private security company operations private security providers working client provides requirements guidance management audit programs conduct internal external audits management system psc operations well competence evaluation auditors psc maturity model phased implementation quality assurance management system private security service providers ref name psmduedu standard psc development complete approved january psc benefit private security service providers improving quality services consistent respect human rights legal


contractual obligations provide basis managing risk reducing costs demonstrating legal compliance enhancing stakeholder relations meeting client expectations model standard outlines six phases ranging process place quality assurance management going beyond requirements standard criteria based core elements ansi asis psc standard used demonstrate continual improvement compatible rewards recognition programs psc quality assurance security management private security company's operating maritime environment ref name psmduedu standard provides guidance pmscs implement ansi asis

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Private military company


psc private maritime security companies establishes guidance quality assurance security related activities functions demonstrating accountability law respect human rights international code conduct private security providers international committee red cross swiss government contributors private security companies civil society ngo sector developed proposed montreux document private military security companies document details international legal obligations lists specific recommendations related psc services procurement practices operational oversight clarifies obligations


states pertaining hiring entities armed conflicts cultural references private military companies explored extensively ''metal gear'' video game franchise several games particularly ''metal gear solid peace walker'' ''metal gear solid guns patriots'' ''metal gear solid v phantom pain'' featuring command fictional pmcs video game storyline takes place th st centuries traditional militaries eventually collapse world becomes run pmcs also parodied ''grand theft auto'' series specifically ''grand theft auto v'' merryweather security


''contract wars'' sequels ''hired ops'' ''escape tarkov'' armed conflict erupts two fictional pmcs russian bear western usec marvel television 's ''the punisher'' netflix pmc name anvil heavily featured anvil 's founder billy russo one primary antagonists series much like real pmcs anvil provides training spaces us forces american foreign soil tom clancy 's rainbow six siege one playable ctu private military company called nighthaven see also list private military contractors list private security


companies list non governmental paramilitary units private security company private police company police private army command responsibility condottieri mercenary defense contractor law war military industrial complex personal security detachment private defense agency private intelligence agency privateer resources academic publications arnold guy ''mercenaries scourge third world'' palgrave macmillan deborah avant ''the market force consequences privatizing security'' george washington university august https journalssagepubcom doi deborah avant kara kingma neu private security events database ''journal conflict resolution'' brillstein arik ''antiterrorsystem'' engel publishing https webarchiveorg web http wwwhumansecurityinfo vol brooks rathgeber brooks doug rathgeber shawn lee


industry role regulating private security companies canadian consortium human security security privatization challenges opportunities vol university british columbia march simon chesterman chia lehnardt eds ''from mercenaries market rise regulation private military companies'' oxford oxford niccol machiavelli prince see ch amy e eckert ''outsourcing war war tradition age military privatization'' cornell university press robert mandel ''armies without states privatization security'' lynne rienner publishers fred schreier marina caparini https webarchiveorg web http wwwdcafch publications kms detailscfmlng en id nav privatising security law practice


governance private military security companies dcaf occasional paper geneva centre democratic control armed forces march filipa guinote private military firms state sharing responsibility violations human rights humanitarian law collection ricerche series ema awarded thesis vol venice marsilio editori david shearer ''private armies military intervention'' april p w singer ''corporate warriors rise privatized military industry'' cornell university press march stephan maninger soldiers misfortune demise national armies core contributing factor rise private


security companies ''private security military companies chances problems pitfalls prospects'' eds gerhard k mmel thomas j ger wiesbaden vs verlag f r sozialwissenschaften hin yan liu leashing corporate dogs war legal implications modern private military company ''journal conflict security law'' woolley peter j https webarchiveorg web http wwwthecommonrevieworg fileadmin template tcr pdf woolleyrev pdf soldiers fortune ''the common review'' v pp nbsp petrovic predrag milosevic marko unijat jelena stojanovic sonja ''private security companies friend foe http wwwbezbednostorg upload document private security copdf '' centre civil military relations non academic publications ''making killing'' james ashcroft virgin books ''licensed


kill privatizing war terror'' robert young pelton ''three worlds gone mad dangerous journeys war zones africa asia south pacific'' robert young pelton august ''an unorthodox soldier'' tim spicer september ''blackwater rise world 's powerful mercenary army'' jeremy scahill nation books february contractor giampiero spinelli mursia editore ''guns hire inside story freelance soldiering'' tony geraghty portrait '' https webarchiveorg web http assetsopencrscom rpts r pdf private security contractors iraq afghanistan legal issues '' jennifer k elsea congressional research service january ''irak terre mercenaire les arm es


priv es remplacent les troupes ricaines'' ''iraq mercenary land private armies replace us troops'' georges henri bricet des vallons favre lausanne switzerland january french ''dirty deeds done cheap incredible story life sbs hired gun iraq'' mike mercer john blake references external links military industrial complex types military forces types business entity military company


'''medical social work''' sub discipline social work medical social workers typically work hospital outpatient clinic community health agency skilled nursing facility long term care facility hospice work patients families need psychosocial help medical social workers assess psychosocial functioning patients families intervene necessary role medical social worker restore balance individual personal family social life order help person maintain recover health strengthen ability adapt reintegrate society interventions may include

Applied science
Social work 2
Medical social work


connecting patients families necessary resources support community preventive care providing psychotherapy supportive counseling grief counseling helping patient expand strengthen network social supports professionals field typically work disciplines medicine nursing physical occupational speech recreational therapy history britain medical social workers britain ireland originally known hospital almoners lady almoners profession officially renamed medical social work mary stewart became first lady almoner britain appointment


royal free hospital london three month trial period lady almoners determined patient 's ability contribute towards medical care charity hospitals sources credit anne cummins mother almoners ability funding first establish comprehensive social work service st thomas 's hospital london ref name burnham ref institute almoners britain formed renamed institute medical social workers institute one founder organizations british association


social workers formed britain medical social workers transferred national health service nhs local authority social services departments generally became known hospital social workers china medical social work started ida pruitt beijing service training given social workers carrying casework adoption services recuperation services ref name oup lynne healy ''international social work professional action interdependent world'' oxford university press https booksgooglecom booksid e afjjff huc pg pa p ref india dr clifford manshardt american missionary started formal training social work


india dorabji tata graduate school social work ref name oup first medical social worker appointed jj hospital bombay scope medical social workers increased india ireland ireland origins medical social work go back paediatrician ella webb first physician ireland appoint almoners work dispensary sick children established adelaide hospital dublin winifred alcock first almoner appointed webb singapore almoners st thomas hospital london arrived singapore


recognized forerunners hospital social worker 's singapore medical social worker singapore ministry health recognized profession psychosocial care required professional bylaw every clinical specialty department united states massachusetts general hospital first american hospital professional social workers site early garnet pelton ida cannon dr richard clarke cabot central figures hospital social work ref name geh clarke credited approach similar anne cummins london cannon started specific training medical social workers


major duties carried medical social workers case management data collection follow ups care coordination health education financial assessment discounting patient medical fees ref name geh sarah gehlert teri browne '' https booksgooglecom booksid lrtgzta gb c handbook health social work '' john wiley sons ref reading books gehlert browne eds handbook health social work john wiley sons inc kerson mccoyd j l eds social work health settings practice context routledge jill barr lesley dowding eds leadership health care sage publications harris g ed


managing health services concepts practice elsevier daniel b mclaughlin john r olson eds healthcare operations management health administration press curtis r christian e eds integrated care applying theory practice taylor francis james f mckenzie robert r pinger eds introduction community public health jones bartlett learning elizabeth hutchison ed dimensions human behavior person environment sage publications ann ehrlich carol l schroeder eds medical terminology health professions cengage learning marianne neighbors ruth tannehill jones eds human diseases cengage learning


bohle p quinlan eds managing occupational health safety palgrave macmillan michelle green mary jo bowie eds essentials health information management principles practices cengage learning articles https wwwncbinlmnihgov pubmed social workers care coordinators leaders ensuring effective compassionate care https wwwncbinlmnihgov pubmed hospital social work contemporary roles professional activities https wwwncbinlmnihgov pubmed challenges health care reform hospital social work united states https wwwnytimescom business retirementspecial living social security tightwire acthtml tightwire act living social security https wwwncbinlmnihgov pubmed career hospital social work takes nirucom see also references external links profession


related https webarchiveorg web http wwwsocialworkersorg practice standards naswhealthcarestandardspdf nasw medical social workers http wwwsswlhcorg society social work leadership health care https wwwncbinlmnihgov labs journals soc work health care social work health care practice related http www rohansdsuedu mstover tests san diego state university test finder http wwwwarwickacuk services library mrc ead imswhtm institute medical social workers record warwick university https wwwhhsgov us department health human services http appswhoint iris bitstream engpdf basic epidemiology http wwwhealthorguk publications health foundation resources http wwwnhsiqnhsuk downloadashxmid nid quality improvement theory practice healthcare nhs uk https wwwyorkcunyedu wac students discipline specific infosheets social work psychosocial assessment social work psychosocial assessment york college social work health care occupations hospice


'''cynology''' rarely '''kynology''' study matters related canines domestic dogs english term sometimes used denote serious zoological approach study dogs well writers canine subjects dog breeders trainers enthusiasts study dog informally etymology cynology classical compound word greek 'dog' '' logia'' referring study dogs word found major english dictionaries recognized study english speaking countries similar words

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Cynology


languages german dutch also source english word ''cynic'' directly related ''canine'' ''hound'' usage english suffix ' logy' english words refers study academic discipline field scientific study english classical compound words type may confer impression scientific rigor non scientific occupation profession usage english word cynology rare occasionally found names dog training academies cynologist sometimes used title


dog trainers handlers people informally study dog may refer 'cynologists' imply serious study scientific work rare term ''cynologist'' english generally found refer canine specialists certified care professionals certified show judges breeders breed enthusiasts certified dog trainers professional dog handlers usage languages cynology may connotations uses languages english see german '''' dutch '''' czech '''' similar word used refer dog handlers dog trainers russia veterinary clinic


armenia offers 'cynologist' assist dog training magazine baltic states described 'dedicated development cynology baltic countries' covers dog training dog shows veterinary advice hobbyist magazine scientific journal references external links reading suchanova j tovstucha problems translating names dog breeds perspective different nomination principles linguistic relativity ''coactivity philology educology'' https wwwresearchgatenet profile ramune tovstucha publication problems translating names dog breeds perspective different nomination principles linguistic relativity links ad aca f problems translating names dog breeds perspective different nomination principles linguistic relativitypdf mammalogy dogs subfields zoology


united kingdom two dominant political parties canada historically current liberal party canada conservative party canada well numerous predecessors ref name lansford ref parties like new democratic party quebec nationalist bloc qu b cois green party canada grown prominence exerting influence political process ref name lansford canada evolved variations party discipline canada stronger united kingdom parliamentary votes considered motions confidence tends diminish role non cabinet members parliament mps members

Social science
Political science
Canadian politics


british government governments six dominion jointly agreed dominions full autonomy within british commonwealth consultations agreements british government governments dominions british parliament passed statute westminster giving legal recognition autonomy canada dominions however canadian politicians unable obtain consensus process amending constitution therefore affected statute westminster meaning amendments canada 's constitution continued require approval british parliament


date similarly judicial committee privy council britain continued make final decision criminal appeals civil appeals patriation constitution role british parliament ended political culture copy canadian charter rights freedoms canada 's egalitarian approach governance emphasized social welfare economic freedom multiculturalism based selective economic migrants social integration suppression far right politics wide public political support ref name ambrosea ref broad range


constituent nationalities policies promote society constitutionally protected ref name rand dyck ref ref name newman ref individual rights equality inclusiveness social equality risen forefront political legal importance canadians demonstrated support charter rights freedoms relatively free economy social liberal attitudes toward women 's rights like pregnancy termination homosexuality euthanasia cannabis use ref name hollifieldmartin b ref ref name rand dyck ref name newman ref name guowong also sense collective responsibility canadian political culture demonstrated general support universal health care multiculturalism


yukon constitution westminster system based unwritten conventions written legislation legal system english common law matters within federal jurisdiction provinces territories except quebec based civil law based custom paris pre revolutionary france set civil code quebec accepts compulsory international court justice jurisdiction reservations suffrage citizens aged years older two adult citizens canada cannot vote chief electoral officer deputy chief electoral officer governor general eligible


vote abstains due constitutional convention monarchy head state elizabeth ii queen canada since february viceroy mary simon governor general canada since july executive power canada 's prime ministers prime minister canada serves head government head government justin trudeau prime minister canada since november cabinet ministers usually around thirty chosen prime minister appointed governor general lead various ministries agencies generally regional representation traditionally


cabinet ministers members leader 's party house commons senate see cabinet canada however legally constitutionally mandated occasionally prime minister appoint cabinet minister another party elections monarchy hereditary governor general appointed monarch advice prime minister non specific term though traditionally approximately five years following legislative elections leader majority party house commons usually designated governor general become prime minister


legislative power bicameral parliament canada consists three parts monarch senate house commons currently senate frequently described providing regional representation members appointed governor general advice prime minister serve age created equal representation three regions ontario quebec maritimes originally new brunswick nova scotia expanded include prince edward island new western division created six senators four western provinces


four regions seats senate newfoundland labrador joined confederation included existing region assigned six seats three territories one seat based representation population normal number senators exceeded monarch advice prime minister long additional senators distributed equally regard region total eight additional senators power additional appointment used prime


minister brian mulroney petitioned queen elizabeth ii add eight seats senate ensure passage goods services tax legislation democratically elected body house commons canada one three components parliament canada house commons currently members elected single member districts plurality voting system first past post meaning members must attain plurality votes candidate rather majority percent plus one electoral districts also known ridings mandates cannot


parliament mp mp need member political party mps known independents number mps share political opinions may form body known political party ''canada elections act'' defines political party organization one whose fundamental purposes participate public affairs endorsing one members candidates supporting election forming registering federal political party two different things legislation regulating formation federal political parties elections


canada cannot dictate federal political party formed legal internal financial structures established parties elect leaders instant runoff elections ensure winner receives votes normally party leader stands candidate mp election canada 's parliamentary system empowers political parties party leaders one party gets majority seats house commons party said majority government party discipline party leader elected


one riding exercises great deal control cabinet parliament historically prime minister senators selected governor general representative queen though modern practice monarch 's duties ceremonial consequently prime minister technically selected governor general practical purposes selected party majority seats party gets seats normally forms government party 's leader becoming prime minister prime minister directly elected general


population although prime minister almost always directly elected mp within constituency senators technically selected pleasure monarch ceremonially selected governor general advice practical purposes authority prime minister minority government situation occurs party holds seats house commons holds fewer seats opposition parties combined scenario usually party leader whose party seats house selected governor general lead


government however create stability leader chosen must support majority house meaning need support least one party federal provincial relations william lyon mackenzie king centre prime minister canada howard ferguson left premier ontario louis alexandre taschereau right premier quebec dominion provincial conference federation existence powers federal government ten provinces guaranteed constitution ''constitution act '' sets basic constitutional structure federal government ref name auto ref provinces ref name auto


powers federal parliament provinces changed constitutional amendments passed federal provincial governments crown formal head state federal government ten provinces rarely political role governments led representatives people elected canadians federal level canadian citizens provinces provincial level federal provincial intergovernmental formerly dominion provincial relations regular issue canadian politics quebec wishes preserve strengthen distinctive nature


western provinces desire control abundant natural resources especially energy reserves industrialized central canada concerned manufacturing base atlantic provinces strive escape less affluent rest country order ensure social programs health care education funded consistently throughout canada poorer provinces receive proportionately greater share federal transfer equalization payments richer provinces somewhat controversial richer provinces often favour freezing transfer payments rebalancing system favour based


claim already pay taxes receive federal government services poorer provinces often favour increase basis amount money receive sufficient existing needs particularly past decade scholars argued federal government 's exercise unlimited constitutional spending power contributed strained federal provincial relations power allows federal government influence provincial policies offering funding areas federal government cannot regulate federal spending power expressly set


''constitution act '' however words court appeal ontario power inferred public debt property prime example exercise spending power ''canada health act'' conditional grant money provinces regulation health services constitution provincial responsibility however making funding available provinces ''canada health act'' contingent upon delivery services according federal standards federal government ability influence health care delivery spending power


coupled supreme court rulings reference canada assistance plan bc held funding delivered spending power reduced unilaterally time contributed strained federal provincial relations quebec canadian politics except three short lived transitional minority governments prime ministers quebec led canada continuously early people quebec led liberal progressive conservative governments period monarchs governors general prime ministers expected least functional fluent english french selecting leaders political parties give preference


candidates fluently bilingual also law three nine positions supreme court canada must held judges quebec representation makes sure least three judges sufficient experience civil law system treat cases involving quebec laws ref name scc ref national unity canada long storied history secessionist movements see secessionist movements canada national unity major issue canada since forced union upper lower canada predominant lingering issue concerning canadian national unity


ongoing conflict french speaking majority quebec english speaking majority rest canada quebec 's continued demands recognition distinct society special political status led attempts constitutional reform notably failed attempts amend constitution meech lake accord charlottetown accord latter rejected national referendum since quiet revolution sovereigntist sentiments quebec variably stoked patriation canadian constitution without quebec 's consent failed attempts constitutional reform


two provincial referenda rejected proposals sovereignty majorities respectively given narrow federalist victory reference made chr tien government supreme court canada regarding legality unilateral provincial secession court decided unilateral declaration secession would unconstitutional resulted passage ''clarity act'' bloc qu b cois sovereigntist party runs candidates exclusively quebec started group mps left progressive conservative pc party along several


disaffected liberal mps first put forward candidates federal election collapse pcs election bloc liberals seen two viable parties quebec thus prior election gain one party came expense regardless whether national unity really issue bloc benefited significant increase seat total impressions corruption surrounded liberal party lead election however newly unified conservative party emerged


viable party quebec winning seats election election new democratic party succeeded winning quebec 's seats successfully reducing number seats every party substantially ndp surge nearly destroyed bloc reducing seats far minimum requirement seats official party status newfoundland labrador also problem regarding national unity dominion newfoundland self governing country equal canada large though unco ordinated feelings newfoundland nationalism anti canadian sentiment


among much population due part perception chronic federal mismanagement fisheries forced resettlement away isolated settlements government quebec still drawing inaccurate political maps whereby take parts labrador perception mainland canadians look upon newfoundlanders newfoundland labrador first party contested provincial elections federal ridings within province premier danny williams ordered federal flags removed government buildings result lost offshore revenues equalization clawbacks ref name cbcca ref


federal seats progressives social credit party co operative commonwealth federation reconstruction party new democracy recently reform party reform party 's slogan west wants echoed commentators successful merger pcs successor party parties conservative party election led stephen harper mp alberta electoral victory said made west reality however regardless specific electoral successes failures concept western


alienation continues important canadian politics particularly provincial level opposing federal government common tactic provincial politicians example group prominent albertans produced alberta agenda urging alberta take steps make full use constitutional powers much quebec done political conditions canada considered sources stable democracy ''the economist'' ranked canada third democratic nation democracy index ahead nations americas ahead every nation populous


canada ranked world ahead countries populous ahead states americas liberal party canada leadership paul martin minority victory june general elections december martin succeeded fellow liberal jean chr tien become first prime minister lead three consecutive majority governments since however liberals lost seats parliament going parliamentary seats


percentage garnering vote election conservatives also made major breakthroughs quebec gained seats whereas seats federal election conservatives majority government seats first time ndp became official opposition seats liberals finished third place seats first election green party seat leader elizabeth may bloc seats losing official party status recently existence


province elections possibly quebec elections rise coalition avenir qu bec taking government liberal parti qu b cois provincial level legislatures western provinces ndp often left leaning main party instead province liberal party branch latter generally rump smaller ndp excluding british columbia liberal party main party right ndp main party right ndp either progressive conservatives successor saskatchewan party


saskatchewan realignment conservatives power political shift canada governing political party canadian province multicolored provinces governed coalition minority government consisting one party liberal party dominating canadian politics since decline early years st century lang concluded lost majority parliament election defeated became little rump falling lowest seat count decades mere popular


vote furthermore said lang liberal prospects bleak ever election liberals suffered crushing defeat managing secure vote share seats result liberals lost status official opposition ndp explaining trends behiels synthesized major studies reported great many journalists political advisors politicians argue new political party paradigm emerging claimed saw new power configuration based right wing political party capable


sharply changing traditional role state federal provincial twenty first century behiels said unlike brian mulroney tried failed challenge long term dominance liberals harper 's attempt proven determined systematic successful many commentators thought signalled major realignment ''economist'' said election represents biggest realignment canadian politics since lawrence martin commentator ''globe mail'' said harper completed remarkable reconstruction canadian political landscape endured century realignment saw old parties


moderate middle progressive conservatives liberals either eliminated marginalized ''maclean 's'' said election marked unprecedented realignment canadian politics conservatives position replace liberals natural governing party canada despite grim outlook poor early poll numbers election held liberals justin trudeau unprecedented comeback realignment proved temporary gaining seats majority government first time since ''toronto star'' claimed comeback headed straight history


books harper 's name would forever joined liberal nemesis canada electoral annals spencer mckay ''national post'' suggested maybe witnessed revival canada 'natural governing party' party funding rules governing funding parties designed ensure reliance personal contributions personal donations federal parties campaigns benefit tax credits although amount tax relief depends amount given also people paying income taxes receive benefit rules based belief union business funding


allowed much impact federal election funding contributions citizens evenly spread parties still allowed contribute election minor fashion new rules stated party receive vote nationwide order receive general federal funding parties vote garnered certain dollar amount party approximately future funding initial disbursement approximations made based previous elections ndp received votes expected


federal funds since first time received sufficient share vote election ref name debates http careuterscom article topnews idcan ''greens win spot tv election debates'' reuters canada september accessed september ref news emerged funding loophole could cumulatively exceed legal limit anonymous recurrent donations every riding party corporations unions time individual legal annual donation limit party combined total party 's associations election year


additional combined total party 's candidates three limits increase april every year based inflation rate two biggest federal political parties canada experienced drop donations light covid pandemic impact global economy political parties leaders status small ''ordered number elected representatives house commons'' small liberal party justin trudeau minority government conservative party erin o'toole majesty 's loyal opposition bloc qu b cois yves fran ois blanchet new democratic party jagmeet singh green party annamie paul elected parliament leaders debates leaders


debates canada consist two debates one english one french ref name taraswaddell ref produced consortium canada 's five major television broadcasters cbc src ctv global tva usually consist leaders parties representation house commons debates air networks producing consortium well public affairs parliamentary channel cpac american public affairs network c span judiciary supreme court canada highest court canadian justice system highest court canada supreme court canada


final court appeal canadian justice system court composed nine judges eight puisne justices chief justice canada justices supreme court canada appointed governor council ''supreme court act'' limits eligibility appointment persons judges superior court members bar ten years members bar superior judge quebec law must hold three nine positions supreme court canada government departments structure canadian government operates public


service using departments smaller agencies example commissions tribunals boards crown corporations two types departments central agencies finance privy council office treasury board secretariat organizing oversight role entire public service line departments departments perform tasks specific area field departments agriculture environment defence significant departments include finance revenue human resources skills development national defence public safety emergency preparedness foreign affairs international trade scholar peter aucoin writing canadian westminster system raised concerns early


centralization power increased number role influence partisan political staff personal politicization appointments senior public service assumption public service promiscuously partisan government day immigration canada established point based system determine immigrants eligible enter country using meritorious qualities applicant 's ability speak french english level education details may expected someone raised canada system considered ground breaking time since prior systems


slanted basis ethnicity however many foreign nationals still found challenging secure work emigrating resulting higher unemployment rate amongst immigrant population winning power federal election conservative party sought curb issue placing weight whether applicant standing job offer canada change source contention opponents argue businesses use change suppress wages corporate owners leveraging knowledge immigrant hold job successfully complete immigration process


elections ''elections'' house commons direct plurality representation last election held october senate appointed governor general advice prime minister ''election results'' see also conservatism canada federal political financing canada liberalism canada list canadian federal general elections list canadian federal electoral districts list canadian political scandals list political parties canada republicanism canada notes references reading argyle ray ''turning points campaigns changed canada before'' pp https wwwamazoncom gp reader b wjg excerpt text search ch hyde anthony ''promises


promises breaking faith canadian politics'' toronto viking viii p pammett jon h christopher dornan eds ''the canadian federal election '' https wwwamazoncom canadian federal election dp excerpt text search pp essays experts political thought katherine fierlbeck '' https booksgooglecom booksid bzbhlf v ec lpg pp dq political thought canada intellectual history pg pp political thought canada intellectual history '' broadview press ian mckay '' https booksgooglecom booksid gc yhaw fic lpg pp dq rebels c reds c radicals rethinking canada 's left history pg pp rebels reds radicals rethinking canada 's left history '' lines external links http wwwcanadanewsnetcom canada newsnet formerly poliwonk extensive canadian politics news resources http canadian politicscom canadian politicscom comprehensive overview politics canada http archivescbcca idd politics economy political scandals cbc digital archives scandals boondoggles white elephants http archivescbcca idd politics economy federal elections cbc digital


archives campaigning canada http etatscanadiens canadiangovernmentsenapca fr indexaspx canadian governments compared https webarchiveorg web http wwwnorthernblueca cpo indexphp canadian politics online canadian politics online digital textbook political history canada westminster system


'''computational fluid dynamics''' '''cfd''' branch fluid mechanics uses numerical analysis data structures analyze solve problems involve fluid flows computers used perform calculations required simulate free stream flow fluid interaction fluid liquids gases surfaces defined boundary conditions high speed supercomputers better solutions achieved often required solve largest complex problems ongoing research yields software improves accuracy speed complex simulation scenarios transonic turbulent flows initial

Formal science
Mathematics
Computational fluid dynamics


validation software typically performed using experimental apparatus wind tunnels addition previously performed analytical empirical analysis particular problem used comparison final validation often performed using full scale testing flight tests cfd applied wide range research engineering problems many fields study industries including aerodynamics aerospace analysis weather simulation natural science environmental engineering industrial system design analysis biological engineering fluid flows heat transfer engine combustion analysis background history computer simulation


high velocity air flow around space shuttle entry simulation hyper x scramjet vehicle operation mach fundamental basis almost cfd problems navier stokes equations define many single phase gas liquid fluid flows equations simplified removing terms describing viscous actions yield euler equations simplification removing terms describing vorticity yields full potential equations finally small perturbations subsonic supersonic flows transonic hypersonic equations linearized yield linearized potential equations


historically methods first developed solve linearized potential equations two dimensional methods using conformal transformations flow cylinder flow airfoil developed one earliest type calculations resembling modern cfd lewis fry richardson sense calculations used finite differences divided physical space cells although failed dramatically calculations together richardson 's book ''weather prediction numerical process'' set basis modern cfd numerical meteorology fact early cfd calculations using eniac


used methods close richardson 's book computer power available paced development three dimensional methods probably first work using computers model fluid flow governed navier stokes equations performed los alamos national lab group ref name legacy ref ref name harlow fluid ref group led francis h harlow widely considered one pioneers cfd late group developed variety numerical methods simulate transient two dimensional fluid flows particle cell method fluid cell method vorticity stream function method ref name fromm ref marker cell method ref name harlow welch ref


fromm 's vorticity stream function method transient incompressible flow first treatment strongly contorting incompressible flows world first paper three dimensional model published john hess amo smith douglas aircraft method discretized surface geometry panels giving rise class programs called panel methods method simplified include lifting flows hence mainly applied ship hulls aircraft fuselages first lifting panel code described paper written paul


rubbert gary saaris boeing aircraft time advanced three dimensional panel codes developed boeing panair lockheed quadpan douglas hess mcdonnell aircraft macaero nasa pmarc analytical methods wbaero usaero vsaero panair hess macaero higher order codes using higher order distributions surface singularities others quadpan pmarc usaero vsaero used single singularities surface panel advantage lower order codes ran much faster computers time today vsaero grown multi order code


widely used program class used development many submarines surface ships automobiles helicopters aircraft recently wind turbines sister code usaero unsteady panel method also used modeling things high speed trains racing yachts nasa pmarc code early version vsaero derivative pmarc named cmarc also commercially available two dimensional realm number panel codes developed airfoil analysis design codes typically


boundary layer analysis included viscous effects modeled developed profile code partly nasa funding became available early soon followed mark drela 's xfoil code profile xfoil incorporate two dimensional panel codes coupled boundary layer codes airfoil analysis work profile uses conformal transformation method inverse airfoil design xfoil conformal transformation inverse panel method airfoil design intermediate step panel codes full potential codes codes used transonic small disturbance equations


others produce programs lockheed 's team program iai analytical methods' mgaero program mgaero unique structured cartesian mesh code codes use structured body fitted grids exception nasa 's highly successful cart code lockheed 's splitflow code georgia tech 's nascart gt antony jameson also developed three dimensional airplane code made use unstructured tetrahedral grids two dimensional realm mark drela michael giles graduate students mit developed ises euler program actually suite programs airfoil design analysis code first became available


developed design analyze optimize single multi element airfoils mses program mses sees wide use throughout world derivative mses design analysis airfoils cascade mises developed harold youngren graduate student mit navier stokes equations ultimate target development two dimensional codes nasa ames' arc code first emerged number three dimensional codes developed arc overflow cfl three successful nasa contributions leading numerous commercial packages hierarchy


fluid flow equations cfd seen group computational methodologies discussed used solve equations governing fluid flow application cfd critical step decide set physical assumptions related equations need used problem hand ref name ferziger ref illustrate step following summarizes physical assumptions simplifications taken equations flow single phase see multiphase flow two phase flow single species ie consists one chemical species non reacting unless said otherwise compressible thermal radiation neglected body forces due


gravity considered unless said otherwise addition type flow next discussion highlights hierarchy flow equations solved cfd note following equations could derived one way conservation laws cl fundamental equations considered cfd sense example following equations derived single phase single specie compressible flow one considers conservation mass conservation linear momentum conservation energy continuum conservation laws ccl start cl


assume mass momentum energy ''locally'' conserved quantities conserved cannot teleport one place another move continuous flow see continuity equation another interpretation one starts cl assumes continuum medium see continuum mechanics resulting system equations unclosed since solve one needs relationships equations constitutive relationships viscous stress tensor b constitutive relationships diffusive heat flux c equation state eos ideal gas law


caloric equation state relating temperature quantities enthalpy internal energy compressible navier stokes equations c ns start ccl assume newtonian viscous stress tensor see newtonian fluid fourier heat flux see heat flux ref name cns ref ref name panton ref c ns need augmented eos caloric eos closed system equations incompressible navier stokes equations ns start c ns assume density always everywhere constant ref name landau ref another way obtain ns assume mach number small ref name landau ref name panton


temperature differences fluid small well ref name panton result mass conservation momentum conservation equations decoupled energy conservation equation one needs solve first two equations ref name panton compressible euler equations ee start c ns assume frictionless flow diffusive heat flux ref name fox ref weakly compressible navier stokes equations wc ns start c ns assume density variations depend temperature pressure ref name poinsot ref example ideal gas use math rho p r math


math p math conveniently defined reference pressure always everywhere constant math rho math density math r math specific gas constant math math temperature result wk ns capture acoustic waves also common wk ns neglect pressure work viscous heating terms energy conservation equation wk ns also called c ns low mach number approximation boussinesq equations start c ns assume density variations always everywhere negligible except gravity term momentum conservation


fluctuation average ref name panton ref name ras ref math f'' math necessarily small math f math classic ensemble average see reynolds decomposition one obtains reynolds averaged navier stokes equations math f math density weighted ensemble average one obtains favre averaged navier stokes equations ref name ras result depending reynolds number range scales motion greatly reduced something leads much faster solutions comparison solving c ns however information lost resulting system equations requires closure various unclosed terms notably


reynolds stress ideal flow potential flow equations start ee assume zero fluid particle rotation zero vorticity zero flow expansion zero divergence ref name panton resulting flowfield entirely determined geometrical boundaries ref name panton ideal flows useful modern cfd initialize simulations linearized compressible euler equations lee ref name bailly ref start ee assume flow variable math f math density velocity pressure represented math f f f' math math f math value flow variable


reference base state math f' math perturbation fluctuation state furthermore assume perturbation math f' math small comparison reference value finally assume math f math satisfies equation ee lee many variations widely used computational aeroacoustics sound wave acoustic wave equation start lee neglect gradients math f math math f' math assume mach number reference base state


small ref name poinsot resulting equations density momentum energy manipulated pressure equation giving well known sound wave equation shallow water equations sw consider flow near wall wall parallel length scale interest much larger wall normal length scale interest start ee assume density always everywhere constant neglect velocity component perpendicular wall consider velocity parallel wall spatially constant boundary layer equations bl start c ns ns compressible incompressible boundary layers assume


thin regions next walls spatial gradients perpendicular wall much larger parallel wall ref name kundu bernoulli equation start ee assume density variations depend pressure variations ref name kundu see bernoulli 's principle steady bernoulli equation start bernoulli equation assume steady flow ref name kundu start ee assume flow steady integrate resulting equation along streamline ref name fox ref name landau stokes flow creeping flow equations start c ns ns neglect


inertia flow ref name panton ref name landau assumption justified reynolds number low result resulting set equations linear something simplifies greatly solution two dimensional channel flow equation consider flow two infinite parallel plates start c ns assume flow steady two dimensional fully developed ie velocity profile change along streamwise direction ref name panton note widely used fully developed assumption inadequate instances compressible microchannel flows


case supplanted ''locally'' fully developed assumption ref name harley ref one dimensional euler equations one dimensional gas dynamic equations ee start ee assume flow quantities depend one spatial dimension ref name ee ref fanno flow equation consider flow inside duct constant area adiabatic walls start ee assume steady flow gravity effects introduce momentum conservation equation empirical term recover effect wall friction neglected ee close fanno flow equation model friction term


needed closure involves problem dependent assumptions ref name cavazzuti ref rayleigh flow equation consider flow inside duct constant area either non adiabatic walls without volumetric heat sources adiabatic walls volumetric heat sources start ee assume steady flow gravity effects introduce energy conservation equation empirical term recover effect wall heat transfer effect heat sources neglected ee methodology approaches basic procedure followed preprocessing geometry physical bounds problem


defined using computer aided design cad data suitably processed cleaned fluid volume fluid domain extracted volume occupied fluid divided discrete cells mesh mesh may uniform non uniform structured unstructured consisting combination hexahedral tetrahedral prismatic pyramidal polyhedral elements physical modeling defined example equations fluid motion enthalpy radiation species conservation boundary conditions defined involves specifying fluid behaviour properties bounding surfaces fluid domain


transient problems initial conditions also defined simulation started equations solved iteratively steady state transient finally postprocessor used analysis visualization resulting solution discretization methods stability selected discretisation generally established numerically rather analytically simple linear problems special care must also taken ensure discretisation handles discontinuous solutions gracefully euler equations navier stokes equations admit shocks contact surfaces discretization methods used finite volume method


q dv iint f mathbf math math q math vector conserved variables math f math vector fluxes see euler equations navier stokes equations math v math volume control volume element math mathbf math surface area control volume element finite element method finite element method fem used structural analysis solids also applicable fluids however fem formulation requires special care ensure conservative solution fem formulation adapted use fluid dynamics governing equations although fem must


currently used specialized codes handle complex geometry high accuracy efficiency using embedded boundaries overlapping grids solution interpolated across grid math frac partial q partial frac partial f partial x frac partial g partial frac partial h partial z math math q math vector conserved variables math f math math g math math h math fluxes math x math math math math z math directions respectively spectral element method spectral element method finite element type method requires mathematical problem partial differential equation cast weak formulation


typically done multiplying differential equation arbitrary test function integrating whole domain purely mathematically test functions completely arbitrary belong infinite dimensional function space clearly infinite dimensional function space cannot represented discrete spectral element mesh spectral element discretization begins crucial thing choice interpolating testing functions standard low order fem quadrilateral elements typical choice bilinear test interpolating function form math v xy ax cxy math


spectral element method however interpolating test functions chosen polynomials high order typically eg th order cfd applications guarantees rapid convergence method furthermore efficient integration procedures must used since number integrations performed numerical codes big thus high order gauss integration quadratures employed since achieve highest accuracy smallest number computations carried time academic cfd codes based spectral element method


currently development since new time stepping schemes arise scientific world lattice boltzmann method lattice boltzmann method lbm simplified kinetic picture lattice provides computationally efficient description hydrodynamics unlike traditional cfd methods solve conservation equations macroscopic properties ie mass momentum energy numerically lbm models fluid consisting fictive particles particles perform consecutive propagation collision processes discrete lattice mesh method one works discrete space time version kinetic evolution equation boltzmann


bhatnagar gross krook bgk form boundary element method boundary element method boundary occupied fluid divided surface mesh high resolution discretization schemes high resolution schemes used shocks discontinuities present capturing sharp changes solution requires use second higher order numerical schemes introduce spurious oscillations usually necessitates application flux limiters ensure solution total variation diminishing turbulence models computational modeling turbulent flows one common objective obtain model predict quantities interest


resolved turbulent scales resolved finer resolution simulation therefore higher computational cost majority turbulent scales modeled computational cost low tradeoff comes form decreased accuracy addition wide range length time scales associated computational cost governing equations fluid dynamics contain non linear convection term non linear non local pressure gradient term nonlinear equations must solved numerically appropriate boundary initial conditions


reynolds averaged navier stokes external aerodynamics https wwwmwtumde en aer research groups automotive drivaer drivaer model computed using urans top ddes bottom porsche cayman reynolds averaged navier stokes rans equations oldest approach turbulence modeling ensemble version governing equations solved introduces new ''apparent stresses'' known reynolds stresses adds second order tensor unknowns various models provide different levels closure common misconception rans equations apply flows time varying mean flow equations 'time averaged' fact statistically unsteady non stationary flows


equally treated sometimes referred urans nothing inherent reynolds averaging preclude turbulence models used close equations valid long time changes mean occur large compared time scales turbulent motion containing energy rans models divided two broad approaches boussinesq hypothesis method involves using algebraic equation reynolds stresses include determining turbulent viscosity depending level sophistication model


solving transport equations determining turbulent kinetic energy dissipation models include k launder spalding mixing length model prandtl ref name wilcox ref zero equation model cebeci smith ref name wilcox models available approach often referred number transport equations associated method example mixing length model zero equation model transport equations solved math k epsilon math two equation model two transport equations one math k math one math epsilon math solved reynolds stress model rsm approach attempts actually solve transport


cost computation though des initially formulated spalart allmaras model spalart et al implemented rans models strelets appropriately modifying length scale explicitly implicitly involved rans model spalart allmaras model based des acts les wall model des based models like two equation models behave hybrid rans les model grid generation complicated simple rans les case due rans les switch des non zonal approach provides single


approach much common les since uses decomposition resolves filtered portion different use linear low pass filter instead filtering operation based wavelets filter adapted flow field evolves farge schneider tested cvs method two flow configurations showed coherent portion flow exhibited math frac math energy spectrum exhibited total flow corresponded coherent structures vortex tubes incoherent parts flow composed homogeneous background noise


exhibited organized structures goldstein vasilyev ref name goldstein ref applied fdv model large eddy simulation assume wavelet filter completely eliminated coherent motions subfilter scales employing les cvs filtering showed sfs dissipation dominated sfs flow field 's coherent portion pdf methods probability density function pdf methods turbulence first introduced lundgren ref name lundgren ref based tracking one point pdf velocity math f v boldsymbol v boldsymbol x boldsymbol v math gives probability velocity point math boldsymbol x math math boldsymbol v math math boldsymbol v boldsymbol v math


approach analogous kinetic theory gases macroscopic properties gas described large number particles pdf methods unique applied framework number different turbulence models main differences occur form pdf transport equation example context large eddy simulation pdf becomes filtered pdf ref name colucci ref pdf methods also used describe chemical reactions ref name fox ref ref name pope ref particularly useful simulating chemically reacting flows chemical


source term closed require model pdf commonly tracked using lagrangian particle methods combined large eddy simulation leads langevin equation subfilter particle evolution vortex method vortex method grid free technique simulation turbulent flows uses vortices computational elements mimicking physical structures turbulence vortex methods developed grid free methodology would limited fundamental smoothing effects associated grid based methods practical however vortex methods require means rapidly computing velocities


vortex elements words require solution particular form n body problem motion n objects tied mutual influences breakthrough came late development fast multipole method fmm algorithm v rokhlin yale l greengard courant institute breakthrough paved way practical computation velocities vortex elements basis successful algorithms software based vortex method offer new means solving tough fluid dynamics problems minimal user


intervention required specification problem geometry setting boundary initial conditions among significant advantages modern technology practically grid free thus eliminating numerous iterations associated rans les problems treated identically modeling calibration inputs required time series simulations crucial correct analysis acoustics possible small scale large scale accurately simulated time vorticity confinement method vorticity confinement vc method eulerian technique used simulation turbulent wakes uses solitary wave like


approach produce stable solution numerical spreading vc capture small scale features within grid cells within features nonlinear difference equation solved opposed finite difference equation vc similar shock capturing methods conservation laws satisfied essential integral quantities accurately computed linear eddy model linear eddy model technique used simulate convective mixing takes place turbulent flow specifically provides mathematical way describe interactions scalar variable within vector


flow field primarily used one dimensional representations turbulent flow since applied across wide range length scales reynolds numbers model generally used building block complicated flow representations provides high resolution predictions hold across large range flow conditions two phase flow simulation bubble horde using volume fluid method modeling two phase flow still development different methods proposed including volume fluid method level set method front tracking methods often involve tradeoff


maintaining sharp interface conserving mass crucial since evaluation density viscosity surface tension based values averaged interface lagrangian multiphase models used dispersed media based solving lagrangian equation motion dispersed phase solution algorithms discretization space produces system ordinary differential equations unsteady problems algebraic equations steady problems implicit semi implicit methods generally used integrate ordinary differential equations producing system usually nonlinear algebraic equations applying


newton picard iteration produces system linear equations nonsymmetric presence advection indefinite presence incompressibility systems particularly frequently large direct solvers iterative methods used either stationary methods successive overrelaxation krylov subspace methods krylov methods gmres typically used preconditioning operate minimizing residual successive subspaces generated preconditioned operator multigrid advantage asymptotically optimal performance many problems traditional solvers preconditioners effective reducing high frequency components residual


low frequency components typically require many iterations reduce operating multiple scales multigrid reduces components residual similar factors leading mesh independent number iterations indefinite systems preconditioners incomplete lu factorization additive schwarz multigrid perform poorly fail entirely problem structure must used effective preconditioning methods commonly used cfd simple uzawa algorithms exhibit mesh dependent convergence rates recent advances based block lu factorization combined multigrid resulting definite systems led preconditioners deliver mesh independent convergence rates unsteady


aerodynamics cfd made major break late introduction ltran code model oscillating airfoils based transonic small perturbation theory ballhaus associates uses murman cole switch algorithm modeling moving shock waves later extended use rotated difference scheme afwal boeing resulted ltran biomedical engineering simulation blood flow human aorta cfd investigations used clarify characteristics aortic flow details beyond capabilities experimental measurements analyze conditions cad models


human vascular system extracted employing modern imaging techniques mri computed tomography model reconstructed data fluid flow computed blood properties density viscosity realistic boundary conditions eg systemic pressure taken consideration therefore making possible analyze optimize flow cardiovascular system different applications cpu versus gpu traditionally cfd simulations performed cpus recent trend simulations also performed gpus typically contain slower processors


cfd algorithms feature good parallelism performance ie good speed adding cores greatly reduce simulation times fluid implicit particle lattice boltzmann methods typical examples codes scale well gpus see also blade element theory boundary conditions fluid dynamics cavitation modelling central differencing scheme computational magnetohydrodynamics discrete element method finite element method finite volume method unsteady flow fluid animation immersed boundary method lattice boltzmann methods list finite element software packages meshfree methods moving particle semi implicit method multi particle collision dynamics multidisciplinary design optimization numerical methods fluid mechanics shape optimization smoothed particle


hydrodynamics stochastic eulerian lagrangian method turbulence modeling visualization graphics wind tunnel references notes external links ''course '' http wwwmathematikuni dortmundde kuzmin cfdintro cfdhtml introduction cfd dmitri kuzmin dortmund university technology ''course '' https nptelacin courses computational fluid dynamics suman chakraborty indian institute technology kharagpur ''course '' http www ndedu dbalsara numerical pde course numerical pde techniques scientists engineers open access lectures codes numerical pdes including modern view compressible cfd computational fields study


upright '''tectonics''' processes control structure properties earth 's crust evolution time include processes mountain building growth behavior strong old cores continents known cratons ways relatively rigid plates constitute earth 's outer shell interact tectonics also provide framework understanding earthquake volcanic belts directly affect much global population tectonic studies important guides economic geologists searching fossil fuels ore deposits


metallic nonmetallic resources understanding tectonic principles essential geomorphologists explain erosion patterns earth surface features main types tectonic regime extensional tectonics extensional tectonics associated stretching thinning crust lithosphere type tectonics found divergent plate boundaries continental rifts period continental collision caused lateral spreading thickened crust formed releasing bends strike slip faults back arc basins continental end passive margin sequences detachment layer present thrust


contractional tectonics thrust tectonics associated shortening thickening crust lithosphere type tectonics found zones continental collision restraining bends strike slip faults oceanward part passive margin sequences detachment layer present strike slip tectonics san andreas transform fault carrizo plain strike slip tectonics associated relative lateral movement parts crust lithosphere type tectonics found along oceanic continental transform faults connect offset segments mid ocean ridges strike slip tectonics also occurs


lateral offsets extensional thrust fault systems areas involved plate collisions strike slip deformation occurs riding plate zones oblique collision accommodates deformation foreland collisional belt plate tectonics plate tectonics outermost part earththe crust uppermost mantleare viewed acting single mechanical layer lithosphere lithosphere divided separate plates move relative underlying relatively weak asthenosphere process ultimately driven continuous loss heat earth 's interior three main types


plate boundaries divergent plates move apart new lithosphere formed process sea floor spreading transform plates slide past convergent plates converge lithosphere consumed process subduction convergent transform boundaries form largest structural discontinuities lithosphere responsible world 's major sub w sub earthquakes convergent divergent boundaries also site world 's volcanoes around pacific ring fire deformation lithosphere related


time frame referred ''neotectonic period'' accordingly preceding time referred ''palaeotectonic period'' tectonophysics tectonophysics study physical processes associated deformation crust mantle scale individual mineral grains tectonic plates seismotectonics seismotectonics study relationship earthquakes active tectonics individual faults region seeks understand faults responsible seismic activity area analysing combination regional tectonics recent instrumentally recorded events accounts historical earthquakes geomorphological evidence


information used quantify seismic hazard area planetary tectonics techniques used analysis tectonics earth also applied study planets moons see also tectonophysics seismology unesco world heritage site glarus thrust volcanology mohorovi discontinuity references reading edward keller https booksgooglecom booksid sxasaqaaiaaj ''active tectonics earthquakes uplift landscape'' prentice hall nd edition stanley schumm jean f dumont john holbrook ''active tectonics alluvial rivers'' cambridge university press reprint edition external links http wwwtectonic forcesorg origin mechanics forces


responsible tectonic plate movements http wwwscotesecom paleomap project


'''public law''' part law governs relations legal persons government ref name oxdic different institutions within state different branches governments ref name publaw ref well relationships persons direct concern society public law comprises constitutional law administrative law tax law criminal law ref name oxdic ref well procedural law laws concerning relationships individuals belong private law relationships public law governs asymmetric inequalized government bodies central local make decisions rights persons however consequence

Social science
Political science
Public law


rule law doctrine authorities may act within law ' 'secundum et intra legem'' government must obey law example citizen unhappy decision administrative authority ask court judicial review rights divided ''private rights'' ''public rights'' paragon public right right welfare benefits natural person claim payments awarded administrative decision government budget distinction public law private law dates back roman law


roman jurist ulpian first noted ref name fundrights ref later adopted understand legal systems countries adhere civil law tradition adhere common law tradition borderline public law private law always clear law whole cannot neatly divided law state law everyone else distinction public private law largely functional rather factual classifying laws according domain activities participants principle concerns involved best fit ref name publaw


given rise attempts establish theoretical understanding basis public law history public law distinction public private law first made roman jurist ulpian argues ''institutes'' passage preserved justinian ''digest'' p ublic law respects establishment roman commonwealth private respects individuals' interests matters public others private interest furthermore defines public law law concerning religious affairs priesthood offices state ref name digest ref roman law


conceived law series relationships persons persons persons things persons state public law consisted latter three relationships however roman lawyers devoted little attention area instead focussed largely areas private law however great importance teutonic society noted german legal historian otto von gierke defined teutons fathers public law drawing line public private law largely fell favor ensuing millennium though ernst kantorowicz notes medieval


saw concern roman conception ' 'res publica'' inherent legal fiction king 's two bodies ref name kantorowicz ref however legal philosophers period consisted largely theologians operated within realm canon law instead concerned distinctions divine law natural law human law ref name aquinas ref public private divide law would return th th centuries emergence nation state new theories sovereignty notions distinctly public realm began crystalize however claims made monarchs later parliaments


law began play prominent role european society constitutionalization private law well development administrative law various functional fields law including labor law medical law consumer law though began blur distinction public private law erode former instead elevated public law marginal state acknowledgment areas law free potential state intervention italy example development public law considered project


state building following ideas vittorio emanuele orlando indeed many early italian public lawyers also politicians including orlando ref name newital ref countries france ref name principlesfrench ref public law refers areas constitutional law administrative law criminal law areas public law constitutional law modern states constitutional law lays foundations state postulates supremacy law functioning state rule law secondly sets form government different branches work elected


appointed division powers responsibilities traditionally basic elements government executive legislature judiciary thirdly describing basic human rights must protected every person civil political rights citizens sets fundamental borders ''any'' government must must jurisdictions constitutional law enshrined written document constitution sometimes together amendments constitutional laws countries however supreme entrenched written document exist


public institutions criminal law tax law tax law first became area public law th century consequence new theories sovereignty began emerge point taxes considered gifts law given state private donor taxpayer considered area public law concerns relationship persons state theoretical distinction private public law analytical historical distinction public private law emerged predominantly legal systems


continental europe result german language legal literature produced extensive discussion precise nature distinction public law private law several theories evolved neither exhaustive mutually exclusive separate interest theory public law emerges work roman jurist ulpian stated ''publicum ius est quod ad statum rei romanae spectat privatum quod ad singulorum utilitatem'' public law concerns roman state private law concerned interests citizens charles louis montesquieu elaborates upon theory ''the spirit laws'' published


th century wherein montesquieu establishes distinction international right nations public political right private civil right law according various actors interests rights writes considered inhabitants planet large different peoples necessary laws bearing relation peoples one another considered living society must maintained laws concerning relation govern governed laws concerning relation


ali citizens one another criticisms interest theory include difficulty establishing clear distinction private public interest distinction exist categorizing laws accordingly subjection theory focuses explaining distinction emphasizing subordination private persons state public law supposed govern relationship whereas private law considered govern relationships parties involved meet level playing field however areas commonly considered private law also imply subordination employment law moreover legal proceedings wherein


state party may undermine totality state 's authority degree private persons subordinate state court finds favor non state party see carpenter v united states example subject theory concerned position subject law legal relationship question finds particular situation public person due membership public body state municipality public law applies otherwise private law combination subjection


theory subject theory arguably provides workable distinction approach field law considered public law one actor public authority endowed power act unilaterally ''imperium'' actor uses ''imperium'' particular relationship words depends whether public authority acting public private entity say ordering office supplies latest theory considers public law special instance areas law seem fit either public private law employment law


parts look like private law employment contract parts look like public law activities employment inspectorate investigating workplace safety distinction public private law might purely academic also affects legal practice bearing delineation competences different courts administrative bodies austrian constitution example private law among exclusive competences federal legislation whereas public law partly matter state legislation see also social law notes references


mcdonald 's corporation one recognizable corporations world '''corporation''' organization usually group people company authorized state act single entity legal entity recognized private public law born statute legal person legal context recognized law certain purposes'''''' early incorporated entities established charter ie ''ad hoc'' act granted monarch passed parliament legislature jurisdictions allow creation new corporations registration corporations come


many different types usually divided law jurisdiction chartered based two aspects whether issue stock whether formed make profit depending number owners corporation classified ''aggregate'' subject article ' 'sole'' legal entity consisting single incorporated office occupied single natural person one attractive early advantages business corporations offered investors compared earlier business entities like sole proprietorships joint partnerships limited liability limited


liability means passive shareholder corporation personally liable either contractually agreed obligations corporation torts involuntary harms committed corporation third party limited liability contract uncontroversial parties contract could agreed could agree waive contract however limited liability tort remains controversial third parties agree waive right pursue shareholders significant concern limited liability tort may lead excessive corporate risk taking harm


corporations third parties local law distinguishes corporations ability issue stock corporations allowed referred ' 'stock corporations'' one type investment corporation stock owners stock referred ' 'stockholders'' ' 'shareholders'' corporations allowed issue stock referred ''non stock corporations'' ie considered owners non stock corporation persons entities obtained membership corporation referred ''member'' corporation corporations chartered regions


distinguished whether allowed profit referred ''for profit'' ''not profit'' corporations respectively overlap stock non stock profit profit profit corporations always non stock well profit corporation almost always stock corporation profit corporations may choose non stock simplify explanation whenever stockholder shareholder used rest article refer stock corporation presumed mean member non profit corporation profit non stock corporation registered corporations legal personality recognized


local authorities shares owned shareholders whose liability generally limited investment shareholders typically actively manage corporation shareholders instead elect appoint board directors control corporation fiduciary capacity circumstances shareholder may also serve director officer corporation countries co determination employ practice workers enterprise right vote representatives board directors company american english word ''corporation'' often used describe large business corporations


new type entity became attractive alternative corporations needing issue stock germany organization referred ''gesellschaft mit beschr nkter haftung'' ''gmbh'' last quarter th century new form non corporate organization became available united states countries known ''limited liability company'' ''llc'' since gmbh llc forms organization technically corporations even though many features discussed article history stora kopparberg mine dated june


word corporation derives ''corpus'' latin word body body people time justinian reigned roman law recognized range corporate entities names ''universitas'' ''corpus'' ''collegium'' following passage ''lex julia'' reign julius caesar consul dictator roman republic bc reaffirmation reign caesar augustus ''princeps senatus'' imperator roman army bc ad ''collegia'' required approval roman senate emperor order authorized


legal bodies ref name de ligt ref included state ''populus romanus'' municipalities private associations sponsors religious cult burial clubs political groups guilds craftsmen traders bodies commonly right property make contracts receive gifts legacies sue sued general perform legal acts representatives private associations granted designated privileges liberties emperor concept corporation revived middle ages recovery annotation justinian 's ''corpus juris civilis'' glossators


successors commentators th th centuries particularly important respect italian jurists bartolus de saxoferrato baldus de ubaldis latter connected corporation metaphor body politic describe state entities carried business subjects legal rights found ancient rome maurya empire ancient india medieval europe churches became incorporated local governments city london corporation point incorporation would survive longer lives particular member


hudson 's bay company created lead colonial ventures european nations th century acting charter sanctioned dutch government dutch east india company defeated portuguese forces established moluccan islands order profit european demand spices investors voc issued paper certificates proof share ownership able trade shares original amsterdam stock exchange shareholders also explicitly granted limited liability company 's royal charterbond issued dutch east india company voc dating


amount florins england government created corporations royal charter act parliament grant monopoly specified territory best known example established east india company london queen elizabeth granted exclusive right trade countries east cape good hope corporations time would act government 's behalf bringing revenue exploits abroad subsequently company became increasingly integrated english later british military colonial policy


corporations essentially dependent royal navy 's ability control trade routes labeled contemporaries historians grandest society merchants universe english east india company would come symbolize dazzlingly rich potential corporation well new methods business could brutal exploitative december queen elizabeth granted company year monopoly trade east indies africa shareholders east india company earning return investment


almost per cent subsequent stock offerings demonstrated lucrative company become first stock offering raised second raised nbsp million similar chartered company south sea company established trade spanish south american colonies met less success south sea company 's monopoly rights supposedly backed treaty utrecht signed settlement following war spanish succession gave great britain ''asiento'' trade region thirty years fact spanish remained


hostile let one ship year enter unaware problems investors britain enticed extravagant promises profit company promoters bought thousands shares south sea company wealthy still done real business assumed public debt british government accelerated inflation share price bubble act possibly motive protecting south sea company competition prohibited establishment companies without royal charter share price rose rapidly people


without royal charter late th century stewart kyd author first treatise corporate law english defined corporation development modern company law due late th century abandonment mercantilist economic theory rise classical liberalism laissez faire economic theory due revolution economics led adam smith economists corporations transitioned government guild affiliated entities public private economic entities free governmental directions smith wrote work ''the wealth nations'' mass corporate activity could


joint names members almost impossibly cumbersome though parliament would sometimes grant private act allow individual represent whole legal proceedings narrow necessarily costly expedient allowed established companies william gladstone became chairman parliamentary committee joint stock companies led joint stock companies act regarded first modern piece company law act created registrar joint stock companies empowered register companies two stage process first provisional stage cost


confer corporate status arose completing second stage another first time history possible ordinary people simple registration procedure incorporate advantage establishing company separate legal person mainly administrative unified entity rights duties investors managers could channeled limited liability however still limited liability company members could still held responsible unlimited losses company next crucial development limited liability act


passed behest vice president board trade robert lowe allowed investors limit liability event business failure amount invested company shareholders still liable directly creditors unpaid portion shares principle shareholders liable corporation introduced joint stock companies act act allowed limited liability companies members shareholders insurance companies excluded act though standard practice


insurance contracts exclude action individual members limited liability insurance companies allowed companies act prompted english periodical ''the economist'' write never perhaps change vehemently generally demanded importance much overrated major error judgment recognised magazine years later claimed economic historian future may inclined assign nameless inventor principle limited liability applied trade corporations place


honour watt stephenson pioneers industrial revolution two features simple registration procedure limited liability subsequently codified landmark joint stock companies act subsequently consolidated number statutes companies act remained force rest century including time decision ''salomon v salomon co ltd'' legislation shortly gave way railway boom numbers companies formed soared later


nineteenth century depression took hold company numbers boomed many began implode fall insolvency much strong academic legislative judicial opinion opposed notion businessmen could escape accountability role failing businesses developments lindley lj leading expert partnerships company law ''salomon v salomon co'' case landmark case confirmed distinct corporate identity company germany introduced gesellschaft mit beschr nkter haftung separate legal personality limited liability even shares


company held one person inspired countries introduce corporations kind last significant development history companies decision house lords ''salomon v salomon co'' house lords confirmed separate legal personality company liabilities company separate distinct owners united states forming corporation usually required act legislation late th century many private firms carnegie 's steel company rockefeller 's standard oil


avoided corporate model reason trust state governments began adopt permissive corporate laws early th century although restrictive design often intention preventing corporations gaining much wealth power ref name corporate law textbook ref new jersey first state adopt enabling corporate law goal attracting business state delaware followed new jersey 's lead enactment enabling corporate statute delaware became leading corporate state enabling provisions


new jersey corporate law repealed ref name corporate law textbook end th century saw emergence holding companies corporate mergers creating larger corporations dispersed shareholders countries began enacting antitrust laws prevent anti competitive practices corporations granted legal rights protections th century saw proliferation laws allowing creation corporations registration across world helped drive economic booms many countries world war another major post world war shift toward development


conglomerates large corporations purchased smaller corporations expand industrial base starting many countries large state owned corporations moved toward privatization selling publicly owned 'nationalised' services enterprises corporations deregulation reducing regulation corporate activity often accompanied privatization part laissez faire policy ownership control corporation least theory owned controlled members joint stock company members known shareholders shares ownership control profits corporation determined portion


shares company thus person owns quarter shares joint stock company owns quarter company entitled quarter profit least quarter profit given shareholders dividends quarter votes capable cast general meetings another kind corporation legal document established corporation contains current rules determine requirements membership corporation requirements depends kind corporation involved


executive non executive directors latter meant supervise former 's management company two tiered committee structure supervisory board managing board common civil law countries countries co determination germany sweden workers elect fixed fraction corporation 's board formation historically corporations created charter granted government today corporations usually registered state province national government regulated laws enacted government registration main prerequisite corporation 's assumption limited liability


law sometimes requires corporation designate principal address well registered agent person company designated receive legal service process may also required designate agent legal representatives corporation generally corporation files articles incorporation government laying general nature corporation amount stock authorized issue names addresses directors articles approved corporation 's directors meet create bylaws govern internal functions corporation meeting


procedures officer positions law jurisdiction corporation operates regulate internal activities well finances corporation operates outside home state often required register governments foreign corporation almost always subject laws host state pertaining employment crimes contracts civil actions like naming corporations generally distinct name historically corporations named members boards directors example president fellows harvard college name


one two governing boards harvard university also exact name harvard legally incorporated ref name governingharvard ref nowadays corporations jurisdictions may distinct name need make reference members boards canada possibility taken logical extreme many smaller canadian corporations names merely numbers based registration number example ontario limited assigned provincial territorial government corporation incorporates countries corporate names include term


abbreviation denotes corporate status entity example incorporated inc united states limited liability members example limited ltd ref name bartlett page ref terms vary jurisdiction language jurisdictions mandatory others california use puts everybody constructive notice dealing entity whose liability limited one collect whatever assets entity still controls one obtains judgment jurisdictions allow use word


'''company''' alone denote corporate status since word company may refer partnership form collective ownership united states used sole proprietorship generally case elsewhere personhood despite individual human beings corporations legal persons many rights responsibilities natural persons example corporation property sue sued corporations exercise human rights real individuals state responsible human rights


violations corporations dissolved either statutory operation order court voluntary action part shareholders insolvency may result form corporate failure creditors force liquidation dissolution corporation court order often results restructuring corporate holdings corporations even convicted criminal offenses fraud manslaughter however corporations considered living entities way humans legal scholars joel bakan observed business corporation created legal person


psychopathic personality required elevate interests others even inflicts major risks grave harms public third parties critics note legal mandate corporation focus exclusively corporate profits self interest often victimizes employees customers public large natural resources hand political theorist david runciman notes corporate personhood forms fundamental part modern history idea state idea corporation legal person help


brown bruce http wwwastonishercom archives corporation corporation introhtml ''the history corporation'' cadman john william ''the corporation new jersey business politics '' conard alfred f ''corporations perspective'' cooke ca ''corporation trust company legal history'' davis john p http socserv mcmasterca econ ugcm davisjohn indexhtml ''corporations'' davis joseph http socserv mcmasterca econ ugcm davisjoe indexhtml ''essays earlier history american corporations'' alan dignam john lowry company law oxford university press dodd edwin merrick ''american business corporations special reference massachusetts'' dubois ab ''the english business company bubble act '' freedman charles ''joint stock enterprise


france privileged company modern corporation'' freund ernst https webarchiveorg web http socserv mcmasterca econ ugcm freund indexhtml mcmasterca ''the legal nature corporation'' hallis frederick ''corporate personality study jurisprudence'' hessen robert ''in defense corporation'' hoover institute hunt bishop ''the development business corporation england '' klein coffee ''business organization finance legal economic principles'' foundation majumdar ramesh chandra http socserv mcmasterca econ ugcm majumdar indexhtml ''corporate life ancient india'' means robert charles ''underdevelopment development law corporations corporation law nineteenth century colombia'' micklethwait john wooldridge adrian ''the company short


history revolutionary idea'' new york modern library owen thomas ''the corporation russian law study tsarist economic policy'' rungta radhe shyam ''the rise business corporation india '' scott wr http socserv mcmasterca econ ugcm scott indexhtml ''constitution finance english scottish irish joint stock companies '' sobel robert ''the age giant corporations microeconomic history american business'' pg mahoney 'contract concession essay history corporate law' ga law review pi blumberg ''the multinational challenge corporation law'' pl davies lcb


gower ''principles modern company law'' th edn sweet maxwell chapters rr formoy ''the historical foundations company law'' sweet maxwell p frentrop ''a history corporate governance '' brussels et al kyd ''a treatise law corporations'' j micklethwait wooldridge ''the company short history revolutionary idea'' modern library w blackstone ''commentaries laws england'' tooze adam democracy discontents ''the new york review books'' vol lxvi june pp nbsp democracy


daniel bennett companies business law corporate law legal entities types business entity


'''neuropsychology''' branch psychology concerned person 's cognition behavior related brain rest nervous system professionals branch psychology often focus injuries illnesses brain affect cognitive behavioral functions ref name gluckmercadomyers p ref experimental clinical field psychology thus aiming understand behavior cognition influenced brain function concerned diagnosis treatment behavioral cognitive effects neurological disorders whereas classical neurology focuses pathology nervous system

Social science
Psychology
Neuropsychology


classical psychology largely divorced neuropsychology seeks discover brain correlates mind study neurological patients thus shares concepts concerns neuropsychiatry behavioral neurology general term ''neuropsychology'' applied lesion studies humans animals also applied efforts record electrical activity individual cells groups cells higher primates including studies human patients ref name posner ref practice neuropsychologists tend work research settings universities laboratories research institutions clinical settings medical hospitals


centuries brain thought useless often discarded burial processes autopsies field medicine developed understanding human anatomy physiology different theories developed body functioned way many times bodily functions approached religious point view abnormalities blamed bad spirits gods brain always considered center functioning body taken hundreds years develop understanding brain affects behaviors ancient egypt


ancient egypt writings medicine date time priest imhotep took scientific approach medicine disease describing brain trauma abnormalities remedies reference future physicians despite egyptians saw heart brain seat soul aristotle senses perception memory dreams action aristotle 's biology impressions stored seat perception linked laws association similarity contrast contiguity ref name warren ref aristotle reinforced focus heart originated egypt believed heart control


switching attention medical community brain theory led scientific discovery organ responsible behaviors years come scientists inspired explore functions body find concrete explanations normal abnormal behaviors scientific discovery led believe natural organically occurring reasons explain various functions body could traced back brain hippocrates introduced concept mind widely seen separate function apart


actual brain organ ren descartes philosopher ren descartes expanded upon idea widely known work mind body problem often descartes 's ideas looked upon overly philosophical lacking sufficient scientific foundation descartes focused much anatomical experimentation brain paying special attention pineal gland argued actual seat soul still deeply rooted spiritual outlook towards scientific world body said mortal soul immortal pineal gland thought


place mind would interact mortal machine like body time descartes convinced mind control behaviors body controlling person also body could influence mind referred dualism idea mind essentially control body body could resist even influence behaviors major turning point way many physiologists would look brain capabilities mind observed much


simply react also rational function organized thoughtful ways much complex thought animal world ideas although disregarded many cast aside years led medical community expand ideas brain begin understand new ways intricate workings brain really complete effects daily life well treatments would beneficial helping people living dysfunctional mind mind body problem spurred ren descartes


continues day many philosophical arguments ideas however controversial remain today fresh well thought perspective descartes presented long lasting effects various disciplines medicine psychology much especially putting emphasis separating mind body order explain observable behaviors thomas willis thomas willis mid th century another major contributor field neuropsychology emerged thomas willis studied oxford university took physiological approach brain behavior


willis coined words 'hemisphere' 'lobe' referring brain one earliest use words 'neurology' 'psychology' rejecting idea humans beings capable rational thought willis looked specialized structures brain ref name theorized higher structures accounted complex functions whereas lower structures responsible functions similar seen animals consisting mostly reactions automatic responses particularly interested people suffered manic disorders hysteria ref name ref research constituted


first times psychiatry neurology came together study individuals depth study brain behavior willis concluded automated responses breathing heartbeats various motor activities carried within lower region brain although much work made obsolete ideas presented brain complex previously imagined led way future pioneers understand build upon theories especially came looking disorders dysfunctions brain ref name franz joseph gall neuroanatomist


physiologist franz joseph gall made major progress understanding brain theorized personality directly related features structures within brain however gall 's major contribution within field neuroscience invention phrenology new discipline looked brain organ mind shape skull could ultimately determine one 's intelligence personality theory like many circulating time many scientists taking account physical features face body head size anatomical structure levels intelligence gall looked


primarily brain much debate validity gall 's claims however often found wrong predictions sent cast ren descartes' skull method phrenology claimed subject must limited capacity reasoning higher cognition controversial false many gall 's claims contributions understanding cortical regions brain localized activity continued advance understanding brain personality behavior work considered crucial laid firm foundation