driving force landslide occur though case another contributing factor affected original slope stability landslide required ''earthquake trigger'' released loma prieta '''pounding adjacent building''' photograph collapsed five story tower st joseph 's seminary los altos california resulted one fatality loma prieta earthquake tower pounded independently vibrating adjacent building behind possibility pounding depends buildings' lateral displacements accurately estimated accounted northridge northridge earthquake kaiser permanente concrete frame office building


whittier narrows earthquake magnitude earthquake pounded garvey west apartment building monterey park california shifted superstructure nbsp inches east foundation earthquake damage pichilemu superstructure mounted base isolation system shifting basement prevented insufficient shear reinforcement led main rebars buckle northridge reinforced concrete column burst northridge earthquake due '''insufficient shear reinforcement mode''' allows main reinforcement buckle outwards deck unseated hinge failed shear result la cienega venice underpass section

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Earthquake engineering


freeway collapsed support columns upper deck failure loma prieta earthquake loma prieta earthquake side view reinforced concrete '' 'support columns failure''' triggered '''the upper deck collapse onto lower deck''' two level cypress viaduct interstate highway oakland ca failure retaining wall due ground movement loma prieta '''retaining wall failure''' loma prieta earthquake santa cruz mountains area prominent northwest trending extensional cracks nbsp cm nbsp wide concrete spillway austrian dam north abutment loma prieta ground shaking triggered soil liquefaction subsurface layer sand producing differential


lateral vertical movement overlying carapace unliquified sand silt '''mode ground failure''' termed '''lateral spreading''' principal cause liquefaction related earthquake damage beams pier columns diagonal cracking sichuan earthquake severely damaged building agriculture development bank china sichuan earthquake '''beams pier columns sheared''' large diagonal cracks masonry veneer due plane loads abrupt settlement right end building attributed landfill may hazardous even without earthquake tsunami strikes ao nang


'''twofold tsunami impact''' sea waves hydraulic pressure inundation thus indian ocean earthquake december epicenter west coast sumatra indonesia triggered series devastating tsunamis killing people eleven countries '''inundating surrounding coastal communities huge waves''' meters nbsp feet high earthquake resistant construction '''earthquake construction''' means implementation '' 'seismic design''' enable building non building structures live anticipated earthquake exposure expectations compliance applicable building codesconstruction pearl river tower x bracing resist lateral


forces earthquakes winds design construction intimately related achieve good workmanship detailing members connections simple possible construction general earthquake construction process consists building retrofitting assembling infrastructure given construction materials available ref name bridgedesign ref destabilizing action earthquake constructions may ' 'direct'' seismic motion ground ''indirect'' earthquake induced landslides soil liquefaction waves tsunami structure might appearances stability yet offer nothing danger earthquake occurs


crucial fact safety earthquake resistant construction techniques important quality control using correct materials ''earthquake contractor'' registered state province country project location depending local regulations bonded insured minimize possible losses construction process organized keeping mind earthquake may strike time prior end construction construction project requires qualified team professionals understand basic features seismic performance different structures well construction management adobe structures partially collapsed adobe building westmorland california


utah exhaustively renovated repaired emphasis preserving historical accuracy appearance done concert seismic upgrade placed weak sandstone structure base isolation foundation better protect earthquake damage timber frame structures anne hvide 's house denmark timber framing dates back thousands years used many parts world various periods ancient japan europe medieval england localities timber good supply building stone skills work use


timber framing buildings provides complete skeletal framing offers structural benefits timber frame properly engineered lends better ' 'seismic survivability'' ref name timber ref light frame structures two story wooden frame residential building structure light frame structures usually gain seismic resistance rigid plywood shear walls wood structural panel diaphragms special provisions seismic load resisting systems engineered wood structures requires consideration diaphragm ratios horizontal vertical diaphragm shears connector fastener values addition collectors drag struts distribute shear along diaphragm length required reinforced masonry structures


long beach earthquake revealed masonry prone earthquake damage led california state code making masonry reinforcement mandatory across california reinforced concrete structures stressed ribbon pedestrian bridge rogue river grants pass oregon prestressed concrete cable stayed bridge yangtze river reinforced concrete concrete steel reinforcement bars rebars fibers incorporated strengthen material would otherwise brittle used produce beams columns floors bridges prestressed concrete kind reinforced concrete used overcoming concrete 's natural weakness tension


applied beams floors bridges longer span practical ordinary reinforced concrete prestressing tendons generally high tensile steel cable rods used provide clamping load produces compressive stress offsets tensile stress concrete compression member would otherwise experience due bending load prevent catastrophic collapse response earth shaking interest life safety traditional reinforced concrete frame ductile joints depending upon methods used imposed seismic forces buildings may immediately usable require extensive


repair may demolished prestressed structures prestressed structure one whose overall integrity stability security depend primarily ''prestressing'' ''prestressing'' means intentional creation permanent stresses structure purpose improving performance various service conditions ref name prestressedconcretedesign ref naturally pre compressed exterior wall colosseum rome following basic types prestressing pre compression mostly weight structure pretensioning high strength embedded tendons post tensioning high strength bonded unbonded tendons today concept prestressed structure widely engaged design buildings underground


hazardously damaged northridge earthquake ref name reitherman ref federal emergency management agency fema initiated development repair techniques new design approaches minimize damage steel moment frame buildings future earthquakes structural steel seismic design based load resistance factor design lrfd approach important assess ability structure develop maintain bearing resistance inelastic range measure ability ductility may observed ''material itself'' ' 'structural element'' ''whole structure'' consequence northridge


earthquake experience american institute steel construction introduced aisc pre qualified connections special intermediate steel moment frames aisc seismic design provisions require steel moment resisting frames employ either connections contained aisc use connections subjected pre qualifying cyclic testing prediction earthquake losses '''earthquake loss estimation''' usually defined ''damage ratio'' '''dr''' ratio earthquake damage repair cost total value building ref name seismicrisk ref ''probable maximum loss'' '''pml''' common term used


earthquake loss estimation lacks precise definition astm e 'standard guide estimation building damageability earthquakes' produced order standardize nomenclature seismic loss estimation well establish guidelines review process qualifications reviewer earthquake loss estimations also referred ''seismic risk assessments'' risk assessment process generally involves determining probability various ground motions coupled vulnerability damage building ground motions results defined percent building replacement


value see also anchor plate earthquake engineering research institute earthquake resistant structures emergency management facade geotechnical engineering international institute earthquake engineering seismology list international earthquake acceleration coefficients national center research earthquake engineering probabilistic risk assessment seismic intensity scales seismic magnitude scales seismic response landfill seismic retrofit seismic site response soil structure interaction spectral acceleration references external links https wwweeriorg earthquake engineering research institute http wwwcureeorg consortium universities research earthquake engineering curee https wwwdesignsafe ciorg nheri natural hazards engineering research infrastructure https wwwlocgov rr scitech tracer bullets earthquakestbhtml intro earthquakes earthquake engineering library


congress http wwwinriskubcca infrastructure risk research project university british columbia vancouver canada civil engineering structural engineering seismic vibration control engineering disciplines seismology


'''serbian literature''' refers literature written serbian serbia lands serbs reside history serbian literature begins independent works nemanji dynasty era fall serbia neighboring countries th nbsp century gap literary history occupied land serbian literature however continued uninterrupted serbian inhabited lands european rule saw revival baroque works published th nbsp century today vojvodina serbia gained independence following serbian revolution serbian literature

Humanities
Languages and literature
Serbian Literature


since prospered several serbian writers achieved international fame history medieval post medieval literature miroslav 's gospel part unesco 's memory world register medieval old church slavonic literature created based byzantine model since time constantine great exact first church services biblical texts translated slavic soon afterward works christian life values including works latin attained necessary knowledge various fields although christian literature educated slavs overwhelming influence original works instead


narrow aspect genres poetics cult saints could celebrated used owing slavic celebration cyril methodius slav disciples saints responsible slavic literacy ritual genres hagiographies homiletics hymnography known slavic '' itije'' vita ''pohvala'' eulogy ' 'slu be'' church services effectively meaning prose rhetoric poetry fact first slavic works canonical form ritual literature literary language ritual slavic language defined development medieval slavic literature especially serbian modeled


classical slavic literature new themes serbian literature created within classic ritual genres serbian medieval literature rich around separate genres medieval works mostly mix history legal theory theology writing philology several works poetry written serbian literature middle ages dramas published novels mostly adaptations translations earliest writings serbian religious works religions historically first institutions persisted despite political military upheavals first organizations see


matija kovi post medieval serbian epic poetry important art form foreign occupation serbia also studied likes herder jacob grimm goethe folk songs epics passed generation generation orally dominated post medieval serbian literature historic events battle kosovo th nbsp century play major role development serbian epic poetry works epic poetry considered best serbian folk literature key component serbian national consciousness identity mentality ref name casenaimark ref influence epic poetry continued even


poems written printed among others noted gusle players authors epic poetry old man ra ko blind ivana te podrugovi blind jeca others oldest known entirely fictional poems make non historic cycle followed poems inspired events battle kosovo special cycles dedicated serbian legendary hero marko kraljevi hajduks infantry uskoks soldiers liberation serbia th nbsp century best known folk ballads ''the death mother jugovi family''


''the mourning song noble wife asan aga'' translated european languages goethe walter scott pushkin rim e one notable tales serbian folklore nine peahens golden apples period ottoman occupation serbia several printing houses active including crnojevi printing house vukovi printing house gora de printing house belgrade printing house mostly active outside modern day serbia venice printing houses individual publishers sources books serbian period without national state baroque enlightenment


classicism statue playwright cultural worker jovan sterija popovi serbian literature vojvodina continued building medieval tradition influenced old serbian russian baroque culminated slavonic serbian language baroque important place serbian literature interrupted ottoman invasion reestablished became prominent notable baroque writer period gavril stefanovi venclovi wrote numerous works several genres started early reform language important authors time include dimitrije ljubavi e brankovi andrija zmajevi vasilije iii petrovi njego mojsije putnik


pavle julinac marko jeliseji joakim vuji luka milovanov georgijevi nikanor gruji jovan suboti jovan raji zaharije orfelin simeon pi evi gerasim zeli others institutions foreign occupation serbs invited russian authors educators help education nation influx authors made poems rather prose prominent drama theatre began well gymnasium school modern day sremski karlovci center culture several years th nbsp century headed emanuel koza inski wrote notable baroque work ''traedokomedija'' age


enlightenment new cultural model formed accompanied historical reforms undertaken maria theresa authors enlightenment include dositej obradovi atanasije stojkovi jevstatije mihajlovi atanasije nikoli serbian enlightenment produce work note european scale obvious political cultural religious reasons though spanned every artistic field important work period considered '' ivot priklju enija'' dositej obradovi classicism introduced poems aleksije vezili also advocated core values age enlightenment notable dramatist


period jovan sterija popovi although works contain elements romanticism best known serbian classicist poet founder first serbian poetry movement lukijan mu icki romanticism realism members serbian poetic circle noted writers th early th century sitting svetozar orovi simo matavulj aleksa anti janko veselinovi ii row slobodan jovanovi left standing milorad pavlovi krpa radoje domanovi jovan skerli start fully established romanticism concomitant revolutions romanticist ideas eg use national language rally national


unification classes developing especially among monastic clergy vojvodina winning independence ottoman empire serbian independence movement sparked first works modern serbian literature notably petar nbsp ii petrovi njego poem ''mountain wreath'' represent cornerstone serbian epic based rhythms serbian epic poetry works homer vuk stefanovi karad acquaintance j w von goethe leopold von ranke became first person collect publish folk songs epics book form vuk karad regarded premier


serbian philologist together uro dani played major role reforming modern serbian language alphabet following language reforms made karad several authors like sima milutinovi sarajlija matija nenadovi published works influenced authors branko radi evi initiator romantic poetry rejected classicist norms objectivism focused expressing direct experience feelings art poems '' ki rastanak'' ''tuga opomena'' considered best works noteworthy romantic authors include jovan gr milenko kosta trifkovi king nicholas nbsp montenegro jovan ili romanticism


great importance serbian literature authors epoch begun using newly reformed serbian language wrote several works considered masterpieces serbian literature '' uli uveoci'' poetry children jovan jovanovi zmaj ''santa maria della salute'' laza kosti several poems ura jak travelogues ljubomir nenadovi introduced new literary form emerged th nbsp century main themes realists country 's social groups classes differences urban rural population exploration various types characters realism


began developing alongside romanticism jakov ignjatovi stefan mitrov ljubi published works svetozar orovi depicted native herzegovina shift moslem population bosnian crisis acute simo matavulj ivo ipiko penned landscape south adriatic always sunny blue ipiko 's lyrical writings warned reader deteriorating social conditions especially ''the spiders'' notable realistic authors include janko veselinovi laza lazarevi milovan gli stevan sremac radoje domanovi svetolik rankovi veljko mili evi borisav stankovi major works ''ne ista krv'' ''impure blood'' ''ko tana'' drama


nations legacy ragusan literature influenced serbian literature especially thanks members serb catholic movement dubrovnik matija ban vid vuleti vukasovi ivo vojnovi notable poet period vojislav ili poems purely realistic mostly post romantic although share several important elements realist works chief comedy drama author branislav nu enjoyed popularity serbia wider region new literary genres explored period lazar komar became pioneer sf writer modern literature poets miodrag pavlovi


vasko popa literary trend first second decade th nbsp century referred ''moderna'' serbian influences came leading literature movements europe particularly symbolism psychological novel mood aesthetic components rather literary craftsmanship manifested works jovan du milan raki two poet diplomats third leading poet time aleksa anti whose poetry less subtle filled pathos emotion sincerity popular patriotic romantic social overtones according literary


historian petar milo evi serbian ''moderna'' produced several masterful poems chiefly authored vladislav petkovi dis jovan du milan raki sima pandurovi first half milutin boji 's ''ode blue sea tomb'' poets veljko petrovi milutin boji milutin uskokovi sima pandurovi vladislav petkovi dis milorad mitrovi vladimir stanimirovi danica markovi velimir raji milorad pavlovi krpa milan ur milorad petrovi seljan ica took different paths showed great sophistication advancement craft world view well pessimistic outlook


myriad young talented writers appeared jelena dimitrijevi isidora sekuli two early twentieth century woman writers sekuli mostly wrote essays best serbian literature time interwar period number new literary movements styles ideas emerged milo crnjanski led movement called sumatraism rade drainac headed hypnotism ljubomir mici began international movement zenitism surrealism lasted years serbian literature belgrade group leading literary group period headed marko risti ko popovi stanislav vinaver noted journalist polyhistor


author avant garde rastko petrovi mom ilo nastasijevi considered notable avant garde authors branko opi considered favorite writer serbian children 's literature well known authors ivo andri awarded nobel prize literature milo crnjanski selimovi vladan desnica oskar davi borislav peki branko miljkovi danilo ki milorad pavi david albahari miodrag bulatovi radomir konstantinovi mihailo lali branko opi igor marojevi miroslav josi vi nji dobrica osi among others ivo andri created great opus works set mostly native bosnia


herzegovina crnjanski accomplished poet prose writer works like ''lament belgrade'' ''migrations'' ''a novel london'' considered crowning achievements serbian xx century literature beloved face serbian literature desanka maksimovi seven decades remained leading lady yugoslav poetry socialist realism dominant period comparison communist states yugoslavia 's dogmatic form socialist realism short lived several authors serbian literature dealt complex life society morals communist period


th nbsp century early st nbsp century svetlana velmar jankovi grozdana oluji gordana kui best known female writers serbia today notable authors include zoran ivkovi vladimir arsenijevi vladislav bajac igor marojevi svetislav basara ikovi 's works translated languages awarded world fantasy award authors writing serbian european union prize literature include jelena lengold uglje ajtinac darko tu evljakovi tanja stupar trifunovi lana basta selected works english translations peki borislav ''the time miracles'' translated lovett f edwards houghton mifflin harcourt


andri ivo ''the bridge drina'' university chicago press peki borislav ''the houses belgrade'' translated bernard johnson houghton mifflin harcourt ki danilo ''a tomb boris davidovich'' translated duska mikic mitchell penguin books ki danilo ''the encyclopedia dead'' translated michael henry heim andri ivo ''damned yard stories '' edited translated celia hawkesworth dufour editions selimovi ''death dervish'' translated bogdan rakic stephen dickey northwestern university press peki borislav ''how quiet vampir sotie'' writings


unbound europe translated stephen dickey bogdan rakic northwestern university press andri ivo ''the days consuls'' translated celia hawkesworth dereta bajac vladislav ''hamam balkania'' translated randall major geopoetica publishing andri ivo ''the slave girl stories'' edited translated radmila gorup central european university press see also christian state loanwords serbian medieval serbian literature citations references reading external links https webarchiveorg web http learninglibvtedu slav lit authors serbianhtml selected literatures authors page serbian montenegrin yugoslav literature https webarchiveorg web http wwwserbiatravelersorg en indexphp literature brief overview serbian literature http istorijska bibliotekawikidotcom art stara srpska knjizevnost istorijska biblioteka serbian


medieval literature https webarchiveorg web http wwwserbiatravelersorg en literature quick guide serbian literature english literature


'''social development''' refer psychosocial development social change social development theory social development journal social emotional development social progress social regress

Social science
Sociology
Social transformation
Social development


highlight relationships education society establish generalized statements education valid one country help current generation understand days education systems reference past comparative education often incorrectly assumed exclusively encompass studies compare two different countries fact since early days researchers field often eschewed approaches preferring rather focus comparisons within single country time still large scale projects pisa timss studies made important findings

Applied science
Education
Comparative education


explicitly comparative macro analysis massive data sets recent examples regard include studies analyzing intra european intra american teacher education rationale field many important educational questions best examined international comparative perspective example united states nationwide certificate completion secondary education raises hypothetical question may advantages disadvantages leaving certification states comparative education may draw experience countries japan france instance show


centralized system works illustrate possible advantages disadvantages centralized approach educational certification critics comparative education sometimes disparagingly refer approaches conclusions policy borrowing implication policies best developed organically according local needs rather appears worked contexts however comparative education scholars argue education everywhere faces many challenges much learn successes failures contexts disciplinary vs interdisciplinary identity comparative education closely related may overlap


education research examine schooling holistically globally macro level analysis may alternatively focus status particular subject area specific region world thereby benefiting subject area regional expertise meso micro level analysis approach may characteristic advantages disadvantages comparative international education society comparative international education society cies founded foster cross cultural understanding scholarship academic achievement societal development international study educational ideas systems practices comparative education society india http cesindianet cesihtml comparative education society india


cesi established admitted world council comparative education societies wcces http cesindianet past conferenceshtml annual conferences cesi bring together education researchers across country present papers different topics connected theme conference see also unesco ibe world council comparative education societies international society comparative adult education comparative education review comparative research comparative analysis histories different countries' education systems influential scholars andreas kazamias mark bray nicholas burbules torsten husen john w meyer harold j noah fernando reimers carlos torres


reading major reference handbooks educational research methodology measurement international handbook nd ed edited jp keeves new york pergamon international handbook research arts education edited liora bresler new york springer international encyclopedia adult education training nd ed edited albert c tuijnman oxford uk tarrytown ny pergamon international encyclopedia national systems education nd ed edited neville postlethwaite tarrytown ny pergamon international companion education edited moon b ben peretz brown london ny routledge international handbook educational


change edited andy hargreaves et al boston kluwer academic publishers international handbook educational leadership administration edited kenneth leithwood et al boston kluwer academic international handbook teachers teaching edited bruce j biddle thomas l good ivor f goodson boston kluwer academic publishers international handbook women 's education edited gail p kelly new york greenwood press resources altbach philip g comparative higher education knowledge university development greenwich ct ablex pub corp comparative education research approaches methods edited mark bray bob adamson mark


mason hong kong dordrecht springer emergent issues education comparative perspectives edited robert f arnove philip g altbach gail p kelly albany ny state university new york press arnove r torres c eds comparative education dialectic global local oxford rowman littlefield international perspectives educational reform policy implementation edited david sg carter marnie h o'neill washington dc falmer press quality assurance higher education international perspective edited gerald h gaither san francisco jossey bass publishers higher education policy international


comparative perspective edited leo goedegebuure et al new york pergamon press harold j noah max eckstein toward science comparative education new york macmillan harold j noah max eckstein secondary school examinations international perspectives policies practice new yale university press harold j noah max eckstein comparative education three decades collaboration hong kong university hong kong press hebert david hauge torunn bakken ''advancing music education northern europe'' london routledge gottlieb esther e '' https booksgooglecom booksid vhzseycex c pg pa lpg pa dq postmodern yet f historical theoretical explorations comparative education source bl ots lhja poxw sig l vjbch iskp uagfawpnsfft hl en ei bajstl mnyrmnaek ewtag sa x oi book result ct result resnum ved cbcq aewaa v onepage q f false postmodern


yet historical theoretical explorations comparative education '' moon b ben peretz brown eds international companion education pp nbsp london ny routledge mazawi ae sultana rg eds education arab 'world' political project struggles geometries power new york routledge reagan timothy g non western educational traditions alternative approaches educational thought practice mahwah nj l erlbaum associates schriewer j rgen comparative education methodology transition towards study complexity pp nbsp schreiwer j rgen ed ''discourse formation comparative education'' frankfurt main peter lang vulliamy g lewin


'''''comparative education''''' quarterly peer reviewed academic journal dedicated comparative education established wilfred douglas halls university oxford edmund james king king 's college london published taylor francis editor chief david phillips university oxford according ''journal citation reports'' journal impact factor ranking th journals category education educational research ref name wos ref references external links publications established quarterly journals education journals comparative education english language journals taylor francis academic journals


police question civilian malayan emergency counterinsurgency involves action military police authorities us marines ana soldiers patrol counterinsurgency operations marjah afghanistan february '''counterinsurgency''' '''coin''' totality actions aimed defeating irregular forces oxford english dictionary defines counterinsurgency military political action taken activities guerrillas revolutionaries considered war state non state adversary ref name sheldon insurgency counterinsurgency campaigns waged since ancient history however modern thinking counterinsurgency developed decolonization ref name sheldon ref within

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics
Counter-insurgency


military sciences counterinsurgency one main operational approaches irregular warfare insurgency counterinsurgency distinction civilians combatants often blurred counterinsurgency may involve attempting win hearts minds populations supporting insurgency alternately may waged attempt intimidate ref name sheldon eliminate civilian populations suspected loyalty insurgency indiscriminate violence ref name sheldon models aphorism based writing mao zedong ref name mao mao zedong http wwwmarxistsorg reference archive mao works guerrilla warfare ch htm ''on guerrilla warfare'' chapter political problems guerrilla warfare many people think impossible guerrillas exist


long enemy 's rear belief reveals lack comprehension relationship exist people troops former may likened water latter fish inhabit may said two cannot exist together undisciplined troops make people enemies like fish native element cannot live ref align right width px border px fontsize bgcolor style title bg


title fnt tstyle qalign center qstyle quoted true salign center sstyle counterinsurgency normally conducted combination conventional military operations means demoralization form propaganda psy ops assassinations counter insurgency operations include many different facets military paramilitary political economic psychological civic actions taken defeat insurgency understand counterinsurgency one must understand insurgency comprehend dynamics revolutionary warfare insurgents capitalize societal problems often called gaps counter insurgency addresses closing gaps gaps


attributed failure counterinsurgencies various causes first pointed insurgency addendum second version book ''strategy indirect approach'' popular insurgency inherent advantage occupying force showed prime example french occupation spain napoleonic wars whenever spanish forces managed constitute regular fighting force superior french forces beat every time however dispersed decentralized irregular nature rebel campaigns proved decisive counter french superiority battlefield napoleon 's army means


effectively combating rebels end strength morale sapped wellington finally able challenge french forces field french almost choice abandon situation counterinsurgency efforts may successful especially insurgents unpopular philippine american war shining path peru malayan emergency sites failed insurgencies hart also points experiences e lawrence arab revolt world war another example power rebel insurgent though ottomans


often advantages manpower arabs' ability materialize desert strike disappear often left turks reeling paralyzed creating opportunity regular british forces sweep finish turkish forces preceding cases insurgents rebel fighters working conjunction manner complementary regular forces also case french resistance world war ii national liberation front vietnam war strategy cases


irregular combatant weaken destabilize enemy degree victory easy assured regular forces however many modern rebellions one see rebel fighters working conjunction regular forces rather home grown militias imported fighters unified goals objectives save expel occupier according liddell hart effective counter measures strategy long insurgency maintains popular support retain strategic advantages mobility invisibility legitimacy eyes eyes


masses obtained help active friendly minority support population may lost population must efficiently protected allow cooperate without fear retribution opposite party order enforcement done progressively removing driving away armed opponents gaining support population eventually strengthening positions building infrastructure setting long term relationships population must done area area using pacified territory basis operation conquer neighboring area galula contends


four principles mind galula goes describe general military political strategy put operation area full insurgent control p ref according galula steps skipped areas partially insurgent control unnecessary areas already controlled government ref name galula thus essence counterinsurgency warfare summed galula build rebuild political machine population upward robert thompson robert grainger ker thompson wrote ''defeating communist insurgency'' wherein


name hamilton ref david kilcullen three pillars counterinsurgency three pillars counterinsurgency dr david kilcullen chief strategist office coordinator counterterrorism us state department described framework interagency cooperation counterinsurgency operations pillars security political economic support overarching goal control based information ref kilcullen considers three pillars equal importance overall goal according model reduce violence zero kill every insurgent rather return overall system


normality noting 'normality' one society may look different normality another case seek establish control also consolidate control transfer permanent effective legitimate institutions ref name kilcullen martin van creveld military historian martin van creveld noting almost attempts deal insurgency ended failure advises examining many counterinsurgencies powerful militaries fail weaker enemies van creveld identifies key dynamic illustrates metaphor killing child regardless whether child


started fight well armed child adult fight child feel acting unjustly harms child foolish child harms therefore wonder fight necessary van creveld argues definition strong counterinsurgent uses strength kill members small weak organization insurgents let alone civilian population surrounded may lend support commit crimes unjust cause child


serious fight adult justified using every means available right choice every act insurgency becomes perspective counterinsurgent reason end conflict also reason insurgents continue victory tr ng chinh second command ho chi minh vietnam wrote ''primer revolt'' van creveld thus identifies time key factor counterinsurgency attempt find lessons cases


successful counterinsurgency lists two clear cases british efforts troubles northern ireland hama massacre carried syrian government suppress muslim brotherhood asserts core difficulty neither military political moral outlines two distinct methods first method relies superb intelligence provided know natural artificial environment conflict well insurgents superior intelligence gained counterinsurgents must trained point high professionalism discipline


exercise discrimination restraint discrimination restraint counterinsurgents alienate members populace besides already fighting delaying time counterinsurgents become disgusted actions demoralized general patrick walters british commander troops northern ireland explicitly stated objective kill many terrorists possible ensure people sides killed vast majority counterinsurgencies forces order kill far people lose contrast using rough


figures struggle northern ireland cost united kingdom three thousand casualties dead alone three thousand seventeen hundred civiliansof remaining thousand british soldiers three hundred terrorists ratio three one ref name van creveld van creveld p ref prerequisites first method excellent intelligence superbly trained disciplined soldiers police iron avoid provoked lashing lacking van creveld posits counterinsurgents still want win must use second method exemplified


hama massacre regime syrian president hafez al assad point overwhelmed countrywide insurgency muslim brotherhood al assad sent syrian army division brother rifaat city hama known center resistance following counterattack brotherhood rifaat used heavy artillery demolish city killing ten thousand people including many women children asked reporters happened hafez al assad exaggerated damage deaths promoted commanders carried attacks razed


hama 's well known great mosque replacing parking lot muslim brotherhood scattered population cowed would years opposition groups dared disobey regime van creveld argues massacre likely saved regime prevented bloody civil war van creveld condenses al assad 's strategy five rules noting could easily written niccol machiavelli ref name van creveld situations cruelty necessary refusing apply necessary cruelty betrayal people put power


pressed cruelty never threaten opponent disguise intention feign weakness strike decide strike better kill many enough another strike needed reduces impact first strike repeated strikes also endanger morale counterinsurgent troops soldiers forced commit repeated atrocities likely begin resort alcohol drugs force carry orders inevitably lose military edge eventually turning danger commanders act soon


possible lives saved decisive action early prolonging insurgency longer wait inured population bloodshed barbaric action make impression strike openly apologize make excuses collateral damage express regret promise investigations afterwards make sure many people possible know strike media useful purpose careful let interview survivors arouse sympathy command strike case n't


work reason need disown commander try another strategy work present commander world explain done make certain everyone understands ready strike lorenzo zambernardi counterinsurgency impossible trilemma dr lorenzo zambernardi italian academic working united states clarifies tradeoffs involved counterinsurgency operations argues counterinsurgency involves three main goals real practice counterinsurgent needs choose two goals three relying economic theory zambernardi labels


impossible trilemma counterinsurgency specifically impossible trilemma suggests impossible simultaneously achieve force protection distinction enemy combatants non combatants physical elimination insurgents according zambernardi pursuing two three goals state must forgo portion third objective particular state protect armed forces destroying insurgents indiscriminately killing civilians ottomans italians nazis balkans libya eastern europe choose protect civilians along armed forces instead avoiding


called collateral damage abandoning objective destroying insurgents finally state discriminate combatants non combatants killing insurgents increasing risks troops often insurgents hide behind civilians appear civilians country must choose two three goals develop strategy successfully accomplish sacrificing third objective zambernardi 's theory posits protect populations necessary defeat insurgencies physically destroy insurgency counterinsurgent 's military forces must sacrificed risking loss


militaries tendency reject innovation adaptation often necessary defeat insurgency three features furthermore influence undermine operational tactics concepts adopted insurgents coin challenge therefore operational also cultural institutional ever reflects battlefield according omeni institutional isomorphism sociological phenomenon constrains habits military case nigerian military long established yet increasingly ineffective ideology offensive irregular warfare omeni writes blockquote whereas nigerian military performance militias


niger delta already suggested military poor grasp threat insurgent warfare along line military struggled boko haram threat extent weakness exposed best utility force nigerian military become temporary solution threat insurgent warfare worst existing model perpetuated high cost urgent revisionist thinking around idea counterinsurgency within military institution may required additionally military decisive civil war victory pivot nigeria


strategic culture towards regional role institutional delegitimization brought decades coups political meddling meant much time went without substantive revisionism military thinking around internal function change moreover occurred institutionally isomorphic far removed military origins intervening decades may suggested blockquote infantry centric nature nigerian army 's battalions traceable way back nigerian civil war back reflected kinetic nature army 's contemporary coin approach approach failed


defeat boko haram way many expected certainly therefore popular argument today holds nigerian army struggled coin due capabilities shortcomings holds merit however full spectrum analysis nigeria case suggests popular dominant narrative scarcely scratches surface true coin challenge population centered challenge moreover one militaries across world continue contend attempting solve coin puzzle state forces decades tried range tactics information centric theory starting early micro level data transformed


analysis effective counterinsurgency coin operations leading work information centric group theorists researchers led work empirical studies conflict esoc group princeton university conflict peace research development cprd group university michigan berman shapiro felter outlined modern information centric model framework critical determinant counterinsurgent success information insurgents provided counterinsurgents insurgent locations plans targets information acquired civilian sources human intelligence humint signals intelligence sigint tactics drain sea tactic


german soldiers relax destroying village epirus greece regard tactics terms drain sea drain water involves forced relocation elimination civilian population water expose rebels insurgents fish words relocation deprives aforementioned support cover resources local population typically targeted specifically targets demographic supports insurgency limited area insurgency taking place indiscriminate individual perspective ref name plakoudas ref examples use technique


counterinsurgency include bar kokhba revolt second anglo boer war ref name downes ref greek civil war ref name plakoudas rohingya conflict ref name fair ref xinjiang conflict draining sea also accomplished genocide killing population blamed insurgency world war ii nazi germany 's counterinsurgency became intertwined final solution ref name pieper ref indiscriminate violence also deterrent effect edward luttwak stated massacre remained effective warning decades downside methods counterinsurgency severity may provoke increased resistance targeted population ref name pieper contemporary times concerns public opinion


international law rule counterinsurgency campaigns using indiscriminate violence assassination leaders assassination leaders successful counterinsurgency tactic ref name johnston ref oil spot strategic hamlet south vietnam c oil spot approach concentration counterinsurgent forces expanding secured zone origins expression found initial use marshal hubert lyautey main theoretician french colonial warfare counterinsurgency strategy ref name porch porch douglas bugeaud galli ni lyautey development french colonial warfare paret peter craig gordon alexande gilbert felix eds ''makers modern strategy


intelligence weapons house therefore less intense normal house search used urban neighborhoods purpose mission search house little inconvenience resident family possible air operations air power play important role counterinsurgency capable carrying wide range operations transportation support combatants civilians alike including casualty evacuations intelligence gathering surveillance reconnaissance psychological operations leaflet drops loudspeakers radio broadcasts air ground attack 'soft' targets ref name sagraves ref th sfg special forces medic gives


young boy coloring book meeting village religious leaders gain support obtain information afghanistan public diplomacy general david petraeus ''counterinsurgency field manual'' one many tactics described help win counterinsurgency warfare involves use public diplomacy military means counterinsurgency effective integrated comprehensive strategy employing instruments national power including public diplomacy goal coin operations render insurgents ineffective non influential strong secure relations population host nation understanding


host nation environment coin operations take place essential public diplomacy coin warfare effective clear understanding culture population hand one largest factors needed defeating insurgency involves understanding populace interact insurgents interact non government organizations area view counterinsurgency operations ethics common public diplomacy aspect emphasized coin warfare insurgents win war attacking internal international opposition


order combat tactics counterinsurgency operations need treat prisoners detainees humanely according american values principles coin operations show host nation 's population trusted concerned well population order successful warfare operation moshtarak us marine hands candy children conducting counterinsurgency operations marjah afghanistan population expects incumbent government deliver public goods services security frequently supports counterinsurgency major event increases popular


able perceive world locals perspective develop comprehensive cultural picture counterinsurgency efforts invest employing media consultants finance business experts psychologists organizational network analysts scholars wide range disciplines ref name krawchuk importantly counterinsurgency efforts need able understand local population drawn insurgent ideology like aspects appealing insurgents use information draw followers ideology counterinsurgency communication efforts need baseline understanding values attitudes perceptions people area operations conduct


successful public diplomacy defeat enemy developing information communication strategies involve providing legitimate alternate ideology improving security economic opportunity strengthening family ties outside insurgency order conduct public diplomacy means counterinsurgency communication needs match deeds words information provided public diplomacy counterinsurgency cannot lie information communication people always truthful trustworthy order effective countering insurgents public diplomacy counterinsurgency influence public thoughts ideas long time engagement


done negative campaigning enemy conducting public diplomacy relaying information communicating public counterinsurgency successful conversation happen counterinsurgency team local population area operation building rapport public involves listening paying attention responsive proactive sufficient local population understand trust counterinsurgency efforts vice versa ref name krawchuk relationship stringent upon counterinsurgents keeping promises providing security locals communicating message directly quickly


public opinion media rumors influence people view counterinsurgency government hosting efforts host nation legitimacy use public diplomacy strategically relay correct messages information public essential success counterinsurgency operation example close relationships media members area essential ensure locals understand counterinsurgency objectives feel secure host nation government counterinsurgency efforts local media sync counterinsurgency operatives could spread incomplete false information


counterinsurgency campaign public given al qaeda global reach united states must develop integrated strategic communication strategy counter insurgency allies diminish violent rhetoric improve image abroad detect deter defeat social movement many levels ref name krawchuk information operations communicative abilities one largest influential aspects public diplomacy within counterinsurgency public diplomacy especially important modern insurgents easily able gain support variety sources local transnational thanks advances increased communication globalization


war marked considerable emphasis counterinsurgency programs us armed forces initially relied little theoretical doctrine counterinsurgency ground intervention phase conventional warfare using massive fire power failure implement adequate counterinsurgency extremely negative effects strategy nva adept countering protracted political military warfare model ref name following replacement general william westmoreland newer concepts tried including revival earlier coin strategies including civil operations revolutionary development support us allies also implemented phoenix program targeted


viet cong political infrastructure capture defection assassination vc members british empire malaya british forces able employ relocation method considerable success malayan emergency briggs plan implemented fully relocated chinese malayans protected new villages designated british forces end ethnic chinese moved fortifications population british forces able form home guard armed resistance malayan communist party implementation mirrored strategic hamlet program later used us forces south


vietnam ref name nagl ref ref name thompson ref despite british claims victory malayan emergency military historian martin van creveld noted end result counterinsurgency namely withdrawal british forces establishment independent state identical aden kenya cyprus considered victories dutch empire dutch formulated new strategy counterinsurgency warfare aceh war deploying light armed marechaussee units using scorched earth tactics van heutsz proclaimed governor aceh lieutenant later dutch prime minister hendrikus colijn would finally conquer


aceh followed hurgronje 's suggestions finding cooperative ''uleebelang'' secular chiefs would support countryside isolating resistance rural support base south sulawesi campaign captain raymond westerling kst special forces royal netherlands east indies army used '''westerling method''' westerling ordered registration javanese arriving makassar due large numbers javanese participating sulawesi resistance also used scouts infiltrate local villages identify members resistance based information dutch military intelligence


undermining local support republicans actions restored dutch rule southern sulawesi however netherlands east indies government dutch army command soon realised westerling 's notoriety led growing public criticism april dutch government instituted official inquiry controversial methods raymond westerling put sidelines relieved duties november france france major counterinsurgency wars colonies indochina algeria mcclintock cited basic points french doctrine ref name mcclintock ref quadrillage administrative grid population territory ratissage cordoning


french intelligence complemented commandos nord vi nam north missions sof teams lived fought locals one laotian became officer vang pao become general hmong laotian operations southeast asia us forces increased role algeria french counterinsurgency colonial algeria savage one battle algiers resulted detentions tortured estimated killed may broken national liberation front infrastructure algiers also killed french legitimacy


far hearts minds went ref name mcclintock ref name tomes ref counterinsurgency requires extremely capable intelligence infrastructure endowed human sources deep cultural knowledge contributes difficulty foreign opposed indigenous powers counterinsurgent operations one france 's influential theorists roger trinquier ''modern warfare'' counterinsurgency strategy described trinquier led anti communist guerrillas indochina strong influence french efforts algeria trinquier suggested three principles separate guerrilla population supports occupy zones guerrillas previously operated making area


dangerous insurgents turning people guerrilla movement coordinate actions wide area long enough time guerrilla denied access population centers could support trinquier 's view torture extremely focused limited many french officers considered use corrosive side strong protests among french leaders army 's decorated officer general jacques p ris de bollardi confronted general jacques massu commander french forces battle algiers orders institutionalizing torture


boko haram insurgency military operations group occur predominantly far northeast areas nigeria operations ongoing since june greatly expanded within lake chad basin sub region west africa india many insurgencies india since independence kashmir insurgency started brought control indian government violence reduced branch indian army known rashtriya rifles rr created sole purpose destroying insurgency kashmir played


independence mozambican war independence situation unique small armed forces portugal able conduct three counterinsurgency wars time three different theatres operations separated thousands kilometers operations portugal developed counterinsurgency doctrine russia soviet union familiar russian counterinsurgency war afghanistan however throughout history czarist russian russians fought many counterinsurgencies new caucasian central asian territory occupied ref name auto ref conflicts


russians developed following counterinsurgency tactics ref name auto deploy significant number troops isolate area outside assistance establish tight control major cities towns build lines forts restrict insurgent movement destroy springs resistance destruction settlements livestock crops etc tactics generally speaking carried soviet use following revolution part save integration political military command tactical blue print saw use following first second world wars dagestan caucasus central asia siberia lithuania


ukraine ref name auto doctrine ultimately shown inadequate soviet war afghanistan mostly due insufficient troop commitment wars chechnya ref name auto united states united states conducted counterinsurgency campaigns philippine american war vietnam war post war afghanistan iraq war wars iraq afghanistan resulted increased interest counterinsurgency within american military exemplified publication new joint army field manual marine corps warfighting publication ''counterinsurgency'' replaced documents separately published army


marine corps years prior views doctrine contained manual mixed version fm mcwp acquired new title ''insurgencies countering insurgencies'' consists three main parts william b caldwell iv wrote ref recent conflicts st airborne division air assault increasingly involved conducting special operations especially training development states' military security forces ref name stripescom ref known special operations community foreign internal defense announced january soldiers st 's headquarters


nd brigade combat team deploy soon regular rotations baghdad irbil train advise iraqi army kurdish peshmerga forces expected coming months move toward mosul islamic state 's de facto headquarters iraq st airborne division serve integral role preparing iraqi ground troops expel islamic state group mosul defense secretary ash carter told division 's soldiers january visit fort campbell kentucky ref name stripescom defense secretary ash carter told st airborne division iraqi peshmerga forces


train advise assist proven determination resiliency increasingly capability need continue building success preparing fight today long hard fight future need skill need experience ref name stripescom foreign internal defense policymaking subsequently aided iraqi successes reclaiming tikrit baiji ramadi fallujah mosul islamic state iraq levant recent evaluations us counterinsurgency efforts afghanistan yielded mixed results comprehensive study special inspector general afghanistan reconstruction concluded


us government greatly overestimated ability use coin stabilization tactics longterm success ref name sigar ref report found successes stabilizing afghan districts rarely lasted longer physical presence coalition troops civilians findings corroborated scholarly studies us counterinsurgency activities afghanistan determined backlashes insurgents local population common see also '''general ''' civilian casualty ratio collective punishment death squad divide rule eizenstat closing gaps false flag foreign internal defence fourth generation warfare gladio guerrilla warfare grey zone international relations human rights violations internally displaced people irregular


review international affairs'' vol pp nbsp arreguin toft ivan lose war terror comparative analysis counterinsurgency success failure jan ngstr isabelle duyvesteyn eds ''understanding victory defeat contemporary war'' london frank cass callwell c e ''small wars principles practice'' lincoln nebraska bison books cassidy robert ''counterinsurgency global war terror military culture irregular war'' stanford stanford university press catignani sergio ''israeli counter insurgency two intifadas dilemmas conventional army'' london routledge corum james


''bad strategies major powers fail counterinsurgency'' minneapolis mn zenith corum james ''fighting war terror counterinsurgency strategy'' minneapolis mn zenith galula david ''counterinsurgency warfare theory practice'' wesport connecticut praeger derradji abder rahmane ''the algerian guerrilla campaign strategy tactics'' new york edwin mellen press ericksonedward j ''a global history relocation counterinsurgency warfare'' london bloomsbury academic jacobsen kurt ''pacification discontents'' chicago prickly paradigm university chicago press joes james anthony ''resisting rebellion history politics counterinsurgency'' lexington ky university press kentucky


kilcullen david ''the accidental guerrilla fighting small wars midst big one'' london hurst kilcullen david ''counterinsurgency'' london hurst kitson frank ''low intensity operations subversion insurgency peacekeeping'' mackinlay john ''the insurgent archipelago'' london hurst mao zedong ''aspects china 's anti japanese struggle'' melson charles german counter insurgency revisited ''journal slavic military studies'' https webarchiveorg web http jmssorg jmss indexphp jmss article download online merom gil ''how democracies lose small wars state society failures france algeria israel lebanon united states vietnam'' new york cambridge university press polack


peter ''guerrilla warfare kings revolution'' haverstown pennsylvania casemate thompson robert ''defeating communist insurgency experiences malaya vietnam'' london chatto windus tomes robert spring https webarchiveorg web http strategicstudiesinstitutearmymil pubs parameters articles spring tomespdf relearning counterinsurgency warfare ''parameters'' van creveld martin ''the changing face war combat marne iraq'' new york ballantine zambernardi lorenzo counterinsurgency 's impossible trilemma ''the washington quarterly'' vol pp nbsp external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwsmallwarsjournalcom ref counterinsurgencyhtm small wars journal insurgency counterinsurgency research page http studiesagenturaru english listing terrorismprevention terrorism prevention russia one year beslan http wwwthirdworldtravelercom cia us counterinsurg soldierhtml inside counterinsurgency stan goff ex us special forces http wwwstatecraftorg instruments statecraft


us guerrilla warfare counterinsurgency counterterrorism michael mcclintock https webarchiveorg web http wwwjpfoorg stroophtm warsaw ghetto ss brigade commander j rgen stroop https webarchiveorg web http wwwjihadmonitororg category military forces counterterrorism military forces counterterrorism counterinsurgency operations jihadmonitororg http wwwclemsonedu caah history facultypages edmoise limitedhtml bibliography theories limited war counterinsurgency edwin moise vietnam era http wwwclemsonedu caah history facultypages edmoise iraqbibhtml insurg bibliography doctrine insurgency counterinsurgency edwin moise contemporary https webarchiveorg web http wwwmilitarybriefingbookcom topiccfmtopic counter insurgency operations military briefing book news regarding counter insurgency https wwwyoutubecom watchv tpnrkauu max boot invisible armies youtube video length published mar http fasorg irp doddir army fm pdf us army marine corps counter insurgency field manual pdf document insurgency military doctrines warfare type


convex centrally symmetric body minkowski 's theorem sometimes called minkowski 's first theorem states math operatorname vol k n operatorname vol mathbb r n gamma math math k math contains nonzero vector math gamma math successive minimum math lambda k math defined inf numbers math lambda math math lambda k math contains math k math linearly independent vectors math gamma math minkowski 's theorem successive minima sometimes called minkowski 's second theorem strengthening first theorem states math lambda lambda cdots lambda n operatorname vol k le n operatorname vol mathbb r n gamma math later research geometry numbers research geometry numbers conducted many number theorists including louis

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Number theory
Geometric number theory


mordell harold davenport carl ludwig siegel recent years lenstra brion barvinok developed combinatorial theories enumerate lattice points convex bodies subspace theorem w schmidt geometry numbers subspace theorem obtained wolfgang schmidt states ''n'' positive integer ''l'' sub sub ''l'' sub ''n'' sub linearly independent linear forms ''n'' variables algebraic coefficients given real number non zero integer points ''x'' ''n'' coordinates math l x cdots l n x x varepsilon math lie finite number proper subspaces


'''q''' sup ''n'' sup influence functional analysis minkowski 's geometry numbers profound influence functional analysis minkowski proved symmetric convex bodies induce norms finite dimensional vector spaces minkowski 's theorem generalized topological vector spaces kolmogorov whose theorem states symmetric convex sets closed bounded generate topology banach space researchers continue study generalizations star shaped sets non convex sets references bibliography matthias beck sinai robins ''computing continuous discretely integer point enumeration polyhedra'' undergraduate texts mathematics springer j w cassels ''an introduction geometry


numbers'' springer classics mathematics springer verlag reprint springer verlag editions john horton conway n j sloane ''sphere packings lattices groups'' springer verlag ny rd ed r j gardner ''geometric tomography'' cambridge university press new york second edition p gruber ''convex discrete geometry'' springer verlag new york p gruber j wills editors ''handbook convex geometry vol b'' north holland amsterdam gr tschel lov sz l schrijver ''geometric algorithms combinatorial optimization'' springer republished dover edmund hlawka johannes schoi engeier rudolf taschner ''geometric


analytic number theory'' universitext springer verlag c g lekkerkererker ''geometry numbers'' wolters noordhoff north holland wiley lov sz l ''an algorithmic theory numbers graphs convexity'' cbms nsf regional conference series applied mathematics siam philadelphia pennsylvania wolfgang schmidt ''diophantine approximation'' lecture notes mathematics springer minor corrections rolf schneider ''convex bodies brunn minkowski theory'' cambridge university press cambridge anthony c thompson ''minkowski geometry'' cambridge university press cambridge hermann weyl theory reduction arithmetical equivalence trans amer math soc hermann weyl theory reduction arithmetical


countries human development index '''development geography''' branch geography refers standard living quality life human inhabitants context development process change affects peoples' lives may involve improvement quality life perceived people undergoing change however development always positive process gunder frank commented global economic forces lead development underdevelopment covered dependency theory development geography geographers study spatial patterns development try

Social science
Geography
Human geography
Development geography


find characteristics measure development looking economic political social factors seek understand geographical ''causes'' ''consequences'' varying development studies compare economically developed countries medcs less economically developed countries ledcs additionally variations within countries looked differences northern southern italy mezzogiorno quantitative indicators quantitative indicators numerical indications development economic include gnp gross national product per capita unemployment rates energy consumption percentage gnp primary industries gnp per capita used


measures value goods services produced country excluding produced foreign companies hence measuring economic industrial development country however using gnp per capita also many problems take account distribution money often extremely unequal uae oil money collected rich elite flowed bulk country gnp measure whether money produced actually improving people 's lives important many medcs


large increases wealth time small increases happiness figure rarely takes account unofficial economy includes subsistence agriculture cash hand unpaid work often substantial ledcs ledcs often expensive accurately collect data governments intentionally unintentionally release inaccurate figures figure usually given us dollars due changing currency exchange rates distort money 's true street value often converted using purchasing power parity ppp actual comparative purchasing power


money country calculated social indications include access clean water sanitation indicate level infrastructure developed country adult literacy rate measuring resources government meet needs people demographic indicators include birth rate death rate fertility rate indicate level industrialization health indicators sub factor demographic indicators include nutrition calories per day calories protein percentage population malnutrition infant mortality population per doctor indicate availability healthcare sanitation facilities country environmental indications include


hpi human poverty index used calculate percentage people country live relative poverty order better differentiate number people abnormally poor living conditions hpi used developing countries hpi used developed countries hpi calculated based percentage people expected survive adult illiteracy rate percentage people without access safe water health services percentage children underweight hpi calculated based percentage people


easily calculated measured numbers freedom corruption security largely non material benefits geographic variations development considerable spatial variation development rates famous pattern development north south divide north south divide separates rich north developed world poor south line division straightforward sounds splits globe two main parts also known brandt line north divide regarded north america europe russia south korea


japan australia new zealand like countries within area generally economically developed south therefore encompasses remainder southern hemisphere mostly consisting kfcs another possible dividing line tropic cancer exceptions australia new zealand critical understand status countries far static pattern likely become distorted fast development certain southern countries many nics newly industrialised countries including india thailand brazil malaysia mexico others countries experiencing sustained fast


development back growing manufacturing industries exports countries experiencing significant increases wealth standard living however unfortunate exceptions rule noticeably former soviet union countries experienced major disruption industry transition market economy many african nations recently experienced reduced gnps due wars aids epidemic including angola congo sierra leone others arab oil producers rely heavily oil exports support gdps reduction oil 's market price lead rapid decreases gnp


countries rely exports much income vulnerable changes market value commodities often derogatively called banana republics many developing countries rely exports primary goods large amount income coffee timber example create havoc value commodities drops leaving countries way pay debts within countries pattern wealth concentrated around urban areas rural areas wealth also tends towards areas


natural resources areas involved tertiary service industries trade leads gathering wealth around mines monetary centres new york london tokyo geography also affect economic development number ways analysis current data sets show three significant implications geography developing nations first access sea routes important noted far back adam smith sea travel much cheaper faster land leading wider quicker dissemination resources ideas


integral economic stimulus geography also dictates prevalence disease example world health organization estimates roughly million new cases malaria every year malaria largely associated nations struggled achieve sound economic development disease decrease labor productivity changes age structure country forcing population lean heavily toward children adults die disease population sees increase fertility keep high death rates high fertility lowers quality life child


due decrease resources allocated also decreases labor productivity women third way geography affects development agricultural productivity temperate regions shown highest output major grains regions african savanna relatively yield much less value labor cost low agricultural output means larger portion population must spend efforts agriculture leading slower urban development turn discourages technological advance essential source development twenty first century barriers international development geographers along social


scientists recognized certain factors present given society may impede social economic development society factors identified obstructing economic social welfare developing societies include lack education lack healthcare pervasiveness intoxicating drugs weak political social economic institutions ineffective taxation environmental degradation lack religious gender racial sexual freedoms indebtedness protectionist barriers trade foreign aid dependence upon primary resource exports unequal distribution wealth inhospitable climate effective governments may address many barriers economic social development however many instances challenging due


path dependency societies develop regarding many issues barriers development may impossible address climatic barriers development cases societies must evaluate whether climatic barriers development dictate society must relocate given settlement order enjoy greater economic development many scholars agree foreign aid provided developing nations ineffective many instances counter productive due manner foreign aid changes incentives productivity given developing society manner foreign aid


tendency corrupt governments responsible allocation distribution cultural barriers development discrimination based gender race religion sexual orientation challenging address certain oppressive societies though recent progress significant societies aforementioned barriers economic growth development prevalent less developed economies world even developed economies plagued select barriers development drug prohibition income inequality aid medcs economically developed countries give aid ledcs less economically developed


countries several types aid governmental bilateral aid international organizational multilateral aid eg world bank voluntary aid individuals often mediated ngos short term emergency aid humanitarian assistance long term sustainable aid non governmental organization ngo aid aid given several ways money materials skilled learned people eg teachers aid advantages mostly short term emergency aid help people ledcs survive natural earthquake tsunami volcano eruption etc human civil war etc disaster aid helps make recipient country country receives aid get developed however aid also disadvantages often


aid even reach poorest people often money gained aid used make infrastructures bridges roads etc rich use also recipient country becomes dependent aid donor country country giving aid whilst conception aid pervasive within development geography work important remember aid landscape far complex one directional flows 'developed' 'developing' countries development geographers forefront research aims understand material exchanges


discourse surrounding 'south south' development cooperation 'non traditional' foreign aid southern middle eastern post socialist states outside development assistance committee dac oecd provide alternative development discourses approaches mainstream western model development geographers seek examine geopolitical drivers behind aid donor programmes ledcs well discursive symbolic repertoires non dac donor states two illustrative examples complex aid landscape china active aid donor throughout latter half twentieth century published first report foreign aid


policy recently india often cited aid recipient donor programmes nepal bhutan since references notes allen j scott gioacchino garofoli development ground routledge london https webarchiveorg web http sasigroupshefacuk social spatial inequalities international development economic geography human geography geography


collapsed ordovician limestone bank showing coastal erosion nw osmussaar estonia '''coastal geography''' study constantly changing region ocean land incorporating physical geography ie coastal geomorphology climatology oceanography human geography sociology history coast includes understanding coastal weathering processes particularly wave action sediment movement weather ways humans interact coast wave action longshore drift port campbell southern australia high energy shoreline waves different strengths constantly hit shoreline

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Coastal geography


primary movers shapers coastline despite simplicity process differences waves rocks hit result hugely varying shapes effect waves depends strength strong waves also called destructive waves occur high energy beaches typical winter reduce quantity sediment present beach carrying bars sea constructive weak waves typical low energy beaches occur summer opposite destructive waves increase size beach piling sediment


onto berm one important transport mechanisms results wave refraction since waves rarely break onto shore right angles upward movement water onto beach swash occurs oblique angle however return water backwash right angles beach resulting net movement beach material laterally movement known beach drift figure endless cycle swash backwash resulting beach drift observed beaches may differ coasts rhossili wales low energy shoreline probably


important effect longshore drift lsd also known littoral drift process sediment continuously moved along beaches wave action lsd occurs waves hit shore angle pick sediment sand shore carry beach angle called swash due gravity water falls back perpendicular beach dropping sediment loses energy called backwash sediment picked next wave pushed slightly beach resulting continual movement


sediment one direction reason long strips coast covered sediment areas around river mouths main sources beach sediment lsd reliant constant supply sediment rivers sediment supply stopped sediment falls submarine canals point along beach lead bare beaches along shore lsd helps create many landforms including barrier islands bay beaches spits general lsd action serves straighten coast creation barriers cuts


hits shore erodes rocks carries weathered material shoreline form beaches warm weather encourage biological processes occur rapidly tropical areas plants animals protect stones weathering plants animals actually eat away rocks temperatures vary freezing point result frost weathering whereas weather degrees freezing point creates sea ice biological processes tropical regions particular plants animals affect weathering rocks source sediment shells


skeletons many organisms calcium carbonate broken forms sediment limestone clay physical processes main physical weathering process beaches salt crystal growth wind carries salt spray onto rocks absorbed small pores cracks within rocks water evaporates salt crystallises creating pressure often breaking rock beaches calcium carbonate able bind together sediments form beachrock warmer areas dunerock wind erosion also form erosion dust sand carried


around air slowly erodes rock happens similar way sea salt sand washed onto rocks sea level changes eustatic change sea level earth regularly rises falls due climatic changes cold periods earth 's water stored ice glaciers warm periods released sea levels rise cover land sea levels currently quite high years ago pleistocene ice age quite low global warming may result


rises future presents risk coastal cities would flooded small rises sea levels rise fjords rias form fjords flooded glacial valleys rias flooded river valleys fjords typically steep rocky sides rias dendritic drainage patterns typical drainage zones tectonic plates move earth rise fall due changing pressures presence glaciers beach moving upwards relative plates known isostatic change raised beaches formed land


level changes isostatic change found uk line wash severn estuary land covered ice sheets last ice age weight ice caused northeast scotland sink displacing southeast forcing rise ice sheets receded reverse process happened land released weight current estimates southeast sinking rate nbsp mm per year northeast scotland rising amount coastal landforms spits chesil beach tombolo dorset


united kingdom coast suddenly changes direction especially around estuary spits likely form long shore drift pushes sediment along beach reaches turn diagram long shore drift always easily turn especially near estuary outward flow river may push sediment away coast area may also shielded wave action preventing much long shore drift side headland receiving weaker waves shingle large sediments build water


waves strong enough move along provides good place smaller sediments build sea level sediment passing headland accumulate side continue beach sheltered headland shingle slowly time sediment simply builds area extending spit outwards forming barrier sand wind direction change come direction period sediment pushed along direction spit start


grow backwards forming 'hook' time spit grow original direction eventually spit able grow longer sufficiently sheltered erosion waves estuary current prevents sediment resting usually salty calm waters behind spit form salt marshland spits often form around breakwater artificial harbours requiring dredging occasionally estuary possible spit grow across side bay form


beaches raised beach paleoshoreline strand plain integrated coastal zone management coastal management prevent coastal erosion creation beach coastal oceanic landforms coastal development hazards coastal erosion coastal engineering hard engineering soft engineering coastal morphodynamics coastal estuarine research federation cerf human impacts coasts sea level rise natural hazard erosion bioerosion blowhole natural arch wave cut platform longshore drift deposition sediment coastal sediment supply sand dune stabilization submersion references codrington stephen ''planet geography'' rd edition chapter external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwcoastalresearchnl glossary description glossary terms used coastal geography https webarchiveorg web http wwwsciencedictionaryorg coastal science description coastal science terms definitions physical geography


philosophy seated seven liberal arts picture ''hortus deliciarum'' herrad von landsberg th century '''medieval philosophy''' philosophy existed middle ages period roughly extending fall western roman empire th century renaissance th century ref name stanfordedu ref medieval philosophy understood project independent philosophical inquiry began baghdad middle th century ref name stanfordedu france itinerant court charlemagne last quarter th century ref name stanfordedu defined partly process

Humanities
History
Philosophical history
Medieval philosophy


reception arabic commentators ref name stanfordedu significant developments fields philosophy religion logic metaphysics medieval era disparagingly treated renaissance humanists saw barbaric middle period classical age greek roman culture ' 'rebirth'' ' 'renaissance'' classical culture ref name stanfordedu modern historians consider medieval era one philosophical development heavily influenced christian theology one notable thinkers era thomas aquinas never considered philosopher criticized philosophers always falling short true


proper wisdom problems discussed throughout period relation faith reason existence simplicity god purpose theology metaphysics problems knowledge universals individuation ref name gracia ref characteristics avicenna medieval philosophy places heavy emphasis ''theological'' possible exceptions avicenna averroes medieval thinkers consider philosophers philosophers ancient pagan writers plato aristotle ref name gracia however theology used methods logical techniques ancient philosophers address difficult theological questions


points doctrine thomas aquinas following peter damian argued philosophy handmaiden theology ''ancilla theologiae'' ref name gracia despite view philosophy servant theology prevent medievals developing original innovative philosophies backdrop theological projects instance thinkers augustine hippo thomas aquinas made monumental breakthroughs philosophy temporality metaphysics respectively principles underlie medieval philosophers' work use logic dialectic analysis discover truth known ''ratio'' respect insights


faith reason problem believe seek understand ''fides quaerens intellectum'' history early medieval christian philosophy portrait philippe de champaigne th century boundaries early medieval period matter controversy ref name gracia generally agreed begins augustine strictly belongs classical period ends lasting revival learning late eleventh century beginning high medieval period collapse roman empire western europe lapsed called dark ages


monasteries among limited number focal points formal academic learning might presumed result rule st benedict 's required monks read bible daily suggestion beginning lent book given monk later periods monks used training administrators churchmen ref name gracia early christian thought particular patristic period tends intuitional mystical less reliant reason logical argument also places emphasis sometimes mystical doctrines


plato less upon systematic thinking aristotle much work aristotle unknown west period scholars relied translations boethius latin aristotle 's ''categories'' logical work ''on interpretation'' latin translation porphyry 's ''isagoge'' commentary aristotle 's ''categories'' two roman philosophers great influence development medieval philosophy augustine boethius augustine regarded greatest church fathers primarily theologian devotional writer much writing philosophical themes


truth god human soul meaning history state sin salvation thousand years hardly latin work theology philosophy quote writing invoke authority writing influence development early modern philosophy descartes ref name hyman ref anicius manlius severinus boethius c christian philosopher born rome ancient influential family became consul kingdom ostrogoths influence early medieval period also


marked much sometimes called ''boethian period'' intended translate works aristotle plato original greek latin translated many aristotle 's logical works ''on interpretation'' ''categories'' wrote commentaries works ''isagoge'' porphyry commentary categories introduced problem universals medieval world ref name hyman first significant renewal learning west came charlemagne advised candidus peter pisa alcuin york attracted scholars


england ireland imperial decree ad established schools every abbey empire schools name scholasticism derived became centres medieval learning abbo fleuryjohannes scotus eriugena c successor alcuin york head palace school irish theologian neoplatonic philosopher notable translated made commentaries upon work pseudo dionysius initially thought apostolic age around period several doctrinal controversies emerged question whether god predestined


salvation damnation eriugena called settle dispute time paschasius radbertus raised important question real presence christ eucharist host christ 's historical body present many places many times radbertus argued christ 's real body present veiled appearance bread wine present places times means god 's incomprehensible power ref name gracia period also witnessed revival scholarship


small dark age followed lasting revival learning eleventh century owed much rediscovery greek thought arabic translations muslim contributions avicenna 's ''on soul'' high middle ages period middle eleventh century middle fourteenth century known 'high medieval' 'scholastic' period generally agreed begin saint anselm canterbury italian philosopher theologian church official famous originator ontological argument


existence god plato seneca aristotle ''devotional philosophical writings'' c th early th centuries generally regarded high period scholasticism early th century witnessed culmination recovery greek philosophy schools translation grew italy sicily eventually rest europe scholars adelard bath travelled sicily arab world translating works astronomy mathematics including first complete translation euclid 's elements powerful norman kings gathered men knowledge italy


areas courts sign prestige william moerbeke 's translations editions greek philosophical texts middle half thirteenth century helped forming clearer picture greek philosophy particular aristotle given arabic versions previously relied distorted obscured relation platonic aristotelian systems philosophy ref name fryde ref work formed basis major commentaries followed universities developed large cities europe period rival clerical orders within church


began battle political intellectual control centers educational life two main orders founded period franciscans dominicans franciscans founded francis assisi leader middle century bonaventure traditionalist defended theology augustine philosophy plato incorporating little aristotle neoplatonist elements ref name hyman following anselm bonaventure supposed reason discover truth philosophy illuminated religious faith important franciscan writers


duns scotus peter auriol william ockhamthomas aquinasby contrast dominican order founded st dominic placed emphasis use reason made extensive use new aristotelian sources derived east moorish spain great representatives dominican thinking period albertus magnus especially thomas aquinas whose artful synthesis greek rationalism christian doctrine eventually came define catholic philosophy aquinas placed emphasis reason argumentation one first use new translation aristotle 's metaphysical epistemological writing


''thomas aquinas'' available english however grabmann 's thought instrumental whole modern understanding scholasticism pivotal role aquinas topics main branches philosophy today part medieval philosophy medieval philosophy also included areas originally established pagan philosophers antiquity particular aristotle however discipline called philosophy religion presumed unique development medieval era many problems define subject first took shape middle ages forms


still recognisable today theology medieval philosophy characteristically theological subjects discussed period include problem compatibility divine attributes attributes traditionally ascribed supreme unlimited power knowledge things infinite goodness existence outside time immateriality logically consistent one another problem evil classical philosophers speculated nature evil problem powerful knowing loving god could create system things evil exists first arose medieval period


problem free similar problem explain 'divine foreknowledge' god 's knowledge happen future compatible belief free questions regarding immortality intellect unity non unity soul intellect consequent intellectual basis believing immortality soul question whether substances non material example angels metaphysics book metaphysics ''ens dicitur multipliciter'' word 'being' predicated many ways


subject area uniquely medieval rational investigation universe viewed way approaching god duns scotus' proof existence god based notion causality individuation problem individuation explain individuate numerically distinguish members kind given problem arose required explain individual angels species differ one another angels immaterial numerical difference cannot explained different matter made


radical discontinuity intellectual development middle ages developments renaissance early modern period logic great historian logic bochenski regarded middle ages one three great periods history logic time abelard middle fourteenth century scholastic writers refined developed aristotelian logic remarkable degree earlier period writers peter abelard wrote commentaries works old logic aristotle 's categories interpretation isagoge


origins medieval philosophy word 'intentionality' revived franz brentano intending reflect medieval usage ockham well known theory language signifies mental states primarily convention real things secondarily whereas corresponding mental states signify real things necessarily writers area include saint augustine duns scotus nicholas autrecourt thomas aquinas william ockham ethics writers area include anselm augustine peter abelard scotus peter spain aquinas ockham writers political theory include dante john wyclif


william ockham see also christian philosophy early muslim philosophy jewish philosophy nominalism renaissance th century scholastic philosophy supposition theory references reading external links http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg london philosophy study guide offers many suggestions read depending student 's familiarity subject http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg medievalhtm medieval philosophy https webarchiveorg web http www bcedu solere siepmhtml medieval philosophy electronic resources http wwwnewadventorg cathen chtm article ''philosophy'' catholic encyclopedia https webarchiveorg web http radicalacademycom adiphiljewish htm medieval jewish philosophers http jameshannamcom medievalsciencehtm medieval natural philosophy church james hannam https archivetoday http tcrnews com vonbalthasarfathershtml fathers scholastics von balthasar http cipcornelledu mpat medieval philosophy


theology journal http wwwalcuinde alcuin regensburger infothek der scholastik huge database information biography text chronology editions


including writing essays short stories poetry english language arts including study grammar usage style english sociolinguistics including discourse analysis written spoken texts english language history english language english language learning teaching study world englishes english linguistics syntax morphology phonetics phonology etc usually treated distinct discipline taught department linguistics disciplinary divide dominant literature usage orientation one motivation division north american modern language association mla two subgroups universities

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
English studies


non english speaking countries department often covers aspects english studies including linguistics reflected example structure activities european society study english esse common departments english offer courses scholarship areas english language literature including literary criticism literary theory public speaking speech writing rhetoric composition studies creative writing philology etymology journalism poetry publishing literacy area studies especially american studies philosophy language theater play writing screenwriting communication studies technical communication cultural studies critical theory gender studies ethnic


studies disability studies digital media electronic publishing film studies media studies various courses liberal arts humanities among others english speaking countries study educational levels texts produced non english languages takes place departments departments foreign language comparative literature fields ''see also'' literature linguistics along list academic disciplines english linguistics english sociolinguistics discourse analysis english english stylistics linguistics world englishes history english language composition studies rhetoric technical communication english language learning teaching english literature american literature


including african american literature jewish american literature southern literature australian literature british literature literature regions united kingdom may written celtic languages canadian literature significant amount canadian literature also written french irish literature new zealand literature scottish literature welsh literature south african literature excluding works written languages indian english literature english major '''english major''' alternatively english concentration ba english term united states countries undergraduate university degree focused around reading analyzing writing texts english language


term may also used describe student pursuing degree students major english reflect upon analyse interpret literature film presenting analyses clear cogent writing although help wanted postings rarely solicit english majors specifically degree english hones critical thinking skills essential number career fields including writing editing publishing teaching research advertising public relations law finance history history english studies modern university europe america begins second half nineteenth century initially english studies comprised motley


array content practice oratory study rhetoric grammar composition poetry appreciation literature mostly authors england since american literature language study added twentieth century germany several european countries english philology strongly positivistic historically interested practice reading pre modern texts became preferred scholarly paradigm english speaking countries distanced philological paradigms soon world war end process english departments tended refocus work various forms writing instruction creative professional critical


interpreting literary texts teacher education english recovered neglect suffered science oriented paradigms today english departments native speaking countries evaluate roles sole guardians discipline english less less native speakers' unique 'property' shared millions speakers writers countries english essential means communication artistic expression english literature became object study french universities part foreign comparative literature nineteenth century chair foreign literature


established college de france english first taught independently languages literature university lille university lyons afterwards sorbonne three universities first major centres english studies france first lecturer later professor english studies would seem auguste angellier spending several years teaching french england became lecturer english studies university lille professor english


france nowadays literature civilisation linguistics spoken written language important english studies universities english major rose prominence american colleges first half provided opportunity students develop critical skills analytical reading aim improving writing well exercises rhetoric persuasive expression traditionally taught classical studies available due language barriers shortage professors could actively engage students humanities outside united states


originating scotland rippling english speaking world english major became popular latter half th century time religious beliefs shaken face scientific discoveries literature thought act replacement religion retention advancement culture english major thus provided students chance draw moral ethical philosophical qualities meanings older studies richer broader source literature ancient greek latin classics since questions


specific function english departments contemporary us college university absence clearly defined disciplinary identity increasingly utilitarian goals us society present challenge academic units still mostly focusing printed book traditional division historical periods national literatures neglecting allegedly non theoretical areas professional writing composition multimodal communication skills acquired past academic degree english usually meant intensive study british american literary masterpieces however english major encompasses much broader range


topics stretch multiple disciplines requirements english major vary university university english departments emphasize three core skills analyzing literature process requires logic reflective analysis creativity imagination regard production good writing understanding different cultures civilizations literary styles various time periods skills gained studying english include acquiring tools never lose value understanding ever changing media explain world ref name yale ref prospective english majors expect take college courses academic writing creative


writing literary theory british american literature multicultural literature several literary genres poetry drama film studies number elective multidisciplinary topics history courses social sciences studies foreign language end studying disciplines candidates major english attain skills professional writing relations rhetoric literary analysis appreciation diversity cultures ability clearly persuasively express ideas writing examples courses english courses fall broader categories either literature based studies


well skills involve analysis written texts career opportunities major english opens variety career opportunities college graduates entering job market since students graduate english degree trained ask probing questions large bodies texts formulate analyze answer questions coherent persuasive prose skills vital number careers english majors much choose graduation obvious career choices english majors writing publishing journalism human resources specialist teaching however less intuitive job options