drawing principles numerous fields including psychology systems theory engineering business management chyung hpt empirical using observations experiments inform decision making chyung hpt results oriented producing measureable cost effective changes performance chyung hpt reactive proactive situations involving human performance reduce eliminate barriers desired performance reactive prevent conditions allowing barriers performance proactive improve quality current performance reactive proactive chyung hpt uses systematic systemic approaches solving performance problems chyung hpt considers various


interventions lean six sigma mentioned assist achieving desired goals stolovitch keeps hpt model hpt model available viewing ispiorg http wwwispiorg images hpt model hpt model jpg website standards practice international society performance improvement ispi codified series http wwwispiorg uploadedfiles ispi site ispi standardspdf standards effort raise quality hpt practice focus results take systems view add value utilize partnerships systematic assessment need opportunity systematic cause analysis systematic design systematic development systematic implementation systematic evaluation see also international society performance improvement business process improvement

Applied science
Education
Educational Technology
Human performance technology


'''organizational behavior''' '''ob''' '''organisational behaviour''' study human behavior organizational settings interface human behavior organization organization ref name moorhead moorhead g griffin r w ''organizational behavior managing people organizations'' th edition boston houghton mifflin p ref ob research categorized least three ways individuals organizations micro level work groups meso level organizations behave macro level overview chester barnard recognized individuals behave differently acting organizational role acting separately organization ref name barnard organizational behavior researchers study behavior

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of organizations


individuals primarily organizational roles one main goals organizational behavior research revitalize organizational theory develop better conceptualization organizational life relation industrial organizational psychology miner mentioned certain arbitrariness identifying point organizational behavior became established distinct discipline p nbsp suggesting could emerged ref name miner miner jb ''organizational behavior vol historical origins theoretical foundations future'' armonk ny london sharpe ref also underlined fact industrial psychology


division american psychological association add organizational name long organizational behavior clearly come existence p nbsp noting similar situation arose sociology although similarities differences two disciplines still confusion around differentiating organizational behavior organizational psychology history multi disciplinary science organizational behavior influenced developments number related disciplines including sociology industrial organizational psychology economics industrial revolution period new technologies resulted adoption new manufacturing techniques increased


mechanization famous iron cage metaphor max weber raised concerns reduction religious vocational work experiences weber claimed industrial revolution 's focus efficiency constrained worker kind prison stripped worker individuality significant social cultural changes caused industrial revolution also gave rise new forms organization weber analyzed one organizations came conclusion bureaucracy organization rested rational legal principles maximized technical efficiency ref name weber weber max theory social economic organization translated


henderson talcott parsons london collier macmillan publishers ref number ob practitioners documented ideas management organisation best known theories today originate henri fayol chester barnard mary parker follet three drew experience develop model effective organizational management theories independently shared focus human behavior motivation ref name barnard ref ref name fayol ref one first management consultants frederick taylor th century engineer applied approach known scientific management taylor advocated maximizing task efficiency scientific method ref


name taylor ref scientific method refined lillian frank gilbreth utilized time motion study improve worker efficiency ref name price price b frank lillian gilbreth manufacture marketing motion study business economic history vol ref early th century idea fordism emerged named automobile mogul henry ford method relied standardization production use assembly lines allowed unskilled workers produce complex products efficiently sorenson later clarified fordism developed independently taylor fordism explained


following experiments elton mayo concluded job performance called hawthorne effect strongly correlated social relationships job content ref name cullen cullen david o'donald ''a new way statecraft career elton mayo development social sciences america '' proquest dissertations theses proquest dissertations theses full text ref following hawthorne studies motivation became focal point ob community range theories emerged include theories notable ob researchers frederick herzberg abraham maslow david mcclelland victor vroom


douglas mcgregor theories underline employee motivation work performance job satisfaction ref name miner herbert simon 's ''administrative behavior'' introduced number important ob concepts notably decision making simon along chester barnard argued people make decisions differently inside organization compared decisions outside organization classical economic theories assume people rational decision makers simon argued contrary point argued cognition limited bounded rationality example decision makers often employ satisficing process utilizing first marginally acceptable solution rather optimal solution ref name


operate recently however researchers also started apply computer simulation understand individual behavior micro level focusing individual interpersonal cognition behavior ref name hughes et al joop ref thought processes behaviors make teamwork ref name crowder et al ieee tsmca ref qualitative methods qualitative research ref name brewerton consists number methods inquiry generally involve quantification variables qualitative methods range content analysis interviews written material written narratives observations common methods include ethnography case studies historical methods


interviews topics consulting consultants use principles developed ob research assess clients' organizational problems provide high quality services counterproductive work behavior counterproductive work behavior employee behavior harms intends harm organization decision making many ob researchers embrace rational planning model decision making research often focuses decisions ordinarily made normative decision making thinkers arrive particular judgement descriptive decision making improve decision making descriptive decision making employee mistreatment several types mistreatment employees endure organizations including abusive supervision bullying incivility sexual harassment abusive supervision


abusive supervision extent supervisor engages pattern behavior harms subordinates bullying although definitions workplace bullying vary involves repeated pattern harmful behaviors directed towards individual order behavior termed bullying individual individuals harm possess either singly jointly power level victim incivility workplace incivility consists low intensity discourteous rude behavior characterized ambiguous intent harm violation social norms governing appropriate workplace behavior sexual harassment sexual


harassment behavior denigrates mistreats individual due gender often creating offensive workplace interferes job performance teams job related attitudes emotions organizational behavior deals employee attitudes feelings including job satisfaction organizational commitment job involvement emotional labor job satisfaction reflects feelings employee job facets job pay supervision organizational commitment represents extent employees feel attached organization job involvement extent individual identifies job considers


material component self worth emotional labor concerns requirement employee display certain emotions smiling customers even employee feel emotion required display leadership number theories concern leadership early theories focused characteristics leaders later theories focused leader behavior conditions leaders effective among approaches contingency theory consideration initiating structure model leader member exchange lmx theory path goal theory behavioural modification transformational leadership theory contingency theory indicates good


leadership depends characteristics leader situation ref name fielder fiedler f e contingency model dynamics leadership process l berkowitz ed advances experimental social psychology pp new york academic press ref ohio state leadership studies identified dimensions leadership known consideration showing concern respect subordinates initiating structure assigning tasks setting performance goals lmx theory focuses exchange relationships individual supervisor subordinate pairs ref name novak ref path goal theory contingency theory linking appropriate leader style organizational conditions subordinate personality transformational leadership theory concerns behaviors leaders


engage inspire high levels motivation performance followers idea charismatic leadership part transformational leadership theory behavioural modification leader 's reward power ability give withhold reward punishment focus importance giving contingent vs non contingent rewards emphasized managerial roles late henry mintzberg graduate student mit carefully studied activities five executives basis observations mintzberg arrived three categories subsume managerial roles interpersonal roles decisional roles informational roles motivation retaining talented successful employees


key factor company maintain competitive advantage environment people use talent effectively help motivate even smart hard working difficult individuals building great people relies engagement motivation behavioral practices o'reilly c pfeffer j baron greenberg wrote motivation involves set processes arouse direct maintain human behavior toward attaining goal several different theories motivation relevant ob including equity theory ref name adams adams j inequity social exchange l berkowitz ed advances experimental


social psychology pp new york academic press ref expectancy theory ref name vroom vroom v h work motivation new york john wiley ref maslow 's hierarchy needs ref name maslow ref incentive theory organizational justice theory ref name greenberg ref herzberg 's two factor theory ref name herzberg herzberg f january february one time motivate employees harvard business review ref theory x theory ref name mcgregor mcgregor human side enterprise new york mcgraw hill ref public relations public relations practice managing communication public organization therefore public relations also related organizational behavior


generally focused relation specific traits employee performance particular focus big five personality traits refers five overarching personality traits occupational stress number ways characterize occupational stress one way characterizing term imbalance job demands aspects job require mental physical effort resources help manage demands work family conflict chester barnard recognized individuals behave differently acting work role acting roles outside work role ref name barnard work family


conflict occurs demands family work roles incompatible demands least one role interfere discharge demands organization theory organization theory concerned explaining workings organization whole many organizations focus organizational theory understand structure processes organizations organizations interact larger society bureaucracy max weber argued bureaucracy involved application rational legal authority organization work making bureaucracy technically efficient form


organization ref name weber weber enumerated number principles bureaucratic organization including formal organizational hierarchy management rules organization functional specialty selecting people based skills technical qualifications focused organization 's board shareholders focused organization mission purposefully impersonal environment eg applying rules structures members organization rules reflect weberian ideal types enacted organizations varies according local conditions charles perrow extended weber 's work arguing organizations understood terms bureaucracy


organizational failures often result insufficient application bureaucratic principles economic theories organization least three theories relevant theory firm transaction cost economics agency theory theories pertaining organizational structures theories pertaining organizational structures dynamics include complexity theory french raven 's five bases power hybrid organization theory informal organizational theory resource dependence theory mintzberg 's organigraph institutional theory systems theory systems framework also fundamental organizational theory organizations complex goal oriented entities alexander bogdanov early thinker field developed tectology theory widely


considered precursor bertalanffy 's general systems theory one aims general systems theory model human organizations kurt lewin social psychologist influential developing systems perspective regard organizations coined term systems ideology partly based frustration behaviorist psychology believed obstacle sustainable work psychology niklas luhmann sociologist developed sociological systems theory organizational ecology organizational ecology models apply concepts evolutionary theory study populations organisations focusing birth founding growth change death firm


mortality view organizations 'selected' based fit operating environment scientific management scientific management refers approach management based principles engineering focuses incentives practices empirically shown improve productivity contributing disciplines anthropology human resources management industrial organizational psychology personality psychology social psychology sociology journals ref ''academy management review'' ''administrative science quarterly'' ''harvard business review'' ''human resource management'' ''human resources management review'' ''journal business psychology'' ''journal international business studies'' ''journal management'' ''journal management studies'' ''organizational behavior human decision processes'' ''organization


science'' ''organization studies'' ''organizational research methods'' ''sloan management review'' ''systems research behavioral science'' see also references reading hatch mj organization theory modern symbolic postmodern perspectives nd ed oxford university press helge h sheehan mj cooper cl einarsen organisational effects workplace bullying bullying harassment workplace developments theory research practice jones ishmael ''the human factor inside cia 's dysfunctional intelligence culture'' new york encounter books richmond lewis ''work spiritual practice practical buddhist approach inner growth satisfaction


job'' broadway robbins stephen p ''organizational behavior concepts controversies applications'' th ed prentice hall robbins p ''organisational behaviour global southern african perspectives'' cape town pearson education south africa salin helge h organizational causes workplace bullying bullying harassment workplace developments theory research practice scott w richard ''organizations organizing rational natural open systems perspectives'' pearson prentice hall weick karl e ''the social psychology organizing'' nd ed mcgraw hill simon herbert ''administrative behavior study


decision making processes administrative organizations th ed free press tompkins jonathan r organization theory public management thompson wadsworth kanigel r ''the one best way frederick winslow taylor enigma efficiency'' london brown co morgan gareth ''images organization'' newbury park ca sage publications organizational studies social systems structure


australian coat arms '''australian studies''' forms part academic field cultural studies involves examination constructs australia national identity area scholarship traditionally involves study australian history society culture extended study australian politics economics area scholarship also includes study australia indigenous population aboriginals torres strait islanders scholarship australian studies offered many tertiary institutions topics within field form part primary secondary australian curriculum australian history study

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Australian studies


australian history involves exploration past events significant people define australia present scholarship early australian history encompasses history indigenous colonial societies well history european colonisation settlement studies aboriginal australian history dates back years ago humans first populated australia exact arrival aboriginal australians however topic dispute among historians archaeologists accepted period years european colonisation settlement australia ref name ref marks prominent point australia history within


study australia criticism academic portrayal australian history historians academics argued since european colonisation australians european descent recounted australian history favour coloniser perspective ref name oppressing indigenous australian perspective australian society culture study australian society culture examines historical shifting social makeup australia resulting dominant cultures academic study field explores australian society culture european settlement migration global miners country study australia


society culture european colonisation consists indigenous australian colonies individual cultural beliefs post colonisation led form settler society australian colonies ref name ref cultural study society involves analysis interactions indigenous people european settlers non white immigrants ref name study australia cultural shift indigenous predominantly western culture seen result interactions indigenous australians european settlers interactions ranged civil violent diseases brought australia europeans taking significant toll


indigenous population culture historian geoffrye blainey believed main conqueror aborigines disease ally demoralisation european settlers developed resistance smallpox early exposure disease broke australia ref name ref settlers largely unaffected however without previous exposure virus indigenous australia population resistance estimated killed ref name remaining indigenous population many lost land culture forced resettle reserves thousands children removed families placed


series policies favoured migrants british descent white australia policy ref name later dismantled government promotion multiculturalism leading increased migration european asian middle eastern people australia ref name study contemporary australian culture still show british cultural influence remaining prominent australia promotion multiculturalism led nation influences becoming increasingly prominent australian politics economics australian studies may also involve analysis australian politics economics study australian politics involves aspects


australia past present political system area study divided pre post federation pre federation australia consisted six british colonies law making british parliament federation australia established federal system government australian constitution studies post federation focus australia political system representative democracy includes democratic system government role parliament australia government departments international programs government mandated policies publications study australian economics encompasses australian economy past present economic environments within field


study common topics include australia macro micro economic structure policies trends governance structure australian economy terms industry contribution also relevant history role reserve bank australia rba field study outlines role australia central bank banknote issuing authority since reserve bank act passed indigenous australian studies x px scholarship indigenous australian studies involves aboriginal torres strait islander cultures history beliefs systems australia indigenous people made two distinct cultural groups aboriginal


torres strait islander peoples within field study social political influence colonisation decolonisation indigenous australian groups analysed academics believe within field study scant attention paid ref name ref colonisation process impacted social economic cultural experiences indigenous australians today systemic disparities health indigenous non indigenous australians ref name indigenous australian studies also examines contemporary aboriginal torres strait islander culture society population gradually growing population australia


since close gap campaign launched response social justice report awareness recognition indigenous civilisation culture grown significantly australian studies educational institutions australian studies forms part australian national curriculum offered many australian international tertiary institutions australian curriculum national curriculum australia australian curriculum created australian government department education skills employment provides outline students primary high school learn outline regardless


location within australia school system ref name ref within australian curriculum australian studies predominantly taught within humanities social sciences curriculum also stipulates two cross cultural priorities sit within study australia asia australia engagement asia aboriginal torres strait islander histories cultures ref name tertiary institutions australian studies course offered many tertiary institutions within australia internationally subject fall broader disciplines cultural studies political international studies institutes australian institute aboriginal torres strait islander


studies australian institute aboriginal torres strait islander studies aiatsis government funded institution focused diverse history cultures heritage ref name ref indigenous australian population institute established public governance performance accountability act ref name institute facilitates studies understanding indigenous australians collecting items cultural value conducting research communities publishing pieces work indigenous australians facilitating collaborations partnerships government academic corporate community sectors ref name australian studies institute australian studies institute founded


australian national university anu institute established promote study australia part australia world global engagement program ref name ref institute led professor paul pickering facilitates various global engagement programs universities leading cultural institutions ref name programs aim promote exchange knowledge research resources people studying australia related studies institute ref name institutes australian studies centre american association australian literary studies centre australian studies nicolaus copernicus university toru journals ''journal australian studies'' jas


''australian literary studies'' ''australian studies'' see also education australia list universities australia references external links includeonly adjective australian history geography climate continent deserts environment issues earthquakes flora fauna forests geology islands mountains regions protected areas rivers subdivisions states territories capitals cities politics constitution courts elections donations electoral system parties federal budget foreign relations government governor general human rights intersex lgbt transgender intelligence security law constitution judiciary enforcement military monarchy national debt parliament political ideology anarchism christian conservatism far right liberalism nationalism republicanism socialism public service women government leaders government ministers shadow cabinet economy agriculture currency energy


gross state product home ownership public housing household income manufacturing media mining poverty reserve bank stock exchange superannuation taxation telecommunications tourism transport welfare system society aged care crime demographics education ethnic groups health care homelessness immigration languages religion women culture architecture art arts australian english cinema cuisine dance literature music public holidays radio sport symbols television theatre anglosphere australian studies


'''''policy sociology''''' term coined michael burawoy referring way providing solutions social problems goals usually defined client could government policy sociology provides instrumental knowledge knowledge used solve help specific case social world according burawoy information gathered policy sociology open extra academic audience confined academic boundaries findings policy sociology research likely effect general public could influence government policy

Social science
Sociology
Policy sociology


recent year policy sociology popular research methodology analysing educational policies sometimes also called critical policy sociology references sociological terminology


'''space policy''' political decision making process application public policy state association states regarding spaceflight uses outer space civilian scientific commercial military purposes international treaties outer space treaty attempt maximize peaceful uses space restrict militarization space space policy intersects science policy since national space programs often perform fund research space science also defense policy applications spy satellites anti satellite weapons also encompasses government regulation third party

Applied science
Public administration
Science policy
Space policy


activities commercial communications satellites private spaceflight ref name goldman ref space policy also encompasses creation application space law space advocacy organizations exist support cause space exploration space law space law area law encompasses national international law governing activities outer space currently five treaties make body international space law inception field space law began launch world 's first artificial satellite soviet union october named ''sputnik '' satellite


un general assembly ref name partial test ban treaty first signed governments soviet union united kingdom united states moscow august opened signature countries ref name partial test ban treaty test ban treaty entered force october ref name ref treaty prohibits nuclear weapons tests nuclear explosions atmosphere outer space water also prohibits nuclear explosions underground cause radioactive debris present outside territorial


limits state whose jurisdiction control explosions conducted increased knowledge effects nuclear fallout issue nuclear tests resultant radioactive debris drew intensified public attention treaty outright ban nuclear tests underground hundreds tests conducted following decades partial test ban treaty seen first step towards global nuclear disarmament continued efforts direction include increasing public awareness events international day total elimination nuclear weapons outer space treaty


equatorial countries including ecuador colombia congo zaire renamed democratic republic congo uganda kenya indonesia claims receive wider international support recognition subsequently abandoned increase private satellites counter space technologies past five years calls update outer space treaty topic amongst others discussed annual outer space security conference geneva switzerland rescue agreement rescue agreement ratified december ref name ref agreement 's provisions elaborate


rescue provisions set forth outer space treaty essentially rescue agreement requires state party agreement upon becoming aware personnel spacecraft distress must notify launching authority secretary general united nations must provide possible assistance rescue personnel spacecraft landed within state 's territory moreover distress occurs area beyond territory nation state party position shall necessary extend assistance


agreement moon agreement ratified july ref name ref agreement multilateral treaty turns jurisdiction celestial bodies including orbits around bodies participant countries thus activities would conform international law including united nations charter ratified state engages self launched human spaceflight eg united states russia former soviet union people 's republic china thus little relevancy international law ref name koch institutional framework province mankind lessons international seabed authority


governance commercial space mining jonathan sydney koch institutional framework province mankind lessons international seabed authority governance commercial space mining ''astropolitics'' ref policy country soviet union soviet union became world 's first spacefaring state launching first satellite sputnik october united states united states space policy drafted executive branch direction president united states submitted approval establishment funding legislative process


united states congress president may also negotiate nations sign space treaties behalf us according constitutional authority congress' final space policy product case domestic policy bill explicitly stating policy objectives budget appropriation implementation submitted president signature law else ratified treaty nations space advocacy organizations space science institute national space society space generation advisory council learned societies american astronomical society


american astronautical society policy organizations national academies may provide advice government lobby space goals civilian scientific space policy carried national aeronautics space administration nasa subsequent july military space activities communications reconnaissance intelligence mapping missile defense carried various agencies department defense president legally responsible deciding space activities fall civilian military areas addition department commerce 's national oceanic atmospheric administration operates various services space components


landsat program president consults nasa department defense space activity plans potential input policy draft submitted congress also consults national security council office science technology policy office management budget take account congress 's expected willingness provide necessary funding levels proposed programs president 's policy draft treaty submitted congress civilian policies reviewed house subcommittee space aeronautics senate subcommittee science space


committees also exercise oversight nasa 's operations investigation accidents apollo fire military policies reviewed overseen house subcommittee strategic forces senate subcommittee strategic forces well house permanent select committee intelligence senate select committee intelligence senate foreign relations committee conducts hearings proposed space treaties various appropriations committees power budgets space related agencies space policy efforts supported congressional agencies congressional research service congressional budget office


soviet sputnik satellite thereafter response flight yuri gagarin first man space kennedy committed united states landing man moon end decade although costs vietnam war programs great society forced cuts nasa 's budget early first moon landing occurred early richard nixon 's presidency nixon administration nasa 's budget continued decline three planned apollo moon landings cancelled nixon administration approved


counterspace systems become regular feature public statements us defense intelligence officials reminiscent similar concerns soviet union space program launch sputnik success apollo lunar missions threat soviet dominance space turned less formidable expected continued drive policy programmatic decisions decades soviet union ceased exist europe eu members european space agency esa common space agency many european nations


independent european union though european space policy provides framework coordination two organizations member states including issues security defence access space space science space exploration esa founded serve counterweight dominant united states soviet space programs economic military independence europe included development ariane rockets captured percent commercial launch market free world esa budget split mandatory


voluntary programs latter allow individual member nations pursue national space goals within organization esa director general 's proposal european space policy states space systems strategic assets demonstrating independence readiness assume global responsibilities initially developed defence scientific projects also provide commercial infrastructures important sectors economy depend relevant daily life citizens europe needs effective space policy enable exert global leadership selected policy areas accordance european interests


enlai decided july prc left behind started china 's human spaceflight program first success came october china sent first astronaut space hours aboard shenzhou ministry aerospace industry responsible chinese space program prior july split china national space administration responsible setting policy state owned china aerospace science technology corporation responsible implementation china national space administration states aims maintaining country 's overall development strategy


making innovations independent self reliant manner promoting country 's science technology sector encouraging economic social development actively engaging international cooperation russian federation ukraine russian federation inherited space programs predecessor state soviet union russia 's civilian space agency russian federal space agency military counterpart russian aerospace defence forces ukraine 's agency state space agency ukraine handles civilian military programs soviet union considered technologically behind united


states outspent united states space budget cosmonauts spent three times many days space american astronauts soviet union also willing united states embark long term programs salyut mir space station programs increased investment space programs throughout dissolution soviet union saw serious financial problems decreased cash flow encouraged roskosmos improvise seek ways keep space programs running resulted


roskosmos' leading role commercial satellite launches space tourism scientific missions interplanetary probes astronomy missions years played small role although roskosmos connections russian aerospace forces budget part defense budget country roskosmos managed operate space station mir well past planned lifespan contribute international space station continue fly additional soyuz progress missions ref name harvey ref russian economy boomed throughout high prices exports oil gas outlook subsequent funding became


favorable federal space budget year left unchanged despite global economic crisis standing billion rubles billion current priorities russian space program include new angara rocket family development new communications navigation remote earth sensing spacecraft glonass global navigation satellite system many years one top priorities given budget line federal space budget ref name rian budget ref ref name rian glonass ref india purpose india 's space program outlined vikram sarabhai regarded


father indian space program department space dos indian government department responsible administration indian space program manages several agencies institutes related space exploration space technologies indian space program dos aims promote development application space science technology socio economic benefit country includes two major satellite systems insat communication television broadcasting meteorological services indian remote sensing satellites irs system resources monitoring management also developed two satellite launch vehicles polar satellite


launch vehicle pslv geosynchronous satellite launch vehicle gslv place irs insat class satellites orbit see also chinese exclusion policy nasa citizens' advisory council national space policy politics outer space space advocacy space generation advisory council space law space race references external links http wwwespiorat european space policy institute http wwwjournalselseviercom space policy ''space policy'' academic journal http wwwgwuedu spi resourcescfm space policy resource websites https wwwspace policycom space policy outer space policy politics law blog dr jill stuart https aerospaceorg policy center space policy strategy aerospace corporation https aerospaceorg space policy resources us space policy


cloud computing cloud computing metaphor group networked elements providing services need individually addressed managed users instead entire provider managed suite hardware software thought amorphous cloud '''cloud computing''' ref name urlan introduction dew computing definition''' concept implications ieee journals magazine ref demand availability computer system resources especially data storage cloud storage computing power without direct active management user large clouds often functions distributed multiple locations location data center cloud computing relies sharing resources

Formal science
Computer science
Computer communications (networks)
Cloud computing


achieve coherence economies scale typically using pay go model help reducing capital expenses may also lead unexpected operating expenses unaware users value proposition advocates public hybrid clouds note cloud computing allows companies avoid minimize front infrastructure costs proponents also claim cloud computing allows enterprises get applications running faster improved manageability less maintenance enables teams rapidly adjust resources meet fluctuating unpredictable demand ref name awsamazon ref providing '''burst computing''' capability


high computing power certain periods peak demand history references phrase cloud computing appeared early first known mention compaq internal document cloud symbol used represent networks computing equipment original arpanet early csnet predecessors internet word ''cloud'' used metaphor internet standardized cloud like shape used denote network telephony schematics simplification implication specifics endpoints


network connected relevant understanding diagram term ''cloud'' used refer platforms distributed computing early apple spin general magic used describing paired telescript personalink technologies ''wired 's'' april feature bill andy 's excellent adventure ii andy hertzfeld commented telescript general magic 's distributed programming language early history initial concepts time sharing became popularized via rje remote job entry terminology mostly associated large vendors ibm dec full time sharing solutions


available early platforms multics ge hardware cambridge ctss earliest unix ports dec hardware yet data center model users submitted jobs operators run ibm 's mainframes overwhelmingly predominant telecommunications companies previously offered primarily dedicated point point data circuits began offering virtual private network vpn services comparable quality service lower cost switching traffic saw fit balance server use could use overall network bandwidth effectively began use cloud symbol


denote demarcation point provider responsible users responsible cloud computing extended boundary cover servers well network infrastructure computers became diffused scientists technologists explored ways make large scale computing power available users time sharing experimented algorithms optimize infrastructure platform applications prioritize cpus increase efficiency end users ref name mitcorbato ref use cloud metaphor virtualized services dates least general magic used describe universe


places mobile agents telescript environment could go described andy hertzfeld ref sign source use cloud metaphor credited general magic communications employee http wwwwhoisdavidhoffmancom david hoffman based long standing use networking telecom addition use general magic also used promoting 's associated personalink services july amazon created subsidiary amazon web services goal enable developers build innovative entrepreneurial applications march amazon introduced simple storage service followed elastic compute cloud ec


august year ref name amazoncom ref ref name company technologies ref products pioneered usage server virtualization deliver iaas cheaper demand pricing basis april google released beta version google app engine app engine paas one first kind provided fully maintained infrastructure deployment platform users create web applications using common languages technologies python nodejs php goal eliminate need administrative tasks typical iaas model creating platform users could easily deploy


areas us national science foundation began cluster exploratory program fund academic research using google ibm cluster technology analyze massive amounts data government france announced project androm de create sovereign cloud national cloud computing government spend million initiative failed badly cloudwatt shut february february microsoft released microsoft azure announced october ref name azure ref july rackspace hosting nasa jointly launched open source cloud software initiative known openstack


openstack project intended help organizations offering cloud computing services running standard hardware early code came nasa 's nebula platform well rackspace 's cloud files platform open source offering along open source solutions cloudstack ganeti opennebula attracted attention several key communities several studies aim comparing open source offerings based set criteria march ibm announced ibm smartcloud framework support smarter planet among various components smarter computing foundation cloud computing critical part june


space premises facility truly consistent hybrid experience similar concepts goal cloud computing allow users take benefit technologies without need deep knowledge expertise one cloud aims cut costs helps users focus core business instead impeded obstacles ref name ham ref main enabling technology cloud computing virtualization virtualization software separates physical computing device one virtual devices easily used managed perform computing


problems grid computing models ref name ham cloud computing shares characteristics client server model ''client server computing'' refers broadly distributed application distinguishes service providers servers service requestors clients computer bureau service bureau providing computer services particularly grid computing form distributed parallel computing whereby 'super virtual computer' composed cluster networked loosely coupled computers acting concert perform large tasks fog computing distributed computing paradigm provides data compute storage application services closer client near user edge devices network routers


furthermore fog computing handles data network level smart devices end user client side eg mobile devices instead sending data remote location processing mainframe computer powerful computers used mainly large organizations critical applications typically bulk data processing census industry consumer statistics police secret intelligence services enterprise resource planning financial transaction processing utility computing packaging computing resources computation storage metered service similar traditional public utility electricity ref name 's 've ref peer peer distributed architecture without need central coordination participants


entry infrastructure typically provided third party need purchased one time infrequent intensive computing tasks pricing utility computing basis fine grained usage based billing options well less house skills required implementation projects use cloud computing ref name idc ref e fiscal project 's state art repository contains several articles looking cost aspects detail concluding costs savings depend type activities supported type infrastructure available house device location independence ref name yarmis ref enable users access systems using


web browser regardless location device use eg pc mobile phone infrastructure site typically provided third party accessed via internet users connect anywhere ref name idc maintenance cloud environment easier data hosted outside server maintained provider without need invest data center hardware maintenance cloud computing managed updated cloud provider 's maintenance team reduces cloud computing costs compared premises data centers multitenancy enables sharing resources costs


across large pool users thus allowing centralization infrastructure locations lower costs real estate electricity etc peak load capacity increases users need engineer pay resources equipment meet highest possible load levels utilisation efficiency improvements systems often utilised ref name amazon ref performance monitored experts service provider consistent loosely coupled architectures constructed using web services system interface ref name idc productivity may increased multiple users work data simultaneously rather waiting


gives ability scale usage need increases resources used time efficient benefit cloud scalability also means faster time market business flexibility adaptability adding new resources take much time used emerging approaches managing elasticity include use machine learning techniques propose efficient elasticity models ref name elsevierelasticity ref security improve due centralization data increased security focused resources etc concerns persist loss control certain sensitive data lack security stored kernels


security often good better traditional systems part service providers able devote resources solving security issues many customers cannot afford tackle lack technical skills address however complexity security greatly increased data distributed wider area greater number devices well multi tenant systems shared unrelated users addition user access security audit logs may difficult impossible private cloud installations part motivated users' desire retain


control infrastructure avoid losing control information security national institute standards technology 's definition cloud computing identifies five essential characteristics ref service models cloud computing service models arranged layers stack though service oriented architecture advocates everything service acronyms '''eaas''' '''xaas''' simply '''aas''' cloud computing providers offer services according different models three standard models per nist infrastructure service iaas platform service paas software service saas ref name nist models offer increasing abstraction thus often


pools hypervisors within cloud operational system support large numbers virtual machines ability scale services according customers' varying requirements linux containers run isolated partitions single linux kernel running directly physical hardware linux cgroups namespaces underlying linux kernel technologies used isolate secure manage containers containerisation offers higher performance virtualization hypervisor overhead iaas clouds often offer additional resources virtual machine disk image library raw block storage file object storage firewalls load balancers ip


addresses virtual local area networks vlans software bundles ref name dhac ref nist 's definition cloud computing describes iaas consumer able deploy run arbitrary software include operating systems applications consumer manage control underlying cloud infrastructure control operating systems storage deployed applications possibly limited control select networking components eg host firewalls ref name nist iaas cloud providers supply resources demand large pools equipment installed data centers wide area connectivity customers use either internet carrier clouds dedicated


virtual private networks deploy applications cloud users install operating system images application software cloud infrastructure model cloud user patches maintains operating systems application software cloud providers typically bill iaas services utility computing basis cost reflects amount resources allocated consumed platform service paas nist 's definition cloud computing defines platform service ref name nist paas vendors offer development environment application developers provider typically develops toolkit standards development channels distribution payment


service ''' ipaas enables customers develop execute govern integration flows ref name gartnerglossary ref ipaas integration model customers drive development deployment integrations without installing managing hardware middleware ref name gartnerreferencemodel ref dpaas delivers integration data management products fully managed service ref name itbusinessedge ref dpaas model paas provider customer manages development execution programs building data applications customer dpaas users access data data visualization tools ref name enterprisecioforum ref software service saas nist 's definition cloud computing defines software service ref name nist software service


saas model users gain access application software databases cloud providers manage infrastructure platforms run applications saas sometimes referred demand software usually priced pay per use basis using subscription fee saas model cloud providers install operate application software cloud cloud users access software cloud clients cloud users manage cloud infrastructure platform application runs eliminates need install run application cloud user 's computers simplifies maintenance support


cloud applications differ applications scalability achieved cloning tasks onto multiple virtual machines run time meet changing work demand ref name hamdaqa ref load balancers distribute work set virtual machines process transparent cloud user sees single access point accommodate large number cloud users cloud applications ''multitenant'' meaning machine may serve one cloud user organization pricing model saas applications typically monthly yearly flat fee per user ref name chou ref prices become scalable adjustable


users added removed point may also free proponents claim saas gives business potential reduce operational costs outsourcing hardware software maintenance support cloud provider enables business reallocate operations costs away hardware software spending personnel expenses towards meeting goals addition applications hosted centrally updates released without need users install new software one drawback saas comes storing users' data cloud provider 's server result could


unauthorized access data examples applications offered saas games productivity software like google docs word online saas applications may integrated cloud storage file hosting services case google docs integrated google drive word online integrated onedrive mobile backend service mbaas mobile backend service model also known '''backend service baas ''' web app mobile app developers provided way link applications cloud storage cloud computing services


abstract measure resources required satisfy request rather per virtual machine per hour ref name 'techcrunch lambda' ref despite name actually involve running code without servers ref name 'techcrunch lambda' serverless computing named business person owns system purchase rent provide servers virtual machines back end code run function service faas service hosted remote procedure call leverages serverless computing enable deployment individual functions cloud run response events faas considered


come umbrella ' 'serverless computing'' others use terms interchangeably deployment models cloud computing types private cloud private cloud cloud infrastructure operated solely single organization whether managed internally third party hosted either internally externally ref name nist undertaking private cloud project requires significant engagement virtualize business environment requires organization reevaluate decisions existing resources improve business every step project raises security issues must addressed prevent serious vulnerabilities self run data centers generally


private cloud services security concerns increase substantially services applications storage resources shared multiple customers public cloud providers offer direct connection services allow customers securely link legacy data centers cloud resident applications ref name idc several factors like functionality solutions cost integrational organizational aspects well safety security influencing decision enterprises organizations choose public cloud premises solution hybrid cloud '''hybrid''' cloud composition public cloud private environment private cloud premises resources


remain distinct entities bound together offering benefits multiple deployment models hybrid cloud also mean ability connect collocation managed dedicated services cloud resources ref name nist gartner defines hybrid cloud service cloud computing service composed combination private public community cloud services different service providers hybrid cloud service crosses isolation provider boundaries ca n't simply put one category private public community cloud service allows one extend either capacity capability


cloud service aggregation integration customization another cloud service varied use cases hybrid cloud composition exist example organization may store sensitive client data house private cloud application interconnect application business intelligence application provided public cloud software service example hybrid cloud extends capabilities enterprise deliver specific business service addition externally available public cloud services hybrid cloud adoption depends number factors data security compliance requirements level control needed


data applications organization uses another example hybrid cloud one organizations use public cloud computing resources meet temporary capacity needs met private cloud capability enables hybrid clouds employ cloud bursting scaling across clouds ref name nist cloud bursting application deployment model application runs private cloud data center bursts public cloud demand computing capacity increases primary advantage cloud bursting hybrid cloud model organization pays


extra compute resources needed cloud bursting enables data centers create house infrastructure supports average workloads use cloud resources public private clouds spikes processing demands specialized model hybrid cloud built atop heterogeneous hardware called cross platform hybrid cloud cross platform hybrid cloud usually powered different cpu architectures example x arm underneath users transparently deploy scale applications without knowledge cloud 's hardware diversity kind cloud emerges rise arm based system chip server class computing hybrid


cloud infrastructure essentially serves eliminate limitations inherent multi access relay characteristics private cloud networking advantages include enhanced runtime flexibility adaptive memory processing unique virtualized interface models others community cloud community cloud shares infrastructure several organizations specific community common concerns security compliance jurisdiction etc whether managed internally third party either hosted internally externally costs spread fewer users public cloud private cloud cost savings potential cloud computing realized ref name nist distributed cloud


cloud computing platform assembled distributed set machines different locations connected single network hub service possible distinguish two types distributed clouds public resource computing volunteer cloud '''public resource computing''' type distributed cloud results expansive definition cloud computing akin distributed computing cloud computing nonetheless considered sub class cloud computing '''volunteer cloud''' volunteer cloud computing characterized intersection public resource computing cloud computing cloud computing infrastructure built using volunteered resources many


challenges arise type infrastructure volatility resources used build dynamic environment operates also called peer peer clouds ad hoc clouds interesting effort direction cloud home aims implement cloud computing infrastructure using volunteered resources providing business model incentivize contributions financial restitution multi cloud multi cloud use multiple cloud computing services single heterogeneous architecture reduce reliance single vendors increase flexibility choice mitigate disasters etc differs hybrid cloud


refers multiple cloud services rather multiple deployment modes public private legacy ref name rouse ref ref name king ref poly cloud poly cloud refers use multiple public clouds purpose leveraging specific services provider offers differs multi cloud designed increase flexibility mitigate failures rather used allow organization achieve could done single provider big data cloud issues transferring large amounts data cloud well data security


data cloud initially hampered adoption cloud big data much data originates cloud advent bare metal servers cloud become solution use cases including business analytics geospatial analysis ref name yang ref hpc cloud hpc cloud refers use cloud computing services infrastructure execute high performance computing hpc applications applications consume considerable amount computing power memory traditionally executed clusters computers handful companies including r hpc amazon web services univa silicon graphics international sabalcore gomput


penguin computing offered high performance computing cloud penguin demand pod cloud one first non virtualized remote hpc services offered pay go basis penguin computing launched hpc cloud alternative amazon 's ec elastic compute cloud uses virtualized computing nodes architecture cloud computing sample architecture '''cloud architecture''' systems architecture software systems involved delivery cloud computing typically involves multiple ''cloud components'' communicating loose coupling mechanism messaging queue elastic provision implies intelligence use tight


loose coupling applied mechanisms others cloud engineering '''cloud engineering''' application engineering disciplines cloud computing brings systematic approach high level concerns commercialization standardization governance conceiving developing operating maintaining cloud computing systems multidisciplinary method encompassing contributions diverse areas systems software web performance information technology engineering security platform risk quality engineering security privacy cloud computing poses privacy concerns service provider access data cloud time could accidentally


deliberately alter delete information ref name ryan ref many cloud providers share information third parties necessary purposes law order without warrant permitted privacy policies users must agree start using cloud services solutions privacy include policy legislation well end users' choices data stored ref name ryan users encrypt data processed stored within cloud prevent unauthorized access ref name cloudid ref ref name ryan identity management systems also provide practical solutions privacy concerns cloud computing systems distinguish authorized


unauthorized users determine amount data accessible entity systems work creating describing identities recording activities getting rid unused identities according cloud security alliance top three threats cloud ''insecure interfaces apis'' ''data loss leakage'' ''hardware failure'' accounted cloud security outages respectively together form shared technology vulnerabilities cloud provider platform shared different users may possibility information belonging different customers resides data


october million users passwords stolen hackers effort get monetary value bitcoins btc passwords able read private data well data indexed search engines making information public ref name psghitachi solutionscom problem legal ownership data user stores data cloud cloud provider profit many terms service agreements silent question ownership physical control computer equipment private cloud


secure equipment site someone else 's control public cloud delivers great incentive public cloud computing service providers prioritize building maintaining strong management secure services small businesses n't expertise security could find 's secure use public cloud risk end users understand issues involved signing cloud service persons sometimes n't read many pages terms service agreement click accept without reading important


cloud computing becoming popular required services work example intelligent personal assistant apple 's siri google fundamentally private cloud seen secure higher levels control owner however public cloud seen flexible requires less time money investment user limitations disadvantages according bruce schneier downside limited customization options cloud computing cheaper economics scale like outsourced task tend get want restaurant limited


menu cheaper personal chef cook anything want fewer options much cheaper price 's feature bug also suggests cloud provider might meet legal needs businesses need weigh benefits cloud computing risks cloud computing control back end infrastructure limited cloud vendor cloud providers often decide management policies moderates cloud users able deployment cloud users also limited control


management applications data services ref name real limits cloud computing ref includes data caps placed cloud users cloud vendor allocating certain amount bandwidth customer often shared among cloud users ref name real limits cloud computing privacy confidentiality big concerns activities instance sworn translators working stipulations nda might face problems regarding sensitive data encrypted due use internet confidential information employee data user data easily


available third party organisations people cloud computing cloud computing beneficial many enterprises lowers costs allows focus competence instead matters infrastructure nevertheless cloud computing proven limitations disadvantages especially smaller business operations particularly regarding security downtime technical outages inevitable occur sometimes cloud service providers csps become overwhelmed process serving clients may result temporary business suspension since technology 's systems rely internet individual cannot access applications server data


cloud outage emerging trends cloud computing still subject research ref name ghc ref driving factor evolution cloud computing chief technology officers seeking minimize risk internal outages mitigate complexity housing network computing hardware house also looking share information workers located diverse areas near real time enable teams work seamlessly matter located since global pandemic said cloud technology jumped ahead popularity due level security


data flexibility working options employees notably remote workers example zoom grew alone digital forensics cloud issue carrying investigations cloud storage devices cannot physically accessed generated number changes way digital evidence located collected new process models developed formalize collection scenarios existing digital forensics tools employed access cloud storage networked drives although slow process generating large amount internet traffic alternative


edge device escience file system clustered file system distributed file system distributed file system cloud fog computing fog robotics grid computing memory database memory processing internet things microservices mobile cloud computing mobile edge computing peer peer personal cloud robot service service oriented architecture time sharing ubiquitous computing vdi virtual private cloud web computing references reading mell p september '' http csrcnistgov publications nistpubs sp pdf nist definition cloud computing '' retrieved november national institute standards technology website external links cloud infrastructure


'''green economy''' economy aims reducing environmental risks ecological scarcities aims sustainable development without degrading environment closely related ecological economics politically applied focus unep green economy report argues green economy must efficient also fair fairness implies recognizing global country level equity dimensions particularly assuring transition economy low carbon resource efficient socially inclusive ref name uneporg unep towards green economy pathways sustainable development poverty eradication

Social science
Economics
Green economics


promote greening practices globalizing economy also known sustainability standards standards special rules guarantee products buy hurt environment people make number standards grown recently help build new greener economy focus economic sectors like forestry farming mining fishing among others concentrate environmental factors like protecting water sources biodiversity reducing greenhouse gas emissions support social protections workers rights home specific parts production processes green economists


economics green economics loosely defined theory economics economy considered component ecosystem resides lynn margulis holistic approach subject typical economic ideas commingled number subjects depending particular theorist proponents feminism postmodernism environmental movement peace movement green politics green anarchism anti globalization movement used term describe different ideas external mainstream economics use term ambiguated political distinction


traditional land generalized natural capital attributes common labor physical capital since natural capital assets like rivers directly substitute man made ones canals viewed marxist economics nature represented form lumpenproletariat exploited base non human workers providing surplus value human economy branch neoclassical economics price life developing vs developed nations held steady ratio reflecting balance power non human life low increasing commitment


promoted zero emissions research initiatives unep green economy report informs based existing studies annual financing demand green global economy estimated range us us trillion place demand perspective one tenth total global investment per year measured global gross capital formation ref name uneporg definition karl burkart defined green economy based six main sectors renewable energy green buildings sustainable transport water management waste management land management imagemap image sustainable developmentsvg right three pillars sustainability px thumb poly


economic poly social imagemap international chamber commerce icc representing global business defines green economy economy economic growth


environmental responsibility work together mutually reinforcing fashion supporting progress social development icc published ''green economy roadmap'' containing contributions international experts consulted bi yearly roadmap represents comprehensive multidisciplinary effort clarify frame concept green economy highlights role business bringing solutions global challenges sets following conditions relate business intra industry collaborative action transition towards green economy open competitive markets metrics accounting reporting finance investment awareness life cycle approach resource efficiency


decoupling employment education skills governance partnership integrated policy decision making finance investing green growth ecological measurements measuring economic output progress done use economic index indicators green indices emerged need measure human ecological impact efficiency sectors like transport energy buildings tourism well investment flows targeted areas like renewable energy cleantech innovation global green economy index ggei ref name ggei ref published consultancy dual citizen llc th edition measures green economic performance perceptions


countries along four main dimensions leadership climate change efficiency sectors markets investment environment green city index global study commissioned siemens circles sustainability project scored cities separate countries ecological footprint measurements way gauge anthropogenic impact another standard used municipal governments green energy issues green economies require transition green energy generation based renewable energy replace fossil fuels well energy conservation efficient energy use


renewables like solar energy wind energy may eliminate use fossil fuels electricity replace fossil fuel usage altogether market failure respond environmental protection climate protection needs attributed high external costs high initial costs research development marketing green energy sources green products green economy may need government subsidies market incentives motivate firms invest produce green products services german renewable energy act legislations many member states european union american


three mile island accident chernobyl disaster bush administration passed energy bill granted nuclear industry around million dollars encourage research development efforts increasing threat climate change nuclear energy highlighted option work decarbonize atmosphere reverse climate change nuclear power forces environmentalists citizens around world weigh pro cons using nuclear power renewable energy source controversial nature nuclear power potential split green economy movement two branches anti nuclear


pro nuclear criticism number organisations individuals criticised aspects 'green economy' particularly mainstream conceptions based using price mechanisms protect nature arguing extend corporate control new areas forestry water research organisation etc group argues corporate emphasis bio economy spur even greater convergence corporate power unleash massive resource grab years venezuelan professor edgardo lander says unep 's report ''towards green economy'' well intentioned ignores fact capacity existing


political systems establish regulations restrictions free operation markets even large majority population call seriously limited political financial power corporations ulrich hoffmann paper unctad also says focus green economy green growth particular based evolutionary often reductionist approach sufficient cope complexities climate change may rather give much false hope excuses nothing really fundamental bring u turn


global greenhouse gas emissions clive spash ecological economist criticised use economic growth address environmental losses argued green economy advocated un new approach actually diversion real drivers environmental crisis also criticised un 's project economics ecosystems biodiversity teeb basis valuing ecosystems services monetary terms see also agroecology carbon fee dividend circular economy degrowth eco capitalism eco socialism ecology contexts embodied energy embodied water energy accounting energy


'''conservation psychology''' scientific study reciprocal relationships humans rest nature particular focus encourage conservation natural world ref name saunders saunders cd emerging field conservation psychology human ecology review vol ref rather specialty area within psychology growing field scientists researchers practitioners disciplines come together better understand earth done preserve network seeks understand humans hurt help environment

Social science
Psychology
Conservation psychology


done change behavior term conservation psychology refers fields psychology understandable knowledge environment effects humans natural world conservation psychologists use abilities greening psychology make society ecologically sustainable ref name myers http wwwacwwuedu gmyers cp myers gene ''conservation psychology'' wwu january ref science conservation psychology oriented toward environmental sustainability includes concerns like conservation resources conservation ecosystems quality life issues humans species ref name saunders one common issue lack understanding distinction conservation


psychology established field environmental psychology study transactions individuals physical settings including people change built natural environments environments change environmental psychology began late first formal program name established city university new york term commonly used around world definition including human transactions natural built environments goes back beginnings exemplified quotes three textbooks


environmental psychology study interrelationship behavior built natural environment natural environment studied problem area respect environmental degradation setting certain recreational psychological needs third included chapter entitled natural environment behavior conservation psychology proposed recently mainly identified group us academics ties zoos environmental studies departments began primary focus relations humans animals introduced ecology policy biology journals


suggested expanded try understand humans feel need help hurt environment along promote conservation efforts pioneers field involved psychologists fields including philosophy biology sociology industrial organizational health consumer psychology along many subfields like environmental education conservation biology come together put knowledge practice educating others work together encourage congruous relationship humans environment around psychologists work together places zoos aquariums


zoos aquariums may seem places recreation fun actually trying hard put positive messages educate public homes needs animals live trying find ways interact teach public consequences day day actions animals environment rather simply viewing animals psychologists sociologists visiting workshops think tanks zoos evaluate animals viewed shown best


ability still giving informative knowledge public research consider characterizes conservation psychology research addition descriptive theoretical analyses studies explore cause kinds changes lessen impact human behavior natural environment lead sustainable harmonious relationships research done respect conservation estimating exactly much land water resources used human point along projected future growth also important consider partitioning land


future growth additionally conservation efforts look positive negative consequences biodiversity plant animal life humans used land advantage addition creating better conceptual models applied research needed identify promising strategies fostering ways caring nature find ways reframe debates strategically communicate existing values people identify promising strategies shifting societal discourse human nature relationships measure success applications respect


conservation psychology mission ref name saunders ultimate success conservation psychology based whether research resulted programs applications made difference respect environmental sustainability need able measure effectiveness programs terms impact behavior formation behavior change using tools developed conservation psychologists ref name saunders present research future planning conservation psychology research broken four important tenets promoting positive conservation attitudes four 'i 's ref name van vugt ref include information identity institutions incentives


efficacy collective action awareness predicament climate change places society lead pro environmental behaviour furthermore adequate support provided climate related emotions reflected processed leads increase resilience community engagement teaching people benefits conservation including easy ways help conserve effective way inform promote environmentally friendly behavior ref name huber ref additionally research shown making sure people understand boundaries land help preserve actually improves positive attitudes towards conservation


people know local regions help protect care knowing regions includes knowing extent biodiversity region sure ecosystem remain healthy protected cost analysis another important factor people want take risks valuable lands places like california could worth billions ref name huber identity general people like fit identify peer social groups studies shown people identify intimately close friends


family conservation campaigns try directly address people ref name saunders think children argument conservation follows logic offering group everyone relate feel close studies also shown need fit among peer social groups reinforced positively negatively giving positive feedback energy bills conserving homes encourages people continue lower energy use examples negative reinforcement include use negative press companies infamous heavy pollution ref name van vugt another


interesting line research looks people identify positively negatively certain issues one relevant idea notion consistency attitudes studies shown people tend take good association use make positive negative links related things example someone thinks good idea protect old pacific forests positively form link also want protect smaller forests even grasslands ref name bright ref line thinking cause someone supports protection


old pacific forests start thinking negatively creation logging roads studies consistency attitudes shown one particular issue people like align preferences shown repeatedly looking political ideologies racial attitudes studies shown also include environmental issues ref name bright finally studies shown people identify ecosystem geographically affect concern ref name bright instance people think saving rainforests often think


main original topic field three topics previous history environmental psychology first topic discussed connection humans animals multi institutional research project mirp works diligently finding ways develop compassionate stance towards animals public eye many different questions assessed find answers questions concerning ways help develop loving attitudes animals earth questions answers effective educational interpretive programs made would help review progress second concept discussed


conference concerned connections humans places new language conservation supported abundant opportunities meaningful interactions natural world urban rural settings unfortunately biodiversity lost every generation fewer chances experience nature many questions asked concerning humans everyday lives could persuaded educated well enough make want join programs activities help maintain biodiversity proximity local public private organizations asked come together help find ways protect


manage local land plants animals discussions came whether people individual community level would voluntarily choose become involved maintaining protecting local biodiversity plus many important questions contemplated techniques marketing key tool helping people connect environment identity could connected environment towns becoming urbanized maybe living would prone keep intact third discussion covered aspects producing people act environmentally friendly collectively activities support sustainability either


reducing harmful behaviors adopting helpful ones called conservation behaviors achieving sustainable relationships nature basically require large numbers people change reproductive consumptive behaviors ref name saunders action small large helps environment way good beginning future generations practice environmentally friendly behavior may seem far fetched idea help educating know repercussions actions could help achieve approaches encouraging change behavior


thought carefully many want change way life simplistic lifestyle rather materialistic current lives hurt environment around rather help could people willingly change take public transportation rather drive car recycling turning lights needed things simple yet nuisance actually follow would restructuring tax code help people want change attitudes concept reach goal helping people act ecologically aware discussed approached empirical evidence shows


simply change want see world influence others behave environmentally friendly ways well fourth final point first conservation psychology convention discussion values people environment understanding relationship natural world well enough language celebrate defend relationship another research area conservation psychology according biophilia hypothesis human species evolved company life forms continue rely physically emotionally intellectually


quality richness affiliations natural diversity ref name saunders healthy diverse natural environment considered essential condition human lives satisfaction fulfillment get values ingrained point cannot changed environmentally educated people convey value based communication community nation even global level national policy model something desired strong political scrutiny could challenging advocates biodiversity different programs came together try find methods


changing americans' values concerning environment different methods express measure connection conservation biology psychology conservation biology originally conceptualized crisis oriented discipline goal providing principles tools preserving biodiversity branch biology concerned preserving genetic variation plants animals scientific field evolved study complex problems surrounding habitat destruction species protection objectives conservation biologists understand humans affect biodiversity provide potential solutions benefit humans non human species understood


field underlying fields biology could readily help better understanding contribute conservation biodiversity biological knowledge alone sufficient solve conservation problems role social sciences solving problems become increasingly important knowledge conservation biology combined fields much thought gained psychology defined scientific study human thought feeling behavior ref name myers psychology one fields could take concepts apply conservation also always


understood field psychology could much aid given field developed psychology help providing insight moral reasoning moral functioning lie heart human nature relationships ref name saunders see also biodiversity conservation movement conservation ethic ecopsychology environmental movement environmental psychology natural environment sustainability references notes brook amara clayton susan psychology help save world model conservation psychology ''analyses social issues public policy'' vol pp nbsp https wwwresearchgatenet publication environmental psychology overview de young r environmental psychology overview ann h huffman


stephanie klein eds nowiki nowiki ''green organizations driving change io psychology'' pp ny routledge exploring potential conservation psychology ''human ecology review'' vol pp iii iv kahn pk jr human relationship nature ''development culture'' massachusetts institute technology press cambridge massachusetts kellert sr wilson eo eds ''the biophilia hypothesis'' washington dc island press mascia mb brosius jp dobson ta forbes bc horowitz l mckean nj turner conservation social sciences ''conservation biology'' miller j biodiversity conservation extinction experience ''trends


ecology evolution'' press https webarchiveorg web http wwwacwwuedu gmyers cp myers gene ''conservation psychology'' wwu january myers dg ''psychology th edition'' new york worth publishers saunders cd emerging field conservation psychology ''human ecology review'' vol soule history society conservation biology got ''conservation biology'' werner cm psychological perspectives sustainability e becker jahn eds ''sustainability social sciences cross disciplinary approach integrating environmental considerations theoretical reorientation'' london zed books zelezny lc schultz pw


''my god help survive deadly love'' picture leonid brezhnev erich honecker socialist fraternal kiss '' 'sociology emotion''' applies sociological theorems techniques study human emotions sociology emerged primarily reaction negative effects modernity many normative theories deal sense emotion without forming part specific subdiscipline karl marx described capitalism detrimental personal 'species being' georg simmel wrote deindividualizing tendencies 'the metropolis' max weber 's work dealt rationalizing effect modernity

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of emotions


general theory emotions one hand constitutive embedded hand manipulated instrumentalized entities studied sociology micro level social roles norms 'feeling rules' everyday social interactions situations shaped macro level social institutions discourses ideologies etc example post modern marriage one hand based emotion love hand emotion worked regulated likewise modern science could exist without emotion


curiosity narrow leading sometimes specialization science many forms cultural stratification could exist without disgust contempt politics could exist without fear many civil ethnic wars could take place without hate requires citation try regulate feelings fit norms situation based many sometimes conflicting demands upon us systematic observations group interaction found substantial portion group activity devoted socio emotional issues expressing affect dealing tension simultaneously


field studies social attraction groups revealed feelings individuals collate social networks discovery still explored field social network analysis ethnomethodology revealed emotional commitments everyday norms purposeful breaching norms example students acting boarders homes reported others' astonishment bewilderment shock anxiety embarrassment anger family members accused students mean inconsiderate selfish nasty impolite actors breach norm feel waves emotion including apprehension panic despair however habitual rule breaking leads declining


stress may eventually end enjoyment david kemper proposed people social interaction positions two relational dimensions status power emotions emerge interpersonal events change maintain individuals' status power example affirming someone else 's exalted status produces love related emotions increases decreases one 's 's status power generate specific emotions whose quality depends patterns change arlie hochschild proposed individuals manage feelings produce acceptable displays according ideological cultural standards hochschild showed jobs often require emotional labor classic study


emotional labor among flight attendants found industry speed reducing contact flight attendants passengers made impossible flight attendants deliver authentic emotional labor ended surface acting superficial smiles peggy thoits divided emotion management techniques implementation new events reinterpretation past events thoits noted emotions also managed drugs performing faux gestures facial expressions cognitive reclassifications one 's feelings sociologist chris lucerne states article titled emotions good bad neither good bad emotions however judge


emotions according lucerne 's theory emotion believed help humans express feelings therefore emotions part human nature help us communicate addition chris lucerne theory humans experience situation good bad emotion triggered result emotion action followed example emotions listed lucerne article people experience daily first emotion happiness ignite sensation dance second emotion anger person begins feel hot causing


perspire finally emotion sadness creates sensation feeling closed consequence feeling closed person may react irrationally make comfortable chris lucerne also states article matter cannot control reactions emotion conclusion lucerne 's theory reaction random expressing feelings david straker states watch emotions likewise arlie hochschild 's theory emotions straker talks emotions signals tell something happening inner


sometimes bad emotions misleading reaction often causing conflict conclude based straker 's theory use emotions good bad example straker talked use emotion motivate others thomas j scheff established many cases social conflict based destructive often escalating stoppable reversible shame rage cycle someone results feels shamed another social bond comes stress cooperatively acknowledged talked effectively possible laughed social bond may


many emotions free expression emotion disgust considered socially unacceptable many countries sociologist randall collins stated emotional energy main motivating force social life love hatred investing working consuming rendering cult waging war emotional energy ranges highest heights enthusiasm self confidence initiative deepest depths apathy depression retreat emotional energy comes variously successful failed chains interaction rituals patterned social encounters conversation sexual flirtation christmas family dinners office work mass demonstrations


create impressions befit sentiments reigning situation emotions transient physical subjective states depending current impression emoting person comparison impression sentiment attached person 's identity emotions visceral signals self observable signals others individual 's identity situation individual 's understanding events situation heise developed simulation program analyzing affect control processes social interaction predicting moment moment emotions interactants program specifies emotions terms numerical profiles emotion words


cartoon like drawings interactants' facial expressions complete review affect control theory provided heise 's book ''expressive order'' empirical applications workplaces following hochschild 's lead sociology emotions applied extensively variety workplace interactions jennifer pierce student hochschild 's examined law firms instance robin leidner emotion work fast food outlets social movements inspired james jasper 's cultural work late especially art moral protest number scholars protest social movements begun examine emotions


helped spur new development social movement theory research scholars worldwide taken challenge study emotions social movements including cluster french researchers olivier fillieule isabelle sommier christophe traini measure religiosity according sociologist mervin verbit emotion may understood one key components religiosity furthermore religious emotion may broken four dimensions content frequency intensity centrality content one 's religious emotions may vary situation situation degree may occupy person


frequency intensity emotion centrality emotional feeling religious tradition person 's life sense emotion somewhat similar charles glock 's experience dimension religiosity glock references external links https archivetoday http wwwunaves centro cemid emotional culture identity cemid emotion


bicolor cat '''felinology''' study cats term latin greek origin comes latin word '''' cats feline greek '''' science felinology concerned studying anatomy genetics physiology breeding domestic wild cats references external links http wwwhaaretzcom moreover wonders felinology wonders felinology ''haaretz'' http wwwckwritamukedu research programs feline research program feline research center http wwwnffe bgcom national federation felinology mammalogy

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Felinology


'''military psychology''' specialization within psychology applies psychological science promote readiness military members organizations operations military psychologists provide support military many ways including direct clinical care consultation military commanders teaching others supporting military training research relevant military operations personnel ref name bowles ref stressors associated military service many include exposure high risk training combat psychologists critical support components assist military leaders designing appropriate training programs providing oversight programs assisting military members

Social science
Psychology
Military psychology


navigate challenges military training military life general issues facing military members dissimilar faced civilian counterparts eg relationship issues financial stressors occupational strain specific examples issues faced military personnel may somewhat distinct include posttraumatic stress disorder ptsd associated combat guilt family partner difficulties accompanying extended frequent deployments due separation clinical providers military psychology often focused treatment stress fatigue personal readiness issues ref name kennedy ref ref name gal ref role military group individuals


usually trained equipped perform national security tasks unique often chaotic trauma filled situations situations include front lines battle national emergencies counter terrorism support allied assistance disaster response scenarios providing relief aid host populations friendly enemy states though many psychologists may general understanding regards humans response traumatic situations military psychologists uniquely trained experienced specialists applied science practice among special population service members may providing direct aid victims events military


psychologists providing specialized aid members families victims military operations cope often normal response reaction uncommon abnormal circumstances addition specialized roles previously mentioned military psychologists often provide support many non healthcare related activities example military psychologists may provide expertise training consultation hostage negotiations military psychologists hostage negotiators however often consultation directly communicating hostage takers manner seeks safety protections involved military psychologists may also apply science


aviation selection training study application survival training selection personnel special military duties ref name staal ref another common practice domain military psychologists performing fitness duty evaluations especially high risk high reliability occupations set unique challenges often faced military professions arms police strategic security protective services personnel ability perform reliable accurate fitness duty evaluations adds value maximizes human capital investment workplace optimizing retention talents active


organization events affect mental state resilience psychological assets vulnerabilities warrior command military psychologists equipped meet unique challenges provide expert care consultation preserve behavioral health fighting force ref name zill ref fitness evaluations might lead command directed administrative actions provide information necessary make decisions medical board tribunal must thoroughly conducted non biased individuals experience training necessary render professional opinion critical key decision makers military psychologists


must well versed art science psychology specialized applied practice professionals must also highly competent generalists military profession able understand professions well enough examine human behavior context military operations takes psychologist several years beyond doctorate develop expertise necessary understand integrate psychology complex needs military another select infrequent use military psychology interview subjects interrogation prisoners vetting may provide


agreements area study goals missions current military psychologists retained years varying focus strength intensity research put forth sector need mental health care expected part high stress military environments importance severity post traumatic stress disorder ptsd gained credibility suffering received past highlighted treatment programs extensive post deployment screenings take place home problematic recoveries used passed unnoticed untreated


states western countries important understand label terrorism applied psychological impact suggested causes goals methodology strategy terrorist mindset well suited psychological inquiry development strategy tactics used confront terrorism ideology uses behavioral emotional group dynamics along social psychological principles influence populations political purposes form psychological warfare terrorists experts use fear violence threats violence trauma


order advance political agenda terrorists seek psychological control use violent behavior cause population behave ways disrupt destroy existing political processes symbols political power control people using deep primal emotions elicit reaction shape behavior goal terrorist use violence create natural fear death dismemberment use change shape political behavior control thought modify speech military operational psychologists highly trained experienced experts equipped specialized knowledge


skills abilities art science military psychology professions give great deal potential unique operational environment operational psychology operational psychology specialty within field psychology applies behavioral science principles use consultation enable key decision makers effectively understand develop target influence individual group organization accomplish tactical operational strategic objectives within domain national security national defense relatively new sub discipline employed largely psychologists behavioral scientists


military intelligence law enforcement arenas although areas public safety employ psychologists capacity well psychology utilized non health related fields many decades recent years seen increased focus national security applications examples applications include development counterinsurgency strategy human profiling interrogation detention support information psychological operations selection personnel specialized military public safety activities ref name staal ref ref name staal ref recently operational psychology increased scrutiny due allegations unethical conduct practitioners supporting military law enforcement interrogations


application statistics military historical data find tactics make enemy freeze flee fuss instead fight tactical psychology examines techniques like suppressive fire combined arms flanking reduce enemy 's fight health organizational occupational psychology military psychologists perform work variety areas include operating mental health family counseling clinics performing research help select recruits armed forces determining recruits best suited various military occupational specialties performing analysis humanitarian peacekeeping missions determine procedures could save


military civilian lives military psychologists also work improve lives service personnel families military psychologists work large social policy programs within military designed increase diversity equal opportunity ref name division http wwwapadivisionsorg division indexaspx division society military psychology ''about military psychology'' retrieved november ref modern programs employ skills knowledge military psychologists address issues integrating diverse ethnic racial groups military reducing sexual assault discrimination others assist employment women combat positions positions