name shannon electronic data processing atanasoff berry computer replica first floor durham center iowa state university purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced mechanical electromechanical equivalents time digital calculation replaced analog machines z atanasoff berry computer colossus computers eniac built hand using circuits containing relays valves vacuum tubes often used punched cards punched paper tape input main non volatile storage medium engineer tommy flowers joined telecommunications branch general post office working research


station dollis hill began explore possible use electronics telephone exchange experimental equipment built went operation years later converting portion telephone exchange network electronic data processing system using thousands vacuum tubes ref name stanf us arthur dickinson ibm invented first digital electronic computer calculating device fully electronic control calculations output first electronic display john vincent atanasoff clifford e berry iowa state university developed atanasoff berry computer abc

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
History of computer hardware


remained unknown military secret well world war ii british codebreakers bletchley park north london achieved number successes breaking encrypted enemy military communications german encryption machine enigma first attacked help electro mechanical bombes women often operated bombe machines ruled possible enigma settings performing chains logical deductions implemented electrically possibilities led contradiction remaining could tested hand germans also developed series teleprinter encryption systems quite different enigma lorenz


park delivered january attacked first message february wartime photo colossus colossus world 's first electronic digital programmable computer ref name stanf used large number valves vacuum tubes paper tape input capable configured perform variety boolean logical operations data turing complete data input colossus photoelectric reading paper tape transcription enciphered intercepted message arranged continuous loop could read


read multiple times internal store data reading mechanism ran characters per second paper tape moving colossus mark contained thermionic valves tubes mark valves five processors parallel times faster simpler operate mark greatly speeding decoding process mark designed mark constructed allen coombs took leadership colossus mark project tommy flowers moved projects first mark colossus became


operational june time allied invasion normandy day use colossus determining start positions tunny rotors message called wheel setting colossus included first ever use shift registers systolic arrays enabling five simultaneous tests involving boolean calculations enabled five different possible start positions examined one transit paper tape well wheel setting later colossi included mechanisms intended help determine pin patterns known wheel breaking


models programmable using switches plug panels way predecessors ten mk colossi operational end war eniac first turing complete electronic device performed ballistics trajectory calculations united states army without use machines allies would deprived valuable intelligence obtained reading vast quantity enciphered high level telegraphic messages german high command okw army commands throughout occupied europe details existence design use kept secret well


winston churchill personally issued order destruction pieces larger man 's hand keep secret british capable cracking lorenz sz cyphers german rotor stream cipher machines oncoming cold war two machines transferred newly formed gchq others destroyed result machines included many histories computing ''computing structures'' standard reference work reconstructed working copy one colossus machines display bletchley park us built


programmers eniac women trained mathematicians combined high speed electronics ability programmed many complex problems could add subtract times second thousand times faster machine also modules multiply divide square root high speed memory limited words equivalent bytes built direction john mauchly j presper eckert university pennsylvania eniac 's development construction lasted full operation end


turing paper turing joined national physical laboratory began work developing electronic stored program digital computer report 'proposed electronic calculator' first specification device meanwhile john von neumann moore school electrical engineering university pennsylvania circulated ''first draft report edvac'' although substantially similar turing 's design containing comparatively little engineering detail computer architecture outlined became known von neumann architecture turing presented detailed paper national physical laboratory npl


executive committee giving first reasonably complete design stored program computer device called automatic computing engine ace however better known edvac design john von neumann knew turing 's theoretical work received publicity despite incomplete nature questionable lack attribution sources ideas ref name stanf turing thought speed size computer memory crucial elements proposed high speed memory would today called kb accessed speed mhz ace implemented subroutine calls whereas


tom kilburn university manchester cathode ray tube used effect called secondary emission temporarily store electronic binary data used successfully several early computers although computer small primitive proof concept solving single problem baby first working machine contain elements essential modern electronic computer ref name earlycomputers soon baby demonstrated feasibility design project initiated university develop design


usable computer manchester mark mark turn quickly became prototype ferranti mark world 's first commercially available general purpose computer ref name nappermk ref baby bit word length memory nbsp words designed simplest possible stored program computer arithmetic operations implemented hardware subtraction negation arithmetic operations implemented software first three programs written machine found highest proper divisor sup sup calculation known would take long time run


prove computer 's reliability testing every integer sup sup nbsp nbsp downwards division implemented repeated subtraction divisor program consisted nbsp instructions ran nbsp minutes reaching correct answer baby performed nbsp million operations effective cpu speed kips successive approximations answer displayed successive positions bright dot williams tube manchester mark experimental machine led development manchester mark university manchester ref name lavingtonp ref work began august


first version operational april program written search mersenne primes ran error free nine hours night june machine 's successful operation widely reported british press used phrase electronic brain describing readers computer especially historically significant pioneering inclusion index registers innovation made easier program read sequentially array words memory thirty four patents resulted machine 's development many ideas behind design


incorporated subsequent commercial products well ferranti mark chief designers frederic c williams tom kilburn concluded experiences mark nbsp computers would used scientific roles pure mathematics started development work meg mark nbsp 's successor would include floating point unit edsac edsac contender first recognizably modern digital stored program computer edsac designed constructed maurice wilkes team university cambridge mathematical laboratory england


university cambridge machine inspired john von neumann 's seminal ''first draft report edvac'' one first usefully operational electronic digital stored program computer ref however manchester mark confused prototype baby available university research april despite still development edsac ran first programs nbsp may calculated table squares list prime numbersthe edsac also served basis first commercially applied computer leo


used food manufacturing company j lyons co ltd edsac finally shut july superseded edsac stayed use br ref edvac edvac eniac inventors john mauchly j presper eckert proposed edvac 's construction august design work edvac commenced university pennsylvania 's moore school electrical engineering eniac fully operational design implemented number important architectural logical improvements conceived eniac 's construction high speed serial access memory ref name wilkes ref however eckert


mauchly left project construction floundered finally delivered us army 's ballistics research laboratory aberdeen proving ground august due number problems computer began operation limited basis commercial computers first commercial computer ferranti mark built ferranti delivered university manchester february based manchester mark main improvements manchester mark size primary storage using random access


williams tubes secondary storage using magnetic drum faster multiplier additional instructions basic cycle time milliseconds multiplication could completed milliseconds multiplier used almost quarter machine 's vacuum tubes valves second machine purchased university toronto design revised mark star least seven later machines delivered one shell labs amsterdam october directors j lyons company british catering company famous


teashops strong interests new office management techniques decided take active role promoting commercial development computers leo computer lyons electronic office became operational april ran world 's first regular routine office computer job november j lyons company began weekly operation bakery valuations job leo first business application go live stored program computer notes david caminer served first corporate electronic systems analyst first business computer system leo would


calculate employee 's pay handle billing office automation tasks june univac universal automatic computer delivered us census bureau remington rand eventually sold machines us million univac first mass produced computer used vacuum tubes consumed nbsp kw power primary storage serial access mercury delay lines capable storing words decimal digits plus sign bit words front panel ibm ibm introduced smaller affordable computer proved popular ref


ibm weighed nbsp kg attached power supply weighed around nbsp kg held separate cabinets roughly meters meters meters system cost us could leased us month drum memory originally ten digit words later expanded words memory limitations dominate programming decades afterward program instructions fetched spinning drum code ran efficient execution using drum memory provided


combination hardware architecture instruction format included address next instruction software symbolic optimal assembly program soap assigned instructions optimal addresses extent possible static analysis source program thus many instructions needed located next row drum read additional wait time drum rotation reduced microprogramming british scientist maurice wilkes developed concept microprogramming realisation central processing unit computer could controlled miniature highly specialised computer program


high speed rom microprogramming allows base instruction set defined extended built programs called firmware microcode concept greatly simplified cpu development first described university manchester computer inaugural conference published expanded form ''ieee spectrum'' widely used cpus floating point units mainframe computers implemented first time edsac ref name edsac ref also used multiple identical bit slices simplify design interchangeable replaceable tube assemblies used bit processor ref


patented first usage demonstrated whirlwind computer august commercialization followed quickly magnetic core used peripherals ibm delivered july later ibm ferranti mercury used magnetic core memory went dominate field replaced semiconductor memory magnetic core peaked volume declined usage market share thereafter late pdp machines using magnetic core main memory drums swapping still


use many original unix sites early digital computer characteristics class wikitable style margin left auto margin right auto defining characteristics early digital computers name first operational numeral system computing mechanism programming turing complete arthur h dickinson ibm align right jan decimal electronic programmable joseph desch ncr align right march decimal electronic programmable zuse z align right may binary floating point electro mechanical program controlled punched nbsp mm film stock


align right march binary floating point electro mechanical program controlled punched nbsp mm film stock yes eniac align right february decimal electronic program controlled patch cables switches yes arc sec align right may binary electronic stored program rotating drum memory yes manchester baby align right june binary electronic stored program williams cathode ray tube memory yes modified eniac align right september decimal electronic read stored programming mechanism using function


team leadership tom kilburn designed built machine using newly developed transistors instead valves initially devices available germanium point contact transistors less reliable valves replaced consumed far less power first transistorised computer first world operational ref name lavingtonp ref second version completed april version used transistors solid state diodes power consumption watts however machine make use valves generate nbsp khz clock waveforms


circuitry read write magnetic drum memory first completely transistorized computer distinction goes harwell cadet ref name ieeexploreieee built electronics division atomic energy research establishment harwell design featured kilobyte magnetic drum memory store multiple moving heads designed national physical laboratory uk team transistor circuits operating read write smaller magnetic drum royal radar establishment machine used low clock speed nbsp khz avoid


use valves generate clock waveforms ref name ieeexploreieee ref cadet used point contact transistors provided uk company standard telephones cables junction transistors used first stage amplifiers data read drum since point contact transistors noisy august cadet offering regular computing service often executed continuous computing runs hours problems reliability early batches point contact alloyed junction transistors meant machine 's mean time failures nbsp minutes improved


reliable bipolar junction transistors became available manchester university transistor computer 's design adopted local engineering firm metropolitan vickers metrovick first commercial transistor computer anywhere six metrovick built first completed successfully deployed within various departments company use five years second generation computer ibm captured one third world market ibm installed ten thousand transistor peripherals transistorized electronics improved cpu central processing unit also


peripheral devices second generation disk data storage units able store tens millions letters digits next fixed disk storage units connected cpu via high speed data transmission removable disk data storage units removable disk pack easily exchanged another pack seconds even removable disks' capacity smaller fixed disks interchangeability guarantees nearly unlimited quantity data close hand magnetic tape provided archival capability data lower cost disk many second generation cpus delegated peripheral device


communications secondary processor example communication processor controlled card reading punching main cpu executed calculations binary branch instructions one databus would bear data main cpu core memory cpu 's fetch execute cycle rate databusses would typically serve peripheral devices pdp core memory 's cycle time microseconds consequently arithmetic instructions took microseconds operations per second operations took least two memory cycles one instruction one operand data fetch second generation remote terminal units


often form teleprinters like friden flexowriter saw greatly increased use telephone connections provided sufficient speed early remote terminals allowed hundreds kilometers separation remote terminals computing center eventually stand alone computer networks would generalized interconnected ''network networks'' internet transistor supercomputers university manchester atlas january early saw advent supercomputing atlas joint development university manchester ferranti plessey first installed manchester university officially commissioned one world 's first


supercomputers considered powerful computer world time ref name lavingtonp ref said whenever atlas went offline half united kingdom 's computer capacity lost ref name lavingtonpp ref second generation machine using discrete germanium transistors atlas also pioneered atlas supervisor considered many first recognisable modern operating system us series computers control data corporation cdc designed seymour cray use innovative designs parallelism achieve superior computational peak performance ref name chen ''hardware software co design multimedia soc platform'' sao jie


chen guang huei lin pao ann hsiung yu hen hu isbn pages ref cdc released generally considered first supercomputer cdc outperformed predecessor ibm stretch factor performance nbsp megaflops cdc world 's fastest computer relinquished status successor cdc integrated circuit computers third generation digital electronic computers used integrated circuit ic chips basis logic idea integrated circuit conceived radar scientist working


royal radar establishment ministry defence geoffrey wa dummer first working integrated circuits invented jack kilby texas instruments robert noyce fairchild semiconductor kilby recorded initial ideas concerning integrated circuit july successfully demonstrating first working integrated example september ref name tijackbuilt http wwwticom corp docs kilbyctr jackbuiltshtml ''the chip jack built'' c html texas instruments retrieved may ref kilby 's invention hybrid integrated circuit hybrid ic ref name saxena ref external wire connections made difficult mass produce ref name nasa ref noyce came idea


lunar ascent modules semiconductor memory mosfet metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor mos transistor invented mohamed atalla dawon kahng bell labs ref name computerhistory ref addition data processing mosfet enabled practical use mos transistors memory cell storage elements function previously served magnetic cores semiconductor memory also known mos memory cheaper consumed less power magnetic core memory ref name computerhistory ref mos random access memory ram form static ram sram developed john schmidt fairchild semiconductor ref name computerhistory robert dennard


single mos chip late application mos lsi chips computing basis first microprocessors engineers began recognizing complete computer processor could contained single mos lsi chip ref name ieee subject exactly device first microprocessor contentious partly due lack agreement exact definition term microprocessor earliest multi chip microprocessors four phase systems al garrett airesearch mp developed multiple mos lsi chips ref name ieee first single chip microprocessor intel developed


single pmos lsi chip ref name ieee designed realized ted hoff federico faggin masatoshi shima stanley mazor intel released tadashi sasaki masatoshi shima busicom calculator manufacturer initial insight cpu could single mos lsi chip supplied intel ref name bitslice https ethworg oral history tadashi sasaki william aspray may oral history tadashi sasaki sasaki credits idea bit slice pmos chip woman researcher 's idea sharp corporation accepted members sharp brainstorming group million yen


ram bytes eprom chip considerable overlap second third generation technologies ibm implemented ibm solid logic technology modules hybrid circuits ibm system late sperry univac continued manufacture second generation machines univac burroughs large systems b stack machines allowed simpler programming pushdown automatons also implemented minicomputers microprocessors later influenced programming language design minicomputers served low cost computer centers industry business


universities became possible simulate analog circuits ' 'simulation program integrated circuit emphasis'' spice minicomputers one programs electronic design automation eda microprocessor led development microcomputers small low cost computers could owned individuals small businesses microcomputers first appeared became ubiquitous beyond altair specific system considered first microcomputer matter debate several unique hobbyist systems developed based intel successor


intel first commercially available microcomputer kit intel based altair announced january cover article ''popular electronics'' however extremely limited system initial stages bytes dram initial package input output except toggle switches led register display despite initially surprisingly popular several hundred sales first year demand rapidly outstripped supply several early third party vendors cromemco processor technology soon began supplying additional bus hardware altair


ibm external floppy disk drive microcomputers mos technology kim altair versions apple sold kits yourselfers pre assembled systems gain much ground introduction apple ii tandy trs first swtpc computers commodore pet computing evolved microcomputer architectures features added larger brethren dominant market segments next computer object oriented development tools libraries used tim berners lee robert


cailliau cern develop world 's first web server software cern httpd also used write first web browser worldwideweb systems complicated computers require high reliability eniac remained continuous operation eight years shut although vacuum tube might fail would replaced without bringing system simple strategy never shutting eniac failures dramatically reduced vacuum tube sage air defense computers became remarkably reliable installed pairs one line tubes likely fail


therefore decreased dramatically unlike continuous current draw gate based logic types cmos gate draws significant current 'transition' logic states except leakage cmos circuits allowed computing become commodity ubiquitous embedded many forms greeting cards telephones satellites thermal design power dissipated operation become essential computing speed operation servers consumed total energy budget us energy consumption computer data centers expected double


world consumption soc system chip compressed even integrated circuitry single chip socs enabling phones pcs converge single hand held wireless mobile devices quantum computing emerging technology field computing ''mit technology review'' reported november ibm created qubit computer currently quantum state lasts microseconds google researchers able extend microsecond time limit reported july ''nature'' ref name quantumerrorcorrection stability extended fold spreading


single logical qubit chains data qubits quantum error correction ref name quantumerrorcorrection https wwwnaturecom articles julian kelly etal july exponential suppression bit phase errors cyclic error correction cited ''science magazine'' https scienceslashdotorg story physicists move closer defeating errors quantum computation physicists move closer defeating errors quantum computation ref ''physical review x'' reported technique 'single gate sensing viable readout method spin qubits' singlet triplet spin state silicon november google team succeeded operating rf pulse modulator chip kelvin simplifying cryogenics qubit computer


setup operate kelvin readout circuitry another driver remain brought cryogenics ref name qubits ref ''see quantum supremacy'' silicon qubit systems demonstrated entanglement non local distances computing hardware software even become metaphor operation universe epilogue indication rapidity development field inferred history seminal article burks goldstine von neumann time anyone time write anything obsolete others read john von


neumann 's ''first draft report edvac'' immediately started implementing systems day rapid pace development continued worldwide ref times faster summit oak ridge national laboratory number two top article ''time'' predicted machines producing much everyone us effect independently wealthy use leisure time major problem see also antikythera mechanism history computing history computing hardware present history laptops history


http wwwbitsaversorg magazines computers automation pdf ''a pictorial manual computers part '' http wwwbitsaversorg magazines computers automation pdf pictorial report computer field december issues http wwwbitsaversorg magazines computers automation pdf pdf ''bit bit illustrated history computers'' stan augarten http ds wordpresshaverfordedu bitbybit ocr permission author external links http wwwoldcomputersnet obsolete technology old computers http things countcom history calculating technology http museumipsjorjp en computer indexhtml historic computers japan http wwwxnumbercom xnumber japanese calculatorshtm history japanese mechanical calculating machines https webarchiveorg web http wwwtrailing edgecom bobbemer historyhtm computer history collection articles bob bemer https spectrumieeeorg chips microchips shook world collection articles institute electrical


modern usage term '''grammatology''' refers scientific study writing systems scripts ref name gelb gelb ignace ''a study writing'' chicago university chicago press ref usage established linguist ignace gelb book ''a study writing'' ref name gelb ref grammatology examine typology scripts analysis structural properties scripts relationship written spoken language broadest sense scholars also include study literacy grammatology indeed impact writing philosophy religion science administration

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Grammatology


aspects organization society historian bruce trigger associates grammatology cultural evolution toronto school communication theory scholars immediately associated grammatology understood history theory writing include eric havelock ''the muse learns write'' walter j ong ''orality literacy'' jack goody ''domestication savage mind'' marshall mcluhan ''the gutenberg galaxy'' grammatology brings topic consideration contribution technology material social apparatus language theoretical treatment approach may seen works friedrich kittler


''discourse networks '' avital ronell ''the telephone book'' deconstructionism swiss linguist ferdinand de saussure considered key figure structural approaches language saw speech writing 'two distinct systems signs' second 'the sole purpose representing first' view explained peter barry 's ''beginning theory'' writings roland barthes jacques derrida critiques put forth proposed relation barthes' writing described interesting one see transition two literary styles


comparing earlier works later work early work methodical structured delivery later works becoming random sequence unfocused meanwhile jacques derrida published many works subject literary theory considered philosophical based literature jacques derrida borrowed term put different use book ''of grammatology'' derrida aimed show writing simply reproduction speech way thoughts recorded writing strongly affects


nature knowledge deconstruction grammatological perspective places history philosophy general metaphysics particular context writing perspective metaphysics understood category classification system relative invention alphabetic writing institutionalization school plato 's academy aristotle 's lyceum much part invention literacy introduction vowel create classical greek alphabet gregory ulmer took trajectory historical philosophical grammatology add applied grammatology ''applied grammatology post e pedagogy jacques


derrida joseph beuys'' johns hopkins ulmer coined term electracy call attention fact digital technologies elaboration new media forms part apparatus inventions literacy alphabetic print technologies grammatology studies invention apparatus across spectrum manifestations technology institutional practices identity behaviors see also notes references semiotics post structuralism postmodernism


'''animal law''' combination statutory case law nature legal social biological nonhuman animals important factor animal law encompasses companion animals wildlife animals used entertainment animals raised food research emerging field animal law often analogized environmental law movement animal law faces many legal strategic challenges environmental law faced seeking establish secure foothold united states abroad animal law issues encompass broad spectrum approaches philosophical


explorations rights animals pragmatic discussions rights use animals standing sue animal harmed way violates law constitutes legal cruelty ref name animallawprogram animal law permeates affects traditional areas law including tort contract criminal constitutional law examples intersection include animal custody disputes divorce separations veterinary malpractice cases housing disputes involving pets policies discrimination laws damages cases involving wrongful death injury companion animal enforceable trusts companions adopted


zurich animal advocate position abolished capacity goetschel attempted ensure swiss animal protection laws among strictest world correctly enforced animal defenders office australian community legal centre focusing animal law south africa animal law reform south africa first dedicated animal law organisation country working areas legislative policy reform litigation legal services education research animal law academia north america ''prominent animal rights scholar tom regan'' animal law taught


law schools us canada including harvard stanford ucla northwestern university michigan georgetown duke lewis clark ref name animal law courses ref comprehensive canadian animal law casebook ''animals law essentials canadian law '' comprehensive american animal law casebook ''animal law cases materials'' ref name animal law ref animal law traditional legal field book 's chapters framed terms familiar subsets law tort contract criminal constitutional law chapter sets cases commentary animal law affects broader areas


animal protection laws united states america canada compendium stephan k otto director legislative affairs animal legal defense fund comprehensive animal protection laws collection contains detailed survey general animal protection related statutes states principal districts territories united states america canada along full text versions jurisdiction 's laws south america animal law taught european universities brazil argentina chile several brazilian universities offers animal law subjects


federal university bahia graduate program law university paulo undergraduate level federal university paran undergraduate level federal university santa maria graduate program law federal university rio de janeiro undergraduate level courses taught portuguese according tagore trajano silva ''the foregoing groups contributed progress redesign curricula law schools brazil created new alternatives possibilities understandings important defense non human animals humans next


step formation solid political base order generate effective legislative change thus realization animal law year events organized focusing need mobilize brazilian legislature attend issue animals meetings focused politically legally best means support animal law debate time insert animal law curriculum brazilian law schools result brasilia brazilian political capital hold fourth world conference theme


posthumanism challenges perspectives goal develop future scenario putting ideas practice'' australasia books subject geographical area include ''animal law australia integrated approach'' alex bruce ''humanising animals civilising people'' mirko bagaric keith akers ''animal law australia new zealand'' deborah cao katrina sharman ''animal law australasia continuing dialogue'' peter j sankoff steven white celeste black ''handbook australian cruelty law'' malcolm caulfield europe animal law taught european universities


spain switzerland united kingdom autonomous university barcelona uab spain european university offer master degree animal law society derecho animal sociedad highly interdisciplinary program directed prof dr teresa gim nez candela ref name gimenez candela ref taught spanish english aims provide students knowledge animals fields law ethology nutrition welfare ethical dimensions artistic representations entertainment organization social responsibility program based comparative law perspective keeping mind needs society whole postgraduate diploma


uab also offers online master 's animal law society currently accepting applications fifth edition jan oct asia kimep university almaty kazakhstan introduced course animal law upon initiative dr maria baideldinova assistant professor kimep school law africa still burgeoning field africa animal law definitively growing first animal law course taught south africa founding directors animal law reform south africa online course giving access subject south


african african students first time continent recent legal changes influenced animal rights activists regarding campaign change status animals property animal rights activists seen success several countries switzerland amended constitution recognize animals ''beings'' ''things'' ref name apberlin ref however swiss constitution completely rewritten decade later germany guaranteed rights animals amendment constitution becoming first european union member ref name apberlin german civil code amended correspondingly


amendment however much impact german legal practice yet national assembly province quebec adopted modification quebec civil code according animals status sentient beings instead property previously greatest success animal rights activists certainly granting basic rights five great ape species new zealand use forbidden research testing teaching uk government banned experiments great apes countries also banned severely restricted use


non human great apes research seattle based great ape project gap founded australian philosopher peter singer author ''animal liberation'' widely regarded founding philosophical work animal liberation movement campaigning united nations adopt declaration great apes would see chimpanzees bonobos gorillas orangutans included community equals human beings declaration wants extend non human apes protection three basic interests right life protection individual liberty prohibition torture see also great ape personhood new


zealand effectively phased live exports slaughter purposes since due concerns animals ref name true new zealand banned live export ref see also animal ethics animal law review animal legal defense fund animal trial animal rights country territory animal welfare animal welfare act brazilian abolitionist movement animal liberation commodity status animals hunting act intrinsic value animal ethics legal status animals canada society animal protective legislation animal rights abolitionism animal rights references bibliography https webarchiveorg web http wwwanimallawprogramorg articles newjersey lawyerpdf animal law yesterday today bernstein robin ''new jersey lawyer'' pp nbsp august


https archivetoday http dailyuwcom animal law least protected innocent animal law least protected innocent may ''the uw daily'' seattle https wwwusatodaycom news nation pet law nhtmpoe click refer fido fluffy become high profile part law march ''usa today'' external links http wwwderechoanimalinfo derecho animal web center http wwwgjalabofi global journal animal law http wwwunilimfr omij publications revue semestrielle de droit animalier revue semestrielle de droit animalier https wwwglobalanimallaworg platform improve legal conditions animals global animal law project https webarchiveorg web http wwwlclarkedu org cals center animal law studies lewis clark law school http wwwanimallawinfo animal legal historical center michigan state university college law https webarchiveorg web http aldforg articlephpid f animal protection laws animal legal defense fund https webarchiveorg web http wwwanimallawcom international institute animal


law national anti vivisection society https animallawreformorg https webarchiveorg web http wwwhsusorg press publications humane bookshelf state animals iii html state animals iii humane society united states https webarchiveorg web http wwwhsusorg web files pdf hsp soa chap pdf international animal law concentration latin america asia africa https webarchiveorg web http wwwhsusorg web files pdf hsp soa chap pdf progress animal legislation measurement assessment law law law


'''''animal law''''' law review covering animal law published students lewis clark law school portland oregon publishing first volume first law review focus animal law issues best known journal field featured articles noted legal scholars laurence h tribe cass r sunstein well experts jane goodall ref name alr ''see generally'' http wwwlclarkedu law law reviews animal law review ''animal law'' homepage ref overview ''animal law'' publishes two issues year journal 's objective educate readers sides


source checking editing competition end first semester law school work volunteer source checkers without academic credit second semester law school students earn top scores source checking editing competition invited source check following semester students excel semester invited join law review full members second year references american law journals lewis clark college publications established university college mass media oregon magazines published portland oregon


biannual journals english language journals establishments oregon law journals edited students


example object oriented model ref name usdt http knowledgefhwadotgov tam aashtonsf documents b b c b f file diglosspdf data integration glossary us department transportation august ref '''object database''' database management system information represented form objects used object oriented programming object databases different relational databases table oriented object relational databases hybrid approaches object databases considered since early overview object oriented database management systems oodbmss also called odbms object database management system combine database capabilities object oriented programming language capabilities oodbmss allow object oriented programmers develop product store

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
Object databases


objects replicate modify existing objects make new objects within oodbms database integrated programming language programmer maintain consistency within one environment oodbms programming language use model representation relational dbms projects way contrast maintain clearer division database model application usage web based technology increases implementation intranets extranets companies vested interest oodbmss display complex data using dbms specifically


designed store data objects gives advantage companies geared towards multimedia presentation organizations utilize computer aided design cad object oriented databases designed work well object oriented programming languages delphi ruby python javascript perl java c visual basic net c objective c smalltalk others jade programming languages oodbmss use exactly model object oriented programming languages history object database management systems grew research early mid intrinsic database management support graph structured objects term object oriented database system


first appeared around notable research projects included encore ob server brown university exodus university wisconsin madison iris hewlett packard ode bell labs orion microelectronics computer technology corporation mcc vodak gmd ipsi zeitgeist texas instruments orion project published papers efforts kim mcc compiled best papers book published mit press early commercial products included gemstone servio logic name changed gemstone systems gbase graphael vbase ontologic additional commercial products entered market late mid included itasca itasca


obsidian dynamics perst mcobject available dual open source commercial licensing''' timeline mumps intersystems tornado object database cad cam gemstone started servio logic build set theoretic model data base machine term object database first introduced servio logic gemstone systems ships gemstone object design incorporated founded development objectstore begun versant corporation started object sciences corp objectivity inc founded early servio logic changes name gemstone systems gemstone smalltalk c java gbase lisp vbase ontos informix objectivity db mid intersystems cach


versant object database odaba zodb poet jade matisse illustra informix https wwwresearchgatenet publication l db odmg based object oriented dbms lambda db odmg based object oriented dbms leonidas fegaras chandrasekhar srinivasan arvind rajendran david maier db project started carl rosenberger objectdb ibm acquires informix odbpp public release db 's commercial launch db objects inc db acquired versant corporation vmware acquires gemstone db 's development stopped wakanda first production versions open source commercial licenses gemtalk systems acquires gemstone products vmware ref name gemtalk ref db 's commercial offering officially discontinued actian acquired versant realm objectbox adoption


object databases object databases based persistent programming acquired niche application areas engineering spatial databases telecommunications scientific areas high energy physics molecular biology another group object databases focuses embedded use devices packaged software real time systems technical features object databases also offer kind query language allowing objects found using declarative programming approach area object query languages integration query navigational interfaces biggest differences products found attempt


viewed set versions also object versions treated objects right object databases also provide systematic support triggers constraints basis active databases efficiency database also greatly improved areas demand massive amounts data one item example banking institution could get user 's account information provide efficiently extensive information transactions account information entries etc standards object data management group consortium object database object relational


mapping vendors members academic community interested parties goal create set specifications would allow portable applications store objects database management systems published several versions specification last release odmg major object database object relational mapping vendors claimed conformance odmg java language binding compliance components specification mixed odmg java language binding submitted java community process basis java data objects specification odmg


member companies decided concentrate efforts java data objects specification result odmg disbanded many object database ideas also absorbed sql implemented varying degrees object relational database products cook rai rosenberger proposed drop standardization efforts introduce additional object oriented query apis rather use oo programming language ie java net express queries result native queries emerged similarly microsoft announced language integrated query linq dlinq implementation linq september provide


close language integrated database query capabilities programming languages c vbnet february object management group omg announced granted right develop new specifications based odmg specification formation object database technology working group odbt wg odbt wg planned create set standards would incorporate advances object database technology eg replication data management eg spatial indexing data formats eg xml include new features standards support domains object databases adopted eg real time


systems work odbt wg suspended march subsequent economic turmoil late odb vendors involved effort decided focus resources elsewhere january world wide web consortium gave final recommendation status xquery language xquery uses xml data model ideas developed originally object databases found way xquery xquery intrinsically object oriented popularity xml xquery engines compete object databases vehicle storage data


complex variable hold conveniently relational database xquery also allows modules written provide encapsulation features provided object oriented systems xquery v xpath v extremely complex foss software implementing standards years publication compared xpath v xslt v xml fit community demands open format since early json gained community adoption popularity applications surpassing xml jsoniq query analog xquery json sharing xquery 's core


expressions operations demonstrated functional equivalence json xml formats context main strategy oodbms maintainers retrofit json databases using internal data type january postgresql release first foss oodbms offer efficient json internal datatype jsonb complete set functions operations basic relational non relational manipulations comparison rdbmss object database stores complex data relationships data directly without mapping relational rows columns makes


monthly db engines database management systems object oriented programming database models types databases


concurrent clearly distinguished non parallel non concurrent algorithms often referred sequential algorithms contrast concurrent algorithms parallelizability algorithms vary significantly parallelizable ranging easily parallelizable completely unparallelizable given problem may accommodate different algorithms may less parallelizable problems easy divide pieces way called ''embarrassingly parallel problems'' examples include many algorithms solve rubik 's cubes find values result given hash problems cannot split parallel portions

Formal science
Computer science
Algorithms
Parallel algorithms


scaling thus easier construct computer single fast core one many slower cores throughput multicore systems limited use since however frequency scaling hit wall thus multicore systems become widespread making parallel algorithms general use issues communication cost complexity serial algorithms estimated terms space memory time processor cycles take parallel algorithms need optimize one resource communication different processors two ways parallel processors communicate


shared memory message passing shared memory processing needs additional locking data imposes overhead additional processor bus cycles also serializes portion algorithm message passing processing uses channels message boxes communication adds transfer overhead bus additional memory need queues message boxes latency messages designs parallel processors use special buses like crossbar communication overhead small parallel algorithm decides volume traffic communication overhead additional processors outweighs


benefit adding another processor one encounters parallel slowdown load balancing another problem parallel algorithms ensuring suitably load balanced ensuring ''load'' overall work balanced rather input size balanced example checking numbers one hundred thousand primality easy split among processors however numbers simply divided evenly etc amount work unbalanced smaller numbers easier process algorithm easier test primality thus processors get work


others sit idle loaded processors complete distributed algorithms subtype parallel algorithms ' 'distributed algorithms'' algorithms designed work cluster computing distributed computing environments additional concerns beyond scope classical parallel algorithms need addressed see also multiple agent system mas parallel algorithms matrix multiplication parallel algorithms minimum spanning trees parallel computing parareal references external links https wwwmcsanlgov itf dbpp designing building parallel programs us argonne national laboratory parallel computing concurrent algorithms distributed algorithms


'''hematopathology''' '''hemopathology''' also spelled '''haem ''' see spelling differences study diseases disorders affecting found blood cells production organs tissues involved hematopoiesis bone marrow spleen thymus ref name upmc ref diagnoses treatment diseases leukemia lymphoma often deal hematopathology techniques technologies include flow cytometry studies immunohistochemistry united states hematopathology board certified subspecialty american board pathology board eligible board certified hematopathologists usually pathology residents anatomic clinical combined completed hematopathology fellowship training

Natural science
Biology
Pathology
Hematopathology


pathology residency hematopathology fellowship lasts either one two years physician practices hematopathology called '''hematopathologist''' references external links https wwwsh eahporg https wwwesp pathologyorg publications hematopathologyhtml https ashpublicationsorg blood


image px caption physiatrist assessing patient official names physician type activity sector medicine competencies formation doctor medicine md doctor osteopathic medicine bachelor medicine bachelor surgery mbbs mbchb employment field related occupation

Applied science
Medicine and health
Rehabilitation medicine


'''physical medicine rehabilitation''' also known '''physiatry''' branch medicine aims enhance restore functional ability quality life people physical impairments disabilities include conditions spinal cord injuries brain injuries strokes well pain disability due muscle ligament nerve damage physician completed training field may referred physiatrist scope field physical medicine rehabilitation encompasses variety clinical settings patient populations hospital settings physiatrists commonly treat patients


rehabilitation medicine developed separately practice treated similar patient populations consisting disabling injuries frank h krusen pioneer physical medicine emphasized use physical agents hydrotherapy hyperbaric oxygen temple university mayo clinic coined term 'physiatry' rehabilitation medicine gained prominence world wars treatment injured soldiers laborers howard rusk internal medicine physician missouri became pioneer rehabilitation medicine appointed rehabilitate airmen world war ii


baruch committee commissioned philanthropist bernard baruch defined specialty combination two fields laid framework acceptance official medical specialty committee also distributed funds establish training research programs across nation specialty came known physical medicine rehabilitation united states officially established independent board physical medicine established authority american board medical specialties insistence dr rusk others specialty incorporated rehabilitation


medicine changed name physical medicine rehabilitation treatment major goal physical medicine rehabilitation treatment help person function optimally within limitations placed upon disabling impairment disease process known cure emphasis full restoration premorbid level function rather optimization quality life able achieve full restoration team approach chronic conditions emphasized coordinate care patients comprehensive rehabilitation provided specialists field


act facilitators team leaders medical experts rehabilitation rehabilitation goal setting often used clinical care team provide team person undergoing rehabilitation acquired disability direction work towards ref name levack ref low quality evidence indicates goal setting may lead higher quality life person disability clear goal setting used context reduces increases hospitalization death ref name levack must physiatrist medical knowledge regarding patient 's condition also need


practical knowledge regarding well involves issues type wheelchair best suits patient type prosthetic would fit best current house layout accommodate handicap well every day complications patients might ref name lee training united states residency training physical medicine rehabilitation four years long including intern year general medical training programs united states accredited accreditation council graduate medical education states specifics training differs program


program residents must obtain fundamental skills residents trained inpatient setting take care multiple types rehabilitation including spinal cord injury traumatic brain injury stroke orthopedic injuries cancer cerebral palsy burn pediatric rehab disabling injuries residents also trained outpatient setting know take care chronic conditions patients following inpatient stay training residents instructed properly perform several diagnostic procedures include electromyography nerve conduction studies also procedures joint injections trigger point


mathematical bridge officially wooden bridge arch bridge cambridge united kingdom arrangement timbers series tangents describe arc bridge radial members tie tangents together triangulate structure making rigid self supporting '''mathematical sociology''' '' 'sociology mathematics''' interdiscplinary field research concerned use mathematics within sociological research well research relationships exist maths society mathematical sociology diverse meaning depending authors question

Social science
Sociology
Mathematical sociology


kind research carried creates contestation whether mathematical sociology derivative sociology intersection two disciplines discipline right dynamic ongoing academic development leaves mathematical sociology sometimes blurred lacking uniformity presenting grey areas need research developing academic remit history starting early nicolas rashevsky subsequently late anatol rapoport others developed relational probabilistic approach characterization large social networks nodes persons


links acquaintanceship late formulas derived connected local parameters closure contacts linked b c greater chance probability b c linked global network property connectivity moreover acquaintanceship ''positive tie'' ''negative ties'' animosity among persons tackle problem graph theory mathematical study abstract representations networks points lines extended include two types


links thereby create models represent positive negative sentiment relations represented signed graphs signed graph called ''balanced'' product signs relations every cycle links every graph cycle positive formalization mathematician frank harary work produced fundamental theorem theory says network interrelated positive negative ties balanced eg illustrated psychological principle friend 's enemy enemy consists two subnetworks


positive ties among nodes negative ties nodes distinct subnetworks imagery social system splits two cliques however special case one two subnetworks empty might occur small networks another model ties relative strengths 'acquaintanceship' viewed 'weak' tie 'friendship' represented strong tie like uniform cousin discussed concept closure called strong triadic closure graph satisfies strong triadic closure


derive implications theory cannot arrived intuitively mathematical sociology preferred style encapsulated phrase constructing mathematical model means making specified assumptions social phenomenon expressing formal mathematics providing empirical interpretation ideas also means deducing properties model comparing relevant empirical data social network analysis best known contribution subfield sociology whole scientific community large models typically used mathematical sociology allow sociologists


understand predictable local interactions often able elicit global patterns social structure society mathematics interested relationship society mathematical knowledge mathematical sociology sociology mathematics forms complementary sphere disciplines like sociology knowledge sociology science tries understand social roots mathematics well impact maths society reflexivity development use maths within sociology attempts understand facts mathematics related social constructions implications


economics general equilibrium theory argue general social theory begin concept purposive action analytical reasons approximate action use rational choice models coleman argument similar viewpoints expressed sociologists efforts use rational choice theory sociological analysis although efforts met substantive philosophical criticisms meanwhile structural analysis type indicated earlier received extension social networks based institutionalized social relations notably kinship linkage mathematics sociology


involved abstract algebra particular group theory turn led focus data analytical version homomorphic reduction complex social network along many techniques presented wasserman faust regard rapoport 's random biased net theory study large sociogram co authored horvath turned become influential paper early evidence influence thomas fararo co author analyzed another large friendship sociogram using biased net model later stanley milgram described


small world problem undertook field experiment dealing highly fertile idea suggested applied mark granovetter drew upon rapoport 's paper suggest apply distinction weak strong ties key idea strength weak ties programs research sociology employ experimental methods study social interaction processes joseph berger colleagues initiated program central idea use theoretical concept expectation state construct theoretical models explain interpersonal processes eg


linking external status society differential influence local group decision making much theoretical work linked mathematical model building especially late adoption graph theoretic representation social information processing berger describes looking back upon development program research collaborators explained model building reference goal model builder could explication concept theory representation single recurrent social process broad theory based theoretical construct respectively


concept balance psychological social structures process conformity experimental situation stimulus sampling theory generations mathematical sociologists followed rapoport simon harary coleman white berger including entering field thomas fararo philip bonacich tom mayer among others drew upon work variety ways present research mathematical sociology remains small subfield within discipline succeeded spawning number subfields share goals formally modeling social life foremost fields


social network analysis become among fastest growing areas sociology st century major development field rise computational sociology expands mathematical toolkit use computer simulations artificial intelligence advanced statistical methods latter subfield also makes use vast new data sets social activity generated social interaction internet one important indicator significance mathematical sociology general interest journals field including central journals ''the american journal sociology''


''the american sociological review'' published mathematical models became influential field large recent trends mathematical sociology evident contributions ''the journal mathematical sociology'' jms several trends stand development formal theories explain experimental data dealing small group processes continuing interest structural balance major mathematical theoretical idea interpenetration mathematical models oriented theory innovative quantitative techniques relating methodology use computer simulations study problems social complexity interest micro macro linkage problem


emergence ever increasing research networks social relations thus topics earliest days like balance network models continue contemporary interest formal techniques employed remain many standard well known methods mathematics differential equations stochastic processes game theory newer tools like agent based models used computer simulation studies prominently represented perennial substantive problems still drive research social diffusion social influence social status origins consequences segregation cooperation collective action power much research programs many developments mathematical sociology including formal theory exhibited notable


decades long advances began path setting contributions leading mathematical sociologists formal theorists provides another way taking note recent contributions emphasis continuity early work use idea research program coherent series theoretical empirical studies based fundamental principle approach programs follows brief capsule description leading exemplars idea emphasis originating leadership program


development decades rational choice theory james coleman pioneering ''introduction mathematical sociology'' coleman continued make contributions social theory mathematical model building volume ''foundations social theory'' major theoretical work career spanned period included many research based contributions foundation book combined accessible examples rational choice theory could function analysis sociological topics authority trust social capital norms particular emergence


general template micro macro transition gain leverage continuation topics central discipline 's explanatory focus variety macrosocial phenomena rational choice simplified micro level interest combining individual actions account macro outcomes social processes structuralism formal harrison c white decades since earliest contributions harrison white led field putting social structural analysis mathematical empirical basis including publication ''chains opportunity system models mobility organization' 's set


applied data vacancy chain model mobility across organizations influential work includes operational concepts blockmodel structural equivalence start body social relational data produce analytical results using procedures concepts ideas methods developed collaboration former students fran ois lorraine ronald breiger scott boorman three among students earned doctorates white period theory application blockmodels set detail recent monograph


white 's later contributions include structuralist approach markets general theoretical framework later appearing revised edition expectation states theory joseph berger berger intellectual organizational leadership expectation states theory branched large number specific programs research specific problems treated terms master concept expectation states colleague frequent collaborator morris zelditch jr produced work created doctoral program stanford university led enormous outpouring research notable former


students including murray webster david wagner hamit fisek collaboration mathematician robert z norman led use mathematical graph theory way representing analyzing social information processing self interactions berger zelditch also advanced work formal theorizing mathematical model building early collaborative expository analysis types models berger zelditch stimulated advances theoretical research programs providing outlets publication new work culminating edited volume includes chapter presents authoritative overview


expectation states theory program cumulative research dealing group processes formalization theoretical sociology thomas j fararo many sociologist contributions devoted bringing mathematical thinking greater contact sociological theory organized symposium attended sociological theorists formal theorists delivered papers subsequently published collaborations students colleagues theoretical research program dealt topics macrostructural theory e state structuralism former student john skvoretz subjective images stratification former student kenji kosaka tripartite


structural analysis colleague patrick doreian computational sociology colleague norman p hummon two books extended treatments approach theoretical sociology social network analysis linton c freeman early freeman directed sophisticated empirical study community power structure established journal ''social networks'' rapidly became major outlet original research papers used mathematical techniques analyze network data journal also publishes conceptual theoretical contributions including paper centrality social networks conceptual clarification paper


cited times turn mathematical concept defined paper led elaborations ideas experimental tests numerous applications empirical studies author study history sociology field social network analysis quantitative methodology kenneth c land kenneth land frontier quantitative methodology sociology well formal theoretical model building influential yearly volume ''sociological methodology'' one land favorite outlets publication papers often lie


intersection quantitative methodology mathematical sociology two theoretical papers appeared early journal mathematical formalization durkheim 's theory division labor formal theory decades long research program includes contributions relating numerous special topics methods including social statistics social indicators stochastic processes mathematical criminology demography social forecasting thus land brings fields skills statistician mathematician sociologist combined affect control theory david r heise heise published groundbreaking formal empirical study tradition


interpretive sociology especially symbolic interactionism ''understanding events affect construction social action'' origination research program included theoretical empirical studies sociologists lynn smith lovin dawn robinson neil mackinnon definition situation self definitions two leading concepts affect control theory formalism used heise contributors uses validated form measurement cybernetic control mechanism immediate feelings compared fundamental sentiments way generate


effort bring immediate feelings situation correspondence sentiments simplest models person interactive pair represented terms one side role relationship fundamental sentiments associated role guide process immediate interaction higher level control process activated definition situation transformed research program comprises several key chapters volume contributions control systems theory sense powers sociology distributive justice theory


guillermina jasso since jasso treated problems distributive justice original theory uses mathematical methods elaborated upon applied theory wide range social phenomena general mathematical apparatus theory distributive justice special case deals subjective comparison actual state reference level eg comparison actual reward expected reward justice theory starts simple premise justice evaluation function natural logarithm ratio


actual reward derives numerous empirically testable implications collaborative research john skvoretz major feature modern science collaborative research distinctive skills participants combine produce original research skvoretz addition contributions frequent collaborator variety theoretical research programs often using mathematical expertise well skills experimental design statistical data analysis simulation methods examples collaborative work theoretical statistical mathematical problems biased net theory collaborative contributions expectation states


theory collaborative contributions elementary theory collaboration bruce mayhew structuralist research program early skvoretz one prolific contributors advance mathematical sociology discussion could expanded include many programs individuals including european sociologists peter abell late raymond boudon awards mathematical sociology mathematical sociology section american sociological association initiated awards contributions field including ''the james coleman distinguished career achievement award'' coleman died


section established given every year awardees include listed terms career long research programs noah friedkin university california santa barbara ronald breiger university arizona lynn smith lovin duke university philip bonacich university california los angeles john skvoretz university south florida david r heise indiana university scott boorman yale university linton freeman university california irvine thomas fararo university pittsburgh harrison white columbia university section 's categories awards recipients listed http wwwasanetorg asa communities asa sections current sections mathematical sociology mathematical sociology section award recipients


asa section mathematical sociology texts journals mathematical sociology textbooks cover variety models usually explaining required mathematical background discussing important work literature fararo leik meeker bonacich lu earlier text otomar bartos still relevance wider scope mathematical sophistication text rapoport reader friendly imaginative introduction explanatory thinking leading models lave march reprinted ''journal mathematical sociology'' started open papers covering broad spectrum


topics employing variety types mathematics especially frequent special issues journals sociology publish papers substantial use mathematics https linkspringercom journal volumesandissues computational mathematical organization theory https wwwcmuedu joss indexhtml journal social structure http jassssocsurreyacuk jassshtml journal artificial societies social simulation articles ''social networks'' journal devoted social structural analysis often employ mathematical models related structural data analyses addition importantly indicating penetration mathematical model building sociological research major comprehensive journals sociology especially ''the american journal sociology'' ''the american sociological review'' regularly


publish articles featuring mathematical formulations see also isaac asimov 's foundation series based massive expansion premise positivism statistics computational sociology game theory thomas schelling peter blau harrison white nicolas rashevsky society mathematical biology interpersonal ties james samuel coleman james montgomery thomas fararo social network references references reading bartos otomar simple models group behavior columbia university press berger joseph https journalssagepubcom doi abs theory formalization reflections experience ''sociological theory'' berger joseph bernard p cohen j laurie snell morris zelditch jr ''types formalization small group


research'' houghton mifflin berger joseph morris zelditch jr ''new directions contemporary sociological theory'' rowman littlefield bonacich philip philip lu https booksgooglecom booksid kxsk ccpgg c printsec frontcover v onepage q f false introduction mathematical sociology princeton university press coleman james ''an introduction mathematical sociology'' free press ''foundations social theory'' harvard university press doreian patrick vladimir batagelj anuska ferligoj generalized blockmodeling cambridge university press edling christofer r mathematics sociology ''annual review sociology'' fararo thomas j ''mathematical sociology'' wiley reprinted krieger editor ''mathematical ideas sociological theory'' gordon breach ''the


meaning general theoretical sociology tradition formalization'' cambridge university press freeman linton c ''the development social network analysis'' empirical press heise david r ''understanding events affect construction social action'' cambridge university press helbing dirk ''quantitative sociodynamics'' kluwer academics lave charles james march ''an introduction models social sciences'' harper row leik robert k barbara f meeker ''mathematical sociology'' prentice hall rapoport anatol mathematical models social behavioral sciences wiley nicolas rashevsky representation organisms terms predicates ''bulletin mathematical


biophysics'' ''' ''' nicolas rashevsky outline unified approach physics biology sociology ''bulletin mathematical biophysics'' ''' ''' rosen robert tribute nicolas rashevsky ''progress theoretical biology'' ''' ''' leik robert k barbara f meeker ''mathematical sociology'' prentice hall simon herbert formal theory interaction social groups ''american sociological review'' wasserman stanley katherine faust ''social network analysis methods applications'' cambridge university press white harrison c ''an anatomy kinship'' prentice hall ''chains opportunity'' harvard university press ''identity control


structural theory action'' princeton university press ''identity control social formations emerge'' nd ed revised princeton university press external links http wwwsscnetuclaedu soc groups mathsoc indexphp home page mathematical sociology section american sociological association http wwwsmborg ''the society mathematical biology'' https doiorg fbf bulletin mathematical biophysics https webarchiveorg web http wwwesmtborg news newshtm european society mathematical theoretical biology esmtb http wwwsscnetuclaedu soc groups mathsoc indexphp mathematical sociology section home page sociology science applied mathematics


may take ref name kittayalcoff kittay eva feder linda mart n alcoff introduction defining feminist philosophy ''the blackwell guide feminist philosophy'' blackwell publishing ref aside uniting features feminist philosophy diverse field covering wide range topics variety approaches feminist philosophers philosophers found analytic continental traditions myriad different viewpoints taken philosophical issues within traditions feminist philosophers feminists also belong many different varieties feminism ref name gatens feminist philosophy understood three main functions

Humanities
Philosophy
Philosophical traditions and schools
Feminist philosophy


drawing philosophical methodologies theories articulate theorize feminist concerns perspectives include providing philosophical analysis concepts regarding identity race socio economic status gender sexuality ability religion concepts widely used theorised within feminist theory broadly feminist philosophy also important source arguments gender equality investigating sexism androcentrism within philosophical tradition involve critiquing texts theories typically classified part philosophical canon especially focusing presentation women women 's experience


exclusion women philosophical tradition another significant trend rediscovery work many female philosophers whose contributions recognised contributing philosophy new approaches existing questions well new questions fields research light critical inquiries philosophical tradition reflecting concern gender ref name kittayalcoff feminist philosophy existed twentieth century became labelled relation discourse second wave feminism important project feminist philosophy incorporate


diversity experiences women different racial groups socioeconomic classes well women around globe subfields feminist philosophers work within broad range subfields including feminist epistemology challenges traditional philosophical ideas knowledge rationality objective universal value neutral feminist epistemologists often argue importance perspective social situation values generating knowledge including sciences feminist ethics often argues emphasis objectivity rationality universality traditional moral thought excludes women 's ethical realities ref name kittayalcoff one notable developments


ethics care values empathy responsibility non violence development moral systems care ethics also involve greater recognition interpersonal connections relations care dependency feminist ethics uses critique ethics justice often rooted patriarchal understandings morality feminist ethicists shown concern values ascribed ethics care often associated femaleness connection bolster ideas moral development essentially gendered feminist phenomenology investigates cognitive faculties eg thinking interpreting remembering knowing


construction normativity within social orders combine shape individual 's reality phenomenology feminist philosophy often applied develop improved conceptions gendered embodied experience intersubjectivity relational life community society political phenomena feminist phenomenology goes beyond representation focused discourses centering personal embodied experiences well recognizing experience often operates outside language difficult articulate reflection upon time construct recent development feminist phenomenology recent works begun investigating temporality place field complex understanding


temporality illuminate realities gendered experience existence feminist aesthetics concerns role gender sexuality art aesthetic theorising deals issues related subjectivity creators reproduction gendered norms art role art enculturation representation women art subjects creators understanding women artist mutually exclusive identities reproduced since least era romanticism division made interventions feminist aesthetics necessary challenge patriarchal masculine state aesthetics feminist metaphysics


focuses largely ontology gender sex nature social construction feminist historians philosophy also examine sex biases inherent traditional metaphysical theories one main points field diverges classical metaphysics attempts ground social constructs understandings fundamental natural around metaphysics built around feminist metaphysics attempts balance relationship social constructs reality recognizing distinction perceived real socially constructed creates binary fails acknowledge interplay


two concepts similarly field works challenge systems classifications deemed natural therefore unbiased revealing systems affected political moral ideologies biases theorists raised questions regarding whether certain fundamental aspects metaphysics inherently oppose feminist approach relationship feminism metaphysics remains somewhat precarious feminist philosophy science rooted interdisciplinary academic feminism works challenge production scientific knowledge well methodologies employed productions free bias contrary perceptions


science feminist philosophy science recognizes practice science value rich instead value free suggesting ideologies related gender tied within models practices constitute science knowledge produces see also analytical feminism ethics care ethics justice feminist philosophy science hypatia transracialism controversy nikidion socialist feminism women philosophy references reading fulfer katy ryman emma june feminist phenomenology retrieved http wwwrotmanuwoca feminist phenomenology gatens feminism philosophy perspectives difference equality indiana university press


lee emily epistemology question authenticity place strategic essentialism hypatia van leeuwen anne beauvoir irigaray possibility feminist phenomenology journal speculative philosophy smith david w phenomenology stanford encyclopedia philosophy retrieved http platostanfordedu entries phenomenology stone alison introduction feminist philosophy cambridge uk polity pp feminist theory


'''group dynamics''' system behaviors psychological processes occurring within social group ''intra''group dynamics social groups ''inter''group dynamics study group dynamics useful understanding decision making behaviour tracking spread diseases society creating effective therapy techniques following emergence popularity new ideas technologies applications field studied psychology sociology anthropology political science epidemiology education social work leadership studies business managerial studies well communication studies history history group dynamics group processes ref name hoggw ref consistent underlying

Social science
Psychology
Group psychology


premise 'the whole greater sum parts' social group entity qualities cannot understood studying individuals make group gestalt psychologist max wertheimer proposed entities behaviour whole cannot derived individual elements way elements fit together rather opposite true properties parts determined intrinsic structural laws whole wertheimer p nbsp proposition remains questionable since modern biologists game theorists


look explain 'structural laws whole' terms 'the way elements fit together' field study group dynamics roots psychology sociology wilhelm wundt credited founder experimental psychology particular interest psychology communities believed possessed phenomena human language customs religion could described study individual ref name hoggw sociological side mile durkheim influenced wundt also recognized collective phenomena public knowledge key theorists include gustave le


throughout career lewin focused study group dynamics could applied real world social issues increasingly research applied evolutionary psychology principles group dynamics humans social environments became complex acquired adaptations way group dynamics enhance survival examples include mechanisms dealing status reciprocity identifying cheaters ostracism altruism group decision leadership intergroup relations also combination evolution game theory used explain development maintenance cooperative behavior individuals group key theorists gustave le bon gustave le bon


french social psychologist whose seminal study ''the crowd study popular mind'' led development group psychology william mcdougall british psychologist william mcdougall work ''the group mind'' researched dynamics groups various sizes degrees organization sigmund freud ''group psychology analysis ego'' sigmund freud based preliminary description group psychology le bon 's work went develop original theory related begun elaborate ''totem taboo'' theodor adorno reprised freud 's essay


''freudian theory pattern fascist propaganda'' said overstatement say freud though hardly interested political phase problem clearly foresaw rise nature fascist mass movements purely psychological categories jacob l moreno jacob l moreno psychiatrist dramatist philosopher theoretician coined term group psychotherapy early highly influential time kurt lewin kurt lewin commonly identified founder movement study


underworld group processes largely unseen un acknowledged opposed content issues nominally agenda group meetings wilfred bion wilfred bion studied group dynamics psychoanalytic perspective stated much influenced wilfred trotter worked university college hospital london another key figure psychoanalytic movement ernest jones discovered several mass group processes involved group whole adopting orientation opinion interfered ability group accomplish work nominally engaged


bion 's experiences reported published books especially ''experiences groups'' tavistock institute developed applied theory practices developed bion bruce tuckman bruce tuckman proposed four stage model called tuckman 's stages group tuckman 's model states ideal group decision making process occur four stages ''forming'' pretending get get along others ''storming'' letting politeness barrier trying get issues even tempers flare ''norming'' getting used developing trust productivity ''performing'' working


managing work groups hackman suggested groups successful satisfy internal external clients develop capabilities perform future members find meaning satisfaction group hackman proposed five conditions increase chance groups successful include ''being real team'' results shared task clear boundaries clarify inside outside group stability group membership ''compelling direction'' results clear challenging consequential goal ''enabling structure'' results tasks variety


task interpersonal issues hackman emphasizes many team leaders overbearing undermine group effectiveness intragroup dynamics ''intragroup dynamics'' also referred ingroup within group commonly group dynamics underlying processes give rise set norms roles relations common goals characterize particular social group examples groups include religious political military environmental groups sports teams work groups therapy groups amongst members group state interdependence behaviours attitudes opinions experiences member collectively influenced


group members many fields research interest understanding group dynamics influence individual behaviour attitudes opinions dynamics particular group depend one defines ''boundaries'' group often distinct ' 'subgroups'' within broadly defined group example one could define us residents americans group could also define specific set us residents example 'americans south' groups distinct dynamics discussed notably broad level study group


dynamics similar study ''culture'' example group dynamics us south sustain ''culture honor'' associated norms toughness honour related violence self defence group formation group formation starts psychological bond individuals ' 'social cohesion approach'' suggests group formation comes bonds interpersonal attraction ref name hoggw contrast ' 'social identity approach'' suggests group starts collection individuals perceive share social category smokers nurses students hockey players interpersonal attraction secondarily enhances connection


name emergent ref yet groups still express high levels interdependence coordinate knowledge resources tasks ref name emergent joining groups joining group determined number different factors including individual 's personal traits gender social motives need affiliation need power need intimacy attachment style prior group experiences groups offer advantages members would possible individual decided remain alone including gaining social support forms emotional support instrumental support ref name ref informational support ref name also offers friendship


potential new interests learning new skills enhancing self esteem ref name hoggabrams ref however joining group may also cost individual time effort personal resources may conform social pressures strive reap benefits may offered group ref name hoggabrams minimax principle part social exchange theory states people join remain group provide maximum amount valuable rewards time ensuring minimum amount costs ref name ref however


necessarily mean person join group simply reward cost ratio seems attractive according howard kelley john thibaut group may attractive us terms costs benefits attractiveness alone determine whether join group instead decision based two factors comparison level comparison level alternatives ref name john thibaut harold kelley 's social exchange theory comparison level standard individual evaluate desirability becoming member group


forming new social relationships within group ref name comparison level influenced previous relationships membership different groups individuals experienced positive rewards costs previous relationships groups higher comparison level person experienced negative costs fewer rewards previous relationships group memberships according social exchange theory group membership satisfying new prospective member group 's outcomes terms costs rewards individual 's comparison level well group membership unsatisfying


new member outcomes individual 's comparison level ref name comparison level predicts satisfied new member social relationships within group ref name ref determine whether people actually join leave group value alternative groups needs taken account ref name called comparison level alternatives comparison level alternatives standard individual evaluate quality group comparison groups individual opportunity join thiabaut


kelley stated comparison level alternatives defined informally lowest level outcomes member accept light available alternative opportunities joining leaving groups ultimately dependent comparison level alternatives whereas member satisfaction within group depends comparison level ref name summarize membership group comparison level alternatives comparison level membership within group satisfying individual likely join group membership group


comparison level alternatives comparison level membership satisfactory however individual likely join group since desirable options available group membership comparison level alternatives comparison level membership satisfying individual unlikely join group membership comparison alternative comparison levels membership dissatisfying individual less likely join group types groups groups vary drastically one another example three best friends


bus stop women found participants consistently sorted groups four categories intimacy groups task groups loose associations social categories categories conceptually similar four basic types discussed therefore seems individuals intuitively define aggregations individuals way primary groups primary groups characterized relatively small long lasting groups individuals share personally meaningful relationships since groups often interact face face know well unified individuals part primary groups consider group important part


lives consequently members strongly identify group even without regular meetings ref name cooley ref name charles scribner 's sons ref believed primary groups essential integrating individuals society since often first experience group example individuals born primary group family creates foundation base future relationships individuals born primary group however primary groups also form individuals interact extended periods time meaningful ways ref name examples primary groups include family close friends gangs


social groups social group characterized formally organized group individuals emotionally involved primary group groups tend larger shorter memberships compared primary groups ref name social groups stable memberships since members able leave social group join new groups goals social groups often task oriented opposed relationship oriented ref name examples social groups include coworkers clubs sports teams collectives collectives characterized large groups individuals


display similar actions outlooks loosely formed spontaneous brief ref name examples collectives include flash mob audience movie crowd watching building burn categories categories characterized collection individuals similar way ref name categories become groups similarities social implications example people treat others differently certain aspects appearance heritage example creates groups different races ref name reason categories appear higher entitativity essentialism primary


social collective groups entitativity defined campbell extent collections individuals perceived group degree entitativity group influenced whether collection individuals experience fate display similarities close proximity individuals believe group high entitativity likely believe group unchanging characteristics essential group known essentialism examples categories new yorkers gamblers women group membership social identity social group


critical source information individual identity ref name crano ref naturally make comparisons group groups necessarily make objective comparisons instead make evaluations self enhancing emphasizing positive qualities group see ingroup bias ref name hoggw way comparisons give us distinct valued social identity benefits self esteem social identity group membership also satisfies need belong course individuals belong multiple groups therefore one 's social identity several qualitatively distinct parts example one 's ethnic identity religious identity


political identity optimal distinctiveness theory suggests individuals desire similar others also desire differentiate ultimately seeking balance two desires obtain ''optimal distinctiveness'' example one might imagine young teenager united states tries balance desires wanting like everyone else also wanting fit similar others one 's collective self may offer balance two desires ref name hoggw similar others share group membership also


different others outside group group cohesion social sciences group cohesion refers processes keep members social group connected ref name dion terms attraction solidarity morale often used describe group cohesion ref name dion thought one important characteristics group linked group performance intergroup conflict therapeutic change group cohesion scientifically studied property groups commonly associated kurt lewin student leon festinger lewin defined group cohesion


willingness individuals stick together believed without cohesiveness group could exist ref name dion extension lewin 's work festinger along stanley schachter kurt back described cohesion total field forces act members remain group festinger schachter back p nbsp ref name dion later definition modified describe forces acting individual members remain group termed ''attraction group'' ref name dion since several models understanding concept group cohesion developed including albert carron 's hierarchical model several


bi dimensional models vertical v horizontal cohesion task v social cohesion belongingness morale personal v social attraction lewin festinger course descriptions similar group property example emile durkheim described two forms solidarity mechanical organic created sense collective conscious emotion based sense community black sheep effect beliefs within ingroup based individuals group see members individuals tend upgrade likeable group members deviate unlikeable group members making separate outgroup called black


sheep effect ref name marques yzerbyt leyens ref way person judges socially desirable socially undesirable individuals depends upon whether part ingroup outgroup phenomenon later accounted subjective group dynamics theory ref name marques abrams paez taboada ref according theory people derogate socially undesirable deviant ingroup members relative outgroup members give bad image ingroup jeopardize people 's social identity recent studies marques colleagues ref name pinto marques levine abrams ref shown occurs strongly regard ingroup


full members members whereas ''new members'' group must prove full members become accepted full members undergone socialization already accepted within group privilege newcomers responsibility help group achieve goals ''marginal members'' full members lost membership failed live group 's expectations rejoin group go socialization therefore full members' behavior paramount define ingroup 's image bogart ryan surveyed development new members' stereotypes


groups groups socialization results showed new members judged consistent stereotypes groups even recently committed join groups existed marginal members also tended judge group whole increasingly less positive manner became full members ref name ryan ref however evidence affects way judged members nevertheless depending self esteem individual members group may experience different private beliefs group 's activities publicly


express opposite actually share beliefs one member may personally agree something group avoid black sheep effect publicly agree group keep private beliefs person privately self aware likely comply group even possibly beliefs situation ref name pinto r ref situations hazing within fraternities sororities college campuses pledges may encounter type situation may outwardly comply tasks forced


regardless personal feelings greek institution joining done effort avoid becoming outcast group ref name ryan outcasts behave way might jeopardize group tend treated harshly likeable ones group creating black sheep effect full members fraternity might treat incoming new members harshly causing pledges decide approve situation voice disagreeing opinions group influence individual behaviour


individual behaviour influenced presence others ref name crano example studies found individuals work harder faster others present see social facilitation individual 's performance reduced others situation create distraction conflict ref name crano groups also influence individual 's decision making processes include decisions related ingroup bias persuasion see asch conformity experiments obedience see milgram experiment groupthink positive negative implications group influence individual behaviour type influence often useful context work settings team sports political activism


however influence groups individual also generate extremely negative behaviours evident nazi germany lai massacre abu ghraib prison also see abu ghraib torture prisoner abuse ref name aronson ref group structure group 's structure internal framework defines members' relations one another time frequently studied elements group structure include roles norms values communication patterns status differentials ref name jex ref group structure also defined underlying pattern roles norms networks relations among members define organize group ref name forsyth forsyth dr ''group


dynamics'' new york wadsworth ref '''roles''' defined tendency behave contribute interrelate others particular way roles may assigned formally often defined process role differentiation role differentiation degree different group members specialized functions group high level role differentiation would categorized many different roles specialized narrowly defined ref name forsyth key role group leader important roles well including task roles relationship roles


individual roles ref name forsyth functional task roles generally defined relation tasks team expected perform individuals engaged task roles focus goals group enabling work members examples task roles include coordinator recorder critic technician ref name forsyth group member engaged relationship role socioemotional role focused maintaining interpersonal emotional needs groups' members examples relationship role include encourager harmonizer compromiser ref name forsyth '''norms''' informal rules groups adopt regulate


members' behaviour norms refer done represent value judgments appropriate behaviour social situations although infrequently written even discussed norms powerful influence group behaviour fundamental aspect group structure provide direction motivation organize social interactions members ref name forsyth norms said emergent develop gradually throughout interactions group members ref name forsyth many norms widespread throughout society groups may develop norms members must learn join group various


types norms including prescriptive proscriptive descriptive injunctive ref name forsyth ''prescriptive norms'' socially appropriate way respond social situation group members supposed eg saying thank someone favour ''proscriptive norms'' actions group members prohibitive eg belching public ''descriptive norms'' describe people usually eg clapping speech ''injunctive norms'' describe behaviours people ''ought'' evaluative nature descriptive norm '''intermember relations''' connections among members group social


network within group group members linked one another varying levels examining intermember relations group highlight group 's density many members linked one another degree centrality members number ties members ref name forsyth analysing intermember relations aspect group highlight degree centrality member group lead better understanding roles certain group eg individual 'go between' group closer ties numerous group members aid


communication etc ref name forsyth '''values''' goals ideas serve guiding principles group like norms values may communicated either explicitly ad hoc basis values serve rallying point team however values conformity also dysfunction lead poor decisions team '''communication patterns''' describe flow information within group typically described either centralized decentralized centralized pattern communications tend flow one source group members