act upon world ref name baumann gerd dominant demiotic discourses culture relevance multi ethnic alliances p werbner modood eds debating cultural hybridity multicultural identities politics anti racism london new jersey zed books ref issue section richard shweder one major proponents field writes cultural psychology study way cultural traditions social practices regulate express transform human psyche resulting less psychic unity humankind ethnic divergences mind self emotion ref name shweder richard


thinking cultures harvard university press ref relationships branches psychology cultural psychology often confused cross cultural psychology however cultural psychology distinct cross cultural psychology cross cultural psychologists generally use culture means testing universality psychological processes rather determining local cultural practices shape psychological processes whereas cross cultural psychologist might ask whether jean piaget 's stages development universal across variety cultures cultural psychologist would interested social practices particular set cultures shape development

Social science
Psychology
Cultural psychology


cognitive processes different ways cultural psychology research informs several fields within psychology including social psychology cultural historical psychology developmental psychology cognitive psychology however constructivist perspective cultural psychology cultural psychologists study thought patterns behaviors within across cultures tends clash universal perspectives common fields psychology seek qualify fundamental psychological truths consistent across humanity importance need expanded cultural research according richard shweder repeated failure replicate western psychology laboratory findings non western settings ref name


therefore major goal cultural psychology many varied cultures contribute basic psychological theories order correct theories become relevant predictions descriptions explanations human behaviors western ones ref name schweder ref goal shared many scholars promote indigenous psychology approach attempt show interrelated interests cultural indigenous psychology cultural psychologist pradeep chakkarath emphasizes international mainstream psychology exported regions world called west


one among many indigenous psychologies therefore may enough intercultural expertise claim frequently theories universal validity ref name chakkarath ref accordingly cultural groups diverse ways defining emotional problems well distinguishing physical mental distress example arthur kleinman shown notion depression chinese culture associated physiological problems becoming acknowledged recently emotional concern furthermore type therapy people pursue influences cultural conceptions privacy shame well stigmas associated specific problems


weird countries ref name weirdest findings psychology research utilizing primarily weird populations often labeled universal theories inaccurately applied cultures ref name people weird ref recent research showing cultures differ many areas logical reasoning social values ref name weirdest ref ref name people weird evidence basic cognitive motivational processes vary across populations become increasingly difficult ignore example many studies shown americans canadians western europeans rely analytical reasoning strategies separate objects contexts explain predict behavior


social psychologists refer fundamental attribution error tendency explain people 's behavior terms internal inherent personality traits rather external situational considerations eg attributing instance angry behavior angry personality outside weird cultures however phenomenon less prominent many non weird populations tend pay attention context behavior occurs asians tend reason holistically example considering people 's behavior terms situation someone 's anger might viewed simply result irritating day ref name science ref ref name nisbettmiyamoto ref yet many long standing theories


humans think rely prominence analytical thought ref name people weird studying weird populations psychologists fail account substantial amount diversity global population weird countries represent world population ref name weirdest applying findings weird populations populations lead miscalculation psychological theories may hinder psychologists' abilities isolate fundamental cultural characteristics mutual constitution mutual constitution notion society individual influencing effect one another society


composed individuals behavior actions individuals directly impact society manner society directly impacts individual living within values morals ways life society exemplifies immediate impact way individual shaped person atmosphere society provides individual determining factor individual develop furthermore mutual constitution cyclical model society individual influence one another cultural psychology reliant model societies often fail


recognize despite overwhelming acceptance people affect culture culture affects people societal systems tend minimize effect people form communities example mission statements businesses schools foundations attempt make promises regarding environment values establishment holds however promises cannot made accordance mutually consisting theory without upheld participants mission statement employees southwest airlines example makes claim committed provide employees stable work environment equal opportunity learning personal


growth company ensure equal opportunity learning personal growth aforementioned message cannot promised work environment southwest provides includes paying consumers rules enforced ensure ' 'safety'' aircraft customers removed due attitude lack courtesy therefore contradicts promise stable work environment contrary establishments ensure mission statements agree mutually consisting model example yale university promises within mission statement yale committed improving world today


future generations outstanding research scholarship education preservation practice yale educates aspiring leaders worldwide serve sectors society carry mission free exchange ideas ethical interdependent diverse community faculty staff students alumni image representation derived ideas found journal article cultures selves cycle mutual constitution hazel rose markus shinoba kitayama instead making promises depend students faculty make statements refer part student


faculty body statement focuses offer uphold promises providing evidence provide readers example school community members participate environment promise accepting community 's role school culture past research conducted middle class north americans analyzing culturally different societies means comparison mostly involving middle class north americans aforementioned weird societies characterized euro american centrism resulted great volume research specific selection humans also allowed us divert


idea certain psychological processes considered basic universal recognize humans' remarkable capacity create cultures shaped although cultural psychology internalized mutually constituting model implementation society necessary aware model promotes taking responsibility one 's actions effect actions community acceptance ones responsibilities conscious application communities opportunity improvement turn supports individuals within community ideas found journal article cultures selves cycle


mutual constitution hazel rose markus shinobu kitayama also represented graphic provided criticisms stereotyping one significant themes recent years cultural differences east asians north americans attention ref name masuda ref perception cognition ref name cole cole cultural psychology future discipline cambridge harvard university press ref social psychological phenomena self ref name nisbett nisbett cohen culture honor psychology violence south denver co westview press ref psychologists turiel argued research


based cultural stereotyping psychologist per gjerde states cultural psychology tends generalize human development across nations continents assigning characteristics culture promotes disregard heterogeneity minimizes role individual ref name uc mcnulty jennifer july http newsucscedu html emphasis 'culture' psychology fuels stereotypes scholar says university california santa cruz ref gjerde argues individuals develop multiple perspectives culture sometimes act accord culture without sharing cultural beliefs sometimes outright oppose culture stereotyping thus views individuals homogeneous products culture ref name wainryb ref faulty


methodology self reporting data one easiest accessible methods mass data collection especially cultural psychology ref name masuda ref name ref however emphasizing cross cultural comparisons self reported attitudes values lead relatively unstable ultimately misleading data methods cultural psychologist richard shweder argues psyche culture mutually constructed inseparable ref name failure replicating many psychology findings regions world supported idea mind environment interdependent different throughout world criticisms state using self report may relatively unreliable


method could misleading especially different cultural context regardless self report important way obtain mass data way fact cultural psychologists utilized multiple measurements resources different scientific researches observation experiment data analysis etc example nisbett cohen investigated relation historical cultural background regional aggression difference usa study researchers designed laboratory experiment observe participants' aggression crime rate demographic statistics analyzed experiment results supported culture honor theory aggression


defense mechanism rooted herding cultural origin southerners ref name nisbett laboratory observations heine colleagues found japanese students spend time american students tasks poorly finding presents self improvement motivation often seen east asian failure success interconvertible effort terms cognition styles chinese tend perceive image using holistic view compared american quantitative statistics cultural products revealed public media western countries promote individualistic components east asian countries statistics


objective involve people fill questionnaire instead psychologists use physical measurements quantitatively collect data culture products painting photos statistics data also national records example chiao blizinsky revealed cultures high collectivism associated lower prevalence mood anxiety disorders study involving countries addition experimental statistics data evidence neuro imaging studies also help strengthen reliability cultural psychology research example thinking mother brain region related self concept showed significant activation chinese whereas


activation observed westerners cultural models one way organize understand social world use cultural models culturally shaped mental maps consist culturally derived ideas practices embodied enacted instituted everyday life cultural psychologists develop models categorize cultural phenomena ref name fryberg ref 's culture cycle 's cultural model developed hazel rose markus alana conner book ''clash cultural conflicts make us are'' refer mutually constitutive nature


culture individual culture cycle culture cycle consists four layers individuals interactions institutions ideas cultural influence help explain interaction self culture ref name markus markus h r conner c clash eight cultural conflicts make us new york penguin hudson street press ref individuals first concerns individual thinks expresses studies show united states individuals likely think independent equal individualistic individuals characteristics consistent across time


situation asked describe americans likely use adjectives describe personalities energetic friendly hard working japan studies show individuals likely think obligated society interdependent considerate self adaptable situation japanese individuals therefore likely describe relation others try upset anyone father son brother ref name heine cultural psychology san francisco w w norton co ref interactions interactions people


cultural values institutions next layer culture made institutions everyday interactions take place determine enforce rules society include legal government economic scientific philosophical religious bodies institutions encourage certain practices products discouraging others japanese kindergartens children learn important cultural values teamwork group harmony cooperation birthday month celebration example class celebrates children birthdays month institutional practice underscores importance group individual us kindergartens children learn


understanding believed book hazel alana say charting course self postal code important genetic code ref name markus culture idea important idea whiting model john beatrice whiting along research students harvard university developed whiting model child development specifically focused culture influences development ref name worthman ref whitings coined term cultural learning environment describe surroundings influence child development ref


name edwards edwards carolyn p bloch http digitalcommonsunledu cgi viewcontentcgiarticle context psychfacpub whitings' concepts culture fared contemporary psychology anthropology faculty publications department psychologypaper ref beatrice whiting defined child 's environmental contexts characterized activity progress physically defined space characteristic group people norms behavior ref name edwards environment composed several layers child 's geographical context influences history anthropology greater community results maintenance systems ie sociological characteristics form cultural learning environment factors inform learned behavior progressive expressive


systems take form religion magic beliefs ritual ceremony art recreation games play crime rates many researchers expanded upon whiting model ref name worthman whiting model 's influence clear modern psychology anthropology according article thomas weisner ''journal cross cultural psychology'' recent approaches share common intellectual project take culture context deeply seriously account studies human development culture motivation self enhancement vs self improvement self enhancement person 's motivation view


positively self improvement person 's motivation others view positively distinction two modes life evident independent collectivistic cultures cultures independent self views premise people see self contained entities often emphasize self esteem confidence one 's worth abilities self esteem seen main source happiness western cultures motivation self enhance generally follows way maintain one 's positive view oneself strategies employed self enhancing often include downward social comparison compensatory self enhancement discounting external attributions basking reflected glory


contrast collectivistic cultures often emphasize self improvement leading motivating factor lives motivation often derived desire lose face appear positively among social groups culture empathy cultural orientation collectivistic individualistic main distinction understand looking psychology culture difference individualistic collectivistic cultures people individualistic culture typically demonstrate independent view self focus usually personal achievement members collectivistic society focus group interdependent view


self usually focusing things benefit group ref name hui ref research shown differences self comparing collectivistic individualistic cultures fundamental attribution error shown common america individualistic compared india collectivistic ref name ross ref along lines self serving bias shown common among americans japanese individuals seen study involving animation fish wherein western viewers interpreted scene fish swimming away school expression individualism independence


eastern individuals wondered wrong singular fish concluded school kicked ref name ref another study showed coverage instance violent crime western news focused innate character flaws failings individual chinese news pointed lack relationships perpetrator foreign environment failings society ref name imply collectivism individualism completely dichotomous two cultural orientations understood spectrum representation either


taking someone 's feeling experience duan wei wang ref name duan wei wang ref furthered idea include empathy terms either dispositional capacity noticing understanding empathy experiential specific certain context situation observing person empathizing created four types empathy examine dispositional intellectual empathy dispositional empathic emotion experienced intellectual empathy experienced empathic emotion four branches allowed researchers examine empathic proclivities among individuals different cultures individualism shown correlate either types dispositional empathy collectivism shown


culture different one 's ref name ridley lingle ref idea developed concept ethnocultural empathy ref name wang et al ref moves beyond merely accepting understanding another culture also includes acknowledging values culture may affect empathy idea meant foster cultural empathy well engender cultural competence ref name wang et al ref name dyche zayas ref one greatest barriers empathy cultures people 's tendency operate ethnocentric point view eysenck ref name eysenck ref conceptualized ethnocentrism using one 's culture


understand rest world holding one 's values correct concomitant barrier intercultural empathy rasoal eklund hansen ref name raosal eklund hansen ref posit five hindrances intercultural empathy include paucity general knowledge outside one 's culture general experience cultures outside one 's specific knowledge regarding people 's cultures specific experiences regarding people 's cultures inability bridge different cultures understanding commonalities dissimilarities five points elucidate lack depth breadth hindrances developing practicing intercultural empathy another barrier intercultural


founded parochial ideals euro american psychologists cultural competence considered much necessity said psychologists increasingly began seeing clients different ethnic backgrounds ref name dyche zayas many problems contribute therapy beneficial people color include therapy individual focus emphasis expressiveness emphasis openness ref name sue sue ref intercultural competence see intercultural competence nijmegen school cultural psychology already department cultural psychology psychology religion founded


radboud university nijmegen netherlands one aims study culture religion psychological phenomena department split section psychology religion section cultural psychology research aim latter study culture behavior regulating system fact implied culture longer seen explanatory concept something explained instead viewing culture domain right something separate individual human beings culture seen product human interaction leading


patterned behavior characteristic human groups looks self evident shift wide reaching implications expression culture one fill whatever nation group longer used explain behaviors one look determinants behavior ones associated culture expressions like culture put women dependent position men longer used way reasoning obscures real determinants behavioral patterning causes sex gender related state affairs


main publication department view elaborated book culture embodiment social tuning behavior written paul voestermans theo verheggen oxford blackwell book tool kit presented helpful replacing idea culture explanatory variable concepts research instruments means behavioral patterning understood much better empirical program launched ernst graamans book beyond idea culture understanding changing cultural practices business life matters


https researchvunl en publications beyond idea culture understanding changing cultural pr dissertation amsterdam free university business school economics explores called cultural change related practices business boardrooms institutions care also customs female sexual mutilation african communities defence practices terms culture cogently criticised cases communal female circumcision practices empirical program makes replacement practices alternative rituals viable research institutions https webarchiveorg web https ikuscc institute cultural psychology qualitative social research ikus https webarchiveorg web http wwwsfuacat psychologie institute psychology sigmund freud university vienna laboratory comparative human


cognition lchc https webarchiveorg web http culturecognitionisrumichedu culture cognition university michigan http wwwccpaaudk centre cultural psychology aalborg university hans kilian lotte k hler center cultural psychology historical anthropology kkc http heinelabpsychubcca culture self lab university british columbia see also indian psychology references reading kitayama shinobu cohen dov ''handbook cultural psychology'' guilford turiel elliot ''the culture morality'' cambridge university press cambridge cole michael ''cultural psychology future discipline'' belknap press harvard university press cambridge matsumoto ed ''the handbook culture psychology'' oxford


university press new york shweder ra levine ra eds culture theory essays mind self emotion new york cambridge university press bruner jerome acts meaning harvard university press shore b culture mind cognition culture problem meaning new york oxford university press nisbett geography thought new york free press social psychology psychology


'''physics education''' refers methods currently used teach physics physics education research refers area pedagogical research seeks improve methods historically physics taught high school college level primarily lecture method together laboratory exercises aimed verifying concepts taught lectures concepts better understood lectures accompanied demonstration hand experiments questions require students ponder happen experiment students participate active learning example hands experiments learn self discovery

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Physics education


schools hong kong physics subject public examination local students form take public exam hong kong diploma secondary education hkdse ref name hkdse ref compare syllabus include gcse gce etc learn wider boarder different topics hong kong syllabus learning deeply challenges calculations ref name edb topics narrow smaller amount compared level due insufficient teaching hours secondary schools hong kong include temperature heat internal energy change state gases position motion force projectile motion


work energy power momentum uniform circular motion gravitation wave light sound electrostatics circuits electromagnetism radiation radioactivity atomic model nuclear energy universe astronomy stars rutherford model photoelectric effect bohr model particles nanoscopic scale building transportation renewable energy sources eye ear non ionizing radiation ionizing radiation etc ref name edb ref schools allow students choose physics elective subject since form ref name nams ref schools provide physics compulsory curriculum form allow students choose form ref name stss ref schools allow students choose physics elective subject since form ref name mainbooklet final ref also schools use english language


medium instruction physics ref name stss ref name mainbooklet final whereas schools use chinese language medium instruction physics ref name nams lectures classrooms laboratories schools hong kong organise outside school activities motivate students learning physics ref name phycorner ref universities pure physics major programmes provided chinese university hong kong cuhk ref name cuhk ref hong kong university science technology hkust ref name hkust ref university hong kong hku ref name hku ref topics include engineering physics mechanics thermodynamics fluids wave optics modern physics laboratory heat electromagnetism quantitative methods computational physics


courses delivered department mathematics department computer science respectively allow students learn boarder knowledge different aspects ref name hkust ref also enrichment stream theoretical physics offered cuhk ref name cuhk ref international research enrichment track offered hkust ref name hkust stream additional topics include astrophysics particle physics computational physics quantum physics practices solving theoretical systems discussions physical insight depth promote graduates high level understanding physics however working opportunity graduates theoretical background


hong kong narrow graduates pursue studies overseas become teachers ref name cuhk moreover applied physics major programmes offered universities hong kong united kingdom secondary schools england wales northern ireland gcse level students choose study physics either whole subject separate biology chemistry referred triple science part called combined science course three sciences sandwiched single qualification worth two gcses gcse students taught basics broad range


physical concepts including energy waves newtonian mechanics electricity thermal physics nuclear physics among others also practical element known required practicals conducted classroom assessed via questions final exam papers theoretically possible students pass gcse required practical element without single experiment students wishing continue study physics gcses may choose study subject level qualification lasting two years level lasting one year level physics also includes required practicals unlike


gcse assessed class teachers students pass given practical accreditation universities require allowing student onto certain science courses still questions final exams regarding practical technique answering questions correctly contribute practical accreditation much content level physics elaborating albeit quite extensively topics covered gcse addition units present gcse course particle physics despite containing significantly less mathematical rigour nowadays past physics still widely regarded


demanding level course available one least popular subjects proportion availability concern enough year olds leaving school level physics meet demands modern job market scotland scotland highers advanced highers replace gcses levels respectively content qualifications fairly similar since scottish post school students finish school year earlier counterparts rest uk content first year physics degrees offered scottish universities similar


second year level physics universities university physics courses uk content moderated institute physics iop referred iop accredited aim ensure physics students graduate knowledge skills required work professional physicist physics studied year bachelor science degree years scotland integrated master 's degree students pass first years take final master 's year without apply master 's


courses alternatively students initially apply study bsc physics apply study master 's degree graduate teaching strategies teaching strategies various techniques used facilitate education students different learning styles different teaching strategies intended help students develop critical thinking engage material choice teaching strategy depends concept taught indeed interest students '''methods approaches teaching physics''' '''lecture ''' lecturing one traditional ways teaching science owing convenience


content efficacy recitation method depends largely quality questions method student centric '''demonstration ''' method teacher performs certain experiments students observe ask questions demonstration teacher explain experiment test students' understanding via questions method important one science entirely theoretical subject '''lecture cum demonstration ''' name suggests combination two methods lecture demonstration teacher performs experiment explains simultaneously method


teacher provide information less time demonstration method students observe get practical experience possible teach topics method '''laboratory activities ''' laboratories students conduct physics experiments collect data interacting physics equipment generally students follow instructions lab manual instructions often take students experiment step step typical learning objectives include reinforcing course content real world interaction similar demonstrations thinking like experimental physicists lately effort shift lab activities


toward latter objective separating course content students make decisions calling question notion correct experimental result unlike demonstration method laboratory method gives students practical experience performing experiments like professional scientists however often requires significant amount time resources work properly research class toccolours style float right margin left em font size line height em width px colspan style text align center '''number publications students' ideas bibliography duit ''' '''fragment''' '''publication''' colspan mechanics force


physics taught students learn physics see also balsa wood bridge concept inventory egg drop competition feynman lectures harvard project physics learning assistant model list physics concepts primary secondary education curricula mousetrap car physical science study committee sat subject test physics physics outreach science education mathematics education engineering education discipline based education research references reading per reviews miscellaneous education subject


'''''physics education''''' peer reviewed academic journal covers teaching physics secondary school introductory undergraduate levels scope includes ideas guidance classroom teaching demonstrations laboratory experiments international news education developments book reviews equipment multimedia products editor chief gary williams journal abstracted indexed inspec eric cije conception journal first discussed institute journal launched kevin keohane first editor references external links iop publishing academic journals bimonthly journals physics education


united kingdom publications established english language journals physics education journals


celtic nations celtic speakers concentrated '''celtic studies''' '''celtology''' academic discipline occupied study sort cultural output relating celtic speaking peoples ie speakers celtic languages ranges linguistics literature art history archaeology history focus lying study various celtic languages living extinct ref name wiley wiley celtic studies early history field ref primary areas focus six celtic languages currently use irish scottish gaelic manx welsh cornish breton university subject

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Celtic studies


taught number universities ireland united kingdom france also united states canada australia germany poland austria netherlands history written studies celts cultures languages go back classical greek latin accounts possibly beginning hecataeus th century bc ref name wiley best known authors polybius posidonius pausanias diodorus siculus julius caesar strabo modern celtic studies originated th th centuries many classical authors rediscovered published translated ref name wiley academic


interest celtic languages grew comparative historical linguistics established end th century th century george buchanan studied goidelic languages first major breakthrough celtic linguistics came publication ''archaeologia britannica'' welsh scholar edward lhuyd first recognise gaulish british irish belong language family ref name wiley also published english version study paul yves pezron gaulish james parsons published study ''the remains japhet historical enquiries


affinity origins european languages'' compared word lexicon irish welsh concluded originally comparing numerals many languages second big leap forwards made englishman sir william jones postulated sanskrit greek latin many languages including celtic derived common ancestral language hypothesis published ''the sanscrit language'' would later hailed discovery indo european language family grew field indo european studies ref name wiley celtic languages definitively


linked indo european family course th century although jones' trail blazing hypothesis inspired numerous linguistic studies celtic languages part johann kaspar zeuss 's monumental ''grammatica celtica'' volume volume truly significant progress made ref name wiley written latin work draws earliest old irish middle welsh celtic primary sources construct comparative grammar first lay firm basis celtic linguistics ref name wiley among achievements zeuss able crack old


irish verb celtic studies german speaking world netherlands german celtic studies ''keltologie'' seen many established johann kaspar zeuss see appointed professor linguistics ludwig maximilian university munich middle th century celtic studies progressed largely subfield linguistics franz bopp carried studies comparative linguistics link celtic languages proto indo european language credited finally proven celtic branch indo european language family


served professor oriental literature general linguistics berlin kuno meyer ludwig christian stern founded ''zeitschrift f r celtische philologie'' zcp first academic journal solely devoted aspects celtic languages literature still existence today second half century significant contributions made orientalist ernst windisch held chair sanskrit university leipzig best remembered numerous publications field celtic studies orientalist celtologist heinrich zimmer


made professor celtic languages friedrich wilhelm university berlin first position kind germany followed kuno meyer addition numerous publications field active irish independence movement perhaps important german speaking celticist swiss scholar rudolf thurneysen student windisch zimmer thurneysen appointed chair comparative linguistics university freiburg succeeded equivalent chair university bonn notability arises work old


irish masterwork ''handbuch des altirischen'' handbook old irish translated english ''a grammar old irish'' located analysed multitude old irish manuscripts work considered basis succeeding studies old irish julius pokorny appointed chair celtic languages friedrich wilhelm university berlin despite support german nationalism catholic faith forced position nazis account jewish ancestry subsequently emigrated switzerland returned germany


teach ludwig maximilians university munich berlin succeeded devout nazi world war ii german celtic studies took place predominantly west germany austria studies field continued freiburg bonn marburg hamburg well innsbruck however independent professorship celtic studies instituted anywhere period hans hartmann heinrich wagner wolfgang meid made notable contributions scientific understanding boundaries celtic language area location homeland celtic peoples berlin chair celtic


remaining chair celtic studies humboldt university berlin abolished chair celtic studies continental europe utrecht university netherlands established celtic studies added chair germanic studies special request new professor g van hamel celtic studies ireland scholars xiv international congress celtic studies maynooth celtic studies taught universities northern ireland republic ireland studies cover language history archaeology art addition


irish language taught greater lesser extent schools across island ireland beginning celtic studies university subject ireland might dated eugene o'curry 's appointment professor irish history archaeology catholic university ireland celtic studies either full celtic studies programmes irish language programmes offered national university ireland galway university college cork university college dublin successor institution catholic university national university ireland maynooth trinity college dublin university limerick mary immaculate college


northern ireland cornwall isle man formal study celtic studies british universities late nineteenth century gave rise establishment chairs sir john rhys first jesus professor celtic university oxford donald mackinnon first chair celtic university edinburgh institutions united kingdom celtic studies departments courses universities aberdeen aberystwyth bangor cambridge cardiff edinburgh exeter houses institute cornish studies glasgow oxford swansea trinity st david 's queen 's university belfast


students period cdt celtic languages administered https wwwglaacuk subjects celticgaelic celtic gaelic university glasgow director prof katherine forsyth celtic studies north america celtic studies programs canada widespread ireland wales scotland england several universities offer celtic studies courses two universities offers full ba well graduate courses st michael 's college university toronto st francis xavier university offers ba kind canada dual


focus celtic literature history pontifical institute mediaeval studies university toronto offers courses graduate level centre medieval studies along st francis xavier university canadian universities offer courses celtic scottish irish studies include cape breton university saint mary 's university halifax simon fraser university university guelph university ottawa united states harvard university notable doctorate program celtic studies celtic studies also offered universities wisconsin milwaukee california ndash berkeley california ndash los angeles bard college many


'' tudes celtiques'' university western brittany brest offers two year international european union certified master 's degree course entitled celtic languages cultures contact part https wwwuniv brestfr master celtique menu us crbc centre breton celtic research crbc closely linked programme university western brittany organizes intensive two week summer school breton language cultural heritage studies every year june summer school also sponsored crbc welcomes scholars around world interest celtic minority languages cultures study breton least known


living celtic languages celtic studies elsewhere celtic studies also taught universities elsewhere europe including charles university prague czech republic university pozna poland http wwwkulpl katedra filologii celtyckiej html john paul ii catholic university lublin poland moscow state university russia uppsala university sweden irish studies taught university burgos spain university coru galicia galicia also institute celtic studies celtic studies taught undergraduate postgraduate levels university sydney australia also hosts triennial australian conference celtic studies


international congress celtic studies international congress celtic studies foremost academic conference field celtic studies held every four years first held dublin xv international congress celtic studies held university glasgow xvi iccs held bangor university xvii iccs held utrecht university areas celtic studies archaeology linguistics philology historical linguistics ethnology folklore history literature onomastics toponomy religious studies see celtic christianity political


cork derek allen prize derek allan prize awarded annually british academy since rotates celtic studies numismatics musicology recent winners field celtic studies include prof ire herbert prof pierre yves lambert prof fergus kelly prof herbert first female celticist awarded prize see also irish american cultural institute citations general references busse peter e ''zeitschrift f r celtische philologie'' ''celtic culture historical encyclopedia'' ed jt koch vols vol santa barbara et al p nbsp


reading brown terence ed ''celticism'' studia imagologica amsterdam rodopi fischer joachim john dillon eds ''the correspondence myles dillon irish german relations celtic studies'' dublin four courts huther andreas politik verschieden freundschaft wie immer' german celtic scholar kuno meyer first world war ''the first world war clash cultures'' ed fred bridgham columbia sc camden house pp nbsp koch john celtic studies ''a century british medieval studies'' ed alan deyermond british academy centenary monographs oxford oxford university press pp nbsp https webarchiveorg web http wwwrhsacuk bibl wwwopacexe


rhs record ''beachdan ura inbhir nis'' new opinions inverness' alexander macbain foundation celtic studies scotland journal proceedings society antiquaries scotland volume date pages issn url http journalssocantscotorg indexphp psas article view l ing se n ''celtic studies europe essays'' dublin geography publications schneiders marc kees veelenturf ''celtic studies netherlands bibliography'' dublin http wwwceltdiasie publications cat html dias wiley dan celtic studies early history field ''celtic culture historical encyclopaedia'' ed j koch santa barbara et al external links https webarchiveorg web http celticibiblioorg finding celtic project ftc http wwwcelticstudiescongressorg international congress celtic studies


http celticstudentsblogspotie association celtic students ireland britain https webarchiveorg web http wwwdeszsigncom celto slavica abstracts pdf scs mac mathuna scs pdf celtic studies soviet union ethnic studies european studies indo european studies


physical activity exercise includes activities involve movement example cleaning working active transport etc '''physical activity''' defined voluntary bodily movement produced skeletal muscles requires energy expenditure ref name global recommendations physical activity health world health organization geneva switzerland accessed available http wwwwhoint ncds prevention physical activity en ref physical activity encompasses activities intensity performed time day night includes exercise incidental activity integrated daily routine integrated activity may planned structured repetitive purposeful improvement fitness

Human physical performance and recreation


misconception exercise physical activity frequently used interchangeably generally refer physical activity performed leisure time primary purpose improving maintaining physical fitness physical performance health however physical activity exactly ' 'same'' concept exercise exercise defined subcategory physical activity planned structured repetitive purposeful sense improvement maintenance one components physical fitness objective ref name conversely physical activity includes exercise may also unplanned unstructured random non purposeful carried


multitude reasons intensity physical activities continuum sedentary behavior vigorous physical activity study shows people start successful physical activity programmes maintain much least months intensity physical activity intensity simple twitch muscle sprint practice physical activity viewed continuum sedentary behavior vigorous intensity activity intensities broadly categorized according energy expenditure using standard measure intensity metabolic equivalents mets broad categories sedentary behavior light


activity moderate activity vigorous activity example activities intensity following table documents examples physical activities intensity level depending individual activity involved activities may overlap intensity categories change categories completely class wikitable intensity example activities sedentary behavior sitting lying standing standing still light physical activity lpa slow walking shuffling around house moderate physical activity mpa brisk walking jogging light swimming stair climbing vigorous physical activity vpa fast running fast cycling sprinting physical activity shown reduce anxiety


condition individual physical exercise without continuity anxiety personality trait continuous performance exercise certain physical activities psycho physiological signs anxiety blood pressure heart rate moderate physical activity lead decrease intensity short term physiological reactivity encourage recovery short term physiological stressors biddle et al people severe depressive episode anxiety disorder long short walks proved effective people substance abuse disorders bipolar disorder frequent psychotic decompensation strenuous gymnastics riding proved effective


physical activities leisure clusters different forms meaningfullness model field physical activity terms clusters movement cultures different forms meaningfulness lundvall schantz different forms physical activity leisure time divided different clusters activities common denominator form type meaningfulness se model right lundvall schantz separate forms meaningfulnesses consist competition championship ii nature encounters iii aesthetic expressive iv fitness gymnastics play v everyday exercise vi five


different basic forms physical training aerobic anaerobic strength flexibility coordination training different clusters treated time today context teacher training physical education swedish school system described swedish professors human movement science suzanne lundvall peter schantz recommendations physical activity including sleep sedentary behavior global recommendations world health organization recommend following ref name adults aged adults aged least minutes moderate intensity aerobic physical


adults aged years least minutes moderate intensity aerobic physical activity throughout week least minutes vigorous intensity aerobic physical activity throughout week equivalent combination moderate vigorous intensity activity aerobic activity performed bouts least minutes duration additional health benefits adults aged years increase moderate intensity aerobic physical activity minutes per week engage minutes vigorous intensity aerobic physical activity per week equivalent combination


physical activity daily amounts physical activity greater minutes provide additional health benefits country level recommendations australia new zealand united kingdom canada united states among countries issued physical activity recommendations predictors physical activity levels amount physical activity conducted population extension proportion population reaching guidelines specified thresholds dictated number factors including demographics eg age sex ethnicity population health status cultural aspects state environment eg infrastructure affords physical activity studies


pacific ref name see also physical inactivity references references physical fitness


'''drug policy reform''' also known '' 'drug law reform''' generally refers proposed changes laws regulations governments promulgate respect substances psychoactive effects real perceived potential used recreational non medical reasons proponents drug policy reform frequently argue prohibition recreational drugs cannabis opioids cocaine amphetamines hallucinogens ineffective counterproductive substance use better responded implementing practices harm reduction increasing availability addiction treatment another reform proposed introduce regulatory regime

Applied science
Public administration
Drug policy
Drug policy reform


production marketing distribution currently illegal drugs manner analogous alcohol tobacco proponents drug law reform argue relative harm taken account regulation controlled substances addictive dependence forming substances alcohol tobacco caffeine traditional part many culture centuries remain legal countries though drugs cause less harm alcohol tobacco entirely prohibited possession punishable severe criminal penalties ref name https webarchiveorg web http wwwwhoint whr en world health report reducing risks promoting healthy life ref ref name goodguidefaq ref ref


free legal advice drugs users currently campaigns drug decriminalization also incorporated today focus world 's drug policy reform organisations promotion harm reduction western world attempting prevent catastrophic loss human life developing countries much world 's supply heroin cocaine marijuana produced drug policy reform advocates point failed efforts mexican drug war according observers claimed many lives ref name cbc ref signs new approach drug policy


needed within european union european citizens' initiative called ''weed like talk'' launched aim starting debate europe legalization production sale use marijuana european union finding common policy eu member states ref name manifesto ref ref name weed like talk ref june initiative collected signatures citizens european member states reach million signatures nationals least one quarter member states european commission required initiate


legislative proposal debate issue ref name norml uk ref proposed alternatives harm reduction harm reduction refers range public health policies designed reduce harmful consequences associated recreational drug use high risk activities harm reduction put forward useful perspective alongside conventional approaches demand supply reduction ref name marlatt ref many advocates argue prohibitionist laws criminalize people suffering disease cause harm example obliging drug addicts obtain drugs unknown purity unreliable criminal sources high prices increasing risk


overdose death critics concerned tolerating risky illegal behaviour sends message community behaviours acceptable decriminalization drug decriminalization calls reduced control penalties compared existing laws proponents drug decriminalization generally support use fines punishments replace prison terms often propose systems whereby illegal drug users caught would fined would receive permanent criminal record result central feature drug decriminalization concept harm reduction drug decriminalization ways intermediate


prohibition legalization criticized worst worlds ref name prospect magazine ref drug sales would still illegal thus perpetuating problems associated leaving production distribution drugs criminal underworld also failing discourage illegal drug use removing criminal penalties might otherwise cause people choose use drugs portugal first country world decriminalized use drugs generally means anyone caught type drug classifies personal consumption rather


sale imprisoned however mexico city decriminalized certain drugs greece announced going spain also followed portugal model italy waiting years see result portugal model portugal deemed success since recently followed suit may criminal chamber italian supreme court upheld previous decision italy 's constitutional court reduce penalties convictions sale soft drugs ref name library congress ref countries virtual decriminalization marijuana


three us states colorado ref name forbes ref washington oregon one australian state sa netherlands legal marijuana cafes netherlands cafes called coffee shops ref name coffeeshops ref legalization drug legalization calls end government enforced prohibition distribution sale personal use specified currently banned drugs proposed ideas range full legalization would completely remove forms government control various forms regulated legalization drugs would legally available system government control might mean instance mandated labels dosage


medical warnings restrictions advertising age limitations restrictions amount purchased one time requirements form certain drugs would supplied ban sale intoxicated persons special user licenses purchase particular drugs regulated legalization system would probably range restrictions different drugs depending perceived risk drugs would sold counter pharmacies licensed establishments drugs greater risks harm might available sale licensed premises use could monitored emergency medical care made available


examples drugs different levels regulated distribution countries include caffeine coffee tea nicotine tobacco ethyl alcohol beer wine spirits antibiotics full legalization often proposed groups libertarians object drug laws moral grounds regulated legalization suggested groups law enforcement prohibition object drug laws grounds fail achieve stated aims instead greatly worsen problems associated use prohibited drugs acknowledge harms associated currently prohibited drugs need


minimized proponents drug legalization necessarily share common ethical framework people may adopt viewpoint variety reasons particular favoring drug legalization imply approval drug use decriminalization legalisation also supported rationalists also support free adult access plants grow earth essential human right currently denied governments groups advocating change senlis council european development policy thinktank since conception advocated drug addiction viewed public health issue


rather purely criminal matter group support decriminalisation illegal drugs since council called licensing poppy cultivation afghanistan order manufacture poppy based medicines morphine codeine combat poverty rural communities breaking ties illicit drugs trade senlis council outlined proposals implementation village based poppy medicine project calls pilot project afghan morphine next planting season organisations involved lobbying research advocacy canada le dain commission inquiry


association psychedelic studies maps national organization reform marijuana laws students sensible drug policy veterans medical marijuana access november coalition united states women grow political parties drug law reform policies australia australian greens drug law reform australia reason party australia help end marijuana prohibition hemp party legalise cannabis queensland legalise cannabis western australia party canada liberal party canada new democratic party canada netherlands groenlinks new zealand green party aotearoa new zealand united kingdom green party england wales liberal democrats international pirate party see also arguments drug


ml smith published naval research logistics quarterly c valdez flores rm feldman survey preventive maintenance models stochastically deteriorating single unit systems naval research logistics vol aug pp jj mccall maintenance policies stochastically failing equipment survey management science vol mar pp wp pierskalla ja voelker survey maintenance models control surveillance deteriorating systems naval research logistics quarterly vol sep pp operations research

Applied science
Transportation
Operations research
Optimal maintenance


self makes oneself independent asian instead feel interdependent ref name asian behavior ref movement asian psychologists wanted expanding role science psychology felt limited due heavy western influence predominant figures asian psychology qicheng jing china hiroshi azuma japan ku shu yang taiwan durganand sinha india ''asian american journal psychology'' ''asian american journal psychology'' official publication asian american psychological association dedicated research practice advocacy education policy within asian american psychology journal publishes empirical theoretical

Social science
Psychology
Cultural psychology
Asian psychology


society promotion science aapa online aapa founded largest organization faculty students researchers practitioners interested asian american psychology members initiatives positively impacted psychological treatment education training research policy social justice advocacy research dissemination organizational policy statements collaboration psychological organizations publications training initiatives disseminating resources serving asian american communities contributions years contribution study psychology done mostly us european psychologists however recent years changing asian countries


ever contributing psychology ever increasing rate see also filipino psychology morita therapy naikan therapy references https aapaonlineorg aapa online http wwwapaorg pubs journals aap indexaspx asian american journal psychology https webarchiveorg web http wwwwileycom bw journalaspref asian journal social psychology http wwwpsychologicalscienceorg observer getarticlecfmid psychological science branches psychology asian studies


'''phenomenology''' may refer art phenomenology architecture based experience building materials sensory properties philosophy phenomenology philosophy branch philosophy studies subjective experiences methodology study founded edmund husserl beginning munich phenomenology group philosophers psychologists university munich inspired husserl 's work develop phenomenology existential phenomenology work husserl 's student martin heidegger followers phenomenology peirce branch philosophy according charles sanders peirce philosophy experience hinduism phenomenology


experience hinduism first expounded gaudapada philosophical literature ''phenomenology perception'' book maurice merleau ponty ''the phenomenology spirit'' book georg wilhelm friedrich hegel science empirical research used describe measurement methods sciences empirical relationship phenomenological model phenomenology physics branch physics deals application theory experiments phenomenology archaeology study cultural landscapes sensory perspective phenomenology psychology study within psychology subjective experiences phenomenology sociology study within sociology subjective experiences concrete social realities phenomenology religion


study experiential aspect religion terms consistent orientation worshippers


first geneva convention governing sick wounded members armed forces signed '''law war''' component international law regulates conditions initiating war ''jus ad bellum'' conduct warring parties ''jus bello'' laws war define sovereignty nationhood states territories occupation critical terms international law among issues modern laws war address declarations war acceptance surrender treatment prisoners war military necessity along ' 'distinction'' ''proportionality'' prohibition certain weapons

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Laws of war


may cause unnecessary suffering ref name ihl ref ''law war'' considered distinct bodies law domestic law particular belligerent conflict may provide additional legal limits conduct justification war early sources history attempts define regulate conduct individuals nations agents war mitigate worst effects war long history earliest known instances found mahabharata old testament torah indian subcontinent mahabharata describes discussion ruling brothers


concerning constitutes acceptable behavior battlefield early example rule proportionality example book deuteronomy limits amount environmental damage allowing cutting non fruitful trees use siege operation fruitful trees preserved use food source ref also deuteronomy requires israelites make offer conditioned peace opposing party laying siege city taking population servants forced laborers instead shall accept offer ref similarly deuteronomy requires female captives


back self defense strike hand enemies cease attack muslims commanded stop attacking history early christian church many christian writers considered christians could soldiers fight wars augustine hippo contradicted wrote 'just war' doctrine explained circumstances war could could morally justified adomnan iona gathered kings church leaders around ireland scotland birr gave 'law innocents'


banned killing women children war destruction churches medieval europe roman catholic church also began promulgating teachings war reflected extent movements peace truce god impulse restrict extent warfare especially protect lives property non combatants continued hugo grotius attempts write laws war one grievances enumerated american declaration independence king george iii endeavoured bring inhabitants frontiers merciless indian savages


whose known rule warfare undistinguished destruction ages sexes conditions modern sources signing first geneva convention major european powers modern law war made three principal sources ref name ihl ''lawmaking treaties'' ''conventions'' see international treaties laws war ''custom'' law war derives incorporated treaties refer continuing importance customary law articulated martens clause customary international law established


general practice nations together acceptance practice required law ''general principles'' certain fundamental principles provide basic guidance instance principles distinction proportionality necessity part customary international law always apply use armed force ref name ihl positive international humanitarian law consists treaties international agreements directly affect laws war binding consenting nations achieving widespread consent opposite positive laws war customary laws war ref name ihl many explored nuremberg


war trials laws define ''permissive'' rights states well ''prohibitions'' conduct dealing irregular forces non signatories treaty armistice regularization war signed november president republic colombia sim n bol var chief military forces spanish kingdom pablo morillo precursor international humanitarian law treaty guadalupe hidalgo signed ratified united states mexico articulates rules future wars including protection civilians treatment


positive mechanism codification addition nuremberg war trial judgment law relating war crimes crimes humanity held guidelines nuremberg principles treaties like hague convention widely accepted civilised nations half century part customary laws war binding parties whether party signatory specific treaty interpretations international humanitarian law change time also affects laws war example carla del ponte chief


one following treaties universal declaration human rights charter united nations genocide convention united nations convention torture geneva conventions including protocol convention conventional weapons chemical weapons convention convention physical protection nuclear material purposes laws often commented creating laws something inherently lawless war seems like lesson absurdity based adherence amounted customary international law warring parties ages


believed codifying laws war would beneficial central principles underlying laws war wars limited achieving political goals started war eg territorial control include unnecessary destruction wars brought end quickly possible people property contribute war effort protected unnecessary destruction hardship end laws war intended mitigate hardships war protecting combatants non combatants unnecessary suffering safeguarding certain fundamental human rights


persons fall hands enemy particularly prisoners war wounded sick children civilians facilitating restoration peace principles laws war article outlining basic principles law war published ''the tacoma times'' ''military necessity'' along ' 'distinction'' ''proportionality'' ''humanity'' sometimes called unnecessary suffering ''honor '' sometimes called chivalry five commonly cited principles international humanitarian law governing legal use force armed conflict ''military necessity'' governed several constraints attack action must


intended help defeat enemy must attack legitimate military objective ref name military objective article ''additional protocol geneva conventions provides widely accepted definition military objective far objects concerned military objectives limited objects nature location purpose use make effective contribution military action whose total partial destruction capture neutralization circumstances ruling time offers definite military advantage source ref harm caused civilians civilian property must


proportional excessive relation concrete direct military advantage anticipated ''distinction'' principle international humanitarian law governing legal use force armed conflict whereby belligerents must distinguish combatants civilians ref group lower alpha civilian instance means civilians non combatants members military article protocol geneva conventions explains civilians shall enjoy protection afforded section unless time take direct part hostilities ref ''proportionality'' principle international humanitarian law governing legal


use force armed conflict whereby belligerents must make sure harm caused civilians civilian property excessive relation concrete direct military advantage expected attack legitimate military objective ''humanity'' principle based hague conventions restrictions using arms projectiles materials calculated cause suffering injury manifestly disproportionate military advantage realized use weapon legitimate military purposes countries like united states weapons reviewed prior use combat determine


comply law war designed cause unnecessary suffering used intended manner principle also prohibits using otherwise lawful weapon manner causes unnecessary suffering ref name usaf ref ''honor'' principle demands certain amount fairness mutual respect adversaries parties conflict must accept right adopt means injuring unlimited must refrain taking advantage adversary adherence law falsely claiming law protections must recognize


members common profession fights personal hostility behalf respective states ref name usaf example substantive laws war fulfill purposes noted laws war place substantive limits lawful exercise belligerent 's power generally speaking laws require belligerents refrain employing violence reasonably necessary military purposes belligerents conduct hostilities regard principles humanity chivalry however laws war based consensus content interpretation laws extensive contested


ever changing following particular examples substance laws war laws interpreted today declaration war section iii hague convention required hostilities preceded reasoned declaration war ultimatum conditional declaration war treaties notably united nations charter article articles charter seek curtail right member states declare war older kellogg briand pact nations ratified formal declarations war


uncommon since outside middle east east africa lawful conduct belligerent actors modern laws war regarding conduct war ''jus bello'' geneva conventions provide unlawful belligerents engage combat without meeting certain requirements article ''geneva convention relative treatment prisoners war'' provides lawful combatants required commanded person responsible subordinates b fixed distinctive sign recognizable distance c carrying arms openly


conducting operations accordance laws customs war impersonating enemy combatants wearing enemy 's uniform allowed though fighting uniform unlawful perfidy taking hostages combatants also must commanded responsible officer commander held liable court law improper actions subordinates exception war came suddenly time organize resistance eg result foreign occupation people parachuting


aircraft distress modern laws war specifically within protocol additional geneva conventions prohibits attacking people parachuting aircraft distress regardless territory land territory controlled enemy must given opportunity surrender attacked unless apparent engaging hostile act attempting escape prohibition apply dropping airborne troops special forces commandos spies saboteurs liaison officers intelligence agents thus personnel descending parachutes legitimate targets


therefore may attacked even aircraft distress red cross red crescent magen david adom white flag emblem international committee red cross french ''comit international de la croix rouge'' modern laws war geneva conventions also include prohibitions attacking doctors ambulances hospital ships displaying red cross red crescent magen david adom red crystal emblem related international red cross red crescent movement also prohibited fire person vehicle bearing white flag


since indicates intent surrender desire communicate either case people protected red cross crescent star white flag expected maintain neutrality may engage warlike acts fact engaging war activities protected symbol violation laws war known perfidy failure follow requirements result loss protected status make individual violating requirements lawful target applicability states individuals law war binding upon states also


upon individuals particular members armed forces parties bound laws war extent compliance interfere achieving legitimate military goals example obliged make every effort avoid damaging people property involved combat war effort guilty war crime bomb mistakenly incidentally hits residential area token combatants ''intentionally'' use protected people property human shields camouflage guilty violations laws


war responsible damage protected mercenaries use contracted combatants warfare especially tricky situation laws war scholars claim private security contractors appear similar state forces unclear acts war taking place private public agents international law yet come consensus issue remedies violations conflict punishment violating laws war may consist specific deliberate limited violation laws


war reprisal conflict ends persons committed ordered breach laws war especially atrocities may held individually accountable war crimes process law also nations signed geneva conventions required search try punish anyone committed ordered certain grave breaches laws war third geneva convention article article combatants break specific provisions laws war termed unlawful combatants unlawful combatants captured may lose status protections would


otherwise afforded prisoners war competent tribunal determined eligible pow status eg third geneva convention article point unlawful combatant may interrogated tried imprisoned even executed violation laws war pursuant domestic law captor still entitled certain additional protections including treated humanity case trial shall deprived rights fair regular trial fourth geneva convention article


international treaties laws war list declarations conventions treaties judgments laws war paris declaration respecting maritime law abolished privateering geneva convention amelioration condition wounded sick armed forces field st petersburg declaration renouncing use explosive projectiles nbsp grams weight project international declaration concerning laws customs war brussels declaration signed brussels august agreement never entered force formed part basis codification laws


war hague peace conference ref name icrc http wwwicrcorg ihlnsf intro opendocument brussels conference icrc cites schindler j toman laws armed conflicts martinus nihjoff publisher pp ref manual laws customs war oxford session geneva institute international law appointed committee study ''brussels declaration'' year submit institute opinion supplementary proposals subject work institute led adoption manual went form


part basis codification laws war hague peace conference ref name icrc hague conventions consisted three main sections three additional declarations pacific settlement international disputes ii laws customs war land iii adaptation maritime warfare principles geneva convention declaration launching projectiles explosives balloons declaration ii use projectiles object diffusion asphyxiating deleterious gases declaration iii use bullets


expand flatten easily human body hague conventions thirteen sections twelve ratified entered force two declarations pacific settlement international disputes ii limitation employment force recovery contract debts iii opening hostilities iv laws customs war land v rights duties neutral powers persons case war land vi status enemy merchant ships outbreak hostilities vii conversion merchant


ships war ships viii laying automatic submarine contact mines ix bombardment naval forces time war x adaptation maritime war principles geneva convention xi certain restrictions regard exercise right capture naval war xii creation international prize court ratified xiii rights duties neutral powers naval war declaration extending declaration ii conference types aircraft declaration ii obligatory arbitration london declaration


concerning laws naval war largely reiterated existing law although showed greater regard rights neutral entities never went effect washington naval treaty also known ''five power treaty'' february hague draft rules aerial warfare never adopted legally binding form geneva protocol prohibition use war asphyxiating poisonous gases bacteriological methods warfare greco german arbitration tribunal kellogg briand pact also known ''pact paris'' geneva convention relative treatment prisoners war


geneva convention amelioration condition wounded sick treaty limitation reduction naval armament april roerich pact second london naval treaty march amsterdam draft convention protection civilian populations new engines war convention never ratified league nations declaration protection civilian populations bombing air case war united nations charter entered force october judgment international military tribunal nuremberg nuremberg principles formulated


property event armed conflict zagreb resolution institute international law conditions application humanitarian rules armed conflict hostilities united nations forces may engaged united nations declaration protection women children emergency armed conflict united nations convention prohibition military hostile use environmental modification techniques geneva protocol additional geneva conventions august relating protection victims international armed conflicts geneva protocol ii additional


geneva conventions august relating protection victims non international armed conflicts red cross fundamental rules international humanitarian law applicable armed conflicts united nations convention prohibitions restrictions use certain conventional weapons may deemed excessively injurious indiscriminate effects ccw protocol non detectable fragments protocol ii prohibitions restrictions use mines booby traps devices protocol iii prohibitions restrictions use incendiary weapons protocol iv


blinding laser weapons amended protocol ii prohibitions restrictions use mines booby traps devices protocol explosive remnants war protocol v convention november entered force november san remo manual international law applicable armed conflicts sea icrc unga guidelines military manuals instructions protection environment time armed conflict un convention safety united nations associated personnel international court justice advisory opinion legality threat


use nuclear weapons ottawa treaty convention prohibition use stockpiling production transfer anti personnel mines destruction rome statute international criminal court entered force july optional protocol involvement children armed conflict entered force february geneva protocol iii additional geneva conventions august relating adoption additional distinctive emblem convention cluster munitions entered force august see also arms control includes list treaties command


responsibility crimes humanity customary international humanitarian law debellatio international law islamic military jurisprudence ''journal international law peace armed conflict'' ''jus post bellum'' law occupation law sea lawfare ''lex pacificatoria'' list articles war list weapons mass destruction treaties right conquest rule law armed conflicts project rulac self defence international law targeted killing total war war crime act amounts violation law war notes references citations general sources reading witt john fabian ''lincoln 's code laws war


american history'' free press pages evolution legacy code commissioned president lincoln civil war external links http wwwicrcorg eng war law indexjsp war law index international committee red cross website http lawofwarorg international law war association https archivetoday http wwweiileu european institute international law international relations https webarchiveorg web http wwwadh genevach rulac rule law armed conflicts project https doddefensegov portals documents pubs dod law war manual june updated dec pdfver law war manual us department defense updated december forcetoc index newsectionlink war


oosterscheldekering sea wall netherlands '''coastal management''' defence flooding erosion techniques stop erosion claim lands protection rising sea levels st century crucial sea level rise accelerates due climate change changes sea level damage beaches coastal systems expected rise increasing rate causing coastal sediments disturbed tidal energy coastal zones occupy less earth 's land area host world population nearly billion people live within nbsp km shoreline

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Environmental management
Coastal management


sea level average density times higher global average population three quarters world population expected reside coastal zone human activities originating small land area impose heavy pressure coasts coastal zones contain rich resources produce goods services home commercial industrial activities history coastal engineering harbours began origin maritime traffic perhaps bc docks breakwaters harbour works built hand often grand scale ancient harbour works


wave reflection used prevent silting used surface height breakwaters trip waves reached main breakwater first dredgers netherlands maintain harbour velsen silting problems solved previously sealed solid piers replaced new open piled jetties middle ages attack sea caused many coastal towns harbours abandoned harbours lost due natural causes rapid silting shoreline advance retreat etc venetian lagoon one populated coastal areas continuous


prosperity development written reports document evolution coastal protection works words one first accounts use sea wall protect coastal settlement modern age little improvement took place beyond roman approach harbour construction renaissance early th century advent steam engine search new lands trade routes expansion british empire colonies influences contributed revitalization sea trade renewed interest port works


twentieth century prior general practice use hard structures protect beach erosion storm damages structures included seawalls revetments sand trapping structures groynes ' private local community interests protected many coastal areas using techniques ad hoc basis certain resort areas structures proliferated extent protection impeded recreational uses erosion continued structures remained resulting loss beach area obtrusiveness cost structures led late


issued european council document prepared group specialists coastal protection underlies national legislation practice group specialists originated pursuant decision committee ministers council europe emphasized need integrated management planning coastal areas continued deteriorate group claimed due difficulties implementing concept integrated management group proposed council europe cooperate coastal marine union eucc united nations environment programme unep


planning approaches five general coastal management strategies five generic strategies involved coastal defense ref name auto ref abandonment managed retreat realignment plans retreat adopts engineering solutions accommodate natural processes adjustment armoring constructing seawalls hard structures construct defenses seaward coast adapting vertically elevating land buildings choice strategy site specific depending pattern sea level change geomorphological setting sediment availability erosion well social economic political factors alternatively integrated coastal zone management approaches may used prevent development erosion flood prone areas reducing


need address changes growth management challenge local authorities must provide infrastructure required new residents managed retreat managed retreat alternative constructing maintaining coastal structures managed retreat allows area erode managed retreat often response change sediment budget sea level rise technique used land adjacent sea low value decision made allow land erode flood creating new shoreline habitats process may continue many years


shoreline europe alternatively soft engineering techniques supporting natural processes relying natural elements dunes vegetation prevent erosive forces reaching back shore techniques include beach nourishment sand dune stabilisation historically coastal strategies heavily based static structures coastal areas otherwise reflect dynamic equilibrium armouring often unintended consequence moving problem another part coast soft options beach nourishment protect coastlines help restore natural dynamism although require repeated applications maintenance costs eventually require strategy change move seaward


cases seaward strategy adopted examples erosion include koge bay dk western scheldt estuary nl chatelaillon fr ebro delta sp ref name auto obvious downside strategy coastal erosion already widespread many coasts exceptional high tides storm surges result encroachment shore impinging human activity sea rises many coasts developed infrastructure along close shoreline unable accommodate erosion experience called coastal squeeze whereby ecological geomorphological zones would normally


dissipates throughout accumulated sediment additional vegetation new habitat although halosere strictly man made many natural processes contribute succession anthropogenic factors partially responsible formation since initial factor needed help start process succession construction techniques hard engineering methods groynes groyne mundesley norfolk uk groynes ert walls perpendicular coastline trap sedimentation longshore drift gradually create beach ongoing protection eliminating coastal erosion often made greenharts concrete rock wood material builds


downdrift side littoral drift predominantly one direction creating wider plentiful beach thereby protecting coast sand material filters absorbs wave energy however corresponding loss beach material updrift side requiring another groyne groynes protect beach storm driven waves placed close together create currents carry material offshore shapes groynes straight outwardly curved away opposite direction downdrift groynes cost effective require little maintenance one common defences however


energy waves back sea purpose often given recurved crest walls increased local turbulence thus increased entrainment sand sediment storms sea walls help longshore drift modern seawalls aim direct incident energy form sloping revetments resulting low reflected waves much reduced turbulence designs use porous designs rock concrete armour tetrapods seabees sheds xblocs etc flights steps beach access location seawall must consider swept prism beach profile consequences long term


beach recession amenity crest level including cost implications sea walls cause beaches dissipate presence also alters landscape trying protect modern examples found cronulla nsw blackpool lincolnshire wallasey sandwich kent seabee seawall buried back beach shingle crest level road kerb level sea walls typically cost per metre depending material height width per km depending material height width revetments revetments slanted upright blockades built parallel


coast usually towards back beach protect area beyond basic revetments consist timber slants possible rock infill waves break revetments dissipate absorb energy shoreline protected beach material held behind barriers revetments trap material may watertight covering slope completely porous allow water filter wave energy dissipated revetments significantly interfere transport longshore drift since wall absorbs energy instead


reflecting surf progressively erodes destroys revetment therefore maintenance ongoing determined structural material product quality rock armour rock armour large rocks placed sea edge using local material generally used absorb wave energy hold beach material although effective solution unpopular aesthetic reasons longshore drift hindered rock armour limited lifespan effective storm conditions reduces recreational values gabions boulders rocks wired mesh cages placed front areas vulnerable erosion sometimes cliffs


edges right angles beach ocean lands gabion water drains leaving sediment structure absorbs moderate amount wave energy gabions need securely tied protect structure downsides include wear rates visual intrusiveness offshore breakwater concrete blocks boulders sunk offshore alter wave direction filter wave tide energy waves break offshore therefore lose erosive power leads wider beaches absorb wave energy dolos replaced use concrete blocks


resistant wave action requires less concrete produce superior result similar concrete objects like dolos jack akmon xbloc tetrapod accropode cliff stabilization cliff stabilization accomplished drainage excess rainwater terracing planting wiring hold cliffs place entrance training walls training walls built constrain river creek discharges across sandy coastline walls stabilise deepen channel benefits navigation flood management river erosion water quality cause coastal erosion interrupting longshore drift one solution sand bypassing


system pump sand around training walls floodgates storm surge barriers floodgates introduced north sea flood prevent damage storm surges type natural disaster could harm area protect habitually open allow free passage close threat storm surge thames barrier example structure soft engineering methods '''ecosystem services delivered epibenthic bivalve reefs''' reefs provide coastal protection erosion control shoreline stabilization modify physical landscape ecosystem engineering thereby providing habitat


species facilitative interactions habitats tidal flat benthic communities seagrasses marshes beach replenishment beach replenishment nourishment involves importing sand elsewhere adding existing beach imported sand similar quality existing beach material meld natural local processes without adverse effects beach nourishment used combination groynes scheme requires repeated applications annual multi year cycle dune stabilisation stabilising dunes help protect beaches catching windblown sand increasing natural beach formation dune stabilisation sand dune management


employs public amenities car parks footpaths dutch ladders boardwalks reduce erosion removal sand humans noticeboards leaflets beach wardens explain visitors avoid damaging area beach areas closed public reduce damage fences allow sand traps create blowouts increase windblown sand capture plants ammophila marram grass bind sediment beach drainage beach drainage beach face dewatering lowers water table locally beneath beach face causes accretion sand drainage system beach watertables


important bearing deposition erosion across foreshore one study high watertable coincided accelerated beach erosion low watertable coincided pronounced aggradation foreshore lower watertable unsaturated beach face facilitates deposition reducing flow velocities backwash prolonging laminar flow beach saturated state backwash velocity accelerated addition groundwater seepage beach within effluent zone however case studies provide indisputable evidence positive results although cases overall positive performance reported long term monitoring undertaken frequency high


enough discriminate response high energy erosive events useful side effect system collected seawater relatively pure sand 's filtration effect water may discharged used oxygenate stagnant inland lagoons marinas used feed heat pumps desalination plants land based aquaculture aquariums swimming pools beach drainage systems installed many locations around world halt reverse erosion trends sand beaches twenty four beach drainage systems installed since denmark usa uk japan spain sweden france italy malaysia buffer


studied cyclone hit india villages surrounded mangrove forests encountered less damages villages n't protected mangroves costs costs installation operation vary due system length non linear cost elements pump flow rates sand permeability power costs soil conditions presence rock impermeable strata discharge arrangement filtered seawater utilization drainage design materials selection installation methods geographical considerations location logistics regional economic considerations local capabilities costs study requirements consent process monitoring coastal managers must compensate error uncertainty information regarding erosive


processes video based monitoring collect data continuously produce analyses shoreline processes event warning systems event warning systems tsunami warnings storm surge warnings used minimize human impact catastrophic events cause coastal erosion storm surge warnings help determine close floodgates wireless sensor networks aid monitoring shoreline mapping defining shoreline difficult task due dynamic nature intended application relevant mapping scale dependent context investigation generally coast comprises interface land sea


shoreline represented margin two investigators adopt use shoreline indicators represent true shoreline position shoreline indicator ref choice shoreline indicator primary consideration indicators must easily identified field aerial photography shoreline indicators may morphological features berm crest scarp edge vegetation line dune toe dune crest cliff bluff crest toe alternatively non morphological features may used water level high water line hwl mean high water line wet dry boundary physical water line figure


provides sketch spatial relationships commonly used shoreline indicators hwl h figure commonly used shoreline indicator visible field interpreted colour grey scale aerial photographs hwl represents landward extent recent high tide characterised change sand colour due repeated periodic inundation high tides hwl portrayed aerial photographs landward change colour grey tone importance application shoreline location changing position


time fundamental importance coastal scientists engineers managers shoreline monitoring campaigns provide information historic shoreline location movement predictions future change specifically position shoreline past present predicted future useful design coastal protection calibrate verify numerical models assess sea level rise map hazard zones regulate coastal development location shoreline also provides information regarding shoreline reorientation adjacent structures beach width volume rates


historical change data sources variety data sources available examining shoreline position however availability historical data limited many coastal sites choice data source largely limited available site given time shoreline mapping techniques become automated frequent changes technology prevented emergence one standard mapping approach data source associated method capabilities shortcomings historical maps event study requires shoreline position aerial photographs location poor


photographic coverage historical maps provide alternative many errors associated early maps charts errors may associated scale datum changes distortions uneven shrinkage stretching creases tears folds different surveying standards different publication standards projection errors severity errors depends accuracy map physical changes occurred made oldest reliable source shoreline data united states dates us coast geodetic survey national ocean service sheets dates early mid th century united kingdom many pre maps


charts deemed inaccurate founding ordnance survey improved mapping accuracy aerial photographs aerial photographs began used provide topographical data provide good database compilation shoreline change maps aerial photographs commonly used data source many coastal areas extensive aerial photo coverageaerial photographs generally provide good spatial coverage however temporal coverage site specific interpretation shoreline position subjective given dynamic nature coastal environment combined various distortions inherent aerial photographs lead


significant error levels minimisation errors discussed object space displacements figure example relief displacement objects ground level displaced outwards centre photograph displacement becomes evident near edges conditions outside camera cause objects image appear displaced true ground position conditions may include ground relief camera tilt atmospheric refraction relief displacement prominent photographing variety elevations situation causes objects sea level displaced outward centre


optical axis camera perfectly perpendicular ground surface thereby creating vertical photograph unfortunately often case virtually aerial photographs experience tilt situation scale image larger upward side tilt axis smaller downward side many coastal researchers consider work radial lens distortion lens distortion varies function radial distance iso centre photograph meaning centre image relatively distortion free


angle view increases distortion significant source error earlier aerial photography distortion impossible correct without knowing details lens used capture image overlapping images used resolve errors shoreline delineation dynamic nature coasts compromises shoreline mapping uncertainty arises given time position shoreline influenced immediate tidal effects variety long term effects relative sea level rise along shore littoral sediment movement affects accuracy


computed historic shoreline position predictions hwl commonly used shoreline indicator many errors associated using wet dry line proxy hwl shoreline errors largest concern short term migration wet dry line interpretation wet dry line photograph measurement interpreted line position systematic errors migration wet dry line arise tidal seasonal changes erosion may cause wet dry line migrate field investigations shown changes minimised using summertime data


furthermore error bar significantly reduced using longest record reliable data calculate erosion rates errors may arise due difficulty measuring single line photograph example pen line nbsp mm thick translates error scale photograph beach profiling surveys beach profiling surveys typically repeated regular intervals along coast order measure short term daily annual variations shoreline position beach volume beach profiling accurate source information however measurements generally


additional mappable data remotely sensed data sources include multispectral hyperspectral imaging microwave sensors global positioning system gps airborne light detection ranging technology lidar remote sensing techniques cost effective reduce manual error reduce subjectivity conventional field techniques remote sensing relatively new concept limiting extensive historical observations coastal morphology observations must quantified coupling remotely sensed data sources information detailing historic shoreline position archived sources video analysis video analysis provides quantitative cost effective continuous long term monitoring beaches advancement coastal video systems twenty first century enabled


extraction large amounts geophysical data images data describes coastal morphology surface currents wave parameters main advantage video analysis lies ability reliably quantify parameters high resolution space time coverage highlights potential effective coastal monitoring system aid coastal zone management interesting case studies carried using video analysis one group used video based argus coastal imaging system monitor quantify regional scale coastal response sand nourishment construction world first gold coast artificial surfing reef


australia another assessed added value high resolution video observations short term predictions near shore hydrodynamic morphological processes temporal scales meters kilometres days seasons video analysis gives coastal zone managers opportunity obtain bathymetry used obtain inter tidal topographies sub tidal bathymetries measure coastal zone resilience available beach volume well sub tidal bar configuration video based depth estimations applied micro meso tidal environments duck nc highly energetic wave climates macro tidal regime porthtowan united kingdom latter


coastal sediment supply longshore transport sand dune stabilization submersion references citations sources year publisher cambridge university press isbn reading title rock manual use rock hydraulic engineering publisher ciria year isbn year publisher thomas telford isbn pages external links http wwwcoastalwikiorg coastal wiki http wwwdeltaworksorg deltaworks online coastal defenses netherlands https webarchiveorg web http wwwpubliciastateedu sws cp coastalpolicyhtml coastal zone management policy politics class http wwwsafecoastorg safecoast knowledge exchange coastal flooding climate change north sea region https webarchiveorg web http wwwencoraeu coastalwiki main page encora coastal wiki http wwwncdcnoaagov oa esb goal ecosystems file users government crm social economic benefits coastal resource management noaa socioeconomics website initiative http wwwcrcuriedu coastal resources center


'''security policy''' definition means ''be secure'' system organization entity organization addresses constraints behavior members well constraints imposed adversaries mechanisms doors locks keys walls systems security policy addresses constraints functions flow among constraints access external systems adversaries including programs access data people significance important secure important sure security policy

Applied science
Public administration
Security policy


enforced mechanisms strong organized methodologies risk assessment strategies assure completeness security policies assure completely enforced complex systems information systems policies decomposed sub policies facilitate allocation security mechanisms enforce sub policies however practice pitfalls easy simply go directly sub policies essentially rules operation dispense top level policy gives false sense rules operation address overall definition


programming language theory '' 'semantics''' field concerned rigorous mathematical study meaning programming languages evaluating meaning syntactically valid strings defined specific programming language showing computation involved case evaluation would syntactically invalid strings result would non computation semantics describes processes computer follows executing program specific language shown describing relationship input output program explanation program

Formal science
Computer science
Programming languages
Program semantics


'''denotational semantics''' whereby phrase language interpreted ' 'denotation'' ie conceptual meaning thought abstractly denotations often mathematical objects inhabiting mathematical space requirement practical necessity denotations described using form mathematical notation turn formalized denotational metalanguage example denotational semantics functional languages often translate language domain theory denotational semantic descriptions also serve compositional translations programming language denotational


metalanguage used basis designing compilers '''operational semantics''' whereby execution language described directly rather translation operational semantics loosely corresponds interpretation although implementation language interpreter generally mathematical formalism operational semantics may define abstract machine secd machine give meaning phrases describing transitions induce states machine alternatively pure lambda calculus operational semantics defined via syntactic transformations phrases language '''axiomatic semantics''' whereby one gives


two layers macro microsemantics predefining three semantic entities actions data yielders simplify specification '''algebraic semantics''' form axiomatic semantics based algebraic laws describing reasoning program semantics formal manner also supports denotational semantics operational semantics '''attribute grammars''' define systems systematically compute metadata called ''attributes'' various cases language 's syntax attribute grammars understood denotational semantics target language simply original language enriched attribute annotations aside formal semantics attribute grammars also