cassini maps family produced four generations term topographic surveys appears american origin earliest detailed surveys united states made topographical bureau army formed war became corps topographical engineers work national mapping assumed us geological survey term topographical remained general term detailed surveys mapping programs adopted nations standard th century term topography


started used describe surface description fields mapping broader sense used particularly medical fields neurology objectives objective topography determine position feature generally point terms horizontal coordinate system latitude longitude altitude identifying naming features recognizing typical landform patterns also part field topographic study may made variety reasons military planning geological exploration primary motivators start survey programs detailed information

Social science
Geography
Cartography
Topography


terrain surface features essential planning construction major civil engineering public works reclamation projects techniques variety approaches studying topography method use depends scale size area study accessibility quality existing surveys field survey surveying point germany surveying helps determine accurately terrestrial three dimensional space position points distances angles using leveling instruments theodolites dumpy levels clinometers work one first topographic maps begun


france giovanni domenico cassini great italian astronomer even though remote sensing greatly sped process gathering information allowed greater accuracy control long distances direct survey still provides basic control points framework topographic work whether manual gis based areas extensive direct survey mapping program europe continental us example compiled data forms basis basic digital elevation datasets usgs dem data data must often cleaned eliminate discrepancies surveys


still forms valuable set information large scale analysis original american topographic surveys british ordnance surveys involved recording relief identification landmark features vegetative land cover remote sensing remote sensing general term geodata collection distance subject area passive sensor methodologies besides role photogrammetry aerial satellite imagery used identify delineate terrain features general land cover features certainly become part geovisualization whether maps gis systems false color non visible


point object intersection rays triangulation determines relative three dimensional position point known control points used give relative positions absolute values sophisticated algorithms exploit information scene known priori example symmetries certain cases allowing rebuilding three dimensional co ordinates starting one position camera active sensor methodologies satellite radar mapping one major techniques generating digital elevation models see similar techniques applied bathymetric surveys using sonar determine terrain


ocean floor recent years lidar '''li'''ght '''d'''etection '''a'''nd '''r'''anging remote sensing technique uses laser instead radio waves increasingly employed complex mapping needs charting canopies monitoring glaciers forms topographic data terrain commonly modelled either using vector triangulated irregular network tin gridded raster image mathematical models applications environmental sciences land surface represented modelled using gridded models civil engineering entertainment businesses representations land surface employ variant tin models geostatistics land surface commonly


map represents complete surface digital land surface models confused digital surface models surfaces canopy buildings similar objects example case surface models produces using lidar technology one several surfaces starting top canopy actual solid earth difference two surface models used derive volumetric measures height trees etc raw survey data topographic survey information historically based upon notes surveyors may derive naming cultural information


local sources example boundary delineation may derived local cadastral mapping historical interest field notes inherently include errors contradictions later stages map production resolve remote sensing data field notes remote sensing data aerial satellite photography example raw uninterpreted may contain holes due cloud cover example inconsistencies due timing specific image captures modern topographic mapping includes large component remotely sensed data compilation process topographic mapping map europe using '''elevation modeling'''


contemporary definition topographic mapping shows relief united states usgs topographic maps show relief using contour lines usgs calls maps based topographic surveys without contours planimetric maps maps show contours also significant streams bodies water forest cover built areas individual buildings depending scale features points interest officially topographic maps national surveys nations share many features often called topographic maps existing topographic survey maps comprehensive encyclopedic


coverage form basis much derived topographic work digital elevation models example often created new remote sensing data existing paper topographic maps many government private publishers use artwork especially contour lines existing topographic map sheets basis specialized updated topographic maps topographic mapping confused geologic mapping latter concerned underlying structures processes surface rather identifiable surface features digital elevation modeling sierra nevada mountains spain dem used topography mars


digital elevation model dem raster based digital dataset topography hypsometry bathymetry part earth telluric planet pixels dataset assigned elevation value header portion dataset defines area coverage units pixel covers units elevation zero point dems may derived existing paper maps survey data may generated new satellite remotely sensed radar sonar data topological modeling stl model earth without liquid water


techniques eeg topography brain mapping ophthalmology corneal topography used technique mapping surface curvature cornea tissue engineering atomic force microscopy used map nanotopography human anatomy topography superficial human anatomy mathematics concept topography used indicate patterns general organization features map term referring pattern variables values distributed space topographers '''topographers''' experts topography see also cartography digital elevation model fall line topography geomorphology


global relief model hypsography marine topography topographic map references cartography


coined jaap kunst greek words ''ethnos'' nation ''mousike'' music often defined anthropology ethnography music musical anthropology ref name seeger anthony seeger anthony ''why suy sing'' london oxford university press pp xiii xvii ref early development comparative musicology ethnomusicology primarily oriented toward non western music several decades included study musics world including western art music popular music anthropological sociological intercultural perspectives bruno nettl characterized ethnomusicology product

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Ethnomusicology


western thinking proclaiming ethnomusicology western culture knows actually western phenomenon ref name nettl ref jeff todd titon described study people making music ref name titon ref definition stated broadly ethnomusicology may described holistic investigation music cultural contexts ref name hood see ref combining aspects folklore psychology cultural anthropology linguistics comparative musicology music theory history ref name mccollum jonathan hebert david eds ''theory method historical ethnomusicology'' lanham md rowman littlefield ref ethnomusicology adopted perspectives multitude disciplines ref name newgrove ref disciplinary variety given rise many definitions


associated became vocal ethnomusicology 's distinction musicology ref name nettl bruno nettl bruno harmless drudge defining ethnomusicology ''the study ethnomusicology thirty one issues concepts'' urbana university illinois print ref time definition broadened include study musics world according certain ''approaches'' ref name myers helen myers helen ethnomusicology ethnomusicology introduction ed helen myers new york norton ref ref name merriam alan merriam alan ethnomusicology discussion definition field ''ethnomusicology'' ref single authoritative definition ethnomusicology number


constants appear definitions employed leading scholars field agreed upon ethnomusicologists look music beyond purely sonic historical perspective look instead music within culture music culture music reflection culture ref name nettl bruno ref name merriam alan addition many ethnomusicological studies share common methodological approaches encapsulated ethnographic fieldwork often conducting primary fieldwork among make music learning languages music taking role participant observer learning perform musical tradition practice


mantle hood termed bi musicality ref name hoodbimusicality musical fieldworkers often also collect recordings contextual information music interest ref name nettl bruno thus ethnomusicological studies rely printed manuscript sources primary source epistemic authority history traditional subject musicology history literature western art music ''ethnomusicology'' developed study music human social cultural phenomenon oskar kolberg regarded one earliest european ethnomusicologists first began collecting polish folk songs nettl comparative musicology


primary precursor ethnomusicology emerged late th century early th century international musical society berlin acted one first centers ethnomusicology comparative musicology early ethnomusicology tended focus non western music recent years field expanded embrace study western music ethnographic standpoint theories methods ethnomusicologists often apply theories methods cultural anthropology cultural studies sociology well disciplines social sciences humanities though ethnomusicologists primarily conduct historical studies majority involved


analytical conventions seeger also sought transcend comparative practices focusing music impacted contact similar hood seeger valued performance component ethnomusicology ethnomusicologists following anthropological approach include scholars steven feld alan merriam anthropological ethnomusicologists stress importance field work using participant observation include variety distinct fieldwork practices including personal exposure performance tradition musical technique participation native ensemble inclusion myriad social customs similarly alan merriam defined ethnomusicology music


culture stated four goals ethnomusicology help protect explain non western music save folk music disappears modern world study music means communication world understanding provide avenue wider exploration reflection interested primitive studies approach emphasizes cultural impact music music used understand humanity two approaches ethnomusicology bring unique perspectives field providing knowledge effects culture music impact music


culture analysis problems analysis great diversity musics found across world necessitated interdisciplinary approach ethnomusicological study analytical research methods changed time ethnomusicology continued solidifying disciplinary identity scholars become increasingly aware issues involved cultural study see theoretical issues debates among issues treatment western music relation music non western cultures ref name kolinski mieczyslaw kolinski mieczyslaw ethnomusicology problems methods ethnomusicology ref cultural implications embedded analytical methodologies ref name herndon marcia


analysis herding sacred cows ''ethnomusicology'' ref kofi agawu see noted scholarship african music seems emphasize difference continually developing new systems analysis proposes use western notation instead highlight similarity bring african music mainstream western music scholarship seeking analyze wide scope musical genres repertories styles scholars favored encompassing objective approach others argue native subjective methodologies tailored musical subject favor objective analytical methods hold certain perceptual cognitive universals


categories inductive thinking distinguishes analysis synthesis two different methods examining music definition analysis seeks break parts known whole according definite plan whereas synthesis starts small elements combines one entity tailoring process musical material herndon also debated subjectivity objectivity necessary proper analysis musical system ref name kolinski among scholars critiqued herndon 's push synthetic approach defended benefits analysis arguing response acknowledgment musical facts laws ref


cents system allowed interval fixed numerical representation regardless specific pitch level ellis used system divided octave cents cents western semitone means analyzing comparing scale systems different musics recognized global pitch scale systems naturally occurring world rather artifices created humans organized preferences differed various locations article ''journal society arts sciences'' mentions different countries india japan


china notes pitch systems varied absolute pitch note also necessarily intervals experiences interviewing native musicians observing variations scales across locations concludes practical way arriving real pitch musical scale cannot heard played native musician even obtain particular musician tuning scale ellis 's study also early example comparative musicological fieldwork see fieldwork alan lomax 's method


cantometrics employed analysis songs model human behavior different cultures posited correlation musical traits approaches traits music 's native culture ref name lomax alan pp lomax alan ''folk song style culture'' new brunswick nj transaction books p ref cantometrics involved qualitative scoring based several characteristics song comparatively seeking commonalities cultures geographic regions mieczyslaw kolinski measured exact distance initial final tones melodic patterns kolinski refuted early scholarly opposition european non european musics choosing instead focus


nettl emeritus professor musicology illinois university defines fieldwork direct inspection music culture etc source states importance fieldwork anthropology ethnomusicology closest 'hallmark' fields something like union card however mentions ethnomusicological fieldwork differs anthropological fieldwork former requires practical information recording filming video taping special problems text gathering experience ethnomusicologist field data experience texts eg tales myths proverbs structures eg social organization imponderabilia everyday life


contribute ethnomusicologist 's study ref name b nettl bruno come back see next tuesday study ethnomusicology thirty one issues concepts urbana chicago university illinois press ref also notes ethnomusicological fieldwork principally involves interaction humans primarily day day personal relationships shows personal side discipline importance fieldwork field ethnomusicology required development effective methods pursue fieldwork history fieldwork th century mid th century european scholars folklorists ethnographers


early ethnomusicologists motivated preserve disappearing music cultures outside europe collected transcriptions audio recordings wax cylinders ref name autob myers helen ethnomusicology ''ethnomusicology introduction'' ed helen myers new york norton ref many recordings stored berlin phonogramm archiv berlin school comparative musicology founded carl stumpf student erich von hornbostel medical doctor otto abraham stumpf hornbostel studied preserved recordings berlin archiv setting foundation contemporary ethnomusicology armchair analysis methods stumpf


horbostel required little participation fieldwork instead using fieldwork scholars differentiates stumpf hornbostel present day contemporaries use fieldwork experience main component research ref name auto cooley timothy j gregory barz casting shadows field introduction ''shadows field new perspectives fieldwork ethnomusicology'' nd ed new york oxford ref ethnomusicology 's transition armchair analysis fieldwork reflected ethnomusicologists trying distance field comparative musicology period following world war ii fieldwork emphasized face face


interaction gather accurate impression meaning music creators music contrast armchair analysis disconnected ethnomusicologist individual group performers ref name auto stumpf hornbostel scholars use armchair analysis scholars analyzed recordings transcriptions make instance work ''hungarian folk music'' b la bart k analyzes various traits hungarian folk songs drawing recordings made bart k also relies transcriptions musicians among zolt n kod ly l szo lajtha transcriptions


migrated tribe tribe writing later jaap kunst wrote fieldwork purpose recording transcribing sound kunst lists various phonogram archives collections recorded sound include archives founded stumpf among developments saw expansion fieldwork opposed armchair analysis david mcallester conducted study navajo music particularly music enemy way ceremony work published ''enemy way music study social esthetic values seen navaho music'' mcallester details procedures


enemy way ceremony well music ref name mcallester david p mcallester david p enemy way music study social esthetic values seen navajo music cambridge peabody museum american archaeology ethnology harvard university vol xli ref aside enemy way music mcallester sought navajo cultural values based analysis attitudes toward music interviewees mcallester gave questionnaire includes items people beat drum sing things used like people say learned


sing different ways making voice sound sing songs sound especially pretty kind melody like better illustrate chant like melody varied one songs men women children ethnomusicologist alan merriam reviewed mcallester 's work calling strange speak work published 'pioneering' precisely case ref name ref described mcallester 's work relating music culture culture music terms value system navaho nowiki sic


time merriam published review idea work occurred ethnomusicologists surprising infrequency ref name work ''the anthropology music'' published merriam wrote ethnomusicology suffered amateur field collector whose knowledge aims severely restricted collectors operate assumption important point simply gather music sound sound often taken without discrimination without thought example problems sampling simply turned laboratory worker something


work merriam states ethnomusicologist field determined formulation method taken broadest sense fieldwork multiple areas inquiry merriam lists six musical material culture classification instruments cultural perception musical instruments song texts categories music envisaged people various separable types songs musician training musicians means becoming musician perceptions musicians uses functions music relation aspects


culture music creative cultural activity sources music drawn bruno nettl describes early th century fieldwork extraction music analyzed elsewhere however fieldworkers wished map entire musical systems resided longer field observed also participated musical cultures ref name mantle hood wrote practice well hood learned musicians indonesia intervals sl ndro scales well play rebab interested characteristics indonesian


music well social economic valuations music participant observer methodology became norm least north american tradition ethnomusicology ref name ref aside history fieldwork nettl writes informants people fieldworkers research interview informants contain entirety musical culture need represent ideal culture according nettl bell shaped curve musical ability community majority simply good music greatest interest however also worth seeing community


recommends informants people may direct fieldworker best musicians may suggest many simply good musicians attitude reflective culture 's values technology advanced researchers graduated depending wax cylinders phonograph digital recordings video cameras allowing recordings become accurate representations music studied technological advances helped ethnomusicologists mobile field also let ethnomusicologists shift back armchair analysis stumpf hornbostel ref name autob since video recordings considered cultural texts ethnomusicologists conduct fieldwork recording


music performances creating documentaries people behind music accurately studied outside field additionally invention internet forms online communication could allow ethnomusicologists develop new methods fieldwork within virtual community heightened awareness need approach fieldwork ethical manner arose response similar movement within field anthropology ref name referenced cooley timothy j gregory barz casting shadows field introduction ''shadows field new perspectives fieldwork ethnomusicology'' nd ed


new york oxford ref mark slobin writes detail application ethics fieldwork ref name slobin mark slobin mark ethical issues ethnomusicology introduction ed h meyers new york norton ref several potential ethical problems arise fieldwork relate rights music performers respect rights performers fieldwork often includes attaining complete permission group individual performing music well sensitive rights obligations related music context host society another ethical dilemma ethnomusicological fieldwork


inherent ethnocentrism commonly eurocentrism ethnomusicology anthony seeger done seminal work notion ethics within fieldwork emphasizing need avoid ethnocentric remarks field work process emblematic ethical theories piece describes fundamental complexities fieldwork relationship suy indians brazil ref name seeger anthony avoid ethnocentrism research seeger explore singing come exist within suy culture instead explaining singing creates culture presently aspects suy social life seen


musical performative lens seeger 's analysis exemplifies inherent complexity ethical practices ethnomusicological fieldwork implicating importance continual development effective fieldwork study ethnomusicology systematized fieldwork paper come back see next tuesday nettl asks whether ethnomusicologists even practice unified field methodology opposed scholar developing individual approach ref name b nettl considers several factors sampling music different cultures first thing order discover best representation culture


important able discern ordinary experience ideal considering fact ideal musician may also know things completely outside ken rest another factor process selecting teachers depends fieldworker wishes accomplish regardless whatever method fieldworker decides use conduct research fieldworkers expected show respect material people work nettl explains ethnomusicology field heavily relies collection data development strong personal


relationships often cannot quantified statistical data summarizes bronis aw malinowski 's classification anthropological data nettl applies ethnomusicological data outlining three types information texts structures non ponderable aspects everyday life third type information nettl claims important captures ambiguity experience cannot captured well writing ref name b cites another attempt made morris friedrich anthropologist classify field data fourteen different categories order demonstrate complexity information gathered fieldwork


contains myriad factors many exist beyond researcher 's comprehension prevent precise accurate representation one experienced field nettl notices current trend ethnomusicology longer even attempt capture whole system culture focus specific niche try explain thoroughly nettl 's question however still remains uniform method going type fieldwork alan merriam addresses issues found ethnomusicological fieldwork third chapter


book ''the anthropology music'' one pressing concerns writing insufficient discussion among ethnomusicologists conduct proper fieldwork aside merriam proceeds characterize nature ethnomusicological fieldwork primarily concerned collection facts describes ethnomusicology field laboratory discipline accounts nature ethnomusicology seems closely related science one might argue standardized agreed upon field method would beneficial ethnomusicologists despite


apparent viewpoint merriam conclusively claims combination standardized scientific approach free form analytical approach fruitful work done come combining two rather separating trend among contemporaries ref name even merriam 's progressive notion balanced approach came question time passed specifically idea ethnomusicology ''at all'' factual book ''may fill soul experiencing bulgarian music'' timothy rice uses enlightenment philosophy substantiate opinion fieldwork


cannot used fact philosophy works involves theorizing distinction objectivity subjectivity order ground debates ethnomusicology equates musicology objectivity musical experience subjectivity ref name rice uses philosophical attitudes martin heidegger hans georg gadamer paul ricoeur take towards objectivity subjectivity state human perception world inherently subjective way humans interpret goes around symbols human preconceptions symbols always influence ways individual might


process world around applying theory music ethnomusicology rice brings back terms musicology musical experience one 's experience music simply interpretation preconceived symbols one cannot claim musical experience factual thus systematizing fieldwork like one would scientific field futile endeavor instead rice asserts attempt engage someone else 's musical experience cannot truly understood anyone except person must confined individual analysis ref name characterizing musical experience whole culture according rice 's logic possible


another argument objectivity standardization fieldwork comes gregory barz tim cooley second chapter book ''shadows field new perspectives fieldwork ethnomusicology'' chapter entitled confronting field note field claim researcher 's field work always personal field researcher ethnomusicology unlike field researcher hard science inherently participant group researching illustrate disparity subjective participatory experiences ethnomusicological fieldworkers


typically gets published ethnomusicological literature barz cooley point difference field research field notes field research attempts find ''the'' reality field notes document ''a'' reality issue according barz cooley field notes capture personal experience researcher often omitted whatever final writing researcher publishes '''ethical concerns best practices''' heightened awareness need approach fieldwork ethical manner arose response similar movement within field anthropology ref name referenced mark slobin writes detail


application ethics fieldwork ref name slobin mark several potential ethical problems arise fieldwork relate rights music performers respect rights performers fieldwork often includes attaining complete permission group individual performing music well sensitive rights obligations related music context host society another ethical dilemma ethnomusicological fieldwork inherent ethnocentrism commonly eurocentrism ethnomusicology anthony seeger emeritus professor ethnomusicology ucla done seminal work notion ethics


within fieldwork emphasizing need avoid ethnocentric remarks field work process emblematic ethical theories piece describes fundamental complexities fieldwork relationship suy indians brazil ref name seeger anthony avoid ethnocentrism research seeger explore singing come exist within suy culture instead explaining singing creates culture presently aspects suy social life seen musical performative lens seeger 's analysis exemplifies inherent complexity ethical practices ethnomusicological fieldwork implicating


importance continual development effective fieldwork study ethnomusicology recent decades ethnomusicologists paid greater attention ensuring fieldwork ethically conducted provides holistic sense community culture study demographic makeup ethnomusicologists conducting research grows diverse field placed renewed emphasis respectful approach fieldwork avoids stereotyping assumptions particular culture rather using european music baseline music cultures compared researchers field often aim


place music certain society context culture study without comparing european models way field aims avoid us vs approach music ref name b nettl scholars hope avoid perception ugly ethnomusicologist carries negative connotations ugly american traveler many scholars ravi shankar v kofi agawu criticized ethnomusicology nettl puts dealing non european music condescending way treating something quaint exotic ref name nettl bruno p


illinois press pp ref part problem nettl notes vast majority ethnomusicologists members western society study non western music ref name nettl bruno p contributing perception wealthy white individuals taking advantage privilege resources researchers want avoid perception accurate exaggerated 're entering poorer less technologically advanced communities treating residents like test subjects gleaning penning condescending reports quaintness native music ref name nettl bruno pp researchers optimistic increased diversity within


field ethnomusicology help alleviate ethical concerns fieldwork western music societies conducted researchers underrepresented cultures reversal norm believe field reach happy equilibrium author charles keil suggests 'them' may want study 'us' interested anthropology emerge sense intersubjective intercultural critical revolutionary ref name slobin mark ethical issues ''ethnomusicology introduction'' ed h meyers new york norton ref american ethnomusicologist wesleyan university professor mark slobin notes ethical concerns


stem interactions occur fieldwork researcher informant member community studied nettl paper described feeling outsider approaching community case native american wanted study said ethnomusicologists often face feelings trepidation attempt get know local populace culture attempting avoid exploitative researchers different methods nettl 's patient obeys native american man 's instruction come back see next tuesday even


though man plenty free time could sing nettl moment ref name b another way ensure ethnomusicologists gain complete understanding community 're studying simply spend time george herzog spent two months pima tribe arizona amount time would considered short today 's standards periods fieldwork often last longer year herzog recorded several hundred songs time establishing precedent increasingly long field studies yielded recordings


music study conducted regarded ethnomusicology debatably comparative subjective field concrete definition music would create way ethnomusicologists objectively evaluate music come concrete conclusions based would also remove much bias within field ethnomusicology additionally definition field ethnomusicology relies understood meaning word music reasons universals highly sought despite unknown whether universals could even exist still debate among


ethnomusicologists journal published called ethnomusicology debate carried among renowned ethnomusicologists society ethnomusicology outlined set forth recurring ideas around topic field ethnomusicologists initially started question possibility universals searching new approach explain musicology differed guido adler 's ethnomusicologists worldwide realized culture important role shaping aesthetic responses music realization sparked controversy community debates questioning people consider music whether perceptions consonance dissonance


canon assumption seemed basic principles western music universally valid true music later become increasingly difficult view world music without including discussion notion universals charles seeger instance categorized interpretation musical universals using inclusion exclusion styled venn diagrams create five types universals absolute truths music universals music hard come universals language since potentially universal grammar syntax dane harwood noted looking


causality relationships deep structure postulated chomsky relatively fruitless way look universals music universal language study ethnomusicology thirty one issues concepts bruno nettl asserts music universal language dialect influence culture creation interpretation nettl shares belief colleagues trying find universal music unproductive always least one instance proving musical universals nettl asserts music


universal language musics mutually unintelligible languages one study music society terms learn individually referred music 's dialects rather music 's languages nettl concludes writing stating despite wide variety musics ways people everwhere chosen sing play alike boundaries imaginable might suggest ethnomusicologists note invailidity music universal language example george list writes knew missionary assured


indians ministered west coast mexico neither sang whistled ethnomusicologist david p mcallester writes student man must know somewhere someone something calls music nobody else would give name one exception would enough eliminate possibility real universal ref name mcallester ref result gamesmanship ethnomusicologists poke holes universals focus shifted trying find universal trying find near universals qualities may unite majority world 's


wrote satisfied nearly everybody postulated nearly music tonal center tendency go somewhere also ending however mcallester 's main point music transforms everyday humdrum something else bringing heightened experience likens music body experience religion sex music 's ability transport people mentally opinion near universal almost musics share response mcallester 's universal perspectives music klaus p wachsmann counters


sound psyche physical properties sounds physiological response acoustic stimuli perception sounds selected human mind programmed previous experiences response environmental pressures moment tetradic schema lies exhaustive model universals music however wachsmann allow influenced experience belief echoed another ethnomusicologist shares belief universal lies specific way music reaches listener whatever communicates communicated


members group whoever may true groups society classical music communicate every american rock roll communicate every parent relativity goes prove people used thinking certain phenomenon marries indescribable components resemble know music reference also wachsmann acknowledges part problem identifying universals music requires set definition music think


lack definition need disturb us unduly usage decide whether emphasis primarily utilitarian speech speech creates special time culture case phenomena way belonging one kind continuum time folklore specializing ethnomusicologist https indianapublicmediaorg profiles george listphp george list book non universality musical perspectives agreement within discussion saying something unique music produces arguing always possesses significance group


tendency well stating art forms one might say every human activity patterned show form organization show tendencies additionally list acknowledges problem talking universality music objective definition music words common definition suggests lexically meaningful music since music abstract study assess production heightened experience ref name harwood ref dane harwood response debate approached question universality music article universals music perspective


cognitive psychology ref name harwood years initial debate psychology perspective view universals music matter specific musical structure function basic human cognitive social processes construing adapting real world calls information processing approach argues one must examine music complex auditory stimulus somehow perceived structured made meaningful human perceptual cognitive system point view search perceptual cognitive processes human beings apply musical sound


thus identify processing universal argues would adjust differences context music defined produced observed would lead insight universal cultural processes operating musical information takes technical turn points different musical phenomena relation way humans process listening argues music cultural individual phenomenon yet culture something individuals learn worlds shared others ingroup note


interests ethnomusicology stem trends anthropology different symbols anthropologist leslie white wrote symbol basic unit human behavior civilization use symbols distinguishing characteristic humans ref name nettl nettl bruno ''the study ethnomusicology thirty one issues concepts'' urbana chicago university illinois press p ref symbolism core anthropology scholars sought examine music symbol system signs symbols leading establishment field musical semiotics ref name nettl bruno nettl discusses various


issues relating ethnomusicology musical semiotics including wide variety culturally dependent listener derived meanings attributed music problems authenticity assigning meaning music ref name referencec nettl bruno ''the study ethnomusicology thirty one issues concepts'' urbana chicago university illinois press p ref meanings musical symbols reflect relate emotion culture behavior much way linguistic symbols function interdisciplinarity symbolism anthropology linguistics musicology generated new analytical outlooks see analysis different focuses anthropologists traditionally conceived whole cultures


systems symbols musicologists tended explore symbolism within particular repertories structural approaches seek uncover interrelationships symbolic human behaviors number scholars including musicologist charles seeger semiotician jean jacques nattiez proposed using methodology commonly employed linguistics new way ethnomusicologists study music ref name referenceb seeger charles toward unitary field theory musicology studies musicology berkeley university california press ref ref name nattiez jean jacques nattiez jean jacques linguistics new approach musical analysis international review aesthetics sociology music ref new approach


widely influenced works linguist ferdinand de saussure philosopher charles sanders peirce anthropologist claude l vi strauss among others focused finding underlying symbolic structures cultures music ref name referencec similar vein judith becker alton l becker theorized existence musical grammars studies theory javanese gamelan music proposed music could studied symbolic bears many resemblances language making semiotic study possible classifying music humanity rather science nattiez suggested subjecting music linguistic models methods might prove


effective employing scientific method proposed inclusion linguistic methods ethnomusicology would increase field 's interdependence reducing need borrow resources research procedures exclusively sciences ref name nattiez jean jacques john blacking another ethnomusicologist sought create ethnomusicological parallel linguistic models analysis work venda music writes problem musical description unlike linguistic analysis particular grammar account processes existing possible sentences language generated ref name blacking john deep


surface structures venda music yearbook international folk music council ref blacking sought sonic description wanted create musical analytical grammar coined cultural analysis music could incorporate sonic description cultural social factors influence structures within music blacking desired unified method musical analysis applied music explain form social emotional content effects music systems relationships infinite number variables ref name like nattiez blacking saw


draw comparisons various musics cultures used alan lomax 's idea cantometrics cantometric measurements ethnomusicology studies shown relatively reliable wordiness parameter methods reliable precision enunciation another approach introduced steven feld ethnomusicologists interested creating ethnographically detailed analysis people 's lives comparative study deals making pairwise comparisons competence form performance environment theory value equality ref name bruno nettl noted recently comparative study seems fallen style noting


another culture represent outsider dissecting culture n't belong historically ethnomusicological research tainted strong bias westerners thinking music superior musics researched bias grew apprehension cultures allow ethnomusicologists study thinking music would exploited appropriated benefits ethnomusicological research ie promotion international understanding fear musical colonialism represents opposition outsider ethnomusicologist conducting research community insiders ''the


study ethnomusicology thirty one issues concepts'' nettl discusses personal global issues pertaining field researchers particularly western academic background chapter recounts field recordings among native americans northern plains instance attempts come terms problematic history ethnographic fieldwork envision future trajectory practice st century beyond ref name b considering ethnomusicology field intersects vast array fields social sciences beyond focuses studying people appropriate


encounter issue making unfamiliar familiar phrase coined william mcdougall well known social psychology ref name wagoner brady commentary making familiar unfamiliar ''culture psychology'' ref social psychology unfamiliar encountered three different ways ethnomusicological work two different cultures come contact elements immediately explicable experts within society produce new knowledge communicated public active minorities communicate perspective majority ref name nettl also vocal


effect subjective understanding research describes fieldworker might attempt immersing outsider culture gain full understanding however begin blind researcher take away ability objective studied researcher begins feel like expert culture 's music fact remain outsider matter amount research different culture background knowledge individual influences focus study comfort level material nettl characterizes majority


outsiders simply members western society study non western music members affluent nations study music poor maybe city folk visit backward villages hinterland points possible eurocentric origins researching foreign exotic music within outsider insider dynamic framework unequal power relations come focus question addition critiques outsider insider labels nettl creates binary roughly equates western nonwestern points feels flaws western thinking analyses multiple


societies promotes notion collaborating greater focus acknowledging contribution native experts writes idea joint research 'insider' 'outsider' mentioned way bridging chasms ref name auto nettl bruno never understand music ''the study ethnomusicology thirty one issues concepts'' urbana chicago university illinois press ref spite optimism actualization practice limited degree solve insider outsider dilemma questionable believes every concept


studied personal perspective comparison viewpoints may give broadest possible insight position ethnomusicologists outsiders looking music culture discussed using said 's theory orientalism manifests notion music championed field may many ways western construction based imagined romanticized view situated within colonial mindset ref name saidorientalism ref according nettl three beliefs insiders members host culture emerge lead adverse results three follows


ethnomusicologists come compare non western musics traditions order show outsider 's music superior ethnomusicologists want use approaches non western music come assumption thing african asian american indigenous music disregarding boundaries obvious host ref name auto nettl argues concerns longer valid ethnomusicologists longer practice certain orientalist approaches homogenize totalize various musics explores intricacies within insider outsider dichotomy deconstructing notion


insider contemplating geographic social economic factors distinguish outsiders notes scholars industrialized african asian nations see outsiders regards rural societies communities ref name auto even though individuals minority ethnomusicology scholarship generally written western perspective nettl disputes notion native perpetual outsider westerner default timothy rice another author discusses insider outsider debate detail lens fieldwork bulgaria experience


outsider trying learn bulgarian music experience told book may fill soul experiencing bulgarian music ref name rice timothy ''may fill soul experiencing bulgarian music'' chicago university chicago press pp ref difficult time learning bulgarian music musical framework founded western perspective broaden horizons ref name try instead learn music bulgarian framework order learn play sufficiently although learn play music bulgarian people said


learned quite well admitted still areas tradition elude understanding explanation sort culturally sensitive understanding necessary close gap ultimately rice argues despite impossibility objective one 's work ethnomusicologists may still learn much self reflection book questions whether one objective understanding discussing art accordance philosophies phenomenology argues objectivity since world constructed preexisting symbols


distort true understanding world born suggests ethnomusicologist ever come objective understanding music ethnomusicologist understand foreign music way native would understand words outsider never become insider however ethnomusicologist still come subjective understanding music shapes scholar 's understanding outside world scholarship rice suggests five principles acquisition cognitive categories instrumental tradition among bulgarian musicians however


outside studying another culture also question go studying one 's society nettl 's approach would determine culture classifies music interested categories would create classify music way one would able distinguish outsider still slight insider insight kingsbury believes impossible study music outside one 's culture culture ref name kingsbury kingsbury henry music talent performance conservatory cultural system


philadelphia temple pp ref one must aware personal bias may impose study culture kingsbury american pianist ethnomusicologist decided reverse common paradigm westerner performing fieldwork non western context apply fieldwork techniques western subject published music talent performance conservatory cultural system detailed time studying american northeastern conservatory approached conservatory foreign land best disassociate experiences prior knowledge american conservatory culture


study book kingsbury analyzes conservatory conventions peers may overlooked way announcements disseminated make assertions conservatory 's culture example concludes institutional structure conservatory strikingly decentralized light professors' absences questions conservatory 's commitment certain classes analysis conservatory contains four main elements high premium teachers' individuality teachers' role nodal points reinforce patron client like system social organization subsequent organization 's enforcement aural traditions musical literacy conflict


client patron structure school 's bureaucratic administrative structure ref name kingsbury henry p kingsbury henry music talent performance conservatory cultural system philadelphia temple ref ultimately seems kingsbury thinks conservatory system inherently flawed emphasizes n't intend chide conservatory critiques nonetheless far complimentary ref name kingsbury henry p another example western ethnomusicologists studying native environments comes craft 's music explorations music daily life book contains interviews dozens mostly americans ages genders ethnicities backgrounds answered questions


role music lives interviewee unique necessary deeply personal internal organization music cared genre others organized music important artist considered music deeply important care music applied ethnomusicology applied ethnomusicology uses music device build bridges create positive change world today applied ethnomusicology established one strongest branches ethnomusicology jeff titon thinks ethnomusicology study people making music applied ethnomusicology


music centered intervention particular community whose purpose benefit community example social improvement musical benefit cultural good economic advantage applied ethnomusicology people focused guided ethical humanitarian principles first time term applied ethnomusicology appeared official sem publication anthropology music alan merriam wrote ultimate aim study man involves question whether one searching knowledge sake attempting provide solutions practically applied problems


western music early history field ethnomusicology debate whether ethnomusicological work could done music western society whether focus exclusively toward non western music early scholars mantle hood argued ethnomusicology two potential focuses study non european art music study music found given geographical area however even early ethnomusicologists proposing ethnomusicological methods also used examine western music instance alan merriam article


defines ethnomusicology study non western music study music culture ref name merriam alan discards 'external' focus proposed earlier contemporary ethnomusicologists regarded non western music relevant attention scholars moreover expands definition centered music including study culture well modern ethnomusicologists part consider field apply western music well non western however ethnomusicology especially earlier years field still primarily focused


non western cultures recent years ethnomusicological scholarship involved diversity respect cultures studied methods cultures may studied ref name referenced ian pace discussed questions regarding exactly within ethnomusicology 's purview tend political rather scholarly questions ref name coreacuk pace ian contribution debate 'are ethnomusicologists now' presented city university pp https coreacuk download pdf pdf ref also states biases become readily apparent examining ethnomusicologists approach western vs non western music ref name coreacuk despite increased acceptance ethnomusicological examinations


western music modern ethnomusicologists still focus overwhelmingly non western music one major examinations western art music ethnomusicological focus well one earliest henry kingsbury 's book ''music talent performance'' ref name kingsbury book kingsbury studies conservatory north eastern united states examination conservatory uses many traditional fieldwork methods ethnomusicology however kingsbury studying group member ref name kingsbury part approach think culture primitive tribal lend sense


'otherness' upon much anthropology 's theory based kingsbury cites jm weatherford 's ethnography us congress reason chose technique ref name kingsbury bruno nettl writing signs symbols addressed symbolism western music culture cites specific example music analyst interpreting music beethoven literal fashion according various pieces literature analyst assigns direct meanings motifs melodies according literature nettl states reveals members western music culture inclined view art music symbolic ethnomusicological work focuses less either


western non western music specifically example martin stokes' work regarding various aspects identity addresses many cultures western non western stokes wrote gender relates music various cultures including western analyzing fairly common phenomena musicians seemingly presiding events often related issues gender culture may seek desex musicians form control insights stokes makes exclusive culture stokes also dedicates much writing identity nationality location manifests western music


notes presence irish music migrant communities england american way individuals locate world ethnomusicology limited study music non western cultures potential encompass various approaches study many musics around world emphasize different contexts dimensions cultural social material cognitive biological etc beyond isolated sound components thus western popular music also subject ethnomusicological interest ethnomusicological work called urban ethnomusicology thomas turino written influence


media consumerism western society bi directional effect large part self discovery feeling accepted social groups related common musical tastes record companies producers music recognize reality respond catering specific groups way sounds imagery piped radio internet videos shape adolescent sense gendered selves well generational specific cohort identities individuals shape media 's marketing responses musical tastes western popular music culture culmination identity groups


teenagers particular across country represents significant force shape music industry based consumed ethics ethics vital ethnomusicology field product comes fieldwork result interaction two cultures applying ethics field confirm party comfortable elements product ensure party compensated fairly contribution learn monetary effects work published please see copyright section page ethics defined


merriam webster principles conduct governing individual group historical primary documents accounts interactions two cultures example hern n cort s' personal journal exploration world interaction aztecs takes note every interaction proxy spanish monarchy interaction beneficial parties cortes soldier conquered aztecs seized wealth goods property unjust manner historically interactions two different cultures ended parties


uplifted fieldwork ethnomusicologist travels specific country intent learn culture use ethics guide interacts indigenous people ref name society ethnomusicology committee ethics publishes field 's official position statement ethics ethnomusicology fundamental values stem anthropology ethics ethnomusicology parallel ethics anthropology well american anthropology association statements ethics anthropological research paralleled


ethnomusicology 's statement mark slobin twentieth century ethnomusicologist observes discussion ethics founded several assumptions namely ethics largely issue 'western' scholars working 'non western' societies ethical concerns arise interpersonal relations scholar 'informant' consequence fieldwork ethics situated withinthe declared purpose researcher increase knowledge ultimate service human welfare reference ralph beals discussion ethical issues proceeds values western culture slobin remarks accurate statement might


acknowledge ethics vary across nations cultures ethics cultures researcher informant play fieldwork settings ref name slobin mark case scenarios ethically ambiguous situations slobin discusses include following ref name slobin mark discovery rare musical instrument leads debate whether preserved museum left native culture played necessarily preserved filming documentary video brings issues consent filmed additionally


film necessarily shown producer present answer questions clarify video 's content questions audience deciding monetary gains musical production distributed prominent case ethical concern attaining partial permission field usually enough justify filming recording every person group consent presence recording device whether truthful possibly condemning information group situation treated extreme caution information


could cause trouble musicians may need censored slobin 's discussion ethical issues ethnomusicology surprising highlights ethnomusicology community 's apathy towards public discussion ethical issues evidenced lackluster response scholars large sem meeting slobin also points facet ethical thinking among ethnomusicologists many ethical rules deal westerners studying non western third world countries non western ethnomusicologists immediately excluded rules westerner 's studying western music also highlights several prevalent issues ethnomusicology


using hypothetical cases american anthropological association newsletter framing terms ethnomusicology example bring local musician one informants west tour wants perform pieces feel inappropriately represent tradition westerns genre reinforces western stereotypes musician 's homeland right overrule insider territory ref name slobin mark ethnomusicologists also tend towards discussion ethics sociological contexts timothy taylor writes byproducts cultural appropriation music arguing th


century commodification non western musics serves marginalize certain groups musicians traditionally integrated western music production distribution industries ref name taylor timothy global pop world music world markets new york london routledge pp ref slobin also mentions cultural musical appropriation noting ethical concern musical appropriation portrayed appreciation long term appropriation profiteering minority musics music industry ref name steven feld also argues ethnomusicologists also place analyzing ethics popular music collaboration paul simon 's work


traditional zydeco chicano south african beats graceland provides evidence slobin 's statement article ''notes world beat'' notes inherently imbalanced power dynamics within musical collaboration contribute cultural exploitation ref name lomax alan pp according feld article seems though party appreciating type music ultimately reaps benefits economic rewards artistic status party whose work appropriated ref name referencea feld steven notes world beat ''public culture bulletin'' ref example rolling stones paid homage muddy


waters utilizing many aspects original recorded performance style claimed cover version brought free publicity muddy waters however feld mentions statement arrogant one since implies takes recording rolling stones bring recognition artistic contributions muddy waters ref name referencea feld question measure appropriation original creative product always lesser trickle economic payback remains unanswered ref name referencea another ethical issue feld brings power dynamics within record companies


companies make money major contract artists produce work tak e economic artistic risks commensurate sales hand musicians play role wage laborers well bearers developers musical traditions idioms gain least lose since offer labor aspects culture hopes royalty percentages spinoff jobs tours recording contracts might follow exposure success records talking ethics ethnomusicology imperative remain


argues problematic spirit one essential components music agawu also scholar africa specifically ghana knows culture part culture native culture one studying beneficial instinctive insight one taught since birth however native fieldworker may experience slight ethical dilemma research community given concerns arise interpersonal relations scholar informant


fieldworker experiences dilemma much reveal face cultural grey without crossing line fieldworker must consider whether maintain musical diversity worldwide simultaneously respecting community 's wishes martin rudoy scherzinger another twentieth century ethnomusicologist contests claim copyright law inherently conducive exploitation non westerners western musicologists variety reasons quotes esteemed ethnomusicologists non western pieces uncopyrightable orally passed sacred songs issued forth ancient spirits gods


giving obtain copyright concept copyright may relevant commercially oriented societies furthermore notion originality west especially quagmire scherzinger also brought several issues forefront also arise metaphysical interpretations authorial autonomy idea western aesthetical interpretation different non western interpretation music good mankind yet law treats differently ref name scherzinger martin scherzinger martin music spirit possession copyright law cross cultural comparisons strategic


speculations ''yearbook traditional music'' ref gender gender concerns recently risen prominence methodology ethnomusicology modern researchers often criticize historical works ethnomusicology showing gender biased research androcentric theoretical models reflect reality many reasons issue historically ethnomusicological fieldwork often focused musical contributions men line underlying assumption male dominated musical practices reflective musical systems society whole gender biased research may attributed difficulty acquiring information female performers without infringing upon


cultural norms may accepted allowed women perform public reflective social dynamics societies men dominate public life women mostly confined private sphere finally men traditionally dominated fieldwork institutional leadership positions tended prioritize experiences men cultures studied ref name ellen koskoff p ellen koskoff introduction women music culture women music cross cultural perspective ed ellen koskoff westport ct greenwood press p ref lack accessible female informants alternative forms collecting


illinois press p ref ellen koskoff articulates three stages women 's studies within ethnomusicology first corrective approach filled basic gaps knowledge women 's contributions music culture second discussion relationships women men expressed music third integrating study sexuality performance studies semiotics diverse forms meaning making ref name nettl bruno p since ethnomusicologists begun consider role fieldworker 's identity including gender sexuality interpret music cultures emergence notions


cross cultural perspective ed ellen koskoff westport ct greenwood press p ref dualities musical behavior help demonstrate societal views gender whether musical behavior supports subverts gender roles analysis koskoff pinpoints way symbolic dualism manifests literally relationship form shape one 's instrument player 's gender identity koskoff 's research demonstrates often life giving roles either sex seen reproduced shape playing motion ref name ellen koskoff p moving outside analytical scope gender


adopting intersectional lens koskoff also remarks female musical behavior affiliated heightened sexuality numerous different cultures holding similar yet unique criteria eroticized dance movements eg among swahiliall female gathering young women hip rotations learn 'right' sexual movements ref name ellen koskoff p koskoff integrates notions private vs public sphere examining certain cultures female musical performance linked notions heightened female sexuality also associated implied real prostitution ref name ellen koskoff p ellen koskoff


greenwood press ref suggests music performance linked societal perception woman sexual viability decreasing age marriage also female sexuality often necessarily included expression feminine gender musical performance cloistering separation women music actually offer way women relate one another understand express gender identity musical practice within women centric space ref name ellen koskoff p private intimate nature women music also lead secret protest behavior music


brought public sphere koskoff indicates secret symbolic behavior language coded women performance may communicate private messages women community allowing performers speak unwanted marriage mock possible suitor even express homosexuality without male audience catching music performance may confirm maintain gender inequalities social sexual dynamics may protest norms maintains may actually challenge threaten established order one example musical performance traditions confirm social sexual dynamics may trend prioritizing female


musical instruments gender veronica doubleday extends examination feminine gender expression music performance use specific musical instruments reiterates patriarchal societies role man marriage tends one ownership control married woman often takes position submission subordination doubleday suggests constructing relationship instruments men may incorporate cultural expectation dominance whereas women may unlikely take power instrument way physical allure


often bearers tradition punjabi culture hold important roles many traditional punjabi rituals including involve music help enable emigrants maintain punjabi culture wherever schreffler also notes result migration bhangra music enabled reformation traditional gender roles public sphere performance music creating dance floor women allowed mingle men ways done similarly music negotiation orthodox jewish gender roles partnership minyanim study gender dynamics


within orthodox jewish culture disrupted minyanim partner dance dr gordon dale documents partnership minyanim dance may actively reinterpret orthodox jewish religious law establishing new context women 's performance ref name jstororg dale gordon music negotiation orthodox jewish gender roles partnership minyanim ''contemporary jewry'' vol p jstor wwwjstororg stable accessed ref grounding new female music performance tradition religion particularly noteworthy considering ways women often excluded religious music orthodox jewish consideration female singing inappropriate weaponized sexual


behavior conflicts expectations modesty ref name dale gordon p dale gordon music negotiation orthodox jewish gender roles partnership minyanim ''contemporary jewry'' vol p jstor wwwjstororg stable accessed ref across diverse cultural spheres shown hagedorn example bat drum ref name jstororg instance feminine musical expression becomes highly political issue right wing orthodox men insisting impossible man hear woman singing without experiencing sexual act male partnership minyan participants concluding instead certain considerations modesty


applicable context prayer ref name dale gordon p dale gordon music negotiation orthodox jewish gender roles partnership minyanim ''contemporary jewry'' vol p jstor wwwjstororg stable accessed ref therefore woman singing voice could also considered sound gender liberation orthodox power structures ref name dale gordon p dale explains religious women 's music initiatives cultures indonesian women chanting qur described anne rasmussen type partnership mynamin requires orthodoxy actually create new religious space


men women express religious feminist values side side ref name dale gordon p though restrictions availability female roles worship mean minyamin must focus gender based partnership explicit equality partnership minyamin still forge unique musical prayer space jewish culture listens encourages women voices ref name dale gordon p describes one interaction older woman personally uncomfortable leading religious worship greatly appreciated observing women role simply singing alongside women unrestrained manner served


comfortable fulfilling way practice feminism much room additional study expression gender musical performance including ways musical performance disrupt binary delineations gender identity promote expression transgender non binary genders koskoff briefly acknowledges possible performers cross opposite gender domains displaying behaviors normally associated opposite sex greater implications way music performance enables performance gender identity ref name koskoff ellen p result new considerations


within field efforts better document preserve women 's contributions ethnomusicology increased particular focus collecting ethnomusicological works well literature related fields address gender inequities within musical performance well musical analysis feminist musicologists bowers bareis published ''biography music gender women music'' arguably comprehensive collection compiling ethnomusicological literature meeting analytical criteria although ethnomusicological book another susan mcclary 's watershed book feminine endings shows relationships musical structure socio cultural values influenced ethnomusicologists


perception gender sexuality within discipline general understanding western conceptions gender sexuality social constructions necessarily apply cultures predominantly western lens cause various methodological issues researchers concept gender ethnomusicology also tied idea researchers critically consider identities relation societies people studying example katherine hagedorn uses technique ''divine utterances performance afro cuban santeria'' ref name throughout description fieldwork


cuba hagedorn remarks positionality whiteness femaleness foreignness afforded luxuries reach cuban counterparts magnitude difference experience existence cuba exacerbated cuba 's economic turmoil fall soviet union cuban revolution positionality also put outsider perspective cuban culture affected ability access culture researcher santeria whiteness foreignness writes allowed circumvent intimate inter gender relations centered around performance using bata drum unlike cuban


female counterparts faced stigma able learn play bata thus formulate research ref name hagedorn katherine j divine utterances performances afro cuban santeria washington dc smithsonian institution press pp ref today society ethnomusicology actively dedicating increasing presence stature gender sexuality lgbtq feminist scholarship within respective music societies forums like gender sexualities taskforce within society ethnomusicology society ethnomusicology additionally established awards celebrate work research conducted within intersectional subfield ethnomusicology specifically society ethnomusicology developed


marcia herndon prize created honor exceptional ethnomusicological work gender sexuality including limited works focus upon lesbian gay bisexual two spirited homosexual transgendered multiple gender issues communities well commemorate deeply influential contributions herndon field arenas specifically herndon championed co editing ''music gender culture'' collection fifteen essays authored women inspired heidelberg meeting music gender study group international council traditional music making key comparisons philosophies behaviors


male female ethnomusicologists musicians work prompted great deal dialogue among ethnomusicologists scholars related fields including virginia giglio phd reviewed herndon 's seminal work identifying central themes spirituality female empowerment culturally defined gender related duties specific areas exploration among modern feminist ethnomusicologists mass media first chapter book popular music non western world peter manual examines effect technology non western music discussing ability disseminate change influence music around world begins discussion definitions genres


highlighting difficulties distinguishing folk classical popular music within one society tracing historical development phonograph radio cassette recordings television manuel shows following practice set western world music become commodity many societies longer capacity unite community offer kind mass catharsis one scholar put stresses modern theoretical lens view music must account advent technology martin stokes uses book ethnicity identity music


examine presence records tapes cd 's ability listen music removed social setting affects identity social boundaries stokes mentions modernity new technology created separation place locale referring physical setting social activity situated geographically space location music played listened stokes calls separation space place relocation refers anxiety ridden process stokes believes music plays essential role individuals relocate claiming music


unmatched social activity ability evoke organize collective memory stokes also claims presence records tapes cd 's creates ability present experiences specific places intensity power simplicity unmatched stokes also touches upon differences social boundaries place holds claiming place organizes hierarchies moral political order specific evocation place defines moral political community relation space listener finds possibility instant evocation musical


place allows individuals locate identify plurality ways allowing unique mix places social boundaries stokes also goes mention control media systems state controlled governments ownership channels tool authoritarian states use control certain meanings cannot totally controlled citizens said state simply turn radio state tune another stokes believes technological advancements sound reproduction democratized recording listening thus weakened grip state music


industry monopolies book music technocultures ren lysloff leslie c gay jr speaks upon nature rise technology believe technology increases social consequences technologies change social configurations existed new technologies instead people engage use technologies change instead lysloff gay use emergence use mp example mp file format combined software 's give tools link online communities music consumers vast databases


music files individuals easy access gigabytes digital information existence mp software 's allows new possibilities exchange music gives greater control selection music end user undermining power popular music industries technologies also allow unsigned artists distribute recordings unthinkable scale later within book gay lysloff go speak effects technological control consumer practices gay lysloff go say popular music musicians today


shaped first 'consumers technology' musical practices align consumer practices even within architectonic structure malls acoustic spaces built connect consumer practices defining territory motivating shoppers copyright copyright defined exclusive right make copies license otherwise exploit literary musical artistic work whether printed audio video etc imperative copyright dictates credit monetary awards allocated ethnomusicologists conduct fieldwork sometimes must interact indigenous people additionally since purpose ethnomusicologists


particular country collect information make conclusions researchers leave countries interest interviews videos text along multiple sources valuable rights surrounding music ownership thus often left ethics specific issue copyright ethnomusicology copyright american right however ethnomusicologists conduct research countries outside united states example anthony seeger details experience working suy people brazil release song recordings suy people practices beliefs inspiration


name seeger anthony ref martin scherzinger mentions copyright dealt senegal region africa copyright benefits royalties music allocated senegalese government government turn hosts talent competition winner receives royalties scherzinger offers differing opinion copyright argues law inherently ethnocentric ref name scherzinger martin cites early ideology behind copyright th century stating spiritual inspiration prohibit composers granted authorship works furthermore suggests group ownership


song significantly different collective influence western classical music several composers individual work solution copyright issue ethnomusicology push broadening copyright laws united states broaden equivalent changing cited original author piece work include values specific societies order done ethnomusicologists find common ground amongst copyright issues encountered collectively identity origins


case study mexican american music los angeles posits chicano musicians motivated integrate multiple styles genres music represent multifaceted cultural identity ref name lipsitz george cruising around historical bloc postmodernism popular music east los angeles ''cultural critique '' winter pp ref incorporating mexican folk music modern day barrio influences mexican rock roll musicians la made commercially successful postmodern records included content community history identity ref name lipsitz george lipsitz george cruising around historical bloc postmodernism popular


rockabilly african american rhythm blues simultaneously conforming none aforementioned genres commercially successful unsurprising lipsitz goal incorporating many cultural elements equally play everyone manner lipsitz 's view music served break barriers front presentation multiple realities ref name lipsitz describes weakening effect dominant los angeles culture imposes marginalized identities suggests mass media dilutes minority culture representing dominant culture natural normal ref name lipsitz george lipsitz


consented people live also proposes oppressed groups organic intellectuals provide counter oppressive imagery resist legitimization example low riders used irony poke fun popular culture 's perception desirable vehicles bands like los illegals provided listening communities useful vocabulary talk oppression injustice ref name lipsitz george michael mj fisher breaks following main components postmodern sensibility bifocality reciprocity perspectives juxtaposition multiple realities intertextuality inter referentiality comparisons families resemblance reciprocity perspectives makes music


accessible inside outside specific community chicano musicians exemplified juxtaposed multiple realities combining different genres styles languages music ref name lipsitz george widen music 's reception allowing mesh within cultural setting incorporating mexican history tradition inter referentiality referencing relatable experiences widen music 's demographic help shape creators' cultural identities chicano artists able connect music community subcultures institutions oriented around speech dress car customizing art theater politics ref name lipsitz george finally drawing


comparisons families resemblance highlight similarities cultural styles chicano musicians able incorporate elements r b soul rock n' roll music ref name lipsitz george music used create group identities develop personal identity well frith describes music 's ability manipulate moods organize daily life susan crafts studied role music individual life interviewing wide variety people young adult integrated music every aspect life veteran used music way escape


memories war share joy others many scholars commented associations individuals develop music versus music one 's personal taste contributes sense unique self identity reinforced practices listening performing certain music part broader inclusion identity politics see gender ethnomusicologists become increasingly interested identity shapes ethnomusicological work fieldworkers begun consider positions within race economic class gender identity categories relate differ cultural norms areas study katherine hagedorn 's


book ''divine utterances performance afro cuban santer a'' example experiential ethnomusicology incorporates author 's voice interpretations reactions ethnography musical cultural analysis historical context book received society ethnomusicology 's prestigious alan p merriam prize marking broad acceptance new method institutions ethnomusicology nationalism ethnomusicological inquiries frequently involve focus relationship music nationalist movements across world necessarily following emergence modern nation state consequence globalization associated ideals contrast pre imperialist


grieg nikolai rimsky korsakov utilized well contributed growing archives recorded european folk songs compose songs benefit nationalist governments respective countries ref name oxfordmusiconlinecom french musicologist radolphe d'erlanger undertook project reviving older musical forms tunisia order reconstruct oriental music playing instruments ud ghazal performing ensembles using instruments featured congress arab music cairo globalization towards end th century field ethnomusicology blossomed american academia racial


refer specifically pop music fallen use issue terms present perpetuate us vs dichotomy effectively othering combining musical categories outside western tradition sake marketing ref name turino proposes use term cosmopolitanism rather globalization refer contact world musical cultures since term suggests equitable sharing music traditions acknowledges multiple cultures productively share influence ownership particular musical styles another relevant concept glocalization typology


otherwise insufficient value placed music 's origin appropriation taken place originators piece music given due credit recognition problem avoided ref name referencea feld criticizes claim ownership appropriated music examination paul simon 's collaboration south african musicians recording ''graceland'' album simon paid south african musicians work given legal rights music although characterized seems fair compensation mutual respect feld suggests


simon n't able claim complete ownership music ref name feld steven feld steven notes 'world beat' ''public culture bulletin'' ref feld holds music industry accountable phenomenon system gives legal artistic credit major contract artists hire musicians like wage laborers due little paid credit given system rewards creativity bringing musical components song together rather rewarding actual creators music globalization continues system allows capitalist cultures absorb appropriate


musical cultures receiving full credit musical arrangement ref name feld steven feld also discusses subjective nature appropriation society 's evaluation case determines severity offense american singer james brown borrowed african rhythms african musician fela kuti borrowed elements style james brown common roots culture made connection acceptable society however talking heads borrow style james brown distancing artist appropriated music overt public eye instance becomes controversial


ethical standpoint ref name feld steven thus issue cycling afro americanization africanization afro american african musical material ideas embedded power control nature record companies cultivation international pop music elite power sell enormous numbers recordings dr gibb schreffler also examines globalization diaspora lens punjabi pop music ref name schreffler gibb schreffler gibb migration shaping media punjabi popular music global historical perspective ''popular music society'' ref schreffler 's writing bhangra music commentary dissemination


music physical movement suggests function reception punjabi music changed drastically increasing migration globalization catalyzed need cohesive punjabi identity emerging stopgap period marked combination large scale experiences separation homeland yet poor communication channels liberation british colonial rule music carried explicit punjabi label primarily function regional entertainment contrast punjabi music coincided wave punjabi nationalism replaced regionalist


ideals earlier times music began form particular genteel identity accessible even punjabi expatriates punjabi pop music began adhere aesthetically cosmopolitan tastes often overshadowing music reflected truly authentic punjabi identity soon geographic cultural locality punjabi pop became prevalent theme reflecting strong relationship globalization widespread preferences schreffler explains shift role punjabi pop terms different worlds performance amateur professional sacred art mediated worlds primarily


defined act function musical act type marked activity influences musical act perceived social norms restrictions subject punjabi popular music falls mediated world due globalization dissemination commercial music separating performance immediate context thus punjabi popular music eventually evolved neatly represent certain dualities considered characterize punjabi identity east west guardians tradition embracers new technology local diaspora instances different groups people culture rely globalization


music way sustain culture example author scholar professor department black studies university california santa barbara george lipsitz analyzes fusion global cultures play american soil study mexican american culture los angeles lipsitz unpacks lot cultural issues found within mexican american communities late answering question octavio paz poses whereabouts los angeles mexican culture ref name lipsitz ref octavio paz mexican poet diplomat visited


take identity separate wanted achieve success world success might look different depending artists one form success might selling tons record another form success might receiving respect anglo american real contributors masterpieces music definitely easy task achieve often required extra work example lipsitz writes first successful los angeles chicano rock roll songs band members order achieve tostino 's band reflected


one difficult present chicano music losing identity band member stated wanted play chicano music instead looking like clowns response audience 's initial expectation band would arrive stage sombreros tropical outfits stereotypes attributed chicano people ref name lipsitz another example globalization music concerns cases traditions officially recognized unesco promoted national governments cases notable global heritage way local traditions introduced global audience


something important represent nation relevance people everywhere cognition cognitive psychology neuroscience anatomy similar fields endeavored understand music relates individual 's perception cognition behavior research topics include pitch perception representation expectation timbre perception rhythmic processing event hierarchies reductions musical performance ability musical universals musical origins music development cross cultural cognition evolution cognitive perspective brain perceives auditory stimuli music according gestalt principles principles grouping gestalt principles include proximity similarity closure continuation


gestalt principles illustrates different element auditory stimuli cause perceived group one unit music proximity dictates auditory stimuli near seen group similarity dictates multiple auditory stimuli present similar stimuli perceived group closure tendency perceive incomplete auditory pattern whole brain fills gap continuation dictates auditory stimuli likely perceived group follow continuous detectable pattern


perception music quickly growing body literature structurally auditory system able distinguish different pitches sound waves varying frequency via complementary vibrating eardrum also parse incoming sound signals via pattern recognition mechanisms cognitively brain often constructionist comes pitch one removes fundamental pitch harmonic spectrum brain still hear missing fundamental identify attempt reconstruct coherent harmonic spectrum research suggests much learned perception however contrary popular belief absolute pitch


learned critical age familiar timbre debate still occurs whether western chords naturally consonant dissonant whether ascription learned relation pitch frequency universal phenomenon scale construction culturally specific training cultural scale results melodic harmonic expectations cornelia fales explored ways expectations timbre learned based past correlations offered three main characteristics timbre timbre constitutes link external world functions perceptualization 's primary instrument musical element


extraction involves breaking acoustic elements perceptual fusion timbre part leading splintering perceived acoustic signal demonstrated overtone singing didjeridoo music second timbral anomaly redistribution redistribution gestalt components new groups creating chimeric sound composed precepts made components several sources seen ghanaian balafon music bell tone barbershop singing finally timbral juxtaposition consists juxtaposing sounds fall opposing ends continuum timbral structure extends harmonically based


formant structured timbres demonstrated overtone singing use minde ornament indian sitar music overall three techniques form scale progressively effective control perceptualization reliance acoustic world increases fales' examinations types timbre manipulation within inanga kubandwa songs synthesizes scientific research subjective objective dichotomy timbre culture specific phenomena interactions music known world spiritual communication unknown world cognitive research also applied ethnomusicological studies rhythm ethnomusicologists believe african


structure necessary drumming patterns could interpreted within additive structure supporting idea universal ametrical organization scheme rhythm researchers also attempted use psychological biological principles understand complex musical phenomena performance behavior evolution music reached consensuses areas generally accepted errors performance give insight perception music 's structure studies restricted western score reading tradition thus far currently several theories explain evolution music one


theories expanded ian cross idea music piggy backed ability produce language evolved enable promote social interaction cross bases account fact music humanly ancient art seen throughout nearly every example human culture since opinions vary precisely defined music cross defines complexly structured affectively significant attentionally entraining immediately yet indeterminately meaningful noting known cultures art form defined way article cross examines communicative power music exploring


role minimizing within group conflict bringing social groups together claiming music could served function managing intra inter group interactions throughout course human evolution essentially cross proposes music language evolved together serving contrasting functions equally essential evolution humankind additionally bruno nettl proposed music evolved increase efficiency vocal communication long distances enabled communication supernatural decolonizing ethnomusicology idea decolonization new field ethnomusicology early idea became central


long term process involving bureaucratic cultural linguistic psychological divesting colonial power ethnomusicology shift means fundamental changes power structures worldviews academia university system need analyzed confrontation colonialism ref name referencee proposed decolonized approach ethnomusicology involves reflecting philosophies methodologies constitute discipline decolonization ethnomusicology takes multiple paths proposed approaches ethnomusicologists addressing roles scholars ii university system analyzed revised iii philosophies thus practices discipline changed ref name referencee fall winter issue


society ethnomusicology 's student news contains survey decolonizing ethnomusicology see readers' views decolonizing ethnomusicology entailed different themes decentering ethnomusicology united states europe ii expanding transforming discipline iii recognizing privilege power iv constructing spaces actually talk decolonizing ethnomusicology among peers colleagues one issues proposed brendan kibbee decolonizing ethnomusicology scholars might reorganize disciplinary practices broaden base ideas thinkers one idea posed preference privilege written word


attempt decolonizing field another ethnomusicologist developed major music repatriation projects diane thram works international library african music similar work dedicated towards film field video ref name fenn john b ethnicity giving strict definition ethnicity considered difficult many scholars best understood terms creation preservation boundaries contrast social essences gaps boundaries ref name stokes martin p stokes martin introduction ethnicity identity music ''ethnicity identity music


musical construction place'' edited martin stokes oxford berg p ref fact ethnic boundaries define maintain social identities music used local social situations members society create boundaries ref name stokes martin p idea authenticity becomes relevant authenticity property music performance way telling insiders outsiders music makes one 's society unique ref name stokes martin p stokes martin introduction ethnicity identity music ''ethnicity identity


music musical construction place'' edited martin stokes oxford berg p ref authenticity also seen idea certain music inextricably bound certain group physical place ref name radano ronald p radano ronald michael et al introduction music race past presence ''music racial imagination'' ronald michael radano philip vilas bohlman university chicago press p ref give insight question origin music definition bears connection geographical historical cultural


aspects music ref name radano ronald p instance holding particular aspects african american music actually fundamentally african critical claims authenticity global african diaspora ref name radano ronald pp radano ronald michael et al introduction music race past presence ''music racial imagination'' ronald michael radano philip vilas bohlman university chicago press pp ref terms authenticity connected concept place consider concept authenticity jewish music throughout jewish diaspora jewish music bound


land israel ancient temple jerusalem ref name radano ronald p radano ronald michael et al introduction music race past presence ''music racial imagination'' ronald michael radano philip vilas bohlman university chicago press p ref although groups self defining express differences self colonization domination violence within developing societies cannot ignored society often dominant groups brutally oppress minority ethnicities classification systems music used tool propagate dominant classifications societies


used new developing states especially control media systems ref name stokes martin p stokes martin introduction ethnicity identity music ''ethnicity identity music musical construction place'' edited martin stokes oxford berg p ref indeed though music help define national identity authoritarian states control musical identity technology end dictating citizens listen ref name stokes martin p stokes martin introduction ethnicity identity music ''ethnicity identity music musical construction place''


edited martin stokes oxford berg p ref governments often value music symbol used promote supra national entities ref name stokes martin p stokes martin introduction ethnicity identity music ''ethnicity identity music musical construction place'' edited martin stokes oxford berg p ref often use argue right participate control significant cultural political event turkey 's involvement eurovision song contest ref name stokes martin p historically anthropologists believed ethnomusicologists deal something definition


cannot synonymous social realities present world ref name stokes martin p stokes martin introduction ethnicity identity music ''ethnicity identity music musical construction place'' edited martin stokes oxford berg p ref response ethnomusicologists sometimes present concept society purely exists within encompassing definition music ref name stokes martin p ethnomusicologist charles seeger agrees giving example suya society brazil understood terms music seeger notes suya society orchestra village


concert hall year song ref name stokes martin p stokes martin introduction ethnicity identity music ''ethnicity identity music musical construction place'' edited martin stokes oxford berg p ref music helps one understand oneself relation people places times ref name stokes martin p stokes martin introduction ethnicity identity music ''ethnicity identity music musical construction place'' edited martin stokes oxford berg p ref informs one 's sense physical place musical event collective dance uniquely evokes collective memories


experiences place ethnomusicologists anthropologists believe music provides means political moral hierarchies developed ref name stokes martin p stokes martin introduction ethnicity identity music ''ethnicity identity music musical construction place'' edited martin stokes oxford berg p ref music allows people comprehend identities physical places well boundaries divide ref name stokes martin p stokes martin introduction ethnicity identity music ''ethnicity identity music musical construction place'' edited martin stokes oxford berg p


ref gender another area boundaries performed music ref name stokes martin p stokes martin introduction ethnicity identity music ''ethnicity identity music musical construction place'' edited martin stokes oxford berg p ref instruments instrumental performance contribute society 's definition gender behaviour performers conforms gender expectations society eg men display effort women feign reluctance perform ref name stokes martin p stokes martin introduction ethnicity identity music ''ethnicity identity music musical construction


place'' edited martin stokes oxford berg p ref issues ethnicity music intersect gender studies fields like historical musicology study popular music ethnomusicology indeed gender seen symbol social political order controlling gender boundaries thus means controlling order gender boundaries reveal deeply intrinsic forms domination society subsequently provide template forms domination ref name stokes martin p however music also provide means pushing back boundaries blurring


boundary traditionally considered male female ref name stokes martin p one listens foreign music one tries make sense terms one 's familiar music musical worldviews internal struggle seen power struggle one 's musical views foreign ones ref name stokes martin p stokes martin introduction ethnicity identity music ''ethnicity identity music musical construction place'' edited martin stokes oxford berg p ref sometimes musicians celebrate ethnic plurality problematic ways


collect genres subsequently alter reinterpret terms ref name stokes martin p societies often publicize called multi cultural music performances simply promotion self image ref name stokes martin p staged folklore begins greatly diverge celebration ethnic plurality purportedly represents music dance performed become meaningless presented entirely context ref name stokes martin p scenario seen commonly meaning performance created controlled performers


audience even media society performance takes place ref name stokes martin p music rarely remains stable contexts social change culture contact causes music altered whatever new culture come contact ref name stokes martin p stokes martin introduction ethnicity identity music ''ethnicity identity music musical construction place'' edited martin stokes oxford berg p ref way minority communities internalize outside world music kind sense making ref name stokes martin p become


bhojpuri form hindi language becoming obsolete erodes concept ethnic identity ref name manuel peter p manuel peter ethnic identity national identity music indo trinidadian culture ''music racial imagination'' ronald michael radano philip vilas bohlman university chicago press p ref light conditions music begun play unprecedented role concept east indian ethnic identity ref name manuel peter p music also play transformative part formation identities urban migrant communities seen


instance spanish colonization indigenous native americans resulting ''mestizo'' music reflects intersection two culture spheres even gave way new modes musical expression bearing aspects cultures ref name radano ronald p ethnicities class identities complicated relationship class seen relative control group economic relating means production cultural political social assets various social areas ref name turino thomas p turino thomas race class musical nationalism zimbabwe ''music racial imagination'' ronald michael radano


philip vilas bohlman university chicago press p ref case migrant communities divide concepts ethnicity class blur instance one ethnic group class level provides cheap labor case latinx mexican immigrants performing cheap farming labor white americans ref name stokes martin p blurring also seen zimbabwe white settlers determined hierarchical social order divided ethnicity blacks others coloureds asians whites top hierarchy ref name turino thomas p concept