x px ifs x px different researchers postulated without aid modern computer graphics early investigators limited could depict manual drawings lacked means visualize beauty appreciate implications many patterns discovered julia set instance could visualized iterations simple drawings ref name mandelbrot ref name gordon ref ref name mactutor changed however benoit mandelbrot started writing self similarity papers ''how long coast britain statistical self similarity fractional dimension''


often cited description mandelbrot published describe geometric fractals rough fragmented geometric shape split parts least approximately reduced size copy whole ref name mandelbrot generally helpful limited authors disagree exact definition ''fractal'' usually elaborate basic ideas self similarity unusual relationship fractals space embedded ref name mandelbrot ref name gouyet ref ref name falconer ref ref name vicsek one point agreed fractal patterns characterized fractal dimensions whereas numbers quantify complexity

Formal science
Mathematics
Applied mathematics
Dynamical systems
Fractal geometry


ie changing detail changing scale neither uniquely describe specify details construct particular fractal patterns mandelbrot coined word fractal denote object whose hausdorff besicovitch dimension greater topological dimension ref name mandelbrot quote however requirement met space filling curves hilbert curve ref group notes name space filling note trouble involved finding one definition fractals argue fractals strictly defined according falconer fractals addition nowhere differentiable


able fractal dimension generally characterized gestalt following features ref name falconer self similarity may include exact self similarity identical scales koch snowflake quasi self similarity approximates pattern different scales may contain small copies entire fractal distorted degenerate forms eg mandelbrot set 's satellites approximations entire set exact copies statistical self similarity repeats pattern stochastically numerical statistical measures preserved across scales eg randomly generated fractals like well known example coastline


britain one would expect find segment scaled repeated neatly repeated unit defines fractals like koch snowflake ref name vicsek qualitative self similarity time series ref name time series ref multifractal scaling characterized one fractal dimension scaling rule fine detailed structure arbitrarily small scales consequence structure fractals may emergent properties related next criterion list irregularity locally globally easily described traditional euclidean geometric language images fractal patterns


logistic map ''l systems'' use string rewriting may resemble branching patterns plants biological cells eg neurons immune system cells ref name branching blood vessels pulmonary structure ref name modeling vasculature etc turtle graphics patterns space filling curves tilings ''escape time fractals'' use formula recurrence relation point space complex plane usually quasi self similar also known orbit fractals eg mandelbrot set julia set burning ship fractal nova fractal lyapunov fractal vector fields generated one two iterations escape time formulae


also give rise fractal form points pixel data passed field repeatedly ''random fractals'' use stochastic rules eg l vy flight percolation clusters self avoiding walks fractal landscapes trajectories brownian motion brownian tree ie dendritic fractals generated modeling diffusion limited aggregation reaction limited aggregation clusters ref name vicsek ref fractal generated finite subdivision rule alternating link x px ''finite subdivision rules'' use recursive topological algorithm refining tilings ref name finite j w cannon w j floyd w r parry ''finite subdivision rules'' conformal geometry dynamics vol pp ref


similar process cell division ref name biol j w cannon w floyd w parry https booksgooglecom booksid qzhyquli c pg pa dq james w cannon maths ppa ''crystal growth biological cell growth geometry'' pattern formation biology vision dynamics pp world scientific ref iterative processes used creating cantor set sierpinski carpet examples finite subdivision rules barycentric subdivision simulated fractals fractal patterns modeled extensively albeit within range scales rather infinitely owing practical limits physical time space models may simulate theoretical fractals natural phenomena


electrochemical patterns circadian rhythms etc fractal patterns reconstructed physical dimensional space ref name medicine virtually often called silico modeling ref name modeling vasculature models fractals generally created using fractal generating software implements techniques outlined ref name vicsek ref name time series ref name medicine one illustration trees ferns cells nervous system ref name branching blood lung vasculature ref name modeling vasculature ref branching patterns nature modeled computer using recursive algorithms l systems techniques ref name branching recursive nature patterns obvious certain examples


branch tree frond fern miniature replica whole identical similar nature similarly random fractals used describe create many highly irregular real world objects limitation modeling fractals resemblance fractal model natural phenomenon prove phenomenon modeled formed process similar modeling algorithms natural phenomena fractal features approximate fractals found nature display self similarity extended finite scale ranges connection fractals leaves instance currently


used determine much carbon contained trees phenomena known fractal features include actin cytoskeleton algae animal coloration patterns blood vessels pulmonary vessels ref name modeling vasculature clouds rainfall areas coastlines craters crystals ref name crystal ref dna earthquakes ref name seismology ref fault lines geometrical optics ref name geomopt ref heart rates ref name heart ref ref name heartrate heart sounds ref name heartrate ref lake shorelines areas lightning bolts mountain goat horns networks ref name self polymers percolation mountain ranges ocean waves ref name nature ref pineapple psychological subjective perception proteins rings saturn river networks romanesco broccoli snowflakes ref name snowflake ref soil pores surfaces turbulent flows trees dust grains brownian motion generated


one dimensional wiener process gallery mode packed heights file frost patterns jpg frost crystals occurring naturally cold glass form fractal patterns file optical billiard spheres dsweetjpeg fractal basin boundary geometrical optical system ref name geomopt file glue x jpg fractal formed pulling apart two glue covered acrylic sheets file square jpg high voltage breakdown within block acrylic glass creates fractal lichtenberg figure file romanesco broccoli brassica oleracea jpg romanesco broccoli showing self similar form approximating natural fractal file fractal defrosting patterns marsjpg fractal defrosting patterns polar mars patterns formed sublimation frozen co sub sub width image kilometer file brefeldia maxima plasmodium woodjpg slime mold


''brefeldia maxima'' growing fractally wood gallery fractals cell biology fractals often appear realm living organisms arise branching processes complex pattern formation ian wong co workers shown migrating cells form fractals clustering branching nerve cells function processes cell surface phenomena enhanced largely increasing surface volume ratio consequence nerve cells often found form fractal patterns processes crucial cell physiology different pathologies multiple subcellular structures also found


hokky situngkir also suggested similar properties indonesian traditional art batik ornaments found traditional houses ethnomathematician ron eglash discussed planned layout benin city using fractals basis city villages even rooms houses commented europeans first came africa considered architecture disorganised thus primitive never occurred africans might using form mathematics even discovered yet interview michael silverblatt david foster wallace


admitted structure first draft ''infinite jest'' gave editor michael pietsch inspired fractals specifically sierpinski triangle aka sierpinski gasket edited novel like lopsided sierpinsky gasket ref name novel ref works dutch artist c escher circle limit iii contain shapes repeated infinity become smaller smaller get near edges pattern would always look zoomed gallery heights mode packed file animated fractal mountaingif fractal models surface mountain animation


file fractal flowerjpg recursive image file fractal butterflyjpg recursive fractal butterfly image file apophysis jpg fractal flame gallery physiological responses humans appear especially well adapted processing fractal patterns values humans view fractal patterns values tends reduce physiological stress ref name taylor ref applications technology fractal antennas ref name antenna ref fractal transistor ref name fractal transistor ref fractal heat exchangers digital imaging architecture ref name springercom urban growth classification histopathology slides fractal landscape coastline complexity detecting 'life n't know it' fractal analysis enzymes michaelis menten kinetics generation new music signal


image compression creation digital photographic enlargements fractal soil mechanics computer video game design computer graphics organic environments procedural generation fractography fracture mechanics small angle scattering theory fractally rough systems shirts fashion generation patterns camouflage marpat digital sundial technical analysis price series fractals networks ref name self medicine ref name medicine neuroscience ref name cerebellum ref name neuroscience diagnostic imaging ref name diagnostic imaging pathology ref name pathology ref geology geography archaeology ref name archaeology ref soil mechanics ref name soil seismology ref name seismology search rescue ref name search rescue ref technical analysis morton order space filling curves gpu cache


coherency texture mapping rasterisation indexing turbulence data ion propulsion two dimensional fractals iterated many times perimeter fractal increases infinity area may never exceed certain value fractal three dimensional space similar fractal may infinite surface area never exceed certain volume utilized maximize efficiency ion propulsion choosing electron emitter construction material done correctly efficiency emission process maximized see also banach fixed point theorem bifurcation theory box counting cymatics


determinism diamond square algorithm droste effect feigenbaum function form constant fractal cosmology fractal derivative fractalgrid fractal string fracton graftal greeble infinite regress lacunarity list fractals hausdorff dimension mandelbulb mandelbox macrocosm microcosm matryoshka doll menger sponge multifractal system newton fractal percolation power law publications fractal geometry random walk self reference self similarity systems theory strange loop turbulence wiener process notes translated edgar pages ref references reading barnsley michael f rising hawley ''fractals everywhere'' boston academic press professional duarte german ''fractal narrative relationship geometries technology impact


narrative spaces'' bielefeld transcript falconer kenneth ''techniques fractal geometry'' john wiley sons j rgens hartmut peitgen heinz otto saupe dietmar ''chaos fractals new frontiers science'' new york springer verlag mandelbrot benoit b ''the fractal geometry nature'' new york w h freeman co peitgen heinz otto saupe dietmar eds ''the science fractal images'' new york springer verlag pickover clifford ed ''chaos fractals computer graphical journey year compilation advanced research'' elsevier jones jesse ''fractals macintosh'' waite group press corte madera ca


lauwerier hans ''fractals endlessly repeated geometrical figures'' translated sophia gill hoffstadt princeton university press princeton nj cloth paperback book written wide audience includes sample basic programs appendix wahl bernt van roy peter larsen michael kampman eric http wwwfractalexplorercom ''exploring fractals macintosh'' addison wesley lesmoir gordon nigel ''the colours infinity beauty power sense fractals'' book comes related dvd arthur c clarke documentary introduction fractal concept mandelbrot set liu huajie ''fractal art'' changsha


hunan science technology press gouyet jean fran ois ''physics fractal structures'' foreword b mandelbrot masson new york springer verlag print available pdf version external links http havlinbiuacil nas indexhtml scaling fractals presented shlomo havlin bar ilan university https wwwpbsorg wgbh nova physics hunting hidden dimensionhtml hunting hidden dimension pbs ''nova'' first aired august http wwwtedcom talks benoit mandelbrot fractals art roughnesshtml benoit mandelbrot fractals art roughness ted february http wwwarifractalcom technical library fractals technical library fractals controlling fluid http adsabsharvardedu abs prgeo equations self similar fractal measure based fractional order calculus mathematical structures topology computational fields study


anthropology discoveries water ice moon mars europa pluto add extraterrestrial component field referred astroglaciology overview glacier extended mass ice formed snow falling accumulating long period time glaciers move slowly either descending high mountains valley glaciers moving outward centers accumulation continental glaciers areas study within glaciology include glacial history reconstruction past glaciation glaciologist person studies glaciers glacial geologist studies glacial deposits

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Glaciology


glacial erosive features landscape glaciology glacial geology key areas polar research types bylot island glacier sirmilik national park nunavut mountain glacier one many coming interior ice cap top byam martin mountains px glaciers identified geometry relationship surrounding topography two general categories glaciation glaciologists distinguish ''alpine glaciation'' accumulations rivers ice confined valleys ''continental glaciation'' unrestricted accumulations covered much northern continents alpine ice flows


valleys mountainous areas forms tongue ice moving towards plains alpine glaciers tend make topography rugged adding improving scale existing features various features include large ravines called ''cirques'' ar tes ridges rims two cirques meet continental ice sheet found today high latitudes greenland antarctica thousands square kilometers area thousands meters thick tend smooth landscapes zones glaciers accumulation zone formation ice faster removal ablation


wastage zone sum melting calving evaporation sublimation greater amount snow added year glacier equilibrium line ela glacier equilibrium line line separating glacial accumulation area ablation area equilibrium line altitude ela change years key indicator health glacier longterm monitoring ela may used indication climate change movement khurdopin glacier shimshal river gilgit baltistan northern pakistan several glaciers flow shimshal valley


prone blocking river khurdopin glacier surged creating sizable lake px glaciers shimsal valley space may khurdopin glacier dammed shimshal river forming glacial lake river started carve path toe glacier early august lake completely drained px glacier experiencing accumulation input precipitation snow refreezing rain exceeds output ablation glacier shows ''positive glacier mass balance'' advance conversely loss volume evaporation sublimation melting


calving exceeds accumulation glacier shows ''negative glacier mass balance'' glacier melt back times volume input glacier precipitation equivalent ice volume lost calving evaporation melting glacier steady state condition glaciers show periods glacier advancing extreme rate typically times faster considered normal referred ' 'surging glacier'' surge periods may occur interval years eg svalbard caused mainly due


long lasting accumulation period subpolar glaciers frozen ground accumulation area stress due additional volume accumulation area increases pressure melting point ice base may reached basal glacier ice melt glacier surge film meltwater rate movement movement glaciers usually slow velocity varies centimeters meters per day rate movement depends upon factors listed temperature ice ''polar


glacier'' shows cold ice temperatures well freezing point surface base frozen bed ''temperate glacier'' melting point temperature throughout year surface base allows glacier slide thin layer meltwater glaciers alpine regions temperate glaciers gradient slope thickness glacier ref name ref subglacial water dynamics glacial terminology ablation wastage glacier sublimation ice melting iceberg calving ablation zone area glacier


raised movement rapid accommodated creep happens example central part glacier moves faster edges moraine accumulated debris carried glacier deposited sides lateral moraine foot terminal moraine n v area top glacier often cirque snow accumulates feeds glacier horn spire rock also known pyramidal peak formed headward erosion three cirques around single mountain


extreme case ar te plucking quarrying adhesion ice rock stronger cohesion rock part rock leaves flowing ice tarn post glacial lake cirque tunnel valley tunnel formed hydraulic erosion ice rock ice sheet margin tunnel valley remains underlying rock ice sheet melted glacial deposits ref name hossa suomussalmi municipality finland stratified outwash sand gravel front glaciers found


plain kettles lock stagnant ice leaves depression pit eskers steep sided ridges gravel sand possibly caused streams running stagnant ice kames stratified drift builds low steep hills varves alternating thin sedimentary beds coarse fine proglacial lake summer conditions deposit coarser material winter less finer unstratified drowned drumlin clew bay ireland px till unsorted glacial flour boulders deposited receding advancing glaciers forming moraines drumlins moraines terminal material deposited end ground material deposited


glacier melts lateral material deposited along sides drumlins smooth elongated hills composed till ribbed moraines large subglacial elongated hills transverse former ice flow see also continental glaciation ice cap international glaciological society igs international association cryospheric sciences iacs irish sea glacier list glaciers cryosphere notes references benn douglas david j evans ''glaciers glaciation'' london arnold greve ralf heinz blatter ''dynamics ice sheets glaciers'' berlin etc springer hambrey michael j rg alean ''glaciers'' nd ed cambridge new york cambridge university press hooke


roger leb ''principles glacier mechanics'' nd ed cambridge new york cambridge university press paterson w stanley b ''the physics glaciers'' rd ed oxford etc pergamon press van der veen cornelis j ''fundamentals glacier dynamics'' rotterdam balkema van der veen cornelis j ''fundamentals glacier dynamics'' nd ed boca raton fl crc press external links http wwwigsocorg international glaciological society igs http wwwcryosphericsciencesorg international association cryospheric sciences iacs https webarchiveorg web http wwwgialaskaedu snowice snow ice permafrost group university alaska fairbanks http arcticeasualbertaca arctic alpine research group university alberta http wwwglaciers onlinenet glaciers online http wdcgcspricamacuk world


data centre glaciology cambridge uk http wwwnsidcorg national snow ice data center boulder colorado http wwwglimsorg global land ice measurements space glims http danbbsdk stst glaciologi glacial structures photo atlas https webarchiveorg web http wwwnicholsedu departments glacier north cascade glacier climate project https webarchiveorg web http wwwaberacuk glawww centre glaciology university wales http glaciologycaltechedu caltech glaciology group https webarchiveorg web http wwwglaciologygfykudk glaciology group university copenhagen http wwwlowtemhokudaiacjp english institute low temperature science sapporo http wwwnipracjp national institute polar research tokyo http wwwgeophyswashingtonedu surface glaciology glaciology group university washington http wwwglaciologiacl glaciology laboratory universidad de chile centro de estudios cient ficos valdivia https webarchiveorg web http rgomskru russian geographical society moscow centre https webarchiveorg web http rgomskru commissions glaciology glaciology commission https webarchiveorg web http imgiuibkacat iceclim intro institute meteorology geophysics univ


'''medical anthropology''' studies human health disease health care systems biocultural adaptation ref name mcelroy views humans multidimensional ecological perspectives ref name mcelroy townsend one highly developed areas anthropology applied anthropology ref name seymour smith pp subfield social cultural anthropology examines ways culture society organized around influenced issues health health care related issues term medical anthropology used since label empirical research theoretical production anthropologists social processes cultural representations health

Social science
Anthropology
Medical Anthropology


illness nursing care practices associated ref name scotch furthermore europe terms anthropology medicine anthropology health anthropology illness also used medical anthropology also translation th century dutch term medische anthropologie term chosen authors refer philosophical studies health illness ref name entralgo historical background relationship anthropology ''medicine'' medical practice well documented ref name comelles martinez general anthropology occupied notable position basic medical sciences correspond subjects commonly known pre clinical however medical education


started restricted confines hospital consequence development clinical gaze confinement patients observational infirmaries ref name foucault ref name vonbueltzingsloewen hegemony hospital clinical education experimental methodologies suggested claude bernard relegate value practitioners' everyday experience previously seen source knowledge represented reports called ''medical geographies'' ''medical topographies'' based ethnographic demographic statistical sometimes epidemiological data development hospital clinical training basic source knowledge medicine experimental medicine


hospital laboratory factors together meant time mostly doctors abandoned ethnography tool knowledge ethnography remained large part th century tool knowledge primary health care rural medicine international public health abandonment ethnography medicine happened social anthropology adopted ethnography one markers professional identity started depart initial project general anthropology divergence professional anthropology medicine never complete split ref name comelles relationships two


disciplines remained constant th century development modern medical anthropology large number contributors th century medical anthropology primary training medicine nursing psychology psychiatry including w h r rivers abram kardiner robert levy jean benoist gonzalo aguirre beltr n arthur kleinman share clinical anthropological roles others came anthropology social sciences like george foster william caudill byron good tullio seppilli gilles bibeau lluis mallart andr zempleni gilbert lewis ronald frankenberg eduardo men ndez recent book saillant


genest describes large international panorama development medical anthropology main theoretical intellectual actual debates ref name saillant genest ref name saillant genest popular topics covered medical anthropology mental health sexual health pregnancy birth aging addiction nutrition disabilities infectious disease ncd 's global epidemics disaster management medical sociology peter conrad notes medical sociology studies phenomena medical anthropology argues medical anthropology different origins originally studying medicine within non western cultures using different methodologies ref name ref argues convergence


resolve health problems term also used describe health practices aborigines different parts world particular emphasis ethnobotanical knowledge knowledge fundamental isolating alkaloids active pharmacological principles furthermore studying rituals surrounding popular therapies served challenge western psychopathological categories well relationship west science religion doctors trying turn popular medicine anthropological concept rather wanted construct scientifically based medical concept could use establish cultural limits biomedicine ref name comelles ref


name charuty biomedicine application natural sciences biology diagnosis disease often western culture ethnomedicine examples practice found medical archives oral history projects concept ''folk medicine'' taken professional anthropologists first half twentieth century demarcate ''magical practices'' ''medicine'' ' 'religion'' explore role significance ''popular healers'' self medicating practices popular medicine specific cultural feature groups humans distinct universal


practices biomedicine every culture specific popular medicine based general cultural features would possible propose existence many medical systems cultures therefore develop comparative study systems medical systems showed none syncretic features european popular medicine called primitive pretechnical medicine according whether referred contemporary aboriginal cultures cultures predating classical greece cultures documentary corpus tibetan traditional chinese ayurvedic cultures sometimes called ' 'systematic medicines''


revolve around fundamental questions relative influence genotypical phenotypical factors relation personality certain forms pathology especially psychiatric psychosomatic pathologies influence culture society considers normal pathological abnormal verification different cultures universality nosological categories biomedicine psychiatry identification description diseases belonging specific cultures previously described clinical medicine known ethnic disorders recently culture bound syndromes include evil eye


tarantism among european peasants possessed state trance many cultures nervous anorexia nerves premenstrual syndrome western societies since end th century medical anthropologists much sophisticated understanding problem cultural representations social practices related health disease medical care attention understood universal diverse local forms articulated transactional processes link end page included offer wide panorama current positions medical anthropology applied medical anthropology


administrative staff ethnographic reports show interclass crises directly affected therapeutic criteria care ill also contributed new methodological criteria evaluating new institutions resulting reforms well experimental care techniques therapeutic communities ethnographic evidence supported criticisms institutional custodialism contributed decisively policies deinstitutionalizing psychiatric social care general led countries italy rethink guidelines education promoting health empirical answers questions led anthropologists involved many areas


include developing international community health programs developing countries evaluating influence social cultural variables epidemiology certain forms psychiatric pathology transcultural psychiatry studying cultural resistance innovation therapeutic care practices analysing healing practices toward immigrants studying traditional healers folk healers empirical midwives may reinvented health workers called barefoot doctors also since biomedicine developed countries faced series problems stipulate inspection predisposing social cultural factors reduced variables quantitative protocols


subordinated causal biological genetic interpretations among following particular note blockquote transition dominant system designed acute infectious pathology system designed chronic degenerative pathology without specific etiological therapy b emergence need develop long term treatment mechanisms strategies opposed incisive therapeutic treatments c influence concepts quality life relation classic biomedical therapeutic criteria blockquote added problems associated implementing community health mechanisms problems perceived initially tools fighting


incorporate knowledge health illness experience nuanced complex cultural influences influences result nature social relations advanced societies influence social communication media especially audiovisual media advertising agenda currently research medical anthropology one main growth areas field anthropology whole important processes internal specialization taking place reason agenda always debatable general may consider following six basic fields development systems medical knowledge medical care patient physician


relationship integration alternative medical systems culturally diverse environments interaction social environmental biological factors influence health illness individual community whole critical analysis interaction psychiatric services migrant populations critical ethnopsychiatry beneduce impact biomedicine biomedical technologies non western settings subjects become central medical anthropology worldwide violence social suffering well issues involve physical psychological harm suffering result illness hand


medical anthropology xico brazil spain united states universities brown university washington university st louis university south florida uc berkeley uc san francisco university connecticut johns hopkins university university arizona university alabama university washington http wwwsmuedu dedman academics departments anthropology southern methodist university offer phd programs focused subject asia university philippines manila offers master science master 's degrees medical anthropology university south florida university arizona university connecticut university washington


others also offer dual degree phd applied anthropology mph canada university british columbia university toronto mcgill university offer masters' mas mscs phd programs medical anthropology europe msc phd programs offered uk university college london university oxford university edinburgh durham university university amsterdam offers master medical anthropology sociology africa master medical anthropology offered gulu university uganda wwwguacug fairly comprehensive account


interested people need general text topic albretch gl fitzpatrick r scrimshaw ''handbook social studies health medicine'' london sage anderson robert ''magic science health aims achievements medical anthropology'' fort worth harcourt brace baer hans singer merrill susser ida ''medical anthropology world system'' westport ct praeger bibeau gilles cultural psychiatry creolizing world questions new research agenda ''transcultural psychiatry'' brown pj ed ''understanding applying medical anthropology'' mountain view comelles josep dongen els


medical anthropology theoretical trajectories emergent realities'' malden wiley blackwell gray seale c eds ''health disease reader'' buckingham philadelphia pa open university press hahn robert marcia inhorn eds ''anthropology public health second edition bridging differences culture society''oxford university press helman cecil ''culture health illness introduction health professionals'' london butterworth heinemann new fifth ed janzen jm ''the social fabric health introduction medical anthropology'' new york mcgraw hill johnson thomas sargent c comps ''medical anthropology contemporary theory method'' reedition sargent johnson westport


praeger landy david editor ''disease healing studies medical anthropology'' new york macmillan lock nguyen vinh kim ''an anthropology biomedicine'' wiley blackwell loustaunan mo sobo ej ''the cultural context health illness medicine'' westport conn bergin garvey nichter mark 'global health cultural perceptions social representations biopolitics matter' tucson university arizona press pool r geissler w ''medical anthropology'' buckingham open university press samson c ''health studies critical cross cultural reader'' oxford blackwell singer merrill baer hans ''introducing medical anthropology discipline


action'' lanham altamira press trevathan w smith eo mckenna jj ''evolutionary medicine interpretation evolutionary perspective'' oxford university press trevathan w smith eo mckenna j ''evolutionary medicine health new perspectives'' oxford university press wiley ''medical anthropology biocultural approach'' university southern california external links http wwwmedanthronet society medical anthropology anthropology


'''classification''' process related categorization process ideas objects recognized differentiated understood classification grouping related facts classes may also refer toc right business organizations economics classification customers marketing master data management profitability eg activity based costing classified information legal government documentation job classification job analysis standard industrial classification economic activities mathematics attribute value system basic knowledge representation framework classification theorems mathematics mathematical classification grouping mathematical objects based property objects

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Classification


'''federal law''' body law created federal government country federal government formed group political units states provinces join together federation delegating individual sovereignty many powers central government retaining reserving limited powers result two levels government exist within established geographic territory body law common central government federal law examples federal governments include australia brazil canada germany malaysia pakistan republic india russia


system checks balances supreme court makes final decisions regarding federal laws regarding specific cases brought ''mcculloch v maryland'' seminal case handed supreme court prevented state legislatures taxing federal institutions established superior relationship federal laws regards conflicting state laws critical moment federalism united states federal laws codified united states code gravitational force theory professor scott dodson proposes theory argues american federal law measurable effect


state law compares effect gravitational force inexorable influences state actors create legislature accordance least closely aligned federal legislature dodson justifies existence pull arguing state legislators courts rarely exercise constitutional power deviate federal law despite capability cited among supreme case decisions legislative acts federal rules civil procedure responsible ushering new era federal procedural uniformity proposed case evidence dodson points


conley v gibson supreme court decision additional contextualization argument case brought class action lawsuit group african american rail workers federal district court texas stating collective bargaining agent compelled represent fairly accordance railway labor act suit initially dismissed basis complaint follow previously set federal precedence requiring complaint state claim upon relief could given supreme court later held decision mistake


based subjective interpretation federal rules procedure court prioritized rule glossing rule establish fairly liberating set standards pleading procedures adopted many state legislatures references public law


j k paasikivi president finland remembered main architect finland 's foreign policy soviet union second world war left right paasikivi chairman supreme soviet kliment voroshilov moscow state 's '''foreign policy''' '''external policy''' opposed internal domestic policy objectives activities relation interactions states unions political entities whether bilaterally multilateral platforms ref name britannica https wwwbritannicacom topic foreign policy foreign policy ''encyclopedia britannica'' published january ref ''encyclopedia britannica'' notes government 's foreign policy may

Applied science
Public administration
Foreign policy


influenced domestic considerations policies behaviour states plans advance specific geopolitical designs ref name britannica naming term foreign evolved mid th century ''ferren foreyne'' doors based old french ''forain'' outer external outdoor remote reflecting sense one 's land first attested late th century spelling english altered th century perhaps influence words ' 'reign'' ' 'sovereign'' words associated time common office monarch determined foreign policy set


diplomatic goals seeks outline country interact countries world history idea long term management relationships followed development professional diplomatic corps managed diplomacy since term diplomacy taken mean art practice conducting negotiations representatives groups nations th century due extreme turbulence european diplomacy ongoing conflicts practice diplomacy often fragmented necessity deal isolated issues termed affairs therefore domestic management issues termed


proposals alternatives existing policy provide analytical assessments evolving relationships see also alliance balance power international relations diplomacy diplomatic history foreign policy analysis intergovernmental organization international relations theory international relations references reading christopher hill ''the changing politics foreign policy'' basingstoke palgrave macmillan jean fr ric morin jonathan paquin ''foreign policy analysis toolbox'' palgrave steve smith amelia hadley tim dunne eds ''foreign policy theories actors cases'' st ed oxford oxford university press frank stengel rainer baumann non state actors foreign policy ''the oxford encyclopedia foreign policy analysis''


edited cameron thies oxford oxford university press doi acrefore external links subfields political science international relations public policy


ref circulation year december category news magazine news site company slate group llc founded founder samuel p huntington warren demian manshel publisher based washington dc country united


states language english website br issn '''''foreign policy''''' american news publication founded focused global affairs current events domestic international policy produces content daily website six print issues annually ''foreign policy'' magazine foreignpolicycom published fp group division graham holdings company formerly washington post company fp


slim quarterly academic journal bimonthly magazine also launched international editions europe africa middle east asia latin america september ''foreign policy'' bought washington post company graham holdings company ref name fp purchased wapo ref foreign policy grew become fp group expansion ''foreign policy'' magazine include foreignpolicycom fp events style according submissions guidelines ''foreign policy'' articles strike balance informed specialist research general readability tend written plain rather wonky language editorial stance


''foreign policy'' endorsed democratic candidate hillary clinton us presidential election first time year history magazine endorsed candidate ref name foreign ref awards since ''foreign policy'' nominated eight national magazine awards winning six three print publication three digital publication foreignpolicycom ''fp'' independent magazine consecutive digital national magazine awards every year established ''' ''' ''foreign policy'' national magazine award outstanding achievement general excellence circulation category ref name 'search


page results fp national magazine award' ref ''' ''' ''foreign policy'' national magazine award general excellence circulation category ref name fp national magazine award ref ''foreign policy'' presented gold winner eddie awards wins iraq consumer news commentary general interest category ref name wins iraq fp award ref ''' ''' ''folio'' magazine gold editorial excellence eddie award consumer magazine news commentary general interest single article america must kenneth rogoff jan feb ref name fp folio magazine award ref ''fp'' 's america must feature received eddie award gold


circulation category ref name fp national magazine award ref ''forbes'' realclearworld designated foreignpolicycom top international news site ref name fp realclearworld award ref ''' ''' ''foreign policy'' 's best defense column authored tom ricks received digital national magazine award best blog ref name best defense fp award ref ''' ''' ''foreign policy'' magazine former editor chief susan glasser presented special citation edward weintal prize diplomatic reporting ref name fp weinthal prize diplomatic reporting ref turtle bay reported blog journalist colum lynch digital national magazine award best reporting series hard hitting investigative


articles united nations ref name fp digital national magazine award ref ''' ''' ''foreign policy'' overseas press club award general excellence best overall international coverage website ref name fp overseas press club award ref ''fp'' qaddafi files national magazine award multimedia ref name fp national magazine award ref ''' ''' surveillance state illustration ''foreign policy'' received first design recognition surveillance state appearing annual global thinkers issue december illustration oliver munday accompanied marquee story novelist william vollmann discussed surveillance state knowingly live


revelations wide reaching surveillance nsa munday 's illustration ''fp'' appeared american illustration annual award book ref name ai ap award ref ''foreign policy'' writers multiple awards united nations correspondents association senior diplomatic reporter colum lynch received silver medal elizabeth neuffer memorial prize three part series unamid peacekeeping mission darfur ''fp'' contributor james reinl gold medal united nations foundation prize print reporting somalia kenya including story ''foreign policy'' titled crazy town ptsd somalia ref name unca awards ref ''' '''


''foreign policy'' contributors received two overseas press club awards excellence international reporting honorees included tristian mcconnell piece called close eyes pretend dead detailing deadly attack nairobi 's westgate mall christina larson also received award profile entrepreneur zhao bowen entitled zhao method featured ''fp 's'' september october print edition ref name fp overseas press club award ref ''foreign policy'' photographer andrew quilty received george polk award photography three part photo series titled man operating table showing


destruction following airstrikes decins sans fronti res msf hospital kunduz afghanistan october ref name fp george polk photography award ref see also fp top global thinkers foreign policy united states references external links man operating table https webarchiveorg web https foreignpolicycom inside msf hospital kunduz afghanistan taliban us attack part inside msf hospital kunduz https webarchiveorg web https foreignpolicycom msf hospital survivors recount night horror kunduz afghanistan us airstrike part msf hospital survivors recount night horror https webarchiveorg web https foreignpolicycom man operating table msf hospital kunduz afghanistan us airstrike part man operating table magazines established establishments united states international relations journals political magazines published united states bimonthly magazines published


united states magazines published washington dc


carrasco j lennox b arvin f https ieeexploreieeeorg document voronoi based multi robot autonomous exploration unknown environments via deep reinforcement learning ieee transactions vehicular technology ref subset machine learning closely related computational statistics focuses making predictions using computers machine learning statistical learning study mathematical optimization delivers methods theory application domains field machine learning data mining related field study focusing exploratory data analysis unsupervised learning implementations machine learning use data neural networks way mimics working

Formal science
Computer science
Artificial intelligence
Machine learning


biological brain application across business problems machine learning also referred predictive analytics overview learning algorithms work basis strategies algorithms inferences worked well past likely continue working well future inferences obvious since sun rose every morning last days probably rise tomorrow morning well nuanced x families geographically separate species color variants chance undiscovered black


swans exist machine learning programs perform tasks without explicitly programmed involves computers learning data provided carry certain tasks simple tasks assigned computers possible program algorithms telling machine execute steps required solve problem hand computer 's part learning needed advanced tasks challenging human manually create needed algorithms practice turn effective help machine develop algorithm rather


human programmers specify every needed step ref name alpaydin ref discipline machine learning employs various approaches teach computers accomplish tasks fully satisfactory algorithm available cases vast numbers potential answers exist one approach label correct answers valid used training data computer improve algorithm uses determine correct answers example train system task digital character recognition mnist dataset handwritten digits often used ref name alpaydin


history relationships fields term ''machine learning'' coined arthur samuel american ibmer pioneer field computer gaming artificial intelligence ref name samuel ref also synonym ' 'self teaching computers'' used time period ref name cyberthreat ref representative book machine learning research nilsson 's book learning machines dealing mostly machine learning pattern classification interest related pattern recognition continued described duda hart report given using teaching strategies


neural network learns recognize characters letters digits special symbols computer terminal tom mitchell provided widely quoted formal definition algorithms studied machine learning field computer program said learn experience ''e'' respect class tasks ''t'' performance measure ''p'' performance tasks ''t'' measured ''p'' improves experience ''e'' ref name mitchell ref definition tasks machine learning concerned offers fundamentally operational definition rather defining field


cognitive terms follows alan turing 's proposal paper computing machinery intelligence question machines think replaced question machines thinking entities modern day machine learning two objectives one classify data based models developed purpose make predictions future outcomes based models hypothetical algorithm specific classifying data may use computer vision moles coupled supervised learning order train classify cancerous moles


machine learning algorithm stock trading may inform trader future potential predictions artificial intelligence access date october ref language en ref scientific endeavor machine learning grew quest artificial intelligence early days ai academic discipline researchers interested machines learn data attempted approach problem various symbolic methods well termed neural networks mostly perceptrons models later found reinventions generalized linear models statistics probabilistic reasoning also


computer science around time line continued outside ai cs field connectionism researchers disciplines including hopfield rumelhart hinton main success came mid reinvention backpropagation ref name aima machine learning ml reorganized separate field started flourish field changed goal achieving artificial intelligence tackling solvable problems practical nature shifted focus away symbolic approaches inherited ai toward methods models borrowed statistics probability theory ref name changing


difference ml ai frequently misunderstood ml learns predicts based passive observations whereas ai implies agent interacting environment learn take actions maximize chance successfully achieving goals ref name many sources continue assert ml remains subfield ai ref name ref name islr ref name changing others view ml part ai 'intelligent subset' ml considered ai ref name bishop ref name ref name alpaydin data mining machine learning data mining


often employ methods overlap significantly machine learning focuses prediction based ''known'' properties learned training data data mining focuses discovery previously ''unknown'' properties data analysis step knowledge discovery databases data mining uses many machine learning methods different goals hand machine learning also employs data mining methods unsupervised learning preprocessing step improve learner accuracy much confusion two research communities often separate conferences separate journals ecml


pkdd major exception comes basic assumptions work machine learning performance usually evaluated respect ability ' 'reproduce known'' knowledge knowledge discovery data mining kdd key task discovery previously ''unknown'' knowledge evaluated respect known knowledge uninformed unsupervised method easily outperformed supervised methods typical kdd task supervised methods cannot used due unavailability training data optimization machine learning also intimate ties optimization many learning problems formulated


minimization loss function training set examples loss functions express discrepancy predictions model trained actual problem instances example classification one wants assign label instances models trained correctly predict pre assigned labels set examples generalization difference optimization machine learning arises goal generalization optimization algorithms minimize loss training set machine learning concerned minimizing loss unseen samples characterizing generalization various learning


algorithms active topic current research especially deep learning algorithms statistics machine learning statistics closely related fields terms methods distinct principal goal statistics draws population inferences sample machine learning finds generalizable predictive patterns according michael jordan ideas machine learning methodological principles theoretical tools long pre history statistics ref name mi jordan ama ref also suggested term data science placeholder call overall field ref name mi jordan ama leo breiman distinguished two statistical modeling paradigms


data model algorithmic model ref name ref wherein algorithmic model means less machine learning algorithms like random forest statisticians adopted methods machine learning leading combined field call ' 'statistical learning'' ref name islr ref theory core objective learner generalize experience ref name bishop ref ref name ref generalization context ability learning machine perform accurately new unseen examples tasks experienced learning data set training examples come generally unknown probability distribution considered representative space occurrences


learner build general model space enables produce sufficiently accurate predictions new cases computational analysis machine learning algorithms performance branch theoretical computer science known computational learning theory training sets finite future uncertain learning theory usually yield guarantees performance algorithms instead probabilistic bounds performance quite common bias variance decomposition one way quantify generalization error best performance context generalization complexity hypothesis


match complexity function underlying data hypothesis less complex function model fitted data complexity model increased response training error decreases hypothesis complex model subject overfitting generalization poorer ref name alpaydin ref addition performance bounds learning theorists study time complexity feasibility learning computational learning theory computation considered feasible done polynomial time two kinds time complexity


results positive results show certain class functions learned polynomial time negative results show certain classes cannot learned polynomial time approaches machine learning approaches traditionally divided three broad categories depending nature signal feedback available learning system supervised learning computer presented example inputs desired outputs given teacher goal learn general rule maps inputs outputs unsupervised learning labels given learning algorithm leaving


find structure input unsupervised learning goal discovering hidden patterns data means towards end feature learning reinforcement learning computer program interacts dynamic environment must perform certain goal driving vehicle playing game opponent navigates problem space program provided feedback 's analogous rewards tries maximize ref name bishop supervised learning support vector machine supervised learning model divides data regions separated


linear boundary linear boundary divides black circles white supervised learning algorithms build mathematical model set data contains inputs desired outputs data known training data consists set training examples training example one inputs desired output also known supervisory signal mathematical model training example represented array vector sometimes called feature vector training data represented matrix iterative optimization


objective function supervised learning algorithms learn function used predict output associated new inputs optimal function allow algorithm correctly determine output inputs part training data algorithm improves accuracy outputs predictions time said learned perform task ref name mitchell types supervised learning algorithms include active learning classification regression ref name ref classification algorithms used outputs restricted limited set values regression algorithms used


learning algorithms take set data contains inputs find structure data like grouping clustering data points algorithms therefore learn test data labeled classified categorized instead responding feedback unsupervised learning algorithms identify commonalities data react based presence absence commonalities new piece data central application unsupervised learning field density estimation statistics finding probability density function ref name jordanbishop ref though unsupervised learning encompasses domains involving summarizing


explaining data features cluster analysis assignment set observations subsets called ''clusters'' observations within cluster similar according one predesignated criteria observations drawn different clusters dissimilar different clustering techniques make different assumptions structure data often defined ' 'similarity metric'' evaluated example ''internal compactness'' similarity members cluster ' 'separation'' difference clusters methods based ''estimated density'' ''graph connectivity'' semi supervised learning semi supervised learning falls


unsupervised learning without labeled training data supervised learning completely labeled training data training examples missing training labels yet many machine learning researchers found unlabeled data used conjunction small amount labeled data produce considerable improvement learning accuracy weakly supervised learning training labels noisy limited imprecise however labels often cheaper obtain resulting larger effective training sets reinforcement learning reinforcement learning area machine learning concerned software agents ought take actions


environment maximize notion cumulative reward due generality field studied many disciplines game theory control theory operations research information theory simulation based optimization multi agent systems swarm intelligence statistics genetic algorithms machine learning environment typically represented markov decision process mdp many reinforcement learning algorithms use dynamic programming techniques reinforcement learning algorithms assume knowledge exact mathematical model mdp used exact models infeasible reinforcement learning algorithms used autonomous vehicles learning


play game human opponent dimensionality reduction dimensionality reduction process reducing number random variables consideration obtaining set principal variables words process reducing dimension feature set also called number features dimensionality reduction techniques considered either feature elimination extraction one popular methods dimensionality reduction principal component analysis pca pca involves changing higher dimensional data eg smaller space eg results smaller dimension data


instead keeping original variables model without changing data manifold hypothesis proposes high dimensional data sets lie along low dimensional manifolds many dimensionality reduction techniques make assumption leading area manifold learning manifold regularization types approaches developed n't fit neatly three fold categorisation sometimes one used machine learning system example topic modeling meta learning deep learning become dominant approach much ongoing work field machine


learning ref name alpaydin self learning self learning machine learning paradigm introduced along neural network capable self learning named ''crossbar adaptive array'' caa learning external rewards external teacher advice caa self learning algorithm computes crossbar fashion decisions actions emotions feelings consequence situations system driven interaction cognition emotion self learning algorithm updates memory matrix w w iteration executes following machine learning routine situation perform action


encountered behavioral environment receiving genome species vector genetic environment caa learns goal seeking behavior environment contains desirable undesirable situations feature learning several learning algorithms aim discovering better representations inputs provided training ref name pami ref classic examples include principal components analysis cluster analysis feature learning algorithms also called representation learning algorithms often attempt preserve information input also transform way makes useful often pre processing step performing classification predictions technique allows


clustering ref name coates ref ref name jurafsky ref manifold learning algorithms attempt constraint learned representation low dimensional sparse coding algorithms attempt constraint learned representation sparse meaning mathematical model many zeros multilinear subspace learning algorithms aim learn low dimensional representations directly tensor representations multidimensional data without reshaping higher dimensional vectors deep learning algorithms discover multiple levels representation hierarchy features higher level abstract features defined terms generating lower level features argued intelligent machine


one learns representation disentangles underlying factors variation explain observed data feature learning motivated fact machine learning tasks classification often require input mathematically computationally convenient process however real world data images video sensory data yielded attempts algorithmically define specific features alternative discover features representations examination without relying explicit algorithms sparse dictionary learning sparse dictionary learning feature learning method training example represented


linear combination basis functions assumed sparse matrix method strongly np hard difficult solve approximately popular heuristic method sparse dictionary learning k svd algorithm sparse dictionary learning applied several contexts classification problem determine class previously unseen training example belongs dictionary class already built new training example associated class best sparsely represented corresponding dictionary sparse dictionary learning also applied image de noising


key idea clean image patch sparsely represented image dictionary noise cannot anomaly detection data mining anomaly detection also known outlier detection identification rare items events observations raise suspicions differing significantly majority data ref name ref typically anomalous items represent issue bank fraud structural defect medical problems errors text anomalies referred outliers novelties noise deviations exceptions particular context abuse network intrusion detection


interesting objects often rare objects unexpected bursts inactivity pattern adhere common statistical definition outlier rare object many outlier detection methods particular unsupervised algorithms fail data unless aggregated appropriately instead cluster analysis algorithm may able detect micro clusters formed patterns three broad categories anomaly detection techniques exist ref name chandolasurvey ref unsupervised anomaly detection techniques detect anomalies unlabeled test data set assumption majority instances data set


normal looking instances seem fit least remainder data set supervised anomaly detection techniques require data set labeled normal abnormal involves training classifier key difference many statistical classification problems inherently unbalanced nature outlier detection semi supervised anomaly detection techniques construct model representing normal behavior given normal training data set test likelihood test instance generated model robot learning robot learning inspired multitude machine


learning methods starting supervised learning reinforcement learning finally meta learning eg maml association rules association rule learning rule based machine learning method discovering relationships variables large databases intended identify strong rules discovered databases using measure interestingness ref name piatetsky piatetsky shapiro gregory ''discovery analysis presentation strong rules'' piatetsky shapiro gregory frawley william j eds ''knowledge discovery databases'' aaai mit press cambridge ref rule based machine learning general term machine learning method identifies learns evolves rules store manipulate apply


knowledge defining characteristic rule based machine learning algorithm identification utilization set relational rules collectively represent knowledge captured system contrast machine learning algorithms commonly identify singular model universally applied instance order make prediction rule based machine learning approaches include learning classifier systems association rule learning artificial immune systems based concept strong rules rakesh agrawal tomasz imieli ski arun swami introduced association rules discovering regularities products large scale transaction data


recorded point sale pos systems supermarkets ref name mining ref example rule math mathrm onions potatoes rightarrow mathrm burger math found sales data supermarket would indicate customer buys onions potatoes together likely also buy hamburger meat information used basis decisions marketing activities promotional pricing product placements addition market basket analysis association rules employed today application areas including web usage mining intrusion detection continuous production bioinformatics contrast sequence mining association rule learning typically consider


set examples represented logical database facts ilp system derive hypothesized logic program entails positive negative examples inductive programming related field considers kind programming language representing hypotheses logic programming functional programs inductive logic programming particularly useful bioinformatics natural language processing gordon plotkin ehud shapiro laid initial theoretical foundation inductive machine learning logical setting shapiro built first implementation model inference system prolog program inductively inferred logic


programs positive negative examples term ''inductive'' refers philosophical induction suggesting theory explain observed facts rather mathematical induction proving property members well ordered set models performing machine learning involves creating model trained training data process additional data make predictions various types models used researched machine learning systems artificial neural networks artificial neural network interconnected group nodes akin vast network neurons brain


circular node represents artificial neuron arrow represents connection output one artificial neuron input another artificial neural networks anns connectionist systems computing systems vaguely inspired biological neural networks constitute animal brains systems learn perform tasks considering examples generally without programmed task specific rules ann model based collection connected units nodes called artificial neurons loosely model neurons biological brain connection like synapses biological brain transmit


information signal one artificial neuron another artificial neuron receives signal process signal additional artificial neurons connected common ann implementations signal connection artificial neurons real number output artificial neuron computed non linear function sum inputs connections artificial neurons called edges artificial neurons edges typically weight adjusts learning proceeds weight increases decreases strength signal connection artificial neurons may


threshold signal sent aggregate signal crosses threshold typically artificial neurons aggregated layers different layers may perform different kinds transformations inputs signals travel first layer input layer last layer output layer possibly traversing layers multiple times original goal ann approach solve problems way human brain would however time attention moved performing specific tasks leading deviations biology artificial neural networks used


variety tasks including computer vision speech recognition machine translation social network filtering playing board video games medical diagnosis deep learning consists multiple hidden layers artificial neural network approach tries model way human brain processes light sound vision hearing successful applications deep learning computer vision speech recognition decision trees decision tree learning uses decision tree predictive model go observations item represented branches conclusions item 's target value represented leaves


one predictive modeling approaches used statistics data mining machine learning tree models target variable take discrete set values called classification trees tree structures leaves represent class labels branches represent conjunctions features lead class labels decision trees target variable take continuous values typically real numbers called regression trees decision analysis decision tree used visually explicitly represent decisions decision making data mining decision tree describes data resulting classification


tree input decision making support vector machines support vector machines svms also known support vector networks set related supervised learning methods used classification regression given set training examples marked belonging one two categories svm training algorithm builds model predicts whether new example falls one category ref name corinnacortes ref svm training algorithm non probabilistic binary linear classifier although methods platt scaling exist use svm probabilistic classification setting addition performing linear


ridge regression dealing non linear problems go models include polynomial regression example used trendline fitting microsoft excel logistic regression often used statistical classification even kernel regression introduces non linearity taking advantage kernel trick implicitly map input variables higher dimensional space bayesian networks simple bayesian network rain influences whether sprinkler activated rain sprinkler influence whether grass wet bayesian network belief network directed acyclic graphical model probabilistic graphical model represents set random variables


conditional independence directed acyclic graph dag example bayesian network could represent probabilistic relationships diseases symptoms given symptoms network used compute probabilities presence various diseases efficient algorithms exist perform inference learning bayesian networks model sequences variables like speech signals protein sequences called dynamic bayesian networks generalizations bayesian networks represent solve decision problems uncertainty called influence diagrams genetic algorithms genetic algorithm ga search algorithm heuristic technique mimics


process natural selection using methods mutation crossover generate new genotypes hope finding good solutions given problem machine learning genetic algorithms used conversely machine learning techniques used improve performance genetic evolutionary algorithms training models usually machine learning models require lot data order perform well usually training machine learning model one needs collect large representative sample data training set data training


set varied corpus text collection images data collected individual users service overfitting something watch training machine learning model trained models derived biased data result skewed undesired predictions algorithmic bias potential result data fully prepared training federated learning federated learning adapted form distributed artificial intelligence training machine learning models decentralizes training process allowing users' privacy maintained needing send data


centralized server also increases efficiency decentralizing training process many devices example gboard uses federated machine learning train search query prediction models users' mobile phones without send individual searches back google applications many applications machine learning including agriculture anatomy adaptive website affective computing astronomy banking bioinformatics brain machine interfaces cheminformatics citizen science computer networks computer vision credit card fraud detection data quality dna sequence classification economics financial market analysis general game playing handwriting recognition information retrieval insurance internet fraud detection knowledge graph embedding linguistics machine learning


control machine perception machine translation marketing medical diagnosis natural language processing natural language understanding online advertising optimization recommender systems robot locomotion search engines sentiment analysis sequence mining software engineering speech recognition structural health monitoring syntactic pattern recognition telecommunication theorem proving time series forecasting user behavior analytics behaviorism media services provider netflix held first netflix prize competition find program better predict user preferences improve accuracy existing cinematch movie recommendation algorithm least joint team made researchers labs research collaboration teams big chaos


pragmatic theory built ensemble model win grand prize nbsp million shortly prize awarded netflix realized viewers' ratings best indicators viewing patterns everything recommendation changed recommendation engine accordingly wall street journal wrote firm rebellion research use machine learning predict financial crisis co founder sun microsystems vinod khosla predicted medical doctors' jobs would lost next two decades automated machine learning medical diagnostic software


reported machine learning algorithm applied field art history study fine art paintings may revealed previously unrecognized influences among artists springer nature published first research book created using machine learning machine learning technology used help make diagnoses aid researchers developing cure covid machine learning recently applied predict green behavior human recently machine learning technology also applied optimise smartphone 's performance thermal behaviour based user 's interaction


phone limitations although machine learning transformative fields machine learning programs often fail deliver expected results reasons numerous lack suitable data lack access data data bias privacy problems badly chosen tasks algorithms wrong tools people lack resources evaluation problems self driving car uber failed detect pedestrian killed collision attempts use machine learning healthcare ibm watson system failed deliver even years time billions dollars invested machine


learning used strategy update evidence related systematic review increased reviewer burden related growth biomedical literature improved training sets yet developed sufficiently reduce workload burden without limiting necessary sensitivity findings research bias machine learning approaches particular suffer different data biases machine learning system trained specifically current customers may able predict needs new customer groups represented training data trained


man made data machine learning likely pick constitutional unconscious biases already present society ref name ref language models learned data shown contain human like biases machine learning systems used criminal risk assessment found biased black people google photos would often tag black people gorillas ref name ref still well resolved google reportedly still using workaround remove gorillas training data thus able recognize real gorillas similar issues recognizing


non white people found many systems microsoft tested chatbot learned twitter quickly picked racist sexist language challenges effective use machine learning may take longer adopted domains concern fairness machine learning reducing bias machine learning propelling use human good increasingly expressed artificial intelligence scientists including fei fei li reminds engineers nothing artificial aiit inspired people created people importantly impacts people


powerful tool beginning understand profound responsibility overfitting blue line could example overfitting linear function due random noise settling bad overly complex theory gerrymandered fit past training data known overfitting many systems attempt reduce overfitting rewarding theory accordance well fits data penalizing theory accordance complex theory limitations learners also disappoint learning wrong lesson toy example


image classifier trained pictures brown horses black cats might conclude brown patches likely horses real world example unlike humans current image classifiers often n't primarily make judgments spatial relationship components picture learn relationships pixels humans oblivious still correlate images certain types real objects modifying patterns legitimate image result adversarial images system misclassifies adversarial vulnerabilities also result nonlinear systems non pattern


perturbations systems brittle changing single adversarial pixel predictably induces misclassification model assessments classification machine learning models validated accuracy estimation techniques like holdout method splits data training test set conventionally training set test set designation evaluates performance training model test set comparison k fold cross validation method randomly partitions data k subsets k experiments performed respectively considering subset evaluation remaining k subsets training model


addition holdout cross validation methods bootstrap samples n instances replacement dataset used assess model accuracy addition overall accuracy investigators frequently report sensitivity specificity meaning true positive rate tpr true negative rate tnr respectively similarly investigators sometimes report false positive rate fpr well false negative rate fnr however rates ratios fail reveal numerators denominators total operating characteristic toc effective method express model 's diagnostic ability toc shows numerators denominators


previously mentioned rates thus toc provides information commonly used receiver operating characteristic roc roc 's associated area curve auc ethics machine learning poses host ethical questions systems trained datasets collected biases may exhibit biases upon use algorithmic bias thus digitizing cultural prejudices example uk 's commission racial equality found st george 's medical school using computer program trained data previous admissions staff program denied nearly candidates found either women


necessarily also learn biases forms ethical challenges related personal biases seen health care concerns among health care professionals systems might designed public 's interest income generating machines especially true united states long standing ethical dilemma improving health care also increasing profits example algorithms could designed provide patients unnecessary tests medication algorithm 's proprietary owners hold stakes potential machine learning health care provide


alphazero found fold increase amount compute required doubling time trendline months neuromorphic physical neural networks physical neural network neuromorphic computer type artificial neural network electrically adjustable material used emulate function neural synapse physical neural network used emphasize reliance physical hardware used emulate neurons opposed software based approaches generally term applicable artificial neural networks memristor electrically adjustable resistance material used


emulate neural synapse software software suites containing variety machine learning algorithms include following free open source software caffe microsoft cognitive toolkit deeplearning j deepspeed elki infernet keras lightgbm mahout mallet mlnet mlpack mxnet neural lab opennn orange pandas software root tmva root scikit learn shogun spark mllib systemml tensorflow torch pytorch weka moa xgboost yooreeka proprietary software free open source editions knime rapidminer proprietary software amazon machine learning angoss knowledgestudio azure machine learning ayasdi ibm watson studio google prediction api ibm spss modeler kxen modeler lionsolver


mathematica matlab neural designer neurosolutions oracle data mining oracle ai platform cloud service polyanalyst rcase sas enterprise miner sequencel splunk statistica data miner journals journal machine learning research machine learning nature machine intelligence neural computation conferences association computational linguistics '''acl''' european conference machine learning principles practice knowledge discovery databases '''ecml pkdd''' international conference machine learning '''icml''' international conference learning representations '''iclr''' international conference intelligent robots systems '''iros''' conference knowledge discovery data mining '''kdd''' conference neural information processing systems '''neurips''' see also


''pattern classification'' nd edition wiley new york christopher bishop ''neural networks pattern recognition'' oxford university press stuart russell peter norvig '' http aimacsberkeleyedu artificial intelligence modern approach '' pearson ray solomonoff ''an inductive inference machine'' ire convention record section information theory part pp ray solomonoff '' http worldstdcom rjs indinf pdf inductive inference machine '' privately circulated report dartmouth summer research conference ai kevin p murphy '' https probmlgithubio pml book book html probabilistic machine learning introduction '' mit press external links https webarchiveorg web http machinelearningorg international machine learning society https mlossorg mloss academic


database open source machine learning software cybernetics learning


adsorbed catalyst surface h sub sub dissociates br h atom bonds one c atom c atom still attached surface br second c atom bonds h atom molecule leaves surface '''hydrogenation''' chemical reaction molecular hydrogen h sub sub another compound element usually presence catalyst nickel palladium platinum process commonly employed reduce saturate organic compounds hydrogenation typically constitutes addition pairs hydrogen atoms molecule often alkene catalysts


required reaction usable non catalytic hydrogenation takes place high temperatures hydrogenation reduces double triple bonds hydrocarbons process hydrogenation three components unsaturated substrate hydrogen hydrogen source invariably catalyst reduction reaction carried different temperatures pressures depending upon substrate activity catalyst related competing reactions catalysts conditions used hydrogenation reactions also lead isomerization alkenes cis trans process great interest hydrogenation technology


generates trans fat foods see reaction bonds broken hydrogen added called hydrogenolysis reaction may occur carbon carbon carbon heteroatom oxygen nitrogen halogen bonds hydrogenations polar bonds accompanied hydrogenolysis hydrogen sources hydrogenation obvious source hydrogen h sub sub gas typically available commercially within storage medium pressurized cylinder hydrogenation process often uses greater atmosphere h sub sub usually conveyed cylinders sometimes augmented booster pumps gaseous hydrogen produced


variety different functional groups class wikitable toccolours substrates products hydrogenation substrate product comments heat hydrogenation br kj mol align center r sub sub c cr' sub sub br alkene align center r sub sub chchr' sub sub br alkane large application production margarine align center align center rc cr' br alkyne align center rch sub sub ch sub sub r' br alkane align center semihydrogenation gives ''cis'' rhc chr' br align center br full hydrogenation align center rcho br aldehyde align center rch sub sub oh br primary alcohol align center often employs transfer hydrogenation align center align center r sub sub co br ketone align center r sub sub choh br secondary alcohol align center often employs transfer hydrogenation align center align center rco sub sub r' br ester align center rch sub sub oh r'oh br two alcohols oalign center often


applies production fatty alcohols align center align center rco sub sub h br carboxylic acid align center rch sub sub oh br primary alcohol align center applicable fatty alcohols align center align center rno sub sub br nitro align center rnh sub sub br amine align center major application aniline align center catalysts rare exceptions h sub sub unreactive toward organic compounds absence metal catalysts unsaturated substrate chemisorbed onto catalyst sites covered substrate heterogeneous catalysts hydrogen forms surface hydrides h hydrogens transferred chemisorbed substrate platinum palladium rhodium ruthenium form highly active


catalysts operate lower temperatures lower pressures h sub sub non precious metal catalysts especially based nickel raney nickel urushibara nickel also developed economical alternatives often slower require higher temperatures trade activity speed reaction vs cost catalyst cost apparatus required use high pressures notice raney nickel catalysed hydrogenations require high pressures catalysts usually classified two broad classes homogeneous catalysts heterogeneous catalysts homogeneous catalysts dissolve solvent contains unsaturated substrate heterogeneous catalysts


solids suspended solvent substrate treated gaseous substrate homogeneous catalysts well known homogeneous catalysts indicated coordination complexes activate unsaturated substrate h sub sub typically complexes contain platinum group metals especially rh ir gallery caption homogeneous hydrogenation catalysts precursors widths px heights px file dichlorotris triphenylphosphine ruthenium ii png dichlorotris triphenylphosphine ruthenium ii precatalyst based ruthenium file crabtreesvg crabtree 's catalyst highly active catalyst featuring iridium file cyclooctadiene rhodium chloride dimer skeletalpng rh sub sub cl sub sub cod sub sub precursor many homogeneous catalysts file ipr phoxsvg ipr phox typical chelating phosphine ligand used asymmetric hydrogenation gallery


mechanism hydrogenation terminal alkene using wilkinson 's catalyst homogeneous catalysts also used asymmetric synthesis hydrogenation prochiral substrates early demonstration approach rh catalyzed hydrogenation enamides precursors drug l dopa achieve asymmetric reduction catalyst made chiral use chiral diphosphine ligands ref name textbook rhodium catalyzed hydrogenation also used herbicide production metolachlor uses josiphos type ligand called xyliphos principle asymmetric hydrogenation catalyzed chiral heterogeneous catalysts ref name mallet ref approach remains


curiosity useful technology heterogeneous catalysts heterogeneous catalysts hydrogenation common industrially industry precious metal hydrogenation catalysts deposited solution fine powder support cheap bulky porous usually granular material activated carbon alumina calcium carbonate barium sulfate example platinum carbon produced reduction chloroplatinic acid ''in situ'' carbon examples catalysts ruthenium activated carbon platinum alumina base metal catalysts raney nickel typically much cheaper need


requires transfer hydrogenation least reactions use homogeneous catalysts catalysts readily generated chiral forms basis asymmetric hydrogenation ketones electrolytic hydrogenation polar substrates nitriles hydrogenated electrochemically using protic solvents reducing equivalents source hydrogen thermodynamics mechanism addition hydrogen double triple bonds hydrocarbons type redox reaction thermodynamically favorable example addition hydrogen ethene gibbs free energy change kj mol sup sup highly exothermic ref name textbook ref hydrogenation


vegetable oils fatty acids example heat released kcal per mole kj mol sufficient raise temperature oil nbsp c per iodine number drop however reaction rate hydrogenation reactions negligible absence catalysts mechanism metal catalyzed hydrogenation alkenes alkynes extensively studied first isotope labeling using deuterium confirms regiochemistry addition rch ch sub sub sub sub rchdch sub sub heterogeneous catalysis solids accepted mechanism horiuti polanyi mechanism binding unsaturated bond dissociation


h sub sub catalyst addition one atom hydrogen step reversible addition second atom effectively irreversible third step alkyl group revert alkene detach catalyst consequently contact hydrogenation catalyst allows ''cis trans'' isomerization ''trans'' alkene reassociate surface undergo hydrogenation details revealed part using deuterium recovered alkenes often contain deuterium aromatic substrates first hydrogenation slowest product step cyclohexadiene hydrogenate rapidly rarely detected similarly cyclohexene


ordinarily reduced cyclohexane homogeneous catalysis many homogeneous hydrogenation processes metal binds components give intermediate alkene metal h sub sub complex general sequence reactions assumed follows related sequence steps binding hydrogen give dihydride complex via oxidative addition preceding oxidative addition h sub sub formation dihydrogen complex l sub n sub h sub sub l sub n sub mh sub sub binding alkene l sub n sub sup sup h sub sub ch sub sub chr l sub n sub mh sub sub ch sub sub chr l transfer one hydrogen atom metal carbon migratory insertion l sub n sub mh sub sub ch sub sub chr l sub n sub h ch sub sub ch sub sub r transfer second hydrogen


atom metal alkyl group simultaneous dissociation alkane reductive elimination l sub n sub h ch sub sub ch sub sub r l sub n sub ch sub sub ch sub sub r inorganic substrates hydrogenation nitrogen give ammonia conducted vast scale haber bosch process consuming estimated world 's energy supply chem title hydrogenation nitrogen underset nitrogen n equiv n underset hydrogen atop atm h ce fe catalyst circ ce c underset ammonia nh chem oxygen partially hydrogenated give hydrogen peroxide although process commercialized one difficulty preventing catalysts triggering decomposition hydrogen peroxide form water ref name hutchings ref industrial applications catalytic hydrogenation


diverse industrial uses frequently industrial hydrogenation relies heterogeneous catalysts ref name rylander food industry food industry hydrogenates vegetable oils convert solid semi solid fats used spreads candies baked goods products like butter vegetable oils made polyunsaturated fatty acids one carbon carbon double bond hydrogenation eliminates double bonds ref name free ian p freeman margarines shortenings ''ullmann 's encyclopedia industrial chemistry'' wiley vch weinheim ref partial hydrogenation typical plant oil typical component margarine c c


catalytic reforming processes hydrogen pressure maintained hydrogenolyze coke formed catalyst prevent accumulation organic chemistry hydrogenation useful means converting unsaturated compounds saturated derivatives substrates include alkenes alkynes also aldehydes imines nitriles converted corresponding saturated compounds ie alcohols amines thus alkyl aldehydes synthesized oxo process carbon monoxide alkene converted alcohols eg propanol produced propionaldehyde produced ethene carbon monoxide xylitol polyol produced


hydrogenation sugar xylose aldehyde primary amines synthesized hydrogenation nitriles nitriles readily synthesized cyanide suitable electrophile example isophorone diamine precursor polyurethane monomer isophorone diisocyanate produced isophorone nitrile tandem nitrile hydrogenation reductive amination ammonia wherein hydrogenation converts nitrile amine imine formed aldehyde ammonia another amine hydrogenation coal history heterogeneous catalytic hydrogenation earliest hydrogenation platinum catalyzed addition hydrogen oxygen bereiner 's lamp device


worldwide industry commercially important haber bosch process first described involves hydrogenation nitrogen fischer tropsch process reported carbon monoxide easily derived coal hydrogenated liquid fuels voorhees adams described apparatus performing hydrogenation pressures one atmosphere parr shaker first product allow hydrogenation using elevated pressures temperatures commercialized based voorhees adams' research remains widespread use murray raney developed finely powdered form nickel widely used


oxo process ziegler natta polymerization metal free hydrogenation practical purposes hydrogenation requires metal catalyst hydrogenation however proceed hydrogen donors without catalysts illustrative hydrogen donors diimide aluminium isopropoxide latter illustrated meerwein ponndorf verley reduction metal free catalytic systems investigated academic research one system reduction ketones consists ''tert'' butanol potassium tert butoxide high temperatures reaction depicted describes hydrogenation benzophenone base catalyzed hydrogenation ketones chemical kinetics study found reaction first order three reactants suggesting cyclic


atmospheric conditions original still commonly practised form hydrogenation teaching laboratories process usually effected adding solid catalyst round bottom flask dissolved reactant evacuated using nitrogen argon gas sealing mixture penetrable rubber seal hydrogen gas supplied h sub sub filled balloon resulting three phase mixture agitated promote mixing hydrogen uptake monitored useful monitoring progress hydrogenation achieved either using graduated tube containing coloured liquid usually aqueous


copper sulfate gauges reaction vessel batch hydrogenation elevated temperature pressure since many hydrogenation reactions hydrogenolysis protecting groups reduction aromatic systems proceed extremely sluggishly atmospheric temperature pressure pressurised systems popular cases catalyst added solution reactant inert atmosphere pressure vessel hydrogen added directly cylinder built laboratory hydrogen source pressurized slurry mechanically rocked provide agitation spinning basket used ref name apparatus recent advances electrolysis technology


led development https wwwglobenewswirecom news release en thalesnano energy introduces h genie revolutionary compact high pressure hydrogen gas generation platform chemistshtml high pressure hydrogen generators generate hydrogen bar psi water heat may also used pressure compensates associated reduction gas solubility flow hydrogenation flow hydrogenation become popular technique bench increasingly process scale technique involves continuously flowing dilute stream dissolved reactant fixed bed catalyst presence hydrogen using established hplc technology technique allows application pressures atmospheric elevated temperatures may also used bench scale


systems use range pre packed catalysts eliminates need weighing filtering pyrophoric catalysts industrial reactors catalytic hydrogenation done tubular plug flow reactor pfr packed supported catalyst pressures temperatures typically high although depends catalyst catalyst loading typically much lower laboratory batch hydrogenation various promoters added metal mixed metals used improve activity selectivity catalyst stability use nickel common despite low activity due low cost compared precious metals gas liquid induction


three great men scottish literature busts burns scott stevenson '''scottish literature''' literature written scotland scottish writers includes works english scottish gaelic scots brythonic french latin norn languages written within modern boundaries scotland earliest extant literature written scotland composed brythonic speech sixth century survived part welsh literature following centuries literature latin influence catholic church old english brought anglian settlers state

Humanities
Languages and literature
Scottish Literature


alba developed kingdom scotland eighth century flourishing literary elite regularly produced texts gaelic latin sharing common literary culture ireland elsewhere davidian revolution thirteenth century flourishing french language culture predominated norse literature produced areas scandinavian settlement first surviving major text early scots literature fourteenth century poet john barbour 's epic ''brus'' followed series vernacular versions medieval romances joined fifteenth century scots prose works


early modern era royal patronage supported poetry prose drama james v 's court saw works sir david lindsay mount 's ''the thrie estaitis'' late sixteenth century james vi became patron member circle scottish court poets musicians known castalian band acceded english throne many followed new court without centre royal patronage tradition scots poetry subsided revived union england figures including allan ramsay james macpherson


latter 's ossian cycle made first scottish poet gain international reputation helped inspire robert burns considered many national poet walter scott whose waverley novels much define scottish identity nineteenth century towards end victorian era number scottish born authors achieved international reputations including robert louis stevenson arthur conan doyle j barrie george macdonald twentieth century surge activity scottish literature known scottish renaissance leading figure hugh macdiarmid attempted revive scots language


medium serious literature members movement followed new generation post war poets including edwin morgan would appointed first scots makar inaugural scottish government scottish literature enjoyed another major revival particularly associated writers including james kelman irvine welsh scottish poets emerged period included carol ann duffy named first scot uk poet laureate may middle ages early middle ages page book aneirin shows first part


text gododdin c sixth century collapse roman authority early fifth century four major circles political cultural influence emerged northern britain east picts whose kingdoms eventually stretched river forth shetland west gaelic goidelic speaking people l riata close links ireland brought name scots south british brythonic speaking descendants peoples roman influenced kingdoms old north powerful longest surviving


would become scotland brythonic gaelic latin old english much earliest welsh literature actually composed near country call scotland brythonic speech welsh would derived confined wales cornwall although written wales much later include ''the gododdin'' considered earliest surviving verse scotland attributed bard aneirin said resident brythonic kingdom gododdin sixth century series elegies men


important medieval work written scotland ''vita columbae'' adomn n abbot iona also written latin next important piece scottish hagiography verse ''life st ninian'' written latin whithorn eighth century old english ''the dream rood'' lines found ruthwell cross making surviving fragment northumbrian old english early medieval scotland also suggested basis ornithological references poem ''the seafarer'' composed somewhere near bass


rock east lothian high middle ages book deer folio r contains text gospel matthew beginning later eighth century viking raids invasions may forced merger gaelic pictish crowns culminated rise c naed mac ailp n kenneth macalpin brought power house alpin creation kingdom alba ref name yorke p b yorke ''the conversion britain religion politics society britain c '' pearson education p ref historical sources well place


name evidence indicate ways pictish language north cumbric languages south overlaid replaced gaelic old english later norse kingdom alba overwhelmingly oral society dominated gaelic culture fuller sources ireland period suggest would filidh acted poets musicians historians often attached court lord king passed knowledge culture gaelic next generation ref name crawford ref name houston p r houston ''scottish literacy scottish identity illiteracy


society scotland northern england '' cambridge cambridge university press p ref eleventh century french flemish particularly english became main languages scottish burghs located south east least accession david r part davidian revolution introduced french culture political systems gaelic ceased main language royal court probably replaced french de gallicisation scottish court less highly regarded order bards took functions


filidh would continue act similar role highlands islands eighteenth century often trained bardic schools like one run macmhuirich dynasty bards lord isles existed scotland larger number ireland suppressed seventeenth century ref name houston p members bardic schools trained complex rules forms gaelic poetry ref name wormald pp much work never written survives recorded sixteenth


century ref name crawford r crawford https booksgooglecom booksid qv zuv fy c pg pt dq ''scotland 's books history scottish literature'' oxford oxford university press ref possible middle irish literature written medieval scotland often thought survived gaelic literary establishment eastern scotland died fourteenth century thomas owen clancy argued ''lebor bretnach'' called irish nennius written scotland probably monastery abernethy text survives manuscripts preserved ireland literary work survived includes prolific poet gille brighde


albanach gille brighde wrote poem ''heading damietta'' experiences fifth crusade thirteenth century french flourished literary language produced ''roman de fergus'' earliest piece non celtic vernacular literature survive scotland many stories arthurian cycle written french preserved outside scotland thought scholars including r owen written scotland norse literature areas scandinavian settlement northern isles western isles famous ''orkneyinga saga'' however although


pertains earldom orkney written iceland addition french latin literary language works include carmen de morte sumerledi poem exults triumphantly victory citizens glasgow somairle mac gilla brigte inchcolm antiphoner hymn praise st columba late middle ages james spent much life imprisoned england gained reputation musician poet late middle ages middle scots often simply called english became dominant language country