engage audience comprehension implies viewer able easily understand information presented finally retention means viewer remember data presented infographic order importance provisions depends purpose infographic infographic meant convey information unbiased way domains academia science comprehension considered first retention finally appeal however infographic used commercial purposes appeal becomes important


followed retention comprehension infographics used editorial purposes newspaper appeal important followed first comprehension retention ref name ref however appeal retention practice put together aid comprehensible layout design recently attempt study effect layout infographic comprehension viewers new neural network based cognitive load estimation method applied different types common layouts infographic design varieties factors

Applied science
Transportation
Infographics


listed taken consideration designing infographics highly efficient effective way convey large amounts information visual manner data visualization data visualizations often used infographics may make entire infographic many types visualizations used represent set data therefore crucial identify appropriate visualization data set infographic taking consideration graphical features position size shape color primarily five types visualization categories


time series data statistical distributions maps hierarchies networking ref name visualizationzoo ref time series stacked graph showing changing distribution processor families top supercomputers since time series data one common forms data visualization documents sets values time examples graphics category include index charts stacked graphs small multiples horizon graphs index charts ideal use raw values less important relative changes interactive line chart shows percentage changes collection time series data based selected index point


example stock investors could use less concerned specific price concerned rate growth stacked graphs area charts stacked top depict aggregate patterns allow viewers see overall patterns individual patterns however support negative numbers make difficult accurately interpret trends alternative stacked graphs small multiples instead stacking area chart series individually shown overall trends sector easily interpreted horizon graphs


space efficient method increase data density time series preserving resolution ref name visualizationzoo statistical histogram graph showing numerical distribution petal lengths cm recorded iris flower data set statistical distributions reveal trends based numbers distributed common examples include histograms box whisker plots convey statistical features mean median outliers addition common infographics alternatives include stem leaf plots q q plots scatter plot matrices splom parallel coordinates assessing collection numbers focusing frequency distribution stem leaf plots helpful numbers


binned based first significant digit within stack binned based second significant digit hand q q plots compare two probability distributions graphing quantiles allows viewer see plot values similar two linearly related splom technique represents relationships among multiple variables uses multiple scatter plots represent pairwise relation among variables another statistical distribution approach visualize multivariate data parallel coordinates rather graphing every pair variables two dimensions


data repeatedly plotted parallel axis corresponding points connected line advantage parallel coordinates relatively compact allowing many variables shown simultaneously ref name visualizationzoo maps cartogram showing final electoral results us presidential election maps natural way represent geographical data time space depicted use flow maps line strokes used various widths colors help encode information choropleth maps encode data color geographical region also commonly


used graduated symbol maps another method represent geographical data alternative choropleth map use symbols pie charts area map map allows dimensions represented using various shapes sizes colors cartograms hand completely distort shape region directly encode data variable instead using geographic map regions redrawn proportionally data example region represented circle size color directly proportional information population size ref


name visualizationzoo hierarchies treemap showing exports uganda many data sets spatial entities countries common structures governments organized natural hierarchies node link diagrams adjacency diagrams enclosure diagrams types infographics effectively communicate hierarchical data node link diagrams popular method due tidy space efficient results node link diagram similar tree node branches multiple sub sections alternative adjacency diagrams space filling variant node link diagram instead drawing link


method makes hard view path nodes line crossings large highly connected network quickly become cluttered ref name visualizationzoo visualizations effectively used many modern infographics combine multiple types one graphic along features illustrations text modern infographics even contain data visualization instead simply colorful succinct ways present knowledge fifty three percent viewed infographics infographic sharing site visually


contain actual data tools infographics created hand using simple everyday tools graph paper pencils markers rulers however today often created using computer software often faster easier created general illustration software diagrams manually created drawn using software downloaded desktop used online templates used get users started diagrams additionally software allows users collaborate diagrams real time internet also numerous tools


create specific types visualizations creating visualization based embedded data photos user 's smartphone users create infographic resume picture digital life see also picture worth thousand words argument map charts digital dashboard data presentation architecture data visualization edugraphic graphic design graphic image development graphic organizers information design list information graphics software scientific visualization statistical graphics technical illustration isotype picture language timeline visualization graphic news illustrated maestro concept family tree references reading heiner


benking requisite inquiry time line computer graphics infographics http benkingde infographics see https independentacademiaedu heinerbenking papers moglichkeiten und grenzen der datenprasentation durch computergrafik im umweltbereich computer graphics environmental sector possibilities limitations data visualisation citation chapter technical possibilities human potentials capacities picture words miles equal books sullivan peter ''newspaper graphics'' ifra darmstadt jacques bertin ''semiology graphics'' madison wi university wisconsin press translation william berg ''semiologie graphique'' paris mouton gauthier villars william cleveland ''the elements graphing data'' summit nj hobart press heiner benking http wwwbenkingde ceptualinstitute educationhtm visual access strategies


multi dimensional objects issues http benkingde ceptualinstitute theseshtm view life flat wfsf turku https booksgooglecom booksid rgtwaacaaj faw report tr william cleveland ''visualizing data'' summit nj hobart press sullivan peter ''information graphics colour'' ifra darmstadt john emerson http backspacecom notes introduction information designphp visualizing information advocacy introduction information design new york osi paul lewi http wwwdatascopebe soghtm speaking graphics robert l harris ''information graphics comprehensive illustrated reference'' oxford university press eric k meyer ''designing infographics'' hayden books edward r tufte ''the visual display quantitative information'' edition cheshire ct graphics press edward r


tufte ''envisioning information'' cheshire ct graphics press edward r tufte ''visual explanations images quantities evidence narrative'' cheshire edward r tufte ''beautiful evidence cheshire'' ct graphics press john wilder tukey ''exploratory data analysis'' addison wesley veszelszki gnes https wwwacademiaedu veszelszki c gnes information visualization infographics linguistic point view vl information visualization infographics linguistic point view benedek andr ny ri krist f eds ''the power image'' series visual learning vol frankfurt peter lang pp nbsp sandra rendgen julius wiedemann ''information graphics'' taschen publishing jason lankow josh ritchie ross crooks http wwwcolumnfivemediacom book ''infographics power visual storytelling'' wiley external links


https webarchiveorg web http wwwdatavisca milestones milestones history thematic cartography statistical graphics data visualization https wwwedwardtuftecom tufte visual display quantitative information illustration graphic design news design


sculpted bust depicting thucydides bc dubbed father scientific history copy copy th century bce greek work term '''historical method''' refers collection techniques guidelines historians use research write histories past secondary sources primary sources material evidence derived archaeology may drawn historian 's skill lies identifying sources evaluating relative authority combining testimony appropriately order construct accurate reliable picture past events environments


''by whom'' produced authorship ''from pre existing material'' produced analysis ''in original form'' produced integrity ''what evidential value'' contents credibility first four known higher criticism fifth lower criticism together external criticism sixth final inquiry source called internal criticism together inquiry known source criticism r j shafer external criticism sometimes said function negative merely saving us using false evidence whereas internal criticism positive function


telling us use authenticated evidence noting documents accepted completely reliable louis gottschalk sets general rule particular document process establishing credibility separately undertaken regardless general credibility author author 's trustworthiness main may establish background probability consideration statement piece evidence extracted must weighed individually procedures contradictory sources bernheim langlois seignobos proposed seven step procedure source criticism history


sources agree event historians consider event proven however majority rule even sources relate events one way version prevail unless passes test critical textual analysis source whose account confirmed reference outside authorities parts trusted entirety impossible similarly confirm entire text two sources disagree particular point historian prefer source authority source created expert


eyewitness eyewitnesses general preferred especially circumstances ordinary observer could accurately reported transpired specifically deal facts known contemporaries two independently created sources agree matter reliability measurably enhanced two sources disagree means evaluation historians take source seems accord best common sense subsequent descriptions historical method outlined attempted overcome credulity built first step formulated


nineteenth century historiographers stating principles merely different reports harmonized instead statement found source may considered unreliable reliable stands core principles determining reliability following core principles source criticism formulated two scandinavian historians olden j rgensen thur n human sources may relics fingerprint narratives statement letter relics credible sources narratives given source may forged corrupted strong indications


originality source increase reliability closer source event purports describe one trust give accurate historical description actually happened eyewitness reliable testimony second hand reliable hearsay remove number ''independent'' sources contain message credibility message strongly increased tendency source motivation providing kind bias tendencies minimized supplemented opposite


motivations demonstrated witness source direct interest creating bias credibility message increased eyewitness evidence r j shafer offers checklist evaluating eyewitness testimony real meaning statement different literal meaning words used senses employed today statement meant ironic ie mean says well could author ''observe'' thing reports senses equal observation physical


location suitable sight hearing touch proper social ability observe understand language expertise required eg law military intimidated wife secret police ''how'' author report ''ability'' regarding ''ability'' report biased proper time reporting proper place reporting adequate recording instruments ''when'' report relation observation soon much later fifty years much


later eyewitnesses dead remain may forgotten relevant material author 's ''intention'' reporting ''whom'' report would audience likely require suggest distortion author additional clues intended veracity indifferent subject reported thus probably intending distortion make statements damaging thus probably seeking distort give incidental casual information almost certainly intended mislead statements seem inherently


improbable eg contrary human nature conflict know remember types information easier observe report others inner contradictions document louis gottschalk adds additional consideration even fact question may well known certain kinds statements ''both incidental probable'' degree error falsehood seems unlikely ancient inscription road tells us certain proconsul built road augustus princeps may doubted without


corroboration proconsul really built road would harder doubt road built principate augustus advertisement informs readers 'a b coffee may bought reliable grocer 's unusual price fifty cents pound' inferences advertisement may well doubted without corroboration except brand coffee market called 'a b coffee' indirect witnesses garraghan says information comes indirect witnesses people present


upon secondary witness may means knowledge cases secondary source historian 's 'original' source sense 'origin' knowledge insofar 'original' source accurate report primary testimony tests credibility would primary testimony gottschalk adds thus hearsay evidence would discarded historian would law court merely hearsay oral tradition gilbert garraghan maintains oral tradition may accepted


satisfies either two broad conditions six particular conditions follows ''broad conditions stated'' tradition supported unbroken series witnesses reaching immediate first reporter fact living mediate witness take one first commit writing several parallel independent series witnesses testifying fact question ''particular conditions formulated'' tradition must report public event importance would necessarily known directly


challenged tradition nbsp ndash considered false nbsp ndash must made challenge methods verifying oral tradition may exist comparison evidence archaeological remains recent evidence concerning potential reliability unreliability oral tradition come fieldwork west africa eastern europe anonymous sources historians allow use anonymous texts establish historical facts synthesis historical reasoning individual pieces information assessed context hypotheses formed established historical reasoning argument best


explanation c behan mccullagh lays seven conditions successful argument best explanation statement together statements already held true must imply yet statements describing present observable data henceforth call first statement 'the hypothesis' statements describing observable data 'observation statements' hypothesis must ''greater explanatory scope'' incompatible hypothesis subject must imply greater variety observation statements hypothesis must ''of greater explanatory power'' incompatible hypothesis subject


past already implied extent existing beliefs must ' 'disconfirmed fewer accepted beliefs'' incompatible hypothesis subject conjoined accepted truths must imply fewer observation statements statements believed false must exceed incompatible hypotheses subject much characteristics little chance incompatible hypothesis investigation soon exceeding respects mccullagh sums scope strength explanation


great explains large number variety facts many competing explanation likely true statistical inference mccullagh states form argument follows probability degree ''p'' sub sub whatever b probable degree ''p'' sub sub therefore relative premises probable degree ''p'' sub sub nbsp nbsp ''p'' sub sub b mccullagh gives example thousands cases letters vslm appearing end latin inscription


sub mccullagh says argument analogy sound either covert statistical syllogism better expressed argument best explanation statistical syllogism established sufficient number variety instances generalization otherwise argument may invalid properties n unrelated property ''n'' nbsp nbsp unless property ''n'' nbsp nbsp best explanation properties nbsp ''n'' analogy therefore uncontroversial used suggest hypotheses conclusive argument see also antiquarian archaeology archival research auxiliary sciences


dorsey press illinois external links http cliopoliticalblogspotcom introduction historical html introduction historical method marc comtois http wwwgalilean libraryorg int html philosophy history paul newall http straylightlawcornelledu rules fre ruleshtm federal rules evidence united states law historiography methodology


expanded genetic code incorporation non proteinogenic amino acids proteins difference xeno exo astro biology astro means star exo means outside exo astrobiology deal search naturally evolved life universe mostly planets circumstellar habitable zone also occasionally referred xenobiology ref name markusschmidteu whereas astrobiologists concerned detection analysis life elsewhere universe xenobiology attempts design forms life different biochemistry different genetic code planet earth ref name markusschmidteu aims xenobiology


potential reveal fundamental knowledge biology origin life order better understand origin life necessary know life evolved seemingly via early rna world dna rna protein system nearly universal genetic code evolutionary accident constraints ruled types chemistries testing alternative biochemical primordial soups expected better understand principles gave rise life know xenobiology approach develop industrial production systems novel capabilities means biopolymer


cells another reason xb could improve production processes lies possibility reduce risk virus bacteriophage contamination cultivations since xb cells would longer provide suitable host cells rendering resistant approach called semantic containment xenobiology offers option design genetic firewall novel biocontainment system may help strengthen diversify current bio containment approaches ref name markusschmidteu one concern traditional genetic engineering biotechnology horizontal gene transfer environment possible risks human health one major idea xb design alternative genetic codes


biochemistries horizontal gene transfer longer possible additionally alternative biochemistry also allows new synthetic auxotrophies idea create orthogonal biological system would incompatible natural genetic systems scientific approach xenobiology aim design construct biological systems differ natural counterparts one fundamental levels ideally new nature organisms would different every possible biochemical aspect exhibiting different genetic code long term goal construct cell would store genetic information dna alternative


informational polymer consisting xeno nucleic acids xna different base pairs using non canonical amino acids altered genetic code far cells constructed incorporate one two features xeno nucleic acids xna originally research alternative forms dna driven question life evolved earth rna dna selected chemical evolution possible nucleic acid structures two hypotheses selection rna dna life 's backbone either favored life earth 's conditions coincidentally


present pre life chemistry continue used ref name ref systematic experimental studies aiming diversification chemical structure nucleic acids resulted completely novel informational biopolymers far number xnas new chemical backbones leaving group dna synthesized ref name referencea eg hexose nucleic acid hna threose nucleic acid tna glycol nucleic acid gna cyclohexenyl nucleic acid cena incorporation xna plasmid involving hna codons accomplished already xna used vivo e coli template dna synthesis


study found several different kinds xna notably fana ' fluoroarabino nucleic acids well hna cena ana arabino nucleic acids could used cleave rna post transcriptional rna processing acting xna enzymes hence name xnazymes fana xnazymes also showed ability ligate dna rna xna substrates ref name although xnazyme studies still preliminary study step direction searching synthetic circuit components efficient containing dna rna counterparts regulate dna rna xna substrates expanding


genetic alphabet xnas modified backbones experiments target replacement enlargement genetic alphabet dna unnatural base pairs example dna designed instead four standard bases g c six bases g c two new ones p z z stands amino nitro l' p ' deoxyribofuranosyl h pyridone p stands amino beta ' deoxyribofuranosyl imidazo triazin h systematic study leconte et al tested viability candidate bases yielding potentially base pairs possible incorporation dna hirao et


al developed unnatural base pair amino thienyl purine pyridine one functions ''in vitro'' transcription translation toward genetic code protein synthesis containing non standard amino acid created thienyl imidazo b pyridine ds pyrrole carbaldehyde pa third base pair replication transcription afterward ds aminohexanamido propynyl nitropyrrole px discovered high fidelity pair pcr amplification applied ds px pair dna aptamer generation ''in vitro'' selection selex demonstrated genetic alphabet expansion significantly augment dna aptamer affinities target proteins may researchers


announced successfully introduced two new artificial nucleotides bacterial dna alongside four naturally occurring nucleotides including individual artificial nucleotides culture media able passage bacteria times create mrna proteins able use artificial nucleotides ref name nyt ref ref name nature ref ref name natj ref novel polymerases neither xna unnatural bases recognized natural polymerases one major challenges find create novel types polymerases able replicate new nature constructs one case modified variant hiv reverse transcriptase


code expanded one codon thus liberated old function fully reassigned non canonical amino acid ncaa code expansion methods laborious implement short cuts applied code engineering example bacteria auxotrophic specific amino acids point experiment fed isostructural analogues instead canonical amino acids auxotrophic situation canonical amino acid residues native proteins substituted ncaas even insertion multiple different ncaas


university reported replacement tag stop codons present genome ''e coli'' synonymous taa codons thereby demonstrating massive substitutions combined higher order strains without lethal effects following success genome wide codon replacement authors continued achieved reprogramming codons throughout genome directly affecting essential genes even radical change genetic code change triplet codon quadruplet even pentaplet codon pioneered sisido cell free systems schultz bacteria finally non natural base pairs


used introduce novel amino acid proteins directed evolution goal substituting dna xna may also reached another route namely engineering environment instead genetic modules approach successfully demonstrated marli mutzel production ''e coli'' strain whose dna composed standard c g nucleotides synthetic thymine analogue chlorouracil instead thymine corresponding positions sequence cells dependent externally supplied chlorouracil growth otherwise look behave


normal ''e coli'' cells however currently yet fully auxotrophic xeno base since still growing thymine supplied medium biosafety xenobiological systems designed convey orthogonality natural biological systems still hypothetical organism uses xna different base pairs polymerases altered genetic code hardly able interact natural forms life genetic level thus xenobiological organisms represent genetic enclave cannot exchange information natural cells altering genetic machinery cell leads semantic


containment analogy information processing safety concept termed genetic firewall ref name markusschmidteu concept genetic firewall seems overcome number limitations previous safety systems first experimental evidence theoretical concept genetic firewall achieved construction genomically recoded organism gro gro known uag stop codons ecoli replaced uaa codons allowed deletion release factor reassignment uag translation function gro exhibited increased resistance bacteriophage thus showing


alternative genetic codes reduce genetic compatibility gro however still similar natural parent cannot regarded genetic firewall possibility reassigning function large number triplets opens perspective strains combine xna novel base pairs new genetic codes etc cannot exchange information natural biological world regardless changes leading semantic containment mechanism new organisms novel biochemical systems still undergo toxicological screening xna novel proteins etc might represent novel toxins allergic potential


needs assessed governance regulatory issues xenobiology might challenge regulatory framework currently laws directives deal genetically modified organisms directly mention chemically genomically modified organisms taking account real xenobiology organisms expected next years policy makers time hand prepare upcoming governance challenge since following groups picked topic developing governance issue policy advisers us four national biosafety boards europe european molecular biology organisation european commission 's


scientific committee emerging newly identified health risks scenihr three opinions definition risk assessment methodologies safety aspects risks environment biodiversity related synthetic biology research priorities field synthetic biology see also auxotrophy biological dark matter body plan directed evolution expanded genetic code foldamer hachimoji dna hypothetical types biochemistry life definitions nucleic acid analogue purple earth hypothesis rna world shadow biosphere references external links http xb genoacom xb first conference xenobiology may genoa italy http wwwxb berlincom xb second conference xenobiology may


berlin germany bioinformatics biotechnology emerging technologies synthetic biology


'''interlinguistics''' science planned languages existed century specific branch linguistics study various aspects linguistic communication interlinguistics discipline formalized otto jespersen science ''interlanguages'' ie contact languages tailored international communication recent times object study interlinguistics put relation language planning collection strategies deliberately influence structure function living language framework interlanguages become subset planned languages ie extreme cases language planning

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Interlinguistics


interlinguistics first appeared branch studies devoted establishment norms auxiliary languages century long history understood different authors broadly interdisciplinary branch science includes various aspects communication language planning standardization multilingualism globalisation language policy translation sociolinguistics intercultural communication history language creation literature written planned languages international auxiliary languages auxlangs well constructed languages conlangs fictional artistic languages artlangs lingua francas pidgins creoles constructed languages internet topics added


etymology history hybrid term first coined french ''interlinguistique'' belgian esperantist jules meysmans main historical periods interlinguistics first pioneer era basis put forth secondly foundational era interlinguistics wars took place decide appropriate form auxiliary language thirdly school era independent interlinguistics schools formed different countries mainly germany hungary italy netherlands poland particular attention esperanto lastly current era language policy today interlinguistics tightly


amsterdam also chair interlinguistics esperanto field studies field interlinguistics concerned international planned languages also called 'constructed languages' 'auxiliary languages' 'artificial languages' esperanto relationship planned languages language planning increasingly undergraduate courses planned languages expanding embrace history languages planned international use also field imaginary fictional languages interlinguistics also concerned investigating ethnic international planned languages work lingua franca possibilities optimizing interlinguistic communication


term ''interlinguistics'' interpreted least two ways study ''interlinguae'' ie interlanguages serve interlinguistic communication confused interim languages language learners also came called interlanguages authors study phenomena observed ''inter linguae'' 'between languages' among interpretations first one far well established mario wandruszka second one mind term appears first used french ''interlinguistique'' jules meysmans text


concerning international auxiliary languages ref name jules meysmans une science nouvelle ''lingua internationale'' bruxelles nr ref became widely accepted subsequent address danish linguist otto jespersen nd international congress linguists according jespersen interlinguistics branch science language deals structure basic ideas languages view establishing norm interlanguages ''ie'' auxiliary languages destined oral written use people cannot make understood means mother tongues according


definition investigations useful optimizing interlinguistic communication central discipline purpose may develop new language intended international use use within multilingual country union research kind undertaken international delegation developed ido international auxiliary language association iala developed interlingua valter tauli considered interlinguistics subdiscipline language planning principles recommended language planning applied guided development national languages also liberally applicable constructed


many constructed languages applied practically noteworthy extent prosperous volap k johann martin schleyer esperanto ludwik lejzer zamenhof latino sine flexione giuseppe peano ido louis couturat occidental interlingue edgar de wahl interlingua iala alexander gode esperanto one still gathering considerable community active speakers today bliss symbols charles k bliss deserve also mentioned intended international communication found field application elsewhere namely aid persons lack


adequate ability using ordinary language motorical cognitive handicaps kinds interlanguages following table lists ''one'' representative type explicitly class wikitable spoken language spoken written language written language gestural language multimedial language '''spontaneous''' russenorsk others tok pisin stabilized pidgins classical chinese small used interlinguistically small plains indian sign language silbo gomero whistled languages '''constructed''' damin small interlinguistic small esperanto others bliss symbols pasigraphies gestuno small deaf small


solresol among constructed languages usual distinguish ''a priori languages'' ''a posteri languages'' latter based one often several source languages evident priori languages eg philosophical languages th century solresol logical languages th century loglan lojban spontaneously arisen interlanguages necessarily posteriori iconic using imaging imitating signs bibliography initiative klaus schubert detlev blanke 's book internationale plansprachen eine einf hrung international constructed languages introduction still


stages social movement '' 'social movement''' loosely organized effort large group people achieve particular goal typically social political one may carry resist undo social change type group action may involve individuals organizations definitions term slightly varied social movements described organizational structures strategies may empower oppressed populations mount effective challenges resist powerful advantaged elites ref name ref represent method social change

Social science
Sociology
Collective behavior
Social movements


bottom within nations ref name political science sociology developed variety theories empirical research social movements example research political science highlights relation popular movements formation new political parties well discussing function social movements relation agenda setting influence politics sociologists distinguish several types social movement examining things scope type change method work range time frame scholars argued modern western social movements became possible education wider dissemination


literature increased mobility labor due industrialization urbanization th century societies ref name w weinberg ref sometimes argued freedom expression education relative economic independence prevalent modern western culture responsible unprecedented number scope various contemporary social movements many social movements last hundred years grew like mau mau kenya oppose western colonialism social movements continue closely connected democratic political systems occasionally social movements involved democratizing nations often


flourished democratization past years become part popular global expression dissent ref name tilly ref modern movements often use technology internet mobilize people globally adapting communication trends common theme among successful movements ref name advocacy research beginning explore advocacy organizations linked social movements us ref name advocacy ref canada ref name obar ref use social media facilitate civic engagement collective action ref name buettner ref definitions mario diani argues nearly definitions share three criteria network informal interactions plurality individuals


groups organizations engaged political cultural conflict basis shared collective identity ref name diani ref sociologist charles tilly defines social movements series contentious performances displays campaigns ordinary people make collective claims others ref name tilly social movements major vehicle ordinary people 's participation public politics ref name tilly p ref argues three major elements social movement ref name '''campaigns''' sustained organized public effort making collective claims target authorities '''repertoire''' repertoire contention employment combinations among following


forms political action creation special purpose associations coalitions public meetings solemn processions vigils rallies demonstrations petition drives statements public media pamphleteering '''wunc displays''' participants' concerted public representation '''w'''orthiness '''u'''nity '''n'''umbers '''c'''ommitments part constituencies sidney tarrow defines social movement collective challenges elites authorities groups cultural codes people common purposes solidarity sustained interactions elites opponents authorities specifically distinguishes social movements political parties advocacy groups sociologists john mccarthy mayer zald define


mass social movement catalyzed around controversial political figure john wilkes editor paper ''the north briton'' wilkes vigorously attacked new administration lord bute peace terms new government accepted treaty paris end seven years' war charged seditious libel wilkes arrested issue general warrant move wilkes denounced unlawful lord chief justice eventually ruled wilkes favour result wilkes became figurehead growing movement popular sovereignty among


middle classes people began chanting wilkes liberty streets later period exile brought charges libel obscenity wilkes stood parliamentary seat middlesex support located wilkes imprisoned king 's bench prison may mass movement support emerged large demonstrations streets slogan liberty king stripped right sit parliament wilkes became alderman london activist group called ''society supporters


bill rights'' began aggressively promoting policies first ever sustained social movement involved public meetings demonstrations distribution pamphlets unprecedented scale mass petition march however movement careful cross line open rebellion tried rectify faults governance appeals existing legal precedents conceived extra parliamentary form agitation arrive consensual constitutional arrangement force influence social movement streets london compelled authorities


concede movement 's demands wilkes returned parliament general warrants declared unconstitutional press freedom extended coverage parliamentary debates gordon riots depicted painting john seymour lucas much larger movement anti catholic protest triggered papists act eliminated number penalties disabilities endured roman catholics england formed around lord george gordon became president protestant association association support leading calvinist religious figures including rowland hill erasmus middleton john


sugar boycott second great petition drive possibly upheaval surrounding french american revolutions opinion eugene black association made possible extension politically effective public modern extra parliamentary political organization product late eighteenth century history age reform cannot written without growth spread great chartist meeting kennington common london britain victory napoleonic wars entered period social upheaval characterised growing maturity


use social movements special interest associations chartism first mass movement growing working class world campaigned political reform people 's charter manifesto called universal suffrage implementation secret ballot amongst things term social movements introduced german sociologist lorenz von stein book ''socialist communist movements since third french revolution '' introduced term social movement scholarly discussions actually depicting way political


movements fighting social rights understood welfare rights martin luther king jr leader civil rights movement one famous social movements th century labor movement socialist movement late th century seen prototypical social movements leading formation communist social democratic parties organisations tendencies seen poorer countries pressure reform continued example russia russian revolution resulting collapse czarist regime around end


first world war britain victory second world war entered period radical reform change post war period feminism gay rights movement peace movement civil rights movement anti nuclear movement environmental movement emerged often dubbed new social movements led among things formation green parties organisations influenced new left find end emergence new global social movement anti globalization movement social movement scholars posit rapid pace globalization potential


emergence new ''type'' social movement latent make analogy national movements past describe termed global citizens movement key processes several key processes lie behind history social movements urbanization led larger settlements people similar goals could find gather organize facilitated social interaction scores people urban areas early social movements first appeared similarly process industrialization gathered large masses workers region explains many early social


movements addressed matters economic wellbeing important worker class many social movements created universities process mass education brought many people together development communication technologies creation activities social movements became easier printed pamphlets circulating th century coffeehouses newspapers internet tools became important factors growth social movements finally spread democracy political rights like freedom speech made creation functioning social movements much easier mass mobilization nascent social


movements often fail achieve objectives fail mobilize sufficient numbers people srdja popovic author blueprint revolution spokesperson otpor says movements succeed address issues people actually care 's unrealistic expect people care already care attempt make bound fail activists often make mistake trying convince people address issues mobilization strategy aimed large scale change often begins action small issue concerns many people


movements may aim change custom moral norms condemnation pornography proliferation religion radical movement movements dedicated changing value systems fundamental way examples would include civil rights movement demanded full civil rights equality law americans regardless race polish solidarity ''solidarno '' movement demanded transformation stalinist political economic system democracy south african shack dwellers' movement abahlali basemjondolo demands full inclusion shack dwellers life cities type


change political system groups transform join political party many remain outside reformist party political system individual focused movements focused affecting individuals religious movements would fall category methods work peaceful movements various movements use nonviolent means protest part campaign nonviolent resistance also often called civil resistance american civil rights movement polish solidarity movement nonviolent civil disobedience orientated wing indian independence movement would fall category violent movements various movements resort


violence usually armed extreme cases take form paramilitary terrorist organization examples rote armee fraktion al qaida old new old movements movements change existed many centuries oldest recognized movements dating late th th centuries fought specific social groups working class peasants whites aristocrats protestants men usually centered around materialistic goals like improving standard living example political autonomy working class new movements movements became dominant


second half th century notable examples include american civil rights movement second wave feminism gay rights movement environmentalism conservation efforts opposition mass surveillance etc usually centered around issues go beyond separate class range global movements social movements global transnational objectives goals movements first marx bakunin met second third fourth internationals world social forum peoples' global action anarchist movement seek change society global level local movements social movements


local scope focused local regional objectives protecting specific natural area lobbying lowering tolls certain motorway preserving building demolished gentrification turning social center identification supporters ref difficulty scholarship movements neither insiders movement outsiders apply consistent labels even descriptive phrases unless single leader formal system membership agreements activists typically use diverse labels descriptive phrases require scholars


discern referring similar ideas declare similar goals adopt similar programs action use similar methods great differences way done recognize member allied group insiders often exaggerate level support considering people supporters whose level activity support weak also reject outsiders might consider supporters discredit cause even seen adversaries outsiders supporters may tend either underestimate overestimate


level support activity elements movement including excluding insiders would exclude include often outsiders rather insiders apply identifying labels movement insiders may may adopt use self identify example label levellers political movement th century england applied antagonists term disparagement yet admirers movement aims later came use term term known history caution


must always exercised discussion amorphous phenomena movements distinguish views insiders outsiders supporters antagonists may purposes agendas characterization mischaracterization dynamics social movements stages social movements social movements life cycle created grow achieve successes failures eventually dissolve cease exist likely evolve time place friendly social movements hence evident symbiosis th century proliferation


ideas like individual rights freedom speech civil disobedience social movements occur liberal authoritarian societies different forms new movements activated wish change social customs ethics values oppress certain communities birth social movement needs sociologist neil smelser calls ''initiating event'' particular individual event begin chain reaction events given society leading creation social movement root event must result common discontent among community hence making


''emergence'' first step social movement discontent act chain links common people together share experiences feelings oppression within stage social movements preliminary little organization instead stage thought widespread discontent macionis hopper emergence prior sort organized resistance condition society jonathan christiansen 's essay four stages social movement dissects historical sociology stage affects whole movement civil rights


movement 's early stages example public display protest utilized push movement next stages brown v board education supreme court decision outlawed segregation public schools following arrest rosa parks montgomery alabama refusing comply segregation laws city buses giving bus seat white man american civil rights movement would proceed next stage coalescence ref name ref impact black woman rosa parks riding


whites section bus although acting alone spontaneously typically activist leaders lay groundwork behind scenes interventions designed spark movement leads coalesce common dilemma source oppression pinned allowing organizations appearance public eye established polish solidarity movement eventually toppled communist regimes eastern europe developed trade union activist anna walentynowicz fired work south african shack dwellers' movement abahlali basemjondolo grew road blockade response


sudden selling small piece land promised housing developer event also described ''volcanic model'' social movement often created large number people realize others sharing value desire particular social change third stage bureaucratization movements must become organized centered around systematic model set system going construct must formal people taking specific roles responsibilities phase political power


greater previous stages may regular access political elites ref name stage one organization may take another one order obtain greater status formal alliance 'taking over' may positive negative move organizations ella baker activist played role naacp proposed students student movement start organization becomes known sncc student nonviolent coordinating committee students could join forces sclc already existing


organization would poor bureaucratizing decision would succumb old ideologies new progressive ideas challenge prior authority crucial social change declining social movement necessarily mean failure multiple routes movement may take proceeding decline success movement would result permanent changes within society government would result loss need protest failure often result incapability keep common focus work towards goal mind


failure social movements due organizational strategic failings common many organizations route would result gradual breaking organization stages movement co optation results people groups integrated shift away social movement 's initial concerns values repression another example movement slowly wiped away public platform means outside force usually government last route declining going mainstream generally perceived overall success goals


movement taken society part daily life making 'social norm' example birth control still greatly debated topic government level accepted social life common thing exists important recognize though movements may disintegrate cease active impact social realm success way sparks notion new generations possibility organize make change social movement theories sociologists developed several theories


related social movements kendall better known approaches outlined chronologically include marxist theory collective behavior collective action theories relative deprivation theory value added theory resource mobilization political process theory framing theory closely related social constructionist theory new social movement theory deprivation theory deprivation theory argues social movements foundations among people feel deprived good resource according approach individuals lacking good service comfort likely organize social movement improve defend


conditions two significant problems theory first since people feel deprived one level another almost time theory hard time explaining groups form social movements people also deprived second reasoning behind theory circular often evidence deprivation social movement deprivation claimed cause evidence movement reasoning circular mass society theory mass society theory argues social movements made individuals


lack income lack quality education drives individuals commit crime structural conduciveness people come believe society problems structural strain people experience deprivation growth spread solution solution problems people experiencing proposed spreads precipitating factors discontent usually requires catalyst often specific event turn social movement lack social control entity changed must least somewhat open change social movement


quickly powerfully repressed may never materialize mobilization actual organizing active component movement people needs done theory also subject circular reasoning incorporates least part deprivation theory relies upon social structural strain underlying motivation social movement activism however social movement activism like case deprivation theory often indication strain deprivation resource mobilization theory resource mobilization theory emphasizes importance resources social movement development


success resources understood include knowledge money media labor solidarity legitimacy internal external support power elite theory argues social movements develop individuals grievances able mobilize sufficient resources take actionthe emphasis resources offers explanation discontented deprived individuals able organize others ref name mccarthyzald ref contrast earlier collective behavior perspectives social movements emphasized role exceptional levels deprivation grievance social strain motivating mass protest resource mobilization perspectives hold always enough discontent society supply


grass roots support movement movement effectively organized disposal power resources established elite group ref name turnerkillian ref movement emergence contingent upon aggregation resources social movement entrepreneurs movement organizations use resources turn collective dissent political pressure ref name mccarthyzald members recruited networks commitment maintained building collective identity interpersonal relationships resource mobilization theory views social movement activity politics means rational strategic effort ordinary people change society politics ref name gamson ref


form resources shapes activities movement eg access tv station result extensive use tv media movements develop contingent ''opportunity structures'' influence efforts mobilize movement 's response opportunity structures depends movement 's organization resources critics theory argue much emphasis resources especially financial resources movements effective without influx money dependent upon movement members time labor eg civil rights movement us political


feel serves motivation movement organization photo taken us presidential inauguration protest organizational strength falls inline resource mobilization theory arguing order social movement organize must strong leadership sufficient resources political opportunity refers receptivity vulnerability existing political system challenge vulnerability result following combination thereof growth political pluralism decline effectiveness repression elite disunity leading factions internally fragmented broadening access institutional participation political processes


support organized opposition elites one advantages political process theory addresses issue timing emergence social movements groups may insurgent consciousness resources mobilize political opportunities closed success theory argues three components important critics political process theory resource mobilization theory point neither theory discusses movement culture great degree presented culture theorists opportunity expound importance culture one advance


political process theory ''political mediation model'' outlines way political context facing movement actors intersects strategic choices movements make additional strength model look outcomes social movements terms success failure also terms consequences whether intentional unintentional positive negative terms collective benefits framing perspective reflecting cultural turn social sciences humanities broadly recent strains social movement theory research add largely


occur explicitly problematized within approaches framing perspective brought shared understandings forefront attempt understand movement creation existence eg arguing order social movements successfully mobilize individuals must develop ''injustice frame'' injustice frame collection ideas symbols illustrate significant problem well movement alleviate like picture frame issue frame marks part world like building frame holds


things together provides coherence array symbols images arguments linking underlying organizing idea suggests essential consequences values stake see frame directly infer presence characteristic expressions language frame gives advantage certain ways talking thinking places others picture important characteristics injustice frames include facts take meaning embedded frames render relevant significant irrelevant trivial people carry around


presented choice join join movement believes movement succeed without avoid participation movement save resources still reap benefits ''free riding'' significant problem social movement theory explain people join movements believe movement succeed without contribution culture theory argues conjunction social networks important contact tool injustice frame provide motivation people contribute movement framing processes includes three separate components diagnostic frame


movement organization frames problem critiquing prognostic frame movement organization frames desirable solution problem motivational frame movement organization frames call arms suggesting encouraging people take action solve problem social movement social networking ten years social movement groups using internet accomplish organizational goals argued internet helps increase speed reach effectiveness social movement related communication well mobilization efforts result


suggested internet positive impact social movements general ref name obar systematic literature review buettner buettner analyzed role twitter wide range social movements wikileaks moldova austria student protest israel gaza iran green revolution toronto g venezuela germany stuttgart egypt england us occupy movement spain indignados greece aganaktismenoi movements italy wisconsin labor protests israel hamas brazil vinegar turkey ref name buettner many discussions generated recently topic


social networking effect may play formation mobilization social movement example emergence coffee party first appeared social networking site facebook party continued gather membership support site file sharing sites flickr iranian election protests also demonstrated social networking sites making mobilization large numbers people quicker easier iranians able organize speak election mahmoud ahmadinejad using sites twitter facebook turn prompted


widespread government censorship web social networking sites sociological study social movements quite new traditional view movements often perceived chaotic disorganized treating activism threat social order activism experienced shuffled new world opinion subject models introduced understand organizational structural powers embedded social movements see also list social movements civil resistance counterculture countermovement moral shock new social movements nonviolent resistance political movement reform movement revolutionary movement social defence


social equality teaching social justice union organizer online social movements references reading david f aberle peyote religion among navaho chicago aldine james alfred aho politics righteousness idaho christian patriotism washington university washington press paul almeida social movements structure collective mobilization berkeley university california press herbert g blumer collective behavior alfred mcclung lee ed principles sociology third edition new york barnes noble books pp nbsp mark chaves ordaining women culture conflict religious organizations cambridge harvard university press graeme chesters ian welsh ''complexity


social movements multitudes edge chaos'' routledge mario diani doug mcadam ''social movements networks'' oxford university press susan eckstei ed ''power popular protest latin american social movements'' updated edition university california press anthony giddens nation state violence cambridge england polity press jeff goodwin james jasper ''the social movements reader'' malden massachusetts wiley blackwell angelique haugerud ''no billionaire left behind satirical activism america'' stanford university press james jasper ''the art moral protest culture biography creativity social movements'' chicago university


chicago press james jasper ''protest cultural introduction social movements'' polity press diana kendall ''sociology times'' thomson wadsworth william kornhauser politics mass society new york free press donna maurer vegetarianism movement moment philadelphia temple university press armand l mauss social problems social movements philadelphia lippincott denton e morrison notes toward theory relative deprivation social movements social change louis e genevie ed collective behavior social movements itasca ill peacock pp nbsp immanuel ness ed ''encyclopedia american social movements'' https wwwresearchgatenet publication vectors contestation social movements party systems ecuador colombia jeff


pugh vectors contestation social movements party systems ecuador colombia ''latin american essays'' xxi adam roberts timothy garton ash eds ''civil resistance power politics experience non violent action gandhi present'' oxford oxford university press https booksgooglecom booksid bxoqkrce uuc dq civil resistance power politics source gbs navlinks neil j smelser theory collective behavior new york free press david snow sarah soule hanspeter kriesi ed blackwell companion social movements blackwell suzanne staggenborg ''social movements'' oxford university press sidney tarrow ''power movement collective action social movements politics'' cambridge university press charles


civil rights movement university chicago press external links '' http wwwmobilizationsdsuedu mobilization '' journal '' http wwwinterfacejournalnet interface journal social movements '' comparative politics social change


steam liquid water two different forms chemical pure substance water '''chemical substance''' form matter constant chemical composition characteristic properties references add chemical substance cannot separated constituent elements physical separation methods ie without breaking chemical bonds chemical substances simple substances ref name scerri ref chemical compounds alloys chemical elements may may included definition depending expert viewpoint chemical substances often called 'pure' set apart mixtures common example chemical substance pure

Applied science
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Military weapons
Chemical


others means chemical reactions definition colors single chemical nile red different solvents visible uv light showing chemical interacts dynamically solvent environment chemical substance may well defined material definite chemical composition introductory general chemistry textbook ref name hillpetruccip hill j w petrucci r h mccreary w perry ''general chemistry'' th ed p pearson prentice hall upper saddle river new jersey ref according definition chemical substance either pure chemical element pure chemical compound


exceptions definition pure substance also defined form matter definite composition distinct properties chemical substance index published cas also includes several alloys uncertain composition non stoichiometric compounds special case inorganic chemistry violates law constant composition sometimes difficult draw line mixture compound case palladium hydride broader definitions chemicals chemical substances found example term 'chemical substance' means organic inorganic


substance particular molecular identity including combination substances occurring whole part result chemical reaction occurring nature geology substances uniform composition called minerals physical mixtures aggregates several minerals different substances defined rocks many minerals however mutually dissolve solid solutions single rock uniform substance despite mixture stoichiometric terms feldspars common example anorthoclase alkali aluminum silicate alkali metal interchangeably either sodium potassium law


polymers almost always appear mixtures molecules multiple molar masses could considered separate chemical substance however polymer may defined known precursor reaction molar mass distribution example polyethylene mixture long chains ch sub sub repeating units generally sold several molar mass distributions ldpe mdpe hdpe uhmwpe history concept chemical substance became firmly established late eighteenth century work chemist joseph proust composition pure chemical compounds basic


copper carbonate ref name hill et al p hill j w petrucci r h mccreary w perry ''general chemistry'' th ed p pearson prentice hall upper saddle river new jersey ref deduced samples compound composition samples proportions mass elements present compound known law constant composition later advancement methods chemical synthesis particularly realm organic chemistry discovery many chemical elements new techniques realm analytical chemistry used


isolation purification elements compounds chemicals led establishment modern chemistry concept defined found chemistry textbooks however controversies regarding definition mainly large number chemical substances reported chemistry literature need indexed isomerism caused much consternation early researchers since isomers exactly composition differ configuration arrangement atoms example much speculation chemical identity benzene correct structure described friedrich august kekul likewise idea


stereoisomerism atoms rigid three dimensional structure thus form isomers differ three dimensional arrangement another crucial step understanding concept distinct chemical substances example tartaric acid three distinct isomers pair diastereomers one diastereomer forming two enantiomers chemical elements native sulfur crystals sulfur occurs naturally elemental sulfur sulfide sulfate minerals hydrogen sulfide element chemical substance made particular kind atom hence cannot broken transformed chemical reaction


different element though transmuted another element nuclear reaction atoms sample element number protons though may different isotopes differing numbers neutrons known elements stable change radioactive decay elements elements occur single chemical substance allotropes instance oxygen exists diatomic oxygen sub sub ozone sub sub majority elements


classified metals elements characteristic lustre iron copper gold metals typically conduct electricity heat well malleable ductile ref name hill et al pp hill j w petrucci r h mccreary w perry ''general chemistry'' th ed pp nbsp pearson prentice hall upper saddle river new jersey ref around dozen elements carbon nitrogen oxygen classified non metals non metals lack metallic properties described also high electronegativity tendency form negative ions certain elements silicon sometimes resemble metals sometimes


resemble non metals known metalloids chemical compounds potassium ferricyanide compound potassium iron carbon nitrogen although contains cyanide anions release nontoxic chemical compound chemical substance composed particular set atoms ions two elements combined one substance chemical reaction form chemical compound compounds substances substances compounds chemical compound either atoms bonded together molecules crystals atoms molecules ions form crystalline lattice


compounds based primarily carbon hydrogen atoms called organic compounds others called inorganic compounds compounds containing bonds carbon metal called organometallic compounds compounds components share electrons known covalent compounds compounds consisting oppositely charged ions known ionic compounds salts coordination complexes compounds dative bond keeps substance together without covalent ionic bond coordination complexes distinct substances distinct properties different simple mixture typically metal copper ion center


nonmetals atom nitrogen ammonia molecule oxygen water water molecule forms dative bond metal center eg tetraamminecopper ii sulfate cu nh sub sub sub sub sub sub h sub sub metal known metal center substance coordinates center called ligand however center need metal exemplified boron trifluoride etherate bf sub sub oet sub sub highly lewis acidic nonmetallic boron center takes role metal ligand bonds metal center multiple atoms complex called chelate


organic chemistry one chemical compound composition molecular weight generally called isomers isomers usually substantially different chemical properties often may isolated without spontaneously interconverting common example glucose vs fructose former aldehyde latter ketone interconversion requires either enzymatic acid base catalysis however tautomers exception isomerization occurs spontaneously ordinary conditions pure substance cannot isolated tautomers even identified spectroscopically even isolated special conditions


common example glucose open chain ring forms one cannot manufacture pure open chain glucose glucose spontaneously cyclizes hemiacetal form substances versus mixtures cranberry glass appearing homogeneous ''mixture'' consisting glass gold colloidal particles nm diameter giving red color matter consists various elements chemical compounds often intimately mixed together mixtures contain one chemical substance fixed composition principle separated component substances purely mechanical processes butter soil


wood common examples mixtures grey iron metal yellow sulfur chemical elements mixed together ratio form yellow grey mixture chemical process occurs material identified mixture fact sulfur iron separated mechanical process using magnet attract iron away sulfur contrast iron sulfur heated together certain ratio atom iron atom sulfur weight grams


mol iron grams nbsp mol sulfur chemical reaction takes place new substance formed compound iron ii sulfide chemical formula fes resulting compound properties chemical substance mixture iron ii sulfide distinct properties melting point solubility two elements cannot separated using normal mechanical processes magnet unable recover iron since metallic iron present compound chemicals versus chemical substances chemicals graduated cylinders beaker term


''chemical substance'' precise technical term synonymous ''chemical'' chemists word ''chemical'' used general usage english speaking world refer pure chemical substances mixtures often called ''compounds'' especially produced purified laboratory industrial process ref name chemical https enoxforddictionariescom definition chemical ''chemical'' oxford online dictionaries ref ref name rh words chemical substances fruits vegetables example naturally composed even growing wild called chemicals general usage countries require list ingredients products chemicals


listed industrially produced chemical substances word chemical also often used refer addictive narcotic mind altering drugs ref name chemical ref name rh https wwwinfopleasecom dictionary chemical random house unabridged dictionary ref within chemical industry manufactured chemicals chemical substances classified production volume bulk chemicals fine chemicals chemicals found research bulk chemicals produced large quantities usually highly optimized continuous processes relatively low price fine chemicals produced high cost small quantities special low volume applications biocides pharmaceuticals speciality chemicals


synthesis also purification eliminate products impurities involved synthesis last step production analysis batch lots chemicals order identify quantify percentages impurities buyer chemicals required purity analysis depends application higher tolerance impurities usually expected production bulk chemicals thus user chemical us might choose bulk technical grade higher amounts impurities much purer pharmaceutical grade labeled usp


united states pharmacopeia chemicals commercial legal sense may also include mixtures highly variable composition products made technical specification instead particular chemical substances example gasoline single chemical compound even particular mixture different gasolines different chemical compositions gasoline primarily defined source properties octane rating naming indexing every chemical substance one systematic names usually named according iupac rules naming alternative system used chemical abstracts service cas many compounds


also known common simpler names many predate systematic name example long known sugar glucose systematically named hydroxymethyl oxane tetrol natural products pharmaceuticals also given simpler names example mild pain killer naproxen common name chemical compound methoxy methyl naphthaleneacetic acid chemists frequently refer chemical compounds using chemical formulae molecular structure compound phenomenal growth number chemical compounds synthesized isolated reported scientific literature professional chemists around world enormous number


chemical compounds possible chemical combination known chemical elements feb million organic inorganic substances including million defined sequence biopolymers scientific literature registered public databases names many compounds often nontrivial hence easy remember cite accurately also difficult keep track literature several international organizations like iupac cas initiated steps make tasks easier cas provides abstracting services chemical literature provides numerical


identifier known cas registry number chemical substance reported chemical literature chemistry journals patents information compiled database popularly known chemical substances index computer friendly systems developed substance information smiles international chemical identifier inchi class wikitable identification typical chemical substance common name systematic name chemical formula chemical structure cas registry number inchi alcohol br ethyl alcohol ethanol c sub sub h sub sub oh center


centrifugal governor early proportional control mechanism '''control system''' manages commands directs regulates behavior devices systems using control loops range single home heating controller using thermostat controlling domestic boiler large industrial control systems used controlling processes machines continuously modulated control feedback controller used automatically control process operation control system compares value status process variable pv controlled desired value setpoint sp applies

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Control theory
Control systems


building temperature controller operates heating system constant time regardless temperature building closed loop control system control action controller dependent desired actual process variable case boiler analogy would utilise thermostat monitor building temperature feed back signal ensure controller output maintains building temperature close set thermostat closed loop controller feedback loop ensures controller exerts control action control process variable


speed pid algorithm controller restores actual speed desired speed optimum way minimal delay overshoot controlling power output vehicle 's engine control systems include sensing results trying achieve making use feedback adapt varying circumstances extent open loop control systems make use feedback run pre arranged ways logic control logic control systems industrial commercial machinery historically implemented interconnected electrical relays cam timers using ladder logic today


systems constructed microcontrollers specialized programmable logic controllers plcs notation ladder logic still use programming method plcs ref name kuphaldt ladder logic ref logic controllers may respond switches sensors cause machinery start stop various operations use actuators logic controllers used sequence mechanical operations many applications examples include elevators washing machines systems interrelated operations automatic sequential control system may trigger series mechanical actuators correct sequence perform task


example various electric pneumatic transducers may fold glue cardboard box fill product seal automatic packaging machine plc software written many different ways ladder diagrams sfc sequential function charts statement lists ref name ian brady plcs ref control control uses feedback controller switches abruptly two states simple bi metallic domestic thermostat described controller temperature room pv goes user setting sp heater switched another example pressure switch


air compressor pressure pv drops setpoint sp compressor powered refrigerators vacuum pumps contain similar mechanisms simple control systems like cheap effective linear control linear control systems use negative feedback produce control signal maintain controlled pv desired sp several types linear control systems different capabilities proportional control step responses second order system defined transfer function math h frac omega n zeta omega ns omega n math math zeta math damping ratio math omega n math undamped natural frequency proportional control type


linear feedback control system correction applied controlled variable proportional difference desired value sp measured value pv two classic mechanical examples toilet bowl float proportioning valve fly ball governor proportional control system complex control system simpler proportional integral derivative pid control system used instance automobile cruise control control work systems require high accuracy responsiveness effective rapid timely corrections responses proportional


control overcomes modulating manipulated variable mv control valve gain level avoids instability applies correction fast practicable applying optimum quantity proportional correction drawback proportional control cannot eliminate residual sp pv error requires error generate proportional output pi controller used overcome pi controller uses proportional term p remove gross error integral term eliminate residual offset error integrating error time


systems practical limits range mv example heater limit much heat produce valve open far adjustments gain simultaneously alter range error values mv limits width range units error variable therefore pv called ''proportional band'' pb furnace example controlling temperature industrial furnace usually better control opening fuel valve ''in proportion to''


current needs furnace helps avoid thermal shocks applies heat effectively low gains small corrective action applied errors detected system may safe stable may sluggish response changing conditions errors remain uncorrected relatively long periods time system overdamped proportional gain increased systems become responsive errors dealt quickly optimal value gain setting overall system said critically damped increases


loop gain beyond point lead oscillations pv system underdamped adjusting gain achieve critically damped behavior known ''tuning'' control system underdamped case furnace heats quickly setpoint reached stored heat within heater sub system walls furnace keep measured temperature rising beyond required rising setpoint temperature falls back eventually heat applied delay reheating heater sub system allows furnace temperature fall setpoint


cycle repeats temperature oscillations underdamped furnace control system produces undesirable critically damped system temperature approaches setpoint heat input begins reduced rate heating furnace time slow system avoids overshoot overshoot also avoided overdamped system overdamped system unnecessarily slow initially reach setpoint respond external changes system eg opening furnace door pid control block diagram pid controller effects varying pid parameters k sub p sub k sub sub k sub sub step response


system pure proportional controllers must operate residual error system though pi controllers eliminate error still sluggish produce oscillations pid controller addresses final shortcomings introducing derivative action retain stability responsiveness improved derivative action derivative concerned rate change error time measured variable approaches setpoint rapidly actuator backed early allow coast required level conversely measured value begins move rapidly away setpoint extra effort


applied proportion rapidity help move back control systems involving motion control heavy item like gun camera moving vehicle derivative action well tuned pid controller allow reach maintain setpoint better skilled human operators derivative action applied however lead oscillations integral action change response second order system step input varying ki values integral term magnifies effect long term steady state errors applying ever increasing effort error removed


example furnace working various temperatures heat applied bring furnace setpoint whatever reason integral action increasingly ''moves'' proportional band relative setpoint pv error reduced zero setpoint achieved ramp per minute controllers include option limit ramp per minute option helpful stabilizing small boilers mbtuh especially summer light loads utility boiler unit may required change load rate


much per minute iea coal online techniques possible filter pv error signal help reduce instability oscillations reducing response system undesirable frequencies many systems resonant frequency filtering frequency stronger overall feedback applied oscillation occurs making system responsive without shaking apart feedback systems combined cascade control one control loop applies control algorithms measured variable setpoint provides varying setpoint another


systems basically measurement fuzzy logic system partly true rules system written natural language translated fuzzy logic example design furnace would start temperature high reduce fuel furnace temperature low increase fuel furnace measurements real world temperature furnace ''fuzzified'' logic calculated arithmetic opposed boolean logic outputs ' 'de fuzzified'' control equipment robust fuzzy design


larger screens control panel hydraulic heat press machine range control system implementation compact controllers often dedicated software particular machine device distributed control systems industrial process control large physical plant logic systems feedback controllers usually implemented programmable logic controllers see also building automation coefficient diagram method control engineering control theory cybernetics distributed control system droop speed control education training electrical electronics engineers epics good regulator guidance navigation control hierarchical control system hvac control system industrial control system motion


control networked control system numerical control perceptual control theory pid controller process control process optimization programmable logic controller sampled data system scada vissim references external links https systemcontrolreadthedocsio en latest indexhtml systemcontrol create simulate hwil control loops python includes kalman filter lqg control among others http wwwunmannedaircraftorg f pat pdf semiautonomous flight direction reference unmannedaircraftorg http wwwmathworkscom products control control system toolbox design analysis control systems http wwwtrminternationalcom control systems manufacturer design manufacture control systems http referencewolframcom mathematica guide controlsystemshtml mathematica functions analysis design simulation control systems https githubcom mck sbs pyconsys python control system pyconsys create simulate control loops python ai setting pid parameters


control theory control engineering systems engineering systems theory automation


tbilisi public service hall building tbilisi georgia '''public service''' ref name mcgregor ref service intended serve members community public services include services provided government people living within jurisdiction either directly public sector agencies financing provision services private businesses voluntary organizations even family households though terminology may differ depending context public services undertaken behalf government 's residents interest citizens term associated social consensus usually expressed democratic elections

Applied science
Public administration
Public service


certain services available regardless income physical ability mental acuity examples services include fire brigade police air force paramedics see also public service broadcasting even public services neither publicly provided publicly financed usually subject regulation going beyond applying economic sectors social political reasons public policy ref name anderfuhren url https archive ouverteunigech unige ref made public 's interest motivations type public service sectors national bureau investigation nbi headquarters building tikkurila vantaa finland modern developed countries


term public services services general interest often includes courts electricity education emergency services environmental protection healthcare military public transportation public buildings social services telecommunications urban planning transportation infrastructure waste management water supply network trains public service implications public services constructed coordinated operated many ways forms include government agencies independent state funded institutes government coordinated organizations civil society militaries volunteers government employees government agencies profit oriented employees often motivated differently ref name studies work found contrasting results including higher levels effort ref


name ref fewer hours work survey uk found private sector hiring managers credit government experience much private sector experience public workers tend make less wages adjusting education although difference reduced benefits hours included ref name ref public servants intangible benefits increased job security high wages ref name need satisfaction sustainability study concluded public services associated higher human need satisfaction lower energy requirements contemporary forms economic growth linked opposite


service meet needs often referred uk ''commissioning'' ref name ots cabinet office office third sector https webarchivenationalarchivesgovuk http wwwcabinetofficegovuk media cabinetoffice third sector assets psd action planpdf partnership public services action plan third sector involvement published december accessed february ref commissioned services may delivered organisations public sector private sector third sector private third sector involved process commissioning usually linked process procurement determine provide services cost terms commissioning often seen cyclical


process ref name ots history governing bodies long provided core public services tradition keeping citizens secure organized military defence dates least four thousand years ago maintaining order local delegated authority originated least early warring states period th rd centuries bce ancient china institution prefectures control centrally appointed prefect historical evidence state provision dispute resolution legal justice system goes back least far ancient egypt primary public service ancient history involved ensuring general


favor gods theologically ceremonially correct state religion widespread provision public utilities public services developed countries usually began late nineteenth century often municipal development gas water services later governments began provide services electricity healthcare developed countries local national governments continue provide services biggest exceptions us uk private provision arguably proportionally significant nonetheless privately provided public services often strongly regulated example us public


utility commissions developing countries public services tend much less well developed example water services might available wealthy middle class political reasons service often subsidized reduces finance potentially available expansion poorer communities united nations sustainable development goal however global initiative aims influence provision public services infrastructure marginalized demographics nationalization privatization personalization group chilean 'damas de rojo' volunteers local hospital nationalization nationalization took following world wars first half


twentieth century parts europe central planning implemented belief would make production efficient many public services especially electricity fossil fuels public transport products era following second world war many countries also began implement universal health care expanded education funding guidance state privatization several ways privatize public services free market corporation may established sold private investors relinquishing government control altogether thus becomes private public service another option used nordic


countries establish corporation keep ownership voting power essentially hands government example finnish state owned kemira rest owned private investors share make government enterprise meant investors together would oppose state 's opinion order overturn state 's decisions shareholder 's meeting regulated corporation also acquire permits agreement fulfill certain public service duties private corporation runs natural monopoly


service environment story made five narratives people life experts human centred methods reveal lifestyle limited departments knowledge personalization tailored everyone need social care essence personalization improve person 's life personalization reduces costs see also ceep european centre enterprises public participation enterprises general economic interest certificate public convenience necessity good governance infrastructure labour relations public service convention right public services legislation odisha right public


services act new public management united nations public service awards un public service day universal basic services references external links http wwwmunicipalservicesprojectorg municipal services project http wwwworld psiorg public services international http wwwpsiruorg public services international research unit daniel chavez ed http wwwtniorg detail pubphtmlknow id beyond market future public services tni public services yearbook transnational institute public services international research unit psiru february http ceepeu european centre enterprises public participation enterprises general economic interest https wwwatsarkarinaukricom public sectorhtml indian public services https wwwgovermentjobsalertin government jobs alert political economy service


circulation model economic flows closed market economy model use natural resources generation waste like greenhouse gases included '''economic system''' '''economic order''' system production resource allocation distribution goods services within society given geographic area includes combination various institutions agencies entities decision making processes patterns consumption comprise economic structure given community economic system type social system mode production related concept

Social science
Economics
Economic systems


economic systems must confront solve four fundamental economic problems kinds quantities goods shall produced goods shall produced output distributed produce study economic systems includes various agencies institutions linked one another information flows social relations within system including property rights structure management analysis economic systems traditionally focused dichotomies comparisons market economies planned economies distinctions capitalism socialism subsequently categorization


economic systems expanded include topics models conform traditional dichotomy today dominant form economic organization world level based market oriented mixed economies economic system considered part social system hierarchically equal law system political system cultural often strong correlation certain ideologies political systems certain economic systems example consider meanings term communism many economic systems overlap various areas example term mixed economy


argued include elements various systems also various mutually exclusive hierarchical categorizations list economic systems resource based economy capitalism communism socialism feudalism distributism statism hydraulic despotism inclusive democracy market economy mercantilism mutualism network economy non property system palace economy participatory economy potlatch progressive utilization theory proutist economy proprietism social credit workers' self management academic field study economic systems category ''journal economic literature'' classification codes includes study systems one field cuts across comparative economic systems includes study


following aspects different systems planning coordination reform productive enterprises factor product markets prices population national income product expenditure money inflation international trade finance investment aid span class plainlinks span consumer economics welfare poverty performance prospects natural resources energy environment regional studies political economy legal institutions property rights main types capitalism capitalism generally features private ownership means production capital market economy coordination corporate capitalism refers capitalist marketplace characterized dominance hierarchical bureaucratic corporations mercantilism dominant model western europe


social corporatism social market economy also known ''soziale marktwirtschaft'' mixed capitalist new economic policy mixed socialist state capitalism socialist market economy socialist economy socialist economic systems feature social ownership means production subdivided coordinating mechanism planning markets planned socialist market socialist systems additionally socialism divided based property structures based public ownership worker consumer cooperatives common ownership ie non ownership communism hypothetical stage socialist development articulated karl marx second stage socialism


''critique gotha program'' whereby economic output distributed based need simply basis labor contribution original conception socialism involved substitution money unit calculation monetary prices whole calculation kind valuation based natural units business financial decisions replaced engineering technical criteria managing economy fundamentally meant socialism would operate different economic dynamics capitalism price system later models socialism developed neoclassical economists notably


oskar lange abba lerner based use notional prices derived trial error approach achieve market clearing prices part planning agency models socialism called market socialism included role markets money prices primary emphasis socialist planned economies coordinate production produce economic output directly satisfy economic demand opposed indirect mechanism profit system satisfying needs subordinate pursuit profit advance productive forces economy


efficient manner immune perceived systemic inefficiencies cyclical processes crisis overproduction production would subject needs society opposed ordered around capital accumulation pure socialist planned economy involves different processes resource allocation production means quantifying value use money would replaced different measure value accounting tool would embody accurate information object resource practice economic system former soviet union eastern bloc operated command economy featuring


makes decisions decisions might carried industrial councils government agency private owners economic system system production resource allocation exchange distribution goods services society given geographic area one view every economic system represents attempt solve three fundamental interdependent problems goods services shall produced quantities shall goods services produced resources technologies shall goods services produced


enjoy benefits goods services total product distributed among individuals groups society every economy thus system allocates resources exchange production distribution consumption system stabilized combination threat trust outcome institutional arrangements economic system possesses following institutions methods control factors means production may include ownership property rights means production therefore may give rise claims proceeds


production means production may owned privately state use held common decision making system determines eligible make decisions economic activities economic agents decision making powers enter binding contracts one another coordination mechanism determines information obtained used decision making two dominant forms coordination planning markets planning either decentralized centralized two coordination mechanisms mutually exclusive often co exist incentive system induces motivates economic


labelled command capitalism dirigisme likewise systems mix public cooperative ownership means production economic planning called socialist planned economies systems combine public cooperative ownership markets called market socialism perspectives build upon basic nomenclature take variables account class processes within economy leads economists categorize example soviet union 's economy state capitalism based analysis working class exploited party leadership instead looking nominal ownership perspective takes account


organizational form within economic enterprises capitalist economic system production carried private profit decisions regarding investment allocation factor inputs determined business owners factor markets means production primarily owned private enterprises decisions regarding production investment determined private owners capital markets capitalist systems range ''laissez faire'' minimal government regulation state enterprise regulated social market systems aims ameliorating market failures see economic intervention supplementing private marketplace social policies promote equal opportunities see


welfare state respectively socialist economic systems socialism production use carried decisions regarding use means production adjusted satisfy economic demand investment determined economic planning procedures wide range proposed planning procedures ownership structures socialist systems common feature among social ownership means production might take form public ownership society ownership cooperatively employees socialist economic system features social ownership based


process capital accumulation utilization capital markets allocation capital goods socially owned enterprises falls subcategory market socialism resource allocation mechanism basic general modern economic systems segmented criterium resource allocation mechanism market economy hands systems ''laissez faire'' capitalism mixed economy hybrid blends aspects market planned economies planned economy hands systems state socialism also known command economy referring soviet model types traditional economy generic term


capitalism private ownership means production mixed economy socialist economy social ownership means production political ideologies various strains anarchism libertarianism advocate different economic systems small government involvement include left wing anarcho communism anarcho syndicalism anarcho socialism right wing anarcho capitalism libertarianism libertarian socialism syndicalism criteria corporatism refers economic tripartite involving negotiations business labor state interest groups establish economic policy generally assigning people political groups based occupational affiliation certain subsets economy


particular goods services techniques production moral rules also described economy example terms emphasize specific sectors externalizes circular economy collectivist economy digital economy green economy information economy internet economy knowledge economy natural economy virtual economy others emphasize particular religion arthashastra hindu economics buddhist economics distributism catholic ideal third way economy featuring distributed ownership mixed economy islamic economics type labour power slave serf based economy wage labour based economy means production agrarian economy industrial economy information economy


struggle contributing qualitative change economic mode production subsequent world history many communist states run according marxist leninist ideologies arose th century either ceased exist gradually reformed centrally planned economies toward market based economies example perestroika dissolution soviet union chinese economic reform vietnam mainstream evolutionary economics continues study economic change modern times also renewed interest understanding economic systems evolutionary systems emerging field complexity economics


see also capitalism communism economic ideology economy factors production history economic thought mode production participatory economics political economy socialism social relations production socialist calculation debate superstructure references reading richard bonney ''economic systems state finance'' pp david w conklin ''comparative economic systems'' cambridge university press pp george sylvester counts ''bolshevism fascism capitalism account three economic systems'' robert l heilbroner peter j boettke economic systems ''the new encyclop dia britannica'' v pp nbsp harold glenn moulton ''financial organization economic