nations reservations present structure constitution un bah international community agency direction universal house justice haifa consultative status following organizations united nations children 's fund unicef united nations development fund women unifem united nations economic social council ecosoc united nations environment programme unep world health organization bah international community offices united nations new york geneva representations united nations regional commissions offices addis ababa bangkok nairobi rome santiago


vienna recent years office environment office advancement women established part united nations office bah faith also undertaken joint development programs various united nations agencies millennium forum united nations bah invited one non governmental speakers summit persecution bah cemetery yazd desecration iranian government bah continue persecuted majority islamic countries whose leaders recognize bah faith independent religion rather


apostasy islam severe persecutions occurred iran bah executed rights bah restricted greater lesser extents numerous countries including egypt afghanistan indonesia iraq morocco yemen several countries sub saharan africa iran marginalization iranian bah current governments rooted historical efforts muslim clergy persecute religious minority b b started attracting large following clergy hoped stop movement spreading stating followers enemies


movement campaign persecution bah instituted approved coordinated anti bah campaign incite public passion bah started included spreading anti bah propaganda national radio stations official newspapers campaign initiated mulla muhammad taghi falsafi bah ' center tehran demolished orders tehran military governor general teymur bakhtiar late shah 's regime consistently lost legitimacy due criticism pro western anti shah movement gained ground support revolutionary propaganda spread alleged


shah 's advisors bah bah portrayed economic threats supporters israel west societal hostility bah increased since islamic revolution iranian bah regularly homes ransacked banned attending university holding government jobs several hundred received prison sentences religious beliefs recently participating study circles bah cemeteries desecrated property seized occasionally demolished including house rz buzurg bah u 'll h 's father house b b shiraz


one three sites bah perform pilgrimage destroyed twice may iranian authorities expelled young woman student university isfahan bah march two bah students expelled universities cities zanjan gilan religion according us panel attacks bah iran increased mahmoud ahmadinejad 's presidency united nations commission human rights revealed october confidential letter command headquarters armed forces iran ordering members identify bah monitor


activities due actions special rapporteur united nations commission human rights stated march also expresses concern information gained result monitoring used basis increased persecution discrimination members bah faith violation international standards special rapporteur concerned latest development indicates situation regard religious minorities iran fact deteriorating may members informal body known friends oversaw


needs bah community iran arrested taken evin prison friends court case postponed several times finally underway january observers allowed court even defence lawyers two years minimal access defendants difficulty entering courtroom chairman us commission international religious freedom said seems government already predetermined outcome case violating international human rights law sessions held february


april june august became known court sentence years imprisonment seven prisoners later reduced ten years sentence transferred gohardasht prison march sentences reinstated original years january iranian authorities detained ten members baha'i minority reportedly including leva khanjani granddaughter jamaloddin khanjani one seven baha'i leaders jailed since february arrested son niki khanjani iranian government claims


bah faith religion instead political organization hence refuses recognize minority religion however government never produced convincing evidence supporting characterization bah community iranian government also accuses bah faith associated zionism accusations bah basis historical fact accusations used iranian government use bah scapegoats fact iranian leader naser al din shah qajar banished bah u 'll h iran ottoman empire bah u 'll h


later exiled ottoman sultan behest iranian shah territories away iran finally acre syria century later incorporated state israel iranian government made impossible baha legally register iranian state https wwwdwcom en iran id card rule highlights plight bahai national identity card applications iran longer include religions option effectively making baha'i faith unrecognized state egypt egypt 's religious tribunal recognized baha'i faith new independent religion totally separate islam due


nature 'laws principles beliefs' baha'is time tribunal condemned unequivocal emphatic language followers baha'u 'llah believers heresy offensive injurious islam wholly incompatible accepted doctrines practice orthodox adherents bah institutions community activities illegal egyptian law since bah community properties including bah centers libraries cemeteries confiscated government fatwas issued charging bah apostasy egyptian identification card controversy began


government modernized electronic processing identity documents introduced de facto requirement documents must list person 's religion muslim christian jewish three religions officially recognized government consequently bah unable obtain government identification documents national identification cards birth certificates death certificates marriage divorce certificates passports necessary exercise rights country unless lied religion conflicts bah religious principle without documents could employed educated treated hospitals travel outside country vote among


hardships following protracted legal process culminating court ruling favorable bah interior minister egypt released decree april amending law allow egyptians muslim christian jewish obtain identification documents list dash place one three recognized religions first identification cards issued two bah new decree august see also bah faith fiction criticism bah faith list bah list former bah bah faith country terraces bah hanging


gardens haifa notes citations references books pages doi ch isbn isbn url https archiveorg details sourcebookofworl beve encyclopedias '''britannica''' '''iranica''' journals news media reading external links https wwwbahaiorg bahaiorg website worldwide bah community https newsbahaiorg bah world news service official news source https mediabahaiorg bah media bank photographs download https wwwbahaiorg library bah reference library online source authoritative bah writings english farsi arabic


https opbpbslearningmediaorg resource awr socstworldglobbahai bahai baha'i video pbs learning media abrahamic religions iranian religions monotheistic religions religion iran religious organizations based israel


'''economic policy''' governments covers systems setting levels taxation government budgets money supply interest rates well labour market national ownership many areas government interventions economy factors economic policy divided either fiscal policy deals government actions regarding taxation spending monetary policy deals central banking actions regarding money supply interest rates policies often influenced international institutions like international monetary fund world bank well political beliefs

Applied science
Public administration
Economic policy


consequent policies parties types economic policy almost every aspect government important economic component examples kinds economic policies exist include macroeconomic stabilization policy attempts keep money supply growing rate result excessive inflation attempts smooth business cycle trade policy refers tariffs trade agreements international institutions govern policies designed create economic growth policies related development economics policies dealing redistribution income property wealth well regulatory policy


anti trust policy industrial policy technology based economic development policy macroeconomic stabilization policy stabilization policy attempts stimulate economy recession constrain money supply prevent excessive inflation fiscal policy often tied keynesian economics uses government spending taxes guide economy fiscal stance size deficit surplus tax policy taxes used collect government income government spending area government monetary policy controls value currency lowering supply money control inflation raising stimulate economic growth concerned


amount money circulation consequently interest rates inflation interest rates set government incomes policies price controls aim imposing non monetary controls inflation reserve requirements affect money multiplier tools goals policy generally directed achieve particular objectives like targets inflation unemployment economic growth sometimes objectives like military spending nationalization important referred '''policy goals''' outcomes economic policy aims achieve achieve goals governments use '''policy tools''' control


stability increasing unemployment increasing interest rates demand side vs supply side tools dilemma part resolved using microeconomic supply side policy help adjust markets instance unemployment could potentially reduced altering laws relating trade unions unemployment insurance well macroeconomic demand side factors like interest rates discretionary policy vs policy rules much th century governments adopted discretionary policies like demand management designed correct business cycle typically used fiscal monetary policy adjust inflation output unemployment however following stagflation policymakers


began attracted policy rules discretionary policy supported allows policymakers respond quickly events however discretionary policy subject dynamic inconsistency government may say intends raise interest rates indefinitely bring inflation control relax stance later makes policy non credible ultimately ineffective rule based policy credible transparent easier anticipate examples rule based policies fixed exchange rates interest rate rules stability growth pact golden rule policy rules


imposed external bodies instance exchange rate mechanism currency compromise strict discretionary strict rule based policy grant discretionary power independent body instance federal reserve bank european central bank bank england reserve bank australia set interest rates without government interference adopt rules another type non discretionary policy set policies imposed international body occur example result intervention international monetary fund economic policy history first economic problem


gain resources needed able perform functions early government military roads projects like building pyramids early governments generally relied tax kind forced labor economic resources however development money came first policy choice government could raise money taxing citizens however could also debase coinage increase money supply early civilizations also made decisions whether permit tax trade early civilizations ptolemaic egypt adopted


'''closed currency policy''' whereby foreign merchants exchange coin local money effectively levied high tariff foreign trade early modern age policy choices developed considerable debate mercantilism restrictive trade practices like navigation acts trade policy became associated national wealth foreign colonial policy throughout th century monetary standards became important issue gold silver supply different proportions metal adopted influenced wealth different groups society first fiscal policy


accumulation private capital renaissance states developed methods financing deficits without debasing coin development capital markets meant government could borrow money finance war expansion causing less economic hardship beginning modern fiscal policy markets made easy private entities raise bonds sell stock fund private initiatives business cycles business cycle became predominant issue th century became clear industrial output employment profit behaved cyclical manner one first


proposed policy solutions problem came work keynes proposed fiscal policy could used actively ward depressions recessions slumps austrian school economics argues central banks create business cycle dominance monetarismry neoclassical thought advised limiting role government economy second half twentieth century interventionist view dominated economic policy debate response financial crisis evidence based policy recent trend originating medicine justify economic


policy decisions best available evidence previous approaches focused macroeconomic policymaking aimed sustaining promoting economic development counteracting recessions ebp oriented towards types decisions concerned anti cyclical development primarily growth promoting policies gather evidence decisions economists conduct randomized field experiments work banerjee duflo kremer nobel prize laureates exemplifies gold type evidence however emphasis put experimental evidence movement evidence based policy evidence based medicine results narrowly construed notion intervention encompasses


policy decisions concerned policymaking aimed modifying causes influence effects contrast idealized view evidence based policy movement economic policymaking broader term includes also institutional reforms actions require causal claims neutral interventions policy decisions grounded respectively mechanistic evidence correlational econometric studies see also stabilization policy budget process constitutional economics references notes


'''''economic policy''''' quarterly peer reviewed academic journal published oxford academic behalf centre economic policy research center economic studies university munich paris school economics journal established covers international economic policy topics macroeconomics microeconomics labour market trade exchange rate taxation economic growth government spending migration journal impact factor ranking category economics references references external links wiley blackwell academic journals english language journals publications established quarterly


specialized trash collection truck providing regular municipal trash collection neighborhood stockholm sweden waste pickers burning e waste agbogbloshie site near accra ghana processes large volumes international electronic waste pickers burn plastics materials collect metals recycling however process exposes pickers local communities toxic fumes containers consumer waste collection gda sk university technology recycling waste energy plant waste exported '''waste management''' '''waste disposal''' includes processes actions required manage waste

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Environmental management
Waste management


inception final disposal ref name un ref includes collection transport treatment disposal waste together monitoring regulation waste management process waste related laws technologies economic mechanisms waste solid liquid gaseous type different methods disposal management waste management deals types waste including industrial biological household municipal organic biomedical radioactive wastes cases waste pose threat human health ref name jwm ref health issues associated throughout entire process waste management health issues also arise indirectly directly directly


handling solid waste indirectly consumption water soil food waste produced human activity example extraction processing raw materials ref name un ref waste management intended reduce adverse effects waste human health environment planetary resources aesthetics waste management practices uniform among countries developed developing nations regions urban rural areas residential industrial sectors take different approaches proper management waste important building sustainable liveable cities remains challenge many developing countries


cities report found effective waste management relatively expensive usually comprising municipal budgets operating essential municipal service requires integrated systems efficient sustainable socially supported ref name wb ref large portion waste management practices deal municipal solid waste msw bulk waste created household industrial commercial activity ref name hmsw ref measures waste management include measures integrated techno economic mechanisms circular economy effective disposal facilities export import control optimal sustainable design products produced first systematic review


scientific evidence around global waste management impact human health life authors concluded fourth municipal solid terrestrial waste collected additional fourth mismanaged collection often burned open uncontrolled fires close one billion tons per year combined also found broad priority areas lack high quality research base partly due absence substantial research funding motivated scientists often require ref name waste crisis ref electronic waste ewaste includes discarded computer monitors motherboards mobile phones chargers


compact discs cds headphones television sets air conditioners refrigerators according global e waste monitor india generates million tonnes mte e waste annually ranks fifth among e waste producing countries us pr china japan germany principles waste management diagram waste hierarchy waste hierarchy waste hierarchy refers rs reduce reuse recycle classifies waste management strategies according desirability terms waste minimisation waste hierarchy cornerstone waste minimization strategies aim waste hierarchy extract


maximum practical benefits products generate minimum amount end waste see resource recovery waste hierarchy represented pyramid basic premise policies promote measures prevent generation waste next step preferred action seek alternative uses waste generated ie use next recycling includes composting following step material recovery waste energy final action disposal landfills incineration without energy recovery last step final resort waste


prevented diverted recovered ref name un ref waste hierarchy represents progression product material sequential stages pyramid waste management hierarchy represents latter parts life cycle product life cycle product life cycle begins design proceeds manufacture distribution primary use follows waste hierarchy 's stages reduce reuse recycle stage life cycle offers opportunities policy intervention rethink need product redesign minimize waste potential extend


use ref name un product life cycle analysis way optimize use world 's limited resources avoiding unnecessary generation waste resource efficiency resource efficiency reflects understanding global economic growth development sustained current production consumption patterns globally humanity extracts resources produce goods planet replenish ref name un resource efficiency reduction environmental impact production consumption goods final raw material extraction last use disposal polluter pays principle polluter pays principle mandates polluting party


civilizations profligate waste output others particular maya central america fixed monthly ritual people village would gather together burn rubbish large dumps modern era sir edwin chadwick 's report ''the sanitary condition labouring population'' influential securing passage first legislation aimed waste clearance disposal following onset industrialisation sustained urban growth large population centres england buildup waste cities caused rapid deterioration levels


london metropolitan board works first citywide authority centralized sanitation regulation rapidly expanding city public health act made compulsory every household deposit weekly waste moveable receptacles disposal first concept dust bin ref name nwra ref manlove alliott co ltd destructor furnace use incinerators waste disposal became popular late th century dramatic increase waste disposal led creation first incineration plants called destructors first incinerator built


nottingham manlove alliott co ltd design alfred fryer ref name lewis however met opposition account large amounts ash produced wafted neighbouring areas similar municipal systems waste disposal sprung turn th century large cities europe north america new york city became first us city public sector garbage management ref name nwra early garbage removal trucks simply open bodied dump trucks pulled team horses became motorized early part


th century first closed body trucks eliminate odours dumping lever mechanism introduced britain soon equipped 'hopper mechanisms' scooper loaded floor level hoisted mechanically deposit waste truck garwood load packer first truck incorporate hydraulic compactor waste handling transport moulded plastic wheeled waste bin berkshire england waste collection methods vary widely among different countries regions domestic waste collection services often provided local government authorities


private companies industrial commercial waste areas especially less developed countries formal waste collection systems waste handling practices curbside collection common method disposal european countries canada new zealand united states many parts developed world waste collected regular intervals specialised trucks often associated curb side waste segregation rural areas waste may need taken transfer station waste collected transported appropriate disposal facility areas vacuum collection used


waste transported home commercial premises vacuum along small bore tubes systems use europe north america jurisdictions unsegregated waste collected curb side waste transfer stations sorted recyclables unusable waste systems capable sorting large volumes solid waste salvaging recyclables turning rest bio gas soil conditioner san francisco local government established ''mandatory recycling composting ordinance'' support goal zero waste requiring everyone city


water pollution importantly waste segregation based type waste appropriate treatment disposal also makes easier apply different processes waste like composting recycling incineration important practice waste management segregation community one way practice waste management ensure awareness process waste segregation explained community segregated waste also often cheaper dispose require much manual sorting mixed waste number important


reasons waste segregation important legal obligations cost savings protection human health environment institutions make easy possible staff correctly segregate waste include labelling making sure enough accessible bins clearly indicating segregation important labeling especially important dealing nuclear waste due much harm human health excess products nuclear cycle cause financial models developed countries domestic waste disposal funded national local tax


donor organization much good way develop city 's waste management infrastructure attracting utilizing grants solely reliant donor considers important therefore may challenge city government dictate funds distributed among various aspect waste management areas like taipei city government charges households industries volume rubbish produce waste collected city council put government issued rubbish bags policy successfully reduced


amount waste city produces increased recycling rate world bank finances advises solid waste management projects using diverse suite products services including traditional loans results based financing development policy financing technical advisory world bank financed waste management projects usually address entire lifecycle waste right point generation collection transportation finally treatment disposal ref name wb disposal methods landfill landfill compaction vehicle action spittelau incineration plant vienna incineration tarastej rvi incineration plant tampere finland incineration disposal method solid organic wastes


subjected combustion convert residue gaseous products method useful disposal municipal solid waste solid residue waste water treatment process reduces volumes solid waste percent incineration high temperature waste treatment systems sometimes described thermal treatment incinerators convert waste materials heat gas steam ash incineration carried small scale individuals large scale industry used dispose solid liquid gaseous waste recognized


practical method disposing certain hazardous waste materials biological medical waste incineration controversial method waste disposal due issues emission gaseous pollutants including substantial quantities carbon dioxide incineration common countries japan land scarce facilities generally require much area landfills waste energy wte energy waste efw broad terms facilities burn waste furnace boiler generate heat steam electricity combustion incinerator always perfect


concerns pollutants gaseous emissions incinerator stacks particular concern focused persistent organic compounds dioxins furans pahs may created may serious environmental consequences heavy metals mercury lead volatilised combustion process recycling steel crushed baled recycling recycling resource recovery practice refers collection reuse waste materials empty beverage containers process involves breaking reusing materials would otherwise gotten rid trash


numerous benefits recycling many new technologies making even materials recyclable possible clean earth recycling benefits environment also positively affects economy materials items made made new products materials recycling may collected separately general waste using dedicated bins collection vehicles procedure called kerbside collection communities owner waste required separate materials different bins eg paper plastics metals prior collection communities


recyclable materials placed single bin collection sorting handled later central facility latter method known single stream recycling recycling point lappaj rvi finland common consumer products recycled include aluminium beverage cans copper wire steel food aerosol cans old steel furnishings equipment rubber tyres polyethylene pet bottles glass bottles jars paperboard cartons newspapers magazines light paper corrugated fiberboard boxes pvc ldpe pp ps see resin identification code also recyclable items usually composed


single type material making relatively easy recycle new products recycling complex products computers electronic equipment difficult due additional dismantling separation required type material accepted recycling varies city country city country different recycling programs place handle various types recyclable materials however certain variation acceptance reflected resale value material reprocessed types recycling include waste paper cardboard plastic recycling


metal recycling electronic devices wood recycling glass recycling cloth textile many july chinese government announced import ban categories recyclables solid waste including plastic textiles mixed paper placing tremendous impact developed countries globally exported directly indirectly china use biological reprocessing active compost heap recoverable materials organic nature plant material food scraps paper products recovered composting digestion processes decompose organic matter resulting organic material recycled mulch


compost agricultural landscaping purposes addition waste gas process methane captured used generating electricity heat chp cogeneration maximising efficiencies different types composting digestion methods technologies vary complexity simple home compost heaps large scale industrial digestion mixed domestic waste different methods biological decomposition classified aerobic anaerobic methods methods use hybrids two methods anaerobic digestion organic fraction solid waste environmentally effective landfill incineration


intention biological processing waste management control accelerate natural process decomposition organic matter see resource recovery energy recovery energy recovery waste conversion non recyclable waste materials usable heat electricity fuel variety processes including combustion gasification pyrolyzation anaerobic digestion landfill gas recovery ref name usepa ref process often called waste energy energy recovery waste part non hazardous waste management hierarchy using energy recovery convert non recyclable waste materials electricity heat generates renewable energy source reduce carbon emissions offsetting


need energy fossil sources well reduce methane generation landfills ref name usepa globally waste energy accounts waste management energy content waste products harnessed directly using direct combustion fuel indirectly processing another type fuel thermal treatment ranges using waste fuel source cooking heating use gas fuel see fuel boilers generate steam electricity turbine pyrolysis gasification two related forms thermal treatment waste materials


heated high temperatures limited oxygen availability process usually occurs sealed vessel high pressure pyrolysis solid waste converts material solid liquid gas products liquid gas burnt produce energy refined chemical products chemical refinery solid residue char refined products activated carbon gasification advanced plasma arc gasification used convert organic materials directly synthetic gas syngas composed carbon monoxide hydrogen gas burnt produce electricity steam


alternative pyrolysis high temperature pressure supercritical water decomposition hydrothermal monophasic oxidation pyrolysis pyrolysis often used convert many types domestic industrial residues recovered fuel different types waste input plant waste food waste tyres placed pyrolysis process potentially yield alternative fossil fuels ref name tsep ref pyrolysis process thermo chemical decomposition organic materials heat absence stoichiometric quantities oxygen decomposition produces various hydrocarbon gases pyrolysis molecules object vibrate high frequencies extent molecules start breaking


sub sub ref name wmj ref resource recovery resource recovery systematic diversion waste intended disposal specific next use processing recyclables extract recover materials resources convert energy ref name montana ref activities performed resource recovery facility ref name montana resource recovery environmentally important also cost effective ref name traverse ref decreases amount waste disposal saves space landfills conserves natural resources ref name traverse resource recovery opposed waste management uses lca life cycle analysis attempts offer alternatives waste management


arena surfaces application rational consistent waste management practices yield range benefits including economic improving economic efficiency means resource use treatment disposal creating markets recycles lead efficient practices production consumption products materials resulting valuable materials recovered reuse potential new jobs new business opportunities social reducing adverse impacts health proper waste management practises resulting consequences appealing civic communities better social advantages lead new


sources employment potentially lifting communities poverty especially developing poorer countries cities environmental reducing eliminating adverse impacts environment reducing reusing recycling minimizing resource extraction result improved air water quality help reduction greenhouse gas emissions inter generational equity following effective waste management practises provide subsequent generations robust economy fairer inclusive society cleaner environment ref name un waste valorization liquid waste management liquid waste important category waste management


known waste reduction waste minimization reducing quantity hazardous wastes achieved thorough application innovative alternative procedures methods avoidance include reuse second hand products repairing broken items instead buying new ones designing products refillable reusable cotton instead plastic shopping bags encouraging consumers avoid using disposable products disposable cutlery removing food liquid remains cans packaging designing products use less material achieve purpose example lightweighting beverage cans international waste trade challenges developing countries areas


developing economies often experience exhausted waste collection services inadequately managed uncontrolled dumpsites problems worsening ref name un problems governance complicate situation waste management countries cities ongoing challenge due weak institutions chronic resourcing rapid urbanization ref name un challenges along lack understanding different factors contribute hierarchy waste management affect treatment waste developing countries waste management activities usually carried poor survival estimated population asia latin america africa


dependent waste livelihood family organized individual manual scavengers often involved waste management practices little supportive network facilities increased risk health effects additionally practice prevents children education participation level citizens waste management low residents urban areas actively involved process waste management span class ezoic adpicker ad id ezoic pub ad placeholder span span name bioenergyconsult com box class ezoic ad box adtester container adtester container span id cpjy zqbjowcfzuw wodvrgolg class ezoic ad ezoic adl ezfound id div gpt ad bioenergyconsult com box span span technologies traditionally waste management industry late adopter new technologies rfid radio frequency identification


tags gps integrated software packages enable better quality data collected without use estimation manual data entry technology used widely many organizations industrialized countries radio frequency identification tagging system automatic identification recyclable components municipal solid waste stream waste management region china municipal solid waste generation shows spatiotemporal variation spatial distribution point sources eastern coastal regions quite different guangdong shanghai tianjin produced msw mt respectively temporal distribution fujian province


showed increase msw generation liaoning province showed increase whereas shanghai special zone decline msw composition characteristics complicated major components kitchen waste paper rubber plastics different eastern coastal cities fluctuation range respectively treatment rate consumption waste sum landfill incineration composting technologies indicating landfill still dominates msw treatment morocco morocco seen benefits implementing million sanitary landfill system


might appear costly investment country 's government predicts saved another million damages consequences failing dispose waste properly san francisco san francisco started make changes waste management policies expectation zero waste year ref name epagov zero waste case study san francisco june retrieved https wwwepagov transforming waste tool zero waste case study san francisco ref council made changes making recycling composting mandatory practice businesses individuals banning styrofoam plastic bags putting charges paper bags increasing garbage collection


rates ref name epagov businesses fiscally rewarded correct disposal recycling composting taxed incorrect disposal besides policies waste bins manufactured various sizes compost bin largest recycling bin second garbage bin smallest encourages individuals sort waste thoughtfully respect sizes systems working able divert waste landfill highest rate major us city despite changes debbie raphael director san francisco department


environment states zero waste still achievable products designed differently able recycled compostable ref name epagov turkey united kingdom waste management policy united kingdom responsibility department environment food rural affairs defra england waste management plan england presents compilation waste management policies zambia zambia asaza community based organization whose principal purpose complement efforts government co operating partners uplift standard living disadvantaged communities project 's main objective


minimize problem indiscriminate littering leads land degradation pollution environment asaza also time helping alleviate problems unemployment poverty income generation payment participants women unskilled youths scientific journals related scientific journals area include ''environmental resource economics'' ''environmental monitoring assessment'' ''journal environmental assessment policy management'' ''journal environmental economics management'' see also biomedical waste co processing curb mining extended producer responsibility landfarming list waste disposal incidents list waste management acronyms list waste types milorganite national


cleanup day refill scheme solid waste policy india solid waste policy united states waste management turkey waste minimisation zabbaleen zero waste references external links management type


'''agroecology''' gr k l j applied science studies ecological processes applied agricultural production systems bringing ecological principles bear suggest new management approaches agroecosystems term often used imprecisely term used science movement agricultural practice ref name wezel wezel bellon dor francis c vallod david c https wwwsoclaco wp content uploads wezel agroecologypdf agroecology science movement practice review agronomy sustainable development ref agroecologists study variety agroecosystems field agroecology associated one particular method farming whether


organic regenerative integrated conventional intensive extensive although use name specifically alternative agriculture definition agroecology defined oecd study relation agricultural crops environment dalgaard ''et al'' refer agroecology study interactions plants animals humans environment within agricultural systems ref name dalgaard dalgaard tommy nicholas hutchings john porter https wwwacademiaedu agroecology scaling interdisciplinarity agriculture ecosystems environment ref francis ''et al'' also use definition way thought restricted growing food ref name francis ref agroecology


limited one scale range individual gene entire population single field given farm global systems ref name dalgaard wojtkowski differentiates ecology natural ecosystems agroecology inasmuch natural ecosystems role economics whereas agroecology focusing organisms within planned managed environments human activities hence economics primary governing forces ultimately control field ref name wojtkowski wojtkowski paul agroecological perspectives agronomy forestry agroforestry science publishers inc enfield


new hampshire p ref wojtkowski discusses application agroecology agriculture forestry agroforestry book ref name wojtkowski varieties buttel identifies four varieties agroecology conference paper main varieties calls ''ecosystem agroecology'' claims derives ecosystem ecology howard odum focuses less rural sociology ''agronomic agroecology'' identifies oriented towards developing knowledge practices agriculture sustainable third long standing variety buttel calls ''ecological political economy'' defines critiquing politics economy agriculture weighted radical politics


rooted measurable units technology name soft agroecology define trying measure agroecology terms soft capital culture experience ref name dalgaard term agroecology may used people science movement practice ref name wezel ref name wezel wezel soldat v https wpufpeledubr consagro files wezel historical analysis scientific agroecologypdf quantitative qualitative historical analysis scientific discipline agroecology international journal agricultural sustainability doi ijas ref using name movement became common especially americas ref name wezel miguel altieri buttel groups political agroecologists ref name buttel published


prolifically sense ref name wezel applied agroecology sustainable agriculture alternative agriculture traditional knowledge history overview history agroecology depends whether referring body thought method practice many indigenous cultures around world historically used currently use practices would consider utilizing knowledge agroecology examples include maori nahuatl many indigenous peoples mexica people inhabited tenochtitlan pre colonization americas used process called chinampas many ways mirrors use composting sustainable agriculture


agriculture ann arbor sleeping bear press ref wezel ''et al'' say first mention term agroecology publication term basil bensin ref name wezel dalgaard ''et al'' claim german zoologist friederichs first use name book zoology agriculture forestry ref name dalgaard followed american crop physiologist hansen using word application ecology within agriculture ref name dalgaard post wwii academic thought tischler 's book ''agrar kologie'' may first titled 'agroecology' analyzed different components plants


animals soils climate interactions within agroecosystem well impact human agricultural management components gliessman describes post wwii ecologists gave focus experiments natural environment agronomists dedicated attention cultivated systems agriculture agronomists saw value ecology ecologists began use agricultural systems study plots studies agroecology grew rapidly ref name gliess books articles using concept agroecosystems word agroecology started appear ref name wezel according dalgaard ''et al''


''sustainable agriculture integrated farming systems'' considered economics systems ecological impacts ethics values agriculture ref name francis social movements several social movements adopted agroecology part larger organizing strategy groups like la via campesina used agroecology method achieving food sovereignty ref name territory ref agroecology also utilized farmers resist global agricultural development patterns associated green revolution ref name territory region latin america africa gar wrote two papers fao early using


agroecological approach called agrobiodiversity empower farmers cope impacts aids rural areas africa first encounter agroecology trainers took place zimbabwe issued shashe declaration europe european commission supports use sustainable practices precision agriculture organic farming agroecology agroforestry stricter animal welfare standards green deal farm fork strategy debate within academic research areas focus topics related agriculture ecology agronomy veterinarian science environmental science others


much debate regarding model agriculture agroecology supported policy agricultural departments different countries support agroecology varying degrees un perhaps biggest proponent see also references reading buttel fh gertler agricultural structure agricultural policy environmental quality agriculture environment carrol c r jh vandermeer pm rosset agroecology mcgraw hill publishing company new york paoletti mg br stinner gg lorenzoni ed agricultural ecology environment new york elsevier science publisher bv robertson philip scott swinton reconciling agricultural productivity


environmental integrity grand challenge agriculture frontiers ecology environment '''advances agroecology book series''' soil organic matter sustainable agriculture advances agroecology fred magdoff ray r weil hardcover may agroforestry sustainable agricultural systems advances agroecology louise e buck james p lassoie erick cm fernandes hardcover oct agroecosystem sustainability developing practical strategies advances agroecology stephen r gliessman hardcover sep interactions agroecosystems rural communities advances agroecology cornelia flora hardcover feb


landscape ecology agroecosystems management advances agroecology lech ryszkowski hardcover dec integrated assessment health sustainability agroecosystems advances agroecology thomas gitau margaret w gitau david waltner toewsclive edwards june hardback crc press multi scale integrated analysis agroecosystems advances agroecology mario giampietro hardback crc press soil tillage agroecosystems advances agroecology edited adel el titi hardback crc press tropical agroecosystems advances agroecology edited john h vandermeer hardback crc press structure function


agroecosystem design management advances agroecology edited masae shiyomi hiroshi koizumi hardback crc press biodiversity agroecosystems advances agroecology edited wanda w collins calvin qualset hardback crc press sustainable agroecosystem management integrating ecology economics society advances agroecology edited patrick j bohlen gar house hardback crc press external links topic https agroecoorg agroecology https regenerationorg nexus agroecology agroecology project regeneration https webarchiveorg web http wwwiaeanorg international agroecology action network http wwwagroecologianet spain http wwwfaoorg en enpdf elements agroecology organisations https wwwagroecology europeorg agroecology europe european association agroecology courses https agroecologywiscedu university


wisconsin madison http wwwagropolisorg agronomy seminar agroecologyphp montpellier france https agroecologynresillinoisedu university illinois urbana champaign http wwwagroecosfr european master agroecology https wwwnmbuno en studies study options master master science agroecology norwegian university life sciences https agroecologyucscedu indexhtml uc santa cruz center agroecology sustainable food systems sustainable agriculture agronomy agriculture agricultural soil science environmental social science organic farming habitat management equipment methods sustainable food system environmental conservation


conservation indicator includes following indicators marine protected areas terrestrial biome protection global national species protection global national '''conservation biology''' study conservation nature earth 's biodiversity aim protecting species habitats ecosystems excessive rates extinction erosion biotic interactions ref name sahneybenton recoveryfromprofoundextinction ref ref name consbiol ref interdisciplinary subject drawing natural social sciences practice natural resource management ref name soule ref ref name hunter ref ref name groom ref ref name dyke ref conservation ethic based findings conservation biology origins efforts made

Applied science
Public administration
Conservation biology


preserve natural characteristics hopetoun falls australia without affecting visitors' access term conservation biology conception new field originated convening first international conference research conservation biology held university california san diego la jolla california led american biologists bruce wilcox michael e soul group leading university zoo researchers conservationists including kurt benirschke sir otto frankel thomas lovejoy jared diamond meeting prompted concern tropical deforestation disappearing species eroding genetic diversity


within species conference proceedings resulted ref name consbiol sought initiate bridging gap theory ecology evolutionary genetics one hand conservation policy practice conservation biology concept biological diversity biodiversity emerged together helping crystallize modern era conservation science policy inherent multidisciplinary basis conservation biology led new subdisciplines including conservation social science conservation behavior conservation physiology ref name cooke et al ref stimulated development conservation genetics otto frankel originated first often


considered subdiscipline well description rapid decline established biological systems around world means conservation biology often referred discipline deadline conservation biology tied closely ecology researching population ecology dispersal migration demographics effective population size inbreeding depression minimum population viability rare endangered species ref name sahneybentonferry linksdiversityvertebrates ref conservation biology concerned phenomena affect maintenance loss restoration biodiversity science sustaining evolutionary processes engender genetic population species ecosystem diversity ref name hunter ref name groom ref name dyke ref name sahneybentonferry linksdiversityvertebrates concern


stems estimates suggesting species planet disappear within next years ref name koh ref contributed poverty starvation reset course evolution planet ref name jackson ref conservation biologists research educate trends process biodiversity loss species extinctions negative effect capabilities sustain well human society conservation biologists work field office government universities non profit organizations industry topics research diverse interdisciplinary network


professional alliances biological well social sciences dedicated cause profession advocate global response current biodiversity crisis based morals ethics scientific reason organizations citizens responding biodiversity crisis conservation action plans direct research monitoring education programs engage concerns local global scales ref name soule ref name hunter ref name groom ref name dyke history natural resource conservation conscious efforts conserve protect ''global'' biodiversity recent phenomenon ref name dyke natural resource conservation however history extends prior


age conservation resource ethics grew necessity direct relations nature regulation communal restraint became necessary prevent selfish motives taking could locally sustained therefore compromising long term supply rest community ref name dyke social dilemma respect natural resource management often called tragedy commons principle conservation biologists trace communal resource based ethics throughout cultures solution communal resource conflict ref name dyke example alaskan tlingit peoples haida pacific northwest resource boundaries rules


restrictions among clans respect fishing sockeye salmon rules guided clan elders knew lifelong details river stream managed ref name dyke ref name mason mason rachel judith ramos traditional ecological knowledge tlingit people concerning sockeye salmon fishery dry bay area cooperative agreement department interior national park service yakutat tlingit tribe final report fis project yakutat alaska ref numerous examples history cultures followed rules rituals organized practice respect communal natural resource management mauryan


emperor ashoka around bc issued edicts restricting slaughter animals certain kinds birds well opened veterinary clinics conservation ethics also found early religious philosophical writings examples tao shinto hindu islamic buddhist traditions ref name dyke ref name primack ref greek philosophy plato lamented pasture land degradation left say skeleton body wasted disease rich soft soil carried bare framework district left bible moses god commanded


let land rest cultivation every seventh year ref name dyke th century however much european culture considered pagan view admire nature wilderness denigrated agricultural development praised ref name evans ref however early ad wildlife sanctuary founded farne islands st cuthbert response religious beliefs ref name dyke early naturalists white gyrfalcons drawn john james audubon conservation research needed understanding ecology behaviour asiatic wild dog central china natural history major preoccupation th


history book species evolve due environmental influences ref name erasmus darwin also naturalist also suggested species evolved erasmus darwin noted species vestigial structures anatomical structures apparent function species currently would useful species' ancestors ref name thinking early th century naturalists helped change mindset thinking early th century naturalists early th century biogeography ignited efforts alexander von humboldt charles lyell charles darwin th century fascination


natural history engendered fervor first collect rare specimens goal became extinct collectors ref name evans ref name farber although work many th th century naturalists inspire nature enthusiasts conservation organizations writings modern standards showed insensitivity towards conservation would kill hundreds specimens collections ref name farber conservation movement modern roots conservation biology found late th century enlightenment period particularly england scotland ref name evans ref name cloyd ref number


thinkers among notably lord monboddo ref name cloyd described importance preserving nature much early emphasis origins christian theology scientific conservation principles first practically applied forests british india conservation ethic began evolve included three core principles human activity damaged environment civic duty maintain environment future generations scientific empirically based methods applied ensure duty carried sir james ranald martin prominent promoting ideology publishing many medico topographical reports


demonstrated scale damage wrought large scale deforestation desiccation lobbying extensively institutionalization forest conservation activities british india establishment forest departments madras board revenue started local conservation efforts headed alexander gibson professional botanist systematically adopted forest conservation program based scientific principles first case state conservation management forests world governor general lord dalhousie introduced first permanent large scale forest conservation program world model soon spread colonies well


united states yellowstone national park opened world 's first national park term ''conservation'' came widespread use late th century referred management mainly economic reasons natural resources timber fish game topsoil pastureland minerals addition referred preservation forests forestry wildlife wildlife refuge parkland wilderness watersheds period also saw passage first conservation legislation establishment first nature conservation societies sea birds preservation act passed britain


first nature protection law world extensive lobbying association protection seabirds respected ornithologist alfred newton newton also instrumental passage first game laws protected animals breeding season prevent stock brought close extinction one first conservation societies royal society protection birds founded manchester protest group campaigning use great crested grebe kittiwake skins feathers fur clothing originally known


plumage league group gained popularity eventually amalgamated fur feather league croydon formed rspb ref name history ref national trust formed manifesto promote permanent preservation benefit nation lands preserve far practicable natural aspect may month ''titanic'' sank banker expert naturalist charles rothschild held meeting natural history museum london discuss idea new organisation save best places wildlife british isles meeting


led formation society promotion nature reserves later became wildlife trusts united states forest reserve act gave president power set aside forest reserves land public domain john muir founded sierra club new york zoological society set series national forests preserves established theodore roosevelt national parks act included 'use without impairment' clause sought john muir eventually resulted


century new york zoological society instrumental developing concepts establishing preserves particular species conducting necessary conservation studies determine suitability locations appropriate conservation priorities work henry fairfield osborn jr carl e akeley archie carr son archie carr iii notable era akeley example led expeditions virunga mountains observed mountain gorilla wild became convinced species area conservation priorities instrumental persuading albert belgium act


defense mountain gorilla establish albert national park since renamed virunga national park democratic republic congo led primarily work united states endangered species act along species risk act sara canada biodiversity action plans developed australia sweden united kingdom hundreds species specific protection plans ensued notably united nations acted conserve sites outstanding cultural natural importance common heritage mankind programme adopted general conference unesco


total sites listed cultural natural first country pursue aggressive biological conservation national legislation united states passed back back legislation endangered species act national environmental policy act together injected major funding protection measures large scale habitat protection threatened species research conservation developments however taken hold throughout world india example passed wildlife protection act significant development emergence urban conservation movement local organization established


birmingham uk development followed rapid succession cities across uk overseas although perceived grassroots movement early development driven academic research urban wildlife initially perceived radical movement 's view conservation inextricably linked human activity become mainstream conservation thought considerable research effort directed urban conservation biology society conservation biology originated ref name dyke countries world become committed principles conservation biological diversity convention biological diversity


subsequently many countries began programmes biodiversity action plans identify conserve threatened species within borders well protect associated habitats late saw increasing professionalism sector maturing organisations institute ecology environmental management society environment since concept landscape scale conservation risen prominence less emphasis given single species even single habitat focused actions instead ecosystem approach advocated mainstream conservationists although concerns expressed working protect high profile species


estimates ''the theory island biogeography'' possibly significant contribution toward scientific understanding process measure rate species extinction current background extinction rate estimated one species every years actual extinction rates estimated orders magnitudes higher measure ongoing species loss made complex fact earth 's species described evaluated estimates vary greatly many species actually exist estimated range ref name wilson ref many received species


binomial estimated range million ref name wilson less species described beyond simply noting existence ref name wilson figures iucn reports vertebrates invertebrates plants evaluated designated endangered threatened ref name iucn http wwwiucnredlistorg info tables table iucn red list statistics ref better knowledge constructed plant list actual numbers species systematic conservation planning systematic conservation planning effective way seek identify efficient effective types reserve design capture sustain highest


priority biodiversity values work communities support local ecosystems margules pressey identify six interlinked stages systematic planning approach compile data biodiversity planning region identify conservation goals planning region review existing conservation areas select additional conservation areas implement conservation actions maintain required values conservation areas conservation biologists regularly prepare detailed conservation plans grant proposals effectively coordinate plan action identify best management practices eg systematic strategies generally employ services geographic information systems


assist decision making process sloss debate often considered planning conservation physiology mechanistic approach conservation conservation physiology defined steven j cooke colleagues integrative scientific discipline applying physiological concepts tools knowledge characterizing biological diversity ecological implications understanding predicting organisms populations ecosystems respond environmental change stressors solving conservation problems across broad range taxa ie including microbes plants animals physiology considered broadest possible terms include functional mechanistic responses scales


conservation includes development refinement strategies rebuild populations restore ecosystems inform conservation policy generate decision support tools manage natural resources ref name cooke et al conservation physiology particularly relevant practitioners potential generate cause effect relationships reveal factors contribute population declines conservation biology profession society conservation biology global community conservation professionals dedicated advancing science practice conserving biodiversity conservation biology discipline reaches beyond biology subjects philosophy law economics humanities


arts anthropology education ref name hunter ref name groom within biology conservation genetics evolution immense fields unto disciplines prime importance practice profession conservation biology conservationists introduce bias support policies using qualitative description habitat ' 'degradation'' ''healthy'' ecosystems conservation biologists advocate reasoned sensible management natural resources disclosed combination science reason logic values conservation management plans ref name hunter sort advocacy similar medical profession advocating healthy lifestyle options beneficial


human well yet remain scientific approach movement conservation biology suggesting new form leadership needed mobilize conservation biology effective discipline able communicate full scope problem society large movement proposes adaptive leadership approach parallels adaptive management approach concept based new philosophy leadership theory steering away historical notions power authority dominance adaptive conservation leadership reflective equitable applies member society mobilize


others toward meaningful change using communication techniques inspiring purposeful collegial adaptive conservation leadership mentoring programs implemented conservation biologists organizations aldo leopold leadership program approaches conservation may classified either situ conservation protecting endangered species natural habitat ex situ conservation occurs outside natural habitat ref name ref situ conservation involves protecting restoring habitat ex situ conservation hand involves protection outside organism 's natural habitat reservations gene banks circumstances viable populations


conservationists must advocate biodiversity scientifically ethical manner promoting simultaneous advocacy competing values conservationist may inspired ' 'resource conservation ethic'' ref name dyke seeks identify measures deliver greatest good greatest number people longest time ref name hunter contrast conservation biologists argue nature intrinsic value independent anthropocentric usefulness utilitarianism ref name dyke intrinsic value advocates gene species valued utility ecosystems sustain aldo leopold


classical thinker writer conservation ethics whose philosophy ethics writings still valued revisited modern conservation biologists ref name dyke conservation priorities pie chart image showing relative biomass representation rain forest summary children 's perceptions drawings artwork left scientific estimate actual biomass middle measure biodiversity right notice biomass social insects middle far outweighs number species right international union conservation nature iucn organized global assortment scientists research


stations across planet monitor changing state nature effort tackle extinction crisis iucn provides annual updates status species conservation red list iucn red list serves international conservation tool identify species need conservation attention providing global index status biodiversity ref name vi ref dramatic rates species loss however conservation scientists note sixth mass extinction biodiversity crisis requiring far action priority focus rare endemic endangered


species concerns biodiversity loss covers broader conservation mandate looks ecological processes migration holistic examination biodiversity levels beyond species including genetic population ecosystem diversity ref name molnar ref extensive systematic rapid rates biodiversity loss threatens sustained well humanity limiting supply ecosystem services otherwise regenerated complex evolving holistic network genetic ecosystem diversity conservation status species employed extensively conservation management ref name vi scientists highlight common species primary source


exploitation habitat alteration humanity moreover common species often undervalued despite role primary source ecosystem services ref name gaston ref ref name kearns ref community conservation science stress importance sustaining biodiversity ref name creocare committee recently extinct organisms http creoamnhorg carehtml care species gone extinct url accessed july ref debate prioritize genes species ecosystems components biodiversity eg bowen predominant approach date focus efforts endangered species conserving ''biodiversity hotspots'' scientists eg ref name luck ref


conservation organizations nature conservancy argue cost effective logical socially relevant invest ''biodiversity coldspots'' ref name conserving biodiversity coldspots ref costs discovering naming mapping distribution every species argue ill advised conservation venture reason better understand significance ecological roles species ref name molnar biodiversity hotspots coldspots way recognizing spatial concentration genes species ecosystems uniformly distributed earth 's surface example species vascular plants


species four vertebrate groups confined hotspots comprising land surface earth arguing favor setting priorities coldspots point measures consider beyond biodiversity point emphasizing hotspots downplays importance social ecological connections vast areas earth 's ecosystems biomass biodiversity reigns supreme estimated earth 's surface encompassing worlds vertebrates lacks endemic species qualify biodiversity hotspot moreover measures show maximizing


protections biodiversity capture ecosystem services better targeting randomly chosen regions population level biodiversity mostly coldspots disappearing rate ten times species level ref name luck ref name wood level importance addressing biomass versus endemism concern conservation biology highlighted literature measuring level threat global ecosystem carbon stocks necessarily reside areas endemism ref name running ref name kurz hotspot priority approach would invest heavily places steppes serengeti arctic


taiga areas contribute great abundance population species level biodiversity ref name wood ref ecosystem services including cultural value planetary nutrient cycling ref name conserving biodiversity coldspots div style float left border px solid ccc font size text align center padding px summary iucn red list categories div favor hotspot approach point species irreplaceable components global ecosystem concentrated places threatened therefore receive maximal strategic protections iucn red list categories appear wikipedia species articles example hotspot conservation approach action species


rare endemic listed least concern wikipedia articles tend ranked low importance scale hotspot approach priority set target species level concerns population level biomass ref name wood species richness genetic biodiversity contributes engenders ecosystem stability ecosystem processes evolutionary adaptability biomass sides agree however conserving biodiversity necessary reduce extinction rate identify inherent value nature debate hinges prioritize limited conservation resources cost effective way economic


amphibians report trends much way stock market tracked ref name llp method measuring global economic benefit nature endorsed g leaders european commission ref name ec nature sustains many ecosystem services benefit humanity ref name mea millennium ecosystem assessment http wwwmillenniumassessmentorg documents document aspxpdf ecosystems human well biodiversity synthesis world resources institute washington dc ref many earth 's ecosystem services public goods without market therefore price value ref name ec ' 'stock market'' registers financial crisis traders wall street


business trading stocks much planet 's living natural capital stored ecosystems natural stock market investment portfolios sea horses amphibians insects creatures provide sustainable supply ecosystem services valuable society ref name mea ecological footprint society exceeded bio regenerative capacity limits planet 's ecosystems nbsp percent percentage vertebrate populations registered decline ref name llp ref inherent natural economy plays essential role sustaining humanity including regulation global


atmospheric chemistry pollinating crops pest control cycling soil nutrients purifying water supply supplying medicines health benefits unquantifiable quality life improvements relationship correlation markets natural capital social income inequity biodiversity loss means greater rates biodiversity loss places inequity wealth greatest although direct market comparison natural capital likely insufficient terms human value one measure ecosystem services suggests contribution amounts trillions dollars yearly example one segment north american forests


assigned annual value billion dollars another example honey bee pollination estimated provide billion dollars value yearly value ecosystem services one new zealand island imputed great gdp region planetary wealth lost incredible rate demands human society exceeding bio regenerative capacity earth biodiversity ecosystems resilient danger losing humans cannot recreate many ecosystem functions technological innovation strategic species concepts


showed hunting alone would driven steller 's sea cow extinct indicator species ''indicator species'' narrow set ecological requirements therefore become useful targets observing health ecosystem animals amphibians semi permeable skin linkages wetlands acute sensitivity environmental harm thus may serve ''miner 's canary'' indicator species monitored effort capture environmental degradation pollution link proximate human activities ref name hunter monitoring indicator species measure determine


significant environmental impact serve advise modify practice different forest silviculture treatments management scenarios measure degree harm pesticide may impart health ecosystem government regulators consultants ngos regularly monitor indicator species however limitations coupled many practical considerations must followed approach effective generally recommended multiple indicators genes populations species communities landscape monitored effective conservation measurement prevents harm complex often unpredictable response ecosystem


conservation measures ref name hunter paradoxically however conservation bias towards flagship species sometimes threatens species chief concern context trends conservation biologists study trends process paleontological past ecological present gain understanding context related species extinction ref name sahneybenton recoveryfromprofoundextinction generally accepted five major global mass extinctions register earth 's history include ordovician mya devonian mya permian triassic mya triassic jurassic mya cretaceous paleogene extinction event mya extinction spasms within last years human influence


child 's perception compared b scientific estimate importance size animal represents importance child 's mental image places importance big cats birds butterflies reptiles versus actual dominance social insects ants conservation biologists dealing published evidence corners planet indicating humanity may causing sixth fastest planetary extinction event ref name wake suggested unprecedented number species becoming extinct known holocene extinction event global extinction rate


fossil record ref name mccallum ref however current amphibian extinction rate may range times background extinction rate amphibians ref name mccallum global extinction trend occurs every major vertebrate group monitored example mammals birds red listed international union conservation nature iucn meaning threatened extinction even though extinction natural decline species happening incredible rate evolution simply match therefore leading greatest continual mass extinction


death corals ref name aussoe ref decline extinction risk coral reef biodiversity risen dramatically past ten years loss coral reefs predicted go extinct next century threatens balance global biodiversity huge economic impacts endangers food security hundreds millions people conservation biology plays important role international agreements covering world 's oceans ref name aussoe issues pertaining biodiversity width align left oceans threatened acidification due increase co sub sub levels


serious threat societies relying heavily upon oceanic natural resources concern majority marine species able evolve acclimate response changes ocean chemistry prospects averting mass extinction seems unlikely large average approximately kg open ocean tuna billfishes sharks ocean ref name jackson reportedly gone given scientific review current trends ocean predicted surviving multi cellular organisms microbes left dominate marine ecosystems ref name jackson


groups vertebrates serious concerns also raised taxonomic groups receive degree social attention attract funds vertebrates include fungal including lichen forming species ref name fungal conservation ref invertebrate particularly insect ref name koh plant communities vast majority biodiversity represented conservation fungi conservation insects particular pivotal importance conservation biology mycorrhizal symbionts decomposers recyclers fungi essential sustainability forests ref name fungal conservation value insects biosphere enormous outnumber


living groups measure species richness greatest bulk biomass land found plants sustained insect relations great ecological value insects countered society often reacts negatively toward aesthetically 'unpleasant' creatures one area concern insect world caught public eye mysterious case missing honey bees ''apis mellifera'' honey bees provide indispensable ecological services acts pollination supporting huge variety agriculture crops use honey wax become vastly used throughout


british columbia canada infested forested land since ref name running ref action plan prepared government british columbia address problem ref conservation biology parasites large proportion parasite species threatened extinction eradicated pests humans domestic animals however harmless threats include decline fragmentation host populations extinction host species threats biodiversity today many threats biodiversity exist acronym used express


top threats present day hippo stands habitat loss invasive species pollution human population overharvesting ref name geog geographic perspectives sustainability human environment systems website wwwe educationpsuedu access date ref primary threats biodiversity habitat destruction deforestation agricultural expansion urban development overexploitation wildlife trade ref name ehrlich habitat fragmentation also poses challenges global network protected areas covers earth 's surface significant consequence fragmentation lack linked protected areas reduction animal migration global scale considering billions tonnes biomass


responsible nutrient cycling across earth reduction migration serious matter conservation biology ref width align left however human activities need necessarily cause irreparable harm biosphere conservation management planning biodiversity levels genes ecosystems examples humans mutually coexist sustainable way nature even current threats biodiversity ways improve current condition start anew many threats biodiversity including disease climate change reaching inside borders protected areas leaving


'not protected' eg yellowstone national park climate change example often cited serious threat regard feedback loop species extinction release carbon dioxide atmosphere ref name running ref name kurz ecosystems store cycle large amounts carbon regulates global conditions present day major climate shifts temperature changes making survival species difficult ref name effects global warming add catastrophic threat toward mass extinction global biological diversity ref name conservationists claimed


species saved decide efforts used protect concept known conservation triage ref name extinction threat estimated range percent species ref name ref percent species next years ref name koh current extinction rate times rapid today last several billion years ref name see also applied ecology bird observatory conservation reliant species ecological extinction gene pool genetic erosion genetic pollution situ conservation indigenous peoples environmental


''conservation biology'' peer reviewed journal society conservation biology ''conservation letters'' ''diversity distributions'' ''ecology society'' training manuals external links http wwwconsbioorg conservation biology institute cbi http wwwunep wcmcorg united nations environment programme world conservation monitoring centre unep wcmc http cbcamnhorg center biodiversity conservation american museum natural history https webarchiveorg web http etextlibvirginiaedu cgi local dhi dhicgiid dv dictionary history ideas http wwwconservationevidencecom conservationevidencecom free access conservation studies habitat biology terminology philosophy biology


publishing company ref horticulture divided several categories focus cultivation processing different types plants food items specific purposes order conserve science horticulture multiple organizations worldwide educate encourage promote advancement horticulture notable horticulturists include luca ghini luther burbank definition types flower seedlings market breda netherlands horticulture involves plant propagation cultivation improve plant growth yields quality nutritional value resistance insects diseases environmental stresses also includes plant conservation landscape restoration soil management landscape

Applied science
Agriculture
Horticulture


garden design construction maintenance arboriculture word ''horticulture'' modeled agriculture derives latin words ''hortus'' ''cultura'' mean garden cultivation respectively contrast agriculture horticulture include intensive crop farming large scale crop production animal husbandry additionally horticulture focuses use small plots wide variety mixed crops agriculture focuses one large primary crop time types horticulture several major areas focus within science horticulture ref name preece biology include olericulture production vegetables


pomology also called ''fruticulture'' production fruits nuts viticulture production grapes largely intended winemaking floriculture production flowering ornamental plants turf management production maintenance turf grass sports leisure amenity use arboriculture cultivation care individual trees shrubs vines perennial woody plants primarily landscape amenity purposes landscape horticulture selection production care plants used landscape architecture postharvest physiology management harvested horticultural crops retard spoilage stored transported history history horticulture overlaps


history agriculture history botany origins horticulture lie transition human communities nomadic lifestyle hunter gatherers sedentary semi sedentary horticultural communities pre columbian amazon rainforest natives used biochar enhance soil productivity smoldering plant waste european settlers called soil terra preta de indio forest areas horticulture often carried swiddens slash burn areas pre contact north america semi sedentary horticultural communities eastern woodlands grew maize squash sunflower contrasted markedly nomadic hunter gatherer communities plains


people mesoamerican cultures focused cultivating crops small scale milpa maize field around dwellings specialized plots visited occasionally migrations one area next ref name hagen vw central america maya horticulture involved augmentation forest useful trees papaya avocado cacao ceiba sapodilla cornfields multiple crops beans squash pumpkins chili peppers grown cultures crops tended mainly exclusively women horticultural organizations various organizations worldwide


focus promoting encouraging research education branches horticultural science organizations include international society horticultural science american society horticultural science united kingdom two main horticulture societies ancient society york florists oldest horticultural society world founded organization continues host four horticultural shows annually york uk additionally royal horticultural society established charity united kingdom leads encouragement improvement science art practice horticulture


branches organization shares knowledge horticulture community learning programs world class gardens shows https wwwhorticultureorguk chartered institute horticulture cioh professional body represents horticulturists great britain ireland also international branch members outside islands australian society horticultural science established professional society promote enhance australian horticultural science industry finally new zealand horticulture institute another known horticultural organization india horticultural society india indian academy horticultural sciences


oldest society established lyallpur punjab pakistan later shifted delhi another notable organisation operation since society promotion horticulture based bengaluru societies publish scholarly journals viz indian journal horticulture journal horticultural sciences advancement horticultural sciences national junior horticultural association njha established first organization world dedicated solely youth horticulture njha programs designed help young people obtain basic understanding horticulture develop


landscaping permaculture plant nutrition plug horticulture tropical horticulture turf management vertical farming references reading cr adams ''principles horticulture'' butterworth heinemann th edition aug external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwhorticultureorguk institute horticulture http wwwishsorg ishs international society horticultural science http wwwrhsorguk royal horticultural society https webarchiveorg web http wwwbluk collections business hortinduhtml british library information horticulture industry https webarchiveorg web http wwwhortpurdueedu newcrop history defaulthtml history horticulture http wwwfaoorg hortivar hortivar fao horticulture cultivars performance database http wwwglobalhortorg global horticulture initiative globalhort https webarchiveorg web http wwwhincomau horticulture information resource library http passelunledu plant soil sciences elibrary agronomy agriculture type


calhan colorado children using parachute pe lesson '''physical education''' often abbreviated '''phys ed''' '''pe''' subject taught schools around world usually taught primary secondary education encourages psychomotor learning using play movement exploration setting promote health physical fitness activities pe include football netball hockey rounders cricket four square racing numerous children 's games physical education also teaches nutrition healthy habits individuality needs physical education programs vary world taught correctly pe class produce positive

Human physical performance and recreation


effects students' health behavior academic performance pedagogy portuguese children participating school race main goals teaching modern physical education expose children teens wide variety exercise healthy activities pe accessible nearly children one opportunities guarantee beneficial healthy activity children teach skills maintain lifetime fitness well health encourage self reporting monitoring exercise individualize duration intensity type activity focus feedback work rather


result provide active role models critical physical educators foster strengthen developing motor skills provide children teens basic skill set builds movement repertoire allows students engage various forms games sports physical activities throughout lifetime ref name ncbi ref goals achieved variety ways national state local guidelines often dictate standards must taught regards physical education standards determine content covered qualifications educators must meet textbooks materials


must used various standards include teaching sports education use sports exercise fitness education relating overall health fitness movement education deals movement non sport context ref name ncbi approaches curriculums based pioneers pe namely francois delsarte liselott diem rudolf von laban focused using child 's ability use body self expression combination approaches featured use body spatial awareness effort relationships gave birth modern teaching


physical education taught correctly positive manner children teens receive storm health benefits include reduced metabolic disease risk cardiological fitness better mental health research also shown positive correlation brain development exercising physical education also help improve academic achievement researchers found profound gain english arts standardized test scores among students hours physical education year compared hours physical education year technology use physical education many


physical education classes utilize technology assist pupils effective exercise one affordable popular tools simple video recorder students record upon playback see mistakes making activities like throwing swinging ref name proquest url https wwwlearntechliborg p ref studies show students find effective someone try explain wrong trying correct ref name proquest educators may also use technology pedometers heart rate monitors make step heart rate goals students technologies


used physical education setting include video projectors gps systems gaming systems associated games kinect wii wii fit also used projectors used show students proper form play certain games gps systems used get students active outdoor setting active exergames used teachers show students good way stay fit classroom setting location according world health organization suggested young children participating


minutes exercise per day least times per week order maintain healthy body asia phillipines philippines pe mandatory years school unless school gives option student leaving certificate vocational programme instead fifth sixth year schools integrated martial arts training physical education curriculum benteng singapore biennial compulsory fitness exam napfa conducted every school assess pupils' physical fitness singapore includes series fitness tests students


graded system gold silver bronze fail napfa pre enlistees serves indicator additional two months country 's compulsory national service training attain bronze fail australia australia physical education first made part curriculum public schools early policy outlined ministerial statement victorian legislative assembly minister educational services norman lacy september many schools australia moving use praxis model physical


education shane pill flinders university defines praxis model method teaching physical education promotes activities strengthen links understanding thinking feeling behavior positively affecting aspects increase quality life students rather focusing traditional aspects physical education teaching perform certain sport model focuses broader understanding means educated physical activity large goal initiative create environment makes active difference pupils'


reality students making proactive changes behavior increase overall health model introduced initiatives healthy active australia schools haas active let 's go europe countries include martial arts training school part physical education class filipino children practicing karate ireland ireland one expected semesters worth minute pe classes also includes showering changing times average classes composed minutes activity poland poland pupils expected


least three hours pe week primary secondary education universities must also organise least hours physical education classes undergraduate courses sweden sweden time school students spend pe lessons per week varies municipalities generally years minutes pe week years minutes week years minutes upper secondary school national programs obligatory course containing points pe corresponds hours pe


course one point per hour schools regulate hours like three years school students attend schools students take part course first year offer follow course also contains points hours united kingdom england pupils years expected two hours exercise per week pupils years expected one hour exercise per week wales pupils expected two hours pe week north america


canada british columbia government mandated grade one curriculum students must participate physical activity daily five times week educator also responsible planning daily physical activity dpa thirty minutes mild moderate physical activity day including curriculum physical education classes curriculum also requires students grade one knowledgeable healthy living example must able describe benefits regular exercise identify healthy choices activities describe importance choosing healthy food ontario canada


association found nearly states require physical education elementary high school half states permit students substitute activities required physical education credit otherwise fail mandate specific amount instructional time according report six states illinois hawaii massachusetts mississippi new york vermont require physical education every grade level majority states require specific amount instructional time half allow exemptions substitution loopholes lead reduced effectiveness physical education


programs zero hour school physical education class first implemented naperville central high school state illinois program known learning readiness pe lrpe program based research indicating students physically fit academically alert experience growth brain cells enhancement brain development nchs pairs pe class incorporates cardiovascular exercise core strength training cross lateral movements well literacy math strategies enhance learning improve achievement see also recreation exercise lack physical education sports day worldwide day play references


references external links https wwwarticlesbazarcom social aspects physical educationhtml sociological aspects physical education education sports science education subject


meshid othercodes '''music therapy''' allied health profession clinical evidence based use music interventions accomplish individualized goals within therapeutic relationship credentialed professional completed approved music therapy program ref name music therapy amta music therapy broad field music therapists use music based experiences address client needs one domains human functioning cognitive academic emotional psychological behavioral communication social physiological sensory motor pain neurological physical systems spiritual aesthetics ref name ref music

Applied science
Medicine and health
Music therapy


anxiety stimulation brain improved learning music therapists use techniques help patients many areas ranging stress relief surgeries neuropathologies alzheimer 's disease one study found children listened music iv inserted arms showed less distress felt less pain children listen music iv inserted studies patients diagnosed mental health disorders anxiety depression schizophrenia shown visible improvement mental health music therapy national


institute health care excellence nice claimed music therapy effective method helping individuals experiencing mental health issues done offer need type help types music therapy two fundamental types music therapy receptive music therapy active music therapy also known expressive music therapy active music therapy engages clients patients act making music whereas receptive music therapy guides patients clients listening responding live recorded music either lead verbal discussions depending


client needs therapist 's orientation receptive receptive music therapy involves listening recorded live music ref name sys rev older adults ref responding music via dancing movement music lyric discussion improve mood decrease stress decrease pain enhance relaxation decrease anxiety help coping skills also evidence chemistry one 's body may change eg lowered cortisol levels active active music therapy patients engage form music making eg vocalizing rapping chanting singing playing instruments improvising song writing composing


certain procedural sequences techniques ref name bruscia ref literature terms model orientation approach might encountered may slightly different meanings regardless music therapists use psychology models models specific music therapy theories models based include beliefs human needs causes distress humans grow heal models developed specifically music therapy include analytical music therapy ref name bruscia ref name ref benenzon ref name knight bonny method guided imagery music gim ref name bruscia ref name community music therapy nordoff robbins music therapy creative music


used one one group settings involves relaxation techniques identification sharing personal feeling states improvisation discover self foster growth choice music carefully selected client based musical preferences goals session piece usually classical must reflect age attention abilities child length genre full explanation exercises must offered level understanding ref name voicesno use guided imagery autistic children found decrease stereotypical


behaviors hyperactivity increase attention ability follow instructions increase self initiated communication verbal non verbal music psychotherapy music psychotherapy branch music therapy focused mental health requires advanced training years supervised experience ref name ref name influence music teachers' work children music therapy nordoff robbins paul nordoff juilliard school graduate professor music pianist composer upon seeing disabled children respond positively music gave academic career investigate possibility


institutes health 's first grant given nature year study music therapy project psychotic children seven day care unit involved research publication training treatment several publications including ''therapy music handicapped children'' ''creative music therapy'' ''music therapy special education'' well instrumental song books children released time nordoff robbins 's success became known globally mental health community invited share findings offer training international tour lasted several years funds granted support


founding nordoff robbins music therapy centre great britain one year graduate program students implemented early eighties center opened australia various programs institutes music therapy founded germany countries united states nordoff robbins center music therapy established new york university today '''nordoff robbins''' music therapy ''theoretical model approach'' ref name temple university models music psychotherapy pdf ref nordoff robbins approach based belief everyone capable finding meaning benefiting


musical experience practiced hundreds therapists internationally approach focuses treatment creation music therapist client together therapist uses various techniques even low functioning individuals actively participate orff gertrude orff developed orff music therapy kinderzentrum nchen clinical setting social pediatrics orff schulwerk schoolwork approach music education developed german composer carl orff influence method used children developmental problems delays disabilities ref name orff ref theodor hellbr gge developed area social


pediatrics second world war germany understood medicine alone could meet complex needs developmentally disabled children hellbr gge consulted psychologists occupational therapists mental healthcare professionals whose knowledge skills could aid diagnostics treatment children gertrude orff asked develop form therapy based orff schulwerk approach support emotional development patients elements found music therapy education approaches include understanding holistic music presentation involving word sound movement use music play improvisation


providing creative stimulus child investigate explore orff instrumentation including keyboard instruments percussion instruments means participation interaction therapeutic setting multisensory aspects music used therapist meet particular needs child feeling hearing sound ref name orff corresponding attitudes humanistic psychology developmental potential child acknowledgement strengths well handicaps importance therapist child relationship central factors orff music therapy strong emphasis


social integration involvement parents therapeutic process found social pediatrics also influence theoretical foundations knowledge developmental psychology puts perspective developmental disabilities influence child social familial environments basis interaction method known ' 'responsive interaction'' therapist meets child level responds according initiatives combining humanistic developmental psychology philosophies involving parents type interaction participate directly observe therapist 's techniques equips parents ideas


interact appropriately child thus fostering positive parent child relationship ref name orff use children music therapy may used adolescent populations treat disorders usually diagnosed adolescence mood anxiety disorders eating disorders inappropriate behaviors including suicide attempts withdrawal family social isolation peers aggression running away substance abuse ref name yinger ref ref name keen ref goals treating adolescents music therapy especially high risk often include increased recognition awareness emotions moods improved decision making skills opportunities creative self expression decreased anxiety increased self confidence improved self esteem


risks abnormal breathing patterns decreased body fat muscle tissue well feeding issues coordination sucking breathing often fully developed making feeding challenge improved developmental activity behavioral status premature infants discharged nicu directly related stimulation programs interventions benefited hospitalization music therapy music typically conducted music therapist neonatal intensive care unit nicu five main techniques designed benefit premature infants '''live recorded music''' live recorded music


effective promoting respiratory regularity oxygen saturation levels well decreasing signs neonatal distress since premature infants sensitive immature sensory modalities music often performed gentle controlled environment either form audio recordings live vocalization although live singing proven greater effect live music also reduces physiological responses parents studies shown combining live music harp music kangaroo care maternal anxiety reduced allows parents especially mothers spend important time bonding


tactile vestibular visual stimulation helps aid premature infant development combination music mms helps premature infants sleep conserve vital energy required gain weight rapidly studies shown girls respond positively boys multimodal stimulation voice popular choice parents looking bond premature infants effective instruments include remo ocean disk gato box used stimulate sounds womb remo ocean disk round musical instrument mimics fluid sounds womb