services provide client populations serve employed colleges universities teachers supervisors researchers service providers others employed independent practice providing counseling psychotherapy assessment consultation services individuals couples families groups organizations additional settings counseling psychologists practice include community mental health centers veterans administration medical centers facilities family services health maintenance organizations rehabilitation agencies business industrial organizations consulting within firms amount training required psychologists differs based country practicing typically psychologist completes undergraduate


considered effective symptom reduction behavior change quality life improvement topics commonly explored study counseling process outcome include therapist variables client variables counseling therapeutic relationship cultural variables process outcome measurement mechanisms change process outcome research methods classic approaches appeared early us field humanistic psychology carl rogers identified mission counseling interview permit deeper expression client would ordinarily allow therapist variables therapist variables include characteristics counselor psychotherapist well therapist technique

Social science
Psychology
Counseling psychology


behavior theoretical orientation training terms therapist behavior technique theoretical orientation research adherence therapy models found adherence particular model therapy helpful detrimental neutral terms impact outcome recent meta analysis research training experience suggests experience level slightly related accuracy clinical judgment higher therapist experience found related less anxiety also less focus suggests still work done terms training clinicians measuring successful training client


well risks counseling educating clients expectations counseling improve client satisfaction treatment duration outcomes efficient cost effective intervention counseling relationship relationship counselor client feelings attitudes client therapist towards one another manner feelings attitudes expressed theorists suggested relationship may thought three parts transference countertransference working alliance real personal relationship theorists argue concepts transference countertransference outdated inadequate transference


described client 's distorted perceptions therapist great effect therapeutic relationship instance therapist may facial feature reminds client parent association client significant negative positive feelings toward parent may project feelings onto therapist affect therapeutic relationship ways example client strong bond parent may see therapist father mother figure strong connection


therapist problematic therapist ethical professional relationship client also good thing client may open greatly therapist another way client negative relationship parent client may feel negative feelings toward therapist affect therapeutic relationship well example client may trouble opening therapist lacks trust parent projecting feelings distrust onto


risk experiencing racial micro aggression counselors white efficacy working clients lesbians gay men bisexual might related therapist demographics gender sexual identity development sexual orientation professional experience clients multiple oppressed identities might especially risk experiencing unhelpful situations counselors counselors might need help gaining expertise working clients transgender lesbian gay bisexual transgender people color oppressed populations gender role socialization also present issues clients counselors implications practice include aware stereotypes


consent client legal guardian except prevent clear imminent danger client others required court order insurance companies government programs also notified certain information diagnosis treatment determine care covered companies government programs bound hipaa keep information strictly confidential counselors held higher standard professionals intimacy therapeutic delivery counselors avoid fraternizing clients avoid dual relationships


never engage sexual relationships counselors avoid receiving gifts favors trade therapy communities may avoidable given economic standing community cases children children mentally handicapped may feel personally rejected offering something cookie counselors judgement call must made majority cases avoiding gifts favors trade maintained national board certified counselors states counselors shall discuss important considerations avoid exploitation entering non counseling relationship


former client important considerations discussed include amount time since counseling service termination duration counseling nature circumstances client 's counseling likelihood client want resume counseling time future circumstances service termination possible negative effects outcomes outcome measurement counseling outcome measures might look general overview symptoms symptoms specific disorders positive outcomes subjective well quality life outcome questionnaire item self report measure psychological distress example disorder specific measure beck depression inventory


quality life inventory item self report life satisfaction measure process outcome research methods research counseling process outcome uses variety research methodologies answer questions counseling works quantitative methods include randomly controlled clinical trials correlation studies course counseling laboratory studies specific counseling process outcome variables qualitative research methods involve conducting transcribing coding interviews transcribing coding therapy sessions fine grain analysis single counseling sessions counseling cases training supervision professional training process counseling psychologists trained graduate


programs almost programs grant phd grant psyd edd doctoral programs take years complete graduate work counseling psychology includes coursework general psychology statistics counseling practice research students must complete original dissertation end graduate training students must also complete one year full time internship accredited site earning doctorate order licensed practice counseling psychologists must gain clinical experience supervision pass standardized exam australia australia counseling psychology programs accredited


australian psychology accreditation council apac become registered counseling psychologist one must meet criteria area practice endorsement includes undergraduate degree science psychology honours degree postgraduate diploma psychology master 's doctorate degree counseling psychology graduates must complete registrar program obtain area practice endorsement use title counseling psychologist substantial component master 's degree dedicated individual psychotherapy family couples therapy group therapy developmental theory psychopathology training models research counseling psychology includes


study practice counselor training counselor supervision researchers counseling psychologists may investigate makes training supervision effective practitioners counseling psychologists may supervise train variety clinicians counselor training tends occur formal classes training programs part counselor training may involve counseling clients supervision licensed clinician supervision also occur licensed clinicians way improve clinicians' quality work competence various types counseling clients field counseling psychology formed mid th century initial training models included robert carkuff 's


th ed john wiley sons new york ref problems arise supervision training first supervisors liable malpractice also questions arisen far supervisor 's need formal training competent supervisor ref name westefeld westefeld js supervision psychotherapy models issues recommendations ''the counseling psychologist'' ref recent research suggests conflicting multiple relationships occur supervisors clients client instructor clinical supervisor ref name westefeld occurrence racial micro aggression black clients suggests potential problems racial bias supervision general conflicts counselor


types considered congruence congruence found predict occupation college major ref name betz betz n advances vocational theories brown sd lent rw ''handbook counseling psychology'' th ed new york wiley ref theory work adjustment twa developed ren dawis lloyd lofquist hypothesizes correspondence worker 's needs reinforced systems predicts job satisfaction correspondence worker 's skills job 's skill requirements predicts job satisfaction job satisfaction personal satisfaction together determine long one remains job


choice goals actions environmental supports barriers also affect goals actions actions lead performance choice stability time ref name betz career development theories propose vocational models include changes throughout lifespan donald super 's model proposes lifelong five stage career development process stages growth exploration establishment maintenance disengagement throughout life people many roles may differ terms importance meaning super also theorized career development implementation self concept gottfredson also proposed cognitive career decision making process develops lifespan initial stage career


development hypothesized development self image childhood range possible roles narrows using criteria sex type social class prestige adolescence people take abstract concepts consideration interests career counseling career counseling may include provision occupational information modeling skills written exercises exploration career goals plans career counseling also involve use personality career interest assessments myers briggs type indicator based carl jung 's theory psychological type strong interest inventory makes use holland 's


part taylor francis group see also clinical psychology coaching psychology list counseling topics outline psychology professional practice behavior analysis references applied psychology


related social factors definition environmental sociology typically defined sociological study socio environmental interactions although definition immediately presents problem integrating human cultures rest environment different aspects human interaction natural environment studied environmental sociologists including population demography organizations institutions technology health illness culture identity social inequality although focus field relationship society environment general environmental sociologists typically place special emphasis studying social factors cause environmental problems societal impacts

Social science
Sociology
Environmental sociology


problems efforts solve problems addition considerable attention paid social processes certain environmental conditions become socially defined problems research environmental sociology examines contemporary societies history environmental sociology emerged coherent subfield inquiry environmental movement early works william r catton jr riley dunlap among others challenged constricted anthropocentrism classical sociology late called new holistic systems perspective since general sociology noticeably transformed


include environmental forces social explanations environmental sociology solidified respected interdisciplinary field study academia concepts existential dualism duality human condition rests cultural uniqueness evolutionary traits one perspective humans embedded ecosphere co evolved alongside species humans share basic ecological dependencies inhabitants nature https booksgooglecom booksid yjgpdaaaqbaj perspectives humans distinguished species innovative capacities distinct cultures varied institutions human creations power independently manipulate destroy transcend limits natural environment


buttel humphrey p nbsp according buttel five major traditions environmental sociology today treadmill production eco marxisms ecological modernization sociologies environmental reform cultural environmental sociologies neo malthusianisms new ecological paradigm practice means five different theories blame environmental degradation ie research consider important ideas listed order invented ideas emerged later built earlier ideas contradicted neo malthusianism works hardin 's tragedy commons reformulated malthusian thought


sociologists would disagree malthusianism since social organizational issues environmental degradation demonstrated cause environmental problems abstract population selfishness per se examples critique ostrom book ''governing commons evolution institutions collective action'' argues instead self interest always causing degradation sometimes motivate people take care common property resources must change basic organizational rules resource use research provides evidence sustainable resource management systems around common pool resources lasted centuries


areas world amartya sen argues book ''poverty famines essay entitlement deprivation'' population expansion fails cause famines degradation malthusians neo malthusians argue instead documented cases lack political entitlement resources exist abundance causes famines populations documents famines occur even midst plenty context low populations argues famines environmental degradation would occur non functioning democracies unrepresentative states ester boserup argues book ''the conditions agricultural growth


economics agrarian change population pressure'' inductive empirical case analysis malthus 's deductive conception presumed one one relationship agricultural scale population actually reversed instead agricultural technology scale determining limiting population malthus attempted argue boserup argued world full cases direct opposite population changes expands agricultural methods eco marxist scholar allan schnaiberg argues malthusianism rationale larger capitalist economies human degradation moved localized population based degradation organizationally caused degradation capitalist political economies blame


gives example organized degradation rainforest areas states capitalists push people land degraded organizational means thus many authors critical malthusianism sociologists schnaiberg economists sen boserup political scientists ostrom focus country 's social organization extraction degrade environment independent abstract population new ecological paradigm new ecological paradigm nep conception critiqued claimed lack human environmental focus classical sociologists sociological priorities followers created critiqued


problems therefore humans conceived governed natural conditions felt complete control destiny potential limitation posed natural world felt surpassed using human ingenuity research proceeded accordingly without environmental analysis sociological scholars riley dunlap william r catton jr began recognizing limits would termed human exemptionalism paradigm catton dunlap suggested new perspective took environmental variables full account coined new theoretical outlook sociology new ecological paradigm


assumptions contrary hep nep recognizes innovative capacity humans says humans still ecologically interdependent species nep notes power social cultural forces profess social determinism instead humans impacted cause effect feedback loops ecosystems earth finite level natural resources waste repositories thus biophysical environment impose constraints human activity discussed harbingers nep 'hybridized' theorizing topics neither exclusively social environmental explanations environmental conditions


wanted stretch marxist ideas social conflict analyze environmental social movements marxist materialist framework instead interpreting cultural new social movement separate material concerns eco marxism developed based using neo marxist conflict theories concepts relative autonomy state applying environmental conflict two people following school james o'connor ''the fiscal crisis state'' later allan schnaiberg later different trend developed eco marxism via attention brought importance metabolic analysis marx 's thought john bellamy foster contrary


previous assumptions classical theorists sociology fallen within human exemptionalist paradigm foster argued marx 's materialism lead theorize labor metabolic process humanity rest nature promethean interpretations marx foster critiques assumption analysis similar anthropocentric views critiqued early environmental sociologists instead foster argued marx concerned metabolic rift generated capitalist society 's social metabolism particularly industrial agriculture marx identified irreparable rift interdependent process social metabolism created capitalist


perspective rooted direct examination marx 's value theory burkett foster proceeded write number articles together marx 's ecological conceptions reflecting shared perspective recently jason w moore inspired burkett 's value analytical approach marx 's ecology arguing foster 's work go far enough sought integrate notion metabolic rift world systems theory incorporating marxian value related conceptions moore modern world system capitalist world ecology joining accumulation capital pursuit power production nature dialectical unity central moore 's


perspective philosophical reading marx 's value theory abstract social labor abstract social nature dialectically bound moore argues emergent law value sixteenth century evident extraordinary shift scale scope speed environmental change took premodern civilizations centuries achieve deforestation europe medieval era capitalism realized mere decades world historical rupture argues moore explained law value regards labor productivity decisive metric wealth power modern world standpoint


economic political forces preserve status quo bolster dominance historically common occurrence another potential outcome contending powerful parties fall stalemate lastly tumultuous social events may result redistribute economic political resources highly influential work allan schnaiberg entitled ''the environment surplus scarcity'' large contribution theme societal environmental dialectic ecological modernization reflexive modernization critique eco marxism offing given empirical data countries mostly western europe like


netherlands western germany somewhat united kingdom attempting wed environmental protection economic growth instead seeing separate done state capital restructuring major proponents school research arthur pj mol gert spaargaren popular examples ecological modernization would cradle cradle production cycles industrial ecology large scale organic agriculture biomimicry permaculture agroecology certain strands sustainable development implying economic growth possible growth well organized environment mind '''reflexive modernization''' many volumes german sociologist ulrich


beck first argued late risk society potentially transformed environmental social movements world structural change without rejecting benefits modernization industrialization leading form 'reflexive modernization' world reduced risk better modernization process economics politics scientific practices made less beholden cycle protecting risk correction calls state 's organized irresponsibility politics creates ecodisasters claims responsibility accident yet nothing remains corrected challenges structure


operation economy private dominance development example beck 's idea reflexive modernization looks forward ecological social crises late th century leading toward transformations whole political economic system 's institutions making rational ecology mind social construction environment additionally rise postmodernism western academy appreciation discourse form power sociologists turned analyzing environmental claims form social construction 'material' requirement proponents


school include john hannigan particularly ''environmental sociology social constructionist perspective'' hannigan argues 'soft constructionism' environmental problems materially real though require social construction noticed 'hard constructionism' claim environmental problems entirely social constructs although sometimes acrimonious debate constructivist realist camps within environmental sociology two sides found considerable common ground increasingly accept environmental problems material reality nonetheless become known via human processes scientific knowledge activists' efforts


modern environmental movement large questioning sociologists interested analyzing movement widespread green consciousness moved vertically within society resulting series policy changes across many states us europe united states period known environmental decade creation united states environmental protection agency passing endangered species act clean water act amendments clean air act earth day celebrated millions participants represented modern age environmental thought environmental movement continued incidences


love canal historical studies current mode thought expressed environmental sociology prevalent application used analysis ancient peoples societies including easter island anaszi mayans argued ended abruptly largely due poor environmental management challenged later work however exclusive cause biologically trained jared diamond 's ''collapse'' modern work easter island collapse mayans sent historic message even advanced cultures vulnerable ecological suicide though diamond argues


four 'ideal types' interaction environmental movements state power use case studies environmental social movements state interaction norway united kingdom united states germany analyze past years environmentalism different outcomes green movement taken different state contexts cultures recently roughly temporal order much longer term comparative historical studies environmental degradation found sociologists two general trends many employ world systems theory analyzing environmental issues long periods time space others employ comparative


historical methods utilize methods simultaneously sometimes without reference world systems theory like whitaker see stephen g bunker paul ciccantell collaborated two books world systems theory view following commodity chains history modern world system charting changing importance space time scale extraction variables influenced shape location main nodes world economy past years view world grounded extraction economies politics different states seek dominate


world 's resources gaining hegemonic control major resources restructuring global flows benefit locations three volume work environmental world systems theory sing c chew analyzed nature culture interact long periods time starting ''world ecological degradation'' later books chew argued three dark ages world environmental history characterized periods state collapse reorientation world economy associated localist frameworks community economy identity coming dominate nature culture relationships state facilitated environmental destruction delegitimized


forms thus recreated communities founded called 'dark ages' novel religions popularized perhaps importantly environment several centuries recover previous destruction chew argues modern green politics bioregionalism start similar movement present day potentially leading wholesale system transformation therefore may edge yet another global dark age bright instead dark many levels since argues human community returning environmental healing empires collapse case oriented studies conducted historical environmental


sociologist mark whitaker analyzing china japan europe years book ''ecological revolution'' argued instead environmental movements new social movements peculiar current societies environmental movements old expressed via religious movements past present like ecotheology begin focus material concerns health local ecology economic protest state policy extractions argues past present similar participated tragic common civilizational process environmental degradation economic consolidation lack political representation


many millennia predictable outcomes argues form bioregionalism bioregional state required deal political corruption present past societies connected environmental degradation looking world history environmental degradation different methods sociologists sing chew mark whitaker came similar conclusions proponents different forms bioregionalism related journals among key journals field ''environmental sociology'' ''human ecology'' ''human ecology review'' ''nature culture'' ''organization environment'' ''population environment'' ''rural sociology'' ''society natural resources''


see also bibliography sociology ecological anthropology ecological design ecological economics ecological modernization theory enactivism environmental design environmental design planning environmental economics environmental policy environmental racism environmental racism europe ethnoecology political ecology sociology architecture sociology disaster climate change notes references buttel frederick h treadmill production organization environment vol pp sage publications doi buttel frederick h craig r humphrey sociological theory natural environment pp nbsp ''handbook environmental sociology'' edited riley e dunlap william michelson westport ct greenwood press diamond


r frederick h buttel ''environment energy society'' belmont california wadsworth publishing company humphrey craig r tammy l lewis frederick h buttel ''environment energy society new synthesis'' belmont california wadsworth thompson learning mehta michael eric ouellet ''environmental sociology theory practice'' toronto captus press redclift michael graham woodgate eds ''international handbook environmental sociology'' edgar elgar schnaiberg allan '' https webarchiveorg web http medianorthwesternedu sociology schnaiberg environmentsociety indexhtml environment surplus scarcity '' new york oxford university press reading hannigan john environmental sociology routledge zehner ozzie '' http greenillusionsorg green illusions '' university nebraska press environmental


sociology text forming critique energy production green consumerism foster john bellamy brett clark richard york '' https booksgooglecom books ecological rifthtmlid vgzjqgaacaaj ecological rift capitalism 's war earth '' monthly review press sociological consideration ecosystem collapse metzner szigeth contradictory approaches realism constructivism social sciences research risk technology environment ''futures'' vol march pp nbsp fulltext journal https archivetoday http wwwsciencedirectcom science ob articleurl udi b v tgs jy user coverdate rdoc fmt high orig search sort docanchor view c acct c version urlversion userid md fec f e ec add free preprint https dxdoiorg figshare white robert '' https booksgooglecom booksid rx p mx cyc pg pp lpg pp dq controversies environmental sociology source bl ots eejmnvhhv sig cwogn u dkkasobdkidmvjl gy hl en sa x ei uw aum dkswejakpjogabw ved cg q aewbw controversies environmental sociology '' cambridge university press overview topics environmental sociology external links http envirosocorg asa section environment technology


http wwweuropeansociologyorg research networks rn environment societyhtml esa environment society research network https wwwisa sociologyorg en research networks research committees rc environment society isa research committee environment society rc http wwwesfedu es sonnenfeld envsoc assochtm society environment professional associations http wwwesfedu es sonnenfeld envsoc journalshtm society environment scholarly journals http wwwcsa scsca files webapps csapress environment canadian sociological association csa environment research cluster


'''psychology religion''' consists application psychological methods interpretive frameworks diverse contents religious traditions well religious irreligious individuals extraordinary range methods frameworks helpfully summed regarding classic distinction natural scientific human scientific approaches first cluster proceeds means objective quantitative preferably experimental procedures testing hypotheses regarding causal connections among objects one 's study contrast human scientific approach accesses human world experience using qualitative phenomenological interpretive methods goal discerning

Social science
Psychology
Psychology of religion


meaningful rather causal connections among phenomena one seeks understand psychologists religion pursue three major projects systematic description especially religious contents attitudes experiences expressions explanation origins religion history human race individual lives taking account diversity influences mapping consequences religious attitudes conduct individual society large psychology religion first arose self conscious discipline late th century three tasks history


going back many centuries ref name wulff pp wulff psychology religion leeming k madden marian eds ''encyclopedia psychology religion'' pp new york london springer ref overview challenge psychology religion essentially threefold provide thoroughgoing description objects investigation whether shared religious content eg tradition 's ritual observances individual experiences attitudes conduct account psychological terms rise phenomena whether individual lives


clarify outcomes fruits william james put phenomena individuals larger society ref name wulff pp fruits may positive negative first descriptive task naturally requires clarification one 's terms word ' 'religion'' historians religion long underscored problematic character term noting usage centuries changed significant ways generally direction reification early psychologists religion fully aware difficulties typically acknowledging definitions choosing use


degree arbitrary rise positivistic trends psychology course th century especially demand phenomena operationalized quantitative procedures psychologists religion developed multitude scales developed use protestant christians factor analysis also brought play psychologists sociologists religion establish fixed core dimensions corresponding set scales justification adequacy efforts especially light constructivist postmodern viewpoints remains matter debate last several decades


especially among clinical psychologists preference terms spirituality spiritual emerged along efforts distinguish religion religious especially united states religion many become associated sectarian institutions obligatory creeds rituals thus giving word negative cast spirituality contrast positively constructed deeply individual subjective universal capacity apprehend accord one 's life higher realities fact spirituality likewise undergone evolution west time essentially synonym religion original


subjective meaning today efforts ongoing operationalize terms little regard history western context apparent realist assumption underlying fixed qualities identifiable using empirical procedures schnitker emmons theorized understanding religion search meaning makes implications three psychological areas motivation cognition social relationships cognitive aspects relate god sense purpose motivational ones need control religious search meaning also woven social communities history william james american


psychologist philosopher william james regarded psychologists religion founder field served president american psychological association wrote one first psychology textbooks psychology religion james' influence endures ''varieties religious experience'' considered classic work field references james' ideas common professional conferences james distinguished institutional religion personal religion institutional religion refers religious group organization plays important part society 's culture personal religion


individual mystical experience experienced regardless culture james interested understanding personal religious experience studying personal religious experiences james made distinction ''healthy minded'' ' 'sick souled'' religiousness individuals predisposed healthy mindedness tend ignore evil world focus positive good james used examples walt whitman mind cure religious movement illustrate healthy mindedness ''the varieties religious experience'' contrast individuals predisposed sick souled religion unable ignore evil suffering need unifying experience religious otherwise reconcile


good evil james included quotations leo tolstoy john bunyan illustrate sick soul william james' hypothesis pragmatism stems efficacy religion individual believes performs religious activities actions happen work practice appears proper choice individual however processes religion little efficacy rationality continuing practice early theorists g w f hegel georg wilhelm friedrich hegel described systems religion philosophy social science expressions


basic urge consciousness learn surroundings record findings hypotheses thus religion form search knowledge within humans record various experiences reflections others compiling categorizing writings various ways form consolidated worldview articulated religion philosophy social science etc work phenomenology spirit study various types writing thinking draw combine individual group experiences various places times influencing current forms knowledge worldviews


operative population activity functioning incomplete group mind accessing recorded wisdom others works often include detailed descriptions psychological motivations involved thought behavior eg struggle community nation know thus correctly govern hegel 's system religion one major repositories wisdom used struggles representing huge body recollections humanity 's past various stages development sigmund freud group photo front clark university front


illusion maintained fantasy structure man must set free grow maturity freud views idea god version father image religious belief bottom infantile neurotic authoritarian religion freud believed dysfunctional alienates man carl jung swiss psychoanalyst carl jung adopted different posture one sympathetic religion concerned positive appreciation religious symbolism jung considered question metaphysical existence god


unanswerable psychologist adopted kind agnosticism jung postulated addition personal unconscious roughly adopting freud 's concept collective unconscious repository human experience contains archetypes ie basic images universal recur regardless culture irruption images unconscious realm consciousness viewed basis religious experience often artistic creativity jung 's writings devoted elucidating archetypal symbols include work comparative mythology alfred


adler austrian psychiatrist alfred adler parted ways freud emphasized role goals motivation ''individual psychology'' one adler 's famous ideas try compensate inferiorities perceive lack power often lies root feelings inferiority one way religion enters picture beliefs god characteristic tendency strive perfection superiority example many religions god considered perfect omnipotent commands people likewise


perfect achieve perfection become one god identifying god way compensate imperfections feelings inferiority ideas god important indicators view world according adler ideas changed time vision world place changed consider example adler offers traditional belief people placed deliberately earth god 's ultimate creation replaced idea people evolved natural selection coincides


view god real abstract representation nature 's forces way view god changed one concrete specific one general adler 's vantage point relatively ineffective perception god general fails convey strong sense direction purpose important thing adler god idea god motivates people act actions real consequences others view


god important embodies goals directs social interactions compared science another social movement religion efficient motivates people effectively according adler science begins capture religious fervor promotes welfare segments society two equal peoples' eyes gordon allport classic book ''the individual religion'' gordon allport illustrates people may use religion different ways ref name leak ref makes distinction ''mature religion'' ''immature religion'' mature religious sentiment


scholar erich fromm modified freudian theory produced complex account functions religion book ''psychoanalysis religion'' responded freud 's theories explaining part modification viewing oedipus complex based much sexuality much profound desire namely childish desire remain attached protecting figures right religion fromm 's estimation principle foster individual 's highest potentialities religion practice tends relapse neurotic ref name psyrel ref according fromm humans need stable frame


reference religion fills need effect humans crave answers questions source knowledge answer religion may seem answer however sense free must given religion appear healthy authoritarian notion religion appears detrimental ref name personality ref rudolf otto rudolf otto german protestant theologian scholar comparative religion otto 's famous work ''the idea holy'' published first ''das heilige'' defines concept holy ''numinous'' otto explained numinous


non rational non sensory experience feeling whose primary immediate object outside self mystery latin ''mysterium tremendum'' fascinating ''fascinans'' terrifying time mystery causes trembling fascination attempting explain inexpressible perhaps supernatural emotional reaction wonder drawing us seemingly ordinary religious experiences grace sense emotional wonder appears evident root religious experiences emotional wonder suspend rational mind non rational possibilities ''the idea holy'' also set paradigm


study religion focuses need realize religious non reducible original category right paradigm much attack approximately made strong comeback since modern thinkers autobiographal accounts th century psychology religion field supplied numerous modern psychologists religion primarily based europe also several us based psychologists ralph w hood donald capps ref name belzen ref allen bergin allen bergin noted paper psychotherapy religious values


known landmark scholarly acceptance religious values practice influence psychotherapy received distinguished professional contributions knowledge award american psychological association cited challenging psychological orthodoxy emphasize importance values religion therapy robert emmons robert emmons offered theory spiritual strivings book ''the psychology ultimate concerns'' ref name emmons ref support empirical studies emmons argued spiritual strivings foster personality integration exist higher level personality '''ralph w hood jr''' ralph w hood


jr professor psychology university tennessee chattanooga former editor journal scientific study religion former co editor archive psychology religion international journal psychology religion past president division american psychological association recipient william james award published several hundred articles book chapters psychology religion authored co authored edited thirteen volumes dealing psychology religion kenneth pargament


kenneth pargament noted book ''psychology religion coping'' see article ref name pargament kenneth pargament ''the psychology religion coping theory research practice'' new york guilford ref well book religion psychotherapy sustained research program religious coping professor psychology bowling green state university ohio us published papers subject religion spirituality psychology pargament led design questionnaire called rcope measure religious coping strategies ref name rcope ref pargament distinguished


three types styles coping stress ref name styyle ref collaborative people co operate god deal stressful events deferring people leave everything god self directed people rely god try exclusively solve problems efforts also describes four major stances toward religion adopted psychotherapists work clients calls religiously ' 'rejectionist'' ''exclusivist'' ''constructivist'' ''pluralist'' stances ref name pargament ref name zp brian j zinnbauer kenneth pargament http searchebscohostcom loginaspxdirect true db h site ehost live working sacred four approaches religious


remnant relatively recent time human development prior advent consciousness jaynes hypothesized hallucinated verbal commands helped non conscious early man perform tasks promoting human survival starting bce selective pressures favored hallucinated verbal commands social control came perceived external rather internal voice commanding person take action hence often explained originating invisible gods spirits ancestors etc hypotheses role religion three primary hypotheses role religion


seeking although exclusive religious institutions eclecticism draws multiple religious spiritual systems new age movements also predicted result cultural divide response religious transformation hypothesis ronald inglehart piloted renewal secularization hypothesis argument hinges premise religion develops fill human need security therefore development social economic security europe explains corresponding secularization due lack need religion however religion continues third world social economic insecurity rampant overall effect expected


growing cultural disparity idea religiosity arises human need security also furthered studies examining religious beliefs compensatory mechanism control studies motivated idea people invested maintaining beliefs order structure prevent beliefs chaos randomness experimental setting researchers also tested compensatory control regard individuals' perceptions external systems religion government example kay colleagues found laboratory setting individuals likely endorse broad external systems


eg religion sociopolitical systems impose order control lives induced lowered levels personal control study researchers suggest person 's personal control lessened motivation believe order threatened resulting compensation threat adherence external sources control psychometric approaches religion since psychologists religion used methodology psychometrics assess ways person may religious example religious orientation scale allport ross measures


respondents stand intrinsic extrinsic religion described allport recent questionnaires include age universal e scale gorsuch venable religious life inventory batson schoenrade ventis spiritual experiences index revised genia first provides age independent measure allport ross 's two religious orientations second measures three forms religious orientation religion means intrinsic religion end extrinsic religion quest third assesses spiritual maturity using two factors spiritual support spiritual openness religious orientations religious dimensions questionnaires religious orientation scale relate


different religious orientations intrinsic extrinsic religiousness referring different motivations religious allegiance rather different approach taken example glock stark list different dimensions religion rather different religious orientations relates individual may manifest different forms religious glock stark 's famous typology described five dimensions religion doctrinal intellectual ethical consequential ritual experiential later work authors subdivided ritual dimension devotional public ritual also clarified distinction religion along multiple


dimensions identical distinguishing religious orientations although psychologists religion found helpful take multidimensional approach religion purpose psychometric scale design wulff explains considerable controversy whether religion really seen multidimensional questionnaires assess religious experience call religious experiences differ greatly reports exist supernatural happenings would difficult explain rational scientific point view hand also exist sort testimonies simply seem convey feeling


necessary think religious experiences evidence existence actual call god point view important thing experience effect individual developmental approaches religion many looked stage models like jean piaget lawrence kohlberg explain children develop ideas god religion general james fowler 's model best known stage model spiritual religious development james w fowler developmental psychologist candler school theology


''stages faith'' follows piaget kohlberg proposed holistic staged development faith spiritual development across lifespan stages faith development along lines piaget 's theory cognitive development kohlberg 's stages moral development book length study contains six stages faith development proposed james fowler class wikitable style float right fowler age piaget fowler rowspan undifferentiated br faith age rowspan years piaget rowspan sensoric motorical


concrete operational fowler synthetic br conventional age years piaget rowspan formal operational fowler individual reflective age years fowler rowspan


conjunctive age rowspan years fowler universalizing stage primal undifferentiated faith birth years characterized early learning safety environment ie warm safe secure vs hurt neglect abuse consistent nurture experienced one develop sense trust safety universe divine conversely negative experiences cause one develop distrust universe divine transition next stage begins integration


thought language facilitates use symbols speech play stage intuitive projective faith ages three seven characterized psyche 's unprotected exposure unconscious marked relative fluidity thought patterns religion learned mainly experiences stories images people one comes contact stage mythic literal faith mostly school children characterized persons strong belief justice reciprocity universe deities almost always anthropomorphic time metaphors symbolic language often


misunderstood taken literally stage synthetic conventional faith arising adolescence aged adulthood characterized conformity authority religious development personal identity conflicts one 's beliefs ignored stage due fear threat inconsistencies stage individuative reflective faith usually mid twenties late thirties stage angst struggle individual takes personal responsibility beliefs feelings one able reflect one 's beliefs openness new complexity faith


empirical research faith development although little research ever conducted fowler gary leak 's faith development scale fds subject factor analysis leak hypotheses theorists developmental psychology suggested religiosity comes naturally young children specifically children may natural born conception mind body dualism lends beliefs mind may live body dies addition children tendency see agency human design prefer creationist explanation world even raised


parents researchers also investigated attachment system dynamics predictor religious conversion experience throughout childhood adolescence one hypothesis correspondence hypothesis posits individuals secure parental attachment likely experience gradual conversion experience correspondence hypothesis internal working models person 's attachment figure thought perpetuate perception god secure base another hypothesis relating attachment style conversion experience compensation hypothesis states individuals insecure attachments likely sudden


conversion experience compensate insecure attachment relationship seeking relationship god researchers tested hypotheses using longitudinal studies individuals' self narratives conversion experience example one study investigating attachment styles adolescent conversions young life religious summer camps resulted evidence supporting correspondence hypothesis analysis personal narratives prospective longitudinal follow young life campers mixed results compensation hypothesis james alcock summarizes number components calls god engine number automatic processes cognitive biases combine


make supernatural belief automatic default include magical thinking agency detection theory mind leads dualism notion objects events serve intentional purpose etc evolutionary cognitive psychology religion evolutionary psychology based hypothesis like cardiac pulmonary urinary immune systems cognition functional structure genetic basis therefore appeared natural selection like organs tissues functional structure universally shared among humans solve important problems survival reproduction evolutionary psychologists seek understand


cognitive processes understanding survival reproductive functions might serve pascal boyer one leading figures cognitive psychology religion new field inquiry less fifteen years old accounts psychological processes underlie religious thought practice book ''religion explained'' boyer shows simple explanation religious consciousness boyer mainly concerned explaining various psychological processes involved acquisition transmission ideas concerning gods boyer builds ideas cognitive anthropologists dan sperber scott atran


first argued religious cognition represents product various evolutionary adaptations including folk psychology purposeful violations innate expectations world constructed example bodiless beings thoughts emotions make religious cognitions striking memorable religious persons acquire religious ideas practices social exposure child zen buddhist become evangelical christian zulu warrior without relevant cultural experience mere exposure cause particular religious outlook person may raised roman catholic leave church nevertheless exposure


purposes religion prayer religious practice oftentimes manifests form prayer recent studies focused specifically effects prayer health measures prayer measures spirituality evaluate different characteristics considered synonymous prayer fairly prevalent united states americans report praying least week however practice prayer prevalent practiced consistently among americans perform religious practices four primary types prayer west poloma pendleton utilized


calm focus prayer also positively correlated happiness religious satisfaction poloma pendleton study conducted franceis robbins lewis barnes investigated relationship self reported prayer frequency measures psychoticism neuroticism according abbreviated form revised eysenck personality questionnaire epqr study included sample size students attending protestant catholic schools highly religious culture northern ireland data shows negative correlation prayer frequency psychoticism data also shows catholic students frequent prayer positive


correlation neuroticism scores ladd mcintosh suggest prayer related behaviors bowing head clasping hands together almost fetal position suggestive social touch actions prayer manner may prepare individual carry positive pro social behavior praying due factors increased blood flow head nasal breathing overall slight health benefits found fairly consistently across studies three main pathways explain trend offered placebo effect focus attitude adjustment activation healing processes offerings expanded


breslan lewis constructed five pathway model prayer health following mediators physiological psychological placebo social support spiritual spiritual mediator departure rest potential empirical investigation currently feasible although conceptualizations chi universal mind divine intervention like breach boundaries scientific observation included model possible links prayer health unnecessarily exclude supernatural broader conversation psychology religion religion ritual


another significant form religious practice ritual religious rituals encompass wide array practices defined performance similar actions vocal expressions based prescribed tradition cultural norms scheff suggests ritual provides catharsis emotional purging distancing emotional distancing enables individual experience feelings amount separation thus less intensity however conception religious ritual interactive process since matured become scientifically established view ritual offers means catharsis behaviors foster connection others allowing


emotional expression focus connection contrasts separation seems underlie scheff 's view additional research suggests social component ritual instance findings suggest ritual performance indicates group commitment prevents uncommitted gaining membership benefits ritual may aid emphasizing moral values serve group norms regulate societies may also strengthen commitment moral convictions likelihood upholding social expectations thus performance rituals may foster social group stability religion personal functioning religion health considerable literature relationship religion health


empirical studies examined relationships religion health including th century ref name khandbook ref additional studies ref name khandbook ref psychologists consider various ways religion may benefit physical mental health including encouraging healthy lifestyles providing social support networks encouraging optimistic outlook life prayer meditation may also help benefit physiological functioning nevertheless religion unique source health well benefits nonreligiosity well journal american psychologist published important papers


topic haber jacob spangler considered different dimensions religiosity may relate health benefits different ways religion personality studies examined whether religious personality research suggests people identify religious likely high agreeableness conscientiousness low psychoticism unrelated big five traits however people endorsing fundamentalist religious beliefs likely low openness similarly people identify spiritual likely high extroversion openness although varied based


type spirituality endorsed religion prejudice investigate salience religious beliefs establishing group identity researchers also conducted studies looking religion prejudice studies shown greater religious attitudes may significant predictors negative attitudes towards racial social outgroups effects often conceptualized framework intergroup bias religious individuals favor members ingroup ingroup favoritism exhibit disfavor towards members outgroup outgroup derogation evidence supporting religious intergroup bias supported multiple religious groups including non christian groups thought reflect


role group dynamics religious identification many studies regarding religion prejudice implement religious priming laboratory naturalistic settings evidence supporting perpetuation ingroup favoritism outgroup derogation individuals high religiosity recently reparative conversion therapy religiously motivated process intended change individual 's sexuality subject scrutiny condemned governments lgbt charities therapy counselling professional bodies religion drugs american psychologist james h leuba ''a psychological study religion'' accounts mystical experience psychologically


physiologically pointing analogies certain drug induced experiences leuba argued forcibly naturalistic treatment religion considered necessary religious psychology looked scientifically shamans world different cultures traditionally used drugs especially psychedelics religious experiences communities absorption drugs leads dreams visions sensory distortion psychedelic experience often compared non ordinary forms consciousness experienced meditation ref name robin l ref mystical experiences ref name robin l ego dissolution often described key feature


psychedelic experience william james also interested mystical experiences drug induced perspective leading make experiments nitrous oxide even peyote concludes revelations mystic hold true hold true mystic others certainly ideas considered hold claim truth without personal experience religion mental illness although many researchers brought evidence positive role religion plays health others shown religious beliefs practices experiences may linked


mental illnesses various kinds ref name jncn ref mood disorders personality disorders psychiatric disorders ref name jncn team psychiatrists behavioral psychologists neurologists neuropsychiatrists harvard medical school published research suggested development new diagnostic category psychiatric disorders related religious delusion hyperreligiosity ref name jncn compared thoughts behaviors important figures bible abraham moses jesus christ paul ref name jncn patients affected mental disorders related psychotic spectrum using different clusters disorders diagnostic criteria dsm iv tr ref name jncn concluded


biblical figures may psychotic symptoms contributed inspiration revelations ref name jncn schizophrenia schizoaffective disorder manic depression delusional disorder delusions grandeur auditory visual hallucinations paranoia geschwind syndrome paul especially abnormal experiences associated temporal lobe epilepsy tle ref name jncn authors suggest jesus sought condemn death suicide proxy ref name jncn research went also focused social models psychopathology ref name jncn analyzing new religious movements charismatic cult leaders david koresh leader branch davidians ref name jncn marshall applewhite founder


heaven 's gate cult ref name jncn researchers concluded david koresh marshall applewhite appreciated psychotic spectrum beliefs premise becomes untenable diagnosis psychosis must rigidly rely upon inability maintain social group subset individuals psychotic symptoms appears able form intense social bonds communities despite extremely distorted view reality existence better socially functioning subset individuals psychotic type symptoms corroborated research indicating psychotic like experiences including bizarre non bizarre delusion like beliefs frequently found


general population supports idea psychotic symptoms likely lie continuum ref name jncn religion psychotherapy clients' religious beliefs increasingly considered psychotherapy goal improving service effectiveness treatment resulting development theistic psychotherapy conceptually consists theological principles theistic view personality theistic view psychotherapy following explicit minimizing strategy therapists attempt minimize conflict acknowledging religious views respectful client 's religious views argued potential therapists directly utilize religious practices


principles therapy prayer forgiveness grace contrast approach psychoanalyst robin brown argues extent spiritual commitments remain unconscious drawing work jung brown suggests biases suspended extent longer biases pastoral psychology one application psychology religion pastoral psychology use psychological findings improve pastoral care provided pastors clergy especially support ordinary members congregations pastoral psychology also concerned


improving practice chaplains healthcare military one major concern pastoral psychology improve practice pastoral counseling pastoral psychology topic interest professional journals ''pastoral psychology'' ''journal psychology christianity'' ''journal psychology theology'' thomas oden severely criticized mid th century pastoral care pastoral psychology guided entirely abandoned classical traditional sources become overwhelmingly dominated modern psychological influences freud rogers others ref name oden full text online tables


religion'' new york macmillan atran ''in gods trust evolutionary landscape religion'' new york oxford university press batson cd schoenrade p ventis l ''religion individual'' new york oxford university press bergin ae psychotherapy religious values journal consulting clinical psychology erikson e ''young man luther study psychoanalysis history'' new york w w norton fowler j ''stages faith'' harper row san francisco francis lj louden sh ''the francis louden mystical orientation scale study among male anglican priests'' research


spirituality'' oxford blackwell fuller r psychology religion eight points view rd ed lanham md littlefield adams hood r w jr spilka b hunsberger b gorsuch r ''the psychology religion empirical approach'' new york guilford jones david ''the psychology jesus'' valjean press nashville kugelmann robert http wwwthemontrealreviewcom psychology catholicismphp ''psychology catholicism contested boundaries'' cambridge university press levin j ''god faith health exploring spirituality health connection'' new york wiley loewenthal k ''psychology religion short introduction'' oxford oneworld mcnamara r ed ''where god science meet


external links http wwwapaorg division div aspx division society psychology religion spirituality american psychological association 's official website http wwwapadivisionsorg division society psychology religion spirituality official website http wwwiacsrcom international association scientific study religion http psychology religioncom international association psychology religion https wwwpsyreliorg centre psychology religion institute ipsy universit catholique de louvain belgium https webarchiveorg web http wwwidesamumuse english subjects religion psychology religion psychology religion department historical philosophical religious studies ume university sweden http wwwreligiousstudiesprojectcom podcast misplaced faith theory supernatural belief misattribution misplaced faith theory supernatural belief misattribution luke galen religiosity emotion http wwwpsywwwcom psyrelig psychology religion pages http wwwgutenbergnet dirs etext varre txt varieties


mayall telescope kitt peak national observatory assembly estonia observe meteors '''observational astronomy''' division astronomy concerned recording data observable universe contrast theoretical astronomy mainly concerned calculating measurable implications physical models practice study observing celestial objects use telescopes astronomical instruments science study astronomy somewhat hindered direct experiments properties distant universe possible however partly compensated fact

Natural science
Space science
Astronomy
Observational astronomy


astronomers vast number visible examples stellar phenomena examined allows observational data plotted graphs general trends recorded nearby examples specific phenomena variable stars used infer behavior distant representatives distant yardsticks employed measure phenomena neighborhood including distance galaxy galileo galilei turned telescope heavens recorded saw since time observational astronomy made steady advances improvement telescope technology subdivisions


traditional division observational astronomy based region electromagnetic spectrum observed optical astronomy part astronomy uses optical instruments mirrors lenses solid state detectors observe light near infrared near ultraviolet wavelengths visible light astronomy using wavelengths detectable human eyes nbsp nm falls middle spectrum infrared astronomy deals detection analysis infrared radiation typically refers wavelengths longer detection limit silicon solid state detectors nbsp wavelength common tool reflecting telescope detector sensitive


infrared wavelengths space telescopes used certain wavelengths atmosphere opaque eliminate noise thermal radiation atmosphere radio astronomy detects radiation millimetre decametre wavelength receivers similar used radio broadcast transmission much sensitive see also radio telescopes high energy astronomy includes x ray astronomy gamma ray astronomy extreme uv astronomy occultation astronomy observation instant one celestial object occults eclipses another multi chord asteroid occultation observations measure profile asteroid kilometre level methods addition using electromagnetic


radiation modern astrophysicists also make observations using neutrinos cosmic rays gravitational waves observing source using multiple methods known multi messenger astronomy ultra hd photography taken la silla observatory optical radio astronomy performed ground based observatories atmosphere relatively transparent wavelengths detected observatories usually located high altitudes minimise absorption distortion caused earth 's atmosphere wavelengths infrared light heavily absorbed water vapor many infrared observatories located dry places high altitude space


atmosphere opaque wavelengths used x ray astronomy gamma ray astronomy uv astronomy except wavelength windows far infrared astronomy observations must carried mostly balloons space observatories powerful gamma rays however detected large air showers produce study cosmic rays rapidly expanding branch astronomy important factors much history observational astronomy almost observation performed visual spectrum optical telescopes earth 's atmosphere relatively transparent portion


electromagnetic spectrum telescope work still dependent seeing conditions air transparency generally restricted night time seeing conditions depend turbulence thermal variations air locations frequently cloudy suffer atmospheric turbulence limit resolution observations likewise presence full moon brighten sky scattered light hindering observation faint objects sunset mauna kea observatories observation purposes optimal location optical telescope undoubtedly outer space telescope make observations without affected


atmosphere however present remains costly lift telescopes orbit thus next best locations certain mountain peaks high number cloudless days generally possess good atmospheric conditions good seeing conditions peaks islands mauna kea hawaii la palma possess properties lesser extent inland sites llano de chajnantor paranal cerro tololo la silla chile observatory locations attracted assemblage powerful telescopes totalling many billion us dollars investment darkness night sky


important factor optical astronomy size cities human populated areas ever expanding amount artificial light night also increased artificial lights produce diffuse background illumination makes observation faint astronomical features difficult without special filters locations state arizona united kingdom led campaigns reduction light pollution use hoods around street lights improves amount light directed toward ground also helps reduce light directed toward


sky atmospheric effects astronomical seeing severely hinder resolution telescope without means correcting blurring effect shifting atmosphere telescopes larger nbsp cm aperture achieve theoretical resolution visible wavelengths result primary benefit using large telescopes improved light gathering capability allowing faint magnitudes observed however resolution handicap begun overcome adaptive optics speckle imaging interferometric imaging well use space telescopes measuring results astronomers number


observational tools use make measurements heavens objects relatively close sun earth direct precise position measurements made distant thereby nearly stationary background early observations nature used develop precise orbital models various planets determine respective masses gravitational perturbations measurements led discovery planets uranus neptune indirectly pluto also resulted erroneous assumption fictional planet vulcan within orbit mercury


produce interferometers baselines much larger size earth however ever expanding use radio spectrum uses gradually drowning faint radio signals stars reason future radio astronomy might performed shielded locations far side moon late th century developments last part twentieth century saw rapid technological advances astronomical instrumentation optical telescopes growing ever larger employing adaptive optics partly negate atmospheric blurring new telescopes launched space began observing


branch astronomy observes astronomical objects neutrino detectors special observatories usually huge underground tanks nuclear reactions stars supernova explosions produce large numbers neutrinos may detected neutrino telescope neutrino astronomy motivated possibility observing processes inaccessible optical telescopes sun 's core gravitational wave detectors designed may capture events collisions massive objects neutron stars black holes robotic spacecraft also increasingly used make highly detailed observations planets


within solar system field planetary science significant cross disciplines geology meteorology observation tools skalnat pleso observatory slovakia one oldest observatories south america quito astronomical observatory founded located minutes south equator quito ecuador quito astronomical observatory national observatory ecuador located historic center quito managed national polytechnic school telescopes amateur astrophotography setup automated guide system connected


laptop key instrument nearly modern observational astronomy telescope serves dual purposes gathering light faint objects observed magnifying image small distant objects observed optical astronomy requires telescopes use optical components great precision typical requirements grinding polishing curved mirror example require surface within fraction wavelength light particular conic shape many modern telescopes actually consist arrays telescopes working together provide higher resolution aperture


synthesis large telescopes housed domes protect weather stabilize environmental conditions example temperature different one side telescope shape structure changes due thermal expansion pushing optical elements position affect image reason domes usually bright white titanium dioxide unpainted metal domes often opened around sunset long observing begin air circulate bring entire telescope temperature


surroundings prevent wind buffet vibrations affecting observations standard practice mount telescope concrete pier whose foundations entirely separate surrounding dome building almost scientific work requires telescopes track objects wheel across visible sky words must smoothly compensate rotation earth advent computer controlled drive mechanisms standard solution form equatorial mount small telescopes still norm however


structurally poor design becomes cumbersome diameter weight telescope increases world 's largest equatorial mounted telescope inch hale telescope whereas recent telescopes use structurally better altazimuth mount actually physically ' 'smaller'' hale despite larger mirrors design projects underway gigantic alt az telescopes thirty metre telescope https webarchiveorg web http lotastroutorontoca diameter overwhelmingly large telescope amateur astronomers use instruments newtonian reflector refractor increasingly popular maksutov


telescope photography photograph served critical role observational astronomy century last years largely replaced imaging applications digital sensors ccds cmos chips specialist areas astronomy photometry interferometry utilised electronic detectors much longer period time astrophotography uses specialised photographic film usually glass plate coated photographic emulsion number drawbacks particularly low quantum efficiency order whereas ccds tuned qe


narrow band almost modern telescope instruments electronic arrays older telescopes either retrofitted instruments closed glass plates still used applications surveying resolution possible chemical film much higher electronic detector yet constructed advantages prior invention photography astronomy done naked eye however even films became sensitive enough scientific astronomy moved entirely film overwhelming advantages human eye discards sees


split second split second photographic film gathers light long shutter open resulting image permanent many astronomers use data possible see objects change time sn spectacular example blink comparator blink comparator instrument used compare two nearly identical photographs made section sky different points time comparator alternates illumination two plates changes revealed blinking points streaks


instrument used find asteroids comets variable stars cm refracting telescope nice observatory micrometer position cross wire micrometer implement used measure double stars consists pair fine movable lines moved together apart telescope lens lined pair oriented using position wires lie right angles star separation movable wires adjusted match two star positions separation stars read instrument


true separation determined based magnification instrument spectrograph vital instrument observational astronomy spectrograph absorption specific wavelengths light elements allows specific properties distant bodies observed capability resulted discovery element helium sun 's emission spectrum allowed astronomers determine great deal information concerning distant stars galaxies celestial bodies doppler shift particularly redshift spectra also used determine radial motion distance respect earth early


ubv magnitudes ''u''ltraviolet ''b''lue ''v''isual adopted photoelectric photometry photoelectric photometry using ccd frequently used make observations telescope sensitive instruments record image nearly level individual photons designed view parts spectrum invisible eye ability record arrival small numbers photons period time allow degree computer correction atmospheric effects sharpening image multiple digital images also combined enhance image often known


stacking combined adaptive optics technology image quality approach theoretical resolution capability telescope filters used view object particular frequencies frequency ranges multilayer film filters provide precise control frequencies transmitted blocked example objects viewed particular frequency emitted excited hydrogen atoms filters also used partially compensate effects light pollution blocking unwanted light polarization filters also used determine source emitting polarized light


orientation polarization observing la silla hosts huge range telescopes astronomers explore universe astronomers observe wide range astronomical sources including high redshift galaxies agns afterglow big bang many different types stars protostars variety data observed object position coordinates locate object sky using techniques spherical astronomy magnitude determines brightness seen earth relative brightness different parts spectrum yields information temperature


physics object photographs spectra allow chemistry object examined parallax shifts star background used determine distance limit imposed resolution instrument radial velocity star changes position time proper motion used measure velocity relative sun variations brightness star give evidence instabilities star 's atmosphere else presence occulting companion orbits binary stars used


measure relative masses companion total mass system spectroscopic binaries found observing doppler shifts spectrum star close companion stars identical masses formed time similar conditions typically nearly identical observed properties observing mass closely associated stars globular cluster allows data assembled distribution stellar types tables used infer age association distant galaxies agns observations made


overall shape properties galaxy well groupings found observations certain types variable stars supernovae known luminosity called standard candles galaxies allows inference distance host galaxy expansion space causes spectra galaxies shifted depending distance modified doppler effect galaxy 's radial velocity size galaxy redshift used infer something distance galaxy observations large numbers galaxies


referred redshift surveys used model evolution galaxy forms see also lunar observation observational study observatory space telescope timeline telescopes observatories observing technology related lists list astronomical observatories list radio telescopes references external links https bibnumobspmfr archives iconography th century preserved paris observatory library scientific observation astronomical sub disciplines


printed circuit board '''electronic engineering''' also called '''electronics communications engineering''' electrical engineering discipline utilizes nonlinear active electrical components semiconductor devices especially transistors diodes design electronic circuits devices integrated circuits systems discipline typically also designs passive electrical components usually based printed circuit boards electronics subfield within wider electrical engineering academic subject denotes broad engineering field covers subfields analog electronics digital electronics consumer electronics embedded systems power electronics electronics engineering deals implementation applications principles algorithms developed

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Electrical Engineering
Electronic engineering


within many related fields example solid state physics radio engineering telecommunications control systems signal processing systems engineering computer engineering instrumentation engineering electric power control robotics many others institute electrical electronics engineers ieee one important influential organizations electronics engineers based us international level international electrotechnical commission iec prepares standards electronic engineering developed consensus thanks work experts countries worldwide relationship electrical engineering electronics subfield within wider electrical engineering academic subject academic


degree major electronics engineering acquired universities universities use electrical engineering subject term electrical engineer still used academic world include electronic engineers however believe term ''electrical engineer'' reserved specialized power heavy current high voltage engineering others consider power one subset electrical engineering similar electric power distribution engineering term ''power engineering'' used descriptor industry recent years growth


new separate entry degree courses systems engineering communication systems engineering often followed academic departments similar name typically considered subfields electronics engineering electrical engineering history electronic engineering profession sprang technological improvements telegraph industry late th century radio telephone industries early th century people attracted radio technical fascination inspired first receiving transmitting many went broadcasting 'amateurs' period


world war large extent modern discipline electronic engineering born telephone radio television equipment development large amount electronic systems development world war ii radar sonar communication systems advanced munitions weapon systems interwar years subject known radio engineering late term electronic engineering started emerge first working transistor point contact transistor invented john bardeen walter houser brattain bell labs mosfet metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor


resistors capacitors inductors diodes transistors achieve particular functionality tuner circuit allows user radio filter single station one example circuit designing integrated circuit electronics engineers first construct circuit schematics specify electrical components describe interconnections completed vlsi engineers convert schematics actual layouts map layers various conductor semiconductor materials needed construct circuit conversion schematics layouts done software see electronic design automation


often requires human fine tuning decrease space power consumption layout complete sent fabrication plant manufacturing systems intermediate complexity engineers may use vhdl modeling programmable logic devices fpgas integrated circuits fpgas electrical components assembled printed circuit boards form complicated circuits today printed circuit boards found electronic devices including televisions computers audio players subfields electronic engineering many subfields section describes popular subfields electronic engineering although


error detection digital signals '''telecommunications engineering''' deals transmission information across channel co axial cable optical fiber free space transmissions across free space require information encoded carrier wave order shift information carrier frequency suitable transmission known modulation popular analog modulation techniques include amplitude modulation frequency modulation choice modulation affects cost performance system two factors must balanced carefully engineer transmission characteristics system determined


telecommunication engineers design transmitters receivers needed systems two sometimes combined form two way communication device known transceiver key consideration design transmitters power consumption closely related signal strength signal strength transmitter insufficient signal 's information corrupted noise '''aviation''' '''electronic engineering''' '''aviation telecommunications engineering''' research work electronics aerospace topics aviation telecommunication engineers include group specialists lot information flight meteorological data specific


information etc available platforms aftn etc disposal aircraft parts others stationed airports specialists field mainly need knowledge computer networking physicstheir works organizations companies air space flight aircraft needs equipment platforms meet many needs navigation information communication monitoring systems cns course equipment requires installation commissioning maintenance repair serious task aviation electronics specialist airports courses


offered different universities like civil aviation technology college '''electromagnetics''' depth study signals transmitted channel wired wireless includes basics electromagnetic waves transmission lines waveguides antennas types applications radio frequency rf microwaves applications seen widely sub fields like telecommunication control instrumentation engineering '''control engineering''' wide range applications flight propulsion systems commercial airplanes cruise control present many modern cars also plays important role industrial automation control engineers often utilize


feedback designing control systems example car cruise control vehicle 's speed continuously monitored fed back system adjusts engine 's power output accordingly regular feedback control theory used determine system responds feedback '''instrumentation engineering''' deals design devices measure physical quantities pressure flow temperature devices known instrumentation design instrumentation requires good understanding physics often extends beyond electromagnetic theory example radar guns use doppler effect


measure speed oncoming vehicles similarly thermocouples use peltier seebeck effect measure temperature difference two points often instrumentation used instead sensors larger electrical systems example thermocouple might used help ensure furnace 's temperature remains constant reason instrumentation engineering often viewed counterpart control engineering '''computer engineering''' deals design computers computer systems may involve design new computer hardware design pdas use computers control industrial plant


degree usually three four years completed degree may designated bachelor engineering bachelor science bachelor applied science bachelor technology depending upon university many uk universities also offer master engineering meng degrees graduate level electronics engineers also choose pursue postgraduate degree master science doctor philosophy engineering engineering doctorate master 's degree introduced european american universities first degree differentiation engineer graduate


requirements including work experience requirements certified certified engineer designated title professional engineer united states canada south africa chartered engineer incorporated engineer united kingdom ireland india zimbabwe chartered professional engineer australia new zealand european engineer much european union degree electronics generally includes units covering physics chemistry mathematics project management specific topics electrical engineering initially topics cover subfields electronic engineering students choose specialize one subfields


towards end degree fundamental discipline sciences physics mathematics help obtain qualitative quantitative description systems work today engineering work involves use computers commonplace use computer aided design simulation software programs designing electronic systems although electronic engineers understand basic circuit theory theories employed engineers generally depend upon work example quantum mechanics solid state physics might relevant engineer working vlsi largely


irrelevant engineers working embedded systems apart electromagnetics network theory items syllabus particular ''electronics'' engineering course ''electrical'' engineering courses specialisms machines power generation distribution list include extensive engineering mathematics curriculum prerequisite degree electromagnetics elements vector calculus divergence curl gauss' stokes' theorems maxwell 's equations differential integral forms wave equation poynting vector plane waves propagation various media reflection refraction phase group velocity skin depth transmission lines characteristic impedance impedance transformation smith


functions state equations networks electronic devices circuits '''electronic devices''' energy bands silicon intrinsic extrinsic silicon carrier transport silicon diffusion current drift current mobility resistivity generation recombination carriers p n junction diode zener diode tunnel diode bjt jfet mos capacitor mosfet led p n avalanche photo diode lasers device technology integrated circuit fabrication process oxidation diffusion ion implantation photolithography n tub p tub twin tub cmos process '''analog circuits''' equivalent circuits large small signal diodes bjt jfets mosfets simple diode circuits clipping clamping rectifier biasing bias stability transistor fet amplifiers


amplifiers single multi stage differential operational feedback power analysis amplifiers frequency response amplifiers simple op amp circuits filters sinusoidal oscillators criterion oscillation single transistor op amp configurations function generators wave shaping circuits power supplies '''digital circuits''' boolean functions xor logic gates digital ic families dtl ttl ecl mos cmos combinational circuits arithmetic circuits code converters multiplexers decoders sequential circuits latches flip flops counters shift registers sample hold circuits adcs dacs semiconductor memories microprocessor architecture programming memory interfacing signals systems definitions properties laplace transform continuous time


discrete time fourier series continuous time discrete time fourier transform z transform sampling theorems linear time invariant lti systems definitions properties causality stability impulse response convolution poles zeros frequency response group delay phase delay signal transmission lti systems random signals noise probability random variables probability density function autocorrelation power spectral density function analogy vectors functions control systems basic control system components block diagrammatic description reduction block diagrams nbsp mason 's rule open loop closed loop negative unity feedback systems stability analysis systems signal flow graphs use determining transfer functions


systems transient steady state analysis lti control systems frequency response analysis steady state disturbance rejection noise sensitivity tools techniques lti control system analysis design root loci routh hurwitz stability criterion bode nyquist plots control system compensators elements lead lag compensation elements proportional integral derivative pid control discretization continuous time systems using zero order hold adcs digital controller implementation limitations digital controllers aliasing state variable representation solution state equation lti control systems linearization nonlinear dynamical systems state space realizations frequency time domains fundamental concepts


controllability observability mimo lti systems state space realizations observable controllable canonical form ackermann 's formula state feedback pole placement design full order reduced order estimators communications '''analog communication systems ''' amplitude angle modulation demodulation systems spectral analysis operations superheterodyne noise conditions '''digital communication systems ''' pulse code modulation pcm differential pulse code modulation dpcm delta modulation dm digital modulation amplitude phase frequency shift keying schemes ask psk fsk matched filter receivers bandwidth consideration probability error calculations schemes gsm tdma professional bodies professional bodies note electrical engineers


system design development technical work accounts fraction work lot time also spent tasks discussing proposals clients preparing budgets determining project schedules many senior engineers manage team technicians engineers reason project management skills important engineering projects involve form documentation strong written communication skills therefore important workplaces electronics engineers varied types work electronics engineers may found pristine laboratory


environment fabrication plant offices consulting firm research laboratory working life electronics engineers may find supervising wide range individuals including scientists electricians computer programmers engineers obsolescence technical skills serious concern electronics engineers membership participation technical societies regular reviews periodicals field habit continued learning therefore essential maintaining proficiency mostly used field consumer electronics products see also electrical engineering technology glossary electrical electronics engineering


index electrical engineering articles information engineering list electrical engineers timeline electrical electronic engineering references external links electrical engineering computer engineering engineering disciplines


'''american studies''' '''american civilization''' interdisciplinary field scholarship examines american literature history society culture traditionally incorporates literary criticism historiography critical theory scholarship american studies focuses united states past decades however also broadened include atlantic history interactions countries across globe subjects studied within field varied often examine literary themes histories american communities ideologies cultural productions examples might include topics american social movements literature media tourism folklore intellectual history fields studying specific american ethnic

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
American studies


racial groups considered independent included within broader american studies discipline includes african american studies latin american studies asian american studies american indian studies others founding notions vernon louis parrington often cited founder american studies three volume ''main currents american thought'' combines methodologies literary criticism historical research pulitzer prize introduction ''main currents american thought'' parrington described field ref broad path parrington describes formed scholastic course study henry nash


smith received phd harvard 's interdisciplinary program history american civilization setting academic precedent present day american studies programs first signature methodology american studies myth symbol approach developed foundational texts henry nash smith 's ''virgin land'' leo marx 's ''the machine garden'' myth symbol scholars claimed find certain recurring themes throughout american texts served illuminate unique american culture later scholars annette kolodny alan trachtenberg imagined myth symbol approach light


multicultural studies beginning earlier approaches criticized continuing promote idea american exceptionalism mdash notion us special mission virtue makes unique among nations several generations american studies scholars moved away purely ethnocentric views emphasizing transnational issues surrounding race ethnicity gender sexuality among topics recent studies critique exceptionalist nature transnational turn transnational turn positioned american studies nationalist rut observes jeffrey herlihy mera ''after american studies rethinking legacies transnational exceptionalism'' ref


institutionally last decade american studies association reflected interdisciplinary nature field creating strong connections ethnic studies gender studies cultural studies post de colonial studies environmental perspectives ascendance related fields literature history penetrated mainstream american studies scholarship major theme field recent years internationalization mdash recognition much vital scholarship us relations wider global community produced outside united states debate use term american


mid use american multidisciplinary field widely defended janice radway argued perpetuation particular name american title field support notion whole exists even face powerful work tends question presumed coherence field need reconfigured conceptually concluded name american studies retained wai chee dimmock argued field largely founded fateful adjective american governs domain inquiry construct range questions


entertain kind evidence take significant professionalism field rests integrity legitimacy founding concept heinz ickstadt argued american studies accept name limitation boundary dimmock affirmed field stand classified apart nameable adducible unit recently scholars questioned american categorizing term consideration limitations conventional terms jeffrey herlihy mera argued instead american terms like spaces claimed political body residents


american empire contesting assertions central part imperial turn field amy kaplan maintained imperial unconscious national identity lead overseas expansion conquest conflict resistance shaped cultures united states recently scholars examined cultural imperialism occurs within us borders jeffrey herlihy mera described phenomenon attempt transition cultural symbols invading communities foreign natural domestic three discrete sequential phases class wikitable ''people new space'' ''objective'' ''' merchants''' also termed explorers eg


prohibit or'' ''criminalize systems offer citizenship conquered'' ''peoples exchange submission metropolitan'' ''cultural norms abandonment original in'' ''the case immigrants social tendencies'' herlihy mera jeffrey ''after american studies rethinking legacies transnational exceptionalism'' routledge p third phase continues perpetuity imperial appropriation tends gradual contested continues contested nature incomplete americanization continent described cultural engineering project strives isolate residents within constructed spheres symbols eventually


cases several generations abandon cultures identify new symbols broader intended outcome interventions might described common recognition ''possession'' land outside united states following second world war cold war us government promoted study united states several european countries helping endow chairs universities institutes american history politics literature interests cultural diplomacy many scholars governments europe also recognized need study us field


become especially prominent britain germany british association american studies founded constituent member european association american studies european centres american studies include center american studies brussels belgium notably john f kennedy institute north american studies berlin germany centers american studies germany include bavarian america academy university munich heidelberg center american studies hca center north american studies zentrum f r nordamerikaforschung zenaf goethe university frankfurt graduate studies field


university leiden university utrecht offer graduate program american studies university sussex university nottingham england offer number postgraduate undergraduate programs sweden swedish institute north american studies uppsala university offers minor american studies slovakia university presov pavol jozef safarik university offer complete undergraduate graduate program american studies combined british studies eccles centre american studies british library also offers range events fellowships


asc students new american studies program university tehran iran new program offered faculty world studies multidisciplinary program focusing american culture politics history ethnicity oceania university canterbury christchurch new zealand operated full undergraduate graduate american studies program australia postgraduate program us studies run united states studies centre university sydney canada university alberta alberta institute american studies university western ontario


centre american studies undergraduate master 's program american studies specializations graduate level american cultural studies canadian american relations york university offers undergraduate program united states studies china due lack communication china united states since communist party took power chinese recognition us still limited communist political propaganda cold war time two countries established diplomatic relationship therefore since sino us relationship normalized


various research centers founded within chinese universities order meet needs understanding us thus prestigious american studies centers china established around american studies center beijing foreign studies university institute american studies chinese academy social science center american studies fudan university american studies center peking university center american studies tongji university american studies center sichuan university johns hopkins university nanjing university center chinese american studies


american social cultural studies center china foreign affairs university center american studies east china normal university centers undergraduate programs based requirement curriculum setup china department education centers graduate programs addition also scholarly journals ''american studies quarterly'' organized institute american studies academy social science chinese association american studies ''fudan american review'' organized center american studies fudan university american studies


us different american studies china former focuses one aspect civilization latter includes almost every aspects us among civilization constituent ref name ye take curriculum american studies program beijing foreign studies university bfsu example american studies program bfsu oldest one also one courses taught english beginning founding help students lay comprehensive interdisciplinary grounding american studies current


areas equally developed researches economy politics foreign policy much developed american culture thoughts articles year published ''american studies quarterly'' ones deal sino us relations including american foreign diplomacy foreign commerce military policies strategies accounts percent whereas articles topics literature history gender intellectual history philosophy culture take percent ref name ye ref however accelerating academic exchange two countries


students coming us study american studies time american studies scholars coming china researches teaching republic korea sogang university seoul korea sole institution offers regular degree program bachelor ba master degree american studies named american culture american culture division run department english along english literature linguistics undergraduate program consists classes covering topics native american black american asian american american history context specific period