research


various branches physical geography case paleogeography theory provided model understanding evolution landscape hydrology glaciology climatology boost investigated studying geographic factors shape landscape affect cycle bulk work william morris davis led development new branch physical geography geomorphology whose contents differ rest geography shortly branch would present major development disciples made significant contributions various


branches physical geography curtis marbut invaluable legacy pedology mark jefferson isaiah bowman among others notable physical geographers alexander von humboldt considered founding father physical geography eratosthenes nbsp bc invented discipline geography made first known reliable estimation earth 's size ref name eratosthenes considered father mathematical geography geodesy ref name eratosthenes avraham ariel nora ariel berger '' https booksgooglecom booksid xtjt b shuc pg pa dq hl en v onepage q f false plotting globe stories meridians parallels international '' greenwood publishing group p ref ptolemy c c compiled greek roman knowledge


produce book ''geographia'' ab rayh n b r n ad considered father geodesy ref name ahmed akbar ahmed al beruni first anthropologist ''rain'' ''' ''' pp nbsp ref ibn sina avicenna formulated law superposition concept uniformitarianism ''kit b al '' also called ''the book healing '' muhammad al idrisi dreses drew ''tabula rogeriana'' accurate world map pre modern times ref name scott p scott ''history moorish empire'' pp nbsp ref piri reis c whose piri reis map oldest surviving world map include americas possibly antarctica gerardus mercator


innovative cartographer originator mercator projection bernhardus varenius wrote important work general geography first overview geography foundation modern geography mikhail lomonosov father russian geography founded study glaciology alexander von humboldt considered father modern geography published ''cosmos'' founded study biogeography arnold henry guyot noted structure glaciers advanced understanding glacial motion especially fast ice flow louis agassiz author glacial theory disputed notion steady cooling earth


alfred russel wallace founder modern biogeography wallace line vasily dokuchaev patriarch russian geography founder pedology wladimir peter k ppen developer important climate classification founder paleoclimatology william morris davis father american geography founder geomorphology developer geographical cycle theory john francon williams frgs wrote seminal work ''geography oceans'' published walther penck proponent cycle erosion simultaneous occurrence uplift denudation sir ernest shackleton antarctic explorer heroic age antarctic


exploration robert e horton founder modern hydrology concepts infiltration capacity overland flow j harlen bretz pioneer research shaping landscapes catastrophic floods notably bretz missoula floods luis garc inz pioneer physical geography spain willi dansgaard palaeoclimatologist quaternary scientist instrumental use oxygen isotope dating co identifier dansgaard oeschger events hans oeschger palaeoclimatologist pioneer ice core research co identifier dansgaard orschger events richard chorley key contributor quantitative revolution use systems theory geography


sir nicholas shackleton demonstrated oscillations climate past million years could correlated variations orbital positional relationship earth sun see also atmosphere earth earth system science ecology environmental science environmental studies human geography geostatistics oceanography weathering physiographic regions world references reading pidwirny michael ''glossary terms physical geography'' planet earth publishing kelowna canada available https playgooglecom store books details michael pidwirny glossary terms physical geid jqoibaaaqbaj google play pidwirny michael ''understanding physical geography'' planet earth publishing kelowna canada available https playgooglecom store searchq pidwirny google play reynolds stephen


j et al ''exploring physical geography'' visual textbook featuring photographies illustrations mcgraw hill education new york external links http wwwantiquebooksnet readpagehtml physiography physiography tx huxley full text physical geography thames river basin http wwwphysicalgeographynet fundamentals contentshtml fundamentals physical geography nd edition pidwirny full text http wwwgeography sitecouk pages physicalhtml physical geography students teachers uk national grid learning branches geography earth sciences


see really two areas image marked b rectangle connecting shade eyes automatically correct shadow cylinder '''philosophy perception''' concerned nature perceptual experience status perceptual data particular relate beliefs knowledge world ref name bonjour cf http platostanfordedu entries perception episprob bonjour laurence epistemological problems perception ''stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' accessed ref explicit account perception requires commitment one variety ontological

Humanities
Philosophy
Metaphysics
Philosophy of perception


metaphysical views philosophers distinguish internalist accounts assume perceptions objects knowledge beliefs aspects individual 's mind externalist accounts state constitute real aspects world external individual ref name bonjour position na realism 'everyday' impression physical objects constituting perceived extent contradicted occurrence perceptual illusions hallucinations relativity perceptual experience ref name bonjour well certain insights science realist conceptions include phenomenalism direct indirect realism anti realist conceptions include idealism skepticism ref


name bonjour recent philosophical work expanded philosophical features perception going beyond single paradigm vision instance investigating uniqueness olfaction categories perception may categorize perception ''internal'' ''external'' internal perception proprioception tells us going bodies limbs whether sitting standing whether depressed hungry tired forth external sensory perception exteroception tells us world outside bodies using senses sight hearing touch smell taste perceive colors sounds textures etc


world large growing body knowledge mechanics sensory processes cognitive psychology mixed internal external perception eg emotion certain moods tells us going bodies perceived cause bodily perceptions philosophy perception mainly concerned exteroception scientific accounts perception object distance observer reflect light directions fall upon corneae eyes focussed upon retina forming image


disparity electrical output two slightly different images resolved either level lateral geniculate nucleus part visual cortex called 'v ' resolved data processed visual cortex areas specialised functions instance area v involved modelling motion v adding colour resulting single image subjects report experience called 'percept' studies involving rapidly changing scenes show percept derives numerous processes involve time delays recent fmri studies show


dreams imaginings perceptions things faces accompanied activity many areas brain involved physical sight imagery originates senses internally generated imagery may shared ontology higher levels cortical processing sound analyzed term pressure waves sensed cochlea ear data eyes ears combined form 'bound' percept problem produced known binding problem perception analyzed cognitive process information processing


used transfer information mind related information psychologists propose processing gives rise particular mental states cognitivism whilst others envisage direct path back external world form action radical behaviourism behaviourists john b watson bf skinner proposed perception acts largely process stimulus response noted gilbert ryle 's ghost machine brain still seems exist objection inner states exist


relevant functional analysis view experience thought incidental product information processing known epiphenomenalism contrary behaviouralist approach understanding elements cognitive processes gestalt psychology sought understand organization whole studying perception process figure ground philosophical accounts perception important philosophical problems derive epistemology perception gain knowledge via perception question nature qualia within biological study perception naive realism unusable however outside biology modified forms


naive realism defended thomas reid eighteenth century founder scottish school common sense formulated idea sensation composed set data transfers also declared still direct connection perception world idea called direct realism become popular recent years rise postmodernism succession data transfers involved perception suggests sense data somehow available perceiving subject substrate percept indirect realism view held john locke nicolas malebranche proposes


aware mental representations objects however may imply infinite regress perceiver within perceiver within perceiver though finite regress perfectly possible also assumes perception entirely due data transfer information processing argument avoided proposing percept depend wholly upon transfer rearrangement data still involves basic ontological issues sort raised leibniz locke hume whitehead others remain outstanding particularly relation binding problem question


different perceptions eg color contour vision bound object processed separate areas brain indirect realism representational views provides account issues perceptual contents qualia dreams imaginings hallucinations illusions resolution binocular rivalry resolution multistable perception modelling motion allows us watch tv sensations result direct brain stimulation update mental image saccades eyes referral events backwards time direct realists must either argue experiences occur


many types projective geometry complex minkowski space might describe layout things perception see peters also emerged parts brain contain patterns electrical activity correspond closely layout retinal image known retinotopy whether become conscious experience still unknown see mcginn beyond spatial representation traditionally philosophical investigation perception focused sense vision paradigm sensory perception however studies sensory modalities sense smell


challenge consider characteristic essential features perception take olfaction example spatial representation relies mapping paradigm maps spatial structures stimuli onto discrete neural structures representations however olfactory science shown us perception also matter associative learning observational refinement decision making process context dependent one consequences discoveries philosophy perception common perceptual effects conceptual imagery turn neural architecture development topology stimulus see also


anil gupta argument illusion arthur schopenhauer yatana binding problem consciousness direct realism epistemology george berkeley hallucinations sane immanuel kant idealism indirect realism john mcdowell fiona macpherson map territory relation maurice merleau ponty mind 's eye multistable perception perceptual conceptualism philosophical realism roderick chisholm sensorium solipsism subjective character experience susanna schellenberg susanna siegel theories perception thomas reid transcendental idealism visual perception visual space references sources reading chalmers dj facing hard problem consciousness ''journal consciousness studies'' wikibooks consciousness studies bonjour laurence epistemological problems perception ''the stanford encyclopedia


philosophy'' edward zalta ed http platostanfordedu entries perception episprob online text burge tyler vision intentional content e lepore r van gulick eds ''john searle critics'' oxford blackwell crane tim problem perception ''the stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' edward zalta ed http platostanfordedu entries perception problem online text descartes rene ''meditations first philosophy'' https webarchiveorg web http oregonstateedu instruct phl texts descartes meditations meditation html online text dretske fred ''knowledge flow information'' oxford blackwell evans gareth ''the varieties reference'' oxford clarendon press flynn bernard maurice merleau ponty ''the stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' edward zalta ed http platostanfordedu entries merleau ponty online text hume david ''a treatise


press peacocke christopher ''sense content'' oxford oxford university press peters g theories three dimensional object perception survey recent research developments pattern recognition transworld research network http citeseeristpsuedu peters theorieshtml online text putnam hilary ''the threefold cord'' new york columbia university press read czerne unpublished dreaming color http wwwcollegeemoryedu hybridvigor issue colorphyshtm online text russell bertrand ''the problems philosophy'' london williams norgate new york henry holt company http wwwditextcom russell russellhtml online text shoemaker sydney qualities qualia 's mind ''philosophy phenomenological research'' supplement pp nbsp siegel susanna contents perception ''the


abstractions non deterministic uncertain processes measured quantities may either single occurrences evolve time random fashion although possible perfectly predict random events much said behavior two major results probability theory describing behaviour law large numbers central limit theorem mathematical foundation statistics probability theory essential many human activities involve quantitative analysis data methods probability theory also apply descriptions complex systems given partial knowledge state

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Probability theory


events methods mainly combinatorial eventually analytical considerations compelled incorporation variables theory culminated modern probability theory foundations laid andrey nikolaevich kolmogorov kolmogorov combined notion sample space introduced richard von mises measure theory presented axiom system probability theory became mostly undisputed axiomatic basis modern probability theory alternatives exist adoption finite rather countable additivity bruno de finetti treatment introductions probability theory treat discrete probability distributions continuous probability distributions separately


measure theory based treatment probability covers discrete continuous mix two motivation consider experiment produce number outcomes set outcomes called ' 'sample space'' experiment ''power set'' sample space equivalently event space formed considering different collections possible results example rolling honest die produces one six possible results one collection possible results corresponds getting odd number thus subset element power set sample


space die rolls collections called ''events'' case event die falls odd number results actually occur fall given event event said occurred probability way assigning every event value zero one requirement event made possible results example event assigned value one qualify probability distribution assignment values must satisfy requirement look


collection mutually exclusive events events contain common results eg events mutually exclusive probability events occurs given sum probabilities events probability one events occur saying probability event event encompasses possibility number except five rolled mutually exclusive event probability event probability


absolute certainty calculations using outcomes experiment necessary elementary events number assigned done using random variable random variable function assigns elementary event sample space real number function usually denoted capital letter case die assignment number certain elementary events done using identity function always work example flipping coin two


possible outcomes heads tails example random variable ''x'' could assign outcome heads number math x heads math outcome tails number math x tails math discrete probability distributions poisson distribution discrete probability distribution deals events occur countable sample spaces examples throwing dice experiments decks cards random walk tossing coins initially probability event occur defined number cases favorable event number total outcomes possible equiprobable sample space see classical definition


omega math math sum x omega f x math probability function ''f'' ''x'' lies zero one every value ''x'' sample space '' '' sum ''f'' ''x'' values ''x'' sample space '' '' equal defined subset math e math sample space math omega math event math e math defined math p e sum x e f x math probability entire sample space probability null event function math f x math mapping point sample space


probability value called abbreviated modern definition try answer probability mass functions obtained instead builds theory assumes existence continuous probability distributions normal distribution continuous probability distribution deals events occur continuous sample space classical definition breaks confronted continuous case see bertrand 's paradox sample space random variable ''x'' set real numbers math mathbb r math subset thereof function called math f math exists


defined math f x p x le x math ''f'' ''x'' returns probability ''x'' less equal ''x'' cdf necessarily satisfies following properties math f math monotonically non decreasing right continuous function math lim x rightarrow infty f x math math lim x rightarrow infty f x math math f math absolutely continuous ie derivative exists integrating derivative gives us cdf back random variable ''x'' said simply math f x frac df x dx math set math e subseteq mathbb r math probability random variable ''x'' math e math math p x


e int x e df x math case probability density function exists written math p x e int x e f x dx math whereas ''pdf'' exists continuous random variables ''cdf'' exists random variables including discrete random variables take values math mathbb r math concepts generalized multidimensional cases math mathbb r n math continuous sample spaces measure theoretic probability theory ''raison d' tre'' measure theoretic treatment probability unifies discrete continuous cases makes difference question measure used furthermore covers distributions


neither discrete continuous mixtures two example distributions could mix discrete continuous distributions example random variable probability takes random value normal distribution probability still studied extent considering pdf math delta x varphi x math math delta x math dirac delta function distributions may even mix example cantor distribution positive probability single point neither density


modern approach probability theory solves problems using measure theory define probability space given set math omega math also called algebra math mathcal f math measure math p math defined math mathcal f math called math p omega math math mathcal f math borel algebra set real numbers unique probability measure math mathcal f math cdf vice versa measure corresponding cdf said cdf measure coincides pmf discrete variables pdf continuous variables making measure theoretic


approach free fallacies ''probability'' set math e math algebra math mathcal f math defined math p e int omega e mu f omega math integration respect measure math mu f math induced math f math along providing better understanding unification discrete continuous probabilities measure theoretic treatment also allows us work probabilities outside math mathbb r n math theory stochastic processes example study brownian motion probability defined space functions 's convenient work dominating measure radon nikodym theorem used define density radon nikodym


derivative probability distribution interest respect dominating measure discrete densities usually defined derivative respect counting measure set possible outcomes densities absolutely continuous distributions usually defined derivative respect lebesgue measure theorem proved general setting holds discrete continuous distributions well others separate proofs required discrete continuous distributions classical probability distributions certain random variables occur often probability theory


well describe many natural physical processes distributions therefore gained ' 'special importance'' probability theory fundamental ' 'discrete distributions'' discrete uniform bernoulli binomial negative binomial poisson geometric distributions important ''continuous distributions'' include continuous uniform normal exponential gamma beta distributions convergence random variables probability theory several notions convergence random variables listed order strength ie subsequent notion convergence list implies convergence according preceding notions weak convergence sequence random variables math x x dots math converges