health status lung function though also increases risk early mortality adverse events lvrs used widely europe though application united states mostly experimental ref name kronemyer drugtopics ref less invasive treatment available bronchoscopic lung volume reduction procedure ref name hou ref lung cancer surgery span class anchor id lung cancer surgery span lung cancers suitable surgery stage location cell type important limiting factors addition people ill poor performance status inadequate pulmonary reserve would unlikely survive even


careful selection overall operative death rate ref name strand ref non small cell lung cancer staging stages ia ib iia iib suitable surgical resection ref name mountain ref pulmonary reserve measured spirometry evidence undue shortness breath diffuse parenchymal lung disease fev sub sub exceeds litres predicted person fit pneumonectomy fev sub sub exceeds litres patient fit lobectomy ref name colice ref weak evidence indicate participation exercise programs lung cancer surgery may reduce risk

Applied science
Medicine and health
Surgery
Cardiothoracic surgery


complications surgery complications prolonged air leak pal occur people following lung cancer surgery complication delays chest tube removal associated increased length hospital stay following lung resection lung cancer surgery use surgical sealants may reduce incidence prolonged air leaks however intervention alone shown results decreased length hospital stay following lung cancer surgery strong evidence support using non invasive positive pressure ventilation following lung cancer surgery reduce pulmonary complications types lobectomy


removal lobe lung ref name fell ref sublobar resection removal part lobe lung segmentectomy removal anatomic division particular lobe lung pneumonectomy removal entire lung wedge resection sleeve bronchoplastic resection removal associated tubular section associated main bronchial passage lobectomy subsequent reconstruction bronchial passage vats lobectomy minimally invasive approach lobectomy may allow diminished pain quicker return full activity diminished hospital costs esophagectomy removal esophagus see also ''annals thoracic surgery'' ''european journal cardio thoracic surgery''


'''process engineering''' understanding application fundamental principles laws nature allow humans transform raw material energy products useful society industrial level ref name taking advantage driving forces nature pressure temperature concentration gradients well law conservation mass process engineers develop methods synthesize purify large quantities desired chemical products ref name process engineering focuses design operation control optimization intensification chemical physical biological processes process engineering encompasses

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering
Process engineering


vast range industries agriculture automotive biotechnical chemical food material development mining nuclear petrochemical pharmaceutical software development application systematic computer based methods process engineering process systems engineering overview process engineering involves utilization multiple tools methods depending exact nature system processes need simulated modeled using mathematics computer science processes phase change phase equilibria relevant require analysis using principles laws thermodynamics quantify changes energy efficiency contrast processes focus flow


distillation columns receiver head tanks mixing separations pumping etc flowrates specified well list pipes conveyors contents material properties density viscosity particle size distribution flowrates pressures temperatures materials construction piping unit operations ref name process flow diagram used develop piping instrumentation diagram p id graphically displays actual process occurring p id meant complex specific pfd represent less muddled approach design p id used basis


project developing cost estimate get design installed schedule communicate timing needs engineering procurement fabrication installation commissioning startup ongoing production process depending needed accuracy cost estimate schedule required several iterations designs generally provided customers stakeholders feed back requirements process engineer incorporates additional instructions scope revisions overall design additional cost estimates schedules developed funding approval following funding approval project executed via project management principal areas focus


process engineering process engineering activities divided following disciplines ref name cmu http egonchemecmuedu papers grossmannwestchallpdf research challenges process systems engineering ignacio e grossmann arthur w westerberg department chemical engineering carnegie mellon university pittsburgh pa ref process design synthesis energy recovery networks synthesis distillation systems azeotropic synthesis reactor networks hierarchical decomposition flowsheets superstructure optimization design multiproduct batch plants design production reactors production plutonium design nuclear submarines process control model predictive control controllability measures robust control nonlinear control statistical process control process monitoring thermodynamics based control denoted three essential items


industrial plant analysis heat mass transfer plant ref name process data analytics applying data analytics machine learning methods process manufacturing problems history process engineering various chemical techniques used industrial processes since time immemorial however n't till advent thermodynamics law conservation mass process engineering properly developed implemented discipline set knowledge known process engineering forged trial error throughout industrial


revolution ref name term ''process'' relates industry production dates back th century time period demands various products began drastically increase process engineers required optimize process products created ref name ref concept process engineering emerged fact chemical engineering techniques practices used variety industries time process engineering defined set knowledge necessary design analyze develop construct operate optimal way


processes material changes ref name end th century process engineering expanded chemical engineering based technologies applications including metallurgical engineering agricultural engineering product engineering see also chemical process modeling chemical technologist industrial engineering industrial process materials science modular process skid process chemistry process flowsheeting process integration systems engineering process references external links https wwwcranfieldacuk courses taught advanced process engineering advanced process engineering cranfield university cranfield uk http www imperialacuk centreforprocesssystemsengineering centre process systems engineering imperial http youcbecornelledu process systems engineering cornell university ithaca new york http processengineeringsunacza department process engineering stellenbosch university http apmbyuedu prism process research


'''labor history''' '''labour history''' sub discipline social history specialises history working classes labor movement labor historians may concern issues gender race ethnicity factors besides class chiefly focus urban industrial societies distinguishes rural history central concerns labor historians include industrial relations forms labor protest strikes lock outs rise mass politics especially rise socialism social cultural history industrial working classes labor history developed tandem

Applied science
Business
Industrial and labor relations
Labor history


growth self conscious working class political movement many western countries latter half nineteenth century whilst early labor historians drawn protest movements luddism chartism focus labor history often institutions chiefly labor unions political parties exponents ''institutional'' approach included sidney beatrice webb work webbs pioneers discipline marked optimism capacity labor movement effect fundamental social change tendency see development process steady inevitable


ways highly beneficial encouraged study dynamics social history rather narrow formal institutional view labour history labour party sought place experience working people within wider technical ideological context encouraged adventurous range sources history called rescued thompson memorably called condescension posterity brought idea class centre stage treatment working class history always felt belonged shed new light poor dispossessed


source materials far scrappy bourgeoisie made original use popular evidence like oral history much used morgan tells downside well marxist sometimes trotskyist emphasis labour studies often doctrinaire intolerant non marxist dissent also often plain wrong distorting evidence within narrow doctrinaire framework felt incumbent upon help rescue always fun recall addressing history meeting cardiffwhen time


life subjected incoherent series attacks highly personal kind playing man ball focusing accent oxford supposedly reactionary tendencies empiricist colleagues thompson hobsbawm marxists critical existing labour movement britain concerned approach history explore agency activity working people workplace protest movements social cultural activities thompson 's seminal study ''the making english working class'' particularly influential setting


new agenda labor historians locating importance study labor social history general also historians began give serious attention groups previously largely neglected women non caucasian ethnic groups historians situated studies gender race within class analysis example c l r james marxist wrote struggles blacks haitian revolution others questioned whether class important social category gender race pointed racism patriarchy examples


division oppression ''within'' working class labor history remains centered two fundamental sets interest institutional histories workers' organizations history approach marxist historians despite influence marxists many labor historians rejected revolutionary implications implicit work thompson hobsbawm et al importance class historical social relationship explanatory concept began widely challenged notable labor historians turned marxism embrace postmodernist approach emphasizing importance language questioning whether classes could


considered use language class historians emphasized weaknesses moderation historic labor movement arguing social development characterized accommodation acceptance social order cross class collaboration conflict dramatic change united states labor history united states primarily based history departments occasional representation inside labor unions scholarship deals institutional history labor unions social history workers recent years 's special attention historically marginal groups especially blacks women hispanics asians


labour history reports labor history mostly pragmatic eclectic empirical played important role historiographical debates revolving around history institutionalism versus social history labor class populism gender language postmodernism turn politics kirk rejects suggestions field declining stresses innovation modification renewal kirk also detects move conservative insularity academicism recommends extensive critical engagement kinds comparative transnational global concerns increasingly popular among labor historians elsewhere calls


gender race citizenship national identity others history china limited industrial sector treaty shimonoseki brought growth factories new working class country see also business history communist party historians group historiography united kingdom new labor history history trade unions united kingdom wisconsin labor history society notes reading allen joan alan campbell eric hobsbawm john mcilroy ''histories labour national international perspectives'' arnesen eric ''encyclopedia us labor working class


'''canada''' https webarchiveorg web http labourhistoryca alberta labour history institute http wwwlabourheritagecentreca british columbia labour heritage centre http wwwlhtnbca en welcomecfm labour history new brunswick http wwwcclhca canadian committee labour history http cawlsca en canadian association work labour studies '''united states''' https pnlhawordpresscom pacific northwest labor history association http deptswashingtonedu civilr seattle civil rights labor history project http wwwillinoislaborhistoryorg illinois labor history society http newyorklaborhistoryorg web new york labor history association http wwwhawaiiedu uhwo clear home u hawai center labor education research http mlhswayneedu michigan labor history society http palaborhistorysocietyorg pennsylvania labor history society http wwwrilaborhistoryorg rilh welcomehtml rhode island labor history society http wwwwisconsinlaborhistoryorg wisconsin labor history society http wwwlaborhistoryorg greater new labor history association https webarchiveorg web http wwwmonroelabororg monroe


county michigan labor history museum '''europe''' http wwwwcmlorguk nwlhg homehtml working class movement library https sslhorguk society study labour history labor relations social history


sql select statement result computing '' 'database''' organized collection data stored accessed electronically computer system databases complex often developed using formal design modeling techniques '' 'database management system''' '''dbms''' software interacts end users applications database capture analyze data dbms software additionally encompasses core facilities provided administer database sum total database dbms associated applications referred database system often

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
Databases


term database also used loosely refer dbms database system application associated database computer scientists may classify database management systems according database models support relational databases became dominant model data rows columns series tables vast majority use sql writing querying data non relational databases became popular referred nosql use different query languages terminology overview formally database refers set related data way


organized access data usually provided database management system dbms consisting integrated set computer software allows users interact one databases provides access data contained database although restrictions may exist limit access particular data dbms provides various functions allow entry storage retrieval large quantities information provides ways manage information organized close relationship term database often used casually refer


database dbms used manipulate outside world professional information technology term ' 'database'' often used refer collection related data spreadsheet card index size usage requirements typically necessitate use database management system existing dbmss provide various functions allow management database data classified four main functional groups '''data definition''' creation modification removal definitions define organization data '''update''' insertion modification deletion actual data


'''retrieval''' providing information form directly usable processing applications retrieved data may made available form basically stored database new form obtained altering combining existing data database '''administration''' registering monitoring users enforcing data security monitoring performance maintaining data integrity dealing concurrency control recovering information corrupted event unexpected system failure database dbms conform principles particular database model


standard operating system provide functions since dbmss comprise significant market computer storage vendors often take account dbms requirements development plans databases dbmss categorized according database model support relational xml type computer run server cluster mobile phone query language used access database sql xquery internal engineering affects performance scalability resilience security history sizes capabilities performance databases respective dbmss


grown orders magnitude performance increases enabled technology progress areas processors computer memory computer storage computer networks concept database made possible emergence direct access storage media magnetic disks became widely available mid earlier systems relied sequential storage data magnetic tape subsequent development database technology divided three eras based data model structure navigational sql relational post relational two main early navigational data models hierarchical model


codasyl model network model characterized use pointers often physical disk addresses follow relationships one record another relational model first proposed edgar f codd departed tradition insisting applications search data content rather following links relational model employs sets ledger style tables used different type entity mid computing hardware become powerful enough allow wide deployment relational systems dbmss plus applications early however relational systems dominated


large scale data processing applications remain dominant ibm db oracle mysql microsoft sql server searched dbms dominant database language standardised sql relational model influenced database languages data models object databases developed overcome inconvenience object relational impedance mismatch led coining term post relational also development hybrid object relational databases next generation post relational databases late became known nosql databases introducing fast key value stores document oriented databases competing next generation known


newsql databases attempted new implementations retained relational sql model aiming match high performance nosql compared commercially available relational dbmss navigational dbms basic structure navigational codasyl database model introduction term ' 'database'' coincided availability direct access storage disks drums mid onwards term represented contrast tape based systems past allowing shared interactive use rather daily batch processing oxford english dictionary cites report system development corporation california first use term data base


specific technical sense computers grew speed capability number general purpose database systems emerged mid number systems come commercial use interest standard began grow charles bachman author one product integrated data store ids founded database task group within codasyl group responsible creation standardization cobol database task group delivered standard generally became known ''codasyl approach'' soon number commercial products based approach entered market


codasyl approach offered applications ability navigate around linked data set formed large network applications could find records one three methods use primary key known calc key typically implemented hashing navigating relationships called ' 'sets'' one record another scanning records sequential order later systems added b trees provide alternate access paths many codasyl databases also added declarative query language end users distinct navigational api however codasyl databases complex required significant training effort


produce useful applications ibm also dbms known information management system ims ims development software written apollo program system ims generally similar concept codasyl used strict hierarchy model data navigation instead codasyl 's network model concepts later became known navigational databases due way data accessed term popularized bachman 's turing award presentation ''the programmer navigator'' ims classified ibm hierarchical database idms cincom systems' total database


classified network databases ims remains use relational dbms edgar f codd worked ibm san jose california one offshoot offices primarily involved development hard disk systems unhappy navigational model codasyl approach notably lack search facility wrote number papers outlined new approach database construction eventually culminated groundbreaking ''a relational model data large shared data banks'' paper described new system storing


working large databases instead records stored sort linked list free form records codasyl codd 's idea organize data number tables table used different type entity table would contain fixed number columns containing attributes entity one columns table designated primary key rows table could uniquely identified cross references tables always used primary keys rather disk addresses queries would join tables


would later criticize tendency practical implementations depart mathematical foundations model based relational model records linked using virtual keys stored database defined needed data contained records use primary keys user oriented identifiers represent cross table relationships rather disk addresses two primary motivations engineering perspective enabled tables relocated resized without expensive database reorganization codd interested difference semantics use explicit identifiers made easier


define update operations clean mathematical definitions also enabled query operations defined terms established discipline first order predicate calculus operations clean mathematical properties becomes possible rewrite queries provably correct ways basis query optimization loss expressiveness compared hierarchic network models though connections tables longer explicit hierarchic network models records allowed complex internal structure example salary history employee might represented


optional tables address phone numbers actually provided well identifying rows records using logical identifiers rather disk addresses codd changed way applications assembled data multiple records rather requiring applications gather data one record time navigating links would use declarative query language expressed data required rather access path found finding efficient access path data became responsibility database management system rather application programmer


process called query optimization depended fact queries expressed terms mathematical logic codd 's paper picked two people berkeley eugene wong michael stonebraker started project known ingres using funding already allocated geographical database project student programmers produce code beginning ingres delivered first test products generally ready widespread use ingres similar system r number ways including use language data access known quel time


university alberta university michigan wayne state university ran ibm mainframe computers using michigan terminal system ref name micromanual https docsgooglecom viewera v pid explorer chrome true srcid b nx qewdyzgmwotrmotitztg zi ymjkltg mtktn e mwu ymzlmje ''micro information management system version reference manual'' kahn dl rumelhart bl bronson october institute labor industrial relations ilir university michigan wayne state university ref system remained production integrated approach attempts made build database systems integrated hardware software underlying philosophy integration would provide higher performance lower cost examples ibm system


prototype system loosely based codd 's concepts ''system r'' early first version ready work started multi table systems data could split data record optional stored single large chunk subsequent multi user versions tested customers time standardized query language sql added codd 's ideas establishing workable superior codasyl pushing ibm develop


true production version system r known ''sql ds'' later ''database '' db larry ellison 's oracle database simply oracle started different chain based ibm 's papers system r though oracle v implementations completed n't oracle version ellison beat ibm market stonebraker went apply lessons ingres develop new database postgres known postgresql postgresql often used global mission critical applications org info domain name registries use primary data store


many large companies financial institutions sweden codd 's paper also read mimer sql developed mid uppsala university project consolidated independent enterprise another data model entity relationship model emerged gained popularity database design emphasized familiar description earlier relational model later entity relationship constructs retrofitted data modeling construct relational model difference two become irrelevant desktop ushered age desktop computing


new computers empowered users spreadsheets like lotus database software like dbase dbase product lightweight easy computer user understand box c wayne ratliff creator dbase stated dbase different programs like basic c fortran cobol lot dirty work already done data manipulation done dbase instead user user concentrate rather mess dirty details opening reading closing


files managing space allocation dbase one top selling software titles early object oriented along rise object oriented programming saw growth data various databases handled programmers designers began treat data databases objects say person 's data database person 's attributes address phone number age considered belong person instead extraneous data allows relations data


relations objects attributes individual fields term object relational impedance mismatch described inconvenience translating programmed objects database tables object databases object relational databases attempt solve problem providing object oriented language sometimes extensions sql programmers use alternative purely relational sql programming side libraries known object relational mappings orms attempt solve problem nosql newsql xml databases type structured document oriented database allows querying based xml document attributes xml databases mostly used


applications data conveniently viewed collection documents structure vary flexible highly rigid examples include scientific articles patents tax filings personnel records nosql databases often fast require fixed table schemas avoid join operations storing denormalized data designed scale horizontally recent years strong demand massively distributed databases high partition tolerance according cap theorem impossible distributed system simultaneously provide consistency availability partition tolerance guarantees


interactions customers suppliers see enterprise software databases used hold administrative information specialized data engineering data economic models examples include computerized library systems flight reservation systems computerized parts inventory systems many content management systems store websites collections webpages database classification one way classify databases involves type contents example bibliographic document text statistical multimedia objects another way application area example accounting music compositions movies banking manufacturing insurance third way technical aspect


database structure interface type section lists adjectives used characterize different kinds databases memory database database primarily resides main memory typically backed non volatile computer data storage main memory databases faster disk databases often used response time critical telecommunications network equipment active database includes event driven architecture respond conditions inside outside database possible uses include security monitoring alerting statistics gathering authorization many databases provide active database features


form database triggers cloud database relies cloud technology database dbms reside remotely cloud applications developed programmers later maintained used end users web browser open apis data warehouses archive data operational databases often external sources market research firms warehouse becomes central source data use managers end users may access operational data example sales data might aggregated weekly totals converted


internal product codes use upcs compared acnielsen data basic essential components data warehousing include extracting analyzing mining data transforming loading managing data make available use deductive database combines logic programming relational database distributed database one data dbms span multiple computers document oriented database designed storing retrieving managing document oriented semi structured information document oriented databases one main categories nosql databases embedded database system


dbms tightly integrated application software requires access stored data way dbms hidden application 's end users requires little ongoing maintenance end user databases consist data developed individual end users examples collections documents spreadsheets presentations multimedia files several products exist support databases much simpler full fledged dbmss elementary dbms functionality federated database system comprises several distinct databases dbms handled single database


transactions across participating databases graph database kind nosql database uses graph structures nodes edges properties represent store information general graph databases store graph distinct specialized graph databases triplestores network databases array dbms kind nosql dbms allows modeling storage retrieval usually large multi dimensional arrays satellite images climate simulation output hypertext hypermedia database word piece text representing object eg another piece text article


picture film hyperlinked object hypertext databases particularly useful organizing large amounts disparate information example useful organizing online encyclopedias users conveniently jump around text world wide web thus large distributed hypertext database knowledge base abbreviated '''kb''' '''kb''' special kind database knowledge management providing means computerized collection organization retrieval knowledge also collection data representing problems solutions related experiences mobile database carried


synchronized mobile computing device operational databases store detailed data operations organization typically process relatively high volumes updates using transactions examples include customer databases record contact credit demographic information business 's customers personnel databases hold information salary benefits skills data employees enterprise resource planning systems record details product components parts inventory financial databases keep track organization 's money accounting financial dealings parallel database seeks improve performance parallelization tasks loading data building indexes evaluating


queries major parallel dbms architectures induced underlying hardware architecture '''shared memory architecture''' multiple processors share main memory space well data storage '''shared disk architecture''' processing unit typically consisting multiple processors main memory units share storage '''shared nothing architecture''' processing unit main memory storage probabilistic databases employ fuzzy logic draw inferences imprecise data real time databases process transactions fast enough result come back acted


include email messages documents journals multimedia objects etc name may misleading since objects highly structured however entire possible object collection fit predefined structured framework established dbmss support unstructured data various ways new dedicated dbmss emerging database management system connolly begg define database management system dbms software system enables users define create maintain control access database examples dbms 's include mysql postgresql microsoft sql server oracle database microsoft access dbms acronym sometimes extended indicate


underlying database model rdbms relational oodbms object oriented ordbms object relational model extensions indicate characteristic ddbms distributed database management systems functionality provided dbms vary enormously core functionality storage retrieval update data codd proposed following functions services fully fledged general purpose dbms provide data storage retrieval update user accessible catalog data dictionary describing metadata support transactions concurrency facilities recovering database become damaged support


authorization access update data access support remote locations enforcing constraints ensure data database abides certain rules also generally expected dbms provide set utilities purposes may necessary administer database effectively including import export monitoring defragmentation analysis utilities core part dbms interacting database application interface sometimes referred database engine often dbmss configuration parameters statically dynamically tuned example maximum amount main


server allowing processing distributed evolved multitier architecture incorporating application servers web servers end user interface via web browser database directly connected adjacent tier general purpose dbms provide public application programming interfaces api optionally processor database languages sql allow applications written interact database special purpose dbms may use private api specifically customized linked single application example email system performing many functions


general purpose dbms message insertion message deletion attachment handling blocklist lookup associating messages email address forth however functions limited required handle email application external interaction database via application program interfaces dbms range database tool allows users execute sql queries textually graphically web site happens use database store search information application program interface programmer code interactions database sometimes referred datasource via


american national standards institute ansi international organization standardization iso standards regularly enhanced since supported varying degrees conformance mainstream commercial relational dbmss ref name ibm sql ref oql object model language standard object data management group influenced design newer query languages like jdoql ejb ql xquery standard xml query language implemented xml database systems marklogic exist relational databases xml capability oracle db also


memory xml processors saxon sql xml combines xquery sql database language may also incorporate features like dbms specific configuration storage engine management computations modify query results like counting summing averaging sorting grouping cross referencing constraint enforcement eg automotive database allowing one engine type per car application programming interface version query language programmer convenience storage database storage container physical materialization database comprises ''internal'' physical ''level'' database architecture also contains information needed eg metadata data data


internal data structures reconstruct ''conceptual level'' ''external level'' internal level needed databases digital objects contain three layers information must stored data structure semantics proper storage three layers needed future preservation longevity database putting data permanent storage generally responsibility database engine aka storage engine though typically accessed dbms underlying operating system often using operating systems' file systems intermediates storage layout storage properties configuration setting extremely


important efficient operation dbms thus closely maintained database administrators dbms operation always database residing several types storage eg memory external storage database data additional needed information possibly large amounts coded bits data typically reside storage structures look completely different way data look conceptual external levels ways attempt optimize best possible levels' reconstruction needed users programs well


computing additional types needed information data eg querying database dbmss support specifying character encoding used store data multiple encodings used database various low level database storage structures used storage engine serialize data model written medium choice techniques indexing may used improve performance conventional storage row oriented also column oriented correlation databases materialized views often storage redundancy employed increase performance common example storing ''materialized


views'' consist frequently needed ''external views'' query results storing views saves expensive computing time needed downsides materialized views overhead incurred updating keep synchronized original updated database data cost storage redundancy replication occasionally database employs storage redundancy database objects replication one copies increase data availability improve performance simultaneous multiple end user accesses database object provide resiliency case partial failure distributed


database updates replicated object need synchronized across object copies many cases entire database replicated security database security deals various aspects protecting database content owners users ranges protection intentional unauthorized database uses unintentional database accesses unauthorized entities eg person computer program database access control deals controlling person certain computer program allowed access information database information may comprise specific database objects eg record types specific records data structures


certain computations certain objects eg query types specific queries using specific access paths former eg using specific indexes data structures access information database access controls set special authorized database owner personnel uses dedicated protected security dbms interfaces may managed directly individual basis assignment individuals privileges groups elaborate models assignment individuals groups roles granted entitlements data security prevents unauthorized users viewing updating database


using passwords users allowed access entire database subsets called subschemas example employee database contain data individual employee one group users may authorized view payroll data others allowed access work history medical data dbms provides way interactively enter update database well interrogate capability allows managing personal databases data security general deals protecting specific chunks data physically ie corruption destruction removal


database transactions used introduce level fault tolerance data integrity recovery crash database transaction unit work typically encapsulating number operations database eg reading database object writing acquiring releasing lock etc abstraction supported database also systems transaction well defined boundaries terms program code executions included transaction determined transaction 's programmer via special transaction commands acronym acid describes ideal properties database transaction atomicity consistency isolation durability


migration database built one dbms portable another dbms ie dbms cannot run however situations desirable migrate database one dbms another reasons primarily economical different dbmss may different total costs ownership tcos functional operational different dbmss may different capabilities migration involves database 's transformation one dbms type another transformation maintain possible database related application ie related application programs intact thus database 's conceptual external architectural levels maintained


transformation may desired also aspects architecture internal level maintained complex large database migration may complicated costly one time project factored decision migrate spite fact tools may exist help migration specific dbmss typically dbms vendor provides tools help importing databases popular dbmss building maintaining tuning designing database application next stage building database typically appropriate general purpose dbms selected


used purpose dbms provides needed user interfaces used database administrators define needed application 's data structures within dbms 's respective data model user interfaces used select needed dbms parameters like security related storage allocation parameters etc database ready data structures needed components defined typically populated initial application 's data database initialization typically distinct project many cases using specialized dbms interfaces support bulk insertion making operational cases database becomes


operational empty application data data accumulated operation database created initialized populated needs maintained various database parameters may need changing database may need tuned tuning better performance application 's data structures may changed added new related application programs may written add application 's functionality etc backup restore sometimes desired bring database back previous state many reasons eg cases database found corrupted due software error


updated erroneous data achieve backup operation done occasionally continuously desired database state ie values data embedding database 's data structures kept within dedicated backup files many techniques exist effectively decided database administrator bring database back state eg specifying state desired point time database state files used restore state static analysis static analysis techniques software verification


applied also scenario query languages particular abstract interpretation framework extended field query languages relational databases way support sound approximation techniques semantics query languages tuned according suitable abstractions concrete domain data abstraction relational database system many interesting applications particular security purposes fine grained access control watermarking etc miscellaneous features dbms features might include database logs helps keeping history executed functions graphics component producing


graphs charts especially data warehouse system query optimizer performs query optimization every query choose efficient ''query plan'' partial order tree operations executed compute query result may specific particular storage engine tools hooks database design application programming application program maintenance database performance analysis monitoring database configuration monitoring dbms hardware configuration dbms related database may span computers networks storage units related database mapping especially distributed dbms storage allocation database layout monitoring storage migration etc increasingly


calls single system incorporates core functionalities build test deployment framework database management source control borrowing developments software industry market offerings devops database design modeling thumb first task database designer produce conceptual data model reflects structure information held database common approach develop entity relationship model often aid drawing tools another popular approach unified modeling language


successful data model accurately reflect possible state external world modeled example people one phone number allow information captured designing good conceptual data model requires good understanding application domain typically involves asking deep questions things interest organization like customer also supplier product sold two different forms packaging product different products plane flies new york


users happy next stage translate schema implements relevant data structures within database process often called logical database design output logical data model expressed form schema whereas conceptual data model theory least independent choice database technology logical data model expressed terms particular database model supported chosen dbms terms ' 'data model'' ' 'database model'' often used interchangeably article use ' 'data


model'' design specific database ' 'database model'' modeling notation used express design popular database model general purpose databases relational model precisely relational model represented sql language process creating logical database design using model uses methodical approach known normalization goal normalization ensure elementary fact recorded one place insertions updates deletions automatically maintain consistency final stage database design make decisions


database model network model graph database relational model entity relationship model enhanced entity relationship model object model document model entity attribute value model star schema object relational database combines two related structures physical data models include inverted index flat file models include multidimensional model array model multivalue model specialized models optimized particular types data xml database semantic model content store event store time series model external conceptual internal views traditional view data ref name itl itlnistgov http wwwitlnistgov fipspubs idef xdoc ''integration definition information modeling idefix '' december ref database management system provides three views database data


'''external level''' defines group end users sees organization data database single database number views external level '''conceptual level''' unifies various external views compatible global view provides synthesis external views scope various database end users rather interest database application developers database administrators '''internal level''' ''physical level'' internal organization data inside dbms concerned cost performance scalability operational matters


deals storage layout data using storage structures indexes enhance performance occasionally stores data individual views materialized views computed generic data performance justification exists redundancy balances external views' performance requirements possibly conflicting attempt optimize overall performance across activities typically one conceptual logical physical internal view data number different external views allows users see database information business related way rather technical


processing viewpoint example financial department company needs payment details employees part company 's expenses need details employees interest human resources department thus different departments need different ''views'' company 's database three level database architecture relates concept ' 'data independence'' one major initial driving forces relational model idea changes made certain level affect view higher level example changes internal level


affect application programs written using conceptual level interfaces reduces impact making physical changes improve performance conceptual view provides level indirection internal external one hand provides common view database independent different external view structures hand abstracts away details data stored managed internal level principle every level even every external view presented different data model practice usually given dbms uses data model external


conceptual levels eg relational model internal level hidden inside dbms depends implementation requires different level detail uses types data structure types separating ''external'' ''conceptual'' ''internal'' levels major feature relational database model implementations dominate st century databases research database technology active research topic since academia research development groups companies example ibm research research activity includes theory development prototypes notable research topics included models


tamer zsu eds https wwwspringercom computer database management information retrieval book encyclopedia database systems p nbsp illus gray j reuter ''transaction processing concepts techniques'' st edition morgan kaufmann publishers kroenke david david j auer ''database concepts'' rd ed new york prentice raghu ramakrishnan johannes gehrke '' http pagescswiscedu dbbook database management systems '' abraham silberschatz henry f korth sudarshan '' http wwwdb bookcom database system concepts '' teorey lightstone nadeau ''database modeling design logical design'' th edition morgan kaufmann press external links http wwwfileextensionorg db db file extension nbsp information files db extension


may draw findings neuroimaging diagnostic medical procedures clinical neuropsychology requires depth knowledge neuroanatomy neurobiology psychopharmacology neuropathology history late brain behavior relationships interpreted european physicians observed identified behavioural syndromes related focal brain dysfunction clinical neuropsychology fairly new practice comparison specialty fields psychology history going back ref name nelson ref specialty focus clinical neuropsychology evolved slowly defined whole interest grew ref name nelson threads neurology clinical psychology psychiatry cognitive psychology psychometrics

Social science
Psychology
Clinical neuropsychology


woven together create intricate tapestry clinical neuropsychology practice much still evolving ref name nelson history clinical neuropsychology long complicated due ties many older practices ref name nelson researchers like thomas willis credited creating neurology john hughlings jackson theorized cognitive processes occurred specific parts brain paul broca karl wernicke studied human brain relation psychopathology jean martin charcot apprenticed sigmund freud created psychoanalytic theory


contributed clinical medicine later contributed clinical neuropsychology ref name nelson field psychometrics contributed clinical neuropsychology individuals francis galton collected quantitative data physical sensory characteristics karl pearson established statistics psychology relies wilhelm wundt created first psychology lab student charles spearman furthered statistics discoveries like factor analysis alfred binet apprentice theodore simon together made binet simon scale intellectual development jean piaget studied child development ref name nelson studies intelligence testing


made lewis terman updated binet simon scale stanford binet intelligence scale henry goddard developed different classification scales robert yerkes charge army alpha beta tests also contributed clinical neuropsychology today ref name nelson clinical neuropsychology focuses brain goes back beginning th century ref name holtz ref clinician clinical neuropsychologist offers services addressing three steps assessment diagnosis treatment ref name holtz term clinical neuropsychologist first made sir william osler april ref name holtz


clinical neuropsychology focus th century evidence brain behavior treatment studies seen far back neolithic area trephination crude surgery piece skull removed observed skulls ref name holtz profession clinical neuropsychology subspecialty beneath clinical psychology ref name holtz world war early term shell shock first observed soldiers survived war ref name holtz beginning efforts understand traumatic events affected people ref name holtz great depression


stressors caused shell shock like symptoms emerge ref name holtz world war ii term shell shock changed battle fatigue clinical neuropsychology became even involved attempting solve puzzle peoples' continued signs trauma distress ref name holtz veterans administration va created increased call clinical neuropsychologists extension need training ref name holtz korean vietnam wars solidified need treatment trained clinical neuropsychologists ref name holtz term post traumatic stress disorder ptsd coined


understanding traumatic events kinds could cause ptsd started evolve ref name holtz relationship human behavior brain focus clinical neuropsychology defined meir ref name horton ref two subdivisions clinical neuropsychology draw much focus organic environmental natures ref name horton ralph reitan arthur l benton ar luria past neuropsychologists believed studied organic nature clinical neuropsychology ref name horton alexander luria russian neuropsychologist responsible origination clinical psychoneurological assessment wwiibuilding upon originative contribution connecting voluntary


involuntary functions influencing behavior luria conjoins methodical structures associations neurological processes brainluria developed combined motor method measure thought processes based reaction times three simultaneous tasks appointed require verbal response ref name ref side environmental nature clinical neuropsychology appear recently characterized treatments behavior therapy ref name horton relationship physical brain abnormalities presentation psychopathology completely understood one questions clinical neuropsychologists hope answer time ref


name horton debate human potentiality versus localization began ref name horton two sides argued human behavior presented brain ref name horton paul broca postulated cognitive problems could caused physical damage specific parts brain based case study found lesion brain deceased patient presented symptom unable speak portion brain known broca 's area ref name horton carl wernicke also made similar observation


case study involving patient brain lesion unable comprehend speech part brain lesion deemed wernicke 's area ref name horton broca wernicke believed studied theory localization ref name horton hand equal potentiality theorists believed brain function based single piece brain rather brain whole ref name horton marie jp flourens conducted animal studies found amount brain tissue damaged directly affected amount behavior ability altered


damaged ref name horton kurt goldstein observed idea flourens except veterans fought world war ref name horton end despite disagreement neither theory completely explains human brains complexity ref name horton thomas hughlings jackson created theory thought possible solution ref name horton jackson believed potentiality localization part correct behavior made multiple parts brain working collectively cause behaviors luria furthered jackson 's theory ref name horton job considering clinical


neuropsychologist works hospitals common place practitioners end ref name barisa ref three main variations clinical neuropsychologist may work hospital employee consultant independent practitioner ref name barisa clinical neuropsychologist working employee hospital individual may receive salary benefits sign contract employment ref name barisa case employee hospital hospital charge legal financial responsibilities ref name barisa second option working consultant implies clinical neuropsychologist part private practice


used clinical neuropsychology find brain psychopathologies cognitive behavioral emotional variety ref name gurd ref physical evidence always readily visible clinical neuropsychologists must rely assessments tell extent damage ref name gurd cognitive strengths weaknesses patient assessed help narrow possible causes brain pathology ref name gurd clinical neuropsychologist expected help educate patient happening patient understand work cognitive deficits strengths ref name gurd assessment accomplish many goals


gage consequences impairments quality life compile symptoms change symptoms time assess cognitive strengths weaknesses ref name gurd accumulation knowledge earned assessment dedicated developing treatment plan based patient 's individual needs ref name gurd assessment also help clinical neuropsychologist gage impact medications neurosurgery patient ref name gurd behavioral neurology neuropsychology tools standardized psychometric tests observational data collected patient help build understanding patient happening ref


name gurd essential prerequisites must present patient order assessment effective concentration comprehension motivation effort ref name gurd lezak lists six primary reasons neuropsychological assessments carried diagnosis patient care planning treatment planning treatment evaluation research forensic neuropsychology ref name lezak ref conduct comprehensive assessment typically take several hours may need conducted single visit even use screening battery covering several cognitive domains may take hours commencement assessment important establish


good rapport patient ensure understand nature aims assessment ref name clare l ref neuropsychological assessment carried two basic perspectives depending purpose assessment methods normative individual normative assessment involves comparison patient performance representative population method may appropriate investigation adult onset brain insult traumatic brain injury stroke individual assessment may involve serial assessment establish whether declines beyond expected occur normal aging dementia


another neurodegenerative condition ref name lezak assessment subdivided sub sections history taking neuropsychological assessments usually commence clinical interview means collecting history relevant interpretation later neuropsychological tests addition interview provides qualitative information patient ability act socially apt manner organise communicate information effectively provide indication patient mood insight motivation ref name hebben ref within context patient history accurate interpretation test data thus diagnosis made ref


name hebben clinical interview take place quiet area free distractions important elements history include demographic information description presenting problem medical history including childhood developmental problems psychiatric psychological history educational occupational history legal history military history ref name hebben selection neuropsychological tests uncommon patients anxious tested explaining tests designed challenge everyone one expected answer questions correctly may helpful ref name clare l important consideration


neuropsychological assessment basic coverage major cognitive functions efficient way achieve administration battery tests covering attention visual perception reasoning learning memory verbal function construction concept formation executive function motor abilities emotional status beyond basic battery choices neuropsychological tests administered mainly made basis cognitive functions need evaluated order fulfill assessment objectives ref name jurado review ref report writing following neuropsychological assessment important complete comprehensive report based assessment


conducted report clinicians well patient family important avoid jargon use language different clinical lay meanings eg intellectually disabled correct clinical term iq offensive lay language ref name hebben report cover background referral relevant history reasons assessment neuropsychologists observations patient behaviour test administered results cognitive domains tested additional findings eg questionnaires mood finish report summary recommendations summary


important comment profile results indicates regarding referral question recommendations section contains practical information assist patient family improve management patient condition educational requirements different countries educational requirements becoming clinical neuropsychologist differ countries countries may necessary complete clinical psychology degree specialising studies clinical neuropsychology countries offer clinical neuropsychology courses students completed years psychology studies clinical neuropsychologists require postgraduate qualification whether masters


doctorate phd psyd dpsych australia become clinical neuropsychologist australia requires completion year australian psychology accreditation council apac approved undergraduate degree psychology year psychology honours followed year masters year doctorate psychology dpsych clinical neuropsychology courses involve coursework lectures tutorials practicals etc supervised practice placements completion research thesis masters dpsych courses involve amount coursework units differ amount supervised placements undertaken length research thesis masters courses require minimum hours


days dpsych courses require minimum hours days mandatory placements expose students acute neurology neurosurgery rehabilitation psychiatric geriatric paediatric populations canada become clinical neuropsychologist canada requires completion year honours degree psychology year doctoral degree clinical neuropsychology often year master 's degree required commencing doctoral degree doctoral degree involves coursework practical experience practicum internship practicum hours practical application skills acquired program least hours must


supervised face face client contact practicum intended prepare students internship residency internships residencies year long experience student functions neuropsychologist supervision currently cpa accredited clinical neuropsychology internships residencies canada although unaccredited ones exist prior commencing internship students must completed doctoral coursework received approval thesis proposal completed thesis hours practicum united kingdom become clinical neuropsychologist uk requires prior qualification clinical educational psychologist recognised health professions council


followed postgraduate study clinical neuropsychology entirety education become clinical neuropsychologist uk consists completion year british psychological society accredited undergraduate degree psychology year doctorate clinical usually dclinpsy educational psychology dedpsy followed year masters msc month postgraduate diploma pgdip clinical neuropsychology british psychological division counselling psychology also currently offering training members order ensure apply registered neuropsychologists also united states order become clinical neuropsychologist us


american board pediatric neuropsychology award board certification neuropsychologists demonstrate competency specific areas neuropsychology reviewing neuropsychologist 's training experience submitted case samples successfully completing written oral examinations although requirements standard according houston conference guidelines even guidelines stated completion requirements still aspirational ways achieving clinical neuropsychologist status possible journals following represents incomplete listing significant journals related field clinical neuropsychology ''aging neuropsychology cognition'' ''applied neuropsychology'' ''archives


keifer marc w haut harry w mcconnell stephen e jones thomas krewson glenn j larrabee amy heffelfinger xavier e cagigas jennifer j manly david nyenhuis sara j swanson jessica chapin julie k janecek michael mccrea matthew r powell thomas hammeke andrew j saykin laura rabin alexander tr ster sonia packwood peter arnett lauren b strober mariana e bradshaw jeffrey wefel roberta f white maxine krengel rachel grashow brigid waldron perrine kenneth adams margaret g o'connor elizabeth race david sabsevitz russell bauer ronald cohen paul malloy melissa jenkins robert paul darlene floden


lisa l conant robert bilder rishi k bhalla ruth o'hara ellen coman meryl butters michael l alosco sarah garcia lindsay miller john gunstad dawn bowers jenna dietz jacob jones greg j lamberty anita h sim collection articles practitioners includes chapters linda reddy adam weissman james b hale allison waters lara j farrell elizabeth schilpzand susanna w chang joseph neill david rosenberg steven g feifer gurmal rattan patricia walshaw carrie e bearden carmen lukie andrea n schneider richard gallagher jennifer l rosenblatt jean guin mathieu pilon matthew w specht susanna w


'''classical archaeology''' archaeological investigation mediterranean civilizations ancient greece ancient rome nineteenth century archaeologists heinrich schliemann drawn study societies read latin greek texts many universities foreign nations maintain excavation programs schools area enduring appeal region 's archaeology cultures discussed classical archaeology strictest traditional sense applies study classical athenian culture culture roman republic empire however course last century field

Social science
Archaeology
Classical Archaeology


expanded include discussions elaborate mosaic cultures produced civilizations ancient greece rome classical archaeologists interested greece frequently discuss crete minoan civilization present island bronze age also discuss helladic geometric periods well occasionally discussing neolithic period pertains greece even classical period completely untrue say greece one true culture great deal regional variation present much study greek archaeology lies examination


regional differences greek archaeology covers hellenistic period well frequently compelling classical archaeologist examine greek influences present areas part alexander great 's empire including much middle east egypt classical archaeologists interested roman civilization discuss influence etruscans early cultures present italic peninsula also discuss subcultures present within roman republic empire based regional differences discussion later empire requires least partial segue byzantine empire excavations


inspired ancient texts sometimes using interpret artifacts classical archaeology would exist without ancient artifacts though much classical archaeology like kind archaeology performed scholars studies vibrant crucial parts classical archaeology archaeological excavations commonly known digs excavation techniques first modelled excavations egypt near east searched large artifacts walls without much care delicate remains might existed ground around artifacts many earliest


sites still cannot dated satisfying manner stratigraphy soil layers embedded artifacts used determine age site completely stripped away early excavations also often failed record items found sufficient detail making difficult date artifacts determine precisely found establish connection objects may found together time excavation techniques greatly improved amount information gleaned excavation exponentially greater recorded early excavations excavation reports take many years


compile due level detail included analyzed see also friends herculaneum society references reading alcock susan e robin osborne eds ''classical archaeology'' oxford blackwell beard mary john henderson ''classical art greece rome'' oxford history art oxford new york oxford univ press ellis linda ed ''archaeological method theory encyclopedia'' new york garland hodder ian ed ''archaeological theory today'' cambridge uk polity pedley john griffiths ''greek art archaeology'' th ed upper saddle river nj pearson education external links http wwwbeazleyoxacuk beazleyadmin script defaulthtm beazley archive


collection classical artifacts http wwwarchaeologyorg wwwarky classicalhtml classical archaeology ndash site many links classical archaeology sites archaeology


'''assyriology''' greek ''assyri '' '' logia'' archaeological historical linguistic study assyria rest ancient mesopotamia region encompassed modern iraq northeastern syria southeastern turkey northwestern southwestern iran related cultures used cuneiform writing field covers sumer early sumero akkadian city states akkadian empire ebla akkadian imperial aramaic speaking states assyria babylonia sealand dynasty migrant foreign dynasties southern mesopotamia including gutians amorites kassites arameans suteans chaldeans degree post imperial achaemenid

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Assyriology


assyria athura eber nari assyria roman province assuristan together later neo assyrian states adiabene osroene hatra beth nuhadra beth garmai arab invasion islamic conquest mid th century ad assyriologists also write assyrian continuity assyrian people well mandaeans present large number cuneiform clay tablets preserved sumero akkadian assyro babylonian cultures provide extremely large resource study period region 's indeed world 's first cities city states like ur archaeologically invaluable studying growth


urbanization scholars assyriology develop proficiency two main languages mesopotamia akkadian including major dialects sumerian familiarity neighbouring languages biblical hebrew hittite elamite hurrian indo anatolian also called ''indo hittite'' imperial aramaic eastern aramaic dialects old persian canaanite useful comparative purposes knowledge writing systems use several hundred core signs exist many important grammatical studies lexical aids although scholars draw large corpus literature tablets broken case literary texts may many copies


visited jews mosul ruins assyria travels throughout middle east identification city babylon made pietro della valle pietro give remarkable descriptions site also brought back europe inscribed bricks found nineveh ur th century birth carsten niebuhr danish mathematician made copies cuneiform inscriptions persepolis persia well sketches drawing nineveh shortly followed andr michaux french botanist


explorer sold french biblioth que nationale de paris inscribed boundary stone found near baghdad first known archeological excavation mesopotamia led abb beauchamp papal vicar general baghdad excavating sculpture generally known lion babylon abb beauchamp 's memoirs travels published sparked sensation scholarly world generating number archeological academic expeditions middle east claudius james rich englishman resident east india company baghdad began examining mapping ruins babylon


nineveh collecting numerous inscribed bricks tablets boundary stones cylinders including famous https wwwbritishmuseumorg explore highlights highlight objects c cylinder nebuchadnezzar iiaspx nebuchadnezzar cylinder sennacherib cylinder collection formed nucleus mesopotamian antiquities collection british museum untimely death age wrote two memoirs ruins babylon inscriptions found therein two works may said mark birth assyriology related cuneiform studies decipherment cuneiform one largest obstacles scholars overcome early days assyriology decipherment curious triangular


markings many artifacts ruins found mesopotamian sites markings termed cuneiform thomas hyde long considered merely decorations ornaments late th century came considered sort writing carsten niebuhr danish mathematician published accurate copies three trilingual inscriptions ruins persepolis niebuhr showed inscriptions written left right three inscriptions contained three different types cuneiform writing labeled class


class ii class iii class determined alphabetic consisting characters written old persian first deciphered georg friedrich grotefend based work friedrich munter henry creswicke rawlinson second inscription class ii proved difficult translate edward hincks published paper showing class ii alphabetical fact syllabic ideographic led translation language first called babylonian assyrian come


known sumerian first indication modern scholarship older culture people sumerians existed systematic excavation systematic excavation mesopotamian antiquities begun earnest paul mile botta french consul mosul excavations pe botta khorsabad austen h layard nimrud nineveh well successful decipherment cuneiform system writing opened new world layard 's discovery library assur bani pal put materials reconstructing ancient life history assyria babylonia


hands scholars also first excavate babylonia cj rich already done useful topographical work layard 's excavations latter country continued wk loftus also opened trenches susa well julius oppert behalf french government last quarter th century anything like systematic exploration attempted death george smith aleppo expedition sent british museum conduct hormuzd rassam continue work


nineveh neighbourhood excavations mounds balaw called imgur bel assyrians miles east mosul resulted discovery small temple dedicated god dreams ashurnasirpal ii bc containing stone coffer ark two inscribed tables alabaster rectangular shape well palace destroyed babylonians restored shalmaneser iii bc latter came bronze gates hammered reliefs british museum remains palace


ashurbanipal nimrud calah also excavated hundreds enamelled tiles disinterred two years later rassam sent babylonia discovered site temple sun god sippara abu habba fixed position two sipparas sepharvaim abu habba lies south west baghdad midway euphrates tigris south side canal may represented main stream euphrates sippara goddess anunit dir opposite bank meanwhile french consul ernest de sarzec


excavating telloh ancient girsu bringing light monuments pre semitic age included diorite statues gudea louvre stone according inscriptions upon brought magan sinai peninsula subsequent excavations de sarzec telloh neighbourhood carried history city back least bc collection tablets found arranged shelves time gudea c bc german expedition dr robert koldewey


explored cemetery el hiba immediately south telloh first time made us acquainted burial customs ancient babylonia another german expedition large scale despatched ''orientgesellschaft'' object exploring ruins babylon palace nebuchadrezzar great processional road laid bare dr w andrae subsequently conducted excavations qal'at sherqat site assur even turkish government held aloof work exploration museum stanbul filled tablets discovered


v scheil site sippara jacques de morgan 's exceptionally important work susa lies outside limits babylonia however american excavations ej banks bismaya ijdab university pennsylvania nippur mr jh haynes systematically patiently uncovered remains great temple el lil removing layer layer debris cutting sections ruins virgin soil midway mound platform large bricks stamped names sargon


akkad son naram sin bc debris feet thick topmost stratum later parthian era hv hilprecht ''the babylonian expedition'' p nbsp calculated debris underneath pavement feet thick must represent period years especially older constructions leveled pavement laid deepest part excavations however inscribed clay tablets fragments stone vases still found though cuneiform characters upon archaic type sometimes


even retain primitive pictorial forms see also ancient near east chronology ancient near east assyria sumer akkadian empire babylonia chaldea aramea egyptology iranian studies mesopotamia classical literature references area studies ancient history middle eastern studies semitic studies


human experience past present studies human biological evolution generally focus evolution human form cultural evolution involves study cultural change time space frequently incorporates cultural transmission models cultural evolution biological evolution human culture involves transmission cultural information compare memetics transmission behave ways quite distinct human biology genetics study cultural change increasingly takes place cladistics genetic models see also anthropology biocultural evolution dual inheritance theory evolutionary neuroscience evolutionary psychology homininae philosophy biology

Social science
Archaeology
Evolutionary anthropology


'''carcinology''' branch zoology consists study crustaceans group arthropods includes lobsters crayfish shrimp krill copepods barnacles crabs names carcinology '''malacostracology''' '''crustaceology''' '''crustalogy''' person studies crustaceans ''carcinologist'' occasionally ''malacostracologist'' ''crustaceologist'' ''crustalogist'' word ''carcinology'' derives greek ''kark nos'' crab '' logia'' subfields carcinology subdivision arthropodology study arthropods includes arachnids insects myriapods carcinology branches taxonomically oriented disciplines astacology study crayfish cirripedology

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Carcinology


study barnacles copepodology study copepods journals scientific journals devoted study crustaceans include ''crustaceana'' ''journal crustacean biology'' ''nauplius journal notable carcinologists see also entomology publications carcinology list carcinologists references crustaceans subfields zoology subfields arthropodology


preventing escalation disputes full blown wars ref name ref argues keeping military operations secret limit escalation dynamics well insulate leaders domestic pressures simultaneously allowing communicating interest adversary keeping war contained ref name finds covert operations frequently detected major powers ref name laws us law central intelligence agency cia must lead covert operations unless president finds another agency properly informs congress normally cia us government agency legally allowed carry

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Covert operation


covert action ref name executive secrets page ''executive secrets coved presidency'' william j daugherty university kentucky press page ref cia 's authority conduct covert action comes national security act ref name executive secrets william j daugherty ''executive secrets covert action presidency'' university kentucky press ref president ronald reagan issued executive order titled ''united states intelligence activities'' order defined covert action special activities political military us government could legally deny cia also designated sole authority intelligence


authorization act title united states code section e ref name executive secrets cia must presidential finding issued president united states order conduct activities hughes ryan amendment intelligence authorization act ref name executive secrets page findings monitored oversight committees us senate house representatives result framework cia receives oversight congress agency federal government special activities division sad


division cia 's directorate operations responsible covert action special activities special activities include covert political influence paramilitary operations military intelligence foreign policy covert operations clandestine operations distinct ''department defense dictionary military associated terms'' joint publication jp defines covert operation operation planned executed conceal identity permit plausible denial sponsor covert operation differs clandestine operation emphasis placed concealment sponsor rather concealment operation


united states department defense definition used united states nato since world war ii covert operation identity sponsor concealed clandestine operation operation concealed put differently ''clandestine'' means hidden ''covert'' means deniable term ' 'stealth'' refers broad set tactics aimed providing preserving element surprise reducing enemy resistance set technologies stealth technology aid tactics secrecy stealthiness often desired clandestine covert operations terms


organizations generally official military paramilitary nature like dvs german air transport school nazi era line becomes muddled case front organizations engaged terrorist activities organized crime law enforcement undercover operations sting operations infiltration organized crime groups conducted law enforcement agencies deter detect crime gather information future arrest prosecution fbi 's domestic operations defined september attorney general 's guidelines domestic fbi operations examples military assistance command vietnam


studies observations group creation bangladesh operation wrath god operation storm operation gladio operation anthropoid huston plan lavon affair iran contra affair project mkultra operation chaos cia project cherry vang pao 's clandestine army palace dog raven forward air controllers black operations false flag popular culture covert operations often subject popular films ''zero dark thirty'' ''argo'' ''the falcon snowman'' ''the kremlin letter'' novels tv series comics company fictional covert organization featured american tv series ''prison break'' also series deal covert operations ''mission impossible''


''alias'' ''burn notice'' ''the unit'' ''the state within'' ''covert affairs'' ''air wolf'' '' '' ''the west wing'' ''the blacklist'' ''scandal strike back series vagabond'' see also operation cyclone black project church committee counter intelligence counterintelligence field activity ''covert warfare'' filibuster military humint clandestine operational techniques manhunt military military intelligence spy fiction spy film task force falcon references reading https fasorg sgp crs intel pdf statutory procedures congress informed us intelligence activities including covert actions alfred cumming january html congressional research service external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwdefencejournalcom feb rawhtm ''raw bangladesh'' https webarchiveorg web http thewallciviblogorg rsf hershstmt html richard hersh statement house


reactions biological organisms order create goods mid louis pasteur one first people look role organisms researched fermentation work also contributed use pasteurization still used day early use microorganisms expanded used make industrial products point biochemical engineering n't developed field yet n't alexander fleming discovered penicillin field biochemical engineering established discovery samples gathered

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering
Bioengineering
Biochemical engineering


around world order continue research characteristics microbes places soils gardens forests rivers streams today biochemical engineers found working variety industries food pharmaceuticals due increasing need efficiency production requires knowledge biological systems chemical reactions interact used meet needs education biochemical engineering major offered universities instead area interest chemical engineering major


cases following universities known offer degrees biochemical engineering brown university providence ri christian brothers university memphis tn colorado school mines golden co rowan university glassboro nj university colorado boulder boulder co university georgia athens ga university california davis davis ca university college london london united kingdom university southern california los angeles ca university western ontario ontario canada indian institute technology bhu varanasi varanasi applications applications biochemical engineering biotechnology biotechnology biochemical engineering


closely related biochemical engineering considered sub branch biotechnology one primary focuses biotechnology medical field biochemical engineers work design pharmaceuticals artificial organs biomedical devices chemical sensors drug delivery systems biochemical engineers use knowledge chemical processes biological systems order create tangible products improve people 's health specific areas studies include metabolic enzyme tissue engineering study cell cultures widely used biochemical engineering biotechnology due many applications developing natural fuels improving


efficiency producing drugs pharmaceutical processes also creating cures disease medical applications biochemical engineering within biotechnology genetics testing pharmacogenomics food industry biochemical engineers primarily focus designing systems improve production processing packaging storage distribution food ref name commonly processed foods include wheat fruits milk undergo processes milling dehydration pasteurization order become products sold three levels food processing primary secondary tertiary primary food processing involves turning agricultural products products


turned food secondary food processing making food readily available ingredients tertiary food processing commercial production ready eat heat serve foods drying pickling salting fermenting foods oldest food processing techniques used preserve food preventing yeasts molds bacteria cause spoiling ref name ref methods preserving food evolved meet current standards food safety still use processes past biochemical engineers also work improve nutritional value food products golden rice developed


prevent vitamin deficiency certain areas issue efforts advance preserving technologies also ensure lasting retention nutrients foods stored packaging plays key role preserving well ensuring safety food protecting product contamination physical damage tampering ref name packaging also make easier transport serve food common job biochemical engineers working food industry design ways perform processes large scale order meet demands


population responsibilities career path include designing performing experiments optimizing processes consulting groups develop new technologies preparing project plans equipment facilities ref name see also biofuel algae biological hydrogen production algae bioprocess engineering bioreactor landfill electrochemical energy conversion industrial biotechnology moss bioreactor photobioreactor references


'''purification''' process rendering something pure ie clean foreign elements pollution may refer religion ritual purification religious activity remove uncleanliness purification death purification virgin christian liturgical feast purification rundown scientology uses ''purification'' album crimson thorn album ''purification'' film film purification quantum state quantum mechanics especially quantum information purification theorem game theory economics nash equilibrium consisting randomly mixed strategies water purification organisms used water purification list purification methods chemistry see also purify disambiguation

Applied science
Agriculture
Purification


electric railway networks power engineering draws majority theoretical base electrical engineering history sketch pearl street station first steam powered electric power station new york city pioneering years electricity became subject scientific interest late th century next two centuries number important discoveries made including incandescent light bulb voltaic pile probably greatest discovery respect power engineering came michael faraday discovered change magnetic flux induces electromotive force loop

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Electrical Engineering
Power engineering


wire mdash principle known electromagnetic induction helps explain generators transformers work two electricians built world 's first power station godalming england station employed two waterwheels produce alternating current used supply seven siemens arc lamps volts thirty four incandescent lamps volts however supply intermittent thomas edison company edison electric light company developed first steam powered electric power station pearl street new york city pearl street station consisted several generators initially powered


around lamps customers power station used direct current operated single voltage since direct current power could easily transformed higher voltages necessary minimise power loss transmission possible distance generators load limited around half mile year london lucien gaulard john dixon gibbs demonstrated first transformer suitable use real power system practical value gaulard gibbs' transformer demonstrated turin transformer used light forty


kilometres miles railway single alternating current generator despite success system pair made fundamental mistakes perhaps serious connecting primaries transformers series switching one lamp would affect lamps line following demonstration george westinghouse american entrepreneur imported number transformers along siemens generator set engineers experimenting hopes improving use commercial power system one westinghouse 's engineers william stanley recognised


ac system power industry flourished power companies built thousands power systems direct alternating current united states europe networks effectively dedicated providing electric lighting time fierce rivalry us known war currents emerged edison westinghouse form transmission direct alternating current superior westinghouse installed first major power system designed drive electric motor provide electric lighting installation powered


power engineering bolshevism poster gustav klutsis generation electricity regarded particularly important following bolshevik seizure power lenin stated communism soviet power plus electrification whole country subsequently featured many soviet posters stamps etc presenting view goelro plan initiated first bolshevik experiment industrial planning lenin became personally involved gleb krzhizhanovsky another key figure involved involved construction power station moscow also known lenin since


much better remote control power system 's switchgear generators power grid power engineering deals generation transmission distribution utilization electricity well design range related devices include transformers electric generators electric motors power electronics power engineers may also work systems connect grid systems called grid power systems may used preference grid systems variety reasons example remote locations may cheaper mine generate power rather


pay connection grid mobile applications connection grid simply practical fields electricity generation covers selection design construction facilities convert energy primary forms electric power electric power transmission requires engineering high voltage transmission lines substation facilities interface generation distribution systems high voltage direct current systems one elements electric power grid electric power distribution engineering covers elements power system substation end customer power system protection study


ways electrical power system fail methods detect mitigate failures projects power engineer must coordinate many disciplines civil mechanical engineers environmental experts legal financial personnel major power system projects large generating station may require scores design professionals addition power system engineers levels professional power system engineering practice engineer require much way administrative organizational skills electrical engineering knowledge professional societies international standards organizations


jadavpur university department power engineering http pepeipennnetcom articles print toccfmsection artcl p power engineering international magazine articles http pepeipennnetcom articles print toccfmsection artcl p power engineering magazine articles http wwwasopeorg american society power engineers inc http wwwniulpeorg national institute uniform licensing power engineer inc http cpewpiedu online powerhtml worcester polytechnic institute power systems engineering mechanical engineering


seifert surface bounded set borromean rings surfaces used tools geometric topology mathematics '''geometric topology''' study manifolds maps particularly embeddings one manifold another history geometric topology area distinct algebraic topology may said originated classification lens spaces reidemeister torsion required distinguishing spaces homotopy equivalent homeomorphic origin ' 'simple'' homotopy theory use term geometric topology describe seems

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
Geometric topology


originated rather recently differences low dimensional high dimensional topology manifolds differ radically behavior high low dimension high dimensional topology refers manifolds dimension relative terms embeddings codimension low dimensional topology concerned questions dimensions embeddings codimension dimension special respects topologically dimension high dimensional respects differentiably dimension low dimensional overlap yields phenomena exceptional dimension exotic differentiable structures '''r''' sup sup thus


topological classification manifolds principle easy key questions topological manifold admit differentiable structure many notably smooth case dimension last open case generalized poincar conjecture see gluck twists distinction surgery theory works dimension fact works topologically dimension though involved prove thus behavior manifolds dimension controlled algebraically surgery theory dimension topologically dimension


surgery theory work phenomena occur indeed one approach discussing low dimensional manifolds ask would surgery theory predict true work understand low dimensional phenomena deviations whitney trick requires dimensions hence surgery theory requires dimensions precise reason difference dimension whitney embedding theorem key technical trick underlies surgery theory requires dimensions roughly whitney trick allows one unknot knotted spheres precisely remove self intersections immersions


via homotopy disk disk dimensions homotopy adds thus codimension greater done without intersecting hence embeddings codimension greater understood surgery surgery theory key step middle dimension thus middle dimension codimension loosely enough hence total dimension enough whitney trick works key consequence smale 's ''h'' cobordism theorem works dimension forms


basis surgery theory modification whitney trick work dimensions called casson handles enough dimensions whitney disk introduces new kinks resolved another whitney disk leading sequence tower disks limit tower yields topological differentiable map hence surgery works topologically differentiably dimension important tools geometric topology fundamental group dimensions fundamental group manifold important invariant determines much structure


dimensions possible fundamental groups restricted dimension every finitely presented group fundamental group manifold note sufficient show dimensional manifolds take products spheres get higher ones orientability manifold orientable consistent choice orientation connected orientable manifold exactly two different possible orientations setting various equivalent formulations orientability given depending desired application level generality formulations applicable


general topological manifolds often employ methods homology theory whereas differentiable manifolds structure present allowing formulation terms differential forms important generalization notion orientability space orientability family spaces parameterized space fiber bundle orientation must selected spaces varies continuously respect changes parameter values handle decompositions ball three handles attached handle decomposition ''m'' manifold ''m'' union math emptyset subset


subset subset subset dots subset subset math math math obtained math math attaching math math '''handles''' handle decomposition manifold cw decomposition topological space many regards purpose handle decomposition language analogous cw complexes adapted world smooth manifolds thus ''i'' handle smooth analogue ''i'' cell handle decompositions manifolds arise naturally via morse theory modification handle structures closely linked cerf theory local flatness


local flatness property submanifold topological manifold larger dimension category topological manifolds locally flat submanifolds play role similar embedded submanifolds category smooth manifolds suppose ' 'd'' dimensional manifold ''n'' embedded ''n'' dimensional manifold ''m'' ' 'd'' lt ''n'' math x n math say ''n'' '''locally flat''' ''x'' neighborhood math u subset math ''x'' topological pair math u u cap n math homeomorphic pair math mathbb r n mathbb r math standard inclusion


math mathbb r math subspace math mathbb r n math exists homeomorphism math u r n math image math u cap n math coincides math mathbb r math sch nflies theorems generalized schoenflies theorem states ''n'' nbsp minus nbsp dimensional sphere ''s'' embedded ''n'' dimensional sphere ''s sup n sup '' locally flat way embedding extends thickened sphere pair ''s sup n sup '' nbsp ''s'' homeomorphic pair ''s sup n sup '' ''s'' sup ''n'' minus sup ''s'' sup ''n'' minus sup equator ''n'' sphere brown mazur received veblen prize independent proofs theorem branches geometric topology low dimensional topology


low dimensional topology includes surfaces manifolds manifolds manifolds theory connections low dimensional topology strongly geometric reflected uniformization theorem dimensions every surface admits constant curvature metric geometrically one possible geometries positive curvature spherical zero curvature flat negative curvature hyperbolic geometrization conjecture theorem dimensions every manifold cut pieces one possible geometries dimensional topology studied complex geometry one variable riemann surfaces complex curves uniformization


theorem every conformal class metrics equivalent unique complex one dimensional topology studied point view complex geometry two variables complex surfaces though every manifold admits complex structure knot theory knot theory study mathematical knots inspired knots appear daily life shoelaces rope mathematician 's knot differs ends joined together cannot undone mathematical language knot embedding circle dimensional euclidean space '''r''' sup sup since 're using topology


circle n't bound classical geometric concept homeomorphisms two mathematical knots equivalent one transformed via deformation '''r''' sup sup upon known ambient isotopy transformations correspond manipulations knotted string involve cutting string passing string gain insight mathematicians generalized knot concept several ways knots considered three dimensional spaces objects circles used see ''knot mathematics '' higher dimensional knots ''n'' dimensional spheres


desired property way effects homology homotopy groups interesting invariants manifold known classification exotic spheres led emergence surgery theory major tool high dimensional topology see also maps manifolds list geometric topology topics plumbing mathematics references rb sher rj daverman ''handbook geometric topology'' north holland geometry processing


hands activity cambridge science festival cambridge united kindom use balloons explore fundamental mathematics '' 'sociology scientific knowledge''' '''ssk''' study science social activity especially dealing social conditions effects science social structures processes scientific activity ref name socofsci bendavid ref sociology scientific ignorance ssi complementary sociology scientific knowledge ref name socofig stocking ref ref name socofig wehling volume issue year pages url http zfs onlineorg indexphp zfs article viewfile access date ref comparison sociology knowledge studies

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of science


impact human knowledge prevailing ideas societies relations knowledge social context within arises sociologists scientific knowledge study development scientific field attempt identify points contingency interpretative flexibility ambiguities present variations may linked variety political historical cultural economic factors crucially field set promote relativism attack scientific project objective researcher explain one interpretation rather another succeeds due external social historical


circumstances field emerged late early first almost exclusively british practice early centers development field france germany united states notably cornell university major theorists include barry barnes david bloor sal restivo randall collins gaston bachelard harry collins karin knorr cetina paul feyerabend steve fuller martin kusch bruno latour mike mulkay derek j de solla price lucy suchman anselm strauss programmes schools sociology scientific knowledge anglophone versions emerged self conscious opposition


sociology science associated american robert k merton generally considered one seminal authors sociology science merton 's kind sociology scientists left cognitive content science sociological account ssk contrast aimed providing sociological explanations scientific ideas taking lead aspects work thomas kuhn especially established traditions cultural anthropology durkheim mauss well late wittgenstein david bloor one ssk 's early champions contrasted called 'weak programme' 'program' either spelling used


colleagues science studies unit university edinburgh ' 'bath school' harry collins others university bath period edinburgh sociologists bath sociologists promoted respectively strong programme empirical programme relativism epor also associated ssk discourse analysis applied science associated michael mulkay university york well concern issues reflexivity arising paradoxes relating ssk 's relativist stance towards science status knowledge claims steve