style sonata completely distinct main instrumental forms classical era string quartets symphonies concertos based structure sonata instruments used chamber music orchestra became standardized place basso continuo group baroque era consisted harpsichord organ lute along number bass instruments selected discretion group leader eg viol cello theorbo serpent classical chamber groups used specified standardized instruments eg string quartet would performed two violins viola


cello baroque era improvised chord playing continuo keyboardist lute player gradually phased one important changes made classical period development public concerts aristocracy still played significant role sponsorship concerts compositions possible composers survive without permanent employees queens princes increasing popularity classical music led growth number types orchestras expansion orchestral concerts necessitated building large public performance spaces


symphonic music including symphonies musical accompaniment ballet mixed vocal instrumental genres opera oratorio became popular best known composers classicism carl philipp emanuel bach christoph willibald gluck johann christian bach joseph haydn wolfgang amadeus mozart ludwig van beethoven franz schubert beethoven schubert also considered composers later part classical era began move towards romanticism romanticism piano centrepiece social activity middle class urbanites th century moritz von schwind man piano composer franz


schubert class wikitable style text align right float left margin right px align center r wagner br small ''die walk re'' small style text align left background silver px romantic music c th century many elements common romantic styles literature painting era romanticism artistic literary intellectual movement characterized emphasis emotion individualism well glorification past nature romantic music expanded beyond rigid styles forms classical era passionate dramatic expressive pieces songs romantic composers wagner brahms attempted


increase emotional expression power music describe deeper truths human feelings symphonic tone poems composers tried tell stories evoke images landscapes using instrumental music composers promoted nationalistic pride patriotic orchestral music inspired folk music emotional expressive qualities music came take precedence tradition romantic composers grew idiosyncrasy went syncretism exploring different art forms musical context literature history historical figures legends nature romantic love longing prevalent theme many works


composed period cases formal structures classical period continued used eg sonata form used string quartets symphonies forms expanded altered many cases new approaches explored existing genres forms functions also new forms created deemed better suited new subject matter composers continued develop opera ballet music exploring new styles themes ref name grove years music developed ludwig van beethoven franz schubert introduced dramatic expressive style beethoven 's


case short motifs developed organically came replace melody significant compositional unit example distinctive four note figure used fifth symphony later romantic composers pyotr ilyich tchaikovsky anton n dvo k gustav mahler used unusual chords dissonance create dramatic tension generated complex often much longer musical works late romantic period composers explored dramatic chromatic alterations tonality extended chords altered chords created new sound colours late th century saw dramatic expansion size orchestra


industrial revolution helped create better instruments creating powerful sound public concerts became important part well urban society also saw new diversity theatre music including operetta musical comedy forms musical theatre ref name grove th st century th century one key ways new compositions became known public sales sheet music middle class amateur music lovers would perform home piano common instruments violin th century music invention new electric


th century anyone radio record player could hear operas symphonies big bands right living room allowed lower income people would never able afford opera symphony concert ticket hear music also meant people could hear music different parts country even different parts world even could afford travel locations helped spread musical styles focus art music th century characterized exploration new rhythms styles


sounds horrors world war influenced many arts including music composers began exploring darker harsher sounds traditional music styles jazz folk music used composers source ideas classical music igor stravinsky arnold schoenberg john cage influential composers th century art music invention sound recording ability edit music gave rise new subgenre classical music including acousmatic musique concr te schools electronic composition sound recording also major influence development popular music


along guitar keyboards saxophone blues style harmonica used soloing instruments purest form three chords strong insistent back beat catchy melody traditional rhythm section popular music rhythm guitar electric bass guitar drums bands also keyboard instruments organ piano since analog synthesizers pop musicians began using digital synthesizers dx synthesizer electronic drum machines tr synth bass devices tb synth bass keyboards increasingly


large range computerized hardware musical devices instruments software eg digital audio workstations used soft synths computer music apps make possible bedroom producers create record types music electronic dance music home adding sampled digital instruments editing recording digitally bands genres nu metal began including djs bands djs create music manipulating recorded music record players cd players using dj mixer innovation music technology continued


st century including development isomorphic keyboards dynamic tonality performance naxi musicians assyrians playing ''zurna'' ''davul'' instruments go back thousands years performance physical expression music occurs song sung piano piece electric guitar melody symphony drum beat musical part played musicians classical music musical work written music notation composer performed composer satisfied structure instrumentation however gets performed interpretation song


piece evolve change classical music instrumental performers singers conductors may gradually make changes phrasing tempo piece popular traditional music performers lot freedom make changes form song piece popular traditional music styles even band plays cover song make changes adding guitar solo inserting introduction performance either planned rehearsed practiced norm classical music jazz big


bands many popular music styles improvised chord progression sequence chords norm small jazz blues groups rehearsals orchestras concert bands choirs led conductor rock blues jazz bands usually led bandleader rehearsal structured repetition song piece performers sung played correctly song piece one musician parts together rhythmic tuning perspective improvisation creation


musical idea melody musical line created spot often based scales pre existing melodic riffs many cultures strong traditions solo performance one singer instrumentalist performs indian classical music western art music tradition cultures bali include strong traditions group performance cultures include mixture performance may range improvised solo playing highly planned organised performances modern classical concert religious processions classical music festivals music competitions chamber music music small


ensemble type instrument often seen intimate large symphonic works oral aural tradition many types music traditional blues folk music written sheet music instead originally preserved memory performers songs handed orally one musician singer another aurally performer learns song ear composer song piece longer known music often classified traditional folk


song different musical traditions different attitudes towards make changes original source material quite strict demand improvisation modification music culture 's history stories may also passed ear song ornamentation trill sign rapid alternation two notes left music ornament consists added notes provide decoration melody bassline musical part detail included explicitly music notation varies genres historical periods general art music notation th th centuries


required performers great deal contextual knowledge performing styles example th th centuries music notated solo performers typically indicated simple unadorned melody performers expected know add stylistically appropriate ornaments add interest music trills turns different styles music use different ornaments baroque flute player might add mordents short notes played main melody note either main melody note blues guitarist playing electric guitar might use string bending add


traditional music styles performers expected know types ornaments stylistically appropriate given song piece performers typically add improvised fashion one exception note note solos players precisely recreate famous version solo guitar solo philosophy aesthetics painting boldini woman playing piano philosophy music subfield philosophy philosophy music study fundamental questions regarding music philosophical study music many connections philosophical questions metaphysics aesthetics


beauty human enjoyment ''plaisir'' ''jouissance'' music origin philosophic shift sometimes attributed alexander gottlieb baumgarten th century followed immanuel kant writing ancient term 'aesthetics' meaning sensory perception received present day connotation philosophers tended emphasize issues besides beauty enjoyment example music 's capacity express emotion central issue th century important contributions made peter kivy jerrold levinson roger scruton stephen davies however many musicians music critics non philosophers contributed


aesthetics music th century significant debate arose eduard hanslick music critic musicologist composer richard wagner regarding whether music express meaning harry partch musicologists kyle gann studied tried popularize microtonal music usage alternate musical scales also many modern composers like la monte young rhys chatham glenn branca paid much attention scale called intonation often thought music ability affect emotions intellect psychology assuage loneliness incite


passions philosopher plato suggests ''the republic'' music direct effect soul therefore proposes ideal regime music would closely regulated state book vii ancient china philosopher confucius believed music rituals rites interconnected harmonious nature stated music harmonization heaven earth order brought rites order making extremely crucial functions society strong tendency aesthetics music emphasize paramount importance compositional


structure however issues concerning aesthetics music include lyricism harmony hypnotism emotiveness temporal dynamics resonance playfulness color see also musical development psychology modern music psychology aims explain understand musical behavior experience ref name tan ref research field subfields primarily empirical knowledge tends advance basis interpretations data collected systematic observation interaction human participants addition focus fundamental perceptions cognitive processes music psychology field research practical relevance many areas including music performance composition


education criticism therapy well investigations human aptitude skill intelligence creativity social behavior neuroscience primary auditory cortex one main areas associated superior pitch resolution cognitive neuroscience music scientific study brain based mechanisms involved cognitive processes underlying music behaviours include music listening performing composing reading writing ancillary activities also increasingly concerned brain basis musical aesthetics musical emotion field distinguished reliance direct observations brain using techniques functional magnetic resonance imaging fmri


transcranial magnetic stimulation tms magnetoencephalography meg electroencephalography eeg positron emission tomography pet cognitive musicology cognitive musicology branch cognitive science concerned computationally modeling musical knowledge goal understanding music cognition use computer models provides exacting interactive medium formulate test theories roots artificial intelligence cognitive science interdisciplinary field investigates topics parallels language music brain biologically inspired models computation often included research neural networks evolutionary programs field seeks


introduction evolutionary musicology wallin nils l bj rn merker steven brown eds ''the origins music'' pp ref seeks understand music perception activity context evolutionary theory charles darwin speculated music may held adaptive advantage functioned protolanguage view spawned several competing theories music evolution alternate view sees music product linguistic evolution type auditory cheesecake pleases senses without providing adaptive function view directly countered numerous music researchers ref name steven pinker 's cheesecake


mind ref cultural effects individual 's culture ethnicity plays role music cognition including preferences emotional reaction musical memory musical preferences biased toward culturally familiar musical traditions beginning infancy adults' classification emotion musical piece depends culturally specific universal structural features ref name soley ref ref name balkwill ref additionally individuals' musical memory abilities greater culturally familiar music culturally unfamiliar music ref name demorest ref ref name groussard ref sociological aspects song dynasty painting ''night revels han xizai'' showing chinese musicians entertaining guests party


th century household many ethnographic studies demonstrate music participatory community based activity music experienced individuals range social settings ranging alone attending large concert forming music community cannot understood function individual accident includes commercial non commercial participants shared set common values musical performances take different forms different cultures socioeconomic milieus europe north america often divide types music viewed high culture low culture high


advanced art music popular styles music heard bars dance halls however musicologists studying perceived divide high low musical genres argued distinction based musical value quality different types music rather argued distinction based largely socioeconomics standing social class performers audience different types music example whereas audience classical symphony concerts typically average incomes audience rap concert inner city


area may average incomes even though performers audience venue non art music performed may lower socioeconomic status music performed blues rap punk funk ska may complex sophisticated composers introduce styles music break convention strong resistance academic music experts popular culture late period beethoven string quartets stravinsky ballet scores serialism bebop era jazz hip hop punk rock electronica considered non music critics first introduced themes examined


sociology music sociological study music sometimes called sociomusicology often pursued departments sociology media studies music closely related field ethnomusicology role women th century composer pianist clara schumann navneet aditya waiba nepali folk singer singer using authentic original folk instruments singing authentic unadulterated nepali folk songs women played major role music throughout history composers songwriters instrumental performers singers conductors music scholars music educators music critics music journalists musical professions well describes music movements events genres related women


mentioned women comprise significant proportion instrumental soloists classical music percentage women orchestras increasing article concerto soloists major canadian orchestras however indicated soloists orchestre symphonique de montreal men women still made top ranked vienna philharmonic orchestra women less common instrumental players popular music genres rock heavy metal although number notable female instrumentalists female bands women particularly underrepresented extreme metal genres


pop music scene l ike aspects themusic business songwriting male dominated field though plenty female singers radio women primarily seen consumers singing sometimes acceptable pastime girl playing instrument writing songs producing records simply n't done ref name rebeatmagcom ref young women socialized see people create music ref name rebeatmagcom women also underrepresented orchestral conducting music criticism music journalism music producing sound engineering women discouraged composing th century women


radio editor edwina wolstencroft music industry long open women performance entertainment roles women much less likely positions authority conductor orchestra ref name theguardiancom ref popular music many women singers recording songs women behind audio console acting music producers individuals direct manage recording process ref name referenceb ref one recorded artists asha bhosle indian singer best known playback singer hindi cinema ref name indiatodayintodayin ref media technology music


production using digital audio workstation daw electronic keyboard multi monitor set music composers songwriters make heard several media traditional way hear live presence musicians one musicians outdoor indoor space amphitheatre concert hall cabaret room theatre pub coffeehouse since th century live music also broadcast radio television internet recorded listened cd player mp player


musical styles focus producing songs pieces live performance others focus producing recording mixes together sounds never played live even essentially live styles rock recording engineers often use ability edit splice mix produce recordings may considered better actual live performance example singers record singing melody record multiple harmony parts using overdubbing creating sound would impossible live technology influence music since prehistoric times cave people


used simple tools bore holes bone flutes years ago technology continued influence music throughout history music enabled new instruments music notation reproduction systems used one watershed moments music notation invention printing press meant music scores longer hand copied th century music technology led development powerful louder piano led development new valves brass instruments early th century late


talking pictures emerged early th century prerecorded musical tracks increasing number moviehouse orchestra musicians found work live musical performances orchestras pianists theater organists common first run theaters coming talking motion pictures featured performances largely eliminated american federation musicians afm took newspaper advertisements protesting replacement live musicians mechanical playing devices one ad appeared ''pittsburgh press'' features image labeled canned music big noise brand


guaranteed produce intellectual emotional reaction whatever since legislation introduced help protect performers composers publishers producers including audio home recording act united states revised berne convention protection literary artistic works united kingdom recordings live performances also become accessible computers devices internet form commonly known music demand many cultures less distinction performing listening music since virtually everyone involved sort musical activity often


tracks computers many keyboards programmed produce play musical instrument digital interface midi music audiences also ''become'' performers participating karaoke activity japanese origin centered device plays voice eliminated versions well known songs karaoke machines also video screens show lyrics songs performed performers follow lyrics sing instrumental tracks internet advent internet widespread high speed broadband access transformed experience music partly increased ease access recordings music via streaming video


vastly increased choice music consumers chris anderson book ''the long tail future business selling less more'' suggests traditional economic model supply demand describes scarcity internet retail model based abundance digital storage costs low company afford make whole recording inventory available online giving customers much choice possible thus become economically viable offer music recordings people interested consumers' growing awareness increased choice results closer


book ''wikinomics'' shift traditional consumer role call prosumer role consumer creates content consumes manifestations music include production mashes remixes music videos fans business music store selling various singles albums music industry refers businesses connected creation sale music consists songwriters composers create new songs musical pieces music producers sound engineers record songs pieces record labels publishers distribute recorded music products


sheet music internationally often control rights products music labels independent others subsidiaries larger corporate entities international media groups increasing popularity listening music digital music files mp players ipods computers trading music file sharing websites buying online form digital files major impact traditional music business many smaller independent cd stores went business music buyers decreased purchases cds many labels lower cd sales


companies well change digital format though apple 's itunes online music store sells digital files songs internet intellectual property laws spite international copyright treaties determining music public domain complicated variety national copyright laws may applicable us copyright law formerly protected printed music published years renewal another years copyright act made renewal automatic digital millennium copyright act changed calculation


copyright term years death creator recorded sound falls mechanical licensing often covered confusing patchwork state laws cover versions licensed harry fox agency performance rights may obtained either performers performance venue two major organizations licensing bmi ascap two online sources public domain music imslp international music score library project choral public domain library cpdl education non professional suzuki violin recital students varying ages incorporation music singing training general education


preschool post secondary education common north america europe involvement playing singing music thought teach basic skills concentration counting listening cooperation also promoting understanding language improving ability recall information creating environment conducive learning areas elementary schools children often learn play instruments recorder sing small choirs learn history western art music traditional music elementary school children also learn popular music styles religious schools children sing hymns


religious music secondary schools less commonly elementary schools students may opportunity perform types musical ensembles choirs group singers marching bands concert bands jazz bands orchestras school systems music lessons play instruments may provided students also take private music lessons school singing teacher instrument teacher amateur musicians typically learn basic musical rudiments eg learning musical notation musical scales rhythms beginner intermediate level singing instrument playing techniques university level


students arts humanities programs receive credit taking music courses typically take form overview course history music music appreciation course focuses listening music learning different musical styles addition north american european universities types musical ensembles students arts humanities able participate choirs marching bands concert bands orchestras study western art music increasingly common outside north america europe indonesian


institute arts yogyakarta indonesia classical music programs available asian countries south korea japan china time western universities colleges widening curriculum include music non western cultures music africa bali eg gamelan music professional manhattan school music professor professional double bass player timothy cobb teaching bass lesson late bass low c extension metal machine buttons playing pitches extension people aiming become professional


musicians singers composers songwriters music teachers practitioners music related professions music history professors sound engineers study specialized post secondary programs offered colleges universities music conservatories institutions train individuals careers music offer training wide range professions case many top us universities offer degrees music performance including singing playing instruments music history music theory music composition music education individuals aiming become elementary high school music teachers cases conducting


composition master arts degree takes one two years complete often requires thesis typically awarded students studying musicology music history music theory ethnomusicology phd required students want work university professors musicology music history music theory takes three five years study master 's degree time student complete advanced courses undertake research dissertation dma relatively new degree created provide credential professional performers composers want


comparative musicology ethnomusicology era scholarship one likely encounter division discipline music theory music history ethnomusicology research musicology often enriched cross disciplinary work example field psychoacoustics study music non western cultures cultural study music called ethnomusicology students pursue undergraduate study musicology ethnomusicology music history music theory several different types degrees including bachelor 's degrees master 's degrees phd degrees music theory music theory study music generally highly technical


manner outside disciplines broadly refers study music usually related form compositional concerns may include mathematics physics anthropology commonly taught beginning music theory classes guidelines write style common practice period tonal music theory even music common practice period may take many forms musical set theory application mathematical set theory music first applied atonal music ''speculative music theory'' contrasted ''analytic music theory'' devoted analysis synthesis


music materials example tuning systems generally preparation composition zoomusicology zoomusicology study music non human animals musical aspects sounds produced non human animals george herzog asked animals music fran ois bernard che 's ''musique mythe nature ou les dauphins d'arion'' study ornitho musicology using technique nicolas ruwet 's ''langage musique po sie'' paradigmatic segmentation analysis shows bird songs organised according repetition transformation principle jean jacques nattiez argues last analysis human decides


musical even sound human origin acknowledge sound organised conceptualised made form music merely producer mind perceives music uniquely human ethnomusicology ethnomusicologist frances densmore recording blackfoot chief mountain chief bureau american ethnology west much history music taught deals western civilization 's art music known classical music history music non western cultures world music field ethnomusicology typically


covers music africa asia also taught western universities includes documented classical traditions asian countries outside influence western europe well folk indigenous music various cultures popular folk styles music non western countries varied widely culture culture period period different cultures emphasised different instruments techniques singing styles uses music music used entertainment ceremonies rituals religious purposes practical artistic communication non western music also used propaganda purposes case


chinese opera cultural revolution host music classifications non western music many caught argument definition music among largest division classical music art music popular music commercial music including non western styles rock country pop music related styles genres fit neatly one big two classifications folk music world music jazz related music world cultures come greater global contact indigenous musical styles often merged


styles produces new styles example united states bluegrass style contains elements anglo irish scottish irish german african instrumental vocal traditions able fuse united states' multi ethnic melting pot society types world music contain mixture non western indigenous styles western pop music elements genres music determined much tradition presentation actual music works like george gershwin 's ''rhapsody blue'' claimed jazz classical music gershwin 's ''porgy bess'' leonard bernstein 's ''west side story''


claimed opera broadway musical tradition many current music festivals non western music include bands singers particular musical genre world music indian music example one oldest longest living types music still widely heard performed south asia well internationally especially since indian music mainly three forms classical music hindustani carnatic dhrupad styles also large repertoire styles involve percussion music talavadya performances famous south india therapy


music therapist blues schools program plays harmonica us navy sailor naval therapy center music therapy interpersonal process trained therapist uses music facets physical emotional mental social aesthetic spiritual help clients improve maintain health instances client 's needs addressed directly music others addressed relationships develop client therapist music therapy used individuals ages variety conditions including psychiatric disorders medical problems


physical disabilities sensory impairments developmental disabilities substance abuse issues communication disorders interpersonal problems aging also used improve learning build self esteem reduce stress support physical exercise facilitate host health related activities music therapists may encourage clients sing play instruments create songs musical activities one earliest mentions music therapy al farabi 's c treatise ''meanings intellect'' described therapeutic effects music soul music long used help people deal emotions th century scholar robert


terminology history music internet archive lists musicians list musicology topics list music software music emotion music archaeology music history music specific disorders safe listening women music references sources reading online version http wwwoxfordmusiconlinecom grovemusic ''grove music online'' small christopher ''music society education'' john calder publishers london external links https wwwbbccouk blast bbc blast music year olds interested learning making performing talking music http wwwoxfordmusiconlinecom grovemusic grove music online online version ''the new grove dictionary music musicians'' https webarchiveorg web http wwwmusicvtedu musicdictionary virginia tech multimedia music dictionary definitions pronunciations examples


quizzes simulations https webarchiveorg web http wwwmusic weborg music web music encyclopedia musicians composers music lovers http dolmetschcom musictheorydefshtm dolmetsch free online music dictionary complete references list specialised music dictionaries continent instrument genre etc http wwwnaxoscom education glossaryasp musical terms glossary music terms naxos http wwwunedes dpto fil revista polemos articulos quintana hermeneutical ethics education internet doc hermeneutical ethics education bach als erzieher paper prof miguel ngel quintana paz explains history different views hold music western societies since ancient greece days https webarchiveorg web http wwwbsmnyorg features monthly online features bloomingdale school music addressing variety


musical topics wide audience http wwwmusicfoundationsorg pages indexhtm arts music uplifting society towards transformation tolerance articles meant stimulate people 's awareness peace enhancing transforming communicative educational healing powers music http wwwscientificamericancom podcast episodecfmid musical chills related brain dop scientific american ''musical chills related brain dopamine release'' main topic articles performing arts sound


playing audio content music multi simulation coordinator software neuronal network simulators music n first music programming language music sp ''multi user system interactive computing system product'' originally music mcgill university system interactive computing film tv ''music'' film drama film juraj nvota ''music'' film musical film sia ''music'' documentary andrew zuckerman music episode television program ''chucklevision'' music algorithm frequency estimation technique music horse british racehorse music surname united states navy patrol boat commission ''wii music'' video


game wii console see also music disambiguation musick disambiguation musica disambiguation musical disambiguation


allocate limited resources among alternative uses microeconomics shows conditions free markets lead desirable allocations also analyzes market failure markets fail produce efficient results microeconomics focuses firms individuals macroeconomics focuses sum total economic activity dealing issues growth inflation unemployment national policies relating issues ref name glossary microeconomics also deals effects economic policies changing taxation levels microeconomic behavior thus aforementioned aspects economy particularly wake lucas critique much


modern macroeconomic theories built upon microfoundations ie based upon basic assumptions micro level behavior assumptions definitions word ''microeconomics'' derives greek words small minor economy microeconomic study historically performed according general equilibrium theory developed l walras elements pure economics partial equilibrium theory introduced alfred marshall principles economics microeconomic theory typically begins study single rational utility maximizing individual economists rationality means individual possesses stable preferences complete transitive


technical assumption preference relations continuous needed ensure existence utility function although microeconomic theory continue without assumption would make comparative statics impossible since guarantee resulting utility function would differentiable microeconomic theory progresses defining competitive budget set subset consumption set point economists make technical assumption preferences locally non satiated without assumption lns local non satiation guarantee would rational rise individual utility


necessary tools assumptions place utility maximization problem ump developed utility maximization problem heart consumer theory utility maximization problem attempts explain action axiom imposing rationality axioms consumer preferences mathematically modeling analyzing consequences utility maximization problem serves mathematical foundation consumer theory metaphysical explanation well utility maximization problem used economists explain ''what'' ''how'' individuals make choices ''why'' individuals make choices well


utility maximization problem constrained optimization problem individual seeks maximize utility subject budget constraint economists use extreme value theorem guarantee solution utility maximization problem exists since budget constraint bounded closed solution utility maximization problem exists economists call solution utility maximization problem walrasian demand function correspondence utility maximization problem far developed taking consumer tastes ie consumer utility primitive however alternative way develop microeconomic theory


taking consumer choice primitive model microeconomic theory referred revealed preference theory supply demand model describes prices vary result balance product availability price supply desires purchasing power price demand graph depicts right shift demand sub sub sub sub along consequent increase price quantity required reach new market clearing equilibrium point supply curve theory supply demand usually assumes markets perfectly competitive


implies many buyers sellers market none capacity significantly influence prices goods services many real life transactions assumption fails individual buyers sellers ability influence prices quite often sophisticated analysis required understand demand supply equation good model however theory works well situations meeting assumptions mainstream economics assume ''a priori'' markets preferable forms social organization fact much analysis devoted cases market failures lead


resource allocation suboptimal creates deadweight loss classic example suboptimal resource allocation public good cases economists may attempt find policies avoid waste either directly government control indirectly regulation induces market participants act manner consistent optimal welfare creating missing markets enable efficient trading none previously existed studied field collective action public choice theory optimal welfare usually takes paretian norm mathematical application kaldor hicks method


broadened term micro dynamics microeconomics ref name varian hr microeconomic theory consumer demand theory consumer demand theory relates preferences consumption goods services consumption expenditures ultimately relationship preferences consumption expenditures used relate preferences consumer demand curves link personal preferences consumption demand curve one closely studied relations economics way analyzing consumers may achieve equilibrium preferences expenditures maximizing utility subject consumer budget constraints production theory


production theory study production economic process converting inputs outputs production uses resources create good service suitable use gift giving gift economy exchange market economy include manufacturing storing shipping packaging economists define production broadly economic activity consumption see every commercial activity final purchase form production cost production theory value cost production theory value states price object condition determined


sum cost resources went making cost comprise factors production including labor capital land taxation technology viewed either form fixed capital eg industrial plant circulating capital eg intermediate goods mathematical model cost production short run total cost equal fixed cost plus total variable cost fixed cost refers cost incurred regardless much firm produces variable cost function quantity


object produced cost function used characterize production duality theory economics developed mainly ronald shephard scholars sickles zelenyuk ch opportunity cost opportunity cost closely related idea time constraints one one thing time means inevitably one always giving things opportunity cost activity value next best alternative thing one may done instead opportunity cost depends value next best alternative


n't matter whether one five alternatives opportunity costs tell ''not'' something well something example one may like waffles like chocolate even someone offers waffles one would take offered waffles chocolate one would take chocolate opportunity cost eating waffles sacrificing chance eat chocolate cost eating chocolate higher benefits eating waffles makes sense choose waffles course one chooses chocolate


still faced opportunity cost giving waffles one willing waffle 's opportunity cost lower benefits chocolate opportunity costs unavoidable constraints behaviour one decide 's best give next best alternative price theory price theory field economics uses supply demand framework explain predict human behavior associated chicago school economics price theory studies competitive equilibrium markets yield testable hypotheses rejected


seem involve prices first glance price theorists influenced several fields including developing public choice theory law economics price theory applied issues previously thought outside purview economics criminal justice marriage addiction microeconomic models supply demand supply demand economic model price determination perfectly competitive market concludes perfectly competitive market externalities per unit taxes price controls unit price particular good price


figure demand theory describes individual consumers rationally choosing preferred quantity good given income prices tastes etc term constrained utility maximization income wealth constraints demand utility refers hypothesized relation individual consumer ranking different commodity bundles less preferred law demand states general price quantity demanded given market inversely related higher price product less people would prepared buy


things unchanged price commodity falls consumers move toward relatively expensive goods substitution effect addition purchasing power price decline increases ability buy income effect factors change demand example increase income shift demand curve normal good outward relative origin figure determinants predominantly taken constant factors demand supply ''supply'' relation price good quantity available sale price may


demand curves figure price equilibrium shortage quantity supplied compared quantity demanded posited bid price price equilibrium surplus quantity supplied compared quantity demanded pushes price model supply demand predicts given supply demand curves price quantity stabilize price makes quantity supplied equal quantity demanded similarly demand supply theory predicts new price quantity combination shift demand figure


supply given quantity consumer good point demand curve indicates value marginal utility consumers unit measures consumer would prepared pay unit corresponding point supply curve measures marginal cost increase total cost supplier corresponding unit good price equilibrium determined supply demand perfectly competitive market supply demand equate marginal cost marginal utility equilibrium ref name hicks ref supply side market


factors production described relatively ''variable'' short run affects cost changing output levels usage rates changed easily electrical power raw material inputs time temp work inputs relatively ''fixed'' plant equipment key personnel long run inputs may adjusted management distinctions translate differences elasticity responsiveness supply curve short long runs corresponding differences price quantity change shift supply demand side market


marginalist theory describes consumers attempting reach preferred positions subject income wealth constraints producers attempt maximize profits subject constraints including demand goods produced technology price inputs consumer point comes marginal utility good net price reaches zero leaving net gain consumption increases analogously producer compares marginal revenue identical price perfect competitor marginal cost good ''marginal profit'' difference point marginal profit reaches zero


increases production good stop movement market equilibrium changes equilibrium price quantity also change margin less something rather necessarily nothing applications demand supply include distribution income among factors production including labour capital factor markets competitive labour market example quantity labour employed price labour wage rate depends demand labour employers production supply labour potential workers labour economics examines interaction workers


employers markets explain patterns changes wages labour income labour mobility un employment productivity human capital related public policy issues demand supply analysis used explain behaviour perfectly competitive markets standard comparison extended type market also generalized explain variables across economy example total output estimated real gdp general price level studied macroeconomics tracing qualitative quantitative effects variables change supply demand whether short


long run standard exercise applied economics economic theory may also specify conditions supply demand market efficient mechanism allocating resources market structure market structure refers features market including number firms market distribution market shares product uniformity across firms easy firms enter exit market forms competition market market structure several types interacting market systems different forms markets feature


required companies would begin improving structural safety consumers may first concerned aware safety issues begin putting pressure companies provide companies would motivated provide proper safety features due would cut profits concept market type different concept market structure nevertheless worth noting variety types markets different market structures produce cost curves based type structure present different curves developed based


costs production specifically graph contains marginal cost average total cost average variable cost average fixed cost marginal revenue sometimes equal demand average revenue price price taking firm perfect competition perfect competition situation numerous small firms producing identical products compete given industry perfect competition leads firms producing socially optimal output level minimum possible cost per unit firms perfect competition price takers enough market power profitably increase price


goods services good example would digital marketplaces ebay many different sellers sell similar products many different buyers consumers perfect competitive market perfect knowledge products sold market imperfect competition imperfect competition type market structure showing features competitive markets monopolistic competition monopolistic competition situation many firms slightly different products compete production costs may achieved perfectly competitive firms


society benefits product differentiation examples industries market structures similar monopolistic competition include restaurants cereal clothing shoes service industries large cities monopoly monopoly market structure market industry dominated single supplier particular good service monopolies competition tend sell goods services higher price produce socially optimal output level however monopolies bad thing especially industries multiple firms would result costs benefits ie


natural monopolies natural monopoly monopoly industry one producer produce output lower cost many small producers oligopoly oligopoly market structure market industry dominated small number firms oligopolists oligopolies create incentive firms engage collusion form cartels reduce competition leading higher prices consumers less overall market output alternatively oligopolies fiercely competitive engage flamboyant advertising campaigns duopoly special case oligopoly two firms game


theory elucidate behavior duopolies oligopolies monopsony monopsony market one buyer many sellers bilateral monopoly bilateral monopoly market consisting monopoly single seller monopsony single buyer oligopsony oligopsony market buyers many sellers game theory game theory major method used mathematical economics business modeling competing behaviors interacting agents term game implies study strategic interaction


hard control influences many decisions special characteristics compared types goods complicate many standard economic theories economics information recently become great interest many possibly due rise information based companies inside technology industry ref name varian hr varian hr microeconomics palgrave macmillan eds new palgrave dictionary economics palgrave macmillan london ref game theory approach loosen usual constraints agents complete information examine consequences incomplete information gives rise many results


applicable real life situations example one loosen assumption possible scrutinize actions agents situations uncertainty also possible fully understand impacts positive negative agents seeking acquiring information ref name varian hr applied united states capitol building meeting place united states congress many tax laws passed directly impact economic welfare studied subject public economics applied microeconomics includes range specialized areas study many


draw methods fields economic history examines evolution economy economic institutions using methods techniques fields economics history geography sociology psychology political science education economics examines organization education provision implication efficiency equity including effects education productivity financial economics examines topics structure optimal portfolios rate return capital econometric analysis security returns corporate financial behavior health economics examines organization health care systems including role health care workforce


sociology labor economics examines primarily labor markets comprises large range public policy issues immigration minimum wages inequality see also economics macroeconomics critique political economy references reading bouman john http wwwinflateyourmindcom principles microeconomics free fully comprehensive principles microeconomics macroeconomics texts columbia maryland colander david ''microeconomics'' mcgraw hill paperback th edition eaton b curtis eaton diane f douglas w allen ''microeconomics'' prentice hall th edition erickson gary oligopoly model dynamic advertising competition ''european journal operational research''


https econpapersrepecorg article eeeejores v ay ai ap htm frank robert h ''microeconomics behavior'' mcgraw hill irwin th edition friedman milton ''price theory'' aldine transaction hagendorf klaus http ssrncom paper labour values theory firm part competitive firm paris eurodos hicks john r ''value capital'' clarendon press nd ed hirshleifer jack glazer amihai hirshleifer david ''price theory applications decisions markets information'' cambridge university press th edition jaffe sonia minton robert mulligan casey b murphy kevin https homeuchicagoedu cbm cpt indexhtml chicago price theory princeton university press jehle geoffrey philip j reny


''advanced microeconomic theory'' addison wesley paperback nd edition katz michael l harvey rosen ''microeconomics'' mcgraw hill irwin rd edition kreps david ''a course microeconomic theory'' princeton university press landsburg steven ''price theory applications'' south western college pub th edition mankiw n gregory ''principles microeconomics'' south western pub nd edition mas colell andreu whinston michael jerry r green ''microeconomic theory'' oxford university press us mcguigan james r moyer r charles frederick h harris ''managerial economics applications strategy tactics'' south western educational publishing th edition nicholson walter ''microeconomic theory basic principles


extensions'' south western college pub th edition perloff jeffrey ''microeconomics'' pearson addison wesley th edition perloff jeffrey ''microeconomics theory applications calculus'' pearson addison wesley st edition pindyck robert daniel l rubinfeld'' microeconomics'' prentice hall th edition ruffin roy j paul r gregory ''principles microeconomics'' addison wesley th edition sickles r zelenyuk v measurement productivity efficiency theory practice cambridge cambridge university press https assetscambridgeorg frontmatter frontmatterpdf varian hal r microeconomics ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' v pp nbsp varian hal


r ''intermediate microeconomics modern approach'' w w norton company th edition varian hal r ''microeconomic analysis'' w w norton company rd edition external links http xlabberkeleyedu x lab collaborative micro economics social sciences research laboratory http wwweconomicsnetworkacuk teaching simulations principlesofmicroeconomicshtm simulations microeconomics http medialaneccedu users martinezp microhistoryhtml brief history microeconomics money


macroeconomics takes big picture view entire economy including examining roles relationships corporations governments households different types markets financial market labour market however use natural resources generation waste like greenhouse gases often forgotten macroeconomic thinking excluded models '''macroeconomics''' greek prefix ''makro '' meaning large ''economics'' branch economics dealing performance structure behavior decision making economy whole example using interest rates taxes government spending


coherence part agenda development origins macroeconomics descended divided fields business cycle theory monetary theory ref name dimand dimand ref quantity theory money particularly influential prior world war ii took many forms including version based work irving fisher math cdot v p cdot q math typical view quantity theory money velocity v quantity goods produced q would constant increase money supply would lead direct increase price level p quantity theory


money central part classical theory economy prevailed early twentieth century austrian school ludwig von mises 's work ''theory money credit'' published one first books austrian school deal macroeconomic topics keynes followers macroeconomics least modern form ref name blanchard blanchard ref began publication ''general theory employment interest money'' ref name dimand ref name modern macroeconomics ref written john maynard keynes great depression struck classical economists difficulty explaining goods could go


unsold workers could left unemployed classical theory prices wages would drop market cleared goods labor sold keynes offered new theory economics explained markets might clear would evolve later th century group macroeconomic schools thought known keynesian economics also called keynesianism keynesian theory keynes' theory quantity theory broke people businesses tend hold cash tough economic times phenomenon described terms liquidity preferences


keynes also explained multiplier effect would magnify small decrease consumption investment cause declines throughout economy keynes also noted role uncertainty animal spirits play economy ref name blanchard generation following keynes combined macroeconomics ''general theory'' neoclassical microeconomics create neoclassical synthesis economists accepted synthesis view macroeconomy ref name blanchard economists like paul samuelson franco modigliani james tobin robert solow developed formal keynesian models contributed formal theories consumption investment money


demand fleshed keynesian framework monetarism milton friedman updated quantity theory money include role money demand argued role money economy sufficient explain great depression aggregate demand oriented explanations necessary friedman also argued monetary policy effective fiscal policy however friedman doubted government 's ability fine tune economy monetary policy generally favored policy steady growth money supply instead frequent intervention friedman also challenged phillips curve relationship inflation unemployment


friedman edmund phelps monetarist proposed augmented version phillips curve excluded possibility stable long run tradeoff inflation unemployment oil shocks created high unemployment high inflation friedman phelps vindicated monetarism particularly influential early monetarism fell favor central banks found difficult target money supply instead interest rates monetarists recommended monetarism also became politically unpopular central banks created recessions order slow inflation new classical new classical macroeconomics


models showed monetary policy could limited impact lucas also made influential critique keynesian empirical models argued forecasting models based empirical relationships would keep producing predictions even underlying model generating data changed advocated models based fundamental economic theory would principle structurally accurate economies changed following lucas 's critique new classical economists led edward c prescott finn e kydland created real business cycle rb c models macro economy ref name blanchard blanchard ref rb c models


influential economic methodology new keynesian response new keynesian economists responded new classical school adopting rational expectations focusing developing micro founded models immune lucas critique stanley fischer john b taylor produced early work area showing monetary policy could effective even models rational expectations contracts locked wages workers new keynesian economists including olivier blanchard julio rotemberg greg mankiw david romer michael woodford expanded work demonstrated cases inflexible prices wages led monetary


dubbed new neoclassical synthesis models used many central banks core part contemporary macroeconomics new keynesian economics developed partly response new classical economics strives provide microeconomic foundations keynesian economics showing imperfect markets justify demand management macroeconomic models aggregate demand aggregate supply traditional ad diagram showing shift ad curve becoming inelastic beyond potential output ad model become standard textbook model explaining macroeconomy model shows price level level real output


given equilibrium aggregate demand aggregate supply aggregate demand curve 's downward slope means output demanded lower price levels downward slope result three effects pigou real balance effect states real prices fall real wealth increases resulting higher consumer demand goods keynes interest rate effect states prices fall demand money decreases causing interest rates decline borrowing investment consumption increase net export effect states prices rise domestic goods


demand ad curve demand goods exceeds supplythere inflationary gap demand pull inflation occurs ad curve shifts upward higher price level economy faces higher costs cost push inflation occurs curve shifts upward higher price levels ad diagram also widely used instructive tool model effects various macroeconomic policies lm example lm chart curve moves right causing higher interest rates expansion real economy real gdp lm model gives


private saving given output curve downward sloping output interest rate inverse relationship goods market output increases income saved means interest rates must lower spur enough investment match saving lm curve upward sloping interest rate output positive relationship money market income identically equal output increases demand money increases resulting rise interest rate order offset incipient rise money demand lm model


unemployment capital utilization commonly seen business cycles increase output economic growth occur increase capital stock larger population technological advancements lead higher productivity total factor productivity increase savings rate leads temporary increase economy creates capital adds output however eventually depreciation rate limit expansion capital savings used replacing depreciated capital savings remain pay additional expansion capital solow 's model suggests economic growth


terms output per capita depends solely technological advances enhance productivity endogenous growth theory arose challenge neoclassical growth theory group models explains economic growth factors increasing returns scale capital learning endogenously determined instead exogenous technological improvement used explain growth solow 's model humanity 's economic system subsystem global environment natural resources flow economy end waste pollution macroeconomic models ecological economics economic system


subsystem environment model circular flow income diagram replaced ecological economics complex flow diagram reflecting input solar energy sustains natural inputs environmental services used units production consumed natural inputs pass economy pollution waste potential environment provide services materials referred environment 's source function function depleted resources consumed pollution contaminates resources sink function describes environment 's ability absorb


render harmless waste pollution waste output exceeds limit sink function long term damage occurs ref name harris harris j ''environmental natural resource economics contemporary approach'' houghton mifflin company ref persistent pollutants organic pollutants nuclear waste absorbed slowly ecological economists emphasize minimizing cumulative pollutants ref name harris pollutants affect human health health ecosystem basic macroeconomic concepts macroeconomics encompasses variety concepts variables three central topics macroeconomic research macroeconomic theories usually relate phenomena output unemployment


inflation outside macroeconomic theory topics also important economic agents including workers consumers producers circulation macroeconomics output income national output total amount everything country produces given period time everything produced sold generates equal amount income total output economy measured gdp per person output income usually considered equivalent two terms often used interchangeably output changes income output measured viewed production side measured


total value final goods services sum value added economy macroeconomic output usually measured gross domestic product gdp one national accounts economists interested long run increases output study economic growth advances technology accumulation machinery capital better education human capital factors lead increase economic output time however output always increase consistently time business cycles cause short term drops output called recessions economists look macroeconomic policies prevent economies


slipping recessions lead faster long term growth unemployment chart using us data showing relationship economic growth unemployment expressed okun 's law relationship demonstrates cyclical unemployment economic growth leads lower unemployment rate amount unemployment economy measured unemployment rate ie percentage workers without jobs labor force unemployment rate labor force includes workers actively looking jobs people retired pursuing education discouraged seeking work lack job prospects excluded unemployment


generally broken several types related different causes classical unemployment theory suggests unemployment occurs wages high employers willing hire workers modern economic theories suggest increased wages actually decrease unemployment creating consumer demand according recent theories unemployment results reduced demand goods services produced labor suggest markets profit margins low market bear price increase product service higher wages


result unemployment consistent classical unemployment theory frictional unemployment occurs appropriate job vacancies exist worker length time needed search find job leads period unemployment structural unemployment covers variety possible causes unemployment including mismatch workers' skills skills required open jobs large amounts structural unemployment commonly occur economy shifts focus new industries workers find previous set skills longer demand structural unemployment similar frictional unemployment reflect


problem matching workers job vacancies structural unemployment also covers time needed acquire new skills addition short term search process types unemployment may occur regardless condition economy cyclical unemployment occurs growth stagnates okun 's law represents empirical relationship unemployment economic growth original version okun 's law states increase output would lead decrease unemployment inflation deflation ten year moving averages changes price level growth money supply using measure


supply hard currency money held types bank accounts us long run two series show close relationship general price increase across entire economy called inflation prices decrease deflation economists measure changes prices price indexes inflation occur economy becomes overheated grows quickly similarly declining economy lead deflation central bankers manage country 's money supply try avoid changes price level using monetary policy raising interest


rates reducing supply money economy reduce inflation inflation lead increased uncertainty negative consequences deflation lower economic output central bankers try stabilize prices protect economies negative consequences price changes changes price level may result several factors quantity theory money holds changes price level directly related changes money supply economists believe relationship explains long run changes price level short run fluctuations may also related monetary factors changes


aggregate demand aggregate supply also influence price level example decrease demand due recession lead lower price levels deflation negative supply shock oil crisis lowers aggregate supply cause inflation macroeconomic policy macroeconomic policy usually implemented two sets tools fiscal monetary policy forms policy used stabilize economy mean boosting economy level gdp consistent full employment ref name mayer mayer ref macroeconomic policy focuses limiting effects business cycle


achieve economic goals price stability full employment growth according assessment economists emi nakamura j n steinsson economic evidence regarding consequences different macroeconomic policies still highly imperfect open serious criticism ref name nakamura steinsson write macroeconomics struggles long term predictions result high complexity systems studies ref name monetary policy central banks implement monetary policy controlling money supply several mechanisms typically central banks take action issuing money buy bonds assets boosts


supply money lowers interest rates case contractionary monetary policy banks sell bonds take money circulation usually policy implemented directly targeting supply money central banks continuously shift money supply maintain targeted fixed interest rate allow interest rate fluctuate focus targeting inflation rates instead central banks generally try achieve high output without letting loose monetary policy create large amounts inflation conventional monetary policy ineffective situations liquidity trap interest


rates inflation near zero central bank cannot loosen monetary policy conventional means example intervention strategy different conditions central banks use unconventional monetary policy quantitative easing help increase output instead buying government bonds central banks implement quantitative easing buying government bonds also assets corporate bonds stocks securities allows lower interest rates broader class assets beyond government bonds another example unconventional monetary policy united states federal reserve recently made attempt


policy operation twist unable lower current interest rates federal reserve lowered long term interest rates buying long term bonds selling short term bonds create flat yield curve fiscal policy fiscal policy use government 's revenue expenditure instruments influence economy examples tools expenditure taxes debt example economy producing less potential output government spending used employ idle resources boost output government spending make entire output gap multiplier effect


boosts impact government spending instance government pays bridge project adds value bridge output also allows bridge workers increase consumption investment helps close output gap effects fiscal policy limited crowding government takes spending projects limits amount resources available private sector use crowding occurs government spending simply replaces private sector output instead adding additional output economy crowding also occurs


government spending raises interest rates limits investment defenders fiscal stimulus argue crowding concern economy depressed plenty resources left idle interest rates low fiscal policy implemented automatic stabilizers automatic stabilizers suffer policy lags discretionary fiscal policy automatic stabilizers use conventional fiscal mechanisms take effect soon economy takes downturn spending unemployment benefits automatically increases unemployment rises progressive income tax system effective tax rate automatically falls incomes decline


comparison economists usually favor monetary fiscal policy two major advantages first monetary policy generally implemented independent central banks instead political institutions control fiscal policy independent central banks less likely make decisions based political motives ref name mayer second monetary policy suffers shorter inside lags outside lags fiscal policy central banks quickly make implement decisions discretionary fiscal policy may take time pass even longer carry ref name mayer see also dynamic stochastic general equilibrium economic development notes references blanchard


olivier https wwwnberorg papers w state macro ''annual review economics'' blaug mark ''great economists keynes'' brighton wheatsheaf bouman john http wwwinflateyourmindcom principles macroeconomics free fully comprehensive principles microeconomics macroeconomics texts columbia maryland leijonhufvud axel http wwweconuclaedu workingpapers wp pdf ''the wicksell connection variation theme'' ucla november nakamura emi j n steinsson https wwwaeaweborg articlesid jep identification macroeconomics ''journal economic perspectives'' reed jacob http apeconreviewcom ap economics review macroeconomics snowdon brian howard r vane ed ''an encyclopedia macroeconomics'' https webarchiveorg web http wwwe elgarcouk bookentry mainuslassoid description scroll contents preview https booksgooglecom booksid ojm mqwi cyc printsec frontcover source gbs v summary r cad v onepage q f false links


ta physika'' lit 'after ''physics'' thinsp ' another aristotle 's works ref name stanfordencphilosophy ref metaphysics studies questions related something exist types existence metaphysics seeks answer abstract fully general manner questions topics metaphysical investigation include existence objects properties space time cause effect possibility metaphysics considered one four main branches philosophy along epistemology logic ethics ref name britannica ref epistemological foundation metaphysical study conducted using deduction known


atoms superstrings core topic set categories object property causality scientific theories assume example claiming electrons charge scientific theory exploring means electrons least perceived objects charge property exist topological entity called space task metaphysics ref ref two broad stances world studied metaphysics according metaphysical realism objects studied metaphysics exist


knowledge including hard science claims describe anything contents human perception thus world perception ''is'' objective world sense metaphysics usually assumes stance taken questions may proceed independently choice question stance take belongs instead another branch philosophy epistemology central questions ontology '''ontology''' branch philosophy studies concepts existence becoming reality includes questions entities grouped basic categories


special interest concept ''ontological dependence'' determines whether entities category exist ''most fundamental level'' disagreements within ontology often whether entities belonging certain category exist related entities identity change identity fundamental metaphysical concern metaphysicians investigating identity tasked question exactly means something identical controversially something else issues identity arise context time mean something


time one look tree one day tree later lost leaf would seem one could still looking tree two rival theories account relationship change identity perdurantism treats tree series tree stages endurantism maintains organism tree present every stage history appealing intrinsic extrinsic properties endurantism finds way harmonize identity change endurantists believe objects persist strictly numerically identical time ref name ref however


would change even object change perdurantism harmonize identity change another way four dimensionalism version perdurantism persists four dimensional object change although three dimensional slices object may differ space time objects appear us space time abstract entities classes properties relations space time serve function ground objects space time entities form must exist prior objects exactly


defined time related change must always something changing order time exist causality classical philosophy recognized number causes including teleological future causes special relativity quantum field theory notions space time causality become tangled together temporal orders causations becoming dependent observing laws physics symmetrical time could equally well used describe time running backwards perceive flowing one direction arrow time containing


causation flowing direction matter effect precede cause title paper michael dummett sparked discussion continues today earlier c lewis argued one meaningfully pray concerning outcome eg medical test recognizing outcome determined past events free act contributes cosmic shape likewise interpretations quantum mechanics dating involve backward time causal influences causality linked many philosophers concept counterfactuals


say caused b means happened b would happened view advanced david lewis paper causation subsequent papers develop theory causation causality usually required foundation philosophy science science aims understand causes effects make predictions necessity possibility metaphysicians investigate questions ways world could david lewis ''on plurality worlds'' endorsed view called concrete modal realism according facts things could


made true concrete worlds things different philosophers including gottfried leibniz dealt idea possible worlds well necessary fact true across possible worlds possible fact true possible world even actual world example possible cats could two tails particular apple could existed contrast certain propositions seem necessarily true analytic propositions eg bachelors unmarried view analytic truth necessary


universally held among philosophers less controversial view self identity necessary seems fundamentally incoherent claim ''x'' identical known law identity putative first principle similarly aristotle describes principle non contradiction impossible quality belong belong thing nbsp certain principles nbsp wherefore demonstrate refer ultimate opinion nature source axioms peripheral questions metaphysical cosmology


cosmogony metaphysical cosmology branch metaphysics deals world totality phenomena space time historically formed major part subject alongside ontology though role peripheral contemporary philosophy broad scope many cases founded religion ancient greeks drew distinction use model cosmos however modern times addresses questions universe beyond scope physical sciences distinguished religious cosmology


approaches questions using philosophical methods eg dialectics cosmogony deals specifically origin universe modern metaphysical cosmology cosmogony try address questions origin universe first cause existence necessary see monism pantheism emanationism creationism ultimate material components universe see mechanism dynamism hylomorphism atomism ultimate reason existence universe cosmos purpose see teleology mind matter different approaches toward resolving mind body problem accounting existence


mind world largely composed matter metaphysical problem large important become specialized subject study right philosophy mind substance dualism classical theory mind body essentially different mind attributes traditionally assigned soul creates immediate conceptual puzzle two interact form substance dualism differs dualism eastern philosophical traditions like ny ya also posit soul soul view


reductive physicalism nonreductive physicalism eliminative materialism anomalous monism property dualism epiphenomenalism emergence determinism free determinism philosophical proposition every event including human cognition decision action causally determined unbroken chain prior occurrences holds nothing happens already determined principal consequence deterministic claim poses challenge existence free problem free problem whether rational agents exercise control actions decisions addressing problem requires understanding relation freedom


causation determining whether laws nature causally deterministic philosophers known incompatibilists view determinism free mutually exclusive believe determinism therefore believe free illusion position known ''hard determinism'' proponents range baruch spinoza ted honderich henri bergson defended free dissertation ''time free will'' others labeled compatibilists soft determinists believe two ideas reconciled coherently adherents view include thomas hobbes many modern philosophers john martin fischer gary


watson harry frankfurt like incompatibilists accept free reject determinism called libertarians term confused political sense robert kane alvin plantinga modern defenders theory natural social kinds earliest type classification social construction traces back plato dialogue phaedrus claims biological classification system seems carve nature joints contrast later philosophers michel foucault jorge luis borges challenged capacity natural social classification essay analytical language


john wilkins borges makes us imagine certain encyclopedia animals divided belong emperor b embalmed ones c trained forth order bring forward ambiguity natural social kinds according metaphysics author alyssa ney reason interesting seems metaphysical difference borgesian system plato 's difference obvious one classification attempts carve entities according objective distinction according quine notion


closely related notion similarity number different ways set notion number metaphysics theories platonist theories postulate number fundamental category others consider property entity called group comprising entities relation held several groups entities number four set sets four things many debates around universals applied study number particular importance due status


foundation philosophy mathematics mathematics applied metaphysics although metaphysics philosophical enterprise highly hypothetical also practical application branches philosophy science also information technology areas generally assume basic ontology system objects properties classes space time well metaphysical stances topics causality agency build particular theories upon science example theories based ontological assumption objects properties electrons charge others may


reject objects completely quantum field theories spread electronness becomes property space time rather object social branches philosophy philosophy morality aesthetics philosophy religion turn give rise practical subjects ethics politics law art require metaphysical foundations may considered branches applications metaphysics example may postulate existence basic entities value beauty god use postulates make arguments consequences resulting philosophers


ontological entity relation disciplines science prior modern history science scientific questions addressed part natural philosophy originally term science simply meant knowledge scientific method however transformed natural philosophy empirical activity deriving experiment unlike rest philosophy end th century begun called science distinguish branches philosophy science philosophy considered separated disciplines ever since thereafter metaphysics denoted philosophical enquiry non empirical character nature existence ref name peter gay


pp peter gay ''the enlightenment'' vol ''the rise modern paganism'' chapter section ii pp ref metaphysics continues asking science leaves example theory fundamental physics based set axioms may postulate existence entities atoms particles forces charges mass fields stating postulates considered end science theory metaphysics takes postulates explores mean human concepts example theories physics require existence space time objects properties


expressed using objects properties objects retain identity time change change still object theories reformulated converting properties predicates red entities redness redness fields processes 'there redding happening there' appears human languages place use properties distinction objects properties fundamental physical world perception much recent work devoted analyzing


role metaphysics scientific theorizing alexandre koyr led movement declaring book ''metaphysics measurement'' following experiment outstripping experiment scientific mind makes progress metaphysical propositions influence scientific theorizing john watkins' lasting contribution philosophy since showed ways un testable hence according popperian ideas non empirical propositions nevertheless influential development properly testable hence scientific theories profound results applied elementary logicrepresented important corrective positivist teachings meaninglessness metaphysics


underlying metaphysical views differed physics new metaphysical ideas arisen connection quantum mechanics subatomic particles arguably sort individuality particulars philosophy traditionally concerned also adherence deterministic metaphysics face challenge posed quantum mechanical uncertainty principle led physicists albert einstein propose alternative theories retained determinism whitehead famous creating process philosophy metaphysics inspired electromagnetism special relativity chemistry gilbert newton lewis addressed nature motion


arguing electron said move none properties motion katherine hawley notes metaphysics even widely accepted scientific theory may challenged argued metaphysical presuppositions theory make contribution predictive success theology relationship theological doctrines philosophical reflection philosophy religion christian philosophy philosophical reflections strictly rational way seeing two disciplines least one premises argument


derived revelation argument falls domain theology otherwise falls philosophy 's domain ref name sep christianphilosophy ref ref name inwagen ref rejections metaphysics '''meta metaphysics''' branch philosophy concerned foundations metaphysics number individuals suggested much metaphysics rejected meta metaphysical position known '''metaphysical deflationism''' '''ontological deflationism''' th century francis bacon rejected scholastic metaphysics argued strongly called empiricism seen later father modern empirical science th century david hume took strong position


''critique pure reason'' although followed hume rejecting much previous metaphysics argued still room synthetic ''a priori'' knowledge concerned matters fact yet obtainable independent experience included fundamental structures space time causality also argued freedom existence things ultimate unknowable objects experience wittgenstein introduced concept metaphysics could influenced theories aesthetics via logic vis world composed atomical facts aj ayer rudolf carnap endorsed


hume 's position carnap quoted passage argued metaphysical statements neither true false meaningless since according verifiability theory meaning statement meaningful empirical evidence thus ayer rejected monism spinoza avoided commitment pluralism contrary position holding views without meaning carnap took similar line controversy reality external world logical positivism movement considered dead ayer major proponent admitting


way use words others ted sider argued metaphysical questions substantive make progress toward answering comparing theories according range theoretical virtues inspired sciences simplicity explanatory power etymology word metaphysics derives greek words ''met '' ''physik '' physics first used title several aristotle 's works usually anthologized works physics complete editions prefix ''meta '' indicates works come chapters


physics however aristotle call subject books metaphysics referred '''first philosophy''' editor aristotle 's works andronicus rhodes thought placed books first philosophy right another work ''physics'' called ''t met physik bibl a'' books come books physics however name given commentators sought find reasons appropriateness instance thomas aquinas understood refer chronological pedagogical order among philosophical studies


metaphysical sciences would mean study mastered sciences deal physical world term misread medieval commentators thought meant science beyond physical following tradition prefix ''meta '' recently prefixed names sciences designate higher sciences dealing ulterior fundamental problems hence metamathematics metaphysiology etc person creates develops metaphysical theories called ''metaphysician'' common parlance also uses word metaphysics different referent


present article namely beliefs arbitrary non physical magical entities example metaphysical healing refer healing means remedies magical rather scientific usage stemmed various historical schools speculative metaphysics operated postulating manner physical mental spiritual entities bases particular metaphysical systems metaphysics subject preclude beliefs magical entities neither promote rather subject provides vocabulary logic beliefs might analyzed studied example


search inconsistencies within accepted systems science history schools metaphysics pre history cognitive archeology analysis cave paintings pre historic art customs suggests form perennial philosophy shamanic metaphysics may stretch back birth behavioral modernity around world similar beliefs found present day stone age cultures australian aboriginals perennial philosophy postulates existence spirit concept world alongside day day world interactions worlds dreaming ritual


special days special places argued perennial philosophy formed basis platonism plato articulating rather creating much older widespread beliefs bronze age bronze age cultures ancient mesopotamia ancient egypt along similarly structured chronologically later cultures mayans aztecs developed belief systems based mythology anthropomorphic gods mind body dualism spirit world explain causes cosmology cultures appear interested astronomy may associated identified stars entities ancient egypt


ontological distinction order maat chaos isfet seems important pre socratic greece monad absolute first named greek philosopher according aristotle thales miletus early th century bce made use purely physical explanations explain phenomena world rather mythological divine explanations tradition thought posited water single underlying principle ''arche'' later aristotelian terminology material world'' fellow younger miletians anaximander anaximenes also posited monistic underlying principles namely ''apeiron''


indefinite boundless air respectively another school eleatics southern italy group founded early fifth century bce parmenides included zeno elea melissus samos methodologically eleatics broadly rationalist took logical standards clarity necessity criteria truth parmenides' chief doctrine reality single unchanging universal zeno used ' 'reductio ad absurdum'' demonstrate illusory nature change time paradoxes heraclitus ephesus contrast made change central teaching things flow


philosophy expressed brief aphorisms quite cryptic instance also taught unity opposites democritus teacher leucippus known formulating atomic theory cosmos ref name barnes barnes ref considered forerunners scientific method classical china modern yin yang symbol ''taijitu'' metaphysics chinese philosophy traced back earliest chinese philosophical concepts zhou dynasty tian heaven yin yang fourth century bce saw turn towards cosmogony rise taoism daodejing zhuangzi sees natural


world dynamic constantly changing processes spontaneously arise single immanent metaphysical source principle tao ref name platostanfordedu perkins franklin https platostanfordedu archives win entries chinese metaphysics metaphysics chinese philosophy stanford encyclopedia philosophy winter edition edward n zalta ed ref another philosophical school arose around time school naturalists saw ultimate metaphysical principle taiji supreme polarity composed forces yin yang always state change seeking balance another concern chinese metaphysics especially taoism relationship nature non


wu taoists held ultimate tao also non presence ref name platostanfordedu important concepts spontaneous generation natural vitality ziran correlative resonance ganying fall han dynasty ce china saw rise neo taoist xuanxue school school influential developing concepts later chinese metaphysics ref name platostanfordedu buddhist philosophy entered china c st century influenced native chinese metaphysical concepts develop new theories native tiantai huayen schools philosophy maintained reinterpreted indian theories shunyata


emptiness kong buddha nature fo xing theory interpenetration phenomena neo confucians like zhang zai influence schools developed concepts principle li vital energy qi classical greece socrates plato socrates known dialectic questioning approach philosophy rather positive metaphysical doctrine pupil plato famous theory forms places mouth socrates dialogues platonic realism also considered form idealism considered solution problem universals ie particular


objects common share specific form universal others respective kind theory number aspects epistemological knowledge forms certain mere sensory data ethical form good sets objective standard morality time change world forms eternal unchanging time change belong lower sensory world time moving image eternity abstract objects mathematics numbers geometrical figures etc exist mind independently world forms platonism developed


neoplatonism philosophy monotheistic mystical flavour survived well early christian era aristotle plato 's pupil aristotle wrote widely almost every subject including metaphysics solution problem universals contrasts plato 's whereas platonic forms existentially apparent visible world aristotelian essences dwell particulars potentiality actuality principles dichotomy aristotle used throughout philosophical works analyze motion causality issues aristotelian theory change causality stretches four causes material formal efficient final efficient cause corresponds


known cause ' 'simplicity'' final causes explicitly teleological concept regarded controversial science matter form dichotomy become highly influential later philosophy substance essence distinction opening arguments aristotle 's ''metaphysics'' book revolve around senses knowledge experience theory wisdom first main focus metaphysics attempting determine intellect advances sensation memory experience art theoretical knowledge aristotle claims eyesight provides us capability recognize remember experiences sound allows us learn classical india


''more indian philosophy hindu philosophy'' khya ''s khya'' ancient system indian philosophy based dualism involving ultimate principles consciousness matter described rationalist school indian philosophy related yoga school hinduism method influential development early buddhism ref name royper roy perrett indian ethics classical traditions contemporary challenges volume editor p bilimoria et al ashgate pp nbsp ref mkhya enumerationist philosophy whose epistemology accepts three six pramanas proofs reliable means gaining knowledge


include ''pratyak a'' perception ''anum a'' inference '' abda'' '' ptavacana'' word testimony reliable sources ref name eliottjag eliott deutsche philosophy religion indian philosophy vol editor roy perrett routledge pp nbsp john grimes concise dictionary indian philosophy sanskrit terms defined english state university new york press p ref ref name jag john grimes concise dictionary indian philosophy sanskrit terms defined english state university new york press p ref samkhya strongly dualist mkhya philosophy regards universe consisting two realities puru consciousness prak ti matter jiva living


samkhya school ref name gerald james larson pages gerald james larson classical khya interpretation history meaning motilal banarsidass pp nbsp ref existence god supreme directly asserted considered relevant samkhya philosophers khya denies final cause ishvara god samkhya school considers vedas reliable source knowledge atheistic philosophy according paul deussen scholars ref name lpfl lloyd pflueger person purity power yogasutra theory practice yoga editor knut jacobsen motilal banarsidass pp nbsp ref key


difference samkhya yoga schools state scholars ref name lpfl yoga school accepts personal yet essentially inactive deity personal god samkhya known theory gu qualities innate tendencies gu states three types ' 'sattva'' good compassionate illuminating positive constructive ''rajas'' one activity chaotic passion impulsive potentially good bad ''tamas'' quality darkness ignorance destructive lethargic negative everything life forms human beings state samkhya scholars three gu different proportions interplay gu defines character someone


self consciousness kind desire satisfied another self consciousness self realisation realisation self consisting consciousness leads else word ' 'self consciousness'' upanishads means knowledge existence nature ''manusya'' human means consciousness real primary reality self consciousness means self knowledge knowledge prajna ie prana attained brahman according upanishads atman paramatman phenomenally unknowable object realisation atman unknowable essential nature


vaishnavite monotheism ramanuja absolute monism teachings adi shankara self consciousness fourth state consciousness ''turiya'' first three ''vaisvanara'' ''taijasa'' ''prajna'' four states individual consciousness three distinct stages leading self realisation first stage mystically apprehending glory self within us though distinct second stage identifying within self essential nature entirely identical pure self third stage realising atman


brahman difference self absolute fourth stage realising absolute ''aham brahman asmi'' fifth stage realising brahman exists also exist buddhist metaphysics buddhist philosophy various metaphysical traditions proposed different questions nature reality based teachings buddha early buddhist texts buddha early texts focus metaphysical questions ethical spiritual training


cases dismisses certain metaphysical questions unhelpful indeterminate avyakta recommends set aside development systematic metaphysics arose buddha 's death rise abhidharma traditions buddhist abhidharma schools developed analysis reality based concept ' 'dharmas'' ultimate physical mental events makeup experience relations noa ronkin called approach phenomenological later philosophical traditions include madhyamika school nagarjuna developed theory emptiness shunyata phenomena dharmas rejects


kind substance interpreted form anti foundationalism anti realism sees reality ultimate essence ground yogacara school meanwhile promoted theory called awareness vijnapti matra interpreted form idealism phenomenology denies split awareness objects awareness islamic metaphysics major ideas sufi metaphysics surrounded concept dah meaning unity arabic tawhid wa dat al wuj literally means unity existence unity phrase translated pantheism wujud ie existence


presence refers allah 's wujud compare tawhid hand wa dat ash shuh meaning apparentism monotheism witness holds god creation entirely separate scholasticism middle ages philosophy discipline took place part catholic church 's teaching system known scholasticism scholastic philosophy took place within established framework blending christian theology aristotelian teachings although fundamental orthodoxies commonly challenged nonetheless deep metaphysical disagreements particularly problem universals engaged duns scotus pierre abelard william ockham


remembered principle ontological parsimony continental rationalism early modern period th th centuries system building ' 'scope'' philosophy often linked rationalist ''method'' philosophy technique deducing nature world pure reason scholastic concepts substance accident employed leibniz proposed ''monadology'' plurality non interacting substances descartes famous dualism material mental substances spinoza believed reality single substance god nature wolff christian wolff theoretical philosophy divided ontology ''philosophia prima''


general metaphysics arises preliminary distinction three special metaphysics soul world god rational psychology rational cosmology rational theology three disciplines called empirical rational independent revelation scheme counterpart religious tripartition creature creation creator best known philosophical students kant 's treatment ''critique pure reason'' preface nd edition kant 's book wolff defined greatest dogmatic philosophers british empiricism british empiricism marked something


reaction rationalist system building metaphysics ' 'speculative'' metaphysics pejoratively termed skeptic david hume famously declared metaphysics consigned flames see hume notorious among contemporaries one first philosophers openly doubt religion better known critique causality john stuart mill thomas reid john locke less skeptical embracing cautious style metaphysics based realism common sense science philosophers notably george berkeley led empiricism idealistic metaphysics kant immanuel kant attempted


minds organise data senses organising framework space time kant mind independent existence nonetheless operate uniformly humans apriori knowledge space time remains metaphysics traditionally conceived ''is'' reality beyond sensory data phenomena calls realm noumena however cannot know appears us allows speculate origins phenomenal god morality free ''might'' exist noumenal realm


possibilities set basic unknowability humans although saw disposed metaphysics sense generally regarded retrospect metaphysics beginning modern analytical conception subject late modern philosophy nineteenth century philosophy overwhelmingly influenced kant successors schopenhauer schelling fichte hegel purveyed panoramic versions german idealism kant 's caution metaphysical speculation refutation idealism fallen wayside idealistic impulse continued early twentieth century


charles hartshorne continental philosophy forces shaped analytic philosophy break idealism influence science much less significant outside english speaking world although shared turn toward language continental philosophy continued trajectory post kantianism phenomenology husserl others intended collaborative project investigation features structure consciousness common humans line kant 's basing synthetic apriori uniform operation consciousness officially neutral regards ontology nonetheless spawn number metaphysical


works founding fathers g w f hegel charles sanders peirce william james henri bergson n whitehead john dewey european perspective significant early whiteheadian influence works outstanding scholars mile meyerson louis couturat jean wahl robin george collingwood philippe devaux hans jonas dorothy emmett maurice merleau ponty enzo paci charlie dunbar broad wolfe mays ilya prigogine jules vuillemin jean ladri gilles deleuze wolfhart pannenberg reiner wiehl


contemporary analytic philosophy early analytic philosophy tended reject metaphysical theorizing influence logical positivism revived second half twentieth century philosophers david k lewis david armstrong developed elaborate theories range topics universals causation possibility necessity abstract objects however focus analytic philosophy generally away construction encompassing systems toward close analysis individual ideas among developments led revival metaphysical theorizing quine 's attack analytic synthetic distinction generally taken