offshore outfall drilling platform sub sea pipeline sub sea cable types facilities geohazards adverse geological conditions typical geologic hazards adverse conditions evaluated mitigated engineering geologist include fault rupture seismically active faults seismic earthquake hazards ground shaking liquefaction lurching lateral spreading tsunami seiche events landslide mudflow rockfall debris flow avalanche hazards unstable slopes slope stability erosion slaking heave geologic formations frost heaving ground subsidence due ground water withdrawal sinkhole collapse cave collapse decomposition organic soils tectonic movement volcanic


hazards volcanic eruptions hot springs pyroclastic flows debris flow debris avalanche volcanic gas emissions volcanic earthquakes non rippable marginally rippable rock requiring heavy ripping blasting weak collapsible soils foundation bearing failures shallow ground water seepage types geologic constraints engineering geologist geophysicist may called upon evaluate excavatability ie rippability earth rock materials assess need pre blasting earthwork construction well associated impacts due vibration blasting projects soil rock mechanics soil mechanics discipline applies principles engineering mechanics eg kinematics dynamics

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Geotechnical engineering
Engineering geology


fluid mechanics mechanics material predict mechanical behaviour soils rock mechanics theoretical applied science mechanical behaviour rock rock masses branch mechanics concerned response rock rock masses force fields physical environment fundamental processes related behaviour porous media together soil rock mechanics basis solving many engineering geology problems methods reporting methods used engineering geologists studies include geologic field mapping geologic structures geologic


tests performed findings recommendations development detailed design engineering works engineering geologists also provide geologic data topographic maps aerial photographs geologic maps geographic information system gis maps map bases see also earthquake engineering geoprofessions geotechnics geotechnical engineering geotechnical investigation hydrogeology important publications engineering geology mining engineering petroleum engineering references reading engineering geology brock education geologist economic geology v pp nbsp bates jackson glossary geology american geological institute gonz lez de vallejo l ferrer geological engineering crc press


principles practice'' springer prof venkat reddy nit karnataka '''engineering geology''' vikas publishers bulletin engineering geology environment geological modelling wang h f theory linear poroelasticity applications geomechanics hydrogeology princeton press waltham foundations engineering geology nd edition taylor francis geotechnical engineering


arbitrarily interfering price signals provides additional bar achieving economic efficiency potentially leading shortages declines quality goods market requiring large government bureaucracies enforcement happened united states early ref name pbs price good lowered artificially creates less supply demand product thereby creating shortages ref name argmax ref economists argue incomes policies less expensive efficient recessions way fighting inflation least mild inflation others argue controls

Applied science
Public administration
Economic policy
Incomes policy


mild recessions complementary solutions relatively mild inflation policy best chance credible effective sectors economy dominated monopolies oligopolies particularly nationalised industry significant sector workers organized labor unions institutions enable collective negotiation monitoring wage price agreements economists argue inflation essentially monetary phenomenon way deal controlling money supply directly changing interest rates argue price inflation symptom previous


monetary inflation caused central bank money creation believe without totally planned economy incomes policy never work excess money economy greatly distorting areas exempt policy examples france french revolution law maximum imposed attempt decrease inflation consisted limits wages food prices ref name gmu many dissidents executed breaking law ref name fiat money ref law repealed months introduction ref name fiat money turning crimes price gouging food hoarding


crimes government france limited success respect overt intention ensuring people able purchase food reasonable rate maximum mostly failure merchants found forced position sell goods price cost eg cost baking bread growing vegetables chose hide expensive goods market either personal use sale black market however general maximum successful deflecting volatile political issue away


economic crisis general maximum robespierre offered people answer regarding blame poverty hunger furthermore considering association law suspects citizen informed government merchant violation law considered done civic duty united states world war ii price controls used attempt control wartime inflation franklin roosevelt administration instituted opa office price administration agency rather unpopular business interests phased


quickly possible peace restored however korean war brought return inflationary pressures price controls established time ops office price stabilization early inflation much higher previous decades getting briefly persisting us president richard nixon imposed price controls august ref name pbs move widely applauded public ref name pbs number keynesian economists ref name ' ref day nixon also suspended convertibility


dollar gold beginning end bretton woods system international currency management established world war ii ref name pbs day freeze unprecedented peacetime drastic measures thought necessary quite well known time would likely lead immediate inflationary impulse essentially subsequent depreciation dollar would boost demand exports increase cost imports controls aimed stop impulse fact election horizon likely contributed nixon 's


application controls ending convertibility dollar ref name pbs day freeze became nearly days measures known phases one two three four ending phases controls applied almost entirely biggest corporations labor unions seen price setting power ref name ' however requested price increases granted seen necessary meet costs ref name ' monopoly power economists saw controls possibly working effectively though usually skeptical issue controls


controls sort calm inflationary expectations seen serious blow stagflation first wave controls successful curbing inflation temporarily administration used expansionary fiscal monetary policies ref name nytimescom ref ref name richard nixon friedman leon levantrosser william f https booksgooglecom booksid mfcqc xa c pg pa ''richard nixon'' greenwood publishing group p ref however long term effects proved destabilizing left unsuppressed initial price controls relaxed overly expansionary policies proceeded exacerbate inflationary pressures ref name nytimescom ref name richard nixon meat also began disappearing grocery store shelves americans protested wage controls


n't allow wages keep inflation ref name pbs since time us government imposed maximum prices consumer items labor although cap oil natural gas prices persisted years ref name pbs times high inflation controls called unprecedented inflation ''businessweek'' editorialized favor semi permanent wage price controls ref name ' ref canada demonstration wage controls world war ii parliament hill ottawa ontario federal election progressive conservative party leader robert stanfield proposed imposition wage


price freeze canadian economy response rising inflation due oil crisis liberal government pierre trudeau originally opposed idea winning election introduced anti inflation act act contained wage price controls parts economy remained force anti inflation board dissolved anti inflation act repealed united kingdom national board prices incomes created government harold wilson attempt solve problem inflation


british economy managing wages prices callaghan government sought reduce conflict wages prices social contract unions would accept smaller wage increases business would constrain price increases imitating nixon 's policy america ref name ' ref price controls ended election margaret thatcher australia australia implemented incomes policy called prices incomes accord accord agreement trade unions hawke labor government employers party accord unions agreed restrict wage demands


government pledged action minimise inflation price rises government also act social wage broadest concept included increased spending education well welfare inflation declined period accord renegotiated several times however many key elements accord weakened time unions sought shift centralised wage fixation enterprise bargaining accord ceased play major role recession abandoned labor government defeated italy italy imitated


united states' price wage controls soon gave policy focus controlling price oil ref name ' netherlands belgium polder model netherlands characterized tri partite cooperation employers' organizations vno ncw labour unions fnv government talks embodied social economic council dutch sociaal economische raad ser ser serves central forum discuss labour issues long tradition consensus often defusing labour conflicts avoiding strikes similar models use finland namely


comprehensive income policy agreement universal validity collective labour agreements current polder model said begun wassenaar accords unions employers government decided comprehensive plan revitalize economy involving shorter working times less pay one hand employment polder model widely universally regarded successful incomes management policy model also used belgium hence name polders region comprising netherlands northern part belgium new zealand


prime minister finance minister rob muldoon imposed simultaneous freeze wages prices interest rates effort curb inflation despite public resistance measures subsequently repealed muldoon 's successor david lange finance minister roger douglas zimbabwe robert mugabe 's government imposed price freeze zimbabwe hyperinflation policy led shortages references external links http demonstrationswolframcom pricecontrols price controls fiona maclachlan wolfram demonstrations project https wwwpbsorg newshour bb infrastructure power ca powerhtml pbs special report california electricity price controls http nixonswageandpricefreezewordpresscom nixon wage price freeze nixon 's wage price freeze forty years freeze william n


illustration exposure risk assessment management related anticipation recognition evaluation control confirm '''occupational hygiene''' united states '''industrial hygiene''' ih anticipation recognition evaluation control confirmation protection hazards work may result injury illness affect well workers hazards stressors typically divided categories biological chemical physical ergonomic psychosocial risk health effect given stressor function hazard multiplied exposure individual group chemicals hazard understood

Applied science
Medicine and health
Occupational hygiene


traditionally stems industries construction mining manufacturing occupational hygiene refers types industry listed industrial hygiene well financial support services industries refers work workplace place work general ''environmental hygiene'' addresses similar issues ''occupational hygiene'' likely broad industry broad issues affecting local community broader society region country profession '''occupational hygiene''' uses strict rigorous scientific methodology often requires professional judgment based experience education determining potential hazardous


exposure risks workplace environmental studies aspects occupational hygiene often referred art occupational hygiene used similar sense art medicine fact occupational hygiene aspect preventive medicine particular occupational medicine goal prevent industrial disease using science risk management exposure assessment industrial safety ultimately professionals seek implement safe systems procedures methods applied workplace environment prevention exposure long working hours


identified focus occupational hygiene landmark united nations study estimated occupational hazard causes estimated occupational fatalities per year worldwide largest burden disease attributed single occupational hazard industrial hygiene industrial hygiene refers science anticipating recognizing evaluating controlling workplaces prevent illness injuries workers geigle safety group inc industrial hygienists use various environmental monitoring analytical methods establish workers exposed turn employ techniques engineering work practice controls control potential


also involves confining work operations enclosing work processes installing general local ventilation systems controls change task performed basic work practice controls include following laid procedures reduce exposures workplace inspecting maintaining processes regularly implementing reasonable workplace procedures part two industrial hygiene united states started taking shape early th century many workers risked lives daily work industrial settings manufacturing mills constructions mines currently statistics work safety usually measured


number injuries deaths yearly th century kinds statistics hard come appeared one cared enough make tracking job injuries deaths priority industrial hygiene profession gained respectability back bernardo ramazzini published comprehensive book industrial medicine book written italian known de morbis artificum diatriba meaning diseases workmen geigle safety group inc book detailed accurate description occupational diseases time workers suffered ramazzini


critical industrial hygiene profession 's future asserted occupational diseases studied workplace environment hospital wards industrial hygiene received another boost early th century dr alice hamilton led effort improve industrial hygiene began observing industrial conditions first startled mine owners factory managers state officials evidence correlation workers` illnesses exposure chemical toxins presented definitive proposals eliminating unhealthful working conditions result us federal government also began investigating health


conditions industry states passed first workers` compensation laws social role occupational hygiene occupational hygienists involved historically changing perception society nature extent hazards preventing exposures workplace communities many occupational hygienists work day day industrial situations require control improvement workplace situation however larger social issues affecting whole industries occurred past eg since asbestos exposures affected lives tens thousands people occupational hygienists become engaged


understanding managing exposure risks consumers products regulations reach registration evaluation authorisation restriction chemicals enacted recent issues affecting broader society example legionnaires' disease legionellosis recently radon effects mold indoor air quality situations home work later part concern raised health effects nanoparticles many issues required coordination number years number


medical paraprofessionals detecting characterizing nature issue terms hazard terms risk workplace ultimately society involved occupational hygienists research collection data develop suitable satisfactory control methodologies general activities occupational hygienist may involved assessment control physical chemical biological environmental hazards workplace community could cause injury disease physical hazards may include noise temperature extremes illumination extremes ionizing non ionizing radiation ergonomics


chemical hazards related dangerous goods hazardous substances frequently investigated occupational hygienists related areas including indoor air quality iaq safety may also receive attention occupational hygienist biological hazards may stem potential legionella exposure work investigation biological injury effects work dermatitis may investigated part investigation process occupational hygienist may called upon communicate effectively regarding nature hazard potential risk appropriate methods control appropriate controls


selected hierarchy control elimination substitution engineering administration personal protective equipment ppe control hazard eliminate risk controls may involve recommendations simple appropriate ppe 'basic' particulate dust mask occasionally designing dust extraction ventilation systems work places management systems manage people programs preservation health well enter workplace examples occupational hygiene include disposable foam earplugs ear coins scale top inserted wearer 's ear bottom analysis physical hazards


noise may require use hearing protection earplugs earmuffs prevent hearing loss developing plans procedures protect infectious disease exposure event flu pandemic monitoring air hazardous contaminants may potentially lead worker illness death workplace assessment methods although many aspects occupational hygiene work known sought determining estimating potential actual exposures hazards many chemicals physical hazards occupational exposure limits derived using toxicological epidemiological medical data allowing hygienists


reduce risks health effects implementing hierarchy hazard controls several methods applied assessing workplace environment exposure known suspected hazard occupational hygienists rely accuracy equipment method used knowing certainty precision limits equipment method used error variance given using particular equipment method well known methods performing occupational exposure assessments found strategy assessing managing occupational exposures third edition


edited joselito ignacio william h bullock main steps outlined assessing managing occupational exposures basic characterization identify agents hazards people potentially exposed existing exposure controls exposure assessment select occupational exposure limits hazard bands relevant toxicological data determine exposures acceptable unacceptable uncertain exposure controls unacceptable uncertain exposures information gathering uncertain exposures hazard communication exposures reassessment needed management change hierarchy occupational exposure limits oels basic characterization hazard identification walk surveys first step understanding health risks related exposures requires


collection basic characterization information available sources traditional method applied occupational hygienists initially survey workplace environment used determine types possible exposures hazards eg noise chemicals radiation '''walk survey''' targeted limited particular hazards silica dust noise focus attention control hazards workers full walk survey frequently used provide information establishing framework future investigations prioritizing hazards determining requirements measurement establishing immediate control


hazard history analysis past incidents official reports work hazards encountered personnel interviews may critical identifying undocumented practices events releases hazards relevant information information gathered collection sources recommended digitally archived allow quick searching physical set information order accessible one innovative way display complex historical hazard information historical hazards identification map distills


instrument collecting occupational exposure data resource time intensive used different purposes including evaluating compliance government regulations planning preventive interventions usability occupational exposure data influenced factors ref name babik ref data storage eg use electronic centralized databases retention records standardization data collection collaboration researchers safety health professionals insurers effort standardize industrial hygiene data collection among workers compensation insurers determine feasibility pooling collected ih data ih air noise survey forms


collected data fields evaluated importance study list core fields developed submitted expert panel review finalization final core study list compared recommendations published american conference governmental industrial hygienists acgih american industrial hygiene association aiha data fields essential standardizing ih data collection identified verified essential data fields available could contribute improved data quality management incorporated ih data management systems ref name babik canada several european countries working


establish occupational exposure databases standardized data elements improved data quality databases include mega colchic cwed dust sampling nuisance dust considered total dust air including inhalable respirable fractions various dust sampling methods exist internationally recognised '''inhalable''' dust determined using modern equivalent institute occupational medicine iom mre monitor see section workplace exposure measurement modelling inhalable dust considered dust less micrometers aerodynamic equivalent diameter aed enters nose mouth see


samples amount inhalable respirable dust determined compared relevant occupational exposure limits use inhalable respirable suitable sampler hole hole et cetera dust sampling methods also used determine metal exposure air requires collection sample methyl cellulose ester mce filter acid digestion collection media laboratory followed measuring metal concentration though atomic absorption emission spectrophotometry uk health safety laboratory niosh manual analytical methods


specific methodologies broad range metals air found industrial processing smelting foundries et cetera method exists determination asbestos fibreglass synthetic mineral fibre ceramic mineral fibre dust air membrane filter method mfm requires collection dust grided filter estimation exposure counting 'conforming' fibres fields microscope results quantified basis number fibres per millilitre air f ml many countries strictly regulate methodology applied mfm


chemical sampling two types chemically absorbent tubes used sample wide range chemical substances traditionally chemical absorbent 'tube' glass stainless steel tube nbsp mm internal diameter filled fine absorbent silica hydrophilic carbon coconut charcoal lypophylic used sampling line air drawn absorbent material four hours minimum workplace sample hours environmental sample period hydrophilic material readily absorbs water soluble chemical lypophylic material absorbs non water soluble materials absorbent material


chemically physically extracted measurements performed using various gas chromatograph mass spectrometry methods absorbent tube methods advantage usable wide range potential contaminates however relatively expensive methods time consuming require significant expertise sampling chemical analysis frequent complaint workers wear sampling pump nbsp kg several days work provide adequate data required statistical certainty determination exposure last decades advances made 'passive' badge


technology samplers purchased measure one chemical eg formaldehyde chemical type eg ketones broad spectrum chemicals eg solvents relatively easy set use however considerable cost still incurred analysis 'badge' weigh nbsp grams workers complain presence unfortunately 'badges' may exist types workplace sampling may required charcoal silica method may sometimes applied sampling method results expressed


milligrams per cubic meter mg sup sup parts per million ppm compared relevant occupational exposure limits critical part exposure determination method sampling specific contaminate exposure directly linked exposure standard used many countries regulate exposure standard method used determine exposure methods used chemical analysis samples collected noise sampling two types noise environmental noise unwanted sound occurs outdoors occupational noise sound


received employees workplace environmental noise originate various sources depending activity location time environmental noise generated transportation road rail air traffic construction building services even domestic leisure activities legal limit noise environmental noise db hours average exposure similarly limit occupational noise db per https wwwcdcgov niosh docs defaulthtml niosh db per https wwwoshagov laws regs regulations standardnumber osha hour work period order enforce limits


mobile device receives noise phone built external microphone displays sound level measurement app sound level meters noise dosimeters integrating sound level meter islm measures equivalent sound levels within measurement period islm measures noise particular area difficult measure worker personal exposure move throughout workspace ref name ref impulse sound level meter impulse slm measures peak sound impulse optimal conditions measure peaks occur little background noise ref name noise dosimeter collects


sound level given point time well different sound levels across time noise dosimeter measure personal exposure levels used areas high risk fire personal sound exposure meter psem worn employees work advantage psem eliminates need noise assessors follow workers assessors measure noise levels work areas excessive noise lead occupational hearing loss workers report hearing difficulties making third


effective efficient controls based hierarchy control professional societies development industrial hygiene societies originated united states beginning first convening members american conference governmental industrial hygienists formation american industrial hygiene association united kingdom british occupational hygiene society started years professional occupational societies formed many different countries leading formation http wwwiohanet international occupational hygiene association order promote develop occupational hygiene worldwide


member organizations ref name ioha ref ioha grown member organizations representing occupational hygienists worldwide representation countries present every continent ref name ioha ref name ioha ref peer reviewed literature several academic journals specifically focused publishing studies research occupational health field ''journal occupational environmental hygiene'' joeh published jointly since american industrial hygiene association american conference governmental industrial hygienists replacing former ''american industrial hygiene association journal'' ''applied occupational environmental hygiene'' journals ref name joeh ref another seminal occupational hygiene journal would ''the annals


performing laboratory field occupational hygiene work education basis technical knowledge occupational hygiene competent training following areas science management basic sciences biology chemistry mathematics statistics physics occupational diseases illness injury health surveillance biostatistics epidemiology toxicology health hazards biological chemical physical hazards ergonomics human factors working environments mining industrial manufacturing transport storage service industries offices programme management principles professional business ethics work site incident investigation methods exposure guidelines occupational exposure limits jurisdictional based regulations hazard identification risk assessment risk communication data


management fire evacuation emergency responses sampling measurement evaluation practices instrumentation sampling protocols methods techniques analytical chemistry hazard controls elimination substitution engineering administrative ppe air conditioning extraction ventilation environment air pollution hazardous waste however rote knowledge identifies competent occupational hygienist art applying technical principles manner provides reasonable solution workplace environmental issues effect experienced mentor experience occupational hygiene required show new occupational hygienist apply learned scientific


considered outline requirements professional occupational hygiene training actual requirements country state region may vary due educational resources available industry demand regulatory mandated requirements occupational hygiene training association ohta sponsorship provided ioha initiated training scheme interest requiring training occupational hygiene training modules downloaded used freely available subject modules basic principles occupational hygiene health effects hazardous substances measurement hazardous substances thermal environment


noise asbestos control ergonomics aimed foundation intermediate levels occupational hygiene although modules used freely without supervision attendance accredited training course encouraged training modules available http wwwohlearningcom oh learningcom academic programs offering industrial hygiene bachelor 's master 's degrees united states may apply accreditation board engineering technology abet program accredited october institutions accredited industrial hygiene programs accreditation available doctoral programs us training ih professionals


supported national institute occupational safety health niosh education research centers professional credentials australia australian institute occupational hygiene aioh accredited professional occupational hygienist certification scheme occupational hygienists australian certified scheme entitled use phrase '''certified occupational hygienist''' coh part qualifications united states practitioners successfully meet specific education work experience requirements pass written examination administered http wwwabihorg american board industrial hygiene abih authorized use term '''certified industrial hygienist''' cih '''certified associate


industrial hygienist''' caih terms codified law many states united states identify minimum qualifications individuals oversight certain activities may affect employee general public health initial certification cih caih maintains certification meeting going requirements ethical behavior education professional activities eg active practice technical committees publishing teaching abih certification examinations offered spring fall testing window year locations worldwide cih designation well known recognized industrial hygiene


council engineering scientific specialty boards cesb association professional industrial hygienists inc apih established offer credentialing industrial hygienists meet education experience requirements found tennessee code annotated title chapter apih adopted tennessee code basis credentialing first legal definition united states industrial hygienist terms education experience apih registration committee investigates verifies electronic means correspondence educational experience accomplishments claimed applicant registration committee


determines appropriate level registration '''registered industrial hygienist''' '''registered professional industrial hygienist''' authorizes registration certificate issued canada canada practitioner successfully completes written test interview administered http wwwcrbohca canadian registration board occupational hygienists recognized '''registered occupational hygienist''' roh '''registered occupational hygiene technician''' roht also designation recognized '''canadian registered safety professional''' crsp united kingdom faculty occupational hygiene part british occupational hygiene society represents interests professional occupational hygienists membership


faculty occupational hygiene confined bohs members hold recognized professional qualification occupational hygiene three grades faculty membership licentiate lfoh holders obtained bohs certificate operational competence occupational hygiene least three years practical experience field members mfoh normally holders diploma professional competence occupational hygiene least five years experience senior level fellows ffoh senior members profession made distinct contribution advancement occupational hygiene faculty members


participate continuous professional development cpd scheme designed maintain high level current awareness knowledge occupational hygiene india industrial hygiene indian society industrial hygiene formed chennai india subsequently secretariat shifted kanpur society registered members life members society publishes newsletter industrial hygiene link current address secretary society shyam singh gautam secretary indian society industrial hygiene shakti nagar rama devi kanpur mobile number '''industrial hygiene


medicine toxicology data network http ntpniehsnihgov us national toxicology program http wwwiarcfr international agency research cancer http ccinfowebccohsca rtecs searchhtml rtecs subscription https webarchiveorg web http wwwchemfindercom chembiofinder forms home contentarea homeaspx chemfinder http wwwinchemorg inchem many larger businesses maintain product chemical information also many subscription services available cheminfo osh chempendium chem alert chemwatch infosafe rightanswercom 's tomes plus osh update osh rom et cetera external links http wwwturnstoneehsnet industrial hygiene hexavalent chromium national emphasis programhtm osha passed standards exposure hexavalent chromium hexavalent chromium national emphasis program https wwwacgihorg american conference governmental industrial hygienists acgih https webarchiveorg web https wwwaihaorg pages defaultaspx american industrial hygiene association http wwwlabourgovhk eng public oh impuritiespdf government hong kong occupational safety health council air contaminants


'''sociology conflict''' may refer conflict theory social conflict social conflict theory sociology peace war social conflict

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of conflict


siege quebec '''amphibious warfare''' type offensive military operation today uses naval ships project ground air power onto hostile potentially hostile shore designated landing beach history operations conducted using ship 's boats primary method delivering troops shore since gallipoli campaign specialised watercraft increasingly designed landing troops material vehicles including landing craft insertion commandos fast patrol boats zodiacs rigid inflatable boats mini submersibles term ''amphibious'' first emerged united kingdom

Applied science
Military sciences
Amphibious warfare


united states introduction vehicles vickers carden loyd light amphibious tank landing vehicle tracked ref group note first lvt prototypes named ''alligator'' ''crocodile'' though neither species actual amphibian ref amphibious warfare includes operations defined type purpose scale means execution british empire time called combined operations defined operations naval military air forces combination co operating working independently respective commanders common strategic object armed forces employ troops


planning preparation operational transit intended theatre operations pre landing rehearsal disembarkation troop landings beachhead consolidation conducting inland ground air operations historically within scope phases vital part success often based military logistics naval gunfire close air support another factor variety quantity specialised vehicles equipment used landing force designed specific needs type operation amphibious operations classified tactical operational raids dieppe raid operational landings support


larger land strategy kerch eltigen operation strategic opening new theatre operations example ''operation avalanche'' purpose amphibious operations usually offensive except cases amphibious withdrawals limited plan terrain landings islands less size tactical usually limited objectives neutralising enemy defenders obtaining new base operation operation may prepared planned days weeks would employ naval task force land less division troops


australian disembarking landing craft training exercise intent operational landings usually exploit shore vulnerability enemy 's overall position forcing redeployment forces premature use reserves aiding larger allied offensive effort elsewhere operation requiring weeks months preparation planning would use multiple task forces even naval fleet land corps size forces including large islands example ''operation chromite'' strategic landing operation requires major commitment forces invade national territory archipelagic


battle leyte continental operation neptune operation may require multiple naval air fleets support landings extensive intelligence gathering planning year although amphibious operations thought primarily beach landings exploit available shore infrastructure land troops directly urban environment unopposed case non specialised ships offload troops vehicles cargo using organic facility wharf side equipment tactical landings past utilised small boats small craft small ships civilian vessels converted mission


deliver troops water 's edge preparation planning preparation planning naval landing operation requires assembly vessels sufficient capacity lift necessary troops employing combat loading also include conducting amphibious reconnaissance military intelligence services produce briefing expected opponent guides organisation equipping embarked force first specially designed landing craft used gallipoli landings armoured tracked vehicles also available guadalcanal campaign helicopters first used support beach landings ''operation musketeer'' hovercraft use naval landings


military forces since origins recorded amphibious warfare goes back ancient times sea peoples menaced egyptians reign akhenaten captured reliefs medinet habu karnak hellenic city states routinely resorted opposed assaults upon 's shores reflected upon plays expressions art landing marathon ancient persians september bc largest amphibious operation eclipsed landings battle gallipoli marines bayeux tapestry depicts norman invasion


train assign amphibious assault skilled units royal armada units trained specifically fighting ships spanish marines born idea set permanent assignation land troops royal spanish navy available crown thus countries adopted idea subsequently raised early marine forces well first professional marine units already task trained amphibious troops instead disbanded kept spanish crown 's needs first actions took place along mediterranean sea turks


pirate settlements risk commerce navigation algiers malta gelves terceras landing azores islands may military feat planners decided make fake landing distract defending forces portuguese english french soldiers also special seagoing barges arranged order unload cavalry horses artillery pieces beach special rowing boats armed small cannons support landing boats special supplies readied unloaded support man landing force strength total strength amphibious force


battle cartagena de indias new granada large british amphibious assault force divided command failed overcome much smaller heavily fortified spanish defence twenty years later similar british force successfully landed havana cuba besieged city captured two month campaign thanks improved coordination land sea forces major amphibious landing took place siege quebec part seven years' war british produced first specially designed landing craft order enable troops cross


saint lawrence river force considering rejecting number plans landings north shore river general james wolfe brigadiers decided late august land upriver city ''relief gibraltar earl howe october '' richard paton british prepared risky deployment upstream troops already aboard landing ships drifting river several days september wolfe made final decision british landing site selecting l'anse au foulon wolfe 's plan attack depended secrecy


surprise nbsp key element successful amphibious operation nbsp small party men would land night north shore climb tall cliff seize small road overpower garrison protected allowing bulk army men ascend cliff small road deploy battle plateau operation proved success leading surrender city heavily influenced subsequent engagements british american movements chesapeake campaign british royal navy sailors marines succeed taking capitals


bermuda gibraltar malta designated imperial fortresses britain 's domination oceans mediterranean caribbean seas maintained including ability deny safe passage enemy naval merchant vessels protecting merchant trade well ability project superior naval military force anywhere planet demonstrated american war ships north america station royal navy military forces british army board ordnance royal marines maintained blockade much


atlantic seaboard united states america carried amphibious raids june battle craney island launched chesapeake campaign defeating american forces battle bladensburg capturing burning washington dc raiding alexandria virginia bermuda industrial era bombarding fort fisher prior ground assault american civil war mexican american war us forces winfield scott launched first major amphibious assault us history siege veracruz crimean war anti russian alliance launched anglo french amphibious operation


assaulting force consisted men warships guns american civil war mississippi marine brigade established act swiftly confederate forces operating near mississippi river tributaries unit consisted artillery cavalry infantry united states ram fleet used transportation amphibious warfare war pacific saw coordination army navy specialized units first amphibious assault war took place battle pisagua chilean troops successfully took pisagua


peruvian bolivian defenders november chilean navy ships bombarded beach defenses several hours dawn followed open oared boats landing army infantry sapper units waist deep water enemy fire outnumbered first landing wave fought beach second third waves following hours succeeded overcoming resistance moving inland end day expeditionary army disembarked captured port japanese landing liaodong peninsula chilean ships transported approximately men along mounts equipment


order attack lima chilean commanders commissioned purpose built flat bottomed landing craft would deliver troops shallow water closer beach possibly first purpose built amphibious landing craft history shallow draft flat bottomed boats would able land three thousand men twelve guns single wave neutral military observers closely studied landing tactics operations war pacific two royal navy ships monitored battle pisagua united states navy observer lt theodorus b mason included account report ''the war pacific coast south america''


alfred thayer mahan command stationed callao peru protecting american interests final stages war pacific formulated concept sea power reading history book english gentleman 's club lima peru concept became foundation celebrated ''the influence sea power upon history'' amphibious assault took place beaches veracruz mexico united states navy attacked occupied city result tampico affair modern operations operation albion october world


war marked beginning first modern amphibious warfare operations however tactics equipment still rudimentary required much improvisation time british royal marine light infantry merged royal marine artillery form royal marines used primarily naval parties onboard royal navy warships maintain discipline man ships' guns rmli joined new royal navy division royal naval division formed needed ships fight land however throughout conflict army units depended upon provide


entrance gulf riga end month german forces successfully overrun islands forcing russians abandon loss troops guns pre dreadnought battleship ''slava'' capture islands opened route german naval forces gulf finland threatening city petrograd fact contributed cessation hostilities eastern front gallipoli v beach two days landing seen bow ''river clyde'' first large scale amphibious operations ones


heavily influence theorists decades come conducted part battle gallipoli ottoman empire world war gallipoli peninsula forms northern bank dardanelles strait provided sea route russian empire one allied powers war intending secure russia 's allies britain france launched naval attack followed amphibious landing peninsula eventual aim capturing ottoman capital constantinople modern day istanbul although naval attack


repelled land campaign failed campaign first modern amphibious landing featured air support specialized landing craft naval bombardment seaplane tender supported landings command commander robert clark hall seaplanes used aerial reconnaissance ground support troops landing anzac cove bombing fortifications ''ark royal'' augmented squadron squadron royal naval air service operating nearby island initial landings took place unmodified rowing boats extremely vulnerable attack shore defences


hull sandy yellow camouflage incomplete time landing anzac beach amphibious landing april soon clear turkish defence equipped rapid fire weapons meant ordinary landing boats inadequate task february orders placed design purpose built landing craft design created four days resulting order 'x' ''lighters'' spoon shaped bow take shelving beaches drop frontal ramp first use took place towed


aegean performed successfully august landing suvla bay ix corps commanded commander edward unwin 'x' ''lighters'' known soldiers 'beetles' carried men displaced tons based london barges feet inches long feet wide feet inches deep engines mainly ran heavy oil ran speed approximately knots sides ships bullet proof designed ramp bow disembarkation plan devised land british heavy tanks


pontoons support third battle ypres abandoned landing cape helles gallipoli lessons gallipoli campaign significant impact upon development amphibious operational planning ref name wahlert ref since studied military planners prior operations normandy landings falklands war campaign also influenced us marine corps amphibious operations pacific war continues influence us amphibious doctrine interwar period campaign became focal point study amphibious warfare


meant operations considered however despite early successes north africa italy normandy belief opposed landings could succeed completely excised interwar developments one first amphibious landings involving armour conducted irish national army irish civil war landings republican rebels westport fenit cork involved armour cars westport fenit landings involved light armoured cars pounder artillery guns hoisted ships crane heavier armoured cars used cork resulting


difficulty irish troops could reach coast small boats naval vessels offshore ships dock unload heavy vehicles artillery guns operations major success irish government forces mainly due element surprise use armoured vehicles artillery government forces able capture major towns cities southern ireland alhucemas landing september performed spanish french coalition rebel berber tribesmen north morocco amphibious landing tanks used


first time massive aerial naval gunfire support employed landing forces directed spotting personnel communication devices floating depots organized medical water ammunition food supplies dispatched ashore needed barges used landing surviving k boats gallipoli upgraded spanish shipyards japanese forces attacked chinese defenders yangtze river battle wuhan soon japanese would later improve techniques upon seaborne assaults second sino japanese war world war ii marines special


naval landing force used amphibious landings attack sweep across territories south east asia technique surprise landings continuous success support navy inspired british american landings world war ii day pacific campaign britain landing craft mechanized designed inter service training development centre first specialized amphibious ship transportation tanks inter war period combination negative experience gallipoli economic stringency contributed delay procuring equipment adopting universal doctrine


government 's adoption ten year rule assured theoretical talk would result procurement large scale equipment despite outlook british produced ''motor landing craft'' based experience early 'beetle' armoured transport craft could put medium tank directly onto beach used landing boats annual exercises amphibious landings later called ''landing craft mechanized'' ''lcm'' predecessor allied landing craft mechanised lcm army royal navy formed landing craft committee


directed speed knots beaching capacity good ref name fergusson fergusson bernard ''the watery maze story combined operations'' holt new york pp ref three mlc operated royal navy inter service training development centre helped pioneer modern amphibious warfare doctrine came command combined operations headquarters june pictured badge combined operations short journey shore shore cargo could rolled carried boat ramp longer journeys ship shore derrick would lower


mlc sea transporting vessel derrick would lower vehicle cargo load upon touching shore soldiers vehicles exited bow ramp although much official apathy toward amphibious operations began change late royal naval staff college greenwich drafted document detailing combined operations requirements submitted chiefs staff document recommended establishment inter service 'training development centre' permanent force royal marines attached functions train


methods seizure defended beaches develop materiel necessary methods special regard protection troops speed landing attainment surprise develop methods materiel destruction neutralization enemy defenses including bombardment aircraft co operation ref name fergusson inter service training development centre established fort cumberland near portsmouth brought together representatives royal navy army royal air force convened portfolio developing methods equipment use combined operations centre examined certain specific problems including craft


landing tanks beach organisation floating piers headquarters ships amphibian tanks underwater obstacles landing water petrol use small craft amphibious raids ref name fergusson end istdc codified policy landings defended staff college discussions operational experience second world war introduced modifications landing policy essentially policy used torch husky landings four years later ref name maund essential shape landing policy described bernard fergusson ''the watery maze'' among many tactical innovations introduced


centre codified ''manual combined operations'' ''standard naval bombardment code'' use floating piers pontoons bridge water gap creation smoke generating devices obscure assault use infra red directional beacons landing accuracy centre also played role development first specialized landing crafts including assault landing craft mechanized landing craft lcm landing craft tank mk support landing craft lcs lcs landing ship infantry divisional sized amphibious landing exercises carried british army


united states major earl hancock ellis developed amphibious warfare doctrine united states marine corps interwar period successfully predicted nature subsequent pacific campaign contrast british attitude us military especially marine corps remained enthusiastic possibilities amphibious warfare marine corps searching expanded mission world war merely used junior version army infantry found new mission nbsp fast reacting light infantry fighting force carried rapidly


pacific caribbean marine corps given mission challenge avoid another disaster like gallipoli conceptual breakthrough came major pete ellis wrote ''advanced base operations micronesia'' secret word manifesto proved inspirational marine strategists highly prophetic win war pacific navy would fight way thousands miles ocean controlled japanese including marshall caroline marianas ryukyu island chains navy could land marines seize selected islands could


become forward bases lcvps known 'higgins boats' first specialized landing craft us navy pictured lcvp possibly army troops reinforcements okinawa ellis argued enemy prepared defend beaches success depended high speed movement waves assault craft covered heavy naval gunfire attack air predicted decisive action would take place beach assault teams would need infantry also machine gun units light artillery light tanks combat engineers defeat beach obstacles


defenses assuming enemy artillery landing craft would specially built protect landing force failure gallipoli came turks could easily reinforce specific landing sites japanese would unable land new forces islands attack knowing many islands would american target japanese would disperse strength garrisoning many islands would never attacked island like eniwetok marshall islands would ellis estimated require two regiments marines guided


marine observer aircraft supplemented marine light bombers warships would provide enough firepower marines would need heavy artillery contrast army relied heavily artillery shelling defended islands new mission warships ellis model officially endorsed joint board army navy forerunner joint chiefs staff ref name millett semper fidelis ch however actual implementation new mission took another decade marine corps preoccupied central america navy slow start training


support landings prototype advanced base force officially evolved fleet marine force fmf ref name millett semper fidelis allan r millett '' semper fidelis history united states marine corps '' new york city ny free press ref annual fleet landing exercises fmf became interested military potential andrew higgins 's design powered shallow draught boat lcvps dubbed 'higgins boats' reviewed passed us naval bureau construction repair soon higgins boats developed final design


successful amphibious operation operation ironclad british campaign capture vichy french controlled madagascar naval contingent consisted vessels drawn force h british home fleet british eastern fleet commanded rear admiral edward neville syfret september allied troops disembarking landing craft assault lca tamatave harbour fleet included aircraft carrier ''illustrious'' sister ship ''indomitable'' aging battleship ''ramillies'' cover landings first wave british th infantry brigade commando landed assault craft may follow


waves two brigades th infantry division royal marines air cover provided mainly fairey albacore fairey swordfish torpedo bombers attacked vichy shipping purpose built landing craft among vessels used evacuation dunkirk operation dynamo amphibious operation tried dieppe operation proved costly failure lessons hard learned used later many small scale operations conducted allies axis held coast europe including raids lofoten islands st nazaire bruneval specialized infantry landing craft


canadian landings juno beach landing craft assault run world war ii many specialized landing craft infantry vehicles developed november inter service training development centre proposed new type landing craft ref name maund specifications weigh less ten long tons able carry thirty one men british army platoon five assault engineers signallers shallow drafted able land wet knees eighteen inches water ref name maund


specifications made landing craft assault separate set requirements laid vehicle supplies carrier although previously two roles combined motor landing craft royal navy beach commandos aboard landing craft assault th flotilla royal navy j white cowes built prototype fleming design ref name buffetaut p buffetaut p ref eight weeks later craft trials clyde landing craft designs must find compromise two divergent priorities qualities make good sea boat


opposite make craft suitable beaching ref name saunders p saunders p ref craft hull built double diagonal mahogany planking sides plated lb small small ht armour heat treated steel based steel case hadfield resista ref name buff buffetaut p ref lci landing craft infantry training day landing craft assault remained common british commonwealth landing craft world war ii humblest vessel admitted books royal navy day prior july craft referred


assault landing craft alc landing craft assault lca used thereafter conform joint us uk nomenclature system landing craft infantry stepped amphibious assault ship developed response british request vessel capable carrying landing substantially troops smaller landing craft assault lca result small steel ship could land troops traveling rear bases bottom speed knots original british design envisioned one time use vessel


would simply ferry troops across english channel considered expendable vessel troop sleeping accommodations placed original design changed shortly initial use ships discovered many missions would require overnight accommodations first lci l entered service chiefly royal navy rn united states navy lci built ten american shipyards provided lend lease royal navy specialized vehicle landing craft two examples lcm exercise prior


dieppe raid right earlier model without later fully armoured steering shelter craft also given additional armour around tank well ramp extension following inter service training development centre istdc successful development infantry carrying lca attention turned means efficiently delivering tank beach inquires made army heaviest tank might employed landing operation army wanted able land ton tank istdc anticipating weight increases future


tank models specified tons burthen mechanised landing craft designs ref name maund another governor design need land tanks vehicles less approximately feet water design work began john thornycroft ltd may trials completing february ref name fergusson although early lcm powered two thornycroft nbsp bhp petrol engines majority powered chrysler line cylinder crown petrol engines constructed steel selectively clad armour plate shallow draft barge like boat crew could ferry tank long


tons shore knots nbsp km h depending weight tank transported craft might lowered water davits already loaded could tank placed lowered water crusader tank emerges tank landing craft ''tlc '' april although royal navy landing craft mechanised disposal prime minister winston churchill demanded amphibious vessel capable landing least three ton heavy tanks directly onto beach able sustain sea


least week inexpensive easy build admiral maund director inter service training development centre developed landing craft assault ref name globalsecurity ref gave job naval architect sir roland baker within three days completed initial drawings landing craft beam shallow draft ship builders fairfields john brown agreed work details design guidance admiralty experimental works haslar tank tests models soon determined characteristics craft indicating would make engines delivering


nbsp lb armoured shielding added wheelhouse gun tubs lct coast england mark additional midsection gave length displacement tons even extra weight vessel slightly faster mark mk accepted april prefabricated five sections mark slightly shorter lighter mk much wider beam intended cross channel operations opposed seagoing use


tested early assault operations like ill fated canadian commando raid dieppe lack manoeuvring ability led preference shorter overall length future variants built united states united states entered war december us navy amphibious vessels found obliged consider british designs already existence one advanced kc barnaby thornycroft double ended lct work landing ships bureau ships quickly set drawing


plans landing craft based barnaby 's suggestions although one ramp result early lct mark foot craft beam feet could accommodate five ton four ton tanks tons cargo crew twelve men one officer ton landing craft merit able shipped combat areas three separate water tight sections aboard cargo ship carried pre assembled flat deck lst mk would launched heeling lst


tanks vehicles amphibious assaults upon continent europe first purpose built lst design carry churchill infantry tanks vehicles nearly men addition crew speed knots could shallow draught would made easy unloading result three ''boxer'' ''bruiser'' ''thruster'' ordered march long ramp stowed behind bow doors november small delegation british admiralty arrived united states pool ideas


united states navy 's bureau ships regard development ships also including possibility building ''boxer' 's us meeting decided bureau ships would design vessels lst design incorporated elements first british lcts designer sir rowland baker part british delegation included sufficient buoyancy ships' sidewalls would float even tank deck flooded lst gave speed hms ''boxer'' knots similar load


newport news va first standardized lsts floated building dock october twenty three commission end lightly armored could steam cross ocean full load power carrying infantry tanks supplies directly onto beaches together landing craft lsts gave troops protected quick way make combat landings beginning summer day large landing craft convoy crosses english channel june famous amphibious assaults war time


normandy landings june british canadian us forces landed utah omaha gold juno sword beaches largest amphibious operation history organizational planning landings operation neptune hands admiral bertram ramsay covered landing troops supply many innovative elements included operation ensure success operation pluto scheme developed arthur hartley chief engineer anglo iranian oil company construct undersea oil pipeline english channel england france


provide logistical support landed armies allied forces european continent required tremendous amount fuel pipelines considered necessary relieve dependence oil tankers could slowed bad weather susceptible german submarines also needed pacific war geoffrey william lloyd minister petroleum gained support admiral mountbatten chief combined operations operation two types pipeline developed first type flexible ''hais'' pipe diameter lead core weighing around long tons per nautical mile


essentially development siemens brothers conjunction national physical laboratory existing undersea telegraph cables known hais hartley anglo iranian siemens second type less flexible steel pipe similar diameter developed engineers iraq petroleum company burmah oil company pluto pump sandown isle wight june post office cable ship ''iris'' laid lengths siemens henleys cable clyde pipeline completely successful pluto formally brought plans invasion europe project


deemed strategically important tactically adventurous industrial point view strenuous full scale testing nbsp km nautical mile hais pipe across bristol channel swansea wales watermouth north devon first line france laid august nbsp km nautical miles shanklin chine isle wight across english channel cherbourg hais pipe two hamels followed fighting moved closer germany lines hais hamel laid dungeness ambleteuse pas de calais


january tonnes long tons fuel pumped france per day increased tenfold tonnes long tons per day march eventually tons almost imperial gallons per day total equal cube metre long sides million imperial gallons gasoline pumped allied forces europe day providing critical supply fuel permanent arrangement made although pipeline remained operation time portable harbours


also prefabricated temporary facilities allow rapid offloading cargo onto beaches allied invasion normandy dieppe raid shown allies could rely able penetrate atlantic wall capture port north french coast problem large ocean going ships type needed transport heavy bulky cargoes stores needed sufficient depth water keels together dockside cranes load cargo available except already heavily defended french harbours thus


mulberries created provide port facilities necessary offload thousands men vehicles tons supplies necessary sustain operation overlord battle normandy harbours made elements one would expect harbour breakwater piers roadways etc mulberry b harbour port winston september meeting following dieppe raid vice admiral john hughes hallett declared port could captured one taken across channel concept mulberry harbours began take shape hughes hallett moved


naval chief staff overlord planners proposed harbours called many huge caissons various sorts build breakwaters piers connecting structures provide roadways caissons built number locations mainly existing ship building facilities large beaches like conwy morfa around british coast works let commercial construction firms including balfour beatty costain nuttall henry boot sir robert mcalpine peter lind company still operate today cubitts holloway brothers mowlem taylor woodrow since absorbed


businesses still operating completion towed across english channel tugs normandy coast knots nbsp km h nbsp mph built operated maintained corps royal engineers guidance reginald gwyther appointed cbe efforts june days day two harbours codenamed mulberry b constructed omaha beach arromanches respectively however large storm june destroyed american harbour omaha leaving british harbour still intact damaged included damage


'swiss roll' deployed western floating roadway taken service surviving mulberry b came known '''port winston''' arromanches harbour omaha destroyed sooner expected port winston saw heavy use months despite designed last months months day used land million men vehicles million tonnes supplies providing much needed reinforcements france large amphibious operations european theatre world war


forces established bridgehead kerch peninsula maintained may failed prevent fall sevastopol crimea yevpatoria assault january stormy weather prevented reinforcement soviet troops sevastopol landed yevpatoria occupied part town days north africa campaign operation torch november three allied task forces covering coasts french morocco algeria sicily operation husky july largest amphibious operation world war ii terms size landing zone number divisions put ashore


first day see also operation mincemeat disinformation operation ladbroke glider landings operation fustian parachute brigade glider borne forces support salerno operation avalanche september also involved two supporting operations calabria operation baytown sept taranto operation slapstick september crimea kerch eltigen operation november soviet landings preceding recapture crimean peninsula german romanian forces anzio operation shingle january bridgehead pinned may breakout operation diadem allowed move rome southern france operation dragoon


battle iwo jima february part american invasion island iwo jima designated operation detachment battle iwo jima us marines landed eventually captured island iwo jima okinawa battle okinawa april series battles fought ryukyu islands centered island okinawa included largest amphibious assault pacific war world war ii april invasion island okinawa korea seishin landing operation august three soviet


amphibious landings northern korea rear japanese kwantung army malaya operation zipper planned september british planned indian ocean amphibious assault capture port swettenham staging area later invasion singapore cancelled surrender japan replaced unopposed operation jurist operation mailfist august japanese home islands operation downfall planned november massive allied invasion planned kyushu honshu would largest amphibious invasion history canceled surrender japan us troops occupy tokyo unopposed august


led st cavalry division task force lynch cleared much south korea second landing tenth corps east coast approached chosin reservoir hydroelectric plants powered much communist china 's heavy industry led intervention chinese forces behalf north korea amphibious landings also took place first indochina war notably operation camargue one largest conflict suez crisis falklands war british royal marines made first post world war ii amphibious assault suez crisis


successfully landed suez november part joint seaborne airborne operation code named musketeer despite progress seen world war ii still fundamental limitations types coastline suitable assault beaches relatively free obstacles right tidal conditions correct slope however development helicopter fundamentally changed equation first use helicopters amphibious assault came anglo french israeli invasion egypt suez war two british light fleet carriers pressed


service carry helicopters battalion sized airborne assault made two carriers involved converted late dedicated commando carriers nearly years later falklands war st marines brigade argentine marine corps along navy 's special forces performed operation rosario landing mullet creek near stanley april later royal marines' commando brigade augmented british army 's parachute regiment landed port san carlos may operation sutton landing cyprus turkish armed forces launched


amphibious assault july kyrenia following cypriot coup d' tat turkish naval force provided naval gunfire support landing operation transported amphibious forces port mersin island turkish landing forces consisted around troops tanks armoured personnel carriers artillery pieces iran iraq war iran iraq war iranians launched operation dawn persian troops comprising army divisions men irgc basij advanced two pronged offensive southern iraq taking place


february assault across shatt al arab achieved significant tactical operational surprise iranians launched assault peninsula night men arriving rubber boats iranian navy seals spearheaded offensive despite shortage gear prior action iranian naval commandos performed reconnaissance faw peninsula iranian seals penetrated obstacle belt isolated iraqi bunkers whose troops taken cover heavy rains inside sleeping iranian demolition teams detonated charges obstacles create path iranian infantry waiting begin


assault amphibious landings provide significant lodgement behind iraq 's tactical front also created psychological shock wave throughout persian gulf region soon initial landings iranian combat engineers able construct bridges improve flow ground troops lodgement area iran managed maintain foothold al faw several iraqi counter offensives chemical attacks another month despite heavy casualties stalemate reached faw peninsula later recaptured iraqi forces massive illegal use chemical weapons day


us launched operation praying mantis iran destroying navy persian gulf war persian gulf war assault craft unit able position us marine naval support coast kuwait saudi arabia force composed amphibious assault ships largest force assembled since battle inchon objective fix six iraqi divisions deployed along kuwaiti coast purpose behind amphibious maneuver known amphibious demonstration prevent iraqi divisions poised defense


littorals able actively engage combat real front operation extremely successful keeping iraqi forces repositioning main battlefield result marines maneuvered iraq defense southern kuwait outflanked iraqi coastal defense forces iraq war amphibious group sent ashore th meu northern pakistan afghanistan amphibious assault carried royal marines us marines units polish special forces landed al faw peninsula march iraq war invasion


anjouan march operation democracy comoros launched comoros government african union troops amphibious assault led ousting colonel bacar 's government taken autonomous state adjouan battle kismayo september october somali national army led assault conjuncture allied militia kenyan troops liberate city kismayo insurgent control operation known operation sledge hammer started landing somali kenyan troops outside city kismayo october


isely jeter philip crowl ''the us marines amphibious war theory practice pacific'' millett allan r '' semper fidelis history united states marine corps'' nd ed ch moore richard ideas direction building amphibious doctrine ''marine corps gazette'' pp reber john j pete ellis amphibious warfare prophet ''us naval institute proceedings'' pp venzon anne cipriano ''from whaleboats amphibious warfare lt gen howling mad smith us marine corps'' praeger external links warfare type


'''instrumentation''' collective term measuring instruments used indicating measuring recording physical quantities term origins art science scientific instrument making instrumentation refer devices simple direct reading thermometers complex multi sensor components industrial control systems today instruments found laboratories refineries factories vehicles well everyday household use eg smoke detectors thermostats history development local instrumentation panel steam turbine history instrumentation divided several phases pre industrial elements

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Engineering and technology
Electrical Engineering
Electronic engineering
Instrumentation engineering


industrial instrumentation long histories scales comparing weights simple pointers indicate position ancient technologies earliest measurements time one oldest water clocks found tomb ancient egyptian pharaoh amenhotep buried around bce improvements incorporated clocks bce rudiments automatic control system device christopher wren presented royal society design weather clock drawing shows meteorological sensors moving pens paper driven clockwork devices become standard


meteorology two centuries concept remained virtually unchanged evidenced pneumatic chart recorders pressurized bellows displaces pen integrating sensors displays recorders controls uncommon industrial revolution limited need practicality early industrial evolution analogue control loop signalling pneumatic era electronic era early systems used direct process connections local control panels control indication early saw introduction pneumatic transmitters automatic term pid controllers ranges pneumatic transmitters defined need


using voltage frequency pressure ethernet possible transistor commercialized mid instruments attached control system provided signals used operate solenoids valves regulators circuit breakers relays devices devices could control desired output variable provide either remote monitoring automated control capabilities instrument company introduced standard instrumentation signal causing confusion nbsp range used standard electronic instrument signal transmitters valves signal eventually standardized ansi isa compatibility analog signals electronic industrial process instruments


transformation instrumentation mechanical pneumatic transmitters controllers valves electronic instruments reduced maintenance costs electronic instruments dependable mechanical instruments also increased efficiency production due increase accuracy pneumatics enjoyed advantages favored corrosive explosive atmospheres ref name anderson ref automatic process control example single industrial control loop showing continuously modulated control process flow early years process control process indicators control elements valves monitored operator walked around unit adjusting valves obtain desired temperatures


information controls displayed computer graphics screens operators seated view control part process screens whilst retaining plant overview process control large industrial plants evolved many stages initially control would panels local process plant however required large manpower resource attend dispersed panels overall view process next logical development transmission plant measurements permanently manned central control room effectively centralisation


localised panels advantages lower manning levels easier overview process often controllers behind control room panels automatic manual control outputs transmitted back plant however whilst providing central control focus arrangement inflexible control loop controller hardware continual operator movement within control room required view different parts process coming electronic processors graphic displays became possible replace discrete controllers computer based algorithms hosted network input output racks


control processors could distributed around plant communicate graphic display control room rooms distributed control concept born introduction dcss scada allowed easy interconnection configuration plant controls cascaded loops interlocks easy interfacing production computer systems enabled sophisticated alarm handling introduced automatic event logging removed need physical records chart recorders allowed control racks networked thereby located locally plant reduce cabling runs provided high level overviews plant status


temperature bi metallic strip displays temperature needle free end strip activates furnace mercury switch switch rotated strip mercury makes physical thus electrical contact electrodes another example instrumentation system home security system system consists sensors motion detection switches detect door openings simple algorithms detect intrusion local control arm disarm remote monitoring system police summoned communication inherent part design kitchen appliances use


sensors control refrigerator maintains constant temperature actuating cooling system temperature becomes high automatic ice machine makes ice limit switch thrown pop bread toasters allow time set non electronic gas ovens regulate temperature thermostat controlling flow gas gas burner may feature sensor bulb sited within main chamber oven addition may safety cut flame supervision device ignition burner 's control knob must held short time


water level sensor automotive modern automobiles complex instrumentation addition displays engine rotational speed vehicle linear speed also displays battery voltage current fluid levels fluid temperatures distance traveled feedbacks various controls turn signals parking brake headlights transmission position cautions may displayed special problems fuel low check engine tire pressure low door ajar seat belt unfastened problems recorded reported diagnostic equipment navigation systems provide voice commands reach destination automotive instrumentation must cheap reliable long


periods harsh environments may independent airbag systems contain sensors logic actuators anti skid braking systems use sensors control brakes cruise control affects throttle position wide variety services provided via communication links onstar system autonomous cars exotic instrumentation demonstrated aircraft early aircraft sensors steam gauges converted air pressures needle deflections could interpreted altitude airspeed magnetic compass provided sense direction displays pilot critical measurements modern aircraft


far sophisticated suite sensors displays embedded avionics systems aircraft may contain inertial navigation systems global positioning systems weather radar autopilots aircraft stabilization systems redundant sensors used reliability subset information may transferred crash recorder aid mishap investigations modern pilot displays include computer displays including head displays air traffic control radar distributed instrumentation system ground portion transmits electromagnetic pulse receives echo least aircraft carry transponders transmit codes reception pulse system displays aircraft


map location identifier optionally altitude map location based sensed antenna direction sensed time delay information embedded transponder transmission laboratory instrumentation among possible uses term collection laboratory test equipment controlled computer ieee bus also known gpib general purpose instrument bus hpib hewlitt packard instrument bus laboratory equipment available measure many electrical chemical quantities collection equipment might used automate testing drinking water pollutants measurement parameters


instrumentation used measure many parameters physical values parameters include pressure either differential static flow temperature levels liquids etc density viscosity ionising radiation frequency current voltage inductance capacitance resistivity chemical composition chemical properties position vibration weight control valve instrumentation engineering instrumentation part piping instrumentation diagram developed instrumentation engineer '''instrumentation engineering''' engineering specialization focused principle operation measuring instruments used design configuration automated systems areas electrical pneumatic domains control quantities


appropriate sensors based size weight cost reliability accuracy longevity environmental robustness frequency response sensors literally fired artillery shells others sense thermonuclear explosions destroyed invariably sensor data must recorded transmitted displayed recording rates capacities vary enormously transmission trivial clandestine encrypted low power presence jamming displays trivially simple require consultation human factors experts control system design varies trivial separate specialty instrumentation engineers responsible integrating sensors recorders transmitters displays control systems


gradients cause air turbulence within telescope instrumentation technologists technicians mechanics specialize troubleshooting repairing maintaining instruments instrumentation systems typical industrial transmitter signal types current loop electrical hart data signalling often overlaid current loop foundation fieldbus data signalling profibus data signalling impact modern development ralph ller stated history physical science largely history instruments intelligent use well known broad generalizations theories arisen time time stood fallen basis


accurate measurement several instances new instruments devised purpose little evidence show mind modern man superior ancients tools incomparably better ref name katz ref ref name baird davis baird argued major change associated floris cohens identification fourth big scientific revolution world war ii development scientific instrumentation chemistry across sciences ref name baird ref ref name morris ref chemistry introduction new instrumentation nothing less scientific


technological revolution ref name reinhardt classical wet dry methods structural organic chemistry discarded new areas research opened ref name reinhardt ref early w wildhack discussed productive destructive potential inherent process control ref name wildhack ref ability make precise verifiable reproducible measurements natural world levels previously observable using scientific instrumentation provided different texture world ref name hentschel instrumentation revolution fundamentally changes human abilities monitor respond illustrated examples ddt monitoring use uv spectrophotometry


gas chromatography monitor water pollutants ref name morris ref name hentschel ref see also industrial control system instrumentation computer programming instrumentation petrochemical industries international society automation list sensors measurement metrology piping instrumentation diagram diagram process industry shows piping process flow together installed equipment instrumentation programmable logic controller timeline temperature pressure measurement technology references external links http wwwisaorg international society automation http wwwinstmcorguk institute measurement control control engineering industrial automation sensors measuring instruments


'''modern philosophy''' philosophy developed modern era associated modernity specific doctrine school thus confused ''modernism'' although certain assumptions common much helps distinguish earlier philosophy th early th centuries roughly mark beginning end modern philosophy much renaissance included matter dispute likewise modernity may may ended twentieth century replaced postmodernity one decides questions

Humanities
History
Philosophical history
Modern philosophy


determine scope one 's use term modern philosophy modern western philosophy much renaissance intellectual history part modern philosophy disputed early renaissance often considered less modern medieval compared later high renaissance th th centuries major figures philosophy mind epistemology metaphysics roughly divided two main groups rationalists mostly france germany argued knowledge must begin certain innate ideas mind major rationalists descartes baruch spinoza gottfried leibniz nicolas malebranche empiricists


contrast held knowledge must begin sensory experience major figures line thought john locke george berkeley david hume retrospective categories kant largely responsible ethics political philosophy usually subsumed categories though philosophers worked ethics distinctive styles important figures political philosophy include thomas hobbes jean jacques rousseau late eighteenth century immanuel kant set forth groundbreaking philosophical system claimed bring unity rationalism empiricism whether right


strictly materialist form setting grounds development science society ren kierkegaard contrast dismissed systematic philosophy inadequate guide life meaning kierkegaard life meant lived mystery solved arthur schopenhauer took idealism conclusion world nothing futile endless interplay images desires advocated atheism pessimism schopenhauer 's ideas taken transformed nietzsche seized upon various dismissals world proclaim god dead reject systematic


philosophy striving fixed truth transcending individual nietzsche found grounds pessimism possibility new kind freedom th century british philosophy came increasingly dominated strands neo hegelian thought reaction figures bertrand russell george edward moore began moving direction analytic philosophy essentially updating traditional empiricism accommodate new developments logic german mathematician gottlob frege renaissance philosophy renaissance humanism emphasized value human beings see oration dignity


man opposed dogma scholasticism new interest human activities led development political science prince niccol machiavelli humanists differed medieval scholars also saw natural world mathematically ordered pluralistic instead thinking terms purposes goals renaissance philosophy perhaps best explained two propositions made leonardo da vinci notebooks knowledge origins perceptions certainty one neither apply mathematical sciences


based upon mathematical sciences similar way galileo galilei based scientific method experiments also developed mathematical methods application problems physics two ways conceive human knowledge formed background principle empiricism rationalism respectively renaissance philosophers pico della mirandola nicolas cusa giordano bruno galileo galilei niccol machiavelli michel de montaigne francisco su rez rationalism modern philosophy traditionally begins ren descartes dictum think therefore early seventeenth century bulk philosophy dominated scholasticism written theologians drawing


upon plato aristotle early church writings descartes argued many predominant scholastic metaphysical doctrines meaningless false short proposed begin philosophy scratch important work ''meditations first philosophy'' attempts six brief essays tries set aside much possibly beliefs determine anything knows ''certain'' finds doubt nearly everything reality physical objects god memories history science even mathematics cannot doubt fact doubting


knows thinking even true knows thinking basis builds knowledge back finds ideas could originated alone god proves god exists demonstrates god would allow systematically deceived everything essence vindicates ordinary methods science reasoning fallible false rationalists christian wolff ren descartes baruch spinoza gottfried leibniz empiricism empiricism


theory knowledge opposes theories knowledge rationalism idealism historicism empiricism asserts knowledge comes primarily via sensory experience opposed rationalism asserts knowledge comes also pure thinking empiricism rationalism individualist theories knowledge whereas historicism social epistemology historicism also acknowledges role experience differs empiricism assuming sensory data cannot understood without considering historical cultural circumstances observations made empiricism mixed empirical research different epistemologies


considered competing views best studies near consensus among researchers studies empirical today empiricism therefore understood one among competing ideals getting knowledge studies empiricism first foremost characterized ideal let observational data speak competing views opposed ideal term empiricism thus understood relation term used history philosophy also constructed way makes


possible distinguish empiricism among epistemological positions contemporary science scholarship words empiricism concept constructed along concepts together make possible make important discriminations different ideals underlying contemporary science empiricism one several competing views predominate study human knowledge known epistemology empiricism emphasizes role experience evidence especially sensory perception formation ideas notion innate ideas tradition contrast example rationalism relies upon reason incorporate innate


knowledge empiricists francis bacon john locke george berkeley david hume political philosophy political philosophy study topics politics liberty justice property rights law enforcement legal code authority even needed anything makes government legitimate rights freedoms protect form take law duties citizens owe legitimate government may legitimately overthrown ever vernacular sense term political philosophy


often refers general view specific ethic political belief attitude politics necessarily belong technical discipline philosophy country united kingdom thomas hobbes john locke john stuart mill jeremy bentham james mill france montesquieu jean jacques rousseau voltaire italy cesare beccaria giambattista vico giuseppe mazzini germany karl marx friedrich engels idealism idealism refers group philosophies assert reality reality know fundamentally construct mind otherwise immaterial epistemologically idealism manifests skepticism possibility knowing mind independent


thing sociological sense idealism emphasizes human ideas especially beliefs values shape society ontological doctrine idealism goes asserting entities composed mind spirit ref name brittanica daniel sommer robinson idealism ''encyclop dia britannica'' http wwwbritannicacom ebchecked topic idealism ref idealism thus rejects physicalist dualist theories fail ascribe priority mind extreme version idealism exist philosophical notion solipsism idealist philosophers immanuel kant johann gottlieb fichte friedrich wilhelm joseph schelling georg wilhelm friedrich hegel arthur schopenhauer francis herbert bradley j e mctaggart john foster existentialism '''existentialism''' generally considered


philosophical cultural movement holds starting point philosophical thinking must individual experiences individual building existentialists hold moral thinking scientific thinking together suffice understand human existence therefore set categories governed norm ''authenticity'' necessary understand human existence ref name crowell stanford ref existential philosophers ren kierkegaard friedrich nietzsche jean paul sartre simone de beauvoir karl jaspers gabriel marcel martin heidegger alexander solzhenitsyn phenomenology phenomenology study structure experience broad philosophical movement founded


early years th century edmund husserl expanded upon circle followers universities g ttingen munich germany philosophy spread france united states elsewhere often contexts far removed husserl 's early work ref name husserlhistory ref phenomenological philosophers edmund husserl martin heidegger maurice merleau ponty max scheler pragmatism '''pragmatism''' philosophical tradition centered linking practice theory describes process theory extracted practice applied back practice form called ''intelligent practice'' important positions characteristic pragmatism


include instrumentalism radical empiricism verificationism conceptual relativity fallibilism general consensus among pragmatists philosophy take methods insights modern science account ref name biestaburbules charles sanders peirce pragmatic maxim deserves credit pragmatism ref name haacklane ref along later twentieth century contributors william james john dewey ref name biestaburbules biesta gjj burbules n ''pragmatism educational research'' lanham md rowman littlefield ref pragmatist philosophers charles sanders peirce william james john dewey richard rorty analytic philosophy analytic philosophy came dominate english speaking countries th century united states united


kingdom canada scandinavia australia new zealand overwhelming majority university philosophy departments identify analytic departments ref name searle p without exception best philosophy departments united states dominated analytic philosophy among leading philosophers united states tiny handful would classified analytic philosophers practitioners types philosophizing analytic tradition phenomenology classical pragmatism existentialism marxism feel necessary define position relation analytic philosophy john searle ''contemporary philosophy united states'' n bunnin ep tsui james


eds ''the blackwell companion philosophy'' nd ed blackwell p ref term generally refers broad philosophical tradition characterized emphasis clarity argument often achieved via modern formal logic analysis language respect natural sciences ref name leiterweb brian leiter webpage https webarchiveorg web http wwwphilosophicalgourmetcom analyticasp '' analytic continental philosophy'' quote definition 'analytic' philosophy today names style philosophy philosophical program set substantive views analytic philosophers crudely speaking aim argumentative clarity precision draw freely tools logic often identify professionally


'''contemporary philosophy''' present period history western philosophy beginning early th century increasing professionalization discipline rise analytic continental philosophy contemporary philosophy focuses epistemology metaphysics logic ethics aesthetics philosophy mind philosophy language political philosophy history debates areas philosophical examination assumptions methods claims areas focus science social science phrase contemporary philosophy piece technical terminology philosophy refers specific period history

Humanities
History
Philosophical history
Contemporary philosophy


western philosophy namely philosophy th st centuries however phrase often confused modern philosophy refers earlier period western philosophy postmodern philosophy refers philosophers' criticisms modern philosophy non technical use phrase referring recent philosophic work professionalization process professionalization social process trade occupation establishes group norms conduct acceptable qualifications membership profession professional body association oversee conduct members profession degree demarcation


qualified unqualified amateurs transformation profession brings many subtle changes field inquiry one readily identifiable component professionalization increasing irrelevance book field research communiqu begin change ways whose modern end products obvious oppressive many longer member 's researches usually embodied books addressed anyone might interested subject matter field instead usually appear brief articles addressed professional colleagues


men whose knowledge shared paradigm assumed prove one able read papers addressed philosophy underwent process toward end th century one key distinguishing features contemporary philosophy era western philosophy germany first country professionalize philosophy end hegel first philosopher appointed professor state namely prussian minister education effect napoleonic reform prussia united states professionalisation


remains common among population large person set religious political philosophical views consider philosophy views rarely informed connected work done professional philosophy today furthermore unlike many sciences come healthy industry books magazines television shows meant popularize science communicate technical results scientific field general populace works professional philosophers directed audience outside profession remain rare philosopher michael sandel 's book justice 's


organises large annual conference biggest eastern division meeting usually attracts around philosophers takes place different east coast city december eastern division meeting also usa 's largest recruitment event philosophy jobs numerous universities sending teams interview candidates academic posts among many tasks association responsible administering many profession 's top honors example presidency division american philosophical association considered professional honor american philosophical association book prize


one oldest prizes philosophy largest academic organization devoted specifically furthering study continental philosophy society phenomenology existential philosophy concerning professional journals today survey professional philosophers asked rank highest quality general philosophy journals english yielding following top cellspacing cellpadding style background efefef '''table prominent professional journals contemporary philosophy''' philosophical review australasian journal philosophy synthese proceedings aristotelian society mind philosophers' imprint


canadian journal philosophy monist nous philosophical studies erkenntnis european journal philosophy journal philosophy philosophical quarterly american philosophical quarterly journal american philosophical association philosophy phenomenological research analysis pacific philosophical quarterly thought concerning continental philosophy specifically survey mostly professional philosophers asked rank highest quality continental tradition philosophy journals english listing survey 's top results cellspacing


cellpadding style background efefef '''table prominent professional journals continental philosophy''' european journal philosophy inquiry philosophy phenomenological research archiv f r geschichte der philosophie journal history philosophy british journal history philosophy philosophy documentation center publishes well known directory american philosophers standard reference work information philosophical activity united states canada directory published every two years alternating companion volume international directory philosophy


philosophers edited source extensive information philosophical activity africa asia australasia europe latin america since start st century philosophers also seen growing utilization blogs means professional exchange notable milestones development include informal listing philosophy blogs begun philosopher david chalmers since become widely used resource profession establishment partnership ethics blog pea soup prominent journal ethics post featured articles online discussion blog role


blogs like like woman philosophy bringing attention experience women profession analytic continental divide beginning divide contemporary continental philosophy began work franz brentano edmund husserl adolf reinach martin heidegger development philosophical method phenomenology development roughly contemporaneous work gottlob frege bertrand russell inaugurating new philosophical method based analysis language via modern logic hence term analytic philosophy analytic philosophy dominates united kingdom canada australia


english speaking world continental philosophy prevails europe including germany france italy spain brazil parts united states philosophers richard rorty simon glendinning argue analytic continental divide inimical discipline whole others john searle claim continental philosophy especially post structuralist continental philosophy expunged grounds obscurantist nebulous analytic continental philosophy share common western philosophical tradition immanuel kant afterwards analytic continental philosophers differ importance influence subsequent philosophers respective traditions