governmental planning'' see also education economics health economics mixed economy public finance rawlsian social welfare function welfare economics notes references atkinson anthony b joseph e stiglitz ''lectures public economics'' mcgraw hill auerbach alan j martin feldstein ed ''handbook public economics'' elsevier v http wwwelseviercom wps find bookdescriptioncws home description description description https booksgooglecom bookshl en lr id plc qo hdrqc oi fnd pg pr dq public economics ots fzztnwxq sig jn eddzlfmsfcqdyss cwiids v onepage q f false preview v http econpapersrepecorg bookchap eeepubhes htm description v http wwwelseviercom wps find bookdescriptioncws home description description description v http wwwelseviercom wps find bookdescriptioncws home description description description barr nicholas ''economics welfare state'' th ed oxford university press buchanan james ''public finance democratic process fiscal


institutions individual choice'' unc press http uncpressuncedu books html description scrollable https booksgooglecom booksid ts tk equ yc pg pa ots onepage q f false v onepage q f false preview https booksgooglecom booksid ts tk equ yc pg pa ots onepage q f false v onepage q f false back cover musgrave richard ''public finance public choice two contrasting visions state mit press http mitpressmitedu books public finance public choice description scrollable preview https booksgooglecom booksid jenjn dkrzcc printsec find pg pr v onepage q f false links coase ronald problem social cost ''journal law economics'' vol oct diamond peter james mirrlees optimal taxation public production production efficiency ''the american economic review'' vol mar diamond peter james mirrlees optimal taxation public production ii tax rules ''the

Social science
Economics
Public economics


american economic review'' vol jun dr ze jacques h forty years public economics personal perspective ''journal economic perspectives'' pp http pubsaeaweborg doi pdfplus jep dupuit jules measurement utility public works ''readings welfare economics'' ed kenneth j arrow tibor scitovsky haveman robert ''the economics public sector'' kolm serge christophe public economics ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' v pp nbsp feldstein martin robert p inman ed ''the economics public services'' palgrave macmillan musgrave richard ''the theory


public finance study public economy'' mcgraw hill st page reviews jm buchanan https wwwjstororg pss cs shoup https wwwjstororg discover uid uid uid uid sid alan peacock ed ''classics theory public finance'' palgrave macmillan https booksgooglecom booksid pzuelgeacaaj source gbs viewapi description https archivetoday http wwwpalgravecom products titleprintaspxpid contents laffont jean jacques ''fundamentals public economics'' mit press https webarchiveorg web http mitpressmitedu catalog item defaultaspttype tid description myles gareth ''public economics'' cambridge https booksgooglecom booksid jtvmydrhoqc source gbs navlinks description scroll chapter preview https booksgooglecom booksid jtvmydrhoqc printsec frontcover source gbs v summary r cad v onepage q f false links oates wallace e ''fiscal federalism'' harcourt brace jovanovich inc pigou ac divergences marginal social net product marginal private net product ''the economics welfare'' ac pigou ramsey frank


ke young chu ''income distribution high quality growth'' pp https booksgooglecom bookshl en lr id lqjyj pliloc oi fnd pg pa dq false ''economics public sector'' rd ed norton tinbergen jan ''on theory economic policy'' reading arrow kenneth j ''social choice individual values'' atkinson anthony b measurement inequality ''journal economic theory'' http darplseacuk papersdb atkinson jet pdf auerbach alan j laurence j kotlikoff ''dynamic fiscal policy'' boiteux marcel management public monopolies subject budgetary constraints ''journal economic theory'' corlett wj dc hague complementarity excess burden taxation ''the


review economic studies'' vol dalton hugh measurement inequality incomes ''the economics journal'' vol sep edgeworth fy pure theory taxation ''the economic journal'' vol mar http instruct citcornelledu courses econ edgeworth pdf feldstein martin social security induced retirement aggregate capital accumulation ''the journal political economy'' vol sep oct fisher irving income theory income taxation practice ''econometrica'' vol jan fisher irving double taxation savings ''the american economic review'' vol


mar gini corrado variability mutability ''memorie di metodologica statistica'' ed e pizetti salvemini harberger arnold incidence corporation income tax ''the journal political economy'' vol jun http wwwuibes depart deaweb personal profesores personalpages amedeospadaro workingpapers bibliosecpub harbergerpdf lihndahl erik taxation positive solution ''classics theory public finance'' ed ra musgrave peacock http wwweconucsbedu tedb courses ucsbpf readings lindahlpdf lorenz mo methods measuring concentration wealth ''american statistical association'' vol jun musgrave richard multiple theory budget determination http autorenmohrde fa musgrave scanpdf niskanen william


knut new principle taxation ''classics theory public finance'' ed ra musgrave peacock external links http wwwsciencedirectcom science journal journal public economics http wwwnberorg papersbyprog pehtml nber papers public economics


control theory '''affect control theory''' proposes individuals maintain affective meanings actions interpretations events activity social institutions occurs maintenance culturally based affective meanings affective meaning besides denotative meaning every concept affective meaning connotation varies along three dimensions evaluation goodness versus badness potency powerfulness versus powerlessness activity liveliness versus torpidity affective meanings measured semantic differentials yielding three number profile indicating concept positioned evaluation potency activity epa osgood demonstrated elementary concept conveyed

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Control theory
Affect control theory


word idiom normative affective meaning within particular culture stable affective meaning derived either personal experience cultural inculcation called sentiment fundamental affective meaning affect control theory affect control theory inspired assembly dictionaries epa sentiments thousands concepts involved social life identities behaviours settings personal attributes emotions sentiment dictionaries constructed ratings respondents us canada northern ireland germany japan china taiwan impression formation concept play situation transient affective meaning


addition associated sentiment transient corresponds impression created recent events events modify impressions three epa dimensions complex ways described non linear equations obtained empirical studies two examples impression formation processes actor behaves disagreeably seems less good especially object behavior innocent powerless like child powerful person seems desperate performing extremely forceful acts another object person may seem invincible social action creates impressions actor object person behavior


individual tries maintain behaviorally confirming sentiments associated institutional identities like doctor patient lawyer client professor student creates institutionally relevant role behavior confirming sentiments associated negatively evaluated identities like bully glutton loafer scatterbrain generates deviant behavior affect control theory 's sentiment databases mathematical model combined computer simulation program analyzing social interaction various cultures emotions according affect control theory event generates emotions individuals involved event changing impressions individuals emotion function impression created individual


equations predict emotions arise social interaction displays predictions via facial expressions computer drawn well terms emotion words based cybernetic studies pavloski goldstein utilise perceptual control theory heise hypothesizes emotion distinct stress example parent enjoying intensely pleasant emotions interacting offspring suffers stress homeowner attending sponging house guest may feel emotion yet experiencing substantial stress interpretations others' behaviors interpreted minimize deflections cause example


man turning away another exiting doorway could engaged several different actions like departing deserting escaping observers choose among alternatives minimize deflections associated definitions situation observers assigned different identities observed individuals could different interpretations behavior definition situation may follow event causes large deflections cannot resolved reinterpreting behavior case observers assign new identities confirmed behavior example seeing father slap son


one might define father abusive parent perhaps strict disciplinarian one might define son arrogant brat affect control theory 's computer program predicts plausible identifications thereby providing formal model labeling theory sentiment associated identity change befit kinds events identity involved situations keep arising identity deflected way especially identities informal non institutionalized applications affect control theory used research emotions gender social structure politics deviance law


important part understanding affect control theory beginning use interact computer program designed create social situations user understand individual react based happening within moment interact essential tool research using understand social interaction maintenance affect individuals use interviews observations improved understanding affect control theory qualitative research methods bibliography research studies areas provided david r heise research program 's website extensions


probabilistic decision theoretic extension affect control theory generalizes original theory order allow uncertainty identities changing identities explicit non affective goals see also affect display references reading heise david http wwwindianaedu socpsy act interact javainteracthtml interact line java applet reprint ''journal mathematical sociology'' volume contains cited articles averett heise heise mackinnon external links https csuwaterlooca jhoey research actbackup act indexhtm affect


control theory copy original site https affectcontroltheoryorg new act site http bayesactca bayesact webpage links current research act control theory cybernetics feeling


'''therapy''' '''medical treatment''' often abbreviated '''tx''' '''tx''' '''t sub x sub ''' attempted remediation health problem usually following medical diagnosis rule therapy indications contraindications many different types therapy therapies effective many therapies produce unwanted adverse effects ''medical treatment'' ''therapy'' generally considered synonyms however context mental health term ''therapy'' may refer specifically psychotherapy history semantic field words '''''care''''' '''''therapy''''' '''''treatment''''' '''''intervention''''' overlap semantic field

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems psychology
Systemic therapy


patient 's interaction provider soon finished contrast word ''intervention'' tends specific concrete thus word often countable example one instance cardiac catheterization one intervention performed coronary care noncount require series interventions count extreme piling countable interventions amounts interventionism flawed model care lacking holistic circumspection merely treating discrete problems billable increments rather maintaining health ''therapy'' ''treatment'' middle semantic field connote either holism ''care'' discreteness


''intervention'' context conveying intent use accordingly used noncount count senses example ''therapy chronic kidney disease involve several dialysis treatments per week'' words ''aceology'' ''iamatology'' obscure obsolete synonyms referring study therapies english word ''therapy'' comes via latin ''therap a'' literally means curing healing types therapies chronology priority intensity levels care levels care classify health care categories chronology priority intensity follows emergency care


handles medical emergencies first point contact intake less serious problems referred levels care appropriate intensive care also called critical care care extremely ill injured patients thus requires high resource intensity knowledge skill well quick decision making ambulatory care care provided outpatient basis typically patients walk clinic power hence ambulatory usually day home care care home including care providers physicians nurses


referral primary secondary health professional facility personnel facilities advanced medical investigation treatment tertiary referral hospital follow care additional care convalescence aftercare generally synonymous follow care end life care care near end one 's life often includes following palliative care supportive care especially necessarily near end life hospice care palliative care near end life cure unlikely main goal comfort physical mental


lines therapy treatment decisions often follow formal informal algorithmic guidelines treatment options often ranked prioritized '''lines therapy''' '''first line therapy''' '' 'second line therapy''' '''third line therapy''' '''first line therapy''' sometimes called '''induction therapy''' '''primary therapy''' '''front line therapy''' first therapy tried priority options usually either formally recommended basis clinical trial evidence best available combination efficacy safety tolerability chosen based clinical experience physician first line therapy either fails resolve


interchangeable cytotoxic drugs put tumor ropes surgery delivers knockout punch called neoadjuvant chemotherapy premedication whereas things like anesthetics prophylactic antibiotics dental surgery called premedication step therapy stepladder therapy specific type prioritization lines therapy controversial american health care unlike conventional decision making constitutes first line second line third line therapy us reflects safety efficacy first cost according patient 's wishes step therapy attempts mix cost containment someone


patient third party payers algorithm therapy freedom negotiation individual group rights involved intent class wikitable sortable style width valign top scope col therapy type scope col class unsortable description valign top scope row abortive therapy therapy intended stop medical condition progressing medication taken earliest signs disease analgesic taken first symptoms migraine headache prevent getting worse abortive therapy compare abortifacients


abort pregnancy valign top scope row bridge therapy therapy figuratively provides bridge another step phase crossing immediate chasm challenge contrast destination therapy final therapy cases clinically appropriate valign top scope row consolidation therapy therapy given consolidate gains induction therapy cancer means chasing malignant cells may left valign top scope row curative therapy therapy ''curative intent'' one seeks cure root


cause disorder also called etiotropic therapy valign top scope row definitive therapy therapy may final superior others curative valign top scope row destination therapy therapy final destination rather bridge another therapy usually refers ventricular assist devices keep existing heart going heart transplantation occur rest patient 's life expectancy valign top scope row empiric therapy therapy given empiric basis


one given according clinician 's educated guess despite uncertainty illness 's causative factors example empiric antibiotic therapy administers broad spectrum antibiotic immediately basis good chance given history physical examination findings risk factors present illness bacterial respond drug even though bacterial species variant yet known valign top scope row gold standard therapy therapy definitive gold standard diagnostic test definitive test valign top scope row investigational therapy


experimental therapy use experimental therapies must ethically justified definition raise question standard care physicians autonomy provide empirical care label care according experience clinical judgment autonomy limits preclude quackery thus may necessary design clinical trial around new therapy use therapy per formal protocol sometimes shorthand phrases treated protocol imply treated according plan specifically treated investigational therapy valign top scope row maintenance


therapy therapy taken disease remission prevent relapse valign top scope row palliative therapy see supportive therapy connotative distinctions valign top scope row preventive therapy br therapy intended prevent medical condition occurring also called prophylaxis example many vaccines prevent infectious diseases valign top scope row salvage therapy rescue therapy therapy tried others failed may last line therapy valign top scope row stepdown therapy therapy tapers dosage gradually rather abruptly


cutting example switch intravenous oral antibiotics infection brought control steps intensity therapy valign top scope row supportive therapy therapy treat improve underlying condition instead increases patient 's comfort also called symptomatic treatment see information example supportive care flu colds gastrointestinal upset include rest fluids counter pain relievers things n't treat cause treat symptoms thus provide relief supportive therapy may palliative


worst symptoms expectation definitive therapy follow later possible valign top scope row systemic therapy therapy systemic physiological sense means affecting whole body rather local locoregional whether via systemic administration systemic effect systemic therapy psychotherapeutic sense seeks address people individual level also people relationships dealing interactions groups therapy composition treatments classified according method treatment


nonmetals diatomic oxygen oxygen therapy hyperbaric oxygen therapy hyperbaric medicine transdermal continuous oxygen therapy triatomic oxygen ozone ozone therapy fluoride fluoride therapy gases medical gas therapy water hydrotherapy aquatic therapy rehydration therapy oral rehydration therapy water cure therapy biological materials biogenic substances biomolecules biotic materials natural products including synthetic equivalents biotherapy whole organisms viruses virotherapy bacteriophages phage therapy animal interaction ' 'see animal interaction section'' constituents products organisms plant parts extracts many drugs derived plants even term ''phytotherapy''


used scientific type phytotherapy traditional prescientific type herbalism animal parts quackery involving shark fins tiger parts often driving threat endangerment species genes gene therapy gene therapy epilepsy gene therapy osteoarthritis gene therapy color blindness gene therapy human retina gene therapy parkinson 's disease epigenetics epigenetic therapy proteins protein therapy many drugs proteins despite called protein therapy enzymes enzyme replacement therapy hormones hormone therapy hormonal therapy oncology hormone replacement therapy estrogen replacement therapy androgen replacement therapy hormone replacement therapy


menopause transgender hormone therapy feminizing hormone therapy masculinizing hormone therapy antihormone therapy androgen deprivation therapy whole cells cell therapy cytotherapy stem cells stem cell therapy immune cells ' 'see immune system products below'' immune system products immunotherapy host modulatory therapy immune cells cell vaccination cell transfer therapy autologous immune enhancement therapy tk cell therapy humoral immune factors antibody therapy whole serum serotherapy including antiserum therapy immunoglobulins immunoglobulin therapy monoclonal antibodies monoclonal antibody therapy urine urine therapy scientific forms many prescientific pseudoscientific forms food dietary choices medical nutrition


therapy grape therapy quackery salts many drugs salts organic acids even drug therapy called names reflecting salts air natural dry salt air taking cure desert locales especially common prescientific medicine example one th century way treat tuberculosis artificial dry salt air low humidity forms speleotherapy negative air ionization therapy moist salt air natural moist salt air seaside cure especially common prescientific medicine artificial moist salt air water vapor forms speleotherapy salts water


low level laser therapy gamma rays radiosurgery gamma knife radiosurgery stereotactic radiation therapy cobalt therapy radiation generally radiation therapy radiotherapy intraoperative radiation therapy emr particles particle therapy proton therapy electron therapy intraoperative electron radiation therapy auger therapy neutron therapy fast neutron therapy neutron capture therapy cancer radioisotopes emitting emr nuclear medicine brachytherapy quackery type electromagnetic therapy alternative medicine mechanical manual therapy massotherapy therapy exercise physiotherapy exercise therapy inversion therapy sound ultrasound ultrasonic lithotripsy extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy extracorporeal shockwave therapy sonodynamic therapy music


music therapy neurologic music therapy temperature heat heat therapy thermotherapy moderately elevated ambient temperatures hyperthermia therapy dry warm surroundings waon therapy dry humid warm surroundings sauna including infrared sauna sweat therapy cold extreme cold specific tissue volumes cryotherapy ice compression cold compression therapy ambient cold hypothermia therapy neonatal encephalopathy hot cold alternation contrast bath therapy procedure human interaction surgery counseling psychotherapy ' 'see also list psychotherapies'' systemic therapy group psychotherapy cognitive behavioral therapy cognitive


therapy behaviour therapy dialectical behavior therapy cognitive emotional behavioral therapy cognitive rehabilitation therapy family therapy education psychoeducation information therapy physical therapy occupational therapy vision therapy massage therapy chiropractic acupuncture lifestyle modifications avoiding unhealthy food maintaining predictable sleep schedule coaching animal interaction pets assistance animals working animals animal assisted therapy horses equine therapy hippotherapy dogs pet therapy therapy dogs including grief therapy dogs cats pet therapy therapy cats fish ichthyotherapy wading fish aquarium therapy watching


fish maggots maggot therapy worms internal worms helminthic therapy leeches leech therapy immersion animal bath meditation mindfulness mindfulness based cognitive therapy reading bibliotherapy creativity expression expressive therapy writing writing therapy journal therapy play play therapy art art therapy sensory art therapy comic book therapy gardening horticultural therapy dance dance therapy drama drama therapy recreation recreational therapy music music therapy sleeping waking deep sleep deep sleep therapy sleep deprivation wake therapy


see also biophilia hypothesis classification pharmaco therapeutic referrals cure interventionism medicine inverse benefit law list therapies greyhound therapy mature minor doctrine medicine medication nutraceutical prevention psychotherapy treatment prevention therapeutic inertia therapeutic nihilism idea treatment useless references external links http wwwwdlorg en item chapter nine book medicine dedicated mansur commentary sillanus de nigris latin book rhazes known th chapter therapeutics drug discovery health policy medicinal chemistry pharmaceutical sciences


psychotherapy '' 'systemic therapy''' seeks address people individual level focus earlier forms therapy also people relationships dealing interactions groups interactional patterns dynamics history systemic therapy roots family therapy precisely family systems therapy later came known particular systemic therapy traces roots milan school mara selvini palazzoli also derives work salvador minuchin murray bowen ivan boszormenyi nagy well


work anthropologists gregory bateson margaret mead resulted shift towards known second order cybernetics acknowledges influence subjective observer study essentially applying principles cybernetics cybernetics examining examination result focus systemic therapy ca forward moved away modernist model linear causality understanding reality objective postmodern understanding reality socially linguistically constructed praxis direct impact praxis systemic therapy


rather help systems change introducing creative nudges '' systemic therapy neither attempts 'treatment causes' symptoms rather gives living systems nudges help develop new patterns together taking new organizational structure allows growth '' thus systemic therapy differs analytic forms therapy including psychoanalytic psychodynamic forms family therapy example work horst eberhard richter focus practically addressing current relationship patterns rather analyzing causes subconscious impulses childhood trauma systemic therapy also differs family systems therapy


addresses living systems ie groups people addition family example businesses addition families business systemic approach increasingly implemented fields education politics psychiatry social work family medicine see also list therapies systems theory family therapy systemic coaching systems psychology references family therapy therapy


'' 'drug policy''' policy usually government regarding control regulation psychoactive substances commonly referred drugs particularly addictive cause physical mental dependence governments try combat drug addiction dependence policies address demand supply drugs well policies mitigate harms drug use medical treatment demand reduction measures include voluntary treatment rehabilitation substitution therapy overdose management alternatives incarceration drug related minor offenses medical prescription drugs awareness campaigns community social services support

Applied science
Public administration
Drug policy


considered dangerous supplied holders medical prescription sometimes drugs available without prescription approved supplier pharmacy usually described drug policy international treaties drug control treaties currently force internationally single convention narcotic drugs ''' convention''' '''single convention''' composed original single convention concluded new york united states march amendement protocol amending single convention narcotic drugs adopted geneva switzerland march


convention psychotropic substances ''' convention''' concluded vienna february un convention law sea '''unclos''' concluded december montego bay jamaica un convention illicit traffic narcotic drugs psychotropic substances ''' convention''' concluded vienna austria december international convention doping sport concluded paris france october main instruments conventions contrary impressions treaties particularly influenced united states drafting implementation however


led usa particular nixon administration 's declaration war drugs creation dea ref name ref first international treaty control psychoactive substance adopted brussels conference context regulations slave trade concerned alcoholic beverages followed final act shanghai opium commission attempted settle peace arrange trade opium opium wars th century first international opium conference held


hague multilateral international opium convention adopted ultimately got incorporated treaty versailles number international treaties related drugs followed subsequent decades agreement concerning manufacture internal trade use prepared opium introduced restrictions total prohibition export indian hemp pure extracts convention limiting manufacture regulating distribution narcotic drugs agreement control opium smoking far east convention suppression illicit traffic dangerous drugs


among others world war ii series protocols signed lake success brought mandate newly created united nations pre war treaties handled league nations office international d'hygi ne publique finally nine previous drug control treaties force superseded single convention rationalized global control drug trading use ref name countries commit protecting health welfare hu mankind combat substance abuse addiction treaty self enforcing agreement countries pass legislation


aligned framework convention ref name beebscond https wwwbbccouk dna place london bbc uk 's misuse drugs act february ref ref name convention supplemented convention convention forming three international drug control treaties upon legal instruments rely drug policy country australia australian drug laws criminal laws mostly exist state territory level federal therefore different means analysis trends laws australia complicated federal jurisdiction enforcement powers national borders october


australia legislated medicinal use cannabis bolivia like colombia bolivian government signed onto atpa called forced eradication coca plant early government allowed residential family grow sup sup coca crop enough provide family monthly minimum wage ref name ref bolivia saw another reformist movement leader coca grower group evo morales elected president morales ended us backed war drugs president morales opposed decriminalization drugs saw


coca crop important piece indigenous history pillar community traditional use chewing coca leaves ref name bolivian constitution backed legalization industrialization coca products ref name canada colombia coca plant president ronald reagan united states declared war drugs late colombian drug lords widely viewed root cocaine issue america colombia home world 's two largest drug cartels cali cartel medell n cartel ref name ref


became colombia 's priority well priority countries andean region extinguish cartels drug trafficking region president andr pastrana colombia passed plan colombia plan colombia funded andean region 's fight drug cartels drug trafficking implementation plan colombia colombian government aimed destroy coca crop prohibitionist regime controversial results especially human rights colombia seen significant decrease coca cultivation acres coca crop colombia fewer


acres remained ref name however farmers cultivated coca crop uses creation cocaine traditional use chewing coca leaves became impoverished ref name since consumption drugs decriminalized however possession trafficking drugs still illegal colombia eased prohibitionist stance coca crop ceasing aerial fumigation coca crop creating programs addicts ref name president juan manuel santos present called revision latin american drug policy open talks


legalization ref name ecuador narco submarine seized ecuador mid president le n febres cordero ecuador adopted prohibitionist drug policy recommended united states cooperating united states ecuador received tariff exemptions united states february united states held cartagena drug summit hopes continuing progress war drugs three four countries andean region invited summit peru colombia bolivia notable absence ecuador two three countries colombia bolivia joined andean trade preference


act later called andean trade promotion drug eradication act ecuador along peru would eventually join atpa act united region war drugs well stimulated economies tariff exemptions president rodrigo borja cevallos passed law law decriminalized drug use continuing prosecute drug possession reality law set trap snared many citizens citizens confused legality use illegality carrying drugs person led large increase prison populations


personal use germany changed narcotic law btmg allow supervised drug injection rooms started pilot study seven german cities evaluate effects heroin assisted treatment addicts compared methadone assisted treatment positive results study led inclusion heroin assisted treatment services mandatory health insurance india indonesia like many governments southeast asia indonesian government applies severe laws discourage drug use liberia liberia prohibits drugs cocaine marijuana drug laws enforced


drug enforcement agency netherlands cannabis coffee shop city center amsterdam netherlands drug policy netherlands based two principles drug use health issue criminal issue distinction hard soft drugs netherlands currently country implemented wide scale still regulated decriminalisation marijuana also one first countries introduce heroin assisted treatment safe injection sites number town councils closed many called ''coffee shops'' sold


cannabis implemented new restrictions sale cannabis eg foreigners importing exporting classified drug serious offence penalty run years hard drugs maximum years importing exporting large quantities cannabis investment treatment prevention drug addiction high compared rest world netherlands spends significantly per capita countries eu drug law enforcement drug related public spending law enforcement drug


use remains average western european levels slightly lower english speaking countries peru according article constitution peru state responsible battling punishing drug trafficking likewise regulates use intoxicants consumption drugs penalized possession allowed small quantities production distribution drugs illegal peru along ecuador signed andean trade preference agreement united states later replaced andean trade promotion drug eradication act ref name ref bolivia colombia already signed


atpa ref name end peru overtook colombia world 's largest cultivator coca plant portugal july law maintained status illegality using possessing drug personal use without authorization offense however changed criminal one prison possible punishment administrative one possessing ten days' supply substance ref name emdrug http wwwemcddaeuropaeu publications drug policy profiles portugal emcdda drug policy profiles portugal june ref line de facto portuguese drug policy reform drug


addicts aggressively targeted therapy community service rather fines waivers even criminal penalties changes legalize drug use portugal possession remained prohibited portuguese law criminal penalties still applied drug growers dealers traffickers russia drugs became popular russia among soldiers homeless particularly due first world war included morphine based drugs cocaine readily available government tsar nicholas ii russia outlawed alcohol including vodka temporary measure conclusion


war following russian revolution particular october revolution russian civil war bolsheviks emerged victorious new political power russia soviet union inherited population widespread drug addiction tried tackle introducing year prison sentence drug dealers bolsheviks also decided august introduce sale vodka readily available led drop drug use sweden sweden 's drug policy gradually turned lenient emphasis drug supply towards


policy zero tolerance illicit drug use including cannabis official aim drug free society drug use became punishable crime personal use result jail time combined driving car prevention includes widespread drug testing penalties range fines minor drug offenses year prison sentence aggravated offenses condition suspended sentences could regular drug tests submission rehabilitation treatment drug treatment free charge provided health care system municipal social services drug use


threatens health development minors could force mandatory treatment n't apply voluntarily use threatens immediate health security others child addict could apply adults among th year students drug experimentation highest early falling towards low late redoubling stabilize slowly decline estimates heavy drug addicts risen according inpatient


heroin program rejected two thirds voters simultaneous initiative aimed legalizing marijuana rejected ballot illegal drug use sales permitted platzspitz park zurich attempt counter growing heroin problem however situation grew increasingly control authorities forced close park thailand thailand strict drug policy control narcotic substances carried accordance law combating drugs use storage transportation distribution drugs illegal


maximum penalty distribution possession drugs death penalty according thai law drugs divided categories heroin amphetamines methamphetamines ii morphine cocaine ketamine codeine opium opium medicinal methadone iii drugs legally contain category ii ingredients iv chemicals used make categories ii drugs anhydride acetyl chloride v cannabis plant kratom hallucinogenic fungus also illegal import cigarettes per person thailand control takes place customs airport limit


exceeded owner fined ten times cost cigarettes january thai authorities imposed ban smoking beaches tourist areas smoke public places punished fine baht imprisonment one year forbidden import electronic cigarettes thailand items likely confiscated fined sent prison years sale supply electronic cigarettes similar devices also prohibited punishable


fine imprisonment years worth noting people arrested possessing small amount substances v th category fined imprisoned present thailand anti drug police considering methamphetamines serious dangerous problem ukraine crimes sphere trafficking narcotic psychotropic substances crimes health classified using th section criminal code ukraine articles according official statistics crimes field drugs fall art


criminal code ukraine illegal production manufacture acquisition storage transportation shipment narcotic drugs psychotropic substances analogues without purpose sale '''sentence crime''' fine fifty one hundred non taxable minimum incomes citizens correctional labor two years arrest six months restriction liberty three years imprisonment term august cabinet ministers ukraine adopted strategy state policy drugs first document kind ukraine


strategy developed state drug control service involves strengthening criminal liability distributing large amounts drugs easing penalty possession small doses thanks strategy planned reduce number injecting drug users number drug overdose deaths october state service ukraine drugs drug control issued first license import export raw materials products derived cannabis corresponding licenses obtained usa company c also


process applying additional licenses including cultivation hemp united kingdom drugs considered addictive dangerous united kingdom exception tobacco alcohol called controlled substances regulated law medical treatment dependent drug users separated punishment unregulated use supply arrangement confirmed rolleston committee policy drugs known british system maintained britain nowhere else policy drug use remained low relatively little recreational


different categories punishment possession dealing varies amount type punishment marijuana possession light states punishment dealing possession hard drugs severe contributed growth prison population us drug policy also heavily invested foreign policy supporting military paramilitary actions south america central asia places eradicate growth coca opium colombia us president bill clinton dispatched military paramilitary personnel interdict planting coca part plan colombia


project often criticized ineffectiveness negative impact local farmers effective destroying powerful drug cartels guerrilla groups colombia president george w bush intensified anti drug efforts mexico initiating rida initiative faced criticisms similar reasons may us government published updated version drug policy director ondcp stated simultaneously policy something different war drugs us government see policy third way approach drug control one based


harm reduction legality cannabis country maintenance dose global commission drug policy world federation drugs references external links organizations https webarchiveorg web http catoorg current drug war indexhtml cato institute drug prohibition research research american think tank looking drug prohibition libertarian perspective https webarchiveorg web http wwwdrugpolicyorg homepagecfm drug policy alliance largest drug policy reform advocacy group america largely responsible legalization medical marijuana mexico http wwwencodorg european coalition effective drug policies encod european organisation producing reports drug policy eu countries http wwwtdpforguk transform drug policy foundation uk based think tank


sensible drug policies drug prohibition articles videos http elddemcddaeuropaeu indexcfmfuseaction publicattachmentdownload nnodeid slanguageiso en emcdda decriminalisation europe recent developments legal approaches drug use http wwwdruglibraryorg schaffer library studies studieshtm major studies drugs drug policy full text major government commission reports drug laws around world last years https webarchiveorg web http wwwstrategygovuk work areas drugs indexasp downing street 's strategy unit drugs report https wwwpbsorg wgbh pages frontline shows drugs frontline drug wars https wwwpbsorg pbs http wwwdruglibraryorg special friedman socialisthtm ''the drug war socialist enterprise'' milton friedman https wwwyoutubecom watchv se tjzb z nobel prize economics winner milton friedman interviewed opposition war drugs http wwwdruglibraryorg schaffer library studies ledain ldctochtml report


use https wwwdoiorg j x setting goals drug policy harm use reduction https webarchiveorg web http wwwsciencedirectcom science ob articleurl udi b vjx nv coverdate f f alid rdoc fmt orig search qd cdi sort view c acct c version urlversion userid md bbea ceae de df prohibition pragmatism drug policy repatriation https webarchiveorg web http wwwsciencedirectcom science ob articleurl udi b vjx nv coverdate f f alid rdoc fmt orig search qd cdi sort view c acct c version urlversion userid md e c ce e b c b c challenging un drug control conventions problems possibilities https webarchiveorg web http wwwdeltaensfr clark eclegpdf economics drug legalization https webarchiveorg web http wwwrsaorguk journal articleasparticleid britain drugs journal article http vg metvgwortde e ba ce f f da c l http wwwgiga hamburgde dl downloadphpd content publikationen pdf wp peetzpdf laws construction drug gender related violence central america peter peetz drug policy drug control law drug control treaties criminal justice reform crime health public health health policy global health world health organization


'''internal family systems model''' '''ifs''' integrative approach individual psychotherapy developed richard c schwartz combines systems thinking view mind made relatively discrete subpersonalities unique viewpoint qualities ifs uses family systems theory understand collections subpersonalities organized parts ifs posits mind made multiple parts underlying person 's core true self like members family person 's inner parts take extreme roles subpersonalities

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems psychology
Family systems theory


part perspective interests memories viewpoint core tenet ifs every part positive intent even actions counterproductive cause dysfunction need fight coerce eliminate parts ifs method promotes internal connection harmony bring mind back balance ifs therapy aims heal wounded parts restore mental balance first step access core self understand different parts order heal ifs model three general types


exile 's hurt shame leads impulsive inappropriate behaviors like overeating drug use violence also distract person pain excessively focusing attention subtle activities overworking medicating internal system ifs focuses relationships parts core self goal therapy create cooperative trusting relationship self part three primary types relationships parts protection polarization alliance ''protection'' provided managers firefighters intend spare exiles harm protect


individual exile 's pain ''polarization'' occurs two parts battle determine person feels behaves certain situation part believes must act order counter extreme behavior part ifs method working polarized parts ''alliance'' formed two different parts 're working together accomplish goal ifs method ifs practitioners report well defined therapeutic method individual therapy based following principles description term protector refers


protecting unburdened attempt work exiles client obtained permission protectors protecting makes method relatively safe even working traumatized parts self natural leader internal system however past harmful incidents relationships protectors stepped taken self one protector another activated takes lead causing dysfunctional behavior protectors also frequently conflict resulting internal chaos stagnation aim protectors


one criticisms finally one foresee ifs limitations comes incorporating systems multiple members involved increased burden managing exponentially individual parts therapist sharon deacon jonathan c davis said working one 's parts emotional anxiety provoking clients ifs may work well delusional paranoid schizophrenic clients may grounded reality therefore misuse idea parts see also dissociation psychology ego state therapy family therapy inner relationship focusing references reading books peer reviewed articles external links https ifslatinoamericaorg ifs


latinoamerica psychological models psychotherapeutical theories conceptions self


meshid '''family therapy''' also referred '''family counseling''' family systems therapy marriage family therapy couple family therapy branch psychology works families couples intimate relationships nurture change development tends view change terms systems interaction family members different schools family therapy common belief regardless origin problem regardless whether clients consider individual family issue involving families


solutions often benefits clients involvement families commonly accomplished direct participation therapy session skills family therapist thus include ability influence conversations way catalyses strengths wisdom support wider system field 's early years many clinicians defined family narrow traditional manner usually including parents children field evolved concept family commonly defined terms strongly supportive long term roles relationships people may may related blood


marriage conceptual frameworks developed family therapists especially family systems theorists applied wide range human behavior including organisational dynamics study greatness history theoretical frameworks formal interventions families help individuals families experiencing various kinds problems part many cultures probably throughout history interventions sometimes involved formal procedures rituals often included extended family well non kin members community see example ho'oponopono following emergence specialization various societies interventions often


conducted particular members community example chief priest physician usually ancillary function ref name broderick broderick cb schrader ss history professional marriage family therapy gurman p kniskern eds https wwwamazoncom reader fencoding utf ref f sib fdp fpt reader ''handbook family therapy vol '' ny brunner mazel ref family therapy distinct professional practice within western cultures argued origins social work movements th century united kingdom united states ref name broderick branch psychotherapy roots


individuals ref name sholevar movement received important boost starting early work anthropologist gregory bateson colleagues jay haley donald jackson john weakland william fry later virginia satir ivan boszormenyi nagy paul watzlawick others palo alto united states introduced ideas cybernetics general systems theory social psychology psychotherapy focusing particular role communication see bateson project approach eschewed traditional focus individual psychology historical factors involve called ''linear causation'' ''content'' emphasized instead


''feedback'' ''homeostatic'' mechanisms '' rules '' ''here interactions'' called ''circular causation'' ''process'' thought maintain exacerbate problems whatever original cause ref name becvar becvar ds becvar rj https wwwamazoncom family therapy systemic integration th dp ref cm cr pr product top ''family therapy systemic integration'' th ed boston allyn bacon ref '' see also systems psychology systemic therapy '' group also influenced significantly work us psychiatrist hypnotherapist brief therapist milton h erickson especially innovative use strategies change ''paradoxical directives'' '' see also reverse psychology '' members bateson project like founders


number schools family therapy including carl whitaker murray bowen ivan boszormenyi nagy particular interest possible psychosocial causes treatment schizophrenia especially terms putative meaning function signs symptoms within family system research psychiatrists psychoanalysts lyman wynne theodore lidz communication deviance roles eg pseudo mutuality pseudo hostility schism skew families people schizophrenia also became influential ' 'systems communications'' oriented theorists therapists ref name sholevar ref name barker barker p https booksgooglecom booksid tsbzvb ccccc source gbs navlinks ''basic family therapy'' th edition wiley blackwell ref related theme applying


dysfunction psychopathology generally identified patient '' presenting problem '' manifestation surrogate family 's even society 's problems '' see also double bind family nexus '' mid number distinct schools family therapy emerged groups strongly influenced cybernetics systems theory came mri brief therapy slightly later strategic therapy salvador minuchin 's ''structural family therapy'' milan systems model partly reaction aspects ' 'systemic'' models came ''experiential'' approaches virginia satir carl whitaker


directly individual psychology unconscious context current relationships continued develop number groups influenced ideas methods nathan ackerman also ''british school'' object relations john bowlby work attachment ''multiple family group therapy'' precursor ''psychoeducational family intervention'' emerged part pragmatic alternative form intervention especially adjunct treatment serious mental disorders significant biological basis schizophrenia represented something conceptual challenge '' systemic ''


thus potentially family blaming paradigms pathogenesis implicit many dominant models family therapy late early saw development ''network therapy'' bears resemblance traditional practices ho'oponopono ross speck carolyn attneave emergence ''behavioral marital therapy'' renamed ''behavioral couples therapy'' see also ' 'relationship counseling'' ''behavioral family therapy'' models right ref name sholevar late weight clinical experience especially relation treatment serious mental disorders led revision


reflect original schools also draw theories methods individual psychotherapy elsewhere approaches sources include brief therapy structural therapy constructivist approaches eg milan systems ''post milan collaborative conversational'' ' 'reflective'' bring forthism approach eg dr karl tomm 's ipscope model interventive interviewing solution focused therapy narrative therapy range cognitive behavioral approaches psychodynamic object relations approaches attachment emotionally focused therapy ''intergenerational'' approaches ''network therapy'' multisystemic therapy mst multicultural intercultural integrative approaches developed vincenzo di nicola weaving synthesis family therapy transcultural psychiatry model


offers complete paradigm shift working families addressing intersections race class gender identity sexual orientation socio political identity markers theoretical approach praxis informed critical pedagogy feminism critical race theory decolonizing theory ref name ref framework necessitates understanding ways colonization cis heteronormativity patriarchy white supremacy systems domination impact individuals families communities centers need disrupt status quo power operates traditional western models family therapy historically ignored dimensions white male privilege critiqued largely


practice integration culture circles sponsors socio educational process within therapeutic work ideas methods family therapy influential psychotherapy generally survey us therapists revealed influential therapists previous quarter century three prominent family therapists marital family systems model second utilized model cognitive behavioral therapy techniques family therapy uses range counseling techniques including structural therapy identifies orders organisation family system strategic therapy looks


patterns interactions family members systemic milan therapy focuses belief systems narrative therapy restorying dominant problem saturated narrative emphasis context separation problem person transgenerational therapy transgenerational transmission unhelpful patterns belief behaviour ipscope model interventive interviewing communication theory psychoeducation psychotherapy relationship counseling relationship education systemic coaching systems theory reality therapy genogram number sessions depends situation average sessions family therapist usually meets several members family time advantage making differences


ways family members perceive mutual relations well interaction patterns session apparent therapist family patterns frequently mirror habitual interaction patterns home even though therapist incorporated family system therapy interventions usually focus relationship patterns rather analyzing impulses unconscious mind early childhood trauma individuals freudian therapist would although schools family therapy example ''psychodynamic'' ''intergenerational'' consider individual historical factors thus embracing ''linear'' ''circular'' causation


may use instruments genogram help elucidate patterns relationship across generations distinctive feature family therapy perspective analytical framework rather number people present therapy session specifically family therapists relational therapists generally interested goes ''between'' individuals rather ''within'' one individuals although family therapists particular identify psychodynamic object relations ''intergenerational'' ''experiential'' family therapists efts tend interested individuals ' 'systems'' individuals relationships constitute


depending conflicts issue progress therapy date therapist may focus analyzing specific previous instances conflict reviewing past incident suggesting alternative ways family members might responded one another instead proceed directly addressing sources conflict abstract level pointing patterns interaction family might noticed family therapists tend interested maintenance solving problems rather trying identify single cause families


may perceive cause effect analyses attempts allocate blame one individuals effect many families focus causation little clinical utility important note circular way problem evaluation used opposed linear route using method families helped finding patterns behaviour causes done better situation evidence base family therapy evolving evidence base summary current evidence available via uk 's association family therapy


evaluation outcome studies also found family therapy systemic research centre website website also includes quantitative qualitative research studies many aspects family therapy according french government study conducted french institute health medical research family couples therapy second effective therapy cognitive behavioral therapy ref name inserm ref study used meta analysis hundred secondary studies find level effectiveness either proven presumed exist treatments studied family therapy presumed proven effective treating


schizophrenia bipolar disorder anorexia alcohol dependency ref name inserm concerns criticism address coalition marriage family couples education conference washington dc university minnesota professor william doherty said blockquote take joy whistle blower time committed marriage family therapist practiced form therapy since train marriage family therapists believe marriage therapy helpful hands therapists committed profession practice lot problems


practice therapy lot problems ref name hazards doherty dr william j therapy hazardous marital health address coalition marriage family couples education conference washington dc july ref blockquote doherty suggested questions prospective clients ask therapist beginning treatment ref name hazards describe background training marital therapy attitude toward salvaging troubled marriage versus helping couples break approach one partner seriously considering ending marriage wants save


percentage practice marital therapy couples treat percentage would say work enough problems stay married reasonable amount satisfaction relationship percentage break seeing percentage improve think makes differences results licensing degrees family therapy practitioners come range professional backgrounds specifically qualified licensed registered family therapy licensing required jurisdictions requirements vary place place


united kingdom family therapists prior relevant professional training one helping professions usually psychologists psychotherapists counselors done training family therapy either diploma msc united states specific degree license marriage family therapist however psychologists nurses psychotherapists social workers counselors licensed mental health professionals may practice family therapy uk family therapists completed four year qualifying programme study msc eligible register professional body association family


therapy aft uk council psychotherapy ukcp master 's degree required work marriage family therapist mft american states commonly mfts first earn ms degree marriage family therapy counseling psychology family studies social work graduation prospective mfts work interns supervision licensed professional referred mfti prior california counselors specialized area called marriage family child counselors today known marriage family therapists mft


work variously private practice clinical settings hospitals institutions counseling organizations marriage family therapists united states canada often seek degrees accredited masters doctoral programs recognized commission accreditation marriage family therapy education coamfte division american association marriage family therapy requirements vary states hours supervised work intern needed sit licensing exam mfts must licensed state practice completing education internship passing


state licensing exam person call marital family therapist work unsupervised license restrictions vary considerably state state contact information licensing boards united states provided association marital family regulatory boards concerns raised within profession fact specialist training ''couples therapy'' distinct ''family therapy'' general required gain license mft membership main professional body aamft values ethics since issues interpersonal conflict


ethical invent opinions offered families treatment process statements saying half treatment team believes one thing half believes another specific issues emerged included increasing questioning longstanding notion ''therapeutic neutrality'' concern questions justice self determination connectedness independence functioning versus authenticity ref name nichols questions degree therapist 's pro marriage family versus pro individual commitment american association marriage family therapy requires members adhere code ethics including commitment continue therapeutic relationships


long reasonably clear clients benefiting relationship founders key influences key developers family therapy ref virginia satir communications experiential conjoint co therapy mara selvini palazzoli milan family systems therapy karl tomm ipscope model interventive interviewing bringforthism robin skynner group analysis paul watzlawick brief therapy systems theory john weakland brief therapy strategic therapy systems theory carl whitaker family systems experiential co therapy michael white narrative therapy lyman wynne schizophrenia pseudomutuality summary theories techniques ' 'references '' ref name sexton sexton l weeks g r robbins ''handbook family


therapy science practice working families couples'' new york brunner routledge ref class wikitable theoretical model theorists summary techniques adlerian family therapy alfred adler also known individual psychology sees person whole ideas include compensation feelings inferiority leading striving significance toward fictional final goal private logic birth order mistaken goals explored examine mistaken motivations children adults family constellation psychoanalysis typical day reorienting educating attachment theory john bowlby mary


ainsworth douglas haldane individuals shaped experiences caregivers first three years life used foundation object relations theory strange situation experiment infants involves systematic process leaving child alone room order assess quality parental bond psychoanalysis play therapy bowenian family systems therapy murray bowen betty carter philip guerin michael kerr thomas fogarty monica mcgoldrick edwin friedman daniel papero also known intergenerational family therapy although also schools intergenerational family therapy family


members driven achieve balance internal external differentiation causing anxiety triangulation emotional cutoff families affected nuclear family emotional processes sibling positions multigenerational transmission patterns resulting undifferentiated family ego mass detriangulation nonanxious presence genograms coaching cognitive behavioral family therapy john gottman albert ellis albert bandura problems result operant conditioning reinforces negative behaviors within family 's interpersonal social exchanges extinguish desired behavior promote incentives toward unwanted behaviors lead irrational beliefs faulty family schema therapeutic contracts


communications approaches virginia satir john banmen jane gerber maria gomori people born primary survival triad parents adopt survival stances protect self worth threats communicated words behaviors family members experiential therapists interested altering overt covert messages family members affect body mind feelings order promote congruence validate person 's inherent self worth equality modeling communication family life chronology family sculpting metaphors family reconstruction contextual therapy ivan boszormenyi nagy


families built upon unconscious network implicit loyalties parents children damaged relational ethics fairness trust entitlement mutuality merit breached rebalancing family negotiations validation filial debt repayment cultural family therapy vincenzo di nicola ''key influences '' celia falicov antonio ferreira james framo edwin friedman mara selvini palazzoli carlos sluzki victor turner michael white synthesis systemic family therapy cultural psychiatry create cultural family therapy cft cft interweaving ' 'stories'' family predicaments expressed narratives family life ''tools'' clinical methods


working making sense stories cultural context '''' integrates synthesizes systemic therapy cultural medical anthropology narrative therapy conceptual tools working across cultures spirals masks roles codes cultural strategies bridges stories multiple codes metaphor somatics therapy story repair emotion focused therapy sue johnson les greenberg couples families develop rigid patterns interaction based powerful emotional experiences hinder emotional engagement trust treatment aims enhance empathic capabilities family members exploring deep seated habits modifying emotional cues reflecting validation heightening


reframing restructuring experiential family therapy carl whitaker david keith laura roberto walter kempler john warkentin thomas malone august napier stemming gestalt foundations change growth occurs existential encounter therapist intentionally real authentic clients without pretense often playful sometimes absurd way means foster flexibility family promote individuation battling constructive anxiety redefining symptoms affective confrontation co therapy humor family mode deactivation therapy fmdt jack apsche target population adolescents conduct behavioral problems based


schema theory integrate mindfulness focus family present validate core beliefs based past experiences offer viable alternative responses treatment based case conceptualization process validate clarify core beliefs fears triggers behaviors redirect behavior anticipating triggers realigning beliefs fears cognitive behavioral therapy mindfulness acceptance commitment therapy dialectical behavior therapy defusion validate clarify redirect family origin therapy james framo developed object relations approach ''intergenerational'' ''family origin'' therapy working several generations family family origin approach families therapy trainees feminist family therapy


sandra bem marianne walters complications social political disparity genders identified underlying causes conflict within family system therapists encouraged aware influences order avoid perpetuating hidden oppression biases cultural stereotypes model egalitarian perspective healthy family relationships demystifying modeling equality personal accountability milan systemic family therapy luigi boscolo gianfranco cecchin mara selvini palazzoli giuliana prata practical attempt milan group establish therapeutic techniques based gregory bateson 's cybernetics disrupts unseen systemic patterns control


games family members challenging erroneous family beliefs reworking family 's linguistic assumptions hypothesizing circular questioning neutrality counterparadox mri brief therapy gregory bateson milton erickson heinz von foerster established mental research institute mri synthesis ideas multiple theorists order interrupt misguided attempts families create first second order change persisting mixed signals unclear metacommunication paradoxical double bind messages reframing prescribing symptom relabeling restraining going slow bellac ploy narrative therapy michael white david


overlook strengths resources future focus beginner 's mind miracle question goal setting scaling strategic therapy jay haley cloe madanes symptoms dysfunction purposeful maintaining homeostasis family hierarchy transitions various stages family life cycle directives paradoxical injunctions positioning metaphoric tasks restraining going slow structural family therapy salvador minuchin harry aponte charles fishman braulio montalvo family problems arise maladaptive boundaries subsystems created within overall family system rules rituals governs interactions joining


family mapping hypothesizing reenactments reframing unbalancing journals ''australian new zealand journal family therapy'' ''contemporary family therapy'' ''family process'' ''family relations'' ''family relations'' interdisciplinary journal applied family studies ''journal family therapy'' ''marriage fitness'' ''murmurations journal transformative systemic practice'' ''journal marital family therapy'' ''families systems health'' see also alternative dispute resolution acceptance commitment therapy camft child abuse conflict resolution cognitive behavioral therapy deinstitutionalisation domestic violence dysfunctional family emotionally focused therapy enrich family environment scale family life education family life space identified patient impact therapy internal family systems model interpersonal psychotherapy interpersonal


modification natural polymers c goodyear found critical advance research rubber vulcanization turned natural rubber practical engineering material j w hyatt uses camphor plasticize nitrocellulose make nitrocellulose plastics industrial l baekeland reported synthesis first thermosetting phenolic resin industrialized first synthetic plastic product h standinger proposed polymers long chain molecules connected structural units common covalent bonds conclusion laid foundation establishment modern polymer science subsequently

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering
Polymer engineering


carothers divided synthetic polymers two broad categories namely polycondensate obtained polycondensation reaction addition polymer obtained polyaddition reaction k ziegler g natta discovered coordination polymerization catalyst pioneered era synthesis stereoregular polymers decades establishment concept macromolecules synthesis high polymers achieved rapid development many important polymers industrialized one another classification basic division polymers thermoplastics elastomers thermosets helps define areas application thermoplastics thermoplastic


refers plastic heat softening cooling hardening properties plastics use daily lives fall category becomes soft even flows heated cooling becomes hard process reversible repeated thermoplastics relatively low tensile moduli also lower densities properties transparency make ideal consumer products medical products include polyethylene polypropylene nylon acetal resin polycarbonate pet widely used materials elastomers elastomer generally refers material


restored original state removal external force whereas material elasticity necessarily elastomer elastomer deformed weak stress stress quickly restored polymer material close original state size elastomers polymers low moduli show reversible extension strained valuable property vibration absorption damping may either thermoplastic case known thermoplastic elastomers crosslinked conventional rubber products tyres typical rubbers used


conventionally include natural rubber nitrile rubber polychloroprene polybutadiene styrene butadiene fluorinated rubbers thermosets thermosetting resin used main component plastic forms product formed cross linking curing process combination various necessary additives liquid early stage manufacturing molding process insoluble infusible curing cannot melted softened common thermosetting plastics phenolic plastics epoxy plastics aminoplasts unsaturated polyesters alkyd plastics like thermoset plastics thermoplastics together constitute two major components


materials plastic plastic polymer compound polymerized polyaddition polymerization polycondensation free change composition shape made synthetic resins fillers plasticizers stabilizers lubricants colorants additives main component plastic resin resin means polymer compound added various additives term resin originally named secretion oil plants animals rosin shellac resin accounts approximately total weight plastic basic properties


plastics mainly determined nature resin additives also play important role plastics basically made synthetic resins without additives plexiglass polystyrene etc fiber fiber refers continuous discontinuous filament one substance animals plant fibers play important role maintaining tissue fibers widely used woven good threads thread ends hemp ropes also woven fibrous layers making paper feel also commonly used make materials together


materials form composites therefore whether natural synthetic fiber filamentous material modern life application fiber ubiquitous many high tech products rubber rubber refers highly elastic polymer materials reversible shapes elastic room temperature deformed small external force removing external force return original state rubber completely amorphous polymer low glass transition temperature large molecular weight often greater several hundred thousand highly elastic polymer compounds classified


natural rubber synthetic rubber natural rubber processing extracts gum rubber grass rubber plants synthetic rubber polymerized various monomers rubber used elastic insulating water impermeable air resistant materials applications b spirit stealth bomber us air force polyethylene commonly used polyethylenes classified low density polyethylene ldpe high density polyethylene hdpe linear low density polyethylene lldpe among hdpe better thermal electrical mechanical properties ldpe lldpe better flexibility impact properties film forming properties ldpe lldpe mainly used


plastic bags plastic wraps bottles pipes containers hdpe widely used various fields film pipelines daily necessities resistance many different solvents polypropylene polypropylene widely used various applications due good chemical resistance weldability lowest density among commodity plastics commonly used packaging applications consumer goods automatic applications medical applications polypropylene sheets widely used industrial sector produce acid chemical tanks sheets pipes returnable transport packaging rtp etc properties like high tensile strength resistance


high temperatures corrosion resistance composites time trial carbon fibre composite bicycle aerodynamic wheels aero barstypical uses composites monocoque structures aerospace automobiles well mundane products like fishing rods bicycles stealth bomber first composite aircraft many passenger aircraft like airbus boeing use increasing proportion composites fuselages hydrophobic melamine foam quite different physical properties composites gives designers much greater freedom shaping parts composite products often look different conventional products


hand products drive shafts helicopter rotor blades propellers look identical metal precursors owing basic functional needs components biomedical applications biodegradable polymers widely used materials many biomedical pharmaceutical applications considered promising controlled drug delivery devices biodegradable polymers also offer great potential wound management orthopaedic devices dental applications tissue engineering like non biodegradable polymers wo n't require second step removal body biodegradable polymers break absorbed body


served purpose since polymers prepared glycolic acid lactic acid found multitude uses medical industry polylactates plas popular drug delivery system due fast adjustable degradation rate membrane technologies membrane techniques successfully used separation liquid gas systems years polymeric membranes used commonly lower cost produce easy modify surface make suitable different separation processes polymers helps many fields including application separation


biological active compounds proton exchange membranes fuel cells membrane contractors carbon dioxide capture process related major petroleum chemical mineral geology raw materials processing new energy automobiles spare parts industries electronic technology semiconductor integrated circuit machinery equipment heavy industry medical equipment instruments see also plastics engineering polymer science polymers medical grade silicone polymer scientists engineers references bibliography lewis peter rhys gagg c ''forensic polymer engineering polymer products fail service'' woodhead crc press polymers engineering disciplines


camping outdoor recreation activities use visitation concentrated ref name ref outdoor recreation shows increasing participation globally questions concerns raised managed sustainably minimal impact environment ref name history scientific studies human trampling traced back late substantial body recreation ecology literature accumulate visitation outdoors soared threatening ecology natural semi natural areas recreation ecology field study officially began early ref name

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Recreation ecology


addressed depth j alan wagar work titled ''the carrying capacity wild lands recreation'' ref name ref '''' published society american foresters publication wagar poses question wild lands carrying capacities recreation use wagar addresses question terms impacts outdoor recreation people impacts people outdoor spaces management procedures address issues overcrowding wild lands recreation ref name past decades articles recreation ecology published ref name


projected amount time spent numbers participants winter water based developed land activities grow faster population growing importance need recreation ecology research resource elements examined include soil vegetation water recently wildlife microbes majority investigations conducted trails recreation sites campsites use impact relationships environmental resistance resilience management effectiveness monitoring techniques carrying capacity major themes recreation ecology impact trampling foot bike horse means


traffic natural spaces common systematically researched topics field recreation ecology ref name additional ecological impacts often studied field recreation ecology include herbaceous plant cover vegetation tree disturbance ref name trampling vegetation ref name disturbances aquatic systems ref name disturbances wildlife ref name soil loss ref name trampling vegetation impact trampling foot bike horse means traffic natural spaces common systematically researched topics field recreation ecology ref name trampling vegetation studied often


camping result noise disturbances wildlife well produce negative impacts discarded food trash ref name poor trash management protected natural areas high levels tourism applications management studying intensity extent factors measure intensity impacts outdoor recreation environment including amount use type behavior use timing use type condition environment ref name x pxstudy results applied inform site visitor management decisions provide scientific input management planning


increasing concern ecotourism inherently sustainable unchecked would generate substantial impacts ecotourism destinations often fragile ecosystems recreation ecology ecotourism connected tourism carrying capacity biophysical carrying capacity understanding dynamics nature resiliency ecosystem allow estimate maximum number visitors come natural space starting see negative impacts references references reading liddle recreation ecology ecological impact outdoor recreation ecotourism london chapman hall monz ca cole dn leung f


marion jl sustaining visitor use protected areas future opportunities recreation ecology research based usa experience environmental management pp nbsp newsome moore sa dowling rk natural area tourism ecology impacts management clevedon uk channel view books ecology outdoor recreation


'''dynamical systems theory''' area mathematics used describe behavior complex dynamical systems usually employing differential equations difference equations differential equations employed theory called ''continuous dynamical systems'' physical point view continuous dynamical systems generalization classical mechanics generalization equations motion postulated directly constrained euler lagrange equations least action principle difference equations employed theory called ' 'discrete dynamical systems'' time variable runs set discrete

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems theory
Mathematical system theory


intervals continuous intervals arbitrary time set cantor set one gets dynamic equations time scales situations may also modeled mixed operators differential difference equations theory deals long term qualitative behavior dynamical systems studies nature possible solutions equations motion systems often primarily mechanical otherwise physical nature planetary orbits behaviour electronic circuits well systems arise biology economics elsewhere much modern research


steady state long term possible steady states long term behavior system depend initial condition important goal describe fixed points steady states given dynamical system values variable n't change time fixed points ''attractive'' meaning system starts nearby state converges towards fixed point similarly one interested ''periodic points'' states system repeat several timesteps periodic points also


attractive sharkovskii 's theorem interesting statement number periodic points one dimensional discrete dynamical system even simple nonlinear dynamical systems often exhibit seemingly random behavior called ''chaos'' branch dynamical systems deals clean definition investigation chaos called ''chaos theory'' history concept dynamical systems theory origins newtonian mechanics natural sciences engineering disciplines evolution rule dynamical systems given implicitly relation gives state system short


precisely predicted given current state stochastic evolution state predicted certain probability dynamicism dynamicism also termed ' 'dynamic hypothesis'' ' 'dynamic hypothesis cognitive science'' ' 'dynamic cognition'' new approach cognitive science exemplified work philosopher tim van gelder argues differential equations suited modelling cognition traditional computer models nonlinear system mathematics nonlinear system system linear ie system satisfy superposition principle less technically


nonlinear system problem variable solve cannot written linear sum independent components nonhomogeneous system linear apart presence function independent variables nonlinear according strict definition systems usually studied alongside linear systems transformed linear system long particular solution known related fields arithmetic dynamics arithmetic dynamics field emerged amalgamates two areas mathematics dynamical systems number


theory classically discrete dynamics refers study iteration self maps complex plane real line arithmetic dynamics study number theoretic properties integer rational adic algebraic points repeated application polynomial rational function chaos theory chaos theory describes behavior certain dynamical systems systems whose state evolves time may exhibit dynamics highly sensitive initial conditions popularly referred butterfly effect result sensitivity manifests exponential growth


modeling simulation perspective different research contexts complex systems defined base different attributes study complex systems bringing new vitality many areas science typical reductionist strategy fallen short ''complex systems'' therefore often used broad term encompassing research approach problems many diverse disciplines including neurosciences social sciences meteorology chemistry physics computer science psychology artificial life evolutionary computation economics earthquake prediction molecular biology inquiries nature living cells control theory control theory


network connectivity global dynamics result projected dynamical systems projected dynamical systems mathematical theory investigating behaviour dynamical systems solutions restricted constraint set discipline shares connections applications static world optimization equilibrium problems dynamical world ordinary differential equations projected dynamical system given flow projected differential equation symbolic dynamics symbolic dynamics practice modelling topological smooth dynamical system discrete space consisting infinite sequences


display baffling nonlinearity topological dynamics topological dynamics branch theory dynamical systems qualitative asymptotic properties dynamical systems studied viewpoint general topology applications biomechanics sports biomechanics dynamical systems theory emerged movement sciences viable framework modeling athletic performance efficiency dynamical systems perspective human movement system highly intricate network co dependent sub systems eg respiratory circulatory nervous skeletomuscular perceptual composed large number interacting components eg blood cells oxygen


molecules muscle tissue metabolic enzymes connective tissue bone dynamical systems theory movement patterns emerge generic processes self organization found physical biological systems research validation claims associated conceptual application framework cognitive science dynamical system theory applied field neuroscience cognitive development especially neo piagetian theories cognitive development belief cognitive development best represented physical theories rather theories based syntax ai also believed differential equations


appropriate tool modeling human behavior equations interpreted represent agent 's cognitive trajectory state space words dynamicists argue psychology description via differential equations cognitions behaviors agent certain environmental internal pressures language chaos theory also frequently adopted learner 's mind reaches state disequilibrium old patterns broken phase transition cognitive development self organization spontaneous creation coherent forms sets activity levels link


newly formed macroscopic microscopic structures support speeding process links form structure new state order mind process called ' 'scalloping'' repeated building collapsing complex performance new novel state progressive discrete idiosyncratic unpredictable dynamic systems theory recently used explain long unanswered problem child development referred b error second language development application dynamic systems theory study second language acquisition attributed diane larsen freeman published article


systemography related scientists people systems control dmitri anosov vladimir arnold nikolay bogolyubov andrey kolmogorov nikolay krylov j rgen moser yakov g sinai stephen smale hillel furstenberg grigory margulis elon lindenstrauss notes reading external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwcogsindianaedu publications techreps html dynamic systems encyclopedia cognitive science entry http mathworldwolframcom dynamicalsystemhtml definition dynamical system mathworld http wwwdynamicalsystemsorg dsweb dynamical systems magazine dynamical systems complex systems theory computational fields study


''c elegans'' '''nematology''' scientific discipline concerned study nematodes roundworms although nematological investigation dates back days aristotle even earlier nematology independent discipline recognizable beginnings mid late th century ref name chen chen z x chen dickson w century plant nematology pp ''nematology advances perspectives'' vol tsinghua university press beijing china ref ref name chitwood chitwood b g chitwood b introduction nematology pp ''introduction nematology'' university park press baltimore ref history

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Nematology


pre nematology research like fields science foundations observations recording observations earliest written account nematode sighting may found pentateuch old testament bible fourth book moses called numbers lord sent fiery serpents among people bit people much people israel died although empirical data exist test hypothesis many nematologists assume circumstantial evidence suggests fiery serpents guinea worm ''dracunculus medinensis''


nematode known inhabit region near red sea ref name chitwood large number nematode observations recorded many notable great minds ancient civilization hippocrates ca bc aristotle ca bc celsus ca bc galen ca ad redi described nematodes parasitizing humans large animals birds borellus first observe describe free living nematode dubbed vinegar eel tyson used crude microscope describe rough anatomy human intestinal roundworm ''ascaris lumbricoides'' well known


microscopists spent time observing describing free living animal parasitic nematodes hooke leeuwenhoek needham ref name needham ref spallanzani among ref name chitwood observations descriptions plant parasitic nematodes less conspicuous ancient scientists n't receive much early attention animal parasites earliest allusion plant parasitic nematode however preserved famous writ sowed cockle reap 'd corn line william shakespeare penned ''love 's labour 's lost'' act iv scene certainly reference blighted wheat caused plant parasite ''anguina tritici'' ref name thorne thorne


g introduction pp ''principles nematology'' mcgraw hill book company inc new york ref needham ref name needham solved riddle cockle crushed one diseased wheat grains observed aquatic animalsdenominated worms eels serpents much resemble likely recorded observations plant parasitic nematodes effects found ancient literature ref name steiner steiner g nematology outlook pp ''nematology fundamentals recent advances'' j n sasser w r jenkins eds university north carolina press chapel


kuhn thought first use soil fumigation control nematodes applying carbon disulfide treatments sugar beet fields germany europe nematological research focused heavily controlling sugar beet nematode sugar beet production became important economy time old world ref name thorne although th th century scientists yielded considerable amount important fundamental applied knowledge nematode biology nematology research really began advance quality quantity near turn th century first permanent nematology


field station constructed us post office salt lake city utah direction harry b shaw scientists observed sugar beet nematode field south city ref name thorne year nathan cobb published contributions science nematology lab manual estimating nema population soil two publications provide definitive resources many methods apparatus used nematology even day ref name thorne cobb 's far reaching influence nematology research jenkins taylor ref name jenkins jenkins w r taylor p introduction p


''plant nematology'' reinhold publishing corporation new york ref write ''although many workers played important roles development plant nematology none greater impact particularly united states na cobb cobb published first paper nematology united states undisputed leader nematology country efforts widely renowned usda nematology research program initiated developed many students colleagues developed leaders plant nematology addition


us public general events profound worldwide effects course nematology research next fifty seventy five years first discovery golden nematode potato fields long island led trip us quarantine officials potato fields europe devastating effects parasite known many years excursion allayed skepticism seriousness agricultural pest second introduction soil fumigants edb made available first time nematicides could used effectively


practically field scale third development nematode resistant crop cultivars brought substantial government funding applied nematology research ref name thorne ref name vangundy events contributed shift broad taxonomy based nematology research deep yet focused investigations plant parasitic nematodes especially control agricultural pests early recently bulk researchers studying nematodes plant pathologists training ref name vangundy consequently nematological research leaned heavily toward answering plant pathological agro economical questions last three quarters th century specimen collections us department agriculture nematode collection one


largest collections permanent slides vials university california riverside nematode type collection includes slides additionally collection slides vials nematode collection europe largest collection nematode slides europe national collection nematodes ncn housed arc plant protection research institute arc ppri south africa contain type specimens notable nematologists nathan cobb michel luc maynard jack ramsay gregor w yeates diana wall gerald thorne contributions sciences nematologists also contributed scientific fields important ways


butschli first observed formation polar bodies nuclear subdivision nematode beneden studying ''ascaris megalocephala'' discovered separation halves chromosomes two parents mechanism mendelian heredity boveri showed evidence continuity germ plasm soma may regarded product without influence upon heredity ref name chitwood caenorhabditis elegans widely used model species initially neural development genetics wormbase collates research species references reading mai w f


waltz melody usually triple meter often supported oom pah pah style accompaniment consists bass note beat one followed chord played twice beats two three walking basslines named rise fall regular pattern widely used style accompaniment bassline jazz blues rockabilly guitarist playing basso continuo accompaniment part baroque music composer antonio vivaldi 's cello concerto '''accompaniment''' musical part provides rhythmic harmonic support melody main themes

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Accompanying


song instrumental piece many different styles types accompaniment different genres styles music homophonic music main accompaniment approach used popular music clear vocal melody supported subordinate chords popular music traditional music accompaniment parts typically provide beat music outline chord progression song instrumental piece accompaniment vocal melody instrumental solo played single musician playing instrument piano pipe organ guitar instrument


theory used accompaniment instrument keyboard guitar family instruments tend used single instrument instruments play chords basslines simultaneously chords bassline easier play simultaneously keyboard instruments fingerpicking guitarist play chords bassline simultaneously guitar solo singer accompany playing guitar piano sings rare cases solo singer even accompany using voice body eg bobby mcferrin alternatively accompaniment


vocal melody instrumental solo provided musical ensemble ranging size duo eg cello piano guitar double bass synthesizer percussion trio eg rock power trio electric guitar electric bass drum kit organ trio quartet eg string quartet classical music accompany solo singer rock band rhythm section rock pop jazz quartet jazz way larger ensembles concert bands big bands jazz pit orchestras musical theatre orchestras addition


playing symphonies also provide accompaniment concerto solo instrumentalist solo singers opera choral music accompaniment vocal solo provided singers choir sing harmony parts countermelodies accompaniment parts range simple beginner play eg simple three note triad chords traditional folk song complex advanced player singer perform eg piano parts schubert 's lieder art songs th century vocal parts renaissance music motet definition piano


sonata k '' opening right hand plays melody top stave left hand plays accompaniment part lower stave first bar accompaniment part pianist plays c major chord left hand chord arpeggiated ie chord notes played one rather simultaneously '''accompanist''' musician plays accompaniment part accompanists often play keyboard instruments eg piano pipe organ synthesizer folk music traditional styles guitar sight reading


ability play notated piece music without preparing important many types musicians essential professional accompanists auditions musical theater orchestras accompanist often sight read music number classical pianists found success accompanists rather soloists arguably best known example gerald moore well known lieder accompanist american schools term collaborative piano used hence title collaborative pianist collaborative artist replacing title accompanist many art songs contemporary classical music


songs piano part complex demands advanced level musicianship technique term ''accompanist'' also refers musician typically pianist plays singers dancers performers audition rehearsal necessarily participate ensemble plays final performance might orchestra big band accompaniment figure '''accompaniment figure''' musical gesture used repeatedly accompaniment alberti bass arpeggio figures ostinati figures repeated lines popular music riffs notated accompaniment may indicated obbligato obliged


based lead sheet chord chart indicates chords used song piece eg c major minor g nashville numbers roman numerals ii v etc playing ear achieve stylistic correct sound accompaniment pattern remind imitate original version using similar rhythms patterns chord playing musicians eg playing guitar piano hammond organ etc improvise chords fill melodic lines solos chord chart rare chords fully written music notation pop


traditional music guitarists bassists stringed instrumentalists read accompaniment parts using tabulature tab notation system shows musician instrument play notes drummers play accompaniment following lead sheet sheet music part music notation playing ear pop traditional music bass players may upright bass electric bass another instrument bass synth depending style music usually expected able improvise bassline chord chart learn song


recording cases arranger composer may give bassist bass part fully written music notation arranged music parts mix written accompaniment improvisation example big band bass part introduction melody head tune may fully notated bassline improvised solos arranger may write chord symbols eg bb g c min f expectation bassist improvise walking bass part see also accordion left hand comping jazz counter melody figure music


figured bass basso continuo guitar picking hauptstimme strum references rhythm section


nonprofit foundation economic education library best known austrian economics collections '' 'special library''' library provides specialized information resources particular subject serves specialized limited clientele delivers specialized services clientele special libraries include corporate libraries government libraries law libraries medical libraries museum libraries news libraries special libraries also exist within academic institutions libraries included special libraries often funded separately rest university serve targeted group users ref name shumaker shumaker david special libraries ''encyclopedia

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Special library


library information sciences'' rd ed new york taylor francis ref characteristics special libraries often specific clientele libraries traditional educational public settings deal specialized kinds information developed support mission sponsoring organization collections services targeted specific needs clientele special libraries may may open general public open public may offer services similar research reference public academic children 's libraries often


advanced degrees specifically library related field due specialized content clientele library however uncommon librarians special libraries library science degree well degree experience type field library specializes opposed either library science field specific experience special libraries special collections users services example research institute 's library may supply information scientists lack time visit library current awareness service cas selective dissemination information


promptly provides desired information users demand mostly anticipation history idea special libraries context sharing collection books targeted audience means novel first known libraries dating back beginning known history recorded commercial transactions inventories today fall heading corporate libraries discussed concept special libraries distinctive categories libraries emerged united kingdom united states nineteenth century burgeon various special library association ensued


founding american library association ala medical library association founded followed american association law libraries aall special libraries association sla includes corporate libraries found librarians professional associations major professional association special libraries special libraries association chapters canada us europe uk based chartered institute library information professionals australian library information association also focus groups devoted special libraries special library associations