strengthen solidify moreover duty every thinking jew become acquainted harmony existing fundamental doctrines judaism philosophy wherever seem contradict one another seek mode reconciling notable jewish philosophers pre maimonides abraham ibn ezra isaac ibn ghiyyat moses ibn ezra yehuda alharizi joseph ibn tzaddik samuel ibn tibbon maimonides artist 's depiction sculpture maimonides maimonides wrote ''the guide perplexed'' influential philosophic work student father rabbi maimon


ben yosef student joseph ibn migash cordoba spain family fled spain fez maimonides enrolled academy fez studied rabbi yehuda ha kohen ibn soussan student isaac alfasi maimonides strove reconcile aristotelian philosophy science teachings torah ways position parallel averroes reaction attacks avicennian aristotelism maimonides embraced defended stricter aristotelism without neoplatonic additions principles inspired maimonides' philosophical activity identical abraham ibn daud


contradiction truths god revealed findings human intellect science philosophy maimonides departed teachings aristotle suggesting world eternal aristotle taught created ''ex nihilo'' guide perplexed maimonides explains israel lost mesorah exile lost science philosophy rejuvenated al andalus within context interaction intellectual investigation jewish christian muslim texts medieval jewish philosophy maimonides


maimonides writings almost immediately came attack karaites dominican christians tosafists provence ashkenaz al andalus scholars suggest maimonides instigated maimonidean controversy verbally attacked samuel ben ali gaon baghdad one people accustom youth believe none like generation sharply attacked monetary demands academies samuel ben ali anti maimonidean operating babylon undermine works maimonides maimonides' patrons al constantini family north africa illustrate reach maimonidean controversy


done fabric jewish culture compelled many anti maimonideans recant assertions realize cooperation christians meant texts communities maimonidean controversy flared beginning fourteenth century rabbi shlomo ben aderet influence asher ben jehiel issued cherem member community twenty five years shall study works greeks natural science metaphysics contemporary kabbalists tosafists rationalists continue engage lively sometimes caustic debate support positions influence


jewish world center many debates guide perplexed principles faith mishnah torah commentary anusim ceuta north african spain yosef ben yehuda ceuta joseph ben judah ceuta son rabbi yehuda ha kohen ibn soussan student maimonides ''guide perplexed'' written yosef traveled alexandria fustat study logic mathematics astronomy maimonides philosophically yosef 's dissertation arabic problem creation suspected written contact


maimonides entitled ''ma'amar bimehuyav ha metsiut ve'eykhut sidur ha devarim mimenu vehidush ha'olam'' treatise necessary existence procedure things necessary existence creation world jacob anatoli jacob anatoli generally regarded pioneer application maimonidean rationalism study jewish texts son law samuel ibn tibbon translator maimonides due family ties anatoli introduced philosophy maimonides study great revelation later


days referred beginning intelligent true comprehension scriptures frequently alluded ibn tibbon one two masters instructed inspired anatoli wrote ''malmad'' exhibiting broad knowledge classic jewish exegetes well plato aristotle averroes vulgate well large number christian institutions ventures criticize celibacy monastic castigation well certain heretics repeatedly appeals readers broader cultivation classic languages


court babylonian rabbis whose decision would binding factions hillel certain verdict would favor maimonides hillel wrote commentary propositions appearing beginning second part guide perplexed three philosophical treatises appended tagmulei ha nefesh first knowledge free second question mortality resulted sin adam third whether belief fallen angels true belief shemtob ben joseph ibn falaquera shem tov ibn falaquera


spanish born philosopher pursued reconciliation jewish dogma philosophy scholars speculate student rabbi david kimhi whose family fled spain narbonne ibn falaquera lived ascetic live solitude ibn falaquera 's two leading philosophic authorities averroes maimonides ibn falaquera defended '' guide perplexed '' attacks anti maimonideans knew works islamic philosophers better jewish scholar time made many available jewish scholars often without attribution ''reshit hokhmah'' ibn falaquera hesitate modify islamic philosophic texts


suited purposes example ibn falaquera turned alfarabi 's account origin philosophic religion discussion origin virtuous city ibn falaquera 's works include limited iggeret hanhagat ha guf ha nefesh treatise verse control body soul ''iggeret ha wikkua '' dialogue religious jew jewish philosopher harmony philosophy religion ''reshit okmah'' treating moral duties sciences necessity studying philosophy ''sefer ha ma'alot'' different degrees human perfection ''moreh


ha moreh'' commentary philosophical part maimonides' guide perplexed joseph ben abba mari ibn kaspi ibn kaspi fierce advocate maimonides extent left egypt order hear explanations latter 's guide perplexed maimonides' grandchildren heard guide perplexed studied muslim philosophical schools fez left town order observe method study ibn kaspi began writing years old topics


included logic linguistics ethics theology biblical exegesis super commentaries abraham ibn ezra maimonides philosophic systems followed aristotle 's averroes' defines aim fool believes everything verified proofand second unthinking category disbelieves start inquiry since certain things must accepted tradition cannot proven scholars continue debate whether ibn kaspi heretic one judaisms illustrious scholars gersonides rabbi levi ben


gershon student father gerson ben solomon arles turn student shem tov ibn falaquera gersonides best known work ''milhamot hashem'' wars lord ''milhamot hashem'' modelled guide perplexed gersonides father avid students works alexander aphrodisias aristotle empedocles galen hippocrates homer plato ptolemy pythagoras themistius theophrastus ali ibn abbas al magusi ali ibn ridwan averroes avicenna qusta ibn luqa al farabi al fergani chonain isaac israeli ibn tufail ibn zuhr isaac alfasi maimonides gersonides held


god complete foreknowledge human acts gersonides bothered old question god 's foreknowledge compatible human freedom suggests god knows beforehand choices open individual god know however choice individual freedom make moses narboni moses ben joshua composed commentaries islamic philosophical works admirer averroes devoted great deal study works wrote commentaries number best known work ''shelemut ha nefesh'' treatise perfection


soul moses began studying philosophy father thirteen later studying moses ben david caslari abraham ben david caslari students kalonymus ben kalonymus moses believed judaism guide highest degree theoretical moral truth believed torah simple direct meaning accessible average reader well deeper metaphysical meaning accessible thinkers moses rejected belief miracles instead believing could explained defended man 's free philosophical arguments isaac ben


sheshet perfet isaac ben sheshet perfet barcelona studied hasdai crescas rabbi nissim ben reuben gerondi nissim ben reuben gerondi steadfast rationalist hesitate refute leading authorities rashi rabbeinu tam moses ben nahman solomon ben adret pogroms jews spain forced isaac flee algiers lived life isaac 's responsa evidence profound knowledge philosophical writings time one responsa explains difference opinion ''gersonides''


''abraham ben david posqui res'' free gives views subject adversary kabbalah never spoke sefirot quotes another philosopher reproaching kabbalists ''believing ten sefirot christians believe trinity'' hasdai ben abraham crescas hasdai crescas barcelona leading rationalist issues natural law free views seen precursors baruch spinoza 's work ''or adonai'' became classic refutation medieval aristotelianism harbinger scientific revolution


th century hasdai crescas student nissim ben reuben gerondi turn student reuben ben nissim gerondi crescas rabbi head jewish community aragon ways hispanic jewry one critical periods among fellow students friends best friend isaac ben sheshet perfet crescas' students accolades participants disputation tortosa simeon ben zemah duran influenced teaching rabbi nissim gerona via ephraim vidal 's yeshiva majorca duran 's commentary


''magen avot'' shield fathers influenced joseph albo important also student philosophy astronomy mathematics especially medicine practiced number years palma majorca ''magen avot'' deals concepts nature god eternity torah coming messiah resurrection dead duran believed judaism three dogmas existence god torah 's divine origin reward punishment regard followed joseph albo joseph albo joseph


unnecessary soundness trunk essential judaism true according albo every law binding although every ordinance power conferring happiness observance true every law must observed neglect part law jew would violate divine covenant damned contemporary orthodox jews however vehemently disagree albo 's position believing jews divinely obligated fulfill every applicable commandment hoter ben solomon hoter ben shlomo scholar philosopher


belief attacks hasdai crescas yosef albo ''rosh amanah'' ends statement maimonides compiled articles merely accordance fashion nations set axioms fundamental principles science isaac abravanel born raised lisbon student rabbi lisbon ''yosef ben shlomo ibn yahya'' rabbi yosef poet religious scholar rebuilder ''ibn yahya synagogue calatayud'' well versed rabbinic literature learning time devoting early years study jewish philosophy ibn yahya


family renowned physicians philosophers accomplished aides portuguese monarchy centuries isaac 's grandfather samuel abravanel forcibly converted christianity pogroms took spanish name ''juan sanchez de sevilla'' samuel fled castile le n spain lisbon portugal reverted judaism shedding ''converso'' living among christians six years conversions outside judaism coerced otherwise strong impact upon young isaac later compelling forfeit immense wealth attempt redeem iberian jewry coercion alhambra decree parallels


baptized devastating insult judah family source bitterness throughout judah 's life topic writings years later especially since first time abravanel family subjected embarrassment hands catholic church judah 's ''dialoghi'' regarded finest humanistic period works neoplatonism derived hispanic jewish community especially works ibn gabirol platonic notions reaching towards nearly impossible ideal beauty wisdom perfection encompass whole work ''dialoghi d'amore''


judah defines love philosophical terms structures three dialogues conversation two abstract characters philo representing love appetite sophia representing science wisdom philo sophia philosophia criticisms kabbalah word kabbalah used medieval jewish texts mean tradition see abraham ibn daud 's ''sefer ha qabbalah'' also known book tradition book tradition refer mysticism kind chronicles tradition scholarship study two babylonian academies geonim talmudic yeshivas spain talmudic times


mystic tradition judaism known ''maaseh bereshith'' work creation ''maaseh merkavah'' work chariot maimonides interprets texts referring aristotelian physics metaphysics interpreted light torah th century however mystical esoteric system emerged became known kabbalah many beliefs associated kabbalah long rejected philosophers saadia gaon taught book ''emunot v'deot'' jews believe ''gilgul'' adopted non jewish belief maimonides rejected many texts ''heichalot'' particularly ''shi'ur qomah'' whose anthropomorphic vision


god considered heretical th century meir ben simon narbonne wrote epistle included ''milhhemet mitzvah'' early kabbalists singled ''sefer bahir'' rejecting attribution authorship tanna r nehhunya ben ha kanah describing content notable jewish philosophers post maimonides jedaiah ben abraham bedersi nissim gerona jacob ben machir ibn tibbon isaac nathan ben kalonymus judah messer leon david ben judah messer leon obadiah ben jacob sforno judah moscato azariah dei rossi isaac aboab isaac campanton aka gaon castile isaac ben moses


arama profiat duran converso duran wrote ''be like fathers'' renaissance jewish philosophy philosophers ottoman empire welcomed jews expelled spain portugal monarchies asia minor european welcomed expelled jewish merchants scholars theologians divergent jewish philosophies evolved backdrop new cultures new languages renewed theological exchange philosophic exploration continued renaissance period center mass jewish scholarship shifted france germany italy turkey elias ben moise del medigo elia del medigo descendant ''judah ben eliezer ha levi


minz'' ''moses ben isaac ha levi minz'' eli'ezer del medigo rome received surname del medigo studying medicine name later changed ''del medigo'' ''ha rofeh'' father teacher long line rationalist philosophers scholars non jewish students delmedigo classified averroist however saw follower maimonides scholastic association maimonides ibn rushd would natural one maimonides towards end life impressed ibn rushd commentaries recommended students


turn student jacob ibn habib turn student nissim ben reuben wrote commentary pentateuch titled ''yede mosheh'' hands moses also exposition talmudical treatise ''abot'' ethics fathers published salonica collection sermons delivered upon various occasions particularly funeral orations entitled ''meamme koa '' enforcing strength al ghaz l 's ''intentions philosophers'' ''de' ha f l f kavvan ha f l f m'' one widespread philosophical texts studied among jews europe translated isaac


albalag later hebrew commentators include moses narboni moses almosnino moses ben jehiel ha kohen porto rafa rapaport moses ben jehiel ha kohen porto rafa rapaport member german family rafa delmedigo family originates settled town porto vicinity verona italy became progenitors renowned rapaport rabbinic family moses served rabbi badia polesine piedmont moses friend leon modena abraham ben judah ha levi minz abraham ben judah ha levi minz italian rabbi flourished padua


first half th century father law r katzenellenbogen minz studied chiefly father judah minz succeeded rabbi head yeshiva padua meir ben isaac katzellenbogen meir ben isaac katzellenbogen born prague together shalom shachna studied jacob pollak many rabbis including moses isserles addressed responsa '' av bet din republic venice '' great scholars renaissance corresponded include ''shmuel ben moshe di modena'' ''joseph katz'' ''solomon luria'' ''moses isserles'' ''obadiah sforno''


''moses alashkar'' elijah ba'al shem chelm rabbi elijah ba'al shem chelm student rabbi solomon luria turn student rabbi shalom shachna father law teacher moses isserles elijah ba'al shem chelm also cousin moses isserles eliezer ben elijah ashkenazi rabbi eliezer ben elijah ashkenazi ha rofeh ashkenazi nicosia physician author ''yosif lekah'' book esther notable renaissance jewish philosophers francisco sanches miguel de barrios uriel da costa seventeenth century jewish philosophy


expulsion spain came dissemination jewish philosophical investigation throughout mediterranean basin northern europe western hemisphere center mass rationalism shifted france italy germany crete sicily netherlands expulsion spain coordinated pogroms europe resulted cross pollination variations rationalism incubated within diverse communities period also marked intellectual exchange among leaders christian reformation jewish scholars particular note line rationalists migrated germany present day italy crete areas ottoman


empire seeking safety protection endless pogroms fomented house habsburg roman catholic church jews rationalism incubating places far spain stories told rabbi elijah ba'al shem chelm german speaking jews descendants jews migrated back jerusalem charlemagne 's invitation revoked germany many centuries earlier lived jerusalem th century influenced prevailing mutazilite scholars jerusalem german speaking palestinian jew saved life young german man surnamed dolberger knights first crusade came besiege


jerusalem one dolberger 's family members rescued german speaking jews palestine brought back safety worms germany repay favor evidence german communities holy city comes form halakic questions sent germany jerusalem second half eleventh century foregoing resulted explosion new ideas philosophic paths yosef shlomo ben eliyahu dal medigo joseph solomon delmedigo physician teacher baruch spinoza student works baruch spinoza baruch spinoza


find reflect body work thinking unlike contemporary streams judaism instance spinoza accused pantheism scholars come view work advocating panentheism valid contemporary view easily accommodated contemporary judaism tzvi hirsch ben yaakov ashkenazi rabbi tzvi hirsch ben yaakov ashkenazi student father notably also student grandfather rabbi elijah ba'al shem chelm jacob emden rabbi jacob emden student father rabbi tzvi hirsch ben yaakov ashkenazi


rabbi amsterdam emden steadfast talmudist prominent opponent sabbateans messianic kabbalists followed sabbatai tzvi although anti maimonidean emden noted critical examination zohar concluding large parts forged seventeenth century jewish philosophers jacob abendana sephardic rabbi philosopher isaac cardoso david nieto sephardic rabbi philosopher isaac orobio de castro sephardic rabbi philosopher philosophical criticisms kabbalah rabbi leone di modena wrote accept kabbalah christian trinity would indeed compatible judaism


trinity closely resembles kabbalistic doctrine sefirot eighteenth nineteenth century jewish philosophy new era began th century thought moses mendelssohn mendelssohn described 'third moses' begins new era judaism new eras began moses prophet moses maimonides mendelssohn german jewish philosopher whose ideas renaissance european jews haskalah jewish enlightenment indebted referred father reform judaism although reform spokesmen resistant claim


spiritual father mendelssohn came regarded leading cultural figure time germans jews significant book ''jerusalem oder ber religi se macht und judentum'' ''jerusalem'' first published alongside mendelssohn important jewish philosophers eighteenth century included menachem mendel lefin anti hasidic haskalah philosopher salomon maimon enlightenment philosopher isaac satanow haskalah philosopher naphtali ullman haskalah philosopher important jewish philosophers nineteenth century included elijah benamozegh sephardic rabbi philosopher hermann cohen neo kantian jewish philosopher moses hess secular jewish philosopher one


founders socialism samson raphael hirsch leader torah im derech eretz school th century neo orthodoxy samuel hirsch leader reform judaism nachman krochmal haskalah philosopher galicia samuel david luzzatto sephardic rabbi philosopher karl marx german economist jewish philosopher traditionalist attitudes towards philosophy haredi traditionalists emerged reaction haskalah considered fusion religion philosophy difficult classical philosophers start preconditions conclusions must reach investigation classical religious believers set religious principles faith


hold one must believe haredim contended one cannot simultaneously philosopher true adherent revealed religion view attempts synthesis ultimately fail rabbi nachman breslov example viewed philosophy untrue heretical represents one strand hasidic thought creative emphasis emotions exponents hasidism positive attitude towards philosophy chabad writings schneur zalman liadi hasidut seen able unite parts torah thought schools philosophy mysticism


uncovering illuminating divine essence permeates transcends approaches interpreting verse job flesh see hashem shneur zalman explained inner meaning soul jewish mystical tradition intellectual form means analogies drawn human realm explained continued later leaders chabad enabled human mind grasp concepts godliness enable heart feel love awe god emphasised founders hasidism internal way development culminating level jewish mystical


tradition way bridges philosophy mysticism expressing transcendent human terms th st century jewish philosophy martin buber jewish existentialism one major trends modern jewish philosophy attempt develop theory judaism existentialism among early jewish existentialist philosophers lev shestov jehuda leib schwarzmann russian jewish philosopher one influential jewish existentialists first half th century franz rosenzweig researching doctoral dissertation th century german philosopher georg wilhelm friedrich hegel rosenzweig reacted hegel 's idealism


developed existential approach rosenzweig time considered conversion christianity turned jewish philosophy became philosopher student hermann cohen rosenzweig 's major work ''star redemption'' new philosophy portrays relationships hashem humanity world connected creation revelation redemption orthodox rabbi joseph soloveitchik conservative rabbis neil gillman elliot n dorff also described existentialists french philosopher talmudic commentator emmanuel levinas whose approach grew phenomenological tradition philosophy also


conservative rabbis alan mittleman jewish theological seminary elliot n dorff american jewish university also see rationalist tradition david novak university toronto novak works natural law tradition one version rationalism philosophers modern day israel rationalist tradition include david hartman moshe halbertal orthodox rationalists israel take restorationist approach reaching back time tools simplify rabbinic judaism bring jews regardless status stream judaism closer observance halacha mitzvot kashrut embrace


claims jarring contrast fact much evil world perhaps difficult question monotheists confronted one reconcile existence view god existence evil good without bad god without devil problem evil within monotheistic faiths many answers theodicies proposed however light magnitude evil seen holocaust many people examined classical views subject


people still kind faith holocaust set jewish philosophies discussed article holocaust theology reconstructionist theology perhaps controversial form jewish philosophy developed early th century religious naturalism rabbi mordecai kaplan theology variant john dewey 's pragmatist philosophy dewey 's naturalism combined atheist beliefs religious terminology order construct philosophy lost faith traditional judaism agreement classical medieval jewish thinkers kaplan affirmed hashem


personal anthropomorphic descriptions hashem best imperfect metaphors kaplan 's theology went beyond claim hashem sum natural processes allow man become self fulfilled kaplan wrote believe hashem means take granted man 's destiny rise brute eliminate forms violence exploitation human society process theology recent trend reframe jewish theology lens process philosophy specifically process theology process philosophy suggests


fundamental elements universe occasions experience according notion people commonly think concrete objects actually successions occasions experience occasions experience collected groupings something complex human thus grouping many smaller occasions experience view everything universe characterized experience confused consciousness mind body duality system mind simply seen developed kind experiencing entity intrinsic worldview notion


experiences influenced prior experiences influence future experiences process influencing never deterministic occasion experience consists process comprehending experiences reacting process process philosophy process philosophy gives god special place universe occasions experience god encompasses occasions experience also transcends thus process philosophy form panentheism original ideas process theology developed charles hartshorne influenced number jewish theologians


including british philosopher samuel alexander rabbis max kadushin milton steinberg levi olan harry slominsky bradley shavit artson abraham joshua heschel also linked tradition kabbalah philosophy kabbalah continued central haredi orthodox judaism generally rejected philosophy although chabad strain chasidism showed positive attitude towards philosophy meanwhile non orthodox jewish thought latter th century saw resurgent interest kabbalah academic studies gershom scholem began critical investigation jewish mysticism non orthodox jewish denominations jewish renewal neo hasidism spiritualised


worship many philosophers consider form philosophy kabbalah collection esoteric methods textual interpretation mysticism generally understood alternative philosophy variant philosophy among modern critics kabbalah yihhyah qafahh wrote book entitled ''milhamoth ha shem'' ''wars name'' perceived false teachings zohar false kabbalah isaac luria credited spearheading dor daim yeshayahu leibowitz publicly shared views expressed rabbi yihhyah qafahh 's book ''milhhamoth ha shem'' elaborated upon


associated reform progressive judaism rachel adler american rabbi author feminist philosopher leo baeck leader german liberal judaism eugene borowitz leader american reform judaism emil fackenheim german canadian israeli philosopher avigdor chaim gold german israeli philosopher jewish philosophers whose philosophy necessarily focused jewish themes twentieth twenty first centuries also many philosophers jewish jewish descent whose jewish background might influence approach degree whose writing necessarily focused issues specific judaism include theodor w


sarah kofman siegfried kracauer saul kripke metaphysician modal logician franz leopold neumann emmanuel levinas claude l vi strauss bernard henri l vy benny l vy leo l wenthal rosa luxemburg gy rgy luk cs herbert marcuse karl marx thomas nagel serbia born jewish philosopher martha nussbaum american moral political philosopher adi ophir israeli philosopher science moral philosopher friedrich pollock karl popper moishe postone hilary putnam american analytic philosopher ayn rand russian american jewish philosopher focused upon aristotle 's reason avital ronell murray rothbard michael j sandel eve kosofsky sedgwick american queer theorist lev shestov judith n shklar peter singer


utilitarian philosopher alan soble writes philosophy sex american born romanian russian ethnicity susan sontag sandy stone theorist artist founder transgender studies leo strauss alfred tarski polish logician michael walzer immanuel wallerstein ludwig wittgenstein irvin yalom see also hasidic philosophy jewish culture jewish denominations jewish ethics jewish existentialism jewish feminism jewish folklore jewish history jewish literature jewish mysticism jewish mythology jewish principles faith jewish religious movements jewish thought judaism politics microcosm macrocosm analogy jewish philosophy references reading online https wwwdaatacil daat mahshevt mhshvtishtm material topic daatacil http hsfbguacil cjt files linkshtml philosophy primary sources


ben gurion university http wwwhalachabruraorg alephlinkhtm online materials halacha brura institute http cmseducationgovil educationcms units tochniyot limudim machshevet mmd israeli high school syllabus educationgovil http hebrewsadnatenoshorg articles jewish philosophy haim lifshitz isaac lifshitz free jewish philosophy print sources daniel h frank oliver leaman eds ''history jewish philosophy'' london routledge colette sirat ''a history jewish philosophy middle ages'' cambridge university press external links https webarchiveorg web http radicalacademycom adiphiljewishindexhtm adventures philosophy jewish philosophy index radicalacademycom http wwwditextcom runes jhtml jewish philosophy dictionary philosophy dagobert runes https webarchiveorg web http englishsadnatenoshorg rabbi haim lifshitz articles review jewish philosophy http wwwjewishideasorg rabbi marc angel 's project reflecting fusion


modern orthodoxy sephardic judaism http wwwyeshivaco midrash cat jewish thought spirituality articles shiurim yeshiva site joseph isaac lifshitz https wwwconversationsonphilanthropyorg journal contribution towards modern idea charity towards modern idea charity conversations philanthropy jewish culture judaic studies philosophy culture philosophy ethnicity


pharmacy room basque museum history medicine science spain '' 'sociology history science''' related sociology philosophy science well entire field science studies th century occupied question large scale patterns trends development science asking questions science works philosophical practical sense science social enterprise science social enterprise developing exponentially past centuries antiquity people able engage

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of the history of science


natural inquiry either wealthy rich benefactors support religious community today scientific research tremendous government support also ongoing support private sector available methods communication improved tremendously time instead waiting months years hand copied letter arrive today scientific communication practically instantaneous earlier natural philosophers worked relative isolation due difficulty slowness communication still considerable amount cross fertilization distant groups individuals nowadays almost modern scientists participate scientific community hypothetically


global nature though often based around relatively nations institutions stature also strongly segregated different fields study scientific community important represents source established knowledge used properly ought reliable personally acquired knowledge given individual community also provides feedback mechanism often form practices peer review reproducibility items scientific content experimental results theoretical proposals literature reviews reported scientific journals hypothetically subjected peer scrutiny though number


scholarly critics inside outside scientific community recent decades began question effect commercial government investment science peer review publishing process well internal disciplinary limitations scientific publication process gutenberg era printing presses allowed rapid spread new ideas across th th century europe major development scientific revolution foundation scientific societies academia secretorum naturae accademia dei segreti academy mysteries nature considered first scientific community founded naples


giambattista della porta academy exclusive membership rule discovery new law nature prerequisite admission soon shut pope paul v alleged sorcery academia secretorum naturae replaced accademia dei lincei founded rome lincei included galileo member failed upon condemnation accademia del cimento florence lasted years royal society london present day brought together diverse collection scientists discuss theories conduct experiments review


location scientific research shifted primarily universities though extent also became standard component industry well early years th century especially role science first world war governments major industrial nations began invest heavily scientific research effort dwarfed funding scientific research undertaken sides world war ii produced wonder weapons radar rocketry atomic bomb cold war large amount government resources poured science united


language academia middle ages read written scholars many countries mid publications started appear local languages german french english dominant anti german sentiment caused world war world war ii boycotts german scientists resulted loss german scientific language later decades th century economic dominance scientific productivity united states led rise english end cold war become dominant language


scientific communication political support one basic requirements scientific community existence approval political sponsor england royal society operates aegis monarchy us national academy sciences founded act united states congress etc otherwise basic elements knowledge formulated political rulers respective communities could choose arbitrarily either support disallow nascent scientific communities example alhazen feign madness avoid execution polymath shen kuo lost political support could


three major models adopted various forms within philosophy science three models change scientific theories depicted graphically reflect roughly different views associated karl popper thomas kuhn paul feyerabend first major model implicit early histories science generally model put forward practicing scientists textbook literature associated criticisms logical positivism karl popper ndash popper 's model science one scientific progress achieved falsification incorrect theories adoption instead


revolutions'' published kuhn former physicist argued view scientific progress linear modern scientific theories necessarily accurate versions theories past rather kuhn 's version scientific development consisted dominant structures thought practices called paradigms research went phases normal science puzzle solving revolutionary science testing new theories based new assumptions brought uncertainty crisis existing theories kuhn 's model different paradigms represented entirely different incommensurate assumptions universe mode


thus uncertain whether paradigms shifted way necessarily relied upon greater attainment truth kuhn 's view aristotle 's physics newton 's classical mechanics einstein 's relativity entirely different ways think world successive paradigm defined questions could asked world perhaps arbitrarily discarded aspects previous paradigm longer seemed applicable important kuhn claimed far merely building previous theory 's accomplishments new paradigm essentially throws old way looking universe comes vocabulary describe


guidelines expanding knowledge within new paradigm kuhn 's model met much suspicion scientists historians philosophers scientists felt kuhn went far divorcing scientific progress truth many historians felt argument codified something polyvariant historically contingent scientific change many philosophers felt argument go far enough furthest extreme reasoning put forth philosopher paul feyerabend ndash argued consistent methodologies used scientists times allowed


certain forms inquiry labeled scientific way made different form inquiry witchcraft feyerabend argued harshly notion falsification ever truly followed history science noted scientists long undertaken practices arbitrarily consider theories accurate even failed many sets tests feyerabend argued pluralistic methodology undertaken investigation knowledge noted many forms knowledge previously thought non scientific later accepted valid part


scientific biographers contribute phenomenon many scientific historians emphasize collective aspects scientific discovery de emphasize importance eureka moment detailed look history science often reveals minds great thinkers primed results previous efforts often arrive scene find crisis one kind another example einstein consider physics motion gravitation isolation major accomplishments solved problem come head field recent years mdash


empirical data showing speed light inexplicably constant matter apparent speed observer see michelson morley experiment without information unlikely einstein would conceived anything like relativity question get credit given discovery often source controversy many priority disputes multiple individuals teams competing claims discovered something first multiple simultaneous discovery actually surprisingly common phenomenon perhaps largely explained idea previous contributions including emergence contradictions existing


theories unexpected empirical results make certain concept ready discovery simple priority disputes often matter documenting certain experiments performed certain ideas first articulated colleagues recorded fixed medium many times question exactly event qualify moment discovery difficult answer one famous examples question discovery oxygen carl wilhelm scheele joseph priestley able concentrate oxygen laboratory characterize properties recognize


internet central tool modern scientific community complicates notion individual accomplishment science see also historiography science inquiry scientific method references historiography science philosophy science history science sociology


'''perceptual control theory''' '''pct''' model behavior based principles negative feedback control loop maintains sensed variable near reference value means effects outputs upon variable mediated physical properties environment engineering control theory reference values set user outside system example thermostat living organism reference values controlled perceptual variables endogenously maintained biological homeostasis reflexes simple low level examples discovery mathematical principles control introduced way model

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Control theory
Perceptual control theory


worked engineers ref name black harold black negative feedback amplifier ronald kline ieee control systems magazine aug volume issue pages ref ref name bennett ref developed wiener ref name wiener nd revised ed mit press cambridge ref ashby ref name ashbydfb ref others early development field cybernetics beginning william powers applied concepts methods engineered control systems biological control systems developed experimental methodology pct ref name runkelcast ref ref name czikotwd ref key insight pct controlled


researchers field point problems purpose causation teleology foundations psychology control theory resolves aristotle william james john dewey recognized behavior purposeful merely reactive account problematic evidence intentions subjective powers pointed behaviorists following wundt thorndyke watson others rejected introspective reports data objective science psychology observable behavior could admitted data follows stance assumption environmental events


stimuli cause behavioral actions responses assumption persists cognitive psychology interposes cognitive maps postulated information processing stimulus response otherwise retains assumption linear causation environment behavior ref name marken rev ref another specific reason powers observed psychologists' rejecting notions purpose intention could see goal state yet exist could cause behavior led pct resolves philosophical arguments teleology provides model functioning organisms purpose objective status without


recourse introspection causation circular around feedback loops ref name runkel plt ref example simple negative feedback control system cruise control system car cruise control system sensor perceives speed rate spin drive shaft directly connected wheels also driver adjustable 'goal' specifying particular speed sensed speed continuously compared specified speed device called comparator subtracts currently sensed input value stored goal value difference error signal determines throttle setting


accelerator depression engine output continuously varied prevent speed car increasing decreasing desired speed environmental conditions change speed car starts drop goal speed example climbing hill small increase error signal amplified causes engine output increase keeps error nearly zero speed begins exceed goal eg going hill engine throttled back act brake speed kept


departing barely detectable amount goal speed brakes needed hill steep result cruise control system maintains speed close goal car goes hills disturbances wind affect car 's speed done without planning specific actions without blind reactions stimuli indeed cruise control system sense disturbances wind pressure senses controlled variable speed control


power generated engine uses 'behavior' engine power means control sensed speed principles negative feedback control including ability nullify effects unpredictable external internal disturbances apply living control systems ref name wiener thesis pct animals people control behavior rather vary behavior means controlling perceptions without external disturbances directly contradicts historical still widespread assumption behavior final result stimulus inputs cognitive plans ref name marken rev methodology


strong evidence experimental action disturbed controlled variable crucially important distinguish perceptions point view observer observed organism may take number variations test isolate aspect environmental situation control perceived observed organism ref name markencenterfielder ref pct employs black box methodology controlled variable measured observer corresponds quantitatively reference value perception organism controlling controlled variable thus objective index purpose


simulation model white box understood demonstrate unseen negative feedback structure within organism black box ref name runkelcast data individuals aggregated statistical analysis instead generative model built replicates data observed individuals high fidelity better build model given behavioral situation requires careful measurements three observed variables valign top ''q sub sub '' input quantity aspect stimulus subject perceives demonstrated controlling valign top ''q sub sub ''


output quantity aspect subject 's behavior affects state ''q sub sub '' valign top ' 'd'' disturbance value summing effects influences environment state ''q sub sub '' controlled experiment one aims one disturbing influence control investigator naturalistic observation situation frequently complex fourth value internally maintained reference ''r'' variable setpoint deduced value organism observed maintain ''q sub sub '' determined


test controlled variables described beginning section two variables specified controlled input ''q sub sub '' reference ''r'' properly designed control system simulated digital computer produces outputs ''q sub sub '' almost precisely oppose unpredictable disturbances ' 'd'' controlled input variance perfect control accords well observed living organisms ref name powers mathematical appendix dr richard kennaway includes computer programs reader demonstrate experimentally test theory ref perfect control would result zero effect disturbance living organisms perfect controllers


aim pct model living organisms computer simulation performs conformity experimentally measured values opposing effect unpredictable changes ' 'd'' generating nearly equal opposite values ''q sub sub '' understood model behavior internal control loop structure organism ref name runkel plt ref name pcm ref name powers extension elaboration theory constitutes general model cognitive process behavior every specific model simulation behavior constructed tested observed data general model presented theory exposed potential


challenge could call revision could lead refutation mathematics illustrate mathematical calculations employed pct simulation consider pursuit tracking task participant keeps mouse cursor aligned moving target computer monitor model assumes perceptual signal within participant represents magnitude input quantity ''q sub sub '' demonstrated rate firing neuron least lowest levels ref name powers ref ref name yinbg ref tracking task input quantity vertical distance target position ''t''


cursor position ''c'' random variation target position acts disturbance ' 'd'' input quantity suggests perceptual signal ''p'' quantitatively represents cursor position ''c'' minus target position expressed equation ''p'' ''c'' ndash ''t'' perception target cursor construction signal representing distance delay '' '' milliseconds working perceptual signal time ''t'' represents target cursor distance prior time ''t'' ndash '' '' consequently equation used model ''p'' ''t''


''c'' ''t ndash '' ndash ''t'' ''t ndash '' negative feedback control system receives reference signal ''r'' specifies magnitude given perceptual signal currently intended desired origin ''r'' within organism see hierarchy control ''r'' ''p'' input simple neural structure ''r'' excitatory ''p'' inhibitory structure called comparator ref name powers effect subtract ''p'' ''r'' yielding error signal ''e'' indicates magnitude sign difference desired magnitude ''r'' currently input magnitude


velocity cursor proportional error next position cursor ''c sub new sub '' current position ''c sub old sub '' plus velocity ''v sub cursor sub '' times duration ' 'dt'' one iteration program simple algebra substitute ''g''''e'' given ''v sub cursor sub '' yielding third equation ''c sub new sub '' ''c sub old sub '' ''g''''e''' 'dt'' three simple equations program steps constitute simplest form model tracking task three simultaneous equations evaluated random disturbances ' 'd'' target position human participant experienced


output positions velocities cursor duplicate participant 's actions tracking task within peak peak range great detail simple model refined damping factor ' 'd'' reduces discrepancy model human participant disturbance ' 'd'' set maximum difficulty ' ''c sub new sub '' ''c sub old sub '' ''g''''e'' ndash ' 'd''''c sub old sub '' ' 'dt'' detailed discussion model powers ref name powers includes source executable code reader verify well simple program simulates real behavior consideration needed possible


nonlinearities weber fechner law potential noise system continuously varying angles joints many factors could afflict performance simple linear model inverse kinematics predictive calculations required model simply reduces discrepancy input ''p'' reference ''r'' continuously arises real time required mdash predicted theory ref name runkel plt ref name powers distinctions engineering control theory artificial systems specified engineering control theory reference signal considered external input


error signal signals one higher level systems ref name levels ref engineering control systems case several reference inputs 'controller' designed manipulate inputs obtain effect output system desired system 's designer task control theory conceived calculate manipulations avoid instability oscillation designer pct model simulation specifies particular desired effect output system except must whatever required


bring input environment perceptual signal conformity reference perceptual control theory input function reference signal weighted sum internally generated signals canonical case higher level error signals loop stability determined locally loop manner sketched preceding section mathematics pct elaborated fully referenced literature weighted sum understood result reorganization engineering control theory computationally demanding preceding section shows pct example contrast implementation


model inverted pendulum engineering control theory pct implementation hierarchy five simple control systems hierarchy control perceptions pct constructed controlled hierarchy levels example visual perception object constructed differences light intensity differences sensations color edges controlling shape location object requires altering perceptions sensations intensities controlled lower level systems organizing principle applied levels abstract philosophical


less likely bring progeny maturity may die consequently natural selection successive generations organisms evolve control perceptions controlled appropriate setpoints tend maintain critical internal variables optimal levels least within non lethal limits powers called critical internal variables intrinsic variables ashby 's essential variables mechanism influences development structures perceptions controlled termed reorganization process within individual organism subject natural selection evolved structure individuals within species ref name byte


introduction see ''byte'' articles robotics article origins purpose http wwwlivingcontrolsystemscom intro papers bill pcthtml collection ref reorganization system proposed part inherited structure organism changes underlying parameters connectivity control hierarchy random walk manner basic continuous rate change intrinsic variables proceeds speed set total error stops zero error punctuated random changes direction hyperspace many dimensions critical variables


less direct adaptation ashby 's homeostat first adopted pct paper ref name pcm changed use e coli 's method navigating gradients nutrients described koshland reorganization may occur level loss control level causes intrinsic essential variables deviate genetically determined set points basic mechanism involved trial error learning leads acquisition systematic kinds learning processes ref name cziko ref psychotherapy method levels mol reorganization concept led method psychotherapy


called method levels mol using mol therapist aims help patient shift awareness higher levels perception order resolve conflicts allow reorganization take place ref name mansellcarey ref neuroscience learning currently one theory agreed upon explain synaptic neuronal systemic basis learning prominent since however idea long term potentiation ltp populations synapses induces learning pre postsynaptic mechanisms bliss l mo bliss gardner medwin ltp form hebbian learning proposed high frequency tonic


activation circuit neurones increases efficacy activated size response given stimulus compared standard neurone hebb ref name hebb ref mechanisms principles behind hebb 's famously simple explanation fire together wire together hebb ltp received much support since first observed terje l mo still subject many modern studies clinical research however possible alternative mechanisms underlying ltp presented enoki hu hamilton fine published journal


''neuron'' concede ltp basis learning however firstly propose ltp occurs individual synapses plasticity graded opposed binary mode bidirectional enoki et al secondly group suggest synaptic changes expressed solely presynaptically via changes probability transmitter release enoki et al finally team predict occurrence ltp could age dependent plasticity neonatal brain would higher mature one therefore theories differ one proposes occurrence


ltp pre postsynaptic mechanisms proposes presynaptic changes graded ability age dependence theories agree one element ltp namely must occur physical changes synaptic membrane ie synaptic plasticity perceptual control theory encompasses views proposes mechanism 'reorganisation' basis learning reorganisation occurs within inherent control system human animal restructuring inter intraconnections hierarchical organisation akin neuroscientific phenomenon neural plasticity reorganisation initially allows trial error form learning


arm fourteen control systems control fourteen joint angles involved reorganise simultaneously independently found optimum performance output functions must organised way control system 's output affects one environmental variable perceiving simulation reorganising process working powers suggests works humans reducing outputs cause error increasing reduce error initially disturbances large effects angles joints time joint angles match


control level interactions required complete task whether feedback influences lower level higher level control bedre hoffman cooney d'esposito botvinik found existing models hierarchically structured behavior share least one general assumption hierarchical part whole organization human action mirrored internal neural representations underlying specifically assumption exist representations low level motor behaviors also separable representations higher level behavioral units latest crop models provides new insights also poses new refined questions


empirical research including abstract action representations emerge learning interact different modes action control sort within prefrontal cortex pfc perceptual control theory pct provide explanatory model neural organisation deals current issues pct describes hierarchical character behavior determined control hierarchically organized perception control systems body internal environment billions interconnected neurons within brain responsible keeping perceptual signals within survivable limits unpredictably variable environment perceptions


derived pct propose internal model within brain simulates behavior issuing commands execute behavior instead one characteristic features principled lack cerebral organisation behavior rather behavior organism 's variable means reduce discrepancy perceptions reference values based various external internal inputs cools behavior must constantly adapt change organism maintain perceptual goals way pct provide explanation abstract learning spontaneous reorganisation hierarchy pct proposes


conflict occurs disparate reference values given perception rather different responses mansell learning implemented trial error changes properties control systems marken powers ref name levels rather specific response ' 'reinforced'' way behavior remains adaptive environment unfolds rather relying learned action patterns may fit hierarchies perceptual control simulated computer models shown provide close match behavioral data example marken ref name marken ref conducted experiment comparing behavior


perceptual control hierarchy computer model six healthy volunteers three experiments participants required keep distance left line centre line equal centre line right line also instructed keep distances equal nbsp cm paddles hands one controlling left line one controlling middle line resist random disturbances applied positions lines participants achieved control managed nullify expected effect


disturbances moving paddles correlation behavior subjects model experiments approached proposed organization models hierarchical control systems informs us organization human subjects whose behavior closely reproduces current situation prospects preceding explanation pct principles provides justification theory provide valid explanation neural organisation explain current issues conceptual models perceptual control theory currently proposes hierarchy levels


perceptions controlled systems human mind neural architecture intensity sensation configuration transition event relationship category sequence program principle system concept diverse perceptual signals lower level eg visual perceptions intensities combined input function construct single perception higher level eg visual perception color sensation perceptions constructed controlled lower levels passed along perceptual inputs higher levels higher levels turn control adjusting reference levels goals lower levels effect


telling lower levels perceive ref name powers ref name cziko many computer demonstrations principles developed proposed higher levels difficult model little known brain works levels isolated higher level control processes investigated models extensive hierarchy control still conceptual best rudimentary perceptual control theory widely accepted mainstream psychology effectively used considerable range domains ref name ijhcs june issue ''the international journal human computer studies'' contained papers ranging


tracking cockpit layout self image crowd dynamics ref human factors ref name cbut pct lies foundation component based usability testing ref clinical psychology psychotherapy method levels basis considerable body research sociology formed conceptual foundation reference model used succession nato research study groups ref name ist volume november reports groups available nato research technology administration publications page titles rto tr rto tr ist rto tr ist ref taught several universities worldwide subject number


phd dissertations selected bibliography cziko gary '' https webarchiveorg web http facultyeduiucedu g cziko wm without miracles universal selection theory second darwinian revolution '' cambridge mit press bradford book cziko gary '' https webarchiveorg web http facultyeduiucedu g cziko twd pdf indexhtml things using lessons bernard darwin understand behavior '' cambridge mit press bradford book forssell dag ed ''perceptual control theory overview third grand theory psychology introductions readings resources'' hayward ca living control systems publishing mansell warren ed ''the interdisciplinary handbook perceptual control theory living control systems iv''


cambridge academic press marken richard ''mind readings experimental studies purpose'' benchmark publications new canaan ct marken richard ''more mind readings methods models study purpose'' chapel hill nc new view plooij f x ''the behavioral development free living chimpanzee babies infants'' norwood nj ablex plooij f x trilogy mind heimann ed ''regression periods human infancy'' pp nbsp mahwah nj erlbaum powers william ''behavior control perception'' chicago aldine de gruyter nd exp ed powers powers william


''living control systems'' selected papers new canaan ct benchmark publications powers william ''living control systems ii'' selected papers new canaan ct benchmark publications powers william ''making sense behavior meaning control'' new canaan ct benchmark publications powers william ''behavior control perception'' new canaan benchmark publications nd exp ed powers chinese tr guongdong higher learning education press guangzhou china powers william ''living control systems iii fact control'' mathematical appendix dr richard kennaway includes computer programs


reader demonstrate experimentally test theory new canaan ct benchmark publications powers william clark r k mcfarland r l general feedback theory human behavior part part ''perceptual motor skills'' powers william runkel philip j ''dialogue concerning two chief approaches science life word pictures correlations versus working models'' hayward ca living control systems publishing robertson r j powers wt introduction modern psychology control theory view gravel switch ky control systems group robertson r j


goldstein dm mermel musgrave testing self control system theoretical methodological issues int j human computer studies runkel philip j ulian ''casting nets testing specimens two grand methods psychology'' new york praeger repr hayward ca living control systems publishing runkel philip j ulian ''people living things'' hayward ca living control systems publishing taylor martin editorial perceptual control theory application ''international journal human computer studies'' vol june pp nbsp sociology mcclelland kent thomas j fararo eds


''purpose meaning action control systems theories sociology'' new york palgrave macmillan mcphail clark ''the myth madding crowd'' new york aldine de gruyter references external links articles https docsgooglecom docid ddjs xgd f xhbg pct beginner william powers https docsgooglecom docid ddjs xgd gwhchm dispute control theory william powers requires access approval https docsgooglecom docid ddjs xgd g dp demonstrations perceptual control gary cziko audio http wwwpctweborg billpowersaudiointerview mp interview william powers origin history pct part one http wwwpctweborg billpowersaudiointerview mp interview william powers origin history pct part two


websites http wwwiapctorg international association perceptual control systems iapct website http wwwpctweborg pctweb warren mansell 's comprehensive website pct http wwwlivingcontrolsystemscom indexhtml living control systems publishing resources books pct http mindreadingscom mind readings rick marken 's website pct many interactive demonstrations http wwwmethodoflevelscomau method levels timothy carey 's website method levels http wwwperceptualrobotscom perceptual robots pct methodology architecture applied robotics https wwwresearchgatenet project perceptual control theory pct researchgate project recent research products systems psychology control theory cybernetics formal sciences robotics


'''sociotechnical systems''' '''sts''' organizational development approach complex organizational work design recognizes interaction people technology workplaces term also refers interaction society 's complex infrastructures human behaviour sense society substructures complex sociotechnical systems term sociotechnical systems coined eric trist ken bamforth fred emery world war ii era based work workers english coal mines tavistock institute london sociotechnical systems pertains theory regarding social aspects

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems theory
Sociotechnical systems theory


people society technical aspects organizational structure processes technical necessarily imply material technology focus procedures related knowledge ie refers ancient greek term ''techne'' technical term used refer structure broader sense technicalities sociotechnical refers interrelatedness ' 'social'' ''technical'' aspects organization society whole sociotechnical theory ''joint optimization'' shared emphasis achievement excellence technical performance quality people 's work lives sociotechnical theory distinct sociotechnical


systems proposes number different ways achieving joint optimisation usually based designing different kinds organisation ones relationships socio technical elements lead emergence productivity wellbeing overview sociotechnical refers interrelatedness ' 'social'' ''technical'' aspects organization sociotechnical theory founded two main principles one interaction social technical factors creates conditions successful unsuccessful organizational performance interaction consists partly linear cause effect relationships relationships normally designed partly


non linear complex even unpredictable relationships good bad relationships often unexpected whether designed types interaction occur socio technical elements put work corollary second two main principles optimization aspect alone socio technical tends increase quantity unpredictable un designed relationships relationships injurious system 's performance therefore sociotechnical theory ''joint optimization'' designing social system technical system tandem work smoothly together


remain unclear key term sociotechnical something buzzword varied usage unpicked said though often used simply quite correctly describe kind organization composed people technology key elements sts approach include combining human elements technical systems together enable new possibilities work pave way technological change trist involvement human elements negotiations may cause larger workload initially crucial


requirements determined accommodated prior implementation central systems success ref name mumford due mutual causality davis sts approach become widely linked autonomy completeness job satisfaction systems work together achieving goal ref name ref enid mumford defines socio technical approach recognise technology people ensure work systems highly efficient contain better characteristics leads higher job satisfaction employees resulting sense fulfilment improving quality work exceeding expectations mumford concludes


development information systems technical issue business organisation issue concerned process change ref name mumford ref ethics effective technical human implementation computer based systems methodology developed mumford goal creating better work systems equitable workplace method uses action research help make radical improvements work design also consensus approach includes consultative participation allows work colleagues become motivated expressing ideas method allows employees get involved design process meaning involvement


designing job system resolving conflicts method provide straightforward approach successful change involve employees making ethical supportive system design ref name mumford bednar p welch c enid mumford ethics methodology legacy chapter pp mohr b van amelsvoort p ed https liriaskuleuvenbe retrieve ''co creating humane innovative organizations evolutions practice socio technical system design'' pp global sts network ref principles central principles sociotechnical theory elaborated seminal paper eric trist ken bamforth ref


name trist bamforth ref interesting case study like work sociotechnical theory focused form 'production system' expressive era contemporary technological systems contained study based paradoxical observation despite improved technology productivity falling despite better pay amenities absenteeism increasing particular rational organisation become irrational cause problem hypothesized adoption new form production technology created need bureaucratic form


organization rather like classic command control specific example technology brought retrograde step organizational design terms analysis followed introduced terms socio technical elaborated many core principles sociotechnical theory subsequently became key elements sts approach include combining human elements technical systems together enable new possibilities work pave way technological change due mutual causality sts approach become widely linked autonomy completeness job satisfaction systems work together


achieving goal ref name responsible autonomy sociotechnical theory pioneering shift emphasis shift towards considering teams groups primary unit analysis individual sociotechnical theory pays particular attention internal supervision leadership level group refers responsible autonomy ref name trist bamforth overriding point seems simple ability individual team members able perform function predictor group effectiveness range issues team cohesion


research example answered regulation leadership internal group team factors play integral parallel role ensuring successful teamwork sociotechnical theory exploits idea semi autonomous groups conveys number advantages least among especially hazardous environments often felt need part people organisation role small primary group argued need arises cases means effective communication often somewhat limited


order preserve intact loyalties small group depend system whole needs contain bad way destroy good ref name trist bamforth practice requires groups responsible internal regulation supervision primary task relating group wider system falling explicitly group leader principle therefore describes strategy removing traditional command hierarchies adaptability carvajal states rate uncertainty overwhelms organisation related internal structure


amount environmental uncertainty sitter offered two solutions organisations confronted like military environment increased increasing complexity first option restore fit external complexity increasing internal complexity usually means creation staff functions enlargement staff functions investment vertical information systems vertical information systems often confused network enabled capability systems nec important distinction needs made sitter et al propose second option organisation tries deal


external complexity 'reducing' internal control coordination needs option might called strategy 'simple organisations complex jobs' contributes number unique advantages firstly issue human redundancy groups kind free set targets aspiration levels respect production could adjusted age stamina individuals concerned ref name trist bamforth human redundancy speaks towards flexibility ubiquity pervasiveness resources within nec second issue complexity complexity lies


heart many organisational contexts numerous organizational paradigms struggle cope trist bamforth could writing following passage large variety unfavourable changing environmental conditions encountered many impossible predict others though predictable impossible alter ref name trist bamforth many type organisations clearly motivated appealing industrial age rational principles factory production particular approach dealing complexity factory comparatively high degree control exercised


moving figure moving ground often become magnified much larger social space one far greater extent hierarchical task interdependence ref name trist bamforth reason semi autonomous group ability make much fine grained response ground situation regarded agile added local problems arise need propagate throughout entire system affect workload quality work many others complex organization simple tasks replaced simpler


organization complex tasks agility internal regulation group allows problems solved locally without propagation larger social space thus increasing tempo whole tasks another concept sociotechnical theory whole task whole task advantage placing responsibility task squarely shoulders single small face face group experiences entire cycle operations within compass membership ref name trist bamforth sociotechnical embodiment principle notion minimal critical specification principle states


may necessary quite precise done rarely necessary precise done illustrated antithetical example working rule virtual collapse system subject intentional withdrawal human adaptation situations contexts key factor minimally critically specifying tasks responsible autonomy group decide based local conditions best undertake task flexible adaptive manner principle isomorphic ideas like


designed organizations greater interdependence diffuse processes globalisation also bring issue size scale task transcends limits simple spatio temporal structure meant conditions concerned complete job one place one time ie situation face face singular group words classic organisations wholeness task often diminished multiple group integration spatiotemporal disintegration ref name trist bamforth group based form organization design proposed sociotechnical theory combined new


sub systems wider context dynamics environment extension sociotechnical theory provides richer descriptive conceptual language describing analysing designing organisations sociotechnical system therefore often describes 'thing' interlinked systems based mixture people technology environment social technical means technology definition allowed controlling factor new work systems implemented order classified 'sociotechnical' equal attention must paid providing high quality satisfying work environment employees ref name mumford ref


tavistock researchers presented employees using new improved system participating determining required quality working life improvements participative socio technical design achieved depth interviews questionnaires collection data ref name mumford approach system implementation sociotechnical systems perspective therefore ensure created systems meaningful engaged actors achieve human centred stance required recognising organisations dynamic subsist moment moment possible observe practice others consider relation contextual experiences


desires however attempts copy practice one unique context another unlikely yield satisfactory results ref name bednar welch ref using relevant data collection methods prior design system creating group internal stakeholders assist interpretation results ensure systems successful practice ref name mumford ref participative socio technical design conducted depth interviews collection statistics analysis relevant documents provide important comparative data help approve disprove chosen hypotheses common approach participative design whenever possible


potential changes capable shifting development towards sustainable directions sociotechnical perspectives also form crucial role creation systems long term sustainability development new systems consideration sociotechnical factors perspectives affected stakeholders ensures sustainable system created engaging benefits everyone involved ref name bednar welch organisation tries becoming sustainable must take consideration many dimensions financial ecological socio technical however many stakeholders main aim sustainability economically viable without long term


economic sustainability existence organisation existence could come question potentially shutting business ref name bednar welch utilisation new technology utilization new technology within organization welch c says utilization disruptive advanced technologies requires consideration multiple perspectives taking account longer term well potential short term gains ref name bednar welch points new technology risks organization without properly investigated could highly disruptive organizations need clearly investigate new technologies perspectives within


technology shows promise within one part organization could highly disruptive sections organization thus properly investigating technologies' effect organization see potential utilizing could save organization utilizing technology could destroyed autonomous work teams autonomous work teams also called self managed teams alternative traditional assembly line methods rather large number employees small operation assemble product employees organized small teams


responsible assembling entire product teams self managed independent one another mid pehr gyllenhammar created new dock assembly work system volvo kalmar plant instead traditional flow line system car production self managed teams would assemble entire car idea worker directors director company board representative workforce established project swedish government required state enterprises ref name mumford job enrichment job enrichment organizational development human resources management organizational behavior


process giving employee wider higher level scope responsibility increased decision making authority opposite job enlargement simply would involve greater authority instead increased number duties concept minimal critical specifications mumford states workers told deciding left initiative says involved work groups matrices networks employee receive correct objectives decide achieve objectives ref name mumford b ref


entire operation job rotation also practiced allow qualified employees gain insights processes company increase job satisfaction job variation term job rotation also mean scheduled exchange persons offices especially public offices prior end incumbency legislative period practiced german green party time discontinued motivation motivation psychology refers initiation direction intensity persistence behavior motivation temporal dynamic state


confused personality emotion motivation desire willingness something motivated person reaching long term goal becoming professional writer short term goal like learning spell particular word personality invariably refers less permanent characteristics individual 's state eg shy extrovert conscientious opposed motivation emotion refers temporal states immediately link behavior eg anger grief happiness view socio technical design intelligence skill combined emerging technologies


could improve work life balance employees also believed aim achieve safer pleasurable workplace well see greater democracy society achievement aims would therefore lead increased motivation employees would directly positively influence ability express ideas ref name mumford enid mumford 's work redesigning designing human systems also expressed role facilitator keep members interested motivated toward design task help resolve conflicts ref name enid mumford e https booksgooglecomsb booksid cmy zt qtyec printsec frontcover source gbs ge summary r cad v onepage q f false ''redesigning human systems'' pp


mental activities task element durations task frequency task allocation task complexity environmental conditions necessary clothing equipment unique factors involved required one people perform given task information used many purposes personnel selection training tool equipment design procedure design eg design checklists decision support systems automation job design job design work design organizational development application sociotechnical systems principles techniques humanization work example job enrichment aims


work design improved job satisfaction improved put improved quality reduced employee problems eg grievances absenteeism deliberations deliberations key units analysis non linear knowledge work 'choice points' move knowledge work forward originated defined cal pava second generation development sts theory deliberations patterns exchange communication reduce equivocality problematic issue example systems engineering work features develop new software deliberations discrete decisions continuous context decisions aspects topics


forums participants work system theory wst work system method wsm wst wsm simplifies conceptualization traditional complicated socio technical system sts approach alter extending prior research sts divides social technical aspects wst combines two perspectives work system outlines framework wsm considers work system system interest proposes solutions accordingly alter ref name alter work system theory wst work system method wsm forms socio technical systems form work systems also work system


method encourages use socio technical ideas values comes development use implementation ref name alter evolution socio technical systems evolution socio technical design seen development approached social system exclusively realisation joint optimisation social technical systems later realised divided sections primary work looks principles description incorporate technical designs macrosocial level ref name trist bamforth benefits seeing sociotechnical systems work system lens analysing designing


produce product service easier theorize potential staff reductions job roles changing reorganizations encourages motivation good reducing stress monitoring conscientious documentation practice may differ ref name alter ref problems overcome difference cultures across world data theft company information networked systems big brother effect employees hierarchical imbalance managers lower staff persuading peoples old attitude 'instant fixes' without real thought structure social network structure social network perspective first started harvard university within sociology department within information


systems social networks used study behaviour teams organisations industries social network perspective useful studying emerging forms social organisational arrangements roles ict ref name sawyer hossein ref multi directional inheritance multi directional inheritance premise work systems inherit purpose meaning structure organisation reflect priorities purposes organisation encompasses fundamentally premise includes crucial assumptions sequencing timescales precedence purpose meaning structure derive multiple contexts obtained


passed sociotechnical systems emerge throughout organisation ref name sociological perspective sociotechnical systems research interest social dimensions directed relationship among development uses resultant social organizational changes offered fresh insight emerging role ict within differing organizational context drawing directly sociological theories institution sociotechnical research informed shaped scholarship sociological theories offered solid basis upon emerging sociotechnical research built ref name sawyer hossein ethics history ethics effective technical human


field research n't always need done things current interest following immediate trends current research always way forward reminder work always finished never write outcome said georg wilhelm friedrich hegel hegel political philosopher written lot subject separated contracts contracts gift contracts exchange employment contract contract exchange hegel 's option existence contract n't matter


formal informal implies parties able recognise people owners something value article traces history socio technical design emphasizing set values embraces people espousing theory organizations practise role implementation computer systems impact number different countries stressed also shows relationship action research humanistic set principles aimed increasing human knowledge improving practice work situations evolution


c laudon jane p laudon academics practitioners field information systems organizational change textbook approach teaching management information systems based sociotechnical view systems view asserts optimal organizational performance achieved jointly optimizing social technical systems used production ref name ref thus state performance system optimized technology organization mutually adjust one another satisfactory fit obtained ref name see also complex systems cybernetics feedback human factors social network


edition edited heikki topi allen tucker chapman hall crc http sawyersyredu publications sociotechnical chapterpdf james c taylor david f felten ''performance design sociotechnical systems north america'' eric trist h murray ed ''the social engagement social science volume ii socio technical perspective'' philadelphia university pennsylvania presshttp wwwmoderntimesworkplacecom archives archiveshtml james ziegenfuss '' patients' rights organizational models sociotechnical systems research mental health programs'' hongbin zha '' interactive technologies sociotechnical systems th international conference vsmm xi'an china october proceedings'' trist e labour evolution socio technical


systems conceptual framework action research program ontario ministry labour ontario quality working life centre amelsvoort p mohr b co eds co creating humane innovative organizations evolutions practice socio technical system design global sts network press pava c managing new office technology free press new york ny external links jp vos http alexandriatuenl extra pdf making strategic realities application social systems theory niklas luhmann technical university eindhoven department technology management http stsroundtablecom sts roundtable international profit association professional scholarly practitioners sociotechnical systems


theory https webarchiveorg web http wwwaina curtineduau workshop stamashup ieee st workshop socio technical aspects mashups http istheorybyuedu wiki socio technical theory http wwwmoderntimesworkplacecom archives archiveshtml archived vol ii iii tavistock anthology philosophy technology social systems sociological theories systems psychology systems theory


'''chemical biology''' scientific discipline spanning fields chemistry biology discipline involves application chemical techniques analysis often small molecules produced synthetic chemistry study manipulation biological systems contrast biochemistry involves study chemistry biomolecules regulation biochemical pathways within cells chemical biology deals chemistry ''applied to'' biology synthesis biomolecules simulation biological systems etc introduction forms chemical biology attempt answer biological questions studying biological systems chemical level contrast

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical biology


research using biochemistry genetics molecular biology mutagenesis provide new version organism cell biomolecule interest chemical biology probes systems ''in vitro'' ''in vivo'' small molecules designed specific purpose identified basis biochemical cell based screening see chemical genetics chemical biology one several interdisciplinary sciences tend differ older reductionist fields whose goals achieve description scientific holism chemical biology scientific historical philosophical roots medicinal chemistry supramolecular chemistry bioorganic chemistry pharmacology genetics biochemistry


capture glycoproteins immobilized metal ions capture phosphorylated peptides enzyme substrates capture select enzymes enzyme probes investigate enzymatic activity opposed total protein activity based reagents developed label enzymatically active form proteins see activity based proteomics example serine hydrolase cysteine protease inhibitors converted suicide inhibitors strategy enhances ability selectively analyze low abundance constituents direct targeting ref name pmid ref enzyme activity also monitored converted substrate identification enzyme substrates problem significant difficulty proteomics vital understanding


signal transduction pathways cells method developed uses analog sensitive kinases label substrates using unnatural atp analog facilitating visualization identification unique handle ref name pmid ref glycobiology dna rna proteins encoded genetic level glycans sugar polymers encoded directly genome fewer tools available study glycobiology therefore area active research chemical biologists example cells supplied synthetic variants natural sugars probe function carolyn bertozzi 's research group developed methods site specifically reacting molecules


surface cells via synthetic sugars ref name saxon pp ref combinatorial chemistry chemical biologists used automated synthesis diverse small molecule libraries order perform high throughput analysis biological processes experiments may lead discovery small molecules antibiotic chemotherapeutic properties combinatorial chemistry approaches identical employed discipline pharmacology employing biology many research programs also focused employing natural biomolecules perform biological tasks support new chemical method regard chemical biology researchers shown dna serve template


synthetic chemistry self assembling proteins serve structural scaffold new materials rna evolved ''in vitro'' produce new catalytic function additionally heterobifunctional two sided synthetic small molecules dimerizers protacs bring two proteins together inside cells synthetically induce important new biological functions targeted protein degradation peptide synthesis chemical synthesis proteins valuable tool chemical biology allows introduction non natural amino acids well residue specific incorporation posttranslational modifications phosphorylation glycosylation acetylation even ubiquitination capabilities valuable


chemical biologists non natural amino acids used probe alter functionality proteins post translational modifications widely known regulate structure activity proteins although strictly biological techniques developed achieve ends chemical synthesis peptides often lower technical practical barrier obtaining small amounts desired protein order make protein sized polypeptide chains via small peptide fragments made synthesis chemical biologists use process native chemical ligation native chemical ligation involves coupling c terminal thioester


standard native chemical ligation chemistry followed removal auxiliary thiol directed evolution primary goal protein engineering design novel peptides proteins desired structure chemical activity knowledge relationship primary sequence structure function proteins limited rational design new proteins engineered activities extremely challenging directed evolution repeated cycles genetic diversification followed screening selection process used mimic natural selection laboratory design new proteins desired activity ref name pmid ref several methods exist creating


large libraries sequence variants among widely used subjecting dna uv radiation chemical mutagens error prone pcr degenerate codons recombination ref name bittker ref ref name pmid ref large library variants created selection screening techniques used find mutants desired attribute common selection screening techniques include facs ref name pmid ref mrna display ref name pmid ref phage display ''in vitro'' compartmentalization useful variants found dna sequence amplified subjected rounds diversification selection development directed evolution methods honored awarding nobel prize


chemistry frances arnold evolution enzymes george smith gregory winter phage display bioorthogonal reactions successful labeling molecule interest requires specific functionalization molecule react chemospecifically optical probe labeling experiment considered robust functionalization must minimally perturb system ref name pmid ref unfortunately requirements often hard meet many reactions normally available organic chemists laboratory unavailable living systems water redox sensitive reactions would proceed reagents prone nucleophilic attack would offer chemospecificity


reactions large kinetic barriers would find enough energy relatively low heat environment living cell thus chemists recently developed panel bioorthogonal chemistry proceed chemospecifically despite milieu distracting reactive materials ''in vivo'' coupling probe molecule interest must occur within reasonably short time frame therefore kinetics coupling reaction highly favorable click chemistry well suited fill niche since click reactions rapid spontaneous selective high yielding ref name pmid ref unfortunately famous click reaction


cycloaddition azide acyclic alkyne copper catalyzed posing serious problem use ''in vivo'' due copper 's toxicity ref name pmid ref bypass necessity catalyst carolyn r bertozzi 's lab introduced inherent strain alkyne species using cyclic alkyne particular cyclooctyne reacts azido molecules distinctive vigor ref name pmid ref common method installing bioorthogonal reactivity target biomolecule metabolic labeling cells immersed medium access nutrients limited synthetically modified analogues standard fuels sugars consequence


altered biomolecules incorporated cells manner unmodified metabolites probe incorporated system image fate altered biomolecules methods functionalization include enzymatically inserting azides proteins ref name pmid ref synthesizing phospholipids conjugated cyclooctynes ref name pmid ref discovery biomolecules metagenomics advances modern sequencing technologies late allowed scientists investigate dna communities organisms natural environments edna without culturing individual species lab metagenomic approach enabled scientists study wide selection organisms


previously characterized due part incompetent growth condition sources edna include soils ocean subsurface hot springs hydrothermal vents polar ice caps hypersaline habitats extreme ph environments ref name pmid ref many applications metagenomics researchers jo handelsman jon clardy robert goodman explored metagenomic approaches toward discovery biologically active molecules antibiotics ref name pmid ref overview metagenomic methods functional homology screening strategies used identify genes produce small bioactive molecules functional metagenomic studies designed search specific phenotypes associated molecules


specific characteristics homology metagenomic studies hand designed examine genes identify conserved sequences previously associated expression biologically active molecules ref name banik ref functional metagenomic studies enable discovery novel genes encode biologically active molecules assays include top agar overlay assays antibiotics generate zones growth inhibition test microbes ph assays screen ph change due newly synthesized molecules using ph indicator agar plate ref name daniel ref substrate induced gene expression screening sigex method screen expression genes


induced chemical compounds also used search genes specific functions ref name daniel homology based metagenomic studies led fast discovery genes homologous sequences previously known genes responsible biosynthesis biologically active molecules soon genes sequenced scientists compare thousands bacterial genomes simultaneously ref name banik advantage functional metagenomic assays homology metagenomic studies require host organism system express metagenomes thus method potentially save time spent analyzing nonfunctional genomes


also led discovery several novel proteins small molecules ref name pmid ref addition ''in silico'' examination global ocean metagenomic survey found new lantibiotic cyclases kinases posttranslational modification proteins phosphate groups kinases key regulatory step throughout biological systems phosphorylation events either phosphorylation protein kinases dephosphorylation phosphatases result protein activation deactivation events impact regulation physiological pathways makes ability dissect study pathways integral understanding details cellular processes exist


number challenges namely sheer size phosphoproteome fleeting nature phosphorylation events related physical limitations classical biological biochemical techniques limited advancement knowledge area use small molecule modulators protein kinases chemical biologists gained better understanding effects protein phosphorylation example nonselective selective kinase inhibitors class pyridinylimidazole compounds ref name pmid ref potent inhibitors useful dissection map kinase signaling pathways pyridinylimidazole compounds function targeting atp binding pocket although approach


well related approaches slight modifications proven effective number cases compounds lack adequate specificity general applications another class compounds mechanism based inhibitors combines knowledge kinase enzymology previously utilized inhibition motifs example bisubstrate analog inhibits kinase action binding conserved atp binding pocket protein peptide recognition site specific kinase research groups also utilized atp analogs chemical probes study kinases identify substrates development novel chemical means incorporating phosphomimetic amino acids proteins provided


important insight effects phosphorylation events phosphorylation events typically studied mutating identified phosphorylation site serine threonine tyrosine amino acid alanine cannot phosphorylated however techniques come limitations chemical biologists developed improved ways investigating protein phosphorylation installing phospho serine phospho threonine analogous phosphonate mimics native proteins researchers able perform vivo studies investigate effects phosphorylation extending amount time phosphorylation event occurs minimizing often unfavorable effects mutations expressed protein ligation proven


peptide phosphorylated upon phosphorylation dephosphorylation substrate peptide conformational change occurs results change fluorescence fret also used tandem fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy flim fluorescently conjugated antibodies flow cytometry provide quantitative results excellent temporal spatial resolution biological fluorescence chemical biologists often study functions biological macromolecules using fluorescence techniques advantage fluorescence versus techniques resides high sensitivity non invasiveness safe detection ability modulate fluorescence signal recent years discovery green


must use immunolabeling fluorescent proteins genetically encoded fused protein interest another genetic tagging technique tetracysteine biarsenical system requires modification targeted sequence includes four cysteines binds membrane permeable biarsenical molecules green red dyes flash reash picomolar affinity fluorescent proteins biarsenical tetracysteine expressed live cells present major limitations ectopic expression might cause loss function fluorescent techniques used assess number protein dynamics including protein tracking conformational changes protein protein interactions protein


synthesis turnover enzyme activity among others three general approaches measuring protein net redistribution diffusion single particle tracking correlation spectroscopy photomarking methods single particle tracking individual molecule must bright sparse enough tracked one video correlation spectroscopy analyzes intensity fluctuations resulting migration fluorescent objects small volume focus laser photomarking fluorescent protein dequenched subcellular area use intense local illumination fate marked molecule


imaged directly michalet coworkers used quantum dots single particle tracking using biotin quantum dots hela cells one best ways detect conformational changes proteins label protein interest two fluorophores within close proximity fret respond internal conformational changes result reorientation one fluorophore respect one also use fluorescence visualize enzyme activity typically using quenched activity based proteomics qabp covalent binding qabp active site targeted enzyme provide direct evidence concerning enzyme


responsible signal upon release quencher regain fluorescence see also chemoproteomics chemical genetics chemogenomics references reading journals acs chemical biology new chemical biology journal american chemical society bioorganic medicinal chemistry tetrahedron journal research interface chemistry biology chembiochem european journal chemical biology chemical biology point access chemical biology news research across rsc publishing cell chemical biology interdisciplinary journal publishes papers exceptional interest areas interface


chemistry biology http wwwchembiolcom chembiolcom journal chemical biology new journal publishing novel work reviews interface biology physical sciences published springer https wwwspringercom chemistry physical chemistry journal link journal royal society interface cross disciplinary publication promoting research interface physical life sciences molecular biosystems chemical biology journal particular focus interface chemistry omic sciences systems biology nature chemical biology monthly multidisciplinary journal providing international forum timely publication significant new research interface


chemistry biology wiley encyclopedia chemical biology http wwwwileycom wileycda wileytitle productcd desccd descriptionhtml link chemistry branches biology induced stem cells


'''european studies''' field study offered many academic colleges universities focuses current developments european integration programmes offer social science public administration curriculum focusing developments european union programmes usually include combination political science eu public policy european history european law economics sociology universities approach subject broader manner including topics like european culture european literature european languages programmes focus study european union often cover national topics comparative perspective well

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subject combines humanities social sciences disciplines involved european studies include european studies departments obviously common europe elsewhere departments dedicated study afield including north america asia australasia european studies associations uaces academic association contemporary european studies european union studies association arbeitskreis europ ische integration references external links https wwwczechuniversitiescom study czech republic cife http wwwcifeeu defaultaspx centre international de formation europ enne https europa kolleg hamburgde en master programme european legal studies glance master european european legal studies http wwwie eieu defaultaspx master advanced european international studies http wwweu online academyorg


master eu studies online https wwwzeiuni bonnde education master european studies governance regulation https wwwkuwieuropa unide de studium master es indexhtml master european studies http wwwmasesspburu en studies european societies ses library guides european studies http wwwnyplorg node modern european history area studies


exchange rates '''international monetary economics''' international '''macroeconomics''' study flows money across countries resulting effects economies whole '''international political economy''' sub category '''international relations''' studies issues impacts example international conflicts international negotiations international sanctions national security economic nationalism international agreements observance international trade scope methodology economic theory '''international trade''' differs remainder economic theory mainly comparatively limited international mobility capital labour respect would appear differ

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