self destructive government behaviour alienated citizens costly vietnam war alienated us citizens government pictured operation arc light us bombing operation call citizens efficient administration replace ineffective wasteful bureaucracy public administration would distance politics answer call remain effective elected officials supported reforms hoover commission chaired university chicago professor louis brownlow examine reorganization government brownlow subsequently founded public administration service pas university organization provided consulting services levels government


concurrently world war ii whole concept public administration expanded include policymaking analysis thus study administrative policy making analysis introduced enhanced government decision making bodies later human factor became predominant concern emphasis study public administration period witnessed development inclusion social sciences knowledge predominantly psychology anthropology sociology study public administration jeong ref name jeongchun henceforth emergence scholars fritz morstein marx book ''the elements public administration''


paul h appleby ''policy administration'' frank marini 'towards new public administration' others contributed positively endeavors late yet another generation public administration theorists began displace last new theory came called new public management proposed david osborne ted gaebler book ''reinventing government'' new model advocated use private sector style models organizational ideas values improve efficiency service orientation public sector clinton administration vice president al gore


senior executives user pay models npm treats individuals customers clients private sector sense rather citizens critics argue new public management concept treating people customers rather citizens inappropriate borrowing private sector model businesses see customers means end profit rather proprietors government owners opposed merely customers business patrons new public management people viewed economic units democratic participants hazard linking mba business administration


economic employer based model closely public administration governmental public good sector nevertheless npm model one four described elmore including generic model still widely accepted multiple levels government eg municipal state province federal many oecd nations late janet robert denhardt proposed new public services model response dominance npm successor npm digital era governance focusing themes reintegrating government responsibilities needs based holism executing duties cursive ways digitalization exploiting transformational capabilities modern


digital storage one example deployment deg openforumcomau australian non profit edemocracy project invites politicians senior public servants academics business people key stakeholders engage high level policy debate another example brunei 's information department deploying social media technology improving digital governance process ref name omar digital era governance social media case information department brunei employing recent technologies improved digital governance pp igi global ref book chapter work concludes digital dividends secured effective application social media


within framework digital era governance ref name another new public service model called new public governance approach includes centralization power increased number role influence partisan political staff personal politicization appointments senior public service assumption public service promiscuously partisan government day mid goal community programs united states often represented terms independent living community integration inclusion community participation deinstitutionalization civil rights thus public policy public


administration apply citizens inclusive disability however categorical state systems strengthened united states racino press efforts made introduce disability content public policy curricula disability public policy administration distinct fields right behaviorists also dominated intervention practice generally province public administration recent years believing opposition generic public policy termed ecological systems theory late urie bronfenbrenner increasingly public policy academics practitioners utilized theoretical concepts


political economy explain policy outcomes success failure reform efforts persistence suboptimal outcomes core branches academia field public administration consists number sub fields scholars proposed number different sets sub fields one proposed models uses five pillars ref name shafritz organizational theory public administration study structure governmental entities many particulars inculcated ethics public administration serves normative approach decision making policy analysis serves empirical approach decision making public budgeting


activity within government seeks allocate scarce resources among unlimited demands human resource management house structure ensures public service staffing done unbiased ethical values based manner basic functions hr system employee benefits employee health care compensation many eg human rights americans disabilities act executives managing hr director key departmental personnel also part public administration system decision making models given array duties public administrators find performing professional administrator might refer theoretical


framework might work indeed many public private administrative scholars devised modified decision making models niskanen 's budget maximizing professor william niskanen proposed rational choice variation called budget maximizing model claimed rational bureaucrats universally seek increase budgets units enhance stature thereby contributing state growth increased public expenditure niskanen served president reagan 's council economic advisors model underpinned touted curtailed public spending increased privatization however budgeted expenditures growing deficit


get benefit paying larger welfare checks millions low income citizens serve bureaucrats' goals accordingly one might instead expect jurisdiction seek budget increases defense security purposes place programming refer back reagan dunleavy 's bureau shaping model accounts alleged decrease size government spending fact decrease domestic entitlement programming financially deemphasized military research personnel academic field university programs preparing students careers public administration typically offer master public administration mpa


degree although universities public administration awarded united states academic field public administration draws heavily political science administrative law mpa programs include economics courses give students background microeconomic issues markets rationing mechanisms etc macroeconomic issues eg national debt scholars john rohr write long history behind constitutional legitimacy government bureaucracy europe notably britain germany divergence field disciplines traced continental university curriculum formally official academic distinctions


made respectively goals field public administration related democratic values improving equality justice security efficiency effectiveness public services non profit venue business administration hand primarily concerned expanding market share generating revenue earning profit field built concepts accountability governance decentralization clientele concepts often ill defined typologies often ignore certain aspects concepts specific term public management refers ordinary routine typical management aims achieve public good


definitions public management refers private sector market driven perspective operation government typically involves putting senior executives performance contracts rather tenured positions instituting pay performance systems executives creating revenue generating agencies latter view often called new public management npm advocates new public management represents reform attempt emphasizes professional nature public administration npm advocates aim replace academic moral disciplinary emphasis traditional public administration professional focus theorists advocate bright line differentiation professional field


related academic disciplines like political science sociology remains interdisciplinary nature one public administration scholar donald kettl argues public administration sits disciplinary backwater last generation scholars sought save replace fields study like implementation public management formal bureaucratic theory ref name h net kettl states public administration subfield within political science struggling define role within discipline ref name h net notes two problems public administration seemed methodologically lag behind field 's theoretical work often seems


define indeed interesting recent ideas public administration come outside field ref name h net public administration theory domain discussions meaning purpose government role bureaucracy supporting democratic governments budgets governance public affairs takes place recent years public administration theory periodically connoted heavy orientation toward critical theory postmodern philosophical notions government governance power however many public administration scholars support classic definition term emphasizing constitutionality public service bureaucratic forms organization hierarchical


government comparative public administration comparative public administration cpa defined study administrative systems comparative fashion study public administration countries several issues hampered development comparative public administration including major differences western countries developing countries lack curriculum sub field public administration programs lack success developing theoretical models scientifically tested even though cpa weakly formed field whole sub field public administration attempt cross cultural


public administration woodrow wilson commented study saying like principles civil liberty everywhere fostering like methods government comparative studies ways means government enable us offer suggestions practicably combine openness vigor administration governments ready docility serious well sustained public criticism approved worthy ranked among highest fruitful great departments political study financial state powering countries began stabilize toward decline


cold war field cpa began diminish ref name referencea resulting decline caused lack expansion study making irrelevant comparative public administration lacks curriculum prevented becoming major field study lack understanding basic concepts build field 's foundation ultimately led lack use example william waugh professor georgia state university stated comparative studies difficult necessity provide enough information sociopolitical context national administrative structures processes readers understand


differences similarities ref name ref also asserts although sizable literature comparative public administration scattered dated ref name waugh argues public administration requires understanding different administrative structures comparison different public administration models literature build base knowledge scattered often hard obtain lack ill formed use comparative public administration detrimental many countries including united states fred riggs political scientist states comparisons united states also problematic tendency


many american scholars presume american organizational structures processes models nations emulate failing early developmental administrative studies ref name claims misuse misapplication comparative public administration led underdeveloped development better use comparative public administration could lead better understanding national security strategy used battle hearts minds ref name ref tried assimilate arab islamic audience push american values democracy attempt stop terrorism


fact lack comparison public level ineffective backfired ref name lack willingness understand culture led tension middle east ref name conclusion events enough resources directed study comparative public administration basic understanding sociopolitical structure society culture key component comparative public administration despite set backs examples application well formed comparative public administration working world today one comparison


middle east noted properly incorporate domestically clinton administration focus residential energy consumption united states elevated high level inauguration million solar roofs initiative department energy doe sponsored workshops developed pool existing federal lending financing options worked partners solar building industries remove market barriers strengthen grassroots demand solar technologies ref name ref grassroots demand may come comparative knowledge concluded united states residential commercial


mpa mapa clearly distinct mba mpa often emphasizes substantially different ethical sociological criteria pertain administering government programs public good key criteria business managers typically aim maximize profit share price mpa related similar graduate level government studies programs including master arts programs public affairs public policy political science mpa degrees may likely include program emphases policy analysis techniques topical focuses study international affairs


opposed degrees tend focus constitutional issues separation powers administrative law contracting government problems governance power participatory democracy mpa degrees may oriented towards training students undertake public service work tasks whereas programs may academic theoretical focus universities offer masters public administration degree eg carleton university ottawa canada university kerala india universities offer mid career master 's programs sometimes called mc mpa taken part time often outside


business hours public servants public service managers working full time community programs may offer internships continuing education credits one example maxwell school 's mid career masters syracuse university launched robert iversen doctoral degrees two types doctoral degrees public administration doctor public administration dpa phd public administration dpa applied research doctoral degree field public administration focusing practice public administration theoretical aspects dpa requires coursework beyond masters level


fields period public administration existed independent discipline scholars contributing field came economics sociology management political science administrative law related fields recently scholars public administration public policy contributed important studies theories notable institutions o'neill school public environmental affairs indiana university university georgia school public international affairs leiden university blavatnik school government erasmus university rotterdam hertie school berlin harvard kennedy school government london school economics munk school global affairs public policy paul


h nitze school advanced international studies sciences po paris university warwick international organizations number international public administration organizations commonwealth association public administration management capam diverse includes member states commonwealth india uk nauru biennial conference brings together ministers public service top public officials leading scholars oldest organization international institute administrative sciences iias based brussels belgium iias worldwide platform providing space exchanges promote knowledge good practices


training administrators managers worldwide scholarly association field public management egpa lagpa agpa regional sub entities iias another body international committee us based network schools public policy affairs administration naspaa developed number relationships around world include sub regional national forums like clad inpae nispacee apsa aspa center latin american administration development clad based caracas venezuela regional network schools public administration set governments latin


america oldest region institute founding member played central role organizing inter american network public administration education inpae created regional network schools unique organization composed institutions north latin america caribbean working public administration policy analysis members top research schools various countries throughout hemisphere nispacee network experts scholars practitioners work field public administration central


europe eastern europe including russian federation caucasus central asia us public administration political science associations like naspaa american political science association apsa american society public administration aspa organizations helped create fundamental establishment modern public administration eastern regional organization public administration eropa state membership based organization open organizations individuals headquartered philippines centres membership organized around asia pacific region eropa organizes annual conferences publishes journal ''asian review public administration'' arpa number


centres region assists networking experts members public management public management approach government administration non profit administration resembles draws private sector management business techniques approaches business approaches often aim maximize efficiency effectiveness provide improved customer service contrast drawn study public administration emphasizes social cultural drivers government many contend eg graham allison charles goodsell makes different private sectorref proposes positive negative definitions public management positive


approach praxeological ana rightful process public service citizens sake following generations good strengthening mutual relationships competitiveness national economy practical increase social utility effective allocation public resorurces negative approach fiction whose aim possibility temporal permanent appropriation public goods implementation particular interests narrow social group studying teaching public management widely practiced developed nations organizations many entities study public management particular various countries including us american society


public administration indiana university bloomington canada http wwwipacca institute public administration canada http wwwobservatoireenapca observatoire de l'administtation publique various projects federation canadian municipalities infrastructure canada uk newcastle business school warwick business school london school economics university college london uk local democracy project london health observatory netherlands erasmus university rotterdam australia http wwwipaaorgau institute public administration australia france cole nationale d'administration sciences po school public affairs inet national institute territorial studies institute public


management territorial governance aix en provence aix marseille university belgium http sockuleuvenbe io english public governance institute ku leuven germany german university administrative sciences speyer hertie school governance bachelor master https wwwzude pair politics administration international relations pair zeppelin university friedrichshafen bachelor master public policy management executive public management master university potsdam switzerland university geneva swiss graduate school public administration idheap italy sda bocconi school management graduate business school bocconi university milan


italy cyprus cyprus international institute management ciim ireland institute public administration dublin south africa regenesys business school regenesys school public management mancosa comparative public management government performance auditing examines efficiency effectiveness two governments see also administration government administrative discretion administrative law budgeting bureaucracy civil society community services max weber doctor public administration list public administration journals list public administration schools master public administration municipal government official politics professional administration public administration theory public policy policy studies public policy


paper sage publications notes references reading dubois hfw fattore g 'definitions typologies public administration research case decentralization' international journal public administration jeong chun hai ibrahim fadzlina nawi ''principles public administration introduction'' kuala lumpur karisma publications smith kevin b licari michael j ''public administration power politics fourth branch government'' la roxbury pub co white jay guy b adams ''research public administration reflections theory practice'' donald menzel harvey white eds ''the


state public administration issues challenges opportunity'' new york e sharpe public management janicke ''state failure'' cambridge polity press kanter r ''the change masters corporate entrepreneurs work'' hemel hempstead unwin paperbacks lane r e ''the market experience'' new york cambridge university press lynn l e jr public management art science profession chatham house cq press lynn l e jr public management old new routledge raczkowski k public management theory practice springer external links http wwwthegovmonitorcom gov monitor public administration policy


public sector website http wwwpatheoryorg public administration theory network pat net international network professionals concerned advancement public administration theory https webarchiveorg web http wwwunpanorg united nations public administration network unpan body aims establish internet based network links regional national institutions devoted public administration https webarchiveorg web http wwwnaspaaorg national association schools public affairs administration http wwwipmnnet international public management network http wwwipma hrorg international public management association human resources https webarchiveorg web https wwwaspanetorg american society public administration https wwwyourarticlelibrarycom public administration public administration definition nature dimension public administration definition nature dimension management education public policy subfields political science


central park manhattan first landscaped urban park united states '''landscape design''' independent profession design art tradition practiced landscape designers combining nature culture contemporary practice landscape design bridges space landscape architecture garden design design scope landscape design focuses integrated master landscape planning property specific garden design landscape elements plants within practical aesthetic horticultural environmental sustainability also components landscape design often divided hardscape design softscape

Applied science
Architecture and design
Landscape design


design landscape designers often collaborate related disciplines architecture civil engineering surveying landscape contracting artisan specialties design projects may involve two different professional roles landscape design landscape architecture landscape design typically involves artistic composition artisanship horticultural finesse expertise emphasis detailed site involvement conceptual stages final construction landscape architecture focuses urban planning city regional parks civic corporate landscapes large scale interdisciplinary projects delegation contractors completing designs significant overlap talent skill two roles depending


education licensing experience professional landscape designers landscape architects practice landscape design design approach autumn colours stourhead gardens landscape design phase consists research gathering ideas setting plan design factors include objective qualities climate microclimates topography orientation site drainage groundwater recharge municipal resource building codes soils irrigation human vehicular access circulation recreational amenities ie sports water furnishings lighting native plant habitat botany present property safety security construction detailing measurable considerations design factors also include subjective qualities


genius loci special site qualities emphasize client 's needs preferences desirable plants elements retain site modify replace may available borrowed scenery beyond artistic composition perspectives looking upon observing within spatial development definition using lines sense scale balance symmetry plant palettes artistic focal points enjoyment innumerable design factors considerations brought complex process designing garden beautiful well functioning thrives time coming practice online landscape


design allows professional landscapers remotely design plan sites manipulation two dimensional images without ever physically visiting location due frequent lack non visual supplementary data soil assessments ph tests online landscaping necessarily must focus incorporating plants tolerant across many diverse soil conditions training andr le n tre historically landscape designers trained apprenticing andr le n tre apprenticed father designing gardens versailles accomplished masters field titular name varying reputation paramount career professional section


garden designers europe americas went name 'landscape gardener' distinct classification landscape architect created educational licensing test requirements using title legally beatrix farrand sole woman founding group refused title preferring landscape gardener matching client technical needs project appropriate practitioner talent legal qualifications experienced skills surmounts title nomenclature institutional education landscape design appeared early th century time became available various levels ornamental horticulture programs design components offered


community college universities within schools agriculture horticulture beginning offer garden landscape design certificates degrees departments landscape architecture located within university schools architecture environmental design undergraduate graduate degrees offered specialties minors available horticultural botany horticulture natural resources landscape engineering construction management fine applied arts landscape design history traditionally hand drawn drawings documented design position features construction landscape design software frequently used routes training informal apprenticeships practicing landscape designers landscape


architects landscape contractors gardeners nurseries garden centers docent programs botanical public gardens since landscape designer title college degree licensing requirements used wide range sophistication aesthetic talent technical expertise specialty strengths responsibly matched specific client project requirements gardening many landscape designers interest involvement gardening personally professionally gardens dynamic static construction planting completed ways 'never done' involvement landscape management direction


ongoing garden direction evolution care depend professional 's client 's needs inclinations interrelated landscape disciplines overlap services offered titles landscape designer professional gardener see also landscape design software concrete landscape curbing landscape assessment landscape planning space landscape design references br environmental design gardening


dioscorides ''materia medica'' copy arabic describes medicinal features various plants '''pharmacognosy''' study plants natural substances possible sources drugs american society pharmacognosy defines pharmacognosy study physical chemical biochemical biological properties drugs drug substances potential drugs drug substances natural origin well search new drugs natural sources description word pharmacognosy derived two greek words '' '' pharmakon drug ''gnosis'' knowledge latin verb ''cognosco'' ''con'' 'with' ''gn sc '' 'know'

Applied science
Medicine and health
Pharmaceutical sciences
Pharmacognosy


cognate greek verb ''gi g n sko'' meaning 'i know perceive' meaning 'to conceptualize' 'to recognize' term pharmacognosy used first time austrian physician schmidt crr anotheus seydler work titled ''analecta pharmacognostica'' originally th century beginning th century pharmacognosy used define branch medicine commodity sciences ''warenkunde'' german deals drugs crude unprepared form crude drugs dried unprepared material plant animal mineral origin used medicine study


materials name ''pharmakognosie'' first developed german speaking areas europe language areas often used older term ''materia medica'' taken works galen dioscorides german term ' 'drogenkunde'' science crude drugs also used synonymously late beginning th century subject developed mainly botanical side particularly concerned description identification drugs whole state powder form branches pharmacognosy still fundamental importance particularly botanical products widely available dietary


supplements us natural health products canada quality control purposes pharmacopoeial protocols related health regulatory frameworks time development areas research enormously expanded subject advent st century brought renaissance pharmacognosy conventional botanical approach broadened molecular metabolomic levels addition previously mentioned definition american society pharmacognosy also defines pharmacognosy study natural product molecules typically secondary metabolites useful medicinal ecological gustatory functional properties similarly mission


pharmacognosy institute university illinois chicago involves plant based plant related natural health products benefit human health definitions encompassing drawing broad spectrum biological subjects including botany ethnobotany marine biology microbiology herbal medicine chemistry biotechnology phytochemistry pharmacology pharmaceutics clinical pharmacy pharmacy practice medical ethnobotany study traditional uses plants medicinal purposes ethnopharmacology study pharmacological qualities traditional medicinal substances phytotherapy study medicinal use plant extracts phytochemistry study chemicals derived plants including identification new drug candidates


derived plant sources zoopharmacognosy process animals self medicate selecting using plants soils insects treat prevent disease marine pharmacognosy study chemicals derived marine organisms biological background carotenoids primrose produce bright red yellow orange shades plants produce chemical compounds part normal metabolic activities phytochemicals divided primary metabolites sugars fats found plants secondary metabolites compounds found smaller range plants serving specific functions ref name meskin p ref example secondary


variety organisms including bacteria fungi plants animals part group natural products also called secondary metabolites many alkaloids purified crude extracts acid base extraction many alkaloids toxic organisms polyphenols phenolics compounds contain phenol rings anthocyanins give grapes purple color isoflavones phytoestrogens soy tannins give tea astringency phenolics glycosides molecules sugar bound non carbohydrate moiety usually small organic molecule glycosides play numerous important roles living organisms many


plants store chemicals form inactive glycosides activated enzyme hydrolysis causes sugar part broken making chemical available use terpenes large diverse class organic compounds produced variety plants particularly conifers often strong smelling thus may protective function major components resins turpentine produced resins terpenes modified chemically oxidation rearrangement carbon skeleton resulting compounds generally referred ''terpenoids'' terpenes


terpenoids primary constituents essential oils many types plants flowers essential oils used widely natural flavor additives food fragrances perfumery traditional alternative medicines aromatherapy synthetic variations derivatives natural terpenes terpenoids also greatly expand variety aromas used perfumery flavors used food additives fragrance rose lavender due monoterpenes carotenoids produce shades red yellow orange pumpkin corn tomatoes natural products chemistry digoxin purified cardiac glycoside


extracted foxglove plant ''digitalis lanata'' digoxin widely used treatment various heart conditions typical protocol isolate pure chemical agent natural origin bioassay guided fractionation meaning step step separation extracted components based differences physicochemical properties assessing biological activity followed next round separation assaying typically work initiated given crude drug formulation typically prepared solvent extraction natural material deemed active particular ''in vitro'' assay end goal work hand


identify one scores hundreds compounds responsible observed ''in vitro'' activity path end fairly straightforward fractionate crude extract eg solvent partitioning chromatography test fractions thereby generated ''in vitro'' assays repeat steps pure active compounds obtained determine structure active compound typically using spectroscopic methods ''in vitro'' activity necessarily translate biological activity humans living systems herbal past countries asia africa


population may rely traditional medicine including herbal medicine primary health care native american cultures also relied traditional medicine ceremonial smoking tobacco potlatch ceremonies herbalism name prior european colonization knowledge traditional medicinal practices disappearing particularly amazon worldwide research pharmacology well medicine traditional medicines ancient herbal medicines often translated modern remedies anti malarial group drugs called artemisinin isolated ''artemisia annua'' herb herb known chinese medicine treat fever


however found plant extracts antimalarial activity leading nobel prize winning discovery artemisinin see also bioprospecting herbalism pharmacognosy reviews references external links pharmacy


clinical chemistry analyzer hand shows size '''clinical chemistry''' also known '''chemical pathology''' '''clinical biochemistry''' '''medical biochemistry''' area chemistry generally concerned analysis bodily fluids diagnostic therapeutic purposes applied form biochemistry confused medicinal chemistry involves basic research drug development discipline originated late th century use simple chemical reaction tests various components blood urine many decades since techniques applied science technology advanced

Applied science
Medicine and health
Clinical laboratory sciences
Clinical biochemistry


including use measurement enzyme activities spectrophotometry electrophoresis immunoassay many blood tests clinical urine tests extensive diagnostic capabilities current laboratories highly automated accommodate high workload typical hospital laboratory tests performed closely monitored quality controlled biochemical tests come chemical pathology performed kind body fluid mostly serum plasma serum yellow watery part blood left blood allowed clot blood cells removed


easily done centrifugation packs denser blood cells platelets bottom centrifuge tube leaving liquid serum fraction resting packed cells initial step analysis recently included instruments operate integrated system principle plasma essence serum obtained centrifuging blood ''without'' clotting plasma obtained centrifugation ''before'' clotting occurs type test required dictates type sample used large medical laboratory accept samples different kinds


tests even largest laboratories rarely tests must referred labs large array tests categorised sub specialities general routine chemistry commonly ordered blood chemistries eg liver kidney function tests special chemistry elaborate techniques electrophoresis manual testing methods clinical endocrinology study hormones diagnosis endocrine disorders toxicology study drugs abuse chemicals therapeutic drug monitoring measurement therapeutic medication levels optimize dosage urinalysis chemical analysis urine


wide array diseases along fluids csf effusions fecal analysis mostly detection gastrointestinal disorders tests common clinical chemistry tests include electrolytes sodium potassium chloride bicarbonate renal kidney function tests creatinine blood urea nitrogen liver function tests total protein serum albumin globulins g ratio albumin globulin protein electrophoresis urine protein bilirubin direct indirect total aspartate transaminase ast alanine transaminase alt gamma glutamyl transpeptidase ggt alkaline phosphatase alp cardiac markers h fabp troponin myoglobin ck mb b type natriuretic peptide bnp minerals calcium magnesium phosphate potassium blood disorders iron transferrin tibc vitamin b vitamin


folic acid miscellaneous glucose c reactive protein glycated hemoglobin hba c uric acid arterial blood gases h sup sup p sub co sub sub sub p sub sub sub sub adrenocorticotropic hormone acth toxicological screening forensic toxicology drugs toxins neuron specific enolase nse fecal occult blood test fobt panel tests set commonly ordered tests combined panel basic metabolic panel bmp tests sodium potassium chloride bicarbonate blood urea nitrogen bun creatinine glucose calcium comprehensive metabolic panel cmp tests bmp plus total protein albumin alkaline phosphatase alp alanine amino transferase alt aspartate amino transferase ast bilirubin see also reference ranges common


blood tests medical technologist notes references clinical biochemistry journal bibliography external links http wwwaaccorg american association clinical chemistry http wwwmsaclorg association mass spectrometry applications clinical lab msacl clinical pathology pathology


'''''clinical biochemistry''''' peer reviewed scientific journal covering analytical clinical investigation laboratory tests humans used diagnosis molecular biology genetics prognosis treatment therapy monitoring disease discipline clinical biochemistry official journal canadian society clinical chemists abstracting indexing journal abstracted indexed biosis chemical abstracts current contents life sciences embase medline scopus article categories journal publishes following types articles cited articles according scopus following three articles


cited often times baby wash products found contain cannabinoid immunoassay researchers university north carolina published article clinical biochemistry found baby wash products could cause false drug test results newborn drug screening significant implications healthcare legal domains occasion resulting involvement social services false child abuse allegations accuracy screening results therefore essential research highlights reasons false positive cannabinoid thc screening results may occurred researchers identified commonly used soap wash


'''podiatry''' '''podiatric medicine''' branch medicine devoted study diagnosis medical surgical treatment disorders foot ankle lower extremity term ''podiatry'' came use early th century united states used worldwide including countries united kingdom australia canada ref name nyspmaorg http wwwnyspmaorg new york state podiatric medical association nyspma retrieved ref doctor podiatric medicine dpm podiatrist healthcare professional diagnoses treats conditions affecting foot

Applied science
Medicine and health
Podiatry


medicine three year long residency including emergency medicine orthopedic surgery general surgery anesthesia radiology pathology infectious disease endocrinology sports medicine physical therapy biomechanics geriatrics internal medicinecritical care cardiology vascular surgery psychiatric behavioral health neurology pediatrics dermatology pain management wound care primary care podiatry practiced specialty many countries many english speaking countries older title '''chiropodist''' may used clinicians confused chiropractics unrelated australia graduates recognised academic programs register podiatry board australia podiatrist


additional recognised training may also receive endorsement prescribe administer restricted medications seek specialist registration podiatric surgeon many non english speaking countries europe title used may '''podologue''' french '''pod logo''' spanish italian level scope practice podiatry vary among countries history professional care feet existence ancient egypt evidenced bas relief carvings entrance ankmahor 's tomb dating bc work hands feet depicted corns calluses described hippocrates recognized need


physically reduce hard skin followed removal cause invented skin scrapers purpose original scalpels turn th century chiropodists known podiatrists separate organized medicine independently licensed physicians treated feet ankles related leg structures lewis durlacherwho appointed surgeon chiropodist british royal household one first people call protected profession records king france employing personal podiatrist napoleon united states president abraham lincoln suffered


greatly feet chose chiropodist named isachar zacharie cared president feet also sent president lincoln confidential missions confer leaders confederacy us civil war first society chiropodists known podiatrists established new york still operates today nyspma ref name nyspmaorg first school opened one year later british established society london foot hospital school added australia professional associations appeared onwards first


american journal appeared followed uk journal australians introduced training centre well professional journal podiatry high paying specialty listed ''forbes'' th best paid profession united states median annual podiatry salary us according us bureau labor statistics podiatric sports medicine sports podiatry covers following two areas foot lower limb chronic overuse injuries mechanical performance enhancement minimise injury maximise efficiency


western australia master podiatric practice la trobe university australia currently exist two levels professional accreditation professional privilege general podiatrist specialist podiatric surgeon current lobbying specialties recognised australia podopediatrics diabetes high risk musculoskeletal sports podiatry australian podiatrists able practise abroad qualifications recognised commonwealth countries general podiatrists australia choose use title doctor dr dr protected title australia use unrestricted however title must


used accordance advertising guidelines advertising guidelines regulated health services jointly developed national boards section national law section national law regulates advertising regulated health services registration regulation australian podiatrists must register podiatry board australia podiatry board australia responsible regulation recognition podiatrists podiatric surgeons assessing foreign trained registrants conjunction australian new zealand podiatry accreditation council anzpac podiatry board australia recognizes pathways attain specialist registration podiatric


surgeon fellowship australasian college podiatric surgeons doctor podiatric surgery university western australia eligibility fellowship australasian college podiatric surgeons board approved november accredited doctor podiatric surgery program study offered university western australia providing qualification purpose specialist registration podiatric surgeon education training entry undergraduate podiatric medicine degrees done completion year certificate australian tertiary admissions rank atar cut scores


universities admissions centre uac generally range dependent popularity intake podiatric medical school prospective students also mature age apply direct university instead going uac uwa dpm degree admission requirements completion uwa bachelor 's degree equivalent minimum gpa recent three years fte valid study suitable gamsat score interview dpm applications handled via university english language competency australian podiatrists complete undergraduate degree


surgical procedural techniques partial total nail avulsions matricectomy cryotherapy wound debridement enucleation suturing cutaneous electro surgical procedures theoretical understanding procedures performed orthopaedic podiatric surgeons australian podiatric surgeons specialist podiatrists training advanced medicine advanced pharmacology training foot surgery podiatrists wishing pursue specialisation podiatric surgery must meet requirements fellowship australasian college podiatric surgeons first complete degree years includes years didactic study years clinical experience following master 's degree must


completed focus biomechanics medicine surgery general surgery advanced pharmacology advanced medical imaging clinical pathology qualify status registrar australasian college podiatric surgeons following surgical training podiatric surgeon years rotations within medical surgeons' disciplines overseas clinical rotations passing oral written exams registrars may qualify fellowship status fellows given http wwwcomlawgovau comlaw legislation legislativeinstrument nsf cd feb cca f file podiatric guidelinespdf commonwealth accreditation health insurance act recognised providers ''professional attention'' purposes health insurance rebates australian podiatric medical schools currently nine universities


australia plus one new zealand offering varying degrees podiatric medicine bachelor podiatry podiatric medicine bpod masters podiatric medicine mpod doctor podiatric medicine dpm dpm master level degree podiatry schools accredited australian new zealand podiatry accreditation council anzpac anzpac independent body comprising members consisting podiatry registration boards australia new zealand board management comprises registered podiatrists nominated registration boards nominees professional associations australasian podiatry council podiatry new zealand nominees educational institutions offering


podiatry programs community representation anzpac assigned accreditation functions podiatry board australia national registration accreditation scheme health professions also two podiatry schools currently developed australian catholic university university ballarat following universities offering podiatry university western australia charles sturt university la trobe university university western sydney university south australia university newcastle australia queensland university technology central queensland university southern cross university auckland university technology new zealand prescribing scheduled medicines referral rights


considerable variation state laws regarding prescribing rights australian podiatrists registered podiatrists state territory able use local anaesthesia minor surgical techniques states allow suitably qualified podiatrists privileges recent legislative changes allow registered podiatrists podiatric surgeons endorsement scheduled medicines victoria western australia queensland south australia new south wales prescribe relevant schedule poisons states western australia south australia podiatrists master 's degrees podiatry extensive training pharmacology authorised prescribe schedule


medicines australian health practitioner regulatory agency queensland fellows australasian college podiatric surgeons authorised prescribe range schedule one schedule drug treatment podiatric conditions currently endorsed podiatrists ability write prescriptions prescriptions qualify pharmaceutical benefits scheme also political lobbying chronic disease management places visits year podiatrist chronic diseases diabetes pbs rights podiatrists may refer patients medicare rebatable plain x rays


foot leg knee femur well ultrasound examination soft tissue conditions foot podiatrists may refer patients radiology investigations ct mri bone scans however medicare rebates currently exist examinations similarly podiatrists may refer patients needed specialist medical practitioners pathology testing however similar exclusions medicare benefits schedule prevent rebates available patients referrals canada canada definition scope practice podiatry varies provincially instance provinces like british columbia alberta


standards united states doctor podiatric medicine dpm accepted qualification quebec also adopted dpm level training although academic designations may register also universit du qu bec trois rivi res started first program podiatric medicine canada based american definition podiatry program enlists students yearly across canada leads dpm upon obtaining credits prairie atlantic provinces standard originally based british model called podiatry chiropody


addition scope chiropodist ontario podiatrists required doctor podiatric medicine dpm degree post baccalaureate four year degree majority chiropodists currently practising hold post secondary advanced diploma chiropody requiring baccalaureate degree sciences another field prerequisite entering chiropody podiatrists may bill ohip services chiropodists restricted billing ohip podiatrists may communicate diagnosis patients patients' representatives perform surgical procedures bones forefoot chiropodists may neither chiropodists


ontario perform soft tissue surgical procedures chiropodists podiatrists regulated college chiropodists ontario chiropodists podiatrists registered december english speaking '''chiropody''' program canada also working chiropody clinic campus students treat patients supervision licensed chiropodists michener institute affiliated university health network toronto according michener institute website chiropody branch medical science involves assessment management foot lower limb disorders includes management


podiatric medical schools iran ministry health medical education mohme reviews dossier podiatric applicants medical registration according regulations evaluation educational credentials foreign graduates updated mordad ahs august ce section specific requirements evaluation education degrees podiatry stipulates podiatric degree united states registered professional doctorate podiatric medicine provided following met possession bachelor 's degree successfully passing mcat completion podiatric curriculum


enroll educational programs new zealand chiropody became registered profession new zealand requirement applicants take recognized three year course training soon professional title changed chiropody podiatry new zealand school podiatry established petone direction john gallocher later school moved central institute technology upper hutt wellington profession gained legal right use local anaesthetic began introduce minor surgical ingrown toenail procedures part


scope practice new zealand podiatrists granted right direct referral radiologists x rays acknowledgement podiatric expertise marked improved services patients eventually suitably trained podiatrists able become licensed take x rays within practice diagnostic radiographic training incorporated degree syllabus successful completion course graduates register new zealand national radiation laboratory profession undertook needs analysis conjunction central institute technology identify competencies podiatry bachelor health science


protected law uk difference terms chiropodist podiatrist using protected titles must registered health care professions council hcpc registration normally granted holding bachelor 's degree one recognized schools podiatry uk professional bodies recognised health professions council society chiropodists podiatrists alliance private sector practitioners thealliancepspcom institute chiropodists podiatrists british chiropody podiatry association royal commission national health service


reported six half million nhs chiropody treatments provided one half million people great britain three years earlier patients receiving treatments aged time state registered chiropodists two thirds worked nhs commission agreed suggestion association chief chiropody officers introduction foot hygienists undertake direction registered chiropodist nail cutting simple foot care


hygiene fit person normally carry united states united states medical surgical care foot ankle mainly provided two groups ''podiatrists'' hold degree doctor podiatric medicine dpm ''orthopedic surgeons'' md first two years podiatric medical school similar training md students receive emphasized scope foot ankle lower extremity classified second entry degree order considered admission applicant must first complete


minimum semester hours university level commonly complete bachelor 's degree emphasis general organic chemistry biochemistry biology etc addition potential students required take medical college admission test mcat average mcat matriculants average undergraduate cgpa dpm degree takes minimum four years complete extension angle first metatarsal phalangeal joint mtpj four year podiatric medical school followed surgical based residency hands post doctoral training july residency programs podiatry


required transition minimum three years post doctoral training podiatric residents rotate core areas medicine surgery work rotations emergency medicine internal medicine infectious disease behavioral medicine physical medicine rehabilitation vascular surgery general surgery orthopedic surgery plastic surgery dermatology course podiatric surgery medicine fellowship training available residency fields geriatrics foot ankle traumatology infectious disease etc reality though residency training podiatry residencies today already highly inclusive medical areas states


scope limited areas ankle joint however states include leg hand within scope podiatry podiatric surgical training watt co sub sub laser used podiatry upon completion residency granted qualified status making eligible sit examinations board certified similar process md colleagues one two specialty boards american board podiatric medicine abpm american board foot ankle surgery abfas belonging american college podiatric medicine


overseen approved department education ref name two surgical certifications abfas ref name k academics http wwwk academicscom higher education academic degree first professional degree podiatry us podiatry k academics retrieved ref foot surgery reconstructive rearfoot ankle rra surgery order board certified rra sitting candidate already achieved board certification foot surgery certification abps requires initial successful passing written examination candidate required submit surgical logs indicating experience variety accepted candidate successfully pass oral examination computer questions clinical


simulation ref name k academics practice characteristics majority podiatric physicians solo practice movement toward larger group practices well use podiatrists multi specialty groups including orthopedic groups treating diabetes multi specialty orthopedic surgical groups podiatrists work within clinic practices indian health service ihs rural health centers rhc community health center fqhc systems established us government provide services insured non insured patients well within united states department veterans affairs providing care veterans military service


option podiatric assistant qualification certificate iv allied health assistance specialising podiatry work part podiatric medical team variety clinical non clinical settings currently developing strategies use skilled workers worldwide common professional accreditation pathways podiatric assistant many fields podiatric nurse foot carer nurse podiatry support worker podiatry technician podiatry hygienists podiatric surgical nurse foot hygienist podiatric medical assistant professional societies organizations academy ambulatory foot ankle


surgery aafas alberta podiatry association apa alpha gamma kappa fraternity alliance private sector practitioners american podiatric medical association apma american society podiatric surgeons asps american society forensic podiatry american college foot ankle surgeons acfas american board podiatric surgery abps american college foot ankle orthopedics medicine acfaom american board podiatric medicine american board multiple specialties podiatric medicine american board multiple specialties podiatric surgery american academy podiatric sports medicine aapsm american society podiatric dermatology aspd australian podiatry association apoda association belge des podologues canadian podiatric medical


association cpma american academy podiatric practice management aappm international federation podiatrists f ration internationale des podologues fip ifp international foot ankle biomechanics community fab student national podiatric medical association snpma american podiatric medical students' association apmsa australian college podiatric surgeons acps australian podiatry association apoda australian podiatry council apodc australasian academy podiatric sports medicine aapsm australasian podiatric rheumatology specialist interest group aprsig institute chiropodists podiatrists iocp canadian federation podiatric medicine royal college podiatry rcop references external links https wwwncbinlmnihgov pmc articles pmc page kederminster pharmacopolium


'''particle physics''' also known '''high energy physics''' branch physics studies nature particles constitute matter radiation although word ''particle'' refer various types small objects eg protons gas particles even household dust usually investigates irreducibly smallest detectable particles fundamental interactions necessary explain behaviour current understanding elementary particles excitations quantum fields also govern interactions currently dominant theory explaining fundamental particles fields along dynamics called standard model

Natural science
Physics
Elementary particle physics


thus modern particle physics generally investigates standard model various possible extensions eg newest known particle higgs boson even oldest known force field gravity subatomic particles particle content standard model physics modern particle physics research focused subatomic particles including atomic constituents electrons protons neutrons protons neutrons composite particles called baryons made quarks produced radioactive scattering processes particles photons neutrinos muons well wide range exotic particles dynamics particles


also governed quantum mechanics exhibit wave particle duality displaying particle like behaviour certain experimental conditions wave like behaviour others technical terms described quantum state vectors hilbert space also treated quantum field theory following convention particle physicists term ''elementary particles'' applied particles according current understanding presumed indivisible composed particles ref name braibant class wikitable style float left margin right em background fff elementary particles scope col types scope col generations scope col antiparticle scope col


colours scope col total scope row style background daf quarks rowspan align center rowspan align center align center pair align center align center scope row style background af leptons align center pair align center none align center scope row style background f gluons rowspan align center rowspan align center none align center align center align center scope row style background f photon align center align center rowspan none align center scope row style background f z boson align center align center scope row style background f w boson align center pair align center scope row style background fe higgs align center align center


colspan align right scope col total number known elementary particles align center ''' ''' particles interactions observed date described almost entirely quantum field theory called standard model ref name ifj ref standard model currently formulated elementary particles ref name braibant ref elementary particles combine form composite particles accounting hundreds species particles discovered since standard model found agree almost experimental tests conducted date however particle physicists believe


incomplete description nature fundamental theory awaits discovery see theory everything recent years measurements neutrino mass provided first experimental deviations standard model since neutrinos massless standard model history idea matter fundamentally composed elementary particles dates least th century bc th century john dalton work stoichiometry concluded element nature composed single unique type particle word ''atom'' greek word ''atomos'' meaning indivisible since


denoted smallest particle chemical element physicists soon discovered atoms fact fundamental particles nature conglomerates even smaller particles electron early th century explorations nuclear physics quantum physics led proofs nuclear fission lise meitner based experiments otto hahn nuclear fusion hans bethe year discoveries also led development nuclear weapons throughout bewildering variety particles found collisions particles


beams increasingly high energy referred informally particle zoo important discoveries cp violation james cronin val fitch brought new questions matter antimatter imbalance formulation standard model physicists clarified origin particle zoo large number particles explained combinations relatively small number fundamental particles framed context quantum field theories reclassification marked beginning modern particle physics standard model current state classification elementary particles


explained standard model gained widespread acceptance mid experimental confirmation existence quarks describes strong weak electromagnetic fundamental interactions using mediating gauge bosons species gauge bosons eight gluons z boson bosons photon ref name ifj standard model also contains fundamental fermions particles associated anti particles constituents matter ref name pdg ref finally standard model also predicted existence type boson known higgs boson july physicists large hadron collider


cern announced found new particle behaves similarly expected higgs boson experimental laboratories fermi national accelerator laboratory usa world 's major particle physics laboratories brookhaven national laboratory long island united states main facility relativistic heavy ion collider rhic collides heavy ions gold ions polarized protons world 's first heavy ion collider world 's polarized proton collider budker institute nuclear physics novosibirsk russia main projects electron positron colliders vepp operated since vepp started experiments


lep stopped november dismantled give way lhc super proton synchrotron reused pre accelerator lhc fixed target experiments desy deutsches elektronen synchrotron hamburg germany main facility hadron elektron ring anlage hera collided electrons positrons protons accelerator complex focused production synchrotron radiation petra iii flash european xfel fermi national accelerator laboratory fermilab batavia united states main facility tevatron collided protons antiprotons


highest energy particle collider earth large hadron collider surpassed november institute high energy physics ihep beijing china ihep manages number china 's major particle physics facilities including beijing electron positron collider ii bepc ii beijing spectrometer bes beijing synchrotron radiation facility bsrf international cosmic ray observatory yangbajing tibet daya bay reactor neutrino experiment china spallation neutron source hard x ray modulation telescope hxmt accelerator driven sub critical system ads well jiangmen underground neutrino observatory juno kek tsukuba japan home


number experiments k k experiment neutrino oscillation experiment belle ii experiment measuring cp violation b mesons slac national accelerator laboratory menlo park united states mile long linear particle accelerator began operating basis numerous electron positron collision experiments since linear accelerator used linac coherent light source x ray laser well advanced accelerator design research slac staff continue participate developing building many particle detectors around world many particle accelerators also exist


techniques required modern experimental particle physics quite varied complex constituting sub specialty nearly completely distinct theoretical side field theory '''theoretical particle physics''' attempts develop models theoretical framework mathematical tools understand current experiments make predictions future experiments see also theoretical physics several major interrelated efforts made theoretical particle physics today one important branch attempts better understand standard model tests theorists make quantitative predictions observables collider astronomical experiments along experimental measurements used extract


parameters standard model less uncertainty work probes limits standard model therefore expands scientific understanding nature 's building blocks efforts made challenging difficulty calculating high precision quantities quantum chromodynamics theorists working area use tools perturbative quantum field theory effective field theory referring '''phenomenologists''' others make use lattice field theory call ''lattice theorists'' another major effort model building model builders develop ideas physics may lie beyond standard model higher


energies smaller distances work often motivated hierarchy problem constrained existing experimental data may involve work supersymmetry alternatives higgs mechanism extra spatial dimensions randall sundrum models preon theory combinations ideas third major effort theoretical particle physics string theory ''string theorists'' attempt construct unified description quantum mechanics general relativity building theory based small strings branes rather particles theory successful may considered theory everything toe


accelerators used produce medical isotopes research treatment example isotopes used pet imaging used directly external beam radiotherapy development superconductors pushed forward use particle physics world wide web touchscreen technology initially developed cern additional applications found medicine national security industry computing science workforce development illustrating long growing list beneficial practical applications contributions particle physics future primary goal pursued several distinct ways find understand physics may lie


newly found particles august decision technology ilc taken site still agreed upon addition important non collider experiments also attempt find understand physics beyond standard model one important non collider effort determination neutrino masses since masses may arise neutrinos mixing heavy particles addition cosmological observations provide many useful constraints dark matter although may impossible determine exact nature dark matter without colliders finally lower bounds


long lifetime proton put constraints grand unified theories energy scales much higher collider experiments able probe time soon may particle physics project prioritization panel released report particle physics funding priorities united states next decade report emphasized continued us participation lhc ilc expansion deep underground neutrino experiment among recommendations see also references reading introductory reading advanced reading external links http wwwsymmetrymagazineorg ''symmetry'' magazine http wwwfnalgov fermilab http wwwioporg publications iop page html particle physics matters


ref employment field technology science space exploration military related occupation '''aerospace engineering''' primary field engineering concerned development aircraft spacecraft two major overlapping branches aeronautical engineering astronautical engineering avionics engineering similar deals electronics side aerospace engineering aeronautical engineering original term field flight technology advanced include vehicles operating outer space broader term aerospace engineering come use ref name britannica engineering ref aerospace engineering particularly astronautics branch often colloquially referred rocket science ref name sa overview

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Aerospace engineering


flight vehicles subjected demanding conditions caused changes atmospheric pressure temperature structural loads applied upon vehicle components consequently usually products various technological engineering disciplines including aerodynamics propulsion avionics materials science structural analysis manufacturing interaction technologies known aerospace engineering complexity number disciplines involved aerospace engineering carried teams engineers specialized area expertise ref name princeton review ref history orville wilbur wright flew wright flyer kitty hawk north carolina


origin aerospace engineering traced back aviation pioneers around late th early th centuries although work sir george cayley dates last decade th mid th century one important people history aeronautics pioneer aeronautical engineering cayley credited first person separate forces lift drag affect atmospheric flight vehicle early knowledge aeronautical engineering largely empirical concepts skills imported branches engineering ref name americana ref key elements


bf japan united kingdom germany respectively significant development aerospace engineering came first operational jet engine powered airplane messerschmitt entered service towards end second world war first definition aerospace engineering appeared february ref name britannica engineering considering earth 's atmosphere outer space single realm thereby encompassing aircraft ''aero'' spacecraft ' 'space'' newly coined term ''aerospace'' response ussr launching first satellite sputnik space october us aerospace engineers launched first american


aircraft made history became known jumbo jet whale due ability hold passengers another significant development aerospace engineering came development first passenger supersonic aircraft concorde development aircraft agreed upon french british november december antonov ''mriya'' cargo aircraft commenced first flight holds records world 's heaviest aircraft heaviest airlifted cargo longest airlifted cargo widest wingspan aircraft operational service


october airbus made maiden commercial flight singapore sydney australia aircraft first passenger plane surpass boeing terms passenger capacity maximum though development aircraft began competitor made first test flight april elements wernher von braun f engines saturn v first stage us space rocket center soyuz tma spacecraft engineered descent parachute fighter jet engine undergoing testing tunnel


behind engine allows noise exhaust escape elements aerospace engineering ref name open site ref ref name gruntman ref radar cross section nbsp study vehicle signature apparent remote sensing radar fluid mechanics nbsp study fluid flow around objects specifically aerodynamics concerning flow air bodies wings objects wind tunnels see also lift aeronautics astrodynamics nbsp study orbital mechanics including prediction orbital elements given select variables schools united states teach undergraduate level several graduate programs


covering topic usually conjunction physics department said college university statics dynamics engineering mechanics nbsp study movement forces moments mechanical systems mathematics nbsp particular calculus differential equations linear algebra electrotechnology nbsp study electronics within engineering propulsion nbsp energy move vehicle air outer space provided internal combustion engines jet engines turbomachinery rockets see also propeller spacecraft propulsion recent addition module electric propulsion ion propulsion control engineering nbsp study mathematical modeling dynamic


behavior systems designing usually using feedback signals dynamic behavior desirable stable without large excursions minimum error applies dynamic behavior aircraft spacecraft propulsion systems subsystems exist aerospace vehicles aircraft structures nbsp design physical configuration craft withstand forces encountered flight aerospace engineering aims keep structures lightweight low cost maintaining structural integrity materials science nbsp related structures aerospace engineering also studies materials aerospace structures built new materials specific properties invented


existing ones modified improve performance solid mechanics nbsp closely related material science solid mechanics deals stress strain analysis components vehicle nowadays several finite element programs msc patran nastran aid engineers analytical process aeroelasticity nbsp interaction aerodynamic forces structural flexibility potentially causing flutter divergence etc avionics nbsp design programming computer systems board aircraft spacecraft simulation systems software nbsp specification design development test implementation computer software aerospace applications including flight software


ground control software test evaluation software etc risk reliability nbsp study risk reliability assessment techniques mathematics involved quantitative methods noise control nbsp study mechanics sound transfer aeroacoustics nbsp study noise generation via either turbulent fluid motion aerodynamic forces interacting surfaces flight testing nbsp designing executing flight test programs order gather analyze performance handling qualities data order determine aircraft meets design performance goals certification requirements basis elements lies theoretical physics


fluid dynamics aerodynamics equations motion flight dynamics also large empirical component historically empirical component derived testing scale models prototypes either wind tunnels free atmosphere recently advances computing enabled use computational fluid dynamics simulate behavior fluid reducing time expense spent wind tunnel testing studying hydrodynamics hydroacoustics often obtain degrees aerospace engineering additionally aerospace engineering addresses integration components constitute aerospace vehicle subsystems including power aerospace


bearings communications thermal control life support etc life cycle design temperature pressure radiation velocity lifetime degree programs aerospace engineering may studied advanced diploma bachelor 's master 's phd levels aerospace engineering departments many universities mechanical engineering departments others departments offer degrees space focused astronautical engineering institutions differentiate aeronautical astronautical engineering graduate degrees offered advanced specialty areas aerospace industry background chemistry physics computer science mathematics important students pursuing aerospace engineering degree popular culture


term rocket scientist sometimes used describe person great intelligence since rocket science seen practice requiring great mental ability especially technically mathematically term used ironically expression 's rocket science indicate task simple strictly speaking use science rocket science misnomer since science understanding origins nature behavior universe engineering using scientific engineering principles solve problems develop new technology ref name sa ref ref name ieee ref etymologically correct version phrase would


rocket engineer however science engineering often misused synonyms ref name sa ref name ieee see also american institute aeronautics astronautics american helicopter society international flight test glossary aerospace engineering index aerospace engineering articles list aerospace engineering schools list aerospace engineers list russian aerospace engineers sigma gamma tau aerospace engineering honor society space power facility footnotes references reading dharmahinder singh chand ''aero engineering thermodynamics'' knowledge curve external links https webarchiveorg web http ndtaerotechcom ndtaerotechcom online community aerospace ndt professionals http wwwairservicetrainingcouk air service training aviation maintenance uk https adaptandlearnonline levele q engineering q aeronautical engineering question answer aircraft maintenance


'''agricultural engineering''' also known '''agricultural biosystems engineering''' field study application engineering science designs principles agriculture purposes combining various disciplines mechanical civil electrical food science environmental software chemical engineering improve efficiency farms agribusiness enterprises ref name ref well ensure sustainability natural renewable resources agricultural engineer engineer agriculture background agricultural engineers make engineering designs plans agricultural project usually partnership agriculturist proficient farming agricultural science

Applied science
Agriculture
Agricultural engineering


history first use agricultural engineering introduction irrigation large scale agriculture nile euphrates rivers bc large irrigation structures also present baluchistan india christian era south america irrigation practiced peru incas north america aztecs settlers practiced irrigation vicinity san antonio mormons practiced irrigation salt lake valley rise tractors machines industrial revolution new age agricultural engineering began course


listed ''' big agricultural surveying big ''' ''' big drainage big ''' ''' big irrigation big ''' ''' big farm machinery big ''' ''' big farm motors big ''' ''' big farm sanitation big ''' ''' big fertilizers big ''' ''' big pesticides big ''' ''' big knot tying big ''' roles agricultural engineers agricultural engineers may perform tasks planning supervising managing building dairy effluent schemes irrigation drainage flood water control systems performing environmental impact assessments agricultural product processing interpret research results implement relevant practices large percentage agricultural engineers work academia government agencies consultants employed private engineering firms others work industry manufacturers agricultural machinery equipment processing technology structures housing


'' 'registered agricultural biosystems engineer''' licensed accredited successfully passing agriculturist biosystems engineering licensure examination prospective agricultural biosystems engineer required four year bachelor science agricultural biosystems engineering practice agricultural biosystems engineering also includes following consultation valuation investigation management services agricultural biosystems engineering management supervision preparation engineering designs plans specifications project studies estimates agricultural biosystems aquaculture fishery forest product machinery agricultural biosystems buildings structures farm electrification energy systems


agricultural biosystems processing equipment irrigation soils conservation systems facilities agricultural biosystems waste utilization systems facilities conducting research development training extension work consultancy services agricultural biosystems engineering facilities services system technologies testing evaluation inspection agricultural biosystems fishery forest product machinery related agricultural biosystems engineering facilities equipment management manufacturing marketing agricultural biosystems machinery related agricultural biosystems engineering facilities equipment teaching agricultural biosystems engineering subjects institution learning philippines employment government provided


fertilizers soil conditions fisheries biofuels biogas feed machinery tractors machinery ref name see also play structure agricultural education agricultural science agronomy bioresource engineering biosystems engineering copper alloys aquaculture industrial agriculture institution agricultural engineers list agricultural machinery mechanized agriculture water softening references references reading brown rh ed ''crc handbook engineering agriculture'' boca raton fl crc press field h l solie j b roth l ''introduction agricultural engineering technology problem solving approach'' new york springer stewart robert e ''seven decades changed america


history american society agricultural engineers '' st joseph mich asae deforest ''the vision cut drugery farming forever'' st joseph mich asae agricultural technology agronomy engineering disciplines


'''traffic psychology''' discipline psychology studies relationship psychological processes behavior road users general traffic psychology aims apply theoretical aspects psychology order improve traffic mobility helping develop apply crash countermeasures well guiding desired behaviors education motivation road users ref name rothengatter ref ref name gold ref behavior frequently studied conjunction crash research order assess causes differences crash involvement ref name rothengatter traffic psychologists distinguish three motivations driver behavior reasoned planned behavior impulsive

Social science
Psychology
Traffic psychology


complex everyday task psychology press ref ref name trick trick l enns j mills j vavrik j http wwwpsychologyuoguelphca faculty trick documents articles payingattentionbehindwheelpdf paying attention behind wheel framework studying role attention driving theoretical issues ergonomics science ref definitions traffic psychology deals noncognitive cognitive sensory motor aspects people context driving dealing traffic dealing others identifying feelings cause cognitive thoughts traffic psychology allows understanding resulting actions gives way modifying behavior traffic psychology defined tool subjective


analysis helps increase overall quality lives behavioral observation identification modification task traffic psychology understand predict provide measures modify road user behavior levels identified general objective minimize harmful effects traffic participation behavior research behavior research traffic psychology often deals subjects like motivation personality gender differences habits overconfidence age skill differences attention violation traffic rules ref name direct ref yield sign classification behavioral factors reduce driving capability promote risky behavior division


short long term impact helps conceptualization problems may contribute prioritization behavior modification traffic transport sciences concern study comprehension explanation prediction everything related mobility people products incorporates several aspects transportation systems along multiple techniques process attempts develop valid reliable methods better understand predict effects human variability environmental interactions safety transportation system consists road rail sea air infrastructures includes possibilities limitations


economics laws regulations sets barriers capabilities individual mass motorist instance speed influenced method travel vehicle airplane train ship financial capabilities type vehicle jet versus commercial speed boat sail boat sedan compared luxury sports car regulations speed limits rural areas versus city driving traffic environment takes account location time constraints population dangers exposed motorist environmental factors pose danger risk motorists may fatal driving


decisions drivers generally use degree risk compensation assess driving decisions skewed varying levels intoxication alcohol drug usage alertness fatigue distraction focus main factors attributed driver error crashes crash research addition behavior research crash research also component traffic psychology looking driving methodology individual differences characteristics personality temporary impairments relevant capabilities driver information processor includes perception reaction times human factors highway crashs pedestrian identifying vulnerability causes prevention


crashs human factors examination operator plays large role transportation psychology many external factors influence traffic safety internal factors also significant factors include decision making demographics distraction detection thresholds ref name regan drugs alcohol driving training experience familiarity vehicle environment fatigue individual differences driving inattention perception reaction time ref name taoka ref response unexpected risky behaviors stress panic task capability psychological research neuropsychology linking brain regions networks circuits behaviors involved operating vehicle one salient topics research within traffic psychology seven


separate brain networks identified driving simulations importance neurophysiological processes involved driving networks unique function outlined porter parietoccipital sulcus involved visual monitoring motor cortex cerebellar areas gross motor control motor planning orbitofrontal cingulate error monitoring inhibition including motivation risk assessment internal space medial frontal parietal posterior cingulate vigilance including spatial attention visual stream monitoring external space ref name porter porter b e ed handbook traffic psychology academic press ref linking neuropsychological processes


driving ability understand errors development safety enhanced involvement motor cerebellar networks driving confirmed calhoun pekar pearlson ref name porter research alcohol dosage related effect neuropsychological processes found greater quantities alcohol created larger likelihood engage high speed driving increase number times speed limit exceeded psychological assessment counseling rehabilitation rehabilitation counseling process many steps involved individual become self reliant driver rehabilitation specialist drs one


plans develops coordinates implements driving service individuals disabilities dsr 's may come backgrounds physical therapy psychology driver education evaluating driver requires many aspects clinical assessment includes review medical history driving history driving needs visual perceptual assessment along range motion motor strength coordination sensation reaction time cognitive assessment crucial aspect focus medical history evaluation initial driver evaluation last one four hours depending client presenting disabilities driving needs following clinical assessment clients


undergo road assessment meet minimum state standards health vision client holds valid driver license permit road assessment performed driver rehabilitation vehicle equipped dual brakes rear view mirror eye check mirror drs necessary adaptive equipment goal rehabilitation process individual realize condition attempt reinstate driving environment pose threat others approach transportation psychology emerged rapidly since inception followed


interdisciplinary approach shared common topics fields particular medicine eg driving aptitude engineering eg ergonomics human factors economics eg travel demand management mobility including positive negative repercussions originates people 's decisions behavior could influenced main causes traffic crashs errors due maladaptive behavior interaction roadways vehicles see also cognitive ergonomics engineering psychology human factors mental chronometry road rage karl peglau roundabout references reading https webarchiveorg web http vplno vkwtu dresdende psycho download ttp pdf traffic transportation psychology http wwwp seu pass psychological medical assistance safe mobility


interdisciplinary model promote secure mobility competence europe barjonet p e hrsg ''traffic psychology today'' boston london kluwer academic publishers james leon nahl diane road rage aggressive driving amherst ny prometheus books novaco r w psychology transportation ''international encyclopedia social behavioral sciences'' rothengatter huguenin eds ''traffic transport psychology theory application proceedings icttp '' oxford elsevier underwood g ed ''traffic transport psychology theory application proceedings icttp '' oxford elsevier wilde g j '' https webarchiveorg web http pavlovpsycqueensuca target indexhtml target


risk dealing danger death disease damage everyday decisions '' toronto pde publ automotive safety road traffic management applied psychology


'''cardiothoracic surgery''' field medicine involved surgical treatment organs inside thoracic cavity generally treatment conditions heart heart disease lungs lung disease pleural mediastinal structures countries cardiothoracic surgery subspecialized '''cardiac surgery''' involving heart great vessels '''thoracic surgery''' involving lungs esophagus thymus etc exceptions united states australia new zealand united kingdom european union countries portugal training cardiac surgery residency typically comprises anywhere four six years longer

Applied science
Medicine and health
Surgery
Cardiothoracic surgery


training become fully qualified surgeon cardiac surgery training may combined thoracic surgery vascular surgery called cardiovascular cv cardiothoracic ct cardiovascular thoracic cvt surgery cardiac surgeons may enter cardiac surgery residency directly medical school first complete general surgery residency followed fellowship cardiac surgeons may sub specialize cardiac surgery fellowship variety topics including pediatric cardiac surgery cardiac transplantation adult acquired heart disease weak heart issues many problems heart australia new zealand highly competitive


complete fellowship training cardiothoracic surgery four year duration subject college approval takes around eight ten years minimum post graduate post medical school training qualify cardiothoracic surgeon competition training places public teaching hospital places high currently leading concerns regarding workforce planning australia canada historically cardiac surgeons canada completed general surgery followed fellowship cv ct cvt canadian cardiac surgery training programs changed six year direct entry programs following medical school direct entry format provides residents


experience related cardiac surgery would receive general surgery program eg echocardiography coronary care unit cardiac catheterization etc residents program also spend time training thoracic vascular surgery typically followed fellowship either adult cardiac surgery heart failure transplant minimally invasive cardiac surgery aortic surgery thoracic surgery pediatric cardiac surgery cardiac icu contemporary canadian candidates completing general surgery wishing pursue cardiac surgery often complete cardiothoracic surgery fellowship united states royal college physicians surgeons canada also provides three year cardiac


training united states combined general thoracic surgery called cardiothoracic surgery thoracic surgery cardiothoracic surgeon us physician md first completes general surgery residency typically years followed cardiothoracic surgery fellowship typically years cardiothoracic surgery fellowship typically spans two three years certification based number surgeries performed operating surgeon time spent program addition passing rigorous board certification tests two pathways shorten duration training


approved programs include following integrated six year cardiothoracic surgery programs united states medical college wisconsin stanford university two positions university north carolina chapel hill university virginia columbia university two positions university pennsylvania university pittsburgh two positions university washington northwestern university mount sinai hospital new york university maryland university california los angeles ucla two resident positions one transplant fellowship one congenital resident position university texas health science center san antonio medical university south carolina university southern california


two positions university rochester university california davis indiana university university kentucky emory university university michigan american board thoracic surgery offers special pathway certificate congenital cardiac surgery typically requires additional year fellowship formal certificate unique congenital cardiac surgeons countries formal evaluation recognition pediatric training licensing body cardiac surgery meshid ops othercodes hcpcslevel earliest operations


pericardium sac surrounds heart took place th century performed francisco romero dominique jean larrey henry dalton daniel hale williams first surgery heart performed norwegian surgeon axel cappelen september rikshospitalet kristiania oslo ligated bleeding coronary artery year old man stabbed left axilla deep shock upon arrival access left thoracotomy patient awoke seemed fine hours became ill increasing


temperature ultimately died post mortem proved mediastinitis third postoperative day first successful surgery heart performed without complications ludwig rehn frankfurt germany repaired stab wound right ventricle september surgery great vessels aortic coarctation repair blalock taussig shunt creation closure patent ductus arteriosus became common turn century falls domain cardiac surgery technically cannot considered heart surgery one commonly known cardiac surgery procedures


coronary artery bypass graft cabg also known bypass surgery procedure vessels elsewhere patient 's body harvested grafted coronary arteries bypass blockages improve blood supply heart muscle early approaches heart malformations operations heart valves unknown henry souttar operated successfully young woman mitral stenosis made opening appendage left atrium inserted finger chamber order palpate explore damaged mitral valve patient survived several years


adopted souttar 's method men started work independently within months time souttar 's technique widely adopted although modifications ref name ellis ref name cohn thomas holmes sellors middlesex hospital operated fallot 's tetralogy patient pulmonary stenosis successfully divided stenosed pulmonary valve russell brock probably unaware sellor 's work used specially designed dilator three cases pulmonary stenosis later designed punch resect infundibular muscle stenosis often associated fallot 's tetralogy many thousands


blind operations performed introduction heart bypass made direct surgery valves possible ref name ellis harold ellis history surgery page ref open heart surgery open heart surgery procedure patient 's heart opened surgery performed internal structures heart discovered wilfred g bigelow university toronto repair intracardiac pathologies better done bloodless motionless environment means heart stopped drained blood first successful intracardiac correction congenital heart


defect using hypothermia performed c walton lillehei f john lewis university minnesota september following year soviet surgeon aleksandr aleksandrovich vishnevskiy conducted first cardiac surgery local anesthesia surgeons realized limitations hypothermia complex intracardiac repairs take time patient needs blood flow body particularly brain patient needs function heart lungs provided artificial method hence term cardiopulmonary bypass john heysham gibbon jefferson medical school philadelphia reported first successful use


extracorporeal circulation means oxygenator abandoned method disappointed subsequent failures lillehei realized successful series operations controlled cross circulation technique patient 's mother father used 'heart lung machine' john w kirklin mayo clinic rochester minnesota started using gibbon type pump oxygenator series successful operations soon followed surgeons various parts world nazih zuhdi performed first total intentional hemodilution open heart surgery terry gene nix age february


mercy hospital oklahoma city ok operation success however nix died three years later march zuhdi carey greer performed open heart surgery child age using total intentional hemodilution machine zuhdi performed oklahoma 's first successful heart transplant nancy rogers baptist hospital transplant successful rogers cancer sufferer died infection days surgery modern beating heart surgery since surgeons begun perform pump bypass surgery coronary artery bypass surgery without aforementioned cardiopulmonary bypass operations


machine used perform surgery controlled heart surgeon main advantage size incision made patient instead incision least big enough surgeon put hands inside bigger small holes robot 's much smaller hands get pediatric cardiovascular surgery pediatric cardiovascular surgery surgery heart children first operations repair cardio vascular defects children performed clarence crafoord sweden


repaired coarctation aorta year old boy first attempts palliate congenital heart disease performed alfred blalock assistance william longmire denton cooley blalock 's experienced technician vivien thomas johns hopkins hospital techniques repair congenital heart defects without use bypass machine developed late early among open repair atrial septal defect using hypothermia inflow occlusion direct vision year old child performed lewis tauffe c walter lillihei used


cross circulation boy father maintain perfusion performing direct repair ventricular septal defect year old child continued use cross circulation performed first corrections tetratology fallot presented results american surgical association long run pediatric cardiovascular surgery would rely cardiopulmonary bypass machine developed gibbon lillehei noted risks cardiac surgery development cardiac surgery cardiopulmonary bypass techniques reduced mortality rates surgeries relatively low ranks instance repairs


congenital heart defects currently estimated mortality rates major concern cardiac surgery incidence neurological damage stroke occurs people undergoing cardiac surgery higher patients risk stroke ref name bucerius ref subtle constellation neurocognitive deficits attributed cardiopulmonary bypass known postperfusion syndrome sometimes called pumphead symptoms postperfusion syndrome initially felt permanent ref name newman ref shown transient permanent neurological impairment ref name vandijk ref order assess performance surgical units individual surgeons


popular risk model created called euroscore takes number health factors patient using precalculated logistic regression coefficients attempts give percentage chance survival discharge within uk euroscore used give breakdown centres cardiothoracic surgery give indication whether units individuals surgeons performed within acceptable range results available cqc website precise methodology used however published date raw data


results based infection represents primary non cardiac complication cardiothoracic surgery infections include mediastinitis infectious myo pericarditis endocarditis cardiac device infection pneumonia empyema bloodstream infections ''clostridium difficile'' colitis also develop prophylactic post operative antibiotics used post operative patients cardiothoracic surgery risk nausea vomiting dysphagia aspiration pneumonia thoracic surgery pleurectomy surgical procedure part pleura removed sometimes used treatment pneumothorax mesothelioma lung volume reduction surgery lung volume reduction surgery lvrs improve


quality life certain copd emphysema patients parts lung particularly damaged emphysema removed allowing remaining relatively good lung expand work efficiently beneficial effects correlated achieved reduction residual volume conventional lvrs involves resection severely affected areas emphysematous non bullous lung aim surgical option involving mini thoracotomy patients suffering end stage copd due underlying emphysema improve lung elastic recoil well diaphragmatic function national emphysema treatment trial