common radioisotope used diagnosis technetium million procedures per year accounting nuclear medicine procedures worldwide health physics health physics also known radiation safety radiation protection health physics applied physics radiation protection health health care purposes science concerned recognition evaluation control health hazards permit safe use application ionizing radiation health physics professionals promote excellence science practice radiation protection safety background radiation radiation protection dosimetry health physics radiological


protection patients non ionizing medical radiation physics aspects non ionising radiation physics may considered radiation protection diagnostic imaging physics imaging modalities include mri optical imaging ultrasound safety considerations include areas lasers lasers applications medicine physiological measurement physiological measurements also used monitor measure various physiological parameters many physiological measurement techniques non invasive used conjunction alternative invasive methods measurement methods include electrocardiography many areas may covered specialities example medical engineering vascular science


healthcare informatics computational physics closely related fields medical physics include fields deal medical data information technology computer science medicine information communication medicine medical informatics image processing display visualization computer aided diagnosis picture archiving communication systems pacs standards dicom iso ihe hospital information systems e health telemedicine digital operating room workflow patient specific modeling medicine internet things distant monitoring telehomecare areas research academic development ecg trace non clinical physicists may may focus areas academic research point view


medicine efomp european federation organisations medical physics efomp european federation organisations medical physics acpsem australasian college physical scientists engineers medicine references external links http nucleusiaeaorg hhw medicalphysics indexhtml human health campus official website international atomic energy agency dedicated professionals radiation medicine site managed division human health department nuclear sciences applications https wwwacpsemorgau australasian college physical scientists engineers medicine acpsem http wwwcomp ocpmca canadian organization medical physicist organisation canadienne des physiciens dicaux http wwwaapmorg american association physicists medicine http wwwcfmrro romanian college


medical physicists http medicalphysicsweborg medicalphysicsweborg institute physics http scitationaiporg medphys aip medical physics portal http wwwipemacuk institute physics engineering medicine ipem uk http wwwefompeu european federation organizations medical physics efomp http wwwiomporg international organization medical physics iomp applied interdisciplinary physics


'''social constructionism''' theory knowledge sociology communication theory examines development jointly constructed understandings world form basis shared assumptions reality theory centers notion meanings developed coordination others rather separately within individual often characterised neo marxian also neo kantian theory social constructionism replaces transcendental subject concept society time descriptive normative social constructs obvious instance money concept

Social science
Sociology
Interpretive sociology
Social constructionism


currency people agreed give importance value ref name society culture mcat khan academy date september url https wwwyoutubecom watchv u xajnazik access date may ref others controversial hotly debated concept self self identity articulates view people society construct ideas concepts may exist without existence people language validate concepts weak strong social constructionism ref name weak social constructionism relies brute facts facts socially constructed arguably facts physical particles institutional facts formed


social conventions ref name objected strong social constructionism undermines foundation science pursuit objectivity theory defies attempt falsifying overview social construct construction meaning notion connotation placed object event society adopted inhabitants society respect view deal object event social constructionism posits phenomena independent foundation outside mental linguistic representation people develop throughout


history becomes shared reality linguistic viewpoint social constructionism centres meaning internal reference within language words refer words definitions definitions rather external reality origins person creates constructed reality drives behaviors th century michel de montaigne wrote need interpret interpretations interpret things friedrich nietzsche put similarly facts exist interpretations book ''public opinion'' walter lippmann said real environment altogether big


complex fleeting direct acquaintance people environment person constructs pseudo environment subjective biased necessarily abridged mental image world degree everyone 's pseudo environment fiction people live world think feel different ones lippman 's environment might called reality pseudo environment seems equivalent today called constructed reality social constructionism recently rooted symbolic interactionism phenomenology ref name ref berger luckmann 's social construction reality published concept


found hold four decades later much theory research pledged basic tenet people make social cultural worlds time worlds make ref name viewpoint uproots social processes simultaneously playful serious reality revealed concealed created destroyed activities ref name provides substitute western intellectual tradition researcher earnestly seeks certainty representation reality means propositions ref name social constructionist terms taken granted realities cultivated interactions among


various organizational managerial phenomena appear commonplace rise ref name andy lock tom strong trace fundamental tenets social constructionism back work th century italian political philosopher rhetorician historian jurist giambattista vico ref name encyclopedia ref berger luckmann give credit max scheler large influence created idea sociology knowledge influenced social construction theory according lock strong influential thinkers whose work affected development social constructionism edmund husserl alfred schutz maurice merleau ponty martin heidegger hans georg


gadamer paul ricoeur j rgen habermas emmanuel levinas mikhail bakhtin valentin volosinov lev vygotsky george herbert mead ludwig wittgenstein gregory bateson harold garfinkel erving goffman anthony giddens michel foucault ken gergen mary gergen rom harre john shotter ref name encyclopedia applications personal construct psychology since appearance personal construct psychology pcp mainly developed constructivist theory personality system transforming individual meaning making processes largely therapeutic contexts based around notion persons scientists form test theories worlds therefore represented one first


attempts appreciate constructive nature experience meaning persons give experience social constructionism sc hand mainly developed form critique aimed transform oppressing effects social meaning making processes years grown cluster different approaches single sc position however different approaches generic term sc loosely linked shared assumptions language knowledge reality usual way thinking relationship pcp sc treating two separate entities


similar aspects also different others way conceptualizing relationship logical result circumstantial differences emergence subsequent analyses differences pcp sc framed around several points tension formulated binary oppositions personal social individualist relational agency structure constructivist constructionist although important issues contemporary psychology elaborated contributions polarized positioning also sustained idea separation pcp sc paving way limited opportunities dialogue ref name theory psychology ref reframing relationship pcp


sc may use pcp sc communities one hand extends enriches sc theory points benefits applying pcp toolkit constructionist therapy research hand reframing contributes pcp theory points new ways addressing social construction therapeutic conversations ref name theory psychology educational psychology like social constructionism social constructivism states people work together construct artifacts social constructionism focuses artifacts created social interactions group social constructivism focuses individual 's


learning takes place interactions group social constructivism studied many educational psychologists concerned implications teaching learning psychological dimensions social constructivism see work ernst von glasersfeld sullivan palincsar systemic therapy systemic models use social constructionism include narrative therapy solution focused therapy crime potter kappeler introduction ''constructing crime perspective making news social problems'' wrote public opinion crime facts demonstrate congruence


madman criminal based society 's definition may force follow label resulting criminal behavior ref name lindgren etal communication studies bibliographic review social constructionism used within communication studies published features good overview resources disciplinary perspective collection essays published galanes leeds hurwitz also useful anyone interested social construction actually works communication ref name galanes leeds hurwitz ref collection result conference held sponsored national communication association


summer institute entitled catching act collaboration enrich discipline social constructionist approaches briefly basic assumption group individuals jointly construct create understandings world meanings give encounters others various products others create heart matter assumption meanings constructed ''jointly'' coordination others rather individually thus term choice often ' 'social'' construction ref name auto ref event john stewart keynote presentation suggested time


choose single term among set common social constructionist social constructivism social constructivist proposed using simpler form ' 'social construction'' present conference agreed use term often used book communication scholars since ref name auto discussion conference participants developed common list principles communication process construct reconstruct social worlds communication constitutive communication makes things every action consequential make things together construct social worlds share


others relational beings perceive many social worlds existing simultaneously continue shape people 's social worlds may different inherit identity behavior conveys meaning contexts afford constrain meanings ethical implications consequences derive principles ref name auto survey publications communication relating social construction found major topics covered identity language narratives organizations conflict media history development berger luckmann constructionism became prominent us


peter l berger thomas luckmann 's book ''the social construction reality'' berger luckmann argue knowledge including basic taken granted common sense knowledge everyday reality derived maintained social interactions model people interact understanding perceptions everyday life shared others common knowledge reality turn reinforced interations since common sense knowledge negotiated people human typifications significations institutions come presented part objective reality particularly future generations


involved original process negotiation example parents negotiate rules children follow rules confront children externally produced givens cannot change berger luckmann 's social constructionism roots phenomenology links heidegger edmund husserl teaching alfred schutz also berger 's phd adviser narrative turn social constructionist theory underwent transformation constructionist sociologists engaged work michel foucault others narrative turn social sciences worked practice


particularly affected emergent sociology science growing field science technology studies particular karin knorr cetina bruno latour barry barnes steve woolgar others used social constructionism relate science typically characterized objective facts processes social construction goal showing human subjectivity imposes facts take objective solely way around particularly provocative title line thought andrew pickering 's ''constructing quarks sociological history particle physics'' time social constructionism shaped studies


technology sofield especially social construction technology scot authors wiebe bijker trevor pinch maarten van wesel etc despite common perception objective mathematics immune social constructionist accounts sociologists sal restivo randall collins mathematicians including reuben hersh philip j davis philosophers including paul ernest published social constructionist treatments mathematics postmodernism within social constructionist strand postmodernism concept socially constructed reality stresses ongoing mass building worldviews individuals dialectical interaction society time numerous realities


formed comprise according view imagined worlds human social existence activity gradually crystallized habit institutions propped language conventions given ongoing legitimacy mythology religion philosophy maintained therapies socialization subjectively internalized upbringing education become part identity social citizens book ''the reality social construction'' british sociologist dave elder vass places development social constructionism one outcome legacy postmodernism writes perhaps widespread influential product process coming terms legacy


postmodernism social constructionism booming within domain social theory since ref name autogenerated dave elder vass ''the reality social construction'' cambridge university press ref criticisms stronger criticism levelled social constructionism generally ignores contribution made physical biological sciences misuses social sciences ref name sokal ref notably social constructionists assume society descriptive normative term thereby failing provide adequate explanation mean society whether ideological concept description historically


located community theory social constructionism rejects influences biology behaviour culture suggests unimportant achieve understanding human behaviour scientific consensus behaviour complex outcome biological cultural influences social constructionism criticized overly narrow focus society culture causal factor human behavior excluding influence innate biological tendencies psychologists steven pinker ''the blank slate'' well asian studies scholar edward slingerland ''what science offers humanities''


john tooby leda cosmides used term standard social science model refer social theories believe fail take account evolved properties brain social constructionism equally denies downplays significant extent role meaning language individual seeking configure language overall structure rather historical instrument used individuals communicate personal experiences world particularly case cultural studies personal pre linguistic experiences disregarded irrelevant seen completely situated constructed


socio economical superstructure illustrate believed intellectual weaknesses social constructionism postmodernism physics professor alan sokal submitted article academic journal ''social text'' deliberately written incomprehensible including phrases jargon typical articles published journal submission published experiment see journal would publish article liberally salted nonsense sounded good b flattered editors' ideological preconceptions ref name sokal sokal coauthor jean bricmont published book ''fashionable nonsense'' criticized


postmodernism social constructionism philosopher paul boghossian also written social constructionism follows ian hacking 's argument many adopt social constructionism potentially liberating stance things way social conventions opposed naturally possible change would rather states social constructionists argue refrain making absolute judgements true instead state something true light theory countering


states ref woolgar pawluch argue constructionists tend 'ontologically gerrymander' social conditions analysis see also references reading books boghossian p ''fear knowledge relativism constructivism'' oxford university press online review http ndprndedu news id fear knowledge relativism constructivism berger p l luckmann ''the social construction reality treatise sociology knowledge'' anchor best j ''images issues typifying contemporary social problems'' new york gruyter burr v ''social constructionism'' nd ed routledge


ellul j ''propaganda formation men 's attitudes'' trans konrad kellen jean lerner new york knopf new york random house vintage ernst p social constructivism philosophy mathematics albany new york state university new york press galanes g j leeds hurwitz w eds ''socially constructing communication'' cresskill nj hampton press gergen k ''an invitation social construction'' los angeles sage edition first glasersfeld e von ''radical constructivism way knowing learning'' london routledgefalmer hacking ''the social construction what'' cambridge harvard university press hibberd


f j unfolding social constructionism new york springer kukla ''social constructivism philosophy science'' london routledge lowenthal p muth r constructivism e f provenzo jr ed ''encyclopedia social cultural foundations education'' pp nbsp thousand oaks ca sage mcnamee gergen k eds therapy social construction london sage mcnamee gergen k ''relational responsibility resources sustainable dialogue'' thousand oaks california sage penman r ''reconstructing communicating'' mahwah nj lawrence erlbaum poerksen b https booksgooglecom booksid eshhxhycc printsec frontcover v onepage q f false certainty uncertainty dialogues introducing constructivism exeter


willard c ''liberalism problem knowledge new rhetoric modern democracy'' chicago university chicago press wilson evolutionary social constructivism j gottshcall wilson eds ''the literary animal evolution nature narrative'' evanston il northwestern university press https webarchiveorg web http evolutionbinghamtonedu dswilson resources publications resources dsw pdf full text articles drost alexander borders narrative turn reflections concepts practices communication olivier mentz tracey mckay eds unity diversity european perspectives borders memories berlin pp nbsp mallon r http platostanfordedu entries social construction naturalistic naturalistic approaches social construction stanford


encyclopedia philosophy edward n zalta ed shotter j gergen k j social construction knowledge self others continuing conversation deetz ed ''communication yearbook '' pp nbsp thousand oaks ca sage external links communication theory consensus reality human behavior human communication social concepts social epistemology sociology knowledge sociological theories


'''internal medicine''' '''general internal medicine''' commonwealth nations medical specialty dealing prevention diagnosis treatment internal diseases physicians specializing internal medicine called '''internists''' '''physicians''' without modifier commonwealth nations internists skilled management patients undifferentiated multi system disease processes internists care hospitalized ambulatory patients may play major role teaching research internal medicine family medicine often confused equivalent commonwealth nations see internal medicine patients often seriously ill require complex investigations

Applied science
Medicine and health
Internal medicine


internists much work hospitals internists often subspecialty interests diseases affecting particular organs organ systems internal medicine also specialty within clinical pharmacy veterinary medicine etymology historical development etymology term ''internal medicine'' english rooted german term ''innere medizin'' th century internal medicine initially characterized determination underlying internal pathological causes symptoms syndromes use laboratory investigations addition bedside clinical assessment patients contrast physicians previous generations


th century physician thomas sydenham known father english medicine english hippocrates developed nosology study diseases via clinical approach diagnosis management careful bedside study natural history diseases treatment ref name meynell ref sydenham eschewed dissection corpses scrutiny internal workings body considering internal mechanisms causes symptoms ref name brought life ref thus subsequent th century rise anatomical pathology laboratory studies giovanni battista morgagni italian anatomist


th century considered father anatomical pathology ref name morgagnu ref laboratory investigations became increasingly significant contribution doctors including german physician bacteriologist robert koch th century ref name robert koch ref th century saw rise internal medicine combined clinical approach use investigations many early th century american physicians studied medicine germany brought medical field united states thus name internal medicine adopted imitation existing german term ref name echenberg ref historically oldest traces internal medicine traced ancient india ancient china


medicine confused interns doctors first year residency training officially term intern longer use ref name acponlineorg ref although internists may act primary care physicians family physicians family practitioners general practitioners gps whose training solely concentrated adults may include surgery obstetrics pediatrics american college physicians defines internists physicians specialize prevention detection treatment illnesses adults education training internists training career pathways internists vary considerably across


world many programs require previous undergraduate education prior medical school admission pre medical education typically four five years length graduate medical education programs vary length country medical education programs tertiary level courses undertaken medical school attached university united states medical school consists four years hence gaining basic medical education may typically take eight years depending jurisdiction university following completion entry level training newly graduated medical practitioners often required undertake period supervised practice licensure


' 'registration'' granted typically one two years period may referred internship conditional registration foundation programme doctors may finally follow specialty training internal medicine wish typically selected training programs competition north america period postgraduate training referred residency training followed optional fellowship internist decides train subspecialty united states countries residency training internal medicine lasts three years centers secondary tertiary levels care commonwealth countries trainees


often called senior house officers four years completion medical degree foundation core years period able advance registrar grade undergo compulsory subspecialty training including acute internal medicine dual subspecialty including internal medicine latter stage training achieved competition rather yearly progress first years postgraduate training ref name freeman ref certification specialists united states three organizations responsible certification trained internists ie doctors completed accredited residency training program


terms knowledge skills attitudes essential excellent patient care american board internal medicine american osteopathic board internal medicine board certification internal medicine subspecialties united states united states two organizations responsible certification subspecialists within field american board internal medicine american osteopathic board internal medicine physicians internists successfully pass board exams receive board certified status american board internal medicine following subspecialties recognized american board internal medicine adolescent medicine


allergy asthma immunology concerned diagnosis treatment management allergies asthma disorders immune system cardiology dealing disorders heart blood vessels clinical cardiac electrophysiology critical care medicine endocrinology dealing disorders endocrine system specific secretions called hormones gastroenterology concerned field digestive diseases geriatric medicine hematology concerned blood blood forming organs disorders hospital medicine infectious disease concerned disease caused biological agent virus bacterium parasite interventional cardiology medical oncology dealing chemotherapeutic chemical


immunotherapeutic immunological treatment cancer nephrology dealing study function diseases kidney pulmonology dealing diseases lungs respiratory tract rheumatology devoted diagnosis therapy rheumatic diseases sleep medicine sports medicine transplant hepatology american college osteopathic internists american college osteopathic internists recognizes following subspecialties allergy immunology cardiology critical care medicine endocrinology gastroenterology geriatric medicine hematology oncology infectious diseases nephrology nuclear medicine palliative medicine pulmonology rheumatology sleep medicine united kingdom united kingdom three medical royal colleges royal college physicians london


royal college physicians edinburgh royal college physicians surgeons glasgow responsible setting curricula training programmes joint royal colleges postgraduate training board jrcptb although process monitored accredited general medical council also maintains specialist register doctors completed medical school spend two years foundation training completing basic postgraduate curriculum two years core medical training ct ct three years internal medicine training imt imt imt since attaining membership royal college physicians physicians commit


one medical specialties acute medicine possible accreditations stroke medicine pre hospital emergency medicine allergy audiovestibular medicine cardiology possible accreditation stroke medicine clinical genetics clinical neurophysiology clinical pharmacology therapeutics possible accreditation stroke medicine dermatology endocrinology diabetes mellitus gastroenterology possible accreditation hepatology general internal medicine possible accreditation metabolic medicine stroke medicine genito urinary medicine geriatric medicine possible accreditation stroke medicine haematology immunology infectious diseases medical oncology clinical radiation oncology falls royal college radiologists although entry cmt mrcp


required medical ophthalmology neurology possible accreditation stroke medicine nuclear medicine paediatric cardiology pediatric subspecialty royal college paediatrics child health palliative medicine pharmaceutical medicine rehabilitation medicine possible accreditation stroke medicine renal medicine respiratory medicine rheumatology sport exercise medicine tropical medicine many training programmes provide dual accreditation general internal medicine involved general care hospitalised patients acute medicine cardiology clinical pharmacology therapeutics endocrinology diabetes mellitus gastroenterology infectious diseases renal medicine respiratory medicine often rheumatology role general medicine


period decline reemphasised royal college physicians london report future hospital commission medical diagnosis treatment medicine mainly focused art diagnosis treatment medication many subspecialties administer procedural treatment cardiology angioplasty cardioversion cardiac ablation intra aortic balloon pump critical care medicine mechanical ventilation gastroenterology endoscopy ercp nephrology dialysis pulmonology bronchoscopy see also royal australasian college physicians royal college physicians surgeons canada references reading external links http wwwaaaaiorg american academy allergy asthma immunology aaaai https wwwabaiorg


american board allergy immunology abai https webarchiveorg web http wwwacponlineorg isim international society internal medicine http wwwimsanzorgau indexcfm internal medicine society australia new zealand http wwwabimorg american board internal medicine https webarchiveorg web http csimmedicalorg canadian society internal medicine http wwwacoiorg american college osteopathic internists http wwwacponlineorg american college physicians


'''highway engineering''' engineering discipline branching civil engineering involves planning design construction operation maintenance roads bridges tunnels ensure safe effective transportation people goods ref name rogers ref ref name o'flaherty ref ref name mcgraw highway engineering mcgraw hill concise encyclopedia science technology new york mcgraw hill credo reference web february ref highway engineering became prominent towards latter half th century world war ii standards highway engineering continuously improved highway engineers must take account future traffic flows design highway intersections interchanges geometric alignment design highway

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Transportation engineering
Highway engineering


pavement materials design structural design pavement thickness pavement maintenance ref name rogers german autobahn history beginning road construction could dated time romans ref name o'flaherty advancement technology carriages pulled two horses vehicles power equivalent horses road development follow suit construction modern highways begin late th early th century ref name o'flaherty first research dedicated highway engineering initiated united kingdom introduction transport research laboratory trl


ref name o'flaherty us highway engineering became important discipline passing federal aid highway act aimed connect cities population ref name o'flaherty constant stress vehicles grew larger time passed improvements pavements needed technology date construction first motorway great britain preston bypass played major role development new pavement technology ref name o'flaherty planning development highway planning involves estimation current future traffic volumes


road network highway planning also basic need highway development highway engineers strive predict analyze possible civil impacts highway systems considerations adverse effects environment noise pollution air pollution water pollution ecological impacts ref name mcgraw financing developed countries constantly faced high maintenance cost aging transportation highways growth motor vehicle industry accompanying economic growth generated demand safer better performing less congested highways growth commerce educational institutions housing defense largely


drawn government budgets past making financing public highways challenge ref name handbook chin antony th financing highways handbook highway engineering ed tw fwa crc press ref multipurpose characteristics highways economic environment advances highway pricing technology constantly changing therefore approaches highway financing management maintenance constantly changing well ref name estache estache romero strong j long winding path private financing regulation toll roads world bank washington dc pp ref environmental impact assessment economic growth community


dependent upon highway development enhance mobility however improperly planned designed constructed maintained highways disrupt social economic characteristics size community common adverse impacts highway development include damage habitat bio diversity creation air water pollution noise vibration generation damage natural landscape destruction community 's social cultural structure highway infrastructure must constructed maintained high qualities standards ref name aziz aziz environmental impact assessment highway development handbook highway engineering ed tw fwa crc press ref three key steps integrating


environmental considerations planning scheduling construction maintenance highways process known environmental impact assessment eia systematically deals following elements ref name aziz identification full range possible impacts natural socio economic environment ref name aziz evaluation quantification impacts ref name aziz formulation measures avoid mitigate compensate anticipated impacts ref name aziz highway safety highway systems generate highest price human injury death nearly million persons injured traffic accidents every year including million


deaths road traffic injury single leading cause unintentional death first five decades human life ref name johnston johnston ian highway safety handbook highway engineering ed tw fwa crc press ref management safety systematic process strives reduce occurrence severity traffic accidents man machine interaction road traffic systems unstable poses challenge highway safety management key increasing safety highway systems design build maintain far tolerant average range man machine interaction


highways technological advancements highway engineering improved design construction maintenance methods used years advancements allowed newer highway safety innovations ref name johnston ensuring situations opportunities identified considered implemented appropriate evaluated every phase highway planning design construction maintenance operation increase safety highway systems ref name mcgraw design appropriate location alignment shape highway selected design stage highway design involves consideration three major factors human vehicular roadway


highways certain site topography highway geometric design primarily refers visible elements highways highway engineers design geometry highways must also consider environmental social effects design surrounding infrastructure ref name cheu cheu rl highway geometric design handbook highway engineering ed tw fwa crc press ref certain considerations must properly addressed design process successfully fit highway site 's topography maintain safety design considerations ref name cheu design speed design traffic volume number lanes level service


los sight distance alignment super elevation grades cross section lane width structure gauge horizontal vertical clearance operational performance highway seen drivers' reactions design considerations interaction ref name cheu materials materials used roadway construction progressed time dating back early days roman empire advancements methods materials characterized applied pavement structural design accompanied advancement materials ref name tam tam weng highway materials handbook highway engineering ed tw fwa crc press ref three major


types pavement surfaces pavement quality concrete pqc portland cement concrete pcc hot mix asphalt hma underneath wearing course material layers give structural support pavement system underlying surfaces may include either aggregate base sub base layers treated base sub base layers additionally underlying natural treated sub grade treated layers may cement treated asphalt treated lime treated additional support ref name tam new material flexible pavement design flexible asphalt tarmac pavement typically consists three four layers four layer flexible pavement


surface course base course subbase course constructed compacted natural soil subgrade building three layer flexible pavement subbase layer used base course placed directly natural subgrade ref name mamlouk mamlouk michael design flexible pavements handbook highway engineering ed tw fwa crc press ref flexible pavement 's surface layer constructed hot mix asphalt hma unstabilized aggregates typically used base course however base course could also stabilized asphalt foamed bitumen roadstone recycling portland cement another stabilizing agent subbase


generally constructed local aggregate material top subgrade often stabilized cement lime ref name mamlouk flexible pavement highest stress occurs surface stress decreases depth pavement increases therefore highest quality material needs used surface lower quality materials used depth pavement increases term flexible used asphalts ability bend deform slightly return original position traffic load applied removed possible


small deformations become permanent lead rutting wheel path extended time ref name mamlouk service life flexible pavement typically designed range years ref name rigid required thicknesses layer flexible pavement vary widely depending materials used magnitude number repetitions traffic loads environmental conditions desired service life pavement factors taken consideration design process pavement last designed life without excessive distresses ref


name mamlouk rigid pavement design rigid pavements generally used constructing airports major highways interstate highway system addition commonly serve heavy duty industrial floor slabs port harbor yard pavements heavy vehicle park terminal pavements like flexible pavements rigid highway pavements designed weather long lasting structures serve modern day high speed traffic offering high quality riding surfaces safe vehicular travel function structural layers distribute vehicular wheel loads manner induced stresses transmitted subgrade soil acceptable magnitudes ref name rigid fwa


tf wei liu design rigid pavements handbook highway engineering ed tw fwa crc press ref portland cement concrete pcc common material used construction rigid pavement slabs reason popularity due availability economy rigid pavements must designed endure frequently repeated traffic loadings typical designed service life rigid pavement years lasting twice long flexible pavement ref name rigid one major design consideration rigid pavements reducing fatigue failure due


repeated stresses traffic fatigue failure common among major roads typical highway experience millions wheel passes throughout service life addition design criteria traffic loadings tensile stresses due thermal energy must also taken consideration pavement design progressed many highway engineers noted thermally induced stresses rigid pavements intense imposed wheel loadings due relatively low tensile strength concrete thermal stresses extremely important design considerations rigid pavements ref name rigid rigid pavements


generally constructed three layers prepared subgrade base subbase concrete slab concrete slab constructed according designed choice plan dimensions slab panels directly influencing intensity thermal stresses occurring within pavement addition slab panels temperature reinforcements must designed control cracking behavior slab joint spacing determined slab panel dimensions ref name rigid three main types concrete pavements commonly used jointed plain concrete pavement jpcp jointed reinforced concrete pavement jrcp continuously reinforced concrete pavements crcp jpcps


highways however common three prestressed pavements allow thinner slab thickness partly wholly neutralizing thermally induced stresses loadings ref name rigid flexible pavement overlay design service life flexible pavement accumulated traffic loads may cause excessive rutting cracking inadequate ride quality inadequate skid resistance problems avoided adequately maintaining pavement solution usually excessive maintenance costs pavement may inadequate structural capacity projected traffic loads ref name fpod tia mang overlay design flexible pavements


two main categories flexible pavement overlay design procedures ref name fpod component analysis design deflection based design rigid pavement overlay design near end rigid pavement 's service life decision must made either fully reconstruct worn pavement construct overlay layer considering overlay constructed rigid pavement reached end service life often economically attractive apply overlay layers frequently required overlay thickness structurally sound rigid pavement much smaller one reached


end service life rigid flexible overlays used rehabilitation rigid pavements jpcp jrcp crcp ref name rpod fwa tf overlay design rigid pavements handbook highway engineering ed tw fwa crc press ref three subcategories rigid pavement overlays organized depending bonding condition pavement overlay existing slab interface ref name rpod bonded overlays unbonded overlays partially bonded overlays drainage system design designing proper drainage highway systems crucial success highway graded built remain high


determine situations particular design process applied usually combination several appropriate methods materials direct water away structure ref name drainage pavement subsurface drainage underdrains help provide extended life excellent reliable pavement performance excessive moisture concrete pavement cause pumping cracking joint failure erosion control crucial component design highway drainage systems surface drainage must allowed precipitation drain away structure highways must designed slope crown runoff water directed


shoulder road ditch away site designing drainage system requires prediction runoff infiltration open channel analysis culvert design directing surface water appropriate location ref name drainage construction maintenance management highway construction highway construction generally preceded detailed surveys subgrade preparation ref name mcgraw methods technology constructing highways evolved time become increasingly sophisticated advancement technology raised level skill sets required manage highway construction projects skill varies project project depending factors


project 's complexity nature contrasts new construction reconstruction differences urban region rural region projects ref name construction gunalan kn highway construction handbook highway engineering ed tw fwa crc press ref number elements highway construction broken technical commercial elements system ref name construction examples listed '''technical elements''' materials material quality installation techniques traffic '''commercial elements''' contract understanding environmental aspects political aspects legal aspects public concerns typically construction begins lowest elevation site regardless


project type moves upward reviewing geotechnical specifications project information given ref name construction existing ground conditions required equipment excavation grading material transportation site properties materials excavated dewatering requirements necessary grade work shoring requirements excavation protection water quantities compaction dust control subbase course construction subbase course layer designed carefully selected materials located subgrade base course pavement subbase thickness generally range inches


designed withstand required structural capacity pavement section ref name construction common materials used highway subbase include gravel crushed stone subgrade soil stabilized cement fly ash lime permeable subbase courses becoming prevalent ability drain infiltrating water surface also prevent subsurface water reaching pavement surface ref name construction local material costs excessively expensive material requirements increase structural bearing sub base readily available highway engineers increase bearing capacity


underlying soil mixing portland cement foamed asphalt use polymer soil stabilization cross linking styrene acrylic polymer increases california bearing ratio situ materials factor base course construction base course region pavement section located directly surface course subbase course base course constructed directly layer otherwise built directly top subgrade typical base course thickness ranges inches governed underlying layer properties ref name construction


heavy loads continuously applied pavement surfaces base layer absorbs majority stresses generally base course constructed untreated crushed aggregate crushed stone slag gravel base course material stability construction traffic good drainage characteristics ref name construction base course materials often treated cement bitumen calcium chloride sodium chloride fly ash lime treatments provide improved support heavy loads frost susceptibility serves moisture barrier base surface layers ref name construction surface course construction


experienced construction crew committed work quality equipment control ref name construction construction issues asphalt mix segregation laydown compaction joints prime coat low viscosity asphalt applied base course prior laying hma surface course coat bonds loose material creating cohesive layer base course asphalt surface ref name construction tack coat low viscosity asphalt emulsion used create bond existing pavement surface new asphalt overlay tack coats typically applied adjacent pavements curbs assist bonding


hma concrete ref name construction portland cement concrete pcc portland cement concrete surface courses referred rigid pavements concrete pavements three general classifications concrete pavements jointed plain jointed reinforced continuously reinforced ref name construction traffic loadings transferred sections larger aggregates pcc mix inter lock together load transfer devices transverse joints surface dowel bars used load transferring devices efficiently transfer loads across transverse joints maintaining joint 's horizontal vertical alignment tie bars deformed steel bars placed along


longitudinal joints hold adjacent pavement sections place ref name construction highway maintenance overall purpose highway maintenance fix defects preserve pavement 's structure serviceability defects must defined understood recorded order create appropriate maintenance plan maintenance planning solving optimisation problem predictive predictive maintenance planning empirical data driven methods give accurate results mechanical models defects differ flexible rigid pavements ref name maintenance van wijk ian highway maintenance handbook highway engineering ed tw fwa crc press ref four main objectives


highway maintenance repair functional pavement defects extend functional structural service life pavement maintain road safety signage keep road reserve acceptable condition routine maintenance practices highway systems components maintained original built condition ref name maintenance project management project management involves organization structuring project activities inception completion activities could construction infrastructure highways bridges major minor maintenance activities related constructing infrastructure entire project involved activities must handled professional


manner completed within deadlines budget addition minimizing social environmental impacts essential successful project management ref name management walker derek kumar arun project management highway construction handbook highway engineering ed tw fwa crc press ref see also highway parkway controlled access highway interstate highway system limited access highway parkway strategic highway network design consideration breakover angle degree curvature geometric design roads pavement engineering road furniture road traffic safety traffic barrier traffic light traffic sign transition curve references external links highway design standards http wwwonlinepublicationsaustroadscomau script homeasp australia http wwwstandardsforhighwayscouk united kingdom http wwwaggrebindcom roads


aggrebind https bookstoretransportationorg item detailsaspxid united states america aashto https wwwazdotgov business engineering construction roadway engineering roadway design standards guidelines arizona usa http wwwdotcagov hq oppd hdm hdmtochtm california usa http wwwctgov dot cwp viewaspa q dotnav connecticut usa http transportationkygov design standard standard drawingshtml kentucky usa https wwwdotnygov divisions engineering design dqab hdm new york usa http wwwstatenjus transportation eng documents rdme foreworde shtm new jersey usa http onlinemanualstxdotgov txdotmanuals rdw indexhtm texas usa https webarchiveorg web http roadwaystandardsdotwigov standards fdm wisconsin usa reading https booksgooglecom bookshl en id dl bjzk cc dq human factors highway engineers printsec frontcover source web ots cus seyrze sig b rvjfq fczo pktly cfodc k ppa human factors highway engineers googlebooks transportation engineering road infrastructure highways


jak stat signaling pathway standards care one paramount developments modern rheumatology rheumatologist '''rheumatologist''' physician specializes field medical sub specialty called rheumatology rheumatologist holds board certification specialized training attaining medical degree fellowship programs united states specialist registrar positions united kingdom pakistan dm india equivalent programs elsewhere world united states training field requires four years undergraduate school four years medical school three years

Applied science
Medicine and health
Internal medicine
Rheumatology


residency followed two three years additional fellowship training requirements may vary countries rheumatologists internists qualified additional postgraduate training experience diagnosis treatment arthritis diseases joints muscles bones many rheumatologists also conduct research determine cause better treatments disabling sometimes fatal diseases treatment modalities based scientific research currently practice rheumatology largely evidence based rheumatologists treat arthritis autoimmune diseases pain disorders affecting joints osteoporosis types diseases including


rheumatoid arthritis osteoarthritis gout lupus back pain osteoporosis tendinitis serious diseases difficult diagnose treat treat soft tissue problems related musculoskeletal system sports related soft tissue disorders diseases diseases diagnosed managed rheumatologists include degenerative arthropathies osteoarthritis inflammatory arthropathies rheumatoid arthritis spondyloarthropathies ankylosing spondylitis reactive arthritis reactive arthropathy psoriatic arthropathy enteropathic arthropathy juvenile idiopathic arthritis jia crystal arthropathies gout pseudogout septic arthritis systemic conditions connective tissue diseases medical laser treatment rheumatism lupus ehlers danlos syndrome sj gren 's


syndrome scleroderma systemic sclerosis polymyositis dermatomyositis polymyalgia rheumatica mixed connective tissue disease relapsing polychondritis adult onset still 's disease sarcoidosis fibromyalgia myofascial pain syndrome vasculitis microscopic polyangiitis eosinophilic granulomatosis polyangiitis granulomatosis polyangiitis polyarteritis nodosa henoch sch nlein purpura serum sickness giant cell arteritis temporal arteritis takayasu 's arteritis beh et 's disease kawasaki disease mucocutaneous lymph node syndrome thromboangiitis obliterans hereditary periodic fever syndromes soft tissue rheumatism local diseases lesions affecting joints structures around joints including tendons ligaments capsules bursae stress fractures muscles nerve entrapment vascular lesions ganglia example low back pain tennis elbow golfer 's elbow olecranon bursitis


cytopathology chemical pathology fluid aspirated affected joints eg differentiate septic arthritis gout treatment rheumatic diseases treated analgesics nsaids nonsteroidal anti inflammatory drug steroids serious cases dmards disease modifying antirheumatic drugs monoclonal antibodies infliximab adalimumab tnf inhibitor etanercept methotrexate moderate severe rheumatoid arthritis biologic agent rituximab anti b cell therapy licensed use refractory rheumatoid arthritis physiotherapy vital treatment many rheumatological disorders occupational therapy help patients find alternative ways common movements would otherwise


restricted disease patients rheumatoid arthritis often need long term coordinated multidisciplinary team approach towards management individual patients treatment often tailored according individual needs patient also dependent response tolerability medications rheumasurgery ''rheumasurgery'' sometimes called rheumatoid surgery subfield orthopedics occupied surgical treatment patients rheumatic diseases purpose interventions limit disease activity soothe pain improve function rheumasurgical interventions divided two groups one early synovectomies


removal inflamed synovia order prevent spreading stop destruction group called corrective intervention ie intervention done destruction taken place among corrective interventions joint replacements removal loose bone cartilage fragments variety interventions aimed repositioning stabilizing joints arthrodesis research directions recently large body scientific research deals background autoimmune disease cause many rheumatic disorders also field osteoimmunology emerged examine interactions immune


system joints bones epidemiological studies medication trials also conducted rheumatology research foundation largest private funding source rheumatology research training united states history rheumasurgery emerged cooperation rheumatologists orthopedic surgeons heinola finland norwegian investigation estimated least patients rheumatic symptoms needed rheumasurgery integrated part treatment european rheumatoid arthritis surgical society erass founded around turn st century focus treatment patients rheumatic disease shifted


'''development economics''' branch economics deals economic aspects development process low income countries focus methods promoting economic development economic growth structural change also improving potential mass population example health education workplace conditions whether public private channels development economics involves creation theories methods aid determination policies practices implemented either domestic international level may involve restructuring market incentives using

Social science
Economics
Development economics


mathematical methods intertemporal optimization project analysis may involve mixture quantitative qualitative methods common topics include growth theory poverty inequality human capital institutions unlike many fields economics approaches development economics may incorporate social political factors devise particular plans ref name economic development todaro michael stephen smith ''economic development'' th ed addison wesley series economics ref also unlike many fields economics consensus students know ref name leading issues meier gerald james e rauch ''leading issues economic development'' th ed oxford


subsidies home industries advocated mercantilist development theory also advocated colonialism theorists associated mercantilism include philipp von h rnigk ''austria will'' gave comprehensive statement mercantilist theory emphasizing production export led economy france mercantilist policy associated th century finance minister jean baptiste colbert whose policies proved influential later american development mercantilist ideas continue theories economic nationalism neomercantilism economic nationalism alexander hamilton credited father national system following mercantilism related theory


economic nationalism promulgated th century related development industrialization united states germany notably policies american system america zollverein customs union germany significant difference mercantilism de emphasis colonies favor focus domestic production names associated th century economic nationalism first united states secretary treasury alexander hamilton german american friedrich list american economist henry clay hamilton 's ''report manufactures'' ''magnum opus'' founding text american system


american politician henry clay later abraham lincoln influence economist henry charles carey forms economic nationalism neomercantilism also key japan 's development th th centuries recent development four asian tigers hong kong south korea taiwan singapore significantly china following brexit united states presidential election experts argued new kind self seeking capitalism popularly known trumponomics could considerable impact cross border investment flows long term capital allocation post wwii theories origins


modern development economics often traced need likely problems industrialization eastern europe aftermath world war ii key authors paul rosenstein rodan kurt mandelbaum ragnar nurkse sir hans wolfgang singer war economists turn concerns towards asia africa latin america heart studies authors simon kuznets w arthur lewis analysis economic growth also structural transformation linear stages growth model early theory development economics linear stages growth model first formulated


w w rostow ''the stages growth non communist manifesto'' following work marx list theory modifies marx 's stages theory development focuses accelerated accumulation capital utilization domestic international savings means spurring investment primary means promoting economic growth thus development ref name economic development linear stages growth model posits series five consecutive stages development countries must go process development stages traditional society pre conditions


take take drive maturity age high mass consumption simple versions harrod domar model provide mathematical illustration argument improved capital investment leads greater economic growth ref name economic development theories criticized recognizing necessary capital accumulation sufficient condition development say early simplistic theory failed account political social institutional obstacles development furthermore theory developed early years cold war largely derived successes


criticized lacking theoretical framework ref name economic development international dependence theory international dependence theories gained prominence reaction failure earlier theories lead widespread successes international development unlike earlier theories international dependence theories origins developing countries view obstacles development primarily external nature rather internal theories view developing countries economically politically dependent powerful developed countries interest maintaining dominant position three different major formulations international dependence theory neocolonial dependence


theory false paradigm model dualistic dependence model first formulation international dependence theory neocolonial dependence theory origins marxism views failure many developing nations undergo successful development result historical development international capitalist system ref name economic development neoclassical theory first gaining prominence rise several conservative governments developed world neoclassical theories represent radical shift away international dependence theories neoclassical theories argue governments intervene economy words theories claiming


unobstructed free market best means inducing rapid successful development competitive free markets unrestrained excessive government regulation seen able naturally ensure allocation resources occurs greatest efficiency possible economic growth raised stabilized ref name economic development important note several different approaches within realm neoclassical theory subtle important differences views regarding extent market left unregulated different takes neoclassical theory ''free market approach''


success failure policy recommendations worldwide consistently incorporated prevailing academic writings trade development ref name economic development market friendly approach unlike two recent development often associated world bank approach still advocates free markets recognizes many imperfections markets many developing nations thus argues government intervention effective means fixing imperfections ref name economic development topics research development economics also includes topics third world debt functions organisations


international monetary fund world bank fact majority development economists employed consulting receive funding institutions like imf world bank many economists interested ways promoting stable sustainable growth poor countries areas promoting domestic self reliance education lowest income countries world economic issues merge social political ones referred development studies geography development economists jeffrey sachs andrew mellinger john gallup argue


nation 's geographical location topography key determinants predictors economic prosperity ref name ref areas developed along coast near navigable waterways far wealthier densely populated inland furthermore countries outside tropic zones temperate climates also developed considerably located within tropic cancer tropic capricorn climates outside tropic zones described temperate near hold roughly quarter world 's population produce half world 's gnp yet account world 's inhabited area ref


name understanding different geographies climates imperative argue future aid programs policies facilitate must account differences economic development ethnicity growing body research emerging among development economists since late th century focusing interactions ethnic diversity economic development particularly level nation state research looks empirical economics macro micro level field study particularly heavy sociological approach conservative branch research focuses tests causality


relationship different levels ethnic diversity economic performance smaller radical branch argues role neoliberal economics enhancing causing ethnic conflict moreover comparing two theoretical approaches brings issue endogeneity endogenicity questions remains highly contested uncertain field research well politically sensitive largely due possible policy implications role ethnicity economic development much discussion among researchers centers around defining measuring two key related variables '''ethnicity''' '' 'diversity''' debated whether ethnicity defined


redefined according clan groups ref name alesina also much discussion academia concerning creation index ethnic heterogeneity several indices proposed order model ethnic diversity regards conflict easterly levine proposed ethno linguistic fractionalization index defined frac elf defined math sum n math ' 's sub sub '' size group ''i'' percentage total population ref name alesina elf index measure probability two randomly chosen individuals belong different ethno linguistic groups ref name alesina researchers also applied


pool suggested yet see robust economy emerge nation high degree linguistic diversity ref name pool jonathan research pool used size largest native language community percentage population measure linguistic diversity ref name pool jonathan much later however horowitz pointed highly diverse highly homogeneous societies exhibit less conflict similarly collier hoeffler provided evidence highly homogenous highly heterogeneous societies exhibit lower risk civil war societies polarized


greater risk ref name collier ref matter fact research suggests society two ethnic groups likely experience civil war either two extremes ref name collier nonetheless mauro points ethno linguistic fractionalization positively correlated corruption turn negatively correlated economic growth moreover study economic growth african countries easterly levine find linguistic fractionalization plays significant role reducing national income growth explaining poor policies ref name referencea ref addition empirical research us


municipal level revealed ethnic fractionalization based race may correlated poor fiscal management lower investments public goods finally recent research would propose ethno linguistic fractionalization indeed negatively correlated economic growth polarized societies exhibit greater public consumption lower levels investment frequent civil wars ref name referencea economic development impact ethnic conflict increasingly attention drawn role economics ' 'spawning'' ''cultivating'' '''ethnic conflict''' critics earlier development theories mentioned point ethnicity ethnic conflict cannot treated


exogenous variables ref name rrpsagepub prasch robert e http rrpsagepubcom content neoliberalism ethnic conflict ''review radical political economics'' web retrieved february ref body literature discusses economic growth development particularly context globalizing world characterized free trade appears leading extinction homogenization languages manuel castells asserts widespread destructuring organizations delegitimation institutions fading away major social movements ephemeral cultural expressions characterize globalization lead renewed search meaning one based identity rather


practices barber lewis argue culturally based movements resistance emerged reaction threat modernization perceived actual neoliberal development different note chua suggests ethnic conflict often results envy majority toward wealthy minority benefited trade neoliberal world ref name rrpsagepub argues conflict likely erupt political manipulation vilification minority ref name rrpsagepub prasch points economic growth often occurs tandem increased inequality ethnic religious organizations may seen


assistance outlet disadvantaged ref name rrpsagepub however empirical research piazza argues economics unequal development little social unrest form terrorism ref name piazza james ref rather diverse societies terms ethnic religious demography political systems large complex multiparty systems likely experience terrorism homogeneous states parties national level ref name piazza james recovery conflict civil war violent conflict economic development deeply intertwined paul collier describes poor countries


prone civil conflict conflict lowers incomes catching countries conflict trap violent conflict destroys physical capital equipment infrastructure diverts valuable resources military spending discourages investment disrupts exchange recovery civil conflict uncertain countries maintain stability experience peace dividend rapid accumulation physical capital investment flows back recovering country high return however successful recovery depends quality legal system protection private property investment productive countries higher quality institutions firms experienced civil war


sensitive quality legal system similar firms never exposed conflict growth indicator controversy per capita gross domestic product gdp per head used many developmental economists approximation general national well however measures criticized measuring economic growth well enough especially countries much economic activity part measured financial transactions housekeeping self homebuilding funding available accurate measurements made publicly available economists use studies


including private institutional fraud countries even though per capita gdp measured make economic well appear smaller really developing countries discrepancy could still bigger developed country people may perform outside financial transactions even higher value service housekeeping homebuilding gifts households counseling lifestyle coaching valuable home cor service time management even free choice considered add value lifestyles without necessarily increasing financial transaction amounts recent theories human development


begun see beyond purely financial measures development example measures medical care available education equality political freedom one measure used genuine progress indicator relates strongly theories distributive justice actual knowledge creates growth largely unproven however recent advances econometrics accurate measurements many countries creating new knowledge compensating effects variables determine probable causes merely correlational statistics recent developments recent theories revolve around questions variables inputs correlate affect economic growth elementary


developed countries countries' acceleration technology due increased incentive structures mass education turn created framework population create adapt new innovations methods furthermore content education composed secular schooling resulted higher productivity levels modern economic growth researchers overseas development institute also highlight importance using economic growth improve human condition raising people poverty achieving millennium development goals ref name odi claire melamed kate higgins andy sumner http wwwodiorguk resources detailsaspid title millennium development goals equitable growth policy brief economic growth mdgs


overseas development institute ref despite research showing almost relation growth achievement goals statistics showing periods growth poverty levels cases actually risen eg uganda grew annually yet poverty levels rose researchers odi suggest growth necessary must equitable ref name odi concept inclusive growth shared even key world leaders former secretary general ban ki moon emphasises sustained equitable growth based dynamic structural economic change necessary


making substantial progress reducing poverty also enables faster progress towards millennium development goals economic growth necessary sufficient progress reducing poverty ref name odi researchers odi thus emphasise need ensure social protection extended allow universal access active policy measures introduced encourage private sector create new jobs economy grows opposed jobless growth seek employ people disadvantaged groups ref name odi notable development economists daron acemoglu professor economics massachusetts institute technology clark


medal winner philippe aghion professor economics london school economics coll ge de france co authored textbook economic growth forwarded schumpeterian growth established creative destruction theories mathematically peter howitt nava ashraf professor economics london school economics oriana bandiera professor economics london school economics director international growth centre abhijit banerjee professor economics massachusetts institute technology director abdul latif jameel poverty action lab co recipient nobel memorial prize economic sciences pranab bardhan professor economics


university california berkeley author texts trade development economics editor ''journal development economics'' kaushik basu professor economics cornell university author ''analytical development economics'' peter thomas bauer former professor economics london school economics author ''dissent development'' tim besley professor economics london school economics commissioner uk national infrastructure commission nancy birdsall founding president center global development cgd washington dc usa former executive vice president inter american development bank


professor economics massachusetts institute technology clark medal winner angus deaton professor economics princeton university winner nobel prize economics melissa dell professor economics harvard university clark medal winner simeon djankov research fellow financial markets group london school economics esther duflo director abdul latif jameel poverty action lab professor economics massachusetts institute technology macarthur fellow clark medal winner advocate field experiment co recipient nobel memorial prize economic sciences william easterly author


''the elusive quest growth economists' adventures misadventures tropics'' ''white man 's burden west 's efforts aid rest done much ill little good'' oded galor israeli american economist brown university editor chief ''journal economic growth'' principal journal economic growth developer unified growth theory newest alternative theories endogenous growth maitreesh ghatak professor economics london school economics peter howitt canadian economist brown university past president canadian economics association introduced concept schumpeterian growth established


creative destruction theory mathematically philippe aghion seema jayachandran professor economics northwestern university dean karlan american economist northwestern university co director global poverty research lab buffett institute global studies founded innovations poverty action ipa new connecticut based research outfit dedicated creating evaluating solutions social international development problems michael kremer gates professor developing societies harvard university co recipient nobel memorial prize economic sciences eliana la ferrara professor economics bocconi university w arthur lewis winner nobel prize


economics work development economics justin yifu lin chinese economist peking university former chief economist world bank one prominent chinese economists sendhil mullainathan professor computation behavioural science university chicago booth school business nathan nunn professor economics harvard university benjamin olken professor economics massachusetts institute technology rohini pande professor economics yale university lant pritchett professor harvard university 's kennedy school government held several prominent research positions world bank nancy qian professor economics northwestern university


kate raworth senior research associate environmental change institute university oxford author ''doughnut economics seven ways think like st century economist'' formerly economist united nations development programme 's human development report senior researcher oxfam james robinson professor economics university chicago harris school public policy studies dani rodrik professor harvard university 's kennedy school government written extensively globalization mark rosenzweig professor yale university director economic growth center yale jeffrey sachs author ''the end poverty economic possibilities


time'' https archiveorg details endofpo sac preview ''common wealth economics crowded planet'' amartya sen indian economist nobel prize winner author ''development freedom'' nicholas stern professor economics london school economics former president british academy former world bank chief economist joseph stiglitz nobel prize winner former chief economist world bank john sutton emeritus professor economics london school economics erik thorbecke co originator foster greer thorbecke poverty measure also played significant role development popularization social accounting matrix michael todaro known


todaro harris todaro models migration urbanization economic development robert townsend professor massachusetts institute technology known http cieruchicagoedu thai project model many applied theoretical projects economic development anthony venables professor economics university oxford hernando de soto author path economic answer terrorism mystery capital capitalism triumphs west fails everywhere else see also demographic economics dependency theory development cooperation issues wikibooks development cooperation stories wikibooks development cooperation testimonials wikibooks development studies development wave environmental


jr development economics ''international encyclopedia social behavioral sciences'' pp nbsp https webarchiveorg web http wwwsciencedirectcom science ob articleurl udi b mrm mt vj yn rdoc hierid refworkid explode fmt summary orig na docanchor idxtype sc view c ct acct c version urlversion userid md e c acc e ed e e c abstract easterly william ''elusive quest growth economists' adventures misadventures tropics'' mit press ben fine jomo ks eds ''the new development economics post washington consensus neoliberal thinking'' zed books peter griffiths ''the economist 's tale consultant encounters hunger world bank'' zed books ks jomo ''pioneers development economics great economists development'' zed books contributions economists marshall keynes normally considered development economists gerald meier ''biography


subject evolution development economics'' oxford university press gerald meier dudley seers editors '' https webarchiveorg web http www wdsworldbankorg servlet wds ibank servletpcont details pioneers development '' world bank dwight h perkins steven radelet donald r snodgrass malcolm gillis michael roemer ''economics development'' th edition new york w w norton jeffrey sachs ''the end poverty economic possibilities time'' penguin books george mavrotas anthony shorrocks eds http wwwpalgravecom products titleaspxis ''advancing development core themes global development'' palgrave macmillan debraj ray ''development economics'' princeton university press editions spanish antoni bosch chinese edition beijing university press


indian edition oxford http pressprincetonedu titles html description https webarchiveorg web http pressprincetonedu tocs c html table contents excerpt https webarchiveorg web http pressprincetonedu chapters html ch http wwwwiderunuedu publications world institute development economics research publications discussion papers http wwwcgdevorg center global development arno tausch collaboration fred prager ''towards socio liberal theory world development'' basingstoke new york macmillan st martin 's press arno tausch editor almas heshmati ''roadmap bangalore globalization eu 's lisbon process structures global inequality'' hauppauge ny https webarchiveorg web https wwwnovapublisherscom catalog nova science publishers michael todaro stephen c smith economic development th ed addison wesley https booksgooglecom booksid oz x iyfkkc pg pa lpg pa dq michael todaro stephen c smith economic development source bl ots eaxtzly sig udvuunxgmrkrbfznhtmnzkwm c hl en ei ktos bbdytglqepyt law sa x oi book result ct result resnum ved cbkq aewaa description ''handbook development economics'' elsevier description


table contents hollis b chenery n srinivasan eds vol https webarchiveorg web http wwwelseviercom wps find bookdescriptioncws home description description https webarchiveorg web http wwwelseviercom wps find bookdescriptioncws home description description jere behrman tn srinivasan eds vol https webarchiveorg web http wwwelseviercom wps find bookdescriptioncws home description description https webarchiveorg web http wwwelseviercom wps find bookdescriptioncws home description description b paul schultz john straus eds vol https webarchiveorg web http wwwelseviercom wps find bookdescriptioncws home description description dani rodrik mark r rosenzweig eds vol https webarchiveorg web http wwwelseviercom wps find bookdescriptioncws home description description temesgen erena '' https oromianeconomistwordpresscom perverted development role institutions perverted development role institutions '' ''oromian economist'' june external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwexeteredu academics aspx development economics economic development list resources development economics http wwweconomistcom science displaystorycfmstory id technology emerging economies ''the economist'' https ideasrepecorg top topdevhtml top institutions


seat universal house justice governing body bah haifa israel '''bah faith''' '''' relatively new religion 'relatively new religion' 'world religion' 'major world religion' 'megareligion' 'independent world religion' 'new religious movement' 'alternative religion' attempts convey new relative well established faiths mainstream racial national focus teaching essential worth religions unity people essential unity religions unity humanity spiritual unity mankind advocates peace universal


education unity peoples god religious unity oneness humanity equality human beings regardless race ethnicity gender social class established bah u 'll h th century initially developed iran parts middle east faced ongoing persecution since inception religion estimated five million adherents known bah spread throughout world 's countries territories religion three central figures b b considered herald taught god would soon send prophet


universal house justice nine member supreme governing institution worldwide bah community located haifa israel near shrine b b according bah teachings god single powerful omnipotent bah u 'll h taught religion revealed orderly progressive way manifestations god founders major world religions throughout history buddha jesus muhammad noted recent b b bah u 'll h bah regard major religions fundamentally unified purpose though varied social practices interpretations bah faith


baha'is believe god periodically reveals divine messengers whose purpose transform character humankind develop within respond moral spiritual qualities religion thus seen orderly unified progressive age age god bah writings describe single personal inaccessible omniscient omnipresent imperishable almighty god creator things universe existence god universe thought eternal without beginning end though inaccessible directly god nevertheless seen conscious creation


purpose expressed messengers called manifestations god bah teachings state god great humans fully comprehend create complete accurate image therefore human understanding god achieved revelations via manifestations bah faith god often referred titles attributes example powerful loving substantial emphasis monotheism bah teachings state attributes applied god used translate godliness human terms help people concentrate attributes


worshipping god develop potentialities spiritual path according bah teachings human purpose learn know love god methods prayer reflection service others religion bah house worship wilmette illinois us bah notions progressive religious revelation result accepting validity well known religions world whose founders central figures seen manifestations god religious history interpreted series dispensations ''manifestation'' brings somewhat broader advanced revelation


rendered text scripture passed history greater lesser reliability least true substance suited time place expressed specific religious social teachings example direction prayer dietary restrictions may revoked subsequent manifestation appropriate requirement time place may established conversely certain general principles example neighbourliness charity seen universal consistent bah belief process progressive revelation end however believed


cyclical bah expect new manifestation god appear within years bah u 'll h 's revelation bah beliefs sometimes described syncretic combinations earlier religious beliefs bah however assert religion distinct tradition scriptures teachings laws history religion initially seen sect islam belief prophethood muhammad authenticity veracity qur religious specialists see independent religion religious background shi islam seen analogous


jewish context christianity established muslim institutions clergy sunni shi'a consider bah deserters apostates islam led bah persecuted bah describe faith independent world religion differing traditions relative age appropriateness bah u 'll h 's teachings modern context bah u 'll h believed fulfilled messianic expectations precursor faiths human beings ringstone symbol representing humanity 's connection god bah writings state human beings rational soul provides species


unique capacity recognize god 's status humanity 's relationship creator every human seen duty recognize god messengers conform teachings recognition obedience service humanity regular prayer spiritual practice bah writings state soul becomes closer god spiritual ideal bah belief according bah belief human dies soul permanently separated body carries next world judged based person 's actions physical world heaven


hell taught spiritual states nearness distance god describe relationships world next physical places reward punishment achieved death bah writings emphasize essential equality human beings abolition prejudice humanity seen essentially one though highly varied diversity race culture seen worthy appreciation acceptance doctrines racism nationalism caste social class gender based hierarchy seen artificial impediments unity bah teachings state unification humanity


paramount issue religious political conditions present world social principles following principles frequently listed quick summary bah teachings derived transcripts speeches given abdu'l bah tour europe north america list authoritative variety lists circulate unity god unity religion unity humanity equality women men elimination forms prejudice world peace new world order harmony religion science independent investigation truth universal compulsory education universal


auxiliary language obedience government non involvement partisan politics elimination extremes wealth poverty prohibition slavery bah 'u 'll h writes people created carry forward ever advancing civilization based development virtues warns carried excess civilization prove prolific source evil goodness kept within restraints moderation specific regard pursuit world peace bah u 'll h prescribed world embracing collective security arrangement establishment temporary era peace referred baha'i teachings


lesser peace establishment lasting peace great peace purging overwhelming corruptions necessary people world universally unite universal faith covenant bah teachings speak greater covenant universal endless lesser covenant unique religious dispensation greater covenant viewed enduring agreement god humanity manifestation god expected come humanity every thousand years times turmoil uncertainty lesser covenant


viewed agreement messenger god followers includes social practices continuation authority religion bah u 'll h abdu'l bah established rules institutions authoritative line succession leadership order maintain unity prevent schism universal house justice final authority resolve disagreements among bah within framework individual follower may propose 'inspired' 'authoritative' interpretations scripture dozen attempts schism either become extinct remained extremely small numbering hundred collectively followers


divisions regarded covenant breakers shunned shoghi effendi 's summary shoghi effendi head religion wrote following summary considered distinguishing principles bah u 'll h 's teachings said together laws ordinances ''kit b aqdas'' constitute bedrock bah faith canonical texts ''canonical texts'' bah faith writings b b bah u 'll h abdu'l bah shoghi effendi universal house justice authenticated talks abdu'l bah writings b b bah u 'll h considered


divine revelation writings talks abdu'l bah writings shoghi effendi authoritative interpretation universal house justice authoritative legislation elucidation measure divine guidance assumed texts bah u 'll h 's important writings include ''kit b aqdas'' holy book defines many laws practices individuals society ''kit b q n'' book certitude became foundation much bah belief ''gems divine mysteries'' includes doctrinal foundations although bah teachings strong emphasis social ethical


truths written brief form history style clear right float right width border px solid ddd margin em em padding em em vertical align right font size bah timeline valign top align right bah u 'll h born tehran iran valign top align right b b born shiraz iran valign top align right b b declares mission shiraz iran valign top align right b b publicly executed tabriz iran valign top align right thousands b b executed align right bah u 'll h imprisoned forced exile valign top align right bah u 'll h first announces


traces beginnings religion b b shaykhi movement immediately preceded b b merchant began preaching bearer new revelation god rejected generality islamic clergy iran ending public execution crime heresy b b taught god would soon send new messenger bah consider bah u 'll h person although distinct movements b b interwoven bah theology history bah celebrate birth death


declaration holy days consider one three central figures along bah u 'll h abdu'l bah historical account b b movement ''the dawn breakers'' considered one three books every bah master read bah community mostly confined iranian ottoman empires death bah u 'll h time followers countries asia africa leadership son abdu'l bah religion gained footing europe america consolidated iran


several places military sieges shah 's army b b imprisoned eventually executed bah see b b forerunner bah faith b b 's writings introduced concept god shall make manifest messianic figure whose coming according bah announced scriptures world 's great religions bah u 'll h founder bah faith claimed b b 's tomb located haifa israel important place pilgrimage bah remains b b brought secretly


iran holy land eventually interred tomb built spot specifically designated bah u 'll h main written works translated english b b 's collected selections writings b b estimated works bah u 'll h rz husayn al n r one early followers b b later took title bah u 'll h b b faced period persecution peaked individual b bis made failed attempt assassinate shah although acted alone government responded collective


punishment killing many b b bah u 'll h put prison shortly thereafter expelled iran traveled baghdad ottoman empire baghdad leadership revived persecuted followers b b iran iranian authorities requested removal instigated summons constantinople istanbul ottoman sultan time removal baghdad bah u 'll h first announced claim prophethood family followers said came years earlier dungeon tehran time initial exile iran


present day israel bah u 'll h spent remainder life initially strict harsh confinement allowed live home near akk still officially prisoner city died bah regard resting place bahj qiblih turn prayer day produced works lifetime arabic persian translated english period adrianople began declaring mission messenger god letters world 's


religious secular rulers including pope pius ix napoleon iii queen victoria abdu'l bah abdu'l bah abb effendi bah u 'll h 's eldest son known title abdu'l bah servant bah father left appointed abdu'l bah leader bah community designated centre covenant head faith sole authoritative interpreter bah u 'll h 's writings abdu'l bah shared father 's long exile imprisonment continued abdu'l bah 's release result young turk revolution following release led life travelling


speaking teaching maintaining correspondence communities believers individuals expounding principles bah faith extant documents abdu'l bah mostly letters fraction translated english among well known ''the secret divine civilization'' ''tablet auguste henri forel'' ''some answered questions'' additionally notes taken number talks published various volumes like ''paris talks'' journeys west shoghi effendi bah u 'll h 's ''kit b aqdas'' ''the testament abdu'l bah '' foundational documents bah administrative order


bah u 'll h established elected universal house justice abdu'l bah established appointed hereditary guardianship clarified relationship two institutions abdu'l bah appointed shoghi effendi eldest grandson first guardian bah faith shoghi effendi served years head religion death throughout lifetime shoghi effendi translated bah texts developed global plans expansion bah community developed bah world centre carried voluminous correspondence communities individuals around world built administrative structure religion preparing


unreached nations announced letters ten year crusade would followed plans direction universal house justice elected culmination crusade house justice launched nine year plan series subsequent multi year plans varying length goals followed guiding direction international bah community universal house justice bah house worship wilmette illinois oldest surviving bah house worship world since universal house justice


elected head bah faith general functions body defined writings bah u 'll h clarified writings abdu'l bah shoghi effendi functions include teaching education implementing bah laws addressing social issues caring weak poor house justice directs work bah community series multi year international plans began nine year plan current plan house justice encourages bah around world focus capacity building children 's classes junior


youth groups devotional gatherings study circles additional lines action include social action participation prevalent discourses society years represent four successive five year plans culminating centennial anniversary passing abdu'l bah annually april universal house justice sends 'ridv n' message worldwide bah community updates bah current developments provides guidance year come local regional national levels bah elect members nine person spiritual assemblies run affairs religion also appointed


individuals working various levels including locally internationally perform function propagating teachings protecting community latter serve clergy bah faith universal house justice remains supreme governing body bah faith members elected every five years members national spiritual assemblies male bah years older eligible elected universal house justice positions open male female bah demographics lotus temple bah


house worship new delhi india attracts average nbsp million visitors year bah faith medium sized religion bah published document reported nbsp million bah growing annual rate bah sources since usually estimate worldwide bah population nbsp million ''world christian encyclopedia'' estimated nbsp million bah world representing countries nbsp million source figure nbsp million bah early result rapid growth since early rough estimates suggest


around bah according two researchers baha'i faith religion grown faster every united nations region past years general population baha thus fastest growing religion growing least twice fast population almost every un region bah faith ranked ''foreign policy'' magazine world 's second fastest growing religion percentage listed ''the britannica book year'' present second widespread world 's independent


religions terms number countries represented according ''britannica'' bah faith established countries territories estimated seven million adherents worldwide additionally bah self organized nations world ''the world almanac book facts '' included following regional distribution world 's bah world 's largest bah population lives india home estimated bah also according association religion data archives bah faith largest numerical religious


daylight hours march certain exemptions specific requirements bah burial include specified prayer read interment embalming cremating body strongly discouraged bah make voluntary payment wealth excess necessary live comfortably remittance outstanding debt payments go universal house justice prohibitions bah gardens haifa israel following examples bah u 'll h 's teachings personal conduct prohibited discouraged backbiting gossip prohibited denounced drinking


selling alcohol forbidden sexual intercourse permitted husband wife thus premarital extramarital homosexual intercourse forbidden '' see also homosexuality bah faith '' participation partisan politics forbidden begging profession forbidden observance personal laws prayer fasting sole responsibility individual however occasions bah might administratively expelled community public disregard laws gross immorality expulsions administered national spiritual assembly involve shunning


laws kit b aqdas applicable present time others dependent upon existence predominantly bah society punishments arson murder laws direct conflict civil laws country residence binding every bah marriage purpose marriage bah faith mainly foster spiritual harmony fellowship unity man woman provide stable loving environment rearing children bah teachings marriage call ''fortress well


salvation'' place marriage family foundation structure human society bah u 'll h highly praised marriage discouraged divorce required chastity outside marriage bah u 'll h taught husband wife strive improve spiritual life interracial marriage also highly praised throughout bah scripture bah intending marry asked obtain thorough understanding 's character deciding marry although parents choose partners children two individuals decide marry must receive consent living biological parents whether


bah bah marriage ceremony simple compulsory part wedding reading wedding vows prescribed bah u 'll h groom bride read presence two witnesses vows verily abide god work bah u 'll h prohibited mendicant ascetic lifestyle monasticism forbidden bah taught practice spirituality engaging useful work importance self exertion service humanity one 's spiritual life emphasised bah u 'll h 's writings states work


done spirit service humanity enjoys rank equal prayer worship sight god places worship bah house worship langenhain germany bah meetings occur individuals' homes local bah centers rented facilities worldwide ten bah houses worship including eight mother temples two local houses worship built five planned construction two houses worship national three going local temples bah writings refer institution called


mas hriqu'l ad hk r dawning place mention god form center complex institutions including hospital university first ever mas hriqu'l ad hk r ishq b turkmenistan complete house worship calendar bah calendar based upon calendar established b b year consists months days four five intercalary days make full solar year bah new year corresponds traditional iranian new year called naw r z occurs vernal equinox near march


end month fasting bah communities gather beginning month meeting called feast worship consultation socializing months given name attribute god examples include bah splendour ilm knowledge jam l beauty bah week familiar consists seven days day week also named attribute god bah observe holy days throughout year work suspended days commemorate important anniversaries history


religion symbols greatest name symbols religion derived arabic word bah splendor glory numerical value common symbol nine pointed star ringstone symbol calligraphy greatest name also often encountered former consists two five pointed stars interspersed stylized bah whose shape meant recall three onenesses latter calligraphic rendering phrase bah u'l abh glory glorious five pointed star official symbol


bah faith known ''haykal'' temple initiated established b b various works written calligraphy shaped five pointed star socio economic development students ''school girls'' tehran august photograph may students ''tarbiyat school girls'' established bah community tehran school closed government decree since inception bah faith involvement socio economic development beginning giving greater freedom women promulgating promotion female education priority concern


involvement given practical expression creating schools agricultural co ops clinics religion entered new phase activity message universal house justice dated october released bah urged seek ways compatible bah teachings could become involved social economic development communities lived worldwide officially recognized bah socio economic development projects number officially recognized development projects increased current initiatives social action include activities


areas like health sanitation education gender equality arts media agriculture environment educational projects include schools range village tutorial schools large secondary schools universities bah office social economic development estimated small scale projects sustained projects bah inspired organizations united nations bah u 'll h wrote need world government age humanity 's collective life emphasis international bah community chosen support efforts improving international relations organizations league nations united