committee hb sb introduced villarreal bill would required instruction contraceptive use scientifically accurate taught part school 's sexual health curriculum receive hearing scientific evidence accumulated many decades demonstrates abstinence married aoum curriculum taught texas schools harmful ineffective reducing adolescent pregnancy rate texas despite facts recently published ''journal adolescent health'' aoum programs continue funded us government fact us government spent


billion last years prohibit comprehensive sex education public schools choosing instead fund aoum curriculum adolescent pregnancy rates continue rise catholic schools texas follow catholic church teachings regard sex education opponents sex education catholic schools believe sex ed programs harm young good opponents sex education contend children mentally emotionally ready type instruction believe exposing young sex ed programs may foster students preoccupation

Social science
Sociology
Sexology
Sex education


sex catholic church believes parents first educators rightfully fight duty regard sex education ''humanae vitae'' teaches faithful must form 'consciences' guide christ like decision making regard sex education young engage premarital sex adultery fornication acts impurity scandals others pope john paul ii says sex education basic right duty parents oceania australia government victoria australia developed policy promotion ''health human relations


education'' schools introduced state 's primary secondary schools initiative developed implemented honorable norman lacy mp minister educational services ''consultative council health human relations education'' established december chairmanship dame margaret blackwood members possessed considerable expertise area council three major functions advise consulted aspects health human relations' education schools develop consideration government appropriate curriculum


schools advise recommend standards service courses teachers relevant members school community support services consultative council provided new health human relations unit within special services division education department victoria responsible implementation government 's policy guidelines area unit advised principals school councils teachers parents tertiary institutions others aspects ''health human relations education'' consultative council recommended adoption set guidelines provision


''health human relations education'' schools well curriculum statement assist schools development programs presented victorian cabinet december adopted government policy march respectful relationships education core part victoria 's curriculum become mandatory state schools students also specifically taught consent new zealand new zealand sexuality education part health physical education curriculum compulsory first ten years schooling years


optional beyond sexual reproductive health education begins year approximately age although broader issues physical emotional social development personal interpersonal skills non sexual relationships begin early year approximately age ref name nzmoe ref health curriculum including sexuality education component part new zealand curriculum former english medium schools latter ori medium schools state state integrated schools must legally consult school community regarding delivery consultations must occur least every two years parents ask


children removed sexuality education component health curriculum reason provided apply writing school principal least hours beforehand alternative arrangements made however prevent teacher answering sexuality education questions student excluded asks ref name nzmoe morality two opposing sides sex education argument amongst parents sexual liberals see knowledge sex equipping individuals make informed decisions personal sexuality favor comprehensive sexual education


throughout schooling high school sexual conservatives see knowledge sex encouraging adolescents sex believe sex taught inside family order morals included conversation sexual conservatives see importance teaching sex education abstinence programs another viewpoint sex education historically inspired sexologists wilhelm reich psychologists sigmund freud james w prescott holds stake sex education control body liberation social control proponents


encourage acceptance consider immoral practices homosexuality premarital sex naturally believe homosexuality premarital sex normal part range human sexuality disagree many religions teach sexual behavior outside marriage immoral psychologically damaging many adherents desire morality taught part sex education may believe sexual knowledge necessary simply unavoidable hence preference curricula based abstinence lgbt sex education one major source controversy realm sex education whether


lgbt sex education integrated school curricula ref name nyt lgbt sex education includes inclusive teaching safe sex practices lesbian gay bisexual transgender individuals general instruction topics related sexual orientation gender identity studies shown many schools offer education today ref name formby five states alabama louisiana mississippi oklahoma texas laws place ban teaching lgbt sex education lgbt students heard anything positive community reported gay lesbian straight education network glsen report


likely hear positive information lgbt people history social studies class rather health class pro lgbt proponents lgbt sex education argue encompassing homosexuality curricula would provide lgbt students sexual health information need ref name csw ref help ameliorate problems low self esteem depression research shown present lgbt individuals ref name cap ref also claim could reduce homophobic bullying ref name cap ref name hp ref example lgbt inclusive curriculum introduced national sexuality education standards set forth future


sex education initiative education standards outline seven core topics must addressed sex education one core topics identity identity topic presents lesbian gay bisexual transgender identities possibilities students progress life come understand standards future sex education argues start kindergarten evolve complex topics throughout schooling students mature age uk bigtalk education 's growing safe programme includes lgbt relationship education primary school age awarded pamela


sheridan award innovation good practice relationships sex education rse services projects young people anti lgbt opponents often argue teaching lgbt sex education would disrespectful religions ref name nyt ref expose students inappropriate topics ref name formby ref say including homosexuality curriculum would violate parents' rights control children exposed schools inflict particular political view students ref name christian post ref currently many sex education curricula include lgbt topics research reported students often feel


ugochukwu ejinkeonye may https webarchiveorg web http englishforschungsexualaufklaerungde html standards sexuality education europe study commissioned german federal centre health education https webarchiveorg web http wwwenglishforschungsexualaufklaerungde html youth sexuality internet age study commissioned german federal centre health education external links http wwwsiecusorg sexuality information education council united states siecus https webarchiveorg web http wwwnvshnl english indexhtm nederlandse vereniging voor seksuele hervorming dutch society sexual reform prevention hiv aids sexuality society harm reduction


abstract identifiable artistic expressions bc ad informal scientific descriptions fish represented within judeo christian tradition old testament laws kashrut forbade consumption fish without scales appendages theologians ichthyologists believe apostle peter contemporaries harvested fish today sold modern industry along sea galilee presently known lake kinneret fish include cyprinids genera ''barbus'' ''mirogrex'' cichlids genus ''sarotherodon'' ''mugil cephalus'' family mugilidae bc ad aristotle incorporated ichthyology formal scientific study

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Ichthyology


bc provided earliest taxonomic classification fish accurately describing species mediterranean fish ref name gudger ref furthermore aristotle documented anatomical behavioral differences fish marine mammals death pupils continued ichthyological research theophrastus example composed treatise amphibious fish romans although less devoted science wrote extensively fish pliny elder notable roman naturalist compiled ichthyological works indigenous greeks including verifiable ambiguous peculiarities sawfish mermaid respectively pliny 's documentation last significant contribution ichthyology


european renaissance european renaissance writings three th century scholars hippolito salviani pierre belon guillaume rondelet signify conception modern ichthyology investigations individuals based upon actual research comparison ancient recitations property popularized emphasized discoveries despite prominence rondelet 's ''de piscibus marinis'' regarded influential identifying species fish th th century incremental alterations navigation shipbuilding throughout renaissance marked commencement new epoch ichthyology renaissance culminated era exploration colonization


upon cosmopolitan interest navigation came specialization naturalism georg marcgrave saxony composed ''naturalis brasilae'' document contained description species fish indigenous brazilian coastline john ray francis willughby collaboratively published ''historia piscium'' scientific manuscript containing species fish newly discovered fish contained within informative literature arranged provisional system classification frontispiece ''ichthyologia sive opera omnia de piscibus'' peter artedi classification used within ''historia piscium'' developed carl linnaeus


north american native fish association panhellenic society technologists ichthyologists society integrative comparative biology society northwestern vertebrate biology society preservation natural history collections southeastern fish council southwestern association naturalists world conservation union notable ichthyologists members list meet one following criteria author fish taxon names author major reference work ichthyology founder major journal museum person notable reasons also worked ichthyology alexander emanuel agassiz louis agassiz


emperor akihito japan gerald r allen peter artedi herbert r axelrod william ayres california spencer fullerton baird tarleton hoffman bean lev berg russia henry bryant bigelow pieter bleeker east indies marcus elieser bloch george albert boulenger jean cadenat pierre carbonnier eugenie clark leonard compagno edward drinker cope georges cuvier francis day india francis buchanan hamilton scottish carl h eigenmann rosa smith eigenmann william n eschmeyer barton warren evermann henry weed fowler joseph paul gaimard samuel garman charles henry gilbert theodore nicholas gill charles fr ric girard george brown goode albert g nther albert william herre carl l hubbs david starr jordan


ichthyology gis meristics references additional references bond carl e ''biology fish'' saunders nelson joseph ''fish world'' wiley michael barton ''bond 's biology fish'' third edition julet pauly froese r palomares ml stergiou ki http wwwfishbaseorg fishonline english indexhtm ''fish line version '' guide learning teaching ichthyology using fishbase information system external links http wwwbriancoadcom mainasppage fishdictionaryhtm brian coad 's dictionary ichthyology https webarchiveorg web http www biologyualbertaca jacksonhp iwr ichthyology web resources http wwwprosantanet ichhtm list ichthyologists subfields zoology


katsushika hokusai ''the underwave kanagawa'' color woodcut rijksmuseum collection rembrandt ''self portrait'' etching c francisco goya ''there one help them'' ''disasters war'' series aquatint c '''printmaking''' process creating artworks printing normally paper also fabric wood metal surfaces traditional printmaking normally covers process creating prints using hand processed technique rather photographic reproduction visual artwork would printed using electronic machine printer however cross traditional digital printmaking including risograph except

Humanities
Visual arts
Applied arts
Printmaking


case monotyping printmaking processes capacity produce identical multiples artwork called print print produced considered original work art correctly referred impression copy means different print copying first common early printmaking however impressions vary considerably whether intentionally master printmakers technicians capable printing identical impressions hand historically many printed images created preparatory study drawing print copies another work


art especially painting known reproductive print prints created transferring ink matrix sheet paper material variety techniques common types matrices include metal etching plates usually copper zinc polymer plates thicker plastic sheets engraving etching stone aluminum polymer lithography blocks wood woodcuts wood engravings linoleum linocuts screens made silk synthetic fabrics used screen printing process types matrix substrates related processes discussed multiple


impressions printed matrix form edition since late th century artists generally signed individual impressions edition often number impressions form limited edition matrix destroyed prints produced prints may also printed book form illustrated books artist 's books techniques overview printmaking techniques generally divided following basic categories relief ink applied original surface matrix carved displaced grooves absent ink relief techniques include


woodcut woodblock wood engraving linocut metalcut intaglio ink forced grooves cavities surface matrix intaglio techniques include collagraphy engraving etching mezzotint aquatint planographic matrix retains original surface specially prepared inked allow transfer image planographic techniques include lithography monotyping digital techniques stencil ink paint pressed prepared screen including screen printing risograph pochoir type printmaking outside group viscosity printing contemporary printmaking may include digital printing photographic mediums combination


digital photographic traditional processes many techniques also combined especially within family example rembrandt 's prints usually referred etchings convenience often include work engraving drypoint well sometimes etching woodcut div style width float right margin px padding px border px solid aa artists using technique include albrecht rer hans burgkmair ugo da carpi hiroshige hokusai frans masereel gustave baumann ernst ludwig kirchner eric slater antonio frasconi div f lix vallotton ''la raison probante cogent reason '' woodcut


run printing press print color separate blocks used color technique called reduction printing used reduction printing name used describe process using one block print several layers color one print woodcuts linocuts employ reduction printing usually involves cutting small amount block away printing block many times different sheets washing block cutting away printing next color top allows previous


color show process repeated many times advantages process one block needed different components intricate design line perfectly disadvantage artist moves next layer prints made another variation woodcut printmaking cukil technique made famous taring padi underground community java indonesia taring padi posters usually resemble intricately printed cartoon posters embedded political messages images usually resembling visually complex scenario carved unto wooden surface called


cukilan smothered printer 's ink pressing unto media paper canvas engraving ''melencolia i'' engraving albrecht rer one important printmakers process developed germany engraving used goldsmiths decorate metalwork engravers use hardened steel tool called burin cut design surface metal plate traditionally made copper engraving using burin generally difficult skill learn gravers come variety shapes sizes yield different line types


burin produces unique recognizable quality line characterized steady deliberate appearance clean edges tools mezzotint rockers roulettes tool fine toothed wheel burnishers tool used making object smooth shiny rubbing used texturing effects make print engraved plate inked ink wiped surface leaving ink engraved lines plate put high pressure printing press together sheet paper often moistened soften


paper picks ink engraved lines making print process repeated many times typically several hundred impressions copies could printed printing plate shows much sign wear except drypoint gives much shallower lines used th century true engraving revived serious art form artists including stanley william hayter whose atelier paris new york city became magnet artists pablo picasso alberto giacometti mauricio lasansky joan mir etching div style width float right margin px


metal leaving behind lines plate remaining ground cleaned plate printing process engraving although first dated etching albrecht rer process believed invented daniel hopfer c ndash augsburg germany decorated armor way applied method printmaking etching soon came challenge engraving popular printmaking medium great advantage unlike engraving requires special skill metalworking etching relatively easy learn artist


trained drawing etching prints generally linear often contain fine detail contours lines vary smooth sketchy etching opposite woodcut raised portions etching remain blank crevices hold ink non toxic form etching involve acid electroetching mezzotint div style width float right margin px padding px border px solid aa artists using technique include john martin ludwig von siegen john smith wallerant vaillant carol wax div intaglio variant engraving image formed


subtle gradations light shade mezzotint italian mezzo half tinta tone dark manner form printmaking requires artists work dark light create mezzotint surface copper printing plate roughened evenly aid tool known rocker image formed smoothing surface tool known burnisher inked roughened areas plate hold ink print darkly smoother areas plate hold less ink


print lightly however possible create image roughening plate selectively working light dark mezzotint known luxurious quality tones first evenly finely roughened surface holds lot ink allowing deep solid colors printed secondly process smoothing texture burin burnisher scraper allows fine gradations tone developed mezzotint printmaking method invented ludwig von siegen process used widely england mid eighteenth century


create tonal effect rosin applied light dusting fan booth rosin cooked set plate time rosin burnished scratched affect tonal qualities tonal variation controlled level acid exposure large areas thus image shaped large sections time contemporary printmakers also sometimes using airbrushed asphaltum spray paint well non toxic techniques achieve aquatint due rosin boxes posing fire hazard goya used aquatint


prints drypoint div style width float right margin px padding px border px solid aa artists using technique include mary cassatt francis seymour haden master housebook richard spare william lionel wyllie div ''the three crosses'' drypoint rembrandt variant engraving done sharp point rather v shaped burin engraved lines smooth hard edged drypoint scratching leaves rough burr edges line burr gives drypoint prints characteristically soft sometimes blurry line quality pressure printing quickly destroys


burr drypoint useful small editions ten twenty impressions counter allow longer print runs electro plating called steelfacing used since nineteenth century harden surface plate technique appears invented housebook master south german fifteenth century artist whose prints drypoint among famous artists old master print albrecht rer produced three drypoints abandoning technique rembrandt used frequently usually conjunction etching engraving lithography


acid applied transferring grease protected design limestone leaving image 'burned' surface gum arabic water soluble substance applied sealing surface stone covered drawing medium stone wetted water staying surface covered grease based residue drawing stone 'rolled up' meaning oil ink applied roller covering entire surface since water repels oil ink ink adheres greasy parts perfectly inking image sheet dry paper


instead limestone invented seishi ozaku japan originally called mokurito screenprinting div style width float right margin px padding px border px solid aa artists using technique include josef albers ralston crawford gene davis robert indiana roy lichtenstein julian opie bridget riley edward ruscha andy warhol div screen printing occasionally known silkscreen serigraphy creates prints using fabric stencil technique ink simply pushed stencil surface paper often aid squeegee generally technique uses natural


synthetic 'mesh' fabric stretched tightly across rectangular 'frame' much like stretched canvas fabric silk nylon monofilament multifilament polyester even stainless steel commercial screen printing often requires high tech mechanical apparatuses calibrated materials printmakers value approach low technical requirements high quality results essential tools required squeegee mesh fabric frame stencil unlike many printmaking processes printing press required screen printing essentially stencil printing screen printing may adapted printing


image contrast paper may damp case image percent greater range tones unlike monoprinting monotyping produces unique print monotype ink removed initial pressing although subsequent reprintings sometimes possible differ greatly first print generally considered inferior second print original plate called ghost print cognate stencils watercolor solvents brushes tools often used embellish monotype print monotypes often spontaneously executed preliminary sketch


monotypes painterly method among printmaking techniques unique print essentially printed painting principal characteristic medium found spontaneity combination printmaking painting drawing media monoprint monoprinting form printmaking uses matrix woodblock litho stone copper plate produces impressions unique multiple unique impressions printed single matrix sometimes known variable edition many techniques used monoprinting including collagraph collage hand painted additions form tracing


thick ink laid table paper placed ink back paper drawn transferring ink paper monoprints also made altering type color viscosity ink used create different prints traditional printmaking techniques lithography woodcut intaglio used make monoprints mixed media prints mixed media prints may use multiple traditional printmaking processes etching woodcut letterpress silkscreen even monoprinting creation print may also incorporate elements chine colle


collage painted areas may unique ie one non editioned prints mixed media prints often experimental prints may printed unusual non traditional surfaces digital prints div style width float right margin px padding px border px solid aa artists using technique include istvan horkay ralph goings enrique chagoya div digital prints refers images printed using digital printers inkjet printers instead traditional printing press images printed variety substrates including paper cloth plastic canvas dye based inks dye based inks organic mineral dissolved mixed


liquid although synthetic derived petroleum made vegetable animal sources dyes well suited textiles liquid dye penetrates chemically bonds fiber deep penetration layers material must lose color fading apparent dyes however suitable relatively thin layers ink laid surface print pigment based inks pigment finely ground particulate substance mixed ground liquid make ink paint dissolve remains dispersed


suspended liquid pigments categorized either inorganic mineral organic synthetic ref name magnoliafaq http wwwmagnoliaeditionscom pages faqshtm printmaking faq magnolia editions ref pigment based inks much longer permanence dye based inks gicl e gicl e pron kle zhee klay kle neologism coined printmaker jack duganne digital prints made inkjet printers originally associated early dye based printers often refers pigment based prints word based french word gicleur means nozzle today fine art prints produced large format ink jet machines using ccmmyk color model


approach multiple plate color techniques number plates screens blocks produced providing different color separate plate screen block inked different color applied particular sequence produce entire picture average three four plates produced occasions printmaker may use seven plates every application another plate color interact color already applied paper must kept mind producing separation colors lightest colors


often applied first darker colors successively darkest reductionist approach producing color start lino wood block either blank simple etching upon printing color printmaker cut lino woodblock removing material apply another color reprint successive removal lino wood block expose already printed color viewer print picasso often cited inventor reduction printmaking although evidence


method use years picasso 's linocuts subtractive color concept also used offset digital print present bitmap vectorial software cmyk color spaces registration printmaking processes requiring one application ink medium problem exists line properly areas image receive ink application obvious example would multi color image color applied separate step lining results step


multistep printmaking process called registration proper registration results various components image proper place artistic reasons improper registration necessarily ruination image andy warhol known intentionally employ improper registration vary considerably process process generally involves placing substrate generally paper correct alignment printmaking element supplying coloration protective printmaking equipment protective clothing important printmakers engage etching lithography closed toed shoes long pants


whereas past printmakers put plates acid baths bare hands today printmakers use rubber gloves also wear industrial respirators protection caustic vapors acid baths built ventilation hoods protective respirators masks particle filters particularly aquatinting part aquatinting process printmaker often exposed rosin powder rosin serious health hazard especially printmakers past simply used hold breath using aquatinting booth print preservation preservation


year old print protected glass required removal old matting deacidification print conservation grade new matting modern prints onto paper protected sun moisture last incredible long time prints made using newer alkaline acid free paper life expectancy years best paper years average grades comes older prints condition print largely depends technique used make paper prints several hundred years old may better condition prints


less years old many older prints yellow brown time owing acids paper matting backing papers preserve restore older prints washing deacidification treatment stain reducing agents may order print framed ''archival'' ''conservation'' grade picture mats essential since acids within older inexpensive matting attack print even print produced using acid free paper color prints susceptible fading depending type inks used lighting sensitive prints


nationality etchers nationality printmakers nationality notes references http wwwmomaorg whatisaprint print museum modern art bamber gascoigne ''how identify prints complete guide manual mechanical processes woodcut inkjet'' https webarchiveorg web http shakespeare art museumcom prints methodhtml multi color block prints wood linoleum reduction method technique hannah tompkins https webarchiveorg web http prodalistcom catalog design handbook catalog design handbook technics visual ergonomics printmaking glossary reading beth grabowski bill fick printmaking complete guide materials processes prentice hall donna anderson ''experience printmaking'' worcester davis publications gill saunders rosie miles ''prints


museum modern art new york print http wwwmetmuseumorg toah hd prnt hd prnthtm thompson wendy printed image west history techniques timeline art history new york metropolitan museum art october http wwwpolymetaalnl beguin alfabethtm andr b guin 's dictionary enormous dictionary terms relating printing creation image http wwwmeyerovichcom info glossaryhtml another glossary modern prints http wwwbodkinprintscouk linksphp large list links museum etc online images prints http wwwcyclebackcom printsexamination judging authenticity prints masters art historian david rudd cycleback https lithographie collectioncom identifier estampe techniques impression detail printing techniques explained printmaking organizations http wwwprintcouncilorg print


council america https webarchiveorg web http wwwifpdaorg content international fine print dealers association http sgcinternationalorg sgc international formerly southern graphics council http seattleprintartsorg seattle print arts http printaustraliablogspotcom bellebyrd print australia blogspot art historian josephine severn https webarchiveorg web http wwwprintmakingartistcouk printmaking artist glossary contemporary prints http wwwiowabiennialorg iowa biennial exhibition archive contemporary prints http wwwmagical secretscom site dedicated activity printmaking thinking creatively includes footage well known artists working crown point press san francisco http wwwprintsandprintmakinggovau prints printmaking site devoted australian pacific printmaking practice history http wwwminiprintorg mini print international cadaques site longest running international


print exhibition competition catalogues archive winners exhibitions jury http midamericaprintcouncilorg mid america print council https webarchiveorg web http wwwsignprintguildorg international sign printmakers guild printing visual arts media


br br states formerly slavic areas influence byzantium catholic orthodox region era th th centuries evolved several variants church slavonic including middle bulgarian familycolor indo european fam balto slavic fam

Applied science
Divinity
Scriptural study and languages
Old Church Slavonic


slavic fam south slavic fam eastern south slavic script glagolitic cyrillic iso cu iso chu iso


chu iso comment includes church nbsp slavonic glotto chur glottoname church slavic lingua aaa notice ipa '''old church slavonic''' ref name lpd ref '''old slavonic''' ref '''old slavic''' '''paleo slavic''' paleoslavic '''palaeo slavic''' palaeoslavic confused proto slavic sometimes '''old


bulgarian''' '''old macedonian''' '''old slovenian''' first slavic literary language historians credit th century byzantine missionaries saints cyril methodius standardizing language using translating bible ancient greek ecclesiastical texts part christianization slavs thought based primarily dialect th century byzantine slavs living province thessalonica present day greece old church slavonic played important role history slavic languages served basis model later church slavonic traditions


eastern orthodox eastern catholic churches use later church slavonic liturgical language day oldest attested slavic language ocs provides important evidence features proto slavic reconstructed common ancestor slavic languages nomenclature name language old church slavonic texts simply ''slavic'' ' 'slov n sk j zyk '' ref name nandris ref derived word ''slavs'' ' 'slov ne'' self designation compilers texts name preserved modern native names slovak slovene languages language sometimes called ''old slavic'' may


confused distinct proto slavic language different strains nationalists tried 'claim' old church slavonic thus ocs also variously called ''old bulgarian'' ''old croatian'' ''old macedonian'' ''old serbian'' even ''old slovak'' ''old slovenian'' commonly accepted terms modern english language slavic studies ''old church slavonic'' ''old church slavic'' term ''old bulgarian'' designation used bulgarian language writers used numerous th century sources eg august schleicher martin hattala leopold geitler august leskien noted similarities first literary slavic works modern


bulgarian language similar reasons russian linguist aleksandr vostokov used term ''slav bulgarian'' term still used writers nowadays normally avoided favor ''old church slavonic'' term ''old macedonian'' occasionally used western scholars regional context obsolete ref name booksgooglecom ref term ''old slovenian'' ref name booksgooglecom ref name gray ref ref name kamusella used early th century scholars conjectured language based dialect pannonia history byzantine missionaries standardized language expedition two apostles cyril brother methodius great moravia territory today 's western slovakia


czech republic see glagolitic alphabet details purpose cyril methodius started translate religious literature old church slavonic allegedly basing language slavic dialects spoken hinterland hometown thessaloniki present day greece part preparations mission glagolitic alphabet developed important prayers liturgical books including ''aprakos evangeliar'' gospel book lectionary containing feast day sunday readings psalter acts apostles translated gospels also translated early unclear whether


cyril methodius hand language glagolitic alphabet taught great moravian academy used government religious documents books texts written phase contain characteristics west slavic vernaculars great moravia pope stephen v prohibited use old church slavonic great moravia favour latin king svatopluk great moravia expelled byzantine missionary contingent exiled students two apostles mainly bulgarians including clement ohrid saint naum


brought glagolitic alphabet first bulgarian empire boris bulgaria received officially accepted established two literary schools preslav literary school ohrid literary school schools originally used glagolitic alphabet though cyrillic script developed early preslav literary school superseded glagolitic official bulgaria texts written era exhibit certain linguistic features vernaculars first bulgarian empire old church slavonic spread south eastern central eastern european slavic territories notably croatia serbia


well several eastern catholic churches still use church slavonic services chants script flowery triodion'' ''triod' cvetnaja'' polish manuscript swietopelk printery cracow one oldest printed byzantine slavonic books national library poland x pxinitially old church slavonic written glagolitic alphabet later glagolitic replaced cyrillic developed first bulgarian empire decree boris bulgaria th century local bosnian cyrillic alphabet known ''bosan ica'' preserved bosnia parts croatia


fricative nasal lateral trill approximant letter denoted different sounds different dialects shown table bulgaria represented sequence normally transliterated reason farther west north probably like modern macedonian torlakian serbian croatian appears mostly early texts becoming later distinction


one hand palatal always indicated writing shown palatization diacritic letter gospel miroslav serbian medieval manuscript printed th century byzantine slavonic book national library serbia vowels style vertical align top class wikitable style text align center oral nbsp vowels front br unrounded back br unrounded back br rounded '''i''' '''y''' '''u''' ''' ''' ''' ''' '''e''' '''o''' ''' '''


'''a''' style vertical align top class wikitable style text align center nasal nbsp vowels front back ''' ''' ''' ''' accent indicated writing must inferred later languages reconstructions proto slavic pronunciation yat differed area bulgaria relatively open vowel commonly reconstructed north pronunciation closed eventually became diphthong eg modern standard bosnian croatian montenegrin modern standard serbian spoken bosnia herzegovina even many


areas eg chakavian croatian shtokavian ikavian croatian bosnian dialects ukrainian modern standard serbian spoken serbia yer vowels often called ultrashort lower centralised shorter counterparts u disappeared positions word already sporadically earliest texts frequently later also tended merge vowels particularly e differently different areas exact articulation nasal vowels unclear different areas tend


merge different vowels occasionally seen merge e south slavic becomes ja early east slavic generally merges u bulgaria apparently unrounded eventually merged phonotactics several notable constraints distribution phonemes identified mostly resulting tendencies occurring within common slavic period ''intrasyllabic synharmony'' ''law open syllables'' consonant vowel clusters sequences consonant vowel following constraints


ascertained two adjacent consonants tend share identical features manner articulation syllable ends consonant every obstruent agrees voicing following obstruent velars occur front vowels phonetically palatalized consonants occur certain back vowels back vowels well front vowels occur word initially two back vowels take prothetic v front vowels prothetic j initial may take either prothetic consonant none vowel sequences attested one lexeme ''pa ina'' 'spider 's web'


suffixes aa imperfect morpheme boundaries following vowel sequences occur ai au ao oi ou oo morphophonemic alternations result first second slavic palatalizations velars alternate dentals palatals addition result process usually termed ''iotation'' ''iodization'' velars dentals alternate palatals various inflected forms word formation class wikitable style text align center '''alternations velar consonants''' colspan original k g x sk zg sx colspan


first palatalization iotation colspan second palatalization c dz sc st zd sc class wikitable '''alternations consonants''' colspan original b p sp zd st z l sl n sn zn r tr dr colspan iotation bl' pl'


l' l' ml' n' n' n' r' tr' dr' forms alternations c dz occur corresponding velar missing dental alternants velars occur regularly declension imperative somewhat less regularly various forms r sup sup palatal alternants velars occur front vowels environments dental alternants occur well


various places inflection word formation described ref name huntley ref result earlier alternations short long vowels roots proto indo european proto balto slavic proto slavic times fronting vowels palatalized consonants following vowel alternations attested ocs nbsp nbsp u nbsp nbsp e nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp e nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp ref name huntley vowel alternations sometimes occurred result sporadic loss weak yer later occurred


almost slavic dialects phonetic value corresponding vocalized strong jer dialect specific grammar ancient indo european language ocs highly inflective morphology inflected forms divided two groups nominals verbs nominals divided nouns adjectives pronouns numerals inflect either nouns pronouns showing gender agreement well nominals declined three grammatical genders masculine feminine neuter three numbers singular plural dual seven cases nominative vocative accusative instrumental dative genitive locative five basic inflectional classes nouns ''o jo'' stems ''a ja'' stems ''i'' stems ''u'' stems


consonant stems forms throughout inflectional paradigm usually exhibit morphophonemic alternations fronting vowels palatals ''j'' yielded dual inflectional class ''o'' ''jo'' ''a'' ''ja'' whereas palatalizations affected stem synchronic process n sg ''vl k '' v sg ''vl e'' l sg ''vl c '' productive classes ''o jo '' ''a ja '' ''i'' stems sample paradigms given table class wikitable sample declensional classes nouns colspan colspan singular colspan dual colspan plural gloss stem type nom voc acc gen loc dat instr nom voc acc gen loc dat instr nom voc acc


polj poljix poljem polji woman ''f'' ena eno en eny en en enoj en enu enama eny eny en enax enam enami soul ja ''f'' du du e du du du du du ej du du u du ama du du du du ax du du ami hand ''f'' r ka r ko r k r ky r c r c r koj r c r ku r kama r ky r ky r k r kax r kam r kami bone ''f'' kost kosti kost kosti kosti kosti kost j kosti kost ju kost kosti kosti kost j kost x kost kost mi home u ''m'' dom domu dom domu domu domovi dom domy domovu dom domove domy


person number present asigmatic simple root aorist sigmatic aorist new ox aorist imperfect imperative sg ved ved v vedox ved ax sg vede vede vede vede ved e vedi sg vedet vede vede vede ved e vedi dual vedev vedov v sov vedoxov ved axov ved v dual vedeta vedeta v sta vedosta ved eta ved ta dual vedete vedete v ste vedoste ved ete plural vedem vedom v som vedoxom ved axom ved plural vedete vedete v ste vedoste ved ete ved te plural ved ved v vedo ved ax basis local influences


written evidence old church slavonic survives relatively small body manuscripts written first bulgarian empire late th early th centuries language south slavic basis admixture western slavic features inherited mission saints cyril methodius great moravia well preserved manuscript moravian recension kiev folia characterised replacement south slavic phonetic lexical features western slavic ones manuscripts written second bulgarian empire hand


western slavic features old church slavonic valuable historical linguists since preserves archaic features believed common slavic languages significantly yer extra short vowels nasal vowels near open articulation yat vowel palatal consonants proto slavic proto slavic declension system based stem endings including later disappeared attested languages ''u'' stems dual distinct grammatical number singular plural aorist imperfect proto slavic paradigms participles old church slavonic also likely


preserved extremely archaic type accentuation probably close chakavian dialect modern serbo croatian unfortunately accent marks appear written manuscripts south slavic nature language evident following variations phonetic ''ra la'' means liquid metathesis proto slavic ol clusters ' 's '' proto slavic x xai ''cv zv'' proto slavic kv gv kvai gvai morphosyntactic use dative possessive case personal pronouns nouns ' ' ''r ka ti'' hand ' ' ''ot pu ten je gr xom '' remission sins periphrastic future tense using verb ' '


''xot ti'' want use comparative form ' ' ''m niji'' smaller denote younger morphosyntactic use suffixed demonstrative pronouns ' ' ''t ta to'' bulgarian macedonian developed suffixed definite articles old church slavonic extra features common bulgarian near open articulation ''yat'' vowel still preserved bulgarian dialects rhodope mountains existence reflexes proto slavic tj gt kt dj use possessive dative personal pronouns nouns ' ' ''brat mi''


brother ' ' ''r ka ti'' hand ' ' ''ot pu ten je gr xom '' remission sins ' ' ''xram molitv '' 'house prayer' etc periphrastic compound future tense formed auxiliary verb ' ' ''xot ti'' want example ' ' ''xo pisati'' write class wikitable proto slavic ocs bulg czech maced pol rus slovak sloven cro serb class ipa class ipa


great moravia ''the introduction slavonic liturgy great moravia'' alphonse mucha ''the slav epic'' language standardized first time mission two apostles great moravia manuscripts moravian recension therefore earliest dated ocs recensions recension takes name slavic state great moravia existed central europe th century territory today 's western slovakia czech republic moravian recension recension


exemplified kiev folia certain linguistic characteristics include confusion letters ''big yus'' ''uk'' occurs kiev folia expected form ''v sud '' spelled ''v '' proto slavic tj use dj skj use words ''m a'' ''cirky'' ''pape '' ''pr facija'' ''klepati'' ''piskati'' etc preservation consonant cluster eg ''modlitvami'' use ending nbsp instead nbsp om masculine singular instrumental use pronoun first bulgarian empire simeon bulgaria morning star slavonic literature alphonse


differentiate manuscripts two recensions preferring group together macedo bulgarian simply bulgarian recension others horace lunt changed opinion time mid lunt held differences initial ocs neither great enough consistent enough grant distinction 'macedonian' recension 'bulgarian' one decade later however lunt argued favour distinction illustrating point paleographic phonological differences development old church slavonic literacy effect preventing assimilation south slavs


exarch chernorizets hrabar etc main linguistic features recension following glagolitic cyrillic alphabets used concurrently documents original supershort vowels merged one letter taking place original ascending reflex ''r '' ''l '' syllabic sometimes metathesized '' r'' '' l'' combination ordering used central vowel ''y'' merged '' i'' sometimes use letter merged verb forms ''naricaj naricaje i'' substituted


alternated ''nari jaj nari jaje i'' ohrid recension manuscripts ohrid recension western variant among oldest old church slavonic language recension sometimes named macedonian literary centre ohrid lies historical region macedonia period ohrid administratively formed part province kutmichevitsa first bulgarian empire byzantine conquest main literary centre dialect ohrid literary school whose prominent member likely founder saint clement ohrid commissioned boris bulgaria


teach instruct future clergy state slavonic language language variety used area started shaping modern macedonian dialects ref name old church slavonic horace lunt ref ref name macedonian victor friedman '' http mahimahiuchicagoedu media faculty vfriedm friedman pdf macedonian victor friedman facts world 's languages '' ref recension represented codex zographensis marianus among others main linguistic features recension include continuous usage glagolitic alphabet instead cyrillic feature called mixing confusion nasals became cluster labial consonant became


derived moravian recension used czech lands 's preserved religious texts eg prague fragments legends glosses main features psl tj kt dj gt c ts z psl stj skj ''o istjen je'' ''o enie'' ending '' '' instr sg instead '' om '' ''obraz '' verbs prefix ''vy '' instead ''iz '' promoting etymological '' dl tl '' ' 'sv tidl na v sedli'' inconsistently suppressing epenthetic ''l'' ''pr stavenie'' inconsistently '' '' original stem ''v ch '' ''v ch'' rd palatalization development yers nasals coincident development czech lands fully syllabic ''r''


''l'' ending '' my'' first person pl verbs missing terminal '' '' third person present tense indicative creating future tense using prefix ''po '' using words ''prosba request zagrada garden po adati ask potr bovati need '' conjunctions ''aby nebo'' etc later recensions later use language number medieval slavic polities resulted adjustment old church slavonic local vernacular though number south slavic moravian bulgarian features also survived significant later recensions old church slavonic referred church slavonic present time include slovene croatian serbian russian


sr jezik tongue language extensive use diacritical signs resava dialect use letters ''i y'' sound manuscripts serbian recension due ottoman conquest bulgaria serbia saw influx educated scribes clergy introduced classical form closer resembling bulgarian recension letter also created place sounds also used bosnian recession russian recension russian recension emerged th century basis earlier bulgarian recension


differed slightly main features substitution nasal sound merging letters '' '' ''ja'' middle bulgarian line ocs post ocs manuscripts arbitrary terminology varies common term middle bulgarian usually contrasted old bulgarian alternative name old church slavonic loosely used manuscripts whose language demonstrates broad spectrum regional temporal dialect features th century bosnian recension bosnian recension used bosnian cyrillic alphabet better known ''bosan ica'' glagolitic alphabet use letters ''i '' sound


bosnian manuscripts letter used place sounds croatian recension croatian recension old church slavonic used glagolitic alphabet angular croatian type shows development following characteristics denasalisation psl e psl u eg cr ''ruka'' ocs ''r ka'' hand cr ''jezik'' ocs ''j zyk '' tongue language psl eg cr ''biti'' ocs ''byti'' psl weak positioned yers merged probably representing schwa like sound one letters


used usually ' ' evident earliest documents like ba ka tablet psl strong positioned yers vocalized tokavian akavian speeches eg cr ''pas'' ocs ''p '' dog psl hard soft syllabic liquids r r retained syllabicity written simply r opposed ocs sequences mostly r r eg ''krst '' ''trg '' opposed ocs ''kr st '' ''tr g '' cross market psl v c v c uc eg cr ''udova'' ocs ''v dova'' widow canon core corpus old church slavonic manuscripts usually referred


century codex zographensis zo folios th th century codex marianus mar folios early th century codex assemanius ass folios early th century psalterium sinaiticum pas ps sin folios th century euchologium sinaiticum eu euch folios th century glagolita clozianus clo cloz folios th century ohrid folios ohr folios th century rila folios ri ril folios fragments th century cyrillic manuscripts preslav recension preslav literary school date th century except zographos ohrid recension ohrid literary school sava 's


book sa sav folios codex suprasliensis supr folios enina apostle en enin folios hilandar folios hds hil folios undol 'skij 's fragments und folios macedonian folio mac folio zographos fragments zogr fr folios sluck psalter ps sl sl folios sample text lord 's prayer old church slavonic cyrillic ipa transliteration translation poem poem poem father thou art heavens may hallowed thy name may come thy empire may become thy heaven also earth


supersubstantial bread give us day release us debts also release debtors lead us temptation free us evil thine empire power glory unto ages ages amen poem authors history old church slavonic writing includes northern tradition begun mission great moravia including short mission lower pannonia bulgarian tradition begun missionaries relocated bulgaria expulsion great moravia old church slavonic 's


first writings translations christian liturgical biblical texts produced byzantine missionaries saint cyril saint methodius mostly mission great moravia important authors old church slavonic death methodius dissolution great moravian academy clement ohrid active also great moravia constantine preslav chernorizetz hrabar john exarch worked medieval bulgaria end th beginning th century second book enoch preserved old church slavonic although original


certainly greek even hebrew aramaic modern slavic nomenclature names used speakers modern slavic languages ' 'staras avianskaja mova'' old slavic language ' 'starob lgarski'' old bulgarian ' 'staroslavjanski'' old slavic old slavic ' 'staroslovenski'' old slavic old church slavic ' 'staroslavj nskij jaz k'' old slavic language old slavic old slavic old church slavic ' 'starotserkovnoslovjans'ka mova'' old church slavic language see also history bulgarian language church slavonic language old east slavic list glagolitic manuscripts proto slavic language slavonic serbian notes references bibliography external links https lrclautexasedu eieol ocsol old church slavonic online


todd b krause jonathan slocum free online lessons https liberalartsutexasedu lrc linguistics research center university texas austin http wwwaatseelorg medieval slavic font medieval slavic fonts aatseel https webarchiveorg web http andregarziaon revcom richmond langtoolshtml old slavic data entry application http wwwhelsinkifi slaavilaiset ccmh corpus cyrillo methodianum helsingiense electronic corpus old church slavonic texts https webarchiveorg web http wwwlibraryillinoisedu spx webct subjectresources subsourgen lingocs htm research guide old church slavonic bible old church slavonic language russian redaction https wikisourceorg wiki cc b bb b wikisource https azbykaru biblia misc tsyapdf pdf https appsapplecom ru app b b b bb b f b bd b b bb c bd b b bf b b b b id iphone https playgooglecom store apps detailsid orgalexsembibcs android https webarchiveorg web http wwwmanuedumk cal cal seg staroslovenskipdf old church slavonic macedonian recension church slavonic language elka ulchar vittore pisani https wwwscribdcom doc vittore pisani mater europa old bulgarian language sofia bukvitza english bulgarian italian philipp


ammon http sjanige sjani pdf ''tractatus slavonicus'' ''sjani thoughts georgian scientific journal literary theory comparative literature'' n pp nbsp https spwuni goettingende projects aig lng chuhtml glottoth que ancient indo european grammars online online collection introductory videos ancient indo european languages produced university g ttingen languages attested th century history eastern orthodoxy extinct languages europe extinct slavic languages great moravia history macedonia region christian liturgical languages medieval bulgarian literature medieval languages medieval macedonia medieval serbia


marbled godwit ringed studies bird migration '''ornithology''' branch zoology concerns methodological study consequent knowledge birds relates several aspects ornithology differ related disciplines due partly high visibility aesthetic appeal birds ref name newton ref also area large contribution made amateurs terms time resources financial support studies birds helped develop key concepts biology including evolution behaviour ecology definition species process speciation

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Ornithology


instinct learning ecological niches guilds island biogeography phylogeography conservation ref name mayr ref early ornithology principally concerned descriptions distributions species ornithologists today seek answers specific questions often using birds models test hypotheses predictions based theories modern biological theories apply across life forms number scientists identify ornithologists therefore declined ref name bibby wide range tools techniques used ornithology inside laboratory field innovations constantly made biologists recognise ornithologists study


specific categories anatomy taxonomy ecology lifestyles behaviours though applied range biological practises etymology collection bird skins belonging family cotingidae word ornithology comes late th century latin ''ornithologia'' meaning bird science greek ''ornis'' bird ''logos'' theory science thought history history ornithology largely reflects trends history biology well many scientific disciplines including ecology anatomy physiology paleontology recently molecular biology trends include move mere descriptions identification


patterns thus towards elucidating processes produce patterns early knowledge study humans observational relationship birds since prehistory stone age drawings amongst oldest indications interest birds ref name gurney jh ref birds perhaps important food sources bones many species found excavations early stone age settlements waterbird seabird remains also found shell mounds island oronsay coast scotland ref name gurney jh geese wall panel tomb


nefermaat egypt c bc cultures around world rich vocabularies related birds traditional bird names often based detailed knowledge behaviour many names onomatopoeic still use traditional knowledge may also involve use birds folk medicine knowledge practices passed oral traditions see ethno ornithology hunting wild birds well domestication would required considerable knowledge habits poultry farming falconry practised early times many parts world artificial incubation poultry practised


china around bc around least bc egypt egyptians also made use birds hieroglyphic scripts many though stylized still identifiable speciesbelon 's comparison birds humans ''book birds'' early written records provide valuable information past distributions species instance xenophon records abundance ostrich assyria anabasis subspecies asia minor extinct extant ostrich races today restricted africa old writings vedas bc demonstrate careful observation


avian life histories include earliest reference habit brood parasitism asian koel ''eudynamys scolopacea'' like writing early art china japan persia india also demonstrate knowledge examples scientifically accurate bird illustrations aristotle bc ''historia animalium'' noted habit bird migration moulting egg laying lifespans well compiling list different bird species however also introduced propagated several myths idea swallows hibernated winter although noted cranes migrated steppes scythia


ad pliny elder described birds among creatures ''historia naturalis'' earliest record falconry comes reign sargon ii bc assyria falconry thought made entry europe ad brought east invasions huns alans starting eighth century numerous arabic works subject general ornithology written well translations works ancient writers greek syriac th th centuries crusades conquest subjugated islamic territories


southern italy central spain levant european rule first time translations latin great works arabic greek scholars made help jewish muslim scholars especially toledo fallen christian hands whose libraries escaped destruction michael scotus scotland made latin translation aristotle 's work animals arabic around disseminated widely first time millennium foundational text zoology became available europeans falconry popular


norman court sicily number works subject written palermo emperor frederick ii hohenstaufen learned falconry youth sicily later built menagerie sponsored translations arabic texts among popular arabic work known ''liber moaminus'' unknown author translated latin theodore antioch syria ''de scientia venandi per aves'' also michael scotus removed palermo translated ibn n 's ''kit b al ayaw n'' emperor commentary


aldrovandi showed great interest plants animals work included drawings fruits flowers plants animals published volumes ''ornithology'' alone covers pages included aspects chicken poultry techniques used number traits including behaviour particularly bathing dusting classify bird groups cover ulisse aldrovandi 's ''ornithology'' antonio valli da todi wrote aviculture knew connections territory song william turner 's ''historia avium'' ''history birds'' published cologne early ornithological work


england noted commonness kites english cities snatched food hands children included folk beliefs anglers anglers believed osprey emptied fishponds would kill mixing flesh osprey fish bait turner 's work reflected violent times lived stands contrast later works gilbert white 's ''the natural history antiquities selborne'' written tranquil era ref name miall ref name gilbertwhite ref th century francis willughby john ray


browne answered queries ornithological identification nomenclature also willoughby merrett letter correspondence browne lifetime kept eagle owl cormorant bittern ostrich penned tract falconry introduced words incubation oviparous english language ''an experiment bird air pump'' joseph wright derby towards late th century mathurin jacques brisson comte de buffon began new works birds brisson produced six volume work ''ornithologie'' buffon 's included nine volumes volumes


birds ''histoire naturelle des oiseaux'' work science ''histoire naturelle g n rale et particuli re'' jacob temminck sponsored fran ois le vaillant collect bird specimens southern africa le vaillant 's six volume ''histoire naturelle des oiseaux d'afrique'' included many non african birds bird books produced collaboration artist barraband considered among valuable illustrated guides ever produced louis jean pierre vieillot spent years studying north american birds wrote ''histoire naturelle des oiseaux de l'amerique septentrionale'' vieillot pioneered use life histories habits


classification alexander wilson composed nine volume work ''american ornithology'' published first record north american birds significantly antedating audubon early th century lewis clark studied identified many birds western united states john james audubon born observed painted birds france later ohio mississippi valleys audubon published ''the birds america'' engraved robert havell sr son robert havell jr containing engravings often regarded greatest ornithological work history


scientific studies early bird study focused collectibles eggs nests emergence ornithology scientific discipline began th century mark catesby published two volume ''natural history carolina florida bahama islands'' landmark work included hand painted engravings basis many species carl linnaeus described ''systema naturae'' linnaeus' work revolutionised bird taxonomy assigning every species binomial name categorising different genera however ornithology emerge specialised science victorian era popularization natural


history collection natural objects bird eggs skins ref name allen ref specialization led formation britain british ornithologists' union members founded journal ''the ibis'' sudden spurt ornithology also due part colonialism years later r e moreau noted ornithology period preoccupied geographical distributions various species birds ref name ibis history ref ref bird collectors victorian era observed variations bird forms habits across geographic regions noting local specialization


variation widespread species collections museums private collectors grew contributions various parts world naming species binomials organization birds groups based similarities became main work museum specialists variations widespread birds across geographical regions caused introduction trinomial names kaup 's classification crow family search patterns variations birds attempted many friedrich wilhelm joseph schelling student johann baptist von spix several others believed hidden innate mathematical order


existed forms birds believed natural classification available superior artificial ones particularly popular idea quinarian system popularised nicholas aylward vigors william sharp macleay william swainson others idea nature followed rule five five groups nested hierarchically attempted rule four johann jakob kaup insisted number five special noting natural entities senses also came fives followed idea demonstrated view order within


crow family failed find five genera left blank insisting new genus would found fill gaps ideas replaced complex maps affinities works hugh edwin strickland alfred russel wallace ref name ohara ref major advance made max f rbringer established comprehensive phylogeny birds based anatomy morphology distribution biology developed hans gadow others galapagos finches especially influential development charles darwin 's theory evolution contemporary alfred russel wallace


also noted variations geographical separations different forms leading study biogeography wallace influenced work philip lutley sclater distribution patterns birds quinarian system bird classification swainson darwin problem species arose common ancestor attempt find rules delineation species species problem tackled ornithologist ernst mayr able demonstrate geographical isolation accumulation genetic differences led splitting species ref name konishi ref early ornithologists preoccupied


matters species identification systematics counted true science field studies considered inferior much th century ref name haffer robert ridgway wrote introduction ''the birds north middle america'' early idea study living birds merely recreation held sway ecological theories became predominant focus ornithological studies ref name mayr ref name ibis history study birds habitats particularly advanced germany bird ringing stations established early ''journal f r ornithologie'' included many papers behaviour


ecology anatomy physiology many written erwin stresemann stresemann changed editorial policy journal leading unification field laboratory studies shift research museums universities ref name haffer ref ornithology united states continued dominated museum studies morphological variations species identities geographic distributions influenced stresemann 's student ernst mayr ref name barrow ref britain earliest ornithological works used word ecology appeared ''the ibis'' however resisted introduction new methods study paper


ecology appeared ref name ibis history work david lack population ecology pioneering newer quantitative approaches introduced study ecology behaviour readily accepted instance claud ticehurst wrote david lack 's studies population ecology sought find processes involved regulation population based evolution optimal clutch sizes concluded population regulated primarily density dependent controls also suggested natural selection produces life history traits maximize fitness individuals others wynne edwards interpreted population regulation mechanism aided


species rather individuals led widespread sometimes bitter debate constituted unit selection ref name konishi lack also pioneered use many new tools ornithological research including idea using radar study bird migration birds also widely used studies niche hypothesis georgii gause 's competitive exclusion principle work resource partitioning structuring bird communities competition made robert macarthur patterns biodiversity also became topic interest work relationship number species area application


study island biogeography pioneered e wilson robert macarthur ref name konishi studies led development discipline landscape ecology mounted specimen red footed falcon john hurrell crook studied behaviour weaverbirds demonstrated links ecological conditions behaviour social systems ref name konishi ref name crook ref principles economics introduced study biology jerram l brown work explaining territorial behaviour led studies behaviour made use cost benefit analyses rising interest sociobiology also led spurt


questions evolution migration orientation navigation ref name konishi growth genetics rise molecular biology led application gene centered view evolution explain avian phenomena studies kinship altruism helpers became particular interest idea inclusive fitness used interpret observations behaviour life history birds widely used models testing hypotheses based theories postulated w hamilton others ref name konishi new tools molecular biology changed study bird systematics changed based phenotype


underlying genotype use techniques dna dna hybridization study evolutionary relationships pioneered charles sibley jon edward ahlquist resulting called sibley ahlquist taxonomy early techniques replaced newer ones based mitochondrial dna sequences molecular phylogenetics approaches make use computational procedures sequence alignment construction phylogenetic trees calibration molecular clocks infer evolutionary relationships molecular techniques also widely used studies avian population biology ecology rise popularity use field glasses telescopes bird observation


began pioneers j dovaston also pioneered use bird feeders instruction manuals begin insist use optical aids first class telescope field glass page early field guide florence augusta merriam bailey rise field guides identification birds another major innovation early guides thomas bewick two volumes william yarrell three volumes cumbersome mainly focused identifying specimens hand earliest


new generation field guides prepared florence merriam sister clinton hart merriam mammalogist published series ''hints audubon workers fifty birds know them'' grinnell 's ''audubon magazine'' ref name barrow followed new field guides including classics roger tory peterson interest birdwatching grew popularity many parts world possibility amateurs contribute biological studies soon realized early julian huxley wrote two part article ''the auk'' noting tensions amateurs


professionals suggested possibility vast army bird lovers bird watchers could begin providing data scientists needed address fundamental problems biology amateur ornithologist harold f mayfield noted field also funded non professionals noted papers american ornithology journals written persons employed biology related work organizations started many countries grew rapidly membership notable among royal society protection birds rspb britain audubon


british trust ornithology started aim advancing ornithological research members often involved collaborative ornithological projects projects resulted atlases detail distribution bird species across britain ref name bibby ref canada citizen scientist elsie cassels studied migratory birds involved establishing gaetz lakes bird sanctuary united states breeding bird surveys conducted us geological survey also produced atlases information breeding densities changes density distribution time volunteer collaborative ornithology projects subsequently established


parts world techniques tools techniques ornithology varied new inventions approaches quickly incorporated techniques may broadly dealt categories applicable specimens used field classification rough many analysis techniques usable laboratory field may require combination field laboratory techniques collections bird preservation techniques earliest approaches modern bird study involved collection eggs practice known oology collecting became pastime many amateurs


labels associated early egg collections made unreliable serious study bird breeding preserve eggs tiny hole made contents extracted technique became standard invention blow drill around ref name allen egg collection longer popular however historic museum collections value determining effects pesticides ddt physiology museum bird collections continue act resource taxonomic studies morphometric measurements birds important systematics use bird skins document species


standard part systematic ornithology bird skins prepared retaining key bones wings legs skull along skin feathers past treated arsenic prevent fungal insect mostly dermestid attack arsenic toxic replaced less toxic borax amateur professional collectors became familiar skinning techniques started sending skins museums distant locations led formation huge collections bird skins museums europe north america many private collections also formed


became references comparison species ornithologists museums able compare species different locations often places never visited morphometrics skins particularly lengths tarsus bill tail wing became important descriptions bird species skin collections used recent times studies molecular phylogenetics extraction ancient dna importance type specimens description species make skin collections vital resource systematic ornithology however rise molecular techniques establishing taxonomic


status new discoveries bulo burti boubou ''laniarius liberatus'' longer valid species bugun liocichla ''liocichla bugunorum'' using blood dna feather samples holotype material become possible methods preservation include storage specimens spirit wet specimens special value physiological anatomical study apart providing better quality dna molecular studies freeze drying specimens another technique advantage preserving stomach contents anatomy although tends shrink making less reliable morphometrics field


study birds field helped enormously improvements optics photography made possible document birds field great accuracy high power spotting scopes today allow observers detect minute morphological differences earlier possible examination specimen hand ref name shorebirds ref bird caught mist net capture marking birds enable detailed studies life history techniques capturing birds varied include use bird liming perching birds mist nets woodland birds cannon netting open area flocking birds ''bal chatri''


trap raptors decoys funnel traps water birds researcher measures wild woodpecker bird 's right leg metal identification tag bird hand may examined measurements made including standard lengths weights feather moult skull ossification provide indications age health sex determined examination anatomy sexually nondimorphic species blood samples may drawn determine hormonal conditions studies physiology identify dna markers studying genetics kinship studies breeding biology phylogeography blood may also


used identify pathogens arthropod borne viruses ectoparasites may collected studies coevolution zoonoses many cryptic species measurements relative lengths wing feathers warblers vital establishing identitya california condor marked wing tags captured birds often marked future recognition rings bands provide long lasting identification require capture information read field identifiable marks coloured bands wing tags dyes enable short term studies individual identification required mark recapture techniques make demographic studies possible ringing traditionally used


study migration recent times satellite transmitters provide ability track migrating birds near real time techniques estimating population density include point counts transects territory mapping observations made field using carefully designed protocols data may analysed estimate bird diversity relative abundance absolute population densities ref name bibby ref methods may used repeatedly large timespans monitor changes environment camera traps found useful tool detection documentation elusive species nest predators quantitative analysis frugivory


seed dispersal behaviour laboratory many aspects bird biology difficult study field include study behavioural physiological changes require long duration access bird nondestructive samples blood feathers taken field studies may studied laboratory instance variation ratios stable hydrogen isotopes across latitudes makes establishing origins migrant birds possible using mass spectrometric analysis feather samples techniques used combination techniques ringing first attenuated vaccine developed


louis pasteur fowl cholera tested poultry anti malarials tested birds harbour avian malarias poultry continues used model many studies non mammalian immunology studies bird behaviour include use tamed trained birds captivity studies bird intelligence song learning largely laboratory based field researchers may make use wide range techniques use dummy owls elicit mobbing behaviour dummy males use call playback elicit territorial behaviour thereby establish boundaries


bird territoriesan emlen funnel used study orientation behaviour migratory birds laboratory experimenters sometimes place funnel inside planetarium study night migration studies bird migration including aspects navigation orientation physiology often studied using captive birds special cages record activities emlen funnel instance makes use cage inkpad centre conical floor ink marks counted identify direction bird attempts fly funnel transparent top


visible cues direction sunlight may controlled using mirrors positions stars simulated planetarium entire genome domestic fowl ''gallus gallus'' sequenced followed genome zebra finch ''taeniopygia guttata'' whole genome sequencing projects allow studies evolutionary processes involved speciation associations expression genes behaviour may studied using candidate genes variations exploratory behaviour great tits ''parus major'' found linked gene orthologous


human gene ''drd '' dopamine receptor known associated novelty seeking behaviour role gene expression developmental differences morphological variations studied darwin 's finches difference expression ''bmp '' shown associated changes growth shape beak chicken long model organism studying vertebrate developmental biology embryo readily accessible development easily followed unlike mice also allows use electroporation studying effect adding silencing gene


tools perturbing genetic makeup chicken embryonic stem cells viral vectors collaborative studies summer distribution abundance canada goose using data north american breeding bird surveys widespread interest birds use large number people work collaborative ornithological projects cover large geographic scales possible citizen science projects include nationwide projects christmas bird count backyard bird count north american breeding bird survey canadian epoq regional projects asian waterfowl census http wwwspringalivenet world spring alive


europe projects help identify distributions birds population densities changes time arrival departure dates migration breeding seasonality even population genetics results many projects published bird atlases studies migration using bird ringing colour marking often involve cooperation people organizations different countries applications wild birds impact many human activities domesticated birds important sources eggs meat feathers products applied economic ornithology aim reduce ill effects problem birds enhance gains beneficial species red billed


queleas major agricultural pest parts africa role species birds pests well known particularly agriculture granivorous birds queleas africa among numerous birds world foraging flocks cause devastation many insectivorous birds also noted beneficial agriculture many early studies benefits damages caused birds fields made analysis stomach contents observation feeding behaviour modern studies aimed manage birds agriculture make use wide range principles


ecology intensive aquaculture brought humans conflict fish eating birds cormorants large flocks pigeons starlings cities often considered nuisance techniques reduce populations impacts constantly innovated birds also medical importance role carriers human diseases japanese encephalitis west nile virus influenza h n widely recognized bird strikes damage cause aviation particularly great importance due fatal consequences level economic losses caused airline industry incurs worldwide


damages estimated us nbsp billion year many species birds driven extinction human activities conspicuous elements ecosystem considered indicators ecological health also helped gathering support habitat conservation bird conservation requires specialized knowledge aspects biology ecology may require use location specific approaches ornithologists contribute conservation biology studying ecology birds wild identifying key threats ways enhancing survival species critically endangered species california condor


captured bred captivity ''ex situ'' conservation measures may followed reintroduction species wild see also avian ecology field methods bird observatory list birdwatchers list ornithological societies list ornithologists list ornithologists abbreviated names list ornithology awards list ornithology journals references additional sources reprinted encyclop dia britannica external links lewis daniel ''the feathery tribe robert ridgway modern study birds'' yale university press http yalepressyaleedu yupbooks bookaspisbn '' http wwwsilsiedu digitalcollections nhrarebooks martinet martinethtm ornithologie '' francois nicholas martinet digital edition smithsonian digital libraries https webarchiveorg web http wwwbiowebunccedu bierregaard ornith nahtm history ornithology


north america http cvvicgovau stories land ecology time flies museum collections ornithology victoria history ornithology ornithology collections victoria australia culture victoria http wwwscricciolocom cina htm history ornithology china http rmclibrarycornelledu ornithology guide hillguide htm hill ornithology collections subfields zoology scoutcraft


extreme values real world objective maximum profit performance yield minimum loss risk cost originating military efforts world war ii techniques grown concern problems variety industries ref name hsororg ref overview operational research encompasses development use wide range problem solving techniques methods applied pursuit improved decision making efficiency simulation mathematical optimization queueing theory stochastic process models markov decision processes econometric methods data envelopment analysis neural networks expert systems decision analysis analytic hierarchy process nearly

Applied science
Transportation
Operations research


techniques involve construction mathematical models attempt describe system computational statistical nature fields also strong ties computer science analytics operational researchers faced new problem must determine techniques appropriate given nature system goals improvement constraints time computing power develop new technique specific problem hand afterwards type problem major sub disciplines modern operational research identified


journal ''operations research'' computing information technologies financial engineering manufacturing service sciences supply chain management policy modeling public sector work revenue management simulation stochastic models transportation history decades two world wars tools operations research widely applied problems business industry society since time operational research expanded field widely used industries ranging petrochemicals airlines finance logistics government moving focus development mathematical models used analyse optimize complex systems become


area active academic industrial research ref name hsororg historical origins th century mathematicians blaise pascal christiaan huygens solved problems involving complex decisions problem points using game theoretic ideas expected values others pierre de fermat jacob bernoulli solved types problems using combinatorial reasoning instead charles babbage 's research cost transportation sorting mail led england 's universal penny post studies dynamical behaviour railway vehicles defence gwr 's broad gauge beginning th century study inventory management


could considered origin modern operations research economic order quantity developed ford w harris operational research may originated efforts military planners world war convoy theory lanchester 's laws percy bridgman brought operational research bear problems physics would later attempt extend social sciences modern operational research originated bawdsey research station uk result initiative station 's superintendent p rowe robert watson watt ref name beginning ref rowe conceived idea


means analyse improve working uk 's early warning radar system code named chain home ch initially rowe analysed operating radar equipment communication networks expanding later include operating personnel 's behaviour revealed unappreciated limitations ch network allowed remedial action taken scientists united kingdom including patrick blackett later lord blackett om prs cecil gordon solly zuckerman later baron zuckerman om kcb frs c h waddington owen wansbrough jones frank yates jacob bronowski freeman dyson united states george dantzig looked ways


names included operational analysis uk ministry defence ref name procatwo http wwwnationalarchivesgovuk catalogue displaycataloguedetailsaspcatid catln highlight fulldetails true uk national archives catalogue wo lists war office organisation called army operational research group aorg existed january name changed army operational research establishment aore following creation unified ministry defence tri service operational research organisation established defence operational research establishment doae formed army operational research establishment based west byfleet ref quantitative management second world war close men


women britain engaged operational research operational research scientists worked british army patrick blackett worked several different organizations war early war working royal aircraft establishment rae set team known circus helped reduce number anti aircraft artillery rounds needed shoot enemy aircraft average start battle britain liberator standard raf green dark earth black night bomber finish originally used coastal command


blackett moved rae navy first working raf coastal command early admiralty blackett 's team coastal command 's operational research section cc ors included two future nobel prize winners many people went pre eminent fields ref name dyson freeman dyson ''mit technology review'' november https wwwtechnologyreviewcom failure intelligence failure intelligence part ref undertook number crucial analyses aided war effort britain introduced convoy system reduce shipping losses principle using warships


accompany merchant ships generally accepted unclear whether better convoys small large convoys travel speed slowest member small convoys travel faster also argued small convoys would harder german u boats detect hand large convoys could deploy warships attacker blackett 's staff showed losses suffered convoys depended largely number escort vessels present rather size convoy conclusion large convoys defensible


many small ones performing analysis methods used raf coastal command hunt destroy submarines one analysts asked colour aircraft bomber command painted black night time operations suggestion cc ors test run see best colour camouflage aircraft daytime operations grey north atlantic skies tests showed aircraft painted white average spotted closer painted black change indicated


feet saw aircraft long way target time alter course water chances within foot kill zone charges small efficient attack submarines close surface targets' locations better known attempt destruction greater depths positions could guessed change settings feet submerged u boats sunk damaged change sunk damaged


submarines caught surface time submerge attacked numbers rose sunk damaged blackett observed cases great operational gain obtained small simple change tactics map ''kammhuber line'' bomber command 's operational research section bc ors analyzed report survey carried raf bomber command survey bomber command inspected bombers returning bombing raids germany particular period damage inflicted german air defences noted


returned reasoned survey biased since included aircraft returned britain areas untouched returning aircraft probably vital areas hit would result loss aircraft story disputed similar damage assessment study completed us statistical research group columbia university result work done abraham wald germany organized air defences kammhuber line realized british raf bombers fly bomber stream could overwhelm


night fighters flew individual cells directed targets ground controllers matter calculating statistical loss collisions statistical loss night fighters calculate close bombers fly minimize raf losses exchange rate ratio output input characteristic feature operational research comparing number flying hours put allied aircraft number u boat sightings given area possible redistribute aircraft productive patrol areas comparison exchange rates established effectiveness


aims examine quantitatively whether user organization getting operation equipment best attainable contribution overall objective ref name beginning expanded techniques growing awareness field close war operational research longer limited operational extended encompass equipment procurement training logistics infrastructure operations research also grew many areas military scientists learned apply principles civilian sector development simplex algorithm linear programming ref name pittedu ref


development computers next three decades operations research solve problems hundreds thousands variables constraints moreover large volumes data required problems stored manipulated efficiently ref name pittedu much operations research modernly known 'analytics' relies upon stochastic variables therefore access truly random numbers fortunately cybernetics field also required level randomness development increasingly better random number generators boon disciplines modern applications operations research include city planning football strategies emergency planning optimizing


facets industry economy undoubtedly likelihood inclusion terrorist attack planning definitely counter terrorist attack planning recently research approach operations research dates back criticized collections mathematical models lacking empirical basis data collection applications collect data presented textbooks lack data also computer applications textbooks problems addressed critical path analysis project planning identifying processes complex project affect overall duration


uncertain demand finished products project production activities managing flow work activities capital project response system variability operations research tools variability reduction buffer allocation using combination allocation capacity inventory time efficient messaging customer response tactics automation automating integrating robotic systems human driven operations processes globalization globalizing operations processes order take advantage cheaper materials labor land productivity inputs transportation managing freight transportation delivery systems examples ltl shipping intermodal freight transport travelling salesman problem scheduling personnel staffing manufacturing steps


project tasks network data traffic known queueing models queueing systems sports events television coverage blending raw materials oil refineries determining optimal prices many retail b b settings within disciplines pricing science cutting stock problem cutting small items bigger ones operational research also used extensively government evidence based policy used management science stafford beer characterized field management science business use operations research like operational research management science ms interdisciplinary branch applied mathematics devoted


optimal decision planning strong links economics business engineering sciences uses various scientific research based principles strategies analytical methods including mathematical modeling statistics numerical algorithms improve organization 's ability enact rational meaningful management decisions arriving optimal near optimal solutions complex decision problems management scientists help businesses achieve goals using scientific methods operational research management scientist 's mandate use rational systematic science based techniques inform improve decisions kinds course techniques management science restricted business


applications may applied military medical public administration charitable groups political groups community groups management science concerned developing applying models concepts may prove useful helping illuminate management issues solve managerial problems well designing developing new better models organizational excellence ref name ls http wwwlumslancsacuk departments mansci deptprofile whatismansci management science lancaster university retrieved june ref application models within corporate sector became known management science ref name utk http busutkedu soms information whatis mscihtml management science university tennessee retrieved june ref related fields


fields considerable overlap operations research management science include business analytics computer science data mining data science big data decision analysis decision intelligence engineering financial engineering forecasting game theory geography geographic information science graph theory industrial engineering inventory control logistics mathematical modeling mathematical optimization probability statistics project management policy analysis queuing theory simulation social network transportation forecasting models stochastic processes supply chain management systems engineering applications applications abundant airlines manufacturing companies service organizations military branches government range problems issues contributed insights solutions vast


includes ref name ls scheduling airlines trains buses etc assignment assigning crew flights trains buses employees projects commitment dispatch power generation facilities facility location deciding appropriate location new facilities warehouse factory fire station hydraulics piping engineering managing flow water reservoirs health services information supply chain management game theory identifying understanding developing strategies adopted companies urban design computer network engineering packet routing timing analysis telecom data communication engineering packet routing timing analysis management also concerned called 'soft operational analysis' concerns methods strategic planning


strategic decision support problem structuring methods dealing sorts challenges mathematical modeling simulation may appropriate may suffice therefore past years number non quantified modeling methods developed include stakeholder based approaches including metagame analysis drama theory morphological analysis various forms influence diagrams cognitive mapping strategic choice robustness analysis societies journals societies international federation operational research societies ifors umbrella organization operational research societies worldwide representing approximately national societies including us uk france germany italy


canada australia new zealand philippines india japan south africa constituent members ifors form regional groups europe association european operational research societies euro important operational research organizations simulation interoperability standards organization siso interservice industry training simulation education conference itsec us based organization informs began initiative market profession better including website entitled ''the science better'' provides introduction examples successful applications industrial problems initiative adopted operational research society


uk including website entitled ''learn or'' journals informs institute operations research management sciences informs publishes thirteen scholarly journals operations research including top two journals class according journal citation reports ''decision analysis'' ''information systems research'' ''informs journal computing'' ''informs transactions education'' open access journal ''interfaces'' ''management science'' ''manufacturing service operations management'' ''marketing science'' ''mathematics operations research'' ''operations research'' ''organization science'' ''service science'' ''transportation science'' journals listed alphabetical order titles '' quarterly journal operations


information resources management association published quarterly igi global ''journal defense modeling simulation jdms applications methodology technology'' quarterly journal devoted advancing science modeling simulation relates military defense ''journal operational research society jors '' official journal society oldest continuously published journal world published taylor francis ''military operations research mor '' published military operations research society ''omega international journal management science'' ''operations research letters'' ''opsearch'' official journal operational research society


india ''or insight'' quarterly journal society published palgrave ref name society http wwworsocorguk society ref ''pesquisa operacional'' official journal brazilian operations research society ''production operations management'' official journal production operations management society ''top'' official journal spanish statistics operations research society see also operations research topics black box analysis dynamic programming inventory theory optimal maintenance real options valuation operations researchers operations researchers category george dantzig leonid kantorovich tjalling koopmans russell l ackoff stafford beer alfred blumstein c west churchman william w cooper robert


dorfman richard karp ramayya krishnan frederick w lanchester thomas l magnanti alvin e roth peter whittle related fields behavioral operations research big data business engineering business process management database normalization engineering management geographic information systems industrial engineering industrial organization managerial economics military simulation operational level war power system simulation project production management reliability engineering scientific management search based software engineering simulation modeling strategic management supply chain engineering system safety wargaming references reading classic books articles r e bellman ''dynamic programming'' princeton university press princeton abraham charnes william w cooper ''management models industrial applications linear


programming'' volumes ii new york john wiley sons abraham charnes william w cooper henderson ''an introduction linear programming'' new york john wiley sons c west churchman russell l ackoff e l arnoff ''introduction operations research'' new york j wiley sons george b dantzig ''linear programming extensions'' princeton princeton university press lester k ford jr ray fulkerson ''flows networks'' princeton princeton university press jay w forrester ''industrial dynamics'' cambridge mit press l v kantorovich mathematical methods organizing planning production ''management science''


ralph keeney howard raiffa ''decisions multiple objectives preferences value tradeoffs'' new york john wiley sons h w kuhn hungarian method assignment problem ''naval research logistics quarterly'' h w kuhn w tucker nonlinear programming pp nbsp ''proceedings second berkeley symposium mathematical statistics probability'' b koopman ''search screening general principles historical applications'' new york pergamon press tjalling c koopmans editor ''activity analysis production allocation'' new york john wiley sons charles c holt franco modigliani john f


muth herbert simon ''planning production inventories work force'' englewood cliffs nj prentice hall philip morse george e kimball ''methods operations research'' new york mit press john wiley sons robert schlaifer howard raiffa ''applied statistical decision theory'' cambridge division research harvard business school classic textbooks taha hamdy operations research introduction pearson th edition frederick hillier gerald j lieberman ''introduction operations research'' mcgraw hill boston th edition robert j thierauf richard grosse decision making operations research john wiley sons inc


harvey wagner ''principles operations research'' englewood cliffs prentice hall wentzel venttsel e ''introduction operations research'' moscow soviet radio publishing house history saul gass arjang assad ''an annotated timeline operations research informal history'' new york kluwer academic publishers saul gass editor arjang assad editor ''profiles operations research pioneers innovators'' springer maurice w kirby operational research society great britain operational research war peace british experience imperial college press j k lenstra h g rinnooy kan


find point polyhedron plane highest possible value '''linear programming''' '''lp''' also called '''linear optimization''' method achieve best outcome maximum profit lowest cost mathematical model whose requirements represented linear relationships linear programming special case mathematical programming also known mathematical optimization formally linear programming technique optimization linear objective function subject linear equality linear inequality constraints feasible region convex polytope set defined

Applied science
Transportation
Operations research
Linear programming


intersection finitely many half spaces defined linear inequality objective function real valued affine linear function defined polyhedron linear programming algorithm finds point polytope function smallest largest value point exists linear programs problems expressed canonical form math begin align text find vector mathbf x text maximizes mathbf c mathbf x text subject mathbf x leq mathbf b text mathbf x ge mathbf end align math