arrays used record mimic signals scope neuromechanics neuromechanics coupling neurobiology biomechanics sensation perception robotics edwards researchers using advanced techniques models study mechanical properties neural tissues effects tissues' ability withstand generate force movements well vulnerability traumatic loading laplaca prado area research focuses translating transformations information among neuromuscular skeletal systems develop functions governing rules relating operation organization


systems nishikawa et al neuromechanics simulated connecting computational models neural circuits models animal bodies situated virtual physical worlds edwards experimental analysis biomechanics including kinematics dynamics movements process patterns motor sensory feedback movement processes circuit synaptic organization brain responsible motor control currently researched understand complexity animal movement dr michelle laplaca 's lab georgia institute technology involved study mechanical stretch cell cultures shear deformation planar

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Biomedical engineering
Neural engineering


cell cultures shear deformation cell containing matrices understanding processes followed development functioning models capable characterizing systems closed loop conditions specially defined parameters study neuromechanics aimed improving treatments physiological health problems includes optimization prostheses design restoration movement post injury design control mobile robots studying structures hydrogels researchers identify new models nerve cell mechanoproperties example laplaca et al developed new model showing strain may play role


created treat suffering neural damage various kinds ref name potter potter neuroengineering neuroscience applied tedxgeorgiatech tedx ref neuromodulator devices correct nervous system dysfunction related parkinson 's disease dystonia tremor tourette 's chronic pain ocd severe depression eventually epilepsy ref name potter neuromodulation appealing treatment varying defects focuses treating highly specific regions brain contrasting systemic treatments side effects body neuromodulator stimulators microelectrode arrays stimulate record brain function improvements meant become


adjustable responsive delivery devices drugs stimuli ref name ref neural regrowth repair neural engineering rehabilitation applies neuroscience engineering investigating peripheral central nervous system function finding clinical solutions problems created brain damage malfunction engineering applied neuroregeneration focuses engineering devices materials facilitate growth neurons specific applications regeneration peripheral nerve injury regeneration spinal cord tissue spinal cord injury regeneration retinal tissue genetic engineering tissue engineering areas developing scaffolds


spinal cord regrow across thus helping neurological problems schmidt leach ref name potter research applications research focused neural engineering utilizes devices study nervous system functions malfunctions schmidt leach neural imaging neuroimaging techniques used investigate activity neural networks well structure function brain neuroimaging technologies include functional magnetic resonance imaging fmri magnetic resonance imaging mri positron emission tomography pet computed axial tomography cat scans functional neuroimaging studies interested areas brain perform


specific tasks fmri measures hemodynamic activity closely linked neural activity used map metabolic responses specific regions brain given task stimulus pet ct scanners electroencephalography eeg currently improved used similar purposes ref name potter neural networks scientists use experimental observations neuronal systems theoretical computational models systems create neural networks hopes modeling neural systems realistic manner possible neural networks used analyses help design


neurotechnological devices specifically researchers handle analytical finite element modeling determine nervous system control movements apply techniques help patients brain injuries disorders artificial neural networks built theoretical computational models implemented computers theoretically devices equations experimental results observed behavior neuronal systems models might represent ion concentration dynamics channel kinetics synaptic transmission single neuron computation oxygen metabolism application dynamic system theory laplaca et al liquid based template assembly used engineer neural networks neuron seeded microcarrier beads ref name chen


events among neurons ref name potter brain computer interfaces brain computer interfaces seek directly communicate human nervous system monitor stimulate neural circuits well diagnose treat intrinsic neurological dysfunction deep brain stimulation significant advance field especially effective treating movement disorders parkinson 's disease high frequency stimulation neural tissue suppress tremors lega et al microsystems neural microsystems developed interpret deliver electrical chemical magnetic optical signals neural tissue detect variations membrane potential measure electrical


properties spike population amplitude rate using electrodes assessment chemical concentrations fluorescence light intensity magnetic field potential goal systems deliver signals would influence neuronal tissue potential thus stimulate brain tissue evoke desired response microelectrode arrays microelectrode arrays specific tools used detect sharp changes voltage extracellular environments occur propagation action potential axon dr mark allen dr laplaca microfabricated electrodes cytocompatible materials


sources engineers researching devices charged providing chronic safe artificial interface neuronal tissue perhaps successful sensory prostheses cochlear implant restored hearing abilities deaf visual prosthesis restoring visual capabilities blind persons still elementary stages development motor prosthesics devices involved electrical stimulation biological neural muscular system substitute control mechanisms brain spinal cord smart prostheses designed replace missing limbs controlled neural signals


transplanting nerves stump amputee muscles sensory prosthetics provide sensory feedback transforming mechanical stimuli periphery encoded information accessible nervous system electrodes placed skin interpret signals control prosthetic limb prosthetics successful functional electrical stimulation fes system aimed restoring motor processes standing walking hand grasp ref name potter neurorobotics neurorobotics study neural systems embodied movements emulated mechanical machines neurorobots typically used study


motor control locomotion learning memory selection value systems action selection studying neurorobots real world environments easily observed assessed describe heuristics robot function terms embedded neural systems reactions systems environment krichmar instance making use computational model epilectic spike wave dynamics already proven effectiveness method simulate seizure abatement pseudospectral protocol computational model emulates brain connectivity using magnetic imaging resonance patient suffering


idiopathic generalized epilepsy method able generate stimuli able lessen seizures neural tissue regeneration neural tissue regeneration neuroregeneration looks restore function neurons damaged small injuries larger injuries like caused traumatic brain injury functional restoration damaged nerves involves establishment continuous pathway regenerating axons site innervation researchers like dr laplaca georgia institute technology looking help find treatment repair regeneration traumatic brain injury spinal cord injuries applying tissue


engineering strategies dr laplaca looking methods combining neural stem cells extracellular matrix protein based scaffold minimally invasive delivery irregular shaped lesions form traumatic insult studying neural stem cells vitro exploring alternative cell sources engineering novel biopolymers could utilized scaffold investigating cell tissue engineered construct transplants vivo models traumatic brain spinal cord injury dr laplaca 's lab aims identify optimal strategies nerve regeneration post injury current approaches clinical treatment end


end surgical suture damaged nerve ends repair small gaps autologous nerve grafts larger injuries autologous nerve graft harvested another site body might used though process time consuming costly requires two surgeries schmidt leach clinical treatment cns minimally available focuses mostly reducing collateral damage caused bone fragments near site injury inflammation swelling surrounding injury lessens patients undergo rehabilitation remaining nerves trained compensate lack nerve


function injured nerves treatment currently exists restore nerve function cns nerves damaged schmidt leach engineering strategies repair engineering strategies repair spinal cord injury focused creating friendly environment nerve regeneration pns nerve damage clinically possible far advances research genetic techniques biomaterials demonstrate potential sc nerves regenerate permissible environments grafts advantages autologous tissue grafts come natural materials high likelihood


biocompatibility providing structural support nerves encourage cell adhesion migration schmidt leach nonautologous tissue acellular grafts extracellular matrix based materials options may also provide ideal scaffolding nerve regeneration come allogenic xenogenic tissues must combined immunosuppressants others include small intestinal submucosa amniotic tissue grafts schmidt leach synthetic materials attractive options physical chemical properties typically controlled challenge remains synthetic materials biocompatibility schmidt leach methylcellulose based constructs


shown biocompatible option serving purpose tate et al axogen uses cell graft technology avance mimic human nerve shown achieve meaningful recovery percent patients peripheral nerve injuries nerve guidance channels nerve guidance channels nerve guidance conduit innovative strategies focusing larger defects provide conduit sprouting axons directing growth reducing growth inhibition scar tissue nerve guidance channels must readily formed conduit desired dimensions sterilizable tear resistant easy handle suture


schmidt leach ideally would degrade time nerve regeneration pliable semipermeable maintain shape smooth inner wall mimics real nerve schmidt leach biomolecular therapies highly controlled delivery systems needed promote neural regeneration neurotrophic factors influence development survival outgrowth branching neurotrophins include nerve growth factor ngf brain derived neurotrophic factor bdnf neurotrophin nt neurotrophin nt factors ciliary neurotrophic factor cntf glial cell line derived growth factor gdnf acidic basic fibroblast growth factor afgf bfgf


promote range neural responses schmidt leach fibronectin also shown support nerve regeneration following tbi rats tate et al therapies looking regeneration nerves upregulating regeneration associated genes rags neuronal cytoskeletal components antiapoptosis factors rags include gap cap adhesion molecules l family ncam n cadherin schmidt leach also potential blocking inhibitory biomolecules cns due glial scarring currently studied treatments chondroitinase abc blocking ngr adp ribose schmidt leach


delivery techniques delivery devices must biocompatible stable vivo examples include osmotic pumps silicone reservoirs polymer matrices microspheres gene therapy techniques also studied provide long term production growth factors could delivered viral non viral vectors lipoplexes cells also effective delivery vehicles ecm components neurotrophic factors cell adhesion molecules olfactory ensheathing cells oecs stem cells well genetically modified cells used transplants support nerve regeneration laplaca et al schmidt leach tate et al


advanced therapies advanced therapies combine complex guidance channels multiple stimuli focus internal structures mimic nerve architecture containing internal matrices longitudinally aligned fibers channels fabrication structures use number technologies magnetic polymer fiber alignment injection molding phase separation solid free form fabrication ink jet polymer printing schmidt leach neural enhancement augmentation human neural systems human enhancement using engineering techniques another possible application neuroengineering deep brain stimulation already shown enhance memory recall noted patients currently


using treatment neurological disorders brain stimulation techniques postulated able sculpt emotions personalities well enhance motivation reduce inhibitions etc requested individual ethical issues sort human augmentation new set questions neural engineers grapple studies develop ref name potter see also brain computer interface brain reading cybernetics cyberware neuroprosthetics neurosecurity neurotechnology sensory substitution simulated reality prosthetic neuronal memory silicon chips references edwards dh neuromechanical simulation front behav neurosci eliasmith c anderson ch neural engineering computation


representation dynamics neurobiological systems cambridge mass mit press xii p pp b neural engineering new york kluwer academic plenum xv p pp neural engineering bioelectric engineering operative neuromodulation volume functional neuroprosthetic surgery introduction deep brain stimulation parkinson 's disease handbook stereotactic functional neurosurgery neural prostheses fundamental studies ieee handbook neural engineering foundations cellular neurophysiology external links http tbmeembsorg ieee transactions biomedical engineering https webarchiveorg web http tnsrebmejhuedu ieee transactions neural systems rehabilitation engineering http iopscienceorg jne journal neural engineering http wwwjneuroengrehabcom jner journal neuroengineering


rehabilitation http jnphysiologyorg journal neurophysiology


hepatitis prevalence worldwide '''health geography''' application geographical information perspectives methods study health disease health care '''medical geography''' sub discipline sister field health geography ref name oxford oxford bibliographies entry medical geography ref focuses understanding spatial patterns health disease related natural social environment ref name meade florin gesler meade ms florin jw gesler wm medical geography new york ny guilford press ref ref name meade meade ms medical geography wiley blackwell encyclopedia health illness behavior society pp ref conventionally two

Social science
Geography
Human geography
Health geography


primary areas research within medical geography first deals spatial distribution determinants morbidity mortality second deals health planning help seeking behavior provision health services ref name mayer mayer jd relations two traditions medical geography health systems planning geographical epidemiology progress geography pp ref overview medical geography first area study within medical geography described geographical epidemiology disease geography focused spatial patterns processes health disease outcomes ref name mayer area inquiry


differentiated closely related discipline epidemiology uses concepts methods geography allowing ecologic perspective health considers interactions humans environment result observed health outcomes ref name glass glass g e update spatial aspects epidemiology interface medical geography epidemiologic reviews ref second area study focused planning provision health services often focus spatial organization health systems exploration arrangement affects accessibility care ref name meade emch health


health geographers without medical education shift changes definition care longer limiting spaces hospitals doctor 's offices also social model gives priority intimate encounters performed non traditional spaces medicine healthcare well individuals health consumers ref name philo philo chris health health care gregory derek johnston ron pratt geraldine et al ''the dictionary human geography fifth edition '' oxford blackwell pp ref alternative methodological approach means medical geography broadened incorporate philosophies marxian political economy structuralism social interactionism humanism


feminism queer theory ref name philo philo chris medical geography gregory derek johnston ron pratt geraldine et al ''the dictionary human geography fifth edition '' oxford blackwell pp ref history john snow 's cholera map broad street cholera outbreak relationships place health long recognized throughout human history predating modern health delivery systems providing insights transmission infectious agents well germ theory paradigm shift late throughout history many examples place location playing major roles shaping perceptions health risk


yellow fever ref name welhausen welhausen ca power authority disease maps visualizing medical cartography yellow fever mapping j bus tech commun doi ref one prominent figures epidemiology medical geography john snow physician correctly identified source exposure broad street cholera outbreak snow famous map cholera outbreak graphically demonstrates cases clustered around broad street pump source contaminated water fueled epidemic map led snow identify contaminated pump conclude cholera waterborne


illness remarkable feat given bacteria unknown science time snow contributions medical geography epidemiology irrefutable role map particular investigation somewhat overstated ref name mcleod mcleod ks sense snow myth john snow medical geography soc sci med ref dot maps cases produced industrial period powerful tools communicating findings traditional epidemiological measures association role analytic tools restricted due technological limitations ref name nelson williams nelson ke williams cm editors infectious disease


understood since hippocrates medical geography envisioned may built idea describing medical geography working understand nature relationships pathogen transmission geographical factors ref name may may j medical geography methods objectives geographical review ref may soon began mapping global distributions disease exploring cultural environmental factors influenced distributions ref name monmonier ref name meade emch areas study health geography considered divided two distinct elements first focused geographies disease


ill health involving descriptive research quantifying disease frequencies distributions analytic research concerned finding characteristics make individual population susceptible disease requires understanding epidemiology second component health geography geography health care primarily facility location accessibility utilization requires use spatial analysis often borrows behavioral economics geographies disease ill health health geographers concerned prevalence different diseases along range spatial scales local global view inspects natural


available individuals demand public services continuously increasing people need advance knowledge latest prediction technology health geography offers latest example technology telemedicine many people united states able access proper healthcare inequality health insurance means afford medical care mobility disease tracking br advent mobile technology spread possible track individual mobility correlating movement individuals tracking devices using access towers tracking systems possible


determine even control disease spread privacy laws question legality tracking individuals commercial mobile service providers using covert techniques obtaining government waivers allow permission track people methods geographic information systems gis used extensively medical geography visualize analyze georeferenced health related data spatial data vector point line polygon raster continuous grid format often presented quantitative thematic maps disease outcomes sociodemographic characteristics collected surveillance systems population censuses frequently used data sources medical geography studies disease


ecology studies interpolated climate data gridded land surveys remote sensing imagery examples data used quantify environmental characteristics disease systems spatial statistics analysis applied test hypotheses regarding patterns relationships within data property spatial dependency spatially closer entities similar related spatially distant entities spatial heterogeneity locations unique relative locations ref name sui sui dz geographic information systems medical geography toward new synergy geography compass pp ref examples spatial analyses used medical geography include point


pattern analysis tests spatial autocorrelation geographically weighted regression gwr ecological niche modeling spatial scan statistics network analysis health geographers notable health geographers include sarah curtis william c gorgas kelvyn jones john snow see also cluster epidemiology social model disability spatial epidemiology references external links https webarchiveorg web http sasigroupshefacuk social spatial inequalities http wwwgeohealthcanterburyacnz ''geohealth laboratory'' human geography global health spatial epidemiology disease ecology


preparing meals pleasing eye palate restaurants primary places work include delicatessens relatively large institutions hotels hospitals history origins culinary arts began primitive humans roughly million years ago ref name million ref various theories early humans used fire cook meat according anthropologist richard wrangham author ''catching fire cooking made us human'' primitive humans simply tossed raw hunk meat flames watched sizzle another theory claims humans may first

Applied science
Agriculture
Food science
Culinary arts


savoured roasted meat chance flesh beast killed forest fire found appetizing easier chew digest conventional raw meat culinary techniques improved introduction earthenware stoneware domestication livestock advancements agriculture early civilizations primary employers professional chefs kings aristocrats priests divide professional chefs cooking wealthy peasants cooking families engendered development many cuisines great deal study culinary arts europe organized


jean anthelme brillat savarin man famous quote tell eat tell since mistranslated oversimplified eat people helped parse different parts food science gastronomy time increasingly deeper detailed studies foods culinary arts led greater wealth knowledge asia similar path led separate study culinary arts later essentially merged western counterpart modern international marketplace


longer distinct divide western eastern foods culinary arts students today generally speaking introduced different cuisines many different cultures around world culinary arts western world craft later field study began evolve end renaissance period prior chefs worked castles cooking kings queens well families guests workers castle monarchical rule became phased modality chefs took craft inns hotels


craft evolved field study cooking institutions professional cooks mentors individual students apprenticed first cooking school founded united states boston cooking school school standardized cooking practices recipes laid groundwork culinary arts schools would follow tools techniques image chef preparing food integral part culinary arts tools known cooking kitchen utensils used professional chefs home cooks alike professionals


order produce specific desired result professional kitchen may utilize certain techniques home cook might use expensive professional grill cooking methods various kinds found kitchen virtually point modern human history professional study modern culinary arts students study many different aspects food specific areas study include butchery chemistry thermodynamics visual presentation food safety human nutrition physiology international history manufacture food items milling wheat flour refining cane plants


crystalline sucrose many others training culinary arts possible countries around world usually tertiary level university institutions government funded privately funded commercial see also references bibliography cooking schools cooking schools np nd web september history culinary archives museum np nd web september history culinary culinary arts information rss np nd web september history culinary arts culinary arts information rss np web september culinary timeline culinary timeline npweb september reading beal eileen ''choosing


career restaurant industry'' new york rosen pub group institute research ''careers jobs restaurant business jobs management ownership'' chicago institute external links http wwwblsgov oco ocos htm us department labor food service manager information https webarchiveorg web http wwwzgzhongyicom culinary arthtml culinary art http wwwblsgov oco ocos htm us department labor chefs head cooks food preparation serving supervisors information cooking arts type


geography pedology hydrology ref name soule ref ref name hunter hunter l fundamentals conservation biology blackwell science inc cambridge massachusetts ref ref name groom groom mj meffe gk carroll cr principles conservation biology rd ed sinauer associates sunderland ref ref name dyke ref wildlife biologists concerned conservation improvement habitats although rewilding increasingly undertaken techniques include reforestation pest control nitrification denitrification irrigation coppicing hedge laying gamekeeping management control wildlife well game may include killing animals share niche predators

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Environmental management
Wildlife management


maintain high population profitable species pheasants introduced woodland book ''game management'' aldo leopold one pioneers wildlife management science defined art making land produce sustained annual crops wild game recreational use pest control control real perceived pests used benefit wildlife farmers gamekeepers human safety united states wildlife management practices often implemented governmental agency uphold law endangered species act


united kingdom wildlife management undertaken several organizations including government bodies forestry commission charities rspb wildlife trusts privately hired gamekeepers contractors legislation also passed protect wildlife wildlife countryside act uk government also give farmers subsidies countryside stewardship scheme improve conservation value farms history han dynasty tomb brick depicting fishing hunting scene game laws history wildlife management begins game laws regulated right kill certain kinds


fish wild animal game britain game laws developed forest laws time norman kings oppressive william conqueror great crime kill one king 's deer kill one subjects certain rank standing possession certain amount property long time qualifications indispensably necessary confer upon anyone right pursuing killing game game act protected game birds establishing close seasons could


benefit nation lands preserve far practicable natural aspect may trust purchased two acres wicken fen donation amateur naturalist charles rothschild establishing first nature reserve britain rothschild pioneer wildlife conservation britain went establish many nature reserves one woodwalton fen near huntingdon lifetime built managed estate ashton wold ref name pevsner ref northamptonshire maximise suitability wildlife especially butterflies concerned


loss wildlife habitats set society promotion nature reserves forerunner wildlife trusts partnership society 's early years membership tended made specialist naturalists growth comparatively slow first independent trust formed norfolk norfolk naturalists trust followed pembrokeshire bird protection society several subsequent changes name wildlife trust south west wales naturalists' trusts formed


yorkshire lincolnshire leicestershire cambridgeshire early trusts tended focus purchasing land establish nature reserves geographical areas served wildlife management us profession wildlife management established united states aldo leopold others sought transcend purely restrictive policies previous generation conservationists anti hunting activist william hornaday leopold close associate herbert stoddard trained scientific forestry argued modern science technology could used restore improve


wildlife habitat thus produce abundant crops ducks deer valued wild animals institutional foundations profession wildlife management established leopold granted first university professorship wildlife management university wisconsin madison leopold 's textbook 'game management' published wildlife society founded journal wildlife management began publishing first cooperative wildlife research units established conservationists planned many projects throughout included harvesting female mammals deer decrease rising populations


others included waterfowl wetland research fish wildlife management act put place urge farmers plant food wildlife provide cover federal aid wildlife restoration act also known pittman robertson act passed us law important advancement field wildlife management placed tax sales guns ammunition funds generated distributed states use wildlife management activities research law still effect today wildlife management grew


population elk overpopulation yellowstone thought many wildlife biologists douglas smith primarily caused extirpation wolves park surrounding environment wolves removed elk herds increased population reaching new highs mid increased number elk apparently resulted overgrazing parts yellowstone park officials decided elk herd managed approximately thirty years park elk herds culled year captured shipped locations certain number killed park rangers hunters


unacceptably low density increases unacceptably high level densities inevitably subjective view land owner may disputed animal welfare interests '''custodial management''' preventive protective aim minimize external influences population habitat appropriate national park one stated goals protect ecological processes also appropriate conservation threatened species threat external origin rather intrinsic system feeding animals visitors generally discouraged opposition


control wildlife killing hunting criticized animal rights animal welfare activists critics object real perceived cruelty involved forms wildlife management also argue deliberate breeding certain animals environmental organisations hunters pay money kill pursuit profit additionally draw attention attitude acceptable kill animals name ecosystem biodiversity preservation yet seen unacceptable kill humans purpose asserting attitudes form discrimination based


groups help designate times year certain wildlife species legally hunted allowing surplus animals removed united states hunting season bag limits determined guidelines set united states fish wildlife service migratory game waterfowl migratory gamebirds hunting season bag limits state regulated game species deer usually determined state game commissions made representatives various interest groups wildlife biologists researchers open closed season deer uk legislated


deer act deer act scotland open season open season wildlife allowed hunted law usually breeding season hunters may restricted sex age class animal instance may open season male deer points better least one side limited entry number animals taken tightly controlled managers may type lottery system called limited many apply chosen hunts may still


age sex class restrictions closed season closed season wildlife protected hunting usually breeding season closed season enforced law hunting closed season punishable law termed illegal hunting poaching type weapon used wildlife management one conservation principles weapon used hunting one causes least damage animal sufficiently effective hits target given state local laws types weapon also vary depending type


size sex game also geographical layout specific hunting area see also references reading bolen eric g robinson william ''wildlife ecology management'' prentice hall caughley g sinclair ''wildlife ecology management'' blackwell scientific publ external links animal welfare environmental ethics environmental terminology natural resource management wildlife wildlife conservation


texas technological college dairy barn used agricultural teaching facility '''agricultural education''' teaching agriculture natural resources land management higher levels agricultural education primarily undertaken prepare students employment agricultural sector classes taught agricultural education curriculum may include horticulture land management turf grass management agricultural science small animal care machine shop classes health nutrition livestock management biology agricultural education common primary secondary including middle high school united states tertiary including vocational schools universities

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Agricultural education


adult levels ref name ref elementary agriculture often taught public private schools cover subjects plants animals grow soil farmed conserved vocational agriculture trains people jobs areas production marketing conservation college agriculture involves training people teach conduct research order advance fields agriculture food science general education informs public food agriculture disciplines closely tied agricultural education include agricultural communications agricultural leadership extension education united states chief


sources agriculture education united states high schools community colleges four year colleges universities youth organizations x program history rapid growth agricultural education began late th century united states congress created department agriculture gather distribute agricultural information morrill act provided land grant schools became law year hatch act gave federal funds establish agricultural experiment stations first dairy school us created university wisconsin madison government support agricultural


education increased th century example smith lever act created cooperative extension system smith hughes act george barden act financed high school instruction farming woodlawn high school woodlawn virginia first public high school united states offer agricultural education classes smith hughes act vocational education act funded training fields agriculture agricultural science education expanded response need technical knowledge skill use newly developed agricultural


technologies development led use modern farming methods required fewer farmworkers resulting larger corporatized farms ranches development increased need agriculture science education legislation influenced development agricultural education field today developed throughout last century various laws pieces legislation education handicapped children act required public schools provide free appropriate education students disabilities provision children disabilities allowed enroll agricultural classes


americans disabilities act enacted required public schools give students disabilities equal opportunity education children country result increased opportunities students disabilities participate agricultural classes educate america act raised benchmark standards public education districts level increasing curriculum development requirements classes including agricultural ones school work opportunities act also required teachers teach students tasks disciplines would help students prepare employment graduated practical education


agriculture major part finally child left behind elementary secondary education act raised standards students public schools increased requirements teachers order reach standards affecting agricultural education part general curriculum many schools ref name elementary school walton rural life center walton kansas first public elementary school united states base curriculum around agriculture integrating agricultural components classroom one challenges elementary teachers face also expected teach outdated


teaching substances john block previous secretary agriculture united states encouraged agricultural competence agriculture classroom one block achievements stress agricultural literacy agriculture classroom soon became utilized state though agriculture classroom beginning agriculture education fifty states elementary instruction began schools possibly elementary agriculture education began grow twenty one states began require required curriculum evenly split urban rural schools states required agricultural education


agricultural setting ref name agricultural education handbook ref supervised agricultural experience sae portion agricultural curriculum student must use knowledge gained classroom instruction use real life situations several topic choices available student choose whether farm setting exploratory setting entrepreneurship agribusiness research projects student choose task one topic areas conduct research experiment throughout course agricultural class teacher involved process help guide


year ffa educational program designed teach students leadership skills agricultural settings everyday life encourages personal growth students boosts self confidence builds character encourage healthy lifestyles give students opportunities part agricultural economy ffa chapters volunteer communities conduct banquets ffa members families raise awareness agriculture compete ffa competitions attend national ffa conventions states agriculture teacher leads local young farmers association monthly meetings group may comprise local farmers citizens anyone interested learning agriculture


new farming methods young farmers association designed aid adoption agricultural technologies gives agriculture teachers opportunity meet local citizens reach community ref name agricultural education handbook colleges universities college agriculture university florida land grant universities awarded three quarters agricultural degrees state schools receive federal aid legislation followed morrill act granted public lands support agricultural mechanical education land grant universities three chief functions teaching research outreach extension teaching


bachelor 's degree agricultural education generally leads employment teaching agriculture high school level agricultural sector students required complete agriculture classes well education classes order become qualified teach master 's degree required order teach college level association career technical education acte largest national education association dedicated advancement education prepares youth adults careers provides https webarchiveorg web http wwwacteonlineorg members techniques articlesbyagricfm resources agricultural education agricultural education degree also gives qualifications extension work


universities agricultural companies organizations ref name phipps osborne dyer ball ref following universities provide pathways complete certification requirements home states secondary agricultural education alcorn state university angelo state university texas auburn university http wwweducationauburnedu academic program agriscience education cornell university colorado state university http dareagscicolostateedu undergraduate academic programs agricultural education degree requirements illinois state university https illinoisstateedu academics agriculture teacher education degree requirements https wwwlsuedu agriculture degree programs agedphp louisiana state university delaware valley university michigan state university https regmsuedu academicprograms programdetailaspxprogram middle tennessee state university montana state university north carolina state university north dakota state university oregon state university pennsylvania state university http aesepsuedu majors aeecatoid poid degree requirements south dakota state university http catalogsdstateedu preview programphpcatoid poid degree requirements university


universities awarded bachelor 's degrees agriculture per year master 's doctor 's degrees research land grant university agricultural experiment station equipped laboratories experimental farms agricultural scientists work develop better farming methods solve special problems local farmers provide new technology research published scholarly journals agricultural safety available niosh supported national agricultural safety database american dairy science association provides research education scholarships focused dairy farm processing industries extension service cooperative extension system partnership


federal state county governments service distributes information gathered land grant universities us department agriculture farmers families young people county extension agents located countries train support million volunteer leaders agents volunteers carry extension programs meetings workshops newsletters radio television visits related organizations professional organizations united states related agricultural education include american association agricultural education aaae association career technical education acte national association agricultural educators naae national council


agricultural education council h club considered youth development program teaches children sciences leadership research etc h club million members nationwide largest youth development organization united states h members use hands learning reach goals help communities members h carry group individual projects dealing conservation food agriculture health safety subjects h program united states part cooperative extension service somewhat similarly ffa national organization teaches students leadership skills


designed help members become well rounded citizens agricultural field ref name phipps osborne dyer ball ffa integral part program agricultural education many high schools result public law currently revised public law th congress united states ffa members local chapters participate career development events individually team student supervised agricultural experience program sae participates many conferences conventions develop leadership citizenship patriotism excellence


agriculture national ffa organization structured local chapter including local districts areas regions state associations national level ffa mission make positive difference lives students developing potential premier leadership personal growth career success agricultural education outside us hurlstone agricultural high school australia maintains dairy head cattle history agricultural education predates usa activities derives development scottish italian german colleges land grant approach usa owes much


scottish system particular changes higher agricultural education around world today highlighting implicit approaches hampered development exceptional advances fed world process described one text takes global perspective agricultural education countries resembles united states canada h program agriculture canada distributes information new farming methods maintains experimental farms research stations research institutions throughout country bc agriculture classroom foundation operates province british columbia australia state


several agricultural research stations extension service great britain program youth clubs called young farmer 's clubs resemble h food agriculture organization united nations works train people throughout world modern farming methods united states gives technical assistance farmers developing nations agency international development aid australia farrer memorial agricultural high school february agriculture australia employs people agriculture fishing forestry fishing industry industry alone equates share gdp earning


vertical integration production consumer diversity demand options environmental namely drought welfare ethical issues western australia western australia western australian college agriculture primary provider high schools state providing excellent educational opportunities six campuses located near cunderdin denmark esperance harvey morawa narrogin br campus modern facilities commercial sized farms offers year programs male female students students study range school curriculum standards authority subjects leading secondary graduation western australian


certificate education also complete vocational qualifications industry training packages major focus study agriculture program may also include horticulture viticulture equine aquaculture forestry building construction metals engineering automotive campus offers specialist programs lead tertiary study apprenticeships careers range agriculture related vocations br tertiary studies located perth available curtin university murdoch university muresk institute offering degrees agriculture including agricultural business management agricultural science br western australian precarious position faces


several challenges fact agriculture australia affected ongoing shortage labour skills labour supply adversely affected ageing workforce retirements baby boomers seasonal nature lower skilled workforce inability attract sufficient young people work industry x long range goal agricultural education america operation quality agricultural science education programs serving students integrated model classroom laboratory instruction experiential learning leadership personal skill development students members


ffa supervised agricultural experience supports classroom laboratory instruction' team ag ed '''the case growth quality agricultural education''' critical issues facing nation compelling improving academic performance public schools ensuring stable safe affordable food supply today agricultural education positioned contribute substantially arenas major national initiative direction national council agricultural education x long range goal agricultural education employs comprehensive strategy engaging eight high priority initiatives


focus unprecedented effort twofold create new programs communities yet served agricultural education ffa ensure quality high performance current programs providing personal academic career education agriculture goal x grow number agricultural education programs year clear emphasis quality several factors make effort timely essential first public 's expectations higher student achievement leading dramatic increases accountability standards rigor relevance throughout education especially


critical need raise math science proficiency second industry agriculture already concerned meeting growing domestic global demands food fiber eager identify future managers leaders workers ensure future security productivity agriculture forecasted shortage well educated workers adding urgency issue also concerns food safety security independence registering highest levels agribusiness government lastly local communities intent cultivating leadership securing effective participation citizens intra curricular


drawn today 's team ag ed including teachers students university educators state education leaders national ffa organization alumni business industry key stakeholders methamphetamine agricultural educators otto frederick hunziker purdue university john wrightson downton agricultural college raymond pearson cornell university university applied sciences kasetsart university king mongkut 's institute technology ladkrabang wageningen university see also agricultural engineering agricultural extension agricultural science farmworld holistic management international land economy list agricultural universities colleges texas ffa association references external links http holisticmanagementorg holistic management international https webarchiveorg web http onlinewsuedu future students dc organic agaspx washington state university 's online


organic agriculture certificate program https webarchiveorg web http wwwaet africaorg aet africa portal agricultural education training africa provides information agricultural education africa http wwwprotaorg prota provides information approximately useful plants tropical africa provide wide access information webdatabases books cd rom 's special products https webarchiveorg web http wwwacteonlineorg division div agrcfm association career technical education agricultural division http wwwfoundfamilyfarmca found family farm learn taking tour small family farm http wwwagrowknowledgeorg agrowknowledge national center agriscience technology education http wwwagriculturaleducationorg illinois agricultural education curriculum careers resources


ag teachers illinois http ffaorg national ffa organization future farmers america https webarchiveorg web http delsnasedu ag education ''transforming agricultural education changing world'' report us national academy sciences http teachagedwikiwiki sitecom teach agricultural education wiki learn teaching agricultural education grades http wwwsareorg publications edguidehtm sustainable agriculture resources programs k youth united states department agriculture sustainable agriculture research education sare program https webarchiveorg web http wwwnalusdagov afsic pubs edtr edtr shtml ''educational training opportunities sustainable agriculture'' th ed worldwide directory academic organizational programs alternative farming systems information center national agricultural library http chroniclecom blogs architecture liberal education include agricultural education liberal


education include agricultural education article chronicle higher education http wwwnaaeorg national association agricultural educators professional organization agricultural educators united states https webarchiveorg web http cdiuvmedu collections getcollectionxqltitle hay harvesting 's hay harvesting instructional films center digital initiatives university vermont library


experiment using laser magnetic resonance image '''applied physics''' application physics solve scientific engineering problems usually considered bridge connection physics engineering applied distinguished pure subtle combination factors motivation attitude researchers nature relationship technology science may affected work applied physics rooted fundamental truths basic concepts physical sciences concerned utilization scientific principles practical


devices systems application physics areas science computer modeling space shuttle entry examples research development areas accelerator physics acoustics atmospheric physics biophysics brain computer interfacing chemical physics differentiable programming artificial intelligence scientific computing engineering physics chemical engineering electrical engineering electronics sensors transistors materials science engineering metamaterials nanotechnology semiconductors thin films mechanical engineering aerospace engineering astrodynamics electromagnetic propulsion fluid mechanics military engineering lidar radar sonar stealth technology nuclear engineering fission reactors fusion reactors optical engineering photonics cavity optomechanics lasers photonic crystals geophysics materials physics medical physics health physics radiation


dosimetry medical imaging magnetic resonance imaging radiation therapy microscopy scanning probe microscopy atomic force microscopy scanning tunneling microscopy scanning electron microscopy transmission electron microscopy nuclear physics fission fusion optical physics nonlinear optics quantum optics plasma physics quantum technology quantum computing quantum cryptography renewable energy spectroscopy see also applied science applied mathematics engineering engineering physics references engineering disciplines


''history indonesia'' shaped geographic position natural resources series human migrations contacts wars conquests well trade economics politics indonesia archipelagic country islands named permanently inhabited stretching along equator south east asia country 's strategic sea lane position fostered inter island international trade trade since fundamentally shaped indonesian history area indonesia populated peoples various migrations creating diversity cultures ethnicities languages archipelago 's landforms climate significantly influenced

Humanities
History
Asian history
Indonesian history


agriculture trade formation states boundaries state indonesia match th century borders dutch east indies fossilised remains ''homo erectus'' tools popularly known java man suggest indonesian archipelago inhabited least million years ago austronesian people form majority modern population thought originally taiwan arrived indonesia around nbsp bce th century ce powerful srivijaya naval kingdom flourished bringing hindu buddhist influences agricultural buddhist sailendra hindu mataram


dynasties subsequently thrived declined inland java last significant non muslim kingdom hindu majapahit kingdom flourished late th century influence stretched much indonesia earliest evidence islamised populations indonesia dates th century northern sumatra indonesian areas gradually adopted islam became dominant religion java sumatra end th century part islam overlaid mixed existing cultural religious influences europeans portuguese arrived indonesia th century seeking monopolise sources


became president netherlands tried reestablish rule bitter armed diplomatic struggle ended december face international pressure dutch formally recognised indonesian independence attempted coup led violent army led anti communist purge half million people killed general suharto politically outmanoeuvred president sukarno became president march new order administration garnered favour west whose investment indonesia major factor subsequent three decades substantial economic growth late however indonesia


country hardest hit east asian financial crisis led popular protests suharto 's resignation may ''reformasi'' era following suharto 's resignation led strengthening democratic processes including regional autonomy program secession east timor first direct presidential election political economic instability social unrest corruption natural disasters terrorism slowed progress although relations among different religious ethnic groups largely harmonious acute sectarian discontent violence remain problems areas prehistory analysis cut marks two bovid


bones found sangiran showed made million years ago clamshell tools oldest evidence presence early humans indonesia fossilised remains ''homo erectus'' indonesia popularly known java man first discovered dutch anatomist eug ne dubois trinil least years old ''h nbsp erectus'' fossils similar age found sangiran anthropologist gustav heinrich ralph von koenigswald time period also uncovered fossils ngandong alongside


advanced tools dated years old another ''h nbsp erectus'' skull discovered sambungmacan stone tools discovered flores dating million years ago earliest remains implying human seafaring technology earliest evidence artistic activity ever found form diagonal etchings made use shark 's tooth detected year old fossil clam found java associated ''h nbsp erectus'' island flores fossils ft


tall hominid dated years old discovered much surprise scientific community newly discovered hominid named flores man ''homo floresiensis'' phylogenetic analysis published suggests ''h floresiensis'' descended ancestor ''homo habilis'' ''h floresiensis'' would thus represent previously unknown early migration africa ''homo floresiensis'' skeletal material dated years ago stone tools recovered alongside skeletal remains archaeological horizons ranging years ago megalithic statue


elaborate long rock art panel limestone cave leang bulu sulawesi currently considered earliest figurative artwork world portrays several figures hunting wild pigs dwarf bovids rock art dated least ka basis uranium series analysis overlying speleothems painted hand stencil leang timpuseng minimum age kyr oldest known hand stencil world austronesian people form majority modern population may arrived indonesia around nbsp bce thought


terraces indonesia ideal agricultural conditions mastering wet field rice cultivation early th century bce allowed villages towns small kingdoms flourish st century ce kingdoms little collections villages subservient petty chieftains evolved ethnic tribal religions java 's hot even temperature abundant rain volcanic soil perfect wet rice cultivation agriculture required well organized society contrast society based dry field rice much simpler form cultivation require elaborate social structure


support buni culture clay pottery flourished coastal northern west java banten around bce ce ref name zahorka ref buni culture probably predecessor tarumanagara kingdom one earliest hindu kingdoms indonesia producing numerous inscriptions marking beginning historical period java december team researchers led dr maxime aubert announced discovery oldest hunting scenes prehistoric art world years old limestone cave leang bulu sipong archaeologists determined


age depiction hunting pig buffalo thanks calcite popcorn different isotope levels radioactive uranium thorium hindu buddhist civilisations early kingdoms year old stone inscription era purnawarman king tarumanagara founded tugu sub district jakarta indonesia like much southeast asia influenced indian culture ref name becoming indian p becoming indian unfinished revolution culture identity pavan k varma p ref nd century indian dynasties like pallava gupta pala chola succeeding centuries th century indian culture spread across


southeast asia ref name becoming indian p references dvipantara yawadvipa hindu kingdom java sumatra appear sanskrit writings bce india 's earliest epic ramayana sugriva chief rama 's army dispatched men yawadvipa island java search sita according ancient tamil text manimekalai java kingdom capital called nagapuram earliest archaeological relic discovered indonesia ujung kulon national park west java early hindu statue ganesha estimated st century ce found


kutai east kalimantan near mahakam river known yupa inscription mulavarman inscription believed one earliest sanskrit inscriptions indonesia plinths written brahmins sanskrit language using pallava script india recalling generous king name mulavarman donated huge amount alms brahmin priests kingdom kingdom known kutai martadipura kingdom located present east kalimantan province believed oldest first hindu kingdom indonesia one early kingdom tarumanagara flourished


canal changed course cakung river drained coastal area agriculture settlement purpose stone inscriptions purnawarman associated vishnu brahmins ritually secured hydraulic project th century borobudur buddhist monument sailendra dynasty largest buddhist temple world around period th th centuries around ce kalingga kingdom established central java northern coast mentioned chinese account name kingdom derived ancient indian kingdom kalinga suggest ancient link india


indonesia political history indonesian archipelago th th ce around centuries dominated srivijaya based sumatra sailendra dominated southeast asia based java constructed borobudur largest buddhist monument world history prior th th centuries ce well known due scarcity evidence th century ce two major states dominated period majapahit east java greatest pre islamic indonesian states malacca west coast malay


peninsula arguably one greatest muslim trading empires ref name ricklefs p marked rise muslim states indonesian archipelago medang prambanan java built sanjaya dynasty mataram kingdom one largest hindu temple complexes southeast asia medang empire sometimes referred mataram indianized kingdom based central java around modern day yogyakarta th th centuries kingdom ruled sailendra dynasty later sanjaya dynasty centre kingdom moved central java


mataram kedu kewu plain notable temples constructed medang mataram kalasan sewu borobudur prambanan empire become dominant power mandala java also srivijayan empire bali southern thailand indianized kingdoms philippines khmer cambodia sewu temple special region yogyakarta later history dynasty divided two dynasties based religion buddhist shivaist dynasties civil war unavoidable outcome medang empire divided two powerful kingdom based region religion shivaist dynasty medang kingdom


java led rakai pikatan buddhist dynasty srivijaya kingdom sumatra led balaputradewa hostility n't end sailendran based srivijaya kingdom incited rebellion wurawari vassal medang kingdom sacked shivaist dynasty 's capital watugaluh java srivijaya kingdom rose undisputed hegemonic empire era result yet shivaist dynasty survived successfully reclaimed east java descended kahuripan kingdom led airlangga son udayana bali srivijaya early st century ce indonesian vessels made


trade voyages far africa picture ship carved borobudur c ce srivijaya kingdom sumatra influenced much maritime southeast asia th century powerful srivijaya naval kingdom flourished result trade influences hinduism buddhism imported srivijaya centred coastal trading centre present day palembang srivijaya state modern sense defined boundaries centralised government citizens allegiance ref name ricklefs ref rather srivijaya confederacy form society centred


royal heartland ref name ricklefs thalassocracy extend influence far beyond coastal areas islands southeast asia trade driving force srivijaya societies throughout history ref name ricklefs ref srivijayan navy controlled trade made way strait malacca ref name ricklefs th century harbours various vassal states srivijaya lined coasts straits melaka ref name ricklefs around time srivijaya established suzerainty large areas sumatra western java much malay peninsula ref name loc


ref dominating malacca sunda straits empire controlled spice route traffic local trade ref name loc remained formidable sea power th century ref name loc spread ethnic malay culture throughout sumatra malay peninsula western borneo stronghold mahayana buddhism srivijaya attracted pilgrims scholars parts asia ref name loc relation srivijaya chola empire south india friendly reign raja raja chola reign rajendra chola chola empire attacked srivijaya cities series


southern malay peninsula borneo sumatra bali ref name cribb ref around founder majapahit empire kertarajasa son law ruler singhasari kingdom also based java singhasari drove srivijaya java rising power singhasari came attention kublai khan china sent emissaries demanding tribute kertanagara ruler singhasari kingdom refused pay tribute khan sent punitive expedition arrived coast java time rebel kediri jayakatwang


killed kertanagara majapahit founder allied mongols jayakatwang singhasari kingdom destroyed turned forced mongol allies withdraw confusion gajah mada ambitious majapahit prime minister regent extended empire 's rule surrounding islands years gajah mada 's death majapahit navy captured palembang putting end srivijayan kingdom although majapahit rulers extended power islands destroyed neighbouring kingdoms focus seems controlling gaining larger share commercial trade


passed archipelago time majapahit founded muslim traders proselytisers began entering area peak th century majapahit power began decline unable control rising power sultanate malacca dates end majapahit empire range large number courtiers artisans priests members royal family moved east island bali end majapahit power age islamic states spread islam map indonesia khatib elebi


west archipelago fragmentary evidence suggest rolling wave conversion adjacent areas rather suggests process complicated slow ref name ricklefs pages spread islam driven increasing trade links outside archipelago general traders royalty major kingdoms first adopt new religion ref name ricklefs pages ref indonesian areas gradually adopted islam making dominant religion java sumatra end th century part islam overlaid mixed


existing cultural religious influences shaped predominant form islam indonesia particularly java ref name ricklefs pages bali retained hindu majority eastern archipelago christian islamic missionaries active th th centuries currently large communities religions islands ref name ricklefs pages sultanate mataram masjid agung kotagede mosque sultanate mataram third sultanate java sultanate demak bintoro sultanate pajang ref name ref according javanese records kyai gedhe pamanahan became ruler


mataram area support kingdom pajang east near current site surakarta solo pamanahan often referred kyai gedhe mataram ascension pamanahan 's son panembahan senapati ingalaga replaced father throne around senapati kingdom grew substantially regular military campaigns mataram 's neighbours shortly accession example conquered father 's patrons pajang ref name reign panembahan seda ing krapyak ''c'' son senapati dominated warfare especially powerful surabaya already


major centre east java first contact mataram dutch east india company voc occurred krapyak dutch activities time limited trading limited coastal settlements interactions inland mataram kingdom limited although form alliance surabaya krapyak died year krapyak succeeded son known simply sultan agung great sultan javanese records agung responsible great expansion lasting historical legacy mataram due extensive military conquests long reign


sultanate banten ruins sultanate banten palace sunan gunung jati cirebon together armies demak sultanate seized port banten sunda kingdom established sultanate banten accompanied muslim preachers adoption islam amongst local population peak first half th century sultanate lasted ad sultanate left many archaeological remains historical records colonial era batavia jakarta java c ce beginning


th century successive waves europeans portuguese spanish dutch english sought dominate spice trade sources india 'spice islands' maluku indonesia meant finding way asia cut muslim merchants venetian outlet mediterranean monopolised spice imports europe astronomically priced time spices highly coveted preserve make poorly preserved meat palatable also medicines magic potions arrival europeans south east asia often regarded watershed moment history scholars consider


local rulers established trading posts forts missions islands ternate ambon solor among others height portuguese missionary activities however came latter half th century ultimately portuguese presence indonesia reduced solor flores timor modern day nusa tenggara following defeat hands indigenous ternateans dutch maluku general failure maintain control trade region ref name miller xv ref comparison original portuguese ambition dominate asian trade influence indonesian culture small romantic ''keroncong''


guitar ballads number indonesian words reflect portuguese 's role ''lingua franca'' archipelago alongside malay many family names eastern indonesia da costa dias de fretes gonsalves etc significant impacts portuguese arrival disruption disorganisation trade network mostly result conquest malacca first significant plantings christianity indonesia continued christian communities eastern indonesia present contributed sense shared interest europeans particularly among ambonese ref


name ricklefs pages ref dutch east india company early th century dutch map time north coastal ports java well known dutch dutch parliament awarded voc monopoly trade colonial activities region time company controlled territory java voc conquered west javan city jayakarta founded city batavia present day jakarta voc became deeply involved internal politics java period fought number


wars involving leaders mataram banten dutch followed portuguese aspirations courage brutality strategies brought better organisation weapons ships superior financial backing although failed gain complete control indonesian spice trade much success previous portuguese efforts exploited factionalisation small kingdoms java replaced majapahit establishing permanent foothold java grew land based colonial empire became one richest colonial possessions earth ref name ricklefs pages mid th century batavia headquarter


voc asia become important trade centre region repelled attacks javanese mataram kingdom dutch captured malacca portuguese thus weakened portuguese position asia dutch defeated sulawesi city makassar thus bringing trade voc control sumatran ports also brought voc control last portuguese expelled return monopoly control pepper trade expulsion english dutch helped son ruler banten overthrow father


assets east indies nationalised dutch colony dutch east indies meanwhile europe devastated napoleonic wars netherlands napoleon bonaparte oversaw dissolution batavian republic replaced kingdom holland french puppet kingdom ruled napoleon 's third brother louis bonaparte lodewijk napoleon east indies treated proxy french colony administrated dutch intermediary king lodewijk netherlands sent one generals herman willem daendels serve governor general east indies based java daendels


sent strengthen javanese defences predicted british invasion since british presence bencoolen western coast sumatra well several posts north malaccan straits daendels responsible construction great post road across northern java anjer panaroecan thousand kilometre road meant ease logistics across java completed one year thousands javanese forced labourers died raffles launched several military expeditions local javanese princes assault yogyakarta kraton


june military expedition sultan mahmud badaruddin ii palembang along giving orders seize nearby bangka island administration numbers ancient monuments java rediscovered excavated systematically catalogued first time important one rediscovery borobudur buddhist temple central java raffles enthusiast island 's history wrote book history java published later island java returned control netherlands following end napoleonic wars terms


plantations days year system abolished liberal period dutch adopted called ethical policy included somewhat increased investment indigenous education modest political reforms dutch imperial painting depicting dutch east indies precious gem dutch colonials formed privileged upper social class soldiers administrators managers teachers pioneers lived together natives top rigid social racial caste system dutch east indies two legal classes citizens european


dutch constructed public works became economic base colonial state independence became basis indonesian infrastructure colonial period dutch control territories indonesian archipelago tenuous cases dutch police military actions parts indonesia quite cruel recent discussions example dutch cruelty aceh encouraged renewed research aspects dutch rule early th century three centuries first dutch trading post full extent colonial territory established


direct colonial rule exerted across would become boundaries modern indonesian state ref name dutch explanation dutch troops constantly engaged quelling rebellions java influence local leaders prince diponegoro central java imam bonjol central sumatra pattimura maluku bloody thirty year war aceh weakened dutch tied colonial military forces schwartz pages despite major internal political social sectarian divisions national revolution indonesians whole found unity fight independence ref portuguese timor east timor remained


forum dutch socialists would later evolve communist party indonesia pki ref name kahin ref post world war era dutch strongly repressed attempts change repression led growth pki december pki membership ref name kahin one year later pki grown members ref name kahin pki led revolt dutch colonialism harsh repression strikes urban workers ref name kahin ref however strikes revolt put dutch


nationalists communists leaders arrested ref name kahin given prison sentences ref name kahin sukarno released prison december arrested august japanese occupation japanese bicycle infantry move java occupation dutch east indies japanese invasion subsequent occupation world war ii interrupted dutch rule encouraged previously suppressed indonesian independence movement may early world war ii nazi germany occupied netherlands dutch government exile initially continued control dutch east indies base london


rally public support japanese war effort sukarno mohammad hatta decorated emperor japan however experience japanese occupation dutch east indies varied considerably depending upon one lived one 's social position many lived areas considered important war effort experienced torture sex slavery arbitrary arrest execution war crimes thousands taken away indonesia war labourers romusha suffered died result ill treatment starvation people dutch mixed dutch indonesian descent particular targets japanese occupation


national committee knip declared sukarno president hatta vice president ref name bidien ref word proclamation spread shortwave fliers indonesian war time military peta youths others rallied support new republic often moving take government offices japanese december united nations acknowledged ref name decolon ref netherlands advised united nations netherlands indies non self governing territory colony netherlands legal duty make yearly reports assist towards full measure self government required charter united nations


article sukarno speaking ''rapat akbar'' grand meeting september dutch initially backed british tried establish rule ref name inde bitter armed diplomatic struggle ended december face international pressure dutch formally recognised indonesian independence ref name bidien ref name inde ref dutch efforts establish complete control met resistance end world war ii power vacuum arose nationalists often succeeded seizing arms demoralised japanese period unrest city guerrilla warfare called bersiap period ensued groups


indonesian nationalists armed improvised weapons like bamboo spears firearms attacked returning allied troops europeans killed missing meaning european deaths indonesia war war returning java dutch forces quickly occupied colonial capital batavia jakarta city yogyakarta central java became capital nationalist forces negotiations nationalists led two major truce agreements disputes implementation much mutual provocation led time renewed conflict within four years dutch recaptured


almost whole indonesia guerrilla resistance persisted led java commander nasution december four years sporadic warfare fierce criticism dutch un netherlands officially recognised indonesian sovereignty federal structure united states indonesia rusi august exactly five years proclamation independence last federal states dissolved sukarno proclaimed single unitary republic indonesia ref name vickers xiii ref sukarno 's presidency democratic experiment campaign posters indonesian election unifying struggle secure indonesia 's independence


sumatra sulawesi contrast constitution constitution mandated parliamentary system government executive responsible parliament stipulated length constitutional guarantees human rights drawing heavily united nations universal declaration human rights proliferation political parties dealing shares cabinet seats resulted rapid turnover coalition governments including cabinets long postponed parliamentary elections held although indonesian national party pni considered sukarno 's party topped poll communist party indonesia pki


'nas kom' government intended appease three main factions indonesian politics nbsp army islamic groups communists support military proclaimed february system 'guided democracy' proposed cabinet representing political parties importance including pki ref name witton us tried failed secretly overthrow president even though secretary state dulles declared congress interested internal affairs country sukarno abrogated constitution july decree dissolving constitutional assembly


restoring constitution ref name witton elected parliament replaced one appointed subject president another non elected body supreme advisory council main policy development body national front set september presided president mobilise revolutionary forces people ref name witton western style parliamentary democracy thus finished indonesia elections ''reformasi'' era ref name witton sukarno 's revolution nationalism sukarno era west irian liberation monument jakarta charismatic sukarno spoke romantic revolutionary increasingly


authoritarian rule indonesia moved course stormy nationalism sukarno popularly referred ''bang'' older brother painted man people carrying aspirations indonesia one dared take west ref name witton instigated number large ideologically driven infrastructure projects monuments celebrating indonesia 's identity criticised substitutes real development deteriorating economy ref name witton ref western new guinea part dutch east indies indonesian nationalists thus claimed basis indonesia able instigate diplomatic


military confrontation dutch territory following indonesian soviet arms agreement however united states pressure netherlands led indonesian takeover ref name witton ref also indonesia commenced ''konfrontasi'' new state malaysia northern states borneo formerly british sarawak sabah wavered joining malaysia whilst indonesia saw rightful ruler austronesian peoples supported unsuccessful revolution attempt brunei ref name witton reviving glories indonesian national revolution sukarno increased anti british sentiment rhetoric mounted military offensives


along indonesia malaysia border borneo pki rallied jakarta streets support west became increasingly alarmed indonesian foreign policy united states withdrew aid indonesia ref name witton social policy sukarno 's time office witnessed substantial reforms health education together passage various pro labour measures however indonesia 's economic position deteriorated sukarno mid cash strapped government scrap critical public sector subsidies inflation export revenues shrinking infrastructure crumbling factories operating minimal capacity negligible investment severe poverty hunger


widespread ref name witton new order transition new order mid th century largest non ruling communist party world eradication ban following year described great ' 'dalang'' puppet master sukarno 's position depended balancing opposing increasingly hostile forces army pki sukarno 's anti imperialist ideology saw indonesia increasingly dependent soviet communist china pki largest communist party world outside soviet union china penetrating levels government party increasingly gained influence


coup little co ordination largely limited jakarta failed complicated partisan theories continue day identity attempted coup 's organisers aims according indonesian army pki behind coup used disgruntled army officers carry became official account suharto 's subsequent new order administration historians agree coup surrounding events led single mastermind controlling events full truth never likely known pki


blamed coup anti communists initially following army 's lead went violent anti communist purge across much country pki effectively destroyed widely accepted estimates million killed ref name friend ref violence especially brutal java bali pki outlawed possibly million leaders affiliates imprisoned ref name friend throughout period president sukarno attempted restore political position shift country back pre october position guided democracy balancing act destroyed


pki 's demise although remained president weakened sukarno forced transfer key political military powers general suharto time become head armed forces march provisional people 's consultative assembly mprs named general suharto acting president suharto formally appointed president march sukarno lived virtual house arrest death entrenchment new order suharto military president indonesia aftermath suharto 's rise hundreds thousands people killed imprisoned


military religious groups backlash alleged communist supporters direct support united states suharto 's administration commonly called ''new order'' era suharto invited major foreign investment produced substantial uneven economic growth however suharto enriched family business dealings widespread corruption annexation west irian time independence dutch retained control western half new guinea also known west irian permitted steps towards self government declaration independence december negotiations dutch incorporation


territory indonesia failed indonesian paratroop invasion december preceded armed clashes indonesian dutch troops united states pressured netherlands secret talks indonesia august produced new york agreement indonesia assumed administrative responsibility west irian may rejecting un supervision indonesian government suharto decided settle question west irian former dutch new guinea favour rather referendum residents west irian agreed sukarno 'act


free choice' conducted papuan representatives local councils selected indonesians warned vote favour indonesian integration group unanimously voting integration indonesia subsequent un general assembly resolution confirmed transfer sovereignty indonesia west irian renamed irian jaya 'glorious irian' opposition indonesian administration irian jaya later known papua gave rise guerrilla activity years following jakarta 's assumption control annexation east timor timorese women indonesian national flag carnation


archipelago indonesian military intelligence influenced break alliance fretilin udt led coup udt august start month long civil war time portuguese government effectively abandoned territory resume decolonisation process november fretilin unilaterally declared independence proclaimed 'democratic republic east timor' nine days later december indonesia invaded east timor eventually annexing tiny country people indonesia supported materially diplomatically united states australia united kingdom


regarded indonesia anti communist ally following resignation suharto people east timor voted overwhelmingly independence un sponsored referendum held august eligible population participated three quarters chose independence despite months attacks indonesian military militia result announced elements indonesian military militia retaliated killing approximately east timorese displacing two thirds population raping hundreds women girls destroying much country 's infrastructure october indonesian parliament mpr


revoked decree annexed east timor united nations transitional administration east timor untaet assumed responsibility governing east timor officially became independent state may transmigration transmigration program ''transmigrasi'' national government initiative move landless people densely populated areas indonesia java bali less populous areas country including papua kalimantan sumatra sulawesi stated purpose program reduce considerable poverty overpopulation java provide opportunities hard working poor people provide workforce


better utilise resources outer islands program however controversial critics accusing indonesian government trying use migrants reduce proportion native populations destination areas weaken separatist movements program often cited major ongoing factor controversies even conflict violence settlers indigenous populations reform era pro democracy movement university students police forces clash may suharto undertook efforts pre empt challenge new order government indonesian democratic party pdi legal party


traditionally propped regime changed direction began assert independence suharto fostered split leadership pdi backing co opted faction loyal deputy speaker people 's representative council suryadi faction loyal megawati sukarnoputri daughter sukarno pdi 's chairperson suryadi faction announced party congress sack megawati would held medan june megawati proclaimed supporters would hold demonstrations protest suryadi faction went sacking megawati demonstrations manifested throughout indonesia


led several confrontations streets protesters security forces recriminations violence protests culminated military allowing megawati 's supporters take pdi headquarters jakarta pledge demonstrations suharto allowed occupation pdi headquarters go almost month attentions also jakarta due set high profile asean meetings scheduled take place capitalizing megawati supporters organised democracy forums several speakers site july officers military suryadi suharto openly aired


disgust forums july police soldiers persons claiming suryadi supporters stormed headquarters several megawati supporters killed two hundred people arrested tried anti subversion hate spreading laws day would become known black saturday mark beginning renewed crackdown new order government supporters democracy called reformasi reform movement economic crisis suharto 's resignation indonesia country hardest hit asian financial crisis dire consequences indonesian economy


society well suharto 's presidency time country suffered severe drought largest forest fires history burned kalimantan sumatra rupiah indonesian currency took sharp dive value suharto came scrutiny international lending institutions chiefly world bank international monetary fund imf united states longtime embezzlement funds protectionist policies december suharto 's government signed letter intent imf pledging enact austerity measures including cuts public services removal subsidies return


aid imf donors prices goods kerosene rice well fees public services including education rose dramatically effects exacerbated widespread corruption austerity measures approved suharto started erode domestic confidence new order led popular protests suharto stood election parliament seventh time march justifying grounds necessity leadership crisis parliament approved new term sparked protests riots throughout country termed indonesian


revolution dissent within ranks golkar party military finally weakened suharto may stood power replaced deputy vice president bj habibie president habibie quickly assembled cabinet one main tasks establish international monetary fund donor community support economic stabilisation program moved quickly release political prisoners lift controls freedom speech association elections national provincial sub provincial parliaments held june elections national parliament


problems displaced east timorese violence pro indonesian east timorese militias caused considerable humanitarian social problems increasingly assertive parliament frequently challenged president wahid 's policies prerogatives contributing lively sometimes rancorous national political debate people 's consultative assembly 's first annual session august president wahid gave account government 's performance january thousands student protesters stormed parliament grounds demanded president abdurrahman wahid resign due alleged involvement corruption scandals pressure assembly improve management co ordination within government issued


presidential decree giving vice president megawati control day day administration government soon megawati sukarnoputri assumed presidency july susilo bambang yudhoyono indonesia 's first direct presidential election reelected joko widodo pdi p candidate elected president previously served governor jakarta first indonesian president without high ranking political military background however opponent prabowo subianto disputed outcome withdrew race count completed ref name presidentwidodo ref jokowi reelected defeating prabowo subianto terrorism


multi ethnic multicultural democratic country muslim majority population indonesia faces challenge dealing terrorism linked global militant islamic movements jemaah islamiyah ji militant islamic organisation aspires establishment daulah islamiyah ref name pupji ref across southeast asia responsible series terrorist attacks indonesia terrorist organisation linked al qaeda responsible bali bombings well jakarta bombings indonesian government authorities tried crack terrorist cells indonesia january


suicide bombers gunmen initiated terror attack jakarta resulting death eight people three indonesian civilians canadian four attackers twenty people wounded attack islamic state claimed responsibility incident tsunami disaster aceh peace deal december massive earthquake tsunami devastated parts northern sumatra particularly aceh partly result need co operation peace recovery tsunami aceh peace talks indonesian government free aceh movement gam restarted accords signed


helsinki created framework military de escalation government reduced military presence members gam 's armed wing decommission weapons apply amnesty agreement also allows acehnese nationalist forces form party autonomy measures forest plantation fires since indonesia struggling contain forest fires especially islands sumatra kalimantan haze occurs annually dry season largely caused illegal agricultural fires due slash burn practices indonesia especially provinces south sumatra riau indonesia 's


sumatra island kalimantan indonesian borneo ref name sob ref haze occurred one severe dense hazes occurred worst killing dozens indonesians result respiratory illnesses road accidents due poor visibility another people killed due smog forest land fires september indonesia ratified asean agreement transboundary haze pollution becoming last asean country see also history asia history southeast asia list human evolution fossils


press woodward mark r ''islam java normative piety mysticism sultanate yogyakarta''


process first read literature second circulating broader world beyond linguistic cultural point origin likewise world literature scholar venkat mani believes worlding literature brought information transfer largely generated developments print culture advent library publishers booksellers print sell affordable books literate citizens acquire books public libraries make books available cannot afford buy collectively play important role making world literature history

Humanities
Languages and literature
World literature


johann wolfgang goethe used concept weltliteratur several essays early decades nineteenth century describe international circulation reception literary works europe including works non western origin concept achieved wide currency disciple johann peter eckermann published collection conversations goethe ref name johann peter eckermann ''gespr che mit goethe den letzten jahren seines lebens'' trans john oxenford j w von goethe ''conversations eckermann'' repr north point press ref goethe spoke eckermann excitement reading chinese novels persian


literature driven new world market literature market based approach sought marx engels ''manifesto'' document published four languages distributed among several european countries since become one influential texts twentieth century ref name marx engels followed goethe viewing world literature modern future phenomenon irish scholar h posnett argued world literature first arose ancient empires roman empire long rise modern national literature


today world literature understood encompass classical works periods including contemporary literature written global audience postwar era study comparative world literature revived united states comparative literature seen graduate level world literature taught first year general education class focus remained largely greek roman classics literature major modern western european powers combination factors late early led greater access world end cold


moretti believes scale world literature exceeds grasped traditional methods close reading advocates instead mode distant reading would look large scale patterns discerned publication records national literary histories moretti 's approach combined elements evolutionary theory world systems analysis pioneered immanuel wallerstein approach discussed since emily apter influential book ''the translation zone'' related world systems approach work french critic pascale casanova ''la r publique mondiale des lettres'' drawing theories cultural production developed


sociologist pierre bourdieu casanova explores ways works peripheral writers must circulate metropolitan centers order achieve recognition world literature field world literature continues generate debate critics gayatri chakravorty spivak arguing often study world literature translation smooths linguistic richness original political force work original context scholars contrary emphasize world literature studied close attention original languages contexts


manfred schmeling ''weltliteratur heute'' christopher prendergast ''debating world literature'' david damrosch ''teaching world literature'' theo d'haen 's co edited collections ''the routledge companion world literature'' ''world literature reader'' individual studies include moretti ''maps graphs trees'' john pizer ''the idea world literature'' mads rosendahl thomsen ''mapping world literature'' theo d'haen ''the routledge concise history world literature'' sy de zepetnek steven tutun mukherjee eds ''companion comparative literature world literatures comparative cultural studies'' internet internet provides medium global circulation world


literature many websites enable global audiences sample world 's literary productions website ''words without borders'' offers selection fiction poetry around world annenberg foundation created ambitious thirteen part dvd web series produced boston 's public television station wgbh ''invitation world literature'' major survey anthologies websites provide background information images links resources international authors globally oriented authors increasingly creating work internet serbian experimentalist milorad pavi early proponent possibilities electronic modes creation reading though


titles published ref name altalangcom among literary magazines dedicate world literature ''world literature today'' founded sponsors neustadt award see also notes reading boruszko graciela steven sy de zepetnek eds https docslibpurdueedu clcweb vol iss new work world literatures special issue ''clcweb comparative literature culture'' casanova pascale ''the world republic letters'' trans b debevoise cambridge harvard university press d'haen theo ''the routledge concise history world literature'' london routledge d'haen theo david damrosch djelal kadir eds ''the routledge companion world literature'' london routledge


practice'' austin university texas press pizer john ''the idea world literature history pedagogical practice'' baton rouge louisiana state university press prendergast christopher ed ''debating world literature'' london verso puchner martin suzanne conklin akbari wiebke denecke vinay dharwadker barbara fuchs caroline levine sarah lawall pericles lewis emily wilson eds ''the norton anthology world literature'' new york w w norton six vols rothenberg jerome pierre joris eds ''poems millennium global anthology'' berkeley university california press vols sturm trigonakis elke ''comparative cultural studies new weltliteratur'' west


lafayette purdue university press tanoukhi nirvana scale world literature new literary history thomsen mads rosendahl ''mapping world literature international canonization transnational literatures'' london continuum sy de zepetnek steven https docslibpurdueedu clcweblibrary comparativeliteraturebooks multilingual bibliography text books comparative literature world literature comparative cultural studies ''clcweb comparative literature culture'' ''library'' march updated sy de zepetnek steven tutun mukherjee eds ''companion comparative literature world literatures comparative cultural studies'' new delhi cambridge university press india vipper yuri b fundamental study history world literature ussr academy


sciences ''social sciences'' vol xvi pp nbsp vipper yuri b national literary history history world literature theoretical principles treatment ''new literary history'' vol writing histories literature spring pp nbsp external links http cesardominguezgal dom nguez c sar ed '' http dictionaryworldliteratureorg indexphptitle main page dictionary world literature '' https docslibpurdueedu clcweblibrary comparativehumanitiesjournals list selected comparative literature comparative humanities journals http wwwiwlfasharvardedu institute world literature website http wwwworldliteratureforumcom forum world literature forum world literature community literary criticism


'''modern language''' human language currently use term used language education distinguish languages used day day communication french german dead classical languages latin classical chinese studied cultural linguistic value sil ethnologue defines '''living language''' one least one speaker first language see also language linguistic diversity teaching modern languages modern languages taught extensively around world see second language acquisition

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Modern Language


english taught second foreign language many countries see english language learning teaching asia asia children learn official version native language learn local major lingua franca example mandarin hindustani asia pacific countries subjects taught lingua franca language except foreign language lessons singapore english taught first language exception india hindi english used official communication compulsory languages learn many schools students however also study


indian languages along english english studied foreign language people 's republic china india pakistan japan south korea republic china taiwan singapore hong kong china english required language starting third grade although quality instruction varies greatly nepal almost subjects taught english except nepali literature pakistan pakistan english status official language widely used within government civil service officer ranks military pakistan 's constitution laws written


english also taught extensively public private schools studying english compulsory pakistan along urdu national language lingua franca pakistan regional languages pakistan open choice student free either pursue nearly schools colleges universities use english medium instruction malaysia malaysia malay english taught compulsory languages first year primary school exception publicly funded vernacular schools known national type schools latter either mandarin


tamil taught additional compulsory languages non vernacular schools subjects exception sciences mathematics taught malay vernacular schools subjects exception sciences mathematics taught primary language used respective schools sciences mathematics taught english although mandarin vernacular schools dispensation teach subjects concurrently mandarin sri lanka sri lanka official state languages sinhalese tamil english government schools instruct either sinhala tamil


higher level government schools national level schools also offer instruction english students studying sinhalese tamil also taught english second language students studying sinhalese also taught tamil second language vice versa middle east north africa language study middle east north africa varies one country another usually depending foreign nation colonized occupied country instance algeria morocco tunisia french widely studied language besides native arabic egypt


persian gulf countries united arab emirates kuwait oman english main supplementary language teaching languages arabic mainly english compulsory schools southern central iraq levels requirement graduation school kurdistan region northern iraq palestinian authority saudi arabia syria yemen english compulsory schools levels countries english foreign languages tend offered subjects certain wealthier schools hebrew national language israel english