distinguish systems environment '''homeostasis''' tendency system resilient respect external disruption maintain key characteristics '''adaptation''' tendency system make internal changes protect keep fulfilling purpose '''reciprocal transactions''' circular cyclical interactions systems engage influence one another '''feedback loop''' process systems self correct based reactions systems environment '''throughput''' rate energy transfer system environment time '''microsystem''' system closest


client '''mesosystem''' relationships among systems environment '''exosystem''' relationship two systems indirect effect third system '''macrosystem''' larger system influences clients policies administration entitlement programs culture '''equifinality''' way systems reach goal different paths ref name '''open closed systems''' ref name '''chronosystem''' system composed significant life events affecting adaptation '''isomorphism''' structural behavioral developmental features shared across systems ref name '''systems architecture''' '''systems analysis''' overview systems theory manifest work practitioners many disciplines

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems theory


offer analogues living systems distinction autopoiesis made humberto maturana francisco varela represent developments field important names contemporary systems science include russell ackoff ruzena bajcsy b la h b n thy gregory bateson anthony stafford beer peter checkland barbara grosz brian wilson robert l flood allenna leonard radhika nagpal fritjof capra warren mcculloch kathleen carley michael c jackson katia sycara edgar morin among others modern foundations general theory systems following world war ervin l szl preface bertalanffy 's book ''perspectives general system theory''


points translation general system theory german english wrought certain amount havoc ref name theorie ''lehre'' much broader meaning german closest english words 'theory' 'science' ''wissenschaft'' 'science' ref name laszlo laszlo ref ideas refer organized body knowledge systematically presented set concepts whether empirically axiomatically philosophically represented many associate ''lehre'' theory science etymology general systems though also translate german well closest equivalent translates


'teaching' sounds dogmatic mark ref name laszlo idea general systems theory might lost many root meanings translation defining new way thinking science scientific paradigms systems theory became widespread term used instance describe interdependence relationships created organizations system frame reference contain regularly interacting interrelating groups activities example noting influence evolution individually oriented industrial psychology systems developmentally oriented organizational psychology


theorists recognize organizations complex social systems separating parts whole reduces overall effectiveness organizations difference conventional models center individuals structures departments units separates part whole instead recognizing interdependence groups individuals structures processes enable organization function l szl explains new systems view organized complexity went one step beyond newtonian view organized simplicity reduced parts whole understood whole without relation parts relationship organisations


environments seen foremost source complexity interdependence cases whole properties cannot known analysis constituent elements isolation b la h b n thy argued along founders systems society benefit humankind purpose science made significant far reaching contributions area systems theory primer group international society system sciences b n thy defines perspective iterates view examples applications art biology systems biology movement draws


several trends bioscience research proponents describe systems biology biology based interdisciplinary study field focuses complex interactions biological systems claiming uses new perspective holism instead reduction particularly year onwards biosciences use term widely variety contexts often stated ambition systems biology modelling discovery emergent properties represents properties system whose theoretical description requires possible useful techniques fall remit systems biology thought ludwig von bertalanffy may


created term ' 'systems biology'' ref name lvb kritische theorie der formbildung borntraeger english modern theories development introduction theoretical biology oxford university press new york harper ref subdisciplines systems biology include systems neuroscience systems pharmacology ecology systems ecology interdisciplinary field ecology takes holistic approach study ecological systems especially ecosystems seen application general systems theory ecology central systems ecology approach idea ecosystem complex system exhibiting emergent properties systems ecology focuses


interactions transactions within biological ecological systems especially concerned way functioning ecosystems influenced human interventions uses extends concepts thermodynamics develops macroscopic descriptions complex systems chemistry systems chemistry science studying networks interacting molecules create new functions set library molecules different hierarchical levels emergent properties systems chemistry also related origin life abiogenesis engineering systems engineering interdisciplinary approach means enabling realisation deployment


estimated trillion used develop information systems every year completely wasted produced systems discarded implementation entirely preventable mistakes according chaos report published standish group vast majority information systems fail partly fail according survey ref mathematics system dynamics approach understanding nonlinear behaviour complex systems time using stocks flows internal feedback loops time delays ref name sysdyn http webmitedu sysdyn sd intro mit system dynamics education project sdep ref social sciences humanities systems theory anthropology


name engineering psychology systems psychology characteristics organizational behaviour individual needs rewards expectations attributes people interacting systems considers process order create effective system history precursors class wikitable style float right margin px width timeline predecessors saint simon karl marx friedrich engels herbert spencer rudolf clausius vilfredo pareto mile durkheim alexander bogdanov nicolai hartmann robert maynard hutchins among others founders macy conferences norbert wiener publishes ''cybernetics control communication animal machine''


talcott parsons publishes ''the social system'' society advancement general systems theory established ludwig von bertalanffy anatol rapoport ralph w gerard kenneth boulding w ross ashby publishes ''introduction cybernetics'' bertalanffy publishes ''general system theory foundations development applications'' contributors second order cybernetics heinz von foerster gregory bateson humberto maturana others cybersyn rudimentary internet cybernetic system democratic economic planning developed stafford beer chile allende government catastrophe theory ren thom ec zeeman dynamical systems mathematics ilya prigogine received nobel prize


works self organization conciliating important ' 'systems theory'' concepts system thermodynamics chaos theory david ruelle edward lorenz mitchell feigenbaum steve smale james yorke context theory anthony wilden international society systems science established complex adaptive systems john h holland murray gell mann w brian arthur systems thinking date back antiquity whether considering first systems written communication sumerian cuneiform mayan numerals feats engineering egyptian pyramids differentiated western rationalist traditions philosophy c west churchman often identified ching


similar ideas found learning theories developed fundamental concepts emphasising understanding results knowing concepts part whole fact bertalanffy 's organismic psychology paralleled learning theory jean piaget ref name gst von bertalanffy ludwig ''general system theory foundations development applications'' rev ed new york george braziller ref consider interdisciplinary perspectives critical breaking away industrial age models thinking wherein history represents history math represents math arts sciences specialization remain separate many treat teaching behaviorist conditioning contemporary work peter


senge provides detailed discussion commonplace critique educational systems grounded conventional assumptions learning including problems fragmented knowledge lack holistic learning machine age thinking became model school separated daily life way systems theorists attempt provide alternatives evolved ideation orthodox theories grounds classical assumptions including individuals max weber mile durkheim sociology frederick winslow taylor scientific management theorists sought holistic methods developing systems concepts could integrate different areas may


view contradiction reductionism conventional theory subject single part simply example changing assumptions emphasis systems theory shifts parts organization parts recognizing interactions parts static constant dynamic processes questioned conventional closed systems development open systems perspectives shift originated absolute universal authoritative principles knowledge relative general conceptual perceptual knowledge still remains tradition theorists sought provide means organize human life


words theorists rethought preceding history ideas lose mechanistic thinking particularly critiqued especially industrial age mechanistic metaphor mind interpretations newtonian mechanics enlightenment philosophers later psychologists laid foundations modern organizational theory management late th century founding early development assumptions western science plato aristotle isaac newton 's ''principia'' historically influenced areas hard social sciences see david easton 's seminal development political system analytical construct original systems theorists


explored implications th century advances terms systems robert maynard hutchins university chicago undertaken efforts encourage innovation interdisciplinary research social sciences aided ford foundation university 's interdisciplinary division social sciences established many early systems theorists aimed finding general systems theory could explain systems fields science general systems theory gst german ''allgemeine systemlehre'' coined ludwig von bertalanffy sought new approach study living systems ref


name bertalanffy developed theory via lectures beginning via publications beginning ref name according mike c jackson bertalanffy promoted embryonic form gst early early became widely known scientific circles ref name mike c jackson ''systems approaches management'' london springer ref jackson also claimed bertalanffy 's work informed alexander bogdanov 's three volume ''tectology'' providing conceptual base gst ref name similar position held richard mattessich fritjof


capra despite bertalanffy never even mentioned bogdanov works systems view based several fundamental ideas first phenomena viewed web relationships among elements system second systems whether electrical biological social common patterns behaviors properties observer analyze use develop greater insight behavior complex phenomena move closer toward unity sciences system philosophy methodology application complementary science ref name laszlo cognizant advances science questioned classical assumptions


exploration development gst ref name ref society general systems research renamed international society systems science established thereafter affiliate american association advancement science aaas ref name specifically catalyzing systems theory area study field developed work bertalanffy rapoport gerard boulding well theorists like william ross ashby margaret mead gregory bateson c west churchman among others bertalanffy 's ideas adopted others working mathematics psychology biology game theory social network


analysis subjects studied included complexity self organization connectionism adaptive systems fields like cybernetics researchers ashby norbert wiener john von neumann heinz von foerster examined complex systems mathematically von neumann discovered cellular automata self reproducing systems pencil paper aleksandr lyapunov jules henri poincar worked foundations chaos theory without computer time howard odum known radiation ecologist recognized study general systems required language could depict energetics thermodynamics kinetics system scale


fulfill role odum developed general system universal language based circuit language electronics known energy systems language cold war affected research project systems theory ways sorely disappointed many seminal theorists began recognize theories defined association systems theory deviated initial general systems theory view economist kenneth boulding early researcher systems theory concerns manipulation systems concepts boulding concluded effects cold war abuses power always prove consequential


systems theory might address issues since end cold war renewed interest systems theory emerged combined efforts strengthen ethical view subject sociology systems thinking also began th century including talcott parsons' action theory ref name rudolf stichweh http wwwfiwuni bonnde demokratieforschung personen stichweh pdfs stw systems theory international encyclopedia political science pdf systems theory ref niklas luhmann 's social systems theory according rudolf stichweh ref name blockquote since beginnings social sciences important part establishment systems theory two influential suggestions comprehensive sociological versions systems theory proposed talcott


braziller ref bertalanffy outlines '' 'systems inquiry''' three major domains philosophy science technology work primer group b la h b n thy generalized domains four integratable domains systemic inquiry philosophy ontology epistemology axiology systems theory set interrelated concepts principles applying systems methodology set models strategies methods tools instrumentalize systems theory philosophy application application interaction domains operate recursive relationship explained integrating 'philosophy' 'theory' knowledge 'method' 'application' action


''cybernetics'' widely used synonyms authors use term ''cybernetic'' systems denote proper subset class general systems namely systems include feedback loops however gordon pask 's differences eternal interacting actor loops produce finite products makes general systems proper subset cybernetics cybernetics complex systems examined mathematically researchers w ross ashby norbert wiener john von neumann heinz von foerster threads cybernetics began late led toward publishing seminal works wiener 's ''cybernetics''


bertalanffy 's ''general systems theory'' cybernetics arose engineering fields gst biology anything appears although two probably mutually influenced cybernetics greater influence bertalanffy specifically made point distinguishing areas noting influence cybernetics blockquote systems theory frequently identified cybernetics control theory incorrect cybernetics theory control mechanisms technology nature founded concepts information feedback part general theory systems model wide application


planetary political social star complex adaptive systems complex adaptive systems cas coined john h holland murray gell mann others interdisciplinary santa fe institute special cases complex systems ''complex'' diverse composed multiple interconnected elements ''adaptive'' capacity change learn experience contrast control systems negative feedback dampens reverses disequilibria cas often subject positive feedback magnifies perpetuates changes converting local irregularities global features see also organizations list


systems sciences organizations american society cybernetics cybernetics society ieee systems man cybernetics society international federation systems research international society system sciences new england complex systems institute system dynamics society references reading ashby w ross ''an introduction cybernetics'' chapman hall ''design brain origin adaptive behavior'' nd ed '''' chapman hall bateson gregory ''steps ecology mind collected essays anthropology psychiatry evolution epistemology'' university chicago press von bertalanffy ludwig ''general system theory foundations development applications'' new york


george braziller burks arthur ''essays cellular automata'' university illinois press cherry colin ''on human communication review survey criticism'' cambridge mit press churchman c west ''the design inquiring systems basic concepts systems organizations'' new york basic books checkland peter ''systems thinking systems practice includes year retrospective'' wiley gleick james ''chaos making new science'' random house haken hermann ''synergetics introduction rd edition'' springer holland john h ''adaptation natural artificial systems introductory analysis applications biology control


artificial intelligence'' cambridge mit press luhmann niklas ''introduction systems theory'' polity macy joanna ''mutual causality buddhism general systems theory dharma natural systems'' suny press maturana humberto francisco varela ''autopoiesis cognition realization living'' springer science business media miller james grier ''living systems'' mcgraw hill von neumann john general logical theory automata pp ''cerebral mechanisms behavior'' probabilistic logics synthesis reliable organisms unreliable components ''automata studies'' von neumann john arthur burks eds


''theory self reproducing automata'' illinois university press parsons talcott ''the social system'' free press prigogine ilya ''from becoming time complexity physical sciences'' w h freeman co simon herbert architecture complexity ''proceedings american philosophical society'' ''the sciences artificial'' rd ed vol mit press shannon claude warren weaver ''the mathematical theory communication'' adapted shannon claude https ieeexploreieeeorg document arnumber mathematical theory communication ''bell system technical journal'' thom ren ''structural stability morphogenesis


outline general theory models'' reading massachusetts weaver warren science complexity ''the american scientist'' wiener norbert ''cybernetics control communication animal machine'' nd ed cambridge mit press wolfram stephen ''a new kind science'' wolfram media zadeh lofti circuit theory system theory ''proceedings ire'' external links https enmwikiversityorg wiki systems thinking systems thinking wikiversity http pespmc vubacbe systheorhtml systems theory principia cybernetica web https wwwunescaporg sites default files introduction systems thinking tools engpdf introduction systems thinking slides '''organizations''' http wwwisssorg international society system sciences http wwwnecsiedu new england complex


systems institute http wwwsystemdynamicsorg system dynamics society https sitesgooglecom site institutegds institute global dynamic systems canberra australia emergence interdisciplinary subfields sociology complex systems theory systems science


nasa 's illustration showing high impact risk areas international space station '''safety engineering''' engineering discipline assures engineered systems provide acceptable levels safety strongly related industrial engineering systems engineering subset system safety engineering safety engineering assures life critical system behaves needed even components fail analysis techniques analysis techniques split two categories qualitative quantitative methods approaches share goal finding causal dependencies hazard system level failures individual components qualitative approaches focus question must

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Safety Engineering


derive relationships causes consequences sort model system traditional methods safety analysis two common fault modeling techniques called failure mode effects analysis fault tree analysis techniques ways finding problems making plans cope failures probabilistic risk assessment one earliest complete studies using technique commercial nuclear plant wash study also known reactor safety study rasmussen report failure modes effects analysis failure mode effects analysis fmea


bottom inductive analytical method may performed either functional piece part level functional fmea failure modes identified function system equipment item usually help functional block diagram piece part fmea failure modes identified piece part component valve connector resistor diode effects failure mode described assigned probability based failure rate failure mode ratio function component quantization difficult software bug exists failure


individual process component eg vessel pipeline pump ref name api rp c p ref safety requirements individual components integrated complete platform safety system including liquid containment emergency support systems fire gas detection ref name first stage analysis identifies individual process components include flowlines headers pressure vessels atmospheric vessels fired heaters exhaust heated components pumps compressors pipelines heat exchangers ref name api rp c pvi ref component subject safety analysis identify undesirable events equipment failure process upsets etc protection must provided ref


name api rp c p ref analysis also identifies detectable condition eg high pressure used initiate actions prevent minimize effect undesirable events safety analysis table sat pressure vessels includes following details ref name ref name api rp c p ref class wikitable colspan safety analysis table sat pressure vessels undesirable event cause detectable abnormal condition overpressure blocked restricted outlet inflow exceeds outflow gas blowby upstream pressure control failure thermal expansion excess heat input high pressure liquid overflow inflow exceeds outflow liquid slug flow blocked restricted liquid


outlet level control failure high liquid level undesirable events pressure vessel pressure gas blowby leak excess temperature together associated causes detectable conditions ref name events causes detectable conditions identified next stage methodology uses safety analysis checklist sac component lists safety devices may required factors negate need device example case liquid overflow vessel sac identifies high level sensor lsh


lsh installed equipment downstream gas outlet flare vent system safely handle maximum liquid carry vessel function require handling separate fluid phases vessel small trap liquids manually drained analysis ensures two levels protection provided mitigate undesirable event example pressure vessel subjected pressure primary protection would psh pressure switch high shut inflow vessel secondary protection would provided pressure safety valve


etc v lp separator etc x denotes detection device left eg psh initiates shutdown warning action top right eg esv closure safe chart constitutes basis cause effect charts relate sensing devices shutdown valves plant trips defines functional architecture process shutdown system methodology also specifies systems testing necessary ensure functionality protection systems api rp c first published june


th edition published february api rp c adapted iso standard iso entitled ''petroleum natural gas industries offshore production installations analysis design installation testing basic surface process safety systems'' latest edition iso currently undergoing revision safety certification typically safety guidelines prescribe set steps deliverable documents exit criterion focused around planning analysis design implementation verification validation configuration management quality assurance activities development safety critical system addition typically formulate expectations regarding creation


use traceability project example depending upon criticality level requirement us federal aviation administration guideline b c requires traceability requirements design requirements source code executable object code software components system thereby higher quality traceability information simplify certification process help establish trust maturity applied development process usually failure safety certified systems acceptable average less one life per sup sup hours continuous operation lost failure per faa document ac


western nuclear reactors medical equipment commercial aircraft certified level cost versus loss lives considered appropriate level faa aircraft systems federal aviation regulations preventing failure nasa graph shows relationship survival crew astronauts amount redundant equipment spacecraft mm mission module failure mode identified usually mitigated adding extra redundant equipment system example nuclear reactors contain dangerous radiation nuclear reactions cause much heat


substance might contain therefore reactors emergency core cooling systems keep temperature shielding contain radiation engineered barriers usually several nested surmounted containment building prevent accidental leakage safety critical systems commonly required permit single event component failure result catastrophic failure mode biological organisms certain amount redundancy multiple organs multiple limbs etc given failure fail redundancy almost always designed incorporated system two categories techniques reduce probability


failure fault avoidance techniques increase reliability individual items increased design margin de rating etc fault tolerance techniques increase reliability system whole redundancies barriers etc safety reliability safety engineering reliability engineering much common safety reliability medical device fails fail safely alternatives available surgeon engine single engine aircraft fails backup electrical power grids designed safety reliability telephone systems designed reliability becomes


change system design failure modes catastrophic inherent fail safes common medical equipment traffic railway signals communications equipment safety equipment typical approach arrange system ordinary single failures cause mechanism shut safe way nuclear power plants termed passively safe design although ordinary failures covered alternately system contains hazard source battery rotor may possible remove hazard system failure modes


cannot catastrophic us department defense standard practice system safety mil std places highest priority elimination hazards design selection one common fail safe systems overflow tube baths kitchen sinks valve sticks open rather causing overflow damage tank spills overflow another common example elevator cable supporting car keeps spring loaded brakes open cable breaks brakes grab rails elevator cabin fall systems never made fail safe


continuous availability needed example loss engine thrust flight dangerous redundancy fault tolerance recovery procedures used situations eg multiple independent controlled fuel fed engines also makes system less sensitive reliability prediction errors quality induced uncertainty separate items hand failure detection correction avoidance common cause failures becomes increasingly important ensure system level reliability see also associations references notes sources external links http wwwapdarmymil jw xmldemo p headasp us army pamphlet system safety management guide design x reliability engineering


'''semiotics''' also called '' 'semiotic studies''' study sign processes semiosis activity conduct process involves signs sign defined anything communicates something usually called meaning sign 's interpreter meaning intentional word uttered specific meaning unintentional symptom sign particular medical condition signs also communicate feelings usually considered meanings may communicate internally thought senses visual auditory tactile olfactory gustatory taste

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Semiotics


semiotic tradition explores study signs symbols significant part communications unlike linguistics semiotics also studies non linguistic sign systems semiotics includes study signs sign processes indication designation likeness analogy allegory metonymy metaphor symbolism signification communication semiotics frequently seen important anthropological sociological dimensions example italian semiotician novelist umberto eco proposed every cultural phenomenon may studied communication ref name caesar ref semioticians focus logical dimensions science however examine areas belonging also life sciences organisms make predictions


adapt semiotic niche world see semiosis fundamental semiotic theories take ' 'signs'' sign systems object study applied semiotics analyzes cultures cultural artifacts according ways construct meaning signs communication information living organisms covered biosemiotics including zoosemiotics phytosemiotics semiotics confused saussurean tradition called semiology subset semiotics history terminology importance signs signification recognized throughout much history philosophy psychology


term derives greeks signs occurred world nature symbols world culture plato aristotle explored relationship signs world would augustine hippo nature sign would considered within conventional system augustine introduced thematic proposal uniting two notion sign ' 'signum'' transcending nature culture divide identifying symbols species sub species ' 'signum'' monograph study question would done manetti ref


group lower alpha see also http permalinkgmaneorg gmanesciencephilosophypeirce andrew lavelle 's discussion romeo peirce l ref theories lasting effect western philosophy especially scholastic philosophy general study signs began latin augustine culminated ''tractatus de signis'' john poinsot began anew late modernity attempt charles sanders peirce draw new list categories recently umberto eco ''semiotics philosophy language'' argued semiotic theories implicit work perhaps major thinkers john locke


john locke man medicine familiar semeiotics naming specialized branch within medical science personal library two editions scapula 's abridgement henricus stephanus' ''thesaurus graecae linguae'' listed name diagnostics branch medicine concerned interpreting symptoms disease symptomatology indeed physician scholar henry stubbe transliterated term specialized science english precisely ' 'semeiotics'' marking first use term english locke would use term ' 'sem e iotike'' ''an essay concerning human understanding'' book iv chap


ref group lower alpha locke uses greek word https booksgooglecom booksid hgeksjjtu ec source gbs navlinks th edition ''essay concerning human understanding'' p notably writes b term followed kind punctuation mark takes form b chapter xx titled division sciences concludes st edition locke 's ''essay'' locke introduces nbsp proposed name synonymous ''the doctrine signs'' development future study ubiquitous role signs within human awareness th edition


locke 's ''essay'' new chapter xix titled enthusiasm inserted book iv result chapter xx st edition becomes chapter xxi subsequent editions important fact locke 's proposal development semiotics three passing exceptions asides writings berkeley leibniz condillac met resounding silence lasts long modernity even locke 's devoted late modern editor alexander campbell fraser dismisses hand 'this crude superficial scheme locke' deely adds locke 's modest proposal subversive way


term appears th edition last published last prepared within locke 's lifetime exactly spelling final accent found st edition yet turn final chapter xxi oxford edition p find rather find substituted spelling final accent reversed '''note''' modern greek systems pronouncing classical greek ''' ''' ''' ''' pronounced ref explains science may divided three parts ref name locke john


''an essay concerning human understanding'' ref locke elaborates nature third category naming ''semeiotike'' explaining doctrine signs following terms ref name juri lotman would introduce eastern europe semiotics adopt locke 's coinage name subtitle founding university tartu estonia first semiotics journal ''sign systems studies'' ferdinand de saussure ferdinand de saussure founded semiotics called semiology social sciences thomas sebeok ref group lower alpha whole anthology ''frontiers semiotics'' devoted


documentation ''pars pro toto'' move sebeok ref would assimilate semiology semiotics part whole involved choosing name ''semiotica'' first international journal devoted study signs saussurean semiotics exercised great deal influence schools structuralism post structuralism jacques derrida example takes object saussurean relationship signifier signified asserting signifier signified fixed coining expression ' 'diff rance'' relating endless deferral meaning absence 'transcendent signified'


charles sanders peirce nineteenth century charles sanders peirce defined termed semiotic would sometimes spell semeiotic quasi necessary formal doctrine signs abstracts must characters signs used intelligence capable learning experience philosophical logic pursued terms signs sign processes peirce 's perspective considered philosophical logic studied terms signs always linguistic artificial sign processes modes inference inquiry process general peircean semiotic addresses


external communication mechanism per saussure internal representation machine investigating sign processes modes inference well whole inquiry process general peircean semiotic triadic including sign object interpretant opposed dyadic saussurian tradition signifier signified peircean semiotics subdivides three triadic elements three sub types positing existence signs symbols semblances icons indices ie signs factual connection objects peircean scholar editor max h fisch ref group lower alpha max fisch compiled peirce related bibliographical supplements


consulting editor microfilm peirce 's published works ''comprehensive bibliography'' associated among main editors first five volumes ''writings charles peirce'' wrote number published articles peirce many collected ''peirce semeiotic pragmatism'' see also charles sanders peirce bibliography ref would claim semeiotic peirce 's preferred rendering locke 's charles w morris followed peirce using term semiotic extending discipline beyond human communication animal learning use signals


saussurean semiotic dyadic sign syntax signal semantics peircean semiotic triadic sign object interpretant conceived philosophical logic studied terms signs always linguistic artificial peirce 's list categories peirce would aim base new list directly upon experience precisely constituted action signs contrast list aristotle 's categories aimed articulate within experience dimension independent experience knowable human understanding estimative powers animals interpret environment sensed form meaningful world


objects objects world umwelt jakob von uexk 's term consist exclusively objects related animal desirable undesirable safe ignore contrast human understanding adds animal umwelt relation self identity within objects transforms objects experienced ''things'' well objects ref name heidegger martin ''being time'' translated j macquarrie e robinson new york harper row p ref ref group lower alpha distinction existing dasein entities reality


character daseinis nothing philosophy may tranquilize long known ancient ontology works 'thing concepts' danger 'reifying consciousness' 'reifying' signify arise get 'conceived' 'proximally' terms present hand ''and not'' terms ready hand indeed lies ''closer'' us ''why'' reifying always keep coming back exercise dominion question umwelt lebenswelt distinction drawn answers heidegger ref thus generically animal objective


world umwelt becomes species specifically human objective world lebenswelt life world wherein linguistic communication rooted biologically underdetermined innenwelt inner world humans makes possible dimension cultural organization within otherwise merely social organization non human animals whose powers observation may deal directly sensible instances objectivity point human culture depends upon language understood first communication biologically underdetermined aspect feature human animal 's innenwelt originally clearly identified thomas sebeok sebeok also played central role bringing peirce 's


work center semiotic stage twentieth century ref group lower alpha detailed demonstration sebeok 's role global emergence semiotics recorded least three recent volumes ''' ''' ''semiotics seen synchronically view '' ottawa legas ''' ''' ''semiotics continues astonish thomas sebeok doctrine signs'' berlin mouton de gruyter page assemblage essays vignettes letters pictures attesting depth extent sebeok 's promotion semiotic understanding around world including involvement juri lotman tartu university graduate program semiotics currently directed p


mediates object sign interpreter human creating interpretant peirce 's interpretant notion opened way understanding action signs beyond realm animal life study phytosemiosis zo semiosis anthroposemiosis ''biosemiotics'' first advance beyond latin age semiotics ref group lower alpha summary peirce 's contributions semiotics see liszka atkin ref early theorists field semiotics include charles w morris writing jozef maria bochenski surveyed field way closely related mathematical logic


called semiotics charles morris commonly employed mathematical logicians semiotics theory symbols falls three parts logical syntax theory mutual relations symbols logical semantics theory relations symbol symbol stands logical pragmatics relations symbols meanings users symbols max black argued work bertrand russell seminal field formulations subfields color coding hot cold water faucets taps common many cultures


example shows coding may rendered meaningless context two faucets taps probably sold coded set code unusable ignored single water supply semioticians classify signs sign systems relation way transmitted see modality process carrying meaning depends use codes may individual sounds letters humans use form words body movements make show attitude emotion even something general clothes wear


codes media contexts explain biology psychology mechanics involved disciplines recognize technical process cannot separated fact receiver must decode data ie able distinguish data salient make meaning implies necessary overlap semiotics communication indeed many concepts shared although field emphasis different ''messages meanings introduction semiotics'' marcel danesi suggested semioticians' priorities study signification first communication second extreme


view offered jean jacques nattiez musicologist considered theoretical study communication irrelevant application semiotics ref name nattiez ref syntactics semiotics differs linguistics generalizes definition sign encompass signs medium sensory modality thus broadens range sign systems sign relations extends definition language amounts widest analogical metaphorical sense branch semiotics deals formal relations signs expressions abstraction signification interpreters generally formal


difference ''not'' match separation analytic continental philosophy closer look may found differences regarding subjects philosophy language pays attention natural languages languages general semiotics deeply concerned non linguistic signification philosophy language also bears connections linguistics semiotics might appear closer humanities including literary theory cultural anthropology cognitive semiotics semiosis ' 'semeiosis'' process forms meaning organism 's apprehension world signs scholars talked semiosis


cognitive semiotics initially developed center semiotics aarhus university denmark important connection center functionally integrated neuroscience cfin aarhus hospital amongst prominent cognitive semioticians per aage brandt svend stergaard peer bundg rd frederik stjernfelt mikkel wallentin kristian tyl n riccardo fusaroli jordan zlatev zlatev later co operation g ran sonesson established ccs center cognitive semiotics lund university sweden finite semiotics '''finite semiotics''' developed cameron shackell aims unify existing theories semiotics application post baudrillardian world ubiquitous technology central


move place finiteness thought root semiotics sign secondary fundamental analytical construct theory contends levels reproduction technology bringing human environments demands reprioritisation semiotics remain relevant face effectively infinite signs shift emphasis allows practical definitions many core constructs semiotics shackell applied areas human computer interaction creativity theory computational semiotics method generating semiotic squares digital texts pictorial semiotics '''pictorial semiotics''' intimately


connected art history theory goes beyond least one fundamental way however art history limited visual analysis small number pictures qualify works art pictorial semiotics focuses properties pictures general sense artistic conventions images interpreted pictorial codes pictorial codes way viewers pictorial representations seem automatically decipher artistic conventions images unconsciously familiar according g ran sonesson swedish semiotician pictures


analyzed three models narrative model concentrates relationship pictures time chronological manner comic strip b rhetoric model compares pictures different devices metaphor c laokoon model considers limits constraints pictorial expressions comparing textual mediums utilize time visual mediums utilize space break traditional art history theory well major streams semiotic analysis leaves open wide variety possibilities pictorial semiotics influences drawn phenomenological


analysis cognitive psychology structuralist cognitivist linguistics visual anthropology sociology globalization studies shown semiotics may used make break brand culture codes strongly influence whether population likes dislikes brand 's marketing especially internationally company unaware culture 's codes runs risk failing marketing globalization caused development global consumer culture products similar associations whether positive negative across numerous markets ref name alden ref mistranslations may lead instances engrish chinglish terms unintentionally humorous cross cultural slogans


intended understood english may caused sign peirce 's terms mistakenly indexes symbolizes something one culture another words creates connotation culturally bound violates culture code theorists studied humor schopenhauer suggest contradiction incongruity creates absurdity therefore humor violating culture code creates construct ridiculousness culture owns code intentional humor also may fail cross culturally jokes code receiving culture good example


global trends culture codes example saving time busy world even may fine tuned specific cultures ref name alden research also found airline industry brandings grow become international logos become symbolic less iconic iconicity symbolism sign depends cultural convention ground relation cultural convention greater influence sign signs get symbolic value semiotics dreaming flexibility human semiotics well demonstrated dreams sigmund freud


disguises verbal dream thought imagistic form processes called dream work list subfields subfields sprouted semiotics include limited following biosemiotics study semiotic processes levels biology semiotic study living systems eg copenhagen tartu school annual meetings gatherings biosemiotics held since semiotic anthropology anthropological semantics cognitive semiotics study meaning making employing integrating methods theories developed cognitive sciences involves conceptual textual analysis well experimental


common framework design semiotics product semiotics study use signs design physical products introduced martin krampen practitioner oriented version rune mon teaching industrial design institute design ume university sweden ethnosemiotics disciplinary perspective links semiotics concepts ethnographic methods film semiotics study various codes signs film understood key figures include christian metz finite semiotics approach semiotics technology developed cameron shackell used trace effects


technology human thought develop computational methods performing semiotic analysis gregorian chant semiology current avenue palaeographical research gregorian chant revising solesmes school interpretation law semiotics one accomplished publications field ''international journal semiotics law'' published international association semiotics law marketing semiotics commercial semiotics application semiotic methods semiotic thinking analysis development advertising brand communications cultural context key figures include virginia valentine malcolm evans greg rowland georgios rossolatos


international annual conferences semiofest held since music semiology study signs pertain music variety levels organisational semiotics study semiotic processes organizations strong ties computational semiotics human computer interaction pictorial semiotics application semiotic methods semiotic thinking art history semiotics music videos semiotics popular music social semiotics expands interpretable semiotic landscape include cultural codes slang fashion tattoos advertising key figures include roland barthes michael halliday bob hodge chris william martin christian metz structuralism


post structuralism work jacques derrida michel foucault louis hjelmslev roman jakobson jacques lacan claude l vi strauss roland barthes etc '''''' application semiotic methods semiotic thinking theatre studies key figures include keir elam urban semiotics study meaning urban form generated signs symbols social connotations visual semiotics analyses visual signs prominent modern founders branch groupe g ran sonesson see also visual rhetoric semiotics photography observation symbolism used within photography artificial intelligence semiotics observation visual symbols symbols


recognition machine learning systems phrase coined daniel hoeg semiotics mobility 's design process autonomous recognition perception phrase also refers machine learning neural nets application semiotic methods semiotic machine learning analysis development robotics commands instructions subsystem communications autonomous systems context semiotics mathematics study signs symbols sign systems structure meaning use mathematics mathematics education notable semioticians signaling communication ''astatotilapia burtoni'' charles sanders peirce noted logician founded philosophical pragmatism


defined ' 'semiosis'' irreducibly triadic process wherein something object logically determines influences something sign determine influence something interpretation ''interpretant'' sign thus leading interpretants semiosis logically structured perpetuate object may quality fact rule even fictional hamlet may immediate sign object represented sign dynamic object really immediate object founded interpretant may immediate sign sign immediately expresses


word 's usual meaning dynamic state agitation final normal ultimate ramifications sign object inquiry taken far enough would destined interpretant may coincide ' 'semiotic'' covered artificial linguistic symbolic signs also semblances kindred sensible qualities indices reactions came c nbsp classify sign three interdependent trichotomies intersecting form ten rather classes sign signs also enter various kinds meaningful combinations peirce covered


semantic syntactical issues speculative grammar regarded formal semiotic logic ''per se'' part philosophy also encompassing study arguments hypothetical deductive inductive inquiry 's methods including pragmatism allied distinct logic 's pure mathematics addition pragmatism peirce provided definition sign ' 'representamen'' order bring fact sign something represents something else order suggest present way ref name credo reference ref ferdinand de saussure father modern linguistics proposed dualistic


notion signs relating ' 'signifier'' form word phrase uttered ' 'signified'' mental concept according saussure sign completely arbitrary ie necessary connection sign meaning sets apart previous philosophers plato scholastics thought must connection signifier object signifies ''course general linguistics'' saussure credits american linguist william dwight whitney insisting arbitrary nature sign saussure 's insistence arbitrariness


empirical understanding humans synthesize physical stimuli words abstract concepts jakob von uexk studied sign processes animals used german word ''umwelt'' environment describe individual 's subjective world invented concept functional circle ''funktionskreis'' general model sign processes ''theory meaning'' ''bedeutungslehre'' described semiotic approach biology thus establishing field called biosemiotics valentin voloshinov soviet russian linguist whose work influential field literary theory marxist theory ideology


written late ussr voloshinov 's ''marxism philosophy language'' developed counter saussurean linguistics situated language use social process rather entirely decontextualized saussurean ''langue'' louis hjelmslev developed formalist approach saussure 's structuralist theories best known work ''prolegomena theory language'' expanded ''r sum theory language'' formal development ''glossematics'' scientific calculus language charles w morris unlike mentor george herbert mead morris behaviorist sympathetic vienna circle positivism


colleague rudolf carnap morris accused john dewey misreading peirce ''foundations theory signs'' defined semiotics grouped three branches ''semantics'' deals formal properties interrelation signs symbols without regard meaning ''syntactics'' ' 'syntax'' deals formal structures signs particularly relation signs objects apply ie signs designata objects may denote ''pragmatics'' deals biotic aspects semiosis including psychological biological sociological phenomena occur


functioning signs pragmatics concerned relation sign system sign using agents interpreters ie human animal users thure von uexk father modern psychosomatic medicine developed diagnostic method based semiotic biosemiotic analyses roland barthes french literary theorist semiotician often would critique pieces cultural material expose bourgeois society used impose values upon others instance portrayal wine drinking french society robust healthy habit would bourgeois ideal perception contradicted


certain realities ie wine unhealthy inebriating found semiotics useful conducting critiques barthes explained bourgeois cultural myths second order signs connotations picture full dark bottle sign signifier relating signified fermented alcoholic beverage wine however bourgeois take signified apply emphasis making wine new signifier time relating new signified idea healthy robust relaxing wine motivations manipulations vary desire sell products simple desire maintain


status quo insights brought barthes much line similar marxist theory algirdas julien greimas developed structural version semiotics named generative semiotics trying shift focus discipline signs systems signification theories develop ideas saussure hjelmslev claude l vi strauss maurice merleau ponty thomas sebeok student charles w morris prolific wide ranging american semiotician although insisted animals capable language expanded purview semiotics include non human signaling communication systems thus raising issues


addressed philosophy mind coining term zoosemiotics sebeok insisted communication made possible relationship organism environment lives also posed equation ' 'semiosis'' activity interpreting signs ''life'' view copenhagen tartu biosemiotic school developed juri lotman founding member tartu tartu moscow semiotic school developed semiotic approach study culture semiotics culture established communication model study text semiotics also introduced concept semiosphere among


moscow colleagues vladimir toporov vyacheslav ivanov boris uspensky christian metz pioneered application saussurean semiotics film theory applying syntagmatic analysis scenes films grounding film semiotics greater context eliseo ver n developed social discourse theory inspired peircian conception semiosis groupe founded developed structural version rhetorics visual semiotics umberto eco italian novelist semiotician academic made wider audience aware semiotics various publications notably ''a theory semiotics'' novel ''the name rose''


includes second plot applied semiotic operations important contributions field bear interpretation encyclopedia model reader also criticized several works ''a theory semiotics'' ''la struttura assente'' ''le signe'' ''la production de signes'' iconism iconic signs taken peirce 's famous triadic relation based indexes icons symbols proposed four modes sign production recognition ostension replica invention julia kristeva born student lucien goldmann roland barthes bulgarian french semiotician literary critic psychoanalyst feminist novelist uses psychoanalytical concepts together


semiotics distinguishing two components signification symbolic semiotic'''' kristeva also studies representation women women 's bodies popular culture horror films remarkable influence feminism feminist literary studies michael silverstein theoretician semiotics linguistic anthropology course career created original synthesis research semiotics communication sociology interaction russian formalist literary theory linguistic pragmatics sociolinguistics early anthropological linguistics structuralist grammatical theory together theoretical contributions yielding comprehensive account


semiotics human communication relation culture main influence charles sanders peirce ferdinand de saussure roman jakobson current applications chart semiotics social networking applications semiotics include representation methodology analysis texts regardless medium presented purposes text message preserved form whose existence independent sender receiver scholars professional researchers method interpret meanings behind symbols meanings created potential improvement ergonomic design


situations important ensure human beings able interact effectively environments whether large scale architecture small scale configuration instrumentation human use marketing epure eisenstat dinu express semiotics allows practical distinction persuasion manipulation marketing communication ref name ref semiotics used marketing persuasive device influence buyers change attitudes behaviors market place two ways epure eisenstat dinu building


works roland barthes state semiotics used marketing ''surface'' signs used create personality product creativity plays foremost role level ''underlying'' concealed meaning text imagery sounds etc ref name semiotics also used analyze advertising effectiveness meaning cian instance analyzed specific printed advertisement two different semiotic points view applied interpretative instruments provided barthes' school thinking focused description explicit signs taken isolation analyzed advertising using greimas'


structural semiotics sign meaning interpreted part system countries role semiotics limited literary criticism appreciation audio visual media narrow focus may inhibit general study social political forces shaping different media used dynamic status within modern culture issues technological determinism choice media design communication strategies assume new importance age mass media main institutions world organisation semioticians international


association semiotic studies journal ''semiotica'' established larger research centers together teaching program include semiotics departments university tartu university limoges aarhus university bologna university publications publication research dedicated journals ''sign systems studies'' established juri lotman published tartu university press ''semiotica'' founded thomas sebeok published mouton de gruyter ''zeitschrift f r semiotik'' ''european journal semiotics'' ''versus'' founded directed umberto eco et al ''the american journal semiotics'' articles accepted


periodicals disciplines especially journals oriented toward philosophy cultural criticism major semiotic book series ''semiotics communication cognition'' published de gruyter mouton series editors paul cobley kalevi kull replaces former approaches semiotics volumes approaches applied semiotics series editor thomas sebeok since semiotic society america produced annual conference series ''semiotics proceedings semiotic society america'' see also ethnosemiotics index semiotics articles language game philosophy medical sign outline semiotics private language argument semiofest semiotic elements classes


kegan paul danesi marcel perron paul ''analyzing cultures introduction handbook'' bloomington indiana danesi marcel ''messages meanings introduction semiotics'' toronto canadian scholars' press danesi marcel ''understanding media semiotics'' london arnold new york oxford danesi marcel ''the quest meaning guide semiotic theory practice'' toronto university toronto press decadt yves ''on origin impact information average evolution bit attractor atom ecosystem'' dutch summary english available http wwwinformationphilosophercom solutions scientists decadt information philosopher deely john ''basics


semiotics'' th ed tartu tartu university press deely john ''the red book beginning postmodern times charles sanders peirce recovery of'' signum sonesson g ran pictorial concepts inquiries semiotic heritage relevance analysis visual world lund lund university presspictorial concepts inquiries semiotic heritage relevance analysis visual world nbsp deely john ''four ages understanding'' toronto university toronto press deely john word semiotics formation origins ''semiotica'' deely john ''the impact philosophy


semiotics'' south bend st augustine press deely john ' ' 'sign' way 'signum' interplay translation interpretation establishment semiotics ''semiotica'' deely john 'semiotics' naming doctrine signs ''semiotica'' derrida jacques ''positions'' translated alan bass london athlone press eagleton terry ''literary theory introduction'' oxford basil blackwell eco umberto ''a theory semiotics'' london macmillan eco umberto ''semiotics philosophy language'' bloomington indiana university press eco umberto ''kant platypus'' new york harcourt brace


company eco umberto ''a theory semiotics'' indiana indiana university press emmeche claus kull kalevi eds ''towards semiotic biology life action signs'' london imperial college press https wwwacademiaedu towards semiotic biology life action signs pdf foucault michel ''the order things archaeology human sciences'' london tavistock greimas algirdas ''on meaning selected writings semiotic theory'' translated paul j perron frank h collins london frances pinter herlihy david present nd year class semiotics cit hjelmslev louis ''prolegomena theory language'' translated francis j whitfield madison university wisconsin press


hodge robert kress gunther ''social semiotics'' ithaca cornell lacan jacques '' crits selection'' translated alan sheridan new york norton lidov david ''elements semiotics'' new york st martin 's press liszka j j ''a general introduction semeiotic cs peirce'' indiana university press locke john ''the works john locke new edition corrected ten volumes voliii'' tegg london facsimile reprint scientia aalen lotman yuri ''universe mind semiotic theory culture'' translated ann shukman london ib tauris morris charles w


''writings general theory signs'' hague mouton nattiez jean jacques ''music discourse toward semiology music'' translated carolyn abbate princeton princeton university press translation ''musicologie g n rale et miologue'' collection musique pass pr sent paris c bourgois peirce charles ''collected papers volume v pragmatism pragmaticism'' cambridge usa harvard university press ponzio augusto petrilli ''semiotics today global semiotics semioethics dialogic response'' new york ottawa toronto legas pp romeo luigi derivation 'semiotics' history discipline ''semiosis'' v pp nbsp sebeok


ta ''contributions doctrine signs'' indiana university press bloomington sebeok thomas editor ''a perfusion signs'' bloomington indiana university press ''signs meaning questions'' edited peer bundgaard frederik stjernfelt automatic press vip includes interviews leading semioticians world short tl ''peirce 's theory signs'' cambridge university press stubbe henry henry stubbe ''the plus ultra reduced non plus specimen animadversions upon plus ultra mr glanvill wherein sundry errors virtuosi discovered credit


aristotelians part advanced enquiries made'' london williamson judith ''decoding advertisements ideology meaning advertising'' london boyars zlatev jordan semiotic hierarchy life consciousness signs language cognitive semiotics sweden scania external links http wwwsignosemiocom signo presents semiotic theories theories closely related semiotics http pauillacinriafr codognet webhtml semiotics web http wwwhumaudk semiotics center semiotics denmark aarhus university https wwwsemioticsocietyofamericaorg semiotic society america http wwwsemioticoncom open semiotics resource center includes journals lecture courses etc peircean focus http wwwcspeircecom arisbe peirce gateway http personumericablefr robertmarty semiotique anglaishtm semiotics according robert marty http personumericablefr robertmarty semiotique accesshtm


definitions sign c nbsp peirce http wwwhelsinkifi science commens dictionaryhtml commens dictionary peirce 's terms journals book series '' https wwwpdcnetorg ajs american journal semiotics '' edited j deely c morrissey us semiotic society america '' http frenchchassutorontoca sa applied semiotics miotique appliqu e sa '' edited p g marteinson p g michelucci ca university toronto '' http wwwdegruyterde view serial approaches applied semiotics '' series edited sebeok et al berlin de gruyter '' http wwwdegruyterde view serial approaches semiotics '' series edited sebeok rey r posner et al berlin de gruyter '' https wwwspringercom life sciences evolutionary developmental biology journal biosemiotics '' edited barbieri eic


http wwwbiosemioticsorg international society biosemiotic studies '' http wwwchkjournalcom cybernetics human knowing '' edited brier chief '' https ijmarketingsemioticscom international journal marketing semiotics '' edited g rossolatos chief '' http wwwirma internationalorg journal international journal signs semiotic systems international journal signs semiotic systems ijsss '' edited loula j queiroz '' http semioticsonlineorg public journal semiotics '' edited p bouissac eic cienki assoc r jorna w n th '' http wwwlibraryutorontoca see pages seed journalhtml seed journal semiotics evolution energy development '' edited e taborsky toronto http wwwlibraryutorontoca see indexhtml see '' http projectschassutorontoca semiotics indexhtml semiotic review books '' edited g genosko gen p bouissac founding ed '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwdegruyterde journals semiotica semiotica '' edited danesi


chief http iass aisorg international association semiotic studies '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwananke edizionicom ananke semiotiche semiotiche '' edited valle visalli '' http wwwdegruyterde view serial semiotics communication cognition '' series edited p cobley k kull '' https wwwpdcnetorg cpsem semiotics yearbook semiotic society america '' edited j pelkey us semiotic society america '' http wwwsemioticoncom semiotix semiotix new series global information bulletin '' edited p bouissac et al '' http wwwutee sose sss indexhtm sign systems studies '' edited k kull k lindstrom lotman maran salupere p torop estonia http wwwutee sose enghtml dept semiotics u tartu '' http wwwpressuchicagoedu ucp journals journal sashtml signs society '' edited r j parmentier '' https webarchiveorg web http vipivadk signs signs international journal


semiotics '' edited thellefsen thellefsen b rensen chief eds '' http wwwutee sose tslhtml tartu semiotics library '' series edited p torop k kull salupere '' https webarchiveorg web http peircesocietyorg transactionshtml transactions charles peirce society '' edited c de waal chief http wwwpeircesocietyorg charles peirce society '' https webarchiveorg web http versusdscuniboit versus quaderni di studi semiotici '' founded u eco communication studies cybernetics philosophy language


'''structural biology''' branch molecular biology biochemistry biophysics concerned molecular structure biological macromolecules especially proteins made amino acids rna dna made nucleotides membranes made lipids acquire structures alterations structures affect function subject great interest biologists macromolecules carry functions cells coiling specific three dimensional shapes able perform functions architecture tertiary structure molecules depends

Natural science
Biology
Structural Biology


complicated way molecule 's basic composition primary structure past years become possible highly accurate physical molecular models complement ''in silico'' study biological structures examples models found protein data bank computational techniques like molecular dynamics simulations used conjunction empirical structure determination strategies extend study protein structure conformation function hemoglobin oxygen transporting protein found red blood cells examples protein structures protein data bank pdb alt history max


von laue directed x rays crystallized copper sulfate generating diffraction pattern experiments led development x ray crystallography usage exploring biological structures rosalind franklin maurice wilkins used x ray diffraction patterns capture first image deoxyribonucleic acid dna francis crick james watson modeled double helical structure dna using technique received nobel prize medicine along wilkins pepsin crystals first proteins crystallized use x ray diffraction theodore svedberg received nobel


prize chemistry first tertiary protein structure myoglobin published john kendrew time modeling protein structures done using balsa wood wire models invention modeling software ccp late 's modeling done computer assistance recent developments field included generation x ray free electron lasers allowing analysis previously hidden structures use structural biology assisting synthetic biology late early combination work done isidor rabi felix bloch


diffraction multiangle light scattering small angle scattering ultrafast laser spectroscopy two dimensional infrared spectroscopy dual polarization interferometry circular dichroism often researchers use study native states macromolecules variations methods also used watch nascent denatured molecules assume reassume native states see protein folding third approach structural biologists take understanding structure bioinformatics look patterns among diverse sequences give rise particular shapes researchers often deduce aspects structure integral membrane proteins based membrane topology predicted hydrophobicity analysis


tau filaments brain alzheimer 's patients may help develop better treatments future structural biology also important component drug discovery ref name ref scientists identify targets using genomics study targets using structural biology develop drugs suited targets specifically ligand nmr mass spectrometry x ray crystallography commonly used techniques drug discovery process example researchers used structural biology better understand met important drug target cancer similar research conducted hiv targets treat people aids ref name researchers


'''secondary education''' covers two phases international standard classification education scale level '''lower secondary education''' less common '''junior secondary education''' considered second final phase basic education level ''' upper secondary education''' stage tertiary education every country aims provide basic education systems terminology remain unique secondary education typically takes place six years primary education followed higher education vocational education employment countries secondary education compulsory least age

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Secondary education


children typically enter lower secondary phase around age compulsory education sometimes extends age since education seen basic human right child article convention rights child states primary education free compulsory different forms secondary education including general vocational education available accessible every child terminology proved difficult universal definition isced divided period primary education university junior secondary education upper secondary education


classical medieval times secondary education provided church sons nobility boys preparing universities priesthood trade required navigational scientific skills church reluctantly expanded curriculum widened intake reformation state wrestled control learning church comenius john locke education changed repetition latin text building knowledge child education middle th century secondary schools organised satisfy needs different social


classes labouring classes getting years merchant class years elite getting years rights secondary education codified countries moving mandatory free secondary education youth definition international standard classification education isced describes seven levels used compare education internationally within country implemented different ways different age levels local denominations seven levels level pre primary education level primary education first stage


lifelong learning lower secondary education likely show criteria entry years primary education requirement highly qualified teachers teaching within specialism exit level courses vocational education employment total years education end lower secondary education often coincides end compulsory education countries exists ''' upper secondary education''' starts completion basic education also defined completion lower secondary education educational focus varied according student 's interests


future direction education level usually voluntary upper secondary education likely show criteria entry years basic education typical age entry years teachers level qualifications subject teaching exit level courses direct employment subjects may dropped increased specialism occurs completion upper secondary education provides entry requirements level tertiary education entry requirements technical vocational education level non tertiary course direct entry


workplace isced published work education levels codified particular paths redefined tertiary levels lower secondary education upper secondary education could last years transition two often would students allowed subject choice terminology secondary schools varies country exact meaning varies secondary schools may also called ''academies'' ''colleges'' ''gymnasiums'' ''high schools'' ''lyceums'' ''middle schools'' ''preparatory schools'' ' 'sixth form colleges'' ''upper schools'' ''vocational schools'' among names information nomenclature see section


country history form education adolescents became necessary societies alphabet engaged commerce western europe formal secondary education traced back athenian educational reforms bc though civilisation eclipsed enslaved hellenistic athenian teachers valued roman system roman hellenistic schools rhetoric taught seven liberal arts sciences ''grammar rhetoric logic arithmetic geometry music'' ''astronomy'' regarded preparation study tertiary level theology law medicine


still exist bede ecclesiastical history tells canterbury school taught 'intended reading understanding latin' 'the rules metric astronomy computus well works saints' even stage tension church worried knowledge latin would give student access non christian texts would wish read centuries leading renaissance reformation church main provider secondary education various invasions schisms within controlling church challenged


focus schools curriculum language instruction waxed waned growth towns grammar schools 'free' church founded church grammar schools handed la ty universities founded n't train students priesthood renaissance reformation whereas mainland europe renaissance preceded reformation local conditions england caused reformation come first reformation among things allowing la ty interpret bible way without intervention priests


model education ideas developed familiar theoretical rather repetition languages taught vernacular supported universal education ''didactica magna'' great didactic outlined system schools exact counterpart many western school systems kindergarten elementary school secondary school six form college university locke 's ''some thoughts concerning education'' stressed importance broader intellectual training moral development physical hardening grammar schools period categorised three groups nine leading schools seven boarding institutions maintained


traditional curriculum classics mostly served 'the aristocracy squirearchy' old endowed grammar schools serving broad social base immediate localities also stuck old curriculum grammar schools situated larger cities serving families merchants tradesmen embraced change industrialisation th century social base widened curriculum developed particularly mathematics natural sciences universal education self selecting wealth industrial revolution changed industry required educated workforce


private public found varying quality patchy geographical coverage two thirds towns secondary school clear conception purpose secondary education thirteen girls' schools tuition superficial unorganised unscientific recommended system first grade schools targeted leaving age preparation upper upper middle class boys entering university second grade targeted leaving age boys preparing army newer professions third grade targeted leaving age


providing secondary education cockerton judgement school leaving age time judgement prompted education act balfour act compulsory education extended new local education authorities lea formed school boards started open higher grade elementary schools isced level county schools supplement endowed grammar schools leas allowed build second grade secondary schools main became future secondary modern schools '' regulations secondary schools'' board education determined secondary schools


offer blockquote four year subject based course leading certificate english language literature geography history foreign language mathematics science drawing manual work physical training girls housewifery blockquote education act fisher act extended compulsory full time education recommended compulsory part time education hadlow report education adolescent proposed break point eleven establishing primary schools secondary schools united nations founded committed education definition difficult formulate universal declaration


human rights declared elementary fundamental education n't define right enjoyed education act butler act made sweeping changes funding state education using tripartite system n't allowed tackle private schools introduced gce 'o'level 'a' raised school leaving age making exam inaccessible majority one year isced level upper secondary education mandatory free school leaving raised education


skills act came force academic year initially required participation form education training school year child turned followed age raised young person 's th birthday ref name rpa timeline http mediaeducationgovuk assets files pdf r rpa timelinepdf raising participation age timeline hmso august ref referred raising participation age ref name rpa myth buster http mediaeducationgovuk assets files pdf r mythbusterpdf raising participation age rpa myth buster young people hmso july ref distinguish school leaving age remains ref name know leave school https wwwgovuk know leave school school leaving


age hmso november ref thus uk following isced level upper secondary education guideline right secondary education schoolgirls school uniform delhi united nations strong commitment education fell linguistic difficulty defining right blockquote article purposes functions purpose organization contribute peace security promoting collaboration among nations education science culture order universal respect justice rule law human rights fundamental


basis merit blockquote assumed elementary education basic education entitlement children fundamental education right working man lawyer definition neither qualitative stating education means quantitative saying starts completed term secondary defined mentioned together enabled countries terminate free compulsory basic education continue education past eleven boys article convention rights child stated primary education free


compulsory different forms secondary education including general vocational education available accessible every child free education provided financial assistance offered case need jomtien tried define content basic education delivered basic education defined action designed meet basic learning needs primary schooling considered main delivery system basic education explained principals action blockquote addressing basic learning needs means early childhood care development opportunities relevant


quality primary schooling equivalent school education children literacy basic knowledge life skills training youth adults blockquote assumption made basic knowledge life skills training youth function secondary education codified isced documents dakar framework action goal states ensuring children particularly girls children difficult circumstances belonging ethnic minorities access complete free compulsory primary sense basic education good quality dakar framework action


goal states eliminating gender disparities primary secondary education achieving gender equality education focus ensuring girls full equal access achievement basic education good quality malala yousafzai nobel peace prize winner said interview blockquote goal make sure every child girl boy get opportunity go school basic human right working never stop see last child going school


blockquote future directions secondary education unesco believes order prepare young people life work rapidly changing world secondary level education systems need oriented impart broad repertoire life skills skills include key generic competencies non occupation specific practical capabilities ict ability learn independently work teams entrepreneurship civic responsibility gced rule law learning outcomes secondary level may best instilled shared foundational learning period deferring directing students academic vocational streams


long possible flexibility ensure free movement students streams depending aptitudes inclinations accreditation one stream equal recognition well access higher education equip young people multiple skills prepared enter enter workforce several times working lives wage employees self employed entrepreneurs train skills become obsolete recognizes single model suit countries


even communities given country secondary level education policy continuous review keep step scientific technological economic societal change promoting rule law adolescence associated time significant growth identity belongingness socialization especially among peer groups particularly important secondary schools play important role youth 's socialization development forming ideas approach justice democracy human rights ref name ref education systems promote education justice respect rule law rol together international human rights


fundamental freedoms strengthen relationship learners public institutions objective empowering young people become champions peace justice teachers front line work along families play formative role shaping future youth 's attitudes behaviours ref name career life planning education career life planning education clpe activities well career development education take place secondary schools hong kong students transition study work important hong kong career education senior secondary schooling


schools country list countries secondary education attainment student orientation used allowing people find vocation programme international student assessment pisa test yr old attainment sources references bibliography archive date january archive url https webarchiveorg web http uisunescoorg url status dead archive date february archive url https webarchiveorg web http wwwunescoorg education frameworkpdf url status dead location ed ws date educational stages


noinclude noinclude '''sustainable development''' organizing principle meeting human development goals also sustaining ability natural systems provide natural resources ecosystem services economy society depend desired result state society living conditions resources used continue meet human needs without undermining integrity stability natural system sustainable development defined development meets needs present without compromising ability future generations meet needs sustainability goals current

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Sustainability studies
Sustainable development


un level sustainable development goals address global challenges including poverty inequality climate change environmental degradation peace justice modern concept sustainable development derived mostly brundtland report also rooted earlier ideas sustainable forest management th century environmental concerns concept sustainable development developed shifted focus towards economic development social development environmental protection future generations definition sustainable development defined practice maintaining productivity replacing used resources resources equal greater value without degrading endangering


natural biotic systems sustainable development binds together concern carrying capacity natural systems social political economic challenges faced humanity sustainability science study concepts sustainable development environmental science emphasis present generations' responsibility regenerate maintain improve planetary resources use future generations ref name finn ref development concept blue marble photograph taken apollo december quickly became icon environmental conservation ref name blewitt origins sustainable development roots ideas sustainable forest


management developed europe th th centuries ref name grober ulrich grober deep roots nbsp https bibliothekwzbeu pdf p pdf conceptual history sustainable development nachhaltigkeit wissenschaftszentrum berlin f r sozialforschung ref ref name blewitt ref response growing awareness depletion timber resources england john evelyn argued essay ''sylva'' sowing planting trees regarded national duty every landowner order stop destructive exploitation natural resources hans carl von carlowitz senior mining administrator service elector frederick augustus saxony published


''sylvicultura economics'' page work forestry building upon ideas evelyn french minister jean baptiste colbert von carlowitz developed concept managing forests sustained yield ref name grober work influenced others including alexander von humboldt georg ludwig hartig eventually leading development science forestry turn influenced people like gifford pinchot first head us forest service whose approach forest management driven idea wise use resources aldo leopold whose land ethic influential development environmental movement


ref name grober ref name blewitt following publication rachel carson 's ''silent spring'' developing environmental movement drew attention relationship economic growth development environmental degradation kenneth e boulding influential essay ''the economics coming spaceship earth'' identified need economic system fit ecological system limited pools resources ref name blewitt another milestone article garrett hardin popularized term tragedy commons one first uses term sustainable contemporary sense


club rome classic report ''limits growth'' written group scientists led dennis donella meadows massachusetts institute technology describing desirable state global equilibrium authors wrote searching model output represents world system sustainable without sudden uncontrolled collapse capable satisfying basic material requirements people ref name finn year also saw publication influential ''a blueprint survival'' book following club rome report mit


environment development released report ''our common future'' commonly called brundtland report report included one widely recognized definitions sustainable development ref name brundtland ref since brundtland report concept sustainable development developed beyond initial intergenerational framework focus goal socially inclusive environmentally sustainable economic growth ref name sachs un conference environment development published earth charter outlines building sustainable peaceful global society st century action plan agenda sustainable development identified


information integration participation key building blocks help countries achieve development recognizes interdependent pillars emphasises sustainable development everyone user provider information stresses need change old sector centred ways business new approaches involve cross sectoral co ordination integration environmental social concerns development processes furthermore agenda emphasises broad public participation decision making fundamental prerequisite achieving sustainable development principles united nations charter millennium declaration identified principles treaties sustainable


development including economic development social development environmental protection broadly defined sustainable development systems approach growth development manage natural produced social capital welfare future generations term sustainable development used united nations incorporates issues associated land development broader issues human development education public health standard living study concluded sustainability reporting reframed lens four interconnected domains ecology economics politics culture reception concept sustainable development


irreversible ref name dyllick leading ecological economist steady state theorist herman daly ref name hd example points fact natural capital necessarily substituted economic capital possible find ways replace natural resources much unlikely ever able replace eco system services protection provided ozone layer climate stabilizing function amazonian forest fact natural capital social capital economic capital often complementarities obstacle substitutability lies also


allow people work together exercising capacities ref name dimensions sustainable development thought terms three spheres dimensions domains pillars environment economy society three sphere framework initially proposed economist rene passet also worded economic environmental social ecology economy equity ref name global sustainability report ref expanded authors include fourth pillar culture institutions governance ref name global sustainability report alternatively reconfigured four domains social ecology economics politics


culture thus bringing economics back inside social treating ecology intersection social natural environmental ecological ecological stability human settlements part relationship humans natural social built environments also termed human ecology broadens focus sustainable development include domain human health fundamental human needs availability quality air water food shelter also ecological foundations sustainable development addressing public health risk investments ecosystem services powerful transformative force


sustainable development sense extends species environmental sustainability concerns natural environment endures remains diverse productive since natural resources derived environment state air water climate particular concern ipcc fifth assessment report outlines current knowledge scientific technical socio economic information concerning climate change lists options adaptation mitigation ref name climate change impacts adaptation vulnerability ref environmental sustainability requires society design activities meet human needs preserving life support systems planet example


entails using water sustainably using renewable energy sustainable material supplies eg harvesting wood forests rate maintains biomass biodiversity unsustainable situation occurs natural capital total nature 's resources used faster replenished sustainability requires human activity uses nature 's resources rate replenished naturally concept sustainable development intertwined concept carrying capacity theoretically long term result environmental degradation inability sustain human life degradation global scale


defining implementing transformative agenda greening economy society whole achieve sustainable development research innovation europe financially supported programme horizon also open participation worldwide promising direction towards sustainable development design systems flexible reversible pollution public resources different action reverse tragedy commons instead taking something something put commons costs polluting commons calculated


cost items consumed becomes natural pollute cost pollution external cost goods produced cost cleaning waste discharged exceeds cost releasing waste directly commons one ways mitigate problem protecting ecology commons making taxes fines costly release waste directly commons would cost cleaning waste discharge economics sewage treatment plant uses solar


energy located santuari de lluc monastery majorca suggested rural poverty overexploitation environmental resources treated important economic assets called natural capital economic development traditionally required growth gross domestic product model unlimited personal gdp growth may sustainable development may involve improvements quality life many may necessitate decrease resource consumption according ecological economist malte faber ecological economics defined focus nature justice time issues intergenerational equity irreversibility environmental change


reinforcing world bank study concluded based theory genuine savings policymakers many possible interventions increase sustainability macroeconomics purely environmental several studies noted efficient policies renewable energy pollution compatible increasing human welfare eventually reaching golden rule steady state study ''interpreting sustainability economic terms'' found three pillars sustainable development interlinkage intergenerational equity dynamic efficiency however gilbert rist says world bank twisted notion sustainable development prove economic development need deterred


report called asking examples win win strategies work could say none exists pure form trade offs win wins want see world win wins based articles faith fact wanted contribute ''wdr' 's important bank task managers read find philosophical justification latest round projects want hear things really find work blockquote meta review looked environmental economic


valuations found lack sustainability policies study asked humans consume much study concluded knowledge manufactured human capital health education compensated degradation natural capital many parts world suggested intergenerational equity incorporated sustainable development decision making become common economic valuations climate economics meta review identified conditions strong case act climate change called work fully account


relevant economics affects human welfare according john baden free market environmentalist improvement environment quality depends market economy existence legitimate protected property rights enable effective practice personal responsibility development mechanisms protect environment state context create conditions encourage people save environment environmental economics total environment includes biosphere earth air water also human interactions things nature humans created


surroundings countries around world continue advance economically put strain ability natural environment absorb high level pollutants created part economic growth therefore solutions need found economies world continue grow expense public good world economics amount environmental quality must considered limited supply therefore treated scarce resource resource protected one common way


analyze possible outcomes policy decisions scarce resource cost benefit analysis type analysis contrasts different options resource allocation based evaluation expected courses action consequences actions optimal way light different policy goals elicited benefit cost analysis essence look several ways solving problem assigning best route solution based set consequences would result development individual courses action


choosing course action results least damage expected outcome environmental quality remains development process takes place complicating analysis interrelationships various parts environment might impacted chosen course action sometimes almost impossible predict various outcomes course action due unexpected consequences number unknowns accounted benefit cost analysis technology one core concepts sustainable development technology


used assist people meet developmental needs technology meet sustainable development needs often referred appropriate technology ideological movement manifestations originally articulated intermediate technology economist e f schumacher influential work ''small beautiful'' covers wide range technologies ref name brownu ref schumacher many modern day proponents appropriate technology also emphasise technology people centered ref name akubue ref today appropriate technology often developed using open source principles led open source appropriate technology osat thus many plans


technology freely found internet osat proposed new model enabling innovation sustainable development business broadly accepted criterion corporate sustainability constitutes firm 's efficient use natural capital eco efficiency usually calculated economic value added firm relation aggregated ecological impact idea popularised world business council sustainable development wbcsd following definition eco efficiency achieved delivery competitively priced goods services satisfy human needs bring quality


life progressively reducing ecological impacts resource intensity throughout life cycle level least line earth 's carrying capacity desimone popoff similar eco efficiency concept far less explored second criterion corporate sustainability socio efficiency ref name dyllick ref describes relation firm 's value added social impact whereas assumed corporate impacts environment negative apart rare exceptions planting trees true social impacts either positive eg


urbanism new classical architecture promote sustainable approach towards construction appreciates develops smart growth architectural tradition classical design contrast modernist international style architecture well opposing solitary housing estates suburban sprawl long commuting distances large ecological footprints global design construction industry responsible approximately percent greenhouse gas emissions green building practices avoid emissions capture carbon already present environment allow reduced footprint construction industry example use hempcrete cellulose fiber insulation landscaping


peace security social justice social disruptions like war crime corruption divert resources areas greatest human need damage capacity societies plan future generally threaten human well environment ref name blewitt blewitt j ''understanding sustainable development'' london earthscan p ref culture framing sustainable development progress according circles sustainability used united nations working different emphasis researchers institutions pointed fourth dimension added dimensions sustainable development since triple bottom line dimensions economic environmental social


seem enough reflect complexity contemporary society context agenda culture united cities local governments uclg published policy statement culture fourth pillar sustainable development world congress uclg document argues new perspective points relation culture sustainable development developing solid cultural policy advocating cultural dimension public policies circles sustainability approach distinguishes four domains economic ecological political cultural sustainability ref name agenda culturenet united cities local governments http agenda culturenet indexphp official documentation agenda culture cultural policies sustainable development


culture fourth pillar sustainable development ref organizations also supported idea fourth domain sustainable development network excellence sustainable development diverse world sponsored european union integrates multidisciplinary capacities interprets cultural diversity key element new strategy sustainable development human centered design cultural collaboration popular frameworks sustainable development marginalized communities ref name ref ref name ref ref name ref ref name ref frameworks involve open dialogue entails sharing debating discussing well holistic evaluation site development measurement approaches relationship ecological footprint


human development index hdi deforestation amazon rainforest deforestation increased road building amazon rainforest concern increased human encroachment upon wilderness areas increased resource extraction threats biodiversity flue gas desulfurization installed air polluting emissions power plant new mexico contained excessive amounts sulfur dioxide sustainable development goals united nations sustainable development goals see also applied sustainability circles sustainability circular economy computational sustainability cradle cradle ecological footprint education sustainable development earth system governance green development micro sustainability sustainable agriculture sustainable living sustainable energy sustainable


redevelopment sustainable transport references external links access date june http sustainabledevelopmentunorg sustainable development knowledge platform united nations platform sustainable development http wwwsd commissionorguk uk sustainable development commission access date june http webarchivelocgov http goworldbankorg kbwk world bank website sustainable development academic disciplines environmental social science concepts sustainable architecture sustainable building sustainable design sustainable urban planning sustainability


ingot monocrystalline silicon '' 'semiconductor''' material electrical conductivity value falling conductor metallic copper insulator glass resistivity falls temperature rises metals behave opposite way '''conducting''' properties may altered useful ways introducing impurities doping crystal structure two differently doped regions exist crystal semiconductor junction created behavior charge carriers include electrons ions electron holes junctions basis diodes transistors modern electronics

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Electrical Engineering
Semiconductors


examples semiconductors silicon germanium gallium arsenide elements near called metalloid staircase periodic table silicon gallium arsenide second common semiconductor used laser diodes solar cells microwave frequency integrated circuits others silicon critical element fabricating electronic circuits semiconductor devices display range useful properties passing current easily one direction showing variable resistance sensitivity light heat electrical properties semiconductor material modified doping application