state owned private companies predominantly operate mass transit systems public transport services profit driven use pay distance fares funded government subsidies flat rate fares charged passenger services fully profitable high usership numbers high farebox recovery ratios regulated possibly subsidised local national tax revenue fully subsidised free charge services operate towns cities geographical historical economic reasons differences exist internationally regarding use extent public transport countries old world tend extensive


frequent systems serving old dense cities many cities new world sprawl much less comprehensive public transport international association public transport uitp international network public transport authorities operators policy decision makers scientific institutes public transport supply service industry members countries globe history early trolley car newton massachusetts conveyances designed public hire old first ferries earliest public transport water transport land people walked sometimes groups

Applied science
Transportation
Mass transit


pilgrimages noted sources bible ''the canterbury tales'' least eurasia africa rode animal ferries appear greek mythology corpses ancient greece buried coin underneath tongue pay ferryman charon take hades historical forms public transport include stagecoach traveling fixed route coaching inns horse drawn boat carrying paying passengers feature european canals th century origins canal form infrastructure dates back antiquity ancient egyptians certainly


died august omnibuses next known appeared nantes france omnibus introduced london july first passenger horse drawn railway opened ran swansea mumbles southwest wales united kingdom george stephenson built ''locomotion'' stockton darlington railway northeast england first public steam railway world first successful electric streetcar built miles track union passenger railway richmond virginia electric streetcars could carry heavier passenger loads


subway following decades types aerial lift aerial tramway funifor chairlift detachable chairlift funitel gondola lift maritime transport ferry cable ferry reaction ferry water taxi land transport personal public transport bicycle sharing system carsharing personal rapid transit rail transport inter city rail high speed rail maglev urban rail transit airport rail link atmospheric railway automated guideway transit cable car cable railway commuter rail elevated railway funicular inclined elevator light rail medium capacity rail system monorail slope car suspension railway people mover railway electrification system rapid transit rubber tyred metro tram heritage streetcar tram train road transport public transport bus service transit bus articulated bus bi articulated


bus trailer bus trackless train autonomous rail rapid transit rigid bus airport bus bus rapid transit double decker bus express bus service guided bus rubber tyred trams high floor low floor bus midibus single deck bus tourist trolley trolleybus intercity bus service coach minibus paratransit taxicab hackney carriage share taxi comparing modes passenger capacity different transport modes seven criteria measure usability different types public transport overall appeal criteria speed comfort safety cost proximity timeliness directness speed calculated total journey time including transfers proximity means far passengers must walk otherwise travel


begin public transport leg journey close leaves desired destination timeliness long must wait vehicle directness records far journey using public transport deviates route selecting competing modes transport many individuals strongly motivated direct cost travel fare ticket price convenience well informed habit individual may accept lost time statistically higher risk accident private transport together initial running parking costs loss control


airline provides scheduled service aircraft airports air travel high speeds incurs large waiting times travel therefore often feasible longer distances areas lack ground infrastructure makes modes transport impossible bush airlines work similarly bus stops aircraft waits passengers takes aircraft full bus coach transperth bus operating perth western australia bus services use buses conventional roads carry numerous passengers shorter journeys buses operate low capacity compared trams


trains operate conventional roads relatively inexpensive bus stops serve passengers therefore buses commonly used smaller cities towns rural areas shuttle services supplementing means transit large cities bus rapid transit ambiguous term used buses operating dedicated right way much like light rail coach services use coaches long distance buses suburb cbd longer distance transportation vehicles normally equipped comfortable seating separate luggage compartment video possibly also toilet higher standards city buses limited stopping


pattern electric buses trolley bus trolleybuses electrically powered buses receive power overhead power line way set trolley poles mobility online electric vehicles buses run conventional battery recharged frequently certain points via underground wires certain types buses styled old style streetcars also called trackless trolleys built platforms typical diesel cng hybrid bus often used tourist rides commuting tend privately owned train sydney trains set


arriving flemington new south wales passenger rail transport conveyance passengers means wheeled vehicles specially designed run railways trains allow high capacity short long distance require track signalling infrastructure stations built maintained intercity high speed rail intercity rail long haul passenger services connect multiple urban areas stops aim high average speeds typically making one stops per city services may also international high speed rail passenger trains operating significantly faster conventional rail typically defined


least predominant systems built europe east asia compared air travel offer long distance rail journeys quick air services lower prices compete effectively use electricity instead combustion urban rail transit urban rail transit encompassing term various types local rail systems trams light rail rapid transit people movers commuter rail monorail suspension railways funiculars commuter rail septa regional rail train cheltenham pennsylvania form commuter rail commuter rail part urban area 's public transport


provides faster services outer suburbs neighboring towns villages trains stop stations located serve smaller suburban town center stations often combined shuttle bus park ride systems frequency may several times per hour commuter rail systems may either part national railway operated local transit agencies rapid transit skytrain vancouver longest rapid transit system canada rapid transit railway system also called metro underground subway operates urban area high capacity


frequency grade separation traffic ref name aptaglossary ref systems able transport large numbers people quickly short distances little land use variations rapid transit include people movers small scale light metro commuter rail hybrid bahn cities rapid transit systems totalling track stations twenty five cities systems construction tram streetcar toronto operates largest tramway north america trams railborne vehicles run city streets dedicated tracks higher capacity buses must follow dedicated infrastructure


rails wires either track limiting flexibility light rail light rail modern development use tram dedicated right way shared traffic often step free access increased speed light rail lines thus essentially modernized interurbans monorail monorail chiba japan somewhere light heavy rail terms carbon footprint monorail systems usually use overhead single tracks either mounted directly track supports put overhead design train suspended monorail systems used throughout world especially


europe east asia particularly japan apart public transit installations las vegas seattle north american monorails either short shuttle services privately owned services daily riders disney monorail systems used parks may famous world personal rapid transit people mover vehicle morgantown personal rapid transit personal rapid transit automated cab service runs rails guideway uncommon mode transportation excluding elevators due complexity automation fully implemented system might provide


convenience individual automobiles efficiency public transit crucial innovation automated vehicles carry passengers turn guideway pick passengers permitting prt vehicles continue full speed drop location choice rather stop conventional transit simulations show prt might attract many auto users problematic medium density urban areas number experimental systems progress one might compare personal rapid transit labor intensive taxi paratransit modes transportation


automated elevators common many publicly accessible areas cable propelled transit cable propelled transit cpt transit technology moves people motor less engine less vehicles propelled steel cable two sub groups cpt gondola lifts cable cars railway gondola lifts supported propelled cables whereas cable cars supported propelled cables gulmarg gondola gulmarg india historically associated usage ski resorts gondola lifts finding increased consumption utilization many urban areas built specifically purposes mass transit


cost much lower bridges tunnels though lower speed ship connections much larger distances long distances water bodies like mediterranean sea may also called ferry services cycleway network report published uk national infrastructure commission states cycling mass transit must treated cycling infrastructure normally provided without charge users cheaper operate mechanised transit systems use sophisticated equipment use human power cycle superhighway cs part central london 's cycle network


mass transit infrastructure operation timelapse video downtown seattle atop community transit double decker bus infrastructure public transport runs infrastructure either roads rail airways seaways infrastructure shared modes freight private transport dedicated public transport latter especially valuable cases capacity problems private transport investments infrastructure expensive make substantial part total costs systems new expanding built infrastructure require operating maintenance costs adding


total cost public transport sometimes governments subsidize infrastructure providing free charge common roads automobiles interchanges interchanges locations passengers switch one public transport route another may vehicles mode like bus interchange eg bus train local intercity transport central station airport timetables timetables 'schedules' north american english provided transport operator allow users plan journeys often supplemented maps


fare schemes help travelers coordinate travel online public transport route planners help make planning easier mobile apps available multiple transit systems provide timetables service information cases allow ticket purchase allowing plan journey time fares zones eg services often arranged operate regular intervals throughout day part day known clock face scheduling often frequent services even extra routes operated morning evening rush hours coordination services interchange points important reduce


total travel time passengers done coordinating shuttle services main routes creating fixed time instance twice per hour bus rail routes meet station exchange passengers often potential conflict objective optimising utilisation vehicles drivers financing main sources financing ticket revenue government subsidies advertising percentage revenue passenger charges known farebox recovery ratio limited amount income may come land development rental income stores


vendors parking fees leasing tunnels rights way carry fiber optic communication lines fare ticketing contactless ticket validator used moscow russia smartrider smart card public transportation tickets perth western australia public transport requires purchase ticket generate revenue operators tickets may bought either advance time journey carrier may allow methods passengers may issued paper ticket metal plastic token magnetic electronic card smart card contactless smart card


sometimes ticket validated eg paper ticket stamped electronic ticket checked tickets may valid single return trip valid within certain area period time see transit pass fare based travel class either depending traveled distance based zone pricing tickets may shown checked automatically station platform boarding ride conductor operators may choose control riders allowing sale


ticket time ride alternatively proof payment system allows riders enter vehicles without showing ticket riders may may controlled ticket controller rider fails show proof payment operator may fine rider magnitude fare multi use tickets allow travel addition return tickets includes period cards allowing travel within certain area instance month cards given number days chosen within longer period time instance


form direct payments financially unprofitable services support may also include indirect subsidies example government may allow free reduced cost use state owned infrastructure railways roads stimulate public transport 's economic competitiveness private transport normally also free infrastructure subsidized things gas taxes subsidies include tax advantages instance aviation fuel typically taxed bailouts companies likely collapse often applied airlines reduction competition licensing schemes often applied taxis airlines private transport normally subsidized indirectly


free roads infrastructure ref name pubsindextrborg ref well incentives build car factories occasion directly via bailouts automakers land development schemes may initialized operators given rights use lands near stations depots tracks property development instance hong kong mtr corporation limited kcr corporation generate additional profits land development partially cover cost construction urban rail system supporters mass transit believe use taxpayer capital fund mass transit ultimately save taxpayer money ways therefore state funded


mass transit benefit taxpayer research supported position measurement benefits costs complex controversial issue lack mass transit results traffic pollution road construction accommodate vehicles costly taxpayers providing mass transit therefore alleviate costs perhaps although others disagree safety security police officer police dog patrol moscow metro platform relative forms transportation public transit safe low crash risk secure low rates crime ref name litman todd litman https wwwnctrusfedu wp content uploads jpt litmanpdf


new transit safety narrative ''journal public transportation'' vol pp ref injury death rate public transit roughly one tenth automobile travel ref name litman study noted residents transit oriented communities one fifth per capita crash casualty rate automobile oriented communities transit also tends lower overall crime rates automobile travel transit improvements help reduce overall crime risk improving surveillance economic opportunities risk populations ref name litman although relatively safe secure public perceptions transit systems dangerous


endure ref name litman study stated various factors contribute appreciation transit safety benefits including nature transit travel dramatic news coverage transit crashes crimes transit agency messages unintentionally emphasize risks without providing information overall safety biased traffic safety analysis ref name litman systems attract vagrants use stations trains sleeping shelters though operators practices discourage ref name safety needle et al ref impact accessibility public transport means independent transport individuals without walking bicycling children young drive


elderly without access cars hold drivers license infirm wheelchair users kneeling buses low floor access boarding buses light rail also enabled greater access disabled mobility recent decades low floor access incorporated modern designs vehicles economically deprived areas public transport increases individual accessibility transport private means unaffordable environmental pink bus rapid transit metz uses diesel electric hybrid driving system developed belgian van hool manufacturer although continuing debate true efficiency


different modes transportation mass transit generally regarded significantly energy efficient forms travel study brookings institution american enterprise institute found public transportation us uses approximately half fuel required cars suvs light trucks addition study noted private vehicles emit percent carbon monoxide percent volatile organic compounds twice much carbon dioxide nitrogen oxide public vehicles every passenger mile traveled studies shown strong inverse correlation


urban population density energy consumption per capita public transport could facilitate increased urban population densities thus reduce travel distances fossil fuel consumption supporters green movement usually advocate public transportation offers decreased airborne pollution compared automobiles study conducted milan italy transportation strike serves illustrate impact mass transportation environment air samples taken january tested methane carbon monoxide non methane hydrocarbons nmhcs gases identified harmful environment


cites use public transportation means reducing traffic congestion providing economic boost areas job relocation importantly contributing green environment reducing carbon dioxide co sub sub emissions climate change mitigation policies using public transportation result reduction individual 's carbon footprint single person round trip car replaced using public transportation result net co sub sub emissions reduction per year ref name publictransportationorg https webarchiveorg web http publictransportationorg reports documents greenhouse brochurepdf public transportation reduces greenhouse gases conserves energy ref using public transportation saves co sub sub emissions ways


simply travel public transportation help alleviate traffic congestion well promote efficient land use three considered estimated million metric tons co sub sub saved annually ref name publictransportationorg another study claims using public transit instead private us would reduced co sub sub emissions nbsp million metric tons resulting traffic congestion reduction accounts additional nbsp million metric tons co sub sub saved total savings nbsp million metric tons per year given values


order compare energy impact public transportation private transportation amount energy per passenger mile must calculated reason comparing energy expenditure per person necessary normalize data easy comparison units per p km read person kilometer passenger kilometer terms energy consumption public transportation better individual transport personal vehicle england bus rail popular methods public transportation especially london rail provides rapid movement city london busing


kwh per p km personal car kwh per p km bus kwh per p km rail kwh per p km air kwh per p km sea ref name withouthotaircom numbers either country used energy comparison calculations life cycle assessment calculations public transportation also provides arena test environmentally friendly fuel alternatives hydrogen powered vehicles swapping materials create lighter public transportation vehicles better performance increase environmental friendliness public transportation vehicles maintaining current standards


improving informing public positive environmental effects using public transportation addition pointing potential economic benefit important first step towards making difference land use traffic jam paulo brazil dense areas mixed land uses promote daily public transport use urban sprawl associated sporadic public transport use recent european multi city survey found dense urban environments reliable affordable public transport services limiting motorized vehicles high density areas cities help achieve much needed promotion public transport use urban space


precious commodity public transport utilises efficiently car dominant society allowing cities built compactly dependent automobile transport public transport planning core urban planning also force cities built compactly create efficient feeds stations stops transport ref name time allow creation centers around hubs serving passengers' daily commercial needs public services approach significantly reduces urban sprawl public land planning public transportation


difficult state regional organizations responsible planning improving public transportation roads routes public land prices booming must plan using land efficiently public transportation order create better transportation systems inefficient land use poor planning leads decrease accessibility jobs education health care societal ref div align right width em qalign right consequences wider society civic life public transport breaks social cultural barriers people public


life important social role played public transport ensure members society able travel without walking cycling driving license access automobile include groups young old poor medical conditions people banned driving automobile dependency name given policy makers places without access private vehicle access independent mobility dependency contributes transport divide public transportation opens users possibility


cars less widespread businesses require large numbers people going place may able accommodate large number cars concert venues sport stadia airports exhibitions centres businesses people able use car bars hospitals industries tourism sector whose customers may cars transit systems also effect derived businesses commercial websites founded hopstopcom give directions mass transit systems cities london products themed local transport system popular


tourist souvenir research washington dc area shows public transport better job providing high skill residents access high skill jobs mid skill residents mid skill jobs low skill residents low skill jobs social issues night trains coaches cheaper motels homeless persons sometimes use overnight shelters famous line hotel silicon valley see also express coach finnish models public transport free public transport hitchhiking international association public transport list urban transit advocacy organisations passenger load factor patronage transport


private transport public transport bus service public transport route planner public transport timetable sustainable transport transit district transit pass transit police transit watchdog transport divide transportation engineering references reading hess clean bus object conflicts greening urban transit ''sustainability science practice policy'' https webarchiveorg web http ejournalnbiiorg archives vol iss hesshtml external links http wwwuitporg international association public transport http wwwushsrcom us high speed rail association http wwwtransitstandardscom transit standards knowledge base branding digital strategy graphic standards public transit compiled stewart mader contains resources examples including graphics standards manuals transit


agencies worldwide sustainable transport articles containing video clips


main reading room library congress '''american literature''' literature predominantly written produced english united states america preceding colonies founding united states thirteen colonies eastern coast present day united states heavily influenced british literature american literary tradition thus part broader tradition english language literature small amount literature exists immigrant languages furthermore rich tradition oral storytelling exists amongst native american tribes american revolutionary period notable political

Humanities
Languages and literature
World literature
American literature


writings benjamin franklin alexander hamilton thomas paine thomas jefferson early novel william hill brown 's ''the power sympathy'' published writer critic john neal early mid nineteenth century helped advance america 's progress toward unique literature culture criticizing predecessors like washington irving imitating british counterparts influencing others like edgar allan poe ralph waldo emerson pioneered influential transcendentalism movement henry david thoreau author ''walden'' influenced movement political conflict surrounding abolitionism inspired writers like harriet beecher stowe efforts supported


continuation slave narratives nathaniel hawthorne 's ''the scarlet letter'' early american classic novel hawthorne influenced herman melville author ''moby dick'' major american poets nineteenth century include walt whitman emily dickinson edgar allan poe another significant writer greatly influenced later authors mark twain first major american writer born away east coast henry james achieved international recognition novels like ''the portrait lady'' american writers expressed disillusionment nostalgia following world war short stories novels f scott


fitzgerald captured mood john dos passos wrote war ernest hemingway became famous ''the sun also rises'' ''a farewell arms'' nobel prize literature william faulkner another major novelist american poets also included international figures wallace stevens eliot robert frost ezra pound e e cummings playwright eugene o'neill nobel prize mid twentieth century drama dominated tennessee williams arthur miller well musical theater depression era writers included john steinbeck author ''the grapes


wrath'' america 's involvement world war ii influenced works norman mailer 's ''the naked dead'' joseph heller 's ''catch '' kurt vonnegut jr 's ''slaughterhouse five'' one developments late th century early st century increase literature written ethnic native american lgbt writers postmodernism also important period native american literature oral literature oral literature existed amongst various native american tribes prior arrival european colonists traditional territories tribes traverse national boundaries


indian life significant event development native american literature english came awarding pulitzer prize n scott momaday kiowa tribe novel ''house made dawn'' colonial literature captain john smith 's ''a true relation occurrences accidents noate hath happened virginia nbsp '' considered america 's first work literature thirteen colonies often regarded center early american literature however first european settlements north america founded elsewhere many years earlier dominance


english language american culture yet apparent ref name baym nina baym nina ed ''the norton anthology american literature'' new york ww norton company print ref first item printed pennsylvania german largest book printed colonies american revolution ref name baym nina spanish french two strongest colonial literary traditions areas comprise united states discussions early american literature commonly include texts samuel de champlain alongside english language texts thomas harriot captain


john smith moreover wealth oral literary traditions existed continent among numerous different native american tribes political events however would eventually make english lingua franca well literary language choice colonies large events included english capture dutch colony new amsterdam english renaming new york changing administrative language dutch english separate items issued major printing presses american colonies small


number compared output printers london time london printers published materials written new england authors body american literature larger published north america however printing established american colonies allowed england england restrictive laws long confined printing four locations government could monitor published london york oxford cambridge colonies ventured modern world earlier provincial english counterparts ref name baym nina back


american literature pamphlets writings extolling benefits colonies european colonial audience captain john smith could considered first american author works ''a true relation occurrences accidents noate hath happened virginia nbsp '' ''the generall historie virginia new england summer isles'' writers manner included daniel denton thomas ashe william penn george percy william strachey daniel coxe gabriel thomas john lawson topics early prose letters american farmer one first


canon american literature influenced diverse range subsequent works religious disputes prompted settlement america important topics early american literature journal written john winthrop ''the history new england'' discussed religious foundations massachusetts bay colony edward winslow also recorded diary first years ''mayflower 's'' arrival modell christian charity john winthrop first governor massachusetts sermon preached ''arbella'' flagship winthrop fleet work outlined ideal society


daniel gookin alexander whitaker john mason benjamin church daniel j tan john eliot translated bible algonquin language mamusse wunneetupanatamwe biblum god first complete bible printed western hemisphere stephen daye printed copies first printing press american colonies second generation new england settlers cotton mather stands theologian historian wrote history colonies view god 's activity midst connecting puritan leaders great heroes christian faith


best known works include ''magnalia christi americana'' ''wonders invisible world'' ''the biblia americana'' jonathan edwards george whitefield represented great awakening religious revival early th century emphasized calvinist thought puritan religious writers include thomas hooker thomas shepard john wise samuel willard less strict serious writers included samuel sewall wrote diary revealing daily life late th century ref name skipp sarah kemble knight new england area colonies literature southern literature also growing


time diary planter william byrd ''the history dividing line'' described expedition survey swamp virginia north carolina also comments differences american indians white settlers area ref name skipp similar book ''travels north south carolina georgia east west'' william bartram described southern landscape indian tribes encountered bartram 's book popular europe translated german french dutch ref name skipp colonies moved toward independence britain important discussion american culture


identity came french immigrant j hector st john de cr vec ur whose ''letters american farmer'' addresses question american moving praise opportunities peace offered new society recognition solid life farmer must rest uneasily oppressive aspects urban life lawless aspects frontier lack social structures leads loss civilized living ref name skipp period saw beginning african american literature poet phillis wheatley slave narrative


olaudah equiano ''the interesting narrative life olaudah equiano'' time american indian literature also began flourish samson occom published ''a sermon preached execution moses paul'' popular hymnbook ''collection hymns spiritual songs'' first indian best seller ref name gray gray richard ''a history american literature'' blackwell ref revolutionary period autobiography benjamin franklin revolutionary period also contained political writings including colonists samuel adams josiah quincy john dickinson joseph galloway last loyalist crown two key figures benjamin


franklin thomas paine franklin 's ''poor richard 's almanac'' ''the autobiography benjamin franklin'' esteemed works wit influence toward formation budding american identity paine 's pamphlet ''common sense'' ''the american crisis'' writings seen playing key role influencing political tone time revolutionary war poems songs nathan hale popular major satirists included john trumbull francis hopkinson philip morin freneau also wrote poems war th century writing shifted puritanism winthrop bradford enlightenment ideas


five indian nations'' published one first texts published iroquois history colden also wrote book botany attracted attention carl linnaeus maintained long term correspondence benjamin franklin post independence opening original printing declaration printed july jefferson 's supervision ref name journalspsuedu julian p boyd http journalspsuedu pmhb article view declaration independence mystery lost original ''pennsylvania magazine history biography'' number october p ref post war period thomas jefferson established place american literature


authorship declaration independence influence us constitution autobiography notes state virginia many letters federalist essays alexander hamilton james madison john jay presented significant historical discussion american government organization republican values fisher ames james otis patrick henry also valued political writings orations early american literature struggled find unique voice existing literary genre tendency reflected novels european styles frequently imitated critics usually considered imitations inferior first


american novel late th early th centuries first american novels published fictions lengthy printed manuscript public reading publishers took chance works hopes would become steady sellers need reprinted scheme ultimately successful male female literacy rates increasing time among first american novels thomas attwood digges 's ''adventures alonso'' published london william hill brown 's ''the power sympathy'' published brown 's novel depicts tragic love story


nine novels six theatrical works two collections poetry six textbooks countless songs ref name parker patricia l reaching million half readers century half ''charlotte temple'' biggest seller th century stowe 's ''uncle tom 's cabin'' although rowson extremely popular time often acknowledged accounts development early american novel ''charlotte temple'' often criticized sentimental novel seduction hannah webster foster 's ''the coquette history eliza wharton'' published extremely popular


told foster 's point view based real life eliza whitman novel woman seduced abandoned eliza coquette courted two different men clergyman offers comfortable domestic life noted libertine unable choose finds single men get married eventually yields artful libertine gives birth illegitimate stillborn child inn ''the coquette'' praised demonstration era 's contradictory ideas womanhood even


criticized delegitimizing protest women 's subordination washington irving friends sunnyside ''the coquette'' ''charlotte temple'' novels treat right women live equals new democratic experiment novels sentimental genre characterized overindulgence emotion invitation listen voice reason misleading passions well optimistic overemphasis essential goodness humanity sentimentalism often thought reaction calvinistic belief depravity human nature ref name wsuedu campbell donna early american novel


titled ''a history new york beginning world end dutch dynasty'' picaresque genre hugh henry brackenridge published ''modern chivalry'' tabitha gilman tenney wrote ''female quixotism exhibited romantic opinions extravagant adventure dorcasina sheldon'' royall tyler wrote ''the algerine captive'' ref name wsuedu notable authors include william gilmore simms wrote ''martin faber'' ''guy rivers'' ''the yemassee'' lydia maria child wrote ''hobomok'' ''the rebels'' john neal wrote ''keep cool''


''logan family history'' ''seventy six'' ''randolph'' ''errata'' ''brother jonathan'' ''rachel dyer'' earliest use salem witch trials basis novel catherine maria sedgwick wrote ''a new england tale'' ''redwood'' ''hope leslie'' ''the linwoods'' james kirke paulding wrote ''the lion west'' ''the dutchman 's fireside'' ''westward ho '' omar ibn said muslim slave carolinas wrote autobiography arabic considered early example


war increasing desire produce uniquely american literature culture number literary figures emerged among washington irving william cullen bryant james fenimore cooper irving wrote humorous works ''salmagundi'' satire ''a history new york diedrich knickerbocker'' bryant wrote early romantic nature inspired poetry evolved away european origins cooper 's ''leatherstocking tales'' natty bumppo includes ''the last mohicans'' popular new country abroad john neal 's early works


played formidable role developing american style literature criticised irving cooper relying old british conventions authorship frame american phenomena arguing succeed nbsp american writer must resemble nobody nbsp must unlike gone issue another declaration independence great republic letters pioneer literary device alternately referred talk ing paper natural writing neal first america natural diction work represents first deviation nbsp irvingesque graciousness


edgar allan poe edgar allan poe began writing short stories including masque red death pit pendulum fall house usher murders rue morgue explore previously hidden levels human psychology push boundaries fiction toward mystery fantasy humorous writers also popular included seba smith benjamin penhallow shillaber new england davy crockett augustus baldwin longstreet johnson j hooper thomas bangs thorpe george washington harris writing american frontier new england brahmins


close friend emerson living mostly two years cabin wooded pond thoreau wrote ''walden'' memoir urges resistance dictates society thoreau 's writings demonstrate strong american tendency toward individualism transcendentalists included amos bronson alcott margaret fuller george ripley orestes brownson jones one great works revolutionary period written frenchman work america generation alexis de tocqueville 's two volume ''democracy america'' described travels young nation making observations


relations american politics individualism community political conflict surrounding abolitionism inspired writings william lloyd garrison paper ''the liberator'' along poet john greenleaf whittier harriet beecher stowe world famous ''uncle tom 's cabin'' efforts supported continuation slave narrative autobiography nathaniel hawthorne young nathaniel hawthorne collected stories ''twice told tales'' volume rich symbolism occult incidents hawthorne went write full length romances quasi allegorical novels explore themes guilt pride emotional repression new england


budd'' melville dramatizes conflicting claims duty compassion board ship time war profound books sold poorly long forgotten time death rediscovered early th century anti transcendental works melville hawthorne poe comprise dark romanticism sub genre popular literature time ethnic african american native american writers slave narrative autobiography period include frederick douglass 's ''narrative life frederick douglass american slave'' harriet jacobs 's ''incidents life slave girl''


time american indian autobiography develops notably william apess 's ''a son forest'' george copway 's ''the life history travels kah ge ga gah bowh'' moreover minority authors beginning publish fiction william wells brown 's ''clotel president 's daughter'' frank j webb 's ''the garies friends'' martin delany 's ''blake huts america'' harriet e wilson 's '' nig sketches life free black'' early african american novels john rollin ridge 's ''the life adventures joaqu n murieta''


considered first native american novel also early story mexican american issues late th century realist fiction mark twain mark twain pen name used samuel langhorne clemens among first major american writers born away east coast border state missouri regional masterpieces memoir ''life mississippi'' novels ''adventures tom sawyer'' ''adventures huckleberry finn'' twain 's style influenced journalism wedded vernacular direct unadorned also highly evocative


irreverently humorous changed way americans write language characters speak like real people sound distinctively american using local dialects newly invented words regional accents writers interested regional differences dialect george w cable thomas nelson page joel chandler harris mary noailles murfree charles egbert craddock sarah orne jewett mary e wilkins freeman henry cuyler bunner william sydney porter henry version local color regionalism focused minority experiences seen works charles w chesnutt african american mar ruiz de burton one


earliest mexican american novelists write english yiddish inflected works abraham cahan william dean howells also represented realist tradition novels including ''the rise silas lapham'' work editor ''the atlantic monthly'' henry james confronted old world new world dilemma writing directly although born new york city james spent adult life england many novels center americans live travel europe intricate highly qualified sentences dissection emotional psychological nuance


james 's fiction daunting among accessible works novellas ''daisy miller'' american girl europe ''the turn screw'' ghost story stephen crane best known civil war novel ''the red badge courage'' depicted life new york city prostitutes ''maggie girl streets'' ''sister carrie'' theodore dreiser portrayed country girl moves chicago becomes kept woman frank norris 's fiction predominantly naturalist genre notable works


include ''mcteague story san francisco'' ''the octopus story california'' ''the pit'' norris along hamlin garland wrote problems american farmers social issues naturalist perspective garland best known fiction involving hard working midwestern farmers ''main travelled roads'' ''prairie folks'' ''jason edwards'' social novel edward bellamy 's utopian novel ''looking backward'' concerned political social issues th century prose ernest hemingway world war uniform beginning th century american novelists expanding


fiction encompass high low life sometimes connected naturalist school realism stories novels edith wharton scrutinized upper class eastern seaboard society grown one finest books ''the age innocence'' centers man chooses marry conventional socially acceptable woman rather fascinating outsider social issues power corporations central concern writers time upton sinclair famous muckraking novel ''the jungle'' advocated socialism political writers period


major opus set largely regions f scott fitzgerald photographed carl van vechten experimentation style form soon joined new freedom subject matter gertrude stein expatriate paris published ''three lives'' innovative work fiction influenced familiarity cubism jazz movements contemporary art music stein labeled group american literary figures lived paris lost generation brought sharp changes american literature many writers direct experience


first world war used frame writings writers like henry james gertrude stein poets ezra pound hd eliot demonstrate growth international perspective american literature american writers long looked european models inspiration whereas literary breakthroughs mid th century came finding distinctly american styles themes writers period finding ways contributing flourishing international literary scene imitators equals something similar happening back states jewish writers abraham cahan used


english language reach international jewish audience william faulkner period peace debt fueled economic expansion followed wwi setting many stories novels f scott fitzgerald fitzgerald 's work captured restless pleasure hungry defiant mood decade named jazz age fitzgerald 's characteristic theme expressed poignantly masterpiece ''the great gatsby'' tendency youth 's golden dreams dissolve failure disappointment fitzgerald also dwells collapse long held american ideals liberty social unity good governance peace


features severely threatened pressures modern early th century society sinclair lewis sherwood anderson also wrote novels critical depictions american life john dos passos wrote famous anti war novel ''three soldiers'' describing scenes blind hatred stupidity criminality suffocating regimentation army life also wrote war usa trilogy extended depression experimental form usa trilogy weaves together various narrative strands alternate contemporary news reports snatches author 's autobiography capsule biographies public figures including eugene debs robert


la follette isadora duncan ernest hemingway saw violence death first hand ambulance driver world war carnage persuaded abstract language mostly empty misleading cut unnecessary words writing simplified sentence structure concentrated concrete objects actions adhered moral code emphasized grace pressure protagonists strong silent men often dealt awkwardly women ''the sun also rises'' ''a farewell arms'' generally considered best novels nobel prize


literature william faulkner nobel prize faulkner encompassed wide range humanity yoknapatawpha county mississippian region invention recorded characters' seemingly unedited ramblings order represent inner states technique called stream consciousness also jumbled time sequences show past especially slave holding era deep south endures present among great works ''absalom absalom '' ''as lay dying'' ''the sound fury'' ''light august'' depression era depression era literature blunt


direct social criticism john steinbeck born salinas california set many stories style simple evocative winning favor readers critics steinbeck often wrote poor working class people struggle lead decent honest life ''the grapes wrath'' considered masterpiece strong socially oriented novel tells story joads poor family oklahoma journey california search better life popular novels include ''tortilla flat'' ''of mice


men'' ''cannery row'' ''east eden'' awarded nobel prize literature steinbeck 's contemporary nathanael west 's two famous short novels ''miss lonelyhearts'' plumbs life eponymous antihero reluctant comic effect male advice columnist effects tragic letters exert ''the day locust'' introduces cast hollywood stereotypes explores ironies movies come avowed classics american literature non fiction james agee 's ''let us praise famous men'' observes depicts lives three


struggling tenant farming families alabama combining factual reporting poetic beauty agee presented accurate detailed report seen coupled insight feelings experience difficulties capturing broad audience created enduring portrait nearly invisible segment american population henry miller assumed unique place american literature semi autobiographical novels written published paris banned us although major works including ''tropic cancer'' ''black spring'' would


free label obscenity themes stylistic innovations already exerted major influence succeeding generations american writers paved way sexually frank novels john updike philip roth gore vidal john rechy william styron post world war ii fiction novel norman mailer photographed carl van vechten period time end world war ii roughly late early saw publication popular works american history period dominated


last realistic modernists along wildly romantic beatniks included highly popular ''to kill mockingbird'' harper lee deals racial inequality novels responded america 's involvement world war ii though born canada chicago raised saul bellow would become one influential novelists america decades directly following world war ii works like ''the adventures augie march'' ''herzog'' bellow painted vivid portraits american city distinctive characters peopled bellow went win


jd salinger 's ''the catcher rye'' sylvia plath 's ''the bell jar'' russian american vladimir nabokov 's ''lolita'' poetry fiction beat generation developed initially new york circle intellectuals established officially later san francisco term ''beat'' referred countercultural rhythm jazz scene sense rebellion regarding conservative stress post war society interest new forms spiritual experience drugs alcohol philosophy religion specifically zen buddhism allen ginsberg set tone


whitmanesque poem ''howl'' work begins saw best minds generation destroyed madness among achievements beats novel jack kerouac 's ''on road'' chronicle soul searching travel continent william burroughs 's ''naked lunch'' experimental work structured series vignettes relating among things narrator 's travels experiments hard drugs john updike contrast john updike approached american life reflective less subversive perspective novel ''rabbit run'' first


''rabbit rest'' awarded pulitzer prize fiction notable works include henry bech novels ''the witches eastwick'' ''roger 's version'' ''in beauty lilies'' literary critic michiko kakutani called arguably finest ref name kakutani ref frequently linked updike novelist philip roth roth vigorously explores jewish identity american society especially postwar era early st century frequently set newark new jersey roth 's work known highly autobiographical many roth 's main characters famously jewish novelist nathan


zuckerman thought alter egos roth techniques armed articulate fast paced style roth explores distinction reality fiction literature provocatively examining american culture famous work includes zuckerman novels controversial ''portnoy 's complaint'' ''goodbye columbus'' among decorated american writers generation every major american literary award including pulitzer prize major novel ''american pastoral'' realm african american literature ralph ellison 's novel ''invisible man'' instantly recognized among powerful


important works immediate post war years story black underground man urban north novel laid bare often repressed racial tension still prevailed also succeeding existential character study richard wright catapulted fame publication subsequent years widely studied short story man almost man controversial second novel ''native son'' legacy cemented publication ''black boy'' work wright drew childhood mostly autodidactic education


segregated south fictionalizing exaggerating elements saw fit polemical themes wright 's involvement communist party novel 's final part american hunger published perhaps ambitious challenging post war american novelist william gaddis whose uncompromising satiric large novels ''the recognitions'' ''j r'' presented largely terms unattributed dialog requires almost unexampled reader participation gaddis 's primary themes include forgery capitalism religious zealotry legal system constituting sustained polyphonic critique modern american life gaddis 's work though


largely ignored years anticipated influenced development ambitious postmodern fiction writers thomas pynchon david foster wallace joseph mcelroy william h gass delillo another neglected challenging postwar american novelist albeit one wrote much shorter works john hawkes whose surreal visionary fiction addresses themes violence eroticism experiments audaciously narrative voice style among important works short nightmarish novel ''the lime twig'' short fiction postwar period art short story flourished among respected practitioners flannery o'connor


developed distinctive southern gothic esthetic characters acted one level people another symbols devout catholic o'connor often imbued stories among widely studied good man hard find everything rises must converge two novels ''wise blood'' ''the violent bear away'' deeply religious themes focusing particularly search truth religious skepticism backdrop nuclear age important practitioners form include katherine anne porter eudora welty john cheever raymond carver tobias wolff


experimental donald barthelme contemporary fiction trinidad colorado though exact parameters remain disputable early present day salient literary movement postmodernism thomas pynchon seminal practitioner form drew work modernist fixtures temporal distortion unreliable narrators internal monologue coupled distinctly postmodern techniques metafiction ideogrammatic characterization unrealistic names oedipa maas benny profane etc plot elements hyperbolic humor deliberate use anachronisms archaisms strong focus postcolonial themes subversive commingling high low culture


published ''gravity 's rainbow'' leading work genre national book award unanimously nominated pulitzer prize fiction year major works include debut ''v'' ''the crying lot '' ''mason dixon'' ''against day'' toni morrison recipient nobel prize literature writing distinctive lyrical prose style published controversial debut novel ''the bluest eye'' critical acclaim coming heels signing civil rights act novel widely studied


american schools includes elaborate description incestuous rape explores conventions beauty established historically racist society painting portrait self immolating black family search beauty whiteness since morrison experimented lyric fantasy two best known later works ''song solomon'' ''beloved'' awarded pulitzer prize fiction along lines critic harold bloom drawn favorable comparisons virginia woolf nobel committee faulkner latin american tradition magical realism ref name nobelmorrison nobel prize award ceremony


speech nobelprizeorg aug daniel j tan prizes literature laureates presentation speechhtml ref ''beloved'' chosen survey conducted ''the new york times'' important work fiction last years ref name nytsurvey ref writing lyrical flowing style eschews excessive use comma semicolon recalling william faulkner ernest hemingway equal measure cormac mccarthy seizes literary traditions several regions united states includes multiple genres writes southern gothic aesthetic faulknerian debut ''the orchard keeper'' ''suttree'' epic western tradition


grotesquely drawn characters symbolic narrative turns reminiscent melville ''blood meridian'' harold bloom styled greatest single book since faulkner 's ''as lay dying'' calling character judge holden short moby dick monstrous apparition american literature ref name bloommccarthy ref much pastoral tone celebrated border trilogy ''bildungsromans'' including ''all pretty horses'' winner national book award post apocalyptic genre pulitzer prize winning ''the road'' novels noted achieving commercial critical success several


runner survey asked writers identify important work fiction last years ref name nytsurvey among important novels ''libra'' ''mao ii'' ''falling man'' jonathan franzen brooklyn book festival seizing distinctly postmodern techniques digression narrative fragmentation elaborate symbolism strongly influenced works thomas pynchon david foster wallace began writing career ''the broom system'' published moderate acclaim second novel ''infinite jest'' futuristic portrait america


playful critique media saturated nature american life consistently ranked among important works th century ref name time ref final novel unfinished time death pale king garnered much praise attention addition novels also authored three acclaimed short story collections ''girl curious hair'' ''brief interviews hideous men'' ''oblivion stories'' jonathan franzen wallace 's friend contemporary rose prominence publication national book award winning third novel ''the corrections'' began writing career


turn century include michael chabon whose pulitzer prize winning ''the amazing adventures kavalier clay'' tells story two friends joe kavalier sam clay rise ranks comics industry heyday denis johnson whose novel ''tree smoke'' falsified intelligence vietnam national book award finalist pulitzer prize fiction called critic michiko kakutani one classic works literature produced vietnam war ref name kakutani johnson ref louise erdrich whose novel ''the


plague doves'' distinctly faulknerian polyphonic examination tribal experience set backdrop murder fictional town pluto north dakota nominated pulitzer prize novel ''the round house'' builds themes awarded national book award ref name national book erdrich ref poetry title page copy bay psalm book held beinecke rare book manuscript library puritan poetry highly religious one earliest books poetry published ''bay psalm book'' set translations biblical


century walt whitman fireside poets also known schoolroom household poets america 's first major poets domestically internationally known poems easy memorize due general adherence poetic form standard forms regular meter rhymed stanzas often recited home hence name well school paul revere 's ride well working distinctly american themes including political issues abolition included henry wadsworth longfellow william cullen bryant john greenleaf whittier james russell lowell


oliver wendell holmes sr longfellow achieved highest level acclaim often considered first internationally acclaimed american poet first american poet given bust westminster abbey 's poets' corner walt whitman emily dickinson two america 's greatest th century poets could hardly different temperament style walt whitman working man traveler self appointed nurse american civil war poetic innovator magnum opus ''leaves grass'' uses free flowing verse lines irregular length depict


inclusiveness american democracy taking motif one step poet equates vast range american experience without egotistical example ''song myself'' long central poem ''leaves grass'' whitman writes really thoughts men ages lands original words whitman poet body electric ''studies classic american literature'' english novelist h lawrence wrote whitman first smash old moral conception soul man


langston hughes pound 's poetry complex sometimes obscure references art forms vast range western eastern literature influenced many poets notably eliot another expatriate eliot wrote spare cerebral poetry carried dense structure symbols ''the waste land'' embodied jaundiced vision post world war society fragmented haunted images like pound 's eliot 's poetry could highly allusive editions ''the waste land'' come footnotes supplied poet eliot nobel prize literature post world war


ii among respected postwar american poets john ashbery key figure surrealistic new york school poetry celebrated ''self portrait convex mirror'' pulitzer prize poetry elizabeth bishop ''north south'' pulitzer prize poetry geography iii national book award richard wilbur ''things world'' winner pulitzer prize national book award poetry john berryman ''the dream songs'' pulitzer prize poetry national book award ar ammons whose ''collected poems ''


''the shadow sirius'' pulitzer prize poetry mark strand ''blizzard one'' pulitzer prize poetry robert hass ''time materials'' pulitzer prize national book award poetry respectively rita dove ''thomas beulah'' pulitzer prize poetry addition period confessional whose origin often traced publication robert lowell 's ''life studies'' ref name lowell http wwwpoetsorg viewmediaphp prmmid groundbreaking book life studies robert lowell accessed may ref beat schools poetry enjoyed popular


academic success producing widely anthologized voices allen ginsberg charles bukowski gary snyder anne sexton sylvia plath among many others drama o'neill stamp issued although american theatrical tradition traced back arrival lewis hallam 's troupe mid th century active th century seen popularity minstrel shows adaptations ''uncle tom 's cabin'' american drama attained international status works eugene o'neill four pulitzer prizes nobel prize american dramatic literature


dance works ''oklahoma '' ''west side story'' later american playwrights importance include edward albee sam shepard david mamet august wilson tony kushner ethnic african american lgbt native american writers one developments late th century american literature increase literature written ethnic minorities beyond african americans jewish americans development came alongside growth civil rights movement corollary ethnic pride movement led creation ethnic studies programs major universities programs helped establish new ethnic literature


worthy objects academic study alongside new areas literary study women 's literature gay lesbian literature working class literature postcolonial literature rise literary theory key component academic literary study ethnic literature sandra cisneros best known first novel ''the house mango street'' subsequent short story collection ''woman hollering creek stories'' recipient numerous awards including national endowment arts fellowship regarded key figure chicana literature ref name madsen ref twentieth century saw emergence


american jewish writers saul bellow norman mailer joseph heller philip roth chaim potok bernard malamud potok 's novels young new york jewish boy 's coming age ''the chosen'' ''the promise'' figured prominently movement relegated cookbooks autobiographies th century asian american literature achieved widespread notice maxine hong kingston 's fictional memoir ''the woman warrior'' novels ''china men'' ''tripmaster monkey fake book'' chinese american author ha jin national book award second novel ''waiting'' chinese


soldier revolutionary army wait years divorce wife another woman worry persecution protracted affair twice pen faulkner award ''waiting'' ''war trash'' notable asian american novelists include amy tan best known novel ''the joy luck club'' tracing lives four immigrant families brought together game mahjong korean american novelist chang rae lee published ''native speaker'' ''a gesture life'' ''aloft'' poets marilyn chin li young


lee kimiko hahn janice mirikitani also achieved prominence playwright david henry hwang equally important effort recover earlier asian american authors started frank chin colleagues effort brought sui sin far toshio mori carlos bulosan john okada hisaye yamamoto others prominence indian american author jhumpa lahiri pulitzer prize fiction debut collection short stories ''interpreter maladies'' went write well received novel ''the namesake'' shortly adapted film second collection stories


''unaccustomed earth'' released widespread commercial critical success lahiri shifts focus treats experiences second third generation hispanic literature also became important period starting acclaimed novels tom rivera ''y se lo trag la tierra'' rudolfo anaya ''bless ultima'' emergence chicano theater luis valdez ''teatro campesino'' latina writing became important thanks authors sandra cisneros icon emerging chicano literature whose bildungsroman ''the house mango street'' taught schools across united states denise chavez 's ''the


last menu girls'' gloria anzald 's ''borderlands la frontera new mestiza'' dominican american author junot az received pulitzer prize fiction novel ''the brief wondrous life oscar wao'' tells story overweight dominican boy growing social outcast paterson new jersey another dominican author julia alvarez well known ''how garc girls lost accents'' ''in time butterflies'' cuban american author oscar hijuelos pulitzer ''the mambo kings play songs love'' cristina garc received acclaim ''dreaming


cuban'' celebrated puerto rican novelists write english spanish include giannina braschi author spanglish classic ''yo yo boing '' rosario ferr best known eccentric neighborhoods ref name norton ref puerto rico also produced important playwrights ren marqu ''the oxcart'' luis rafael nchez ''the passion antigone perez'' jos rivera ''marisol'' major poets puerto rican diaspora write life american immigrants include julia de burgos ''i route fui'' giannina braschi ''empire dreams'' pedro pietri ''puerto rican obituary'' pietri co founder nuyorican poets caf


performance space poetry readings ref name norton lin manuel miranda nuyorican poet playwright wrote popular broadway musical ''hamilton'' ''in heights'' spurred success n scott momaday 's pulitzer prize winning ''house made dawn'' native american literature showed explosive growth period known native american renaissance novelists leslie marmon silko eg ''ceremony'' gerald vizenor eg ''bearheart heirship chronicles'' numerous essays native american literature louise erdrich ''love medicine'' several novels use recurring set characters locations manner william faulkner


james welch eg ''winter blood'' sherman alexie eg ''the lone ranger tonto fistfight heaven'' poets simon ortiz joy harjo success authors brought renewed attention earlier generations including zitkala sa john joseph mathews d'arcy mcnickle mourning dove recently arab american literature largely unnoticed since new york pen league become prominent work diana abu jaber whose novels include ''arabian jazz'' ''crescent'' memoir ''the language baklava'' nobel prize literature winners american authors sinclair lewis novelist eugene


o'neill playwright pearl buck biographer novelist eliot poet playwright william faulkner novelist ernest hemingway novelist john steinbeck novelist saul bellow novelist isaac bashevis singer novelist wrote yiddish joseph brodsky poet essayist wrote english russian toni morrison novelist bob dylan songwriter louise gl ck poetry american literary awards american academy arts letters pulitzer prize fiction drama poetry well various non fiction journalist categories national book award fiction non fiction poetry young adult fiction american book awards pen literary


awards multiple awards united states poet laureate bollingen prize pushcart prize henry award see also american literature academic discipline great american novel list american literary critics list th century american writers birth year regional minority focuses american literature literature new england chicago literature southern literature literature southern states alabama arkansas florida georgia kentucky louisiana maryland mississippi north carolina south carolina tennessee texas virginia west virginia literature hawaii lgbt literature black lesbian literature united states deaf american literature american catholic literature american literature spanish ethnic minority literature armenian american literature


african american literature list african american writers jewish american literature list jewish american writers arab american literature list arab american writers asian american literature chinese american literature korean american writers list asian american writers latino literature hispanic american writers chicano literature chicano poetry puerto rican literature list puerto rican writers list cuban american writers list mexican american writers notes references bibliography moore michelle e ''chicago making american modernism cather hemingway faulkner fitzgerald conflict'' new york london bloomsbury academic external links https waybackarchive itorg https libraryosuedu find collections william charvat collection american literature charvat manuscripts nineteenth century th century american fiction poetry ohio


state university libraries rare books manuscripts collection https webarchiveorg web http engelsklenkercom us resourcephp audio lectures american literature theenglishcollectioncom clickable timeline http digitalcommonsunledu etas electronic texts american studies north american literature english language literature literature


herbert von karajan conducting '''conducting''' art directing musical performance orchestral choral concert defined art directing simultaneous performance several players singers use gesture primary duties '''conductor''' interpret score way reflects specific indications score set tempo ensure correct entries ensemble members shape phrasing appropriate conductors communicate musicians primarily hand gestures usually aid baton may

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Conducting


use gestures signals eye contact ref name cambcomp ref conductor usually supplements direction verbal instructions musicians rehearsal ref name cambcomp conductor typically stands raised podium large music stand full score contains musical notation instruments voices since mid th century conductors played instrument conducting although earlier periods classical music history leading ensemble playing instrument common baroque music group would typically led


adjustments tempo articulation phrasing repetitions sections work interpretation relay vision performers may also attend organizational matters scheduling rehearsals planning concert season hearing auditions selecting members promoting ensemble media orchestras choirs concert bands sizable musical ensembles big bands usually led conductors nomenclature principal conductor orchestra opera company sometimes referred ''music director'' ''chief conductor'' german words ''kapellmeister'' ''dirigent'' feminine ''dirigentin''


conductors choirs choruses sometimes referred ''choral director'' ''chorus master'' ''choirmaster'' particularly choirs associated orchestra conductors concert bands military bands marching bands bands may hold title ''band director'' ''bandmaster'' ' 'drum major'' respected senior conductors sometimes referred italian word ''maestro'' feminine ''maestra'' translates master teacher history middle ages th century early form conducting cheironomy use hand gestures indicate melodic shape practiced least far back middle ages


king 's recovery illness wound became gangrenous lully refused amputation whereupon gangrene spread leg died two months later instrumental music throughout th century member ensemble usually acted conductor sometimes concertmaster could use bow baton lutenist would move neck instrument time beat common conduct harpsichord pieces basso continuo part opera performances sometimes two conductors keyboard player


charge singers principal violinist '''leader''' charge orchestra september vienna mozart 's opera ''die zauberfl te'' ''the magic flute'' premiered theater auf der wieden mozart conducting orchestra according documents publicity posters time joseph haydn conducted premiere ''creation'' hands baton kapellmeister weigl sat fortepiano th century giuseppe verdi conducting opera ''aida'' early th century ca became norm dedicated conductor


also play instrument performance orchestras protested introduction conductor since used concertmaster keyboard player act leader eventually role conductor established size usual orchestra expanded period use baton became common easier see bare hands rolled paper among earliest notable conductors louis spohr carl maria von weber louis antoine jullien felix mendelssohn also composers mendelssohn claimed


performance rather one responsible ensuring entries made right time unified beat predecessors focused conducting include fran ois habeneck founded orchestre de la soci des concerts du conservatoire though berlioz later alarmed habeneck 's loose standards rehearsal pianist composer franz liszt also conductor wagner 's one time champion hans von b low particularly celebrated conductor although also maintained initial career pianist instrument regarded among


greatest performers prized piano student franz liszt whose daughter cosima married although abandon wagner liszt major figure history conducting attained remarkable performances b low raised technical standards conducting unprecedented level innovations separate detailed rehearsals different sections orchestra sectional rehearsal posts head sequentially bavarian state opera meiningen court orchestra berlin philharmonic brought level nuance subtlety orchestral performance previously heard solo instrumental


playing made profound impression young artists like richard strauss age served assistant felix weingartner came disapprove interpretations deeply impressed orchestral standards composer gustav mahler also noted conductor th century technical standards brought new levels next generation conductors including arthur nikisch succeeded b low music director berlin philharmonic nikisch previously served head leipzig opera boston symphony orchestra leipzig gewandhaus orchestra


serve music director london symphony orchestra nikisch premiered important works anton bruckner pyotr ilyich tchaikovsky greatly admired work johannes brahms hearing conduct fourth symphony said quite exemplary 's impossible hear better nikisch took london symphony orchestra tour united states april first american tour european orchestra also made one earliest recordings complete symphony beethoven fifth berlin philharmonic november nikisch also first conductor


art captured film alas silently film confirms reports made particularly mesmerizing use eye contact expression communicate orchestra later conductors fritz reiner stated aspect technique strong influence conductors generations nikisch often left extensive recorded evidence arts two particularly influential widely recorded figures often treated somewhat inaccurately interpretive antipodes italian conductor arturo toscanini german conductor wilhelm furtw ngler toscanini played orchestras giuseppe verdi


piece particularly compelling expressive manner leonard bernstein conducting royal concertgebouw orchestra two men different techniques toscanini 's italianate long large baton clear beats often using left hand furtw ngler beat time less apparent precision wanted rounded sound although myth technique vague many musicians attested easy follow way event examples illustrate larger point conducting technique first half th


often closed bernstein 's technique demonstrative highly expressive facial gestures hand body movements karajan could conduct hours without moving feet bernstein known times leap air great climax music director berlin philharmonic karajan cultivated warm blended beauty tone sometimes criticized uniformly applied contrast bernstein 's appearance berlin philharmonic performing mahler 's symphony tried get orchestra produce ugly tone certain passage


recordings take advantage advances recording technique fascinated played role setting specifications compact disc bernstein post new york days came insist part live concert recordings believing music making come life studio without audience last third th century conducting technique particularly right hand baton became increasingly standardized conductors like willem mengelberg amsterdam end world war ii extensive rehearsal time


artists like marin alsop simone young seen conducting leading orchestras alsop appointed music director baltimore symphony orchestra first woman ever appointed head major us orchestra also orquestra sinf nica estado de paulo alsop first woman conduct last night proms young scored similar firsts became head hamburg state opera philharmoniker hamburg also first woman conductor record ring cycle richard


landscape notably seiji ozawa thematic director boston symphony orchestra holding similar posts san francisco toronto myung whun chung held major posts germany france bringing seoul philharmonic orchestra international attention still lack representation black artists conducting profession notable exceptions henry lewis dean dixon james depreist paul freeman michael morgan information black conductors see black conductors according charlotte higgins' article ''the guardian'' black


conductors rare classical music world even symphony orchestras unusual see one two black musicians technique time time time time conducting means communicating artistic directions performers performance although many formal rules conduct correctly others subjective wide variety different conducting styles exist depending upon training sophistication conductor primary responsibilities conductor unify performers set tempo execute clear preparations beats listen critically


shape sound ensemble control interpretation pacing music communication non verbal performance however rehearsal frequent interruptions allow directions music played rehearsals conductor may stop playing piece request changes phrasing request change timbre certain section amateur orchestras rehearsals often stopped draw musicians' attentions performance errors transposition mistakes conducting requires understanding elements musical expression tempo dynamics articulation ability


piece begin signal orchestra members ready instruments played choristers ready watching conductor looks different sections orchestra winds strings etc choir ensure orchestra members ready play choir members ready choral works conductor may signal pianist organist play note chord choir members determine starting notes conductor gives one preparatory beats


german word bar measure beat tempo slow slowing time signature compound conductor sometimes indicate subdivisions beats conductor adding smaller movement direction movement beat belongs changes tempo indicated changing speed beat carry control rallentando slowing pace music conductor may introduce beat subdivisions conductors use hands indicate beat


left hand mirroring right formal education discourages approach second hand used cueing entrances individual players sections aid indications dynamics phrasing expression elements instrumental solo section opera orchestra vocalist 's unaccompanied solo conductors stop counting subdivisions simply tap baton per bar aid performers counting bars rests difference textbook definition ictus downbeat occurs actual performance practice


professional orchestras abrupt loud sforzando chord professional orchestra often play slightly ''after'' striking ictus point baton stroke dynamics dynamics indicated various ways dynamic may communicated size conducting movements larger shapes representing louder sounds changes dynamic may signalled hand used indicate beat upward motion usually palm indicates crescendo downward motion usually palm indicates diminuendo changing size conducting movements frequently results changes character


music depending upon circumstances dynamics fine tuned using various gestures showing one 's palm performers leaning away may demonstrate decrease volume adjust overall balance various instruments voices signals combined directed toward particular section performer cueing indication entries performer section begin playing perhaps long period rests called cueing cue must forecast certainty exact moment coming ictus players singers affected cue


begin playing simultaneously cueing important cases performer section playing lengthy time cueing also helpful case pedal point string players section playing pedal point lengthy period cue important indicate change new note cueing achieved engaging players entry looking executing clear preparation gesture often directed toward specific players inhalation may may semi audible


sniff conductor common element cueing technique conductors mere eye contact look general direction players may sufficient many instances one section ensemble enters time larger musical events may warrant use larger emphatic cue designed encourage emotion energy musical elements conductor gerald wilson leads jazz big band articulation may indicated character ictus ranging short sharp staccato long


fluid legato many conductors change tension hands strained muscles rigid movements may correspond marcato relaxed hands soft movements may correspond legato espressivo phrasing may indicated wide overhead arcs smooth hand motion either forwards side side held note often indicated hand held flat palm end note called cutoff release may indicated circular motion closing palm pinching finger thumb release usually preceded


take time change new reed cases woodwind brass players use pause switch different instrument eg trumpet cornet clarinet e clarinet conductor wishes immediately begin one movement another musical reasons called attacca conductor instruct orchestra members choristers write term parts ready go immediately next movement roles military conductor leads us navy band memorial day ceremonies held arlington


several weeks subsequently directed another conductor choral conductor usually acknowledged preparatory work concert program conductors may significant public relations role giving interviews local news channel appearing television talk shows promote upcoming season particular concerts hand conductor hired guest conduct single concert may responsibility rehearsing orchestra several pieces conducting one two concerts handful conductors become well known celebrities leonard bernstein


known within classical music scene training education david baker music educator composer conductor far left leads smithsonian jazz masterworks orchestra nea jazz masters awards ceremony concert classical choral instrumental conducting established comprehensive systems instruction training aspiring conductors study colleges conservatories universities music schools universities offer range conducting programs including courses conducting part bachelor 's degrees small number master music degrees conducting even smaller number doctor musical arts degrees


conducting addition variety training programs classical summer camps training festivals give students opportunity conduct wide range music aspiring conductors need obtain broad education history music including major periods classical music regarding music theory many conductors learn play keyboard instrument piano pipe organ skill helps able analyze symphonies try interpretations access orchestra conduct many conductors get


experience playing orchestra singing choir experience gives good insights orchestras choirs conducted rehearsed orchestra conductors typically hold master 's degree music choir conductors us typically hold bachelor 's degree music ref name blsgov ref bachelor 's degrees referred bmus bm four year programs include conducting lessons amateur orchestra experience sequence courses music history music theory liberal arts courses eg english literature give student well rounded education students usually specialize


conducting bmus stage instead usually develop general music skills singing playing orchestral instrument performing choir playing orchestra playing keyboard instrument piano organ another topic conducting students study languages used classical music opera orchestral conductors expected able rehearse lead choirs works orchestra choir orchestral conductors need know major languages used choral writing including french italian latin among others must understand correct diction


languages choral singing context opposite also true choral conductor expected rehearse lead string orchestra full orchestra performing works choir orchestra choral conductor needs know rehearse lead instrument sections master music degrees mmus conducting consist private conducting lessons ensemble experience coaching graduate courses music history music theory along one two conducted concerts master 's degree music referred mmus mm often required minimum credential people


wish become professor conducting doctor musical arts referred dma dma dmusa amusd degrees conducting provide opportunity advanced study highest artistic pedagogical level requiring usually additional credit hours beyond master 's degree credits beyond bachelor 's degree reason admission highly selective examinations music history music theory ear training dictation entrance examination conducting audition required students perform number conducted concerts including combination lecture conducted concert accompanying doctoral dissertation advanced coursework students


must typically maintain minimum b average dma conducting terminal degree qualifies holder teach colleges universities conservatories addition academic study another part training pathway many conductors conducting amateur orchestras youth orchestras school orchestras community orchestras small number conductors become professionals without formal training conducting individuals often achieved renown instrumental vocal performers often undertaken great deal training area expertise instrumental performance singing another way


small number conductors become professionals without formal training conducting learning job conducting amateur orchestras school orchestras community orchestras equivalent choral ensembles average salary conductors us growth rate forecast conducting jobs slower average growth rate ref name blsgov see also conductorless orchestra list principal conductors orchestra references reading michael bowles ''the art conducting'' garden city new york doubleday english edition ''the conductor artistry craftsmanship'' london


g bell sons larry g curtis david l kuehn ''a guide successful instrumental conducting'' new york mcgraw hill michel faul ''louis jullien musique spectacle et folie au xixe si cle'' biarritz atlantica elliott w galkin ''a history orchestral conducting theory practice'' new york pendragon press norman lebrecht ''the maestro myth great conductors pursuit power'' nd revised updated edition new york citadel press brock mcelheran ''conducting technique beginners professionals'' new york oxford university press ilya musin ''the technique conducting'' moscow


muzyka publishing house ennio nicotra ''introduction orchestral conducting technique accordance orchestral conducting school ilya musin'' book dvd english german italian spanish milan edizioni curci frederik prausnitz ''score podium'' new york w w norton max rudolf ''the grammar conducting'' new york macmillan nd ed external links https wwwnytimescom interactive arts music connection gesture musichtml ''the new york times'' video including motion capture alan gilbert demonstrates discusses role conductor rehearsing stravinsky 's ''soldier 's tale'' artistic directors music performance musical terminology occupations music positions


data structure known hash table computer science '' 'data structure''' data organization management storage format enables efficient access modification precisely data structure collection data values relationships among functions operations applied data ie algebraic structure data usage data structures serve basis abstract data types adt adt defines logical form data type data structure implements physical form data type different types

Formal science
Computer science
Data structures


data structures suited different kinds applications highly specialized specific tasks example relational databases commonly use b tree indexes data retrieval compiler implementations usually use hash tables look identifiers data structures provide means manage large amounts data efficiently uses large databases internet indexing services usually efficient data structures key designing efficient algorithms formal design methods programming languages emphasize data structures rather algorithms key organizing factor software design data structures used organize


structure usually requires writing set procedures create manipulate instances structure efficiency data structure cannot analyzed separately operations observation motivates theoretical concept abstract data type data structure defined indirectly operations may performed mathematical properties operations including space time cost examples thumb numerous types data structures generally built upon simpler primitive data types well known examples ''byte'' smallest amount data computer


cpu copy memory register back '' 'single cpu instruction''' therefore bytestream efficient way run big data computer hence stream processing ref cpu copy single bit memory register back every bit memory part byte ref name cline faq ref ''array'' number elements specific order typically type depending language individual elements may either forced type may almost type


elements accessed using integer index specify element required typical implementations allocate contiguous memory words elements arrays always necessity arrays may fixed length resizable ''linked list'' also called ''list'' linear collection data elements type called nodes node value points next node linked list principal advantage linked list array values always efficiently inserted removed without relocating rest list


certain operations random access certain element however slower lists arrays ' 'record'' also called ''tuple'' ' 'struct'' aggregate data structure record value contains values typically fixed number sequence typically indexed names elements records usually called ''fields'' ''members'' ''union'' data structure specifies number permitted primitive types may stored instances eg ''float'' ''long integer'' contrast record could defined contain float


''and'' integer whereas union one value time enough space allocated contain widest member data type ''tagged union'' also called ''variant'' ''variant record'' ' 'discriminated union'' ' 'disjoint union'' contains additional field indicating current type enhanced type safety ''object'' data structure contains data fields like record well various methods operate data contents object memory instance class taxonomy context object oriented programming records known plain old data


structures distinguish objects addition ''hashes'' ''graphs'' ''binary trees'' commonly used data structures language support assembly languages low level languages bcpl basic combined programming language lack built support data structures hand many high level programming languages higher level assembly languages masm special syntax built support certain data structures records arrays example c direct descendant bcpl pascal languages support structs records respectively addition vectors one dimensional arrays multi dimensional arrays ref name gnu c ref


programming languages feature sort library mechanism allows data structure implementations reused different programs modern languages usually come standard libraries implement common data structures examples c standard template library java collections framework microsoft net framework modern languages also generally support modular programming separation interface library module implementation provide opaque data types allow clients hide implementation details object oriented programming languages c java smalltalk typically use classes purpose many known data structures


concurrent versions allow multiple computing threads access single concrete instance data structure simultaneously see also abstract data type concurrent data structure data model dynamization linked data structure list data structures persistent data structure plain old data structure queap succinct data structure tree data structure references bibliography peter brass ''advanced data structures'' cambridge university press donald knuth ''the art computer programming'' vol addison wesley rd edition dinesh mehta sartaj sahni ''handbook data structures applications'' chapman hall crc press niklaus wirth ''algorithms data structures'' prentice hall


reading alfred aho john hopcroft jeffrey ullman ''data structures algorithms'' addison wesley g h gonnet r baeza yates '' https usersdccuchilecl rbaeza handbook hbookhtml handbook algorithms data structures pascal c '' second edition addison wesley ellis horowitz sartaj sahni ''fundamentals data structures pascal'' computer science press external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwnistgov dads descriptions dictionary algorithms data structures http wwwcsaucklandacnz software alganim ds tochtml data structures course http msdnmicrosoftcom en us library aa vs aspx examination data structures net perspective http peoplecsvtedu shaffer book c e pdf schaffer c ''data structures algorithm analysis''


education training concepts techniques applying physics medicine competent practice independently one subfields medical physics traditionally medical physicists found following healthcare specialties radiation oncology also known radiotherapy radiation therapy diagnostic interventional radiology also known medical imaging nuclear medicine radiation protection medical physics radiation therapy involve work dosimetry linac quality assurance brachytherapy medical physics diagnostic interventional radiology involves medical imaging techniques magnetic resonance imaging ultrasound computed tomography x ray nuclear medicine


include positron emission tomography radionuclide therapy however one find medical physicists many areas physiological monitoring audiology neurology neurophysiology cardiology others medical physics departments may found institutions universities hospitals laboratories university departments two types first type mainly concerned preparing students career hospital medical physicist research focuses improving practice profession second type increasingly called 'biomedical physics' much wider scope may include research applications physics medicine


study biomolecular structure microscopy nanomedicine mission statement medical physicists hospital medical physics departments mission statement medical physicists adopted european federation organisations medical physics efomp following blockquote medical physicists contribute maintaining improving quality safety cost effectiveness healthcare services patient oriented activities requiring expert action involvement advice regarding specification selection acceptance testing commissioning quality assurance control optimised clinical use medical devices regarding patient risks protection associated physical agents eg x rays electromagnetic fields laser light radionuclides including prevention


unintended accidental exposures activities based current best evidence scientific research available evidence sufficient scope includes risks volunteers biomedical research carers comforters scope often includes risks workers public particularly impact patient risk blockquote term physical agents refers ionising non ionising electromagnetic radiations static electric magnetic fields ultrasound laser light physical agent associated medical eg x rays computerised tomography ct gamma rays radionuclides nuclear medicine magnetic fields radio frequencies magnetic resonance imaging mri ultrasound


ultrasound imaging doppler measurements mission includes following key activities scientific problem solving service comprehensive problem solving service involving recognition less optimal performance optimised use medical devices identification elimination possible causes misuse confirmation proposed solutions restored device performance use acceptable status activities based current best scientific evidence research available evidence sufficient dosimetry measurements measurement doses suffered patients volunteers biomedical research carers comforters persons subjected non medical imaging exposures eg


legal employment purposes selection calibration maintenance dosimetry related instrumentation independent checking dose related quantities provided dose reporting devices including software devices measurement dose related quantities required inputs dose reporting estimating devices including software measurements based current recommended techniques protocols includes dosimetry physical agents patient safety risk management including volunteers biomedical research carers comforters persons subjected non medical imaging exposures surveillance medical devices evaluation clinical protocols ensure ongoing protection patients volunteers biomedical research carers comforters persons


subjected non medical imaging exposures deleterious effects physical agents accordance latest published evidence research available evidence sufficient includes development risk assessment protocols occupational public safety risk management impact medical exposure safety surveillance medical devices evaluation clinical protocols respect protection workers public impacting exposure patients volunteers biomedical research carers comforters persons subjected non medical imaging exposures responsibility respect safety includes development risk


radiological devices clinical service introduction new medical physics services participating introduction development clinical protocols techniques whilst giving due attention economic issues expert consultancy provision expert advice outside clients eg clinics house medical physics expertise education healthcare professionals including medical physics trainees contributing quality healthcare professional education knowledge transfer activities concerning technical scientific knowledge skills competences supporting clinically effective safe evidence based economical use medical radiological devices participation education medical physics students organisation medical physics residency programmes health technology assessment


hta taking responsibility physics component health technology assessments related medical radiological devices medical uses radioactive substances sources innovation developing new modifying existing devices including software protocols solution hitherto unresolved clinical problems medical biophysics biomedical physics education institutions house departments programs bearing title medical biophysics biomedical physics applied physics medicine generally fall one two categories interdisciplinary departments house biophysics radiobiology medical physics single umbrella undergraduate programs prepare students study medical


physics biophysics medicine scientific concepts bionanotechnology derived fields biochemical principles used understand material properties biological systems central bionanotechnology principles used create new technologies material properties applications studied bionanoscience include mechanical properties eg deformation adhesion failure electrical electronic eg electromechanical stimulation capacitors energy storage batteries optical eg absorption luminescence photochemistry thermal eg thermomutability thermal management biological eg cells interact nanomaterials molecular flaws defects biosensing biological mechanisms mechanosensation nanoscience disease eg genetic disease cancer organ tissue failure


well computing eg dna computing agriculture target delivery pesticides hormones fertilizers ref name garciaanoveros ref ref name pmid ref areas specialty international organization medical physics iomp recognizes main areas medical physics employment focus medical imaging physics para sagittal mri head patient benign familial macrocephaly medical imaging physics also known diagnostic interventional radiology physics clinical house consulting physicists typically deal areas testing optimization quality assurance diagnostic radiology physics areas radiographic x rays fluoroscopy mammography angiography computed tomography well non ionizing


radiation modalities ultrasound mri may also engaged radiation protection issues dosimetry staff patients addition many imaging physicists often also involved nuclear medicine systems including single photon emission computed tomography spect positron emission tomography pet sometimes imaging physicists may engaged clinical areas research teaching purposes quantifying intravascular ultrasound possible method imaging particular vascular object radiation therapeutic physics radiation therapeutic physics also known radiotherapy physics radiation oncologist physics majority medical physicists


currently working us canada western countries group radiation therapy physicist typically deals linear accelerator linac systems kilovoltage x ray treatment units daily basis well modalities tomotherapy gamma knife cyberknife proton therapy brachytherapy academic research side therapeutic physics may encompass fields boron neutron capture therapy sealed source radiotherapy terahertz radiation high intensity focused ultrasound including lithotripsy optical radiation lasers ultraviolet etc including photodynamic therapy well nuclear medicine including unsealed source radiotherapy photomedicine use


light treat diagnose disease nuclear medicine physics nuclear medicine branch medicine uses radiation provide information functioning person 's specific organs treat disease thyroid bones heart liver many organs easily imaged disorders function revealed cases radiation sources used treat diseased organs tumours five nobel laureates intimately involved use radioactive tracers medicine hospitals worldwide use radioisotopes medicine procedures diagnosis