middle gaelic ce ce classical gaelic ce ce ''gaeilge'' ''g idhlig'' ce present main articles '''early irish literature''' '''gaelic script''' nbsp writing system used middle irish modern irish references external links http wwwelectricscotlandcom history literat gaelic literature language music http wwwuwmedu dept celtic ekeltoi volumes vol maddrell pdf comparative reading manx cultural revivals http wwwmissgiennet celtic literaturehtml gaelic literature http wwwelectricscotlandcom history literat modernhtm modern gaelic literature https webarchiveorg web http wwwartsglaacuk scotlit asls laverock gaelic literaturehtml gaelic literature argyll http wwwhistorycom encyclopediadovendorid fwnefwga fwnefwga gaelic literature http wwwclarelibraryie eolas coclare literature bardic noteshtm clare 's gaelic bardic tradition https webarchiveorg web http wwwnovelguidecom discover eich eich html gaelic literature nineteenth century http wwwirishie foras publications articleasplang en id new publications irish gaelic http wwwnlsuk collections rarebooks collections gaelichtml gaelic rare books https webarchiveorg web http wwwscotlandsmusiccom gaelic bookshtm scottish gaelic books https webarchiveorg web https lsh securepodcom gaelicbooksorg merchantmanager comhairle nan leabhraichean


'''systems psychology''' branch theoretical psychology applied psychology studies human behaviour experience complex systems inspired systems theory systems thinking based theoretical work roger barker gregory bateson humberto maturana others groups individuals considered systems homeostasis alternative terms systemic psychology systems behavior systems based psychology types scientific literature different kinds systems psychology mentioned applied systems psychology term applied systems psychology used specialism directly related

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems psychology


psychology family system organismic systems psychology application organismic systems biology human behavior ludwig von bertalanffy conceived developed organismic systems psychology theoretical prospect needed gradual comprehension various ways human personalities may evolve could evolve properly supported holistic interpretation human behavior related fields ergonomics ergonomics also called human factors application scientific information concerning objects systems environment human use definition adopted international ergonomics association ergonomics commonly described


way companies design tasks work areas maximize efficiency quality employees' work however ergonomics comes everything involves people work systems sports leisure health safety embody ergonomics principles well designed equipment design intended maximize productivity reducing operator fatigue discomfort field also called human engineering human factors engineering ergonomic research primarily performed ergonomists study human capabilities relationship work demands information derived ergonomists contributes design evaluation tasks jobs products environments systems


order make compatible needs abilities limitations people family system therapy family system therapy also referred family therapy couple family therapy branch psychotherapy related relationship counseling works families couples intimate relationships nurture change development tends view family system family relationships important factor psychological health family problems seen arise emergent property systemic interactions rather blamed individual members marriage family therapists


mfts specifically trained type psychotherapy organizational psychology industrial organizational psychology also known work psychology occupational psychology personnel psychology concerns application psychological theories research methods intervention strategies workplace issues industrial organizational psychologists interested making organizations productive ensuring workers able lead physically psychologically healthy lives relevant topics include personnel psychology motivation leadership employee selection training development organization development guided change organizational behavior job family issues perceptual control theory perceptual control theory pct


feedforward predictive control functions required model behavior living organisms ref pct also applies nonliving autonomic systems ref name byte introduction see ''byte'' articles robotics article origins purpose http wwwlivingcontrolsystemscom intro papers bill pcthtml collection ref see also related fields behavior settings chaos theory communication theory community psychology complex systems constructivist epistemology critical theory environmental psychology living systems theory new cybernetics neuro cybernetics process oriented psychology social psychology sociotechnical systems theory somatic psychology related scientists william ross ashby donald deavila jackson gregory bateson ludwig von bertalanffy denny borsboom john


bowlby urie bronfenbrenner fritjof capra fred emery l szl garai clare w graves pim haselager thomas homer dixon bradford keeney kurt lewin humberto maturana enid mumford talcott parsons gordon pask william powers anatol rapoport jeffrey satinover einar thorsrud eric trist stuart umpleby francisco varela lev vygotsky ken wilber michael white related concepts awareness child development conatus conceptual system connectionism consciousness cultural system embodied embedded cognition equifinality human ecosystem model hierarchical complexity postcognitivism self control social network social system references reading ludwig von bertalanffy ''organismic psychology system theory'' worcester clark university press brennan ''history


systems psychology'' prentice hall molly young brown https webarchiveorg web http wwwmollyyoungbrowncom psychosynthesissystems articlehtm ''psychosynthesis systems psychology'' kenyon b de greene earl alluisi ''systems psychology'' mcgraw hill w huitt http edpsycinteractiveorg materials sysmdlohtml systems model human behavior ''educational psychology interactive'' valdosta ga valdosta state university https webarchiveorg web https wwwuibkacat psychologie humanethologie einfuehrung die humanethologie dateien medicus engl coverpdf gerhard medicus human bridging gap sciences body mind berlin vwb jon mills http wwwprocesspsychologycom new articles process psychologyhtm dialectical psychoanalysis toward process psychology ''psychoanalysis contemporary thought'' alexander zelitchenko http russkiysvetnarodru eng clos openmht 'mind body environment' closed open system preprint linda e olds ''metaphors interrelatedness toward systems theory


psychology'' suny press jeanne plas ''systems psychology schools'' pergamon press david e roy ''toward process psychology model integration'' fresno ca adobe creations press david e roy http wwwctr processorg publications seminarpapers process psychologypdf ''process psychology process psychology developing psychology integration leaving home'' seminar paper wolfgang tschacher jean pierre dauwalder eds ''the dynamical systems approach cognition concepts empirical paradigims based self organization embodiment coordination dynamics'' world scientific w singleton ''the mind work psychological ergonomics'' cambridge university press external


links applied psychology systems science


'''ethnozoology''' study past present interrelationships human cultures animals environment includes classification naming zoological forms cultural knowledge use wild domestic animals one main subdisciplines ethnobiology shares many methodologies theoretical frameworks ethnobotany ethnozoology study human animal interaction ethnobiology includes ethnobotany concerns study human plant relationships ethnozoology ethnozoology focuses explicitly human animal relationships knowledge humans acquired concerning earth 's fauna ethnozoological study concerns significance knowledge

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Ethnozoology


understanding roles played animals human society faunal resources play variety roles human life throughout history importance human beings utilitarian cultural religious artistic philosophical ethnozoology understood broadly ecological cognitive symbolic perspectives human knowledge natural faunal resources entails sensing recognizing classifying living things ethnozoology discipline connects scientific methods traditional systems knowledge cultural beliefs conservation broader context ethnozoology companion discipline ethnobotany contribute larger science ethnobiology


history ethnobiology divided three periods pre classical period began around focused collecting information humans' use resources classical period began produced anthropological studies linguistics biological classifications current period post classical period described meeting social science study natural resources ref name alves alves r relationships fauna people role ethnozoology animal conservation ethnobiology conservation ref given profound human influence faunal biodiversity wildlife conservation planning becoming increasingly urgent widely acknowledged


environmental health important human health biodiversity loss indirect direct negative effects human wellbeing close link human health ecological faunal health substantiated five important concepts animals cause disseminate disease humans vice versa animals guards human health animals used traditional medicine practices throughout world animals source drugs treatments human diseases animals used medical research ref name alves social sciences sociology sociology slow explore ethnozoology grant


credibility ref name arluke arluke ethnozoology future sociology international journal sociology social policy ref study ethnozoology important policy makers concerned citizens often left informed animal advocates biomedical researchers inherently biased animals provide humans better understanding think act toward animals potential reveal attitudes toward people social order evidence seen ways animal images may times expressing underlying


racism damning testimony given accused police rodney king trial involved characterization king 'gorilla' gulf war saddam hussein described american press 'rat' actions people los angeles riots likened media commentators 'packs vicious animals' ref name arluke sociology science concerned groups group formation including facing structural interpersonal oppression suffering vulnerability sub fields area include african americans studies women 's studies gay lesbian studies however much attention legitimacy awarded animal


studies sub field modern use animals developed world especially united states characterized exploitation domination oppression ref name irvine irvine l animals sociology sociology compass ref animal cruelty abuse present industrial farming livestock also circumstances dog fighting cow tipping horse racing circus acts entertainment industries practices furthermore animals often victims pawns used domestic violence widespread abuse animals modern society important sociology involves entrenched assumption


connection cruelty toward animals violence directed human beings research even suggested ways human animal interaction challenge dominant sociological theories self ref name irvine anthropology anthropology done study ethnozoology terms history function animals non industrialized societies role animals play symbolically religiously different cultures around world ref name arluke domestication process chief concern anthropologists whose interests history human desire understand animals enslave harness power animal derived products


used especially food also clothing tools toys medicinal magic religious purposes many cultures associate strong supernatural powers animal human worlds including mythologies connections totemic ancestral magical animals animal gods ref name sax sax b mythical zoo encyclopedia animals world myth legend folkloresanta barbara ca abc clio ref animals given symbolic meaning western association black cats poor luck ref name sax biological knowledge varies according cultural traditional knowledge experiences people share basic way comprehending natural world


partial understanding humans perceive engage natural world around see also anthrozoology references external links https wwwscribdcom people documents folder notes bukusu ethnozoology western kenya ethnobiology traditional knowledge zoology


'''social transformation''' somewhat ambiguous term two broad definitions one definition social transformation process individual ''alters'' socially ascribed social status parents socially achieved status '' 'status transformation''' another definition refers large scale social change cultural reforms transformations societal transformation first occurs individual second social system individual different social reproduction social mobility instead looking intergenerational mobility measure changes social

Social science
Sociology
Social transformation


status occur parents' children 's generation social transformation focuses individual alter class culture feel aligned one socially transforms three steps associational embracement associational distancing distinct presentation self social transformation considered interpersonal negotiation requires individual social position validated others transformation reciprocal relationship people ''embraced'' correctly identified cultural expectations particular class membership way persons move


ascribed status new achieved status social system social transformation context requires shift collective consciousness society local state national global reality refined consensus often happens external stimulus sometimes intentionally scientific discoveries triggered many social transformations throughout history religious royal edicts cities reinvented serve examples conscious transformations social type resulting reinvigorated revitalized populations economic prosperity restored civic pride countries achieved


intentional social transformations one example south africa ended apartheid social transformations sustain time attitudes values held completely new context paradigm based upon different assumptions beliefs ascribed status versus achieved status ascribed status social status person given born status birth assumes class role later life people born families wealth example considered ascribed social statuses birth us specifically


race ethnic differences gender create basis ascribed statuses achieved status acquired based merit skills abilities actions examples achieved status include doctor even criminal status determines set behaviors expectations individual forms class identification wealth income education occupation family background race cultural refinement tastes interests self identifications good work identification class culture cultural capital order individual gain membership group must engage requisite role enactments recognized


legitimized member group means taking commonly associated scripts associated different classes understood studying different types class culture forms culture capital include cultural capital term created pierre bourdieu three states embodied inherited acquired way thinking one 's self habitus objectified things objects owned bmw home painting etc institutionalized recognition institutional level earning college degree prestigious award study mark granfield


working class law students aiming succeed ivy league law school granfield noted importance making alterations students' interpersonal relations including everyday changes patterns clothing speech associational embracement individual engages associational embracement make verbal acceptance set relationships others order confirm assume social identity crucial role individual identity trans formation verbal recognition acceptance group aspire members self avowal allows personal embodiment solidified


person mixed race accepted member racial majority usually used derisively considered politically correct aspire attempt pass accuse another person aspiring attempting pass modern term form social transformation one passes politically correct term used today socially transforms many different ways study peter kaufman working class individuals desired identify middle class recognized following changes behavior could also apply


forms social transformation speech patterns sought transform aware difference sounding educated sounding lower class clothing transformed recognized importance dressing properly fit desired group suggesting rules one must adhere order fit participating embracing specific speech dress patterns seek transform socially belief role enactments solidify desired social identity least bring one step closer sounding looking


part social transformation class passing popular culture reality television internet popular films celebrity figures artists evidence social transformation instances class passing prevalent popular culture famous examples class passers include britney spears oprah winfrey rich individuals today challenge ideas ascribed status birth wealth education examples shows like wants millionaire etiquette books show new popular cultural expressions class mere prevalence types materials overexposure class passers


media help explicate underlying urges social transformation references https wwwdoiorg j tb x learning labor working class individuals construct middle class identities kaufman peter ''sociological quarterly'' vol pp summer https wwwdoiorg j tb x clarification ascribed status achieved status class passing social mobility film popular culture foster gwendolyn audrey sept education cultural capital harker r ''an introduction work pierre bourdieu practice theory'' urbanism anonymity status symbolism form william h stone gregory p ''american journal sociology'' vol


pp march http wwwmanagersorgcn mag doc ucman ucman pdf ambiguties social transformation critical framework concept akman kubilay ''journal us china public administration'' vol pp november see also social change social position social status social class social mobility status attainment sociological terminology


mathematician professor wrote first book graph theory entitled theory finite infinite graphs moreno 's sociogram st grade classin jacob moreno psychologist gestalt tradition arrived united states developed sociogram presented public april convention medical scholars moreno claimed advent sociometry one knew interpersonal structure group 'precisely' looked like moreno sociogram representation social structure group elementary school students

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Network science


graph model p notational framework used represent probability space tie occurring social network alternate approach network probability structures network probability matrix models probability edges occurring network based historic presence absence edge sample networks david krackhardt kathleen carley introduced idea meta network pcans model suggest organizations structured along three domains individuals tasks resources paper introduced concept networks occur across


multiple domains interrelated field grown another sub discipline network science called dynamic network analysis recently network science efforts focused mathematically describing different network topologies duncan watts steven strogatz reconciled empirical data networks mathematical representation describing small world network albert l szl barab si reka albert developed scale free network loosely defined network topology contains hub vertices many connections grow way maintain constant ratio number connections versus nodes context citation


networks scale free network model undirected version earlier directed price model significant disagreement within scientific community whether real world networks scale free arguing ubiquitous others arguing rare many network science community argue knowledge whether degree distribution fat tailed important knowing whether distribution fits stricter criteria scale free department defense initiatives us military first became interested network centric warfare operational concept based


network science john parmentola us army director research laboratory management proposed army 's board science technology bast december network science become new army research area bast division engineering physical sciences national research council nrc national academies serves convening authority discussion science technology issues importance army oversees independent army related studies conducted national academies bast conducted study find whether identifying funding


new basic research program network science build new theoretical foundation complex networks key network science research efforts ongoing army laboratories address mathematical models network behavior predict performance network size complexity environment optimized human performance required network enabled warfare networking within ecosystems molecular level cells initiated frederick moxley support solicited david alberts department defense helped establish first network science center conjunction us army united states


military academy usma tutelage dr moxley faculty usma first interdisciplinary undergraduate courses network science taught cadets west point order better instill tenets network science among cadre future leaders usma also instituted five course undergraduate minor network science us army united kingdom uk formed network information science international technology alliance collaborative partnership among army research laboratory uk ministry defense consortium industries universities us


uk goal alliance perform basic research support network centric operations across needs nations us army formed network science cta collaborative research alliance among army research laboratory cerdec consortium industrial r labs universities us goal alliance develop deep understanding underlying commonalities among intertwined social cognitive information communications networks result improve ability analyze predict design influence complex systems interweaving many kinds networks


subsequently result efforts us department defense sponsored numerous research projects support network science network properties often networks certain attributes calculated analyze properties characteristics network behavior network properties often define network models used analyze certain models contrast many definitions terms used network science found glossary graph theory size size network refer number nodes


network defined ratio number edges math e math number possible edges network math n math nodes given case simple graphs binomial coefficient math tbinom n math giving math frac e n e mathrm max n frac e n n n math another possible equation math frac n n n math whereas ties math math unidirectional wasserman faust gives better overview network density unidirectional relationships measured planar network density density math math network intersection edges defined


ratio number edges math e math number possible edges network math n math nodes given graph intersecting edges math e max n math giving math frac e n n math average degree degree math k math node number edges connected closely related density network average degree math langle k rangle tfrac e n math case directed graphs math langle k rangle tfrac e n math former factor arising edge undirected graph contributing degree two distinct vertices


er random graph model math g np math compute expected value math langle k rangle math equal expected value math k math arbitrary vertex random vertex math n math vertices network available probability math p math connects thus math mathbb e langle k rangle mathbb e k p n math average shortest path length characteristic path length average shortest path length calculated finding shortest path pairs nodes taking average paths length thereof length number intermediate edges contained


path ie distance math uv math two vertices math uv math within graph shows us average number steps takes get one member network another behavior expected average shortest path length ensemble average average shortest path length function number vertices math n math random network model defines whether model exhibits small world effect scales math ln n math model generates small world nets faster logarithmic growth model produce small worlds special case


math ln ln n math known ultra small world effect optimal path links nodes weighted one consider optimal path nodes diameter network another means measuring network graphs define diameter network longest calculated shortest paths network shortest distance two distant nodes network words shortest path length every node nodes calculated diameter longest calculated


path lengths diameter representative linear size network node b c connected going would diameter hops links clustering coefficient clustering coefficient measure friends know property sometimes described friends friends friends precisely clustering coefficient node ratio existing links connecting node 's neighbors maximum possible number links clustering coefficient entire network average clustering coefficients


nodes high clustering coefficient network another indication small world clustering coefficient math math 'th node math c e k k math math k math number neighbours math math 'th node math e math number connections neighbours maximum possible number connections neighbors math binom k k k math probabilistic standpoint expected local clustering coefficient likelihood link existing two arbitrary neighbors node connectedness way


ever meaningful remainder network nodes ref name lawyer ref ref name sikic ref also indications accurate within assumed context importance tend get wrong contexts ref name borgatti ref example imagine two separate communities whose link edge junior member community since transfer one community must go link two junior members high betweenness centrality since junior presumably connections important nodes community meaning eigenvalue centrality


would quite low node influence limitations centrality measures led development general measures two examples '''accessibility''' uses diversity random walks measure accessible rest network given start node ref name travencolo ref '''expected force''' derived expected value force infection generated node ref name lawyer measures meaningfully computed structure network alone community structure network displaying '''community structure''' three groups nodes dense internal connections


sparser connections groups nodes network may partitioned groups representing communities depending context communities may distinct overlapping typically nodes communities strongly connected nodes community weakly connected nodes outside community absence ground truth describing community structure specific network several algorithms developed infer possible community structures using either supervised unsupervised clustering methods network models network models serve foundation understanding interactions within empirical complex networks various


probabilistic method prove existence graphs satisfying various properties provide rigorous definition means property hold almost graphs generate erd r nyi model math g n p math two parameters must specified total number nodes probability random pair nodes edge model generated without bias particular nodes degree distribution binomial randomly chosen vertex math v math math p deg v k n choose k p k p n k math model clustering coefficient


behavior math g n p math broken three regions ''subcritical'' math n p math components simple small largest component size math c log n math ''critical'' math n p math math c n frac math ''supercritical'' math n p math math c approx yn math math n p math positive solution equation math e p n math largest connected component high complexity components simple small math c log n math configuration model configuration


model takes degree sequence ref name ref degree distribution ref name ref subsequently used generate degree sequence input produces randomly connected graphs respects degree sequence means given choice degree sequence graph chosen uniformly random set graphs comply degree sequence degree math k math randomly chosen vertex independent identically distributed random variable integer values math display inline mathbb e k mathbb e k math configuration graph contains


moment degree distribution finite math display inline mathbb e k infty math critical edge fraction given math p c frac mathbb e k mathbb e k mathbb e k math average vertex vertex distance math l math giant component scales logarithmically total size network math l log n math ref name directed configuration model degree node given two numbers degree math k text math degree math k text math consequently degree distribution two variate expected number edges edges coincides math display inline mathbb e k text mathbb e k text math directed configuration model contains


giant component iff math display block mathbb e k text mathbb e k text k text mathbb e k text mathbb e k text mathbb e k text mathbb e k text mathbb e k text mathbb e k text mathbb e k text k text math note math display inline mathbb e k text math math display inline mathbb e k text math equal therefore interchangeable latter inequality probability randomly chosen vertex belongs component size math n math given math display block h text n frac mathbb e k n tilde u text n n n tilde u text frac k text mathbb e k text sum limits k text geq u k text k text math components math h text n frac mathbb e k text n tilde u text n n n tilde u text frac k text mathbb e k text sum limits k text geq u k text k text math components watts strogatz small world model watts strogatz model uses concept rewiring achieve structure


model generator iterate edge original lattice structure edge may change connected vertices according given rewiring probability math langle k rangle math example watts strogatz model random graph generation model produces graphs small world properties initial lattice structure used generate watts strogatz model node network initially linked math langle k rangle math closest neighbors another parameter specified rewiring probability edge probability math p math rewired graph random


edge expected number rewired links model math pe pn langle k rangle math watts strogatz model begins non random lattice structure high clustering coefficient along high average path length rewire likely create shortcut highly connected clusters rewiring probability increases clustering coefficient decreases slower average path length effect allows average path length network decrease significantly slightly decreases clustering coefficient higher values p force rewired edges effect makes


watts strogatz model random network barab si albert ba preferential attachment model barab si albert model random network model used demonstrate preferential attachment rich get richer effect model edge likely attach nodes higher degrees network begins initial network ''m'' sub sub nodes ''m'' sub sub nbsp nbsp degree node initial network least nbsp otherwise always remain disconnected rest network ba model new nodes added network one time


new node connected math math existing nodes probability proportional number links existing nodes already formally probability ''p'' sub ''i'' sub new node connected node ''i'' ref name rmp ref math p frac k sum j k j math ''k'' sub ''i'' sub degree node ''i'' heavily linked nodes hubs tend quickly accumulate even links nodes links unlikely chosen destination new link new nodes preference attach already heavily linked nodes author


albert l szl barab si r ka albert title emergence scaling random networks journal science volume pages ndash date october doi science issue pmid arxiv cond mat bibcode


sci b cid url status dead archive url https webarchiveorg web http wwwndedu networks publication categories journal articles physics emergencerandom science pdf archive date ref degree distribution resulting ba model scale free particular power law form math p k sim k math hubs exhibit high betweenness centrality allows short paths exist nodes result ba model tends short average path lengths clustering coefficient model also tends diameter many models including erd r nyi random graph model


several small world networks proportional log n ba model exhibits loglogn ultrasmall world note average path length scales n diameter non linear preferential attachment non linear preferential attachment nlpa existing nodes network gain new edges proportionally node degree raised constant positive power math alpha math formally means probability node math math gains new edge given math p frac k alpha sum j k j alpha math math alpha math nlpa reduces ba model referred linear math alpha math nlpa


referred sub linear degree distribution network tends stretched exponential distribution math alpha math nlpa referred super linear small number nodes connect almost nodes network math alpha math math alpha math scale free property network broken limit infinite system size however math alpha math slightly larger math math nlpa may result degree distributions appear transiently scale free mediation driven attachment mda model mediation driven attachment mda model new node coming math math


edges picks existing connected node random connects one math math neighbors chosen also random probability math pi math node math math existing node picked math pi frac k n frac sum j k frac k j k math factor math frac sum j k frac k j k math inverse harmonic mean ihm degrees math k math neighbors node math math extensive numerical investigation suggest approximately math math mean ihm value large math n math limit becomes constant means math pi propto k math


implies higher links degree node higher chance gaining links since reached larger number ways mediators essentially embodies intuitive idea rich get richer mechanism preferential attachment rule barabasi albert model therefore mda network seen follow pa rule disguise however math math describes winner takes mechanism find almost math math total nodes degree one one super rich degree math math value


increases disparity super rich poor decreases math math find transition rich get super richer rich get richer mechanism fitness model another model key ingredient nature vertex introduced caldarelli et al link created two vertices math ij math probability given linking function math f eta eta j math fitnesses vertices involved degree vertex given math k eta n int infty f eta eta j rho eta j eta j math math k eta math invertible increasing function math eta math


probability distribution math p k math given math p k rho eta k cdot eta' k math result fitnesses math eta math distributed power law also node degree less intuitively fast decaying probability distribution math rho eta e eta math together linking function kind math f eta eta j theta eta eta j z math math z math constant math theta math heavyside function also obtain scale free networks model successfully applied describe trade nations using gdp fitness various nodes math ij math linking function kind math frac delta eta eta j delta eta eta j math network analysis social


network analysis '''social network analysis''' examines structure relationships social entities ref name wasserman faust wasserman stanley katherine faust ''social network analysis methods applications'' cambridge cambridge university press ref entities often persons may also groups organizations nation states web sites scholarly publications since empirical study networks played central role social science many mathematical statistical tools used studying networks first developed sociology ref name newman newman mej ''networks introduction'' oxford university press ref amongst many applications social network analysis


used understand diffusion innovations ref name paradowskijonak ref news rumors similarly used examine spread diseases health related behaviors also applied study markets used examine role trust exchange relationships social mechanisms setting prices similarly used study recruitment political movements social organizations also used conceptualize scientific disagreements well academic prestige second language acquisition literature


established history study abroad research revealing peer learner interaction networks influence language progress ref name paradowskietal ref recently network analysis close cousin traffic analysis gained significant use military intelligence uncovering insurgent networks hierarchical leaderless nature ref name gt criminology used identify influential actors criminal gangs offender movements co offending predict criminal activities make policies dynamic network analysis dynamic network analysis examines shifting structure relationships among different classes entities complex socio technical systems effects reflects social stability


changes emergence new groups topics leaders ref name dynamic gross sayama h eds ''adaptive networks theory models applications'' springer ref ref name dynamic holme p saram ki j ''temporal networks'' springer ref dynamic network analysis focuses meta networks composed multiple types nodes entities multiple types links entities highly varied examples include people organizations topics resources tasks events locations beliefs dynamic network techniques particularly useful assessing trends changes networks time identification emergent leaders examining co evolution people ideas biological network


analysis recent explosion publicly available high throughput biological data analysis molecular networks gained significant interest type analysis content closely related social network analysis often focusing local patterns network example network motifs small subgraphs represented network activity motifs similar represented patterns attributes nodes edges network represented given network structure analysis biological networks led development network medicine looks effect


fraud detection telecommunication operators telecommunication network analysis medical sector epidemiology pharmacology law enforcement investigations search engines relevance rating conversely spammers spamdexing business owners search engine optimization everywhere else relationships many objects analyzed network robustness structural robustness networks studied using percolation theory critical fraction nodes removed network becomes fragmented small clusters phenomenon called percolation represents order disorder type phase transition critical exponents pandemic analysis


sir model one well known algorithms predicting spread global pandemics within infectious population susceptible infected math beta left frac n right math formula describes force infection susceptible unit infectious population equivalent transmission rate said disease track change susceptible infectious population math delta beta times n delta math infected recovered math delta mu delta math time number


infected fluctuates specified rate recovery represented math mu math deducted one average infectious period math tau math numbered infectious individuals math math change time math delta math infectious period whether population overcome pandemic regards sir model dependent value math r math average people infected infected individual math r beta tau beta mu math web link analysis several web search ranking algorithms use link based centrality metrics including order appearance marchiori 's hyper search google 's pagerank kleinberg 's hits algorithm


cheirank trustrank algorithms link analysis also conducted information science communication science order understand extract information structure collections web pages example analysis might interlinking politicians' web sites blogs pagerank pagerank works randomly picking nodes websites certain probability randomly jumping nodes randomly jumping nodes helps pagerank completely traverse network webpages exist periphery would readily assessed node math x math pagerank


defined sum pages math j math link math math times one outlinks degree math j math times importance pagerank math j math math x sum j rightarrow n j x j k math random jumping explained pagerank enlists random jumps attempts assign pagerank every website internet random jumps find websites might found normal search methodologies breadth first search depth first search improvement aforementioned formula determining pagerank includes adding random jump components without random jumps pages would receive


pagerank would good first math alpha math probability random jump occur contrasting damping factor math alpha math math r p alpha n alpha sum j rightarrow n j x j k math another way looking math r sum r b b text outlinks cdots r n n text outlinks math centrality measures information relative importance nodes edges graph obtained centrality measures widely used disciplines like sociology centrality measures essential network analysis answer questions


nodes network targeted ensure message information spreads nodes network conversely nodes targeted curtail spread disease formally established measures centrality degree centrality closeness centrality betweenness centrality eigenvector centrality katz centrality objective network analysis generally determines type centrality measure used ref name wasserman faust '''degree centrality''' node network number links vertices incident node '''closeness centrality''' determines close node


depends number links incident node also quality links quality factor determined eigenvectors adjacency matrix network '''katz centrality''' node measured summing geodesic paths node reachable nodes network paths weighted paths connecting node immediate neighbors carry higher weights connect nodes farther away immediate neighbors spread content networks content complex network spread via two major methods


conserved spread non conserved spread conserved spread total amount content enters complex network remains constant passes model conserved spread best represented pitcher containing fixed amount water poured series funnels connected tubes pitcher represents original source water content spread funnels connecting tubing represent nodes connections nodes respectively water passes one funnel another water disappears instantly


funnel previously exposed water non conserved spread amount content changes enters passes complex network model non conserved spread best represented continuously running faucet running series funnels connected tubes amount water original source infinite also funnels exposed water continue experience water even passes successive funnels non conserved model suitable explaining transmission infectious


diseases sir model w kermack g mckendrick created model considered fixed population three compartments susceptible math math infected math math recovered math r math compartments used model consist three classes math math used represent number individuals yet infected disease time susceptible disease math math denotes number individuals infected disease capable spreading disease susceptible category math r math compartment used


individuals infected recovered disease category able infected transmit infection others flow model may considered follows math mathcal rightarrow mathcal rightarrow mathcal r math using fixed population math n r math kermack mckendrick derived following equations math begin align frac ds dt beta pt frac di dt beta gamma pt frac dr dt gamma end align math several assumptions made


leaving susceptible category math beta n n beta si math brauer castillo chavez second third equations consider population leaving susceptible class equal number entering infected class however infectives leaving class per unit time enter recovered removed class rate math gamma math per unit time math gamma math represents mean recovery rate math gamma math mean infective period processes occur simultaneously referred law mass action widely accepted idea rate contact two groups


population proportional size groups concerned daley gani finally assumed rate infection recovery much faster time scale births deaths therefore factors ignored model read model epidemic model page master equation approach master equation express behaviour undirected growing network time step new node added network linked old node randomly chosen


without preference initial network formed two nodes two links time math math configuration necessary simplify calculations time math n math network math n math nodes math n math links master equation network math p kst frac p k st left frac right p kst math math p kst math probability node math math degree math k math time math math math math time step node added network note two


ways old node math math math k math links time math math node math math degree math k math time math math linked new node probability math math already degree math k math time math math linked new node simplifying model degree distribution math p k k math ref name dorogovtsev mendes ref based growing network epidemic model developed following simple rule time new node added choosing old node link decision made whether new


node infected master equation epidemic model math p r kst r frac p r k st left frac right p r kst math math r math represents decision infect math r math math r math solving master equation following solution obtained math tilde p r k left frac r right k math ref name cotacallapa hase ref interdependent networks interdependent network system coupled networks nodes one networks depend nodes networks dependencies enhanced developments modern technology dependencies may lead cascading failures


networks relatively small failure lead catastrophic breakdown system blackouts fascinating demonstration important role played dependencies networks recent study developed framework study cascading failures interdependent networks system using percolation theory multilayer networks '''multilayer networks''' networks multiple kinds relations attempts model real world systems multidimensional networks used various fields social network analysis economics history urban international transport ecology psychology medicine biology commerce climatology physics computational neuroscience operations management finance


network optimization network problems involve finding optimal way something studied name combinatorial optimization examples include network flow shortest path problem transport problem transshipment problem location problem matching problem assignment problem packing problem routing problem critical path analysis pert program evaluation review technique see also cascading failure climate complex networks collaborative innovation network communicative ecology complex network core periphery structures networks dual phase evolution erd r nyi model glossary graph theory gradient network higher category theory immune network theory irregular warfare interdependent networks network analyzer network dynamics network formation network theory


risk assessment network topology networks labor economics non linear preferential attachment percolation percolation theory policy network analysis polytely quantum complex network random networks rumor spread social network scale free networks sequential dynamical system service network small world networks structural cut systems theory references ref reading '' https wwwcambridgeorg us academic subjects physics statistical physics first course network science first course network science '' f menczer fortunato ca davis cambridge university press https githubcom cambridgeuniversitypress firstcoursenetworkscience github site tutorials datasets resources connected power six degrees https webarchiveorg web http ivlslisindianaedu km movies talas connectedmov leader profile burgeoning field network science military engineer recently opportunity speak frederick


moxley phd https webarchiveorg web http themilitaryengineercom indexphp item leader profile burgeoning field network science sn dorogovtsev jff mendes ''evolution networks biological networks internet www'' oxford university press ''linked new science networks'' l barab si perseus publishing cambridge ' https globaloupcom academic product scale free networks q caldarelli lang en cc scale free networks '' g caldarelli oxford university press oxford '' http wwwnapedu catalogphprecord id network science '' committee network science future army applications national research council national academies press ''network science bulletin'' usma ''the structure dynamics networks'' mark newman albert l szl barab si duncan j watts princeton press ''dynamical processes complex networks'' alain barrat marc barthelemy alessandro vespignani cambridge university press


'''sociocultural evolution''' '' 'sociocultural evolutionism''' '''cultural evolution''' theories sociobiology cultural evolution describe societies culture change time whereas '' 'sociocultural development''' traces processes tend increase complexity society culture sociocultural evolution also considers process lead decreases complexity degeneration produce variation proliferation without seemingly significant changes complexity cladogenesis ref name world religions social evolution old world oikumene civilizations cross cultural perspective sociocultural evolution process structural reorganization affected time eventually producing form

Social science
Sociology
Evolutionary sociology


structure qualitatively different ancestral form th century th century approaches socioculture aimed provide models evolution humankind whole arguing different societies reached different stages social development comprehensive attempt develop general theory social evolution centering development sociocultural systems work talcott parsons operated scale included theory world history another attempt less systematic scale originated world systems approach immanuel wallerstein


society vary extent describe specific mechanisms variation change history evolutionary thinking regard humans traced back least aristotle greek philosophers early sociocultural evolution theoriesthe ideas auguste comte herbert spencer lewis henry morgan developed simultaneously independently charles darwin 's works popular late th century end world war th century unilineal evolution theories claimed societies start ''primitive'' state gradually become


''civilized'' time equated culture technology western civilization progress forms early sociocultural evolution theories mainly unilineal ones led much criticised theories like social darwinism scientific racism sometimes used past european imperial powers justify existing policies colonialism slavery justify new policies eugenics th century th century approaches aimed provide models evolution humankind single entity however th century approaches multilineal evolution focused changes specific individual societies moreover rejected directional change ie


increased trade england understood changes scotland undergoing involving transition agricultural mercantile society conjectural histories authors adam ferguson john millar adam smith argued societies pass series four stages hunting gathering pastoralism nomadism agriculture finally stage commerce auguste comte philosophical concepts progress hegel developed well period france authors claude adrien helv tius philosophes influenced scottish tradition later thinkers


brought industrial revolution capitalism improvements industrialisation combined intense political change brought french revolution us constitution paved way dominance democracy forced european thinkers reconsider assumptions society organised eventually th century three major classical theories social historical change emerged sociocultural evolutionism social cycle theory marxist theory historical materialism theories common factor agreed history humanity pursuing certain fixed path likely


social progress thus past event chronologically causally tied present future events theories postulated recreating sequence events sociology could discover laws history ref name psz sociocultural evolutionism idea progress sociocultural evolutionists agree evolution like process leads social progress classical social evolutionists developed many different theories known theories unilineal evolution sociocultural evolutionism became prevailing theory early sociocultural anthropology social commentary associated scholars like auguste comte edward burnett tylor lewis henry morgan benjamin


kidd l hobhouse herbert spencer stage models ideas linear models progress great influence future evolutionary approaches social sciences humanities also shaped public scholarly scientific discourse surrounding rising individualism population thinking sociocultural evolutionism attempted formalise social thinking along scientific lines added influence biological theory evolution organisms could develop time according discernible deterministic laws seemed reasonable societies could well human society compared biological organism social science equivalents


environment least temperate climates influence replaced moral legal forces also jean jacques rousseau presents conjectural stage model human sociocultural evolution first humans lived solitarily grouped mating raising children later men women lived together shared childcare thus building families followed tribes result inter family interactions lived happiest lasting epoch human history corruption civil society degenerated species developmental stage process late th century marquis de condorcet


listed ten stages epochs advancing rights man perfecting human race erasmus darwin charles darwin 's grandfather enormously influential natural philosopher physiologist poet whose remarkably insightful ideas included statement transformism interconnectedness forms life works enormously wide ranging also advance theory cultural transformation famous ''the temple nature'' subtitled origin society work rather proposing detail strict transformation humanity different stages instead dwells erasmus darwin evolutionary mechanism erasmus darwin


explain stage one one trusting theory universal organic development articulated ''zoonomia'' illustrate cultural development well erasmus darwin therefore flits abandon chronology priestman notes jumps emergence life onto land development opposable thumbs origin sexual reproduction directly modern historical events another complex theorist richard payne knight influential amateur archeologist universal theologian knight ''the progress civil society didactic poem six books'' fits precisely tradition triumphant historical stages beginning lucretius


reaching adam smith first four books final books knight grapples french revolution wealthy decadence confronted twin issues knight theory ascribes progress conflict partial discord lends aid tie complex knots general harmony competition knight mechanism spurs development one stage next dialectic class land gender creates growth thus knight conceptualised theory history founded inevitable racial conflict greece representing freedom egypt cold inactive stupor buffon linnaeus camper monboddo variously


forward diverse arguments racial hierarchy grounded early theories species change though many thought environmental changes could create dramatic changes form without permanently altering species causing species transformation however arguments still bear race rousseau buffon monboddo cite orangutans evidence earlier prelinguistic human type monboddo even insisted orangutans certain african south asian races identical erasmus darwin pre eminent scientific text theory cultural transformation advanced robert chambers chambers scottish evolutionary thinker philosopher though


'principle development' whereby everything evolved mechanism towards higher order structure meaning theory life advanced different classes within class animals began lowest form advanced complex forms class short progress animals like development foetus indistinct analogy parallel embryology species development status genuine causal mechanism chambers theory advanced species developed longer embryos complexity motivated


biology especially geology archaeology anthropology scholars began compare primitive cultures past societies saw level technology parallel stone age cultures thus used peoples models early stages human evolution developmental model evolution mind culture society result paralleling evolution human species modern savages sic became effect living fossils left behind march progress relics paleolithic still lingering present classical social evolutionism closely associated


th century writings auguste comte herbert spencer coiner phrase survival fittest ref name psz many ways spencer 's theory cosmic evolution much common works jean baptiste lamarck auguste comte contemporary works charles darwin spencer also developed published theories several years earlier darwin regard social institutions however good case spencer 's writings might classified social evolutionism although wrote societies time progressedand progress accomplished competitionhe stressed individual rather


collectivity unit analysis evolves words evolution takes place natural selection affects social well biological phenomenon nonetheless publication darwin 's works proved boon proponents sociocultural evolution saw ideas biological evolution attractive explanation many questions development society spencer comte view society kind organism subject process growth simplicity complexity chaos order generalisation specialisation flexibility organisation agree process


societal growth divided certain stages beginning eventual end growth fact social progress newer evolved society better thus progressivism became one basic ideas underlying theory sociocultural evolutionism ref name psz however spencer theories complex romp great chain spencer based arguments analogy evolution societies ontogeny animal accordingly searched general principles development structure fundamental principles organization rather content simply ascribing progress


time spencer clearly thought society 's evolution brought racial hierarchy caucasians top africans bottom notion deeply linked colonial projects european powers pursuing time idea european superiority used paternalistically justify projects influential german zoologist ernst haeckel even wrote natural men closer higher vertebrates highly civilized europeans including racial hierarchy civilizational one likewise spencer evolutionary argument advanced theory statehood spontaneously fulfilled public want


fulfilled sums spencer notion limited government free operation market forces suggest stagism useless entirely motivated colonialism racism stagist theories first proposed contexts competing epistemologies largely static views world hence progress sense invented conceptually idea human society would move stages triumphant invention moreover stages always static entities buffon 's theories example possible regress stages physiological changes species' reversibly adapting


consequences economic structures social orders struggle existence inevitable natural law malthus auguste comte known father sociology formulated law three stages human development progresses theological stage nature mythically conceived man sought explanation natural phenomena supernatural beings metaphysical stage nature conceived result obscure forces man sought explanation natural phenomena final positive stage abstract obscure forces discarded natural phenomena


explained constant relationship ref name psz progress forced development human mind increasing application thought reasoning logic understanding world comte saw science valuing society highest developed type human organization ref name psz herbert spencer argued government intervention believed society evolve toward individual freedom ref name fordham ref followed lamarck evolutionary thinking believed humans time adapt surroundings differentiated two phases development regards societies' internal regulation ref name psz military


united states authors edward l youmans william graham sumner john fiske john w burgess lester frank ward lewis h morgan thinkers gilded age developed theories social evolutionism result exposure spencer well darwin lewis h morgan classic ''ancient societies'' lewis h morgan anthropologist whose ideas much impact sociology differentiated three eras savagery barbarism civilization divided technological inventions like fire bow pottery savage era domestication animals agriculture metalworking


barbarian era alphabet writing civilization era ref name psz thus morgan drew link social progress technological progress morgan viewed technological progress force behind social progress held social change social institutions organizations ideologies beginnings technological change ref name psz morgan 's theories popularized friedrich engels based famous work ''the origin family private property state'' ref name psz engels marxists theory important supported conviction materialistic factors economic technological decisive shaping fate


humanity ref name psz edward burnett tylor pioneer anthropology focused evolution culture worldwide noting culture important part every society also subject process evolution believed societies different stages cultural development purpose anthropology reconstruct evolution culture primitive beginnings modern state edward burnett tylor anthropologists sir eb tylor england lewis henry morgan united states worked data indigenous people claimed represented earlier stages cultural


evolution gave insight process progression evolution culture morgan would later significant influence karl marx friedrich engels developed theory sociocultural evolution internal contradictions society generated series escalating stages ended socialist society see marxism tylor morgan elaborated theory unilinear evolution specifying criteria categorising cultures according standing within fixed system growth humanity whole examining modes mechanisms growth often concern culture


general individual cultures analysis cross cultural data based three assumptions contemporary societies may classified ranked primitive civilized determinate number stages primitive civilized eg band tribe chiefdom state societies progress stages sequence different rates theorists usually measured progression difference one stage next terms increasing social complexity including class differentiation complex division labour increase intellectual theological aesthetic


sophistication th century ethnologists used principles primarily explain differences religious beliefs kinship terminologies among various societies lester frank ward lester frank ward sometimes referred father american sociology rejected many spencer 's theories regarding evolution societies ward also botanist paleontologist believed law evolution functioned much differently human societies plant animal kingdoms theorized law nature superseded law mind ref name booksgooglecom ref stressed humans driven emotions


create goals strive realize effectively modern scientific method whereas intelligence awareness guiding non human world ref name psz plants animals adapt nature man shapes nature spencer believed competition survival fittest benefited human society sociocultural evolution ward regarded competition destructive force pointing human institutions traditions laws tools invented mind man mind designed like tools meet checkmate unrestrained competition natural forces ref name booksgooglecom ward agreed


spencer authoritarian governments repress talents individual believed modern democratic societies minimized role religion maximized science could effectively support individual attempt fully utilize talents achieve happiness believed evolutionary processes four stages first comes cosmogenesis creation evolution world life arises biogenesis ref name psz development humanity leads anthropogenesis influenced human mind ref name psz finally arrives sociogenesis science shaping evolutionary process


optimize progress human happiness individual self actualization ref name psz ward regarded modern societies superior primitive societies one need look impact medical science health lifespan rejected theories white supremacy supported africa theory human evolution believed races social classes equal talent ref name google ref however ward think evolutionary progress inevitable feared degeneration societies cultures saw evident historical record ref name google ref ward also favor radical reshaping


society proposed supporters eugenics movement followers karl marx like comte ward believed sociology complex sciences true sociogenesis impossible without considerable research experimentation ref name google mile durkheim mile durkheim another fathers sociology developed dichotomal view social progress ref name psz key concept social solidarity defined social evolution terms progressing mechanical solidarity organic solidarity ref name psz mechanical solidarity people self sufficient little integration thus need


ferdinand nnies describes evolution development informal society people many liberties laws obligations modern formal rational society dominated traditions laws people restricted acting wish ref name psz also notes tendency standardisation unification smaller societies absorbed single large modern society ref name psz thus nnies said describe part process known today globalization nnies also one first sociologists claim evolution society


feudalism legal rational domination modern law state bureaucracy weber also notes legal domination advanced societies evolve mostly traditional charismatic authorities mostly rational legal ones critique impact modern theories early th century inaugurated period systematic critical examination rejection sweeping generalisations unilineal theories sociocultural evolution cultural anthropologists franz boas along students including ruth benedict margaret mead regarded leaders anthropology 's rejection classical social evolutionism however school boas


ignore complexity evolutionary theories emerged outside herbert spencer 's influence darwin origin species gave mechanistic account origins development animals quite apart spencer theories emphasized inevitable human development stages consequently many scholars developed sophisticated understandings cultures evolve relying deep cultural analogies theories herbert spencer tradition walter bagehot applied selection inheritance development human political institutions samuel alexander discusses natural selection moral principles society william james considered


natural selection ideas learning scientific development fact identified remarkable parallel facts social evolution one hand zoological evolution expounded mr darwin charles sanders pierce even proposed current laws nature exist evolved time darwin chapter descent man proposed human moral sentiments subject group selection tribe including many members possessing high degree spirit


patriotism fidelity obedience courage sympathy always ready aid one another sacrifice common good would victorious tribes would natural selection mechanism imitation cultures well individuals could subject natural selection theories involved evolution applied social questions except darwin group selection theories reviewed advance precise understanding darwin mechanism extended applied cultures beyond vague appeal competition ritchie darwinism politics breaks trend holding


language social institutions make possible transmit experience quite independently continuity race hence ritchie saw cultural evolution process could operate independently different scales evolution species gave precise underpinnings extending range words ideas cultures institutions thorstein veblen around time came similar insight humans evolve social environment social environment turn also evolves veblen mechanism human progress evolution human intentionality veblen labelled men


creature habit thought habits mentally digested influenced short hodgson knudsen point veblen thinks changing institutions turn make selection individuals endowed fittest temperament adaptation individual temperament habits changing environment formation new institutions thus veblen represented extension ritchie theories evolution operates multiple levels sophisticated appreciation level interacts complexity notwithstanding boas benedict used sophisticated ethnography


rigorous empirical methods argue spencer tylor morgan 's theories speculative systematically misrepresented ethnographic data theories regarding stages evolution especially criticised illusions additionally rejected distinction primitive civilized modern pointing called primitive contemporary societies much history evolved called civilized societies therefore argued attempt use theory reconstruct histories non literate ie leaving historical documents peoples entirely speculative unscientific observed postulated progression typically ended stage


civilization identical modern europe ethnocentric also pointed theory assumes societies clearly bounded distinct fact cultural traits forms often cross social boundaries diffuse among many different societies thus important mechanism change boas culture history approach focused anthropological fieldwork attempt identify factual processes instead criticized speculative stages growth approach greatly influenced american anthropology first half th century marked retreat high level generalization systems


building later critics observed assumption firmly bounded societies proposed precisely time european powers colonising non western societies thus self serving many anthropologists social theorists consider unilineal cultural social evolution western myth seldom based solid empirical grounds critical theorists argue notions social evolution simply justifications power lites society finally devastating world wars occurred crippled europe 's self confidence millions deaths genocide destruction europe 's industrial infrastructure idea progress seemed dubious


best thus modern sociocultural evolutionism rejects classical social evolutionism due various theoretical problems theory deeply ethnocentric makes heavy value judgments different societies western civilization seen valuable assumed cultures follow path progression goals equated civilization material culture technology cities etc social evolution posited scientific theory often used support unjust often racist social practices particularly colonialism slavery unequal economic conditions present within industrialized europe social darwinism


especially criticised purportedly led philosophies used nazis max weber disenchantment critical theory max weber weber 's major works economic sociology sociology religion dealt rationalization secularisation called disenchantment associated rise capitalism modernity sociology rationalization process whereby increasing number social actions become based considerations teleological efficiency calculation rather motivations derived morality emotion custom tradition rather referring genuinely rational logical rationalization refers


relentless quest goals might actually function ' 'detriment'' society rationalization ambivalent aspect modernity manifested especially western society behaviour capitalist market rational administration state bureaucracy extension modern science expansion modern technology weber 's thought regarding rationalizing secularizing tendencies modern western society sometimes described weber thesis would blend marxism facilitate critical theory particularly work thinkers j rgen habermas born critical theorists antipositivists critical


years invention electric light regions remain thinly populated unlit critique classical social evolutionism became widely accepted modern anthropological sociological approaches changed respectively modern theories careful avoid unsourced ethnocentric speculation comparisons value judgments less regarding individual societies existing within historical contexts conditions provided context new theories cultural relativism multilineal evolution gordon childe revolutionized study cultural evolutionism conducted comprehensive pre history account provided scholars evidence


african asian cultural transmission europe combated scientific racism finding tools artifacts indigenous people africa asia showed influenced technology european culture evidence excavations countered idea aryan supremacy superiority adopting kosinna 's basic concept archaeological culture identification cultures remains prehistoric peoples combining detailed chronologies european prehistory developed gustaf oscar montelius childe argued society needed delineated individually basis constituent artefacts


indicative practical social function childe explained cultural evolution theory divergence modifications convergence postulated different cultures form separate methods meet different needs two cultures contact developed similar adaptations solving similar problems rejecting spencer 's theory parallel cultural evolution childe found interactions cultures contributed convergence similar aspects often attributed one culture childe placed emphasis human culture social construct rather products environmental technological contexts childe coined terms neolithic revolution urban revolution


still used today branch pre historic anthropology anthropologist robert redfield wrote shift 'folk society' 'urban society' cultural anthropologists leslie white julian steward sought revive evolutionary model scientific basis succeeded establishing approach known neoevolutionism white rejected opposition primitive modern societies argue societies could distinguished based amount energy harnessed increased energy allowed greater social differentiation white 's law steward hand rejected


th century notion progress instead called attention darwinian notion adaptation arguing societies adapt environment way anthropologists marshall sahlins elman service prepared edited volume ''evolution culture'' attempted synthesise white 's steward 's approaches anthropologists building responding work white steward developed theories cultural ecology ecological anthropology prominent examples peter vayda roy rappaport late students steward eric wolf sidney mintz turned away cultural


inheritance theory discussed receive little attention social sciences given way cases series humanist approaches reject entirety evolutionary thinking look instead historical contingencies contacts cultures operation cultural symbol systems area development studies authors amartya sen developed understanding 'development' 'human flourishing' also question simplistic notions progress retaining much original inspiration neoevolutionism neoevolutionism first series modern multilineal evolution theories emerged


extensively developed period following second world war incorporated anthropology sociology bases theories empirical evidence areas archaeology palaeontology historiography tries eliminate references systems values moral cultural instead trying remain objective simply descriptive ref name psz th century evolutionism explained culture develops giving general principles evolutionary process dismissed historical particularists unscientific early th century neo evolutionary thinkers brought back evolutionary thought


importance empirical evidence th century evolutionism used value judgments assumptions interpreting data neo evolutionism relies measurable information analysing process sociocultural evolution leslie white author ''the evolution culture development civilization fall rome'' attempted create theory explaining entire history humanity ref name psz important factor theory technology ref name psz ''social systems determined technological systems'' wrote white book echoing earlier theory lewis henry morgan proposes society 's energy consumption measure advancement ref name psz


differentiates five stages human development ref name psz first people use energy muscles ref name psz second use energy domesticated animals ref name psz third use energy plants white refers agricultural revolution ref name psz fourth learn use energy natural resources coal oil gas ref name psz fifth harness nuclear energy ref name psz white introduced formula p e e measure energy consumed measure efficiency technical factors utilising energy ref name psz


theory similar russian astronomer nikolai kardashev 's later theory kardashev scale julian steward author ''theory culture change methodology multilinear evolution'' reprinted created theory multilinear evolution examined way societies adapted environment approach nuanced white 's theory unilinear evolution steward rejected th century notion progress instead called attention darwinian notion adaptation arguing societies adapt environment way argued different adaptations could studied examination


specific resources society exploited technology society relied exploit resources organization human labour argued different environments technologies would require different kinds adaptations resource base technology changed would culture words cultures change according inner logic rather terms changing relationship changing environment cultures therefore would pass stages order changed rather would change varying ways directions


called theory multilineal evolution questioned possibility creating social theory encompassing entire evolution humanity however argued anthropologists limited describing specific existing cultures believed possible create theories analysing typical common culture representative specific eras regions decisive factors determining development given culture pointed technology economics noted secondary factors like political system ideologies religion factors push evolution given society several directions time hence


application term multilinear theory evolution marshall sahlins co editor elman service ''evolution culture'' divided evolution societies 'general' 'specific' ref name psz general evolution tendency cultural social systems increase complexity organization adaptiveness environment ref name psz however various cultures isolated interaction diffusion qualities like technological inventions ref name psz leads cultures develop different ways specific evolution various elements introduced different combinations different stages evolution ref name psz


''power prestige'' ''human societies introduction macrosociology'' gerhard lenski expands works leslie white lewis henry morgan ref name psz developing ecological evolutionary theory views technological progress basic factor evolution societies cultures ref name psz unlike white defined technology ability create utilise energy lenski focuses information amount uses ref name psz information knowledge especially allowing shaping natural environment given society advanced ref name psz distinguishes four stages human development based


advances history communication ref name psz first stage information passed genes ref name psz second humans gain sentience learn pass information experience ref name psz third humans start using signs develop logic ref name psz fourth create symbols develop language writing ref name psz advancements technology communication translate advancements economic system political system distribution goods social inequality spheres social life also differentiates societies based level technology communication economy


historic terminology using formalized universalizing theories reality iv modern empirical cultures however divisions parsons' theory formal ways evolutionary process conceptualized mistaken parsons' actual theory parsons develops theory tries reveal complexity processes take form two points necessity first cultural necessity given values system evolving community environmental necessities directly reflected material realities basic production


regarding social processes natural phenomena social phenomena foucault argues complex processes interrelated difficult study reason 'truths' cannot topled disrupted foucault many modern concepts practices attempt uncover truth human beings either psychologically sexually religion spiritually actually create types people purport discover requiring trained specialists knowledge codes know rigorous pursuit put delayed makes kind study 'taboo' subject deliberately ignored cites concept 'truth'


within many human cultures ever flowing dynamics truth power knowledge resultant complex dynamics foucault uses term regimes truth flow ease like water make concept 'truth' impervious rational investigation west 's powerful social institutions powerful reason exhibit powerful structures inhibit investigation illegal investigate historical foundation notion legitimacy foucault cites examples truth function foundationalism claims historical accuracy foucault


argues systems medicine prisons religion well groundbreaking works abstract theoretical issues power suspended buried oblivion ref name kantor kantorowicz ernst ''the kings two bodies'' ref cites examples 'scientific study' population biology population genetics examples kind biopower vast majority human population giving new founded political population 'politics' polity advent biology genetics teamed together new scientific innovations notions study knowledge regarding truth belong realm experts


added dimension milieu derived newtonian mechanics milieu th century development biological physical sciences managed interwoven political social biological relationship men arrival concept work placed upon industrial population foucault uses term ''umwelt'' borrowed jakob von uexk meaning environment within technology production cartography production nation states government making efficiency body politic law heredity consanguine ref name kantor sound genuine beyond historical origin foundation turned 'exact truth'


correct legal term ''sui generis'' divine right kings absolute monarchy previous incarnation truth rule political sovereignty considered absolute unquestioned political philosophy monarchs popes emperors however foucault noticed pharaonic version political power transversed th century emergence capitalism liberal democracy terms began democratized modern pharaonic version represented president monarch pope prime minister became propagandized versions examples symbol agents aimed towards newly


discovered phenomenon population symbolic symbol agents power making mass population sacrifice name newly formed voting franchise call democracy however turned head medieval rulers thrown replaced exact apparatus called state human sciences suddenly discovered set mechanisms basic biological features human species became object political strategy took board fundamental facts humans biological species sociobiology


sociobiology departs perhaps furthest classical social evolutionism ref name psz introduced edward wilson book ''sociobiology new synthesis'' followed adaptation evolutionary theory field social sciences wilson pioneered attempt explain evolutionary mechanics behind social behaviours altruism aggression nurturance ref name psz wilson sparked one greatest scientific controversies th century introducing rejuvenating neo darwinian modes thinking many social sciences humanities leading reactions ranging fundamental opposition social scientists humanists


also darwinists see excessively simplistic approach calls radical restructuring respective disciplines evolutionary basis current theory evolution modern evolutionary synthesis neo darwinism explains evolution species occurs combination darwin 's mechanism natural selection gregor mendel 's theory genetics basis biological inheritance mathematical population genetics ref name psz essentially modern synthesis introduced connection two important discoveries units evolution genes main mechanism evolution selection ref name psz due close reliance


biology sociobiology often considered branch biology although uses techniques plethora sciences including ethology evolution zoology archaeology population genetics many others within study human societies sociobiology closely related fields human behavioral ecology evolutionary psychology sociobiology remained highly controversial contends genes explain specific human behaviours although sociobiologists describe role complex often unpredictable interaction nature nurture notable critics view genes play direct role human behaviour biologists richard lewontin


steven rose stephen jay gould given convergence much sociobiology 's claims right wing politics approach seen severe opposition regard research results well basic tenets led even wilson revisit claims state opposition elements modern sociobiology since rise evolutionary psychology another school thought dual inheritance theory emerged past years applies mathematical standards population genetics modeling adaptive selective principles culture school thought pioneered


robert boyd ucla peter richerson uc davis expanded william wimsatt among others boyd richerson 's book ''culture evolutionary process'' highly mathematical description cultural change later published accessible form ''not genes alone'' boyd richerson 's view cultural evolution operating socially learned information exists separate co evolutionary track genetic evolution two related cultural evolution dynamic rapid influential human society genetic evolution dual inheritance theory benefit providing unifying territory


nature nurture paradigm accounts accurate phenomenon evolutionary theory applied culture randomness effects drift concentration dependency fidelity evolving information systems lateral transmission communication ref name culture evolutionary process theory modernization theories modernization closely related dependency theory development theory ref name psz developed popularized ideological epistemic ancestors traced back least early th century progressivist historians social scientists building upon darwinian ideas roots economic


success us found population structure immigrant society composed strongest fittest individuals respective countries origin started supply national myth us american manifest destiny evolutionary reasoning explicitly implicitly us became yardstick modernisation societies could measured extent modernity closely adhered us american example modernization theories combine previous theories sociocultural evolution practical experiences empirical research especially era decolonization theory


states western countries developed rest world mostly former colonies earlier stages development eventually reach level western world ref name psz development stages go traditional societies developed ones ref name psz third world countries fallen behind social progress need directed way becoming advanced ref name psz developing classical social evolutionism theories theory modernization stresses modernization factor many societies simply trying need emulate successful societies cultures ref name psz


also states possible thus supporting concepts social engineering developed countries help less developed directly indirectly ref name psz among scientists contributed much theory walt rostow ''the stages economic growth non communist manifesto'' concentrates economic system side modernization trying show factors needed country reach path modernization rostovian take model ref name psz david apter concentrated political system history democracy researching connection


democracy good governance efficiency modernization ref name psz david mcclelland ''the achieving society'' approached subject psychological perspective motivations theory arguing modernization cannot happen given society values innovation success free enterprise ref name psz alex inkeles ''becoming modern'' similarly creates model ''modern personality'' needs independent active interested public policies cultural matters open new experiences rational able create long term plans future ref name psz works j rgen habermas also connected subfield theory modernization subject


criticism similar levied classical social evolutionism especially ethnocentric one sided focused western world culture prediction stable cultural social future cultural evolution follows punctuated equilibrium gould eldredge developed biological evolution bloomfield written human societies follow punctuated equilibrium would mean first stable society transition resulting subsequent stable society greater complexity model would claim mankind stable animal society transition stable tribal society another transition stable peasant society


currently transitional industrial society status human society rests productivity food production deevey reported growth number humans deevey also reported productivity food production noting productivity changes little stable societies increases transitions productivity especially food productivity longer increased bloomfield proposed man achieved stable automated society contemporary perspectives political perspectives cold war period marked rivalry two superpowers considered


highly evolved cultures planet ussr painted socialist society emerged class struggle destined reach state communism sociologists united states talcott parsons argued freedom prosperity united states proof higher level sociocultural evolution culture society time decolonization created newly independent countries sought become developed model progress industrialization form sociocultural evolution however tradition european social theory


transformed life key innovations information storage replication including rna dna multicellularity also language culture inter human information processing systems sense argued carbon based biosphere generated cognitive system humans capable creating technology result comparable evolutionary transition digital information reached similar magnitude information biosphere increases exponentially exhibits high fidelity replication evolves differential fitness expressed artificial intelligence ai facility virtually limitless recombination like previous evolutionary transitions potential symbiosis biological digital


information reach critical point codes could compete via natural selection alternatively fusion could create higher level superorganism employing low conflict division labor performing informational taskshumans already embrace fusions biology technology spend waking time communicating digitally mediated channels transactions stock market executed automated trading algorithms electric grids hands artificial intelligence one three marriages america beginning online digital algorithms also taking role human pair bonding reproduction ref name infobiosphere ref anthropological perspectives


current political theories new tribalists consciously mimic ecology life ways indigenous peoples augmenting modern sciences ecoregional democracy attempts confine shifting groups tribes within less clear boundaries society inherits surrounding ecology borders naturally occurring ecoregion progress proceed competition within tribes limited ecological borders natural capitalism incentives attempt mimic pressure natural selection human society forcing adapt consciously scarce energy materials


gaians argue societies evolve deterministically play role ecology biosphere else die failures due competition efficient societies exploiting nature 's leverage thus appealed theories sociocultural evolution assert optimizing ecology social harmony closely knit groups desirable necessary progression civilization poll experts neoarctic neotropic indigenous peoples reported ''harper 's'' magazine revealed ''all them'' would preferred typical new world person year prior


european contact rather typical european time approach criticised pointing number historical examples indigenous peoples severe environmental damage deforestation easter island extinction mammoths north america proponents goal trapped european stereotype noble savage role war development states societies particularly since end cold war growing number scholars social sciences


humanities came complement presentist neo evolutionary research studies distant past human inhabitants key element many analyses theories warfare robert l carneiro called prime mover origin state theorizes given limited availability natural resources societies compete losing group either moving area dominated victorious one area circumscribed ocean mountain range settlement thus impossible


either subjugated killed thus societies become larger larger facing constant threat extinction assimilation also forced become complex internal organisation order remain competitive well administer growing territory larger population carneiro 's ideas inspired great number subsequent research r le war process political social cultural evolution example ian morris argues given right geographic conditions war drove much human culture integrating societies increasing


material well paradoxically also made world much less violent large scale states morris evolved provided enough stability internally externally survive constant conflicts characterise early history smaller states possibility war continue force humans invent evolve war drove human societies adapt step wise process development military technology either requires leads comparable developments politics society many underlying assumptions morris 's thinking traced back form another


carneiro also jared diamond particularly book ''guns germs steel'' diamond explicitly opposes racist evolutionary tales argues ultimate explanation different human development different continents presence absence domesticable plants animals well fact east west orientation eurasia made migration within similar climates much easier south north orientation africa americas nevertheless also stresses importance conflict warfare proximate explanation europeans managed conquer much world given societies


fail innovate tend eliminated competing societies similarly charles tilly argues drove political social technological change centuries great variation regard states lead european states ultimately converging national state coercion warfare war wove european network national states preparation war created internal structures states within describes war became expensive complex due introduction gunpowder large armies thus required significantly large states order provide capital


manpower sustain time forced develop new means extraction administration however norman yoffee criticised theorists based general evolutionary frameworks came formulate theories origins states evolution claimed small part due prominence neoevolutionary explanations group different societies groups order compare progress modern ethnographic examples focusing mostly political systems despotic lite held together territorial state force much


said earliest states professional literature well popular writings factually wrong also implausible logic social evolutionary theory see also accelerating change biocultural evolution clash civilizations critical juncture theory cultural diversity cultural evolution cultural materialism cultural neuroscience cultural selection theory diffusion innovations dual inheritance theory economic determinism edward burnett tylor evolutionary anthropology environmental racism extended order franz boas futures studies ''guns germs steel'' historicism institutional memory julian steward leslie white lewis henry morgan memetics moral progress neoevolutionism neuroculture origin


language origin speech origins society population dynamics punctuated equilibrium rationalization sociology raciolinguistics reformism social darwinism social cycle theory social dynamics social implications theory evolution societal collapse sociocultural system social progress symbolic culture technological evolution ''the automated society'' references ref ref name world religions social evolution old world oikumene civilizations cross cultural perspective ref ref name psz sztompka p ref ref name psz sztompka p ref ref name psz sztompka pp ref ref name psz sztompka pp ref ref name psz sztompka p ref ref name psz sztompka pp ref ref name psz sztompka p ref ref name psz sztompka pp ref ref name psz sztompka p ref ref name psz sztompka


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