'''piano''' acoustic keyboard stringed musical instrument strings struck wooden hammers coated softer material modern hammers covered dense wool felt early pianos used leather played using keyboard row keys small levers performer presses strikes fingers thumbs hands cause hammers strike strings invented italy bartolomeo cristofori around year exact year uncertain description word piano


shortened form ''pianoforte'' italian term early versions instrument turn derives ''clavicembalo col piano e forte'' key cimbalom quieter louder ref name pollens pollens ref ''fortepiano'' italian musical terms ''piano'' ''forte'' indicate soft loud respectively context referring variations volume ie loudness produced response pianist 's touch pressure keys greater velocity key press greater force hammer hitting strings louder sound note produced


continued sustain pedal shifting hands treble range play melody arpeggios top sustained chord unlike pipe organ harpsichord two major keyboard instruments widely used piano piano allows gradations volume tone according forcefully softly performer presses strikes keys modern pianos row black white keys white keys notes c major scale c e f g b shorter black keys raised


white keys set back keyboard means piano play different pitches notes spanning range bit seven octaves black keys accidentals f g g b c e needed play twelve keys rarely pianos additional keys require additional strings example b sendorfer concert grand imperial keys notes three strings except bass graduates one two strings sounded


keys pressed struck silenced dampers hands lifted keyboard although acoustic piano strings usually classified percussion instrument rather stringed instrument strings struck rather plucked harpsichord spinet hornbostel sachs system instrument classification pianos considered chordophones two main types piano grand piano upright piano grand piano better sound gives player precise control keys therefore preferred choice


every situation available floor space budget allow well often considered requirement venues skilled pianists frequently give public performances upright piano necessarily involves compromise tone key action compared grand piano equivalent quality nevertheless much widely used occupies less space allowing fit comfortably room grand piano would large significantly less expensive influenced musical trends romantic music era innovations


cast iron frame allowed much greater string tensions aliquot stringing gave grand pianos powerful sound longer sustain richer tone nineteenth century family 's piano played role radio phonograph played twentieth century nineteenth century family wanted hear newly published musical piece symphony could hear family member play simplified version piano nineteenth century music publishers produced many types musical works symphonies opera overtures waltzes etc arrangements piano


music lovers could play hear popular pieces day home piano widely employed classical jazz traditional popular music solo ensemble performances accompaniment composing songwriting rehearsals although piano heavy thus portable expensive comparison widely used accompaniment instruments acoustic guitar musical versatility ie wide pitch range ability play chords louder softer notes two independent musical lines time large number musicians


amateurs professionals trained playing wide availability performance venues schools rehearsal spaces made one western world 's familiar musical instruments history fortepiano italian maker bartolomeo cristofori world 's oldest surviving piano metropolitan museum art new york city early piano replica modern builder paul mcnulty walter sohn piano founded earlier technological innovations keyboard instruments pipe organs used since antiquity development pipe organs enabled instrument builders learn creating keyboard


mechanisms sounding pitches first string instruments struck strings hammered dulcimers used since middle ages europe middle ages several attempts creating stringed keyboard instruments struck strings th century mechanisms keyboard instruments clavichord harpsichord well developed clavichord strings struck tangents harpsichord mechanically plucked quills performer depresses key centuries work mechanism harpsichord particular shown instrument builders


effective ways construct case soundboard bridge mechanical action keyboard intended sound strings invention musikinstrumenten museum leipzig invention piano credited bartolomeo cristofori padua italy employed ferdinando de' medici grand prince tuscany keeper instruments cristofori expert harpsichord maker well acquainted body knowledge stringed keyboard instruments knowledge keyboard mechanisms actions helped develop first pianos known exactly cristofori first built piano


inventory made employers medici family indicates existence piano year three cristofori pianos survive today date ref name metmuseum ref cristofori named instrument ''un cimbalo di cipresso di piano e forte'' keyboard cypress soft loud abbreviated time ''pianoforte'' ''fortepiano'' later simply piano cristofori 's great success designing stringed keyboard instrument notes struck hammer hammer must strike string remain contact continued contact would damp sound stop


string vibrating making sound means striking string hammer must quickly fall rebound strings moreover hammer must return rest position without bouncing violently thus preventing notes played accidental rebound must return position ready play almost immediately key depressed player repeat note rapidly desired cristofori 's piano action model many approaches piano actions followed next century cristofori 's early


instruments made thin strings much quieter modern piano much louder sustain comparison clavichord previous keyboard instrument capable dynamic nuance responding player 's touch velocity keys pressed clavichord allows expressive control volume sustain relatively quiet even loudest harpsichord produces sufficiently loud sound especially coupler joins key manuals two manual harpsichord offers dynamic expressive control individual notes


piano sense offers best older instruments combining ability play least loudly harpsichord ability continuously vary dynamics touch early fortepiano cristofori 's new instrument remained relatively unknown italian writer scipione maffei wrote enthusiastic article including diagram mechanism translated german widely distributed ref name metmuseum next generation piano builders started work based reading article one builders gottfried silbermann better known organ


legend early technological progress late owed much firm broadwood john broadwood joined another scot robert stodart dutchman americus backers design piano harpsichord case origin grand achieved quickly gained reputation splendour powerful tone instruments broadwood constructing pianos progressively larger louder robustly constructed sent pianos joseph haydn ludwig van beethoven first firm build pianos range five octaves


five octaves fifth six octaves beethoven used extra notes later works seven octaves viennese makers similarly followed trends however two schools used different piano actions broadwoods used robust action whereas viennese instruments sensitive erard square action click page legend center piano innovation shifted paris pleyel firm manufactured pianos used fr ric chopin rard firm manufactured used franz liszt bastien rard invented double


piano wire several important advances included changes way piano strung use choir three strings rather two lowest notes enhanced richness complexity treble use capo astro bar instead agraffes uppermost treble allowed hammers strike strings optimal position greatly increasing area 's power implementation stringing also called cross stringing strings placed two separate planes bridge height allowed greater length bass strings


optimized transition unwound tenor strings iron copper wound bass strings stringing invented pape first patented use grand pianos united states henry steinway jr steinway model 'a' lower left upper right main sounding length strings treble bridge duplex string length duplex bar nickel plated bar parallel bridge hitchpins plate strut bearing bolt plate hole piano makers added variations enhance tone note pascal taskin collard collard julius bl thner


developed aliquot stringing systems used strengthen tone highest register notes piano time viewed weak sounding used distinctly ringing undamped vibrations sympathetically vibrating strings add tone except bl thner aliquot stringing uses additional fourth string upper two treble sections hitchpins separately suspended aliquot strings raised slightly level usual tri choir strings struck hammers rather damped attachments


design attributed christian ernst friderici pupil gottfried silbermann germany johannes zumpe england improved changes first introduced guillaume lebrecht petzold france alpheus babcock united states square pianos built great numbers europe united states saw visible change type piano iron framed strung squares manufactured steinway sons two half times size zumpe 's wood framed instruments century overwhelming popularity due inexpensive


construction price although tone performance limited narrow soundboards simple actions string spacing made proper hammer alignment difficult mechanism strings upright pianos perpendicular keys cover strings removed photo tall vertically strung upright grand arranged like grand set end soundboard bridges keys tuning pins giraffe pianos pyramid pianos lyre pianos arranged somewhat similar fashion using evocatively shaped cases tall cabinet piano introduced


built strings arranged vertically continuous frame bridges extended nearly floor behind keyboard large ' 'sticker action'' short cottage upright ''pianino'' vertical stringing made popular robert wornum around built th century informally called ''birdcage pianos'' prominent damper mechanism oblique upright popularized france roller blanchet late diagonally strung throughout compass tiny spinet upright manufactured mid recent times low position


piano various styles also specialized novelty pianos electric pianos based electromechanical designs electronic pianos synthesize piano like tones using oscillators digital pianos using digital samples acoustic piano sounds grand steinway sons grand piano white house grand pianos frame strings horizontal strings extending away keyboard action lies beneath strings uses gravity means return state rest grand pianos range length approximately lengths


given less customary names vary time time place place might include baby grand around parlor grand boudoir grand concert grand else equal longer pianos longer strings larger richer sound lower inharmonicity strings inharmonicity degree frequencies overtones known partials harmonics sound sharp relative whole multiples fundamental frequency results piano 's considerable string stiffness struck string decays harmonics vibrate termination


point slightly toward center flexible part string higher partial sharp runs pianos shorter thicker string ie small pianos short string scales inharmonicity greater inharmonicity ear perceives harshness tone inharmonicity piano strings requires octaves ' 'stretched'' tuned lower octave 's corresponding sharp overtone rather theoretically correct octave octaves stretched single octaves sound tune double notably triple octaves unacceptably narrow stretching small piano 's octaves


match inherent inharmonicity level creates imbalance among instrument 's intervallic relationships concert grand however octave stretch retains harmonic balance even aligning treble notes harmonic produced three octaves lets close widespread octaves sound pure produces virtually beatless perfect fifths gives concert grand brilliant singing sustaining tone quality one principal reasons full size grands used concert hall smaller grands satisfy space cost needs domestic use well used small teaching studios


smaller performance venues upright august f rster upright piano upright pianos also called vertical pianos compact due vertical structure frame strings mechanical action structure upright piano invented london england robert wornum upright models became popular model upright pianos took less space grand piano better size use private homes domestic music making practice hammers move horizontally return resting position via springs susceptible degradation upright pianos


unusually tall frames long strings sometimes marketed ''upright grand'' pianos label misleading authors classify modern pianos according height modifications action necessary accommodate height upright pianos generally less expensive grand pianos upright pianos widely used churches community centers schools music conservatories university music programs rehearsal practice instruments popular models home purchase top spinet model barely rises keyboard unlike pianos spinet action located


keys operated vertical wires attached backs keys console pianos compact action shorter hammers large upright console 's action keys rather spinet console almost always plays better spinet console pianos inches shorter studio models studio pianos around tall shortest cabinet accommodate full sized action located keyboard anything taller studio piano called upright technically piano


replays performance using pneumatic devices modern equivalents player piano include b sendorfer ceus yamaha disklavier qrs pianomation using solenoids midi rather pneumatics rolls silent piano acoustic piano option silence strings means interposing hammer bar designed private silent practice avoid disturbing others edward ryley invented transposing piano rare instrument lever keyboard move keyboard relative strings pianist play familiar key music sounds


different key minipiano 'pianette' model viewed original matching stool wooden flap front instrument dropped revealing tuning pins front minipiano instrument patented brasted brothers eavestaff ltd piano company instrument braceless back soundboard positioned keys long metal rods pull levers make hammers strike strings first model known ''pianette'' unique tuning pins extended instrument could tuned


front prepared piano present contemporary art music th st century piano objects placed inside alter sound mechanism changed way scores music prepared piano specify modifications example instructing pianist insert pieces rubber paper metal screws washers strings objects mute strings alter timbre pedal piano rare type piano pedal keyboard base designed played


pianos electronic pianos digital pianos developed electric piano became popular instrument genres jazz fusion funk music rock music first electric pianos late used metal strings magnetic pickup amplifier loudspeaker electric pianos became popular pop rock music fender rhodes use metal tines place strings use electromagnetic pickups similar electric guitar resulting electrical analogue signal


amplified keyboard amplifier electronically manipulated effects units classical music electric pianos mainly used inexpensive rehearsal practice instruments however electric pianos particularly fender rhodes became important instruments funk jazz fusion rock music genres electronic pianos non acoustic strings tines hammers type synthesizer simulates imitates piano sounds using oscillators filters synthesize sound acoustic piano must connected keyboard amplifier speaker produce sound however


imitations electric piano hammond organ violin etc midi interfaces midi inputs outputs connect digital piano electronic instruments musical devices example digital piano 's midi signal could connected patch cord synth module would allow performer use keyboard digital piano play modern synthesizer sounds early digital pianos tended lack full set pedals synthesis software later models yamaha clavinova series synthesised sympathetic vibration strings sustain


pedal depressed full pedal sets replicated processing power digital pianos enabled highly realistic pianos using multi gigabyte piano sample sets many ninety recordings lasting many seconds key different conditions eg samples note struck softly loudly sharp attack etc additional samples emulate sympathetic resonance strings sustain pedal depressed key release drop dampers simulations techniques pedalling digital midi equipped pianos output stream midi data record


play via cd rom usb flash drive using midi format files similar concept pianola midi file records physics note rather resulting sound recreates sounds physical properties eg note struck velocity computer based software modartt 's pianoteq used manipulate midi stream real time subsequently edit type software may use samples synthesize sound based aspects physics went creation


played note hybrid instruments yamaha disklavier player piano unit mounted keyboard piano play midi audio software cd pianos include acoustic grand piano upright piano combined midi electronic features piano played acoustically keyboard used midi controller trigger synthesizer module music sampler electronic feature equipped pianos yamaha disklavier electronic player piano introduced outfitted electronic sensors recording electromechanical solenoids player piano style


playback sensors record movements keys hammers pedals performance system saves performance data standard midi file smf playback solenoids move keys pedals thus reproduce original performance modern disklaviers typically include array electronic features built tone generator playing back midi accompaniment tracks speakers midi connectivity supports communication computing devices external midi instruments additional ports audio smpte input output internet connectivity disklaviers manufactured form upright baby grand grand


piano styles including nine foot concert grand reproducing systems ranged relatively simple playback models professional models record performance data resolutions exceed limits normal midi data unit mounted keyboard piano play midi audio software cd construction components ''' ''' frame ''' ''' lid front part ''' ''' capo bar ''' ''' damper ''' ''' lid back part ''' ''' damper mechanism ''' ''' sostenuto rail ''' ''' pedal mechanism rods ''' ''' pedals right sustain damper middle sostenuto left soft una corda ''' ''' bridge ''' ''' hitch pin ''' ''' frame ''' ''' sound board ''' '''


th century modern exception b sendorfer austrian manufacturer high quality pianos constructs inner rims solid spruce ref name fine ref wood soundboard made notched allow bend rather isolating rim vibration resonance case principle allows framework resonate freely soundboard creating additional coloration complexity overall sound abbr grand piano shows order distance viewer softwood braces tapered soundboard ribs soundboard metal rod lower right humidity control device thick wooden posts


underside grands back uprights piano stabilize rim structure made softwood stability requirement structural strength fulfilled stout hardwood thick metal makes piano heavy even small upright weigh steinway concert grand model weighs largest piano available general market fazioli f weighs ref name grove http wwwoxfordmusiconlinecom subscriber article grove music q fazioli search quick pos start firsthit fazioli paolo ''grove music online'' accessed april ref ref name f http wwwfaziolicom en pianoforti model f model f ''official fazioli website'' accessed march ref pinblock holds tuning pins place another area


toughness important made hardwood typically hard maple beech laminated strength stability longevity piano strings also called piano wire must endure years extreme tension hard blows made high carbon steel manufactured vary little possible diameter since deviations uniformity introduce tonal distortion bass strings piano made steel core wrapped copper wire increase mass whilst retaining flexibility strings throughout piano 's compass individual monochord massive bass strings would


overpower upper ranges makers compensate use double bichord strings tenor triple trichord strings throughout treble cast iron plate grand piano plate harp metal frame piano usually made cast iron massive plate advantageous since strings vibrate plate ends insufficiently massive plate would absorb much vibrational energy go bridge soundboard manufacturers use cast steel plates prefer cast iron cast iron easy


aluminum piano plates widely accepted discontinued numerous parts piano action generally made hardwood maple beech hornbeam however since world war ii makers also incorporated plastics early plastics used pianos late proved disastrous lost strength decades use beginning new york branch steinway firm incorporated teflon synthetic material developed dupont parts permafree grand action place cloth bushings abandoned experiment


due excessive friction clicking developed time teflon humidity stable whereas wood adjacent teflon swells shrinks humidity changes causing problems recently kawai firm built pianos action parts made modern materials carbon fiber reinforced plastic piano parts manufacturer wessell nickel gross launched new line carefully engineered composite parts thus far parts performed reasonably take decades know equal longevity wood strings grand piano


lowest quality pianos soundboard made solid spruce spruce boards glued together along side grain spruce 's high ratio strength weight minimizes acoustic impedance offering strength sufficient withstand downward force strings best piano makers use quarter sawn defect free spruce close annular grain carefully seasoning long period fabricating soundboards identical material used quality acoustic guitar soundboards cheap pianos often plywood soundboards design piano hammers requires hammer felt soft enough


spruce basswood spruce typically used high quality pianos black keys traditionally made ebony white keys covered strips ivory however since ivory yielding species endangered protected treaty illegal countries makers use plastics almost exclusively also ivory tends chip easily plastic legal ivory still obtained limited quantities yamaha developed plastic called ''ivorite'' intended mimic look feel ivory manufacturers done likewise almost every modern piano white keys black keys


total keys seven octaves plus minor third sub sub c sub sub many older pianos keys seven octaves sub sub sub sub piano manufacturers extended range one directions example imperial b sendorfer nine extra keys bass end giving total keys eight octave range extra keys sometimes hidden small hinged lid cover keys prevent visual disorientation pianists unfamiliar extra keys colours extra white keys


reversed black instead white recently australian manufacturer stuart sons created piano keys going c sub sub b sub sub covering nine full octaves extra keys keys appearance extra keys added primarily increased resonance associated strings vibrate sympathetically strings whenever damper pedal depressed thus give fuller tone small number works composed piano actually use notes toy piano company schoenhut manufactures grands uprights


keys shorter distance keyboard pedals true pianos working mechanisms strings ''em nuel mo r pianoforte'' rare variant piano called ''em nuel mo r pianoforte'' double keyboards one lying invented hungarian composer pianist em nuel mo r february nbsp october lower keyboard usual keys whilst upper keyboard keys upper keyboard played internal mechanism pulls corresponding key lower keyboard octave higher lets pianist reach


two octaves one hand impossible conventional piano due double keyboard musical works originally created double manual harpsichord ''goldberg variations'' bach become much easier play since playing conventional single keyboard piano involves complex hand tangling cross hand movements design also features special fourth pedal couples lower upper keyboard playing lower keyboard note one octave higher also plays em nuel mo r pianofortes made mostly b sendorfer piano manufacturers bechstein chickering steinway


sons also manufactured pianos built alternative keyboard systems eg jank keyboard pedals piano pedals left right una corda sostenuto sustain pedal pianos pedals close equivalent since earliest days th century pianos used levers pressed upward player 's knee instead pedals grand pianos us three pedals soft pedal una corda sostenuto sustain pedal left right respectively europe standard two pedals soft pedal sustain pedal modern upright


pianos also three pedals soft pedal practice pedal sustain pedal though older cheaper models may lack practice pedal europe standard upright pianos two pedals soft sustain pedals alt caption image pedal mark svg width alt caption sustain pedal damper pedal often simply called pedal since frequently used placed rightmost pedal group lifts dampers keys sustaining played notes addition alters overall tone allowing strings including


directly played reverberate strings piano vibrate allows sympathetic vibration strings harmonically related sounded pitches example pianist plays nbsp hz note higher octave notes also sound sympathetically soft pedal ''una corda'' pedal placed leftmost row pedals grand pianos shifts entire action keyboard assembly right instruments shifted left hammers hit two three strings note earliest pianos


whose unisons bichords rather trichords action shifted hammers hit single string hence name ''una corda'' 'one string' effect soften note well change tone uprights action possible instead pedal moves hammers closer strings allowing hammers strike less kinetic energy produces slightly softer sound change timbre grand pianos middle pedal sostenuto pedal pedal keeps raised damper already raised moment pedal depressed


depressed locking position also non standard variants pianos grands verticals middle pedal bass sustain pedal depressed dampers lift strings bass section players use pedal sustain single bass note chord many measures playing melody treble section upright pedal piano challen rare transposing piano example owned irving berlin middle pedal functions clutch disengages keyboard mechanism


player move keyboard left right lever shifts entire piano action pianist play music written one key sounds different key piano companies included extra pedals standard two three stuart sons pianos well largest fazioli piano fourth pedal left principal three fourth pedal works way soft pedal upright piano moving hammers closer


strings crown schubert piano company also produced four pedal piano wing son new york offered five pedal piano approximately mention company past labeled left right pedals mandolin orchestra expression soft forte sustain orchestral pedal produced sound similar tremolo feel bouncing set small beads dangling strings enabling piano mimic mandolin guitar banjo zither harp thus name orchestral mandolin pedal used similar approach lowering


set felt strips metal rings hammers strings aka rinky tink effect extended life hammers orch pedal used good idea practicing created echo like sound mimicked playing orchestral hall ''pedalier'' piano pedal piano rare type piano includes pedalboard players use feet play bass register notes organ two types pedal piano one pedal board integral part instrument using


strings mechanism manual keyboard rarer type consists two independent pianos separate mechanics strings placed one one hands one feet developed primarily practice instrument organists though small repertoire written specifically instrument mechanics bach 's ''the well tempered clavier'' grand piano key struck chain reaction occurs produce sound first key raises wippen mechanism forces jack hammer roller ''knuckle'' hammer roller lifts


lever carrying hammer key also raises damper immediately hammer strikes wire falls back allowing wire resonate thus produce sound key released damper falls back onto strings stopping wire vibrating thus stopping sound vibrating piano strings loud vibrations transmitted large soundboard moves air thus converts energy sound irregular shape center placement bridge ensure soundboard vibrates strongly frequencies ref name physicsoduedu ref


raised damper allows note sound key sustain pedal released three factors influence pitch vibrating wire length factors shorter wire higher pitch mass per unit length factors thinner wire higher pitch tension factors tighter wire higher pitch vibrating wire subdivides many parts vibrating time part produces pitch called partial vibrating string


one fundamental series partials purest combination two pitches one double frequency repeating wave velocity equals wavelength times frequency '' f'' piano string waves reflect ends superposition reflecting waves results standing wave pattern wavelengths ''l'' ''l'' length string therefore frequencies produced single string timbre largely determined content


harmonics different instruments different harmonic content pitch real string vibrates harmonics perfect multiples fundamental results little inharmonicity gives richness tone causes significant tuning challenges throughout compass instrument ref name physicsoduedu striking piano key greater velocity increases amplitude waves therefore volume ''pianissimo'' ''fortissimo'' hammer velocity changes almost factor hundred hammer contact time string shortens milliseconds


regular tuning keep correct pitch hammers pianos voiced compensate gradual hardening felt parts also need periodic regulation pianos need regular maintenance ensure felt hammers key mechanisms functioning properly aged worn pianos rebuilt reconditioned piano rebuilders strings eventually must replaced often replacing great number parts adjusting old instruments perform well new pianos piano tuning involves adjusting tensions piano 's strings specialized wrench thereby aligning intervals


among tones instrument tune guitar violin players tune instruments pianists usually hire piano tuner specialized technician tune pianos piano tuner uses special tools meaning term ''in tune'' context piano tuning simply particular fixed set pitches fine piano tuning carefully assesses interaction among notes chromatic scale different every piano thus requires slightly different pitches theoretical standard pianos usually tuned modified version system called


equal temperament see piano key frequencies theoretical piano tuning systems tuning pitch derived relationship chosen fixed pitch usually internationally recognized standard concert pitch sub sub middle c term refers widely accepted frequency pitch nbsp hz piano tuner relationship two pitches called interval ratio absolute frequencies two different intervals perceived pairs pitches involved share frequency ratio easiest intervals identify easiest


intervals tune meaning simple whole number ratio term ''temperament'' refers tuning system tempers intervals usually perfect fifth ratio satisfy another mathematical property equal temperament fifth tempered narrowing slightly achieved flattening upper pitch slightly raising lower pitch slightly temperament system also known set bearings tempering interval causes beat fluctuation perceived sound intensity due interference close unequal pitches


rate beating equal frequency differences harmonics present pitches coincide nearly coincide piano tuners use ear stretch tuning piano make sound tune involves tuning highest pitched strings slightly higher lowest pitched strings slightly lower mathematical frequency table octaves derived doubling frequency would suggest playing technique prague piano player musical instrument piano may played written music ear


improvisation folk blues pianists self taught classical jazz well established piano teaching systems institutions including pre college graded examinations university college music conservatory diplomas degrees ranging bmus mmus doctor musical arts piano piano technique evolved transition harpsichord clavichord fortepiano playing continued development modern piano changes musical styles audience preferences th th century well emergence virtuoso performers contributed evolution growth


distinct approaches schools piano playing although technique often viewed physical execution musical idea many pedagogues performers stress interrelatedness physical mental emotional aspects piano playing well known approaches piano technique include dorothy taubman edna golandsky fred karpoff charles louis hanon otto ortmann performance styles many classical music composers including haydn mozart beethoven composed fortepiano rather different instrument modern piano even composers romantic movement like franz liszt fr ric chopin clara robert schumann fanny felix mendelssohn


johannes brahms wrote pianos substantially different era modern pianos contemporary musicians may adjust interpretation historical compositions account sound quality differences old new instruments changing performance practice birthday party honoring french pianist maurice ravel left right conductor oskar fried singer va gauthier ravel piano composer conductor manoah leide tedesco composer george gershwin starting beethoven 's later career fortepiano evolved instrument like modern piano modern pianos wide use late


th century featured octave range larger earlier fortepiano instrument adding around keys instrument extended deep bass range high treble range factory mass production upright pianos made affordable larger number middle class people appeared music halls pubs th century providing entertainment piano soloist combination small dance band harpsichordists accompanied singers dancers performing stage playing dances pianists took role late


duke ellington 's technique honky tonk music featuring yet another style piano rhythm became popular era bebop techniques grew jazz leading composer pianists thelonious monk bud powell late th century bill evans composed pieces combining classical techniques jazz experimentation herbie hancock one first jazz composer pianists find mainstream popularity working newer urban music techniques jazz funk jazz rock pianos also used prominently rock roll rock music performers jerry lee lewis little richard


keith emerson emerson lake palmer elton john ben folds billy joel nicky hopkins tori amos name modernist styles music also appealed composers writing modern grand piano including john cage philip glass role piano centrepiece social life th century upper middle class home moritz von schwind man piano composer franz schubert piano crucial instrument western classical music jazz blues rock folk music many western musical genres pianos used soloing melodic roles


accompaniment instruments well pianos played alone voice instrument small groups bands chamber music ensembles large ensembles big band orchestra large number composers songwriters proficient pianists piano keyboard offers effective means experimenting complex melodic harmonic interplay chords trying multiple independent melody lines played time pianos used composers film television scoring large range permits composers try melodies bass lines even music


help teach music theory music history music appreciation classes even non pianist music professors instructors may piano office see also list classical pianists list films pianists list piano manufacturers list piano brand names list piano makers list piano composers notes references gives basics pianos work thorough evaluative survey current pianos manufacturers also includes advice buying owning pianos standard reference history piano authoritative


work covering ancestry piano invention cristofori early stages subsequent evolution contains wealth information main article edwin ripin stewart pollens philip r belt maribel meisel alfons huber michael cole gert hecher beryl kenyon de pascual cynthia adams hoover cyril ehrlich edwin good robert winter j bradford robinson pianoforte reading external links http wwwuk pianoorg history historyhtml history piano forte association blind piano tuners uk http wwwmusicvtedu musicdictionary appendix pitch pitchhtml section ''table music pitches'' virginia tech multimedia music dictionary http wwwfrederickcollectionorg collectionhtml frederick historical piano collection http wwwmetmuseumorg toah hd cris hd crishtm pianofortes


bartolomeo cristofori heilbrunn timeline art history metropolitan museum art https wwwspeechkthse music lectures contentshtml five lectures acoustics piano '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwfortepianinstrumentyedupl en piano polish collections '' historical instruments articles containing video clips chordophones italian inventions keyboard instruments percussion instruments blues instruments folk music instruments rock music instruments rockabilly instruments classical music instruments rhythm section c instruments th century inventions th century introductions italian musical instruments jazz instruments string instruments


'''piano''' independent film production distribution company based mexico city started julio chavezmontes sebasti n hofmann platform innovative filmmakers specializes film production finance distribution international coproductions halley company first feature project premiered internationally sundance film festival since piano produced ten films collectively premiered international film festivals including official selections sundance berlin rotterdam locarno toronto received multiple awards nominations mexico abroad notable past coproducers include carlos reygadas jaime


romand alejandro gonz lez rritu lisa cortes yann gonzalez michael fitzgerald stienette bosklopper moises cosio ginevra elkann history founding early years piano established produce screenplay halley written julio chavezmontes sebasti n hofmann ref name auto ref film directed hofmann produced chavezmontes partnership mantarraya producciones responsible launching careers celebrated mexican directors carlos reygadas amat escalante film received support mexican film institute hubert bals fund post production january halley premiered new frontier


nominated five ariel awards winning prize best make present notable productions since release halley piano produced ten films notable productions including nicolas echevarr echo mountain emiliano rocha minter debut flesh echo mountain six international awards gold hugo docufest competition chicago international film festival received five nominations including best documentary best music mexican academy awards flesh praised supported upon release directors alejandro


gonz lez rritu carlos reygadas ref name auto alfonso cuar n film shown multiple film festivals including iff rotterdam cannes film festival blood window galas upon commercial release united states film praised village voice slant magazine los angeles times sf weekly among others present distribution piano partnered andrea castex launch distribution operations mexico focus author driven cinema since company released inori death arizona sand dollars dead tropical carmin eisenstein


plato left aristotle right detail ''the school athens'' fresco raphael plato 's ''republic'' aristotle 's ''politics'' secured two greek philosophers two influential political philosophers '''political philosophy''' '''political theory''' philosophical study government addressing questions nature scope legitimacy public agents institutions relationships topics include politics liberty justice property rights law enforcement laws authority needed makes government legitimate rights freedoms protect

Social science
Political science
Political philosophy


form take law duties citizens owe legitimate government may legitimately overthrown ever political science generally used singular french spanish plural ' 'sciences politiques'' ''ciencias pol ticas'' respectively used perhaps reflection discipline 's eclectic nature political theory also engages questions broader scope tackling political nature phenomena categories identity culture sexuality race wealth human nonhuman relations ecology religion political philosophy branch philosophy


also major part political science within strong focus historically placed history political thought contemporary political theory normative political theory various critical approaches ''oxford handbook political theory'' field described interdisciplinary endeavor whose center gravity lies humanities end happily still undisciplined discipline political science long time challenge identity political theory position productively three sorts location relation


academic disciplines political science history philosophy world politics abstract ruminative register theory canonical political theory newer resources feminist critical theory discourse analysis film film theory popular political culture mass media studies neuroscience environmental studies behavioral science economics political theorists increasingly draw history ancient traditions ancient india indian political philosophy ancient times demarcated clear distinction nation state religion state constitutions hindu states evolved time


based political legal treatises prevalent social institutions institutions state broadly divided governance administration defense law order ''mantranga'' principal governing body states consisted king prime minister commander chief army chief priest king prime minister headed committee ministers along head executive maha amatya chanakya th century bc indian political philosopher ''arthashastra'' provides account science politics wise ruler policies foreign affairs wars system spy state


surveillance economic stability state chanakya quotes several authorities including bruhaspati ushanas prachetasa manu parasara ambi described descendant lineage political philosophers father chanaka immediate predecessor another influential extant indian treatise political philosophy sukra neeti example code law ancient india manusm ti laws manu ancient china portrait confucius c chinese political philosophy dates back spring autumn period specifically confucius th century bc chinese political philosophy


developed response social political breakdown country characteristic spring autumn period warring states period major philosophies period confucianism legalism mohism agrarianism taoism political aspect philosophical schools philosophers confucius mencius mozi focused political unity political stability basis political philosophies confucianism advocated hierarchical meritocratic government based empathy loyalty interpersonal relationships legalism advocated highly authoritarian government based draconian punishments laws mohism advocated communal decentralized government centered


frugality asceticism agrarians advocated peasant utopian communalism egalitarianism taoism advocated proto anarchism legalism dominant political philosophy qin dynasty replaced state confucianism han dynasty prior china 's adoption communism state confucianism remained dominant political philosophy china th century ancient greece western political philosophy originates philosophy ancient greece political philosophy dates back least plato ref name sahakian ref ancient greece dominated city states experimented various forms political organization grouped plato


five categories descending stability morality monarchy timocracy oligarchy democracy tyranny one first extremely important classical works political philosophy plato 's ''republic'' ref name sahakian followed aristotle 's ''nicomachean ethics'' ''politics'' roman political philosophy influenced stoics roman statesman cicero medieval christianity saint augustine early christian philosophy augustine hippo heavily influenced plato key change brought christian thought moderation stoicism theory justice roman world well emphasis


role state applying mercy moral example augustine also preached one member city either citizen city god civitas dei city man civitas terrena augustine 's ''city god'' influential work period attacked thesis held many christian romans christian view could realized earth st thomas aquinas thomas aquinas meticulously dealt varieties philosophy law according aquinas four kinds law eternal


law divine government everything divine positive law posited god external human nature natural law right way living discoverable natural reason cannot known internal human nature human law commonly call law including customary law law ''communitas perfecta'' aquinas never discusses nature categorization canon law scholarly debate surrounding place canon law within thomistic jurisprudential framework aquinas incredibly influential thinker natural law tradition islamic political evolution mutazilite vs asharite


rise islam based qur'an muhammad strongly altered power balances perceptions origin power mediterranean region early islamic philosophy emphasized inexorable link science religion process ijtihad find truth effect ''all'' philosophy political real implications governance view challenged rationalist mutazilite philosophers held hellenic view reason revelation known modern scholars first speculative theologians islam supported secular aristocracy sought


political conceptions islam kudrah power sultan ummah cemaa obligation even core terms qur'an ie ibadah worship din religion rab master ilah deity taken basis analysis hence ideas muslim political philosophers also many jurists ulama posed political ideas theories example ideas khawarij early years islamic history khilafa ummah shia islam concept imamah considered proofs political thought clashes ehl sunna


shia th th centuries genuine political character political thought purely rooted theism however aristotleanism flourished islamic golden age saw rise continuation peripatetic philosophers implemented ideas aristotle context islamic world abunaser avicenna ibn rushd part philosophical school claimed human reason surpassed mere coincidence revelation believed example natural phenomena occur certain rules made god god interfered directly unlike al ghazali followers notable political philosophers


time include nizam al mulk persian scholar vizier seljuq empire composed ''siyasatnama'' book government english details role state terms political affairs ie deal political opponents without ruining government 's image well duty protect poor reward worthy work explains state deal issues supplying jobs immigrants like turkmens coming north present day southern russia kazakhstan turkmenistan


uzbekistan ibn khaldun th century arab scholar ibn khaldun considered one greatest political theorists british philosopher anthropologist ernest gellner considered ibn khaldun 's definition government institution prevents injustice commits best history political theory ibn khaldun government restrained minimum necessary evil constraint men men medieval europe medieval political philosophy europe heavily influenced christian thinking much common mutazilite islamic thinking


roman catholics thought subordinating philosophy theology subject reason revelation case contradictions subordinated reason faith asharite islam scholastics combining philosophy aristotle christianity st augustine emphasized potential harmony inherent reason revelation perhaps influential political philosopher medieval europe st thomas aquinas helped reintroduce aristotle 's works transmitted catholic europe muslim spain along commentaries averroes aquinas 's use set agenda scholastic political philosophy


dominated european thought centuries even unto renaissance medieval political philosophers aquinas ''summa theologica'' developed idea king tyrant king could overthrown others like nicole oresme ''livre de politiques'' categorically denied right overthrow unjust ruler magna carta viewed many cornerstone anglo american political liberty explicitly proposes right revolt ruler justice 's sake documents similar magna carta found european countries spain hungary


european renaissance renaissance secular political philosophy began emerge century theological political thought europe middle ages see secular politics practice rule holy roman empire academic field wholly scholastic therefore christian nature niccol machiavelli one influential works burgeoning period niccol machiavelli 's ''the prince'' written published machiavelli 's death work well ''the discourses'' rigorous analysis classical antiquity much influence modern political thought


west minority including jean jacques rousseau interpreted prince satire meant given medici recapture florence subsequent expulsion machiavelli florence though work written di medici family order perhaps influence free exile machiavelli supported republic florence rather oligarchy medici family rate machiavelli presents pragmatic somewhat consequentialist view politics whereby good evil mere means used bring end ie acquisition maintenance


absolute power thomas hobbes well known theory social contract goes expand view start th century english renaissance although neither machiavelli hobbes believed divine right kings believed inherent selfishness individual necessarily belief led adopt strong central power means preventing disintegration social order european enlightenment eug ne delacroix 's ''liberty leading people'' louvre painting created time old modern


political philosophies came violent conflictduring enlightenment period new theories emerged human definition reality way perceived along discovery societies americas changing needs political societies especially wake english civil war american revolution french revolution haitian revolution new theories led new questions insights thinkers thomas hobbes john locke benjamin constant jean jacques rousseau theorists driven two basic questions one


right need people form states two best form state could fundamental questions involved conceptual distinction concepts state government decided state would refer set enduring institutions power would distributed use justified term government would refer specific group people occupied institutions state create laws ordinances people included would bound conceptual distinction continues operate political science although political


scientists philosophers historians cultural anthropologists argued political action given society occurs outside state societies organized states nevertheless must considered political terms long concept natural order introduced social sciences could evolve independently theistic thinking since cultural revolution th century england spread france rest europe society considered subject natural laws akin physical world political economic relations drastically influenced


theories concept guild subordinated theory free trade roman catholic dominance theology increasingly challenged protestant churches subordinate nation state also fashion roman catholic church often decried angrily preached vulgar native language region free trade opposed religious theories trade policy restrict imports exports also understood free market idea applied international trade government free trade predominantly advocated political parties hold


liberal economic positions economically left wing nationalist political parties generally support protectionism opposite free trade however enlightenment outright attack religion particularly christianity outspoken critic church france fran ois marie arouet de voltaire representative figure enlightenment historians described voltaire 's description history christianity propagandistic voltaire partially responsible misattribution expression credo quia absurdum church fathers letter frederick ii king prussia dated january wrote christianity la n tre religion est sans


contredit la plus ridicule la plus absurde et la plus sanguinaire qui ait jamais infect le monde ie christian religion assuredly ridiculous absurd bloody religion ever infected world majesty human race eternal service extirpating infamous superstition say among rabble worthy enlightened apt every yoke say among honest people among men think among wish think one regret dying


cannot aid noble enterprise finest respectable human mind point voltaire religion would never france well spread doctrine within new world advanced civilizations aztec maya inca mohican delaware huron especially iroquois iroquois philosophy particular gave much christian thought time many cases actually inspired institutions adopted united states example benjamin franklin great admirer


methods iroquois confederacy much early american literature emphasized political philosophy natives iroquois r kw r kw haudenosaunee historically powerful northeast native american confederacy north america known colonial years french iroquois league later iroquois confederacy english five nations comprising mohawk onondaga oneida cayuga seneca accepted tuscarora people southeast confederacy also iroquoian speaking became known six nations john locke


john locke particular exemplified new age political theory work ''two treatises government'' locke proposes state nature theory directly complements conception political development occurs founded contractual obligation locke stood refute sir robert filmer 's paternally founded political theory favor natural system based nature particular given system theory divine right kings became passing fancy exposed type ridicule john locke treated unlike machiavelli hobbes


john stuart mill 's work political philosophy begins ''on liberty liberty'' influential statement liberal principles begins distinguishing old new threats liberty old threat liberty found traditional societies rule one monarchy aristocracy though one could worried restrictions liberty benevolent monarchs aristocrats traditional worry rulers politically unaccountable governed rule interests rather interests governed mill 's explicit theory


rights introduced chapter v utilitarianism context sanction theory duty indirect form utilitarianism identifies wrong actions actions useful sanction mill introduces justice proper part duty justice involves duties perfect duties duties correlated rights justice implies something right wrong individual person claim us matter right perfect duties thus create liberty


collective freedom within state uses ''on liberty'' discuss gender equality society mill utilitarianism perfect tool justify gender equality subjection women referring political lawful social subjection women woman married entered legally binding coverture husband married legal existence individual suspended marital unity easy presume woman would marry circumstances unmarried social consequences woman could advance social stature wealth


rich husband groundwork mill uses utilitarian ethics assess gender equality would best way achieve greatest good greatest number principle regulates existing social relations two sexes one chief obstacles human improvement chief obstacle mill relates women 's intellectual capability subjection women looks women society argues diminishing intellectual potential wastes knowledge skill half population knowledge lost could


formulate ideas could maximize pleasure society benjamin constant one first thinkers go name liberal constant looked britain rather ancient rome practical model freedom large commercial society drew distinction liberty ancients liberty moderns liberty ancients participatory republican liberty gave citizens right directly influence politics debates votes public assembly order support degree participation citizenship burdensome moral


obligation requiring considerable investment time energy generally required sub society slaves much productive work leaving citizens free deliberate public affairs ancient liberty also limited relatively small homogenous societies people could conveniently gathered together one place transact public affairs liberty moderns contrast based possession civil liberties rule law freedom excessive state interference direct participation would limited necessary consequence size modern states also


inevitable result created commercial society slaves almost everybody must earn living work instead voters would elect representatives would deliberate parliament behalf people would save citizens necessity daily political involvement moreover constant believed modern world commerce superior war attacked napoleon 's martial appetite grounds illiberal longer suited modern commercial social organization ancient liberty tended warlike whereas state organized principles modern


necessity strong central authority avoid evil discord civil war beginning mechanistic understanding human beings passions hobbes postulates life would like without government condition calls state nature state person would right license everything world hobbes argues would lead war jean jacques rousseau ''the social contract'' outlines basis legitimate political order within framework classical republicanism published became one


influential works political philosophy western tradition developed ideas mentioned earlier work article conomie politique discourse political economy featured diderot 's encyclop die treatise begins dramatic opening lines man born free everywhere chains think masters others indeed greater slaves rousseau claimed state nature primitive condition without law morality human beings left benefits necessity cooperation society developed division labor private


countries brought communism particular political theory leninism also smaller level luxemburgism gradually world stage time social democratic parties elections formed governments first time often result introduction universal suffrage contemporary political spectrum end world war ii john rawls published ''a theory justice'' political philosophy declined anglo american academic world analytic philosophers expressed skepticism possibility normative judgments cognitive content political science turned toward statistical methods behavioralism


continental europe hand postwar decades saw huge blossoming political philosophy marxism dominating field time jean paul sartre louis althusser victories mao zedong china fidel castro cuba well events may led increased interest revolutionary ideology especially new left number continental european migr britain united states including karl popper friedrich hayek leo strauss hannah arendt isaiah berlin eric voegelin judith shklar encouraged continued study political philosophy anglo american


world students remained odds analytic establishment communism remained important focus especially colonialism racism important issues arose general marked trend towards pragmatic approach political issues rather philosophical one much academic debate regarded one two pragmatic topics whether apply utilitarianism problems political policy whether apply economic models rational choice theory political issues rise feminism lgbt social


original position representative parties choose principles justice basic structure society behind veil ignorance rawls also offered criticism utilitarian approaches questions political justice robert nozick 's book ''anarchy state utopia'' national book award responded rawls libertarian perspective gained academic respectability libertarian viewpoints contemporaneously rise analytic ethics anglo american thought europe several new lines philosophy directed critique existing societies arose took elements


marxist economic analysis combined cultural ideological emphasis frankfurt school thinkers like herbert marcuse theodor w adorno max horkheimer j rgen habermas combined marxian freudian perspectives along somewhat different lines number continental thinkers still largely influenced marxism put new emphases structuralism return hegel within post structuralist line though mostly taking label thinkers gilles deleuze michel foucault claude lefort jean baudrillard situationists influenced hegel guy debord particular moved marxist analysis commodity


economic social policies encourage growth social capital prominent subject recent political philosophy theory deliberative democracy seminal work done jurgen habermas germany extensive literature english led theorists jane mansbridge joshua cohen amy gutmann dennis thompson pair overlapping political perspectives arising toward end th century republicanism neo civic republicanism capability approach resurgent republican movement aims provide alternate definition liberty isaiah berlin 's positive negative


forms liberty namely liberty non domination unlike american liberal movement understands liberty non interference non domination entails individuals subject arbitrary person republican mere status slave regardless slave treated objectionable prominent republicans include historian quentin skinner jurist cass sunstein political philosopher philip pettit capability approach pioneered economists mahbub ul haq amartya sen developed legal scholar martha nussbaum understands freedom allied lines real world ability act capability approach republicanism treat


choice something must resourced words enough legally able something real option another important strand contemporary political theory north america draws thinkers friedrich nietzsche michel foucault jacques derrida gilles deleuze among others develop critiques articulate alternatives sufficiency liberal communitarian debate republicanism discourse since political theorists broadly engaging genealogical approach deconstruction weak ontology expanded scope political theory issued variety arguments


topics pluralism agonism gender performativity secularism recently anthropocene non human turn works judith butler william e connolly wendy brown jane bennett bonnie honig chantal mouffe highly pertinent regard influential political philosophers larger list political philosophers intended closer exhaustive listed canonical important thinkers especially philosophers whose central focus political philosophy good representatives particular school thought thomas aquinas synthesizing christian theology peripatetic


anarchism specific version anarchism called collectivist anarchism jeremy bentham first thinker analyze social justice terms maximization aggregate individual benefits founded philosophical ethical school thought known utilitarianism isaiah berlin developed distinction positive negative liberty edmund burke irish member british parliament burke credited creation conservative thought burke 's ''reflections revolution france'' popular writings denounced french revolution burke one biggest supporters american revolution chanakya wrote influential text arthashastra


earliest political thinkers asian history noam chomsky widely recognized helped spark cognitive revolution human sciences contributing development new cognitivistic framework study language mind chomsky leading critic us foreign policy neoliberalism contemporary state capitalism israeli palestinian conflict mainstream news media ideas proven highly influential anti capitalist anti imperialist movements aligns anarcho syndicalism libertarian socialism confucius first thinker relate ethics political order william e connolly helped introduce postmodern


philosophy political theory promoted new theories pluralism agonistic democracy john dewey co founder pragmatism analyzed essential role education maintenance democratic government han feizi major figure chinese fajia legalist school advocated government adhered laws strict method administration michel foucault critiqued modern conception power basis prison complex prohibitive institutions designate sexuality madness knowledge roots infrastructure critique demonstrated subjection power formation subjects


members central bodies could know enough match preferences consumers workers existing conditions hayek argued central economic planning mainstay socialism would lead total state dangerous power advocated free market capitalism main role state maintain rule law let spontaneous order develop g w f hegel emphasized cunning history arguing followed rational trajectory even embodying seemingly irrational forces influenced marx kierkegaard nietzsche oakeshott thomas hobbes generally considered first articulated concept


social contract justifies actions rulers even contrary individual desires governed citizens reconciled conception sovereignty david hume hume criticized social contract theory john locke others resting myth actual agreement hume realist recognizing role force forge existence states consent governed merely hypothetical also introduced concept utility later picked developed jeremy bentham hume also coined 'is ought' problem ie idea


something mean ought influential normative politics thomas jefferson politician political theorist american enlightenment expanded philosophy thomas paine instrumenting republicanism united states famous united states declaration independence immanuel kant argued participation civil society undertaken self preservation per thomas hobbes moral duty first modern thinker fully analyzed structure meaning obligation argued international organization needed preserve world peace peter


kropotkin one classic anarchist thinkers influential theorist anarcho communism john locke like hobbes described social contract theory based citizens' fundamental rights state nature departed hobbes based assumption society moral values independent governmental authority widely shared argued government power limited protection personal property arguments may deeply influential formation united states constitution gy rgy luk cs hungarian marxist theorist aesthetician literary historian critic one


founders western marxism ''magnum opus'' ''history class consciousness'' developed marxist theory class consciousness introduced concept reification niccol machiavelli first systematic analysis politics necessitates expedient evil actions gave account statecraft realistic point view instead relying idealism machiavelli also relays recommendations run well ordered republican state viewed better forms government autocracies james madison american politician protege jefferson considered father constitution father bill


rights united states political theorist believed separation powers proposed comprehensive set checks balances necessary protect rights individual tyranny majority herbert marcuse called father new left one principal thinkers within frankfurt school generally important efforts fuse thought sigmund freud karl marx introduced concept repressive desublimation social control operate direct control also manipulation desire work eros


civilization notion non repressive society influential counter cultural social movements karl marx large part added historical dimension understanding society culture economics created concept ''ideology'' sense true false beliefs shape control social actions analyzed fundamental nature class mechanism governance social interaction profoundly influenced world politics theory communism mencius one important thinkers confucian school first theorist make coherent argument


obligation rulers ruled john stuart mill utilitarian person named system goes bentham laying foundation liberal democratic thought general modern opposed classical liberalism particular articulated place individual liberty otherwise utilitarian framework montesquieu analyzed protection people balance powers divisions state mozi eponymous founder mohist school advocated form consequentialism friedrich nietzsche philosopher became powerful influence broad spectrum th century political currents marxism


anarchism fascism socialism libertarianism conservatism interpreters debated content political philosophy robert nozick criticized rawls argued libertarianism appeal hypothetical history state property thomas paine enlightenment writer defended liberal democracy american revolution french revolution ''common sense'' ''rights man'' plato wrote lengthy dialog ''the republic'' laid political philosophy citizens divided three categories one category people rulers philosophers according plato idea based


theory forms pierre joseph proudhon commonly considered father modern anarchism specifically mutualism ayn rand founder objectivism prime mover objectivist libertarian movements mid twentieth century america advocated complete laissez faire capitalism rand held proper role government exclusively protection individual rights without economic interference government separated economics way reasons separated religion governmental action directed defense individual rights would constitute initiation force threat force therefore


violation rights also legitimate function government john rawls revitalized study normative political philosophy anglo american universities book theory justice uses version social contract theory answer fundamental questions justice criticise utilitarianism murray rothbard central theorist anarcho capitalism austrian school economist jean jacques rousseau analyzed social contract expression general controversially argued favor absolute democracy people large would act sovereign prabhat ranjan sarkar known socio economic


political philosophy progressive utilization theory carl schmitt german political theorist tied nazis developed concepts friend enemy distinction state exception though influential books written continued write prolifically death academic quasi exile heavily influenced th century political philosophy within frankfurt school among others philosophers jacques derrida hannah arendt giorgio agamben adam smith often said founded modern economics explained emergence economic benefits self interested behavior


invisible hand artisans traders praising efficiency smith also expressed concern effects industrial labor eg repetitive activity workers work moral sentiments sought explain social bonds enhance economic activity socrates widely considered founder western political philosophy via spoken influence athenian contemporaries since socrates never wrote anything much know teachings comes famous student plato baruch spinoza set forth first analysis ''rational egoism'' rational interest self conformance pure reason


spinoza 's thinking society individual guided reason political authority would superfluous max stirner important thinker within anarchism main representative anarchist current known individualist anarchism also founder ethical egoism endorses anarchy leo strauss famously rejected modernity mostly grounds perceived modern political philosophy 's excessive self sufficiency reason flawed philosophical grounds moral political normativity argued instead return pre modern thinkers answers contemporary issues philosophy influential formation


williams british moral philosopher whose posthumously published work political philosophy ''in beginning deed'' seen along works raymond geuss key foundational work political realism see also anarchist schools thought consensus decision making consequentialist justifications state critical theory engaged theory justification state majoritarianism panarchy philosophy law political journalism political spectrum ''political theory'' post structuralism progressivism rechtsstaat rule according higher law semiotics culture theodemocracy references reading academic journals dedicated political philosophy include ''political theory'' ''philosophy public affairs''


th century term originates greek old ancient gen creature speech thought study ref name onlineetdict ref paleontology lies border biology geology differs archaeology excludes study anatomically modern humans uses techniques drawn wide range sciences including biochemistry mathematics engineering use techniques enabled paleontologists discover much evolutionary history life almost way back earth became capable supporting life almost nbsp billion years ago knowledge

Natural science
Earth science
Paleontology


increased paleontology developed specialised sub divisions focus different types fossil organisms others study ecology environmental history ancient climates body fossils trace fossils principal types evidence ancient life geochemical evidence helped decipher evolution life organisms large enough leave body fossils estimating dates remains essential difficult sometimes adjacent rock layers allow radiometric dating provides absolute dates accurate within often paleontologists rely relative dating


solving jigsaw puzzles biostratigraphy arrangement rock layers youngest oldest classifying ancient organisms also difficult many fit well linnaean taxonomy classifying living organisms paleontologists often use cladistics draw evolutionary family trees final quarter th century saw development molecular phylogenetics investigates closely organisms related measuring similarity dna genomes molecular phylogenetics also used estimate dates species diverged controversy reliability molecular clock


estimates depend overview simplest definition paleontology study ancient life ref name cowenhistlifeed pxi ref field seeks information several aspects past organisms identity origin environment evolution tell us earth 's organic inorganic past historical science preparation fossilised bones ''europasaurus holgeri'' william whewell classified paleontology one historical sciences along archaeology geology astronomy cosmology philology history paleontology aims describe phenomena past reconstruct causes ref name cleland methodologicalandepistemicdifferences ref hence


three main elements description past phenomena developing general theory causes various types change applying theories specific facts trying explain past paleontologists historical scientists often construct set one hypotheses causes look smoking gun piece evidence strongly accords one hypothesis others sometimes researchers discover smoking gun fortunate accident research example discovery luis walter alvarez iridium mainly extraterrestrial metal


cretaceous tertiary boundary layer made asteroid impact favored explanation cretaceous paleogene extinction event although debate continues contribution volcanism ref name cleland methodologicalandepistemicdifferences complementary approach developing scientific knowledge experimental science often said work conducting experiments ' 'disprove'' hypotheses workings causes natural phenomena approach cannot prove hypothesis since later experiment may disprove accumulation failures disprove often compelling evidence favor however confronted totally unexpected phenomena first evidence invisible radiation experimental scientists often


objects made humans human remains paleontologists interested characteristics evolution humans species dealing evidence humans archaeologists paleontologists may work together nbsp example paleontologists might identify animal plant fossils around archaeological site discover people lived ate might analyze climate time habitation ref name ucmpfaqanthro ref addition paleontology often borrows techniques sciences including biology osteology ecology chemistry physics mathematics ref name cowenhistlifeed pxi example geochemical signatures rocks may help discover


example running speed bite strength ''tyrannosaurus'' ref name hutchinsongarcia trexslow summary press release http wwwsciencenewsorg articles fob asp olympian analysis hints ''indominus rex'' ran slowly ref ref name mm ref flight mechanics ''microraptor'' ref name microraptorwindtun ref relatively commonplace study internal details fossils using x ray microtomography ref name suttonrahman ref paleontology biology archaeology paleoneurobiology combine study endocranial casts endocasts species related humans clarify evolution human brain ref name bruner ref paleontology even contributes astrobiology investigation possible life planets developing models life may arisen


providing techniques detecting evidence life subdivisions knowledge increased paleontology developed specialised subdivisions vertebrate paleontology concentrates fossils earliest fish immediate ancestors modern mammals invertebrate paleontology deals fossils molluscs arthropods annelid worms echinoderms paleobotany studies fossil plants algae fungi palynology study pollen spores produced land plants protists straddles paleontology botany deals living fossil organisms micropaleontology deals microscopic fossil organisms kinds ref name ucmppaleospecialisms ref analyses using engineering techniques show ''tyrannosaurus''


devastating bite raise doubts running ability instead focusing individual organisms paleoecology examines interactions different ancient organisms food chains two way interactions environments nbsp example development oxygenic photosynthesis bacteria caused oxygenation atmosphere hugely increased productivity diversity ecosystems ref name hoehler ref together led evolution complex eukaryotic cells multicellular organisms built ref name hedgesblairetal moleculartimescaleofeukaryoteevolution ref paleoclimatology although sometimes treated part paleoecology ref name ucmppaleospecialisms focuses history earth 's climate mechanisms


''marrella'' specimen illustrates clear detailed fossils burgess shale lagerst tte fossils organisms' bodies usually informative type evidence common types wood bones shells ref name ucmpwhatispaleo ref fossilisation rare event fossils destroyed erosion metamorphism observed hence fossil record incomplete increasingly back time despite often adequate illustrate broader patterns life 's history ref name bentonqualityfossilrecord non technical http palaeoglybrisacuk cladestrat newshtml summary ref also biases fossil record different environments


favorable preservation different types organism parts organisms ref name butterfield exceptionalfossilpreservation ref parts organisms already mineralised usually preserved shells molluscs since animal species soft bodied decay become fossilised result although plus phyla living animals two thirds never found fossils ref name cowenhistlifeed pxi occasionally unusual environments may preserve soft tissues lagerst tten allow paleontologists examine internal anatomy animals sediments represented shells spines claws etc nbsp


effect ref name signor ref trace fossils cambrian trace fossils including ''rusophycus'' made trilobite ''climactichnites'' cambrian trackways cm wide large slug like animals cambrian tidal flat wisconsin trace fossils consist mainly tracks burrows also include coprolites fossil feces marks left feeding ref name ucmpwhatispaleo ref name fedonkingehlingetal riseofanimals trace fossils particularly significant represent data source limited animals easily fossilised hard parts reflect organisms' behaviours also many traces date significantly earlier body fossils animals thought


capable making ref name seilacher eg ref whilst exact assignment trace fossils makers generally impossible traces may example provide earliest physical evidence appearance moderately complex animals comparable earthworms ref name fedonkingehlingetal riseofanimals ref geochemical observations geochemical observations may help deduce global level biological activity certain period affinity certain fossils example geochemical features rocks may reveal life first arose earth ref name brasiermcloughlinetal freshlook may provide evidence presence eukaryotic cells type multicellular organisms


built ref name brocksloganetal riseofeukaryotes ref analyses carbon isotope ratios may help explain major transitions permian triassic extinction event ref name twitchett classifying ancient organisms levels linnaean taxonomy naming groups organisms way clear widely agreed important disputes paleontology based misunderstandings names ref name brochusumrall ref linnaean taxonomy commonly used classifying living organisms runs difficulties dealing newly discovered organisms significantly different known ones example hard decide level place


new higher level grouping eg genus family order important since linnaean rules naming groups tied levels hence group moved different level must renamed div style width auto border solid px silver padding px margin px float right font size div style width auto border solid px silver padding px mammals label reptiles birds div '''simple example cladogram''' br warm bloodedness evolved somewhere br synapsid mammal transition br warm bloodedness must also evolved one br points nbsp example convergent evolution ref name cowenhistlifeed pxi div paleontologists generally use approaches


based cladistics technique working evolutionary family tree set organisms ref name brochusumrall works logic groups b c similarities either group b c closely related either characters compared may anatomical presence notochord molecular comparing sequences dna proteins result successful analysis hierarchy clades nbsp groups share common ancestor ideally


family tree two branches leading node junction sometimes little information achieve paleontologists make junctions several branches cladistic technique sometimes fallible features wings camera eyes evolved convergently nbsp must taken account analyses ref name cowenhistlifeed pxi evolutionary developmental biology commonly abbreviated evo devo also helps paleontologists produce family trees understand fossils ref name tetrop ref example embryological development modern brachiopods suggests brachiopods may descendants halkieriids


became extinct cambrian period estimating dates organisms paleontology seeks map living things changed time substantial hurdle aim difficulty working old fossils beds preserve fossils typically lack radioactive elements needed radiometric dating technique means giving rocks greater million years old absolute age accurate within better ref name martin ref although radiometric dating requires careful laboratory work basic principle simple rates


horizontal layers layer younger one underneath fossil found two layers whose ages known fossil 's age must lie two known ages rock sequences continuous may broken faults periods erosion difficult match rock beds directly next one another however fossils species survived relatively short time used link isolated rocks technique called ''biostratigraphy'' instance conodont ''eoplacognathus pseudoplanus'' short


range middle ordovician period rocks unknown age found traces ''e pseudoplanus'' must mid ordovician age index fossils must distinctive globally distributed short time range useful however misleading results produced index fossils turn longer fossil ranges first thought ref name gehling stratigraphy biostratigraphy general provide relative dating ''a'' ''b'' often sufficient studying evolution however difficult time periods problems involved matching


rocks age across different continents ref name gehling ref family tree relationships may also help narrow date lineages first appeared instance fossils b c date x nbsp million years ago calculated family tree says ancestor b c must evolved x nbsp million years ago also possible estimate long ago two living clades diverged nbsp ie approximately long ago last common ancestor must lived nbsp assuming dna mutations accumulate constant rate molecular clocks however


fallible provide approximate timing example sufficiently precise reliable estimating groups feature cambrian explosion first evolved estimates produced different techniques may vary factor two ref name petersonetal history life wrinkled elephant skin texture trace fossil non stromatolite microbial mat image shows location burgsvik beds sweden texture first identified evidence microbial mat ref name manten ref earth formed collision formed


moon million years later may cooled quickly enough oceans atmosphere evidence moon late heavy bombardment asteroids seems likely bombardment struck earth time first atmosphere oceans may stripped away paleontology traces evolutionary history life back possibly far ref name pip ref oldest clear evidence life earth dates although reports often disputed fossil bacteria


geochemical evidence presence life ref name brasiermcloughlinetal freshlook scientists proposed life earth seeded elsewhere research concentrates various explanations life could arisen independently earth million years microbial mats multi layered colonies different bacteria dominant life earth ref name krumbeinbrehmetal biofilmbiodictyonbiomatetc ref evolution oxygenic photosynthesis enabled play major role oxygenation atmosphere ref name hoehler change atmosphere increased effectiveness nurseries evolution ref name nisbetfowler archaeanmetabolicevolution ref eukaryotes cells complex internal structures


may present earlier evolution speeded acquired ability transform oxygen poison powerful source metabolic energy innovation may come primitive eukaryotes capturing oxygen powered bacteria endosymbionts transforming organelles called mitochondria ref name pip earliest evidence complex eukaryotes organelles mitochondria dates ref name hedgesblairetal moleculartimescaleofeukaryoteevolution ''opabinia'' sparked modern interest cambrian explosion multicellular life composed eukaryotic cells earliest evidence francevillian group fossils ref name albani ref although specialisation cells


along several weird wonders bear little obvious resemblance modern animals long running debate whether cambrian explosion truly rapid period evolutionary experimentation alternative views modern looking animals began evolving earlier fossils precursors yet found weird wonders evolutionary aunts cousins modern groups ref name marshall explaining ref vertebrates remained minor group first jawed fish appeared late ordovician early cretaceous ''yanoconodon'' longer average mammal time spread animals


vertebrates rest mesozoic birds evolved one group dinosaurs ref name padian ref time mammals' ancestors survived small mainly nocturnal insectivores may accelerated development mammalian traits endothermy hair ref name rubenjones furandfeathers ref cretaceous paleogene extinction event ref name renne ref killed dinosaurs except birds mammals increased rapidly size diversity took air sea fossil evidence indicates flowering plants appeared rapidly diversified early cretaceous ref name cranefriispedersen originanddiversificationofangiosperms ref rapid rise dominance terrestrial


single small population africa migrated world less years ago replaced previous hominine species arose worldwide time result interbreeding mass extinctions life earth suffered occasional mass extinctions least since despite disastrous effects mass extinctions sometimes accelerated evolution life earth dominance ecological niche passes one group organisms another rarely new dominant group outcompetes old usually extinction event allows new


often unlike parts living organism many superfluous genera represented fragments found superfluous genera interpreted becoming extinct quickly ref name macleod extinction biodiversity fossil record number distinct genera alive given time whose first occurrence predates whose last occurrence postdates time ref name rohdemuller shows different trend fairly swift rise slight decline devastating permian triassic extinction event important factor swift rise


present ref name rohdemuller ref history illustration indian elephant jaw mammoth jaw top cuvier 's paper living fossil elephants although paleontology became established around earlier thinkers noticed aspects fossil record ancient greek philosopher xenophanes bce concluded fossil sea shells areas land water ref name rudwick ref middle ages persian naturalist ibn sina known ''avicenna'' europe discussed fossils proposed theory petrifying fluids albert saxony elaborated th century ref name rudwick


chinese naturalist shen kuo proposed theory climate change based presence petrified bamboo regions time dry bamboo early modern europe systematic study fossils emerged integral part changes natural philosophy occurred age reason italian renaissance leonardo da vinci made various significant contributions field well depicted numerous fossils leonardo 's contributions central history paleontology established line continuity two main branches paleontologyichnology


body fossil paleontology ref name baucon leonardo da vinci founding father ichnology ''palaios'' abstract available http wwwtracemakercom author 's webpage ref identified following ref name biogenic nature ichnofossils ie ichnofossils structures left living organisms utility ichnofossils paleoenvironmental toolscertain ichnofossils show marine origin rock strata importance neoichnological approachrecent traces key understanding ichnofossils independence complementary evidence ichnofossils body fossilsichnofossils distinct body fossils integrated body fossils provide paleontological information


end th century georges cuvier 's work established comparative anatomy scientific discipline proving fossil animals resembled living ones demonstrated animals could become extinct leading emergence paleontology expanding knowledge fossil record also played increasing role development geology particularly stratigraphy ref name palmer earthtime ref first mention word ''pal ontologie'' coined january henri marie ducrotay de blainville ''journal de physique'' first half th century saw geological paleontological activity become increasingly well organised


growth geologic societies museums increasing number professional geologists fossil specialists interest increased reasons purely scientific geology paleontology helped industrialists find exploit natural resources coal ref name rudwick contributed rapid increase knowledge history life earth progress definition geologic time scale largely based fossil evidence henri marie ducrotay de blainville editor ''journal de physique'' coined word palaeontology refer study ancient living organisms fossils


knowledge life 's history continued improve became increasingly obvious kind successive order development life encouraged early evolutionary theories transmutation species ref name bucklandgould ref charles darwin published ''origin species'' much focus paleontology shifted understanding evolutionary paths including human evolution evolutionary theory ref name bucklandgould ''haikouichthys'' china may earliest known fish last half th century saw tremendous expansion paleontological activity especially north america trend continued th


century additional regions earth opened systematic fossil collection fossils found china near end th century particularly important provided new information earliest evolution animals early fish dinosaurs evolution birds last decades th century saw renewed interest mass extinctions role evolution life earth ref name bowler idea ref also renewed interest cambrian explosion apparently saw development body plans animal phyla discovery


fossils ediacaran biota developments paleobiology extended knowledge history life back far cambrian ref name marshall explaining increasing awareness gregor mendel 's pioneering work genetics led first development population genetics mid th century modern evolutionary synthesis explains evolution outcome events mutations horizontal gene transfer provide genetic variation genetic drift natural selection driving changes variation time ref name bowler idea within next years role operation dna genetic inheritance


discovered leading known central dogma molecular biology molecular phylogenetics investigation evolutionary family trees techniques derived biochemistry began make impact particularly proposed human lineage diverged apes much recently generally thought time although early study compared proteins apes humans molecular phylogenetics research based comparisons rna dna see also ''with link directory'' list notable fossils list paleontologists list transitional fossils ''une


femme ou deux'' french screwball comedy romance film starring g rard depardieu paleontologist references external links http paleobiologysiedu smithsonian 's paleobiology website http wwwucmpberkeleyedu university california museum paleontology http wwwpaleosocorg paleontological society http wwwpalassorg palaeontological association http vertpaleoorg society vertebrate paleontology http wwwpaleoportalorg paleontology portal http lhldigitallindahallorg cdm search collection earththeory geology paleontology theories earth collection digitised landmark early books earth sciences linda hall library earth sciences evolutionary biology historical geology


'''philology''' study language oral written historical sources intersection textual criticism literary criticism history linguistics especially strong ties etymology philology commonly defined study literary texts well oral written records establishment authenticity original form determination meaning person pursues kind study known philologist older usage especially british philology general covering comparative historical linguistics classical philology studies classical languages classical philology principally originated

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Philology


library pergamum library alexandria around fourth century bce continued greeks romans throughout roman byzantine empire eventually resumed european scholars renaissance soon joined philologies european germanic celtic eurasian slavistics etc asian arabic persian sanskrit chinese etc african egyptian nubian etc languages indo european studies involve comparative philology indo european languages philology focus historical development diachronic analysis contrasted linguistics due ferdinand de saussure 's insistence importance synchronic analysis contrast continued


emergence structuralism chomskyan linguistics alongside emphasis syntax although research historical linguistics often characterized reliance philological materials findings etymology term ''philology'' derived greek ''philolog a'' terms ''ph los'' love affection loved beloved dear friend ''l gos'' word articulation reason describing love learning literature well argument reasoning reflecting range activities included notion term changed little latin ''philologia'' later entered english language th century


rapid progress made understanding sound laws language change golden age philology lasted throughout th century giacomo leopardi friedrich schlegel nietzsche anglo saxon world term philology describe work languages literatures become synonymous practices german scholars abandoned consequence anti german feeling following world war ref name utz utz richard philologists philological practices discontents nietzsche cerquiglini ''the year 's work medievalism'' ref continental european countries still maintain term designate departments colleges position


titles journals j r r tolkien opposed nationalist reaction philological practices claiming philological instinct universal use language british english usage british academia ''philology'' remains largely synonymous historical linguistics us english us academia wider meaning study language 's grammar history literary tradition remains widespread based harsh critique friedrich nietzsche us scholars since viewed philology responsible narrowly scientistic study language literature ref name utz branches comparative


texts history includes elements textual criticism trying reconstruct author 's original text based variant copies manuscripts branch research arose among ancient scholars greek speaking world th century bc desired establish standard text popular authors purposes sound interpretation secure transmission since time original principles textual criticism improved applied widely distributed texts bible scholars tried reconstruct original readings bible manuscript


interpretation clear cut boundary philology hermeneutics ref name gb text significant political religious influence reconstruction biblical texts scholars difficulty reaching objective conclusions scholars avoid critical methods textual philology ref name gb especially historical linguistics important study actual recorded materials movement known new philology rejected textual criticism injects editorial interpretations text destroys integrity individual manuscript hence damaging reliability data supporters new philology insist


luwian languages beginning famous decipherment translation rosetta stone jean fran ois champollion number individuals attempted decipher writing systems ancient near east aegean case old persian mycenaean greek decipherment yielded older records languages already known slightly recent traditions middle persian alphabetic greek work ancient languages near east progressed rapidly mid th century henry rawlinson others deciphered behistun inscription records text old persian elamite akkadian using variation


cuneiform language elucidation cuneiform led decipherment sumerian hittite deciphered bed ich hrozn linear b script used ancient aegean deciphered michael ventris john chadwick demonstrated recorded early form greek known mycenaean greek linear writing system records still unknown language minoans resists deciphering despite many attempts work continues scripts maya great progress since initial breakthroughs phonetic approach championed yuri knorozov others


since late th century maya code almost completely deciphered mayan languages among documented studied mesoamerica code described logosyllabic style writing could used fully express spoken thought popular culture ''space trilogy'' cs lewis main character elwin ransom philologist lewis' close friend j r r tolkien dr edward morbius one main characters science fiction film ''forbidden planet'' philologist philip main character


christopher hampton 's 'bourgeois comedy' philanthropist professor philology english university town moritz maria von igelfeld main character alexander mccall smith 's comic novel ''portuguese irregular verbs'' philologist educated cambridge main character academy award nominee best foreign language film ''footnote'' hebrew philologist significant part film deals work main character science fiction tv show ''stargate sg '' dr daniel jackson mentioned phd philology see also ''american journal philology'' codicology


elocution etymology palaeography stylistics textual scholarship western canon references external links http rutheniaru tiutcheviana search en metlithtml philology runet special web search philological sites runet v topic german philology https webarchiveorg web http w uniroma cogfil homepagehtml rivista di filologia cognitiva http cogwebuclaedu culture coglithtml coglit literature cognitive linguistics http wwwclasufledu ipsa introhtm institute psychological study arts university florida https personalunizares garciala bibliographyhtml bibliography literary theory criticism philology ed jos ngel garc landa university zaragoza spain http ajif ucmcom asociaci n de j venes investigadores fil logos de la universidad complutense de madrid ajif ucm academic disciplines historical linguistics writing textual scholarship


sequence phonemes produced phonemes specified articulatory features denote particular goals closed lips tongue particular location phonemes coordinated sequence muscle commands sent muscles commands executed properly intended sounds produced movements disrupt modify airstream results sound wave modification done articulators different places manners articulation producing different acoustic results example words ''tack'' ' 'sack''

Humanities
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Phonetics


acoustic results different articulations auditory phonetics addresses way listeners perceive understand linguistic signals history antiquity first known phonetic studies carried early th century bce sanskrit grammarians hindu scholar p ini among well known early investigators whose four part grammar written around bce influential modern linguistics still represents complete generative grammar language yet written grammar formed basis modern linguistics described several important phonetic principles including voicing early account described resonance