child development lev vygotsky became prominent field child development ref name sirotkinasmith bolsheviks also promoted free love embraced doctrine psychoanalysis antidote sexual repression although pedology intelligence testing fell favor psychology maintained privileged position instrument soviet union ref name sirotkinasmith stalinist purges took heavy toll instilled climate fear profession elsewhere soviet society following world war ii jewish psychologists past present including lev vygotsky ar luria aron zalkind denounced ivan pavlov posthumously


applied psychology ref name benjaminbaker iaap considered oldest international psychology association ref name pickrenfowler wade pickren raymond fowler professional organizations weiner ed ''handbook psychology'' volume ''history psychology'' ref today least international groups deal specialized aspects psychology ref name pickrenfowler response male predominance field female psychologists us formed national council women psychologists organization became international council women psychologists world war ii international council psychologists several associations including association black psychologists


asian american psychological association arisen promote inclusion non european racial groups profession ref name pickrenfowler international union psychological science iupsys world federation national psychological societies iupsys founded auspices united nations educational cultural scientific organization unesco ref name benjaminbaker ref name staeuble irmingard staeuble psychology eurocentric order social sciences colonial constitution cultural imperialist expansion postcolonial critique brock ed ''internationalizing history psychology'' ref psychology departments since proliferated around world based primarily euro american model ref name paranjpe ref name staeuble


since union published ''international journal psychology'' ref name benjaminbaker iaap iupsys agreed hold congress every four years staggered basis ref name pickrenfowler iupsys recognizes national psychology associations least others exist ref name pickrenfowler american psychological association oldest largest ref name pickrenfowler membership increased present day ref name goodwin c james goodwin united states baker ed ''oxford handbook history psychology'' ref apa includes divisions since steadily proliferated


include specialties divisions society psychological study social issues american psychology law society began autonomous groups ref name pickrenfowler interamerican psychological society founded aspires promote psychology across western hemisphere holds interamerican congress psychology ha members year european federation professional psychology associations founded represents national associations total individual members least international organizations represent psychologists different regions ref name pickrenfowler places governments legally regulate


psychology rely research methods surveys questionnaires critics asserted psychology objective science skeptics suggested personality thinking emotion cannot directly measured often inferred subjective self reports may problematic experimental psychologists devised variety ways indirectly measure elusive phenomenological entities ref name beveridge subj ref ref name peterson subj peterson c may http wwwpsychologytodaycom blog good life subjective objective research positive psychology subjective objective research positive psychology biological characteristic linked well ''psychology today'' retrieved april ref ref name panksepp panksepp j https booksgooglecom booksid n w qquz iec printsec frontcover source gbs navlinks v onepage q f false ''affective neuroscience foundations human animal emotions'' new york


oxford university press p ref divisions still exist within field psychologists oriented towards unique experiences individual humans cannot understood data points within larger population critics inside outside field argued mainstream psychology become increasingly dominated cult empiricism limits scope research investigators restrict methods derived physical sciences feminist critiques argued claims scientific objectivity obscure values agenda historically mostly male researchers ref name tomes jean grimshaw example argues mainstream


psychological research advanced patriarchal agenda efforts control behavior major schools thought biological cerebral fiber pathways affected per van horn et nbsp al psychologists generally consider biology substrate thought feeling therefore important area study behaviorial neuroscience also known biological psychology involves application biological principles study physiological genetic mechanisms underlying behavior humans animals allied field comparative psychology scientific study behavior mental processes non human animals leading question behavioral neuroscience


whether mental functions localized brain phineas gage hm clive wearing individual people mental deficits traceable physical brain damage inspired new discoveries area ref name thompsonzola richard f thompson stuart zola biological psychology weiner ed ''handbook psychology'' volume ''history psychology'' ref modern behavioral neuroscience could said originate france paul broca traced production speech left frontal gyrus thereby also demonstrating hemispheric lateralization brain function soon carl wernicke identified related area necessary


affect health behavior evolutionary psychology approaches thought behavior modern evolutionary perspective perspective suggests psychological adaptations evolved solve recurrent problems human ancestral environments evolutionary psychologists attempt find human psychological traits evolved adaptations results natural selection sexual selection course human evolution ref name behavior genetics ref history biological foundations psychology includes evidence racism idea white supremacy indeed modern concept race arose process world conquest europeans carl von linnaeus 's four fold classification humans


classifies europeans intelligent severe americans contented free asians ritualistic africans lazy capricious race also used justify construction socially specific mental disorders ' 'drapetomania'' ' 'dysaesthesia aethiopica'' behavior uncooperative african slaves creation experimental psychology ethnical psychology emerged subdiscipline based assumption studying primitive races would provide important link animal behavior psychology evolved humans behavioral skinner 's teaching machine mechanical invention automate task programmed instruction tenet behavioral research


large part human lower animal behavior learned principle associated behavioral research mechanisms involved learning apply humans non human animals behavioral researchers developed treatment known behavior modification used help individuals replace undesirable behaviors desirable ones film little albert experiment early behavioral researchers studied stimulus response pairings known classical conditioning demonstrated biologically potent stimulus eg food elicits salivation paired previously neutral stimulus eg bell several learning trials


neutral stimulus come elicit response biologically potent stimulus elicits ivan pavlov known best inducing dogs salivate presence stimulus previously linked food became leading figure soviet union inspired followers use methods humans ref name sirotkinasmith united states edward lee thorndike initiated connectionist studies trapping animals puzzle boxes rewarding escaping thorndike wrote moral warrant studying man 's nature unless study enable us control acts


american psychological association went sea change opinion away mentalism towards behavioralism john b watson coined term behaviorism school thought watson 's famous little albert experiment first thought demonstrate repeated use upsetting loud noises could instill phobias aversions stimuli infant human ref name watson although conclusion likely exaggeration karl lashley close collaborator watson examined biological manifestations learning brain ref name thompsonzola clark l hull edwin guthrie others much help


behaviorism become widely used paradigm ref name goodwin new method instrumental operant conditioning added concepts reinforcement punishment model behavior change radical behaviorists avoided discussing inner workings mind especially unconscious mind considered impossible assess scientifically operant conditioning first described miller kanorski popularized us bf skinner emerged leading intellectual behaviorist movement noam chomsky published influential critique radical behaviorism grounds behaviorist principles could adequately explain complex mental process


language acquisition language use review scathing much reduce status behaviorism within psychology martin seligman colleagues discovered could condition learned helplessness dogs state predicted behaviorist approach psychology edward c tolman advanced hybrid cognitive behavioral model notably publication discussing cognitive maps used rats guess location food end maze skinner 's behaviorism die part generated successful practical applications association behavior analysis


international founded members countries field gained foothold latin america japan applied behavior analysis term used application principles operant conditioning change socially significant behavior supersedes term behavior modification cognitive div style background ccc border px solid float right width padding px margin px px font size ''' span style color green green span span style color red red span span style color blue blue span br span style color purple purple span span style color blue blue span span style color purple purple span ''' ''' span style color red blue span span style color green purple span span style color blue red span br span style color blue green span span style color red purple span span style color purple green span ''' stroop effect fact naming color


called development cognitive revolution rejected anti mentalist dogma behaviorism well strictures psychoanalysis ref name mandler mandler g history modern experimental psychology james wundt cognitive science cambridge mit press ref albert bandura helped along transition psychology behaviorism cognitive psychology bandura social learning theorists advanced idea vicarious learning words advanced view child learn observing social environment necessarily reinforced enacting behavior although


rule influence reinforcement learning behavior ller lyer illusion psychologists make inferences mental processes shared phenomena optical illusions technological advances also renewed interest mental states mental representations english neuroscientist charles sherrington canadian psychologist donald hebb used experimental methods link psychological phenomena structure function brain rise computer science cybernetics artificial intelligence underlined value comparing information processing humans machines popular representative topic area cognitive bias irrational thought psychologists economists


classified described sizeable catalogue biases recur frequently human thought availability heuristic example tendency overestimate importance something happens come readily mind elements behaviorism cognitive psychology synthesized form cognitive behavioral therapy form psychotherapy modified techniques developed american psychologist albert ellis american psychiatrist aaron beck broader level cognitive science interdisciplinary enterprise involving cognitive psychologists cognitive neuroscientists linguists researchers artificial intelligence human computer interaction computational neuroscience discipline cognitive science covers


cognitive psychology well philosophy mind computer science neuroscience computer simulations sometimes used model phenomena interest social social psychology concerned behaviors thoughts feelings social environment influence human interactions social psychologists study topics influence others individual 's behavior eg conformity persuasion formation beliefs attitudes stereotypes people social cognition fuses elements social cognitive psychology purpose understanding people process remember distort social information study group dynamics involves research


nature leadership organizational communication related phenomena recent years social psychologists become interested implicit measures mediational models interaction person social factors accounting behavior concepts sociologists applied study psychiatric disorders concepts social role sick role social class life events culture migration total institution influenced social psychologists psychoanalytic group photo front clark university front row sigmund freud g stanley hall carl jung back row abraham brill ernest jones ndor ferenczi psychoanalysis refers theories


therapeutic techniques applied unconscious mind impact everyday life theories techniques inform treatments mental disorders psychoanalysis originated prominently work sigmund freud freud 's psychoanalytic theory largely based interpretive methods introspection clinical observation became well known largely tackled subjects sexuality repression unconscious freud pioneered methods free association dream interpretation psychoanalytic theory monolithic well known psychoanalytic thinkers diverged freud include alfred adler carl jung erik erikson melanie klein dw


winnicott karen horney erich fromm john bowlby freud 's daughter anna freud harry stack sullivan individuals ensured psychoanalysis would evolve diverse schools thought among schools ego psychology object relations interpersonal lacanian relational psychoanalysis psychologists hans eysenck philosophers including karl popper sharply criticized psychoanalysis popper argued psychoanalysis misrepresented scientific discipline ref name popper karl popper conjectures refutations london routledge keagan paul pp theodore schick ed readings philosophy science mountain view ca mayfield publishing company pp http facultywashingtonedu lynnhank popperdoc facultywashingtonedu ref whereas


eysenck advanced view psychoanalytic tenets contradicted experimental data end th century psychology departments american universities mostly marginalized freudian theory dismissing desiccated dead historical artifact ref name cohen https wwwnytimescom weekinreview cohenhtml r ref education oref oref slogin june study ref researchers ant nio dam sio oliver sacks joseph ledoux individuals emerging field neuro psychoanalysis defended freud 's ideas scientific grounds existential humanistic theories archive date february ref humanistic psychology influenced existentialism phenomenology stresses free self actualization ref name oxford university press oxford university press ''a


dictionary psychology th ed'' edited andrew colman oxford reference online oxford author ref emerged movement within academic psychology reaction behaviorism psychoanalysis humanistic approach seeks view whole person fragmented parts personality isolated cognitions humanistic psychology also focuses personal growth self identity death aloneness freedom emphasizes subjective meaning rejection determinism concern positive growth rather pathology founders humanistic school thought american psychologists abraham maslow formulated hierarchy human


needs carl rogers created developed client centered therapy later positive psychology opened humanistic themes scientific study positive psychology study factors contribute human happiness well focusing people currently healthy ''clinical psychological review'' published special issue devoted positive psychological interventions gratitude journaling physical expression gratitude however far clear positive psychology effective making people happier ref name ehrenreich ehrenreich b ''bright sided relentless promotion positive thinking undermined america'' new york henry


holt ref ref name singal singal j june positive psychology goes war army adopted untested evidence free approach fighting ptsd ''chronicle higher education'' ref positive psychological interventions limited scope effects thought somewhat better placebo effects evidence however far clear interventions based positive psychology increase human happiness resilience ref name ehrenreich ref name singal ''american association humanistic psychology'' formed declared existential psychology emphasizes need understand client 's total orientation towards world existential psychology


opposed reductionism behaviorism methods objectify individual ref name oxford university press influenced philosophers ren kierkegaard martin heidegger psychoanalytically trained american psychologist rollo may helped develop existential psychology existential psychotherapy follows existential psychology therapeutic approach based idea person 's inner conflict arises individual 's confrontation givens existence swiss psychoanalyst ludwig binswanger american psychologist george kelly may also said belong existential school ref name hergenhahn ref existential psychologists tend differ humanistic psychologists


former 's relatively neutral view human nature relatively positive assessment anxiety ref name hergenhahn ref existential psychologists emphasized humanistic themes death free meaning suggesting meaning shaped myths narratives meaning deepened acceptance free requisite living authentic life albeit often anxiety regard death ref name hergenhahn ref austrian existential psychiatrist holocaust survivor viktor frankl drew evidence meaning 's therapeutic power reflections upon internment ref name frankl ref created variation existential psychotherapy called logotherapy type existentialist analysis


describing personality terms key traits trait theorists often employed statistical data reduction methods factor analysis although number proposed traits varied widely hans eysenck 's early biologically based model suggests least three major trait constructs necessary describe human personality extraversion introversion neuroticism stability psychoticism normality raymond cattell empirically derived theory personality factors primary factor level eight broader second stratum factors since big five openness experience conscientiousness extraversion agreeableness neuroticism emerged important trait theory personality dimensional models personality receiving increasing


support version dimensional assessment included dsm v however despite plethora research various versions big five personality dimensions appears necessary move static conceptualizations personality structure dynamic orientation acknowledging personality constructs subject learning change lifespan early example personality assessment woodworth personal data sheet constructed world war popular although psychometrically inadequate myers briggs type indicator developed assess individuals' personality types according personality theories carl jung


minnesota multiphasic personality inventory mmpi despite name dimensional measure psychopathology personality measure california psychological inventory contains personality scales eg independence tolerance international personality item pool public domain become source scales used personality assessment unconscious mind study unconscious mind part psyche outside individual 's awareness believed influence conscious thought behavior hallmark early psychology one first psychology experiments conducted united states cs peirce


joseph jastrow found research subjects could choose minutely heavier two weights even consciously uncertain difference freud popularized concept unconscious mind particularly referred uncensored intrusion unconscious thought one 's speech freudian slip efforts interpret dreams book ''the psychopathology everyday life'' catalogues hundreds everyday events freud explains terms unconscious influence pierre janet advanced idea subconscious mind could contain autonomous mental elements unavailable direct scrutiny subject ref


name kihlstrom john f kihlstrom https booksgooglecom bookshl en lr id ixmqq wg qkc oi fnd pg pa psychological unconscious lawrence pervin oliver john eds ''handbook personality'' new york guilford press also see http ist socratesberkeleyedu kihlstrm pervin htm web version ref concept unconscious processes remained important psychology cognitive psychologists used filter model attention much information processing takes place threshold consciousness certain stimuli limited nature number make way filter much research shown subconscious ''priming'' certain ideas covertly influence thoughts behavior ref name kihlstrom unreliability self reporting major


hurdle type research involves demonstrating subject 's conscious mind perceived target stimulus reason psychologists prefer distinguish ''implicit'' ''explicit'' memory another approach one also describe subliminal stimulus meeting ''objective'' ' 'subjective'' threshold ref name banksfarber william p banks ilya farber consciousness weiner ed ''handbook psychology'' volume ''experimental psychology'' ref automaticity model john bargh others involves ideas automaticity unconscious processing understanding social behavior ref name barghs also see john bargh automaticity


everyday life robert wyer jr ed ''the automaticity everyday life'' advances social cognition volume x mahwah nj lawrence erlbaum associates ref ref name kihlstromjuggernaut john f kihlstrom http socratesberkeleyedu kihlstrm automaticityjuggernauthtm automaticity juggernaut automatons john baer james c kaufmna roy f baumeister eds ''are free psychology free will'' oxford university press ref although dispute regard replication ref name doyen doyen klein c l pichon cleeremans behavioral priming 's mind whose mind ''plos one'' ''' ''' https dxdoiorg journalpone e ref experimental data suggest


brain begins consider taking actions mind becomes aware influence unconscious forces people 's choices bears philosophical question free john bargh daniel wegner ellen langer describe free illusion ref name barghs ref name kihlstromjuggernaut motivation psychologists study motivation subject people lower animals initiate behavior particular time also involves study humans lower animals continue terminate behavior psychologists william james initially used term ''motivation'' refer


intention sense similar concept ''will'' european philosophy steady rise darwinian freudian thinking instinct also came seen primary source motivation ref name forgasetal forgas williams laham social motivation introduction overview forgas williams laham ''social motivation'' ref according drive theory forces instinct combine single source energy exerts constant influence psychoanalysis like biology regarded forces demands originating nervous system psychoanalysts believed forces especially sexual instincts could become entangled transmuted within


psyche classical psychoanalysis conceives struggle pleasure principle reality principle roughly corresponding id ego later ''beyond pleasure principle'' freud introduced concept ' 'death drive'' compulsion towards aggression destruction psychic repetition traumatic events meanwhile behaviorist researchers used simple dichotomous models pleasure pain reward punishment well established principles idea thirsty creature take pleasure drinking ref name forgasetal ref name godsiletal bill p godsil matthew r tinsley michael fanselow motivation weiner ed ''handbook psychology'' volume ''experimental psychology'' ref clark hull formalized latter


idea drive reduction model hunger thirst fear sexual desire thermoregulation constitute fundamental motivations animals ref name godsiletal humans seem exhibit complex set motivations though theoretically could explained resulting desires belonging positive self image self consistency truth love control motivation modulated manipulated many different ways researchers found eating example depends organism 's fundamental need homeostasis important factor causing experience hunger also circadian rhythms food availability food palatability cost ref name godsiletal abstract motivations also malleable


evidenced phenomena ''goal contagion'' adoption goals sometimes unconsciously based inferences goals others vohs baumeister suggest contrary need desire fulfilment cycle animal instincts human motivations sometimes obey getting begets wanting rule get reward self esteem love drugs money want suggest principle even apply food drink sex sleep development psychology developmental psychologists would engage child book make observations based child interacts


object developmental psychology refers scientific study thought processes emotions behaviors humans change course lives ref name crain credit charles darwin conducting first systematic study within rubric developmental psychology published short paper detailing development innate forms communication based observations infant son main origins discipline however found work jean piaget like piaget developmental psychologists originally focused primarily development cognition infancy adolescence


later developmental psychology extended study cognition life span addition studying cognition developmental psychologists also come focus affective behavioral moral social neural development developmental psychologists study children use number research methods example make observations children natural settings preschools engage experimental tasks tasks often resemble specially designed games activities enjoyable child scientifically useful developmental researchers even devised clever methods study mental processes infants addition studying


children developmental psychologists also study aging processes throughout life span including old age psychologists draw full range psychological theories inform research ref name crain crain w ''theories development concepts applications th ed'' edinburgh pearson ref genes environment researched psychological traits influenced genes environment varying degrees two sources influence often confounded observational research individuals families example confounding shown transmission depression depressed mother offspring


child behavioral genetics researchers employed methodologies help disentangle confound understand nature origins individual differences behavior ref name behavior genetics traditionally research involved twin studies adoption studies two designs genetic environmental influences partially un confounded recently gene focused research contributed understanding genetic contributions development psychological traits availability microarray molecular genetic genome sequencing technologies allows researchers measure participant dna variation directly test whether individual genetic variants within genes associated psychological traits psychopathology methods including


genome wide association studies one goal research similar positional cloning success huntington 's causal gene discovered biological research conducted understand gene influences phenotype one major result genetic association studies general finding psychological traits psychopathology well complex medical diseases highly polygenic large number order hundreds thousands genetic variants small effect contribute individual differences behavioral trait propensity disorder active research continues work


toward understanding genetic environmental bases behavior interaction applications psychology encompasses many subfields includes different approaches study mental processes behavior psychological testing psychological testing ancient origins dating far back bc examinations chinese civil service written exams began han dynasty bc ad chinese system required stratified series tests involving essay writing knowledge diverse topics system ended europe mental assessment took different approach


term mental test cattell 's student clark wissler published discouraging results suggesting mental testing columbia barnard students failed predict academic performance response orders minister public instruction french psychologists alfred binet th odore simon developed elaborated new test intelligence used range questions diverse nature difficulty binet simon introduced concept mental age referred lowest scorers test ''idiots'' henry h goddard put binet simon scale work introduced classifications


mental level ''imbecile'' ''feebleminded'' binet 's death stanford professor lewis terman modified binet simon scale renamed stanford binet scale introduced intelligence quotient score report based test findings reflecting racism common era terman concluded intellectual disability represents level intelligence common among spanish indians mexican families southwest also among negroes dullness seems racial ref name guthrie chapter guthrie ''even rat white'' chapter psychometric scientism pp ref following army alpha army beta


tests developed psychologist robert yerkes used world war industrial organizational psychologists large scale employee testing selection military personnel mental testing also became popular us applied schoolchildren federally created national intelligence test administered million children college entrance examination board created scholastic aptitude test standardize college admissions results intelligence tests used argue segregated schools economic functions including preferential training black americans manual


labor practices criticized black intellectuals horace mann bond allison davis ref name guthrie chapter eugenicists used mental testing justify organize compulsory sterilization individuals classified mentally retarded referred ''intellectual disability'' ref name guthriechapter united states tens thousands men women sterilized setting precedent never overturned us supreme court affirmed constitutionality practice case ''buck v bell'' today mental testing routine phenomenon people ages western societies modern testing aspires criteria


including standardization procedure consistency results output interpretable score statistical norms describing population outcomes ideally effective prediction behavior life outcomes outside testing situations developments psychometrics include work test scale reliability validity developments item response theory structural equation modeling bifactor analysis helped strengthening test scale construction mental health care provision psychological health services generally called clinical psychology us sometimes however members school psychology counseling psychology professions engage practices resemble clinical psychologists clinical


psychologists typically include people graduated doctoral programs clinical psychology canada members abovementioned groups usually fall within larger category professional psychology canada us practitioners get bachelor 's degrees doctorates doctoral students clinical psychology usually spend one year predoctoral internship one year postdoctoral internship mexico latin american european countries psychologists get bachelor 's doctoral degrees instead take three year professional course following high school ref name hallhurley clinical psychology present largest specialization


within psychology ref name strickerwidiger includes study application psychology purpose understanding preventing relieving psychological distress dysfunction mental illness clinical psychologists also try promote subjective well personal growth central practice clinical psychology psychological assessment psychotherapy although clinical psychologists may also engage research teaching consultation forensic testimony program development administration ref name brain brain christine ''advanced psychology applications issues perspectives'' cheltenham nelson thornes ref credit first psychology clinic united states typically goes lightner witmer established practice philadelphia


another modern psychotherapist morton prince early advocate establishment psychology clinical academic discipline ref name strickerwidiger george stricker thomas widiger volume preface weiner ed ''handbook psychology'' volume ''clinical psychology'' ref first part twentieth century mental health care united states performed psychiatrists medical doctors psychology entered field refinements mental testing promised improve diagnosis mental problems part psychiatrists became interested using psychoanalysis forms psychodynamic psychotherapy


understand treat mentally ill ref name tomes psychotherapy conducted psychiatrists blurred distinction psychiatry psychology trend continued rise community mental health facilities clinical psychology community adopted behavioral therapy thoroughly non psychodynamic model used behaviorist learning theory change actions patients key aspect behavior therapy empirical evaluation treatment 's effectiveness cognitive behavior therapy emerged work albert ellis aaron beck although similarities behavior therapy cognitive behavior therapy cognitive behavior therapy required application


cognitive constructs since popularity cognitive behavior therapy among clinical psychologists increased key practice behavioral ''and'' cognitive behavioral therapy exposing patients things fear based premise responses fear panic anxiety deconditioned mental health care today involves psychologists social workers increasing numbers national institute mental health director bertram brown described shift source intense competition role confusion ref name tomes nancy tomes development clinical psychology social work psychiatric nursing wallace gach eds ''history psychiatry medical


psychology'' ref graduate programs issuing doctorates clinical psychology emerged underwent rapid increase phd degree intended train practitioners could also conduct scientific research psyd degree exclusively designed train practitioners ref name hallhurley clinical psychologists focus clinical management patients brain injury subspecialty known clinical neuropsychology many countries clinical psychology regulated mental health profession emerging field ' 'disaster psychology'' see crisis intervention involves professionals respond large scale traumatic events work performed clinical psychologists


tends influenced various therapeutic approaches involve formal relationship professional client usually individual couple family small group typically approaches encourage new ways thinking feeling behaving four major theoretical perspectives psychodynamic cognitive behavioral existential humanistic systems family therapy growing movement integrate various therapeutic approaches especially increased understanding issues regarding culture gender spirituality sexual orientation advent robust research findings regarding psychotherapy evidence major therapies equal effectiveness


key common element strong therapeutic alliance training programs psychologists adopting eclectic therapeutic orientation diagnosis clinical psychology usually follows ''diagnostic statistical manual mental disorders'' dsm study mental illnesses called abnormal psychology education example item cognitive abilities test used educational psychology educational psychology study humans learn educational settings effectiveness educational interventions psychology teaching social psychology schools organizations educational psychologists found


adolescents otherwise promote safe supportive effective learning environments school psychologists trained educational behavioral assessment intervention prevention consultation many extensive training research work industrial organizational psychology involves research practices apply psychological theories principles organizations individuals' work lives field 's beginnings industrialists brought nascent field psychology bear study scientific management techniques improving workplace efficiency field first called ''economic psychology'' ''business psychology'' later ''industrial psychology'' ''employment psychology'' ''psychotechnology'' ref name koppes laura l koppes industrial organizational


best name industrial organizational psychology emerged became enshrined name society industrial organizational psychology division american psychological association ref name koppes one goal discipline optimize human potential workplace personnel psychology subfield psychology personnel psychologists apply methods principles psychology selecting evaluating workers another subfield organizational psychology examines effects work environments management styles worker motivation job satisfaction productivity psychologists work outside academia


private public organizations consultants ref name koppes psychology consultant working business today might expect provide executives information ideas industry target markets organization company organizational behavior ob allied field involved study human behavior within organizations one way differentiate psychology ob note psychologists train university psychology departments ob specialists business schools military intelligence one role psychologists military evaluate counsel soldiers personnel


us function began world war robert yerkes established school military psychology fort oglethorpe georgia school provided psychological training military staff ref name tomes today us army psychologists perform psychological screening clinical psychotherapy suicide prevention treatment post traumatic stress well provide prevention related services example smoking cessation united states army 's mental health advisory teams implement psychological interventions help combat troops experiencing mental problems psychologists may also work diverse set campaigns known broadly psychological warfare psychological warfare chiefly involves use


propaganda influence enemy soldiers civilians called black propaganda designed seem originates source army cia 's mkultra program involved individualized efforts mind control involving techniques hypnosis torture covert involuntary administration lsd us military used name psychological operations psyop activities reclassified military information support operations miso part information operations io psychologists sometimes involved assisting interrogation torture suspects staining records psychologists involved health well


social change social change example contribution psychologists social change involves research kenneth mamie clark two african american psychologists studied segregation 's adverse psychological impact black children research findings played role desegregation case ''brown v board education'' impact psychology social change includes discipline 's broad influence teaching learning research shown compared whole word whole language approach phonics approach reading instruction efficacious medical applications medical facilities increasingly employ psychologists perform various


roles one aspect health psychology psychoeducation patients instructing follow medical regimen health psychologists also educate doctors conduct research patient compliance psychologists field public health use wide variety interventions influence human behavior range public relations campaigns outreach governmental laws policies psychologists study composite influence different tools effort influence whole populations people worker health safety wellbeing psychologists work organizations apply findings psychological research improve health


well employees work external consultants hired organizations solve specific problems whereas others full time employees organization applications include conducting surveys identify issues designing interventions make work healthier specific health areas include accidents injuries major contribution concept safety climate employee shared perceptions behaviors encouraged eg wearing safety gear discouraged following safety rules work organizations strong safety climates fewer work accidents injuries cardiovascular disease cardiovascular disease related lack


job control mental health exposure occupational stress associated mental health disorder musculoskeletal disorder injuries bones nerves tendons due overexertion repetitive strain linked job satisfaction workplace stress physical health symptoms occupational stress linked physical symptoms digestive distress headache workplace violence violence prevention climate related physically assaulted psychologically mistreated work interventions improve climates way address accidents violence interventions reduce stress work provide employees tools better manage


help areas stress important component industrial psychology became interested worker fatigue world war government ministers britain concerned impact fatigue workers munitions factories types factories ref name kreis kreis early experiments british scientific management health munitions workers' committee ''journal management history archive '' doiorg ref u k interest worker well emerged efforts charles samuel myers national institute industrial psychology niip inter war years


end twentieth century field occupational health psychology ohp emerged ohp branch psychology interdisciplinary ref name spector https paulspectorcom occupational health psychology spector p occupational health psychology ref ref name spector spector p e occupational fatigue occupational health l lapierre c cooper eds ''cambridge companion organizational stress well being'' new york cambridge university press ref ref name schonfeld ref name cdc centers disease control prevention ''occupational health psychology ohp '' https wwwcdcgov niosh topics ohp ref ohp concerned health safety workers ref name schonfeld ref name cdc ohp addresses topic areas


impact occupational stressors physical mental health mistreatment workers eg bullying violence work family balance impact involuntary unemployment physical mental health influence psychosocial factors safety accidents interventions designed improve protect worker health ref name schonfeld ohp grew health psychology industrial organizational psychology occupational medicine ref name everly everly gs jr introduction occupational health psychology pa keller lg ritt eds ''innovations clinical practice source book'' vol pp sarasota fl professional resource exchange ref ohp


also informed disciplines outside psychology including industrial engineering sociology economics research methods quantitative psychological research lends statistical testing hypotheses although field makes abundant use randomized controlled experiments laboratory settings research assess limited range short term phenomena psychologists rely less rigorously controlled ecologically valid field experiments well research psychologists rely statistical methods glean knowledge population data statistical methods research psychologists employ include pearson product moment correlation coefficient analysis variance multiple linear


regression logistic regression structural equation modeling hierarchical linear modeling measurement operationalization important constructs essential part research designs although type psychological research much less abundant quantitative research psychologists conduct qualitative research type research involve interviews questionnaires first hand observation hypothesis testing rare virtually impossible qualitative research qualitative studies helpful theory hypothesis generation interpreting seemingly contradictory quantitative findings understanding interventions fail others succeed controlled experiments consort statement ref name schulz ref confederate subject believes


wrong answer learner receiving actual electric shocks though reality punishments separated subject confederate set tape recorder integrated electro shock generator played pre recorded sounds shock level etc ref name obedstudy http wwwgarfieldlibraryupennedu classics lc pdf full text pdf ref true experiment random assignment research participants sometimes called subjects rival conditions allows researchers make strong inferences causal relationships large numbers research participants random assignment also called random allocation participants rival conditions ensures individuals


conditions average similar characteristics including characteristics went unmeasured experiment researcher alters one variables influence called independent variables measures resulting changes factors interest called dependent variables prototypical experimental research conducted laboratory carefully controlled environment quasi experiment refers situation rival conditions study random assignment different conditions possible investigators must work preexisting groups people researchers use common sense consider much nonrandom assignment


consistent predictions predictions likely originate one abstract scientific hypotheses phenomenon study actually works types studies surveys used psychology purpose measuring attitudes traits monitoring changes mood checking validity experimental manipulations checking research participants' perception condition assigned psychologists commonly used paper pencil surveys however surveys also conducted phone e mail web based surveys increasingly used conveniently reach many subjects observational studies commonly conducted psychology


cross sectional observational studies psychologists collect data single point time goal many cross sectional studies assess extent factors correlated contrast longitudinal studies psychologists collect data sample two points time sometimes purpose longitudinal research study trends across time stability traits age related changes behavior studies involve endpoints psychologists cannot ethically study experimental standpoint identifying causes depression conduct longitudinal studies large group


depression free people periodically assessing happening individuals' lives way psychologists opportunity test causal hypotheses regarding conditions commonly arise people 's lives put risk depression problems affect longitudinal studies include selective attrition type problem bias introduced certain type research participant disproportionately leaves study exploratory data analysis refers variety practices researchers use reduce great many variables small number overarching factors peirce 's three modes inference exploratory data analysis corresponds


abduction meta analysis technique research psychologists use integrate results many studies variables arriving grand average findings direct brain observation manipulaiton eeg recording setup classic popular tool used relate mental neural activity electroencephalogram eeg technique using amplified electrodes person 's scalp measure voltage changes different parts brain hans berger first researcher use eeg unopened skull quickly found brains exhibit signature brain waves electric oscillations correspond different states


consciousness researchers subsequently refined statistical methods synthesizing electrode data identified unique brain wave patterns delta wave observed non rem sleep newer functional neuroimaging techniques include functional magnetic resonance imaging positron emission tomography track flow blood brain technologies provide localized information activity brain create representations brain widespread appeal also provide insight avoids classic problems subjective self reporting remains challenging draw hard conclusions brain specific thoughts originate even usefully


localization corresponds reality however neuroimaging delivered unmistakable results showing existence correlations mind brain draw systemic neural network model rather localized function model psychiatric interventions transcranial magnetic stimulation drugs also provide information brain mind interactions psychopharmacology study drug induced mental effects artificial neural network two layers interconnected group nodes akin vast network neurons human brain computer simulation computational modeling tool used mathematical psychology cognitive psychology simulate behavior


method several advantages since modern computers process information quickly simulations run short time allowing high statistical power modeling also allows psychologists visualize hypotheses functional organization mental events could n't directly observed human computational neuroscience uses mathematical models simulate brain another method symbolic modeling represents many mental objects using variables rules types modeling include dynamic systems stochastic modeling animal studies rat undergoing morris water navigation test used behavioral neuroscience study role


hippocampus spatial learning memory animal experiments aid investigating many aspects human psychology including perception emotion learning memory thought name russian physiologist ivan pavlov famously used dogs demonstrate classical conditioning non human primates cats dogs pigeons rats rodents often used psychological experiments ideally controlled experiments introduce one independent variable time order ascertain unique effects upon dependent variables conditions approximated best laboratory settings contrast human environments genetic backgrounds vary widely depend upon


attempts connect two quite controversial example sociobiology eo wilson animal models often used study neural processes related human behavior eg cognitive neuroscience qualitative research qualitative research often designed answer questions thoughts feelings behaviors individuals qualitative research involving first hand observation help describe events occur goal capturing richness everyday behavior hope discovering understanding phenomena might missed cursory examinations made qualitative psychological research


methods include interviews first hand observation participant observation creswell identified five main possibilities qualitative research including narrative phenomenology ethnography case study grounded theory qualitative researchers sometimes aim enrich understanding symbols subjective experiences social structures sometimes hermeneutic critical aims give rise quantitative research erich fromm 's application psychological sociological theories book ''escape freedom'' understanding many ordinary germans supported hitler phineas p gage survived accident large iron rod driven completely head destroying much brain 's left


scientific methodology study science field metascience revealed problems psychological research psychological research suffered bias problematic reproducibility misuse statistics findings led calls reform within outside scientific community confirmation bias statistician theodore sterling examined results psychological studies discovered supported initial hypotheses implying possible publication bias ref name theodore ref ref name lehrer ref similarly fanelli ref name fanelli positive' results increase hierarchy sciences journal plos one year volume issue doi journalpone editor enrico scalas pages e pmid pmc


open science assess extent problem found many two thirds highly publicized findings psychology failed replicated ref name auto ref reproducibility generally stronger cognitive psychology studies journals social psychology ref name auto subfields differential psychology subfields psychology also implicated replication crisis including clinical psychology developmental psychology field closely related psychology educational research focus replication crisis led renewed efforts discipline test important findings ref name simmons et al ref response


different countries taken place collaborators regularly make data openly available different researchers assess allen et al estimated percent result blind studies yielded null results contrast estimated percent traditional research misuse statistics critics view statistical hypothesis testing misplaced psychologist statistician jacob cohen wrote psychologists routinely confuse statistical significance practical importance enthusiastically reporting great certainty unimportant facts psychologists responded increased use effect size statistics rather sole reliance ''p'' values


weird bias weird arnett pointed articles american psychological association journals us populations us citizens world 's population complained psychologists basis assuming psychological processes universal generalizing research findings rest global population ref name arnett ref henrich heine norenzayan reported bias conducting psychology studies participants ''weird'' western educated industrialized rich democratic societies ref name transnational psychology ref henrich et al found psychological samples come countries


world population p nbsp article gave examples results differ significantly people weird tribal cultures including ller lyer illusion arnett altmaier hall morgan consoli et al view western bias research theory serious problem considering psychologists increasingly applying psychological principles developed weird regions research clinical work consultation populations around world ref name arnett ref name altmaierhall ref ref name morganc ref rad martingano ginges showed nearly decade henrich et al 's paper samples used studies published


journal psychological science employed weird samples moreover analysis showed several studies fully disclose origin samples authors offered set recommendations editors reviewers reduce weird bias ref name radmartingano ref unscientific mental health training observers perceive gap scientific theory application particular application unsupported unsound clinical practices ref name cards ref critics say increase number mental health training programs instill scientific competence ref name beyerstein ref practices facilitated communication infantile autism memory recovery techniques including body


world war ii nuremberg code established nazi abuses experimental subjects later countries scientific journals adopted declaration helsinki us national institutes health established institutional review board adopted national research act hr measures encouraged researchers obtain informed consent human participants experimental studies number influential ethically dubious studies led establishment rule studies included mit harvard fernald school radioisotope studies thalidomide tragedy willowbrook hepatitis study


decades since adoption apa revised policies advertising referral fees negotiate end investigation federal trade commission incarnation first distinguish aspirational ethical standards enforceable ones members public five year window file ethics complaints apa members apa ethics committee members apa three year window ref name handbookjones stanley e jones ethical issues clinical psychology weiner ed ''handbook psychology'' volume ''clinical psychology'' ref ethical issues considered important


requirement practice within area competence maintain confidentiality patients avoid sexual relations another important principle informed consent idea patient research subject must understand freely choose procedure undergoing ref name handbookjones common complaints clinical psychologists include sexual misconduct ref name handbookjones animals research animals also governed university ethics committees research nonhuman animals cannot proceed without permission ethics committee researcher 's home institution current ethical guidelines state


mating posture american literary critic wayne c booth wrote harry harlow colleagues go torturing nonhuman primates decade decade invariably proving knew advance social creatures destroyed destroying social ties writes harlow made mention criticism morality work references sources baker david b ed ''the oxford handbook history psychology'' oxford university press ''oxford library psychology'' brock adrian c ed


new york guilford press wallace edwin r iv john gach eds ''history psychiatry medical psychology'' new york springer weiner bernard ''human motivation'' hoboken nj taylor francis weiner irving b ''handbook psychology'' hoboken nj john wiley sons volume ''history psychology'' donald k freedheim ed volume ''research methods psychology'' john schinka wayne f velicer eds volume ''biological psychology'' michela gallagher randy j nelson eds volume ''experimental psychology'' alice f healy robert w proctor eds volume ''clinical psychology'' george stricker thomas


widiger eds reading external links http wwwapaorg american psychological association http wwwpsychologicalscienceorg association psychological science behavioural sciences cognitive behavioral therapy


dance type performing art practiced world alt two dancers leaping '''performing arts''' arts music dance drama performed audience different visual arts artists use paint canvas various materials create physical static art objects performing arts include range disciplines performed front live audience including theatre music dance theatre music dance object manipulation kinds performances present human cultures history music dance date


audience called performers examples include actors comedians dancers magicians circus artists musicians singers performing arts also supported workers related fields songwriting choreography stagecraft performer excels acting singing dancing commonly referred '''''triple threat''''' ref name romano ref well known examples historical triple threat entertainers include gene kelly fred astaire judy garland sammy davis jr ref name romano michael jackson beyonc madonna jennifer lopez performers often adapt appearance costumes stage makeup stage lighting sound types performing arts may include dance


music opera theatre musical theatre magic illusion mime spoken word puppetry circus arts performance art also specialized form fine art artists ''perform'' work live audience called performance art performance art also involves form plastic art perhaps creation props dance often referred plastic art modern dance era ref name dance ref theatre theatre branch performing arts concerned acting stories front audience using combination speech gesture music dance sound


spectacle one elements considered performing arts addition standard narrative dialogue style plays theater takes forms plays musicals opera ballet illusion mime classical indian dance kabuki mummers' plays improvisational theatre comedy pantomime non conventional contemporary forms like postmodern theatre postdramatic theatre performance art dance scene ballet ''les sylphides'' context performing arts dance generally refers human movement typically rhythmic music used form audience entertainment performance setting definitions constitutes dance dependent


social cultural aesthetic artistic moral constraints range functional movement folk dance codified virtuoso techniques ballet ref name mackrell ref one another modern form dance emerged th th century name free dance style form dance structured create harmonious personality included features physical spiritual freedom isadora duncan first female dancer argued woman future developed novel vector choreography using nietzsche idea supreme mind free mind dance powerful impulse


practices art called choreographer music music art form combines pitch rhythm dynamic create sound performed using variety instruments styles divided genres folk jazz hip hop pop rock etc art form music occur live recorded formats planned improvised music protean art easily coordinates words songs physical movements dance moreover capability shaping human behaviors impacts emotions


history sophocles western performing arts starting th century bc classical period performing art began greece ushered tragic poets sophocles poets wrote plays cases incorporated dance see euripides hellenistic period began widespread use comedy however th century ad western performing arts largely ended dark ages began th century th century performing art west limited religious historical enactments morality plays organized church celebration holy days


important events renaissance th century performing arts along arts general saw revival renaissance began italy spread throughout europe plays incorporated dance performed domenico da piacenza credited first use term ''ballo'' ''de arte saltandi et choreas ducendi'' instead ' 'danza'' dance ''baletti'' ''balli'' term eventually became ''ballet'' first ballet ''per se'' thought balthasar de beaujoyeulx 's ballet comique de la reine ''commedia dell'arte troupe wagon'' jan miel


mid th century commedia dell'arte became popular europe introducing use improvisation period also introduced elizabethan masque featuring music dance elaborate costumes well professional theatrical companies england william shakespeare 's plays late th century developed new class professional performance first opera dafne performed throughout th century opera would rapidly become entertainment choice aristocracy europe eventually large numbers people living cities towns throughout europe modern era introduction proscenium


arch italy th century established traditional theatre form persists day meanwhile england puritans forbade acting bringing halt performing arts lasted women began appear french english plays french introduced formal dance instruction late th century also time first plays performed american colonies th century introduction popular opera buffa brought opera masses accessible form performance mozart 's ''the marriage


figaro'' ''don giovanni'' landmarks late th century opera turn th century beethoven romantic movement ushered new era led first spectacles grand opera musical dramas giuseppe verdi ''gesamtkunstwerk'' total work art operas richard wagner leading directly music th century vaslav nijinsky dancing faun ''l'apr midi d'un faune'' th century period growth performing arts social classes technical advances


introduced would become modern stage lighting changing nature stage broadway musical became phenomenon united states postwar post world war ii performing arts highlighted resurgence ballet opera western world modern street theatre performance la chaux de fonds postmodernism performing arts dominated large extent eastern performing arts middle east earliest recorded theatrical event dates back bc passion plays ancient egypt story god osiris performed annually festivals throughout civilization marking known


beginning long relationship theatre religion popular forms theater medieval islamic world puppet theatre included hand puppets shadow plays marionette productions live passion plays known ''ta'ziya'' actors enact episodes muslim history particular shia islamic plays revolved around ' 'shaheed'' martyrdom ali 's sons hasan ibn ali husayn ibn ali live secular plays known ''akhraja'' recorded medieval ''adab'' literature though less common puppetry ''ta'ziya'' theater valiollah torabi iranian naqq l storyteller shahnameh iran iran


forms theatrical events ''naghali'' ''naqq li'' story telling '' ru howzi'' ''siah bazi'' ''parde khani'' ''mareke giri'' prior twentieth century storytelling recognized form entertainment although today forms still remain one form ''naghali'' traditionally performed coffeehouses storytellers ''naghals naqq ls '' recited sections story time thus retaining regular cliental stories based events historical religious importance many referenced poetry shahnameh oftentimes stories altered bond atmosphere mood audience india bharatanatyam


indian classical dance originated tamil nadu gotikua folk dance one well known performance performed boys group dressed indian ladies attire saree folk theatre dramatics traced religious ritualism vedic peoples nd millennium bc folk theatre misty past mixed dance food ritualism plus depiction events daily life last element made origin classical theatre later times many historians notably kosambi debiprasad chattopadhyaya adya rangacharaya etc referred prevalence


ritualism amongst indo aryan tribes members tribe acted wild animals others hunters acted mammals like goats buffaloes reindeer monkeys etc chased playing role hunters bharata muni fl th nd century bc ancient indian writer best known writing ''natya shastra bharata'' theoretical treatise indian performing arts including theatre dance acting music compared aristotle 's ''poetics'' bharata often known father indian theatrical arts ''natya shastra'' seems


first attempt develop technique rather art drama systematic manner natya shastra tells us portrayed drama portrayal done drama bharata muni says imitation men doings ''loka vritti'' men doings respected stage drama sanskrit also known term ''roopaka'' means portrayal ''ramayana'' ''mahabharata'' considered first recognized plays originated india epics provided inspiration


earliest indian dramatists even today indian dramatists bh sa nd century bc wrote plays heavily inspired ''ramayana'' ''mahabharata'' k lid sa st century bc arguably considered ancient india 's greatest dramatist three famous romantic plays written k lid sa ''m lavik gnimitram'' ''m lavik agnimitra'' ''vikram rva yam'' ''pertaining vikrama urvashi'' ''abhij na kuntala'' ''the recognition shakuntala'' last inspired story ''mahabharata'' famous first translated english german comparison


bh sa drew heavily epics k lid sa considered original playwright next great indian dramatist bhavabhuti c th century said written following three plays ''malati madhava'' ''mahaviracharita'' ''uttar ramacharita'' among three last two cover entire epic ''ramayana'' powerful indian emperor harsha credited written three plays comedy ''ratnavali'' ''priyadarsika'' buddhist drama ''nagananda'' many dramatists followed middle ages many performing art forms southern part india kerala


state different art forms like koodiyattam nangyarkoothu kathakali chakyar koothu thirayattam many prominent artists like painkulam raman chakyar others china hand shadow drama china references theatrical entertainments china early bc shang dynasty often involved music clowning acrobatic displays tang dynasty sometimes known age entertainments era emperor xuanzong formed acting school known children pear garden produce form drama primarily musical han dynasty shadow puppetry


first emerged recognized form theatre china two distinct forms shadow puppetry cantonese southern pekingese northern two styles differentiated method making puppets positioning rods puppets opposed type play performed puppets styles generally performed plays depicting great adventure fantasy rarely stylized form theatre used political propaganda cantonese shadow puppets larger two built using thick leather created substantial shadows symbolic color


bodies puppet turned ninety degree angle connect neck rods visible shadow cast laid outside shadow puppet thus interfere appearance figure rods attached necks facilitate use multiple heads one body heads used stored muslin book fabric lined box heads always removed night keeping old superstition left intact puppets


would come life night puppeteers went far store heads one book bodies another reduce possibility reanimating puppets shadow puppetry said reached highest point artistic development th century becoming tool government song dynasty many popular plays involving acrobatics music developed yuan dynasty sophisticated form four five act structure yuan drama spread across china diversified numerous regional forms best known


beijing opera still popular today thailand hanuman chariot scene ramakien wat phra kaew bangkok thailand tradition middle ages stage plays based plots drawn indian epics particular theatrical version thailand 's national epic ''ramakien'' version indian ''ramayana'' remains popular thailand even today cambodia cambodia inscriptions dating back th century ad indicates evidences dancers local temple using puppetry religious plays ancient capital angkor wat stories


indian epics ''ramayana'' ''mahabharata'' carved walls temples palaces similar reliefs found borobudur indonesia philippines philippines famous epic poem ibong adarna originally titled '' korido buhay na pinagdaanan ng tatlong prinsipeng magkakapatid na anak nina haring fernando reyna valeriana sa kahariang berbania '' english corrido life lived three princes children king fernando queen valeriana kingdom berbania th century written jos de la cruz spanish era aside theatrical performances different films


produced different film studios television productions first produced ang ibong adarna film produced lvn pictures biggest film studio history philippines florante laura '' awit '' poem consisting syllable quatrains full title '' pinagdaanang buhay ni florante ni laura sa kahariang albanya '' english history florante laura kingdom albania written francisco balagtas imprisonment dedicated sweetheart maria asuncuion rivera nicknamed mar referenced selya poem special part entitled kay selya


english celia specially dedicated rivera philippine 's national hero jos rizal also novelist created two famous poems philippines ''noli ngere'' latin touch acute accent added final word accordance spanish orthography describes perceived inequities spanish catholic friars ruling government ''el filibusterismo'' translations filibusterism subversive subversion locs n english translation also possible translations also known alternative english title reign greed novel 's dark theme departs


dramatically previous novel 's hopeful romantic atmosphere signifying ibarra 's resort solving country 's issues violent means previous attempt reforming country 's system made effect seemed impossible corrupt attitude spaniards toward filipinos novels written colonization philippines spanish empire literary pieces curriculum k program junior high schools ibong adarna grade curriculum florante laura grade ''noli ngere'' grade el filibusterismo grade japan


kabuki play performance kagoshima th century small companies actors japan performed short sometimes vulgar comedies director one companies kan'ami son zeami motokiyo considered one finest child actors japan kan'ami 's company performed ashikaga yoshimitsu japan implored zeami court education arts zeami succeeded father continued perform adapt style today noh mixture pantomime vocal acrobatics noh style


theatre become one japan 's refined forms theatrical performance japan long period civil wars political disarray unified peace primarily due tokugawa ieyasu however alarmed increasing numbers christians within country due proselytizing efforts christian missionaries cut contact japan europe china outlawed christianity peace come flourish cultural influence growing merchant class demanded entertainment first form theatre flourish ningy j ruri commonly referred bunraku


founder main contributor ningy j ruri chikamatsu monzaemon turned form theatre true art form ningy j ruri highly stylized form theatre using puppets today size human men control puppets train entire lives become master puppeteers operate puppet 's head right arm choose show faces performance puppeteers controlling less important limbs puppet cover faces black suit imply invisibility


dialogue handled single person uses varied tones voice speaking manners simulate different characters chikamatsu wrote thousands plays lifetime still used today kabuki began shortly bunraku legend actress named okuni lived around end th century kabuki 's material came noh bunraku erratic dance type movements also effect bunraku however kabuki less formal distant noh yet popular among japanese public actors trained many varied


things including dancing singing pantomime even acrobatics kabuki first performed young girls young boys end th century kabuki companies consisted men men portrayed women stage specifically trained elicit essence woman subtle movements gestures history african performing arts history performing arts americas history performing arts oceania oftentimes melanesian dance exhibits cultural theme masculinity leadership unique skill set important sharing community ref name ref dances


demonstrate soldiery man however also represent profitability encouraging conflict resolutions healing costumes impersonating dancers incorporate large masks unhuman like characteristics act imitate mythical figures music also act voice magical personas ref name see also entertainment outline performing arts performing arts education performing arts presenters united states copyright law performing arts https pdfculturalcenterorg pamela franklin cultural center performing arts persian theatre theatre japan western culture references external links http asia perfo artscom bibliography performing arts east http wwweclapeu


european collected library performing arts entertainment


physical phenomena '''physics''' natural science studies matter cataclysm scientific knowledge destroyed save one sentence nbsp statement would contain information fewest words believe nbsp ''all things made atoms nbsp little particles move around perpetual motion attracting little distance apart repelling upon squeezed one another'' nbsp ref fundamental constituents motion behavior space time related entities energy force ref name maxwell physicalscience physical science


much past two millennia physics chemistry biology certain branches mathematics part natural philosophy scientific revolution th century natural sciences emerged unique research endeavors right ref physics intersects many interdisciplinary areas research biophysics quantum chemistry boundaries physics rigidly defined new ideas physics often explain fundamental mechanisms studied sciences ref name youngfreedman p suggest new avenues research academic disciplines mathematics philosophy advances physics often enable advances


new technologies example advances understanding electromagnetism solid state physics nuclear physics led directly development new products dramatically transformed modern day society television computers domestic appliances nuclear weapons ref name youngfreedman p advances thermodynamics led development industrialization advances mechanics inspired development calculus history word physics comes meaning knowledge nature ref name etymonline physics ref ref name etymonline physic ref ref name lsj ref ancient astronomy ancient egyptian astronomy evident monuments like ceiling senemut 's tomb eighteenth dynasty egypt astronomy one


oldest natural sciences early civilizations dating back nbsp bce sumerians ancient egyptians indus valley civilisation predictive knowledge basic awareness motions sun moon stars stars planets believed represent gods often worshipped explanations observed positions stars often unscientific lacking evidence early observations laid foundation later astronomy stars found traverse great circles across sky ref name krupp however explain positions planets according


asger aaboe origins western astronomy found mesopotamia western efforts exact sciences descended late babylonian astronomy ref name aaboe ref egyptian astronomers left monuments showing knowledge constellations motions celestial bodies ref name clagett ref greek poet homer wrote various celestial objects ''iliad'' ''odyssey'' later greek astronomers provided names still used today constellations visible northern hemisphere ref name thurston ref natural philosophy natural philosophy origins greece archaic period bce bce


pre socratic philosophers like thales rejected non naturalistic explanations natural phenomena proclaimed every event natural cause ref name singer p ref proposed ideas verified reason observation many hypotheses proved successful experiment ref name lloyd pp ref example atomism found correct approximately years proposed leucippus pupil democritus ref name atomism ref medieval european islamic western roman empire fell fifth century resulted decline intellectual pursuits western part europe contrast eastern roman empire also known


byzantine empire resisted attacks barbarians continued advance various fields learning including physics sixth century isidore miletus created important compilation archimedes' works copied archimedes palimpsest ibn al haytham c c ''book optics'' book book ii describes ''camera obscura'' experiments alt ibn al haytham alhazen drawing sixth century europe john philoponus byzantine scholar questioned aristotle 's teaching physics noted flaws introduced theory impetus aristotle 's physics scrutinized philoponus appeared unlike aristotle based physics


one let us say double difference else imperceptible difference time though difference weight means negligible one body weighing twice much blockquote philoponus' criticism aristotelian principles physics served inspiration galileo galilei ten centuries later ref name dialogtwonewsciences ref scientific revolution galileo cited philoponus substantially works arguing aristotelian physics flawed jean buridan teacher faculty arts university paris developed concept impetus


step toward modern ideas inertia momentum islamic scholarship inherited aristotelian physics greeks islamic golden age developed especially placing emphasis observation ''a priori'' reasoning developing early forms scientific method basic way pinhole camera works notable innovations field optics vision came works many scientists like ibn sahl al kindi ibn al haytham al farisi avicenna notable work ''the book optics'' also known kit b al man ir written ibn al haytham


conclusively disproved ancient greek idea vision also came new theory book presented study phenomenon camera obscura thousand year old version pinhole camera delved way eye works using dissections knowledge previous scholars able begin explain light enters eye asserted light ray focused actual explanation light projected back eye wait ''treatise light''


explained camera obscura hundreds years modern development photography seven volume ''book optics'' ''kitab al manathir'' hugely influenced thinking across disciplines theory visual perception nature perspective medieval art east west years many later european scholars fellow polymaths robert grosseteste leonardo da vinci ren descartes johannes kepler isaac newton debt indeed influence ibn al haytham 's optics ranks alongside newton 's work title published years later translation


discover considered laws physics ref name benchaim ref major developments period include replacement geocentric model solar system heliocentric copernican model laws governing motion planetary bodies determined kepler galileo 's pioneering work telescopes observational astronomy th th centuries newton 's discovery unification laws motion universal gravitation would come bear name newton also developed calculus mathematical study change provided new mathematical methods solving physical problems ref


planck originator theory quantum mechanics albert einstein whose work photoelectric effect theory relativity led revolution th century physics modern physics began early th century work max planck quantum theory albert einstein 's theory relativity theories came due inaccuracies classical mechanics certain situations classical mechanics predicted varying speed light could resolved constant speed predicted maxwell 's equations electromagnetism discrepancy corrected einstein 's theory


special relativity replaced classical mechanics fast moving bodies allowed constant speed light ref name oconnorrobertson relativity ref black body radiation provided another problem classical physics corrected planck proposed excitation material oscillators possible discrete steps proportional frequency along photoelectric effect complete theory predicting discrete energy levels electron orbitals led theory quantum mechanics taking classical physics small scales ref name oconnorrobertson quantum ref quantum mechanics would come pioneered werner heisenberg erwin schr dinger paul dirac ref name oconnorrobertson quantum


early work work related fields standard model particle physics derived ref name donut ref following discovery particle properties consistent higgs boson cern ref name cho ref fundamental particles predicted standard model others appear exist however physics beyond standard model theories supersymmetry active area research areas mathematics general important field study probabilities groups philosophy many ways physics stems ancient greek philosophy thales' first attempt characterize


matter democritus' deduction matter ought reduce invariant state ptolemaic astronomy crystalline firmament aristotle 's book ''physics'' early book physics attempted analyze define motion philosophical point view various greek philosophers advanced theories nature physics known natural philosophy late th century ref th century physics realized discipline distinct philosophy sciences physics rest science relies philosophy science scientific method advance knowledge


nature instance theory classical mechanics accurately describes motion objects provided much larger atoms moving much less speed light theories continue areas active research today chaos theory remarkable aspect classical mechanics discovered th century three centuries original formulation classical mechanics newton central theories important tools research specialised topics physicist regardless specialisation expected literate include classical mechanics quantum mechanics


thermodynamics statistical mechanics electromagnetism special relativity classical classical physics includes traditional branches topics recognised well developed beginning th century classical mechanics acoustics optics thermodynamics electromagnetism classical mechanics concerned bodies acted forces bodies motion may divided statics study forces body bodies subject acceleration kinematics study motion without regard causes dynamics study motion forces affect mechanics may also divided solid mechanics fluid mechanics


visibility eg reflection refraction interference diffraction dispersion polarization light heat form energy internal energy possessed particles substance composed thermodynamics deals relationships heat forms energy electricity magnetism studied single branch physics since intimate connection discovered early th century electric current gives rise magnetic field changing magnetic field induces electric current electrostatics deals electric charges rest electrodynamics moving charges magnetostatics magnetic


poles rest modern classical physics generally concerned matter energy normal scale observation much modern physics concerned behavior matter energy extreme conditions large small scale example atomic nuclear physics study matter smallest scale chemical elements identified physics elementary particles even smaller scale since concerned basic units matter branch physics also known high energy physics extremely


high energies necessary produce many types particles particle accelerators scale ordinary commonsensical notions space time matter energy longer valid two chief theories modern physics present different picture concepts space time matter presented classical physics classical mechanics approximates nature continuous quantum theory concerned discrete nature many phenomena atomic subatomic level complementary aspects particles waves description phenomena theory relativity concerned


description phenomena take place frame reference motion respect observer special theory relativity concerned motion absence gravitational fields general theory relativity motion connection gravitation quantum theory theory relativity find applications areas modern physics fundamental concepts modern physics causality covariance action physical field symmetry physical interaction statistical ensemble quantum wave particle difference basic domains physics physics aims discover universal laws theories lie


components speeds approaching speed light planck schr dinger others introduced quantum mechanics probabilistic notion particles interactions allowed accurate description atomic subatomic scales later quantum field theory unified quantum mechanics special relativity general relativity allowed dynamical curved spacetime highly massive systems large scale structure universe well described general relativity yet unified fundamental descriptions several candidate theories quantum gravity developed relation fields parabola shaped lava flow illustrates application mathematics


physics case galileo 's law falling bodies mathematics ontology used physics physics used chemistry cosmology prerequisites mathematics provides compact exact language used describe order nature noted advocated pythagoras ref name dijksterhuis ref plato ref name mastin plato although usually remembered today philosopher plato also one ancient greece 's important patrons mathematics inspired pythagoras founded academy athens bc stressed mathematics way understanding reality particular convinced geometry key


unlocking secrets universe sign academy entrance read 'let one ignorant geometry enter here' ref galileo ref name toraldodifrancia p galileo 'philosophy written great book ever lies eyes mean universe cannot understand first learn language grasp symbols written book written mathematical language symbols triangles circles geometrical figures without whose help humanly impossible comprehend single word without one wanders


vain dark labyrinth' galileo ''the assayer'' ref newton physics uses mathematics ref name applicationsofmathematics ref organise formulate experimental results results precise estimated solutions obtained quantitative results new predictions made experimentally confirmed negated results physics experiments numerical data units measure estimates errors measurements technologies based mathematics like computation made computational physics active area research distinction mathematics physics clear cut always obvious especially mathematical physics ontology


prerequisite physics mathematics means physics ultimately concerned descriptions real world mathematics concerned abstract patterns even beyond real world thus physics statements synthetic mathematical statements analytic mathematics contains hypotheses physics contains theories mathematics statements logically true predictions physics statements must match observed experimental data distinction clear cut always obvious example mathematical physics application mathematics physics methods mathematical subject physical ref name jmp def ref problems


field start mathematical model physical situation system mathematical description physical law applied system every mathematical statement used solving hard find physical meaning final mathematical solution easier find meaning solver looking pure physics branch fundamental science also called basic science physics also called ''the'' fundamental science branches natural science like chemistry astronomy geology biology constrained laws physics ref name feynmanleightonsands v ch see also reductionism special sciences ref similarly


chemistry often called central science role linking physical sciences example chemistry studies properties structures reactions matter chemistry 's focus molecular atomic scale distinguishes physics structures formed particles exert electrical forces properties include physical characteristics given substances reactions bound laws physics like conservation energy mass charge physics applied industries like engineering medicine application influence classical physics implemented acoustic engineering model sound reflecting acoustic diffuser archimedes' screw


physics used study things would ordinarily mired uncertainty example study origin earth one reasonably model earth 's mass temperature rate rotation function time allowing one extrapolate forward backward time predict future prior events also allows simulations engineering drastically speed development new technology also considerable interdisciplinarity many important fields influenced physics eg fields econophysics sociophysics research scientific method physicists


use scientific method test validity physical theory using methodical approach compare implications theory conclusions drawn related experiments observations physicists better able test validity theory logical unbiased repeatable way end experiments performed observations made order determine validity invalidity theory scientific law concise verbal mathematical statement relation expresses fundamental principle theory newton 's law universal


gravitation ref name honderich pp ref theory experiment astronaut earth free fall lightning electric current theorists seek develop mathematical models agree existing experiments successfully predict future experimental results experimentalists devise perform experiments test theoretical predictions explore new phenomena although theory experiment developed separately strongly affect depend upon progress physics frequently comes experimental results defy explanation existing theories prompting intense focus applicable modelling new theories generate experimentally testable predictions inspire development new


experiments often related equipment physicists work interplay theory experiment called phenomenologists study complex phenomena observed experiment work relate fundamental theory theoretical physics historically taken inspiration philosophy electromagnetism unified way beyond known universe field theoretical physics also deals hypothetical issues parallel universes multiverse higher dimensions theorists invoke ideas hopes solving particular problems existing theories explore consequences ideas work toward making testable predictions experimental physics expands


expanded engineering technology experimental physicists involved basic research design perform experiments equipment particle accelerators lasers whereas involved applied research often work industry developing technologies magnetic resonance imaging mri transistors feynman noted experimentalists may seek areas explored well theorists ref name feynman p experiment fact experimenters certain individual character often experiments region people know theorist made guesses ref scope aims physics involves modeling


natural world theory usually quantitative path particle modeled mathematics calculus explain behavior purview branch physics known mechanics physics covers wide range phenomena elementary particles quarks neutrinos electrons largest superclusters galaxies included phenomena basic objects composing things therefore physics sometimes called fundamental science ref name feynmanleightonsands v ch physics aims describe various phenomena occur nature terms simpler phenomena thus physics aims connect


things observable humans root causes connect causes together example ancient chinese observed certain rocks lodestone magnetite attracted one another invisible force effect later called magnetism first rigorously studied th century even chinese discovered magnetism ancient greeks knew objects amber rubbed fur would cause similar invisible attraction two ref name stewart ref also first studied rigorously th century came called electricity thus physics


particle physics condensed matter physics atomic molecular optical physics astrophysics applied physics physics departments also support physics education research physics outreach since th century individual fields physics become increasingly specialised today physicists work single field entire careers universalists einstein lev landau worked multiple fields physics rare major fields physics along subfields theories concepts employ shown following table nuclear particle simulated event


cms detector large hadron collider featuring possible appearance higgs boson particle physics study elementary constituents matter energy interactions ref name aps dpf ref addition particle physicists design develop high energy accelerators ref name halpern ref detectors ref name grupen ref computer programs ref name walsh ref necessary research field also called high energy physics many elementary particles occur naturally created high energy collisions particles ref name iop hepp ref currently interactions elementary particles fields described standard model ref name oerter ref model accounts


known particles matter quarks leptons interact via strong weak electromagnetic fundamental forces ref name oerter dynamics described terms matter particles exchanging gauge bosons gluons w z bosons photons respectively ref name gribbin ref standard model also predicts particle known higgs boson ref name oerter july cern european laboratory particle physics announced detection particle consistent higgs boson ref name eonr higgs ref integral part higgs mechanism nuclear physics field physics studies constituents interactions atomic


nuclei commonly known applications nuclear physics nuclear power generation nuclear weapons technology research provided application many fields including nuclear medicine magnetic resonance imaging ion implantation materials engineering radiocarbon dating geology archaeology atomic molecular optical atomic molecular optical physics amo study matter matter light matter interactions scale single atoms molecules three areas grouped together interrelationships similarity methods used commonality relevant energy scales three areas include


classical semi classical quantum treatments treat subject microscopic view contrast macroscopic view atomic physics studies electron shells atoms current research focuses activities quantum control cooling trapping atoms ions low temperature collision dynamics effects electron correlation structure dynamics atomic physics influenced nucleus see hyperfine splitting intra nuclear phenomena fission fusion considered part nuclear physics molecular physics focuses multi atomic structures internal external interactions matter light optical physics


interactions strong ref name cohen ref familiar examples condensed phases solids liquids arise bonding way electromagnetic force atoms ref name moore ref exotic condensed phases include superfluid ref name leggett ref bose einstein condensate ref name levy ref found certain atomic systems low temperature superconducting phase exhibited conduction electrons certain materials ref name stajiccoontzosborne ref ferromagnetic antiferromagnetic phases spins atomic lattices ref name mattis ref condensed matter physics largest field contemporary physics historically condensed matter physics grew solid state physics considered


one main subfields ref name aps dcmp ref term ''condensed matter physics'' apparently coined philip anderson renamed research group previously ' 'solid state theory'' ref name princeton anderson ref division solid state physics american physical society renamed division condensed matter physics ref name aps dcmp condensed matter physics large overlap chemistry materials science nanotechnology engineering ref name cohen astrophysics deepest visible light image universe hubble ultra deep field astrophysics astronomy application theories methods physics study stellar structure stellar evolution


origin solar system related problems cosmology astrophysics broad subject astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines physics including mechanics electromagnetism statistical mechanics thermodynamics quantum mechanics relativity nuclear particle physics atomic molecular physics discovery karl jansky radio signals emitted celestial bodies initiated science radio astronomy recently frontiers astronomy expanded space exploration perturbations interference earth 's atmosphere make space based observations necessary infrared ultraviolet gamma ray x ray astronomy physical cosmology study


model evolution universe includes cosmic inflation dark energy dark matter numerous possibilities discoveries anticipated emerge new data fermi gamma ray space telescope upcoming decade vastly revise clarify existing models universe ref name nasa glast ref particular potential tremendous discovery surrounding dark matter possible next several years ref name nasa glast darkmatter ref fermi search evidence dark matter composed weakly interacting massive particles complementing similar experiments large hadron collider underground detectors ibex already yielding new astrophysical


discoveries one knows creating ena energetic neutral atoms ribbon along termination shock solar wind everyone agrees means textbook picture heliosphere solar system 's enveloping pocket filled solar wind 's charged particles plowing onrushing 'galactic wind' interstellar medium shape comet wrong ref name kerr ref current research feynman diagram signed r p feynman typical phenomenon described physics magnet levitating superconductor demonstrates meissner effect research physics continually progressing large number


fronts condensed matter physics important unsolved theoretical problem high temperature superconductivity ref name legg ref many condensed matter experiments aiming fabricate workable spintronics quantum computers ref name cohen particle physics first pieces experimental evidence physics beyond standard model begun appear foremost among indications neutrinos non zero mass experimental results appear solved long standing solar neutrino problem physics massive neutrinos remains area active theoretical experimental research large hadron collider already found higgs boson future research


aims prove disprove supersymmetry extends standard model particle physics research nature major mysteries dark matter dark energy also currently ongoing although much progress made high energy quantum astronomical physics many everyday phenomena involving complexity ref name nrc v p ref chaos ref name kellert p ref turbulence ref name eames quoting feynman ref still poorly understood complex problems seem like could solved clever application dynamics mechanics remain unsolved examples include formation sandpiles nodes trickling water shape water droplets mechanisms surface tension catastrophes


self sorting shaken heterogeneous collections complex phenomena received growing attention since several reasons including availability modern mathematical methods computers enabled complex systems modeled new ways complex physics become part increasingly interdisciplinary research exemplified study turbulence aerodynamics observation pattern formation biological systems ''annual review fluid mechanics'' horace lamb said ref name goldstein ref see also list important publications physics list physicists lists physics equations relationship mathematics physics earth science neurophysics psychophysics


science tourism notes references sources cite journal last abazov first v collaboration collaboration author link experiment title direct observation strange 'b' baryon math xi b math journal physical review letters date june volume issue page doi physrevlett pmid arxiv v bibcode phrvl e cid external links http wwwphysicscentralcom physicscentral web portal run http wwwapsorg american physical society http wwwphysicsorg physicsorg web portal run http wwwioporg institute physics http mathucredu home baez physics usenet physics faq faq compiled sciphysics physics newsgroups http nobelprizeorg nobel prizes physics website nobel prize physics award outstanding contributions subject http scienceworldwolframcom physics world physics online encyclopedic dictionary


physics http wwwnaturecom naturephysics ''nature physics'' academic journal http physicsapsorg physics online magazine american physical society directory physics related media http wwwvegaorguk vega science trust science videos including physics http hyperphysicsphy astrgsuedu hbase hframehtml hyperphysics website physics astronomy mind map georgia state university https ocwmitedu courses physics physics mit ocw online course material massachusetts institute technology