johor sultanate centred southern tip malay peninsula became dominant trading power region european colonization expanded dutch indonesia portuguese east timor spanish philippines th century european expansion would affect whole southeast asia british myanmar malaysia french indochina thailand would successfully resist colonization oceania pacific islands oceania would also affected european contact starting circumnavigational voyage ferdinand magellan landed marianas islands


also notable voyages abel tasman present day australia new zealand nearby islands voyages captain james cook made first recorded european contact hawaii britain would found first colony australia americas americas western european powers vigorously colonized newly discovered continents largely displacing indigenous populations destroying advanced civilizations aztecs incas spain portugal britain france made extensive territorial claims undertook large scale settlement including importation large numbers african slaves portugal


claimed brazil spain claimed rest south america mesoamerica southern north america britain colonized east coast north america france colonized central region north america russia made incursions onto northwest coast north america first colony present day alaska outpost fort ross present day california midst seven years' war france secretly ceded north american claims spain treaty fontainebleau thirteen british colonies declared independence united states america


ratified treaty paris ending american revolutionary war napoleon bonaparte france 's claims back spain napoleonic wars sold united states louisiana purchase late modern period present th century watt 's steam engine powered industrial revolution scientific revolution changed humanity 's understanding world led industrial revolution major transformation world 's economies scientific revolution th century little immediate effect industrial technology second half


''wright flyer'' europeans achieved influence control americas imperial activities turned lands asia oceania th century european states social technological advantage eastern lands britain gained control indian subcontinent egypt malay peninsula french took indochina dutch cemented control dutch east indies british also colonized australia new zealand south africa large numbers british colonists emigrating colonies russia colonized large pre agricultural areas siberia late th century


european powers divided remaining areas africa within europe economic military challenges created system nation states ethno linguistic groupings began identify distinctive nations aspirations cultural political autonomy nationalism would become important peoples across world th century second industrial revolution world economy became reliant coal fuel new methods transport railways steamships effectively shrank world meanwhile industrial pollution environmental damage present since discovery fire beginning civilization accelerated drastically


advantages europe developed mid th century two entrepreneurial culture wealth generated atlantic trade including african slave trade late th century silver americas accounted spanish empire 's wealth profits slave trade west indian plantations amounted british economy time industrial revolution historians conclude labour productivity developed regions china still par europe 's atlantic economy historians angus maddison


nations organized western models transformation catalyzed wars unparalleled scope devastation world war led collapse four empires austria hungary german empire ottoman empire russian empire weakened united kingdom france war 's aftermath powerful ideologies rose prominence russian revolution created first communist state saw militaristic fascist dictatorships gain control italy germany spain elsewhere atomic bombings hiroshima nagasaki ongoing national rivalries exacerbated economic turmoil great depression helped


united nations founded hope preventing future wars ref name fasulo ref league nations formed following world war war left two countries united states soviet union principal power influence international affairs suspicious feared global spread 's respectively capitalist communist political economic model led cold war forty five year stand arms race united states allies one hand soviet union allies development


nuclear weapons world war ii subsequent proliferation humanity put risk nuclear war two superpowers demonstrated many incidents prominently october cuban missile crisis war viewed impractical superpowers instead waged proxy wars non nuclear armed third world countries china mao zedong implemented industrialization collectivization reforms part great leap forward leading starvation deaths tens millions people part cold war space race twelve astronauts landed


weal early postwar decades colonies asia africa belgian british dutch french west european empires formal independence however newly independent countries often faced challenges form neocolonialism sociopolitical disarray poverty illiteracy endemic tropical diseases ref mcneill writes rise west intended title meaning book accelerated one another asian african people throws european administration making western techniques attitudes ideas sufficiently permit


ref name mcneill western european central european countries gradually formed political economic community european union expanded eastward include former soviet satellite states european union 's effectiveness handicapped immaturity common economic political institutions somewhat comparable inadequacy united states institutions articles confederation prior adoption constitution united states came force asian african south american countries followed suit began taking tentative steps toward forming respective continental associations last moon landing apollo


cold war preparations deter fight third world war accelerated advances technologies though conceptualized world war ii implemented war 's exigencies jet aircraft rocketry computers decades world war ii advances led jet travel artificial satellites innumerable applications including global positioning system gps internet inventions revolutionized movement people ideas information however scientific technological advances second half th century required initial military impetus period also


saw ground breaking developments discovery structure dna dna sequencing consequent sequencing human genome human genome project worldwide eradication smallpox discovery stem cells introduction portable cellular phone discovery plate tectonics crewed uncrewed exploration space previously inaccessible parts earth foundational discoveries physics phenomena ranging smallest entities particle physics greatest entity physical cosmology st century st century marked growing economic globalization integration consequent increased risk interlinked


economies exemplified great recession late early period also seen expansion communications mobile phones internet caused fundamental societal changes business politics individuals' personal lives china urbanized rapidly st century shanghai pictured worldwide competition natural resources risen due growing populations industrialization especially india china brazil increased demands contributing increased environmental degradation climate change covid pandemic became first pandemic st century substantially disrupt global


trading cause recessions global economy see also ''andrew marr 's history world'' bbc series cultural history economic history world globalization historic recurrence historiography history science history technology list archaeological periods list decades centuries millennia list time periods political history world timeline geopolitical changes present timeline national independence western culture ''''' small small ''''' ''''' small small ''''' explanatory notes references ref ref name uscb world population estimates ref ref name smithsonian institution ref bibliography clark christopher reality threat review lawrence freedman ''the future war


history'' public affairs pp robert h latiff ''future war preparing new global battlefield'' knopf pp ''the new york review books'' vol lxv november pp nbsp stiglitz joseph e rigged economy science inequality ''scientific american'' vol november pp nbsp reading mckibben bill grim forecast partly review ''global warming degree c ipcc special report intergovernmental panel climate change available wwwipccch'' ''the new york review


books'' vol lxv november pp nbsp articles contain graphical timelines


'''etymology''' ref name oed new oxford dictionary english p '''etymology''' l study class words way meanings changed throughout time ref study history words ref name oed extension etymology word means origin development throughout history languages long written history etymologists make use texts texts language gather knowledge words used earlier periods developed meaning form entered language etymologists also

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Etymology


instead later borrowed another language study semantic change etymologists must often make hypotheses changes meaning particular words hypotheses tested general knowledge semantic shifts example assumption particular change meaning may substantiated showing type change occurred languages well types word origins etymological theory recognizes words originate limited number basic mechanisms important language change borrowing ie adoption loanwords languages


mark blood semantic change may also occur example english word ''bead'' originally meant prayer acquired modern meaning practice counting recitation prayers using beads history search meaningful origins familiar strange words far older modern understanding linguistic evolution relationships languages began earlier th century antiquity th century pindar sir thomas browne etymology form witty wordplay supposed origins words


creatively imagined satisfy contemporary requirements example greek poet pindar born approximately bce employed inventive etymologies flatter patrons plutarch employed etymologies insecurely based fancied resemblances sounds isidore seville 's ''etymologiae'' encyclopedic tracing first things remained uncritically use europe sixteenth century ''etymologicum genuinum'' grammatical encyclopedia edited constantinople ninth century one several similar byzantine works thirteenth century ''legenda aurea'' written jacobus de vorgagine begins ''vita'' saint fanciful excursus form


etymology ancient sanskrit sanskrit linguists grammarians ancient india first make comprehensive analysis linguistics etymology study sanskrit etymology provided western scholars basis historical linguistics modern etymology four famous sanskrit linguists yaska c th th centuries bce c bce k ty yana nd century bce pata jali nd century bce linguists earliest sanskrit grammarians however followed line ancient grammarians sanskrit lived several centuries earlier like sakatayana little known earliest


attested etymologies found vedic literature philosophical explanations ''brahmanas'' ''aranyakas'' ''upanishads'' analyses sanskrit grammar done previously mentioned linguists involved extensive studies etymology called ''nirukta'' ''vyutpatti'' sanskrit sanskrit words ancient indians considered sound speech sacred words sacred ''vedas'' contained deep encoding mysteries soul god ancient greco roman one earliest philosophical texts classical greek period address etymology socratic dialogue ''cratylus'' c bce


anything lays beyond power exception cavilled common opinion absurd derives word pons assigns priests title bridge makers sacrifices performed bridge amongst sacred ancient keeping repairing bridge attached like public sacred office priesthood blockquote medieval isidore seville compiled volume etymologies illuminate triumph religion saint 's legend jacob de voragine 's ''legenda aurea'' begins etymological discourse saint 's name blockquote


lucy said light light beauty beholding ambrose saith nature light gracious beholding spreadeth without lying passeth going right without crooking right long line without dilation tarrying therefore showed blessed lucy hath beauty virginity without corruption essence charity without disordinate love rightful going devotion god without squaring way right long line continual work without negligence slothful tarrying lucy said


neogrammarian school late th century still th century german philosopher friedrich nietzsche used etymological strategies principally famously ''on genealogy morals'' also elsewhere argue moral values definite historical specifically cultural origins modulations meaning regarding certain concepts good evil show ideas changed time according value system appropriated strategy gained popularity th century philosophers jacques derrida used etymologies indicate former meanings words de center violent hierarchies western philosophy


notable etymologists ernest klein hungarian born romanian canadian linguist etymologist marko snoj born indo europeanist slavist albanologist lexicographer etymologist anatoly liberman born linguist medievalist etymologist poet translator poetry literary critic michael quinion born c see also bongo bongo cognate epeolatry etymological dictionary etymological fallacy false cognate folk etymology historical linguistics lexicology lists etymologies malapropism medieval etymology neologism philology phono semantic matching proto language pseudoscientific language comparison semantic change suppletion toponymy w rter und sachen notes references alfred bammesberger ''english etymology'' heidelberg carl winter philip durkin etymology ''encyclopedia language linguistics'' nd edn ed


keith brown vol oxford elsevier pp nbsp philip durkin ''the oxford guide etymology'' oxford ny oxford university press william b lockwood ''an informal introduction english etymology'' montreux london minerva press yakov malkiel ''etymology'' cambridge cambridge university press alan c ross ''etymology special reference english'' fair lawn nj essential books london deutsch michael samuels ''linguistic evolution special reference english'' cambridge cambridge university press bo svens n etymology chap ''a handbook lexicography theory practice dictionary making'' cambridge ny cambridge university press walther von wartburg ''problems


'''forensic psychiatry''' subspeciality psychiatry related criminology encompasses interface law psychiatry according american academy psychiatry law defined subspecialty psychiatry scientific clinical expertise applied legal contexts involving civil criminal correctional regulatory legislative matters specialized clinical consultations areas risk assessment employment forensic psychiatrist provides services determination competency stand trial court law facilitate adjudicative process provide treatment

Applied science
Medicine and health
Psychiatry
Forensic psychiatry


united states constitution ensures right present one 's trial face one 's accusers help attorney cst sometimes referred adjudicative competency serves three purposes preserving dignity criminal process reducing risk erroneous convictions protecting defendants decision making autonomy ref name ref supreme court united states dusky v united states established standard federal courts ruling test must whether defendant sufficient present ability consult attorney reasonable degree rational understanding


rational well factual understanding proceedings evaluations must assess defendant 's ability assist legal counsel meaning understand legal charges implications defendant adversarial nature proceedings including roles played defense counsel prosecutors judges jury must able communicate relevant information attorney understand information provided attorney finally must competent make important decisions whether accept plea agreement ref name england wales scotland


jury prominent leaders field forensic psychiatry thomas gutheil robert simon liza gold others identified teaching critical dimension role expert witness expert asked form opinion testify opinion explain basis opinion include important concepts approaches methods used psychiatry mental state opinion mental state opinion mso gives court opinion opinion whether defendant able understand


know act indeed wrong durham rule excuses defendant whose conduct product mental disorder ali test excuses defendant mental disease defect lacks substantial capacity appreciate criminality wrongfulness conduct conform conduct requirements law guilty reason insanity ngri one potential outcome type trial importantly insanity legal medical term often psychiatrists may testifying defense


prosecution forensic psychiatrists also involved care prisoners jails prisons care mentally ill committed criminal acts found guilty reason insanity risk management many past offenders people suspected potential future offenders mental health problems intellectual developmental disability supervised community forensic psychiatric teams made variety professionals including psychiatrists psychologists nurses care workers teams dual responsibilities promote welfare


clients safety public aim much predict prevent violence means risk management risk assessment management growth area forensic field much canadian academic work done ontario british columbia began attempt predict likelihood particular kind offense repeated combining static indicators personal history offense details actuarial instruments rrasor static shown accurate unaided professional judgment recently use


made also dynamic risk factors attitudes impulsivity mental state family social circumstances substance use availability acceptance support make structured professional judgment aim move away prediction prevention identifying managing risk factors may entail monitoring treatment rehabilitation supervision victim safety planning depends availability funding legal powers schemes may based published assessments hcr incorporates historical clinical risk management factors risk


sexual violence protocol simon fraser university bc united kingdom uk forensic psychiatrists work national health service specialist secure units caring mentally ill offenders well people whose behaviour made impossible manage hospitals either medium secure units many throughout country high secure hospitals also known special hospitals three england one scotland state hospital carstairs best known broadmoor hospital 'specials' ashworth hospital maghull


liverpool rampton hospital nottinghamshire also number private sector medium secure units sell beds exclusively nhs enough secure beds available nhs system forensic psychiatrists often also prison inreach work go prisons assess treat people suspected mental disorders much day day work psychiatrists comprises care seriously mentally ill patients especially suffering schizophrenia units also treat people severe personality disorder learning disabilities areas assessment courts also somewhat different


crimes violence including sexual violence fire setting would cared learning disability psychiatrists registered learning disability nurses psychiatrists work dual training learning disability forensic psychiatry learning disability adolescent psychiatry nurses would training mental health also court work medicolegal work generally undertaken private work psychiatrists often forensic psychiatrists well forensic clinical psychologists usually also work within nhs work generally funded legal services commission used called legal aid canada criminal law


assessments critics also expressed concerns use dsm iv tr may conflict section b canadian charter rights freedoms guarantees fundamental freedom thought belief opinion expression '' confidentiality position canadian psychiatric association holds recent years serious incursions made governments powerful commercial interests law enforcement agencies courts rights persons privacy goes state breaches potential breaches confidentiality context therapy seriously jeopardize quality information communicated patient


psychiatrist also compromise mutual trust confidence necessary effective therapy occur outline forensic psychiatric process occurs province ontario presented publication ''the forensic mental health system ontario information guide'' published centre addiction mental health toronto guide states whatever tell forensic psychiatrist professionals assessing confidential guide states forensic psychiatrist report court using available information police hospital records information


given friends family co workers observations hospital also according guide right refuse take part assessment sometimes friends family members asked information right refuse answer questions note emphasis guide right refuse participation may seem unusual given result verdict criminally responsible reason mental disorder often portrayed desirable defence


similar insanity defense united states verdict criminally responsible referred defence criminal code however issue accused 's mental state also raised crown court rather solely defence counsel differentiating many legal defences treatment assessment conflict ontario court ordered inpatient forensic assessment criminal responsibility typically involves treatment assessment performed accused custody single multidisciplinary team day period concerns


expressed accused may feel compelled ethical medical legal grounds divulge information medical otherwise assessors attempt allow ensure safe appropriate treatment period custody internet references address treatment assessment conflict relates various justice systems particularly civil litigation jurisdictions american academy psychiatry law states ethics guidelines treatment relationship exists correctional settings usual physician patient duties apply may seen contradiction south africa south africa patients referred


observation period days courts questions exist cst mso serious crimes require panel may include two psychiatrists courts find defendant criminally responsible defendant may become state patient admitted forensic psychiatric hospital referred receive treatment indefinite period back community three years training standards practitioners forensic psychiatry taken extra training specific area united states one year fellowships offered


field psychiatrists completed general psychiatry training psychiatrists may eligible sit board certification examination forensic psychiatry britain one required complete three year subspeciality training forensic psychiatry completing one 's general psychiatry training receiving certificate completion training forensic psychiatrist countries general psychiatrists practice forensic psychiatry well however countries japan require specific certification government type work see also forensic psychology ''daubert v merrell dow pharmaceuticals inc'' established


forensic psychiatry samuel l z phd andrew scull ed cultural sociology mental illness z guide sage pp nbsp http wwwmedicolegalpsychiatrycomau medicolegal psychiatry


study conducted data study also analyzed consider secondary hypotheses inspired initial results suggest new studies secondary analysis data planned study uses tools data analysis process mathematical statistics data analysis divided descriptive statistics part statistics describes data ie summarises data typical properties inferential statistics part statistics draws conclusions data using model data example inferential statistics involves selecting model

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Mathematical statistics


data checking whether data fulfill conditions particular model quantifying involved uncertainty eg using confidence intervals tools data analysis work best data randomized studies also applied kinds data example natural experiments observational studies case inference dependent model chosen statistician subjective topics following important topics mathematical statistics probability distributions probability distribution function assigns probability measurable subset


possible outcomes random experiment survey procedure statistical inference examples found experiments whose sample space non numerical distribution would categorical distribution experiments whose sample space encoded discrete random variables distribution specified probability mass function experiments sample spaces encoded continuous random variables distribution specified probability density function complex experiments involving stochastic processes defined continuous time may demand use general probability measures probability distribution either


univariate multivariate univariate distribution gives probabilities single random variable taking various alternative values multivariate distribution joint probability distribution gives probabilities random vector set two random variables taking various combinations values important commonly encountered univariate probability distributions include binomial distribution hypergeometric distribution normal distribution multivariate normal distribution commonly encountered multivariate distribution special distributions normal distribution common continuous distribution bernoulli distribution outcome single bernoulli trial eg success failure yes binomial distribution


number positive occurrences eg successes yes votes etc given fixed total number independent occurrences negative binomial distribution binomial type observations quantity interest number failures given number successes occurs geometric distribution binomial type observations quantity interest number failures first success special case negative binomial distribution number successes one discrete uniform distribution finite set values eg outcome fair die continuous uniform distribution continuously distributed values


poisson distribution number occurrences poisson type event given period time exponential distribution time next poisson type event occurs gamma distribution time next k poisson type events occur chi squared distribution distribution sum squared standard normal variables useful eg inference regarding sample variance normally distributed samples see chi squared test student 's distribution distribution ratio standard normal variable square root scaled chi squared variable useful inference regarding mean normally distributed samples


situations inferential statistics used test hypotheses make estimations using sample data whereas descriptive statistics describe sample inferential statistics infer predictions larger population sample represents outcome statistical inference may answer question done next might decision making experiments surveys drawing conclusion implementing organizational governmental policy part statistical inference makes propositions populations using data drawn population interest via form random sampling generally


data random process obtained observed behavior finite period time given parameter hypothesis one wishes make inference statistical inference often uses statistical model random process supposed generate data known randomization used particular realization random process ie set data regression statistics '' 'regression analysis''' statistical process estimating relationships among variables includes many ways modeling analyzing several variables focus


relationship dependent variable one independent variables specifically regression analysis helps one understand typical value dependent variable 'criterion variable' changes one independent variables varied independent variables held fixed commonly regression analysis estimates conditional expectation dependent variable given independent variables average value dependent variable independent variables fixed less commonly focus quantile location parameter conditional distribution dependent variable given


independent variables cases estimation target function independent variables called '' 'regression function''' regression analysis also interest characterize variation dependent variable around regression function described probability distribution many techniques carrying regression analysis developed familiar methods linear regression parametric regression function defined terms finite number unknown parameters estimated data eg using ordinary least squares nonparametric regression refers techniques allow


necessary data ranking clear numerical interpretation assessing preferences terms levels measurement non parametric methods result ordinal data non parametric methods make fewer assumptions applicability much wider corresponding parametric methods particular may applied situations less known application question also due reliance fewer assumptions non parametric methods robust another justification use non parametric methods simplicity certain cases even use parametric methods justified non parametric


inference reinvigorated abraham wald successors makes extensive use scientific computing analysis optimization design experiments statisticians use algebra combinatorics see also asymptotic theory statistics references references reading borovkov ''mathematical statistics'' crc press http wwwmathuahedu stat virtual laboratories probability statistics univ ala huntsville http wwwtrigonellach statibot english statibot interactive online expert system statistical tests mathema statistical theory actuarial science tical statistics manohar ray har swarup sharma published ram prasad agra


serbia obrenovac four paws disaster relief team started mission supporting serbian crises team '''sociology disaster''' sociological disaster research sub field sociology explores social relations amongst natural human made disasters scope includes local national global disasters highlighting distinct events connected people created displacement trauma loss connections whether survivor working disaster management perpetrator role non discrete complex experience sought understood sub field

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of disaster


interdisciplinary nature field closely linked environmental sociology sociocultural anthropology overview many studies field sociology disaster focus link social solidarity vulnerabilities exposed disasters scholarship field observed events produce social solidarity social conflict importantly expose inequalities inherent social order exponentially exacerbating effects studies investigating emotional impact disaster state emotional responses contexts inherently adaptive emotions reflected processed lead post traumatic


growth resilience increased altruism engagement community early disaster research established mainstream parameters research ie focus solidarity arising aftermath disasters disasters consequence human maladaptation hazardous environment research predominantly done united states germany italy types causes disasters natural disaster natural disaster event occurs due earth 's regular processes natural disasters predicted others happen suddenly injury death


damage personal commercial property often occurs events examples tornadoes hurricanes earthquakes floods tsunamis volcanic eruptions certain areas around globe prone certain natural disasters human made technological disaster types disaster caused human race also prevented human race advancements technology wonderful thing uses hazardous life earth extreme precautions must taken order avoid types disasters examples chemical nuclear mass power outages


horrific flashbacks lead self harm suicide even possible epidemics common ones affected become distanced disease n't make bed ridden behavior disasters sociology disaster human beings naturally inclined prepare odd event disaster buying supplies non perishable foods bottled water basic medical supplies sources light heat batteries operate things stow things away accessible place also


predetermined evacuation routes ways transportation escape area affected coming hours days reliable prediction catastrophe presented us event disaster humans usually panic become stressed predictable many seen destruction certain natural disasters people often contact loved ones try seek shelter cannot avoid upcoming disaster sometimes nearby societies prepare gather supplies help people affected disaster organizations try help


best disaster get people harm 's way disaster strikes people tend act many different ways community whole tries help affected victims sometimes people act norm act criminal ways looting shootings often associated disasters many organizations band together provide relief communities eventually learn adapt situation hand eventually start thrive disaster person change better worse better


person better prep per come worse person deal happened differently natural disaster person went many different scary unsafe scenarios could deal ptsd ptsd post traumatic stress disorder means difficulty recovering witnessing experiencing traumatic event trying deal aftermath disaster could make things much harder one dealing could lead people prepping next disaster different ways example buying


helped find cure everyone struggling disease anyone gets infected disease worry anymore conflict theory best scope look disaster 's effect society conflict theory conflict theorist believes conflict meant happen order better society help people grow competition inequalities different people groups socioeconomic status disaster responding areas disaster depend many factors including economic state


receive special treatment due way american society treats poor communities compared wealthy ones location urban cities urban areas especially risk comes disaster affecting viewed taken care different groups also seen vulnerable due vast number people close proximity could also mean big number people urban cities likely community prepared one biggest disasters hit


urban city attack world trade center another reason urban cities big target due fact big city usually something important maybe government building successful business less developed countries less developed countries risk epidemics countries always right medicine sanitation keeping healthy makes susceptible getting sick also mean lesser developed countries acquire epidemic could possibly


lesser developed country government could n't provide right amount aid money people affected said disaster coastal cities coastal cities close ocean susceptible endure hurricanes hurricane like weather yes states close coastal ones affected coastal disasters right next oceans affected example hurricane katrina hit louisiana one devastating natural disasters ever hit united states another issue coastal cities


constant threat erosion rise sea level always threat people live next body water could always constant level anxiety fact could get bad move could ruin place live references references bibliography lars clausen social differentiation long term origin disasters ''natural hazards'' vi p nbsp issn x enrico quarantelli ed ''what disaster'' london routledge url http wwwijmedorg articles


fu albert https wwwtandfonlinecom doi abs connecting urban environmental catastrophe linking natural disaster built environment capitalism ''environmental sociology'' ''' ''' fothergill peek l https linkspringercom article b nhaz poverty disasters united states review recent sociological findings ''natural hazards'' '' '' url http wwwijmedorg articles tierney k j https wwwannualreviewsorg doi abs annurevsoc margins mainstream disaster research crossroads ''annu rev sociol'' '' '' external sources disaster


'''canadian studies''' interdisciplinary field undergraduate postgraduate level study canadian culture society languages canada canadian literature media communications quebec acadians agriculture canada natural resources geography canada history canada canadian government politics legal traditions similar ranges subjects centred indigenous peoples canada first nations inuit tis may part indigenous native studies canadian studies universities offer canadian studies degrees recommend students take double major eg political science international relations french included course

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Canadian studies


careers students take canadian studies include foreign service working canadian embassies foreign embassies canada scholars known work canadian studies include fernand ouellet linda hutcheon george ramsay cook william r fox annette baker fox susan swan christl verduyn sergey rogov george melnyk governor general 's international award canadian studies award excellence field established international council canadian studies see also american studies area studies cultural studies reading dirk hoerder ''from study canada


canadian studies know many selves changing across time space'' augsburg wi ner verlag external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwiccs ciecca blackwellhtml canadian studies guide sources canadian culture area studies


graphic artists work category fine art '''graphic art''' covers broad range visual artistic expression typically two dimensional ie produced flat surface ref name britannica http wwwbritannicacom art graphic art graphic art ''encyclop dia britannica'' britannicacom retrieved february ref term usually refers arts rely line tone colour especially drawing various forms engraving ref name oxford graphic art ''the oxford dictionary art'' rd ed ed ian chilvers oxford oxford university press p ref sometimes understood refer specifically printmaking processes ref name oxford

Humanities
Visual arts
Fine arts
Graphic arts


line engraving aquatint drypoint etching mezzotint monotype lithography screen printing silk screen serigraphy graphic art includes calligraphy photography painting typography computer graphics bindery also encompasses drawn plans layouts interior architectural designs ref name britannica history throughout history technological inventions shaped development graphic art bc egyptians used graphic symbols communicate thoughts written form known hieroglyphics egyptians wrote illustrated narratives rolls papyrus share stories art others ref name meggs ref middle ages scribes manually copied individual page manuscripts


maintain sacred teachings scribes would leave marked sections page available artists insert drawings decorations using art alongside carefully lettered text enhanced religious reading experience ref name mcguire lytle mcguire lyle erin ''careers graphic arts computer graphics'' career resource library june new york rosen publishing group ref johannes gutenberg invented improved movable type mechanical device known printing press first outside asia printing press facilitated mass production text graphic art eventually replaced manual transcriptions altogether renaissance years graphic art


form printing played major role spread classical learning europe within manuscripts book designers focused heavily typeface due development larger fonts industrial revolution posters became popular form graphic art used communicate latest information well advertise latest products services invention popularity film television changed graphic art additional aspect motion advertising agencies attempted use kinetics advantage next major change graphic arts came personal computer


careers one common career paths graphic artist today web design popularity world wide web demand web designers immense graphic artists use creativity layouts typography logos market products services client 's business addition creating graphical designs graphic artists also need understand hypertext web programming web page maintenance successfully create web page ref name mcguire lytle responsibility effective communication also falls auspices graphic designer see also communication design crowdsourcing creative work


digital art graphic design printmaking visual arts references communication design graphic design visual arts media


'''pharmaceutics''' discipline pharmacy deals process turning new chemical entity nce old drugs medication used safely effectively patients also called science dosage form design many chemicals pharmacological properties need special measures help achieve therapeutically relevant amounts sites action pharmaceutics helps relate formulation drugs delivery disposition body ref name washington ref pharmaceutics deals formulation pure drug substance dosage form branches

Applied science
Medicine and health
Pharmaceutical sciences
Pharmaceutics


'''filmmaking''' '''film production''' process motion picture produced filmmaking involves number complex discrete stages starting initial story idea commission continues screenwriting casting pre production shooting sound recording post production screening finished product audience may result film release exhibition filmmaking occurs variety economic social political contexts around world uses variety technologies cinematic techniques although filmmaking originally involved use film film productions digital today filmmaking

Humanities
Performing arts
Film
Filmmaking


recorded film edited combined finished product distribution completed film distributed marketed screened cinemas released home video viewed development development stage contains general specific components film studio yearly retreat top creative executives meet interact variety areas topics wish explore collaborations producers screenwriters ultimately directors actors actresses choose trending topics media real life well many sources determine


yearly agenda example year action popular may wish explore topic one movies sometimes purchase rights articles bestselling novels plays remaking older films stories basis real life person event video game fairy tale comic book graphic novel likewise research surveys may inform decisions may blockbusters previous year wish explore sequel additionally acquire completed independently financed produced film notable examples


little miss sunshine english patient well roma studios hold general meetings producers screenwriters original story ideas decade working writer knew sold fewer made screen relays writer director professor wayne powers italian job alan watt writer director founder la writer 's lab confirmed completed original screenplays referred specs make big news sell make small portion movies ultimately given green light produced


president studio executives return retreat fairly well established instructions spread concepts industry community especially producers deals traditional studios producers offices lots also agents screenwriters made aware results pairing producers writers develop take basic story idea utilizes concept given studio executives often competition several pairings meeting studio executives pitching take writing jobs original ideas


brought studios producers writers perhaps one movie year spec script purchased producer writer sold approach desired subject matter begin work however many writers producers usually pass particular concept realized way awarded green light production production unforgiven earned oscars director star clint eastwood well screenwriter david webb peoples required fifteen years wayne powers related italian job took approximately eight years concept


screen powers added average concepts turned paid screenplays wind gathering dust executive 's shelf never see production writers different styles creative processes stronger track records others development process proceeds much detail writer returns studio divulge beginning writing vary greatly screenwriters often protected union writers guild america wga wga allows screenwriter contract one draft one revision one polish bob eisle


writer member guild board states additional writing requires extension contracts payment additional work paid fee first draft preliminary discussions minimal studio executives might quite detailed producer next screenwriter writes screenplay period several months however long takes deadlines contracts pressure adhere every writer 's process speed varies screenwriter may rewrite script several times improve dramatization clarity structure characters


market appeal find potential financial success hollywood distributors consider factors film genre target audience assumed audience historical success similar films actors might appear film potential directors factors imply certain appeal film possible audience films make profit theatrical release alone however studio mainly targets opening weekend second weekend make domestic profits occasionally film called word mouth film market strongly


success spreads word mouth slowly gains audience special circumstances films may remain theaters months typical film run closer weekends earnings result pay television purchases foreign market purchases dvd sales establish worldwide distribution gross film screenplay green lit directors actors attached film proceeds pre production stage although often development stage pre production stage overlap analogous almost business venture financing film project deals


study filmmaking management procurement investments includes dynamics assets required fund filmmaking liabilities incurred filmmaking time period early development management profits losses distribution conditions different degrees uncertainty risk practical aspects filmmaking finance also defined science money management phases involved filmmaking film finance aims price assets based risk level expected rate return based upon anticipated profits


protection losses pre production pre production every step actually creating film carefully designed planned phase one would narrow options production planning takes place camera rolls sets overall vision project production company created production office established film pre visualized director may storyboarded help illustrators concept artists production budget drawn plan expenditures film major productions insurance


procured protect accidents pre production also includes working shoot location casting process producer hires line manager production manager create schedule budget film nature film budget determine size type crew used filmmaking many hollywood blockbusters employ cast crew hundreds low budget independent film may made skeleton crew eight nine fewer typical crew positions storyboard artist creates visual images help director production designer communicate


ideas production team director primarily responsible storytelling creative decisions acting film assistant director ad manages shooting schedule logistics production among tasks several types ad different responsibilities film producer hires film 's crew unit production manager manages production budget production schedule also report behalf production office studio executives financiers film location manager finds manages film locations nearly pictures feature segments shot controllable environment


dp first ad sound designer creates aural conception film ref name vincent lobrutto sound film vincent lobrutto ref working supervising sound editor bollywood style indian productions sound designer plays role director audiography composer creates new music film usually post production production steven spielberg standing chandran rutnam sri lanka production ''indiana jones temple doom'' released production film created shot phase key keep planning ahead daily shoot


primary aim stick budget schedule requires constant vigilance crew recruited stage property master script supervisor assistant directors stills photographer picture editor sound editors common roles filmmaking production office free create unique blend roles suit various responsibilities needed production film communication key location set office production company distributors parties involved typical day shooting begins crew arriving set location


make final tweaks finally action shot many takes director wishes american productions follow specific procedure assistant director ad calls picture inform everyone take recorded quiet everyone everyone ready shoot ad calls roll sound take involves sound production sound mixer start equipment record verbal slate take 's information announce sound speed speed ready ad follows roll camera answered


speed camera operator camera recording clapper loader already front camera clapperboard calls marker slaps shut take involves extras background action ad cue action background last director telling actors action ad may echo action louder large sets take director calls cut camera sound stop recording script supervisor note continuity issues sound camera teams log technical notes take


respective report sheets director decides additional takes required whole process repeats satisfied crew moves next camera angle setup whole scene covered shooting finished scene assistant director declares wrap moving crew strike dismantle set scene end day director approves next day 's shooting schedule daily progress report sent production office includes report sheets continuity sound camera teams


call sheets distributed cast crew tell turn next shooting day later director producer department heads sometimes cast may gather watch day yesterday 's footage called ' 'dailies'' review work workdays often lasting fourteen eighteen hours remote locations film production tends create team spirit entire film completion production phase customary production office arrange wrap party thank


cast crew efforts production phase live action films synchronizing work schedules key cast crew members important since many scenes several cast members crew must physically present place time bankable stars may need rush one project another animated films different workflow production phase voice actors record takes recording studio different times may see one another film 's premiere physical live action tasks


either unnecessary simulated various types animators post production stage starts principal film production ends may overlap bulk post production consists reviewing footage assembling movie taking next step editing video film assembled film editor shot film material edited production sound dialogue also edited music tracks songs composed recorded film sought score sound effects designed recorded computer graphic visual effects digitally


added artist finally sound elements mixed stems joined pictures film fully completed locked distribution distribution last stage film released cinemas occasionally directly consumer media vhs vcd dvd blu ray direct download digital media provider film duplicated required either onto film hard disk drives distributed cinemas exhibition screening press kits posters advertising materials published film advertised promoted b roll clip may


released press based raw footage shot making documentary may include making clips well set interviews separate production company distributor major films key personnel often contractually required participate promotional tours appear premieres festivals sit interviews many tv print online journalists largest productions may require one promotional tour order rejuvenate audience demand release window since advent home video early major films


followed pattern several distinct release windows film may first released select cinemas tests well enough may go directly wide release next released normally different times several weeks months apart different market segments like rental retail pay per view flight entertainment cable television satellite television free air broadcast television distribution rights film also usually sold worldwide distribution distributor production company share profits manage losses independent filmmaking sound recordist curtis choy left


result several companies emerged assist filmmakers getting independent movies seen sold via mainstream internet marketplaces often adjacent popular hollywood titles internet movie distribution independent filmmakers choose forgo traditional distribution deal ability reach global audiences see also film mm film audiography cinematic techniques cinematography digital cinema experimental filmmaking film colorization film title design film industry film poster film school film studies film trailer filmmaking technique luis bu uel filmmaking technique kurosawa first look deal glossary motion picture terms list film topics motion


picture association america motion picture content rating system movie production incentives united states movie theater outline film television references external links cinematic techniques cinematography


'''green chemistry''' also called '' 'sustainable chemistry''' area chemistry chemical engineering focused design products processes minimize eliminate use generation hazardous substances environmental chemistry focuses effects polluting chemicals nature green chemistry focuses environmental impact chemistry including reducing consumption nonrenewable resources technological approaches preventing pollution overarching goals green chemistry namely resource efficient inherently safer design molecules materials products processes pursued wide range contexts ref general note

Natural science
Chemistry
Green chemistry


green chemistry discusses engineering concept pollution prevention zero waste laboratory industrial scales encourages use economical ecocompatible techniques improve yield also bring cost disposal wastes end chemical process align right width history green chemistry emerged variety existing ideas research efforts atom economy catalysis period leading context increasing attention problems chemical pollution resource depletion


development green chemistry europe united states linked shift environmental problem solving strategies movement command control regulation mandated reduction industrial emissions end pipe toward active prevention pollution innovative design production technologies set concepts recognized green chemistry coalesced mid late along broader adoption term prevailed competing terms clean sustainable chemistry ref name woodhouse breyman ref ref name linthorst ref united states environmental protection agency played significant


early role fostering green chemistry pollution prevention programs funding professional coordination time united kingdom researchers university york contributed establishment green chemistry network within royal society chemistry launch journal ''green chemistry'' ref name linthorst principles paul anastas directed green chemistry program us epa john c warner polaroid corporation published set principles guide practice green chemistry twelve principles address range ways reduce


environmental health impacts chemical production also indicate research priorities development green chemistry technologies principles cover concepts design processes maximize amount raw material ends product use renewable material feedstocks energy sources use safe environmentally benign substances including solvents whenever possible design energy efficient processes avoiding production waste viewed ideal form waste management twelve principles green chemistry prevention preventing waste better treating


cleaning waste created atom economy synthetic methods try maximize incorporation materials used process final product means less waste generated result less hazardous chemical syntheses synthetic methods avoid using generating substances toxic humans environment designing safer chemicals chemical products designed achieve desired function non toxic possible safer solvents auxiliaries auxiliary substances avoided wherever possible non hazardous possible must


used design energy efficiency energy requirements minimized processes conducted ambient temperature pressure whenever possible use renewable feedstocks whenever practical renewable feedstocks raw materials preferable non renewable ones reduce derivatives unnecessary generation derivatives use protecting groups minimized avoided possible steps require additional reagents may generate additional waste catalysis catalytic reagents used small quantities repeat reaction superior stoichiometric reagents ones consumed


reaction design degradation chemical products designed pollute environment function complete break non harmful products real time analysis pollution prevention analytical methodologies need developed permit real time process monitoring control ''before'' hazardous substances form inherently safer chemistry accident prevention whenever possible substances process forms substances chosen minimize risks explosions fires accidental releases trends attempts made quantify ''greenness''


chemical process also factor variables chemical yield price reaction components safety handling chemicals hardware demands energy profile ease product workup purification one quantitative study ref name ecoscale ref reduction nitrobenzene aniline receives points marking acceptable synthesis overall whereas synthesis amide using hmds described adequate combined points green chemistry increasingly seen powerful tool researchers must use evaluate environmental impact nanotechnology nano materials


developed environmental human health impacts products processes make must considered ensure long term economic viability trend nano material technology practice however people ignored potential nanotoxicity therefore people need address consideration legal ethical safety regulatory issues associated nanomaterials examples green solvents major application solvents human activities paints coatings usage smaller volume applications include cleaning de greasing adhesives chemical synthesis traditional solvents often toxic chlorinated


green solvents hand generally less harmful health environment preferably sustainable ideally solvents would derived renewable resources biodegrade innocuous often naturally occurring product however manufacture solvents biomass harmful environment making solvents fossil fuels thus environmental impact solvent manufacture must considered solvent selected product process another factor consider fate solvent use solvent used enclosed


situation solvent collection recycling feasible energy cost environmental harm associated recycling considered situation water energy intensive purify may greenest choice hand solvent contained consumer product likely released environment upon use therefore environmental impact solvent important energy cost impact solvent recycling case water likely green choice short impact entire lifetime


solvent cradle grave cradle cradle recycled must considered thus comprehensive definition green solvent following ''a green solvent solvent makes product process least environmental impact entire life cycle'' definition solvent might green one application results less environmental harm solvent could used application yet green solvent different application classic example water green


solvent consumer products toilet bowl cleaner green solvent manufacture polytetrafluoroethylene production polymer use water solvent requires addition perfluorinated surfactants highly persistent instead supercritical carbon dioxide seems greenest solvent application performs well without surfactant summary solvent declared green solvent unless declaration limited specific application synthetic techniques novel enhanced synthetic techniques often provide improved environmental performance enable better adherence


foam production polystyrene foam common material used packing food transportation seven hundred million pounds produced year united states alone traditionally cfc ozone depleting chemicals used production process foam sheets presenting serious environmental hazard flammable explosive cases toxic hydrocarbons also used cfc replacements present problems dow chemical discovered supercritical carbon dioxide works equally well blowing agent without need hazardous substances allowing polystyrene easily recycled co sub sub


used process reused industries net carbon released process zero hydrazine addressing principle peroxide process producing hydrazine without cogenerating salt hydrazine traditionally produced olin raschig process sodium hypochlorite active ingredient many bleaches ammonia net reaction produces one equivalent sodium chloride every equivalent targeted product hydrazine ref name ullmann jean pierre schirmann paul bourdauducq hydrazine ullmann 's encyclopedia industrial chemistry wiley vch weinheim ref naocl nh sub sub h sub sub n nh sub sub


nacl h sub sub greener peroxide process hydrogen peroxide employed oxidant side product water net conversion follows nh sub sub h sub sub sub sub h sub sub n nh sub sub h sub sub addressing principle process require auxiliary extracting solvents methyl ethyl ketone used carrier hydrazine intermediate ketazine phase separates reaction mixture facilitating workup without need extracting solvent propanediol addressing principle green route propanediol traditionally generated petrochemical


precursors produced renewable precursors via bioseparation propanediol using genetically modified strain ''e coli'' diol used make new polyesters manufacture carpets lactide lactide cargill dow natureworks greener reaction conditions award improved method polymerization polylactic acid unfortunately lactide base polymers perform well project discontinued dow soon award lactic acid produced fermenting corn converted lactide cyclic dimer ester lactic acid using efficient tin catalyzed cyclization


lactide enantiomer isolated distillation polymerized melt make crystallizable polymer applications including textiles apparel cutlery food packaging wal mart announced using use pla produce packaging natureworks pla process substitutes renewable materials petroleum feedstocks n't require use hazardous organic solvents typical pla processes results high quality polymer recyclable compostable carpet tile backings shaw industries selected combination polyolefin resins base polymer choice ecoworx due low


backing elutriation grinding air separation proved best way recover face backing components infrastructure returning postconsumer ecoworx elutriation process necessary research also indicated postconsumer carpet tile positive economic value end useful life ecoworx recognized mbdc certified cradle cradle design ''trans'' ''cis'' fatty acids transesterification fats archer daniels midland adm novozymes greener synthetic pathways award enzyme interesterification process response us food drug administration fda


mandated labeling ''trans'' fats nutritional information january novozymes adm worked together develop clean enzymatic process interesterification oils fats interchanging saturated unsaturated fatty acids result commercially viable products without ''trans'' fats addition human health benefits eliminating ''trans'' fats process reduced use toxic chemicals water prevents vast amounts byproducts reduces amount fats oils wasted bio succinic acid outstanding green chemistry accomplishments small business award went bioamber inc integrated production


downstream applications bio based succinic acid succinic acid platform chemical important starting material formulations everyday products traditionally succinic acid produced petroleum based feedstocks bioamber developed process technology produces succinic acid fermentation renewable feedstocks lower cost lower energy expenditure petroleum equivalent sequestering co rather emitting however lower prices oil precipitated company bankruptcy bio sourced succinic acid barely made laboratory chemicals several laboratory chemicals controversial perspective green chemistry


massachusetts institute technology created green alternatives wizard http ehsmitedu greenchem help identify alternatives ethidium bromide xylene mercury formaldehyde identified worst offenders alternatives solvents particular make large contribution environmental impact chemical manufacturing growing focus introducing greener solvents earliest stage development processes laboratory scale reaction purification methods pharmaceutical industry gsk pfizer published solvent selection guides drug discovery chemists legislation eu eu put place registration


evaluation authorisation restriction chemicals reach program requires companies provide data showing products safe regulation ensures assessment chemicals' hazards well risks uses also includes measures banning restricting authorising uses specific substances echa eu chemicals agency helsinki implementing regulation whereas enforcement lies eu member states united states united states formed environmental protection agency epa protect human environmental health creating enforcing environmental regulation green chemistry builds


epa goals encouraging chemists engineers design chemicals processes products avoid creation toxins waste us law governs majority industrial chemicals excluding pesticides foods pharmaceuticals toxic substances control act tsca examining role regulatory programs shaping development green chemistry united states analysts revealed structural flaws long standing weaknesses tsca example report california legislature concludes tsca produced domestic chemicals market discounts hazardous properties chemicals relative


function price performance scholars argued market conditions represent key barrier scientific technical commercial success green chemistry us fundamental policy changes needed correct weaknesses passed pollution prevention act helped foster new approaches dealing pollution preventing environmental problems happen green chemistry grew popularity united states pollution prevention act passed act declared pollution reduced improving designs products rather treatment disposal regulations encouraged


substances control dtsc develop new regulations prioritize chemicals concern promote substitution hazardous chemicals safer alternatives resulting regulations took effect initiating dtsc 's ''safer consumer products program'' education many institutions offer courses degrees green chemistry examples across globe denmark 's technical university several us eg universities massachusetts boston michigan oregon masters doctoral level courses green technology introduced institute chemical technology india uk university york university leicester department


chemistry mres green chemistry imperial college london spain different universities like universitat jaume universidad de navarra offer green chemistry master courses also websites focusing green chemistry michigan green chemistry clearinghouse apart green chemistry master courses zurich university applied sciences zhaw presents exposition web page making chemistry green broader public illustrating principles scientific journals specialized green chemistry ''green chemistry'' rsc ''green chemistry letters reviews'' open access taylor francis ''chemsuschem'' wiley ''acs


sustainable chemistry engineering'' acs contested definition ambiguities definition green chemistry understood among broader science policy business communities even within chemistry researchers used term green chemistry describe range work independently framework put forward anastas warner ie principles ref name linthorst uses term legitimate see greenwashing many authoritative status single definition uncertain broadly idea green chemistry easily linked confused related concepts


like green engineering environmental design sustainability general complexity multifaceted nature green chemistry makes difficult devise clear simple metrics result green often open debate ref name matusbarriers ref awards several scientific societies created awards encourage research green chemistry australia 's green chemistry challenge awards overseen royal australian chemical institute raci canadian green chemistry medal italy green chemistry activities center around inter university consortium known inca japan green sustainable chemistry network oversees gsc awards program united kingdom


green chemical technology awards given crystal faraday us presidential green chemistry challenge awards recognize individuals businesses ref name presgreenabout ref see also bioremediation technique generally falls outside scope green chemistry environmental engineering science ''green chemistry'' journal published royal society chemistry green chemistry metrics green computing similar initiative area computing green engineering substitution dangerous chemicals sustainable engineering references environmental chemistry chemistry waste minimisation


influence human behavior sociocyberneticists' task understand guidance control mechanisms govern operation society behavior individuals generally practice devise better ways harnessing intervening say devise effective ways operate mechanisms modify according opinions cyberneticist general theoretical framework sociocybernetics aims generate general theoretical framework understanding cooperative behavior claims give deep understanding general theory evolution outlook sociocybernetics

Social science
Sociology
Sociocybernetics


uses analyzing living system lies basic law sociocybernetics says living systems go six levels interrelations social contracts subsystems aggression survive die b bureaucracy follow norms rules c competition gain loss decision disclosing individual feelings intentions e empathy cooperation one unified interest f free ability species regardless type race sex creed belief genetics make model sentience govern existence controlled free choose live life without


discrimination interference going six phases relationship theoretically gives framework sociocybernetic study evolutionary system serves equation life sociocybernetics defined systems science sociology social sciences systems science sociocybernetics limited theory includes application empirical research methodology axiology ie ethics value research epistemology general use systems theory cybernetics frequently interchangeable appear combination hence considered synonyms although two terms come different traditions used uniformly


different languages national traditions sociocybernetics includes called first order cybernetics second order cybernetics cybernetics according wiener 's original definition science control communication animal machine heinz von foerster went distinguish first order cybernetics study observed systems second order cybernetics study observing systems second order cybernetics explicitly based constructivist epistemology concerned issues self reference paying particular attention observer dependence knowledge including scientific theories interdisciplinary holistic spirit systems


science although sociology clearly centre interest sociocybernetics social sciences psychology anthropology political science economics addressed well emphases depending particular research question dealt issues challenges recent research santa fe institute presents idea social systems like cities n't behave like organisms proposed sociocybernetics see also anthropology autopoiesis cliodynamics complex systems dynastic cycle general systems theory list cycles psychology social cycle theory sociocracy sociology superorganisms systems philosophy systems thinking war cycles world systems theory references


reading b la h b n thy ''guided evolution society systems view'' kluwer academic plenum new york felix geyer johannes van der zouwen http wwwunizares sociocybernetics chen felix pfge html sociocybernetics ''handbook cybernetics'' cv negoita ed new york marcel dekker pp nbsp raven j ''managing education effective schooling important problem come terms values'' unionville new york trillium press raven j ''the new wealth nations new enquiry nature origins wealth nations societal learning arrangements needed sustainable society'' unionville new york royal


medicinal chemistry seeks develop therapeutic agents pharmacophore model benzodiazepine binding site gabaa receptor px '''medicinal chemistry''' discipline intersection chemistry especially synthetic organic chemistry pharmacology various biological specialties involved design chemical synthesis development market pharmaceutical agents bio active molecules drugs compounds used medicines often organic compounds often divided broad classes small organic molecules eg atorvastatin fluticasone clopidogrel biologics infliximab erythropoietin insulin glargine latter often medicinal preparations proteins

Natural science
Chemistry
Medicinal chemistry


natural recombinant antibodies hormones etc inorganic organometallic compounds also useful drugs eg lithium platinum based agents lithium carbonate cisplatin well gallium particular medicinal chemistry common practice focusing small organic molecules encompasses synthetic organic chemistry aspects natural products computational chemistry close combination chemical biology enzymology structural biology together aiming discovery development new therapeutic agents practically speaking involves chemical aspects identification systematic thorough synthetic alteration new chemical entities make suitable


practices systematically oversee altering identified chemical agents pharmaceutical formulation safe efficacious therefore suitable use treatment disease path drug discovery discovery discovery identification novel active chemical compounds often called hits typically found assay compounds desired biological activity initial hits come repurposing existing agents toward new pathologic processes observations biologic effects new existing natural products bacteria fungi plants etc addition hits also routinely originate structural observations small molecule


developed team environments years rigorous practice aimed solely discovering new therapeutic agents hit lead lead optimization chemistry analysis necessary first identify triage compounds provide series displaying suitable sar chemical characteristics associated long term potential development improve remaining hit series regard desired primary activity well secondary activities physiochemical properties agent useful administered real patients regard chemical modifications improve recognition binding geometries pharmacophores candidate


compounds affinities targets well improving physicochemical properties molecule underlie necessary pharmacokinetic pharmacodynamic pk pd toxicologic profiles stability toward metabolic degradation lack geno hepatic cardiac toxicities etc chemical compound biologic suitable introduction animal human studies process chemistry development final synthetic chemistry stages involve production lead compound suitable quantity quality allow large scale animal testing human clinical trials involves optimization synthetic route bulk industrial production discovery


suitable drug formulation former still bailiwick medicinal chemistry latter brings specialization formulation science components physical polymer chemistry materials science synthetic chemistry specialization medicinal chemistry aimed adaptation optimization synthetic route industrial scale syntheses hundreds kilograms termed process synthesis involves thorough knowledge acceptable synthetic practice context large scale reactions reaction thermodynamics economics safety etc critical stage transition stringent gmp requirements


material sourcing handling chemistry synthetic analysis synthetic methodology employed medicinal chemistry subject constraints apply traditional organic synthesis owing prospect scaling preparation safety paramount importance potential toxicity reagents affects methodology ref name jmc structural analysis structures pharmaceuticals assessed many ways part means predict efficacy stability accessibility lipinski 's rule five focus number hydrogen bond donors acceptors number rotatable bonds surface area lipophilicity parameters medicinal


chemists assess classify compounds synthetic complexity chirality flatness aromatic ring count structural analysis lead compounds often performed computational methods prior actual synthesis ligand done number reasons including limited time financial considerations expenditure etc ligand interest synthesized laboratory analysis performed traditional methods tlc nmr gc ms others ref name jmc training medicinal chemistry nature interdisciplinary science practitioners strong background organic chemistry must eventually coupled


process chemistry aimed viable commercial syntheses areas generally fewer opportunities training paths often much varied eg including focused training physical organic chemistry library related syntheses etc entry level workers medicinal chemistry especially us formal training medicinal chemistry receive necessary medicinal chemistry pharmacologic background employment entry work pharmaceutical company company provides particular understanding model medichem training active involvement practical synthesis therapeutic projects somewhat true computational medicinal chemistry specialties


biological brain transmit signal neurons artificial neuron receives signal processes signal neurons connected signal connection real number output neuron computed non linear function sum inputs connections called ''edges'' neurons edges typically ''weight'' adjusts learning proceeds weight increases decreases strength signal connection neurons may threshold signal sent aggregate signal crosses

Formal science
Computer science
Artificial intelligence
Artificial neural networks


example images manually labeled cat cat using results identify cats images without prior knowledge cats example fur tails whiskers cat like faces instead automatically generate identifying characteristics examples process history warren mcculloch walter pitts opened subject creating computational model neural networks late hebb created learning hypothesis based mechanism neural plasticity became known hebbian learning farley wesley


clark first used computational machines called calculators simulate hebbian network psychologist frank rosenblatt invented perceptron first artificial neural network ref name werbos title beyond regression new tools prediction analysis behavioral sciences last werbos first pj year ref funded united states office naval research ref name olazaran ref first functional networks many layers published ivakhnenko lapa group method data handling ref name schidhub ref ref name ivak title cybernetic predicting devices last ivakhnenko first g publisher ccm information corporation year ref ref name ivak title cybernetics forecasting techniques last grigor evich lapa first valentin publisher american elsevier pub co year first g last ivakhnenko ref basics continuous backpropagation ref name schidhub ref name scholarpedia ref ref name ref ref name mizutani ref derived


context control theory kelley ref name kelley ref bryson ref name bryson ref using principles dynamic programming thereafter research stagnated following minsky papert discovered basic perceptrons incapable processing exclusive circuit computers lacked sufficient power process useful neural networks seppo linnainmaa published general method automatic differentiation ad discrete connected networks nested differentiable functions ref name lin ref ref name lin ref dreyfus used backpropagation adapt parameters controllers proportion error gradients ref name dreyfus ref werbos 's backpropagation algorithm enabled practical training multi layer


networks applied linnainmaa 's ad method neural networks way became widely used ref name scholarpedia ref name werbos ref development metal oxide semiconductor mos large scale integration vlsi form complementary mos cmos technology enabled increasing mos transistor counts digital electronics provided processing power development practical artificial neural networks ref name mead ref rumelhart hinton williams showed backpropagation learned interesting internal representations words feature vectors trained predict next word sequence ref name rumel david e rumelhart geoffrey e hinton ronald j


williams https wwwnaturecom articles learning representations back propagating errors ''nature' pages ref max pooling introduced help least shift invariance tolerance deformation aid object recognition ref name weng j weng n ahuja huang http wwwcsemsuedu weng research cresceptronijcnn pdf cresceptron self organizing neural network grows adaptively ''proc international joint conference neural networks'' baltimore maryland vol pp june ref ref name weng j weng n ahuja huang http wwwcsemsuedu weng research cresceptroniccv pdf learning recognition segmentation objects images ''proc th international conf computer vision'' berlin germany pp may ref ref name weng j weng n ahuja


huang http wwwcsemsuedu weng research cresceptronijcvpdf learning recognition segmentation using cresceptron ''international journal computer vision'' vol pp nov ref schmidhuber adopted multi level hierarchy networks pre trained one level time unsupervised learning fine tuned backpropagation ref name schmid j schmidhuber https mediatumubtumde doc filepdf learning complex extended sequences using principle history compression ''neural computation'' pp ref neural networks' early successes included predicting stock market mostly self driving car geoffrey hinton et al proposed learning high level representation using successive layers binary real valued latent variables


object recognition ''in th international conference artificial neural networks icann '' pp ref anns began winning prizes image recognition contests approaching human level performance various tasks initially pattern recognition handwriting recognition example bi directional multi dimensional long short term memory lstm ref name graves ref name graves ref graves et al three competitions connected handwriting recognition without prior knowledge three languages learned ref name graves ref name graves ref ciresan colleagues built first pattern recognizers achieve human competitive superhuman performance ref name ref benchmarks


traffic sign recognition ijcnn models neuron myelinated axon signal flow inputs dendrites outputs axon terminals anns began attempt exploit architecture human brain perform tasks conventional algorithms little success soon reoriented towards improving empirical results mostly abandoning attempts remain true biological precursors neurons connected various patterns allow output neurons become input others network forms directed weighted graph ref name zell ch ref artificial neural network consists collection


simulated neurons neuron node connected nodes via links correspond biological axon synapse dendrite connections link weight determines strength one node 's influence another ref name 'winston' ref components anns neurons anns composed artificial neurons conceptually derived biological neurons artificial neuron inputs produces single output sent multiple neurons inputs feature values sample external data images documents outputs


neurons outputs final ''output neurons'' neural net accomplish task recognizing object image find output neuron first must take weighted sum inputs weighted ''weights'' ''connections'' inputs neuron add ''bias'' term sum weighted sum sometimes called ''activation'' weighted sum passed usually nonlinear activation function produce output initial inputs external data images documents ultimate outputs


accomplish task recognizing object image connections weights network consists connections connection providing output one neuron input another neuron connection assigned weight represents relative importance ref name zell ch given neuron multiple input output connections ref name abbod ref propagation function ''propagation function'' computes input neuron outputs predecessor neurons connections weighted sum ref name zell ch ''bias'' term added result propagation ref name dawson ref organization


neurons typically organized multiple layers especially deep learning neurons one layer connect neurons immediately preceding immediately following layers layer receives external data ''input layer'' layer produces ultimate result ''output layer'' zero ''hidden layers'' single layer unlayered networks also used two layers multiple connection patterns possible 'fully connected' every neuron one layer connecting every neuron next layer ''pooling'' group


neurons one layer connect single neuron next layer thereby reducing number neurons layer ref name flexible ref neurons connections form directed acyclic graph known ''feedforward networks'' ref name zell p ref alternatively networks allow connections neurons previous layers known ' 'recurrent networks'''''' hyperparameter hyperparameter constant parameter whose value set learning process begins values parameters derived via learning examples hyperparameters include learning rate number hidden layers batch size


values hyperparameters dependent hyperparameters example size layers depend overall number layers learning learning adaptation network better handle task considering sample observations learning involves adjusting weights optional thresholds network improve accuracy result done minimizing observed errors learning complete examining additional observations usefully reduce error rate even learning error rate typically reach learning error


optimization theory statistical estimation learning rate learning rate defines size corrective steps model takes adjust errors observation high learning rate shortens training time lower ultimate accuracy lower learning rate takes longer potential greater accuracy optimizations quickprop primarily aimed speeding error minimization improvements mainly try increase reliability order avoid oscillation inside network alternating connection weights improve rate convergence refinements use


adaptive learning rate increases decreases appropriate concept momentum allows balance gradient previous change weighted weight adjustment depends degree previous change momentum close emphasizes gradient value close emphasizes last change cost function possible define cost function ad hoc frequently choice determined function 's desirable properties convexity arises model eg probabilistic model model 's posterior probability


used inverse cost backpropagation backpropagation method used adjust connection weights compensate error found learning error amount effectively divided among connections technically backprop calculates gradient derivative cost function associated given state respect weights weight updates done via stochastic gradient descent methods extreme learning machines prop networks training without backtracking weightless networks ref name rbmtrain ref non connectionist neural networks learning paradigms three major learning paradigms supervised learning unsupervised learning reinforcement


learning correspond particular learning task supervised learning supervised learning uses set paired inputs desired outputs learning task produce desired output input case cost function related eliminating incorrect deductions commonly used cost mean squared error tries minimize average squared error network 's output desired output tasks suited supervised learning pattern recognition also known classification regression also known function approximation supervised learning also applicable sequential data eg


hand writing speech gesture recognition thought learning teacher form function provides continuous feedback quality solutions obtained thus far unsupervised learning unsupervised learning input data given along cost function function data math textstyle x math network 's output cost function dependent task model domain ''a priori'' assumptions implicit properties model parameters observed variables trivial example consider model math textstyle f x math


math textstyle math constant cost math textstyle c e x f x math minimizing cost produces value math textstyle math equal mean data cost function much complicated form depends application example compression could related mutual information math textstyle x math math textstyle f x math whereas statistical modeling could related posterior probability model given data note examples quantities would maximized rather minimized tasks fall within


paradigm unsupervised learning general estimation problems applications include clustering estimation statistical distributions compression filtering reinforcement learning applications playing video games actor takes string actions receiving generally unpredictable response environment one goal win game ie generate positive lowest cost responses reinforcement learning aim weight network devise policy perform actions minimize long term expected cumulative cost point time agent performs action environment generates


observation instantaneous cost according usually unknown rules rules long term cost usually estimated juncture agent decides whether explore new actions uncover costs exploit prior learning proceed quickly formally environment modeled markov decision process mdp states math textstyle n math actions math textstyle math state transitions known probability distributions used instead instantaneous cost distribution math textstyle p c math observation distribution math textstyle p x math transition distribution math textstyle p math


control problems games sequential decision making tasks self learning self learning neural networks introduced along neural network capable self learning named crossbar adaptive array caa system one input situation one output action behavior neither external advice input external reinforcement input environment caa computes crossbar fashion decisions actions emotions feelings encountered situations system driven interaction cognition emotion given memory matrix w w crossbar self learning algorithm


behavior behavioral environment contains desirable undesirable situations neuroevolution neuroevolution create neural network topologies weights using evolutionary computation competitive sophisticated gradient descent approaches one advantage neuroevolution may less prone get caught dead ends bayesian framework distribution set allowed models chosen minimize cost evolutionary methods gene expression programming simulated annealing expectation maximization non parametric methods particle swarm optimization learning algorithms convergent recursion learning algorithm cerebellar model articulation controller cmac


neural networks ref name qin ting qin et al http www controlengcamacuk homepage papers cued control pdf learning algorithm cmac based rls neural processing letters ref ref name qin ting qin et al http www controlengcamacuk homepage papers cued control pdf continuous cmac qrls systolic array neural processing letters ref modes two modes learning available stochastic batch stochastic learning input creates weight adjustment batch learning weights adjusted based batch inputs accumulating errors batch stochastic learning introduces noise process using local gradient calculated one data point reduces chance network getting


stuck local minima however batch learning typically yields faster stable descent local minimum since update performed direction batch 's average error common compromise use mini batches small batches samples batch selected stochastically entire data set types anns evolved broad family techniques advanced state art across multiple domains simplest types one static components including number units number layers unit weights topology dynamic types allow one


evolve via learning latter much complicated shorten learning periods produce better results types allow require learning supervised operator others operate independently types operate purely hardware others purely software run general purpose computers main breakthroughs include convolutional neural networks proven particularly successful processing visual two dimensional data ref name lecun lecun ''et al'' backpropagation applied handwritten zip code recognition ''neural computation'' pp ref ref name lecun slides yann lecun slides deep learning https indicocernch event online ref


long short term memory avoid vanishing gradient problem ref name ref handle signals mix low high frequency components aiding large vocabulary speech recognition ref name sak ref ref name liwu ref text speech synthesis ref name scholarpedia ref name zen ref photo real talking heads ref name fan ref competitive networks generative adversarial networks multiple networks varying structure compete tasks winning game ref name preprint ref deceiving opponent authenticity input ref name gannips ref network design neural architecture search nas uses machine learning automate ann design various approaches nas designed networks


compare well hand designed systems basic search algorithm propose candidate model evaluate dataset use results feedback teach nas network available systems include automl autokeras design issues include deciding number type connectedness network layers well size connection type full pooling hyperparameters must also defined part design learned governing matters many neurons layer learning rate step stride depth receptive field padding cnns etc ref


name abs ref use using artificial neural networks requires understanding characteristics choice model depends data representation application overly complex models slow learning learning algorithm numerous trade offs exist learning algorithms almost algorithm work well correct hyperparameters training particular data set however selecting tuning algorithm training unseen data requires significant experimentation robustness model cost function learning algorithm selected appropriately resulting ann become robust ann capabilities fall within following broad categories function approximation


regression analysis including time series prediction fitness approximation modeling classification including pattern sequence recognition novelty detection sequential decision making ref name turekneuralnet ref data processing including filtering clustering blind source separation compression robotics including directing manipulators prostheses applications ability reproduce model nonlinear processes artificial neural networks found applications many disciplines application areas include system identification control vehicle control trajectory prediction process control natural resource management quantum chemistry ref name balabin ref general game playing pattern recognition radar systems face identification signal classification reconstruction object recognition sensor data analysis sequence


recognition gesture speech handwritten printed text recognition medical diagnosis finance eg automated trading systems data mining visualization machine translation social network filtering e mail spam filtering anns used diagnose several types cancers distinguish highly invasive cancer cell lines less invasive lines using cell shape information anns used accelerate reliability analysis infrastructures subject natural disasters predict foundation settlements anns also used building black box models geoscience hydrology ocean modelling coastal engineering geomorphology anns employed cybersecurity


objective discriminate legitimate activities malicious ones example machine learning used classifying android malware identifying domains belonging threat actors detecting urls posing security risk research underway ann systems designed penetration testing detecting botnets credit cards frauds network intrusions anns proposed tool solve partial differential equations physics simulate properties many body open quantum systems brain research anns studied short term behavior individual neurons dynamics neural circuitry arise interactions individual neurons


finite number neurons standard linear connections use irrational values weights results machine super turing power capacity model 's capacity property corresponds ability model given function related amount information stored network notion complexity two notions capacity known community information capacity vc dimension information capacity perceptron intensively discussed sir david mackay 's book ref name auto ref summarizes work thomas cover capacity network


standard neurons convolutional derived four rules derive understanding neuron electrical element information capacity captures functions modelable network given data input second notion vc dimension vc dimension uses principles measure theory finds maximum capacity best possible circumstances given input data specific form noted ref name auto vc dimension arbitrary inputs half information capacity perceptron vc dimension arbitrary points sometimes referred


memory capacity convergence models may consistently converge single solution firstly local minima may exist depending cost function model secondly optimization method used might guarantee converge begins far local minimum thirdly sufficiently large data parameters methods become impractical convergence behavior certain types ann architectures understood others width network approaches infinity ann well described first order taylor expansion throughout training inherits convergence behavior affine models ref name lee ref


another example parameters small observed anns often fits target functions low high frequencies behavior referred spectral bias frequency principle neural networks phenomenon opposite behavior well studied iterative numerical schemes jacobi method deeper neural networks observed biased towards low frequency functions generalization statistics applications whose goal create system generalizes well unseen examples face possibility training arises convoluted specified systems


network capacity significantly exceeds needed free parameters two approaches address training first use cross validation similar techniques check presence training select hyperparameters minimize generalization error second use form ' 'regularization'' concept emerges probabilistic bayesian framework regularization performed selecting larger prior probability simpler models also statistical learning theory goal minimize two quantities 'empirical risk' 'structural risk' roughly corresponds error training set


predicted error unseen data due overfitting confidence analysis neural network supervised neural networks use mean squared error mse cost function use formal statistical methods determine confidence trained model mse validation set used estimate variance value used calculate confidence interval network output assuming normal distribution confidence analysis made way statistically valid long output probability distribution stays network modified assigning


softmax activation function generalization logistic function output layer neural network softmax component component based network categorical target variables outputs interpreted posterior probabilities useful classification gives certainty measure classifications softmax activation function math frac e x sum j c e x j math section end theory criticism training common criticism neural networks particularly robotics require much training real world operation potential solutions include randomly shuffling training examples using numerical optimization algorithm take


large steps changing network connections following example grouping examples called mini batches introducing recursive least squares algorithm cmac ref name qin theory fundamental objection anns sufficiently reflect neuronal function backpropagation critical step although mechanism exists biological neural networks information coded real neurons known sensor neurons fire action potentials frequently sensor activation muscle cells pull strongly associated motor neurons receive action potentials frequently case relaying information sensor neuron