'''information retrieval''' '''ir''' computing information science process obtaining information system resources relevant information need collection resources searches based full text content based indexing information retrieval science searching information document searching documents also searching metadata describes data databases texts images sounds automated information retrieval systems used reduce called information overload ir system software system provides access books

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Information retrieval


journals documents stores manages documents web search engines visible ir applications overview information retrieval process begins user enters query system queries formal statements information needs example search strings web search engines information retrieval query uniquely identify single object collection instead several objects may match query perhaps different degrees relevancy object entity represented information content collection database user queries matched


database information however opposed classical sql queries database information retrieval results returned may may match query results typically ranked ranking results key difference information retrieval searching compared database searching depending application data objects may example text documents images ref name goodron ref audio ref name foote ref mind maps ref name beel ref videos often documents kept stored directly ir system instead represented system document surrogates metadata ir systems compute numeric


score well object database matches query rank objects according value top ranking objects shown user process may iterated user wishes refine query ref name frakes ref history idea using computers search relevant pieces information popularized article ''as may think'' vannevar bush ref name singhal ref would appear bush inspired patents 'statistical machine' filed emanuel goldberg '


searched documents stored film ref name sanderson ref first description computer searching information described holmstrom ref name holmstrom ref detailing early mention univac computer automated information retrieval systems introduced one even featured romantic comedy desk set first large information retrieval research group formed gerard salton cornell several different retrieval techniques shown perform well small text corpora cranfield collection several thousand documents ref name singhal large scale retrieval systems


lockheed dialog system came use early us department defense along national institute standards technology nist cosponsored text retrieval conference trec part tipster text program aim look information retrieval community supplying infrastructure needed evaluation text retrieval methodologies large text collection catalyzed research methods scale huge corpora introduction web search engines boosted need large scale retrieval systems even applications


areas information retrieval techniques employed include entries alphabetical order within category general applications digital libraries information filtering recommender systems media search blog search image retrieval retrieval music retrieval news search speech retrieval video retrieval search engines site search desktop search enterprise search federated search mobile search social search web search domain specific applications expert search finding genomic information retrieval geographic information retrieval information retrieval chemical structures information retrieval software engineering legal information retrieval vertical search retrieval methods methods techniques information retrieval techniques employed include adversarial information retrieval automatic summarization


multi document summarization compound term processing cross lingual retrieval document classification spam filtering question answering model types german entry original source http wwwlogos verlagde cgi bin engbuchmidisbn lng eng id dominik kuropka effectively retrieving relevant documents ir strategies documents typically transformed suitable representation retrieval strategy incorporates specific model document representation purposes picture right illustrates relationship common models picture models categorized according two dimensions mathematical basis properties model first dimension mathematical basis ''set theoretic'' models represent documents sets words


bayes' theorem often used models binary independence model probabilistic relevance model based okapi bm relevance function uncertain inference language models divergence randomness model latent dirichlet allocation ''feature based retrieval models'' view documents vectors values ''feature functions'' ''features'' seek best way combine features single relevance score typically learning rank methods feature functions arbitrary functions document query easily incorporate almost retrieval model another feature second dimension properties model


''models without term interdependencies'' treat different terms words independent fact usually represented vector space models orthogonality assumption term vectors probabilistic models independency assumption term variables ''models immanent term interdependencies'' allow representation interdependencies terms however degree interdependency two terms defined model usually directly indirectly derived eg dimensional reduction co occurrence terms whole set documents ''models transcendent term interdependencies'' allow representation interdependencies terms


allege interdependency two terms defined rely external source degree interdependency two terms example human sophisticated algorithms performance correctness measures evaluation information retrieval system' process assessing well system meets information needs users general measurement considers collection documents searched search query traditional evaluation metrics designed boolean retrieval top k retrieval include precision recall measures assume ground truth notion relevancy every document


known either relevant non relevant particular query practice queries may ill posed may different shades relevancy timeline ''' s''' ''' ''' joseph marie jacquard invents jacquard loom first machine use punched cards control sequence operations ''' s''' herman hollerith invents electro mechanical data tabulator using punch cards machine readable medium ''' ''' hollerith cards keypunches tabulators used process us census data ''' s''' emanuel goldberg submits patents statistical machine document search engine


used photoelectric cells pattern recognition search metadata rolls microfilmed documents ''' s''' '''late s''' us military confronted problems indexing retrieval wartime scientific research documents captured germans ''' ''' vannevar bush 's ''as may think'' appeared ''atlantic monthly'' ''' ''' hans peter luhn research engineer ibm since began work mechanized punch card based system searching chemical compounds ''' s''' growing concern us science gap ussr motivated encouraged funding provided backdrop mechanized literature searching systems allen kent


''' ''' cyril w cleverdon published early findings cranfield studies developing model ir system evaluation see cyril w cleverdon report testing analysis investigation comparative efficiency indexing systems cranfield collection aeronautics cranfield england kent published ''information analysis retrieval'' ''' ''' weinberg report science government information gave full articulation idea crisis scientific information report named dr alvin weinberg joseph becker robert hayes published text information retrieval becker joseph hayes


j c r licklider published ''libraries future'' ''' ''' swanson involved studies university chicago requirements future catalogs '''late s''' f wilfrid lancaster completed evaluation studies medlars system published first edition text information retrieval ''' ''' gerard salton published ''automatic information organization retrieval'' john w sammon jr 's radc tech report mathematics information storage retrieval outlined vector model ''' ''' sammon 's http studentnetcsmanchesteracuk pgt comp reference sammonpdf nonlinear mapping data structure analysis ieee transactions computers first proposal


visualization interface ir system ''' s''' '''early s''' first online systems nlm 's aim twx medline lockheed 's dialog sdc 's orbit theodor nelson promoting concept hypertext published ''computer lib dream machines'' ''' ''' nicholas jardine cornelis j van rijsbergen published use hierarchic clustering information retrieval articulated cluster hypothesis ''' ''' three highly influential publications salton fully articulated vector processing framework term discrimination model ''a theory indexing'' society industrial applied mathematics ''a theory term importance automatic text analysis'' jasis v ''a vector


space model automatic indexing'' cacm ''' ''' first acm sigir conference ''' ''' c j van rijsbergen published ''information retrieval'' butterworths heavy emphasis probabilistic models ''' ''' tamas doszkocs implemented cite natural language user interface medline national library medicine cite system supported free form query input ranked output relevance feedback ''' s''' ''' ''' first international acm sigir conference joint british computer society ir group cambridge ''' ''' nicholas j belkin robert n oddy helen brooks proposed ask anomalous state knowledge viewpoint information


cern ''' s''' ''' ''' first trec conference ''' ''' publication korfhage 's ''information storage retrieval'' ref name korfhage ref emphasis visualization multi reference point systems ''' ''' publication ricardo baeza yates berthier ribeiro neto 's ''modern information retrieval'' addison wesley first book attempts cover ir '''late s''' web search engines implementation many features formerly found experimental ir systems search engines become common maybe best instantiation ir models major conferences sigir http sigirorg conference research development information retrieval ecir european conference information retrieval cikm


conference information knowledge management www international world wide web conference wsdm http wwwwsdm conferenceorg conference web search data mining ictir http sigirorg ictir international conference theory information retrieval awards field tony kent strix award gerard salton award karen sp rck jones award see also references reading ricardo baeza yates berthier ribeiro neto http wwwmir edorg modern information retrieval concepts technology behind search second edition addison wesley uk stefan b ttcher charles l clarke gordon v cormack http wwwiruwaterlooca book information retrieval implementing evaluating search engines mit press cambridge massachusetts christopher manning prabhakar


raghavan hinrich sch tze https nlpstanfordedu ir book introduction information retrieval cambridge university press external links http wwwacmorg sigir acm sigir information retrieval special interest group http irsgbcsorg bcs irsg british computer society information retrieval specialist group http trecnistgov text retrieval conference trec http wwwisicalacin fire forum information retrieval evaluation fire http wwwdcsglaacuk keith prefacehtml information retrieval online book c j van rijsbergen http irdcsglaacuk wiki information retrieval wiki http ir facilityorg information retrieval facility http wwwnonrelevantnet information retrieval duth http trecnistgov pubs trec appendices cemeasures pdf trec report information retrieval evaluation techniques http wwwebaytechblogcom measuring search relevance ebay measures search relevance http retrievalcetigr information retrieval performance evaluation tool athena research centre natural language processing


'''differential psychology''' studies ways individuals differ behavior processes underlie discipline develops classifications taxonomies psychological individual differences distinguished aspects psychology although psychology ostensibly study individuals modern psychologists often study groups attempt discover general psychological processes apply individuals ref name ergodicity ref particular area psychology first named still retains name differential psychology william stern book prominent psychologists including stern widely credited

Social science
Psychology
Differential psychology


concept individual differences historical records show charles darwin first spurred scientific interest study individual differences interest pursued half cousin francis galton attempt quantify individual differences among people example evaluating effectiveness new therapy mean performance therapy one treatment group might compared mean effectiveness placebo well known therapy second control group context differences individuals reaction experimental control manipulations


actually treated errors rather interesting phenomena study approach applied psychological research depends upon statistical controls defined upon groups people importance individual differences importantly individuals also differ current state magnitude even direction response given stimulus phenomena often explained terms inverted u response curves place differential psychology important location endeavours personalized medicine diagnoses customised individual 's response profile areas study individual


differences research typically includes personality temperament neuro chemically based behavioural traits motivation intelligence ability iq interests values self concept self efficacy self esteem name remaining differential psychology programs united states although research area active current researchers found variety applied experimental programs including clinical psychology educational psychology industrial organizational psychology personality psychology social psychology behavioral genetics developmental psychology programs neo piagetian theories cognitive development particular methods research study individual differences psychologists use variety methods psychophysiological experiments


humans mammals include eeg pet scans mri functional mri neurochemistry experiments neurotransmitter hormonal systems caffeine controlled drug challenges methods used search biomarkers consistent biologically based behavioural patterns temperament traits symptoms psychiatric disorders sets methods include behavioural experiments see different people behave similar settings behavioural experiments often used personality social psychology include lexical self report methods people asked complete paper based computer based forms prepared psychologists see also educational psychology intelligence temperament personality


'''journalism''' production distribution reports interaction events facts ideas people news day informs society least degree word applies occupation professional methods gathering information organizing literary styles journalistic media include print television radio internet past newsreels concepts appropriate role journalism vary countries nations news media controlled government intervention fully even partially independent others news media

Journalism, media studies and communication


independent government instead operate private industry addition varying nature media organizations run funded countries may differing implementations laws handling freedom speech libel cases proliferation internet smartphones brought significant changes media landscape since turn st century created shift consumption print media channels people increasingly consume news e readers smartphones personal electronic devices opposed traditional formats newspapers magazines television news channels


news organizations challenged fully monetize digital wing well improvise context publish print newspapers seen print revenues sink faster pace rate growth digital revenues ref name ref production journalistic conventions vary country united states journalism produced media organizations individuals bloggers often regarded journalists federal trade commission requires bloggers write products received promotional gifts disclose received products free intended eliminate conflicts interest


medium fairness bias issues concern journalists stories intended represent author 's opinion others neutral feature balanced points view traditional print newspaper online iteration information organized sections makes clear distinction content based fact opinion media many distinctions break readers pay careful attention headings design elements ensure understand journalist 's intent opinion pieces generally written regular columnists appear section titled op ed


feature stories breaking news hard news stories typically make efforts remove opinion copy according robert mcchesney healthy journalism democratic country must provide opinion people power wish power must include range opinions must regard informational needs people many debates centre whether journalists supposed objective neutral arguments include fact journalists produce news part particular social context guided professional codes ethics


presented different formats section newspaper magazine website may cater different audience photojournalists photographing us president barack obama november photo broadcast journalists interviewing government official building collapse dar es salaam tanzania march forms include access journalism journalists self censor voluntarily cease speaking issues might embarrass hosts guests powerful politicians businesspersons advocacy journalism writing advocate particular viewpoints influence opinions audience broadcast journalism written spoken journalism radio televisionradio canada cbc newsroom


montrea nowiki l canada media greeting cap anamur ii 's rupert neudeck hamburg press conference business journalism tracks records analyzes interprets business economic financial activities changes take place societies citizen journalism participatory journalism data journalism practice finding stories numbers using numbers tell stories data journalists may use data support reporting may also report uses misuses data us news organization propublica known pioneer data journalism drone journalism use drones capture journalistic


footage gonzo journalism first championed hunter thompson gonzo journalism highly personal style reporting interactive journalism type online journalism presented web investigative journalism depth reporting uncovers social problems photojournalism practice telling true stories images political journalism coverage aspects politics political science sensor journalism use sensors support journalistic inquiry sports journalism writing reports matters pertaining sporting topics competitions tabloid journalism writing light hearted entertaining considered


less legitimate mainstream journalism yellow journalism sensationalism writing emphasizes exaggerated claims rumors global journalism journalism encompasses global outlook focusing intercontinental issues social media rise social media drastically changed nature journalistic reporting giving rise called citizen journalists study journalists united states participants claimed rely social media source depending microblogs collect facts ref name conclusion drawn breaking news nowadays often stems


user generated content including videos pictures posted online social media ref name ref however though surveyed journalists agreed social media allowed connect audience thought positive influence news credibility ref name addition recent study done pew research center shows eight ten americans getting news digital devices consequently resulted arguments reconsider journalism process distributed among many authors including socially mediating public rather individual products articles written dedicated journalists


changes credibility ratings news outlets reached time low study revealed americans reported great deal quite lot confidence either television news newspapers fake news fake news also deliberately untruthful information often spread quickly social media means fake news websites news cannot regarded fake disinformation rather often published intentionally mislead readers ultimately benefit cause organization individual glaring example proliferation fake news


social media us presidential election conspiracy theories hoaxes lies circulated guise news reports benefit specific candidates one example fabricated report hillary clinton 's email published non existent newspaper called denver guardian many critics blamed facebook spread material news feed algorithm particular identified vox platform social media giant exercise billions editorial decisions every day social media platforms facebook twitter tiktok distributors disinformation fake news mark


zuckerberg ceo facebook acknowledged company 's role problem testimony combined senate judiciary commerce committee hearing april said blockquote 's clear n't enough prevent tools used harm well goes fake news foreign interference elections hate speech well developers data privacy blockquote readers often evaluate credibility news examining credibility underlying news organization phrase popularized inaccurately used donald trump presidential campaign discredit


th century bulletins however intended government officials thus journalistic news publications modern sense term early modern newspapers mass printing technologies like printing press spread newspapers established provide increasingly literate audiences news first references privately owned newspaper publishers china date late ming dynasty johann carolus 's ''relation aller f rnemmen und gedenckw rdigen historien'' published strassburg often recognized first newspaper europe freedom press formally established great


britain alan rusbridger former editor ''the guardian'' stating licensing press britain abolished remember freedoms became model much rest world conscious world still watches us see protect freedoms first successful english daily ''daily courant'' published journalistic enterprises started private ventures regions holy roman empire british empire countries france prussia kept tighter control


press treating primarily outlet government propaganda subjecting uniform censorship governments russian empire even distrusting journalistic press effectively banned journalistic publications mid th century newspaper publication became established practice publishers would increase publication weekly daily rate newspapers heavily concentrated cities centres trade amsterdam london berlin first newspapers latin america would established mid late th century news media revolutions


th th centuries newspapers played significant role mobilizing popular support favor liberal revolutions late th th centuries american colonies newspapers motivated people revolt british rule publishing grievances british crown republishing pamphlets revolutionaries thomas paine loyalist publications motivated support american revolution news publications united states would remain proudly publicly partisan throughout th century france political newspapers sprang french revolution ''l'ami du peuple'' edited jean paul marat


playing particularly famous role arguing rights revolutionary lower classes napoleon would reintroduce strict censorship laws reign print publications would flourish play important role political culture part revolutions radical liberal publications ''rheinische zeitung pesti h rlap'' ''morgenbladet'' would motivate people toward deposing aristocratic governments central europe liberal publications played moderate role ''the russian bulletin'' praised alexander ii russia 's liberal reforms late th century supported increased political economic freedoms


highly successful women 's magazine ''marie claire'' another magazine ''match'' modeled photojournalism american magazine ''life'' great britain popular journalism britain aimed largest possible audience including working class proven success made profits advertising alfred harmsworth st viscount northcliffe anyone shaped modern press developments introduced harnessed remain central broad contents exploitation advertising revenue subsidize prices aggressive marketing subordinate regional markets independence party control ''daily mail'' held world record daily circulation death prime minister lord


salisbury quipped written office boys office boys described scoop century rookie journalist ''the daily telegraph'' clare hollingworth first report outbreak world war ii travelling poland germany spotted reported german forces massed polish border ''the daily telegraph'' headline read tanks massed polish border three days later first report german invasion poland world war ii george orwell worked journalist ''the observer'' seven years


editor david astor gave copy orwell essay politics english language critique vague slovenly language every new recruit ref name good journalism literary editor newspaper robert mccrum wrote even quoted style book ref name good journalism ref india first newspaper india ''hicky 's bengal gazette'' published january first effort journalism enjoyed short stint yet momentous development gave birth modern journalism india following hicky 's efforts shut


biases reporting media self censorship benefits interests corporations government african american press rampant discrimination segregation african americans led founding daily weekly newspapers especially large cities first black newspapers america established early th century th century newspapers truly flourished major cities publishers playing major role politics business affairs representative leaders included robert sengstacke abbott publisher chicago defender john mitchell jr editor ''richmond planet''


president national afro american press association anthony overton publisher chicago bee robert lee vann publisher editor pittsburgh courier college although completely necessary attended college journalist past years become common attend becoming popular jobs starting require degree hired popular degree first school journalism opened part university missouri history


journalism page goes depth journalism evolved today right couple different routes one take interested journalism one wanting expand skills journalist many college courses workshops one take going full college route average time takes graduate journalism degree years top ranked journalism schools us school year washington lee university northwestern university georgetown university


columbia university city new york university wisconsin madison writing experts ordinary citizens walter lippmann united states newspapers dropped blatant partisanship search new subscribers political analyst walter lippmann philosopher john dewey debated role journalism democracy differing philosophies still characterize ongoing debate role journalism society lippmann 's views prevailed decades helping bolster progressives' confidence decision making experts general public standing lippmann argued


high powered journalism wasted ordinary citizens genuine value elite class administrators experts dewey hand believed public capable understanding issues created responded elite also public forum decisions made discussion debate issues thoroughly vetted best ideas would bubble surface danger demagoguery false news trouble dewey faith popular democracy implemented various degrees


known community journalism debate endlessly repeated across globe journalists wrestle roles '''radio''' radio broadcasting increased popularity starting becoming widespread radio programming oriented toward music sports entertainment radio also broadcast speeches occasional news programming radio reached peak importance world war ii radio newsreels major sources date information ongoing war soviet union radio would heavily utilized state broadcast political speeches leadership


broadcasts would rarely additional editorial content analysis setting apart modern news reporting radio would however soon eclipsed broadcast television starting television starting united states broadcast television channels would air minute segments news programming one two times per evening era live tv news coverage would begin assassination john f kennedy broadcast reported live variety nationally syndicated television channels television channels would begin adding regular morning


midday news shows starting establishment cnn news channels began providing hour news coverage format persists today digital age journalists press conference role status journalism well mass media undergone changes last two decades together advancement digital technology publication news internet created shift consumption print media channels people increasingly consume news e readers smartphones electronic devices news organizations challenged fully monetize digital


journalism may retrieved may ref compactness coverage linked broad audience attrition ref name state according pew research center circulation us newspapers fallen sharply st century digital era also introduced journalism ordinary citizens play greater role process rise citizen journalism possible internet using video camera equipped smartphones active citizens enabled record footage news events upload onto channels like youtube often discovered used mainstream news media outlets news


variety online sources like blogs social media results wider choice official unofficial sources rather traditional media organizations journalist interviewing cosplayer demographics worldwide sample journalists countries produced following profile percent male mean age mean years experience college degree percent graduate degree percent percent specialized journalism communications college percent identified generalists percent hard news beat journalists percent members professional association percent worked full time


percent worked print percent television percent radio percent online ethics standards news photographers reporters waiting behind police line new york city may various existing codes differences share common elements including principles truthfulness accuracy objectivity impartiality fairness public accountability apply acquisition newsworthy information subsequent dissemination public bill kovach tom rosenstiel propose several guidelines journalists book ''the elements journalism'' view journalism 's first


presumption innocence particular cases still ' 'sub judice'' uk newspapers bound code practice independent press standards organisation includes points like respecting people 's privacy ensuring accuracy however media standards trust criticized pcc claiming needs radically changed secure public trust newspapers stark contrast media climate prior th century media market dominated smaller newspapers pamphleteers usually overt often radical agenda


presumption balance objectivity pressure journalists report news promptly competitors factual errors occur frequently writing produced edited less time pressure thus typical issue major daily newspaper may contain several corrections articles published previous day perhaps famous journalistic mistake caused time pressure dewey defeats truman edition chicago daily tribune based early election returns failed anticipate actual result us presidential election codes ethics


codes ethics journalism vary across various regions world ref name ref codes ethics created interaction different groups people public journalists codes ethics serve representation economic political beliefs society code written ref name despite fact variety codes ethics core elements present codes remaining objective providing truth honest ref name journalism universal


code conduct individuals legally obliged follow certain set rules like doctor lawyer discussions creating universal code conduct journalism one suggestion centers three claims credibility justifiable consequence claim humanity ref name ref within claim credibility journalists expected provide public reliable trustworthy information allowing public question nature information acquisition second claim justifiable consequences centers weighing benefits detriments potentially harmful


press organizations publish governments guarantee freedom press nations severely restrict journalists research publish journalists many nations privileges members general public including better access public events crime scenes press conferences extended interviews public officials celebrities others public eye journalists elect cover conflicts whether wars nations insurgencies within nations often give expectation protection government giving rights protection government journalists


captured detained conflict expected treated civilians released national government many governments around world target journalists intimidation harassment violence nature work right protect confidentiality sources journalists' interaction sources sometimes involves confidentiality extension freedom press giving journalists legal protection keep identity confidential informant private even demanded police prosecutors withholding sources land journalists contempt court jail united states


right protect sources federal court however federal courts refuse force journalists reveal sources unless information court seeks highly relevant case 's way get state courts provide varying degrees protection journalists refuse testify even ordered found contempt court fined jailed journalistic side keeping sources confidential also risk journalist 's credibility actual confirmation whether information valid


highly discouraged journalists confidential sources see also citizen journalism fourth estate glossary journalism hallin 's spheres history american newspapers history journalism journalism education journalism school journalism ethics standards journalism genres lists journalists list journalism awards non profit journalism objectivity journalism sensor journalism sports journalism reviews ''american journalism review'' ''columbia journalism review'' ''health news review'' ''ryerson review journalism'' academic journals ''journalism practice'' ''journalism studies'' ''journalism'' ''digital journalism'' references notes sources reading de beer arnold john c merrill eds ''global journalism topical issues media systems''


th ed hanitzsch thomas et al eds ''worlds journalism journalistic cultures around globe'' https wwwh netorg reviews showpdfphpid online review kaltenbrunner andy matthias karmasin daniela kraus eds journalism report v innovation transition facultas quick amanda c ed ''world press encyclopedia survey press systems worldwide'' nd ed vol pp highly detailed coverage every country large small shoemaker pamela j akiba cohen eds ''news around world content practitioners public'' nd ed sterling christopher h ed ''encyclopedia journalism'' vol sage external links


'''jainism''' traditionally known '''''jain dharma''''' ancient indian religion one oldest indian religions three main pillars jainism ''ahi '' non violence ''anek ntav da'' non absolutism ''aparigraha'' non attachment jains take five main vows ''ahi '' non violence ' 'satya'' truth ''asteya'' stealing ''brahmacharya'' sexual continence ''aparigraha'' non possessiveness principles affected jain culture many ways leading predominantly vegetarian lifestyle ''parasparopagraho j v n m'' function souls help one another faith 's motto '' k ra mantra'' common basic prayer jainism traces spiritual


texts considered canonical mendicants supported laypersons '' r vakas'' '' r vikas'' v mbara tradition turn three subtraditions mandirv terapanthi sth nakavas religion four five million followers known '''jains''' reside mostly india outside india largest communities canada europe united states japan hosting fast growing community converts major festivals include ''paryushana'' ''das lakshana'' ''ashtanika'' ''mahavir janma kalyanak'' ''akshaya tritiya'' ''dipawali'' estimates population jains differ four million twelve million beliefs philosophy ''ahi ''


wheel ' 'dharmachakra'' resolve halt ' 'sa ra'' transmigration left jainism transtheistic forecasts universe evolves without violating law substance dualism auto executed middle ground principles parallelism interactionism ''dravya'' ontological categories ''dravya'' means substances entity sanskrit universe made six eternal substances sentient beings souls ''j va'' non sentient substance matter ''pudgala'' principle motion ' 'dharma'' principle rest ''adharma'' space '' k a'' time ''k la'' latter five united ''ajiva'' non living jain philosophers distinguish substance body


thing declaring former simple indestructible element latter compound made one substances destroyed ''tattva'' soteriological categories ''tattva'' connotes reality truth jain philosophy framework salvation according digambara jains seven ''tattvas'' sentient ''jiva'' living insentient ''ajiva'' non living karmic influx soul '' srava'' mix living non living bondage karmic particles soul ''bandha'' stoppage karmic particles ''sa vara'' wiping away past karmic particles ''nirjar '' liberation ''moksha'' v mbaras add two ''tattvas'' namely


good karma ''punya'' bad karma ''paapa'' true insight jain philosophy considered faith ''tattvas'' spiritual goal jainism reach ''moksha'' ascetics jain laypersons accumulate good karma leads better rebirth step closer liberation soul karma classification ''sa ri j vas'' transmigrating souls jainism according jainism existence bound ever changing soul self evident truth axiom need proven maintains numerous souls every one


three qualities ''gu a'' consciousness ''chaitanya'' important bliss ' 'sukha'' vibrational energy ''virya'' claims vibration draws karmic particles soul creates bondages also adds merit demerit soul jain texts state souls exist clothed material bodies entirely fills body karma indian religions connotes jainism universal cause effect law however envisioned material substance subtle matter bind soul travel soul bound form rebirths


bodies water bodies fire bodies air bodies vegetable lives constantly changing human non human activities rainfall breathing harming life form sin jainism negative karmic effects jainism states souls begin primordial state either evolve higher state regress driven karma clarifies ''abhavya'' incapable souls never attain ''moksha'' liberation explains ''abhavya'' state entered intentional shockingly evil act souls good evil jainism unlike nondualism forms


jain cosmic universe three parts upper middle lower worlds ''urdhva loka'' ''madhya loka'' ''adho loka'' jainism states ''k la'' time without beginning eternal cosmic wheel time ''k lachakra'' rotates ceaselessly part universe explains six periods time within two eons ''ara'' first eon universe generates next degenerates thus divides worldly cycle time two half cycles ''utsarpi '' ascending progressive prosperity happiness ''avasarpi '' descending increasing sorrow immorality states world currently


fifth ''ara'' ''avasarpi '' full sorrow religious decline height living beings shrinks according jainism sixth ''ara'' universe reawakened new cycle god lord neminatha akota bronzes th century jain miniature painting tirthankaras jaipur jainism transtheistic religion holding universe created exist forever believed independent creator governor judge destroyer unlike abrahamic religions similar buddhism however jainism believes world heavenly hell


beings born die reborn like earthly beings jain texts maintain souls live happily body god positive karma stated possess transcendent knowledge material things anticipate events human realms however past karmic merit exhausted explained souls reborn humans animals beings jainism perfect souls ''with'' body called ''arihant'' victors perfect souls ''without'' body called ''siddhas'' liberated souls epistemology


jain philosophy accepts three reliable means knowledge ''pramana'' holds correct knowledge based perception ''pratyaksa'' inference ''anumana'' testimony ' 'sabda'' word scriptures ideas elaborated jain texts ''tattvarthas tra'' ''parvacanasara'' ''nandi'' ''anuyogadvarini'' jain texts add analogy ''upamana'' fourth reliable means manner similar epistemological theories found indian religions jainism ''jn na'' knowledge said five kinds nbsp ''kevala jnana'' omniscience '' rutu j na'' scriptural knowledge ''mati j na'' sensory knowledge ''avadhi j na'' clairvoyance ''manah pray ya j na'' telepathy according jain


text ''tattvartha tra'' first two indirect knowledge remaining three direct knowledge salvation liberation shikhar top jain temple represents ''ratnatraya'' three jewels according jainism purification soul liberation achieved path four jewels ''samyak dar ana'' correct view meaning faith acceptance truth soul ''j va'' ''samyak gyana'' correct knowledge meaning undoubting knowledge ''tattvas'' ''samyak charitra'' correct conduct meaning behavior consistent five vows jain texts often add ' 'samyak tap'' correct asceticism fourth jewel emphasizing belief ascetic practices means


liberation moksha four jewels called ''moksha marg'' path liberation main principles non violence ''ahimsa'' principle ''ahimsa'' non violence non injury fundamental tenet jainism holds one must abandon violent activity without commitment non violence religious behavior worthless jain theology matter correct defensible violence may one must kill harm non violence highest religious duty jain texts ''acaranga tra'' ''tattvarthas tra'' state one must renounce killing living


beings whether tiny large movable immovable theology teaches one must neither kill another living cause another kill consent killing directly indirectly furthermore jainism emphasizes non violence beings action also speech thought states instead hate violence anyone living creatures must help jains believe violence negatively affects destroys one 's soul particularly violence done intent hate carelessness one indirectly causes consents killing


human non human living doctrine exists hinduism buddhism highly developed jainism theological basis non violence highest religious duty interpreted jain scholars driven merit giving compassion creatures duty rescue creatures resulting continual self discipline cleansing soul leads one 's spiritual development ultimately affects one 's salvation release rebirths jains believe causing injury form creates bad karma affects one 's rebirth


future well causes suffering late medieval jain scholars examined ''ahi '' doctrine faced external threat violence example justified violence monks protect nuns according dundas jain scholar jinadattasuri wrote time muslim destruction temples persecution anybody engaged religious activity forced fight kill somebody would lose spiritual merit instead attain deliverance however examples jain texts condone fighting killing certain circumstances relatively rare many sided reality ''anek ntav da'' jain temple painting explaining anekantavada blind men


elephant second main principle jainism ''anek ntav da'' ''anek nta'' many sidedness ''vada'' doctrine doctrine states truth reality complex always multiple aspects states reality experienced cannot fully expressed language suggests human attempts communicate ''naya'' partial expression truth according one experience taste truth cannot fully express taste language holds attempts express experience ' 'sy t'' valid respect remain perhaps one perspective incomplete


concludes way spiritual truths experienced fully expressed suggests great error belief ''ek nta'' one sidedness relative truth treated absolute doctrine ancient found buddhist texts ''sama aphala sutta'' jain agamas suggest mah v ra 's approach answering metaphysical philosophical questions qualified yes ' 'sy t'' texts identify ''anek ntav da'' key difference buddha 's teachings buddha taught middle way rejecting extremes answer metaphysical questions mah v ra


contrast taught followers accept qualified perhaps understand absolute reality permanent conceptualized ''jiva'' soul ''ajiva'' matter within dualistic ''anek ntav da'' framework according paul dundas contemporary times ''anek ntav da'' doctrine interpreted jains intending promote universal religious tolerance teaching plurality benign attitude ethical religious positions dundas states misreading historical texts mah v ra 's teachings according many pointedness multiple perspective teachings mah v ra


possessions monks nuns jainism requires vow complete non possession property relations emotions ascetic wandering mendicant digambara tradition resident mendicant v mbara tradition jain laypersons recommends limited possession property honestly earned giving excess property charity according natubhai shah ''aparigraha'' applies material psychic material possessions refer various forms property psychic possessions refer emotions likes dislikes attachments form unchecked attachment possessions said result direct


person undertakes following five vows jainism ''ahi '' intentional non violence noninjury first major vow taken jains cause harm human beings well living beings particularly animals highest ethical duty jainism applies one 's actions demands one non violent one 's speech thoughts ref name pkshah v ref ''satya'' truth vow always speak truth neither lie speak true encourage others approve anyone speaks untruth ref name pkshah v


''asteya'' stealing jain layperson take anything willingly given additionally jain mendicant ask permission take something given ''brahmacharya'' celibacy abstinence sex sensual pleasures prescribed jain monks nuns laypersons vow means chastity faithfulness one 's partner ref name pkshah v ''aparigraha'' non possessiveness includes non attachment material psychological possessions avoiding craving greed jain monks nuns completely renounce property social relations nothing attached one jainism prescribes seven supplementary vows including three ''gu vratas''


merit vows four '' ik vratas'' ''sallekhana'' ''santhara'' vow religious death ritual observed end life historically jain monks nuns rare modern age vow voluntary gradual reduction food liquid intake end one 's life choice dispassion believed reduce negative karma affects soul 's future rebirths practices asceticism monasticism major indian religions jainism strongest ascetic tradition ascetic life may include nakedness symbolizing non possession even clothes fasting body mortification


penance burn away past karma stop producing new karma believed essential reaching ' 'siddha'' ''moksha'' liberation rebirths salvation jain texts like ''tattvartha tra'' ''uttaradhyayana tra'' discuss austerities detail six outer six inner practices oft repeated later jain texts outer austerities include complete fasting eating limited amounts eating restricted items abstaining tasty foods mortifying flesh guarding flesh avoiding anything source temptation inner austerities include expiation confession respecting assisting mendicants studying meditation ignoring bodily wants order abandon


body lists internal external austerities vary text tradition asceticism viewed means control desires purify ''jiva'' soul ''tirthankaras'' mah v ra vardhamana set example performing severe austerities twelve years monastic organization ' 'sangh'' four fold order consisting ' 'sadhu'' male ascetics ''muni'' ' 'sadhvi'' female ascetics ''aryika'' '' r vaka'' laymen '' r vik '' laywomen latter two support ascetics monastic organizations called ''gacch'' ' 'samuday'' autonomous regional jain congregations jain monastic rules encouraged use mouth cover well


''dandasan'' long stick woolen threads gently remove ants insects may come path food fasting practice non violence towards living beings led jain culture vegetarian devout jains practice lacto vegetarianism meaning eat eggs accept dairy products violence animals production veganism encouraged concerns animal welfare jain monks nuns followers avoid root vegetables potatoes onions garlic tiny organisms injured plant pulled


bulb tuber 's ability sprout seen characteristic higher living jain monks advanced laypeople avoid eating sunset observing vow ''ratri bhojana tyaga vrata'' monks observe stricter vow eating day jains fast particularly festivals practice called ''upavasa'' ''tapasya'' ''vrata'' may practiced according one 's ability digambaras fast ''dasa laksana parvan'' eating one two meals per day drinking boiled water ten days fasting completely first last days festival mimicking practices


jain mendicant period v mbara jains similarly eight day ''paryusana'' ' 'samvatsari pratikramana'' practice believed remove karma one 's soul provides merit ''punya'' one day fast lasts hours starting sunset day fast ending minutes sunrise day among laypeople fasting commonly observed women shows piety religious purity gains merit earning helps ensure future well family religious fasts observed social supportive female group long fasts celebrated


friends families special ceremonies meditation jainism considers meditation ' 'dhyana'' necessary practice goals different buddhism hinduism jainism meditation concerned stopping karmic attachments activity means transformational insights self realization indian religions according padmanabh jaini ''s yika'' practice brief periods meditation jainism part ' 'siksavrata'' ritual restraint goal ''s yika'' achieve equanimity second ' 'siksavrata'' ' 'samayika'' ritual practiced least three times day


mendicants layperson includes ritual practices ''puja'' jain temple charity work according johnson well jaini ' 'samayika'' connotes meditation jain householder voluntary ritual practice assuming temporary ascetic status rituals worship praying feet statue bahubali many rituals jainism 's various sects according dundas ritualistic lay path among v mbara jains heavily imbued ascetic values rituals either revere celebrate ascetic life tirthankaras progressively approach


psychological physical life ascetic ultimate ritual ' 'sallekhana'' religious death ascetic abandonment food drinks digambara jains follow theme life cycle religious rituals closer hindu liturgy overlap mainly life cycle rites passage rituals likely developed jain hindu societies overlapped rituals viewed necessary secular jains ritually worship numerous deities especially ''jinas'' jainism ''jina'' ' 'deva'' avatar incarnation highest state omniscience ascetic ''tirthankara'' achieved


tirthankaras jains predominantly worship four mah v ra parshvanatha neminatha rishabhanatha among non ''tirthankara'' saints devotional worship common bahubali among digambaras ''panch kalyanaka'' rituals remember five life events ''tirthankaras'' including ''panch kalyanaka pratishtha mahotsava'' ''panch kalyanaka puja'' ''snatrapuja'' pp basic ritual ' 'darsana'' seeing ' 'deva'' includes jina yaksas gods goddesses brahmadeva viras padmavati ambika vidyadevis including sarasvati lakshmi terapanthi digambaras limit ritual worship tirthankaras worship ritual called ' 'devapuja'' found


may light lamp camphor make auspicious marks sandalwood paste devotees also recite jain texts particularly life stories tirthankaras traditional jains like buddhists hindus believe efficacy mantras certain sounds words inherently auspicious powerful spiritual famous mantras broadly accepted various sects jainism five homage ''panca namaskara'' mantra believed eternal existent since first tirthankara 's time medieval worship practices included making tantric diagrams ''rishi mandala'' including ''tirthankaras'' jain tantric


traditions use mantra rituals believed accrue merit rebirth realms festivals celebrating das lakshana paryushana jain center america new york city important annual jain festival called ''paryushana'' svetambaras ''dasa lakshana parva'' digambaras celebrated th day waning moon traditional lunisolar month bhadrapada indian calendar typically falls august september gregorian calendar lasts eight days svetambaras ten days among digambaras time lay people fast pray


five vows emphasized time svetambaras recite ''kalpas tras'' digambaras read texts festival occasion jains make active effort stop cruelty towards life forms freeing animals captivity preventing slaughter animals bgcolor ffddbb align left last day involves focused prayer meditation session known ''samvatsari'' jains consider day atonement granting forgiveness others seeking forgiveness living beings physically mentally asking forgiveness resolving treat everyone world friends forgiveness asked


saying ''micchami dukkadam'' ''khamat khamna'' others means offended way knowingly unknowingly thought word action seek forgiveness literal meaning ''paryushana'' abiding coming together mahavir janma kalyanak celebrates birth mah v ra celebrated th day lunisolar month chaitra traditional indian calendar typically falls march april gregorian calendar festivities include visiting jain temples pilgrimages shrines reading jain texts processions mah v ra community


legendary birthplace kundagrama bihar north patna special events held jains next day dipawali observed jains anniversary mah v ra 's attainment ''moksha'' hindu festival diwali also celebrated date ''kartika amavasya'' jain temples homes offices shops decorated lights ' 'diyas'' small oil lamps lights symbolic knowledge removal ignorance sweets often distributed diwali morning ''nirvan ladoo'' offered praying mah v ra jain temples across world jain new year starts right


diwali festivals celebrated jains akshaya tritiya raksha bandhan similar hindu communities traditions sects jain community divided two major denominations digambara v mbara monks digambara sky clad tradition wear clothes female monastics digambara sect wear unstitched plain white sarees referred ''aryikas'' v mbara white clad monastics hand wear seamless white clothes chandragupta maurya 's reign jain tradition states ''acharya'' bhadrabahu predicted twelve year long famine moved karnataka disciples sthulabhadra pupil ''acharya'' bhadrabahu


believed stayed magadha later stated tradition followers ''acharya'' bhadrabahu returned found remained magadha started wearing white clothes unacceptable others remained naked jains believe digambara v mbara schism began former naked latter wore white clothes digambara saw opposed jain tenet ''aparigraha'' according required even possession clothes ie complete nudity fifth century ce council valabhi organized v mbara


digambara attend council v mbara adopted texts preserved canonical scriptures digambara ever since rejected council believed solidified historic schism two major traditions jainism earliest record digambara beliefs contained prakrit ''suttapahuda'' kundakunda digambaras v mbara differ practices dress code interpretations teachings jain history especially concerning ''tirthankaras'' monasticism rules differ iconography v mbara female male mendicants digambara mostly male monks


devotional form jainism developed resemble jain mahayana style devotionalism scriptures texts ce image mangulam inscriptionjpg caption mangulam inscription dated rd century bce align direction total width alt jain canonical scriptures called ''agamas'' believed verbally transmitted much like ancient buddhist hindu texts originated sermons ''tirthankaras'' whereupon ''ganadharas'' chief disciples transmitted '' hrut jn na'' heard knowledge spoken scriptural language believed ''ardhamagadhi'' v mbara


jains form sonic resonance digambara jains v mbaras believe preserved original jain scriptures lost anga text four purva texts digambaras believe lost ch rya bhutabali last ascetic partial knowledge original canon according digambara '' ch ryas'' recreated oldest known digambara jain texts including four ''anuyoga'' digambara texts partially agree older v mbara texts also gross differences texts two major jain traditions digambaras created


secondary canon ce compiling four groups ''vedas'' history cosmography philosophy ethics popular influential texts jainism non canonical literature ''kalpa tras'' particularly popular among v mbaras attribute bhadrabahu c bce ancient scholar revered digambara tradition believe led migration ancient south karnataka region created tradition v mbaras believe instead bhadrabahu moved nepal traditions consider ''niryuktis'' ''samhitas'' important earliest surviving sanskrit text umaswati


''tattvarthas tra'' considered authoritative traditions jainism digambara tradition texts written kundakunda highly revered historically influential oldest ''kasayapahuda'' ''shatkhandagama'' attributed acharya pushpdanta bhutbali important digambara jain texts include ''samayasara'' ''ratnakaranda r vak c ra'' ''niyamasara'' comparison buddhism hinduism three dharmic religions viz jainism hinduism buddhism share concepts doctrines karma rebirth similar festivals monastic traditions believe eternal heaven hell judgment day grant freedom choose beliefs


thought infinite eternal ''jivas'' predominantly cycles rebirth ' 'siddhas'' perfected ones unlike jainism hindu philosophies encompass nondualism souls identical brahman posited interconnected one hinduism jainism believe soul exists self evident truth hindu systems consider eternally present infinite constant ''vibhu'' hindu scholars propose soul atomic hindu thought generally discusses atman brahman monistic dualistic framework contrast jain thought denies hindu metaphysical concept brahman jain philosophy considers soul


caste system based birth historic part jain society jainism focused transforming individual society monasticism similar three traditions similar rules hierarchical structure traveling four month monsoon season celibacy originating buddha mah v ra jain hindu monastic communities traditionally mobile itinerant lifestyle buddhist monks favored belonging ' 'sangha'' monastery staying premises buddhist monastic rules forbid monk go outside without wearing sangha 's distinctive ruddy robe use


wooden bowls contrast jain monastic rules either required nakedness digambara white clothes v mbara disagreed legitimacy wooden empty gourd begging bowl jain monks jains similar views hindus violence self defence justified soldier kills enemies combat performing legitimate duty jain communities accepted use military power defence jain monarchs military commanders soldiers jain hindu communities often close mutually accepting hindu temples


included jain ''tirthankara'' within premises place honour temple complexes badami cave temples khajuraho feature hindu jain monuments art architecture birth mahavira ''kalpa tra'' c ce ref align direction total width alt jainism contributed significantly indian art architecture jain arts depict life legends ''tirthankara'' important people particularly seated standing meditative posture ''yakshas'' ''yakshinis'' attendant spirits guard ''tirthankara'' usually shown


earliest known jain image patna museum dated approximately third century bce bronze images p r va seen prince wales museum mumbai patna museum dated second century bce ''ayagapata'' type votive tablet used jainism donation worship early centuries tablets decorated objects designs central jain worship ' 'stupa'' ' 'dharmacakra'' ''triratna'' present simultaneous trends image symbol worship numerous stone tablets discovered


excavations ancient jain sites like kankali tila near mathura uttar pradesh india practice donating tablets documented first century bce third century ce ''samavasarana'' preaching hall ''tirthankaras'' various beings concentrically placed important theme jain art jain tower chittor rajasthan good example jain architecture decorated manuscripts preserved jain libraries containing diagrams jain cosmology paintings illustrations depict historical events known ''panch kalyanaka'' life ''tirthankara'' rishabha first ''tirthankara'' usually depicted


''derasar'' ''basadi'' place worship temples contain ''tirthankara'' images fixed others moveable stationed inner sanctum one two sacred zones main hall one images marked ''moolnayak'' primary deity ''manastambha'' column honor pillar often constructed front jain temples temple construction considered meritorious act ancient jain monuments include udaigiri hills near bhelsa vidisha madhya pradesh ellora maharashtra palitana temples gujarat jain temples dilwara temples near


mount abu rajasthan chaumukha temple ranakpur considered one beautiful jain temples famous detailed carvings according jain texts shikharji place twenty twenty four jain ''t rtha karas'' along many monks attained ''moksha'' died without reborn soul ''siddhashila'' shikharji site northeastern jharkhand therefore revered pilgrimage site palitana temples holiest shrine v mbara murtipujaka sect along shikharji two sites considered holiest pilgrimage sites jain community jain complex khajuraho


jain narayana temple part unesco world heritage site shravanabelagola saavira kambada basadi '' pillars'' brahma jinalaya important jain centers karnataka around madurai caves stone beds inscriptions sculptures second first century bce udayagiri khandagiri caves rich carvings ''tirthanakars'' deities inscriptions including elephant cave inscription jain cave temples badami mangi tungi ellora caves considered important sittanavasal cave temple fine example jain art early cave shelter medieval


rock cut temple excellent fresco paintings comparable ajantha inside seventeen stone beds second century bce tamil brahmi inscriptions eighth century kazhugumalai temple marks revival jainism south india gallery mode packed caption jain temples varied styles india abroad file jain temple ranakpurjpg ranakpur jain temple file delwadajpg dilwara temples file le temple de parshvanath khajuraho jpg parshvanath temple khajuraho file jain temples girnar mountain aerial viewjpg girnar jain temples file jal mandirthe jain temple pawapurjpg jal mandir pawapuri file lodurva templesjpg lodhurva jain temple file palitanajpg palitana temples file pillar temple moodbidri left side viewjpg saavira kambada basadi moodbidri karnataka file templejaindanversjpg jain temple antwerp belgium file jain temple lakkundijpg brahma jinalaya lakkundi file sheth hutheesinh templejpg hutheesing jain


temple gallery pilgrimages shikharji jain ''tirtha'' pilgrim sites divided following categories ''siddhakshetra''site believed ''moksha'' ''arihant'' ''kevalin'' ''tirthankara'' ashtapada shikharji girnar pawapuri palitana mangi tungi champapuri capital anga ''atishayakshetra''locations divine events believed occurred mahavirji rishabhdeo kundalpur tijara aharji ''puranakshetra'' places associated lives great men ayodhya vidisha hastinapur rajgir ''gyanakshetra'' places associated famous ''acharyas'' centers learning shravanabelagola outside contemporary india jain communities built temples locations nagarparkar sindh pakistan


however according unesco tentative world heritage site application nagarparkar major religious centre place pilgrimage jainism important cultural landscape last remaining jain community left area partition ref name ref statues sculptures idol supar van tha jain sculptures usually depict one twenty four ''t rtha karas'' parshvanatha rishabhanatha mah v ra among popular often seated lotus position ''kayotsarga'' along ''arihant'' bahubali protector deities like ambika quadruple images also popular ''tirthankar'' idols look similar differentiated individual symbol


except parshvanatha whose head crowned snake digambara images naked without beautification whereas v mbara depictions clothed ornamented monolithic statue bahubali ''gommateshvara'' built ce ganga minister commander chavundaraya situated hilltop shravanabelagola karnataka statue voted first sms poll seven wonders india conducted ''the times india'' tall statue ahi depicting rishabhanatha erected nashik district idols often made ''ashtadhatu'' literally eight metals namely akota bronze brass gold


silver stone monoliths rock cut precious stones symbols jain icons arts incorporate symbols swastika ''om'' ''ashtamangala'' jainism ''om'' condensed reference initials u five parameshthis ''arihant'' ''ashiri'' ''acharya'' ''upajjhaya'' ''muni'' five lines '' k ra'' mantra ''ashtamangala'' set eight auspicious symbols digambara tradition chatra ' 'dhvaja'' ''kalasha'' fly whisk mirror chair hand fan vessel v mbar tradition swastika ''srivatsa'' ''nandavarta'' ''vardhmanaka'' food vessel ''bhadrasana'' seat ''kalasha'' pot ''darpan'' mirror pair fish hand


wheel palm symbolizes ''ahims '' wheel represents ' 'dharmachakra'' stands resolve halt ' 'sa ra'' wandering relentless pursuit ''ahims '' five colours jain flag represent ''pa ca parame hi'' five vows swastika 's four arms symbolise four realms rebirth occurs according jainism humans heavenly beings hellish beings non humans three dots top represent three jewels mentioned ancient texts correct faith correct understanding correct conduct believed lead spiritual perfection th anniversary


nirvana mah v ra jain community chose single combined image jainism depicts three ''lokas'' heaven human world hell semi circular topmost portion symbolizes ''siddhashila'' zone beyond three realms jain swastika symbol ''ahi '' included jain mantra ''parasparopagraho j v n m'' tra umaswati 's ''tattvarthas tra'' meaning souls render service one another history rishabhdev believed lived sup sup years ago considered traditional founder jainism ancient jainism ancient indian religion obscure origins jains claim eternal consider


sixth century bce interaction two religions began buddha later competed followers merchant trade networks sustained buddhist jain texts sometimes similar titles present different doctrines jains consider kings bimbisara c bce ajatashatru c bce udayin c bce haryanka dynasty patrons jainism jain tradition states chandragupta maurya bce founder mauryan empire grandfather ashoka became monk disciple jain ascetic bhadrabahu later part


archaeological evidence jain monks saurashtra gujarat second century ce royal patronage key factor growth decline jainism second half first century ce hindu kings rashtrakuta dynasty sponsored major jain cave temples king harshavardhana seventh century championed jainism buddhism traditions hinduism pallava king mahendravarman ce converted jainism shaivism work ''mattavilasa prahasana'' ridicules certain shaiva sects buddhists expresses contempt jain ascetics yadava dynasty built many temples ellora


caves ce king eighth century converted jainism jain pilgrimage tradition well established era mularaja th century ce founder chalukya dynasty constructed jain temple even though jain th century basava minister jain kalachuri king bijjala converted many jains lingayat shaivite sect lingayats destroyed jain temples adapted use hoysala king vishnuvardhana c ce became vaishnavite influence ramanuja vaishnavism grew rapidly


karnataka medieval gori jain temples nagarparkar pakistan pilgrimage site ref name jainism faced persecution muslim conquests indian subcontinent muslims rulers mahmud ghazni mohammad ghori ala ud din muhammed shah khalji oppressed jain community vandalised idols destroyed temples converted mosques also burned jain books killed jains significant exceptions emperor akbar whose legendary religious tolerance respect jains ordered release caged birds banned killing animals


jain festival paryushan akbar jains faced intense period muslim persecution th century jain community traditional bankers financiers significantly impacted muslim rulers however rarely part political power islamic rule period indian subcontinent colonial era gujarati jain scholar virchand gandhi represented jainism first world parliament religions held america chicago world 's fair worked defend rights jains wrote lectured extensively jainism ref name ref ref name opencourt ref shrimad


spiritual crisis shrimad rajchandra composed shri atmasiddhi shatra considered magnum opus containing essence jainism single sitting hours expounds fundamental truths soul self soul exists permanent eternal doer actions enjoyer sufferer actions liberation exists path achieve liberation colonial era reports christian missions variously viewed jainism sect hinduism sect buddhism distinct religion christian missionaries


frustrated jain people without pagan creator gods refusing convert christianity colonial era jain scholars champat rai jain defended jainism criticism misrepresentation christian activists missionaries christianity islam considered jain traditions idolatrous superstitious criticisms states john e cort flawed ignored similar practices within sects christianity british colonial government india indian princely states promoted religious tolerance however laws passed made roaming naked anyone arrestable crime drew popular support majority hindu population particularly impacted digambara monks


akhil bharatiya jain samaj opposed law claiming interfered jain religious rights acharya shantisagar entered bombay mumbai forced cover body led india wide tour naked monk followers various digambara sacred sites welcomed kings maharashtra provinces shantisagar fasted oppose restrictions imposed digambara monks british raj prompted discontinuance laws abolished india independence modern era followers jainism called jains word derived sanskrit ''jina'' victor


united states canada australia kenya jainism also counts several non indian converts example spreading rapidly japan families converted according national family health survey nfhs conducted jains form wealthiest community india according census country 's highest literacy rate among aged seven older college graduates excluding retired jain literacy india exceeded female male sex ratio among jains among indians year age range


ratio second lowest girls per boys higher sikhs jain males highest work participation rates india jain females lowest jainism praised practices beliefs greatly influenced shrimad rajchandra leader campaign indian independence mahatma gandhi stated regarding jainsim chandanaji became first jain woman receive title acharya see also jain law jain cosmology list jains nonviolence notes references citations sources publisher iuniverse date isbn publisher iuniverse date isbn year publisher walter de gruyter isbn year publisher taylor francis isbn


date publisher international association tamil research year publisher university california press isbn publisher bailey publishing pa date isbn year publisher motilal banarsidass isbn year publisher routledge isbn year publisher routledge isbn date publisher pearson education location india isbn year publisher lexington books isbn publisher ohio university press date isbn year publisher motilal banarsidass isbn year publisher munshiram manoharlal isbn date publisher routledge isbn publisher suny press date isbn publisher oxford university press date isbn year b publisher motilal banarsidass isbn publisher oxford university press year isbn date orig year publisher penguin books isbn year b publisher penguin books isbn date publisher sahitya akademi isbn


date publisher merriam webster isbn edition second date orig year publisher routledge isbn location london new york year publisher oxford university press isbn volume publisher john murray date year publisher paragon house isbn year publisher abc clio isbn year publisher routledge isbn year publisher bloomsbury academic isbn pb epdf epub year publisher routledge isbn year publisher equinox academic isbn year publisher routledge isbn year publisher motilal banarsidass isbn year publisher motilal banarsidass isbn year publisher ginn company ref date publisher brill volume isbn date publisher motilal banarsidass isbn ref ref quote ref date publisher vikalp printers isbn quote ref date quote publisher vikalp printers


publishing isbn publisher abc clio date isbn edition second volume one b publisher abc clio date isbn year publisher niyogi books isbn year publisher routledge isbn edition th year orig year first published publisher motilal banarsidass isbn publisher university nairobi press date orig year isbn year publisher brill academic isbn year publisher north western provinces oudh government press publisher brill date isbn year b publisher brill academic isbn publisher los angeles country museum art university california press date volume isbn ref year publisher motilal banarsidass reprint isbn date title gandhi st century isbn ref title indian philately digest first prashant h last pandya date publisher routledge date isbn year


publisher motilal banarsidass isbn year publisher routledge isbn year publisher wh allen company year publisher bloomsbury academic isbn year publisher jain publishing company isbn date publisher john hunt publishing isbn publisher hymns ancient modern ltd date isbn date publisher university chicago press isbn year publisher kenway isbn date publisher popular prakashan location bombay edition nd isbn date publisher popular prakashan location mumbai isbn edition date orig year publisher bharatiya jnanpith isbn date publisher motilal banarsidass isbn date publisher e j brill isbn year orig year publisher motilal banarsidass isbn ref publisher pearson education date isbn ref volume year publisher sussex academic press isbn ref volume date orig year first published


publisher motilal banarsidass isbn ref date publisher abhinav publications isbn ref year publisher jnanapravaha isbn year publisher abc clio isbn year publisher oxford university press isbn year publisher cambridge university press isbn year publisher bloomsbury academic isbn publisher motilal banarsidass edition date isbn year publisher rowman littlefield isbn date publisher university toronto press isbn year publisher oxford university press isbn publisher motilal banarsidass reprint year location delhi isbn title relg world edition publisher cengage learning date isbn publisher cengage learning year edition second isbn year publisher scarecrow isbn year volume publisher scarecrow isbn year publisher motilal banarsidass isbn year publisher motilal banarsidass isbn


foundations law accessible reason laws nature human laws gain whatever force ref name shiner analytic jurisprudence clarificatory jurisprudence rejects natural law 's fusing law ought espouses use neutral point view descriptive language referring aspects legal systems ref name hart encompasses theories jurisprudence legal positivism holds necessary connection law morality force law comes basic social facts ref name soper cdop soper legal positivism ''cambridge


dictionary philosophy'' ref legal realism argues real world practice law determines law law force legislators lawyers judges normative jurisprudence concerned evaluative theories law deals goal purpose law moral political theories provide foundation law addresses question law also tries determine proper function law sorts acts subject legal


sanctions sorts punishment permitted etymology english word derived latin ''iurisprudentia'' ''iuris'' genitive form ''ius'' meaning law ''prudentia'' meaning prudence also discretion foresight forethought circumspection refers exercise good judgment common sense caution especially conduct practical matters word first appeared written english time word ''prudence'' meant knowledge skill matter may entered english via french ''jurisprudence'' appeared earlier history ancient indian jurisprudence mentioned


sentences iudex supposed simple interpretations traditional customs apart considering traditional customs applied case soon developed equitable interpretation coherently adapting law newer social exigencies law adjusted evolving ''institutiones'' legal concepts remaining traditional mode praetors replaced rd century bc laical body ''prudentes'' admission body conditional upon proof competence experience roman empire schools law created practice law became academic early roman


empire rd century relevant body literature produced groups scholars including proculians sabinians scientific nature studies unprecedented ancient times rd century ''juris prudentia'' became bureaucratic activity notable authors eastern roman empire th century legal studies undertaken depth cultural movement justinian 's corpus juris civilis born natural law general sense natural law theory may compared state nature law general law understood


basis analogous laws physical science natural law often contrasted positive law asserts law product human activity human volition another approach natural law jurisprudence generally asserts human law must response compelling reasons action two readings natural law jurisprudential stance ''the strong natural law thesis'' holds human law fails response compelling reasons properly law captured imperfectly famous maxim ''lex iniusta non est lex''


unjust law law ''the weak natural law thesis'' holds human law fails response compelling reasons still called law must recognised defective law notions objective moral order external human legal systems underlie natural law right wrong vary according interests one focused john finnis one important modern natural lawyers argued maxim unjust law law poor


guide classical thomist position strongly related theories natural law classical theories justice beginning west plato 's republic aristotle aristotle francesco hayez aristotle often said father natural law like philosophical forefathers socrates plato aristotle posited existence natural justice natural right ' 'dikaion physikon'' '' '' latin ''ius naturale'' association natural law largely due interpreted thomas aquinas based aquinas' conflation natural law natural right latter aristotle posits


book v ''nicomachean ethics'' book iv ''eudemian ethics'' aquinas 's influence affect number early translations passages though recent translations render literally aristotle 's theory justice bound idea golden mean indeed treatment calls political justice derives discussion moral virtue derived mean opposing vices like every virtue describes longest discussion theory justice occurs ''nicomachean ethics'' begins asking


thought natural law comes ''rhetoric'' aristotle notes aside particular laws people set common law according nature context remark however suggests aristotle thought could rhetorically advantageous appeal law especially particular law one 's city adverse case made actually law aristotle moreover considered certain candidates universally valid natural law wrong aristotle 's theoretical


paternity natural law tradition consequently disputed thomas aquinas thomas aquinas influential western medieval legal scholar thomas aquinas foremost classical proponent natural theology father thomistic school philosophy long time primary philosophical approach roman catholic church work best known ''summa theologiae'' one thirty five doctors church considered many catholics church 's greatest theologian consequently many institutions learning named aquinas distinguished four kinds


promoted evil avoided precepts natural law based nbsp '' blockquote desires live procreate counted aquinas among basic natural human values human values based school salamanca francisco de vitoria perhaps first develop theory ''ius gentium'' rights peoples thus important figure transition modernity extrapolated ideas legitimate sovereign power international affairs concluding affairs ought determined forms respecting


rights common good world take precedence good single state meant relations states ought pass justified force justified law justice scholars upset standard account origins international law emphasises seminal text ''de iure belli ac pacis'' hugo grotius argued vitoria later su rez 's importance forerunners potentially founders field others koskenniemi argued none humanist scholastic thinkers


lon l fuller defended secular procedural form natural law emphasised natural law must meet certain formal requirements impartial publicly knowable extent institutional system social control falls short requirements fuller argued less inclined recognise system law give respect thus law must morality goes beyond societal rules laws made john finnis sophisticated positivist natural law theories sometimes resemble may certain points


common identifying particular theorist positivist natural law theorist sometimes involves matters emphasis degree particular influences theorist 's work natural law theorists distant past aquinas john locke made distinction analytic normative jurisprudence modern natural law theorists john finnis claim positivists still argue law moral nature book ''natural law natural rights'' john finnis provides restatement natural law doctrine analytic jurisprudence analytic clarificatory jurisprudence means taking


neutral point view using descriptive language referring various aspects legal systems philosophical development rejected natural law 's fusing law ought ref name hart see h l hart 'positivism separation law morals' ''harv l rev'' ref david hume argued ''a treatise human nature'' people invariably slip describing world ''is'' asserting therefore ''ought'' follow particular course action matter pure logic one cannot conclude


proposed codification german law book ''on vocation age legislation jurisprudence'' friedrich carl von savigny argued germany legal language would support codification traditions customs beliefs german people include belief code historicists believe law originates society sociological jurisprudence effort systematically inform jurisprudence sociological insights developed beginning twentieth century sociology began establish distinct social science especially united states continental europe


defended developed pound 's ideas significant split sociological jurists american legal realists emerged second half twentieth century sociological jurisprudence distinct movement declined jurisprudence came strongly influence analytical legal philosophy increasing criticism dominant orientations legal philosophy english speaking countries present century attracted renewed interest increasingly contemporary focus providing theoretical resources jurists aid understanding new types regulation example diverse kinds developing transnational law


positivism legal positivists argue law 's validity explained incorporating moral values labeled inclusive soft legal positivists legal positivist theories h nbsp l nbsp hart jules coleman examples inclusive legal positivism thomas hobbes hobbes social contractarian believed law peoples' tacit consent believed society formed state nature protect people state war would exist otherwise ''leviathan'' hobbes argues without ordered society life would solitary poor nasty brutish short commonly said


hobbes 's views human nature influenced times english civil war cromwellian dictatorship taken place reacting hobbes felt absolute authority vested monarch whose subjects obeyed law basis civilized society bentham austin bentham 's utilitarian theories remained dominant law twentieth century john austin jeremy bentham early legal positivists sought provide descriptive account law describes law austin explained descriptive focus legal positivism saying existence law


one thing merit demerit another whether one enquiry whether conformable assumed standard different enquiry austin bentham society governed sovereign de facto authority sovereign 's authority come laws austin bentham commands backed sanctions non compliance along hume bentham early staunch supporter utilitarian concept avid prison reformer advocate democracy firm atheist bentham 's views law jurisprudence popularized


student john austin austin first chair law new university london austin 's utilitarian answer law law commands backed threat sanctions sovereign people habit obedience h nbsp l nbsp hart criticized austin bentham 's early legal positivism command theory failed account individual 's compliance law hans kelsen hans kelsen considered one prominent jurists th century highly influential europe latin america although less common law


understood without tracing ultimately suprahuman source god personified nature great importance time personified state nation h nbsp l nbsp hart english speaking world influential legal positivist twentieth century h nbsp l nbsp hart professor jurisprudence oxford university hart argued law understood system social rules ''the concept law'' hart rejected kelsen 's views sanctions essential law normative social phenomenon like law cannot grounded non normative social facts hart claimed law union primary


rules secondary rules primary rules require individuals act act certain ways create duties governed obey ref name hart ref secondary rules rules confer authority create new primary rules modify existing ones ref name hart secondary rules divided rules adjudication resolve legal disputes rules change laws amended rule recognition laws identified valid validity legal system comes rule recognition customary practice officials especially barristers judges


legal validity norm never depend moral correctness second school labeled inclusive legal positivism major proponent wil waluchow associated view moral considerations necessarily determine legal validity norm joseph raz joseph raz 's theory legal positivism argues incorporation moral values explain law 's validity raz 's book ''the authority law'' criticised called weak social thesis explain law formulates weak social thesis sometimes identification


laws turn moral arguments also b legal systems identification law turns moral argument ref name ref raz argues law 's authority identifiable purely social sources without reference moral reasoning ref name view calls sources thesis raz suggests categorisation rules beyond role authority better left sociology jurisprudence philosophers used contend positivism theory held necessary connection law morality influential contemporary positivists including joseph raz john gardner


leslie green reject view raz points necessary truth vices legal system cannot possibly example cannot commit rape murder legal realism oliver wendell holmes self styled legal realist legal realism view theory law descriptive account reasons judges decide cases legal realism affinities sociology law sociological jurisprudence essential tenet legal realism law made humans thus account


reasons besides legal rules led legal decision two separate schools legal realism american legal realism scandinavian legal realism american legal realism grew writings oliver wendell holmes start holmes 's ''the common law'' claims life law logic experience view reaction legal formalism popular time due christopher columbus langdell holmes 's writings jurisprudence also laid foundations predictive theory law article path


holmes jr main precursor american legal realism influences include roscoe pound karl llewellyn justice benjamin cardozo karl llewellyn another founder us legal realism movement similarly believed law little putty hands judges able shape outcome cases based personal values policy choices scandinavian school legal realism argued law explained empirical methods used social scientists prominent scandinavian legal realists alf ross axel h gerstr karl olivecrona scandinavian legal realists also took


naturalist approach law despite decline popularity legal realism continues influence wide spectrum jurisprudential schools today including critical legal studies feminist legal theory critical race theory sociology law law economics ref name ssrncom kristoffel grechenig martin gelter transatlantic divergence legal thought american law economics vs german doctrinalism http ssrncom abstract ''hastings international comparative law review vol pp '' ref critical legal studies critical legal studies new theory jurisprudence developed since theory generally traced american legal realism considered


first movement legal theory legal scholarship united states espoused committed left political stance perspective ref name hunt alan hunt theory critical legal studies oxford journal legal studies vol esp see https webarchiveorg web http ojlsoxfordjournalsorg content extract doi ojls ref holds law largely contradictory best analyzed expression policy goals dominant social group critical rationalism karl popper originated theory critical rationalism according reinhold zippelius many advances law jurisprudence take place operations


critical rationalism writes da die suche nach dem begriff des rechts nach seinen bez gen zur wirklichkeit und nach der gerechtigkeit experimentierend voranschreitet indem wir probleml sungen versuchsweise entwerfen berpr fen und verbessern empirically search solutions problems harmonise fairly reality projecting testing improving solutions legal interpretivism american legal philosopher ronald dworkin 's legal theory attacks legal positivists separate law 's content morality book ''law 's empire'' dworkin argued law interpretive concept requires barristers find best fitting solution legal dispute given


constitutional traditions according law entirely based social facts includes best moral justification institutional facts practices form society 's legal tradition follows dworkin 's view one cannot know whether society legal system force laws one knows truths moral justifications social political practices society consistent dworkin 's view contrast views legal positivists legal realists society may know laws


counted part law community therapeutic jurisprudence consequences operation legal rules legal procedures behavior legal actors lawyers judges may either beneficial therapeutic harmful anti therapeutic people therapeutic jurisprudence tj studies law social force agent uses social science methods data study extent legal rule practice affects psychological well people impacts normative jurisprudence addition question law legal philosophy also concerned


normative evaluative theories law goal purpose law moral political theories provide foundation law proper function law sorts acts subject punishment sorts punishment permitted justice rights duty obey law value rule law different schools leading thinkers discussed virtue jurisprudence plato left aristotle right detail ''the school athens'' aretaic moral


theories contemporary virtue ethics emphasize role character morality virtue jurisprudence view laws promote development virtuous character citizens historically approach mainly associated aristotle thomas aquinas contemporary virtue jurisprudence inspired philosophical work virtue ethics deontology deontology theory duty moral obligation philosopher immanuel kant formulated one influential deontological theory law argued rule follow must able universally applied ie must willing everyone follow rule


john rawls john rawls american philosopher professor political philosophy harvard university author ''a theory justice'' ''political liberalism'' ''justice fairness restatement'' ''the law peoples'' widely considered one important english language political philosophers th century theory justice uses method called original position ask us principles justice would choose regulate basic institutions society behind veil ignorance imagine know race sex wealth status


class distinguishing feature would biased favour rawls argued original position would choose exactly political liberties everyone like freedom speech right vote also would choose system inequality produces incentives enough economic well society especially poorest rawls 's famous difference principle justice fairness sense fairness original position choice guarantees fairness principles chosen position


many normative approaches philosophy law including critical legal studies libertarian theories law see also analytical jurisprudence artificial intelligence law brocard law cautelary jurisprudence comparative law constitution constitutional law constitutionalism constitutional economics critical legal studies critical race theory critical rationalism defeasible reasoning divine law feminist jurisprudence feminist legal theory fiqh international legal theory judicial activism justice law economics law literature legal formalism legal history legalism legal pluralism legal positivism legal realism legal science libertarian theories law living constitution originalism natural law new legal realism political jurisprudence postmodernist jurisprudence publius


h richard ''justice legal systems social structure'' port washington ny kennikat press hutchinson allan c ed ''critical legal studies'' totowa nj rowman littlefield kempin jr frederick g ''legal history law social change'' englewood cliffs nj prentice hall llewellyn karl n ''karl n llewellyn legal realism'' birmingham al legal classics library contains penetrating classic bramble bush nature law murphy cornelius f ''introduction law legal process procedure'' st paul mn west publishing rawls john ''a theory justice'' revised ed cambridge harvard university press philosophical treatment justice


wacks raymond ''understanding jurisprudence introduction legal theory'' oxford university press washington ellis ''the inseparability law morality essays law race politics religion'' university press america washington ellis ''the progressive revolution writings vol writings vol liberal fascism ages'' university press america zinn howard ''declarations independence cross examining american ideology'' new york harper collins publishers zippelius reinhold ''rechtsphilosophie'' th ed munich ch beck zippelius reinhold ''das wesen des rechts'' concept law introduction legal theory th ed stuttgart w kohlhammer zippelius reinhold


''introduction german legal methods'' juristische methodenlehre translated tenth german edition kirk w junker p matthew roy durham carolina academic press heinze eric ''the concept injustice'' routledge pillai p ''jurisprudence legal theory'' rd edition reprinted eastern book company external links john witte jr brief biography dooyeweerd based hendrik van eikema hommes inleiding tot de wijsbegeerte van herman dooyeweerd hague pp nbsp https webarchiveorg web http wwwredeemeronca dooyeweerd centre biographyhtml redeemer university college https wwwlawcornelledu wex jurisprudence lii law nbsp jurisprudence http wwwfilosofiadeldirittoit http wwwlircocervoit lircocervoit l'ircocervo rivista elettronica italiana di metodologia giuridica teoria generale del diritto e


dottrina dello stato '' https primoalibraryunsweduau primo explore fulldisplay dedupmrg unsws case speluncean explorers nine new opinions '' peter suber routledge lon fuller 's classic jurisprudence brought date years later https webarchiveorg web http webupmf grenoblefr haiti cours ak roman law library incl ''responsa prudentium'' professor yves lassard alexandr koptev http wwwmarxistsorg archive pashukanis law edintrohtm evgeny pashukanis general theory law marxism http wwwieputmedu law phil internet encyclopedia philosophy law https webarchiveorg web http wwwtheopticoncom opticon online repository materials covering spectrum us jurisprudence http wwwfljsorg foundation law justice society http wwwpplnl indexphpoption com wrapper view wrapper itemid bibliography philosophy law peace palace library http wwwivrno norwegian association legal philosophy academic disciplines legal ethics


'''linguistics''' scientific study language meaning comprehensive systematic objective precise study language linguistics encompasses analysis every aspect language well methods studying modelling traditional areas linguistic analysis include phonetics phonology morphology syntax semantics pragmatics areas roughly corresponds phenomena found human linguistic systems sounds gesture case signed languages minimal units phonemes words morphemes phrases sentences meaning use linguistics studies phenomena diverse ways various perspectives

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics


theoretical linguistics including traditional descriptive linguistics concerned building models systems parts ontologies combinatorics psycholinguistics builds theories processing production phenomena phenomena may studied synchronically diachronically history monolinguals polyglots children adults acquired statically abstract objects embodied cognitive structures using texts corpora experimental elicitation gathering data mechanically fieldwork introspective judgment tasks computational linguistics implements theoretical constructs parse produce natural language homologues neurolinguistics investigates linguistic phenomena


experiments actual brain responses involving linguistic stimuli linguistics related philosophy language stylistics rhetoric semiotics lexicography translation major subdisciplines historical linguistics historical linguistics study language change particularly regard specific language group languages western trends historical linguistics date back roughly late th century discipline grew philology study ancient texts antique documents historical linguistics emerged one first sub disciplines field widely practiced late th


century despite shift focus twentieth century towards formalism generative grammar studies universal properties language historical research today still remains significant field linguistic inquiry subfields discipline include language change grammaticalisation historical linguistics studies language change either diachronically comparison different time periods past present synchronic manner observing developments different variations exist within current linguistic stage language first historical linguistics served cornerstone comparative linguistics involves study relationship


different languages ref name routledge introduction editors' introduction foundations new historical linguistics ''the routledge handbook historical linguistics'' routledge p nbsp ref time scholars historical linguistics concerned creating different categories language families reconstructing prehistoric proto languages using comparative method method internal reconstruction internal reconstruction method element contains certain meaning used different contexts environments variation either sound analogy ref name routledge introduction reason describe well known indo european languages many


generally limited due occurrence chance word resemblances variations language groups limit around years often assumed functional purpose conducting research difficulty also exists dating various proto languages even though several methods available approximate results obtained terms arriving dates languages today subsequent development grammatical studies historical linguistics studies change language relational basis dialect dialect one period well past present


period looks evolution shifts taking place morphologically syntactically well phonetically syntax morphology syntax morphology branches linguistics concerned order structure meaningful linguistic units words morphemes syntacticians study rules constraints govern speakers language organize words sentences morphologists study similar rules order morphemes sub word units prefixes suffixes may combined form words words along clitics generally accepted smallest units syntax languages


little morphology using almost exclusively unbound morphemes free morphemes depending word order convey meaning words modern standard chinese mandarin however compounds roots bound understood grammars represent morphology language rules understood speaker reflect specific patterns regularities way words formed smaller units language using smaller units interact speech way morphology branch linguistics studies patterns word formation within across languages attempts