''f'' ''x'' ''x'' belong ''f'' separated neighbourhoods fact regular space ''x'' ''f'' also separated closed neighbourhoods ''x'' ''tychonoff'' ''t sub sub '' ''completely sub sub '' ''completely regular'' sub sub f given point ''x'' closed set ''f'' ''x'' ''x'' belong ''f'' separated continuous function ''x'' ''normal'' ''t sub sub '' hausdorff two disjoint closed subsets ''x'' separated neighbourhoods fact


space normal two disjoint closed sets separated continuous function urysohn 's lemma ''x'' ''completely normal'' ''t sub sub '' ''completely sub sub '' sub sub two separated sets separated neighbourhoods completely normal space must also normal ''x'' ''perfectly normal'' ''t sub sub '' ''perfectly sub sub '' sub sub two disjoint closed sets precisely separated continuous function perfectly normal hausdorff space must also completely normal hausdorff tietze extension theorem normal space

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
General topology


every continuous real valued function defined closed subspace extended continuous map defined whole space countability axioms '''axiom countability''' property certain mathematical objects usually category requires existence countable set certain properties without sets might exist important countability axioms topological spaces sequential space set open every sequence convergent point set eventually set first countable space every point countable neighbourhood basis local base second countable space topology


countable base separable space exists countable dense subspace lindel f space every open cover countable subcover compact space exists countable cover compact spaces relations every first countable space sequential every second countable space first countable separable lindel f every compact space lindel f metric space first countable metric spaces second countability separability lindel f property equivalent metric spaces '''metric space''' ordered pair math md math math math set math math metric math math ie function math colon times rightarrow mathbb r math


math x z math following holds math xy ge math nbsp nbsp nbsp ''non negative'' math xy math iff math x math nbsp nbsp nbsp ''identity indiscernibles'' math xy yx math nbsp nbsp nbsp ' 'symmetry'' math xz le xy yz math nbsp nbsp nbsp ''triangle inequality'' function math math also called ' 'distance function'' simply ' 'distance'' often math math omitted one writes math math metric space clear context metric used every metric space paracompact hausdorff thus normal metrization theorems provide necessary sufficient conditions


topology come metric baire category theorem baire category theorem says ''x'' complete metric space locally compact hausdorff space interior every union countably many nowhere dense sets empty open subspace baire space baire space main areas research three iterations peano curve construction whose limit space filling curve peano curve studied continuum theory branch '''general topology''' continuum theory '''continuum''' pl ''continua'' nonempty compact connected metric space less


frequently compact connected hausdorff space '''continuum theory''' branch topology devoted study continua objects arise frequently nearly areas topology analysis properties strong enough yield many 'geometric' features dynamical systems topological dynamics concerns behavior space subspaces time subjected continuous change many examples applications physics areas math include fluid dynamics billiards flows manifolds topological characteristics fractals fractal geometry julia sets mandelbrot set arising


complex dynamics attractors differential equations often critical understanding systems pointless topology '''pointless topology''' also called '''point free''' '''pointfree topology''' approach topology avoids mentioning points name 'pointless topology' due john von neumann ideas pointless topology closely related mereotopologies regions sets treated foundational without explicit reference underlying point sets dimension theory '''dimension theory''' branch general topology dealing dimensional invariants topological spaces topological algebras '''topological algebra''' ''a'' topological field '''k'''


topological vector space together continuous multiplication math cdot times longrightarrow math math ab longmapsto cdot b math makes algebra '''k''' unital associative topological algebra topological ring term coined david van dantzig appears title doctoral dissertation metrizability theory topology related areas mathematics '''metrizable space''' topological space homeomorphic metric space topological space math x tau math said metrizable metric math colon x times x infty math topology


induced ' 'd'' math tau math '''metrization theorems''' theorems give sufficient conditions topological space metrizable set theoretic topology set theoretic topology subject combines set theory general topology focuses topological questions independent zermelo fraenkel set theory zfc famous problem normal moore space question question general topology subject intense research answer normal moore space question eventually proved independent zfc see also list examples general topology glossary general topology


detailed definitions list general topology topics related articles category topological spaces references reading standard books general topology include bourbaki cite topologie g n rale cite cite general topology cite john l kelley https archiveorg details generaltopology ''general topology'' link internet archive originally published david van nostrand company stephen willard cite general topology cite james munkres cite topology cite george f simmons cite introduction topology modern analysis cite paul l shick cite topology point set geometric cite ryszard engelking


cite general topology cite oya viro oa ivanov vm kharlamov nyu netsvetaev https wwwamsorg bookstore getitem item mbk cite elementary topology textbook problems cite http arxivorg abs topological shapes significance karousan arvxiv id arxiv subject code https arxivorg list mathgn recent mathgn external links


usa territorial growth '''history united states''' began arrival native americans north america around bc numerous indigenous cultures formed many disappeared th century arrival christopher columbus started european colonization americas colonies formed united states first nation whose distant origins fully recorded thirteen british colonies contained million people established along atlantic coast east appalachian mountains defeating france british government imposed


series taxes including stamp act rejecting colonists' constitutional argument new taxes needed approval resistance taxes especially boston tea party led parliament issuing punitive laws designed end self government armed conflict began massachusetts philadelphia second continental congress declared independence colonies united states led general george washington revolutionary war peace treaty established borders new nation articles confederation established central government ineffectual


providing stability could collect taxes executive officer convention wrote new constitution adopted bill rights added guarantee inalienable rights washington first president alexander hamilton chief adviser strong central government created purchase louisiana territory france doubled size united states encouraged notion manifest destiny united states expanded pacific coast nation large terms area population


million population grew rapidly economic growth even greater compared european powers nation 's military strength relatively limited peacetime westward expansion driven quest inexpensive land yeoman farmers slave owners expansion slavery increasingly controversial fueled political constitutional battles resolved compromises slavery abolished states north mason dixon line south continued institution mostly production cotton abraham lincoln elected president platform halting


expansion slavery seven southern slave states rebelled created foundation confederacy attack federal fort started civil war defeat confederates led abolition slavery reconstruction era following war legal voting rights extended freed slaves national government emerged much stronger gained explicit duty protect individual rights however white southerners regained power south often paramilitary suppression voting passed jim crow laws maintain white supremacy well


new disenfranchising state constitutions prevented african americans many poor whites voting united states became world 's leading industrial power turn th century due outburst entrepreneurship industrialization arrival millions immigrant workers farmers national railroad network completed large scale mines factories established mass dissatisfaction corruption inefficiency traditional politics stimulated progressive movement leading reforms including federal income tax direct election senators granting citizenship many indigenous people alcohol


helped defeat nazi germany fascist italy european theater involvement culminated using newly invented nuclear weapons hiroshima nagasaki defeat imperial japan pacific war united states soviet union emerged rival superpowers aftermath world war ii cold war two countries confronted indirectly arms race space race propaganda campaigns localized wars communist expansion large part due strength civil rights movement another wave social reforms enacted enforced


constitutional rights voting freedom movement african americans racial minorities cold war ended dissolution soviet union leaving united states world 's sole superpower foreign policy cold war focused modern conflicts middle east especially response september attacks rise islamic state early st century united states experienced great recession later covid pandemic negative effect local economy prehistory clovis theory definitively known


periods history americas appearance european influences american continents spanning original settlement upper paleolithic period european colonization early modern period term technically refers era christopher columbus' voyage practice term usually includes history american indigenous cultures conquered significantly influenced europeans even happened decades centuries columbus 's initial landing paleo indians cultural areas pre columbian north america according alfred kroeber bce humans relatively


well established throughout north america originally paleo indian hunted ice age megafauna like mammoths began go extinct people turned instead bison food source time went foraging berries seeds became important alternative hunting paleo indians central mexico first americas farm starting plant corn beans squash around bce eventually knowledge began spread northward bce corn grown valleys arizona new mexico followed primitive irrigation systems early villages hohokam one


earlier cultures present day united states clovis culture primarily identified use fluted spear points called clovis point bce culture ranged much north america also appeared south america artifacts culture first excavated near clovis new mexico folsom culture similar marked use folsom point later migration identified linguists anthropologists archeologists occurred around bce included na dene speaking peoples reached pacific northwest bce


summer concrete staircase follows approximate course ancient wooden stairs cliff palace mesa verde national park unesco world heritage site adena began constructing large earthwork mounds around bce earliest known people mound builders however mounds united states predate culture watson brake mound complex louisiana dates bce nearby poverty point built poverty point culture earthwork complex dates bce mounds likely served religious purpose adenans absorbed


hopewell tradition powerful people traded tools goods across wide territory continued adena tradition mound building remnants several thousand still existence across core former territory southern ohio hopewell pioneered trading system called hopewell exchange system greatest extent ran present day southeast canadian side lake ontario ref name ref ce hopewellians disappeared absorbed larger mississippian culture mississippians broad group tribes important city cahokia near


modern day st louis missouri peak th century city estimated population larger population london time entire city centered around mound stood tall cahokia like many cities villages time depended hunting foraging trading agriculture developed class system slaves human sacrifice influenced societies south like mayans southwest anasazi began constructing stone adobe pueblos around bce ref name eb ref apartment like structures often built


cliff faces seen cliff palace mesa verde grew size cities pueblo bonito along chaco river new mexico consisting rooms northwest northeast totem pole tlingit kiks di clan erected sitka national historical park commemorate lives lost battle sitkathe indigenous peoples pacific northwest likely affluent native americans many distinct cultural political nations developed shared certain beliefs traditions practices centrality salmon


resource spiritual symbol permanent villages began develop region early bce communities celebrated gift giving feast potlatch gatherings usually organized commemorate special events raising totem pole celebration new chief present day upstate new york iroquois formed confederacy tribal nations mid th century consisting oneida mohawk onondaga cayuga seneca system affiliation kind federation different strong centralized european monarchies tribe seats


group sachem chiefs suggested culture contributed political thinking development united states government iroquois powerful waging war many neighboring tribes later europeans territory expanded smaller tribes forced west including osage kaw ponca omaha peoples ref name burns ref native hawaiians polynesians began settle hawaiian islands st th centuries around ce tahitian explorers found began settling area well marked rise hawaiian civilization would largely separated


rest world arrival british years later europeans british explorer james cook arrived hawaiian islands within five years contact european military technology would help kamehameha conquer people eventually unify islands first time establishing hawaiian kingdom norse exploration ''leif erikson discovers america'' christian krohg earliest recorded european mention america historical treatise medieval chronicler adam bremen circa referred vinland ref also


extensively referred th century norse vinland sagas relate events occurred around whilst strongest archaeological evidence existence norse settlements america located canada notably l'anse aux meadows dated circa significant scholarly debate whether norse explorers also made landfall new england east coast areas president calvin coolidge declared norse explorer called leif erikson c c first european discover america european colonization spain period exploration sponsored


major european nations first successful english settlement established europeans brought horses cattle hogs americas turn took back maize turkeys tomatoes potatoes tobacco beans squash europe many explorers early settlers died exposed new diseases americas however effects new eurasian diseases carried colonists especially smallpox measles much worse native americans immunity suffered epidemics died large numbers usually large scale european settlement began societies disrupted


hollowed scale deaths first settlements spanish contact spanish explorers first europeans reach present day united states christopher columbus 's expeditions beginning established possessions caribbean including modern day us territories puerto rico partly us virgin islands juan ponce de le n landed florida spanish expeditions quickly reached appalachian mountains mississippi river grand canyon great plains letter christopher columbus discovery america king ferdinand queen isabella spain


hernando de soto extensively explored southeast year later francisco coronado explored arizona central kansas search gold escaped horses coronado 's party spread great plains plains indians mastered horsemanship within generations small spanish settlements eventually grew become important cities san antonio albuquerque tucson los angeles san francisco dutch mid atlantic dutch west india company sent explorer henry hudson search northwest passage asia new netherland established company capitalize north


british expansion new england result series wars fought colony taken britain capital renamed new york city new netherland left enduring legacy american cultural political life religious tolerance sensible trade urban areas rural traditionalism countryside typified story rip van winkle notable americans dutch descent include martin van buren theodore roosevelt franklin roosevelt eleanor roosevelt frelinghuysens swedish settlement early years swedish empire swedish dutch


german stockholders formed new sweden company trade furs tobacco north america company 's first expedition led peter minuit governor new netherland left dispute dutch government landed delaware bay march settlers founded fort christina site modern day wilmington delaware made treaties indigenous groups land ownership sides delaware river following seventeen years expeditions brought settlers swedish empire also included contemporary


finland estonia portions latvia norway russia poland germany new sweden colony established permanent settlements along many farms extending modern day maryland pennsylvania new jersey incorporated new netherland dutch invasion neighboring new netherland colony second northern war french spanish conflict giovanni da verrazzano landed north carolina first european sail new york harbor narragansett bay decade later jacques cartier sailed search northwest passage instead discovered


saint lawrence river laid foundation french colonization americas new france collapse first quebec colony french huguenots settled fort caroline near present day jacksonville florida spanish forces led pedro men ndez destroyed settlement established first european settlement would become united states st augustine french mostly remained quebec acadia far reaching trade relationships native americans throughout great lakes midwest spread influence french colonists small villages along mississippi


illinois rivers lived farming communities served grain source gulf coast settlements french established plantations louisiana along settling new orleans mobile biloxi british colonies john smith published ''mayflower'' transported pilgrims new world first winter plymouth half pilgrims died english drawn francis drake 's raids spanish treasure ships leaving new world settled strip land along east coast first british colony north america established roanoke


ports essential trade europe settlements remained close coast due well native american resistance appalachian mountains found interior first settlement jamestown squanto known early liaison native populations southern new england ''mayflower'' settlers made settlement site squanto 's former summer village first successful english colony jamestown established virginia company james river virginia colonists preoccupied search gold


ill equipped life new world captain john smith held fledgling jamestown together first year colony descended anarchy nearly failed returned england two years later john rolfe began experimenting tobacco west indies first shipment arrived london became virginia 's chief source revenue within decade years disease indian attacks including powhatan attack king james revoked virginia company 's charter made virginia royal colony new england


''the first thanksgiving plymouth'' pilgrim hall museum plymouth massachusetts new england initially settled primarily puritans fleeing religious persecution pilgrims sailed virginia mayflower knocked course storm landed plymouth agreed social contract rules mayflower compact like jamestown plymouth suffered disease starvation local wampanoag indians taught colonists farm maize plymouth followed puritans massachusetts bay colony maintained charter self government separate england elected founder


power grain mills sawmills numerous harbors facilitated trade tight knit villages developed around industrial centers boston became one america 's important ports middle colonies indians trade lb packs furs hudson 's bay company trading post th century middle colonies new york new jersey delaware established former dutch new netherland characterized large degree ethnic religious diversity time iroquois new york strengthened years fur trading europeans formed


powerful iroquois confederacy last colony region pennsylvania established william penn home religious dissenters including quakers methodists amish capital colony philadelphia became dominant commercial center short years busy docks brick houses quakers populated city german immigrants began flood pennsylvanian hills forests scots irish pushed far western frontier southern colonies indian massacre jamestown settlers soon colonists south feared natives enemies extremely


lumber well colony split two creating north south carolina georgia colony last thirteen colonies established james oglethorpe border spanish florida reform colony former prisoners poor religion john gadsby chapman baptism pocahontas display rotunda us capitol religiosity expanded greatly first great awakening religious revival led preachers jonathan edwards george whitefield american evangelicals affected


awakening added new emphasis divine outpourings holy spirit conversions implanted new believers intense love god revivals encapsulated hallmarks carried newly created evangelicalism early republic setting stage second great awakening late early stages evangelicals south methodists baptists preached religious freedom abolition slavery converted many slaves recognized preachers government american colonies slightly different governmental structure typically colony ruled


governor appointed london controlled executive administration relied upon locally elected legislature vote taxes make laws th century american colonies growing rapidly result low death rates along ample supplies land food colonies richer parts britain attracted steady flow immigrants especially teenagers arrived indentured servants servitude slavery half european immigrants colonial america arrived indentured servants could afford cost journey


america form unfree labor provided means immigrate typically people would sign contract agreeing set term labor usually four seven years return would receive transport america piece land end servitude cases ships' captains received rewards delivery poor migrants extravagant promises kidnapping common virginia company massachusetts bay company also used indentured servant labor first african slaves brought virginia twelve years


founding jamestown initially regarded indentured servants could buy freedom institution slavery began harden involuntary servitude became lifelong demand labor tobacco rice plantations grew slavery became identified brown skin color time seen black race children slave women born slaves ''partus sequitur ventrem'' african slaves comprised fifth american population question independence britain arise long colonies needed british military support french


spanish powers threats gone however london continued regard american colonies existing benefit mother country policy known mercantilism colonial america defined severe labor shortage used forms unfree labor slavery indentured servitude british colonies also marked policy avoiding strict enforcement parliamentary laws known salutary neglect permitted development american spirit distinct european founders road independence british french settlements north america


political cartoon benjamin franklin urged colonies join together french indian war french indian war part larger seven years' war watershed event political development colonies influence french native americans main rivals british crown colonies canada significantly reduced territory thirteen colonies expanded new france canada louisiana war effort also resulted greater political integration colonies reflected albany congress symbolized


new tax tea parliament quickly responded next year intolerable acts stripping massachusetts historic right self government putting military rule sparked outrage resistance thirteen colonies patriot leaders every colony convened first continental congress coordinate resistance intolerable acts congress called boycott british trade published list rights grievances petitioned king rectify grievances appeal crown effect though second continental congress convened organize


defense colonies british army common people became insurgents british even though unfamiliar ideological rationales offered held strongly sense rights felt british deliberately violating rights stressed local autonomy fair dealing government consent highly sensitive issue tyranny saw manifested arrival boston british army punish bostonians heightened sense violated rights leading rage demands revenge faith


god side revolution independence american revolutionary war began lexington concord massachusetts april british tried seize ammunition supplies arrest patriot leaders terms political values americans largely united concept called republicanism rejected aristocracy emphasized civic duty fear corruption founding fathers according one team historians republicanism represented particular form government way life core ideology uncompromising commitment liberty total


rejection aristocracy declaration independence originally written thomas jefferson presented july washington 's surprise crossing delaware river december major comeback loss new york city army defeated british two battles recaptured new jersey thirteen colonies began rebellion british rule proclaimed independence united states america american revolutionary war americans captured british invasion army saratoga secured northeast encouraged french make military alliance


united states france brought spain netherlands thus balancing military naval forces side britain allies george washington general george washington proved excellent organizer administrator worked successfully congress state governors selecting mentoring senior officers supporting training troops maintaining idealistic republican army biggest challenge logistics neither congress states funding provide adequately equipment munitions clothing paychecks even food supply soldiers battlefield tactician


british counted upon heavily comprised population suffered weak organization war ended final british army sailed new york city november taking loyalist leadership washington unexpectedly instead seizing power retired farm virginia political scientist seymour martin lipset observes united states first major colony successfully revolt colonial rule sense first 'new nation' declaration independence united states treaty paris individual state claims


cessions july second continental congress meeting philadelphia declared independence colonies adopting resolution richard henry lee stated july adopted declaration independence date celebrated nation 's birthday congress shortly thereafter officially changed nation 's name united states america united colonies america new nation founded enlightenment ideals liberalism thomas jefferson called unalienable rights life liberty pursuit happiness dedicated strongly


republican principles emphasized people sovereign hereditary kings demanded civic duty feared corruption rejected aristocracy early years republic confederation constitution reading united states constitution economic growth america per capita income index set national government able settle issue western regions young united states ceded states congress became territories migration settlers northwest soon became states nationalists worried


powers congress given authority ban international slave trade years compromise gave south congressional apportionment proportion free population allowing include three fifths number slaves state 's total population provision increased political power southern representatives congress especially slavery extended deep south removal native americans transportation slaves extensive domestic trade assuage anti federalists feared powerful national government nation adopted united states


president constitutional convention became first president united states new constitution national capital moved new york philadelphia finally settled washington dc major accomplishments washington administration creating strong national government recognized without question americans government following vigorous leadership treasury secretary alexander hamilton assumed debts states debt holders received federal bonds created bank united states stabilize financial system set


federal tax liquor washington called state militia personally led army settlers insurgents melted away power national government firmly established washington refused serve two terms setting precedent famous farewell address extolled benefits federal government importance ethics morality warning foreign alliances formation political parties john adams federalist defeated jefferson election war loomed france federalists used opportunity try silence


republicans alien sedition acts build large army hamilton head prepare french invasion however federalists became divided adams sent successful peace mission france ended quasi war ref name jstor ref increasing demand slave labor eyre crowe first two decades revolutionary war dramatic changes status slavery among states increase number freed blacks inspired revolutionary ideals equality men influenced lesser economic


important source wealth many planters traders congress severed us 's involvement atlantic slave trade louisiana jeffersonian republicanism thomas jefferson saw man frontier scientist keenly interested expanding exploring west territorial expansion louisiana purchase white thomas jefferson defeated adams presidency election jefferson 's major achievement president louisiana purchase provided us settlers vast potential expansion west mississippi river jefferson scientist supported expeditions explore


map new domain notably lewis clark expedition jefferson believed deeply republicanism argued based independent yeoman farmer planter distrusted cities factories banks also distrusted federal government judges tried weaken judiciary however met match john marshall federalist virginia although constitution specified supreme court functions vague marshall chief justice defined especially power overturn acts congress states violated constitution first enunciated


''marbury v madison'' war americans increasingly angry british violation american ships' neutral rights hurt france impressment seizure american sailors needed royal navy fight napoleon british support hostile indians attacking american settlers midwest goal creating pro british indian barrier state block american expansion westward may also desired annex part british north america although still heavily debated despite strong opposition northeast especially federalists want


disrupt trade britain congress declared war june oliver hazard perry 's message william henry harrison battle lake erie began met enemy william h powell war frustrating sides sides tried invade repulsed american high command remained incompetent last year american militia proved ineffective soldiers reluctant leave home efforts invade canada repeatedly failed british blockade ruined american commerce bankrupted treasury angered


new englanders smuggled supplies britain americans general william henry harrison finally gained naval control lake erie defeated indians tecumseh canada andrew jackson ended indian threat southeast indian threat expansion midwest permanently ended british invaded occupied much maine british raided burned washington repelled baltimore star spangled banner written celebrate american success upstate new york major british invasion new york state turned back


party put shame party never recovered helped lead emerging american identity cemented national pride state pride britain never achieved war goal granting indians barrier state block american settlement allowed settlers pour midwest without fear major threat war also destroyed america 's negative perception standing army proved useful many areas british opposed ill equipped poorly trained militias early months war war department officials instead


decided place regular troops nation 's main defense second great awakening c second great awakening protestant revival movement affected entire nation early th century led rapid church growth movement began around gained momentum membership rose rapidly among baptist methodist congregations whose preachers led movement past peak enrolled millions new members existing evangelical denominations led formation new denominations many converts believed awakening heralded


republicans realized foolish let bank united states close absence greatly hindered financing war assistance foreign bankers chartered second bank united states plains nebraska cca christensen th century republicans also imposed tariffs designed protect infant industries created britain blockading us collapse federalists party adoption many federalist principles republicans systematic policy president james monroe


two terms downplay partisanship nation entered era good feelings far less partisanship closed first party system monroe doctrine expressed proclaimed united states' opinion european powers longer colonize interfere americas defining moment foreign policy united states monroe doctrine adopted response american british fears russian french expansion western hemisphere president andrew jackson th president united states ran


second term slogan jackson bank renew charter second bank united states america ending bank ref name north carolina history jackson convinced central banking used elite take advantage average american instead implemented state banks popularly known pet banks ref name north carolina history ref westward expansion indian removal native american tribes trail tears congress passed indian removal act authorized president negotiate treaties exchanged native


american tribal lands eastern states lands west mississippi river goal primarily remove native americans including five civilized tribes american southeast occupied land settlers wanted jacksonian democrats demanded forcible removal native populations refused acknowledge state laws reservations west whigs religious leaders opposed move inhumane thousands deaths resulted relocations seen cherokee trail tears trail tears resulted approximately relocated cherokee perishing along way many


seminole indians florida refused move west fought army years seminole wars second party system henry clay first party system federalists republicans withered away stage set emergence new party system based well organized local parties appealed votes almost adult white men former jeffersonian democratic republican party split factions split choice successor president james monroe party faction supported many old jeffersonian


abraham lincoln mr walters rejected garrison 's theology held slavery unfortunate social evil sin westward expansion manifest destiny irish catholic th new york volunteer regiment attend catholic services american colonies new nation grew rapidly population area pioneers pushed frontier settlement west process finally ended around last major farmlands ranch lands settled native american tribes places resisted militarily overwhelmed settlers army relocated reservations


west highly influential frontier thesis wisconsin historian frederick jackson turner argues frontier shaped national character boldness violence innovation individualism democracy california gold rush news gold brought people california rest united states abroad recent historians emphasized multicultural nature frontier enormous popular attention media focuses wild west second half th century defined hine faragher frontier history tells story creation defense communities


early oregon trail many offshoots used settlers ' ers california gold rush ranchers farmers entrepreneurs families headed california oregon points far west wagon trains took five six months foot trip took days rail manifest destiny belief american settlers destined expand across continent concept born sense mission redeem old world high example generated potentialities new earth


democrats supporting war us army using regulars large numbers volunteers defeated mexican armies invaded several points captured mexico city decisively treaty guadalupe hidalgo ended war many democrats wanted annex mexico idea rejected southerners argued incorporating millions mexican people mainly mixed race would undermine united states exclusively white republic instead us took texas lightly settled northern parts california new mexico hispanic residents given full citizenship


mexican indians became american indians simultaneously gold discovered california attracting men northern california matter months california gold rush peaceful compromise britain gave us ownership oregon country renamed oregon territory demand guano prized agricultural fertilizer led united states pass guano islands act enabled citizens united states take possession name united states unclaimed islands containing guano deposits act united states


annexed nearly islands pacific ocean caribbean sea islands recognized territories united states sectional conflict civil war divisions north south union territories permitting slavery claimed confederacy central issue expansion slavery pitting anti slavery elements north pro slavery elements dominated south small number active northerners abolitionists declared ownership slaves sin terms protestant theology demanded immediate abolition much


larger numbers north expansion slavery seeking put path extinction america would committed free land low cost farms owned cultivated family free labor free speech opposed censorship abolitionist material south southern white democrats insisted slavery economic social cultural benefit whites even slaves denounced anti slavery spokesmen abolitionists justifications slavery included economics history religion legality social good even humanitarianism arguments


sovereignty issue slavery new territories seemingly settled compromise brokered whig henry clay democrat stephen douglas compromise included admission california free state exchange federal restrictions slavery placed utah new mexico point contention fugitive slave act increased federal enforcement required even free states cooperate turning fugitive slaves owners abolitionists pounced act attack slavery best selling anti slavery novel ''uncle tom 's cabin'' harriet beecher


stowe compromise repealed kansas nebraska act promoted senator douglas name popular sovereignty democracy permitted voters decide legality slavery territory allowed douglas adopt neutrality issue slavery anti slavery forces rose anger alarm forming new republican party pro anti contingents rushed kansas vote slavery resulting miniature civil war called bleeding kansas late young republican party dominated nearly northern states thus electoral


college insisted slavery would never allowed expand thus would slowly die plantation economy southern slavery based societies become wealthy based cotton agricultural commodity production particularly profited internal slave trade northern cities boston new york regional industries tied economically slavery banking shipping manufacturing including textile mills four million slaves south nearly eight times many nationwide plantations highly profitable due heavy


european demand raw cotton profits invested new lands purchasing slaves largely drawn declining tobacco regions united states immediately civil war lands east bordering mississippi river organized states union west still largely inhabited native americans nation 's first years slaveholder served president united states period slaveholding presidents elected second terms ref name pbs ref addition southern states benefited increased


apportionment congress due partial counting slaves populations slave rebellions slave rebellions gabriel prosser denmark vesey nat turner famously john brown caused fear white south imposed stricter oversight slaves reduced rights free blacks fugitive slave act required states cooperate slave owners attempting recover escaped slaves outraged northerners formerly escaped slave reached non slave state presumed attained sanctuary freedom missouri compromise


supreme court 's decision ''dred scott v sandford'' ruled missouri compromise unconstitutional angry republicans said decision threatened make slavery national institution president abraham lincoln secession abraham lincoln election seven southern states seceded union set new nation confederate states america confederacy february attacked fort sumter us army fort south carolina thus igniting war lincoln called troops suppress confederacy april four states seceded joined confederacy


northernmost slave states secede became known border states delaware maryland kentucky missouri war northwestern portion virginia seceded confederacy became new union state west virginia west virginia usually associated border states civil war battle franklin november civil war began april confederate forces attacked us military installation fort sumter south carolina response lincoln called states send troops recapture forts protect


capital preserve union view still existed intact despite actions seceding states two armies first major clash first battle bull run proved sides war would much longer bloodier originally anticipated lincoln allan pinkerton major general john alexander mcclernand battle antietam western theater union relatively successful major battles perryville shiloh along union gunboat dominance navigable rivers producing strategic union victories destroying major confederate operations


modern recording abraham lincoln 's gettysburg address warfare eastern theater began poorly union us general george b mcclellan failed capture confederate capital richmond virginia peninsula campaign retreated attacks confederate general robert e lee meanwhile sides concentrated raising training new armies main action union success controlling border states confederates largely driven border states autumn confederate retreat battle antietam led lincoln 's warning would issue emancipation proclamation january


july union forces general ulysses grant gained control mississippi river battle vicksburg thereby splitting confederacy union general william tecumseh sherman marched south chattanooga capture atlanta decisive victory ended war jitters among republicans north helped lincoln win election homefront industrial expansion north expanded dramatically using extensive railroad service moving industrial workers munitions factories foreign trade increased united states providing food cotton britain britain sending manufactured products thousands


volunteers union army plus confederates british operated blockade runners bringing food luxury items munitions confederacy bringing tobacco cotton union blockade increasingly shut confederate ports late blockade runners usually captured could make handful runs last two years war bloody sides sherman marching almost unopposed southern states burning cities destroying plantations ruining railroads bridges avoiding civilian casualties sherman demonstrated south unable


resist union invasion much confederate heartland destroyed could longer provide desperately needed supplies armies spring grant launched war attrition pursued lee final appomattox campaign resulted lee surrendering april american civil war world 's earliest industrial war railroads telegraph steamships mass produced weapons employed extensively mobilization civilian factories mines shipyards banks transportation food supplies foreshadowed impact industrialization world war remains deadliest war american history resulting


deaths soldiers undetermined number civilian casualties ref ten percent northern males years old percent southern white males aged died legacy includes ending slavery united states restoring union strengthening role federal government according historian allan nevins civil war major long term impact united states terms developing leadership potential moving entire nation beyond adolescent stage ref emancipation modern reading president abraham lincoln 's emancipation proclamation


giving freedom african americans resided within confederacy within union emancipation proclamation executive order issued president abraham lincoln january single stroke changed legal status recognized us government million slaves designated areas confederacy slave free practical effect soon slave escaped control confederate government running away advances federal troops slave became legally actually free owners


never compensated plantation owners realizing emancipation would destroy economic system sometimes moved slaves far possible reach union army june union army controlled confederacy liberated designated slaves large numbers moved camps run freedmen 's bureau given food shelter medical care arrangements employment made severe dislocations war reconstruction large negative impact black population large amount sickness death reconstruction freedmen voting


new orleans reconstruction lasted lincoln 's emancipation proclamation january compromise major issues faced lincoln status ex slaves freedmen loyalty civil rights ex rebels status ex confederate states powers federal government needed prevent future civil war question whether congress president would make major decisions severe threats starvation displacement unemployed freedmen met first major federal relief agency freedmen 's bureau operated army


three reconstruction amendments passed expand civil rights black americans thirteenth amendment outlawed slavery fourteenth amendment guaranteed equal rights citizenship blacks fifteenth amendment prevented race used disenfranchise men radical reconstruction ex confederates remained control southern states two years changed radical republicans gained control congress elections president andrew johnson sought easy terms reunions ex rebels virtually powerless face radical republican congress impeached senate 's attempt


remove office failed one vote congress enfranchised black men temporarily stripped many ex confederate leaders right hold office new republican governments came power based coalition freedmen made carpetbaggers new arrivals north scalawags native white southerners backed us army opponents said corrupt violated rights whites kkk rise jim crow atlanta 's railyard roundhouse ruins shortly end civil war state state lost power conservative democratic


coalition gained control entire south response radical reconstruction ku klux klan kkk emerged white supremacist organization opposed black civil rights republican rule president ulysses grant 's vigorous enforcement ku klux klan act shut klan disbanded paramilitary groups white league red shirts emerged worked openly use intimidation violence suppress black voting regain white political power states across south one historian described military


arm democratic party reconstruction ended disputed election compromise gave republican candidate rutherford b hayes white house exchange removing remaining federal troops south federal government withdrew troops south southern democrats took control every southern state southern states effectively disfranchised black voters many poor whites making voter registration difficult poll taxes literacy tests arbitrary devices passed segregation laws imposed second class status blacks system known jim


crow lasted civil rights movement growth industrialization frontier railroad first transcontinental railroad andrew j russell latter half nineteenth century marked rapid development settlement far west first wagon trains riverboats aided completion transcontinental railroad large numbers european immigrants especially germany scandinavia took low cost free farms prairie states mining silver copper opened mountain west indian wars united states army fought


frequent small scale wars native americans settlers encroached traditional lands gradually us purchased native american tribal lands extinguished claims forcing tribes onto subsidized reservations according us bureau census ref gilded age scottish immigrant andrew carnegie led enormous expansion american steel industry gilded age term mark twain used describe period late th century dramatic expansion american wealth prosperity underscored mass corruption government reforms


jp morgan john rockefeller began amass vast fortunes many us observers concerned nation losing pioneering egalitarian spirit american industrial production per capita income exceeded world nations response heavy debts decreasing farm prices wheat cotton farmers joined populist party unprecedented wave immigration europe served provide labor american industry create diverse communities previously undeveloped areas peak years immigration million people migrated united states


unskilled workers quickly found jobs mines mills factories many immigrants craftsmen especially britain germany bringing human skills others farmers especially germany scandinavia purchased inexpensive land prairies railroads sent agents europe poverty growing inequality dangerous working conditions along socialist anarchist ideas diffusing european immigrants led rise labor movement often included violent strikes unions strikes chapter ''the jungle'' muckracking novel upton sinclair describing corruption gilded


age skilled workers banded together control crafts raise wages forming labor unions industrial areas northeast factory workers joined unions labor movement samuel gompers led american federation labor coordinating multiple unions industrial growth rapid led john rockefeller oil andrew carnegie steel became leaders philanthropy gospel wealth giving away fortunes create modern system hospitals universities libraries foundations little italy centered lower east side circa almost residents


even popular free silver movement demanded using silver enlarge money supply leading inflation silverites promised would end depression financial railroad business communities fought back hard arguing gold standard would save economy intense election nation 's history conservative republican william mckinley defeated silverite william jennings bryan ran democratic populist silver republican tickets bryan swept south west mckinley ran landslides among middle class industrial workers cities among upscale farmers midwest prosperity returned


unbecoming american democracy ref name harrington president william mckinley defended acquisition riding high nation returned prosperity felt triumphant war mckinley easily defeated bryan rematch presidential election ref name ref defeating insurrection filipino nationalists united states achieved little philippines except education something way public health also built roads bridges wells infrastructural development lost much early vigor failure railroads however americans lost interest


empire turned international attention caribbean especially building panama canal canal opened increased trade japan rest far east key innovation open door policy whereby imperial powers given equal access chinese business one allowed take control china discontent reform progressive era puck'' cartoon dissatisfaction part growing middle class corruption inefficiency politics usual failure deal increasingly important


urban industrial problems led dynamic progressive movement starting every major city state national level well education medicine industry progressives called modernization reform decrepit institutions elimination corruption politics introduction efficiency criterion change leading politicians parties notably theodore roosevelt charles evans hughes robert la follette republican side william jennings bryan woodrow wilson democratic side took cause progressive reform women became


especially involved demands woman suffrage prohibition better schools prominent leader jane addams chicago created settlement houses muckraking journalists upton sinclair lincoln steffens jacob riis exposed corruption business government along rampant inner city poverty progressives implemented antitrust laws regulated industries meat packing drugs railroads four new constitutional amendments sixteenth nineteenth resulted progressive activism bringing federal income tax direct election senators prohibition woman suffrage ref name digital history progressive ref period also saw major transformation banking system


stanton joined lucretia mott women organize seneca falls convention featuring declaration sentiments demanding equal rights women right vote ref many activists became politically aware abolitionist movement women 's rights campaign first wave feminism led stanton lucy stone susan b anthony among many others stone paulina wright davis organized prominent influential national women 's rights convention movement reorganized civil war gaining experienced campaigners many worked prohibition women 's christian temperance union


end th century western states granted women full voting rights though women made significant legal victories gaining rights areas property child custody around feminist movement began reawaken putting emphasis demands equality arguing corruption american politics demanded purification women men could job protests became increasingly common suffragette alice paul led parades capital major cities paul split large national american woman suffrage association nawsa favored moderate


approach supported democratic party woodrow wilson led carrie chapman catt formed militant national woman 's party suffragists arrested silent sentinels pickets white house first time tactic used taken political prisoners old anti suffragist argument men could fight war therefore men deserve right vote refuted enthusiastic participation tens thousands american women home front world war across world grateful nations gave women right vote


furthermore western states already given women right vote state national elections representatives states including first woman jeannette rankin montana demonstrated woman suffrage success main resistance came south white leaders worried threat black women voting congress passed nineteenth amendment women could vote nawsa became league women voters national woman 's party began lobbying full equality equal rights amendment would pass congress


second wave women 's movement politicians responded new electorate emphasizing issues special interest women especially prohibition child health world peace main surge women voting came big city machines realized needed support women elect al smith catholic new york city meanwhile protestants mobilized women support prohibition vote republican herbert hoover ref file women voter outreach english yiddishjpg women surrounded posters english yiddish supporting franklin roosevelt herbert h lehman american labor party teach


women vote war prosperity depression world war american cemetery romagne sous montfaucon world war raged europe president woodrow wilson took full control foreign policy declaring neutrality warning germany resumption unrestricted submarine warfare american ships supplying goods allied nations would mean war germany decided take risk try win cutting supplies britain sinking ships rms lusitania us declared war april mainly threat


zimmermann telegram american money food munitions arrived quickly troops drafted trained summer american soldiers general john j pershing 's american expeditionary forces arrived rate day germany unable replace losses dissent war suppressed sedition act espionage act german language leftist pacifist publications suppressed imprisoned speaking war political prisoners later released us president warren g harding ref name ref result allied


stature economic military world power united states senate ratify treaty versailles imposed allies defeated central powers instead united states chose pursue unilateralism aftershock russia 's october revolution resulted real fears communism united states leading red scare deportation aliens considered subversive black tuesday bank holiday march massive bank runs across united states public health facilities grew rapidly progressive era hospitals medical schools modernized


called jazz age great depression new deal decisive moments american political economic social history reshaped nation great depression new deal dorothea lange 's ''migrant mother'' depicts destitute pea pickers california centering florence owens thompson mother seven age nipomo california march nation enjoyed widespread prosperity albeit weakness agriculture financial bubble fueled inflated stock market later led stock market crash october along


many economic factors triggered worldwide depression known great depression time united states experienced deflation prices fell unemployment soared farm prices fell half manufacturing output plunged one third franklin roosevelt engaged radio fireside chats means regularly communicating public innovative time first visit sitting us president brazil brazilian president get lio vargas left us president franklin roosevelt right democratic presidential nominee franklin roosevelt


promised new deal american people coining enduring label domestic policies result series permanent reform programs including relief unemployed assistance elderly jobs young men social security unemployment insurance public housing bankruptcy insurance farm subsidies regulation financial securities state governments added new programs well introduced sales tax pay ideologically revolution established modern liberalism united states kept democrats power washington almost continuously three decades thanks new deal coalition ethnic


mobilizing union members blue collar workers relief recipients big city machines ethnic religious groups especially catholics jews white south along blacks north could vote roosevelt seriously weakened second term failed effort pack supreme court center conservative resistance programs relief programs dropped conservatives regained power congress conservative coalition special importance social security program begun economy basically recovered


sharp short recession long term unemployment however remained problem solved wartime spending effort denounce past us interventionism subdue subsequent fears latin americans roosevelt announced march inaugural address field world policy would dedicate nation policy good neighbor neighbor resolutely respects respects rights others neighbor respects obligations respects sanctity agreements world neighbors


create friendly relationship united states central well south american countries roosevelt sought stray asserting military force region position affirmed cordell hull roosevelt 's secretary state conference american states montevideo december world war ii japanese crippled american naval power attack pearl harbor destroying many battleships ''into jaws death'' normandy landings began allied march toward germany west tarawa november depression years united states remained focused domestic


concerns democracy declined across world many countries fell control dictators imperial japan asserted dominance east asia pacific nazi germany fascist italy militarized threatened conquests britain france attempted appeasement avert another war europe us legislation neutrality acts sought avoid foreign conflicts however policy clashed increasing anti nazi feelings following german invasion poland september started world war ii first roosevelt positioned us arsenal democracy pledging full scale financial munitions support allies


lend lease agreements military personnel japan tried neutralize america 's power pacific attacking pearl harbor instead catalyzed american support enter war president roosevelt 's infamy speech aftermath pearl harbor attack congress consequently declared war empire japan main contributions us allied war effort comprised money industrial output food petroleum technological innovation especially military personnel much focus us government maximizing national economic output causing dramatic increase gdp export vast


quantities supplies allies american forces overseas end unemployment rise civilian consumption even gdp went war effort tens millions workers moved low productivity occupations high efficiency jobs improving productivity better technology management students retired people housewives unemployed moving active labor force economic mobilization managed war production board wartime production boom led full employment wiping vestige great depression indeed labor shortages encouraged industry look new


sources workers finding new roles women blacks durable goods became unavailable meat clothing gasoline tightly rationed industrial areas housing short supply people doubled lived cramped quarters prices wages controlled americans saved high portion incomes led renewed growth war instead return depression americans home front tolerated extra work patriotism increased pay confidence duration life would return normal soon


war allies united states britain soviet union countries saw germany main threat gave highest priority europe us dominated war japan stopped japanese expansion pacific losing pearl harbor philippines drawing battle coral sea may american navy inflicted decisive blow midway june american ground forces assisted north african campaign eventually concluded collapse mussolini 's fascist government italy


captions provided military research development also increase leading manhattan project secret effort harness nuclear fission produce atomic bombs first nuclear device ever detonated conducted july allies pushed germans france western front stopped short leaving berlin soviets nazi regime formally capitulated may ending war europe pacific us implemented island hopping strategy toward tokyo philippines eventually reconquered japan united states fought history 's largest naval battle battle


leyte gulf however war wiped development united states invested philippines cities towns completely destroyed ref name timemag ref united states established airfields bombing runs mainland japan mariana islands achieving hard fought victories iwo jima okinawa bloodied okinawa us prepared invade japan 's home islands b dropped atomic bombs japanese cities hiroshima nagasaki compelling japan surrender ending world war ii us occupied japan part germany restructured japan along american lines


war roosevelt coined term four powers refer four major allies world war ii united states united kingdom soviet union china later became foundation united nations security council though nation lost military personnel civilians us mostly prospered untouched devastation war inflicted heavy toll europe asia participation postwar foreign affairs marked end predominant american isolationism threat nuclear weapons inspired optimism fear nuclear weapons used since war ended


long peace began global powers era competition came known cold war truman doctrine characterized reality may despite absence global war period however regional wars korea vietnam cold war counterculture civil rights cold war cuban missile crisis u reconnaissance photograph cuba showing soviet nuclear missiles transports tents fueling maintenance following world war ii united states emerged one two dominant superpowers


addition billion american aid given europe end war start marshall plan soviet head state joseph stalin prevented satellite states participating point eastern europe inefficient centralized economies fell behind western europe terms economic development prosperity united states rejecting long standing policy military alliances peacetime formed north atlantic treaty organization nato alliance continues st century response soviets formed


warsaw pact communist states leading iron curtain august soviets tested first nuclear weapon thereby escalating risk warfare threat mutually assured destruction however prevented powers nuclear war resulted proxy wars especially korea vietnam two sides directly confront john f kennedy address cuban missile crisis president kennedy 's civil rights address june president dwight eisenhower elected landslide first republican president since lasting impact american life


politics ended korean war avoided major conflict cut military spending reliance high technology nuclear weapons carried long range bombers intercontinental missiles gave strong support nato alliance built alliances along similar lines never especially effective stalin died eisenhower worked obtain friendlier relationships soviet union home ended mccarthyism expanded social security program presided decade bipartisan comity promoted civil rights cautiously sent army trouble threatened


racial integration little rock arkansas unexpected leapfrogging american technology soviets sputnik first earth satellite began space race americans apollo landed astronauts moon angst weaknesses american education led large scale federal support science education research decades world war ii united states became global influence economic political military cultural technological affairs john f kennedy elected president administration saw acceleration nation 's role


space race escalation american role vietnam war bay pigs invasion cuban missile crisis jailing martin luther king jr birmingham campaign kennedy assassinated november leaving nation profound shock us soldiers searching village potential viet cong vietnam war buzz aldrin shown neil armstrong became first people walk moon nasa 's apollo mission sound apollo landing moon great society president lyndon b johnson secured


congressional passage great society programs mid included civil rights end legal segregation medicare extension welfare federal aid education levels subsidies arts humanities environmental activism series programs designed wipe poverty later historians explained ref johnson rewarded electoral landslide conservative barry goldwater broke decades long control congress conservative coalition however republicans bounced back elected richard nixon nixon largely continued new deal great society


programs inherited conservative reaction would come election ronald reagan meanwhile american people completed great migration farms cities experienced period sustained economic expansion civil rights movement civil rights leader martin luther king jr right president lyndon b johnson background left starting late institutionalized racism across united states especially south increasingly challenged growing civil rights movement activism african american leaders rosa parks martin luther king jr led montgomery bus


boycott launched movement years african americans would struggle violence would achieve great steps toward equality supreme court decisions including ''brown v board education'' ''loving v virginia'' civil rights act voting rights act fair housing act ended jim crow laws legalized racial segregation whites blacks lyndon johnson 's speech civil rights act duncan west speaking cesar chavez delano ufw rally duncan represented teamsters supporting ufw condemning


ibt leadership working thugs fellow union duncan wife mary branch organizers la martin luther king jr nobel peace prize efforts achieve equality races assassinated following death others led movement notably king 's widow coretta scott king also active like husband opposition vietnam war women 's liberation movement riots american cities first nine months frustrations


seemingly slow progress integration movement led emergence radical discourses early turn gave rise black power movement late early decade would ultimately bring positive strides toward integration especially government service sports entertainment native americans turned federal courts fight land rights held protests highlighting federal government 's failure honor treaties one outspoken native american groups american indian movement aim cesar chavez began organizing poorly


paid mexican american farm workers california led five year long strike grape pickers ch vez formed nation 's first successful union farm workers united farm workers america ufw faltered years chavez died became iconic folk saint pantheon mexican americans women 's liberation anti vietnam war demonstration new consciousness inequality american women began sweeping nation starting publication betty friedan 's best seller ''the feminine mystique'' explained many housewives felt trapped unfulfilled assaulted american culture


creation notion women could find fulfillment roles wives mothers keepers home argued women able men every type job friedan others established national organization women act women naacp african americans two hippies woodstock protests began new women 's liberation movement grew size power gained much media attention replaced civil rights movement us 's main social revolution marches parades


rallies boycotts pickets brought thousands sometimes millions striking gains women medicine law business elected office movement split factions political ideology early left women 's equity action league weal right national women 's political caucus nwpc center radical groups formed younger women far left proposed equal rights amendment constitution passed congress defeated conservative coalition mobilized phyllis schlafly argued


degraded position housewife made young women susceptible military draft however many federal laws ie equalizing pay employment education employment opportunities credit ending pregnancy discrimination requiring nasa military academies organizations admit women state laws ie ending spousal abuse marital rape supreme court rulings ie ruling equal protection clause fourteenth amendment applied women state eras established women 's equal status law social custom consciousness began change accepting women 's equality controversial issue abortion deemed


supreme court fundamental right ''roe v wade'' still point debate today counterculture cold war tente f phantom ii shadows soviet tu bear aircraft early us senator edmund muskie speaking fairmount park philadelphia earth day amid cold war united states entered vietnam war whose growing unpopularity fed already existing social movements including among women minorities young people president lyndon b johnson 's great society social programs numerous rulings warren court added wide range


us troops war cost lives american troops nixon manipulated fierce distrust soviet union china advantage united states achieving ' 'd tente'' parties richard nixon departs watergate scandal involving nixon 's cover operatives' break democratic national committee headquarters watergate office complex destroyed political base sent many aides prison forced nixon 's resignation august succeeded vice president gerald ford fall saigon ended vietnam war resulted north south vietnam


reunited communist victories neighboring cambodia laos occurred year opec oil embargo marked long term economic transition since first time energy prices skyrocketed american factories faced serious competition foreign automobiles clothing electronics consumer goods late economy suffered energy crisis slow economic growth high unemployment high inflation coupled high interest rates term stagflation coined since economists agreed wisdom deregulation many new deal era regulations ended transportation banking telecommunications jimmy carter running


conservatism end cold war ronald reagan brandenburg gate challenges soviet premier mikhail gorbachev tear berlin wall shortly end cold war president reagan 's brandenburg gate speech famous phrase 'tear wall' ronald reagan produced major political realignment landslide elections reagan 's economic policies dubbed reaganomics implementation economic recovery tax act lowered top marginal tax rate course seven years reagan continued downsize


government taxation regulation us experienced recession negative indicators reversed inflation rate decreasing unemployment rate decreasing december november economic growth rate increasing reagan ordered buildup us military incurring additional budget deficits reagan introduced complicated missile defense system known strategic defense initiative sdi dubbed star wars opponents theoretically us could shoot missiles laser systems space soviets reacted harshly


thought violated anti ballistic missile treaty would upset balance power giving us major military advantage years soviet leader mikhail gorbachev argued vehemently sdi however late decided system would never work used block disarmament deals us historians argue great impact sdi threat soviets whether enough force gorbachev initiate radical reforms whether deterioration soviet economy alone forced reforms agreement soviets


soviet union first ending expensive arms race america shedding east european empire soviet union collapsed christmas day ending us soviet cold war intermediate range nuclear forces treaty united states emerged world 's sole remaining superpower continued intervene international affairs including gulf war iraq following election president bill clinton oversaw one longest periods economic expansion unprecedented gains securities values side effect digital revolution new business opportunities


created internet also worked republican congress pass first balanced federal budget years clinton impeached house representatives charges lying oath perjury regarding sexual relationship white house intern monica lewinsky acquitted senate failure impeachment democratic gains election forced house speaker newt gingrich republican resign congress clinton yitzhak rabin yasser arafat oslo accords september republican party expanded base throughout


extremely close produced dramatic dispute counting votes including democrats outpolled republicans national vote every election except st century war terror nasdaq composite index swelled dot com bubble optimistic new economy bubble burst september united states struck terrorist attack al qaeda hijackers commandeered four airliners used suicide attacks intentionally crashed two twin towers


world trade center third pentagon killing victims aboard three airliners world trade center ground pentagon fourth plane taken passengers crew aircraft able land plane safely able take control aircraft crash empty field pennsylvania killing people including four terrorists board thereby saving whatever target terrorists aiming within two hours twin


towers world trade center completely collapsed causing massive damage surrounding area blanketing lower manhattan toxic dust clouds total victims perished attacks response president george w bush september announced war terror october united states nato invaded afghanistan oust taliban regime provided safe al qaeda leader osama bin laden world trade center lower manhattan september attacks president bush 's address reaction attacks


federal government established new domestic efforts prevent future attacks usa patriot act increased government 's power monitor communications removed legal restrictions information sharing federal law enforcement intelligence services us department homeland security created lead coordinate federal counter terrorism activities since us government 's indefinite detention terrorism suspects captured abroad guantanamo bay detention camp prison us naval base guantanamo bay cuba led allegations human rights abuses violations international law george w bush addressed general assembly


united nations september outline complaints united states government iraqi government march may united states launched invasion iraq led collapse iraq government eventual capture iraqi dictator saddam hussein us long standing tense relations reasons invasion cited bush administration included spreading democracy elimination weapons mass destruction key demand un well though later investigations found parts intelligence


obama increased american involvement afghanistan starting surge strategy using additional troops proposing begin withdrawing troops sometime december second day office obama issued executive order banning use torture ref name barela ref prohibition codified law ref name barela obama also ordered closure secret cia run prisons overseas black sites obama sought close guantanamo bay detention camp soon practicable tenure population detention camp declined inmates inmates guantanamo review task force cleared


many prisoners release resettlement abroad ref name rath ref obama 's efforts close prison entirely stymied congress enacted measure blocking obama transferring guantanamo detainees us facilities ref name rath may nearly decade hiding founder leader al qaeda osama bin laden killed pakistan raid conducted us naval special forces acting president obama 's direct orders al qaeda near collapse afghanistan affiliated organizations continued operate yemen remote areas cia used drones hunt


remove leadership boston marathon bombing bombing incident followed subsequent related shootings occurred two pressure cooker bombs exploded boston marathon april bombs exploded near marathon 's finish line killing people injuring estimated others islamic state iraq levant rose prominence september addition taking control much western iraq eastern syria isis also beheaded three journalists two american one british events lead major military offensive united states


allies region december obama officially ended combat mission afghanistan promised withdrawal remaining us troops end exception embassy guards us military mission formally ended august ref name ref great recession tea party protesters walk towards united states capitol taxpayer march washington september september united states europe entered longest post world war ii recession often called great recession multiple overlapping crises involved especially


housing market crisis subprime mortgage crisis soaring oil prices automotive industry crisis rising unemployment worst financial crisis since great depression financial crisis threatened stability entire economy september lehman brothers failed giant banks grave danger starting october federal government lent billion financial institutions troubled asset relief program passed bipartisan majorities signed bush following election victory wide electoral margin november bush 's successor barack obama signed law


unemployment rate steeply rose around peak falling economy labor markets experienced recovery economic expansion followed great recession longest us history ref name rushe ref ref name bayly ref strong growth led unemployment rate reaching year low despite strong economy increases costs housing child care higher education pocket healthcare expenses surpassed increases wages phenomenon referred ''affordability crisis'' economic expansion came end early sharp economic contraction largely caused


covid pandemic seriously affected united states ref name rushe ref name bayly recent events baton rouge covid pandemic th congress passed major legislation patient protection affordable care act informally known obamacare dodd frank wall street reform consumer protection act n't ask n't tell repeal act signed law president obama following midterm elections resulted republican controlled house representatives democratic controlled senate congress presided period elevated gridlock heated debates whether


raise debt ceiling extend tax cuts citizens making annually many key issues ongoing debates led president obama signing budget control act following obama 's election congressional gridlock continued congressional republicans' call repeal patient protection affordable care act along various demands resulted first government shutdown since clinton administration almost led first default us debt since th century result growing public frustration parties congress since


beginning decade congressional approval ratings fell record lows recent events also include rise new political movements conservative tea party movement liberal occupy movement debate issue rights lgbt community including sex marriage began shift favor sex couples president obama became first president openly support sex marriage supreme court provided federal recognition sex unions nationwide legalized gay marriage political debate continued tax reform immigration reform income inequality us


foreign policy middle east particularly regards global terrorism rise islamic state iraq levant accompanying climate islamophobia late marked widespread social upheaval change united states metoo movement gained popularity exposing alleged sexual harassment abuse workplace multiple prominent celebrities accused misconduct rape period black lives matter movement also gained support online exacerbated police killings multiple black americans multiple mass shootings including pulse nightclub shooting las


vegas shooting claimed lives people led increased calls gun control reform following stoneman douglas high school shooting gun control advocates organized march lives millions students across country walked school protest gun violence women 's march protest trump 's presidency one largest protests american history happened 'all lives matter' sign protest donald trump following contentious election republican donald trump elected president results election


called question us intelligence agencies concluded associates russian government interfered election undermine public faith us democratic process along questions potential collusion trump campaign russian officials led investigations fbi congress trump 's presidency espoused america first ideology placing restrictions asylum seekers imposing widely controversial ban immigration seven muslim majority nations many executive orders actions challenged court presidency also engaged united states trade


war china imposing wide range tariffs chinese products controversy erupted trump administration 's zero tolerance policy towards illegal immigrants involved separation thousands undocumented children parents public outcry trump rescinded policy trump 's term also saw confirmation three new justices supreme court cementing conservative majority whistleblower complaint alleged trump withheld foreign aid ukraine demand investigate business dealings son trump 's political opponent result trump impeached


abuse power obstruction congress becoming third president impeached acquitted president joe biden addresses joint session congress vice president kamala harris house speaker nancy pelosi april first time two women behind president worldwide covid pandemic arrived united states first confirmed january us suffered coronavirus deaths nation death toll standing us death toll surpassing number us deaths korean war


vietnam war combined ref name mccarthysingh ref result covid pandemic us life expectancy fell year unemployment rates rose worst rates since great depression may murder george floyd caused mass protests riots many major cities police brutality many states calling national guard marked rise domestic terrorist threats widespread conspiracy theories around mail voting covid qanon conspiracy theory fringe far right political movement among ardent conservatives gained publicity multiple major cities hit


rioting brawls far left antifascist affiliated groups far right groups proud boys democrat joe biden defeated trump presidential election first defeat incumbent president since election exceptional amount voting mail early voting due danger contracting covid traditional voting booths historically high voter turnout trump repeatedly made false claims massive voter fraud election rigging leading storming united states capitol supporters trump right wing militias storming led


trump 's impeachment us president impeached twice senate later acquitted trump despite members republican party voting biggest mass vaccination campaign us history kicked december icu nurse sandra lindsay became first person us receive pfizer biontech covid vaccine august us population received dose pfizer biontech moderna johnson johnson covid vaccine following biden 's election date us troops withdraw afghanistan moved back april


august ref name ref afghanistan withdrawal coincided taliban offensive culminating fall kabul following massive airlift people us military mission formally ended august see also notes references surveys author link charles beard display authors etal author link eric foner author link alonzo hamby url status dead author link david kennedy historian author link lizabeth cohen author link thomas bailey display authors et al author link howard zinn reading editor last rosenzweig editor first roy author link thomas bailey


access date august archive url https webarchiveorg web https openstaxorg books us history pages radical reconstruction archive date august archive url https webarchiveorg web http wwwquestiacom read archive date july author link john lewis gaddis author link john lewis gaddis author link john lewis gaddis author link daniel walker howe archive url https webarchiveorg web http wwwquestiacom read archive date july editor last davidann editor first jon thares editor last sugital editor first yoneyuki display editors etal author link david kennedy historian author link james mcpherson editor last mileur editor first jerome editor last o'connor editor first carol editor last sandweiss editor first martha archive url https webarchiveorg web https ttu irtdlorg ttu ir bitstream handle ttu hfwc pdfsequence isallowed archive date february url status dead editor last smith editor first karen manners orig date author link arthur schlesinger


jr author link peter w stanley built roads bridges dug artesian wells provided elementary education modern curriculum children whose parents could spare labor something way sanitation public health made start agricultural education broke oppressive hegemony friars one thing despite commitment modernization prosperity insular government achieved relatively little except fields education public health certainly case economic development infrastructure lost much bloom removal forbes


embarrassment railroads author link alan taylor historian author link alan taylor historian author link alan taylor historian access date november chapter url https booksgooglecom booksid arbvmr tsc pg pa display authors etal author link c vann woodward author link sean wilentz url access registration author link gordon wood primary sources author link henry steele commager display authors etal author link henry steele commager author link richard b morris editor last morris editor first richard b editor last schlesinger editor first arthur jr editor link arthur schlesinger jr external links american history public radio show hosted ed ayers brian balogh peter onuf https webarchiveorg web http wwwkaralahanacom fotograflar thumbnailsphpalbum early th century usa high quality photographs


references group https wwwacademiaedu documents optimism '''positive psychology''' scientific study makes life worth living focusing individual societal well studies positive subjective experience positive individual traits positive institutionsit aims improve quality life field study growing steadily throughout years individuals researchers look common ground better well positive psychology began new domain psychology martin seligman chose theme term president american psychological association ref name time ref name

Social science
Psychology
Positive psychology


reaction past practices tended focus mental illness emphasized maladaptive behavior negative thinking builds humanistic movement abraham maslow rollo may james bugental carl rogers encourages emphasis happiness well positivity thus creating foundation known positive psychology ref name srinivasan february founding fathers history positive psychology retrieved february https positivepsychologyprogramcom founding fathers ref positive psychology focuses eudaimonia ancient greek term good life concept reflection factors


positive psychology happiness may rise increasing financial income though may plateau even fall gains made certain cut amount definition basic assumptions definition martin seligman mihaly csikszentmihalyi define positive psychology scientific study positive human functioning flourishing multiple levels include biological personal relational institutional cultural global dimensions life basic concepts positive psychology concerned eudaimonia meaning good life flourishing focused living according holds greatest value life


factors contribute well lived fulfilling life attempting strict definition good life positive psychologists agree one must live happy engaged meaningful life order experience good life martin seligman referred good life using signature strengths every day produce authentic happiness abundant gratification positive psychology complements without intending replace ignore traditional areas psychology emphasizing study positive human development field helps balance approaches focus disorder may produce limited


understanding positive psychology also placed significant emphasis fostering positive self esteem self image though positive psychologists less humanist direction less likely focus intently topics basic premise positive psychology human beings often intrigued future driven past also suggests combination positive experiences emotions concerning past present future leads pleasant happy life another aspect may come views outside lives author ''grit'' angela


duckworth might view centered purpose could positive psychological affect lives seligman identified possible goals families schools allow children grow workplaces aim satisfaction high productivity teaching others positive psychology ref name seligmanmartin seligman martin ep positive psychology center positive psychology center university pennsylvania web mar ref psychologist daniel gilbert also written extensively affects time perception happiness ref name practice positive psychology attempt psychological interventions foster positive attitudes toward one 's subjective experiences individual traits


life events goal minimize pathological thoughts may arise hopeless mindset develop sense optimism toward life positive psychologists seek encourage acceptance one 's past excitement optimism one 's future experiences sense contentment well present ref name march ref related concepts happiness well quality life contentment meaningful life happiness sought discussed throughout time research concluded happiness thought way act think relative


terms well often referred inherently good individual physically mentally though aspects could added define well quality life quality life encompasses physical mental well involves socioeconomic factors also perceived differently different cultures regions around world come well living functioning life research topics according seligman peterson positive psychology addresses three issues positive emotions positive individual traits positive institutions positive emotions


concerned content one 's past happy present hope future positive individual traits focus one 's strengths virtues finally positive institutions based strengths better community people ref name seligmanmartin according peterson positive psychologists concerned four topics positive experiences enduring psychological traits positive relationships positive institutions also states topics interest topics interest researchers field states pleasure flow values strengths virtues talents well ways promoted social


systems institutions history martin seligman psychology particularly positive branch investigate promote realistic ways fostering well individuals communities origin formal discipline positive psychology existed since concepts form basis present religious philosophical discourse thousands years influenced humanistic well psychodynamic approaches treatment predating use term positive psychology researchers within field psychology focusing topics would included new denomination ref


name term positive psychology dates back least maslow 's first edition ''motivation personality'' nbsp published final chapter titled toward positive psychology ref name ref second edition published removed chapter saying preface nbsp positive psychology least available today though widely ref name indications psychologists since increasingly focused promotion mental health rather merely treating mental illness ref name twsmay g r ref ref name twsmay dwwe ref beginning psychology field addressed human experience using


first international conference positive psychology took place attention given general public using framework course harvard university became particularly popular ref name happier ben shahar ben happier learn secrets daily joy lasting fulfillment first edition mcgraw hill co ref june first world congress positive psychology took place university pennsylvania https wwwippanetworkorg international positive psychology association ippa recently established association expanded thousands members different countries ippa 's missions include


science positive psychology across globe ensure field continues rest science work effective responsible application positive psychology diverse areas organizational psychology counselling clinical psychology business health education coaching foster education training field field positive psychology today advanced united states western europe even though positive psychology offers new approach study positive emotions behavior ideas theories research motivation study positive side human behavior


old humanity influences several humanistic psychologists notably abraham maslow carl rogers erich fromm developed theories practices pertaining human happiness flourishing recently positive psychologists found empirical support humanistic theories flourishing addition positive psychology moved ahead variety new directions diener published tripartite model subjective well positing three distinct often related components wellbeing frequent positive affect infrequent negative affect cognitive evaluations life satisfaction model cognitive affective contextual factors contribute subjective well ref name galinha pais ribeiro ref


emotional ref name robitschek psychological social well hedonic well concerns emotional aspects well whereas psychological social well cq eudaimonic well concerns skills abilities optimal functioning ref name ref tripartite model mental well received extensive empirical support across cultures ref name ref name robitschek ref aristotle greek philosopher influences ancient history formal title positive psychology around past two decades concepts form basis field present religious philosophical discourse thousands years field psychology predating use term positive


psychology seen researchers focused primarily topics would included umbrella positive psychology ref name ref view positive psychology meeting eastern thought buddhism western psychodynamic approaches ref name ref historical roots positive psychology found teachings aristotle whose nicomachean ethics teach cultivation moral virtue means attaining happiness well referred eudaimonia core theory methods accepted gold standard theory positive psychology however work seligman regularly quoted ref name sze


work csikszentmihalyi older models well carol ryff 's six factor model psychological well diener 's tripartite model subjective well initial theory three paths happiness ''authentic happiness'' seligman proposed three kinds happy life investigated ref name sze david sze http wwwhuffingtonpostcom david sze father positive ps b html ''the father positive psychology two theories happiness'' ref ''pleasant life'' research pleasant life life enjoyment examines people optimally experience forecast savor positive feelings emotions part normal healthy living eg relationships hobbies


individuals derive positive sense well belonging meaning purpose part contributing back something larger permanent eg nature social groups organizations movements traditions belief systems perma ''flourish'' seligman argued last category proposed three kinds happy life meaningful life considered different categories resulting summary theory seligman 's perma acronym positive emotions engagement relationships meaning purpose accomplishments ref name ref mnemonic five elements martin seligman 's well theory ref name sze ''positive emotions''


include wide range feelings happiness joy included emotions like excitement satisfaction pride awe amongst others emotions frequently seen connected positive outcomes longer life healthier social relationships ''engagement'' refers involvement activities draws builds upon one 's interests mihaly csikszentmihalyi explains true engagement flow state deep effortless involvement ref name feeling intensity leads sense ecstasy clarity task done needs call upon higher skill bit difficult challenging yet still possible


engagement involves passion concentration task hand assessed subjectively whether person engaged completely absorbed losing self consciousness ''relationships'' essential fueling positive emotions whether work related familial romantic platonic christopher peterson puts simply people matter humans receive share spread positivity others relationships important bad times good times well fact relationships strengthened reacting one another positively typical positive things take place presence people


pride positive emotion accomplishments individual community based fun work based five perma elements selected according three criteria contributes well pursued sake defined measured independently elements ''character strengths virtues'' development ''character strengths virtues'' csv handbook represented first attempt seligman peterson identify classify positive psychological traits human beings much like ''diagnostic statistical manual mental disorders'' dsm general psychology csv


provided theoretical framework assist understanding strengths virtues developing practical applications positive psychology manual identified classes virtues ie core virtues underlying measurable character strengths csv suggested virtues historical basis vast majority cultures addition virtues strengths lead increased happiness built upon notwithstanding numerous cautions caveats suggestion universality hints threefold study positive human qualities broadens scope psychological research include mental wellness leaders positive psychology movement


challenging moral relativism suggesting people evolutionarily predisposed toward certain virtues virtue biological basis organization virtues strengths follows '''wisdom knowledge ''' creativity curiosity open mindedness love learning perspective innovation prudence '''courage ''' bravery persistence vitality zest '''humanity ''' love kindness social intelligence '''justice ''' citizenship fairness leadership integrity excellence '''temperance ''' forgiveness mercy humility self control '''transcendence ''' appreciation beauty gratitude hope humor spirituality recent research challenged need virtues instead researchers suggested strengths accurately grouped