music musical construction place'' edited martin stokes oxford berg p ref thus ethnic minorities forced figure create identities within control dominant classifications ref name stokes martin p ethnic minorities also use music order resist protest dominant group seen european jews african americans malaysian chinese even indonesian chinese expressed resistance chinese theater performances ref name kartomi margaret p kartomi margaret j indonesian chinese oppression musical outcomes netherlands east indies ''music racial


imagination'' ronald michael radano philip vilas bohlman university chicago press p ref medical ethnomusicology scholars characterized medical ethnomusicology new field integrative research applied practice explores holistically roles music sound phenomena related praxes cultural clinical context health healing medical ethnomusicology often focuses specifically music effect biological psychological social emotional spiritual realms health regard medical ethnomusicologists found applications music combat broad range health issues music found usage

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Ethnomusicology


treatment autism dementia aids hiv also finding use social spiritual contexts restoration community role music prayer meditation recent studies also shown music help alter mood serve cognitive therapy academic programs many universities around world offer ethnomusicology classes act centers ethnomusicological research ref name society ethnomusicology lists graduate undergraduate degree granting programs ref name ref popular culture ethnomusicology referenced popular media occasion movie songcatcher loosely based work


early ethnomusicologist ethnochoreology definition definition ethnochoreology stands many similarities current way studying ethnomusicology ethnochoreology 's roots anthropology taken account way studied field dance accurately defined studied within academic circle two parts integral part network social events part system knowledge belief social behavior aesthetic norms values study dance performance aspects physical movements costumes stages performers


accompanied sound along social context uses within society takes place beginnings growth alongside ethnomusicology beginning ethnochoreology also focus comparative side things focus classifying different styles based movements used geographical location way dissimilar lomax best shown benesh notation ethnochoreology published ethnomusicology journal hall advocates using benesh notation way documenting dance styles possible compare


styles techniques detail even 'schools' within one style individual variations execution dancer dancer seventies eighties like ethnomusicology ethnochoreology focus specific communicative type folklore music performed small groups context performance aspects dance studied emphasized part whole folkloric dance needed preserved influenced human centered thick description way study moved ethnomusicology however time sound dance aspects


performances studied still studied analyzed bit separately context social aspects culture around dance ref name ceriba naila ceriba naila ethnomusicology ethnochoreology institute nineties ''narodna umjetnost hrvatski asopis za etnologiju folkloristiku'' ref current beginning mid eighties reflexively interpretive way writing dance culture conscious impact scholar within field affects culture relationship dance scholar looking ref name ceriba naila


example scholars point searching authentic folk lack study individual performers popular dances dances subgroups groups within culture women youth members lgbt community contrast newer wave study wanted open study dance within culture additionally shift mutual give take scholar subjects field work also assist scholars teachers informants differences ethnomusicology although many similarities


ethnochoreology ethnomusicology large difference current geographical scope released studies example beginning ethnomusicology large focus african asian musics due seeming deviation norm ethnochoreology also beginning europe long extensive studies eastern european folk dances relatively little african asian dances however american studies delved native american southeast asian dance however basis difference could challenged basis many


dance studies association dsa merging society dance history scholars began cord 's purposes stated encourage research aspects dance related fields foster exchange ideas resources methodologies publications international regional conferences workshops promote accessibility research materials cord publishes peer reviewed scholarly journal known dance research journal twice annually see also articles significant individuals discipline see list ethnomusicologists choreomusicology ethnochoreology society ethnomusicology fumio koizumi prize ethnomusicology list musicologists


list musicology topics musicology prehistoric music smithsonian folkways sociomusicology world music international council traditional music society ethnomusicology references reading external links http wwwethnomusicologyorg society ethnomusicology http wwwictmusicorg international council traditional music http wwwbfeorguk british forum ethnomusicology https webarchiveorg web http ilamruacza international library african music ilam http wwwbluk wtm world traditional music section british library http wwwindianaedu libarchm archives traditional music indiana university http guideslibwashingtonedu ethnomusicology ethnomusicology folk music world music university washington http wwwo emorg outreach ethnomusicology online ethnomusicology community fieldwork resource https wwwsilorg resources search subject ethnomusicology sil publications ethnomusicology https webarchiveorg web http guidesmusiclibyaleedu contentphppid yale music library research guide


ethnomusicology https wwwoxfordhandbookscom view oxfordhb oxfordhb oxfrod handbook applied ethnomusicology dance research


plato aristotle depicted ''the school athens'' developed philosophical arguments addressing universe 's apparent order ''logos'' '''teleology''' ref name partridge eric https booksgooglecom booksid xa dxrhfa kc dq ''origins short etymological dictionary modern english'' london routledge p ref '''finality''' ref name dubray charles https wwwnewadventorg cathen ahtm teleology ''the catholic encyclopedia'' new york robert appleton company retrieved may via ''new advent'' transcribed j potter ref reason explanation something function end purpose goal opposed function cause purpose

Humanities Philosophy Metaphysics Teleology


imposed human use purpose fork hold food called ''extrinsic'' ref name ''natural teleology'' common classical philosophy though controversial today contends natural entities also ''intrinsic'' purposes irrespective human use opinion instance aristotle claimed acorn 's intrinsic ''telos'' become fully grown oak tree though ancient atomists rejected notion natural teleology teleological accounts non personal non human nature explored often endorsed ancient medieval philosophies fell disfavor modern era late


th century immanuel kant used concept telos regulative principle ''critique judgment'' teleology also fundamental philosophy karl marx g w f hegel ref name telos https philosophytermscom telos ''philosophy terms'' retrieved may ref contemporary philosophers scientists still debate whether teleological axioms useful accurate proposing modern philosophies scientific theories example reintroduction teleology modern language notion ''attractor'' another instance thomas nagel though biologist proposed non darwinian account evolution


incorporates impersonal natural teleological laws explain existence life consciousness rationality objective value regardless accuracy also considered independently usefulness common experience pedagogy minimum apparent teleology useful thinking explaining darwinian evolution even true teleology driving evolution thus easier say evolution gave wolves sharp canine teeth teeth serve purpose predation regardless whether underlying non teleologic reality evolution actor intentions


words human cognition learning often rely narrative structure stories actors goals immediate proximal rather ultimate distal causation see also proximate ultimate causation minimal level teleology might recognized useful least tolerable practical purposes even people reject cosmologic accuracy accuracy upheld barrow tipler whose citations teleologists max planck norbert wiener significant scientific endeavor history western philosophy term concept ''teleology'' originated writings plato


thing 's necessary sufficient causes identifies respectively material final causes ref name ''phaedo'' plato ref socrates argues materials compose body necessary conditions moving acting certain way nevertheless cannot ' 'sufficient'' condition moving acting example ref name socrates sitting athenian prison elasticity tendons allows sitting physical description tendons listed ''necessary conditions'' ''auxiliary causes'' act


sitting however necessary conditions socrates' sitting give physical description socrates' body say ''that'' socrates sitting give idea ''it came be'' sitting first place say sitting ''not'' sitting necessary explain sitting ''good'' things brought ie products actions brought actor saw good thus give explanation something determine


good goodness ''actual cause'' purpose ''telos'' reason aristotelian aristotle argued democritus wrong attempt reduce things mere necessity neglects aim order final cause brings necessary conditions ''physics'' using hylomorphic theory using eternal forms model aristotle rejects plato 's assumption universe created intelligent designer aristotle natural ends produced natures principles change internal living things natures aristotle argued deliberate platonic aristotelian


arguments ran counter presented earlier democritus later lucretius supporters often called accidentalism modern philosophy economics teleology human aims played crucial role work economist ludwig von mises especially development science ''praxeology'' mises believed individual action teleological governed existence chosen ends ref name von mises ludwig '' https cdnmisesorg ultimate foundation economic science pdf ultimate foundation economic science '' princeton nj david van nostrand via mises institute https misesorg library ultimate foundation economic science available formats ref


words individuals select believe appropriate means achieve sought goal end mises also stressed respect human action teleology independent causality action devised ventured upon without definite ideas relation cause effect teleology presupposes causality ref name assuming reason action predominantly influenced ideological credence mises derived portrayal human motivation epicurean teachings insofar assumes atomistic individualism teleology libertarianism defines man egoist seeks maximum


happiness ie ultimate pursuit pleasure pain ref name gonce gonce r ''natural law ludwig von mises' praxeology economic science'' chattanooga tn southern economic association ref man strives mises remarks never attains perfect state happiness described epicurus ref name gonce moreover expanding upon epicurean groundwork mises formalized conception pleasure pain assigning specific meaning allowing extrapolate conception attainable happiness critique liberal versus socialist ideological societies application epicurean belief political theory mises


argued narrative understanding oneself one 's capacity independent reasoner one 's dependence others social practices traditions one participates tend towards ultimate good liberation social practices may understood teleologically oriented internal goods example practices philosophical scientific inquiry teleologically ordered elaboration true understanding objects macintyre 's ''after virtue'' famously dismissed naturalistic teleology aristotle 's 'metaphysical biology' cautiously moved book 's account sociological teleology toward exploration


remains valid traditional teleological naturalism hegel historically teleology may identified philosophical tradition aristotelianism rationale teleology explored immanuel kant ''critique judgement'' made central speculative philosophy g w f hegel well various neo hegelian schools hegel proposed idealistic history species consider variance darwin karl marx friedrich engels repudiated idealism maintaining teleology dialectic materialism employed called ''analytic


philosophy'' point departure formal logic scientific fact 'identity' ''objective spirit'' hegel 's terminology individual human consciousness process reaching autonomy freedom choice deal obvious reality collective identities eg multiplicity world views ethnic cultural national identities divide human race set different groups violent conflict hegel conceived 'totality' mutually antagonistic world views life forms history 'goal driven' ie oriented towards end point history '''objective contradiction'' nowiki ' 'subject' 'object'


country humanity environment '''medical ethics''' teleology provides moral basis professional ethics medicine physicians generally concerned outcomes must therefore know ''telos'' given treatment paradigm consequentialism broad spectrum ''consequentialist'' ethics utilitarianism well known example focuses end result consequences principles john stuart mill 's 'principle utility' greatest good greatest number principle thus teleological though broader sense elsewhere understood philosophy classical notion teleology grounded inherent nature


things whereas ''consequentialism'' teleology imposed nature outside human consequentialist theories justify inherently people would call evil acts desirable outcomes good outcome outweighs bad act example consequentialist theory would say acceptable kill one person order save two people theories may summarized maxim deontology consequentialism stands contrast classical notions ' 'deontological'' ethics examples include immanuel kant 's ''categorical imperative''


example mill also relies deontic maxims guide practical behavior must justifiable principle utility science modern science explanations rely teleology often always avoided either unnecessary whether true false thought beyond ability human perception understanding judge ref name aristotle group lower roman received intellectual tradition sixteenth seventeenth centuries revolutionary philosophers began curtail reject teleology medieval scholastic aristotelians abandoning final causes favor


purely mechanistic model universe pp ref using teleology explanatory style particular within evolutionary biology still controversial ref name hanke ref since ''novum organum'' francis bacon teleological explanations physical science tend deliberately avoided favor focus material efficient explanations although recent accounts quantum phenomena make use teleology final formal causation came viewed false subjective ref name aristotle group lower roman nonetheless disciplines particular within evolutionary biology continue use language appears teleological describing natural tendencies towards certain end


conditions suggest however arguments ought practicably rephrased non teleological forms others hold teleological language cannot always ''easily'' expunged descriptions life sciences least within bounds practical pedagogy biology apparent teleology recurring issue evolutionary biology much consternation writers ref name hanke statements implying nature goals example species said something order achieve survival appear teleological therefore invalid usually possible rewrite sentences avoid apparent teleology


biology courses incorporated exercises requiring students rephrase sentences read teleologically nevertheless biologists still frequently write way read implying teleology even intention john reiss argues evolutionary biology purged teleology rejecting analogy natural selection watchmaker arguments analogy also promoted writers richard dawkins authors like james lennox argued darwin teleologist others michael ghiselin describe


claim myth promoted misinterpretations discussions emphasized distinction using teleological metaphors teleological biologist philosopher francisco ayala argued statements processes trivially translated teleological statements vice versa teleological statements explanatory cannot disposed ref name ayala ayala francisco teleological explanations evolutionary biology ''nature 's purposes analyses function design biology'' cambridge mit press ref karen neander argued modern concept biological 'function' dependent upon selection example possible


proper cumbersome way describing change evolutionary adaptation may substituted shorter overtly teleological statements sake saving space taken imply evolution proceeds anything mutations arising chance impart advantage retained natural selection likewise j b haldane says teleology like mistress biologist cannot live without 's unwilling seen public ''selected effects'' accounts one suggested neander face objections due


reliance etiological accounts fields lack resources accommodate many sciences study traits behaviors regarded evolutionary biology still correctly attribute teleological functions without appeal selection history corey j maley gualtiero piccinini proponents one account focuses instead goal contribution objective goals organisms survival inclusive fitness piccinini maley define teleological functions stable contribution trait component activity property organisms belonging biological population objective goal organisms cybernetics


cybernetics study communication control regulatory feedback living beings machines combinations two arturo rosenblueth norbert wiener julian bigelow conceived feedback mechanisms lending teleology machinery ref name ref wiener coined term ''cybernetics'' denote study teleological mechanisms cybernetic classification presented rosenblueth wiener bigelow ''teleology'' feedback controlled purpose ref name classification system underlying cybernetics criticized frank honywill george les johnson cite need external observability


purposeful behavior order establish validate goal seeking behavior ref name view purpose observing observed systems respectively distinguished system 's subjective autonomy objective control ref name ref see also references notes citations reading espinoza miguel https wwwacademiaedu la finalit le temps et les principes de la physique la finalit le temps et les principes de la physique gotthelf allan aristotle 's conception final causality ''philosophical issues aristotle 's biology'' edited gotthelf j g lennox cambridge cambridge university press horkheimer max theodor adorno ''dialectic enlightenment'' johnson monte ransome


''aristotle teleology'' new york oxford university press knight kelvin ''aristotelian philosophy ethics politics aristotle macintyre'' new york polity press luk cs georg ''history class consciousness'' macintyre alasdair first principles final ends contemporary philosophical issues ''the tasks philosophy selected essays'' edited macintyre cambridge cambridge university press makin stephen ''metaphysics book theta'' aristotle introduction commentary makin new york oxford university press marcuse herbert ''hegel 's ontology theory historicity'' nissen lowell ''teleological language life sciences'' rowman littlefield barrow


john frank j tipler ''the anthropic cosmological principal'' external links https plantspeopleplanetorgau purpose defense teleological realism biology plantspeopleplanetorgau causality ethical theories historiography metaphysical theories


george bush center intelligence headquarters central intelligence agency '''intelligence agency''' government agency responsible collection analysis exploitation information support law enforcement national security military foreign policy objectives ref name bi ref means information gathering overt covert may include espionage communication interception cryptanalysis cooperation institutions evaluation public sources assembly propagation information known intelligence analysis intelligence assessment intelligence agencies provide following services national governments give early warning impending

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Intelligence agency


crisis serve national international crisis management helping discern intentions current potential opponents inform national defense planning military operations military intelligence protect sensitive information secrets sources activities state agencies covertly influence outcome events favor national interests influence international security defense efforts national intelligence agencies counter intelligence hq uk signals intelligence activities government communications headquarters cheltenham headquarters finnish security intelligence service supo punavuori helsinki distinction


security'' hrg von k lee lerner brenda wilmoth lerner b nde detroit ua gale ua rhodri jeffreys jones ''cloak dollar history american secret intelligence'' yale university press richard c trahair ''encyclopedia cold war espionage spies secret operations'' westport conn ua greenwood press amy b zegart ''flawed design evolution cia jcs nsc'' stanford calif stanford univ press '''journals''' ''the journal intelligence history'' '''reports''' ruiz victor h knowledge taxonomy army intelligence training assessment military intelligence basic officer leaders


common air borne spores '''aerobiology''' greek ''a r'' air ''bios'' life '' logia'' branch biology studies organic particles bacteria fungal spores small insects pollen grains viruses passively transported air ref name rsb ref aerobiologists traditionally involved measurement reporting airborne pollen fungal spores service allergy sufferers ref name rsb first finding airborne algae took place germany see also aeroplankton references external links http wwwisaccnrit aerobio iaa international society aerobiology https wwwknowmoldcom know moldhtml mycology microbiology


''the boyhood raleigh'' sir john everett millais oil canvas br seafarer tells young sir walter raleigh brother story happened sea '''storytelling''' describes social cultural activity sharing stories sometimes improvisation theatrics embellishment every culture stories narratives shared means entertainment education cultural preservation instilling moral values crucial elements stories storytelling include plot characters narrative point view term storytelling refer narrow sense specifically oral storytelling


also looser sense techniques used media unfold disclose narrative story historical perspective par dated ad epic pabuji oral epic rajasthani language tells deeds folk hero deity pabuji lived th century storytelling intertwined development mythologies predates writing earliest forms storytelling usually oral combined gestures expressions archaeologists believe rock art addition role religious rituals may served form storytelling


many ancient cultures australian aboriginal people painted symbols also appear stories cave walls means helping storyteller remember story story told using combination oral narrative music rock art dance bring understanding meaning human existence remembrance enactment stories people used carved trunks living trees ephemeral media sand leaves record folktales pictures writing complex forms tattooing may also represent stories information genealogy affiliation social status


folktales often share common motifs themes suggesting possible basic psychological similarities across various human cultures stories notably fairy tales appear spread place place implying memetic appeal popularity groups originally oral tales coalesce time story cycles like ''arabian nights'' cluster around mythic heroes like king arthur develop narratives deeds gods saints various religions results episodic like stories anansi epic homeric tales inspirational note tradition ''vitae'' instructive many buddhist


christian scriptures advent writing use stable portable media storytellers recorded transcribed continued share stories wide regions world stories carved scratched painted printed inked onto wood bamboo ivory bones pottery clay tablets stone palm leaf books skins parchment bark cloth paper silk canvas textiles recorded film stored electronically digital form oral stories continue created improvisationally impromptu professional storytellers well committed memory passed generation generation despite increasing popularity


written televised media much world contemporary storytelling modern storytelling broad purview addition traditional forms fairytales folktales mythology legends fables etc extended representing history personal narrative political commentary evolving cultural norms contemporary storytelling also widely used address educational objectives new forms media creating new ways people record express consume stories tools asynchronous group communication provide environment individuals reframe recast individual stories group stories games digital platforms


used interactive fiction interactive storytelling may used position user character within bigger world documentaries including interactive web documentaries employ storytelling narrative techniques communicate information topic self revelatory stories created cathartic therapeutic effect growing use application psychodrama drama therapy playback theatre storytelling also used means precipitate psychological social change practice transformative arts people also make case different narrative forms classified storytelling contemporary world


example digital storytelling online dice paper based role playing games traditional role playing games storytelling done person controls environment non playing fictional characters moves story elements along players interact storyteller game advanced mainly verbal interactions dice roll determining random events fictional universe players interact storyteller type game many genres sci fi fantasy well alternate reality worlds based current reality different setting beings


werewolves aliens daemons hidden societies oral based role playing games popular among circles youth many countries computer console based online mmorpg 's took place despite prevalence computer based mmorpgs dice paper rpg still dedicated following oral traditions oral traditions storytelling found several civilisations predate printed online press storytelling used explain natural phenomena bards told stories creation developed pantheon gods myths oral stories passed one generation next storytellers regarded


becomes hero 's ally showing unexpected resources skill initiative theme belong specific story may found minor variation many different stories story described reynolds price wrote blockquote need tell hear stories essential species ''homo sapiens'' nbsp second necessity apparently nourishment love shelter millions survive without love home almost none silence opposite silence leads quickly narrative sound story dominant sound lives small accounts


day 's events vast incommunicable constructs psychopaths blockquote contemporary life people seek fill story vacuums oral written stories absence narrative especially ambiguous urgent situation people seek consume plausible stories like water desert innate nature connect dots explanatory narrative adopted 's extremely hard undo whether true ref name rchen sagen illustration ''silesian folk tales'' book rubezahl folklorists sometimes divide oral tales two main groups


''m rchen'' ''sagen'' german terms exact english equivalents however approximations ''m rchen'' loosely translated fairy tale little stories take place kind separate upon time world nowhere particular indeterminate time past clearly intended understood true stories full clearly defined incidents peopled rather flat characters little interior life supernatural occurs presented matter factly without surprise indeed little effect generally bloodcurdling events may take place


little call emotional response listener ''sagen'' translated legends supposed actually happened often particular time place draw much power fact supernatural intrudes often emotionally fraught manner ghost lovers' leap stories belong category many ufo stories stories supernatural beings events another important examination orality human life walter j ong 's ''orality literacy technologizing word'' ong studies distinguishing characteristics


oral traditions oral written cultures interact condition one another ultimately influence human epistemology storytelling learning orunamamu storyteller griot cane storytelling means sharing interpreting experiences peter l berger says human life narratively rooted humans construct lives shape world homes terms groundings memories stories universal bridge cultural linguistic age related divides storytelling adaptive ages leaving notion age segregation storytelling used method


teach ethics values cultural norms differences learning effective takes place social environments provide authentic social cues knowledge applied stories function tool pass knowledge social context every story parts first setup hero 's world adventure starts second confrontation hero 's world turned upside third resolution hero conquers villain 's enough hero survive hero world must transformed story framed format human knowledge


based experiential learning learning experience automatic often person needs attempt tell story experience realizing value case listener learns teller also becomes aware unique experiences background process storytelling empowering teller effectively conveys ideas practice able demonstrate potential human accomplishment storytelling taps existing knowledge creates bridges culturally motivationally toward solution stories effective educational tools


listeners become engaged therefore remember storytelling seen foundation learning teaching storylistener engaged able imagine new perspectives inviting transformative empathetic experience involves allowing individual actively engage story well observe listen participate minimal guidance listening storyteller create lasting personal connections promote innovative problem solving foster shared understanding regarding future ambitions listener activate knowledge imagine new possibilities together storyteller listener seek best practices invent new


solutions stories often multiple layers meanings listeners listen closely identify underlying knowledge story storytelling used tool teach children importance respect practice listening well connecting children environment theme stories give autonomy using repetitive statements improve learning learn competence also used teach children respect life value inter connectedness always work overcome adversity teach kinesthetic learningstyle would used


involving listeners music dream interpretation dance storytelling indigenous cultures buckskin story battle american soldiers indigenous cultures americas storytelling used oral form language associated practices values essential developing one 's identity everyone community add touch perspective narrative collaboratively individual culturally shared perspectives place co creation story oral storytelling indigenous communities differs forms stories told


entertainment teaching values ref name archibald archibald jo ann indigenous storywork educating heart mind body spirit vancouver british columbia university british columbia press ref example sto lo community canada focuses reinforcing children 's identity telling stories land explain roles ref name archibald furthermore storytelling way teach younger members indigenous communities culture identities donna eder 's study navajos interviewed storytelling practices past changes want see future notice


adults storytelling one many effective ways educate young old cultures identities history storytelling help navajos know come belong ref name ref storytelling indigenous cultures sometimes passed oral means quiet relaxing environment usually coincides family tribal community gatherings official events family occasions rituals ceremonial practices telling story children may act participants asking questions acting story telling smaller parts


story furthermore stories often told manner twice resulting many variations single myth narrators may choose insert new elements old stories dependent upon relationship storyteller audience making story correspond unique situation ref name silko l storyteller silko l storyteller new york new york seaver books pub ref indigenous cultures also use instructional ribbing playful form correcting children 's undesirable behavior stories example ojibwe chippewa tribe uses tale owl snatching away misbehaving children


caregiver often say owl come stick ears n't stop crying thus form teasing serves tool correct inappropriate behavior promote cooperation types storytelling indigenous peoples various types stories among many indigenous communities communication indigenous american communities rich stories myths philosophies narratives serve means exchange information stories may used coming age themes core values morality literacy history often stories used instruct teach


children cultural values lessons ref name silko l storyteller meaning within stories always explicit children expected make meaning stories lakota tribe north america example young girls often told story white buffalo calf woman spiritual figure protects young girls whims men odawa tribe young boys often told story young man never took care body result feet fail run


tries escape predators story serves indirect means encouraging young boys take care bodies narratives shared express values morals among family relatives people considered part close knit community many stories indigenous american communities surface story entails knowing certain information clues unlocking metaphors story underlying message story told understood interpreted clues hint certain interpretation ref name ref order make meaning stories


elders sto lo community example emphasize importance learning listen since requires senses bring one 's heart mind together ref name instance way children learn metaphors significant society live listening elders participating rituals respect one another passing values indigenous cultures stories indigenous cultures encompass variety values values include emphasis individual responsibility concern environment communal welfare stories based values


passed older generations shape foundation community storytelling used bridge knowledge understanding allowing values self community connect learned whole storytelling navajo community example allows community values learned different times places different learners stories told perspective people animals natural elements earth way children learn value place world person relation others typically stories used


communities teach children valuable skills morals actions good mischievous stock characters also allowing room children make meaning given every element story children rely experiences formal teaching adults fill gaps children listen stories periodically vocalize ongoing attention accept extended turn storyteller emphasis attentiveness surrounding events importance oral tradition indigenous communities teaches children skill keen attention example children


tohono o'odham american indian community engaged cultural practices able recall events verbally presented story better engage cultural practices body movements gestures help communicate values keep stories alive future generations elders parents grandparents typically involved teaching children cultural ways along history community values teachings land children indigenous communities also learn underlying message story example nahuatl community near mexico city stories ahuaques hostile water


dwelling spirits guard bodies water contain morals respecting environment protagonist story accidentally broken something belongs ahuaque replace give back way ahuaque protagonist dies way storytelling serves way teach community values valuing environment storytelling also serves deliver particular message spiritual ceremonial functions ceremonial use storytelling unity building theme message becomes important time place


values within indigenous american communities iseke 's study role storytelling metis community showed promise furthering research metis shared communal atmosphere storytelling events iseke focused idea witnessing storyteller vital way share partake metis community members community would stop everything else order listen witness storyteller allow story become ceremonial landscape shared reference everyone present powerful tool


community engage teach new learner shared references values ideologies metis storytelling metis cemented shared reference personal popular stories folklore members community use share ideologies future iseke noted metis elders wished stories told used research culture stories traditional way pass vital knowledge younger generations stories read neuro semantic encoding narratives happens levels higher individual semantic units


agency instead searching main point narrative political function demanded asking whose interest personal narrative serve ref name referencea ref approach mainly looks power authority knowledge ideology identity whether legitimates dominates resists empowers ref name referencea personal narratives seen ideological evolve structure power relations simultaneously produce maintain reproduce power structure political theorist hannah arendt argues storytelling transforms private meaning public meaning regardless gender narrator story sharing


performance narrative audience listening power lies therapeutic storytelling therapeutic storytelling act telling one 's story attempt better understand oneself one 's situation oftentimes stories affect audience therapeutic sense well helping view situations similar different lens noted author folklore scholar elaine lawless states process provides new avenues understanding identity formation language utilised bear witness lives sometimes narrator simply skip


certain details without realising include stories later telling way telling retelling narrative serves reattach portions narrative gaps may occur due repression trauma even want keep gruesome details private regardless silences empty appear act storytelling enable teller fill back psychodrama uses enactment personal traumatic event life psychodrama group


participant therapeutic methodology first developed psychiatrist jl moreno md therapeutic use storytelling incorporated drama therapy known field self revalatory theater jonathan fox jo salas developed therapeutic improvisational storytelling form called playback theatre therapeutic storytelling also used promote healing transformative arts facilitator helps participant write often present personal story audience storytelling art form aesthetics art narrative definition aesthetic enterprise number


definition addresses interacts reading audiences see reader response theory communicates wayne booth esque rhetorical thrust dialectic process interpretation times beneath surface conditioning plotted narrative times much visible arguing various positions relies substantially standard aesthetic figuration particularly including use metaphor metonymy synecdoche irony see hayden white ''metahistory'' expansion idea often enmeshed intertextuality copious connections references allusions similarities parallels etc literatures commonly demonstrates effort toward ''bildungsroman'' description


international celebration art occurs world storytelling day emancipation story oral traditions stories kept alive told material given story naturally undergoes several changes adaptations process oral tradition superseded print media literary idea author originator story 's authoritative version changed people 's perception stories centuries following stories tended seen work individuals rather collective effort recently significant number


influential authors began questioning roles value stories nbsp independent authorship nbsp recognized literary critics roland barthes even proclaimed death author business people telling stories work since ancient times stories might inspire courage empowerment hunt potentially dangerous animal simply instill value listening storytelling business become field right industries grown storytelling becomes popular art form general live storytelling events like


moth recruiting storytelling come prominent role recruiting modern recruiting industry started employers competed available labor world war ii prior employers usually placed newspaper ads telling story kind person wanted including character many cases ethnicity public relations public influence part human civilization since ancient times modern public relations industry traces roots boston based pr firm called publicity bureau opened although pr firm


may identify role storytelling firm 's task control public narrative organization represent networking networking around since industrial revolution businesses recognized need benefit collaborating trusting wider range people ref name phillips deborah r transformational power networking today 's business world journal property management mar apr p gale academic onefile select nowiki https link gale comlibezproxybrowardorg apps doc eaimu broward sid eaim xid cece nowiki accessed feb ref today networking subject books seminars online conversations ref name storytelling helps networkers showcase expertise using examples


stories teach contacts expertise experience talents interests one networking competencies association talent development identified saying networkers able answer question make expertise visible memorable business storytelling begins considering needs audience networker wishes reach asking audience interested would intrigue ref name ref within workplace summer school berlin school economics storytelling practice example summer school berlin


school economics european business economics ebep workplace communicating using storytelling techniques compelling effective route delivering information using dry facts uses include using narrative manage conflicts managers storytelling important way resolving conflicts addressing issues facing challenges managers may use narrative discourse deal conflicts direct action inadvisable impossible using narrative interpret past shape future group discussion process collective narration help influence


others unify group linking past future discussions managers transform problems requests issues stories jameson calls collective group construction storybuilding using narrative reasoning process storytelling plays important role reasoning processes convincing others business meetings managers business officials preferred stories abstract arguments statistical measures situations complex dense narrative discourse helps resolve conflicts influences corporate decisions stabilizes group marketing storytelling increasingly used advertising order build customer


story language parts parts brain would engaged events story actually experienced activated result easier remember stories facts marketing developments incorporating storytelling include use trans media techniques originated film industry intended build world story evolve examples include coca cola 's happiness factory see also methods one person show burra katha oral storytelling technique katha tradition dastangoi urdu language traditional oral storytelling art form indian


subcontinent kissa bangladeshi traditional oral storytelling art form shuochang oral storytelling technique chinese tradition pingshu chinese storytelling using spoken words suzhou pingtan suzhou regional variety shuochang tanci chinese narrative songs maggid storytelling preaching technique hebrew tradition oral history dreamtime oral literature panchatantra oral storytelling technique india tradition seancha villuppattu transmedia storytelling structure dramatic structure fable fairy tale folklore mythology narrative narrative transportation orality organizational storytelling sjuzhet story arc storyboard talecraft miscellaneous djemaa el fna scheherazade storytelling festival storytelling game world storytelling day references reading bruner jerome ''actual minds


possible worlds'' cambridge massachusetts harvard university press bruner jerome ''making stories law literature life'' new york farrar straus giroux gargiulo terrence l ''the strategic use stories organizational communication learning'' armonk sharpe greiner burkert barbara ''the magical art telling fairy tales practical guide enchantment'' munich germany tausendschlau verlag leitch thomas ''what stories narrative theory interpretation'' university park pennsylvania pennsylvania state university press lodge david ''the art fiction'' new york viking mckee robert ''story substance structure style principles screenwriting'' new york


interest subject social philosophers played role development social control thomas hobbes work ''leviathan'' discusses social order state exerts using civil military power well cesare beccaria 's ''on crimes punishments'' argues people avoid criminal behavior acts result harsher punishment stating changes punishment act form social control ref name obo ref sociologist mile durkheim also explored social control work ''the division labor society'' discusses paradox deviance


stating social control makes us abide laws first place society uses certain sanctions enforce standard behavior deemed socially acceptable individuals institutions utilize social control establish social norms rules exercised peers friends family state religious organizations schools workplace goal social control maintain order society ensure conformity deemed deviant undesirable society ref name obo sociologists identify two basic forms social control ''informal means control'' internalization


norms values process known socialization process individual born behavioral potentialities enormously wide range led develop actual behavior confined narrower range acceptable group standards ''formal means social control'' external sanctions enforced government prevent establishment chaos anomie society theorists mile durkheim refer form control regulation briefly defined means enforce social control either informal


concept social control around since formation organized sociology meaning altered time originally concept simply referred society 's ability regulate ref name jstororg ref however term took modern meaning individual 's conversion conformity ref name jstororg academics began study social control theory separate field early th century concept social control related notion social order identified existing following areas society ref name innes education system policing law


psychiatry social work welfare state working environment term social control also linked term delinquency defined deviancy violation established mores social norms laws serious acts delinquency defined consensus crimes conflict crimes determined society law inhibit unwanted negative behavior form social control informal social values social values result individual internalizing certain norms values social values present individuals products informal social control exercised implicitly society


particular customs norms mores individuals internalize values society whether conscious indoctrination traditional society relies mostly informal social control embedded customary culture socialize members internalization values norms known process called socialization sanctions informal sanctions may include shame ridicule sarcasm criticism disapproval cause individual stray towards social norms society extreme cases sanctions may include social discrimination exclusion informal social control usually effect individuals social values become


behavior ie deviance varied individual individual group group society society example women 's institute meeting disapproving look might convey message inappropriate flirt minister criminal gang hand stronger sanction applies case someone threatening inform police illegal activity social control use reward known positive reinforcement society laws regulations implemented government tend focus punishment enforcing negative sanctions act


deterrent means social control theoretical bias within modern media theorists noam chomsky argued systemic bias exists modern media marketing advertising public relations industries thus said utilize mass communications aid interests certain political business elites powerful ideological economic religious lobbyists often used school systems centralized electronic communications influence public opinion formal sanctions formal sanctions usually imposed government organizations form laws reward punish behavior formal sanctions include fines


incarceration order deter negative behavior forms formal social control include sanctions severe depending behavior seen negative censorship expulsion limits political freedom examples seen law person breaks law set forth government caught go court depending severity pay fines face harsher consequences according study done crime cities cities higher incarceration rate


police make arrests public offenses tend lower crime rates incarceration rates historically social control developed together civilization rational measure uncontrollable forces nature tribal organisations prey within archaic tribal societies ref name ds mcintosh ref criminal persecutions first emerged around sixth century bc form formal social control athens greece purpose persecutions check certain groups protect malicious interests rulers used legitimized torture means mind control well murder imprisonment exile


remove public space anyone state authorities deemed undesirable age enlightenment harsh penalties crimes civil disobedience criticized philosophers cesare beccaria jeremy bentham whose work inspired reform movements movements eventually led universal declaration human rights informs western jurisdictions similar cairo declaration human rights islam word ''crime'' became part vocabulary english language via old french middle ages within middle english phase language ref name b hanawalt


wallace ref history religion provided moral influence community person providing internal locus control oriented toward morality person empowered degree control within society auguste comte instituted sociology already certain thinkers predicted discontinuation perceived ''false consciousness'' intrinsic religious belief nevertheless within twentieth century social scientists presumed religion still principal factor social control ref name r stark ws bainbridge ref comte preceded breathing air revolution


latter part eighteenth century french revolution bring called enlightened way society brought new liberty individual without constraints seeing aristocracy context social control penal correctional services ' 'rehabilitative ideal'' francis allen key idea formed within th century first principle behavior first caused things happened human behaviour product antecedent causes ref name tg blomberg k lucken http wwwreadcubecom articles fpol r referer wol tracking action preview click show checkout purchase referrer onlinelibrarywileycom purchase site license license denied term rehabilitative ideal sourced mona lynch via search social


control within google scholar ref idea later thought less relevancy philosophy exaction execution correctional measures least according publication elsewhere techniques law technique used purposes social control ref name roscoe pound ref example certain laws regarding appropriate sexual relationships largely based societal values historically homosexuality criminalised west modern times due shifts societal values western societies mostly decriminalized homosexual relations however still laws regarding age consent incest


still deemed issues society require means control mechanism social control occurs use selective incentives selective incentives private goods ref name p oliver gifts services made available people depending whether n't contribute good group collective common good people contribute rewarded n't punished mancur olson gave rise concept first instance cf ''the logic collective action'' ref name p oliver ref oberschall work identifies three elements


pragmatics social control exist current society confrontational control riot control crowd control preventative measures deter non normal behaviors legislation outlining expected boundaries behavior measures complementary preventative measures amount punishment criminal offences ref name anthony oberschall ref cities implement park exclusion orders prohibiting individuals frequenting parks city extended period due previous infraction trespass laws privatizing areas generally thought public police choose individuals interrogate limit


orders stay drug areas soda stay areas prostitution soap obstruct access spaces new social control techniques cities use displace certain individuals margins society ref name eight several common themes apparent control mechanisms first ability spatially constrain individuals city defying statutes criminal offense resulting possible incarceration ref name eight though individuals subjected exclusion order obey individuals


least spatially hindered decreased mobility freedom throughout city ref name ten spatial constrain individuals leads disruption interference lives homeless individuals generally frequent parks since area provides benches sleeping public washrooms occasional public services overall sense security near others similar conditions privatizing areas libraries public transportation systems college campuses commercial establishments generally public gives police permission remove individuals see fit even individual ethical intent space limit orders attempting


keep drug addicts prostitutes others concentrated areas drug sex crimes commonly restricts individuals' ability seek social services beneficial rehabilitation since services often located within soda soap territories ref name ten broken windows theory united states united states early societies able easily expel individuals deemed undesirable public space vagrancy laws forms banishment however exclusion orders denounced unconstitutional america ref name nine herbert steve katherine beckett zoning disorder assessing contemporary practices


urban social control ''studies law politics society'' ref consequently rejected us supreme court ref name eight beckett katherine steve herbert dealing disorder social control post industrial city ''theoretical criminology'' ref introduction broken windows theory transformed concepts cities used form policies circumvent previous issue unconstitutionality according theory environment particular space signals health public including potential vandals maintaining organized environment individuals dissuaded causing disarray particular location however


environments filled disorder broken windows graffiti indicate inability neighborhood supervise therefore leading increase criminal activity ref name tented ranasinghe prashan public disorder relation community civility consumption triad case study uses users contemporary urban public space ''urban studies'' ref instead focusing built environment policies substantiated broken windows theory overwhelmingly emphasize undesirable human behavior environmental disorder prompting crime ref name eight civility laws originating late early provide example


usage latter aspect broken windows theory legitimization discriminating individuals considered disorderly order increase sense security urban spaces ref name nine civility laws effectively criminalize activities considered undesirable sitting lying sidewalks sleeping parks urinating drinking public begging ref name ten beckett katherine steve herbert penal boundaries banishment expansion punishment ''law social inquiry'' ref attempt force individuals activities relocate margins society ref name eight surprisingly


restrictions disproportionally affect homeless ref name eight individuals deemed undesirable urban space fit social norms causes unease many residents certain neighborhoods fear deepened broken windows theory exploited policies seeking remove undesirables visible areas society ref name tented post industrial city concerned primarily retail tourism service sector ref name eight increasing pressure create image livable orderly city doubt aided recent forms social control ref name nine


new techniques involve even intense attempts spatially expel certain individuals urban space since police entrusted considerably power investigate individuals based suspicion rather definite evidence illicit actions ref name ten recent developments decades leading end increased prevalence individual feature within society led many new therapies suggesting use therapy means social control conrad scheider mechanic see also references external links deflem mathieu https deflemblogspotcom socialcontrolhtml social control


wiley blackwell encyclopedia social theory edited bryan turner malden wiley blackwell deflem mathieu https deflemblogspotcom socialcontrolhtml social control deviance pp nbsp handbook deviance edited erich goode malden wiley blackwell http wwwumsledu keelr socontrlhtml sociology social control summary ideas cultural politics political science terminology surveillance


saria shara disambiguation shara shariyah disambiguation shariyah shahriyar disambiguation shahriyar '''sharia''' religious law forming part islamic tradition ref name bassiouni ref ref name oxforddic ref ref name ref 's derived religious precepts islam based interpretations sacred scriptures islam particularly quran hadith ref name bassiouni arabic term ' 'shar ah'' refers god 's immutable divine law contrasted ''fiqh'' refers human scholarly interpretations ref name odi manner application modern times subject dispute muslims secularists ref name oxforddic traditional theory islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources


sharia ''quran'' ' 'sunnah'' authentic hadith ''qiyas'' analogical reasoning ''ijma'' juridical consensus ref name esposito john john l esposito natana j delong bas '' https booksgooglecom booksid momadq hkcgc pg pa v onepage q f false women muslim family law '' p syracuse university press quote ninth century classical theory law fixed sources islamic law four ''quran'' ''sunnah'' prophet ''qiyas'' analogical reasoning ''ijma'' consensus ref different legal schools prominent hanafi maliki shafi hanbali developed methodologies deriving sharia rulings scriptural sources using process known ''ijtihad'' ref name odi ref traditional jurisprudence ''fiqh'' distinguishes


two principal branches law '' ib t'' rituals ''mu mal t'' social relations together comprise wide range topics ref name odi rulings concerned ethical standards much legal norms assigning actions one five categories mandatory recommended neutral abhorred prohibited ref name odi thus areas sharia overlap western notion law others correspond broadly living life accordance god 's classical jurisprudence elaborated private religious scholars largely legal opinions fatwas issued qualified jurists muftis historically applied sharia courts ruler appointed judges


dealt mainly civil disputes community affairs ref name odi sultanic courts police market inspectors administered criminal justice influenced sharia bound rules non muslim dhimmi communities legal autonomy adjudicate internal affairs centuries sunni islam muftis gradually incorporated state bureaucracies fiqh complemented various economic criminal administrative laws issued muslim rulers ottoman civil code first partial attempt codify sharia modern era traditional laws muslim world widely replaced statutes inspired


progressive reformers muslim minority countries recognize use sharia based family laws muslim populations sharia also continues influence aspects private public life degree sharia adhered varies country individual role sharia become contested topic around world introduction sharia based laws sparked intercommunal violence nigeria may contributed breakup sudan jurisdictions north america passed bans use sharia framed restrictions religious foreign laws ref name thomas ongoing debates whether sharia


many muslims word means simply justice consider law promotes justice social welfare conform sharia jan michiel otto distinguishes four senses conveyed term ' 'sharia'' religious legal political discourse ''divine abstract sharia'' god 's plan mankind norms behavior guide islamic community muslims different perspectives agree respect abstract notion sharia differ understand practical implications term ''classical sharia'' body rules principles elaborated islamic jurists


context modern state etymology primary range meanings arabic word '' ar ah'' derived root '' r '' related religion religious law lexicographical tradition records two major areas use word '' ar ah'' appear without religious connotation texts evoking pastoral nomadic environment word derivatives refer watering animals permanent water hole seashore special reference animals come another area use relates notions stretched lengthy range meanings cognate


hebrew ' 'sara '' likely origin meaning way path areas claimed given rise aspects religious meaning scholars describe word '' ar ah'' archaic arabic word denoting pathway followed analogous hebrew term halakhah way go ref name haqq abdal haqq irshad ''understanding islamic law nbsp classical contemporary'' edited aminah beverly mccloud chapter ''islamic law nbsp overview origin elements'' altamira press p ref path water hole ref name hashim ref ref name weiss argue


adoption metaphor divinely ordained way life arises importance water arid desert environment ref name weiss weiss bernard g ''the spirit islamic law'' athens georgia university georgia press p ref use religious texts quran '' ar ah'' cognate '' ir ah'' occur meaning way path word '' ar ah'' widely used arabic speaking jews middle ages common translation word ''torah'' th century arabic translation torah sa adya gaon similar use


time ottoman empire turkish '' er '' ''i'' historical origins juristic exchange abu dawood ibn hanbal one oldest literary manuscripts islamic world dated october according traditional muslim view major precepts sharia passed directly islamic prophet muhammad without historical development ref name forte ref emergence islamic jurisprudence ''fiqh'' also goes back lifetime muhammad view companions followers took approved model sunnah transmitted information succeeding generations


form hadith reports led first informal discussion systematic legal thought articulated greatest success eighth ninth centuries master jurists abu hanifah malik ibn anas al shafi ahmad ibn hanbal viewed founders hanafi maliki shafi hanbali legal schools ''madhhabs'' sunni jurisprudence modern historians presented alternative theories formation fiqh first western scholars accepted general outlines traditional account late th century influential revisionist hypothesis advanced ignac goldziher elaborated joseph


decrees decisions caliphs also valid sources ref name jokisch ref according theory canonical hadiths originate muhammad actually created later date despite efforts hadith scholars weed fabrications ref became accepted legal norms must formally grounded scriptural sources proponents rules jurisprudence supported hadith would extend chains transmission hadith back muhammad 's companions view real architect islamic jurisprudence al shafi ce ah formulated idea legal


pre islamic laws customs lands fell muslim rule aftermath early conquests modified aspects aiming meet practical need establishing islamic norms behavior adjudicating disputes arising early muslim communities juristic thought gradually developed study circles independent scholars met learn local master discuss religious topics first circles fluid membership time distinct regional legal schools crystallized around shared sets methodological principles boundaries schools became clearly delineated authority


doctrinal tenets came vested master jurist earlier times henceforth identified school 's founder course first three centuries islam legal schools came accept broad outlines classical legal theory according islamic law firmly rooted quran hadith traditional jurisprudence ''fiqh'' fiqh traditionally divided fields ''u l al fiqh'' lit roots fiqh studies theoretical principles jurisprudence ''fur al fiqh'' lit branches fiqh devoted elaboration


determining legal force scriptural passage abrogated passage revealed later date addition quran sunnah classical theory sunni fiqh recognizes two sources law juristic consensus ''ijma '' analogical reasoning ''qiyas'' therefore studies application limits analogy well value limits consensus along methodological principles accepted certain legal schools interpretive apparatus brought together rubric ijtihad refers jurist 's exertion attempt


arrive ruling particular question theory twelver shia jurisprudence parallels sunni schools differences recognition reason '' aql'' source law place ''qiyas'' extension notion sunnah include traditions imams sources sharia islamic scholar sayyid rashid rida ce lists four basic sources islamic law agreed upon sunni muslims blockquote well known sources legislation islam four ''qur'an'' ''sunnah'' consensus ''ummah'' ''ijtihad'' undertaken


competent jurists blockquote ''quran'' islam quran considered sacred source law classical jurists held textual integrity beyond doubt account handed many people generation known recurrence concurrent transmission ''taw tur'' several hundred verses quran direct legal relevance concentrated specific areas inheritance though passages used source general principles whose legal ramifications elaborated means ''hadith'' body hadith provides


detailed practical legal guidance recognized early authentic early islamic scholars developed methodology evaluating authenticity assessing trustworthiness individuals listed transmission chains criteria narrowed vast corpus prophetic traditions several thousand sound hadiths collected several canonical compilations hadiths enjoyed concurrent transmission deemed unquestionably authentic however vast majority hadiths handed one transmitters therefore seen yield probable knowledge uncertainty


compounded ambiguity language contained hadiths quranic passages disagreements relative merits interpretation textual sources allowed legal scholars considerable leeway formulating alternative rulings ''ijma'' consensus could principle elevate ruling based probable evidence absolute certainty classical doctrine drew authority series hadiths stating islamic community could never agree error form consensus technically defined agreement competent jurists particular generation acting representatives community however practical


difficulty obtaining ascertaining agreement meant little impact legal development pragmatic form consensus could determined consulting works prominent jurists used confirm ruling could reopened discussion cases consensus account form less percent body classical jurisprudence ''qiyas'' analogical reasoning used derive ruling situation addressed scripture analogy scripturally based rule classic


place ijtihad turkish mufti th century spanish drawing classical process ijtihad combined generally recognized principles methods adopted legal schools ''istihsan'' juristic preference ''istislah'' consideration public interest ''istishab'' presumption continuity jurist qualified practice ijtihad known ''mujtahid'' use independent reasoning arrive ruling contrasted ''taqlid'' imitation refers following rulings mujtahid beginning th century development sunni jurisprudence prompted leading jurists state


main legal questions addressed scope ijtihad gradually restricted th century leading muslim reformers began calling abandonment taqlid renewed emphasis ijtihad saw return vitality early islamic jurisprudence decision types ''a k m'' fiqh concerned ethical standards much legal norms seeking establish legal also morally right wrong sharia rulings fall one five categories known five decisions ''al k al khamsa'' mandatory ''far ''


''w jib'' recommended ''mand b'' ''musta abb'' neutral ''mub '' reprehensible ''makr h'' forbidden '' ar m'' sin crime perform forbidden action perform mandatory action reprehensible acts avoided considered sinful punishable court avoiding reprehensible acts performing recommended acts held subject reward afterlife neutral actions entail judgment god jurists disagree whether term '' al l'' covers first three first four categories legal moral verdict depends whether action


committed necessity '' ar ra'' underlying intention ''niyya'' expressed legal maxim acts evaluated according intention aims sharia public interest ''maq id'' aims purposes sharia ''ma la a'' welfare public interest two related classical doctrines come play increasingly prominent role modern times first clearly articulated al ghazali argued ''maslaha'' god 's general purpose revealing divine law specific aim preservation five essentials human well religion life intellect offspring


property although classical era jurists recognized ''maslaha'' ''maqasid'' important legal principles held different views regarding role play islamic law jurists viewed auxiliary rationales constrained scriptural sources analogical reasoning others regarded independent source law whose general principles could override specific inferences based letter scripture latter view held minority classical jurists modern times came championed different forms prominent scholars sought adapt islamic law changing social conditions


drawing intellectual heritage traditional jurisprudence scholars expanded inventory ''maqasid'' include aims sharia reform women 's rights rashid rida justice freedom mohammed al ghazali human dignity rights yusuf al qaradawi branches law domain ''fur al fiqh'' lit branches fiqh traditionally divided '' ib t'' rituals acts worship ''mu mal t'' social relations many jurists divided body substantive jurisprudence four quarters called rituals sales marriage injuries terms figuratively stood variety subjects example quarter


sales would encompass partnerships guaranty gifts bequests among topics juristic works arranged sequence smaller topics called book ''kitab'' special significance ritual marked always placing discussion start work historians distinguish field islamic criminal law combines several traditional categories several crimes scripturally prescribed punishments known ''hudud'' jurists developed various restrictions many cases made virtually impossible apply crimes involving intentional bodily harm judged according version ''lex talionis''


prescribes punishment analogous crime ''qisas'' victims heirs may accept monetary compensation ' 'diya'' pardon perpetrator instead ' 'diya'' imposed non intentional harm criminal cases belong category ''ta z r'' goal punishment correction rehabilitation culprit form largely left judge 's discretion practice since early islamic history criminal cases usually handled ruler administered courts local police using procedures loosely related sharia two major genres ''fur '' literature


''mukhtasar'' concise summary law ''mabsut'' extensive commentary ''mukhtasars'' short specialized treatises general overviews could used classroom consulted judges ''mabsut'' usually provided commentary ''mukhtasar'' could stretch dozens large volumes recorded alternative rulings justifications often accompanied proliferation cases conceptual distinctions terminology juristic literature conservative tended preserve notions lost practical relevance time cycle abridgement commentary allowed jurists generation articulate


modified body law meet changing social conditions juristic genres include ''qaw id'' succinct formulas meant aid student remember general principles collections fatwas particular scholar classical jurisprudence described one major intellectual achievements islam ref name lewis ref importance islam compared theology christianity ref referenced ref name forte ref schools law main sunni schools law ''madhhabs'' hanafi maliki shafi'i hanbali madhhabs emerged ninth tenth centuries twelfth century almost jurists


aligned particular madhhab four schools recognize 's validity interacted legal debate centuries rulings schools followed across muslim world without exclusive regional restrictions came dominate different parts world example maliki school predominant north west africa hanafi school south central asia shafi'i school lower egypt east africa southeast asia hanbali school north central arabia first centuries islam also witnessed number


muslim world come controlled government policy state law influence madhhabs beyond personal ritual practice depends status accorded within national legal system state law codification commonly utilized methods ''takhayyur'' selection rulings without restriction particular madhhab ''talfiq'' combining parts different rulings question legal professionals trained modern law schools largely replaced traditional ulema interpreters resulting laws global islamic movements times drawn different madhhabs times placed greater focus


scriptural sources rather classical jurisprudence hanbali school particularly strict adherence quran hadith inspired conservative currents direct scriptural interpretation salafi wahhabi movements currents networks indonesian ulema islamic scholars residing muslim minority countries advanced liberal interpretations islamic law without focusing traditions particular madhhab pre modern islamic legal system jurists sharia traditionally interpreted muftis first centuries islam muftis private legal specialists normally also held jobs issued fatwas legal


opinions generally free charge response questions laypersons requests consultation coming judges would stated general terms fatwas regularly upheld courts usually fatwa contradicted authoritative legal opinion stature jurists determined scholarly reputation majority classical legal works written author jurists based large part fatwas distinguished muftis fatwas functioned form legal precedent unlike court verdicts valid given case although


independent muftis never disappeared th century onward muslim rulers began appoint salaried muftis answer questions public centuries sunni muftis gradually incorporated state bureaucracies shia jurists iran progressively asserted autonomous authority starting early modern era ulugh beg madrasa samarkand est islamic law initially taught study circles gathered mosques private homes teacher assisted advanced students provided commentary concise treatises law examined students' understanding text tradition continued practiced ''madrasas''


spread th th centuries madrasas institutions higher learning devoted principally study law also offering subjects theology medicine mathematics madrasa complex usually consisted mosque boarding house library maintained ''waqf'' charitable endowment paid salaries professors stipends students defrayed costs construction maintenance end course professor granted license ''ijaza'' certifying student 's competence subject matter students specializing law would complete curriculum consisting preparatory studies


play role qadis evaluate evidence establish facts case issue verdict based applicable rulings islamic jurisprudence qadi supposed solicit fatwa mufti unclear law applied case since islamic legal theory recognize distinction private public law court procedures identical civil criminal cases required private plaintiff produce evidence defendant main type evidence oral witness testimony standards evidence


criminal cases strict conviction often difficult obtain even apparently clear cut cases historians believe stringent procedural norms qadi 's courts early date lost jurisdiction criminal cases instead handled types courts accusation result verdict qadi 's court plaintiff could often pursue another type court called ''mazalim'' court administered ruler 's council rationale ''mazalim'' lit wrongs grievances courts address wrongs sharia courts unable


address including complaints government officials islamic jurists commonly attendance judge often presided court deputy ruler ''mazalim'' verdicts supposed conform spirit sharia bound letter law procedural restrictions qadi 's courts police ' 'shurta'' took initiative preventing investigating crime operated courts like mazalim courts police courts bound rules sharia powers inflict discretionary punishments another office maintaining public order


''muhtasib'' market inspector charged preventing fraud economic transactions infractions public morality ''muhtasib'' took active role pursuing types offenses meted punishments based local custom socio political context saadi dervish go settle quarrel judge th century persian miniature social fabric pre modern islamic societies largely defined close knit communities organized around kinship groups local neighborhoods conflicts individuals potential escalate conflict supporting groups disrupt life entire


community court litigation seen last resort cases informal mediation failed attitude reflected legal maxim amicable settlement best verdict ''al sulh sayyid al ahkam'' court disputes qadis generally less concerned legal theory achieving outcome enabled disputants resume previous social relationships could accomplished avoiding total loss losing side simply giving chance articulate position public obtain measure psychological vindication islamic law required judges familiar


local customs exercised number public functions community including mediation arbitration supervision public works auditing waqf finances looking interests orphans unlike pre modern cultures ruling dynasty promulgated law islamic law formulated religious scholars without involvement rulers law derived authority political control rather collective doctrinal positions legal schools madhhabs capacity interpreters scriptures ulema religious scholars involved management communal affairs acted representatives


muslim population vis vis ruling dynasties modern era limited capacity direct governance military elites relied ulema religious legitimation financial support religious institutions one principal means elites established legitimacy turn ulema depended support ruling elites continuing operation religious institutions although relationship secular rulers religious scholars underwent number shifts transformations different times places mutual dependence characterized islamic history start modern era additionally since


sharia contained provisions several areas public law muslim rulers able legislate various collections economic criminal administrative laws outside jurisdiction islamic jurists famous ''qanun'' promulgated ottoman sultans beginning th century mughal emperor aurangzeb r issued hybrid body law known fatawa e alamgiri based hanafi fatwas well decisions islamic courts made applicable religious communities indian subcontinent early attempt turn islamic law semi codified state legislation sparked rebellions mughal


rule women non muslims slaves rules civil disputes application penal law classical sharia distinguishes men women muslims non muslims free persons slaves unhappy wife complains kad husband 's impotence th century ottoman miniature traditional islamic law assumes patriarchal society man head household different legal schools formulated variety legal norms could manipulated advantage men women women generally disadvantage respect rules inheritance blood money


freedoms legal inequalities including payment jizya tax dhimmi communities legal autonomy adjudicate internal affairs cases involving litigants two different religious groups fell jurisdiction sharia courts unlike secular courts testimony non muslim witnesses muslim inadmissible criminal cases legal framework implemented varying degree rigor periods towns inhabitants apparently used court without regard religious affiliation mughal emperor aurangzeb imposed islamic law subjects including provisions traditionally applicable muslims


use islamic courts formerly non muslim women''' ref name ref '''as illegal non muslims muslims non muslim men marry muslim women ottoman empire conversion islam would option non muslim women free spouse master want subject to''' ref name '''however would likely lead shunned former community ref name classical fiqh acknowledges regulates slavery legitimate institution granted slaves certain rights protections improving status relative greek roman law


restricted scenarios people could enslaved however slaves could inherit enter contract subject master 's number ways labor property slaves owned master also entitled sexual submission unmarried slaves formal legal disabilities groups coexisted legal culture viewed sharia reflection universal principles justice involved protection weak injustices committed strong conception reinforced historical practice sharia courts peasants


almost always cases oppressive landowners non muslims often prevailed disputes muslims including powerful figures governor province family matters sharia court seen place rights women could asserted husband 's transgressions modern legal reforms colonial rule starting th century european powers began extend political influence lands ruled muslim dynasties end th century much muslim world came colonial domination first areas islamic law impacted usually


commercial criminal laws impeded colonial administration soon replaced european regulations islamic commercial laws also replaced european mostly french laws muslim states retained formal independence states increasingly came rely western capital could afford lose business foreign merchants refused submit islamic regulations warren hastings initiated far reaching legal reforms british india first significant changes legal system british india initiated late th century governor bengal warren hastings hastings' plan legal


reform envisioned multi tiered court system muslim population middle tier british judges advised local islamic jurists lower tier courts operated qadis hastings also commissioned translation classic manual hanafi fiqh ''al hidayah'' arabic persian english later complemented texts translations enabled british judges pass verdicts name islamic law based combination sharia rules common law doctrines eliminated need rely consultation local ulema mistrusted traditional islamic context


concise text like ''al hidayah'' would used basis classroom commentary professor doctrines thus learned would mediated court judicial discretion consideration local customs availability different legal opinions could fit facts case british use ''al hidayah'' amounted inadvertent codification sharia interpretation judges trained western legal traditions anticipated later legal reforms muslim world british administrators felt sharia rules often allowed criminals escape punishment exemplified hastings' complaint islamic law


founded lenient principles abhorrence bloodshed course th century criminal laws aspects islamic legal system india supplanted british law exception sharia rules retained family laws property transactions among changes reforms brought abolition slavery prohibition child marriage much frequent use capital punishment resulting legal system known ''anglo muhammadan law'' treated british model legal reforms colonies like


british india colonial administrations typically sought obtain precise authoritative information indigenous laws prompted prefer classical islamic legal texts local judicial practice together conception islamic law collection inflexible rules led emphasis traditionalist forms sharia rigorously applied pre colonial period served formative influence modern identity politics muslim world ottoman empire ottoman courtroom drawing colonial era muslim rulers concluded could resist european pressure unless modernized


selected minority opinions authoritative ones felt better suit present conditions mecelle promulgated ''qanun'' sultanic code represented unprecedented assertion state 's authority islamic civil law traditionally preserve ulema ottoman law family rights adopted innovative approach drawing rules minority majority opinions sunni madhhabs modernizing intent republic turkey emerged dissolution ottoman empire abolished sharia courts replaced ottoman civil laws swiss civil code ottoman


civil laws remained force several decades jordan lebanon palestine syria iraq nation states ''mahkamah syariyah'' sharia court aceh indonesia westernization legal institutions expansion state control areas law began colonial era continued nation states muslim world sharia courts first continued exist alongside state courts earlier times doctrine sultanic courts implement ideals sharia gradually replaced legal norms imported europe court procedures also brought line european practice though islamic terms


''qadi'' ''mahkama'' qadi 's sharia court preserved generally came mean judge court western sense traditional sharia court parties represented modern courts represented professional lawyers educated western style law schools verdicts subject review appeals court th century countries abolished parallel system sharia courts brought cases national civil court system muslim majority countries traditional rules classical fiqh largely preserved family law countries religious minorities


christians shia muslims subject separate systems family laws many muslims today believe contemporary sharia based laws authentic representation pre modern legal tradition reality generally represent result extensive legal reforms made modern era traditional islamic jurists lost role authoritative interpreters laws applied courts laws codified legislators administered state systems employed number devices effect changes including selection alternative opinions traditional legal literature ''takhayyur'' potentially among multiple madhhabs denominations


combining parts different rulings ''talfiq'' appeal classical doctrines necessity ' 'darura'' public interest ''maslaha'' objectives ''maqasid'' sharia played limited role classical fiqh given wider utilitarian applications changes administrative law grant courts discretionary powers restrict certain practices forbidden substantive law eg polygamy cases imposing penal sanctions additional deterrence modernist interpretation islamic scriptures without adherence rules methodologies traditional jurisprudence known ''neo ijtihad'' muhammad abduh exercised powerful influence liberal reformist thought


powerful influence liberal reformist thought came work egyptian islamic scholar muhammad abduh abduh viewed sharia rules pertaining religious rituals inflexible argued islamic laws adapted based changing circumstances consideration social well following precedents earlier islamic thinkers advocated restoring islam original purity returning quran sunna instead following medieval schools jurisprudence championed creative approach ijtihad involved direct interpretation scriptures well methods ''takhayyur''


''talfiq'' one influential figures modern legal reforms egyptian legal scholar abd el razzak el sanhuri possessed expertise islamic western law sanhuri argued reviving islamic legal heritage way served needs contemporary society required analysis light modern science comparative law drafted civil codes egypt iraq based variety sources including classical fiqh european laws existing arab turkish codes history local court decisions sanhuri 's egyptian code incorporated classical sharia


rules drew traditional jurisprudence frequently iraqi code sanhuri 's codes subsequently adopted form arab countries aside radical reforms islamic family law carried tunisia iran governments often preferred make changes made clear break traditional sharia rules imposing administrative hurdles rather changing rules order minimize objections religious conservatives various procedural changes made number countries restrict polygamy give women greater rights divorce eliminate child marriage inheritance


legal domain least susceptible reform legislators generally reluctant tamper highly technical system quranic shares reforms faced strong conservative opposition example reform egyptian family law promulgated anwar sadat presidential decree provoked outcry annulled supreme court procedural grounds later replaced compromise version reform moroccan family law sought reconcile universal human rights norms country 's islamic heritage drafted commission included parliamentarians religious


scope fields law areas public life practice islamization campaigns focused highly visible issues associated conservative muslim identity particularly women 's hijab ''hudud'' criminal punishments whipping stoning amputation prescribed certain crimes many islamists ''hudud'' punishments core divine sharia specified letter scripture rather human interpreters modern islamists often rejected least theory stringent procedural constraints developed classical jurists restrict application broader muslim public


calls sharia often represent even specific demands vague vision current economic political situation replaced utopia number legal reforms made influence movements starting egypt syria amended constitutions specify sharia basis legislation iranian revolution represented watershed islamization advocates demonstrating possible replace secular regime theocracy several countries including iran pakistan sudan nigerian states incorporated hudud rules


women religious minorities case sudan contributing breakout civil war advocates islamization often concerned ideology traditional jurisprudence agreement among form modern sharia based islamic state take particularly case theorists islamic economics islamic finance advocated free market socialist economic models notion sharia compliant finance become active area doctrinal innovation development major impact business operations around world role


contemporary islam state laws regional variations application sharia types legal systems legal systems muslim majority countries classified either secular mixed sharia plays role secular legal systems mixed legal systems sharia rules allowed influence national laws codified may based european indian models central legislative role played politicians modern jurists rather ulema traditional islamic scholars saudi arabia gulf states possess may called classical sharia systems


national law largely uncodified formally equated sharia ulema playing decisive role interpretation iran adopted features classical sharia systems also maintaining characteristics mixed systems like codified laws parliament constitutional law constitutions many muslim majority countries refer sharia source main source law though references indicative much legal system influenced sharia whether influence traditionalist modernist character constitutions usually also refer universal principles democracy


human rights leaving legislators judiciary work norms reconciled practice conversely countries eg algeria whose constitution mention sharia possess sharia based family laws nisrine abiad identifies bahrain iran pakistan saudi arabia states strong constitutional consequences sharia organization functioning power family law except secular systems muslim majority countries possess sharia based laws dealing family matters marriage inheritance etc laws generally reflect influence various modern era reforms tend characterized ambiguity traditional modernist


interpretations often manifesting country legislation court decisions countries eg parts nigeria people choose whether pursue case sharia secular court criminal law countries muslim world generally criminal codes influenced french law common law cases combination western legal traditions saudi arabia never adopted criminal code saudi judges still follow traditional hanbali jurisprudence course islamization campaigns several countries libya pakistan iran sudan mauritania yemen inserted islamic criminal laws


penal codes otherwise based western models countries ''hudud'' penalties added others also enacted provisions ''qisas'' law retaliation ' 'diya'' monetary compensation iran subsequently issued new islamic penal code criminal codes afghanistan united arab emirates contain general provision certain crimes punished according islamic law without specifying penalties nigerian states also enacted islamic criminal laws laws indonesian province aceh provide application discretionary ''ta'zir'' punishments violation islamic norms explicitly exclude ''hudud''


''qisas'' brunei implementing sharia penal code includes provisions stoning amputation stages since countries ''hudud'' penalties legal use stoning amputation routinely generally apply punishments instead property law sharia recognizes concept ''haqq'' ''haqq'' refers personal rights individual right generate accumulate wealth various ways property acquired sharia purchase inheritance bequest physical mental effort ' 'diya'' donations certain concepts relating property sharia ''mulk'' ''waqf'' ''mawat''


''motasarruf'' muslim minority countries sharia also plays role beyond religious rituals personal ethics countries muslim minorities example israel sharia based family laws administered muslim population ministry justice sharia courts india muslim personal law shariat application act provides use islamic law muslims several areas mainly related family law england muslim arbitration tribunal makes use sharia family law settle disputes though limited adoption sharia controversial court procedures shariah court malacca malaysia sharia courts


traditionally rely lawyers plaintiffs defendants represent saudi arabia qatar preserved traditional procedure sharia courts trials conducted solely judge jury system pre trial discovery process cross examination witnesses unlike common law judges' verdicts set binding precedents principle ' 'stare decisis'' unlike civil law sharia left interpretation case formally codified universal statutes rules evidence sharia courts traditionally prioritize oral testimony witnesses must muslim ref


name av antoinette vlieger domestic workers saudi arabia emirates chapter ref male muslim witnesses deemed reliable female muslim witnesses non muslim witnesses considered unreliable receive priority sharia court civil cases countries muslim woman witness considered half worth reliability muslim man witness ref name unicef ref name mfdl criminal cases women witnesses unacceptable stricter traditional interpretations sharia found hanbali jurisprudence forms basis law saudi arabia ref name av criminal cases confession oath


oral testimony muslim witnesses main evidence admissible traditional sharia courts hudud crimes ie religious crimes adultery fornication rape accusing someone illicit sex failing prove apostasy drinking intoxicants theft according classical jurisprudence testimony must least two free muslim male witnesses one muslim male two muslim females related parties sound mind reliable character testimony establish crime adultery fornication rape must four muslim male witnesses fiqhs allowing substitution


three male six female witnesses however least one must muslim male forensic evidence ''ie'' fingerprints ballistics blood samples dna etc circumstantial evidence may likewise rejected hudud cases favor eyewitnesses modern interpretations case regulations part local malaysian legislation go effect could cause severe difficulties women plaintiffs rape cases pakistan dna evidence rejected paternity cases basis legislation favors presumption children 's legitimacy sexual assault cases dna


evidence regarded equivalent expert opinion evaluated case case basis civil cases recommends written financial contracts reliable witnesses although dispute equality female testimony ref name mfdl ref marriage solemnized written financial contract presence two muslim male witnesses includes brideprice mahr payable muslim man muslim woman brideprice considered sharia court form debt written contracts traditionally considered paramount sharia courts matters dispute debt related includes marriage contracts written contracts


debt related cases notarized judge deemed reliable ref name remes commercial civil contracts relating exchange merchandise agreement supply purchase goods property others oral contracts testimony muslim witnesses historically triumphed written contracts islamic jurists traditionally held written commercial contracts may forged ref name remes reem meshal ''sharia making modern egyptian'' oxford university press pp chapter ref ref name timku timur kuran long divergence islamic law held back middle east princeton university press pp


chapter ref timur kuran states treatment written evidence religious courts islamic regions created incentive opaque transactions avoidance written contracts economic relations led continuation largely oral contracting culture muslim majority nations communities ref name timku lieu written evidence oaths traditionally accorded much greater weight rather used simply guarantee truth ensuing testimony used evidence plaintiffs lacking evidence support claims may demand defendants take oath swearing innocence refusal thereof


result verdict plaintiff taking oath muslims grave act one study courts morocco found lying litigants would often maintain testimony right moment oath taking stop refuse oath surrender case ref name frank frank michael j april trying times nbsp prosecution terrorists central criminal court iraq ''florida journal international law'' ref accordingly defendants routinely required swear testifying would risk casually profaning quran defendant commit perjury ref name frank instead oaths


male ref name ame anver emon ''religious pluralism islamic law dhimmis others empire law'' oxford university press pp ref modern countries incorporate classical ' 'diya'' rules legal system treat different ways pakistan penal code modernized hanafi doctrine eliminating distinctions muslims non muslims iran ' 'diya'' non muslim victims professing one faiths protected constitution jews christians zoroastrians made equal ' 'diya'' muslims though according us state department report penal code still discriminates religious


minorities women according human rights watch us state department saudi arabia jewish christian male plaintiffs entitled half amount muslim male would receive non muslim males proportion one sixteenth role fatwas spread codified state laws western style legal education modern muslim world displaced traditional muftis historical role clarifying elaborating laws applied courts instead fatwas increasingly served advise general public aspects sharia particularly questions regarding religious rituals everyday life


modern fatwas deal topics diverse insurance sex change operations moon exploration beer drinking muslim majority states established national organizations devoted issuing fatwas organizations considerable extent replaced independent muftis religious guides general population state employed muftis generally promote vision islam compatible state law country modern public political fatwas addressed sometimes sparked controversies muslim world beyond ayatollah khomeini 's proclamation condemning salman rushdie death novel ''the satanic verses'' credited bringing notion fatwa