quite clear laissez faire label inappropriate one us industrial policy explicitly presented first time jimmy carter administration august subsequently dismantled election ronald reagan following year historically growing consensus developed countries including united kingdom united states germany france intervened actively domestic economy industrial policies early examples followed interventionist isi strategies pursued latin american countries brazil mexico argentina recently rapid growth


east asian economies newly industrialized countries nics also associated active industrial policies selectively promoted manufacturing facilitated technology transfer industrial upgrading success state directed industrialization strategies often attributed developmental states strong bureaucracies japanese miti according princeton 's atul kohli reason japanese colonies south korea developed rapidly successfully japan exporting colonies centralised state development used develop precisely speaking south korea 's development explained fact

Applied science
Public administration
Economic policy
Industrial policy


followed similar industrial policies uk us germany implemented south korea adopted export oriented industrialization eoi policy based decision contrary import substitution industrialization isi policy touted international aid organizations experts time many domestic policy choices however seen detrimental free trade hence limited various international agreements wto trims trips instead recent focus industrial policy shifted towards promotion local business clusters integration global value chains reagan administration


economic development initiative called project socrates initiated address us decline ability compete world markets project socrates directed michael sekora resulted computer based competitive strategy system made available private industry public private institutions impact economic growth competitiveness trade policy key objective socrates utilize advanced technology enable us private institutions public agencies cooperate development execution competitive strategies without violating existing laws compromising spirit free market president reagan


satisfied objective fulfilled socrates system advances innovation age technology socrates would provide voluntary systematic coordination resources across multiple economic system institutions including industry clusters financial service organizations university research facilities government economic planning agencies view one us president socrates team technology made virtually possible exist simultaneously industrial policy vs free market debate continued later george h w bush administration socrates labeled industrial policy de funded following financial crisis


many countries around world including us uk australia japan countries european union adopted industry policies however contemporary industry policy generally accepts globalization given focuses less decline older industries growth emergent industries often involves government working collaboratively industry respond challenges opportunities china prominent case central subnational governments participate nearly economic sectors processes even though market mechanisms gained importance state guidance state directed investment


indicative planning plays substantial role economy order catch even overtake industrialized countries technologically china 's state activities even extend efforts prevent dominance foreign investors technologies areas considered key significance strategic industries new technologies including robotics new energy vehicles criticism main criticism industrial policy arises concept government failure industrial policy seen harmful governments lack required information capabilities incentives successfully determine whether benefits promoting certain sectors


others exceeds costs turn implement policies east asian tigers provided successful examples heterodox interventions protectionist industrial policies industrial policies import substitution industrialization isi failed many regions latin america sub saharan africa governments making decisions regard electoral personal incentives captured vested interests leading industrial policies supporting local rent seeking political elites distorting efficient allocation resources market forces debates process despite criticism consensus recent development theory says state interventions


may necessary market failures occur market failures often exist form externalities natural monopolies market failures may hinder emergence well functioning market corrective industrial policies required ensure allocative efficiency free market even relatively skeptical economists recognize public action boost certain development factors beyond market forces would generate practice interventions often aimed regulating networks public infrastructure r correcting information asymmetries one question kinds industrial policy effective promoting economic development


example economists debate whether developing countries focus comparative advantage promoting mostly resource labor intensive products services invest higher productivity industries may become competitive longer term debate also surrounds issue whether government failures pervasive severe market failures argue lower government accountability capabilities higher risk political capture industrial policies may economically harmful existing market failures particular relevance developing countries conditions industrial policies may also contribute poverty


reduction focus specific industries promotion linkages larger companies smaller local enterprises see also green industrial policy chaebol developmental state import substitution industrialization infant industry argument ministry international trade industry lucas plan references sources dobbin frank forging industrial policy united states britain france railway age cambridge cambridge university press koh jae myong ''green infrastructure financing institutional investors ppps bankable projects'' london palgrave macmillan external links http webworldbankorg wbsite external wbi wbiprograms kfdlp contentmdk pagepk pipk thesitepk html new industrial innovation policy world


bank institute https webarchiveorg web http wwwmericsorg en merics analysis chinas political system china 's political system https wwwmericsorg de mercator institute china studies http wwwmckinseycom mgi publications competitiveness indexasp interview us secretary commerce penny pritzke mckinsey global institute policy


'''agricultural policy''' describes set laws relating domestic agriculture imports foreign agricultural products governments usually implement agricultural policies goal achieving specific outcome domestic agricultural product markets agricultural policies use predetermined goals objectives pathways set individual government purpose achieving specified outcome benefit individual society nations economy large ref name akarowhe akarowhe retooling agricultural policies programmes sustainable development nigeria ''current investigations agriculture current research'' doi ciacr https lupinepublisherscom agriculture journal pdf ciacrmsid pdf ref agricultural policies take

Applied science
Public administration
Agricultural policy


consideration primary secondary tertiary processes agricultural production ref name akarowhe outcomes involve example guaranteed supply level price stability product quality product selection land use employment agriculture large impacts climate change estimated contributing global annual emissions moreover agriculture highly vulnerable negative impacts climate change decreases water access geophysical processes ocean level rise changing weather socioeconomic processes affect farmers many subsistence economic conditions order global climate change


mitigation adaptation effective wide range policies need implemented reduce risk negative climate change impacts agriculture greenhouse gas emissions agriculture sector agriculture policy concerns example breadth types agriculture policy concerns found australian bureau agricultural resource economics article agricultural economies australia new zealand says major challenges issues faced industrial agriculture industry marketing challenges consumer tastes international trading environment world market conditions barriers trade quarantine


technical barriers maintenance global competitiveness market image management biosecurity issues affecting imports disease status exports biosecurity pests diseases bovine spongiform encephalopathy bse avian influenza foot mouth disease citrus canker sugarcane smut infrastructure transport ports telecommunications energy irrigation facilities management skills labor supply increasing requirements business planning enhanced market awareness use modern technology computers global positioning systems better agronomic management modern farm managers need become increasingly skilled examples training skilled workers development


labor hire systems provide continuity work industries strong seasonal peaks modern communication tools investigating market opportunities researching customer requirements business planning including financial management researching latest farming techniques risk management skills coordination consistent national strategic agenda agricultural research development active involvement research investors collaboration research providers developing programs work greater coordination research activities across industries research organisations issues investment human capital ensure skilled pool research personnel future technology research adoption productivity genetically modified gm crops investments


water access rights water trade providing water environmental outcomes assignment risk response reallocation water consumptive environmental use accounting sourcing allocation water resource access issues management native vegetation protection enhancement biodiversity sustainability productive agricultural resources landholder responsibilities ref name challenges ref poverty reduction agriculture remains largest single contributor livelihoods world 's poor live rural areas encouraging agricultural growth therefore important aspect agricultural policy developing world addition recent natural resource perspective


paper overseas development institute found good infrastructure education effective information services rural areas necessary improve chances making agriculture work poor ref name agriculturepoverty ref biosecurity biosecurity concerns facing industrial agriculture illustrated threat poultry humans h n possibly caused use animal vaccines threat cattle humans bovine spongiform encephalopathy bse possibly caused unnatural feeding cattle cattle minimize costs threat industry profits diseases like foot mouth disease citrus canker increasing globalization makes


harder contain avian influenza use animal vaccines create new viruses kill people cause flu pandemic threats h n example might already occurred according cdc article h n outbreaks enzootic influenza robert g webster et al transmission highly pathogenic h n domestic poultry back migratory waterfowl western china increased geographic spread spread h n likely reintroduction domestic poultry increase need good agricultural vaccines fact root cause continuing h n pandemic threat may


way pathogenicity h n viruses masked co circulating influenza viruses bad agricultural vaccines dr robert webster explains use good vaccine prevent transmission within poultry humans using vaccines china several years much bird flu bad vaccine stops disease bird bird goes pooping virus maintaining changing think going china either


enough vaccine used substandard vaccine used probably 's china blame china substandard vaccines think substandard vaccines influenza poultry world response concerns reuters reports hong kong infectious disease expert lo wing lok indicating vaccines take top priority julie hall charge 's outbreak response china claimed china 's vaccinations might masking virus bbc reported dr wendy barclay virologist university reading uk


disease cattle infects mechanism surprised biologists upon discovery late th century uk country worst affected cattle infected million killed precaution ref name brown brown david https webarchiveorg web http wwwtelegraphcouk news mainjhtmlxml news nbse xml 'recipe disaster' killed left bn bill ''the daily telegraph'' june ref disease transmitted human beings eat inhale material infected carcasses humans known new variant creutzfeldt jakob disease vcjd nvcjd june killed people britain


six elsewhere number expected rise disease 's long incubation period bse infected animals entered human food chain controls high risk offal introduced british inquiry bse concluded epidemic caused feeding cattle normally herbivores remains cattle form meat bone meal mbm caused infectious agent spread ref name defra bse http wwwdefragovuk animalh bse controls eradication causeshtml bse disease control eradication causes bse department environment food rural affairs march ref origin disease


remains unknown current scientific view infectious proteins called prions developed spontaneous mutation probably possibility use organophosphorus pesticides increased susceptibility cattle disease infectious agent distinctive high temperatures able survive contributed spread disease britain reduced temperatures used rendering process ref name defra bse another contributory factor feeding infected protein supplements young calves instead milk mothers ref name defra bse ref name harden harden blaine http archivesseattletimesnwsourcecom cgi bin texiscgi web vortex displayslug madcowdairy date supplements


used factory farming spread disease ''the washington post'' december ref foot mouth disease foot mouth disease highly contagious sometimes fatal viral disease cattle pigs also infect deer goats sheep bovids cloven hooves well elephants rats hedgehogs humans affected rarely fmd occurs throughout much world countries free fmd time wide host range rapid spread represent cause international concern endemic areas included asia africa parts south america north


america australia new zealand japan free fmd many years european countries recognized free countries belonging european union stopped fmd vaccination infection foot mouth disease tends occur locally virus passed susceptible animals direct contact infected animals contaminated pens vehicles used transport livestock clothes skin animal handlers farmers standing water uncooked food scraps feed supplements containing infected animal products harbor virus well cows also catch


even within serotypes cross protection serotypes meaning vaccine one serotype wo n't protect others addition two strains within given serotype may nucleotide sequences differ much given gene means fmd vaccines must highly specific strain involved vaccination provides temporary immunity lasts months years therefore rich countries maintain policy banning imports countries proven fmd free us eu standards point contention although disease


dangerous humans rarely fatal otherwise healthy animals reduces milk meat production outbreaks stopped quickly farmers transporters forced abide existing rules therefore besides temporary discomfort animals outbreak rich world much localized cyclical economic problem countries free roaming wildlife nearly impossible prove entirely free disease try forced erect nationwide fences destroys wildlife migration detecting reporting fmd enormously improved


sped almost poor countries could safely create fmd free export zones rich countries refuse change rules effect many poor tropical countries chance meet current rules still today banned exporting meat even many fmd free result drought hits poor try cope selling animals quickly saturates regional demand export ban destroys value animals effect destroying important coping mechanism several hundreds millions extremely poor households rules


around meat exports changed many times always accommodate changing circumstances rich countries usually reducing meat export chances poor countries reason kanya many countries find rules unjust however discouraged file formal complaint wto diplomats rich countries citrus canker citrus canker disease affecting citrus species caused bacterium ''xanthomonas axonopodis'' infection causes lesions leaves stems fruit citrus trees including lime oranges grapefruit harmful humans canker significantly affects vitality


citrus trees causing leaves fruit drop prematurely fruit infected canker safe eat unsightly sold disease believed originated south east asia extremely persistent becomes established area making necessary citrus orchards destroyed successful eradication disease australia brazil united states currently suffering canker outbreaks disease detected orchards fruit appearance lesions early detection critical quarantine situations bacteria


tested pathogenicity inoculating multiple citrus species bacterium simultaneously diagnostic tests antibody detection fatty acid profiling genetic procedures using pcr conducted identify particular canker strain citrus canker outbreaks prevented managed number ways countries canker disease prevented entering country quarantine measures countries new outbreaks eradication programs started soon disease discovered successful programs rely destruction affected orchards eradication unsuccessful disease


fisheries http wwwdpiqldgovau health html exotic plant pests citrus canker ref asiatic citrus canker detected orchard emerald queensland thought occurred illegal import infected citrus plants state federal governments ordered commercial orchards non commercial citrus trees native lime trees ''c glauca'' vicinity emerald destroyed rather trying isolate infected trees food security united nations food agriculture organization fao defines food security existing people times physical economic access sufficient


safe nutritious food meets dietary needs food preferences active healthy life ref name fao fao http wwwfaoorg docrep al e al e pdf introduction basic concepts food security food agriculture organization united nations rome italy ref four qualifications must met food secure system include physical availability economic physical access appropriate utilization stability prior three elements time ref name fao billion people planet billion food insecure global population grows billion diets shift


emphasize higher energy products greater overall consumption food systems subjected even greater pressure ref name beddington ref climate change presents additional threats food security affecting crop yields distribution pests diseases weather patterns growing seasons around world food security thus become increasingly important topic agricultural policy decision makers attempt reduce poverty malnutrition augmenting adaptive capacity climate change commission sustainable agriculture climate change listed high priority policy actions address food security including integrating food security sustainable agriculture global national policies significantly


raising level global investment food systems developing specific programs policies support vulnerable populations namely already subject food insecurity ref name beddington food sovereignty 'food sovereignty' term coined members via campesina ref name foodfirst global small scale farmers' movement developing new trade regimes food first ''news views'' volume number spring summer p ref right peoples define food systems advocates food sovereignty put people produce distribute consume food centre decisions food systems


among factors enriching peanut farmers political purposes keeping price staple low keep poor rebelling stabilizing production crop avoid famine years encouraging diversification many purposes suggested reason specific subsidies price floors price ceilings set minimum maximum price product price controls encourage production price floor less production price ceiling government erect trade barriers limit number goods imported case quota share enact tariffs


gain domestic international market share may short term way encouraging industry large enough thrive without aid may ongoing subsidy designed allow product compete undercut foreign competition may produce net gain government despite cost interventions allows country build export industry reduce imports also helps form nation 's supply demand market environmental protection land management farm undeveloped land composes


growing food use price controls may also used assist poor citizens many countries used method welfare support delivers cheap food poorest urban areas without need assess people give financial aid often goes cost rural poor earn less often realistic potential source income agriculture almost countries rural poor poorer urban poor cheap food policies price controls often increase overall poverty


often counts poverty relief form food aid unless severe drought drives small producers poor countries production tends benefit lower middle class groups sub urban urban poor expense poorest percent result remain deprived customers organic farming assistance welfare economics theory holds sometimes private activities impose social costs upon others industrial agriculture widely considered impose social costs pesticide pollution nitrate pollution agriculture uses large amounts water scarce resource ref name water ref


primarily export exploited negatively impacted trade policies practices tariffs agreements benefit one competitor expense another advocates consider dangerous race bottom agricultural labor safety standards opponents point agriculture developed nations produced industrial corporations agribusiness hardly deserving sympathy alternative exploitation poverty fair trade steak much developing countries export rich world also comes industrial corporations reason rich countries put elaborate


quality demands make factual health contribution small farmers often effect meet demands rarely able prove western standards therefore biggest impediment growth small farming therefore fair trade sectors beyond coffee bananas quality demands rich world arguments market intervention dumping agricultural surpluses international trade parlance company country sells commodity cost production country b called dumping number countries


rice sold cost production dumped dumping rates approximately forty percent wheat twenty five thirty percent corn maize approximately thirty percent soybeans fifty seven percent cotton approximately twenty percent rice example wheat sold forty percent cost according oxfam developed nations eliminated subsidy programs export value agriculture lesser developed nations would increase plus tariff equilibrium exporters offer us surpluses sale prices around half cost


many developing countries grow enough food feed populations nations must buy food countries lower prices free food save lives millions starving people despite drop food sales local farmers developing nation could use new improved farming methods grow food ultimate goal feeding nation without outside help new greenhouse methods hydroponics fertilizers r water processors hybrid crops fast growing hybrid trees quick shade interior temperature control greenhouse tent insulation autonomous building gardens sun lamps mylar fans


places europe grow insulated greenhouses tents europe soybean plant cellulose replace plastic made oil ethanol farm waste hempseed oil replace gasoline rainforest medicine plants grown locally replace many imported medicines alternates cash crops like sugar oil replacements reduce farmers' dependency subsidies developed developing nations market interventions may increase cost consumers agricultural products either via hidden wealth transfers via government increased prices consumer level sugar peanuts us


led market distortions food processors using high fructose corn syrup replacement sugar high fructose corn syrup may unhealthy food additive sugar prices inflated government fiat sugar might preferred high fructose corn syrup marketplace developed world cases overview europe america farmer population approximately five percent total population eu us total value agricultural production eu amounted billion euros forty nine percent


amount accounted political measures billion euros due direct payments billion euros consumers due artificially high price eighty percent european farmers receive direct payment euros less receive direct payment euros totaling forty percent direct subsidies average us farmer receives annual subsidies two thirds farmers receive direct payments average amount amongst lowest paid eighty percent subsidies mix tax reductions


direct cash payments market prices water inputs claim aggregate figures misleading large agribusinesses rather individual farmers receive significant share total subsidy spending federal agriculture improvement reform act reduced farm subsidies providing fixed payments period replacing price supports subsidies farm security rural investment act contains direct countercyclical payments designed limit effects low prices yields eu billion subsidies paid every year increasing share


us environmental quality incentives program subsidizes improvements promote water conservation measures program conducted bidding process using formula farmers request certain percentage cost share improvement drip irrigation producers offer environmental improvement based point system least cost funded first process continues year 's allocated funds expended world trade organization actions april world trade organization wto ruled billion dollars us cotton subsidies violate trade agreements


almost eu sugar exports illegal us cotton exports subsidized average wto extracted commitments philippines government making lower import barriers half present levels span six years allowing drastically increased competition industrialised heavily subsidised farming systems north america europe recent oxfam report estimated average household incomes maize farmers reduced much six years cheap imports us drive prices local


markets report estimates absence trade restrictions us subsidised maize could marketed less half price maize grown philippine island mindanao livelihoods half million filipino maize farmers total million immediate threat see also agricultural economics common agricultural policy corn laws food price crisis land reform mixed economy trade development trade barriers notes references citations cited sources url https wwwipccch site assets uploads ipcc wg ar fullpdf display editors etal editor first ottmar editor last edenhofer editor first ram n editor last pichs madruga editor first youba editor last sokona editor first jan c editor last minx editor first ellie editor last farahani editor first susanne editor last kadner editor first kristin editor last seyboth title climate change mitigation climate change working group iii contribution fifth assessment report


intergovernmental panel climate change publisher cambridge university press location cambridge united kingdom new york ny usa year isbn via ipcc lay url http wwwcambridgeorg url https wwwipccch site assets uploads wgiiar parta finalpdf display editors etal title climate change impacts adaptation vulnerability part global sectoral aspects contribution working group ii fifth assessment report intergovernmental panel climate change year editor first christopher b editor last field editor first vicente editor last barros editor first david j editor last dokken editor first katharine j editor last mach editor first michael editor last mastrandrea editor first erin editor last bilir editor first monalisa editor last chatterje publisher cambridge university press location cambridge united kingdom new york ny usa via ipcc isbn lay url http wwwcambridgeorg url http wwwfaoorg e epdf title food security climate change high level panel experts food security nutrition year june publisher committee world food security location rome reading larry elliott


ag biotech news provides balanced global news policies related genetically modified gm crops https webarchiveorg web http ensembleatlasuiucedu app sites eram yzcnesnhc nkf gsaaspxdestinationid eram yzcnesnhc nkf gsa contentid vhxfpkb aem kyvqd k sw david bullock lecture comparing agricultural policy eu us european union center university illinois urbana champaign external links http wwwifaporg ifap international federation agricultural producers http wwwoecdorg department en html oecd food agriculture fisheries oecd department trade agriculture http wwwiatporg institute agriculture trade policy agrarian politics agricultural economics


humans continue propagate species life ref name bioethics ref humans continue make gasoline powered vehicles environmental obligations humans need keep future generations right humans knowingly cause extinction species convenience humanity humans best use conserve space environment secure expand life ref name seeding book ref role planetary boundaries play reshaping human earth relationship academic field environmental ethics grew response works rachel carson murray bookchin

Humanities
Philosophy
Ethics
Environmental ethics


international academic journals field emerged north america late early us based journal ''environmental ethics'' canadian based journal ''the trumpeter journal ecosophy'' first british based journal kind ''environmental values'' launched marshall 's categories scholars tried categorise various ways natural environment valued alan marshall michael smith two examples cited peter vardy ''the puzzle ethics'' according marshall three general ethical approaches emerged last


years libertarian extension ecologic extension conservation ethics libertarian extension marshall 's libertarian extension echoes civil liberty approach ie commitment extending equal rights members community environmentalism community generally thought consist non humans well humans andrew brennan advocate ecologic humanism eco humanism argument ontological entities animate inanimate given ethical worth purely basis exist work arne n ss collaborator sessions also falls libertarian extension although preferred term


deep ecology deep ecology argument intrinsic value inherent worth environment view valuable argument falls libertarian extension ecologic extension peter singer 's work categorized marshall 's 'libertarian extension' reasoned expanding circle moral worth redrawn include rights non human animals would guilty speciesism singer found difficult accept argument intrinsic worth biotic non sentient non conscious entities concluded first edition


practical ethics included expanding circle moral worth approach essentially bio centric however later edition ''practical ethics'' work n ss sessions singer admits although unconvinced deep ecology argument intrinsic value non sentient entities plausible best problematic singer advocated humanist ethics ecologic extension alan marshall 's category ecologic extension places emphasis human rights recognition fundamental interdependence biological abiological entities essential diversity whereas


libertarian extension thought flowing political reflection natural world ecologic extension best thought scientific reflection natural world ecological extension roughly classification smith 's eco holism argues intrinsic value inherent collective ecological entities like ecosystems global environment whole entity holmes rolston among others taken approach category might include james lovelock 's gaia hypothesis theory planet earth alters geo physiological structure time order ensure continuation equilibrium


evolving organic inorganic matter planet characterized unified holistic entity ethical worth human race particular significance long run conservation ethics marshall 's category 'conservation ethics' extension use value non human biological world focuses worth environment terms utility usefulness humans contrasts intrinsic value ideas 'deep ecology' hence often referred 'shallow ecology' generally argues preservation environment basis


extrinsic value instrumental welfare human beings conservation therefore means end purely concerned mankind inter generational considerations could argued ethic formed underlying arguments proposed governments kyoto summit three agreements reached rio earth summit humanist theories peter singer advocated preservation world heritage sites unspoilt parts world acquire scarcity value diminish time preservation bequest future generations


inherited human 's ancestors passed future generations opportunity decide whether enjoy unspoilt countryside entirely urban landscape good example world heritage site would tropical rainforest specialist ecosystem taken centuries evolve clearing rainforest farmland often fails due soil conditions disturbed take thousands years regenerate applied theology laudato si' welcomed many environmental organisations different faiths christian world view sees universe created


ethics pastoral theology leicester abrahamic religious scholars used theology motivate public john l o'sullivan coined term manifest destiny influential people like used abrahamic ideologies encourage action religious scholars columnists politicians historically used ideas continue justify consumptive tendencies young america around time industrial revolution order solidify understanding god intended humankind use earths natural resources environmental writers religious scholars alike proclaimed humans separate nature


higher order may critique point view may ask question john muir asks ironically section novel ''a thousand mile walk gulf'' ''why many dangers natural world form poisonous plants animals natural disasters'' answer creatures result adam eve 's sins garden eden since turn th century application theology environmentalism diverged two schools thought first system understanding holds religion


basis environmental stewardship second sees use theology means rationalize unmanaged consumptions natural resources lynn white calvin dewitt represent side dichotomy john muir personified nature inviting place away loudness urban centers muir growing number americans shared views satan 's home become god 's temple use abrahamic religious allusions assisted muir sierra club create support first public nature preserves authors like terry tempest williams well john


muir build idea god found wherever especially outside family worship relegated sunday chapel references like assist general public make connection paintings done hudson river school ansel adams' photographs along types media religion spirituality placing intrinsic value upon nature theology fundamental idea deep ecology normative ethical theories normative ethics field moral philosophy investigates one ''ought'' act morally right wrong


moral standards determined superficially approach may seem intrinsically anthropocentric however theoretical frameworks traditional normative ethical theories abundant within contemporary environmental ethics consequentialism consequentialist theories focus consequences actions emphasises 'right' rather 'value' 'good' act utilitarianism example expands formulation emphasise makes action right whether maximises well reduces pain thus actions result greater well considered obligatory permissible noted 'instrumentalist' position towards environment


fully adequate delicate demands ecological diversity aldo leopold 's ''land ethic'' tries avoid type instrumentalism proposing holistic approach relationship humans 'biotic community' ref name create 'limit' based maxim thing right tends preserve integrity stability beauty biotic community wrong tends otherwise ref name ref thus use natural resources permissible long disrupt stability ecosystem philosophers


categorised leopold 's views within consequentialist framework however disputed whether intentional consequentialist views peter singer tend emphasise inclusion non human sentient beings ethical considerations view argues sentient creates nature able feel pleasure pain equal moral consideration intrinsic value nevertheless non sentient beings plants rivers ecosystems considered merely instrumental deontology deontological theories state action based duties obligations ''right'' instead


''good'' strong contrast consequentialism view argues principles duty based function value reasons stand beyond consequences action something ''intrinsic'' value protected goodness would maximise wider good valuable means towards something end thus natural environment categorised intrinsically valuable destruction damage would considered wrong whole rather merely due


calculated loss net value said approach holistic principle one consequentialist nature fits adequately delicate balance large ecosystems theories rights example generally deontological within framework environmental policy gives rights non human sentient beings would prioritise conservation natural state rather artificial manner consider example issues climate engineering ocean fertilisation aims expand marine algae order remove higher levels co sub sub complication approach


creates salient disruptions local ecosystems furthermore environmental ethical theory based rights marine animals ecosystems would create protection type intervention environmental deontologists paul w taylor example argued kantian approach issues kind taylor argues living things 'teleological centres life' deserving rights respect view uses concept 'universalizability' argue one ought act actions could rationally willed universal law val plumwood criticised


approach noting universalisation framework necessarily based 'respect' 's based duty 'becoming' part environment virtue ethics virtue ethics states behaviours cultivated others avoided framework avoids problems defining intrinsic value instead arguing important act accordance correct balance virtue golden mean formulation example states 'generous' virtue one neither miserly deficiency extravagant excess unlike deontology consequentialism theories


virtue focus formulations individual act live flourishing life presents 'subjective flexibility' seems like adequate position hold considering fluctuating demands sustainability however consequence also said inherently anthropocentric standpoint ecofeminist theories val plumwood categorised form virtue ethics plumwood argues virtue based ethical framework adapts fittingly environmental diversity virtues 'respect' 'gratitude' 'sensitivity' suitable ecological subjectivity also


applicable views indigenous people furthermore traits would considered part environmental ''vices'' ronald sandler argues detrimental dispositions human flourishing 'greed' 'intemperance' 'arrogance' lead detrimental dispositions protection environment 'apathy' species 'pessimism' conservation views create mutualistic connection virtuous human flourishing environmental flourishing anthropocentrism anthropocentrism position humans important critical element given situation human race must always primary concern


detractors anthropocentrism argue western tradition biases homo sapiens considering environmental ethics situation humans evaluate environment organisms terms utility see speciesism many argue environmental studies include assessment intrinsic value non human beings would entail reassessment humans ecocultural identities fact based assumption philosophical article explored recently possibility humans' willing extinction gesture toward beings authors refer idea thought experiment


understood call action baruch spinoza reasoned humans look things objectively would discover everything universe unique value likewise possible human centred anthropocentric androcentric ethic accurate depiction reality bigger picture humans may may able understand human perspective peter vardy distinguished two types anthropocentrism strong anthropocentric ethic argues humans center reality right weak


anthropocentrism however argues reality interpreted human point view thus humans centre reality see another point view developed bryan norton become one essential actors environmental ethics launching environmental pragmatism one leading trends environmental pragmatism refuses take stance disputes defenders anthropocentrist non anthropocentrist ethics instead norton distinguishes ' 'strong anthropocentrism'' ''weak extended anthropocentrism'' argues former must underestimate diversity instrumental values humans may derive


enjoys existence adding motivation propagate life humans secure future life future give human existence cosmic purpose ref name bioethics ref name seeding book status field field gain institutional recognition programs colorado state university university montana bowling green state university university north texas schumacher college dartington england founded provides msc holistic science programs began offer master 's degree specialty environmental ethics philosophy beginning


department philosophy religion studies university north texas offered phd program concentration environmental ethics philosophy germany university greifswald recently established international program landscape ecology nature conservation strong focus environmental ethics university munich deutsches museum founded rachel carson center environment society international interdisciplinary center research education environmental humanities relationship animal ethics differing conceptions treatment obligations towards animals particularly living


wild within animal ethics environmental ethics source controversy two ethical positions ethicists asserted two positions incompatible ref name ref others argued disagreements overcome ref name ref '''new theory environmental ethics ''' '''truth centrism right oriented environmental ethics''' theory truth centrism environmental ethics new theory discusses human needs protection life nature theory holds beings right system existence attitude consequences human morality behavior


environment beings must oriented according type proportion right position position human numerous theories proposed field environmental ethics however shortcomings provoked much criticism along theories new theory described jalal valiallahi director environmental education sustainable development located iran theorist 's point view theory holistic view encompasses scope moral consideration universes creations


including living non living also holistic look realistic practical theory proposed received lot attention following link theory explained developed exposed judgment critical view experts order become comprehensive short explain new theory available http apiauardabilacir article html see also anarcho primitivism biocentrism bioethics climate ethics conservation movement crop art earth economics policy think tank ecocentrism ecological economics ecoquest series two educational games environmental health ethics environmental movement


environmental organization environmental politics environmental racism environmental resource management environmental skepticism environmental virtue ethics hans jonas human ecology list environmental philosophers nature conservation population control resource depletion self validating reduction solastalgia terraforming trail ethics van rensselaer potter veganism notes references reading brennan andrew lo yeuk sze environmental ethics zalta edward n hg stanford encyclopedia philosophy winter edition https platostanfordedu stanford university https platostanfordedu archives win entries ethics environmental ott konrad environmental ethics kirchhoff thomas ed online encyclopedia philosophy nature online lexikon naturphilosophie doi https doiorg oepn https journalsubuni heidelbergde indexphp oepn article view external links http wwwdrzede belit search quick search recherchehtmlset language en bioethics literature database http wwwcepuntedu novicehtml brief


history environmental ethics http wwwdrzede belit bioethics thesaurusset language en la en thesaurus ethics life sciences https webarchiveorg web http wwwenvirolinkorg newsearchhtmlsearchfor ethics x envirolink library environmental ethics online resource environmental ethics information https wwwenvirolinkorg forum envirolink forum environmental ethics discussion debate https webarchiveorg web http securepdcnetorg pdc bvdbnsf journalopenform journal pdc enviroethics ''environmental ethics'' online journal present https webarchiveorg web http wwwethicalarchitecturecouk sustainable ethical architecture architectural firm https platostanfordedu entries ethics environmental stanford encyclopedia philosophy https ieputmedu envi eth environmental ethics entry ''internet encyclopedia philosophy'' http wwwcepuntedu center environmental philosophy https webarchiveorg web http wwwphiluntedu unt dept philosophy https reading roomstyndaleca creation care creation care reading room extensive online resources environment faith tyndale seminary https webarchiveorg web http religion onlineorg listbycategoryaspcat category list religion onlineorg ecology environment http wwwrisscjo docs islam christianity environment pdf islam christianity environment relational ethics articles containing video clips


'''french literature''' generally speaking literature written french language particularly citizens france may also refer literature written people living france speak traditional languages france french literature written french language citizens nations belgium switzerland canada senegal tunisia algeria morocco etc referred francophone literature france ranks first list nobel prizes literature country centuries french literature object national pride french people one

Humanities
Languages and literature
French Literature


influential components literature europe one first known examples french literature song roland first major work series poems known chansons de geste ref name ref french language romance language derived latin heavily influenced principally celtic frankish beginning th century literature written medieval french one oldest vernacular non latin literatures western europe became key source literary themes middle ages across continent although european prominence french literature


eclipsed part vernacular literature italy th century literature france th century underwent major creative evolution political artistic programs ancien r gime french literature came dominate european letters th century th century french became literary lingua franca diplomatic language western europe certain degree america french letters profound impact european american literary traditions time heavily influenced national traditions africa


far east brought french language non european cultures transforming adding french literary experience today aristocratic ideals ancien r gime honn te homme nationalist spirit post revolutionary france mass educational ideals third republic modern france french come profound cultural attachment literary heritage today french schools emphasize study novels theater poetry often learnt heart literary arts heavily sponsored state literary prizes major news acad mie fran aise institut


de france important linguistic artistic institutions france french television features shows writers poets one watched shows french television ''apostrophes'' ref name cohen roger cohen https wwwnytimescom business media business books star tv francehtml media business books star tv france ''the new york times'' september ref weekly talk show literature arts literature matters deeply people france plays important role sense identity french literary people awarded nobel prizes literature novelists poets essayists


country however writers english usa uk india ireland south africa australia canada nigeria saint lucia twice many nobels french jean paul sartre awarded nobel prize literature declined stating thing sign jean paul sartre sign jean paul sartre nobel prize winner writer must refuse allow transformed institution even takes place honorable form french nobel prize literature winners paul verlaine far left arthur rimbaud second


left painting henri fantin latour samuel beckett walk paris france nobel prize seminar claude simon cerisy france nobel prize french contemporary literature workshop marc avelot philippe binant bernard magn claudette oriol boyer jean ricardou cerisy france th century french authors literature nobel prizes nation following french french language authors nobel prize literature sully prudhomme first nobel prize literature fr ric mistral wrote occitan romain rolland anatole


exclusively female jury although authors winning works women prix goncourt created given author best imaginative prose work year prix goncourt des lyc ens created prix litt raire valery larbaud created prix dicis created awarded author whose fame yet match talent prix renaudot created prix tour apollo award given best science fiction novel published french preceding year prix des deux magots


created key texts fiction middle ages anonymous ''la chanson de roland'' ''the song roland'' chr tien de troyes ''yvain ou le chevalier au lion'' ''yvain knight lion'' ''lancelot ou le chevalier la charrette'' ''lancelot knight cart'' various ''tristan et iseult'' ''tristan iseult'' anonymous ''lancelot graal'' '' lancelot grail '' also known ''prose lancelot'' ''vulgate cycle'' guillaume de lorris jean de meung ''roman de la rose'' romance rose christine de pizan book city ladies th century fran ois


rabelais ''la vie de gargantua et de pantagruel'' gargantua pantagruel th century honor d'urf ''l'astr e'' madame de lafayette ''la princesse de cl ves'' th century abb pr vost ''manon lescaut'' voltaire ''candide'' ''zadig ou la destin e'' jean jacques rousseau ''julie ou la nouvelle h lo se'' denis diderot ''jacques le fataliste'' ''jacques fatalist'' montesquieu ''persian letters'' pierre choderlos de laclos ''les liaisons dangereuses'' marquis de sade ''justine sade '' th century fran ois ren de chateaubriand ''atala'' ''ren '' benjamin constant ''adolphe'' stendhal ''le rouge et le noir'' ''the red black'' ''la


chartreuse de parme'' ''the charterhouse parma'' honor de balzac ''la com die humaine'' human comedy novel cycle includes ''p goriot'' ''lost illusions'' ''eug nie grandet'' alexandre dumas ''the count monte cristo'' ''the three musketeers'' victor hugo ''notre dame de paris'' ''the hunchback notre dame'' ''les mis rables'' th ophile gautier ''mademoiselle de maupin'' gustave flaubert ''madame bovary'' ''salammb '' ''l' ducation sentimentale'' ''sentimental education'' jules verne ''vingt mille lieues sous les mers'' ''twenty thousand leagues sea'' ''voyage au centre de la terre'' ''a journey center earth'' ''le


tour du monde en quatre vingts jours'' ''around world eighty days'' edmond jules de goncourt ''germinie lacerteux'' george sand ''la petite fadette'' guy de maupassant ''bel ami'' ''la parure'' ''the necklace'' short stories mile zola ''th r se raquin'' ''les rougon macquart'' novel cycle includes ''l'assommoir'' ''nana'' ''germinal'' th century andr gide ''les faux monnayeurs'' ''the counterfeiters'' ''l'immoraliste'' ''the immoralist'' marcel proust '' la recherche du temps perdu'' ''in search lost time'' albert cohen fran ois mauriac louis aragon blaise cendrars andr breton ''nadja'' gaston leroux ''le fant de l'op ra''


''the phantom opera'' roger martin du gard ''les thibault'' ''the thibaults'' louis ferdinand c line ''voyage au bout de la nuit'' ''journey end night'' colette ''gigi'' jean genet ''notre dame des fleurs'' julien gracq ''le rivage des syrtes'' ''the opposing shore'' andr malraux ''la condition humaine'' ''man 's fate'' ''l'espoir'' ''man 's hope'' albert camus ''l' tranger'' ''the stranger'' ''the outsider'' michel butor ''la modification'' marguerite yourcenar ''m moires d'hadrien'' alain robbe grillet ''dans le labyrinthe'' georges perec ''la vie mode d'emploi'' claude simon ''les g orgiques'' ''the georgics'' robert pinget


''passacaille'' jean paul sartre ''la naus e'' ''nausea'' ''l ge de raison'' '' age reason '' fran oise sagan ''bonjour tristesse'' ''hello sadness'' antoine de saint exup ry ''le petit prince'' ''the little prince'' st century michel houellebecq ''la carte et le territoire'' ''the map territory'' l onora miano ''la saison de l'ombre'' kamel daoud ''meursault contre enqu te'' ''the meursault investigation'' poetry middle ages william ix jaufre rudel bernart de ventadorn bertran de born rutebeuf jean froissart fran ois villon ''le testament'' la pl iade cl ment marot joachim du bellay pontus de


tyard pierre de ronsard baroque agrippa d'aubign ''les tragiques'' th ophile de viau classicism fran ois de malherbe jean de la fontaine ''the fables'' nicolas boileau romantism andr ch nier alphonse de lamartine ''m ditations po tiques'' alfred de vigny victor hugo ''les contemplations'' g rard de nerval ''the chimeras'' alfred de musset charles baudelaire ''les fleurs du mal'' parnassianism th ophile gautier leconte de lisle th odore de banville symbolism decadence villiers de l'isle adam st phane mallarm paul verlaine comte de


soprano'' ''les chaises'' ''the chairs'' ''la le on'' ''the lesson'' ''rhinoceros'' jean genet ''the maids'' ''the balcony'' samuel beckett ''en attendant godot'' waiting godot'' ''fin de partie'' ''endgame'' works french nonfiction michel de montaigne ''the essays'' blaise pascal ''les pens es'' ren descartes ''meditations first philosophy'' ''discourse method'' fran ois de la rochefoucauld ''the maxims'' jean de la bruy les caract res ou les urs de ce si cle louis de rouvroy duc de saint simon moires jean jacques rousseau ''discourse arts sciences'' ''the social contract'' ''les confessions'' confessions


pierre bourdieu ''la distinction'' literary criticism nicolas boileau charles augustin sainte beuve hippolyte taine jacques lacan maurice blanchot paul b nichou roland barthes jean ricardou paul ric ur michel foucault jean fran ois lyotard jacques derrida julia kristeva poetry parnassianism romanticism symbolism arts see also french culture french art list french language authors list french language poets french science fiction fantastique media france books france notes references reading brereton geoffrey ''a short history french literature'' penguin books burgwinkle william nicholas hammond emma wilson eds ''the cambridge history french literature'' cambridge university press


cobb richard ''promenades historian 's appreciation modern french literature'' oxford university press harvey paul janet e heseltine eds ''the oxford companion french literature'' clarendon press denis hollier ed ''a new history french literature'' harvard university press pp france peter ''the new oxford companion literature french'' oxford university press pp kay sarah terence cave malcolm bowie ''a short history french literature'' oxford university press pp reid joyce mh ''the concise oxford dictionary french literature'' oxford sapiro gis le ''the french writers war ''


english edition highly influential study intellectuals french resistance http wwwh francenet vol reviews vol atackpdf online review external links http guideslibraryyaleedu french french language literature resources yale university http clicnetswarthmoreedu litterature litteraturehtml litt rature francophone virtuelle clicnet online texts http un sg unigech www athena html francauthtml athena textes fran ais online texts https webarchiveorg web http www warwickacuk fac arts french marandet marandet collection french plays http abucnamfr abu online texts https webarchiveorg web http wwwdigital librariancom frenchlithtml french literature ''digital librarian'' http wwwmaulpoixnet us indexahtml jean michel maulpoix co modern contemporary french literature site maintained prominent french poet jean michel maulpoix


example mathematical physics solutions schr dinger 's equation quantum harmonic oscillators nbsp left amplitudes right '''mathematical physics''' refers development mathematical methods application problems physics ''journal mathematical physics'' defines field application mathematics problems physics development mathematical methods suitable applications formulation physical theories scope several distinct branches mathematical physics roughly correspond particular historical periods classical mechanics rigorous abstract advanced reformulation newtonian mechanics

Natural science
Physics
Mathematical physics


adopting lagrangian mechanics hamiltonian mechanics even presence constraints formulations embodied analytical mechanics lead understanding deep interplay notions symmetry conserved quantities dynamical evolution embodied within elementary formulation noether 's theorem approaches ideas extended areas physics statistical mechanics continuum mechanics classical field theory quantum field theory moreover provided several examples ideas differential geometry eg several notions symplectic geometry vector bundle partial differential equations following


mathematics theory partial differential equation variational calculus fourier analysis potential theory vector analysis perhaps closely associated mathematical physics developed intensively second half th century example d'alembert euler lagrange physical applications developments include hydrodynamics celestial mechanics continuum mechanics elasticity theory acoustics thermodynamics electricity magnetism aerodynamics quantum theory theory atomic spectra later quantum mechanics developed almost concurrently parts mathematical fields linear algebra spectral theory operators operator algebras


broadly functional analysis nonrelativistic quantum mechanics includes schr dinger operators connections atomic molecular physics quantum information theory another subspecialty relativity quantum relativistic theories special general theories relativity require rather different type mathematics group theory played important role quantum field theory differential geometry however gradually supplemented topology functional analysis mathematical description cosmological well quantum field theory phenomena mathematical description physical areas concepts homological algebra


category theory also important statistical mechanics statistical mechanics forms separate field includes theory phase transitions relies upon hamiltonian mechanics quantum version closely related mathematical ergodic theory parts probability theory increasing interactions combinatorics physics particular statistical physics usage relationship mathematics physics usage term mathematical physics sometimes idiosyncratic certain parts mathematics initially arose development physics fact considered parts mathematical


physics closely related fields example ordinary differential equations symplectic geometry generally viewed purely mathematical disciplines whereas dynamical systems hamiltonian mechanics belong mathematical physics john herapath used term title text mathematical principles natural philosophy scope time causes heat gaseous elasticity gravitation great phenomena nature mathematical vs theoretical physics term mathematical physics sometimes used denote research aimed studying solving problems physics thought experiments within mathematically rigorous


framework sense mathematical physics covers broad academic realm distinguished blending mathematical aspect physics theoretical aspect although related theoretical physics mathematical physics sense emphasizes mathematical rigour similar type found mathematics hand theoretical physics emphasizes links observations experimental physics often requires theoretical physicists mathematical physicists general sense use heuristic intuitive approximate arguments arguments considered rigorous mathematicians changing time mathematical physicists primarily


expand elucidate physical theories required level mathematical rigour researchers often deal questions theoretical physicists considered already solved however sometimes show previous solution incomplete incorrect simply na issues attempts infer second law thermodynamics statistical mechanics examples examples concern subtleties involved synchronisation procedures special general relativity sagnac effect einstein synchronisation effort put physical theories mathematically rigorous footing developed physics also influenced developments


mathematical areas example development quantum mechanics aspects functional analysis parallel many ways mathematical study quantum mechanics quantum field theory quantum statistical mechanics motivated results operator algebras attempt construct rigorous mathematical formulation quantum field theory also brought progress fields representation theory prominent mathematical physicists newton tradition mathematical analysis nature goes back ancient greeks examples include euclid ''optics'' archimedes ''on equilibrium planes'' ''on floating


bodies'' ptolemy ''optics'' ''harmonics'' later islamic byzantine scholars built works ultimately reintroduced became available west th century renaissance first decade th century amateur astronomer nicolaus copernicus proposed heliocentrism published treatise retained ptolemaic idea epicycles merely sought simplify astronomy constructing simpler sets epicyclic orbits epicycles consist circles upon circles according aristotelian physics circle perfect form motion intrinsic motion aristotle 's


fifth element quintessence universal essence known greek ''aether'' english ''pure air'' pure substance beyond sublunary sphere thus celestial entities' pure composition german johannes kepler tycho brahe 's assistant modified copernican orbits ''ellipses'' formalized equations kepler 's laws planetary motion enthusiastic atomist galileo galilei book ''the assayer'' asserted book nature written mathematics book telescopic observations supported heliocentrism ref name flew p antony g flew ''dictionary philosophy'' rev nd edn new york st martin 's press p


https booksgooglecom booksid mmjhvu rv yc pg pa ref introduced experimentation galileo refuted geocentric cosmology refuting aristotelian physics galileo 's book ''discourse two new sciences'' established law equal free fall well principles inertial motion founding central concepts would become today 's classical mechanics ref name flew p galilean law inertia well principle galilean invariance also called galilean relativity object experiencing inertia empirical justification knowing ' 'relative'' rest ' 'relative'' motion rest motion respect another object ren descartes famously developed


founders modern mathematical physics newtonian post newtonian era important concepts calculus fundamental theorem calculus proved scottish mathematician james gregory ref name geometriae ref finding extrema minima functions via differentiation using fermat 's theorem french mathematician pierre de fermat already known leibniz newton isaac newton developed concepts calculus although gottfried wilhelm leibniz developed similar concepts outside context physics newton 's method solve problems physics extremely successful application calculus theory motion newton 's


theory motion shown mathematical principles natural philosophy published modeled three galilean laws motion along newton 's law universal gravitation framework absolute space hypothesized newton physically real entity euclidean geometric structure extending infinitely directions presuming absolute time supposedly justifying knowledge absolute motion object 's motion respect absolute space principle galilean invariance relativity merely implicit newton 's theory motion ostensibly reduced keplerian celestial laws motion well galilean terrestrial laws motion unifying force newton


achieved great mathematical rigor theoretical laxity ref name lakatos imre lakatos auth worrall j currie g eds ''the methodology scientific research programmes volume philosophical papers'' cambridge cambridge university press pp https booksgooglecom booksid rrnifbi gi c pg pa https booksgooglecom booksid rrnifbi gi c pg pa ref th century swiss daniel bernoulli made contributions fluid dynamics vibrating strings swiss leonhard euler special work variational calculus dynamics fluid dynamics areas also notable italian born frenchman joseph louis lagrange work analytical mechanics formulated lagrangian mechanics variational methods major contribution formulation analytical


dynamics called hamiltonian dynamics also made irish physicist astronomer mathematician william rowan hamilton hamiltonian dynamics played important role formulation modern theories physics including field theory quantum mechanics french mathematical physicist joseph fourier introduced notion fourier series solve heat equation giving rise new approach solving partial differential equations means integral transforms early th century following mathematicians france germany england contributed mathematical physics french pierre simon laplace made paramount contributions


mathematical astronomy potential theory sim denis poisson worked analytical mechanics potential theory germany carl friedrich gauss made key contributions theoretical foundations electricity magnetism mechanics fluid dynamics england george green published ''an essay application mathematical analysis theories electricity magnetism'' addition significant contributions mathematics made early progress towards laying mathematical foundations electricity magnetism couple decades ahead newton 's publication particle theory light dutch christiaan huygens


developed wave theory light published thomas young 's double slit experiment revealed interference pattern though light wave thus huygens 's wave theory light well huygens 's inference light waves vibrations luminiferous aether accepted jean augustin fresnel modeled hypothetical behavior aether english physicist michael faraday introduced theoretical concept field action distance mid th century scottish james clerk maxwell reduced electricity magnetism maxwell 's electromagnetic field theory whittled others four maxwell 's equations initially optics


found consequent maxwell 's field later radiation today 's known electromagnetic spectrum found also consequent electromagnetic field english physicist lord rayleigh worked sound irishmen william rowan hamilton george gabriel stokes lord kelvin produced several major works stokes leader optics fluid dynamics kelvin made substantial discoveries thermodynamics hamilton notable work analytical mechanics discovering new powerful approach nowadays known hamiltonian mechanics relevant contributions approach due german colleague mathematician carl gustav jacobi


particular referring canonical transformations german hermann von helmholtz made substantial contributions fields electromagnetism waves fluids sound united states pioneering work josiah willard gibbs became basis statistical mechanics fundamental theoretical results area achieved german ludwig boltzmann together individuals laid foundations electromagnetic theory fluid dynamics statistical mechanics relativistic prominent paradox observer within maxwell 's electromagnetic field measured approximately constant speed regardless observer 's speed relative objects


within electromagnetic field thus although observer 's speed continually lost relative electromagnetic field preserved relative objects ''in'' electromagnetic field yet violation galilean invariance within physical interactions among objects detected maxwell 's electromagnetic field modeled oscillations aether physicists inferred motion within aether resulted aether drift shifting electromagnetic field explaining observer 's missing speed relative galilean transformation mathematical process used translate positions one reference frame predictions positions another reference


frame plotted cartesian coordinates process replaced lorentz transformation modeled dutch hendrik lorentz experimentalists michelson morley failed detect aether drift however hypothesized motion ''into'' aether prompted aether 's shortening modeled lorentz contraction hypothesized aether thus kept maxwell 's electromagnetic field aligned principle galilean invariance across inertial frames reference newton 's theory motion spared austrian theoretical physicist philosopher ernst mach criticized newton 's postulated absolute space mathematician jules henri poincar questioned


even absolute time pierre duhem published devastating criticism foundation newton 's theory motion ref name lakatos also albert einstein published special theory relativity newly explaining electromagnetic field 's invariance galilean invariance discarding hypotheses concerning aether including existence aether refuting framework newton 's theory absolute space absolute time special relativity refers ' 'relative space'' ' 'relative time'' whereby ''length'' contracts ''time'' dilates along travel pathway object einstein 's former mathematics professor hermann minkowski modeled space together


gravitational field minkowski spacetime topology einstein aether modeled lorentzian manifold curves geometrically according riemann curvature tensor concept newton 's gravity two masses attract replaced geometrical argument mass transform curvatures spacetime free falling particles mass move along geodesic curve spacetime riemannian geometry already existed mathematicians carl friedrich gauss bernhard riemann search intrinsic geometry non euclidean geometry vicinity either mass energy special relativity special case general relativity even


massless energy exerts gravitational effect mass equivalence locally curving geometry four unified dimensions space time quantum another revolutionary development th century quantum theory emerged seminal contributions max planck black body radiation einstein 's work photoelectric effect mathematician henri poincare published ''sur la th orie des quanta'' ref name mccormmach ref ref name irons ref introduced first non na definition quantization paper development early quantum physics followed heuristic framework devised arnold sommerfeld niels bohr


soon replaced quantum mechanics developed max born werner heisenberg paul dirac erwin schr dinger satyendra nath bose wolfgang pauli revolutionary theoretical framework based probabilistic interpretation states evolution measurements terms self adjoint operators infinite dimensional vector space called hilbert space introduced mathematicians david hilbert erhard schmidt frigyes riesz search generalization euclidean space study integral equations rigorously defined within axiomatic modern version john von neumann


celebrated book ''mathematical foundations quantum mechanics'' built relevant part modern functional analysis hilbert spaces spectral theory introduced david hilbert investigated quadratic forms infinitely many variables many years later revealed spectral theory associated spectrum hydrogen atom surprised application particular paul dirac used algebraic constructions produce relativistic model electron predicting magnetic moment existence antiparticle positron list prominent contributors mathematical physics th


century prominent contributors th century 's mathematical physics include ordered birth date william thomson lord kelvin oliver heaviside jules henri poincar david hilbert arnold sommerfeld constantin carath odory albert einstein max born george david birkhoff hermann weyl satyendra nath bose norbert wiener john lighton synge wolfgang pauli paul dirac eugene wigner andrey kolmogorov lars onsager john von neumann sin itiro tomonaga hideki yukawa nikolay nikolayevich bogolyubov subrahmanyan chandrasekhar mark kac julian schwinger richard phillips


feynman irving ezra segal ryogo kubo arthur strong wightman chen ning yang rudolf haag freeman john dyson martin gutzwiller abdus salam j rgen moser michael francis atiyah joel louis lebowitz roger penrose elliott hershel lieb sheldon lee glashow steven weinberg ludvig dmitrievich faddeev david ruelle yakov grigorevich sinai vladimir igorevich arnold arthur michael jaffe roman wladimir jackiw leonard susskind rodney james baxter michael victor berry giovanni


gallavotti stephen william hawking jerrold eldon marsden alexander markovich polyakov herbert spohn john lawrence cardy giorgio parisi edward witten ashoke sen juan mart n maldacena see also international association mathematical physics notable publications mathematical physics list mathematical physics journals gauge theory mathematics relationship mathematics physics theoretical computational philosophical physics notes references reading generic works reprint second edition title


reprint second edition reprint original edition title tome reprinted textbooks undergraduate studies pbk hassani sadri ''mathematical methods students physics related fields'' new york springer eisbn set pbk textbooks graduate studies specialized texts pbk pbk pbk softcover pbk external links


title page first edition disquisitiones arithmeticae one founding works modern algebraic number theory '''algebraic number theory''' branch number theory uses techniques abstract algebra study integers rational numbers generalizations number theoretic questions expressed terms properties algebraic objects algebraic number fields rings integers finite fields function fields properties whether ring admits unique factorization behavior ideals galois groups fields resolve questions primary importance number theory

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Number theory
Algebraic number theory


like existence solutions diophantine equations history algebraic number theory diophantus beginnings algebraic number theory traced diophantine equations named rd century alexandrian mathematician diophantus studied developed methods solution kinds diophantine equations typical diophantine problem find two integers ''x'' ''y'' sum sum squares equal two given numbers ''a'' ''b'' respectively math x math math b x math diophantine equations studied thousands years


example solutions quadratic diophantine equation ''x'' sup sup ''y'' sup sup ''z'' sup sup given pythagorean triples originally solved babylonians c bc solutions linear diophantine equations ''x'' ''y'' may found using euclidean algorithm c th century bc diophantus' major work ''arithmetica'' portion survived fermat fermat 's last theorem first conjectured pierre de fermat famously margin copy ''arithmetica'' claimed proof large fit


margin successful proof published despite efforts countless mathematicians intervening years unsolved problem stimulated development algebraic number theory th century proof modularity theorem th century gauss one founding works algebraic number theory '''''disquisitiones arithmeticae''''' latin ''arithmetical investigations'' textbook number theory written latin carl friedrich gauss gauss first published book gauss brings together results number theory obtained


mathematicians fermat euler lagrange legendre adds important new results ''disquisitiones'' published number theory consisted collection isolated theorems conjectures gauss brought work predecessors together original work systematic framework filled gaps corrected unsound proofs extended subject numerous ways ''disquisitiones'' starting point work nineteenth century european mathematicians including ernst kummer peter gustav lejeune dirichlet richard dedekind many annotations given gauss effect announcements


research remained unpublished must appeared particularly cryptic contemporaries read containing germs theories l functions complex multiplication particular dirichlet couple papers peter gustav lejeune dirichlet proved first class number formula quadratic forms later refined student leopold kronecker formula jacobi called result touching utmost human acumen opened way similar results regarding general number fields ref name elstrodt ref based research structure


finiteness theorem used existence proof shows must solutions problem rather providing mechanism produce answers little publish subject emergence hilbert modular forms dissertation student means name attached major area made series conjectures class field theory concepts highly influential contribution lives names hilbert class field hilbert symbol


theory around japanese mathematicians goro shimura yutaka taniyama observed possible link two apparently completely distinct branches mathematics elliptic curves modular forms resulting modularity theorem time known taniyama shimura conjecture states every elliptic curve modular meaning associated unique modular form initially dismissed unlikely highly speculative taken seriously number theorist andr weil found evidence supporting proof result astounding ref name singh ref conjecture often known taniyama shimura weil conjecture became


part langlands program list important conjectures needing proof disproof andrew wiles provided proof modularity theorem semistable elliptic curves together ribet 's theorem provided proof fermat 's last theorem almost every mathematician time previously considered fermat 's last theorem modularity theorem either impossible virtually impossible prove even given cutting edge developments wiles first announced proof june ref name nyt ref version soon recognized serious gap key point


proof corrected wiles partly collaboration richard taylor final widely accepted version released september formally published proof uses many techniques algebraic geometry number theory many ramifications branches mathematics also uses standard constructions modern algebraic geometry category schemes iwasawa theory th century techniques available fermat basic notions failure unique factorization important property ring integers satisfies fundamental theorem arithmetic every positive integer


factorization product prime numbers factorization unique ordering factors may longer true ring integers algebraic number field ''prime element'' element divides product divides one factors property closely related primality integers positive integer satisfying property either prime number however strictly weaker example


prime number negative prime element factorizations prime elements permitted even integers alternative factorizations math cdot cdot math general unit meaning number multiplicative inverse prime element also prime element numbers said ''associate'' integers primes associate one positive requiring


prime numbers positive selects unique element among set associated prime elements ''k'' rational numbers however analog positivity example gaussian integers numbers associate latter product former way single one canonical leads equations math math prove true


factorizations unique order factors reason one adopts definition unique factorization used unique factorization domains ufds ufd prime elements occurring factorization expected unique units ordering however even weaker definition many rings integers algebraic number fields admit unique factorization algebraic obstruction called ideal class group ideal class group trivial ring ufd distinction


prime element irreducible element ''irreducible element'' element either unit elements cannot factored every element ''o'' admits factorization irreducible elements may admit one prime elements irreducible irreducible elements may prime example consider ring ring numbers irreducible means number two factorizations irreducible elements math


sqrt sqrt math equation shows divides product prime element would divide elements divisible form similarly divide product neither elements divides neither prime sense elements made equivalent unique factorization fails unlike situation units uniqueness could


repaired weakening definition overcoming failure requires new perspective factorization prime ideals ideal always factorization math mathfrak p e cdots mathfrak p e math math mathfrak p math prime ideal expression unique order factors particular true principal ideal generated single element strongest sense ring integers general number field admits unique factorization language ring theory says rings


integers dedekind domains ufd every prime ideal generated prime element otherwise prime ideals generated prime elements instance ideal prime ideal cannot generated single element historically idea factoring ideals prime ideals preceded ernst kummer 's introduction ideal numbers numbers lying extension field extension field known hilbert class field principal ideal theorem every prime ideal


generates principal ideal ring integers generator principal ideal called ideal number kummer used substitute failure unique factorization cyclotomic fields eventually led richard dedekind introduce forerunner ideals prove unique factorization ideals ideal prime ring integers one number field may fail prime extended larger number field consider example prime numbers corresponding ideals prime ideals ring however


together observation ideal prime provides complete description prime ideals gaussian integers generalizing simple result general rings integers basic problem algebraic number theory class field theory accomplishes goal ''k'' abelian extension '''q''' galois extension abelian galois group ideal class group unique factorization fails prime ideals fail principal object measures failure prime ideals principal called


ideal class group defining ideal class group requires enlarging set ideals ring algebraic integers admit group structure done generalizing ideals fractional ideals fractional ideal additive subgroup closed multiplication elements meaning ideals also fractional ideals fractional ideals set products element element also fractional ideal operation makes


set non zero fractional ideals group group identity ideal inverse generalized ideal quotient math j j x k xj subseteq math principal fractional ideals meaning ones form form subgroup group non zero fractional ideals quotient group non zero fractional ideals subgroup ideal class group two fractional ideals represent element ideal class group exists element


homological algebra says exact sequence abelian groups written multiplicatively math times k times xrightarrow text div operatorname div k operatorname cl k math real complex embeddings number fields specified subfields real numbers others cannot abstractly specification corresponds field homomorphism called '' 'real embeddings''' '''complex embeddings''' respectively real quadratic field perfect square called admits two real embeddings complex embeddings


field homomorphisms send respectively dually imaginary quadratic field admits real embeddings admits conjugate pair complex embeddings one embeddings sends sends complex conjugate conventionally number real embeddings denoted number conjugate pairs complex embeddings denoted '' 'signature''' ''k'' pair theorem degree considering embeddings determines


function math colon k mathbf r r oplus mathbf c r math equivalently math colon k mathbf r r oplus mathbf r r math called '''minkowski embedding''' subspace codomain fixed complex conjugation real vector space dimension called minkowski space minkowski embedding defined field homomorphisms multiplication elements element corresponds multiplication diagonal matrix minkowski embedding dot product minkowski space corresponds trace form math langle x rangle operatorname tr xy math image minkowski embedding


dimensional lattice basis lattice '' 'discriminant''' discriminant denoted covolume image math sqrt delta math places real complex embeddings put footing prime ideals adopting perspective based valuations consider example integers addition usual absolute value function '''q''' '''r''' p adic absolute value functions sub p sub '''q''' '''r''' defined prime number ''p'' measure divisibility ''p'' ostrowski 's theorem states


possible absolute value functions '''q''' equivalence therefore absolute values common language describe real embedding '''q''' prime numbers '''place''' algebraic number field equivalence class absolute value functions ''k'' two types places math mathfrak p math adic absolute value prime ideal math mathfrak p math ''o'' like ''p'' adic absolute values measures divisibility called '''finite places''' type place specified using real complex embedding ''k'' standard absolute


value function '''r''' '''c''' '''infinite places''' absolute values unable distinguish complex embedding conjugate complex embedding conjugate determine place therefore real places complex places places encompass primes places sometimes referred '''primes''' done finite places called '''finite primes''' infinite places called '''infinite primes''' valuation corresponding absolute value one frequently writes math v mid infty math mean infinite place


smooth projective algebraic curve function field math f k x math many absolute values places corresponds point curve math x math projective completion affine curve blockquote math hat x subset mathbb n math blockquote points blockquote math x hat x math blockquote correspond places infinity completion math f math one points gives analogue math p math adics example math x mathbb p math function field isomorphic math k math math math indeterminant field math f math field fractions polynomials math math place math v p math


point math p x math measures order vanishing order pole fraction polynomials math p x q x math point math p math example math p math affine chart math x neq math corresponds point math mathbb math valuation math v math measures order vanishing math p x math minus order vanishing math q x math math math function field completion place math v math math k math field power series variable math math element form blockquote math begin align k k


cdots cdots sum n k infty n n end align math blockquote math k mathbb n math place infinity corresponds function field math k math power series form blockquote math sum n k infty n n math blockquote units integers two units rings integers may admit units gaussian integers four units previous two well eisenstein integers six units integers real quadratic number fields infinitely many units example every power


unit powers distinct general group units denoted finitely generated abelian group fundamental theorem finitely generated abelian groups therefore implies direct sum torsion part free part reinterpreting context number field torsion part consists roots unity lie group cyclic free part described dirichlet 's unit theorem theorem says rank free part thus example fields


rank free part zero imaginary quadratic fields precise statement giving structure ''o'' sup sup sub '''z''' sub '''q''' galois module galois group ''k'' '''q''' also possible free part unit group studied using infinite places consider function math begin cases l k times mathbf r r r l x log x v v end cases math varies infinite places sub ''v'' sub absolute value associated function homomorphism


real vector space shown image lattice spans hyperplane defined math x cdots x r r math covolume lattice '' 'regulator''' number field one simplifications made possible working adele ring single object idele class group describes quotient lattice ideal class group zeta function dedekind zeta function number field analogous riemann zeta function analytic object


describes behavior prime ideals abelian extension dedekind zeta functions products dirichlet l functions one factor dirichlet character trivial character corresponds riemann zeta function galois extension dedekind zeta function artin l function regular representation galois group factorization terms irreducible artin representations galois group zeta function related invariants described class number formula local fields


completing number field ''k'' place ''w'' gives complete field valuation archimedean one obtains '''r''' '''c''' non archimedean lies prime ''p'' rationals one obtains finite extension math k w mathbf q p math complete discrete valued field finite residue field process simplifies arithmetic field allows local study problems example kronecker weber theorem deduced easily analogous local statement philosophy behind study local fields largely motivated geometric methods algebraic geometry common


study varieties locally point localizing maximal ideal global information recovered gluing together local data spirit adopted algebraic number theory given prime ring algebraic integers number field desirable study field locally prime therefore one localizes ring algebraic integers prime completes fraction field much spirit geometry major results finiteness class group one classical results algebraic number theory ideal class


roots unity ''o'' ''r'' ''r'' sub sub nbsp nbsp ''r'' sub sub nbsp nbsp ''r'' sub sub respectively ''r'' sub sub denotes number real embeddings respectively pairs conjugate non real embeddings ''k'' words ''o'' sup sup finitely generated abelian group rank ''r'' sub sub nbsp nbsp ''r'' sub sub nbsp nbsp whose torsion consists roots unity ''o'' reciprocity laws terms legendre symbol law quadratic reciprocity positive odd primes states math left frac p q right left frac q p right frac p frac q math '' 'reciprocity law''' generalization law quadratic reciprocity several different ways express reciprocity laws early reciprocity laws found


th century usually expressed terms power residue symbol ''p'' ''q'' generalizing quadratic reciprocity symbol describes prime number ''n''th power residue modulo another prime gave relation ''p'' ''q'' ''q'' ''p'' hilbert reformulated reciprocity laws saying product ''p'' hilbert symbols ''a''''b'' ''p'' taking values roots unity equal artin 's reformulated reciprocity law states artin symbol ideals ideles elements galois group trivial certain subgroup several recent generalizations express reciprocity


laws using cohomology groups representations adelic groups algebraic k groups relationship original quadratic reciprocity law hard see class number formula '''class number formula''' relates many important invariants number field special value dedekind zeta function related areas algebraic number theory interacts many mathematical disciplines uses tools homological algebra via analogy function fields vs number fields relies techniques ideas algebraic geometry moreover study higher dimensional schemes '''z''' instead number rings referred


arithmetic geometry algebraic number theory also used study arithmetic hyperbolic manifolds see also kummer theory locally compact field tamagawa number notes reading introductory texts intermediate texts graduate level texts external links fields mathematics


'''anthropology religion''' study religion relation social institutions comparison religious beliefs practices across cultures history ab rayh n b r n wrote detailed comparative studies anthropology religions cultures across mediterranean basin including called middle east indian subcontinent discussed peoples customs religions indian subcontinent th century cultural anthropology dominated interest cultural evolution anthropologists assumed simple distinction primitive modern religion tried provide accounts former

Social science
Anthropology
Anthropology Of Religion


evolved latter th century anthropologists rejected approach today anthropology religion reflects influence engagement theorists karl marx sigmund freud mile durkheim max weber anthropologists religion especially concerned religious beliefs practices may reflect political economic forces social functions religious beliefs practices mile durkheim building work feuerbach considered religion projection social values society means making symbolic statements society symbolic


language makes statements social order short religion society worshiping anthropologists ''circa'' assumed religion complete continuity magical thinking cultural product complete continuity magic religion postulate modern anthropology least since early perspective modern anthropology towards religion ''projection idea'' methodological approach assumes every religion created human community worships creative activity ascribed god projected man ludwig feuerbach first


employ concept basis systematic critique religion prominent precursor formulation projection principle giambattista vico early formulation appears ancient greek writer xenophanes bce observed gods ethiopians inevitably black flat noses thracians blond blue eyes definition religion one major problem anthropology religion definition religion one time anthropologists believed certain religious practices beliefs


less universal cultures point development belief spirits ghosts use magic means controlling supernatural use divination means discovering occult knowledge performance rituals prayer sacrifice means influencing outcome various events supernatural agency sometimes taking form shamanism ancestor worship according clifford geertz religion today religious anthropologists debate reject cross cultural validity categories often viewing examples


palm readers religious authority acquired one 's means communal elaborate set beliefs practices group people arranged clans lineage age group religious societies people take roles based knowledge ancestral worship ecclesiastical dominant agricultural societies states centrally organized hierarchical structure paralleling organization states typically deprecates competing individualistic shamanistic cults specific religious practices beliefs apotheosis apotropaic magic amulet animism circumcision cult religious practice deity demon divination esotericism exorcism evil fertility rite fetishism genius mythology god ghost greco roman mysteries heresy icon immortality


'''computational geometry''' branch computer science devoted study algorithms stated terms geometry purely geometrical problems arise study computational geometric algorithms problems also considered part computational geometry modern computational geometry recent development one oldest fields computing history stretching back antiquity computational complexity central computational geometry great practical significance algorithms used large datasets containing tens hundreds millions points

Formal science
Computer science
Algorithms
Computational geometry


main branches computational geometry ''combinatorial computational geometry'' also called ''algorithmic geometry'' deals geometric objects discrete entities groundlaying book subject preparata shamos dates first use term computational geometry sense ref name ps ref ''numerical computational geometry'' also called ''machine geometry'' ''computer aided geometric design'' cagd ''geometric modeling'' deals primarily representing real world objects forms suitable computer computations cad cam systems branch may seen development descriptive geometry often considered branch computer graphics cad


term computational geometry meaning use since although algorithms computational geometry developed developed electronic computers algorithms developed unconventional computers eg optical computers ref name yk ref combinatorial computational geometry primary goal research combinatorial computational geometry develop efficient algorithms data structures solving problems stated terms basic geometrical objects points line segments polygons polyhedra etc problems seem simple regarded problems advent computers


consider example ''closest pair problem'' given ''n'' points plane find two smallest distance one could compute distances pairs points ''n n '' pick pair smallest distance brute force algorithm takes ''n'' sup sup time ie execution time proportional square number points classic result computational geometry formulation algorithm takes ''n'' log ''n'' randomized algorithms take ''n'' expected time well deterministic algorithm takes ''n''


complexity class problems estimated time space computer memory required solve given problem instance geometric query problems geometric query problems commonly known geometric search problems input consists two parts search space part query part varies problem instances search space typically needs preprocessed way multiple queries answered efficiently fundamental geometric query problems range searching preprocess set points order efficiently count number points inside query region point


location given partitioning space cells produce data structure efficiently tells cell query point located nearest neighbor preprocess set points order efficiently find point closest query point ray tracing given set objects space produce data structure efficiently tells object query ray intersects first search space fixed computational complexity class problems usually estimated time space required construct data structure searched


time sometimes extra space answer queries case search space allowed vary see dynamic problems dynamic problems yet another major class dynamic problems goal find efficient algorithm finding solution repeatedly incremental modification input data addition deletion input geometric elements algorithms problems type typically involve dynamic data structures computational geometric problems may converted dynamic one cost increased processing time example range searching problem may


query variations problems may treated belonging either categories depending context example consider following problem point polygon decide whether point inside outside given polygon many applications problem treated single shot one ie belonging first class example many applications computer graphics common problem find area screen clicked pointer however applications polygon question invariant point represents query example input polygon


may represent border country point position aircraft problem determine whether aircraft violated border finally previously mentioned example computer graphics cad applications changing input data often stored dynamic data structures may exploited speed point polygon queries contexts query problems reasonable expectations sequence queries may exploited either efficient data structures tighter computational complexity estimates example cases important


know worst case total time whole sequence n queries rather single query see also amortized analysis numerical computational geometry branch also known '''geometric modelling''' '''computer aided geometric design''' cagd core problems curve surface modelling representation important instruments parametric curves parametric surfaces b zier curves spline curves surfaces important non parametric approach level set method application areas computational geometry include shipbuilding aircraft automotive industries see also list combinatorial computational geometry topics


list numerical computational geometry topics cad cam cae list geometric algorithms solid modeling computational topology computer representation surfaces digital geometry discrete geometry combinatorial geometry space partitioning tricomplex number robust geometric computation wikiversity topic computational geometry wikiversity computer aided geometric design references references reading list books computational geometry journals combinatorial algorithmic computational geometry list major journals publishing research geometric algorithms please notice appearance journals specifically dedicated computational geometry share geometric publications general purpose computer science computer graphics journals decreased ''acm computing surveys'' ''acm transactions