bin laden associates issued fatwa proclaiming jihad jews crusaders many islamic jurists addition denouncing content stressed bin laden qualified either issue fatwa proclaim jihad new forms ijtihad also given rise fatwas support notions gender equality banking interest variance classical jurisprudence internet age large number websites provide fatwas response queries around world addition radio shows satellite television programs offering call fatwas erroneous


sometimes bizarre fatwas issued unqualified eccentric individuals recent times sometimes given rise complaints chaos modern practice issuing fatwas exists international islamic authority settle differences interpretation islamic law international islamic fiqh academy created organisation islamic cooperation legal opinions binding vast amount fatwas produced modern world attests importance islamic authenticity many muslims however little research available indicate extent muslims acknowledge authority different


government committee responsible supervising markets public order aided volunteers enforcing attendance daily prayers gender segregation public places conservative notion hijab committee officers authorized detain violators reform rising international influence wahhabism conception ''hisba'' individual obligation police religious observance become widespread led appearance activists around world urge fellow muslims observe islamic rituals dress code aspects sharia religious police beating woman kabul


august reported rawa opening burqa iran ''hisba'' enshrined constitution revolution universal reciprocal duty incumbent upon government people implementation carried official committees well volunteer forces ''basij'' ref name rferl ref elsewhere policing various interpretations sharia based public morality carried kano state hisbah corps nigerian state kano ''polisi perda syariah islam'' aceh province indonesia committee propagation virtue prevention


vice gaza strip taleban rule afghanistan religious police organizations tend support conservative currents public opinion activities often disliked segments population especially liberals urban women younger people egypt law based doctrine hisba time allowed muslim sue another muslim beliefs may harm society though abuses amended state prosecutor may bring suit based private requests ref name gallagher nancy gallagher apostasy


encyclopedia women islamic cultures family law politics editors suad joseph afs na na b p ref amendment passed hisba suit brought group islamists liberal theologian nasr abu zayd charges apostasy led annulment marriage law also invoked unsuccessful blasphemy suit feminist author nawal el saadawi ref name gallagher hisba also invoked several muslim majority countries rationale blocking pornographic content internet forms faith based censorship support opposition support survey


based interviews muslims randomly selected urban rural parts countries using area probability designs pew forum religion public life found majority cases overwhelming majority muslims number countries support making sharia islamic law law land including afghanistan iraq niger malaysia pakistan morocco bangladesh egypt indonesia jordan uganda ethiopia mali ghana tunisia ref name pewssp muslim regions southern eastern europe central asia support less


russia kyrgyzstan tajikistan kosovo albania turkey kazakhstan azerbaijan regional averages support south asia southeast asia middle east north africa sub saharan africa southern eastern europe central asia ref name pewssp however support implementation sharia favor using family property disputes fewer supported application severe punishments whippings cutting hands interpretations aspects differed widely ref name pewssp ref according pew poll among muslims support making


sharia law land believe applied non muslims muslim majority countries surveyed proportion varied egypt kazakhstan percentage favored making sharia law land countries surveyed respondents likely define sharia revealed word god rather body law developed men based word god analyzing poll amaney jamal argued single shared understanding


notions sharia islamic law among respondents particular countries muslim citizens little experience rigid application sharia based state laws notions tend associated islamic ideals like equality social justice prohibitions polls indicated egyptians word sharia associated notions political social gender justice rowan williams archbishop canterbury suggested islamic orthodox jewish courts integrated british legal system alongside ecclesiastical courts handle marriage divorce subject agreement


parties strict requirements protection equal rights women ref name feldman ref reference sharia sparked controversy ref name feldman later year nicholas phillips lord chief justice england wales stated reason sharia principles basis mediation forms alternative dispute resolution yougov poll united kingdom found muslim students interviewed supported introduction sharia british law muslims michael broyde professor law emory university specializing alternative dispute resolution jewish


law argued sharia courts integrated american religious arbitration system provided adopt appropriate institutional requirements american rabbinical courts done opposition protest sharia united kingdom western world sharia called source hysteria controversial ever one aspect islam inspires particular dread ref name kadri ref internet dozens self styled counter jihadis emerged campaign sharia law describing strict interpretations resembling salafi muslims ref name kadri also fear sharia law ideology extremism among muslims


german soil ref name dw ref countries jurisdictions explicit bans sharia law canada example sharia law explicitly banned quebec unanimous vote national assembly province ontario allows family law disputes arbitrated ontario law ref name choksi ref us opponents sharia sought ban considered courts routinely used alongside traditional jewish catholic laws decide legal business family disputes subject contracts drafted reference laws long


violate secular law us constitution ref name thomas ref failing gather support federal law making observing sharia felony punishable years prison anti sharia activists focused state legislatures ref name thomas bills aimed use sharia introduced states passed ref name thomas notable example would oklahoma state question sought permanently ban use sharia law courts approved voters tenth circuit court appeals placed injunction law


citing unconstitutionality law 's impartial focus specific religion law struck never took effect bills generally referred banning foreign religious law order thwart legal challenges ref name thomas according jan michiel otto professor law governance developing countries leiden university nthropological research shows people local communities often distinguish clearly whether extent norms practices based local tradition tribal custom religion adhere confrontational view sharia tend ascribe many undesirable


practices sharia religion overlooking custom culture even high ranking religious authorities stated opposite contemporary debates controversies compatibility democracy argued extent sharia compatible democracy depends culturally interpreted ref name ref cultural position sharia represents human attempt interpret god 's message associated greater preference democracy islamist interpretation sharia law literal word god ref name general muslim views esposito delong bas distinguish four attitudes toward sharia democracy prominent among muslims today


movements belief democracy requires restricting religion private life held minority muslim world polls conducted gallup pew muslim majority countries indicate muslims see contradiction democratic values religious principles desiring neither theocracy secular democracy rather political model democratic institutions values coexist values principles sharia islamic political theories muslih browers identify three major perspectives democracy among prominent muslims thinkers sought develop modern distinctly islamic theories socio political organization conforming islamic values


law rejectionist islamic view elaborated sayyid qutb abul a'la maududi condemns imitation foreign ideas drawing distinction western democracy islamic doctrine ' 'shura'' consultation ruler ruled perspective stresses comprehensive implementation sharia widespread among various movements seeking establish islamic state popularity diminished recent years moderate islamic view stresses concepts ''maslaha'' public interest '' adl'' justice ' 'shura'' islamic leaders considered uphold justice promote public interest defined ' 'shura''


view ' 'shura'' provides basis representative government institutions similar western democracy reflect islamic rather western liberal values hasan al turabi rashid al ghannushi yusuf al qaradawi advocated different forms view liberal islamic view influenced muhammad abduh 's emphasis role reason understanding religion stresses democratic principles based pluralism freedom thought authors like fahmi huwaidi tariq al bishri constructed islamic justifications full citizenship non muslims islamic state drawing early islamic texts others like mohammed arkoun nasr hamid abu


zayd justified pluralism freedom non literalist approaches textual interpretation abdolkarim soroush argued religious democracy based religious thought democratic tolerant islamic liberals argue necessity constant reexamination religious understanding done democratic context european court human rights constitutional court turkey banned dissolved turkey 's refah party announced intention introduce sharia based laws ruling would change turkey 's secular order undermine democracy appeal refah european court human rights determined


sharia incompatible fundamental principles democracy refah 's sharia based notion plurality legal systems grounded religion ruled contravene european convention protection human rights fundamental freedoms determined would away state 's role guarantor individual rights freedoms infringe principle non discrimination individuals regards enjoyment public freedoms one fundamental principles democracy analysis maurits berger found ruling nebulous surprising legal point


view since court neglected define meant sharia would example expected regard sharia rules islamic rituals contravening european human rights values kevin boyle also criticized decision distinguishing extremist mainstream interpretations islam implying peaceful advocacy islamic doctrines attitude fails respect principle secularism protected european convention provisions freedom religion compatibility human rights governments several predominantly muslim countries criticized universal declaration human rights udhr perceived


failure take account cultural religious context non western countries iran declared un assembly udhr secular understanding judeo christian tradition could implemented muslims without trespassing islamic law islamic scholars islamist political parties consider 'universal human rights' arguments imposition non muslim culture muslim people disrespect customary cultural practices islam ref name ref organisation islamic cooperation group representing muslim majority nations met cairo respond udhr adopted cairo declaration human rights


islam ann elizabeth mayer points notable absences cairo declaration provisions democratic principles protection religious freedom freedom association freedom press well equality rights equal protection law article cairo declaration states rights freedoms stipulated declaration subject islamic ' 'shari'a'' ref name mayer ref journal ''free inquiry'' summarized criticism cairo declaration editorial deeply concerned changes universal declaration human rights coalition islamic


states within united nations wishes prohibit criticism religion would thus protect islam 's limited view human rights view conditions inside islamic republic iran egypt pakistan saudi arabia sudan syria bangladesh iraq afghanistan expect top human rights agenda would rectify legal inequality women suppression political dissent curtailment free expression persecution ethnic minorities religious dissenters short protecting citizens egregious human rights violations instead worrying protecting islam


h patrick glenn states sharia structured around concept mutual obligations collective considers individual human rights potentially disruptive unnecessary revealed code mutual obligations giving priority religious collective rather individual liberty islamic law justifies formal inequality individuals women non islamic people bassam tibi states sharia framework human rights incompatible abdel al hakeem carney contrast states sharia misunderstood failure distinguish ''sharia'' ' 'siyasah'' politics blasphemy blasphemy laws worldwide classical fiqh blasphemy refers form


cursing questioning annoying god muhammad anything considered sacred islam ref name khan siraj khan blasphemy prophet muhammad history thought culture editors coeli fitzpatrick adam hani walker pp ref including denying one islamic prophets scriptures insulting angel refusing accept religious commandment jurists different schools prescribed different punishment blasphemy islam muslims non muslims ranging imprisonment fines death penalty ref name khan cases sharia allows non muslims escape death converting becoming devout follower islam


burnish religious credentials gain popular support expense liberal muslim intellectuals religious minorities blasphemy interpreted sharia controversial representatives organisation islamic cooperation petitioned united nations condemn defamation religions unrestricted disrespectful freedom opinion creates hatred contrary spirit peaceful dialogue cairo declaration human rights islam subjects free speech unspecified sharia restrictions article declaration states everyone shall right express opinion freely manner would


contrary principles shariah others contrast consider blasphemy laws violate freedom speech stating freedom expression essential empowering muslims non muslims point abuse blasphemy laws prosecuting members religious minorities political opponents settling personal scores ref name bbc blasphemy ref pakistan blasphemy laws used convict thousand people half ahmadis christians ref name b wering ref ref name bbc blasphemy none legally executed ref name b wering two pakistani politicians shahbaz bhatti salmaan taseer assassinated criticism blasphemy laws


although laws inherited british colonial legislation expanded islamized many pakistanis believe taken directly quran ref name bbc blasphemy apostasy countries criminalize apostasy islam muslim majority countries impose death penalty prison sentence apostasy islam ban non muslims proselytizing according classical doctrine apostasy islam crime well sin punishable death penalty ref name jstor ref ref name lewis ref typically waiting period allow apostate time repent return islam ref


name jstor ref name aromar ref name key ref ref name johnesposito ref wael hallaq writes culture whose lynchpin religion religious principles religious morality apostasy way equivalent high treason modern nation state ref name waelhallaq ref early islamic jurists set standard apostasy islam high practically apostasy verdict could passed th century ref name princetonenc ref later jurists lowered bar applying death penalty allowing judges interpret apostasy law different ways ref name princetonenc sometimes leniently sometimes strictly late th century use criminal penalties


apostasy fell disuse although civil penalties still applied ref name jstor according abdul rashied omar majority modern islamic jurists continue regard apostasy crime deserving death penalty ref name aromar ref view dominant conservative societies like saudi arabia pakistan number liberal progressive islamic scholars argued apostasy viewed crime ref name elliott ref ref name newsbbccouk ref ref name jstor ref name bbcsudan ref others argue death penalty inappropriate punishment ref name hassanibrahim ref ref name smz ref inconsistent qur'anic verses compulsion religion ref name elliott


name locapo https wwwlocgov law help apostasy apostasypdf laws criminalizing apostasy library congress ref countries sharia courts could use family laws void muslim apostate 's marriage deny child custody rights well inheritance rights years four individuals legally executed apostasy islam one sudan two iran one saudi arabia ref name elliott modern states rarely prosecuted apostasy issue deep cultural resonance muslim societies islamists tended exploit political gain ref name elliott pew


homosexual acts rare followed sharia rules even rarer ref name iranica law ref public attitudes toward homosexuality muslim world turned negative starting th century gradual spread islamic fundamentalist movements salafism wahhabism ref name dialmy ref influence sexual notions prevalent europe time ref name lapidus ref ref name beckers tilo beckers islam acceptance homosexuality ''islam homosexuality volume '' ed samar habib praeger ref number muslim majority countries retained criminal penalties homosexual acts enacted colonial rule ref name ahmadi ref ref name economist ref recent


decades prejudice lgbt individuals muslim world exacerbated increasingly conservative attitudes rise islamist movements resulting sharia based penalties enacted several countries ref name economist death penalty homosexual acts currently legal punishment brunei iran mauritania northern states nigeria pakistan qatar saudi arabia parts somalia yemen sharia based criminal laws unclear whether laws afghanistan united arab emirates provide death penalty gay sex never carried ref name wp ref criminalization consensual homosexual


acts especially making liable capital punishment condemned international rights groups according polls level social acceptance homosexuality ranges among muslims us less number muslim majority nations terrorism al qaeda ideologues used interpretation sharia justify terrorist attacks extremists used interpretation islamic scriptures sharia particular doctrine jihad justify acts war terror muslim well non muslim individuals governments ref name aenexeter expert terrorism rachel ehrenfeld wrote


sharia 's finance islamic banking new weapon arsenal might termed fifth generation warfare gw ref name zakatforterror ref however sharia complaint financing actually requires person stay away weapons manufacturing ref name jamaldeen ref ref name jameschen ref classical fiqh term ''jihad'' refers armed struggle unbelievers ref name oeip ref classical jurists developed elaborate set rules pertaining jihad including prohibitions harming engaged combat according bernard lewis time classical jurists offer approval legitimacy nowadays call terrorism terrorist practice suicide bombing


whose blood legitimately spilled ref name aenexeter modern ulema yusuf al qaradawi sulaiman al alwan supported suicide attacks israeli civilians arguing army reservists hence considered soldiers hamid bin abdallah al ali declared suicide attacks chechnya justified sacrifice ref name aenexeter many prominent islamic scholars including al qaradawi issued condemnations terrorism general terms example abdul aziz ibn abdullah al ash sheikh grand mufti saudi arabia stated terrorizing innocent people constitute form injustice cannot tolerated islam


muhammad sayyid tantawy grand imam al azhar former grand mufti egypt stated attacking innocent people courageous stupid punished day judgment ref name aenexeter anisseh engeland nourai https oreexeteracuk repository bitstream handle vanengeland challenge fragmentation international humanitarian lawpdfsequence challenge fragmentation international humanitarian law regarding protection civilians islamic perspective school law university bedfordshire pp ref women domestic violence surah quran debated domestic violence also subject varied interpretations according interpretations sharia condones certain forms domestic violence


women husband suspects ''nushuz'' disobedience disloyalty rebellion ill conduct wife admonishing staying away bed work interpretations criticized inconsistent women 's rights domestic abuse cases musawah cedaw kafa organizations proposed ways modify sharia inspired laws improve women 's rights muslim majority nations including women 's rights domestic abuse cases others believe wife beating consistent modernist perspective quran many imams scholars learned shariah traditional islamic seminaries object misuse verse


justify domestic violence muslims white ribbon campaign launched imams muslim leaders committing join others work end violence women khutbah campaigns held many parts world speak domestic violence encourage muslim congregants eradicate domestic abuse friday sermons lectures muslim congregants told oppose condemn domestic violence qur'an never misused justify evil practice personal status laws child marriage shari'a basis personal status laws islamic majority


nations personal status laws determine rights women matters marriage divorce child custody unicef report concludes sharia law provisions discriminatory women human rights perspective many countries legal proceedings relating sharia based personal status law woman 's testimony worth half man 's court ref name unicef ref codification islamic family law ottoman empire distinguished age competence marriage set boys girls minimum age marriage followed traditional


age limits boys girls without distinction competence marriage minimum age ref name ei ref many senior clerics saudi arabia opposed setting minimum age marriage arguing woman reaches adulthood puberty rape considered crime countries north africa middle east region sharia based secular laws countries including bahrain iraq jordan libya morocco syria tunisia allowed rapist escape punishment marrying victim countries including libya oman saudi arabia


''umm al walad'' could sold becoming legally free upon master 's death child considered free legitimate heir father comparison legal systems jewish law islamic legal tradition number parallels judaism religions revealed law holds central place contrast christianity possess body revealed law theology rather law considered principal field religious study islamic jewish law ''halakha'' derived formal textual revelations quran pentateuch well less


formal orally transmitted prophetic traditions hadith ''mishna'' according scholars words ' 'sharia'' ''halakha'' mean literally path follow ''fiqh'' literature parallels rabbinical law developed talmud fatwas analogous rabbinic ' 'responsa'' however emphasis ''qiyas'' classical sunni legal theory explicitly permissive talmudic law respect authorizing individual reason source law implicitly restrictive excluding unauthorized forms reasoning western legal systems early islamic law developed number legal concepts anticipated similar concepts later


islamic law also parallels western legal systems example influence islam development international law sea discerned alongside roman influence ref name tai ref george makdisi argued madrasa system attestation paralleled legal scholastic system west gave rise modern university system triple status ''faqih'' master law ''mufti'' professor legal opinions ''mudarris'' teacher conferred classical islamic legal degree equivalents medieval latin terms ''magister'' ''professor'' ' 'doctor'' respectively although


came used synonymously east west ref name g makdisi ref makdisi suggested medieval european doctorate ''licentia docendi'' modeled islamic degree ''ijazat al tadris wa l ifta '' word word translation term ''ifta '' issuing fatwas omitted ref name g makdisi also argued systems shared fundamental freedoms freedom professor profess personal opinion freedom student pass judgement learning ref name g makdisi differences islamic western legal systems example sharia classically recognizes natural persons never


developed concept legal person corporation ie legal entity limits liabilities managers shareholders employees exists beyond lifetimes founders assets sign contracts appear court representatives interest prohibitions imposed secondary costs discouraging record keeping delaying introduction modern accounting factors according timur kuran played significant role retarding economic development middle east however rise monopoly wealth corporations proven also detrimental economic equality society ziauddin


sardar also suggests promotion equitable wealth distribution suppression monopoly capital part islam 's message emphasises genuine equity justice see also n glossary islam guardianship islamic jurists imam nawawi 's forty hadith brief collection forty ''hadith'' founder sh fi school used illustrate fundamental ' 'shariah'' islamic advice literature islamic republic islamic sharia council court united kingdom legal authority ma'ruf sources islamic law theonomy references notes citations sources harnischfeger johannes


''democratization islamic law nbsp sharia conflict nigeria'' frankfurt new york city campus verlag chicago university chicago press distributor reading coulson noel j ''a history islamic law'' edinburgh edinburgh potz richard http ieg egoeu en threads europe world european overseas rule richard potz islamic law transfer european lawset language en c ''islamic law transfer european law'' http wwwieg egoeu ego european history online mainz http wwwieg mainzde likecms indexphp institute european history retrieved march https nbinfo pdf schacht joseph ''an introduction islamic law'' oxford clarendon external links http wwwoxfordislamicstudiescom print opr e ''islamic law'' ''the oxford dictionary islam'' via oxford islamic studies online https webarchiveorg web http bridgingculturesnehgov muslimjourneys items show ''sharia'' knut vik r


manuscript arabic late th early th century sharia sharia islamic jurisprudence islamic terminology legal codes religious legal systems religious law


palace nations geneva switzerland hosted intergovernmental meetings city hosts highest number international organizations world x px greek historian thucydides '''international relations''' '''ir''' '''international affairs''' '''ia''' '''international studies''' '''is''' scientific study interactions sovereign states broader sense concerns activities states war diplomacy trade foreign policy relations among international actors intergovernmental organisations igos international non governmental organisations ingos international legal bodies multinational corporations mncs international relations widely considered subdiscipline political science ref name ref however ir

Social science
Political science
International relations


draws considerably upon international economics international law world history cultural anthropology us ir frequently one sub fields within political science departments academic institutions characterize independent multidisciplinary international politics analyzed throughout much history ir emerge discrete field turn th century initially extension political science first distinguished discipline offered undergraduate major aberystwyth university united kingdom ref name next decade


similar studies established university oxford london school economics led field develop independence prominence second world war international relations burgeoned importance scholarship particularly north america western europe partly response geostrategic concerns cold war collapse soviet union subsequent rise globalization late th century presaged new theories evaluations rapidly changing international system st century connections states become progressively complex multifaceted international relations incorporated


fields economics law history leading convergent interdisciplinary field terminology '''international relations''' ''international relations'' ''international affairs'' dependent academic institution either subdiscipline political science broader multidisciplinary field global politics law economics world history subdiscipline political science focus ir studies lie political diplomatic security connections states well study modern political world history many academic institutions studies ir thus situated department politics social sciences example


case scandinavia international relations often simply referred ''international politics ip '' institutions ''international relations'' refers broader multidisciplinary field global politics law economics history subject may studied across multiple departments situated department case example london school economics undergraduate degree multidisciplinary international relations may lead specialised master 's degree either international politics economics international law '''international studies''' ''international studies'' cases referring broader multidisciplinary ir field also


global economics law world history form central components scholarship use international ' 'studies'' instead international ' 'relations'' used distinguish multidisciplinary ir ir political science discipline use term ''international studies'' become norm many universities ir traditionally studied branch political science denote independence academic field '''global studies''' often confused study international relations ''global studies'' ''global affairs'' distinguished broader analytical scope term ''global'' instead ''international'' relations signifies comparatively


lesser focus nation state fundamental unit analysis global studies focuses generally issues global scope specifically macro processes ecology anthropology ethnography communication migration general processes cultural economic globalisation history international relations studies international relations start thousands years ago barry buzan richard little consider interaction ancient sumerian city states starting bc first fully fledged international system analyses foreign policies sovereign city states done ancient times thycydides' analysis causes peloponnesian war


athens sparta ref name ref well niccol machiavelli work ''the prince'' analyses foreign policy renaissance city state florence contemporary field international relations however analyses connections existing sovereign nation states makes establishment modern state system natural starting point international relations history establishment modern sovereign states fundamental political units traces back peace westphalia europe preceding middle ages european organization political authority based vaguely hierarchical religious order


contrary popular belief westphalia still embodied layered systems sovereignty especially within holy roman empire peace westphalia treaty utrecht thought reflect emerging norm sovereigns internal equals within defined territory external superiors ultimate authority within territory 's sovereign borders principles underpin modern international legal political order period roughly saw rise independent sovereign states multilateralism institutionalization diplomacy military french revolution contributed idea


citizenry state defined nation sovereign rather monarch noble class state wherein nation sovereign would thence termed nation state opposed monarchy religious state term republic increasingly became synonym alternative model nation state developed reaction french republican concept germans others instead giving citizenry sovereignty kept princes nobility defined nation statehood ethnic linguistic terms establishing rarely ever fulfilled ideal people speaking one language belong


one state claim sovereignty made forms nation state europe today states conform either definition nation state many continue royal sovereigns hardly ethnically homogeneous particular european system supposing sovereign equality states exported americas africa asia via colonialism standards civilization contemporary international system finally established decolonization cold war however somewhat simplified nation state system considered modern many states incorporated system termed pre modern


theory developed world war dealt detail ir theory however long tradition drawing work social sciences use capitalizations r international relations aims distinguish academic discipline international relations phenomena international relations many cite sun tzu 's ''the art war'' th century bc thucydides' ''history peloponnesian war'' th century bc chanakya 's ''arthashastra'' th century bc inspiration realist theory hobbes' ''leviathan'' machiavelli 's ''the prince'' providing


elaboration similarly liberalism draws upon work kant rousseau work former often cited first elaboration democratic peace theory though contemporary human rights considerably different type rights envisioned natural law francisco de vitoria hugo grotius john locke offered first accounts universal entitlement certain rights basis common humanity th century addition contemporary theories liberal internationalism marxism foundation international relations emergence academic discipline international relations distinct field


offer wide range degrees field rapidly followed establishment ir universities us geneva switzerland creation posts montague burton professor international relations lse oxford gave impetus academic study international relations furthermore international history department lse developed focus history ir early modern colonial cold war periods first university entirely dedicated study ir graduate institute international development studies founded


form diplomats associated league nations committee international relations university chicago first offer graduate degree fletcher school law diplomacy collaboration tufts university harvard opened doors first graduate school international affairs united states glendon college norman paterson school international affairs first institutions canada offer undergraduate graduate program international studies affairs respectively lines ir political


science subfields sometimes blurred particular comes study conflict institutions political economy political behavior ref name division comparative politics international relations artificial processes within nations shape international processes international processes shape processes within states scholars called integration fields comparative politics similar isms international relations scholarship ref name ref theory within study international relations exists multiple theories seeking explain states operate within international system generally divided three main strands


realism liberalism constructivism realism realist framework international relations rests fundamental assumption international state system anarchy overarching power restricting behaviour sovereign states consequence states engaged continuous power struggle seek augment military capabilities economic power diplomacy relative states order ensure protection political system citizens vital interests realist framework assumes states act unitary rational actors central decision makers state apparatus ultimately stand


state 's foreign policy decisions international organisations consequence merely seen tools individual states used interests thought little power shaping states' foreign policies ref name realist framework traditionally associated analysis power politics used analyse conflicts states early european state system causes first second world wars well behaviour united states soviet union cold war settings


realist framework carries great interpretative insights explaining military economic power struggles states lead larger armed conflicts history realism ''history peloponnesian war'' written thucydides considered foundational text realist school political philosophy debate whether thucydides realist ned lebow argued seeing thucydides realist misinterpretation complex political message within work amongst others philosophers like machiavelli hobbes rousseau considered contributed realist philosophy however


work may support realist doctrine likely would classified realists sense political realism believes politics like society governed objective laws roots human nature improve society first necessary understand laws society lives operation laws impervious preferences persons challenge risk failure realism believing objectivity laws politics must also believe possibility developing rational theory reflects however imperfectly


one sidedly objective laws believes also possibility distinguishing politics truth opinion true objectively rationally supported evidence illuminated reason subjective judgment divorced facts informed prejudice wishful thinking major theorists include e h carr robert gilpin charles p kindleberger stephen krasner hans morgenthau samuel p huntington kenneth waltz stephen walt john mearsheimer liberalism contrast realism liberal framework emphasises states although sovereign exist


purely anarchical system rather liberal theory assumes states institutionally constrained power international organisations mutually dependent one another economic diplomatic ties institutions united nations world trade organisation wto international court justice taken time developed power influence shape foreign policies individual states furthermore existence globalised world economy makes continuous military power struggle irrational states dependent participation global trade system ensure survival liberal framework stresses


wto world bank international monetary fund thought made realist analysis power conflict inadequate explaining workings international system history liberalism intellectual basis liberalist theory often cited immanuel kant 's essay ''perpetual peace'' postulates states time increased political economic cooperation come resemble international federation world government characterised continual peace cooperation modern times liberal international relations theory arose world war response


ability states control limit war international relations early adherents include woodrow wilson norman angell argued states mutually gained cooperation war destructive essentially futile liberalism recognized coherent theory collectively derisively termed idealism e h carr new version idealism focused human rights basis legitimacy international law advanced hans k chler major theorists include montesquieu immanuel kant michael w doyle francis fukuyama helen milner


''neoliberalism'' neoliberalism seeks update liberalism accepting neorealist presumption states key actors international relations still maintains non state actors nsas intergovernmental organizations igos matter proponents argue states cooperate irrespective relative gains thus concerned absolute gains also means nations essence free make choices go conducting policy without international organizations blocking nation 's right sovereignty neoliberal institutionalism approach founded robert keohane joseph nye emphasize important role


international institutions maintaining open global trading regime prominent neoliberal institutionalists john ikenberry robert keohane joseph nye ''regime theory'' regime theory derived liberal tradition argues international institutions regimes affect behaviour states international actors assumes cooperation possible anarchic system states indeed regimes definition instances international cooperation realism predicts conflict norm international relations regime theorists say cooperation despite anarchy often cite cooperation trade human rights collective


assumption international system built social constructs ideas norms identities various political actors state leaders policy makers leaders international organisations socialised different roles systems norms define international system operates constructivist scholar alexander wendt article ''international organization'' noted response realism anarchy states make means anarchic structure realists claim governs state interaction fact phenomenon socially constructed reproduced states constructivism


part critical theory seeks criticise assumptions underlying traditional ir theory constructivist theory would example claim state leaders united states soviet union socialised different roles norms provide theoretical insights conflict nations conducted cold war eg prominent us policy makers frequently spoke ussr 'evil empire' thus socialised us population state apparatus anti communist sentiment defined norms conducted us foreign policy constructivist analyses include


discourses european integration senior policy making circles socialised ideas europe historical cultural community therefore sought construct institutions integrate european nations single political body constructivism also present analysis international law norms conduct prohibition chemical weapons torture protection civilians war socialised international organisations stipulated rules prominent constructivist ir scholars include michael barnett martha finnemore ted hopf peter katzenstein kathryn sikkink alexander wendt critical theory post structuralism post structuralism theories international relations also


evolution strand international relations theory post structuralism garnered significant praise criticism critics arguing post structuralist research often fails address real world problems international relations studies supposed contribute solving constructivist theory see prominent strand post structuralism prominent post structuralist theories marxism dependency theory feminism theories english school see also ''critical international relations theory'' ''marxism'' marxist neo marxist theories ir reject realist liberal view state conflict cooperation instead focusing economic material aspects


makes assumption economy trumps concerns making economic class fundamental level analysis marxists view international system integrated capitalist system pursuit capital accumulation thus colonialism brought sources raw materials captive markets exports decolonialization brought new opportunities form dependence prominent derivative marxian thought critical international relations theory application critical theory international relations early critical theorists associated frankfurt school followed marx 's concern conditions allow social change


unions formal level interaction political financial advisors missionaries relief aid workers mncs informal level order integrate capitalist system strategically appropriating undervalued natural resources labor hours fostering economic political dependence ''feminism'' feminist ir considers ways international politics affects affected men women also core concepts employed within discipline ir eg war security etc gendered feminist ir concerned traditional focus


ir states wars diplomacy security feminist ir scholars also emphasized importance looking gender shapes current global political economy sense clear cut division feminists working ir working area international political economy ipe inception feminist ir also theorized extensively men particular masculinities many ir feminists argue discipline inherently masculine nature example article sex death rational world defense intellectuals signs carol cohn claimed


international policy communities example world bank united nations reflective liberal feminist emphasis equality opportunity women prominent scholars include carol cohn cynthia enloe sara ruddick j ann tickner ''international society theory english school '' international society theory also called english school focuses shared norms values states regulate international relations examples norms include diplomacy order international law theorists focused particularly humanitarian intervention subdivided solidarists tend advocate pluralists


place greater value order sovereignty nicholas wheeler prominent solidarist hedley bull robert h jackson perhaps best known pluralists english school theoreticians used historical cases order show influence normative frameworks evolution international political order various critical junctures levels analysis systemic level concepts international relations often viewed terms ''levels analysis'' ' 'systemic level'' concepts broad concepts define shape international milieu characterized anarchy focusing systemic level international relations


often always preferred method neo realists structuralist ir analysts sovereignty preceding concepts interdependence dependence international relations relies idea sovereignty described jean bodin 's ''six books commonwealth'' three pivotal points derived book describe sovereignty state sovereign power absolute power territories power limited sovereign 's obligations towards sovereigns individuals foundation sovereignty indicated sovereign 's obligation sovereigns interdependence dependence


state willing compromise example germany 's annexation sudetenland part czechoslovakia munich agreement czechoslovakia willing relinquish territory considered ethnically german order preserve integrity sovereignty non state actors st century status quo international system longer monopolized states alone rather presence non state actors autonomously act implement unpredictable behaviour international system whether transnational corporations liberation movements non governmental agencies international organizations entities potential significantly


influence outcome international transaction additionally also includes individual person individual constitutes states collective entity individual potential also create unpredicted behaviours al qaeda example non state actor significantly influenced way states non state actors conduct international affairs power blocs existence power blocs international relations significant factor related polarity cold war alignment several nations one side another based ideological differences national interests become endemic feature


international relations unlike prior shorter term blocs western soviet blocs sought spread national ideological differences nations leaders like us president harry truman truman doctrine believed necessary spread democracy whereas warsaw pact soviet policy sought spread communism cold war dissolution ideologically homogeneous eastern bloc still gave rise others south south cooperation movement polarity polarity international relations refers arrangement power within international system concept arose bipolarity cold war


international system dominated conflict two superpowers applied retrospectively theorists however term bipolar notably used stalin said saw international system bipolar one two opposing powerbases ideologies consequently international system prior described '''multipolar''' power shared among great powers empires world collapse soviet union led unipolarity united states sole superpower although many refuse acknowledge fact china 's continued rapid economic growth became


world 's second largest economy respectable international position power chinese government exerts people consisting largest population world resulted debate whether china superpower possible candidate future however china 's strategic force unable projecting power beyond region nuclear arsenal warheads compared united states mean unipolarity persist policy relevant future several theories international relations draw upon idea polarity balance power concept prevalent europe prior


first world war thought balancing power blocs would create stability prevent war theories balance power gained prominence cold war central mechanism kenneth waltz 's neorealism concepts balancing rising power counter another bandwagonning siding another developed robert gilpin 's hegemonic stability theory also draws upon idea polarity specifically state unipolarity hegemony preponderance power one pole international system theory argues stable configuration


mutual gains dominant power others international system contrary many neorealist arguments particularly made kenneth waltz stating end cold war state unipolarity unstable configuration inevitably change case gilpin proved correct waltz 's article titled stability bipolar world followed william wohlforth 's article titled stability unipolar world waltz 's thesis expressed power transition theory states likely great power would challenge


international system reinforces ideas relations characterized interdependence dependency nato international security assistance force afghanistan dependency theory theory commonly associated marxism stating set core states exploit set weaker periphery states prosperity various versions theory suggest either inevitability standard dependency theory use theory highlight necessity change neo marxist systemic tools international relations diplomacy practice communication negotiation representatives states extent tools international relations considered


failure diplomacy keeping mind use tools part communication negotiation inherent within diplomacy sanctions force adjusting trade regulations typically considered part diplomacy actually valuable tools interest leverage placement negotiations sanctions usually first resort failure diplomacy one main tools used enforce treaties take form diplomatic economic sanctions involve cutting ties imposition barriers communication trade war use force


often thought ultimate tool international relations popular definition given carl von clausewitz war continuation politics means growing study new wars involving actors states study war international relations covered disciplines war studies strategic studies mobilization international shame also thought tool international relations attempting alter states' actions 'naming shaming' international level mostly done large human


rights ngos amnesty international instance called guantanamo bay gulag human rights watch prominent use un commission human rights procedure publicly exposes state 's human rights violations current un human rights council yet use mechanism allotment economic diplomatic benefits european union 's enlargement policy candidate countries allowed join meet copenhagen criteria mutual exchange ideas information art music language among nations cultural diplomacy also recognized governments


important tool development international relations unit level concepts international relations level analysis unit level often referred state level locates explanation level state rather international system regime type often considered state 's form government dictate way state interacts others international relation democratic peace theory theory suggests nature democracy means democratic countries go war justifications


democracies externalize norms go war causes democracy encourages mutual trust respect communism justifies world revolution similarly would lead peaceful coexistence based proletarian global society revisionism status quo states classified whether accept international status quo revisionist ie want change revisionist states seek fundamentally change rules practices international relations feeling disadvantaged status quo see international system largely western creation serves reinforce current realities japan example


state gone revisionist state one satisfied status quo status quo beneficial religion religion effect way state acts within international system different theoretical perspectives treat somewhat different fashion one dramatic example thirty years' war ravaged much europe least partly motivated theological differences within christianity religion major organizing principle particularly islamic states whereas secularism sits end spectrum


separation state religion responsible liberal international relations theory september attacks united states role islam terrorism religious strife middle east made role religion international relations major topic china 's reemergence major international power believed scholars shaped confucianism individual sub unit level concepts level beneath unit state useful explaining factors international relations theories fail explain moving away state centric


view international relations psychological factors international relationsunderstanding state black box proposed realism may influences foreign policy decisions examining role personalities decision making process explanatory power role misperception various actors prominent application sub unit level psychological factors international relations concept groupthink another propensity policymakers think terms analogies bureaucratic politicslooks role bureaucracy decision making sees decisions result


bureaucratic infighting shaped various constraints religious ethnic secessionist groupsviewing aspects sub unit level explanatory power regards ethnic conflicts religious wars transnational diaspora diaspora politics actors consider fit defined state boundaries particularly useful context pre modern world weak states science technology international relationshow science technology impact global health business environment technology development international political economy economic factors international relations international political culturologylooks culture cultural variables impact


international relations personal relations leadersmaison de la paix home graduate institute geneva institutions international relations united nations secretariat building united nations headquarters new york city international institutions form vital part contemporary international relations much interaction system level governed outlaw traditional institutions practices international relations use war except self defence generalist inter state organizations united nations united nations un international organization describes global association governments facilitating co operation international law


international security economic development social equity prominent international institution many legal institutions follow organizational structure un organisation islamic cooperation organisation islamic cooperation oic international organization consisting member states organisation attempts collective voice muslim world ummah attempts safeguard interests ensure progress well muslims generalist inter state organizations include economic institutions world bank headquarters washington dc nato e flying usaf f nato exercise international legal


bodies human rights legal regional security arrangements see also comparative politics diplomatic history global studies list international relations journals list international relations institutes organizations multilateralism peace conflict studies peace economics political geography european institute international law international relations international relations international relations great powers diplomatic history world war international relations diplomatic history world war ii cold war international relations since references bibliography dyvik synne l jan selby rorden wilkinson eds ''what 's point international relations'' reus smit


christian duncan snidal eds ''the oxford handbook international relations'' theory norman angell ''the great illusion'' london heinemann hedley bull ''anarchical society'' new york columbia university press e h carr ''the twenty years' crisis'' new york perennial robert cooper ''the post modern state'' enloe cynthia 'gender' enough need feminist consciousness ''international affairs'' web sept goodin robert e hans dieter klingemann eds ''a new handbook political science'' ch pp charlotte hooper masculinities ir 'gender variable' cost benefit analysis sympathetic


gender sceptics ''international studies'' andrew hurrell ''on global order power values constitution international society'' oxford university press https globaloupcom academic product global order cc us lang en global order power values constitution international society robert keohane ''after hegemony'' hans k chler ''democracy international rule law'' vienna new york springer andrew linklater ''men citizens theory international relations'' donald markwell ''john maynard keynes international relations economic paths war peace'' oxford oxford university press hans j morgenthau ''scientific man vs power politics'' chicago university chicago press reinhold niebuhr ''moral


open book forthcoming schroeder paul w ''the transformation european politics '' oxford history modern europe pp history analysis major diplomacy taylor ajp ''the struggle mastery europe '' oxford history modern europe pp history analysis major diplomacy external links http wwweiireu european institute international law international relations politics


milky way physicists speculated radio waves could observed astronomical sources james clerk maxwell 's equations shown electromagnetic radiation associated electricity magnetism could exist wavelength several attempts made detect radio emission sun including experiment german astrophysicists johannes wilsing julius scheiner centimeter wave radiation apparatus set oliver lodge attempts unable detect emission due technical limitations instruments discovery radio reflecting

Natural science
Space science
Astronomy
Radio astronomy


ionosphere led physicists conclude layer would bounce astronomical radio transmission back space making undetectable karl jansky made discovery first astronomical radio source serendipitously early engineer bell telephone laboratories investigating static interfered short wave transatlantic voice transmissions using large directional antenna jansky noticed analog pen paper recording system kept recording repeating signal unknown origin since signal peaked every hours jansky originally suspected source interference sun crossing view


directional antenna continued analysis showed source following hour daily cycle sun exactly instead repeating cycle hours minutes jansky discussed puzzling phenomena friend astrophysicist teacher albert melvin skellett pointed time signal peaks exact length sidereal day time took fixed astronomical objects star pass front antenna every time earth rotated ref name bookragscom ref comparing observations optical astronomical maps jansky eventually


concluded radiation source peaked antenna aimed densest part milky way constellation sagittarius concluded since sun therefore stars large emitters radio noise strange radio interference may generated interstellar gas dust galaxy ref name bookragscom jansky 's peak radio source one brightest sky designated sagittarius instead galactic gas dust later hypothesized emitted electrons strong magnetic field current thinking


ions orbit around massive black hole center galaxy point designated sagitarius asterisk indicates particles sagitarius ionized jansky announced discovery april field radio astronomy born ref name aas ref wanted investigate radio waves milky way detail bell labs reassigned another project work field astronomy pioneering efforts field radio astronomy recognized naming


fundamental unit flux density jansky jy ref name aps ref grote reber inspired jansky 's work built parabolic radio telescope diameter backyard began repeating jansky 's observations conducted first sky survey radio frequencies february james stanley hey british army research officer made first detection radio waves emitted sun later year george clark southworth bell labs like jansky also detected radiowaves sun researchers bound wartime security surrounding radar


reber published findings first several people independently discovered solar radiowaves including e schott denmark elizabeth alexander working norfolk island ref name orchiston ref cambridge university ionospheric research taken place world war ii ja ratcliffe along members telecommunications research establishment carried wartime research radar created radiophysics group university radio wave emissions sun observed studied early research soon branched observation celestial radio sources interferometry techniques pioneered


isolate angular source detected emissions martin ryle antony hewish cavendish astrophysics group developed technique earth rotation aperture synthesis radio astronomy group cambridge went found mullard radio astronomy observatory near cambridge late early computers titan became capable handling computationally intensive fourier transform inversions required used aperture synthesis create 'one mile' later ' nbsp km' effective aperture using one mile ryle telescopes respectively used cambridge interferometer map radio sky


atmosphere low frequencies long wavelengths transmission limited ionosphere reflects waves frequencies less characteristic plasma frequency water vapor interferes radio astronomy higher frequencies led building radio observatories conduct observations millimeter wavelengths high dry sites order minimize water vapor content line sight finally transmitting devices earth may cause radio frequency interference many radio observatories built remote places radio telescopes radio telescopes may need extremely large order receive


signals low signal noise ratio also since angular resolution function diameter objective proportion wavelength electromagnetic radiation observed ''radio telescopes'' much larger comparison optical counterparts example meter diameter optical telescope two million times bigger wavelength light observed giving resolution roughly arc seconds whereas radio telescope dish many times size may depending wavelength observed able resolve object size full moon minutes


arc radio interferometry atacama large millimeter array alma many antennas linked together radio interferometer px hst radio image galaxy using '''interferometry''' large array '''vla''' image center section '''vlba''' using ''very long baseline array'' global vlbi consisting antennas us germany italy finland sweden spain jet particles suspected powered black hole center galaxy difficulty achieving high resolutions single radio telescopes led radio interferometry developed british radio astronomer


martin ryle australian engineer radiophysicist radio astronomer joseph lade pawsey ruby payne scott first use radio interferometer astronomical observation carried payne scott pawsey lindsay mccready january using ' 'single'' converted radar antenna broadside array mhz near sydney australia group used principle sea cliff interferometer antenna formerly world war ii radar observed sun sunrise interference arising direct radiation sun reflected radiation sea baseline


sun nbsp mhz first time mid july michelson interferometer consisting two radio antennas spacings tens meters meters showed radio radiation smaller arc minutes size also detected circular polarization type bursts two groups also detected circular polarization time david martyn australia edward appleton james stanley hey uk modern radio interferometers consist widely separated radio telescopes observing object connected together using


coaxial cable waveguide optical fiber type transmission line increases total signal collected also used process called aperture synthesis vastly increase resolution technique works superposing interfering signal waves different telescopes principle waves coincide phase add two waves opposite phases cancel creates combined telescope size antennas furthest apart array order produce high quality image


large number different separations different telescopes required projected separation two telescopes seen radio source called baseline many different baselines possible required order get good quality image example large array telescopes giving independent baselines long baseline interferometry beginning improvements stability radio telescope receivers permitted telescopes world even earth orbit combined perform long baseline interferometry instead physically connecting antennas data


received antenna paired timing information usually local atomic clock stored later analysis magnetic tape hard disk later time data correlated data antennas similarly recorded produce resulting image using method possible synthesise antenna effectively size earth large distances telescopes enable high angular resolutions achieved much greater fact field astronomy highest frequencies synthesised beams less milliarcsecond


way bring data recorded telescope together later correlation however availability today worldwide high bandwidth networks makes possible vlbi real time technique referred e vlbi originally pioneered japan recently adopted australia europe evn european vlbi network perform increasing number scientific e vlbi projects per year astronomical sources radio image central region milky way galaxy arrow indicates supernova remnant location newly discovered transient bursting low frequency


radio source gcrt j radio astronomy led substantial increases astronomical knowledge particularly discovery several classes new objects including pulsars quasars ref name shields ref radio galaxies radio astronomy allows us see things detectable optical astronomy objects represent extreme energetic physical processes universe cosmic microwave background radiation also first detected using radio telescopes however radio telescopes also used investigate objects much closer home including observations sun solar activity radar


mapping planets sources include sun jupiter sagittarius galactic center milky way one portion sagittarius thought radio wave emitting supermassive black hole active galactic nuclei pulsars jets charged particles emit synchrotron radiation merging galaxy clusters often show diffuse radio emission supernova remnants also show diffuse radio emission pulsars type supernova remnant shows highly synchronous emission cosmic microwave background blackbody radio microwave emission international regulation antenna goldstone deep space communications complex california green bank radio telescope


usa jupiter radio bursts '''radio astronomy service''' also ''radio astronomy radiocommunication service'' according article international telecommunication union 's itu radio regulations rr defined radiocommunication service involving use radio astronomy subject radiocommunication service receive radio waves transmitted astronomical celestial objects frequency allocation allocation radio frequencies provided according ''article '' itu radio regulations edition order improve harmonisation spectrum utilisation majority service allocations stipulated document incorporated national tables frequency allocations utilisations


responsibility appropriate national administration allocation might primary secondary exclusive shared primary allocation indicated writing capital letters see example secondary allocation indicated small letters exclusive shared utilization within responsibility administrations line appropriate itu region frequency bands allocated primary secondary ''radio astronomy service'' follows class wikitable bgcolor cccccc align center align center colspan '''allocation services''' align center nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp region nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp region nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp region nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp colspan


'''khz''' nbsp fixed br nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp '''radio astronomy''' colspan nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp '''radio astronomy''' colspan '''mhz''' nbsp fixed br mobile br '''radio astronomy''' colspan nbsp nbsp fixed br mobile br '''radio astronomy''' colspan nbsp nbsp fixed br mobile except aeronautical mobile br '''radio astronomy''' colspan nbsp nbsp earth exploration satellite passive br '''radio astronomy''' br space research passive colspan br mobile satellite br earth space '''radio astronomy''' br aeronautical br radionavigation br br colspan br mobile satellite br earth space '''radio astronomy''' br aeronautical br radionavigation radiodetermination br satellite earth space colspan br


mobile satellite br earth space '''radio astronomy''' br aeronautical br radionavigation radiodetermination br satellite earth space colspan '''ghz''' nbsp '''radio astronomy''' services colspan nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp '''radio astronomy''' services colspan nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp '''radio astronomy''' services colspan nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp '''radio astronomy''' services colspan nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp '''radio astronomy''' services colspan nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp '''radio astronomy''' services colspan nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp '''radio astronomy''' services see also atacama large millimeter array channel gamma ray astronomy infrared astronomy radar astronomy time smearing x ray astronomy waves ''juno'' radio instrument


''juno'' jupiter orbiter radio galaxy zoo references reading journals books bruno bertotti ed ''modern cosmology retrospect'' cambridge university press james j condon et al ''essential radio astronomy'' princeton university press princeton robin michael green ''spherical astronomy'' cambridge university press raymond haynes roslynn haynes richard mcgee ''explorers southern sky history australian astronomy'' cambridge university press js hey ''the evolution radio astronomy'' neale watson academic david l jauncey ''radio astronomy cosmology'' springer roger clifton jennison ''introduction radio astronomy''


albrecht kr ger ''introduction solar radio astronomy radio physics'' springer david pd munns ''a single sky international community forged science radio astronomy'' cambridge mit press allan needell ''science cold war american state lloyd v berkner balance professional ideals'' routledge joseph lade pawsey ronald newbold bracewell ''radio astronomy'' clarendon press kristen rohlfs thomas l wilson ''tools radio astronomy'' springer dt wilkinson pje peebles ''serendipitous discoveries radio astronomy'' green bank wv national radio astronomy observatory woodruff sullivan iii ''the


earth http wwwunwantedemissionscom unwantedemissionscom general reference radio spectrum allocations including radio astronomy http wwwlevandacoil ronny radioastronomy signalprocessinghtml improving radio astronomy images array processing https archivetoday http wwwradioastrolabit en radio astronomy radio astronomy radio astronomy radioastrolab observational astronomy astronomical imaging astronomical sub disciplines


frederick great plays flute summer palace sanssouci franz benda playing violin carl philipp emanuel bach accompanying keyboard unidentified string players painting adolph menzel '''chamber music''' form classical music composed small group instruments traditionally group could fit palace chamber large room broadly includes art music performed small number performers one performer part contrast orchestral music string part played number

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Chamber music


performers however convention usually include solo instrument performances intimate nature chamber music described music friends years chamber music played primarily amateur musicians homes even today chamber music performance migrated home concert hall many musicians amateur professional still play chamber music pleasure playing chamber music requires special skills musical social differ skills required playing solo symphonic works johann wolfgang von goethe described chamber


produced early beginnings plato aristotle hippocrates galen play quartet viols fanciful woodcut middle ages early renaissance instruments used primarily accompaniment singers string players would play along melody line sung singer also purely instrumental ensembles often stringed precursors violin family called consorts analysts consider origin classical instrumental ensembles sonata da camera chamber sonata sonata da chiesa church sonata compositions one five instruments


sonata da camera suite slow fast movements interspersed dance tunes sonata da chiesa dances omitted forms gradually developed trio sonata baroque two treble instruments bass instrument often keyboard chording instrument harpsichord organ harp lute example filling harmony bass instrument chordal instrument would play basso continuo part baroque period chamber music genre clearly defined often works could played variety


instruments orchestral chamber ensembles ''the art fugue'' johann sebastian bach example played keyboard instrument harpsichord organ string quartet string orchestra instrumentation trio sonatas also often flexibly specified handel 's sonatas scored german flute hoboy oboe violin bass lines could played violone cello theorbo bassoon sometimes three four instruments would join bass line unison sometimes composers mixed movements chamber ensembles orchestral movements telemann 's 'tafelmusik' example


five sets movements various combinations instruments ending full orchestral section ''the musical offering'' played ensemble brillante baroque chamber music often contrapuntal instrument played melodic materials different times creating complex interwoven fabric sound instrument playing essentially melodies instruments equal trio sonata often ascendent solo instrument three instruments share equal importance baroque musicians playing trio sonata th century anonymous painting harmonic role played keyboard chording


instrument subsidiary usually keyboard part even written rather chordal structure piece specified numeric codes bass line called figured bass second half th century tastes began change many composers preferred new lighter galant style thinner texture nbsp clearly defined melody bass complexities counterpoint new custom arose gave birth new form chamber music serenade patrons invited street musicians play evening concerts balconies homes friends


lovers patrons musicians commissioned composers write suitable suites dances tunes groups two five six players works called serenades sera night nocturnes divertimenti cassations gasse street young joseph haydn commissioned write several haydn mozart classical style joseph haydn generally credited creating modern form chamber music know string quartets piano trios numerous string trios duos wind ensembles haydn established conversational style composition overall form dominate


world chamber music next two centuries example conversational mode composition haydn 's string quartet op major first movement statement main theme instruments first violin breaks triplet figure supported second violin viola cello cello answers triplet figure viola instruments play secondary theme movement unlike counterpoint part plays essentially melodic role others instrument contributes


character comment music develops score joseph haydn 's op showing conversational mode haydn also settled overall form chamber music compositions would become standard slight variations present day characteristic haydn string quartet four movements ''an opening movement sonata form'' usually two contrasting themes followed development section thematic material transformed transposed ending recapitulation initial two themes ''a lyrical movement'' slow moderate tempo sometimes built


three sections repeat order b c b c sometimes set variations ''a minuet scherzo'' light movement three quarter time main section contrasting trio section repeat main section ''a fast finale section'' rondo form series contrasting sections main refrain section opening closing movement repeating section innovations earned haydn title father string quartet recognized contemporaries leading composer time


means composer developing new modes chamber music even haydn many composers already experimenting new forms giovanni battista sammartini ignaz holzbauer franz xaver richter wrote precursors string quartet joseph haydn playing string quartets haydn created conversational style composition wolfgang amadeus mozart greatly expanded vocabulary chamber music added numerous masterpieces chamber music repertoire mozart 's seven piano trios two piano quartets first apply conversational principle chamber music piano haydn 's piano trios essentially piano sonatas violin cello


playing mostly supporting roles doubling treble bass lines piano score mozart gives strings independent role using counter piano adding individual voices chamber music conversation mozart introduced newly invented clarinet chamber music arsenal kegelstatt trio viola clarinet piano k quintet clarinet string quartet k also tried innovative ensembles including quintet violin two violas cello horn k quartets flute strings various wind instrument combinations


wrote six string quintets two violins two violas cello explore rich tenor tones violas adding new dimension string quartet conversation mozart 's string quartets considered pinnacle classical art six string quartets dedicated haydn friend mentor inspired elder composer say mozart 's father tell god honest man son greatest composer known either person reputation taste profound knowledge


composition many composers wrote chamber compositions period popular time still played today luigi boccherini italian composer cellist wrote nearly hundred string quartets one hundred quintets two violins viola two cellos innovative ensemble later used schubert boccherini gives flashy virtuosic solos principal cello showcase playing violinist carl ditters von dittersdorf cellist johann baptist wanhal played pickup quartets haydn second violin mozart viola popular chamber music composers


period home hall copy pianoforte turn th century saw dramatic changes society music technology far reaching effects way chamber music composed played collapse aristocratic system throughout th century composer normally employee aristocrat chamber music composed pleasure aristocratic players listeners haydn example employee nikolaus prince esterh zy music lover amateur baryton player haydn wrote many


string trios mozart wrote three string quartets king prussia frederick william ii cellist many beethoven 's quartets first performed patron count andrey razumovsky second violin boccherini composed king spain decline aristocracy rise new social orders throughout europe composers increasingly make money selling compositions performing concerts often gave subscription concerts involved renting hall collecting receipts performance increasingly wrote chamber music rich patrons professional musicians playing


paying audience changes structure stringed instruments beginning th century luthiers developed new methods constructing violin viola cello gave instruments richer tone volume carrying power also time bowmakers made violin bow longer thicker ribbon hair higher tension improved projection also made possible new bowing techniques louis spohr invented chinrest gave violinists freedom movement left hands nimble technique changes contributed effectiveness


public performances large halls expanded repertoire techniques available chamber music composers invention pianoforte throughout baroque era harpsichord one main instruments used chamber music harpsichord used quills pluck strings delicate sound due design harpsichord attack weight performer played keyboard change volume tone late harpsichord gradually fell use late pianoforte became popular


th century much many composers franz liszt fr ric chopin wrote almost exclusively solo piano solo piano orchestra beethoven ludwig van beethoven straddled period change giant western music beethoven transformed chamber music raising new plane terms content terms technical demands performers audiences works words maynard solomon models nineteenth century romanticism measured achievements failures late quartets particular considered daunting accomplishment


many composers afraid try composing quartets johannes brahms composed tore string quartets dared publish work felt worthy giant marching behind ghost trio op beethoven beethoven made formal debut composer three piano trios op even early works written beethoven adhering strictly classical mold showed signs new paths beethoven forge coming years showed manuscript trios haydn


teacher prior publication haydn approved first two warned publishing third trio c minor radical warning would understood favorably received public haydn wrong third trio popular set haydn 's criticisms caused falling sensitive beethoven trio indeed departure mold haydn mozart formed beethoven makes dramatic deviations tempo within phrases within movements greatly increases independence strings especially cello allowing range


piano occasionally even violin op trios introduced beethoven 's works public septet op established one europe 's popular composers septet scored violin viola cello contrabass clarinet horn bassoon huge hit played concerts appeared transcriptions many combinations one clarinet cello piano written beethoven popular beethoven feared would eclipse works much carl czerny wrote


beethoven could endure septet grew angry universal applause received septet written classical divertimento six movements including two minuets set variations full catchy tunes solos everyone including contrabass string quartets composed course years beethoven goes classical composer par excellence creator musical romanticism finally late string quartets transcends classicism romanticism create genre defies categorization stravinsky referred


la malincolia creates new type formal structure interleaving slow melancholic section manic dance beethoven use form later quartets brahms others adopted well years beethoven composed three op quartets commission count razumovsky played second violin first performance quartets beethoven 's middle period pioneers romantic style besides introducing many structural stylistic innovations quartets much difficult technically perform much remain beyond


reach many amateur string players first violinist ignaz schuppanzigh complained difficulty beethoven retorted think care wretched violin spirit moves among difficulties complex syncopations cross rhythms synchronized runs sixteenth thirty second sixty fourth notes sudden modulations requiring special attention intonation addition op quartets beethoven wrote two quartets middle period op harp quartet named unusual harp like effect beethoven creates pizzicato passages first movement op serioso border


cellspacing cellpadding style width float right serioso transitional work ushers beethoven 's late period period compositions great introspection particular kind inwardness beethoven 's last style period writes joseph kerman gives one feeling music sounding composer one auditor awestruck eavesdropper late quartets quartet conversation often disjointed proceeding like stream consciousness melodies broken passed middle melodic line instrument instrument beethoven uses new effects never


essayed string quartet literature ethereal dreamlike effect open intervals high e string open string second movement quartet op use ' 'sul ponticello'' playing bridge violin brittle scratchy sound presto movement op use lydian mode rarely heard western music years op cello melody played high strings finale op yet disjointedness quartet tightly designed


overarching structure ties work together beethoven wrote eight piano trios five string trios two string quintets numerous pieces wind ensemble also wrote ten sonatas violin piano five sonatas cello piano franz schubert beethoven last quartets went direction franz schubert carried established emerging romantic style years schubert devoted much life chamber music composing string quartets two piano trios string trios piano quintet commonly known ''trout quintet'' octet strings


winds famous quintet two violins viola two cellos string quintet c nbsp first movement recorded fredonia quartet program july schubert 's music life exemplified contrasts contradictions time one hand darling viennese society starred soir es became known ''schubertiaden'' played light mannered compositions expressed gem tlichkeit vienna hand short life shrouded tragedy wracked poverty ill health chamber music ideal


schubert 's works quartet death maiden rosamunde quartet stormy one movement quartettsatz felix mendelssohn unlike schubert felix mendelssohn life peace prosperity born wealthy jewish family hamburg mendelssohn proved child prodigy age written first major chamber work string octet op already work mendelssohn showed unique style characterize later works notably gossamer light texture scherzo movements exemplified also ''canzonetta'' movement


string quartet op scherzo piano trio minor op another characteristic mendelssohn pioneered cyclic form overall structure means reuse thematic material one movement next give total piece coherence second string quartet opens piece peaceful adagio section major contrasts stormy first movement minor final vigorous presto movement returns opening adagio conclude piece string quartet also mendelssohn 's homage


beethoven work studded quotes beethoven 's middle late quartets violinist joseph joachim pianist clara schumann joachim schumann debuted many chamber works robert schumann johannes brahms others adult life mendelssohn wrote two piano trios seven works string quartet two string quintets octet sextet piano strings numerous sonatas piano violin cello clarinet robert schumann robert schumann continued development cyclic structure piano quintet e nbsp flat op schumann wrote double fugue finale using


haydn mozart schumann wrote true quartet everyone something say nbsp conversation often truly beautiful often oddly turbidly woven among four people awareness exemplified composer virtuoso violinist louis spohr spohr divided string quartets two types ''quatuor brillant'' essentially violin concerto string trio accompaniment ''quatuor dialogue'' conversational tradition chamber music society th century home music making th century painting jules alexandre gr n th century rise new technology driven industrial revolution printed


ensembles european countries particular germany france like minded musicians brought together started develop strong connection community composers high favor orchestral works solo virtuosi works made largest part public concert repertoire early french composers including camille saint sa ns c sar franck ref name ref apart centeral austro germanic countries occurrence subculture chamber music regions britain chamber music often performed upper middle class men less advanced musical skills


unexpected setting informal ensembles private residence audience members britain common form chamber music compositions string quartets sentimental songs piano chamber works like piano trio way depicts standard conception conventional victorian music making middle th century rise feminist movement women also started receive acceptability participated chamber music thousands quartets published hundreds composers quartets published pace


decline next century throughout th century composers published string quartets long neglected george onslow wrote quartets quintets gaetano donizetti wrote dozens quartets antonio bazzini anton reicha carl reissiger joseph suk others wrote fill insatiable demand quartets addition lively market string quartet arrangements popular folk tunes piano works symphonies opera arias opposing forces work middle th century saw rise superstar virtuosi drew attention away chamber music toward solo performance piano


could mass produced became instrument preference many composers like chopin liszt composed primarily exclusively piano vilemina norman neruda leading string quartet ascendance piano symphonic composition merely matter preference also matter ideology schism grew among romantic musicians direction music many composers tend express romantic persona works time chamber works necessarily dedicated specific dedicatee famous chamber works fanny


mendelssohn minor piano trio ludwig van beethoven 's trio e flat major franz schubert 's piano quintet major highly personal ref name liszt richard wagner led movement contended pure music run course beethoven new programmatic forms music music created images melodies future art composers school use chamber music opposing view johannes brahms associates especially powerful music critic eduard hanslick war romantics shook artistic world


period vituperative exchanges two camps concert boycotts petitions although amateur playing thrived throughout th century also period increasing professionalization chamber music performance professional quartets began dominate chamber music concert stage hellmesberger quartet led joseph hellmesberger joachim quartet led joseph joachim debuted many new string quartets brahms composers another famous quartet player vilemina norman neruda also known lady hall indeed last third century women performers began taking place concert stage


women string quartet led emily shinner lucas quartet also women two notable examples toward th century joachim quartet led violinist joseph joachim quartet debuted many works johannes brahms johannes brahms carried torch romantic music toward th century heralded robert schumann forger new paths music brahms 's music bridge classical modern one hand brahms traditionalist conserving musical traditions bach mozart throughout chamber music


uses traditional techniques counterpoint incorporating fugues canons rich conversational harmonic textures hand brahms expanded structure harmonic vocabulary chamber music challenging traditional notions tonality example brahms second string sextet op traditionally composers wrote first theme piece key piece firmly establishing key tonic home key piece opening theme op starts tonic g major already third measure modulated unrelated key


e flat major theme develops ranges various keys coming back tonic g major harmonic audacity swafford describes opened way bolder experiments come harmony also overall musical structure brahms innovator developed technique arnold schoenberg described developing variation rather discretely defined phrases brahms often runs phrase phrase mixes melodic motives create fabric continuous melody schoenberg creator tone system composition traced roots modernism brahms


essay brahms progressive told brahms published works chamber music including three string quartets five piano trios quintet piano strings op works among last works clarinet quintet op trio clarinet cello piano wrote trio unusual combination piano violin horn op also wrote two songs alto singer viola piano op reviving form voice string obbligato virtually abandoned since baroque ''the seine lavacourt'' claude


constantly changing nbsp composers chamber ensembles ideal vehicle transmitting atmospheric sense chamber works constituted much oeuvre nationalism chamber music kneisel string quartet led franz kneisel american ensemble debuted dvo k 's american quartet op parallel trend seek new modes tonality texture another new development chamber music rise nationalism composers turned rhythms tonalities native lands inspiration material europe impelled romantic tendency establish musical matters national boundaries


sharply wrote alfred einstein collecting sifting old traditional melodic treasures nbsp formed basis creative art music many composers chamber music natural vehicle expressing national characters czech composer anton n dvo k created chamber music new voice music native bohemia string quartets three string quintets two piano quartets string sextet four piano trios numerous chamber compositions dvo k incorporates folk music modes integral part compositions example piano quintet


major op slow movement dumka slavic folk ballad alternates slow expressive song fast dance dvo k 's fame establishing national art music great new york philanthropist music connoisseur jeannette thurber invited america head conservatory would establish american style music dvo k wrote string quartet f major op nicknamed american composing work dvo k entertained group kickapoo indians performed native dances songs songs may


incorporated quartet bed ich smetana another czech wrote piano trio string quartet incorporate native czech rhythms melodies russia russian folk music permeated works late th century composers pyotr ilyich tchaikovsky uses typical russian folk dance final movement string sextet ''souvenir de florence'' op alexander borodin 's second string quartet contains references folk music slow nocturne movement quartet recalls middle eastern modes current muslim sections southern russia edvard grieg used musical style native


norway string quartet g minor op violin sonatas hungary composers zolt n kod ly b la bart k pioneered science ethnomusicology performing one first comprehensive studies folk music ranging across magyar provinces transcribed recorded classified tens thousands folk melodies used tunes compositions characterized asymmetrical rhythms modal harmonies music chamber music compositions czech composer leo jan ek combined nationalist trend th century search new tonalities jan ek 's string


quartets incorporate tonalities czech folk music also reflect rhythms speech czech new sounds new world end western tonality begun subtly brahms made explicit debussy posed crisis composers th century merely issue finding new types harmonies melodic systems replace diatonic scale basis western harmony whole structure western music relationships movements structural elements within movements based relationships different


keys composers challenged building whole new structure music coupled feeling era saw invention automobiles telephone electric lighting world war needed new modes expression century aeroplane deserves music wrote debussy inspiration folk music b la bart k recording folksongs czech peasants search new music took several directions first led bart k toward tonal rhythmic constructs folk music bart k 's research hungarian eastern european middle eastern folk music revealed


musical world built musical scales neither major minor complex rhythms alien concert hall fifth quartet example bart k uses time signature math tfrac math startling classically trained musician second nature folk musician structurally also bart k often invents borrows folk modes sixth string quartet example bart k begins movement slow elegiac melody followed main melodic material movement concludes quartet slow movement built entirely elegy


form common many folk music cultures bart k 's six string quartets often compared beethoven 's late quartets bart k builds new musical structures explores sonorities never previously produced classical music example snap pizzicato player lifts string lets snap back fingerboard audible buzz creates modes expression set works apart others bart k 's last two quartets proclaim sanctity life progress victory humanity despite anti humanistic dangers time writes analyst john herschel baron ref name baron


p ref last quartet written bart k preparing flee nazi invasion hungary new uncertain life us often seen autobiographical statement tragedy times bart k alone explorations folk music igor stravinsky 's ''three pieces string quartet'' structured three russian folksongs rather classical string quartet stravinsky like bart k used asymmetrical rhythms throughout chamber music histoire du soldat stravinsky 's arrangement clarinet violin piano constantly shifts time signatures two three four


second string quartet last movement quartet includes soprano key signature schoenberg explored atonality ''pierrot lunaire'' singer flute piccolo clarinet violin cello piano singer uses technique called sprechstimme halfway speech song developing twelve tone technique schoenberg wrote number chamber works including two string quartets string trio wind quintet followed number twelve tone composers prominent students alban berg wrote ''lyric suite'' string quartet


anton webern wrote ''five movements string quartet'' op twelve tone technique new experiment tonality darius milhaud developed use polytonality music different instruments play different keys time milhaud wrote string quartets quartets number written played two played time octet milhaud also used jazz idioms ''suite'' clarinet violin piano american composer charles ives used polytonality


canon fugue baroque sonata form second movement schnelle achtel played ana farmer david boyden austin han dylan mattingly paul hindemith another neoclassicist many chamber works essentially tonal though use many dissonant harmonies hindemith wrote seven string quartets two string trios among chamber works time composers writing works increasing complexity beyond reach amateur musicians hindemith explicitly recognized importance amateur music making intentionally wrote pieces within abilities nonprofessional players works composer summarised ''kammermusik''


collection eight extended compositions consists mostly concertante works comparable bach 's ''brandenburg concertos'' largo allegro molto played seraphina string quartet sabrina tabby caeli smith violins madeline smith viola genevieve tabby cello dmitri shostakovich one prolific chamber music composers th century writing string quartets two piano trios piano quintet numerous chamber works shostakovich 's music long time banned soviet union shostakovich personal danger deportation siberia eighth quartet autobiographical work


expresses deep depression ostracization bordering suicide quotes previous compositions uses four note motif dsch composer 's initials stretching limits century progressed many composers created works small ensembles formally might considered chamber music challenged many fundamental characteristics defined genre last years music friends idea composing music could played home largely abandoned bart k among first part idea bart k never conceived quartets private performance


rather large public concerts ref name baron p aside many almost insurmountable technical difficulties many modern pieces hardly suitable performance small room example ''different trains'' steve reich scored live string quartet recorded tape layers together carefully orchestrated sound collage speech recorded train sounds three string quartets leon theremin performing trio voice piano theremin relation composer performer traditionally composer wrote notes performer interpreted longer case


much modern music ''f r kommende zeiten'' times come stockhausen writes verbal instructions describing performers play star constellations common points falling stars nbsp abrupt end sample composer terry riley describes works kronos quartet ensemble devoted contemporary music write score 's unedited score put minimal amount dynamics phrasing marks nbsp spend lot time trying different ideas order shape music form end process makes


performers actually ''own'' music best way composers musicians interact new sounds composers seek new timbres remote traditional blend strings piano woodwinds characterized chamber music th century search led incorporation new instruments th century theremin synthesizer chamber music compositions many composers sought new timbres within framework traditional instruments composers begin hear new timbres new timbral combinations important new music twentieth century


called breakdown functional tonality writes music historian james mccalla examples numerous bart k 's sonata two pianos percussion schoenberg 's ''pierrot lunaire'' charles ives 's ''quartertone pieces'' two pianos tuned quartertone apart composers used electronics extended techniques create new sonorities example george crumb 's ''black angels'' electric string quartet players bow amplified instruments also beat thimbles pluck paper clips play wrong side bridge fingers nut still composers