somewhere fresh water usage world livestock production feed occupy third earth 's ice free land livestock production contributing factor species extinction desertification habitat destruction animal agriculture contributes species extinction various ways primary driver holocene extinction ref name worldscientists ref ref name bbcipbes ref ref name machovina ref ref name smithers ref habitat destroyed clearing forests converting land grow feed crops animal grazing predators herbivores frequently targeted hunted perceived threat livestock profits


example animal husbandry responsible deforestation amazon region addition livestock produce greenhouse gases cows produce million cubic metres methane per day accounts overall methane emissions planet ref name faoshadow ref livestock responsible human related emissions powerful long lived greenhouse gas nitrous oxide ref name faoshadow result ways mitigating animal husbandry 's environmental impact studied strategies include using biogas manure genetic selection immunization rumen defaunation outcompetition methanogenic archaea acetogens introduction

Applied science
Agriculture
Animal husbandry


methanotrophic bacteria rumen diet modification grazing management among others diet change ''asparagopsis taxiformis'' allowed reduction methane production experimental study three ruminants animal welfare since th century people become increasingly concerned welfare farm animals possible measures welfare include longevity behavior physiology reproduction freedom disease freedom immunosuppression standards laws animal welfare created worldwide broadly line widely held position western world form utilitarianism


morally acceptable humans use non human animals provided unnecessary suffering caused benefits humans outweigh costs livestock opposing view animals rights regarded property necessary use never used humans live export animals risen meet increased global demand livestock middle east animal rights activists objected long distance transport animals one result banning live exports new zealand david nibert professor sociology


wittenberg university posits based contemporary scholarship ethologists biologists sentience intelligence animals assume part animals' experience capture enslavement use slaying one suffering violence much involved direct physical violence also structural violence systemic oppression enslavement resulted inability meet basic needs loss self determination loss opportunity live natural way says remains domesticated animals thousands years ago found


archeological excavations revealed numerous bone pathologies provide evidence extreme suffering ref culture ''opening budget john bull giving breeches save bacon'' james gillray alt cartoon john bull giving breeches save bacon since th century farmer john bull represented english national identity first john arbuthnot 's political satires soon afterwards cartoons james gillray others including john tenniel likes food beer dogs horses country sports practical earth anti intellectual farm animals


widespread books songs children reality animal husbandry often distorted softened idealized giving children almost entirely fictitious account farm life books often depict happy animals free roam attractive countryside picture completely odds realities impersonal mechanized activities involved modern intensive farming ref name hoult ref dressed pigs beatrix potter 's ''the tale pigling bland'' alt illustration dressed pigs pigs example appear several beatrix potter 's little books piglet aa milne 's winnie pooh stories somewhat darkly hint


animals going slaughter babe dick king smith 's ''the sheep pig'' wilbur e b white 's ''charlotte 's web'' pigs tend bearers cheerfulness good humour innocence many books completely anthropomorphic dressing farm animals clothes walk two legs live houses perform human activities ref name hoult children 's song old macdonald farm describes farmer named macdonald various animals keeps celebrating noises make many urban children experience animal husbandry first time petting farm britain


five million people year visit farm kind presents risk infection especially children handle animals fail wash hands strain ''e coli'' infected people visited british interactive farm outbreak historic farms united states offer farmstays carefully curated version farming willing pay ref name searle ref sometimes giving visitors romanticised image pastoral idyll unspecified time pre industrial past ref name searle see also agribusiness animal science


dairy industry united states dairy industry united kingdom food vs feed zootechnics wildlife farming notes references citations sources saltini antonio ''storia delle scienze agrarie'' vols bologna clutton brock juliet ''the walking larder patterns domestication pastoralism predation'' unwin hyman london clutton brock juliet ''horse power history horse donkey human societies'' national history museum publications london fleming george guzzoni ''storia cronologica delle epizoozie dal av cristo sino al '' gazzetta medico veterinaria ii milano hall clutton brock juliet ''two hundred years


british farm livestock'' natural history museum publications london janick jules noller carl h rhyker charles l ''the cycles plant animal nutrition'' food agriculture scientific american books san francisco manger louis n ''a history life sciences'' dekker new york basel external links http wwwnaiaonlineorg us position statements animal husbandry animal husbandry practices national animal interest alliance


painting depicting lecture knight academy painted pieter isaacsz reinhold timm rosenborg castle part series seven paintings depicting seven independent arts painting illustrates rhetorics '''legal education''' education individuals principles practices theory law may undertaken several reasons including provide knowledge skills necessary admission legal practice particular jurisdiction provide greater breadth knowledge working professions politics business provide current lawyers advanced

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Legal education


training greater specialisation update lawyers recent developments law legal education take form variety programs including primary degrees law may studied either undergraduate graduate level depending country advanced academic degrees law masters doctoral degrees practice training courses prospective lawyers required pass countries may enter practice applied specialised law accreditation less formal degree programs provide specialised certification particular areas continuing legal education


members public students attend consultations citizens provided legal advice consultations probably held outside college pontiffs thus accessible interested canon ecclesiastical law studied universities medieval europe however institutions providing education domestic law country emerged later eighteenth century england legal education emerged late thirteenth century apprenticeships inns court controlled admission practice also provided legal training english universities taught roman canon law time


formal degrees focused native common law emerge forms primary degrees law ''gustavianum'' swedish uppsala university built museum one pioneers formal legal education many countries including commonwealth nations principal law degree undergraduate degree usually known bachelor laws llb graduates program eligible become lawyers passing country 's equivalent bar exam countries graduate law programs advanced degrees


allow depth study specialisation united states canada primary law degree graduate degree known juris doctor jd students may pursue degree completing undergraduate degree usually bachelor 's degree undergraduate degree field though american lawyers hold bachelor 's degrees humanities social sciences american law schools usually autonomous entity within larger university primary degrees law offered law schools known countries faculties law law schools may varying degrees


autonomy within particular university countries entirely independent post secondary educational institution advanced degrees law higher degrees allow advanced academic study include masters law llm coursework research doctoral degrees phd sjd practitioners may undertake masters law coursework obtain greater specialisation area practice many common law countries higher degree law common expected legal academics addition incorporating practical skills beneficial practitioners seeking


higher degrees better prepare respective legal area practice contrast higher degrees law uncommon united states even within academy practice training courses countries including united kingdom italy germany canada states australia final stages vocational legal education required qualify practice law carried outside university system requirements qualification barrister solicitor covered articles applied law programs specialist accreditation legal education providers countries


offer courses lead certificate accreditation applied legal practice particular specialisation continuing legal education continuing legal education also known continuing professional development programs informal seminars short courses provide legal practitioners opportunity update knowledge skills throughout legal career jurisdictions mandatory undertake certain amount continuing legal education year country australia australia universities offer law undergraduate entry course llb years combined degree course eg bsc llb bcom llb ba llb llb years


also offer three year postgraduate juris doctor jd program bond university queensland runs three full semesters year teaching mid january late december enables bond university law faculty offer llb usual semesters years also offer jd two years university technology sydney offer year accelerated jd program university melbourne introduced melbourne model whereby law available graduate degree students completed three year bachelor 's degree usually


arts degree eligible ref name lawharvard ref students combined degree programs would spend first years completing first bachelor 's degree together preliminary law subjects spend last years completing law degree jd alternatively one finish bachelor 's degree providing academic results high apply graduate entry year llb program australian law schools include university new england australian catholic university australian national university la trobe university flinders university bond university macquarie monash deakin unsw university tasmania adelaide victoria university sydney melbourne queensland university


technology university queensland university western australia university canberra canada professional law degree canada bachelor laws llb juris doctor jd common law jurisdictions bachelor laws licentiate law bachelor civil law llb lll bcl quebec civil law jurisdiction quebec civil law degrees transsystemic bcl jd previously called bcl llb program mcgill university undergraduate entry students admitted directly quebec 's pre university college program admittance llb also called jd program common law requires least


two years undergraduate education although completed undergraduate degree usually required practice vast majority admitted already earned least undergraduate bachelor 's degree change academic nomenclature designating common law degree jd rather llb currently completed consideration number canadian schools affected level instruction degree china germany germany law degrees historically exist unnecessary legal practice ref name ref however wish enter legal


''justizpr fungsamt'' body state administration justice ref name failure rates st state examination ref name written part concerns analysis legal issues ref name passing st state examination candidates undertake two year legal traineeship ''referendariat'' organized federal states ref name legal traineeship candidates must take nd state examination failure rates far lower st state examination ref name written exam consists drafting judgments contract legal documents also oral exam passing


india law studied llb bachelor laws bl bachelor law three year graduate degree completion bachelor 's degree alternatively standard one join integrated five year law course provides option avail ba llb bba llb bsc llb india applied legal education specific branches law also offered business law human resource labour laws property laws family laws human rights legal awareness taxation law many italy france law italy france studied


jurisprudence school entity within larger university legal education started immediately obtained diploma italian french law schools affiliated public universities thus public institutions consequence law schools required admit anyone holding baccalaureate however failure rate extremely high first two years licenza diritto vast disparities quality southern european law schools many schools focus respective city region law school program divided following european standards


university studies bologna process first license law program ''licence de droit'' three year period master law program ''master de droit'' two year period phd law ''doctorat en droit'' three year period often first year master program specialized public law private law business law european international law etc second year master law program work oriented research oriented students write substantial thesis apply doctoral programs eg phd law second year competitive entry based


justice opened university tokyo faculty law changed imperial university matriculate university tokyo students finish ten fifteen years compulsory education acceptance therefore available small elite law program produced politically dependable graduates fill fast track administrative positions government also known high civil servants koto bunkan serve judges prosecutors private law schools opened around lacked government funding given university tokyo quality education lagged behind students


pass examination matriculate private law schools many completed middle school private law schools produced large portion private attorneys graduates often ineligible apply government positions imperial university faculty law given supervisory authority many private law schools promulgated legal curriculum comprising six basic codes constitutional law civil law commercial law civil procedure criminal law criminal procedure basic structure survived japanese legal education end twentieth century


devoted litigation practice virtually training given aspects legal practice eg contract drafting legal research period capable trainees selected become career judges others may become prosecutors private practitioners japanese diet passed law allowing creation graduate level law school offer jd h mu hakushi bar examination first japanese history require law school degree prerequisite past although educational requirement


training institute one year ref name lawharvard number law related professions exist japan patent agents ''benrishi'' tax accountants ''zeirishi'' scriveners etc entry governed separate examination attorneys bengoshi qualified practice law automatically qualified patent agents tax accountants additional examination vice versa korea legal education korea driven examination profession barristers highly regulated pass rate bar exam around five percent prospective attorneys pass exam


usually take two three times passing number specialized private educational institutes exist prospective lawyers passing bar exam prospective barristers undergo two year training period judicial research training institute supreme court korea period capable trainees selected become career judges others may become prosecutors private practitioners korean government passed law allowing creation three year law schools '' '' according new law old system selecting lawyers examination


phased us style law schools sole route become lawyer ref name lawharvard february ministry education korea selected universities open law schools total enrollment law schools capped source contention powerful korea bar association citizen groups school administrators uproar among schools failed get government 's approval even among schools get approval dissatisfaction due extremely low enrollment number several


pre university qualification malaysian higher school certificate level international baccalaureate foundation course diploma generally law degree programmes malaysia consist civil law subjects institutions national university malaysia international islamic university malaysia universiti sultan zainal abidin include sharia islamic law courses requirements admission graduation malaysian law graduates universities uk australia new zealand allowed practice law malaysia however required obtain certificate legal practice laws malaysia new


university canterbury law students society original canterbury law students society established philippines law degree programs considered graduate programs philippines admission law schools requires completion bachelor 's degree sufficient number credits units certain subject areas legal education philippines regulated supervised legal education board statutorily created independent body chaired retired member supreme court court appeals first chairman justice hilarion aquino sitting


members board representative law professors representative law deans representative commission higher education membership student representative subject continuing debate resistance part law schools graduation philippine law school constitutes primary eligibility requirement philippine bar examinations administered supreme court month september every year order eligible take bar examinations one must complete either two professional degrees bachelor laws llb


college graduate school law graduate programs law also regulated legal education board legal education philippines normally proceeds along following route undergraduate education usually years law school usually years admission bar usually taking philippine bar exam legal practice mandatory continuing legal education russia ukraine law degree jurist often compared llm fact equivalent degree specialist specific soviet educational system awarded russia ukraine years study university


jurist degree may also awarded shorter period time law student already completed bachelor specialist degree another field studies previously earned basic law degree comparable paralegal associate degree us specialized law college bachelor jurist degree equivalent bachelor laws llb may earned concurrently another bachelor 's master 's degree universities comparable double major note fused one degree specialist educational scheme coexisted two degree bachelor 's master 's scheme since russia ukraine launched higher education


reforms bring domestic educational systems closer compliance bologna accords see also academic degree latest educational reforms created new system four year law program offered universities earning bachelor 's degree five year law program offered master 's degree degree specialist longer awarded renamed master 's degree serbia become lawyer serbia students must graduate accredited faculty law first level studies last four years eight semesters possible enroll master 's degree phd


studies programmes become student faculty law candidate must pass admission test practical training students organized courts law local international moot court competitions lawyer must pass national bar examination become attorney judge prosecutor order take bar exam necessary complete year studies programme certain amount work experience ie paralegal attorneys also attained master 's degree law passing bar exam


llm lld phd depending university master 's dissertation reflects ability conduct independent research whereas doctoral thesis addition constitute original contribution field law question doctorate generally required positions legal academia see historically bproc bjuris legal degrees offered undergraduate level four year bproc qualified one practise attorney become prosecutor magistrate lower courts allow admission advocate three year bjuris basic


requirement prosecutors magistrates lower courts qualify one practise attorney offered admission llb admission attorney one serves articles candidate attorney practising attorney two years writes board exam set relevant http wwwlssaorgza indexcfmfuseaction homepage pageid provincial law society see attorneys south africa length articles may reduced attending practical legal training course performing community service attorneys may additionally qualify notaries conveyancers via conveyancing notarial practice examinations


technical scientific training may qualify patent attorneys requirements enter private practice advocates junior counsel become members http wwwsabarcoza membershtml bar association undergoing period training pupilage one year practicing advocate sit admission examination recommendation bar councils advocate proven experience skill least ten years experience may appointed president south africa senior counsel sc also referred silk see advocates south africa act regulating admission


practise law qualifications legal practitioners amendment act revised south american countries law south america one unified world countries said follow civil law systems although recent developments law brazil suggest move towards ' 'stare decisis'' doctrine sri lanka order practice law sri lanka lawyer must 'admitted enrolled attorney law supreme court democratic socialist republic sri lanka admitted bar


one able qualify practice barrister legal executive solicitor bar professional training course regarded one hardest degrees presently expensive law related degree united states william mary school law established oldest law school usa education lawyers united states generally undertaken law school program although states california virginia applicants attended law school may qualify take bar exam legal education united states


states strictly regulate ability attorneys style doctor research degrees awarded include master laws llm doctor juridical science degrees jsd sjd doctor comparative law dcl post undergraduate research academic based level degrees us legum doctor lld awarded honorary degree number law students apply optional judicial clerkship less end position taken law school legal practice clerkships usually last one year appellate courts trial level courts including


federal district court increasingly moving towards two year clerkships student graduated law school student expected pursue admission bar order practice requirements membership bar vary across united states almost every state way admitted bar pass usually multi day written examination admitted states require attorneys must meet certain continuing legal education cle requirements academic degrees non lawyers available baccalaureate master 's level common baccalaureate level degree bachelor science


'''political history''' narrative survey political events ideas movements organs government voters parties leaders closely related fields history including diplomatic history constitutional history social history people 's history public history political history studies organization operation power large societies approximately onwards rise competing subdisciplines particularly social history cultural history led decline prominence traditional political history tended focus activities political elites two decades proportion


professors history american universities identifying social history rose proportion political historians fell political world history political history world examines history politics government global scale including international relations aspects political history first scientific political history written leopold von ranke germany th century methodologies profoundly affected way historians critically examine sources see historiography complete analysis methodology various approaches history important


aspect political history study ideology force historical change one author asserts political history whole cannot exist without study ideological differences implications studies political history typically centre around single nation political change development historians identify growing trend towards narrow specialization political history recent decades college professor sought identify historian american historian designation onwards new movements challenged traditional approaches political history


development social history shifted emphasis away study leaders national decisions towards role ordinary people especially outsiders minorities younger scholars shifted different issues usually focused race class gender little room elites social history began fade replaced postmodern cultural approaches rejected grand narrative united states new political history traditional political history focused major leaders long played dominant role among academic historians united states studies accounted


scholarly books articles written american historians followed diplomacy arrival new interest social history led emergence new political history saw young scholars put much emphasis voters' behavior motivation rather politicians relied heavily quantitative methods integrate social themes especially regarding ethnicity religion new social science approach harbinger fading away interest great men eclipse traditional political approaches


major shock though diplomatic history fell even upstaged social history race class gender model number political articles submitted ''journal american history'' fell half patterson argued contemporary events especially vietnam war watergate alienated younger scholars away study politicians deeds political history never disappeared never recovered dominance among scholars despite sustained high popularity among reading public political historians made fun predicament william leuchtenburg wrote


status political historians within profession sunk somewhere faith healer chiropractor political historians right way might want bring one home meet family others analytical hugh davis graham observed ranks traditional political historians depleted assumptions methods discredited along great white man whose careers chronicled britain readman discusses historiography british political history th century describes british political scholarship mostly ignored th


century history due temporal proximity recent past unavailability primary sources potential bias article explores transitions scholarship allowed greater interest th century history among scholars include less reliance archival sources methodological changes historiography flourishing new forms history oral history germany course however german historians notably hans ulrich wehler cohort began rebel idea instead suggesting primacy domestic politics ''primat der innenpolitik'' insecurities


case german domestic policy drove creation foreign policy led considerable body work interpreting domestic policies various states ways influenced conduct foreign policy france french ''annales school'' already put emphasis role geography economics history importance broad slow cycles rather constant apparent movement history events high politics downplayed politics diplomacy important work ''annales'' school fernand braudel 's ''the mediterranean mediterranean world


age philip ii'' contains traditional rankean diplomatic history philip ii 's mediterranean policy third shortest section work largely focusing broad cycles history ''longue dur e'' long term ''annales'' broadly influential leading turning away political history towards emphasis broader trends economic environmental change social history increasing emphasis giving voice voiceless writing history underclasses whether using quantitative statistical methods social


history postmodern assessments cultural history also undermined centrality politics historical discipline leff noted social historians disdained political history elitist shallow altogether passe irrelevant drama everyday lives history political regimes institutions maxrange data project defines shows detail political status development institutional regimes states world maxrange also describes background development external sources major causes behind political changes maxrange dataset defining level democracy institutional structure regime type


graded scale every value represents unique regimetype values sorted based level democracy political accountability maxrange defines value regimetype corresponding states every month updating maxrange created developed max range associated university halmstad sweden see also historiography diplomatic history social history references reading callaghan john et al eds ''interpreting labour party approaches labour politics history'' https wwwquestiacom read interpreting labour party approaches labour online also http wwwoapenorg downloadtype document docid page online free british craig david 'high


politics' 'new political history' ''historical journal'' british https droduracuk pdf online elton g r ''the practice history'' british french john http dukespacelibdukeedu dspace bitstream handle john french olcott feminist politicalpdfsequence women postrevolutionary mexico emergence new feminist political history ''latin american politics society'' pp huret romain https wwwcambridgeorg core journals journal policy history article family political historians challenge social history fccf ffa f cfdf b family political historians challenge social history ''journal policy history'' kowol kit renaissance right new directions history post war conservative party ''twentieth century british history'' https wwwacademiaedu renaissance right new directions history post war conservative party online


pasquino gianfranco https wwwcambridgeorg core journals journal policy history article political history italy cbd e adb e dc e political history italy ''journal policy history'' july vol issue pp discusses political historians silvio lanaro aurelio lepre nicola tranfaglia studies fascism italian communist party role christian democrats italian society development italian parliamentary republic https musejhuedu article summary excerpt ranger terence https wwwtandfonlinecom doi abs nationalist historiography patriotic history history nation struggle past zimbabwe ''journal southern african studies'' readman paul https wwwcambridgeorg core journals journal policy history article state twentiethcentury british political history ab c c bf eeaca ed state twentieth century british political history ''journal


policy history'' july vol issue pp smith anthony '' https booksgooglecom bookshl en lr id mxhxe lgmhec oi fnd pg pr dq nation history historiographical debates ethnicity nationalism ots gy vq u b sig kxwvnimbyoxa exekqfrbqxtaka v onepage q nation history historiographical debates ethnicity nationalism f false nation history historiographical debates ethnicity nationalism '' new england sreedharan e ''a manual historical research methodology'' trivandrum centre south indian studies sreedharan e ''a textbook historiography bc ad '' new delhi orient longman usa bogue allan g united states 'new' political history ''journal contemporary history'' pp https wwwjstororg stable jstor gillon steven future political history ''journal policy history''


usa graham hugh davis stunted career policy history critique agenda ''public historian'' policy history closely related topic https wwwjstororg stable online jacobs meg william j novak julian zelizer eds ''the democratic experiment new directions american political history'' princeton jensen richard j historiography american political history jack greene ed ''encyclopedia american political history'' scribner 's vol pp https wwwacademiaedu historiography american political history moralistic storytellers new political history baconian facts function system social forces newtonian politics pragmatism interests ethnocultural voters force ideas bibliography online larson john lauritz michael morrison eds ''whither early republic forum future field'' u pennsylvania press


historiography british politics https mbsbhamwordpresscom programme rethinking modern british studies abstracts papers https academicoupcom dh scholarly journal ''diplomatic history'' http wwwmtholyokeedu acad intrel irhistryhtm documents diplomatic history https webarchiveorg web http fletchertuftsedu inter resources dhpgenresourceshtml fletcher school tufts international relations resources https webarchiveorg web http dcatuftsedu features aas new nation votes american elections returns french website '' http wwwparlementsorg comit d'histoire parlementaire et politique '' parliamentary political history committee '' http wwwparlementsorg revueparlementshtml parlement revue d'histoire politique '' published three times year contains lot information french political history including references scholarly political history studies bibliography parliamentary history fields history


'''teratology''' study abnormalities physiological development organisms including plants entire life span sub discipline medical genetics focuses classification congenital abnormalities dysmorphology related term developmental toxicity includes manifestations abnormal development caused environmental insult may include growth retardation delayed mental development congenital disorders without structural malformations '''teratogens''' substances may cause birth defects via toxic effect embryo fetus ref name teratogens ref known teratogens include retinol thalidomide mercury alcohol lead polychlorinated biphenyls pcbs

Natural science
Biology
Developmental biology
Teratology


tetrachlorodibenzodioxin etymology term borrowed french ''t ratologie'' formed greek ''teras'' word stem ''terat '' meaning sign sent gods portent marvel monster '' ology'' used designate discourse treaty science theory study topic early th century ''teratology'' referred discourse prodigies marvels anything extraordinary seem abnormal th century acquired meaning closely related biological deformities mostly field botany currently instrumental


meaning medical study teratogenesis congenital malformations individuals significant malformations historically people used many pejorative terms describe label cases significant physical malformations david w smith university washington medical school one researchers became known discovery fetal alcohol syndrome ref name jonesetal ref popularized term ''teratology'' growth understanding origins birth defects field teratology overlaps fields science including developmental biology embryology genetics teratologists regarded birth defects


primarily hereditary first well documented cases environmental agents cause severe birth defects reported mammalia teratogenesis along new awareness ''in utero'' vulnerability developing mammalian embryo came development refinement ''the six principles teratology'' still applied today principles teratology put forth jim wilson monograph ''environment birth defects'' ref name isbn ref principles guide study understanding teratogenic agents effects developing organisms susceptibility teratogenesis depends


genotype conceptus manner interacts adverse environmental factors susceptibility teratogenesis varies developmental stage time exposure adverse influence critical periods susceptibility agents organ systems affected agents teratogenic agents act specific ways developing cells tissues initiate sequences abnormal developmental events access adverse influences developing tissues depends nature influence several factors affect ability teratogen contact developing conceptus nature


agent route degree maternal exposure rate placental transfer systemic absorption composition maternal embryonic fetal genotypes four manifestations deviant development death malformation growth retardation functional defect manifestations deviant development increase frequency degree dosage increases observable adverse effect level noael dose producing lethality ld studies designed test teratogenic potential environmental agents use animal model systems eg rat mouse rabbit dog monkey early teratologists exposed pregnant animals environmental agents observed


fetuses gross visceral skeletal abnormalities still part teratological evaluation procedures today field teratology moving molecular level seeking mechanism action agents act one example use mammalian animal models evaluate molecular role teratogens development embryonic populations neural crest lead development neurocristopathies genetically modified mice commonly used purpose addition pregnancy registries large prospective studies monitor exposures women receive


pregnancies record outcome births studies provide information possible risks medications exposures human pregnancies prenatal alcohol exposure pae produce craniofacial malformations phenotype visible fetal alcohol syndrome current evidence suggests craniofacial malformations occur via apoptosis neural crest cells interference neural crest cell migration well disruption sonic hedgehog shh signaling understanding '''teratogen''' causes effect important preventing congenital abnormalities also potential developing new therapeutic drugs safe use pregnant women


alcohol alcohol known act teratogen prenatal alcohol exposure pae remains leading cause birth defects neurodevelopmental abnormalities united states affecting per live births us per populations high levels alcohol use humans humans congenital disorders resulted deaths globally ref name loz ref newborns major physical anomaly meaning physical anomaly cosmetic functional significance vaccinating pregnant humans vaccination become readily available important


prevention diseases like polio rubella smallpox covid among others association congenital malformations vaccination shown finland expecting mothers received oral polio vaccine saw difference infant outcomes mothers received vaccine ref name harj ref however still recommended vaccinate polio pregnant unless risk infection another important implication includes ability get influenza vaccine pregnant influenza pandemics mortality pregnant women however


nutrition pregnancy humans result spina bifida folic acid synthetic form folate acid folic added processed food products flour breakfast cereals high levels un metabolized folic acid associated several health problems physical restraint example potter syndrome due oligohydramnios humans genetic disorders alcohol consumption pregnancy animals fossil record evidence congenital deformities found fossil record studied paleopathologists specialists ancient disease injury fossils bearing evidence congenital deformity scientifically significant help scientists


infer evolutionary history life 's developmental processes instance ''tyrannosaurus rex'' specimen discovered block vertebra means vertebrae developing basic way since least recent common ancestor dinosaurs mammals notable fossil deformities include hatchling specimen bird like dinosaur ''troodon'' tip whose jaw twisted ref name molnar pathology molnar r e theropod paleopathology literature survey mesozoic vertebrate life edited tanke h carpenter k indiana university press p ref another notably deformed fossil specimen


choristodere ''hyphalosaurus'' two heads oldest known example polycephaly chick embryo limb development thalidomide teratogen known significantly detrimental development certain body parts organs body eyes heart embryogenesis observed many different organisms experience different impacts teratogens organ morphogenesis development overall one organisms popular study malformations created thalidomide chick embryos observed thalidomide induces limb outgrowth deformities inducing oxidative stress thereby enhancing genetic


signaling irregular expression bone morphogenic proteins bmp according study performed results revealed increased oxidative stress thalidomide promotes regulation bmp target gene wnt antagonist dkk turn inhibited canonical wnt b catenin signaling increase cell death observed thalidomide induced cell death significantly reduced introduction inhibitors bmp dkk wnt antagonist gsk b b catenin antagonist administered chick embryos cell death limb tissue decreased results helped conclude three


pathways significantly impacted thalidomide chick limb development teratogenic outcomes limb development deficiencies thalidomide creates reversed three pathways inhibited mouse embryo limb development retinoic acid ra significant embryonic development induces function limb patterning developing embryo species mice vertebrate limbs example process regenerating newt limb increased amount ra moves limb proximal distal blastoma extent proximalization limb increases


amount ra present regeneration process study looked ra activity intracellularly mice relation human regulating cyp enzymes play critical role metabolizing ra study also helps reveal ra significant various aspects limb development embryo however irregular control excess amounts ra teratogenic impacts causing malformations limb development looked specifically cyp b highly expressed regions limb development mice lack cyp b shown cause spread ra signal towards


distal section limb causing proximo distal patterning irregularities limb show spreading ra deficiency cyp b also showed induced apoptosis effect developing mouse limb delayed chondrocyte maturation cells secrete cartilage matrix significant limb structure also looked happened development limbs wild type mice mice cyp b deficiencies excess amount ra present embryo results showed similar impact limb patterning


mice cyp b deficiency meaning still proximal distal patterning deficiency observed excess ra present concludes ra plays role morphogen identify proximal distal patterning limb development mice embryos cyp b significant prevent apoptosis limb tissues proper development mice limbs vivo plantae botany teratology investigates theoretical implications abnormal specimens example discovery abnormal flowers example flowers leaves instead petals flowers staminoid pistils furnished important evidence foliar


theory theory flower parts highly specialised leaves types deformations plants plants mutations leads different types deformations fasciation development apex growing tip flat plane perpendicular axis elongation variegation degeneration genes manifesting among things anomalous pigmentation virescence anomalous development green pigmentation unexpected parts plant phyllody floral organs fruits transformed leaves witch 's broom unusually high multiplication branches upper part plant mainly


tree pelorism zygomorphic flower regress ancestral actinomorphic symmetry proliferation repetitive growth entire organ flower galls part plant teratology formed due external factors like insects bites parasites see also carcinogen congenital abnormalities mutagen retinoic acid teratoma thalidomide references external links http wwwteratologyorg society teratology http wwwetsoccom european teratology society http wwwotispregnancyorg organization teratology information specialists http wwwmarchofdimesorg march dimes foundation https webarchiveorg web http wwwnyamorg library rare book room exhibits telling wonders telling wonders teratology western medicine new york academy medicine historical collections http wwwreprotoxorg


reproductive toxicology center database alcohol health developmental biology radiation health effects substance related disorders teratology


'''contract''' legally binding agreement defines governs rights duties among parties contract legally enforceable meets requirements applicable law contract typically involves exchange goods services money promise event breach contract injured party may seek judicial remedies damages cancellation anglo american common law formation contract generally requires offer acceptance consideration mutual intent bound party must


binding contract although oral contracts binding types contracts may require formalities writing deed civil law tradition contract law branch law obligations country recognised private international law national system law govern contracts although systems contract law might similarities may contain significant differences accordingly many contracts contain choice law clause jurisdiction clause provisions set laws country govern contract country


forum disputes resolved respectively failing express agreement matters contract countries rules determine law governing contract jurisdiction disputes example european member states apply article rome regulation decide law governing contract brussels regulation decide jurisdiction formation common law elements contract offer acceptance intention create legal relations consideration legality form content agreements necessarily contractual parties generally must


deemed intention legally bound called gentlemen 's agreement one intended legally enforceable binding honour agreement offer acceptance order legally enforceable contract formed parties must reach mutual assent also called meeting minds contemporarily known 'agreement' typically reached offer acceptance vary offer 's terms known mirror image rule offer definite statement offeror 's willingness bound certain


conditions met purported acceptance vary terms offer acceptance counteroffer therefore simultaneously rejection original offer court cannot read minds intent parties interpreted objectively perspective reasonable person determined early english case ''smith v hughes'' important note offer specifies particular mode acceptance acceptance communicated via method valid contracts may bilateral unilateral bilateral contract


side promise anything cases accepting offer required communicate acceptance offeror reward contract example person lost dog could promise reward dog found publication orally payment could additionally conditioned dog returned alive learn reward required search dog someone finds dog delivers promisor required pay similar case advertisements deals bargains


general rule contractual offers merely invitation treat bargain applicability rule disputed contains various exceptions high court australia stated term unilateral contract unscientific misleading certain circumstances implied contract may created contract implied fact circumstances imply parties reached agreement even though done expressly example john smith former lawyer may implicitly enter contract visiting doctor examined patient refuses


pay examined patient breached contract implied fact contract implied law also called quasi contract fact contract rather means courts remedy situations one party would unjustly enriched required compensate quantum meruit claims example invitation treat something advertised newspaper poster advertisement normally constitute offer instead invitation treat


indication one parties prepared negotiate deal carbolic smoke ball offer exception arises advertisement makes unilateral promise offer reward famous case ''carlill v carbolic smoke ball co'' decided nineteenth century england company pharmaceutical manufacturer advertised smoke ball would sniffed three times daily two weeks prevent users catching 'flu smoke ball failed prevent 'flu company promised would pay user adding deposited


alliance bank show sincerity matter mrs carlill sued money company argued advert taken serious legally binding offer instead mere puff court appeal held would appear reasonable man carbolic made serious offer determined reward contractual promise although invitation treat cannot accepted ignored may nevertheless affect offer instance offer made response


invitation span lang simple treat span offer may incorporate terms invitation treat unless offer expressly incorporates different terms ''boots case'' offer made action without negotiations presenting goods cashier offer presumed terms invitation treat auctions governed sale goods act amended section provides sale auction complete auctioneer announces completion fall hammer customary manner


announcement made bidder may retract bid electronic contracts entry contracts online become common many jurisdictions passed e signature laws made electronic contract signature legally valid paper contract india e contracts governed indian contract act according certain conditions need fulfilled formulating valid contact certain sections information technology act also provide validity online contract us states email exchanges become binding contracts new york courts held principles


real estate contracts apply equally electronic communications electronic signatures long contents subscription meet requirements governing statute pursuant electronic signatures records act esra intention legally bound commercial agreements presumed parties intend legally bound unless parties expressly state opposite heads agreement document example ''rose frank co v jr crompton bros ltd'' agreement two business parties enforced honour clause document stated


commercial legal agreement statement intention parties contrast domestic social agreements children parents typically unenforceable basis public policy example english case ''balfour v balfour'' husband agreed give wife month away home court refused enforce agreement husband stopped paying contrast ''merritt v merritt'' court enforced agreement estranged couple circumstances suggested agreement intended


smoking enforceable '''only''' one thereby surrendering legal right ''dunlop v selfridge'' lord dunedin adopted pollack 's metaphor purchase sale explain consideration called consideration 'the price promise bought' colonial times concept consideration exported many common law countries unknown scotland civil law jurisdictions roman law based systems neither require recognise consideration commentators suggested consideration abandoned estoppel used replace basis contracts however legislation rather


judicial development touted way remove entrenched common law doctrine lord justice denning famously stated doctrine consideration firmly fixed overthrown side wind ref name high trees ref united states emphasis shifted process bargaining exemplified ''hamer v sidway'' courts typically weigh adequacy consideration provided consideration determined sufficient sufficiency defined meeting test law whereas adequacy subjective fairness equivalence instance agreeing sell car


penny may constitute binding contract although transaction attempt avoid tax treated tax authority though market price paid parties may tax purposes attempting disguise gift transactions contracts known ''peppercorn rule'' jurisdictions penny may constitute legally insufficient ''nominal consideration'' exception rule adequacy money whereby debt must always paid full accord satisfaction per incuriam ref name high trees however consideration must given


part entering contract prior past consideration example early english case ''eastwood v kenyon'' guardian young girl took loan educate married husband promised pay debt loan determined past consideration insufficiency past consideration related ''pre existing duty rule'' early english case ''stilk v myrick'' captain promised divide wages two deserters among remaining crew agreed sail home


contracting company acted ''ultra vires'' beyond power another example might people mentally incapacitated either disability drunkenness contractual party must competent person legal capacity parties may natural persons individuals juristic persons corporations agreement formed offer accepted parties must intention legally bound valid agreement must proper form lawful object england jurisdictions using english contract principles parties must also exchange consideration


performance enforceable injunction may available damages insufficient typically contracts oral written written contracts typically preferred common law legal systems england passed statute frauds influenced similar statute frauds laws united states countries australia general uniform commercial code adopted united states requires written contract tangible product sales excess real estate contracts required written contract required law written


oral contract valid therefore legally binding united kingdom since replaced original statute frauds written contracts still required various circumstances land law property act oral contract may also called parol contract verbal contract verbal meaning spoken rather words established usage british english regards contracts agreements common although somewhat deprecated loose american english ref name garner ref contract written form somebody signs signer


typically bound terms regardless whether actually read ref name l'estrange v graucob ref name toll v alphapharm provided document contractual nature however affirmative defenses duress unconscionability may enable signer avoid obligation reasonable notice contract 's terms must given party prior entry contract ref name balmain new ferry courtname auto date december ref ref name baltic shipping v dillon ref unwritten unspoken contract also known contract implied acts parties either implied fact contract


implied law contract may also legally binding implied fact contracts real contracts parties receive benefit bargain ref name bp refinery ref however contracts implied law also known quasi contracts remedy quantum meruit fair market value goods services rendered contract terms construction interpretation contractual term provision forming part contract term gives rise contractual obligation breach give rise litigation terms stated expressly terms carry less legal weight peripheral


objectives contract uncertainty incompleteness severance terms contract uncertain incomplete parties cannot reached agreement eyes law agreement agree constitute contract inability agree key issues may include things price safety may cause entire contract fail however court attempt give effect commercial contracts possible construing reasonable construction contract new south wales even uncertainty incompleteness contract


contract may still binding parties sufficiently certain complete clause requiring parties undergo arbitration negotiation mediation courts may also look external standards either mentioned explicitly contract implied common practice certain field addition court may also imply term price excluded court may imply reasonable price exception land second hand goods unique uncertain incomplete clauses contract options resolving true meaning


content depending upon context jurisdiction terms establish conditions precedent english necessarily non english common law distinguishes important ''conditions'' warranties breach condition one party allowing repudiate discharged warranty allows remedies damages complete discharge ref name gillies gillies p ''concise contract law'' https booksgooglecom booksid h mdpmgembac pg pa p federation press ref ref name luna park v tramways courtname auto date december ref whether term ''condition'' determined part parties' intent ref name luna park v tramways less technical sense however


condition precedent insured complete defense payment claims ref name burling general insurance law warranty promise must complied ref name burling burling jm research handbook international insurance law regulation edward elgar publishing ref product transactions warranties promise product continue function certain period time united kingdom courts determine whether term condition warranty example actress' obligation perform opening night theatrical production ''condition'' singer 's obligation rehearse


may warranty statute may also declare term nature term condition warranty example sale goods act provides terms title description quality sample generally ''conditions'' united kingdom also contrived concept intermediate term also called innominate first established ''hong kong fir shipping co ltd v kawasaki kisen kaisha ltd'' representations versus warranties statements fact contract obtaining contract considered either warranties representations traditionally warranties factual promises


enforced contract legal action regardless materiality intent reliance ref name west lewis representations traditionally precontractual statements allow tort based action tort deceit misrepresentation negligent fraudulent ref name primack primack http wwwnatlawreviewcom article representations warranties covenants back basics contracts representations warranties covenants back basics contracts ''national law review'' ref historically tort action available breach warranty became separate legal contractual action ref name west lewis us law distinction two somewhat unclear ref name west lewis warranties viewed primarily contract based legal action negligent fraudulent


misrepresentations tort based confusing mix case law united states ref name west lewis west gd lewis wb http wwwweilcom files publication ccf e b b e presentation publicationattachment fb f extra contractual liability articlepdf contracting avoid extra contractual liability contractual deal ever really entire deal ''the business lawyer'' ref modern english law sellers often avoid using term 'represents' order avoid claims misrepresentation act america 'warrants represents' relatively common ref name jonesday ferara ln philips j runnicles j http wwwjonesdaycom differences law practice uk us stock purchase agreements differences law practice uk us stock purchase agreements ''jones day publications'' ref modern commentators suggest avoiding words


substituting 'state' 'agree' model forms use words ref name primack however others disagree statements contract may upheld court finds statements subjective promotional puffery english courts may weigh emphasis relative knowledge determining whether statement enforceable part contract english case ''bannerman v white'' court upheld rejection buyer hops treated sulphur since buyer explicitly expressed importance requirement relative knowledge parties may


also factor english case ''bissett v wilkinson'' ref name bissett v wilkinson ''bissett v wilkinson'' ac ref court find misrepresentation seller said farmland sold would carry sheep worked one team buyer considered sufficiently knowledgeable accept reject seller 's opinion standard terms contracts adhesion standard form contracts contain boilerplate set one size fits contract provisions however term may also narrowly refer conditions end contract specify governing law provision


contracts insurance partnerships require utmost good faith others may require good faith employment contracts agency english contracts '''not''' need good faith provided law met however overarching concept legitimate expectation countries statutes deal directly sale goods lease transactions trade practices united states prominent examples include case products implied warranty merchantability fitness particular purpose case homes implied warranty habitability united kingdom implied terms may


created statute sale goods act consumer rights act hague visby rules common law ''the moorcock'' introduced business efficacy test previous dealings ''spurling v bradshaw'' custom ''hutton v warren'' terms implied custom term may implied basis custom usage particular market context australian case ''con stan industries australia pty ltd v norwich winterthur aust limited'' ref name con stan industries v norwich ref requirements term implied custom set


''scruttons v midland silicones'' ''nz shipping v satterthwaite'' established third parties could gain protection limitation clauses within bill lading common law exceptions agency assignment negligence allowed circumvention privity rules unpopular doctrine remained intact amended contracts rights third parties act provides blockquote person party contract third party may right enforce contract contract expressly provides may b contract


purports confer benefit blockquote performance performance varies according particular circumstances contract performed called executory contract completed executed contract cases may substantial performance complete performance allows performing party partially compensated research business management also paid attention influence contracts relationship development performance defenses vitiating factors constituting defences purported contract formation include mistake ''non est factum'' incapacity including mental incompetence infancy minority duress


undue influence unconscionability misrepresentation fraud frustration purpose defenses operate determine whether purported contract either nbsp void nbsp voidable void contracts cannot ratified either party voidable contracts ''can'' ratified misrepresentation misrepresentation means false statement fact made one party another party effect inducing party contract example certain circumstances false statements promises made seller goods regarding quality nature product seller may constitute misrepresentation finding misrepresentation allows remedy


rescission sometimes damages depending type misrepresentation court law prove misrepresentation fraud must evidence shows claim made said claim false party making claim knew claim false party 's intention transaction occur based upon false claim ref name ref two types misrepresentation fraud factum fraud inducement fraud factum focuses whether party alleging misrepresentation knew creating contract party know


entering contract meeting minds contract void fraud inducement focuses misrepresentation attempting get party enter contract misrepresentation material fact party knew truth party would entered contract makes contract voidable assume two people party party b enter contract later determined party fully understand facts information described within contract party b used lack understanding party


enter contract party right void contract ref name ref foundational principle caveat emptor means let buyer beware applies american transactions ref name ref laidlaw v organ supreme court decided buyer inform seller information buyer knew could affect price product ref name ref according ''gordon v selico'' possible misrepresent either words conduct generally statements opinion intention statements fact context misrepresentation ref name bissett v wilkinson


principal remedy damages also available tort established order obtain relief must positive misrepresentation law also person representation made must misled relied misrepresentation ''public trustee v taylor'' contract law delineate clear boundary considered acceptable false claim unacceptable therefore question types false claims deceptions significant enough void contract based said deception advertisements utilizing puffing practice


exaggerating certain things fall question possible false claims ref name ref mistake mistake incorrect understanding one parties contract may used grounds invalidate agreement common law identified three types mistake contract common mistake mutual mistake unilateral mistake '''common mistake''' occurs parties hold mistaken belief facts demonstrated case ''bell v lever brothers ltd'' established common mistake void contract mistake subject matter sufficiently fundamental


mistake''' occurs parties contract mistaken terms believes contracting something different courts usually try uphold mistakes reasonable interpretation terms found however contract based mutual mistake judgment cause contract voidable party adversely affected see ''raffles v wichelhaus'' '''unilateral mistake''' occurs one party contract mistaken terms subject matter courts uphold contract unless determined non mistaken


party aware mistake tried take advantage mistake ref name taylor v johnson ref also possible contract void mistake identity contracting party example ''lewis v avery'' lord denning mr held contract voided plaintiff show time agreement plaintiff believed party 's identity vital importance mere mistaken belief credibility party sufficient duress undue influence duress


defined threat harm made compel person something judgment esp wrongful threat made one person compel manifestation seeming assent another person transaction without real volition example ''barton v armstrong'' person threatened death sign contract innocent party wishing set aside contract duress person needs prove threat made reason entry


contract burden proof shifts party prove threat effect causing party enter contract also duress goods sometimes 'economic duress' undue influence equitable doctrine involves one person taking advantage position power another person special relationship parent child solicitor client equitable doctrine court discretion special relationship exists question whether relationship trust


confidence give rise presumption unconscionable dealing australian law contract set aside due unconscionable dealing ref name cba v amadio ref ref name blomley v ryan see also ref firstly claimant must show special disability test unable act best interest secondly claimant must show defendant took advantage special disability ref name cba v amadio illegal contracts based illegal purpose contrary public policy contract ''void'' canadian case


''royal bank canada v newell'' woman forged husband 's signature husband agreed assume liability responsibility forged checks however agreement unenforceable intended stifle criminal prosecution bank forced return payments made husband us one unusual type unenforceable contract personal employment contract work spy secret agent secrecy contract condition contract order maintain plausible deniability spy subsequently


sues government contract issues like salary benefits spy breached contract revealing existence thus unenforceable ground well public policy maintaining national security since disgruntled agent might try reveal ''all'' government 's secrets lawsuit types unenforceable employment contracts include contracts agreeing work less minimum wage forfeiting right workman 's compensation cases workman 's compensation due remedies defendant defenses setting aside contract rescind set


aside unmake contract four different ways contracts set aside contract may deemed 'void' 'voidable' 'unenforceable' declared 'ineffective' voidness implies contract never came existence voidability implies one parties may declare contract ineffective wish kill fees paid magazine publishers authors articles submitted time subsequently used publication occurs magazine cannot claim copyright killed assignment unenforceability implies neither party may recourse court


remedy ineffectiveness arises contract terminated order court public body failed satisfy requirements public procurement law remedy created public contracts amendments regulations si disputes procedure many countries order obtain damages breach contract obtain specific performance equitable relief aggrieved injured party may file civil non criminal lawsuit court england wales contract may enforced use claim urgent cases applying interim injunction


prevent breach likewise united states aggrieved party may apply injunctive relief prevent threatened breach contract breach would result irreparable harm could adequately remedied money damages arbitration contract contains valid arbitration clause prior filing lawsuit aggrieved party must submit arbitration claim accordance procedures set forth clause many contracts provide disputes arising thereunder resolved arbitration rather litigated courts arbitration judgments may generally enforced


narrow interests parties agreement claims party violated contract engaging illegal anti competitive conduct committed civil rights violations court might find parties may litigate claims even completing contractually agreed arbitration process united states united states thirty five states notably including new york district columbia adopted uniform arbitration act facilitate enforcement arbitrated judgments customer claims securities brokers dealers almost always resolved pursuant contractual arbitration clauses


securities dealers required terms membership self regulatory organizations financial industry regulatory authority formerly nasd nyse arbitrate disputes customers firms began including arbitration agreements customer agreements requiring customers arbitrate disputes choice law contract dispute arises parties different jurisdictions law applicable contract dependent conflict laws analysis court breach contract action filed absence choice law clause court


normally apply either law forum law jurisdiction strongest connection subject matter contract choice law clause allows parties agree advance contract interpreted laws specific jurisdiction within united states choice law clauses generally enforceable although exceptions based upon public policy may times apply within european union even parties negotiated choice law clause conflict law issues may governed rome regulation


states hague choice court agreements convention european union mexico montenegro singapore well several instruments related specific area law may require courts enforce recognize choice law clauses foreign judgments remedies united kingdom breach contract defined unfair contract terms act non performance ii poor performance iii part performance iv performance substantially different reasonably expected innocent parties may repudiate cancel contract major breach breach condition may always recover


compensatory damages provided breach caused foreseeable loss possible sue crown uk breach contract however appreciated contractors might reluctant deal basis claims entertained petition right needed endorsed home secretary attorney general crown proceedings act opened crown ordinary contractual claims courts person damages several different types damages compensatory damages given party injured


established english house lords ''dunlop pneumatic tyre co ltd v new garage motor co ltd'' nominal damages consist small cash amount court concludes defendant breach plaintiff suffered quantifiable pecuniary loss may sought obtain legal record fault punitive exemplary damages used punish party fault even though damages intended primarily compensate nevertheless claimant state receives award exemplary damages


recognised permitted jurisdictions uk exemplary damages available breach contract possible fraud although vitiating factors misrepresentation mistake undue influence duress relate contracts contractual actions roundabout way claimant contract may able get exemplary damages compensatory damages compensate plaintiff actual losses suffered accurately possible may expectation damages reliance damages restitutionary damages expectation damages awarded put party good position


party would contract performed promised reliance damages usually awarded reasonably reliable estimate expectation loss arrived option plaintiff reliance losses cover expense suffered reliance promise examples reliance damages awarded profits speculative include australian case ''mcrae v commonwealth disposals commission'' ref name mcrae v commonwealth concerned contract rights salvage ship ''anglia television ltd v reed'' english court appeal awarded plaintiff expenditures


incurred prior contract preparation performance breach occurred innocent party duty mitigate loss taking reasonable steps failure mitigate means damages may reduced even denied altogether however professor michael furmston argued wrong express mitigation rule stating plaintiff duty mitigate loss citing ''sotiros shipping inc v sameiet solholt'' party provides notice contract completed anticipatory breach occurs damages may general


consequential general damages damages naturally flow breach contract consequential damages damages although naturally flowing breach naturally supposed parties time contract formation example would someone rents car get business meeting person arrives pick car general damages would cost renting different car consequential damages would lost business person unable get meeting parties knew


reason party renting car however still duty mitigate losses fact car give party right attempt rent another car recover damages claimant must show breach contract caused foreseeable loss ref name hadley v baxendale ''hadley v baxendale'' established test foreseeability objective subjective words foreseeable objective bystander contracting parties may special knowledge facts case


miller lost production carrier delayed taking broken mill parts repair court held damages payable since loss foreseeable neither reasonable man carrier would expected miller spare part store specific performance may circumstances would unjust permit defaulting party simply buy injured party damages example art collector purchases rare painting vendor refuses deliver collector 's damages would equal


sum paid court may make order called specific performance requiring contract performed circumstances court order party perform promise order specific performance issue order known injunction party refrain something would breach contract specific performance obtainable breach contract sell land real estate grounds property unique value united states way th amendment


united states constitution specific performance personal service contracts legal ''as punishment crime whereof party shall duly convicted'' order specific performance injunction discretionary remedies originating part equity neither available right jurisdictions circumstances court normally order specific performance contract sale real property notable exception jurisdictions sale real property enforceable specific performance even case defenses action


equity laches ''bona fide'' purchaser rule unclean hands may act bar specific performance related orders specific performance injunction may requested contract prohibits certain action action injunction would prohibit person performing act specified contract history whilst early rules trade barter existed since ancient times modern laws contract west traceable industrial revolution onwards increasing numbers worked factories cash wage particular growing strength


british economy adaptability flexibility english common law led swift development english contract law colonies within british empire including usa dominions would adopt law mother country th century growth export trade led countries adopting international conventions hague visby rules un convention contracts international sale goods promote uniform regulations bill sale male slave building shuruppak sumerian tablet circa bc contract law based principle


expressed latin phrase ''pacta sunt servanda'' agreements must kept common law contract originated defuct writ assumpsit originally tort action based reliance contract law falls within general law obligations along tort unjust enrichment restitution jurisdictions vary principles freedom contract common law jurisdictions england united states high degree freedom norm example american law determined case ''hurley v eddingfield'' physician permitted


deny treatment patient despite lack available medical assistance patient 's subsequent death contrast civil law typically applies certain overarching principles disputes arising contract french civil code legal systems islamic law socialist legal systems customary law variations however european union united states need prevent discrimination eroded full extent freedom contract legislation governing equality equal pay racial discrimination disability discrimination imposed


limits full freedom contract ref name bernstein example civil rights act restricted private racial discrimination african americans early th century united states underwent lochner era supreme court united states struck economic regulations basis freedom contract due process clause decisions eventually overturned supreme court established deference legislative statutes regulations restrict freedom contract ref name bernstein bernstein de https ssrncom abstract freedom contract george mason law economics research paper ref us constitution


contains contract clause interpreted restricting retroactive impairment contracts ref name bernstein commercial use contracts widely used commercial law form legal foundation transactions across world common examples include contracts sale services goods wholesale retail construction contracts contracts carriage software licenses employment contracts insurance policies sale lease land various uses although european union fundamentally economic community range trade rules overarching eu law contract harvey mcgregor


british barrister academic produced contract code auspices english scottish law commissions proposal unify codify contract laws england scotland document offered possible contract code europe tensions english german jurists meant proposal far come naught contract theory contract theory body legal theory addresses normative conceptual questions contract law one important questions asked contract theory contracts enforced one prominent answer


question focuses economic benefits enforcing bargains another approach associated charles fried maintains purpose contract law enforce promises theory developed fried 's book ''contract promise'' approaches contract theory found writings legal realists critical legal studies theorists generally writers propounded marxist feminist interpretations contract attempts overarching understandings purpose nature contract phenomenon made notably relational contract theory originally developed us contracts scholars ian roderick macneil stewart macaulay


building least part contract theory work us scholar lon l fuller us scholars forefront developing economic theories contract focussing questions transaction cost called 'efficient breach' theory another dimension theoretical debate contract place within relationship wider law obligations obligations traditionally divided contracts voluntarily undertaken owed specific person persons obligations tort based wrongful infliction harm certain protected interests primarily imposed


law typically owed wider class persons recently accepted third category restitutionary obligations based unjust enrichment defendant plaintiff 's expense contractual liability reflecting constitutive function contract generally failing make things better rendering expected performance liability tort generally action opposed omission making things worse liability restitution unjustly taking retaining benefit plaintiff 's money work common law describes circumstances law


contract commercial management iaccm contract law legal documents


theories empirical concerns distinct fields several seminal publications stand works broadening scope recognizing importance communication organizing process using term organizational communication nobel laureate herbert simon wrote organization communications systems saying communication absolutely essential organizations w charles redding played prominent role establishment organizational communication discipline organizational communication focused largely role communication improving organizational life organizational output field turned away business oriented approach

Journalism, media studies and communication


people behave rational ways generally access information needed make rational decisions could articulate therefore make unrational decisions unless breakdown communication process common irrational people rationalize rationalize communication measures whether rational formal logic empirically verifiable data ought foundation upon theory rest really need understand communication organizations observable replicable behaviors transformed variables form


measurement b formally replicable syllogisms extend theory observed data groups settings communication primarily mechanical process message constructed encoded sender transmitted channel received decoded receiver distortion represented differences original received messages ought identified reduced eliminated organizations mechanical things parts including employees functioning defined roles interchangeable works one organization work another similar organization individual differences minimized


optimal solution early peter senge developed new theories organizational communication theories learning organization systems thinking well received mainstay current beliefs toward organizational communications robert craig suggested seven components communication theory seven different ways thinking communication works world ref name cengage learning ref seven different domains rhetorical semiotic phenomenological cybernetic sociopsychological sociocultural critical ref name cengage learning rhetorical approach theorized practical art discourse semiotic approach theorized intersubjective mediation


signs ref name cengage learning phenomenological approach theorized experiences otherness dialogue cybernetic approach information processing ref name cengage learning socialpsychological approach theorized expression interaction influence ref name cengage learning sociocultural approach theorized production social order critical approach theorized discursive reflection ref name cengage learning communication networks networks another aspect direction flow communication bavelas shown communication patterns networks influence groups several important ways communication networks may affect group 's completion assigned task time position


de facto leader group may affect group members' satisfaction occupying certain positions network although findings based laboratory experiments important implications dynamics communication formal organizations several patterns communication chain wheel star channel network circle ref name multiple summarized concepts developed alex bavelas communication patterns task oriented groups pp harold guetzkow differentiation roles task oriented groups pp cartwright zander group dynamics hj leavitt effects certain communication patterns group performance journal abnormal


social psychology vol ref interorganization communication flow nomenclature abbreviations used indicate two way flow information transactions eg ''b b'' business business duplex point point communication systems computer networks non electronic telecommunications meetings person possible use terms examples width valign top width '''in business''' b b business business b c business consumers b e business employees b g business government width '''in governance''' g g government government g c government citizens g e government employees g b government business width '''in society''' c b consumer business c c consumer consumer customer customer citizen citizen interpersonal communication one one ''interpersonal communication'' individuals may take several forms messages may


verbal expressed words non verbal gestures facial expressions postures body language nonverbal messages may even stem silence ref name johnson ref managers need answers operate successful business need questions answers come anyone anytime anywhere world thanks benefits electronic communication tools disposal turned real job management determining business needs know along learning effectively solve problems seize opportunities achieve objectives questions need


understanding two people sender wants formulate idea communicate receiver desire communicate may arise thoughts feelings may triggered something environment communication may also influenced relationship sender receiver status differences staff line relationship learner teacher relationship ref name virginia whatever origin information travels series filters sender receiver affected different channels idea transmitted created


receiver 's mind physical capacities see hear smell taste touch vary people image reality may distorted even mind goes work addition physical sense filters cognitive filters way individual 's mind interprets world around influence assumptions feelings filters determine sender message says says purpose filters present also receiver creating double complexity led robert louis stevenson say human communication


way another variety possible ways responding situation memory system determines things notice respond environment time stimuli environment help determine parts memory system activated hence memory environment form interactive system causes behavior interactive system responds new experiences new learnings occur feed back memory gradually change content process people adapt changing world ref name simon formal informal informal


formal communication used organization communication flowing formal channels downward horizontal upward whereas communication informal channels generally termed grapevine formal communication refers flow official information proper predefined channels routes flow information controlled needs deliberate effort properly communicated formal communication follows hierarchical structure chain command structure typically top leaders various departments senior staff organization funnel lower level employees informal communication generally associated interpersonal horizontal communication primarily


seen potential hindrance effective organizational performance longer case informal communication become important ensuring effective conduct work modern organizations grapevine random unofficial means informal communication spreads organization access individual interpretation gossip rumors single strand messages grapevine communication quick usually direct formal communication employee receives grapevine information pass onto others known ' 'dead ender'' employee receives less half grapevine information


four constitutive flows communication formal informal become interrelated order constitute organizing organization organizational self structuring membership negotiation activity coordination institutional positioning perspectives shockley zalabak identified following two perspectives essentially ways understanding organizational communication process whole ref name shockley zalabak ref functional tradition according shockley zalabak functional tradition way understanding organizational communication describing messages move organizations different functions within process work together contribute overall success organization


functions occur repetition communication patterns members organization engage ref name shockley zalabak first types functions message functions communication contributes overall functioning organization describe message functions three different categories organizational functions relationship functions change functions ref name shockley zalabak organizing functions shockley zalabak states messages establish rules regulations particular environment messages include items newsletters handbooks specific organization individuals read learn policies


expectations certain company ref name shockley zalabak relationship functions communication helps individuals define roles assess compatibility individual organizational goals relationship functions key aspect individuals identify company helps develop sense belonging greatly influence quality work ref name shockley zalabak third final subcategory within message functions change functions defined messages help organizations adapt change messages occur various choice making decisions essential meet


employee 's needs well success continual adaptations within organization ref name shockley zalabak meaning centered approach according shockley zalabak meaning centered approach way understanding organizational communication discovering organizational reality generated human interaction approach concerned communication instead works message functions well message movement focused thoroughly perspective ref name shockley zalabak research research methodologies historically organizational communication driven primarily quantitative research methodologies included functional organizational communication research statistical analyses


study rationale postulates use qualitative quantitative research provides better richer understanding research problem either traditional research approach alone provides ref name abeza ref complex contextual situations easier understand using mixed methods research approach compared using qualitative quantitative research approach fifteen mixed method design typologies identified ref name abeza typologies share many characteristics criteria classified six different types three types sequential meaning one type data collection


analysis happens three designs concurrent meaning qualitative quantitative data collected time ref name abeza sequential explanatory design achieve results sequential explanatory design researchers would take results analyzing quantitative data get better explanation qualitative follow interpret qualitative data explains quantitative data ref name abeza sequential exploratory design although sequential exploratory design may resemble sequential explanatory design order data collected reversed researchers begin collecting qualitative data analyzing


concurrent transformative design allows researcher guided theoretical perspective qualitative quantitative data may equal unequal priority collected one phase ref name abeza mixed methods capitalizes maximizing strengths qualitative quantitative research minimizing individual weaknesses combining data ref name abeza quantitative research criticized considering contexts lack depth giving participants voice hand qualitative research criticized smaller sample sizes possible researcher bias lack generalizability ref name abeza


critical organizational scholarship began gain prominence focus issues gender race class power knowledge current state study organizational communication open methodologically research post positive interpretive critical postmodern discursive paradigms published regularly organizational communication scholarship appears number communication journals including limited ''management communication quarterly'' ''international journal business communication'' ''journal applied communication research'' ''communication monographs'' ''academy management journal'' ''communication studies'' ''southern communication journal'' current research topics circles field organizational communication


moved acceptance mechanistic models eg information moving sender receiver study persistent hegemonic taken granted ways use communication accomplish certain tasks within organizational settings eg public speaking also organizations participate affect us approaches include postmodern critical participatory feminist power political organic etc adds disciplines wide ranging sociology philosophy theology psychology business business administration institutional management medicine health communication neurology neural nets semiotics anthropology international relations music currently topics research theory


field '''constitution''' eg communicative behaviors construct modify organizing processes products communication plays constitutive role organizations organizations within interact affect communicative behaviors identities structures organizations might constituted communicative activity eg markets cooperatives tribes political parties social movements something become organization organization become thing one organization house another organization still useful entity thing concept social political environment changed much call organization


different organization even decades ago cannot usefully tagged word nbsp organization '''narrative''' eg group members employ narrative acculturate initiate indoctrinate new members organizational stories act different levels different narratives purposively invoked achieve specific outcomes specific roles organizational storyteller stories told storyteller received differently told others organization ways organization attempt influence storytelling organization conditions organization appear


less effective obtaining desired outcome stories conflict one another official rules policies conflicts worked situations alternative accounts available accepted others rejected '''identity''' eg see terms organizational affiliations communicative behaviors occurrences one organizations participate effect changes us extent consist organizations belong possible individuals successfully resist organizational


identity would look like people define work organizational membership communicate differently within organizational setting people define avocational non vocational set relationships example researchers studied human service workers firefighters use humor jobs way affirm identity face various challenges others examined identities police organizations prison guards professional women workers '''interrelatedness''' organizational experiences eg communicative interactions one organizational setting affect communicative actions organizational settings


phenomenological experiences participants particular organizational setting effect changes areas lives organizational status member significantly changed eg promotion expulsion organizational memberships affected kind future relationship business society organizational communication seem predict '''power''' eg use particular communicative practices within organizational setting reinforce alter various interrelated power relationships within setting potential responses within around organizational settings constrained factors processes either within


communicative means see also agenda setting theory organizational learning anticipatory socialization socionics associations academy management association business communication institute scientific technical communicators uk international association business communicators international communication association national communication association references reading cheney g christensen lt zorn te ganesh organizational communication age globalization issues reflections practices long grove il waveland press ferguson terrion j l communication everyday life personal professional contexts oxford university press gergen kenneth tojo joseph psychological science postmodern context american psychologist october


vol issue p may steve mumby dennis k engaging organizational communication theory research thousand oaks ca sage redding w charles stumbling toward identity emergence organizational communication field study mcphee tompkins ''organizational communication traditional themes new directions'' thousand oaks ca sage external links http wwweupreraorg european public relations education research association http wwwicahdqorg international communication association http wwwnatcomorg national communication association http wwwbusinesscommunicationorg association business communication http wwwiabccom international association business communicators communication studies interpersonal communication communication theory organizational theory


measure theory one way fractals different finite geometric figures scale doubling edge lengths polygon multiplies area four two ratio new old side length raised power two dimension space polygon resides likewise radius sphere doubled volume scales eight two ratio new old radius power three dimension sphere resides however fractal 's one dimensional lengths

Formal science
Mathematics
Applied mathematics
Dynamical systems
Fractal geometry


doubled spatial content fractal scales power necessarily integer ref name mandelbrot ref power called fractal dimension fractal usually exceeds fractal 's topological dimension ref name mandelbrot chaos ref analytically fractals nowhere differentiable ref name mandelbrot ref name vicsek ref name gordon infinite fractal curve conceived winding space differently ordinary line although still topologically dimensional fractal dimension indicates also resembles surface ref name mandelbrot ref name mandelbrot chaos sierpinski carpet level fractal


topological dimension hausdorff dimension starting th century notions recursion fractals moved increasingly rigorous mathematical treatment study continuous differentiable functions th century seminal work bernard bolzano bernhard riemann karl weierstrass coining word ''fractal'' th century subsequent burgeoning interest fractals computer based modelling th century ref name classics ref name mactutor disagreement among mathematicians concept fractal


eleven iterations word fractal often different connotations lay public opposed mathematicians public likely familiar fractal art mathematical concept mathematical concept difficult define formally even mathematicians key features understood little mathematical background feature self similarity instance easily understood analogy zooming lens device zooms digital images uncover finer previously invisible new structure done fractals however new detail appears


nothing changes pattern repeats fractals nearly pattern reappears self similarity necessarily counter intuitive eg people pondered self similarity informally infinite regress parallel mirrors homunculus little man inside head little man inside head difference fractals pattern reproduced must detailed ref name mandelbrot ref name falconer ref name mandelbrot quote idea detailed relates another feature understood without much mathematical background fractal dimension


rep tiled pieces scaled scale factor ''r'' total ''r'' sup ''n'' sup pieces consider koch curve rep tiled four sub copies scaled scale factor strictly analogy consider dimension koch curve unique real number ''d'' satisfies sup ''d'' sup number mathematicians call ''fractal dimension'' koch curve certainly ''not'' conventionally perceived dimension curve number even


integer fact koch curve fractal dimension differing ''conventionally understood'' dimension topological dimension makes fractal computer generated fractal also leads understanding third feature fractals mathematical equations nowhere differentiable concrete sense means fractals cannot measured traditional ways ref name mandelbrot ref name vicsek ref name gordon elaborate trying find length wavy non fractal curve one could find straight segments measuring tool small enough lay end end waves


pieces could get small enough considered conform curve normal manner measuring tape measure measuring infinitely wiggly fractal curve koch snowflake one would never find small enough straight segment conform curve jagged pattern would always appear arbitrarily small scales essentially pulling little tape measure total length measured time one attempted fit tighter tighter curve result one must need infinite tape perfectly


remained obscured largely resistance unfamiliar emerging concepts sometimes referred mathematical monsters ref name gordon ref name classics ref name mactutor thus two centuries passed july karl weierstrass presented first definition function graph would today considered fractal non intuitive property everywhere continuous nowhere differentiable royal prussian academy sciences ref name classics ref name mactutor addition quotient difference becomes arbitrarily large summation index increases long georg


abstract analytic definition gave geometric definition including hand drawn images similar function called koch snowflake ref name classics ref name mactutor another milestone came decade later wac aw sierpi ski constructed famous triangle one year later carpet two french mathematicians pierre fatou gaston julia though working independently arrived essentially simultaneously results describing seen fractal behaviour associated mapping complex numbers iterative functions leading ideas attractors repellors ie points attract repel points