alexander great duke wellington considered logistical geniuses alexander 's expedition benefited considerably meticulous attention provisioning army hannibal credited taught logistics romans punic wars success anglo portuguese army peninsula war due effectiveness wellington 's supply system despite numerical disadvantage defeat british american war independence defeat axis african theater world war ii attributed scholars logistical failures


militaries significant need logistics solutions developed advanced implementations integrated logistics support ils discipline used military industries ensure easily supportable system robust customer service logistic concept lowest cost line often high reliability availability maintainability requirements defined project military logistics logistics officers manage move resources places needed supply chain management military logistics often deals number variables predicting cost deterioration consumption future demand united

Applied science
Military sciences
Logistics


must consider third variable besides usage quantity time equipment ages repair parts needed time even usage quantity stay consistent recording analyzing trends time applying future scenarios us armed forces accurately supply troops items necessary precise moment needed history shown good logistical planning creates lean efficient fighting force lack thereof lead clunky slow ill equipped force much little supply business logistics


forklift stacking logistics provider 's warehouse goods pallets one definition business logistics speaks right item right quantity right time right place right price right condition right customer business logistics incorporates industry sectors aims manage fruition project life cycles supply chains resultant efficiencies term business logistics evolved since due increasing complexity supplying businesses materials shipping products increasingly globalized supply chain leading call


professionals called supply chain logisticians business logistics may either internal focus inbound logistics external focus outbound logistics covering flow storage materials point origin point consumption see supply chain management main functions qualified logistician include inventory management purchasing transportation warehousing consultation organizing planning activities logisticians combine professional knowledge functions coordinate resources organization two fundamentally different forms logistics one optimizes steady flow material network transport links storage


nodes coordinates sequence resources carry project eg restructuring warehouse nodes distribution network nodes distribution network include factories products manufactured assembled depot deposit standard type warehouse storing merchandise high level inventory distribution centers order processing order fulfillment lower level inventory also receiving returning items clients typically distribution centers way stations products disbursed supply chain usually ship inventory directly customers


whereas fulfillment centers transit points cross docking activities consist reassembling cargo units based deliveries scheduled moving merchandise traditional mom pop retail stores modern supermarkets hypermarkets discount stores also voluntary chains consumers' co operative groups consumer collective buying power note subsidiaries mostly owned another company franchisers although using company brands actually point sale may intermediaries operating representative matters nodes sales agents brokers logistic families metrics logistic family set products


share common characteristic weight volumetric characteristics physical storing needs temperature radiation handling needs order frequency package size etc following metrics may used company organize products different families ref name rupe ref physical metrics used evaluate inventory systems include stocking capacity selectivity superficial use volumetric use transport capacity transport capacity use monetary metrics used include space holding costs building shelving services handling costs people handling machinery energy maintenance metrics may present physical monetary form standard inventory turnover handling order processing


unit loads transportation luggage airport case unit load protective function unit loads combinations individual items moved handling systems usually employing pallet normed dimensions handling systems include trans pallet handlers counterweight handler retractable mast handler bilateral handlers trilateral handlers agv handlers storage systems include pile stocking cell racks either static movable cantilever racks gravity racks ref name referencea lambert stock j ellram l fundamentals logistics mcgraw hill ref order processing sequential process involving processing withdrawal list picking selective removal items


train road vehicles boats airplanes companies couriers freight forwarders multi modal transport operators merchandise transported internationally usually subject incoterms standards issued international chamber commerce configuration management lifo rack system storage similarly production systems logistic systems need properly configured managed actually number methodologies directly borrowed operations management using economic order quantity models managing inventory nodes network distribution resource planning drp similar mrp except n't concern activities inside nodes


network planning distribution moving goods links network traditionally logistics '''configuration''' may level warehouse node level distribution system network regarding single warehouse besides issue designing building warehouse configuration means solving number interrelated technical economic problems dimensioning rack cells choosing palletizing method manual robots rack dimensioning design number racks number typology retrieval systems eg stacker cranes important constraints satisfied fork load beams resistance bending proper


placement sprinklers although picking tactical planning decision configuration problem important take account deciding layout racks inside warehouse buying tools handlers motorized carts since decisions taken work constraints managing warehouse reasoning sorting designing conveyor system installing automatic dispensers configuration level distribution system concerns primarily problem location nodes geographic space distribution capacity among nodes


first may referred facility location special case site selection latter capacity allocation problem outsourcing typically arises level nodes supply chain rarely owned single enterprise distribution networks characterized numbers levels namely number intermediary nodes supplier consumer direct store delivery ie zero levels one level network central warehouse two level network central peripheral warehouses distinction useful modeling purposes relates also tactical decision regarding safety


stocks considering two level network safety inventory kept peripheral warehouses called dependent system suppliers safety inventory distributed among central peripheral warehouses called independent system suppliers ref name rupe transportation producer second level called primary transportation second level consumer called secondary transportation although configuring distribution network zero possible logisticians usually deal restructuring existing networks due presence array factors changing demand product process innovation opportunities outsourcing


change government policy toward trade barriers innovation transportation means vehicles thoroughfares introduction regulations notably regarding pollution availability ict supporting systems eg erp e commerce logistic system configured '''management''' meaning tactical decisions takes place level warehouse distribution network decisions made set constraints internal using available infrastructure external complying given product shelf lifes expiration dates warehouse level logistician must decide distribute


merchandise racks three basic situations traditionally considered shared storage dedicated storage rack space reserved specific merchandise class based storage class meaning merchandise organized different areas according access index airline logistic network denver works hub network picking efficiency varies greatly depending situation ref name autogenerated man goods situation distinction carried high level picking vertical component significant low level picking vertical component insignificant number tactical decisions regarding picking must made routing path standard alternatives include transversal routing return routing midpoint routing


largest gap return routing replenishment method standard alternatives include equal space supply product class equal time supply product class picking logic order picking vs batch picking level distribution network tactical decisions involve mainly inventory control delivery path optimization note logistician may required manage reverse flow along forward flow warehouse management system control although overlap functionality warehouse management systems wms differ significantly warehouse control systems wcs simply put wms plans weekly activity


forecast based factors statistics trends whereas wcs acts like floor supervisor working real time get job done effective means instance wms tell system going need five stock keeping unit sku five sku b hours advance time acts considerations may come play could logjam conveyor wcs prevent problem working real time adapting situation making last minute decision


based current activity operational status working synergistically wms wcs resolve issues maximize efficiency companies rely effective operation warehouse distribution center ref name sdcexec ref logistics outsourcing logistics outsourcing involves relationship company lsp logistic service provider compared basic logistics services customized offerings encompasses broad number service activities characterized long term orientation thus strategic nature outsourcing complete externalization lsp also partial single contract


supplying specific service occasion creation spin creation joint venture '''third party logistics''' pl involves using external organizations execute logistics activities traditionally performed within organization ref name bazio ref according definition third party logistics includes form outsourcing logistics activities previously performed house example company warehousing facilities decides employ external transportation would example third party logistics logistics emerging business area many countries external pl providers evolved merely providing logistics capabilities becoming real


directly exploitable typically includes know information turn innovation ref name rauewieland logistics automation automated storage retrieval system used us military also used business conjunction manual picking logistics automation application computer software automated machinery improve efficiency logistics operations typically refers operations within warehouse distribution center broader tasks undertaken supply chain engineering systems enterprise resource planning systems industrial machinery typically identify products either barcode rfid technologies information traditional bar codes stored


practitioner professional logisticians often certified professional associations one either work pure logistics company shipping line airport freight forwarder within logistics department company however mentioned logistics broad field encompassing procurement production distribution disposal activities hence career perspectives broad well new trend industry pl fourth party logistics firms consulting companies offering logistics services universities academic institutions train students logisticians offering undergraduate postgraduate programs university primary focus logistics k hne


logistics university hamburg germany non profit supported k hne foundation logistics entrepreneur klaus michael k hne chartered institute logistics transport cilt established united kingdom received royal charter chartered institute one professional bodies institutions logistics transport sectors offer professional qualifications degrees logistics management cilt programs studied centers around uk also offer distance learning options institute also overseas branches namely chartered institute logistics transport australia cilta


australia chartered institute logistics transport hong kong cilthk hong kong uk logistics management programs conducted many universities professional bodies cilt programs generally offered postgraduate level global institute logistics ref name gil home ref established new york think tank profession primarily concerned intercontinental maritime logistics particularly concerned container logistics role seaport authority maritime logistics chain international association public health logisticians iaphl ref name iaphl ref professional


network promotes professional development supply chain managers others working field public health logistics commodity security particular focus developing countries association supports logisticians worldwide providing community practice members network exchange ideas improve professional skills logistics museums many museums world cover various aspects practical logistics include museums transportation customs packing industry based logistics however following museums fully dedicated logistics ''general logistics'' logistics museum saint petersburg russia museum logistics tokyo


japan beijing wuzi university logistics museum beijing china ''military logistics'' royal logistic corps museum surrey england united kingdom canadian forces logistics museum montreal quebec canada logistics museum hanoi vietnam see also automated identification data capture document automation supply chain management logistics field inventory management freight claim freight forwarder incoterms integrated service provider inventory management software performance based logistics physical inventory sales territory storage management system dutch flower bucket self driving truck automated storage retrieval system automated guided vehicle references reading engels donald w ''alexander great logistics


macedonian army'' university california press pages https booksgooglecom booksid oimwqrokcz c printsec frontcover hl en source gbs ge summary r cad v onepage q f false online hess earl j ''civil war logistics study military transportation'' http wwwmiwsrcom aspx online review huston james ''the sinews war army logistics '' united states army pages https booksgooglecom booksid pabwzrsocc printsec frontcover source gbs atb v onepage q f false online handfield rb straube f pfohl hc wieland ''trends strategies logistics supply chain management embracing global logistics complexity drive market advantage'' bvl ronald h ballou samir k srivastava ''business logistics supply chain management'' pearson education donald bowersox david closs bixby cooper ''supply chain logistics management'' mcgraw hill


christopher ''logistics supply chain management creating value adding networks'' prentice hall https booksgooglecom booksid iqgwvahxo uc printsec frontcover hl source gbs ge summary r cad v onepage q f false online j v jones ''integrated logistics support handbook'' mcgraw hill logistics series b blanchard ''logistics engineering management'' pearson prentice hall rg poluha ''the quintessence supply chain management really need know manage processes procurement manufacturing warehousing logistics quintessence series '' first edition springer heidelberg new york dordrecht london precl k vratislav pr myslov logistika industrial logistics p first issue nakladatelstv vut v praze pp nbsp


'''law''' system rules regulate behavior '''law''' '''law''' '''laws''' '''laws''' may also refer common meanings law principle universal principles describe fundamental nature something law enforcement sometimes referred law lawmen statutory law written law created one legislators places law dundee extinct volcanic peak centre scottish city dundee law south lanarkshire small town scotland laws california united states unincorporated community people law surname laws surname luo surname chinese surname commonly transliterated law arts entertainment


media fictional characters law order gi joe fictional characters gi joe real american hero franchise law comics fictional supervillain marshall forest law two characters ''tekken'' video game series trafalgar water law character anime manga ''one piece'' music law band seventies funk rock band ohio law song david bowie album ''earthling'' law yo gotti song yo gotti featuring e album ''the art hustle'' arts entertainment media ''law'' comics limited series comic book published


dc comics live audio wrestling professional wrestling call show law one axis alignment system used role playing game ''dungeons dragons'' ''law'' film indian kannada film military light anti tank weapon see anti tank warfare law british light anti tank weapon law american light anti tank weapon mbt law swedish light anti tank weapon laser weapon system '''laws''' united states navy laser weapon lethal autonomous weapons system '''laws''' autonomous robots designed military applications organizations league american bicyclists formerly known league american wheelmen league american


writers palestinian society protection human rights also known law science mathematics laws science established principles thought universal invariable law stochastic processes specific form law stochastic processes subfield mathematics transportation law iata airport code faa location id lawton fort sill regional airport comanche county oklahoma united states law station code landywood railway station england uses ''laws'' dialogue dialogue plato laredo law defunct af arena football team laredo texas destroyer served world war ii flight control


iustitia lady justice symbolic personification coercive power tribunal sword representing state authority scales representing objective standard blindfold indicating justice impartial '''law''' system rules created enforced social governmental institutions regulate behavior ref name referenceb robertson ''crimes humanity'' ref precise definition matter longstanding debate ref name willis ref ref name jpgibbs ref ref name akers ref variously described science ref name vaquero ref art justice ref name mlcohen ref state enforced laws made group legislature single legislator resulting statutes


executive decrees regulations established judges precedent usually common law jurisdictions private individuals may create legally binding contracts including arbitration agreements adopt alternative ways resolving disputes standard court litigation creation laws may influenced constitution written tacit rights encoded therein law shapes politics economics history society various ways serves mediator relations people legal systems vary countries differences analysed comparative law civil law jurisdictions legislature central body


contracts property torts delicts commercial law ref name horwitz pp ref distinction stronger civil law countries particularly separate system administrative courts ref name merryman ref contrast public private law divide less pronounced common law jurisdictions ref name harlow ref law provides source scholarly inquiry legal history philosophy economic analysis ref name rubin ref sociology ref name law sociology ref law also raises important complex issues concerning equality fairness justice ref name pound ref philosophy law ref philosophy law commonly known jurisprudence normative jurisprudence asks law analytic jurisprudence asks law


customary law municipal law contexts word law two different irreconcilable meanings thurman arnold said obvious impossible define word law also equally obvious struggle define word ever abandoned possible take view need define word law eg let 's forget generalities get cases one definition law system rules guidelines enforced social institutions govern behaviour ref


name referenceb ''the concept law'' hart argued law system rules austin said law command sovereign backed threat sanction ref name jap dworkin describes law interpretive concept achieve justice text titled ''law 's empire'' ref name dworkin law 's empire dworkin ''law 's empire'' ref raz argues law authority mediate people 's interests ref name jra holmes said prophecies courts fact nothing pretentious mean law ''treatise law'' aquinas argues


law rational ordering things concern common good promulgated whoever charged care community definition positivist naturalist elements connection morality justice definitions law often raise question extent law incorporates morality ref name twtaylor ref john austin 's utilitarian answer law commands backed threat sanctions sovereign people habit obedience ref name jap bix http platostanfordedu entries austin john john austin ref natural lawyers side jean jacques rousseau argue law reflects


essentially moral unchangeable laws nature concept natural law emerged ancient greek philosophy concurrently connection notion justice entered mainstream western culture writings thomas aquinas notably ''treatise law'' completed first two parts book ''splendeurs et mis res des courtisanes'' intended end entire work honor de balzac visited conciergerie thereafter decided add third part finally named ''o nent les mauvais chemins'' ''the ends evil ways'' entirely dedicated describing


rejected principle equality believed law emanates power cannot labeled moral immoral austrian philosopher hans kelsen continued positivist tradition book ''pure theory law'' kelsen believed although law separate morality endowed normativity meaning ought obey laws positive statements eg fine reversing highway ''is'' law tells us thus legal system hypothesised basic norm ''grundnorm'' instructing us


sun god shamash also revered god justice history law links closely development civilization ancient egyptian law dating far back nbsp bc based concept ma'at characterised tradition rhetorical speech social equality impartiality nd century nbsp bc ancient sumerian ruler ur nammu formulated first law code consisted casuistic statements around nbsp bc king hammurabi developed babylonian law codifying inscribing stone hammurabi placed several copies law code throughout kingdom babylon


stelae entire public see became known codex hammurabi intact copy stelae discovered th century british assyriologists since fully transliterated translated various languages including english italian german french old testament dates back nbsp bc takes form moral imperatives recommendations good society small greek city state ancient athens th century bc first society based broad inclusion citizenry excluding women slave class however athens


legal science single word law relying instead three way distinction divine law ''th mis'' human decree ''nomos'' custom ' 'd k '' yet ancient greek law contained major constitutional innovations development democracy roman law heavily influenced greek philosophy detailed rules developed professional jurists highly sophisticated centuries rise decline roman empire law adapted cope changing social situations underwent major codification theodosius ii justinian ref name st legal system roman law affected


development law worldwide also forms basis law codes countries continental europe played important role creation idea common european culture stein ''roman law european history'' ref although codes replaced custom case law early middle ages roman law rediscovered around th century medieval legal scholars began research roman codes adapt concepts canon law giving birth ''jus commune'' latin legal maxims called brocards compiled guidance medieval


england royal courts developed body precedent later became common law europe wide law merchant formed merchants could trade common standards practice rather many splintered facets local laws law merchant precursor modern commercial law emphasised freedom contract alienability property nationalism grew th th centuries law merchant incorporated countries' local law new civil codes napoleonic german codes became influential contrast english common law consists enormous tomes


case law codes small books easy export easy judges apply however today signs civil common law converging ref name mattei eu law codified treaties develops ' 'de facto'' precedent laid european court justice constitution india longest written constitution country containing articles schedules numerous amendments words ancient india china represent distinct traditions law historically independent schools legal theory practice ''arthashastra'' probably compiled around nbsp ad although


contains older material ''manusmriti'' c nbsp nbsp ad foundational treatises india comprise texts considered authoritative legal guidance manu 's central philosophy tolerance pluralism cited across southeast asia muslim conquests indian subcontinent sharia established muslim sultanates empires notably mughal empire 's fatawa e alamgiri compiled emperor aurangzeb various scholars islam india hindu legal tradition along islamic law supplanted common law india became part british empire malaysia brunei singapore hong kong also adopted common law system


eastern asia legal tradition reflects unique blend secular religious influences japan first country begin modernising legal system along western lines importing parts french mostly german civil code partly reflected germany 's status rising power late th century similarly traditional chinese law gave way westernisation towards final years qing dynasty form six private law codes based mainly japanese model german law today taiwanese law retains closest affinity codifications period


world trade organization legal systems access date january ref common law systems shaded pink civil law systems shaded blue turquoise general legal systems split civil law common law systems ref name pejovic ref modern scholars argue significance distinction progressively declined numerous legal transplants typical modern law result sharing modern legal systems many features traditionally considered typical either common law civil law ref name mattei mattei ''comparative law economics'' ref ref name inprol intro ref term civil law referring civilian legal system originating


civil law emperor justinian byzantine empire ordered codification corpus juris civilis first page edition napoleonic code civil law legal system used countries around world today civil law sources recognised authoritative primarily legislation especially codifications constitutions statutes passed government custom codifications date back millennia one early example babylonian ''codex hammurabi'' modern civil law systems essentially derive legal codes issued byzantine emperor justinian th century rediscovered th


century italy ref name econ cc diffs ref roman law days roman republic empire heavily procedural lacked professional legal class instead lay magistrate ''iudex'' chosen adjudicate decisions published systematic way case law developed disguised almost unrecognised case decided afresh laws state mirrors theoretical unimportance judges' decisions future cases civil law systems today ad byzantine emperor justinian codified consolidated roman law point


remained one twentieth mass legal texts became known ''corpus juris civilis'' one legal historian wrote justinian consciously looked back golden age roman law aimed restore peak reached three centuries justinian code remained force east fall byzantine empire western europe meanwhile relied mix theodosian code germanic customary law justinian code rediscovered th century scholars university bologna used


interpret laws civil law codifications based closely roman law alongside influences religious laws canon law continued spread throughout europe enlightenment th century france ''code civil'' germany ''b rgerliches gesetzbuch'' modernised legal codes codes influenced heavily law systems countries continental europe eg greece also japanese korean legal traditions today countries civil law systems range russia turkey central latin america anarchist


law anarchism practiced society much world mass anarchist communities ranging syria united states exist vary hundreds millions anarchism encompasses broad range social political philosophies different tendencies implementation anarchist law primarily deals anarchism implemented upon society framework based decentralized organizations mutual aid representation form direct democracy laws based upon need large portion anarchist ideologies anarcho syndicalism anarcho communism primarily focuses decentralized worker unions cooperatives syndicates


main instrument society socialist law socialist law legal systems communist states former soviet union people 's republic china ref name austin ref academic opinion divided whether separate system civil law given major deviations based marxist leninist ideology subordinating judiciary executive ruling party ref name austin ref name gbsmith ref common law equity king john england signs magna carta common law legal systems decisions courts explicitly acknowledged law equal footing statutes adopted legislative


systematised process developing common law however system became overly systematised overly rigid inflexible result time went increasing numbers citizens petitioned king override common law king 's behalf lord chancellor gave judgment equitable case time sir thomas first lawyer appointed lord chancellor systematic body equity grew alongside rigid common law developed court chancery first equity often criticised erratic varied


according length chancellor 's foot time courts equity developed solid principles especially lord eldon th century england us two systems merged developing common law academic writings always played important part collect overarching principles dispersed case law argue change william blackstone around first scholar collect describe teach common law merely describing scholars sought explanations underlying structures slowly changed way law actually worked


religious law religious law explicitly based religious precepts examples include jewish halakha islamic sharia translate path follow christian canon law also survives church communities often implication religion law unalterability word god cannot amended legislated judges governments however thorough detailed legal system generally requires human elaboration instance quran law acts source law interpretation ''qiyas'' reasoning analogy ''ijma'' consensus precedent


juris canonici'' fundamental collection canon law years canon law greek ''kanon'' 'straight measuring rod ruler' set ordinances regulations made ecclesiastical authority church leadership government christian organisation church members internal ecclesiastical law governing catholic church latin church eastern catholic churches eastern orthodox oriental orthodox churches individual national churches within anglican communion way church law legislated interpreted times adjudicated varies widely among three


bodies churches three traditions canon originally ref name ref rule adopted church council canons formed foundation canon law catholic church oldest continuously functioning legal system western world ref name white ref predating evolution modern european civil law common law systems code canon law governs latin church ' 'sui juris'' eastern catholic churches developed different disciplines practices governed ''code canons eastern churches'' canon law catholic church influenced common law


medieval period preservation roman law doctrine presumption innocence sharia law trial ottoman empire religious law applied mecelle th century sharia law practiced throughout muslim world non codified form ottoman empire 's mecelle code th century first attempt codifying elements sharia law since mid efforts made country country bring sharia law line modern conditions conceptions ref name aa anderson ''law reform middle east'' ref


modern times legal systems many muslim countries draw upon civil common law traditions well islamic law custom constitutions certain muslim states egypt afghanistan recognise islam religion state obliging legislature adhere sharia saudi arabia recognises quran constitution governed basis islamic law ref name jurist http juristlawpittedu world saudiarabiahtm saudi arabia jurist ref iran also witnessed reiteration islamic law legal system last decades one fundamental features movement


islamic resurgence call restore sharia generated vast amount literature affected world politics ref name h hallaq ''the origins evolution islamic law'' ref legal methods distinguished methods legal reasoning applying law methods interpreting construing law former legal syllogism holds sway civil law legal systems analogy present common law legal systems especially us argumentative theories occur systems latter different rules directives legal interpretation directives linguistic


interpretation teleological interpretation systemic interpretation well specific rules instance golden rule mischief rule also many arguments cannons interpretation altogether make statutory interpretation possible law professor former united states attorney general edward h levi noted basic pattern legal reasoning reasoning example reasoning comparing outcomes cases resolving similar legal questions us supreme court case regarding procedural efforts taken debt collection company avoid errors justice sotomayor cautioned legal reasoning mechanical


strictly linear process jurimetrics formal application quantitative methods especially probability statistics legal questions use statistical methods court cases law review articles grown massively importance last decades legal institutions main institutions law industrialised countries independent courts representative parliaments accountable executive military police bureaucratic organisation legal profession civil society john locke ''two treatises government'' baron de montesquieu ''the spirit laws'' advocated separation powers political


legislature executive bodies principle person able usurp powers state contrast absolutist theory thomas hobbes' ''leviathan'' ref name h thomas hobbes ''leviathan'' https webarchiveorg web http oregonstateedu instruct phl texts hobbes leviathan chtml chapterxvii xvii ref sun yat sen 's five power constitution republic china took separation powers two additional branches government control yuan auditing oversight examination yuan manage employment public officials max weber others reshaped thinking extension state modern military policing bureaucratic power ordinary citizens' daily lives pose special


problems accountability earlier writers locke montesquieu could foreseen custom practice legal profession important part people 's access justice whilst civil society term used refer social institutions communities partnerships form law 's political basis judiciary judiciary number judges mediating disputes determine outcome countries systems appeal courts apex court ultimate judicial authority united states authority supreme court australia high court


uk supreme court germany ''bundesverfassungsgericht'' france ''cour de cassation'' european countries european court justice luxembourg overrule national law eu law relevant european court human rights strasbourg allows citizens council europe member states bring cases relating human rights issues countries allow highest judicial authority overrule legislation determine unconstitutional example ''brown v board education'' united states supreme court nullified many state statutes established racially segregated


schools finding statutes incompatible fourteenth amendment united states constitution judiciary theoretically bound constitution government bodies countries judges may interpret constitution laws common law countries matters constitutional judiciary may also create law doctrine precedent uk finland new zealand assert ideal parliamentary sovereignty whereby unelected judiciary may overturn law passed democratic legislature communist states china courts often


regarded parts executive subservient legislature governmental institutions actors exert thus various forms influence judiciary muslim countries courts often examine whether state laws adhere sharia supreme constitutional court egypt may invalidate laws ref name referencea sherif ''constitutions arab countries'' ref iran guardian council ensures compatibility legislation criteria islam ref name referencea legislature house representatives lower house national diet japan prominent examples legislatures houses parliament london congress


washington dc bundestag berlin duma moscow parlamento italiano rome ''assembl e nationale'' paris principle representative government people vote politicians carry ''their'' wishes although countries like israel greece sweden china unicameral countries bicameral meaning two separately appointed legislative houses ref name riker riker ''the justification bicameralism'' ref 'lower house' politicians elected represent smaller constituencies 'upper house' usually elected represent states federal system australia germany united states different voting


configuration unitary system france uk upper house appointed government house review one criticism bicameral systems two elected chambers upper lower houses may simply mirror one another traditional justification bicameralism upper chamber acts house review minimise arbitrariness injustice governmental action ref name riker pass legislation majority members legislature must vote bill proposed law house normally several readings


centre political authority state parliamentary system britain italy germany india japan executive known cabinet composed members legislature executive led head government whose office holds power confidence legislature popular elections appoint political parties govern leader party change elections ref name haggard haggard ''presidents parliaments policy'' ref head state apart executive symbolically enacts laws acts representative nation examples include president


germany appointed members federal state legislatures queen united kingdom hereditary office president austria elected popular vote important model presidential system found united states brazil presidential systems executive acts head state head government power appoint unelected cabinet presidential system executive branch separate legislature accountable ref name haggard although role executive varies country country usually


propose majority legislation propose government agenda presidential systems executive often power veto legislation executives systems responsible foreign relations military police bureaucracy ministers officials head country 's public offices foreign ministry defence ministry election different executive therefore capable revolutionising entire country 's approach government military police officers south african police service johannesburg military organisations existed long government idea


standing police force relatively modern concept example medieval england 's system traveling criminal courts assizes used show trials public executions instill communities fear maintain control first modern police probably th century paris court louis xiv although paris prefecture police claim world 's first uniformed policemen max weber famously argued state controls monopoly legitimate use force ref name mwp weber politics vocation ref military police carry enforcement request


government courts term failed state refers states cannot implement enforce policies police military longer control security order society moves anarchy absence government bureaucracy mandarins powerful bureaucrats imperial china photograph shows qing dynasty official mandarin square visible etymology ''bureaucracy'' derives french word ''office'' ''bureau'' ancient greek word ''power'' ''kratos'' like military police legal system 's government servants bodies make bureaucracy carry directives


executive one earliest references concept made baron de grimm german author lived france wrote blockquote real spirit laws france bureaucracy late monsieur de gournay used complain greatly offices clerks secretaries inspectors ''intendants'' appointed benefit public interest indeed public interest appears established offices might exist blockquote cynicism officialdom still common workings public servants typically contrasted private enterprise motivated profit


fact private companies especially large ones also bureaucracies ref name k kettl ''public bureaucracies'' ref negative perceptions red tape aside public services schooling health care policing public transport considered crucial state function making public bureaucratic action locus government power ref name k writing early th century max weber believed definitive feature developed state come bureaucratic support ref name mwp weber ''economy society'' ref weber wrote typical characteristics modern bureaucracy officials define mission scope work bound rules


management composed career experts manage top communicating writing binding public servants' discretion rules legal profession notary legally trained public official compensated parties transaction th century painting notary flemish painter quentin massys corollary rule law existence legal profession sufficiently autonomous invoke authority independent judiciary right assistance barrister court proceeding emanates corollary england function barrister advocate distinguished


legal counselor european court human rights stated law adequately accessible everyone people able foresee law affects order maintain professionalism practice law typically overseen either government independent regulating body bar association bar council law society modern lawyers achieve distinct professional identity specified legal procedures eg successfully passing qualifying examination required law special qualification legal education earning student bachelor laws bachelor


allow lawyers training traditional islamic law practice law personal status law courts china developing countries sufficient professionally trained people staff existing judicial systems accordingly formal standards relaxed accredited lawyer often work law firm chambers sole practitioner government post private corporation internal counsel addition lawyer may become legal researcher provides demand legal research library commercial service freelance work many people trained


law put skills use outside legal field entirely ref name fine fine ''the globalisation legal education'' ref significant practice law common law tradition legal research determine current state law usually entails exploring case law reports legal periodicals legislation law practice also involves drafting documents court pleadings persuasive briefs contracts wills trusts negotiation dispute resolution skills including adr techniques also important legal practice depending field ref name fine civil society march washington dc civil


rights movement classical republican concept civil society dates back hobbes locke locke saw civil society people common established law judicature appeal authority decide controversies german philosopher georg wilhelm friedrich hegel distinguished state civil society ''b rgerliche gesellschaft'' ''elements philosophy right'' hegel believed civil society state polar opposites within scheme dialectic theory history modern dipole state civil society reproduced theories alexis de tocqueville karl marx


post modern theory civil society necessarily source law basis people form opinions lobby believe law australian barrister author geoffrey robertson qc wrote international law one primary modern sources found responses ordinary men women non governmental organizations many support human rights abuses see television screen living rooms freedom speech freedom association many individual rights allow people gather discuss criticise hold


account governments basis deliberative democracy formed people involved concerned capable changing political power exercised lives acceptable legitimate law becomes people familiar institutions civil society include economic markets profit oriented firms families trade unions hospitals universities schools charities debating clubs non governmental organisations neighbourhoods churches religious associations clear legal definition civil society institutions includes institutions bodies try give


list institutions european economic social committee exclude political parties areas law legal systems deal basic issues jurisdictions categorise identify legal topics different ways common distinction public law term related closely state including constitutional administrative criminal law private law covers contract tort property civil law systems contract tort fall general law obligations trusts law dealt statutory regimes international conventions international constitutional


states alleged breaches international obligations states ref name referenceb however bodies wto effective systems binding arbitration dispute resolution backed trade sanctions conflict laws private international law civil law countries concerns jurisdiction legal dispute private parties heard jurisdiction 's law applied today businesses increasingly capable shifting capital labour supply chains across borders well trading overseas businesses making question country jurisdiction even pressing increasing numbers


businesses opt commercial arbitration new york convention european union law first far example supranational law ie internationally accepted legal system united nations world trade organization given trend increasing global economic integration many regional agreements especially african union seek follow similar model eu sovereign nations gathered authority system courts european parliament institutions allowed ability enforce legal norms member states citizens


manner possible public international law european court justice noted van gend en loos decision european union law constitutes new legal order international law mutual social economic benefit member states constitutional administrative law french declaration rights man citizen constitutional administrative law govern affairs state constitutional law concerns relationships executive legislature judiciary human rights civil liberties individuals state


jurisdictions like united states france single codified constitution bill rights like united kingdom document constitution simply laws constitute body politic statute case law convention case named ''entick v carrington'' illustrates constitutional principle deriving common law entick 's house searched ransacked sheriff carrington entick complained court sheriff carrington argued warrant government minister earl halifax valid authority however written statutory provision court authority


leading judge lord camden stated blockquote great end men entered society secure property right preserved sacred incommunicable instances taken away abridged public law good whole excuse found produced silence books authority defendant plaintiff must judgment blockquote fundamental constitutional principle inspired john locke holds individual anything except forbidden law state


may nothing except authorised law administrative law chief method people hold state bodies account people sue agency local council public service government ministry judicial review actions decisions ensure comply law government entity observed required procedure first specialist administrative court ''conseil d' tat'' set napoleon assumed power france ref name auby ''administrative law france'' ref criminal law criminal law also known penal law pertains crimes punishment


thus regulates definition penalties offences found sufficiently deleterious social impact makes moral judgment offender imposes restrictions society physically prevent people committing crime first place ref name w brody acker logan ''criminal law'' wilson ''criminal law'' ref investigating apprehending charging trying suspected offenders regulated law criminal procedure ref name br dennis j baker glanville williams ''textbook criminal law'' london ref paradigm case crime lies proof beyond reasonable doubt person


guilty two things first accused must commit act deemed society criminal ''actus reus'' guilty act second accused must requisite malicious intent criminal act ''mens rea'' guilty mind however called strict liability crimes ''actus reus'' enough criminal systems civil law tradition distinguish intention broad sense ' 'dolus directus'' ' 'dolus eventualis'' negligence negligence carry criminal responsibility unless particular crime provides punishment depiction th century criminal trial witchcraft


salem examples crimes include murder assault fraud theft exceptional circumstances defences apply specific acts killing self defence pleading insanity another example th century english case ''r v dudley stephens'' tested defence necessity ''mignonette'' sailing southampton sydney sank three crew members richard parker year old cabin boy stranded raft starving cabin boy close death driven extreme hunger crew killed ate cabin boy crew survived rescued


put trial murder argued necessary kill cabin boy preserve lives lord coleridge expressing immense disapproval ruled preserve one 's life generally speaking duty may plainest highest duty sacrifice men sentenced hang public opinion overwhelmingly supportive crew 's right preserve lives end crown commuted sentences six months jail criminal law offences viewed offences individual victims community well ref


respect sentencing legal research legislation rehabilitation international field countries members international criminal court established try people crimes humanity contract law famous carbolic smoke ball advertisement cure influenza held unilateral contract contract law concerns enforceable promises summed latin phrase ''pacta sunt servanda'' agreements must kept common law jurisdictions three key elements creation contract necessary offer acceptance consideration intention create legal relations


''carlill v carbolic smoke ball company'' medical firm advertised new wonder drug smokeball would cure people 's flu buyers would get many people sued drug work fearing bankruptcy carbolic argued advert taken serious legally binding offer invitation treat mere puffery gimmick court appeal held reasonable man carbolic made serious offer accentuated reassuring statement deposited equally people given good


consideration offer going distinct inconvenience using faulty product read advertisement twist said lord justice lindley distinct promise expressed language perfectly unmistakable ref name ccsbce '' http wwwjustiscom titles iclr r html carlill v carbolic smoke ball company '' qb element consideration see beale tallon ''contract law'' ref consideration indicates fact parties contract exchanged something value common law systems including australia moving away idea consideration


requirement idea estoppel ''culpa contrahendo'' used create obligations pre contractual negotiations civil law jurisdictions treat contracts differently number respects interventionist role state formation enforcement contracts ref name pargendler kt ref compared common law jurisdictions civil law systems incorporate mandatory terms contracts allow greater latitude courts interpret revise contract terms impose stronger duty good faith also likely enforce penalty clauses specific performance contracts ref name pargendler kt also require consideration


contract binding france ordinary contract said form simply basis meeting minds concurrence wills germany special approach contracts ties property law 'abstraction principle' ''abstraktionsprinzip'' means personal obligation contract forms separately title property conferred contracts invalidated reason eg car buyer drunk lacks legal capacity contract contractual obligation pay invalidated separately proprietary title car unjust


enrichment law rather contract law used restore title rightful owner torts delicts mclibel case longest running case uk history involved publishing pamphlet criticised mcdonald 's restaurants certain civil wrongs grouped together torts common law systems delicts civil law systems ref name lee td ref acted tortiously one must breached duty another person infringed pre existing legal right simple example might accidentally hitting someone cricket ball law negligence common form


tort injured party could potentially claim compensation injuries party responsible principles negligence illustrated ''donoghue v stevenson'' ref name dvs ''donoghue v stevenson'' ac sc hl er rep see original text case http wwwleedsacuk law hamlyn donoghuehtm uk law online ref friend donoghue ordered opaque bottle ginger beer intended consumption donoghue caf paisley consumed half donoghue poured remainder tumbler decomposing remains snail floated claimed suffered


shock fell ill gastroenteritis sued manufacturer carelessly allowing drink contaminated house lords decided manufacturer liable mrs donoghue 's illness lord atkin took distinctly moral approach said blockquote liability negligence doubt based upon general public sentiment moral wrongdoing offender must pay rule love neighbour becomes law must injure neighbour lawyer 's question neighbour receives restricted reply must take reasonable care


avoid acts omissions reasonably foresee would likely injure neighbour blockquote became basis four principles negligence namely stevenson owed donoghue duty care provide safe drinks breached duty care harm would occurred breach act proximate cause harm ref name dvs another example tort might neighbour making excessively loud noises machinery property ref name sturges ''sturges v bridgman'' ch ref nuisance claim


noise could stopped torts also involve intentional acts assault battery trespass better known tort defamation occurs example newspaper makes unsupportable allegations damage politician 's reputation infamous economic torts form basis labour law countries making trade unions liable strikes statute provide immunity property law painting south sea bubble one world 's first ever speculations crashes led strict regulation share trading property law governs ownership possession real


apprentice 's attempt cheat lord chief justice pratt ruled even though boy could said jewel considered rightful keeper finders keepers original owner found fact apprentice boy right ''possession'' jewel technical concept meaning evidence something ''could'' belong someone boy 's possessory interest considered better could shown first time possession may nine tenths law case used


support view property common law jurisdictions person show best claim piece property contesting party owner contrast classic civil law approach property propounded friedrich carl von savigny right good world obligations like contracts torts conceptualised rights good individuals idea property raises many philosophical political issues locke argued lives liberties estates property bodies mix labour


equity allows arrangement known trust trustees control property whereas beneficial equitable ownership trust property held people known beneficiaries trustees owe duties beneficiaries take good care entrusted property early case ''keech v sandford'' child inherited lease market romford london mr sandford entrusted look property child matured lease expired landlord apparently told mr sandford want child


renewed lease yet landlord happy apparently give mr sandford opportunity lease instead mr sandford took child mr keech grew sued mr sandford profit making getting market 's lease mr sandford meant trusted put position conflict interest lord chancellor lord king agreed ordered mr sandford disgorge profits wrote well see trustee refusal renew might lease


trust estates would renewed may seem hard trustee person mankind might lease proper rule strictly pursued relaxed lord king lc worried trustees might exploit opportunities use trust property instead looking business speculators using trusts recently caused stock market crash strict duties trustees made way company law applied directors chief executive officers another example trustee 's


duty might invest property wisely sell especially case pension funds important form trust investors trustees people 's savings retirement trusts also set charitable purposes famous examples british museum rockefeller foundation disciplines law spreads far beyond core subjects virtually every area life three categories presented convenience although subjects intertwine overlap law society trade union protest unison strike labour law study


tripartite industrial relationship worker employer trade union involves collective bargaining regulation right strike individual employment law refers workplace rights job security health safety minimum wage human rights civil rights human rights law important fields guarantee everyone basic freedoms entitlements laid codes universal declaration human rights european convention human rights founded european court human rights us bill rights treaty lisbon makes charter fundamental


rights european union legally binding member states except poland united kingdom civil procedure criminal procedure concern rules courts must follow trial appeals proceed concern citizen 's right fair trial hearing evidence law involves materials admissible courts case built immigration law nationality law concern rights foreigners live work nation state acquire lose citizenship also involve right asylum problem


stateless individuals social security law refers rights people social insurance jobseekers' allowances housing benefits family law covers marriage divorce proceedings rights children rights property money event separation transactional law practice law concerning business money law commerce company law sprang law trusts principle separating ownership property control law modern company began joint stock companies act passed united kingdom provided investors


simple registration procedure gain limited liability separate legal personality corporation commercial law covers complex contract property law law agency insurance law bills exchange insolvency bankruptcy law sales law important trace back medieval ''lex mercatoria'' uk sale goods act us uniform commercial code examples codified common law commercial principles admiralty law sea law lay basic framework free trade commerce across world 's oceans seas outside country 's zone control


shipping companies operate ordinary principles commercial law generalised global market admiralty law also encompasses specialised issues salvage maritime liens injuries passengers intellectual property law aims safeguarding creators producers intellectual goods services legal rights copyrights trademarks patents related rights result intellectual activity industrial literary artistic fields restitution deals recovery someone else 's gain rather compensation one 's loss unjust enrichment someone unjustly enriched absence basis transaction


law financial regulation set minimum standards amounts capital banks must hold rules best practice investment insure risk economic crises wall street crash regulation deals provision public services utilities '''water law''' one example especially since privatisation became popular took management services away public law private companies jobs previously controlled government bound varying degrees social responsibility energy gas telecomms water regulated industries oecd countries competition


law known united states antitrust law evolving field traces far back roman decrees price fixing english restraint trade doctrine modern competition law derives us anti cartel anti monopoly statutes sherman act clayton act turn th century used control businesses attempt use economic influence distort market prices expense consumer welfare consumer law could include anything regulations unfair contractual terms clauses directives airline baggage insurance environmental law


increasingly important especially light kyoto protocol potential danger climate change environmental protection also serves penalise polluters within domestic legal systems aviation law deals regulations technical standards applicable safe operation aircraft essential part pilots' training pilot 's operations non adherence air law regulations standards renders flight operation illegal framed national civil aviation acts laws mostly aligned recommendations mandatory standards international civil aviation organisation icao regulations often abbreviated


cars standards cats constantly evolve order adapt new technologies science example medical protocols pilots adhere order fit fly hold license intersection fields economics th century adam smith presented philosophical foundation explaining relationship law economics discipline arose partly critique trade unions us antitrust law influential proponents richard posner oliver williamson called chicago school economists


lawyers including milton friedman gary becker generally advocates deregulation privatisation hostile state regulation see restrictions operation free markets richard posner one chicago school ran blog bank sweden prize winning economist gary becker prominent economic analyst law nobel prize winner ronald coase whose first major article ''the nature firm'' argued reason existence firms companies partnerships etc existence transaction costs rational individuals trade


bilateral contracts open markets costs transactions mean using corporations produce things cost effective second major article ''the problem social cost'' argued lived world without transaction costs people would bargain one another create allocation resources regardless way court might rule property disputes coase used example nuisance case named ''sturges v bridgman'' noisy sweetmaker quiet doctor neighbours went court see move ref name sturges


coase said regardless whether judge ruled sweetmaker stop using machinery doctor put could strike mutually beneficial bargain moves reaches outcome resource distribution existence transaction costs may prevent law ought pre empt ''would'' happen guided efficient solution idea law regulation important effective helping people lawyers government planners believe coase others like wanted


change approach put burden proof positive effects government intervening market analysing costs action sociology sociology law diverse field study examines interaction law society overlaps jurisprudence philosophy law social theory specialised subjects criminology ref name jary cotterrell ''sociology law'' jary ''collins dictionary sociology'' ref institutions social construction social norms dispute processing legal culture key areas inquiry knowledge field sociology law sometimes


lawyers learn apply forms 'law' social norms regulate everyday life generally preventing conflicts reaching barristers courts contemporary research sociology law much concerned way law developing outside discrete state jurisdictions produced social interaction many different kinds social arenas acquiring diversity sources often competing conflicting authority communal networks existing sometimes within nation states increasingly also transnationally max weber weber began career lawyer regarded one founders


sociology sociology law around max weber defined scientific approach law identifying legal rational form type domination attributable personal authority authority abstract norms formal legal rationality term key characteristic kind coherent calculable law precondition modern political developments modern bureaucratic state weber saw law developed parallel growth capitalism ref name jary another leading sociologist mile durkheim wrote classic work ''the division labour


society'' society becomes complex body civil law concerned primarily restitution compensation grows expense criminal laws penal sanctions notable early legal sociologists included hugo sinzheimer theodor geiger georges gurvitch leon petra ycki europe william graham sumner us see also law law dictionary legal research united states legal treatise natural law political science public interest law social law translating law european languages references citations sources printed sources see original text https wwwperseustuftsedu cgi bin ptextdoc perseus atext perseus


program barzilai gad ''communities law politics cultures legal identities'' university michigan press second print hamilton michael george w spiro ''the dynamics law'' th ed armonk ny sharpe inc https ssrncom abstract silvestri paolo ideal good government luigi einaudi thought life law freedom paolo heritier paolo silvestri eds good government governance human complexity luigi einaudi 's legacy contemporary societies leo olschki firenze pp nbsp online sources external links http wwwnylsedu library research tools sources dragnet dragnet search free legal databases new york law


school http wwwworldliiorg worldlii world legal information institute http wwwcommonliiorg commonlii commonwealth legal information institute http wwwasianliiorg asianlii asian legal information institute asianlii http wwwaustliieduau austlii australasian legal information institute http wwwbailiiorg bailii british irish legal information institute https webarchiveorg web http canliiorg canlii canadian legal information institute http wwwnzliiorg nzlii new zealand legal information institute http wwwpacliiorg paclii pacific islands legal information institute http wwwsafliiorg saflii southern african legal information institute main topic articles


badlands incised shale foot north caineville plateau utah within pass carved fremont river known blue gate gk gilbert studied landscapes area great detail forming observational foundation many studies geomorphology surface earth showing higher elevations red '''geomorphology''' ancient greek ''g '' earth ''morph '' form ''l gos'' study scientific study origin evolution topographic bathymetric features created physical chemical biological processes operating near earth 's

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Geomorphology


surface geomorphologists seek understand landscapes look way understand landform terrain history dynamics predict changes combination field observations physical experiments numerical modeling geomorphologists work within disciplines physical geography geology geodesy engineering geology archaeology climatology geotechnical engineering broad base interests contributes many research styles interests within field overview waves water chemistry lead structural failure exposed rocks earth 's surface modified combination surface processes shape landscapes geologic processes cause tectonic


uplift subsidence shape coastal geography surface processes comprise action water wind ice fire life surface earth along chemical reactions form soils alter material properties stability rate change topography force gravity factors recent past human alteration landscape many factors strongly mediated climate geologic processes include uplift mountain ranges growth volcanoes isostatic changes land surface elevation sometimes response surface processes


formation deep sedimentary basins surface earth drops filled material eroded parts landscape earth 's surface topography therefore intersection climatic hydrologic biologic action geologic processes alternatively stated intersection earth 's lithosphere hydrosphere atmosphere biosphere broad scale topographies earth illustrate intersection surface subsurface action mountain belts uplifted due geologic processes denudation high uplifted regions produces sediment transported deposited elsewhere within landscape


coast progressively smaller scales similar ideas apply individual landforms evolve response balance additive processes uplift deposition subtractive processes subsidence erosion often processes directly affect ice sheets water sediment loads change topography flexural isostasy topography modify local climate example orographic precipitation turn modifies topography changing hydrologic regime evolves many geomorphologists particularly interested potential feedbacks climate tectonics mediated geomorphic processes addition broad scale


questions geomorphologists address issues specific local glacial geomorphologists investigate glacial deposits moraines eskers proglacial lakes well glacial erosional features build chronologies small glaciers large ice sheets understand motions effects upon landscape fluvial geomorphologists focus rivers transport sediment migrate across landscape cut bedrock respond environmental tectonic changes interact humans soils geomorphologists investigate soil profiles chemistry learn history particular landscape understand climate biota rock interact


geomorphologists study hillslopes form change still others investigate relationships ecology geomorphology geomorphology defined comprise everything related surface earth modification broad field many facets geomorphologists use wide range techniques work may include fieldwork field data collection interpretation remotely sensed data geochemical analyses numerical modelling physics landscapes geomorphologists may rely geochronology using dating methods measure rate changes surface terrain measurement techniques vital


quantitatively describe form earth 's surface include differential gps remotely sensed digital terrain models laser scanning quantify study generate illustrations maps practical applications geomorphology include hazard assessment landslide prediction mitigation river control stream restoration coastal protection planetary geomorphology studies landforms terrestrial planets mars indications effects wind fluvial glacial mass wasting meteor impact tectonics volcanic processes studied effort helps better understand geologic atmospheric history planets also extends geomorphological


study earth planetary geomorphologists often use earth analogues aid study surfaces planets history cono de arita dry lake salar de arizaro atacama plateau northwestern argentina cone volcanic edifice representing complex interaction intrusive igneous rocks surrounding salt lake k hincovo pleso high tatras slovakia lake occupies overdeepening carved flowing ice occupied glacial valley notable exceptions antiquity geomorphology relatively young science growing along interest


aspects earth sciences mid th century section provides brief outline major figures events development ancient geomorphology study landforms evolution earth 's surface dated back scholars classical greece th century bc greek historian herodotus argued observations soils nile delta actively growing mediterranean sea estimated age ref name 'bierman' bierman paul r david r montgomery ''key concepts geomorphology'' macmillan higher education ref ref name rafferty pp rafferty john p


''geological sciences geology landforms minerals rocks'' new york britannica educational publishing pp ref th century bc greek philosopher aristotle speculated due sediment transport sea eventually seas would fill land lowered claimed would mean land water would eventually swap places whereupon process would begin endless cycle ref name 'bierman' ref name rafferty p ''encyclopedia brethren purity'' published arabic basra th century also discussed cyclical changing positions land sea rocks breaking


washed sea sediment eventually rising form new continents ref name rafferty p medieval persian muslim scholar ab rayh n al b r n observing rock formations mouths rivers hypothesized indian ocean covered india ''de natura fossilium'' german metallurgist mineralogist georgius agricola wrote erosion natural weathering another early theory geomorphology devised song dynasty chinese scientist statesman shen kuo based observation marine fossil shells geological stratum


mountain hundreds miles pacific ocean noticing bivalve shells running horizontal span along cut section cliffside theorized cliff pre historic location seashore shifted hundreds miles centuries inferred land reshaped formed soil erosion mountains deposition silt observing strange natural erosions taihang mountains yandang mountain near wenzhou ref name nj needham joseph ''science civilization china volume mathematics sciences heavens earth''


yu western jin dynasty predicted two monumental stelae recording achievements one buried foot mountain erected top would eventually change relative positions time would hills valleys ref name rafferty p rafferty john p ''geological sciences geology landforms minerals rocks'' new york britannica educational publishing p ref daoist alchemist ge hong created fictional dialogue immortal magu explained territory east china sea land filled mulberry trees early modern geomorphology term


william morris davis ref name 'bierman' elaboration uniformitarianism theory first proposed james hutton ref name 'oldroydgrapes' oldroyd david r grapes rodney h contributions history geomorphology quaternary geology introduction grapes r h oldroyd grigelisr eds ''history geomorphology quaternary geology'' geological society london special publications ref regard valley forms example uniformitarianism posited sequence river runs flat terrain gradually carving increasingly deep valley side valleys eventually erode flattening


terrain though lower elevation thought tectonic uplift could start cycle decades following davis 's development idea many studying geomorphology sought fit findings framework known today davisian ref name 'oldroydgrapes' davis 's ideas historical importance largely superseded today mainly due lack predictive power qualitative nature ref name 'oldroydgrapes' walther penck developed alternative model davis 's ref name 'oldroydgrapes' penck thought landform evolution better described alternation ongoing processes


uplift denudation opposed davis 's model single uplift followed decay ref name 'ritter' ritter dale f r craig kochel jerry r miller ''process geomorphology'' boston mcgraw hill ref also emphasised many landscapes slope evolution occurs backwearing rocks davisian style surface lowering science tended emphasise surface process understanding detail surface history given locality penck german lifetime ideas times rejected vigorously english speaking geomorphology community ref name oldroydgrapes early death davis' dislike work


times confusing writing style likely contributed rejection ref name 'simons' simons martin morphological analysis landforms new review work walther penck transactions papers institute british geographers ref davis penck trying place study evolution earth 's surface generalized globally relevant footing previously early th century authors especially europe tended attribute form landscapes local climate particular specific effects glaciation periglacial processes


contrast davis penck seeking emphasize importance evolution landscapes time generality earth 's surface processes across different landscapes different conditions early study regional scale geomorphology termed physiography physiography later considered contraction '''''physi'''''cal ge'''''ography''''' therefore synonymous physical geography concept became embroiled controversy surrounding appropriate concerns discipline geomorphologists held geological basis physiography emphasized concept physiographic regions conflicting trend among geographers equate


physiography pure morphology separated geological heritage period following world war ii emergence process climatic quantitative studies led preference many earth scientists term geomorphology order suggest analytical approach landscapes rather descriptive one climatic geomorphology age new imperialism late th century european explorers scientists traveled across globe bringing descriptions landscapes landforms geographical knowledge increased time observations systematized search regional patterns climate emerged thus prime factor


explaining landform distribution grand scale rise climatic geomorphology foreshadowed work wladimir k ppen vasily dokuchaev andreas schimper william morris davis leading geomorphologist time recognized role climate complementing normal temperate climate cycle erosion arid glacial ones ref name twidalelageat ref ref name goudie ref nevertheless interest climatic geomorphology also reaction ''against'' davisian geomorphology mid th century considered un innovative dubious ref name goudie ref name attack ref early climatic geomorphology developed primarily continental europe english speaking world tendency explicit lc


weathering rapid tropical climates cold climates proved straightforwardly true ref name goudie quantitative process geomorphology great escarpment drakensberg southern africa landscape high altitude plateau incised steep slopes escarpment cited davis classic example cycle erosion geomorphology started put solid quantitative footing middle th century following early work grove karl gilbert around turn th century ref name 'bierman' ref name 'oldroydgrapes' ref name 'ritter'


highly quantitative approach geomorphic problems many groundbreaking widely cited early geomorphology studies appeared bulletin geological society america received citations prior examples sleeping beauties marked increase quantitative geomorphology research occurred quantitative geomorphology involve fluid dynamics solid mechanics geomorphometry laboratory studies field measurements theoretical work full landscape evolution modeling approaches used understand weathering formation soils sediment transport landscape change interactions climate tectonics erosion deposition ref name orogens ref sweden filip


hjulstr 's doctoral thesis river fyris contained one first quantitative studies geomorphological processes ever published students followed vein making quantitative studies mass transport anders rapp fluvial transport ke sundborg delta deposition valter axelsson coastal processes john norrman developed uppsala school physical geography contemporary geomorphology today field geomorphology encompasses wide range different approaches interests ref name 'bierman' modern researchers aim draw quantitative laws govern earth surface processes equally recognize uniqueness landscape environment


processes operate particularly important realizations contemporary geomorphology include landscapes considered either stable perturbed perturbed state temporary displacement away ideal target form instead dynamic changes landscape seen essential part nature ref name orogens ref name time scales ref many geomorphic systems best understood terms stochasticity processes occurring probability distributions event magnitudes return times turn indicated importance chaotic determinism


landscapes landscape properties best considered statistically processes landscapes always lead end results according karna lidmar bergstr regional geography since longer accepted mainstream scholarship basis geomorphological studies ref name karna ref albeit importance diminished climatic geomorphology continues exist field study producing relevant research recently concerns global warming led renewed interest field ref name goudie despite considerable criticism cycle erosion model remained part science geomorphology ref name slaymaker


model theory never proved wrong ref name slaymaker neither proven ref name aroy ref inherent difficulties model instead made geomorphological research advance along lines ref name slaymaker ref contrast disputed status geomorphology cycle erosion model common approach used establish denudation chronologies thus important concept science historical geology ref name jones ref acknowledging shortcomings modern geomorphologists andrew goudie karna lidmar bergstr praised elegance pedagogical value respectively ref name naten ref ref name goudie ref processes gorge cut indus river


fluids seafloor extraterrestrial impact aeolian processes wind eroded alcove near moab utah aeolian processes pertain activity winds specifically winds' ability shape surface earth winds may erode transport deposit materials effective agents regions sparse vegetation large supply fine unconsolidated sediments although water mass flow tend mobilize material wind environments aeolian processes important arid environments deserts biological processes beaver dams one tierra del fuego


constitute specific form zoogeomorphology type biogeomorphology interaction living organisms landforms biogeomorphologic processes many different forms probably profound importance terrestrial geomorphic system whole biology influence many geomorphic processes ranging biogeochemical processes controlling chemical weathering influence mechanical processes like burrowing tree throw soil development even controlling global erosion rates modulation climate carbon dioxide balance terrestrial landscapes role biology mediating surface processes definitively excluded


extremely rare may hold important information understanding geomorphology planets mars fluvial processes seif barchan dunes hellespontus region surface mars dunes mobile landforms created transport large volumes sand wind rivers streams conduits water also sediment water flows channel bed able mobilize sediment transport downstream either bed load suspended load dissolved load rate sediment transport depends availability sediment


river 's discharge rivers also capable eroding rock creating new sediment beds also coupling surrounding hillslopes way rivers thought setting base level large scale landscape evolution nonglacial environments rivers key links connectivity different landscape elements rivers flow across landscape generally increase size merging rivers network rivers thus formed drainage system systems take four general patterns dendritic radial rectangular trellis dendritic happens


common occurring underlying stratum stable without faulting drainage systems four primary components drainage basin alluvial valley delta plain receiving basin geomorphic examples fluvial landforms alluvial fans oxbow lakes fluvial terraces glacial processes features glacial landscape glaciers geographically restricted effective agents landscape change gradual movement ice valley causes abrasion plucking underlying rock abrasion produces fine sediment termed glacial flour debris transported glacier glacier recedes termed moraine glacial erosion


responsible u shaped valleys opposed v shaped valleys fluvial origin way glacial processes interact landscape elements particularly hillslope fluvial processes important aspect plio pleistocene landscape evolution sedimentary record many high mountain environments environments relatively recently glaciated longer may still show elevated landscape change rates compared never glaciated nonglacial geomorphic processes nevertheless conditioned past glaciation termed paraglacial processes concept contrasts periglacial processes directly driven formation melting


ice frost hillslope processes talus cones north shore isfjorden svalbard norway talus cones accumulations coarse hillslope debris foot slopes producing material ferguson slide active landslide merced river canyon california state highway primary access road yosemite national park soil regolith rock move downslope force gravity via creep slides flows topples falls mass wasting occurs terrestrial submarine slopes observed earth mars venus titan iapetus ongoing hillslope processes


change topology hillslope surface turn change rates processes hillslopes steepen certain critical thresholds capable shedding extremely large volumes material quickly making hillslope processes extremely important element landscapes tectonically active areas earth biological processes burrowing tree throw may play important roles setting rates hillslope processes igneous processes volcanic eruptive plutonic intrusive igneous processes important impacts geomorphology action volcanoes tends rejuvenize landscapes covering old


bedrock fabric less controls kind local morphology tectonics shape earthquakes terms minutes submerge large areas land creating new wetlands isostatic rebound account significant changes hundreds thousands years allows erosion mountain belt promote erosion mass removed chain belt uplifts long term plate tectonic dynamics give rise orogenic belts large mountain chains typical lifetimes many tens millions years form focal points high rates fluvial hillslope processes thus


aspects marine geomorphology ocean basins ultimate sinks large fraction terrestrial sediments depositional processes related forms eg sediment fans deltas particularly important elements marine geomorphology overlap fields considerable overlap geomorphology fields deposition material extremely important sedimentology weathering chemical physical disruption earth materials place exposure atmospheric near surface agents typically studied soil scientists environmental chemists essential component geomorphology


provides material moved first place civil environmental engineers concerned erosion sediment transport especially related canals slope stability natural hazards water quality coastal environmental management transport contaminants stream restoration glaciers cause extensive erosion deposition short period time making extremely important entities high latitudes meaning set conditions headwaters mountain born streams glaciology therefore important geomorphology see also bioerosion biogeology biogeomorphology biorhexistasy british society geomorphology coastal biogeomorphology


coastal erosion drainage system geomorphology erosion erosion prediction geologic modelling geomorphometry geotechnics hack 's law hydrologic modeling behavioral modeling hydrology orogeny physiographic regions world sediment transport soil morphology soils retrogression degradation stream capture thermochronology weathering list important publications geology references reading https wwwnprorg sections envisioning landscapes distant future ialenti vincent envisioning landscapes distant future npr cosmos culture anderson rs anderson sp ''geomorphology mechanics chemistry landscapes'' cambridge cambridge university press bierman pr montgomery dr ''key concepts geomorphology'' new york w h freeman ritter df kochel rc


miller jr ''process geomorphology'' london waveland pr inc hargitai h page canon tapia e rodrigue cm ''classification characterization planetary landforms'' hargitai h kereszturi eds encyclopedia planetary landforms cham springer external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwugborgbr home artigos classicos davis pdf geographical cycle cycle erosion https webarchiveorg web http discgsfcnasagov geomorphology indexshtml geomorphology space nasa http wwwgeomorphologyorguk british society geomorphology earth sciences geology geological processes gravity physical geography planetary science seismology topography


jean baptiste bourguignon d'anville 's map ancient egypt significant advance cartography subject allowing readers understand ancient modern sites clearly previously primary map used description de l' gypte '''egyptology''' ''egypt'' greek '' logia'' study ancient egyptian history language literature religion architecture art th millennium bc end native religious practices th century ad practitioner discipline egyptologist europe particularly continent egyptology primarily regarded

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Egyptology


given herodotus strabo diodorus siculus largely lost work manetho egyptian priest reign ptolemy ptolemy ii rd century bc ptolemies interested work ancient egyptians many egyptian monuments including pyramids restored ptolemies also built many new temples egyptian style romans also carried restoration work egypt middle ages throughout middle ages travelers pilgrimages holy land would occasionally detour visit sites egypt destinations would include cairo


environs holy family thought fled great pyramids thought joseph 's granaries built hebrew patriarch store grain years plenty number accounts ''itineraria'' survived offer insights conditions respective time periods ibn wahshiyya 's ce incorrect translation ancient egyptian hieroglyph alphabet abdul latif al baghdadi teacher cairo 's al azhar university th century wrote detailed descriptions ancient egyptian monuments similarly th century egyptian historian al maqrizi wrote detailed accounts egyptian antiquities european explorers


european exploration travel writings ancient egypt commenced th century occasional detours could considered scientific approach notably claude sicard beno de maillet frederic louis norden richard pococke early th century john greaves measured pyramids inspected broken obelisk domitian rome intended lord arundel 's collection london went publish illustrated ''pyramidographia'' jesuit scientist priest athanasius kircher perhaps first hint phonetic importance egyptian hieroglyphs demonstrating coptic vestige


british captured egypt french gained rosetta stone greek script translated respective egyptian hieroglyphs transliterated jean fran ois champollion marking beginning modern egyptology increasing knowledge egyptian writing study ancient egypt able proceed greater academic rigour champollion thomas young ippolito rosellini first egyptologists wide acclaim german karl richard lepsius early participant investigations egypt mapping excavating recording several sites english egyptologist flinders petrie introduced archaeological techniques


field preservation recording excavation field many highly educated amateurs also travelled egypt including women harriet martineau florence nightingale left accounts travels revealed learned familiarity latest european egyptology howard carter 's discovery tomb th dynasty king tutankhamun brought greater understanding egyptian relics wide acclaim field modern era ministry state antiquities controls excavation permits egyptologists conduct work field use geophysical methods applications


modern sensing techniques june european institute underwater archaeology ieasm directed franck goddio cooperation egyptian ministry antiquities discovered ancient sunken city thonis heracleion today abu qir bay statues colossal king queen display grand egyptian museum discovered artefacts exhibited bibliotheca alexandrina alexandria national museum anm excavations documented several publications march egyptian german team archaeologists unearthed eight meter year old statue included head torso thought depict pharaoh ramses ii


according khaled el enany egyptian antiquities minister statue likely thought king psammetich excavators also revealed nbsp cm long part limestone statue pharaoh seti ii excavating site august archaeologists ministry antiquities announced discovery five mud brick tombs bir esh shaghala dating back nearly years researchers also revealed worn masks gilded gold several large jars piece pottery unsolved ancient egyptian writing november october egyptian mission cooperation european institute


underwater archaeology announced discovery year old three sunken shipwrecks dated back roman era alexandria 's abu qir bay sunken cargo included royal head crystal perhaps belong commander roman armies antonio three gold coins era emperor octavius augustus large wooden planks pottery vessels april egyptian ministry antiquities announced discovery head bust roman emperor marcus aurelius temple kom ombo aswan work protect site groundwater april egyptian


probably dates saite persian period partly damaged wooden coffin saqqara last time similar mask found eyes covered obsidian calcite black hued gemstone possibly onyx finding mask could called sensation masks precious metal preserved present day tombs ancient egyptian dignitaries looted ancient times said hussein july archaeologists led zeinab hashish announced discovery year old ton black granite sarcophagus alexandria contained three damaged


oriental studies university warsaw november egyptian archaeological mission located seven ancient egyptian tombs ancient necropolis saqqara containing collection scarab cat mummies dating back fifth sixth dynasties three tombs used cats dating back years one four sarcophagi unsealed remains cat mummies unearthed gilded wooden statues cats one bronze dedicated cat goddess bastet addition funerary items dating back th dynasty


found besides skeletal remains cats mid december egyptian government announced discovery saqqara previously unknown year old tomb containing paintings fifty sculptures belongs wahtye high ranking priest served king neferirkare kakai fifth dynasty tomb also contains four shafts lead sarcophagus according al ahram january archaeologists headed mostafa waziri revealed collection tombs dated back second intermediate period kom al khelgan burials contained remains animals amulets scarabs carved


faience round oval pots handholds flint knives broken burned pottery burials included skulls skeletons bending position well preserved april archaeologists discovered mummified remains egyptians tomb aswan italian archaeologist patrizia piacentini professor egyptology university milan khaled el enany egyptian minister antiquities reported tomb remains ancient men women children found dates back greco roman period bc ad findings assumed belonging mother


child well preserved others suffered major destruction beside mummies artefacts including painted funerary masks vases bitumen used mummification pottery wooden figurines revealed thanks hieroglyphics tomb detected tomb belongs tradesman named tjit april expedition led member czech institute egyptology mohamed megahed discovered year old tomb near egypt 's saqqara necropolis saqqara archaeologists confirmed tomb belonged influential person named khuwy lived egypt th dynasty l shaped khuwy


tomb starts small corridor heading downwards antechamber larger chamber painted reliefs depicting tomb owner seated offerings table reported megahed paintings maintained brightness long time tomb mainly made white limestone bricks tomb tunnel entrance generally typical pyramids archaeologists say might connection khuwy pharaoh mausoleum found near pyramid egyptian pharaoh djedkare isesi ruled time july ancient granite columns smaller greek temple


ptolemaic dynasty one coffins opened mummy scanned x ray determining likely man age january tourism antiquities ministry announced discovery wooden sarcophagi burial shafts date back new kingdom period nbsp ft long papyrus contains texts book dead archaeologists led zahi hawass also found funerary temple naert warehouses made bricks saqqara january egyptian dominican researchers led kathleen martinez


also revealed narat name engraved fallen obelisk near main entrance previously unknown researchers naert wife teti first king sixth dynasty february archaeologists egyptian ministry tourism antiquities announced discovery ptolemaic period temple roman fort early coptic church inscription written hieratic script archaeological site called shiha fort aswan according mostafa waziri crumbling temple decorated palm leaf carvings incomplete sandstone panel described roman emperor according researcher abdel


badie generally church meters width contained oven used bake pottery four rooms long hall stairs stone tiles april egyptian archeologists announced discovery burial tombs koum el khulgan archeological site dakahlia governorate oval shaped tombs dated back predynastic period rectangular shaped tombs second intermediate period rest dated back naqada iii period tombs also contained remains adults baby buried jar group ovens stoves remnants mud brick


academic discipline research emmanuel de roug france samuel birch england heinrich brugsch germany flinders petrie another british egyptologist revolutionised field archaeology controlled scientifically recorded excavations petrie 's work determined egyptian culture dated back early bc british egypt exploration fund founded egyptologists promoted petrie 's methods scholars worked producing hieroglyphic dictionary developing demotic lexicon establishing outline ancient egyptian history ref name saylor united states founding oriental institute


university chicago expedition james henry breasted egypt nubia established egyptology legitimate field study breasted also started epigraphic survey make publish accurate copies monuments late th early th century metropolitan museum art university pennsylvania museum fine arts boston brooklyn institute fine arts institute fine arts new york university also conducted excavations egypt expanding american collections ref name saylor universities colleges offer degrees egyptology united states


include university chicago brown university new york university yale university indiana university bloomington also many programmes united kingdom including university oxford university cambridge swansea university university liverpool university manchester university london egyptology widely studied continental europe leiden university uppsala university offers english taught degree programs egyptology societies egyptology include society study ancient egypt society study ancient egyptian antiquities canada sussex egyptology society online


egypt exploration society according ucla standard text scholars referenced studies egyptology three decades ''lexikon der gyptologie'' l first volume published containing largely german language articles english french list egyptology journals journal egyptian archaeology journal ancient egyptian interconnections journal egyptian history journal american research center egypt journal ancient egyptian architecture journal near eastern studies revue d' gyptologie damqatum antiguo oriente cambridge archaeological journal journal mediterranean archaeology bulletin american schools oriental research ucla


chaney edward roma britannica cultural memory egypt lord arundel obelisk domitian ''roma britannica art patronage cultural exchange eighteenth century rome'' eds marshall k wolfe russell british school rome pp nbsp jacq christian ''magic mystery ancient egypt'' souvenir press manley bill ed ''the seventy great mysteries ancient egypt'' thames hudson mertz barbara ''red land black land daily life ancient egypt'' dodd mead mertz barbara ''temples tombs hieroglyphs popular history ancient egypt'' bedrick ''mysteries egypt'' national geographic


society external links sections content relevant antiquity articles books journals external resources expeditions fieldwork opportunities professional organizations list shows egyptology societies institutes oriental studies african studies


topographic map contour lines false color satellite image illustrates topography urban core new york metropolitan area manhattan center '''topography''' study forms features land surfaces topography area could refer surface forms features description especially depiction maps topography field geoscience planetary science concerned local detail general including relief also natural artificial features even local history culture meaning less common

Social science
Geography
Cartography
Topography


ancient rome detailed description place word comes greek ''topos'' place '' graphia'' writing classical literature refers writing place places largely called 'local history' britain europe general word topography still sometimes used original sense detailed military surveys britain beginning late eighteenth century called ordnance surveys term used th century generic topographic surveys maps earliest scientific surveys france called