eg rosenhan experiment therefore research rejected interactionists claim artificial also raises ethical issues experiment people preferred interactionist methods interactionists prefer several methods contrast structuralism particularly unstructured interviews covert participant observation overt participant observation content analysis via analysing historical public personal documents interactionist methods generally reject absolute need provide statistics statistics allows cause effect shown well isolating variables relationships trends distinguished time instead interactionists want go deep explain society however


cicourel john kitsuse conducted ethnomethodology study american schools howard becker william labov conducted study sociolinguistics joan smith participant observation john howard griffin michael haralambos links theories interactionism idea individuals awareness skill power change situation links several theories neo marxism loose term various th century approaches amend extend marxism marxist theory usually incorporating elements intellectual traditions critical theory psychoanalysis existentialism pluralism idea public gets


public wants notion lives offer choice like representative democracy idea consumer choice means individual power consumer change aspect life wishes situation exists according theory reflection norms values beliefs majority people fits idea individual power although interactionist sociologists may accept idea labeled consumers see also interpersonal relationship niklas luhmann situational ethics social interactionist theory references references


new connecticut united states similar current messages conjunction covid pandemic '''public health''' defined science art preventing disease prolonging life improving quality life organized efforts informed choices society organizations public private communities individuals ref name ref analyzing determinants health population threats faces basis public health ref name ref ''public'' small handful people large village entire city case pandemic may

Applied science
Medicine and health
Public health


encompass several continents concept ''health'' takes account physical psychological social well ref name https webarchiveorg web https wwwwhoint frequently asked questions definition health preamble constitution adopted international health conference new york june july signed july representatives states official records p entered force april definition amended since ref public health interdisciplinary field example epidemiology biostatistics social sciences management health services


human civilization communities promoted health fought disease population level ref name ref name complex pre industrialized societies interventions designed reduce health risks could initiative different stakeholders army generals clergy rulers great britain became leader development public health initiatives beginning th century due fact first modern urban nation worldwide ref name public health initiatives began emerge initially focused sanitation example liverpool london sewerage systems control infectious diseases including vaccination


quarantine evolving infrastructure various sciences eg statistics microbiology epidemiology sciences engineering ref name definitions purposes community health workers definition public health defined science art preventing disease prolonging life improving quality life organized efforts informed choices society organizations public private communities individuals ref name ''public'' small handful people large village entire city concept ''health'' takes account physical psychological social well


emphasis dealing health across regional national boundaries public health public healthcare publicly funded health care purposes purpose public health intervention prevent mitigate diseases injuries health conditions overall goal improve health populations increase life expectancy characteristics components public health complex term composed many elements different practices multi faceted interdisciplinary field ref name ref example epidemiology biostatistics social sciences management health services relevant important sub fields include


environmental health community health behavioral health health economics public policy mental health health education health politics occupational safety disability gender issues health sexual reproductive health ref name modern public health practice requires multidisciplinary teams public health workers professionals teams might include epidemiologists biostatisticians physician assistants public health nurses midwives medical microbiologists pharmacists economists sociologists geneticists data managers environmental health officers public health inspectors bioethicists gender experts sexual reproductive health specialists physicians veterinarians elements priorities public health evolved time continuing evolve ref name different regions


many diseases preventable simple nonmedical methods example research shown simple act handwashing soap prevent spread many contagious diseases cases treating disease controlling pathogen vital preventing spread others either outbreak infectious disease contamination food water supplies public health communications programs vaccination programs distribution condoms examples common preventive public health measures public health together primary care secondary care tertiary care part country 's overall health


public health initiatives ref name later particular concern faded away changing differing focal areas onset epidemiological transition prevalence infectious diseases decreased th century public health began put focus chronic diseases cancer heart disease previous efforts many developed countries already led dramatic reductions infant mortality rate using preventive methods britain infant mortality rate fell major public health concern developing countries poor maternal


child health exacerbated malnutrition poverty reports lack exclusive breastfeeding first six months life contributes million avoidable child deaths year ref name public health surveillance led identification prioritization many public health issues facing world today including hiv aids diabetes waterborne diseases zoonotic diseases antibiotic resistance leading reemergence infectious diseases tuberculosis antibiotic resistance also known drug resistance theme world health day example reports least million


people worldwide suffer diabetes incidence increasing rapidly projected number diabetes deaths double year june editorial medical journal ''the lancet'' authors opined fact type diabetes largely preventable disorder reached epidemic proportion public health humiliation risk type diabetes closely linked growing problem obesity 's latest estimates june highlighted globally approximately billion adults overweight million children


age five overweight considered problem high income countries rise low income countries especially urban settings many public health programs increasingly dedicating attention resources issue obesity objectives address underlying causes including healthy diet physical exercise current practice organizations world health organization world health organization specialized agency united nations responsible international public health ref name jan ref constitution establishes agency 's governing structure principles states


substance abuse others countries governmental public health agency often called ministry health responsibility domestic health issues example united states state local health departments front line public health initiatives addition national duties united states public health service phs led surgeon general united states public health service centers disease control prevention headquartered atlanta also involved international health activities public health programs governments recognize importance


public health programs reducing incidence disease disability effects aging physical mental health conditions however public health generally receives significantly less government funding compared medicine although collaboration local health government agencies considered best practice improve public health pieces evidence available support limited public health programs providing vaccinations made progress promoting health including eradication smallpox disease plagued humanity thousands years global smallpox eradication program reading news smallpox globally eradicated


world health organization identifies core functions public health programs including providing leadership matters critical health engaging partnerships joint action needed shaping research agenda stimulating generation translation dissemination valuable knowledge setting norms standards promoting monitoring implementation articulating ethical evidence based policy options monitoring health situation assessing health trends particular public health surveillance programs serve early warning system impending public health emergencies document impact intervention track progress towards specified goals monitor


clarify epidemiology health problems allow priorities set inform health policy strategies diagnose investigate monitor health problems health hazards community behavior change many health problems due maladaptive personal behaviors evolutionary psychology perspective consumption novel substances harmful due activation evolved reward system substances drugs tobacco alcohol refined salt fat carbohydrates new technologies modern transportation also cause reduced physical activity research found behavior effectively changed taking evolutionary


motivations consideration instead presenting information health effects marketing industry long known importance associating products high status attractiveness others films increasingly recognized public health tool fact film festivals competitions established specifically promote films health conversely argued emphasizing harmful undesirable effects tobacco smoking persons imposing smoking bans public places particularly effective reducing tobacco smoking applications health care well seeking improve population health


dhaka bangladesh significant disparity access health care public health initiatives developed countries developing countries well within developing countries developing countries public health infrastructures still forming may enough trained health workers monetary resources cases sufficient knowledge provide even basic level medical care disease prevention ref name ref ref name jamison ref result large majority disease mortality developing countries results contributes extreme poverty example many african governments spend less us per person per


year health care united states federal government spent approximately us per capita however expenditures health care confused spending public health public health measures may generally considered health care strictest sense example mandating use seat belts cars save countless lives contribute health population typically money spent enforcing rule would count money spent health care malaria test kenya despite preventable curable malaria leading cause


death many developing nations large parts world remained plagued largely preventable treatable infectious diseases addition however many developing countries also experiencing epidemiological shift polarization populations experiencing effects chronic diseases life expectancy increases poorer communities heavily affected chronic infectious diseases ref name jamison another major public health concern developing world poor maternal child health exacerbated malnutrition poverty reports lack exclusive breastfeeding first


six months life contributes million avoidable child deaths year ref name ref intermittent preventive therapy aimed treating preventing malaria episodes among pregnant women young children one public health measure endemic countries since growing field population health broadened focus public health individual behaviors risk factors population level issues inequality poverty education modern public health often concerned addressing determinants health across population recognition health affected many factors including class race income educational


status region residence social relationships known social determinants health upstream drivers environment education employment income food security housing social inclusion many others effect distribution health within populations often shaped policy social gradient health runs society poorest generally suffer worst health even middle classes generally worse health outcomes higher social level new public health advocates population based policies improve health equitable manner health aid developing


countries cuban doctor performs open air operation guinea bissau cuba sends medical personnel developing world g countries combined ref name huishkirk robert huish john kirk cuban medical internationalism development latin american school medicine ''latin american perspectives'' ref health aid developing countries important source public health funding many developing countries ref name ref health aid developing countries shown significant increase world war ii concerns spread disease result globalization increased hiv aids epidemic


adult mortality rates ref name however study suggests potential confounding variable outcome possibility aid directed countries already track improvement ref name study however also suggests billion dollars health aid associated fewer deaths occurring ages ref name sustainable development goals address current future challenges addressing health issues world united nations developed sustainable development goals completed


various sustainable development goals public health numerous well established ref name unhealth ref history th century black death intensified urban responses disaster basis earlier practices miniature chronicles gilles li muisis biblioth que royale de belgique ms f v alt beginnings human civilization communities promoted health fought disease population level ref name ref ref name ref definitions health well methods pursue differed according medical religious natural philosophical ideas groups held resources changing circumstances


lived yet early societies displayed hygienic stagnation even apathy often attributed latter reputation mainly based absence present day bioindicators especially immunological statistical tools developed light germ theory disease transmission public health born neither europe response industrial revolution preventive health interventions attested almost anywhere historical communities left mark southeast asia instance ayurvedic medicine subsequently buddhism fostered occupational dietary sexual regimens promised balanced bodies lives communities notion strongly present traditional


chinese medicine well among mayans aztecs early civilizations americas population centers pursued hygienic programs including holding medicinal herbal markets among aboriginal australians techniques preserving protecting water food sources micro zoning reduce pollution fire risks screens protect people flies common even temporary camps depiction aztec smallpox victims western european byzantine islamicate civilizations generally adopted hippocratic galenic humoral medical system fostered preventive programs well developed basis evaluating quality local climates including


greek roman antiquity army generals learned provide soldiers wellbeing including battlefield combatants died prior twentieth century christian monasteries across eastern mediterranean western europe since least fifth century ce monks nuns pursued strict balanced regimens including nutritious diets developed explicitly extend lives royal princely papal courts often mobile well likewise adapted behavior suit environmental conditions sites occupied could also choose sites considered salubrious members sometimes


modified cities residents rulers developed measures benefit general population faced broad array recognized health risks provide sustained evidence preventive measures earlier civilizations numerous sites upkeep infrastructures including roads canals marketplaces well zoning policies introduced explicitly preserve residents health officials muhtasib middle east road master italy fought combined threats pollution sin ocular intromission miasma craft guilds important agents waste disposal promoted harm reduction


honesty labor safety among members medical practitioners including public physicians collaborated urban governments predicting preparing calamities identifying isolating people perceived lepers disease strong moral connotations neighborhoods also active safeguarding local people health monitoring risk sites near taking appropriate social legal action artisanal polluters neglectful owners animals religious institutions individuals charitable organizations islam christianity likewise promoted moral physical wellbeing endowing urban amenities wells fountains schools bridges also service pilgrims


health boards eventually became regular urban later national offices subsequent measures protecting cities regions included issuing health passports travelers deploying guards create sanitary cordons protecting local inhabitants gathering morbidity mortality statistics measures relied turn better transportation communication networks news human animal disease efficiently spread th century onset industrial revolution living standards amongst working population began worsen cramped unsanitary urban conditions first four decades


th century alone london 's population doubled even greater growth rates recorded new industrial towns leeds manchester rapid urbanization exacerbated spread disease large conurbations built around workhouses factories settlements cramped primitive organized sanitation disease inevitable incubation areas encouraged poor lifestyle inhabitants unavailable housing led rapid growth slums per capita death rate began rise alarmingly almost doubling birmingham liverpool thomas malthus warned


treating smallpox james lind 's discovery causes scurvy amongst sailors mitigation via introduction fruit lengthy voyages published led adoption idea royal navy efforts also made promulgate health matters broader public british physician sir john pringle published ''observations diseases army camp garrison'' advocated importance adequate ventilation military barracks provision latrines soldiers public health legislation england sir


yellow fever poor law commission reported expenditures necessary adoption maintenance measures prevention would ultimately amount less cost disease constantly engendered recommended implementation large scale government engineering projects alleviate conditions allowed propagation disease ref name britannica health towns association formed exeter hall london december vigorously campaigned development public health united kingdom ref name ashton ref formation followed establishment health towns commission chaired


sir edwin chadwick produced series reports poor insanitary conditions british cities ref name ashton national local movements led public health act finally passed aimed improve sanitary condition towns populous places england wales placing supply water sewerage drainage cleansing paving single local body general board health central authority act passed liberal government lord john russell response urging edwin chadwick chadwick 's seminal report


subsequent public health acts notably act reforms included building sewers regular collection garbage followed incineration disposal landfill provision clean water draining standing water prevent breeding mosquitoes infectious disease notification act mandated reporting infectious diseases local sanitary authority could pursue measures removal patient hospital disinfection homes properties public health legislation countries united states first public health organization based


state health department local boards health founded new york city germany weimar republic country faced many public health catastrophes nazi party formed central ideology ''volksgesundheit'' translates german ''folk public health'' ideology based eugenics measures prioritizing group health health individuals end world war led nuremberg code set research ethics concerning human experimentation epidemiology epidemiologist john snow mapped clusters cholera cases london science


epidemiology founded john snow 's identification polluted public water well source cholera outbreak london snow believed germ theory disease opposed prevailing miasma theory talking local residents help reverend henry whitehead identified source outbreak public water pump broad street broadwick street although snow 's chemical microscope examination water sample broad street pump conclusively prove danger studies pattern disease convincing enough


persuade local council disable well pump removing handle snow later used dot map illustrate cluster cholera cases around pump also used statistics illustrate connection quality water source cholera cases showed southwark vauxhall waterworks company taking water sewage polluted sections thames delivering water homes leading increased incidence cholera snow 's study major event history public health geography regarded founding event


science epidemiology control infectious diseases paul louis simond injecting plague vaccine karachi pioneering work bacteriology french chemist louis pasteur german scientist robert koch methods isolating bacteria responsible given disease vaccines remedy developed turn th century british physician ronald ross identified mosquito carrier malaria laid foundations combating disease joseph lister revolutionized surgery introduction antiseptic surgery eliminate infection french epidemiologist paul louis simond proved plague carried


fleas back rats cuban scientist carlos j finlay us americans walter reed james carroll demonstrated mosquitoes carry virus responsible yellow fever brazilian scientist carlos chagas identified tropical disease vector society culture education training education training public health professionals available throughout world schools public health medical schools veterinary schools schools nursing schools public affairs training typically requires university degree focus core disciplines biostatistics epidemiology health services administration health policy health


education behavioral science gender issues sexual reproductive health public health nutrition occupational environmental health ref name mmwr ref global context field public health education evolved enormously recent decades supported institutions world health organization world bank among others operational structures formulated strategic principles educational career pathways guided competency frameworks requiring modulation according local national global realities critically important health populations nations assess public health human resource needs develop ability deliver


capacity depend countries supply schools public health us perspective united states welch rose report viewed basis critical movement history institutional schism public health medicine led establishment schools public health supported rockefeller foundation ref name php ref report authored william welch founding dean johns hopkins bloomberg school public health wickliffe rose rockefeller foundation report focused research practical education ref name php


blamed rockefeller foundation 's decision support establishment schools public health creating schism public health medicine legitimizing rift medicine 's laboratory investigation mechanisms disease public health 's nonclinical concern environmental social influences health wellness ref name php even though schools public health already established canada europe north africa united states still maintained traditional system housing faculties public health within medical institutions donation businessman samuel zemurray instituted


school public health tropical medicine tulane university conferring first doctor public health degree yale school public health founded charles edward amory winslow johns hopkins school hygiene public health founded became independent degree granting institution research training public health largest public health training facility united states schools public health established columbia harvard hopkins model twenty nine schools public


health us enrolling around fifteen thousand students ref name mmwr ref name php years types students training provided also changed beginning students enrolled public health schools typically already obtained medical degree public health school training largely second degree medical professionals however american students enrolled public health schools bachelor 's degree ref name mmwr degrees public health london school hygiene tropical medicine oldest school public health anglosphere schools public health


health care administration examples degrees geared towards people want careers practitioners public health health departments managed care community based organizations hospitals consulting firms among others master public health degrees broadly fall two categories put emphasis understanding epidemiology statistics scientific basis public health practice include wide range methodologies master science public health similar mph considered academic degree opposed professional degree


places emphasis scientific methods research distinction made drph dhsc drph considered professional degree dhsc academic degree academic degrees oriented towards interests scientific basis public health preventive medicine wish pursue careers research university teaching graduate programs policy analysis development high level public health positions examples academic degrees master science doctor philosophy doctor science scd doctor health science dhsc


doctoral programs distinct mph professional programs addition advanced coursework nature scope dissertation research project notable people john graunt british citizen scientist laid foundations epidemiology edward jenner created smallpox vaccine first vaccine world often known father immunology benjamin waterhouse introduced smallpox vaccine united states lemuel shattuck described architect prophet american public health sir joseph william bazalgette created


sewer network central london response great stink proved instrumental relieving city cholera epidemics louis pasteur conducted research laid foundation understanding causes preventions diseases charles v chapin public health advocate researcher credited planting roots quality public health united states ref name beitsch ref sara josephine baker instrumental force child maternal health nora wattie led development public health services sanitation education improving women child health


internationalism policy seen cuban government sent doctors form aid export countries need latin america especially venezuela well oceania africa countries colombia bolivia public health important elsewhere latin america consolidating state power integrating marginalized populations nation state colombia public health means creating implementing ideas citizenship bolivia similar push came revolution ghana ghanian children receive insecticide treated bed nets prevent exposure malaria transmitting mosquitos though curable


preventive malaria remains major public health issue third leading cause death ghana ref name ref absence vaccine mosquito control access anti malaria medication public health methods become main strategy reducing prevalence severity malaria ref name ref methods include reducing breeding sites screening doors windows insecticide sprays prompt treatment following infection usage insecticide treated mosquito nets ref name distribution sale insecticide treated mosquito nets common cost effective anti malaria public health intervention however barriers use exist including cost household family organization access


resources social behavioral determinants shown affect malaria prevalence rates also mosquito net use ref name france mexico united states see also european public health association eupha umbrella organization public health associations institutes europe health history water supply sanitation list national public health agencies references euthenics health economics health policy medical humanities sanitation


great egret ''ardea alba'' courtship display communicating desire find mate '''animal communication''' transfer information one group animals sender senders one animals receiver receivers affects current future behavior receivers information may sent intentionally courtship display unintentionally transfer scent predator prey information may transferred audience several receivers animal communication rapidly growing area study disciplines including animal behavior sociology neurology

Journalism, media studies and communication


animal cognition many aspects animal behavior symbolic name use emotional expression learning sexual behavior understood new ways information sender changes behavior receiver information referred signal signalling theory predicts signal maintained population sender receiver usually receive benefit interaction signal production senders perception subsequent response receivers thought coevolve ref name maynard smith harper maynard smith harper ref signals often involve multiple mechanisms eg


visual auditory signal understood coordinated behaviour sender receiver require careful study modes lamb investigates rabbit example interspecific communication using body posture olfaction visual '''gestures ''' animals understand communication visual display distinctive body parts bodily movements animals reveal accentuate body part relay certain information parent herring gull displays bright yellow bill ground next chick returned nest food chicks exhibit begging response tapping


red spot lower mandible parent herring gull 's bill signal stimulates parent regurgitate food completes feeding signal distinctive morphological feature accentuated communication parent 's red spotted bill tapping towards ground makes red spot visible chick demonstrating distinctive movement frans de waal studied bonobos chimps understand language somehow evolved gestures found apes humans use intentional gestures communicate '''facial expression ''' another important signal emotion animal communication facial gestures blue


yellow macaws studied understand reacted interactions familiar animal care taker studies show blue yellow macaws demonstrated significant amount blushing frequently mutual interactions caretaker another experiment jeffrey mogil studied facial expression mice response increments increasing pain found mice exhibited five recognizable face expressions orbital tightening nose cheek bulge changes ear whisker carriage '''gaze following ''' social animals human nonhuman use gaze following form communication monitoring head eye orientation mammals ref


cognitive basis gaze following developmental evidence indicates simple gaze following geometric gaze following probably rely different cognitive mechanisms ref name '''color change ''' color change separated changes occur growth development triggered mood social context abiotic factors temperature latter seen many taxa cephalopods octopus cuttlefish specialized skin cells chromatophores change apparent colour opacity reflectiveness skin ref name cephalopod ref addition use camouflage rapid changes


skin color used hunting courtship rituals cuttlefish may display two entirely different signals simultaneously opposite sides body male cuttlefish courts female presence males displays male pattern facing female female pattern facing away deceive males color signals occur cycles example female olive baboon begins ovulate anogenital area swells turns bright red pink signals males ready mate ref name motluk ref humboldt squid bioluminescent thus capable


serve alarms keep members flock contact longer complex bird songs associated courtship mating humpback whale singing southern ocean feeding grounds many animals communicate vocalization vocal communication serves many purposes including mating rituals warning calls conveying location food sources social learning number species males perform calls mating rituals form competition males signal females examples include frogs hammer headed bats red deer humpback whales elephant seals songbirds ref name mikula ref instances vocal communication include


alarm calls campbell monkey territorial calls gibbons use frequency greater spear nosed bats distinguish groups vervet monkey gives distinct alarm call four different predators reactions monkeys vary appropriately according call example alarm call signals python monkeys climb trees whereas eagle alarm causes monkeys seek hiding place ground prairie dogs also use complex calls signal predator differences according con slobodchikoff others prairie dog calls communicate


type size speed approaching predator nbsp whale vocalizations nowiki found different dialects based region animals use vocalization means auditory communication many arthropods rub specialized body parts together produce sound known stridulation crickets grasshoppers well known many others use stridulation well including crustaceans spiders scorpions wasps ants beetles butterflies moths millipedes centipedes another means auditory communication vibration swim bladders bony fish structure swim bladders attached sonic muscles varies greatly across


prairie dogs communicate threats prairie dogs one complex communication systems animal kingdom prairie dogs able communicate animals speed shape size species humans specific attire human carrying gun method communication usually done sentry stand two feet surveying potential threats rest pack finds food threat identified sentry sounds whistle alarm sometimes describing threat point pack retreats burrows intensity


many functions crucial one detection food function first arose single celled organisms bacteria living oceans early days life earth ref name function evolved organisms began differentiate chemicals compounds emanating resources conspecifics species ie mates kin heterospecifics different species ie competitors predators ref name instance small minnow species may well avoid habitat detectable concentration chemical cue associated predator species northern pike minnows ability perceive presence


communication animals seen primarily aquatic animals though land mammals notably platypus echidnas sense electric fields might used communication weakly electric fishes provide example electrocommunication together electrolocation fish use electric organ generate electric field detected electroreceptors differences waveform frequency changes field convey information species sex identity electric signals generated response hormones circadian rhythms interactions fish predators sharks rays able


eavesdrop electrogenic fish passive electroreception touch ''for mechanism touch see somatosensory system mechanoreceptors'' touch key factor many social interactions examples fighting fight touch may used challenge opponent coordinate movements fight may also used loser indicate submission mating mammals often initiate mating grooming stroking rubbing provides opportunity apply chemical signals assess excreted potential mate touch may also announce


intention male mount female male kangaroo grabs tail female mating touch stimuli important pair positioning coordination genital stimulation social integration touch widely used social integration use typified social grooming one animal another social grooming several functions removes parasites debris groomed animal reaffirms social bond hierarchical relationship animals gives groomer opportunity examine olfactory cues groomed individual perhaps adding additional ones


behaviour observed social insects birds mammals foraging ant species recruit fellow workers new food finds first tapping antennae forelegs leading food source keeping physical contact patrollers leave nest check danger nearby return recruit foragers making physical contact another example waggle dance honey bees ref name huddling prolonged physical contact huddling also serves social integration huddling promotes heat exchange together transfer olfactory tactile information organisms live constant


contact colony example colonial corals individuals linked tightly way entire colony react aversive alarm movements made individuals several herbivorous insect nymphs larvae aggregations prolonged contact play major role group coordination aggregations may take form procession rosette seismic seismic communication exchange information using self generated vibrational signals transmitted via substrate soil water spider webs plant stems blade grass form communication


several advantages example sent regardless light noise levels usually short range short persistence may reduce danger detection predators use seismic communication found many taxa including frogs kangaroo rats mole rats bees nematode worms others tetrapods usually make seismic waves drumming ground body part signal sensed sacculus receiver sacculus organ inner ear containing membranous sac used balance also


vulnerable body parts prey animal previously thought pit organs evolved primarily prey detectors believed may also used control body temperature facial pits enabling thermoregulation underwent parallel evolution pitvipers boas pythons evolved pitvipers multiple times boas pythons electrophysiology structure similar lineages differs gross structure anatomy superficially pitvipers possess one large pit organ either side head eye nostril loreal pit


mechanism involving warming pit organ rather chemical reaction light ref name ref consistent thin pit membrane allows incoming ir radiation quickly precisely warm given ion channel trigger nerve impulse well vascularize pit membrane rapidly cool ion channel back original resting inactive temperature ref name common vampire bats ''desmodus rotundus'' specialized ir sensors nose leaf vampire bats mammals feed exclusively blood ir sense enables desmodus localize homeothermic animals cattle


horses within range nbsp cm infrared perception may used detecting regions maximal blood flow targeted prey autocommunication autocommunication type communication sender receiver individual sender emits signal altered environment eventually received individual altered signal provides information indicate food predators conspecifics sender receiver animal selection pressure maximizes signal efficacy ie degree emitted signal correctly identified


receiver despite propagation distortion noise two types autocommunication first active electrolocation organism emits electrical pulse electric organ senses projected geometrical property object found electric fish gymnotiformes knifefishes mormyridae elephantfish second type autocommunication echolocation found bats toothed whales echolocation involves emitting sounds interpreting vibrations return objects functions many functions animal communication however studied detail others includes '''communication contests''' animal


communication plays vital role determining winner contest resource many species distinct signals signal aggression willingness attack signals convey retreat competitions food territories mates two 'red deer roaring likely establish dominance rut however males also use loud roaring keep track harems females '''mating rituals''' animals produce signals attract attention possible mate solidify pair bonds signals frequently involve display body parts postures example gazelle assume characteristic


poses initiate mating mating signals also include use olfactory signals mating calls unique species animals form lasting pair bonds often symmetrical displays make famous examples mutual presentation reeds great crested grebes studied julian huxley triumph displays shown many species geese penguins nest sites spectacular courtship displays birds paradise copulation calls mammals indicate female 's breeding status attract mates '''ownership territorial''' signals used claim defend territory


food mate polygynous lizards ''anolis carolinensis'' show greater signs aggression farther distances males females defending territory mate believed males evolved remain distant due higher reproductive consequences opposed females '''food related signals''' many animals make food calls attract mate offspring members social group food source perhaps elaborate food related signal waggle dance honeybees studied karl von frisch one well known example begging offspring clutch


litter altricial songbirds young ravens signal older ravens encounter new untested food rhesus macaques send food calls inform monkeys food source avoid punishment pheromones released many social insects lead members society food source example ants leave pheromone trail ground followed ants lead food source '''alarm calls''' alarm calls communicate threat predator allows members social group sometimes


species respond accordingly may include running cover becoming immobile gathering group reduce risk attack alarm signals always vocalizations crushed ants release alarm pheromone attract ants send attack state '''meta communication''' signals modify meaning subsequent signals one example 'play face' dogs signals subsequent aggressive signal part play fight rather serious aggressive episode interpretation animal behaviour described many animal gestures postures sounds convey meaning


nearby animals signals often easier describe interpret tempting especially domesticated animals apes anthropomorphize interpret animal actions human terms quite misleading example ape 's smile often sign aggression also gesture may different meanings depending context within occurs example domestic dog 's tail wag posture may used different ways convey many meanings illustrated charles darwin 's expression emotions man animals published


darwin 's illustrations reproduced gallery mode packed heights caption examples tail position indicating different emotions dogs file expression emotions figure png small dog watching cat table file expression emotions figure png dog approaching another dog hostile intentions file expression emotions figure png dog humble affectionate frame mind file expression emotions figure png half bred shepherd dog file expression emotions figure png dog caressing master gallery interspecific communication much animal communication intraspecific occurs members species interspecific communication


predator prey particular interest prey predator prey animal moves makes noise vibrations emits smell way predator detect communicating predator ref name hasson ref consistent definition communication given type communication known interceptive eavesdropping predator intercepts message intended conspecifics however actions prey species clearly directed actual potential predators good example warning coloration species wasps capable


harming potential predators often brightly coloured modifies behavior predator either instinctively result experience avoid attacking animal forms mimicry fall category example hoverflies coloured way wasps although unable sting strong avoidance wasps predators gives hoverfly protection also behavioural changes act similar way warning colouration example canines wolves coyotes may adopt aggressive posture growling


teeth bared indicate fight necessary rattlesnakes use well known rattle warn potential predators venomous bite sometimes behavioural change warning colouration combined certain species amphibians body coloured blend surroundings except brightly coloured belly confronted potential threat show belly indicating poisonous way another example prey predator communication pursuit deterrent signal pursuit deterrent signals occur prey indicates predator pursuit would


unprofitable signaler prepared escape pursuit deterrent signals provide benefit signaler receiver prevent sender wasting time energy fleeing prevent receiver investing costly pursuit unlikely result capture signals advertise prey 's ability escape reflect phenotypic condition quality advertisement advertise prey detected predator perception advertisement ref name hasson pursuit deterrent signals reported wide variety taxa including fish godin davis lizards cooper etc al ungulates caro


rabbits holley primates zuberbuhler et al rodents shelley blumstein clark birds alvarez murphy familiar example quality advertisement pursuit deterrent signal ' 'stotting'' sometimes called ''pronking'' pronounced combination stiff legged running simultaneously jumping shown antelopes nowiki thomson 's gazelle presence predator least hypotheses stotting proposed leading theory today alerts predators element surprise lost predators like cheetahs rely surprise attacks proven fact chases rarely successful


antelope stot predators waste energy chase likely unsuccessful optimal foraging behavior quality advertisement communicated modes visual banner tailed kangaroo rat produces several complex foot drumming patterns number different contexts one encounters snake foot drumming may alert nearby offspring likely conveys vibrations ground rat alert successful attack thus preventing snake 's predatory pursuit predator prey humpback anglerfish angles small fish deceptively dangling bioluminescent lure


front jaws typically predators attempt reduce communication prey generally reduce effectiveness hunting however forms predator prey communication occur ways change behavior prey make capture easier ie deception predator well known example angler fish ambush predator waits prey come fleshy bioluminescent growth protruding forehead dangles front jaws smaller fish attempt take lure placing better position


angler fish catch another example deceptive communication observed genus jumping spiders myrmarachne spiders commonly referred antmimicking spiders way wave front legs air simulate antennae human animal various ways humans interpret behavior animals give commands consistent definition interspecies communication skillful interpretation animal communications may critical welfare animals cared trained humans example behavior indicating pain need recognized


animals found use new signs get need recent experiments animal language perhaps sophisticated attempt yet establish human animal communication though relation natural animal communication uncertain aspects evolution importance communication evident highly elaborate morphology behaviour physiology animals evolved facilitate include striking structures animal kingdom peacock 's tail antlers stag frill frill necked lizard also


include even modest red spot european herring gull 's bill highly elaborate behaviours evolved communication dancing cranes pattern changes cuttlefish gathering arranging materials bowerbirds evidence importance communication animals prioritisation physiological features function example birdsong appears brain structures entirely devoted production adaptations require evolutionary explanation two aspects required explanation identifying route animal lacked relevant feature behaviour could acquire


identifying selective pressure makes adaptive animals develop structures facilitate communication emit communications respond significant contributions first problems made konrad lorenz early ethologists comparing related species within groups showed movements body parts primitive forms communicative function could captured context communication would functional one partners could evolve elaborate specialised form example desmond morris showed study grass finches


beak wiping response occurred range species serving preening function species elaborated courtship signal second problem controversial early ethologists assumed communication occurred good species whole would require process group selection believed mathematically impossible evolution sexually reproducing animals altruism towards unrelated group widely accepted scientific community rather seen reciprocal altruism expecting behaviour others benefit


apparently altruistic mutualistic communications alarm calls courtship signals emerge individual selection led realization communication might always honest indeed obvious examples mimicry possibility evolutionarily stable dishonest communication subject much controversy amotz zahavi particular arguing cannot exist long term sociobiologists also concerned evolution apparently excessive signaling structures peacock 's tail widely thought emerge


result sexual selection create positive feedback process leads rapid exaggeration characteristic confers advantage competitive mate selection situation one theory explain evolution traits like peacock 's tail 'runaway selection' requires two traits trait exists like bright tail preexisting bias female select trait females prefer elaborate tails thus males able mate successfully exploiting psychology female positive feedback loop enacted tail becomes bigger


another assumption signal costly low quality males produce higher quality males produce simply higher quality males energy reserves available allocate costly signaling ref name maynard smith harper cognitive aspects ethologists sociobiologists characteristically analysed animal communication terms less automatic responses stimuli without raising question whether animals concerned understand meaning signals emit receive key question animal cognition signalling systems seem demand


advanced understanding much discussed example use alarm calls vervet monkeys robert seyfarth dorothy cheney showed animals emit different alarm calls presence different predators leopards eagles snakes monkeys hear calls respond appropriately ability develops time also takes account experience individual emitting call metacommunication discussed also seems require sophisticated cognitive process reported ref name pnas v janik l sayigh r wells signature whistle shape conveys identity


information bottlenose dolphins ''proceedings national academy sciences'' vol may ref bottlenose dolphins recognize identity information whistles even otherwise stripped characteristics whistle making dolphins animals humans shown transmit identity information independent caller 's voice location paper concludes human behaviour another controversial issue extent human behaviours resemble animal communication whether communication disappeared result linguistic capacity bodily features eyebrows beards


moustaches deep adult male voices perhaps female breasts strongly resemble adaptations producing signals ethologists iren us eibl eibesfeldt argued facial gestures smiling grimacing ''eyebrow flash'' greeting universal human communicative signals related corresponding signals primates given recently spoken language emerged likely human body language include less involuntary responses similar origin communication humans also often seek mimic animals' communicative signals order interact example cats


mild affiliative response slowly closing eyes humans often mimic signal towards pet cat establish tolerant relationship stroking petting rubbing pet animals actions probably work natural patterns interspecific communication dogs shown ability understand human communication object choice tasks dogs utilize human communicative gestures pointing direction gaze order locate hidden food toys however contrast humans pointing different meaning dogs refers direction location also shown


dogs exhibit left gaze bias looking human faces indicating capable reading human emotions dogs make use direction gaze exhibit left gaze bias dogs new approach st century field animal communication uses applied behavioural analysis specifically functional communication training form training previously used schools clinics humans special needs children autism help develop language sean senechal animalsign center using approach similar functional


communication training domesticated animals dogs since horses since encouraging results benefits animals people functional communication training animals senechal calls animal sign language includes teaching communication gestures like simplified american sign language picture exchange communication system tapping vocalisation process animals includes simplified modified techniques linguistics ref linguistics interest animal communication systems lies similarities differences human language human languages characterized '' 'double articulation''' characterization french linguist andr martinet


means complex linguistic expressions broken meaningful elements morphemes words turn composed smallest phonetic elements affect meaning called phonemes animal signals however exhibit dual structure general animal utterances responses external stimuli refer matters removed time space matters relevance distance distant food sources tend indicated individuals body language instead example wolf activity hunt information conveyed honeybee dance language


therefore unclear extent utterances automatic responses extent deliberate intent plays part contrast human language animal communication systems usually able express conceptual generalizations cetaceans primates may notable exceptions human languages combine elements produce new messages property known '''creativity''' one factor much human language growth based upon conceptual ideas hypothetical structures far greater capabilities humans animals appears far less common animal communication systems although current research animal culture


still ongoing process many new discoveries reported affixation may play role call meanings campbell 's mona monkey errors communication becomes possibility error within communication animals certain circumstances apply circumstances could include distance two communicating subjects well complexity signal communicated listener situation may always clear listener location communication coming singer sometimes deceive


create error see also animal consciousness anthrozoology human animal studies biocommunication biosemiotics body language dear enemy effect nasty neighbour effect deception animals degeneracy biology emotion animals forms activity interpersonal relations human animal communication international society biosemiotic studies origin language origin speech sir philip sidney game talking animal zoomusicology zoosemiotics references external links http wwwcultureunpluggedcom documentary watch online play animal communicator animal communicator documentary http wwwzoosemioticshelsinkifi zoosemiotics animal communication web http acpeugraphcom animal communication project http wwwibacinfo international bioacoustics council research animal language http wwwanimal soundsorg animal sounds different animal sounds listen download http wwwbluk soundarchive british library sound


archive contains recordings animal sounds natural atmospheres world semiotics zoosemiotics interspecies communication


'''information management''' '''im''' concerns cycle organizational activity acquisition information one sources custodianship distribution information need ultimate disposal archiving deletion cycle information organisation involves variety stakeholders including responsible assuring quality accessibility utility acquired information responsible safe storage disposal need decision making stakeholders might rights originate change distribute delete information according organisational information management policies

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
Information management


information management embraces generic concepts management including planning organizing structuring processing controlling evaluation reporting information activities needed order meet needs organisational roles functions depend information generic concepts allow information presented audience correct group people individuals able put information use gains value information management closely related overlaps management data systems technology processes availability information


critical organisational success strategy broad view realm information management contrasts earlier traditional view life cycle managing information operational matter requires specific procedures organisational capabilities standards deal information product service history emergent ideas data management management information largely concerned matters closer would called data management punched cards magnetic tapes record keeping media involving life cycle formats requiring origination distribution backup maintenance disposal


time huge potential information technology began recognised example single chip storing whole book electronic mail moving messages instantly around world remarkable ideas time ref name evans evans c ''the mighty micro'' london victor gollancz ref proliferation information technology extending reach information systems ref name venkat venkatraman n enabled business transformation automation business scope redefinition ''sloan management review'' pp ref information management took new form progressive businesses british petroleum transformed vocabulary


management systems analysts became business analysts monopoly supply became mixture insourcing outsourcing large function transformed lean teams began allow agility processes harness information business benefit ref name cross earl cross j earl transformation function british petroleum ''mis quarterly'' page ref scope senior management interest information british petroleum extended creation value improved business processes based upon effective management information permitting implementation appropriate information systems


applications operated infrastructure outsourced ref name cross earl way information management longer simple job could performed anyone nothing else became highly strategic matter senior management attention understanding technologies involved ability manage information systems projects business change well willingness align technology business strategies became necessary ref name ward peppard ward j peppard j ''strategic planning information systems'' rd edition chichester wiley ref positioning information management bigger


picture transitional period leading strategic view information management venkatraman strong advocate transition transformation ref name venkat venkatraman n enabled business transformation automation business scope redefinition ''sloan management review'' pp ref proffered simple arrangement ideas succinctly brought together managements data information knowledge see figure argued data maintained infrastructure ''interpreted'' order render information information information systems ''understood'' order emerge knowledge knowledge allows managers ''take


effective decisions'' effective decisions lead ''appropriate actions'' appropriate actions expected deliver ''meaningful results'' simple model summarises presentation venkatraman reported ward peppard page ref name ward peppard often referred dikar model data information knowledge action result ref name venkat venkatraman n managing resources value center ''is executive seminar series cranfield school management'' ref gives strong clue layers involved aligning technology organisational strategies seen pivotal moment changing


web emerges phenomenon business cannot ignore yet well general recognition importance information management organisations march simon ref name march simon march jg simon ha ''organizations'' wiley ref argued organizations considered cooperative systems high level information processing vast need decision making various levels instead using model economic man advocated classical theory ref name opp see opp k sociology economic man ''zeitschrift f r die gesamte staatswissenschaft journal institutional theoretical economics''


pp ref proposed administrative man alternative based argumentation cognitive limits rationality additionally proposed notion satisficing entails searching available alternatives acceptability threshold met another idea still currency ref name winter winter sg satisficing principle capability learning ''strategic management journal'' pp ref economic theory addition organisational factors mentioned march simon issues stem economic environmental dynamics cost collecting evaluating information needed take decision including


time effort required ref name hedberg hedberg bo organizations learn unlearn nystr pc starbuck wh ''handbook organizational design'' oxford university press ref transaction cost associated information processes high particular established organizational rules procedures prevent taking appropriate decision leading sub optimum outcomes ref name mackenzie mackenzie kd ''organizational structures'' ahm publishing corporation ref ref name mullins mullins lj ''management organizational behaviours'' rd ed pitman publishing ref issue presented major problem bureaucratic organizations lose economies strategic change entrenched


attitudes ref name wigand wigand rolf picot arnold reichwald ralf ''information organization management expanding markets corporate boundaries'' wiley sons ref strategic information management background according carnegie mellon school organization 's ability process information core organizational managerial competency organization 's strategies must designed improve information processing capability ref name cyert cyert rm march jg behavioural theory organizational objectives ''modern organization theory'' wiley new york pp ref information systems provide capability became formalised automated competencies severely tested many levels ref name morton morton mss


''the corporation information technology organizational transformation'' oxford university press ref recognised organisations needed able learn adapt ways never evident ref name senge senge pm ''the fifth discipline'' doubleday ref academics began organise publish definitive works concerning strategic management information information systems ref name ward peppard ref name earl earl mj ''management strategies information technology'' upper saddle river nj usa prentice hall inc ref concurrently ideas business process management ref name hammer champy hammer champy j ''reengineering corporation manifesto


business revolution'' zondervan ref knowledge management ref name nonaka takeuchi nonaka takeuchi h ''the knowledge creating company japanese companies create dynamics innovation'' new york ny usa oxford university press ref although much optimistic early thinking business process redesign since discredited information management literature ref name belmiro belmiro gardiner p simmons j business process engineering discredited vocabulary ''international journal information management'' pp ref strategic studies field considered highest priority understanding information environment conceived aggregate individuals organizations


systems collect process disseminate act information environment consists three interrelated dimensions continuously interact individuals organizations systems dimensions physical informational cognitive aligning technology business strategy information management venkatraman provided simple view requisite capabilities organisation wants manage information well dikar model see also worked others understand technology business strategies could appropriately aligned order identify specific capabilities needed ref name henderson venkat henderson jc venkatraman n strategic alignment


leveraging information technology transforming organizations ''ibm systems journal'' pp ref work paralleled writers world consulting ref name zachman zachman j framework information systems architecture ''ibm systems journal'' ref practice ref name cross cross j outsourcing british petroleum 's competitive approach ''harvard business review'' p ref academia ref name ward ward j daniel e ''benefits management delivering value investments'' chichester wiley ref contemporary portfolio model information bytheway collected organised basic tools techniques information management single volume ref name bytheway


heart view information management portfolio model takes account surging interest external sources information need organise un structured information external make useful see figure portfolio model organizes issues internal external sourcing management information may either structured unstructured information portfolio shows information gathered usefully organised four stages '''stage ''' taking advantage public information recognise adopt well structured external schemes reference data post codes


weather data gps positioning data travel timetables exemplified personal computing press ref name ashbrook ashbrook starner using gps learn significant locations predict movement across multiple users ''personal ubiquitous computing'' pp ref '''stage ''' tagging noise world wide web use existing schemes post codes gps data typically adding tags construct formal ontology provides structure shirky provides overview two approaches ref name shirky shirky c shirky ontology overrated categories links tags ''clay shirky 's writings internet'' available


http shirkycom writings ontology overratedhtml accessed may ref '''stage ''' sifting analysing wider world generalised ontologies development extend hundreds entities hundreds relations provide means elicit meaning large volumes data structured data databases works best structure reflects higher level information model ontology entity relationship model ref name noy noy nf mcguinness dl others ontology development guide creating first ontology ''stanford knowledge systems laboratory technical report ksl stanford medical informatics technical report smi '' ref '''stage ''' structuring


archiving large volume data available sources social web miniature telemetry systems used personal health management new ways archive trawl data meaningful information map reduce methods originating functional programming recent way eliciting information large archival datasets becoming interesting regular businesses large data resources work requires advanced multi processor resources ref name chu chu c et al map reduce machine learning multicore ''advances neural information processing systems'' p ref competencies manage information


well management system information management body knowledge first published world wide web ref name imbok imbok ''the information management body knowledge'' available http wwwimbokorg accessed may ref set show required management competencies derive real benefits investment information complex multi layered framework model basis understanding competencies comprises six knowledge areas four process areas framework basis organising information management body knowledge first made available version adapted addition


business information information management knowledge areas imbok based argument six areas required management competency two business process management business information management closely related ref name bytheway bytheway ''investing information information management body knowledge'' geneva springer p ref '''information technology''' pace change technology pressure constantly acquire newest technological products undermine stability infrastructure supports systems thereby optimises business processes delivers benefits necessary manage supply side


recognise technology increasingly becoming commodity ref name carr carr n n't matter ''wringing real value it'' hbr onpoint pp ref '''information system''' historically information systems developed house years become possible acquire software systems organisation needs software package industry however still potential competitive advantage implementation new systems ideas deliver strategic intentions organisations ref name ward peppard '''business processes business information''' information systems applied business processes order improve


bring data business becomes useful business information business process management still seen relatively new idea universally adopted difficult many cases business ''information'' management even challenge ref name belmiro belmiro tr et al bpr practitioners really addressing business processes ''international journal operations production management'' pp ref ref name davenport davenport th short j information technology business process redesign ''operations management critical perspectives business management'' p ref '''business benefit''' benefits


problem lies migration ideas information management value one area competency another summarising bytheway explains detail supported selected secondary references ref name bytheway bytheway ''investing information information management body knowledge'' geneva springer p ref '''projects''' information technology without value engineered information systems meet needs business means good project management ref name schwalbe schwalbe k ''information technology project management'' cengage learning ref '''business change''' best information systems succeed delivering benefits achievement change within business systems


new systems extend far beyond boundaries single business ref name seed saeed ka malhotra mk grover v examining impact interorganizational systems process efficiency sourcing leverage buyer supplier dyads ''decision sciences'' pp ref '''performance management''' investments longer solely financial results financial success must balanced internal efficiency customer satisfaction organisational learning development ref name kaplan norton summary always many ways see business information management viewpoint one way important remember areas business activity also


information management managing requisite change organizations often confronted many information management challenges issues operational level especially organisational change engendered novelty new systems architectures lack experience new styles information management requires level organisational change management notoriously difficult deliver result general organisational reluctance change enable new forms information management might example shortfall requisite resources failure acknowledge new classes information new procedures use


applied business logic matrix organisation lateral relations concept leads organizational form different simple hierarchy matrix organization brings together vertical hierarchical view organisation horizontal product project view work visible outside world creation matrix organization one management response persistent fluidity external demand avoiding multifarious spurious responses episodic demands tend dealt individually see also information management body knowledge records management knowledge management information


technology information system project management business process balanced scorecard strategic management data management content management master information management information resources management journal journal global information management references evans c mighty micro london victor gollancz venkatraman n enabled business transformation automation business scope redefinition sloan management review pp nbsp cross j earl transformation function british petroleum mis quarterly page ward j peppard j strategic planning information systems rd edition chichester wiley external links information information technology information systems works information


'''school psychology''' field applies principles educational psychology developmental psychology clinical psychology community psychology behavior analysis meet learning behavioral health needs children adolescents area applied psychology practiced '' 'school psychologist''' often collaborate educators families school leaders community members professionals create safe supportive school environments carry psychological testing psychoeducational assessment intervention prevention counseling consultation ethical legal administrative codes profession historical foundations school psychology dates back beginning american psychology

Social science
Psychology
School psychology


late th early th centuries field tied functional clinical psychology school psychology actually came functional psychology school psychologists interested childhood behaviors learning processes dysfunction life brain wanted understand causes behaviors effects learning addition origins functional psychology school psychology also earliest example clinical psychology beginning around clinical school psychologists wanted help improve lives children approached different ways school psychologists


enriching lives children knowledge also used help identify work children exceptional needs ref name discussed school psychologist must able assess develop plans children considered risk school psychologist also expected better lives children school therefore determined school psychologists advisors planning implementation school curriculum ref name ysseldyke schakel participants conference felt since school psychology specialty individuals


field completed two year graduate training program four year doctoral program participants felt states encouraged establish certification standards ensure proper training also decided practicum experience required help facilitate experiential knowledge within field ref name ysseldyke schakel thayer conference one significant events history school psychology field initially shaped today thayer conference defined school psychology practitioners used seventy five different professional titles ref name


individual must earned doctoral degree issues titles labels degree levels still debated among psychologists today however apa nasp reached resolution issue social reform early late th century marked era social reforms directed children due social reforms need school psychologists emerged social reforms included compulsory schooling juvenile courts child labor laws well growth institutions serving children society starting change 'meaning children' economic source


labor psychological source love affection historian thomas fagan argues preeminent force behind need school psychology compulsory schooling laws prior compulsory schooling law school aged children completed elementary school completed high school due compulsory schooling laws influx students mental physical defects required law school needed alternative method teaching different children schools rural urban areas created small


psychological child guidance clinic university pennsylvania witmer 's goal prepare psychologists help educators solve children 's learning problems specifically individual differences witmer became advocate special children focused deficits per se rather helping overcome looking individual 's positive progress rather still could achieve witmer stated clinic helped discover mental moral defects treat child way defects may overcome rendered harmless


development mental moral traits strongly believed active clinical interventions could help improve lives individual children since witmer saw much success clinic saw need experts help individuals witmer argued special training experts working exceptional children special educational classrooms called new profession exercised particularly connection educational problems training psychologist prerequisite witmer believed appropriate training school psychologists


also stressed importance appropriate accurate testing special children iq testing movement sweeping world education creation however iq test negatively influenced special education iq test creators lewis terman henry goddard held nativist view intelligence believing intelligence inherited difficult impossible modify meaningful way education notions often used basis excluding children disabilities public schools witmer argued standard pencil paper iq binet type tests


order help select children special education witmer 's child selection process included observations children perform certain mental tasks granville stanley hall another important figure origin school psychology granville stanley hall rather looking individual child witmer hall focused administrators teachers parents exceptional children felt psychology could make contribution administrator system level application school psychology hall created child study movement helped invent concept normal child hall 's child study


helped work mappings child development focused nature nurture debate individual 's deficit hall 's main focus movement still exceptional child despite fact worked atypical children arnold gesell bridging gap child study movement clinical psychology special education arnold gesell first person united states officially hold title school psychologist successfully combined psychology education evaluating children making recommendations special teaching arnold gesell paved way future school psychologists gertrude hildreth


optimal outcomes vocational guidance curriculum development investigations exceptional pupils hildreth emphasized importance collaboration parents teachers also known development metropolitan readiness tests contribution metropolitan achievement test hildreth published bibliography mental tests rating scales encompassing year time period titles wrote approximately articles bulletins international reputation work education issues related school psychology intervention one primary roles responsibilities


school psychologists working schools ensure interventions utilize effectively address students behavior problems issues arise school psychologists select interventions sufficient research based evidence effective individual working school psychologists researchers practitioners make important contributions development implementation scientifically based intervention prevention programs address learning behavioral needs students national association school psychologists nasp https wwwnasponlineorg concern implementing academic behavioral interventions prior determination special education services


validity relevance targeted outcomes everyday life students integrity fidelity extent individuals responsible implementing intervention intended designers sustainability extent school staff maintain intervention time without support external agents national association school psychologists nasp https wwwnasponlineorg specific example intervention recently become popular among school psychologists school wide positive behavioral interventions supports pbis authorized idea pbis offers preventative positive systemic framework approach affect educational behavioral change


used support tiers education system research single case design studies group studies demonstrates intervention result reduction major disciplinary infractions aggressive behavior improvement academic achievement increase prosocial behavior reduction bullying behavior reported teachers much consistent strong implementation fidelity pbis provide school psychologists opportunities assist administration teaching staff students broad specific ways prevention way school psychologists help students creating primary prevention


programs information prevention also connected current events community issues assessment process empirical evidence confirmed biases referral assessment identification however inferences made special education process may oversimplified national research council called attention questionable reliability educational decision making special education vast numbers false positives false negatives misidentified students special education problematic contribute long term negative outcomes identification process school psychologists must consider ecological factors


environmental context socioeconomic status socioeconomic status may limit funding materials impact curriculum quality increase teacher student ratios perpetuate negative school climate technological issues ever growing use technology school psychologists faced several issues ethical within populations try serve easy share communicate technology concerns raised easy outsiders get access private information school psychologists deal everyday thus exchanging storing information digitally may come


scrutiny precautions password protecting documents specifically limiting access within school systems personal files ref name issue students communicate using technology concerns address virtual communications appropriate access concerns line drawn intervention methods end invasion privacy begin raised students parents administrators faculty addressing behaviors becomes even complicated considering current methods treatment problematic behaviors implementation strategies


african americans two highly represented racial groups within realm special education ref name merrell ref particular african american males overidentified emotional disturbances intellectual disabilities account special education population emotional disturbances learning disabilities american indian alaska native students also overrepresented special education shown times likely receive services various learning disabilities likely obtain services targeting developmental delays non native american student groups combined overall hispanic students


often overidentified special education general however common identified autism spectrum disorder speech language impairments comparison white students minority populations often increased susceptibility economic social cultural disadvantages affect academic achievement according us department education black children three times likely live poor families white children percent white asian children lived poor families compared percent black children percent hispanic children percent american indian


children percent others may alternative explanations behavior academic performance well example black children twice likely whites experience heightened levels lead blood due prolonged lead exposure lead poisoning known affect child 's behavior increasing levels irritability hyperactivity inattentiveness even less severe cases cultural biases school psychologists realize need understand accept cultural beliefs values order understand impact may delivering services


clients families ref name carroll ref example school psychologists ensure students minorities including african americans hispanics asians native americans equally represented system level classroom receiving fair education staff important look one 's culture seeing value diversity also vital learn adapt diversity integrate comprehensive way understand cultural knowledge staff members keep terms race privilege implicit bias micro aggression cultural relevance mind thinking social justice services


behavior interventions school psychologists involved implementation academic behavioral social emotional interventions within school across continuum supports systems policies convey clear behavior expectations promote consistency among educators continuous reinforcement positive behaviors yield extremely positive results schoolwide positive behavior supports systematic approach proactively promotes constructive behaviors school yield positive outcomes programs designed improve support students social behavioral learning outcomes promoting positive school climate providing targeted training students educators within school


data collected consistently assess implementation effectiveness screen monitor student behavior develop modify action plans '''check connect''' c c structured mentoring intervention promote student success engagement school learning relationship building systematic use data structured maximize personal contact opportunities build trusting relationships developed institute community integration university minnesota collaboration minneapolis public school system emphasizes school completion academic social emotional competencies students may referred program


exhibit signs withdrawal academic emotional behavioral areas team consists student check connect coordinator community services school staff monitor family essential components intervention mentor component check component connect component program implemented monitor serves multiple roles mentor advocate service coordinator serve build strong relationship student based mutual trust open communication nurtured long term commitment focused success school learning check component observed


student levels engagement things attendance suspension credits grades behavior checked progress regularly mentors used guide efforts increase maintain students connection school connect component timely personalized data based interventions designed provide support tailored individual student needs based student 's level engagement school monitor goal make education priority withdrawn students intervention gives students person motivate encourage inform important graduating academic interventions academic


interventions conceptualized set procedures strategies designed improve student performance intent closing gap student currently performing expectations performing short term long term interventions used within problem solving model must evidence based means intervention strategies must evaluated research utilized rigorous data analysis peer review procedures determine effectiveness implementing evidence based interventions behavior academic concerns requires significant training skill development supervised practice linking assessment intervention critical


determining correct intervention chosen school psychologists specifically trained ensure interventions implemented integrity maximize positive outcomes children school setting assessment school psychologists equipped provide assessment determine assessment warranted school psychologist completed depth advanced preparation selecting administering tests well interpreting evaluating information obtained assessment advanced training allows school psychologists extremely familiar central principles measurement employing multi method multi source multi setting approaches sensitive contextual influences


select use appropriate assessment instruments techniques purpose designed supporting psychometric evidence school psychologists aware limitations assessment information collected interpreted reported school psychologists use assessment information manner minimizes potential misunderstanding misuse school psychologists play substantial role data driven decision making following areas routine decisions screening progress monitoring problem identification school wide decisions problem analysis instruction problem analysis intervention planning program evaluation accountability eligibility diagnostic decisions


systems level services leaders field school psychology recognize practical challenges school psychologists face striving systems level change highlighted manageable domain within systems level approach classroom overall makes sense school psychologists devote considerable effort monitoring improving school classroom based performance children youth shown effective preventive approach ref name lehr ref universal screening school psychologists play important role supporting youth mental wellness identifying youth distress challenging schools


implemented universal mental health screening programs help school psychologists find help struggling youth instance schools king county washington using check digital screening tool designed seattle children 's hospital measure understand nurture individual students well check collects information lifestyle behaviour social determinants health identify risk youth school psychologists intervene direct youth services need mental health screening provides school psychologists valuable insights interventions better fitted student needs crisis intervention crisis intervention integral part


school psychology school administrators view school psychologists school 's crisis intervention experts crisis events significantly affect student 's ability learn function effectively many school crisis response models suggest quick return normal rituals routines helpful coping crises primary goal crisis interventions help crisis exposed students return basic abilities problem solving student return pre crisis level functioning ref name strategies akin little little g bray kehle eds behavioral interventions schools evidence based positive strategies washington


dc american psychological association pp ref social justice three major elements comprise social justice include equity fairness respect concept social justice includes individuals equal access opportunities resources major component behind social justice idea culturally aware sensitive american psychological association apa national association school psychologists nasp ethical principles codes conduct present aspirational elements social justice school psychologists may abide although ethical principles exist federal legislation acts accordingly social justice


example elementary secondary education act esea individuals disabilities education improvement act idea address issues poverty disability promote concept social justice schools schools becoming increasingly diverse growing awareness differences cultural diversity factors addressed social justice practice include race ethnicity gender socioeconomic status ses religion sexual orientation various elements impact student 's education become source discrimination greater call practice social justice schools school


psychologists consider framework social justice know injustices low ses students face sometimes different compared high ses students advocacy major role school psychologists involves advocating speaking individuals needed advocacy done district regional state national level school psychologists advocate students parents caregivers consultation collaboration key components school psychology advocacy may times school personnel may agree school psychologist differing opinions problematic school psychologist advocates


best interest student school psychologists staff members help facilitate awareness courageous conversations multicultural competence school psychologists offer many types services order multiculturally competent multicultural competence extends race ethnicity social class gender religion sexual orientation disability age geographic region ref name carroll field school psychology serves diverse range students maintaining representation minority groups continues priority despite importance history seen underrepresentation culturally linguistically diverse cld school psychologists ref name merrell may appear alarming given


diversity youth continues increase exponentially thus current professionals field prioritized acquisition cld school psychologists school psychologists trained use skills knowledge professional practices promoting diversity advocating services students families teachers schools ref name school psychologists may also work teachers educators provide integrated multicultural education classroom curriculum allows students represented learning efforts increase multicultural perspectives among school psychologists rise account increased diversity within schools ref


offer masters level ms med specialist level degrees eds psys ssp cags doctoral level degrees phd psyd edd degrees regardless degree title supervised internship defining feature graduate level training leads certification practice school psychologist specialist level training typically requires years graduate training including month hour internship school setting doctoral level training programs typically require years graduate training requirements typically include coursework core psychology professional psychology advanced statistics coursework involvement research endeavors doctoral dissertation one year hour internship


may school settings clinics hospitals past master 's degree considered standard practice schools specialist level degree considered entry level degree school psychology masters level degrees school psychology may lead obtaining related credentials educational diagnostician school psychological examiner school psychometrist one two states international uk similar practice study school psychology often termed educational psychology requires doctorate educational psychology enables individuals register subsequently


practice licensed educational psychologist employment united states united states job prospects school psychology excellent across disciplines psychology abundance opportunities considered among best specialist doctoral level practitioners ref name reflabor united states department labor occupational outlook handbook ooh edition http wwwblsgov oco ocos htm us bureau labor statistics ref mostly work schools settings include clinics hospitals correctional facilities universities independent practice ref name refabpp american board professional psychology nd specialty certification school psychology brochure retrieved january http wwwabpporg american board


professional psychology ref demographic information according nasp research committee ref name refnaspres national association school psychologists research committee demographics profession school psychology retrieved december http educationucsbedu netshare cdspp midwinterhtml university california santa barbara ref school psychologists female average age average earnings school practitioners ranged day annual contract school psychologists day contract average earnings school practitioners ranged day annual contract school psychologists


day contract university faculty school psychology salary estimate based surveys performed nasp 's shown school psychologists white minority races make remaining remaining percentage next largest populations represented school psychology african americans hispanics respectively ref name shortages field lack trained school psychologists within field jobs available across country enough people fill ref name ref due


low supply high demand school psychologists school psychologist demanding school psychologists may feel pressure supply adequate mental health intervention services students care burnout risk school psychologist bilingual school psychologists approximately school age children ages speak language english reason enormous demand bilingual school psychologists united states national association school psychologists nasp currently offer bilingual certification field however number


professional training opportunities bilingual lssps school psychologists attend order prepare adequately administer assessments addition nasp approved school psychology programs offer bilingual specialization brooklyn college city university new york specialist level gallaudet university specialist level queens college city university new york specialist level san diego state university specialist level texas state university specialist level university colorado denver doctoral level fordham university lincoln center doctoral level new york illinois two states offer bilingual credential school psychologists international school psychology role


school psychologist united states canada may differ considerably role school psychologist elsewhere especially united states role school psychologist closely linked public law education students disabilities nations case despite difference many basic functions school psychologist consultation intervention assessment shared school psychologists worldwide difficult estimate number school psychologists worldwide recent surveys indicate may around


school psychologists practicing countries including united states canada following united states turkey next largest estimated number school psychologists followed spain canada japan credentialing order work school psychologist one must first meet state requirements states excluding texas hawaii state education agency credentials school psychologists practice schools ref name ref nationally certified school psychologist ncsp credential offered national association school psychologists nasp


state alabama association school psychologists aasp alaska school psychologists association aspa arizona association school psychologists aasp arkansas school psychology association aspa california association school psychologists casp colorado society school psychologists cssp connecticut association school psychologists delaware association school psychologists dasp florida association school psychologists fasp georgia association school psychologists gasp hawaii association school psychologists hasp idaho school psychologist association illinois school psychologists association ispa indiana association school psychologists iasp iowa school psychologists association ispa kansas association school psychologists kasp kentucky association psychology schools kaps louisiana


school psychological association lspa maine association school psychology masp maryland school psychologists' association mspa massachusetts school psychologists association mspa michigan association school psychologists masp minnesota school psychologists association mspa mississippi association psychology schools maps missouri association school psychologists masp montana association school psychologists masp nebraska school psychologists association nspa nevada association school psychologists nvasp new hampshire association school psychologists nhasp new jersey association school psychologists njasp new mexico association school psychologists nmasp new york association school psychologists nyasp north carolina school psychology association ncspa north dakota association


psychologists association wvspa wisconsin school psychologists association wspa wyoming school psychology association wspa national national association school psychologists american psychological association international international school psychology association journals psychology schools school psychology quarterly school psychology review school psychology forum research practice school psychology international canadian journal school psychology international journal school educational psychology journal psychoeducational assessment see also applied psychology educational psychology school counselor school psychological examiner school social worker special education washington county closed circuit educational television project outline psychology references works cited


harrison p l thomas eds best practices school psychology bethesda md national association school psychologists cite id refnaspstandards national association school psychologists july standards training field placement programs school psychology standards credentialing school psychologists http wwwnasponlineorg standards indexaspx national association school psychologists cite ''oritz samuel best practices school psychology v best practices nondiscriminatory assessment practices national association school psychologists '' external links http wwwnasponlineorg national association school psychologists http wwwapaorg american psychological association http wwwapaorg division div html division school psychology http wwwapaorg divisions div sasp student affiliates school psychology http wwwapaorg science standardshtml standards


educational psychological testing http wwwispaweborg international school psychology association http wwwschoolpsychologynet school psychology resources http wwwglobalschoolpsychologynet global school psychology network http wwwschoolpsychologyin school psychology india education training occupations educational psychology