yiddish translation hebrew compilation th century martin buber publicised hasidism secular world stories mediated neo hasidic philosophy previous kabbalistic themes accepted without emphasis hasidism entered eastern european jewish folklore tales reincarnation possession commonly adapted later secular yiddish writers meanwhile mysticism hasidism well culture wider traditional judaism parodied haskalah yiddish literature hasidic parables nachman breslov saw sparks holiness mixed tales world lurianic kabbalah describes purpose creation


redemption sparks shechinah hasidism person guided elevate particular share compared tale princess agrees freed imprisonment particular prince within works hasidic philosophy another storytelling form used insightful parables illustrate new mystical interpretations baal shem tov used short soulful analogies alluded teachings encouraging anecdotes first reaching revive common folk parables masters integrated within classic works hasidic thought distinct parables

Humanities
Languages and literature
Yiddish Literature


nachman breslov comprise complete literary form stand alone commentary yiddish original hebrew translation one example former hasidic parable baal shem tov explained mystical meaning blowing ram 's horn new year blockquote king sent son away palace learn new skills regretably son lost royal ways forgot home tongue years exile remembered true calling desired return palace upon approaching gates guards longer recognised king 's son


refused entry moment king appeared balcony saw commotion son gates also recognise son appeared peasant clothing distress son could longer remember royal language cried heartfelt wordless call soul immediately king recognised voice delighted reunited son blockquote rabbi nachman ''sippurei ma'asiyot'' wonder tales take mystical parable self contained literary purpose art analogies masters direct messages rabbi


nachman 's imaginative intricate tales involve stories within stories offer layered mystical devotional commentaries literary readings rabbi nachman alluded meanings orally told tale yiddish saw roots ancient aggadic mystical articulation saying concealed form kabbalah taught orally shimon bar yochai explained though tales unique rabbinic literature took storytelling redemptive activity paths blocked death son saw messianic potential time come tell


stories said rabbi nachman saw role innovative teachings focus redemptive scheme rectification blockquote tales told nations world hidden sparks holiness tales confused spiritually order sparks remain hidden blockquote thirteenth tale seven beggars intricate story told seventh day missing rabbi nachman said would known messiah comes tales documented yiddish hebrew translation nathan breslov amongst


hasidic storytelling strongest effect development yiddish literature haskalah isaac baer levinsohn russian hebrew scholar haskalah leader russian mendelssohn spread haskalah ideas pale settlement utilised others yiddish literature opposed insular education satirised mysticism rationalism years emergence hasidism influential secular movement jews also appeared form haskalah movement influenced enlightenment opposed superstition religious life antiquated education given jews proposed better integration


european culture society strong opponents hasidism writers used craft expound view israel aksenfeld solomon shloyme ettinger isaac mayer dick aksenfeld first follower reb nachman bratslav later abandoned hasidism became strong opponent novel ''dos shterntikhl'' head scarf published portrays hasidic world intolerant small minded five works published opposition hasidic leaders work realist shows influence th century russian literature ettinger physician


wrote plays including considered important haskalah era serkele satiric style shows influence european drama one scholar speculates read moli isaac mayer dick wrote short stories sold tens thousands copies book form role literary development significant creating readership yiddish content work tends didactic also wrote hebrew including outstanding talmudic parody masseket aniyyut tractate poverty modern yiddish literature classic yiddish writers ukrainian stamp sholem


aleichem together mendele mocher sforim l peretz three classic yiddish writers helped found latter th century cultural artistic yiddish renaissance movement eastern europe modern yiddish literature generally dated publication sholem yankev abramovitsh novel ''dos kleyne mentshele'' little person abramovitsh previously written hebrew language many proponents haskalah communicated publication novel originally published serially yiddish newspaper abramovitsh introduced alter ego character mendele moykher sforim mendel book peddler


character narrates many succeeding stories abramovitsh often known name appears author several books producing complex set relations author persona readership explored thoroughly dan miron abramovitsh work ironic sharp maintaining voice folksy narrator work critiques corruption inside jewish community imposed russian polish governing institutions also continues tradition haskalah literature attack superstition outmoded traditions


arranged marriage extraordinary parody picaresque ''kitser masoes binyomen hashlishi'' brief travels benjamin third published last great work provides one strongest critiques jewish life pale settlement abramovitsh influence lay two factors first wrote yiddish time jewish thinkers tended hebrew non jewish language german secondly dan miron demonstrates abramovitsh brought yiddish belles lettres firmly modern era use rhetorical strategies allowed social reform agenda


expressed highest level literary artistic achievement outpouring yiddish literature modernist forms followed abramovitsh demonstrates important development giving voice jewish aspirations social literary important early writers follow abramovitsh sholem rabinovitsh popularly known alter ego sholem aleichem l peretz rabinovitsh best known works stories centering character tevye dairyman written many years response variety jewish catastrophes late th early th centuries stories epitomize rabinovitsh 's


style including signature style laughter tears l peretz brought yiddish wide array modernist techniques encountered reading european fiction politically radical particularly fiction enormously nuanced allows multiple readings work simple caustic psychological individualistic abramovitsh rabinovitsh reasons considered first true modernist yiddish literature wrote primarily stories bontshe shvayg bontshe silent one best known much work manages


convey two apparently opposing messages sympathy oppressed critique passivity response oppression together abramovitsh rabinovitsh l peretz usually referred three classic yiddish writers di klasiker yiddish also nickednamed respectively grandfather father son yiddish literature formulation erases fact roughly contemporaneous best understood single phenomenon rather distinct generational manifestations tradition nonetheless formulation propounded classic writers perhaps means investing


fledgling literary culture lineage could stand world literatures admired literary movements figures leading poet abraham sutzkever among modernists young vilna group vilnius historical centre yiddish culture war revived yiddish tel aviv depicted holocaust dramatic works yiddish grew first separately later intertwined yiddish movements early drama following ettinger example written abraham goldfaden jacob gordin much presented yiddish stage translations european repertoire


ones broke earlier yiddish writers attempted free yiddish writing particularly verse preoccupation politics fate jews prominent members di yunge included mani leib moyshe leyb halpern h leivick zishe landau prose writers david ignatoff lamed shapiro isaac raboy years di yunge came prominence group called zikh introspection declared true avant garde rejecting metered verse declaring non jewish themes valid topic yiddish poetry important member group yankev glatshteyn glatshteyn


interested exotic themes poems emphasized sound words later holocaust loomed took place reappropriations jewish tradition poem gute nakht velt good night world seems foresee tragedy horizon eastern europe vilnius lithuania called vilna vilne jewish inhabitants one historically significant centers yiddish cultural activity group yung vilne young vilna included chaim grade abraham sutzkever szmerke kaczerginski grade short story mayn krig mit hersh raseyner quarrel hershl rasseyner one


classic post holocaust yiddish stories encapsulating philosophical dilemma faced many survivors sutzkever went one major poets th century painter marc chagall front yiddish writer der nister behind school teachers children near moscow writer 's pseudonym hidden one reflected interest symbols esoteric jewish ideas returned russia join yiddish flowering fell victim purges radical turn group writers clustered around u communist


party came known di linke left wing group included moishe nadir malka lee ber grin canada similar group known proletariat school writers exemplified yudica soviet union yiddish literature underwent dramatic flowering greats david bergelson der nister peretz markish moyshe kulbak several writers murdered stalinist purge known night murdered poets august including itzik fefer leib kvitko bergelson considered many underrated genius whose work modernist


novel may among interesting examples form important soviet writers escaped persecution include moyshe altman ikhil shraybman note lurie eli schechtman shike driz rivke rubin shira gorshman others appears rhyme reason explain certain writers persecuted writers pursued similar themes writing participated similar groupings jewish intellectuals interesting feature yiddish literature active years presence numerous women writers less involved specific movements tied particular


artistic ideology writers celia dropkin anna margolin kadia molodowsky esther kreitman esther shumiatcher hirschbein created bodies work fit easily particular category often experimental form subject matter margolin work pioneered use assonance consonance yiddish verse preferred rhymes true rhymes dropkin introduced highly charged erotic vocabulary shows influence th century russian poetry kreitman sister j b singer wrote novels short stories many sharply critical gender inequality traditional


writers yente serdatzky fradl shtok found limited degree recognition work ultimately step male literary peers came impasse writing careers shtok first known poetry especially among first yiddish poets write sonnets garnered disappointing reviews collection short stories ''gezammelte ertseylungen'' innovative way incorporated subjectivity including erotic desires female characters certain male writers also associate particular literary group


short time moving creative ethics among itzik manger whose clever imaginings biblical jewish stories accessible playful deeply intellectual writers category joseph opatoshu b singer always called bashevis yiddish distinguish older brother j singer aaron zeitlin many writers mentioned wrote responded holocaust literary works wrote poetry stories ghettos concentration camps partisan groups many continued address


holocaust aftereffects subsequent writing yiddish writers known best writings holocaust include yitzhak katzenelson shpigl katsetnik isaac bashevis singer nobel prize awarding nobel prize literature isaac bashevis singer helped cement reputation one great writers world literature many readers yiddish however convinced many finer writers among yiddish literature including brother chaim grade believed overlooked english speaking world cynthia ozick short story envy yiddish america implies similar emotion


basman ben hayim yitzkhok luden mishe lev yente mash tzvi kanar elisheva kohen tsedek born lev berinsky born american poet songwriter beyle schaechter gottesman poets prose masters yonia fain moyshe szklar editor los angeles yiddish literary periodical khezhbn well prolific feuilletonist playwright miriam hoffman writers younger postwar born generation comprising born late many hailing former soviet union include alexander belousov mikhoel felsenbaum daniel galay moyshe lemster boris sandler edited yiddish forverts edition


jewish daily forward velvl chernin zisye veytsman heershadovid menkes pen name dovid katz boris karloff pen name dov ber kerler editor yerusholaymer almanakh younger generation writers began come fore st century includes poets gitl schaechter viswanath yermiyahu ahron taub yoel matveyev us yisroel nekrasov saint petersburg haike beruriah wiegand london thomas soxberger vienna prose writers boris kotlerman israel gilles rozier editor gilgulim paris earlier works younger generation authors


dara horn studied yiddish hebrew draws traditions english language novels last yiddish language writers former soviet union aleksandr bejderman odessa yoysef burg chernivtsi deceased literary works written originally languages continue translated published yiddish unesco 's ''index translationum'' database lists foreign language books published yiddish translation since circa number countries including israel usa romania germany ussr see also california institute yiddish culture language hebrew


literature jewish political movements list yiddish language poets shtetl yiddish book center yiddish renaissance yiddish theatre references reading estraikh gennady ''in harness yiddish writers romance communism'' syracuse syracuse university press frieden ken ''classic yiddish fiction abramovitsh sholem aleichem peretz'' albany state university new york press glasser amelia trans ''proletpen america rebel yiddish poets'' madison university wisconsin press aseh books aksenfed israel ettinger oetinger dick isaac mayer ''jewish encyclopedia'' august http wwwjewishencyclopediacom miron dan ''a traveler disguised study rise modern yiddish fiction nineteenth century''


new york schocken reprint edition syracuse university press norich anita ''the homeless imagination fiction israel joshua singer'' bloomington iup riemer nathanael parallels stories glikls hameln zikhroynes pardes zeitschrift der vereinigung f r j dische studien ev nr roskies david g ''a bridge longing lost art yiddish storytelling'' harvard university press seidman naomi ''a marriage made heaven sexual politics hebrew yiddish'' los angeles university california press sokoloff naomi anne lapidus lerner anita norich eds ''gender


text modern hebrew yiddish literature'' new york jtsa wex michael ''born kvetch yiddish language culture moods'' new york st martin 's press wisse ruth ''a little love big manhattan two yiddish poets'' cambridge harvard university press http searchebcom eb article yiddish literature written ken frieden ''encyclop dia britannica'' encyclop dia britannica online july yiddish literature glikl hameln nahman bratslav ''reader guide judaism'' ed michael terry chicago new york fitzroy dearborn steinhoff thorsten ''zeitgen ssische jiddische lyrik odessaer autoren'' regensburg lehrstuhl f r neuere dt literaturwiss


safety policy external fire escape stairs public building netherlands fire safety policies apply construction building throughout operating life building codes enacted local sub national national governments ensure features adequate fire exits signage construction details fire stops fire rated doors windows walls fire safety also objective electrical codes prevent overheating wiring equipment protect ignition electrical faults fire codes regulate requirements maximum occupancy buildings theatres restaurants

Applied science
Public administration
Fire safety


fire code requirements owners managers building may implement additional fire policies example industrial site may designate train particular employees fire fighting force managers must ensure buildings comply fire evacuation regulations building features spray fireproofing remains undamaged fire policies may place dictate training awareness occupants users building avoid obvious mistakes propping open fire doors buildings especially institutions schools may conduct fire drills regular intervals throughout year common fire hazards improper


use poor maintenance gas stoves often create fire hazards common fire hazards kitchen fires unattended cooking grease fires chip pan fires electrical systems overloaded poorly maintained defective combustible storage areas insufficient protection combustibles near equipment generates heat flame sparks candles open flames smoking cigarettes cigars pipes lighters etc equipment generates heat utilizes combustible materials flammable liquids aerosols flammable solvents rags soaked solvent placed enclosed trash cans fireplace chimneys properly regularly cleaned cooking appliances stoves ovens heating appliances fireplaces


wood burning stoves furnaces boilers portable heaters solid fuels household appliances clothes dryers curling irons hair dryers refrigerators freezers boilers chimneys concentrate creosote electrical wiring poor condition leaking defective batteries personal ignition sources matches lighters electronic electrical equipment exterior cooking equipment barbecue fire code example fire code violation united states united states '''fire code''' also '''fire prevention code''' '''fire safety code''' model code adopted state local jurisdiction enforced fire prevention officers within municipal fire departments set


rules prescribing minimum requirements prevent fire explosion hazards arising storage handling use dangerous materials specific hazardous conditions complements building code fire code aimed primarily preventing fires ensuring necessary training equipment hand original design basis building including basic plan set architect compromised fire code also addresses inspection maintenance requirements various fire protection equipment order maintain optimal active fire protection passive fire protection measures


typical fire safety code includes administrative sections rule making enforcement process substantive sections dealing fire suppression equipment particular hazards containers transportation combustible materials specific rules hazardous occupancies industrial processes exhibitions sections may establish requirements obtaining permits specific precautions required remain compliance permit example fireworks exhibition may require application filed licensed pyrotechnician providing information necessary issuing authority determine whether safety requirements met permit issued


authority another delegated authority may inspect site monitor safety exhibition power halt operations unapproved practices seen unforeseen hazards arise list typical fire explosion issues fire code fireworks explosives mortars cannons model rockets licenses manufacture storage transportation sale use certification servicing placement inspecting fire extinguishing equipment general storage handling flammable liquids solids gases tanks personnel training markings equipment limitations locations quantities flammables eg liters gasoline inside residential dwelling specific uses


specific flammables eg dry cleaning gasoline distribution explosive dusts pesticides space heaters plastics manufacturing permits limitations various building occupancies assembly hall hospital school theater elderly care child care centers require smoke detector sprinkler system fire extinguisher specific equipment procedures removal interior exterior obstructions emergency exits firefighters removal hazardous materials permits limitations special outdoor applications tents asphalt kettles bonfires etc hazards flammable decorations welding smoking bulk matches tire yards electrical safety codes national electrical code national fire protection association


us places americas fuel gas code car fire public fire safety education children evacuating smoky building way learn fire safety members united states forest service fire department teaching children fire safety us fire departments fire safety education programs fire prevention programs may include distribution smoke detectors visiting schools review key topics students implementing nationally recognized programs nfpas risk watch learn burn programs props purchased fire departments community organizations


usually entertaining designed capture children 's attention relay important messages props include mostly auditory puppets robots prop visually stimulating safety message transmitted orally props elaborate access senses increase learning factor mix audio messages visual cues hands interaction examples include mobile trailer safety houses tabletop hazard house simulators fire prevention software also developed identify hazards home programs tend mix messages general injury prevention safety fire


prevention escape case fire cases fire department representative regarded expert expected present information manner appropriate age group fire educator qualifications us industry standard outlines recommended qualifications fire safety educators nfpa standard professional qualifications public fire life safety educator includes requirements fire life safety educator levels nbsp ii iii public information officer juvenile firesetter intervention specialist levels nbsp ii target audiences according united states fire administration


young elderly considered risk populations groups represent approximately population fire safety plan fire escape plan hotel taiwan '''fire safety plan''' required north american national state provincial fire codes based building use occupancy types generally owner building responsible preparation fire safety plan buildings elaborate emergency systems may require assistance fire protection consultant plan prepared must submitted chief fire official


authority jurisdiction approval approved owner responsible implementing fire safety plan training staff duties also owner 's responsibility ensure visitors staff informed case fire fire emergency copy approved fire safety plan must available responding fire department 's use uk fire safety plan called fire risk assessment fire safety plan structure key contact information utility services including shut valves water gas electric access issues


dangerous stored materials location people special needs connections sprinkler system layout drawing site plan building maintenance schedules life safety systems personnel training fire drill procedure create assemble point safe zone use fire safety plans fire safety plans useful tool fire fighters allow know critical information building may go using fire fighters locate avoid potential dangers hazardous material hazmat storage areas flammable chemicals br addition fire safety plans also


around million buildings legally require fire safety plan due provincial state law ref name building strategies canadian firm generates digital fire safety plans building strategies ed susan maclean spring ref fire safety plan buildings fit fire code occupancy type result fine required buildings commercial industrial assembly etc advances fire safety planning previously stated copy approved fire safety plan shall available responding fire department however always


case fire plans stored paper form fire department problem sorting storing plans challenge difficult people update fire plans result half required buildings fire plans around percent date ref name building strategies problem solved introduction digital fire plans fire plans stored database accessed wirelessly site firefighters much simpler building


'''ecological psychology''' scientific study perception action non functionalism approach ecological psychology school psychology follows much writings roger barker james j gibson field ecological psychology reject mainstream explanations perception laid cognitive psychology ecological psychology broken sub categories perception action dynamical systems clarification many field would reject separation perception action stating perception action inseparable perceptions shaped individual 's ability engage

Social science
Psychology
Ecological psychology


emotional experiences relation environment reflect process capacity emotional engagement leads action collective processing social capital pro environmental behaviour barker roger barker 's work based empirical work midwest field station wrote later midwest psychological field station established facilitate study human behavior environment ''in situ'' bringing psychological science kind opportunity long available biologists easy access phenomena science unaltered selection preparation occur laboratories


barker study environmental units behavior settings grew research classic work ecological psychology argued human behaviour radically situated words could n't make predictions human behaviour unless know situation context environment human question example certain behaviours appropriate church attending lecture working factory etc behaviour people environments similar behaviour individual person different environments since developed


connects' organism environment gibson 's emphasis ''foundation'' perception ambient ecologically available information opposed peripheral internal sensations makes gibson 's perspective unique perceptual science particular cognitive science general aphorism ask 's inside head head 's inside captures idea gibson 's theory perception ''information based'' rather sensation based extent analysis environment terms affordances concomitant specificational information organism detects affordances central ecological


approach perception throughout death gibson increased focus environment development theory affordances real ''perceivable'' opportunities action environment specified ''ecological information'' gibson rejected outright indirect perception favour ''ecological realism'' new form direct perception involves new concept ecological affordances also rejected emerging constructivist information processing cognitivist views assume emphasize internal representation processing meaningless physical sensations 'inputs' order create meaningful mental perceptions 'output'


supported implemented neurological basis inside head approach perception often criticised dismissed compared widely publicised advances made fields neuroscience visual perception computational cognitive approaches ref name bruceetal ref however developments cognition studies consider role embodied cognition action psychology seen support basic position given gibson 's tenet perception based information sensations work contemporaries today seen crucial keeping prominent primary question


''what'' perceived ie affordances via information questions mechanism material implementation considered together contemporary emphasis dynamical systems theory complexity theory necessary methodology investigating structure ecological information gibsonian approach maintained relevance applicability larger field cognitive science see also action specific perception ambient optic array community psychology conservation psychology embodied cognition environmental design research association evolutionary psychology information ecology situated cognition urie bronfenbrenner references external links https wwwviridisedu viridis graduate institute http wwwwhatpsychologyiscom ecological psychology ecological psychology information http commonstrincolledu isep international society


ecological psychology https cespauconnedu centre ecological study perception action http wwwteachgreenpsychcom teaching psychology sustainability https cespauconnedu wp content uploads sites michaels carello direct perceptionpdf direct perception early classic good introduction theoretical background available research circa ecological psychology direct perception claire michaels claudia carello https webarchiveorg web http ediskfandmedu tonychemero papers heftpdf ecological psychology context https wwwyoutubecom user perceivingacting youtube channel perceivingacting collection video audio resources ecological psychology direct perception coordination related topics https leechambersorg environmental psychologist wellbeing consultant environmental psychology psychological schools enactive cognition


'''discourse analysis''' '''da''' '' 'discourse studies''' approach analysis written vocal sign language use significant semiotic event objects discourse analysis discourse writing conversation communicative event variously defined terms coherent sequences sentences propositions speech turns talk contrary much traditional linguistics discourse analysts study language use 'beyond sentence boundary' also prefer analyze 'naturally occurring' language use invented examples text linguistics closely related field essential difference discourse analysis text linguistics discourse analysis aims

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Discourse analysis


revealing socio psychological characteristics person persons rather text structure discourse analysis taken variety disciplines humanities social sciences including linguistics education sociology anthropology social work cognitive psychology social psychology area studies cultural studies international relations human geography environmental science communication studies biblical studies public relations argumentation studies translation studies subject assumptions dimensions analysis methodologies history early use term ancient greeks among others much say discourse however ongoing discussion whether austria born leo


decades see references science sublanguage analysis kittredge lehrberger culminating demonstration informational structures texts sublanguage science immunology harris et al fully articulated theory linguistic informational content harris time however linguists ignored developments favor succession elaborate theories sentence level syntax semantics january linguist working american bible society james lauriault loriot needed find answers fundamental errors translating quechua cuzco area peru following


harris 's publications worked meaning placement word collection quechua legends native speaker quechua able formulate discourse rules transcended simple sentence structure applied process shipibo another language eastern peru taught theory summer institute linguistics norman oklahoma summers entered university pennsylvania study harris interim year tried publish paper ''shipibo paragraph structure'' delayed


loriot hollenbach meantime kenneth lee pike professor university michigan ann arbor taught theory one students robert e longacre developed writings harris 's methodology disclosing correlation form meaning developed system computer aided analysis natural language team led naomi sager nyu applied number sublanguage domains notably medical informatics software http mlp xmlsourceforgenet medical language processor publicly available sourceforge humanities late


without reference prior work variety approaches new cross discipline da began develop humanities social sciences concurrently related disciplines include semiotics psycholinguistics sociolinguistics pragmatics many approaches especially influenced social sciences favor dynamic study oral talk interaction example conversational analysis influenced sociologist harold garfinkel founder ethnomethodology foucault europe michel foucault became one key theorists subject especially discourse


wrote archaeology knowledge context term 'discourse' longer refers formal linguistic aspects institutionalized patterns knowledge become manifest disciplinary structures operate connection knowledge power since foucault 's works increasing impact especially discourse analysis field social sciences thus modern european social sciences one find wide range different approaches working foucault 's definition discourse theoretical concepts apart original context france since broad discussion


socio scientific discourse analysis germany example sociologist reiner keller developed widely recognized 'sociology knowledge approach discourse skad ' following sociology knowledge peter l berger thomas luckmann keller argues sense reality everyday life thus meaning every object action event product permanent routinized interaction context skad developed scientific perspective able understand processes 'the social construction reality' levels social life combining prementioned michel foucault 's theories


discourse power also introducing theory knowledge berger luckmann whereas latter primarily focus constitution stabilization knowledge level interaction foucault 's perspective concentrates institutional contexts production integration knowledge subject mainly appears determined knowledge power therefore 'sociology knowledge approach discourse' also seen approach deal vividly discussed micro macro problem sociology perspectives following specific theoretical perspectives analytical approaches used linguistic discourse analysis applied linguistics


interdisciplinary perspective linguistic analysis cognitive neuroscience discourse comprehension cognitive psychology studying production comprehension discourse conversation analysis critical discourse analysis discursive psychology emergent grammar ethnography communication functional grammar interactional sociolinguistics mediated stylistics pragmatics response based therapy counselling rhetoric stylistics linguistics sublanguage analysis tagmemics text linguistics variation analysis although approaches emphasize different aspects language use view language social interaction concerned social contexts discourse embedded often distinction made 'local' structures discourse relations among sentences propositions turns


meanings speech acts moves strategies turns aspects interaction genres discourse various types discourse politics media education science business etc relations discourse emergence syntactic structure relations text discourse context relations discourse power relations discourse interaction relations discourse cognition memory prominent academics jan blommaert teun van dijk michel foucault https csdgeorgetownedu heidi h heidi e hamilton barbara johnstone https aplnglapsuedu people sbm sinfree makoni jonathan potter deborah schiffrin deborah tannen margaret wetherell ruth wodak political discourse political discourse text


talk professional politicians political institutions presidents prime ministers members government parliament political parties local national international levels includes speaker audience political discourse analysis field discourse analysis focuses discourse political forums debates speeches hearings phenomenon interest policy analysis requires discourse analysis effective post positivist perspective political discourse formal exchange reasoned views several alternative courses action taken solve


societal problem ref name co operationorg ref corporate discourse corporate discourse broadly defined language used corporations encompasses set messages corporation sends world general public customers corporations messages uses communicate within structures employees stakeholders see also actor policy debate critical discourse analysis dialogical analysis discourse representation theory frame analysis communicative action essex school discourse analysis ethnolinguistics foucauldian discourse analysis interpersonal communication linguistic anthropology narrative analysis pragmatics rhetoric sociolinguistics statement analysis stylistics linguistics worldview references external


links http wwwdiscourseanalysisnet discoursenet international association discourse studies http wwwthereferentialprocessorg discourse attributes analysis program daap discourse attributes analysis program measures referential process https webarchiveorg web https lsadcorg info ling fields discoursecfm linguistic society america ''discourse analysis'' deborah tannen https webarchiveorg web http waucondastorecom discourse analysis z harris discourse analysis z harris https webarchiveorg web http wwwllcilstuedu dlevere docs soaspdf daniel l everett documenting languages view brazilian amazon statement concerning james loriot p nbsp http metadiscourseacrossgenrescom discourse analysis related international conference find information events related metadiscourse across genres visiting mag website systemic functional linguistics applied linguistics sociolinguistics translation studies postmodernism postmodern theory


'''pharmacogenomics''' study role genome drug response name ''pharmaco '' ''genomics'' reflects combining pharmacology genomics pharmacogenomics analyzes genetic makeup individual affects response drugs deals influence acquired inherited genetic variation drug response patients correlating gene expression single nucleotide polymorphisms pharmacokinetics drug absorption distribution metabolism elimination pharmacodynamics effects mediated drug 's biological targets ref name pmid ref ref name unc center pharmacogenomics individualized therapy ref term ''pharmacogenomics'' often used interchangeably ''pharmacogenetics'' although terms

Applied science
Medicine and health
Pharmaceutical sciences
Pharmacogenomics


prescribing allowing physicians take consideration patient 's genes functionality genes may affect efficacy patient 's current future treatments applicable provide explanation failure past treatments ref name pmid approaches promise advent precision medicine even personalized medicine drugs drug combinations optimized narrow subsets patients even individual 's unique genetic makeup ref name squassina ref whether used explain patient 's response lack thereof treatment act predictive tool hopes achieve better


treatment outcomes greater efficacy minimization occurrence drug toxicities adverse drug reactions adrs patients lack therapeutic response treatment alternative therapies prescribed would best suit requirements order provide pharmacogenomic recommendations given drug two possible types input used genotyping exome whole genome sequencing ref name eval ref sequencing provides many data points including detection mutations prematurely terminate synthesized protein early stop codon ref name eval history pharmacogenomics first recognized pythagoras around bc made


connection dangers fava bean ingestion hemolytic anemia oxidative stress identification later validated attributed deficiency g pd called favism ref name pmid ref name pmid ref although first official publication dates back ref name evans ref circa marked unofficial beginnings science reports prolonged paralysis fatal reactions linked genetic variants patients lacked butyryl cholinesterase pseudocholinesterase following administration succinylcholine injection anesthesia first reported ref name pmid ref name pmid ref term pharmacogenetic first coined friedrich vogel heidelberg germany although papers


suggest late twin studies supported inference genetic involvement drug metabolism identical twins sharing remarkable similarities drug response compared fraternal twins ref name pmid ref term pharmacogenomics first began appearing around ref name pmid ref first fda approval pharmacogenetic test ref name squassina alleles cyp cyp c drug metabolizing enzymes several known genes largely responsible variances drug metabolism response focus article remain genes widely accepted


utilized clinically brevity cytochrome p vkorc tpmt cytochrome p prevalent drug metabolizing enzymes dme cytochrome p cyp enzymes enzymes introduce reactive polar groups xenobiotics drugs term cytochrome p coined omura sato describe membrane bound heme containing protein characterized nbsp nm spectral peak complexed carbon monoxide ref name pmid ref human cyp family consists genes families subfamilies cyp proteins conveniently arranged families subfamilies basis similarities identified amino acid sequences


enzymes share identity assigned family arabic numeral share make particular subfamily designated letter ref name pmid ref example cyp refers family subfamily gene number clinical perspective commonly tested cyps include cyp cyp c cyp c cyp cyp genes account metabolism approximately currently available prescription drugs ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref table provides summary medications take pathways class wikitable colspan drug metabolism major cyps ref name pmid ref ref name pmid


drug efavirenz anti malarial artemisinin antidepressants bupropion ketamine anticancer drug cyclophosphamide opioid methadone ref name zanger ref highly polymorphic enzyme variant cyp b special importance leads errors rna processing reduced enzyme levels second important variant cyp b also fails produce functional protein cyp b variant occurs prevalences various populations worldwide cyp b found predominantly africans higher prevalence central nervous system side effects african compared american european patients treated


efavirenz attributed higher frequency cyp b slow metabolizer phenotype sub saharan african populations ref name pmid ref cyp also known debrisoquine hydroxylase named drug led discovery cyp well known extensively studied cyp gene ref name badyal ref gene great interest also due highly polymorphic nature involvement high number medication metabolisms major minor pathway cyp genetic variants identified ref name pmid polymorphisms cyp gene leading versions enzyme


differing levels metabolic activity copy number variants known certain drugs predominantly metabolized cyp variations lead unusually high low drug concentrations serum referred poor metabolizer ultra metabolizer phenotypes respectively thus leading increased side effects reduced efficacy commonly affected drugs include tramadol venlafaxine morphine mirtazapine metoprolol frequency cyp varies geographically highest prevalence slow metabolizers found east asia lowest prevalence americas cyp c discovered early cyp c second extensively studied


well understood gene pharmacogenomics ref name pmid genetic variants identified cyp c ref name humancypdb ref affects metabolism several classes drugs antidepressants proton pump inhibitors ref name pmid ref cyp c cyp c constitutes majority cyp c subfamily representing approximately liver content involved metabolism approximately drugs include medications narrow therapeutic windows warfarin tolbutamide ref name pmid ref name pmid ref approximately genetic variants associated cyp c ref name humancypdb cyp cyp cyp family


abundantly found liver cyp accounting liver content ref name pmid enzymes also cover current prescription drugs cyp accounting medications ref name pmid cyp genetic variants identified time publication ref name humancypdb vkorc vitamin k epoxide reductase complex subunit vkorc responsible pharmacodynamics warfarin ref name pmid ref vkorc along cyp c useful identifying risk bleeding warfarin administration warfarin works inhibiting vkor encoded vkorc gene


individuals polymorphism affected response warfarin treatment ref name tablefda ref tpmt thiopurine methyltransferase tpmt catalyzes methylation thiopurines thereby regulating balance cytotoxic thioguanine nucleotide inactive metabolites hematopoietic cells ref name pmid ref tpmt highly involved mp metabolism tmpt activity tpmt genotype known affect risk toxicity excessive levels mp cause myelosuppression myelotoxicity ref name pmid ref related patent litigation arose mayo collaborative services v prometheus laboratories inc supreme court united states found patent around measuring doses


drug patent eligible codeine clopidogrel tamoxifen warfarin examples medications follow metabolic pathways predictive prescribing patient genotypes usually categorized following predicted phenotypes um ultra rapid metabolizer patients substantially increased metabolic activity em extensive metabolizer normal metabolic activity im intermediate metabolizer patients reduced metabolic activity pm poor metabolizer patients little functional metabolic activity two extremes spectrum poor metabolizers ultra rapid metabolizers efficacy medication based metabolic statuses also type


drug consumed drugs classified two main groups active drugs prodrugs active drugs refer drugs inactivated metabolism prodrugs inactive metabolized overall process pharmacogenomics functions clinical practice raw genotype results translated physical trait phenotype based observations optimal dosing evaluated ref name pmid example two patients taking codeine pain relief codeine prodrug requires conversion inactive form active form active form


dose codeine person b could potentially lack therapeutic benefits codeine due decreased conversion rate codeine active counterpart morphine phenotype based upon allelic variation within individual genotype however several genetic events influence phenotypic trait establishing genotype phenotype relationships thus far consensual many enzymatic patterns instance influence cyp allelic variant clinical outcome patients treated tamoxifen remains debated today oncology genes coding dpd ugt tpmt cda involved pharmacokinetics fu capecitabine irinotecan


applied several areas medicine including pain management cardiology oncology psychiatry place may also exist forensic pathology pharmacogenomics used determine cause death drug related deaths findings emerge using autopsy cancer treatment pharmacogenomics tests used identify patients likely respond certain cancer drugs behavioral health pharmacogenomic tests provide tools physicians care givers better manage medication selection side effect amelioration pharmacogenomics also known companion diagnostics meaning tests bundled drugs examples include kras test


cetuximab egfr test gefitinib beside efficacy germline pharmacogenetics help identify patients likely undergo severe toxicities given cytotoxics showing impaired detoxification relation genetic polymorphism canonical fu ref name pmid ref particular genetic deregulations affecting genes coding dpd ugt tpmt cda cyp considered critical issues patients treated fu capecitabine irinotecan mercaptopurine azathioprine gemcitabine capecitabine arac tamoxifen respectively ref name pmid ref cardiovascular disorders main concern response drugs including warfarin clopidogrel beta blockers statins ref name eval patients cyp c take clopidogrel cardiovascular risk elevated


leading medication package insert updates regulators patients type diabetes haptoglobin hp genotyping shows effect cardiovascular disease hp higher risk supplemental vitamin e reducing risk affecting hdl psychiatry research focused particularly httlpr drd clinical implementation initiatives spur adoption clinicians include ubiquitous pharmacogenomics program europe clinical pharmacogenetics implementation consortium cpic united states survey european clinicians prior year two thirds ordered pharmacogenetic test valderbilt university


medical center launched pharmacogenomic resource enhanced decisions care treatment predict survey two thirds clinicians ordered pharmacogenetic test united states fda updated medication package inserts based genomic evidence largest private health insurer unitedhealthcare announced would pay genetic testing predict response psychiatric drugs private insurer offer coverage canada 's th largest health dental insurer green shield canada announced would pay pharmacogenetic testing associated clinical decision


support software optimize personalize mental health prescriptions example case studies ''case antipsychotic adverse reaction'' ref name pmc ref patient suffers schizophrenia treatment included combination ziprasidone olanzapine trazodone benztropine patient experienced dizziness sedation tapered ziprasidone olanzapine transitioned quetiapine trazodone discontinued patient experienced excessive sweating tachycardia neck pain gained considerable weight hallucinations five months later quetiapine tapered discontinued ziprasidone introduction treatment due excessive weight gain although patient lost excessive


weight gained developed muscle stiffness cogwheeling tremors night sweats benztropine added experienced blurry vision additional five months patient switched ziprasidone aripiprazole course months patient gradually experienced weight gain sedation developed difficulty gait stiffness cogwheeling dyskinetic ocular movements pharmacogenomics test later proved patient cyp predicted phenotype im cyp c predicted phenotype im well ''case b pain management'' ref name url ama pharmacogenomic factsheet ref patient b woman


gave birth caesarian section physician prescribed codeine post caesarian pain took standard prescribed dose however experienced nausea dizziness taking codeine also noticed breastfed infant lethargic feeding poorly patient mentioned symptoms physician recommended discontinue codeine use within days patient infant 's symptoms longer present assumed patient underwent pharmacogenomic test would revealed may duplication gene cyp placing


ultra rapid metabolizer um category explaining adrs codeine use ''case c fda warning codeine overdose infants'' ref name url fda codeine warning ref february fda released statement addressing serious concern regarding connection children known cyp um fatal reactions codeine following tonsillectomy adenoidectomy surgery remove tonsils adenoids released strongest boxed warning elucidate dangers cyp ums consuming codeine codeine converted morphine cyp um phenotypes danger producing large amounts morphine due


found psychiatry patients tend receiving medications even age matched non psychiatric patients associated increased risk inappropriate prescribing ref name polypharmacy book ref need pharmacogenomics tailored drug therapies may evident survey conducted slone epidemiology center boston university february april study elucidated average adults united states taking least one medication prescription nonprescription drug vitamin mineral herbal natural supplement taking five study suggested aged years


older continue biggest consumers medications age group taking least ten medications given week polypharmacy also shown increased since ref name slone study ref drug labeling us food drug administration fda appears invested science pharmacogenomics ref name url european report ref demonstrated fda approved drugs include pharmacogenomic biomarkers labels ref name url fda pharmacogenomic biomarkers ref number increased varies years study labels fda approved drugs june


found different drugs pharmacogenomic biomarker label ref name ref drug different biomarkers corresponded drug biomarker pairs ref name stated requirement recommendation genetic biomarker testing higher oncology drugs ref name may fda issued first ''guidance industry pharmacogenomic data submissions'' clarified type pharmacogenomic data required submitted fda ref name url fda personalized med report ref experts recognized importance fda 's acknowledgement pharmacogenomics experiments


bring negative regulatory consequences ref name pmid ref fda released latest guide ''clinical pharmacogenomics pgx premarket evaluation early phase clinical studies recommendations labeling'' january guide intended address use genomic information drug development regulatory review processes challenges doi journalpmed ref although appears general acceptance basic tenet pharmacogenomics amongst physicians healthcare professionals ref name pmid ref several challenges exist slow uptake implementation standardization pharmacogenomics concerns raised physicians include ref name pharmacogenetics pharmacogenomics factsheet ref name pmid ref name pmid ref limitation


apply test clinical practices treatment general feeling lack availability test understanding interpretation evidence based research combining test results patient data prescription optimization ethical legal social issues issues surrounding availability test include ref name sven ''the lack availability scientific data'' although considerable number dme involved metabolic pathways drugs fraction sufficient scientific data validate use within clinical setting ''demonstrating cost effectiveness pharmacogenomics'' publications pharmacoeconomics


pharmacogenomics scarce therefore sufficient evidence time exist validate cost effectiveness cost consequences test although factors contribute slow progression pharmacogenomics developing guidelines clinical use factors appear prevalent increasingly substantial evidence industry body guidelines clinical use pharmacogenetics made population wide approach precision medicine cost reimbursement education easy use point care remain significant barriers widescale adoption controversies alleles vary frequency specific populations


shown associated differential responses specific drugs beta blocker atenolol anti hypertensive medication shown significantly lower blood pressure caucasian patients african american patients united states observation suggests caucasian african american populations different alleles governing oleic acid biochemistry react differentially atenolol ref name pmid ref similarly hypersensitivity antiretroviral drug abacavir strongly associated single nucleotide polymorphism varies frequency populations ref name pmid ref fda approval drug bidil isosorbide dinitrate hydralazine label specifying african americans congestive heart failure


produced storm controversy race based medicine fears genetic stereotyping ref name pmid ref even though label bidil specify genetic variants based racial self identification ref name pmid ref future computational advances enabled cheaper faster sequencing ref name pharmacogenomic example book ref research focused combinatorial chemistry ref name pmid ref genomic mining omic technologies high throughput screening cost per genetic test decreases development personalized drug therapies increase ref name pmid ref technology allows genetic analysis hundreds target genes involved medication metabolism response less hours


huge step towards bringing pharmacogenetic technology everyday medical decisions likewise companies like decode genetics https rxightcom md labs pharmacogenetics navigenics andme offer genome scans companies use genotyping chips used gwas studies provide customers write individual risk various traits diseases testing known snps costs range include updates new data studies become available expensive packages even included telephone session genetics counselor discuss results ref name isbn ref ethics


haplotype structure allelic variation ref name pmid ref ''supercyp bioinformatics tool'' containing drugs interactions approximately known snps snps listed ordered according effect expression activity ref name pmid ref ''pharmgkb'' pharmacogenomics knowledge base pharmgkb interactive tool researchers investigating genetic variation affects drug response ref name pmid ref ' 'dbsnp database'' repository snps variants reported discovery compiled officially named snps across board ref


name pmid ref ''findbase'' repository allele frequencies pharmacogenetic markers different populations ref name pmid ref ''pharmacogenomics biomarkers drug labelling'' table identifies fda approved drugs pharmacogenomics related warning labels ''snpedia'' wiki based bioinformatics database snps ref name pmid ref ''pharmacogenomics research network pgrn '' pgrn hosts resources information stimulate collaborative research pharmacogenomics precision medicine see also genomics chemogenomics clinomics genetic engineering toxicogenomics cancer pharmacogenomics metabolomics pharmacovigilance population groups biomedicine toxgnostics medical terminology loinc snomed ct hpo hgvs


contemporary political map asia detail chinese silk th century bce characteristic trade silk silk road connected various regions china india central asia middle east europe africa '''history asia''' seen collective history several distinct peripheral coastal regions east asia south asia southeast asia middle east linked interior mass eurasian steppe see history middle east outline south asian history details coastal periphery home


world 's earliest known civilizations religions three regions developing early civilizations around fertile river valleys valleys fertile soil rich could bear many root crops civilizations mesopotamia india china shared many similarities likely exchanged technologies ideas mathematics wheel notions writing likely developed individually area cities states empires developed lowlands steppe region long inhabited mounted nomads central steppes could reach


enough open grasslands support large horsebound force thus nomads conquered states middle east soon forced adapt local societies spread islam waved islamic golden age timurid renaissance later influenced age islamic gunpowder empires asia 's history features major developments seen parts world well events affected regions include trade silk road spread cultures languages religions diseases throughout afro eurasian trade another major advancement innovation gunpowder


medieval china later developed gunpowder empires mainly mughals safavids led advanced warfare use guns prehistory report archaeologist rakesh tewari lahuradewa india shows new c datings range bce associated rice making lahuradewa earliest neolithic site entire south asia ref name archae ref prehistoric beifudi site near yixian hebei province china contains relics culture contemporaneous cishan xinglongwa cultures bce neolithic cultures east taihang mountains filling archaeological gap


two northern chinese cultures total excavated area square meters collection neolithic findings site consists two phases ref name archdis ref around bce halafian culture appeared lebanon israel syria anatolia northern mesopotamia based upon dryland agriculture southern mesopotamia alluvial plains sumer elam since little rainfall irrigation systems necessary ubaid culture flourished bce ancient bronze age map bronze age collapse c bce chalcolithic period copper age began


bce bronze age began bce replacing neolithic cultures indus valley civilization ivc bronze age civilization bce mature period bce centered mostly western part indian subcontinent considered early form hinduism performed civilization great cities civilization include harappa mohenjo daro high level town planning arts cause destruction regions around bce debatable although evidence suggests caused natural disasters especially


vietnam song da bronze drum 's surface dong son culture vietnam ban chiang thailand southeast asia bronze artifacts discovered dating bce nyaunggan burma bronze tools excavated along ceramics stone artifacts dating still currently broad bce iron axial age iron age saw widespread use iron tools weaponry armor throughout major civilizations asia middle east first persian empire greatest extent c bc achaemenid dynasty persian empire founded cyrus great ruled area greece


intoxicants rituals introduced concept spiritual salvation personal moral action end time general particular judgment heaven hell concepts would heavily influence later emperors masses importantly zoroastrianism would important precursor abrahamic religions christianity islam judaism persian empire successful establishing peace stability throughout middle east major influence art politics affecting hellenistic leaders religion alexander great conquered dynasty th century bce creating brief hellenistic period


unable establish stability death persia broke small weak dynasties including seleucid empire followed parthian empire end classical age persia reconsolidated sassanid empire also known second persian empire roman empire would later control parts western asia seleucid parthian sassanid dynasties persia dominated western asia centuries india maurya gupta empires called golden age india marked extensive inventions discoveries science technology art religion philosophy crystallized


elements generally known indian culture religions hinduism buddhism began indian sub continent important influence south east southeast asia hinduism southeast asia bce india divided regional states would occasionally feud amongst bce alexander great came india vision conquering whole world crossed northwestern india created province bactria could move army wanted go back family shortly prior soldier chandragupta maurya began


take control ganges river soon established maurya empire maurya empire sanskrit maurya r java geographically extensive powerful empire ancient india ruled mauryan dynasty bce one world 's largest empires time stretching himalayas north assam east probably beyond modern pakistan west annexing balochistan much afghanistan greatest extent south mauryan empire tamilakam independent country dominated three


northwest establishing kushan empire conversion buddhism caused religion associated foreigners therefore decline popularity occurred kushan empire would fall apart ce creating political turmoil india gupta empire sanskrit gupta r javan ha established covered much indian subcontinent founded maharaja sri gupta dynasty model classical civilization gupta kings united area primarily negotiation local leaders families well strategical intermarriage rule covered less land maurya empire


established greatest stability empire ended india overrun hunas classical china zhou dynasty population concentration boundaries western zhou dynasty china since bce zhou dynasty existed china would continue bce zhou dynasty using feudal system giving power local nobility relying loyalty order control large territory result chinese government time tended decentralized weak often little


emperor could resolve national issues nonetheless government able retain position creation mandate heaven could establish emperor divinely chosen rule zhou additionally discouraged human sacrifice preceding eras unified chinese language finally zhou government encouraged settlers move yangtze river valley thus creating chinese middle kingdom bce political stability began decline due repeated nomadic incursions internal conflict derived fighting princes families lessened


many philosophical movements starting life confucius philosophical writings called confucianism concerning respect elders state would later popularly used han dynasty additionally laozi 's concepts taoism including yin yang innate duality balance nature universe became popular throughout period nevertheless zhou dynasty eventually disintegrated local nobles began gain power conflict devolved warring states period bce qin dynasty one leader eventually came top qin shi huang ''sh hu ngd ''


spoken language reforms included new irrigation projects encouragement silk manufacturing famously beginning construction great wall china designed keep nomadic raiders 'd constantly badger chinese people however shi huang infamous tyranny forcing laborers build wall ordering heavy taxes severely punishing opposed oppressed confucians promoted legalism idea people inherently evil strong forceful government needed control legalism infused realistic logical views rejected pleasures


educated conversation frivolous made shi huang extremely unpopular people qin began weaken various factions began fight control china han dynasty silk road asia han dynasty simplified chinese traditional chinese pinyin h n ch bce ce second imperial dynasty china preceded qin dynasty succeeded three kingdoms ce spanning four centuries period han dynasty considered golden age chinese history one han dynasty 's greatest emperors emperor


wu han established peace throughout china comparable pax romana seen mediterranean hundred years later day china 's majority ethnic group refers han people han dynasty established two peasants succeeded rising shi huang 's significantly weaker successor son new han government retained centralization bureaucracy qin greatly reduced repression seen expanded territory korea vietnam central asia creating even larger empire qin han developed contacts persian empire


middle east romans silk road able trade many commodities primarily silk many ancient civilizations influenced silk road connected china india middle east europe han emperors like wu also promoted confucianism national religion although debated theologians whether defined philosophy shrines devoted confucius built confucian philosophy taught scholars entered chinese bureaucracy bureaucracy improved introduction examination system selected scholars


high merit bureaucrats often upper class people educated special schools whose power often checked lower class brought bureaucracy skill chinese imperial bureaucracy effective highly respected realm would last years han government highly organized commanded military judicial law used system courts strict laws agricultural production economy general lives people government also promoted intellectual philosophy scientific research detailed historical records however despite


impressive stability central power began lose control turn common era han dynasty declined many factors continued pummel submission china left state chaos ce philosophical activity slowed corruption ran rampant bureaucracy local landlords began take control scholars neglected duties resulted heavy taxation peasantry taoists began gain significant ground protested decline started proclaim magical powers promised save china taoist yellow turban rebellion


led rebels yellow scarves failed able weaken government aforementioned huns combined diseases killed half population officially ended han dynasty ensuing period chaos terrible lasted three centuries many weak regional rulers dynasties failed establish order china period chaos attempts order commonly known six dynasties first part included three kingdoms started describes brief weak successor dynasties


followed han jin dynasty china started soon split two different empires control northwestern southeastern china conquest abdication two dynasties resulted first southern northern dynasties northern southern dynasties passed finally northern zhou dynasty ruled north chen dynasty ruled south medieval period eastern world empires continued expand trade migration conquests neighboring areas gunpowder widely used early


medieval era caused primarily spread islam establishment arabian empires th century middle east separated small weak states two prominent sassanian empire persians iran iraq byzantine empire anatolia modern day turkey byzantines sassanians fought continually reflection rivalry roman empire persian empire seen previous five hundred years fighting weakened states leaving stage open new power meanwhile


nomadic bedouin tribes dominated arabian desert saw period tribal stability greater trade networking familiarity abrahamic religions monotheism byzantine roman sassanid persian empires weakened byzantine sasanian war new power form islam grew middle east muhammad medina series rapid muslim conquests rashidun army led caliphs skilled military commanders khalid ibn al walid swept middle east taking half byzantine territory arab byzantine


wars completely engulfing persia muslim conquest persia would arab caliphates middle ages would first unify entire middle east distinct region create dominant ethnic identity persists today caliphates included rashidun caliphate umayyad caliphate abbasid caliphate later seljuq empire early muslim conquests muhammad introduced islam jump started middle eastern culture islamic golden age inspiring achievements architecture revival old advances science technology formation distinct way life muslims saved


spread greek advances medicine algebra geometry astronomy anatomy ethics would later finds way back western europe dominance arabs came sudden end mid th century arrival seljuq turks migrating south turkic homelands central asia conquered persia iraq capturing baghdad syria palestine hejaz followed series christian western europe invasions fragmentation middle east allowed joined forces mainly england france emerging holy roman empire enter region


knights first crusade captured jerusalem founded kingdom jerusalem survived saladin retook city smaller crusader fiefdoms survived early th century new wave invaders armies mongol empire swept region sacking baghdad siege baghdad advancing far south border egypt became known mongol conquests mongols eventually retreated chaos ensued throughout empire deposed seljuq turks region


central asia russia iran middle east eastern europe genghis khan khagan tolerated nearly every religion south asia indian subcontinent india delhi sultanate indian early medieval age defined regional kingdoms cultural diversity harsha kannauj ruled much indo gangetic plain attempted expand southwards defeated chalukya ruler deccan successor attempted expand eastwards defeated pala king bengal chalukyas attempted expand southwards defeated


pallavas farther south turn opposed pandyas cholas still farther south cholas could rule raja raja chola defeat rivals rise regional power cholas expanded northward defeated eastern chalukya kalinga pala rajendra chola cholas created first notable navy indian subcontinent chola navy extended influence chola empire southeast asia time pastoral peoples whose land cleared make way growing agricultural economy accommodated within caste society new


spread buddhism advent neo confucianism unsurpassed era chinese ceramics painting medieval architectural masterpieces great south gate todaiji japan tien ning temple peking china surviving constructs era sui dynasty new powerful dynasty began rise amongst divided factions china started aristocrat named yang jian married daughter northern zhou dynasty proclaimed emperor wen sui appeased nomadic military abandoning confucian scholar gentry emperor wen soon led


conquest southern chen dynasty united china sui dynasty emperor lowered taxes constructed granaries used prevent famine control market later wen 's son would murder throne declare emperor yang sui emperor yang revived confucian scholars bureaucracy much anger aristocrats nomadic military leaders yang became excessive leader overused china 's resources personal luxury perpetuated exhaustive attempts conquer goguryeo military failures neglect empire forced ministers


assassinate ending sui dynasty tang dynasty battle talas tang dynasty abbasid caliphate c fortunately one yang 's respectable advisors li yuan able claim throne quickly preventing chaotic collapse proclaimed emperor gaozu established tang dynasty tang saw expansion china conquest tibet west vietnam south manchuria north tang emperors also improved education scholars chinese bureaucracy ministry rites established examination system improved


better qualify scholars jobs addition buddhism became popular china two different strains peasantry elite pure land zen strains respectively greatly supporting spread buddhism empress wu additionally claimed unofficial zhou dynasty displayed china 's tolerance woman ruler rare time however buddhism would also experience backlash especially confucianists taoists would usually involve criticism costing state money since government unable tax buddhist monasteries additionally sent many grants


gifts tang dynasty began decline rule emperor xuanzong began neglect economy military caused unrest amongst court officials due excessive influence concubine yang guifei family eventually sparked revolt although revolt failed subduing required involvement unruly nomadic tribes outside china distributing power local leaders leaving government economy degraded state tang dynasty officially ended various factions led aforementioned nomadic tribes local leaders


putting confucian scholars higher status aristocrats buddhists also intensified reduction power women infamous practice foot binding developed period result eventually liao dynasty north overthrown jin dynasty manchu related jurchen people new jin kingdom invaded northern china leaving song flee farther south creating southern song dynasty cultural life flourished yuan dynasty map marco polo 's travels mongols conquered western xia kingdom northwest china soon


two peoples separating living spaces places worship reserving top administrative positions mongols thus preventing confucian scholars continue bureaucratic system nevertheless kublai remained fascinated chinese thinking surrounding chinese buddhist taoist confucian advisors mongol women displayed contrasting independent nature compared chinese women continued suppressed mongol women often rode hunts even war kublai 's wife chabi perfect example chabi advised husband several political diplomatic matters convinced chinese respected well treated


order make easier rule however enough affect chinese women 's position increasingly neo confucian successors kublai repressed chinese even mongol women black death would later ravage western europe beginnings asia wiped large populations china korea three kingdoms korea korean peninsula ad three kingdoms gaya union picture picture shows heyday goguryeo three kingdoms korea involves goguryeo north baekje southwest silla southeast korean


peninsula three kingdoms like bridge cultures china japan thanks japan able accept chinese splendid cultures prince sh toku japan taught two teachers one baekje goguryeo japan invaded silla goguryeo helped silla defeat japan baekje met earliest heyday heyday th century ad capital seoul heyday kingdom made colonies overseas liaodong china kyushu japan colonies baekje short heyday goguryeo strongest kingdom


sometimes called empire heyday th century king gwanggaeto widened territory north goguryeo dominated korean peninsula manchuria son king jangsu widened territory south occupied seoul moved capital pyeongyang goguryeo almost occupied three quarters south korean peninsula thanks king jangsu widened kingdom 's territory south silla met latest heyday king jinheung went north occupiedseoul short baekje became stronger attacked silla baekje occupied cities silla


silla could hardly survive china 's sui dynasty invaded goguryeo goguryeo sui war occurred korea china goguryeo china sui dynasty fell tang dynasty reinvaded goguryeo helped silla unify peninsula goguryeo baekje japan helped tang silla alliance baekje goguryeo fell unfortunately tang dynasty betrayed silla invaded korean peninsula order occupy whole korean peninsula silla tang war silla advocated 'unification three korea' people fallen baekje goguryeo helped silla chinese invasion eventually silla could beat china unified peninsula war


helped korean people unite mentally north south states period balhae north later silla south goryeo ware shows splendid culture goryeo mediaeval korea rest goguryeo people established balhae war tang later th century ad balhae north state later silla south state balhae quite strong kingdom ancestor goguryeo finally emperor tang dynasty admits balhae 'a strong country east' liked trade japan china silla balhae later silla sent


lot international students china arabian merchants came korean peninsula korea became known 'silla' western countries silla improved korean writing system called idu letters idu affected katakana japan liao dynasty invaded balhae early th century balhae fell later three kingdoms korea unified korean kingdom later silla divided three kingdoms corrupt central government involves later goguryeo also known taebong later baekje later silla general later goguryeo wang geon took throne changed name kingdom


goryeo derived ancient strong kingdom goguryeo goryeo reunified peninsula goryeo first king goryeo known taejo goryeo goryeo reunited korean peninsula later three kingdoms period named 'empire' nowadays goryeo known kingdom name 'goryeo' derived goguryeo name korea derived goryeo goryeo adopted people fallen balhae also widened territory north defending liao dynasty attacking jurchen people goryeo developed splendid culture first metal type


printed book jikji also korea goryeo ware one famous legacies kingdom goryeo imported chinese government system developed ways period laws codified civil service system introduced buddhism flourished spread throughout peninsula tripitaka koreana books total made keep korea safe mongolian invasion unesco world heritage goryeo battle liao dynasty mongolian empire invaded goryeo goryeo disappear obey mongolians


time characterized taika reform imperial centralization direct result growing chinese contact influences prince sh toku yamato dynasty began significant political cultural changes issued seventeen article constitution centralizing power towards emperor title ''tenno'' heavenly sovereign removing power levy taxes provincial lords sh toku also patron buddhism encouraged building temples competitively nara period sh toku 's reforms transitioned japan nara period c c moving japanese


capital nara honshu period saw culmination chinese style writing etiquette architecture japan along confucian ideals supplement already present buddhism peasants revered confucian scholars buddhist monks however wake japanese smallpox epidemic buddhism gained status state religion government ordered construction numerous buddhist temples monasteries statues lavish spending combined fact many aristocrats pay taxes put heavy burden peasantry caused poverty famine eventually buddhist position got control threatening


seize imperial power causing emperor kanmu move capital heian ky avoid buddhist takeover marked beginning heian period end taika reform heian period heian period came decline imperial power chinese influence also declined result correlation imperial centralization heavenly mandate came regarded ineffective japanese court discontinued embassies china traders buddhist monks continued travel china buddhism came considered


japanese chinese persisted popular japan buddhists monks monasteries continued attempts gather personal power courts along aristocrats one particular noble family dominated influence imperial bureaucracy fujiwara clan time cultural life imperial court flourished focus beauty social interaction writing literature considered refined noblewomen cultured noblemen dabbling creative works politics prime example japanese literature women 's role high class culture time ''the tale


genji'' written lady waiting murasaki shikibu popularization wooden palaces sh ji sliding doors amongst nobility also occurred loss imperial power also led rise provincial warrior elites small lords began function independently administered laws supervised public works projects collected revenue instead imperial court regional lords also began build armies warriors loyal local lords emperor although imperial government increasingly called protect capital regional warrior class developed samurai created


culture including specialized weapons katana form chivalry bushido imperial government 's loss control second half heian period allowed banditry grow requiring feudal lords buddhist monasteries procure warriors protection imperial control japan declined feudal lords also became independent seceded empire feudal states squandered peasants living reducing farmers almost serfdom status peasants also rigidly restricted rising samurai class physically set dress weapon restrictions


result oppression many peasants turned buddhism hope reward afterlife upright behavior increase feudalism families imperial court began depend alliances regional lords fujiwara clan declined power replaced rivalry taira clan minamoto clan rivalry grew genpei war early war saw use samurai peasant soldiers samurai battle ritual often easily cut poorly trained peasantry minamoto clan proved successful


due rural alliances taira destroyed minamoto established military government called shogunate bakufu centered kamakura kamakura period end genpei war establishment kamakura shogunate marked end heian period beginning kamakura period solidifying feudal japan southeast asia khmers hindu buddhist temple angkor wat jayavarman ii consolidated rule neighboring peoples declared chakravartin universal ruler khmer empire effectively dominated mainland southeast asia early th


th century time developed sophisticated monumental architecture exquisite expression mastery composition angkor vietnam early modern map asia eastern world also included continent australia known new holland within realm russian empire began expand asia th century would eventually take control siberia central asia end th century ottoman empire controlled anatolia middle east north africa balkans th century onwards


th century manchu conquered china established qing dynasty th century mughal empire controlled much india initiated second golden age india china largest economy world much time followed india th century ming china zhu yuanzhang claimed hongwu emperor established ming dynasty china immediately new emperor followers drove mongols culture china beyond great wall new emperor somewhat suspicious scholars


built many irrigation systems public projects provided help peasant farmers also allowed cultivate claim unoccupied land without pay taxes labor demands lowered however none able stop rising landlord class gained many privileges government slowly gained control peasantry moneylenders foreclosed peasant debt exchange mortgages bought farmer land forcing become landlords' tenants wander elsewhere work also time neo confucianism intensified even previous


two dynasties song yuan focus superiority elders youth men women teachers students resulted minor discrimination inferior classes fine arts grew ming era improved techniques brush painting depicted scenes court city country life people scholars travelers beauty mountains lakes marshes chinese novel fully developed era classics written ''water margin'' ''journey west'' ''jin ping mei'' economics grew rapidly ming dynasty well


introduction american crops maize sweet potatoes peanuts allowed cultivation crops infertile land helped prevent famine population boom began song dynasty accelerated china 's population went million million three centuries culminating paralleled market economy growing internally externally silk tea ceramics lacquer ware produced artisans traded asia europeans westerners began trade chinese assigned limits primarily port towns macau canton although merchants benefited greatly


land remained primary symbol wealth china traders' riches often put acquiring land therefore little riches used private enterprises could 've allowed china develop market economy often accompanied highly successful western countries foreign interests view fort st george th century madras interest national glory chinese began sending impressive junk ships across south china sea indian ocean yongle emperor commissioned expeditions led admiral zheng muslim eunuch


china chinese junks carrying hundreds soldiers goods animals zoos traveled southeast asia persia southern arabia east africa show chinese power prowess exceeded current europeans time expeditions ended world economy may different today chinese government decided cost navy unnecessary expense chinese navy slowly dismantled focus interior reform military defense began china 's longstanding priority protect nomads accordingly returned


growing limits chinese navy would leave vulnerable foreign invasion sea later jesuit adam schall von bell dressed official chinese department astronomy inevitable westerners arrived chinese east coast primarily jesuit missionaries reached mainland attempted convert chinese people christianity first converting top social hierarchy allowing lower classes subsequently convert gain support many jesuits adopted chinese dress customs language chinese scholars interested


certain western teachings especially western technology jesuit scholars like matteo ricci adam schall amazed chinese elite technological advances european clocks improved calendars cannons accurate prediction eclipses although scholar gentry converted many suspicious westerners called barbarians even resented embarrassment received hand western correction nevertheless small group jesuit scholars remained court impress emperor advisors decline dutch batavia th century built


north jakarta near end extremely centralized government gave much power emperor begun fail incompetent rulers took mantle along weak rulers came increasingly corrupt officials took advantage decline public projects fell disrepair due neglect bureaucracy resulted floods drought famine rocked peasantry famine soon became terrible peasants resorted selling children slavery save starvation eating bark feces


geese people many landlords abused situation building large estates desperate farmers would work exploited turn many farmers resorted flight banditry open rebellion corresponded usual dynastic decline china seen well growing foreign threats mid th century japanese ethnic chinese pirates began raid southern coast neither bureaucracy military able stop threat northern manchu people also grew manchu already large state north china


claimed loyalist ming official called support manchus put new dynasty shun dynasty ended within year manchu within great wall taking advantage situation manchus marched chinese capital beijing within two decades china belonged manchu qing dynasty established korea joseon dynasty gyeonghoeru gyeongbokgung joseon dynasty 's royal palace early modern korea year old kingdom goryeo fell new dynasty joseon rose august taejo joseon changed country 's name


war ming ming 's alliance joseon threatening second invasion joseon obey qing qing defeated ming took whole chinese territories joseon also obey qing joseon lose second war qing qing invasion princes joseon dynasty lived childhood china son king injo met adam schall beijing wanted introduce western technologies korean people becomes king unfortunately died could take throne alternative


japan reversed th century japan became powerful korea china either joseon sent diplomats called 'sooshinsa' learn japanese advanced technologies king jeongjo 's death noble families controlled whole kingdom early th century end period western people invaded joseon joseon set free qing obey qing japanese empire happy joseon became perfect independent kingdom japan could intervene kingdom joseon traded united states


sent 'sooshinsa' japan 'youngshinsa' qing 'bobingsa' us europe groups took many modern things korean peninsula japan tokugawa edo period ''the great wave kanagawa'' c hokusai example art flourishing edo period early modern japan following sengoku period warring states central government largely reestablished oda nobunaga toyotomi hideyoshi azuchi momoyama period battle sekigahara central authority fell tokugawa ieyasu completed process received title ' 'sh gun''


society japanese tokugawa period see edo society unlike shogunates based strict class hierarchy originally established toyotomi hideyoshi ' 'daimy s'' feudal lords top followed warrior caste samurai farmers artisans merchants ranking country strictly closed foreigners exceptions ''sakoku'' policy literacy rose two centuries isolation parts country particularly smaller regions ' 'daimy s'' samurai less identical since ' 'daimy s'' might trained samurai samurai might act local


death mughal emperor aurangzeb ref name bbc ref although dynasty continued another years period empire marked highly centralized administration connecting different regions significant monuments mughals visible legacy date period characterised expansion persian cultural influence indian subcontinent brilliant literary artistic architectural results maratha empire located south west present day india expanded greatly rule peshwas prime ministers maratha empire maratha army


lost third battle panipat ahmad shah durrani king afghanistan halted imperial expansion empire divided confederacy maratha states british dutch colonization european economic naval powers pushed asia first trading take major colonies dutch led way followed british portugal arrived first weak maintain small holdings largely pushed retaining goa macau british set private organization east india company handled


gear dutch east india company british east india company dissolved respective governments took direct administration colonies thailand spared experience foreign rule although thailand also greatly affected power politics western powers colonial rule profound effect southeast asia colonial powers profited much region 's vast resources large market colonial rule develop region varying extent late modern central asia great game russia vs great britain emir sher ali


rival friends russian bear british lion great game political diplomatic confrontation great britain russia afghanistan neighbouring territories central south asia lasted war many threats russia fearful british commercial military inroads central asia britain fearful russia threatening largest important possession india resulted atmosphere distrust constant threat war two empires britain made high


priority protect approaches india great game primarily british terms possible russian threat historians access archives concluded russia plans involving india russians repeatedly stated great game began britain decided gain control emirate afghanistan make protectorate use ottoman empire persian empire khanate khiva emirate bukhara buffer states empires would protect india also


key british sea trade routes stopping russia gaining port persian gulf indian ocean russia proposed afghanistan neutral zone final result diving afghanistan neutral zone middle russian areas north british south important episodes included failed first anglo afghan war first anglo sikh war second anglo sikh war second anglo afghan war annexation kokand russia novel ''kim'' rudyard kipling made term popular


introduced new implication great power rivalry became even popular advent soviet afghan war ref name seymour becker seymour becker great game history evocative phrase ''asian affairs'' ref qing china qing empire northern manchu people conquered ming dynasty established foreign dynasty qing dynasty manchu qing emperors especially confucian scholar kangxi remained largely conservative retaining bureaucracy scholars within well confucian ideals present chinese society however changes economy new


attempts resolving certain issues occurred included increased trade western countries brought large amounts silver chinese economy exchange tea porcelain silk textiles allowed new merchant class compradors develop addition repairs done existing dikes canals roadways irrigation works combined lowering taxes government assigned labor supposed calm peasant unrest however qing failed control growing landlord class begun exploit peasantry abuse position late th century internal


external issues began arise qing china 's politics society economy exam system scholars assigned bureaucracy became increasingly corrupt bribes forms cheating allowed inexperienced inept scholars enter bureaucracy eventually caused rampant neglect peasantry military previously mentioned infrastructure projects poverty banditry steadily rose especially rural areas mass migrations looking work throughout china occurred perpetually conservative government refused make reforms could resolve issues opium war china saw status reduced perceived


parasitic trade westerners originally european traders disadvantage chinese cared little goods european demand chinese commodities tea porcelain grew order tip trade imbalance favor british merchants began sell indian opium chinese sap chinese bullion reserves also led widespread drug addiction amongst bureaucracy society general ban placed opium early yongzheng emperor little done enforce early th


century new daoguang emperor government began serious efforts eradicate opium chinese society leading endeavour respected scholar officials including imperial commissioner lin zexu lin destroyed chests opium summer europeans demanded compensation saw unwarranted chinese interference affairs paid british declared war later year starting became known first opium war outdated chinese junks match advanced british gunboats soon yangzi river region came threat


port arthur warlord era china zhang zuolin established northeast china murdered japanese independent former chinese emperor puyi placed throne lead japanese puppet state manchukuo august soviet union invaded region northeast china base area mao zedong 's people 's liberation army chinese civil war encouragement kremlin area used staging ground civil


going become neutral nation unfortunately russo japanese war japan ignored eventually japan russian empire started invade korea japan first stole right diplomacy korean empire illegally every western country ignored invasion knew japan became strong country defeated russian empire emperor gojong sent diplomats dutch city known hague let everyone know japan stole empire 's right illegally failed diplomats could n't go conference room japan kicked gojong


parts asia remained free european control although influence persia thailand china twentieth century imperial japan expanded china southeast asia world war ii war many asian countries became independent european powers cold war northern parts asia communist controlled soviet union people 's republic china western allies formed pacts cento seato conflicts korean war vietnam war soviet invasion afghanistan fought communists anti communists


decades second world war massive restructuring plan drove japan become world 's second largest economy phenomenon known japanese post war economic miracle arab israeli conflict dominated much recent history middle east soviet union 's collapse many new independent nations central asia china prior world war ii china faced civil war mao zedong 's communist party chiang kai shek 's nationalist party nationalists appeared lead however japanese invaded two parties forced


form temporary cease fire order defend china nationalists faced many military failures caused lose territory subsequently respect chinese masses contrast communists' use guerilla warfare led lin biao proved effective japanese 's conventional methods put communist party top also gained popularity reforms already applying controlled areas including land redistribution education reforms widespread health care next four years nationalists would forced retreat small island east china known


taiwan formerly known formosa remain today mainland china people 's republic china established communist party mao zedong state chairman communist government china defined party cadres hard line officers controlled people 's liberation army controlled large amounts bureaucracy system controlled central committee additionally supported state chairman considered head government people 's republic 's foreign policies included repressing secession attempts mongolia tibet supporting north korea


north vietnam korean war vietnam war respectively china ussr became adversaries battling worldwide control local communist movements today china plays important roles world economics politics china today world 's second largest economy second fastest growing economy korea third inter korean summit held south korean president moon jae north korean supreme leader kim jong un historical event symbolized peace asia period korean war occurred korea divided north south syngman


rhee became first president south korea kim il sung became supreme leader north korea war president south korea syngman rhee tries become dictator april revolution occurred eventually syngman rhee exiled country park chung hee empowered military coup d' tat dispatched republic korea army vietnam war age economy south korea outran north korea although park chung hee improved nation 's economy dictator people n't like eventually


murdered kim jae gyu chun doo hwan empowered another coup tat military oppressed resistances city gwangju event called 'gwangju uprising' despite gwangju uprising chun doo hwan became president people resisted movement called 'june struggle' result gwangju uprising june struggle south korea finally became democratic republic roh tae woo kim young sam kim dae jung roh moo hyun lee myung bak park geun hye moon jae elected president order


north korea far wealthier south korea south korea begins outrun north korean economy south korea ranked world gdp ranking see also ancient asian history history southeast asia prehistoric asia references bibliography cotterell arthur ''asia concise history'' cotterell arthur ''western power asia slow rise swift fall '' popular history https wwwamazoncom western power asia slow swift dp excerpt curtin philip ''the world west european challenge overseas response age empire''


embree ainslie carol gluck eds '' asia western world history guide teaching'' sharpe embree ainslie ed ''encyclopedia asian history'' https archiveorg details encyclopediaofas unse page n mode vol online https archiveorg details encyclopediaofas unse page n mode vol online https archiveorg details encyclopediaofas unse l c page n mode vol online https archiveorg details encyclopediaofas embr vol online fairbank john k edwin reischauer '' history east asian civilization volume one east asia great tradition'' ''a history east asian civilization volume two east asia modern transformation'' https archiveorg searchphpquery creator fairbank reischauer online free borrow macnair harley farnsworth donald f lach ''modern far eastern international


relations'' https archiveorg details inernetdli online free moffett samuel hugh ''a history christianity asia vol ii '' https wwwamazoncom history christianity asia vol dp ref tmm pap swatch encoding utf qid sr excerpt murphey rhoads ''a history asia'' th ed https wwwamazoncom history asia rhoads murphey dp excerpt also https archiveorg details historyofasia rhoa online paine c ''the wars asia '' https wwwamazoncom wars asia paine dp excerpt stearns peter n william l langer ''the encyclopedia world history ancient medieval modern'' regions adshead samuel adrian miles ''central asia world history'' springer best antony ''the international history east asia trade ideology quest order'' https wwwquestiacom library international history east asia online catchpole brian ''a


map history modern china'' new maps diagrams clyde paul herbert ''international rivalries manchuria '' nd ed https archiveorg details inernetdli online free clyde paul h burton h beers ''the far east history western impact eastern response '' th ed pp clyde paul hibbert ''the far east history impact west eastern asia'' rd ed https archiveorg details inernetdli online free pp ebrey patricia buckley anne walthall james palais ''east asia cultural social political history'' pp also vol edition split fenby jonatham ''the penguin history


https wwwjstororg stable online lockard craig ''southeast asia world history'' oxford ludden david ''india south asia short history'' mansfield peter nicolas pelham ''a history middle east'' th ed park hye jeong east asian odyssey towards one region problem east asia historiographical category ''history compass'' http wwwacademiaedu download eastasiapublishedpdf online ropp paul ''china world history'' oxford economic history allen gc ''a short economic history modern japan '' https archiveorg details inernetdli page n online also https archiveorg details shorteconomichis alle edition free borrow cowan cd ed