though removed circumcision ref name external female reproductive system mons pubis highlighted internally male reproductive system starts testes hundreds seminiferous tubules produce sperm stored matured spermatozoon epididymis brought vas deferens leads away testes seminal vesicles sperm cells mixed fructose rich fluid seminal vesicles allowing sperm stay alive remain healthy brought ejaculatory duct prostate bulbourethral gland


mixed fluids said glands fluid prostate helps neutralize acidity vagina keep sperm alive mixture sperm accessory gland fluids called semen released urethra ejaculation almost entire internal male reproductive system works pairs two testes two epididymis two vas deferens two seminal vesicles two ejaculatory ducts two bulbourethral glands one prostate urethra ref name external female reproductive system also called vulva consists mons pubis fatty mass covers pubis

Natural science
Biology
Anatomy
Human anatomy


labia majora outer lips vagina labia minora inner lips vagina vaginal opening opens vagina penis inserted sexual intercourse children born urethral opening opening urethra carries urine bladder clitoris contains sensitive nerve endings humans use sexual pleasure located anus vagina perineum ref name internal gross anatomy female reproductive system internally female reproductive system contains two ovaries


uterus two fallopian tubes cervix birth female oocytes immature version egg cell ovaries combined though degenerates time puberty reached lifetime supply birth oocytes produced compared males sperm cells produced entire lifetime puberty menstrual cycle begins first time response low estrogen progesterone levels hypothalamus releases gonadotropin releasing hormone gnrh causes anterior pituitary gland release follicle stimulating hormone fsh


luteinizing hormone lh fsh stimulates ovarian follicles grow one dominant follicle eventually take continues grow releases estradiol stimulates lh secretion suppresses fsh secretion preventing follicular growth lh levels highest follicle ruptures releasing ovum process called ovulation moved one fallopian tubes ovulation portion follicle remains ovary transformed corpus luteum continues produce estrogen high levels progesterone progesterone causes endometrium


grow thick preparing implantation fertilized egg fertilization occurs corpus luteum continues secrete hormones placenta develops enough secrete necessary hormones maintaining pregnancy eventually corpus luteum turn corpus albicans essentially scar tissue fertilization fails corpus luteum degrade corpus albicans stop secreting enough progesterone estrogen causing endometrial lining break resulting menstruation ref name many diseases affect reproductive system polycystic ovary syndrome pcos characterized elevated androgen levels menstrual irregularities small cysts


one ovaries common disease affecting least adult women symptoms include excess body hair infertility weight gain male pattern baldness irregular menstruation another reproductive disease testicular torsion occurs spermatic cord holds testicle wraps around cutting blood flow testicle testicular torsion medical emergency result testicular death infertility treated immediately physically unwrapping spermatic cord testicle suffered severe damage may need surgically lateral


orchiectomy primary symptom testicular torsion severe testicular pain rest nausea vomiting may also occur testicular torsion occur age though common year olds sexually transmitted infections syphilis hiv chlamydia hpv genital warts spread sexual intercourse including oral vaginal anal sex many infections lethal left untreated though others mostly harmless cancer affect many parts reproductive system including penis testicles prostate ovaries cervix vagina fallopian uterus vulva respiratory system respiratory


system consists nose nasopharynx trachea lungs brings oxygen air excretes carbon dioxide water back air first air pulled trachea lungs diaphragm pushing creates vacuum air briefly stored inside small sacs known alveoli sing alveolus expelled lungs diaphragm contracts alveolus surrounded capillaries carrying deoxygenated blood absorbs oxygen air bloodstream ref name webmdcom https wwwwebmdcom lung breathe lungs respiratory system work ''web md'' accessed june


removes waste materials blood urine carries variety waste molecules excess ions water body first kidneys filter blood respective nephrons removing waste products like urea creatinine maintaining proper balance electrolytes turning waste products urine combining water blood kidneys filter quarts liters blood daily returned blood stream quarts liters ending urine urine brought ureters


kidneys bladder smooth muscle lining ureter walls continuously tighten relax process called peristalsis force urine away kidneys bladder small amounts urine released bladder every seconds bladder hollow balloon shaped organ located pelvis stores urine brain signals relax urinary sphincter release urine urethra starting urination normal bladder hold ounces half liter hours comfortably numerous diseases affect


urinary system including kidney stones formed materials urine concentrate enough form solid mass urinary tract infections infections urinary tract cause pain urinating frequent urination even death left untreated renal failure occurs kidneys fail adequately filter waste blood lead death treated dialysis kidney transplantation cancer affect bladder kidneys urethra ureters latter two far rare anatomy cavities human body human anatomy study


shape form human body human body four limbs two arms two legs head neck connect torso body 's shape determined strong skeleton made bone cartilage surrounded fat muscle connective tissue organs structures spine back skeleton contains flexible vertebral column surrounds spinal cord collection nerve fibres connecting brain rest body nerves connect spinal cord brain rest body


body blood brain barrier lungs sit pleural cavity intestines liver spleen sit abdominal cavity height weight shape body proportions vary individually age sex body shape influenced distribution bones muscle fat tissue ref name bartleby ref physiology human physiology study human body functions includes mechanical physical bioelectrical biochemical functions humans good health organs cells composed human body consists many interacting systems organs interact


maintain homeostasis keeping body stable state safe levels substances sugar oxygen blood ref name ul ref system contributes homeostasis systems entire body combined systems referred joint names example nervous system endocrine system operate together neuroendocrine system nervous system receives information body transmits brain via nerve impulses neurotransmitters time endocrine system releases hormones help regulate blood pressure volume together systems


regulate internal environment body maintaining blood flow posture energy supply temperature acid balance ph ref name ul development baby carried development human body process growth maturity process begins fertilisation egg released ovary female penetrated sperm egg lodges uterus embryo later fetus develop birth growth development occur birth include physical psychological development influenced genetic hormonal environmental factors development growth continue throughout life childhood adolescence


polykleitos wrote ''canon'' ideal proportions male nude ref name stewart ref italian renaissance artists piero della francesca c onwards including leonardo da vinci collaborator luca pacioli c learnt wrote rules art including visual perspective proportions human body history anatomy two facing pages text woodcuts naked male female figures ''epitome'' andreas vesalius ancient greece ''hippocratic corpus'' described anatomy skeleton muscles nd century physician galen pergamum compiled


classical knowledge anatomy text used throughout middle ages ref name britbrit galen ref renaissance andreas vesalius pioneered modern study human anatomy dissection writing influential book ''de humani corporis fabrica'' anatomy advanced invention microscope study cellular structure tissues organs ref name britmicro ref modern anatomy uses techniques magnetic resonance imaging computed tomography fluoroscopy ultrasound imaging study body unprecedented detail history physiology study human physiology began hippocrates ancient greece around bce


aristotle bce applied critical thinking emphasis relationship structure function galen ca first use experiments probe body 's functions term physiology introduced french physician jean fernel ref name nmt th century william harvey described circulatory system pioneering combination close observation careful experiment th century physiological knowledge began accumulate rapid rate cell theory matthias schleiden theodor schwann organisms made cells ref name nmt ref claude bernard created


concept ''milieu interieur'' internal environment walter cannon later said regulated steady state homeostasis th century physiologists knut schmidt nielsen george bartholomew extended studies comparative physiology ecophysiology recently evolutionary physiology become distinct subdiscipline see also outline human anatomy organ system references books last boitano first scott last brooks first heddwen l last barman first susan last barrett first kim e external links '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwwdlorg en item book humans '' late th early th centuries https webarchiveorg web http wwwinnerbodycom inner body http linklibraryutorontoca anatomia anatomia anatomical plates thomas fisher rare book library


clusters cholera cases london epidemic classical case using human geography '''human geography''' '''anthropogeography''' branch geography associated deals humans relationships communities cultures economies interactions environment studying relations across locations ref name hgdict ref analyzes patterns human social interaction interactions environment spatial interdependencies application qualitative quantitative research methods history geography recognized formal academic discipline th century although many scholars undertaken

Social science
Geography
Human geography


geographical scholarship much longer particularly cartography royal geographical society founded england although united kingdom get first full chair geography first real geographical intellect emerge united kingdom 's geographical minds halford john mackinder appointed reader oxford university national geographic society founded united states began publication ''national geographic'' magazine became continues great popularizer geographic information society long supported geographic research education geographical topics


association american geographers founded renamed american association geographers better reflect increasingly international character membership one first examples geographic methods used purposes describe theorize physical properties earth john snow 's map broad street cholera outbreak though snow primarily physician pioneer epidemiology rather geographer map probably one earliest examples health geography fairly distinct differences subfields


physical human geography developed later date connection physical human properties geography apparent theory environmental determinism made popular th century carl ritter others close links field evolutionary biology time environmental determinism theory people 's physical mental moral habits directly due influence natural environment however mid th century environmental determinism attack lacking methodological rigor associated modern science later means justify


regional geography due perceived lack scientific rigor overly descriptive nature discipline continued separation geography two subfields physical human geography geology geographers mid th century began apply statistical mathematical models order solve spatial problems ref name hgdict much development quantitative revolution apparent use geographic information systems use statistics spatial modeling positivist approaches still important many branches human geography well known geographers period fred k


changes critical geography led contemporary approaches discipline feminist geography new cultural geography settlement geography demonic geographies engagement postmodern post structural theories philosophies fields primary fields study human geography focus around core fields cultures cultural geography study cultural products norms variation across spaces places well relations focuses describing analyzing ways language religion economy government cultural phenomena vary remain constant one place another explaining


humans function spatially picture shows terraced rice agriculture asia subfields include social geography animal geographies language geography sexuality space children 's geographies religion geography development development geography study earth 's geography reference standard living quality life human inhabitants study location distribution spatial organization economic activities across earth subject matter investigated strongly influenced researcher 's methodological approach economies street bazaar market myanmar economic geography examines relationships human economic systems states factors


past place region changes time many historical geographers study geographical patterns time including people interacted environment created cultural landscape politics political geography concerned study spatially uneven outcomes political processes ways political processes affected spatial structures subfields include electoral geography geopolitics strategic geography military geography population population geography study ways spatial variations distribution composition migration growth populations related environment


location settlement settlement geography including urban geography study urban rural areas specific regards spatial relational theoretical aspects settlement study areas concentration buildings infrastructure areas majority economic activities secondary sector tertiary sectors case urban settlement probably high population density urbanism urban geography study cities towns areas relatively dense settlement two main interests site settlement positioned relative


physical environment situation settlement positioned relative settlements another area interest internal organization urban areas regard different demographic groups layout infrastructure subdiscipline also draws ideas branches human geography see involvement processes patterns evident urban area ref name palm ref subfields include economic geography population geography settlement geography clearly subfields could used assist study urban geography major players ref name palm philosophical


theoretical approaches within subfields various philosophical approaches used research therefore urban geographer could feminist marxist geographer etc approaches animal geographies behavioral geography cognitive geography critical geography feminist geography marxist geography non representational theory positivism postcolonialism poststructuralist geography psychoanalytic geography psychogeography spatial analysis time geography list notable human geographers journals social sciences human geographers publish research written work variety academic journals whilst human geography interdisciplinary number journals focus human geography include ''acme


https worldmapperorg worldmapper mapping project using social data sets anthropology branches geography environmental social science


rain scottish catchment understanding cycling water catchments key element hydrology '''hydrology''' greek ''h r'' meaning water ''l gos'' meaning study scientific study movement distribution management water earth planets including water cycle water resources environmental watershed sustainability practitioner hydrology called '''hydrologist''' hydrologists scientists studying earth environmental science civil environmental engineering physical geography ref name usgs ref using various analytical methods scientific techniques collect analyze data help


solve water related problems environmental preservation natural disasters water management ref name usgs hydrology subdivides surface water hydrology groundwater hydrology hydrogeology marine hydrology domains hydrology include hydrometeorology surface hydrology hydrogeology drainage basin management water quality water plays central role oceanography meteorology included water one many important aspects within fields hydrological research inform environmental engineering policy planning branches chemical hydrology study chemical characteristics water ecohydrology study interactions organisms hydrologic cycle


floods protection water quality includes chemistry water rivers lakes pollutants natural solutes applications calculation rainfall calculating surface runoff precipitation determining water balance region determining agricultural water balance designing riparian restoration projects mitigating predicting flood landslide drought risk real time flood forecasting flood warning designing irrigation schemes managing agricultural productivity part hazard module catastrophe modeling providing drinking water designing dams water supply hydroelectric power generation designing bridges designing sewers urban drainage system analyzing impacts antecedent


moisture sanitary sewer systems predicting geomorphologic changes erosion sedimentation assessing impacts natural anthropogenic environmental change water resources assessing contaminant transport risk establishing environmental policy guidelines estimating water resource potential river basins history roman aqueduct caesarea maritima bringing water wetter carmel mountains settlement hydrology subject investigation engineering millennia example bc nile dammed improve agricultural productivity previously barren lands mesopotamian towns protected flooding high earthen walls aqueducts


built greeks romans history shows chinese built irrigation flood control works ancient sinhalese used hydrology build complex irrigation works sri lanka also known invention valve pit allowed construction large reservoirs anicuts canals still function marcus vitruvius first century bc described philosophical theory hydrologic cycle precipitation falling mountains infiltrated earth 's surface led streams springs lowlands adoption scientific approach leonardo da vinci


bernard palissy independently reached accurate representation hydrologic cycle th century hydrologic variables began quantified pioneers modern science hydrology include pierre perrault edme mariotte edmund halley measuring rainfall runoff drainage area perrault showed rainfall sufficient account flow seine mariotte combined velocity river cross section measurements obtain discharge value seine halley showed evaporation mediterranean sea sufficient account outflow rivers flowing sea advances


th century included bernoulli piezometer bernoulli 's equation daniel bernoulli pitot tube henri pitot th century saw development groundwater hydrology including darcy 's law dupuit thiem well formula hagen poiseuille 's capillary flow equation rational analyses began replace empiricism th century governmental agencies began hydrological research programs particular importance leroy sherman 's unit hydrograph infiltration theory robert e horton cv theis' aquifer test equation describing well hydraulics since hydrology approached theoretical basis past facilitated


advances physical understanding hydrological processes advent computers especially geographic information systems gis see also gis hydrology themes central theme hydrology water circulates throughout earth different pathways different rates vivid image evaporation water ocean forms clouds clouds drift land produce rain rainwater flows lakes rivers aquifers water lakes rivers aquifers either evaporates back atmosphere eventually flows


back ocean completing cycle water changes state several times throughout cycle areas research within hydrology concern movement water various states within given state simply quantifying amounts states given region parts hydrology concern developing methods directly measuring flows amounts water others concern modeling processes either scientific knowledge making prediction practical applications groundwater building map groundwater contours ground water water beneath earth 's surface often


pumped drinking water ref name usgs groundwater hydrology hydrogeology considers quantifying groundwater flow solute transport problems describing saturated zone include characterization aquifers terms flow direction groundwater pressure inference groundwater depth see aquifer test measurements made using piezometer aquifers also described terms hydraulic conductivity storativity transmissivity number geophysical methods ref name vereecken characterizing aquifers also problems characterizing vadose zone unsaturated zone ref name wilson infiltration infiltration process water enters soil


water absorbed rest percolates water table infiltration capacity maximum rate soil absorb water depends several factors layer already saturated provides resistance proportional thickness plus depth water soil provides driving force hydraulic head dry soil allow rapid infiltration capillary action force diminishes soil becomes wet compaction reduces porosity pore sizes surface cover increases capacity retarding runoff reducing compaction processes


higher temperatures reduce viscosity increasing infiltration ref name reddy ref soil moisture soil moisture measured various ways capacitance probe time domain reflectometer tensiometer methods include solute sampling geophysical methods surface water flow flood hydrograph showing stage shawsheen river wilmington hydrology considers quantifying surface water flow solute transport although treatment flows large rivers sometimes considered distinct topic hydraulics hydrodynamics surface water flow include flow recognizable river channels otherwise methods measuring flow water reached


river include stream gauge see discharge tracer techniques topics include chemical transport part surface water sediment transport erosion one important areas hydrology interchange rivers aquifers groundwater surface water interactions streams aquifers complex direction net water flux surface water aquifer may vary spatially along stream channel time particular location depending relationship stream stage groundwater levels precipitation evaporation standard noaa rain gauge considerations


hydrology thought starting land atmosphere boundary important adequate knowledge precipitation evaporation precipitation measured various ways disdrometer precipitation characteristics fine time scale radar cloud properties rain rate estimation hail snow detection rain gauge routine accurate measurements rain snowfall satellite rainy area identification rain rate estimation land cover land use soil moisture example evaporation important part water cycle partly affected humidity measured sling psychrometer


reveal movement water due changes total mass remote sensing hydrologic processes provide information locations ''in situ'' sensors may unavailable sparse also enables observations large spatial extents many variables constituting terrestrial water balance example surface water storage soil moisture precipitation evapotranspiration snow ice measurable using remote sensing various spatial temporal resolutions accuracies sources remote sensing include land based sensors airborne sensors satellite sensors capture microwave thermal near infrared data use lidar example water quality


hydrology studies water quality concern organic inorganic compounds dissolved sediment material addition water quality affected interaction dissolved oxygen organic material various chemical transformations may take place measurements water quality may involve either situ methods analyses take place site often automatically laboratory based analyses may include microbiological analysis integrating measurement modelling budget analyses parameter estimation scaling time space data assimilation quality control data see example double mass analysis prediction observations hydrologic processes


used make predictions future behavior hydrologic systems water flow water quality one major current concerns hydrologic research prediction ungauged basins pub ie basins data exist statistical hydrology analyzing statistical properties hydrologic records rainfall river flow hydrologists estimate future hydrologic phenomena making assessments often relatively rare events occur analyses made terms return period events quantities interest include average flow river


year season estimates important engineers economists proper risk analysis performed influence investment decisions future infrastructure determine yield reliability characteristics water supply systems statistical information utilized formulate operating rules large dams forming part systems include agricultural industrial residential demands modeling plan view simulated water flow catchment using shetran hydrological model hydrological models simplified conceptual representations part hydrologic cycle primarily used hydrological prediction


understanding hydrological processes within general field scientific modeling two major types hydrological models distinguished models based data models black box systems using mathematical statistical concepts link certain input instance rainfall model output instance runoff commonly used techniques regression transfer functions system identification simplest models may linear models common deploy non linear components represent general aspects catchment 's response without going deeply real physical processes involved example


aspect well known behavior catchment respond much quickly strongly already wet dry models based process descriptions models try represent physical processes observed real world typically models contain representations surface runoff subsurface flow evapotranspiration channel flow far complicated within category models divided conceptual deterministic conceptual models link simplified representations hydrological processes area whereas deterministic models seek resolve much physics


system possible models subdivided single event models continuous simulation models recent research hydrological modeling tries global approach understanding behavior hydrologic systems make better predictions face major challenges water resources management transport water movement significant means materials soil gravel boulders pollutants transported place place initial input receiving waters may arise point source discharge line source area source surface runoff since


states noaa 's national weather service office hydrologic development usa us army corps engineers hydrologic engineering center usa hydrologic research center usa noaa economics social sciences united states university oklahoma center natural hazards disasters research usa national hydrology research centre canada national institute hydrology india national international societies american institute hydrology aih geological society america gsa hydrogeology division american geophysical union agu hydrology section national ground water association ngwa american water resources association consortium universities advancement hydrologic science inc cuahsi international association


hydrological sciences iahs statistics hydrology working group subgroup iahs german hydrological society dhg deutsche hydrologische gesellschaft italian hydrological society sii ihs http wwwsii ihsit nordic association hydrology british hydrological society russian geographical society moscow center hydrology commission international association environmental hydrology international association hydrogeologists http sohamorgnp society hydrologists meteorologists nepal basin catchment wide overviews connected waters initiative university new south wales investigating raising awareness groundwater water resource issues australia murray darling basin initiative department environment heritage australia research journals http wwwindersciencecom jhomephpjcode ijhst international


journal hydrology science technology ''hydrological processes'' electronic paper john wiley sons ''hydrology research'' iwa publishing formerly ''nordic hydrology'' ''journal hydroinformatics'' iwa publishing ''journal hydrologic engineering'' asce publication ''journal hydrology'' ''water research'' ''water resources research'' ''hydrological sciences journal '' ''journal international association hydrological sciences'' '' iahs '' print online see also aqueous solution climatology environmental engineering science green kenue software tool hydrologic modellers hydraulics hydrography hydrology agriculture international hydrological programme nash sutcliffe model efficiency coefficient outline hydrology socio hydrology soil science water distribution earth


weap water evaluation planning software model catchment hydrology climate land use data catchment hydrology water related fields oceanography general study water oceans estuaries meteorology general study atmosphere weather including precipitation snow rainfall limnology study lakes rivers wetlands ecosystems covers biological chemical physical geological attributes inland waters running standing waters fresh saline natural man made ref name wetzel water resources sources water useful


potentially useful hydrology studies availability resources usually uses references ref ref name vereecken ref ref name wetzel wetzel rg ''limnology lake river ecosystems'' rd ed academic press ref reading eslamian ed handbook engineering hydrology vol fundamentals applications francis taylor crc group pages usa eslamian ed handbook engineering hydrology vol modeling climate change variability francis taylor crc group pages usa eslamian ed handbook engineering hydrology vol environmental hydrology water management francis taylor crc group


pages usa external links http wwwhydrologynl hydrologynl portal international hydrology water resources https webarchiveorg web http floodrisknet decision tree choose uncertainty method hydrological hydraulic modelling http wwwexperimental hydrologynet experimental hydrology wiki hydraulic engineering environmental engineering environmental science physical geography


computer monitor provides visual interface machine user '''human computer interaction''' '''hci''' research design use computer technology focuses interfaces people users computers hci researchers observe ways humans interact computers design technologies allow humans interact computers novel ways field research human computer interaction situated intersection computer science behavioral sciences design media studies several fields study term popularized stuart k card allen newell thomas p moran

Formal science
Computer science
Human-computer interaction


humans interact computers many ways interface two crucial facilitating interaction hci also sometimes termed ''human machine interaction'' hmi ''man machine interaction'' mmi ''computer human interaction'' chi desktop applications internet browsers handheld computers computer kiosks make use prevalent graphical user interfaces gui today ref name acm sigchi ref voice user interfaces vui used speech recognition synthesizing systems emerging multi modal graphical user interfaces gui allow humans engage embodied character agents way cannot achieved interface paradigms growth human computer


interaction field led increase quality interaction resulted many new areas research beyond instead designing regular interfaces different research branches focus concepts multimodality unimodality intelligent adaptive interfaces command action based ones active interfaces passive interfaces association computing machinery acm defines human computer interaction discipline concerned design evaluation implementation interactive computing systems human use study major phenomena surrounding ref name acm sigchi important facet hci user satisfaction end user


success poorly designed human machine interfaces lead many unexpected problems classic example three mile island accident nuclear meltdown accident investigations concluded design human machine interface least partly responsible disaster ref name cognitive ergonomics ref name nrc backgrounder three mile island accident ref name three mile island similarly accidents aviation resulted manufacturers' decisions use non standard flight instruments throttle quadrant layouts even though new designs proposed superior basic human machine interaction pilots already ingrained standard


layout thus conceptually good idea unintended results human computer interface human computer interface described point communication human user computer flow information human computer defined ''loop interaction'' loop interaction several aspects including '''visual based''' visual based human computer interaction probably widespread human computer interaction hci research area '''audio based''' audio based interaction computer human another important area hci systems area deals information acquired different audio signals '''''task


pass human interface computer back '''''fit''''' matches computer design user task optimize human resources needed accomplish task goals computers human computer interaction studies ways humans make make use computational artifacts systems infrastructures much research field seeks ''improve'' human computer interaction improving ''usability'' computer interfaces ref name grudin usability ref usability precisely understood relates social cultural values may


desirable property computer interfaces increasingly debated much research field human computer interaction takes interest methods designing new computer interfaces thereby optimizing design desired property learnability findability efficiency use methods implementing interfaces eg means software libraries methods evaluating comparing interfaces respect usability desirable properties methods studying human computer use sociocultural implications broadly methods determining whether user human computer models theories human computer


use well conceptual frameworks design computer interfaces cognitivist user models activity theory ethnomethodological accounts human computer use perspectives critically reflect upon values underlie computational design computer use hci research practice visions researchers field seek achieve might vary pursuing cognitivist perspective researchers hci may seek align computer interfaces mental model humans activities pursuing post cognitivist perspective researchers hci may seek align computer interfaces existing social practices existing sociocultural values


researchers hci interested developing design methodologies experimenting devices prototyping software hardware systems exploring interaction paradigms developing models theories interaction design principles displays eg graphical user interface user interacts computer software interface using given input output ''i o'' hardware br software hardware matched processing user input fast enough latency computer output disruptive workflow following experimental design principles considered evaluating current user interface designing


user typical human computer interaction may always represented quantitative usability specifics number users performing task time complete task number errors made task determined iterative design determining users tasks empirical measurements include following iterative design steps performed design user interface test analyze results repeat iterative design process repeated sensible user friendly interface created ref name engineering methodologies various strategies delineating methods human pc interaction design developed since


conception field plan philosophies come model clients originators specialized frameworks interface early techniques treated clients' psychological procedures unsurprising quantifiable urged plan specialists look subjective science establish zones example memory consideration structuring uis present day models general center around steady input discussion clients creators specialists push specialized frameworks folded sorts encounters clients need opposed wrapping user experience around finished framework activity theory utilized hci


characterize consider setting human cooperations pcs occur action hypothesis gives structure reasoning activities specific circumstances illuminates design interactions action driven perspective ref name interaction design user centered design ucd cutting edge broadly rehearsed plan theory established possibility clients must become overwhelming focus plan pc framework clients architects specialized experts cooperate determine requirements restrictions client make framework support components frequently client focused plans informed ethnographic investigations situations clients associate


framework training like participatory design underscores likelihood end clients contribute effectively shared plan sessions workshops principles ui design standards may considered design client interface resistance effortlessness permeability affordance consistency structure feedback ref name mit value sensitive design vsd technique building innovation accounts individuals utilize design straightforwardly well design influences either directly indirectly vsd utilizes iterative plan process includes three kinds examinations theoretical exact specialized applied examinations


target understanding articulation different parts design qualities clashes may emerge users design exact examinations subjective quantitative plans explore things used advise creators' understanding regarding clients' qualities needs practices specialized examinations include either investigation individuals use related advances framework plans ref name value sensitive design display designs displays human made artifacts designed support perception relevant system variables facilitate processing information display designed task


display intended support must defined eg navigating controlling decision making learning entertaining etc user operator must able process whatever information system generates displays therefore information must displayed according principles support perception situation awareness understanding thirteen principles display design christopher wickens et al defined principles display design book ''an introduction human factors engineering'' ref name introduction principles human perception information processing utilized create effective display design reduction errors reduction required training time


gain'' signal presented likely understood correctly done presenting signal alternative physical forms eg color shape voice print etc redundancy imply repetition traffic light good example redundancy color position redundant '' similarity causes confusion use distinguishable elements'' signals appear similar likely confused ratio similar features different features causes signals similar example b similar b


unnecessarily similar features removed dissimilar features highlighted mental model principles '' principle pictorial realism'' display look like variable represents eg high temperature thermometer shown higher vertical level multiple elements configured manner looks like would represented environment '' principle moving part'' moving elements move pattern direction compatible user 's mental model actually moves system example moving element altimeter


move upward increasing altitude principles based attention '' minimizing information access cost'' interaction cost user 's attention diverted one location another access necessary information associated cost time effort display design minimize cost allowing frequently accessed sources located nearest possible position however adequate legibility sacrificed reduce cost '' proximity compatibility principle'' divided attention two information sources may necessary completion one task sources must mentally integrated defined


close mental proximity information access costs low achieved many ways eg proximity linkage common colors patterns shapes etc however close display proximity harmful causing much clutter '' principle multiple resources'' user easily process information across different resources example visual auditory information presented simultaneously rather presenting visual auditory information memory principles '' replace memory visual information knowledge world'' user need retain important information solely working memory retrieve long term memory


menu checklist another display aid user easing use memory however memory use may sometimes benefit user eliminating need reference knowledge globally eg expert computer operator would rather use direct commands memory refer manual use knowledge user 's head knowledge world must balanced effective design '' principle predictive aiding'' proactive actions usually effective reactive actions display eliminate resource demanding cognitive tasks replace simpler perceptual tasks reduce


user 's mental resources allow user focus current conditions consider possible future conditions example predictive aid road sign displaying distance certain destination '' principle consistency'' old habits displays easily transfer support processing new displays designed consistently user 's long term memory trigger actions expected appropriate design must accept fact utilize consistency among different displays current research topics human computer interaction include following''' ''' social computing social computing


interactive collaborative behavior considered technology people recent years explosion social science research focusing interactions unit analysis lot social computing technologies include blogs emails social networking quick messaging various others much research draws psychology social psychology sociology example one study found people expected computer man 's name cost machine woman 's name ref name posard ref research finds individuals perceive interactions computers negatively


humans despite behaving way towards machines ref name posardrinderknecht ref knowledge driven human computer interaction human computer interactions semantic gap usually exists human computer 's understandings towards mutual behaviors ontology formal representation domain specific knowledge used address problem solving semantic ambiguities two parties emotions human computer interaction interaction humans computers research studied computers detect process react human emotions develop emotionally intelligent information systems researchers suggested several 'affect detection channels' potential telling human emotions automated


allows bidirectional information flow bcis often directed researching mapping assisting augmenting repairing human cognitive sensory motor functions ref name krucoff ref factors change traditionally computer use modeled human computer dyad two connected narrow explicit communication channel text based terminals much work done make interaction computing system human reflective multidimensional nature everyday communication potential issues human computer interaction shifted focus beyond interface respond observations articulated engelbart


ease use valid criterion people would stick tricycles never try bicycles humans interact computers continues evolve rapidly human computer interaction affected developments computing forces include decreasing hardware costs leading larger memory faster systems miniaturization hardware leading portability reduction power requirements leading portability new display technologies leading packaging computational devices new forms specialized hardware leading new functions increased development network communication distributed computing increasingly widespread use computers especially people outside


computing profession increasing innovation input techniques eg voice gesture pen combined lowering cost leading rapid computerization people formerly left ''computer revolution'' wider social concerns leading improved access computers currently disadvantaged groups future hci expected include following characteristics ''ubiquitous computing communication'' computers expected communicate high speed local networks nationally wide area networks portably via infrared ultrasonic cellular technologies data computational services portably accessible many locations user travels ''high functionality systems'' systems


large numbers functions associated many systems users technical non technical time learn traditionally eg thick user manuals ''the mass availability computer graphics'' computer graphics capabilities image processing graphics transformations rendering interactive animation become widespread inexpensive chips become available inclusion general workstations mobile devices ''mixed media'' commercial systems handle images voice sounds video text formatted data exchangeable communication links among users separate consumer electronics fields eg stereo sets dvd players televisions


present desktop workstations ''information utilities'' public information utilities home banking shopping specialized industry services eg weather pilots expected proliferate proliferation rate accelerate introduction high bandwidth interaction improvement quality interfaces scientific conferences one main conferences new research human computer interaction annually held association computing machinery 's acm ''conference human factors computing systems'' usually referred short name chi pronounced ''kai'' ''khai'' chi organized acm special interest group computer human interaction sigchi chi


large conference thousands attendants quite broad scope attended academics practitioners industry people company sponsors google microsoft paypal also dozens smaller regional specialized hci related conferences held around world year including aceicfaasrs ace international conference future applications ai sensors robotics society assets acm international conference computers accessibility cscw acm conference computer supported cooperative work cc aarhus decennial conference critical computing dis acm conference designing interactive systems ecscw european conference computer supported


international conference intelligent human computer interaction see also outline human computer interaction information design information architecture user experience design mindfulness technology captcha digital live art turing test hci bibliography web based project provide bibliography human computer interaction literature footnotes ref ref name engineering green paul iterative design lecture presented industrial operations engineering human factors computer systems university michigan ann arbor mi february ref ref name evaluating impact office automation top management communication ref ref name value sensitive design friedman b kahn jr p h borning kahn p h


value sensitive design information systems human computer interaction management information systems foundations sharpe new york ref ref name guidelines brown c marlin human computer interface design guidelines intellect books ref ref name interaction design kaptelinin victor ''activity theory'' soegaard mads dam rikke friis eds encyclopedia human computer interaction interaction designorg foundation available online http wwwinteraction designorg encyclopedia activity theoryhtml http wwwinteraction designorg encyclopedia activity theoryhtml ref ref name introduction wickens christopher john lee yili liu sallie e gordon becker introduction human factors engineering second ed upper saddle river nj pearson prentice hall ref ref name mit ref ref name nrc backgrounder three mile island accident ref ref name


''a moving target evolution human computer interaction'' andrew sears julie jacko eds human computer interaction handbook nd edition crc press john carroll http wwwinteraction designorg encyclopedia human computer interaction hcihtml human computer interaction history status encyclopedia entry interaction designorg sara candeias veiga ''the dialogue man machine role language theory technology'' sandra alu sio stella e tagnin new language technologies linguistic research two way road cap cambridge scholars publishing social science hci academic journals ''acm transactions computer human interaction'' ''behaviour information technology'' http wwwinformaworldcom bit ''interacting computers'' ''international journal


designing interactive systems'' addison wesley boston bruce tognazzini ''tog interface'' addison wesley reading textbooks alan dix janet finlay gregory abowd russell beale ''human computer interaction'' rd edition prentice hall http hcibookcom e yvonne rogers helen sharp jenny preece ''interaction design beyond human computer interaction rd ed john wiley sons ltd helen sharp yvonne rogers jenny preece ''interaction design beyond human computer interaction nd ed john wiley sons ltd matt jones interaction designer gary marsden ''mobile interaction design'' john wiley sons ltd external links http wwwbaddesignscom bad human factors designs http wwwinteraction designorg references hci


wiki bibliography publications http hcibiborg hci bibliography publications hci https webarchiveorg web http hccedlccgatechedu human centered computing education digital library http hcibiborg hci sites organizations hci webliography computer interaction computer


'''hinduism''' indian religion ' 'dharma'' way life world 's third largest religion billion followers global population known hindus ref ref group web name pewforum hinduism ref name gordonconwelledu group web word ''hindu'' exonym hinduism called oldest religion world many practitioners refer religion san tana dharma refers idea origins lie beyond human history revealed hindu texts another though less fitting ref name smithbk ref self designation ''vaidika dharma'' ref name sharma 'dharma related


vedas' hinduism diverse system thought marked range philosophies shared concepts rituals cosmological systems pilgrimage sites shared textual sources discuss theology metaphysics mythology vedic yajna yoga agamic rituals temple building among topics prominent themes hindu beliefs include four puru rthas proper goals aims human life namely dharma ethics duties artha prosperity work kama desires passions moksha liberation freedom passions cycle death rebirth ref name bilimoria p see also ref well karma action intent consequences sa ra cycle death


rebirth hinduism prescribes eternal duties honesty refraining injuring living beings ''ahi '' patience forbearance self restraint virtue compassion among others ref name eb sanatana dharma group web hindu practices include rituals puja worship recitations japa meditation dhy na family oriented rites passage annual festivals occasional pilgrimages along practice various yogas hindus leave social world material possessions engage lifelong sannyasa monasticism order achieve moksha ref name ellinger ref hindu texts classified ruti heard sm ti remembered major scriptures ''vedas'' ''upanishads'' ''pur nas''


''mah bh rata'' ''r yana'' '' gamas'' six stika schools hindu philosophy recognise authority vedas namely nkhya yoga ny ya vaisheshika mim ms ved nta ref name matthew clarke ref puranic chronology presents genealogy thousands years starting vedic ''rishis'' scholars regard hinduism fusion synthesis brahmanical orthopraxy various indian cultures ref name various cultures ref diverse roots specific founder hindu synthesis emerged vedic period c bce c ce period second urbanisation


early classical period hinduism epics first pur nas composed flourished medieval period decline buddhism india currently four largest denominations hinduism vaishnavism shaivism shaktism smartism sources authority eternal truths hindu texts play important role also strong hindu tradition questioning authority order deepen understanding truths develop tradition ref name frazierintrop ref hinduism widely professed faith india nepal mauritius significant numbers hindu communities found


southeast asia including bali indonesia caribbean north america europe oceania africa regions etymology balinese hindu family puja bratan temple bali indonesia word ''hind '' derived indo aryan sanskrit root ''sindhu'' proto iranian sound change ' 's'' ''h'' occurred bce according asko parpola use english term hinduism describe collection practices beliefs fairly recent construction first used raja ram mohan roy term hinduism coined around indians


refer religion among earliest known records 'hindu' connotations religion may th century ce chinese text ''record western regions'' xuanzang th century persian text ''futuhu 's salatin'' 'abd al malik isami thapar states word ''hindu'' found ''heptahindu'' avesta equivalent rigvedic ' 'sapta sindhu'' ''hndstn'' pronounced ''hindustan'' found sasanian inscription rd century ce refer parts northwestern south asia arabic term ''al hind'' referred people live across river indus arabic term


''hindu dharma'' towards end th century european merchants colonists began refer followers indian religions collectively ''hindus'' ref term include identify indian religions buddhism jainism sikhism various animist tribal religions found india ''sarnaism'' term hindu contemporary parlance includes people accept culturally ethnically hindu rather fixed set religious beliefs within hinduism one need religious minimal sense states julius lipner accepted


hindu hindus describe oneself hindu group note term ''hinduism'' spelled ''hindooism'' introduced english language th century denote religious philosophical cultural traditions native india ref name sweetman ref definitions hinduism includes diversity ideas spirituality traditions ecclesiastical order unquestionable religious authorities governing body prophet binding holy book hindus choose polytheistic pantheistic panentheistic pandeistic henotheistic monotheistic monistic agnostic atheistic humanist ref name lipner p quote one need religious minimal sense described


accepted hindu hindus describe oneself perfectly validly hindu one may polytheistic monotheistic monistic pantheistichenotheistic panentheistic pandeistic even agnostic humanist atheist still considered hindu ref according doniger ideas major issues faith lifestyle vegetarianism nonviolence belief rebirth even caste subjects debate dogma wide range traditions ideas covered term hinduism arriving comprehensive definition difficult religion defies desire define categorize hinduism variously defined


religion religious tradition set religious beliefs way life western lexical standpoint hinduism like faiths appropriately referred religion india term ' 'dharma'' preferred broader western term ' 'religion'' study india cultures religions definition hinduism shaped interests colonialism western notions religion since influences outcomes topic debate among scholars hinduism ''india europe'' ''hinduism reconsidered'' ronald


currently prominent ref name matthew clarke classified primary deity deities four major hinduism modern currents vaishnavism vishnu shaivism shiva shaktism devi smartism five deities treated equals hinduism also accepts numerous divine beings many hindus considering deities aspects manifestations single impersonal absolute ultimate reality god hindus maintain specific deity represents supreme various deities lower manifestations supreme notable characteristics include belief existence tman self reincarnation one 's tman karma


well belief dharma duties rights laws conduct virtues right way living mcdaniel classifies hinduism six major kinds numerous minor kinds order understand expression emotions among hindus ref name junemcdaniel june mcdaniel hinduism ref major kinds according mcdaniel folk hinduism based local traditions cults local deities oldest non literate system vedic hinduism based earliest layers vedas traceable nd millennium bce vedantic hinduism based philosophy upanishads including advaita vedanta emphasizing knowledge wisdom yogic


hinduism following text yoga sutras patanjali emphasizing introspective awareness dharmic hinduism daily morality mcdaniel states stereotyped books form hindu religion belief karma cows caste bhakti devotional hinduism intense emotions elaborately incorporated pursuit spiritual ref name junemcdaniel michaels distinguishes three hindu religions four forms hindu religiosity three hindu religions brahmanic sanskritic hinduism folk religions tribal religions founded religions four forms hindu religiosity classical karma marga jnana marga bhakti marga heroism


includes among founded religions buddhism jainism sikhism distinct religions syncretic movements brahmo samaj theosophical society well various guru isms new religious movements maharishi mahesh yogi iskcon inden states attempt classify hinduism typology started imperial times proselytizing missionaries colonial officials sought understand portray hinduism interests ref name ronaldinden hinduism construed emanating reason spirit fantasy creative imagination conceptual symbolical ethical emotive rational spiritual


vedanta ref name ronaldinden ronald inden ''imagining india'' indiana university press pp ref hindu views adherents hinduism traditional way life many practitioners refer orthodox form hinduism ''san tana dharma '' eternal law eternal way hindus regard hinduism thousands years old puranic chronology timeline events ancient indian history narrated mahabaratha ramayana puranas envisions chronology events related hinduism starting well bce sanskrit word ' 'dharma'' much broader


meaning ' 'religion'' equivalent aspects hindu life namely acquiring wealth artha fulfillment desires kama attaining liberation moksha part dharma encapsulates right way living eternal harmonious principles fulfillment according editors encyclop dia britannica '''' historically referred eternal duties religiously ordained hinduism duties honesty refraining injuring living beings ''ahi '' purity goodwill mercy patience forbearance self restraint generosity asceticism duties applied regardless hindu 's class caste sect contrasted svadharma one 's


duty accordance one 's class caste var stage life puru rtha ref name eb sanatana dharma group web hinduism encyclopedia encyclop dia britannica url http wwwbritannicacom ebchecked topic sanatana dharma access date november ref recent years term used hindu leaders reformers nationalists refer hinduism sanatana dharma become synonym eternal truth teachings hinduism transcend history unchanging indivisible ultimately nonsectarian ref name eb sanatana dharma group web according scholars kim knott brian hatcher san tana dharma refers timeless eternal set truths hindus view origins


religion viewed eternal truths tradition origins beyond human history truths divinely revealed shruti vedas ancient world 's scriptures many hindus western term religion extent means dogma institution traceable single founder inappropriate tradition states hatcher hinduism tradition traced least ancient vedic era ref ''vaidika dharma'' referred hinduism ''vaidika dharma'' word 'vaidika' sanskrit means 'derived conformable veda'


'relating veda' ref name mw vaidika dharma group web ref traditional scholars employed terms vaidika avaidika accept vedas source authoritative knowledge differentiate various indian schools jainism buddhism charvaka according klaus klostermaier term vaidika dharma earliest self designation hinduism according arvind sharma historical evidence suggests hindus referring religion term ''vaidika dharma'' variant thereof th century ce ref name sharma ref according brian k smith 'debatable least' whether


term ''vaidika dharma'' cannot proper concessions historical cultural ideological specificity comparable translated 'hinduism' 'hindu religion' ref name smithbk according alexis sanderson early sanskrit texts differentiate vaidika vaishnava shaiva shakta saura buddhist jaina traditions however late st millennium ce indic consensus indeed come conceptualize complex entity corresponding hinduism opposed buddhism jainism excluding certain forms antinomian shakta shaiva fold ref group web name sandersonpart mimamsa school hindu philosophy considered ''agamas'' pancaratrika invalid


conform vedas kashmiri scholars rejected esoteric tantric traditions part vaidika dharma ref group web name sandersonpart ref ref group web ref atimarga shaivism ascetic tradition datable ce challenged vaidika frame insisted agamas practices valid superior vaidikas ref group web name sandersonpart ref however adds sanderson shaiva ascetic tradition viewed genuinely true vedic tradition held unanimously ruti sm ti brahmanism universally uniquely valid sphere


vedas man 's sole means valid knowledge ref group web name sandersonpart term vaidika dharma means code practice based vedas unclear based vedas really implies states julius lipner vaidika dharma vedic way life states lipner mean hinduism necessarily religious hindus universally accepted conventional institutional meaning term many much cultural term many hindus copy vedas ever seen personally


read parts veda like christian might relate bible muslim might quran yet states lipner mean hindus whole life 's orientation cannot traced vedas way derive though many religious hindus implicitly acknowledge authority vedas acknowledgment often declaration someone considers hindu indians today pay lip service veda regard contents text hindus


challenge authority vedas thereby implicitly acknowledging importance history hinduism states lipner hindu modernism swami vivekananda key figure introducing vedanta yoga europe united states raising interfaith awareness making hinduism world religion beginning th century indian modernists asserted hinduism major asset indian civilisation meanwhile purifying hinduism tantric elements elevating vedic elements western stereotypes reversed emphasizing universal aspects introducing modern approaches social problems approach great appeal


india also west major representatives hindu modernism raja rammohan roy vivekananda sarvepalli radhakrishnan mahatma gandhi raja rammohan roy known father hindu renaissance ref name hindu ref major influence swami vivekananda according flood figure great importance development modern hindu self understanding formulating west 's view hinduism central philosophy idea divine exists beings human beings achieve union innate divinity seeing divine


essence others love social harmony according vivekananda essential unity hinduism underlies diversity many forms according flood vivekananda 's vision hinduism one generally accepted english speaking middle class hindus today sarvepalli radhakrishnan sought reconcile western rationalism hinduism presenting hinduism essentially rationalistic humanistic religious experience global hinduism worldwide appeal transcending national boundaries according flood becoming world religion alongside christianity islam buddhism hindu diaspora communities westerners attracted


indian law acceptance vedas reverence recognition fact means ways moksha diverse realization truth number gods worshipped large scholarly views term ''hinduism'' coined western ethnography th century ref name sweetman ref refers fusion synthesis period consolidation sometimes identified one 'hindu synthesis' 'brahmanic synthesis' 'orthodox synthesis' takes place time late vedic upanishads c bce period gupta imperial ascendency c


seen category fuzzy edges rather well defined rigid entity forms religious expression central hinduism others central still remain within category based idea gabriella eichinger ferro luzzi developed 'prototype theory approach' definition hinduism diversity unity diversity ganesha one best known worshipped deities hindu pantheon hindu beliefs vast diverse thus hinduism often referred family religions rather single religion ref group web ref within


religion family religions different theologies practices sacred texts ref group web ref ref group web ref hinduism unified system belief encoded declaration faith creed rather umbrella term comprising plurality religious phenomena india according supreme court india part problem single definition term ''hinduism'' fact hinduism founder synthesis various traditions brahmanical orthopraxy renouncer traditions popular local traditions theism also


difficult use unifying doctrine hinduism hindu philosophies postulate theistic ontology creation hindus atheists sense unity despite differences also sense unity hindu traditions revere body religious sacred literature vedas although exceptions texts reminder ancient cultural heritage point pride hindus ref name andreapinkney louis renou stating even orthodox domains reverence vedas come simple raising


hat ref name andreapinkney ref halbfass states although shaivism vaishnavism may regarded self contained religious constellations degree interaction reference theoreticians literary representatives tradition indicates presence wider sense identity sense coherence shared context inclusion common framework horizon classical hinduism brahmins played essential role development post vedic hindu synthesis disseminating vedic culture local communities integrating local religiosity trans regional brahmanic culture post gupta period vedanta developed southern india


orthodox brahmanic culture hindu culture preserved building ancient vedic traditions accommoda ting multiple demands hinduism medieval developments notion common denominators several religions traditions india developed th century ce lorenzen traces emergence family resemblance calls beginnings medieval modern hinduism taking shape c ce development early puranas continuities earlier vedic religion lorenzen states establishment hindu self identity took place process mutual


self definition contrasting muslim according lorenzen presence necessary recognise loose family resemblance among various traditions schools according indologist alexis sanderson islam arrived india sanskrit sources differentiated vaidika vai ava aiva kta saura buddhist jaina traditions name denotes first five collective entity buddhism jainism absence formal name states sanderson mean corresponding concept hinduism exist late st millennium ce concept


belief tradition distinct buddhism jainism emerged ref group web name sandersonpart complex tradition accepted identity almost currently hinduism except certain antinomian tantric movements ref group web name sandersonpart conservative thinkers times questioned whether certain shaiva vaishnava shakta texts practices consistent vedas invalid entirety moderates orthoprax scholars later agreed though variations foundation beliefs ritual grammar spiritual premises soteriologies sense greater unity states sanderson


came called hinduism ref group web name sandersonpart according nicholson already th th centuries certain thinkers began treat single whole diverse philosophical teachings upanishads epics puranas schools known retrospectively 'six systems' ' 'saddarsana'' mainstream hindu philosophy tendency blurring philosophical distinctions also noted burley hacker called inclusivism michaels speaks identificatory habit lorenzen locates origins distinct hindu identity interaction muslims hindus process mutual self definition contrasting


muslim started well michaels notes colonial period neo vedanta inclusivism developed th th centuries hindu reform movements neo vedanta become characteristic modern hinduism notion reports hinduism single world religious tradition also popularised th century proselytizing missionaries european indologists roles sometimes served person relied texts preserved brahmins priests information indian religions animist observations missionary orientalists presumed hinduism ref name ronaldinden reports influenced perceptions hinduism scholars


pennington state colonial polemical reports led fabricated stereotypes hinduism mere mystic paganism devoted service devils describes circumstances early impressions hinduism reported colonial era missionaries missionary reports india also reflected experience foreigners land whose native inhabitants british rulers often resented presence accounts hinduism forged physically politically spiritually hostile surroundings impoverished famine prone bengal west bengal bangladesh plagued anxieties fears health regularly reminded colleagues


lost lives reason uncertain social location preaching crowds whose reactions ranged indifference amusement hostility missionaries found expression darker misgivings production surely part speckled legacy fabricated hinduism crazed blood lust devoted service devils scholars state colonial constructions influenced belief ''vedas'' ''bhagavad gita'' ''manusmriti'' texts essence hindu religiosity modern association 'hindu doctrine' schools vedanta particular advaita vedanta


paradigmatic example hinduism 's mystical nature pennington concurring study hinduism world religion began colonial era disagrees hinduism colonial european era invention states shared theology common ritual grammar way life identify hindus traceable ancient times ref states hindu bhakti movement ideas medieval era grew foundation upanishadic knowledge vedanta philosophies john henderson states hindus medieval modern times particularly drawn canonical texts philosophical


schools bhagavad gita vedanta seem synthesize reconcile successfully diverse philosophical teachings sectarian points view thus widely recognized attribute indian culture may traced exegetical orientation medieval hindu commentarial traditions especially vedanta patrick olivelle ref name olivelle p q ref others ref name mcdowell ref state central ideas upanishads vedic corpus spiritual core hindus modern india world hindutva movement extensively argued unity hinduism dismissing differences regarding india hindu country since ancient times


assumptions political dominance hindu nationalism india also known '' nowiki 'neo hindutva' nowiki '' also increase pre dominance hindutva nepal similar india scope hinduism also increasing parts world due cultural influences yoga hare krishna movement many missionaries organisations specially iskcon also due migration indian hindus nations world hinduism growing fast many western nations african nations ref br western nations ''growth


hinduism'' fast second fastest growing religion europe islam name ty group note beliefs temple wall panel relief sculpture hoysaleswara temple halebidu representing trimurti brahma shiva vishnu prominent themes hindu beliefs include restricted dharma ethics duties sa ra continuing cycle entanglement passions resulting birth life death rebirth karma action intent consequences moksha liberation attachment sa ra various yogas paths practices purusharthas purusharthas refers objectives human life classical hindu thought accepts


virtuous ref name tce dharma according van buitenen ref name vanbuitenen ref existing beings must accept respect sustain harmony order world states van buitenen pursuit execution one 's nature true calling thus playing one 's role cosmic concert ref name vanbuitenen brihadaranyaka upanishad states page discussion pages ref mahabharata krishna defines dharma upholding worldly worldly affairs mbh word ''san tana'' means ''eternal'' ''perennial'' ''forever'' thus ''san tana dharma'' signifies dharma neither beginning


end artha livelihood wealth artha objective virtuous pursuit wealth livelihood obligations economic prosperity inclusive political life diplomacy material well artha concept includes means life activities resources enables one state one wants wealth career financial security proper pursuit artha considered important aim human life hinduism ref name bruces bruce sullivan ''historical dictionary hinduism'' pp ref k sensual pleasure k sanskrit pali means desire wish passion longing pleasure


senses aesthetic enjoyment life affection love without sexual connotations ref name mmwse monier williams http wwwibiblioorg sripedia ebooks mw mw html k ''monier williams sanskrit english dictionary'' pp see rd column ref hinduism kama considered essential healthy goal human life pursued without sacrificing dharma artha moksha mok liberation freedom sa ra moksha '''mukti''' ultimate important goal hinduism one sense moksha concept associated liberation sorrow suffering sa ra birth rebirth cycle release eschatological cycle life particularly


theistic schools hinduism called moksha ref name vanbuitenen due belief indestructibility atman cq ''purusha'' death deemed insignificant respect cosmic self meaning ''moksha'' differs among various hindu schools thought example advaita vedanta holds attaining moksha person knows essence self pure consciousness witness consciousness identifies identical brahman ref name karlpotter ref name klausklost followers dvaita dualistic schools moksha state identify individual essence distinct brahman infinitesimally close attaining moksha expect spend eternity loka


heaven theistic schools hinduism moksha liberation sa ra schools monistic school moksha possible current life psychological concept ref name karlpotter ref ref name danielingails ref ref name klausklost ref according deutsch moksha transcendental consciousness latter perfect state self realization freedom realizing whole universe self ref name karlpotter ref name danielingails ''moksha'' schools hinduism suggests klaus klostermaier ref name klausklost implies setting free hitherto fettered faculties removing obstacles unrestricted life permitting person truly person


rebirth ref name wdointro wendy o'flaherty ''karma rebirth classical indian traditions'' university california press pp xi xxv introduction ref karma theory interpreted explaining present circumstances individual reference actions past actions consequences may person 's current life according schools hinduism past lives ref name wdointro cycle birth life death rebirth called ' 'sa ra'' liberation sa ra moksha believed ensure lasting happiness peace hindu scriptures teach future


function current human effort derived free past human actions set circumstances concept god hinduism diverse system thought wide variety beliefs ref name lipner p ref group web ref concept god complex depends upon individual tradition philosophy followed sometimes referred henotheistic ie involving devotion single god accepting existence others term overgeneralization ''nasadiya sukta'' ''creation hymn'' ''rig veda'' one earliest texts


demonstrates sense metaphysical speculation created universe concept god one whether even one knows universe came ref name translations original sanskrit https sawikisourceorg wiki rigveda wikisource '''translation ''' '''translation ''' '''translation ''' ref ''rig veda'' praises various deities none superior inferior henotheistic manner hymns repeatedly refer one truth one ultimate reality one truth vedic literature modern era scholarship interpreted monotheism monism well deified hidden principles behind great happenings processes


nature hindus believe living creatures self true self every person called '' tman'' self believed eternal according monistic pantheistic non dualist theologies hinduism advaita vedanta school atman indistinct brahman supreme spirit ultimate reality ref name bhaskaranandaessential ref goal life according advaita school realise one 's self identical supreme self supreme self present everything everyone life interconnected oneness life dualistic schools dvaita bhakti


understand brahman supreme separate individual selfs ref name r prasad pages r prasad historical developmental study classical indian philosophy morals concept publishing pages ref worship supreme variously vishnu brahma shiva shakti depending upon sect god called ''ishvara'' ''bhagavan'' ''parameshwara'' ''deva'' ''devi'' terms different meanings different schools hinduism hindu texts accept polytheistic framework generally conceptualized divine essence luminosity gives vitality animation inanimate natural substances ref name wallin p divine


everything human beings animals trees rivers observable offerings rivers trees tools one 's work animals birds rising sun friends guests teachers parents ref name wallin p divine makes sacred worthy reverence rather sacred perception divinity manifested things buttimer wallin view makes vedic foundations hinduism quite distinct animism things divine ref name wallin p animistic premise sees multiplicity therefore equality ability


compete power comes man man man animal man nature etc vedic view perceive competition equality man nature multiplicity much overwhelming interconnecting single divinity unifies everyone everything ref name wallin p ref hindu scriptures name celestial entities called ''devas'' '''' feminine form may translated english ''gods'' ''heavenly beings'' translation '''' godhead divinity see devas integral part hindu culture depicted art architecture icons


stories related scriptures particularly indian epic poetry puranas however often distinguished ishvara personal god many hindus worshipping ishvara one particular manifestations '''' chosen ideal choice matter individual preference ref name harman ref regional family traditions ref name harman ref multitude devas considered manifestations brahman ref name avatars three gods trimurti brahma vishnu shiva deities considered manifestations worshipped incarnations brahman members various hindu sects worship


dizzying number specific deities follow innumerable rituals honor specific gods hinduism however practitioners see profusion forms practices expressions unchanging reality panoply deities understood believers symbols single transcendent reality devas powerful spiritual beings somewhat like angels west certain functions cosmos live immensely long lives certain devas ganesha regularly worshiped hindu faithful note hindus believe many devas many monotheistic


extent recognise one supreme god goddess source ruler devas ref word ''avatar'' appear vedic literature appears verb forms post vedic literature noun particularly puranic literature th century ce theologically reincarnation idea often associated ''avatars'' hindu god vishnu though idea applied deities varying lists avatars vishnu appear hindu scriptures including ten dashavatara ''garuda purana'' twenty two


non theist atheist later nyaya school scholars argued god exists offered proofs using theory logic schools disagreed nyaya scholars samkhya mimamsa ref name coward p mimamsa ultimate reality nothing eternal words vedas accept existence single supreme creator god might composed veda according mimamsa gods named vedas existence apart mantras speak names power gods nothing power mantras name ref


carvaka schools hinduism non theist atheist arguing god unnecessary metaphysical assumption ref group web https archiveorg stream thesamkhyaphilos sinhuoft thesamkhyaphilos sinhuoft djvutxt khyapravacana tra ref vaisheshika school started another non theistic tradition relying naturalism matter eternal later introduced concept non creator god yoga school hinduism accepted concept personal god left hindu define god advaita vedanta taught monistic abstract self oneness everything room gods deity perspective mohanty calls spiritual religious bhakti sub schools vedanta


taught creator god distinct human ref name r prasad pages god hinduism often represented feminine masculine aspects notion feminine deity much pronounced evident pairings shiva parvati ardhanarishvara vishnu accompanied lakshmi radha krishna sita rama according graham schweig hinduism strongest presence divine feminine world religion ancient times present goddess viewed heart esoteric saiva traditions authority


authority eternal truths play important role hinduism ref name frazier ref religious traditions truths believed contained sacred texts accessed taught sages gurus saints avatars ref name frazier also strong tradition questioning authority internal debate challenging religious texts hinduism hindus believe deepens understanding eternal truths develops tradition authority mediated intellectual culture tended develop ideas collaboratively according shared logic natural reason ref name frazier narratives


upanishads present characters questioning persons authority ref name frazier kena upanishad repeatedly asks ''kena'' 'by what' power something case ref name frazier katha upanishad bhagavad gita present narratives student criticizes teacher 's inferior answers ref name frazier shiva purana shiva questions vishnu brahma ref name frazier doubt plays repeated role mahabharata ref name frazier jayadeva 's gita govinda presents criticism via character radha ref name frazier main traditions denominations x px panchayatana five deities smarta tradition ganesha centre shiva top left parvati top right vishnu bottom left surya bottom


vaishnavism bhagavad gita ramayana along vishnu oriented puranas provide theistic foundations philosophically beliefs rooted dualism sub schools vedantic hinduism shaivism tradition focuses shiva shaivas attracted ascetic individualism several sub schools ref name sskumar practices include bhakti style devotionalism yet beliefs lean towards nondual monistic schools hinduism advaita raja yoga ref name lancenelson shaivas worship temples others emphasize yoga striving one shiva within avatars uncommon shaivas visualize god half male half female


fusion male female principles ardhanarishvara shaivism related shaktism wherein shakti seen spouse shiva ref name lancenelson community celebrations include festivals participation vaishnavas pilgrimages kumbh mela shaivism commonly practiced himalayan north kashmir nepal south india shaktism focuses goddess worship shakti devi cosmic mother ref name sskumar particularly common northeastern eastern states india assam bengal devi depicted gentler forms like parvati consort shiva


vedanta regards adi shankara founder reformer considered worship god attributes saguna brahman journey towards ultimately realizing god without attributes nirguna brahman atman self knowledge ref name williamw ref term ''smartism'' derived smriti texts hinduism meaning remember traditions texts ref name lancenelson ref name williamsonp ref hindu sect practices philosophical jnana yoga scriptural studies reflection meditative path seeking understanding self 's oneness god ref name lancenelson census data available demographic history trends traditions within hinduism estimates vary relative number adherents different traditions


hinduism according estimate johnson grim vaishnavism tradition largest group million hindus followed shaivism nbsp million shaktism nbsp million traditions including neo hinduism reform hinduism nbsp million ref name johnson ref contrast according jones ryan shaivism largest tradition hinduism ethnicities russian hindu girl hinduism traditionally multi polyethnic religion indian subcontinent widespread among many indo aryan dravidian south asian ethnic groups example meitei


people tibeto burman ethnicity northeastern indian state manipur addition antiquity middle ages hinduism state religion many indianized kingdoms asia ''greater india''from afghanistan kabul west including almost southeast asia east cambodia vietnam indonesia partly philippines th century nearly everywhere supplanted buddhism islam ref name spread ref except several still hindu minor austronesian ethnic groups balinese ref name gonda title handbook oriental studies section southeast asia religions pages chapter indian religions pre islamic indonesia survival bali author link jan gonda ref tenggerese people


indonesia chams vietnam also small community afghan pashtuns migrated india partition remain committed hinduism many new ethnic ghanaian hindus ghana converted hinduism due works swami ghananand saraswati hindu monastery africa ref name joshi ref beginning th century forces baba premananda bharati swami vivekananda ac bhaktivedanta swami prabhupada missionaries hinduism gained certain distribution among western peoples scriptures ''rigveda'' first among four vedas ref group note rigveda


hindu scriptures regarded eternal truths revealed ancient sages ''rishis'' four ''vedas'' ''rigveda'' ''samaveda'' ''yajurveda'' ''atharvaveda'' veda subclassified four major text types samhitas mantras benedictions aranyakas text rituals ceremonies sacrifices symbolic sacrifices brahmanas commentaries rituals ceremonies sacrifices upanishads text discussing meditation philosophy spiritual knowledge first two parts vedas subsequently called '''' ritualistic portion last two form '''' knowledge portion discussing spiritual insight philosophical teachings ref name olivelle introduction ref


upanishads foundation hindu philosophical thought profoundly influenced diverse traditions ref name wendydoniger ref name mcdowell shrutis vedic corpus alone widely influential among hindus considered scriptures par excellence hinduism central ideas continued influence thoughts traditions ref name wendydoniger upanishads supply '''basis later hindu philosophy''' alone vedic corpus widely known quoted well educated hindus central ideas also become part spiritual arsenal rank file hindus ref ref name olivelle p q sarvepalli radhakrishnan states upanishads played


dominating role ever since appearance muktik upanishads hinduism variously counted scholars principal upanishads ref name olivelle introduction notable smritis remembered hindu epics ''puranas'' epics consist ''mahabharata'' ''ramayana'' ''bhagavad gita'' integral part ''mahabharata'' one popular sacred texts hinduism sometimes called ''gitopanishad'' placed shruti heard category upanishadic content ''puranas'' started composed c ce onward


contain extensive mythologies central distribution common themes hinduism vivid narratives ''yoga sutras'' classical text hindu yoga tradition gained renewed popularity th century since th century indian modernists asserted 'aryan origins' hinduism purifying hinduism tantric elements elevating vedic elements hindu modernists like vivekananda see vedas laws spiritual world would still exist even revealed sages tantric tradition ''agamas'' refer authoritative scriptures teachings


perform daily rituals worshiping dawn bathing usually family shrine typically includes lighting lamp offering foodstuffs images deities recitation religious scripts singing bhajans devotional hymns yoga meditation chanting mantras others vedic rituals fire oblation ''yajna'' chanting vedic hymns observed special occasions hindu wedding major life stage events rituals death include ''yaj a'' chanting vedic mantras ref group web ref words mantras sacred constitute linguistic utterances instead klostermaier notes


application vedic rituals become magical sounds means end quotes madhav deshpande https wwwscribdcom document madhav deshpande changing conceptions veda speech acts magical sounds ''changing conceptions veda speech acts magical sounds'' p brahmanical perspective sounds meaning mantras considered primordial rhythms creation preceding forms refer reciting cosmos regenerated enlivening nourishing forms creation base long purity sounds preserved recitation ''mantras'' efficacious irrespective whether discursive meaning understood human


beings ref name coward p life cycle rites passage major life stage milestones celebrated ' 'sanskara'' ' 'sa sk ra'' rites passage hinduism ref name pandey ref ref name knipe ref rites passage mandatory vary details gender community regionally ref name pvkanesamsk ref gautama dharmasutras composed middle st millennium bce lists sanskaras ref name patrick gryhasutra texts composed centuries later list sanskaras ref name pandey ref name carlolson ref list sanskaras hinduism include external rituals marking baby 's birth baby 's name giving ceremony well


inner rites resolutions ethics compassion towards living beings positive attitude ref name patrick ref major traditional rites passage hinduism include ref name pvkanesamsk garbhadhana pregnancy pumsavana rite fetus begins moving kicking womb simantonnayana parting pregnant woman 's hair baby shower ''jatakarman'' rite celebrating new born baby ''namakarana'' naming child ''nishkramana'' baby 's first outing home world ''annaprashana'' baby 's first feeding solid food ''chudakarana'' baby 's first haircut tonsure ''karnavedha'' ear piercing ''vidyarambha'' baby 's start knowledge upanayana entry school rite ''keshanta'' ''ritusuddhi'' first


shave boys menarche girls samavartana graduation ceremony vivaha wedding ''vratas'' fasting spiritual studies antyeshti cremation adult burial child contemporary times regional variation among hindus sanskaras observed cases additional regional rites passage '' r ddha'' ritual feeding people cremation practiced ref name pvkanesamsk bhakti worship ''bhakti'' refers devotion participation love personal god representational god devotee ref name encyclopediabrit group web ref ref name karen ref ''bhakti marga'' considered hinduism one many


possible paths spirituality alternative means moksha paths left choice hindu ''jnana marga'' path knowledge ''karma marga'' path works ''r ja marga'' path contemplation meditation ref name johnmartin ref bhakti practiced number ways ranging reciting mantras japas incantations individual private prayers one 's home shrine temple murti sacred image deity hindu temples domestic altars important elements worship contemporary theistic hinduism ref name foulston p ref many visit temple special occasions offer daily prayers domestic


altar typically dedicated part home includes sacred images deities gurus ref name foulston p one form daily worship aarti supplication ritual flame offered accompanied song praise ref name ref notable aartis include om jai jagdish hare prayer vishnu sukhakarta dukhaharta prayer ganesha aarti used make offerings entities ranging deities human exemplar ref name instance aarti offered hanuman devotee god many temples including balaji temples primary deity


incarnation vishnu swaminarayan temples home shrines aarti offered swaminarayan considered followers supreme god personal community practices include puja well aarti kirtan bhajan devotional verses hymns read poems sung group devotees ref group web ref choice deity discretion hindu observed traditions hindu devotion include vaishnavism shaivism shaktism hindu may worship multiple deities henotheistic manifestations ultimate reality cosmic spirit absolute spiritual concept called brahman ref


name avatars bhakti marga states pechelis ritual devotionalism includes practices spiritual activities aimed refining one 's state mind knowing god participating god internalizing god bhakti practices popular easily observable aspect hinduism hindus practice bhakti believe god attributes ' 'saguna brahman'' concurrent hindu practices include belief god without attributes god within oneself festivals festival lights diwali celebrated hindus world hindus ghana celebrating ganesh chaturti holi celebrated sri sri radha krishna temple utah united states


hindu festivals sanskrit ''utsava'' literally lift higher ceremonies weave individual social life dharma ref name sandrarobinson ref name yustf ref hinduism many festivals throughout year dates set lunisolar hindu calendar many coinciding either full moon ''holi'' new moon ''diwali'' often seasonal changes ref name denisecushf ref festivals found regionally celebrate local traditions ''holi'' ''diwali'' pan hindu ref name denisecushf festivals typically celebrate events hinduism connoting spiritual themes celebrating aspects human relationships sister brother bond


''raksha bandhan'' bhai dooj festival ref name yustf festival sometimes marks different stories depending hindu denomination celebrations incorporate regional themes traditional agriculture local arts family get togethers puja rituals feasts ref name sandrarobinson ref major regional pan hindu festivals include makar sankranti pongal thaipusam vasant panchami maha shivaratri shigmo holi gudi padwa ugadi bihu vishu ram navami kartik purnima raksha bandhan krishna janmastami gowri habba ganesh chaturthi onam navaratri dussehra durga puja diwali tihar deepawali chhath bonalu rath yatra dashain pilgrimage many adherents undertake pilgrimages historically


important part hinduism remain today pilgrimage sites called ''tirtha'' ''kshetra'' ''gopitha'' ''mahalaya'' process journey associated ''tirtha'' called ''tirtha yatra'' according hindu text ''skanda purana'' tirtha three kinds jangam tirtha place movable sadhu rishi guru sthawar tirtha place immovable like benaras haridwar mount kailash holy rivers manas tirtha place mind truth charity patience compassion soft speech self ''t rtha yatra'' states knut jacobsen anything salvific value hindu


includes pilgrimage sites mountains forests seashore rivers ponds well virtues actions studies state mind pilgrimage sites hinduism mentioned epic mahabharata puranas puranas include large sections ''tirtha mahatmya'' along tourist guides describe sacred sites places visit texts varanasi benares kashi rameshwaram kanchipuram dwarka puri haridwar sri rangam vrindavan ayodhya tirupati mayapur nathdwara twelve jyotirlinga shakti peetha mentioned particularly holy sites along geographies major rivers meet ' 'sangam'' join sea


kumbhamela another major pilgrimage eve solar festival makar sankranti pilgrimage rotates gap three years among four sites prayag raj confluence ganges yamuna rivers haridwar near source ganges ujjain shipra river nasik bank godavari river one world 's largest mass pilgrimage estimated million people attending event ref group web br ref event say prayer sun bathe river tradition attributed adi shankara


hindu texts accepted view greatest austerity comes traveling foot part journey foot use conveyance acceptable pilgrimage otherwise impossible culture term hindu culture refers mean aspects culture pertain religion festivals dress codes followed hindus mainly inspired culture india southeast asia though mixture different culture hinduism also influenced cultures


many nations mainly part greater india architecture art calendar person society varnas priests performing ''kalyanam'' marriage holy deities bhadrachalam temple telangana one temples india ''kalyanam'' done everyday throughout year left hindu society categorised four classes called ''var as'' ''brahmins'' vedic teachers priests ''kshatriyas'' warriors kings ''vaishyas'' farmers merchants ''shudras'' servants labourers ''bhagavad g '' links var individual 's duty


' 'svadharma'' inborn nature ' 'svabh va'' natural tendencies ''gu a'' ''manusmriti'' categorises different castes ref group web ref mobility flexibility within var challenge allegations social discrimination caste system pointed several sociologists ref name silverberg paper ref although scholars disagree scholars debate whether called ''caste system'' part hinduism sanctioned scriptures social custom ref group web ref ref various contemporary scholars argued caste system constructed british colonial regime renunciant man knowledge usually called ''var atita'' beyond var vedantic works bhiksu


advised bother caste family begs food scholars like adi sankara affirm brahman beyond var man identified also transcends distinctions limitations caste yoga statue shiva yogic meditation whatever way hindu defines goal life several methods yogas sages taught reaching goal yoga hindu discipline trains body mind consciousness health tranquility spiritual insight texts dedicated yoga


include ''yoga sutras'' ''hatha yoga pradipika'' ''bhagavad gita'' philosophical historical basis upanishads yoga means four major ''marga'' paths hinduism bhakti yoga path love devotion karma yoga path right action r ja yoga path meditation j na yoga path wisdom ref name bhaskaressentgeneral ref individual may prefer one yogas others according inclination understanding practice one yoga exclude others modern practice yoga exercise traditionally hatha yoga contested


relationship hinduism symbolism basic hindu symbols shatkona padma swastika hinduism developed system symbolism iconography represent sacred art architecture literature worship symbols gain meaning scriptures cultural traditions syllable ''om'' represents ''brahman'' atman grown represent hinduism markings swastika sign represent auspiciousness ''tilaka'' literally seed forehead considered location spiritual third eye marks ceremonious welcome blessing one 's participation ritual rite passage elaborate ''tilaka''


lines may also identify devotee particular denomination flowers birds animals instruments symmetric mandala drawings objects idols part symbolic iconography hinduism ahi food customs hindus advocate practice nonviolence respect life divinity believed permeate beings including plants non human animals term '''' appears upanishads ref name radhakrishnan ref epic mahabharata first five yamas vows self restraint patanjali 's yoga sutras accordance many hindus embrace vegetarianism respect higher forms life


estimates strict lacto vegetarians india includes adherents religions never eat meat fish eggs vary others either less strict vegetarians non vegetarians ref name veg surveys studying food habits indians include ref eat meat seek jhatka quick death method meat production dislike halal slow bled death method believing quick death method reduces suffering animal food habits vary region bengali hindus hindus living himalayan regions river delta regions regularly eating meat fish avoid meat specific


festivals occasions observant hindus eat meat almost always abstain beef hinduism specifically considers bos indicus sacred cow hindu society traditionally identified caretaker maternal figure hindu society honours cow symbol unselfish giving selfless sacrifice gentleness tolerance ref name ajai p pg ref many hindu groups continued abide strict vegetarian diet modern times adhere diet devoid meat eggs seafood food affects body mind spirit hindu beliefs ref name vasudha ref ref name rosen ref hindu texts


ilya upanishad ref name kn aiyar pages ref sv tm r ref name svatmaram ref recommend mitahara eating moderation one yamas virtuous self restraints bhagavad gita links body mind food one consumes verses ref name ckc ref hindus belonging shaktism tradition hindus regions bali nepal practise animal sacrifice sacrificed animal eaten ritual food contrast vaishnava hindus abhor vigorously oppose animal sacrifice principle non violence animals thoroughly adopted hinduism animal sacrifice


uncommon historically reduced vestigial marginal practice institutions temple hindu temple house god space structure designed bring human beings gods together infused symbolism express ideas beliefs hinduism ref name stellakvol ref temple incorporates elements hindu cosmology highest spire dome representing mount meru reminder abode brahma center spiritual universe carvings iconography symbolically presenting dharma kama artha moksha karma layout motifs plan building process


recite ancient rituals geometric symbolisms reflect beliefs values innate within various schools hinduism ref name stellakvol hindu temples spiritual destinations many hindus well landmarks arts annual festivals rite passage rituals community celebrations hindu temples come many styles diverse locations deploy different construction methods adapted different deities regional beliefs two major styles hindu temples include gopuram style found south india nagara style found north india ref group web ref ref group web ref styles include cave forest mountain temples yet despite differences almost