subsequent relaxation nuclei magnetic field one commonly used characterization techniques applications numerous fields primarily strong magnetic fields generated supercooling electromagnets although spectrometers require cryogens traditional superconducting solenoids liquid helium used cool inner coils boiling point around k ambient pressure cheap metallic superconductors used coil wiring called high temperature superconducting compounds made super conduct use liquid nitrogen


boils around k magnetic resonance imaging mri complex application nmr geometry resonances deconvoluted used image objects detecting relaxation protons perturbed radio frequency pulse strong magnetic field commonly used health applications large cities difficult transmit power overhead cables underground cables used underground cables get heated resistance wire increases leading waste power superconductors could used increase power throughput although


would require cryogenic liquids nitrogen helium cool special alloy containing cables increase power transmission several feasibility studies performed field subject agreement within international energy agency cryogenic gases delivery truck supermarket ypsilanti michigan cryogenic gases used transportation storage large masses frozen food large quantities food must transported regions like war zones earthquake hit regions etc must stored long time cryogenic food freezing used cryogenic food freezing also


helpful large scale food processing industries many infrared forward looking infrared cameras require detectors cryogenically cooled certain rare blood groups stored low temperatures nbsp c blood banks cryogenics technology using liquid nitrogen co sub sub built nightclub effect systems create chilling effect white fog illuminated colored lights cryogenic cooling used cool tool tip time machining manufacturing process increases tool life oxygen used perform several important functions steel manufacturing process many


rockets use cryogenic gases propellants include liquid oxygen liquid hydrogen liquid methane freezing automobile truck tire liquid nitrogen rubber made brittle crushed small particles particles used items experimental research certain physics phenomena spintronics magnetotransport properties requires cryogenic temperatures effects observed certain vaccines must stored cryogenic temperatures example pfizer biontech covid vaccine must stored temperatures see cold chain ref name vaccination storage ref production cryogenic cooling devices


rtd used temperatures lower k necessary use silicon diode accuracy see also absolute zero coldest temperature recorded earth cryogenic grinding references reading haselden g g ''cryogenic fundamentals'' academic press new york cooling technology industrial gases


medieval depiction ecumene johannes schnitzer engraver constructed coordinates ptolemy 's ''geography'' using second map projection translation latin dissemination ''geography'' europe beginning th century marked rebirth scientific cartography millennium stagnation '''cartography''' greek ''chart s'' papyrus sheet paper map ''graphein'' write study practice making using maps combining science aesthetics technique cartography builds premise reality imagined reality modeled ways


communicate spatial information effectively fundamental objectives traditional cartography set map 's agenda select traits object mapped concern map editing traits may physical roads land masses may abstract toponyms political boundaries represent terrain mapped object flat media concern map projections eliminate characteristics mapped object relevant map 's purpose concern generalization reduce complexity characteristics mapped


also concern generalization orchestrate elements map best convey message audience concern map design modern cartography constitutes many theoretical practical foundations geographic information systems gis geographic information science gisc history valcamonica rock art paspardo r topographic composition th millennium bce ''bedolina map'' tracing th th century bce th century byzantine map british isles manuscript ptolemy 's ''geography'' using greek numerals graticule n equator e ptolemy 's prime meridian


fortunate isles st isidore 's map world ancient times earliest known map matter debate term map well defined artifacts might maps might actually something else wall painting might depict ancient anatolian city atalh k previously known catal huyuk atal h k dated late th millennium bce among prehistoric alpine rock carvings mount bego france valcamonica italy dated th millennium bce geometric patterns consisting dotted rectangles lines


widely interpreted archaeological literature depiction cultivated plots known maps ancient world include minoan house admiral wall painting c bce showing seaside community oblique perspective engraved map holy babylonian city nippur kassite period th th centuries bce oldest surviving world maps th century bce babylonia ref name kurt raaflaub richard j talbert ref one shows babylon euphrates surrounded assyria urartu several cities turn surrounded bitter river


oceanus another depicts babylon north center world ref name kurt raaflaub richard j talbert ancient greeks romans created maps time anaximander th century bce nd century ce ptolemy wrote treatise cartography geographia contained ptolemy 's world map world known western society '' ecumene '' early th century arab scholars translating works greek geographers arabic ancient china geographical literature dates th century bce oldest extant chinese maps


come state qin dated back th century bce warring states period book ''xin yi xiang fa yao'' published chinese scientist su song star map equidistant cylindrical projection ref name miyajima ref although method charting seems existed china even publication scientist greatest significance star maps su song represent oldest existent star maps printed form early forms cartography india included depictions pole star surrounding constellations ref


name sircar charts may used navigation ref name sircar ref middle ages renaissance maps world medieval european maps world known survived found illustrating manuscripts remainder exist stand alone documents ''tabula rogeriana'' drawn muhammad al idrisi roger ii sicily arab geographer muhammad al idrisi produced medieval atlas ''tabula rogeriana book roger '' combining knowledge africa indian ocean europe far east learned contemporary accounts


arab merchants explorers information inherited classical geographers able write detailed descriptions multitude countries along substantial text written created world map influenced mostly ptolemaic conception world significant influence multiple arab geographers remained accurate world map next three centuries ref name scott p scott ''history moorish empire'' pp ref map divided seven climatic zones detailed descriptions zone part work smaller


circular map made depicting south top arabia center al idrisi also made estimate circumference world accurate within ''europa regina'' sebastian nster 's ''cosmographia'' age exploration th century th century european cartographers copied earlier maps passed centuries drew based explorers' observations new surveying techniques invention magnetic compass telescope sextant enabled increasing accuracy martin behaim german cartographer made oldest extant globe


sinusoidal projection bonne projection werner projection places standard parallel north pole sinusoidal projection places standard parallel equator bonne projection intermediate two mapmaker gerardus mercator first published map based mercator projection uses equally spaced parallel vertical lines longitude parallel latitude lines spaced farther apart get farther away equator construction courses constant bearing conveniently represented straight lines navigation property limits value general purpose world


map regions shown increasingly larger actually equator mercator also credited first use word atlas describe collection maps later years life mercator resolved create atlas book filled many maps different regions world well chronological history world earth 's creation god unable complete satisfaction died still additions made atlas


death new editions published death renaissance maps used impress viewers establish owner 's reputation sophisticated educated worldly towards end renaissance maps displayed equal importance painting sculptures pieces art sixteenth century maps becoming increasingly available consumers introduction printmaking venetian homes sort map late three main functions maps renaissance ref name ref general descriptions world navigation


florence mid late map trade quickly shifted rome venice overtaken atlas makers late th century map publishing venice completed humanities book publishing mind rather informational use printing technology two main printmaking technologies renaissance woodcut copper plate intaglio referring medium used transfer image onto paper woodcut map image created relief chiseled medium grain hardwood areas intended printed inked pressed sheet


raised rest block map lines cause indentations paper often felt back map advantages using relief make maps one printmaker n't need press maps could developed rubbings woodblock durable enough used many times defects appear existing printing presses used create prints rather create new one hand hard achieve fine detail relief technique inconsistencies linework


colored chalk engrave map lines going direction carved time plate turned carve lines going different direction print finished plate ink spread metal surface scraped remains etched channels plate pressed forcibly paper ink channels transferred paper pressing forceful leaves plate mark around border map edge


fifteenth century lettering lettering mapmaking important denoting information fine lettering difficult woodcut often turned square blocky contrary stylized rounded writing style popular italy time ref name improve quality mapmakers developed fine chisels carve relief intaglio lettering suffer troubles coarse medium able express looping cursive came known cancellaresca ref name custom made reverse punches also used metal engraving alongside freehand lettering ref name color


first use color map making cannot narrowed one reason arguments color started way indicate information map aesthetics coming second also arguments color first used maps aesthetics evolved conveying information ref name either way many maps renaissance left publisher without colored practice continued way however publishers accepted orders patrons maps atlases colored wished coloring done


hand patron could request simple cheap color expensive elaborate color even going far silver gold gilding simplest coloring merely outlines borders along rivers wash color meant painting regions inks watercolors limning meant adding silver gold leaf map illuminate lettering heraldic arms decorative elements early modern period early modern period saw convergence cartographical techniques across eurasia exchange mercantile mapping techniques via indian ocean early seventeenth century selden map


two parties qing negotiation party bringing jesuits intermediaries managed work treaty placed amur river border eurasian powers opened trading relations two treaty 's significance draws interaction two sides intermediaries drawn wide variety nationalities enlightenment maps enlightenment period practically universally used copper plate intaglio abandoned fragile coarse woodcut technology use map projections evolved double hemisphere common mercator 's prestigious navigational projection gradually making


appearances due paucity information immense difficulty surveying period mapmakers frequently plagiarized material without giving credit original cartographer example famous map north america known beaver map published herman moll map close reproduction work nicolas de fer de fer turn copied images first printed books louis hennepin published fran ois du creux late th century mapmakers often credited original publisher something along


lines original cartographer map 's title cartouche modern period pre mercator nautical chart portuguese cartographer fern vaz dourado c c belongs called ''plane chart'' model observed latitudes magnetic directions plotted directly plane constant scale earth plane portuguese national archives torre tombo lisbon mapping done gps laser rangefinder directly field image shows mapping forest structure position trees dead wood canopy cartography technology continually


changed order meet demands new generations mapmakers map users first maps produced manually brushes parchment varied quality limited distribution advent magnetic devices compass much later magnetic storage devices allowed creation far accurate maps ability store manipulate digitally advances mechanical devices printing press quadrant vernier allowed mass production maps creation accurate reproductions accurate data hartmann schedel one


century aerial photography satellite imagery remote sensing provided efficient precise methods mapping physical features coastlines roads buildings watersheds topography united states geological survey devised multiple new map projections notably space oblique mercator interpreting satellite ground tracks mapping surface use satellites space telescopes allows researchers map planets moons outer space advances electronic technology ushered another revolution cartography ready availability computers peripherals monitors plotters printers scanners remote document analytic stereo plotters along computer


allowed anyone contribute use new spatial data without complex licensing agreements launch google earth development virtual globe earthviewer revolutionised access satellite aerial imagery advances brought accuracy geographical location based data widened range applications cartography example development satnav devices today commercial quality maps made using software three main types cad gis specialized illustration software spatial information stored database extracted demand


claimed europeans promoted epistemological understanding map early th century ref name harley http quodlibumichedu p passages deconstructing maprgn main view fulltext harley j b deconstructing map cartographica vol pp ref example understanding nowiki european reproduction terrain maps reality expressed mathematical terms systematic observation measurement offer route cartographic truth ref name harley th century map makers careful precise strategic approaches maps based scientific model knowledge popular belief time scientific approach cartography immune


social atmosphere common belief science heads direction progress thus leads accurate representations maps belief european maps must superior others necessarily employed different map making skills 'not cartography' land lurked army inaccurate heretical subjective valuative ideologically distorted images cartographers developed 'sense other' relation nonconforming maps ref name harley although cartography target much criticism recent decades cartographer 's 'black box' always seemed naturally defended point overcame


criticism however later scholars field evident cultural influences dominate map making ref name harley instance certain abstracts maps map making society describe social influences production maps social play cartographic knowledge produces 'order' nowiki maps' features 'hierarchies practices' depictions africa common target deconstructionism according deconstructionist models cartography used strategic purposes associated imperialism instruments representations power ref name basset ref conquest africa depiction africa low latitudes


general mercator projection interpreted imperialistic symbolic subjugation due diminished proportions regions compared higher latitudes european powers concentrated ref name monmonier monmonier mark ''rhumb lines map wars social history mercator projection'' p chicago university chicago press thorough treatment social history mercator projection gall peters projections ref maps furthered imperialism colonization africa practical ways showing basic information like roads terrain natural resources settlements communities maps made european commerce africa


possible showing potential commercial routes made natural resource extraction possible depicting locations resources maps also enabled military conquests made efficient imperial nations used put conquests display maps used cement territorial claims berlin conference ref name basset maps african continent african kingdoms drawn assumed contrived boundaries unknown unexplored areas drawings animals imaginary physical geographic features descriptive texts jean b b d'anville created


first map african continent blank spaces represent unknown territory ref name basset revolutionary cartography representation power associated map making map types general vs thematic cartography small section orienteering map topographic map easter island sierra nevada understanding basic maps field cartography divided two general categories general cartography thematic cartography general cartography involves maps constructed general audience thus contain variety features general maps exhibit many reference location systems often


produced series example scale topographic maps united states geological survey usgs standard compared scale canadian maps government uk produces classic replacing older nbsp inch mile ordnance survey maps entire uk range correlated larger smaller scale maps great detail many private mapping companies also produced thematic map series thematic cartography involves maps specific geographic themes oriented toward specific audiences couple examples might dot map showing corn production


indiana shaded area map ohio counties divided numerical choropleth classes volume geographic data exploded last century thematic cartography become increasingly useful necessary interpret spatial cultural social data third type map known orienteering special purpose map type map falls somewhere thematic general maps combine general map elements thematic attributes order design map specific audience mind oftentimes type audience orienteering map made


particular industry occupation example kind map would municipal utility map topographic vs topological topographic map primarily concerned topographic description place including especially th st centuries use contour lines showing elevation terrain relief shown variety ways see cartographic relief depiction present era one widespread advanced methods used form topographic maps use computer software generate digital elevation models show shaded relief software existed cartographers


draw shaded relief hand one cartographer respected master hand drawn shaded relief swiss professor eduard imhof whose efforts hill shading influential method became used around world despite labor intensive topological map general type map kind one might sketch napkin often disregards scale detail interest clarity communicating specific route relational information beck 's london underground map iconic example although widely used map tube preserves


little reality varies scale constantly abruptly straightens curved tracks contorts directions topography river thames letting reader know whether station north south river topology station order interchanges train lines left geographic space ref name ovenden ref yet typical passenger wishes know map fulfills purpose map design illustrated map modern technology including advances printing advent geographic information systems graphics software internet


vastly simplified process map creation increased palette design options available cartographers led decreased focus production skill increased focus quality design attempt craft maps aesthetically pleasing practically useful intended purposes map purpose audience map purpose audience purpose may broad teaching major physical political features entire world narrow convincing neighbor move fence audience may broad


general public narrow single person mapmakers use design principles guide constructing map effective purpose audience cartographic process cartographic process spans many stages starting conceiving need map extending way consumption audience conception begins real imagined environment cartographer gathers information subject consider information structured structure inform map 's design next cartographers experiment generalization symbolization typography


map elements find ways portray information map reader interpret map intended guided experiments cartographer settles design creates map whether physical electronic form finished map delivered audience map reader interprets symbols patterns map draw conclusions perhaps take action spatial perspectives provide maps help shape view world aspects map design designing map involves bringing together number elements making large


number decisions elements design fall several broad topics theory research agenda best practices said synergistic effects elements meaning overall design process working element one time iterative feedback process adjusting achieve desired gestalt map projections foundation map plane rests whether paper screen projections required flatten surface earth projections distort


surface cartographer strategic distortion occurs ref name albrecht ref generalization maps must drawn smaller scale reality requiring information included map small sample wealth information place generalization process adjusting level detail geographic information appropriate scale purpose map procedures selection simplification classification symbology map visually represents location properties geographic phenomena using map symbols graphical depictions composed several


mapmaker wishing leave mark work mount richard example fictitious peak rocky mountains' continental divide appeared boulder county colorado map early believed work draftsman richard ciacci fiction discovered two years later sandy island new caledonia example fictitious location stubbornly survives reappearing new maps copied older maps deleted new editions professional learned societies professional learned societies include international cartographic association ica


design implement use cartography geographical information systems related geospatial technologies north american cartographic information society nacis north american based cartography society aimed improving communication coordination cooperation among producers disseminators curators users cartographic information members located worldwide meetings annual basis canadian cartographic association cca see also references bibliography reading mapmaking history meanings external links http wwwbluk learning artimages maphist mappinghistoryhtml mapping history learning resource british library https webarchiveorg web http wwwantiquemapscouk contentshtml antique maps carl moreland david bannister complete text book information


mapmaking mapmakers including short biographies many cartographers http wwwnewberryorg collections conbibhtml concise bibliography history cartography newberry library


legal systems world '''comparative law''' study differences similarities law legal systems different countries specifically involves study different legal systems families existence world including common law civil law socialist law canon law jewish law islamic law hindu law chinese law includes description analysis foreign legal systems even explicit comparison undertaken importance comparative law increased enormously present age internationalism economic globalization democratization history origins


modern comparative law traced back gottfried wilhelm leibniz latin language book ''nova methodus discendae docendaeque iurisprudentiae'' new methods studying teaching jurisprudence chapter presentation law project nations lands times introduces idea classifying legal systems several families notably years later leibniz introduced idea language families although every legal system unique comparative law studies similarities differences allows classification legal systems wherein law families basic level classification main differences


law families found source law role court precedents origin development legal system montesquieu generally regarded early founding figure comparative law comparative approach obvious following excerpt chapter iii book masterpiece ''de l'esprit des lois'' first translated thomas nugent also chapter xi entitled 'how compare two different systems laws' book xxix discussing french english systems punishment false witnesses advises determine systems


agreeable reason must take whole compare entirety yet another place montesquieu 's comparative approach evident following chapter xiii book xxix sir henry james sumner maine british jurist first professor comparative law oxford modern founding figure comparative anthropological jurisprudence sir henry maine british jurist legal historian work ''ancient law connection early history society relation modern ideas'' set views development legal


institutions primitive societies engaged comparative discussion eastern western legal traditions work placed comparative law historical context widely read influential first university course subject established university oxford maine taking position professor comparative law us brought legal scholar fleeing persecution germany rudolf schlesinger schlesinger eventually became professor comparative law cornell law school helping spread discipline throughout us purpose comparative law academic discipline involves


study legal systems including constitutive elements differ elements combine system several disciplines developed separate branches comparative law including comparative constitutional law comparative administrative law comparative civil law sense law torts contracts property obligations comparative commercial law sense business organisations trade comparative criminal law studies specific areas may viewed micro macro comparative legal analysis ie detailed comparisons two countries broad ranging studies several countries comparative civil law studies instance


show law private relations organised interpreted used different systems countries purposes comparative law attain deeper knowledge legal systems effect perfect legal systems effect possibly contribute unification legal systems smaller larger scale cf instance unidroit initiative relationship legal subjects comparative law different general jurisprudence ie legal theory public private international law however helps inform areas normativity example comparative law help


international legal institutions united nations system analyzing laws different countries regarding treaty obligations comparative law would applicable private international law developing approach interpretation conflicts analysis comparative law may contribute legal theory creating categories concepts general application comparative law may also provide insights question legal transplants ie transplanting law legal institutions one system another notion legal transplants coined alan watson one world 's renowned legal scholars specializing


comparative law also usefulness comparative law sociology law law economics vice versa large comparative study various legal systems may show different legal regulations problem function practice conversely sociology law law economics may help comparative law answer questions regulations different legal systems really function respective societies legal rules comparable similarities differences legal systems get explained classifications legal systems arminjon nolde wolff arminjon nolde wolff believed


purposes classifying contemporary legal systems world required systems ''per se'' get studied irrespective external factors geographical ones proposed classification legal system seven groups called 'families' particular french group also included countries codified law either th first half th century using napoleonic ''code civil'' year model includes countries jurisdictions italy portugal spain romania louisiana various south american states


brazil quebec saint lucia ionian islands egypt lebanon german group scandinavian group comprising laws denmark norway sweden finland iceland english group including ''inter alia'' england united states canada australia new zealand russian group islamic group used muslim world hindu group david ren david proposed classification legal systems according different ideology inspiring one five groups families western laws group subdivided civil law subgroup whose jurisprudence based post classical roman law common law subgroup originating english law soviet law muslim


law hindu law chinese law jewish law especially respect aggregating david civil common laws single family david argued antithesis common law civil law systems technical rather ideological nature different kind instance antithesis say italian american laws different kind soviet muslim hindu chinese laws according david civil law legal systems included countries legal science formulated according roman law whereas common law


countries dominated judge made law characteristics believed uniquely differentiate western legal family four liberal democracy capitalist economy christian religion zweigert k tz konrad zweigert hein k tz propose different multidimensional methodology categorizing laws ie ordering families laws maintain determine families five criteria taken account particular historical background characteristic way thought different institutions recognized sources law dominant ideology using aforementioned criteria classify legal systems world


six families roman family german family common law family nordic family family laws far east china japan religious family jewish muslim hindu law second german edition introduction comparative law zweigert k tz also used mention soviet socialist law another family laws professional associations american association law libraries american society comparative law international association judicial independence world peace international association procedural law international law association comparative law periodicals american journal comparative law german law journal journal comparative legislation


international law http wwwwildycom isbn journal comparative law annual subscription journal comparative law see also ''annual bulletin'' comparative law bureau american bar association first comparative law journal us comparative criminal justice comparative law wiki online wikis jurists complete questionnaires regarding home legal system friedrich carl von savigny german legal scholar wrote comparative law list national legal systems rule according higher law rule law notes references billis emmanouil 'on methodology comparative criminal law research paradigmatic approaches research method functional comparison


heuristic device ideal types' ''maastricht journal european comparative law'' h collins methods aims comparative contract law ojls cotterrell roger ''law culture society legal ideas mirror social theory'' aldershot ashgate de cruz peter ''comparative law changing world'' rd edn st edn london routledge cavendish donahue charles comparative law code napol ''the oxford handbook comparative law'' eds mathias reimann reinhard zimmermann oxford oxford university press glanert simone 'speaking language law case europe' ''legal


studies'' hamza gabor ''comparative law antiquity'' budapest akademiai kiado husa jaakko ''a new introduction comparative law'' oxford portland oregon hart kahn freund comparative law academic subject lqr kischel uwe ''comparative law'' trans andrew hammel oxford oxford university press legrand pierre 'european legal systems converging' ''international comparative law quarterly'' legrand pierre 'against european civil code' ''modern law review'' legrand pierre roderick munday eds ''comparative legal studies traditions transitions'' cambridge cambridge university press legrand pierre 'the


different' ''comparative legal studies traditions transitions'' eds pierre legrand roderick munday cambridge cambridge university press leibniz gottffried wilhelm ''the new method learning teaching jurisprudence translation frankfurt edition'' clark nj talbot publishing lundmark thomas charting divide common civil law oxford university press macdougal ms comparative study law policy purposes value clarification instrument democratic world order yale law journal difficulties requirements good comparative law menski werner ''comparative law global context legal


traditions asia africa'' cambridge cambridge university press orucu esin david nelken eds ''comparative law handbook'' oxford hart reimann mathias reinhard zimmermann eds ''the oxford handbook comparative law'' nd edn oxford oxford university press st edn samuel geoffrey ''an introduction comparative law theory method'' oxford hart siems mathias ''comparative law'' cambridge cambridge university press watson alan ''legal transplants approach comparative law'' nd edn university georgia press zweigert konrad hein k tz ''an introduction comparative law'' rd edn trans tony weir oxford oxford university


press legal systems glendon mary ann paolo g carozza colin b picker ''comparative legal traditions nutshell'' th edn west academic publishing glendon mary ann paolo g carozza colin b picker ''comparative legal traditions text materials cases western law'' th edn west academic publishing glenn h patrick ''legal traditions world'' th edn oxford oxford university press st edn fields bignami fracesca david zaring eds ''comparative law regulation understanding global regulatory process'' edward elgar graziano thomas kadner ''comparative contract law cases materials exercises''


nd edn edward elgar kozolchyk boris ''comparative commercial contracts law culture economic development'' nd edn west academic publishing nelken david ed ''contrasting criminal justice getting there'' aldershot ashgate dartmouth roberts anthea et al eds ''comparative international law'' oxford oxford university press external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwalanwatsonorg alan watson foundation http wwwlawtulaneedu tlscenters eason indexaspx eason weinmann center comparative law tulane university law school http eur lexeuropaeu n lex index enhtm european union national law portal http wwwglobal regulationcom global regulation search engine https webarchiveorg web http wwwiuscomparatumorg aidc international academy comparative law http wwwiacl aidcorg international association constitutional law http wwwinternationalconstitutionallawnet international constitutional law https webarchiveorg web http wwwjuriglobeca eng indexphp juriglobe http wwwmpilde ww en pub newscfm max planck institute comparative


public law international law http ouclfiuscomporg oxford university comparative law forum https wwwlocgov law help guide nationsphp us library congress guide law online nations http blogslocgov law category global law us library congress global law blog academic disciplines jurisprudence


aspects computer security involve digital measures electronic passwords encryption physical security measures metal locks still used prevent unauthorized tampering '''computer security''' '''cybersecurity''' '''information technology security''' '''it security''' protection computer systems networks information disclosure theft damage hardware software electronic data well disruption misdirection services provide ref name ref field becoming increasingly significant due continuously expanding reliance computer systems internet wireless network standards bluetooth

Formal science
Computer science
Computer security


wi fi due growth smart devices including smartphones televisions various devices constitute internet things cybersecurity also one significant challenges contemporary world due complexity terms political usage technology history since internet 's arrival digital transformation initiated recent years notion cybersecurity become familiar subject professional personal lives cybersecurity cyber threats constant last years technological change computer security mainly


limited academia conception internet increased connectivity computer viruses network intrusions began take spread viruses marked institutionalization cyber threats cybersecurity finally large scale attacks government regulations started emerging april session organized willis ware spring joint computer conference later publication ware report foundational moments history field computer security ref name mahc ref ware 's work straddled intersection material cultural political social concerns ref name mahc


nist publication ref name nist ref introduced cia triad confidentiality integrity availability clear simple way describe key security goals still relevant many elaborate frameworks since proposed ref name nist ref however n't grave computer threats computers internet still developing security threats easily identifiable often threats came malicious insiders gained unauthorized access sensitive documents files although malware network breaches existed early years use financial gain however second


half established computer firms like ibm started offering commercial access control systems computer security software products started '''creeper''' creeper experimental computer program written bob thomas bbn considered first computer worm first anti virus software created called '''reaper''' created ray tomlinson move across arpanet delete creeper worm september june group german hackers performed first documented case cyber espionage group hacked american defense contractors universities military


bases' networks sold gathered information soviet kgb group led markus hess arrested june convicted espionage along two co conspirators feb one first computer worms called morris worm distributed via internet gained significant mainstream media attention netscape started developing protocol ssl shortly national center supercomputing applications ncsa launched mosaic first web browser netscape ssl version ready never released


public due many serious security vulnerabilities weaknesses included replay attacks vulnerability allowed hackers alter unencrypted communications sent users however february netscape launched version failed offensive strategy national security agency nsa responsible protection us information systems also collecting foreign intelligence ref name nakashima ref two duties conflict protecting information systems includes evaluating software identifying security flaws taking steps correct flaws defensive action collecting intelligence includes exploiting security flaws


extract information offensive action correcting security flaws makes flaws unavailable nsa exploitation agency analyzes commonly used software order find security flaws reserves offensive purposes competitors united states agency seldom takes defensive action reporting flaws software producers eliminate security flaws ref name perlroth ref offensive strategy worked eventually nations including russia iran north korea china acquired offensive capability tend use united states nsa contractors


created sold click shoot attack tools us agencies close allies eventually tools made way foreign adversaries nsas hacking tools hacked used russia north korea nsas employees contractors recruited high salaries adversaries anxious compete cyberwarfare ref name perlroth example united states israel began exploiting security flaws microsoft windows operating system attack damage equipment used iran refine nuclear materials iran responded heavily investing cyberwarfare


capability began using united states ref name perlroth vulnerabilities attacks vulnerability weakness design implementation operation internal control vulnerabilities discovered documented common vulnerabilities exposures cve database ''exploitable'' vulnerability one least one working attack exploit exists vulnerabilities researched reverse engineered hunted exploited using automated tools customized scripts secure computer system important understand attacks made threats typically classified one


operating system computer denial service attack denial service attacks dos designed make machine network resource unavailable intended users attackers deny service individual victims deliberately entering wrong password enough consecutive times cause victim 's account locked may overload capabilities machine network block users network attack single ip address blocked adding new firewall rule many forms distributed denial service ddos attacks


protected standard security measures may bypassed booting another operating system tool cd rom bootable media disk encryption trusted platform module designed prevent attacks eavesdropping eavesdropping act surreptitiously listening private computer conversation communication typically hosts network instance programs carnivore narusinsight used fbi nsa eavesdrop systems internet service providers even machines operate closed system ie contact outside world eavesdropped upon


respectively although url bank 's webpage appears legitimate hyperlink points phisher 's webpage phishing attempt acquiring sensitive information usernames passwords credit card details directly users deceiving users phishing typically carried email spoofing instant messaging often directs users enter details fake website whose look feel almost identical legitimate one fake website often asks personal information log details passwords information used gain access


individual 's real account real website preying victim 's trust phishing classified form social engineering attackers using creative ways gain access real accounts common scam attackers send fake electronic invoices individuals showing recently purchased music apps instructing click link purchases authorized privilege escalation privilege escalation describes situation attacker level restricted access able without authorization elevate privileges access level


example standard computer user may able exploit vulnerability system gain access restricted data even become root full unrestricted access system reverse engineering reverse engineering process man made object deconstructed reveal designs code architecture extract knowledge object similar scientific research difference scientific research natural phenomenon ref name eilam ref side channel attack computational system affects environment form effect environment includes wide range


criteria range electromagnetic radiation residual effect ram cells consequent make cold boot attack possible hardware implementation faults allow access guessing values normally inaccessible side channel attack scenarios attacker would gather information system network guess internal state result access information assumed victim secure social engineering social engineering context computer security aims convince user disclose secrets passwords card


numbers etc grant physical access example impersonating senior executive bank contractor customer generally involves exploiting peoples trust relying cognitive biases common scam involves emails sent accounting finance department personnel impersonating ceo urgently requesting action early fbi reported business email compromise bec scams cost us businesses billion two years may milwaukee bucks nba team victim type cyber scam perpetrator impersonating team 's president


peter feigin resulting handover team 's employees' w tax forms spoofing spoofing act masquerading valid entity falsification data ip address username order gain access information resources one otherwise unauthorized obtain ref name techopedia ref several types spoofing including email spoofing attacker forges sending ''from'' source address email ip address spoofing attacker alters source ip address network packet hide identity impersonate another computing system


mac spoofing attacker modifies media access control mac address network interface controller obscure identity pose another biometric spoofing attacker produces fake biometric sample pose another user tampering tampering describes malicious modification alteration data called evil maid attacks security services planting surveillance capability routers examples malware malicious software malware installed computer leak personal information give control system attacker delete data permanently information security culture employee behavior


big impact information security organizations cultural concepts help different segments organization work effectively work effectiveness towards information security within organization information security culture totality patterns behavior organization contributes protection information kinds andersson reimers found employees often see part organization 's information security effort often take actions impede organizational changes ref name reimers k reimers andersson https libraryiatedorg view reimers pos post secondary education network security end user challenge evolving threats iceri proceedings pp ref


indeed verizon data breach investigations report examined security breaches discovered cyber security incidents involved internal actors within company research shows information security culture needs improved continuously information security culture analysis change authors commented 's never ending process cycle evaluation change maintenance manage information security culture five steps taken pre evaluation strategic planning operative planning implementation post evaluation ref name schlienger thomas ref pre evaluation identify awareness information security within employees analyze current security policies strategic planning come


better awareness program clear targets need set assembling team skilled professionals helpful achieve operative planning good security culture established based internal communication management buy security awareness training program ref name schlienger thomas implementation four stages used implement information security culture commitment management communication organizational members courses organizational members commitment employees ref name schlienger thomas post evaluation assess success planning implementation identify unresolved areas


concern systems risk growth number computer systems increasing reliance upon individuals businesses industries governments means increasing number systems risk financial systems computer systems financial regulators financial institutions like us securities exchange commission swift investment banks commercial banks prominent hacking targets cybercriminals interested manipulating markets making illicit gains websites apps accept store credit card numbers brokerage accounts bank account information also prominent hacking targets potential immediate


financial gain transferring money making purchases selling information black market store payment systems atms also tampered order gather customer account data pins utilities industrial equipment computers control functions many utilities including coordination telecommunications power grid nuclear power plants valve opening closing water gas networks internet potential attack vector machines connected stuxnet worm demonstrated even equipment controlled computers connected internet vulnerable computer emergency


readiness team division department homeland security investigated hacking incidents energy companies aviation aviation industry reliant series complex systems could attacked ref name computer security aviation p g neumann computer security aviation presented international conference aviation safety security st century white house commission safety security ref simple power outage one airport cause repercussions worldwide much system relies radio transmissions could disrupted controlling aircraft oceans especially dangerous radar surveillance


extends miles offshore also potential attack within aircraft europe pan european network service newpens us nextgen program air navigation service providers moving create dedicated networks consequences successful attack range loss confidentiality loss system integrity air traffic control outages loss aircraft even loss life consumer devices desktop computers laptops commonly targeted gather passwords financial account information construct botnet attack another target smartphones tablet


gain identity theft involve data breaches examples include loss millions clients' credit card details home depot staples target corporation recent breach equifax medical records targeted general identify theft health insurance fraud impersonating patients obtain prescription drugs recreational purposes resale although cyber threats continue increase organizations increase security training business attacks financially motivated however security firm hbgary federal suffered serious series attacks hacktivist group anonymous retaliation


firm 's ceo claiming infiltrated group sony pictures hacked apparent dual motive embarrassing company data leaks crippling company wiping workstations servers automobiles vehicles increasingly computerized engine timing cruise control anti lock brakes seat belt tensioners door locks airbags advanced driver assistance systems many models additionally connected cars may use wifi bluetooth communicate onboard consumer devices cell phone network ref name vox self driving cars expected even complex systems carry security


risk issues gained wide attention simple examples risk include malicious compact disc used attack vector car 's onboard microphones used eavesdropping however access gained car 's internal controller area network danger much greater ref name vox ref widely publicized test hackers remotely carjacked vehicle miles away drove ditch manufacturers reacting numerous ways tesla pushing security fixes air cars' computer systems area autonomous


physical vulnerabilities internet things iot network physical objects devices vehicles buildings embedded electronics software sensors network connectivity enables collect exchange data concerns raised developed without appropriate consideration security challenges involved iot creates opportunities direct integration physical world computer based systems also provides opportunities misuse particular internet things spreads widely cyberattacks likely become increasingly physical rather simply virtual threat


front door 's lock connected internet locked unlocked phone criminal could enter home press button stolen hacked phone people could stand lose much credit card numbers world controlled iot enabled devices thieves also used electronic means circumvent non internet connected hotel door locks attack targets physical infrastructure human lives sometimes referred cyber kinetic attack iot devices appliances gain currency cyber kinetic attacks become pervasive significantly damaging medical systems medical


devices either successfully attacked potentially deadly vulnerabilities demonstrated including hospital diagnostic equipment implanted devices including pacemakers insulin pumps many reports hospitals hospital organizations getting hacked including ransomware attacks ref name wiwo ref windows xp exploits viruses data breaches sensitive data stored hospital servers ref name wiwo december us food drug administration released recommendations medical device manufacturers maintain security internet connected devices structure enforcement energy sector distributed generation systems risk cyber attack


real according ''daily energy insider'' attack could cause loss power large area long period time attack could severe consequences natural disaster district columbia considering creating distributed energy resources der authority within city goal customers insight energy use giving local electric utility pepco chance better estimate energy demand dc proposal however would allow third party vendors create numerous points energy distribution


could potentially create opportunities cyber attackers threaten electric grid impact security breaches serious financial damage caused security breaches standard model estimating cost incident data available made public organizations involved several computer security consulting firms produce estimates total worldwide losses attributable virus worm attacks hostile digital acts general loss estimates firms range billion worms viruses billion forms


covert attacks reliability estimates often challenged underlying methodology basically anecdotal however reasonable estimates financial cost security breaches actually help organizations make rational investment decisions according classic gordon loeb model analyzing optimal investment level information security one conclude amount firm spends protect information generally small fraction expected loss ie expected value loss resulting cyber information security breach attacker motivation physical security motivations breaches computer security vary attackers


environments susceptible compromise led series proactive studies migrate risk taking consideration motivations types actors several stark differences exist hacker motivation nation state actors seeking attack based ideological preference standard part threat modeling particular system identify might motivate attack system might motivated breach level detail precautions vary depending system secured home personal computer


bank classified military network face different threats even underlying technologies use similar computer protection countermeasures computer security countermeasure action device procedure technique reduces threat vulnerability attack eliminating preventing minimizing harm cause discovering reporting corrective action taken ref name rfc internet security glossary ref ref name cnssi http wwwcnssgov assets pdf cnssi pdf cnss instruction dated april ref common countermeasures listed following sections security design security design alternately secure


design means software designed ground secure case security considered main feature techniques approach include principle least privilege part system privileges needed function way even attacker gains access part limited access whole system automated theorem proving prove correctness crucial software subsystems code reviews unit testing approaches make modules secure formal correctness proofs


possible defense depth design one subsystem needs violated compromise integrity system information holds default secure settings design fail secure rather fail insecure see fail safe equivalent safety engineering ideally secure system require deliberate conscious knowledgeable free decision part legitimate authorities order make insecure audit trails tracking system activity security breach occurs mechanism extent breach determined storing


audit trails remotely appended keep intruders covering tracks full disclosure vulnerabilities ensure window vulnerability kept short possible bugs discovered security architecture open security architecture organization defines security architecture design artifacts describe security controls security countermeasures positioned relate overall information technology architecture controls serve purpose maintain system 's quality attributes confidentiality integrity availability accountability assurance services techopedia defines security architecture unified security


design addresses necessities potential risks involved certain scenario environment also specifies apply security controls design process generally reproducible key attributes security architecture relationship different components depend determination controls based risk assessment good practices finances legal matters standardization controls practicing security architecture provides right foundation systematically address business security concerns organization security measures state computer security conceptual ideal attained use


three processes threat prevention detection response processes based various policies system components include following user account access controls cryptography protect systems files data respectively firewalls far common prevention systems network security perspective properly configured shield access internal network services block certain kinds attacks packet filtering firewalls hardware software based intrusion detection system ids products designed detect network attacks progress assist post attack forensics audit trails logs


serve similar function individual systems response necessarily defined assessed security requirements individual system may cover range simple upgrade protections notification legal authorities counter attacks like special cases complete destruction compromised system favored may happen compromised resources detected today computer security consists mainly preventive measures like firewalls exit procedure firewall defined way filtering network data host network another network


internet implemented software running machine hooking network stack case unix based operating systems linux built operating system kernel provide real time filtering blocking another implementation called physical firewall consists separate machine filtering network traffic firewalls common amongst machines permanently connected internet organizations turning big data platforms apache hadoop extend data accessibility machine learning detect advanced persistent threats however relatively organizations maintain computer


systems effective detection systems fewer still organized response mechanisms place result reuters points companies first time report losing electronic theft data physical stealing assets primary obstacle effective eradication cybercrime could traced excessive reliance firewalls automated detection systems yet basic evidence gathering using packet capture appliances puts criminals behind bars order ensure adequate security confidentiality integrity availability network better known cia triad must


protected considered foundation information security achieve objectives administrative physical technical security measures employed amount security afforded asset determined value known vulnerability management vulnerability management cycle identifying remediating mitigating vulnerabilities especially software firmware vulnerability management integral computer security network security vulnerabilities discovered vulnerability scanner analyzes computer system search known vulnerabilities open ports insecure software configuration susceptibility malware order


tools effective must kept date every new update vendors release typically updates scan new vulnerabilities introduced recently beyond vulnerability scanning many organizations contract outside security auditors run regular penetration tests systems identify vulnerabilities sectors contractual requirement reducing vulnerabilities formal verification correctness computer systems possible yet common operating systems formally verified include sel sysgo 's pikeos make small percentage


market two factor authentication method mitigating unauthorized access system sensitive information requires something know password pin something card dongle cellphone another piece hardware increases security unauthorized person needs gain access social engineering direct computer access physical attacks prevented non computer means difficult enforce relative sensitivity information training often involved help mitigate risk even highly disciplined environments eg military organizations social


engineering attacks still difficult foresee prevent inoculation derived inoculation theory seeks prevent social engineering fraudulent tricks traps instilling resistance persuasion attempts exposure similar related attempts possible reduce attacker 's chances keeping systems date security patches updates using security scanner hiring people expertise security though none guarantee prevention attack effects data loss damage reduced careful backing insurance hardware protection mechanisms hardware may


source insecurity microchip vulnerabilities maliciously introduced manufacturing process hardware based assisted computer security also offers alternative software computer security using devices methods dongles trusted platform modules intrusion aware cases drive locks disabling usb ports mobile enabled access may considered secure due physical access sophisticated backdoor access required order compromised covered detail usb dongles typically used software licensing schemes unlock software capabilities also seen way


prevent unauthorized access computer device 's software dongle key essentially creates secure encrypted tunnel software application key principle encryption scheme dongle advanced encryption standard aes provides stronger measure security since harder hack replicate dongle simply copy native software another machine use another security application dongles use accessing web based content cloud software virtual private networks vpns addition usb dongle


configured lock unlock computer trusted platform modules tpms secure devices integrating cryptographic capabilities onto access devices use microprocessors called computers chip tpms used conjunction server side software offer way detect authenticate hardware devices preventing unauthorized network data access computer case intrusion detection refers device typically push button switch detects computer case opened firmware bios programmed show alert operator computer booted next time drive locks essentially software tools


encrypt hard drives making inaccessible thieves tools exist specifically encrypting external drives well disabling usb ports security option preventing unauthorized malicious access otherwise secure computer infected usb dongles connected network computer inside firewall considered magazine network world common hardware threat facing computer networks disconnecting disabling peripheral devices like camera gps removable storage etc use mobile enabled access devices growing popularity due ubiquitous nature cell phones built capabilities


current international standard iso iec common criteria defines number progressively stringent evaluation assurance levels many common operating systems meet eal standard methodically designed tested reviewed formal verification required highest levels means uncommon example eal semiformally verified design tested system integrity b used airbus ref name darkreading ref several military jets ref name vita technologies magazine ref secure coding software engineering secure coding aims guard accidental introduction security vulnerabilities also possible create software


designed ground secure systems secure design beyond formal verification aims prove correctness algorithms underlying system important cryptographic protocols example capabilities access control lists within computer systems two main security models capable enforcing privilege separation access control lists acls role based access control rbac access control list acl respect computer file system list permissions associated object acl specifies users system processes granted access objects well


operations allowed given objects role based access control approach restricting system access authorized users used majority enterprises employees ref name autogenerated ref implement mandatory access control mac discretionary access control dac approach capability based security mostly restricted research operating systems capabilities however also implemented language level leading style programming essentially refinement standard object oriented design open source project area e language end user security training end user widely


recognized weakest link security chain estimated security incidents breaches involve kind human error among commonly recorded forms errors misjudgment poor password management sending emails containing sensitive data attachments wrong recipient inability recognize misleading urls identify fake websites dangerous email attachments common mistake users make saving user id password browsers make easier log banking sites gift attackers


obtained access machine means risk may mitigated use two factor authentication human component cyber risk particularly relevant determining global cyber risk organization facing security awareness training levels provides formal compliance regulatory industry mandates considered essential reducing cyber risk protecting individuals companies great majority cyber threats focus end user represents profound cultural change many security practitioners traditionally approached cybersecurity exclusively


technical perspective moves along lines suggested major security centers develop culture cyber awareness within organization recognizing security aware user provides important line defense cyber attacks digital hygiene related end user training '' 'digital hygiene''' '''cyber hygiene''' fundamental principle relating information security analogy personal hygiene shows equivalent establishing simple routine measures minimize risks cyber threats assumption good cyber hygiene practices give networked users another layer protection reducing risk one vulnerable


node used either mount attacks compromise another node network especially common cyberattacks ref name ref cyber hygiene also mistaken proactive cyber defence military term ref name ref opposed purely technology based defense threats cyber hygiene mostly regards routine measures technically simple implement mostly dependent discipline education thought abstract list tips measures demonstrated positive effect personal collective digital security measures performed laypeople


network may require logs various points network many countries may difficult time consuming obtain attack succeeds breach occurs many jurisdictions place mandatory security breach notification laws types security privacy access control anti keyloggers anti malware anti spyware anti subversion software anti tamper software anti theft antivirus software cryptographic software computer aided dispatch cad firewall intrusion detection system ids intrusion prevention system ips log management software parental control records management sandbox security information management security information event management siem software operating system updating vulnerability management incident response planning


allows organization establish series best practices stop intrusion causes damage typical incident response plans contain set written instructions outline organization 's response cyberattack without documented plan place organization may successfully detect intrusion compromise stakeholders may understand roles processes procedures escalation slowing organization 's response resolution four key components computer security incident response plan preparation preparing stakeholders procedures handling computer security incidents compromises detection


analysis identifying investigating suspicious activity confirm security incident prioritizing response based impact coordinating notification incident containment eradication recovery isolating affected systems prevent escalation limit impact pinpointing genesis incident removing malware affected systems bad actors environment restoring systems data threat longer remains post incident activity post mortem analysis incident root cause organization 's response intent improving incident response plan future response efforts notable attacks breaches illustrative


examples different types computer security breaches given robert morris first computer worm computers connected internet mainframes minicomputers professional workstations november many started slow running malicious code demanded processor time spread computers first internet computer worm ref name multiple jonathan zittrain 'the future internet' penguin books ref software traced back year old cornell university graduate student robert tappan morris said wanted count many


trusted rome center user tjx customer credit card details early american apparel home goods company tjx announced victim unauthorized computer systems intrusion hackers accessed system stored data credit card debit card check merchandise return transactions stuxnet attack computer worm known stuxnet reportedly ruined almost one fifth iran 's nuclear centrifuges disrupting industrial programmable logic controllers plcs targeted attack generally believed launched israel united states


target corporation computers stealing roughly million credit cards home depot computers stealing million credit card numbers warnings delivered corporations ignored physical security breaches using self checkout machines believed played large role malware utilized absolutely unsophisticated uninteresting says jim walter director threat intelligence operations security technology company mcafee meaning heists could easily stopped existing antivirus software administrators responded warnings size thefts resulted


major attention state federal united states authorities investigation ongoing office personnel management data breach april office personnel management discovered hacked year earlier data breach resulting theft approximately nbsp million personnel records handled office office personnel management hack described federal officials among largest breaches government data history united states data targeted breach included personally identifiable information social security numbers names dates places


judge eventually punish cybercrimes cybercriminals security firms agencies locate cybercriminal behind creation particular piece malware form cyber attack often local authorities cannot take action due lack laws prosecute ref name tedcom ref proving attribution cybercrimes cyberattacks also major problem law enforcement agencies computer viruses switch one country another one jurisdiction another moving around world using fact n't capability globally police operations like


internet someone given free plane tickets online criminals world ref name tedcom use techniques dynamic dns fast flux bullet proof servers add difficulty investigation enforcement role government role government make regulations force companies organizations protect systems infrastructure information cyberattacks also protect national infrastructure national power grid government 's regulatory role cyberspace complicated cyberspace seen virtual space


remain free government intervention seen many today 's libertarian blockchain bitcoin discussions ref name king ref ref many government officials experts think government crucial need improved regulation mainly due failure private sector solve efficiently cybersecurity problem r clarke said panel discussion rsa security conference san francisco believes industry responds threaten regulation industry n't respond threat follow ref name clarke


ref ref hand executives private sector agree improvements necessary think government intervention would affect ability innovate efficiently daniel r mccarthy analyzed public private partnership cybersecurity reflected role cybersecurity broader constitution political order may un security council held second ever informal meeting cybersecurity focus cyber challenges international peace according un secretary general ant nio guterres new technologies often used violate rights international actions many different teams organizations exist including forum


incident response security teams first global association csirts us cert apple cisco mcafee microsoft members international team council europe helps protect societies worldwide threat cybercrime convention cybercrime ref name european council ref purpose messaging anti abuse working group maawg bring messaging industry together work collaboratively successfully address various forms messaging abuse spam viruses denial service attacks messaging exploitations ref name maawg ref france telecom facebook apple cisco sprint members


default gdpr also requires certain organizations appoint data protection officer dpo national actions computer emergency response teams countries computer emergency response team protect network security canada since canada cybersecurity strategy ref name canada 's cyber security strategy ref functions counterpart document national strategy action plan critical infrastructure ref name government canada strategy three main pillars securing government systems securing vital private cyber systems helping canadians secure online ref name canada 's cyber security strategy ref name government canada ref


also cyber incident management framework provide coordinated response event cyber incident canadian cyber incident response centre ccirc responsible mitigating responding threats canada 's critical infrastructure cyber systems provides support mitigate cyber threats technical support respond recover targeted cyber attacks provides online tools members canada 's critical infrastructure sectors posts regular cybersecurity bulletins operates online reporting tool individuals organizations report cyber incident inform general public protect online public


state decision makers lsg created overcome incoherent policies overlapping responsibilities characterized china 's former cyberspace decision making mechanisms lsg oversees policy making economic political cultural social military fields relate network security strategy lsg also coordinates major policy initiatives international arena promote norms standards favored chinese government emphasizes principle national sovereignty cyberspace germany berlin starts national cyber defense initiative june german minister home affairs officially opened new german ncaz


national center cyber defense nationales cyber abwehrzentrum located bonn ncaz closely cooperates bsi federal office information security bundesamt f r sicherheit der informationstechnik bka federal police organisation bundeskriminalamt deutschland bnd federal intelligence service bundesnachrichtendienst mad military intelligence service amt f r den milit rischen abschirmdienst national organizations germany taking care national security aspects according minister primary task new organization founded february detect prevent attacks national infrastructure mentioned incidents like stuxnet germany also established largest research institution


security europe center research security privacy crisp darmstadt india provisions cybersecurity incorporated rules framed information technology act ref name orf ref national cyber security policy policy framework ministry electronics information technology meity aims protect public private infrastructure cyberattacks safeguard information personal information web users financial banking information sovereign data cert nodal agency monitors cyber threats country post national cyber security


coordinator also created prime minister 's office pmo indian companies act also introduced cyber law cybersecurity obligations part indian directors provisions cybersecurity incorporated rules framed information technology act update south korea following cyber attacks first half government news media television station bank websites compromised national government committed training new cybersecurity experts south korean government blamed northern counterpart attacks


well incidents occurred ref name south korean news agency yonhap ref pyongyang denies accusations ref name jun ref united states legislation computer fraud abuse act key legislation prohibits unauthorized access damage protected computers defined although various measures proposed none succeeded executive order ''improving critical infrastructure cybersecurity'' signed prompted creation nist cybersecurity framework response colonial pipeline ransomware attack president joe biden signed executive order


may increase software security standards sales government tighten detection security existing systems improve information sharing training establish cyber safety review board improve incident response standardized government testing services general services administration gsa standardized penetration test service pre vetted support service rapidly address potential vulnerabilities stop adversaries impact us federal state local governments services commonly referred highly adaptive cybersecurity services hacs agencies department homeland security dedicated division responsible


response system risk management program requirements cybersecurity united states called national cyber security division ref name csrdc faq division home us cert operations national cyber alert system ref name csrdc faq ref national cybersecurity communications integration center brings together government organizations responsible protecting computer networks networked infrastructure third priority federal bureau investigation fbi protect united states cyber based attacks high technology crimes ref name priorities ref along national white collar crime center nw c bureau justice assistance bja part multi agency


networks disasters aid swift recovery ensure first responders access effective communications services ref name fcc ref food drug administration issued guidance medical devices national highway traffic safety administration concerned automotive cybersecurity criticized government accountability office following successful attacks airports claimed attacks airplanes federal aviation administration devoted funding securing systems board planes private manufacturers aircraft communications addressing reporting system concerns also raised future next generation air


transportation system computer emergency readiness team computer emergency response team name given expert groups handle computer security incidents us two distinct organization exist although work closely together us cert part national cyber security division united states department homeland security ref name computerworld ref cert cc created defense advanced research projects agency darpa run software engineering institute sei modern warfare growing concern cyberspace become next theater warfare mark clayton ''the christian science monitor'' wrote article


titled new cyber arms race blockquote future wars fought soldiers guns planes drop bombs also fought click mouse half world away unleashes carefully weaponized computer programs disrupt destroy critical industries like utilities transportation communications energy attacks could also disable military networks control movement troops path jet fighters command control warships ref name new cyber arms race ref blockquote led new terms ''cyberwarfare'' ''cyberterrorism''


united states cyber command created ref name nakashima ref many countries similar forces critical voices question whether cybersecurity significant threat made careers cybersecurity fast growing field concerned reducing organizations' risk hack data breach according research enterprise strategy group organizations say problematic shortage cybersecurity skills commercial government non governmental organizations employ cybersecurity professionals fastest increases demand cybersecurity


workers industries managing increasing volumes consumer data finance health care retail however use term cybersecurity prevalent government job descriptions typical cybersecurity job titles descriptions include security analyst analyzes assesses vulnerabilities infrastructure software hardware networks investigates using available tools countermeasures remedy detected vulnerabilities recommends solutions best practices analyzes assesses damage data infrastructure result security incidents examines available recovery tools processes recommends solutions tests compliance security policies procedures may assist


tasks security analyst smaller organizations chief information security officer ciso high level management position responsible entire information security division staff position may include hands technical work chief security officer cso high level management position responsible entire security division staff newer position deemed needed security risks grow data protection officer dpo dpo tasked monitoring compliance uk gdpr data protection laws data protection policies awareness raising training audits security consultant specialist intelligence broad titles encompass one


known uk cyber security forum established supported government 's cybersecurity strategy order encourage start ups innovation address skills gap identified uk government singapore cyber security agency issued singapore operational technology ot cybersecurity competency framework otccf framework defines emerging cybersecurity roles operational technology otccf endorsed infocomm media development authority imda outlines different ot cybersecurity job positions well technical skills core competencies necessary also depicts many career paths available including vertical lateral


general practice disallow users power install install known reputable reduce attack surface installing possible typically run least privilege robust process place identify test install released security patches updates authentication techniques used ensure communication end points say automated theorem proving verification tools used enable critical algorithms code used secure systems mathematically proven


meet specifications backups one copies kept important computer files typically multiple copies kept different locations copy stolen damaged copies still exist capability access control list techniques used ensure privilege separation mandatory access control capabilities vs acls discusses use chain trust techniques used attempt ensure software loaded certified authentic system 's designers confidentiality nondisclosure information except another authorized person cryptographic techniques


used defend data transit systems reducing probability data exchange systems intercepted modified cyberwarfare internet based conflict involves politically motivated attacks information information systems attacks example disable official websites networks disrupt disable essential services steal alter classified data cripple financial systems data integrity accuracy consistency stored data indicated absence alteration data two updates data record cryptographic techniques involve transforming information scrambling becomes unreadable transmission


intended recipient unscramble message ideally eavesdroppers cannot encryption used protect confidentiality message cryptographically secure ciphers designed make practical attempt breaking infeasible symmetric key ciphers suitable bulk encryption using shared keys public key encryption using digital certificates provide practical solution problem securely communicating key shared advance endpoint security software aids networks preventing malware infection data theft network entry points made vulnerable prevalence potentially infected devices laptops mobile devices usb


drives firewalls serve gatekeeper system networks allowing traffic matches defined rules often include detailed logging may include intrusion detection intrusion prevention features near universal company local area networks internet also used internally impose traffic rules networks network segmentation configured hacker someone seeks breach defenses exploit weaknesses computer system network honey pots computers intentionally left vulnerable attack crackers used catch crackers identify


techniques intrusion detection systems devices software applications monitor networks systems malicious activity policy violations microkernel approach operating system design near minimum amount code running privileged level runs elements operating system device drivers protocol stacks file systems safer less privileged user space pinging standard ping application used test ip address use attackers may try port scan detect services exposed


port scan used probe ip address open ports identify accessible network services applications key logger spyware silently captures stores keystroke user types computer 's keyboard social engineering use deception manipulate individuals breach security logic bombs type malware added legitimate program lies dormant triggered specific event zero trust security means one trusted default inside outside network verification required everyone trying


gain access resources network notable scholars see also references reading jeremy bob yonah https wwwjpostcom israel news ex idf cyber intel official carry cyber offense attack ex idf cyber intel official reveals secrets behind cyber offense https wwwjpostcom jerusalem post branch j https wwwcambridgeorg core journals international organization article whats name metaphors cybersecurity faf e dfdb c ec 's name metaphors cybersecurity ''international organization'' fuller christopher j roots united states cyber security ''diplomatic history'' https eprintssotonacuk fuller roots cyber insecurity clean imagesdoc online montagnani maria lill cavallo mirta antonella july https ssrncom abstract cybersecurity liability big data world ssrn shariati et al procedia computer science https pdfsciencedirectassetscom x mainpdfx amz security token iqojb jpz lux vjeij f f f f f f f f f fweacxvzlwvhc qtmsjhmeuciqd z fuflsy bnmhcraiejgyz xgfvk kasfeifqgfoaigasqeyubiufa catz wfrcnq koa ar avdeyxgftaqtamiiracggwwntkwmdm ndy njuidapp fptzmzddvxnw cqraxoat fbzhw jgw sm wev wraqtce hcb bu cdvv mucoinmuorpy mdgvg ju bhf qpdjswsuzdcoehp fmuvgjsr vllipnndecltzonmiq ie bhjlzu nd shf gasheqw bwt fdlxcfv ynkttrmgglcbjpjmg k oab mliuqw wlus vr aw ycahvkxjmixnuvajygsazljdnvkmsc cy xy ovraualchzg hvvcbm ayszr qyu kpxpvmfhgc uctrdfhsrkyu jiias vf qmfh gqytxtqbmetanaei yvxynpy bcponwlkexvpx mjmhbf aqx telpbcj bk fpcvi bzbnuj yr kb f oc touemsqeuzktujmckuukbppgoa j eexku bzhfy fhv p n yhg bfcn rakfr mrllo w oaudmxg bxjykqt ftdslbdxmmuijdor ekffmzxci dq jhkq bawligvgf js dhfbns mpoenvefousbi qkdfyjmskym frehn bce enasukcqrkybxlncpzjb bzckgsjsy nhj zta ievv bez exry kynl flhxkx tczz bqv atnavq gfvjclfgrhtvfuovltq vybbp n r arw mvmizx kswxkk ljur qunxjfehofzoeaxc hmotfm mlijsgdqb jjr f rjoi gbr axvp z wdzemgm qhk pwp nc c dj uibdd fxplsoe kfuj cfqh pomfhhwwnzj wofznnht yl ojdda ihq yq bp bw x amz algorithm aws hmac sha x amz date z x amz signedheaders host x amz expires x amz credential asiaq phcvtyxfdheaeb f fus east fs faws request x amz signature ee f b dce dd f f f bc hash e f e cb f e e eb e bf fc host c ac b b f af c dfd afe c c c pii tid spdf ae ca fb bcb da c sid cb c c ab gxrqa type client enterprise information


'''computational complexity theory''' focuses classifying computational problems according resource usage relating classes computational problem task solved computer computation problem solvable mechanical application mathematical steps algorithm problem regarded inherently difficult solution requires significant resources whatever algorithm used theory formalizes intuition introducing mathematical models computation study problems quantifying computational complexity ie amount resources needed solve time storage measures

Formal science
Computer science
Theory of computation
Computational complexity theory


complexity also used amount communication used communication complexity number gates circuit used circuit complexity number processors used parallel computing one roles computational complexity theory determine practical limits computers cannot p versus np problem one seven millennium prize problems dedicated field computational complexity closely related fields theoretical computer science analysis algorithms computability theory key distinction analysis algorithms computational complexity theory


cities problem instances computational problem viewed infinite collection ''instances'' together set possibly empty ' 'solutions'' every instance input string computational problem referred problem instance confused problem computational complexity theory problem refers abstract question solved contrast instance problem rather concrete utterance serve input decision problem example consider problem primality testing instance number eg


solution yes number prime otherwise case prime answer stated another way ''instance'' particular input problem ' 'solution'' output corresponding given input highlight difference problem instance consider following instance decision version traveling salesman problem route kilometres passing germany 's largest cities quantitative answer particular problem instance little


use solving instances problem asking round trip sites milan whose total length nbsp km reason complexity theory addresses computational problems particular problem instances representing problem instances considering computational problems problem instance string alphabet usually alphabet taken binary alphabet ie set thus strings bitstrings real world computer mathematical objects bitstrings must suitably encoded example integers represented binary notation


graphs encoded directly via adjacency matrices encoding adjacency lists binary even though proofs complexity theoretic theorems regularly assume concrete choice input encoding one tries keep discussion abstract enough independent choice encoding achieved ensuring different representations transformed efficiently decision problems formal languages decision problem two possible outputs ''yes'' ''no'' alternately input decision problems one central objects study computational


complexity theory decision problem special type computational problem whose answer either ''yes'' ''no'' alternately either decision problem viewed formal language members language instances whose output yes non members instances whose output objective decide aid algorithm whether given input string member formal language consideration algorithm deciding problem returns answer ''yes'' algorithm said accept input


string otherwise said reject input example decision problem following input arbitrary graph problem consists deciding whether given graph connected formal language associated decision problem set connected graphs obtain precise definition language one decide graphs encoded binary strings function problems function problem computational problem single output total function expected every input output


complex decision problem output n't yes notable examples include traveling salesman problem integer factorization problem tempting think notion function problems much richer notion decision problems however really case since function problems recast decision problems example multiplication two integers expressed set triples ''a'' nbsp ''b'' nbsp ''c'' relation ''a'' nbsp nbsp ''b'' nbsp nbsp ''c'' holds deciding whether given triple member set corresponds solving


problem multiplying two numbers measuring size instance measure difficulty solving computational problem one may wish see much time best algorithm requires solve problem however running time may general depend instance particular larger instances require time solve thus time required solve problem space required measure complexity calculated function size instance usually taken size input bits complexity theory


interested algorithms scale increase input size instance problem finding whether graph connected much time take solve problem graph ''n'' vertices compared time taken graph ''n'' vertices input size ''n'' time taken expressed function ''n'' since time taken different inputs size different worst case time complexity ''n'' defined maximum time taken inputs


size ''n'' ''n'' polynomial ''n'' algorithm said polynomial time algorithm cobham 's thesis argues problem solved feasible amount resources admits polynomial time algorithm machine models complexity measures turing machine illustration turing machine turing machine mathematical model general computing machine theoretical device manipulates symbols contained strip tape turing machines intended practical computing technology rather general model computing


machine anything advanced supercomputer mathematician pencil paper believed problem solved algorithm exists turing machine solves problem indeed statement church turing thesis furthermore known everything computed models computation known us today ram machine conway 's game life cellular automata programming language computed turing machine since turing machines easy analyze mathematically believed powerful


turing machine deterministic turing machine extra supply random bits ability make probabilistic decisions often helps algorithms solve problems efficiently algorithms use random bits called randomized algorithms non deterministic turing machine deterministic turing machine added feature non determinism allows turing machine multiple possible future actions given state one way view non determinism turing machine branches many possible computational paths step solves problem branches said


solved problem clearly model meant physically realizable model theoretically interesting abstract machine gives rise particularly interesting complexity classes examples see non deterministic algorithm machine models many machine models different standard multi tape turing machines proposed literature example random access machines perhaps surprisingly models converted another without providing extra computational power time memory consumption alternate models may vary models common machines operate


deterministically however computational problems easier analyze terms unusual resources example non deterministic turing machine computational model allowed branch check many different possibilities non deterministic turing machine little physically want compute algorithms branching exactly captures many mathematical models want analyze non deterministic time important resource analyzing computational problems complexity measures precise definition means solve problem using given amount


time space computational model deterministic turing machine used ''time required'' deterministic turing machine ''m'' input ''x'' total number state transitions steps machine makes halts outputs answer yes turing machine ''m'' said operate within time ''f'' ''n'' time required ''m'' input length ''n'' ''f'' ''n'' decision problem ''a'' solved time ''f'' ''n'' exists turing machine operating time ''f'' ''n'' solves problem


average complexity defined respect probability distribution inputs instance inputs size assumed equally likely appear average case complexity defined respect uniform distribution inputs size ''n'' amortized analysis amortized analysis considers costly less costly operations together whole series operations algorithm worst case complexity complexity solving problem worst input size ''n'' order cheap costly best


average discrete uniform distribution amortized worst example consider deterministic sorting algorithm quicksort solves problem sorting list integers given input worst case pivot always largest smallest value list list never divided case algorithm takes time ''n'' sup sup assume possible permutations input list equally likely average time taken sorting ''n'' log ''n'' best case occurs pivoting divides list half also needing ''n''


log ''n'' time upper lower bounds complexity problems classify computation time similar resources space consumption helpful demonstrate upper lower bounds maximum amount time required efficient algorithm solve given problem complexity algorithm usually taken worst case complexity unless specified otherwise analyzing particular algorithm falls field analysis algorithms show upper bound ''t'' ''n'' time complexity problem one needs show


particular algorithm running time ''t'' ''n'' however proving lower bounds much difficult since lower bounds make statement possible algorithms solve given problem phrase possible algorithms includes algorithms known today algorithm might discovered future show lower bound ''t'' ''n'' problem requires showing algorithm time complexity lower ''t'' ''n'' upper lower bounds usually stated using big notation hides constant factors smaller terms makes bounds independent


specific details computational model used instance ''t'' ''n'' nbsp nbsp ''n'' sup sup nbsp nbsp ''n'' nbsp nbsp big notation one would write ''t'' ''n'' nbsp nbsp ''n'' sup sup complexity classes defining complexity classes '''complexity class''' set problems related complexity simpler complexity classes defined following factors type computational problem commonly used problems decision problems however complexity classes defined based function problems counting problems optimization problems promise problems etc model computation common model computation deterministic turing machine many complexity classes based non deterministic turing machines


machine model instance language ''xx'' ''x'' binary string solved linear time multi tape turing machine necessarily requires quadratic time model single tape turing machines allow polynomial variations running time cobham edmonds thesis states time complexities two reasonable general models computation polynomially related forms basis complexity class p set decision problems solvable deterministic turing machine within polynomial time corresponding set function problems fp important complexity classes


representation relation among complexity classes many important complexity classes defined bounding time space used algorithm important complexity classes decision problems defined manner following style vertical align top class wikitable complexity class model computation resource constraint colspan deterministic time dtime ''f'' ''n'' deterministic turing machine time ''f'' ''n'' nbsp nbsp nbsp p deterministic turing machine time poly ''n'' exptime deterministic turing machine time sup poly ''n'' sup


colspan non deterministic time ntime ''f'' ''n'' non deterministic turing machine time ''f'' ''n'' nbsp nbsp nbsp np non deterministic turing machine time poly ''n'' nexptime non deterministic turing machine time sup poly ''n'' sup class wikitable complexity class model computation resource constraint colspan deterministic space dspace ''f'' ''n'' deterministic turing machine space ''f'' ''n'' l deterministic turing machine space log ''n'' pspace deterministic turing machine space poly ''n'' expspace deterministic turing


machines ac nc defined using boolean circuits bqp qma defined using quantum turing machines p important complexity class counting problems decision problems classes like ip defined using interactive proof systems class decision problems hierarchy theorems complexity classes defined way desirable prove relaxing requirements say computation time indeed defines bigger set problems particular although dtime ''n'' contained dtime ''n'' sup sup would interesting know inclusion


strict time space requirements answer questions given time space hierarchy theorems respectively called hierarchy theorems induce proper hierarchy classes defined constraining respective resources thus pairs complexity classes one properly included deduced proper set inclusions proceed make quantitative statements much additional time space needed order increase number problems solved precisely time hierarchy theorem states


math mathsf dtime big f n big subsetneq mathsf dtime big f n sdot log f n big math space hierarchy theorem states math mathsf dspace big f n big subsetneq mathsf dspace big f n sdot log f n big math time space hierarchy theorems form basis separation results complexity classes instance time hierarchy theorem tells us p strictly contained exptime space hierarchy theorem tells us l strictly contained pspace reduction many complexity classes defined using concept reduction reduction transformation one problem another problem captures informal notion problem