passed similar stages development first structuralist psychology led wilhelm wundt sought break experience smallest definable parts expanded upon previous centuries acoustic study included helmholtz developing resonator isolate understand pure complex tones perception philosopher carl stumpf using church organs musical experience explore timbre absolute pitch wundt associating experience rhythm kinesthetic tension relaxation ref name deutsch et al psychology music ref structuralism gave way gestalt psychology behaviorism


turn century music psychology moved beyond study isolated tones elements perception inter relationships human reactions though work languished behind visual perception ref name deutsch et al psychology music europe g za r v sz albert wellek developed complex understanding musical pitch us focus shifted music education training development musical skill carl seashore led work producing ''the measurement musical talents'' ''the psychology musical talent'' seashore used bespoke equipment

Social science
Psychology
Music psychology


standardized tests measure performance deviated indicated markings musical aptitude differed students f chrysler first one use term science music working year book musical knowledge european musicology found greek focused philosophy concepts relations music greek 's several theories rose later arab christians theories although theories survived also corrupted along way middle ages europe modern present music psychology second half


th century expanded cover wide array theoretical applied areas field grew along cognitive science including research areas music perception particularly pitch rhythm harmony melody musical development aptitude music performance affective responses music ref name deutsch et al psychology music period also seen founding music psychology specific journals societies conferences research groups centers degrees trend brought research toward specific applications music education performance therapy techniques cognitive psychology allowed objective


examinations musical behavior experience theoretical technological advancements neuroscience greatly shaped direction music psychology st century majority music psychology research focused music western context field expanded along ethnomusicology examine perception practice music differs cultures also emerged public sphere recent years several bestselling popular science books helped bring field public discussion notably daniel levitin 's ''this brain music'' ''the world six songs''


oliver sacks' ''musicophilia'' gary marcus' ''guitar zero'' addition controversial mozart effect sparked lengthy debate among researchers educators politicians public regarding relationship classical music listening education intelligence research areas perception cognition much work within music psychology seeks understand cognitive processes support musical behaviors including perception comprehension memory attention performance originally arising fields psychoacoustics sensation cognitive theories people understand music recently encompass neuroscience cognitive science music theory music therapy computer science psychology philosophy linguistics affective response music shown


consistently elicit emotional responses listeners relationship human affect music studied depth ref name deutsch et al psychology music includes isolating specific features musical work performance convey elicit certain reactions nature reactions characteristics listener may determine emotions felt field draws upon significant implications areas philosophy musicology aesthetics well acts musical composition performance implications casual listeners also great research shown


pleasurable feelings associated emotional music result dopamine release striatum anatomical areas underpin anticipatory rewarding aspects drug addiction according research listening music found affect mood individual main factors whether affect individual positively negatively based musics tempo style addition listening music also increases cognitive functions creativity decreases feelings fatigue factors lead better workflow optimal result activity done listening


music leads conclusion listening music performing activity excellent way increasing productivity overall experience proposed ability understand emotional meaning music might rely existence common neural system processing affective meaning voices vocalizations musical sounds neuropsychology significant amount research concerns brain based mechanisms involved cognitive processes underlying music perception performance behaviours include music listening performing composing reading writing ancillary activities also increasingly concerned brain


basis musical aesthetics musical emotion scientists working field may training cognitive neuroscience neurology neuroanatomy psychology music theory computer science allied fields use techniques functional magnetic resonance imaging fmri transcranial magnetic stimulation tms magnetoencephalography meg electroencephalography eeg positron emission tomography pet cognitive process performing music requires interaction neural mechanisms motor auditory systems since every action expressed performance produces sound influences subsequent expression leads impressive sensorimotor interplay ref name zatorre ref processing pitch primary auditory cortex one


without use external reference pitch researchers estimate occurrence ap people ref name sacks ref extent ability innate learned debated evidence genetic basis critical period ability learned especially conjunction early musical training ref name theusch e et al ref processing rhythm behavioural studies demonstrate rhythm pitch perceived separately ref name krumhansl ref also interact ref name tanguiane ref ref name tanguiane ref ref name jones ref creating musical perception studies auditory rhythm discrimination reproduction


patients brain injury linked functions auditory regions temporal lobe shown consistent localization lateralization ref name penhune ref ref name peretz ref ref name kester ref neuropsychological neuroimaging studies shown motor regions brain contribute perception production rhythms ref name janata ref even studies subjects listen rhythms basal ganglia cerebellum dorsal premotor cortex dpmc supplementary motor area sma often implicated ref name sakai ref ref name grahn ref ref name zatorre analysis rhythm may depend interactions auditory motor systems neural correlates


musical training although auditory motor interactions observed people without formal musical training musicians excellent population study long established rich associations auditory motor systems musicians shown anatomical adaptations correlate training ref name zatorre neuroimaging studies observed musicians show lower levels activity motor regions non musicians performance simple motor tasks may suggest efficient pattern neural recruitment ref name hund georgiadis ref ref name jancke ref ref name koeneke ref ref name meister ref studies shown early musical training may positively


name zatorre ref recruitment sma premotor areas also reported musicians asked imagine performing ref name meister ref name callicott ref psychoacoustics psychoacoustics scientific study sound perception specifically branch science studying psychological physiological responses associated sound including speech music topics study include perception pitch timbre loudness duration musical sounds relevance studies music cognition perceived structure music auditory illusions humans localize sound relevance musical composition design


interdisciplinary field investigates topics parallels language music brain biologically inspired models computation often included research neural networks evolutionary programs field seeks model musical knowledge represented stored perceived performed generated using well structured computer environment systematic structures cognitive phenomena investigated evolutionary musicology evolutionary musicology concerns origin music question animal song selection pressures underlying music evolution music evolution human evolution ref name brown merker wallin wallin nils l bj rn merker steven brown introduction evolutionary


musicology wallin nils l bj rn merker steven brown eds ''the origins music'' pp ref seeks understand music perception activity context evolutionary theory charles darwin speculated music may held adaptive advantage functioned protolanguage view spawned several competing theories music evolution alternate view sees music product linguistic evolution type auditory cheesecake pleases senses without providing adaptive function view directly countered numerous music researchers cultural differences individual 's culture ethnicity plays


topic may utilize knowledge techniques derived one areas described areas include music society including everyday music listening musical rituals gatherings eg religious festive sporting political etc role music forming personal group identities relation music dancing social influences musical preference peers family experts social background etc musical preference consumers' choices music studied relate big five personality traits openness experience agreeableness extraversion neuroticism conscientiousness general plasticity traits openness experience extraversion


advertising aid music may also affect marketing strategies ad comprehension consumer choices background music influence learning ref name de groot ref ref name aheadi ref working memory recall ref name alley ref ref name cassidy ref performance working tests ref name patston ref ref name avila ref attention cognitive monitoring tasks ref name olivers ref ref name beanland ref background music also used way relieve boredom create positive moods maintain private space ref name ref background music shown put restless mind ease presenting listener various melodies tones ref name shown listening different types music may modulate


differently psychological mood physiological responses associated induced emotions example listening atonal music might result reduced heart rate fear bradycardia increased blood pressure diastolic systolic possibly reflecting increase alertness attention psychological tension anxiety music marketing radio television advertisements music plays integral role content recall ref name hahn ref ref name park ref ref name oakes ref intentions buy product attitudes toward advertisement brand ref name lawani ref ref name zander ref ref name lavack ref music 's effect marketing studied radio ads ref name oakes ref name zander ref name lavack tv ads ref name hahn


ref name park ref name lawani physical retail settings ref name eroglu ref ref name chebat ref one important aspects advertisement 's music musical fit degree congruity cues ad song content ref name oakes ref advertisements music congruous incongruous lyrical instrumental music timbre tempo lyrics genre mood well positive negative associations elicited certain music ''fit'' nature advertisement product ref name oakes music productivity several studies recognized listening music working affects productivity


people performing complex cognitive tasks one study suggested listening one 's preferred genre music enhance productivity workplace though research found listening music working source distraction loudness lyrical content possibly playing role factors proposed affect relationship music listening productivity include musical structure task complexity degree control choice use music music education primary focus music psychology research concerns best teach music effects childhood development


including optimizing music education development musical behaviors abilities throughout lifespan specific skills processes involved learning musical instrument singing activities practices within music school individual versus group learning musical instrument effects musical education intelligence optimizing practice musical aptitude musical aptitude refers person 's innate ability acquire skills knowledge required musical activity may influence speed learning take place level may achieved study area focuses whether aptitude broken subsets


represented single construct whether aptitude measured prior significant achievement whether high aptitude predict achievement extent aptitude inherited implications questions aptitude educational principles ref name deutsch et al psychology music issue closely related intelligence iq pioneered work carl seashore early tests aptitude seashore 's ''the measurement musical talent'' sought measure innate musical talent discrimination tests pitch interval rhythm consonance memory etc later research found approaches


musicians' physical mental health well music performance anxiety mpa stage fright motivation burnout depression among musicians noise induced hearing loss among musicians sleep onset maintenance insomnia journals music psychology journals include music perception musicae scientiae psychology music music science jahrbuch musikpsychologie music psychologists also publish wide range mainstream musicology computational musicology music theory analysis psychology music education music therapy music medicine systematic musicology journals latter include example computer music journal empirical musicology review frontiers psychology journal new music research journal mathematics music journal


acoustical society america research studies music education societies https webarchiveorg web http marcsuwseduau events conferences archive icmpc apscomhtm asia pacific society cognitive sciences music apscom australian music psychology society amps http wwwmusic psychologyde deutsche gesellschaft f r musikpsychologie dgm european society cognitive sciences music escom http wwwjsmpcinfo index ehtml japanese society music perception cognition jsmpc http wwwsempreorguk society education music psychology research sempre britain http wwwmusicperceptionorg society music perception cognition smpc centers research teaching australia music sound performance lab macquarie university music mind wellbeing initiative melbourne university empirical musicology group university new south wales arc centre excellence


history emotion university western australia marcs institute university western sydney austria centre systematic musicology university graz cognitive psychology unit university klagenfurt belgium institute psychoacoustics electronic music ghent university canada centre interdisciplinary research music media technology mcgill university music health research collaboratory university toronto music cognition lab queen 's university auditory perception music cognition research training laboratory university prince edward island smart lab ryerson university music acoustics perception learning maple lab mcmaster university digital music lab dml mcmaster university


mcmaster institute music mind mcmaster university brams international laboratory brain music sound research university montreal mcgill university centre research brain language music university montreal music neuroscience lab university western ontario denmark center music brain aarhus university finland finnish centre excellence interdisciplinary music research university jyv skyl france auditory cognition psychoacoustics team claude bernard university lyon university burgundy ircam centre pompidou germany university halle wittenberg institute systematic musicology universit hamburg institute music physiology musicians' medicine hochschule


f r musik theater und medien hannover hanover music lab hochschule f r musik theater und medien hannover university cologne university oldenburg hochschule f r musik w rzburg technische universit chemnitz iceland centre music research university iceland ireland university limerick italy bicocca erp lab university milano bicocca japan kyushu university korea seoul national university netherlands music cognition group university amsterdam norway centre music health norwegian academy music poland unit psychology music fryderyk chopin university music music performance brain lab university finance management warsaw singapore music cognition group social


cognitive computing department institute high performance computing astar spain music technology group pompeu fabra university sweden speech music hearing royal institute technology music psychology group uppsala university united kingdom centre music science cambridge university music human sciences group university edinburgh centre psychological research keele university music science lab durham university interdisciplinary centre scientific research music university leeds social applied psychology group university leicester music mind brain group goldsmiths university college london international music education research centre ucl institute education university college london


music cognition lab queen mary university london faculty music university oxford applied music research centre university roehampton centre performance science royal college music centre music performance research royal northern college music department music sheffield university united states music neuroimaging laboratory beth israel deaconess medical center harvard medical school auditory perception action lab university buffalo janata lab university california davis systematic musicology lab university california los angeles department psychology university california san diego ucsb music cognition lab university california santa barbara music dynamics


lab university connecticut ref name music dynamics lab ref music cognition laboratory cornell university music cognition eastman school music university rochester center music research florida state university music cognition computation lab louisiana state university language music cognition lab university maryland auditory cognition development lab university nevada las vegas auditory neuroscience laboratory northwestern university music theory cognition program northwestern university music cognition lab princeton university cognitive systematic musicology laboratory ohio state university music learning perception cognition focus group university oregon center computer research music acoustics stanford


university dowling laboratory university texas dallas institute music research university texas san antonio laboratory music cognition culture learning university washington music imaging neural dynamics mind laboratory wesleyan university brain research interdisciplinary neurosciences lab western michigan university see also cognitive musicology cognitive neuroscience music performance science psychoacoustics psychoanalysis music music emotion music specific disorders music therapy references reading encyclopedia entries palmer caroline melissa k jungers ''music cognition'' lynn nadel encyclopedia cognitive science vol london nature publishing group pp nbsp deutsch diana ''music''


oxford bibliographies music edited dunn ds new york oxford university press http wwwoxfordbibliographiescom view document obo obo xml web link thompson william forde music social behavioral sciences encyclopedia sage publications inc new york https webarchivelocgov http wwwsagepubcom refbooks book web link introductory reading day kingsley october http wwwnorthwesternedu observer issues musichtml music mind turning cognition key ''observer online'' jourdain robert ''music brain ecstasy music captures imagination'' new york william morrow company honing henkjan http wwwtransactionpubcom title musical cognition html musical cognition science listening nd edition new brunswick nj transaction publishers levitin j


https webarchiveorg web http wwwyourbrainonmusiccom brain music science human obsession new york dutton margulis elizabeth hellmuth ' https globaloupcom academic product psychology music short introduction cc us lang en 'the psychology music short introduction'' new york ny oxford university press margulis elizabeth hellmuth ' http globaloupcom academic product repeat 'on repeat music plays mind'' new york ny oxford university press snyder bob music memory introduction mit press jpe harper scott jim samson 'an introduction music studies' chapter john rink''the psychology music'' cambridge university press pp nbsp advanced reading deutsch ed ''the psychology music


st edition'' new york academic press deutsch ed ''the psychology music nd edition'' san diego academic press deutsch ed ''the psychology music rd edition'' san diego academic press dowling w jay harwood dane l ''music cognition'' san diego academic press hallam cross thaut eds ''the oxford handbook music psychology'' oxford oxford university press krumhansl carol l ''cognitive foundations musical pitch'' oxford oxford university press patel anirrudh https archiveorg details isbn music language brain new york oxford university press parncutt r


https webarchiveorg web http www gewiuni grazat staff parncutt hapahtml ''harmony psychoacoustical approach'' berlin springer proverbio neuroscienze cognitive della musica il cervello musicale tra arte e scienza zanichelli bologna sloboda john ''the musical mind cognitive psychology music'' oxford oxford university press lerdahl f jackendoff r sup sup ''a generative theory tonal music'' mit press jackendoff ray ''consciousness computational mind'' cambridge mit press chapter ''levels musical structure'' section ''what musical cognition'' temperley ''the cognition basic musical structures'' mit press thompson w f ''music thought feeling


understanding psychology music'' new york oxford university press zbikowski lawrence ''conceptualizing music cognitive structure theory analysis'' oxford university press usa north ac hargreaves dj ''the social applied psychology music'' oxford oxford university press external links http wwwmusiccognitioninfo musiccognitioninfo resource information center musicology


'''iranian studies''' '''' also referred '''iranology''' '''iranistics''' interdisciplinary field dealing research study civilization history literature art culture iranian peoples part wider field oriental studies iranian studies broader distinct persian studies study modern persian language literature specifically discipline iranian studies focuses broad trends culture history language aspects persians also variety contemporary historical iranian peoples

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Iranian studies


azeris kurds lurs gilakis talysh tajiks pashtuns ossetians baluchis scythians sarmatians alans parthians sogdians bactrians khwarazmians mazandaranis medieval iran medieval persian poet ferdowsi author iranian national epic '''' considered founder iranian studies sense work made deliberate effort highlight persian culture prior arab conquests sense ferdowsi 's nationalistic approach contrasted muhammad ibn jarir al tabari famous ninth century iranian historian whose ''history prophets kings'' reflects specifically islamic perspective ferdowsi 's


work follows earlier semi historical works lost sasanian era ''khwaday namag'' persian historiography strictly speaking begins ''tarikh mas'udi'' abulfazl bayhaqi whose fluent prose style highly influential subsequent persian literature persian historical writing reached peak two centuries later ''jami al tawarikh'' rash al n fadhl h hamad n important historical works include ''tarikh jahangushay'' ata malik juvayni ''zafarnamah'' sharaf ad din ali yazdi history mongolian conqueror timur tamerlane modern iran among prominent scholars iranian studies iran twentieth


century may counted badiozzaman forouzanfar abdolhossein zarrinkoub zabihollah safa mojtaba minovi mohsen abolqasemi ahmad tafazzoli alireza shapour shahbazi fereydoon joneydi loghat nameh ali akbar dehkhoda largest comprehensive persian dictionary ever published volumes pages europe germany germany historically one prolific places research writings iran outside iran ref name ref iranian studies german ''iranistik'' german speaking countries goes far back ad publication ''golestan saadi'' translation adam olearius ref name classical iranology german began


early nineteenth century research writings georg friedrich grotefend ref name iran studies programs germany freie universit berlin georg august universit g ttingen france emergence comparative indo european linguistics translation avesta happened late eighteenth century french scholar abraham hyacinthe anquetil duperron iranian studies programs france sorbonne nouvelle university paris french national centre scientific research united kingdom major european scholarly organization devoted iranian studies ''societas iranologica europaea'' founded iran heritage


foundation founded based london support iranian studies several universities sponsors wide range public cultural events iran studies programs united kingdom university cambridge british institute persian studies bips durham university university oxford university st andrews university london library iranian studies iran studies programs austrian academy sciences austria jagiellonian university warsaw university poland university salamanca spain scandinavian society iranian studies


ssis various locations scandinavian north america united states columbia university v williams jackson early american scholar indo european languages worked columbia university professor jackson known producing grammar avestan language monumental encyclopedia iranica project started led retired columbia university professor ehsan yarshater harvard university richard n frye developed iranian studies program harvard university cambridge massachusetts university california los angeles iranian studies program created


setar instruments schools iranian revolution american academic centers iran closed assets seized past three decades since lack funding difficulty research travel iran major obstacles iranian studies scholars based north america universities united states iranian studies classes offered include university chicago princeton university stanford university massachusetts institute technology university arizona university oklahoma university maryland university michigan ann arbor ohio


academic positions close relations iran us facilitated growth academic programs well asia institute shiraz american institute iranian studies canada university toronto iranian studies program ''the yarshater lectureship avestan pahlavi languages'' established university toronto one prestigious honor field university toronto partnered encyclopaedia iranica foundation multiyear partnership create ''iranian women poets'' ''iranian cinema'' digital projects http wwwsimorgh aiisorg american institute iranian


studies aiirs http fis iranorg foundation iranian studies https webarchiveorg web http wwwilexfoundationorg ilex ilex foundation http wwwihfamericaorg iran heritage foundation america notable scholars book series http wwwlit verlagde reihe irastu iranian studies lit verlag http wwweasaonlineorg networks amce book seriesshtml anthropology persianate societies journals magazines ref dabir farhang kerman critique critical middle eastern studies indo iranica indo iranian journal iran journal british institute persian studies iran analysis quarterly isg journal iranica antiqua edited department near eastern studies gent university iran caucasus journal iranian studies journal iran nameh armenian journal oriental studies iranshinakht iranshenasi iranica antiqua journal iranistische mitteilungen journal


anthropology contemporary middle east central eurasia acme namah farhangistan majallah yi zabanshinasi manuscripta orientalia includes articles persian manuscripts namah farhangistan persica jaarboek van het genootschap nederland iran rahavard studia iranica zabanshinas see also references external links http wwwsocietasiranologicaeuorg societas iranologica europea http wwwiranianstudieswordpresscom scandinavian society iranian studies http samlaraase xmlui bitstream handle raa pdfsequence swedish contributions archaeology iran artikel ''fornv nnen'' carl nylander http wwwfis iranorg foundation iranian studies http iranianstudyorg short courses iranology faculty world studies tehran university http wwwsimorgh aiisorg american institute iranian studies http wwwiranian studiescom


international society iranian studies http wwwfarhangirancom bonyad e farhang e iran http wwwsharghnewspapercom literahtm iran persian language western world persian http wwwsharghnewspapercom html societhtm year old problem understanding persian culture west persian https pahlavicaorg encyclop dia pahlavica library guides studies middle eastern studies central asian studies indo european studies


branches theology whether theoretical practical purpose one way another make priests pastors others pastoral role ministers christ dispensers mysteries god corinthians pastoral theology presupposes various branches accepts apologetic dogmatic exegetic moral juridical ascetical liturgical conclusions reached ecclesiastical student scientifically applies various conclusions priestly ministry history middle ages yet separated systematized science pastoral theology scholasticism recognize science apart

Applied science
Divinity
Field ministry
Pastoral theology


branches theology dogma moral taught include application conclusions care souls still even writings great doctors church times purely pastoral pastoral care pope gregory opuscula thomas aquinas bonaventure 's de sex alis seraphim de regimine anim confessionale summa theologica books ii iii together summa confessionalis antoninus bishop florence time writers mystical theology often entered domain pastoral theology period


counter reformation science pastoral theology take present systematized form latter half fifteenth century certain places pastoral duties much neglected dawn sixteenth century care souls many priests bishops lost never acquired art result laity ready throw deemed useless clerical yoke council trent set bring true reformation priesthood catholic bishops theologians followed lead


council result treatment care souls science references http wwwnewadventorg cathen ahtm ''catholic encyclopedia'' pastoral theology practical theology


villages adapted design houses protect people rising flood waters small boats used transport people food sustain livelihoods kind disaster risk reduction important climate change adaptation '''disaster risk reduction''' '''drr''' systematic approach identifying assessing reducing risks disaster aims reduce socio economic vulnerabilities disaster well dealing environmental hazards trigger strongly influenced mass research vulnerability appeared print since mid

Applied science
Public administration
Disaster research


manage risks disasters commonly cited definition disaster risk reduction one used un agencies united nations office disaster risk reduction unddr united nations development programme undp conceptual framework elements considered possibilities minimize vulnerabilities disaster risks throughout society avoid prevention limit mitigation preparedness adverse impacts hazards within broad context sustainable development development concept approach disaster risk reduction progress score countries disaster management drr landmines also


proved difficult define explain detail although broad idea clear enough inevitably different definitions technical literature generally understood mean broad development application policies strategies practices minimise vulnerabilities disaster risks throughout society term 'disaster risk management' drm often used context mean much thing systematic approach identifying assessing reducing risks kinds associated hazards human activities properly applied operational aspects drr practical


implementation drr initiatives drr climate change adaptation climate change rising temperatures changing rainfall patterns changing sea levels affect nature hydro meteorological disasters droughts floods cyclones ipcc issued special report managing risks extreme events disasters advance climate change adaptation stating changing climate leads changes frequency intensity spatial extent duration timing extreme weather climate events result unprecedented extreme weather climate events similarly increase economic


losses weather climate related disasters contributed billion economic losses worldwide according estimates insurance giant swiss growing efforts closely link http wwweldisorg go topics resource guides climate change key issues disaster risk reduction uwtcr l uvm drr climate change adaptation policy practice linkage clearly revealed significance disaster risk reduction sustainable development planning underlying process refers ability disaster risk management alter existing development trajectories transformation involve fundamental changes attributes system including value systems regulatory legislative bureaucratic regimes financial institutions technological biophysical


systems transformation occurs society learns learning includes building partnerships helps increase local capacity contribute institutional change turn allows society continually move vulnerability adaptation development resilience drr resilience disaster risk reduction concept resilience expresses one goal disaster prevention response resilience refers ability community society preserve essential structure function face stress shocks resilience closely connected concept vulnerability though resilience tends higher strategic goal


system resilient therefore undergo changes without losing core structure function case human systems function survival necessities life within field disaster risk reduction one widely accepted definition resilience comes unisdr ability system community society exposed hazards resist absorb accommodate recover effects hazard timely efficient manner including preservation restoration essential basic structures functions importance resilience disaster risk management seen


centrality term hyogo framework action subtitled building resilience nations communities disasters building resilience therefore currently understood goal disaster risk reduction policy arena chennai damage indian ocean earthquake growing calls greater clarity components drr indicators progress toward resilience challenge international community took un 's world conference disaster reduction wcdr kobe japan days indian ocean earthquake wcdr


began process pushing international agencies national governments beyond vague rhetoric policy statements toward setting clear targets commitments drr hyogo framework action first step process formal approval wcdr hyogo framework action hfa first internationally accepted framework drr set ordered sequence objectives outcome strategic goals priorities five priorities action attempting 'capture' main areas drr intervention un 's biennial http wwwpreventionwebnet english hyogo gp global platform disaster risk


reduction provided opportunity un member states review progress hyogo framework held first session june geneva switzerland unisdr based subsequent global platforms held june may may geneva sendai framework disaster risk reduction international initiatives un initiatives helped refine promote concept international level stimulated initially un 's designation international decade natural disaster reduction un member states approved


international strategy disaster risk reduction reflected shift traditional emphasis disaster response disaster reduction seeking promote culture prevention regional initiatives africa several african regional economic communities drafted gender responsive drr strategies includes southern african development community 's gender responsive disaster risk reduction strategic plan plan action http wwwceeacorg economic commission central africa states ' gender responsive disaster risk reduction strategy action plan economic commission west african states' disaster risk reduction gender strategy action plan intergovernmental authority


development 's regional strategy action plan mainstreaming gender disaster risk management climate change adaptation bangladesh based climate risk index bangladesh one disaster prone countries world bangladesh highly vulnerable different types disasters climatic variability extreme events high population density high incidence poverty social inequity poor institutional capacity inadequate financial resources poor infrastructure bangladesh commenced disaster preparedness following cyclone comprehensive national plan disaster management provides mechanisms national sub national


acting relief period driven cultural religious beliefs including taboos acknowledged known emergency medical personnel treatment become compromised patient refusing treated personnel refusing treat victims violation values research history united states disaster research center drc first social science research center world devoted study disasters established ohio state university moved university delaware center conducts field


survey research group organizational community preparation response recovery natural technological disasters community wide crises disaster research center researchers carried systematic studies broad range disaster types including hurricanes floods earthquakes tornadoes hazardous chemical incidents plane crashes disaster research center also done research civil disturbances riots including los angeles unrest staff conducted nearly field studies since center 's inception traveling communities throughout united states number foreign countries including mexico canada japan italy turkey


held topic local global levels regular international conferences include annual conference tiems international emergency management society http idrcinfo idrc conferences international disaster risk conferences idrc workshops held year since davos switzerland even numbered years locations odd numbered years meetings international research committee disasters ircd held part international sociological association 's http wwwisa sociologyorg world congress sociology biennial https wwwunisdrorg conference globalplatform home global platform disaster risk reduction multi stakeholder forum organized united nations office disaster risk reduction undrr established


united nations general assembly review progress share knowledge discuss latest developments trends reducing disaster risk https wwwgfdrrorg en wrc world reconstruction conference wrc global forum provides platform policy makers experts practitioners governments international organizations community based organizations academia private sector developing developed countries come together collect assess share experiences disaster recovery reconstruction take policy dialogue forward issues challenges priorities according mluver unrealistic expect progress every aspect drr capacities resources


insufficient governments organisations make effect 'investment decisions' choosing aspects drr invest sequence made complicated fact many interventions advocated developmental rather directly related disaster management existing drr guidance sidesteps issue one way focusing consider actions intended specifically reduce disaster risk would least distinguish general efforts toward sustainable development concept 'invulnerable development' attempts formulation invulnerable development


development directed toward reducing vulnerability disaster comprising 'decisions activities intentionally designed implemented reduce risk susceptibility also raise resistance resilience disaster' partnerships inter organisational co ordination single group organisation address every aspect drr drr thinking sees disasters complex problems demanding collective response co ordination even conventional emergency management difficult many organisations may converge disaster area assist across broader spectrum drr relationships types organisation sectors public private non profit well communities become


rationale community based disaster risk management responds local problems needs capitalises local knowledge expertise cost effective improves likelihood sustainability genuine 'ownership' projects strengthens community technical organisational capacities empowers people enabling tackle challenges local people organisations main actors risk reduction disaster response case consequently seen understanding social capital already existent community greatly help reducing risk community level learning colombian community widespread flooding affected


colombia 's regions million people affected april president juan manuel santos enacted law aimed improving natural disaster response prevention national local level universidad del norte based barranquilla investigated one community reacted destruction caused floods effort try make colombian communities resilient similar events occurring future funding climate development knowledge network project team spent months working women municipality


concluded important consider gender planning disasters women men often play different roles average disasters kill women men governance drr approach requires redefining role government disaster reduction generally agreed national governments main actors drr duty ensure safety citizens resources capacity implement large scale drr mandate direct co ordinate work others create necessary policy legislative frameworks policies programmes


coherent research needed relationship central government actors another area requiring research countries risk management decentralized local governments urban areas widely used tool local development plan municipal comprehensive general plan followed emergency risk reduction plans local governments required adopt law updated every years larger cities prefer stand alone plans called depending context sustainable mitigation green plans rural areas mainstreaming risk reduction policies municipal county district development plans


prevails many contexts especially south sahara process clashes lack funds mechanisms transferring resources central local budget often plans integrate local scientific technical knowledge finally entrust implementation policies individual inhabitants without fully involved decision making process authentic representativeness communities gender participation decision making process still remain objective local development plans instead way build accountability rights principle accountability lies heart


genuine partnership participation drr applies state institutions expected accountable democratic process private sector non profit organizations subject democratic control accountability emerging issue disaster reduction work accountability primarily toward vulnerable hazards affected many organisations working international aid development committing 'rights based' approach tends encompass human rights ie generally accepted international agreements rights agency believes


accepted human rights contexts language rights may used vaguely risk causing confusion security disasters generally regarded right although addressed international codes usually indirectly idea 'right safety' discussed circles financing risk reduction opposed emergency response economic costs disasters rise humanitarian investment currently spent responding disasters rather managing future risks estimated billion annual humanitarian assistance


devoted prevention source yet every dollar spent risk reduction saves economic losses disasters ref name bostoncom http wwwbostoncom news globe editorial opinion oped articles needless toll natural disasters needless toll natural disasters op ed ''boston globe'' march eric schwartz un secretary general 's deputy special envoy tsunami recovery ref case study niger showed positive cost benefit results preparedness spending across different scenarios absolute level disaster loss potential reduction disaster loss discount rate estimating every spent results benefit countries starting


develop national disaster risk financing strategies using risk layering lesotho estimated adopting approach government could save average million per year much million extreme shockdifferent kinds disasters gender drr disaster risk gender neutral studies shown women girls disproportionately impacted disasters following tsunami indian ocean deaths districts north aceh aceh besar indonesia female india people died female


due socially constructed gender roles determine norms behaviors acceptable women men girls boys particular women tend take responsibility home based tasks reluctant leave assets case hazard warning often learn survival skills help disasters learning swim climb gender sensitive approach would identify disasters affect men women boys girls differently shape policy addresses people 's specific vulnerabilities concerns needs see also business continuity planning center natural hazards research emergency


c entry earth 's atmosphere bearing components made silicon nitride si sub sub n sub sub ceramic bread knife '''ceramic engineering''' science technology creating objects inorganic non metallic materials done either action heat lower temperatures using precipitation reactions high purity chemical solutions term includes purification raw materials study production chemical compounds concerned formation components study structure composition properties ceramic materials may crystalline partly crystalline structure long range order atomic scale glass

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Materials Science and Engineering
Ceramic engineering


ceramics may amorphous glassy structure limited short range atomic order either formed molten mass solidifies cooling formed matured action heat chemically synthesized low temperatures using example hydrothermal sol gel synthesis special character ceramic materials gives rise many applications materials engineering electrical engineering chemical engineering mechanical engineering ceramics heat resistant used many tasks materials like metal polymers unsuitable ceramic materials used wide range industries including


mining aerospace medicine refinery food chemical industries packaging science electronics industrial transmission electricity guided lightwave transmission ref name kbu kingery wd bowen hk uhlmann dr ''introduction ceramics'' p wiley interscience nd edition ref history word ceramic derived greek word meaning pottery related older indo european language root burn ref name hippel ref ceramic may used noun singular refer ceramic material product ceramic manufacture adjective ceramics making things ceramic materials ceramic


engineering like many sciences evolved different discipline today 's standards materials science engineering grouped ceramics engineering day leo morandi 's tile glazing line circa abraham darby first used coke shropshire england improve yield smelting process coke widely used produce carbide ceramics potter josiah wedgwood opened first modern ceramics factory stoke trent england austrian chemist carl josef bayer working textile industry russia developed process separate alumina bauxite ore bayer process still used


purify alumina ceramic aluminium industries brothers pierre jacques curie discovered piezoelectricity rochelle salt circa piezoelectricity one key properties electroceramics eg acheson heated mixture coke clay invented carborundum synthetic silicon carbide henri moissan also synthesized sic tungsten carbide electric arc furnace paris time acheson karl schr ter used liquid phase sintering bond cement moissan 's tungsten carbide particles cobalt germany cemented metal bonded carbide edges greatly increase durability hardened steel cutting


tools wh nernst developed cubic stabilized zirconia berlin material used oxygen sensor exhaust systems main limitation use ceramics engineering brittleness ref name kbu military soldiers pictured iraq war seen ir transparent night vision goggles military requirements world war ii encouraged developments created need high performance materials helped speed development ceramic science engineering throughout new types ceramics developed response advances atomic energy electronics communications


space travel discovery ceramic superconductors spurred intense research develop superconducting ceramic parts electronic devices electric motors transportation equipment increasing need military sector high strength robust materials capability transmit light around visible micrometers mid infrared micrometers regions spectrum materials needed applications requiring transparent armour transparent armour material system materials designed optically transparent yet protect fragmentation ballistic impacts primary requirement transparent armour system


domes properties performance spie press monograph vol pm int society optical engineers bellingham wa ref modern industry multibillion dollar year industry ceramic engineering research established important field science applications continue expand researchers develop new kinds ceramics serve different purposes ref name kbu ref name mod richerson dw ''modern ceramic engineering'' nd ed marcel dekker inc ref zirconium dioxide ceramics used manufacture knives blade ceramic knife stay sharp much longer steel knife although


brittle snapped dropping hard surface ceramics alumina boron carbide silicon carbide used bulletproof vests repel small arms rifle fire plates known commonly trauma plates similar material used protect cockpits military aircraft low weight material silicon nitride parts used ceramic ball bearings higher hardness means much less susceptible wear offer triple lifetimes also deform less load meaning


lead potentially dangerous equipment failure engines possible laboratory settings mass production feasible current technology work done developing ceramic parts gas turbine engines currently even blades made advanced metal alloys used engines' hot section require cooling careful limiting operating temperatures turbine engines made ceramics could operate efficiently giving aircraft greater range payload set amount fuel collagen fibers woven bone scanning electron microscopy image bone recently advances ceramics include bio ceramics dental


implants synthetic bones hydroxyapatite natural mineral component bone made synthetically number biological chemical sources formed ceramic materials orthopaedic implants made materials bond readily bone tissues body without rejection inflammatory reactions great interest gene delivery tissue engineering scaffolds hydroxyapatite ceramics porous lack mechanical strength used coat metal orthopaedic devices aid forming bond bone bone fillers also used


fillers orthopaedic plastic screws aid reducing inflammation increase absorption plastic materials work done make strong fully dense nano crystalline hydroxyapatite ceramic materials orthopaedic weight bearing devices replacing foreign metal plastic orthopaedic materials synthetic naturally occurring bone mineral ultimately ceramic materials may used bone replacements incorporation protein collagens synthetic bones durable actinide containing ceramic materials many applications nuclear fuels burning excess pu chemically inert sources alpha irradiation power supply unmanned


space vehicles produce electricity microelectronic devices use disposal radioactive actinides require immobilisation durable host material nuclear waste long lived radionuclides actinides immobilised using chemically durable crystalline materials based polycrystalline ceramics large single crystals glass ceramics high strength glass ceramic cook top negligible thermal expansion glass ceramic materials share many properties glasses ceramics glass ceramics amorphous phase one crystalline phases produced called controlled crystallization typically avoided glass manufacturing glass ceramics often contain crystalline phase


yields array materials interesting thermomechanical properties commercially important distinction impervious thermal shock thus glass ceramics become extremely useful countertop cooking negative thermal expansion coefficient tec crystalline ceramic phase balanced positive tec glassy phase certain point crystalline glass ceramic net tec near zero type glass ceramic exhibits excellent mechanical properties sustain repeated quick temperature changes nbsp c ref name kbu ref name mod processing steps traditional ceramic process generally follows


sequence milling batching mixing forming drying firing assembly ref name ref name z ref ball mill '''milling''' process materials reduced large size smaller size milling may involve breaking cemented material case individual particles retain shape pulverization involves grinding particles smaller size milling generally done mechanical means including ''attrition'' particle particle collision results agglomerate break particle shearing ''compression'' applies forces results fracturing ''impact'' employs


milling medium particles cause fracturing attrition milling equipment includes wet scrubber also called planetary mill wet attrition mill paddles water creating vortexes material collides break compression mills include jaw crusher roller crusher cone crusher impact mills include ball mill media tumble fracture material shaft impactors cause particle particle attrition compression '''batching''' process weighing oxides according recipes preparing mixing drying '''mixing''' occurs batching performed


various machines dry mixing ribbon mixers type cement mixer mueller mixers pug mills wet mixing generally involves equipment '''forming''' making mixed material shapes ranging toilet bowls spark plug insulators forming involve extrusion extruding slugs make bricks pressing make shaped parts slip casting making toilet bowls wash basins ornamentals like ceramic statues forming produces green part ready drying green parts soft pliable time lose shape handling green product change


dried parts pass controlled heating process oxides chemically changed cause bonding densification fired part smaller dried part forming methods ceramic forming techniques include throwing slipcasting tape casting freeze casting injection moulding dry pressing isostatic pressing hot isostatic pressing hip printing others methods forming ceramic powders complex shapes desirable many areas technology methods required producing advanced high temperature structural parts heat engine components turbines materials ceramics used processes may include wood


metal water plaster epoxy eliminated upon firing ref name '''ceramic filled epoxy''' martyte sometimes used protect structural steel conditions rocket exhaust impingement ref name nasa https ntrsnasagov citations refractory materials flame deflector protection system corrosion control similar industries launch facilities survey nasa tm january accessed november ref forming techniques well known providing tools components dimensional stability surface quality high near theoretical density microstructural uniformity increasing use diversity speciality forms ceramics adds diversity process technologies used ref name


thus reinforcing fibres filaments mainly made polymer sol gel cvd processes melt processing also applicability widely used speciality form layered structures tape casting electronic substrates packages pre eminent photo lithography increasing interest precise patterning conductors components packaging tape casting forming processes also increasing interest applications ranging open structures fuel cells ceramic composites ref name major layer structure coating melt spraying important chemical physical vapour deposition


principles sintering based methods simple sinter roots english cinder firing done temperature melting point ceramic roughly held together object called green body made baked kiln atomic molecular diffusion processes give rise significant changes primary microstructural features includes gradual elimination porosity typically accompanied net shrinkage overall densification component thus pores object may close resulting denser product significantly greater strength fracture


toughness another major change body firing sintering process establishment polycrystalline nature solid significant grain growth tends occur sintering growth depending temperature duration sintering process growth grains result form grain size distribution significant impact ultimate physical properties material particular abnormal grain growth certain grains grow large matrix finer grains significantly alter physical mechanical properties obtained


ceramic sintered body grain sizes product thermal processing parameters well initial particle size possibly sizes aggregates particle clusters arise initial stages processing ultimate microstructure thus physical properties final product limited subject form structural template precursor created initial stages chemical synthesis physical forming hence importance chemical powder polymer processing pertains synthesis industrial ceramics glasses glass ceramics


numerous possible refinements sintering process common involve pressing green body give densification head start reduce sintering time needed sometimes organic binders polyvinyl alcohol added hold green body together burn firing nbsp c sometimes organic lubricants added pressing increase densification common combine add binders lubricants powder press formulation organic chemical additives art particularly important manufacture


high performance ceramics used billions electronics capacitors inductors sensors etc slurry used place powder cast desired shape dried sintered indeed traditional pottery done type method using plastic mixture worked hands mixture different materials used together ceramic sintering temperature sometimes melting point one minor component ''liquid phase'' sintering results shorter sintering times compared solid state sintering liquid


decisions increase strength material depending microstructural properties desired end effect relation yield stress grain size described mathematically hall petch equation math sigma sigma k sqrt math ''k sub sub '' strengthening coefficient constant unique material '' sub sub '' materials constant starting stress dislocation movement resistance lattice dislocation motion ' 'd'' grain diameter '' sub sub '' yield stress theoretically material could made infinitely strong grains


made infinitely small unfortunately impossible lower limit grain size single unit cell material even grains material size single unit cell material fact amorphous crystalline since long range order dislocations defined amorphous material observed experimentally microstructure highest yield strength grain size nanometres grains smaller undergo another yielding mechanism grain boundary sliding ref name grain boundary


sliding ref producing engineering materials ideal grain size difficult limitations initial particle sizes inherent nanomaterials nanotechnology theory chemical processing microstructural uniformity processing fine ceramics irregular particle sizes shapes typical powder often lead non uniform packing morphologies result packing density variations powder compact uncontrolled agglomeration powders due attractive van der waals forces also give rise microstructural inhomogeneities ref name ref ref name b ref differential stresses develop result non uniform drying shrinkage directly related rate


solvent removed thus highly dependent upon distribution porosity stresses associated plastic brittle transition consolidated bodies ref name c ref yield crack propagation unfired body relieved addition fluctuations packing density compact prepared kiln often amplified sintering process yielding inhomogeneous densification ref name ref ref name e ref pores structural defects associated density variations shown play detrimental role sintering process growing thus limiting end point densities ref


name f ref differential stresses arising inhomogeneous densification also shown result propagation internal cracks thus becoming strength controlling flaws ref name g ref would therefore appear desirable process material way physically uniform regard distribution components porosity rather using particle size distributions maximize green density containment uniformly dispersed assembly strongly interacting particles suspension requires total control particle particle interactions monodisperse colloids provide potential ref name j ref monodisperse powders colloidal silica example may therefore stabilized


sufficiently ensure high degree order colloidal crystal polycrystalline colloidal solid results aggregation degree order appears limited time space allowed longer range correlations established ref name k ref ref name l ref defective polycrystalline colloidal structures would appear basic elements submicrometer colloidal materials science therefore provide first step developing rigorous understanding mechanisms involved microstructural evolution inorganic systems polycrystalline ceramics self assembly pages ref self assembly common term use


materials includes emerging class mechanically superior biomaterials based microstructural features designs found nature new horizons identified synthesis bioinspired materials processes characteristic biological systems nature includes nanoscale self assembly components development hierarchical structures ref name k ref name l ref name ariga ref ceramic composites porsche carrera gt 's carbon ceramic silicon carbide composite disc brake substantial interest arisen recent years fabricating ceramic composites considerable interest composites one non ceramic constituents greatest attention composites


constituents ceramic typically comprise two ceramic constituents continuous matrix dispersed phase ceramic particles whiskers short chopped continuous ceramic fibres challenge wet chemical processing obtain uniform homogeneous distribution dispersed particle fibre phase ref name comp hull clyne tw ''an introduction composite materials'' cambridge solid state science series cambridge university press ref ref name des barbero ej ''introduction composite materials design'' nd edn crc press ref consider first processing particulate composites particulate phase greatest interest tetragonal zirconia


toughening achieved phase transformation metastable tetragonal monoclinic crystalline phase aka transformation toughening also substantial interest dispersion hard non oxide phases sic tib tic boron carbon especially oxide matrices like alumina mullite also interest incorporating ceramic particulates especially highly anisotropic thermal expansion examples include al sub sub sub sub tio sub sub graphite boron nitride ref name comp ref name des silicon carbide single crystal processing particulate composites issue homogeneity size spatial distribution


readily adaptable existing ceramic production technology however approaches interest ref name kbu ref name mod tungsten carbide milling bits technological standpoint particularly desirable approach fabricating particulate composites coat matrix precursor onto fine particles dispersed phase good control starting dispersed particle size resultant matrix coating thickness one principle able achieve ultimate homogeneity distribution thereby optimize composite performance also ramifications allowing useful composite performance


achieved body porosity might desired factors limiting thermal conductivity also opportunities utilize melt processing fabrication ceramic particulate whisker short fibre continuous fibre composites clearly particulate whisker composites conceivable solid state precipitation solidification melt also obtained cases sintering precipitation toughened partially stabilized zirconia similarly known one directionally solidify ceramic eutectic mixtures hence obtain uniaxially aligned fibre composites composite processing typically limited simple


shapes thus suffers serious economic problems due high machining costs ref name comp ref name des clearly possibilities using melt casting many approaches potentially even desirable using melt derived particles method quenching done solid solution fine eutectic structure particles processed typical ceramic powder processing methods useful body also preliminary attempts use melt spraying means forming composites introducing dispersed particulate whisker fibre phase conjunction


melt spraying process methods besides melt infiltration manufacture ceramic composites long fibre reinforcement chemical vapour infiltration infiltration fibre preforms organic precursor pyrolysis yield amorphous ceramic matrix initially low density repeated cycles infiltration pyrolysis one types ceramic matrix composites produced chemical vapour infiltration used manufacture carbon carbon silicon carbide reinforced carbon silicon carbide fibres besides many process improvements first two major needs fibre composites lower fibre costs second major need


come include studies single crystals glass fibres addition traditional polycrystalline materials applications overlapping changing rapidly aerospace engines shielding hot running aircraft engine damaging components airframes used high stress high temp lightweight bearing structural component missile nose cones shielding missile internals heat space shuttle tiles space debris ballistic shields ceramic fiber woven shields offer better protection hypervelocity nbsp km particles aluminium shields equal weight rocket nozzles focusing high temperature exhaust gases rocket booster unmanned air vehicles ceramic engine


utilization aeronautical applications unmanned air vehicles may result enhanced performance characteristics less operational costs biomedical titanium hip prosthesis ceramic head polyethylene acetabular cup artificial bone dentistry applications teeth biodegradable splints reinforcing bones recovering osteoporosis implant material electronics capacitors integrated circuit packages transducers insulators optical optical fibres guided lightwave transmission switches laser amplifiers lenses infrared heat seeking devices automotive heat shield exhaust heat management biomaterials atomic force microscopy right silicification quite common biological world occurs bacteria single celled organisms plants animals invertebrates vertebrates


crystalline minerals formed environment often show exceptional physical properties eg strength hardness fracture toughness tend form hierarchical structures exhibit microstructural order range length spatial scales minerals crystallized environment undersaturated respect silicon conditions neutral ph low temperature nbsp c formation mineral may occur either within outside cell wall organism specific biochemical reactions mineral deposition exist include lipids proteins carbohydrates natural biological materials complex composites whose mechanical properties


often outstanding considering weak constituents assembled complex structures risen hundreds million years evolution inspiring design novel materials exceptional physical properties high performance adverse conditions defining characteristics hierarchy multifunctionality capacity self healing currently investigated basic building blocks begin amino acids proceed polypeptides polysaccharides polypeptides saccharides turn compose basic proteins primary constituents 'soft tissues' common biominerals well proteins


possible current research emphasizes use collagen chitin keratin elastin 'hard' phases often strengthened crystalline minerals nucleate grow biomediated environment determines size shape distribution individual crystals important mineral phases identified hydroxyapatite silica aragonite using classification wegst ashby principal mechanical characteristics structures biological ceramics polymer composites elastomers cellular materials presented selected systems class investigated emphasis relationship microstructure range length scales


nacre portion abalone shell shells exhibit highest mechanical strength fracture toughness non metallic substance known nacre shell abalone become one intensively studied biological structures materials science clearly visible images neatly stacked ordered mineral tiles separated thin organic sheets along macrostructure larger periodic growth bands collectively form scientists currently referring hierarchical composite structure term hierarchy simply implies range structural features exist


wide range length scales future developments reside synthesis bio inspired materials processing methods strategies characteristic biological systems involve nanoscale self assembly components development hierarchical structures ref name k ref name l ref name ariga see also references external links http standardceramicsorg khurja ceramic organization http wwwceramicsorg american ceramic society http wwwctioaorg ceramic tile institute america http standardceramicsorg materials science ceramic materials engineering disciplines industrial processes


estimate apply even little known process statistical approaches rsm employed maximize production special substance optimization operational factors late formulation optimization rsm using proper '' 'design experiments''' '''doe''' become extensively used ref name jr karmokeretal ref contrast conventional methods interaction among process variables determined statistical techniques ref name organosolv ref basic approach response surface methodology easy way estimate first degree polynomial model use factorial experiment fractional factorial

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Response Surface Methodology


minimum preventing variability response getting large practical concerns response surface methodology uses statistical models therefore practitioners need aware even best statistical model approximation reality practice models parameter values unknown subject uncertainty top ignorance course estimated optimum point need optimum reality errors estimates inadequacies model nonetheless response surface methodology effective track record helping researchers improve products services example


surrogate model references box g e p draper norman ''response surfaces mixtures ridge analyses'' second edition ''empirical model building response surfaces'' wiley historical reprinted paragraphs external links http wwwitlnistgov div handbook pri section pri htm response surface designs sequential experiments design experiments optimal decisions mathematical optimization industrial engineering systems engineering statistical process control


'''textile geometry''' creative technical process thread yarn fibers woven together interlaced form flexible functional decorative cloth fabric subsequently printed upon otherwise adorned textile design broken three major disciplines printed textile design woven textile design mixed media textile design utilize different methods produce surface ornamented fabric variable uses markets textile design practice evolved become industry integral disciplines fashion interior design fine artspoint paper

Applied science
Architecture and design
Textile design


''dove rose'' woven double cloth william morris overview textile designing creative field includes fashion design carpet manufacturing cloth related field ref name wiley ref clothing carpets drapes towels rugs functional products resulting textile design ref name collier bide tortora ref within fashion industry textile designers ability inspire collections trends styles textile designers carry creative vision finished textile look like deep understanding technical aspects production properties fiber yarn dyes ref name gale gale lahori


kaur ''the textile book'' p ref textile design disciplines printed textile design printed textile design william morris strawberry thief printed textile designs produced application various printing processes fabric cloth media namely resist printing relief printing rotogravure screen printing transfer printing digital printing ref name ref processes utilize various inks dyes imprint aesthetic often repeating patterns motifs styles onto fabric cloth ref name ref printed textile designers predominantly inextricably involved home interior design designing patterns carpets wallpapers even ceramics


fashion clothing industries paper industry designing stationary gift wrap numerous established enduring printed styles designs broken four major categories floral geometric world cultures conversational ref name floral designs include flowers plants botanical theme geometric designs feature themes inorganic abstract tessellations designs surrounding world cultures may traced specific geographic ethnic anthropological source finally conversational designs designs fit less easily categories may described presenting imagery references popular icons


particular time period season unique challenges perceptions way ref name category contains sundry specific individual styles designs ref name different clothes moreover require different dyes example silk wool protein based fabrics require acidic dyes based whereas synthetic fabrics require specialized disperse dyes ref name advent computer aided design software adobe photoshop illustrator allowed discipline textile design evolve innovate new practices processes influenced production printed textile designs prominently digital tools


made process creating repeating patterns motifs repeats much effective simple repeats used create patterns visible invisible eye geometric patterns intended depict clear intentional patterns whereas floral organic designs instance intended create unbroken repeats ideally undetectable poorly constructed repeats draw eye portions textile expose pattern break illusion continuity issue called tracking easily remedied digital environment tools alongside innovation digital inkjet printing allowed


textile printing process become faster scalable sustainable woven textile design woven textile design emanates practice weaving produces fabric interlacing vertical yarn warp horizontal yarn weft often right angles woven textile designs created various types looms predominantly produced using mechanized computerized jacquard loom ref name ref woven textile design woven navajo saddle blanket philbrook museum tulsa oklahomadesigns within context weaving created using various types yarns utilizing variance texture size color


construct stylized patterned monochromatic fabric large range yarn types available designer including limited cotton twill linen synthetic fibers order produce woven fabric designer first delineates visualizes sequence threading traditionally drawn graph paper known point paper designer also choose weave structure governs aesthetic design produced common process plain weave yarns interlace alternating tight formation producing strong flexible


multi use fabric twill weaves also common alternatively utilize diagonal lines created floating warp weft left right process creates softer fabric favored designers fashion clothing design industries common recognizable twill styles include patterns like houndstooth herringbone ref name beyond weave structure color another dominant aspect governing woven textile design typically designers choose two contrasting colors woven patterns based designer 's chosen threading sequence color also dependent size yarn fine yarns


produce fabric may change colors receives light different angles whereas larger yarns generally produce monochromatic surface mixed media textile design kazakh chain stitched rug mixed media textiles designs produced utilizing embroidery various fabric manipulation processes pleating appliqu quilting laser cutting embroidery traditionally performed hand applying myriad stitches thread construct designs patterns textile surface similar printed textile design embroidery affords designer vast amount artistic aesthetic control typical stitches include


limited cross stitch chain stitch couching although industrial mechanized embroidery become standard hand stitching still remains fixture fine arts textiles quilting traditionally used enhance insulation warmth textile also provides designer opportunity apply aesthetic properties commonly quilts feature geometric collage designs formed various textiles different textures colors quilting also frequently employs use recycled scrap heirloom fabrics quilts also often used medium artist depict personal communal narrative


example hmong people tradition creating story quilts cloths illustrating experiences immigration united states eastern southeastern asia environmental impact practice industry textile design present environmental concerns production cloth raw material dyeing finishing finally ultimate disposal products step process produces environmental implications proliferated emergence fast fashion modern industrial practices predominantly environmental impacts stem heavy use hazardous chemicals involved step


textile creation process must properly disposed considerations involve amount waste created disposal textile design products reclamation use recyclable textiles environmental protection agency reported millions tons textile waste created annually consists municipal waste generated waste recovered reused existence negative environmental impacts due textile production resulted new technologies practices textile design textile designs involving use synthetic dyes materials


result harmful effects environment caused shift towards using natural dyes materials research towards mediums harm environment research includes testing new ways collect natural resources natural resources work materials electronic textiles e textiles new innovation towards eco friendly textile design electronic textiles involve items clothing electronic devices technology weaved fabric unnoticeably textiles tested efficiency recyclability main priority eco friendly new approaches textile design result


strides towards lowering negative environmental impact textiles improving overall recyclability usage pieces concerns led birth sustainable textile design movements practice ecological design within field instance london 's royal society arts hosts design competitions compel entrants center design manufacturing methods around sustainable practices materials textile design different cultures strip woven textile design african fabric methods patterns designs importance regarding textiles vary culture culture countries africa use textiles large form


expression culture way life use textiles liven interior space accentuate decorate body individual whether piece clothing rug textile designs african cultures involve process strip woven fibers repeat pattern vary strip strip history history textile design goes back thousands years perishability textiles early examples textile design rare however oldest known examples textiles found discovered


form nets basketry date neolithic cultures bce trade networks formed european countries silk wool cotton flax fiber textiles became valuable commodities many early cultures including egyptian chinese african peruvian practiced early weaving techniques one oldest examples textile design found ancient siberian tomb tomb said prince 's aged back abd making tomb contents years old rug known pazyryk rug preserved


ice years detailed elaborate deer men riding horseback designs similar present day anatolian persian rugs apply directly proportional ghiordes knot weaving rug currently displayed hermitage museum located st petersburg russia see also clothing technology fashion design textile manufacturing importance textile design notes references billie j collier martin j bide phyllis g ''understanding textiles'' pearson publishers bowles melanie digital textile design isaac ceri nd ed london laurence king pub


oclc briggs goode amanda printed textile design london oclc calamari sage hyllegard karen h exploration designers' perspectives human health environmental impacts interior textiles ''textiles clothing sustainability'' ''' ''' doi issn nbsp clarke simon textile design london england oclc gale colin lajwanti lahori jasbir kaur ''the textile book'' berg publishers jackson lesley '' twentieth century pattern design'' princeton architectural press new york jackson lesley '' shirley craven hull traders revolutionary fabrics furniture '' acc editions jenkins david ed ''the cambridge history


cambridge uk cambridge university press kadolph sara j ed ''textiles'' th edition pearson prentice hall labillois tabitha ed meow institute mexico rothstein natalie ''the victoria albert museum 's textile collection woven textile design britain '' canopy books new york london paris rothstein natalie ''the victoria albert museum 's textile collection woven textile design britain '' canopy books new york london paris russel alex''the fundamentals printed textile design'' ava publishing sa distributed thames hudson ex north america distributed usa canada english language support


office doi ch shenton jan woven textile design ridsdale eleanor london england oclc miraftab r horrocks ''ecotextiles way forward sustainable development textiles'' burlington elsevier science print schevill margot evolution textile design highlands guatemala seventeen male tzutes headdresses chichicastenango collections lowie museum anthropology university california berkeley berkeley calif lowie museum anthropology university california berkeley print robinson stuart history printed textiles block roller screen design dyes fibres discharge resist sources research london studio vista


print speelberg femke fashion virtue textile patterns print revolution metropolitan museum art bulletin new york metropolitan museum art print perivoliotis margaret c role textile history design innovation case study using hellenic textile history textile history web gr mer karina art prehistoric textile making naturhistorisches museum wien web european textile forum hopkins h kania k european textile forum ''ancient textiles modern science ii'' siennicka rahmstorf l ulanowska ''first textiles beginnings


computing hardware platform information processing parts four early computers left right eniac board edvac board ordvac board brlesc board showing trend toward miniaturization '''history computing hardware''' covers developments early simple devices aid calculation modern day computers th century calculations done humans early mechanical tools help humans digital calculations like abacus referred ''calculating machines'' ''calculators'' proprietary names machine operator called ''computer'' first aids computation

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
History of computer hardware


purely mechanical devices required operator set initial values elementary arithmetic operation manipulate device obtain result later computers represented numbers continuous form eg distance along scale rotation shaft voltage numbers could also represented form digits automatically manipulated mechanism although approach generally required complex mechanisms greatly increased precision results development transistor technology integrated circuit chip led series breakthroughs starting transistor computers integrated


circuit computers causing digital computers largely replace analog computers metal oxide semiconductor mos large scale integration lsi enabled semiconductor memory microprocessor leading another key breakthrough miniaturized personal computer pc cost computers gradually became low personal computers mobile computers smartphones tablets became ubiquitous early devices ancient medieval ishango bone thought paleolithic tally stick ref suanpan number represented abacus devices used aid computation thousands years mostly using one one


correspondence fingers earliest counting device probably form tally stick lebombo bone mountains swaziland south africa may oldest known mathematical artifact ref name selin ref dates bce consists distinct notches deliberately cut baboon 's fibula later record keeping aids throughout fertile crescent included calculi clay spheres cones etc represented counts items probably livestock grains sealed hollow unbaked clay containers clay containers contained tokens total count objects transferred containers thus


served something bill lading accounts book order avoid breaking open containers first clay impressions tokens placed outside containers count shapes impressions abstracted stylized marks finally abstract marks systematically used numerals numerals finally formalized numbers eventually schmandt besserat estimates took years marks outside containers needed convey count clay containers evolved clay tablets marks count


eg review use counting rods one example abacus early used arithmetic tasks call roman abacus used babylonia early c bc since many forms reckoning boards tables invented medieval european counting house checkered cloth would placed table markers moved around according certain rules aid calculating sums money several analog computers constructed ancient medieval times perform astronomical calculations included


hydropowered mechanical astronomical clock invented ismail al jazari first programmable analog computer ref name ancient discoveries ref ramon llull invented lullian circle notional machine calculating answers philosophical questions case christianity via logical combinatorics idea taken leibniz centuries later thus one founding elements computing information science renaissance calculating tools scottish mathematician physicist john napier discovered multiplication division numbers could performed addition subtraction respectively logarithms numbers producing


first logarithmic tables napier needed perform many tedious multiplications point designed 'napier 's bones' abacus like device greatly simplified calculations involved multiplication division modern slide rule since real numbers represented distances intervals line slide rule invented shortly napier 's work allow multiplication division operations carried significantly faster previously possible edmund gunter built calculating device single logarithmic scale university oxford device greatly simplified arithmetic calculations


including multiplication division william oughtred greatly improved circular slide rule followed modern slide rule essentially combination two gunter rules held together hands slide rules used generations engineers mathematically involved professional workers invention pocket calculator mechanical calculators wilhelm schickard german polymath designed calculating machine combined mechanised form napier 's rods world 's first mechanical adding machine built base made use single tooth gear


slaves labour calculation could safely relegated anyone else machines used however leibniz incorporate fully successful carry mechanism leibniz also described binary numeral system central ingredient modern computers however many subsequent designs including charles babbage 's machines even eniac based decimal system div align center detail arithmometer built one digit multiplier cursor ivory top leftmost cursor div around charles xavier thomas de colmar created would rest


century become first successful mass produced mechanical calculator thomas arithmometer could used add subtract moveable carriage operator could also multiply divide process long multiplication long division utilised stepped drum similar conception invented leibniz mechanical calculators remained use punched card data processing french weaver joseph marie jacquard developed loom pattern woven controlled paper tape constructed punched cards paper tape could changed without changing


mechanical design loom landmark achievement programmability machine improvement similar weaving looms punched cards preceded punch bands machine proposed basile bouchon bands would inspire information recording automatic pianos recently numerical control machine tools ibm punched card accounting machines late american herman hollerith invented data storage punched cards could read machine process punched cards invented tabulator keypunch machine machines used electromechanical relays counters hollerith 's


method used united states census census processed two years faster prior census ref name th census report may confidently look rapid reduction force office st october entire cessation clerical work present calendar year condition work census division condition final reports show clearly work eleventh census completed least two years earlier work tenth census carroll


wright commissioner labor charge ref hollerith 's company eventually became core ibm electromechanical tabulating machines could add subtract print accumulated totals machine functions directed inserting dozens wire jumpers removable control panels united states instituted social security ibm punched card systems used process records million workers punched cards became ubiquitous industry government accounting administration leslie comrie 's articles punched card methods w j eckert 's publication ''punched card methods scientific computation'' described punched card techniques sufficiently advanced


variable word computer job title assigned primarily women used calculators perform mathematical calculations british scientist lewis fry richardson 's interest weather prediction led propose human computers numerical analysis model weather day powerful computers earth needed adequately model weather using navier stokes equations companies like friden marchant calculator monroe made desktop mechanical calculators could add subtract multiply divide curta introduced austrian inventor curt herzstark


small hand cranked mechanical calculator descendant gottfried leibniz 's stepped reckoner thomas 's arithmometer world 's first ''all electronic desktop'' calculator british bell punch anita released used vacuum tubes cold cathode tubes dekatrons circuits cold cathode nixie tubes display anita sold well since electronic desktop calculator available silent quick tube technology superseded june us manufactured friden ec transistor design stack four digit numbers displayed crt


introduced reverse polish notation rpn first general purpose computing device babbage 's difference engine charles babbage english mechanical engineer polymath originated concept programmable computer considered father computer conceptualized invented first mechanical computer early th century working revolutionary difference engine designed aid navigational calculations realized much general design analytical engine possible input programs data provided machine via punched cards method used time direct mechanical


looms jacquard loom output machine would printer curve plotter bell machine would also able punch numbers onto cards read later employed ordinary base fixed point arithmetic engine incorporated arithmetic logic unit control flow form conditional branching loops integrated memory making first design general purpose computer could described modern terms turing complete ref name babbageonline ref store memory capable holding numbers decimal digits ca


kb arithmetical unit called mill would able perform four arithmetic operations plus comparisons optionally square roots initially conceived difference engine curved back upon generally circular layout long store exiting one side later drawings depict regularized grid layout like central processing unit cpu modern computer mill would rely internal procedures roughly equivalent microcode modern cpus stored form pegs inserted rotating drums called barrels carry


complex instructions user 's program might specify trial model part analytical engine built babbage displayed science museum london programming language employed users akin modern day assembly languages loops conditional branching possible language conceived would turing complete later defined alan turing three different types punch cards used one arithmetical operations one numerical constants one load store operations transferring numbers store arithmetical unit back


three separate readers three types cards machine century ahead time however project slowed various problems including disputes chief machinist building parts parts machine made hand major problem machine thousands parts eventually project dissolved decision british government cease funding babbage 's failure complete analytical engine chiefly attributed difficulties politics financing also


corn merchant dublin ireland independently designed programmable mechanical computer described work published two inventors leonardo torres quevedo vannevar bush also follow research based babbage 's work ''essays automatics'' torres quevedo designed babbage type calculating machine used electromechanical parts included floating point number representations built early prototype bush 's paper ''instrumental analysis'' discussed using existing ibm punch card machines implement babbage 's design year started rapid


arithmetical machine project investigate problems constructing electronic digital computer ref name ref analog computers sir william thomson 's third tide predicting machine design first half th century analog computers considered many future computing devices used continuously changeable aspects physical phenomena electrical mechanical hydraulic quantities model problem solved contrast digital computers represented varying quantities symbolically numerical values change analog computer use discrete values rather continuous values processes cannot reliably repeated


exact equivalence turing machines first modern analog computer tide predicting machine invented sir william thomson later lord kelvin used system pulleys wires automatically calculate predicted tide levels set period particular location great utility navigation shallow waters device foundation developments analog computing ref name stanf ref differential analyser mechanical analog computer designed solve differential equations integration using wheel disc mechanisms conceptualized james thomson brother


famous lord kelvin explored possible construction calculators stymied limited output torque ball disk integrators differential analyzer output one integrator drove input next integrator graphing output mk drift sight lever front bomb aimer 's fingertips sets altitude wheels near knuckles set wind airspeed important advance analog computing development first fire control systems long range ship gunlaying gunnery ranges increased dramatically late th


century longer simple matter calculating proper aim point given flight times shells various spotters board ship would relay distance measures observations central plotting station fire direction teams fed location speed direction ship target well various adjustments coriolis effect weather effects air adjustments computer would output firing solution would fed turrets laying british engineer arthur pollen developed first electrically powered


mechanical analogue computer called time argo clock used imperial russian navy world war alternative dreyer table fire control system fitted british capital ships mid mechanical devices also used aid accuracy aerial bombing drift sight first aid developed harry wimperis royal naval air service measured wind speed air used measurement calculate wind 's effects trajectory bombs system later improved course setting


eniac built fully electronic analog computer built helmut h lzer peenem nde army research center success digital electronic computers spelled end analog computing machines hybrid analog computers controlled digital electronics remained substantial use later specialized applications advent digital computer principle modern computer first described computer scientist alan turing set idea seminal paper ''on computable numbers'' turing reformulated kurt g del 's results


universal turing machine idea machine could perform tasks machine words provably capable computing anything computable executing program stored tape allowing machine programmable von neumann acknowledged central concept modern computer due paper turing machines day central object study theory computation except limitations imposed finite memory stores modern computers said turing complete say


algorithm execution capability equivalent universal turing machine electromechanical computers era modern computing began flurry development world war ii digital computers built period electromechanical electric switches drove mechanical relays perform calculation devices low operating speed eventually superseded much faster electric computers originally using vacuum tubes z one earliest examples electromechanical relay computer created german engineer konrad zuse improvement earlier z although


used mechanical memory replaced arithmetic control logic electrical relay circuits ref name part zuse ref zuse 's z first fully automatic digital electromechanical computer year electro mechanical devices called bombes built british cryptologists help decipher german enigma machine encrypted secret messages world war ii bombe 's initial design created uk government code cypher school gc cs bletchley park alan turing important refinement devised gordon welchman ref name h storyp ref engineering design construction work harold keen


british tabulating machine company substantial development device designed polish cipher bureau cryptologist marian rejewski known cryptologic bomb polish '' bomba kryptologiczna '' zuse followed earlier machine z ref name part zuse world 's first working electromechanical programmable fully automatic digital computer z built relays implementing bit word length operated clock frequency nbsp hz program code data stored punched film quite similar modern machines respects pioneering numerous


advances floating point numbers replacement hard implement decimal system used charles babbage 's earlier design simpler binary system meant zuse 's machines easier build potentially reliable given technologies available time z proven turing complete machine ra l rojas two patent applications zuse also anticipated machine instructions could stored storage used data key insight became known von neumann architecture first implemented america electromechanical ibm ssec


britain fully electronic manchester baby zuse suffered setbacks world war ii machines destroyed course allied bombing campaigns apparently work remained largely unknown engineers uk us much later although least ibm aware financed post war startup company return option zuse 's patents harvard mark constructed ibm 's endicott laboratories similar general purpose electro mechanical computer z quite turing complete digital


computation term digital first suggested george robert stibitz refers signal voltage used directly represent value would analog computer encode november george stibitz working bell labs ref name ref completed relay based calculator later dubbed model k '''k'''itchen table assembled became first binary adder typically signals two states low usually representing high usually representing sometimes three valued logic used


gottlob frege develops formal approach logic proposes first logic language logical equations working independently american electronic engineer claude shannon soviet logician victor shestakov showed one one correspondence concepts boolean logic certain electrical circuits called logic gates ubiquitous digital computers ref name shannon ref showed electronic relays switches realize expressions boolean algebra thesis essentially founded practical digital circuit design addition shannon 's paper gives correct circuit diagram bit digital binary adder ref