killed million europe years plague reduced old world population estimated million million th century introduction smallpox measles typhus areas central south america european explorers th th centuries caused pandemics among native inhabitants disease pandemics said caused population mexico fall million million ref name dobson ref first european influenza epidemic occurred estimated mortality rate


ref name dobson smallpox killed estimated million europeans th century approximately per year infected including children years age died disease one third survivors went blind th century tuberculosis killed estimated one quarter adult population europe one six deaths france still caused tb influenza pandemic spanish flu killed million people world population billion today influenza kills

Applied science
Medicine and health
Infectious disease


worldwide year emerging diseases cases microorganisms live harmony hosts via mutual commensal interactions diseases emerge existing parasites become pathogenic new pathogenic parasites enter new host coevolution parasite host lead hosts becoming resistant parasites parasites may evolve greater virulence leading immunopathological disease human activity involved many emerging infectious diseases environmental change enabling parasite occupy new niches happens pathogen confined remote habitat


microbes mutate emerge changes agriculture introduction new crops attracts new crop pests microbes carry farming communities exposing people unfamiliar diseases destruction rain forests countries make use rain forests building roads forests clearing areas settlement commercial ventures people encounter insects animals harboring previously unknown microorganisms uncontrolled urbanization rapid growth cities many developing countries tends concentrate large numbers people crowded areas poor sanitation conditions foster transmission contagious diseases modern transport ships


cargo carriers often harbor unintended passengers spread diseases faraway destinations international jet airplane travel people infected disease carry distant lands home families first symptoms appear germ theory disease east german postage stamps depicting four antique microscopes advancements microscopy essential early study infectious diseases antiquity greek historian thucydides c c bce first person write account plague athens diseases could spread infected person


others ''on different types fever'' c ad greco roman physician galen speculated plagues spread certain seeds plague present air sushruta samhita ancient indian physician sushruta theorized leprosy fever consumption diseases eye infectious diseases spread one person another sexual union physical contact eating together sleeping together sitting together use clothes garlands pastes book dated sixth century bc basic form contagion theory proposed persian


physician ibn sina known avicenna europe ''the canon medicine'' later became authoritative medical textbook europe th century book iv ''canon'' ibn sina discussed epidemics outlining classical miasma theory attempting blend early contagion theory mentioned people transmit disease others breath noted contagion tuberculosis discussed transmission disease water dirt concept invisible contagion later discussed several islamic scholars ayyubid sultanate referred


''najasat'' impure substances fiqh scholar ibn al haj al abdari c discussing islamic diet hygiene gave warnings contagion contaminate water food garments could spread water supply may implied contagion unseen particles black death bubonic plague reached al andalus th century arab physicians ibn khatima c ibn al khatib hypothesised infectious diseases caused minute bodies described transmitted garments vessels earrings ideas contagion became popular europe renaissance


scientific basis known koch 's postulates edward jenner jonas salk albert sabin developed effective vaccines smallpox polio would later result eradication near eradication diseases respectively alexander fleming discovered world 's first antibiotic penicillin florey chain developed gerhard domagk developed sulphonamides first broad spectrum synthetic antibacterial drugs medical specialists medical treatment infectious diseases falls medical field infectious disease cases study propagation pertains field epidemiology generally infections initially diagnosed primary care physicians


internal medicine specialists example uncomplicated pneumonia generally treated internist pulmonologist lung physician work infectious diseases specialist therefore entails working patients general practitioners well laboratory scientists immunologists bacteriologists specialists infectious disease team may alerted disease definitively diagnosed initial workup patient immunocompromised example aids chemotherapy infectious agent uncommon nature eg tropical diseases disease responded first line antibiotics disease might


dangerous patients patient might isolated society culture several studies reported associations pathogen load area human behavior higher pathogen load associated decreased size ethnic religious groups area may due high pathogen load favoring avoidance groups may reduce pathogen transmission high pathogen load preventing creation large settlements armies enforce common culture higher pathogen load also associated restricted sexual behavior may reduce pathogen transmission also associated


higher preferences health attractiveness mates higher fertility rates shorter less parental care per child another association may compensation higher mortality rate also association polygyny may due higher pathogen load making selecting males high genetic resistance increasingly important higher pathogen load also associated collectivism less individualism may limit contacts outside groups infections alternative explanations least associations although explanations may turn ultimately due


pathogen load thus polygyny may also due lower male female ratio areas may ultimately due male infants increased mortality infectious diseases another example poor socioeconomic factors may ultimately part due high pathogen load preventing economic development ref name pmid ref fossil record ''herrerasaurus'' skull evidence infection fossil remains subject interest paleopathologists scientists study occurrences injuries illness extinct life forms signs infection discovered bones carnivorous dinosaurs present however infections


seem tend confined small regions body skull attributed early carnivorous dinosaur ''herrerasaurus ischigualastensis'' exhibits pit like wounds surrounded swollen porous bone unusual texture bone around wounds suggests afflicted short lived non lethal infection scientists studied skull speculated bite marks received fight another ''herrerasaurus'' carnivorous dinosaurs documented evidence infection include ''acrocanthosaurus'' ''allosaurus'' ''tyrannosaurus'' tyrannosaur kirtland formation infections tyrannosaurs received bitten fight


growth virulence ref name plos ref recently bacteria found resistant antibiotics thrive near weightlessness space ref name gzm ref microorganisms observed survive vacuum outer space ref name dose ref ref name 'horneck' ref see also bioinformatics resource centers infectious diseases biological hazard blood borne disease coinfection copenhagen consensus cordon sanitaire disease diffusion mapping epidemiological transition foodborne illness gene therapy history medicine hospital acquired infection eradication infectious diseases human microbiome project infection control isolation health care list bacterial vaginosis microbiota list causes death rate list diseases caused insects


list epidemics list infectious diseases mathematical modelling infectious disease multiplicity infection neglected tropical diseases sentinel surveillance social distancing spatiotemporal epidemiological modeler stem spillover infection threshold host density transmission medicine ubi pus ibi evacua latin pus evacuate vaccine preventable diseases waterborne diseases references external links icd icdo omim omim mult medlineplus emedicinesubj emedicinetopic emedicine mult meshid http ecdceuropaeu european center disease prevention control https wwwcdcgov us centers disease control prevention


http wwwidsocietyorg infectious disease society america idsa http wwwmsdsonlinecom resources msds resources free safety data sheet index infectious disease index public health agency canada phac https webarchiveorg web http wwwvrcnihgov vaccine research center information concerning vaccine research clinical trials emerging emerging infectious diseases https webarchiveorg web http wwwinfectionwatchinfo infection information resource '' http wwwjournalselseviercom microbes infection microbes infection '' journal http wwwwoundsiteinfo knowledge source health care professionals involved wound management wwwwoundsiteinfo http wwwcbcca news table global deaths communicable diseases canadian broadcasting corp epidemiology


offices united nations geneva switzerland one city hosts highest number international organizations world '''international organization''' also known '''international institution''' '''intergovernmental organization''' stable set norms rules meant govern behavior states actors international system organizations may established treaty instrument governed international law possessing legal personality united nations world health organization nato international organizations composed primarily member

Social science
Political science
International organizations


states may also include entities international organizations additionally entities including states may hold observer status notable examples include united nations un organization security co operation europe osce bank international settlements bis council europe coe international labour organization ilo international criminal police organization interpol history first oldest international organization established employing treaty creating permanent secretariat global membership international telecommunication union founded first general international organization addressing variety issues league nations united nations


followed model world war ii purpose role international organizations helping set international agenda mediating political bargaining providing place political initiatives acting catalysts coalition formation facilitate cooperation coordination among member nations addition promote global initiatives aimed reducing inequality like united nations sustainable development goal regional organizations international organizations typically member states whole world however cases organizations geographic limitations european union african union nato united nations also


regional organizations unece uneca oldest regional organization central commission navigation rhine created congress vienna united nations agencies united nations organizes work agencies united nations relief works agency generally considered international organizations right additionally united nations '''specialized agencies''' organizations within united nations system member states often nearly identical un member states governed independently examples include international organizations predate


un international telecommunication union universal postal union well organizations created un world health organization made regional organizations paho predated un international ngos international organizations sometimes referred intergovernmental organizations igos clarify distinction international non governmental organizations ingos non governmental organizations ngos operate internationally include international nonprofit organizations world organization scout movement international committee red cross decins sans fronti res well lobby


groups represent interests multinational corporations see also international relations list intergovernmental organizations list headquarters intergovernmental organizations list heads intergovernmental organizations list regional organizations population list trade blocs regional economic communities regional integration regional organization supranational union references reading barnett michael finnemore ''rules world international organizations global politics'' cornell university press hurd ian ''international organizations politics law practice'' cambridge university press lall ranjit beyond institutional design explaining performance international organizations ''international organization''


external links http wwwthegeneralknowledgein headquarters internationalhtml headquarters international organisation list international organisation headquarters http legalunorg avl ha ario ariohtml procedural history related documents 'articles responsibility international organizations'' http legalunorg avl historicarchiveshtml historic archives united nations audiovisual library international law https webarchiveorg web http snncoin world newshtml world news related documents world news related documents cultural globalization


'''international law''' also known '''public international law''' '''law nations''' set rules norms standards generally recognized binding nations ref name definition international law ref establishes normative guidelines common conceptual framework states across broad range domains including war diplomacy trade human rights international law aims promote practice stable consistent organized international relations sources international law include international custom general state practice accepted law treaties general principles law recognized national legal systems international law may also

Humanities
Law
Civil law
Public international law


met coercive action ranging military intervention diplomatic economic pressure relationship interaction national legal system municipal law international law complex variable national law may become international law treaties permit national jurisdiction supranational tribunals european court human rights international criminal court treaties geneva conventions may require national law conform treaty provisions national laws constitutions may also provide implementation integration international legal obligations domestic law terminology term international


law sometimes divided public private international law particularly civil law scholars seek follow roman tradition roman lawyers would distinguished ''jus gentium'' law nations ''jus inter gentes'' agreements nations view public international law said cover relations nation states includes fields treaty law law sea international criminal law laws war international humanitarian law international human rights law refugee law contrast private international law commonly termed conflict laws concerns whether courts within countries


claim jurisdiction cases foreign element country 's law applies modern system public international law developed tradition late medieval ''ius gentium'' referred ''the law nations'' direct translation concept ''ius gentium used'' hugo grotius ' 'droits des gens'' emer de vattel modern term ''international law'' invented jeremy bentham established th century recent concept supranational law concerns regional agreements laws nation states may


held inapplicable conflicting supranational legal system nation treaty obligation systems supranational law arise nations explicitly cede right make certain judicial decisions common tribunal ref name degan ref decisions common tribunal directly effective party nation priority decisions taken national courts ref name blanpain ref european union prominent example international treaty organization implements supranational legal framework european court justice supremacy member nation courts matter european union law term


transnational law sometimes used body rules private law transcend nation state history treaty kadesh among earliest extant examples international agreement origins international law traced back antiquity among earliest examples peace treaties mesopotamian city states lagash umma approximately bce agreement egyptian pharaoh ramses ii hittite king hattusilis iii concluded bce interstate pacts agreements various kinds also negotiated concluded polities across world


roman law nations applied relations foreign individuals rather among political units states beginning spring autumn period eighth century bce china divided numerous states often war subsequently emerged rules diplomacy treaty making including notions regarding grounds war rights neutral parties consolidation partition states concepts sometimes applied relations barbarians along china 's western periphery beyond central plains subsequent warring states period saw development


two major schools thought confucianism legalism held domestic international legal spheres closely interlinked sought establish competing normative principles guide foreign relations similarly indian subcontinent characterized ever changing panoply states time developed rules neutrality treaty law international conduct embassies temporary permanent established states maintain diplomatic relations relations conducted distant states europe east asia following collapse western roman empire fifth century ce europe fragmented numerous often warring


states much next five centuries political power dispersed across range entities including church mercantile city states kingdoms overlapping ever changing jurisdictions china india divisions prompted development rules aimed providing stable predictable relations early examples include canon law governed ecclesiastical institutions clergy throughout europe ''lex mercatoria'' merchant law concerned trade commerce various codes maritime law rolls ol ron nowiki drew ancient roman ''lex rhodia'' laws wisby visby enacted


among commercial hanseatic league northern europe baltic region concurrently islamic world foreign relations guided based division world three categories ' 'dar al islam'' territory islam islamic law prevailed ' 'dar al sulh'' territory treaty non islamic realms concluded armistice muslim government ' 'dar al harb'' territory war non islamic lands whose rulers called upon accept islam'''' early caliphate seventh century ce islamic legal principles concerning military conduct treatment prisoners war served precursors modern


international humanitarian law islamic law period institutionalised humanitarian limitations military conduct including attempts limit severity war guidelines ceasing hostilities distinguishing civilians combatants preventing unnecessary destruction caring sick wounded many requirements prisoners war treated included providing shelter food clothing respecting cultures preventing acts execution rape revenge principles codified western international law modern times european middle ages international law concerned primarily purpose legitimacy


war seeking determine constituted war example theory armistice held nation caused unwarranted war could enjoy right obtain conquer trophies legitimate time greco roman concept natural law combined religious principles jewish philosopher moses maimonides christian theologian thomas aquinas create new discipline law nations unlike eponymous roman predecessor applied natural law relations states islam similar framework developed wherein law nations derived part


principles rules set forth treaties non muslims emergence modern international law th century witnessed confluence factors contributed accelerated development international law current framework influx greek scholars collapsing byzantine empire along introduction printing press spurred development science humanism notions individual rights increased navigation exploration europeans challenged scholars devise conceptual framework relations different peoples cultures formation centralized states spain france brought


wealth ambition trade turn required increasingly sophisticated rules regulations italian peninsula divided among various city states complex often fractious relationships subsequently early incubator international law theory jurist law professor bartolus da saxoferrato well versed roman byzantine law contributed increasingly relevant area conflicts law concerns disputes private individuals entities different sovereign jurisdictions thus considered founder private international law another italian jurist law professor baldus de ubaldis provided voluminous commentaries compilations


roman ecclesiastical feudal law thus creating organized source law could referenced different nations famous contributor region alberico gentili considered founder international law authoring one earliest works subject ''de legationibus libri tres'' wrote several books various issues international law notably ''de jure belli libri tres'' ''three books law war'' provided comprehensive commentary laws war treaties hugo grotius' ''de jure belli ac pacis'' considered one foundational


texts international law pictured title page second edition portrait dutch jurist hugo grotius alias hugo de groot spain whose global empire spurred golden age economic intellectual development th th centuries produced major contributors international law francisco de vitoria concerned treatment indigenous peoples spain invoked law nations basis innate dignity rights articulating early version sovereign equality peoples francisco su rez emphasized international law founded


also emphasized freedom high seas relevant growing number european states exploring colonising world remains cornerstone international law today although modern study international law would begin early th century th century scholars gentili vitoria grotius laid foundations widely regarded fathers international law ref name jr ref grotius inspired two nascent schools international law naturalists positivists former camp german jurist samuel von pufendorf stressed supremacy law


nature states work ''de iure naturae et gentium'' expanded theories grotius grounded natural law reason secular world asserting regulates external acts states pufendorf challenged hobbesian notion state nature one war conflict arguing natural state world actually peaceful weak uncertain without adherence law nations actions state consist nothing sum individuals within state thereby requiring state apply


fundamental law reason basis natural law among earliest scholars expand international law beyond european christian nations advocating application recognition among peoples basis shared humanity contrast positivist writers richard zouche england cornelis van bynkershoek netherlands argued international law derive actual practice states rather christian greco roman sources study international law shifted away core concern law war towards domains


law sea commercial treaties positivist school made use new scientific method respect consistent empiricist inductive approach philosophy gaining acceptance europe establishment westphalian system sir alberico gentili regarded father international law developments th century came head conclusion peace westphalia considered seminal event international law resulting westphalian sovereignty established current international legal order characterized independent


sovereign entities known nation states equality sovereignty regardless size power defined primarily inviolability borders non interference domestic affairs sovereign states period onward concept nation state evolved rapidly development complex relations required predictable widely accepted rules guidelines idea nationalism people began see citizens particular group distinct national identity solidified concept formation nation states elements naturalist positivist schools became synthesised notably


german philosopher christian wolff swiss jurist emerich de vattel sought middle ground approach international law th century positivist tradition gained broader acceptance although concept natural rights remained influential international politics particularly republican revolutions united states france th century would natural rights gain salience international law several legal systems developed europe including codified systems continental european states known civil law english common law based decisions judges


us civil war considered first written recitation rules articles war adhered civilized nations led first prosecution war crimes confederate commandant tried hanged holding prisoners war cruel depraved conditions andersonville georgia years followed states subscribed limitations conduct numerous treaties bodies created regulate conduct states towards one another including permanent court arbitration hague geneva


conventions first passed first geneva convention one earliest formulations international law alt left concept sovereignty spread throughout world european powers established colonies spheres influences virtually every society positivism reached peak late th century influence began wane following unprecedented bloodshed first world war spurred creation international organisations league nations founded safeguard peace security international law began incorporate naturalist notions


self determination human rights second world war accelerated development leading establishment united nations whose charter enshrined principles nonaggression nonintervention collective security robust international legal order followed buttressed institutions international court justice united nations security council multilateral agreements genocide convention international law commission ilc established help develop codify strengthen international law become geographically international colonial expansion european powers international law became truly international


rapid decolonisation across world resulted establishment scores newly independent states varying political economic interests needs states along diverse cultural backgrounds infused hitherto european dominated principles practices international law new influences flurry institutions ranging world health organisation world trade organisation furthered development stable predictable legal order rules governing virtually every domain phenomenon globalisation led rapid integration world economic political even


cultural terms presents one greatest challenges devising truly international legal system sources international law sources international law influenced range political legal theories th century recognized legal positivists sovereign state could limit authority act consenting agreement according contract principle ''pacta sunt servanda'' consensual view international law reflected statute permanent court international justice remains preserved article icj statute sources


international law applied community nations listed article statute international court justice considered authoritative regard international treaties conventions international custom derived general practice states general legal principles recognized civilized nations additionally judicial decisions teachings prominent international law scholars may applied subsidiary means determination rules law many scholars agree fact sources arranged sequentially suggests implicit hierarchy sources however language


article explicitly hold hierarchy decisions international courts tribunals support strict hierarchy contrast article rome statute international criminal court clearly defines hierarchy applicable law sources international law treaties international treaty law comprises obligations expressly voluntarily accepted states treaties vienna convention law treaties defines treaty follows blockquote treaty means international agreement concluded states written form governed international law whether embodied


single instrument two related instruments whatever particular designation blockquote definition led case law define treaty international agreement meets following criteria criterion requirement agreement meetings wills ''concours de volont '' criterion requirement concluded subjects international law criterion excludes agreements signed states private corporations production sharing agreements ''united kingdom v iran'' case icj jurisdiction dispute anglo iranian oil company nationalized


dispute emerged alleged breach contract private company state criterion requirement governed international law agreement governed domestic law considered treaty criterion requirement instrument treaty embodied single instrument two related instruments best exemplified exchange letters '' change de lettres'' example france sends letter united states say increase contribution budget north atlantic alliance us


accepts commitment treaty said emerged exchange criterion requirement designation designation treaty whether convention pact agreement impact qualification said agreement treaty unwritten criterion requirement agreement produce legal effects unwritten criterion meant exclude agreements fulfill listed conditions meant produce legal effects memoranda understanding disputes exact meaning application national laws


responsibility courts decide law means international law interpretation within domain states concerned may also conferred judicial bodies international court justice terms treaties consent parties thus generally responsibility states interpret law processes diplomacy availability supra national judicial organs routinely provide assistance end vienna convention law treaties codifies several bedrock principles treaty interpretation holds treaty


shall interpreted good faith accordance ordinary meaning given terms treaty context light object purpose represents compromise three different theories interpretation '''textual approach''' restrictive interpretation looks ordinary meaning text assigning considerable weight actual text '' 'subjective approach''' takes consideration factors ideas behind treaty context treaty 's creation drafters intended '''effective approach''' interprets treaty


light object purpose ie based best suits goal treaty foregoing general rules interpretation preclude application specific rules particular areas international law ''greece v united kingdom'' http wwwworldliiorg int cases icj html icj icj jurisdiction hear dispute uk government private greek businessman terms treaty ''united kingdom v iran'' http wwwworldliiorg int cases icj html icj icj jurisdiction dispute anglo iranian oil company nationalized ''oil platforms case islamic republic


iran v united states america '' http wwwworldliiorg int cases icj html icj rejected dispute damage ships hit mine international custom customary international law derived consistent practice states accompanied ''opinio juris'' ie conviction states consistent practice required legal obligation judgments international tribunals well scholarly works traditionally looked persuasive sources custom addition direct evidence state behavior attempts codify customary international law picked momentum second world war formation


international law commission ilc aegis un codified customary law made binding interpretation underlying custom agreement treaty states party treaties work ilc may still accepted custom applying states general principles law commonly recognized major legal systems world certain norms international law achieve binding force peremptory norms ''jus cogens'' include states permissible derogations ''colombia v per '' recognizing custom source international law


practice giving asylum part ''belgium v spain'' finding state corporation incorporated major shareholders reside standing bring action damages economic loss statehood responsibility international law establishes framework criteria identifying states principal actors international legal system existence state presupposes control jurisdiction territory international law deals acquisition territory state immunity legal responsibility states conduct


international law similarly concerned treatment individuals within state boundaries thus comprehensive regime dealing group rights treatment aliens rights refugees international crimes nationality problems human rights generally includes important functions maintenance international peace security arms control pacific settlement disputes regulation use force international relations even law able stop outbreak war developed principles govern conduct hostilities treatment prisoners


international law also used govern issues relating global environment global commons international waters outer space global communications world trade theory states sovereign equal result notion sovereignty value authority international law dependent upon voluntary participation states formulation observance enforcement although may exceptions thought many international academics states enter legal commitments states enlightened self interest rather adherence body law


higher w greig notes international law cannot exist isolation political factors operating sphere international relations traditionally sovereign states holy see sole subjects international law proliferation international organizations last century cases recognized relevant parties well recent interpretations international human rights law international humanitarian law international trade law eg north american free trade agreement nafta chapter actions inclusive corporations even certain individuals conflict


international law national sovereignty subject vigorous debate dispute academia diplomacy politics certainly growing trend toward judging state 's domestic actions light international law standards numerous people view nation state primary unit international affairs believe states may choose voluntarily enter commitments international law right follow counsel comes interpretation commitments certain scholars political leaders feel modern developments endanger nation states taking power


away state governments ceding international bodies un world bank argue international law evolved point exists separately mere consent states discern legislative judicial process international law parallels processes within domestic law especially occurs states violate deviate expected standards conduct adhered civilized nations number states place emphasis principle territorial sovereignty thus seeing states free rein internal affairs states


oppose view one group opponents point view including many european nations maintain civilized nations certain norms conduct expected including prohibition genocide slavery slave trade wars aggression torture piracy violation universal norms represents crime individual victims humanity whole states individuals subscribe view opine case individual responsible violation international law become like pirate slave trader


''hostis humani generis'' enemy mankind thus subject prosecution fair trial fundamentally tribunal exercise universal jurisdiction though european democracies tend support broad universalistic interpretations international law many democracies differing views international law several democracies including india israel united states take flexible eclectic approach recognizing aspects international law territorial rights universal regarding aspects arising treaty custom viewing certain aspects subjects international law democracies


developing world due past colonial histories often insist non interference internal affairs particularly regarding human rights standards peculiar institutions often strongly support international law bilateral multilateral levels united nations especially regarding use force disarmament obligations terms un charter ''case concerning united states diplomatic consular staff tehran'' http wwwworldliiorg int cases icj html icj ''democratic republic congo v belgium'' http wwwworldliiorg int cases icj html icj territory sea law sea area


international law concerning principles rules states entities interact maritime matters encompasses areas issues navigational rights sea mineral rights coastal waters jurisdiction law sea distinct '''admiralty law''' also known '''maritime law''' concerns relations conduct sea private entities united nations convention law sea unclos concluded coming force generally accepted codification customary international law sea territorial dispute ''libya v chad'' http wwwworldliiorg int cases icj html icj


netherlands ''liechtenstein v guatemala'' http wwwworldliiorg int cases icj html icj recognition mr nottebohm 's nationality connected diplomatic protection ''italy v france united kingdom united states'' http wwwworldliiorg int cases icj html icj human rights universal declaration human rights ''croatia serbia genocide case'' ongoing claims genocide ''bosnia herzegovina v serbia montenegro'' http wwwworldliiorg int cases icj html icj ''case concerning barcelona traction light power company ltd'' http wwwworldliiorg int cases icj html icj labor law international labor organization ilo conventions declaration philadelphia declaration fundamental principles rights work united nations convention


protection rights migrant workers members families convention elimination forms racial discrimination convention elimination forms discrimination women convention rights persons disabilities development finance bretton woods conference world bank international monetary fund environmental law kyoto protocol trade world trade organization trans pacific partnership tpp tpp proposed free trade agreement among pacific rim economies focusing tariff reductions centerpiece president


withdrew rival asia pacific trade pact rcep connect world 's people output right political context generate significant gains rcep aims create integrated market countries making easier products services countries available across region negotiations focused following trade goods services investment intellectual property dispute settlement e commerce small medium enterprises economic cooperation conflict force war armed conflict ''nicaragua v united states''


human rights formation united nations example created means world community enforce international law upon members violate charter security council since international law exists legal environment without overarching sovereign ie external power able willing compel compliance international norms enforcement international law different domestic context many cases enforcement takes coasian characteristics norm self enforcing cases defection norm pose real risk particularly international environment


changing happens enough states enough powerful states continually ignore particular aspect international law norm may actually change according concepts customary international law example prior world war unrestricted submarine warfare considered violation international law ostensibly casus belli united states' declaration war germany world war ii however practice widespread nuremberg trials charges german admiral karl nitz ordering unrestricted submarine warfare dropped notwithstanding activity


constituted clear violation second london naval treaty domestic enforcement apart state 's natural inclination uphold certain norms force international law comes pressure states put upon one another behave consistently honor obligations system law many violations international law obligations overlooked addressed may diplomacy consequences upon offending state 's reputation submission international judicial determination arbitration sanctions force including war though violations may common fact states try avoid


appearance disregarded international obligations states may also unilaterally adopt sanctions one another severance economic diplomatic ties reciprocal action cases domestic courts may render judgment foreign state realm private international law injury though complicated area law international law intersects domestic law implicit westphalian system nation states explicitly recognized article charter united nations states inherent right individual collective self defense


armed attack occurs article un charter guarantees right states defend unless security council takes measures keep peace international bodies deliberative policymaking representative organ united nations general assembly empowered make recommendations neither codify international law make binding resolutions ref name un ga powers ref ref name un int law ref merely internal resolutions budgetary matters may binding operation general assembly violations un charter members united nations may raised aggrieved state


collective measures economic diplomatic sanctions situations constituting milder threat peace uniting peace resolution initiated united states shortly outbreak korean war means circumventing possible future soviet vetoes security council legal role resolution clear given general assembly neither issue binding resolutions codify law never argued joint seven powers put forward draft resolution corresponding discussions way afforded assembly new powers instead


international law though usually expressive council 's convictions rare cases security council adopt resolutions chapter vii un charter related threats peace breaches peace acts aggression legally binding international law followed economic sanctions military action similar uses force auspices united nations argued resolutions passed outside chapter vii also binding legal basis council 's broad powers article


states discharging duties exercise primary responsibility international peace security shall act accordance purposes principles united nations mandatory nature resolutions upheld international court justice icj advisory opinion namibia binding nature resolutions deduced interpretation language intent states also upon mutual consent submit disputes arbitration international court justice located hague netherlands judgments given court cases binding


although possesses means enforce rulings court may give advisory opinion legal question request whatever body may authorized accordance charter united nations make request advisory cases brought court controversial respect court 's competence jurisdiction often enormously complicated matters icj cases less since court created permanent court international justice stretch years generally


rome applicable court arbitration sport east african community ambitions make east african community consisting kenya tanzania uganda burundi rwanda political federation form binding supranational law effort materialized union south american nations union south american nations serves south american continent intends establish framework akin european union end envisaged passport currency limit barriers trade andean community nations


andean community nations first attempt integrate countries andes mountains south america started cartagena agreement may consists four countries bolivia colombia ecuador peru andean community follows supranational laws called agreements mandatory countries international legal theory international legal theory comprises variety theoretical methodological approaches used explain analyse content formation effectiveness international law institutions suggest improvements approaches center question compliance states follow international norms


absence coercive power ensures compliance approaches focus problem formation international rules states voluntarily adopt international law norms limit freedom action absence world legislature perspectives policy oriented elaborate theoretical frameworks instruments criticize existing norms make suggestions improve approaches based domestic legal theory interdisciplinary others developed expressly analyse international law classical approaches international legal theory natural law


gentium'' established consent community nations basis principle ''pacta sunt servanda'' basis observance commitments part emmerich de vattel argued instead equality states articulated th century natural law suggested law nations composed custom law one hand natural law th century basic tenets grotian eclectic school especially doctrines legal equality territorial sovereignty independence states became fundamental


principles european political legal system enshrined peace westphalia early positivist school emphasized importance custom treaties sources international law th century alberico gentili used historical examples posit positive law ''jus voluntarium'' determined general consent cornelius van bynkershoek asserted bases international law customs treaties commonly consented various states john jacob moser emphasized importance state practice international law positivism school narrowed range international practice might qualify law favouring rationality


whole community thing international law treaties bind sign blockquote subject treaty law charles de gaulle stated treaties like pretty girls roses last long last ref name auto speech oxford dictionary quotations oup p ref since states number diverse atypical character unindictable lacking centralised sovereign power agreements unpoliced decentralised ref name auto wight power politics p ref says wight 'international society society condition international relations


makes domestic law enforceable nations multiple competing sources force confusion created treaty laws resemble private contracts persons mitigated relatively small number states example unclear whether nuremberg trials created new law applied existing law kellogg briand pact morgenthau asserts state may compelled submit dispute international tribunal making laws unenforceable voluntary international law also unpoliced lacking agencies enforcement cites us opinion poll


respondents wanted international police maintain world peace wanted force exceed us armed forces later surveys produced similar contradictory results see also natural law list international court justice cases list international public law topics list treaties consular law arbitration anarchy international relations aviation law space law centre international law cil commissions danube river comparative law conference parties conflict laws diplomatic law diplomatic recognition environmental agreements global administrative law global policeman graduate institute international development studies international law commission


p dupuy kerbrat droit international public th ed paris dalloz n shaw ''international law'' th ed cambridge university press rafael domingo osle ''the new global law'' cambridge university press giuliana ziccardi capaldo pillars global law ashgate hans kelsen ''peace law'' david l sloss michael ramsey william dodge ''international law us supreme court'' isbn cambridge university press rafael domingo osle john witte jr eds ''christianity global law'' routledge external links http wwwunrolorg united nations rule law united nations' centralised website


rule law http libraryresourcesunogch legal ilc unog library legal research guide http wwwcilnusedusg centre international law cil singapore http topicslawcornelledu wex international law international law overview https webarchiveorg web http graduateinstitutech law department international law graduate institute international development studies geneva http logic lawcom indexphptitle history western international law primary legal documents critical understanding development public international law http worksbepresscom cgi viewcontentcgiarticle context bryan druzin public international law form private ordering http wwweiireu european institute international law international relations https webarchiveorg web http englishdipublicocomar public international law resources https webarchiveorg web http wwwburneylawfirmcom international law primerhtm brief primer international law cases commentary nathaniel burney https webarchiveorg web http wwwasilorg asil wayshtml american society international law ways


international law shapes lives http wwwgraduateinstitutech law department public international law graduate institute international development studies geneva https webarchiveorg web https wwwasilorg resource ergintr htm american society international law resource guide introduction http wwwreferenceforbusinesscom encyclopedia int jun international lawhtml international law details http wwwinternationallawobservereu international law observer blog dedicated reports commentary international law https wwwunorg official united nations website https wwwunorg law official un website international law http wwwicj cijorg official website international court justice http wwwopiniojurisorg opinio juris blog international law international relations https webarchiveorg web http treatiesunorg homeaspx united nations treaty collection https wwwunorg law avl un audiovisual library international law https webarchiveorg web http wwweiileu en component content article html european institute international law


international relations http worksbepresscom cgi viewcontentcgiarticle context bryan druzin public international law form private ordering http wwwpeacepalacelibrarynl research guides public international law public international law general public international law research guide peace palace library http libraryresourcesunogch legal ilc unog library legal research guide international trade law international international relations cultural globalization


diseases rheumatoid arthritis inflammation tests specialist immunologist '''immunology''' branch biology medicine covers study immune systems organisms immunology charts measures contextualizes physiological functioning immune system states health diseases malfunctions immune system immunological disorders autoimmune diseases hypersensitivities immune deficiency transplant rejection physical chemical physiological characteristics components immune system ''in vitro'' ''in situ'' ''in vivo'' immunology applications numerous disciplines medicine


latin exempt early physicians characterized organs would later proven essential components immune system important lymphoid organs immune system thymus bone marrow chief lymphatic tissues spleen tonsils lymph vessels lymph nodes adenoids liver however many components immune system cellular nature associated specific organs rather embedded circulating various tissues located throughout body health conditions worsen emergency status portions immune system organs including thymus spleen bone marrow lymph nodes lymphatic tissues


surgically excised examination patients still alive classical immunology classical immunology ties fields epidemiology medicine studies relationship body systems pathogens immunity earliest written mention immunity traced back plague athens bce thucydides noted people recovered previous bout disease could nurse sick without contracting illness second time many ancient societies references phenomenon th th centuries


concept developed scientific theory study molecular cellular components comprise immune system including function interaction central science immunology immune system divided primitive innate immune system vertebrates acquired adaptive immune system latter divided humoral antibody cell mediated components immune system capability self non self recognition antigen substance ignites immune response cells involved recognizing antigen lymphocytes recognize secrete antibodies antibodies


proteins neutralize disease causing microorganisms antibodies directly kill pathogens instead identify antigens targets destruction immune cells phagocytes nk cells antibody response defined interaction antibodies antigens antibodies specific proteins released certain class immune cells known b nbsp lymphocytes antigens defined anything elicits generation antibodies '''anti'''body '''gen'''erators immunology rests understanding properties two biological entities cellular response getting clear immune


clinical immunology clinical immunology study diseases caused disorders immune system failure aberrant action malignant growth cellular elements system also involves diseases systems immune reactions play part pathology clinical features diseases caused disorders immune system fall two broad categories immunodeficiency parts immune system fail provide adequate response examples include chronic granulomatous disease primary immune diseases autoimmunity immune system attacks host 's body examples include systemic


lupus erythematosus rheumatoid arthritis hashimoto 's disease myasthenia gravis immune system disorders include various hypersensitivities asthma allergies respond inappropriately otherwise harmless compounds well known disease affects immune system aids immunodeficiency characterized suppression cd helper cells dendritic cells macrophages human immunodeficiency virus hiv clinical immunologists also study ways prevent immune system 's attempts destroy allografts transplant rejection clinical immunology allergy usually subspecialty internal medicine pediatrics fellows clinical immunology typically exposed


many different aspects specialty get treat allergic conditions primary immunodeficiencies systemic autoimmune autoinflammatory conditions part training fellows may additional rotations rheumatology pulmonology otorhinolaryngology dermatology immunologic lab developmental immunology body capability react antigens depends person 's age antigen type maternal factors area antigen presented ref name isbn ref neonates said state physiological immunodeficiency innate adaptive immunological responses greatly suppressed born child immune system responds


favorably protein antigens well glycoproteins polysaccharides fact many infections acquired neonates caused low virulence organisms like ''staphylococcus'' ''pseudomonas'' neonates opsonic activity ability activate complement cascade limited example mean level c newborn approximately found adult phagocytic activity also greatly impaired newborns due lower opsonic activity well diminished regulation integrin selectin receptors limit ability neutrophils interact


adhesion molecules endothelium monocytes slow reduced atp production also limits newborn 's phagocytic activity although number total lymphocytes significantly higher adults cellular humoral immunity also impaired antigen presenting cells newborns reduced capability activate nbsp cells also nbsp cells newborn proliferate poorly produce small amounts cytokines like il il il il ifn g limits capacity activate humoral response well phagocitic activity macrophage b nbsp cells develop early gestation


fully active ref name jaspan et al ref artist 's impression monocytes maternal factors also play role body immune response birth immunoglobulin present maternal igg antibodies transferred placenta fetus using fcrn neonatal fc receptor igm igd ige iga cross placenta almost undetectable birth iga provided breast milk passively acquired antibodies protect newborn months response usually short lived low affinity ref name jaspan et al


antibodies also produce negative response child exposed antibody particular antigen exposed antigen child produce dampened response passively acquired maternal antibodies suppress antibody response active immunization similarly response cells vaccination differs children compared adults vaccines induce th responses adults readily elicit responses neonates ref name jaspan et al six nine months birth child immune system begins respond strongly glycoproteins


usually marked improvement response polysaccharides least one year old reason distinct time frames found vaccination schedules ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref adolescence human body undergoes various physical physiological immunological changes triggered mediated hormones significant females estradiol estrogen males testosterone estradiol usually begins act around age testosterone months later ref name pmid ref evidence steroids act directly primary secondary sexual characteristics


control immune system puberty post puberty rest male 's adult life physical changes puberty thymic involution also affect immunological response ref name pmid ref ecoimmunology behavioural immunity ecoimmunology ecological immunology explores relationship immune system organism social biotic abiotic environment recent ecoimmunological research focused host pathogen defences traditionally considered non immunological pathogen avoidance self medication symbiont mediated defenses fecundity trade offs ref name ref behavioural immunity phrase coined mark schaller specifically refers psychological pathogen avoidance drivers disgust


aroused stimuli encountered around pathogen infected individuals smell vomit broadly behavioural ecological immunity demonstrated multiple species example monarch butterfly often lays eggs certain toxic milkweed species infected parasites toxins reduce parasite growth offspring infected monarch however uninfected monarch butterflies forced feed toxic plants suffer fitness cost reduced lifespan relative uninfected monarch butterflies indicates laying eggs toxic plants costly behaviour monarchs probably evolved


known immunotherapy immunotherapy commonly used treat allergies autoimmune disorders crohn disease rheumatoid arthritis certain cancers immunotherapy also often used immunosuppressed hiv patients people suffering immune deficiencies includes regulating factors il il gm csf b ifn diagnostic immunology specificity bond antibody antigen made antibody excellent tool detection substances variety diagnostic techniques antibodies specific desired antigen conjugated isotopic radio fluorescent label


color forming enzyme order detect however similarity antigens lead false positives errors tests antibodies cross reacting antigens exact matches ref name pmid ref cancer immunology study interaction immune system cancer cells lead diagnostic tests therapies find fight cancer immunology concerned physiological reaction characteristic immune state reproductive immunology area immunology devoted study immunological aspects reproductive process


including fetus acceptance term also used fertility clinics address fertility problems recurrent miscarriages premature deliveries dangerous complications pre eclampsia theoretical immunology immunology strongly experimental everyday practice also characterized ongoing theoretical attitude many theories suggested immunology end nineteenth century present time end th century beginning th century saw battle cellular humoral theories immunity according cellular theory immunity represented particular elie


metchnikoff cells nbsp precisely phagocytes nbsp responsible immune responses contrast humoral theory immunity held robert koch emil von behring among others stated active immune agents soluble components molecules found organism 's humors rather cells ref name tauber ai ref mid macfarlane burnet inspired suggestion made niels jerne formulated clonal selection theory cst immunity basis cst burnet developed theory immune response triggered according self nonself distinction self constituents constituents body


trigger destructive immune responses nonself entities eg pathogens allograft trigger destructive immune response theory later modified reflect new discoveries regarding histocompatibility complex two signal activation cells self nonself theory immunity self nonself vocabulary criticized ref name tauber ai ref name matzinger p ref remain influential recently several theoretical frameworks suggested immunology including autopoietic views cognitive immune views danger model danger theory ref name matzinger p discontinuity theory danger model suggested polly matzinger colleagues


influential arousing many comments discussions see also history immunology immunomics ''international reviews immunology'' list immunologists osteoimmunology outline immunology references external links http wwwaaiorg american association immunologists https wwwimmunologyorg british society immunology http wwwfocisnetorg federation clinical immunology societies


soldiers rok armed forces th infantry division reconnaissance battalion conducting long march exercise royal irish rifles battle somme july november first world war '''infantry''' army specialization whose personnel engage military combat foot distinguished cavalry artillery armored forces also known '''foot soldiers''' '''infantrymen''' '''infanteer''' infantry traditionally rely traveling foot combats well may also use mounts mounted infantry military vehicles motorized mechanized infantry watercraft naval infantry aircraft airborne infantry combat mobility logistics infantry

Applied science
Military sciences
Military weapons
Infantry


typically bear largest brunt warfare measured casualties discomfort fatigue physical psychological stress first military forces history infantry antiquity infantry armed early melee weapons spear axe sword early ranged weapon like javelin sling bow infantrymen expected use melee ranged weapon development gunpowder infantry began converting primarily firearms time napoleonic warfare infantry cavalry artillery formed basic triad ground forces though infantry usually


remained numerous armoured warfare armoured fighting vehicles replaced horses cavalry airpower added new dimension ground combat infantry remains pivotal modern combined arms operations infantry much greater local situational awareness military forces due inherent intimate contact battlefield boots ground vital engaging infiltrating enemy positions holding defending ground military objectives securing battlefield victories maintaining military area control security behind front lines capturing ordnance materiel taking prisoners


armoured personnel carriers infantry fighting vehicles etymology terminology various infantry th th century halberdier arquebusier pikeman mix musketeers grenadiers duchy w rttemberg infantry us rd armored cavalry regiment enter bradley ifv combat patrol tall afar iraq english use term ''infantry'' began describing soldiers march fight foot word derives middle french ''infanterie'' older italian also spanish ''infanteria'' foot soldiers inexperienced cavalry latin '' nf ns'' without speech newborn foolish


english also gets ''infant'' individual soldier term ''infantryman'' coined modern usage foot soldiers era considered infantry infantrymen mid th century british army named infantry numbered regiments foot distinguish cavalry dragoon regiments see list regiments foot infantry equipped special weapons often named weapon grenadiers grenades fusiliers ''fusils'' ref group note fusil early flintlock firearm safer use around gunpowder stores cannons matchlocks ref


names persist long weapon speciality examples infantry units retained names royal irish fusiliers grenadier guards commonly modern times infantry special tactics named roles commandos rangers snipers marines additional training militia limited training still infantry due expectation fight infantry enter combat dragoons created mounted infantry horses travel battles still considered infantry since dismounted combat however light cavalry


lacking army available dragoons might assigned duties practise increased time dragoons eventually received weapons training infantry cavalry could classified conversely starting mid th century regular cavalry forced spend time dismounted combat due ever increasing effectiveness enemy infantry firearms thus cavalry transitioned mounted infantry grenadiers ' 'dragoon'' ''cavalry'' designations retained long horses royal dragoon guards royal lancers king 's royal


hussars similarly motorised infantry trucks unarmed vehicles non combat movement still infantry since leave vehicles combat modern infantry vehicle transport point infantry motorised generally assumed exceptions might identified modern ''light infantry'' leg infantry colloquially mechanised infantry go beyond motorised transport vehicles combat abilities armoured personnel carriers apcs providing least options combat without leaving vehicles modern infantry apcs evolved infantry fighting vehicles ifvs transport vehicles


substantial combat abilities approaching light tanks well equipped mechanised infantry designated ''armoured infantry'' given infantry forces typically also tanks given armoured forces mechanised infantry units tank units organisation distinction mechanised infantry armour forces blurred terms ''infantry'' ''armour'' ''cavalry'' used official names military units like divisions brigades regiments might better understood description expected balance defensive offensive mobility roles rather use vehicles modern


heavy infantry middle right hoplites ''rocroi el ltimo tercio'' roicroi last tercio augusto ferrer dalmau portraying infantry battered spanish tercio battle rocroi french infantry line performing bayonet charge first warriors adopting hunting weapons improvised melee weapons ref name kelly ref existence organised military likely started essentially loose groups without organisation formation changed sometime recorded history first ancient empires bc shown soldiers standardised military equipment training discipline required


antiquity middle ages th century bc th century ad infantry categorised either heavy infantry light infantry heavy infantry greek hoplites macedonian phalangites roman legionaries specialised dense solid formations driving main enemy lines using weight numbers achieve decisive victory usually equipped heavier weapons armour fit role light infantry greek peltasts balearic slingers roman velites using open formations greater manoeuvrability took combat roles scouting screening army march skirmishing delay


disrupt weaken enemy prepare main forces' battlefield attack protecting flanking manoeuvers afterwards either pursuing fleeing enemy covering army 's retreat fall rome quality heavy infantry declined warfare dominated heavy cavalry knights forming small elite units decisive shock combat supported peasant infantry militias assorted light infantry lower classes towards end middle ages began change professional better trained light infantry could effective knights english


firearms rendered use heavy infantry obsolete introduction musketeers using bayonets mid th century began replacement pike infantry square replacing pike square maximise firepower musketeer infantry trained fight wide lines facing enemy creating line infantry fulfilled central battlefield role earlier heavy infantry using ranged weapons instead melee weapons support lines smaller infantry formations using dispersed skirmish lines created called light infantry fulfilling multiple roles earlier light infantry arms lighter line


alice infantryman 's equipment vital concern man military needs infantryman maintain fitness effectiveness must constantly balanced overburdened soldiers military branches use mount vehicle carrying equipment tend operate together crews serving vehicle ordnance infantrymen must operate independently infantryman usually much personal equipment use carry encourages searching ingenious combinations effective rugged serviceable adaptable yet light compact handy infantry equipment beyond main arms


armour infantryman 's military kit includes combat boots battledress combat uniform camping gear heavy weather gear survival gear secondary weapons ammunition weapon service repair kits health hygiene items mess kit rations filled water canteen consumables infantryman needs expected duration time operating away unit 's base plus special mission specific equipment one valuable pieces gear entrenching tool basically folding spade employed dig important defences also variety daily tasks even sometimes


legions less dependent baggage train therefore mobile ref combat expected infantry typically switch packing light meaning reducing equipment weapons ammo bare essentials leaving rest transport baggage train camp rally point temporary hidden caches even emergencies discarding whatever may slow additional specialised equipment may required depending mission particular terrain environment including satchel charges demolition tools mines barbed wire carried infantry attached specialists historically infantry suffered high casualty rates


disease exposure exhaustion privation often excess casualties suffered enemy attacks better infantry equipment support health energy protect environmental factors greatly reduces rates loss increase level effective action health energy morale greatly influenced soldier fed militaries often standardised field rations starting hardtack us k rations modern mres communications gear become necessity allows effective command infantry units greater distances communication artillery support units modern infantry gps


encrypted individual communications equipment surveillance night vision equipment advanced intelligence high tech mission unique aids armies sought improve standardise infantry gear reduce fatigue extended carrying increase freedom movement accessibility compatibility carried gear us purpose lightweight individual carrying equipment alice weapons russian weapons th th centuries infantrymen defined primary arms personal weapons body armour individual use available technology resources history society produce quite different weapons military era


common infantry weapons distinguished basic categories ref name germany war ref ref name list weapons ref u ranged combat weapons u javelins slings blowguns bows crossbows hand cannons arquebuses muskets grenades flamethrowers ref name list weapons u close combat weapons u bludgeoning weapons like clubs flails maces bladed weapons like swords daggers axes pole weapons like spears halberds naginata pikes ref name list weapons u ranged close weapons u bayonet fixed firearm allows infantrymen use weapon ranged combat close combat started muskets continued rifles automatic firearms ref


name list weapons use bayonet declined modern automatic firearms still generally kept weapon last resort infantrymen often carry secondary back weapons sometimes called sidearm ancillary weapons modern terminology either issued officially addition soldier 's standard arms acquired unofficially means individual preference weapons used primary weapon longer effective becoming damaged running ammunition malfunction change tactical situation another weapon preferred going


battle flags war drums brilliant uniforms fierce body paint tattoos even battle cries become mostly ceremonial since decline close combat military tactics protection roman ''testudo'' performed siege shown trajan 's column infantry employed many different methods protection enemy attacks including various kinds armour gear tactical procedures basic personal armour includes shields helmets many types armour padded linen leather lamellar mail plate kevlar initially armour used defend ranged close


combat even fairly light shield could help defend slings javelins though high strength bows crossbows might penetrate common armour close range infantry armour compromise protection coverage full suit attack proof armour would heavy wear combat firearms improved armour ranged defence thicker stronger introduction heavy arquebus designed pierce standard steel armour proven easier make heavier firearms heavier armour armour transitioned close combat purposes pikemen armour tended


steel helmets breastplates gunners little armour time musket dominance firepower shifted militaries away close combat use armour decreased infantry typically went without armour helmets added back world war artillery began dominate battlefield protect fragmentation blast effects beyond direct hit modern developments bullet proof composite materials like kevlar started return body armour infantry though extra weight notable burden modern times infantrymen must


also often carry protective measures chemical biological attack including military gas masks counter agents protective suits protective measures add weight infantryman must carry may decrease combat efficiency modern militaries struggling balance value personal body protection versus weight burden ability function weight infantry served weapons early crew served weapons siege weapons like ballista trebuchet battering ram modern versions include machine guns anti tank missiles infantry mortars formations ancient depiction infantry formations stele vultures


early dynastic period mesopotamia beginning development first regular military forces close combat regular infantry fought less unorganised groups individuals coordinated units maintaining defined tactical formation combat increased battlefield effectiveness infantry formations arms used developed together starting spear shield spear decent attack abilities additional advantage keeping opponents distance advantage increased using longer spears could allow opponent side step point spear close hand hand combat longer


spear near useless avoided spearman stays side side others close formation covering ones next presenting solid wall spears enemy cannot get around similarly shield decent defence abilities literally hit miss attack unexpected angle bypass completely larger shields cover also heavier less manoeuvrable making unexpected attacks even problem avoided shield armed soldiers stand close together side side protecting


advantages heavy infantry meant maintaining formation became even important two forces heavy infantry met battle solidity formation became deciding factor intense discipline training became paramount empires formed around military organization organization military forces regular military units first noted egyptian records battle kadesh soldiers grouped units turn grouped larger units finally units largest independent command several


egyptian divisions made army operated independently march tactically demonstrating sufficient military command control organisation basic battlefield manoeuvres similar hierarchical organizations noted ancient armies typically approximately ratios even base common similar modern sections squads companies regiments training canadian army reserve infantrymen train urban operations training infantry differed drastically time place place cost maintaining army fighting order seasonal nature


warfare precluded large permanent armies antiquity saw everything well trained motivated citizen armies greek rome tribal host assembled farmers hunters passing acquaintance warfare masses lightly armed ill trained militia put last ditch effort kushite king taharqa enjoyed military success near east result efforts strengthen army daily training long distance running medieval times foot soldiers varied peasant levies semi permanent companies mercenaries foremost among swiss english aragonese


german men arms went battle well armoured knights latter times also fought foot creation standing armies permanently assembled war defence saw increase training experience increased use firearms need drill handle efficiently introduction national mass armies saw establishment minimum requirements introduction special troops first engineers going back medieval times also different kinds infantry adopted specific terrain bicycle motorcycle motorised mechanised troops culminating introduction


highly trained special forces first second world war operations us army rangers vietnam attack operations attack operations basic role infantry along defence form main stances infantry battlefield traditionally open battle meeting engagement two armies would manoeuvre contact point would form infantry units opposite one would advance attempt defeat enemy force goal attack remains advance enemy held


''objective'' frequently hill river crossing city dominant terrain feature dislodge enemy thereby establishing control objective attacks often feared infantry conducting high number casualties suffered advancing close destroy enemy enemy fire mechanised infantry armoured personnel carrier apc considered assaulting position apcs deliver infantrymen front lines battle case infantry fighting vehicles contribute supporting firepower engage enemy successful attacks rely sufficient force preparative reconnaissance


battlefield preparation bomb assets retention discipline cohesion throughout attack paramount success subcategory attacks ambush infantrymen lie wait enemy forces attacking vulnerable moment gives ambushing infantrymen combat advantage surprise concealment superior firing positions causes confusion ambushed unit know attacking patrol operations indonesian army infantry soldiers nd infantry battalion line deployment international border indonesia papua new guinea


including ability use terrain constructed fortifications advantage reduce exposure enemy fire compared advancing forces effective defence relies minimising losses enemy fire breaking enemy 's cohesion advance completed preventing enemy penetration defensive positions escort operations escorting consists protecting support units ambush particularly hostile infantry forces combat support units majority military well armed trained infantry units different mission therefore need protection infantry particularly move one


combat arms units often manoeuvred meet battlefield needs often must enemy attack infantry must maintain cohesion readiness move ensure usefulness reach objective traditionally infantry relied legs mobility mechanised armoured infantry often uses trucks armoured vehicles transport units quickly disembark transition light infantry without vehicles access terrain armoured vehicles ca n't effectively access reconnaissance intelligence gathering surveillance operations often carried employment small recon units sniper


front although patrol security operations usually maintained case enemy infiltration usually best time infantry units integrate replacements units maintain equipment additionally soldiers rested general readiness improve however unit must ready deployment point construction engineering undertaken either reserve front consists using infantry troops labor construction field positions roads bridges airfields manner structures infantry often given assignment physical quantity


strong men within unit although lessen unit 's morale limit unit 's ability maintain readiness perform missions often jobs given specialist engineering corps raids hostage rescue infantry units trained quickly mobilise infiltrate enter neutralise threat forces appropriate combat intelligence indicates secure location rescue capture high profile targets urban combat urban combat poses unique challenges combat forces one complicated type operations infantry unit undertake many places enemy hide ambush


deaths uncommon war peacetime training operations highly dangerous demanding combat service world war ii military doctors concluded average american soldier fighting italy psychologically worn days combat ref name pfau ref physical mental environmental operating demands infantryman high combat necessities ammunition weapon systems food water clothing shelter carried backs infantrymen least light role opposed mounted mechanised combat loads nbsp kg nbsp lbs


standard greater loads excess nbsp kg nbsp lbs common ref name medical dept ref heavy loads combined long foot patrols day climate temperature require infantryman good physical mental condition infantrymen live fight die outdoors types brutal climates often physical shelter poor climate conditions adds misery already demanding existence disease epidemics frostbite heat stroke trench foot insect wild animal bites common along stress disorders sometimes caused casualties enemy action ref


name medical dept infantry units considered special forces earliest special forces commando units highly trained infantrymen special weapons equipment missions special forces units recruit heavily regular infantry units fill ranks air force naval infantry class floatright style border px solid black background white float right text align center cellpadding nato map symbol px br px naval infantry company px br px air force infantry company naval infantry commonly known marines primarily category infantry form part naval forces states


perform roles land sea including amphibious operations well naval roles also perform tasks including land warfare separate naval operations air force infantry base defense forces royal air force regiment royal australian air force airfield defence guards indonesian air force paskhas corps used primarily ground based defense air bases air force facilities also number specialist roles include among others chemical biological radiological nuclear cbrn defence training airmen basic ground defense tactics see


praise infantry tobin james ''ernie pyle 's war america 's eyewitness world war ii'' free press mauldin bill ambrose stephen e ''up front'' w w norton trogdon robert w ''ernest hemingway literary reference'' da capo press ''the new york times'' maj gen c shortis british director infantry february heinl robert debs ''dictionary military naval quotations'' plautus ''the braggart captain'' rd century ad naval institute press annapolis nafziger george ''napoleon 's invasion russia'' presidio press mcmanus john c ''grunts inside american infantry combat experience world war


ii iraq'' new york ny nal caliber plus https webarchiveorg web http wwwpritzkermilitarylibraryorg home john c mcmanusaspx webcast author lecture pritzker military library september external links historic films photos showing infantries world war http wwweuropeanfilmgatewayeu node infantry efg efg infantries multilingual europeanfilmgatewayeu http regimentalroguecom misc praise infantryhtm praise infantry field marshal earl wavell first published times thursday april http wwwnatoint kfor chronicle chronicle htm lagunari serenissima regiment kfor kfor chronicle http wwwinfantrydrillscom web version us army field manual infantry rifle platoon squad includes several drawings combat occupations


science cognitive science commerce law linguistics museology management mathematics philosophy public policy social sciences foundations scope approach information science focuses understanding problems perspective stakeholders involved applying information technologies needed words tackles systemic problems first rather individual pieces technology within system respect one see information science response technological determinism belief technology develops laws realizes potential limited material resources available

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Information science


creativity developers must therefore regarded autonomous system controlling ultimately permeating subsystems society many universities entire colleges departments schools devoted study information science numerous information science scholars work disciplines communication healthcare computer science law sociology several institutions formed school caucus see ''list schools'' numerous others besides also comprehensive information foci within information science current issues include human computer interaction science groupware semantic web value sensitive design iterative design processes ways people generate use


find information definitions first known usage term information science early definition information science going back year ''american documentation institute'' renamed ''american society information science technology'' states information science discipline investigates properties behavior information forces governing flow information means processing information optimum accessibility usability concerned body knowledge relating origination collection organization storage retrieval interpretation transmission transformation utilization information


includes investigation information representations natural artificial systems use codes efficient message transmission study information processing devices techniques computers programming systems interdisciplinary science derived related fields mathematics logic linguistics psychology computer technology operations research graphic arts communications management similar fields pure science component inquires subject without regard application applied science component develops services products borko p related terms authors


use informatics synonym ''information science'' especially true related concept developed mikhailov soviet authors mid mikhailov school saw informatics discipline related study scientific information informatics difficult precisely define rapidly evolving interdisciplinary nature field definitions reliant nature tools used deriving meaningful information data emerging informatics academic programs regional differences international terminology complicate problem people note much called informatics


today called information science least fields medical informatics example library scientists began also use phrase information science refer work term informatics emerged united states response computer scientists distinguish work library science britain term science information studies natural well artificial engineered information processing systems another term discussed synonym information studies information systems brian campbell vickery 's ''information systems'' placed information systems within


shared conceptualisation ref name trg ref ontology renders shared vocabulary taxonomy models domain definition objects concepts properties relations ontologies structural frameworks organizing information used artificial intelligence semantic web systems engineering software engineering biomedical informatics library science enterprise bookmarking information architecture form knowledge representation world part creation domain ontologies also fundamental definition use enterprise architecture framework careers information scientist information scientist


public private non profit academic institutions information professionals also found within organisational industrial contexts performing roles include system design development system analysis history early beginnings gottfried wilhelm leibniz german polymath wrote primarily latin french fields study metaphysics mathematics theodicy information science studying collection classification manipulation storage retrieval dissemination information origins common stock human knowledge information analysis carried scholars least early time assyrian empire emergence cultural


center scientific experiment hosted public exhibitions scientific experiments benjamin franklin invested town massachusetts collection books town voted make available free charge forming first public library academie de chirurgia paris published ''memoires pour les chirurgiens'' generally considered first medical journal american philosophical society patterned royal society london founded philadelphia numerous scientific journals societies founded alois senefelder developed concept lithography use mass printing work


germany th century joseph marie jacquard th century first signs information science emerged separate distinct sciences social sciences conjunction communication computation joseph marie jacquard invented punched card system control operations cloth weaving loom france first use memory storage patterns system chemistry journals emerged throughout ref name autogenerated ref charles babbage developed difference engine first step towards modern computer analytical engine


richard hoe developed rotary press samuel morse sent first public telegraph message william f poole begins ''index periodical literature'' first general periodical literature index us george boole published ''an investigation laws thought'' lays foundations boolean algebra later used information retrieval congress held karlsruhe technische hochschule discuss feasibility establishing systematic rational nomenclature chemistry congress reach conclusive results several key participants returned home


stanislao cannizzaro 's outline ultimately convinces validity scheme calculating atomic weights smithsonian institution began catalog current scientific papers became ''international catalogue scientific papers'' following year royal society began publication ''catalogue papers'' london christopher sholes carlos glidden w soule produced first practical typewriter lord kelvin devised analogue computer predict tides frank stephen baldwin granted first us patent practical calculating machine


performs four arithmetic functions ref name autogenerated alexander graham bell thomas edison invented telephone phonograph respectively american library association founded philadelphia ''index medicus'' first issued library surgeon general us army john shaw billings librarian later library issues ''index catalogue'' achieved international reputation complete catalog medical literature european documentation discipline ' 'documentation science'' marks earliest theoretical foundations modern information science emerged late part th century


europe together several scientific indexes whose purpose organize scholarly literature many information science historians cite paul otlet henri la fontaine fathers information science founding international institute bibliography iib second generation european documentalists emerged second world war notably suzanne briet however information science term popularly used academia sometime latter part th century documentalists emphasized utilitarian integration technology technique toward specific social goals according ronald day


organized system techniques technologies documentation understood player historical development global organization modernity indeed major player inasmuch organization dependent organization transmission information otlet lafontaine nobel prize envisioned later technical innovations also projected global vision information information technologies speaks directly postwar visions global information society otlet lafontaine established numerous organizations dedicated standardization bibliography international associations consequently international cooperation organizations fundamental ensuring international


production commerce information communication modern economic development later found global form institutions league nations united nations otlet designed universal decimal classification based melville dewey decimal classification system ref name autogenerated day ronald ''modern invention information'' carbondale il southern illinois university press ref although lived decades computers networks emerged discussed prefigured ultimately became world wide web vision great network knowledge focused documents included notions hyperlinks search engines remote access social networks otlet


founding american documentation institute adi later called american society information science technology transition modern information science vannevar bush famous information scientist ca came increasing awareness potential automatic devices literature searching information storage retrieval concepts grew magnitude potential variety information science interests move batch processing online modes mainframe mini microcomputers additionally traditional boundaries among disciplines began fade many information science scholars


joined programs made multidisciplinary incorporating disciplines sciences humanities social sciences well professional programs law medicine curriculum large databases grateful med national library medicine user oriented services dialog compuserve first time accessible individuals personal computers also saw emergence numerous special interest groups respond changes end decade special interest groups available involving non print media social sciences


energy environment community information systems today information science largely examines technical bases social consequences theoretical understanding online databases widespread use databases government industry education development internet world wide web information dissemination st century changing definition dissemination historically interpreted unilateral communication information advent internet explosion popularity online communities social media changed information landscape many respects creates new modes communication new types information ref name embedded ref changing


interpretation definition dissemination nature social networks allows faster diffusion information organizational sources ref name diffusion zhang b semenov vos veijlainen j understanding fast diffusion information social media environment comparison two cases ''icc conference proceedings'' ref internet changed way view use create store information time evaluate way share spread impact social media people industry social media networks provide open information environment mass people


limited time access traditional outlets information diffusion ref name diffusion increasingly mobile social world demandsnew types information skills ref name embedded social media integration access point useful mutually beneficial tool users providers major news providers visibility access point networks facebook twitter maximizing breadth audience social media people directed provided information people know ability share like comment oncontent ref name facebook thompson share ''econtent''


facebook ''the washington post'' goes step offers independent social app downloaded million users months ref name facebook proving interested people new way provided information social media 's power facilitate topics connections networks sustained social media help information providers learn important people connections people throughout world enable exchange information unprecedented rate reason networks realized potential provide news media monitor twitter


access area research intersection informatics information science information security language technology computer science objectives information access research automate processing large unwieldy amounts information simplify users' access assigning privileges restricting access unauthorized users extent access defined level clearance granted information applicable technologies include information retrieval text mining text editing machine translation text categorisation discussion information access often defined concerning insurance free closed


public access information brought discussions copyright patent law public domain public libraries need resources provide knowledge information assurance information architecture information architecture ia art science organizing labelling websites intranets online communities software support usability emerging discipline ''community practice'' focused bringing together principles design architecture ' 'digital landscape'' typically involves model concept information used applied activities require explicit details complex information systems activities include


management took new light also began include field data maintenance information retrieval information retrieval ir area study concerned searching documents information within documents metadata documents well searching structured storage relational databases world wide web automated information retrieval systems used reduce called information overload many universities public libraries use ir systems provide access books journals documents web search engines visible ir applications information retrieval process begins


user enters query system queries formal statements information needs example search strings web search engines information retrieval query uniquely identify single object collection instead several objects may match query perhaps different degrees relevancy object entity represented information database user queries matched database information depending application data objects may example text documents images ref name goodron ref audio ref name foote ref mind maps ref name beel ref videos often documents


kept stored directly ir system instead represented system document surrogates metadata ir systems compute numeric score well object database match query rank objects according value top ranking objects shown user process may iterated user wishes refine query ref name frakes ref information seeking information seeking process activity attempting obtain information human technological contexts information seeking related different


information retrieval ir much library information science lis research focused information seeking practices practitioners within various fields professional work studies carried information seeking behaviors librarians academics medical professionals engineers lawyers among others much research drawn work done leckie pettigrew fisher sylvain conducted extensive review lis literature well literature academic fields professionals' information seeking authors proposed analytic model professionals' information seeking behaviour intended generalizable across


significant economic political cultural activity aim information society gain competitive advantage internationally using creative productive way knowledge economy economic counterpart whereby wealth created economic exploitation understanding people means partake form society sometimes called digital citizens basically information society means getting information one place another wark p nbsp technology become advanced time way adapted sharing


information information society theory discusses role information information technology society question key concepts used characterizing contemporary society define concepts become specific branch contemporary sociology knowledge representation reasoning knowledge representation kr area artificial intelligence research aimed representing knowledge symbols facilitate inferencing knowledge elements creating new elements knowledge kr made independent underlying knowledge model knowledge base system kbs


logic also used define operators process reshape knowledge examples operators operations include negation conjunction adverbs adjectives quantifiers modal operators logic interpretation theory elements symbols operators interpretation theory give sequences symbols meaning within kr see also computer information science information science journals outline information science outline information technology references reading external links professional association bridges gap information science practice research asis members represent fields information science computer science linguistics management librarianship engineering data science


information architecture law medicine chemistry education related technology http wwwsuccesscoil indexhtml knowledge map information science http jissagepubcom journal information science http dlistsirarizonaedu digital library information science technology open access archive information sciences https webarchiveorg web http wwwmescusgsgov isb scienceasp current information science research us geological survey http wwwpittedu jimjim syllabushtm introduction information science https webarchiveorg web http wwwtwuedu library nitecki nitecki trilogy https webarchiveorg web http gseisuclaedu faculty bates articles berkeleyhtml information science university california berkeley memoir student days http wwwlibsciscedu bob istchron iscnet ischronhtm chronology information science technology https webarchiveorg web http librescurtineduau libres library information science research electronic journal https webarchiveorg web http librescurtineduau curtin university technology perth western australia shared decision making information