graphics'' ''acta informatica'' ''advances geometry'' ''algorithmica'' ''ars combinatoria'' ''computational geometry theory applications'' ''communications acm'' '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwjournalselseviercom computer aided geometric design description computer aided geometric design '' ''computer graphics applications'' ''computer graphics world'' ''discrete computational geometry'' ''geombinatorics'' ''geometriae dedicata'' ''ieee transactions graphics'' ''ieee transactions computers'' ''ieee transactions pattern analysis machine intelligence'' ''information processing letters'' ''international journal computational geometry applications'' ''journal combinatorial theory series b'' ''journal computational geometry'' '' http intlpresscom site pub pages journals items jdg home main journal differential geometry '' ''journal acm'' ''journal algorithms'' ''journal computer system sciences'' ''management science'' ''pattern recognition'' ''pattern recognition letters'' ''siam


journal computing'' ''sigact news'' featured computational geometry column joseph o'rourke ''theoretical computer science'' ''the visual computer'' external links http wwwcomputational geometryorg computational geometry https webarchiveorg web http compgeomcsuiucedu jeffe compgeom computational geometry pages http wwwicsuciedu eppstein geomhtml geometry action http wwwcsbrownedu people rt sdcr report reporthtml strategic directions computational geometry working group report http jocgorg journal computational geometry https webarchiveorg web http cgautacir wscg annual winter school computational geometry https cglabca computational geometry lab computational fields study geometry processing

Formal science
Computer science
Algorithms
Computational geometry


history philosophy '''philosophy history''' philosophical study history discipline term coined french philosopher voltaire contemporary philosophy distinction developed ' 'speculative'' philosophy history ''critical'' philosophy history referred ''analytic'' former questions meaning purpose historical process whereas latter studies foundations implications history historical method names derived c broad 's distinction critical philosophy speculative philosophy origins ''poetics'' aristotle bce maintained

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of history


superiority poetry history poetry speaks ''ought'' ''must'' true rather merely ''is'' true herodotus fifth century bce contemporary socrates broke homeric tradition passing narrative generation generation work investigations ancient greek istor ai also known ''histories'' herodotus regarded first systematic historian later plutarch ce freely invented speeches historical figures chose historical subjects eye toward morally improving reader history supposed teach good examples one follow assumption


history teach good examples influenced writers produced history events past likely show bad examples one follow classical historians would either record examples would interpret support assumption history 's purpose classical period renaissance historians alternated focusing subjects designed improve mankind devotion fact history composed mainly hagiographies monarchs epic poetry describing heroic gestures ''the song roland'' battle roncevaux pass charlemagne 's first


data introduced scientific method philosophy history dawood considers something totally new age often referred new science associated historiography historical method also laid groundwork observation role state communication propaganda systematic bias history ref name mowlana eighteenth century historians turned toward positivist approach focusing fact much possible still eye telling histories could instruct improve starting fustel de coulanges theodor mommsen


historical studies began move towards modern scientific form victorian era historiographers debated less whether history intended improve reader causes turned history one could understand historical change concepts philosophy chronology many ancient cultures held mythical theological concepts history time linear societies saw history cyclical alternating dark golden ages plato taught concept great year greeks spoke aeons similar examples include ancient doctrine eternal


return existed ancient egypt indian religions among greek pythagoreans' stoics' conceptions ''works days'' hesiod described five ages man golden age silver age bronze age heroic age iron age began dorian invasion scholars identify four ages corresponding four metals heroic age description bronze age four age count would match vedic hindu ages known satya yuga treta yuga dvapara yuga kali yuga together make one yuga


cycle repeats according jainism world beginning end goes cycles upturns utsarpini downturns avasarpini constantly many greeks believed mankind went four stages character rise fall history government considered democracy monarchy healthy r gimes higher ages oligarchy tyranny corrupted r gimes common lower ages east cyclical theories history developed china theory dynastic cycle islamic world work sup ''name needed '' sup ibn


khaldun renaissance cyclical conceptions history would become common proponents illustrating decay rebirth pointing decline roman empire machiavelli 's ''discourses livy'' provide example notion empire contained ascendance decadence edward gibbon 's ''the history decline fall roman empire'' roman catholic church placed ''index librorum prohibitorum'' age enlightenment history began seen linear irreversible condorcet 's interpretations various stages humanity auguste comte 's positivism


world war believed civilization enters upon era caesarism soul dies spengler thought soul west dead caesarism begin philosophy causality narrative causal approaches history often contrasted even opposed one another yet also viewed complementary philosophers history arthur danto claimed explanations history elsewhere describe simply event something happens change like many practicing historians treat causes intersecting actions


sets actions bring larger changes danto 's words decide elements persist change rather simple treating individual 's shift attitude considerably complex metaphysically challenging interested change say break feudalism emergence nationalism much historical debate causes focused relationship communicative actions singular repeated ones actions structures action group institutional contexts wider sets conditions john gaddis


distinguished exceptional general causes following marc bloch routine distinctive links causal relationships accounting happened hiroshima august attach greater importance fact president truman ordered dropping atomic bomb decision army air force carry orders also pointed difference immediate intermediate distant causes part christopher lloyd puts forward four general concepts causation used history metaphysical idealist concept asserts phenomena


universe products emanations omnipotent final cause empiricist humean regularity concept based idea causation matter constant conjunctions events functional teleological consequential concept goal directed goals causes realist structurist dispositional approach sees relational structures internal dispositions causes phenomena disagreement extent history ultimately deterministic argue geography economic systems culture prescribe laws determine events history others see history sequence


phrase appears coined george graham vest explain lost cause losing side american civil war ''society must defended'' michel foucault posits victors social struggle use political dominance suppress defeated adversary 's version historical events favor propaganda may go far historical negationism wolfgang schivelbusch 's ''culture defeat'' takes opposing approach defeat major driver defeated reinvent victor confirmed attitudes methods dissatisfied


high losses paltry gains made may less creative fall back g w f hegel history world also last judgement hegel adopts expression die weltgeschichte ist das weltgericht world history tribunal judges world quote friedrich schiller 's poem ''resignation'' published asserts history judges men actions opinions since twentieth century western historians disavowed aspiration provide judgement history ref name curran p curran vivian grosswald ''herder holocaust debate difference determinism


context comparative law'' f c decoste bernard schwartz eds ''holocaust 's ghost writings art politics law education'' https booksgooglecom booksid llnbsq yp gc pg pa lpg pa pp ref ref name parkinson p goals historical judgements interpretations separate legal judgements need formulated quickly events final ref name curran p curran vivian grosswald ''herder holocaust debate difference determinism context comparative law'' f c decoste bernard schwartz eds ''holocaust 's ghost writings art politics law education'' https booksgooglecom booksid llnbsq yp gc pg pa lpg pa p ref related issues historical judgement pretension


neutrality objectivity analytic critical philosophers history debated whether historians express judgements historical figures would infringe supposed role ref name parkinson p parkinson ghr ''an encyclopedia philosophy'' https booksgooglecom booksid iqbjneykpw c pg pa pp ref general positivists neopositivists oppose value judgement unscientific ref name parkinson p operative theories teleological approaches early teleological approaches history found theodicies attempted reconcile problem evil existence god providing global explanation history belief progressive directionality organized superior power leading


eschatological end messianic age apocalypse however transcendent teleological approach thought immanent human history augustine hippo thomas aquinas jacques b nigne bossuet ''discourse universal history'' gottfried leibniz coined term formulated philosophical theodicies leibniz based explanation principle sufficient reason states anything happens happen specific reason thus one adopts god 's perspective seemingly evil events fact take place larger divine plan way theodicies explained necessity evil


relative element forms part larger plan history however leibniz 's principles gesture fatalism confronted antique problem future contingents leibniz developed theory compossible worlds distinguishing two types necessity response problem determinism g w f hegel may represent epitome teleological philosophy history hegel 's teleology taken francis fukuyama ''the end history last man'' thinkers nietzsche michel foucault althusser deleuze deny teleological sense history claiming best characterized


discontinuities ruptures various time scales annales school demonstrated schools thought influenced hegel also see history progressive see progress outcome dialectic factors working opposite directions time reconciled history best seen directed traces could seen looking backward hegel believed history moving man toward civilization also claim thought prussian state incarnated ''end history'' ''lessons history philosophy'' explains


event antithesis clash superated synthesis conjunction conserved contradiction thesis antithesis sublating marx famously explained afterwards concretely meant louis xvi 's monarchic rule france seen thesis french revolution could seen antithesis however sublated napoleon reconciled revolution ''ancien r gime'' conserved change hegel thought reason accomplished dialectical scheme history labour man transformed nature could recognize made


home thus reason spiritualized nature roads fields fences modern infrastructure live result spiritualization nature hegel thus explained social progress result labour reason history however dialectical reading history involved course contradiction history also conceived constantly conflicting hegel theorized famous dialectic lord bondsman according hegel thus philosophy explain ''geschichte'' history afterward philosophy always late interpretation rational real


according hegel recognized rational real idealist understanding philosophy interpretation famously challenged karl marx 's '' th thesis feuerbach'' ''philosophers hitherto interpreted world various ways point however change it'' thomas carlyle thomas carlyle scottish historian philosopher great man theory hegel insisted role ''great men'' history famous statement napoleon saw spirit horse thomas carlyle argued history biography central individuals heroes


oliver cromwell frederick great writing history world biography great men view heroes included political military figures founders topplers states artists poets theologians cultural leaders history great men geniuses good evil sought organize change advent greatness explicit defenses carlyle 's position rare since late twentieth century philosophers history contend motive forces history best described wider lens


one used portraits ac danto example wrote importance individual history extended definition include ' 'social individuals'' defined individuals may provisionally characterize containing individual human beings amongst parts examples social individuals might social classes national groups religious organizations large scale events large scale social movements etc great man theory history popular professional historians nineteenth century popular work school ''encyclop dia britannica eleventh edition'' contains lengthy detailed


progress social evolutionism became popular conception nineteenth century auguste comte 's positivist conception history divided theological stage metaphysical stage positivist stage brought upon modern science one influential doctrines progress whig interpretation history later called associated scholars victorian edwardian eras britain henry maine thomas macaulay gives example influence looking human history progress savagery ignorance toward peace prosperity science maine described


direction progress status contract world child 's whole life pre determined circumstances birth toward one mobility choice publication darwin 's ''the origin species'' introduced human evolution however quickly transposed original biological field social field social darwinist theories herbert spencer coined term survival fittest lewis henry morgan ''ancient society'' developed evolutionist theories independent darwin 's works would later interpreted social darwinism nineteenth century unilineal evolution theories


whig interpretation gone style bloodletting conflict indicted whole notion linear progress paul val ry famously said civilizations know mortal however notion n't completely disappear ''the end history last man'' francis fukuyama proposed similar notion progress positing worldwide adoption liberal democracies single accredited political system even modality human consciousness would represent end history fukuyama 's work stems kojevian reading hegel 's ''phenomenology spirit'' unlike maurice godelier


interprets history process transformation tim ingold suggests history movement autopoiesis key component making sense simply recognize issues social evolution merely serve support suggestion one considers nature history impact interpretation conclusions drawn history critical explored question less history content history process steven pinker wrote history violence humanity evolutionary perspective shows violence declined


statistically time contextual theories early th century philosophers began focusing contextual factors contributing course history historians annales school founded lucien febvre marc bloch major landmark shift history centered individual subjects studies concentrating geography economics demography social forces fernand braudel 's studies mediterranean sea hero history emmanuel le roy ladurie 's history climate inspired school karl marx karl marx founder marxism historical materialism


modern sense biological race closer people nation boulainvilliers example exponent nobility rights claimed french nobility racial descendants franks invaded france third estate descended conquered gauls right power virtue right conquest used approach formulate historical thesis course french political history critique monarchy third estate foucault regards founder historico political discourse political weapon great


longer absolute product race struggle history traditionally sovereign 's science legend glorious feats monument building ultimately became discourse people thus political stake subject neutral arbitrator judge legislator solon 's kant 's conceptions therefore became historical subject must search history 's furor juridical code 's dried blood multiple contingencies fragile rationality temporarily finally emerged may perhaps compared sophist discourse ancient greece foucault warns


nothing machiavelli 's hobbes 's discourse war popular discourse sovereign nothing illusion instrument best enemy discourse beheads king anyway dispenses sovereign denounces approaches narrative history current popular conception considers value narrative writing experience history important thinkers area include paul ric ur louis mink wb gallie hayden white doubted approach draws fictional historical


narrative closer together remains perceived fundamental bifurcation historical fictional narrative ric ur vol spite modern historians barbara tuchman david mccullough consider narrative writing important approaches theory narrated history historicized narrative holds structure lived experience experience narrated fictional non fictional works literature historiography common figuration temporal experience way narrative generously encompassing ability 'grasp together' integrate one whole complete story composite representations


historical experience ric ur x louis mink writes significance past occurrences understandable locatable ensemble interrelationships grasped construction narrative form marxist theorist fredric jameson also analyzes historical understanding way writes history inaccessible us except textual form approached way prior textualization education propaganda since plato 's ''republic'' civic education instruction central role politics constitution common identity history


common history transmitted ''le tour de france par deux enfants'' example french third republic 's classic textbook elementary school described story two french children following german annexation alsace lorraine region go ''tour de france'' become aware france 's diversity existence various ''patois'' see also historical significance historic recurrence historiography historiosophy journal philosophy history philosophy time political philosophy social philosophy teleology teleonomy truth victor 's justice notes references reading berkhofer robert f ''beyond


great story history text discourse'' harvard university press berlin isaiah ''three critics enlightenment vico hamann herder'' rose elizabeta philosophy history writings contemporary world carr edward hallett history collingwood r g ''the idea history'' danto arthur coleman ''analytical philosophy history'' doran robert ed ''philosophy history hayden white'' london bloomsbury dilthey wilhelm ''introduction human sciences'' ed r makkreel f rodi engels david ed ''von platon bis fukuyama biologistische und zyklische konzepte der geschichtsphilosophie


der antike und des abendlandes'' brussels latomus rickert heinrich ''die probleme der geschichtsphilosophie eine einf hrung bingen new ed celtis verlag berlin gardiner patrick l ''the nature historical explanation'' gardiner patrick l ed ''the philosophy history oxford readings philosophy'' hewitson mark ''history causality'' palgrave macmillan lloyd christopher ''the structures history'' oxford blackwell mandelbaum maurice ''the anatomy historical knowledge'' johns hopkins mink louis narrative form cognitive instrument ''the writing history literary form historical understanding'' robert h canary henry kozicki eds madison


wisconsin university wisconsin press ricoeur paul ''time narrative'' volume university chicago press ricoeur paul ''history truth'' translated kathleen mclaughlin david pellauer chicago london u chicago p jameson frederic ''the political unconscious narrative socially symbolic act'' ithaca cornell university press muller herbert j ''the uses past'' new york new york oxford university press schumann g ''explanation action theory historiography causal teleological approaches'' walsh wh ''an introduction philosophy history'' white hayden v ''metahistory


historical imagination nineteenth century europe'' johns hopkins university press white hayden v ''the fiction narrative essays history literature theory '' johns hopkins university press ed robert doran gisi lucas marco ''einbildungskraft und mythologie die verschr nkung von anthropologie und geschichte im jahrhundert'' berlin new york de gruyter external links http wwwgalilean libraryorg int html introduction philosophy history paul newall aimed beginners anthony k jensen http wwwieputmedu history philosophy history internet encyclopedia philosophy https wwwoulufi centreforphilosophyofhistory centre philosophical studies history university oulu finland daniel little http platostanfordedu entries history philosophy history stanford


encyclopedia philosophy https webarchiveorg web http wwwhumboldtedu essays sandishtml explanation action history constantine sandis essays philosophy vol june http wwwculturahistoricaes welcomehtml web portal philosophy history historiography historical culture http wwwinthugentbe international network theory history http wwwtandfonlinecom doi full history outlines quasi substantive philosophy history zolt n boldizs r simon rethinking history vol historiography history


'''economic geography''' subfield human geography studies economic activity factors affecting also considered subfield method economics four branches economic geography primary sector secondary sector tertiary sector quaternary sector economic geography takes variety approaches many different topics including location industries economies agglomeration also known linkages transportation international trade development real estate gentrification ethnic economies gendered economies core periphery theory economics urban form relationship environment economy tying long history

Social science
Economics
Economic geography


geographers studying culture environment interaction globalization theoretical background influences varied methodological approaches neoclassical location theorists following tradition alfred weber tend focus industrial location use quantitative methods since two broad reactions neoclassical approaches significantly changed discipline marxist political economy growing work david harvey new economic geography takes account social cultural institutional factors spatial economy economists paul krugman jeffrey sachs also analyzed many traits related economic geography


maps created different european powers described resources likely found american african asian territories earliest travel journals included descriptions native people climate landscape productivity various locations early accounts encouraged development transcontinental trade patterns ushered era mercantilism world war ii contributed popularization geographical knowledge generally post war economic recovery development contributed growth economic geography discipline environmental determinism 's time popularity ellsworth huntington theory climatic determinism


prevail research well known economic geographers period include william garrison brian berry waldo tobler peter haggett william bunge contemporary economic geographers tend specialize areas location theory spatial analysis help geographic information systems market research geography transportation real estate price evaluation regional global development planning internet geography innovation social networks approaches study economic geography broad discipline economic geographers using many different methodologies study economic phenomena world distinct approaches study evolved time ''theoretical economic


spatiotemporal systems analysis include economic activities region mixed social spaces development alternatively analysis may focus production exchange distribution consumption items economic activity allowing parameters space time item vary geographer may also examine material flow commodity flow population flow information flow different parts economic activity system analysis flow production industrial areas rural urban residential areas transportation site commercial service facilities finance economic centers linked together economic activity system branches thematically economic geography divided


subdisciplines geography agriculture traditionally considered branch economic geography investigates parts earth 's surface transformed humans primary sector activities thus focuses structures agricultural landscapes asks processes lead spatial patterns research area concentrates rather production consumption distinction made nomothetic eg distribution spatial agricultural patterns processes idiographic research eg human environment interaction shaping agricultural landscapes latter approach agricultural geography often applied within regional


geography geography industry geography international trade geography resources geography transport communication geography finance areas study may overlap geographical sciences economists economic geographers generally spatially interested economists study effects space ''on economy'' geographers hand interested economic processes' impact ''on spatial structures'' moreover economists economic geographers differ methods approaching spatial economic problems several ways economic geographer often take holistic approach analysis economic phenomena conceptualize problem terms


space place scale well overt economic problem examined economist approach according economic geographers main drawback homogenizing economic world ways economic geographers try avoid ref name coe ref variation industry industries different patterns economic geography extractive industries tend concentrated around specific natural resources norway example oil industry jobs occur within single electoral district industries geographically concentrated need close end customers automotive industry concentration detroit


us agriculture also tends concentrated industries geographically diffuse need close end customers hairdressers restaurants hospitality industry new economic geography rise new economy economic inequalities increasing spatially new economy generally characterized globalization increasing use information communications technology growth knowledge goods feminization enabled economic geographers study social spatial divisions caused rising new economy including emerging digital divide new economic geographies consist primarily service based sectors economy use


characterized work diane perrons anglo american literature new economy consists two distinct types new economic geography neg characterized sophisticated spatial modelling seeks explain uneven development emergence industrial clusters exploration linkages centripetal centrifugal forces especially economies scale new economic geography neg also seeks explain apparently paradoxical emergence industrial clusters contemporary context however emphasizes relational social contextual aspects economic behaviour particularly importance tacit knowledge


main difference two types neg 's emphasis aspects economic behaviour neg considers intangible new economic geographies acknowledge transport costs importance knowledge new economy possible effects externalities endogenous processes generate increases productivity two also share focus firm important unit growth rather development regions result actual impact clusters region given far less attention relative focus clustering related activities region however focus


firm main entity significance hinders discussion new economic geography limits discussion national global context confines smaller scale context also places limits nature firm 's activities position within global value chain work done bjorn asheim gernot grabher challenges idea firm action research approaches mapping organizational forms linkages short focus firm new economic geographies undertheorized neg undercontextualized neg limits


discussion impact spatial economic development spatial divisions within arising new economic geographies apparent form digital divide result regions attracting talented workers instead developing skills local level see creative class reading despite increasing inter connectivity developing information communication technologies contemporary world still defined widening social spatial divisions increasingly gendered danny quah explains spatial divisions characteristics knowledge goods new economy goods defined infinite expansibility weightlessness nonrivalry social


divisions expressed new spatial segregation illustrates spatial sorting income ethnicity abilities needs lifestyle preferences employment segregation evidence overrepresentation women ethnic minorities lower paid service sector jobs divisions new economy much difficult overcome result clear pathways progression higher skilled work see also business cluster creative class development geography gravity model trade geography wealth location theory new economy regional science retail geography rural economics spatial analysis urban economics weber problem ''economic geography'' journal founded published quarterly


''spatial divisions labour social structures structure production'' macmillan london peck j ''work place social regulation labor markets'' new york guilford peck j ''workfare states'' new york guilford th g kincses nagy z ''european spatial structure'' lap lambert academic publishing external links scientific journals http wwwblackwellpublishingcom journalaspref x site ''tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie tesg '' published royal dutch geographical society knag since http wwwwirtschaftsgeographiecom ''zeitschrift f r wirtschaftsgeographie'' ''german journal economic geography'' published since https webarchiveorg web http wwwecongeonet econgeo network https webarchiveorg web http sasigroupshefacuk social spatial inequalities regional economics human geography


'''molecular engineering''' emerging field study concerned design testing molecular properties behavior interactions order assemble better materials systems processes specific functions approach observable properties macroscopic system influenced direct alteration molecular structure falls broader category bottom design molecular engineering deals material development efforts emerging technologies require rigorous rational molecular design approaches towards systems high complexity molecular engineering highly interdisciplinary nature encompassing aspects chemical engineering materials science bioengineering electrical engineering physics

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering
Molecular engineering


mechanical engineering chemistry also considerable overlap nanotechnology concerned behavior materials scale nanometers smaller given highly fundamental nature molecular interactions plethora potential application areas limited perhaps one 's imagination laws physics however early successes molecular engineering come fields immunotherapy synthetic biology printable electronics see molecular engineering applications molecular engineering dynamic evolving field complex target problems breakthroughs require sophisticated creative engineers


difficult may difficult account relevant dependencies among variables complex system molecular engineering efforts may include computational tools experimental methods combination history molecular engineering first mentioned research literature arthur r von hippel defined new mode thinking engineering problems instead taking prefabricated materials trying devise engineering applications consistent macroscopic properties one builds materials atoms molecules purpose hand concept echoed richard feynman 's


seminal lecture ''there 's plenty room bottom'' widely regarded giving birth fundamental ideas field nanotechnology spite early introduction concepts mid publication ''engines creation coming era nanotechnology'' drexler modern concepts nano molecular scale science began grow public consciousness discovery electrically conductive properties polyacetylene alan j heeger effectively opened field organic electronics proved foundational many molecular


engineering efforts design optimization materials led number innovations including organic light emitting diodes nowiki flexible solar cells applications molecular design important element many disciplines academia including bioengineering chemical engineering electrical engineering materials science mechanical engineering chemistry however one ongoing challenges bringing together critical mass manpower amongst disciplines span realm design theory materials production device design product development thus concept rational engineering technology bottom new


still far widely translated r efforts molecular engineering used many industries applications technologies molecular engineering plays critical role consumer products antibiotic surfaces eg incorporation silver nanoparticles antibacterial peptides coatings prevent microbial infection cosmetics eg rheological modification small molecules surfactants shampoo cleaning products eg nanosilver laundry detergent consumer electronics eg organic light emitting diode displays oled electrochromic windows eg windows boeing dreamliner zero emission vehicles eg advanced fuel cells batteries self cleaning surfaces eg super hydrophobic surface coatings energy harvesting


semiconductor nanoparticles environmental engineering water desalination eg new membranes highly efficient low cost ion removal soil remediation eg catalytic nanoparticles accelerate degradation long lived soil contaminants chlorinated organic compounds carbon sequestration eg new materials co sub sub adsorption immunotherapy peptide based vaccines eg amphiphilic peptide macromolecular assemblies induce robust immune response peptide containing biopharmaceuticals eg nanoparticles liposomes polyelectrolyte micelles delivery vehicles synthetic biology crispr faster efficient gene editing technique gene delivery gene therapy designing molecules deliver modified new genes cells live organisms cure


atomic force microscopy afm scanning electron microscopy sem transmission electron microscopy tem molecular characterization dynamic light scattering dls matrix assisted laser desorption ionization maldi spectrocosopy nuclear magnetic resonance nmr spectroscopy size exclusion chromatography sec spectroscopy ellipsometry x ray diffraction xrd raman spectroscopy microscopy surface science glow discharge optical emission spectrometry time flight secondary ion mass spectrometry tof sims x ray photoelectron spectroscopy xps synthetic methods dna synthesis nanoparticle synthesis organic synthesis peptide synthesis polymer synthesis tools focused ion beam fib profilometer uv photoelectron spectroscopy ups vibrational sum frequency generation research education


least three universities offer graduate degrees dedicated molecular engineering university chicago university washington kyoto university programs interdisciplinary institutes faculty several research areas academic journal molecular systems design engineering publishes research wide variety subject areas demonstrates molecular design optimisation strategy targeting specific systems functionality performance see also general topics biological engineering biomolecular engineering chemical engineering chemistry electrical engineering materials science engineering mechanical engineering molecular design software molecular electronics molecular modeling molecular nanotechnology nanotechnology references nanotechnology engineering disciplines


physical human made capital substitute natural capital see section weak versus strong sustainability ecological economics founded modern discipline works interactions various european american academics see section history development related field green economics general politically applied form subject according ecological economist ecological economics defined focus nature justice time issues intergenerational equity irreversibility environmental change uncertainty long term outcomes sustainable development guide ecological economic

Social science
Economics
Ecological economics


analysis valuation ref name faber malte faber ecological economist ''ecological economics'' ''' ''' https ideasrepecorg p awi wpaper html preprint ref ecological economists questioned fundamental mainstream economic approaches cost benefit analysis separability economic values scientific research contending economics unavoidably normative ie prescriptive rather positive descriptive ref name victor ref positional analysis attempts incorporate time justice issues proposed alternative ecological economics shares several perspectives feminist economics including focus sustainability nature justice care values karl marx also commented relationship capital ecology


known ecosocialism history development antecedents ecological economics traced back romantics th century well enlightenment political economists era concerns population expressed thomas malthus john stuart mill predicted desirability ' 'stationary state'' economy mill thereby anticipated later insights modern ecological economists without experience social ecological costs post world war ii economic expansion marxian economist sergei podolinsky attempted theorize labor theory value based


embodied energy work read critiqued marx engels otto neurath developed ecological approach based natural economy whilst employed bavarian soviet republic argued market system failed take account needs future generations socialist economy required calculation kind tracking different materials rather synthesising money general equivalent criticised neo liberal economists ludwig von mises freidrich hayek became known socialist calculation debate ref


economist nicholas georgescu roegen georgescu roegen would later mentor herman daly vanderbilt university provided ecological economics modern conceptual framework based material energy flows economic production consumption ''magnum opus'' ''the entropy law economic process'' credited daly fundamental text field alongside soddy 's ''wealth virtual wealth debt'' key concepts ecological economics evident writings kenneth boulding ef schumacher whose book ''small beautiful ndash study economics people mattered'' published


years first edition herman daly 's comprehensive persuasive ''steady state economics'' ref name schumacher ef ''small beautiful study economics people mattered'' london blond briggs ref first organized meetings ecological economists occurred began instigation lois banner meeting held sweden including robert costanza herman daly charles hall bruce hannon ht odum david pimentel ref name earlyhistory ecosystem ecologists mainstream environmental economists exception daly daly costanza edited issue ''ecological


modeling'' test waters book entitled ''ecological economics'' joan martinez alier published later year ref name earlyhistory costanza r http wwwecoecoorg pdf costanzapdf early history ecological economics isee internet encyclopaedia ecological economics ref renewed interest approach developed otto neurath interwar period ref name ecological economics martinez alier j ''ecological economics energy environment society'' ref saw foundation international society ecological economics publication journal ''ecological economics'' elsevier robert costanza first president society first editor journal currently edited


richard howarth figures include ecologists cs holling ht odum biologist gretchen daily physicist robert ayres marxian tradition sociologist john bellamy foster cuny geography professor david harvey explicitly center ecological concerns political economy articles inge ropke clive spash cover development modern history ecological economics explain differentiation resource environmental economics well controversy american european schools thought article robert costanza david stern lining chunbo responded call mick common


determine foundational literature ecological economics using citation analysis examine books articles influence development field however citations analysis proven controversial similar work criticized clive spash attempting pre determine regarded influential ecological economics study design data manipulation addition journal ''ecological economics'' criticized swamping field mainstream economics schools thought various competing schools thought exist field close resource


environmental economics others far heterodox outlook example latter ''european society ecological economics'' example former swedish ''beijer international institute ecological economics'' clive spash argued classification ecological economics movement generally work different economic schools environment three main categories mainstream new resource economists new environmental pragmatists radical social ecological economists international survey work comparing relevance categories mainstream heterodox economists shows clear


divisions environmental ecological economists growing field radical social ecological theory degrowth economics degrowth addresses biophysical limits global inequality rejecting neoliberal economics degrowth prioritizes grassroots initiatives progressive socio ecological goals adhering ecological limits shrinking human ecological footprint see differences mainstream economics involves equitable downscale production consumption resources order adhere biophysical limits degrowth draws marxian economics citing growth efficient systems alienation nature man economic movements like degrowth reject idea growth


degrowth theorists call exit economy ref name ref critics degrowth movement include new resource economists point gaining momentum sustainable development economists highlight positive aspects green economy include equitable access renewable energy commitment eradicate global inequality sustainable development see green economics ref name examples heterodox ecological economic experiments include catalan integral cooperative solidarity economy networks italy grassroots movements use communitarian based economies consciously reduce ecological footprint limiting material growth adapting


use tools mathematical economics mainstream economics may apply closely natural world whereas mainstream economists tend technological optimists ecological economists inclined technological sceptics reason natural world limited carrying capacity resources may run since destruction important environmental resources could practically irreversible catastrophic ecological economists inclined justify cautionary measures based precautionary principle ecological economists try minimize disasters calculating fallout environmental destruction becomes humanitarian issue well already


ecosystems services approach proven popular amongst many also contested failing address underlying problems mainstream economics growth market capitalism monetary valuation environment critiques concern need create meaningful relationship nature non human world evident instrumentalism shallow ecology environmental economists commodification everything external market system nature ecology natural resources flow economy end waste pollution simple circular flow income diagram replaced ecological economics


complex flow diagram reflecting input solar energy sustains natural inputs environmental services used units production consumed natural inputs pass economy pollution waste potential environment provide services materials referred environment 's source function function depleted resources consumed pollution contaminates resources sink function describes environment 's ability absorb render harmless waste pollution waste output exceeds limit sink function long term damage occurs ref name harris harris


valuation global ecosystem initially published ''nature'' article concluded trillion range trillion trillion total global gdp trillion ref name costanza ref half value went nutrient cycling open oceans continental shelves estuaries highest total value highest per hectare values went estuaries swamps floodplains seagrass algae beds work criticized articles ''ecological economics'' volume issue critics acknowledged positive potential economic valuation global ecosystem ref name harris earth 's carrying capacity


wild fisheries believed peaked begun decline valuable habitat estuaries critical condition ref name harris aquaculture farming piscivorous fish like salmon help solve problem need fed products fish studies shown salmon farming major negative impacts wild salmon well forage fish need caught feed ref name salmon run knapp g roheim ca anderson jl http searchworldwildlifeorg cshtmlurl http wwwworldwildlifeorg globalmarkets wildlifetrade wwfbinaryitem pdf qt great salmon run col n ''the great salmon run competition wild farmed salmon'' world wildlife fund ref since animals


higher trophic level less efficient sources food energy reduced consumption meat would reduce demand food nations develop tend adopt high meat diets similar united states genetically modified food gmf conventional solution problem presents numerous problems ndash bt corn produces ''bacillus thuringiensis'' toxin protein pest resistance believed matter time ref name harris global warming widely acknowledged major issue national scientific academies expressing agreement importance issue


generate high salary jobs definition developed word 'green' made refer economy resourceful well organized also impartial guaranteeing objective shift https sustainabledevelopmentunorg content documents ger synthesis enpdf economy low carbon resource efficient socially inclusive ideas studies regarding green economy denote fundamental shift effective resourceful environment friendly resource saving technologies could lessen emissions alleviate adverse consequences climate change time confront issues resource exhaustion grave environmental dilapidation indispensable requirement vital precondition


realizing sustainable development http wwwunorg waterforlifedecade pdf green economy action engpdf green economy adherents robustly promote good governance boost local investments foreign ventures crucial constant foreseeable macroeconomic atmosphere likewise environment also need transparent accountable absence substantial solid governance structure prospect shifting towards sustainable development route would insignificant achieving green economy competent institutions governance systems vital guaranteeing efficient execution strategies guidelines campaigns programmes shifting green economy demands fresh mindset innovative outlook


business likewise necessitates new capacities skills set labor professionals competently function across sectors able work effective components within multi disciplinary teams achieve goal vocational training packages must developed focus greening sectors simultaneously educational system needs assessed well order fit environmental social considerations various disciplines topics among topics addressed ecological economics methodology allocation resources weak versus strong sustainability energy economics energy accounting balance environmental services cost shifting modeling


ecological economics also differentiated welfare found mainstream economics 'new welfare economics' informs resource environmental economics entails limited preference utilitarian conception value ie nature valuable economies people pay services clean air clean water encounters wilderness etc ecological economics distinguishable neoclassical economics primarily assertion economy embedded within environmental system ecology deals energy matter transactions life earth human economy


definition contained within system ecological economists argue neoclassical economics ignored environment best considering subset human economy neoclassical view ignores much natural sciences taught us contributions nature creation wealth eg planetary endowment scarce matter energy along complex biologically diverse ecosystems provide goods ecosystem services directly human communities micro macro climate regulation water recycling water purification storm water regulation waste absorption food medicine production pollination protection solar


cosmic radiation view starry night sky etc move regard things natural capital ecosystems functions goods services however far uncontroversial within ecology ecological economics due potential narrowing values found mainstream economics danger merely regarding nature commodity referred ecologists 'selling nature' concern ecological economics failed learn extensive literature environmental ethics


structure plural value system allocation resources marginal costs growing economy may gradually exceed marginal benefits however measured resource neoclassical economics focus primarily efficient allocation resources less two problems importance ecological economics distribution equity scale economy relative ecosystems upon relies ref name daly daly h farley j ''ecological economics principles applications'' washington island press ref ecological economics makes clear distinction growth quantitative increase economic output development qualitative improvement quality


life arguing neoclassical economics confuses two ecological economists point beyond modest levels increased per capita consumption typical economic measure standard living may always lead improvement human well may harmful effects environment broader societal well situation sometimes referred uneconomic growth see diagram weak versus strong sustainability imagemap file nested sustainability v gif right three nested systems sustainability economy wholly contained society wholly contained biophysical environment clickable px thumb poly


economic poly social poly environment imagemap ecological economics challenges conventional approach


towards natural resources claiming undervalues natural capital considering interchangeable human made capital labor technology impending depletion natural resources increase climate changing greenhouse gasses motivate us examine political economic social policies benefit alternative energy shifting dependence fossil fuels specific interest within one mentioned factors easily benefits least one instance photo voltaic solar panels efficiency absorbing sun 's energy construction demand increased within commercial residential properties additionally construction


led roughly increase work demands chen potential substitution man made capital natural capital important debate ecological economics economics sustainability continuum views among economists strongly neoclassical positions robert solow martin weitzman one extreme 'entropy pessimists' notably nicholas georgescu roegen herman daly neoclassical economists tend maintain man made capital principle replace types natural capital known weak sustainability view essentially every technology


improved upon replaced innovation substitute scarce materials extreme strong sustainability view argues stock natural resources ecological functions irreplaceable premises strong sustainability follows economic policy fiduciary responsibility greater ecological world sustainable development must therefore take different approach valuing natural resources ecological functions recently stanislav shmelev developed new methodology assessment progress macro scale based multi criteria methods allows consideration


different perspectives including strong weak sustainability conservationists vs industrialists aims search 'middle way' providing strong neo keynesian economic push without putting excessive pressure natural resources including water producing emissions directly indirectly energy economics pages ref key concept energy economics net energy gain recognizes energy sources require initial energy investment order produce energy useful energy return energy invested eroei greater one net energy gain


production coal oil gas declined time easiest produce sources heavily depleted ecological economics generally rejects view energy economics growth energy supply related directly well focusing instead biodiversity creativity ndash natural capital individual capital terminology sometimes adopted describe economically practice ecological economics focuses primarily key issues uneconomic growth quality life ecological economists inclined acknowledge much important human well analyzable


fields sustainability sustainable development exergy analysis performed field industrial ecology use energy efficiently term ''exergy'' coined zoran rant concept developed j willard gibbs recent decades utilization exergy spread outside physics engineering fields industrial ecology ecological economics systems ecology energetics energy accounting balance energy balance used track energy system useful tool determining resource use environmental impacts using first


second laws thermodynamics determine much energy needed point system form energy cost various environmental issues energy accounting system keeps track energy energy non useful energy versus work done transformations within system scientists written speculated different aspects energy accounting ecosystem services valuation ecological economists agree ecosystems produce enormous flows goods services human beings playing key role producing well time intense debate


place values benefits study carried costanza colleagues determine 'value' services provided environment determined averaging values obtained range studies conducted specific context transferring without regard context dollar figures averaged per hectare number different types ecosystem eg wetlands oceans total produced came trillion us dollars values twice total gdp world


mainstream economics always direct terms insurance wages economics principle assumes conflict reduced agreeing voluntary contractual relations prices instead simply fighting coercing tricking others providing goods services provider agrees surrender time take bodily risks reputation financial risks ecosystems different bodies economically except insofar far less replaceable typical labour commodities despite issues many ecologists conservation biologists pursuing ecosystem valuation biodiversity measures


particular appear promising way reconcile financial ecological values many active efforts regard growing field biodiversity finance began emerge response many specific proposals ecuadoran yasuni proposal similar ones congo us news outlets treated stories threat drill park reflecting previously dominant view ngos governments primary responsibility protect ecosystems however peter barnes commentators recently argued guardianship trustee commons model far


effective takes decisions political realm commodification ecological relations carbon credit direct payments farmers preserve ecosystem services likewise examples enable private parties play direct roles protecting biodiversity also controversial ecological economics united nations food agriculture organization achieved near universal agreement payments directly valuing ecosystem preservation encouraging permaculture practical way food crisis holdouts english speaking countries export gmos promote free trade agreements facilitate


control world transport network us uk canada australia 'externalities' cost shifting ecological economics founded upon view neoclassical economics nce assumption environmental community costs benefits mutually canceling externalities warranted joan martinez alier instance shows bulk consumers automatically excluded impact upon prices commodities consumers future generations born yet assumptions behind future discounting assume future goods cheaper present goods


privatising profits socialising costs externalities passing costs community natural environment future generations inherently destructive social ecological economist clive spash noted externality theory fallaciously assumes environmental social problems minor aberrations otherwise perfectly functioning efficient economic system internalizing odd externality nothing address structural systemic problem fails recognize pervasive nature supposed 'externalities' ecological economic modeling mathematical modeling powerful tool used ecological economic analysis various approaches techniques include


evolutionary input output neo austrian modeling entropy thermodynamic models multi criteria agent based modeling environmental kuznets curve stock flow consistent model frameworks system dynamics gis techniques applied among spatial dynamic landscape simulation modeling matrix accounting methods christian felber provide sophisticated method identifying common good monetary theory policy ecological economics draws upon work resource allocation strong sustainability address monetary policy drawing upon transdisciplinary literature ecological economics roots policy work monetary theory goals sustainable scale distribution efficient


allocation ecological economics' work monetary theory policy traced frederick soddy 's work money field considers questions growth imperative interest bearing debt nature money alternative policy proposals alternative currencies public banking criticism assigning monetary value natural resources biodiversity emergent ecosystem services often viewed key process influencing economic practices policy decision making idea becoming accepted among ecologists conservationist argue inherently false mccauley argues ecological


play critical role regulating prey populations absence apex predator scottish highlands caused population deer preventing afforestation increases risk flooding damage property secondly allocating monetary value nature would make conservation reliant markets fluctuate lead devaluation services previously considered financially beneficial case bees forest near former coffee plantations finca santa fe costa rica pollination services valued us year soon


study coffee prices dropped fields replanted pineapple pineapple require bees pollinated value service dropped zero thirdly conservation programmes sake financial benefit underestimate human ingenuity invent replace ecosystem services artificial means mccauley argues proposals deemed short lifespan history technology humanity developed artificial alternatives nature 's services time passing cost services tend decrease would also lead devaluation ecosystem services lastly


circular economy deep ecology earth economics policy think tank earth system governance eco socialism ecofeminism ecological economists category ecological model competition ecological values mangrove ecology contexts emergy embodied water energy quality green accounting gund institute ecological economics human development theory human ecology inclusive democracy index sustainable economic welfare international society ecological economics natural capital accounting natural resource economics outline green politics social metabolism spaceship earth steady state economy value earth references reading common stagl ''ecological economics introduction'' new york cambridge university press costanza r


economy toward community environment sustainable future'' beacon press daly h ''beyond growth economics sustainable development'' beacon press daly h economics full world ''great transition initiative'' https wwwgreattransitionorg publication economics full world daly h j farley ''ecological economics principles applications'' island press georgescu roegen n ''the entropy law economic process'' iuniverse press greer j ''the wealth nature economics survival mattered'' new society publishers hesmyr atle kultorp ''civilization economic basis historical lessons future prospects'' nisus publications huesemann michael h


vols e elgar cheltenham uk soddy f ''wealth virtual wealth debt'' london england george allen unwin stern https econpapersrepecorg article eeeecolec v ay ai ap htm limits substitution irreversibility production consumption neoclassical interpretation ecological economics ''ecological economics'' tacconi l ''biodiversity ecological economics participation values resource management'' london uk earthscan publications vatn ''institutions environment'' cheltenham edward elgar vinje victor condorcet ''economics soil health matters'' nisus publications industrial ecology natural resources environmental social science environmental economics schools economic thought political ecology


'''energy economics''' broad scientific subject area includes topics related supply use energy societies considering cost energy services associated value gives economic meaning efficiency energy produced energy services defined functions generate provide energy desired end services states efficiency energy services dependent engineered technology used produce supply energy goal minimise energy input required eg kwh mj see units energy produce energy service

Social science
Economics
Energy economics


lighting lumens heating temperature fuel natural gas main sectors considered energy economics transportation building although relevant broad scale human activities including households businesses microeconomic level resource management environmental impacts macroeconomic level due diversity issues methods applied shared number academic disciplines energy economics present self contained academic discipline applied subdiscipline economics list main topics economics relate strongly energy economics computable general equilibrium


viable career opportunity offering curriculum university cambridge massachusetts institute technology vrije universiteit amsterdam top three research universities resources future top research institute numerous research departments companies professionals offering energy economics studies consultations history world prices energy energy related issues actively present economic literature since oil crisis roots much back history early ws jevons expressed concern eventual depletion coal


resources book ''the coal question'' one best known early attempts work economics exhaustible resources incl fossil fuel made h hotelling derived price path non renewable resources known hotelling 's rule development energy economics theory last two centuries attributed three main economic subjects rebound effect energy efficiency gap recently 'green nudges' '''the rebound effect '''timeline instrumental theories energy economics energy efficiency improved new technology expected energy savings less proportional


efficiency gains due behavioural responses ref name ref three behavioural sub theories considered ' 'direct rebound effect'' anticipates increased use energy service improved ''indirect rebound effect'' considers increased income effect created savings allowing increased energy consumption ''economy wide effect'' results increase energy prices due newly developed technology improvements '''the energy efficiency gap ''' suboptimal investment improvement energy efficiency resulting market failures barriers prevents optimal use energy economical standpoint rational decision maker


perfect information optimally choose trade initial investment energy costs however due uncertainties environmental externalities optimal potential energy efficiency always able achieved thus creating energy efficiency gap '''green nudges current ''' energy efficiency gap considers economical investments consider behavioural anomalies energy consumers growing concerns surrounding climate change environmental impacts led economists would describe irrational behaviours exhibited energy consumers contribution government interventions coined green nudges thaler


sustein feedback energy bills realised people behave rationally research energy economics focused behaviours impacting decision making close energy efficiency gap ref name sources links portals leading journals energy economics include ''energy economics'' ''the energy journal'' ''resource energy economics'' several journals regularly publish papers energy economics ''energy international journal'' ''energy policy'' ''international journal global energy issues'' ''journal energy markets'' ''utilities policy'' much progress energy economics made conferences


international association energy economics model comparison exercises stanford energy modeling forum meetings international energy workshop ideas repec collection recent working papers leading energy economists top leading energy economists december martin l weitzman lutz kilian robert pindyck david newbery kenneth j arrow richard sj tol severin borenstein richard g newell frederick rick van der ploeg michael greenstone richard schmalensee james hamilton robert norman stavins ilhan ozturk paul joskow ramazan sari jeffrey frankel david ian stern kenneth rogoff rafal


p praktiknjo erdmann g https wwwenergy economicseu energy economics theory applications berlin heidelberg springer verlag environmental social science ru


first issue ''ms magazine'' examined feminist economics piece jane o'reilly '''feminist economics''' critical study economics economies focus gender aware inclusive economic inquiry policy analysis ref name iaffe ref feminist economic researchers include academics activists policy theorists practitioners ref name iaffe much feminist economic research focuses topics neglected field care work intimate partner violence economic theories could improved better incorporation gendered effects interactions paid unpaid sectors economies

Social science
Economics
Feminist economics


feminist scholars engaged new forms data collection measurement gender empowerment measure gem gender aware theories capabilities approach ref name intro ref feminist economics oriented towards goal enhancing well children women men local national transnational communities ref name iaffe feminist economists call attention social constructions traditional economics questioning extent positive objective showing models methods biased exclusive attention masculine associated topics one sided favoring masculine associated assumptions methods ref name beyond ref ref


name nelson ref economics traditionally focused markets masculine associated ideas autonomy abstraction logic feminist economists call fuller exploration economic life including culturally feminine topics family economics examining importance connections concreteness emotion explaining economic phenomena ref name beyond many scholars including ester boserup marianne ferber julie nelson marilyn waring nancy folbre diane elson barbara bergmann ailsa mckay contributed feminist economics waring 's book ''if women counted'' often regarded founding document discipline ref name nelson feminist economics become


sufficiently recognised established subfield within economics generate book article publication opportunities practitioners ref name peterson origins history early feminist ethicists economists political scientists systems scientists argued women 's traditional work eg child raising caring sick elders occupations eg nursing teaching systematically undervalued respect men example jane jacobs' thesis guardian ethic contrast trader ethic sought explain undervaluing guardianship activity including child protecting nurturing healing tasks traditionally assigned women written later published


''houseworker 's handbook'' betsy warrior 's ''housework slavery labor love source leisure time'' presents cogent argument production reproduction domestic labor performed women constitutes foundation economic transactions survival although unremunerated included gdp according warrior economics 's presented today lacks basis reality leaves foundation economic life foundation built women 's labor first reproductive labor produces every new laborer first commodity mother 's milk


sustains every new consumer laborer secondly women 's labor entails environmentally necessary cleaning cooking make raw materials consumable negotiating maintain social stability nurturing prepares market maintains laborer constitutes women 's continuing industry enabling laborers occupy every position work force without fundamental labor commodity would economic activity would survived continue evolve warrior also notes unacknowledged income men illegal activities like arms drugs human trafficking political graft religious emoluments various undisclosed activities provide rich revenue stream


men invalidates gdp figures even underground economies women predominate numerically like trafficking humans prostitution domestic servitude tiny fraction pimp 's revenue filters women children deploys usually amount spent merely maintenance lives case prostituted money may spent clothing accouterments make salable pimp 's clients instance focusing us according government sponsored report urban institute


street prostitute dallas may make little per sex act pimps take week atlanta sex business brings estimated million per year warrior believes inclusive facts based economic analysis provide reliable bases future planning environmental reproductive population needs ester boserup published ''woman 's role economic development'' provided first systematic examination gendered effects agricultural transformation industrialization structural changes evidence illuminated negative outcomes changes women


work among others laid basis broad claim women men weather storm macroeconomic shocks neoliberal policies forces globalization different ways ref name berik http wwwunrisdorg b c bccf httpauxpages e e c da file berikrodgerspdf pdf version ref moreover measures employment equity implemented developed nations entirely successful removing wage gaps even nations strong equity traditions marilyn waring author ''if women counted'' marilyn waring published ''if women counted new feminist economics'' groundbreaking systematic critique system national accounts


international standard measuring economic growth ways women 's unpaid work well value nature excluded counts productive economy foreword anthology ''counting marilyn waring'' julie nelson wrote marilyn waring 's work woke people showed exactly unpaid work traditionally done women made invisible within national accounting systems damage causes book encouraged influenced wide range work ways numerical otherwise valuing preserving rewarding


feminist economics shares many perspectives ecological economics applied field green economy including focus sustainability nature justice care values critiques traditional economics although definitive list principles feminist economics feminist economists offer variety critiques standard approaches economics ref name web ref example prominent feminist economist paula england provided one earliest feminist critiques traditional economics challenged claims interpersonal utility comparisons impossible tastes exogenous unchanging actors selfish household heads


act altruistically ref name separative ref list exhaustive represent central feminist economic critiques traditional economics wide variety viewpoints critiques normativity many feminists call attention value judgments economic analysis ref name nelson idea contrary typical conception economics positive science held many practitioners example geoff schneider jean shackelford suggest sciences issues economists choose study kinds questions ask type analysis undertaken product


belief system influenced numerous factors ideological character ref name web similarly diana strassmann comments economic statistics based underlying story forming basis definition way narrative constructions necessarily underlie definitions variables statistics therefore economic research cannot escape inherently qualitative regardless labeled ref name strassmann ref feminist economists call attention value judgements aspects economics criticize depiction objective science free trade central principle mainstream economics trade make everyone better


comparative advantage efficiency gains specialization greater efficiency ref name manikiw ref ref name elson ref many feminist economists question claim diane elson caren grown nilufer cagatay explore role gender inequalities play international trade trade reshapes gender inequality feminist economists explore whose interests specific trade practices serve example may highlight africa specialization cultivation single cash crop export many countries made countries extremely vulnerable price fluctuations weather patterns pests ref name web feminist economists may also consider specific gendered


effects trade decisions instance countries kenya men generally controlled earnings cash crops women still expected provide food clothing household traditional role african family along labor produce cash crops thus women suffered significantly transition away subsistence food production towards specialization trade ref name web similarly since women often lack economic power business owners likely hired cheap labor often involving exploitative situations ref name elson exclusion non market activity feminist economics call attention


importance non market activities childcare domestic work economic development ref name power marilyn ref ref name razavi ref stands sharp contrast neoclassical economics forms labor unaccounted non economic phenomena ref name nelson including labor economic accounts removes substantial gender bias women disproportionately perform tasks labor unaccounted economic models much work done women ignored literally devaluing effort colombian domestic worker neighborhood friends family sharing household childcare responsibilities example non market activity performed outside traditional labor market


specifically example nancy folbre examines role children public goods non market labor parents contributes development human capital public service sense children positive externality invested according traditional analysis folbre indicates oversight partially results failing properly examine non market activities marilyn waring described exclusion non market activities national accounting systems relied deliberate choice design international standard national accounts explicitly excluded non market activities countries norway


mutually beneficial exchange benefits parties mention made power inequities exchange tend give employer power employee ref name web power relations often favor men never mention made particular difficulties confront women workplace ref name web consequently understanding power patriarchy helps us analyze male dominated economic institutions actually function women often disadvantage workplace ref name web feminist economists often extend criticisms many aspects social world arguing power


relations endemic important feature society omission gender race feminist economics argue gender race must considered economic analysis amartya sen argues systematically inferior position women inside outside household many societies points necessity treating gender force development analysis ref name sen gender ref goes say experiences men women even within household often different examining economics without gender misleading economic models often improved explicitly considering gender


race class caste julie matthaie describes importance gender racial ethnic differences inequality precede capitalism built key ways words every aspect capitalist economy gendered racialized theory practice ignores inherently flawed feminist economist eiman zein elabdin says racial gender differences examined since traditionally ignored thus equally described feminist difference july issue ''feminist economics'' journal dedicated issues gender color caste class ref name power marilyn


exaggeration gender differences cases gender differences exaggerated potentially encouraging unjustified stereotyping recent works julie nelson shown idea women risk averse men popular assertion behavioral economics actually rests extremely thin empirical evidence conducting meta analyses recent studies demonstrates statistically significant differences measures mean risk aversion sometimes found substantive size group level differences tend small order fraction standard deviation many studies fail find statistically


well least ''homo economicus'' neoclassical economic model person called ''homo economicus'' describing person interacts society without influenced society mode interaction ideal market prices necessary considerations ref name nelson view people considered rational actors engage marginal analysis make many decisions ref name web feminist economists argue people complex models call holistic vision economic actor includes group interactions


actions motivated factors greed ref name web feminist economics holds reformation provides better description actual experiences men women market arguing mainstream economics overemphasizes role individualism competition selfishness actors instead feminist economists like nancy folbre show cooperation also plays role economy feminist economists also point agency available everyone children sick frail elderly responsibilities care compromise agency caregivers well


critical departure ''homo economicus'' model moreover feminist economists critique focus neoclassical economics monetary rewards nancy folbre notes legal rules cultural norms affect market outcomes ways distinctly disadvantageous women includes occupational segregation resulting unequal pay women feminist research areas contradicts neoclassical description labor markets occupations chosen freely individuals acting alone free ref name web feminist economics also includes study norms relevant economics challenging traditional view material incentives reliably provide goods


want need consumer sovereignty hold true many people institutional economics one means feminist economists improve upon ''homo economicus'' model theory examines role institutions evolutionary social processes shaping economic behavior emphasizing complexity human motives importance culture relations power provides holistic view economic actor ''homo economicus'' ref name power marilyn work george akerlof janet yellen efficiency wages based notions fairness provides example feminist model economic


actors work agents hyperrational isolated instead act concert fairness capable experiencing jealousy interested personal relationships work based empirical sociology psychology suggests wages influenced fairness considerations rather purely market forces ref name nelson limited methodology economics often thought study society manages scarce resources limited mathematical inquiry ref name nelson ref name manikiw traditional economists often say approach assures objectivity separates economics softer fields sociology


political science feminist economists argue contrary mathematical conception economics limited scarce resources holdover early years science cartesian philosophy limits economic analysis feminist economists often call diverse data collection broader economic models ref name nelson economic pedagogy feminist economists suggest content teaching style economics courses would benefit certain changes recommend including experimental learning laboratory sessions individual research chances economics ref name nelson want dialogue instructors students many feminist economists urgently interested


course content influences demographic composition future economists suggesting classroom climate affects students' perceptions ability ref name hall ref financial crisis margunn bj rnholt ailsa mckay argue financial crisis response revealed crisis ideas mainstream economics within economics profession call reshaping economy economic theory economics profession argue reshaping include new advances within feminist economics take starting point socially responsible sensible accountable subject


creating economy economic theories fully acknowledge care well planet major areas inquiry economic epistemology feminist critiques economics include economics like science socially constructed ref name nelson feminist economists show social constructs act privilege male identified western heterosexual interpretations economics ref name intro generally incorporate feminist theory frameworks show traditional economics communities signal expectations regarding appropriate participants exclusion outsiders criticisms extend theories methodologies research areas economics order show accounts economic life


deeply influenced biased histories social structures norms cultural practices interpersonal interactions politics ref name intro feminist economists often make critical distinction masculine bias economics primarily result gender sex ref name nelson words feminist economists highlight biases mainstream economics focus social beliefs masculinity like objectivity separation logical consistency individual accomplishment mathematics abstraction lack emotion gender authorities subjects however representation men among economists subjects study also concern economic history women 's weekly earnings


masculinized norms exclude include ideas women married yet women children women economically dependent male relative women housewives due reproductive capacities women unproductive industrial workforce women irrational unfit economic agents cannot trusted make right economic decisions feminist economists also examine early economic thinkers' interaction lack interaction gender women 's issues showing examples women 's historical engagement economic thought


modeling economy reduce gender bias inequity ref name berik feminist macroeconomic inquiries focus international capital flows fiscal austerity deregulation privatization monetary policy international trade general modifications take three main forms gender disaggregation addition gender based macroeconomic variables creation two sector system gender disaggregation method economic analysis seeks overcome gender bias showing men women differ consumption investment saving behavior gender disaggregation strategies justify separation macroeconomic variables gender korkut ert rk nil fer atay show feminization


determined exogenously fails account fact inputs produced caring labor disproportionately performed women stephen knowels ''et al'' use neoclassical growth model show women 's education positive statistically significant effect labor productivity robust men 's education cases economists highlight address gender biases macroeconomic variables show gender plays significant role models' outcomes two sector system two sector system approach models economy two separate systems one involving standard macroeconomic variables


well multidimensional concept including income health education empowerment social status ref name berik ref name power marilyn argue economic success measured goods gross domestic product must also measured human well aggregate income sufficient evaluate general well individual entitlements needs must also considered leading feminist economists study health longevity access property education related factors ref name intro bina agarwal pradeep panda illustrate woman 's property status owning house land directly significantly reduces chances


karl marx model considers production socially constructed human project redefines wages means earning living refocuses economic models human innate desires needs opposed monetary incentives ref name power marilyn human capabilities approach economists amartya sen philosopher martha nussbaum created human capabilities approach alternative way assess economic success rooted ideas welfare economics focused individual 's potential may choose value unlike traditional economic measures success focused gdp utility income assets


monetary measures capabilities approach focuses individuals able approach emphasizes processes well outcomes draws attention cultural social material dynamics well martha nussbaum expanded model complete list central capabilities including life health bodily integrity thought ref name nussbaum ref recent years capabilities approach influenced creation new models including un 's human development index hdi household bargaining central feminist economics different approach family household classical economics units typically described


amicable homogeneous gary becker new home economists introduced study family traditional economics usually assumes family single altruistic unit among money distributed equally others concluded optimal distribution commodities provisions takes place within family result view families manner individuals models according feminist economists endorsed traditional expectations sexes applied individualistic rational choice models explain home behavior ref name nelson feminist economists modify assumptions account exploitative sexual gender relations


single parent families sex relationships familial relations children consequences reproduction specifically feminist economists move beyond unitary household models game theory show diversity household experiences example bina agarwal others critiqued mainstream model helped provide better understanding intra household bargaining power ref name agarwal ref agarwal shows lack power outside options women hinders ability negotiate within families amartya sen shows social norms devalue women 's unpaid work household often disadvantage women intra household bargaining feminist economists argue claims


important economic outcomes must recognized within economic frameworks care economy feminist economists join un others acknowledging care work kind work includes tasks involving caregiving central economic development human well ref name razavi feminist economists study paid unpaid care work argue traditional analysis economics often ignores value household unpaid work feminist economists argued unpaid domestic work valuable paid work measures economic success include unpaid work shown women disproportionately responsible


performing care work sabine o'hara argues care basis economic activity market economies concluding everything needs care people animals things highlights sustaining nature care services offered outwith formal economy riane eisler claims need economic system give visibility essential work caring people caring nature measuring gdp includes productive work leaves life sustaining activities following three sectors household economy natural economy volunteer community economy sectors


care work done changing existing economic indicators way would also measure contributions three aforementioned sectors get accurate reflection economic reality proposes social wealth indicators according indicators would show enormous return investment roi caring people nature psychological studies shown people feel good feel good feel cared productive creative example case study result care economy positive externalities


increasing quality human capital nations fail support care work still predominantly done women live world gendered system values everything associated women femininity devalued even marginalised need leave behind gender double standard devaluates caring shift domination partnership create new economic model eisler proposes book real wealth nations creating caring economics contributions people nature present real wealth


society economic policies practices must support caring claims feminist economists also highlighted power inequality issues within families households example randy albelda shows responsibility care work influences time poverty experienced single mothers united states ref name albelda ref similarly sarah gammage examines effects unpaid care work performed women guatemala work equality studies department university college dublin sara cantillon focused inequalities domestic arrangements within even affluent households much care work performed


home may also done pay feminist economics examine implications including increasing involvement women paid care work potential exploitation effects lives care workers ref name razavi systemic study ways women 's work measured measured undertaken marilyn waring see ''if women counted'' others studies began justify different means determining value mdash influenced theory social capital individual capital emerged late


disability illness including mental illness also includes raising children ref name carmichael ref care work also involves close personal emotional interaction ref name folbre ref also included category self care leisure time activities included subsistence work work done order meet basic needs collecting water market values assigned although efforts categorized productive activities according latest revision international system national accounts sna poorly measured surveys ref name folbre unpaid market work direct


contributions unpaid family members market work officially belongs another member household ref name philipps ref voluntary work usually work done non household members return little remuneration system national accounts country measures economic output according system national accounts sna sponsored mainly united nations un implemented mainly organizations european commission international monetary fund imf organisation economic co operation development oecd world bank sna recognizes unpaid work area interest


unpaid household services excluded production boundary ref name un ref feminist economists criticized sna exclusion leaving unpaid work basic necessary labor ignored even accounting measures intended recognize gender disparities criticized ignoring unpaid work two examples gender related development index gdi gender empowerment measure gem neither include much unpaid work ref name beteta ref feminist economics calls comprehensive index includes participation unpaid work recent years increasing attention issue recognition unpaid


work within sna reports commitment un measurement valuation unpaid work emphasizing care work done women goal restated un fourth world conference women beijing ref name luxton ref measurement unpaid work method widely used measure unpaid work gathering information time use implemented least developing countries underway ref name folbre time use measurement involves collecting data much time men women spend daily weekly monthly basis


certain activities fall categories unpaid work techniques gather data include surveys depth interviews diaries participant observation ref name luxton ref name mullan ref proponents time use diaries believe method generate detailed information tend capture greater variation predetermined questions ref name luxton however others argue participant observation researcher spends lengthy periods time households helping observing labor process generates accurate information researcher ascertain whether studied accurately reporting activities perform ref name luxton accuracy first problem


measuring unpaid work issue collecting accurate information always concern research studies particularly difficult evaluating unpaid work time use surveys may reveal relatively little time devoted unpaid direct care activities demands subsistence production countries great may take account multitasking mdash example mother may collect wood fuel child location child care performing work ref name folbre usually indirect care included


many time use studies always result studies may undervalue amount certain types unpaid work participant observation criticized time consuming focus small numbers households thus limited amount information used gather ref name luxton data gathering involves difficulties potential inaccuracy research subjects' reports instance people domestic labor reason pay close attention amount time tasks take may often underestimate


time spent familiar activities ref name luxton measuring time also problematic slowest inefficient workers appear carry greatest workload ref name luxton time use assessing childcare criticized easily obscur ing gender differences workload men women may put amount time responsible children participant observation studies shown many men likely 'babysit' children something watching tv men 's standards care may limited ensuring children hurt dirty diapers may


ignored deliberately left mother returns ref name luxton paradoxical aspect problem burdened may able participate studies usually women heaviest work loads choose participate studies ref name luxton general measurement time causes demanding aspects unpaid work unexplored premise time appropriate tool measuring women 's unpaid work goes unchallenged ref name luxton surveys also criticized lacking depth complexity questions cannot


specifically tailored particular circumstances ref name luxton comparability second problem difficulty comparisons across cultures comparisons across countries currently hampered differences activity classification nomenclature ref name folbre depth surveys may way get necessary information desired make difficult perform cross cultural comparisons ref name luxton lack adequate universal terminology discussing unpaid work example despite increasing recognition domestic labor work existing vocabularies easily convey new appreciations people still tend talk work home


separate spheres 'working mothers' usually assumed paid labor force despite feminist assertions 'every mother working mother' readily accepted terms express different work activities job titles housewife home manager homemaker problematic none conveys sense woman juggles domestic labor paid employment ref name luxton complexity third problem complexity domestic labor issues separating unpaid work categories time use studies take multitasking issues account separating primary secondary activities however


studies even may take account fact frequently several tasks done simultaneously tasks overlap boundaries work relationships often unclear woman determine primary activity preparing dinner putting laundry away making coffee spouse coffee chatting attending children ref name luxton activities may even considered work playing child categorized developmental care work may included


study 's responses ref name luxton mentioned child supervision indirect care work may construed activity suggests activity based surveys supplemented stylized questions regarding care responsibilities otherwise activities undercounted ref name folbre past time use studies tended measure primary activities respondents two things asked indicate important changing recent years ref name luxton valuation time feminist economists point three main ways determining


value unpaid work opportunity cost method replacement cost method input output cost method opportunity cost method uses wage person would earn market see much value labor time ref name mullan method extrapolates opportunity cost idea mainstream economics second method valuation uses replacement costs simple terms done measuring amount money third party would make work part market words value person cleaning house


includes value added household instance value time devoted cooking meal determined asking could cost purchase similar meal output market subtracting cost capital goods utilities raw materials devoted meal remainder represents value factors production primarily labor ref name folbre types models try value household output determining monetary values inputs mdash dinner example ingredients production meal mdash compares


market equivalents ref name luxton difficulty establishing monetary levels one criticism time valuation concerns choice monetary levels unpaid work valued one activity performed one output produced another issue concerns differences quality market household products feminist economists take issue using market system determine values variety reasons may lead conclusion market provides perfect substitutes non market work ref name folbre wage produced market services may accurately reflect


actual opportunity cost time spent household production ref name mullan wages used valuation methods come industries wages already depressed gender inequalities accurately value unpaid work ref name mullan related argument market accepts existing sex gender divisions labor pay inequalities normal unproblematic basic assumption underlying calculations valuations produced serve reinforce gender inequalities rather challenge women 's subordination ref name luxton criticisms opportunity cost criticisms leveled method valuation opportunity cost method depends


lost earnings worker toilet cleaned lawyer much greater value one cleaned janitor means value varies drastically ref name luxton also issues uniformity method across multiple individuals also single person may uniform across entire day across days week ref name mullan also issue whether enjoyment activity deducted opportunity cost estimate ref name mullan difficulties replacement cost


college educated worker average housekeeper 's wage ref name folbre difficulties input output methods critiques input output methods include difficulty identifying measuring household outputs issues variation households effects ref name mullan findings economic effects unpaid work wide ranging study conducted determine amount unpaid household work engaged residents different countries study incorporating results time use surveys oecd countries found country average hours spent per day unpaid household work


included measures gross domestic product shown value enormous united states estimated meaning true value unpaid work trillions dollars per year countries percentage gdp may even higher united kingdom may high unpaid work largely done women unreported economic indicators results contributions women devalued society formal economy research


causes consequences occupational segregation gender pay gap glass ceiling significant part feminist economics conventional neoclassical economic theories explained result free choices made women men simply different abilities preferences feminist economists pointed important roles played stereotyping sexism patriarchal beliefs institutions sexual harassment discrimination rationales effects anti discrimination laws adopted many industrial countries beginning also studied women moved large numbers previous


male bastions mdash especially professions like medicine law mdash last decades th century gender pay gap remains shrinking slowly feminist economists marilyn power ellen mutari deborah figart examined gender pay gap found wage setting procedures primarily driven market forces instead power actors cultural understandings value work constitutes proper living social gender norms consequently assert economic models must take typically exogenous variables account overt employment


discrimination sex remains concern feminist economists recent years attention paid discrimination caregivers women men give hands care children sick elderly friends relatives many business government policies designed accommodate ideal worker traditional male worker responsibilities rather caregiver workers inefficient inequitable treatment resulted globalization feminist economists' work globalization diverse multifaceted much tied together detailed nuanced studies ways globalization affects