items valued higher less case theft class felony theft items valued higher less class c felony theft items valued class b felony first offense theft anhydrous ammonia express purpose manufacturing methamphetamines violation krs latter case subsequent offenses class felony massachusetts massachusetts theft may generally charged felony value stolen property greater


sentence years non felony stealing class misdemeanor sentence year new york grand larceny consists stealing property value exceeding stealing public record secret scientific material firearm credit debit card ammonia telephone service motor vehicle religious item value exceeding stealing person another extortion atm degree grand larceny increased theft atm extortion involving fear involved value exceeding thresholds

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Theft


spate large scale thefts tons sand beaches ref name sand ap sand stolen across caribbean construction 'we lose beaches' unless crime taken seriously one official says found http wwwnbcnewscom id nbc news article accessed october ref grenada jamaica considering increasing fines jail time thefts ref name sand religious views practices islam parts world govern sharia law punishment theft amputation right hand thief repent ruling


derived sura verse quran states ''as thief male female cut hands punishment way example allah crime allah exalted power'' viewed deterrent buddhism buddhism one five precepts prohibits theft involves intention steal one perceives belonging oneself given acting successfully upon intention severity act theft judged worth owner


worth stolen underhand dealings fraud cheating forgery also included precept professions seen violate precept theft working gambling industry marketing products actually required customer psychology possible causes acts theft include economic non economic motivations example act theft may response offender 's feelings anger grief depression anxiety compulsion boredom power control issues low self esteem sense entitlement effort conform fit


peer group rebellion ref name cooper ref theft work may attributed factors include greed perceptions economic need support drug addiction response revenge work related issues rationalization act actually one stealing response opportunistic temptation emotional issues may involved act theft ref name cooper common reasons shoplifting include participation organized shoplifting ring opportunistic theft compulsive acts theft thrill seeking theft due need studies focusing shoplifting teenagers suggest minors shoplift reasons


including novelty experience peer pressure desire obtain goods minor cannot legally purchase economic reasons well self indulgence rebellion parents see also anti theft system asset management corporate theft prevention confidence trick credit card fraud dishonesty fence criminal force initiation fraud gentleman thief larceny money laundering organized crime pickpocketing package pilferage plagiarism property theft secret profit skimming casinos taxation theft theft act usufruct white collar crime '''specific forms theft related offences''' art theft attention theft bank robbery bandwidth theft bloody code brandjacking carjacking computer crime confidence trick


economic espionage act embezzlement espionage extortion identity theft kidnapping laptop theft metal theft motor vehicle theft organized retail crime package pilferage phishing piracy plagiarism quackery receipt stolen property ripoff sperm theft street sign theft tax evasion theft services theft finding notes references allen michael ''textbook criminal law'' oxford university press oxford criminal law revision committee th report theft related offences cmnd green stuart p ''thirteen ways steal bicycle theft law information age'' harvard university press cambridge griew edward ''theft acts '' sweet


maxwell ormerod david ''smith hogan criminal law'' lexisnexis london maniscalco fabio ''theft art'' italian naples massa smith j c ''law theft'' lexisnexis london external links


j van 't hoff first winner nobel prize chemistry widely considered one brilliant theoretical chemists history '''theoretical chemistry''' branch chemistry develops theoretical generalizations part theoretical arsenal modern chemistry example concepts chemical bonding chemical reaction valence surface potential energy molecular orbitals orbital interactions molecule activation overview theoretical chemistry unites principles concepts common branches chemistry within framework theoretical chemistry systematization chemical laws principles rules

Natural science
Chemistry
Theoretical chemistry


refinement detailing construction hierarchy central place theoretical chemistry occupied doctrine interconnection structure properties molecular systems uses mathematical physical methods explain structures dynamics chemical systems correlate understand predict thermodynamic kinetic properties general sense explanation chemical phenomena methods theoretical physics contrast theoretical physics connection high complexity chemical systems theoretical chemistry addition approximate mathematical methods often uses semi empirical empirical


methods recent years consisted primarily quantum chemistry ie application quantum mechanics problems chemistry major components include molecular dynamics statistical thermodynamics theories electrolyte solutions reaction networks polymerization catalysis molecular magnetism spectroscopy modern theoretical chemistry may roughly divided study chemical structure study chemical dynamics former includes studies electronic structure potential energy surfaces force fields vibrational rotational motion equilibrium properties condensed phase systems macro molecules chemical dynamics includes bimolecular kinetics collision theory reactions energy transfer unimolecular rate theory


metastable states condensed phase macromolecular aspects dynamics branches theoretical chemistry quantum chemistry application quantum mechanics fundamental interactions chemical physico chemical problems spectroscopic magnetic properties frequently modelled computational chemistry application scientific computing chemistry involving approximation schemes hartree fock post hartree fock density functional theory semiempirical methods pm force field methods molecular shape frequently predicted property computers also predict vibrational spectra vibronic coupling also acquire fourier transform infra red data frequency information comparison predicted vibrations


allows development improvement new existing products manufacturing processes closely related disciplines historically major field application theoretical chemistry following fields research atomic physics discipline dealing electrons atomic nuclei molecular physics discipline electrons surrounding molecular nuclei movement nuclei term usually refers study molecules made atoms gas phase consider molecular physics also study bulk properties chemicals terms


molecules physical chemistry chemical physics chemistry investigated via physical methods like laser techniques scanning tunneling microscope etc formal distinction fields physical chemistry branch chemistry chemical physics branch physics practice distinction quite vague many body theory discipline studying effects appear systems large number constituents based quantum physics mostly second quantization formalism quantum electrodynamics hence theoretical chemistry emerged branch research rise density functional theory


photochemical branching novel procedures finding optimal pulses global upper bounds time dependent quantum molecular dynamics j broeckhove l lathouwers eds plenum chemistry


''' ubiquitous computing''' '''ubicomp''' concept software engineering hardware engineering computer science computing made appear anytime everywhere contrast desktop computing ubiquitous computing occur using device location format user interacts computer exist many different forms including laptop computers tablets smart phones terminals everyday objects refrigerator pair glasses underlying technologies support ubiquitous computing include internet advanced middleware operating system mobile code sensors microprocessors new user interfaces

Formal science
Computer science
Computer communications (networks)
Ubiquitous computing


computer networks mobile protocols location positioning new materials paradigm also described '''pervasive computing''' ref name nieuwdorp discourse ref ambient intelligence everyware term emphasizes slightly different aspects primarily concerning objects involved also known physical computing internet things haptic computing things think rather propose single definition ubiquitous computing related terms taxonomy properties ubiquitous computing proposed different kinds flavors ubiquitous systems applications described ref name poslad ref ubiquitous computing touches distributed computing mobile computing location


computing mobile networking sensor networks human computer interaction context aware smart home technologies artificial intelligence core concepts ubiquitous computing concept using small internet connected inexpensive computers help everyday functions automated fashion example domestic ubiquitous computing environment might interconnect lighting environmental controls personal biometric monitors woven clothing illumination heating conditions room might modulated continuously imperceptibly another common scenario posits refrigerators aware suitably tagged contents able plan variety menus food actually hand


latter idea include mobile phones digital audio players radio frequency identification tags gps interactive whiteboards mark weiser proposed three basic forms ubiquitous computing devices ref name weiser ''tabs'' wearable device approximately centimeter size ''pads'' hand held device approximately decimeter size ''boards'' interactive larger display device approximately meter size ubiquitous computing devices proposed mark weiser based around flat devices different sizes visual display expanding beyond concepts large array ubiquitous computing devices could exist


arbitrary three dimensional shapes artefacts resembling many different kinds physical object see also tangible interface manuel castells' book ''the rise network society'' castells puts forth concept going continuous evolution computing devices states progress stand alone microcomputers decentralized mainframes towards pervasive computing castells' model pervasive computing system uses example internet start pervasive computing system logical progression paradigm system networking logic becomes applicable every realm daily activity


every location every context castells envisages system billions miniature ubiquitous inter communication devices spread worldwide like pigment wall paint ubiquitous computing may seen consist many layers roles together form single system layer task management layer monitors user task context index map user 's task need services environment manage complex dependencies layer environment management layer monitor resource capabilities map service need user level states specific capabilities layer environment layer


monitor relevant resource manage reliability resources history mark weiser coined phrase ubiquitous computing around tenure chief technologist xerox palo alto research center parc alone parc director chief scientist john seely brown weiser wrote earliest papers subject largely defining sketching major concerns ref name weiser ref ref name weiser ref recognizing effects extending processing power recognizing extension processing power everyday scenarios would necessitate understandings social cultural psychological phenomena beyond


proper ambit weiser influenced many fields outside computer science including philosophy phenomenology anthropology psychology post modernism sociology science feminist criticism explicit humanistic origins 'invisible ideal post modernist thought' ref name weiser referencing well ironically dystopian philip k dick novel ''ubik'' andy hopper cambridge university uk proposed demonstrated concept teleporting applications follow user wherever moves roy want researcher student working andy hopper cambridge university worked active badge system advanced location computing system


personal mobility merged computing bill schilit google also earlier work topic participated early mobile computing workshop held santa cruz ken sakamura university tokyo japan leads ubiquitous networking laboratory unl tokyo well engine forum joint goal sakamura 's ubiquitous networking specification engine forum enable everyday device broadcast receive information mit also contributed significant research field notably ''things think'' consortium directed hiroshi ishii joseph paradiso


rosalind picard media lab csail effort known project oxygen major contributors include university washington 's http ubicomplabcswashingtonedu ubicomp lab directed shwetak patel dartmouth college 's https dartnetscsdartmouthedu dartnets lab georgia tech 's college computing cornell university 's http paccscornelledu people aware computing lab nyu 's interactive telecommunications program uc irvine 's department informatics microsoft research intel research equator ajou university ucri cus examples one earliest ubiquitous systems artist natalie jeremijenko 's live wire also known dangling string installed xerox parc mark weiser 's time piece string


attached stepper motor controlled lan connection network activity caused string twitch yielding ''peripherally noticeable'' indication traffic weiser called example ''calm technology'' present manifestation trend widespread diffusion mobile phones many mobile phones support high speed data transmission video services services powerful computational ability although mobile devices necessarily manifestations ubiquitous computing examples japan 's yaoyorozu eight million gods project mobile devices coupled radio frequency identification tags demonstrate ubiquitous computing


already present form ref name referencea ref ambient devices produced orb dashboard weather beacon decorative devices receive data wireless network report current events stock prices weather like nabaztag produced violet snowden australian futurist mark pesce produced highly configurable led lamp enabled lamp uses wi fi named ''moorescloud'' gordon moore unified computer intelligence corporation launched device called ''ubi ubiquitous computer'' designed allow voice interaction home provide constant access information ubiquitous computing research focused


building environment computers allow humans focus attention select aspects environment operate supervisory policy making roles ubiquitous computing emphasizes creation human computer interface interpret support user 's intentions example mit 's project oxygen seeks create system computation pervasive air blockquote future computation human centered freely available everywhere like batteries power sockets oxygen air breathewe need carry devices around us instead configurable


generic devices either handheld embedded environment bring computation us whenever need wherever might interact anonymous devices adopt information personalities respect desires privacy security wo n't type click learn new computer jargon instead 'll communicate naturally using speech gestures describe intent blockquote fundamental transition seek escape physical world enter metallic gigabyte infested cyberspace rather brings computers communications us making synonymous


assist identifying long term problems opportunities related ubiquitous computing environment information reduce uncertainty guide decisions policy makers directly involved system development wedemeyer et al one important consideration degree different opinions form around single problem issues may strong consensus importance even great differences opinion regarding cause solution example people differ assessment highly tangible problem physical impact terrorists using new weapons


mass destruction destroy human life problem statements outlined address future evolution human species challenges identity clear cultural religious implications likely greater variance opinion ref name referencea research centres list notable institutions claim focus ubiquitous computing sorted country canada topological media lab concordia university canada finland community imaging group university oulu finland germany telecooperation office teco karlsruhe institute technology germany india ubiquitous computing research resource centre ucrc centre development


ubiquitous computing proceedings acm international symposium wearable computers'' association computing machinery new york united states external links http pervasiveconferenceorg international conference pervasive computing pervasive http wwwelseviercom locate pmc pervasive mobile computing journal pmc elsevier http wwwambientmediaassociationorg journal proceedings semantic ambient media workshop series iamea https ubicompetiuni siegende home publications university siegen ubicomp home publications artificial intelligence laboratories human computer interaction ubiquitous computing research centers


'''urology''' greek ''ouron'' urine '' logia'' study also known genitourinary surgery branch medicine focuses surgical medical diseases male female urinary tract system male reproductive organs organs domain urology include kidneys adrenal glands ureters urinary bladder urethra male reproductive organs testes epididymis vas deferens seminal vesicles prostate penis urinary reproductive tracts closely linked disorders one often affect thus major spectrum conditions managed urology exists domain

Applied science
Medicine and health
Urology


gynaecology andrology pediatric surgery colorectal surgery gastroenterology endocrinology urology one competitive highly sought surgical specialties physicians new urologists comprising less united states medical school graduates year ref name pmid ref urologists physicians specialized field completing general degree medicine upon successful completion residency program many urologists choose undergo advanced training subspecialty area expertise fellowship lasting additional months subspecialties may include urologic surgery urologic oncology urologic oncological surgery endourology endourologic surgery


urogynecology urogynecologic surgery reconstructive urologic surgery form reconstructive surgery minimally invasive urologic surgery pediatric urology pediatric urologic surgery including adolescent urology treatment premature delayed puberty treatment congenital urological syndromes malformations deformations transplant urology field transplant medicine surgery concerned transplantation organs kidneys bladder tissue ureters recently penises voiding dysfunction paruresis neurourology androurology sexual medicine additionally urologists supplement fellowships master 's degree years phd years related topics prepare academic


well focused clinical employment training united states residency programs offered categorical positions ref name residencywustledu https residencywustledu choosing specdesc pages urologyaspx ref urology one early match programs results given applicants late january weeks nrmp match applications accepted starting sep programs accepting applications early jan relatively competitive specialty match us seniors matching ref name residencywustledu number positions grown matching significantly difficult


imgs students year residency match rates respectively medical school environment may also factor study also showed analysis match rates schools schools sent students urology standard deviation median northwestern university sending students years urology residency seven subspecialties recognized aua american urological association oncology calculi female urology infertility pediatrics transplant renal neurourology australia


training completed royal australasian college surgeons ref name racs ref racs program requires six years full time training commenced prior five years commenced program accredited australian medical council ref name racs pre requisites include australian citizenship new zealand citizenship australian permanent residency general medical registration completion pgy see medical education australia completion racs hand hygiene learning module nepal nepal formal urologist degree awarded mch magister chirurgiae three years course post masters includes thesis


mandatory publication degree awarded completing mbbs four half year plus one year rotatory internship ms mastery surgery general surgery three years course till two universities tribhuvan university kathmandu university well two autonomous institutes bp koirala institute health sciences national academy medical sciences bir hospital run mch urology programme sup https namsorgnp aboutphp http wwwiomedunp page id sup degree equivalent clinical phd called chikitsa bidhyabaridhi tribhuvan university government university considered highest degree among surgical discipline degrees besides urology


cardiothoracic vascular surgery surgical gastroenterology plastic surgery neurosurgery mch programmes also run country ethiopia urology relatively new field ethiopia five qualified urologists country trained abroad countries like india tanzania hungary chapter urology cases managed general surgeons urological unit country tikur anbessa tertiary hospital services provided included eswl endo urology urology training program started curriculum general surgeons three year training program


six urologists graduated program general surgeons first residency program started accepting general practitioners five year program ref name aaueduet ref first two years trainings general surgery next three years dedicated urology training program included three year training general surgeons three year curriculum started two residents graduated certificate specialty urology seventeen urologists graduated five year residency program start programs


total urologists trained tikur anbessa tertioary hospital currently trainees program one general surgeon nd year three year program residents completed two years general surgery training pgy pgy pgy urologists graduated tikur anbessa tertioary hospital currently working different parts country ref name aaueduet subdisciplines medical discipline involves care many organs physiological systems urology broken


several subdisciplines many larger academic centers university hospitals excel patient care clinical research urologists often specialize particular sub discipline endourology endourology branch urology deals closed manipulation urinary tract lately grown include minimally invasive urologic surgical procedures opposed open surgery endourology performed using small cameras instruments inserted urinary tract transurethral surgery cornerstone endourology urinary tract reached via urethra enabling prostate surgery surgery tumors


urothelium stone surgery simple urethral urethral procedures recently addition laparoscopy robotics subdivided branch urology laparoscopy laparoscopy rapidly evolving branch urology replaced open surgical procedures robot assisted surgery prostate kidney ureter expanding field today many prostatectomies united states carried called robotic assistance created controversy however robotics greatly increase cost surgery benefit patient may may proportional extra cost moreover current market situation


use minimally invasive techniques laparoscopy endourology robotic assisted surgery manage urologic cancers amenable surgical management neurourology neurourology concerns nervous system control genitourinary system conditions causing abnormal urination neurological diseases disorders stroke multiple sclerosis parkinson 's disease spinal cord injury disrupt lower urinary tract result conditions urinary incontinence detrusor overactivity urinary retention detrusor sphincter dyssynergia urodynamic studies play important diagnostic role neurourology therapy nervous system disorders includes clean intermittent self catheterization bladder anticholinergic drugs injection botulinum toxin


bladder wall advanced less commonly used therapies sacral neuromodulation less marked neurological abnormalities cause urological disorders well example abnormalities sensory nervous system thought many researchers play role disorders painful frequent urination eg painful bladder syndrome also known interstitial cystitis pediatric urology pediatric urology concerns urologic disorders children disorders include cryptorchidism undescended testes congenital abnormalities genitourinary tract enuresis underdeveloped genitalia due delayed growth delayed puberty often endocrinological problem vesicoureteral reflux andrology andrology medical specialty


deals male health particularly relating problems male reproductive system urological problems unique men prostate cancer male fertility problems surgery male reproductive system counterpart gynaecology deals medical issues specific female health especially reproductive urologic health reconstructive urology reconstructive urology highly specialized field male urology restores structure function genitourinary tract prostate procedures full partial hysterectomies trauma auto accidents gunshot wounds industrial accidents straddle injuries etc disease obstructions blockages


eg urethral strictures occasionally childbirth necessitate reconstructive surgery urinary bladder ureters tubes lead kidneys urinary bladder genitalia examples reconstructive urology female urology female urology branch urology dealing overactive bladder pelvic organ prolapse urinary incontinence many physicians also practice neurourology reconstructive urology mentioned female urologists many men complete year fellowship completion year urology residency ref name sufuorgcom http sufuorgcom professional resources fellowships fellowship programsaspx ref thorough knowledge female pelvic floor together intimate understanding physiology pathology


national organizations american urological association american association clinical urologists ref name ref european association urology large urology group practice association ref name society basic urologic research urology also included auspices international continence society teaching organizations include european board urology well vattikuti urology institute detroit also hosts annual international robotic urology symposium devoted new technologies american non profit ivumed teaches urology developing countries urology covid pandemic covid pandemic urology services around


globe suspended activities affected countries regions international associations european association urology https wwwusanzorgau new zealand australia association urology urology departments universities cleveland clinic others provided guidelines recommendations urological procedures prioritized pandemic optimizing resources preventing patients priority diseases negatively impacted systematic review published european journal urology focus summarizing recommendations list urological topics benign prostatic hyperplasia bladder stones bladder cancer cystitis development urinary reproductive organs epididymitis erectile


dysfunction interstitial cystitis kidney transplant kidney cancer kidney stone prostatitis prostate cancer retrograde pyelogram retrograde ureteral testicular cancer vasectomy vasectomy reversal see also urology journals urology organizations urology covid pandemics references https namsorgnp aboutphp http wwwiomedunp page id nowiki surgical specialties


separated two types donor type value receiver type value ecological economists tend believe 'real wealth' needs accrual determined value measure things needed make item generate service h odum ''environmental accounting emergy environmental decision making'' fields theories posit importance values analytical independent variable including put forward max weber mile durkheim talcott parsons j rgen habermas classical examples sociological traditions deny downplay question values institutionalism historical materialism including marxism behaviorism pragmatic oriented theories postmodern philosophy


also interested natural goods however moral natural goods equally relevant goodness value theory general scope ethics axiology intuitively theories value must important ethics number useful distinctions made philosophers treatment value intrinsic instrumental value useful distinguish instrumental intrinsic values distinction based distinction intrinsic extrinsic properties first introduced plato republic instrumental value worth means getting something else


humans therefore preserved line argument articulated recent years canadian philosopher john mcmurtry within ''encyclopedia life support systems'' published unesco pragmatism contributory goodness john dewey book ''theory valuation'' says goodness outcome ethic valuation continuous balancing ends view end view said objective potentially adopted may refined rejected based consistency objectives means objectives already held dewey 's empiricist approach evinces absolute intrinsic


value denial ie accepting intrinsic value inherent enduring property things instead dewey sees appearance intrinsic value illusory product continuous valuative activity purposive beings addition denying categorically anything like intrinsic value dewey held position regard moral values dewey moral values also based learning process never intrinsic absolute another contribution pragmatism value theory idea contributory goods contributory conditionality qualities good


showed many practical goods good states affairs described sentence containing clause eg sentence sunshine good live desert clause often described category judgment made art science etc kant described hypothetical goods tried find categorical good would operate across categories judgment without depending clause influential result kant 's search idea ''good will'' intrinsic good moreover kant saw


good acting accordance moral command categorical imperative act according maxims could universal law confused ethic reciprocity golden rule eg http biblecc matthew htm mt whereas golden rule states one treat others one would like others treat oneself kant asks us analyze whether act performed simultaneously everyone without exception example murder cannot performed simultaneously everyone one set people would live die disparity


name kant ref kantian philosophers believe general definition goodness must define goods categorical sense kant intended sociology sociology value theory concerned personal values popularly held community values might change particular conditions different groups people may hold prioritize different kinds values influencing social behavior methods study range questionnaire surveys participant observation values socially attributed community perceives paramount significance denotes decipher social attributes economics economic analysis emphasizes goods sought


market tends use consumer 's choices evidence revealed preference various products economic value view religious political struggle goods available marketplace inevitable consensus core questions body society ecosystems affected transaction outside market 's goods long unowned however natural goods seem also moral goods example things owned person may said natural goods particular individual may


moral claims necessary make another distinction ''moral'' ''non moral goods'' non moral good something desirable someone despite name contrary may include moral goods moral good anything actor considered morally obligated strive toward discussing non moral goods one may make useful distinction inherently serviced material ''goods in'' marketplace exchange value versus perceived intrinsic experiential ''goods to'' buyer strict service economy model takes pains distinguish


goods service guarantees ''to market'' service experience ''to consumer'' sometimes moral natural goods conflict value natural goods challenged issues addiction issue addiction also brings distinction economic moral goods economic good whatever stimulates economic growth instance claim cigarettes good economic sense production employ tobacco growers doctors treat lung cancer many people would agree cigarette smoking ''morally'' good ''naturally'' good


still recognize economically good means exchange value even though may negative public good even bad person 's body bad person necessarily nbsp consider issue suicide ecological economics value theory separated two types donor type value receiver type value ecological economists tend believe 'real wealth' needs donor determined value measure things needed make item generate service h odum ''environmental accounting emergy environmental decision making'' example


receiver type value 'market value' 'willingness pay' principal method accounting used neo classical economics contrast marx 's labour theory value emergy concept conceived donor type value emergy theorists believe conception value relevance philosophy economics sociology psychology well environmental science silvio gesell denied value theory economics thought value theory useless prevents economics becoming science currency administration guided value theory doomed sterility inactivity see also aesthetics anthropological theories


value axiological ethics baden school cultural institutions studies graded absolutism intuitionism labor theory value law value logic morality friedrich nietzsche normative science practical philosophy pirsig 's metaphysics quality rationality rationality power social contract summum bonum thick concept ultimate importance value added theory value engineering references reading nicholas rescher ''axiogenesis essay metaphysical optimalism'' lexington books value ethics axiological theories teoria dei valori zh


alt monument saved world monument chernobyl ukraine firefighters liquidators died stopping fire chernobyl nuclear power plant catastrophic nuclear accident clean efforts took place limit spread nuclear contamination thumb x px '''''monument saved world''''' monument chernobyl ukraine firefighters liquidators victims died stopping fire chernobyl nuclear power plant catastrophic nuclear accident clean efforts took place limit


case victims white collar crime may clearly identifiable directly linked crime particular individual victims white collar crime often denied status victims social construction concept croall concept also remains controversial topic within women 's studies supreme court united states first recognized rights crime victims make victim impact statement sentencing phase criminal trial case ''payne v tennessee'' victim impact panel usually follows


criminal justice system ohio state university press columbus ref problems often result development chronic post traumatic stress disorder ptsd post crime distress also linked pre existing emotional problems sociodemographic variables known become leading case elderly adversely affected ferraro victims may experience following psychological reactions increase realization personal vulnerability perception world meaningless incomprehensible view negative light ref name sebba experience victimization may result increasing fear part


trees ref name portland ref name baltimore geoffrey donovan united states forest service usfs one researchers said trees provide range benefits could improve quality life portland reducing crime ref name big trees believe large street trees reduce crime signaling potential criminal neighborhood better cared therefore criminal likely caught ref name trees ref name portland note presence ''large'' street trees especially indicated reduction crime opposed newer smaller trees ref


repeat victims thus victim prone men actually men prime year old males likely victims repeated crimes case juvenile offenders study results also show people likely victimized result serious offense someone know frequent crimes committed adolescents towards someone know sexual assault common assault homicide adolescents victimizing people know generally committed common assault forcible confinement armed unarmed robbery sex workers anecdotally thought


behavior others explain interpretations one 's behavior situational factors often taken consideration discrepancy called actor observer bias simple example alice saw bob trip rock fall alice might consider bob clumsy careless dispositional alice later tripped rock would likely blame placement rock situational victim proneness victim blaming form fundamental attribution error specifically ''just world phenomenon'' aronson wilson akert sommers p nbsp


http wwwwjhharvardedu dtg gilbert malone correspondence bias pdf pdf ref unfortunately world hypothesis also results tendency people blame disparage victims tragedy accident victims rape domestic abuse reassure insusceptibility events people may even blame victim 's faults past lives pursue justification bad outcome victim facilitation victim facilitation another controversial sub topic accepted theory victim proneness finds roots writings criminologists marvin wolfgang choice use victim facilitation opposed victim proneness


term victim facilitation blaming victim rather interactions victim make vulnerable crime theory victim facilitation calls study external elements make victim accessible vulnerable attack article summarizes major movements victimology internationally schneider expresses victim facilitation model ultimately describes misinterpretation offender victim behavior ref name schneider h j ref based upon theory symbolic interaction alleviate offender


exclusive responsibility ref name schneider h j eric hickey 's ''serial murderers victims'' major analysis serial killers america conducted part hickey 's analysis categorized victims high low mixed regarding victim 's facilitation murder categorization based upon lifestyle risk example amount time spent interacting strangers type employment location time killing example bar home place business hickey found victims high facilitation victims low facilitation


victims combination high low facilitation ref name hickey eric w pp hickey eric w victims serial murderers victims th ed pp belmont ca wadsworth group ref hickey also noted among serial killer victims one five victims greater risk hitchhiking working prostitute involving situations often came contact strangers ref name hickey eric w pp importance studying understanding victim facilitation well continuing research sub topic victimization


instance study victim facilitation increases public awareness leads research victim offender relationship advances theoretical etiologies violent crime one ultimate purposes type knowledge inform public increase awareness fewer people become victims another goal studying victim facilitation stated maurice godwin aid investigations godwin discusses theory victim social networks concept one looks areas highest risk victimization serial killer connected victim facilitation victim


social networks locations victim vulnerable serial killer using process investigators create profile places serial killer victim frequent victimization rate united states national crime victimization survey ncvs tool measure existence actual rather reported crimes victimization rate ref name ncvs ref national crime victimization survey united states' primary source information crime victimization year data obtained nationally representative sample households comprising nearly persons


frequency characteristics consequences criminal victimization united states survey enables government estimate likelihood victimization rape sexual assault robbery assault theft household burglary motor vehicle theft population whole well segments population women elderly members various racial groups city dwellers groups ref name ncvs according bureau justice statistics bjs ncvs reveals violent crime rates declined reaching lowest levels ever recorded ref name ncvs property crimes continue


social work school nurses child psychology easy access pornography providing outlet satiates sexual impulses would serial killers turning instead mass shootings ref name serial reports show evidence serial killings deterred generally longer prison sentences deterred specifically reduction parole ref name serial victimization canada canada office federal ombudsman victims crime ofovc independent resource victims crime created ensure federal government meets


responsibilities victims crime ombudsman provides information victims rights canadian federal law services available make complaint federal agency federal legislation dealing victims crime ombudsman also works ensure policy makers criminal justice personnel aware victims' needs concerns identify important issues trends may negatively impact victims appropriate ombudsman may also make recommendations federal government international crime victims survey many countries victimization surveys


give much better account volume crimes less accurate crimes occur relative low frequency homicide victimless 'crimes' drug ab use attempts use data national surveys international comparison failed differences definitions crime methodological differences big proper comparison dedicated survey international comparison group european criminologists started international victimization study sole purpose generate international comparative crime victimization data project known international crime victims


survey icvs first round surveys repeated society crime victim one train thought supposes society victim many crimes especially felonies murder homicide manslaughter many lawyers judges academics espoused sentiment penal couple ''penal couple'' defined relationship perpetrator victim crime involved event sociologist invented term ref name harris robert harris ''crime criminal justice probation service''


routledge citing mendelsohn found https booksgooglecom booksid dt oaaaaqaaj pg pa lpg pa dq penal couple source bl ots p eiykq sig lgvwsobncsb dpsdzw tt wjo hl en ei ibdtsa ke rslqfhzpz cw sa x oi book result resnum ct result google books retrieved april ref term accepted many sociologists ref name harris ref name domestic pawanjit hiring domestic help without verification ''premier shield newsletter'' found http wwwpremiershieldcom newsletter junepdf premier shield newsletter pdf retrieved april ref ref name van ness concept essentially crime takes place two partners one offender second victim providing opportunity criminal committing crime ref name domestic victim view participant penal


couple bear 'functional responsibility' crime idea rejected victimologists blaming victim ref name van ness daniel w van ness ''crime victims do'' intervarsity press found https booksgooglecom booksid qx jrxtbu c pg pa lpg pa dq penal couple source bl ots gfm qaichc sig bmkdhnsnlgt l rxasjscvxqrg hl en ei ibdtsa ke rslqfhzpz cw sa x oi book result resnum ct result google books retrieved april ref rights victims anna costanza baldry left senior researcher international victimology institute tilburg intervict watches participants conduct role play scenarios domestic gender based violence training central training center afghan national police anp un general assembly


adopted declaration basic principles justice victims crime abuse power also international victimology institute tilburg intervict world society victimology developed un convention victims crime abuse power term ''victimology'' fact denotes subject studies harm caused victims commission crime relative scope compensation victim means redressal criminal jurisprudence mere punishiment offender considered sufficient redressing grievance victim need compensate


predatory nature sexual violence pages nd https webarchiveorg web http wwwmiddleburyedu media view original middlebury college website ruhs florian https webarchiveorg web http wwwaventinus onlinede cache persistent artikel foreign workers second world war ordeal slovenians germany ''aventinus nova'' nr external links http wwwworldsocietyofvictimologyorg world society victimology https webarchiveorg web http wwwvictimologynl onlpub national auhtml international victimology website https webarchiveorg web http wwwtokiwaacjp tivi english tokiwa international victimology institute https webarchiveorg web http scripts victimology indexasp tivi bibliography victimology http wwwtilburguniversitynl intervict international victimology institute tilburg intervict http american society victimologyus american society victimology http wwwsascvorg south asian society criminology victimology http wwwcybervictimsorg centre cyber victim counselling http wwwbritsoccrimorg victims network victims network british society criminology interdisciplinary subfields sociology victims' rights social psychology criminology


often led veterinary physician also known veterinarian veterinary surgeon vet also paraveterinary workers veterinary nurses technicians augmented paraprofessionals specific specialties animal physiotherapy dentistry species relevant roles farriers veterinary science helps human health monitoring control zoonotic disease infectious disease transmitted nonhuman animals humans food safety human applications via medical research also help maintain food supply livestock health monitoring treatment mental health keeping pets healthy

Applied science
Medicine and health
Veterinary medicine


''shalihotra samhita'' dating time ashoka early indian veterinary treatise edicts asoka read everywhere king piyadasi asoka made two kinds medicine available medicine people medicine animals healing herbs people animals available ordered bought planted manuscript page ''hippiatrica'' th century ''hippiatrica'' byzantine compilation hippiatrics dated fifth sixthth century ad first attempts organize regulate practice treating animals tended focus horses economic significance


''anatomia del cavallo'' ''anatomy horse'' published first comprehensive treatise anatomy nonhuman species establishment profession claude bourgelat established earliest veterinary school lyon first veterinary school founded lyon france claude bourgelat according lupton ref name observing devastation caused cattle plague french herds bourgelat devoted time seeking remedy resulted founding veterinary school lyon establishment dispatched students combat


disease short time plague stayed health stock restored assistance rendered agriculture veterinary science art ref name jllupton modern practical farriery section diseases cattle sheep pigs pp nbsp ref school received immediate international recognition th century pedagogical model drew existing fields human medicine natural history comparative anatomy odiham agricultural society founded england promote agriculture industry ref name pugh ref played important role foundation veterinary profession britain


founding member thomas burgess began take cause animal welfare campaign humane treatment sick animals society meeting resolved promote study farriery upon rational scientific principles physician james clark wrote treatise entitled ''prevention disease'' argued professionalization veterinary trade establishment veterinary colleges finally achieved campaigning granville penn persuaded frenchman benoit vial de st bel accept professorship newly established veterinary college london ref name pugh


royal college veterinary surgeons established royal charter veterinary science came age late th century notable contributions sir john mcfadyean credited many founder modern veterinary research united states first schools established early th century boston new york city philadelphia iowa agricultural college became first land grant college establish school veterinary medicine veterinary workers veterinary physicians surgery dog veterinary care management usually led veterinary physician usually


called veterinarian veterinary surgeon vet doctor veterinary medicine veterinary medical doctor role equivalent physician surgeon medical doctor human medicine involves postgraduate study qualification many countries local nomenclature vet protected term meaning people without prerequisite qualifications registration able use title many cases activities may undertaken vet animal treatment surgery restricted people registered vet instance


united kingdom jurisdictions animal treatment may performed registered vets designated exceptions paraveterinary workers persons calling vet without registered performing treatment illegal vets work clinical settings treating animals directly may involved general practice treating animals types may specialized specific group animals companion animals livestock laboratory animals zoo animals horses may specialize narrow medical discipline veterinary surgery dermatology cardiology


world paraveterinary workers left paraveterinary workers including veterinary nurses technicians assistants either assist vets work may work within scope practice depending skills qualifications including cases performing minor surgery role paraveterinary workers less homogeneous globally vet qualification levels associated skill mix vary widely allied professions number professions exist within scope veterinary medicine may necessarily performed vets veterinary nurses includes performing roles also found


basic biology welfare care animals veterinary research transcends species boundaries includes study spontaneously occurring experimentally induced models human animal diseases research human animal interfaces food safety wildlife ecosystem health zoonotic diseases public policy clinical veterinary research medicine randomized controlled trials also fundamental veterinary medicine establish effectiveness treatment clinical veterinary research far behind human medical research though fewer randomized controlled trials lower quality mostly focused research animals possible improvement


ireland references reading introductory textbooks references monographs speciality texts veterinary nursing ophthalmology pharmacology related fields external links animal diseases


gamma phage example virus '''virology''' scientific study virusessubmicroscopic parasitic organisms genetic material contained protein coatand virus like agents focuses following aspects viruses structure classification evolution ways infect exploit host cells reproduction interaction host organism physiology immunity diseases cause techniques isolate culture use research therapy virology subfield microbiology identification causative agent tobacco mosaic disease novel pathogen martinus beijerinck


acknowledged official beginning field virology discipline distinct bacteriology realized source neither bacterial fungal infection something completely different beijerinck used word virus describe mysterious agent contagium vivum fluidum contagious living fluid virus structure classification major branch virology virus classification viruses classified according host cell infect animal viruses plant viruses fungal viruses bacteriophages viruses infecting bacteria include complex viruses another classification uses geometrical shape


capsid often helix icosahedron virus 's structure eg presence absence lipid envelope viruses range size nm nm means cannot seen light microscopes shape structure viruses studied electron microscopy nmr spectroscopy x ray crystallography useful widely used classification system distinguishes viruses according type nucleic acid use genetic material viral replication method employ coax host cells producing viruses dna


viruses divided double stranded dna viruses single stranded dna viruses rna viruses divided positive sense single stranded rna viruses negative sense single stranded rna viruses much less common double stranded rna viruses reverse transcribing viruses double stranded reverse transcribing dna viruses single stranded reverse transcribing rna viruses including retroviruses virologists also study ' 'subviral particles'' infectious entities notably smaller simpler viruses viroids naked circular rna molecules infecting plants satellites nucleic acid molecules without capsid require helper virus infection reproduction prions proteins exist pathological conformation induces prion molecules assume


conformation taxa virology necessarily monophyletic evolutionary relationships various virus groups remain unclear three hypotheses regarding origin exist viruses arose non living matter separately yet parallel cells perhaps form self replicating rna ribozymes similar viroids viruses arose genome reduction earlier competent cellular life forms became parasites host cells subsequently lost functionality examples tiny parasitic prokaryotes mycoplasma nanoarchaea viruses arose mobile genetic elements cells transposons retrotransposons plasmids became


encapsulated protein capsids acquired ability break free host cell infect cells particular interest mimivirus giant virus infects amoebae encodes much molecular machinery traditionally associated bacteria two possibilities simplified version parasitic prokaryote originated simpler virus acquired genes host evolution viruses often occurs concert evolution hosts studied field viral evolution viruses reproduce evolve engage


viruses known oncoviruses contribute development certain forms cancer best studied example association human papillomavirus cervical cancer almost cases cervical cancer caused certain strains sexually transmitted virus another example association infection hepatitis nbsp b hepatitis nbsp c viruses liver cancer subviral particles also cause disease transmissible spongiform encephalopathies include kuru creutzfeldt jakob disease bovine spongiform encephalopathy mad cow disease caused prions ref name test prion diseases cdc access date archive url https webarchiveorg web http wwwcdcgov ncidod dvrd prions archive date url status dead ref hepatitis nbsp due satellite virus


study manner viruses cause disease viral pathogenesis degree virus causes disease virulence immune system vertebrate encounters virus may produce specific antibodies bind virus neutralize infectivity mark destruction antibody presence blood serum often used determine whether person exposed given virus past tests elisa vaccinations protect viral diseases part eliciting production antibodies monoclonal antibodies specific virus


also used detection fluorescence microscopy second defense vertebrates viruses cell mediated immunity involves immune cells known cells body 's cells constantly display short fragments proteins cell 's surface cell recognizes suspicious viral fragment host cell destroyed virus specific cells proliferate mechanism jump started certain vaccinations rna interference important cellular mechanism found plants animals many eukaryotes likely evolved defense viruses elaborate machinery interacting enzymes detects double stranded rna molecules occur


part life cycle many viruses proceeds destroy single stranded versions detected rna molecules every lethal viral disease presents paradox killing host obviously benefit virus evolve today believed viruses relatively benign natural hosts viral infection might even beneficial host ref name introvirol dimmock nj easton aj leppard k ''introduction modern virology'' oxford blackwell publishers ch horizons human virology subch subtle insidious virus host


interactions sec virus infections give host evolutionary advantage https booksgooglecom booksid e ntv xwsfwc pg pa p ref lethal viral diseases believed resulted accidental jump virus species benign new one accustomed see zoonosis example viruses cause serious influenza humans probably pigs birds natural host hiv thought derive benign non human primate virus siv possible prevent certain viral diseases vaccination long time development


antiviral drugs ''treat'' viral diseases comparatively recent development first drug interferon substance naturally produced infection detected stimulates parts immune system molecular biology research viral therapy bacteriophages viruses infect bacteria relatively easily grown viral plaques bacterial cultures bacteriophages occasionally move genetic material one bacterial cell another process known transduction horizontal gene transfer one reason served major research tool early development molecular biology


genetic code function ribozymes first recombinant dna early genetic libraries arrived using bacteriophages certain genetic elements derived viruses highly effective promoters commonly used molecular biology research today growing animal viruses outside living host animal difficult classically fertilized chicken eggs often used cell cultures increasingly employed purpose today since viruses infect eukaryotes need transport genetic material host cell 's nucleus attractive tools introducing new genes host known transformation


therapy cancer failed reports encouraging preliminary results sequencing viruses viruses small seen light microscope sequencing one main tools virology identify study virus traditional sanger sequencing next generation sequencing ngs used sequence viruses basic clinical research well diagnosis emerging viral infections molecular epidemiology viral pathogens drug resistance testing million unique viral sequences genbank ref name recently ngs


surpassed traditional sanger popular approach generating viral genomes ref name ref uses viruses new application genetically engineered viruses nanotechnology recently described see uses viruses material science nanotechnology use mapping neurons see applications pseudorabies neuroscience history adolf mayer dmitri ivanovsky martinus beijerinck laboratory word ''virus'' appeared originally meant venom early form vaccination known variolation developed several thousand years ago china involved application materials smallpox


sufferers order immunize others lady mary wortley montagu observed practice istanbul attempted popularize britain encountered considerable resistance edward jenner developed much safer method using cowpox successfully immunize young boy smallpox practice widely adopted vaccinations viral diseases followed including successful rabies vaccination louis pasteur nature viruses however clear researchers russian biologist dmitry ivanovsky used chamberland filter try isolate bacteria caused tobacco


frederick twort independently f lix d'herelle bacteria could grown easily culture led explosion virology research cause devastating spanish flu pandemic initially unclear late french scientists showed filter passing virus could transmit disease people animals fulfilling koch 's postulates shown scarlet fever caused bacterium infected certain bacteriophage plant viruses bacteriophages grown comparatively easily animal viruses normally require living host animal


complicates study immensely shown influenza virus could grown fertilized chicken eggs method still used today produce vaccines max theiler managed grow yellow fever virus chicken eggs produced vaccine attenuated virus strain vaccine saved millions lives still used today max delbr ck important investigator area bacteriophages described basic life cycle virus rather growing virus particle assembled constituent pieces one step


eventually leaves host cell infect cells hershey chase experiment showed dna protein enters bacterial cell upon infection bacteriophage transduction bacteria bacteriophages first described year john f enders thomas weller frederick robbins reported growth poliovirus cultured human embryonal cells first significant example animal virus grown outside animals chicken eggs work aided jonas salk deriving polio vaccine deactivated polio viruses vaccine shown effective


first virus could crystalized whose structure could therefore elucidated detail tobacco mosaic virus tmv virus studied earlier ivanovski beijerink wendell stanley achieved crystallization electron microscopy showed remains active even crystallization clear x ray diffraction pictures crystallized virus obtained bernal fankuchen based pictures rosalind franklin proposed full structure tobacco mosaic virus also heinz fraenkel conrat robley williams showed purified tmv rna capsid


coat protein self assemble functional virions suggesting assembly mechanism also used within host cell delbr ck proposed earlier hepatitis b virus discovered baruch blumberg went develop hepatitisb vaccine howard temin described first retrovirus virus whose rna genome reverse transcribed complementary dna cdna integrated host 's genome expressed template viral enzyme reverse transcriptase along integrase distinguishing trait retroviruses first described independently howard temin david


specific virus contained genome healthy animals many species oncovirus switch pre existing benign proto oncogene turning true oncogene causes cancer saw first recorded outbreak ebola virus disease highly lethal virally transmitted disease frederick sanger achieved first complete sequencing genome organism bacteriophage phi x year richard roberts phillip sharp independently showed genes adenovirus contain introns therefore require gene splicing later realized almost


genes eukaryotes introns well worldwide vaccination campaign led un world health organization resulted eradication smallpox stanley prusiner discovered prions showed cause scrapie first cases aids reported hiv retrovirus causing identified luc montagnier fran oise barr sinoussi robert gallo tests detecting hiv infection detecting presence hiv antibody developed subsequent tremendous research efforts turned hiv best studied virus human herpes virus cause kaposi 's sarcoma


often seen aids patients identified several antiretroviral drugs developed late decreasing aids mortality dramatically developed countries treatment exists hiv includes multitude different drugs collectively termed highly active antiretroviral therapy haart haart attacks many different aspects hiv virus effectively reducing effects limit detection however administration haart discontinued hiv bounce back haart attack latently infected hiv cells reactivate hepatitis c virus identified using novel molecular cloning techniques


leading screening tests dramatically reduced incidence post transfusion hepatitis first attempts gene therapy involving viral vectors began early retroviruses developed could insert foreign gene host 's genome contained foreign gene contain viral genome therefore could reproduce tests mice followed tests humans beginning first human studies attempted correct genetic disease severe combined immunodeficiency scid clinical success limited period gene therapy tried


several diseases different viral vectors became clear initially high expectations overstated setback occurred year old jesse gelsinger died gene therapy trial suffered severe immune response received adenovirus vector success gene therapy two cases x linked scid reported reported poliovirus synthetically assembled laboratory representing first synthetic organism assembling base genome scratch starting virus 's published rna sequence took two years


faster method shown assemble base genome bacteriophage phi x two weeks giant mimivirus sense intermediate tiny prokaryotes ordinary viruses described sequenced strain influenza virus subtype h n killed million people spanish flu pandemic reconstructed sequence information pieced together preserved tissue samples flu victims viable virus synthesized sequence flu pandemic involved another strain influenza h n commonly


known swine flu harald zur hausen shown two strains human papillomavirus hpv cause cases cervical cancer two vaccines protecting strains released reported introducing small number specific transcription factor genes normal skin cells mice humans turn cells pluripotent stem cells known induced pluripotent stem cells technique uses modified retroviruses transform cells potential problem human therapy since viruses integrate genes random location


estimated percent human genome originates ervs shown proteins erv actively expressed day old human embryos appear play role embryonal development protect embryos infection viruses since invention organ chip engineering approach found application study many diseases approach also introduced virology chip models developed examples include invention influenza model donald e ingber group invention ebola virus disease model


alireza mashaghi group invention viral hepatitis model marcus dorner group organ chip approach likely replace animal models human virology see also animal virology astrovirology viral diseases glossary virology introduction viruses list viral diseases list viruses medical microbiology virus classification wikipedia wikiproject viruses endothelial cell tropism references reading freely searchable online book freely searchable online book external links ictv http wwwictvonlineorg international committee taxonomy viruses searchable virus taxonomy updated versions explanations virus species concept viral taxonomy david sander http wwwvirologynet virology


www collection links pictures lecture notes many links site broken appear maintained https webarchiveorg web http mediamedscedu microbiology online lectures virology university south carolina http wwwmicrobesinfo microbesinfo microbiology information portal containing vast collection resources including articles news frequently asked questions links pertaining field microbiology https webarchiveorg web http wwwmicrobiologybytescom introduction introductionhtml microbiologybytes origins virology https webarchiveorg web http wwwmicrobiologybytescom tutorials time machinehtml microbiologybytes virology time machine https webarchiveorg web http medicinewustledu virology timelinehtm timeline history virology washington university st louis http virology onlinecom wong 's virology https webarchiveorg web http wwwvrcnihgov vaccine research center vrc information concerning vaccine research studies


week virology podcast vincent racaniello http wwwtwivtv virulogy ton e van den bogaard university maastricht netherlands http linuxmafiacom rick faq plural virushtml viruses


bc br medieval warfare battle hastings br early modern warfare retreat moscow br industrial age warfare battle somme br modern warfare normandy landings br nuclear warfare nuclear weapon test '''war''' intense '''armed conflict''' ref states governments societies paramilitary groups mercenaries insurgents militias generally characterized extreme violence aggression destruction mortality using regular irregular military forces '''warfare''' refers common activities characteristics types war wars general total war warfare restricted purely legitimate military targets result

Applied science
Military sciences
Grand strategy
War


' 'verwirren'' meaning confuse perplex bring confusion history percentages men killed war eight tribal societies europe us th century lawrence h keeley archeologist egyptian siege dapur th century bc ramesseum thebes earliest evidence prehistoric warfare mesolithic cemetery jebel sahaba determined approximately years old forty five percent skeletons displayed signs violent death ref name keeley page keeley lawrence h ''war civilization myth peaceful savage'' p ref


human beings killed war diseases produced war' 'approximately human beings c' lower figure plausible could still high side considering deadliest acts mass violence bc ad wars man made disasters least million victims claimed million human lives total primitive warfare estimated accounted deaths claimed million victims added aforementioned figure million bc


late th century would mean total people killed war including deaths famine disease caused war throughout history pre history mankind comparison estimated people died infectious diseases th century ''war civilization'' lawrence h keeley professor university illinois says approximately known societies throughout history engaged least occasional warfare many fought constantly keeley describes several styles primitive combat small raids large raids massacres forms warfare used


mao zedong urged socialist camp fear nuclear war united states since even half mankind died half would remain imperialism would razed ground whole world would become socialist distinctive feature war since absence wars major powers indeed near absence traditional wars established countries major exceptions indo pakistani war iran iraq war gulf war instead combat largely matter civil wars insurgencies american


tanks moving formation gulf war human security report documented significant decline number severity armed conflicts since end cold war early however evidence examined edition center international development conflict management 's peace conflict study indicated overall decline conflicts stalled types warfare soldiers australian th division equipped chemical warfare wwi ypres sector asymmetric warfare conflict belligerents drastically different levels military capability size biological


warfare germ warfare use weaponized biological toxins infectious agents bacteria viruses fungi chemical warfare involves use weaponized chemicals combat poison gas chemical weapon principally used world war resulted million estimated casualties including civilians cold warfare intense international rivalry without direct military conflict sustained threat including high levels military preparations expenditures development may involve active conflicts indirect means economic warfare political warfare covert operations espionage


cyberwarfare proxy wars conventional warfare declared war states nuclear biological chemical weapons used see limited deployment cyberwarfare involves actions nation state international organization attack attempt damage another nation 's information systems insurgency rebellion authority taking part rebellion recognized belligerents lawful combatants insurgency fought via counterinsurgency may also opposed measures protect population political economic actions various kinds aimed undermining insurgents' claims


incumbent regime information warfare application destructive force large scale information assets systems computers networks support four critical infrastructures power grid communications financial transportation nuclear warfare warfare nuclear weapons primary major method achieving capitulation total war warfare means possible disregarding laws war placing limits legitimate military targets using weapons tactics resulting significant civilian casualties demanding war effort requiring significant sacrifices friendly civilian population unconventional warfare


opposite conventional warfare attempt achieve military victory acquiescence capitulation clandestine support one side existing conflict aims entities contemplating going war entities considering whether end war may formulate ''war aims'' evaluation propaganda tool war aims may stand proxy national military resolve definition fried defines war aims desired territorial economic military benefits expected following successful conclusion war classification tangible intangible aims tangible war aims may involve example acquisition territory german goal


lebensraum first half th century recognition economic concessions anglo dutch wars intangible war aims like accumulation credibility reputation may tangible expression conquest restores prestige annexation increases power explicit implicit aims explicit war aims may involve published policy decisions implicit war aims take form minutes discussion memoranda instructions positive negative aims positive war aims cover tangible outcomes negative war aims forestall prevent undesired outcomes war aims change course conflict may eventually morph peace conditions


minimal conditions state may cease wage particular war effects access date ref military civilian casualties recent human history disability adjusted life year war per nbsp inhabitants throughout course human history average number people dying war fluctuated relatively little people dying per however major wars shorter periods resulted much higher casualty rates casualties per years conventional wisdom holds casualties increased recent times due technological improvements


warfare generally true instance thirty years' war number casualties per capita world war although higher world war ii wwii said overall number casualties war significantly increased recent times quite contrary global scale time since wwii unusually peaceful largest death toll deadliest war history terms cumulative number deaths since start world war ii nbsp million deaths followed


mongol conquests nbsp million concerns belligerent 's losses proportion prewar population destructive war modern history may paraguayan war see paraguayan war casualties war resulted deaths deaths ref name gdb ref richard smalley identified war sixth biggest problem ten facing humanity next fifty years war usually results significant deterioration infrastructure ecosystem decrease social spending famine large scale emigration war zone often mistreatment prisoners


war civilians instance nine million people territory byelorussian ssr nbsp million killed germans actions away battlefields including prisoners war jews people counted partisans vast majority unarmed civilians another byproduct wars prevalence propaganda parties conflict increased revenues weapons manufacturers three ten costly wars terms loss life waged last century


two world wars followed second sino japanese war sometimes considered part world war ii overlapping others involved china neighboring peoples death toll world war ii nbsp million surpasses war death tolls ref name userserols mcfarlane alan ''the savage wars peace england japan malthusian trap'' blackwell cited http necrometricscom pre ahtm manchu c white ref class wikitable deaths br millions date war world war ii see world war ii casualties ref name wallinsky wallinsky david ''david wallechinsky 's twentieth century history


boring parts left out'' little brown co cited http necrometricscom c mhtm second white ref ref name brzezinski brzezinski zbigniew ''out control global turmoil eve twenty first century'' prentice hall ibd cited http necrometricscom c mhtm second white ref th century mongol conquests see mongol invasions tatar invasions taiping rebellion see dungan revolt world war see world war casualties lushan rebellion death toll uncertain qing dynasty


name autogenerated ref civil war collector 's encyclopedia fa lord notes discarded muskets found gettysburg battlefield nearly loaded loaded loaded times studies suggest military personnel resist firing weapons combat theorists argue human beings inherent resistance killing fellow human beings ref name autogenerated swank marchand 's wwii study found sixty days continuous combat surviving military personnel become psychiatric casualties psychiatric casualties manifest fatigue cases confusional


states conversion hysteria anxiety obsessional compulsive states character disorders ref name autogenerated ''the apotheosis war'' vasily vereshchagin additionally estimated anywhere vietnam war veterans suffered posttraumatic stress disorder ref name autogenerated based census figures white american males aged died american civil war including north approximately south war remains deadliest conflict american history resulting deaths military personnel united states military casualties war since totaled


two million nbsp million european military personnel mobilized world war nbsp million killed nbsp million permanently disabled nbsp million seriously injured remains dead crow indians killed scalped sioux c napoleon 's retreat moscow french military personnel died typhus killed russians soldiers crossed neman june less returned military personnel killed typhus military action ref name time magazine https webarchiveorg web http wwwtimecom time magazine article html war pestilence ''time'' ref addition


modern medical advances would thousands dead disease infection instance seven years' war royal navy reported conscripted sailors died disease 'missing' estimated people per year died due war civilians ''les grandes mis res de la guerre'' depict destruction unleashed civilians thirty years' war wars resulted significant loss life along destruction infrastructure resources may lead famine disease


death civilian population thirty years' war europe population holy roman empire reduced percent civilians war zones may also subject war atrocities genocide survivors may suffer psychological aftereffects witnessing destruction war war also results lower quality life worse health outcomes medium sized conflict battle deaths reduces civilian life expectancy one year increases infant mortality malnutrition additionally population loses access drinking


water estimates world war ii casualties indicate around nbsp million people died nbsp million civilians deaths soviet union around million since high proportion killed young men yet fathered children population growth postwar soviet union much lower otherwise would economic war ended losing nations sometimes required pay war reparations victorious nations certain cases land ceded victorious nations example territory alsace lorraine traded france


germany three different occasions typically war becomes intertwined economy many wars partially entirely based economic reasons economists believe war stimulate country 's economy high government spending world war ii often credited bringing us great depression keynesian economists many cases wars louis xiv franco prussian war world war warfare primarily results damage economy countries involved example russia 's involvement world war took toll


russian economy almost collapsed greatly contributed start russian revolution world war ii ruins warsaw 's napoleon square aftermath world war ii world war ii financially costly conflict history belligerents cumulatively spent trillion us dollars war effort adjusted prices great depression ended nations increased production war materials end war european industrial infrastructure destroyed property damage soviet union inflicted axis


invasion estimated value nbsp billion rubles combined damage consisted complete partial destruction cities towns villages hamlets church buildings industrial establishments railroad railroad stations hospitals schools public libraries theories motivation ottoman campaign territorial expansion europe many theories motivations war consensus common carl von clausewitz said 'every age kind war limiting conditions peculiar preconceptions' psychoanalytic dutch psychoanalyst joost meerloo


aggression warfare italian psychoanalyst franco fornari follower melanie klein thought war paranoid projective elaboration mourning fornari thought war violence develop love need wish preserve defend sacred object attached namely early mother fusion adult nations sacred objects generate warfare fornari focused upon sacrifice essence war astonishing willingness human beings die country give bodies nation despite fornari 's theory


man 's altruistic desire self sacrifice noble cause contributing factor towards war wars originated desire war among general populace far often general population reluctantly drawn war rulers one psychological theory looks leaders advanced maurice walsh argues general populace neutral towards war wars occur leaders psychologically abnormal disregard human life placed power war caused leaders seek war napoleon hitler leaders often


animal tendencies territoriality sexual competition latter school argues since warlike behavior patterns found many primate species chimpanzees ref name apeswar analysis chimpanzee war behavior ref well many ant species ref name antslandmines scholarly comparisons human ant wars ref group conflict may general feature animal social behavior proponents idea argue war innate intensified greatly developments technology social organization weaponry states psychologist linguist steven pinker argued war related behaviors may


naturally selected ancestral environment due benefits victory also argued order credible deterrence groups well individual level important reputation retaliation causing humans develop instincts revenge well protecting group 's individual 's reputation honor maya city states resources may contributed eventual collapse maya civilization ad crofoot wrangham argued warfare defined group interactions coalitions attempt aggressively dominate


kill members groups characteristic human societies lacking tend societies politically dominated neighbors ref name humanprimateaggression ''mind gap tracing origins human universals'' peter kappeler joan b silk chapter intergroup aggression primates humans case unified theory margaret c crofoot richard w wrangham ref ashley montagu strongly denied universalistic instinctual arguments arguing social factors childhood socialization important determining nature presence warfare thus argues warfare universal


human occurrence appears historical invention associated certain types human societies montagu 's argument supported ethnographic research conducted societies concept aggression seems entirely absent eg chewong semai malay peninsula bobbi low observed correlation warfare education noting societies warfare commonplace encourage children aggressive economic kuwaiti oil wells fire gulf war march war seen growth economic competition competitive international system view


wars begin pursuit markets natural resources wealth war also linked economic development economic historians development economists studying state building fiscal capacity theory applied many conflicts counter arguments become less valid increasing mobility capital information level distributions wealth worldwide considering relative absolute wealth differences may fuel wars extreme right political spectrum provide support fascists particular asserting natural right


corresponding growth consumer demand since workers capitalist economy would unable fill demand producers must expand non capitalist markets find consumers goods hence driving imperialism demographic demographic theories grouped two classes malthusian youth bulge theories malthusian us marine helicopter patrol somalia part unified task force malthusian theories see expanding population scarce resources source violent conflict pope urban ii eve first crusade advocating crusade solution


european overpopulation said ref one earliest expressions come called malthusian theory war wars caused expanding populations limited resources thomas malthus wrote populations always increase limited war disease famine violent herder farmer conflicts nigeria mali sudan countries sahel region exacerbated land degradation population growth youth bulge median age country war reduces life expectancy youth bulge evident africa lesser extent countries


west asia south asia southeast asia central america according heinsohn proposed youth bulge theory generalized form youth bulge occurs percent males nation belong fighting age cohorts years age follow periods total fertility rates high children per woman year delay heinsohn saw past christianist european colonialism imperialism well today 's islamist civil unrest terrorism results high birth rates producing youth bulges among prominent historical


criticized leading racial gender age discrimination cultural geoffrey parker argues distinguishes western way war based western europe chiefly allows historians explain extraordinary success conquering world blockquote western way war rests upon five principal foundations technology discipline highly aggressive military tradition remarkable capacity innovate respond rapidly innovation others onward unique system war finance combination five provided formula military successthe outcome wars determined less


technology better war plans achievement surprise greater economic strength superior discipline blockquote parker argues western armies stronger emphasized discipline ability formation stand fast face enemy 're attacking attacked without giving way natural impulse fear panic discipline came drills marching formation target practice creating small artificial kinship groups company platoon enhance psychological cohesion combat efficiency rationalist us soldiers directing artillery


iterations played rationalist explanations war james fearon examined three rationalist explanations countries engage war issue indivisibilities incentives misrepresent information asymmetry commitment problems ref name issue indivisibility occurs two parties cannot avoid war bargaining thing fighting cannot shared owned entirely one side us marines direct concentration fire opponents vietnam may information asymmetry incentives misrepresent occurs two countries secrets individual capabilities


agree either would win war magnitude state 's victory loss instance geoffrey blainey argues war result miscalculation strength cites historical examples war demonstrates war usually outcome diplomatic crisis cannot solved sides conflicting estimates bargaining power thirdly bargaining may fail due states' inability make credible commitments within rationalist tradition theorists suggested individuals engaged war suffer normal level cognitive bias still


rational according philosopher iain king instigators conflict overrate chances success participants underrate chances injury king asserts catastrophic military decisions rooted groupthink faulty still rational rationalist theory focused around bargaining currently debate iraq war proved anomaly undercuts validity applying rationalist theory wars political science statistical analysis war pioneered lewis fry richardson following world war recent databases wars armed conflict


assembled correlates war project peter brecke uppsala conflict data program following subsections consider causes war system societal individual levels analysis kind division first proposed kenneth waltz ''man state war'' often used political scientists since ref name levy system level several different international relations theory schools supporters realism international relations argue motivation states quest security conflicts arise inability distinguish defense offense called


security dilemma ref name levy ref within realist school represented scholars henry kissinger hans morgenthau neorealist school represented scholars kenneth waltz john mearsheimer two main sub theories balance power theory states goal preventing single state becoming hegemon war result would hegemon 's persistent attempts power acquisition view international system equal distribution power stable movements toward unipolarity destabilizing ref name levy however evidence shown power polarity


actually major factor occurrence wars ref name levy power transition theory hegemons impose stabilizing conditions world order eventually decline war occurs declining hegemon challenged another rising power aims preemptively suppress ref name levy view unlike balance power theory wars become ''more'' probable power equally distributed power preponderance hypothesis empirical support ref name levy two theories mutually exclusive may used explain disparate events according circumstance ref name levy liberalism relates


international relations emphasizes factors trade role disincentivizing conflict damage economic relations realists respond military force may sometimes least effective trade achieving economic benefits especially historically much today ref name levy furthermore trade relations result high level dependency may escalate tensions lead conflict ref name levy empirical data relationship trade peace mixed moreover evidence suggests countries war n't necessarily trade less ref name levy societal level diversionary theory also known


scapegoat hypothesis suggests politically powerful may use war diversion rally domestic popular support ref name levy supported literature showing group hostility enhances group bonding significant domestic rally effect demonstrated conflicts begin ref name levy however studies examining increased use force function need internal political support mixed ref name levy us war time presidential popularity surveys taken presidencies several recent us leaders supported diversionary theory ref name militaryadventurism recently studies lebow lindemann demonstrated striving self esteem


ie virile self images recognition great power non recognition exclusion punishment great powers denying traumatic historical events principal cause international conflict war ref individual level theories suggest differences people 's personalities decision making emotions belief systems biases important determining whether conflicts get hand ref name levy instance proposed conflict modulated bounded rationality various cognitive biases ref name levy prospect theory ref name levy ref ethics ''morning battle waterloo'' john heaviside clark morality war


subject debate thousands years ref name deforrest ref two principal aspects ethics war according war theory ''jus ad bellum'' ''jus bello'' ''jus ad bellum'' right war dictates unfriendly acts circumstances justify proper authority declaring war another nation six main criteria declaration war first war must declared lawful authority second must righteous cause sufficient gravity merit large scale violence third belligerent must rightful intentions


specifically makes separation combatants permissible kill non combatants ref name moseley failure follow rules result loss legitimacy war belligerent ref name codevilla seabury ref besieged leningrad hitler ordered moscow leningrad razed ground inhabitants annihilated driven starvation intentions part 'general plan east' ''the oxford companion world war ii'' war theory foundational creation united nations international law 's


means lewis coser us conflict theorist sociologist argued conflict provides function process whereby succession new equilibriums created thus struggle opposing forces rather disruptive may means balancing maintaining social structure society limiting stopping anti war rally washington dc march religious groups long formally opposed sought limit war second vatican council document ''gaudiem et spes'' act war aimed indiscriminately destruction entire cities extensive areas along population


crime god man merits unequivocal unhesitating condemnation anti war movements existed every major war th century including prominently world war world war ii vietnam war st century worldwide anti war movements occurred response united states invasion afghanistan iraq protests opposing war afghanistan occurred europe asia united states mexican drug war estimated casualties since december recently faced fundamental opposition movement peace justice started popular


middle class movement war recognition president calderon began war see also outline war grey zone international relations notes references bibliography butler smedley ''war racket'' chagnon n ''the yanomamo'' holt rinehart winston clausewitz carl von ''on war'' princeton university press codevilla angelo ''no victory peace'' rowman littlefield fry douglas ''the human potential peace anthropological challenge assumptions war violence'' oxford university press fry douglas ''beyond war'' oxford university press gat azar ''war human civilization'' oxford


university press howell signe willis roy ''societies peace anthropological perspectives'' london routledge keegan john ''a history warfare'' pimlico keeley lawrence ''war civilization'' oxford university press kelly raymond c ''warless societies origin war'' university michigan press kemp graham fry douglas ''keeping peace'' new york routledge lebow richard ned ''a cultural theory international relations'' cambridge university press lindemann thomas ''causes war struggle recognition'' colchester ecpr press mcintosh jane ''a peaceful realm rise fall indus civilization''


oxford uk westview press metz steven cuccia philip r https purlfdlpgov gpo gpo ''defining war st century'' strategic studies institute us army war college montagu ashley ''learning nonaggression'' new york oxford university press otterbein keith ''how war began'' college station tx texas university press parker geoffrey ed ''the cambridge illustrated history warfare triumph west'' cambridge university press revised https archiveorg details cambridgeillustr unse f h online pauketat timothy ''north american archaeology'' blackwell publishing sponsel leslie gregor thomas ''anthropology peace nonviolence'' lynne rienner publishing strachan hew ''the


direction war'' cambridge university press turchin p ''war peace war life cycles imperial nations'' ny pi press van creveld martin ''the art war war military thought'' london cassell wellington house wade nicholas ''before dawn'' new york penguin walzer michael ''just unjust wars'' basic books external links http battlesnodegoatnet viewerp scenario geo fullscreen interactive map battles fought around world last years http histropediacom timeline hpwksw tp wars timeline wars histropedia dispute resolution ethics violence violence men


'''war''' large scale armed conflict term used metaphor non military conflicts '''war''' '''war''' may also refer places war west virginia war creek stream west virginia west antarctic rift warwickshire county england standard code music performers war american band american funk band albums ''war'' bolt thrower album ''war'' born pain album ''war'' demon hunter album ''war'' u album ''war'' war album american band ''war renegades '' american hip hop artist pharoahe monch songs war bob marley song


war bone thugs n harmony song war henry cow song war temptations song also covered edwin starr war drake song war pop smoke song war song album ''system down'' band name war bathory ''bathory'' war burzum ''burzum'' war devin townsend ''infinity'' war dragonforce ''reaching infinity'' war good charlotte ''youth authority'' war idles ''ultra mono'' war james horner ''avatar music motion picture'' war jay sean ''all


nothing'' war joe satriani ''the extremist'' war judas priest ''nostradamus'' war linkin park ''the hunting party'' war meshuggah ''rare trax'' war outkast ''speakerboxxx love below'' war persuader ''the fiction maze'' war poets fall ''twilight theater'' war sean kingston ''tomorrow'' war shadows fall ''retribution'' uses lyrics bob marley 's song war war wumpscut ''embryodead'' war zach callison ''a picture perfect hollywood heartbreak'' war song culture club street fighter war sick puppies ''tri polar''


founded amateur archaeologist ron wyatt voina meaning war russian moscow based performance artist collective women registry sex offender law reform organization wrestling war wrestling promotion japanese professional wrestling promotion known wrestle association r wrestling academy rorbas swiss professional wrestling promotion war wrestling american independent wrestling promotion comics war comics genre comics war tmnt teenage mutant ninja turtles character war marvel comics marvel comics characters ''the war'' comics marvel comics limited series set company 's new universe games war card game two player card


game typically using anglo american playing card deck brazilian variation board game ''risk'' ''wars trading card game'' decipher ''wars'' series nintendo video game series ''warhammer online age reckoning'' mmo video game ''war'' video game film television war film genre film central plot focuses large scale armed conflict ''war'' miniseries canadian television miniseries ''war'' film russian film second chechen war war ''da ali g show'' episode ''war'' film jet li


jason statham film ''war inc'' american political satire film ''war'' film swiss film ''war'' film indian action thriller film directed siddharth anand others ''war'' painting painting paula rego war language also spelled waar spoken indian subcontinent war also known wars legendary character myth founding city warsaw iso iso code waray language philippines one four horsemen apocalypse ''war'' book sebastian junger afghanistan war literature arts


american military literary magazine wins replacement sabermetric baseball statistic ''war'' novel simon hawke war winchester automatic rifle see winchester model rivalry competition companies offering certain service product console wars browser wars editor war see also war disambiguation civil war disambiguation cold war disambiguation great war disambiguation world war disambiguation war comic genre comics war novel genre novel war song disambiguation war story disambiguation


across cultures world historians use thematic approach two major focal points integration processes world history drawn people world together difference patterns world history reveal diversity human experience establishment perimeters field jerry h bentley observed 'the term ''world history'' never clear signifier stable referent' usage term overlaps universal history comparative history global history big history macro history transnational history among others advent world history distinct academic field


study traced pace quickened ref name auto jerry h bentley 'the task world history' '' https dxdoiorg oxfordhb oxford handbook world history '' ed jerry h bentley oxford oxford university press pp p ref ref name gran ref key step creation world history association graduate programs handful universities next decades scholarly publications professional academic organizations graduate programs world history proliferated world history often displaced western civilization required curriculum american high schools universities


supported new textbooks world history approach world history attempts recognize address two structures profoundly shaped professional history writing tendency use current nation states set boundaries agendas studies past deep legacy eurocentric assumptions found especially western history writing thus world history tends study networks connections systems cross traditional boundaries historical study like linguistic cultural national borders world history often concerned explore social dynamics led large scale changes human society


world history'' quarterly basis history pre modern study world history distinct national history existed many world cultures however early forms world history truly global limited regions known historian ancient china chinese world history china surrounding people east asia based dynastic cycle articulated sima qian circa bc sima qian 's model based mandate heaven rulers rise united china overthrown ruling dynasty became corrupt


new dynasty begins virtuous strong decays provoking transfer heaven 's mandate new ruler test virtue new dynasty success obeyed china neighboring barbarians years sima qian 's model still dominates scholarship although dynastic cycle longer used modern chinese history ancient greece herodotus th century bc founder greek historiography presents insightful lively discussions customs geography history mediterranean peoples particularly egyptians however great rival thucydides promptly discarded herodotus 's embracing approach history


offering instead precise sharply focused monograph dealing vast empires centuries years war athens sparta rome vast patriotic history rome livy bc ad approximated herodotean inclusiveness polybius c c bc aspired combine logical rigor thucydides scope herodotus rash al n fadhl h hamad n persian physician jewish origin polymathic writer historian wrote enormous islamic history jami al tawarikh persian language often considered landmark intercultural historiography key document