normally regards company proper claimant cases relation exercise rights minority shareholders usually accept limits voting rights cannot direct overall control company must accept majority often expressed ''majority rule'' however majority rule iniquitous particularly one controlling shareholder accordingly number exceptions developed law relation general principle majority rule majority shareholder exercising votes perpetrate fraud


minority courts may permit minority sue members always retain right sue majority acts invade personal rights eg company 's affairs conducted accordance company 's constitution position debated extent personal right set law ''macdougall v gardiner'' ''pender v lushington'' present irreconcilable differences area many jurisdictions possible minority shareholders take ' 'representative'' ' 'derivative action'' name company company controlled


alleged wrongdoers corporate finance operational life corporation perhaps crucial aspect corporate law relates raising capital business operate law relates corporate finance provides framework business raises funds also provides forum principles policies drive fundraising taken seriously two primary methods financing exists regard corporate financing equity financing debt financing relative advantages disadvantages law economically additional methods raising capital necessary


finance operations retained profits various combinations financing structures capacity produce fine tuned transactions using advantages form financing support limitations corporate form industry economic sector ref name gullifer gullifer payne ''corporate finance law principles policy'' nd edn hart publishing ref mix debt equity crucial sustained health company overall market value independent capital structure one notable difference interest payments debt tax deductible whilst payment dividends


incentivise company issue debt financing rather preferred stock order reduce tax exposure shares share capital company limited shares whether public private must least one issued share however depending corporate structure formatting may differ company wishes raise capital equity usually done issuing shares sometimes called stock confused stock trade warrants common law whilst shareholder often colloquially referred owner company


clear shareholder owner company makes shareholder member company entitles enforce provisions company 's constitution company members ref name gullifer share item property sold transferred shares also normally nominal par value limit shareholder 's liability contribute debts company insolvent liquidation shares usually confer number rights holder normally include voting rights


two types different voting economic rights might provide preference shareholders shall receive cumulative preferred dividend certain amount per annum ordinary shareholders shall receive everything else corporations structure capital raising way order appeal different lenders market providing different incentives investment ref name gullifer total value issued shares company said represent ''equity capital'' jurisdictions regulate minimum amount capital company may although jurisdictions prescribe minimum amounts capital companies


engaging certain types business eg banking insurance etc similarly jurisdictions regulate maintenance equity capital prevent companies returning funds shareholders way distribution might leave company financially exposed often extends prohibiting company providing financial assistance purchase shares dissolution events mergers acquisitions insolvency commission crime affect corporate form addition creation corporation financing events serve transition phase either dissolution material shift mergers


acquisitions merger acquisition often mean altering extinguishing corporation corporate insolvency unable discharge debts timely manner corporation may end bankruptcy liquidation liquidation normal means company 's existence brought end also referred either alternatively concurrently jurisdictions ''winding up'' ' 'dissolution'' liquidations generally come two forms either ''compulsory liquidations'' sometimes called ''creditors' liquidations'' ''voluntary liquidations'' sometimes called ''members' liquidations'' although voluntary liquidation company insolvent also


controlled creditors properly referred ''creditors' voluntary liquidation'' company goes liquidation normally liquidator appointed gather company 's assets settle claims company surplus paying creditors company surplus distributed members names imply applications compulsory liquidation normally made creditors company company unable pay debts however jurisdictions regulators power apply


broken sold jurisdictions also permit companies wound equitable grounds generally applications equitable winding brought member company alleges affairs company conducted prejudicial manner asking court bring end company 's existence obvious reasons countries courts reluctant wind company solely basis disappointment one member regardless well founded member 's complaints accordingly


jurisdictions permit equitable winding also permit court impose remedies requiring majority shareholder buy disappointed minority shareholder fair value insider dealing '''insider trading''' trading corporation 's stock securities eg bonds stock options individuals potential access non public information company countries trading corporate insiders officers key employees directors large shareholders may legal trading done way take advantage non public information however


term frequently used refer practice insider related party trades based material non public information obtained performance insider 's duties corporation otherwise breach fiduciary relationship trust confidence non public information misappropriated company illegal insider trading believed raise cost capital securities issuers thus decreasing overall economic growth united states several jurisdictions trading conducted corporate officers key employees directors significant shareholders united


greater commitment corporation officers purchasing shares etc trends developments case law matter corporate governance dates primarily addresses hostile takeovers however current research considers direction legal reforms address issues shareholder activism institutional investors capital market intermediaries corporations boards challenged respond developments shareholder demographics effected trends worker retirement institutional intermediaries like mutual funds playing role employee retirement funds motivated partner employers fund included


company 's retirement plans vote shares ndash corporate governance activities increase costs fund benefits would shared equally competitor funds shareholder activism prioritizes wealth maximization criticized poor basis determining corporate governance rules shareholders decide corporate policy done board directors shareholders may vote elect board directors mergers changes approved directors may also vote amend corporate bylaws broadly speaking three movements th century american


lines state laws united states united states corporations incorporated organized laws particular state laws state incorporation normally governs corporation 's internal operations even corporation 's operations take place outside state corporate law differs state state differences businesses benefit corporate lawyer determine appropriate advantageous state incorporate business entities may also regulated federal laws cases local laws ordinances delaware majority


publicly traded companies us delaware corporations companies choose incorporate delaware delaware general corporation law offers lower corporate taxes many states many venture capitalists prefer invest delaware corporations also delaware court chancery widely recognized good venue litigation business disputes see also references external links http ssrncom abstract comparative bibliography regulatory competition corporate law https webarchiveorg web http wwwheyman centerorg samuel ronnie heyman center corporate governance benjamin n cardozo school law http wwwdjclorg delaware journal corporate law http wwwiflrcom


international financial law review legal entities english law business law law economics


protest new york ny usa oppression connected '''political sociology''' interdisciplinary field study concerned exploring power oppression operate society across micro macro levels analysis interested social causes consequences power distributed changes throughout amongst societies political sociology 's focus ranges across individual families state sites social political conflict power contestation ref name ref introduction political sociology conceived interdisciplinary sub field sociology politics early ref name throughout social

Social science
Sociology
Applied sociology
Political sociology


political disruptions took place rise communism facism world war ii new area drawing upon works alexis de tocqueville james bryce robert michels max weber mile durkheim karl marx understand integral theme political sociology power power 's definition political sociologists varies across approaches conceptual framework utilised within interdisciplinary study basic understanding power seen ability influence control people processes around helps create variety research focuses use methodologies different scholars' understanding


power differs alongside academic disciplinary department institution also flavour research develop baseline inquiry eg political sociological studies interdisciplinary field see although deviation carried political sociology overall focus understanding power structures way given societal context ref name political sociologists throughout broad manifestations propose order understand power society politics must studied one another neither treated assumed variables society understood


must politics politics society understood must society ref name ref origins development political sociology onwards took place separating disciplines sociology politics explored overlapping areas interest ref name sociology viewed broad analysis human society interrelationship societies predominantly focused relationship human behaviour society political science politics study largely situates within definition sociology sometimes regarded well developed


sub field sociology seen stand alone disciplinary area research due size scholarly work undertaken within politics offers complex definition important note 'politics' means subjective author context study governmental institutions public policy power relations politics rich disciplinary outlook ref name importance studying sociology within politics vice versa recognition across figures mosca pareto recognised politicians politics operate societal vacuum society


operate outside politics political sociology sets study relationships society politics ref name numerous works account highlighting political sociology work comte spencer figures durkheim although feeding interdisciplinary area body work karl marx max weber considered foundational inception sub field research ref name scope overview scope political sociology broad reflecting wide interest power oppression operate within social political


formal political processes alongside social forces working together create change perspective identify three major theoretical frameworks pluralism elite managerial theory class analysis overlaps marxist analysis pluralism sees politics primarily contest among competing interest groups elite managerial theory sometimes called state centered approach explains state looking constraints organizational structure semi autonomous state managers interests arise state unique power concentrating organization leading representative theda skocpol social class theory analysis emphasizes political power capitalist elites


split two parts one power structure instrumentalist approach whereas another structuralist approach power structure approach focuses question rules well known representative g william domhoff structuralist approach emphasizes way capitalist economy operates allowing encouraging state things others nicos poulantzas bob jessop typical research question political sociology might american european citizens choose vote even difference make women get


elected political sociologists also ask body site power emotions relevant global poverty difference knowledge make democracy political sociology vs sociology politics addressing political sociology noted overlap using 'sociology politics' synonym sartori outlines though 'sociology politics' refers specifically sociological analysis politics interdisciplinary area reseach political sociology works towards ref name ref difference made variables interest perspectives focus upon sociology politics centres


capitalist ie present era state absence one post capitalist society overlaying fact ideas state changed grew older differing early pre communist phase young marx phase predates unsuccessful uprisings europe mature nuanced work marx 's ''critique hegel 's philosophy right'' basic conception state civil society separate however already saw limitations model arguing ''' political state everywhere needs guarantee spheres lying outside


''' ref name ref ''' yet saying nothing abolition private property express developed theory class solution offers problem state civil society separation purely ''political'' solution namely universal suffrage ''' ref name time wrote ''the german ideology'' marx viewed state creature bourgeois economic interest two years later idea expounded ''the communist manifesto'' ref name ref ''' executive modern state nothing committee managing common affairs whole bourgeoisie ''' ref name


represents high point conformance state theory economic interpretation history forces production determine peoples' production relations production relations determine relations including political although determines strong form claim marx also uses conditions even determination causality reciprocity action admitted bourgeoisie control economy therefore control state theory state instrument class rule gramsci antonio gramsci 's theory hegemony tied conception capitalist


state gramsci understand state narrow sense government instead divides political society police army legal system etc arena political institutions legal constitutional control civil society family education system trade unions etc commonly seen private non state sphere mediates state economy however stresses division purely conceptual two often overlap reality gramsci claims capitalist state rules force plus consent political society realm


force civil society realm consent gramsci proffers modern capitalism bourgeoisie maintain economic control allowing certain demands made trade unions mass political parties within civil society met political sphere thus bourgeoisie engages passive revolution going beyond immediate economic interests allowing forms hegemony change gramsci posits movements reformism fascism well scientific management assembly line methods frederick taylor henry ford respectively examples miliband


english marxist sociologist ralph miliband influenced american sociologist c wright mills friend published ''the state capitalist society'' study marxist political sociology rejecting idea pluralism spread political power maintaining power western democracies concentrated hands dominant class ref name odnb ref poulantzas nicos poulantzas' theory state reacted saw simplistic understandings within marxism instrumentalist marxist accounts miliband held state simply instrument


hands particular class poulantzas disagreed saw capitalist class focused individual short term profit rather maintaining class 's power whole simply exercise whole state power interest poulantzas argued state though relatively autonomous capitalist class nonetheless functions ensure smooth operation capitalist society therefore benefits capitalist class particular focused inherently divisive system capitalism could coexist social stability necessary reproduce mdash looking


particular nationalism means overcome class divisions within capitalism borrowing gramsci 's notion cultural hegemony poulantzas argued repressing movements oppressed sole function state rather state power must also obtain consent oppressed class alliances dominant group makes alliance subordinate groups means obtain consent subordinate group jessop bob jessop influenced gramsci miliband poulantzas propose state entity social


relation differential strategic effects means state something essential fixed property neutral coordinator different social interests autonomous corporate actor bureaucratic goals interests 'executive committee bourgeoisie' often described pluralists elitists statists conventional marxists respectively rather state essentially determined nature wider social relations situated especially balance social forces weberian political sociology one weber 's influential contributions politics


vocation ''politik als beruf'' essay therein weber unveils definition state entity possesses monopoly legitimate use physical force ref name ref ref name e pov ref weber wrote politics sharing state 's power various groups political leaders wield power ref name e pov weber distinguished three ideal types political leadership alternatively referred three types domination legitimisation authority ref name charismatic authority familial religious traditional authority patriarchs patrimonialism feudalism legal authority modern law state bureaucracy ref name wolfjm ref view every


historical relation rulers ruled contained elements analysed basis tripartite distinction ref name ref notes instability charismatic authority forces routinise structured form authority ref name ritzer ref pure type traditional rule sufficient resistance ruler lead traditional revolution move towards rational legal structure authority utilising bureaucratic structure inevitable end ref name thus theory sometimes viewed part social evolutionism theory ties broader concept


rationalisation suggesting inevitability move direction ref name ritzer ''' bureaucratic administration means fundamentally domination knowledge ''' ref name bureaucratic ref weber described many ideal types public administration government ''economy society'' critical study bureaucratisation society became one enduring parts work ref name ritzer ref name bureaucratic weber began studies bureaucracy whose works led popularisation term ref name busach ref many aspects modern public administration go back classic hierarchically organised civil service continental type called weberian civil


service ref name hooghe ref efficient rational way organising bureaucratisation weber key part rational legal authority furthermore saw key process ongoing rationalisation western society ref name ritzer ref name bureaucratic weber 's ideal bureaucracy characterised hierarchical organisation delineated lines authority fixed area activity action taken recorded basis written rules bureaucratic officials needing expert training rules implemented neutrally career advancement depending technical qualifications judged organisations individuals ref name bureaucratic ref name allanallan ref approaches


italian school elite theory vilfredo pareto gaetano mosca robert michels cofounders italian school elitism influenced subsequent elite theory western tradition outlook italian school elitism based two ideas power lies position authority key economic political institutions psychological difference sets elites apart personal resources instance intelligence skills vested interest government rest incompetent capabilities governing


elite resourceful strive make government work reality elite would lose failed state pareto emphasized psychological intellectual superiority elites believing highest achievers field discussed existence two types elites governing elites non governing elites also extended idea whole elite replaced new one one circulate elite non elite mosca emphasized sociological personal characteristics elites said elites organized


minority masses unorganized majority ruling class composed ruling elite sub elites divides world two group political class non political class mosca asserts elites intellectual moral material superiority highly esteemed influential sociologist michels developed iron law oligarchy asserts social political organizations run individuals social organization labor division key believed organizations elitist elites three basic principles help bureaucratic structure political organization


part however due radical rethinking social theory much focused micro questions formation identity social interaction politics knowledge effects contestation meaning structures macro questions capture use state power chief influences include cultural studies stuart hall post structuralism michel foucault judith butler pragmatism luc boltanski structuration theory anthony giddens cultural sociology jeffrey c alexander political sociology attempts explore dynamics two institutional systems introduced


advent western capitalist system democratic constitutional liberal state capitalist economy democracy promises impartiality legal equality citizens capitalist system results unequal economic power thus possible political inequality well pluralists distribution political power determined economic interests multiple social divisions political agendas diverse political interests beliefs different factions work together collective organizations create flexible fair representation turn influences political parties make decisions distribution power achieved


interplay contending interest groups government model functions mediating broker free control economic power pluralistic democracy however requires existence underlying framework would offer mechanisms citizenship expression opportunity organize representations social industrial organizations trade unions ultimately decisions reached complex process bargaining compromise various groups pushing interests many factors pluralists believe ended domination political sphere economic elite power organized


labour increasingly interventionist state placed restrictions power capital manipulate control state additionally capital longer owned dominant class expanding managerial sector diversified shareholders none exert upon another pluralist emphasis fair representation however overshadows constraints imposed extent choice offered bachrauch baratz examined deliberate withdrawal certain policies political arena example organized movements express might seem radical change society often portrayed


illegitimate power elite main rival pluralist theory united states theory power elite sociologist c wright mills according mills eponymous power elite occupy dominant positions dominant institutions military economic political dominant country decisions lack decisions enormous consequences us population underlying populations world institutions head mills posits triumvirate groups succeeded weaker predecessors two three hundred giant


corporations replaced traditional agrarian craft economy strong federal political order inherited power decentralized set several dozen states enters every cranny social structure military establishment formerly object distrust fed state militia entity grim clumsy efficiency sprawling bureaucratic domain importantly distinction modern american conspiracy theory mills explains elite may aware status elite noting often


personalities chief executives presidents ceos important companies within industrial sector corporate rich major landowners corporate shareholders warlords senior military officers importantly joint chiefs staff political directorate fifty odd men executive branch us federal government including senior leadership executive office president sometimes variously drawn elected officials democratic republican parties usually professional government bureaucrats mills formulated short summary book runs america one runs


altogether far group power elite ''who rules america'' book research psychologist sociologist g william domhoff first published best seller six subsequent editions domhoff argues book power elite wields power america support think tanks foundations commissions academic departments additionally argues elite control institutions overt authority covert influence ref name miller ref introduction domhoff writes book inspired work four men sociologists e digby baltzell c wright


mills economist paul sweezy political scientist robert dahl ref name concepts th marshall citizenship h marshall 's social citizenship political concept first highlighted essay ''citizenship social class'' marshall 's concept defines social responsibilities state citizens marshall puts granting right modicum economic welfare security right share full social heritage live life civilized according standards prevailing society ref name ref


one key points made marshall belief evolution rights england acquired via citizenship civil rights eighteenth century political nineteenth social twentieth ref name evolution however criticized many perspective white working man marshall concludes essay three major factors evolution social rights evolution listed lessening income gap great extension area common culture common experience ref


name enlargement citizenship rights granted citizens many social responsibilities state since become major part many state policies see united states social security however also become controversial issues debate whether citizen truly right education even social welfare saymour martin lipset social requisites democracy ''political man social bases politics'' political sociologist seymour martin lipset provided influential analysis bases democracy


across world larry diamond gary marks argue lipset 's assertion direct relationship economic development democracy subjected extensive empirical examination quantitative qualitative past years evidence shows striking clarity consistency strong causal relationship economic development democracy book sold copies translated languages including vietnamese bengali serbo croatian lipset one first proponents modernization theory states democracy direct result economic growth well


amsterdam https aissruvanl content research groups political sociology political sociologyhtmlcb '''political sociology power place difference programme group''' university cambridge https researchsociologycamacuk research groups political sociology cluster '''political sociology cluster''' interdisciplinary harvard university https sociologyfasharvardedu pages political historical sociology '''political historical sociology research cluster''' see also bibliography sociology political anthropology political spectrum references reading list introductory dobratz b waldner l buzzell https wwwroutledgecom power politics society introduction political sociology dobratz waldner buzzell p book power politics society introduction political sociology london routledge janoski hicks schwartz alford r https wwwgooglecouk books edition handbook political sociology kmr gbjhri cq gbpv f false handbook political sociology new york ny cambridge university press lachmann r https wwwwileycom en us states power p states power oxford wiley


nash k https wwwgooglecouk books edition readings contemporary political socio safoupbe chl en readings contemporary political sociology malden mass blackwell neuman w https wwwtextbookscom power state society introduction political sociology edition w lawrence neumanphp power state society long grove ill waveland press orum dale j https wwwgooglecouk books edition introduction political sociology kmabaqaamaajhl en introduction political sociology new york oxford university press rush https archiveorg details introductiontopo rush page mode politics society introduction political sociology london routledge general amenta e nash k scott https wwwgooglecouk books edition blackwell companion political soc iw cwaaqbajhl en wiley blackwell companion political sociology malden john wiley sons criminology jacobs carmichael j political sociology death penalty pooled time series analysis american


sociological review p jacobs helms r https wwwsciencedirectcom science article abs pii x toward political sociology punishment politics changes incarcerated population social science research pp health well banks purdy sociology politics health london routledge beckfield j https wwwgooglecouk books edition dthjdwaaqbajhl en political sociology people 's health abingdon oxford university press science frickel moore k https wwwgooglecouk books edition new political sociology science b urozbeepschl en gbpv new political sociology science madison university wisconsin press external links philosophy law sociology


'''acoustical engineering''' also known '''acoustic engineering''' branch engineering dealing sound vibration includes application acoustics science sound vibration technology acoustical engineers typically concerned design analysis control sound one goal acoustical engineering reduction unwanted noise referred noise control unwanted noise significant impacts animal human health well reduce attainment students schools cause hearing loss ref name auto ref noise control principles implemented technology design variety

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Acoustical engineering


ways including control redesigning sound sources design noise barriers sound absorbers suppressors buffer zones use hearing protection earmuffs earplugs baffles inside auditorium installed optimise sound projection reproduction key factors acoustical engineering besides noise control acoustical engineering also covers positive uses sound use ultrasound medicine programming digital synthesizers designing concert halls enhance sound orchestras specifying railway station sound systems announcements intelligible acoustic engineer professional acoustic engineers usually possess bachelor 's degree


higher qualification acoustics physics another engineering discipline practicing acoustic engineer usually requires bachelor 's degree significant scientific mathematical content acoustic engineers might work acoustic consultancy specializing particular fields architectural acoustics environmental noise vibration control industries acoustic engineers might design automobile sound systems investigate human response sounds urban soundscapes domestic appliances develop audio signal processing software mixing desks design loudspeakers microphones mobile phones acousticians also involved researching understanding sound scientifically positions faculty require


doctor philosophy countries degree acoustics represent first step towards professional certification degree program may certified professional body completing certified degree program engineer must satisfy range requirements certified certified engineer designated title chartered engineer commonwealth countries subdisciplines listed subdisciplines loosely based pacs physics astronomy classification scheme coding used acoustical society america aeroacoustics aeroacoustics concerned noise generated movement air


perceptual coding mp opus understand content signal eg identification music tracks via music information retrieval ref name auto ref audio engineers develop use audio signal processing algorithms architectural acoustics disney 's concert hall meticulously designed superior acoustical qualities ceiling culture palace tel aviv concert hall covered perforated metal panels architectural acoustics also known '''building acoustics''' science engineering achieving good sound within building architectural acoustics achieving good speech intelligibility theatre restaurant railway station enhancing quality music


concert hall recording studio suppressing noise make offices homes productive pleasant places work live architectural acoustic design usually done acoustic consultants ref name auto ref bioacoustics bioacoustics concerns scientific study sound production hearing animals include acoustic communication associated animal behaviour evolution species sound produced animals auditory mechanisms neurophysiology animals use sound monitor animal populations effect man made noise animals ref name bioacoustics ref electroacoustics branch acoustic engineering deals design


headphones microphones loudspeakers sound systems sound reproduction recording rapid increase use portable electronic devices reproduce sound rely electroacoustic engineering eg mobile phones portable media players tablet computers term electroacoustics also used describe set electrokinetic effects occur heterogeneous liquids influence ultrasound ref name dukhin dukhin goetz pj https dispersioncom books characterization liquids nano micro particulates porous bodies using ultrasound elsevier ref environmental noise woodstock acoustic analysis critical creating best experience audience


performers environmental acoustics concerned control noise vibrations caused traffic aircraft industrial equipment recreational activities anything else might considered nuisance ref name auto acoustical engineers concerned environmental acoustics face challenge measuring predicting likely noise levels determining acceptable level noise determining noise controlled environmental acoustics work usually done acoustic consultants working environmental health ref name auto recent research work put strong emphasis soundscapes positive use sound eg fountains bird song preservation


tranquility musical acoustics musical acoustics concerned researching describing physics music perception sounds employed music work includes function design musical instruments including electronic synthesizers human voice physics neurophysiology singing computer analysis music composition clinical use music music therapy perception cognition music noise control noise control set strategies reduce noise pollution reducing noise source inhibiting sound propagation using noise barriers similar use


ear protection earmuffs earplugs control source cost effective way providing noise control noise control engineering applied cars trucks known noise vibration harshness nvh techniques reduce product noise include vibration isolation application acoustic absorbent acoustic enclosures acoustical engineering go beyond noise control look best sound product instance manipulating sound door closures automobiles psychoacoustics psychoacoustics tries explain humans respond hear whether annoying noise beautiful music


many branches acoustic engineering human listener final arbitrator whether design successful instance whether sound localisation works surround sound system psychoacoustics seeks reconcile acoustical stimuli scientific objective physical properties surround physiological psychological responses evoked ref name auto speech speech major area study acoustical engineering including production processing perception speech include physics physiology psychology audio signal processing linguistics speech recognition speech synthesis two important aspects machine processing


speech ensuring speech transmitted intelligibly efficiently high quality rooms public address systems telephone systems important areas study ultrasonics ultrasound image fetus womb viewed weeks pregnancy bidimensional scan ultrasonics deals sound waves solids liquids gases frequencies high heard average person specialist areas include medical ultrasonics including medical ultrasonography sonochemistry nondestructive testing material characterisation underwater acoustics sonar underwater acoustics underwater acoustics scientific study sound water concerned natural


man made sound generation underwater propagates perception sound animals applications include sonar locate submerged objects submarines underwater communication animals observation sea temperatures climate change monitoring marine biology vibration dynamics acoustic engineers working vibration study motions interactions mechanical systems environments including measurement analysis control might include ground vibrations railways construction vibration isolation reduce noise getting recording studios studying effects vibration humans vibration white finger vibration control protect bridge


earthquakes modelling propagation structure borne sound buildings fundamental science although way sound interacts surroundings often extremely complex ideal sound wave behaviours fundamental understanding acoustical design complex sound wave behaviors include absorption reverberation diffraction refraction absorption loss energy occurs sound wave reflects surface refers sound energy transmitted dissipated surface material reverberation persistence sound caused repeated boundary reflections source


sound stops principle particularly important enclosed spaces diffraction bending sound waves around surfaces path wave refraction bending sound waves caused changes medium wave passing example temperature gradients cause sound wave refraction acoustical engineers apply fundamental concepts along mathematical analysis control sound variety applications associations https tceaasaorg acoustical society america technical committee engineering acoustics audio engineering society australian acoustical society canadian acoustical association institute acoustics chinese academy


sciences institute acoustics united kingdom see also audio engineering acoustical engineers audio engineers references barron r ''industrial noise control acoustics'' new york marcel dekker inc retrieved crcnetbase hemond c ingerman ed ''engineering acoustics noise control'' new jersey prentice hall ''highway traffic noise barriers glance'' retrieved february http wwwfhwadotgov environment keepdownhtm kinsler l frey coppens sanders j eds ''fundamentals acoustics'' th ed new york john wiley sons kleppe j ''engineering applications acoustics'' sparks nevada artech house moser ''engineering acoustics''


zimmerman r ellis trans nd ed berlin springer verlag acoustics noise reduction engineering disciplines sound noise control


'''lattice''' abstract structure studied mathematical subdisciplines order theory abstract algebra consists partially ordered set every pair elements unique supremum also called least upper bound join unique infimum also called greatest lower bound meet example given power set set partially ordered inclusion supremum union infimum intersection another example given natural numbers partially ordered divisibility supremum

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Lattice theory


math math math leq u math math math set may many upper bounds none upper bound math u math math math said '''least upper bound''' '''join''' '' 'supremum''' math u leq x math upper bound math x math math math set need least upper bound cannot one ref name one group note say math x math math math three relations math x neq math math x leq math math leq x math would true disallowed


definition partially ordered set ref dually math l l math said '''lower bound''' math math math l leq math math math lower bound math l math math math said '''greatest lower bound''' '''meet''' '''infimum''' math x leq l math lower bound math x math math math set may many lower bounds none one greatest lower bound ref name one group note partially ordered set math l leq math called '''join semilattice''' two element subset math b


non empty finite subset lattice least upper bound greatest lower bound additional assumptions conclusions may possible ' 'see'' completeness order theory discussion subject article also discusses one may rephrase definition terms existence suitable galois connections related partially ordered sets approach special interest category theoretic approach lattices formal concept analysis '''bounded lattice''' lattice additionally also called element denoted math top math


also called denoted math bot math satisfy math display block leq x leq text every x l math every lattice embedded bounded lattice adding greatest least element every non empty finite lattice bounded taking join respectively meet elements denoted math bigvee l lor cdots lor n math respectively math bigwedge l land cdots land n math math l left ldots n right math partially ordered set bounded lattice


every finite set elements including empty set join meet every element math x math poset vacuously true math text varnothing x leq math math text varnothing leq x math therefore every element poset upper bound lower bound empty set implies join empty set least element math bigvee varnothing math meet empty set greatest element math bigwedge varnothing


math consistent associativity commutativity meet join join union finite sets equal join joins sets dually meet union finite sets equal meet meets sets finite subsets math text b math poset math l math math display block bigvee cup b left bigvee right vee left bigvee b right math math display block bigwedge cup b left bigwedge right wedge left bigwedge b right math hold taking ''b'' empty set math display block bigvee cup


varnothing left bigvee right vee left bigvee varnothing right left bigvee right vee bigvee math math display block bigwedge cup varnothing left bigwedge right wedge left bigwedge varnothing right left bigwedge right wedge bigwedge math consistent fact math cup varnothing math lattice element math math said '''cover''' another element math x math math x math exist math z math math z x math math x math means math x leq math math x neq math lattice math l leq math called '''graded''' sometimes '''ranked''' see ranked


poset alternative meaning equipped '''rank function''' math r l n math sometimes compatible ordering math r x r math whenever math x math whenever math math covers math x math math r r x math value rank function lattice element called '''rank''' given subset lattice math h subseteq l math meet join restrict partial functions undefined value subset math h math resulting structure math h math called ''''''


addition extrinsic definition subset algebraic structure lattice partial lattice also intrinsically defined set two partial binary operations satisfying certain axioms lattices algebraic structures general lattice algebraic structure math l vee wedge math consisting set math l math two binary commutative associative operations math vee math math wedge math math l math '''lattice''' following axiomatic identities hold elements math b l math sometimes called math display block vee wedge b math math display block wedge vee b math


following two identities also usually regarded axioms even though follow two absorption laws taken together ref group note math vee vee wedge vee math dually idempotent law ref called math display block vee math math display block wedge math axioms assert math l vee math math l wedge math semilattices absorption laws axioms meet join appear distinguish lattice arbitrary pair semilattice structures assure two semilattices


interact appropriately particular semilattice dual absorption laws viewed requirement meet join semilattices define partial order bounded lattice '''bounded lattice''' algebraic structure form math l vee wedge math math l vee wedge math lattice math math lattice 's bottom identity element join operation math vee math math math lattice 's top identity element meet operation math wedge math math display block vee math math display block wedge math see semilattice


details connection algebraic structures lattices connections family group like algebraic structures meet join commute associate lattice viewed consisting two commutative semigroups domain bounded lattice semigroups fact commutative monoids absorption law defining identity peculiar lattice theory commutativity associativity idempotence one think join meet operations non empty finite sets rather pairs elements bounded lattice join meet empty


set also defined math math math math respectively makes bounded lattices somewhat natural general lattices many authors require lattices bounded algebraic interpretation lattices plays essential role universal algebra connection two definitions order theoretic lattice gives rise two binary operations math vee math math wedge math since commutative associative absorption laws easily verified operations make math l vee wedge math lattice algebraic sense converse also true given algebraically defined lattice math l vee wedge math


one define partial order math leq math math l math setting math display block leq b text wedge b text math math display block leq b text b vee b math elements math b l math laws absorption ensure definitions equivalent math wedge b text implies b b vee b wedge wedge b vee b vee b math dually direction one check relation introduced way defines


partial ordering within binary meets joins given original operations math vee math math wedge math since two definitions lattice equivalent one may freely invoke aspects either definition way suits purpose hand examples gallery image hasse diagram powerset svg '''pic nbsp ''' subsets math x z math set inclusion name lattice suggested form hasse diagram depicting file lattice divisibility svg '''pic nbsp ''' lattice integer divisors ordered ' 'divides'' file lattice partitions order setsvg '''pic nbsp ''' lattice


partitions math math ordered ' 'refines'' file nat numsvg '''pic nbsp ''' lattice positive integers ordered math leq math file n quadrat gedrehtsvg '''pic nbsp ''' lattice nonnegative integer pairs ordered componentwise gallery set math math collection subsets math math called power set math math ordered via subset inclusion obtain lattice bounded math math empty set set intersection set union interpret meet join respectively see pic nbsp set math math collection finite subsets math math ordered inclusion also lattice bounded


taking greatest common divisor least common multiple divisibility order relation math leq b math math math divides math b math math math bottom math math top pic nbsp shows finite sublattice every complete lattice also see rather specific bounded lattice class gives rise broad range practical examples set compact elements arithmetic complete lattice lattice least element lattice operations given restricting respective operations arithmetic lattice specific property distinguishes arithmetic lattices algebraic lattices


compacts form join semilattice classes complete lattices studied domain theory examples lattices given additional properties discussed examples non lattices style float right '''pic nbsp ''' non lattice poset math math math b math common lower bounds math g h math math math none greatest lower bound style float right '''pic nbsp ''' non lattice poset math b math math c math common upper bounds math e math math f math none least upper bound style float right '''pic nbsp ''' non lattice poset


math set math math partially ordered divisibility lattice every pair elements upper bound lower bound pair three upper bounds namely none least three divisibility divide likewise pair three lower bounds namely none greatest three divisibility divide morphisms


bijective lattice endomorphism lattices homomorphisms form category let math mathbb l math math mathbb l ' math two lattices ''' ''' ''' ''' homomorphism math mathbb l math math mathbb l ' math called ''' ''' ' 'separating'' math f f math math f math separates ''' ''' math f f math math f math separates sublattices lattice math l math subset math l math lattice meet join operations math l math math l math lattice math math subset math l math every pair elements math b


math math wedge b math math vee b math math math math math sublattice math l math sublattice math math lattice math l math math l math math x leq z leq math math x math implies math z math belongs math math elements math x z l math properties lattices introduce number important properties lead interesting special classes lattices one boundedness already discussed completeness poset called subsets join


meet particular every complete lattice bounded lattice bounded lattice homomorphisms general preserve finite joins meets complete lattice homomorphisms required preserve arbitrary joins meets every poset complete semilattice also complete lattice related result interesting phenomenon various competing notions homomorphism class posets depending whether seen complete lattices complete join semilattices complete meet semilattices join complete meet complete lattices note partial lattice opposite complete lattice rather


partial lattice lattice complete lattice increasingly restrictive definitions conditional completeness '''conditionally complete lattice''' lattice every subset join least upper bound lattices provide direct generalization completeness axiom real numbers conditionally complete lattice either complete lattice complete lattice without maximum element math math minimum element math math distributivity style float right '''pic nbsp ''' smallest non modular hence non distributive lattice n sub sub br labelled elements violate distributivity equation math c


vee c math distributivity math wedge math math vee math math display block wedge b vee c wedge b vee wedge c math lattice satisfies first equivalently turns second axiom called '' 'distributive lattice''' non distributive lattices fewer elements called sub sub n sub sub shown pictures respectively lattice distributive n't sublattice isomorphic sub sub n sub sub ref name daveypriestley theorem https booksgooglecom booksid vvvtxeuiyvqc pg pa p nbsp ref distributive lattice isomorphic lattice sets union


intersection join meet respectively overview stronger notions distributivity appropriate complete lattices used define special classes lattices frames completely distributive lattices see distributivity order theory modularity applications distributivity condition strong following weaker property often useful lattice math l vee wedge math elements math b c l math following identity holds math wedge c vee b wedge c wedge c vee b wedge c math br


condition equivalent following axiom math leq c math implies math vee b wedge c vee b wedge c math br lattice modular n't sublattice isomorphic n sub sub shown pic nbsp ref name daveypriestley besides distributive lattices examples modular lattices lattice two sided ideals ring lattice submodules module lattice normal subgroups group set first order terms ordering specific non modular lattice used automated reasoning semimodularity finite lattice


modular upper lower semimodular graded lattice upper semimodularity equivalent following condition rank function math r math math r x r geq r x wedge r x vee math another equivalent graded lattices condition birkhoff 's condition math x math math math math l math math x math math math cover math x wedge math math x vee math covers math x math math math lattice called lower semimodular dual semimodular finite lattices means previous conditions hold math vee math


math wedge math exchanged covers exchanged covered inequalities reversed continuity algebraicity domain theory natural seek approximate elements partial order much simpler elements leads class continuous posets consisting posets every element obtained supremum directed set elements way element one additionally restrict compact elements poset obtaining directed sets poset even algebraic concepts applied lattices


follows '''continuous lattice''' complete lattice continuous poset '''algebraic lattice''' complete lattice algebraic poset classes interesting properties example continuous lattices characterized algebraic structures infinitary operations satisfying certain identities characterization known algebraic lattices described syntactically via scott information systems complements pseudo complements let math l math bounded lattice greatest element least element two elements math x math math math math l math '''complements'''


math display block x vee quad text quad x wedge math general elements bounded lattice might complement others might one complement example set math math usual ordering bounded lattice math tfrac math complement bounded lattice n sub sub element math math two complements viz math b math math c math see pic nbsp bounded lattice every element complement called complemented lattice complemented lattice


length lattice said satisfy '''jordan dedekind chain condition''' free lattices set math x math may used generate '''free semilattice''' math fx math free semilattice defined consist finite subsets math x math semilattice operation given ordinary set union free semilattice universal property '''free lattice''' set math x math whitman gave construction based polynomials math x math members important lattice theoretic notions define order theoretic notions importance lattice theory following let math x math


element lattice math l math math l math bottom element math math math x neq math sometimes required math x math called '''join irreducible''' math x vee b math implies math x text x b math math b l math first condition generalized arbitrary joins math bigvee math math x math called '''completely join irreducible''' math vee math irreducible dual notion '''meet irreducibility''' math wedge math irreducible example pic nbsp elements join irreducible meet irreducible lattice


math l math math x math math l math called atomic every nonzero element math x math math l math exists atom math math math l math math leq x math atomistic every element math l math supremum atoms notions ideals dual notion filters refer particular kinds subsets partially ordered set therefore important lattice theory details found respective entries see also filter dual notions generalization non commutative join meet applications use lattice


theory ''note many applications sets partial lattices every pair elements meet join'' pointless topology lattice subgroups spectral space invariant subspace closure operator abstract interpretation subsumption lattice fuzzy set theory algebraizations first order logic semantics programming languages domain theory ontology computer science multiple inheritance formal concept analysis lattice miner theory tool bloom filter information flow ordinal optimization quantum logic median graph knowledge space regular language learning analogical modeling notes references monographs available free online burris stanley n sankappanavar h p '' http wwwthoralfuwaterlooca htdocs ualghtml


course universal algebra '' springer verlag jipsen peter henry rose '' http www chapmanedu jipsen jipsenrosevolhtml varieties lattices '' lecture notes mathematics springer verlag nation j b ''notes lattice theory'' https webarchiveorg web http wwwmathhawaiiedu jb lat pdf chapters https webarchiveorg web http wwwmathhawaiiedu jb lat pdf chapters appendices elementary texts recommended limited mathematical maturity donnellan thomas ''lattice theory'' pergamon gr tzer george ''lattice theory first concepts distributive lattices'' w h freeman standard contemporary introductory text somewhat harder advanced monographs garrett birkhoff ''lattice theory'' rd ed vol ams colloquium publications american mathematical society robert p dilworth


crawley peter ''algebraic theory lattices'' prentice hall free lattices r freese j jezek j b nation free lattices mathematical surveys monographs vol mathematical association america johnstone p ''stone spaces'' cambridge studies advanced mathematics cambridge university press history lattice theory applications lattice theory https webarchiveorg web http tocsulbtu darmstadtde pdf table contents external links jb nation http wwwmathhawaiiedu jb bookshtml ''notes lattice theory'' unpublished course notes available two pdf files ralph freese http wwwmathhawaiiedu latthy lattice theory homepage algebraic structures


river system one 's position coast similarly yurok lack idea cardinal directions orient respect principal geographic feature klamath river cultural linguistics cultural linguistics related branch linguistics explores relationship language cultural conceptualisations ref name sharifian cultural linguistics draws expands theoretical analytical advancements cognitive science including complexity science distributed cognition anthropology cultural linguistics examines various features human languages encode cultural conceptualisations including cultural schemas cultural categories cultural metaphors ref name sharifian sharifian farzad cultural

Social science
Anthropology
Ethnolinguistics


conceptualisations language theoretical framework applications amsterdam philadelphia john benjamins ref language viewed deeply entrenched group level cultural cognition communities speakers thus far approach cultural linguistics adopted several areas applied linguistic research including intercultural communication second language learning teaching english international language world englishes ethnosemantics '''ethnosemantics''' also called '''ethnoscience''' '''cognitive anthropology''' method ethnographic research ethnolinguistics focuses semantics examining people categorize words language ethnosemantics studies way people label classify cultural


social environmental phenomena world analyze semantic categories classifications create order understand cultural meanings behind way people describe things world ref name ref ref name ref ethnosemantics method relies franz boas' theory cultural relativity well theory linguistic relativity use cultural relativity ethnosemantic analysis serves focus analyses individual cultures language terms rather using ethnosemantics create overarching theories culture language affects culture ref name methods examples order perform ethnosemantic


analysis words language used particular subject gathered researcher used create model words relate one another anthropologists utilize ethnosemantics create models believe representation speakers particular language think topic described example book ''the anthropology language introduction linguistic anthropology'' harriet ottenheimer uses concept plants dandelions categorized explain ethnosemantics used examine differences


cultures think certain topics example ottenheimer describes topic plants divided two categories lettuce weeds ethnosemantics help anthropologists discover whether particular culture categorizes dandelions lettuce weed using information discover something culture thinks plants ref name one section oscar lewis' ''la vida'' includes transcript interview puerto rican woman discusses prostitute 's social world using ethnosemantics speaker 's statements people social circle


law poor characterized people higher categories rich law bad people poor divided disreputable positions reputable positions speaker characterizes disreputable poor generally dishonest corrupt presents one exceptions analysis speaker 's description social circle thus allows understanding perceives world around people ref name componential analysis another method used ethnosemantic analysis componential analysis


componential analysis used describe criteria people use classify concepts ref name analyzing semantic features example word man analyzed semantic features male mature human woman analyzed female mature human girl analyzed female immature human bull analyzed male mature bovine using method features words category examined form hypotheses significant meaning identifying features words category ref name see also anthropological linguistics associative


group analysis evolutionary psychology language linguistic anthropology wilhelm von humboldt references sources wierzbicka anna ''semantics culture cognition universal human concepts culture specific configuration'' new york oxford university press bartmi ski jerzy aspects cognitive ethnolinguistics sheffield oakville ct equinox en madeleine mathiot dir ethnolinguistics boas sapir whorf revisited mouton la haye p fr luc bouquiaux linguistique et ethnolinguistique anthologie d'articles parus entre et peeters louvain dudley p fr christine jourdan et claire lefebvre dir l'ethnolinguistique anthropologie et soci vol


p nbsp fr bernard pottier l'ethnolinguistique didier p amsterdam philadelphia john benjamins trabant j rgen li ge madarga trabant j rgen traditions de humboldt german edition french edition paris maison des sciences de l homme trabant j rgen mithridates im paradies kleine geschichte des sprachdenkens nchen beck trabant j rgen l antinomie linguistique quelques enjeux politiques politiques usages de la langue en europe ed michael werner cond sur noireau collection du ciera dialogiques ditions de la maison des sciences de l homme trabant j rgen ist sprache nchen beck vocabulaire europ en des philosophes dictionnaires des intraduisibles ed barbara cassin paris


robert whorf benjamin lee language thought reality selected writings ed john b caroll cambridge massachusetts mit press wierzbicka anna semantics culture cognition universal human concepts culture specific configurations new york oxford university press wierzbicka anna understanding cultures key words oxford oxford university press wierzbicka anna emotions across languages cultures cambridge cambridge university press wierzbicka anna semantics primes universals oxford oxford university press wierzbicka anna experience evidence sense hidden cultural legacy english oxford oxford university press external links http artsonlinemonasheduau lsc cultural linguistics cultural linguistics http wwwbenjaminscom cgi bin bookviewcgibookid celcr applied


cultural linguistics https webtvuniv rouenfr permalink c f e ecnge dp jurgen trabant wilhelm von humboldt lectures hrs http profilesartsmonasheduau farzad sharifian publications content farzad sharifian publications https farzadsharifiancom cultural linguistics new multidisciplinary field research cultural linguistics new multidisciplinary field research anthropology sociolinguistics


''criminal law'' film '''criminal law''' body law relates crime prescribes conduct perceived threatening harmful otherwise endangering property health safety moral welfare people inclusive one 's self criminal law established statute say laws enacted legislature criminal law includes punishment rehabilitation people violate laws criminal law varies according jurisdiction differs civil law emphasis dispute resolution victim compensation rather punishment rehabilitation criminal procedure


damages criminal law imperial rome collected books digest revival roman law th century sixth century roman classifications jurisprudence provided foundations distinction criminal civil law european law present time first signs modern distinction crimes civil matters emerged norman invasion england special notion criminal penalty least concerning europe arose spanish late scholasticism see alfonso de castro theological notion god 's penalty poena aeterna


inflicted solely guilty mind became transfused canon law first finally secular criminal law development state dispensing justice court clearly emerged eighteenth century european countries began maintaining police services point criminal law formalized mechanisms enforcement allowed development discernible entity objectives criminal law criminal law distinctive uniquely serious potential consequences sanctions failure abide rules every crime composed criminal elements capital punishment may imposed jurisdictions


objectives widely accepted enforcement criminal law punishments retribution deterrence incapacitation rehabilitation restoration jurisdictions differ value placed '''retribution''' criminals ought ''be punished'' way widely seen goal criminals taken improper advantage inflicted unfair detriment upon others consequently criminal law put criminals unpleasant disadvantage balance scales people submit law receive right murdered people contravene laws surrender rights granted


law thus one murders may executed related theory includes idea righting balance '''deterrence''' ''individual'' deterrence aimed toward specific offender aim impose sufficient penalty discourage offender criminal behavior ''general'' deterrence aims society large imposing penalty commit offenses individuals discouraged committing offenses '''incapacitation''' designed simply keep criminals ''away'' society public protected misconduct often achieved prison sentences today death penalty


banishment served purpose '''rehabilitation''' aims transforming offender valuable member society primary goal prevent offense convincing offender conduct wrong '''restoration''' victim oriented theory punishment goal repair state authority injury inflicted upon victim offender example one embezzles required repay amount improperly acquired restoration commonly combined main goals criminal justice closely related concepts civil law ie returning


victim original position injury selected criminal laws many laws enforced threat criminal punishment range punishment varies jurisdiction scope criminal law vast catalog intelligently nevertheless following typical aspects criminal law elements criminal law generally prohibits undesirable ''acts'' thus proof crime requires proof act scholars label requirement actus reus ''guilty act'' crimes particularly modern regulatory offenses require


known strict liability offenses eg ''road traffic act '' strict liability offence drive vehicle alcohol concentration prescribed limit nevertheless potentially severe consequences criminal conviction judges common law also sought proof ''intent'' bad thing mens rea ''guilty mind'' crimes ''actus reus'' ''mens rea'' requirements judges concluded elements must present precisely moment enough


occurred sequentially different times actus reus english court room lord chief justice coleridge presiding ''actus reus'' latin '''guilty act''' physical element committing crime may accomplished action threat action exceptionally omission act legal duty act example act ''a'' striking ''b'' might suffice parent 's failure give food young child also may provide actus reus crime actus reus ''failure''


act must ' 'duty care'' duty arise contract voluntary undertaking blood relation one lives occasionally one 's official position duty also arise one 's creation dangerous situation hand held uk switching life support someone persistent vegetative state omission act criminal since discontinuation power voluntary act grossly negligent patient 's best interests crime takes place case


held since pvs patient could give withhold consent medical treatment doctors decide whether treatment patient 's best interest reasonable conclude treatment patient 's best interest therefore stopped prospect improvement never lawful take active steps cause accelerate death although certain circumstances lawful withhold life sustaining treatment including feeding without patient would die actus reus may nullified


absence causation example crime involves harm person person 's action must ''but for'' cause ''proximate cause'' harm one cause exists eg harm comes hands one culprit act must slight trifling link harm causation broken simply victim particularly vulnerable known thin skull rule however may broken intervening act ''novus actus interveniens'' third party victim 's conduct


another unpredictable event mistake medical treatment typically sever chain unless mistakes potent causing death mens rea ''mens rea'' another latin phrase meaning guilty mind mental element crime guilty mind means intention commit wrongful act intention criminal law separate person 's motive although motive exist scots law lower threshold ''mens rea'' satisfied defendant recognizes act dangerous decides commit anyway recklessness


mental state mind person time actus reus committed instance ''c'' tears gas meter wall get money inside knows let flammable gas escape neighbour 's house could liable poisoning courts often consider whether actor recognize danger alternatively ought recognized risk course requirement one ''ought'' recognized danger though tantamount erasing ''intent'' requirement way importance


mens rea reduced areas criminal law obviously still important part criminal system wrongfulness intent also may vary seriousness offense possibly reduce punishment always case killing committed specific intent kill conscious recognition death serious bodily harm result would murder whereas killing effected reckless acts lacking consciousness could manslaughter hand matters actually harmed defendant 's


actions doctrine transferred malice means instance man intends strike person belt belt bounces hits another mens rea transferred intended target person actually struck note notion transferred intent exist within scots' law scotland one would charged assault due transferred intent instead assault due recklessness strict liability strict liability described criminal civil liability notwithstanding lack mens rea intent defendant


crimes require specific intent threshold culpability required may reduced demoted example might sufficient show defendant acted negligently rather intentionally recklessly offenses absolute liability prohibited act may necessary show act intentional generally crimes must include intentional act intent element must proved order find crime occurred idea strict liability crime oxymoron exceptions truly crimes


administrative regulations civil penalties created statute crimes traffic highway code fatal offenses ''murder'' defined broadly unlawful killing unlawful killing probably act frequently targeted criminal law many jurisdictions crime murder divided various gradations severity eg murder ''first degree'' based ''intent'' ''malice'' required element murder manslaughter culpable homicide scotland lesser variety killing committed absence ''malice'' brought reasonable provocation diminished capacity


battery property offenses property often protected criminal law trespassing unlawful entry onto real property another many criminal codes provide penalties conversion embezzlement theft involve deprivations value property robbery theft force fraud uk breach fraud act false representation failure disclose information abuse position participatory offenses criminal codes criminalize association criminal venture involvement criminality actually come fruition examples aiding


abetting conspiracy attempt however scotland english concept '''aiding abetting''' known '''art part liability''' see glanville williams textbook criminal law london stevens sons glanville williams criminal law general part london stevens sons mala se v mala prohibita crimes typically broken degrees classes punish appropriately offenses divided 'mala se' 'mala prohibita' laws latin legal terms '''mala se''' meaning crimes thought inherently


evil morally wrong thus widely regarded crimes regardless jurisdiction mala se offenses felonies property crimes immoral acts corrupt acts public officials '''mala prohibita''' hand refers offenses wrongfulness associated parking restricted area driving wrong way one way street jaywalking unlicensed fishing examples acts prohibited statute without considered wrong mala prohibita statutes usually imposed strictly need mens


rea component punishment offenses act reason argued offenses mala prohibita really crimes defenses criminal law jurisdictions international criminal court hague public international law deals extensively increasingly criminal conduct heinous ghastly enough affect entire societies regions formative source modern international criminal law nuremberg trials following second world war leaders nazism prosecuted part genocide atrocities across europe nuremberg trials


united states english criminal law penal code france hong kong criminal law indian criminal law irish criminal law northern irish criminal law philippine criminal law scottish criminal law strafgesetzbuch switzerland references citations sources http wwwcirporg library legal uklaw rvbrown r v brown ac external links http platostanfordedu entries criminal law stanford encyclopedia philosophy entry theories criminal law http criminalfindlawcom findlawcom criminal law center https wwwlawcornelledu wex criminal law cornell institute http infocrimorg max planck information system comparative criminal law country reports criminal law covering legal systems


according jewish tradition jacob shown wrestling angel painting rembrandt father tribes israel '''jewish history''' history jews nation religion culture developed interacted peoples religions cultures although judaism religion first appears greek records hellenistic period bce earliest mention israel inscribed merneptah stele dated bce religious literature tells story israelites going back least far c bce jewish diaspora


time jews generally accepted society jewish religious cultural economic life blossomed th th centuries ashkenazi jews experienced extreme persecution central europe prompted massive emigration poland classical ottoman period jews together communities empire enjoyed certain level prosperity th century many significant jewish populations western europe period european renaissance enlightenment significant changes occurred within jewish community jews began th century campaign jewish emancipation restrictive


laws integration wider european society jews western europe increasingly granted equality law faced growing persecution legal restrictions pale settlement including widespread pogroms caused mass exodus two million jews united states jewish population europe began actively discuss emigration back israel establishment jewish nation national homeland zionist movement founded officially meanwhile jews europe united


states gained success fields science culture economy among generally considered famous scientist albert einstein philosopher ludwig wittgenstein many nobel prize winners time jewish still case ref name jewish nobel prize winners ref rise power adolf hitler nazis germany jewish situation became severe economic crises racial anti semitic laws fear upcoming war led many jews flee europe palestine united states soviet union world war


ii began hitler occupied almost europe including poland millions jews living time france following invasion soviet union final solution began extensive organized operation unprecedented scale aimed annihilation jewish people resulting persecution murder jews political europe inclusive european north africa pro nazi vichy north africa italian libya genocide approximately six million jews methodically exterminated known holocaust ''shoah'' hebrew term poland three million jews


murdered gas chambers concentration camps combined one million auschwitz camp complex alone palestine british mandate since saw large waves jewish migration holocaust mandate expired david ben gurion proclaimed may establishment jewish state eretz israel known state israel immediately afterwards neighbouring arab states attacked yet newly formed idf resisted war ended state israel started building state absorbing massive waves


hundreds thousands jews world israel parliamentary democracy population million people million jewish largest jewish communities israel united states major communities france canada argentina russia united kingdom australia germany statistics related modern jewish demographics see ''jewish population'' time periods jewish history history jews judaism divided five periods ancient israel judaism beginnings bce beginning judaism


savoraim rect geonim rect rishonim rect acharonim rect aliyot rect israel rect holocaust rect diaspora rect expulsion spain rect roman exile poly assyrian exile ten lost tribes rect babylonian captivity rect second temple period poly


ancient jewish history rect chronology bible rect common era desc none imagemap ancient jewish history c bce ancient israelites c bce kingdoms israel judah bce history early jews neighbors centers fertile crescent east coast mediterranean sea begins among people occupied area lying river nile mesopotamia surrounded ancient seats culture egypt


babylonia deserts arabia highlands asia minor land canaan roughly corresponding modern israel palestinian territories jordan lebanon meeting place civilizations traditional religious view jews judaism history based narrative ancient hebrew bible view abraham regarded first hebrew israelite jew one therefore starts jewish history founder originator jewish people later moses liberates children israel ancient egypt exodus nation


israel born heads promised land land israel however consensus modern scholars support academic view archaeological evidence showing largely indigenous origins israel canaan egypt overwhelming leaves room exodus egypt year pilgrimage sinai wilderness ref name autogenerated p ref many archaeologists abandoned archaeological investigation moses exodus fruitless pursuit ref name autogenerated century research archaeologists egyptologists arguably found evidence directly related exodus


narrative egyptian captivity escape travels wilderness leading suggestion iron age israel kingdoms judah israel origins canaan egypt ref name finkelstein ref culture earliest israelite settlements canaanite cult objects canaanite god el pottery remains local canaanite tradition alphabet used early canaanite almost sole marker distinguishing israelite villages canaanite sites absence pig bones although whether taken ethnic marker due


northern israelite tribes tribes judah simeon absorbed judah benjamin south bce nation split kingdom israel north kingdom judah south assyrian ruler tiglath pileser iii conquered northern kingdom israel bce commonly accepted historical record accounts ultimate fate ten northern tribes sometimes referred ten lost tribes israel although speculation abounds babylonian captivity c bce deportation exile jews ancient kingdom judah


babylon destruction jerusalem solomon 's temple revolting new dominant power ensuing siege kingdom judah conquered babylonian army bce first temple destroyed elite kingdom many people exiled babylon religion developed outside traditional temple others fled egypt fall jerusalem babylonia modern day iraq would become focus judaism fourteen hundred years first judahite communities babylonia started exile tribe judah


babylon jehoiachin bce well destruction temple jerusalem bce ref name translation pg babylonia largest prominent jewish cities communities established became center jewish life short time reign xerxes persia events book esther took place babylon remained hub jewish life way th century cultural scholarship centrality began move europe anti jewish waves initiated rapid


decline numbers centrality continued major jewish center th century first century babylonia already held speedily growing ref name translation pg population estimated judahites increased estimated million years ce ce ref name solomon gryazel p dr solomon gryazel ''history jews destruction judah bce present arab israeli conflict'' p ref natural growth immigration jews land israel making one sixth


world jewish population era ref name solomon gryazel p would write babylonian talmud languages used jews ancient babylonia hebrew aramaic jews established talmudic academies babylonia also known geonic academies became center jewish scholarship development jewish law babylonia roughly ce ce two famous academies pumbedita academy sura academy major yeshivot also located nehardea mahuza generations conquest


passed hands five successive generations zugot pairs leaders flourished first persians greeks result pharisees sadducees formed persians greeks jewish coins minted judea yehud coinage hellenistic period c bce bce alexander great macedon defeated persians alexander 's death division empire among generals seleucid kingdom formed alexandrian conquests spread greek culture levant time currents judaism influenced


hellenistic philosophy developed rd century bce notably jewish diaspora alexandria culminating compilation septuagint important advocate symbiosis jewish theology hellenistic thought philo hasmonean kingdom bce deterioration relations hellenized jews jews led seleucid king antiochus iv epiphanes issue decrees banning certain jewish religious rites traditions subsequently nonhellenized jews revolted leadership hasmonean family also known maccabees revolt eventually led formation independent jewish kingdom known


inside wall arch titus rome judea independent jewish kingdom hasmoneans conquered roman general pompey bce reorganized client state roman expansion going areas well would continue hundred fifty years later herod great appointed king jews roman senate supplanting hasmonean dynasty offspring held various positions known herodian dynasty briefly bce ce herod archelaus


crucifixion jerusalem roman prefect judaea pontius pilate ce jews began revolt roman rulers judea revolt defeated future roman emperors vespasian titus siege jerusalem ce romans destroyed temple jerusalem according accounts plundered artifacts temple menorah jews continued live land significant numbers kitos war ce notwithstanding julius severus ravaged judea putting bar kokhba revolt ce nine hundred


eighty five villages destroyed jewish population central judaea essentially wiped killed sold slavery forced flee banished jerusalem except day tisha b'av jewish population centred galilee initially yavne jerusalem renamed aelia capitolina judea renamed syria palestina spite jews naming ancient enemies philistines diaspora jewish diaspora began assyrian conquest continued much larger scale babylonian conquest tribe judah exiled


babylonia along dethroned king judah jehoiachin th century bce taken captivity bce exile continued destruction temple jerusalem bce ref name translation pg translation mordechai vermebrand betzalel ruth people israel history years days forefathers peace treaty p ref many jews migrated babylon ce


world policy encouraging proselytism conversion judaism spread jewish religion throughout hellenistic civilization seems subsided wars romans critical importance reshaping jewish tradition temple based religion rabbinic traditions diaspora development interpretations torah found ''mishnah'' ''talmud'' diaspora community india arrival jewish pilgrims cochin ce cochin jewish tradition holds roots community go back arrival jews shingly


ce destruction second temple also states jewish kingdom understood mean granting autonomy local king cheraman perumal community leader joseph rabban ce first synagogue built legend founding indian christianity kerala thomas apostle relates arrival encountered local girl understood hebrew late roman period land israel relations jews roman empire region continued complicated


constantine allowed jews mourn defeat humiliation year tisha b'av western wall ce jews galilee launched yet another revolt provoking heavy retribution gallus revolt came rising influence early christians eastern roman empire constantinian dynasty however relations roman rulers improved upon rise emperor julian last constantinian dynasty unlike predecessors defied christianity long julian left antioch launch campaign sasanian persia keeping


effort foster religions christianity ordered jewish temple rebuilt failure rebuild temple mostly ascribed dramatic galilee earthquake traditionally also jews' ambivalence project sabotage possibility accidental fire divine intervention common view among christian historians time ref name solomon see http wwwfordhamedu halsall jewish julian jewshtml julian jews ce fordham university jesuit university new york https webarchiveorg web http wwwgibsoncondocom david convert historyhtml julian apostate holy temple ref julian 's support jews caused jews call julian hellene julian 's


fatal wound persian campaign consequent death put end jewish aspirations julian 's successors embraced christianity entire timeline byzantine rule jerusalem preventing jewish claims ce empress eudocia removed ban jews' praying temple site heads community galilee issued call great mighty people jews began know end exile people come however christian population city saw threat


primacy n't allow riot erupted chased away jews city th th centuries series samaritan insurrections broke across palaestina prima province especially violent third fourth revolts resulted almost entire annihilation samaritan community likely samaritan revolt joined jewish community also suffered brutal suppression israelite religion belief restoration come early th century jews made alliance


persians invaded palaestina prima fought side overwhelmed byzantine garrison jerusalem given jerusalem governed autonomy ref name phoenicia ref however autonomy brief jewish leader jerusalem shortly assassinated christian revolt though jerusalem reconquered persians jews within weeks fell anarchy consequent withdrawal persian forces jews surrendered byzantines ce massacred christian radicals ce survivors fleeing egypt byzantine eastern roman empire


control region finally lost muslim arab armies ce umar ibn al khattab completed conquest akko middle ages jews pre muslim babylonia ce fall jerusalem babylonia modern day iraq would become focus judaism thousand years first jewish communities babylonia started exile tribe judah babylon jehoiachin bce well destruction temple jerusalem bce ref name translation pg many jews migrated babylon


ce bar kokhba revolt centuries ref name translation pg babylonia largest prominent jewish cities communities established became center jewish life way th century first century babylonia already held speedily growing ref name translation pg population estimated jews increased estimated million ref name solomon gryazel p years ce ce natural growth immigration jews land israel making


world jewish population era ref name solomon gryazel p would write babylonian talmud languages used jews ancient babylonia hebrew aramaic jews established talmudic academies babylonia also known geonic academies geonim meaning splendour biblical hebrew geniuses became center jewish scholarship development jewish law babylonia roughly ce ce two famous academies pumbedita academy sura academy major yeshivot also located


nehardea mahuza talmudic yeshiva academies became main part jewish culture education jews continued establishing yeshiva academies western eastern europe north africa later centuries america countries around world jews lived diaspora talmudic study yeshiva academies located united states israel continues today talmudic yeshiva academies babylonia followed era amoraim expounders sages talmud active land israel babylon end era


sealing mishnah times sealing talmud ce ce following savoraim reasoners sages beth midrash torah study places babylon end era amoraim th century beginning era geonim geonim hebrew presidents two great rabbinical colleges sura pumbedita generally accepted spiritual leaders worldwide jewish community early medieval era contrast resh galuta exilarch wielded secular authority


jews islamic lands according traditions resh galuta descendants judean kings kings parthia would treat much honour jews late antiquity early middle ages yeshivot babylonia served much function ancient sanhedrin council jewish religious authorities academies founded pre islamic babylonia zoroastrian sassanid dynasty located far sassanid capital ctesiphon time largest city world conquest persia


th century academies subsequently operated four hundred years islamic caliphate first gaon sura according sherira gaon mar bar rab chanan assumed office last gaon sura samuel ben hofni died last gaon pumbedita hezekiah gaon tortured death hence activity geonim covers period nearly years one principal seats babylonian judaism nehardea large city made mostly jews ref name translation pg


time persecutions certain temporary importance also attained school nehar pekod founded judean immigrant hananiah nephew joshua ben hananiah school might cause schism jews babylonia judea israel judean authorities promptly checked hananiah 's ambition byzantine period ce jews also widespread throughout roman empire carried lesser extent period byzantine rule central eastern mediterranean militant exclusive christianity caesaropapism byzantine empire


treat jews well condition influence diaspora jews empire declined dramatically official christian policy convert jews christianity christian leadership used official power rome attempts ce jews revolted added pressures governor constantius gallus gallus put revolt destroyed major cities galilee area revolt started tzippori lydda site two major legal academies never recovered period nasi tiberias hillel ii created official calendar


needed monthly sightings moon months set calendar needed authority judea time jewish academy tiberius began collate combined mishnah braitot explanations interpretations developed generations scholars studied death judah hanasi text organized according order mishna paragraph mishnah followed compilation interpretations stories responses associated mishnah text called ''jerusalem talmud'' jews judea received brief


respite official persecution rule emperor julian apostate julian 's policy return roman empire hellenism encouraged jews rebuild jerusalem julian 's rule lasted jews could rebuild sufficiently roman christian rule restored empire beginning consecration st john chrysostom patriarch christian rhetoric jews grew sharper preached sermons titles jews statues homily john preaches jewish sickness heated language


contributed climate christian distrust hate toward large jewish settlements antioch constantinople beginning th century emperor theodosius issued set decrees establishing official persecution jews jews allowed slaves build new synagogues hold public office try cases jew non jew intermarriage jew non jew made capital offence conversion christians judaism theodosius away sanhedrin abolished post nasi emperor justinian authorities


restricted civil rights jews threatened religious privileges emperor interfered internal affairs synagogue forbade instance use hebrew language divine worship disobeyed restrictions threatened corporal penalties exile loss property jews borium far syrtis major resisted byzantine general belisarius campaign vandals forced embrace christianity synagogue converted church justinian successors concerns outside province judea insufficient troops


enforce regulations result th century period wave new synagogues built many beautiful mosaic floors jews adopted rich art forms byzantine culture jewish mosaics period portray people animals menorahs zodiacs biblical characters excellent examples synagogue floors found beit alpha includes scene abraham sacrificing ram instead son isaac along zodiac tiberius beit shean tzippori precarious existence jews byzantine rule long endure largely due explosion


muslim religion remote arabian peninsula large populations jews resided see history jews muslim rule muslim caliphate ejected byzantines holy land levant defined modern israel jordan lebanon syria within years victory battle yarmouk numerous jews fled remaining byzantine territories favour residence caliphate subsequent centuries size jewish community byzantine empire affected attempts emperors notably justinian


forcibly convert jews anatolia christianity attempts met little success historians continue research status jews asia minor byzantine rule sample views see instance j starr ''the jews byzantine empire '' bowman ''the jews byzantium'' r jenkins ''byzantium'' averil cameron byzantines jews recent work early byzantium ''byzantine modern greek studies'' systematic persecution type endemic time western europe pogroms stake mass expulsions etc recorded byzantium much


ce byzantine empire lost control levant arab islamic empire caliph omar conquered jerusalem lands mesopotamia syria palestine egypt political system islam created radically new conditions jewish economic social intellectual development caliph omar permitted jews reestablish presence jerusalem lapse years ref name bashan eliezer ref jewish tradition regards caliph omar benevolent ruler midrash nistarot de rav shimon bar yo ai refers friend israel ref name bashan eliezer according arab geographer al muqaddasi jews worked


assayers coins dyers tanners bankers community ref name skatz fatimid period many jewish officials served regime ref name skatz ref professor moshe gil believes time arab conquest th century ce majority population christian jewish time jews lived thriving communities across ancient babylonia geonic period ce babylonian yeshiva academies chief centers jewish learning geonim meaning either splendor geniuses heads schools recognized


highest authorities jewish law th century new muslim rulers institute kharaj land tax led mass migration babylonian jews countryside cities like baghdad turn led greater wealth international influence well cosmopolitan outlook jewish thinkers saadiah gaon deeply engaged western philosophy first time abbasid caliphate city baghdad declined th century many babylonian jews migrated mediterranean region contributing spread babylonian jewish customs throughout


jewish world jewish golden age early muslim spain golden age jewish culture spain coincided middle ages europe period muslim rule throughout much iberian peninsula time jews generally accepted society jewish religious cultural economic life blossomed period tolerance thus dawned jews iberian peninsula whose number considerably augmented immigration africa wake muslim conquest especially reign abd ar rahman iii son al hakam ii jews prospered devoting


service caliphate cordoba study sciences commerce industry especially trading silk slaves way promoting prosperity country jewish economic expansion unparalleled toledo jews involved translating arabic texts romance languages well translating greek hebrew texts arabic jews also contributed botany geography medicine mathematics poetry philosophy ref name weiner https wwwjewishvirtuallibraryorg jsource judaism sephardimhtml sephardim rebecca weiner ref 'abd al rahman 's court physician minister hasdai ben isaac ibn shaprut patron menahem ben saruq dunash ben


labrat jewish scholars poets jewish thought period flourished famous figures samuel ha nagid moses ibn ezra solomon ibn gabirol judah halevi moses maimonides ref name weiner 'abd al rahman 's term power scholar moses ben enoch appointed rabbi c rdoba consequence al andalus became center talmudic study c rdoba meeting place jewish savants golden age ended invasion al andalus almohades conservative dynasty originating north africa highly intolerant religious minorities crusaders period capture jerusalem


sermonical messages avenge death jesus encouraged christians participate crusades twelfth century jewish narration r solomon ben samson records crusaders en route holy land decided combating ishmaelites would massacre jews residing midst avenge crucifixion christ massacres began rouen jewish communities rhine valley seriously affected ref name abraham malamat ref crusading attacks made upon jews territory around heidelberg huge loss jewish life took place many forcibly converted christianity many


committed suicide avoid baptism major driving factor behind choice commit suicide jewish realisation upon slain children could taken raised christians jews living middle christian lands felt danger acutely massacre seen first sequence anti semitic events culminated holocaust jewish populations felt abandoned christian neighbors rulers massacres lost faith promises charters many jews chose self defence means self defence


defend jerusalem crusaders city fell crusaders gathered many jews synagogue set fire ref name abraham malamat haifa jews almost single handedly defended town crusaders holding month june july ref name skatz time jewish communities scattered country including jerusalem tiberias ramleh ashkelon caesarea gaza jews allowed hold land crusader period worked trades commerce coastal towns times quiescence artisans glassblowers sidon furriers


commemorating day merited pray cave patriarchs hebron yehuda halevi issued call jews emigrate land israel took long journey stormy passage c rdoba arrived egyptian alexandria enthusiastically greeted friends admirers damietta struggle heart pleadings friend alfon ha levi remain egypt would free intolerant oppression started rough route overland met along


way jews tyre damascus jewish legend relates came near jerusalem overpowered sight holy city sang beautiful elegy celebrated zionide ''zion ha lo tish'ali'' instant arab galloped gate rode killed accident mamluk period nahmanides recorded settling old city jerusalem moved acre active spreading jewish learning time neglected holy land gathered circle


pupils around people came crowds even district euphrates hear karaites said attended lectures among aaron ben joseph elder later became one greatest karaite authorities shortly nahmanides' arrival jerusalem addressed letter son nahman described desolation holy city time two jewish inhabitants two brothers dyers trade later letter acre nahmanides counsels son cultivate humility considers first


virtues another addressed second son occupied official position castilian court nahmanides recommends recitation daily prayers warns immorality nahmanides died reaching seventy six remains interred haifa grave yechiel paris yechiel emigrated acre along son large group followers established talmudic academy ''midrash hagadol d'paris'' believed died obadiah ben abraham commentator mishnah arrived jerusalem


marked new period return jewish community land spain north africa middle east middle ages jews generally better treated islamic rulers christian ones despite second class citizenship jews played prominent roles muslim courts experienced golden age moorish spain though situation deteriorated time riots resulting deaths jews however occur north africa centuries especially morocco libya algeria eventually jews forced live ghettos th century muslims


many jews emigrated family maimonides fled south east tolerant muslim lands others went northward settle growing christian kingdoms europe according american writer james carroll jews accounted total population roman empire ratio factors intervened would million jews world today instead something like million jewish populations existed europe especially area former roman empire early times jewish males emigrated


sometimes took wives local populations shown various mtdna compared dna among jewish populations groups joined traders later members diaspora records jewish communities france see history jews france germany see history jews germany date th century substantial jewish communities spain noted even earlier historian norman cantor th century scholars dispute tradition middle ages uniformly difficult time jews church became fully organized


institution increasing array rules early medieval society tolerant estimated million jews lived christian europe christians included division feudal system clergy knights serfs means satisfy oppressive demands labor military conscription christian commoners suffered relations christian society jews protected kings princes bishops crucial services provided three areas finance administration medicine ref name cantor lack


political strengths leave jews vulnerable exploitation extreme taxation christian scholars interested bible consulted talmudic rabbis roman catholic church strengthened institution franciscan dominican preaching orders founded rise competitive middle class town dwelling christians friars local priests staged passion plays holy week depicted jews contemporary dress killing christ according gospel accounts period persecution jews deportations became endemic around jews found relative security renewal prosperity present day poland ref name cantor norman f