higher fatality risk due part lack crash protection unlike enclosed vehicles cars combined high speeds motorcycles typically travel according us statistics percentage intoxicated motorcyclists fatal crashes higher riders roads helmets also play major role safety motorcyclists national highway traffic safety administration nhtsa estimated helmets percent effective saving lives motorcyclists involved crashes trucks according european commission transportation department estimated


accidents involving trucks attributable inadequate cargo securing improperly secured cargo cause severe crashes lead loss cargo loss lives loss vehicles hazard environment one way stabilize secure protect cargo transportation road using dunnage bags placed voids among cargo designed prevent load moving transport together safer roads tsr developed best practices implementing corporate road safety programs includes data management analysis route mapping investment

Applied science
Transportation
Highway safety


upkeep fleets safety policies training employees first aid safety training case collisions occur police hundreds people killed year due high speed chases fleeing suspects police different jurisdictions allow pursuits different circumstances fewer injuries might occur restricted violent felonies regulation road users various types road user regulations force tried jurisdictions around world discussed road user type motor vehicle users dependent jurisdiction driver 's age road type vehicle type


motor vehicle drivers may required pass driving test public transport goods vehicle drivers may need additional training licensing conform restrictions driving consuming alcohol various drugs comply restrictions use mobile phones covered compulsory insurance wear seat belts comply certain speed limits motorcycle riders may additionally compelled wear motorcycle helmet drivers certain vehicle types may subject maximum driving hour regulations jurisdictions us states virginia maryland implemented specific regulations prohibiting mobile phone


use limiting number passengers accompanying young inexperienced drivers ref name wp ref ''the state safety report'' national safety council released ranks states road safety regulations noticed serious collisions occur night vehicles likely multiple occupants seat belts less likely used ref name young ref insurance institute highway safety proposes restrictions new drivers including curfew imposed young drivers prevent driving night experienced supervisor chaperone less experienced driver forbidding


carrying passengers zero alcohol tolerance raising standards required driving instructors improving driving test vehicle restrictions eg restricting access 'high performance' vehicles sign placed back vehicle n p plate notify drivers novice driver encouraging good behaviour post test period government primary responsibility providing safe roads challenges development equity require segments society engage contribute including private sector private public sector coalitions like together safer roads tsr road zero coalition


exist work alongside government policies advance business case safer roads help companies meet duty care employees minimize fleet related dangers wider community safer roads also benefit business improving employee health safety protecting assets reducing productivity losses healthcare costs enhancing efficiency effectiveness supply chains countries states already implemented ideas vision zero networks pay drive adjusts insurance costs according person drives pedal bicycle users dependent jurisdiction road type age pedal


cyclists may required conform restrictions driving consuming alcohol various drugs comply restrictions use mobile phones covered compulsory insurance wear bicycle helmet comply certain speed limits pedestrians dependent jurisdiction jaywalking may prohibited frequent road safety education children helps improve dangerous behaviors animals collisions animals usually fatal animals occasionally drivers well information campaigns georgia us indicating three deaths per day information campaigns used raise awareness initiatives


designed reduce road casualty levels examples include '' http wwwdecadeofactionorg poplink decade action world health organization f ration internationale de l'automobile traffic awareness campaigns one false move campaign documented hillman et al ''speeding one thinks big you'' new south wales australia '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwwhoint features road safety en indexhtml poplink road safety accident world health organization ''designated driver campaign us present ''click ticket'' us present ''clunk click every trip'' uk ''green cross code'' uk present statistics according eurostat almost linear proportion total number passenger km driven car


road fatalities car fatalities per pax km vs car usage per pax day europe seems least european countries car fatalities per person km strong correlation massification car usage average car usage countries around km per person day varying number fatalities ratios differences might related different cultural approaches traffic codes safety measures implemented countries according eurostat european railway agency european railway mode transport fatality risk passengers occupants times lower compared


car usage based data eu member nations rating roads safety since eurorap initiative assessing major roads europe road protection score results star rating roads based well design would protect car occupants severely injured killed head run intersection crash occurs stars representing road best survivability features ref name eurorap note see country maps http wwweuroraporg risk mapssearch protocol risk country parent ref scheme states highlighted thousands road sections across europe road users routinely maimed


killed want safety features sometimes little cost safety fencing paint required improve road markings ref name eurorap ref plans extend measurements rate probability collision road ratings used inform planning authorities' targets example britain two thirds road deaths britain happen rural roads score badly compared high quality motorway network single carriageways claim rural deaths serious injuries rural car occupant casualties cars


hit roadside objects trees improvements driver training safety features rural roads hoped reduce statistic number designated traffic officers uk fell police force strength seven per cent force strength ref name policeforce ref item debate whether reduction traffic collisions per million miles driven time ref name accreduction ref due robotic enforcement united states roads government rated media releases public knowledge


actual safety features sup unclear sup however national highway traffic safety administration 's ''traffic safety facts'' found persons killed across us non fixed objects includes roadway debris california highest number total deaths crashes new mexico best chance individual die experiencing vehicle debris crash ksi statistics according estimated million people killed worldwide million injured motor vehicle collisions young adults aged years account


global road traffic deaths key facts according report ref name whorrs ref road traffic injuries '''leading cause death among young people aged years''' ''' ''' world 's fatalities roads occur '''low income middle income countries''' even though countries approximately half world 's vehicles half dying world 's roads vulnerable road users '''pedestrians cyclists motorcyclists''' without action road traffic crashes predicted result deaths around ''' million people annually ''' '''only countries''' representing million people


population vehicle registration estimated vehicle kilometres travelled various impact death trend oecd countries ref name bitregovau http wwwbitregovau publications ongoing files international iiipdf ref ksi according oecd 's ''international transport forum'' itf key figures among member states observer countries looked like following ref name irtad ref class wikitable sortable data sort type text country data sort type number deaths per br million inhabitants data sort type number deaths per br billion vehicle km data sort type number deaths per br registered vehicles data sort type number registered vehicles per inhabitants class unsortable seatbelt wearing rates front driver passenger rear adults children


class unsortable speed limit br urban rural motorways km h align right align right ''na'' align right align right align center align right align right align right align right align center align right align right align right align right align center align right align right align right align right align center ref group note name ref align right ref


align right align right align right align right align center winter summer align right align right align right align right align center ref group note name ref bad w align right align right align right align right align center limit align right align right ''na'' align right align right align center ref group note name ref


align right align right ''na'' align right align right align center align right align right align right align right align center ''na'' align right align right align right align right align center align right align right align right align right align center align right align right ''na'' align right align right align center


ref group note name ref bad w novice align right ref group note name align right ''na'' align right align right align center ' 'very low'' estimated ref group note name ref align right align right align right align right align center align right align right ''na'' align right align right align center winter align right align right ''na'' align right align right align center


''na'' ref group note name ref rain align right align right align right align right ref group note including motorised two wheelers ref align center align right align right ''na'' align right align right align center ''na'' ref group note name align right align right align right align right align center ref group note name align right align right align right align right align center


align right align right align right align right align center align right align right ''na'' align right align right align center align right align right ''na'' align right align right align center align right align right align right align right align center na align right align right ''na'' align right align right align center


align right align right align right align right align center align right align right align right align right align center motorways align right align right ''na'' align right align right align center ref group note name align right align right align right align right align center align right align right align right


align right align center align right align right align right align right align center align right align right align right align right align center set state set state set state ksi according oecd 's ''international transport forum'' itf irtad key figures members among member states observer countries looked like following ref name irtad ref class wikitable sortable data sort type text country


data sort type number deaths per br million br inhabitants br data sort type number deaths br per br billion vkm br motorways br data sort type number deaths per br billion vkm br data sort type number deaths per br br registered br vehicles br data sort type number registered br vehicles br per br inhabitants data sort type number seatbelt br wearing br rates br front br driver passenger data sort type number seatbelt br wearing br rates br rear adults children class unsortable speed limit br urban rural motorways km h br data sort type number general bac g l


br specific sections br br sections br dual carriageways br br wet novice c


br none recommended b adults expressways expressways


expressways drivers br passengers br br br gb br br gb nbsp mph nbsp mph nbsp mph br england br wales br northern ireland br br scotland drivers br passenger


eu estimated united states source ocde itf ref name irtad base de nes irtad casual age statsoecdorg indexaspxdatasetcode irtad casual age ref period killed days united states sources iihs united states sources nhtsa traveled distance effect countries safety computed mixing two metrics fatalities traveled distance establish fatalities traveled distance class wikitable usa fatalities vs vmt usa fatalities compared vmt us vmt increased fatalities remains stable variation br vmt decreased


fatalities decreased br since vmt increased fatalities increased us distance safely traveled fatalities increase distance increase source nhtsa uk fatalities vs vmt uk vmt compared fatalities till uk fatalities increased time traveled distance increased since fatalities decreased time traveled distance increased uk traveled distance fatalities regularly increased even traveled distance decreased


safety work membership advocate measures improve road safety infrastructure cooperation international organizations motoring advocacy groups including association british drivers uk speed camerasorg ref name sporg ref uk national motorists association usa canada argue strict enforcement speed limits necessarily result safer driving may even negative effect road safety general safe speed uk group set specifically campaign use speed cameras association british drivers also argues speed humps result increased air pollution increased noise pollution


even unnecessary vehicle damage together safer roads tsr coalition brings together global private sector companies across industries collaborate improving road safety tsr brings together members knowledge data technology global networks focus five road safety areas goal bringing greatest impact globally within local communities ralph nader put pressure car manufacturers book ''unsafe speed'' detailing resistance car manufacturers introduction safety features seat belts general reluctance spend money improving safety


map showing extent mesopotamia ''' pre history mesopotamia''' ranges earliest human occupation paleolithic period late antiquity history pieced together evidence retrieved archaeological excavations introduction writing late th millennium bc increasing amount historical sources paleolithic early neolithic periods parts upper mesopotamia occupied southern alluvium settled late neolithic period mesopotamia home many oldest major civilizations entering history early bronze age

Humanities
History
Ancient history
History of Mesopotamia


reason often dubbed cradle civilization short outline mesopotamia area fertile crescent circa bc main archaeological sites pre pottery neolithic period time area mesopotamia proper yet settled humans mesopotamia means rivers ancient greek oldest known occurrence name mesopotamia dates th century bc used designate land east euphrates north syria ref name finkelstein ref later generally applied lands euphrates tigris


thereby incorporating parts syria also almost iraq southeastern turkey ref name fosterpolingerfoster ref neighbouring steppes west euphrates western part zagros mountains also often included wider term mesopotamia ref name canard ref ref name wilkinson ref ref name matthews ref distinction usually made upper northern mesopotamia lower southern mesopotamia ref name miqueletal ref upper mesopotamia also known jezirah area euphrates tigris sources baghdad ref name canard lower mesopotamia area baghdad persian gulf ref name miqueletal modern


scientific usage term mesopotamia often also chronological connotation usually used designate area arab muslim conquests th century ad arabic names like syria jezirah iraq used describe region date ref name fosterpolingerfoster ref group nb page use mesopotamia widest geographical chronological sense ref chronology periodization two types chronologies distinguished relative chronology absolute chronology former establishes order phases periods cultures reigns whereas latter establishes absolute age expressed years archaeology relative


chronologies established carefully excavating archaeological sites reconstructing stratigraphy order layers deposited general newer remains deposited top older material absolute chronologies established dating remains layers found absolute dating methods methods include radiocarbon dating written record provide year names calendar dates combining absolute relative dating methods chronological framework built mesopotamia still incorporates many uncertainties also continues refined ref name matthews ref ref name vandemieroop ref framework many


prehistorical early historical periods defined basis material culture thought representative period periods often named site material recognized first time example case halaf ubaid jemdet nasr periods ref name matthews historical documents become widely available periods tend named dominant dynasty state examples ur iii old babylonian periods ref name vandemieroop ref reigns kings securely dated st millennium bc


increasingly large error margin toward nd rd millennia bc ref name vandemieroop chronology much third second millennia bc subject much debate based different estimates length periods still historical documents available called ultra long long middle short ultra short chronologies proposed various scholars varying much years dating specific periods despite problems middle chronology chronological framework continues used many recent handbooks archaeology history ancient near


east ref name vandemieroop ref name kuhrt ref ref name potts xxix ref ref name sagonazimansky ref study published high resolution radiocarbon dates turkey supporting dates nd millennium bc close proposed middle chronology ref group nb page use middle chronology ref prehistory pre pottery neolithic period overview g bekli tepe modern roof protect site weather alt roughly built stone walls surrounding shaped stone pillars modern steel walkway roof hilly landscape early neolithic human occupation mesopotamia like previous epipaleolithic period confined foothill zones taurus zagros mountains


upper reaches tigris euphrates valleys pre pottery neolithic ppna period bc saw introduction agriculture oldest evidence animal domestication dates transition ppna pre pottery neolithic b ppnb bc end th millennium bc transition documented sites like abu hureyra mureybet continued occupied natufian well ppnb ref name moore ref far earliest monumental sculptures circular stone buildings g bekli tepe southeastern turkey date ppna early ppnb represent


mesopotamia th th millennium bc centered around hassuna culture north halaf culture northwest samarra culture central mesopotamia ubaid culture southeast later expanded encompass whole region fertile crescent inhabited several distinct flourishing cultures end last ice age c bc beginning history one oldest known neolithic sites mesopotamia jarmo settled around bc broadly contemporary jericho levant atal h k anatolia well


early neolithic sites samarra tell halaf northern mesopotamia later settlements southern mesopotamia required complicated irrigation methods first eridu settled ubaid period culture farmers brought samarran culture north halaf culture northwestern mesopotamia pottery decorated abstract geometric patterns ornaments especially halaf culture also known clay fertility figurines painted lines clay around main material often modelled figures painted black decoration carefully crafted dyed pots especially jugs


bowls traded dyes iron oxide containing clays diluted different degrees various minerals mixed produce different colours hassuna culture northern mesopotamia hassuna culture neolithic archaeological culture northern mesopotamia dating early sixth millennium bc named type site tell hassuna iraq sites hassuna material found include tell shemshara samarra culture central mesopotamia female statuette samarra culture bc samarra culture chalcolithic archaeological culture northern mesopotamia roughly dated bce partially


name carterrobert carter robert philip graham 'deconstructing ubaid' carter robert philip graham eds ''beyond ubaid transformation integration late prehistoric societies middle east'' chicago oriental institute university chicago p ref northern expansion ubaid culture ref image uruk king priest bce portrait detailjpg caption similar portrait probable uruk king priest brimmed round hat large beard excavated uruk dated bc louvre museum footer north mesopotamia period runs


bc ref name carterrobert preceded halaf period halaf ubaid transitional period succeeded late chalcolithic period new period named northern ubaid distinguish proper ubaid southern mesopotamia ref name suz ref two explanations presented transformation first maintain invasion replacement halafians ubaidians however hiatus halaf northern ubaid excludes invasion theory ref name gorg ref name aker ref plausible theory halafian adoption ubaid culture ref name gorg ref ref name suz ref


agricultural production sheep goat pastoralism homogeneity jemdet nasr period across large area southern mesopotamia indicates intensive contacts trade settlements strengthened find sealing jemdet nasr lists number cities identified including ur uruk larsa early dynastic period golden helmet meskalamdug possible founder first dynasty ur th century bce entire early dynastic period generally dated bc according middle chronology bc according short chronology ref name pruss ref sumerians firmly


established mesopotamia middle th millennium bc archaeological uruk period although scholars dispute arrived hard tell sumerians might come sumerian language language isolate unrelated known language mythology includes many references area mesopotamia little clue regarding place origin perhaps indicating long time sumerian language identifiable initially logographic script arose last half th millennium bc rd millennium


bc urban centers developed increasingly complex societies irrigation means exploiting food sources used amass large surpluses huge building projects undertaken rulers political organization becoming ever sophisticated throughout millennium various city states kish uruk ur lagash vied power gained hegemony various times nippur girsu important religious centers eridu point also time gilgamesh semi historical king uruk subject famous ''epic gilgamesh'' bc logographic


script developed decipherable cuneiform syllabic script chronology main dominations chronology era particularly uncertain due difficulties understanding text understanding material culture early dynastic period general lack radiocarbon dates sites iraq also multitude city states makes confusing situation history past ''sumerian king list'' considered important historical source recent scholarship dismissed utility text point


used reconstruction early dynastic political history ref name ref banquet scene khafajah c bc enshakushanna uruk conquered sumer akkad hamazi followed eannatum lagash also conquered sumer methods force intimidation see stele vultures soon death cities rebelled empire fell apart time later lugal anne mundu adab created first short lived empire extend west mesopotamia least according historical accounts dated centuries later last native sumerian rule


sumer sargon akkad established supremacy lugal zage si akkadian gradually replaced sumerian spoken language mesopotamia somewhere around turn rd nd millennium bc exact dating matter debate ref name woods ref sumerian continued used sacred ceremonial literary scientific language mesopotamia st century ad akkadian empire map akkadian empire brown directions military campaigns conducted yellow arrows ur iii state brown influence sphere red akkadian period generally dated bc according


middle chronology bc according short chronology ref name pruss around bc sargon became ruler akkad northern mesopotamia proceeded conquer area stretching persian gulf modern day syria akkadians semitic people akkadian language came widespread use lingua franca period literacy remained sumerian language akkadians developed sumerian irrigation system incorporation large weirs diversion dams design facilitate reservoirs canals required transport water vast distances dynasty


continued around c bc reached zenith naram sin began trend rulers claim divinity akkadian empire lost power reign naram sin eventually invaded guti zagros mountains half century guti controlled mesopotamia especially south left inscriptions well understood guti hold loosened southern mesopotamia second dynasty lagash came prominence famous ruler gudea left many statues temples across sumer ur iii


period eventually guti overthrown utu hengal uruk various city states vied power power area finally went city state ur ur nammu founded ur iii empire bc conquered sumerian region son shulgi state control industry reached level never seen region shulgi may devised code ur nammu one earliest known law codes three centuries famous code hammurabi around bc power ur waned amorites came occupy much


area although sumer 's long standing rivals east elamites finally overthrew ur north assyria remained free amorite control end th century bc marked end city states ruling empires mesopotamia end sumerian dominance succeeding rulers adopted much sumerian civilization second millennium bc old assyrian period early history kingdom assyria little positively known assyrian king list mentions rulers going back rd nd century bc earliest king


named tudiya contemporary ibrium ebla appears lived mid rd century bc according king list tudiya concluded treaty ibrium use trading post levant officially controlled ebla apart reference trading activity nothing yet discovered tudiya succeeded adamu thirteen rulers nothing yet known early kings rd late st centuries bc recorded ''kings lived tents'' likely


semi nomadic pastoralist rulers nominally independent subject akkadian empire dominated region point period became fully urbanised founded ''city state'' ashur king named ushpia c bc credited dedicating temples ashur home city god around bc puzur ashur founded new dynasty successors shalim ahum ilushuma bc erishum bc ikunum bc sargon naram sin puzur ashur ii left inscriptions regarding building temples ashur adad


shamshi adad cylinder seal modern impression presentation scene ca bc isin larsa header align center caption align center total width image anubanini jpg caption original relief image anubanini extractedjpg caption components relief next two centuries called isin larsa period saw southern mesopotamia dominated amorite cities isin larsa two cities vied dominance period also marked growth power north mesopotamia assyrian king named ilushuma bc became


dominant figure mesopotamia raiding southern city states founding colonies asia minor eshnunna mari two amorite ruled states also became important north babylonia founded independent state amorite chieftain named sumuabum bc century founding minor relatively weak state overshadowed older powerful states isin larsa assyria elam however hammurabi bc bc amorite ruler babylon turned babylon major power eventually conquered mesopotamia beyond


famous law code conquests also famous due large amount records exist period reign death hammurabi first babylonian dynasty lasted another century half empire quickly unravelled babylon became small state amorite dynasty ended bc babylonia fell hittite king mursilis kassites took control unlike south mesopotamia native akkadian kings assyria repelled amorite advances th th centuries bc however


changed bc amorite king named shamshi adad usurped throne assyria although claiming descendency native assyrian king ushpia regarded interloper shamshi adad created regional empire assyria maintaining expanding established colonies asia minor syria son ishme dagan continued process however successors eventually conquered hammurabi fellow amorite babylon three amorite kings succeeding ishme dagan vassals hammurabi death native akkadian vice regent puzur sin overthrew amorites babylon period civil


war multiple claimants throne ensued ending succession king adasi c bc middle assyrian period empire middle assyrian period begins c bc ejection amorites babylonians assyria king called adasi nation remained relatively strong stable peace made kassite rulers babylonia assyria free hittite hurrian gutian elamite mitanni threat however period mitanni domination occurred mid th early th centuries bc ended eriba adad bc


successor ashur uballit completely overthrew mitanni empire founded powerful assyrian empire came dominate mesopotamia much ancient near east including babylonia asia minor iran levant parts caucasus arabia assyrian armies campaigning mediterranean sea caspian caucasus arabia empire endured bc death tiglath pileser period assyria became major power overthrowing mitanni empire annexing swathes hittite hurrian amorite land sacking dominating babylon canaan phoenicia becoming rival egypt


kassite dynasty babylon although hittites overthrew babylon another people kassites took capital c bc short chronology distinction longest lasting dynasty babylon reigning four centuries left records period unfortunately obscure unknown origin little language suggests language isolate although babylonia maintained independence period power near east mostly sat large wars fought levant egypt hittite


empire mitanni see well independent peoples region assyria participated wars toward end period overthrowing mitanni empire besting hittites phrygians kassites babylon however fight longstanding rival east elam related linguists dravidian languages modern india babylonia found assyrian elamite domination much later kassite period end elamites conquered babylon bringing period end hurrians cylinder sealca th th century bc mitanni


hurrians people settled northwestern mesopotamia southeast anatolia bc bc established medium sized empire mitanni ruling class temporarily made tributary vassals kings west making major threat pharaoh egypt overthrow assyria hurrian language related later urartian conclusive evidence two languages related others hittites bc hurrians reduced homelands asia minor power broken assyrians


hittites held status vassals hatti hittites western indo european people belonging linguistic centum group dominated asia minor modern turkey time capital hattusa hittites came conflict assyrians mid th th centuries bc losing territory assyrian kings period however endured finally swept aside phrygians conquered homelands asia minor phrygians prevented moving south mesopotamia assyrian king tiglath pileser hittites fragmented


number small neo hittite states endured region many centuries bronze age collapse records th th centuries bc sparse babylonia overrun new semitic settlers namely arameans chaldeans sutu assyria however remained compact strong nation continued provide much written record th century bc even worse babylonia inscriptions mesopotamia alone obscurity hittite empire fell beginning period records known egypt elam


time invasion upheaval many new people throughout near east north africa caucasus mediterranean balkan regions first millennium bc neo assyrian empire assyrian crown prince ca bc nineveh mesopotamia metropolitan museum art neo assyrian empire usually considered begun accession adad nirari ii bc lasting fall nineveh hands babylonians medes scythians cimmerians bc empire largest powerful world yet seen height assyria conquered th dynasty egypt expelled


assyrian empire descended series bitter civil wars allowing former vassals free cyaxares reorganized modernized median army joined king nabopolassar babylon allies together scythians overthrew assyrian empire destroyed nineveh bc final victory carchemish bc medes babylonians ruled assyria babylon media fell persian rule th century bc cyrus great two centuries achaemenid rule assyria babylonia flourished achaemenid assyria particular becoming major source manpower


army breadbasket economy mesopotamian aramaic remained ''lingua franca'' achaemenid empire much done assyrian times mesopotamia fell alexander great bc remained hellenistic rule another two centuries seleucia capital bc st century bc mesopotamia constant turmoil seleucid empire weakened parthia one hand mithridatic wars parthian empire lasted five centuries rd century ad succeeded sassanids constant wars


romans first parthians later sassanids western part mesopotamia passed roman empire christianity well mandeism entered mesopotamia st rd centuries ad flourished particularly assyria assuristan sassanid persian became center assyrian church east flourishing syriac christian tradition remains day number neo assyrian kingdoms arose particular adiabene sassanid empire byzantine mesopotamia finally fell rashidun army khalid ibn al walid arab islamic conquest mid th century ad


centuries bc parthian asuristan assyria nd century bc rd century ad osroene nd century bc rd century ad adiabene st nd centuries ad roman mesopotamia nd th centuries ad roman assyria nd century ad late antiquity sassanid asuristan assyria rd th centuries ad arab muslim conquest mesopotamia dissolution assyria ad see also history iraq history syria references citations notes references group nb bibliography reading


'''children 's geographies''' area study within human geography childhood studies involves researching places spaces children 's lives context children 's geographies branch human geography deals study places spaces children 's lives characterised experientially politically ethically ever since cultural turn geography recognition society homogenous heterogeneous characterized diversity differences subjectivities feminist geographers able strengthen need examination gender class race issues affecting women 'children'

Social science
Geography
Children'S Geographies


umbrella term encompassing children teenagers youths young people still relatively missing 'frame reference' complexities 'geographies' act theorizing children geographies ways research assumed ontological realities often frame 'children' 'adults' ways impose bi polar hierarchical developmental model reproduces enforces hegemony adult centered discourses children within knowledge production children 's geographies developed academic human geography since beginning although notable studies area date earliest work done


children 's geographies largely traced william bunge 's work spatial oppression children detroit toronto children deemed ones suffer oppressing adult framework social cultural political forces controlling urban built environment development emerged realisation previously human geography largely ignored everyday lives children obviously form significant section society specific needs capacities may experience world different ways thus children 's geographies part seen parallel


interest gender geography feminist geography much starting points gender blindness mainstream academic geography children 's geographies also shares many underpinning principles childhood studies called new social studies childhood sociology family namely childhood social construction scholars pay greater attention children 's voices agency although recent 'new wave' scholarship challenged principles kraftl ref name kraftl ref children 's geographies rests idea children social group share certain characteristics


experientially politically ethically significant worthy study pluralisation title intended imply children 's lives markedly different differing times places differing circumstances gender family class current developments children 's geographies attempting link frame analysing children 's geographies one requires multiple perspectives willingness acknowledge 'multiplicity' geographies children 's geographies sometimes coupled yet distinguished geographies childhood former interest everyday lives children


nature child geographical concepts family contexts society contexts gender variation aged based variation cultural variation children environment home school play neighbourhood street city country landscapes consumption cyberspace designing environments children children planners utopian visions environmental hazards traffic health environment accidents indirect experience place medium specific literature tv cyberspace social issues children 's fears parent 's fears children poverty deprivation work migration social hazards crime deviance citizenship agency environmental action local politics interest environment children 's geographical knowledge environmental cognition understanding physical environment mckendrick ref


name mckendrick http chdsagepubcom content mckendrick geography children annotated bibliography ref also methodologies researching children 's worlds ethics distinguished otherness childhood journal dedicated work subdiscipline children 's geographies give readers good idea growing range issues theories methodologies developing vibrant sub discipline another relevant journal children youth environments published interdisciplinary tri annual worldwide readership theoretical trends children 's geographies years critics argued scholarship


children 's geographies characterised lack theoretical diversity 'block politics' however since mid subdiscipline seen proliferation diversification theoretical work away social constructivist principles childhood studies new social studies childhood major influential trend development non representational theory children 's geographers especially scholars peter kraftl john horton matej blazek veronica pacini ketchabaw affrica taylor pauliina rautio kim kullman work shares many theoretical influences called 'new wave' childhood studies especially influence poststructural new materialist


species including domestic 'wild' animals vibrant 'common worlds' research collective http commonworldsnet brings together range scholars seek explore children 's lives entangled nonhumans ways challenge oppressive colonial neoliberal views human individuated subject somehow distanced 'nature' recently vibrant debate political value nonrepresentational approaches childhood scholars argue nonrepresentational theories encourage focus upon banal everyday ephemeral small scale expense understanding critically interrogating wider scaled longer standing processes marginalisation others argue


whilst valid nonrepresentational 'new wave' approaches extend beyond small scale offering useful cases fundamental ways critically creatively think ways research children 'common worlds' ref name kraftl second key conceptual trend work subjectivity children 's political geography emotion instance louise holt uses work judith butler critically examine emergence infant 'subject' power relations often gendered well infanthood stage lifecourse subject particular kinds


social construction elsewhere surge interest children 's political geographies extent informed developments nonrepresentational theory theories subjectivity central scholarship especially work tracey skelton kirsi pauliina kallio jouni hakli move beyond traditional concern children 's participation decision making processes highlight range ways may 'political' 'micropolitical' engagements ethnic social school street critical considerations major policy documents


relationships especially cut across policies designed intervene spaces parenting work therefore crucial linking together apparently small scale concerns intimate family life 'bigger' concerns government policy making school based interventions children environment since age range assumed constitute childhood quite vague within cumulative research children 's geographies evident multitude environments experience quite broad array spaces places experienced children includes restricted homes schools


playgrounds neighbourhoods streets cities countries landscapes consumption cyberspace environment noted multitude social geographers entail socio spatial aspect important note time recognition multiplicity term environment diverged converged social geography evolved valentine bowlby ref name valentine ref children school although schools relatively large institution society noted environment received little recognition comparison institutions health collins coleman ref name collins coleman ref collins


enabled technology olweus limber black washington trent harner pollock ref name olweus limber ref ref name black washington trent harner pollock http hppsagepubcom content black washington trent harner pollock translating olweus bullying prevention program real world practice ref school therefore place children learn quantifiable subjects also learning ground life interaction skills needed later research children 's geographies central development scholarship 'geographies education' many commentators work spans social geography cultural geography political geography urban geography


yet constitute identifiable subdiscipline human geography however geographers held enduring concern education spaces extending beyond school collins coleman identify work burgeoned recent years number special issues dedicated education emotion embodiment cultural geographies education yet holloway et al argue role significance children young people families underplayed debate geographies education argue children 's geographers undertaken huge range research schools work


central developing geographers' understandings education spaces widely schools particular institution although schools relatively large institution society noted environment received little recognition comparison institutions health collins coleman ref name collins coleman collins coleman also note centrality schools everyday life found almost ''every'' urban suburban neighbourhood children experience considerable time within environment day day lives implications home schooling


largely field assumptions taking common myths romanowki ref name romanowski ref although later work geographers examined considerable detail significance space place emotion materiality experiences homeschoolers variance public private sector institutions implications social status children within school community also contentious field nissan carter ref name nissan carter https doiorg fs nissan carter social identity schooling idequality ref whilst majority research children 's youth geographers education focussed institutions like schools


universities work challenged number ways scholarship geographies alternative education examining diverse range non state funded explicitly 'alternative' education spaces uk like homeschooling waldorf education montessori education forest school learning style care farming peter kraftl examines connections disconnections 'mainstream' 'alternative' education sectors drawing nonrepresentational children 's geographies peter kraftl explores alternative educators work intervene children 's bodily habits create spaces mess disorder valorised work conceptions 'nature' resonate


critically counter mainstream assumptions children 's disengagement 'nature' western societies see nature deficit disorder alternative educators attempting create 'alter childhoods' alternative constructions imaginations ways treating childhood knowingly different perceived mainstream relevance social interactions children grow look influential adults lives guidance parents caregivers teachers researchers adults alike agree communication key healthy child development across modal environments especially within schools lasky hargreaves hargreaves fullan hargreaves lasky ref


school based mentoring relationships ahrens et al however research disputes experience helpful claims suggesting child mentoring situations often fall short temporarily beneficial spencer pryce ref name pryce ref pryce 's research highlights attunement mentor 's needs highly dictates beneficial nature mentor relationship relevance technology introduction technology children 's lives provided new platform upon school environment longer contained within space place 's previous temporal geographical constrictions mobilized


identities children collins coleman ref name collins coleman whether connection seen create negative destructive social norms positive construction progressive values dependent one broader political moral compass collins hunter see also children 's culture children 's street culture cultural geography feminist geography home zone student transport references childhood human geography


'''tax policy''' choice government taxes levy amounts microeconomic macroeconomic aspects macroeconomic aspects concern overall quantity taxes collect inversely affect level economic activity one component fiscal policy microeconomic aspects concern issues fairness tax allocative efficiency ie taxes much distorting effect amounts various types economic activity country tax regime key policy instrument may negatively

Applied science
Public administration
Economic policy
Tax policy


positively influence country 's economy tax policies significant economic consequences national economy particular groups within economy eg households firms banks tax policies often designed intention stimulating economic growth although economists differ significantly policies effective fostering growth ref name ref taxation much political issue economic issue political leaders used tax policy promote agendas initiating various tax reforms decreasing increasing tax rates changing definition taxable income creating new taxes specific products forth


course one particularly wants pay taxes specific groups small business owners farmers retired individuals exert significant political effort reduce share tax burden tax codes packed rules benefit certain group taxpayers inevitably shifting burden others ref name main reasons taxation main reasons government needs levy taxes '''market failure''' mainly discourage purchases product tax creates disincentive consumers reduce purchases seek alternatives taxes create


incentives promoting desirable behaviour disincentives unwanted behaviour tax changes human behaviour thus influences market outcome example presence externalities want change market outcome reach social optimum otherwise deadweight loss externality cases policymakers implement excise taxes carbon tax etc ref name ref '''to generate revenue''' taxation important source government revenue ref name governments use tax revenue provide public services social security health care national defence education '''changing distribution income wealth'''


form compliance burdens '''transparency''' taxpayers must pay must pay clearly defined tax policies hiding tax burdens complex structures avoided changes tax code made careful consideration input open hearings '''neutrality''' taxes neither encourage discourage personal business decisions main purpose taxes raise needed revenue favor punish specific industries products activities '''stability''' consistency predictability tax code enacting temporary tax laws including


policies reduce economic growth efficiency goal maximize creating tax system aligned economic principles goals jurisdiction imposed tax philosophy policymakers debate nature tax structure plan implement ie progressive regressive might affect individuals businesses ie tax incidence reason focus economic efficiency advisor stuart king england richard petty noted government want kill goose lays golden egg


paradigmatic efficient taxes either nondistortionary lump sum however economists define distortion according substitution effect anything change relative prices nondistortionary one must also consider income effect tax policy purposes often needs assumed cancel aggregate efficiency loss depicted demand curve supply curve diagrams area inside harberger 's triangle national insurance united kingdom social security united states forms social welfare funded outside national


income tax systems paid worker contributions something labeled stealth tax critics administration implementation tax policy always tricky business example pre revolutionary colonial america argument taxation without representation resulted tax policy british crown taxed settlers offered say government recent american example president george h w bush 's famous tax policy quote read lips new taxes efficient tax administration encourage businesses become formally registered expanding tax base increasing revenues unfair tax administration


operating way increase incentives compliant taxpayers administrative costs modern taxation systems capacity impose heavy burden taxpayers particularly small business taxpayers burden typically consists three elements firstly taxes secondly efficiency costs variously referred deadweight losses excess burden finally administrative costs sometimes referred operating costs tax system ref name ref implementing new parts tax policy reorganizing policymakers always consider weight


administrative costs taxation two main types administrative costs direct administrative costs indirect administrative costs direct administrative costs direct administrative costs government side burden borne government allers p defines administrative costs costs incurred mainly public sector agents order administer tax benefit system goes note immediately obvious exactly activities attributed operation system p ref name administrative costs mainly connected running tax


collection office includes salaries staff costs legislative enactment relating tax system judicial costs administration tax dispute system many indirect administrative costs indirect administrative costs side taxpayers burden borne government tax compliance costs costs incurred taxpayers third parties businesses meeting requirements laid upon complying given structure level tax sandford godwin hardwick p ref name indirect administrative costs mainly connected


costs complying tax requirements includes costs labour time consumed completion tax activities filling forms record keeping fees paid professional tax advisers transfer pricing many equity vs efficiency equity efficiency tradeoff appears kind conflict maximizing equity maximizing economic efficiency trade equity efficiency heart many discussions tax policy two questions debated first disagreement nature trade reduce inequality much efficiency


give second disagreement relative value attributed reduction inequality compared reduction efficiency ref name people claim inequality central problem society society simply minimize extent inequality regardless consequences efficiency others claim efficiency central issue disagreements relate social choices equity efficiency equity equity divided two main groups horizontal equity vertical equity '''vertical equity''' vertical equity method taxation


tax person pays dependent burden tax create regard wealth individualvertical equity operates principal people higher incomes paying taxes progressive tax rates progressive taxation amount taxes paid increases incomein tax system people divided tax brackets tax bracket different tax rate high income brackets paying taxes taxation system effective tax rates increase incomefurthermore another possibility proportional tax method income charged


discrimination groundshorizontal equity constant topic tax policy discussions many countries cause several exemptions deductions special provisions efficiency efficiency economists equal concept pareto efficiency pareto efficiency means situation resource allocation concept 'net' dominant word basically need make someone worse order make others better efficiency seek efficiency necessary build decentralized market mechanism build mechanism tax system often seen


obstacle need think balance efficiency equity best point balance called 'pareto improvement' ideal answer reply question policies implemented social choice choices decision government one social choices social choice consists two elements first individual level second society 's level far individual level individual builds preference utility following budget 's constraint


make indifference curve say points curve matched pareto efficiency society 's level curve created seeing participants group group b curve becomes inverse proportional one common style pareto efficiency 's curve curve group 's utility get group b 's utility get increased relation like trade style typical example social indifference curve curves ways utilitarian way


rawlsian way introduce paragraph mentioned thinking way process social choice try take policies need measure net benefits different groups think project pareto improvement project net positive gains reduces measured inequality taken clear understand need points judge basically three ways compensation principle


society literally equal total amount welfare group group b rawlsian curve social indifference curve view rawlsian approach becomes l shape related rawls 's approach social justice approach state needs secure basic human rights economic basements deprivation think economic aspects rawls shows state gives minimum utility people approach welfare society equal welfare worst individual


trade relation certain utility changeable therefore curve approach becomes l shapes see also tax incidence tax law tax policy references


'''immunochemistry''' study chemistry immune system involves study properties functions interactions production chemical components antibodies immunoglobulins toxin epitopes proteins like cd antitoxins cytokines chemokines antigens immune system also include immune responses determination immune materials products immunochemical assays addition immunochemistry study identities functions components immune system immunochemistry also used describe application immune system components particular antibodies chemically labelled antigen molecules visualization various methods

Natural science
Chemistry
Immunochemistry


immunochemistry developed refined used scientific study virology molecular evolution immunochemical techniques include enzyme linked immunosorbent assay immunoblotting eg western blot assay precipitation agglutination reactions immunoelectrophoresis immunophenotyping immunochromatographic assay cyflometry one earliest examples immunochemistry wasserman test detect syphilis svante arrhenius also one pioneers field published ''immunochemistry'' described application methods physical chemistry study theory toxins antitoxins immunochemistry also studied aspect using antibodies label epitopes


interest cells immunocytochemistry tissues immunohistochemistry references branches immunology


'' 'sociology law''' '''legal sociology''' often described sub discipline sociology interdisciplinary approach within legal studies see sociology law belonging necessarily field sociology others tend consider field research caught disciplines law sociology still others regard neither subdiscipline sociology branch legal studies field research right within broader social science tradition accordingly may described without reference mainstream sociology systematic theoretically

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of law


traditions methods theories mainstream sociology lesser extent social sciences social anthropology political science social policy criminology psychology geography reflects social theories employs social scientific methods study law legal institutions legal behavior specifically sociology law consists various approaches study law society empirically examine theorise interaction law legal non legal institutions social factors areas socio legal inquiry include social development legal institutions forms social control legal regulation interaction legal


cultures social construction legal issues legal profession relation law social change often sociology law benefits research conducted within fields comparative law critical legal studies jurisprudence legal theory law economics law literature object jurisprudence focused institutional questions conditioned social political situations converge example interdisciplinary dominions criminology economic analysis law contributing stretch power legal norms also making impacts matter scientific concern intellectual


origins max weber roots sociology law traced back works sociologists jurists turn previous century relationship law society sociologically explored seminal works max weber mile durkheim writings law classical sociologists foundational entire sociology law today number scholars mainly jurists also employed social scientific theories methods attempt develop sociological theories law notably among leon petrazycki eugen ehrlich georges gurvitch


max weber called legal rational form type domination within society attributable people abstract norms understood body coherent calculable law terms rational legal authority coherent calculable law formed precondition modern political developments modern bureaucratic state developed parallel growth capitalism central development modern law formal rationalisation law basis general procedures applied equally fairly modern rationalised law also codified impersonal


societies high degree individual variation emphasis personal rights responsibilities durkheim law indicator mode integration society mechanical among identical parts organic among differentiated parts industrialized societies durkheim also argued sociology law developed alongside close connection sociology morals studying development value systems reflected law ''fundamental principles sociology law'' eugen ehrlich developed sociological approach study law focusing


social networks groups organized social life explored relationship law general social norms distinguished positive law consisting compulsive norms state requiring official enforcement living law consisting rules conduct people fact obeyed dominated social life latter emerged spontaneously people interacted form social associations subjected criticism advocates legal positivism jurist hans kelsen distinction law created state law produced organisational imperatives


non state social associations according kelsen ehrlich confused ''sein'' ''sollen'' ought however argued ehrlich distinguishing positive state law lawyers learn apply forms 'law' ehrlich called living law regulate everyday life generally preventing conflicts reaching lawyers courts leon petrazycki leon petrazycki distinguished forms official law supported state intuitive law consisting legal experiences turn consist complex psychic processes mind individual reference outside authorities petrazycki 's work addressed


sociological problems method empirical since maintained one could gain knowledge objects relationships observation however couched theory language cognitive psychology moral philosophy rather sociology consequently contribution development sociology law remains largely unrecognized example petrazycki 's intuitive law influenced development georges gurvitch 's concept social law see turn left mark socio legal theorising also work later socio legal scholars among directly inspired petrazycki 's work


polish legal sociologist adam podg recki theodor geiger developed close knit analysis marxist theory law highlighted law becomes factor social transformation democratic societies kind governed consent expressed universal suffrage population practised regular intervals geiger went develop salient characteristics antimetaphysical thinking exceeded practical nihilism geiger 's nihilism values paved way form legal nihilism encourages construction sober democracy capable raising conflict intellectual level


anaesthetising feelings aware inability make proclamation value ethics policy nature truth georges gurvitch interested fusion simultaneous manifestation law various forms various levels social interaction aim devise concept social law law integration cooperation gurvitch 's social law integral part general sociology also one early sociological contributions theory legal pluralism since challenged conceptions law based


single source legal political moral authority discipline sociology law early reception argentina local movement legal scholars steeming work carlos cossio south american researchers focused comparative law sociological insights constitutional law society human rights psycho social approaches legal practices sociological approaches study law modern sociology law sociology law became clearly established academic field learning empirical research second world war world war ii study law


central sociology although well known sociologists write role law society work talcott parsons instance law conceived essential mechanism social control response criticisms developed functionalism sociological perspectives law emerged critical sociologists developed perspective law instrument power however theorists sociology law philip selznick argued modern law became increasingly responsive society 's needs approached morally well still scholars


notably american sociologist donald black developed resolutely scientific theory law basis paradigm pure sociology nowiki pure science nowiki sociology law concentrated offenders ''functions'' consequences disorder violence criminality approached products physical social environment determined law morality education forms social organization turn applied science focused solution concrete problems given theoretical methodological shortcomings study causes effects particularly crime related


matters attention contemporary sociologists absorbed identification analysis ''risk factors'' eg turning children youth potential offenders ''protective factors'' tending bring normal personalities good community members equally broad orientation different autopoietic systems theory german sociologist niklas luhmann presents law legal system one ten ''function systems'' see functional differentiation society ref name roth schutz steffen roth anton schutz ''ten systems toward canon function systems'' ''cybernetics human knowing'' vol


vorversion verf gbar englisch https ssrncom abstract online auf ssrncom ref social philosopher j rgen habermas disagrees luhmann argues law better job 'system' institution' representing faithfully interests everyday people 'lifeworld' yet another sociological theory law lawyers pierre bourdieu followers see law social field actors struggle cultural symbolic economic capital develop reproductive professional ''habitus'' lawyer several continental european countries empirical research sociology law developed strongly


poland work adam podg recki associates often influenced petrazycki 's ideas especially notable sweden empirical research sociology law period pioneered especially per stjernquist norway vilhelm aubert recent years wide range theories emerged sociology law result proliferation theories sociology large among recent influences mentioned work french philosopher michel foucault german social theorist j rgen habermas feminism postmodernism deconstruction neo marxism


behaviorism variety theoretical influences sociology law also marked broader law society field multi disciplinary law society field remains popular disciplinary speciality field sociology law also better organized ever institutional professional respects law society law society american movement established second world war initiative mainly sociologists vested interest study law rationale law society movement subtly summed two short


degree autonomy empirical question moreover law society scholarship expresses deep concern impact laws society enter force concern either ignored addressed conventional legal scholarship establishment law society association ''law society review'' guaranteed continuity scholarly activities law society movement allowed members influence legal education policy making us one view main difference sociology law


law society latter limit theoretically methodologically sociology tries instead accommodate insights social science disciplines provides home sociologists social anthropologists political scientists interest law also tries incorporate psychologists economists study law another point view sociology law law society seen multi disciplinary trans disciplinary enterprises although sociology law special ties methods theories traditions sociology


number original empirical studies conducted law society scholars conflict dispute resolution early work william felstiner example focused alternative ways solve conflicts avoidance mediation litigation etc together richard abel austin sarat felstiner developed idea disputes pyramid formula naming blaming claiming refers different stages conflict resolution levels pyramid sociological jurisprudence sociology law usually distinguished sociological jurisprudence form jurisprudence latter primarily concerned contributing directly social science


instead engages directly juristic debates involving legal practice legal theory sociological jurisprudence focuses juristic attention variation legal institutions practices social sources effects legal ideas draws intellectual resources social theory relies explicitly social science research understanding evolving forms regulation cultural significance law pioneer form developed united states louis brandeis roscoe pound influenced work pioneer legal sociologists austrian jurist eugen ehrlich russian french sociologist georges gurvitch


although distinguishing different branches social scientific studies law allows us explain analyse development sociology law relation mainstream sociology legal studies argued potentially artificial distinctions necessarily fruitful development field whole view social scientific studies law transcend theoretical empirical limits currently define scope need go beyond artificial distinctions socio legal studies 'socio legal studies' uk grown mainly interest law schools


promoting interdisciplinary studies law whether regarded emerging discipline sub discipline methodological approach often viewed light relationship oppositional role within law therefore confused legal sociology many west european countries law society scholarship us foster much stronger disciplinary ties social sciences past presented applied branch sociology law criticised empiricist atheoretical max travers example regards socio legal studies subfield social


policy 'mainly concerned influencing serving government policy provision legal services' adds given aspirations develop general theories policy process notable practitioners socio legal studies include professor carol smart co director morgan centre study relationships personal life named sociologist david morgan well professor mavis maclean john eekelaar joint directors oxford centre family law policy oxflap '''socio legal methods investigation''' sociology law methods investigation


developed specifically conducting socio legal research instead employs wide variety social scientific methods including qualitative quantitative research techniques explore law legal phenomena positivistic well interpretive discourse analysis ethnographic approaches data collection analysis used within socio legal field sociology law britain sociology law small developing sub field british sociology legal scholarship time campbell wiles wrote review law society research unfortunately despite initial promise remained small


field empirical sociological studies published year nevertheless excellent studies representing variety sociological traditions well major theoretical contributions two popular approaches interactionism marxism '''symbolic interactionism marxism''' interactionism become popular america politically radical alternative structural functionalism instead viewing society system regulating controlling actions individuals interactionists argued sociology address people particular situations understood actions


sociology deviance included topics crime homosexuality mental illness became focus theoretical debates functionalists portrayed crime problem managed legal system labeling theorists contrast focused process law making enforcement crime constructed problem number british sociologists researchers law schools drawn ideas writing law crime influential sociological approach period however marxism claimed offer scientific comprehensive understanding society whole


way structural functionalism although emphasis struggle different groups material advantage rather value consensus approach caught imagination many people left wing political views law schools also generated interesting empirical studies included historical studies particular statutes used advance interests dominant economic groups also pat carlen 's memorable ethnography combined analytic resources marxism interactionism especially sociology erving goffman writing magistrates' courts '''the oxford centre socio legal studies''' also fruitful


time empirical sociology law britain mainly donald harris deliberately set create conditions fruitful exchange lawyers sociologists university oxford centre socio legal studies fortunate enough recruit number young talented social scientists including j maxwell atkinson robert dingwall interested ethnomethodology conversation analysis sociology professions doreen mcbarnet became something cult figure left publishing doctoral thesis advanced particularly clear vigorous marxist analysis criminal


first conversation analytic study courtroom interaction using transcripts coroner 's hearings northern ireland another area interest developed oxford period sociology professions robert dingwall philip lewis edited remains interesting theoretically diverse collection bringing together specialists sociology law medicine best known study date however published american scholar richard abel employed ideas concepts functionalist marxist weberian sociology explain high incomes status british lawyers enjoyed twentieth century '''recent


developments''' since relatively empirical studies law legal institutions conducted british sociologists ie studies empirical time engage theoretical concerns sociology however exceptions begin sociology law along many areas academic work enlivened renewed engagement feminism great deal interest implications foucault 's ideas governmentality understanding law also continental thinkers niklas luhmann pierre bourdieu one argue


rather fewer empirical studies produced one might hoped great deal interesting work published second exception found works researchers employed resources ethnomethodology symbolic interactionism studying legal settings type research clearly sociological rather socio legal research continually engages debate theoretical traditions sociology max travers' doctoral thesis work firm criminal lawyers took sociologists especially marxists task addressing respecting lawyers clients


understand actions standard argument used ethnomethodologists debates structural traditions discipline also however explored issues raised legal thinkers critique structural traditions sociology law extent social science address content legal practice despite relatively limited developments recent empirical research theoretical debates sociology law important british literature recent decades contributions david nelken exploring problems comparative sociology law potential idea legal cultures roger cotterrell seeking


develop new view relations law community replace sees outdated 'law society' paradigms scholars david schiff richard nobles examining potential luhmannian systems theory extent law seen autonomous social field rather intimately interrelated aspects social also significant burgeoning field socio legal research regulation governmentto british scholars prominent contributors devising sociological concept law contrast traditional understanding law


see separate entry law sociology law normally view define law system rules doctrine decisions exist independently society emerged rule based aspect law admittedly important provides inadequate basis describing analysing understanding law societal context thus legal sociology regards law set institutional practices evolved time developed relation interaction cultural economic socio political structures institutions modern social system law


voluntary actors equal free degree abstraction rules legal principles increases constantly system acquires autonomy control dynamics allowing normative order society manage without religious legitimation authority customs modern societies law thus distinguished autonomy relation politics religion nonlegal institutions academic disciplines set fixed rules thanks power state acquires binding force remains effective imposing norms conduct individuals social groups entire societies


eugen ehrlich 's concept living law georges gurvitch 's social law standpoint law understood broadly include legal system formal official legal institutions processes also various informal unofficial forms nomativity regulation generated within groups associations communities sociological studies law thus limited analysing rules institutions legal system interact social class gender race religion sexuality social categories also focus internal normative orderings various groups communities


community lawyers businessmen scientists members political parties members mafia interact short law studied integral constitutive part social institutions groupings communities approach developed section legal pluralism non western sociology law interest sociology law continues widespread western countries important research produced indian scholars find limited amount socio legal work researchers example middle east central northern parts africa


thus global spread sociological studies law appears uneven concentrated industrialised nations democratic political systems sense global expansion legal sociology taking place uniformly across national boundaries appears correlate combination factors national wealth poverty form political organisation well historical factors growth welfare state however none factors alone explain disparity contemporary perspectives legal pluralism legal pluralism concept developed legal sociologists social anthropologists describe multiple layers


law usually different sources legitimacy exist within single state society also defined situation two legal systems coexist social field legal pluralists define law broadly include system courts judges backed coercive power state also non legal forms normative ordering legal pluralism consists many different methodological approaches concept embraces diverse often contested perspectives law ranging recognition different legal orders within nation state


reflect legal experience take account lawyers' perspectives law thus pluralist approach legal theory likely recognise lawyers typically recognize law may see law one species larger genus treat lawyers' conception law reflecting particular perspectives determined particular objectives autopoiesis humberto maturana francisco varela originally coined concept autopoiesis within theoretical biology describe self reproduction living cells self reference concept later borrowed reconstructed sociological terms introduced sociology law niklas luhmann


information understanding constitutes social systems recursively reproducing communication sociologically radical thesis raises fear dehumanised theory law society attempts highlight fact social systems constituted communication according roger cotterrell luhmann treats theory basis general sociological analysis social systems mutual relations theoretical claims law 's autonomy powerful postulates presented advance even perhaps place kind detailed empirical study social legal change comparatists legal sociologists


likely favour postulates autopoiesis theory much guide empirical research explain conclusively interpret whatever research may discover legal cultures legal culture one central concepts sociology law study legal cultures may time regarded one general approaches within sociology law concept refers relatively stable patterns legally oriented social behaviour attitudes regarded subcategory concept culture relatively new concept


legal culture sociology law friedman legal culture refers public knowledge attitudes behaviour patterns toward legal system also consist bodies custom organically related culture whole friedman stresses plurality legal cultures points one explore legal cultures different levels abstraction eg level legal system state country community friedman also known introducing distinction internal external legal cultures somewhat oversimplified former refers general


taking provisions specialist advice services women 's groups played role making law accessible need subjecting legal concepts methods critical analysis feminists questioned terms legal debate globalization globalization often defined terms economic processes bring radical cultural developments level world society although law essential ingredient process globalization important studies law globalization already conducted example yves dezalay bryant garth volkmar gessner law 's importance


creating maintaining globalization processes often neglected within sociology globalization remain arguably somewhat underdeveloped within sociology law pointed halliday osinsky economic globalization cannot understood apart global business regulation legal construction markets increasingly depends cultural globalization cannot explained without attention intellectual property rights institutionalized law global governance regimes globalization protections vulnerable populations cannot comprehended without tracing impact international criminal humanitarian law international tribunals global contestation institutions


series'' ati spain since http opoiisjnet indexphp osls index ''revista brasileira de sociologia direito'' brasil since http revistaabrasdcombr indexphp rbsd index ''revue interdisciplinaire d' tudes juridiques'' brussels belgium since ''social legal studies'' london united kingdom since http slssagepubcom ''sociologia del diritto'' milan italy since http wwwfrancoangeliit riviste sommarioaspidrivista ''zeitschrift f r rechtssoziologie'' german journal law society http wwwdegruytercom view j zfrs research centres american bar foundation http wwwlawbuffaloedu baldycenter baldy center law social policy http wwwabrasdcombr brazilian sociology law association abrasd brazil http wwwsoclawluse oois sociology law institute lund university sweden http wwwunigech droit cetel centre d' tude de technique et d' valuation l gislatives universit de gen http wwwlawedacuk cls centre law society school


law university edinburgh http wwwuctacza depts slr centre socio legal research university cape town south africa http wwwcslsorgza centre socio legal studies university natal south africa http wwwcslsoxacuk center socio legal studies university oxford http lawberkeleyedu centers csls center study law society california berkeley usa http wwwealleu european academy law legislation http wwwfljsorg foundation law justice society wolfson college oxford http wwwuclacuk laws global law institute global law http wwwmeijiacjp dai law support html english e indexhtml institute law social sciences meiji university tokyo japan http wwwlawwiscedu ils institute legal studies university wisconsin usa http wwwiisjnet international institute sociology law ati


http wwwnewcastleeduau school law jprc indexhtml justice policy research centre university newcastle australia https webarchiveorg web http wwwu paris fr fiche laboratoire rh dlabo laboratoire de sociologie juridique panth assas university http wwwuoweduau law lirc legal intersections research centre university wollongong australia http opjcesucpt portugues apresentacao observat rio permanente da justi portuguesa coimbra http wwwspswoxacuk fileadmin static oxflap oxford centre family law policy uk http wwwkeeleacuk research lpj indexhtm research institute law politics justice keele university see also vilhelm aubert erhard blankenburg jean carbonnier roger cotterrell mile durkheim eugen ehrlich william lf felstiner lawrence friedman theodor geiger volkmar gessner niklas luhmann henry james sumner maine bronis aw malinowski david nelken adam podg recki roscoe pound philip selznick per stjernquist renato treves william graham sumner


nicholas timasheff max weber notes references abel richard l redirecting social studies law ''law society review'' agersnap torben theodor geiger pioneer sociology denmark ''acta sociologica'' vol pp nbsp arnaud andr jean carbonnier jean ''encyclopedia law society american global perspectives'' thousand oaks sage arnaud andr jean vittorio olgiati ''on complexity socio legal studies european examples'' ati proceedings atkinson j maxwell paul drew ''order court organisation verbal interaction courtroom settings'' london macmillan aubert vilhelm ed ''sociology


law'' london penguin aubert vilhelm ''continuity development law society'' oslo norwegian university press aubert vilhelm law way resolving conflicts case small industrialized society laura nader ed ''law culture society'' chicago aldine publishing company banakar reza ''normativity legal sociology methodological reflections law regulation late modernity'' heidelberg springer banakar reza max travers eds ''law social theory'' oxford hart publishing banakar r sociology law industrialisation globalisation ''sociopediaisa'' u westminster school law


research paper available ssrn https ssrncom abstract banakar r integrating reciprocal perspectives georges gurvitch 's theory immediate jural experience ''canadian journal law society'' available ssrn https ssrncom abstract banakar r sociological jurisprudence r banakar travers eds ''introduction law social theory'' oxford hart banakar reza law sociology 's looking glass conflict competition sociological studies law ''the new isa handbook contemporary international sociology conflict competition cooperation'' ann denis devorah kalekin fishman eds london sage e copy available https ssrncom abstract banakar reza politics


legal cultures ''retf rd nordic journal law justice'' available ssrn https ssrncom abstract banakar r sociological jurisprudence ''encyclopedia law society american global perspectives'' thousand oaks sage banakar r travers law sociology method ''theory method socio legal research'' pp nbsp edited banakar r travers oxford hart publishing banakar r ''merging law sociology beyond dichotomies socio legal research'' berlin wisconsin galda wilch banakar r max travers ''introduction law social theory'' oxford hart publishing barzilai gad ''communities


law moral domain'' stanford university press cotterrell roger sociology law ''encyclopedia law society american global perspectives'' thousand oaks sage cotterrell roger ''law culture society legal ideas mirror social theory'' aldershot ashgate cotterrell roger ''the sociology law introduction'' oxford oxford university press cotterrell roger ''law 's community legal theory sociological perspective'' oxford clarendon press cotterrell roger ''living law studies legal social theory'' aldershot ashgate cotterrell roger ''sociological jurisprudence juristic thought social inquiry'' new york london routledge cotterrell roger ed


''law social theory'' aldershot ashgate cotterrell roger ed ''sociological perspectives law'' vols aldershot ashgate czarnota adam podg recki adam ''encyclopedia law society american global perspectives'' thousand oaks sage dalberg larsen j rgen ''the unity law illusion'' berlin galda wilch verlag deflem mathieu ''sociology law visions scholarly tradition'' cambridge cambridge university press http wwwsocoflawnet deflem mathieu sociological theories law pp nbsp ''encyclopedia law society american global perspectives'' edited david clark thousand oaks ca sage publications http deflemblogspotcom sociological theories law html dezalay yves bryant g garth ''dealing


virtue international commercial arbitration construction transnational legal order'' chicago series law society deva ed sociology law new delhi oxford university press durkheim emile ''the division labour society'' transl w halls london macmillan orig ''de la division du travail social'' ehrlich eugen ''fundamental principles sociology law'' cambridge harvard university press orig ''grundlegung der soziologie des recht'' feest johannes david nelken ''adapting legal cultures'' oxford hart felstiner w abel r sarat emergence transformation


disputes naming blaming claiming coauthored richard abel austin sarat ''law society review'' ferrari v sociology law theoretical introduction ferrari v uusitalu p two lectures sociology law pp nbsp helsinki university helsinki sociology law series ferrari vincenzo ed ''developing sociology law world wide documentary enquiry'' milano giuffr ferrari v treves renato ''encyclopedia law society american global perspectives'' thousand oaks sage fletcher ruth feminist legal theory reza banakar max travers introduction


law social theory oxford hart publishing flood john socio legal ethnography theory method socio legal research r banakar travers hart publishing oxford flood john barristers' clerks journal legal profession flood john ''barristers' clerks law 's middlemen'' manchester manchester university press friedman l context convergence remarks law society movement ''law context'' friedman l law society movement stanford law review friedman l ''the legal system social


science perspective'' new york russell sage foundation friedman l rogelio perez perdomo eds ''legal culture age globalization latin america latin europe'' stanford university press friedman l ''american law th century'' new yale university press galanter marc justice many rooms courts private ordering indigenous law ''journal legal pluralism unofficial law'' gessner volkmar ali cem budak ''emerging legal certainty empirical studies globalization law'' onati international series law society ghezzi l un precursore del nichilismo giuridico


theodor geiger e l'antimetafisica sociale sociologia del diritto issue griffiths john legal pluralism ''journal legal pluralism'' griffiths ann legal pluralism banakar travers halliday terence c pavel osinsk globalization law ''annual review sociology'' hammerslev ole ''encyclopedia law society american global perspectives'' thousand oaks sage hunt alan ''explorations law society'' new york routledge hunt alan wickham gary ''foucault law towards sociology law governance'' london pluto press hyd n h kan sociology


studentlitterature munger frank mapping law society sarat ed ''crossing boundaries'' northwestern university press nelken david ''beyond law context'' asghate nelken david culture legal clark david ed ''encyclopedia law society american global perspectives'' london sage pp nbsp nelken david using concept legal culture ''australian journal legal philosophy'' vol nobles richard david schiff ''a sociology jurisprudence'' oxford hart nobles richard david schiff ''observing law systems theory'' oxford hart nonet philippe philip selznick ''law society transition toward


responsive law'' new york octagon books olgiati vittorio pluralism legal ''encyclopedia law society american global perspectives'' thousand oaks sage olgiati vittorio notion legal pluralism theoretical assessment ''societas communitas'' petrazycki leon ''law morality'' cambridge harvard university press podg recki adam ''a sociological theory law'' milano dott giuffre editore podg recki adam unrecognized father sociology law leon petrazycki ''law society review'' podg recki adam ''knowledge opinion law'' london robertson podg recki adam ''law society'' london routledge pound roscoe


sociology law sociological jurisprudence ''university toronto law journal'' rottleuthner h ''la sociologie du droit en allemagne'' rottleuthner h ''rechtstheoritische probleme der sociologie des rechts'' rumble wilfrid e jr legal realism sociological jurisprudence mr justice holmes ''journal history ideas'' pp nbsp https wwwjstororg stable jstor santos boaventura de sousa ''toward new legal common sense'' london butterworths sarat austin ed ''blackwell companion law society'' malden mass oxford blackwell scuro neto p ''sociologia ativa e tica'' paulo saraiva scuro neto p ''sociologia geral


e jur dica'' paulo saraiva th ed scuro neto p ''sociologia geral e jur dica'' paulo saraiva th ed selznick p sociology law ''sociology today'' edited robert merton et al new york harper row selznick p ''law society industrial justice'' new york russell sage foundation simon jonathan law society ''law social inquiry'' stjernquist per en aspekt p r ttssociologisk forskning ''tidskrigt f r r ttssociologi'' tamanaha b folly 'social scientific' concept legal pluralism ''journal od law


society'' thomas p socio legal studies case disappearing fleas bustards phil thomas ed ''socio legal studies'' pp nbsp aldershot dartmouth teubner gunther ''global law without state'' dartmouth timasheff nicholas ''an introduction sociology law'' westport greenwood press reprint tomasic roman ''the sociology law'' london sage publications travers max ''understanding law society'' london travers sociology law britain american sociologist travers ''law action reality law work talk firm criminal lawyers''


aldershot ashgate trevino javier ''the sociology law classical contemporary perspectives'' new york st martin 's press reissued new introduction new brunswick nj transaction publishers trevino javier ed ''talcott parsons law legal system'' newcastle cambridge scholars publishing van klink bart facts norms unfinished debate eugen ehrlich hans kelsen available ssrn https ssrncom abstract woodman g r possibilities co existence religious laws laws mehdi r ''et al'' eds ''law religion multucultural societies'' copenhagen djof publishing ziegert klaus


thick description law introduction niklas luhmann 's theory operatively closed systems r banakar travers eds ''an introduction law social theory'' oxford hart publishing ziegert klaus sociology behind eugen ehrlich 's sociology law ''international journal sociology law'' zippelius reinhold ''grundbegriffe der rechts und staatssoziologie'' rd ed bingen mohr siebeck external links nordic journal law justice http wwwretfaerdorg zeitschrift f r rechtssoziologie http wwwluciusverlagcom zeitschriften ztschr rechtssoziologie zeitschrift fuer rechtssoziologiehtm journal law society http wwwwileycom bw journalaspref x http wwwasanetorg cs root leftnav sections section pages section sociology law american sociological association section sociology law http wwwisa sociologyorg rc htm international sociological association research committee


sociology law rc http wwwsocoflawnet socoflawnet website mathieu deflem 's ''sociology law'' cambridge university press http wwwslsaacuk socio legal studies association http wwwlawandsocietyorg law society association http fljsorg foundation law justice society jurisprudence


anti terrorism raju memorial sculpture university dhaka bangladesh '''sociology terrorism''' field sociology seeks understand terrorism social phenomenon field defines terrorism studies occurs evaluates impacts society sociology terrorism draws fields political science history economics psychology sociology terrorism differs critical terrorism studies emphasizing social conditions enable terrorism also studies individuals well states respond events concept sociology terrorism field views terrorism social

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of terrorism


approached basis disciplinary insights theoretical methodological thematic respects history pre september attacks september attacks researchers became interested various sociological traditions related terrorism like moral panic organizational response media coverage counter terrorism comprehensive study definition terrorism comes weinberg pedahzur hirsch hoefler examined definitions terrorism articles concluded terrorism politically motivated tactic involving threat use force violence pursuit publicity plays significant role however weinberg ''et al''


point definitions terrorism often ignore symbolic aspects terrorism sociology unique vantage point assess terror due focus symbolism post september attacks since september attacks mathieu deflem university south carolina se costanza central connecticut state university john c kilburn jr texas international university among sociologists call development sub field sociology related terrorism common topics part discourse sociology terrorism include military spending counter terrorism immigration privacy issues israeli palestinian conflict within


contexts questions power definition terrorism propaganda nationality media etc deliberated upon also imputed link religion terrorism became another hot topic among sociologists social psychologists methods study researchers proposed different focus areas guide sociological study terrorism much terrorism research focuses preventing reacting terrorism events turk tosini highlight importance defining terrorism ref name doiorg ref turk explains parties define terrorism impacts public 's understanding terrorism ref name doiorg intentional choice government chooses call group terrorist


group defining terrorism define major focus area sociology terrorism researchers also study terrorism communication socialization terrorism communication focuses terrorism indicator group individual communicating frustration policy aspect society ref name doiorg researchers focus terrorists socialized researchers look understand conditions lead people opt terrorist acts ref name doiorg research whether terrorism independent dependent variable influences study terrorism often dependent variable hypotheses researchers look


see causes terrorism young gurr argue valuable make terrorism independent variable ref name doiorg terrorism independent variable focuses presence acts terrorism impact society recent research field public terrorism society reacts understands terrorism core research question sociology terrorism article ''how public defines terrorism'' huff kertzer conducted conjoint experiment understand influences individual define event terrorism found type act ie shooting bomb casualties


background information actor significant influence ref name huff c ref background information included religion nationality politics motivation act huff kertzer argue media public figures control type background information provided public ref name huff c media elite framing effect may influence public perceptions terrorism ref name huff c policing citizens early peer reviewed literature september attacks examined policing citizen responses terror september attacks also examined interactions first responders police rescue teams etc communities ramirez


hoopes quinlan rightly predicted police organizations would change fundamental styles profiling people police agencies would alter mission statements september attacks strong reason believe even smallest local police agencies apt feel kind pressure deal issue terrorism sociologists legal scholars contemplated potential consequences aggressive militaristic policing terror threats may negative implications human rights great interest sociologists matter social justice instance


peer reviewed article ''crouching tiger phantom dragon examining discourse global cyber terror'' helms costanza johnson ask possible media hype national level could prompt unnecessary systemic pursuit cyberterrorism warn overreaction might lead killswitch policy could give federal government ultimate power internet moral panic recent work sociology terrorism field philosophical reflective focused issues moral panic spending september attacks costanza kilburn article


entitled ''symbolic security moral panic public sentiment toward sociology counterterrorism'' argued issue symbolism much importance understanding war terror using classic symbolic interactionist perspective argue strong public sentiment homeland security issue driven policy superficial threats real concrete threats others argue symbolism led agency policy hypervigilance agency decision making costly untestable assessing homeland security measures despite quantitative lean modern sociology kilburn costanza borgeson metchik point


mean transgression socially established norms range minor slamming door someone 's face major terrorist act thus terrorism deviant behavior functionalism sees terrorism form crime temporary deviation normal goings society way functional society ref name auto ref sociologist utilizes structural functionalism would explain existence social phenomena function perform therefore terrorism functional joins individuals together opposition brings sense belonging group opposing feeling group


solidarity would help prevent ''anomie'' stage people need follow norms society order survive society ref name auto theories talcott parsons also shaped thinking within structural functionalism case one students named n luhmanns luhmanns' social system theory example modern society textbook example functionality differentiated society many distinctive sub systems functionally evolved compared previous historical less differentiated societies hunting gathering agricultural horticultural pastoral societies etc often much smaller traditionally


based operated mechanical forms social solidarity according emile durkheim luhmann carefully describes evolution system differentiation one published articles highlights three different kinds differentiation including ''segmentation'' based equal subsystems resembles form village settlement environmental conditions sources inequality yet whole structure society ''stratification'' hand clearly made unequal sub system inequality based either rank status stratified system hierarchy


good example stratified system feudal society middle ages europe ''functional differentiation'' hand differentiated advanced example modern advanced industrial societies reached social complexity numerous sub systems still multiple expand compared capacities available stratified segmented societies another earlier classical use functional analysis also found applying emile durkheims classic book division labor earliest simplified societies characterized based mechanical


solidarity ascribed status orientation whereas modern societies based organic solidarity achieved status orientation rapid transition mechanical solidarity towards organic solidarity often seen something negative among traditional fundamentalist sub groups preferred ascribed oriented religion class race sex segregated achieved status individual merit performance oriented society based organic solidarity short examples might forms religious fundamentalism emergence violent terrorist groups eg boko haram isis examples anti modern counter movements unable fit functionally differentiated society brings


social complexity secularization individualization example terrorist group located nigeria known boko haram believes girls permitted go school forced fixed ascribed status rather open achieved status oriented society opportunity school achieve success regardless gender example terrorism egoistic altruistic anomic suicidal homicides example utilizing functionalist durkheimian approach towards explaining social phenomenon modern terrorism sometimes made going back durkheims' original study suicide france