revolution ''nature'' c c ref geocybernetics applies dynamical systems perspective earth system analysis provides theoretical framework studying implications following different sustainability paradigms co evolutionary trajectories planetary socio ecological system reveal attractors system stability resilience reachability concepts tipping points climate system planetary boundaries safe operating space humanity proposals manipulating earth system dynamics global scale geoengineering framed language geocybernetic earth system analysis physics cybernetical physics approach studying physical


sentiments associated cultural categories comprehensive attempt ever made social sciences increase cybernetics generalized theory society made talcott parsons way cybernetics establishes basic hierarchy parsons' agil paradigm ordering system dimension action theory cybernetic models sociology reviewed book edited mcclelland fararo ref name mcclelland mcclelland kent thomas j fararo eds purpose meaning action control systems theories sociology new york palgrave macmillan ref creative practical therapeutic disciplines architecture design cybernetics

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Cybernetics


influence thinking architecture design decades second world war ashby pask drawn design theorists horst rittel christopher alexander bruce archer pask consultant nicholas negroponte 's architecture machine group forerunner mit media lab collaborated architect cedric price theatre director joan littlewood influential fun palace project pask 's musicolour installation inspiration john julia frazer 's work price 's generator project cybernetic study design contributed design methods research


development systemic design practices creative arts cybernetic art contemporary art builds upon legacy cybernetics feedback involved work takes precedence traditional aesthetic material concerns relationship cybernetics art summarised three ways cybernetics used study art create works art may regarded art form right prominent influential cybernetic serendipity exhibition held institute contemporary arts curated jasia reichardt including sch ffer 's ''cysp i'' gordon pask 's ''colloquy


mobiles'' installation pask 's reflections ''colloquy'' connected earlier ''musicolour'' installation termed aesthetically potent environments concept connected artistic work concerns teaching learning artist roy ascott elaborated extensive theory cybernetic art behaviourist art cybernetic vision ''cybernetica'' journal international association cybernetics namur volume ix volume x cybernetic stance process purpose ''leonardo'' vol art historian edward shanken written history art


cybernetics essays including cybernetics art cultural convergence ''from cybernetics telematics art pedagogy theory roy ascott'' traces trajectory ascott 's work cybernetic art telematic art art using computer networking medium precursor netart others creative arts associated cybernetics include herbert brun brian eno pauline oliveros tom scholte stephen willats education cybernetics influential development educational technology notably work gordon pask theories teaching learning including pask 's conversation


theory ernst von glasersfeld 's radical constructivism gregory bateson 's conception deuterolearning management organisation management field study covers task managing multitude systems often business systems presents wide natural overlap many classical concepts cybernetics management cybernetics includes approaches stafford beer 's viable system model syntegration psychotherapy development family therapy significantly influenced cybernetics work gregory bateson work r laing method levels approach psychotherapy based perceptual control


theory therapist aims help patient shift awareness higher levels perception order resolve conflicts allow reorganization take place applications model cybernetics sport introduced yuri verkhoshansky mel c siff book ''supertraining'' psycho cybernetics self help book written maxwell maltz ref name maltz ref philosophical concerns ecological aesthetics gregory bateson saw world series systems containing individuals societies ecosystems systems adaptive changes depend upon feedback loops control balance


linear fashion humanity creates rules system opens becoming slave self made system due non linear nature cybernetics lastly man 's technological prowess combined scientific hubris gives potential irrevocably damage destroy supreme cybernetic system ie biosphere instead disrupting system temporally system self correct ref name epistemology philosophy science second order cybernetics associated radically constructivist approach epistemology philosophy science ethics critique objectivity developed


second order cybernetics led concern ethical issues foerster developed critique morality ethical terms arguing ethics remain implicit action ref name hvf ethics foerster heinz von ethics second order cybernetics cybernetics human knowing ref foerster 's position described ethics enabling ethics form recursive ethical questioning varela published short book ethical know glanville identified number desirable ethical qualities implicit cybernetic devices black box distinction autonomy conversation others drawn connections design critical


systems heuristics logic logicians working cybernetics include gotthard g nther lars l fgren wider influence counter culture cybernetics influential development countercultural movements figures stewart brand publications whole earth catalogue co evolution quarterly deleuze guattari gilles deleuze f lix guattari influenced work gregory bateson feminisms ideas cybernetics influenced feminisms work margaret mead mary catherine bateson donna haraway sadie plant hayek friedrich hayek refers cybernetics discipline could help economists understand self organizing self generating systems called


markets posthumanism cybernetics' relevance across domains animal machine influence development posthumanism work n katherine hayles journals constructivist foundations cybernetics human knowing cybernetics systems ieee transactions systems man cybernetics systems ieee transactions human machine systems ieee transactions cybernetics ieee transactions computational social systems kybernetes organisations organisations primarily concerned cybernetics aspects include american society cybernetics cybernetics society ieee systems man cybernetics society max planck institute biological cybernetics metaphorum


metaphorum group set develop stafford beer 's legacy organizational cybernetics metaphorum group born syntegration every year developed conference issues related organizational cybernetics' theory practice rc sociocybernetics rc research committee international sociological association promoting development socio cybernetic theory research within social sciences scio systems complexity organisation scio systems complexity organisation community systems practitioners believe traditional approaches running organisations longer


capable dealing complexity turbulence faced organisations today responsible many problems see today scio body knowledge systems practice uk delivers apprenticeship masters level certification systems practice see also external links general http wwwbuedu wcp papers comp compjurchtm norbert wiener stefan odobleja comparative analysis http bactraorg notebooks cyberneticshtml reading list cybernetics http pespmc vubacbe defaulthtml ''principia cybernetica web'' https webarchiveorg web http pespmc vubacbe asc indexaschtml web dictionary cybernetics systems http wwwgwuedu asc slide html glossary slideshow slides societies http wwwasc cyberneticsorg american society cybernetics http wwwieeesmcorg ieee systems man


cybernetics society https webarchiveorg web http rd streetnet group indexphp indexphptopic msg msg international society cybernetics systems research http wwwcybsocorg cybernetics society reading ascott roy behaviourist art cybernetic vision ''cybernetica'' journal international association cybernetics namur pp nbsp fran ois charles https webarchiveorg web http wwwuni kluacat gossimit ifsr francois papers systemics cybernetics historical perspectivepdf systemics cybernetics historical perspective ''systems research behavioral science'' vol pp nbsp heylighen francis cliff joslyn http pespmc vubacbe papers cybernetics epstpdf cybernetics second order cybernetics ra meyers ed ''encyclopedia physical science technology'' rd ed vol academic press san diego p nbsp hy tyniemi heikki http neocyberneticscom report ''neocybernetics biological systems''


espoo helsinki university technology control engineering laboratory ilgauds hans joachim ''norbert wiener'' leipzig umpleby stuart ftp ftpvubacbe pub projects principia cybernetica papers umpleby science cyberneticstxt science cybernetics cybernetics science ''cybernetics systems vol pp nbsp von foerster heinz http wwwstanfordedu group shr text foersterhtml ethics second order cybernetics notes references


study black understandings behaviors deviations commonly arise regarding specificity black psychology ref name theorists william david smith robert chrisman halford fairchild broadly define black psychology attempt characterize understandings experiences people african descent theorists joseph baldwin na'im akbar daudi azibo amos wilson shawn utsey asa hilliard wade nobles linda james myers cheryl grills specifically define black psychology lens african philosophy heritage ref name ref name based different definitional systems deviations arise theorists

Social science
Psychology
Cultural psychology
Black psychology


considered black psychology ref name however despite varying definitions perspectives approaches field whole black psychology focuses study thoughts behaviors feelings beliefs attitudes interactions well individuals african descent ref name noteworthy definitions black psychology include joseph baldwin kobi kambon african black psychology defined system knowledge philosophy definitions concepts models procedures practice concerning nature social universe perspective african cosmology definition means african black psychology nothing


less uncovering articulation operationalization application principles african reality structure relative psychological phenomena ref name ref cited ref name ref name na'im akbar african psychology thing place view perspective way observing african psychology claim exclusive body knowledge though body knowledge continue generated place perspective lodged historical primacy human view land known africa cited ref


name halford fairchild african american psychology body knowledge concerned understanding african american life culture african american psychology focuses mental physical psychological spiritual nature humanity collection works produced african psychologists united states african americans throughout world cited ref name robert chrisman black psychology defined study behavioral patterns black people social environment manifestly antagonistic unhealthy concerned developing appropriate


methodologies tools required valid analysis black experience time criticizing methodologies tools white western psychology ref name black psychology dual task ref cited ref name history influence african philosophy origins black psychology ancient egypt many ways black psychology today influenced african philosophy past origins black african psychology traced back far ancient egypt kemet around bce ancient times earliest pioneers concerned development


ma'at serves rules humans neteru gods live ref name vedhara many way ma'at simply understood governing right thing ref name christensen ref seven virtues also highlight community philosophical beliefs necessary healthy productive relationships also seven principles ma'at follows one universal order one cosmic order one measure one cosmic law precedes spiritual laws one


intelligence one path one reality within seven main principles exists divine principles ref name christensen many ways similar ten commandments outline considered acceptable behavior also highlight importance unity within african societies one cosmic universal order outlined seven principles psyche soul according ancient kemetic beliefs time psyche soul could divided seven related elements ref name vedhara seven elements


things ref name vedhara fourth element akhu capacity thought mental perception ref name vedhara firth element seb eternal soul ref name vedhara particular element thought time bound meaning thought develop around adolescence thought related ability reproduce ref name vedhara sixth element putah union brain conscious mind ref name vedhara seventh element atmu divine eternal soul ref name vedhara elements interrelated many ways represent


allowed support schools years following saw founding black colleges across country including notable institutions first historically black college lincoln university fisk university howard university morehouse college spelman college ref name g one hundred black colleges seventeen southern states offering variety degrees many earned degrees social sciences education first african american man receive phd psychology francis sumner lincoln university ref name https wwwapaorg ref first


african american woman receive phd psychology inez beverly prosser university cincinnati ref name https wwwapaorg prestigious universities like ucla cornell harvard name offer african american students opportunities receive phd psychology first psychology course howard university offered listed psychology briefer course course offered department psychology developed francis sumner psychology courses became popular integral courses black


colleges least one course appearing early formally trained professors black white taught courses although many universities programs great influence prominent located howard university howard 's successes due largely efforts francis cecil sumner often considered father black psychologists sumner structured psychology program teaching ideas edward titchener john watson sigmund freud myriad courses topics learning personality mental hygiene experimental psychology experimental focus reflected sumner 's three objectives provide students preparation


professional fields stress cultural significance psychology prepare students wish pursue graduate study made howard different black universities created strong program carried graduate studies although howard offered master 's degrees offered strong foundation went pursue doctoral degrees although psychology popular course black colleges howard three black colleges offered undergraduate psychology degree late emphasis usually educational psychology leaving statistics experimental focuses wayside led


survey conducted herman george canady concerning nature undergraduate courses research psychology areas concern black colleges survey revealed fourteen fifty colleges department psychology theoretical lab courses rare psychology courses primarily offered departments education allowing development educational psychology emphasizing focus practical applications education also challenges pertained teaching psychology involving black students white instructors particularly early years mismatch


interactional norms due cultural differences underpin interactional behaviors include different backchanneling responses among black white americans ref name ref demonstrated incidence hyperexplanation wherein instructor provides lengthy explanation without recognizing affirmative gestures include vocal backchannels understand lead offense part black student could view explanation patronizing ref name graduate studies black colleges around nation produced bachelor 's degree graduates eventually earned doctorate psychology however


difficulties encountered attempts obtain degree many black students denied acceptance southern white schools looked north educational opportunities clark university foremost graduating black scholars time notable alumni include sumner j henry alston norm schools beyond acceptance provisions required black students take extra year undergraduate work prove caliber attending white schools finances troubling factor fees toward tuition living maintenance expenses caused many delay


give pursuing graduate studies dependable wages menial positions combination factors meant doctorates awarded psychology ten prestigious universities nation eight awarded black candidates overall survey prior studies indicates consensus among psychologists black psychology black psychologists play important role addressing race related issues america aside significance addressing concept negro personality psychological issues entails example edward johnson stressed ''the role


negro american psychology'' black psychologist regard agent social change scientific racism concept scientific racism present throughout history often manifested different ways historically psychology influenced fields anthropology biology beginning idea people could classified based race quickly gave way psychological biological theories describing natural hierarchy among different races bottom hierarchy black people marginalized people ref name ref entire


fields arose views phrenology study cranial shape size relationship mental abilities studies concluded black people 's skulls brains smaller hence inferior westerners ref name addition scientists like isidore saint hilaire studied facial structures concluded black people 's facial structure ape like ref name ref name pseudosciences like led belief westerners physically mentally intellectually superior compared black people ref name ref name psychology also adopted many prominent nativist approaches


darwin 's theory evolution galton 's theories hereditary intelligence mendel 's theory inheritance mcdougall 's instincts theory ref name led psychology discipline place lot emphasis idea physical psychological traits inherited thereby perpetuating negative beliefs stereotypes black people ref name among stereotypes one frequently studied area intelligence psychologists like george oscar ferguson peterson concluded black children deficits abstract thinking overall less intelligent white children ref name importantly approach also takes away


importance understanding factors stereotype threat could influence intelligence measurements psychological traits important studying black psychology psychology general along lines black psychologists like guthrie argue discipline psychology also developed predominantly white framework ref name ref name theories findings originate framework applied black populations black psychology stems completely different framework african philosophy ref name many findings end creating norms inapplicable black people


moreover psychological research often done samples drawn westernized populations ref name ref findings studies skew generalizations towards populations account world 's population ref name white framework creation western norms tend pathologize attitudes behaviors typical white people ref name pathologization black people turn negative consequences livelihood well hence scientific racism motivated many notable black psychologists found association black psychologists explore psychology different lenses develop black psychology field ref name


outside eurocentric psychology authors propose three methodological approaches deconstructionist reconstructionist constructionist organize evolution major concepts theories black psychology since origin abpsi using three methodological approaches authors identify many ways black african psychology challenged prevailing beliefs psychology black behavior culture forever changed psychological research black people ref name deconstructionist black psychology encompasses many concepts theories apply african americans ref name ref concepts theories come two perspectives ref name one perspective assumes universality means


african americans studied using universal laws operates belief study african beliefs behaviors psychology essential study african americans ref name reflection field black psychology abpsi 's th anniversary cokley describes three methodological approaches characteristic work many black psychologists ref name deconstruction method focuses diagnosing breaking misconceptions inaccuracies eurocentric psychology perpetuates ref name example robert v guthrie 's book ''even rat white'' deconstructed mistruths


celebrates appreciated black psychologists deconstruction movement abpsi included addressing three challenges black psychologist dealing offering suggestions american psychological association apa ref name ref challenges included underrepresentation black psychologists higher education programs apa 's neglect racism poverty lack black psychologists apa ref name challenges led black psychologists request apa integrate workforce represent african americans graduate programs reevaluate programs inherent racism standardized measurement black youth fully addressed ref


name apa one fighting issue ref name ref ''even rat white'' guthrie addresses judge robert peckham found california violation civil rights act due use standardized psychological tests culturally biased racially biased invalid purposes wrongfully placing students classes intended students intellectual disabilities ref name addition past challenges western socialization process paints eurocentric psychology gold standard diagnosing treating mental health issues world today ref name ref


correcting errors within traditional eurocentric psychology black people access culturally sensitive models psychology ref name method specifically examines ideas black self concept racial identity cultural mistrust ref name reconstructionist approach argues psychology stop centering black self concept around eurocentric psychological ideas instead redefine black self concept separate ref name reconstructionists argue without differentiating black self concept traditional psychologists continue spread inaccurate narratives black people ref name ref radical reconstructionists like wade nobles founder association black psychologists argue black


self concept center around african worldviews like communalism ref name ref name reconstructionist approach also highlights importance black racial identity development rejects eurocentric concepts identity ref name ref name ref william cross proposed prominent model black racial identity called nigrescence theory ref name lastly reconstructionist approach examines ways racism influences interactions black white people ref name black psychologists working reconstructionist framework like arthur whaley https wwwafricanastudiespittedu people jerome taylor jerome taylor francis sandra terrell proposed term ''cultural mistrust'' replacement older term ''cultural paranoia'' refer


ways black people developed mistrust towards white americans due years oppression racism ref name black psychologists argued word paranoia inappropriate upheld eurocentric norms ref name constructionist constructionist approach recognizes black psychology field grounded african worldview ethos distinct independent eurocentric psychology afrocentric psychologists develop paradigms practices methodologies accordance values african worldview address well african people eradicate social economic political injustice ref name ref name afrocentric approach emphasizes agency


people african descent creating sustaining cultural knowledge aids survival oppression also enables thrive people outside context oppression notable black psychologists ground work based african worldview ethos include linda james myers optimal worldview kobi kambon cultural misorientation shawn utsey africultural coping james jones trios model na'im akbar alien self disorder https bellarminelmuedu psychology parc ourteam cherylgrillsphd cheryl grills africentrism scale organizations association black psychologists formed protest toward american psychological association 's lack


interest african american psychologists association black psychologists created official journal called ''the journal black psychology'' journal directed toward understanding experiences behavior african american populations covers many issues african american society hiv sickle cell disease racial identity african american children substance abuse prevention psychology fields covered journal counseling clinical social cognitive educational organizational psychology ref name holliday bg p holliday bg p ref prominent contributors founders association black psychologists abpsi complete


list founders abpsi dr joseph akward dr calvin atkinson dr j barnes dr sylvia o'bradovich dr ronald brown dr ed davis dr harold dent dr aubrey escoffery dr jim deshields dr russ evans dr george franklin dr al goines dr robert green dr bill harvey dr thomas hilliard dr mary howar dr george jackson dr walter jacobs dr reginald jones dr roy jones dr luther kindall dr mel king dr de lorise minot dr lonnie mitchell dr jane fort morrison dr leon nicks dr edwin nichols dr wade nobles dr bill pierce dr david terrell


dr charles thomas dr mike ward dr joseph white dr robert williams dr samuel winslow https booksgooglecom booksid wubicx bl yc pg pa lpg pa dq dr aubrey spencer escoffery source bl ots tuvdjgst sig acfu u wodapj pac h eddetyelfrw hl en sa x ved ahukewjt uz tzzmahvmqlkkhdkkdvqq aewahoecasqaq v onepage q dr aubrey spencer escoffery f false dr aubrey spencer escoffery founding member abpsi earned ba columbia columbia phd university connecticut robert v guthrie founder abpsi well known book ''even rat white historical view psychology'' described american psychological association one influential multi faceted african american scholars century reginald lanier jones clinical psychologist college professor founding member


past president association black psychologists wade nobles philosopher psychologist focused african centered education healing spirituality also founder past president abpsi robert lee williams ii provided essential research racial cultural biases iq testing created term ebonics also founding member abpsi early contributors https wwwquestiacom library journal p azibo nosology interview daudi ajani daudi ajani ya azibo azibo nationally recognized expert african centered psychology addition creator azibo nosology diagnostic system mental disorders directly linked


african centered personality theory ruth winifred howard beckham one first african american woman earn phd psychology john henry brodhead regarded african american pioneer field psychology kenneth clark first black president american association psychologists known work wife mamie phipps clark well known doll study oran wendle eagleson professor psychology spelman college addition eighth black person united states receive doctorate psychology frantz fanon fanon political radical pan africanist


nigerian birth professor psychological sciencewho leading figure field african centered psychology developed theory psychoafricalysis also known psychoafricalytic psychology african centered psychologists philosophers na'im akbar clinical psychologist known afro centric approach psychology strong critic eurocentric approach psychopathology molefi kete asante african american professor philosopher leading figure field african studies kwame gyekye ghanaian philosopher important figure development african psychology john samuel mbiti kenyan born christian philosopher


researched african cosmologies niara sudarkasa africanist anthropologist first african american woman teach columbia notable african american psychologists james arthur bayton american psychologist conducted research areas personality race social issues consumer psychology albert sidney beckham pioneering african american psychologist made significant contributions base knowledge racial intelligence score disparities https ccepvcuedu us affiliate faculty belgrave phdhtml faye belgrave work focuses various aspects culture promote well african american youth author textbook ''african american psychology africa america important text field


african american psychology'' nancy boyd franklin author five books focusing ethnicity family therapy well known development home community based therapies servicing african american families herman george canady canady african american social psychologist noted first psychologist examine role race examiner bias factor iq testing mamie phipps clark performed well known doll study served expert witnesses one brown vs board education cases http wwwkevincokleycom kevin cokley former editor chief journal black


psychology author myth black anti intellectualism published journal articles book chapters areas racial identity academic achievement impostor phenomenon op eds topics blacks rational mistrust police police race relations racism white supremancy beverley greene greene phd clinical psychology published psychological articles contributed fields race gender within psychology https bellarminelmuedu psychology parc ourteam cherylgrillsphd cheryl grills former president american association black psychologists contributed greatly fields research african american


fourth african american receive phd psychology howard emery wright african american social psychologist educator served president allen university us office education director division social sciences hampton institute studied attitudinal testing see also association black psychologists footnotes references belgrave fz allison kw introduction african american psychology ''african american psychology africa america'' nd ed thousands oak california cusumano globalization general psychology african emphasis ''title vi grant'' holliday b g


history vision african american psychology multiple pathways place space authority ''cultural diversity ethnic minority psychology'' guthrie rv ''even rat white'' nd ed boston allyn bacon whitten l infusing black psychology introductory psychology course ''teaching psychology'' oshodi je place spiritualism ancient africa american psychology ''journal black studies'' african american studies african american society branches psychology


'''instructional simulation''' also called '''educational simulation''' simulation type reality system environment also includes instructional elements help learner explore navigate obtain information system environment cannot generally acquired mere experimentation instructional simulations typically goal oriented focus learners specific facts concepts applications system environment today universities make lifelong learning possible offering virtual learning environment vle users access learning different times lives also immerse

Applied science
Education
Educational Technology
Instructional design
Instructional simulation


learning without physically moving learning facility interact face face instructor real time vles vary widely interactivity scope example virtual classes virtual labs virtual programs virtual library virtual training etc researchers classified vle types st generation vle originated provided first line course opportunities consisted collection learning materials discussion forums testing e mail systems accessible line type virtual environment static allow interaction among different


components system nd generation vle originated vle powerful data base integration functions planning administrating creating supporting teaching materials testing analyzing results forms exist including learning space webct top class cose blackboard etc rd generation vle novelty rd generation vle incorporate newest technologies accessible real non real time synchronous synchronous communications audio video conferences internet one one one many collaboration features work groups seminars labs forums


course learning development planning library administrative functions stanford line interlabs classroom system virtual university vu examples vle th generation vle environments future represent new learning paradigms center user global resources opposed teacher local resources main advantage learning materials created adapted personalized specific needs function user th generations vle exist still planning developing


phases one example supportive technology called multi agent technology allows interface data among different systems history simulations one form another used since early method training training united states defense modeling simulation coordination office identifies three main types simulation live virtual constructive live live action virtual simulations primarily used training purposes whereas constructive simulation used view predict outcomes like wargaming stockmarket behavior types based reality


intended provide user pseudo experience without danger expense complexity real life simulations used learning training purposes noted authors clark aldrich andy gibbons model centered instruction suggest simulations instructional rather simulation becomes instructional instructional elements included help expose learner key parts concepts system environment example f simulator inherently instructional primarily intended replicate f cockpit behavior environments aircraft operates


within simulator may used training purposes requires instructor external element identify key learning aspects system learner education simulations use number different names ken jones defined simulations interactions people role playing others suggest experiential learning activities like found team training ropes courses also simulations replicate human decision making processes groups may display albeit different environment considered instructional simulations effective


use simulation types include using instructional elements help learners focus key behaviors concepts principles ever decreasing cost computing tools virtual constructive simulation used simulation used e learning environments improved web authoring tools increasing demand performance based training result non technical personnel involved designing simulation field dominated engineers computer scientists instructional design models simulations traditional instructional design models least four components analysis components usually included


goal analysis performance analysis target population analysis task analysis media selection cost analysis design including interface design sequencing lesson design learner control development collaboration programmers graphic artists writers subject matter experts others educational product fully developed implementation evaluation delivering final product learners evaluating whether goals met addie example instructional systems design isd model effectiveness pedagogy designing vles functions need considered designing traditional learning modalities process virtual


learning consists organizational quality control correctional predictable procedures example effectiveness organization student self learning called pedagogical didactical function vles depend following online content satisfies requirements subject matter standards time allows engages students interest process learning example open ended inquiry based approaches learning allow students room pursue individual interests level interactivity learning environment increase motivation hands opportunities learners simulation animation provide excellent multisensory learning environments


time management tools efficient assimilation new materials example availability timetables schedule synchronous consultations embedded hyperlinks ready access information etc maximization activities focus student critical thinking information literacy skills needed st century acquisition processing synthesis information communication modalities teacher student peer peer learner experts role instructor organizer student initiator learning process widely used format designing online learning environments


new methods instruction instructional gaming simulations jonassen 's promotion hermeneutics fuzzy logic chaos theory bases id hoffman 's use reigeleuth 's elaboration theory hypermedia akilli cagiltay 's fidge model among others hermeneutics fuzzy logic chaos theory hermeneutics emphasizes importance socio historical context mediating meanings individuals creating decoding texts massively multiplayer online learning environments example require new social processes go well social constructivist hermeneutic philosophy methods chaos theory looks order chaotic systems looking repeating patterns fractals


model could lead possibility modularity plasticity would bring along ease make changes response learner needs without changing overall structure product rapid development fidge fuzzified instructional design development game like environments model model consists dynamic phases fuzzy boundaries instructional designers move non linearly main features participants include actively participating learners experts teams composed multidisciplinary multi skilled game players environment socio organizational cultural process dynamic fuzzy non linear creative based evaluation change


continuous evaluation also continuous iterative formative summative embedded phase time management scheduling vital success well management good leader model suitable game like learning environments educational games novice expert level instructional designers learners virtual worlds instructional simulation virtual world interactive environment users immersed environment users manipulate environment interact users depending degree immersion users begin playing game interact users attend


seminars complete course work online class online discussion groups social networks myspace facebook already used supplement interaction within coursework baker second life virtual world users create avatars avatar virtual representation user users avatars interact user within second life world avatars purchase virtual land buildings travel interact conduct business even attend lectures professors second life running hours day tied internet


always avatars interact mmorpgs ''world warcraft'' ''star wars galaxies'' video game based virtual environments game engines hold potential instructional simulation unlike second life pre designed games set objectives need completed progression uses education education virtual learning environments simulated experiences utilize pedagogical strategies instructional modeling role playing teaching new concepts environment experiences presented virtual one often accessed via computer


learning extending concepts skills application simulated environment learning occur emotionally physically safe environment without detrimental consequence use instructional simulation individuals special needs gaining attention mitchell parsons leonard created virtual caf program designed teach social interaction skills adolescents autism spectrum disorder asd program provides feedback guide scaffold user toward making appropriate social behavior decisions virtual learning environments also beginning used teach children asd respond potentially


dangerous situations crossing street evacuating building fire strickland mcallister coles osborne instructional simulation provides safe environment within practice appropriate response skills distance learning growing importance physical classroom reduced technology distance learning develops sanders sanders present warning students may well distance learning environments however need engaging moments within course also warns students critically assess new technology adopting learning tool virtual learning environment


suggest including instructional scaffolding experiences help alleviate students anxieties applying mathematics chemistry concepts actual laboratory setting barney bishop adlong bedgood virtual laboratory replace real world experience rather helps enhance student 's schema chemistry laboratory prepare performance expectations actual environment web based virtual science laboratories also used elementary school students study sun lin yu found students used web based virtual science laboratory conjunction traditional teaching methods found learning experience


enjoyable also performed better academically received higher grades baker suggests multi user virtual environments muves potential engage students second life holds purpose interaction baker instructors hold lectures students collaborate chat second life compared discussion board second life viable alternative distance learning students develop group work skills chesapeake high school baltimore county maryland students explore ecological environment surrounding mount st helens via virtual learning environment curriculum review students navigate environment


virtual unmanned vehicle work collaboratively solve ecological environmental problems built program instructional purposes engaging vle provides many opportunities application data collection problem solving uses medicine sokolowski classifies medical simulations categories simulators based physical models usually referred human patient simulator hps several prototype exist different purposes centraline man noelle pediasim mannequins virtual reality training simulators based computers ie lapvr surgical simulator suture tutor hybrid model first


two kinds combines realistic computerized representation organ system example ability interface haptic devices use simulation based learning medical field many benefits including patient safety accelerating diagnostic therapeutic procedures unfulfilled demand medical personnel medical cost reduction lowering medical errors amount loss life associated costs use current technologies allow high fidelity simulations include immersive virtual environments ives computer based environments known serious games highly immersive virtual environments


possess validity immersive virtual environments '''ives''' medical education range teaching simple skills taking patient 's blood complex skills internal surgery different medical care providers use simulations different purposes emergency medical technicians medics involved combat environments nurses doctors surgeons medical first responders '''ives''' simulate human body provide student trainee opportunity realistically practice thus become proficient particular technique taught '''ives''' commonly used teaching patient examination surgical procedures assessment individual collaborative students relieved know


simulations practice appreciate opportunity make mistakes rather later use ives provides controlled safe environment students learn anxiety factor reduced students discuss symptoms openly could actual patient time however students use protocol would real patient means introduce address patients name respect privacy use simulation saves lives money reducing medical errors training time operating room time need


replace expensive equipment simulation users may practice variety patients different case history exhibits unique symptoms responds user actions appropriate physiological responses real life patient anatomy moves beating heart breathing lungs tissues deform bruise bleed system generates detailed evaluation session enabling users supervisors measure success simulated procedures barriers instructional simulation medicine simulations medicine use early th century


use training mannequins helped reduce high maternal infant mortality rates today evolved include ives cave robotic surgery etc still relatively limited use health industry medicine profession uses advanced technical high risk well behavioral skills however unlike areas similar requirements aviation medicine totally embraced use simulations assist necessary medical training limited use simulations training medical field explained several factors including cost control


focus status individual instead standards excellence equivalent actors goal overprotection personal liability instead consideration given unintended consequences system level arbitration optimize safety strategies overregulation technical complexities medicine instead simplification regulations needed existence barriers leads lower rate patient safety prevent health industry come closer goal ultrasafe performance already achieved civil aviation nuclear power industries references aldrich clark field guide educational


simulations ''learning circuits'' american society training development january baker wentz r woods using virtual worlds education second life educational tool teaching psychology barney bishop adlong w bedgood effectiveness virtual laboratory preparatory resource distance education chemistry students ''computers education '' coulter b science modeling simulation connect march april darabi nelson seel n march progression mental models throughout phases computer based instructional simulation supportive information practice


performance computers human behavior gibbons model centered instruction ''journal structural learning intelligent systems'' johnsen k dickerson r raij harrison c lok b stevens et al evolving immersive medical communication skills trainer ''presence teleoperators virtual environments'' jones ken ''designing simulations'' new york methuen mantovani f castelnuovo g gaggioli riva g virtual reality training health care professionals ''cyberpsychology behavior'' mitchell p parsons leonard using virtual environments teaching social understanding adolescents


autistic spectrum disorders ''journal autism developmental disorders'' sanders r imponderable bloom reconsidering role technology education innovate ''simulated environments stimulate learning'' curriculum review october volume issue skiba nursing education second life ''nursing education perspectives'' strickland mcallister coles c osborne evolution virtual reality training designs children autism fetal alcohol spectrum disorders ''topics language disorders'' sun k lin yu c study learning effect among


different learning styles web based lab science elementary school students ''computers education '' ziv et al simulation based medicine ethical imperative academic medicine simulation teaching


humans cannot survive eg space underwater high heat clean containment hazardous materials radiation robots take form made resemble humans appearance claimed help acceptance robots certain replicative behaviors usually performed people robots attempt replicate walking lifting speech cognition human activity many today 's robots inspired nature contributing field bio inspired robotics certain robots require user input operate robots function autonomously concept

Formal science
Computer science
Artificial intelligence
Robotics


creating robots operate autonomously dates back classical times research functionality potential uses robots grow substantially th century throughout history frequently assumed various scholars inventors engineers technicians robots one day able mimic human behavior manage tasks human like fashion today robotics rapidly growing field technological advances continue researching designing building new robots serve various practical purposes whether domestically commercially militarily many robots built jobs hazardous people


defusing bombs finding survivors unstable ruins exploring mines shipwrecks robotics also used stem science technology engineering mathematics teaching aid etymology word ''robotics'' derived word ''robot'' introduced public czech writer karel apek play ''rur rossum 's universal robots '' published ref name kapekwebsite ref word ''robot'' comes slavic word ''robota'' means work job play begins factory makes artificial people called ''robots'' creatures mistaken humans similar modern


ideas androids karel apek coin word wrote short letter reference etymology ''oxford english dictionary'' named brother josef apek actual originator ref name kapekwebsite according ''oxford english dictionary'' word ''robotics'' first used print isaac asimov science fiction short story '' liar '' published may ''astounding science fiction'' asimov unaware coining term since science technology electrical devices ''electronics'' assumed ''robotics'' already referred science technology


robots asimov 's works states first use word ''robotics'' short story ''runaround'' astounding science fiction march introduced concept three laws robotics however original publication liar predates runaround ten months former generally cited word 's origin history norbert wiener formulated principles cybernetics basis practical robotics fully autonomous robots appeared second half th century first digitally operated programmable robot unimate


third century bc earlier one earliest descriptions automata appears ''lie zi'' text much earlier encounter king mu zhou bc mechanical engineer known yan shi 'artificer' latter allegedly presented king life size human shaped figure mechanical handiwork ref name needham volume ref yan shi first century ad earlier descriptions machines automata including fire engine wind organ coin operated machine steam powered engine ''pneumatica''


''automata'' heron alexandria ctesibius philo byzantium heron alexandria others c bc wooden steam propelled bird able fly flying pigeon archytas tarentum created early humanoid automata programmable automaton band robot band hand washing automaton automated moving peacocks al jazari designs humanoid robot mechanical knight leonardo da vinci 's unspecifed mechanical monk machinal feet built robes imitated walking robot 's eyes lips head move


lifelike gestures mechanical monk leonardo da vinci mechanical duck able eat flap wings excrete digesting duck jacques de vaucanson nikola tesla demonstrates first radio controlled vessel teleautomaton nikola tesla leonardo torres quevedo presented ''telekino'' paris academy science consisted robot executed commands transmitted electromagnetic waves telekino leonardo torres quevedo leonardo torres quevedo build first truly autonomous machine capable playing


chess opposed human operated turk ajeeb ''el ajedrecista'' automaton played chess without human guidance played endgame three chess pieces automatically moving white king rook checkmate black king moved human opponent ref name williams ref el ajedrecista leonardo torres quevedo paper ''essays automatics'' published leonardo torres quevedo proposed machine makes judgments using sensors capture information outside parts manipulate outside world like arms power sources


batteries air pressure important captured information past information defined part control reaction like living thing according external information adapt changes environment change behavior ref name ltq es l torres quevedo ''ensayos sobre autom tica su definicion extension te rica de sus aplicaciones'' revista de la academia de ciencias exacta revista pp ref ref name ltq fr l torres quevedo '' http diccancom dicoport torreshtm essais sur l'automatique sa finition etendue th orique de ses applications '' revue g nerale des sciences pures et appliqu es vol pp ref ref name randell p b randell ''essays automatics''


origins digital computers pp ref essays automatics leonardo torres quevedo first fictional automatons called robots appear play ''rur'' rossum 's universal robots karel apek humanoid robot exhibited world 's fairs elektro westinghouse electric corporation first general purpose digital computer whirlwind multiple people simple robots exhibiting biological behaviors elsie elmer william grey walter first commercial robot unimation company founded george devol joseph engelberger based


first industrial robot six electromechanically driven axes famulus kuka robot group world 's first microcomputer controlled electric industrial robot irb asea delivered small mechanical engineering company southern sweden design robot patented already irb abb robot group programmable universal manipulation arm unimation product puma victor scheinman first object level robot programming language allowing robots handle variations object position shape sensor noise


move tracker treads power comes form electricity travel wire originate battery basic electrical circuit even petrol powered machines get power mainly petrol still require electric current start combustion process petrol powered machines like cars batteries electrical aspect robots used movement motors sensing electrical signals used measure things like heat sound position energy status operation robots need level electrical energy supplied


motors sensors order activate perform basic operations robots contain level computer programming code program robot decides something caterpillar track example robot needs move across muddy road may correct mechanical construction receive correct amount power battery would go anywhere without program telling move programs core essence robot could excellent mechanical electrical construction program poorly constructed


performance poor may perform three different types robotic programs remote control artificial intelligence hybrid robot remote control programming preexisting set commands perform receives signal control source typically human remote control perhaps appropriate view devices controlled primarily human commands falling discipline automation rather robotics robots use artificial intelligence interact environment without


control source determine reactions objects problems encounter using preexisting programming hybrid form programming incorporates ai rc functions applications robots designed specific tasks method classification becomes relevant example many robots designed assembly work may readily adaptable applications termed assembly robots seam welding suppliers provide complete welding systems robot ie welding equipment along material handling facilities like turntables etc


integrated unit integrated robotic system called welding robot even though discrete manipulator unit could adapted variety tasks robots specifically designed heavy load manipulation labeled heavy duty robots current potential applications include military robots industrial robots robots increasingly used manufacturing since according robotic industries association us data automotive industry main customer industrial robots total sales auto industry amount half labor


even lights factories ibm keyboard manufacturing factory texas fully automated early cobots collaborative robots construction robots construction robots separated three types traditional robots robotic arm robotic exoskeleton agricultural robots agrobots use robots agriculture closely linked concept ai assisted precision agriculture drone usage research also proved robots perform herding task medical robots various types da vinci surgical system hospi kitchen automation commercial examples kitchen automation flippy burgers zume pizza


pizza cafe x coffee makr shakr cocktails frobot frozen yogurts sally salads home examples rotimatic flatbreads baking boris dishwasher loading robot combat sport hobby sport event two robots fight arena disable developed hobby several tv series worldwide cleanup contaminated areas toxic waste nuclear facilities domestic robots nanorobots swarm robotics ref name search foraging ref autonomous drones sports field line marking components power source ''insight'' lander solar panels deployed cleanroom present mostly


relatively heavy tether connecting robot power supply would remove power supply robot entirely advantage saving weight space moving power generation storage components elsewhere however design come drawback constantly cable connected robot difficult manage ref name robot power supply sources ref potential power sources could pneumatic compressed gases solar power using sun 's energy converting electrical power hydraulics liquids flywheel energy storage organic garbage anaerobic digestion nuclear actuation robotic leg


series elastic actuators series elastic actuation sea relies idea introducing intentional elasticity motor actuator load robust force control due resultant lower reflected inertia series elastic actuation improves safety robot interacts environment eg humans workpiece collisions furthermore also provides energy efficiency shock absorption mechanical filtering reducing excessive wear transmission mechanical components approach successfully employed various robots particularly advanced manufacturing robots walking humanoid robots controller design series elastic


actuator often performed within passivity framework ensures safety interaction unstructured environments despite remarkable stability robustness framework suffers stringent limitations imposed controller may trade performance reader referred following survey summarizes common controller architectures sea along corresponding ' 'sufficient'' passivity conditions one recent study derived ''necessary sufficient'' passivity conditions one common impedance control architectures namely velocity sourced sea work particular importance drives non conservative passivity bounds


sea scheme first time allows larger selection control gains air muscles pneumatic artificial muscles also known air muscles special tubes expand typically air forced inside used robot applications muscle wire muscle wire also known shape memory alloy nitinol flexinol wire material contracts electricity applied used small robot applications electroactive polymers eaps epams plastic material contract substantially


activation strain electricity used facial muscles arms humanoid robots enable new robots float fly swim walk piezo motors recent alternatives dc motors piezo motors ultrasonic motors work fundamentally different principle whereby tiny piezoceramic elements vibrating many thousands times per second cause linear rotary motion different mechanisms operation one type uses vibration piezo elements step motor circle straight line another type uses piezo elements


cause nut vibrate drive screw advantages motors nanometer resolution speed available force size motors already available commercially used robots elastic nanotubes elastic nanotubes promising artificial muscle technology early stage experimental development absence defects carbon nanotubes enables filaments deform elastically several percent energy storage levels perhaps nbsp j cm sup sup metal nanotubes human biceps could replaced nbsp mm diameter wire material compact muscle might allow future robots


touch receptors human fingertips sensor array constructed rigid core surrounded conductive fluid contained elastomeric skin electrodes mounted surface rigid core connected impedance measuring device within core artificial skin touches object fluid path around electrodes deformed producing impedance changes map forces received object researchers expect important function artificial fingertips adjusting robotic grip held objects scientists several european countries israel developed prosthetic hand


called smarthand functions like real one allowing patients write type keyboard play piano perform fine movements prosthesis sensors enable patient sense real feeling fingertips ref name smarthand ref vision computer vision science technology machines see scientific discipline computer vision concerned theory behind artificial systems extract information images image data take many forms video sequences views cameras practical computer vision applications computers pre programmed solve


particular task methods based learning becoming increasingly common computer vision systems rely image sensors detect electromagnetic radiation typically form either visible light infra red light sensors designed using solid state physics process light propagates reflects surfaces explained using optics sophisticated image sensors even require quantum mechanics provide complete understanding image formation process robots also equipped multiple vision sensors better able compute sense depth environment like human eyes robots'


eyes must also able focus particular area interest also adjust variations light intensities subfield within computer vision artificial systems designed mimic processing behavior biological system different levels complexity also learning based methods developed within computer vision background biology common forms sensing robotics use lidar radar sonar ref name automation robotics ref lidar measures distance target illuminating target laser light measuring reflected light sensor radar


robot arm intended make effect whether hand tool often referred ''end effectors'' arm referred ''manipulator'' robot arms replaceable end effectors allowing perform small range tasks fixed manipulator cannot replaced one general purpose manipulator example humanoid hand mechanical grippers one common types end effectors grippers simplest manifestation consists two fingers open close pick


let go range small objects fingers example made chain metal wire run hands resemble work like human hand include shadow hand robonaut hand hands mid level complexity include delft hand mechanical grippers come various types including friction encompassing jaws friction jaws use force gripper hold object place using friction encompassing jaws cradle object place using less friction suction end effectors suction end effectors powered


continuous tracks researchers tried create complex wheeled robots one two wheels certain advantages greater efficiency reduced parts well allowing robot navigate confined places four wheeled robot would able two wheeled balancing robots balancing robots generally use gyroscope detect much robot falling drive wheels proportionally direction counterbalance fall hundreds times per second based dynamics inverted pendulum many different balancing


robots designed segway commonly thought robot thought component robot used segway refer rmp robotic mobility platform example use nasa 's robonaut mounted segway one wheeled balancing robots one wheeled balancing robot extension two wheeled balancing robot move direction using round ball wheel several one wheeled balancing robots designed recently


carnegie mellon university 's ballbot approximate height width person tohoku gakuin university 's ballip long thin shape ability maneuver tight spaces potential function better robots environments people spherical orb robots several attempts made robots completely inside spherical ball either spinning weight inside ball rotating outer shells sphere also referred orb bot ball bot six wheeled robots


using six wheels instead four wheels give better traction grip outdoor terrain rocky dirt grass tracked robots talon military robots used united states army tank tracks provide even traction six wheeled robot tracked wheels behave made hundreds wheels therefore common outdoor military robots robot must drive rough terrain however difficult use indoors carpets smooth floors examples include nasa 's urban robot urbie walking applied


robots walking difficult dynamic problem solve several robots made walk reliably two legs however none yet made robust human much study human inspired walking amber lab established mechanical engineering department texas university many robots built walk two legs due robots significantly easier construct walking robots used uneven terrains would provide better mobility energy


efficiency locomotion methods typically robots two legs walk well flat floors occasionally walk stairs none walk rocky uneven terrain methods tried zmp technique zero moment point zmp algorithm used robots honda 's asimo robot 's onboard computer tries keep total inertial forces combination earth 's gravity acceleration deceleration walking exactly opposed floor reaction force force floor pushing back robot 's foot


advanced way robot walk using dynamic balancing algorithm potentially robust zero moment point technique constantly monitors robot 's motion places feet order maintain stability technique recently demonstrated anybots' dexter robot stable even jump another example tu delft flame passive dynamics perhaps promising approach utilizes passive dynamics momentum swinging limbs used greater efficiency shown totally unpowered humanoid mechanisms walk


gentle slope using gravity propel using technique robot need supply small amount motor power walk along flat surface little walk hill technique promises make walking robots least ten times efficient zmp walkers like asimo methods locomotion flying modern passenger airliner essentially flying robot two humans manage autopilot control plane stage journey including takeoff normal flight even landing flying


snakes left one motors degrees freedom per segment right one several snake robots successfully developed mimicking way real snakes move robots navigate confined spaces meaning may one day used search people trapped collapsed buildings japanese acm r snake robot even navigate land water skating small number skating robots developed one multi mode walking skating device four legs unpowered wheels either step roll another


robot plen use miniature skateboard roller skates skate across desktop capuchin climbing robot climbing several different approaches used develop robots ability climb vertical surfaces one approach mimics movements human climber wall protrusions adjusting center mass moving limb turn gain leverage example capuchin built dr ruixiang zhang stanford university california another approach uses specialized toe pad method wall climbing geckoes run smooth surfaces


could also identify circumvent obstacles automatically flexibility speed comparable natural gecko third approach mimic motion snake climbing pole ref name automation robotics swimming piscine calculated swimming fish achieve propulsive efficiency greater furthermore accelerate maneuver far better man made boat submarine produce less noise water disturbance therefore many researchers studying underwater robots would like copy type locomotion notable examples essex university computer science robotic fish g


body lengths second endurance duration top speed maintained build attained swimming speeds bl ie nbsp first build ''isplash'' first robotic platform apply full body length carangiform swimming motion found increase swimming speed traditional approach posterior confined waveform sailing autonomous sailboat robot ''vaimos'' sailboat robots also developed order make measurements surface ocean typical sailboat robot ''vaimos'' built ifremer ensta bretagne since propulsion sailboat robots uses


wind energy batteries used computer communication actuators tune rudder sail robot equipped solar panels robot could theoretically navigate forever two main competitions sailboat robots wrsc takes place every year europe http wwwsailbotorg sailbot environmental interaction navigation radar gps lidar combined provide proper navigation obstacle avoidance vehicle developed darpa urban challenge though significant percentage robots commission today either human controlled operate


static environment increasing interest robots operate autonomously dynamic environment robots require combination navigation hardware software order traverse environment particular unforeseen events eg people obstacles stationary cause problems collisions highly advanced robots asimo mein robot particularly good robot navigation hardware software also self controlled cars ernst dickmanns' driverless car entries darpa grand challenge capable sensing environment well subsequently making navigational decisions based


information including swarm autonomous robots ref name search foraging robots employ gps navigation device waypoints along radar sometimes combined sensory data lidar video cameras inertial guidance systems better navigation waypoints human robot interaction kismet produce range facial expressions state art sensory intelligence robots progress several orders magnitude want robots working homes go beyond vacuum cleaning floors robots work effectively homes


non industrial environments way instructed perform jobs especially told stop critical importance people interact may little training robotics interface need extremely intuitive science fiction authors also typically assume robots eventually capable communicating humans speech gestures facial expressions rather command line interface although speech would natural way human communicate unnatural robot probably


long time robots interact naturally fictional c po data star trek next generation even though current state robotics cannot meet standards robots science fiction robotic media characters eg wall e r elicit audience sympathies increase people 's willingness accept actual robots future acceptance social robots also likely increase people meet social robot appropriate conditions studies shown interacting robot looking touching even imagining interacting robot reduce negative feelings people


robots interacting however pre existing negative sentiments especially strong interacting robot increase negative feelings towards robots speech recognition interpreting continuous flow sounds coming human real time difficult task computer mostly great variability speech word spoken person may sound different depending local acoustics volume previous word whether speaker cold etc becomes even harder speaker different accent nevertheless great strides


future explaining robot chef make pastry asking directions robot police officer cases making hand gestures would aid verbal descriptions first case robot would recognizing gestures made human perhaps repeating confirmation second case robot police officer would gesture indicate road turn right likely gestures make part interaction humans robots great many systems developed recognize human hand gestures


facial expression facial expressions provide rapid feedback progress dialog two humans soon may able humans robots robotic faces constructed hanson robotics using elastic polymer called frubber allowing large number facial expressions due elasticity rubber facial coating embedded subsurface motors servos coating servos built metal skull robot know approach human judging facial expression body language whether person happy frightened


crazy looking affects type interaction expected robot likewise robots like kismet recent addition nexi produce range facial expressions allowing meaningful social exchanges humans artificial emotions artificial emotions also generated composed sequence facial expressions gestures seen movie ''final fantasy spirits within'' programming artificial emotions complex requires large amount human observation simplify programming movie presets created together special software program


decreased amount time needed make film presets could possibly transferred use real life robots example robot artificial emotions robin robot developed armenian company expper technologies uses ai based peer peer interaction main task achieving emotional well ie overcome stress anxiety robin trained analyze facial expressions use face display emotions given context robot tested kids us clinics observations show robin increased appetite cheerfulness children meeting


talking personality many robots science fiction personality something may may desirable commercial robots future nevertheless researchers trying create robots appear personality ie use sounds facial expressions body language try convey internal state may joy sadness fear one commercial example pleo toy robot dinosaur exhibit several apparent emotions social intelligence socially intelligent machines lab georgia institute technology researches new concepts


guided teaching interaction robots aim projects social robot learns task goals human demonstrations without prior knowledge high level concepts new concepts grounded low level continuous sensor data unsupervised learning task goals subsequently learned using bayesian approach concepts used transfer knowledge future tasks resulting faster learning tasks results demonstrated robot ''curi'' scoop pasta pot onto plate serve sauce top control puppet magnus robot manipulated marionette


objects mapping techniques used build maps world finally motion planning artificial intelligence techniques may used figure act example planner may figure achieve task without hitting obstacles falling etc autonomy levels topio humanoid robot played ping pong tokyo irex control systems may also varying levels autonomy direct interaction used haptic teleoperated devices human nearly complete control robot 's motion operator assist modes operator commanding medium high level tasks


robot automatically figuring achieve autonomous robot may go without human interaction extended periods time higher levels autonomy necessarily require complex cognitive capabilities example robots assembly plants completely autonomous operate fixed pattern another classification takes account interaction human control machine motions teleoperation human controls movement machine actuator change specified operator supervisory human specifies general moves position changes machine decides specific movements actuators


mars right test rover mars science laboratory landed ''curiosity'' mars ''sojourner'' long mars exploration rovers mer long ''curiosity'' right long much research robotics focuses specific industrial tasks investigations new types robots alternative ways think design robots new ways manufacture investigations mit 's cyberflora project almost wholly academic first particular new innovation robot design open sourcing


using fitness function perform worst removed population replaced new set new behaviors based winners time population improves eventually satisfactory robot may appear happens without direct programming robots researchers researchers use method create better robots explore nature evolution process often requires many generations robots simulated technique may run entirely mostly simulation using robot simulator software package tested


real robots evolved algorithms good enough currently million industrial robots toiling around world japan top country high density utilizing robots manufacturing industry dynamics kinematics study motion divided kinematics dynamics direct kinematics forward kinematics refers calculation end effector position orientation velocity acceleration corresponding joint values known inverse kinematics refers opposite case required joint values calculated given end effector values done path planning


special aspects kinematics include handling redundancy different possibilities performing movement collision avoidance singularity avoidance relevant positions velocities accelerations calculated using kinematics methods field dynamics used study effect forces upon movements direct dynamics refers calculation accelerations robot applied forces known direct dynamics used computer simulations robot inverse dynamics refers calculation actuator forces necessary create prescribed end effector acceleration information used improve


control algorithms robot area mentioned researchers strive develop new concepts strategies improve existing ones improve interaction areas criteria optimal performance ways optimize design structure control robots must developed implemented bionics biomimetics bionics biomimetics apply physiology methods locomotion animals design robots example design bionickangaroo based way kangaroos jump quantum computing research whether robotics algorithms


run quickly quantum computers run digital computers area referred quantum robotics education training scorbot er u educational robot robotics engineers design robots maintain develop new applications conduct research expand potential robotics robots become popular educational tool middle high schools particularly parts usa ref name acm se ref well numerous youth summer camps raising interest programming artificial intelligence robotics among students career training universities like worcester polytechnic institute wpi offer bachelors master 's


complete list see robot competition competitions younger children first organization offers first lego league jr competitions younger children competition 's goal offer younger children opportunity start learning science technology children competition build lego models option using lego wedo robotics kit competitions children ages one important competitions fll first lego league idea specific competition kids start developing knowledge getting robotics playing lego since


nine years old competition associated national instruments children use lego mindstorms solve autonomous robotics challenges competition competitions teenagers first tech challenge designed intermediate students transition first lego league first robotics competition first robotics competition focuses mechanical design specific game played year robots built specifically year 's game match play robot moves autonomously first seconds game although certain years 's deep space change rule


manually operated rest match competitions older students various robocup competitions include teams teenagers university students competitions focus soccer competitions different types robots dance competitions urban search rescue competitions robots competitions must autonomous competitions focus simulated robots auvsi runs competitions flying robots robot boats underwater robots student auv competition europe sauc e mainly attracts undergraduate graduate student teams auvsi competitions robots must fully autonomous


participating competition microtransat challenge competition sail boat across atlantic ocean competitions open anyone robogames open anyone wishing compete categories robot competitions federation international robot soccer association holds fira world cup competitions flying robot competitions robot soccer competitions challenges including weightlifting barbells made dowels cds robotics afterschool programs many schools across country beginning add robotics programs school curriculum major programs afterschool robotics include first robotics competition botball best


robotics robotics competitions often include aspects business marketing well engineering design lego company began program children learn get excited robotics young age decolonial educational robotics decolonial educational robotics branch decolonial technology decolonial ai practiced various places around world methodology summarized pedagogical theories practices pedagogy oppressed montessori methods aims teaching robotics local culture pluralize mix technological knowledge employment robot technician builds


small terrain robots courtesy mobilerobots inc robotics essential component many modern manufacturing environments factories increase use robots number robotics related jobs grow observed steadily rising employment robots industries increased productivity efficiency savings typically seen long term investment benefactors paper michael osborne nbsp carl benedikt frey nbsp found per cent us jobs risk automation unspecified number years claims criticized ground social policy ai causes


unemployment article guardian stephen hawking stated automation factories already decimated jobs traditional manufacturing rise artificial intelligence likely extend job destruction deep middle classes caring creative supervisory roles remaining according globaldata september report robotics industry worth bn grown compound annual growth rate cagr bn driving jobs robotics related industries ref name robotics thematic research ref occupational safety health implications


flexibility adaptability need combine optimal skills resulted collaborative robots humans sharing common workspace closely led development new approaches standards guarantee safety man robot merger european countries including robotics national programmes trying promote safe flexible co operation robots operators achieve better productivity example german federal institute occupational safety health baua organises annual workshops topic human robot collaboration future co operation robots humans diversified robots


still many jobs history future workplace automation journal economic perspectives tooze adam democracy discontents ''the new york review books'' vol lxvi june pp nbsp democracy clear answer mindless operation bureaucratic technological power may indeed witnessing extension form artificial intelligence robotics likewise decades dire warning environmental problem remains fundamentally unaddressed bureaucratic overreach environmental catastrophe precisely kinds slow moving existential challenges democracies deal


sarah bernhardt hamlet '''theatre''' '''theater''' recent dictionaries american english list ''theatre'' less common variant eg ''random house webster 's college dictionary'' ''the american heritage dictionary english language'' th edition ''new oxford american dictionary'' third edition http wwwmerriam webstercom dictionary theater ''merriam webster dictionary'' collaborative form performing art uses live performers usually actors actresses present experience real imagined event live audience specific place often stage performers may communicate experience audience combinations gesture


speech song music dance elements art painted scenery stagecraft lighting used enhance physicality presence immediacy experience specific place performance also named word theatre derived ancient greek th atron place viewing omai see watch observe modern western theatre comes large measure theatre ancient greece borrows technical terminology classification genres many themes stock characters plot elements theatre artist patrice pavis


defines theatricality theatrical language stage writing specificity theatre synonymous expressions differentiate theatre performing arts literature arts general incarnates fictional world means signs end process signification symbolization spectator reconstructed theoretical aesthetic model accounts dramatic universe modern theatre includes performances plays musical theatre art forms ballet opera also theatre use many conventions acting costumes staging influential development musical


theatre see articles information history theatre classical hellenistic greece greek theatre taormina sicily italy greek phlyax play circa bce city state athens western theatre originated dominant culture athens fifth century goldhill writes said invented theatre part broader culture theatricality performance classical greece included festivals religious rituals politics law athletics gymnastics music poetry weddings funerals ' 'symposia'' participation city state 's many festivals mandatory attendance city dionysia audience member


even participant theatrical productions particular important part citizenship civic participation also involved evaluation rhetoric orators evidenced performances law court political assembly understood analogous theatre increasingly came absorb dramatic vocabulary greeks also developed concepts dramatic criticism theatre architecture actors either amateur best semi professional theatre ancient greece consisted three types drama tragedy comedy satyr play origins theatre ancient greece according aristotle


bce first theoretician theatre found festivals honoured dionysus performances given semi circular auditoria cut hillsides capable seating people stage consisted dancing floor orchestra dressing room scene building area skene since words important part good acoustics clear delivery paramount actors always men wore masks appropriate characters represented might play several parts athenian tragedy oldest surviving form tragedy type dance drama formed important part theatrical culture


city state emerged sometime th century bce flowered th century bce end began spread throughout greek world continued popular beginning hellenistic period tragedies th century bce thousand performed th century bce survived complete texts extant aeschylus sophocles euripides origins tragedy remain obscure though th century bce institutionalised competitions ''agon'' held part


response news military defeat battle salamis bce notable exception surviving drama aeschylus first prize city dionysia bce writing tragedies years yet tragic treatment recent history earliest example drama survive years later philosopher aristotle analysed th century athenian tragedy oldest surviving work dramatic theory ''poetics'' c bce athenian comedy conventionally divided three periods old comedy middle comedy new comedy


satyr play eventually found way athens well known form satyr 's tied god dionysus loyal woodland companions often engaging drunken revelry mischief side satyr play classified tragicomedy erring side modern burlesque traditions early twentieth century plotlines plays typically concerned dealings pantheon gods involvement human affairs backed chorus satyrs however according webster satyr actors always perform typical


originated early tamilakam earliest surviving fragments sanskrit drama date st century ce wealth archeological evidence earlier periods offers indication existence tradition theatre ancient ''vedas'' hymns bce among earliest examples literature world contain hint although small number composed form dialogue rituals vedic period appear developed theatre ''mah bh ya'' pata jali contains earliest reference may


seeds sanskrit drama treatise grammar bce provides feasible date beginnings theatre india major source evidence sanskrit theatre ''a treatise theatre'' ''n tya stra'' compendium whose date composition uncertain estimates range bce ce whose authorship attributed bharata muni ''treatise'' complete work dramaturgy ancient world addresses acting dance music dramatic construction architecture costuming make props organisation companies audience competitions offers mythological account origin


theatre provides indications nature actual theatrical practices sanskrit theatre performed sacred ground priests trained necessary skills dance music recitation hereditary process aim educate entertain performer playing sugriva koodiyattam form sanskrit theatre patronage royal courts performers belonged professional companies directed stage manager ' 'sutradhara'' may also acted task thought analogous puppeteer literal meaning ' 'sutradhara''


holder strings threads performers trained rigorously vocal physical technique prohibitions female performers companies male female mixed gender certain sentiments considered inappropriate men enact however thought better suited women performers played characters age others played ages different whether younger older elements theatre ''treatise'' gives attention acting ''abhinaya'' consists two styles realistic ''lokadharmi'' conventional ''natyadharmi'' though major focus latter


drama regarded highest achievement sanskrit literature utilised stock characters hero ''nayaka'' heroine ''nayika'' clown ''vidusaka'' actors may specialised particular type k lid sa st century bce arguably considered ancient india 's greatest sanskrit dramatist three famous romantic plays written k lid sa ''m lavik gnimitram'' ''m lavik agnimitra'' ''vikramuurvashiiya'' ''pertaining vikrama urvashi'' ''abhij na kuntala'' ''the recognition shakuntala'' last inspired story ''mahabharata'' famous first translated english german


'' akuntal '' english translation influenced goethe 's ''faust'' next great indian dramatist bhavabhuti c th century ce said written following three plays ''malati madhava'' ''mahaviracharita'' ''uttar ramacharita'' among three last two cover entire epic ''ramayana'' powerful indian emperor harsha credited written three plays comedy ''ratnavali'' ''priyadarsika'' buddhist drama ''nagananda'' chinese theatre public performance jade dragon snow mountain open air theatre tang dynasty sometimes known age entertainments era ming huang formed


adventure fantasy rarely stylized form theatre used political propaganda cantonese shadow puppets larger two built using thick leather created substantial shadows symbolic color also prevalent black face represented honesty red one bravery rods used control cantonese puppets attached perpendicular puppets' heads thus seen audience shadow created pekingese puppets delicate smaller created thin translucent leather usually taken belly donkey


painted vibrant paints thus cast colorful shadow thin rods controlled movements attached leather collar neck puppet rods ran parallel bodies puppet turned ninety degree angle connect neck rods visible shadow cast laid outside shadow puppet thus interfere appearance figure rods attached necks facilitate use multiple heads one body


heads used stored muslin book fabric lined box heads always removed night keeping old superstition left intact puppets would come life night puppeteers went far store heads one book bodies another reduce possibility reanimating puppets shadow puppetry said reached highest point artistic development eleventh century becoming tool government song dynasty


complex musical styles ref name unesco ref earliest evidence late st millennium ce medieval era texts archeological sites ref name brandon ref oldest known record concerns wayang th century around ad old javanese kawi inscriptions called jaha inscriptions issued maharaja sri lokapalaform medang kingdom central java mentions three sorts performers atapukan aringgit abanol aringgit means wayang puppet show atapukan means mask dance show abanwal means joke art ringgit described th century javanese poem leather shadow figure post classical theatre west theatre took


many alternative forms west th th centuries including ''commedia dell'arte'' melodrama general trend away poetic drama greeks renaissance toward naturalistic prose style dialogue especially following industrial revolution theatre royal drury lane west end opened may oldest theatre london ref name oldest ref theatre took big pause england puritan interregnum viewing theatre something sinful puritans ordered closure london theatres stagnant period


ended charles ii came back throne restoration theatre among arts exploded influence french culture since charles exiled france years previous reign two companies licensed perform duke 's company king 's company performances held converted buildings lisle 's tennis court first west end theatre known theatre royal covent garden london designed thomas killigrew built site present theatre royal drury lane ref name oldest one big changes


new theatre house instead type elizabethan era globe theatre round place actors really prep next act theatre manners theatre house became transformed place refinement stage front stadium seating facing since seating longer way around stage became prioritized seats obviously better others king would best seat house middle theatre got widest view


stage well best way see point view vanishing point stage constructed around philippe jacques de loutherbourg one influential set designers time use floor space scenery turmoil time still controversy put stage jeremy collier preacher one heads movement piece ''a short view immorality profaneness english stage'' beliefs


chaste free minded heroine near end play much like sheridan 's ''the school scandal'' many comedies fashioned french tradition mainly moli hailing back french influence brought back king royals exile moli one top comedic playwrights time revolutionizing way comedy written performed combining italian commedia dell'arte neoclassical french comedy create longest lasting influential satiric comedies tragedies similarly victorious sense righting political


power especially poignant recent restoration crown also imitations french tragedy although french larger distinction comedy tragedy whereas english fudged lines occasionally put comedic parts tragedies common forms non comedic plays sentimental comedies well something would later called ''trag die bourgeoise'' domestic tragedy tragedy common life popular england appealed english sensibilities theatre troupes formerly often travelling idea national theatre gained support


th century inspired ludvig holberg major promoter idea national theatre germany also ''sturm und drang'' poets abel seyler owner hamburgische entreprise seyler theatre company ref name abel seyler wilhelm kosch seyler abel ''dictionary german biography'' eds walther killy rudolf vierhaus vol walter de gruyter editor ref vanemuine theatre tartu estonia th century popular theatrical forms romanticism melodrama victorian burlesque well made plays scribe sardou gave way problem plays naturalism


realism farces feydeau wagner 's operatic ''gesamtkunstwerk'' musical theatre including gilbert sullivan 's operas f c burnand 's w gilbert 's oscar wilde 's drawing room comedies symbolism proto expressionism late works august strindberg henrik ibsen edwardian musical comedy trends continued th century realism stanislavski lee strasberg political theatre erwin piscator bertolt brecht called theatre absurd samuel beckett eug ne ionesco american british musicals collective creations companies actors directors joan littlewood 's theatre workshop experimental


postmodern theatre robert wilson robert lepage postcolonial theatre august wilson tomson highway augusto boal 's theatre oppressed eastern theatrical traditions ''rakshasa'' demon depicted yakshagana form musical dance drama india first form indian theatre sanskrit theatre began development greek roman theatre development theatre parts asia emerged sometime nd century bce st century ce flourished st century ce th period


relative peace history india hundreds plays written japanese forms kabuki n ky gen developed th century ce theatre medieval islamic world included puppet theatre included hand puppets shadow plays marionette productions live passion plays known ''ta'ziya'' actors enact episodes muslim history particular shia islamic plays revolved around ' 'shaheed'' martyrdom ali 's sons hasan ibn ali husayn ibn ali secular plays known ''akhraja'' recorded medieval ''adab'' literature though less common puppetry ''ta'ziya''


theatre types drama drama specific mode fiction represented performance term comes greek word meaning action derived verb ' 'dr '' act enactment drama theatre performed actors stage audience presupposes collaborative modes production collective form reception structure dramatic texts unlike forms literature directly influenced collaborative production collective reception early modern tragedy ''hamlet'' shakespeare classical athenian tragedy ''oedipus rex'' c bce


sophocles among masterpieces art drama modern example ''long day 's journey night'' eugene o'neill considered genre poetry general dramatic mode contrasted epic lyrical modes ever since aristotle 's ''poetics'' c bce earliest work dramatic theory use drama narrow sense designate specific ''type'' play dates th century drama sense refers play ''neither'' comedy tragedy example zola 's ''th r se raquin'' chekhov 's


''ivanov'' ancient greece however word ' 'drama'' encompassed theatrical plays tragic comic anything drama often combined music dance drama opera generally sung throughout musicals generally include spoken dialogue songs forms drama incidental music musical accompaniment underscoring dialogue melodrama japanese n example certain periods history ancient roman modern romantic dramas written read rather performed improvisation drama pre exist moment performance performers devise dramatic


script spontaneously audience forms improvisation take cue immediate response one another characters' situations sometimes established advance often interaction audience classic formulations improvisation theatre originated joan littlewood keith johnstone uk viola spolin us see musical theatre cats'' london palladium music theatre close relationship since ancient times athenian tragedy example form dance drama employed chorus whose parts sung


accompaniment ''aulos'' instrument comparable modern clarinet actors' responses 'solo songs' monodies modern musical theatre form theatre also combines music spoken dialogue dance emerged comic opera especially gilbert sullivan variety vaudeville music hall genres late th early th century edwardian musical comedy began princess theatre musicals early th century comedies works rodgers hammerstein ''oklahoma '' musicals


moved dramatic direction famous musicals subsequent decades included ''my fair lady'' ''west side story'' ''the fantasticks'' ''hair'' ''a chorus line'' ''les mis rables'' ''cats'' ''into woods'' ''the phantom opera'' well contemporary hits including ''rent'' ''the lion king'' ''wicked'' ''hamilton'' ''frozen'' musical theatre may produced intimate scale broadway regional theatres elsewhere often includes spectacle instance broadway west end musicals often include lavish costumes sets supported


multimillion dollar budgets theatrical masks tragedy comedy mosaic roman artwork nd century ce capitoline museums rome comedy theatre productions use humour vehicle tell story qualify comedies may include modern farce ''boeing boeing'' classical play ''as like it'' theatre expressing bleak controversial taboo subject matter deliberately humorous way referred black comedy black comedy several genres like slapstick humour dark sarcastic comedy tragedy aristotle 's phrase several kinds found separate parts play


reference structural origins drama spoken parts written attic dialect whereas choral recited sung ones doric dialect discrepancies reflecting differing religious origins poetic metres parts fused new entity theatrical ' 'drama'' tragedy refers specific tradition drama played unique important role historically self definition western civilisation tradition multiple discontinuous yet term often used invoke powerful effect cultural identity historical


continuity greeks elizabethans one cultural form hellenes christians common activity raymond williams puts obscure origins theatres athens years ago survives fraction work aeschylus sophocles euripides singular articulations works shakespeare lope de vega racine schiller recent naturalistic tragedy strindberg beckett 's modernist meditations death loss suffering ller 's postmodernist reworkings tragic canon tragedy remained important site cultural experimentation negotiation struggle change


wake aristotle 's ''poetics'' bce tragedy used make genre distinctions whether scale poetry general tragic divides epic lyric scale drama tragedy opposed comedy modern era tragedy also defined drama melodrama tragicomic epic theatre drama narrow sense cuts across traditional division comedy tragedy anti generic deterritorialization mid th century onwards bertolt brecht augusto boal define epic


exploring improvisation alternative scripted theatre spolin successors exploring improvisation principally tool developing dramatic work skills form situational comedy spolin also became interested process learning improvisation applicable development human potential spolin 's son paul sills popularized improvisational theatre theatrical art form founded first director second city chicago theories village feast theatre performance circa important part human culture years theatre evolved


wide range different theories practices related political spiritual ideologies others based purely artistic concerns processes focus story theatre event theatre catalyst social change classical greek philosopher aristotle seminal treatise ''poetics'' c bce earliest surviving example arguments influenced theories theatre ever since offers account calls poetry term greek literally means making context includes drama comedy tragedy satyr play