given center great deal effort devoted literature developing analogies among three transport processes turbulent transfer allow prediction one others reynolds analogy assumes turbulent diffusivities equal molecular diffusivities momentum mass sub ab sub negligible compared turbulent diffusivities liquids present drag present analogy valid analogies von karman 's prandtl 's usually result poor relations successful widely used analogy


chilton colburn j factor analogy analogy based experimental data gases liquids laminar turbulent regimes although based experimental data shown satisfy exact solution derived laminar flow flat plate information used predict transfer mass onsager reciprocal relations fluid systems described terms temperature matter density pressure known temperature differences lead heat flows warmer colder parts system similarly pressure differences

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering
Transport phenomena


lead matter flow high pressure low pressure regions reciprocal relation remarkable observation pressure temperature vary temperature differences constant pressure cause matter flow convection pressure differences constant temperature cause heat flow perhaps surprisingly heat flow per unit pressure difference density matter flow per unit temperature difference equal equality shown necessary lars onsager using statistical mechanics consequence time reversibility microscopic dynamics theory developed onsager much


general example capable treating two thermodynamic forces ref name onsager ref momentum transfer momentum transfer fluid treated continuous distribution matter study momentum transfer fluid mechanics divided two branches fluid statics fluids rest fluid dynamics fluids motion fluid flowing x direction parallel solid surface fluid x directed momentum concentration '' '' sub x sub '' '' random diffusion molecules exchange molecules ''z'' direction hence x directed momentum


transferred z direction faster slower moving layer equation momentum transfer newton 's law viscosity written follows math tau zx nu frac partial rho upsilon x partial z math '' '' sub zx sub flux x directed momentum z direction '' '' '' '' '' '' momentum diffusivity ''z'' distance transport diffusion '' '' density '' '' dynamic viscosity newton 's law viscosity simplest relationship flux momentum velocity gradient may useful note unconventional use symbol '' '' sub zx sub


indices reversed compared standard usage solid mechanics sign reversed mass transfer system contains two components whose concentration vary point point natural tendency mass transferred minimizing concentration difference within system mass transfer system governed fick 's first law 'diffusion flux higher concentration lower concentration proportional gradient concentration substance diffusivity substance medium' mass transfer take place due different driving forces


ref name griskey richard g griskey richard g transport phenomena unit operations wiley sons hoboken ref mass transferred action pressure gradient pressure diffusion forced diffusion occurs action external force diffusion caused temperature gradients thermal diffusion diffusion caused differences chemical potential compared fick 's law diffusion species binary mixture consisting b math j ay ab frac partial ca partial math diffusivity constant energy transfer processes engineering involve


q heat flow per unit time h heat transfer coefficient within heat transfer two types convection occur forced convection occur laminar turbulent flow situation laminar flow circular tubes several dimensionless numbers used nusselt number reynolds number prandtl number commonly used equation math nu frac h k math natural free convection function grashof prandtl numbers complexities free convection heat transfer make necessary mainly use empirical relations experimental data ref name griskey richard g heat transfer


analyzed packed beds nuclear reactors heat exchangers applications pollution study transport processes relevant understanding release distribution pollutants environment particular accurate modeling inform mitigation strategies examples include control surface water pollution urban runoff policies intended reduce copper content vehicle brake pads us see also constitutive equation continuity equation wave propagation pulse action potential bioheat transfer references external links http teachingmatdlorg transport phenomena archive teaching archives


materials digital library pathway chemical engineering


'''myriapodology''' scientific study myriapods includes centipedes millipedes field myriapodology also cover myriapods pauropods symphylans study myriapods myriapodologists societies '''international society myriapodology''' journals '''''international journal myriapodology''''' '''''myriapodologica''''' '''''myriapod memoranda''''' notable myriapodologists carl attems austrian zoologist described species stanley graham brade birks english myriapodologist hilda k brade birks authored ''notes myriapoda'' papers jointly twelve solo ref name sgbbrade birks http wwwmyriapodologyorg memoriam members brade birks contenthtml stanley graham brade birks ref henry w brolemann french myriapodologist described around species

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Myriapodology


ralph vary chamberlin american arachnologist myriapodologist described species orator f cook american botanist myriapodologist co described world 's leggiest species ''illacme plenipes'' richard l hoffman american entomologist described myriapod taxa c w jeekel dutch entomologist produced ''nomenclator generum et familiarum diplopodorum'' pioneered modern millipede taxonomy otto kraus german myriapodologist arachnologist described nearly species robert latzel austrian myriapodologist pioneered use gonopods taxonomy harold f loomis american botanist myriapodologist described species paola manfredi italian myriapodologist yu hsi wang moltze chinese


myriapodologist filippo silvestri italian entomologist described species n sv ry hungarian naturalist namesake organ sv ry karl wilhelm verhoeff german entomologist described myriapod species references references external links http wwwmyriapodologyorg international society myriapodology official site https wwwpensoftnet journals ijm international journal myriapodology https webarchiveorg web http wwwmnhnfr assoc myriapoda international society myriapodology onychophorology http wwwbmigorguk british myriapod isopod group subfields arthropodology


boy plowing tractor sunset det laos '''rural sociology''' field sociology traditionally associated study social structure conflict rural areas although topical areas food agriculture natural resource access transcend traditional rural spatial boundaries sociology guide active academic field much world originating united states close ties national department agriculture land grant university colleges agriculture sociology food agriculture one focus rural sociology much

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of agriculture


field dedicated economics farm production areas study include rural migration demographic patterns environmental sociology amenity led development public lands policies called boomtown development social disruption sociology natural resources including forests mining fishing areas rural cultures identities rural health care educational policies many rural sociologists work areas development studies community studies community development environmental studies much research involves developing countries third world history united states rural sociology concept first brought americans response


large amounts people living working grounds farms rural sociology first time largest branch american sociology histories field popular europe rural sociology europe developed old established universities new countries emerged strongly influenced political philosophy agrarianism promoted farmer strength society czechoslovakia opened three research centers others opened romania yugoslavia mission statements mission statements university departments rural


sociology expanded include topics sustainable development example university missouri mission blockquote department rural sociology university missouri employs theoretical methodological tools rural sociology address challenges st century preserving natural resources providing safe nutritious food expanding population adapting climate changes maintaining sustainable rural livelihoods blockquote university wisconsin set one first departments rural sociology dropped term rural changed name department community


environmental sociology similarly rural sociology program university kentucky evolved department community leadership development transferring graduate program rural sociology sociology department cornell university 's department rural sociology also changed name department development sociology associations scholarly associations rural sociology include '''rural sociological society''' rss united states formed years discussion spinoff american sociological society publishes scholarly quarterly journal ''rural sociology'' full run back issues


online cornell university library 's program putting online core historical resources rural sociology '''european society rural sociology''' esrs founded says leading european association scientists involved study agriculture fisheries food production consumption rural development change rurality cultural heritage equality inequality rural society nature environmental care '''international rural sociology association''' irsa mission foster development rural sociology application sociological inquiry improvement quality


rural life provide mechanism whereby rural sociologists generate dialogue useful exchange published '' international journal sociology agriculture food'' '''international association society natural resources''' iasnr publishes journal ''society natural resources'' journals several academic journals published field closely related rural sociology including ''agriculture human values'' ''journal agrarian change'' ''journal peasant studies'' ''journal rural studies'' ''rural sociology'' ''society natural resources'' ''sociologia ruralis'' see also food studies highland clearances regional science rural development rural ghetto


rural history sociology disaster references reading brunner e ''the growth science half century rural sociological research united states'' harper brothers friedland w h end rural society future rural sociology ''rural sociology'' goreham gary ed ''the encyclopedia rural america land people'' volume nd ed pp hanson victor davis ''the greeks family farm agrarian roots western civilization'' https wwwamazoncom greeks agrarian western civilization dp excerpt text search nelson l ''rural sociology origins growth


'''preclassic''' period maya history stretches beginning permanent village life c bc advent classic period c ad subdivided early prior bc middle bc late bc ad major archaeological sites period include nakbe uaxactun seibal san bartolo cival el mirador maya society underwent series profound transformations c ad ad resulted cessation monumental building many preclassic cities inferred collapse political economic

Humanities
History
Ancient history
Preclassic Maya


systems often characterized preclassic collapse history early preclassic bc bc roots maya civilization remain obscure although broad parameters increasingly well known paleo environmental data indicate presence agriculturalists maya lowlands c bc although permanent agricultural settlements seem developed gradually analysis bones early maya grave sites indicate although maize already become major component diet ceullo belize time fish meat game animals hunted gathered foods still made major component


diet ref name sharer ref along gradual development agriculture basic forms pottery began appear simple designs slipped vessels around time olmec culture began emerge nearby tabasco granting early maya important trading partner beginning period prolonged contact would profound effects maya society middle preclassic bc bc southern maya area sites around year bc mayan city aguada f nix built tabasco archaeological site corresponds time great change mayan society since


construction mayans nomads use ceramics lived hunting fishing growing corn however construction aguada f nix shown began use ceramics became sedentary ref name novedades ref aguada f nix marks beginning construction mayan city states would flourish years later ref name bbc ref centuries agricultural village life begun form beginnings complex society prestige goods obsidian mirrors jade mosaics began appear increasing demand extensive trade canals irrigation schemes


appearance mass graves decapitated skeletons beginning around bc pacific coastal region fell dominance la blanca statelet collapsed around bc replaced polity centered el ujuxte site another early statelet probably based site chalchuapa town extensive earthen mounds arranged around several plazas however likely ruled first true maya city state kaminaljuyu lying within modern day guatemala city shores lake miraflores kaminaljuyu developed powerful government structure organized massive irrigation


campaigns built numerous intricately carved stone monuments rulers monuments clearly depict war captives often show rulers holding weapons indicating kaminaljuyu polity engaged active warfare dominating guatemalan highlands centuries kaminaljuyu 's main export essential resource obsidian beautiful volcanic glass easily fractured sharp edges providing arrowheads knives weapons well prestige goods like mirrors although difficult firmly identify ethnicity people meager archeological remains appears period maya began systematic northward expansion


occupying pet n basin cities el mirador tikal calakmul tayasal would built dominant site early colonists nakbe el mirador basin first attested maya ballcourt sacbeob stone causeways built rulers nakbe constructed several stone platforms erected intricately carved stone stucco monuments period olmec culture reached zenith centered capital la venta modern day tabasco near early maya centers speakers mixe zoquean language olmec generally recognized first true


civilization americas capital city la venta contains extensive earthworks stone monuments including several distinctive olmec stone heads olmec share several features later maya culture including extensive jaguar worship diet dominated maize use cacao plant several words entered mayan mixe zoquean language presumably due olmec influence many borrowings relate prestige concepts high culture indicating middle preclassic maya deeply impressed influenced northwestern neighbors late preclassic bc ad late preclassic saw


rise two powerful states rival later classic maya city states scale monumental architecture kaminaljuyu highlands el mirador lowlands terminal preclassic ad ad late terminal preclassic murals found san bartolo provide important information regarding mythology royal inauguration ritual around bc preclassic collapse story mysterious lost civilization suddenly collapsed unknown reason captured popular imagination well century widely known two collapses first end


preclassic famous classic maya collapse preclassic collapse refers systematic decline abandoning major preclassic cities el mirador around ad number theories proposed explain collapse little consensus causes famous collapse leading postclassic period culture social structure archaeological site k associated classic maya city holmul located modern day guatemala boasts may royal tomb earliest known mayan ruler tomb


dated bc contains earliest evidence institution ajaw ruler maya lowlands writing art architecture early maya architecture based general mesoamerican architectural traditions stepped pyramids constructed terminal pre classic period onwards archaeologists chiapa de corzo southern chiapas mexico announced found dignitary 's tomb inside pyramid may oldest type burial discovered mesoamerica grave dates years ago ref name redorbit ref see also takalik abaj potbelly sculpture footnotes references reading


formative period americas history yucat n peninsula mesoamerican cultures pre columbian cultures mexico nd millennium bc establishments maya civilization rd century disestablishments maya civilization nd millennium bc maya civilization st millennium bc maya civilization st century maya civilization nd century maya civilization rd century maya civilization


'''cnidariologist''' zoologist specializing cnidaria examples browne edward thomas bigelow henry bryant kirkpatrick randolph kishinouye kamakichi kramp paul lassenius mayer alfred g references external links cnidarians marine biology subfields zoology

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Cnidariology


'''analytical sociology''' strategy understanding social world concerned explaining important macro level facts diffusion various social practices patterns segregation network structures typical beliefs common ways acting explains facts merely relating macro level facts detailing clear precise ways mechanisms brought accomplished detailed focus individuals actions interactions use state art simulation techniques derive macro level outcomes actions interactions likely

Social science
Sociology
Analytical sociology


bring analytical sociology seen contemporary incarnation robert k merton 's well known notion middle range theory analytical approach founded premise proper explanations detail cogs wheels social outcomes brought driven commitment realism empirically false assumptions human motivation cognitive processes access information social relations cannot bear explanatory burden mechanistic explanation matter well predict outcome explained focus macro level outcomes individuals interaction one another bring


analytical sociology part complexity turn within sociology recently sociologists tools needed analyzing dynamics complex systems powerful computers simulation software changed picture considerably called agent based computer simulations transforming important parts sociology well many parts social natural sciences allow rigorous theoretical analyses large complex systems basic idea behind analyses perform virtual experiments reflecting analyst theoretical ideas empirically based knowledge social mechanisms influencing action interaction


social principles analytical sociology'' cambridge university press p hedstr r swedberg eds ''social mechanisms analytical approach social theory'' cambridge cambridge university press p hedstr p ylikoski causal mechanisms social sciences annual review sociology fj le n medina analytical sociology agent based modeling generative sufficiency sufficient ''sociological theory'' pp g manzo analytical sociology critics ''european journal sociology'' ''archives europ ennes de sociologie'' kron grund eds ''die analytische soziologie der diskussion'' wiesbaden vs verlag p


z wan analytical sociology bungean appreciation ''science education'' online first version external links http analyticalsociologycom international network analytical sociology sociological theories


'''behavioral geography''' approach human geography examines human behavior using disaggregate approach behavioral geographers focus cognitive processes underlying spatial reasoning decision making behavior addition behavioral geography ideology approach human geography makes use methods assumptions behaviorism determine cognitive processes involved individual 's perception response reaction environment behavioral geography branch human science deals study cognitive processes response environment behaviorism issues name

Social science
Geography
Human geography
Behavioural geography


often assumed roots behaviorism behavioral geographers clearly roots behaviorism ref name norton last norton first william title initiating affair human geography behavior analysis journal behavior analyst today date september volume issue pages doi h ref ref name norton last norton first william title explaining landscape change group identity behavior journal behavior analyst today date march volume issue pages doi h ref due emphasis cognition seen cognitively oriented indeed seems behaviorism interest recent ref name glass last glass first john e title behavior analytic grounding sociological social constructionism journal behavior analyst today date


september volume issue pages doi h ref growing ref name norton particularly true area human landscaping behavioral geography draws early behaviorist works tolman 's concepts cognitive maps cognitively oriented behavioral geographers focus cognitive processes underlying spatial reasoning decision making behavior behaviorally oriented geographers materialists look role basic learning processes influence landscape patterns even group identity ref name norton ref cognitive processes include environmental perception cognition wayfinding construction cognitive maps place attachment development attitudes space


place decisions behavior based imperfect knowledge one 's environs numerous topics approach adopted behavioral geography closely related psychology draws research findings multitude disciplines including economics sociology anthropology transportation planning many others social construction nature nature world surrounds us including life plants animals organisms humans etc physical features social construction way human beings process world around us minds according plato 's 'classical theory categorization' humans create categories


see experience imagination ref name ref social constructionism therefore characterization makes language semantics possible ref name experiences imageries placed categories human ability think becomes limited ref name social construction nature looks question different truths understandings people treat nature based someone lives academic circles researchers look truths exist ontology truths justified epistemology ref name construction process outcome people 's understandings word nature


literal metaphorical ref name ref giving human quality mother nature ref name williams r keyword vocabulary culture society new york ny oxford university press ref also used discredit science philosophy ref name subset behavioral geography social construction nature also includes environmental ethics values affect humans treat interact natural environment incorporates ideas environmental science ecology sociology geography biology theology philosophy psychology politics economics disciplines bring together social cultural environmental dimensions


redirecting geological history earth ref name destroying nature role linguistics raymond williams author ''keywords vocabulary culture society '' many ways understanding interpreting nature ref name according raymond williams three ways give meaning define nature nature quality character process ref name eg human nature nature force ref name eg weather nature material world ref name eg physical environment according raymond williams language plays role understand interpret


give meaning nature ref name multiple truths valid time ref name ref name role mental maps humans ability create images environments experiences mind ref name lynch image city harvard university press ref experiences allow us create mental maps create memories associated space ref name two way process environment provides suggestions seen observer gives meaning suggestions ref name


close reality worth something power ref name carolyn merchant science given power truth interpreted worth ref name schools thought relativism important social construction nature truths relative perspective coming two schools thought social construction nature relative critical realism realistic ref name pragmatism practical ref name critical realists reject idea relativism rely


natural sciences ref name pragmatists set opinion matter rely social science ethics instead ref name according richard rorty relativism relevant pragmatism three ways every belief equally valid ref name criteria truth ref name truth justified society comes ref name according gilbert white pragmatism four main assumptions human existence based putting labor land ref name idea


owning anything conception ref name humans learn experiences ref name engagement publics allows commitments ref name richard rorty also associated three characteristics pragmatism theories characterize form truth ref name difference done comes truth ref name knowledge constrained conversations ref name pragmatic accepted school thought social construction relative concept ref name


historical overview rachel carson author ''silent spring '' recovery narratives ''' s''' francis bacon human intervention nature needed gain back garden eden earth ref name ''' s''' ren descartes world machine control ref name ref name ''' s''' john locke private property makes humans civilized ref name ''' s''' adam smith capitalism bring progress ref name '''present day ''' christian narrative narrative scientific revolution merged become 'recovery narrative western culture' ref name transitions thought ''' s'''


matter costs unrestricted growth needed progress ref name ''' ''' spreading public awareness impacts publication brundtland commission report ''our common future'' ref name nature becomes socially constructed vandana shiva author ''staying alive women culture development '' nature socially constructed culturally interpreting physically shaping environment ref name ref happen three ways using non human symbols represent nature totemism ref name using non human animals relate nature animism ref name viewing nature 'other' naturalism


ref name constructions also categorized giving meaning process embodiment ref name three components 'habitus' individual ref name practice originates culture ref name associated taxonomic group ie homo sapiens ref name matter nature becomes socially constructed though process limited three dimensions physical dimension ref name mental dimension ref name social dimension ref name physical dimension limited human body brain responsible creating


social interactions ref name acknowledging science analyzed standard ref name gaining better understanding role language plays constructionism ref name giving importance truths exist justified using actor network theory ref name see also cognitive geography references human geography behaviorism environmental social science social constructionism


'''''utopian studies''''' peer reviewed academic journal publishes articles utopias utopianism journal published twice year penn state university press behalf society utopian studies editor nicole pohl oxford brookes university united kingdom see also moreana references references external links https utopian studiesorg journal official website http wwwpsupressorg journals jnls utopian studieshtml ''utopian studies'' penn state press website http musejhuedu journals utopian studies ''utopian studies'' project muse references english language journals penn state university press academic journals publications established multidisciplinary humanities journals multidisciplinary social science journals

Social science
Sociology
Cultural studies
Utopian studies


'''utopian studies''' interdisciplinary field study researches utopianism forms including utopian politics utopian literature art utopian theory intentional communities term ''utopia'' created sir thomas book name utopian studies subdivided three major parts study utopian works communitarianism utopian social theory ref name hisus ref history denis vairasse mentioned among earliest scholars field ref name hisus history sevarambians contains one first thoughts theoretical reflection concept utopia ''


read plato republic utopia thomas chancellor bacon new atlantis fact nothing ingenious inventions imaginations authors may think perhaps account newly discovered countries marvels similar type sont de ce genre '' ref name hisus summer love significant increase utopian works ref name hisus society utopian studies founded utopian studies society founded significant utopian studies scholars roughly chronological order herbert marcuse karl mannheim ernst bloch


krishnan kumar raymond williams darko suvin lyman tower sargent gregory claeys ruth levitas tom moylan fredric jameson lucy sargisson vincent geoghegan raffaella baccolini principal research institutions journals conferences societies awards research institutions class wikitable sortable name location ref ralahine centre utopian studies university limerick department modern languages literatures cultures university bologna interdepartmental center utopian studies university lecce societies society utopian studies north america founded utopian studies society europe founded journals ''utopian


global concentrations healthcare resources depicted number physicians per individuals country data sourced world health statistics report ref new york presbyterian hospital new york city one world 's busiest hospitals pictured weill cornell facility white complex center '''healthcare''' maintenance improvement health via prevention diagnosis treatment amelioration cure disease illness injury physical mental impairments people health care delivered health professionals allied health fields medicine dentistry pharmacy midwifery

Applied science
Medicine and health
Clinical laboratory sciences
Haemostasiology


nursing optometry audiology psychology occupational therapy physical therapy athletic training health professions part health care includes work done providing primary care secondary care tertiary care well public health access health care may vary across countries communities individuals influenced social economic conditions well health policies providing health care services means timely use personal health services achieve best possible health outcomes factors consider terms healthcare access include financial limitations insurance coverage geographic barriers additional


transportation costs possibility take paid time work use services personal limitations lack ability communicate healthcare providers poor health literacy low income limitations health care services affects negatively use medical services efficacy treatments overall outcome well mortality rates health care systems organizations established meet health needs targeted populations according world health organization well functioning health care system requires financing mechanism well trained adequately paid workforce reliable information base decisions policies well maintained


health facilities deliver quality medicines technologies efficient health care system contribute significant part country 's economy development industrialization health care conventionally regarded important determinant promoting general physical mental health well people around world ref name ref example worldwide eradication smallpox declared first disease human history eliminated deliberate health care interventions delivery primary care may provided community health centers delivery modern health care depends


groups trained professionals paraprofessionals coming together interdisciplinary teams ref name usdl united states department labor https wwwdolgov agencies eta ''employment training administration health care'' retrieved june ref includes professionals medicine psychology physiotherapy nursing dentistry midwifery allied health along many others public health practitioners community health workers assistive personnel systematically provide personal population based preventive curative rehabilitative care services definitions various types health care vary depending different cultural political organizational disciplinary perspectives appears consensus primary care constitutes


professional would usually primary care physician general practitioner family physician another professional would licensed independent practitioner physiotherapist non physician primary care provider physician assistant nurse practitioner depending locality health system organization patient may see another health care professional first pharmacist nurse depending nature health condition patients may referred secondary tertiary care primary care often used term health care services play role


local community provided different settings urgent care centers provide day appointments services walk basis primary care involves widest scope health care including ages patients patients socioeconomic geographic origins patients seeking maintain optimal health patients types acute chronic physical mental social health issues including multiple chronic diseases consequently primary care practitioner must possess wide breadth knowledge many areas continuity key characteristic primary care patients usually prefer consult


practitioner routine check ups preventive care health education every time require initial consultation new health problem international classification primary care icpc standardized tool understanding analyzing information interventions primary care based reason patient 's visit common chronic illnesses usually treated primary care may include example hypertension diabetes asthma copd depression anxiety back pain arthritis thyroid dysfunction primary care also includes many basic maternal child health care services family planning services vaccinations united


office examples direct primary care practices include foundation health colorado qliance washington context global population aging increasing numbers older adults greater risk chronic non communicable diseases rapidly increasing demand primary care services expected developed developing countries world health organization attributes provision essential primary care integral component inclusive primary health care strategy ref name cookie secondary care '''secondary care''' includes acute care necessary treatment short period time brief serious illness injury health


operate mixed market health care system physicians limit practice secondary care requiring patients see primary care provider first restriction may imposed terms payment agreements private group health insurance plans cases medical specialists may see patients without referral patients may decide whether self referral preferred countries patient self referral medical specialist secondary care rare prior referral another physician either primary care physician another specialist considered necessary regardless whether funding


private insurance schemes national health insurance allied health professionals physical therapists respiratory therapists occupational therapists speech therapists dietitians also generally work secondary care accessed either patient self referral physician referral tertiary care national hospital neurology neurosurgery london united kingdom specialist neurological hospital '''tertiary care''' specialized consultative health care usually inpatients referral primary secondary health professional facility personnel facilities advanced medical investigation treatment tertiary referral hospital examples tertiary


care services cancer management neurosurgery cardiac surgery plastic surgery treatment severe burns advanced neonatology services palliative complex medical surgical interventions ref name emory emory university http wwwememoryedu hospital euhtml school medicine accessed june ref quaternary care term '''quaternary care''' sometimes used extension tertiary care reference advanced levels medicine highly specialized widely accessed experimental medicine types uncommon diagnostic surgical procedures considered quaternary care services usually offered limited number regional national health care centers ref


name emory home community care many types health care interventions delivered outside health facilities include many interventions public health interest food safety surveillance distribution condoms needle exchange programs prevention transmissible diseases also include services professionals residential community settings support self care home care long term care assisted living treatment substance use disorders among types health social care services community rehabilitation services assist mobility independence loss limbs loss function include prostheses


orthotics wheelchairs many countries especially west dealing aging populations one priorities health care system help seniors live full independent lives comfort homes entire section health care geared providing seniors help day day activities home transportation doctor 's appointments along many activities essential health well although provide home care older adults cooperation family members care workers may harbor diverging attitudes values


habits making physical education requirement teaching young adolescents positive self image ratings health care ratings ratings evaluations health care used evaluate process care health care structures outcomes health care services information translated report cards generated quality organizations nonprofit consumer groups media evaluation quality based measures hospital quality health plan quality physician quality https merhsin merhs healthcare treatment quality health professionals patient experience related sectors health care extends beyond delivery services


patients encompassing many related sectors set within bigger picture financing governance structures health system '''health system''' also sometimes referred '''health care system''' '''healthcare system''' organization people institutions resources deliver health care services populations need healthcare industry healthcare industry incorporates several sectors dedicated providing health care services products basic framework defining sector united nations' international standard industrial classification categorizes health care generally consisting hospital activities medical dental practice activities human


health activities last class involves activities supervision nurses midwives physiotherapists scientific diagnostic laboratories pathology clinics residential health facilities patient advocates allied health professions addition according industry market classifications global industry classification standard industry classification benchmark health care includes many categories medical equipment instruments services including biotechnology diagnostic laboratories substances drug manufacturing delivery example pharmaceuticals medical devices leading high technology exports europe united states ref name europe ref ref name phrma ref united states dominates biopharmaceutical


become important consider seeking actively include studies single best practice exist results systematic review patient engagement suggest research methods patient selection need account patient availability willingness engage health services research lead greater efficiency equitable delivery health care interventions advanced social model health disability emphasizes societal changes made make populations healthier results health services research often form basis evidence based policy health care


systems health services research also aided initiatives field artificial intelligence development systems health assessment clinically useful timely sensitive change culturally sensitive low burden low cost built standard procedures involve patient ref name campro ref health care financing caption total health spending fraction gdp align right generally five primary methods funding health care systems general taxation state county municipality social health insurance voluntary private health insurance pocket payments donations health charities


health system 's performance equally notion funding better supported health care industry consumed average percent gdp us ppp adjusted per capita across members oecd countries us us ppp netherlands france germany canada switzerland top spenders however life expectancy total population birth highest switzerland years japan italy spain iceland france australia oecd 's


average exceeds years first time ever years gain years since us years ranges place among oecd member countries highest costs far oecd countries achieved universal almost universal health coverage except us mexico ref name oecdhealthglance ref ref name oecdlifeexpectancy ref see also international comparisons united states around gdp spent health care ref name auto commonwealth fund analysis spend quality shows clear correlation worse quality higher spending administration regulation


management administration health care vital delivery health care services particular practice health professionals operation health care institutions typically regulated national state provincial authorities appropriate regulatory bodies purposes quality assurance countries credentialing staff regulatory boards health departments document certification licensing health workers work history health information technology health information technology hit application information processing involving computer hardware software deals storage retrieval sharing use


health care information data knowledge communication decision making health information technology components electronic health record ehr ehr contains patient 's comprehensive medical history may include records multiple providers ref name providers professionals healthitgov website wwwhealthitgov language en access date ref electronic medical record emr emr contains standard medical clinical data gathered one 's provider 's office ref name personal health record phr phr patient 's medical history maintained privately personal use medical practice management software mpm designed streamline day day tasks operating medical facility


also known practice management software practice management system pms health information exchange hie health information exchange allows health care professionals patients appropriately access securely share patient 's vital medical information electronically see also health care country healthcare system health professionals health equity health policy tobacco control laws universal health care country references external links primary care public services


'''health technology''' defined world health organization application organized knowledge skills form devices medicines vaccines procedures systems developed solve health problem improve quality lives includes pharmaceuticals devices procedures organizational systems used healthcare industry well computer supported information systems predictive analytics also instrumental helping healthcare organisations analyse resource shortage aspects ahead time united states technologies involve standardized physical objects well traditional designed social means methods

Applied science
Medicine and health
Clinical laboratory sciences


dangerous situations technological development intelligent program integration physiologic sense making developed helped reduce number false alarms ref name also greater investment health technologies fewer medical errors happened outdated paper records replaced many healthcare organizations electronic health records ehr according studies change brought lot changes healthcare ref name drug administration improved healthcare providers access medical information easier provide better treatments faster results save costs ref name ref improvement help promote expand adoption


health information technology congress passed hitech act part american recovery reinvestment act hitech stands health information technology economic clinical health act gave department health human services authority improve healthcare quality efficiency promotion health act provided financial incentives penalties organizations motivate healthcare providers improve healthcare purpose act improve quality safety efficiency ultimately reduce health disparities ref name meaningful use cdc date september website wwwcdcgov access date november ref one main


parts hitech act setting meaningful use requirement required ehrs allow electronic exchange health information submit clinical information purpose hitech ensure sharing electronic information patients clinicians secure hitech also aimed help healthcare providers efficient operations reduce medical errors program consisted three phases phase one aimed improve healthcare quality safety efficiency ref name phase two expanded phase one focused clinical processes ensuring meaningful use ehrs ref name


lastly phase three focused using certified electronic health record technology cehrt improve health outcomes ref name implementation electronic records us hospitals rose low percentage high percentage ref name beginning healthcare providers participated medicare promoting interoperability program needed report quality payment program requirements program focused interoperability aimed improve patient access health information ref name privacy health data phones track one 's whereabouts steps serve


medical devices medical devices much effect phones research article ''privacy attitudes among early adopters emerging health technologies'' cynthia cheung matthew bietz kevin patrick cinnamon bloss discovered people willing share personal data scientific advancements although still expressed uncertainty would access data people naturally cautious giving sensitive personal information phones add extra level threat according research article ''security in'' ''cloud computing based mobile health'' mobile devices continue increase popularity year addition


cyber attacks well providing proper data backup system information patient protection affordable care act aca also known obamacare health information technology health care entering digital era although development needs protected health information financial information made digital within health industry might become larger target cyber crime even multiple different types safeguards hackers somehow still find way security place needs constantly updated prevent breaches policy


increased use systems privacy violations increasing rapidly due easier access poor management concern privacy become important topic healthcare privacy breaches happen organizations protect privacy people 's data four types privacy breaches include unintended disclosure authorized personnel intended disclosure authorized personnel privacy data loss theft virtual hacking became important protect privacy security patients data high negative impact individuals organizations stolen personal information


used open credit cards unethical behaviors also individuals spend large amount money rectify issue exposure sensitive health information also cause negative impacts individuals relationships jobs personal areas organization privacy breach cause loss trust customers legal actions monetary fines health insurance portability accountability act hipaa stands health insurance portability accountability act us healthcare legislation direct patient data used includes two major rules privacy


separate server printed paper copies people access lastly integrity ensures using inaccurate information improperly modified data due bad design system process protect permanence patient data consequences using inaccurate improperly modified data could become useless even dangerous ref name health organizations hipaa also created administrative safeguards physical safeguards technical safeguards help protect privacy patients administrative safeguards typically include security management process security personnel information access management workforce training management evaluation security policies


stealing medical records individuals must actual key access lock ref name lastly technical safeguards include access control audit controls integrity controls transmission security access control mechanism common example technical safeguards allows access authorized personnel technology includes authentication authorization authentication proof identity handles confidential information like username password authorization act determining whether particular user allowed access certain data perform activities system like add delete ref name assessment


concept health technology assessment hta first coined us congress response increasing need address unintended potential consequences health technology along prominent role society institutionalized establishment congressional office technology assessment ota hta defined comprehensive form policy research examines short long term consequences application technology including benefits costs risks ref name ref due broad scope technology assessment requires participation individuals besides scientists health


methodological standards employed assess technologies second concerned use ethical framework research judgment part researchers produce information used industry health technology future fort belvoir community hospital astounds groundbreaking technology devotion patient care practice medicine united states currently major transition transition due many factors primarily implementation integration health technologies healthcare recent years widespread adoption electronic health records ehr


administer system future electronic health record look different healthcare providers able enter notes via speech text transcriptions real time ref name dr wachter stated information edited collaboratively across patient care team improve quality also natural language processing developed help parse keywords future patient data reside cloud patients able access data device location data also accessible authorized providers individuals future big data analysis constantly


improving artificial intelligence machine learning constantly improving developing receives new data alerts also intelligent efficient current systems ref name medical technology medical technology medtech encompasses wide range healthcare products used treat diseases medical conditions affecting humans technologies intended improve quality healthcare delivered earlier diagnosis less invasive treatment options reduction hospital stays rehabilitation times recent advances medical technology also focused cost reduction medical technology may broadly include medical devices


advancement imagining technologies including use faster data higher resolution images specialist automation software capabilities medical imaging technology growing yielding better results imaging hardware software evolve means patients need use less contrasting agents also spend less time money printing another major development healthcare used produce specialized splints prostheses parts medical devices inert implants end goal printing able print customized replaceable body parts ref name ref following


produce prototypes practice operation created artificial tissue ref name printing technologies great bio medicine materials used make allow fabrication control many design features printing also benefits affordable customization efficient designs saving time ref name printing precise design pills house several drugs due different release times technology allows pills transport targeted area degrade safely body pills designed efficiently conveniently


artificial intelligence artificial intelligence ai program enables computers sense reason act adapt ai new growing rapidly tremendously ai deal large data sets solve problems provide efficient operation ai potential healthcare provides easier accessibility information improves healthcare reduce cost ref name ref different factors drive ai healthcare two important economics advent big data analytics costs new payment options people 's desire improve health outcomes


discover drug also ai potential address important health challenges healthcare organizations ai able plan relocate resources ref name ref ai able match patients healthcare providers meet needs ai also helps improve healthcare experience using app identify patients' anxieties medical research ai helps analyze evaluate patterns complex data instance ai important drug discovery search relevant studies analyze different kinds data clinical care ai helps detect diseases analyze clinical data publications


surgical errors training time democratize medical education training robots modern robotics made huge progress contribution healthcare robots help doctors performing variety tasks robotics adoption increasing tremendously hospitals following different ways improve healthcare using robots ref name ref robotic spinal surgery surgical robots one robotic systems allows surgeon bend rotate tissues flexible efficient way system equipped https drobotsorg magnification vision system translate hand movements


moved inside patient delivered desired area addition conduct biopsies film area clear clogged arteries overall medical robots extremely useful assisting physicians however might take time professionally trained working medical robots robots respond clinician 's instructions many researchers startups working constantly provide solutions challenges ref name assistive technologies assistive technologies products designed provide accessibility individuals physical cognitive problems disabilities aim improve quality


life assistive technologies range assistive technologies broad ranging low tech solutions physical hardware technical devices four areas assistive technologies include visual impairment hearing impairment physical limitations cognitive limitations many benefits assistive technologies enable individuals care work study access information easily improve independence communication lastly participate fully community life consumer driven healthcare software part ongoing trend towards consumer driven healthcare websites apps provide information health care quality price help patients choose


providers grown sites number reviews descending order included healthgrades vitalscom ratemdscom yelp google facebook also host reviews large amount traffic although fewer medical reviews per doctor disputes around online reviews lead websites health professionals alleging defamation patient safety organizations government programs historically assessed quality made data accessible internet notable examples include hospitalcompare cms leapfrog group 's hospitalsafetygradeorg patient oriented software may also help ways


including general education appointments disclosure legal disputes including medical license complaints malpractice lawsuits also made easier every state discloses license status least disciplinary action public accessible via internet states ref name ref consumers look medical licenses national database docinfoorg maintained medical licensing organizations ref name contains limited details ref name ref tools include docfinder docfinderdocboardorg ref name certificationmattersorg american board medical specialties cases information available


mailed walk request internet example medical board california removes dismissed accusations website profiles still available written walk request lookup separate database trend disclosure controversial generate significant public debate particularly opening national practitioner data bank ref name ref massachusetts became first state require detailed disclosure malpractice claims ref name self monitoring smartphones tablets wearable computers allowed people monitor health devices run numerous applications designed


provide simple health services monitoring one 's health example fitbit fitness tracker worn user 's wrist wearable technology allows people track steps heart rate floors climbed miles walked active minutes even sleep patterns data collected analyzed allow users keep track health also help manage particularly capability identify health risk factors also case internet serves repository information expert content used


self diagnose instead going doctor instance one need enumerate symptoms search parameters google search engine could identify illness list contents uploaded world wide web particularly provided expert medical sources advances may eventually effect doctor visits patients change role health professionals gatekeeper secondary care facilitator information interpretation decision making apart basic services provided google search also companies webmd already offer dedicated symptom checking apps


technology testing medical equipment introduced commercially must meet united states international regulations devices tested material effects human body components including devices devices included mechanical aspects medical device user fee modernization act created speed fda 's approval process medical technology introducing sponsor user fees faster review time predetermined performance targets review time addition devices apps approved fda careers


numerous careers choose health technology usa listed job titles average salaries athletic trainermean salary athletic trainers treat athletes individuals sustained injuries also teach people prevent injuries perform job supervision physicians ref name ref dental hygienist mean salary dental hygienists provide preventive dental care teach patients maintain good oral health usually work dentists' supervision ref name clinical laboratory scientists technicians technologists mean salary lab technicians technologists perform laboratory tests procedures


banking immunology microbiology serology urinalysis miscellaneous body fluid analysis depending location educational level certifying body professionals may referred biomedical scientists medical laboratory scientists mls medical technologists mt medical laboratory technologists medical laboratory technicians references health care occupations biomedical engineering united states healthcare united states


logic '''many valued logic''' also '''multi ''' '''multiple valued logic''' propositional calculus two truth values traditionally aristotle 's logical calculus two possible values ie true false proposition classical two valued logic may extended '''''n'' valued logic''' ''n'' greater popular literature three valued eg ukasiewicz 's kleene 's accept values true false unknown four valued nine valued finite valued finitely many valued three values infinite valued infinitely many valued fuzzy logic probability logic history first

Formal science
Computer science
Logic in computer science
Multi-valued logic


known classical logician fully accept law excluded middle aristotle ironically also generally considered first classical logician father logic aristotle admitted laws apply future events ''de interpretatione'' ''ch ix'' n't create system multi valued logic explain isolated remark coming th century later logicians followed aristotelian logic includes assumes law excluded middle th century brought back idea multi valued logic polish logician philosopher jan


ukasiewicz began create systems many valued logic using third value possible deal aristotle 's paradox sea battle meanwhile american mathematician emil l post also introduced formulation additional truth degrees ''n'' nbsp ''n'' truth values later jan ukasiewicz alfred tarski together formulated logic ''n'' truth values ''n'' nbsp hans reichenbach formulated logic many truth values ''n'' kurt g del showed intuitionistic logic finitely many valued logic defined system g del logics


intermediate classical intuitionistic logic logics known intermediate logics examples kleene strong priest logic kleene 's strong logic indeterminacy sometimes math k math priest 's logic paradox add third undefined indeterminate truth value truth functions negation conjunction disjunction implication biconditional given valign bottom class wikitable style text align center width width nbsp class wikitable


style text align center width width width width class wikitable style text align center width width width width class wikitable style text align center width width width width


class wikitable style text align center width width width width difference two logics lies tautologies defined ' 'designated truth value'' logical formula considered


center width width width width class wikitable style text align center width width width width class wikitable style text align center width width width width


intermediate truth value bochvar 's internal logic described contagious propagates formula regardless value variable ref name bergmann belnap logic belnap 's logic combines overdetermined truth value denoted ''b'' underdetermined truth value ''n'' class wikitable style text align center width width nbsp


class wikitable style text align center width width width width width class wikitable style text align center width width width width width


g del logics ''g sub k sub '' ''g'' sub sub g del defined family math g k math many valued logics finitely many truth values math tfrac k tfrac k ldots tfrac k k math example math g math truth values math tfrac math math g math math tfrac tfrac math similar manner defined logic infinitely many truth values math g infty math


follows math begin align u odot v uv u xrightarrow pi v begin cases text u leq v frac v u text u v end cases end align math additionally negative designated value math overline math denotes concept ''false'' value possible define negation math underset pi neg math additional conjunction math underset pi wedge math follows math begin align underset pi neg u u xrightarrow pi overline u underset pi wedge v u odot u xrightarrow pi v end align math math u underset pi wedge v min uv math post logics ''p sub sub '' post defined family logics math p math math l v math math g k math


rules preserving semantic property propositions across transformations classical logic property truth valid argument truth derived proposition guaranteed premises jointly true application valid steps preserves property however property n't truth instead concept multi valued logics intended preserve property designationhood designated since two truth values rules inference may intended preserve whichever corresponds relevant


sense truth example three valued logic sometimes two greatest truth values represented eg positive integers designated rules inference preserve values precisely valid argument value premises taken jointly always less equal conclusion example preserved property could ''justification'' foundational concept intuitionistic logic thus proposition true false instead justified flawed key difference justification truth case


law excluded middle n't hold proposition flawed necessarily justified instead 's proven 's flawed key difference determinacy preserved property one may prove ''p'' justified ''p'' flawed unable prove either valid argument preserves justification across transformations proposition derived justified propositions still justified however proofs classical logic depend upon law excluded middle since law usable scheme propositions


cannot proven way suszko 's thesis functional completeness many valued logics functional completeness term used describe special property finite logics algebras logic 's set connectives said ''functionally complete'' ''adequate'' set connectives used construct formula corresponding every possible truth function adequate algebra one every finite mapping variables expressed composition operations ref name ref classical logic cl ''' '''


functionally complete whereas ukasiewicz logic infinitely many valued logics property ref name define finitely many valued logic l'' sub n sub '' ''n'' sub sub '' sub sub '' ''n'' given natural number post proves assuming logic able produce function ''m'' sup th sup order model corresponding combination connectives adequate logic l'' sub n sub '' produce model order ''m '' applications known applications many valued logic roughly classified two groups first group uses


many valued logic solve binary problems efficiently example well known approach represent multiple output boolean function treat output part single many valued variable convert single output characteristic function specifically indicator function applications many valued logic include design programmable logic arrays plas input decoders optimization finite state machines testing verification second group targets design electronic circuits employ two discrete levels signals many valued memories arithmetic circuits field programmable gate arrays fpgas many valued circuits number


number systems natural implementation using many valued circuits however practicality potential advantages heavily depends availability circuit realizations must compatible competitive present day standard technologies addition aiding design electronic circuits many valued logic used extensively test circuits faults defects basically known automatic test pattern generation atg algorithms used digital circuit testing require simulator resolve valued logic x d' ref name abramovici ref additional values x d' represent unknown uninitialized instead


instead research venues ieee international symposium multiple valued logic ismvl held annually since mostly caters applications digital design verification also ''journal multiple valued logic soft computing'' see also mathematical logic degrees truth fuzzy logic g del logic jaina seven valued logic kleene logic kleene algebra involution ukasiewicz logic mv algebra post logic principle bivalence n prior relevance logic philosophical logic false dilemma ''mu'' digital logic mvcml multiple valued current mode logic ieee nine valued standard vhdl ieee


four valued standard verilog three state logic noise based logic references reading '''general''' augusto luis ''many valued logics mathematical computational introduction'' london college publications pages http wwwcollegepublicationscouk logic webpage b ziau j many valued logic ''proceedings th international symposium multiple valued logic'' ieee computer society los alamitos pp nbsp malinowski gregorz ''many valued logics'' goble lou ed ''the blackwell guide philosophical logic'' blackwell cignoli r l d'ottaviano l mundici '' https booksgooglecom booksid vmzrcaaaqbaj printsec frontcover v onepage q f false algebraic foundations many valued reasoning '' kluwer gottwald ''a treatise many valued logics'' studies


j ''on fuzzy logic many valued rules inference'' zeitschr f math logik und grundlagen math covers proof theory many valued logics well tradition h jek external links stanford encyclopedia philosophy http platostanfordedu entries truth values truth values yaroslav shramko heinrich wansing ieee computer society 's http wwwlcsinfohiroshima cuacjp naga mvl technical committee multiple valued logic http wwwcsechalmersse reiner mvl web resources many valued logic reiner h hnle chalmers university https webarchiveorg web http wwwupmf grenoblefr mvl many valued logics w server archived carlos caleiro walter carnielli marcelo e coniglio jo marcos http sqigmathistutlpt pub caleiroc cccm dyadicpdf two 's company humbug many logical values


timeline generations western world '''theory generations''' '' 'sociology generations''' theory posed karl mannheim essay https www dokumentede pdf dok gen depdf das problem der generationen translated english problem generations essay described systematic fully developed even seminal theoretical treatment generations sociological phenomenon ref name jp jane pilcher '' http wwwhistoryucsbedu faculty marcuse classes articles pilchermannheimsocgenbjspdf mannheim 's sociology generations undervalued legacy '' ref according mannheim people significantly influenced socio historical environment particular notable events involve actively youth giving

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of generations


rise basis shared experience social cohorts turn influence events shape future generations ref name jp historical context mannheim wrote critics contend theory generations centers western ideas lacks broader cultural understanding ref name ref others argue theory generations global scope due increasingly globalized nature contemporary society theory mannheim defined generation note suggested term cohort correct distinguish social generations kinship family blood related generations ref name jp


group individuals similar ages whose members experienced noteworthy historical event within set period time ref name jp according mannheim social consciousness perspective youth reaching maturity particular time place termed generational location significantly influenced major historical events era thus becoming generation actuality ref name jp ref name wj willis john '' http wwwericedgov ericwebportal search detailminijsp nfpb true ericextsearch searchvalue ed ericextsearch searchtype accno ed generations social movements 's 's '' revised version paper presented annual meeting american sociological association chicago illinois september ref key point however


major historical event occur involve individuals young age thus shaping lives later experiences tend receive meaning early experiences mere chronological contemporaneity enough produce common generational consciousness ref name jp mannheim fact stressed every generation develop original distinctive consciousness ref name jp whether generation succeeds developing distinctive consciousness significantly dependent pace social change tempo change ref name jp mannheim notes also social change occur gradually without need major historical events


events likely occur times accelerated social cultural change ref name jp mannheim also note members generation internally stratified location culture class etc thus may view different events different angles thus totally homogenous ref name jp even generation actuality may differing forms response particular historical situation thus stratifying number generational units social generations ref name jp application mannheim 's theory generations applied explain important historical cultural political events


late early educated youth inequalities american society involvement along generations civil rights movement given rise belief inequalities need changed individual collective action ref name wj pushed influential minority young people united states toward social movement activity ref name wj hand generation came age later part much less engaged social movement activity according theory


second wave feminist movement us feminist identity explaining rise sex marriage united states effects chinese cultural revolution youth political activism social generation studies mainly focused youth experience perspective western society social generations theory lacks ample consideration youth outside west increased empirical attention non western cases corrects tendency youth studies 'other' non western youth provides depth understanding dynamics reflexive life management constraints opportunities affecting youth 's experiences within particular sociopolitical


contexts require research done wide array spaces better reflect theory implications youth 's experiences ref name recent works discuss difficulty managing generational structures global processes proceeding design glocal structures ref name see also generation sociology aging sociology knowledge references science cultural generations sociological theories


'''sound music computing''' '''smc''' research field studies whole sound music communication chain multidisciplinary point view combining scientific technological artistic methodologies aims understanding modeling generating sound music computational approaches history sound music computing research field traced back experimental composers together engineers scientists independently different parts world began exploring use new digital technologies music applications since smc research field fruitful

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
Sound and music computing


history different terms used identify computer music music technology might terms used sound music computing recent term research community established international computer music association international computer music conference computer music journal founded center computer research music acoustics ccrma stanford university created early institute research coordination acoustic music ircam paris late sound music computing term


first proposed mid ref name camurri included acm computing classification system using name sound music computing conference started also roadmapping initiative funded european commission resulted smc roadmap ref name smcroadmapv sound music computing summer school increasing research specialization within smc field number focused conferences created particularly relevant international conference digital audio effects established international conference music information retrieval ismir


established international conference new interfaces musical expression nime established subfields current smc research field grouped number subfields focus specific aspects sound music communication chain ''processing sound music signals'' subfield focuses audio signal processing techniques analysis transformation resynthesis sound music signals ''understanding modeling sound music'' subfield focuses understanding modeling sound music using computational approaches include computational musicology music information retrieval computational


meta data descriptions focus flexible access applications range large distributed libraries mobile access platforms ''interactive multimedia systems'' use everyday appliances artistic entertainment applications aim facilitate music related human machine interaction involving various modalities action perception eg auditory visual olfactory tactile haptic kinds body movements captured use audio visual kinematic bioparametric skin conduction temperature devices ''auditory interfaces'' include applications non verbal sound employed communication channel user computing device auditory displays


used applications objects require monitoring type information sonification used method data display wide range application domains auditory inspection analysis summarisation efficient traditional visual display sonic interaction design emphasizes role sound interactive contexts ''augmented action perception'' refers tools increase normal action perception capabilities humans system adds virtual information user 's sensory perception merging real images sounds haptic sensation virtual ones effect augmenting


group universitat pompeu fabra barcelona spain http c dmeecsqmulacuk centre digital music c dm queen mary university london london uk https ccrmastanfordedu center computer research music acoustics ccrma stanford university usa http mclopenacuk musiclab music computing lab open university milton keynes uk http smcdeiunipdit centro di sonologia computazionale csc university padova padova http wwwlimdiunimiit laboratorio di informatica musicale lim universit degli studi di milano milano http iemkugacat institute electronic music acoustics iem university music dramatic arts graz austria http cnmatberkeleyedu center new music audio technologies cnmat uc berkeley usa http wwwkthse en csc forskning mid midteams smc sound music computing


csc school computer science communication kth royal institute technology stockholm sweden http wwwcityacuk informatics school organisation department computer science music informatics group music informatics research group school informatics city university london london uk http cmrsocplymouthacuk interdisciplinary centre computer music research faculty arts university plymouth plymouth uk http wwwsmcnusorg sound music computing lab school computing national university singapore singapore http wwwcmmasorg mexican center music sonic arts morelia mexico associations http wwwismirnet international society music information retrieval ismir http wwwcomputermusicorg international computer music association icma journals http wwwmitpressjournalsorg cmj computer music journal http wwwtandfcouk journals nnmr journal new music research http journalscambridgeorg action displayjournaljid oso organized sound conferences http wwwsmcnetworkorg sound


music computing conference smc http wwwismirnet international conference music information retrieval ismir http wwwnimeorg international conference new interfaces musical expression nime http wwwdafxde international conference digital audio effects dafx http wwwcomputermusicorg page international computer music conference icmc open software tools http smcnetworkorg view software list software tools related smc undergraduate programmes https wwwplymouthacuk courses undergraduate bsc computing audio music technology computing audio music technology bsc hons university plymouth uk msc programmes http wwweecsqmulacuk postgraduates programme view msc sound music computing queen mary university london uk http wwwupfedu smc msc sound music computing universitat pompeu fabra barcelona spain http wwwstudyguideaaudk programmes postgraduate msc sound music computing aalborg university denmark references


ref information science music technology


bogoslovka ethnic theme park vsevolozhsky district russia '' 'sociology race ethnic relations''' study social political economic relations races ethnicities levels society area encompasses study systemic racism like residential segregation complex social processes different racial ethnic groups sociological analysis race ethnicity frequently interacts postcolonial theory areas sociology stratification social psychology level political policy ethnic relations discussed terms either assimilationism multiculturalism anti racism forms another style

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of race and ethnic relations


policy particularly popular level academic inquiry ethnic relations discussed either experiences individual racial ethnic groups else overarching theoretical issues classical theorists web du bois web dubois web du bois well known one influential black scholars activists th century du bois educated people sought academia way enlighten others social injustices people du bois research revealed negro group symptom cause


striving palpitating group inert sick body crime long historic development transient occurrence ref name dubois du bois web dusk dawn essay toward autobiography race concept schocken books ref du bois believed black americans embrace higher education use new access schooling achieve higher position within society referred idea talented tenth gaining popularity also preached belief blacks free places must free everywhere traveling africa


ended however replaced system sharecropping south resulted black indebtedness growing discrimination south following end reconstruction era washington felt key advancing america rested getting education improving one 's economic well political advancement consequently founded tuskegee institute tuskegee university order provide individuals education would help find employment growing industrial sector focusing education blacks rather political advancement gained financial


contribute greatly american sociology bonilla silva start work race scholar originally trained class analysis political sociology sociology development globalization late joined student movement calling racial justice university wisconsin began work race book racism without racists bonilla silva discusses less overt racism refers new racism disguises cloak legality order accomplish things also discusses color blind racism essentially


people go basis achieved equality deny past present discriminations patricia hill collins patricia hill collins currently distinguished university professor emerita university maryland college park received phd sociology brandeis university collins president elect american sociological association th president first african american woman president organization collins social theorist whose work research primarily focuses race social class sexuality gender written number


books articles said topics collins work focuses intersectionality looking issues lens women color work writes first need new visions oppression new categories analysis inclusive race class gender distinctive yet interlocking structures oppression denise ferreira da silva denise ferreira da silva trained sociologist critical philosopher race professor director social justice institute institute gender race sexuality social justice university british columbia


racial ethnic relations widely influenced factors associated major wave immigration incoming group struggles keeping cultural ethnic identity also assimilating broader mainstream american culture economy one first prevalent topics within american study relations white americans african americans due heavy collective memory culture borne lingering centuries forced slavery plantations throughout rest american history new wave immigration


united states brought another set issues tension maintaining diversity assimilating takes new shapes racism conflict often rears times ref name park park robert ezra https booksgooglecom booksid jcvlv htj c pg pr early sociology race ethnicity free press ref however key currents gleaned body knowledge context united states tendency minorities punished times economic political geopolitical crises times social systemic stability however tend mute whatever underlying tensions exist different groups times


societal crisis whether perceived real patterns retractability american identities erupted fore america 's political landscape examples seen executive order placed japanese americans incarceration centers well th century chinese exclusion act banned chinese laborers emigrating united states local workers viewed chinese laborers threat current examples include post backlash muslim americans although taken place civil society public policy united kingdom united kingdom foreign nationals actively encouraged sponsored migrate


departments schools humanities major british theorists include paul gilroy stuart hall richard jenkins john rex michael banton tariq modood social psychology racist political campaign poster pennsylvania gubernatorial election one important social psychological findings concerning race relations members stereotyped groups internalize stereotypes thus suffer wide range harmful consequences example phenomenon called stereotype threat members racial ethnic groups stereotyped scoring poorly tests perform poorer tests reminded


stereotype effect strong even simply asking test taker state race taking test bubbling african american multiple choice question significantly alter test performance specifically sociological contribution line research found negative stereotypes created spot experiment michael lovaglia et al demonstrated left handed people made suffer stereotype threat led believe disadvantaged group particular kind test ref name lovaglia lovaglia michael


jw lucas sr thye status processes mental ability test scores american journal sociology ref audit studies another important line research race takes form audit studies audit study approach creates artificial pool people among average differences race instance groups white black auditors matched every category race thoroughly trained act identical ways given nearly identical resumes sent interview jobs simple comparisons means yield strong evidence regarding


discrimination best known audit study sociology ''the mark criminal record'' harvard university sociologist devah pager study compares job prospects black white men recently released jail key finding blacks significantly discriminated applying service jobs moreover whites ''with'' criminal record prospect getting interview blacks ''without'' one another recent audit ucla sociologist michael gaddis examines job prospects black white college graduates elite private high quality


state higher education institutions research finds blacks graduate elite school harvard prospect getting interview whites graduate state school umass amherst see also black feminism european commission racism intolerance social cohesion sociology immigration references reading banton racial theories cambridge cambridge university press ellis j http usariseupcom race relations culture ethnicity usariseup feagin j http wwwlavoisierfr livre noticeaspid wo owh racial ethnic relations prentice hall th edition gibson robert http wwwyaleedu ynhti curriculum units xhtml booker


washington w e b dubois problem negro leadership yale jenkins r rethinking ethnicity london sage nd edition malesevic sociology ethnicity london sage omi winant h racial formation united states new york routledge vera h feagin j https archivetoday http wwwspringerlinkcom content section page locus handbook sociology racial ethnic relations springer wilson h http wwwsagepubcom leonguerrero e study chapters handbook articles handbook pdf sociology racial ethnic relations bryant zuckermann ghil'ad et al ''engaging guide interacting respectfully reciprocally aboriginal torres strait islander people arts practices


intellectual property'' australian government indigenous culture support race majority minority relations


'''trauma surgery''' surgical specialty utilizes operative non operative management treat traumatic injuries typically acute setting trauma surgeons generally complete residency training general surgery often fellowship training trauma surgical critical care trauma surgeon responsible initially resuscitating stabilizing later evaluating managing patient attending trauma surgeon also leads trauma team typically includes nurses support staff well resident physicians teaching hospitals training alt trauma bay kings county hospital center brooklyn ny united states

Applied science
Medicine and health
Surgery
Trauma surgery


trauma surgeons practice larger centers complete year trauma surgery fellowship often includes surgical critical care fellowship may therefore sit american board surgery abs certifying examination surgical critical care national surgical boards usually supervise european training programs also certify subspecialization trauma surgery official european trauma surgical exam exists training trauma surgeons sometimes difficult obtain us advanced trauma operative management atom course advanced surgical skills exposure trauma asset provide operative trauma training surgeons


surgeons training advanced trauma life support course atls course us practitioners take care trauma patients required take emergency medicine surgery trauma attendings physician extenders well trainees responsibilities broad scope surgical critical care training enables trauma surgeon address injuries neck chest abdomen extremities large parts europe trauma surgeons treat musculoskeletal trauma whereas injuries central nervous system generally treated neurosurgeons us britain skeletal injuries


holiday work patients presenting trauma centers multiple injuries involving different organ systems care patients often requires significant number diagnostic studies operative procedures trauma surgeon responsible prioritizing procedures designing overall treatment plan process starts soon patient arrives emergency department continues operating room intensive care unit hospital floor settings patients evaluated according set predetermined protocols triage designed detect treat life threatening conditions soon possible


conditions addressed ruled non life threatening injuries addressed acute care surgery last decades large number advances trauma critical care led increasing frequency non operative care injuries neck chest abdomen injuries requiring operative treatment musculoskeletal reason part us trauma surgeons devote least practice general surgery american university hospitals medical centers significant portion emergency general surgery calls taken trauma surgeons field combining trauma


surgery emergency general surgery often called acute care surgery history dr george e goodfellow credited united states' first civilian trauma surgeon opened medical practice silver boom town tombstone arizona territory november nbsp practiced next years july us president garfield shot abdomen charles j guiteau two days later miner shot outside tombstone july goodfellow performed first recorded laparotomy treat miner 's gunshot wound man perforated small


intestine large intestine bowel goodfellow sutured six holes man 's organs similarly president garfield thought later bullet possibly lodged near liver could found sixteen doctors attended garfield probed wound fingers dirty instruments ref name eyewitness ref unlike president miner survived ref name prescott ref ref name rasmussen ref goodfellow treated number notorious outlaw cowboys tombstone arizona ref name wwg ref including curly bill brocius ref name eagle ref gunfight ok corral october nbsp deputy us marshal virgil earp brother assistant deputy us


marshal morgan earp seriously wounded goodfellow treated men 's injuries ref name dodge ref goodfellow treated virgil earp two months later december nbsp nbsp ambushed removing bone humerus attended morgan earp march nbsp nbsp shot playing round billiards campbell hatch billiard parlor morgan died wounds ref name dodge goodfellow traveled bisbee tombstone treat abdominal gunshot wound operated patient stretched billiard table goodfellow removed calibre bullet washed cavity hot


washing patient 's wound hands lye soap whisky ref name prescott became america 's leading authority gunshot wounds ref name oldwest ref widely recognized skill surgeon late mandatory laparotomy become standard care managing patients abdominal penetrating trauma ref name offner ref laparotomy still standard procedure treating abdominal gunshot wounds today ref name offner united kingdom united kingdom trauma surgery generally considered sub speciality general surgery however royal london hospital britain 's busiest major trauma


centre busiest trauma unit europe trauma surgeons come backgrounds vascular surgery courses uk aspiring trauma surgeons include advance trauma life support definitive surgical trauma skills courses provided royal college surgeons see also transmediastinal gunshot wound eastern association surgery trauma major association trauma surgeons us references external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwataccnet anaesthesia trauma critical care atacc http wwwtraumaorg traumaorg website dedicated trauma https webarchiveorg web http wwwtraumafoundationorg public national foundation trauma care traumatology


concurrency dining philosophers classic problem involving concurrency shared resources computer science '''concurrency''' ability different parts units program algorithm problem executed order partial order without affecting final outcome allows parallel execution concurrent units significantly improve overall speed execution multi processor multi core systems technical terms concurrency refers decomposability program algorithm problem order independent partially ordered components units computation according rob pike concurrency composition

Formal science
Computer science
Theory of computation
Concurrency theory


independently executing computations concurrency parallelism concurrency dealing lots things parallelism lots things concurrency structure parallelism execution concurrency provides way structure solution solve problem may necessarily parallelizable number mathematical models developed general concurrent computation including petri nets process calculi parallel random access machine model actor model reo coordination language history leslie lamport notes concurrent program execution considered


source indeterminacy leading issues deadlocks resource starvation ref name cleaveland ref design concurrent systems often entails finding reliable techniques coordinating execution data exchange memory allocation execution scheduling minimize response time maximise throughput theory concurrency theory active field research theoretical computer science one first proposals carl adam petri 's seminal work petri nets early years since wide variety formalisms developed modeling reasoning concurrency models


others different mechanisms concurrency proliferation different models concurrency motivated researchers develop ways unify different theoretical models example lee sangiovanni vincentelli demonstrated called tagged signal model used provide common framework defining denotational semantics variety different models concurrency nielsen sassone winskel demonstrated category theory used provide similar unified understanding different models concurrency representation theorem actor model provides fairly general way represent concurrent systems


closed sense receive communications outside concurrency systems eg process calculi modeled actor model using two phase commit protocol mathematical denotation denoted closed system constructed increasingly better approximations initial behavior called using behavior approximating function construct denotation meaning follows ref name clinger ref way mathematically characterized terms possible behaviors logics various types temporal logic ref name stirling ref used help reason


concurrent systems logics linear temporal logic computation tree logic allow assertions made sequences states concurrent system pass others action computational tree logic hennessy milner logic lamport 's temporal logic actions build assertions sequences ''actions'' changes state principal application logics writing specifications concurrent systems ref name cleaveland practice concurrent programming encompasses programming languages algorithms used implement concurrent systems concurrent programming usually considered general parallel programming


involve arbitrary dynamic patterns communication interaction whereas parallel systems generally predefined well structured communications pattern base goals concurrent programming include ''correctness'' ''performance'' ''robustness'' concurrent systems operating systems database management systems generally designed operate indefinitely including automatic recovery failure terminate unexpectedly see concurrency control concurrent systems implement form transparent concurrency concurrent computational entities may compete share single resource complexities competition sharing shielded programmer use shared


emergence deaf studies facilitated revelation signed languages bona fide languages ref name '''deaf studies''' academic disciplines concerned study deaf social life human groups individuals constitute interdisciplinary field integrates contents critiques methodologies anthropology cultural studies economics geography history political science psychology social studies sociology among others ref name ref field focuses language culture lives deaf social instead medical perspective ref name ref deaf studies also described comprising scientific study

Social science
Sociology
Cultural studies
Deaf studies


deaf related aspects world background deaf studies emerged recognition deaf people culture culture unique requiring alternative ways understanding segment population outside pathological frameworks university bristol began using term deaf studies founding centre deaf studies ref name scholars began identifying field ref name particularly degree granting programs deaf studies began emerge united kingdom united states late ref


name first master 's degree deaf studies introduced university bristol ref name areas studying lives deaf include learning culture sign language history human rights involved deaf studies means focusing sociological historical linguistic aspects '' 'deaf''' hearing impaired within prepares individuals work '' 'deaf''' hearing impaired participate join field study involved promoting change views perspectives larger society regarding


deaf people perspectives larger society belief deafness disability result deaf studies related field disability studies although deaf people agree deafness connected disabilities also intersection fields study deaf plus meaning deaf disabled '''deaf studies''' includes study deaf culture deaf people sign language deaf history body language social skills personal skills university based deaf studies centers united states masters offered washington university st louis st louis mo


gallaudet university washington dc lamar university beaumont texas california state university northridge northridge california mcdaniel college westminster maryland bachelors offered boston university boston california state university northridge northridge california california state university sacramento sacramento california columbia college chicago chicago illinois gallaudet university washington dc lamar university beaumont texas towson university towson maryland utah valley university orem utah keuka college keuka park new york state certifications texas woman 's university denton texas offers masters deaf education cincinnati state community college cincinnati ohio offers masters interpreter training program itp associate arts offered bristol community college fall river college


holy cross worcester ohlone college fremont ca utah valley university orem utah united kingdom university central lancashire lancashire england centre deaf studies bristol university bristol bristol university wolverhampton wolverhampton england york saint john university york england new zealand victoria university wellington germany humboldt university berlin hong kong centre sign linguistics deaf studies chinese university hong kong hong kong india national institute speech hearing kerala india offers degree deaf education netherlands visual language signs gestures max planck institute psycholinguistics nijmegen czech republic http ujknffcunicz cs


ustav jazyku komunikace neslysicich institute deaf studies faculty arts charles university prague national transnational deaf studies centers new zealand kelston deaf education centre philippines school deaf education applied studies de la salle college saint benilde deaf studies associations united states csun deaf studies association northridge california united kingdom british association teachers deaf deaf related major projects india deafchild india see also ''american annals deaf'' ''journal deaf studies deaf education'' deaf bibliography categorised list publications field since deaf history deafhood ''sign language


focus sustainable development infographic world energy consumption fuel five years report launched un earth summitt rio adopted framework convention climate change ref name five years later policy developed creation kyoto protocol plan rich nations pledged reduce carbon emissions ref name countries partook unfccc also signed onto kyoto protocol unfortunately progress towards sustainability stalled kyoto protocol never ratified united states nations consequently ignored pledges agreement ref name

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Sustainability studies


recently un intergovernmental panel climate change released report says urgent unprecedented changes needed reach target keeping global temperature moderate levels ref name ref state countries must follow paris agreement pledge keep temperatures degrees celsius degrees celsius otherwise earth faces complete eradication corals melting arctic ice caps ref name panel continues explain rise temperatures would also trigger catastrophic results form intense natural disasters unpredictable weather food shortages


order prevent outcome governments would need require supercharged roll back emissions courses built past years ref name order developments land use technological changes necessary carbon pollution would cut come ref name although would require carbon prices three four times higher consequences global warming rate would far severe world currently course reaching degrees celsius