pathology cytopathology autopsy pathology also possible take royal college pathologists diploma forensic pathology dermatopathology cytopathology recognising additional specialist training expertise get specialist accreditation forensic pathology pediatric pathology neuropathology postgraduate medical training education uk overseen general medical council france pathology separated two distinct specialties anatomical pathology clinical pathology residencies lasts four years residency anatomical pathology open physicians clinical pathology open physicians pharmacists


end second year clinical pathology residency residents choose general clinical pathology specialization one disciplines practice anatomical pathology anatomical pathology residents practice clinical pathology ref name bulletin overlap diagnostic medicine though separate fields terms medical practice number areas inquiry medicine medical science either overlap greatly general pathology work tandem contribute significantly understanding pathology given disease course individual significant portion


general pathology practice concerned cancer practice oncology makes extensive use anatomical clinical pathology diagnosis treatment ref name cancernet ref particular biopsy resection blood tests examples pathology work essential diagnoses many kinds cancer staging cancerous masses similar fashion tissue blood analysis techniques general pathology central significance investigation serious infectious disease inform significantly upon fields epidemiology etiology immunology parasitology general pathology methods


great importance biomedical research disease wherein sometimes referred experimental investigative pathology medical imaging generating visual representations interior body clinical analysis medical intervention medical imaging reveals details internal physiology help medical professionals plan appropriate treatments tissue infection trauma medical imaging also central supplying biometric data necessary establish baseline features anatomy physiology increase accuracy early fine detail abnormalities detected diagnostic techniques often performed


combination general pathology procedures often essential developing new understanding pathogenesis given disease tracking progress disease specific medical cases examples important subdivisions medical imaging include radiology uses imaging technologies x ray radiography magnetic resonance imaging medical ultrasonography ultrasound endoscopy elastography tactile imaging thermography medical photography nuclear medicine functional imaging techniques positron emission tomography though strictly relay images readings diagnostics tests involving electroencephalography magnetoencephalography electrocardiography often give hints state


function certain tissues brain heart respectively psychopathology psychopathology study mental illness particularly severe disorders informed heavily psychology neurology purpose classify mental illness elucidate underlying causes guide clinical psychiatric treatment accordingly although diagnosis classification mental norms disorders largely purview psychiatry results guidelines diagnostic statistical manual mental disorders attempt classify mental disease mostly behavioural evidence though without controversy ref name frana ref ref name concept evolution dalal pk sivakumar http wwwindianjpsychiatryorg textasp moving


towards icd dsm concept evolution psychiatric classification indian journal psychiatry volume issue page ref field also heavily increasingly informed upon neuroscience biological cognitive sciences mental social disorders behaviours seen generally unhealthy excessive given individual point cause harm severe disruption sufferer 's lifestyle often called pathological eg pathological gambling pathological liar non humans field post mortem ewe revealed lesions consistent acute haemolytic pneumonia possibly due ''pasteurella haemolytica'' although


species nonetheless significant amounts pathology research conducted animals two primary reasons origins diseases typically zoonotic nature many infectious pathogens animal vectors understanding mechanisms action pathogens non human hosts essential understanding application epidemiology animals share physiological genetic traits humans used surrogates study disease potential treatments well effects various synthetic products reason well roles


livestock companion animals mammals generally largest body research veterinary pathology animal testing remains controversial practice even cases used research treatment human disease human medical pathology practice veterinary pathology customarily divided two main fields anatomical clinical pathology tobacco plant infected tobacco mosaic virus plant pathology although pathogens mechanics differ greatly animals plants subject wide variety diseases including caused fungi oomycetes bacteria viruses viroids virus like


organisms phytoplasmas protozoa nematodes parasitic plants damage caused insects mites vertebrate small herbivores considered part domain plant pathology field connected plant disease epidemiology especially concerned horticulture species high importance human diet human utility see also biopsy causal inference cell biology disease environmental pathology epidemiology etiology medicine hematology histology immunology list pathologists medical diagnosis medical jurisprudence medicine microbiology micrography microscopy minimally invasive procedures oncology parasitology pathogen pathogenesis pathophysiology precision medicine spectroscopy speech language pathology telepathology references external


links http wwwascporg american society clinical pathology ascp http wwwasiporg american society investigative pathology asip http wwwpathpediacom pathpedia online pathology resource comprehensive pathology website numerous resources http wwwcaporg college american pathologists http wwwhumpathcom humpathcom atlas human pathology http wwwpathologytrainingorg intersociety council pathology training icpi https wwwpathsocorg pathological society great britain ireland http wwwrcpathorg royal college pathologists uk http wwwrcpaeduau royal college pathologists australasia australia oceania http wwwuscaporg united states canadian academy pathology http librarymedutahedu webpath webpathhtml webpath internet pathology laboratory medical education http atlasesmunicz atlases high resolution pathology images branches biology


'''linguistic typology''' '''language typology''' field linguistics studies classifies languages according structural features aim describe explain common properties structural diversity world 's languages ref name ref subdisciplines include limited qualitative typology deals issue comparing languages within language variance quantitative typology deals distribution structural patterns world 's languages theoretical typology explains distributions syntactic typology deals word order word form word grammar word choice lexical typology deals

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Linguistic typology


language vocabulary history joseph greenberg considered founder modern linguistic typology field revitalized publications qualitative typology qualitative typology develops cross linguistically viable notions types provide framework description comparison individual languages examples appear typological systems subject verb object positioning one set types reflects basic order subject verb direct object sentences object subject verb osv object verb subject ovs subject verb object svo subject object verb sov verb subject object vso verb object subject vos labels usually appear abbreviated svo forth


infinitive participle put subject object instance german fox woods seen dutch hans suspected jan marie saw learn swim welsh checking spelling complete case linguists base typology non analytic tenses ie sentences verb split position auxiliary german thus svo main clauses welsh vso preposition phrases would go infinitive many typologists classify german


dutch v languages verb invariantly occurs second element full clause languages allow varying degrees freedom constituent order posing problem classification within subject verb object schema languages bound case markings nouns example tend flexible word orders languages case defined position within sentence presence preposition define basic constituent order type case one generally looks frequency different types declarative affirmative main clauses pragmatically neutral contexts preferably


exhibited different much regular syntax written legacy indicates ov vo correlations second major way syntactic categorization excluding subject consideration well documented typological feature languages dominant ov order object verb japanese example tend postpositions contrast vo languages verb object like english tend prepositions main adpositional type several ov vo correlations uncovered ref name correlations ref class wikitable correlation vo languages ov languages adposition type prepositions postpositions order noun genitive


clause final subordinators order noun relative clause noun relative clause either theoretical issues several processing explanations proposed correlations suggest brain finds easier parse syntactic patterns either right left branching mixed widely held explanation john hawkins' grammar performance correspondence hypothesis argues language non innate adaptation innate cognitive mechanisms typological tendencies considered based language users' preference grammars organized efficiently


pva classification may reflect whether subject intransitive verb appears side agent patient transitive verb bickel argued alignment seen construction specific property rather language specific property ref name ref many languages show mixed accusative ergative behaviour example ergative morphology marking verb arguments top accusative syntax languages called active languages two types intransitive verbs active verbs join subject case agent transitive verb


rest stative verbs join subject case patient yet languages behave ergatively contexts split ergativity often based grammatical person arguments tense aspect verb example verbs georgian behave way rule using perfective aorist phonological systems linguistic typology also seeks identify patterns structure distribution sound systems among world 's languages accomplished surveying analyzing relative frequencies different phonological properties relative


frequencies might example used determine contrastive voicing commonly occurs plosives english ''neat'' ''need'' occurs much rarely among fricatives english ''niece'' ''knees'' according worldwide sample languages ref name song song jj ed oxford handbook linguistic typology oxford oxford university press ref voicing contrast stops fricatives vast majority cases absence voicing contrast occurs lack voiced fricatives languages


small phonemic inventories rotokas six consonants five vowels large inventories x consonants vowels interesting phonological observation found data larger consonant inventory language likely contain sound defined set complex consonants clicks glottalized consonants doubly articulated labial velar stops lateral fricatives affricates uvular pharyngeal consonants dental alveolar non sibilant fricatives list languages survey ref name song small inventories less


style text align center ref name song quantitative typology quantitative typology deals distribution co occurrence structural patterns languages world major types non chance distribution include preferences instance absolute implicational universals semantic maps hierarchies correlations instance areal patterns sprachbund linguistic universals patterns seen cross linguistically universals either absolute meaning every documented language exhibits characteristic statistical meaning characteristic seen languages probable languages universals absolute


morphology syntax harlow london pearson education longman song jj ed oxford handbook linguistic typology oxford oxford university press whaley lj introduction typology unity diversity language newbury park sage external links http wwwlinguistic typologyorg association linguistic typology ivan g iliev nature grammatical case language typology origin cognate objects subjects http ivanilievlogosmasterblogspotcom casetypologyvocativenesshtml plank f themes typology basic reading list https webarchiveorg web http linguni konstanzde pages home plank typothemesbib pdf bickel b typology short note http wwwuni leipzigde bickel research papers manifestopdf bickel b typology st century major developments http wwwuni leipzigde bickel research papers century typology bickel submittedpdf


nbsp chapter http wwwuiono studier emner hf ikos exfac aas h larestoff linguistics halvor eifring rolf theil ''linguistics students asian african languages'' http walsinfo world atlas language structures http wwwdegruytercom view j lity linguistic typology language comparison


'''''linguistic typology''''' triannual peer reviewed academic journal field linguistic typology established published mouton de gruyter behalf association linguistic typology editor chief frans plank https wwwsuse english profiles tamm maria koptjevskaja tamm university stockholm abstracting indexing ref current contents arts humanities ref name isi current contents social behavioral sciences ref name isi ebsco databases international bibliography periodical literature humanities social sciences linguistic bibliography mla international bibliography proquest databases scopus ref name scopus ref social sciences citation index ref name isi according ''journal citation reports''


journal impact factor ref name wos ref references external links linguistics journals works linguistic typology publications established english language journals de gruyter academic journals triannual journals


epigenetic mechanisms biology '''epigenetics''' study heritable phenotype changes involve alterations dna sequence ref name epigenetics review ref greek prefix ''epi '' outside around ''epigenetics'' implies features top addition traditional genetic basis inheritance ref name science ref epigenetics often involves changes affect gene activity expression term also used describe heritable phenotypic change effects cellular physiological phenotypic traits may result external environmental factors part normal


development term also refers changes functionally relevant changes genome involve change nucleotide sequence examples mechanisms produce changes dna methylation histone modification alters genes expressed without altering underlying dna sequence gene expression controlled action repressor proteins attach silencer regions dna epigenetic changes may last cell divisions duration cell 's life may also last multiple generations even though involve changes


underlying dna sequence organism ref name pmid ref instead non genetic factors cause organism 's genes behave express differently one example epigenetic change eukaryotic biology process cellular differentiation morphogenesis totipotent stem cells become various pluripotent cell lines embryo turn become fully differentiated cells words single fertilized egg cell zygote continues divide resulting daughter cells change different cell types organism including neurons muscle cells epithelium endothelium blood vessels etc activating


genes inhibiting expression others ref name pmid ref definitions term ''epigenetics'' contemporary usage emerged years used somewhat variable meanings ref name moore ref definition concept ''epigenetic trait'' stably heritable phenotype resulting changes chromosome without alterations dna sequence formulated cold spring harbor meeting ref name pmid although alternate definitions include non heritable traits still used widely ref name nih term ''epigenesis'' generic meaning extra growth used english since


discover processes involved mechanism genes genotype bring phenotypic effects first step enterprise rather since often omitted undue respect powers reason describe seen developmental processes enquiries kind word 'phenogenetics' coined haecker second important part task discover causal mechanisms work relate far possible experimental


embryology already revealed mechanics development might use name 'epigenetics' studies thus emphasizing relation concepts strongly favourable classical theory epigenesis reached experimental embryologists certainly need remember genotype phenotype connecting lies whole complex developmental processes convenient name complex 'epigenotype' seems suitable ref ''epigenesis'' context biology period referred differentiation cells initial totipotent


state embryonic development waddington coined term physical nature genes role heredity known used instead conceptual model genetic components might interact surroundings produce phenotype used phrase epigenetic landscape metaphor biological development waddington held cell fates established development process called canalisation much marble rolls point lowest local elevation ref name waddington ref waddington suggested visualising increasing irreversibility cell type differentiation ridges rising valleys


marbles analogous cells travelling recent times waddington 's notion epigenetic landscape rigorously formalized context systems dynamics state approach study cell fate ref name sciencedirectcom ref cell fate determination predicted exhibit certain dynamics attractor convergence attractor equilibrium point limit cycle strange attractor oscillatory ref name sciencedirectcom contemporary robin holliday defined epigenetics study mechanisms temporal spatial control gene activity development complex organisms ref name pmid ref thus broadest sense ''epigenetic'' used describe


defined epigenetics structural adaptation chromosomal regions register signal perpetuate altered activity states ref name pmid definition would inclusive transient modifications associated dna repair cell cycle phases well stable changes maintained across multiple cell generations exclude others templating membrane architecture prions unless impinge chromosome function redefinitions however universally accepted still subject debate ref name nature ref nih roadmap epigenomics project ongoing uses following definition purposes program epigenetics refers heritable


changes gene activity expression progeny cells individuals also stable long term alterations transcriptional potential cell necessarily heritable ref name nih ref consensus definition epigenetic trait stably heritable phenotype resulting changes chromosome without alterations dna sequence made cold spring harbor meeting ref name pmid ref similarity word genetics generated many parallel usages epigenome parallel word genome referring overall epigenetic state cell epigenomics refers


global analyses epigenetic changes across entire genome ref name nih phrase genetic code also adapted epigenetic code used describe set epigenetic features create different phenotypes different cells underlying dna sequence taken extreme epigenetic code could represent total state cell position molecule accounted ''epigenomic map'' diagrammatic representation gene expression dna methylation histone modification status particular genomic region typically term used reference systematic


efforts measure specific relevant forms epigenetic information histone code dna methylation patterns developmental psychology sense somewhat unrelated use biological disciplines term epigenetic also used developmental psychology describe psychological development result ongoing bi directional interchange heredity environment interactive ideas development discussed various forms various names throughout th th centuries early version proposed among founding statements embryology karl ernst von baer popularized ernst haeckel


radical epigenetic view known physiological epigenesis developed paul wintrebert another variation probabilistic epigenesis presented gilbert gottlieb view encompasses possible developing factors organism influence organism organism also influences development gottlieb gave example rhesus monkeys infants receive typical maternal care lacked serotonin turn made aggressive got older another note long standing notion cells fire together wire together derives hebbian


theory asserts synaptogenesis developmental process great epigenetic precedence depends activity respective synapses within neural network experience alters excitability neurons increased neural activity linked increased demethylation developmental psychologist erik erikson wrote ''epigenetic principle'' book ''identity youth crisis'' encompassing notion develop unfolding personality predetermined stages environment surrounding culture influence progress stages biological unfolding relation socio cultural settings done


stages psychosocial development progress stage part determined success lack success previous stages ref name boeree boeree c george http wwwsocial psychologyde pt eriksonpdf ''personality theories erik erikson'' ref although empirical studies yielded discrepant results epigenetic modifications thought biological mechanism transgenerational trauma molecular basis epigenetic changes modify activation certain genes genetic code sequence dna microstructure code dna associated chromatin proteins may modified causing activation silencing mechanism enables differentiated cells multicellular organism


carcinogenesis many effects teratogens regulation histone modifications heterochromatin technical limitations affecting parthenogenesis cloning dna damage dna damage also cause epigenetic changes dna damage frequent occurring average times day per cell human body see dna damage naturally occurring damages largely repaired however epigenetic changes still remain site dna repair particular double strand break dna initiate unprogrammed epigenetic gene silencing causing dna methylation well promoting silencing types histone modifications chromatin


phenomena techniques include chromatin immunoprecipitation together large scale variants chip chip chip seq fluorescent situ hybridization methylation sensitive restriction enzymes dna adenine methyltransferase identification damid bisulfite sequencing ref name verma ref furthermore use bioinformatics methods role computational epigenetics ref name verma chromatin immunoprecipitation chromatin immunoprecipitation chip helped bridge gap dna epigenetic interactions ref name ref use chip researchers able make findings regards gene regulation transcription mechanisms chromatin structure ref name fluorescent ''in situ'' hybridization fluorescent ''in situ'' hybridization fish important understand


epigenetic mechanisms ref name ref fish used find location genes chromosomes well finding noncoding rnas ref name ref name ref fish predominantly used detecting chromosomal abnormalities humans ref name methylation sensitive restriction enzymes methylation sensitive restriction enzymes paired pcr way evaluate methylation dna specifically cpg sites ref name ref dna methylated restriction enzymes cleave strand ref name contrarily dna methylated enzymes cleave strand amplified pcr ref name bisulfite


sequencing bisulfite sequencing another way evaluate dna methylation cytosine changed uracil treated sodium bisulfite whereas methylated cytosines affected ref name mechanisms epigenetic mechanisms sensitive environmental effects key participants shaping adult phenotype several types epigenetic inheritance systems may play role become known cell memory ref name jablonka ref note however universally accepted examples epigenetics covalent modifications covalent modifications either dna eg cytosine methylation hydroxymethylation histone proteins eg lysine


acetylation lysine arginine methylation serine threonine phosphorylation lysine ubiquitination sumoylation play central roles many types epigenetic inheritance therefore word epigenetics sometimes used synonym processes however misleading chromatin remodeling always inherited epigenetic inheritance involves chromatin remodeling ref name pmid ref lysine modification appeared scientific literature linking epigenetics modification cell metabolism ie lactylation dna associates histone proteins form chromatin phenotype cell individual affected genes transcribed


heritable transcription states give rise epigenetic effects several layers regulation gene expression one way genes regulated remodeling chromatin chromatin complex dna histone proteins associates way dna wrapped around histones changes gene expression change well chromatin remodeling accomplished two main mechanisms first way post translational modification amino acids make histone proteins histone proteins made long chains amino acids amino


cpg sites convert cytosine methylcytosine methylcytosine performs much like regular cytosine pairing guanine double stranded dna however methylated cytosines present cpg sites promoter enhancer regions genes genes often repressed ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref methylated cytosines present cpg sites gene body coding region excluding transcription start site expression gene often enhanced transcription gene usually depends transcription factor binding base less recognition sequence promoter region


dna methylation state cell division differentiation heritability methylation state depends certain enzymes dnmt higher affinity methylcytosine cytosine enzyme reaches hemimethylated portion dna methylcytosine one two dna strands enzyme methylate half although histone modifications occur throughout entire sequence unstructured n termini histones called histone tails particularly highly modified modifications include acetylation methylation ubiquitylation phosphorylation sumoylation ribosylation citrullination acetylation highly studied modifications example acetylation


swi snf transcriptional factors bind dna allow transcription occur cis model epigenetic function words changes histone tails direct effect dna another model epigenetic function trans model model changes histone tails act indirectly dna example lysine acetylation may create binding site chromatin modifying enzymes transcription machinery well chromatin remodeler cause changes state chromatin indeed bromodomain protein domain


specifically binds acetyl lysine found many enzymes help activate transcription including swi snf complex may acetylation acts previous way aid transcriptional activation idea modifications act docking modules related factors borne histone methylation well methylation lysine histone h long associated constitutively transcriptionally silent chromatin constitutive heterochromatin determined chromodomain domain specifically binds methyl lysine transcriptionally repressive protein hp recruits hp k methylated regions one example seems


refute biophysical model methylation tri methylation histone h lysine strongly associated required full transcriptional activation tri methylation case would introduce fixed positive charge tail shown histone lysine methyltransferase kmt responsible methylation activity pattern histones h h enzyme utilizes catalytically active site called set domain suppressor variegation enhancer zeste trithorax set domain amino acid sequence involved modulating gene activities domain demonstrated


bind histone tail causes methylation histone ref name pmid ref differing histone modifications likely function differing ways acetylation one position likely function differently acetylation another position also multiple modifications may occur time modifications may work together change behavior nucleosome idea multiple dynamic modifications regulate gene transcription systematic reproducible way called histone code although idea histone state read linearly digital information carrier largely debunked one


best understood systems orchestrate chromatin based silencing sir protein based silencing yeast hidden mating type loci hml hmr dna methylation frequently occurs repeated sequences helps suppress expression mobility 'transposable elements' ref name slotkin ref methylcytosine spontaneously deaminated replacing nitrogen oxygen thymidine cpg sites frequently mutated become rare genome except cpg islands remain unmethylated epigenetic changes type thus potential direct increased frequencies permanent genetic mutation dna methylation patterns known established modified


response environmental factors complex interplay least three independent dna methyltransferases dnmt dnmt dnmt b loss lethal mice ref name li ref dnmt abundant methyltransferase somatic cells ref name robertson ref localizes replication foci ref name leonhardt ref fold preference hemimethylated dna interacts proliferating cell nuclear antigen pcna ref name chuang ref preferentially modifying hemimethylated dna dnmt transfers patterns methylation newly synthesized strand dna replication therefore often referred maintenance' methyltransferase ref name robertson ref dnmt essential proper embryonic development imprinting


hydroxylate methyl group thereby removing jmjc capable demethylating mono di tri methylated substrates ref name pmid ref chromosomal regions adopt stable heritable alternative states resulting bistable gene expression without changes dna sequence epigenetic control often associated alternative covalent modifications histones ref name rosenfeld ref stability heritability states larger chromosomal regions suggested involve positive feedback modified nucleosomes recruit enzymes similarly modify nearby nucleosomes simplified stochastic model type epigenetics found ref name pmid ref suggested chromatin based transcriptional regulation could


changes mediated production different splice forms rna formation double stranded rna rnai descendants cell gene turned inherit activity even original stimulus gene activation longer present genes often turned signal transduction although systems syncytia gap junctions important rna may spread directly cells nuclei diffusion large amount rna protein contributed zygote mother oogenesis via nurse cells resulting


maternal effect phenotypes smaller quantity sperm rna transmitted father recent evidence epigenetic information lead visible changes several generations offspring ref name choi ref micrornas micrornas mirnas members non coding rnas range size nucleotides mirnas regulate large variety biological functions plants animals ref name wang ref far mirnas discovered humans found online mirna database mirna expressed cell may target messenger


demonstrated methylation mrna plays critical role human energy homeostasis obesity associated fto gene shown able demethylate n methyladenosine rna srnas srnas small nucleotides highly structured non coding rna fragments found bacteria control gene expression including virulence genes pathogens viewed new targets fight drug resistant bacteria play important role many biological processes binding mrna protein targets prokaryotes phylogenetic analyses example srna mrna target interactions protein binding properties used build comprehensive


change without modification genome fungal prions considered epigenetic infectious phenotype caused prion inherited without modification genome psi ure discovered yeast two best studied type prion ref name pmid ref prions phenotypic effect sequestration protein aggregates thereby reducing protein 's activity psi cells loss sup protein involved termination translation causes ribosomes higher rate read stop codons


effect results suppression nonsense mutations genes ref name pmid ref ability sup form prions may conserved trait could confer adaptive advantage giving cells ability switch psi state express dormant genetic features normally terminated stop codon mutations ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref prion based epigenetics also observed ''saccharomyces cerevisiae'' structural inheritance ciliates ''tetrahymena'' ''paramecium'' genetically identical cells show heritable differences patterns ciliary rows cell surface experimentally altered patterns transmitted daughter cells seems existing


structures act templates new structures mechanisms inheritance unclear reasons exist assume multicellular organisms also use existing cell structures assemble new ones ref name pmid ref ref name isbn ref ref name isbn ref nucleosome positioning eukaryotic genomes numerous nucleosomes nucleosome position random determine accessibility dna regulatory proteins promoters active different tissues shown different nucleosome positioning features determines differences gene expression cell differentiation shown least nucleosomes retained sperm cells histones replaced


protamines thus nucleosome positioning degree inheritable recent studies uncovered connections nucleosome positioning epigenetic factors dna methylation hydroxymethylation ref name teif ref histone variants different histone variants incorporated specific regions genome non randomly differential biochemical characteristics affect genome functions via roles gene regulation maintenance chromosome structures genomic architecture three dimensional configuration genome genome complex dynamic crucial regulating genomic function nuclear processes dna replication transcription dna damage repair functions consequences development developmental epigenetics


divided predetermined probabilistic epigenesis predetermined epigenesis unidirectional movement structural development dna functional maturation protein predetermined means development scripted predictable probabilistic epigenesis hand bidirectional structure function development experiences external molding development ref name griesemer ref somatic epigenetic inheritance particularly dna histone covalent modifications nucleosome repositioning important development multicellular eukaryotic organisms ref name teif genome sequence static notable exceptions cells differentiate many different types perform different functions respond differently


example differentiation oligodendrocytes regulated deacetylation methylation histones unlike animals plant cells terminally differentiate remaining totipotent ability give rise new individual plant plants utilize many epigenetic mechanisms animals chromatin remodeling hypothesized kinds plant cells use require cellular memories resetting gene expression patterns using positional information environment surrounding cells determine fate ref name pmid ref epigenetic changes occur response environmental exposure example maternal


increase gene expression rather dna gene governs functioning odor receptor nose responds specifically cherry blossom smell physical changes correlated olfactory smell function brains trained mice descendants several criticisms reported including study 's low statistical power evidence irregularity bias reporting results ref name francis ref due limits sample size probability effect demonstrated within statistical significance even exists


criticism suggested probability experiments reported would show positive results identical protocol followed assuming claimed effects exist merely authors also indicate mice siblings treated mice statistically independent original researchers pointed negative results paper 's appendix criticism omitted calculations undertook track mice siblings future transgenerational epigenetic mechanisms necessary part evolutionary origin cell differentiation ref name isbn ref although epigenetics multicellular organisms generally thought


mechanism involved differentiation epigenetic patterns reset organisms reproduce observations transgenerational epigenetic inheritance eg phenomenon paramutation observed maize although multigenerational epigenetic traits gradually lost several generations possibility remains multigenerational epigenetics could another aspect evolution adaptation mentioned define epigenetics heritable sequestered germ line weismann barrier specific animals epigenetic inheritance common plants microbes eva jablonka marion j lamb tienne danchin argued effects may


require enhancements standard conceptual framework modern synthesis called extended evolutionary synthesis ref name isbn ref evolutionary biologists john maynard smith incorporated epigenetic inheritance population genetics models openly skeptical extended evolutionary synthesis michael lynch thomas dickins qazi rahman state epigenetic mechanisms dna methylation histone modification genetically inherited control natural selection therefore fit earlier modern synthesis two important ways epigenetic inheritance differ traditional genetic inheritance important consequences evolution rates


organisms including prokaryotes plants animals ref name jablonka ref instance mourning cloak butterflies change color hormone changes response experimentation varying temperatures filamentous fungus ''neurospora crassa'' prominent model system understanding control function cytosine methylation organism dna methylation associated relics genome defense system called rip repeat induced point mutation silences gene expression inhibiting transcription elongation ref name pmid ref yeast prion psi generated conformational change translation termination factor inherited daughter cells provide survival advantage adverse


conditions examplifying epigenetic regulation enables unicellular organisms respond rapidly environmental stress prions viewed epigenetic agents capable inducing phenotypic change without modification genome ref name jorgtost ref direct detection epigenetic marks microorganisms possible single molecule real time sequencing polymerase sensitivity allows measuring methylation modifications dna molecule sequenced several projects demonstrated ability collect genome wide epigenetic data bacteria epigenetics bacteria ''escherichia coli'' bacteria epigenetics fundamental importance eukaryotes especially metazoans plays


bacteriophage transposase activity regulation gene expression ref name jorgtost ref name casadesus ref exists genetic switch controlling ''streptococcus pneumoniae'' pneumococcus allows bacterium randomly change characteristics six alternative states could pave way improved vaccines form randomly generated phase variable methylation system ability pneumococcus cause deadly infections different six states similar systems exist bacterial genera ref name mansooggioni ref ''firmicutes'' ''clostridioides difficile'' adenine methylation regulates sporulation biofilm formation host adaptation medicine epigenetics many varied potential


medical applications ref name pmid ref national institutes health announced million earmarked epigenetics research next five years announcing funding government officials noted epigenetics potential explain mechanisms aging human development origins cancer heart disease mental illness well several conditions investigators like randy jirtle phd duke university medical center think epigenetics may ultimately turn greater role disease genetics twins direct comparisons identical twins constitute optimal model interrogating environmental epigenetics


case humans different environmental exposures monozygotic identical twins epigenetically indistinguishable early years older twins remarkable differences overall content genomic distribution methylcytosine dna histone acetylation ref name moore twin pairs spent less lifetime together greater differences medical histories showed largest differences levels methylcytosine dna acetylation histones h h ref name pmid dizygotic fraternal monozygotic identical twins show evidence epigenetic influence humans ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref dna sequence differences would


abundant singleton based study interfere analysis environmental differences produce long term epigenetic effects different developmental monozygotic twin subtypes may different respect susceptibility discordant epigenetic point view ref name pmid ref high throughput study denotes technology looks extensive genetic markers focused epigenetic differences monozygotic twins compare global locus specific changes dna methylation histone modifications sample monozygotic twin pairs ref name pmid case healthy twin pairs studied wide range ages represented


years one major conclusions study age dependent accumulation epigenetic differences two siblings twin pairs accumulation suggests existence epigenetic drift epigenetic drift term given epigenetic modifications occur direct function age age known risk factor many diseases age related methylation found occur differentially specific sites along genome time result measurable differences biological chronological age epigenetic changes found


reflective lifestyle may act functional biomarkers disease clinical threshold reached recent study monozygotic twins dizygotic twins analyzed dna methylation status around unique genomic regions concluded epigenetic similarity time blastocyst splitting may also contribute phenotypic similarities monozygotic co twins supports notion microenvironment early stages embryonic development quite important establishment epigenetic marks ref name pmid congenital genetic disease well understood clear epigenetics play role


example case angelman syndrome prader willi syndrome normal genetic diseases caused gene deletions inactivation genes unusually common individuals essentially hemizygous genomic imprinting therefore single gene knock sufficient cause disease cases would require copies knocked genomic imprinting human disorders associated genomic imprinting phenomenon mammals father mother contribute different epigenetic patterns specific genomic loci germ cells ref name pmid ref best known case imprinting human


transcription rett syndrome underlain mutations mecp gene despite large scale changes expression mecp found microarray analyses bdnf downregulated mecp mutant resulting rett syndrome well increase early neural senescence accumulation damaged dna ref name ref verkalix study paternal maternal grandsons ref name paternal grandson person 's paternal grandson son son person maternal grandson son daughter ref swedish men exposed preadolescence famine th century less likely die


cardiovascular disease food plentiful diabetes mortality grandchildren increased suggesting transgenerational epigenetic inheritance ref name pmid robert winston refers study http wwwdundeeacuk externalrelations events lectureshtml lecture see also discussion leeds university https webarchiveorg web http wwwfbsleedsacuk staff pm epigeneticshtm ref opposite effect observed females paternal maternal granddaughters women experienced famine womb therefore eggs formed lived shorter lives average cancer variety epigenetic mechanisms perturbed different types cancer epigenetic alterations dna repair genes cell


cycle control genes frequent sporadic non germ line cancers significantly common germ line familial mutations sporadic cancers epigenetic alterations important cellular transformation cancer manipulation holds great promise cancer prevention detection therapy ref name novak ref ref name pmid ref several medications epigenetic impact used several diseases aspects epigenetics addressed cancer epigenetics diabetic wound healing epigenetic modifications given insight understanding pathophysiology different disease conditions though strongly associated cancer role pathological conditions


equal importance appears hyperglycaemic environment could imprint changes genomic level macrophages primed towards pro inflammatory state could fail exhibit phenotypic alteration towards pro healing type phenomenon altered macrophage polarization mostly associated diabetic complications clinical set several reports reveal relevance different epigenetic modifications respect diabetic complications sooner later advancements biomedical tools detection biomarkers prognostic diagnostic tools patients could possibly emerge alternative


approaches noteworthy mention use epigenetic modifications therapeutic targets warrant extensive preclinical well clinical evaluation prior use examples drugs altering gene expression epigenetic events use beta lactam antibiotics alter glutamate receptor activity action cyclosporine multiple transcription factors additionally lithium impact autophagy aberrant proteins opioid drugs via chronic use increase expression genes associated addictive phenotypes psychology psychiatry early life stress groundbreaking report caspi colleagues demonstrated robust


degree intergenerational inheritance remains stable throughout posterity ref name referenceb ref however whether extent epigenetic effects transmitted across generations remains unclear particularly humans ref name plomindefries ref addiction addiction disorder brain 's reward system arises transcriptional neuroepigenetic mechanisms occurs time chronically high levels exposure addictive stimulus eg morphine cocaine sexual intercourse gambling etc ref name nestler ref ref name cellular basis ref ref name fosb ref ref name g reverses fosb plasticity ref transgenerational epigenetic inheritance addictive phenotypes noted occur preclinical studies ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref however robust evidence support


persistence epigenetic effects across multiple generations yet established humans example epigenetic effect prenatal exposure smoking observed great grandchildren exposed ref name plomindefries meantime however evidence accumulating use cannabis mothers also parents pregnancy leads epigenetic alterations neonates known associated increased risk develop psychiatric disorders later lives autism adhd schizophrenia addictive behavior others ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref depression


epigenetic inheritance depression related phenotypes also reported preclinical study ref name ref inheritance paternal stress induced traits across generations involved small non coding rna signals transmitted via paternal germline research two forms heritable information namely genetic epigenetic collectively denoted dual inheritance members apobec aid family cytosine deaminases may concurrently influence genetic epigenetic inheritance using similar molecular mechanisms may point crosstalk conceptually compartmentalized processes ref name pmid ref fluoroquinolone antibiotics induce epigenetic changes mammalian cells iron chelation leads epigenetic effects inhibition


ketoglutarate dependent dioxygenases require iron co factor various pharmacological agents applied production induced pluripotent stem cells ipsc maintain embryonic stem cell esc phenotypic via epigenetic approach adult stem cells like bone marrow stem cells also shown potential differentiate cardiac competent cells treated g histone methyltransferase inhibitor bix pseudoscience epigenetics early stages development science surrounded sensationalism public media david gorski geneticist adam rutherford advised caution proliferation false pseudoscientific conclusions


epigenome project hep https webarchiveorg web http wwwepigenome noenet indexphp epigenome network excellence noe http wwwepigenomesca canadian epigenetics environment health research consortium ceehrc http wwwepigenomeeu epigenome network excellence noe public international site http discovermagazinecom nov cover dna destiny ''discover'' magazine cover story http wwwbbccouk sn tvradio programmes horizon ghostgenesshtml ghost genes ''horizon'' bbc https webarchiveorg web http wwwhopkinsmedicineorg press november epigeneticshtm epigenetics article hopkins medicine https webarchiveorg web http genomewellcomeacuk doc wtx html towards global map epigenetic variation genetic mapping lamarckism


logic '''fuzzy logic''' form many valued logic truth value variables may real number employed handle concept partial truth truth value may range completely true completely false contrast boolean logic truth values variables may integer values term ''fuzzy logic'' introduced proposal fuzzy set theory scientist lotfi zadeh fuzzy logic however studied since infinite valued logic notably

Formal science
Computer science
Logic in computer science
Fuzzy logic


ukasiewicz tarski fuzzy logic based observation people make decisions based imprecise non numerical information fuzzy models sets mathematical means representing vagueness imprecise information hence term fuzzy models capability recognising representing manipulating interpreting utilising data information vague lack certainty ref name babu ka ref fuzzy logic applied many fields control theory artificial intelligence overview classical logic permits conclusions either true false however also propositions variable answers one might find


asking group people identify color instances truth appears result reasoning inexact partial knowledge sampled answers mapped spectrum degrees truth probabilities range hence may seem similar first fuzzy logic uses degrees truth mathematical model ''vagueness'' probability mathematical model ''ignorance'' applying truth values basic application might characterize various sub ranges continuous variable instance temperature measurement anti lock brakes might


several separate membership functions defining particular temperature ranges needed control brakes properly function maps temperature value truth value range truth values used determine brakes controlled fuzzy set theory provides means representing uncertainty linguistic variables fuzzy logic applications non numeric values often used facilitate expression rules facts linguistic variable ''age'' may accept values ''young'' antonym ''old'' natural languages always contain enough value


assigning numerical input system fuzzy sets degree membership degree membership may anywhere within interval value belong given fuzzy set value completely belongs within fuzzy set value represents degree uncertainty value belongs set fuzzy sets typically described words assigning system input fuzzy sets reason linguistically


fairly cold therefore temperature membership fuzzy set warm membership fuzzy set cold degree membership assigned fuzzy set result fuzzification fuzzy logic temperature fuzzy sets often defined triangle trapezoid shaped curves value slope value increasing peak value equal length greater slope value decreasing also defined using sigmoid function one common case


standard logistic function defined math x frac e x math following symmetry property math display block x x math follows math display block x x cdot cdot z z math fuzzy logic operators fuzzy logic works membership values way mimics boolean logic end replacements basic operators must available several ways common replacement called ' 's'' class wikitable boolean fuzzy


xy min xy xy max xy x x true false fuzzy expressions produce result boolean expressions also operators linguistic nature called ''hedges'' applied generally adverbs ' 'very'' ' 'somewhat'' modify meaning set using mathematical formula however arbitrary choice table always define fuzzy logic function paper criterion formulated recognize whether given choice table defines fuzzy


logic function simple algorithm fuzzy logic function synthesis proposed based introduced concepts constituents minimum maximum fuzzy logic function represents disjunction constituents minimum constituent minimum conjunction variables current area greater equal function value area right function value inequality including function value another set operators based multiplication syntaxhighlight lang text x xy x x hence x


x x x x x x x x x xy syntaxhighlight given two possible derive third generalization known norm rules rules map input computed truth values desired output truth values example syntaxhighlight lang text temperature cold fan speed stopped temperature cold fan speed slow temperature warm fan speed


moderate temperature hot fan speed high syntaxhighlight given certain temperature fuzzy variable ''hot'' certain truth value copied ''high'' variable output variable occur several parts values respective parts combined using operator defuzzification goal get continuous variable fuzzy truth values would easy output truth values exactly obtained fuzzification given number since however output truth values computed independently cases


represent set numbers one decide number matches best intention encoded truth value example several truth values fan speed actual speed must found best fits computed truth values variables 'slow' 'moderate' single algorithm purpose common algorithm truth value cut membership function value combine resulting curves using operator find center weight area curve x position


rules case output entire rule base average consequent rule sub sub weighted according membership value antededent h sub sub math frac sum h cdot sum h math example rule linear output would instead syntaxhighlight lang text temperature cold humidity high temperature humidity syntaxhighlight case output rule result function consequent variables within function represent membership values


fuzzification '''not''' crisp values case entire rule base rules total output weighted average output rule main advantage using tsk mamdani computational efficient works well within algorithms pid control optimization algorithms also guarantee continuity output surface however mamdani intuitive easier work people hence tsk usually used within complex methods adaptive neuro fuzzy


based upon output rules applications charles elkan writes turns useful applications fuzzy logic high level artificial intelligence rather lower level machine control especially consumer products used control systems allow experts contribute vague rules close destination station moving fast increase train 's brake pressure vague rules numerically refined within system many early successful applications fuzzy logic implemented japan first notable application subway


train sendai fuzzy logic able improve economy comfort precision ride also used recognition hand written symbols sony pocket computers flight aid helicopters controlling subway systems order improve driving comfort precision halting power economy improved fuel consumption automobiles single button control washing machines automatic motor control vacuum cleaners recognition surface condition degree soiling prediction systems early recognition earthquakes institute seismology bureau meteorology japan artificial intelligence ai


one common application areas use fuzzy logic computer aided diagnosis cad medicine cad computerized set inter related tools used aid physicians diagnostic decision making example physician finds lesion abnormal still early stage development may use cad approach characterize lesion diagnose nature fuzzy logic highly appropriate describe key characteristics lesion fuzzy logic used many different aspects within cad framework aspects include medical


image analysis biomedical signal analysis segmentation images signals feature extraction selection images signals described instance biggest question application area much useful information derived using fuzzy logic major challenge derive required fuzzy data even challenging one elicit data humans usually patients said envelope achieved cannot achieved medical diagnosis ironically fuzzy one seven challenges


elicit fuzzy data validate accuracy data still ongoing effort strongly related application fuzzy logic problem assessing quality fuzzy data difficult one fuzzy logic highly promising possibility within cad application area still requires research achieve full potential although concepts using fuzzy logic cad exciting still several challenges fuzzy approaches face within cad framework logical analysis mathematical logic


several formal systems fuzzy logic family norm fuzzy logics propositional fuzzy logics important propositional fuzzy logics monoidal norm based propositional fuzzy logic mtl axiomatization logic conjunction defined left continuous norm implication defined residuum norm models correspond mtl algebras pre linear commutative bounded integral residuated lattices basic propositional fuzzy logic bl extension mtl logic conjunction defined continuous norm implication also defined residuum


norm models correspond bl algebras ukasiewicz fuzzy logic extension basic fuzzy logic bl standard conjunction ukasiewicz norm axioms basic fuzzy logic plus axiom double negation models correspond mv algebras g del fuzzy logic extension basic fuzzy logic bl conjunction g del norm minimum axioms bl plus axiom idempotence conjunction models called g algebras product fuzzy logic extension basic fuzzy logic bl conjunction


product norm axioms bl plus another axiom cancellativity conjunction models called product algebras fuzzy logic evaluated syntax sometimes also called pavelka 's logic denoted ev generalization mathematical fuzzy logic kinds fuzzy logic traditional syntax many valued semantics ev syntax also evaluated means formula evaluation axiomatization ev stems ukasziewicz fuzzy logic generalization classical g del completeness theorem provable ev predicate fuzzy logics extend mentioned fuzzy


logics adding universal existential quantifiers manner similar way predicate logic created propositional logic semantics universal quantifier norm fuzzy logics infimum truth degrees instances quantified subformula semantics existential quantifier supremum decidability issues fuzzy logic notions decidable subset recursively enumerable subset basic ones classical mathematics classical logic thus question suitable extension fuzzy set theory crucial one


first proposal direction made es santos notions ''fuzzy turing machine'' ''markov normal fuzzy algorithm'' ''fuzzy program'' see santos successively l biacino g gerla argued proposed definitions rather questionable example one shows fuzzy turing machines adequate fuzzy language theory since natural fuzzy languages intuitively computable cannot recognized fuzzy turing machine proposed following definitions denote '' '' set rational numbers fuzzy


subset ' 's'' ''s'' math rightarrow math set ''s'' recursively enumerable recursive map ''h'' ''s'' '''n''' math rightarrow math '' '' exists every ''x'' ''s'' function ''h'' ''x''''n'' increasing respect ''n'' ' 's'' ''x'' lim ''h'' ''x''''n'' say ' 's'' ' 'decidable'' ' 's'' complement ' 's'' recursively enumerable extension theory general case l subsets possible see gerla proposed definitions well related fuzzy logic indeed following theorem holds true provided deduction apparatus considered fuzzy


logic satisfies obvious effectiveness property axiomatizable fuzzy theory recursively enumerable particular fuzzy set logically true formulas recursively enumerable spite fact crisp set valid formulas recursively enumerable general moreover axiomatizable complete theory decidable open question give support church thesis fuzzy mathematics proposed notion recursive enumerability fuzzy subsets adequate one order solve extension notions fuzzy grammar fuzzy turing machine necessary another open


include fuzzy aspects sql statements like fuzzy conditions fuzzy comparators fuzzy constants fuzzy constraints fuzzy thresholds linguistic labels etc comparison probability fuzzy logic probability address different forms uncertainty fuzzy logic probability theory represent degrees certain kinds subjective belief fuzzy set theory uses concept fuzzy set membership ie much observation within vaguely defined set probability theory uses concept subjective probability ie frequency occurrence likelihood event condition concept fuzzy sets developed


mid twentieth century berkeley response lack probability theory jointly modelling uncertainty vagueness bart kosko claims fuzziness vs probability probability theory subtheory fuzzy logic questions degrees belief mutually exclusive set membership probability theory represented certain cases non mutually exclusive graded membership fuzzy theory context also derives bayes' theorem concept fuzzy subsethood lotfi zadeh argues fuzzy logic different character probability replacement fuzzified


probability fuzzy probability also generalized possibility theory generally fuzzy logic one many different extensions classical logic intended deal issues uncertainty outside scope classical logic inapplicability probability theory many domains paradoxes dempster shafer theory relation ecorithms computational theorist leslie valiant uses term ''ecorithms'' describe many less exact systems techniques like fuzzy logic less robust logic applied learning algorithms valiant essentially redefines machine learning evolutionary general use ecorithms algorithms learn


complex environments hence ''eco '' generalize approximate simplify solution logic like fuzzy logic methods used overcome continuous variables systems complex completely enumerate understand discretely exactly ecorithms fuzzy logic also common property dealing possibilities probabilities although feedback feed forward basically stochastic weights feature dealing example dynamical systems compensatory fuzzy logic compensatory fuzzy logic cfl branch fuzzy logic modified rules conjunction disjunction truth value


one component conjunction disjunction increased decreased component decreased increased compensate increase decrease truth value may offset increase decrease another component offset may blocked certain thresholds met proponents claim cfl allows better computational semantic behaviors mimic natural language compensatory fuzzy logic consists four continuous operators conjunction c disjunction fuzzy strict order negation n conjunction geometric mean dual conjunctive disjunctive operators ieee standard


ieee standard fuzzy markup language ieee ieee standard specification language named fuzzy markup language fml developed ieee standards association fml allows modelling fuzzy logic system human readable hardware independent way fml based extensible markup language xml designers fuzzy systems fml unified high level methodology describing interoperable fuzzy systems ieee standard uses w c xml schema definition language define syntax semantics fml programs prior introduction fml fuzzy logic practitioners could


exchange information fuzzy algorithms adding software functions ability read correctly parse store result work form compatible fuzzy control language fcl described specified part iec ref name di stefano ref ref name acamporaloia ref see also adaptive neuro fuzzy inference system anfis artificial neural network defuzzification expert system false dilemma fuzzy architectural spatial analysis fuzzy classification fuzzy concept fuzzy control language fuzzy control system fuzzy electronics fuzzy subalgebra fuzzyclips high performance fuzzy computing ieee transactions fuzzy systems interval finite element machine learning neuro fuzzy noise based


logic rough set sorites paradox type fuzzy sets systems vector logic references bibliography external links http encitizendiumorg wiki formal fuzzy logic formal fuzzy logic article citizendium http wwwfuzzytechcom binaries ieccd pdf iec cd iec cd pdf http wwwscholarpediaorg article fuzzy logic fuzzy logic article scholarpedia http wwwscholarpediaorg article modeling words modeling words article scholarpedia http platostanfordedu entries logic fuzzy fuzzy logic article stanford encyclopedia philosophy https webarchiveorg web http blogpeltarioncom fuzzy math part theory fuzzy math beginner level introduction fuzzy logic http wwwbeyondwilberca books mandala holism mysticism fuzziness exactnesshtml fuzziness exactness fuzziness everyday life science religion ethics politics etc http wwwfuzzylitecom fuzzylite cross platform free open source fuzzy logic control library written c also


useful graphic user interface qt https newsmitedu flexible machine learning flexible machine learning mit describes one application http webmitedu www fall projects writeups semantic similarity betweenverbspdf semantic similarity mit provides details fuzzy semantic similarity artificial intelligence logic computer science non classical logic probability interpretations iranian inventions azerbaijani inventions


'''grid computing''' use widely distributed computer resources reach common goal computing grid thought distributed system non interactive workloads involve many files grid computing distinguished conventional high performance computing systems cluster computing grid computers node set perform different task application grid computers also tend heterogeneous geographically dispersed thus physically coupled cluster computers although single grid dedicated particular application commonly grid used variety purposes grids

Formal science
Computer science
Distributed computing
Grid computing


supercomputers distributed grid computing general special type parallel computing relies complete computers onboard cpus storage power supplies network interfaces etc connected network private public internet conventional network interface producing commodity hardware compared lower efficiency designing constructing small number custom supercomputers primary performance disadvantage various processors local storage areas high speed connections arrangement thus well suited applications multiple parallel computations take place independently without need communicate intermediate


results processors high end scalability geographically dispersed grids generally favorable due low need connectivity nodes relative capacity public internet also differences programming mc costly difficult write programs run environment supercomputer may custom operating system require program address concurrency issues problem adequately parallelized thin layer grid infrastructure allow conventional standalone programs given different part problem run


actually performing calculations might entirely trustworthy designers system must thus introduce measures prevent malfunctions malicious participants producing false misleading erroneous results using system attack vector often involves assigning work randomly different nodes presumably different owners checking least two different nodes report answer given work unit discrepancies would identify malfunctioning malicious nodes however due lack central control hardware way guarantee nodes drop


network random times nodes like laptops dial internet customers may also available computation network communications unpredictable periods variations accommodated assigning large work units thus reducing need continuous network connectivity reassigning work units given node fails report results expected time another set could termed social compatibility issues early days grid computing related goals grid developers carry innovation beyond original field high performance computing across disciplinary


boundaries new fields like high energy physics impacts trust availability performance development difficulty influence choice whether deploy onto dedicated cluster idle machines internal developing organization open external network volunteers contractors many cases participating nodes must trust central system abuse access granted interfering operation programs mangling stored information transmitting private data creating new security holes systems employ measures reduce amount trust client


nodes must place central system placing applications virtual machines public systems crossing administrative domains including different departments organization often result need run heterogeneous systems using different operating systems hardware architectures many languages trade investment software development number platforms supported thus size resulting network cross platform languages reduce need make tradeoff though potentially expense high performance given node due run time interpretation


lack optimization particular platform various middleware projects created generic infrastructure allow diverse scientific commercial projects harness particular associated grid purpose setting new grids boinc common one various academic projects seeking public volunteers listed end article fact middleware seen layer hardware software top middleware number technical areas considered may may middleware independent example areas include


saas market grid middleware specific software product enables sharing heterogeneous resources virtual organizations installed integrated existing infrastructure involved company companies provides special layer placed among heterogeneous infrastructure specific user applications major grid middlewares globus toolkit glite unicore utility computing referred provision grid computing applications service either open grid utility hosting solution one organization vo major players utility computing market sun microsystems


ibm hp grid enabled applications specific software applications utilize grid infrastructure made possible use grid middleware pointed software service saas software owned delivered managed remotely one providers gartner additionally saas applications based single set common code data definitions consumed one many model saas uses pay go payg model subscription model based usage providers saas necessarily computing resources


required run saas therefore saas providers may draw upon utility computing market utility computing market provides computing resources saas providers user side companies demand user side grid computing market different segments significant implications deployment strategy deployment strategy well type investments made relevant aspects potential grid users play important role grid adoption cpu scavenging '''cpu scavenging''' '''cycle scavenging''' '' 'shared computing''' creates grid idle resources network


participants whether worldwide internal organization typically technique exploits 'spare' instruction cycles resulting intermittent inactivity typically occurs night lunch breaks even comparatively minuscule though numerous moments idle waiting modern desktop cpu 's experience throughout day computer waiting io user network storage practice participating computers also donate supporting amount disk storage space ram network bandwidth addition raw cpu power many volunteer computing projects boinc use cpu scavenging model since nodes


likely go offline time time owners use resources primary purpose model must designed handle contingencies creating '''opportunistic environment''' another implementation cpu scavenging special workload management system harvests idle desktop computers compute intensive jobs also refers enterprise desktop grid edg instance htcondor open source high throughput computing software framework coarse grained distributed rationalization computationally intensive tasks configured use desktop machines keyboard mouse idle effectively harness wasted cpu power otherwise idle desktop


seminal work grid blueprint new computing infrastructure preceded decades metaphor utility computing computing public utility analogous phone system cpu scavenging volunteer computing popularized beginning distributednet later seti home harness power networked pcs worldwide order solve cpu intensive research problems ref name anderson ref ref name durrani ref ideas grid including distributed computing object oriented programming web services brought together ian foster steve tuecke university chicago carl kesselman


university southern california 's information sciences institute trio led effort create globus toolkit widely regarded fathers grid toolkit incorporates computation management also storage management security provisioning data movement monitoring toolkit developing additional services based infrastructure including agreement negotiation notification mechanisms trigger services information aggregation globus toolkit remains de facto standard building grid solutions number tools built answer subset services needed create


collaborative numerical investigation complex problems physics particular modeling black hole collisions award one highest honors computing awarded achievements numerical relativity fastest virtual supercomputers april boinc nbsp pflops ref name boincstats ref march folding home nbsp exaflops ref name fah osstats ref february einstein home nbsp pflops april seti home nbsp pflops april milkyway home nbsp pflops march gimps nbsp pflops also march bitcoin network measured computing power equivalent


exaflops floating point operations per second ref name bitcoin network statistics ref measurement reflects number flops required equal hash output bitcoin network rather capacity general floating point arithmetic operations since elements bitcoin network bitcoin mining asics perform specific cryptographic hash computation required bitcoin protocol projects applications grid computing offers way solve grand challenge problems protein folding financial modeling earthquake simulation climate weather modeling integral enabling large hadron collider cern grids offer way using information


technology resources optimally inside organization also provide means offering information technology utility commercial noncommercial clients clients paying use electricity water october million machines running open source berkeley open infrastructure network computing boinc platform members world community grid ref name boincstats one projects using boinc seti home using computers achieve tflops october october folding home part boinc achieved


x equivalent petaflops machines ref name fah osstats european union funded projects framework programmes european commission beingrid business experiments grid research project funded european commission integrated project sixth framework programme fp sponsorship program started june project ran months november project coordinated atos origin according project fact sheet mission establish effective routes foster adoption grid computing across eu stimulate research innovative


business models using grid technologies extract best practice common themes experimental implementations two groups consultants analyzing series pilots one technical one business project significant long duration also budget million euros largest fp integrated project million provided european commission remainder contributing partner companies since end project results beingrid taken carried forward tudecom enabling grids


e science project based european union included sites asia united states follow project european datagrid edg evolved european grid infrastructure along lhc computing grid lcg developed support experiments using cern large hadron collider list active sites participating within lcg found online real time monitoring egee infrastructure relevant software documentation also publicly accessible speculation dedicated fiber optic links installed cern address lcg 's data intensive


needs may one day available home users thereby providing internet services speeds times faster traditional broadband connection european grid infrastructure also used research activities experiments simulation oncological clinical trials distributednet project started nasa advanced supercomputing facility nas ran genetic algorithms using condor cycle scavenger running sun microsystems sgi workstations united devices operated united devices cancer research project based grid mp product cycle scavenges volunteer pcs connected


processing power storage capacity vast array computing resources internet grid type parallel distributed system enables sharing selection aggregation resources distributed across multiple administrative domains based resources availability capacity performance cost users' quality service requirements earlier example notion computing utility mit 's fernando corbat corbat designers multics operating system envisioned computer facility operating like power company water company buyya venugopal define grid type parallel


grid engine international projects class wikitable name region start end european grid infrastructure egi europe may dec open middleware infrastructure institute europe omii europe europe may may enabling grids e science egee egee ii egee iii europe march april grid enabled remote instrumentation distributed control computation gridcc europe september september european middleware initiative emi europe may active


knowarc europe june november nordic data grid facility scandinavia finland june december world community grid global november active xtreemos europe june may ext september ourgrid brazil december active national projects gridpp uk cngrid china grid germany garuda india vecc calcutta india isragrid israel infn grid italy pl grid poland national grid service uk open science grid usa teragrid usa standards apis distributed resource management application


api drmaa technology agnostic information model uniform representation grid resources glue grid remote procedure call gridrpc grid security infrastructure gsi open grid services architecture ogsa open grid services infrastructure ogsi simple api grid applications saga web services resource framework wsrf monitoring frameworks gstat references bibliography https webarchiveorg web http wwwgridbusorg raj papers gmchapterpdf global grids software toolkits study four grid middleware technologies https webarchiveorg web http hv physlsuedu cookbook gtcb indexphp grid technology cookbook francesco lelli eric frizziero michele gulmini gaetano maron salvatore orlando andrea petrucci silvano squizzato ''the many faces integration instruments grid'' international journal web grid


'''arms control''' term international restrictions upon development production stockpiling proliferation usage small arms conventional weapons weapons mass destruction arms control typically exercised use diplomacy seeks impose limitations upon consenting participants international treaties agreements although may also comprise efforts nation group nations enforce limitations upon non consenting country enactment arms control treaties agreements often seen way avoid costly arms races could prove counter productive national aims future

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Arms control


peace used ways stop spread certain military technologies nuclear weaponry missile technology return assurances potential developers victims technologies additionally arms control agreements entered limit damage done warfare especially civilians environment seen bad participants regardless wins war arms control treaties seen many peace proponents key tool war participants often seen simply ways


limit high costs development building weapons even reduce costs associated war arms control even way maintaining viability military action limiting weapons would make war costly destructive make longer viable tool national policy enforcement enforcement arms control agreements proven difficult time agreements rely continued desire participants abide terms remain effective usually nation longer desires


abide terms usually seek either covertly circumvent terms simply end participation treaty seen washington naval treaty subsequent london naval treaty participants sought work around limitations legitimately others united states developed better technology get better performance ships still working within weight limits united kingdom exploited loop hole terms italians misrepresented weight vessels limits japan simply left


given token measures political allies recent arms control treaties included stringent terms enforcement violations well verification last major obstacle effective enforcement violators often attempt covertly circumvent terms agreements verification process determining whether nation complying terms agreement involves combination release information participants well way allow participants examine verify information often


involves much negotiation limits cases questions verification led breakdown treaty negotiations example verification cited major concern opponents comprehensive test ban treaty ultimately ratified united states nations may remain treaty seeking break limits treaty opposed simply withdrawing two major reasons openly defy agreement even one withdraws often seen bad light politically carry diplomatic repercussions additionally


arms race stability arms control comes cost reduction damage limitation different disarmament since maintenance stability might allow mutually controlled armament take peace without weapons stance nevertheless arms control defensive strategy principle since transparency equality stability fit offensive strategy according study ''american political science review'' arms control rare successful arms control agreements involve difficult trade transparency security arms control agreements effective needs way


thoroughly verify state following agreement intrusive inspections however states often reluctant submit inspections reasons fear inspectors use inspections gather information capabilities state could used future conflict history pre th century one first recorded attempts arms control set rules laid ancient greece amphictyonic leagues rulings specified war could waged breaches could punished fines


war recorded attempts control arms period rise roman catholic church th th centuries ad swords chain mail armor manufactured frankish empire highly sought quality charlemagne r made sale export foreigners illegal punishable forfeiture property even death attempt limit possession use equipment franks' enemies including moors vikings slavs church used position


trans national organization limit means warfare peace god extended ruling protected noncombatants agrarian economic facilities property church war truce god also tried prevent violence christians second lateran council prohibited use crossbows christians although prevent use non christians development firearms led increase devastation war brutality wars period led efforts formalize rules war humane treatment prisoners


war wounded well rules protect non combatants pillaging property however period beginning th century formal arms control agreements recorded except theoretical proposals imposed defeated armies one treaty concluded strasbourg agreement first international agreement limiting use chemical weapons case poison bullets treaty signed france holy roman empire th century rush bagot treaty united states united kingdom first


conference led signing hague convention led rules declaring conducting warfare well use modern weaponry also led setting permanent court arbitration second hague conference called leading additions amendments original agreement third hague conference called abandoned due first world war world war league nations set attempted limit reduce arms


however enforcement policy effective various naval conferences washington naval conference held period first second world wars limit number size major warships five great naval powers geneva conference led banning chemical weapons toxic gases war part geneva protocol kellogg briand pact whilst ineffective attempted providing renunciation war instrument national policy since gorbachev us president reagan signing inf treaty


reluctance countries developing nuclear programs brazil argentina south africa still countries exception india israel pakistan south sudan decided sign ratify document strategic arms limitation talks salt united states soviet union late early led weapons control agreements salt talks led anti ballistic missile treaty ''interim strategic arms limitation agreement'' see salt salt ii talks started leading agreement due soviet union 's


invasion afghanistan united states never ratified treaty agreement honoured sides intermediate range nuclear forces treaty signed united states soviet union ratified leading agreement destroy missiles ranges kilometers chemical weapons convention signed banning manufacture use chemical weapons strategic arms reduction treaties signed start start ii us soviet union restricting weapons moved treaty


strategic offensive reductions turn superseded new start treaty un vote adoption treaty prohibition nuclear weapons july br comprehensive test ban treaty signed banning nuclear explosions environments military civilian purposes entered force due non ratification eight specific states united nations founded united nations office disarmament affairs unoda goal promote nuclear disarmament non proliferation strengthening disarmament regimes respect


weapons mass destruction chemical biological weapons also promotes disarmament efforts area conventional weapons especially landmines small arms often weapons choice contemporary conflicts addition treaties focused primarily stopping proliferation nuclear weapons recent movement regulate sale trading conventional weapons december united nations preparing entry force arms trade treaty ratified nations however currently missing ratification key arms producers


russia china united states signed treaty yet ratified treaty regulates international trade almost categories conventional weapons small arms battle tanks combat aircraft warships ammunition well parts components also covered recently united nations announced adoption treaty prohibition nuclear weapons following th ratification accession member states list treaties conventions related arms control important international arms control


agreements follow treaty versailles limited size germany 's military world war washington naval treaty part naval conferences set limitations construction battleships battlecruisers aircraft carriers well tonnage quotas cruisers destroyers submarines united states united kingdom japan france italy geneva protocol prohibited use biological chemical weapons combat antarctic treaty signed entered force prohibited military conflict antarctica partial test ban treaty signed entered force prohibited


nuclear weapons testing atmosphere outer space treaty signed entered force prohibited deployment weapons mass destruction including nuclear weapons space nuclear non proliferation treaty signed entered force prohibited countries without nuclear weapons acquiring committing nuclear armed states eventual disarmament seabed arms control treaty signed entered force prohibited underwater nuclear tests strategic arms limitation treaty salt signed ratified force limited introduction new intercontinental ballistic missile launchers submarine launched ballistic missiles anti ballistic missile treaty signed entered


force terminated following us withdrawal restricted anti ballistic missiles biological weapons convention signed entered force prohibited production biological weapons threshold test ban treaty signed entered force limited nuclear weapons tests kilotons salt ii signed never entered force limited production long range intercontinental ballistic missiles environmental modification convention signed entered force prohibited military use environmental modification techniques convention certain conventional weapons signed entered force restricted certain conventional weapons landmines incendiary weapons


laser weapons well requiring clearance unexploded ordnances moon treaty signed entered force prohibits militarization moon intermediate range nuclear forces treaty inf treaty signed entered force united states russia announced withdrawal limited short range intermediate range ballistic missiles treaty conventional armed forces europe cfe treaty signed entered force established limits deployment conventional military forces europe nato warsaw pact strategic arms reduction treaty start signed entered force expired start


successor expired salt agreements provided limitations strategic offensive arms chemical weapons convention signed entered force prohibited production stockpiling chemical weapons start ii signed ratified united states russia terminated following russian withdrawal prohibited intercontinental ballistic missiles multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles open skies treaty signed entered force allowed unarmed reconnaissance flights nato russia comprehensive nuclear test ban treaty signed entered force prohibited nuclear weapons testing ottawa treaty anti personnel landmines signed entered


nuclear weapons signed entered force january prohibits nuclear weapons nuclear weapon free zone treaties treaty tlatelolco latin america caribbean signed entered force treaty rarotonga south pacific signed entered force treaty bangkok southeast asia signed entered force treaty pelindaba africa signed entered force treaty semipalatinsk central asia signed entered force treaties also envision creation nwfz among objectives following antarctic treaty signed entered force outer space


treaty signed entered force seabed arms control treaty signed entered force treaties entered force comprehensive test ban treaty signed prohibits nuclear weapons testing proposed treaties fissile material cut treaty would prohibit production fissile material nuclear weapons convention would prohibit nuclear weapons space preservation treaty would prohibit militarization space final document framework united nations conference illicit trade small arms would regulate small arms trade export control regimes zangger committee since nuclear suppliers group nsg since


australia group since missile technology control regime mtcr since wassenaar arrangement since nonbinding declarations ayacucho declaration arms control organizations intergovernmental organizations arms control following international atomic energy agency iaea organisation prohibition chemical weapons opcw organization security cooperation europe osce functions besides arms control preparatory commission comprehensive nuclear test ban treaty organization ctbto prepcom conference disarmament cd united nations office disarmament affairs unoda united nations institute disarmament research unidir disbanded united nations monitoring verification inspection commission unmovic


successor united nations special commission unscom failed proposal organisation prohibition biological weapons also numerous non governmental organizations promote global reduction nuclear arms offer research analysis us nuclear weapons policy pre eminent among organizations arms control association founded promote public understanding support arms control others include federation american scientists fas founded federation atomic scientists veterans manhattan project campaign nuclear disarmament leading disarmament organization united kingdom


founded peace action formerly sane committee sane nuclear policy founded physicians social responsibility psr founded bernard lown council livable world founded physicist le szil rd scientists believed nuclear weapons controlled eventually eliminated stockholm international peace research institute sipri founded union concerned scientists ucs founded faculty students massachusetts institute technology arms control association founded center arms control non proliferation founded sister organization


council livable world international physicians prevention nuclear war ippnw founded alliance nuclear accountability national network organizations working address issues nuclear weapons production waste cleanup founded military production network global zero founded see also references reading boni giuseppe gagliano maurizio ''sicurezza internazionale e controllo degli armamenti'' new press coe andrew j jane waynman arms control rare ''american political science review'' croft stuart ''strategies arms control history typology'' manchester university press eloranta jari


league nations fail ''cliometrica'' https wwwacademiaedu download league nations fail isou pdf online league nations forsberg randall ed ''arms control reporter '' cambridge mit press glynn patrick ''closing pandora 's box arms races arms control history cold war'' https archiveorg details closingpandorasb glyn online larsen jeffrey ''historical dictionary arms control disarmament'' https archiveorg details historicaldictio lars online mutschlerm max ''arms control space exploring conditions preventive arms control'' palgrave macmillan smith james gwendolyn hall eds ''milestones strategic arms control united states air force roles outcomes'' https wwwairuniversityafedu portals aupress books b smith hall strategic arms controlpdf online thompson


disarmament affairs http wwwarmscontrolcenterorg center arms control non proliferation https webarchiveorg web http wwwclworg council livable world http wwwdisarmamentinsightblogspotcom disarmament insight initiative https webarchiveorg web http wwwsipriorg research disarmament stockholm international peace research institute 's research arms control non proliferation http legalunorg avl ls asada acdhtml lecture http legalunorg avl pdf ls asada biopdf masahiko asada entitled ''nuclear weapons international law'' http legalunorg avl lectureserieshtml lecture series united nations audiovisual library international law arms trafficking international law international relations


'''computer engineering''' '''coe''' '''cpe''' branch engineering integrates several fields computer science electronic engineering required develop computer hardware software computer engineers usually training electronic engineering electrical engineering software design hardware software integration instead software engineering electronic engineering computer engineers involved many hardware software aspects computing design individual microcontrollers microprocessors personal computers supercomputers circuit design field engineering focuses computer systems work also integrate larger picture

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Electrical Engineering
Computer engineering


usual tasks involving computer engineers include writing software firmware embedded microcontrollers designing vlsi chips designing analog sensors designing mixed signal circuit boards designing operating systems computer engineers also suited robotics research relies heavily using digital systems control monitor electrical systems like motors communications sensors many institutions higher learning computer engineering students allowed choose areas depth study junior senior year full breadth knowledge used design application computers beyond scope undergraduate degree


institutions may require engineering students complete one two years general engineering declaring computer engineering primary focus computer motherboard used personal computer result computer engineering efforts history difference engine first mechanical computer eniac first electronic computer computer engineering began john vincent atanasoff clifford berry began developing world 's first electronic digital computer physics mathematics electrical engineering john vincent atanasoff physics mathematics teacher iowa state university clifford berry former graduate electrical engineering physics


together created atanasoff berry computer also known abc took years complete original abc dismantled discarded tribute made late inventors replica abc made took team researchers engineers four years build modern personal computer emerged several breakthroughs semiconductor technology include first working transistor william shockley john bardeen walter brattain bell labs silicon surface passivation process via thermal


federico faggin marcian hoff masatoshi shima stanley mazor intel ref name computerhistory ref history computer engineering education first computer engineering degree program united states established case western reserve university cleveland ohio abet accredited computer engineering programs us europe accreditation computer engineering schools done variety agencies part eqanie network due increasing job requirements engineers concurrently design hardware software firmware manage forms computer systems used industry tertiary


institutions around world offer bachelor 's degree generally called computer engineering computer engineering electronic engineering programs include analog digital circuit design curriculum engineering disciplines sound knowledge mathematics science necessary computer engineers education computer engineering referred computer science engineering universities entry level computer engineering jobs require least bachelor 's degree computer engineering computer science engineering typically one must learn array mathematics calculus algebra trigonometry computer science classes sometimes


degree electronic engineering accepted due similarity two fields hardware engineers commonly work computer software systems strong background computer programming necessary according bls computer engineering major similar electrical engineering computer science courses added curriculum ref name che ref large firms specialized jobs require master 's degree also important computer engineers keep rapid advances technology therefore many continue learning throughout careers helpful especially comes learning new skills


engineer engr ccpe passed certification exam computer engineering small institution private institution computer engineering organizations private companies small registered computer engineer engr rcpe passed licensure exam computer engineering small institution public institution country 's regulatory board small professional computer engineer engr pcpe passed professional exam computer engineering work experience small institution public private institution small colspan small ''may vary region country'' small applications practice two major focuses computer engineering hardware software computer hardware engineering according bls job outlook employment computer hardware


engineers expected ten year growth computer hardware engineering estimated total jobs slower average words compared occupations ref name hweng ref decrease bls computer hardware engineering estimate total jobs ref name hweng bls estimate ref name hweng bls estimate ref name hweng today computer hardware somehow equal electronic computer


engineering ece divided many subcategories significant embedded system design ref name che computer software engineering according us bureau labor statistics bls computer applications software engineers computer systems software engineers projected among faster average growing occupations expected ten year growth computer software engineering estimated seventeen percent total jobs year ref name softdev ref bls estimate software developers ref name cse ref ref


name softdev bls estimate ref name cse ref addition growing concerns cybersecurity add put computer software engineering high average rate increase fields however work outsourced foreign countries due job growth fast last decade jobs would gone computer software engineers united states would instead go computer software engineers countries india ref name blsgov ref addition bls job outlook computer


programmers decline words ref name blsgov job outlook decline program computers ie embedded systems computer application developers furthermore women software fields declining years even faster engineering fields computer engineering licensing practice computer engineering generally practiced within larger product development firms practice may subject licensing however independent consultants advertise computer engineering like form engineering may subject state laws restrict professional engineer practice


received appropriate license national council examiners engineering surveying ncees first offered principles practice engineering examination computer engineering specialty areas many specialty areas field computer engineering processor design processor design process involves choosing instruction set certain execution paradigm eg vliw risc results microarchitecture might described eg vhdl verilog cpu design divided design following components datapaths alus pipelines control unit logic controls datapaths