position certain wildlife species size waves find path one island another maritime navigation using scientific instruments mariner 's astrolabe first occurred mediterranean middle ages although land astrolabes invented hellenistic period existed classical antiquity islamic golden age oldest record sea astrolabe majorcan astronomer ramon llull dating ref name oxfordshipsandsea ''the ty pros companion ships sea'' peter kemp ed ref perfecting navigation instrument attributed portuguese navigators


early portuguese discoveries age discovery ref name ancruzeirospt ref earliest known description make use sea astrolabe comes spanish cosmographer mart n cort de albacar 's ''arte de navegar'' ''the art navigation'' published ref name swanick swanick lois ann ''an analysis navigational instruments age exploration th century mid th century'' thesis texas university december ref based principle archipendulum used constructing egyptian pyramids open seas navigation using astrolabe compass started age discovery th century portuguese began systematically

Human physical performance and recreation


exploring atlantic coast africa sponsorship prince henry bartolomeu dias reached indian ocean route spanish monarchs funded christopher columbus 's expedition sail west reach indies crossing atlantic resulted discovery americas portuguese expedition commanded vasco da gama reached india sailing around africa opening direct trade asia soon portuguese sailed eastward spice islands landing china one year later first circumnavigation earth


completed magellan elcano expedition spanish voyage discovery led portuguese explorer ferdinand magellan completed spanish navigator juan sebasti n elcano former 's death philippines fleet seven ships sailed sanl car de barrameda southern spain crossed atlantic ocean several stopovers rounded southern tip south america ships lost remaining fleet continued across pacific making number discoveries including guam philippines two galleons left original seven ''victoria''


led elcano sailed across indian ocean north along coast africa finally arrive spain three years departure ''trinidad'' sailed east philippines trying find maritime path back americas unsuccessful eastward route across pacific also known ''tornaviaje'' return trip discovered forty years later spanish cosmographer andr de urdaneta sailed philippines north parallel hit eastward kuroshio current took galleon across pacific arrived acapulco october


etymology term stems latin ''navigationem'' nom ''navigatio'' ''navigatus'' pp ''navigare'' sail sail go sea steer ship ''navis'' ship root ''agere'' drive basic concepts latitude roughly latitude place earth angular distance north south equator ref name bow bowditch ref latitude usually expressed degrees marked ranging equator north south poles ref name bow latitude north pole n latitude


meridian east west sydney example longitude east new york city longitude west history mariners struggled determine longitude longitude calculated precise time sighting known lacking one use sextant take lunar distance also called ''the lunar observation'' lunar short nautical almanac used calculate time zero longitude see greenwich mean time ref name norie pg ref reliable marine chronometers unavailable


late th century affordable th century ref name norie pg ref ref name taylor pg ref ref name watchmakers work pg ref hundred years mariners lacking chronometer used method lunar distances determine greenwich time find longitude mariner chronometer could check reading using lunar determination greenwich time ref name norie pg ref name roberts ref loxodrome navigation rhumb line loxodrome line crossing meridians longitude


bearing measure direction object ref name mal navigator measures direction real life angle drawn nautical chart navigator somewhere bearing line chart ref name mal addition bearings navigators also often measure distances objects ref name mal chart distance produces circle arc position ref name mal circles arcs hyperbolae positions often referred lines position navigator draws two lines position intersect must


charted object certain coastlines depth sounding echo sounder hand lead line methods seldom used today dipping light calculate geographic range observer lighthouse methods navigation changed history ref name bow bowditch ref new method enhanced mariner 's ability complete voyage ref name bow one important judgments navigator must make best method use ref name bow types navigation depicted table class wikitable style font size illustration description application valign top


geographic hydrographic features ref name bow within sight land valign top px land navigation discipline following route terrain foot vehicle using maps reference terrain compass basic navigational tools using landmarks signs wayfinding basic form used times valign top px celestial navigation involves reducing celestial measurements lines position using tables spherical trigonometry almanacs primarily used sea also used land used primarily backup satellite electronic systems


open ocean ref name bow valign top colspan electronic navigation covers method position fixing using electronic means including valign top px radio navigation uses radio waves determine position either radio direction finding systems hyperbolic systems decca omega loran c availability declined due development accurate gnss valign top px radar navigation uses radar determine distance bearing objects whose position known process separate radar 's use collision avoidance system ref name bow primarily within radar range land valign top px satellite navigation uses


global navigation satellite system gnss determine position ref name bow used situations practice navigation usually involves combination different methods ref name bow mental navigation checks mental navigation checks pilot navigator estimates tracks distances altitudes help pilot avoid gross navigation errors piloting manual navigation dutch airspace piloting also called pilotage involves navigating aircraft visual reference landmarks ref name cfr federal aviation regulations part ref water vessel restricted waters fixing position precisely possible frequent intervals ref name bow bowditch ref


phases navigation proper preparation attention detail important ref name bow procedures vary vessel vessel military commercial private vessels ref name bow military navigation team nearly always consist several people ref name bow military navigator might bearing takers stationed gyro repeaters bridge wings taking simultaneous bearings civilian navigator must often take plot ref name bow military navigator bearing book someone record entries fix civilian navigator


simply pilot bearings chart taken record ref name bow ship equipped ecdis reasonable navigator simply monitor progress ship along chosen track visually ensuring ship proceeding desired checking compass sounder indicators occasionally ref name bow pilot aboard often case restricted waters judgement generally relied upon easing workload ref name bow ecdis fail navigator


rely skill manual time tested procedures ref name bow celestial navigation celestial fix intersection two circles celestial navigation systems based observation positions sun moon planets navigational stars systems use well terrestrial navigating interstellar navigating knowing point rotating earth celestial object measuring height observer 's horizon navigator determine distance subpoint nautical almanac marine chronometer


used compute subpoint earth celestial body sextant used measure body 's angular height horizon height used compute distance subpoint create circular line position navigator shoots number stars succession give series overlapping lines position intersect celestial fix moon sun may also used sun also used shoot succession lines position best


done around local noon determine position ref name bow marine chronometer order accurately measure longitude precise time sextant sighting second possible must recorded second error equivalent seconds longitude error equator position error nautical mile accuracy limit manual celestial navigation spring driven marine chronometer precision timepiece used aboard ship provide accurate time celestial observations ref name bow bowditch ref chronometer differs spring driven watch principally


contains variable lever device maintain even pressure mainspring special balance designed compensate temperature variations ref name bow spring driven chronometer set approximately greenwich mean time gmt reset instrument overhauled cleaned usually three year intervals ref name bow difference gmt chronometer time carefully determined applied correction chronometer readings ref name bow spring driven chronometers must wound time day ref name bow quartz crystal marine chronometers replaced spring driven chronometers aboard many ships


single set batteries ref name bow observations may timed ship 's clocks set comparing watch set chronometer time taken bridge wing recording sight times ref name bow practice wrist watch coordinated nearest second chronometer adequate ref name bow stop watch either spring wound digital may also used celestial observations ref name bow case watch started known gmt chronometer elapsed time sight added obtain gmt sight ref


name bow chronometers watches checked regularly radio time signal ref name bow times frequencies radio time signals listed publications radio navigational aids ref name bow marine sextant marine sextant used measure elevation celestial bodies horizon second critical component celestial navigation measure angle formed observer 's eye celestial body sensible horizon sextant optical instrument used perform function sextant consists two primary assemblies frame


rigid triangular structure pivot top graduated segment circle referred arc bottom second component index arm attached pivot top frame bottom endless vernier clamps teeth bottom arc optical system consists two mirrors generally low power telescope one mirror referred index mirror fixed top index arm pivot


index arm moved mirror rotates graduated scale arc indicates measured angle altitude second mirror referred horizon glass fixed front frame one half horizon glass silvered half clear light celestial body strikes index mirror reflected silvered portion horizon glass back observer 's eye telescope observer manipulates index arm reflected image body horizon glass


resting visual horizon seen clear side horizon glass adjustment sextant consists checking aligning optical elements eliminate index correction index correction checked using horizon preferably star time sextant used practice taking celestial observations deck rolling ship often cloud cover hazy horizon far challenging part celestial navigation inertial navigation inertial navigation system ins dead reckoning type navigation system


computes position based motion sensors actually navigating initial latitude longitude ins 's physical orientation relative earth eg north level established alignment ins receives impulses motion detectors measure acceleration along three axes accelerometers b rate rotation three orthogonal axes gyroscopes enable ins continually accurately calculate current latitude longitude often velocity advantages navigation systems aligned ins require outside information ins affected adverse weather


conditions cannot detected jammed disadvantage since current position calculated solely previous positions motion sensors errors cumulative increasing rate roughly proportional time since initial position input inertial navigation systems must therefore frequently corrected location 'fix' type navigation system first inertial system considered v guidance system deployed germans however inertial sensors traced early th century ref name tazartes historical perspective inertial navigation systems daniel


radio navigation radio direction finder rdf device finding direction radio source due radio 's ability travel long distances horizon makes particularly good navigation system ships aircraft might flying distance land rdfs works rotating directional antenna listening direction signal known station comes strongly sort system widely used rdf antennas easy spot german world war ii aircraft


loops rear section fuselage whereas us aircraft enclosed antenna small teardrop shaped fairing navigational applications rdf signals provided form ''radio beacons'' radio version lighthouse signal typically simple broadcast morse code series letters rdf tune see beacon air modern detectors also tune commercial radio stations particularly useful due high power location near major cities decca omega loran c three


similar hyperbolic navigation systems decca hyperbolic low frequency radio navigation system also known multilateration first deployed world war ii allied forces needed system could used achieve accurate landings case loran c primary use ship navigation coastal waters fishing vessels major post war users also used aircraft including early application moving map displays system deployed north sea used helicopters operating oil platforms omega navigation


system first truly global radio navigation system aircraft operated united states cooperation six partner nations omega developed united states navy military aviation users approved development promised true worldwide oceanic coverage capability eight transmitters ability achieve four mile nbsp km accuracy fixing position initially system used navigating nuclear bombers across north pole russia later found useful submarines http wwwjprocca hyperbolic omegahtml omega due success


global positioning system use omega declined point cost operating omega could longer justified omega terminated september stations ceased operation loran terrestrial navigation system using low frequency radio transmitters use time interval radio signals received three stations determine position ship aircraft current version loran common use loran c operates low frequency portion em spectrum khz


many nations users system including united states japan several european countries russia uses nearly exact system frequency range called chayka loran use steep decline gps primary replacement however attempts enhance popularize loran loran signals less susceptible interference penetrate better foliage buildings gps signals radar navigation radar ranges bearings used determine position vessel within radar range land special radar aids navigation navigator


take distances angular bearings charted objects use establish arcs position lines position chart ref name chap maloney ref fix consisting radar information called radar fix ref name bow bowditch ref types radar fixes include range bearing single object ref name nima national imagery mapping agency ref two bearings ref name nima tangent bearings ref name nima two ranges ref name nima parallel indexing technique defined william burger book ''the radar observer 's handbook'' ref name nima national imagery mapping agency ref technique


follow radar display ship stays planned course ref name nima national imagery mapping agency ref transit navigator check ship track checking pip lies drawn line ref name nima satellite navigation global navigation satellite system gnss term satellite navigation systems provide positioning global coverage gnss allow small electronic receivers determine location longitude latitude altitude within meters using time signals transmitted along line sight radio satellites receivers


navigation navigation processes ships similar vessels one day 's work navigation day 's work navigation minimal set tasks consistent prudent navigation definition vary military civilian vessels ship ship traditional method takes form resembling ref name mmoh turpin mcewen ref maintain continuous dead reckoning plot take two star observations morning twilight celestial fix prudent observe stars morning sun observation taken near prime vertical longitude time


star observations evening twilight celestial fix prudent observe stars navigation ships usually always conducted bridge may also take place adjacent space chart tables publications available passage planning poor passage planning deviation plan lead groundings ship damage cargo losspassage planning voyage planning procedure develop complete description vessel 's voyage start finish plan includes leaving dock harbor area en route portion voyage approaching destination mooring according


international law vessel 's captain legally responsible passage planning ref name reg ref however larger vessels task delegated ship 's navigator ref name annex ref studies show human error factor percent navigational accidents many cases human making error access information could prevented accident ref name annex practice voyage planning evolved penciling lines nautical charts process risk management ref name annex passage planning consists four stages appraisal planning execution monitoring ref name annex specified ''international


maritime organization resolution guidelines voyage planning'' ref name annex ref guidelines reflected local laws imo signatory countries example title us code federal regulations number professional books publications fifty elements comprehensive passage plan depending size type vessel appraisal stage deals collection information relevant proposed voyage well ascertaining risks assessing key features voyage involve considering type navigation required eg ice navigation


region ship passing hydrographic information route next stage written plan created third stage execution finalised voyage plan taking account special circumstances may arise changes weather may require plan reviewed altered final stage passage planning consists monitoring vessel 's progress relation plan responding deviations unforeseen circumstances integrated bridge systems integrated bridge system integrated offshore service ship electronic integrated


navigable routes uses algorithms related shortest path problem identify optimal routes underwater navigation standards training organisations professional standards navigation depend type navigation vary country marine navigation merchant navy deck officers trained internationally certified according stcw convention ref name stcw ref leisure amateur mariners may undertake lessons navigation local regional training schools naval officers receive navigation training part naval training land navigation courses training often provided young persons part general extra curricular education land navigation


also essential part army training additionally organisations scouts doe programme teach navigation students orienteering organisations type sports require navigational skills using map compass navigate point point diverse usually unfamiliar terrain whilst moving speed aviation pilots undertake air navigation training part learning fly professional organisations also assist encourage improvements navigation bring together navigators learned environments royal institute navigation rin learned society charitable status aimed furthering development


navigation ref name manual navigation ref ref name navigation witherbys ref us bowditch 's american practical navigator free available encyclopedia navigation issued us government ref name bowditch ref see also orienteering robot navigation tvmdc collision avoidance transportation notes references https enwikisourceorg wiki nathaniel bowditch ''the american practical navigator'' united states government external links https wwwgutenbergorg ebooks ''lectures navigation'' ernest gallaudet draper https archivetoday http alsworldtopcitiescom bwgg indexhtml navigate less compass gps


'''''navigation''''' academic journal navigation published wiley behalf institute navigation ref name wol ref editor chief richard b langley impact factor ref name wol journal citation reports categorizes journal aerospace engineering remote sensing telecommunications references navigation aerospace engineering journals remote sensing journals wiley publisher academic journals academic journals associated learned professional societies united states


Applied science
Military sciences
Military weapons
Nuclear


'''nephrology''' greek'' nephros'' kidney combined suffix '' logy'' study specialty adult internal medicine pediatric medicine concerns study kidneys specifically normal kidney function renal physiology kidney disease renal pathophysiology preservation kidney health treatment kidney disease diet medication renal replacement therapy dialysis kidney transplantation word renal adjective meaning relating kidneys roots french late latin whereas according opinions renal nephro replaced kidney

Applied science
Medicine and health
Internal medicine
Nephrology


scientific writings kidney medicine instead '''nephrology''' kidney replacement therapy experts advocated preserving use renal nephro appropriate including nephrology renal replacement therapy respectively nephrology also studies systemic conditions affect kidneys diabetes autoimmune disease systemic diseases occur result kidney disease renal osteodystrophy hypertension physician undertaken additional training become certified nephrology called ''nephrologist'' term nephrology first used according french n phrologie proposed pr


jean hamburger greek nephr kidney specialty usually referred kidney medicine scope nephrology concerns diagnosis treatment kidney diseases including electrolyte disturbances hypertension care requiring renal replacement therapy including dialysis renal transplant patients word 'dialysis' mid th century via latin greek word 'dialusis' 'dialuein' split separate 'dia' apart 'luein' set free words dialysis replaces primary excretory function kidney separates removes excess toxins water


blood placing urine many diseases affecting kidney systemic disorders limited organ may require special treatment examples include acquired conditions systemic vasculitides eg anca vasculitis autoimmune diseases eg lupus well congenital genetic conditions polycystic kidney disease patients referred nephrology specialists urinalysis various reasons acute kidney injury chronic kidney disease hematuria proteinuria kidney stones hypertension disorders acid base electrolytes nephrologist nephrologist physician specializes care treatment kidney


disease nephrology requires additional training become expert advanced skills nephrologists may provide care people without kidney problems may work general internal medicine transplant medicine immunosuppression management intensive care medicine clinical pharmacology perioperative medicine pediatric nephrology nephrologists may sub specialise dialysis kidney transplantation chronic kidney disease cancer related kidney diseases onconephrology procedural nephrology non nephrology areas described procedures nephrologist may perform include native kidney transplant kidney biopsy dialysis access insertion temporary vascular access lines tunnelled vascular access lines peritoneal dialysis access lines fistula management angiographic surgical fistulogram plasty


advanced physician training nephrology years training pathway overseen accredited royal australasian college physicians increasingly nephrologists may additionally complete post graduate degree usually phd nephrology research interest years finally australian new zealand nephrologists participate career long professional personal development royal australasian college physicians bodies http wwwnephrologyeduau australian new zealand society nephrology http wwwtsanzcomau transplant society australia new zealand united kingdom united kingdom nephrology often called renal medicine subspecialty


general medicine nephrologist completed medical school foundation year posts fy fy core medical training cmt specialist training st passed membership royal college physicians mrcp exam competing national training number ntn renal medicine typical specialty training called registrar st five years leads certificate completion training cct renal medicine general internal medicine five years usually rotate yearly hospitals region known deanery


pathway pediatrics leading speciality pediatric nephrology united states medical school adult nephrologists complete three year residency internal medicine followed two year longer fellowship nephrology complementary adult nephrologist pediatric nephrologist complete three year pediatric residency medical school four year combined internal medicine pediatrics residency followed three year fellowship pediatic nephrology training satisfactorily completed physician eligible take american board internal medicine abim american osteopathic board internal


medicine aobim nephrology examination nephrologists must approved one boards approved physician must fulfill requirements education training nephrology order qualify take board 's examination physician passes examination become nephrology specialist typically nephrologists also need two three years training acgme aoa accredited fellowship nephrology nearly programs train nephrologists continuous renal replacement therapy fewer half united states train provision plasmapheresis pediatric trained physicians able


train pediatric nephrology internal medicine adult trained physicians may enter general adult nephrology fellowships diagnosis history physical examination central diagnostic workup nephrology history typically includes present illness family history general medical history diet medication use drug use occupation physical examination typically includes assessment volume state blood pressure heart lungs peripheral arteries joints abdomen flank rash may relevant especially indicator autoimmune disease examination urine urinalysis allows direct assessment possible kidney problems may suggested


may affected kidney problems serum creatinine concentration important blood test used estimate function kidney called creatinine clearance estimated glomerular filtration rate gfr good idea patients longterm kidney disease know date list medications latest blood tests especially blood creatinine level united kingdom blood tests monitored online patient website called renalpatientview specialized tests ordered discover link certain systemic diseases kidney


failure infections hepatitis b hepatitis c autoimmune conditions systemic lupus erythematosus anca vasculitis paraproteinemias amyloidosis multiple myeloma metabolic diseases diabetes cystinosis structural abnormalities kidneys identified imaging tests may include medical ultrasonography ultrasound computed axial tomography ct scintigraphy nuclear medicine angiography magnetic resonance imaging mri certain circumstances less invasive testing may provide certain diagnosis definitive diagnosis required biopsy kidney renal biopsy may performed typically involves insertion local anaesthetic ultrasound ct guidance core biopsy needle kidney


plasma exchange kidney problems significant impact quality length life psychological support health education advanced care planning play key roles nephrology chronic kidney disease typically managed treatment causative conditions diabetes avoidance substances toxic kidneys nephrotoxins like radiologic contrast non steroidal anti inflammatory drugs antihypertensives diet weight modification planning end stage kidney failure impaired kidney function systemic effects body erythropoetin stimulating agent esa may required ensure adequate production red blood cells activated vitamin supplements phosphate


binders may required counteract effects kidney failure bone metabolism blood volume electrolyte disturbance may need correction diuretics furosemide may used correct fluid overload alkalis sodium bicarbonate used treat metabolic acidosis auto immune inflammatory kidney disease vasculitis transplant rejection may treated immunosuppression commonly used agents prednisone mycophenolate cyclophosphamide ciclosporin tacrolimus everolimus thymoglobulin sirolimus newer called biologic drugs monoclonal antibodies also used conditions include rituximab basiliximab eculizumab blood products including intravenous immunoglobulin


process known plasma exchange also employed kidneys longer able sustain demands body end stage kidney failure said occurred without renal replacement therapy death kidney failure eventually result dialysis artificial method replacing kidney function prolong life renal transplantation replaces kidney function inserting body healthier kidney organ donor inducing immunologic tolerance organ immunosuppression present renal transplantation effective treatment end stage kidney failure although worldwide availability


limited lack availability donor organs generally speaking kidneys living donors 'better' deceased donors last longer kidney conditions chronic conditions long term followup nephrologist usually necessary united kingdom care may shared patient 's primary care physician called general practitioner gp organizations world 's first society nephrology french 'societe de pathologie renale' first president jean hamburger first meeting paris february hamburger also founded 'soci de


nephrology international society nephrology first day geneva next three evian france early history described robinson richet http wwwnaturecom ki journal v n full ahtml later history barsoum http wwwnaturecom ki journal v n abs ki ahtml largest global society representing medical professionals engaged advancing kidney care worldwide us founded national kidney foundation national organization representing patients professionals treat kidney diseases founded american society nephrology asn world 's largest professional society


devoted study kidney disease american nephrology nurses' association anna founded promotes excellence appreciation nephrology nursing make positive difference patients kidney disease american association kidney patients aakp non profit patient centric group focused improving health well ckd dialysis patients national renal administrators association nraa founded national organization represents supports independent community based dialysis providers american kidney fund directly provides financial support patients need well participating health education


prevention efforts asdin american society diagnostic interventional nephrology main organization interventional nephrologists organizations include cida vasa etc deal dialysis vascular access renal support network rsn nonprofit patient focused patient run organization provides non medical services affected chronic kidney disease ckd united kingdom uk national kidney federation kidney care uk previously known british kidney patient association bkpa represent patients renal association represents renal physicians works closely national service framework kidney disease international office


brussels belgium references external links https californiakidneyspecialistscom nephrology http wwwtheisnorg international society nephrology


'''normative ethics''' study ethical behaviour branch philosophical ethics investigates questions arise regarding one ought act moral sense normative ethics distinct meta ethics former examines standards rightness wrongness actions whereas latter studies meaning moral language metaphysics moral facts likewise normative ethics distinct applied ethics former concerned 'who ought one be' rather ethics specific issue eg abortion

Humanities
Philosophy
Ethics
Normative ethics


acceptable normative ethics also distinct descriptive ethics latter empirical investigation people 's moral beliefs context normative ethics sometimes called ''prescriptive'' opposed ' 'descriptive'' ethics however certain versions meta ethical view moral realism moral facts descriptive prescriptive time adequate justification group principles needs explanation principles must explanation precisely goals prohibitions given weight others unless coherent explanation principles demonstrate


require additional justification given cannot considered justified may reason reject therefore requirement explanation moral theory traditional moral theories rest principles determine whether action right wrong classical theories vein include utilitarianism kantianism forms contractarianism theories mainly offered use overarching moral principles resolve difficult moral decisions normative ethical theories disagreements precisely gives action rule disposition ethical force three competing views


moral questions answered along hybrid positions combine elements virtue ethics deontological ethics consequentialism former focuses character acting contrast deontological ethics consequentialism focus status action rule disposition come various forms virtue ethics virtue ethics advocated aristotle aspects supported saint thomas aquinas focuses inherent character person rather specific actions significant revival virtue ethics past half century


work philosophers g nbsp e nbsp anscombe philippa foot alasdair macintyre mortimer j adler jacques maritain yves simon rosalind hursthouse deontological ethics deontology argues decisions made considering factors one 's duties one 's rights deontological theories include immanuel kant 's categorical imperative roots morality humanity 's rational capacity asserts certain inviolable moral laws contractualism john rawls holds moral acts would agree unbiased behind veil ignorance natural rights theories john locke


robert nozick hold human beings absolute natural rights consequentialism consequentialism argues morality action contingent action 's outcome result consequentialist theories varying consider valuable ie axiology include utilitarianism holds action right leads ''happiness'' greatest number people prior coining term consequentialism g e anscombe adoption term literature followed ''utilitarianism'' generic term ''consequentialism'' referring


theories promoted maximizing ''any'' form utility promoted maximizing happiness state consequentialism mohist consequentialism holds action right leads ' 'state welfare'' ''order'' ''material wealth'' ''population growth'' egoism belief moral person self interested person holds action right maximizes ''good self'' situational ethics emphasizes particular context act evaluating ethically specifically christian forms situational ethics hold correct action one creates loving result ''love''


always people 's goal intellectualism dictates best action one best fosters promotes ''knowledge'' welfarism argues best action one increases ''economic well welfare'' preference utilitarianism holds best action one leads overall ''preference satisfaction'' theories ethics care relational ethics founded feminist theorists notably carol gilligan argues morality arises experiences empathy compassion emphasizes importance interdependence relationships achieving ethical goals pragmatic ethics difficult


'binding force' morality clear means feel unable escape ref name foothypo idea faced opportunity steal book get away moral obligation power stop us unless ''feel'' obligation morality may therefore binding force beyond regular human motivations people must motivated behave morally question arises role reason play motivating moral behaviour motivating morality categorical imperative perspective suggests proper reason always leads


particular moral behaviour mentioned foot instead believes humans actually motivated desires proper reason view allows humans discover actions get want ie hypothetical imperatives necessarily actions moral social structure motivation make morality binding sense makes moral norms feel inescapable according foot ref name foothypo feelings like shame love sometimes considered meaningful sense morality binding absent feelings person could behave immorally without remorse john stuart mill adds external pressures please


others instance also influence felt binding force calls human conscience mill says humans must first reason moral try bring feelings conscience line reason ref name millchap time mill says good moral system case utilitarianism ultimately appeals aspects human nature must nurtured upbringing mill explains blockquote firm foundation social feelings mankind desire unity fellow creatures already powerful principle human nature


happily one tend become stronger even without express inculcation influences advancing civilisation blockquote mill thus believes important appreciate feelings drive moral behavior also may present people eg psychopaths mill goes describe factors help ensure people develop conscience behave morally popular texts joseph daleiden 's ''the science morality individual community future generations'' describe societies use science figure make people likely


good see also axiological ethics free norm philosophy normative secular ethics references external links '''consequentialism utilitarianism ''' https wwwutilitarianismnet introduction utilitarianism introductory online textbook utilitarianism coauthored william macaskill '''deontology ''' '''virtue ethics ''' ethical theories ethics philosophy life


parmenides among first propose ontological characterization fundamental nature reality '''ontology''' branch philosophy studies concepts existence becoming reality includes questions entities grouped basic categories entities exist fundamental level ontology sometimes referred ' 'science being'' belongs major branch philosophy known metaphysics ontologists often try determine ''categories'' ''highest kinds'' form ' 'system categories'' provides

Humanities Philosophy Metaphysics Ontology


encompassing classification entities commonly proposed categories include substances properties relations states affairs events categories characterized fundamental ontological concepts like ''particularity'' ''universality'' ''abstractness'' ''concreteness'' ''possibility'' ''necessity'' special interest concept ''ontological dependence'' determines whether entities category exist ''most fundamental level'' disagreements within ontology often whether entities belonging certain category exist related entities ref name hofweber used countable noun terms ontology ontologies refer ' 'science


being'' theories within ' 'science being'' ontological theories divided various types according theoretical commitments ''monocategorical ontologies'' hold one basic category rejected ''polycategorical ontologies'' ''hierarchical ontologies'' assert entities exist fundamental level entities depend ''flat ontologies'' hand deny privileged status entity etymology compound word ''ontology'' 'study being' combines ''onto '' greek genitive case '' logia'' lit logical discourse label none ref name onlineetdict ref ref name lsj ref etymology


greek oldest extant records word new latin form appeared ''ogdoas scholastica'' jacob lorhard ''lorhardus'' ''lexicon philosophicum'' rudolf g ckel ''goclenius'' first occurrence english ''ontology'' recorded ''oxford english dictionary'' came ''archelogia philosophica nova'' gideon harvey word first used latin form philosophers based latin roots turn greek ones overview ontology closely associated aristotle 's question


'being ''qua'' being' question entities widest sense common ref name borchert ''eleatic principle'' one answer question states inextricably tied causation power mark ref name borchert ref one problem answer excludes abstract objects another explicit little accepted answer found berkeley 's slogan perceived intimately related identical question 'being ''qua'' being' problem categories ref name borchert categories usually seen highest kinds


genera ref name thomasson ref system categories provides classification entities exclusive exhaustive every entity belongs exactly one category various classifications proposed often include categories substances properties relations states affairs events ref name borchert ref name sandk hler ref core differentiation categories various fundamental ontological concepts distinctions example concepts ''particularity universality'' ''abstractness concreteness'' ''ontological dependence'' ''identity'' ''modality'' ref name borchert ref name sandk hler concepts sometimes treated categories used explain difference categories play


time particulars restricted one location time furthermore universals fully present different times sometimes referred ' 'repeatables'' contrast non repeatable particulars ref name sandk hler called problem universals problem explain different things agree features eg tomato strawberry red ref name borchert ref name macleod realists universals believe universals solve ''problem universals'' explaining commonality universal shared entities ref name sandk hler realists divided among


whether universals exist independently exemplified something ante res rebus nominalists hand deny universals resort notions explain feature common several entities example positing either fundamental resemblance relations entities resemblance nominalism shared membership common natural class class nominalism ref name sandk hler abstract concrete many philosophers agree exclusive exhaustive distinction ''concrete objects'' ''abstract objects'' ref name sandk hler philosophers consider


general division ref name honderich ref examples concrete objects include plants human beings planets things like numbers sets propositions abstract objects despite general agreement concerning paradigm cases less consensus characteristic marks concreteness abstractness popular suggestions include defining distinction terms difference existence inside outside space time causes effects contingent necessary existence ontological dependence entity ''ontologically depends'' another entity first entity cannot exist without


name tahko ref name sandk hler rigid dependence concerns dependence one specific entity surface apple depends specific apple ref name erices ref generic dependence hand involves weaker form dependence merely certain type entity example electricity generically depends charged particles depend specific charged particle ref name tahko dependence relations relevant ontology since often held ontologically dependent entities less robust form way ''hierarchy'' introduced world brings distinction


less fundamental entities ref name tahko identity identity basic ontological concept often expressed word ref name sandk hler ref name noonan ref important distinguish ''qualitative identity'' ''numerical identity'' example consider two children identical bicycles engaged race mother watching two children ' 'same'' bicycle one sense ''qualitative identity'' ' 'same'' mother another sense ''numerical identity'' ref name sandk hler two qualitatively identical things often said indiscernible two senses ' 'sameness'' linked two principles principle ''indiscernibility


identicals'' principle ''identity indiscernibles'' principle ''indiscernibility identicals'' uncontroversial states two entities numerically identical exactly resemble ref name noonan principle ''identity indiscernibles'' hand controversial making converse claim two entities exactly resemble must numerically identical ref name noonan entails two distinct things exactly resemble well known counterexample comes max black describes symmetrical universe consisting two spheres features


black argues two spheres indiscernible identical thereby constituting violation principle ''identity indiscernibles'' problem ''identity time'' concerns question ''persistence'' whether sense two objects different times ''numerically identical'' usually referred ' 'diachronic identity'' contrast ' 'synchronic identity'' ref name noonan ref name gallois ref statement table next room identical one purchased last year asserts diachronic identity table table ref name gallois famous example denial diachronic


identity comes heraclitus argues impossible step river twice changes occurred ref name noonan ref name costa traditional position problem ''persistence'' endurantism thesis diachronic identity strict sense possible one problem position seems violate principle ''indiscernibility identicals'' object may undergone changes meantime resulting discernible ref name sandk hler perdurantism four dimensionalism alternative approach holding ' 'diachronic identity'' possible loose sense


two objects differ strictly speaking temporal parts belong temporally extended whole ref name sandk hler ''perdurantism'' avoids many philosophical problems plaguing ''endurantism'' ''endurantism'' seems touch ordinarily conceive ' 'diachronic identity'' ref name gallois ref name costa ref modality modality concerns concepts possibility actuality necessity contemporary discourse concepts often defined terms possible worlds ref name sandk hler possible world complete way things could actual world one possible world among others things could different


modal realism holding reality ''irreducibly modal features'' ref name parent another important issue field concerns distinction ''contingent'' ''necessary beings'' ref name sandk hler contingent beings beings whose existence possible necessary necessary beings hand could failed exist suggested distinction highest division ref name sandk hler substances category ' 'substances'' played central role many ontological theories throughout history philosophy ref name kim ref ref name robinson substance technical term within philosophy confused common


usage sense chemical substances like gold sulfur various definitions given among common features ascribed substances philosophical sense ''particulars'' ''ontologically independent'' able exist ref name kim ref name borchert ontologically independent substances play role ''fundamental entities'' ''ontological hierarchy'' ref name tahko ref name robinson ref 'ontological independence' defined including ''causal independence'' self caused entities like spinoza 's god substances specifically ontological definition 'independence' many everyday objects like books cats may qualify


substances ref name borchert ref name kim another defining feature often attributed substances ability ''undergo changes'' changes involve something existing ''before'' ' 'during'' ''after'' change described terms persisting substance gaining losing properties ''matter'' changing ''form'' ref name kim perspective ripening tomato may described change tomato loses greenness gains redness sometimes held substance property two ways ''essentially'' ''accidentally'' substance survive change ''accidental properties''


cannot lose ''essential properties'' constitute nature ref name robinson ref name robertson ref properties relations category ''properties'' consists entities exemplified entities eg substances ref name orilia ref properties characterize bearers express bearer like ref name borchert example red color round shape apple properties apple various ways suggested concerning conceive properties relation substances ref name sandk hler traditionally dominant view properties universals inhere bearers ref name borchert universals


shared different substances nominalists hand deny universals exist ref name macleod nominalists try account properties terms resemblance relations class membership ref name sandk hler another alternative nominalists conceptualize properties simple particulars called tropes ref name borchert position entails apple redness particulars different apples may still exactly resemble concerning color share particular property view two color tropes ''numerically distinct'' ref name macleod another important question theory properties conceive


dispositional properties either non existent dependent categorical properties dispositionalism opposite theory giving ontological primacy dispositional properties ref name choi ref ref name kriegel ref two extremes dualists allow categorical dispositional properties ontology ref name orilia ''relations'' ways things relata stand ref name borchert relations many ways similar properties characterize things apply properties sometimes treated special case relations involving one relatum ref name orilia central ontology distinction ''internal'' ''external'' relations ref name macbride ref


relation ''internal'' fully determined features relata example apple tomato stand ''internal relation'' similarity red philosophers inferred internal relations proper ontological status since reduced intrinsic properties ref name macbride ''external'' relations hand fixed features relata example book stands ''external'' relation table lying top determined


book 's table 's features like color shape etc ref name macbride states affairs events states affairs complex entities contrast substances properties usually conceived simple ref name borchert complex entities built constituted entities atomic states affairs constituted one particular one property exemplified particular ref name sandk hler ref name textor ref example state affairs socrates wise constituted particular socrates property wise relational states affairs involve several particulars relation connecting


states affairs ''obtain'' also referred facts ref name textor controversial ontological status ascribed states affairs obtain ref name sandk hler states affairs prominent th century ontology various theories proposed describe world composed states affairs ref name borchert often held states affairs play role truthmakers judgments assertions true corresponding state affairs obtains ref name textor events take place time sometimes thought involving change form acquiring


losing property like lawn 's becoming dry ref name honderich liberal view retaining property without change may also count event eg lawn 's staying wet ref name honderich ref ref name kim philosophers see events universals repeat different times dominant view events particulars therefore non repeatable ref name kim ref events complex composed sequence events often referred process even simple events conceived complex entities involving object time property


isham different views held plato proposed underlying constituting real basis concretely experienced world 'forms' 'ideas' today generally regarded high abstractions earlier days philosophers used term 'realism' refer plato 's belief 'forms' 'real' nowadays term 'realism' often almost opposite meaning plato 's belief sometimes called 'idealism' philosophers debate whether entities tables chairs lions tigers philosophical doctrines numbers truth beauty regarded 'things' something nothing 'real'


types ontologies ontological theories divided various types according theoretical commitments particular ontological theories types theories often referred ontologies singular plural usage contrasts meaning ontology singular branch philosophy ' 'science being'' general flat vs polycategorical vs hierarchical one way divide ontologies number basic categories use ''monocategorical'' ''one category ontologies'' hold one basic category ''polycategorical ontologies'' imply several distinct basic categories ref name inwagen another


ontology committed influential exposition approach comes willard van orman quine referred quinean approach meta ontology ref name schaffer outlook deny existing entities subdivided may stand various relations issues questions specific sciences belong ontology quinean sense ''polycategorical'' ontologies concerned categories polycategorical ontology posits number categories categories exclusive exhaustive every existing entity belongs


exactly one category ref name schaffer recent example polycategorical ontology ej lowe 's four category ontology ref name lowe ref four categories object kind mode attribute fourfold structure based two distinctions first distinction substantial entities objects kinds non substantial entities modes attributes second distinction particular entities objects modes universal entities kinds attributes reality built interplay entities belonging different categories particular entities instantiate universal entities non substantial entities characterize substantial entities ref name lowe ''hierarchical'' ontologies interested degree fundamentality


entities posit main goal figure entities fundamental non fundamental entities depend concept fundamentality usually defined terms metaphysical grounding fundamental entities different non fundamental entities grounded entities ref name schaffer example sometimes held elementary particles fundamental macroscopic objects like chairs tables compose claim grounding relation microscopic macroscopic objects schaffer 's priority monism recent form hierarchical ontology holds


fundamental level exists one thing world whole thesis deny common sense intuition distinct objects encounter everyday affairs like cars people exist denies objects fundamental form existence example ''hierarchical'' ontology continental philosophy comes nicolai hartmann asserts reality made four levels inanimate biological psychological spiritual ref name poli ref levels form hierarchy sense higher levels depend


lower levels lower levels indifferent higher levels ref name hartmann ref thing ontologies vs fact ontologies ''thing ontologies'' ''fact ontologies'' one category ontologies hold fundamental entities belong category disagree whether category category things facts slogan fact ontologies comes ludwig wittgenstein world totality facts things one difficulty characterizing dispute elucidate things facts differ things commonly contrasted properties relations


instantiate ref name bradley ref facts hand often characterized things properties relations constituents ref name armstrong ref reflected rough linguistic characterization difference subjects objects assertion refer things assertion whole refers fact reism one form thing ontology ref name wole ski ref franz brentano developed version reism later philosophy held concrete particular things exist things exist two forms either spatio temporal bodies temporal souls brentano aware


fact many common sense expressions seem refer entities place ontology like properties intentional objects developed method paraphrase expressions order avoid ontological commitments ref name wole ski armstrong well known defender fact ontology followers refer facts states affairs ref name armstrong states affairs basic building blocks ontology particulars universals constituents primary relation particulars universals states affairs ontologically


sweetness etc defenders bundle theory disagree nature bundled properties affirm properties universals others contend particulars called tropes ref name bradley class nominalism hand form blob theory class nominalists hold properties classes things instantiate property merely member corresponding class properties constituents objects ref name bradley information science information science ontologies classified various ways using criteria degree abstraction field


application ref name petrov ''upper ontology'' concepts supporting development ontology meta ontology ''domain ontology'' concepts relevant particular topic domain discourse area interest example information technology computer languages particular branches science ''interface ontology'' concepts relevant juncture two disciplines ''process ontology'' inputs outputs constraints sequencing information involved business engineering processes history hindu philosophy ontology features samkhya school hindu philosophy first millennium bce samkhya philosophy regards universe consisting two independent realities puru


pure contentless consciousness prak ti matter substance dualism puru prak ti similar identical substance dualism mind body following works descartes central many disputes western philosophical tradition ref name schweizer samkhya sees mind subtle part prak ti made three faculties sense mind manas intellect buddhi ego aha k ra faculties perform various functions unable produce consciousness belongs distinct ontological category puru alone responsible ref


name schweizer ref yoga school agrees samkhya philosophy fundamental dualism puru prak ti differs samkhya 's atheistic position incorporating concept personal yet essentially inactive deity personal god ishvara ref name lpfl lloyd pflueger person purity power yogasutra theory practice yoga editor knut jacobsen motilal banarsidass pages ref two schools stand contrast advaita vedanta committed strict form monism holding apparent plurality things illusion maya hiding true oneness reality fundamental


level brahman ancient greek greek philosophical tradition parmenides among first propose ontological characterization fundamental nature existence prologue ''proem'' ''on nature'' describes two views existence initially nothing comes nothing thus existence eternal posits existence may conceived thought created possessed hence may neither void vacuum true reality neither may come vanish existence rather entirety creation eternal uniform immutable though infinite parmenides


characterized shape perfect sphere parmenides thus posits change perceived everyday experience illusory opposite eleatic monism parmenides pluralistic conception th century bc anaxagoras leucippus replaced reality ''being'' unique unchanging ''becoming'' therefore fundamental elementary ''ontic'' plurality thesis originated hellenic world stated two different ways anaxagoras leucippus first theory dealt seeds aristotle referred ''homeomeries'' various substances second


atomistic theory dealt reality based vacuum atoms intrinsic movement materialist ''atomism'' proposed leucippus indeterminist democritus bc subsequently developed deterministic way later th century bc epicurus took original ''atomism'' indeterministic saw reality composed infinity indivisible unchangeable corpuscles atoms greek ''atomon'' lit 'uncuttable' gives weight characterize atoms whereas leucippus characterized figure order position


cosmos atoms besides creating whole intrinsic movement ''vacuum'' producing diverse flux movement influenced ''parenklisis'' lucretius names ''clinamen'' determined chance ideas foreshadowed understanding traditional physics advent th century theories nature atoms plato plato developed distinction true reality illusion arguing real eternal unchanging forms ideas precursor ''universals'' things experienced sensation best merely copies


real far copy partake forms general plato presumes nouns eg beauty refer real entities whether sensible bodies insensible forms hence ''the sophist'' plato argues ''being'' ''form'' existent things participate common though unclear whether intended sense existence copula identity argues parmenides forms must exist ''being'' also negation non ''difference'' aristotle ''categories'' aristotle


bce identifies ten possible kinds things may subject predicate proposition aristotle four different ontological dimensions according various categories ways addressing according truth falsity eg fake gold counterfeit money whether exists simply 'comes along' accident according potency movement energy finished presence ''metaphysics'' book theta medieval ''medieval ontology'' strongly influenced aristotle 's teachings thinkers period often relied aristotelian categories


like ' 'substance'' ''act potency'' ''matter form'' formulate theories important ontologists epoch include avicenna thomas aquinas duns scotus william ockham ref name dahlstrom avicenna ''aka'' ibn sina according avicenna also known ibn sina interpretation greek aristotelian platonist ontological doctrines medieval metaphysics either necessary contingent ''qua'' possible impossible necessary cannot since non would entail contradiction contingent ''qua'' possible neither necessary impossible


ontologically neutral brought potential existing actual existence way cause external essence borrowed unlike necessary existent self subsisting impossible impossible necessarily exist affirmation would involve contradiction aquinas fundamental thomas aquinas 's ontology distinction essence existence entities conceived composites essence existence ref name kerr ref essence thing thing like


signifies definition thing god special status since entity whose essence identical existence finite entities ' 'real distinction'' essence existence distinction shows example ability understand essence something without knowing existence aquinas conceives existence ''act being'' actualizes potency given essence different things different essences impose different limits corresponding ''act being'' ref name kerr paradigm examples essence existence composites material substances


like cats trees aquinas incorporates aristotle 's distinction matter form holding essence ''material'' things opposed essence ''immaterial'' things like angels composition matter form ref name kerr example essence marble statue would composition marble matter shape form form universal since substances made different matter form forms substance may divided substantial accidental forms substance survive change accidental


beyond possible experience could justify ref name borchert ref name sandk hler descartes ren descartes' ontological distinction mind body one influential parts philosophy ref name skirry ref ref name sandk hler ref view minds thinking things bodies extended things ''thought'' ''extension'' two ''attributes'' come various ''modes'' modes ''thinking'' include judgments doubts volitions sensations emotions shapes material things modes ''extension'' ref name smith ref modes come lower degree reality since depend existence substance substances


two fundamental principles principle non contradiction cannot happen thing principle sufficient reason nothing exists without sufficient reason exists rather exist ref name craig ref name sandk hler ''beings'' defined ' 'determinations'' ''predicates'' cannot involve contradiction determinates come types ''essentialia'' ''attributes'' ''modes'' ref name craig ''essentialia'' define nature therefore necessary properties ''attributes'' determinations follow essentialia equally necessary contrast ''modes'' merely contingent wolff


conceives ''existence'' one determination among others may lack ref name hettche ontology interested large actual beings whether actually existing sufficient reason ref name borchert ref sufficient reason things without actual existence consists determinations make essential nature thing wolff refers reason contrasts reason becoming explains things actual existence ref name hettche schopenhauer arthur schopenhauer proponent metaphysical voluntarism regards


underlying ultimate reality reality whole consists one equated kantian thing like kantian thing exists outside space time unlike kantian thing experiential component comes form striving desiring feeling etc manifold things encounter everyday experiences like trees cars mere appearances lack existence independent observer schopenhauer describes objectivations objectivations happen different steps correspond platonic


forms objectivations grounded grounding governed principium individuationis enables manifold individual things spread space time grounded one ref name kastrup ref th century dominant approaches ontology '' th century'' phenomenology linguistic analysis naturalism ''phenomenological ontology'' exemplified edmund husserl martin heidegger relies method description experience ''linguistic analysis'' assigns language central role ontology seen example rudolf carnap 's thesis truth value existence claims depends


linguistic framework made ''naturalism'' gives prominent position natural sciences purpose finding evaluating ontological claims position exemplified quine 's method ontology involves analyzing ontological commitments scientific theories ref name sandk hler ref name dahlstrom husserl edmund husserl sees ontology ' 'science essences'' ref name dahlstrom ''sciences essences'' contrasted ''factual sciences'' former knowable priori provide foundation later knowable posteriori ref name sandk hler ref name gander ontology science essences interested ''actual facts''


essences whether ''have instances not'' husserl distinguishes ''formal ontology'' investigates essence ''objectivity general'' ' 'regional ontologies'' study ' 'regional essences'' shared entities belonging region ref name dahlstrom ref regions correspond highest genera concrete entities material nature personal consciousness interpersonal spirit husserl 's method studying ontology sciences essence general called eidetic variation ref name gander ref involves imagining object kind investigation varying features changed feature ''inessential'' kind object survive


change otherwise belongs ''kind 's essence'' example triangle remains triangle one sides extended ceases triangle fourth side added regional ontology involves applying method essences corresponding highest genera heidegger central martin heidegger 's philosophy notion ''ontological difference'' difference ''being'' specific entities ref name wheeler ref accuses philosophical tradition ''forgetful'' distinction led mistake understanding ''being'' kind


ultimate entity example idea energeia substance monad power ref name wheeler ref name dahlstrom ref name korab karpowicz ref heidegger tries rectify mistake fundamental ontology focusing ''meaning being'' instead project akin contemporary meta ontology one method achieve studying human dasein heidegger 's terminology ref name sandk hler reason already ''pre ontological understanding'' ''being'' shapes experience world phenomenology used make implicit understanding explicit accompanied hermeneutics


order avoid distortions due ''forgetfulness being'' ref name wheeler later philosophy heidegger attempted reconstruct history order show different epochs history philosophy dominated different conceptions ''being'' goal retrieve ''original experience being'' present early greek thought covered later philosophers ref name korab karpowicz hartmann nicolai hartmann th century philosopher within continental tradition philosophy interprets ontology aristotle 's science qua science general


characteristics entities usually referred categories relations according hartmann general categories ''moments being'' existence essence ''modes being'' reality ideality ''modalities being'' possibility actuality necessity every entity ''existence'' ''essence'' ''reality'' ''ideality'' contrast two disjunctive categories every entity either real ideal ideal entities universal returnable always existing real entities individual unique destructible ref name cicovacki ref among ideal entities mathematical objects values ''modalities being'' divided absolute modalities


trivial depends rules definitions within framework example follows analytically rules definitions within mathematical framework numbers exist ref name leitgeb problem carnap saw traditional ontologists try make framework independent ''external'' statements ' 'really'' case ref name sandk hler statements best ''pragmatic considerations'' framework choose worst outright ''meaningless'' according carnap example matter fact whether realism idealism true truth depends adopted framework


translating theory question first order predicate logic special interest translation logical constants known existential quantifiers whose meaning corresponds expressions like exists used bind variables expression following quantifier ontological commitments theory correspond variables bound existential quantifiers approach summed quine 's famous dictum value variable ref name quine ref method sufficient ontology since depends


theory order result ontological commitments quine proposed base ontology best scientific theory ref name bricker various followers quine 's method chose apply different fields example everyday conceptions expressed natural language ontological topics ontological formations concept ''ontological formations'' refers formations social relations understood dominant ways living temporal spatial corporeal epistemological performative relations taken central understanding dominant formation particular ontological formation based ontological categories time


space embodiment knowing performing lived objectively subjectively different ontological formations include ''customary'' including tribal ''traditional'' ''modern'' ''postmodern'' concept first introduced paul james together series writers including damian grenfell manfred steger ''engaged theory'' approach ontological formations seen layered intersecting rather singular formations 'formations being' approach avoids usual problems great divide posited modern pre modern philosophical distinction concerning different formations concept provides


way translating practical understandings concerning humans might design cities communities live creatively across different ontological formations example cities completely dominated modern valences spatial configuration work tony fry important ontology fictional characters according edward n zalta ontology fiction analyses sentences 'nero worshipped god mars ' 'mars god exist ' 'eliza doolittle george bernard shaw 's ''pygmalion'' flower girl' according amie l thomasson fictional discourse four sorts uttered ''within''


works fiction philosophical exercises 'captain marvel exist' treating fictional characters 'real' 'superman leap tall buildings ' discourse ''about'' works fiction 'professor higgins created george bernard shaw' ref name thomasson ref jeremy bentham distinguished three kinds entities ' 'real'' perceived inferred perception ''fictitious'' abstractions referred perceptible things ''fabulous'' found imagination word 'exist' applies sense really exist


francis herbert bradley thought real things exist respectively particular times places recognised several kinds entity genuinely historical fictional real merely imagined existent non existent alexius meinong would put fictional entities category called ' 'subsistence'' ref name category contains objects neither exist spatially non spatially however properties properties given objects way said described example talk tall unicorn even though tall unicorn exist


say unicorn fact tall follows properties object characterized ref name ref ontological epistemological certainty ren descartes ''cogito ergo sum'' ''je pense donc je suis'' think therefore argued person 's thinking agency ' 'res cogitans'' distinct material body ' 'res extensa'' something know exists epistemological certainty descartes argued knowledge could lead proof certainty existence god using ontological argument formulated first anselm


canterbury body environment questioning meaning schools subjectivism objectivism relativism existed various times th century postmodernists body philosophers tried reframe questions terms bodies taking specific action environment relied great degree insights derived scientific research animals taking instinctive action natural artificial settings studied biology ecology cognitive science processes bodies related environments became great concern idea became difficult really


define people mean said b must b b linguists advocated dropping verb english language leaving e nbsp prime supposedly less prone bad abstractions others mostly philosophers tried dig word usage martin heidegger distinguished ''human being'' ''existence'' things world heidegger proposes way human way world us cast historically fundamental ontological questioning fundamental ontological categories provide basis communication


age horizon unspoken seemingly unquestionable background meanings human beings understood unquestioningly subjects entities understood unquestioningly objects basic ontological meanings generate regenerated everyday interactions locus way historical epoch communicative event language use ref name hyde hyde r bruce listening authentically heideggerian perspective interpersonal communication ''interpretive approaches interpersonal communication'' edited kathryn carter mick presnell state university new york press ref heidegger however communication ''first'' place among


human beings language shapes response questioning inexhaustible meaning even focus traditional ontology 'whatness' ''quidditas'' beings substantial standing presence shifted pose question 'whoness' human ontology language philosophers suggest question least part issue ''usage'' rather question facts perspective conveyed analogy made donald davidson suppose person refers 'cup' 'chair' makes


comments pertinent cup uses word 'chair' consistently throughout instead 'cup' one might readily catch person simply calls 'cup' 'chair' oddity explained ref name davidson davidson refers 'ketch' 'yawl' p ref analogously find people asserting 'there are' think 'such such' exist might conclude people nuts davidson calls assumption 'charity' simply use 'there are' differently question ''what is'' least partly topic


philosophy language entirely ontology ref name krieger ref viewpoint expressed eli hirsch ref name hirsch hirsch eli https booksgooglecom booksid iprqtcjehpsc pg pa lpg pa physical object ontology verbal disputes common sense pp ''quantifier variance realism essays metaontology'' new york oxford university press first published http onlinelibrarywileycom doi j tb x abstract physical object ontology verbal disputes common sense ref ref name hirsch hirsch eli https booksgooglecom booksid iprqtcjehpsc pg pa lpg pa quantifier variance realism pp ''quantifier variance realism essays metaontology'' new york oxford university press first published http onlinelibrarywileycom doi j tb x abstract quantifier variance realism ref hirsch interprets hilary putnam asserting different concepts


distinct stating x member class x c language families roles may completely different verbs less likely confused one another example might say something like car redness rather car red hence discussion indo european language philosophy may need make distinctions senses ontology human geography human geography two types ontology small accounts practical orientation describing functions part


group thought oversimplify ignore key activities big systematically logically rationally describes essential characteristics universal traits concept relates closely plato 's view human mind perceive bigger world continue live within confines caves however spite differences ontology relies symbolic agreements among members said ontology crucial axiomatic language frameworks reality actuality according alfred n whitehead ontology useful distinguish terms 'reality'


'actuality' view 'actual entity' philosophical status fundamental ontological priority 'real entity' one may actual may derive reality logical relation actual entity entities example occasion life socrates actual entity socrates' man make 'man' actual entity refers indeterminately many actual entities several occasions life socrates also several occasions lives alcibiades others notion man


whitehead actual entity distinct definite extension physical minkowski space uniquely identifiable description minkowski space supports descriptions time space particular observers part aim philosophy ontology whitehead 's actual entities alike ''qua'' actual entities satisfy single definite set well stated ontological criteria actuality whitehead proposed notion occasion experience satisfies criteria status philosophically preferred definition actual entity


purely logical point view occasion experience full measure characters objective subjective reality subjectivity objectivity refer different aspects occasion experience way exclude examples philosophical proposals candidates actual entities view aristotle 's 'substances' leibniz' monads descartes' ' 'res verae'' modern 'states affairs' aristotle 's substances socrates behind fundamental 'primary substances' sense satisfy whitehead 's criteria whitehead happy


leibniz' monads actual entities windowless cause 'states affairs' often closely defined often without specific mention extension physical minkowski space therefore necessarily processes becoming may name suggests simply static states sense states affairs contingent particulars therefore something behind one summary whiteheadian actual entity process becoming another summary referring causal linkage actual entities window


contrast leibniz' windowless monads view allows philosophical entities actual entities really exist fundamentally primarily factual causally efficacious existence abstractions reality derived reference actual entities whiteheadian actual entity unique completely definite place time whiteheadian abstractions tightly defined time place extreme timeless placeless 'eternal' entities abstractions logical conceptual rather efficacious existence lack definite time make unreal


refer actual entities whitehead calls 'the ontological principle' microcosmic ontology established long philosophical history concept atoms microscopic physical objects far small visible naked eye recent nineteenth century precise estimates sizes putative physical atoms began become plausible almost direct empirical observation atomic effects due theoretical investigation brownian motion albert einstein early twentieth century even real existence atoms


debated debate might labeled 'microcosmic ontology' word 'microcosm' used indicate physical world small entities example atoms subatomic particles usually considered much smaller atoms real actual existence may difficult demonstrate empirically distinction sometimes drawn actual virtual subatomic particles reasonably one may ask sense virtual particles exist physical entities atomic subatomic particles difficult questions arise possess precise position precise momentum


question continues controversial kind physical thing quantum mechanical wave function refer ref name isham isham c j ''lectures quantum theory mathematical structural foundations'' london imperial college press pp ref ontological argument western christian tradition work ''proslogion'' anselm canterbury proposed known 'the ontological argument' existence god anselm defined god nothing greater thought argued must exist mind even mind person


denies existence god suggested greatest possible exists mind must also exist reality exists mind even greater must possible one exists mind reality therefore greatest possible must exist reality seventeenth century french philosopher ren descartes deployed similar argument descartes published several variations argument centred idea god 's existence immediately inferable clear distinct idea supremely perfect


early eighteenth century gottfried leibniz augmented descartes' ideas attempt prove supremely perfect coherent concept norman malcolm revived ontological argument located second stronger ontological argument anselm 's work alvin plantinga challenged argument proposed alternative based modal logic attempts also made validate anselm 's proof using automated theorem prover recently kurt g del proposed formal argument god 's existence arguments god 's existence advanced including made islamic philosophers mulla sadra allama tabatabai hintikka 's locution


existence jaakko hintikka puts view useful explication notion existence words one find implicitly world universe discourse prominent ontologists anselm canterbury thomas aquinas aristotle avicenna david malet armstrong alain badiou gustav bergmann roy bhaskar bernard bolzano franz brentano martin buber mario bunge rudolf carnap ernst cassirer gilles deleuze daniel dennett jacques derrida ren descartes fyodor dostoevsky maurizio ferraris michel foucault richard foreman hans georg gadamer merleau ponty al ghazali tienne gilson nicolai hartmann georg wilhelm friedrich hegel martin heidegger heraclitus ephesus jaakko hintikka edmund husserl


roman ingarden immanuel kant leszek ko akowski julia kristeva susanne langer louis lavelle gottfried leibniz douglas lenat stanis aw le niewski leucippus david kellogg lewis emmanuel levinas john locke ej lowe gy rgy luk cs madhvacharya alexius meinong nagarjuna friedrich nietzsche keiji nishitani parmenides charles sanders peirce plato plotinus karl popper proclus lycaeus wvo quine ramanujacharya bertrand russell gilbert ryle mulla sadra jean paul sartre jonathan schaffer arthur schopenhauer duns scotus john searle adi shankaracharya theodore sider peter simons barry smith baruch spinoza shahab al din suhrawardi peter van inwagen achille varzi gianni vattimo swami vivekananda alfred north whitehead william ockham ludwig wittgenstein edward n zalta


dean zimmerman slavoj ek see also notes references citations ref external links meaning philosophy language


methane ch sub sub line angle structural formula shows four carbon hydrogen single bonds black typical shape tetrahedral molecules interior bond angles dashed green '''organic chemistry''' branch chemistry studies structure properties reactions organic compounds contain carbon covalent bonding ref name j clayden n greeves pp clayden j greeves n warren ''organic chemistry'' oxford university press pp ref study structure determines structural formula study properties includes physical chemical properties evaluation chemical reactivity understand behavior

Natural science
Chemistry
Organic chemistry


study organic reactions includes chemical synthesis natural products drugs polymers study individual organic molecules laboratory via theoretical silico study range chemicals studied organic chemistry includes hydrocarbons compounds containing carbon hydrogen well compounds based carbon also containing elements ref name j clayden n greeves pp especially oxygen nitrogen sulfur phosphorus included many biochemicals halogens organometallic chemistry study compounds containing carbon metal bonds addition contemporary research focuses organic chemistry involving organometallics including


chemistry biochemistry also medicinal chemistry polymer chemistry materials science ref name j clayden n greeves pp history friedrich w hler th century chemists generally believed compounds obtained living organisms endowed vital force distinguished inorganic compounds according concept vitalism vital force theory organic matter endowed vital force ref name g e ref first half nineteenth century first systematic studies organic compounds reported around michel chevreul started study soaps made various


substance thought organic synthesized laboratory without biological organic starting materials event generally accepted indeed disproving doctrine vitalism william henry perkin trying manufacture quinine accidentally produced organic dye known perkin 's mauve discovery made widely known financial success greatly increased interest organic chemistry crucial breakthrough organic chemistry concept chemical structure developed independently friedrich august kekul archibald scott couper ref name kekulechf ref researchers suggested tetravalent carbon atoms could link


form carbon lattice detailed patterns atomic bonding could discerned skillful interpretations appropriate chemical reactions ref name ref era pharmaceutical industry began last decade th century manufacturing acetylsalicylic acidmore commonly referred aspirinin germany started bayer paul ehrlich laboratory group began developing arsenic based arsphenamine salvarsan first effective medicinal treatment syphilis thereby initiated medical practice chemotherapy ehrlich popularized concepts magic bullet drugs systematically improving drug


rings obscuring one another ring group projecting right alkylidene contains metal carbon double bond ruthenium early examples organic reactions applications often found combination luck preparation unexpected observations latter half th century however witnessed systematic studies organic compounds development synthetic indigo illustrative production indigo plant sources dropped tons tons thanks synthetic methods developed adolf von baeyer tons synthetic indigo


produced petrochemicals ref name ullmann steingruber elmar indigo indigo colorants ''ullmann 's encyclopedia industrial chemistry'' wiley vch weinheim ref early part th century polymers enzymes shown large organic molecules petroleum shown biological origin multiple step synthesis complex organic compounds called total synthesis total synthesis complex natural compounds increased complexity glucose terpineol example cholesterol related compounds opened ways synthesize complex human hormones modified derivatives since start th century complexity total syntheses


increased include molecules high complexity lysergic acid vitamin b sub sub total synthesis vitamin b sub sub marked major achievement organic chemistry discovery petroleum development petrochemical industry spurred development organic chemistry converting individual petroleum compounds ''types'' compounds various chemical processes led organic reactions enabling broad range industrial commercial products including among many others plastics synthetic rubber organic adhesives various property modifying petroleum additives catalysts majority chemical compounds occurring biological organisms carbon compounds association


single annual volume grown drastically end th century available everyday user online electronic database characterization since organic compounds often exist mixtures variety techniques also developed assess purity chromatography techniques especially important application include hplc gas chromatography traditional methods separation include distillation crystallization evaporation magnetic separation solvent extraction organic compounds traditionally characterized variety chemical tests called wet methods tests


fragmentation patterns structure high resolution mass spectrometry usually identify exact formula compound used place elemental analysis former times mass spectrometry restricted neutral molecules exhibiting volatility advanced ionization techniques allow one obtain mass spec virtually organic compound crystallography useful determining molecular geometry single crystal material available highly efficient hardware software allows structure determined within hours obtaining suitable crystal traditional spectroscopic methods infrared


spectroscopy optical rotation uv vis spectroscopy provide relatively nonspecific structural information remain use specific applications refractive index density also important substance identification properties physical properties organic compounds typically interest include quantitative qualitative features quantitative information includes melting point boiling point index refraction qualitative properties include odor consistency solubility color melting boiling properties organic compounds typically melt many boil contrast inorganic materials generally melted many boil instead tend degrade earlier


times melting point mp boiling point bp provided crucial information purity identity organic compounds melting boiling points correlate polarity molecules molecular weight organic compounds especially symmetrical ones sublime well known example sublimable organic compound para dichlorobenzene odiferous constituent modern mothballs organic compounds usually stable temperatures nbsp c although exceptions exist solubility neutral organic compounds tend hydrophobic less soluble water organic solvents exceptions


include organic compounds contain ionizable groups well low molecular weight alcohols amines carboxylic acids hydrogen bonding occurs otherwise organic compounds tend dissolve organic solvents solubility varies widely organic solute organic solvent solid state properties various specialized properties molecular crystals organic polymers conjugated systems interest depending applications eg thermo mechanical electro mechanical piezoelectricity electrical conductivity see conductive polymers organic semiconductors electro optical eg non linear optics properties historical reasons properties mainly subjects areas


polymer science materials science nomenclature various names depictions one organic compound names organic compounds either systematic following logically set rules nonsystematic following various traditions systematic nomenclature stipulated specifications iupac systematic nomenclature starts name parent structure within molecule interest parent name modified prefixes suffixes numbers unambiguously convey structure given millions organic compounds known rigorous use systematic names cumbersome thus iupac recommendations


closely followed simple compounds complex molecules use systematic naming one must know structures names parent structures parent structures include unsubstituted hydrocarbons heterocycles mono functionalized derivatives thereof nonsystematic nomenclature simpler unambiguous least organic chemists nonsystematic names indicate structure compound common complex molecules include natural products thus informally named lysergic acid diethylamide systematically named a''r'' ''r'' ''n''''n'' diethyl methyl hexahydroindolo ''fg'' quinoline carboxamide increased use computing naming methods evolved intended


interpreted machines two popular formats smiles inchi structural drawings organic molecules described commonly drawings structural formulas combinations drawings chemical symbols line angle formula simple unambiguous system endpoints intersections line represent one carbon hydrogen atoms either notated explicitly assumed present implied tetravalent carbon diagram shows distinct structural representations organic compound butane left structure bond line drawing hydrogen atoms removed nd structure


chaos le plus complet complete chaos due lack convention possible multiple names compound led creation geneva rules classification organic compounds functional groups family carboxylic acids contains carboxyl cooh functional group acetic acid shown example concept functional groups central organic chemistry means classify structures predicting properties functional group molecular module reactivity functional group assumed within limits


variety molecules functional groups decisive influence chemical physical properties organic compounds molecules classified based functional groups alcohols example subunit c h alcohols tend somewhat hydrophilic usually form esters usually converted corresponding halides functional groups feature heteroatoms atoms c h organic compounds classified according functional groups alcohols carboxylic acids amines etc functional groups make molecule acidic basic due electronic influence surrounding


parts molecule pka aka basicity molecular addition functional group increases corresponding dipole measured increases strength dipole directed towards functional group higher pka therefore basic nature group points towards decreases strength increasing distance dipole distance measured angstroms steric hindrance towards functional group intermolecular intramolecular effect surrounding environment ph level different functional groups different pka values bond strengths single double triple leading increased electrophilicity lower pka increased nucleophile strength higher


pka basic nucleophilic functional groups desire attack electrophilic functional group lower pka another molecule intermolecular within molecule intramolecular group net acidic pka gets within range acyl carbonyl group fair game since likelihood attacked decreases increase pka acyl chloride components lowest measured pka values likely attacked followed carboxylic acids pka thiols malonates alcohols aldehydes nitriles esters amines amines basic


great nucleophiles attackers aliphatic compounds aliphatic hydrocarbons subdivided three groups homologous series according state saturation alkanes paraffins aliphatic hydrocarbons without double triple bonds ie c c c h single bonds alkenes olefins aliphatic hydrocarbons contain one double bonds ie di olefins dienes poly olefins alkynes acetylenes aliphatic hydrocarbons one triple bonds rest group classified according functional groups present compounds straight chain branched chain cyclic degree branching affects characteristics octane number


substituents attached externally ring exocyclic member ring endocyclic case latter ring termed heterocycle pyridine furan examples aromatic heterocycles piperidine tetrahydrofuran corresponding alicyclic heterocycles heteroatom heterocyclic molecules generally oxygen sulfur nitrogen latter particularly common biochemical systems heterocycles commonly found wide range products including aniline dyes medicines additionally prevalent wide range biochemical compounds alkaloids vitamins steroids nucleic acids


eg dna rna rings fuse rings edge give polycyclic compounds purine nucleoside bases notable polycyclic aromatic heterocycles rings also fuse corner one atom almost always carbon two bonds going one ring two another compounds termed spiro important several natural products polymers swimming board made polystyrene example polymer one important property carbon readily forms chains networks linked carbon carbon carbon carbon bonds


linking process called polymerization chains networks called polymers source compound called monomer two main groups polymers exist synthetic polymers biopolymers synthetic polymers artificially manufactured commonly referred industrial polymers biopolymers occur within respectfully natural environment without human intervention biomolecules maitotoxin complex organic biological toxin biomolecular chemistry major category within organic chemistry frequently studied biochemists many complex multi functional group molecules important living organisms long chain biopolymers include peptides dna rna polysaccharides


various species plants basis making rubber see also peptide synthesis oligonucleotide synthesis carbohydrate synthesis small molecules molecular models caffeine pharmacology important group organic compounds small molecules also referred 'small organic compounds' context small molecule small organic compound biologically active polymer practice small molecules molar mass less approximately g mol fullerenes fullerenes carbon nanotubes carbon compounds spheroidal tubular structures stimulated much research


related field materials science first fullerene discovered sir harold w kroto united kingdom richard e smalley robert f curl jr united states using laser vaporize graphite rods atmosphere helium gas chemists assistants obtained cagelike molecules composed carbon atoms c joined together single double bonds form hollow sphere pentagonal hexagonal faces design resembles football soccer ball trio awarded nobel prize


pioneering efforts c molecule named buckminsterfullerene simply buckyball american architect r buckminster fuller whose geodesic dome constructed structural principles others organic compounds containing bonds carbon nitrogen oxygen halogens normally grouped separately others sometimes put major groups within organic chemistry discussed titles organosulfur chemistry organometallic chemistry organophosphorus chemistry organosilicon chemistry organic reactions organic reactions chemical reactions involving organic compounds many reactions associated functional groups general theory


reactions involves careful analysis properties electron affinity key atoms bond strengths steric hindrance factors determine relative stability short lived reactive intermediates usually directly determine path reaction basic reaction types addition reactions elimination reactions substitution reactions pericyclic reactions rearrangement reactions redox reactions example common reaction substitution reaction written nu sup sup c x c nu x sup sup x functional group nu nucleophile number possible organic reactions infinite however


certain general patterns observed used describe many common useful reactions reaction stepwise reaction mechanism explains happens sequence although detailed description steps always clear list reactants alone stepwise course given reaction mechanism represented using arrow pushing techniques curved arrows used track movement electrons starting materials transition intermediates final products organic synthesis synthesis designed ej corey oseltamivir tamiflu synthesis distinct


reactions synthetic organic chemistry applied science borders engineering design analysis construction works practical purposes organic synthesis novel compound problem solving task synthesis designed target molecule selecting optimal reactions optimal starting materials complex compounds tens reaction steps sequentially build desired molecule synthesis proceeds utilizing reactivity functional groups molecule example carbonyl compound used nucleophile converting enolate electrophile combination


two called aldol reaction designing practically useful syntheses always requires conducting actual synthesis laboratory scientific practice creating novel synthetic routes complex molecules called total synthesis strategies design synthesis include retrosynthesis popularized ej corey starts target molecule splices pieces according known reactions pieces proposed precursors receive treatment available ideally inexpensive starting materials reached retrosynthesis written opposite direction give synthesis synthetic tree constructed


done using simplified models common geometric optics treats light collection rays travel straight lines bend pass reflect surfaces physical optics comprehensive model light includes wave effects diffraction interference cannot accounted geometric optics historically ray based model light developed first followed wave model light progress electromagnetic theory th century led discovery light waves fact electromagnetic radiation phenomena depend


fact light wave like particle like properties explanation effects requires quantum mechanics considering light 's particle like properties light modelled collection particles called photons quantum optics deals application quantum mechanics optical systems optical science relevant studied many related disciplines including astronomy various engineering fields photography medicine particularly ophthalmology optometry called physiological optics practical applications optics found variety technologies everyday objects including mirrors lenses telescopes microscopes lasers fibre optics history nimrud


lens optics began development lenses ancient egyptians mesopotamians earliest known lenses made polished crystal often quartz date early nbsp bc crete archaeological museum heraclion greece lenses rhodes date around nbsp bc assyrian lenses nimrud lens ancient romans greeks filled glass spheres water make lenses practical developments followed development theories light vision ancient greek indian philosophers development geometrical optics greco roman world word ''optics'' comes


ancient greek word ''optik '' meaning appearance look greek philosophy optics broke two opposing theories vision worked intromission theory emission theory intromission approach saw vision coming objects casting copies called eidola captured eye many propagators including democritus epicurus aristotle followers theory seems contact modern theories vision really remained speculation lacking experimental foundation plato first articulated emission theory idea visual perception accomplished


rays emitted eyes also commented parity reversal mirrors ''timaeus'' hundred years later euclid th rd century bc wrote treatise entitled ''optics'' linked vision geometry creating ''geometrical optics'' based work plato 's emission theory wherein described mathematical rules perspective described effects refraction qualitatively although questioned beam light eye could instantaneously light stars every time someone blinked euclid stated principle shortest trajectory light considered multiple reflections flat spherical