ethics ref name wogaman example reason foundation christian ethics alongside revelation beginnings wogaman points christian ethicists always agreed upon meaning revelation nature reason proper way employ two together ref name wogaman says least seven ethical principles christian ethicists perennially reinterpreted ref name wogaman good evil devil opposition god represents evil tempts christ personification character god ary scheffer since christian ethic begins


god source since god defined ultimate good presence evil suffering world creates questions often referred problem evil philosopher david hume summarizes god willing prevent evil able omnipotent able willing malevolent able willing whence comes evil addressing requires theological philosophical response john hick thinks christian ethic 's greatest challenge ref name david nah ref todd calder says


least two concepts evil applicable question broad concept narrow one ref name todd calder ref broad concept evil defines pain suffering quickly becomes problematic evil cannot correctly understood simple scale pleasure vs pain ref name john kemp ref since national institute medicine says pain essential survival marcus singer says workable definition evil requires something really evil ca n't necessary really necessary ca n't evil ref name marcus g singer ref


christian story story salvific value suffering ref name taliaferro therefore christian ethic assuming reality evil recognizing power suffering support view suffering evil ref name brian han gregg ref narrow definition evil used instead defined attempt desire inflict significant harm victim without moral justification perpetrated moral agents capable independent choices ref name todd calder christian ethic offers three main responses problem evil good god freewill defense alvin plantinga


assumes world containing creatures significantly free innately valuable world one containing free creatures god could made world without including possibility evil suffering ref name gf e ref soul making theodicy advocated john hick irenaean theodicy says god allows suffering value building moral character ref name g stanley kane ref christian ethicists david ray griffin also produced process theodicies assert god 's power ability influence events necessity limited human creatures wills ref


name mark scott ref ref name david ray griffin ref nicola hoggard creegan says natural evil exists form animal suffering offers theodicy response based parable wheat tares argues nature understood intertwined mix perfect corrupted god could made one without allowing existence natural laws involved creation ref name creegan ref christian ethicists christopher southgate also produced evolutionary theodicies use evolution show


exclusivity pluralism inherent tension inclusivity exclusivity abrahamic traditions according book genesis abraham recipient promise god become great nation promise given seed exclusively yet promise also includes become blessing nations inclusively genesis ref name pyper ref god bible inclusive god nations people galatians great commission matthew command go nations yet wogaman


within context devotion god deontological standards defining morality prophets old testament show god rejecting unrighteousness injustice commending live moral lives ref name wogaman tension also deep expression god 's love undeserving sinners ref name wogaman wogaman says apostle paul refers grace treated innocent one guilty ref name wogaman wogaman argues part biblical legacy christian ethics necessity somehow justice law grace ref name wogaman author stanley


rudman asserts human rights defined post wwii language christian ethic able relate concepts world ref name stanley rudman ref convergence opinion among catholics lutherans reformed others led support human rights becoming common varieties christian ethics ref name stanley rudman authority force personal conscience wogaman asserts love must remain foundation christian ethical system ref name wogaman sermon mount jesus summarizes ethical teachings would follow new path


diverged established law turn cheek matthew love enemies matthew bless persecute romans jesus' followers must murder law says must also hold kind hatred leads must forgive instead ref name wogaman wogaman adds justice institutional structure love inevitably dependent upon incentives including ultimately use force old new testaments give explicit commands respect state 's authority carry sword romans ref name wogaman christian ethics


repeatedly divided interaction obedience authority authority 's power enforce obedience contrast one 's personal responsibility love forgive self affirmation self denial according book genesis god created declared creation including humans good genesis song songs depicts sensual love good parts old testament depict material prosperity reward yet new testament references life spirit ultimate goal warns worldliness ref name wogaman traditional view requires self sacrifice self denial self discipline greatness


lies servant mark ref name wogaman ref name beach yet according ethicist darlene weaver ontological split self monolithic polarity self interested action versus regardingness ref name weaver ref christian ethics traditionally contained concepts self love good however koji yoshino asserts within christian ethic altruistic love self love contradictory love cannot love others nevertheless ignore others cannot love ref name koji yoshino ref wealth poverty variety christian views poverty


wealth one end spectrum view casts wealth materialism evil avoided even combatted end view casts prosperity well blessing god christian ethic opponent poverty since jesus embraced opponent destitution results social injustice ref name hargaden kevin hargaden says christian ethic offer consistent defense massive wealth inequality ref name hargaden ref christians argue proper understanding christian teachings wealth poverty requires


larger view accumulation wealth central focus one 's life rather resource foster good life professor david w miller constructed three part rubric presents three prevalent attitudes among protestants towards wealth wealth offense christian faith obstacle faith outcome faith ref name miller ref gender sexuality classicist kyle harper writes sexuality heart christianity 's early clash surrounding culture rome 's concept sexual morality centered social status whereas


christian ethic radical notion individual freedom centered around libertarian paradigm complete sexual agency ref name rebecca langlands ref meant ethical obligation sexual self control placed individual male female slave free equally communities regardless status paul 's letters ''porneia'' single name array sexual behaviors outside marital intercourse became central defining concept sexual morality shunning key sign choosing follow jesus paul body consecrated space point mediation individual


supported opposed different types christian ethics political science scholar amy e black says jesus' command pay taxes matthew simply endorsement government also refusal participate fierce political debate day poll tax old testament scholar gordon wenham says jesus' response implied loyalty pagan government incompatible loyalty god ref name amy e black ref war peace ''blessed peacemakers'' george bellows christian ethic addresses warfare differing viewpoints pacifism non resistance war


preventive war sometimes called crusade ref name robert g clouse ref ref name niditch ref pacifism non resistance seen ideals action evangelical theologian harold j brown describes wars preventive wars crusades actions support ideal ref name harold j brown ref four views christian ethic presumes war immoral must waged supported christians certain conditions met enable setting aside presumption ref name wogaman pacifism non resistance opposed forms physical violence based belief example


christ demonstrates better suffer personally harm others non resistance allows non combatant service pacifism ref name augsburger ref presuppose supersession new testament old believe separation church state degree christian owe obedience loyalty state loyalty violates personal conscience ref name augsburger pacifism non resistance interpreted applying individual believers corporate bodies unregenerate worldly governments ref name augsburger mennonite minister myron augsburger says pacifism non resistance act conscience society


active force reconciliation peace ref name augsburger preventive war also sometimes referred crusade war recognize harm result failing resist tyrannical enemy ref name harold j brown preventive war waged anticipation act aggression would violate ideals human rights decency sense right wrong ref name harold j brown counter terrorism kind preventive war ref name dombrowski payne ref preventive war crusade also seen attempt set right past act aggression responded


time occurred necessarily religious nature focus attempts undo one right first place first crusade middle ages first gulf war world war ii ref name harold j brown supporters war theory say war justified self defense defense others biblical provisos types war supersessionist therefore old testament new ref name arthur holmes ref ref name levin shapira ref last years seen


shift toward war moral focus concerning state 's use force ref name schweiker ref justification war twenty first century become ethic intervention based humanitarian goals protecting innocent criminal justice early criminal justice began idea god ultimate source justice judge including administering justice earth ref name brenneman ref within christian ethics view places greatest responsibility justice judges moral character admonished lie deceptive practice racial prejudice discrimination


let egoism lead abuse authority central administration justice ref name sam souryal ref biblical ethicist christopher marshall says features covenant law old testament adopted adapted contemporary human rights law due process fairness criminal procedures equity application law ref name christopher marshall ref justice defined varied aristotle 's classic definition justice ''giving due'' entered christian ethics scholasticism thomas aquinas middle ages aristotle aquinas meant hierarchical society


receiving due according social status allows criminal justice system retributive discriminate based social standing fails recognize concept universal human rights responsibilities philip wogaman says aquinas radical reformation social gospel liberation theology redefined getting one 's due became marxist formula according ability according need along lines justice egalitarian form retaining male domination defining justice slaves paternalistic care ref name wogaman wogaman says issues


continue occupy christian ethics years come ref name wogaman capital punishment capital punishment world click enlarge see legend christian ethics twenty first century capital punishment become controversial christian ethicists sides biblical ethicist christopher marshall says offenses carry death penalty old testament ref name christopher marshall adds contemporary standards tend view laws capital punishment cavalier toward human life however ancient ethic covenantal community suggests value life much


communal individual ref name christopher marshall contemporary society capital punishment seen respect worth victim calling equal cost offender also seen respect offender treating free agents responsible choices must bear responsibility acts citizen must ref name reiman ref according jeffrey reiman argument capital punishment based offender 's guilt innocence belief killing wrong therefore never permissible act even


state ref name reiman g c hanks argues death penalty saying effective fighting crime costs life sentences reinforces poverty racism causes innocent persons executed argues interferes creating humane society negatively impacts families victims race issues seen cruel unusual punishment ref name gardner c hanks ref arguments leave retribution primary supporting argument favor capital punishment professor michael l radelet says retribution 's moral base problem christian ethic ref name radelet


catholic church historically taught capital punishment permissible twentieth century popes began argue could justified present day circumstances ways protect society offenders capital punishment abolished many countries radelet predicts increasing opposition religious leaders lead abolition america well ref name radelet ref relationships ancient religions primary focus humankind 's relationship nature ref name theodore hiebert ref whereas christian ethic primary focus relationship god absolute moral


obligation due jesus responded reversing direction question neighbor ref name stanley j grenz parable good samaritan use racially despised religiously rejected individual example good defines neighbor anyone responds need ref name arland j hultgren ref women samaritan woman meeting jesus well orthodox icon four primary views christian ethics roles women christian feminism defines school christian theology seeks advance understand


equality men women christian egalitarianism argues bible supports mutual submission views reflect belief jesus held women personally responsible behavior woman well john woman taken adultery john sinful woman anointed feet luke dealt personal freedom enough self determination choose repentance forgiveness ref name ben witherington iii ref new testament names many women among followers jesus well naming women positions leadership


early church ref name richards ref ref name mary keng mun chung ref ref name belleville ref biblical patriarchy upholds view '' corinthians '' '' timothy '' '' corinthians '' represent hierarchy male female authority ref name blomberg ref ref name belleville complementarianism contains aspects views seeing women ontologically equal functionally different twelfth thirteenth centuries ordination dedication particular role ministry capacity women church ordained ref name gary macy ref theologians medieval period circumscribed seven sacraments changed vocabulary gave sacraments exclusively male priests ref


name gary macy nineteenth century ''rights women'' brought wide variety responses christian ethics bible featuring prominently sides ranging traditional feminist ref name barbara j machaffie ref late twentieth century ordination women became controversial issue linda woodhead states many threats christianity face modern times gender equality one serious ref name linda woodhead ref marriage divorce guercino depicts jesus woman taken adultery according professor religion barbara j machaffie early church fathers


treated married life sensitivity relationship love trust mutual service contrasting non christian marriage one passions rule domineering husband lusty wife ref name barbara j machaffie synoptic gospels jesus seen emphasizing permanence marriage well integrity hardness heart moses allowed divorce wives beginning ref name chadwick henry chadwick early church ref restriction divorce based necessity protecting woman position society


necessarily religious context economic context paul concurred added exception abandonment unbelieving spouse ref name philip l reynolds ref augustine wrote treatise divorce marriage ''de adulterinis coniuigiis'' asserts couples may divorce ground ''fornication'' adultery even though marriage become one seven sacraments church thirteenth century ref name philip l reynolds though augustine confesses later works ''retractationes'' issues complicated felt failed address completely adultery standard


necessary legal divorce modern day ref name philip l reynolds twenty first century catholic church still prohibits divorce permits annulment finding marriage never valid narrow set circumstances eastern orthodox church permits divorce remarriage church certain circumstances ref name ware see timothy archbishop kalistos ware http wwwfatheralexanderorg booklets english history timothy ware htm n ''the orthodox church'' ref protestant churches discourage divorce except last resort actually prohibit church doctrine often providing divorce recovery programs well ref name bruce vawter ref sexuality celibacy lisa sowle cahill refers sex gender


difficult topics new studies christian ethics rigidity stringency traditional moral representation collided head historicized 'postmodern' interpretations moral systems cowell says tradition acquired new forms patriarchy sexism homophobia hypocrisy ref name lisa sowle cahill feminist critics suggested part drives traditional sexual morality social control women yet within postmodern western societies attempt reclaim moral autonomy sexual freedom produced loss sense sexual boundaries ref name lisa sowle cahill cahill concludes contemporary western culture personal autonomy


mutual consent almost criteria commonly accepted governing sexual behavior ref name lisa sowle cahill gospel requires relationships reconfigured new life within community yet new testament systematic investigation facets moral topic definitive guidance many variations moral problems exist twenty first century ref name lisa sowle cahill according lisa sowle cahill traditional societies place sex gender context community family parenthood modern societies respect reciprocity intimacy gender equality ref name lisa sowle cahill ref cowell says new


testament authors challenge perpetuates sin encourage transformation embodies reign god ref name lisa sowle cahill jesus made reference ' 'some made eunuchs kingdom heaven'' commandment new testament priests must unmarried celibate ref name chadwick first three four centuries law promulgated prohibiting clerical marriage celibacy matter choice bishops priests deacons ref name chadwick twenty first century roman catholic church teachings celibacy uphold monastics priests protestantism


ethics began slaves vulnerable abuse yet neither jesus paul ordered abolition slavery ref name jennifer glancy ref time christian view morals matter obedience ordained hierarchy god men ref name stowers stanley k ref paul opposed political social order age lived letters offer plan reform beyond working toward apocalyptic return christ indirectly articulate social ideal pauline virtues faith hope love first epistle


corinthians designating love highest virtues indirectly undermined mistreatment women children slaves teachings marriage personal lifestyle stanley k stowers professor religious studies asserts view paul 's refusal marry set household would require slaves insistence self supporting model followed many structurally attacked slavery attacking social basis household continuity inheritance master master ref name stowers stanley k early th century roman law


stated opposition slavery practice ref name boersma ref later saint eligius used vast wealth purchase british saxon slaves groups order set free time charlemagne muslims coming onto scene major players large scale slave trade africans alice rio lecturer medieval european history says slavery become almost non existent west ref name alice rio ref rio says criticism trade christian slaves new time opposition began get wider


support seeing involved trade rio calls symbols barbarity ref name alice rio slavery africa existed six centuries arrival portuguese opening atlantic slave trade west ref name herbert klein ref economics drove development historian herbert klein adds trade abolished us britain europe still profitable important respective economies ref name herbert klein early abolitionist literature viewed abolition slavery moral crusade ref name herbert klein churches became vital parts


harvey says prosperity gospel become dominant force american religious life translated evangelical themes modern idiom self empowerment racial reconciliation 'positive confession' harvey defines amalgam positive thinking evangelical tradition new thought ref name paul harvey prosperity gospel 's multi cultural demographic may suggest much future christian ethics race ref name paul harvey bioethics bioethics study life health issues raised modern technology attempts discover medical ethicist scott b rae christian ethicist paul cox call


normative guidelines built sound moral foundations ref name rae cox ref necessary moral questions surrounding new medical technologies become complex important difficult ref name david vandrunen ref david vandrunen professor systematic theology christian ethics opines tremendous benefits medical advances come eerie forebodings future less humane ref name david vandrunen rae cox describe best selling expos jeff lyon ''playing god nursery'' charged physicians prematurely withdrawing life sustaining technology seriously ill newborns ref name rae cox remedies infertility


enable researchers create embryos disposable resource stem cells scripture offers direct instruction right life becomes right death ref name david vandrunen catholic bio ethic seen one rests natural law moral decision making affirms basic goods values life built concept hierarchy values values basic others ref name rae cox example catholic ethics supports self determination limits values say patient chose course action would longer


best interests outside intervention would morally acceptable ref name rae cox conflict apply conflicting values rae cox say ''proportionate reasoned decision'' would made defined including values preservation life human freedom lessening pain suffering also recognizing values realized situations ref name rae cox protestant christian ethic rooted belief ''agape'' love central value love expressed pursuit good


persons ref name rae cox ethic social policy may use natural law sources knowledge protestant christian ethic ''apape'' love must remain controlling virtue guides principles practices ref name rae cox approach determines moral choice love embodying action within situation rae cox conclude view actions seen wrong acts maximal love toward another become right ref name rae cox genetic engineering new technologies prenatal testing dna therapy genetic engineering help


many yet wogaman asserts also offer ways science technology become instruments human oppression ref name wogaman manipulating genetic code prevent inheritable diseases also produce rich enough designer babies destined taller faster smarter classmates ref name david vandrunen genetic technologies correct genetic defects one defines defect often subjective parents might certain expectations gender example consider anything else defective ref name rae cox third world countries women far fewer rights female children viewed liabilities


bleak futures genetic testing widely used sex selection couples terminated otherwise healthy pregnancies child desired gender ref name rae cox research gene homosexuality could lead prenatal tests predict could particularly problematic countries homosexuals considered defective legal protection intervention problematic morally characterized playing god ref name rae cox general view genetic engineering christian ethicists stated theologian john feinburg reasons since diseases result


sin coming world christian ethics asserts jesus began process conquering sin evil healings resurrection condition human whether physical psychological understood disease something genetic technology could address problem use technology would acceptable effect would using technology fight sin consequences ref name rae cox abortion stanley rudman boils abortion debate saying one says central issue


conservatives liberals abortion question whether fetus person clear dispute may either properties thing must order person order right life moral question whether fetus given stage development possesses properties question biological question ref name stanley rudman philosophers picked capacity rationality autonomy self awareness describe personhood least four possible definitions order


true person subject must ''interests'' possess rationality capable action capacity self consciousness ref name stanley rudman fetus fails possess least one possibly argued fetus true person rudman points approach becomes slippery slope argument used justify infanticide generally supported defined society crime without assuming christian moral framework concerning sanctity life grounds killing persons


apply newborn infants neither classical utilitarianism preferential utilitarianism offer good reasons infanticide necessarily wrong ref name stanley rudman moral philosopher peter singer ''practical ethics'' describes christian argument wrong kill innocent human fetus innocent human therefore wrong kill fetus ref name stanley rudman ref name peter singer ref rudman asserts christian ethic simple syllogism narrative includes child god 's family takes account entire context surrounding birth including lives involved


contemporary christians determined moderation better approach ref name global survey evangelical protestant leaders ref ref name christopher c h cook ref ethicist christopher c h cook asserts primary question christian ethics revolves around fact alcohol misuse contemporary social problem enormous economic significance exacts high toll human suffering ref name christopher c h cook persons must directly indirectly determine ethical response alcohol 's enormous popularity widespread acceptance face social medical harm ref name christopher c h cook christian ethic takes seriously power addiction hold people captive


need experience gracious 'higher power' basis finding freedom ref name christopher c h cook physician assisted suicide physician daniel p sulmasy lists arguments physician assisted suicide pas advocating might selfish monetary reasons rather concern patient suicide devalues life limits practice erode time become used palliative care modern therapeutics become better managing pain options often available pas damage physician 's integrity undermine trust patients place


need act integrity face ref name battin rhodes silvers persistent vegetative state vandrunen explains modern technology treatments enable persistent vegetative state pvs led questions euthanasia controversial distinction ''killing'' ''letting die'' ref name david vandrunen pvs patients permanent state unconsciousness due loss higher brain function brain stem remains alive breathe swallowing voluntary reflex must receive artificial nutrition hydration anh survive patients without health problems


live extended periods ethicists conclude morally sound decline anh patient argue otherwise based defining death occurs ref name david vandrunen environmental ethics twenty first century seen increased concern human impacts environment including global warming pollution soil erosion deforestation species extinction overpopulation overconsumption ref name northcott ref appears strong scientific consensus industrialized civilization emitted enough carbon dioxide atmosphere create greenhouse effect causing global warming yet debate rages primarily economic effects limiting development ref name wogaman


michael northcott professor ethics says issues dealt reorientation modern society toward recognizing biological limits planet occur without related quest justice common good ref name northcott wogaman argues doctrine creation creates presumption favor environmental conservation ref name wogaman francis schaeffer evangelical theologian said called treat nature personally ref name northcott northcott says incarnation shows god loves material reality spirit ref name northcott recent studies indicate american christians become polarized issues liberal christians call


better steward urgent unequivocal highest priority subject negotiation compromise conservative christians however commitment stewardship become increasingly hemmed certain reservations qualifications today official position southern baptists conservative christians indistinguishable secular conservatives climate denial movement animal rights debate inhumane treatment animals revolves around issue personhood animal rights ref name stanley rudman christian ethic personhood related nature god understood terms


community inter relationship ref name stanley rudman within view nature moral community limited community equals humans equal god yet community ref name stanley rudman basis rudman argues animals included moral community without required regarded persons ref name stanley rudman says based convictions include future transformation liberation creation christian view obligated take animal welfare seriously ref name stanley rudman therefore concludes christian ethic sees emphasis animal


welfare better approach use concepts personhood divine rights addressing inhumane treatment animals ref name stanley rudman northcott adds christian ethic concepts redemption physical reality manifestation responsible stewardship community relation others vital corrective modern individualism devalues human non human distinctiveness ref name northcott see also aristotelian ethics brotherly love philosophy choose right ''christian morals'' christian pacifism christian philosophy christian values christian vegetarianism christian views old covenant council jerusalem ethics religion islamic


ethics jewish ethics buddhist ethics ethics bible good works theonomy references notes notes see time synod gangra rule apostolic synod regard blood things strangled still force greeks indeed continued always force euchologies still show balsamon also well known commentator canons middle ages commentary sixty third apostolic canon expressly blames latins ceased observe command latin church however thought


subject year shown st augustine work contra faustum states apostles given command order unite heathens jews one ark noah barrier jewish heathen converts fallen command concerning things strangled blood lost meaning observed still late eighth century pope gregory third forbade eating blood things strangled threat penance forty days


one pretend disciplinary enactments council even though one undisputed ecumenical synods greater unchanging force decree first council held holy apostles jerusalem fact decree obsolete centuries west proof even ecumenical canons may temporary utility may repealed disuse like laws citations sources reading de la torre miguel ''doing christian ethics margins'' orbis books https wwwpdcnetorg philtheol content philtheol


doomen jasper religion 's appeal ''philosophy theology'' al faruqi ismail ragi ''christian ethics historical systematic analysis dominant ideas'' mcgill university press ''nb'' written islamic perspective hein david christianity honor ''the living church'' august pp nbsp external links http wwwtyndaleca seminary mtsmodular reading rooms ethics christian ethics reading room online literature tyndale seminary http wwwklicecouk kirby laing institute christian ethics institute based cambridge england klice triannually publishes ''ethics brief'' issues read https webarchiveorg web http klicecouk indexphp resources ethics brief http wwwnewadventorg cathen ahtm ''catholic encyclopedia'' ethics http wwwnewadventorg cathen ahtm ''catholic encyclopedia'' moral theology http wwwthreegooddeedsorg three good deeds


collection resources focused judeo christian values caring environment others ethics


ethics involves systematizing defending recommending concepts right wrong behavior ref name ieputmedu ''internet encyclopedia philosophy'' http wwwieputmedu ethics ethics ref central aspect ethics good life life worth living life simply satisfying held many philosophers important traditional moral conduct religions ethical component often derived purported supernatural revelation guidance assert religion necessary live ethically simon blackburn states would say flourish umbrella strong social order cemented


common adherence particular religious tradition buddhist ethics ethics buddhism traditionally based enlightened perspective buddha enlightened beings followed moral instructions included buddhist scriptures handed tradition scholars buddhist ethics thus rely examination buddhist scriptures use anthropological evidence traditional buddhist societies justify claims nature buddhist ethics according traditional buddhism foundation buddhist ethics laypeople pancasila killing stealing lying sexual misconduct intoxicants becoming buddhist


every living thing buddhist practice extend extremes exhibited jainism buddhist jain perspectives non violence suggests intimate involvement relationship living things theravada monk bhikkhu bodhi observed buddhist ethics formulated five precepts sometimes charged entirely negative pointed five precepts even longer codes precepts promulgated buddha exhaust full range buddhist ethics precepts rudimentary code moral training


buddha also proposes ethical codes inculcating definite positive virtues mangala sutta example commends reverence humility contentment gratitude patience generosity etc discourses prescribe numerous family social political duties establishing well society behind duties lie four attitudes called immeasurables loving kindness compassion sympathetic joy equanimity christian ethics christian ethics branch christian theology defines virtuous behavior wrong behavior christian perspective systematic theological study christian ethics called moral theology christian virtues often divided four cardinal virtues three theological


deadly sins seven virtues confucian ethics confucianism neo confucianism emphasize maintenance propriety relationships important consideration ethics ethical one 's relationships require notably though owe another person inversely proportional distance words owe parents everything way obligated towards strangers seen recognition fact impossible love entire world equally simultaneously called relational ethics situational ethics


argued ideal ruler one confucius put acts like north star staying place stars orbit around words ideal ruler go force people become good instead leads example ideal ruler fosters harmony rather laws confucius stresses honesty concepts l r n seen deeper expressions honesty fidelity ones one owes one 's existence parents survival one 's neighbours colleagues


inferiors rank codified traditional practice actually changed meaning prior concepts words meant model confucian family confucian ruler dominated chinese life early th century ossified imperial hierarchy rigid property rights hard distinguish dictatorship traditional ethics perverted legalism buddhist influence buddhism specifically mahayana buddhism brought cohesive metaphysic chinese thought strong emphasis universalism neo confucianism largely reaction buddhism 's dominance tang dynasty attempt


developing native confucian metaphysical analytical system germanic neopagan ethics germanic neopagans including followers asatru theodism try emulate ethical values ancient germanic peoples norse anglo saxon form nine noble virtues hindu ethics ahimsa non violence action words thoughts considered highest ethical value virtue hinduism ref name evpc stephen h phillips authors encyclopedia violence peace conflict second edition elsevier science pages ref non violence sculpture carl fredrik reutersward malmo sweden ethics called nitisastra


sanskrit ancient texts hinduism ref name agw alban g widgery principles hindu ethics international journal ethics vol jan pp ref ethics virtue much debated evolving concept ancient scriptures hinduism virtue right conduct ethics morality part complex concept hindus call dharma everything essential people world nature exist prosper together harmony pv kane author history dharmasastra said term dharma synonym english language


often interpreted meaning duty mean justice right moral good much ethics explained hindu philosophy something cannot imposed something realized voluntarily lived individual example apastamba explained thus virtue vice go saying neither gods gandharvas ancestors convince us right wrong virtue elusive concept demands careful sustained reflection every man woman become part one 's life


ethics constitute dharmic life moral ethical virtuous life evolve vedas upanishads ethical subjects questions debated various schools hinduism quite extensively numerous texts right conduct ref name agw time new virtues conceptualized added ancient hindu scholars replaced others merged example manusamhita initially listed ten virtues necessary human live ' 'dharmic'' life ''dhriti'' courage ''kshama'' forgiveness ''dama'' temperance ''asteya'' non covetousness non stealing ''saucha'' inner purity ''indriyani graha'' control senses ' 'dhi'' reflective prudence ''vidya'' wisdom ' 'satyam''


steal whore hoard treasures correspond five ''yamas'' ancient hindu ethics ahimsa non violence satya truth non falsehood asteya non stealing brahmacharya celibacy unmarried non cheating one 's partner married aparigraha non possessiveness ref name ah andrea hornett ancient ethics contemporary systems yamas niyamas forms organization leadership classics editor prastacos et al springer verlag chapter pages ref addition five negative things abstain hindu ethics also recommends five positive things strive ''niyamas'' '' auca'' purity body speech


ref later studies yielded four approaches ethics different schools hinduism tied together three common themes ref name agw ref name wfg ethics essential part dharma concept ref name wfg ahimsa non violence foundational premise without suggests hinduism ethics consistent ethical theory impossible ethics cannot always dualistically non dualistically reduced first principles ethics closely related moksha self realization spiritual freedom vivekacudamani stating individuals self knowledge spiritual freedom inherently self examining ethical ethics freedom knowledge


require ref name wfg william f goodwin ethics value indian philosophy philosophy east west vol jan pages ref addition four topics hindu ethics scholars state karma doctrine hinduism part ethical theory compendium bhagavad gita considered one epitomes historic hindu discussion virtues allegorical debate right wrong argues virtues necessarily always absolute sometimes relational example explains virtue ahimsa must examined one faced


war violence aggressiveness immaturity ignorance others ref name klos klaus k klostermaier harvey leonard dyck peter brock ed pacifist impulse historical perspective see ''chapter himsa ahimsa traditions hinduism'' university toronto press pages ref islamic ethics foundational source gradual codification islamic ethics muslim understanding mankind granted faculty discern god 's abide faculty crucially involves reflecting meaning existence john kelsay ''encyclopedia ethics'' phrases ultimately


innate reflection described resulting state ''jahiliyya'' ignorance ref name encethic muslims believe muhammad like prophets islam sent god remind human beings moral responsibility challenge ideas society opposed submission god according kelsay challenge directed five main characteristics pre islamic arabia ref name encethic division arabs varying tribes based upon blood kinship categorization confronted ideal unified community based upon islamic piety ''ummah'' acceptance worship


multitude deities besides allah view challenged strict islamic monotheism dictates allah partner worship equal trait ''muruwwa'' manliness islam discouraged instead emphasizing traits humility piety focus achieving fame establishing legacy replaced concept mankind would called account god day resurrection reverence compliance ancestral traditions practice challenged islam instead assigned primacy submitting god following revelation changes


lay reorientation society regards identity life muslim belief world view hierarchy values viewpoint subsequent generations caused great transformation society moral order life arabian peninsula muhammad although pre islamic arabia exemplified heedlessness entirely without merit muhammad approved exhorted certain aspects arab pre islamic tradition care one 's near kin widows orphans others need establishment justice however values would ordered importance


placed context strict monotheism ref name encethic furthermore muslim follow five main characteristics also broad morals therefore muslim applying rules better person morally example islamic ethics applied important verses quran fundamental characteristics muslim piety humility muslim must humble god people turn face away people pride walk insolence earth verily god likes


arrogant boaster moderate show insolence walking lower voice verily harshest voices voice braying ass quran muslims must control passions desires muslim vain attached ephemeral pleasures world people allow material world fill hearts muslims keep god hearts material world hand instead attached car job diploma bank account


things become tools make us better people morality islam addresses every aspect muslim 's life greetings international relations universal scope applicability morality reigns selfish desires vanity bad habits muslims must virtuous must also enjoin virtue must refrain evil vice must also forbid words must morally healthy must also contribute moral health society whole best nations


raised benefit men enjoin right forbid wrong believe god followers book believed would better believers transgressors quran muhammad summarized conduct muslim said sustainer given nine commands remain conscious god whether private public speak justly whether angry pleased show moderation poor rich reunite friendship


jains cause harm human beings well living beings particularly animals highest ethical duty jainism applies one 's actions demands one non violent one 's speech thoughts ref name pkshah v ref ''satya'' truth vow always speak truth neither lie speak true encourage others approve anyone speaks untruth ref name pkshah v ''asteya'' stealing jain layperson take anything willingly given additionally jain mendicant


ask permission take something given ''brahmacharya'' celibacy abstinence sex sensual pleasures prescribed jain monks nuns laypersons vow means chastity faithfulness one 's partner ref name pkshah v ''aparigraha'' non possessiveness includes non attachment material psychological possessions avoiding craving greed jain monks nuns completely renounce property social relations nothing attached one jainism also prescribes seven supplementary vows including three ''gu vratas'' merit vows four '' ik vratas'' ''sallekhana'' ''santhara'' vow religious death ritual vow observed


end life historically jain monks nuns rare modern age vow voluntary gradual reduction food liquid intake end one 's life choice dispassion jainism believed reduce negative karma affects soul 's future rebirths jewish ethics jewish ethics may said originate hebrew bible broad legal injunctions wisdom narratives prophetic teachings subsequent jewish ethical claims may traced back texts themes teachings written torah early rabbinic judaism


oral torah interprets hebrew bible delves afresh many ethical topics best known rabbinic text associated ethics non legal mishnah tractate ''avot'' popularly translated ''ethics fathers'' generally ethics key aspect non legal rabbinic literature known aggadah ethical teachings found throughout legal halakhic portions mishnah talmud rabbinic literature early rabbinic ethics shows signs cross fertilization polemical exchange greek western philosophical ethical tradition early christian tradition medieval period direct jewish responses


greek ethics may seen major rabbinic writings notably maimonides offers jewish interpretation aristotle eg ''nicomachean ethics'' enters jewish discourse islamic writings maimonides turn influences thomas aquinas dominant figure catholic ethics natural law tradition moral theology relevance natural law medieval jewish philosophy matter dispute among scholars hellenistic influence ethics systematic form apart religious belief little found apocryphal jud hellenistic literature bible however greek philosophy greatly influenced alexandrian writers authors


iv maccabees book wisdom philo much progress theoretical ethics came jews came closer contact hellenic world period wisdom literature shows tendency dwell solely moral obligations problems life appealing man individual leaving consideration ceremonial laws concern jewish nation point view ben sira 's collection sayings monitions written translated greek circulated practical guide book contains popular ethics proverbial form result


everyday life experience without higher philosophical religious principles ideals developed ethical works emanated hasidean circles maccabean time contained tobit especially chapter iv first ethical testament found giving summary moral teachings golden rule man thou hatest leading maxim even elaborate ethical teachings ''testaments twelve patriarchs'' twelve sons jacob last words children children 's children reviews


life gives moral lessons either warning certain vice guilty may avoid divine punishment recommending cultivate certain virtue practised life may win god 's favor chief virtues recommended love one 's fellow man industry especially agricultural pursuits simplicity sobriety benevolence toward poor compassion even brute avoidance passion pride hatred similar ethical farewell monitions attributed enoch ethiopic enoch xciv et seq slavonic enoch lviii et


seq three patriarchs hellenistic jewish propaganda literature made propagation jewish ethics taken bible main object sake winning pagan world pure monotheism owing endeavor certain ethical principles laid guiding maxims gentiles first three capital sins idolatry murder incest prohibited see sibyllines iii iv et seq later jewish rabbinic literature noachide laws gradually developed six seven ten thirty laws ethics binding upon every


human scientology ethics scientology ethics based upon concepts good evil ethics may defined actions individual takes ensure continued survival across dynamics secular ethics secular ethics moral philosophy ethics based solely human faculties scientific reason sociobiological composition ethical intuition derived purported supernatural revelation guidance secular ethics comprise wide variety moral ethical systems including consequentialism freethinking humanism secular humanism utilitarianism among others majority secular moral concepts based


acceptance natural rights social contracts individual scale either form attribution intrinsic value things kantianesque ethical intuitionism logical deduction establishes preference one thing another occam 's razor approaches ethical egoism moral relativism moral skepticism moral nihilism also considered shinto ethics shinto beliefs start assumption inherent goodness humans descendants ''kami'' ref name bowker ref th century ce shinto drawn chinese idea good people adhere


societal norms emperors divine mandate bring desirable required order ref name bowker shinto adherents realize carry ''kami'' ancestors family community nation ref name bowker although state shinto reinforced subordination emperor state shrine shinto situation based ethical system emphasizes right actions toward others versus adherence specific belief system ref name bowker ref shrine shinto also stresses gratefulness blessings ''kami'' maintaining harmony emperor world ref


ethics ask greater ' 'sense being'' less identification ''the act of'' ' 'doing'' taoist ''passivity'' nurtures cultivates prepares atmosphere allows ''the majestic'' ''the real'' shine influences society better want awaken humanity awaken want eliminate suffering world eliminate dark negative truly greatest gift give self transformation lao tzu wiccan ethics wiccan morality largely based wiccan


rede 'an' harm none ye will' old fashioned language 'as long n't harming anyone wish' could interpreted mean harm usually interpreted declaration freedom act along necessity thinking taking responsibility consequences one 's actions another element wiccan morality comes law threefold return understood mean whatever one another person thing benevolent otherwise returns triple force many wiccans also


seek cultivate set eight virtues mentioned doreen valiente 's ''charge goddess'' mirth reverence honour humility strength beauty power compassion valiente 's poem ordered pairs complementary opposites reflecting dualism common throughout wiccan philosophy zoroastrian ethics zoroastrianism purpose life become ashavan master asha bring happiness world contributes cosmic battle evil zoroastrianism 's core teachings include limited follow threefold path asha humata huxta huvarshta good thoughts good


words good deeds ref name ref charity way maintaining one 's soul aligned asha spread happiness ref name ref spiritual equality duty genders ref name ref good sake goodness without hope reward see ashem vohu see also aristotelian ethics catholic moral theology divine command theory ethic reciprocity ethics without religion european wars religion evolutionary ethics golden rule islamic bioethics judeo christian ethics morality neetham worship references citations sources edition second date orig year publisher routledge isbn location london new york date publisher vikalp printers isbn quote ref date publisher motilal banarsidass location delhi


edition first isbn year publisher ib tauris isbn volume date orig year first published publisher motilal banarsidass isbn ref publisher motilal banarsidass reprint year location delhi isbn year publisher motilal banarsidass isbn ''going refuge taking precepts'' wheel publication kandy sri lanka buddhist publication society originally published transcribed internet publication retrieved access insight http wwwaccesstoinsightorg lib authors bodhi wheel html bullitt john ''the eight precepts attha sila '' retrieved access insight http wwwaccesstoinsightorg ptf dhamma sila atthasilahtml bullitt john b ''the five precepts pa ca sila '' retrieved access insight http wwwaccesstoinsightorg ptf dhamma sila pancasilahtml


davis john jefferson ''evangelical ethics issues facing church today'' presbyterian reformed pub co de la torre miguel christian ethics margins orbis books reading external links http wwwberfroiscom philip kitcher ethics without religion ethics without religion philip kitcher '' http wwwberfroiscom berfrois '' january relational ethics


screenshot web page computers store taytay hans display web page electronic media web page electronic medium graphical representations electrical audio data electronic media uses either analog red digital blue signal processing '''electronic media''' media use electronics electromechanical means audience access content contrast static media mainly print media today often created digitally require electronics accessed end user printed form primary electronic media sources

Journalism, media studies and communication


familiar general public video recordings audio recordings multimedia presentations slide presentations cd rom online content new media form digital media however electronic media may either analogue electronics data digital electronic data format although term usually associated content recorded storage medium recordings required live broadcasting online networking equipment used electronic communication process eg television radio telephone game console handheld device may also considered electronic media history development width valign top width '''transmission''' '''''wire


transmission lines''''' telegraph facsimile telephone coaxial cable fiber optics known '''''wireless''''' radio satellite free space optics '''''internet''''' downloading first protocols transferring files live streaming rtp protocol '''display output''' information processing term galvanometer telegraph sounder telephone receiver light red neon teleprinter crt radio television tuner speaker headphones led lcd laser light show computer monitor pcs large electronic display hdtv term standards hmd current width '''electrical signal processing''' capture capacitor analog methods encoding


morse code electronic modulating electronic multiplexing tdm digitizing pcm telephone electronic encryption online routing electronic programming current '''electronic information storage''' ''''' recording medium''''' punched card paper tape phonograph cylinder disk film magnetic storage ram current barcodes upc laser disc compact disc dvd current '''''content formats''''' content media current audio recording current video recording current digital file formats database content formats current '''interactivity''' control panel input device game controller handheld wired glove brain computer interface bci references mass media media studies


colorful microbial mats grand prismatic spring yellowstone national park usa orange mats composed chloroflexi cyanobacteria organisms thrive c water geobiologists often study extreme environments like home extremophilic organisms hypothesized environments may representative early earth '''geobiology''' field scientific research explores interactions physical earth biosphere relatively young field borders fluid considerable overlap fields ecology evolutionary biology microbiology paleontology

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Geobiology


particularly soil science biogeochemistry geobiology applies principles methods biology geology soil science study ancient history co evolution life earth well role life modern world geobiologic studies tend focused microorganisms role life plays altering chemical physical environment pedosphere exists intersection lithosphere atmosphere hydrosphere cryosphere differs biogeochemistry focus processes organisms space time rather global


origin life might like along way definitions geobiology even push boundaries time frame understanding origin life role humans played continue play shaping earth anthropocene ref name history microbial mat white creek yellowstone national park usa note conical microstructure bacterial communities hypothesized living analogue ancient fossil stromatolites cone oxygen gas bubble top product oxygenic


photosynthesis cyanobacteria multi species microbial mats term geobiology coined lourens baas becking words geobiology attempt describe relationship organisms earth organism part earth lot interwoven earth baas becking 's definition geobiology born desire unify environmental biology laboratory biology way practiced aligns closely modern environmental microbial ecology though definition remains applicable geobiology book geobiology bass becking stated


firmly rooted scientific discipline thanks part advances geochemistry genetics enabled scientists begin synthesize study life planet alfred treibs discovered chlorophyll like porphyrins petroleum confirming biological origin thereby founding organic geochemistry establishing notion biomarkers critical aspect geobiology several decades passed tools available begin search earnest chemical marks life rocks ' scientists like geoffrey eglington roger summons began find lipid biomarkers rock record using


equipment like gcms ref name gaines ''echoes life fossil molecules reveal earth history'' oxford university press usa ref biology side things carl woese george fox published phylogeny life earth including new domain archaea ref name ref genetics genomics studies became possible broadening scope investigation interaction life planet today geobiology journals ''geobiology'' established ''biogeosciences'' established well recognition major scientific conferences got


presence oxygen allowed eukaryotes later multicellular life evolve anthropocentric geobiologic events include origin animals establishment terrestrial plant life affected continental erosion nutrient cycling likely changed types rivers observed allowing channelization previously predominantly braided rivers subtle geobiological events include role termites overturning sediments coral reefs depositing calcium carbonate breaking waves sponges absorbing dissolved marine silica role dinosaurs breaching river levees promoting flooding role large mammal dung distributing nutrients ref name doughty ref ref


evolution environment changes classic example co evolution evolution oxygen producing photosynthetic cyanobacteria oxygenated earth 's archean atmosphere ancestors cyanobacteria began using water electron source harness energy sun expelling oxygen early paleoproterozoic time around billion years ago geologic data suggests atmospheric oxygen began rise termed great oxygenation event goe ref name ref unclear long cyanobacteria oxygenic photosynthesis goe evidence suggests geochemical buffers


sinks suppressing rise oxygen volcanism though cyanobacteria may around producing goe evidence indicates rise oxygenic photosynthesis coincident goe banded iron formation bif hammersley formation western australia presence oxygen earth first production cyanobacteria goe today drastically impacted course evolution life planet ref name may triggered formation oxidized minerals disappearance oxidizable minerals like pyrite ancient stream beds presence banded iron formations bifs


oxygen include appearance rust red ancient paleosols ref name different isotope fractionation elements sulfur global glaciations snowball earth events perhaps caused oxidation methane oxygen mention overhaul types organisms metabolisms earth whereas organisms prior rise oxygen likely poisoned oxygen gas many anaerobes today evolved ways harness electron accepting energy giving power oxygen poised thrive colonize aerobic environment modern living stromatolites shark bay australia shark bay one


places world stromatolites seen today though likely common ancient shallow seas rise metazoan predators earth changed earth remained since planetary formation billion years ago continents formed broken collided offering new opportunities barriers dispersal life redox state atmosphere oceans changed indicated isotope data fluctuating quantities inorganic compounds carbon dioxide nitrogen methane oxygen driven life


evolving new biological metabolisms make chemicals driven evolution new metabolisms use chemicals earth acquired magnetic field ga undergone series geomagnetic reversals order millions years surface temperature constant fluctuation falling glaciations snowball earth events due ice albedo feedback rising melting due volcanic outgassing stabilizing due silicate weathering feedback earth one changed luminosity sun increased time rocks record history


relatively constant temperatures since earth 's beginnings must greenhouse gasses keep temperatures archean sun younger fainter major differences environment earth placed different constraints evolution life throughout planet 's history moreover subtle changes habitat life always occurring shaping organisms traces observe today rock record genes encode geobiological function history genetic code key observing history evolution understanding


connected distant cousins ref name nei kumar ''molecular evolution phylogenetics'' oxford university press ref allows us decipher modern relationships infer evolution happened past phylogeny give sense history combined little bit information difference dna indicates divergence one species another ref name divergence whether via drift natural selection representative lapse time ref name comparing dna sequences alone gives record history evolution arbitrary measure phylogenetic distance dating


last common ancestor however information rate genetic mutation available geologic markers present calibrate evolutionary divergence ie fossils timeline evolution idea contemporaneous changes life environment begin speculate certain evolutionary paths might selected genes encode metabolism molecular biology allows scientists understand gene 's function using microbial culturing mutagenesis searching similar genes organisms metagenomic metatranscriptomic data allows us understand processes could relevant


important given ecosystem providing insight biogeochemical cycles environment example intriguing problem geobiology role organisms global cycling methane genetics revealed methane monooxygenase gene ''pmo'' used oxidizing methane present aerobic methane oxidizers methanotrophs presence dna sequences ''pmo'' gene environment used proxy methanotrophy generalizable tool ribosomal rna gene found bacteria archaea gene evolves slowly time


usually horizontally transferred often used distinguish different taxonomic units organisms environment ref name ref name ref way genes clues organismal metabolism identity genetics enables us ask 'who there' 'what doing' approach called metagenomics ref name billion year old stromatolites warrawoona group western australia origin precambrian stromatolites heavily debated topic geobiology ref name grotzinger ref stromatolites warrawoona hypothesized formed ancient communities microbes metabolic diversity influences


environment life harnesses chemical reactions generate energy perform biosynthesis eliminate waste different organisms use different metabolic approaches meet basic needs ref name ref animals limited aerobic respiration organisms breathe sulfate nitrate ferric iron fe iii uranium u vi live energy fermentation ref name organisms like plants autotrophs meaning fix carbon dioxide biosynthesis plants photoautotrophs use energy light fix carbon microorganisms employ oxygenic anoxygenic photoautotrophy well chemoautotrophy microbial communities


coordinate syntrophic metabolisms shift reaction kinetics favor many organisms perform multiple metabolisms achieve end goal called mixotrophs ref name biotic metabolism directly tied global cycling elements compounds earth geochemical environment fuels life produces different molecules go external environment directly relevant biogeochemistry addition biochemical reactions catalyzed enzymes sometimes prefer one isotope others example oxygenic photosynthesis catalyzed rubisco prefers carbon carbon resulting carbon isotope fractionation


rock record giant ooids johnnie formation death valley area california usa ooids near spheroidal calcium carbonate grains accumulate around central nucleus sedimented form oolite like microbes mediate formation ooids ref name grotzinger sedimentary rocks tell story sedimentary rocks preserve remnants history life earth form fossils biomarkers isotopes traces rock record far perfect preservation biosignatures rare occurrence understanding factors determine extent preservation


meaning behind preserved important components detangling ancient history co evolution life earth ref name sedimentary record allows scientists observe changes life earth composition time sometimes even date major transitions like extinction events classic examples geobiology sedimentary record include stromatolites banded iron formations role life origin heavily debated topic ref name life fundamentally chemistry first life arose abiotic chemical reactions happened happened


even planet happened uncertain however life follows rules arose lifeless chemistry physics constrained principles thermodynamics important concept field represents epitome interconnectedness sameness life earth ref name ref often delegated field astrobiology attempts understand life arose relevant geobiology well first major strides towards understanding came miller urey experiment amino acids formed simulated primordial soup


see green cyanobacteria geobiology diverse varied field encompassing ideas techniques wide range disciplines number important methods key study interaction life earth highlighted ref name ''laboratory culturing'' microbes used characterize metabolism lifestyle organisms interest ''gene sequencing'' allows scientists study relationships extant organisms using phylogenetics ''experimental genetic manipulation'' mutagenesis used determine function genes living organisms ''microscopy''


used visualize microbial world microscope work ranges environmental observation quantitative studies dna probes high definition visualization microbe mineral interface electron microscope em ''isotope tracers'' used track biochemical reactions understand microbial metabolism ''isotope natural abundance'' rocks measured look isotopic fractionation consistent biologic origin detailed ''environmental characterization'' important understanding habitat might driving life 's evolution turn life might changing niche includes limited temperature light ph


salinity concentration specific molecules like oxygen biologic community ''sedimentology stratigraphy'' used read rocks rock record stores history geobiologic processes sediments unearthed understanding deposition sedimentation compaction diagenesis deformation search study fossils often delegated separate field ''paleontology'' important geobiology though scale fossils typically smaller micropaleontology biochemical analysis ''biomarkers'' fossilized modern molecules indicative presence certain group organisms


metabolism used answer evidence life metabolic diversity questions ref name ''paleomagnetics'' study planet 's ancient magnetic field significant understanding magnetofossils biomineralization global ecosystem changes sub disciplines related fields name suggests geobiology closely related many fields study clearly defined boundaries perfect agreement exactly comprise practitioners take broad view boundaries encompassing many older established fields biogeochemistry paleontology microbial ecology others take


narrow view assigning emerging research falls existing fields geomicrobiology following list includes clearly part geobiology eg geomicrobiology well share scientific interests historically considered sub discipline geobiology eg paleontology astrobiology astrobiology interdisciplinary field uses combination geobiological planetary science data establish context search life planets origin life non living chemistry geology abiogenesis major topic astrobiology even


though fundamentally earth bound concern therefore great geobiological interest getting origin life necessitates considering life requires anything special earth might changed allow life blossom constitutes evidence life even constitutes life questions scientists might ask searching alien life addition astrobiologists research possibility life based metabolisms elements survivability earth 's organisms planets spacecraft planetary solar system evolution space geochemistry biogeochemistry


biogeochemistry systems science synthesizes study biological geological chemical processes understand reactions composition natural environment concerned primarily global elemental cycles nitrogen carbon father biogeochemistry james lovelock whose gaia hypothesis proposed earth 's biological chemical geologic systems interact stabilize conditions earth support life geobiochemistry stromatolites green river shale wyoming usa dating eocenegeobiochemistry similar biogeochemistry differs placing emphasis effects geology development


microscope encompasses several fields direct relevance geobiology tools microbiology pertain geobiology environmental microbiology especially entangled geobiology since seeks understanding actual organisms processes relevant nature opposed traditional lab based approach microbiology microbial ecology similar tend focus lab studies relationships organisms within community well within ecosystem chemical geological physical environment rely techniques sample collection diverse environments metagenomics


dna sequencing statistics geomicrobiology microbial geochemistry vertical cross section microbial mat containing different organisms perform different metabolisms green presumably cyanobacteria teepee like microstructures visible surfacegeomicrobiology traditionally studies interactions microbes minerals generally reliant tools microbiology microbial geochemistry uses geological chemical methods approach topic perspective rocks geomicrobiology microbial geochemistry gmg relatively new interdisciplinary field broadly takes relationship microbes earth environmental systems billed


far reaching effects molecular geomicrobiology molecular geomicrobiology takes mechanistic approach understanding biological processes geologically relevant level dna protein lipids metabolite one example molecular geomicrobiology research studying recently created lava fields colonized microbes university helskinki currently conducting research determine specific microbial traits necessary successful initial colonization waves microbial succession transform volcanic rock fertile soil organic geochemistry organic geochemistry study organic molecules


appear fossil record sedimentary rocks research field concerns molecular fossils often lipid biomarkers molecules like sterols hopanoids membrane lipids found eukaryotes bacteria respectively preserved rock record billion year timescales following death organism came sedimentation undergo process called diagenesis whereby many specific functional groups lipids lost hydrocarbon skeleton remains intact fossilized lipids called steranes hopanes respectively also types molecular fossils like porphyrins discovery


petroleum alfred e treibs actually led invention field ref name aspects geochemistry also pertinent geobiology include isotope geochemistry scientists search isotope fractionation rock record chemical analysis biominerals magnetite microbially precipitated gold mistaken point newfoundland ediacaran biota originated ediacaran period unlike animals around today paleontology perhaps oldest bunch paleontology study fossils involves discovery excavation dating paleoecological understanding type fossil microbial


dinosaur trace body fossil micropaleontology particularly relevant geobiology putative bacterial microfossils ancient stromatolites used evidence rise metabolisms oxygenic photosynthesis search molecular fossils lipid biomarkers like steranes hopanes also played important role geobiology organic geochemistry ref name relevant sub disciples include paleoecology paleobiogeoraphy biogeography biogeography study geographic distribution life time look present distribution organisms across continents microniches distribution organisms time


past called paleobiogeography evolutionary biology evolutionary biology study evolutionary processes shaped diversity life earth incorporates genetics ecology biogeography paleontology analyze topics including natural selection variance adaptation divergence genetic drift speciation ecohydrology ecohydrology interdisciplinary field studying interactions water ecosystems stable isotopes water sometimes used tracers water sources flow paths physical environment biosphere see also biogeochemistry biogeography biogeology ecology fossil geologic time scale geomicrobiology invertebrate paleontology micropaleontology


paleobiology paleobotany paleontology vertebrate paleontology references external links http onlinelibrarywileycom journal issn geobiology scientific journal http geobiologygpscaltechedu geobiology caltech http geobiologyuscedu geobiology university southern california https eapswebmitedu research pggg geobiology mit http epsharvardedu pages geobiology earth history geobiology earth history harvard https earthstanfordedu research geobiology paleontology geobiology stanford http epssuclaedu research areas geobiology geobiology ucla http wrigleyuscedu geobiology agouron usc sponsored geobiology summer courses catalina island http geowebtamuedu faculty tice geobiology indexhtml geobiology texas university https wwwgeosocietyorg divisions gbgm geological society america geobiology earth system sciences


'''principles war''' rules guidelines represent truths practice war military operations earliest known principles war documented sun tzu circa bce well chanakya arthashastra circa bce machiavelli published general rules modeled vegetius' ''regulae bellorum generales'' epit henri duke rohan established guides war marquis de silva presented principles war henry lloyd proffered version rules war well axioms war

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Principles of war


military maxims napoleon english translations relied upon extremely incomplete french edition general burnod published contributed erroneous belief napol bonaparte pioneered principles war napol keen follower famous military generals past influenced thoughts greatly albeit armies today based organization created napoleon sic grand army used ever since weider par since mid th century due influence prussian army become


military thinking north atlantic region initial essay dealt tactics combat suggested following general principles discover may gain ''a preponderance physical forces'' ''material advantages'' ''the decisive point'' calculate ''moral factors'' make ''best use means'' disposal never lack ''calmness firmness''without firm resolution great results achieved successful war always ''the choice audacious careful solution''no military leader ever become great without ''audacity'' based clausewitz went


suggest principles tactics scale combat dominated european warfare time defence offense use troops use terrain forces effective concentric rather parallel attack attack concentrically without decisive superiority engagement always seek envelop part enemy direct main attack cut enemy line retreat clausewitz also included essay general principles strategy saying warfare three main objects conquer destroy


armed power enemy always direct principal operation main body enemy army least important portion forces b take possession material sources strength direct operations places resources concentrated c gain public opinion great victories occupation enemy 's capital use entire force utmost energy decisive point attack never waste time surprise plays much greater role tactics strategy pursuit


great influence operations independent action strategic defense politically speaking defensive war war wage independence strategic offense strategic offensive pursues aim war directly aiming straight destruction enemy 's forces jomini antoine henri jomini book ''precis de l'art de guerre'' published also developed theories warfare based concepts methods used napoleonic wars ardant du picq colonel ardant du picq french infantry officer killed franco prussian war prepared drafts based observations military


history became book ''battle studies'' two du picq 's observations stand combat object cause supreme manifestation army must focus training even peacetime human element important theories war still art science th century theory applied specific forms warfare naval warfare julian corbett argued maritime strategy play significant role principles war admiral william sims commanded us navy 's contribution


british grand fleet world war wrote us naval war college blockquote college aims supply principles rules training develop habit applying principles logically correctly rapidly situation may arise habit acquired considerable practice hence numerous problems strategy tactics blockquote national principles war variations exist differences minor semantic reflect cultural persuasion particular approach closer examination values culture origin reveals war priorities uk uk uses


principles war taught officers royal navy british army royal air force british army principles war first published first world war based work british general military theorist j f c fuller definition principle refined following decades adopted throughout british armed forces tenth principle added later originally called administration first principle always stated pre eminent second usually considered important remainder


listed order importance edition british defence doctrine bdd states explains principles following preface principles war guide commanders staffs planning conduct warfare enduring immutable absolute prescriptive provide appropriate foundation military activity relative importance may vary according context application requires judgement common sense intelligent interpretation commanders also need take account legitimacy actions based legal moral political diplomatic ethical propriety


conduct military forces committed ten principles listed defined edition unchanged edition bdd also provides explanation '''selection maintenance aim''' single unambiguous aim keystone successful military operations selection maintenance aim regarded master principle war '''maintenance morale''' morale positive state mind derived inspired political military leadership shared sense purpose values well perceptions worth group cohesion '''offensive action''' offensive action


practical way commander seeks gain advantage sustain momentum seize initiative '''security''' security provision maintenance operating environment affords necessary freedom action required achieve objectives '''surprise''' surprise consequence shock confusion induced deliberate incidental introduction unexpected '''concentration force''' concentration force involves decisive synchronized application superior fighting power conceptual physical moral realize intended effects required '''economy effort''' economy effort


combat operations timely restoration troop combat readiness soviet principles military science ''soviet airland battle tactics'' similar principles continue followed cis countries ''preparedness'' nbsp ability fulfill missions conditions starting conduct war ''initiative'' nbsp utilizing surprise decisiveness aggressiveness continuously strive achieve retain initiative initiative sense describes efforts fulfill plan spite difficulties contrast western usage term means attacking threatening attack force enemy reaction thus


denying ability act ''capability'' nbsp full use various means capabilities battle achieve victory ''cooperation'' nbsp coordinated application close cooperation major units armed forces ''concentration'' nbsp decisive concentration essential force needed moment important direction achieve main mission ''depth'' nbsp destruction enemy throughout entire depth deployment ''morale'' nbsp use political psychological factors demoralize opponents break resist ''obedience'' nbsp strict uninterrupted obedience orders followed exactly without question commanders


western systems similar place emphasis wildly differing places western systems allow control decision making lower levels command empowerment comes consistent emphasis offensive mass maneuver principles western commander place sense personal responsibility authority ensure principles followed appropriate action contrast soviet system stresses preparedness initiative obedience places responsibility better prepared informed centers command provide overall control battle united states refer us army


reduce vulnerability continually poses new problems enemy rendering actions ineffective eventually leading defeat ''unity command'' nbsp every objective seek unity command unity effort levels war employment military forces manner masses combat power toward common objective requires unity command unity effort unity command means forces one responsible commander requires single commander requisite authority direct forces pursuit unified purpose ''security'' nbsp never permit enemy


direction location main effort timing deception aid probability achieving surprise ''simplicity'' nbsp prepare clear uncomplicated plans concise orders ensure thorough understanding everything war simple simple thing difficult uninitiated military operations difficult simplicity contributes successful operations simple plans clear concise orders minimize misunderstanding confusion factors equal parsimony preferred officers us military sometimes use acronyms moss mouse moose muss mouse moss mom use sos sumo moses remember first letters


nine principles class wikitable comparisons mossmouse equivalent nine principles '''m'''ass concentration distribution '''o'''bjective direction '''s'''implicity applicable simplicity never listed principle fuller final draft '''s'''ecurity security '''m'''aneuver mobility '''o'''ffensive offensive action disorganisation force '''u'''nity command determination endurance '''s'''urprise surprise demoralisation force '''e'''conomy force applicable economy force seen fuller u goal u nine principles rather principle according united states government document rule governing targeting non international armed conflict international


flexibility integrated america 's warfighting doctrine americans soundly retort flexibility given pervades aspects principle many however hold principle simplicity implicitly includes flexibility one oldest dicta states simple plan flexible plan ''armed forces journal'' published proposal van avery '' new principles war'' completely overhaul expand us principles war nine thirteen article subsequently forwarded joint chiefs staff air force chief staff general moseley


effort overhaul current us doctrine initiated using van avery 's framework three new principles joint operations added cited nine principles war principles ''restraint'' nbsp limit collateral damage prevent unnecessary use force restraint requires careful disciplined balancing need security conduct military operations national strategic end state ''perseverance'' nbsp ensure commitment necessary attain national strategic end state underlying causes crisis may elusive making difficult achieve decisive resolution patient resolute


persistent pursuit national goals objectives often essential success ''legitimacy'' nbsp maintain legal moral authority conduct operations legitimacy decisive factor operationsis based actual perceived legality morality rightness actions various perspectives interested audiences together concepts form ''principles joint operations'' canada canadian armed forces principles war military science defined royal military college canada canadian forces college website focus ''principles command'' ''principles war'' ''operational art campaign


planning'' ' 'scientific principles'' ''principles command'' nbsp lead example know subordinates promote welfare develop leadership potential make sound timely decisions train subordinates team communicate ideas clearly keep subordinates informed activities new developments take initiatives know pursue self improvement treat subordinates wish treated ''principles war'' nbsp selection maintenance aim maintenance morale offensive action surprise security concentration force economy effort flexibility co operation administration principles listed order importance ''operational art campaign planning'' nbsp


organization synchronization planning process maritime land air forces ' 'scientific principles'' nbsp involved military reconnaissance surveillance target acquisition context military operations france french army recognizes three principles applied operation land forces tactical level '''freedom action''' ability commander use means time act despite presence enemy various constraints imposed environment circumstances order achieve assigned goal freedom action consists maintaining initiative


regards enemy order 'control upcoming action' seize opportunities '''unity effort''' convergence space time actions effects different operational functions unity effort distinguishes concentration forces need combine actions optimize effects order increase effectiveness chosen objective principle includes psychological effects surprise troop morale addition conventional principle concentration forces '''economy means''' proper distribution use assets order obtain best


ratio capabilities vs effects order achieve assigned goal instruments principle modularity task organization forces support according french doctrine new principles observed primarily protect principle freedom action '''legitimacy''' among local population national public opinion among international institutions '''necessity''' appropriate amount force used desired objective '''reversibility''' military actor prepared quickly change course action depending opponent 's attitude organize military actions limit


human losses material damages remain open opportunities de escalation prepare support failure enemy rather needlessly seeking total destruction keep operation level intensity low possible israel principles war according israeli doctrine maintenance aim morale initiative stratagem concentration effort security optimal utilization force continuity depth reserve simplicity people 's republic china military principles war people 's liberation army loosely based soviet union significant shift begun seen


regionally aware geographically specific strategic operational tactical thinking services pla currently influenced three doctrinal schools conflict complement people 's war regional war revolution military affairs led substantial increase defence spending rate technological modernisation forces '''people 's war''' nbsp derived maoist notion warfare war entire society mobilized '''regional war''' nbsp envisions future wars limited scope confined chinese border '''revolution military


affairs''' nbsp school thought believes technology transforming basis warfare technological changes present extreme dangers possibilities chinese military recent years 'local war high tech conditions' promoted uses principles applied non military uses unity command separated coordination reality economy force redefined use resources mass separated renewable non renewable resources relationships separated unity command harrington emerson proposed principles efficiency first three


could related principles war clearly defined ideals nbsp objective common sense nbsp simplicity competent counsel nbsp unity command twelve non military principles efficiency formulated henry ford turn th century suggested objective coordination action reality knowledge locations space time things obtaining using protecting losing nine ten twelve principles provide framework efficient development objective br br ''principles war'' also book published japan self defense forces ref name www cgscarmymil west ref outlines basic


military principles strategies japanese army operate book used military exams japan book backs military principles historical examples see also geneva conventions grand strategy hague conventions military doctrine military strategy military tactics naval strategy operational mobility principles sustainment strategy notes citations references von clausewitz carl ''the important principles waging war complete course instruction royal highness crown prince'' translated edited hans w gatzke principles war september military service publishing


company emerson harrington ''twelve principles efficiency'' kessinger publishing van avery chris '' new principles war'' armed force journal defense news media group july https webarchiveorg web http wwwarmedforcesjournalcom west joseph dr ''principles war translation japanese'' us army command general staff college fort leavenworth kansas https webarchiveorg web http www cgscarmymil carl resources csi csirp pwatj csirp pwatjasp frost robert ltcol usaf ''the growing imperative adopt flexibility american principle war'' strategic studies institute us army war college carlisle pa october http wwwstrategicstudiesinstitutearmymil pdffiles pub pdf storper michael scott allen john ''pathways industrialization regional development'' routledge corbett julian stafford sir


''some principles maritime strategy'' london us naval institute press project gutenberg ebook https wwwgutenbergorg ebooks glantz david ''soviet military operational art pursuit deep battle'' frank cass london military doctrines warrior code


'''operations management''' area management concerned designing controlling process production redesigning business operations production goods services involves responsibility ensuring business operations efficient terms using resources needed effective meeting customer requirements concerned managing entire production service system process converts inputs forms raw materials labor consumers energy outputs form goods services consumers operations produce products manage quality create

Applied science
Business
Operations management


services operation management covers sectors like banking systems hospitals companies working suppliers customers using technology operations one major functions organization along supply chains marketing finance human resources operations function requires management strategic day day production goods services ref name ford motor car assembly line classical example manufacturing production systemin managing manufacturing service operations several types decisions made including operations strategy product design process design quality management capacity facilities planning production planning inventory control requires


ability analyze current situation find better solutions improve effectiveness efficiency manufacturing service operations modern integrated vision many aspects operations management may found recent textbooks subject queue operations management studies manufacturing services history history production operation systems begins around bc sumerian priests developed ancient system recording inventories loans taxes business transactions next major historical application operation systems occurred bc time egyptians started


using planning organization control large projects construction pyramids bc labor specialized china bc xenophon described advantages dividing various operations necessary production shoes among different individuals ancient greece shoemakers middle ages kings queens ruled large areas land loyal noblemen maintained large sections monarch 's territory hierarchical organization people divided classes based social position wealth became known feudal system


provided service nobility form cooking cleaning providing entertainment court jesters considered service providers medieval army could also considered service since defended nobility industrial revolution facilitated two elements interchangeability parts division labor division labor feature beginning civilization extent division carried varied considerably depending period location compared middle ages renaissance age discovery characterized greater specialization labor


characteristic growing cities trade networks europe important leap manufacturing efficiency came late eighteenth century eli whitney popularized concept interchangeability parts manufactured muskets point history manufacturing product eg musket considered special order meaning parts given musket fitted particular musket could used muskets interchangeability parts allowed mass production parts independent final products would used


time task pmts allows use standard predetermined tables smallest body movements eg turning left wrist integrating predict time needed perform simple task pmts gained substantial importance due fact predict work measurements without observing actual work foundation pmts laid research development frank b lillian gilbreth around gilbreths took advantage taking motion pictures known time intervals operators performing given


task service industries turn twentieth century services industries already developed largely fragmented us service industry consisted banks professional services schools general stores railroads telegraph services largely local nature except railroads telegraph owned entrepreneurs families us employment services manufacturing agriculture idea production line used multiple times history prior henry ford venetian arsenal smith 's pin manufacturing wealth nations


brunel 's portsmouth block mills ransom olds first manufacture cars using assembly line system henry ford developed first auto assembly system car chassis moved assembly line conveyor belt workers added components car completed world war ii growth computing power led development efficient manufacturing methods use advanced mathematical statistical tools supported development academic programs industrial systems engineering disciplines well fields


operations research management science multi disciplinary fields problem solving systems engineering concentrated broad characteristics relationships inputs outputs generic systems operations researchers concentrated solving specific focused problems synergy operations research systems engineering allowed realization solving large scale complex problems modern era recently development faster smaller computers intelligent systems world wide web opened new opportunities operations manufacturing production service systems industrial revolution marshall 's flax mill holbeck textile industry


spinning jenny james hargreaves water frame richard arkwright steam engine james watt crystal palace exhibition term american system manufacturing used describe new approach evolving united states america based two central features interchangeable parts extensive use mechanization produce second industrial revolution post industrial society henry ford years old founded ford motor company capital twelve investors


model car introduced however ford implemented assembly line concept vision making popular car affordable every middle class american citizen would realized first factory henry ford used concept assembly line highland park characterized system follows became one central ideas led mass production one main elements second industrial revolution along emergence electrical industry petroleum industry post industrial economy noted daniel


differential piece rate system series experiments measurements formulas dealing cutting metals manual labor differential piece rate system consisted offering two different pay rates job higher rate workers high productivity efficiency produced high quality goods effectiveness lower rate fail achieve standard one problems taylor believed could solved system problem soldiering faster workers reducing production rate slowest worker taylor published principles scientific


remembering morris cooke rural electrification implementer taylor 's principles scientific management philadelphia 's department public works carl barth speed feed calculating slide rules henry gantt gantt chart also hugo diemer published first industrial engineering book factory organization administration ford whitman harris published many parts make presented idea economic order quantity model described problem follows ref paper inspired large body mathematical literature focusing problem production planning


unique manufacturing system centered two complementary notions time produce needed autonomation automation human touch regarding jit ohno inspired american supermarkets workstations functioned like supermarket shelf customer get products need time need amount needed workstation shelf restocked autonomation developed toyoda sakichi toyoda spinning weaving automatically activated loom also foolproof automatically detected problems jn edwards published mrp kanban american style described jit


goals terms seven zeros zero defects zero excess lot size zero setups zero breakdowns zero handling zero lead time zero surging period also marks spread total quality management tqm japan ideas initially developed american authors deming juran armand v feigenbaum tqm strategy implementing managing quality improvement organizational basis includes participation work culture customer focus supplier quality improvement integration quality system business goals ref name montgomery schnonberger identified seven fundamentals principles essential japanese approach process control spc


worker responsibility quality easy able see quality boards gauges meters etc poka yoke insistence compliance quality first line stop stop line correct quality problems correcting one 's errors worker fixed defective part produced check automated inspection techniques foolproof machines continual improvement ideally zero defects meanwhile sixties different approach developed george w plossl oliver w wight ref name grubb rb grubbstr modelling production opportunities historical overview int j production economics ref approach continued joseph orlicky


response toyota manufacturing program led material requirements planning mrp ibm latter gaining momentum american production inventory control society launched mrp crusade one key insights management system distinction dependent demand independent demand independent demand demand originates outside production system therefore directly controllable dependent demand demand components final products therefore subject directly controllable management bill materials via product design orlicky wrote materials requirement planning


flying packages single airport memphis tenn midnight day resorting packages delivery destinations flying back next morning delivery numerous locations concept fast package delivery system created whole new industry eventually allowed fast delivery online orders amazon retailers walmart provided first example low cost retailing design stores efficient management entire supply chain starting single store roger 's arkansas walmart become


waste muda within manufacturing service process lean also takes account waste created overburden muri waste created unevenness work loads mura term lean manufacturing coined book machine changed world subsequently lean services widely applied six sigma approach quality developed motorola six sigma refers control limits placed six standard deviations mean normal distribution became famous jack welch general electric launched company wide initiative


adopt set methods manufacturing service administrative processes recently six sigma included dmaic improving processes dfss designing new products new processes reconfigurable manufacturing systems production system designed outset rapid change structure well hardware software components order quickly adjust production capacity functionality within part family response sudden market changes intrinsic system change project production management application analytical tools techniques developed operations management described factory physics


activities within major capital projects encountered oil gas civil infrastructure delivery topics production systems job shop machines grouped technological similarities regarding transformation processes therefore single shop work different products picture four colors also notice drawing shop contains single machine flexible manufacturing system middle two rails shuttle move pallets machining centers also fms use agvs front machining center buffer left


shelf storing pallets usually back similar system managing set tools required different machining operations production system comprises technological elements machines tools organizational behavior division labor information flow individual production system usually analyzed literature referring single business therefore 's usually improper include given production system operations necessary process goods obtained purchasing operations carried customer sold products reason simply since businesses


manufacturing systems transfer lines assembly category fixed position systems assembly lines assembly shops manual automated operations ref name portpozz portioli apozzetti progettazione dei sistemi produttivi hoepli ref delivery lead time blue bar manufacturing time whole bar green bar difference two another possible classification one based lead time manufacturing lead time vs delivery lead time engineer order eto purchase order pto make order mto assemble order ato make stock mts according classification different kinds systems