resynthesis phosphocreatine via mitochondrial creatine kinase therefore anaerobic conditions substrate finite lasts approximately seconds high intensity work fast glycolysis however function approximately minutes prior fatigue predominately uses intracellular glycogen substrate glycogen broken rapidly via glycogen phosphorylase individual glucose units intense exercise glucose oxidized pyruvate anaerobic conditions reduced lactic acid reaction oxidizes nadh nad thereby releasing hydrogen ion promoting acidosis reason fast glycolysis


glucose absorbed gut well liver hepatic glucose output although glucose absorption gut typically source glucose appearance exercise liver capable catabolizing stored glycogen glycogenolysis well synthesizing new glucose specific reduced carbon molecules glycerol pyruvate lactate process called gluconeogenesis ability liver release glucose blood glycogenolysis unique since skeletal muscle major glycogen reservoir incapable unlike skeletal muscle liver cells contain enzyme glycogen phosphatase removes phosphate

Human physical performance and recreation


group glucose p release free glucose order glucose exit cell membrane removal phosphate group essential although gluconeogenesis important component hepatic glucose output alone sustain exercise reason glycogen stores depleted exercise glucose levels fall fatigue sets glucose disposal side equation controlled uptake glucose working skeletal muscles exercise despite decreased insulin concentrations muscle increases glut translocation glucose uptake mechanism increased glut translocation area


people diabetes avoid exercise due potential complications associated ketoacidosis exercise could exacerbate ketoacidosis increasing ketone synthesis response increased circulating nefa 's type ii diabetes also intricately linked obesity may connection type ii diabetes fat stored within pancreatic muscle liver cells likely due connection weight loss exercise diet tends increase insulin sensitivity majority people people effect particularly potent result normal glucose control although nobody technically cured


diabetes individuals live normal lives without fear diabetic complications however regain weight would assuredly result diabetes signs symptoms oxygen vigorous physical activity exercise hard labor increases body 's demand oxygen first line physiologic response demand increase heart rate breathing rate depth breathing oxygen consumption vo sub sub exercise best described fick equation vo sub sub q x vo sub sub diff states amount oxygen consumed equal cardiac output q multiplied difference arterial venous oxygen


concentrations simply put oxygen consumption dictated quantity blood distributed heart well working muscle 's ability take oxygen within blood however bit oversimplification although cardiac output thought limiting factor relationship healthy individuals determinant vo max factors ability lung oxygenate blood must also considered various pathologies anomalies cause conditions diffusion limitation ventilation perfusion mismatch pulmonary shunts


limit oxygenation blood therefore oxygen distribution addition oxygen carrying capacity blood also important determinant equation oxygen carrying capacity often target exercise ergogenic aids aids used endurance sports increase volume percentage red blood cells hematocrit blood doping use erythropoietin epo furthermore peripheral oxygen uptake reliant rerouting blood flow relatively inactive viscera working skeletal muscles within skeletal muscle capillary muscle fiber ratio influences oxygen extraction dehydration


dehydration refers hypohydration dehydration induced prior exercise exercise induced dehydration dehydration develops exercise latter reduces aerobic endurance performance results increased body temperature heart rate perceived exertion possibly increased reliance carbohydrate fuel source although negative effects exercise induced dehydration exercise performance clearly demonstrated athletes continued believe years thereafter fluid intake beneficial recently negative effects performance demonstrated modest dehydration effects exacerbated exercise performed hot


exercise may lose two half times much fluid sweat urine profound physiological effects cycling hours heat nbsp c minimal fluid intake causes body mass decline blood volume likewise body temperature rise constantly comparison proper fluid intake higher heart rates lower stroke volumes cardiac outputs reduced skin blood flow higher systemic vascular resistance effects largely eliminated replacing fluid lost sweat ref name cheuvront plasma catecholamine


concentrations increase fold whole body exercise ammonia produced exercised skeletal muscles adp precursor atp purine nucleotide deamination amino acid catabolism myofibrils ref name nybo l ref interleukin il increases blood circulation due release working skeletal muscles release reduced glucose taken suggesting related energy depletion stresses sodium absorption affected release interleukin cause secretion arginine vasopressin turn lead exercise associated dangerously low sodium levels hyponatremia loss sodium blood plasma


result swelling brain prevented awareness risk drinking excessive amounts fluids prolonged exercise brain rest human brain receives total cardiac output uses body 's energy consumption brain normally dependent high energy expenditure upon aerobic metabolism brain result highly sensitive failure oxygen supply loss consciousness occurring within six seven seconds eeg going flat seconds therefore brain 's function would disrupted


exercise affected supply oxygen glucose protecting brain even minor disruption important since exercise depends upon motor control humans bipeds motor control needed keeping balance reason brain energy consumption increased intense physical exercise due demands motor cognition needed control body ref name secher n h ref exercise physiologists treat range neurological conditions including limited parkinson 's alzheimer 's traumatic brain injury spinal cord injury cerebral palsy mental health conditions cerebral oxygen cerebral autoregulation usually ensures brain


priority cardiac output though impaired slightly exhaustive exercise submaximal exercise cardiac output increases cerebral blood flow increases beyond brain 's oxygen needs however case continuous maximal exertion maximal exercise despite increase capillary oxygenation brain associated reduced mitochondrial sub sub content whole body exercise autoregulation brain 's blood supply impaired particularly warm environments glucose adults exercise depletes plasma glucose available brain short intense exercise min ergometer cycling reduce


energy crisis since il sign metabolic stress released exercise brain ref name nybo l ref name secher n h hyperthermia humans use sweat thermoregulation body heat removal particularly remove heat produced exercise moderate dehydration consequence exercise heat reported impair cognition impairments start body mass lost greater cognitive impairment particularly due heat exercise likely due loss integrity blood brain barrier ref name maughan r j ref hyperthermia also lower


cerebral blood flow raise brain temperature ref name secher n h fatigue intense activity researchers attributed fatigue build lactic acid muscles however longer believed rather lactate may stop muscle fatigue keeping muscles fully responding nerve signals available oxygen energy supply disturbances muscle ion homeostasis main factor determining exercise performance least brief intense exercise muscle contraction involves action potential activates voltage sensors releases ca sup sup ions muscle fibre sarcoplasmic reticulum action


potentials cause also require ion changes na influxes depolarization phase k effluxes repolarization phase cl sup sup ions also diffuse sarcoplasm aid repolarization phase intense muscle contraction ion pumps maintain homeostasis ions inactivated ion related disruption causes ionic disturbances causes cellular membrane depolarization inexcitability muscle weakness ca sup sup leakage type ryanodine receptor channels also identified fatigue dorando pietri collapse marathon finish london olympic games endurance


failure intense prolonged exercise collapse body homeostasis famous examples include dorando pietri summer olympic men 's marathon ran wrong way collapsed several times jim peters marathon commonwealth games staggered collapsed several times though five kilometre three mile lead failed finish though formerly believed due severe dehydration recent research suggests combined effects upon brain hyperthermia hypertonic hypernatraemia associated dehydration possibly hypoglycaemia gabriela andersen schiess


questioned since physiological catastrophes occur suggesting exist athletes dorando pietri jim peters gabriela andersen schiess override factors exercise fatigue also suggested affected brain hyperthermia glycogen depletion brain cells ref name dalsgaard k reactive oxygen species impairing skeletal muscle function reduced level glutamate secondary uptake ammonia brain ref name nybo l fatigue diaphragm abdominal respiratory muscles limiting breathing impaired oxygen supply muscles ammonia effects upon brain ref name nybo l serotonin pathways


brain cardiac biomarkers prolonged exercise marathons increase cardiac biomarkers troponin b type natriuretic peptide bnp ischemia modified aka mi albumin misinterpreted medical personnel signs myocardial infarction cardiac dysfunction clinical conditions cardiac biomarkers produced irreversible injury muscles contrast processes create strenuous exertion endurance sports reversible levels returning normal within hours research however still needed human adaptations humans specifically adapted engage prolonged strenuous muscular activity


eventually catch selective breeding experiments rodents rodents specifically bred exercise behavior performance several different studies example laboratory rats bred high low performance motorized treadmill electrical stimulation motivation high performance line rats also exhibits increased voluntary wheel running behavior compared low capacity line experimental evolution approach four replicate lines laboratory mice bred high levels voluntary exercise wheels four additional control lines maintained breeding without regard


amount wheel running selected lines mice also show increased endurance capacity tests forced endurance capacity motorized treadmill however neither selection experiment precise causes fatigue either forced voluntary exercise determined exercise induced muscle pain physical exercise may cause pain immediate effect may result stimulation free nerve endings low ph well delayed onset muscle soreness delayed soreness fundamentally result ruptures within muscle although apparently involving rupture whole muscle


fibers muscle pain range mild soreness debilitating injury depending intensity exercise level training factors preliminary evidence suggest moderate intensity continuous training ability increase someone 's pain threshold education exercise physiology accreditation programs exist professional bodies developed countries ensuring quality consistency education canada one may obtain professional certification title certified exercise physiologist working clients clinical non clinical health fitness industry australia one may obtain


professional certification title accredited exercise physiologist aep professional body https wwwessaorgau exercise sports science australia essa australia common aep also qualification accredited exercise scientist aes premiere governing body american college sports medicine exercise physiologist 's area study may include limited biochemistry bioenergetics cardiopulmonary function hematology biomechanics skeletal muscle physiology neuroendocrine function central peripheral nervous system function furthermore exercise physiologists range basic scientists clinical researchers clinicians sports trainers colleges universities offer exercise


physiology program study various different levels including undergraduate graduate degrees certificates doctoral programs basis exercise physiology major prepare students career field health sciences program focuses scientific study physiological processes involved physical motor activity including sensorimotor interactions response mechanisms effects injury disease disability includes instruction muscular skeletal anatomy molecular cellular basis muscle contraction fuel utilization neurophysiology motor mechanics systemic physiological responses respiration blood flow endocrine secretions


others fatigue exhaustion muscle body training physiology specific exercises activities physiology injury effects disabilities disease careers available degree exercise physiology include non clinical client based work strength conditioning specialists cardiopulmonary treatment clinical based research order gauge multiple areas study students taught processes follow client based level practical lecture teachings instructed classroom laboratory setting include '''health risk assessment''' order safely work client job


must first able know benefits risks associated physical activity examples include knowing specific injuries body experience exercise properly screen client training begins factors look may inhibit performance '''exercise testing''' coordinating exercise tests order measure body compositions cardiorespiratory fitness muscular strength endurance flexibility functional tests also used order gain understanding specific part body information gathered client exercise physiologists must also able interpret


anatomy human physiology exercise physiology includes instruction muscular skeletal anatomy molecular cellular basis muscle contraction fuel utilization neurophysiology motor mechanics systemic physiological responses respiration blood flow endocrine secretions others fatigue exhaustion muscle body training physiology specific exercises activities physiology injury effects disabilities disease full class schedule needed complete degree exercise physiology minimum amount practicum experience required internships recommended see also bioenergetics excess post exercise oxygen consumption epoc hill 's model physical


therapy sports science sports medicine references athletic training endurance games evolutionary biology human evolution physiology strength training physical exercise


'''engineers''' practitioners engineering professionals invent design analyze build test machines complex systems structures gadgets materials fulfill functional objectives requirements considering limitations imposed practicality regulation safety cost ref name bls ref ref name nspe science knowledge based observed facts tested truths arranged orderly system validated communicated people engineering creative application scientific principles used plan build direct guide manage work systems maintain improve daily lives ref word ''engineer'' latin ''ingeniator'' derived

Applied science
Military sciences
Organization
Engineers


latin words ''ingeniare'' create generate contrive devise ''ingenium'' cleverness foundational qualifications engineer typically include four year bachelor 's degree engineering discipline jurisdictions master 's degree engineering discipline plus four six years peer reviewed professional practice culminating project report thesis passage engineering board examinations work engineers forms link scientific discoveries subsequent applications human business needs quality life ref name bls definition conference engineering societies western europe


united states america defined professional engineer follows roles expertise design engineers develop new technological solutions engineering design process responsibilities engineer may include defining problems conducting narrowing research analyzing criteria finding analyzing solutions making decisions much engineer 's time spent researching locating applying transferring information indeed research suggests engineers spend time engaged various information behaviours including actively searching information ref name robinson jasist engineers must weigh different design choices merits choose solution best matches requirements


needs crucial unique task identify understand interpret constraints design order produce successful result analysis engineers conferring prototype design engineers apply techniques engineering analysis testing production maintenance analytical engineers may supervise production factories elsewhere determine causes process failure test output maintain quality also estimate time cost required complete projects supervisory engineers responsible major components entire projects engineering analysis involves application scientific analytic principles processes reveal


properties state system device mechanism study engineering analysis proceeds separating engineering design mechanisms operation failure analyzing estimating component operation failure mechanism isolation recombining components may analyze risk many engineers use computers produce analyze designs simulate test machine structure system operates generate specifications parts monitor quality products control efficiency processes specialization management nasa launch control center firing room appeared


apollo era engineers specialize one engineering disciplines ref name bls numerous specialties recognized professional societies major branches engineering numerous subdivisions civil engineering example includes structural transportation engineering materials engineering include ceramic metallurgical polymer engineering mechanical engineering cuts across every discipline since core essence applied physics engineers also may specialize one industry motor vehicles one type technology turbines semiconductor materials ref name bls several recent studies investigated engineers spend time


work tasks perform time distributed among research ref name robinson jasist ref ref name robinson ds ref suggests several key themes present engineers' work technical work ie application science product development social work ie interactive communication people computer based work information behaviours among detailed findings recent work sampling study ref name robinson ds found engineers spend time engaged technical work social work computer based work furthermore considerable overlap different types work


critical nature personal attributes project management skills cognitive abilities success role types engineers many branches engineering specializes specific technologies products typically engineers deep knowledge one area basic knowledge related areas example mechanical engineering curricula typically include introductory courses electrical engineering computer science materials science metallurgy mathematics software engineering developing product engineers typically work interdisciplinary teams example building robots engineering team typically least three types engineers mechanical


aircraft spacecraft aeronautics astrodynamics astronautics avionics control engineering fluid mechanics kinematics materials science thermodynamics aircraft robotics spacecraft trajectories agricultural engineering focusses engineering science technology production processing food agriculture production arable crops soft fruit livestock key goal discipline improve efficacy sustainability agricultural practices food production agricultural engineering often combines converges many engineering disciplines mechanical engineering civil engineering electrical engineering chemical engineering biosystems engineering soil science environmental engineering etc livestock food horticulture


thermodynamics chemical thermodynamics process engineering transport phenomena nanotechnology biology chemical kinetics genetic engineering medicine fluid mechanics chemicals hydrocarbons fuels medicines raw materials food drink waste treatment pure gases plastics coatings water treatment civil engineering focuses construction large systems structures environmental systems statics fluid mechanics soil mechanics structural engineering geotechnical engineering environmental engineering hydraulic engineering roads bridges dams buildings structural system foundation earthworks waste management water treatment computer engineering focuses design development computer hardware software systems computer science mathematics electrical engineering


microprocessors microcontrollers operating systems embedded systems computer networks electrical engineering focuses application electricity electronics electromagnetism mathematics probability statistics engineering ethics engineering economics instrumentation materials science physics network analysis electromagnetism linear system electronics electric power logic computer science data transmission systems engineering control engineering signal processing electricity generation equipment remote sensing robotics control system computers home appliances internet things consumer electronics avionics hybrid vehicles spacecraft unmanned aerial vehicles optoelectronics embedded systems industrial engineering focuses design optimization operation production logistics service systems


processes operations research engineering statistics applied probability stochastic processes automation engineering methods engineering production engineering manufacturing engineering systems engineering logistics engineering ergonomics quality control systems manufacturing systems warehousing systems supply chains logistics networks queueing systems business process management mechatronics engineering focuses technology controlling industrial field process control automation robotics controllers cnc mechanical engineering focuses development operation energy systems transport systems manufacturing systems machines control systems dynamics kinematics statics fluid mechanics materials science metallurgy strength materials thermodynamics heat


transfer mechanics mechatronics manufacturing engineering control engineering cars airplanes machines power generation spacecraft buildings consumer goods manufacturing hvac metallurgical engineering materials engineering focuses extraction metals ores development new materials material science thermodynamics extraction metals physical metallurgy mechanical metallurgy nuclear materials steel technology iron steel polymers ceramics metals mining engineering focuses use applied science technology extract various minerals earth confused metallurgical engineering deals mineral processing various ores already


mined rock mechanics geostatistics soil mechanics control engineering geophysics fluid mechanics drilling blasting gold silver coal iron ore potash limestone diamond rare earth element bauxite copper software engineering focuses design development software systems computer science information theory systems engineering formal language application software mobile apps websites operating systems embedded systems real time computing video games virtual reality ai software edge computing distributed systems computer vision music sequencer digital audio workstation software synthesizer robotics cgi medical software computer assisted surgery internet things avionics software computer simulation quantum programming satellite


ethicsan engineer receiving order engineer ring x px graduates engineering programs north america may recognized iron ring engineer 's ring ring made iron stainless steel worn little finger dominant hand tradition began canada ritual calling engineer ring serves symbol reminder engineer 's obligations engineering profession practice adopted several colleges united states including members order engineer


education engineering programs involve concentration study engineering specialty along courses mathematics physical life sciences many programs also include courses general engineering applied accounting design course often accompanied computer laboratory class part curriculum programs often general courses directly related engineering social sciences humanities also required accreditation process engineering programs evaluated external body determine applicable standards met washington


accord serves international accreditation agreement academic engineering degrees recognizing substantial equivalency standards set many major national engineering bodies united states post secondary degree programs engineering accredited accreditation board engineering technology regulation many countries engineering tasks design bridges electric power plants industrial equipment machine design chemical plants must approved licensed professional engineer commonly titled professional engineer license practice indicated use post nominal letters pe peng common


use petition started cause united states engineering regulated profession whose practice practitioners licensed governed law licensure generally attainable combination education pre examination fundamentals engineering exam examination professional engineering exam engineering experience typically area years state tests licenses professional engineers currently states license specific engineering discipline rather provide generalized licensure trust engineers use professional judgment regarding individual competencies favoured approach professional societies despite


least one examinations required states actually focused particular discipline candidates licensure typically choose category examination comes closest respective expertise united states industrial exemption allows businesses employ employees call engineer long individuals direct supervision control business entity function internally related manufacturing manufactured parts related business entity work internally within exempt organization person final authority approve ultimate responsibility


states require bs degree engineering accredited engineering accreditation commission eac accreditation board engineering technology abet exceptions two thirds states accept bs degrees engineering technology accredited engineering technology accreditation commission etac abet become licensed professional engineers state different requirements years experience take fundamentals engineering fe professional engineering pe exams states require graduate ms engineering sit exams learning seven years working graduation two


graduate experience engineering related field passing exams ethics law need registered association professional engineers geoscientists apegbc order become professional engineer granted professional designation peng allowing one practice engineering continental europe latin america turkey elsewhere title limited law people engineering degree use title others illegal italy title limited people hold engineering degree passed professional qualification examination ''esame di stato''


enrolled register local branch national associations engineers public body portugal professional engineer titles accredited engineering degrees regulated certified ''ordem dos engenheiros'' czech republic title engineer ing given people masters degree chemistry technology economics historical traditional reasons greece academic title diploma engineer awarded completion five year engineering study course title certified engineer awarded completion four year course engineering studies technological educational


institute tei perception perception definition term 'engineer' varies across countries continents th century engineer isambard kingdom brunel launching chains ss ''great eastern'' uk british school children brought stirring tales victorian engineers chief among brunel stephenson telford contemporaries uk engineering recently erroneously styled industrial sector consisting employers employees loosely termed engineers include tradespeople however knowledgeable practitioners reserve term engineer describe university educated professional ingenuity represented


chartered incorporated engineer qualifications large proportion uk public incorrectly thinks engineers skilled tradespeople even semi skilled tradespeople high school education also many uk skilled semi skilled tradespeople falsely style engineers created confusion eyes members public understanding professional engineers actually fixing car engines television sets refrigerators technicians handymen designing managing development aircraft spacecraft power stations infrastructure complex technological systems engineers france france term ''ing nieur'' engineer


late th century industrially developed france th century great part th century france 's economic wealth industrial prowess created engineers graduated ecole centrale paris ecole des mines de paris ecole polytechnique l com paris also case wwii france rebuilt r forme ren haby difficult admitted schools french ''ing nieurs'' commonly perceived nation 's elite however haby reform string reforms modernization plans


french universities several engineering schools created accessed relatively lower competition france engineering positions shared ''ing nieurs diplom s'' graduating engineering ''grandes coles'' holders master 's degree science public universities engineers less highlighted current french economy industry provides less quarter gdp italy italy people hold formal engineering qualification least bachelor 's degree permitted describe engineer much people holding qualifications entitled


scientists professors judges journalists entrepreneurs europe thirty two countries europe including nearly countries eu recognise title 'european engineer' permits use pre nominal title eur ing always fully capitalised country sets precise qualification requirement use title though broadly equivalent holding requisite qualification afford automatic entitlement title applied appropriate fee paid holder entitled use title passport


eur ings allowed describe professionally qualified engineers practise participating countries including title engineer regulated law united states united states practice professional engineering highly regulated title professional engineer legally protected meaning unlawful use offer engineering services public unless permission certification official endorsement specifically granted state professional engineering license canada canada engineering regulated


profession whose practice practitioners licensed governed law licensed professional engineers referred peng study ontario society professional engineers revealed engineers third respected professionals behind doctors pharmacists many canadian engineers wear iron ring canadian provinces title engineer protected law non licensed individual company using title committing legal offence subject fines restraining orders companies usually prefer use title except license holders liability reasons example


company filed lawsuit judge investigators lawyers found company using word engineer non licensed employees could used opponents hinder company 's efforts asia africa indian subcontinent russia middle east africa china engineering one sought undergraduate courses inviting thousands applicants show ability highly competitive entrance examinations egypt educational system makes engineering second respected profession country medicine engineering colleges egyptian universities requires extremely high marks general


certificate secondary education ''al th nawiyyah al ` mmah'' order thus considered along colleges medicine natural science pharmacy among pinnacle colleges ''kull al qimmah'' philippines filipino communities overseas engineers either filipino especially also profess jobs time addressed introduced ''engineer'' rather ''sir madam'' speech ''mr mrs ms'' ''g gng bb'' filipino surnames word used either given name surname corporate culture companies organizations


sometimes tendency undervalue people advanced technological scientific skills compared celebrities fashion practitioners entertainers managers book ''the mythical man month'' fred brooks jr says managers think senior people valuable technical tasks management jobs carry higher prestige tells laboratories bell labs abolish job titles overcome problem professional employee member technical staff ibm maintains dual ladder advancement corresponding managerial engineering scientific rungs equivalent brooks recommends structures need


changed boss must give great deal attention keeping managers technical people interchangeable talents allow see also building engineer engineer 's degree engineers without borders greatest engineering achievements history engineering list engineering branches list engineers list fictional scientists engineers washington accord references external links engineering occupations science occupations


'''game studies''' also known '''ludology''' ''ludus'' game '' logia'' study research study games act playing players cultures surrounding field cultural studies deals types games throughout history field research utilizes tactics least folkloristics cultural heritage sociology psychology examining aspects design game players game role game plays society culture game studies oftentimes confused study video games

Journalism, media studies and communication


subvert wider social cultural discourses often use interpretative methods close reading textual analysis audience theory methods shared media disciplines television film studies social sciences humanities approaches cross example case ethnographic folkloristic studies fieldwork may involve patiently observing games try understand social cultural meanings game design approaches closely related creative practice analysing game mechanics aesthetics order inform development new games finally industrial engineering approaches apply mostly video


games less games general examine things computer graphics artificial intelligence networking history irving finkel organized colloquium grew international board game studies association gonzalo frasca popularized term ludology latin word game ''ludus'' publication first issues academic journals like ''board game studies'' ''game studies'' creation digital games research association scholars began get sense study games could


considered field right young field gathers scholars different disciplines broadly studying games psychology anthropology economy education sociology earliest known use term ludology occurred mihaly csikszentmihalyi 's human matter interpretive problems comparative ludology social science one earliest social science theories role video games society involved violence video games later becoming known catharsis theory theory suggests playing video games perform violent


acts might actually channel latent aggression resulting less aggression players real lives however meta study performed craig anderson brad j bushman examined data starting article published purpose study examine whether playing violent video games led increase aggressive behaviors concluded exposure violence video games indeed cause increase aggression however pointed even stressed psychologist jonathan freedman research limited


even problematic since overly strong claims made authors seemed extremely biased writings recent studies one performed christopher j ferguson texas international university come drastically different conclusions study individuals either randomly assigned game allowed choose game randomized choice conditions exposure violent video games caused difference aggression later study performed people looked correlations trait aggression violent crimes exposure real life violence violence


video games study suggests family violence trait aggression highly correlated violent crime exposure video game violence good predictor violent crime little correlation unless also paired traits much higher correlation past years large number meta studies applied issue coming conclusion resulting little consensus ludology community also thought even nonviolent video games may lead aggressive violent behaviour anderson dill seem


believe may due frustration playing video games could turn result violent aggressive behaviour game designers amy jo kim jane mcgonigal suggested platforms leverage powerful qualities video games non game contexts maximize learning ref name amyjo ref known gamification learning using game elements non game contexts extracts properties games within game context applies learning context classroom another positive aspect video games conducive character towards involvement person


cultural activities probability game playing increases consumption cultural goods eg listening music watching television active involvement artistic activities eg writing visual arts production video games complementary towards traditional forms cultural consumption inhibit thus value cultural perspective sociologically informed research sought move away simplistic ideas gaming either 'negative' 'positive' rather seeking understand role location complexities everyday life example suggested nina fefferman popular


mmo ''world warcraft'' could used study dissemination infectious diseases accidental spread plague like disease gameworld ludology vs narratology major focus game studies debate surrounding narratology ludology many ludologists believe two unable exist together ref name ref others believe two fields similar studied separately many narratologists believe games looked stories like movies novels ludological perspective says games like mediums due fact


player actively taking part experience therefore understood terms idea videogame radically different narratives cognitive communicative structure led development new approaches criticism focused videogames well adapting repurposing proposing new ways studying theorizing videogames recent approach towards game studies starts analysis interface structures challenges keyboard mouse paradigm called ludic interface academics across fields provide scholarly insight different sides


debate gonzalo frasca notable ludologist due many publications regarding game studies argues games share many similar elements narrative stories prevent games studied games ref name ref seeks replace narratologic approach complement ref name jesper juul another notable ludologist argues stricter separation ludology narratology juul argues games practicality ''can not'' tell stories ref name argument holds narratology ludology cannot exist together inherently different juul claims significant


difference two narrative events follow whereas game player control happens ref name garry crawford victoria k gosling argue favor narratives essential part games contribute informed gamer 's personal life identity narratives write impossible isolate play social influences everyday life turn play intended unintended consequences individual society janet murray support narratologist method


video game argues stories participatory argument murray linking characteristics video games narratives point video games analyzed narratology michalis kokonis argues favor gonzalo frasca 's article entitled ludologists love stories notes debate never took place aimed list explain misunderstandings mistakes prejudices surrounding narratology vs ludology debate kokonis noted endorsing frasca 's constructivist spirit agree called narratology vs ludology dilemma false one debate


simulations dioramas panoramas planetariums stereographs amusement arcades mechanical game machines also peep show film machines games aging light population ageing interest use games improve overall health social connectedness ageing players example adam gazzaley team designed neuroracer game improves cognitive tasks outside game among year old participants aarp organized game jam improve older people 's social connections researchers sarah mosberg iversen argued


academic work games ageing informed notions economical productivity bob de schutter vero vanden abeele suggested game design approach focused age related decline instead rooted positive aspects older age virtual economies gaming massive multiplayer online games give economists clues real world markets based digital information fully tracked used players thus real problems economy inflation deflation even recession solutions game designers come


therefore studied full information experiments performed economy studied whole games allow economists omniscient find every piece information need study economy real world work presumptions former finance minister greece valve 's house economist yanis varoufakis studied ''eve online'' measure greek economic recovery argued video game communities ''neopets'' ''fortnite'' give economists venue experimenting simulating economies future


edward castronova studied virtual economies within variety games including everquest world warcraft cognitive benefits psychological research games yielded theories playing video games may advantageous children adults theories claim video games fact help improve cognitive abilities rather impede development improvement theories include improvement visual contrast sensitivity ref name ref developments include ability locate something specific among various impediments primarily done first person shooter games protagonist must look everything


first person view playing increase spatial attention due locate something among area diversions ref name games place player high intensity environment player must remain observant surroundings order achieve goal eg shooting enemy player impediments obstruct gameplay virtual world ref name another cognitive enhancement provided playing video games would improvement brain functioning speed happens player immersed unendingly changing environment required


constantly think problem solve playing order well game constant problem solving forces brain constantly run speed thought sharpened greatly need think quickly required succeed ref name attention span player also benefited high action video games fighting racing games require user 's constant attention process skill concentration sharpened overcoming condition known dyslexia also considered improvement due continuous utilization controllers


movement produced playing video game ref name playing video games also help increase player 's social skills done playing online multiplayer games require constant communication leads socialization players order achieve goal within game may playing addition help users meet new friends online games time communicate friends already made past playing together online would strengthen already established bond


gaming community gamers attend live events tournaments connect friends 've met played online throughout years much research topic game culture specifically focusing video games relation thinking learning gender children war looking game culture particularly early studies multiplayer online games usually basis research however recent wider ranging research sought understand gaming cultures turn video games provide important insights modern nature


digital participatory culture patterns consumption identity formation later modernity contemporary political rationalities demographics gamers us households gamer adults play video games adults play smartphones play personal computer play dedicated game console average age male gamers average age female gamers gamers men women see also art game video game art video games art form ludonarrative dissonance references reading


https webarchiveorg web http wwwdigiplayinfo node table contents contributing authors http wwwuksagepubcom upm data ch pdf introduction collection external links http wwwdigraorg digital games research association digra http wwwparlettgamesuk games bgshtml david parlett introduction international board game studies association tiltfactor lab video game culture study video games media studies


linguistics'' ''applied linguistics'' studies second language acquisition ''applied psycholinguistics'' ''international review applied linguistics language teaching'' ''international journal applied linguistics'' ''applied linguistics review'' ''european journal applied linguistics'' ''language learning'' ''language education ''system'' tesol quarterly'' ''linguistics education'' see also list applied linguistics journals history tradition applied linguistics established part response narrowing focus linguistics advent late generative linguistics always maintained socially accountable role demonstrated central interest language problems although field

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Applied linguistics


applied linguistics started europe united states field rapidly flourished international context applied linguistics first concerned principles practices basis linguistics early days applied linguistics thought linguistics applied least outside field however applied linguistics expanded include language assessment language policy second language acquisition early applied linguistics became problem driven field rather theoretical linguistics including solution language related problems real world applied linguistics broadened


including critical studies multilingualism research applied linguistics shifted theoretical empirical investigation real world problems language central issue united states applied linguistics also began narrowly application insights structural linguistics first teaching english schools subsequently second foreign language teaching ''linguistics applied'' approach language teaching promulgated strenuously leonard bloomfield developed foundation army specialized training program charles c fries established english language institute eli university


michigan applied linguistics became recognized field studies aforementioned university research club michigan established ''language learning journal applied linguistics'' first journal bear term ''applied linguistics'' late applied linguistics began establish identity interdisciplinary field linguistics concerned real world language issues new identity solidified creation american association applied linguistics associations international association applied linguistics founded france


better known association internationale de linguistique appliqu e aila aila affiliates thirty countries listed australia australian applied linguistics took target applied linguistics mother tongue teaching teaching english immigrants australia tradition shows strong influence continental europe us rather britain applied linguistics association australia alaa established national congress applied linguists held august alaa holds joint annual conference collaboration association applied linguistics new zealand


alanz canada canadian association applied linguistics l association canadienne de linguistique appliqu e caal acla officially bilingual english french scholarly association approximately members produce ''canadian journal applied linguistics'' hold annual conference ref name acla ref ireland irish association applied linguistics cumann na teangeola ochta feidhm iraal founded produce journal ''teanga'' irish word 'language' ref name iraal ref japan japan association applied linguistics jaal established japan association college english teachers jacet order engage


activities international scale jaal became affiliate international association applied linguistics aila new zealand applied linguistics association new zealand alanz produces journal ''new zealand studies applied linguistics'' collaborating applied linguistics association australia combined annual conference since association language testing assessment australia new zealand altaanz later joining three way conference collaboration ref name alanz ref south africa southern african applied linguistics association saala founded currently four


publications associated saala including ''southern african linguistics applied language studies journal'' sajals ref name saala ref united kingdom british association applied linguistics baal established mission advancement education fostering promoting lawful charitable means study language use language acquisition language teaching fostering interdisciplinary collaboration study baal hosts annual conference well many additional smaller conferences events organised special interest groups sigs united states american association applied linguistics aaal


founded aaal holds annual conference usually march april united states canada references reading berns matsuda p k ''applied linguistics overview history'' k brown ed ''the encyclopedia language linguistics'' nd ed pp nbsp oxford uk elsevier cook g ''applied linguistics'' series ''oxford introduction language study'' oxford oxford university press davies elder c eds ''handbook applied linguistics'' oxford malden blackwell hall c j smith p h wicaksono r ''mapping applied linguistics guide


students practitioners'' nd ed london routledge spolsky b hult fm eds handbook educational linguistics malden blackwell johnson keith johnson helen ''encyclopedic dictionary applied linguistics'' oxford malden blackwell mccarthy michael ''issues applied linguistics'' cambridge university press pennycook alastair ''critical applied linguistics critical introduction'' london lawrence erlbaum associates schmitt norbert ''an introduction applied linguistics'' london arnold wei l ed ''the routledge applied linguistics reader'' new york routledge external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwappliedlinguisticsorg indexhtml applied linguistics information resources usa canada https wwwcalorg center applied linguistics https wwwlanguageacademiacom language academia https wwwlinguisticsocietyorg


linguistic society america rhetoric linguistics


right mathematics '''time series''' series data points indexed listed graphed time order commonly time series sequence taken successive equally spaced points time thus sequence discrete time data examples time series heights ocean tides counts sunspots daily closing value dow jones industrial average time series frequently plotted via run chart temporal line chart time series used statistics signal processing pattern recognition econometrics mathematical finance weather

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Time Series


relationships different points time within single series interrupted time series analysis used detect changes evolution time series intervention may affect underlying variable time series data natural temporal ordering makes time series analysis distinct cross sectional studies natural ordering observations eg explaining people 's wages reference respective education levels individuals' data could entered order time series analysis also distinct spatial data analysis


observations typically relate geographical locations eg accounting house prices location well intrinsic characteristics houses stochastic model time series generally reflect fact observations close together time closely related observations apart addition time series models often make use natural one way ordering time values given period expressed deriving way past values rather future values see time reversibility time series analysis applied real valued


continuous data discrete numeric data discrete symbolic data ie sequences characters letters words english language methods analysis methods time series analysis may divided two classes frequency domain methods time domain methods former include spectral analysis wavelet analysis latter include auto correlation cross correlation analysis time domain correlation analysis made filter like manner using scaled correlation thereby mitigating need operate frequency domain additionally time series analysis techniques may divided parametric non parametric methods parametric approaches assume


underlying stationary stochastic process certain structure described using small number parameters example using autoregressive moving average model approaches task estimate parameters model describes stochastic process contrast non parametric approaches explicitly estimate covariance spectrum process without assuming process particular structure methods time series analysis may also divided linear non linear univariate multivariate panel data time series one type panel data panel data


code panel data candidate differentiation lies non time identifier data set cross sectional data set candidate analysis several types motivation data analysis available time series appropriate different purposes motivation context statistics econometrics quantitative finance seismology meteorology geophysics primary goal time series analysis forecasting context signal processing control engineering communication engineering used signal detection applications data mining pattern recognition machine learning time series analysis


used clustering classification query content anomaly detection well forecasting exploratory analysis tuberculosis incidence us straightforward way examine regular time series manually line chart example chart shown right tuberculosis incidence united states made spreadsheet program number cases standardized rate per percent change per year rate calculated nearly steadily dropping line shows tb incidence decreasing years percent change rate


varied much 'surges' around early use vertical axes allows comparison two time series one graphic study corporate data analysts found two challenges exploratory time series analysis discovering shape interesting patterns finding explanation patterns visual tools represent time series data heat map matrices help overcome challenges techniques include autocorrelation analysis examine serial dependence spectral analysis examine cyclic behavior need related seasonality example sunspot


activity varies year cycles common examples include celestial phenomena weather patterns neural activity commodity prices economic activity separation components representing trend seasonality slow fast variation cyclical irregularity see trend estimation decomposition time series curve fitting curve fitting process constructing curve mathematical function best fit series data points possibly subject constraints curve fitting involve either interpolation exact fit data required smoothing smooth function constructed approximately fits data


related topic regression analysis focuses questions statistical inference much uncertainty present curve fit data observed random errors fitted curves used aid data visualization infer values function data available summarize relationships among two variables extrapolation refers use fitted curve beyond range observed data subject degree uncertainty since may reflect method used construct


relationship another variable similar interpolation produces estimates known observations extrapolation subject greater uncertainty higher risk producing meaningless results function approximation general function approximation problem asks us select function among well defined class closely matches approximates target function task specific way one distinguish two major classes function approximation problems first known target functions approximation theory branch numerical analysis investigates certain known functions example special functions approximated specific


class functions example polynomials rational functions often desirable properties inexpensive computation continuity integral limit values etc second target function call ''g'' may unknown instead explicit formula set points time series form ''x'' ''g'' ''x'' provided depending structure domain codomain ''g'' several techniques approximating ''g'' may applicable example ''g'' operation real numbers techniques interpolation extrapolation regression analysis curve fitting used codomain


predictive inference prediction undertaken within several approaches statistical inference indeed one description statistics provides means transferring knowledge sample population whole population related populations necessarily prediction time information transferred across time often specific points time process known forecasting fully formed statistical models stochastic simulation purposes generate alternative versions time series representing might happen non specific time periods


future simple fully formed statistical models describe likely outcome time series immediate future given knowledge recent outcomes forecasting forecasting time series usually done using automated statistical software packages programming languages julia python r sas spss many others forecasting large scale data done apache spark using spark ts library third party package classification assigning time series pattern specific category example identify word based series hand movements sign language signal estimation approach


based harmonic analysis filtering signals frequency domain using fourier transform spectral density estimation development significantly accelerated world war ii mathematician norbert wiener electrical engineers rudolf e k lm n dennis gabor others filtering signals noise predicting signal values certain point time see kalman filter estimation theory digital signal processing segmentation splitting time series sequence segments often case time series represented sequence individual segments characteristic properties


classes practical importance ''autoregressive'' ar models ''integrated'' models ''moving average'' models three classes depend linearly previous data points ref name linear time series ref combinations ideas produce autoregressive moving average arma autoregressive integrated moving average arima models autoregressive fractionally integrated moving average arfima model generalizes former three extensions classes deal vector valued data available heading multivariate time series models sometimes preceding acronyms extended including initial v vector var vector autoregression additional set


extensions models available use observed time series driven forcing time series may causal effect observed series distinction multivariate case forcing series may deterministic experimenter 's control models acronyms extended final x exogenous non linear dependence level series previous data points interest partly possibility producing chaotic time series however importantly empirical investigations indicate advantage using predictions


derived non linear models linear models example nonlinear autoregressive exogenous models references nonlinear time series analysis kantz schreiber abarbanel among types non linear time series models models represent changes variance time heteroskedasticity models represent autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity arch collection comprises wide variety representation garch tarch egarch figarch cgarch etc changes variability related predicted recent past values observed series contrast possible representations locally varying variability


variability might modelled driven separate time varying process doubly stochastic model recent work model free analyses wavelet transform based methods example locally stationary wavelets wavelet decomposed neural networks gained favor multiscale often referred multiresolution techniques decompose given time series attempting illustrate time dependence multiple scales see also markov switching multifractal msmf techniques modeling volatility evolution hidden markov model hmm statistical markov model system modeled assumed markov process unobserved hidden


ideas stationarity must expanded consider two important ideas strict stationarity second order stationarity models applications developed conditions although models latter case might considered partly specified addition time series analysis applied series seasonally stationary non stationary situations amplitudes frequency components change time dealt time frequency analysis makes use time frequency representation time series signal tools tools investigating time series data include consideration autocorrelation function


spectral density function also cross correlation functions cross spectral density functions scaled cross auto correlation functions remove contributions slow components ref name nikolicetal ref performing fourier transform investigate series frequency domain use filter remove unwanted noise principal component analysis empirical orthogonal function analysis singular spectrum analysis structural models general state space models unobserved components models machine learning artificial neural networks support vector machine fuzzy logic gaussian process hidden markov model queueing theory analysis control chart shewhart individuals control chart cusum chart ewma chart detrended fluctuation analysis nonlinear mixed effects modeling dynamic time warping ref name sakoe


ref cross correlation dynamic bayesian network time frequency analysis techniques fast fourier transform continuous wavelet transform short time fourier transform chirplet transform fractional fourier transform chaotic analysis correlation dimension recurrence plots recurrence quantification analysis lyapunov exponents entropy encoding measures time series metrics features used time series classification regression analysis '''univariate linear measures''' moment mathematics spectral band power spectral edge frequency accumulated energy signal processing characteristics autocorrelation function hjorth parameters fft parameters autoregressive model parameters mann kendall test '''univariate non linear measures''' measures based correlation sum correlation dimension correlation integral correlation density correlation entropy approximate entropy


metrizable space minkowski distance mahalanobis distance data time series envelopes global standard deviation local standard deviation windowed standard deviation data interpreted stochastic series pearson product moment correlation coefficient spearman 's rank correlation coefficient data interpreted probability distribution function kolmogorov smirnov test cram r von mises criterion visualization time series visualized two categories chart overlapping charts separated charts overlapping charts display time series layout separated charts presents different layouts aligned comparison purpose overlapping charts braided graphs line charts slope graphs separated charts horizon graphs reduced line chart small


multiples silhouette graph circular silhouette graph see also references reading durbin j koopman sj ''time series analysis state space methods'' oxford university press priestley b ''spectral analysis time series'' academic press shumway r h stoffer ''time series analysis applications r examples ed '' springer weigend gershenfeld n eds ''time series prediction forecasting future understanding past'' proceedings nato advanced research workshop comparative time series analysis santa fe may addison wesley wiener n ''extrapolation interpolation smoothing stationary


time series'' mit press woodward w gray h l elliott c ''applied time series analysis'' crc press external links http wwwitlnistgov div handbook pmc section pmc htm introduction time series analysis engineering statistics handbook practical guide time series analysis statistical data types mathematical quantitative methods economics machine learning


sun 's deep interior modern field separated '''global helioseismology''' studies sun 's resonant modes directly '''local helioseismology''' studies propagation component waves near sun 's surface ref name gb ref helioseismology contributed number scientific breakthroughs notable show predicted neutrino flux sun could caused flaws stellar models must instead problem particle physics called solar neutrino problem ultimately resolved neutrino oscillations experimental discovery neutrino oscillations recognized

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Space science
Stellar astrophysics
Helioseismology


nobel prize physics helioseismology also allowed accurate measurements quadrupole higher order moments sun 's gravitational potential ref name natureomega ref consistent general relativity first helioseismic calculations sun 's internal rotation profile showed rough separation rigidly rotating core differentially rotating envelope boundary layer known tachocline thought key component solar dynamo although roughly coincides base solar convection zone also inferred helioseismology conceptually distinct boundary


layer meridional flow connected convection zone driven interplay baroclinicity maxwell stresses helioseismology benefits continuous monitoring sun began first uninterrupted observations near south pole austral summer ref name grecsouthpole ref ref name duvall southpole ref addition observations multiple solar cycles allowed helioseismologists study changes sun 's structure decades studies made possible global telescope networks like global oscillations network group gong birmingham solar oscillations network bison operating


order'' math n math total number nodal circles spherical shell known ''angular degree'' math ell math number nodal circles longitudinal known ''azimuthal order'' math math shown oscillations separated two categories interior oscillations special category surface oscillations specifically pressure modes p modes pressure modes essence standing sound waves dominant restoring force pressure rather buoyancy hence name solar oscillations used inferences


interior p modes frequencies millihertz angular degrees ranging zero purely radial motion order math math broadly speaking energy densities vary radius inversely proportional sound speed resonant frequencies determined predominantly outer regions sun consequently difficult infer structure solar core cid ref showing oscillations g mode character blue dipole modes p mode character orange dashed line shows acoustic cut frequency computed


precise modelling modes trapped star roughly speaking resonate gravity modes g modes gravity modes confined convectively stable regions either radiative interior atmosphere restoring force predominantly buoyancy thus indirectly gravity take name evanescent convection zone therefore interior modes tiny amplitudes surface extremely difficult detect identify long recognized measurement even g modes could substantially increase


knowledge deep interior sun ref name snowmass ref however individual g mode yet unambiguously measured although indirect detections claimed challenged additionally similar gravity modes confined convectively stable atmosphere surface gravity modes f modes surface gravity waves analogous waves deep water property lagrangian pressure perturbation essentially zero high degree math ell math penetrating characteristic distance math r ell math math r math solar radius good approximation obey called deep water wave dispersion


equilibrium values variables math p math math rho math together dynamically small angular velocity math omega math magnetic field math rm b math related constraint hydrostatic support depends upon total mass math math radius math r math sun evidently oscillation frequencies math omega math depend seismic variables math rho p omega rm b math math gamma math math omega math math rm b math independent set functions consequently variables information derived directly square adiabatic sound speed math c gamma p rho math commonly


adopted function quantity upon acoustic propagation principally depends ref name learned ref properties non seismic quantities helium abundance math math main sequence age math odot math inferred supplementation additional assumptions renders outcome uncertain data analysis global helioseismology power spectrum sun using data instruments aboard solar heliospheric observatory double logarithmic axes three passbands virgo spm instrument show nearly power spectrum line sight velocity observations golf less sensitive red noise


sequence low order modes chief tool analysing raw seismic data fourier transform good approximation mode damped harmonic oscillator power function frequency lorentz function spatially resolved data usually projected onto desired spherical harmonics obtain time series fourier transformed helioseismologists typically combine resulting one dimensional power spectra two dimensional spectrum lower frequency range oscillations dominated variations caused granulation must first filtered


time modes analysed granular flows solar surface mostly horizontal centres rising granules narrow downdrafts relative oscillations granulation produces stronger signal intensity line sight velocity latter preferred helioseismic observatories local helioseismology local helioseismology term coined charles lindsey doug braun stuart jefferies employs several different analysis methods make inferences observational data ref name gb '''fourier hankel spectral method''' originally used search wave absorption sunspots ref name braun ref


holography wavefield eg line sight doppler velocity observed solar surface used make estimate wavefield location solar interior instant time sense holography much like seismic migration technique geophysics use since another example technique used give seismic image solar flare '' 'direct modelling''' idea estimate subsurface flows direct inversion frequency wavenumber correlations seen wavefield fourier domain


woodard ref name woodard ref demonstrated ability technique recover near surface flows f modes inversion introduction sun 's oscillation modes represent discrete set observations sensitive continuous structure allows scientists formulate inverse problems sun 's interior structure dynamics given reference model sun differences mode frequencies sun small weighted averages differences sun 's structure reference model frequency differences used


infer structural differences weighting functions averages known ''kernels'' structure first inversions sun 's structure made using duvall 's law later using duvall 's law linearized reference solar model results subsequently supplemented analyses linearize full set equations describing stellar oscillations theoretical reference model ref name snowmass standard way invert frequency data inversions demonstrated differences solar models greatly reduced implementing ''gravitational settling'' gradual separation


heavier elements towards solar centre lighter elements surface replace rotation internal rotation profile sun inferred using data helioseismic magnetic imager aboard solar dynamics observatory inner radius truncated measurements less certain happens around way core dashed line indicates base solar convection zone happens coincide boundary rotation profile changes known tachocline sun perfectly spherical modes


different azimuthal orders ''m'' would frequencies rotation however breaks degeneracy modes frequencies differ ''rotational splittings'' weighted averages angular velocity sun different modes sensitive different parts sun given enough data differences used infer rotation rate throughout sun example sun rotating uniformly throughout p modes would split approximately amount actually angular velocity uniform seen


surface equator rotates faster poles sun rotates slowly enough spherical non rotating model close enough reality deriving rotational kernels helioseismology shown sun rotation profile several features rigidly rotating radiative ie non convective zone though rotation rate inner core well known thin shear layer known ''tachocline'' separates rigidly rotating interior differentially rotating convective envelope convective envelope rotation rate varies depth latitude final shear layer beneath


surface rotation rate slows towards surface relationship fields geoseismology helioseismology born analogy geoseismology several important differences remain first sun lacks solid surface therefore cannot support shear waves data analysis perspective global helioseismology differs geoseismology studying normal modes local helioseismology thus somewhat closer spirit geoseismology sense studies complete wavefield asteroseismology sun star helioseismology closely related study


oscillations stars known asteroseismology helioseismology closely related study stars whose oscillations also driven damped outer convection zones known solar like oscillators underlying theory broadly classes variable star principal difference oscillations distant stars cannot resolved brighter darker sectors spherical harmonic cancel restricts asteroseismology almost entirely study low degree modes angular degree math ell leq math makes inversion much difficult upper limits still


j rgen christensen dalsgaard douglas gough suggested potential using individual mode frequencies infer interior structure sun calibrated solar models low degree data finding two similarly good fits one low math math corresponding low neutrino production rate math l nu math higher math math math l nu math earlier envelope calibrations high degree frequencies ref name ejrrku ref preferred latter results wholly convincing tom duvall jack harvey ref name duvall southpole connected two extreme data sets measuring modes intermediate


degree establish quantum numbers associated earlier observations higher math math model established thereby suggesting early stage resolution neutrino problem must lie nuclear particle physics new methods inversion developed allowing researchers infer profiles sound speed less accurately density throughout sun corroborating conclusion residual errors inference solar structure cause neutrino problem towards end decade observations also began show oscillation mode


frequencies vary sun 's magnetic activity cycle overcome problem able observe sun night several groups begun assemble networks telescopes eg birmingham solar oscillations network bison global oscillation network group sun would always visible least one node long uninterrupted observations brought field maturity state field summarized special issue ''science magazine'' coincided start normal operations solar heliospheric observatory soho


began producing high quality data helioseismology subsequent years saw resolution solar neutrino problem long seismic observations began allow analysis multiple solar activity cycles agreement standard solar models helioseismic inversions disrupted new measurements heavy element content solar photosphere based detailed three dimensional models though results later shifted back towards traditional values used new abundances significantly worsened agreement models helioseismic inversions cause discrepancy remains unsolved ref name learned


cycle national science foundation press release march https webarchiveorg web http wwwhelas euorg european helio asteroseismology network helas http soistanfordedu data full farside farside earthside images sun http solarphysicslivingreviewsorg living reviews solar physics http wwwmpsmpgde helioseismology asteroseismology research helioseismology asteroseismology mps satellite instruments http wwwiasu psudfr virgo virgo http soistanfordedu soi mdi http hmistanfordedu sdo hmi https webarchiveorg web http sunlandgsfcnasagov smex trace trace ground based instruments http bisonphbhamacuk bison mark http gongnsoedu gong http physicsuscedu solar hidhn fields seismology seismology stellar phenomena asteroseismology


myrina ca bc louvre museum ancient greek terracotta statuette dancing maenad rd century bc taranto '''history dance''' difficult access dance often leave behind clearly identifiable physical artefacts last millennia stone tools hunting implements cave paintings possible identify exact precision dance became part human culture early dance natural impulse dance may existed early primates evolved humans dance important part ceremony rituals celebrations entertainment since

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Dance
History of dance


thought protected participants disease however hysteria duration dances sometimes led death due exhaustion ref name laurson according sinhalese legend kandyan dances originated nbsp years ago magic dance ritual broke spell bewitched king cure king mysterious illness method expression one earliest structured uses dances may performance telling myths also sometimes used show feelings one opposite gender also linked origin


lovemaking production written languages dance one methods passing stories generation generation ref name lecomte nathalie comte europe encyclopedia early modern world ed jonathan dewald vol new york charles scribner 's sons p ref european culture one earliest records dancing homer whose ''iliad'' describes chorea ''khoreia'' early greeks made art dancing system expressive different passions example dance furies represented would create complete terror among witnessed


courtesans later linking dance immoral trafficking prostitution british rule prohibited public performance dance many disapproved india freedom created dance ambience could regain past glory classical forms regional distinctions discovered ethnic specialties honored synthesizing individual talents masters line fresh innovations emerged dance new face classicism past sri lanka ancient sinhalese chronicle ''mahavamsa'' states king vijaya landed sri lanka bce


mentioned ancient texts dancing sleeve movements still performed today early dances associated shamanic rituals folk dances early period also developed court dances important dances ancient period ceremonial ''yayue'' dated zhou dynasty first millennium bc art dance china reached peak tang dynasty period dancers many parts world also performed imperial court however chinese opera became popular song yuan dynasty many dances


merged chinese opera ref name wang art dance women also declined song dynasty onward result increasing popularity footbinding practice ironically may originated dancing dancer wrapped feet may dance ballet fashion best known chinese traditional dances dragon dance lion dance lion dance described tang dynasty form resembles today 's dance ref name wang ref europe pietro longhi ''la lezirawrone di danza'' dancing lesson ca venezia gallerie dell'accademia th th centuries court dancing romanticism


turned recognized art performed professional dancers rather courtiers th century ballet transitioned courtly dance moving images spectacle performance art right ballet performances developed around central narrative contained expressive movement revealed relationships characters dramatic style ballet became known ballet d'action ballet d'action strove express first time human emotions drawn directly dancers masks previously worn performers removed emotional content could derived


facial expressions ref name costumes time restricting dancers although expressive use body encouraged dancers' movements still restricted due heavy materials corseted dresses costumes often covered dancer 's physique made difficult see complex intricate choreography choreographer jean georges noverre called dance reforms ''letters dancing ballets'' costumes became conducive noverre urged costumes crafted using lightweight fabrics move fluidly body complementing dancer 's figure addition dancers wore


soft slippers fit snugly along foot shoe design instilled confidence within ballerina daring dance toes naturalistic costuming allowed dancers push boundaries movement eventually rising en pointe era romanticism produced ballets inspired fantasy mystique unfamiliar cultures exotic places ballets focused emotions fantasy spiritual worlds heralded beginning true pointe work toes deified ballerina embodied period legendary ballerina marie taglioni seemed magically skim surface stage


ethereal never quite touching ground period ascending star ballerina quite eclipsed presence poor male dancer many cases reduced status moving statue present order lift ballerina sad state really redressed rise male ballet star vaslav nijinsky ballets russes early th century ballet know well truly evolved time familiar conventions costume choreographic form plot pomp


martha graham saw european imperialistic nothing modern american people merce cunningham using foundations ballet technique teaching approached choreography performance entirely different standpoint compared traditional balletic format th century indeed period breaking away everything ballet stood time unprecedented creative growth dancers choreographers also time broadening definition dance africa onlyinclude african dance refers mainly dance styles


performing spirits placated ref name religion spirituality infused every part traditional african life continues affect african dance today second griotic type dance told story named ''griot'' term traditional storyteller west africa certain griotic dances danced tribe 's ''griot '' today troupes perform dances exclusive ''griot'' third type ceremonial dances performed ceremonies weddings anniversaries


rites passage ref name however many dances one purpose rather often one primary purpose blended many secondary purposes dance often important maintenance ruler 's status tribal society colonialism globalization resulted eradication certain styles african dance styles blended together mixed dance styles outside africa ref name african dance context slavery people taken africa sold slaves especially starting


brought dance styles entire cultures imported new world especially areas slaves given flexibility continue cultures african slaves europeans indigenous americans brazil african dance styles merged new cultural experiences form new styles dance example slaves responded fears masters high energy styles dance changing stepping shuffling ref name however north america slaves much freedom continue culture dance ref name ref name


many cases dances evolved modern dance styles african american dance brazilian dance example calenda evolved brazil tribal dance calenda evolved cakewalk danced originally mock plantation owners evolved charleston ref name capoeira martial art practiced originally africa enslaved africans masked form dance order arouse suspicion plantation owners onlyinclude late th early st centuries diagram th century american dance history postmodernism


time contemporary dance clearly still highly technical political vehicle many practitioners existing alongside classical ballet two art forms living peacefully next door one another little rivalry antipathy previous eras cleverly designed comment ongoing rivalry brilliant collaboration twyla tharp one th century 's cutting edge dance avant gardist contemporary ballet dance ultimately achieved present time sees us still competitive artistic atmosphere choreographers compete produce shocking work however still glimpses beauty


much incredible dancing age dance technique progressed expertise strength flexibility ever history street dance hip hop dance time mass culture experienced expansion street dance famous group jackson performed television dance called ''robot'' choreographed postmodern artist michael jackson dance form cultivated richmond ca event later soul train performances black dancers cambell ignited street culture revolution sense b boying new york locking la popping fresno


ca boogaloo oakland ca robot richmond ca creative explosions happen around late 's 's histories practices innovators foundations emergence th century modern dance see also mary wigman gret palucca harald kreutzberg yvonne georgi isadora duncan hip hop dance started clive campbell aka kool dj herc father hip hop came new york jamaica toting seeds reggae homeland credited first dj use two turntables identical copies


record create jams extension breaks songs musical section percussive beats aggressive allowed create name culture break boys break girls laid breaks came briefly termed b boys b girls dancers founded breakdancing cornerstone hip hop dance see also history ballet references ref reading adshead lansdale j ed ''dance history introduction'' routledge charman kraus r g chapman dixon stowall b ''history dance


art education'' pearson education dils ''moving history dancing cultures dance history reader'' wesleyan university press wood melusine ''some historical dances twelfth nineteenth century manner performance place social life time'' london imperial society teachers dancing external links https wwwgutenbergorg ebooks historic illustrations dancing bc ad project gutenberg https webarchiveorg web http wwwdancercom histphp history pointe shoes technique ballet dance research


bio chemical signalling agents respiratory system air inhaled lungs oxygen used produce energy immune system protect disease excrete waste urine faeces typical human attributes key aspects human biology ways humans substantially different mammals humans large brain head large size animal large brain enabled range unique attributes including development complex languages ability make use


years average completed humans lack fur although residual covering fine hair may developed men localised hair covering head axillary pubic regions terms protection cold humans almost naked reason development still much debated human eye see objects colour well adapted low light conditions sense smell taste present relatively inferior wide range mammals human hearing efficient lacks


acuity mammals similarly human sense touch well developed especially hands dextrous tasks performed sensitivity still significantly less animals particularly equipped sensory bristles cats scientific investigation human biology tries understand promotes research humans living beings scientific discipline makes use various scientific methods experiments observations detail biochemical biophysical foundations human life describe formulate underlying processes using models basic science provides


balanced input carbohydrates fats proteins vitamins minerals however human diet specific requirements include two specific amino acids alpha linolenic acid linoleic acid without life sustainable medium long term fatty acids synthesised dietary fats similarly human life requires range vitamins present food missing supplied unacceptable low levels metabolic disorders result end death human metabolism similar mammals except need


intake vitamin c prevent scurvy deficiency diseases unusually amongst mammals human synthesize vitamin using natural uv light sun skin capability may widespread mammalian world mammals share almost naked skin humans darker human 's skin less manufacture vitamin organisms human biology also encompasses organisms live human body organisms range parasitic insects fleas ticks parasitic helminths liver flukes bacterial


computer science '' 'record''' also called '' 'structure''' '' 'struct''' '''compound data''' basic data structure records database spreadsheet usually called rows ref name radv nyi ref ref name kahate ref record collection ''fields'' possibly different data types typically fixed number sequence fields record may also called ''members'' particularly object oriented programming fields may also called ''elements'' though risks confusion elements collection example date could stored record containing numeric var year var field var month var field represented

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Performing arts
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Recording


string numeric var day month var field personnel record might contain var name var var salary var var rank var circle record might contain var center var var radius var instance center might represented var point var record containing var x var var var coordinates records distinguished arrays fact number fields typically fixed field name field may different type ' 'record type'' data type describes values variables modern computer languages allow programmer define new


record types definition includes specifying data type field identifier name label accessed type theory product types field names generally preferred due simplicity proper record types studied languages system f sub since type theoretical records may contain first class function typed fields addition data express many features object oriented programming records exist storage medium including main memory mass storage devices magnetic tapes hard disks records fundamental


component data structures especially linked data structures many computer files organized arrays logical records often grouped larger physical records blocks efficiency parameters function procedure often viewed fields record variable arguments passed function viewed record value gets assigned variable time call also call stack often used implement procedure calls entry ''activation record'' ''call frame'' containing procedure parameters


local variables return address internal fields object object oriented language essentially record contains procedures specialized handle record object types elaboration record types indeed object oriented languages records special cases objects known plain old data structures podss contrast objects use oo features record viewed computer analog mathematical tuple although tuple may may considered record vice versa depending conventions specific programming language


vein record type viewed computer language analog cartesian product two mathematical sets implementation abstract product type specific language keys record may zero ''key' 's key field set fields record serves identifier unique key often called ''primary key'' simply ' 'record key'' example employee file might contain employee number name department salary employee number


unique organization would primary key depending storage medium file organization employee number might ''indexed'' also stored separate file make lookup faster department code may unique may also indexed case would considered ' 'secondary key'' ''alternate key'' indexed entire employee file would scanned produce listing employees specific department salary field would normally considered usable


key indexing one factor considered designing file history journal sheet united states census showing tabular data rows data record corresponding single person concept record traced various types tables ledgers used accounting since remote times modern notion records computer science fields well defined type size already implicit th century mechanical calculators babbage 's analytical engine hollerith punched card original machine readable medium used data opposed control


punch card used records united states census punch card single record compare journal entry punch card records well established first half th century data processing done using punched cards typically record data file would recorded one punched card specific columns assigned specific fields generally record smallest unit could read external storage eg card reader tape disk machine language implementations early assembly languages


special syntax records concept available extensively used use index registers indirect addressing self modifying code early computers ibm hardware support delimiting records fields special instructions copying records concept records fields central early file sorting tabulating utilities ibm 's report program generator rpg first widespread programming language support record types record definition facilities quite sophisticated time language allows definition


nested records alphanumeric integer fractional fields arbitrary size precision well fields automatically format value assigned eg insertion currency signs decimal points digit group separators file associated record variable data read written cobol also provides code move code code corresponding code statement assigns corresponding fields two records according names early languages developed numeric computing fortran fortran iv algol support record types later versions languages


fortran algol add original lisp programming language lacking records except built cons cell expressions provided adequate surrogate pascal programming language one first languages fully integrate record types basic types logically consistent type system pl programming language provided cobol style records c programming language initially provided record concept kind template code struct code could laid top memory area rather true record data type latter


provided eventually code typedef code declaration two concepts still distinct language languages designed pascal ada modula java also supported records operations declaration new record type including position type possibly name field declaration variables values given record type construction record value given field values sometimes given field names selection field record explicit name assignment record value record variable comparison two records equality


computation standard hash value record selection field record value yields value languages may provide facilities enumerate fields record least fields references facility needed implement certain services debuggers garbage collectors serialization requires degree type polymorphism systems record subtyping operations values record type may also include adding new field record setting value new field removing field record settings


variability matter central characteristic record types theoretical contexts assignment comparison languages allow assignment records exactly record type including field types names order depending language however two record data types defined separately may regarded distinct types even exactly fields languages may also allow assignment records whose fields different names matching field value corresponding field variable positions within record example


pty ptx code one could write code pt begin x x end code representation memory representation records memory varies depending programming languages usually fields stored consecutive positions memory order declared record type may result two fields stored word memory indeed feature often used systems programming access specific bits word hand compilers add padding


fields mostly invisible programmer order comply alignment constraints imposed machine say floating point field must occupy single word languages may implement record array addresses pointing fields possibly names types objects object oriented languages often implemented rather complicated ways especially languages allow multiple class inheritance self defining records ' 'self defining record'' type record contains information identify record type locate information within record may contain offsets


elements elements therefore stored order may omitted alternatively various elements record including element identifier simply follow one another order examples following show examples record definitions pl syntaxhighlight lang text declare date year fixed binary month fixed binary day fixed binary syntaxhighlight algol code nbsp nbsp '''mode''' '' 'date''' '' 'struct''' '''int''' year '''int''' month '''int''' day code c syntaxhighlight lang c struct date int year int month int day syntaxhighlight fortran syntaxhighlight lang fortran type date integer year month day end type date


ws year pic ws month pic ws day pic syntaxhighlight java syntaxhighlight lang java record date int year int month int day minimum required syntaxhighlight common lisp syntaxhighlight lang lisp defstruct date year type integer month type integer day type integer syntaxhighlight see also block data storage composite data type data hierarchy object composition passive data structure union type references data types composite data types articles example julia code


block diagram basic computer uniprocessor cpu black lines indicate data flow whereas red lines indicate control flow arrows indicate direction flow computer engineering '''computer architecture''' set rules methods describe functionality organization implementation computer systems architecture system refers structure terms separately specified components system interrelationships definitions architecture define describing capabilities programming model computer particular implementation definitions computer architecture involves instruction set architecture

Formal science
Computer science
Computer architecture


automatic computing engine also cited john von neumann 's paper term architecture computer literature traced work lyle r johnson frederick p brooks jr members machine organization department ibm 's main research center johnson opportunity write proprietary research communication stretch ibm developed supercomputer los alamos national laboratory time known los alamos scientific laboratory describe level detail discussing luxuriously embellished computer noted description formats instruction types hardware parameters


needs know later computer users came use term many less explicit ways earliest computer architectures designed paper directly built final hardware form later computer architecture prototypes physically built form transistor transistor logic ttl computer prototypes pa risc tested tweaked committing final hardware form new computer architectures typically built tested tweaked inside computer architecture computer architecture simulator inside fpga soft microprocessor committing


final hardware form subcategories discipline computer architecture three main subcategories ref name hennessypattersonquantitative ref '''instruction set architecture''' isa defines machine code processor reads acts upon well word size memory address modes processor registers data type '''microarchitecture''' also known computer organization describes particular processor implement isa size computer 's cpu cache instance issue generally nothing isa '''systems design''' includes hardware components within computing system data


processing cpu eg direct memory access virtualization multiprocessing technologies computer architecture following technologies used bigger companies like intel estimated ref name hennessypattersonquantitative ref count computer architecture '''macroarchitecture''' architectural layers abstract microarchitecture '''assembly instruction set architecture''' smart assembler may convert abstract assembly language common group machines slightly different machine language different implementations '''programmer visible macroarchitecture''' higher level language tools compilers may define consistent interface contract programmers using abstracting differences


underlying isa uisa microarchitectures example c c java standards define different programmer visible macroarchitectures '''microcode''' microcode software translates instructions run chip acts like wrapper around hardware presenting preferred version hardware 's instruction set interface instruction translation facility gives chip designers flexible options eg new improved version chip use microcode present exact instruction set old chip version software targeting instruction set run new chip without needing changes eg microcode


present variety instruction sets underlying chip allowing run wider variety software '''uisa''' user instruction set architecture refers one three subsets '''risc''' cpu instructions provided '''powerpc''' risc processors uisa subset risc instructions interest application developers two subsets vea virtual environment architecture instructions used virtualisation system developers oea operating environment architecture used operation system developers '''pin architecture''' hardware functions microprocessor provide hardware platform eg x pins ferr ignne flush


also messages processor emit external caches invalidated emptied pin architecture functions flexible isa functions external hardware adapt new encodings change pin message term architecture fits functions must provided compatible systems even detailed method changes roles definition computer architecture concerned balancing performance efficiency cost reliability computer system case instruction set architecture used illustrate balance competing factors complex instruction sets enable programmers