front end middle end back end ''front end'' scans input verifies syntax semantics according specific source language statically typed languages performs type checking collecting type information input program syntactically incorrect type error generates error warning messages usually identifying location source code problem detected cases actual error may much earlier program aspects front end include lexical analysis syntax analysis semantic analysis front end transforms


solving well developed currently implemented production quality compilers typically output back end machine code specialized particular processor operating system front middle back end approach makes possible combine front ends different languages back ends different cpus sharing optimizations middle end practical examples approach gnu compiler collection clang llvm based c c compiler ref name lattnerbook st ref amsterdam compiler kit multiple front ends shared optimizations multiple back ends front end lexer parser example c starting sequence

Formal science
Computer science
Programming languages
Compilers


characters code net total net tax code scanner composes sequence tokens categorizes example latter sequence transformed parser syntax tree treated remaining compiler phases scanner parser handles regular properly context free parts grammar c respectively front end analyzes source code build internal representation program called intermediate representation ir also manages symbol table data structure mapping symbol source code associated information


location type scope frontend single monolithic function program scannerless parser traditionally implemented analyzed several phases may execute sequentially concurrently method favored due modularity separation concerns commonly today frontend broken three phases lexical analysis also known lexing scanning syntax analysis also known scanning parsing semantic analysis lexing parsing comprise syntactic analysis word syntax phrase syntax respectively simple cases modules lexer parser


automatically generated grammar language though complex cases require manual modification lexical grammar phrase grammar usually context free grammars simplifies analysis significantly context sensitivity handled semantic analysis phase semantic analysis phase generally complex written hand partially fully automated using attribute grammars phases broken lexing scanning evaluating parsing building concrete syntax tree cst parse tree transforming abstract syntax tree ast syntax tree


cases additional phases used notably ''line reconstruction'' ''preprocessing'' rare main phases front end include following '''' converts input character sequence canonical form ready parser languages strop keywords allow arbitrary spaces within identifiers require phase top recursive descent table driven parsers used typically read source one character time require separate tokenizing phase atlas autocode imp implementations algol coral examples stropped languages whose compilers would


''line reconstruction'' phase ''preprocessing'' supports macro substitution conditional compilation typically preprocessing phase occurs syntactic semantic analysis eg case c preprocessor manipulates lexical tokens rather syntactic forms however languages scheme support macro substitutions based syntactic forms ''lexical analysis'' also known ''lexing'' ''tokenization'' breaks source code text sequence small pieces called ''lexical tokens'' phase divided two stages ' 'scanning'' segments input text syntactic units called ''lexemes'' assigns category ''evaluating''


converts lexemes processed value token pair consisting ''token name'' optional ''token value'' common token categories may include identifiers keywords separators operators literals comments although set token categories varies different programming languages lexeme syntax typically regular language finite state automaton constructed regular expression used recognize software lexical analysis called lexical analyzer may separate step combined parsing step scannerless parsing case parsing


type errors object binding associating variable function references definitions definite assignment requiring local variables initialized use rejecting incorrect programs issuing warnings semantic analysis usually requires complete parse tree meaning phase logically follows parsing phase logically precedes code generation phase though often possible fold multiple phases one pass code compiler implementation middle end middle end also known ''optimizer'' performs optimizations intermediate representation order improve performance quality


intermediate language representation transformed functionally equivalent faster smaller forms popular optimizations inline expansion dead code elimination constant propagation loop transformation even automatic parallelization compiler analysis prerequisite compiler optimization tightly work together example dependence analysis crucial loop transformation scope compiler analysis optimizations vary greatly scope may range operating within basic block whole procedures even whole program trade granularity optimizations cost compilation example peephole


optimizations fast perform compilation affect small local fragment code performed independently context code fragment appears contrast interprocedural optimization requires compilation time memory space enable optimizations possible considering behavior multiple functions simultaneously interprocedural analysis optimizations common modern commercial compilers hp ibm sgi intel microsoft sun microsystems free software gcc criticized long time lacking powerful interprocedural optimizations changing respect another


open source compiler full analysis optimization infrastructure open used many organizations research commercial purposes due extra time space needed compiler analysis optimizations compilers skip default users use compilation options explicitly tell compiler optimizations enabled back end back end responsible cpu architecture specific optimizations code generation ref name hjort blindell gabriel '''' main phases back end include following ''machine dependent optimizations'' optimizations depend details


software engineering deals trying show compiler behaves according language specification techniques include developing compiler using formal methods using rigorous testing often called compiler validation existing compiler compiled versus interpreted languages higher level programming languages usually appear type translation mind either designed compiled language interpreted language however practice rarely anything language ' 'requires'' exclusively compiled exclusively interpreted although possible design languages rely interpretation run time categorization usually


reflects popular widespread implementations language instance basic sometimes called interpreted language c compiled one despite existence basic compilers c interpreters interpretation replace compilation completely hides user makes gradual even though interpreter interpreted directly executed program needed somewhere bottom execution stack see machine language furthermore optimization compilers contain interpreter functionality interpreters may include ahead time compilation techniques example expression


executed compilation results inserted output program prevents recalculated time program runs greatly speed final program modern trends toward time compilation bytecode interpretation times blur traditional categorizations compilers interpreters even language specifications spell implementations ''must'' include compilation facility example common lisp however nothing inherent definition common lisp stops interpreted languages features easy implement interpreter make


writing compiler much harder example apl snobol many scripting languages allow programs construct arbitrary source code runtime regular string operations execute code passing special evaluation function implement features compiled language programs must usually shipped runtime library includes version compiler types one classification compilers platform generated code executes known ''target platform'' ''native'' ''hosted'' compiler one whose output intended


directly run type computer operating system compiler runs output cross compiler designed run different platform cross compilers often used developing software embedded systems intended support software development environment output compiler produces code virtual machine vm may may executed platform compiler produced reason compilers usually classified native cross compilers lower level language


target compiler may high level programming language c viewed sort portable assembly language frequently target language compilers example cfront original compiler c used c target language c code generated compiler usually intended readable maintained humans indent style creating pretty c intermediate code ignored features c make good target language include code line code directive generated compiler


support debugging original source wide platform support available c compilers common compiler type outputs machine code many types source source compilers type compiler takes high level language input outputs high level language example automatic parallelizing compiler frequently take high level language program input transform code annotate parallel code annotations eg openmp language constructs eg fortran 's code doall code statements terms source source compilers language translator language converter language rewriter


readable assembly language machine code actual instructions executed hardware inverse program translates machine code assembly language called disassembler program translates low level language higher level one decompiler program translates object code format supported compilation machine called cross compiler commonly used prepare code embedded applications program rewrites object code back type object code applying optimisations transformations binary recompiler see


also abstract interpretation bottom parsing compile go loader compile farm list compilers metacompilation references reading xiv pages https webarchiveorg web http wwwinformatikuni trierde ley db books compiler indexhtml compiler textbook references collection references mainstream compiler construction textbooks external links http scheme csuchicagoedu ghuloumpdf incremental approach compiler construction pdf tutorial explaining key conceptual difference compilers interpreters http compilersiecccom crenshaw let 's build compiler jack crenshaw american inventions compiler construction computer libraries programming language implementation utility software types


complexity theory '''complex analysis''' traditionally known '''theory functions complex variable''' branch mathematical analysis investigates functions complex numbers helpful many branches mathematics including algebraic geometry number theory analytic combinatorics applied mathematics well physics including branches hydrodynamics thermodynamics particularly quantum mechanics extension use complex analysis also applications engineering fields nuclear aerospace mechanical electrical engineering differentiable function complex variable equal taylor series analytic complex

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Analysis
Complex analysis


analysis particularly concerned analytic functions complex variable holomorphic functions history mandelbrot set fractal complex analysis one classical branches mathematics roots th century prior important mathematicians associated complex numbers include euler gauss riemann cauchy weierstrass many th century complex analysis particular theory conformal mappings many physical applications also used throughout analytic number theory modern times become popular new boost complex dynamics pictures


fractals produced iterating holomorphic functions another important application complex analysis string theory examines conformal invariants quantum field theory complex functions exponential function discrete integer variable similar geometric progression complex function function complex numbers complex numbers words function subset complex numbers domain complex numbers codomain complex functions generally supposed domain contains nonempty open subset complex plane


complex function values math z math domain images math f z math range may separated real imaginary parts math z x iy quad text quad f z f x iy u xy iv xy math math xyu xy v xy math real valued words complex function math f mathbb c mathbb c math may decomposed math u mathbb r mathbb r quad math math quad v mathbb r mathbb r math ie two real valued functions math u math math v math two real variables math x math math math similarly complex valued function arbitrary set considered ordered pair two real valued functions alternatively vector valued function


math mathbb r math properties complex valued functions continuity nothing corresponding properties vector valued functions two real variables concepts complex analysis differentiability direct generalizations similar concepts real functions may different properties particular every differentiable complex function analytic see next section two differentiable functions equal neighborhood point equal intersection domain domains connected latter property basis principle analytic continuation allows


''n'' th derivative real functions furthermore holomorphic functions satisfy stronger condition analyticity meaning function every point domain locally given convergent power series essence means functions holomorphic math omega math approximated arbitrarily well polynomials neighborhood every point math omega math stands sharp contrast differentiable real functions infinitely differentiable real functions ''nowhere'' analytic see elementary functions including exponential function trigonometric functions polynomial functions extended appropriately complex


arguments functions nowrap math mathbb c mathbb c math holomorphic entire complex plane making ''entire'' ''functions'' rational functions math p q math ''p'' ''q'' polynomials holomorphic domains exclude points ''q'' zero functions holomorphic everywhere except set isolated points known ''meromorphic functions'' hand functions math z mapsto bar z math holomorphic anywhere complex plane shown failure satisfy cauchy riemann conditions see important property holomorphic functions relationship partial


derivatives real imaginary components known cauchy riemann conditions math f mathbb c mathbb c math defined holomorphic region math z omega math math frac partial f partial bar z z text frac partial partial bar z mathrel frac left frac partial partial x frac partial partial right math terms real imaginary parts function ''u'' ''v'' equivalent pair equations math u x v math math u v x math subscripts indicate partial differentiation however cauchy riemann conditions characterize holomorphic functions without additional continuity conditions see looman menchoff theorem holomorphic functions exhibit remarkable features


instance picard 's theorem asserts range entire function take three possible forms nowrap math mathbb c math nowrap math mathbb c setminus z math math z math nowrap math z mathbb c math words two distinct complex numbers math z math math w math range entire function math f math constant function moreover holomorphic function connected open set determined restriction nonempty open subset major results color wheel graph function br hue represents argument brightness magnitude one central tools complex analysis


line integral line integral around closed path function holomorphic everywhere inside area bounded closed path always zero stated cauchy integral theorem values holomorphic function inside disk computed path integral disk 's boundary shown cauchy 's integral formula path integrals complex plane often used determine complicated real integrals theory residues among others applicable see methods contour integration pole isolated singularity function


point function 's value becomes unbounded blows function pole one compute function 's residue used compute path integrals involving function content powerful residue theorem remarkable behavior holomorphic functions near essential singularities described picard 's theorem functions poles essential singularities called meromorphic laurent series complex valued equivalent taylor series used study behavior functions near singularities infinite sums well


understood functions polynomials bounded function holomorphic entire complex plane must constant liouville 's theorem used provide natural short proof fundamental theorem algebra states field complex numbers algebraically closed function holomorphic throughout connected domain values fully determined values smaller subdomain function larger domain said analytically continued values smaller domain allows extension


one complex dimension analytic properties power series expansion carry whereas geometric properties holomorphic functions one complex dimension conformality carry riemann mapping theorem conformal relationship certain domains complex plane may important result one dimensional theory fails dramatically higher dimensions major application certain complex spaces quantum mechanics wave functions see also analytic continuation vector calculus complex dynamics list complex analysis topics monodromy theorem real analysis


runge 's theorem references ablowitz j fokas ''complex variables introduction applications'' cambridge ahlfors l ''complex analysis'' mcgraw hill cartan h ''th orie l mentaire des fonctions analytiques d'une ou plusieurs variables complexes'' hermann english translation ''elementary theory analytic functions one several complex variables'' addison wesley carath odory c ''funktionentheorie'' birkh user english translation ''theory functions complex variable'' chelsea volumes carrier g f krook c e pearson https archiveorg details functionsofcompl carr ''functions complex variable theory technique'' mcgraw hill conway j b ''functions one complex variable''


springer fisher ''complex variables'' wadsworth brooks cole forsyth https archiveorg details theoryoffunction fors ''theory functions complex variable'' cambridge freitag e r busam ''funktionentheorie'' springer english translation ''complex analysis'' springer goursat e https archiveorg details courseinmathemat gouruoft ''cours d'analyse math matique tome '' gauthier villars english translation https archiveorg details coursemathema gourrich ''a course mathematical analysis vol part functions complex variable'' ginn henrici p ''applied computational complex analysis'' wiley three volumes kreyszig e ''advanced engineering mathematics'' wiley lavrentyev b shabat '' '' ''methods theory


e c https archiveorg details inernetdli ''the theory functions'' oxford wegert e ''visual complex functions'' birkh user whittaker e g n watson ''a course modern analysis'' cambridge https archiveorg details courseofmodernan whit rd ed external links http mathworldwolframcom complexanalysishtml wolfram research 's mathworld complex analysis page


century ad based hindu arabic numerals excavation volume computations civil engineering profession engineering aspect life since beginnings human existence earliest practice civil engineering may commenced bc ancient egypt indus valley civilization mesopotamia ancient iraq humans started abandon nomadic existence creating need construction shelter time transportation became increasingly important leading development wheel sailingleonhard euler developed theory explaining buckling columns modern times

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering


shih huang ti c bc ref name oakes ref stupas constructed ancient sri lanka like jetavanaramaya extensive irrigation works anuradhapura romans developed civil structures throughout empire including especially aqueducts insulae harbors bridges dams roads aqueduct built circa bc pont du gard france chichen itza large pre columbian city mexico built maya people post classic northeast column temple also covers channel funnels rainwater complex metres ft away rejollada former cenote


th century term civil engineering coined incorporate things civilian opposed military engineering ref name eb first institution teaching civil engineering cole nationale des ponts et chauss es established france examples followed european countries like spain first self proclaimed civil engineer john smeaton constructed eddystone lighthouse ref name csce ref name oakes smeaton colleagues formed smeatonian society civil engineers group leaders profession met informally dinner though evidence


civil engineers putney established uk 's first chair engineering established university glasgow education ''civil engineers'' typically possess academic degree civil engineering length study three five years completed degree designated bachelor technology bachelor engineering curriculum generally includes classes physics mathematics project management design specific topics civil engineering taking basic courses sub disciplines civil engineering move specialize one sub disciplines advanced


levels undergraduate degree beng bsc normally provides successful students industry accredited qualification academic institutions offer post graduate degrees meng msc allow students specialize particular area interest ref name cite postgrad ref surveying students professor helsinki university technology late th century practicing engineers countries bachelor 's degree engineering represents first step towards professional certification professional body certifies degree program completing certified degree program engineer must satisfy range requirements including work experience exam requirements certified certified


work public private clients requirement enforced provincial law engineers act quebec legislation enacted countries including united kingdom australia state licensing engineers limited state queensland almost certifying bodies maintain code ethics members must abide engineers must obey contract law contractual relationships parties cases engineer 's work fails may subject law tort negligence extreme cases criminal charges engineer 's work


visiting project sites meeting stakeholders preparing construction plans civil engineers apply principles geotechnical engineering structural engineering environmental engineering transportation engineering construction engineering residential commercial industrial public works projects sizes levels construction coastal engineering oosterscheldekering storm surge barrier netherlands ''coastal engineering'' concerned managing coastal areas jurisdictions terms sea defense coastal protection mean defense flooding erosion respectively term coastal defense traditional term coastal management become popular field expanded techniques


allow erosion claim land construction engineering ''construction engineering'' involves planning execution transportation materials site development based hydraulic environmental structural geotechnical engineering construction firms tend higher business risk types civil engineering firms construction engineers often engage business like transactions example drafting reviewing contracts evaluating logistical operations monitoring prices supplies earthquake engineering ''earthquake engineering'' involves designing structures withstand hazardous earthquake exposures earthquake engineering sub discipline structural engineering main objectives earthquake engineering understand interaction structures


shaky ground foresee consequences possible earthquakes design construct maintain structures perform earthquake compliance building codes environmental engineering creek contaminated water pollution ''environmental engineering'' contemporary term sanitary engineering though sanitary engineering traditionally included much hazardous waste management environmental remediation work covered environmental engineering public health engineering environmental health engineering terms used environmental engineering deals treatment chemical biological thermal wastes purification water air remediation contaminated sites waste disposal accidental contamination among


topics covered environmental engineering pollutant transport water purification waste water treatment air pollution solid waste treatment recycling hazardous waste management environmental engineers administer pollution reduction green engineering industrial ecology environmental engineers also compile information environmental consequences proposed actions forensic engineering ''forensic engineering'' investigation materials products structures components fail operate function intended causing personal injury damage property consequences failure dealt law product liability field also deals retracing processes procedures leading accidents


supporting civil engineering systems knowledge field soil science materials science mechanics hydraulics applied safely economically design foundations retaining walls structures environmental efforts protect groundwater safely maintain landfills spawned new area research called geo environmental engineering ref name mitchell mitchell james kenneth fundamentals soil behavior nd ed john wiley sons pp ref identification soil properties presents challenges geotechnical engineers boundary conditions often well defined branches civil engineering unlike steel concrete material properties behavior soil difficult


predict due variability limitation investigation furthermore soil exhibits nonlinear stress dependent strength stiffness dilatancy volume change associated application shear stress making studying soil mechanics difficult ref name mitchell geotechnical engineers frequently work professional geologists soil scientists materials science engineering ''materials science'' closely related civil engineering studies fundamental characteristics materials deals ceramics concrete mix asphalt concrete strong metals aluminum steel thermosetting polymers including polymethylmethacrylate pmma carbon fibers ''materials engineering'' involves protection prevention paints finishes alloying


combines two types metals produce another metal desired properties incorporates elements applied physics chemistry recent media attention nanoscience nanotechnology materials engineering forefront academic research also important part forensic engineering failure analysis site development planning plan draft proposed mixed use site ''site development'' also known ' 'site planning'' focused planning development potential site well addressing possible impacts permitting issues environmental challenges ref name site ref structural engineering burj khalifa animation construction process thumbtime shallow


foundation construction example ''structural engineering'' concerned structural design structural analysis buildings bridges towers flyovers overpasses tunnels shore structures like oil gas fields sea aerostructure structures involves identifying loads act upon structure forces stresses arise within structure due loads designing structure successfully support resist loads loads self weight structures dead load live loads moving wheel load wind load earthquake load load temperature change etc structural


engineer must design structures safe users successfully fulfill function designed ' 'serviceable'' due nature loading conditions sub disciplines within structural engineering emerged including wind engineering earthquake engineering design considerations include strength stiffness stability structure subjected loads may static furniture self weight dynamic wind seismic crowd vehicle loads transitory temporary construction loads impact considerations include cost constructability safety aesthetics sustainability surveying student using


dumpy level ''surveying'' process surveyor measures certain dimensions occur near surface earth surveying equipment levels theodolites used accurate measurement angular deviation horizontal vertical slope distances computerisation electronic distance measurement edm total stations gps surveying laser scanning large extent supplanted traditional instruments data collected survey measurement converted graphical representation earth 's surface form map information used civil engineers contractors realtors design build


trade respectively elements structure must sized positioned relation site boundaries adjacent structures although surveying distinct profession separate qualifications licensing arrangements civil engineers trained basics surveying mapping well geographic information systems surveyors also lay routes railways tramway tracks highways roads pipelines streets well position infrastructure harbors construction land surveying united states canada united kingdom commonwealth countries land surveying considered


separate distinct profession land surveyors considered engineers professional associations licensing requirements services licensed land surveyor generally required boundary surveys establish boundaries parcel using legal description subdivision plans plot map based survey parcel land boundary lines drawn inside larger parcel indicate creation new boundary lines roads generally referred cadastral surveyingblm cadastral survey marker san xavier arizona construction


surveying construction surveying generally performed specialized technicians unlike land surveyors resulting plan legal status construction surveyors perform following tasks surveying existing conditions future work site including topography existing buildings infrastructure underground infrastructure possible lay setting placing reference points markers guide construction new structures roads buildings verifying location structures construction built surveying survey conducted end construction project verify work authorized completed specifications set plans transportation


engineering ''transportation engineering'' concerned moving people goods efficiently safely manner conducive vibrant community involves specifying designing constructing maintaining transportation infrastructure includes streets canals highways rail systems airports ports mass transit includes areas transportation design transportation planning traffic engineering aspects urban engineering queueing theory pavement engineering intelligent transportation system infrastructure management municipal urban engineering engineering roundabout bristol england attempts make traffic flow free moving lake chapultepec ''municipal engineering'' concerned municipal infrastructure involves specifying designing


constructing maintaining streets sidewalks water supply networks sewers street lighting municipal solid waste management disposal storage depots various bulk materials used maintenance public works salt sand etc public parks cycling infrastructure case underground utility networks may also include civil portion conduits access chambers local distribution networks electrical telecommunications services also include optimizing waste collection bus service networks disciplines overlap civil engineering specialties however municipal engineering focuses coordination infrastructure networks


services often built simultaneously managed municipal authority municipal engineers may also design site civil works large buildings industrial plants campuses ie access roads parking lots potable water supply treatment pretreatment waste water site drainage etc water resources engineering hoover dam ''water resources engineering'' concerned collection management water natural resource discipline therefore combines elements hydrology environmental science meteorology conservation resource management area civil engineering relates prediction management quality


quantity water underground aquifers ground lakes rivers streams resources water resource engineers analyze model small large areas earth predict amount content water flows facility although actual design facility may left engineers ''hydraulic engineering'' concerned flow conveyance fluids principally water area civil engineering intimately related design pipelines water supply network drainage facilities including bridges dams channels culverts levees


storm sewers canals hydraulic engineers design facilities using concepts fluid pressure fluid statics fluid dynamics hydraulics among othersthe falkirk wheel scotland civil engineering systems civil engineering systems discipline promotes use systems thinking manage complexity change civil engineering within wider public context posits proper development civil engineering infrastructure requires holistic coherent understanding relationships important factors contribute successful projects time emphasizing importance attention technical detail purpose


help integrate entire civil engineering project life cycle conception planning designing making operating decommissioning see also architectural engineering civil engineering software engineering drawing glossary civil engineering index civil engineering articles list civil engineers list engineering branches list historic civil engineering landmarks macro engineering railway engineering site survey associations american society civil engineers canadian society civil engineering chartered institution civil engineering surveyors earthquake engineering research institute engineers australia european federation national engineering associations international federation consulting engineers indian geotechnical society institution civil engineers


institution structural engineers institute engineering nepal international society soil mechanics geotechnical engineering institution engineers bangladesh institution engineers india institution engineers ireland institute transportation engineers japan society civil engineers pakistan engineering council philippine institute civil engineers transportation research board references reading external links http wwwiceorguk institution civil engineers http wwwcesdbcom civil engineering software database http wwwicesorguk institution civil engineering surveyors http ocwmitedu courses find topic cat engineering subcat civilengineering civil engineering classes mit opencourseware engineering disciplines articles containing video clips


originating ancient china variously described tradition philosophy religion humanistic rationalistic religion way governing simply way life confucianism developed later called hundred schools thought teachings chinese philosopher confucius bce confucius considered transmitter cultural values inherited xia c bce shang c bce zhou dynasties c bce confucianism suppressed legalist autocratic qin dynasty bce survived han dynasty bce ce confucian approaches edged proto taoist


philosophical system regards secular sacred confucianism transcends dichotomy religion humanism considering ordinary activities human life especially human relationships manifestation sacred expression humanity 's moral nature ''x ng'' transcendent anchorage heaven ''ti n'' ''ti n'' characteristics overlap category godhead primarily ''impersonal'' absolute principle like ''d o'' ''brahman'' confucianism focuses practical order given worldly awareness ''ti n'' confucian liturgy called ''r '' sometimes


meaning 'orthopraxy' led confucian priests sages rites worship gods public ancestral chinese temples preferred certain occasions confucian religious groups civil religious rites taoist popular ritual worldly concern confucianism rests upon belief human beings fundamentally good teachable improvable perfectible personal communal endeavor especially self cultivation self creation confucian thought focuses cultivation virtue morally organised world basic confucian ethical concepts practices include ''r n'' ''y '' ''l '' ''zh '' ''r n''


'benevolence' 'humaneness' essence human manifests compassion virtue form heaven ''y '' upholding righteousness moral disposition good ''l '' system ritual norms propriety determines person properly act everyday life harmony law heaven ''zh '' ability see right fair converse behaviors exhibited others confucianism holds one contempt either passively actively failure uphold cardinal moral values


''r n'' ''y '' traditionally cultures countries east asian cultural sphere strongly influenced confucianism including china taiwan korea japan vietnam well various territories settled predominantly han chinese people singapore today credited shaping east asian societies overseas chinese communities extent parts asia last decades talks confucian revival academic scholarly community grassroots proliferation various types confucian churches late many confucian


personalities formally established national holy confucian church china unify many confucian congregations civil society organisations terminology ''r '' meaning scholar refined one confucian composed ''r n'' man ''x '' await composed ''y '' rain instruction '' r'' sky graphically man rain full meaning man receiving instruction heaven according kang youwei hu shih yao xinzhong official shaman priests ''wu'' experts rites astronomy shang later zhou dynasty strictly speaking term


chinese directly corresponds confucianism chinese language character ''r '' meaning scholar learned refined man generally used past present refer things related confucianism character ''r '' ancient china diverse meanings examples include tame mould educate refine ref name eno ref several different terms modern origin used different situations express different facets confucianism including p r ji ''ru'' school thought p r ji ''ru'' religion sense ''ru'' doctrine p r xu ruology


name eno according zhou youguang ''r '' originally referred shamanic methods holding rites existed confucius 's times confucius came mean devotion propagating teachings bring civilisation people confucianism initiated confucius developed mencius c bce inherited later generations undergoing constant transformations restructuring since establishment preserving principles humaneness righteousness core five classics ''w j ng'' confucian vision confucius fresco western han tomb dongping shandong traditionally confucius thought


author editor five classics basic texts confucianism scholar yao xinzhong allows good reasons believe confucian classics took shape hands confucius nothing taken granted matter early versions classics professor yao says perhaps scholars today hold pragmatic view confucius followers although intend create system classics contributed formation case undisputed last years


poetic vision belief poetry music convey common human feelings mutual responsiveness book documents ''book history'' compilation speeches major figures records events ancient times embodies political vision addresses kingly way terms ethical foundation humane government documents show sagacity filial piety work ethic yao shun yu established political culture based responsibility trust virtue formed covenant social harmony depend punishment coercion book


rites describes social forms administration ceremonial rites zhou dynasty social vision defined society adversarial system based contractual relations community trust based social responsibility four functional occupations cooperative farmer scholar artisan merchant spring autumn annals chronicles period gives name spring autumn period bce events emphasise significance collective memory communal self identification reanimating old best way attain new doctrines theory theology zhou dynasty oracular version


grapheme ''ti n'' representing man head informed north celestial pole confucianism revolves around pursuit unity individual self god heaven ''ti n'' otherwise said around relationship humanity heaven principle heaven ''l '' ''d o'' order creation source divine authority monistic structure individuals may realise humanity become one heaven contemplation order transformation self may extended family society create


harmonious fiduciary community jo l thoraval studied confucianism diffused civil religion contemporary china finding expresses widespread worship five cosmological entities heaven earth ''di'' sovereign government ''j n'' ancestors ''q n'' masters ' 'sh '' heaven pre existing temporal world according scholar stephan feuchtwang chinese cosmology merely confucian shared chinese religions universe creates primary chaos material energy ''hundun'' ''qi'' organising polarity yin


redemption synthesised ideal sageliness within kingliness without ''r n'' translated humaneness essence proper human character compassionate mind virtue endowed heaven time means man may achieve oneness heaven comprehending origin heaven therefore divine essence ''d ng sh '' defined form one body things self others separated compassion aroused ''ti n'' gods like symbols


' 'sauwastika'' ''w n'' things chinese mesopotamian ''dingir'' ''an'' heaven also chinese ''w '' shaman shang script represented cross potent ''ti n'' refers northern celestial pole ''b ij '' pivot vault sky spinning constellations approximate representation ''ti nm n'' gate heaven ''ti nsh '' pivot heaven precessional north celestial pole ursae minoris pole star spinning chariot constellations four phases time according reza assasi 's theories ''wan'' may


centred current precessional pole ursae minoris also near north ecliptic pole draco ''ti nl ng'' conceived one two beams symbol around centre ''ti n'' key concept chinese thought refers god heaven northern culmen skies spinning stars earthly nature laws come heaven heaven earth things awe inspiring forces beyond human control ref name hagen ref number uses chinese thought


sense otherworldly transcendent creator rather similar taoists meant ''dao'' way things regularities world ref name hagen stephan feuchtwang equates ancient greek concept ''physis'' nature generation regenerations things moral order tian may also compared ''brahman'' hindu vedic traditions scholar promise hsu wake robert b louden explained tian ever say yet four seasons going round hundred things coming


tian say implying even though tian speaking person constantly rhythms nature communicates human beings ought live act least learnt carefully listen zigong disciple confucius said tian set master path become wise man confucius says doubt left tian gave life developed right virtue ' 'd '' says lives


sages interwoven tian regarding personal gods ' 'sh n'' energies emanate reproduce tian enliving nature ''analects'' confucius says appropriate people worship ''j ng'' though proper rites implying respect positions discretion confucius ritual sacrificial master answering disciple asked whether better sacrifice god stove god family popular saying confucius says order appropriately pray gods one first know


theistic idea heaven feuchtwang explains difference confucianism taoism primarily lies fact former focuses realisation starry order heaven human society latter contemplation dao spontaneously arises nature social morality ethics ''zh ng hu g ng di n'' cathedral ancestral shrine zhang lineage corporation ancestral home qinghe hebei ancestral temple zeng lineage houxian village cultural centre cangnan zhejiang explained stephan feuchtwang order coming heaven preserves world


followed humanity finding middle way yin yang forces new configuration reality social harmony morality identified patriarchy expressed worship ancestors deified progenitors male line ancestral shrines confucian ethical codes described humanistic ref name juergensmeyer may practiced members society confucian ethics characterised promotion virtues encompassed five constants ''w ch ng'' chinese elaborated confucian scholars inherited tradition han dynasty ref name runes ref five


constants ref name runes ''r n'' benevolence humaneness ''y '' righteousness justice ''l '' proper rite ''zh '' knowledge ''x n'' integrity accompanied classical ''s z '' singles four virtues one included among five constants ''zh ng'' loyalty ''xi o'' filial piety ''ji '' continence fidelity ''y '' righteousness still many elements ''ch ng'' honesty ' 'sh '' kindness forgiveness ''li n'' honesty cleanness ''ch '' shame judge sense right wrong ''y ng'' bravery ''w n'' kind gentle ''li ng'' good kindhearted


''g ng'' respectful reverent ''ji n'' frugal ''r ng'' modestly self effacing humaneness ''r n'' confucian virtue denoting good feeling virtuous human experiences altruistic exemplified normal adult 's protective feelings children considered essence human endowed heaven time means man may act according principle heaven ''ti n l '' become one n hu confucius 's outstanding student asked master describe rules ''r n'' confucius replied one see


nothing improper hear nothing improper say nothing improper nothing improper confucius also defined ''r n'' following way wishing established seeks also establish others wishing enlarged seeks also enlarge others another meaning ''r n'' others would wish done confucius also said ''r n'' far seeks already found ''r n'' close man never leaves rite centring dujiangyan chengdu sichuan korean confucian rite jeju ''li'' classical chinese


word finds extensive use confucian post confucian chinese philosophy ''li'' variously translated rite reason ratio pure sense vedic '' ta'' right order referring cosmic law referring realisation context human social behaviour also translated customs measures rules among terms ''li'' also means religious rites establish relations humanity gods according stephan feuchtwang rites conceived makes invisible visible making possible humans cultivate underlying order nature


important way ambitious young scholar become prominent official enter ruler 's civil service confucius propose might makes right rather superior obeyed moral rectitude addition loyalty mean subservience authority reciprocity demanded superior well confucius stated prince employ minister according rules propriety ministers serve prince faithfulness loyalty similarly mencius also said prince regards ministers hands


feet ministers regard prince belly heart regards dogs horses regard another man regards ground grass regard robber enemy moreover mencius indicated ruler incompetent replaced ruler evil people right overthrow good confucian also expected remonstrate superiors necessary time proper confucian ruler also accept ministers' advice


help govern realm better later ages however emphasis often placed obligations ruled ruler less ruler 's obligations ruled like filial piety loyalty often subverted autocratic regimes china nonetheless throughout ages many confucians continued fight unrighteous superiors rulers many confucians suffered sometimes died conviction action ming qing era prominent confucians wang yangming promoted individuality independent thinking counterweight subservience authority


famous thinker huang zongxi also strongly criticised autocratic nature imperial system wanted keep imperial power check many confucians also realised loyalty filial piety potential coming conflict one another may true especially times social chaos period ming qing transition filial piety fourteenth ''the twenty four filial exemplars'' confucian philosophy filial piety ''xi o'' virtue respect one 's parents ancestors hierarchies within society father son elder junior male female confucian classic ''xiaojing'' book


piety thought written around qin han period historically authoritative source confucian tenet ''xi o'' book conversation confucius disciple zeng shen set good society using principle ''xi o'' ref name chang ref general terms filial piety means good one 's parents take care one 's parents engage good conduct towards parents also outside home bring good name one 's parents ancestors perform duties one 's job


culture main concern large number stories one famous collections stories twenty four filial exemplars stories depict children exercised filial piety past china always diversity religious beliefs filial piety common almost historian hugh dr baker calls respect family element common almost chinese believers relationships social harmony results part every individual knowing place natural order playing


individual stands simultaneously several different relationships different people junior relation parents elders senior relation younger siblings students others juniors considered confucianism owe seniors reverence seniors also duties benevolence concern toward juniors true husband wife relationship husband needs show benevolence towards wife wife needs respect husband return theme mutuality still exists east asian cultures even day five bonds


ruler ruled father son husband wife elder brother younger brother friend friend specific duties prescribed participants sets relationships duties also extended dead living stand sons deceased family relationship respect elders n't stressed friend friend relationship mutual equal respect emphasised instead duties take practical form prescribed rituals instance wedding death rituals ''junzi'' ''junzi'' ''j nz '' lord 's son chinese philosophical term


often translated gentleman superior person employed confucius ''analects'' describe ideal man confucianism sage wise ideal personality however hard become one confucius created model ''junzi'' gentleman may achieved individual later zhu xi defined ''junzi'' second sage many characteristics ''junzi'' may live poverty speaks less loyal obedient knowledgeable ''junzi'' disciplines ''ren'' fundamental become ''junzi''


potential leader nation son ruler raised superior ethical moral position gaining inner peace virtue confucius ''junzi'' sustained functions government social stratification ethical values despite literal meaning righteous man willing improve may become ''junzi'' contrary ''xiaoren'' ''xi n'' small petty person grasp value virtues seeks immediate gains petty person egotistic consider consequences action overall scheme


things ruler surrounded ''xiaoren'' opposed ''junzi'' governance people suffer due small mindness examples ''xiaoren'' individuals may range continually indulge sensual emotional pleasures day politician interested merely power fame neither sincerely aims long term benefit others ''junzi'' enforces rule subjects acting virtuously thought pure virtue would lead others follow example ultimate goal government behaves much like


family ''junzi'' beacon filial piety rectification names priest paying homage confucius 's tablet c confucius believed social disorder often stemmed failure perceive understand deal reality fundamentally social disorder may stem failure call things proper names solution ''zh ngm ng'' gave explanation ''zhengming'' one disciples blockquote zi lu said vassal wei waiting order administer government consider first thing


done br master replied necessary rectify names br indeed said zi lu wide mark must rectification br master said uncultivated yu superior man junzi cannot care everything cannot go check br nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp names correct language accordance truth things br nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp language accordance truth things affairs cannot carried success br nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp affairs cannot carried success proprieties


music flourish br nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp proprieties music flourish punishments properly awarded br nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp punishments properly awarded people know move hand foot br therefore superior man considers necessary names uses may spoken appropriately also speaks may carried appropriately superior man requires words may nothing incorrect br ''analects'' xiii tr legge blockquote xun zi chapter rectification names claims ancient


sage kings chose names directly corresponded actualities later generations confused terminology coined new nomenclature thus could longer distinguish right wrong since social harmony utmost importance without proper rectification names society would essentially crumble undertakings would completed history dragon one oldest symbols chinese religious culture symbolises supreme godhead di tian north ecliptic pole around coils homonymous constellation symbol protean supreme power yin


yang birth places notable chinese philosophers hundred schools thought zhou dynasty confucians marked triangles dark red according guanghu confucianism may identified continuation shang zhou bce official religion chinese aboriginal religion lasted uninterrupted three thousand years dynasties worshipped supreme godhead called ''shangdi'' highest deity simply ''d '' shang ''tian'' heaven zhou shangdi conceived first ancestor shang royal house alternate name


supreme progenitor ''sh ngji '' shang theology multiplicity gods nature ancestors viewed parts di four ''f ng'' directions sides ''f ng'' winds cosmic zhou dynasty overthrew shang name supreme godhead became ''tian'' heaven shang identified shangdi ancestor god assert claim power divine right zhou transformed claim legitimacy based moral power mandate heaven zhou theology tian singular earthly progeny bestowed


divine favour virtuous rulers zhou kings declared victory shang virtuous loved people shang tyrants thus deprived power tian john c didier david pankenier relate shapes ancient chinese characters di tian patterns stars northern skies either drawn didier 's theory connecting constellations bracketing north celestial pole square pankenier 's theory connecting stars form constellations big dipper


broader ursa major ursa minor little dipper cultures parts world also conceived stars constellations symbols origin things supreme godhead divinity royal power supreme godhead also identified dragon symbol unlimited power ''qi'' protean primordial power embodies yin yang unity associated constellation draco winds around north ecliptic pole slithers little big dipper th century bce power tian symbols represented earth


architecture cities temples altars ritual cauldrons zhou ritual system became diffuse claimed different potentates zhou states legitimise economic political military ambitions divine right longer exclusive privilege zhou royal house might bought anyone able afford elaborate ceremonies old new rites required access authority tian besides waning zhou ritual system may defined wild ''y '' traditions traditions outside official system developed attempts access tian


self established individual assisting others establish principle '' ir n'' loving others zhou reign collapsed traditional values abandoned resulting period moral decline confucius saw opportunity reinforce values compassion tradition society disillusioned widespread vulgarisation rituals access tian began preach ethical interpretation traditional zhou religion view power tian immanent responds positively sincere heart driven humaneness rightness decency altruism confucius conceived qualities foundation needed


restore socio political harmony like many contemporaries confucius saw ritual practices efficacious ways access tian thought crucial knot state meditation participants enter prior engage ritual acts confucius amended recodified classical books inherited xia shang zhou dynasties composed ''spring autumn annals'' philosophers warring states period inside square focused state endorsed ritual outside square non aligned state ritual built upon confucius 's legacy compiled ''analects'' formulated classical metaphysics became lash confucianism


accordance master identified mental tranquility state tian one ''y '' individual heaven bestowed divine power rule one 's life world going beyond master theorised oneness production reabsorption cosmic source possibility understand therefore reattain meditation line thought would influenced chinese individual collective political mystical theories practices thereafter organisation liturgy confucian churches chinese lineage associationslineage churches temple confucius ''w nmi o'' liuzhou guangxi confucius worshiped ''w nd ''


god culture ''xi oy ug ng'' ancestral temple lineage church wenzhou zhejiang since growing identification chinese intellectual class confucianism ref name yang ref confucian intellectual kang xiaoguang published manifesto made four suggestions confucian education enter official education level elementary high school state establish confucianism state religion law confucian religion enter daily life ordinary people standardisation development doctrines rituals organisations churches activity sites confucian religion


spread non governmental organisations ref name yang another modern proponent institutionalisation confucianism state church jiang qing center study confucian religion established ref name yang ''guoxue'' started implemented public schools levels well received population even confucian preachers appeared television since ref name yang enthusiastic new confucians proclaim uniqueness superiority confucian chinese culture generated popular sentiment western cultural influences china ref name yang idea confucian church state religion


china roots thought kang youwei exponent early new confucian search regeneration social relevance confucianism time de institutionalised collapse qing dynasty chinese empire kang modeled ideal confucian church european national christian churches hierarchic centralised institution closely bound state local church branches devoted worship spread teachings confucius contemporary china confucian revival developed various interwoven directions proliferation confucian schools


academies ' 'shuyuan'' resurgence confucian rites ''chu nt ng l '' birth new forms confucian activity popular level confucian communities ' 'sh q r xu '' scholars also consider reconstruction lineage churches ancestral temples well cults temples natural national gods within broader chinese traditional religion part renewal confucianism forms revival salvationist folk religious movements groups specifically confucian focus confucian churches example ''yidan xuetang'' beijing ''mengmutang'' shanghai confucian


shenism ''r z ng sh nji o'' phoenix churches confucian fellowship ''r ji ot n'' northern fujian spread rapidly years foundation ancestral temples kong kin lineage descendants confucius operating confucian teaching churches also hong kong confucian academy one direct heirs kang youwei 's confucian church expanded activities mainland construction statues confucius confucian hospitals restoration temples activities zhou beichen founded another institution inherits idea kang youwei 's confucian church


confucian ritual masters ''l sh ng'' worship gods instead taoist popular ritual confucian businessmen ''r sh ngr n'' also refined businessman recently rediscovered concept defining people economic entrepreneurial elite recognise social responsibility therefore apply confucian culture business governance yushima seid bunky tokyo japan master said exercises government means virtue may compared north polar star keeps place stars turn towards source ''analects'' legge translation key confucian concept order govern others


sky human beings earth emperors china considered agents heaven endowed mandate heaven hold power define hierarchy divinities bestowing titles upon mountains rivers dead people acknowledging powerful therefore establishing cults confucianism despite supporting importance obeying national authority places obedience absolute moral principles curbed willful exercise power rather unconditional submission authority ''tsun wang'' taken within context moral obligations rulers toward subjects particular


non inheriting offspring noble became confucius 's work epithet much meaning evolution english gentleman virtuous commoner cultivates qualities may gentleman shameless son king small man confucius admitted students different classes disciples clear demonstration fought feudal structures defined pre imperial chinese society another new idea meritocracy led introduction imperial examination system china system allowed anyone passed examination become government officer


position would bring wealth honour whole family chinese imperial examination system started sui dynasty following centuries system grew finally almost anyone wished become official prove worth passing set written government examinations confucian political meritocracy merely historical phenomenon practice meritocracy still exists across china east asia today wide range contemporary intellectuals daniel bell tongdong bai joseph chan jiang qing defend political meritocracy viable alternative


liberal democracy ''just hierarchy'' daniel bell wang pei argue hierarchies inevitable faced ever increasing complexity scale modern societies must build hierarchies coordinate collective action tackle long term problems climate change context need want flatten hierarchies much possible ought ask makes political hierarchies use criteria decide institutions deserve preservation require reform need radical transformation call approach progressive conservatism term reflects ambiguous


place confucian tradition within left right dichotomy bell wang propose two justifications political hierarchies ''not'' depend one person one vote system first raw efficiency may require centralized rule hands competent second important serving interests people common good broadly ''against political equality'' tongdong bai complements account using proto rawlsian political difference principle rawls claims economic inequality justified long benefits bottom socioeconomic ladder


bai argues political inequality justified long benefits materially worse bell wang bai criticize liberal democracy argue government ''by'' people may government ''for'' people meaningful sense term argue voters tend act irrational tribal short termist ways vulnerable populism struggle account interests future generations words minimum democracy needs confucian meritocratic checks ''the china model'' bell argues confucian political meritocracy provides provided blueprint china


limiting power rulers contemporary defenders confucian political meritocracy accept broad frame disagree three main questions institutional design means meritocrats promoted compatibility confucian political meritocracy liberalism '''institutional design''' bell wang favour system officials local level democratically elected higher level officials promoted peers bell puts defends democracy bottom experimentation middle meritocracy top bell wang argue combination conserves main advantages


democracy involving people public affairs local level strengthening legitimacy system forcing degree direct accountability etc preserving broader meritocratic character regime jiang qing contrast imagines tricameral government one chamber selected people house commoners one chamber composed confucian meritocrats selected via examination gradual promotion house confucian tradition one body made descendants confucius house national essence jiang aim construct legitimacy go


beyond sees atomistic individualist utilitarian ethos modern democracies ground authority something sacred traditional jiang model closer ideal theory bell proposals represents traditionalist alternative tongdong bai presents proposing two tiered bicameral system local level bell bai advocates deweyan participatory democracy national level bai proposes two chambers one meritocrats selected examination examination promotion leaders certain professional fields etc one representatives elected people lower house


legislative power per se acts popular accountability mechanism championing people putting pressure upper house generally bai argues model marries best meritocracy democracy following dewey account democracy way life points participatory features local model citizens still get democratic lifestyle participate political affairs educated democratic men similarly lower house allows citizens represented voice public affairs albeit weak one ensure accountability


meanwhile meritocratic house preserves competence statesmanship confucian virtues '''the promotion system''' defenders confucian political meritocracy champion system rulers selected basis intellect social skills virtue bell proposes model wherein aspiring meritocrats take hyper selective exams prove local levels government reaching higher levels government hold centralized power account exams select intellect virtues instance ability argue three different viewpoints contentious issue may indicate certain degree openness


tongdong bai approach incorporates different ways select members meritocratic house exams performance various fields business science administration every case confucian meritocrats draw china extensive history meritocratic administration outline pros cons competing methods selection like bell defend model performance local levels government determines future promotion important question system judges performs best words examinations may ensure early career officials competent educated thereafter


ensure ''only'' rule well get promoted literature opposes prefer evaluation peers evaluation superiors thinkers including quasi democratic selection mechanisms along way case bell wang favour system officials local level democratically elected higher level officials promoted peers believe promotion depend upon peer evaluations bell wang argue transparency ie public know officials selected since ordinary people position judge officials beyond


local level others like jiang qing defend model superiors decide gets promoted method line traditionalist strands confucian political thought place greater emphasis strict hierarchies epistemic paternalism idea older experienced people know '''compatibility liberalism democracy critique political meritocracy''' another key question whether confucian political thought compatible liberalism tongdong bai instance argues confucian political thought departs one person one vote model conserve many


essential characteristics liberalism freedom speech individual rights fact daniel bell tongdong bai hold confucian political meritocracy tackle challenges liberalism wants tackle cannot cultural level instance confucianism institutions rituals offer bulwarks atomization individualism political level non democratic side political meritocracy bell bai efficient addressing long term questions climate change part meritocrats worry whims public opinion joseph chan


defends compatibility confucianism liberalism democracy book ''confucian perfectionism'' argues confucians embrace democracy liberalism instrumental grounds liberal democracy may valuable sake institutions remains valuable particularly combined broadly confucian culture serve confucian ends inculcate confucian virtues confucians criticized confucian meritocrats la bell rejection democracy confucianism premised assumption meritorious virtuous political leadership inherently incompatible popular sovereignty


political equality right political participation thinkers accuse meritocrats overestimating flaws democracy mistaking temporary flaws permanent inherent features underestimating challenges construction true political meritocracy poses practice including faced contemporary china singapore franz mang claims decoupled democracy meritocracy tends deteriorate oppressive regime putatively meritorious actually authoritarian rulers mang accuses bell china model self defeating mang claims ccp authoritarian modes engagement dissenting voices illustrate baogang


mark warren add understand meritocracy concept describing regime character rather type determined distribution political power view build democratic institutions meritocratic insofar favour competence roy tseng drawing new confucians twentieth century argues confucianism liberal democracy enter dialectical process liberal rights voting rights rethought resolutely modern nonetheless confucian ways life synthesis blending confucians rituals institutions broader liberal democratic frame


prospero intorcetta works confucius translated european languages agency jesuit missionaries stationed china matteo ricci among earliest report thoughts confucius father prospero intorcetta wrote life works confucius latin ref name windows china windows china john parker p ref translations confucian texts influenced european thinkers period ref name mungello ref particularly among deists philosophical groups enlightenment interested integration system morality confucius western civilization ref name windows


china confucianism influenced german philosopher gottfried wilhelm leibniz attracted philosophy perceived similarity postulated certain elements leibniz 's philosophy simple substance preestablished harmony borrowed interactions confucianism ref name mungello french philosopher voltaire also influenced confucius seeing concept confucian rationalism alternative christian dogma ref name epc ref praised confucian ethics politics portraying sociopolitical hierarchy china model europe ref name epc islamic thought late th century onwards whole


body literature known han kitab developed amongst hui muslims china infused islamic thought confucianism especially works liu zhi ''ti nf ng di nl '' sought harmonise islam confucianism also taoism considered one crowning achievements chinese islamic culture modern times important military political figures modern chinese history continued influenced confucianism like muslim warlord fuxiang new life movement early th century also influenced confucianism referred variously


china influence penetrated walks life streams thought chinese society generations come exclude martial arts culture though day confucius rejected practice martial arts exception archery serve rulers used military power extensively achieve goals later centuries confucianism heavily influenced many educated martial artists great influence sun lutang especially th century onwards bare handed martial arts china became widespread begun readily absorb philosophical


influences confucianism buddhism daoism argue therefore despite confucius 's disdain martial culture teachings became much relevance criticism confucius confucianism opposed criticised start including laozi 's philosophy mozi 's critique legalists han fei ridiculed idea virtue would lead people orderly modern times waves opposition vilification showed confucianism instead taking credit glories chinese civilisation take blame failures taiping rebellion described confucianism sages well gods taoism


buddhism devils new culture movement lu xun criticised confucianism shaping chinese people condition reached late qing dynasty criticisms dramatically portrayed madman 's diary implies confucian society cannibalistic leftists cultural revolution described confucius representative class slave owners south korea long criticism south koreans believe confucianism contributed modernisation south korea example south korean writer kim kyong il wrote essay entitled confucius must die nation


live ''gongjaga jug eoya naraga sanda'' kim said filial piety one sided blind continues social problems continue government keeps forcing confucian filial obligations onto families women confucian thought confucianism largely defined mainstream discourse gender china han dynasty onward ref name adler gender roles prescribed three obediences four virtues became cornerstone family thus societal stability starting han period confucians began teach virtuous woman supposed follow males family father marriage


husband marries sons widowhood later dynasties emphasis placed virtue chastity song dynasty confucian cheng yi stated starve death small matter lose one 's chastity great matter ref name ebrey chaste widows revered memorialised ming qing periods cult chastity accordingly condemned many widows poverty loneliness placing social stigma remarriage ref name adler ref years many modern scholars regarded confucianism sexist patriarchal ideology historically damaging chinese


women also argued chinese western writers rise neo confucianism song dynasty led decline status women ref name ebrey ref critics also accused prominent song neo confucian scholar zhu xi believing inferiority women men women need kept strictly separate sima guang also believed women remain indoors deal matters men outside world finally scholars discussed attitudes toward women confucian texts analects much discussed


proper confucian wives mothers silent hard working compliant stresses complementarity equal importance male female roles according yin yang theory clearly accepts dominance male however present education literary power important women later dynasties number women took advantage confucian acknowledgment education become independent thought ref name adler joseph adler points neo confucian writings necessarily reflect either prevailing social practices scholars' attitudes practices regard


actual women ref name adler matthew sommers also indicated qing dynasty government began realise utopian nature enforcing cult chastity began allow practices widow remarrying stand moreover confucian texts like ''chunqiu fanlu'' passages suggest equal relationship husband wife recently scholars also begun discuss viability constructing confucian feminism catholic controversy chinese rites ever since europeans first encountered confucianism issue confucianism classified subject debate


contradictory tenets christianity view reinforced pope benedict xiv ordered ban chinese rituals ref name gunn though ban assessed repealed pope pius xii provided traditions harmonize true authentic spirit liturgy critics view confucianism definitely pantheistic nontheistic based belief supernatural personal god existing separate temporal plane ref name yang ref confucius views ti n divine providence ruling world found


characterisation religion means ultimate transformation confucianism could described sociopolitical doctrine religious qualities ref name yang latter definition confucianism religious even non theistic sense performs basic psycho social functions full fledged religions ref name yang see also notes citations bibliography '' http sino platonicorg complete spp vol pdf volume ancient eurasian world celestial pivot '' '' http sino platonicorg complete spp vol pdf volume ii representations identities high powers neolithic bronze china '' '' http sino platonicorg complete spp vol pdf volume iii terrestrial celestial transformations zhou early imperial china ''


articles translations texts attributed confucius analects ''lun yu'' http wwwsacred textscom cfu conf htm confucian analects translated james legge ''the analects confucius'' rpr ny paragon translated william edward soothill ''the analects confucius philosophical translation'' new york ballantine translated roger ames henry rosemont ''the original analects sayings confucius successors'' new york columbia university press translated e bruce brooks taeko brooks ''the analects confucius'' new york ww norton translated simon leys ''analects selections traditional commentaries'' indianapolis hackett publishing translated edward slingerland


external links http platostanfordedu entries confucius conpol stanford encyclopedia philosophy entry confucius https webarchiveorg web http wwwinterfaithorg confucianism interfaith online confucianism http wwwsacred textscom cfu indexhtm confucian documents internet sacred texts archive http philosophylanderedu oriental confucismhtml oriental philosophy topic confucianism institutional http wwwrujiazgcom china confucian philosophy https webarchiveorg web http wwwrjzgnet china confucian religion http wwwchinakongziorg china kongzi network chinese philosophy east asian philosophy east asian religions eponymous political ideologies ethical theories religion china


theory practical applications programming language theory example usage monads functional programming may also used axiomatic foundation mathematics alternative set theory proposed foundations basic concepts categories represent abstractions mathematical concepts many areas mathematics formalised category theory categories hence category theory uses abstraction make possible state prove many intricate subtle mathematical results fields much simpler way basic example category category

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Category theory


sets objects sets arrows functions one set another however objects category need sets arrows need functions way formalising mathematical concept meets basic conditions behaviour objects arrows valid category results category theory apply arrows category theory often said represent process connecting two objects many cases structure preserving transformation connecting two objects however many applications much


abstract concepts represented objects morphisms important property arrows composed words arranged sequence form new arrow applications categories categories appear many branches mathematics areas theoretical computer science correspond types database schemas mathematical physics used describe vector spaces probably first application category theory outside pure mathematics metabolism repair model autonomous living organisms robert rosen utility


categories objects morphisms study categories attempt ''axiomatically'' capture commonly found various classes related mathematical structures relating ' 'structure preserving functions'' systematic study category theory allows us prove general results types mathematical structures axioms category consider following example class '''grp''' groups consists objects group structure one proceed prove theorems groups making logical deductions set axioms defining groups example


immediately proven axioms identity element group unique instead focusing merely individual objects eg groups possessing given structure category theory emphasizes morphisms structure preserving mappings ''between'' objects studying morphisms one able learn structure objects case groups morphisms group homomorphisms group homomorphism two groups preserves group structure precise sense informally process taking one group another way carries along


information structure first group second group study group homomorphisms provides tool studying general properties groups consequences group axioms similar type investigation occurs many mathematical theories study continuous maps morphisms topological spaces topology associated category called '''top''' study smooth functions morphisms manifold theory categories arise structure preserving set functions however standard example category homotopies pointed topological spaces one axiomatizes relations instead


functions one obtains theory allegories functors category ''itself'' type mathematical structure look processes preserve structure sense process called functor diagram chasing visual method arguing abstract arrows joined diagrams functors represented arrows categories subject specific defining commutativity conditions functors define construct categorical diagrams sequences cf mitchell functor associates every object one category object another category every morphism first category


commutativity conditions functors natural transformations 'naturality' key concepts category theory categories objects morphisms categories ''category'' ''c'' consists following three mathematical entities class ob ''c'' whose elements called ''objects'' class hom ''c'' whose elements called morphisms maps ''arrows'' morphism '''''f''''' ' 'source object '''a''''' ''target object '''b''''' br expression would verbally stated ''f'' morphism ''a'' ''b'' br expression alternatively expressed denotes ''hom class''


exactly one identity morphism every object authors deviate definition given identifying object identity morphism morphisms relations among morphisms often depicted using commutative diagrams points corners representing objects arrows representing morphisms morphisms following properties morphism monomorphism ''monic'' implies morphisms epimorphism ''epic'' implies morphisms ''bimorphism'' ''f'' epic monic isomorphism exists morphism


endomorphism end ''a'' denotes class endomorphisms ''a'' automorphism ''f'' endomorphism isomorphism aut ''a'' denotes class automorphisms ''a'' retraction right inverse ''f'' exists ie exists morphism section left inverse ''f'' exists ie exists morphism every retraction epimorphism every section monomorphism furthermore following three statements equivalent ''f'' monomorphism retraction ''f'' epimorphism section ''f'' isomorphism


functors functors structure preserving maps categories thought morphisms category small categories '''covariant''' functor ''f'' category ''c'' category ''d'' written consists object ''x'' ''c'' object ''f'' ''x'' ''d'' morphism ''c'' morphism following two properties hold every object ''x'' ''c'' morphisms '''contravariant''' functor like covariant functor except turns morphisms around reverses arrows specifically


every morphism ''c'' must assigned morphism ''d'' words contravariant functor acts covariant functor opposite category ''c'' sup op sup ''d'' natural transformations ''natural transformation'' relation two functors functors often describe natural constructions natural transformations describe natural homomorphisms two constructions sometimes two quite different constructions yield result expressed natural isomorphism two functors ''f'' ''g'' covariant functors categories ''c'' ''d'' natural transformation ''f''


''g'' associates every object ''x'' ''c'' morphism ''d'' every morphism ''c'' means following diagram commutative commutative diagram defining natural transformations two functors ''f'' ''g'' called ''naturally isomorphic'' exists natural transformation ''f'' ''g'' sub ''x'' sub isomorphism every object ''x'' ''c'' concepts universal constructions limits colimits using language category theory many areas mathematical study categorized categories include sets groups topologies category


given morphisms respective categories thus task find ''universal properties'' uniquely determine objects interest numerous important constructions described purely categorical way ''category limit'' developed dualized yield notion ''colimit'' equivalent categories natural question ask conditions two categories considered ''essentially same'' sense theorems one category readily transformed theorems category major tool one employs describe situation called


''equivalence categories'' given appropriate functors two categories categorical equivalence found numerous applications mathematics concepts results definitions categories functors provide basics categorical algebra additional important topics listed although strong interrelations topics given order considered guideline reading functor category ''d'' sup ''c'' sup objects functors ''c'' ''d'' morphisms natural transformations functors yoneda lemma one famous basic results


construction defined universal property seen abstract powerful view universal properties higher dimensional categories many concepts especially equivalence categories adjoint functor pairs functor categories situated context ''higher dimensional categories'' briefly consider morphism two objects process taking us one object another higher dimensional categories allow us profitably generalize considering higher dimensional processes example strict category category together morphisms morphisms ie processes allow us transform one morphism


another compose bimorphisms horizontally vertically require dimensional exchange law hold relating two composition laws context standard example '''cat''' category small categories example bimorphisms morphisms simply natural transformations morphisms usual sense another basic example consider category single object essentially monoidal categories bicategories weaker notion dimensional categories composition morphisms strictly associative associative isomorphism


process extended natural numbers ''n'' called ''n'' categories even notion '' category'' corresponding ordinal number higher dimensional categories part broader mathematical field higher dimensional algebra concept introduced ronald brown conversational introduction ideas see http mathucredu home baez week html john baez 'a tale ''n'' categories' historical notes ref samuel eilenberg saunders mac lane introduced categories functors natural transformations part work topology especially algebraic topology work important part transition intuitive


geometric homology homological algebra eilenberg mac lane later wrote goal understand natural transformations required defining functors required categories stanislaw ulam writing behalf claimed related ideas current late poland eilenberg polish studied mathematics poland category theory also sense continuation work emmy noether one mac lane 's teachers formalizing abstract processes noether realized understanding type mathematical structure requires understanding processes preserve structure


homomorphisms eilenberg mac lane introduced categories understanding formalizing processes functors relate topological structures algebraic structures topological invariants characterize category theory originally introduced need homological algebra widely extended need modern algebraic geometry scheme theory category theory may viewed extension universal algebra latter studies algebraic structures former applies kind mathematical structure studies also relationships structures different nature reason used throughout mathematics applications mathematical logic


applications functional programming domain theory cartesian closed category taken non syntactic description lambda calculus least category theoretic language clarifies exactly related areas common abstract sense category theory applied fields well example john baez shown link feynman diagrams physics monoidal categories ref name baez ref another application category theory specifically topos theory made mathematical music theory see example book ''the topos music geometric logic concepts theory


performance'' guerino mazzola recent efforts introduce undergraduates categories foundation mathematics include william lawvere rosebrugh lawvere stephen schanuel mirroslav yotov see also domain theory enriched category theory glossary category theory group theory higher category theory higher dimensional algebra important publications category theory lambda calculus outline category theory timeline category theory related mathematics notes references citations sources notes course offered part msc


mathematical logic manchester university draft book based reading external links http wwwtacmtaca tac theory application categories electronic journal category theory full text free since http ncatlaborg nlab nlab wiki project mathematics physics philosophy emphasis ''n'' categorical point view https golemphutexasedu category n category caf essentially colloquium topics category theory http wwwlogicmattersnet categories category theory web page links lecture notes freely available books category theory formal introduction category theory extensive bibliography http wwwmtaca cat dist list academic conferences


category theory informal introduction higher order categories http wildcatsformmawordpresscom wildcats category theory package mathematica manipulation visualization objects morphisms categories functors natural transformations universal properties channel category theory http categorieslogicphysicswikidotcom events video archive recorded talks relevant categories logic foundations physics https webarchiveorg web http wwwj paineorg cgi bin webcats webcatsphp interactive web page generates examples categorical constructions category finite sets https webarchiveorg web http category theorymitpressmitedu indexhtml category theory sciences instruction category theory tool throughout sciences https bartoszmilewskicom category theory programmers preface category theory programmers book blog form explaining category theory


computer programmers http mathmitedu dspivak teaching sp sketchespdf introduction category theory higher category theory foundations mathematics


reactants form intermediates subsequently give final reaction product process regenerating catalyst catalysis may classified either homogeneous whose components dispersed phase usually gaseous liquid reactant heterogeneous whose components phase enzymes biocatalysts often considered third category catalysis ubiquitous chemical industry kinds estimates commercially produced chemical products involve catalysts stage process manufacture term catalyst derived greek ''katal '' meaning

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering
Catalysis


loosen untie concept catalysis invented chemist elizabeth fulhame based novel work oxidation reduction experiments ref name laidler ref general principles illustration illustrative disproportionation hydrogen peroxide water oxygen ho ho reaction proceeds reaction products stable starting material uncatalyzed reaction slow fact decomposition hydrogen peroxide slow hydrogen peroxide solutions commercially available reaction strongly affected catalysts manganese dioxide enzyme


peroxidase organisms upon addition small amount manganese dioxide hydrogen peroxide reacts rapidly effect readily seen effervescence oxygen manganese dioxide consumed reaction thus may recovered unchanged used indefinitely accordingly manganese dioxide ''catalyzes'' reaction units si derived unit measuring '''catalytic activity''' catalyst katal quantified moles per second productivity catalyst described turnover number ton catalytic activity ''turn frequency'' tof


ton per time unit biochemical equivalent enzyme unit information efficiency enzymatic catalysis see article ''enzymes'' catalytic reaction mechanisms general chemical reactions occur faster presence catalyst catalyst provides alternative reaction pathway mechanism lower activation energy non catalyzed mechanism catalyzed mechanisms catalyst usually reacts form intermediate regenerates original catalyst process ref name lm catalysts generally react one reactants form intermediates subsequently


give final reaction product process catalyst regenerated principle often small amounts catalysts required increase rate reaction practice however catalysts sometimes slow even consumed secondary processes catalyst often appear rate equation ref name steinfeld ref simple example gas phase reaction sub sub sub sub sub sub catalyzed adding nitric oxide reaction mechanism occurs two steps sub sub sub sub slow sub sub sub sub


ho ho final reaction product water molecule dimers water molecule desorbs catalyst surface reaction energetics generic potential energy diagram showing effect catalyst hypothetical exothermic chemical reaction x give z presence catalyst opens different reaction pathway shown red lower activation energy final result overall thermodynamics catalysts work providing alternative mechanism involving different transition state lower activation energy consequently molecular collisions energy needed reach


transition state hence catalysts enable reactions would otherwise blocked slowed kinetic barrier catalyst may increase reaction rate selectivity enable reaction lower temperatures effect illustrated energy profile diagram catalyzed elementary reaction catalysts '''not''' change extent reaction '''no''' effect chemical equilibrium reaction rate forward reverse reaction affected see also thermodynamics second law thermodynamics describes catalyst change


chemical equilibrium reaction suppose catalyst shifted equilibrium introducing catalyst system would result reaction move new equilibrium producing energy production energy necessary result since reactions spontaneous gibbs free energy produced energy barrier need catalyst removing catalyst would also result reaction producing energy ie addition reverse process removal would produce energy thus catalyst could change equilibrium would


perpetual motion machine contradiction laws thermodynamics thus catalyst '' 'does not''' alter equilibrium constant catalyst however change equilibrium concentrations reacting subsequent step consumed reaction proceeds thus also reactant illustrative base catalyzed hydrolysis esters produced carboxylic acid immediately reacts base catalyst thus reaction equilibrium shifted towards hydrolysis catalyst stabilizes transition state stabilizes starting material decreases kinetic barrier decreasing ' 'difference''


'''cocatalysts''' '''promoters''' tandem catalysis two different catalysts coupled one pot reaction autocatalysis catalyst ''is'' product overall reaction contrast types catalysis considered article simplest example autocatalysis reaction type b b one several steps overall reaction b b product since b also reactant may present rate equation affect reaction rate reaction proceeds


concentration b increases accelerate reaction catalyst effect reaction accelerates autocatalyzed example hydrolysis ester aspirin carboxylic acid alcohol absence added acid catalysts carboxylic acid product catalyzes hydrolysis classification catalysis may classified either homogeneous heterogeneous homogeneous catalysis one whose components dispersed phase usually gaseous liquid reactant 's molecules heterogeneous catalysis one reaction components


phase enzymes biocatalysts often considered third category similar mechanistic principles apply heterogeneous homogeneous biocatalysis heterogeneous catalysis microporous molecular structure zeolite zsm exploited catalysts used refineries zeolites extruded pellets easy handling catalytic reactors heterogeneous catalysts act different phase reactants heterogeneous catalysts solids act substrates liquid gaseous reaction mixture important heterogeneous catalysts include zeolites alumina higher order oxides graphitic carbon transition metal oxides metals raney nickel hydrogenation vanadium v oxide


oxidation sulfur dioxide sulfur trioxide called contact process ref name housecroft ref diverse mechanisms reactions surfaces known depending adsorption takes place langmuir hinshelwood eley rideal mars van krevelen total surface area solid important effect reaction rate smaller catalyst particle size larger surface area given mass particles heterogeneous catalyst '''active sites''' atoms crystal faces reaction actually occurs depending mechanism active site may either planar exposed metal surface crystal edge


imperfect metal valence complicated combination two thus volume also surface heterogeneous catalyst may catalytically inactive finding nature active site requires technically challenging research thus empirical research finding new metal combinations catalysis continues example haber process finely divided iron serves catalyst synthesis ammonia nitrogen hydrogen reacting gases adsorb onto active sites iron particles physically adsorbed reagents undergo chemisorption results dissociation


second material enhances effectiveness minimizes cost supports prevent reduce agglomeration sintering small catalyst particles exposing surface area thus catalysts higher specific activity per gram support sometimes support merely surface catalyst spread increase surface area often support catalyst interact affecting catalytic reaction supports also used nanoparticle synthesis providing sites individual molecules catalyst chemically bind supports porous materials high surface area commonly alumina zeolites


various kinds activated carbon specialized supports include silicon dioxide titanium dioxide calcium carbonate barium sulfate slurry reactions heterogeneous catalysts lost dissolving many heterogeneous catalysts fact nanomaterials nanomaterial based catalysts enzyme mimicking activities collectively called nanozymes electrocatalysts context electrochemistry specifically fuel cell engineering various metal containing catalysts used enhance rates half reactions comprise fuel cell one common type fuel cell electrocatalyst based upon nanoparticles platinum supported slightly larger carbon particles contact one


early organocatalysts considered new generation competitive traditional metal ion containing catalysts organocatalysts supposed operate akin metal free enzymes utilizing eg non covalent interactions hydrogen bonding discipline organocatalysis divided application covalent eg proline dmap non covalent eg thiourea organocatalysis organocatalysts referring preferred catalyst substrate binding interaction respectively photocatalysts photocatalysis phenomenon catalyst receive light visible light promoted excited state undergo intersystem crossing starting material returning ground state without consumed


enzymes catalysts including temperature ph concentration enzyme substrate products particularly important reagent enzymatic reactions water product many bond forming reactions reactant many bond breaking processes biocatalysis enzymes employed prepare many commodity chemicals including high fructose corn syrup acrylamide monoclonal antibodies whose binding target stable molecule resembles transition state chemical reaction function weak catalysts chemical reaction lowering activation energy catalytic antibodies sometimes called abzymes significance left partially caramelized cube


sugar right burning cube sugar ash catalyst ti cr pt tube long releases oxygen bubbles immersed hydrogen peroxide via catalytic decomposition forming micropump estimates commercially produced chemical products involve catalysts stage process manufacture catalytic processes generated billion products worldwide global demand catalysts estimated approximately us billion catalysis pervasive subareas readily classified areas particular concentration surveyed energy processing petroleum refining makes intensive use


reactions catalyzed iron biodiesel related biofuels require processing via inorganic biocatalysts fuel cells rely catalysts anodic cathodic reactions catalytic heaters generate flameless heat supply combustible fuel bulk chemicals largest scale chemicals produced via catalytic oxidation often using oxygen examples include nitric acid ammonia sulfuric acid sulfur dioxide sulfur trioxide contact process terephthalic acid p xylene acrylic acid propylene propane acrylonitrile propane ammonia production ammonia one largest scale


energy intensive processes haber process nitrogen combined hydrogen iron oxide catalyst ref name smil enriching ref methanol prepared carbon monoxide carbon dioxide using copper zinc catalysts bulk polymers derived ethylene propylene often prepared via ziegler natta catalysis polyesters polyamides isocyanates derived via acid base catalysis carbonylation processes require metal catalysts examples include monsanto acetic acid process hydroformylation fine chemicals many fine chemicals prepared via catalysis methods include heavy industry well specialized processes would prohibitively expensive large scale


examples include heck reaction friedel crafts reactions bioactive compounds chiral many pharmaceuticals produced enantioselective catalysis catalytic asymmetric synthesis r propandiol precursor antibacterial levofloxacin efficiently synthesized hydroxyacetone using noyori asymmetric hydrogenation ref name gordon ref levofloxaxin synthesis food processing one obvious applications catalysis hydrogenation reaction hydrogen gas fats using nickel catalyst produce margarine many foodstuffs prepared via biocatalysis see environment catalysis impacts environment increasing efficiency industrial processes catalysis also plays direct role environment


notable example catalytic role chlorine free radicals breakdown ozone radicals formed action ultraviolet radiation chlorofluorocarbons cfcs cl clo clo cl history generally speaking anything increases rate process catalyst term derived greek meaning annul untie pick concept catalysis invented chemist elizabeth fulhame described