matured cold war prompted design ever evolving line high performance aircraft computational fluid dynamics began effort solve flow properties around complex objects rapidly grown point entire aircraft designed using computer software wind tunnel tests followed flight tests confirm computer predictions understanding supersonic hypersonic aerodynamics matured since goals aerodynamicists shifted behaviour fluid flow engineering vehicle interacts predictably fluid flow designing aircraft


speed much greater speed sound aerodynamicists disagree precise definition hypersonic flow compressible flow accounts varying density within flow subsonic flows often idealized incompressible ie density assumed constant transonic supersonic flows compressible calculations neglect changes density flow fields yield inaccurate results viscosity associated frictional forces flow flow fields viscous effects small approximate solutions may safely neglect viscous effects approximations called inviscid flows flows


viscosity neglected called viscous flows finally aerodynamic problems may also classified flow environment external aerodynamics study flow around solid objects various shapes eg around airplane wing internal aerodynamics study flow passages inside solid objects eg jet engine continuum assumption unlike liquids solids gases composed discrete molecules occupy small fraction volume filled gas molecular level flow fields made collisions many individual gas molecules


solid surfaces however aerodynamics applications discrete molecular nature gases ignored flow field assumed behave continuum assumption allows fluid properties density flow velocity defined everywhere within flow validity continuum assumption dependent density gas application question continuum assumption valid mean free path length must much smaller length scale application question example many aerodynamics applications deal aircraft flying


application newton 's second law momentum within flow changed external forces may include surface forces viscous frictional forces body forces weight momentum conservation principle may expressed either vector equation separated set three scalar equations xyz components conservation energy energy conservation equation states energy neither created destroyed within flow addition subtraction energy volume flow caused heat transfer work


region interest together equations known navier stokes equations although authors define term include momentum equation navier stokes equations known analytical solution solved modern aerodynamics using computational techniques computational methods using high speed computers historically available high computational cost solving complex equations available simplifications navier stokes equations continue employed euler equations set similar conservation equations neglect viscosity may


used cases effect viscosity expected small simplifications lead laplace 's equation potential flow theory additionally bernoulli 's equation solution one dimension momentum energy conservation equations ideal gas law another equation state often used conjunction equations form determined system allows solution unknown variables branches aerodynamics computational modelling aerodynamic problems classified flow environment properties flow including flow speed compressibility viscosity ''external'' aerodynamics


study flow around solid objects various shapes evaluating lift drag airplane shock waves form front nose rocket examples external aerodynamics ''internal'' aerodynamics study flow passages solid objects instance internal aerodynamics encompasses study airflow jet engine air conditioning pipe aerodynamic problems also classified according whether flow speed near speed sound problem called subsonic speeds


effects compressibility significant speeds close speed sound mach number used evaluate whether incompressibility assumed otherwise effects compressibility must included subsonic flow subsonic low speed aerodynamics describes fluid motion flows much lower speed sound everywhere flow several branches subsonic flow one special case arises flow inviscid incompressible irrotational case called potential flow allows differential equations describe flow


effects usually ignored mach number flow exceed feet nbsp per second miles nbsp km per hour nbsp f nbsp c mach problem flow described using compressible aerodynamics compressible aerodynamics according theory aerodynamics flow considered compressible density changes along streamline means unlike incompressible flow changes density considered general case mach number part flow exceeds mach value


range speeds critical mach number parts airflow aircraft become supersonic higher speed typically near mach airflow supersonic speeds airflow supersonic airflow supersonic supersonic flow supersonic aerodynamic problems involving flow speeds greater speed sound calculating lift concorde cruise example supersonic aerodynamic problem supersonic flow behaves differently subsonic flow fluids react differences pressure pressure changes


fluid told respond environment therefore since sound fact infinitesimal pressure difference propagating fluid speed sound fluid considered fastest speed information travel flow difference obviously manifests case fluid striking object front object fluid builds stagnation pressure impact object brings moving fluid rest fluid traveling subsonic speed pressure disturbance propagate upstream changing flow pattern ahead


regimes hypersonic flow aerodynamics hypersonic speeds speeds highly supersonic term generally came refer speeds mach times speed sound hypersonic regime subset supersonic regime hypersonic flow characterized high temperature flow behind shock wave viscous interaction chemical dissociation gas associated terminology potential flow theory incompressible compressible flow regimes produce many associated phenomena boundary layers turbulence boundary layers concept boundary layer important many problems aerodynamics


viscosity fluid friction air approximated significant thin layer assumption makes description aerodynamics much tractable mathematically turbulence aerodynamics turbulence characterized chaotic property changes flow include low momentum diffusion high momentum convection rapid variation pressure flow velocity space time flow turbulent called laminar flow aerodynamics fields engineering design aerodynamics significant element vehicle design including road cars trucks main goal reduce vehicle


drag coefficient racing cars addition reducing drag goal also increase overall level downforce ref name aerodynamics also important prediction forces moments acting sailing vessels used design mechanical components hard drive heads structural engineers resort aerodynamics particularly aeroelasticity calculating wind loads design large buildings bridges wind turbines aerodynamics internal passages important heating ventilation gas piping automotive engines detailed flow patterns strongly affect performance


application aerodynamics formula one f http wwwnasnasagov education racecar aerodynamics car racing http wingsavkidscom book animals intermediate birds html aerodynamics birds dynamics energy transport


coca cola advertisement '''advertising''' marketing communication employs openly sponsored non personal message promote sell product service idea ref name stanton william j stanton ''fundamentals marketing'' mcgraw hill ref sponsors advertising typically businesses wishing promote products services advertising differentiated public relations advertiser pays control message differs personal selling message non personal ie directed particular individual ref name stanton advertising communicated various mass media ref name bovee courtland l bovee william f arens

Journalism, media studies and communication


contemporary advertising fourth edition richard irwin inc ref including traditional media newspapers magazines television radio outdoor advertising direct mail new media search results blogs social media websites text messages actual presentation message medium referred '''advertisement''' '''advert''' '''ad''' short commercial ads often seek generate increased consumption products services branding associates product name image certain qualities minds consumers hand ads intend elicit immediate sale


known direct response advertising non commercial entities advertise consumer products services include political parties interest groups religious organizations governmental agencies non profit organizations may use free modes persuasion public service announcement advertising may also help reassure employees shareholders company viable successful modern advertising originated techniques introduced tobacco advertising significantly campaigns edward bernays considered founder modern madison avenue advertising ref name studlar p donley studlar https booksgooglecom booksid gmn gxtu wc pg pa ''tobacco control comparative politics united states canada''


p quotation nbsp early days advertising intimately intertwined tobacco man sometimes considered founder modern advertising madison avenue edward bernays created many major cigarette campaigns including women march street demanding right smoke ref ref name gifford p donald g gifford https booksgooglecom booksid uyzft qgk c pg pa ''suing tobacco lead pigment industries'' p quotation nbsp early twentieth century tobacco manufacturers virtually created modern advertising marketing industry known today ref worldwide spending advertising amounted estimated billion link yes ref name carat ref advertising 's projected


distribution tv digital newspapers magazines outdoor radio internationally largest big five advertising agency groups dentsu interpublic omnicom publicis wpp latin ''advertere'' means turn towards history bronze plate printing advertisement liu family needle shop jinan song dynasty china world 's earliest identified printed advertising medium edo period lel flyer traditional medicine called ''kinseitan'' egyptians used papyrus make sales messages wall posters commercial messages political


campaign displays found ruins pompeii ancient arabia lost found advertising papyrus common ancient greece ancient rome wall rock painting commercial advertising another manifestation ancient advertising form present day many parts asia africa south america tradition wall painting traced back indian rock art paintings date back bc ref name bhatia bhatia ''advertising rural india language marketing communication consumerism'' ref ancient china earliest advertising known oral


recorded classic poetry th th centuries bc bamboo flutes played sell confectionery advertisement usually takes form calligraphic signboards inked papers copper printing plate dated back song dynasty used print posters form square sheet paper rabbit logo jinan liu 's fine needle shop buy high quality steel rods make fine quality needles ready use home time written considered world 's earliest identified printed advertising medium europe


towns cities middle ages began grow general population unable read instead signs read cobbler miller tailor blacksmith images associated trade would used boot suit hat clock diamond horseshoe candle even bag flour fruits vegetables sold city square backs carts wagons proprietors used street callers town criers announce whereabouts first compilation advertisements gathered les crieries de paris


''brand failures truth biggest branding mistakes time'' kogan page publishers pp ref ref name nick nicholas mirzoeff ''the visual culture reader'' routledge p ref working pears soap company barratt created effective advertising campaign company products involved use targeted slogans images phrases one slogans good morning used pears' soap famous day th century ref name obit ref ref name part eric partridge paul beale ''a dictionary catch phrases british american sixteenth century present day'' routledge


p ref becoming company 's brand manager listed first kind ''guinness book records'' barratt introduced many crucial ideas lie behind successful advertising widely circulated day constantly stressed importance strong exclusive brand image pears emphasizing product 's availability saturation campaigns also understood importance constantly reevaluating market changing tastes mores stating tastes change fashions change advertiser change idea effective


generation ago would fall flat stale unprofitable presented public today idea today always better older idea different hits present taste ref name mat advertising huntley palmers wafers c enhanced advertising revenues one effect industrial revolution britain thanks revolution consumers created mid th century biscuits chocolate became products masses british biscuit manufacturers among first introduce branding distinguish grocery products ref name v ref name ft ref one


world 's first global brands huntley palmers biscuits sold countries global reach reflected advertisements ref name v ref george william joy 's depiction interior late th century omnibus conspicuously shows advertisements placed overhead june french newspaper ''la presse'' first include paid advertising pages allowing lower price extend readership increase profitability formula soon copied titles around volney b palmer established roots modern day advertising agency philadelphia


palmer bought large amounts space various newspapers discounted rate resold space higher rates advertisers actual ad copy layout artwork still prepared company wishing advertise effect palmer space broker situation changed first full service advertising agency nw ayer son founded philadelphia ayer son offered plan create execute complete advertising campaigns customers advertising agency become focal point creative planning advertising


firmly established profession ref name eskilson pg ref around time france charles louis havas extended services news agency havas include advertisement brokerage making first french group organize first agencies brokers advertisement space newspapers ref name eskilson pg th century advertisement guy 's tonic gdp shows rise audio visual digital advertising expense print media ref name bea ref estonian language advertisement cruise tallinn helsinki print advertisement issue ''encyclop dia britannica''


human instincts could targeted harnessed sublimated desire purchase commodities edward bernays nephew sigmund freud became associated method sometimes called founder modern advertising public relations bernays claimed blockquote general principle men largely actuated motives conceal true mass individual psychology evident successful propagandist must understand true motives content accept reasons men give blockquote words selling products appealing


rational minds customers main method used prior bernays much less effective selling products based unconscious desires bernays felt true motivators human action sex sells became controversial issue techniques titillating enlarging audience posing challenge conventional morality secretary commerce herbert hoover american government promoted advertising hoover delivered address associated advertising clubs world called 'advertising vital force national life october head


us bureau foreign domestic commerce julius klein stated advertising key world prosperity ref name leach ref part unparalleled collaboration business government according european economic journal tobacco companies became major advertisers order sell packaged cigarettes ref name brandt p brandt https booksgooglecom booksid yyban j ipec pg pa p ref tobacco companies pioneered new advertising techniques hired bernays create positive associations tobacco smoking ref name studlar p ref name gifford p advertising also used vehicle cultural assimilation encouraging workers exchange traditional habits community structure


favor shared modern lifestyle important tool influencing immigrant workers american association foreign language newspapers aafln aafln primarily advertising agency also gained heavily centralized control much immigrant press ''ladies' home journal'' version famous ad helen lansdowne resor j walter thompson agency turn th century advertising one career choices women since women responsible household purchasing done advertisers agencies recognized value women 's insight creative process


direct command consumer radio advertisement live radio broadcast sponsored milk company adohr milk published ''los angeles times'' may early first radio stations established radio equipment manufacturers followed non profit organizations schools clubs civic groups also set stations ref name uouynv mcchesney robert ''educators battle control us broadcasting '' rich media poor democracy ref retailer consumer goods manufacturers quickly recognized radio 's potential reach consumers


' 'soap opera'' long radio station owners realized could increase advertising revenue selling 'air time' small time allocations could sold multiple businesses ''advertising spots'' packets time became known sold station 's geographical sales representatives ushering era national radio advertising manufacturers began recognize way consumers developing personal relationships brands social psychological anthropological sense advertisers began use motivational research consumer research gather insights consumer purchasing strong branded campaigns


shows united states steel hour instances sponsors exercised great control content show including one 's advertising agency actually writing show single sponsor model much less prevalent notable exception hallmark hall fame cable television late early saw introduction cable television particularly mtv pioneering concept music video mtv ushered new type advertising consumer tunes ''for'' advertising message rather


similar efforts increase interactive advertising share advertising spending relative gdp changed little across large changes media since main advertising media america newspapers magazines signs streetcars outdoor posters advertising spending share gdp percent television radio become major advertising media balance broadcast online advertising shifted online spending exceeding broadcast nonetheless advertising spending share gdp slightly lower percent guerrilla marketing involves unusual


approaches staged encounters public places giveaways products cars covered brand messages interactive advertising viewer respond become part advertising message type advertising unpredictable causes consumers buy product idea reflects increasing trend interactive embedded ads via product placement consumers vote text messages various campaigns utilizing social network services facebook twitter advertising business model also adapted recent years media equity advertising


sold provided start companies return equity company grows sold media companies receive cash shares domain name registrants usually register renew domains investment sometimes park domains allow advertising companies place ads sites return per click payments ads typically driven pay per click search engines like google yahoo ads sometimes placed directly targeted domain names domain lease making contact registrant domain name


describes product domain name registrants generally easy identify whois records publicly available registrar websites ref name icannwhois ref classification advertisement wikimedia foundation advertisement diner signs common storefronts paying people hold signs one oldest forms advertising human billboard taxicab advertisement daikin singapore buses vehicles popular media advertisers mobile billboard east coast park singapore dbag class unicef ads ingolstadt main railway station transperth bus


ad may raise awareness brand advertising elicit immediate sale direct response advertising term '''above line''' atl used advertising involving mass media targeted forms advertising promotion referred '''below line''' btl two terms date back procter gamble began paying advertising agencies differently promotional agencies advertising technology developed new term '''through line''' ttl began come use referring integrated advertising campaigns traditional media virtually medium used


advertising commercial advertising media include wall paintings billboards street furniture components printed flyers rack cards radio cinema television adverts web banners mobile telephone screens shopping carts web popups skywriting bus stop benches human billboards forehead advertising magazines newspapers town criers sides buses banners attached sides airplanes logojets flight advertisements seatback tray tables overhead storage bins taxicab doors roof mounts passenger screens musical stage shows subway platforms trains elastic bands disposable diapers doors bathroom stalls stickers apples supermarkets shopping cart handles grabertising opening


section streaming audio video posters backs event tickets supermarket receipts situation identified sponsor pays deliver message medium advertising class wikitable sortable share global adspend medium television advertisement desktop online advertising mobile advertising newspaper magazines outdoor advertising radio advertisement


million charged second spot ref name super bowl ad really worth million ref virtual advertisements may inserted regular programming computer graphics typically inserted otherwise blank backdrops ref name mccarthy ref used replace local billboards relevant remote broadcast audience ref name keith mcarthur ref virtual billboards may inserted background none exist real life technique especially used televised sporting events virtual product placement also possible ref name welcome e commerce times ref infomercial long format television commercial typically five minutes longer name


blends words information commercial main objective infomercial create impulse purchase target sees presentation immediately buys product advertised toll free telephone number website infomercials describe often demonstrate products commonly testimonials customers industry professionals television commercial filmed radio radio advertisements broadcast radio waves air transmitter antenna thus receiving device airtime purchased station network exchange airing commercials


radio limitation restricted sound proponents radio advertising often cite advantage radio expanding medium found air also online according arbitron radio approximately million weekly listeners percent us population online online advertising form promotion uses internet world wide web expressed purpose delivering marketing messages attract customers online ads delivered ad server examples online advertising include contextual ads appear search engine results


pages banner ads pay per click text ads rich media ads social network advertising online classified advertising advertising networks e mail marketing including e mail spam newer form online advertising native ads go website 's news feed supposed improve user experience less intrusive however people argue practice deceptive domain names domain name advertising commonly done pay per click web search engines however advertisers often lease space directly domain names generically describe products internet user visits website typing


keyword add com another top level domain tld ending produces targeted sales lead ref name targetedtraffic ref domain name advertising originally developed oingo later known applied semantics one google 's early acquisitions ref name oingo ref product placements '''''' product brand embedded entertainment media example film main character use item definite brand movie ''minority report'' tom cruise 's character john anderton owns phone ''nokia'' logo clearly written top corner watch engraved


''bulgari'' logo another example advertising film ''i robot'' main character played smith mentions ''converse'' shoes several times calling classics film set far future ''i robot'' ''spaceballs'' also showcase futuristic cars ''audi'' ''mercedes benz'' logos clearly displayed front vehicles cadillac chose advertise movie ''the matrix reloaded'' result contained many scenes cadillac cars used similarly product placement omega watches ford vaio bmw aston martin cars featured recent james


bond films notably ''casino royale'' fantastic four rise silver surfer main transport vehicle shows large dodge logo front ''blade runner'' includes obvious product placement whole film stops show coca cola billboard print print advertising describes advertising printed medium newspaper magazine trade journal encompasses everything media broad readership base major national newspaper magazine narrowly targeted media local newspapers trade journals specialized topics one form


print advertising classified advertising allows private individuals companies purchase small narrowly targeted ad paid word line another form print advertising display ad generally larger ad design elements typically run article section newspaper ref name bovee outdoor billboards also known hoardings parts world large structures located public places display advertisements passing pedestrians motorists often located main roads large amount passing motor pedestrian traffic however


placed location large numbers viewers mass transit vehicles stations shopping malls office buildings stadiums form known street advertising first came prominence uk street advertising services create outdoor advertising street furniture pavements working products reverse graffiti air dancers pavement advertising getting brand messages public spaces ref name ref sheltered outdoor advertising combines outdoor indoor advertisement placing large mobile structures tents public places temporary bases large


outer advertising space aims exert strong pull observer product promoted indoors creative decor intensify impression ref name mobile billboards generally vehicle mounted billboards digital screens dedicated vehicles built solely carrying advertisements along routes preselected clients also specially equipped cargo trucks cases large banners strewn planes billboards often lighted backlit others employing spotlights billboard displays static others change example continuously periodically rotating among set


advertisements mobile displays used various situations metropolitan areas throughout world including target advertising one day long term campaigns conventions sporting events store openings similar promotional events big advertisements smaller companies ref name ''redeye'' newspaper advertised target market north avenue beach sailboat billboard lake michigan point sale store advertising advertisement placed retail store includes placement product visible locations store eye level ends aisles near checkout counters aka pop point purchase


display eye catching displays promoting specific product advertisements places shopping carts store video displays novelties advertising printed small tangible items coffee mugs shirts pens bags known novelty advertising printers specialize printing novelty items distributed directly advertiser items may distributed part cross promotion ads fast food containers celebrity endorsements advertising celebrity endorses product brand leverages celebrity power fame money popularity gain recognition products promote


want associate photographed smoking marijuana celebrities britney spears advertised multiple products including pepsi candies kohl 's twister nascar toyota aerial using aircraft balloons airships create display advertising media skywriting notable example allegiant air aircraft special blue man group livery zeppelin nt lzfn friedrichshafen used advertisement new media approaches new advertising approach known advanced advertising data driven advertising using large quantities data precise measuring tools precise targeting advanced advertising also


makes easier companies sell ad space attribute customer purchases ads display broadcast increasingly media overtaking many traditional media television radio newspaper shift toward usage internet news music well devices like digital video recorders dvrs tivo online advertising began unsolicited bulk e mail advertising known e mail spam spam problem e mail users since new online communication channels became available advertising followed first banner ad appeared world


content percent japanese mobile phone users already active users barcodes companies proposed placing messages corporate logos side booster rockets international space station unpaid advertising also called publicity advertising include personal recommendations bring friend sell spreading buzz achieving feat equating brand common noun united states xerox photocopier kleenex tissue vaseline petroleum jelly hoover vacuum cleaner band aid adhesive bandage however companies oppose use brand name label


object equating brand common noun also risks turning brand generic trademark turning generic term means legal protection trademark lost early life cw aired short programming breaks called content wraps advertise one company 's product entire commercial break cw pioneered content wraps products featured herbal essences crest guitar hero ii covergirl toyota new promotion concept appeared arvertising advertising augmented reality technology controversy exists effectiveness subliminal advertising see mind control


pervasiveness mass messages propaganda rise new media publisher newspaper association america access date september url http wwwspotlightlocalcouk annual newspaper ad expenditures newspaper association america url status dead archive url https webarchiveorg web http wwwspotlightlocalcouk annual newspaper ad expenditures newspaper association america archive date december df mdy ref internet came many new advertising opportunities pop flash banner pop advergaming email advertisements often unwanted spam case email commonplace particularly since rise entertaining advertising people may like advertisement enough wish watch later show friend general advertising community yet made easy although used


marketing google calculates primary purpose website adjusts ads accordingly uses keywords page even emails find general ideas topics disused places ads likely clicked viewers email account website visitors crowdsourcing concept crowdsourcing given way trend user generated advertisements user generated ads created people opposed advertising agency company often resulting brand sponsored advertising competitions super bowl frito lays division pepsico held


crash super bowl contest allowing people create doritos commercials ref name advertising age ref chevrolet held similar competition tahoe line suvs ref name advertising age due success doritos user generated ads super bowl frito lays relaunched competition super bowl resulting ads among watched liked super bowl ads fact winning ad aired super bowl ranked usa today super bowl ad meter top ad year winning ads


advertising gone five major stages development domestic export international multi national global global advertisers four potentially competing business objectives must balanced developing worldwide advertising building brand speaking one voice developing economies scale creative process maximising local effectiveness ads increasing company 's speed implementation born evolutionary stages global marketing three primary fundamentally different approaches development global advertising executions exporting executions producing local executions importing ideas travel advertising research key determining


particularly marketable commercial products services often promote interests positions advertising goods target audience largely unaware forum vehicle foreign messaging also willing receive message mental state absorbing information advertisements television commercial breaks reading periodical passing billboards public spaces prime example messaging technique advertising campaigns promote international travel advertising foreign destinations services may stem typical goal increasing


revenue drawing tourism travel campaigns carry additional alternative intended purpose promoting good sentiments improving existing ones among target audience towards given nation region common advertising promoting foreign countries produced distributed tourism ministries countries ads often carry political statements depictions foreign government 's desired international public perception additionally wide range foreign airlines travel related services advertise separately destinations owned respective governments examples include though limited


emirates airline dubai singapore airlines singapore qatar airways qatar china airlines taiwan republic china air china people 's republic china depicting destinations airlines services favorable pleasant light countries market populations abroad manner could mitigate prior public impressions diversification realm advertising agencies continued industry diversification seen observers note big global clients n't need big global agencies reflected growth non traditional agencies various global markets canadian business taxi smart australia


referred revolution ad world new technology human billboard national multicultural festival used advertise facebook news feed ability record shows digital video recorders tivo allow watchers record programs later viewing enabling fast forward commercials additionally seasons pre recorded box sets offered sale television programs fewer people watch shows tv however fact sets '' 'sold''' means company receive additional profits sets counter


effect variety strategies employed many advertisers opted product placement tv shows like survivor strategies include integrating advertising internet connected program guidess epgs advertising companion devices like smartphones tablets show creating mobile apps tv programs additionally like brands opted social television sponsorship emerging technology drone displays recently used advertising purposes education recent years several media literacy initiatives specifically concerning advertising seek empower citizens face media


advertising campaigns advertising education become popular bachelor master doctorate degrees becoming available emphasis surge advertising interest typically attributed strong relationship advertising plays cultural technological changes advance online social networking unique model teaching advertising student run advertising agency advertising students create campaigns real companies organizations american advertising federation establish companies students create campaigns purposes advertising front delivering proper message customers prospective customers purpose


advertising inform consumers product convince customers company 's services products best enhance image company point create need products services demonstrate new uses established products announce new products programs reinforce salespeople 's individual messages draw customers business hold existing customers sales promotions brand loyalty sales promotions another way advertise sales promotions double purposed used gather information type customers one draws


jump start sales sales promotions include things like contests games sweepstakes product giveaways samples coupons loyalty programs discounts ultimate goal sales promotions stimulate potential customers action criticisms mobstr visual pollution london advertising seen necessary economic growth ref name leach without social costs unsolicited commercial e mail forms spam become prevalent become major nuisance users services well financial burden internet service providers advertising increasingly invading public


spaces schools critics argue form child exploitation increasing difficulty limiting exposure specific audiences result negative backlash advertisers tandem criticisms advertising industry seen low approval rates surveys negative cultural portrayals one controversial criticisms advertisement present day predominance advertising foods high sugar fat salt specifically children critics claim food advertisements targeting children exploitive sufficiently balanced proper nutritional education help children


understand consequences food choices additionally children may understand sold something therefore impressionable michelle obama criticized large food companies advertising unhealthy foods largely towards children requested food companies either limit advertising children advertise foods line dietary guidelines criticisms include change brought advertisements society also deceiving ads aired published corporations cosmetic health industry ones exploited highest


placed around advertisements food healthcare products ref name uk advertising ref advertising industries within countries rely less laws systems self regulation ref name uk advertising ref name asasa ref advertisers media agree code advertising standards attempt uphold general aim codes ensure advertising 'legal decent honest truthful' self regulatory organizations funded industry remain independent intent upholding standards codes like advertising standards authority uk uk forms outdoor advertising


used advertisements advertisers may employ tricks try avoiding france instance advertisers sometimes print english words bold french translations fine print deal article toubon law limiting use english advertising pricing information another topic concern governments united states instance common businesses mention existence amount applicable taxes later stage transaction canada new zealand taxes listed separate items long


quoted front countries advertised price must include applicable taxes enabling customers easily know much cost theory hierarchy effects models various competing models hierarchies effects attempt provide theoretical underpinning advertising practice model clow baack clarifies objectives advertising campaign individual advertisement model postulates six steps buyer moves making purchase awareness knowledge liking preference conviction purchase means end theory suggests advertisement


last p stands '''promotion''' process reaching target market convincing buy product concept '''four cs''' introduced customer driven replacement four p 's ref name business higher awards ref two theories based four cs lauterborn 's four cs ''consumer'' ''cost'' ''communication'' ''convenience'' ref name schultz ref shimizu 's four cs ''commodity'' ''cost'' ''communication'' ''channel'' ''' cs compass model''' co marketing communications include advertising sales promotion public relations publicity personal selling corporate identity internal communication sns mis research advertising research


techniques pre testing usually focus understanding change awareness attitude attributable advertisement emergence digital advertising technologies many firms begun continuously post test ads using real time data may take form b split testing multivariate testing continuous ad tracking communicus system competing examples post testing advertising research types semiotics meanings consumers marketers depict signs symbols encoded everyday objects semiotics study signs interpreted advertising many hidden signs


analysis signifier signified signifier object signified mental concept product signifier signified signifier color brand name logo design technology signified two meanings known denotative connotative denotative meaning meaning product television 's denotative meaning might high definition connotative meaning product 's deep hidden meaning connotative meaning television would top line apple 's commercials used black silhouette person


age apple 's target market placed silhouette front blue screen picture behind silhouette could constantly changing however one thing stays ads music background silhouette listening music white ipod white headphones advertising white color set earphones signifies music device ipod white color signifies almost apple 's products semiotics gender plays key influence


way signs interpreted considering gender roles advertising individuals influenced three categories certain characteristics stimuli may enhance decrease elaboration message product perceived feminine masculine second characteristics individuals affect attention elaboration message traditional non traditional gender role orientation lastly situational factors may important influence elaboration message two types marketing communication claims objective subjective objective claims stem extent claim associates brand tangible product


service feature instance camera may auto focus features subjective claims convey emotional subjective impressions intangible aspects product service non physical features product service cannot directly perceived physical reality instance brochure beautiful design males tend respond better objective marketing communications claims females tend respond better subjective marketing communications claims voiceovers commonly used advertising voiceovers done men figures reported female voiceovers


recent years mainly food household products feminine care products gender effects comprehension according study david statt females process information comprehensively males process information heuristic devices procedures methods strategies solving problems could effect interpret advertising according study men prefer available apparent cues interpret message whereas females engage creative associative imagery laced interpretation later research danish team found advertising attempts persuade men improve appearance performance whereas


approach women aims transformation toward impossible ideal female presentation paul suggett 's article objectification women advertising discusses negative impact women advertisements perfect real women well men real life advertising 's manipulation women 's aspiration ideal types portrayed film erotic art advertising stage within music videos media exposures requires least conditioned rejection female reality thereby takes highly ideological cast studies show


expectations women young girls negatively impact views bodies appearances advertisements directed towards men everyone agrees one critic viewed monologic gender specific interpretation advertising excessively skewed politicized companies however like dove aerie creating commercials portray natural women less post production manipulation women young girls able relate recent research martin reveals males females differ react advertising depending mood time exposure


things trucks burgers wojcicki states shows girls either arm candy eye candy alternatives approaches revenue include donations paid subscriptions microtransactions websites applications ad free using ads revenue example online encyclopaedia wikipedia provides wikipedia provides relatively free content receiving funding charitable donations see also advertisements schools advertising campaign advertising management advertorial annoyance factor bibliography advertising branded content commercial speech comparative advertising conquesting copywriting demo mode direct consumer advertising family advertising graphic design gross


dichter developed field motivational research used extensively advertising e st elmo lewis developed first hierarchy effects model aida used sales advertising arthur nielsen founded one earliest international advertising agencies developed ratings radio tv david ogilvy pioneered positioning concept advocated use brand image advertising charles coolidge parlin regarded pioneer use marketing research advertising rosser reeves developed concept unique selling proposition usp advocated use


approved american library association forty official contributions paid tribute special side franklin franklin printer craftsman father advertising america editor publisher ref late thomas j barratt london called father modern advertising tfg coates early j henry slogan smythe jr philadelphia world 's best known slogan writer ref name hjsj early albert lasker father modern advertising defined advertising salesmanship print driven reason mid david ogilvy


advertising tycoon founder ogilvy mather known father advertising references '''notes''' reading arens william michael weigold ''contemporary advertising integrated marketing communications'' belch george e michael belch ''advertising promotion integrated marketing communications perspective'' th ed biocca frank ''television political advertising volume psychological processes'' routledge chandra ambarish ulrich kaiser targeted advertising magazine markets advent internet ''management science'' pp chen yongmin chuan paid placement advertising search internet


''the economic journal'' f f http wwwsternnyuedu networks chen paid placementpdf online johnson cartee karen gary copeland ''negative political advertising coming age'' mcallister matthew p emily west eds ''hardcoverthe routledge companion advertising promotional culture'' mcfall elizabeth rose ''advertising cultural economy'' cultural sociological approaches advertising moriarty sandra nancy mitchell ''advertising imc principles practice'' th ed okorie nelson ''the principles advertising concepts trends advertising'' reichert tom jacqueline lambiase eds ''sex advertising perspectives erotic appeal'' routledge sheehan kim bartel ''controversies contemporary advertising''


meyers cynthia b ''a word sponsor admen advertising golden age radio'' mazzarella william ''shoveling smoke advertising globalization contemporary india'' duke university press moriarty sandra et al ''advertising principles practice'' pearson australia australian perspectives nevett terence r ''advertising britain history'' oram hugh ''the advertising book history advertising ireland'' mol books presbrey frank history development advertising ''advertising society review'' http musejhuedu journals asr v presbreyhtml online saunders thomas j selling swastika advertising commercial culture nazi germany ''german


history'' ghu short john phillip advertising empire race visual culture imperial germany ''enterprise society'' khu sivulka juliann ''soap sex cigarettes cultural history american advertising'' cengage learning spring dawn globalization american advertising brand management brief history j walter thompson company proctor gamble us foreign policy ''global studies journal'' stephenson harry edward carlton mcnaught ''the story advertising canada chronicle fifty years'' ryerson press tungate mark ''adland global history advertising'' kogan page publishers west darrell


''air wars television advertising social media election campaigns '' sage external links http wwwaefcom advertising educational foundation archived advertising exhibits classroom resources http librarydukeedu rubenstein hartman indexhtml hartman center sales advertising marketing history duke university duke university libraries digital collections http librarydukeedu digitalcollections adaccess adaccess us canadian advertisements dated includes world war ii propaganda http librarydukeedu digitalcollections eaa emergence advertising america advertising items publications dating illustrating rise consumer culture birth professionalized advertising industry united states http librarydukeedu digitalcollections adviews adviews vintage television commercials http librarydukeedu digitalcollections outdooradvertising


road outdoor advertising images http librarydukeedu digitalcollections mma medicine madison avenue documents advertising medical pharmaceutical products ''art copy'' documentary film advertising industry articles containing video clips communication design promotion marketing communications business models


'''assassination''' murder prominent important person head state head government politician member royal family ceo assassination may prompted political military motives done financial gain avenge grievance desire acquire fame notoriety military security insurgent secret police group 's command carry assassination acts assassination performed since ancient times person carried assassination called '''assassin''' '''hitman''' etymology nikolay bobrikov russian governor general

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Assassination


finland assassinated eugen schauman june helsinki drawing assassination unknown author mugshot lee harvey oswald individual responsible assassination united states president john f kennedy november oswald murdered two days later jack ruby first event receive wide television coverage word ''assassin'' often believed derive word ''hashshashin'' arabic ashsh sh n shares etymological roots ''hashish'' arabic '''' ref name assassins radical sect islam ''the assassins


radical sect islam'' bernard lewis pp ref referred group nizari ismailis known assassins worked various political targets founded hassan sabbah assassins active fortress alamut persia th th centuries later expanded ' 'de facto'' state acquiring building many scattered strongholds group killed members abbasid seljuk fatimid christian crusader elite political religious reasons although commonly believed assassins influence hashish killings


indoctrination debate whether claims merit many eastern writers increasing number western academics coming believe drug taking key feature behind name ref name c ah ref earliest known use verb assassinate printed english matthew sutcliffe ''a briefe replie certaine odious slanderous libel lately published seditious jesuite'' pamphlet printed five years used ''macbeth'' william shakespeare use history ''assassination julius caesar'' vincenzo camuccini ancient


medieval times th century painting successful assassination nizam al mulk ' 'de facto'' ruler seljuq empire assassin many elites empire assassinated conflicts nizaris ''jael sisera'' artemisia gentileschi assassination one oldest tools power politics dates back least far recorded history old testament king joash judah assassinated servants joab assassinated absalom king david 's son king sennacherib assyria assassinated sons chanakya c bc wrote assassinations


detail political treatise ''arthashastra'' student chandragupta maurya founder maurya empire later made use assassinations enemies including two alexander great 's generals nicanor philip famous victims philip ii macedon nbsp bc father alexander great roman dictator julius caesar nbsp bc emperors rome often met end way many muslim shia imams hundreds years later three successive rashidun caliphs umar uthman ibn affan ali ibn abi talib assassinated early civil conflicts


time though generally enlightened also suffered assassinations point history seljuk turk leaders alp arslan november son malik shah november well japanese shogun oda nobunaga june forced commit seppuku honno ji incident reigns king przemys ii poland william silent netherlands french kings henry iii henry iv ended assassins th th century international lawyers began voice condemnation assassinations


leaders balthazar ayala described first prominent jurist condemn use assassination foreign policy ref name ref alberico gentili condemned assassinations publication appealed self interest leaders assassinations adverse short term consequences arousing ire assassinated leader 's successor ii assassinations adverse long term consequences causing disorder chaos ref name hugo grotius 's works law war strictly forbade assassinations arguing killing permissible battlefield ref name modern history murder place heikki ritavuori minister


interior l helsinki finland engraving right side door states minister interior heikki ritavuori died front home door february th assassin 's bullet modern world killing important people began become tool power struggles rulers also used political symbolism propaganda deed stockholm king gustav iii sweden fatally shot masked ball march russia alone two emperors paul


grandson alexander ii assassinated within years united kingdom one prime minister assassinated spencer perceval may ref name gillen gillen ''assassination prime minister shocking death spencer perceval'' london sidgwick jackson ref japan group assassins called four hitokiri bakumatsu killed number people including ii naosuke head administration tokugawa shogunate boshin war assassinations japan committed bladed weaponry trait carried modern


history video record exists assassination inejiro asanuma using sword ref name chun ref shown presidential booth ford 's theatre left right assassin john wilkes booth abraham lincoln mary todd lincoln clara harris henry rathbone united states within years four presidents abraham lincoln james garfield william mckinley john f kennedy died hands assassins least known attempts us presidents' lives huey long senator assassinated september robert f kennedy senator presidential candidate also assassinated


june united states april outlaw jesse james shot dead outlaw gang lamented assassination june french president sadi carnot statesman stabbed sante geronimo caserio lyon subsequently dying wound twenty years later july french socialist leader jean jaures shot dead paris september empress elisabeth austria died day stabbed thin file italian anarchist vacationing geneva another italian anarchist


responsible july murder umberto italy lisbon regicide february king carlos portugal heir luis filipe prince royal portugal shot dead first violent action portuguese monarch directly since november guangxu emperor qing dynasty china died forbidden city subsequent analysis remains showed high levels arsenic coming conclusion empress dowager cixi died following day november murdered


emperor conspiracy house arrest point many years due attempts reform qing bureaucracy september russian prime minister pyotr stolypin died fatally shot jewish extremist kiev december grigori rasputin murdered prince felix yusupov culmination plan russian nobles eliminate peasant mystic end influence house romanov austria assassination archduke franz ferdinand wife sophie duchess hohenberg sarajevo


june carried gavrilo princip serbian national member serbian nationalist insurgents black hand blamed igniting world war succession minor conflicts belligerents sides world war ii used operatives specifically trained assassination man sometimes identified last russian tsar grand duke michael alexandrovich russia imprisoned assassinated june july year tsar nicholas ii russia last universally recognized tsar along wife children killed


practice june soviet ambassador pyotr voykov assassinated poland russian monarchist july mexican general alvaro obregon assassinated la bombilla cafe mexico anti catholic joseph stalin 's nkvd carried numerous assassinations outside soviet union killings organization ukrainian nationalists leader yevhen konovalets ignace poretsky fourth international secretary rudolf klement leon trotsky workers' party marxist unification poum leadership catalonia february nicaraguan revolutionary augusto cesar sandino assassinated members


national guard october state visit france king alexander yugoslavia died shot twice bulgarian vlado chernozemski french foreign minister louis barthou king killed stray bullet fired french police scuffle following attack india 's father nation mahatma gandhi shot death january nathuram godse african american civil rights activist martin luther king jr assassinated april lorraine motel national civil rights museum memphis tennessee


three years prior another african american civil rights activist malcolm x assassinated audubon ballroom february two years prior another african american civil rights activist medgar evers assassinated june fred hampton black panther party assassinated december cold war beyond kennedy minutes assassination november liaquat ali khan first prime minister pakistan assassinated saad akbar lone assassin conspiracy theorists believe conflict certain members pakistani military rawalpindi conspiracy suppression communists


antagonism towards soviet union potential reasons assassination july king abdullah jordan shot dead entrance al aqsa mosque jerusalem arriving friday prayers palestinian fearing king would make peace israelis july revolution iraq king faisal ii iraq assassinated royal family 's overthrow inejiro asanuma chairman japanese socialist party stabbed death otoya yamaguchi may dominican republic president rafael trujillo shot


castro november san francisco city supervisor harvey milk mayor george moscone assassinated former city supervisor dan white respectively lobbying refusing reappoint white board supervisors following resignation major powers repudiated cold war assassination tactics many allege merely smokescreen political benefit covert illegal training assassins continues today russia israel us argentina paraguay chile nations accused engaging operations us president ronald reagan survived


assassination attempt ordered operation el dorado canyon air raid libya one primary targets home residence libyan ruler muammar gaddafi gaddafi escaped unharmed adopted daughter hanna claimed one civilian casualties philippines assassination benigno aquino jr triggered eventual downfall year autocratic rule president ferdinand marcos aquino former senator leading figure political opposition assassinated manila international airport ninoy aquino international airport returned home


exile death thrust widow corazon aquino limelight ultimately presidency peaceful edsa revolution iranian revolution new islamic government iran began international campaign assassination lasted least killings countries linked senior leadership islamic republic iran campaign came end mykonos restaurant assassinations german court publicly implicated senior members government issued arrest warrants ali fallahian head iranian intelligence evidence


indicates fallahian 's personal involvement individual responsibility murders far pervasive current indictment record represents orlando letelier former chilean minister assassinated washington dc letelier 's murder part us backed state terror campaign known operation condor september nicaraguan dictator anastasio somoza debayle assassinated ambush paraguay anwar sadat president arab republic egypt formerly president united arab republic assassinated october annual parade celebrating operation badr opening maneuver yom


kippur war september italian general carlo alberto della chiesa wife sprayed thirty bullets killed sicilian mafia via carini massacre swedish prime minister olof palme murdered gun wielding man close midnight february visited cinema wife couple accompanied bodyguard detail swedish prosecutors named stig engstr killer august president pakistan gen zia ul haq died alongside others including chief staff


pakistani armed forces us ambassador pakistan chief us military mission pakistan c transport plane mysteriously crashed crash widely considered pakistan act political assassination ref name ibtimes ref post saddam iraq shiite dominated government used death squads perform extrajudicial executions radical sunni iraqis alleging death squads trained us concrete allegations since surfaced iranian government actively armed funded shia death squads post saddam iraq indira gandhi 's blood stained ' 'sari'' belongings time


northern mexico amidst chaos rwandan genocide april july prime minister agathe uwilingiyimana murdered genocide 's opening action april israel prime minister yitzhak rabin assassinated november yigal amir confessed convicted crime july italian fashion designer gianni versace shot twice execution style killed spree killer andrew cunanan nepalese royal massacre june king birendra nepal queen aishwarya nepal along several royal family members shot


assassination former prime minister rafik hariri february prompted investigation united nations suggestion resulting ''mehlis report'' involvement syria prompted cedar revolution drove syrian troops lebanon january armenian turkish journalist hrant dink shot three times back head killed retaliation speaking armenian genocide eleven years later october another journalist saudi arabian dissident jamal khashoggi assassinated agents saudi government speaking pakistan


italian ambassador luca attanasio riding convoy murdered attack july dutch journalist peter r de vries shot head amsterdam died injury nine days later july july haitian president jovenel mo se shot death home gunmen motivations military foreign policy doctrine functions ninja included espionage sabotage assassination assassination military purposes long espoused sun tzu writing around nbsp bc argued favor using assassination


book ''the art war'' nearly years later book ''the prince'' machiavelli also advises rulers assassinate enemies whenever possible prevent posing threat army even nation might based upon around particularly strong canny charismatic leader whose loss could paralyze ability make war similar additional reasons assassination also sometimes used conduct foreign policy costs benefits actions difficult compute may clear whether assassinated leader gets replaced


less competent successor whether assassination provokes ire state question whether assassination leads souring domestic public opinion whether assassination provokes condemnation third parties ref name iraja ref name one study found perceptual biases held leaders often negatively affect decision making area decisions go forward assassinations often reflect vague hope successor might better ref name iraja ref military foreign policy assassinations risk target could replaced even competent leader


killing failed attempt martyr leader lead greater support cause showing ruthlessness assassins faced particularly brilliant leaders possibility various instances risked attempts kill athenian alcibiades peloponnesian war number additional examples world war ii show assassination used tool assassination reinhard heydrich prague may british czechoslovak government exile case illustrates difficulty comparing benefits foreign


policy goal strengthening legitimacy influence czechoslovak government exile london possible costs resulting assassination lidice massacre ref name iraja american interception admiral isoroku yamamoto 's plane world war ii travel route decrypted operation gaff planned british commando raid capture kill german field marshal erwin rommel also known desert fox ref name skor ''commando extraordinary'' foley charles legion survival freedom page ref use assassination continued recent conflicts vietnam war us engaged


phoenix program assassinate viet cong leaders sympathizers killed people official targets per month ref name hersh ref january baghdad international airport airstrike us assassinated commander iran 's quds force general qasem soleimani commander iraq 's popular mobilization forces abu mahdi al muhandis along eight high ranking military personnel assassination military leaders part escalating tensions us iran american led intervention iraq tool insurgents insurgent groups often employed assassination tool


causes assassinations provide several functions groups removal specific enemies propaganda tools focus attention media politics cause irish republican army guerrillas killed many royal irish constabulary police intelligence officers irish war independence michael collins set special unit squad purpose effect intimidating many policemen resigning force squad 's activities peaked killing british agents dublin bloody sunday tactic used


grandee spain early also began target academics journalists local politicians publicly disagreed red brigades italy carried assassinations political figures lesser extent red army faction germany vietnam war communist insurgents routinely assassinated government officials individual civilians deemed offend rival revolutionary movement attacks along widespread military activity insurgent bands almost brought ngo dinh diem regime collapse us intervened psychology


major study assassination attempts us second half th century came conclusion prospective assassins spend copious amounts time planning preparing attempts assassinations thus rarely impulsive actions ref name ss however actual attackers found delusional figure rose near lethal approachers people apprehended reaching targets shows mental instability plays role many modern assassinations delusional attackers less likely succeed attempts report also found around two


thirds attackers previously arrested necessarily related offenses history serious depression history substance abuse ref name ss techniques modern methods advent effective ranged weaponry later firearms position assassination target precarious bodyguards longer enough hold back determined killers longer needed engage directly even subvert guard kill leader question moreover engagement targets greater distances dramatically increased chances assassins survive since could quickly flee


scene first heads government assassinated firearm james stewart st earl moray regent scotland william silent prince orange netherlands gunpowder explosives also allowed use bombs even greater concentrations explosives deeds requiring larger touch explosives especially car bomb become far common modern history grenades remote triggered land mines also used especially middle east balkans initial attempt archduke franz ferdinand 's life


victim 's travel plans ability identify target long range ability score first round lethal hit long range usually measured hundreds meters dedicated sniper rifle also expensive often costing thousands dollars high level precision machining handfinishing required achieve extreme accuracy ref name austria '' https wwwtelegraphcouk news worldnews iraqi insurgents using austrian rifles iranhtml iraqi insurgents using austrian rifles iran '' daily telegraph tuesday february ref despite comparative disadvantages handguns easily concealable much commonly used rifles principal incidents evaluated


legal results however fall soviet union learned kgb developed umbrella could inject ricin pellets victim two former kgb agents defected stated agency assisted murder cia made several attempts assassinate fidel castro many schemes involving poisoning cigars late kgb assassin bohdan stashynsky killed ukrainian nationalist leaders lev rebet stepan bandera spray gun fired jet poison gas crushed cyanide ampule making deaths look like


heart attacks case uk concerned assassination alexander litvinenko given lethal dose radioactive polonium possibly passed aerosol form sprayed directly onto food litvinenko former kgb agent granted asylum uk cited persecution russia shortly death issued statement accusing russian president vladimir putin involvement assassination putin former kgb agent denied involvement litvinenko 's death targeted killing predator combat drone sometimes used targeted killings targeted killing intentional


killing government agents civilian unlawful combatant government 's custody target person asserted taking part armed conflict terrorism bearing arms otherwise thereby lost immunity targeted would otherwise third geneva convention ref name google note different term concept targeted violence used specialists study violence hand georgetown university law center professor gary solis book ''the


law armed conflict international humanitarian law war'' wrote assassinations targeted killings different acts ref name google use term assassination opposed denotes murder unlawful killing terrorists targeted self defense thus viewed killing crime justifiable homicide ref name hov '' http wwwsfgatecom cgi bin articlecgifile chronicle archive edgk qpc dtl targeted killing necessary option '' sofaer abraham hoover institution march ref abraham sofaer former federal judge us district court southern district new york wrote subject blockquote people call targeted killing assassination


attempting preclude debate merits action assassination widely defined murder reason prohibited united states nbsp us officials may kill people merely policies seen detrimental interests killings self defense assassinations international affairs murders undertaken police forces domestic killers targeted killings self defense authoritatively determined federal government fall outside assassination prohibition ref name sfgate blockquote author former us army captain matthew j morgan argued


major difference assassination targeted killing targeted killing synonymous assassination assassination constitutes illegal killing similarly amos guiora professor law university utah wrote targeted killing assassination steve david professor international relations johns hopkins university wrote strong reasons believe israeli policy targeted killing assassination syracuse law professor william banks gw law professor peter raven hansen wrote targeted killing terrorists unlawful would constitute assassination rory miller writes targeted killing


zone turns whole world battlefield yael stein research director b'tselem israeli information center human rights occupied territories also stated article name illegal immoral response 'israel 's policy targeted killing' ref name stein ref blockquote argument policy affords public sense revenge retribution could serve justify acts illegal immoral clearly lawbreakers ought punished yet matter horrific deeds targeting israeli civilians indeed punished according law david 's arguments could


principle justify abolition formal legal systems altogether blockquote targeted killing become frequent tactic united states israel fight terrorism ref name google ref ref name nytimes https wwwnytimescom gloginuri https wwwnytimescom cfr international slot html oq rq q pagewantedq dprint op fd q fjv j bq c bbidjq c jq li lq biq blq b j biq bq bendpeq aq q aig q targeted killings eben kaplan ''the new york times'' january retrieved october ref tactic raise complex questions lead contentious disputes legal basis application qualifies appropriate hit list target circumstances must exist tactic may used ref name google opinions range people considering legal form self defense reduces terrorism


people calling extra judicial killing lacks due process leads violence ref name google ref name sfgate ref ref name autogenerated ref ref name google ref methods used included firing hellfire missiles predator reaper drones unmanned remote controlled planes detonating cell phone bomb long range sniper shooting countries us pakistan yemen israel west bank gaza used targeted killing eliminate members groups al qaeda hamas ref name google early president obama 's approval anwar al awlaki became first us citizen publicly approved targeted killing central intelligence


agency awlaki killed drone strike september ref name latimes ref ref name washingtonpost ref united nations investigator ben emmerson said us drone strikes may violated international humanitarian law ''the intercept'' reported january february us special operations airstrikes northeastern afghanistan killed people intended targets countermeasures early forms ied sheik abdul sattar abu risha 's assassination one earliest forms defense assassins employing bodyguards act shield potential target keep lookout potential attackers sometimes


advance parade route putting harm 's way simple presence showing physical force available protect target ref name ss '' http wwwsecretservicegov ntac ntac jfspdf assassination united states operational study '' fein robert vossekuil brian ''journal forensic sciences'' volume number march ref shielding target attack occurs neutralize attacker bodyguards typically armed much legal practical concerns permit notable examples bodyguards include roman praetorian guard ottoman janissaries cases protectors sometimes became


assassins exploiting power make head state virtual hostage killing leaders supposed protect loyalty individual bodyguards important question well especially leaders oversee states strong ethnic religious divisions failure realize divided loyalties allowed assassination indian prime minister indira gandhi assassinated two sikh bodyguards bodyguard function often executed leader 's loyal warriors extremely effective throughout early human history led assassins attempt


stealthy means poison whose risk reduced another person taste leader 's food first another notable measure use body double person looks like leader pretends leader draw attention away intended target modern strategies assassination attempt president ronald reagan advent gunpowder ranged assassination via bombs firearms became possible one first reactions simply increase guard creating times might seem small army trailing every leader another begin clearing large areas


whenever leader present point entire sections city might shut th century dawned prevalence capability assassins grew quickly measures protect first time armored cars limousines put service safer transport modern versions virtually invulnerable small arms fire smaller bombs mines bulletproof vests also began used since limited utility restricting movement leaving head unprotected tended worn high profile public events


access famous persons also became restricted ref name report https wwwarchivesgov research jfk warren commission report appendix html need protection demonstrated appendix report president 's commission assassination president kennedy ref potential visitors would forced numerous different checks granted access official question communication became better information technology prevalent become impossible would killer get close enough personage work private life effect attempt life especially common use metal


bomb detectors modern assassinations committed either public performance transport weaker security security lapses us president john f kennedy former pakistani prime minister benazir bhutto part coup d' tat security either overwhelmed completely removed congolese prime minister patrice lumumba pope benedict xvi modified mercedes benz class popemobile paulo brazil methods used protection famous people sometimes evoked negative reactions public resenting separation officials


body doubles people similar builds expected impersonate persons made cases undergo plastic surgery look like target body double taking place person high risk situations according joe r reeder secretary army fidel castro used body doubles ref name fox ref us secret service protective agents receive training psychology assassins see also assassinations fiction contract killing history assassination list assassinations list people survived assassination attempts list


assassinated executed heads state government list united states presidential assassination attempts plots special activities division central intelligence agency list assassinations firearm notes references reading ayton mel '' plotting kill president assassination attempts washington hoover'' potomac books united states https wwwtelegraphcouk culture books bookreviews assassination history political murder lindsay porterhtml review daily telegraph april external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwlifecom image first gallery notorious assassinations notorious assassinations slideshow ''life magazine'' cnn http wwwcnncom law usassassinationpolicy short article us policy banning political assassination since cnncom law center november see also ford 's


https webarchiveorg web http wwwfordutexasedu library speeches ehtm executive order however executive order prohibited cia assassinations relaxed george w bush administration kretzmer david '''' pdf http wwwdemocracynoworg cia assassination order cia assassination order us citizen legal video ''democracy '' attacks method killings type


rev blabbermouthnet rev score '''''assassination''''' sixth album brazilian death metal band krisiun released century media dedicated ''in memory doc dimebag'' track listing credits alex camargo bass vocals moyses kolesne guitar max kolesne drums andy classen producer jacek wi niewski cover art references krisiun albums albums century media records albums albums produced andy classen


'''buddhism''' widespread asian religion philosophical tradition based series original teachings attributed gautama buddha originated ancient india sramana tradition sometime th th centuries bce spreading much asia world 's fourth largest religion million followers global population known '''buddhists''' buddhism encompasses variety traditions teachings beliefs spiritual practices largely based buddha 's teachings born siddh rtha gautama th th century bce resulting interpreted philosophies expressed


buddha 's four noble truths goal buddhism overcome suffering ' 'du kha'' caused desire ignorance reality 's true nature including impermanence ''anicca'' non existence self ''anatt '' buddhist traditions emphasize transcending individual self attainment nirvana following path buddhahood ending cycle death rebirth buddhist schools vary interpretation path liberation relative importance canonicity assigned various buddhist texts specific teachings practices widely observed practices include meditation observance moral precepts monasticism taking refuge


buddha dharma sangha cultivation paramitas perfections virtues two major extant branches buddhism generally recognized scholars therav da pali school elders mah na sanskrit great vehicle theravada widespread following sri lanka southeast asia cambodia laos myanmar thailand mahayana includes traditions zen pure land nichiren buddhism tiantai buddhism tendai shingon practiced prominently nepal malaysia bhutan china japan korea vietnam taiwan vajrayana body teachings attributed indian adepts may viewed


separate branch aspect mahayana buddhism ref name white ref tibetan buddhism preserves vajrayana teachings eighth century india practised countries himalayan region mongolia kalmykia historically early nd millennium buddhism also widely practised afghanistan also foothold extent places including philippines maldives uzbekistan life buddha ancient kingdoms cities india time buddha circa bce modern day india pakistan bangladesh afghanistan gilded emaciated buddha statue


ubosoth bangkok representing stage asceticism enlightenment buddha kushan dynasty late nd early rd century ce gandhara buddhism indian religion founded teachings gautama buddha rama also called shakyamuni sage shakya 's buddha awakened one lived c th th century bce early texts buddha 's family name gautama pali gotama details buddha 's life mentioned many early buddhist texts inconsistent social background life details difficult prove precise dates uncertain


keown prebish state past modern scholars generally accepted bce buddha 's death consensus rest evidence flimsy scholars hesitant make unqualified claims historical facts buddha 's life accept lived taught founded monastic order consistently accept details contained biographies evidence early texts suggests siddhartha gautama born lumbini present day nepal grew kapilavastu town ganges plain


near modern nepal india border spent life modern bihar uttar pradesh hagiographic legends state father king named suddhodana mother queen maya ref name thomas p ref scholars richard gombrich consider dubious claim combination evidence suggests born shakya community governed small oligarchy republic like council ranks seniority mattered instead mahavira whose teachings helped establish another major ancient religion jainism also claimed ''ksatriya'' early


life death endless repetition due rebirth thus set quest find liberation suffering also known nirvana early texts biographies state gautama first studied two teachers meditation namely alara kalama sanskrit arada kalama uddaka ramaputta sanskrit udraka ramaputra learning meditation philosophy particularly meditative attainment sphere nothingness former sphere neither perception non perception latter according alexander wynne evidence suggests buddha studied vedic era teachers almost certainly taught


details education unclear finding teachings insufficient attain goal turned practice severe asceticism included strict fasting regime various forms breath control ref name analayo p analayo '' comparative study majjhima nik ya volume introduction studies discourses '' p ref fell short attaining goal turned meditative practice ' 'dhyana'' famously sat meditation ''ficus religiosa'' tree called bodhi tree town bodh gaya


attained awakening bodhi according various early texts like ''mah saccaka sutta'' ''sama aphala sutta'' awakening buddha gained insight workings karma former lives well achieving ending mental defilements ''asavas'' ending suffering end rebirth sa ra ref name analayo p event also brought certainty middle way right path spiritual practice end suffering fully enlightened buddha attracted followers founded ''sangha'' monastic order spent rest life teaching dharma


discovered died achieving final nirvana age kushinagar india buddha 's teachings propagated followers last centuries st millennium bce became various buddhist schools thought basket texts containing different interpretations authentic teachings buddha ref name britannicatipitaka time evolved many traditions well known widespread modern era theravada mahayana vajrayana buddhism worldview term buddhism occidental neologism commonly rather roughly according donald lopez jr used


dying br buswell lopez rebirth english term exact correlate buddhist languages rendered instead range technical terms sanskrit ''punarjanman'' lit birth ''punabhavan'' lit becoming less commonly related punarmrtyu lit redeath br br see also perry schmidt leukel pp john j makransky p use term redeath term ''agatigati'' ''agati gati'' plus terms generally translated 'rebirth redeath' see pali english dictionary eg pp rhys davids william


stede list five sutta examples rebirth death sense way liberation endless cycle state nirvana namely following noble eightfold path geoffrey samuel four noble truths describe knowledge needed set path liberation rebirth see also ref group web name eb dl four truths ref group web thanissaro bhikkhu http wwwaccesstoinsightorg lib authors thanissaro truth rebirthhtml ''the truth rebirth matters buddhist practice'' ref br br theravada tradition holds insight four truths liberating reflected pali canon


according donald lopez buddha stated first sermon gained absolute intuitive knowledge four truths achieved complete enlightenment freedom future rebirth ref group web name eb dl four truths donald lopez http wwwbritannicacom topic four noble truths ''four noble truths'' encyclop dia britannica ref br br ''maha parinibbana sutta'' also refers liberation ref group web ref carol anderson second passage four truths appear ''vinaya pitaka'' also found ''mahaparinibbana sutta'' ii buddha explains understanding four truths rebirth continues br br meaning moksha liberation


inaccurate since refers episodic suffering intrinsically unsatisfactory nature temporary states things including pleasant temporary experiences expect happiness states things impermanent therefore cannot attain real happiness buddhism dukkha one three marks existence along impermanence anatt non self buddhism like major indian religions asserts everything impermanent anicca unlike also asserts permanent self soul living beings ''anatt '' ref name britannicaanatta http wwwbritannicacom topic anatta anatta buddhism encyclop dia britannica ref ref name sourcesanatta '' '' http wwwbritannicacom topic anatta anatta encyclop dia britannica


quote anatta buddhism doctrine humans permanent underlying soul concept anatta anatman departure hindu belief atman self br '' b '' steven collins religion practical reason editors frank reynolds david tracy state univ new york press p central buddhist soteriology doctrine self pali anatt sanskrit tman opposed doctrine tman central brahmanical thought put briefly buddhist doctrine human beings soul self unchanging essence br '' c '' john c plott


et al ''global history philosophy axial age'' volume motilal banarsidass p quote buddhist schools reject tman concept already observed basic ineradicable distinction hinduism buddhism br '' '' katie javanaud https philosophynoworg issues buddhist self doctrine compatible pursuing nirvana buddhist 'no self' doctrine compatible pursuing nirvana philosophy br '' e '' david loy enlightenment buddhism advaita vedanta nirvana moksha ''international philosophical quarterly'' volume issue pp ref ignorance misperception ''avijj '' anything permanent self


considered wrong understanding primary source clinging dukkha ref name gombrichscherrer p ref ref name hoffmanmahinda p ref ''dukkha'' arises crave pali ''ta h '' cling changing phenomena clinging craving produces karma ties us samsara cycle death rebirth ref group web ref ajahn sumedho ebook etc craving includes ''kama tanha'' craving sense pleasures ''bhava tanha'' craving continue cycle life death including rebirth ''vibhava tanha'' craving experience world painful feelings ''dukkha'' ceases confined craving clinging cease confined also means karma


buddhist practice abhidharma traditions state free conditions created samsara nirvana ultimate final state attained supramundane yogic path completed represented salvation samsara precisely understood comprise state complete freedom chain samsaric causes conditions ie precisely unconditioned ''asamskrta'' br walpola rahula let us consider definitions descriptions nirvana found original pali texts 'it complete cessation thirst tanha giving renouncing


emancipation detachment it' 'the abandoning destruction craving five aggregates attachment cessation ' 'dukkha'' 'the cessation continuity becoming ''bhavanirodha'' nibbana' cessation ''nirvana'' blowing peace mind following buddhist path ''moksha'' liberation one starts disengage craving clinging impermanent states things term path usually taken mean noble eightfold path versions path also found nikayas theravada tradition regards insight four truths


liberating cycle rebirth tibetan buddhist thangka depicting wheel life six realms sa ra ''sa ra'' means wandering world connotation cyclic circuitous change refers theory rebirth cyclicality life matter existence fundamental assumption buddhism major indian religions samsara buddhism considered ' 'dukkha'' unsatisfactory painful perpetuated desire ''avidya'' ignorance resulting karma liberation cycle existence ''nirvana'' foundation important historical justification buddhism buddhist texts assert


evolving exists continuum mechanistic basis undergoes rebirth process quality one 's rebirth depends merit demerit gained one 's karma ie actions well accrued one 's behalf family member ref name neufeldt p ref name swatoskivisto p ref buddhism also developed complex cosmology explain various realms planes rebirth individual rebirth takes place within one five realms according theravadins six according schools heavenly demi gods humans animals hungry ghosts hellish ref rebirths higher heavens known


uddh v sa worlds pure abodes attained skilled buddhist practitioners known g mis non returners rebirths r pyadh tu formless realms attained meditate ar pajh nas highest object meditation naraka beings believed buddhism suffer one many narakas hells preta sometimes sharing space humans invisible important variety hungry ghost tiryag animals existence animal along humans realm traditionally thought buddhism similar hellish realm animals believed


person caused karma central aspect buddhist theory karma intent ''cetan '' matters essential bring consequence ''phala'' fruit vip ka result emphasis intent also found hinduism buddhism may influenced karma theories hinduism however good bad karma accumulates even physical action ill good thoughts creates karmic seeds thus actions body speech mind lead karmic seeds buddhist traditions life aspects affected law karma past


current births include form rebirth realm rebirth social class character major circumstances lifetime operates like laws physics without external intervention every six realms existence including human beings gods notable aspect karma theory buddhism merit transfer ref name appletonp ref person accumulates merit intentions ethical living also able gain merit others exchanging goods services ' 'd na'' charity monks nuns person transfer one 's


buddha 's spiritual liberation ''moksha'' awakening ''bodhi'' sanchi buddha depicted symbolized bodhi tree empty seat cessation ''kleshas'' attainment nirvana ''nibb na'' cycle rebirth ends primary soteriological goal buddhist path monastic life since time buddha term path usually taken mean noble eightfold path versions path also found nikayas passages pali canon distinction made


right knowledge insight ' 'samm a'' right liberation release ' 'samm vimutti'' means attain cessation liberation nirvana literally means blowing quenching becoming extinguished ref name collins p ref early buddhist texts state restraint self control leads blowing ending cycles sufferings associated rebirths redeaths many later buddhist texts describe nirvana identical ''anatta'' complete emptiness nothingness ref texts state described greater detail passing gate emptiness ' 'sunyata'' realising soul


self living passing gate signlessness ''animitta'' realising nirvana cannot perceived finally passing gate wishlessness ''apranihita'' realising nirvana state even wishing nirvana nirvana state described buddhist texts partly manner similar indian religions state complete liberation enlightenment highest happiness bliss fearlessness freedom permanence non dependent origination unfathomable indescribable also described part differently state spiritual release marked emptiness realisation ''non self''


buddhism considers liberation sa ra ultimate spiritual goal traditional practice primary focus vast majority lay buddhists seek accumulate merit good deeds donations monks various buddhist rituals order gain better rebirths rather nirvana ref name merv fowler dependent arising ''pratityasamutpada'' also called dependent arising dependent origination buddhist theory explain nature relations becoming existence ultimate reality buddhism asserts nothing independent except state nirvana physical mental states depend


arise pre existing states turn arise dependent states cease 'dependent arisings' causal conditioning thus ''pratityasamutpada'' buddhist belief causality basis ontology creator god ontological vedic concept called universal self brahman 'transcendent creative principle' however buddhist thought understand causality terms newtonian mechanics rather understands conditioned arising buddhism dependent arising refers conditions created plurality causes necessarily co originate phenomenon within across lifetimes


karma one life creating conditions lead rebirth one realms existence another lifetime ref name kalupahana p ref buddhism applies theory dependent arising explain origination endless cycles ' 'dukkha'' rebirth twelve nid nas twelve links states avidy ignorance exists sa sk ras karmic formations exists sa sk ras exists therefore vij na consciousness exists similar manner links n mar pa sentient body yatana six senses spar sensory stimulation vedan feeling ta h craving na grasping bhava becoming j ti birth jar mara old age death sorrow pain breaking


seen buddhist discourses ''anattalakkhana sutta'' emptiness voidness skt'' nyat '' pali ''su '' related concept many different interpretations throughout various buddhisms early buddhism commonly stated five aggregates void ''rittaka'' hollow ''tucchaka'' coreless ''as raka'' example ''phe api pama sutta'' sn similarly theravada buddhism often simply means five aggregates empty self emptiness central concept mah na buddhism especially nagarjuna 's madhyamaka school ''praj p ramit sutras'' madhyamaka philosophy emptiness view


still central forms buddhism theravada buddhism buddha someone become awake efforts insight put end cycle rebirths ended unwholesome mental states lead bad action thus morally perfected ref name crosby kate p crosby kate '' theravada buddhism continuity diversity identity '' p john wiley sons ref subject limitations human body certain ways example early texts buddha suffers backaches buddha said


holy beings ''aryas'' residing different realms mah na texts revere numerous buddhas besides sakyamuni amitabha vairocana also see transcendental supramundane ''lokuttara'' beings mah na buddhism holds buddhas realms contacted able benefit beings world mah na buddha kind spiritual king protector creatures lifetime countless eons long rather human teacher transcended world death buddha sakyamuni 's life death earth


usually understood mere appearance manifestation skilfully projected earthly life long enlightened transcendent still available teach faithful visionary experiences dharma dharma pali dhamma buddhism refers buddha 's teaching includes main ideas outlined teaching reflects true nature reality belief clung pragmatic teaching put practice likened raft crossing nirvana holding also refers


universal law cosmic order teaching reveals relies upon everlasting principle applies beings worlds sense also ultimate truth reality universe thus way things really dharma second three jewels buddhists take refuge buddhas worlds past present future believed buddhists understand teach dharma indeed part makes buddha


sangha buddhist monks nuns praying buddha tooth relic temple singapore third jewel buddhists take refuge sangha refers monastic community monks nuns follow gautama buddha 's monastic discipline designed shape sangha ideal community optimum conditions spiritual growth sangha consists chosen follow buddha 's ideal way life one celibate monastic renunciation minimal material possessions alms bowl robes sangha


seen important preserve pass buddha dharma gethin states sangha lives teaching preserves teaching scriptures teaches wider community without sangha buddhism sangha also acts field merit laypersons allowing make spiritual merit goodness donating sangha supporting return keep duty preserve spread dharma everywhere good world sangha also supposed follow vinaya monastic rule buddha thereby serving


spiritual example world future generations vinaya rules also force sangha live dependence rest lay community must beg food etc thus draw sangha relationship lay community depiction siddhartha gautama previous life prostrating past buddha dipankara making resolve buddha receiving prediction future buddhahood becomes bodhisatta also separate definition sangha referring attained stage awakening whether


monastics sangha called '' ryasa gha'' noble sangha forms buddhism generally reveres '' ryas'' pali ''ariya'' noble ones holy ones spiritually attained beings aryas attained fruits buddhist path becoming arya goal forms buddhism '' ryasa gha'' includes holy beings bodhisattvas arhats stream enterers bodhisattva maitreya gandhara rd century metropolitan museum art early buddhism theravada buddhism arhat literally meaning worthy someone reached awakening ''bodhi'' buddha following teaching buddha


theravada future buddha called metteyya maitreya revered bodhisatta currently working future buddhahood ref name drewes david mah na buddhism generally sees attainment arhat inferior one since seen done sake individual liberation thus promotes bodhisattva path highest worthwhile mah na anyone given rise bodhicitta wish become buddha arises sense compassion beings considered bodhisattva holy beings


maitreya avalokiteshvara reached high levels spiritual attainment seen powerful supramundane beings provide aid countless beings advanced powers key mah na views mah na buddhism also differs theravada schools early buddhism promoting several unique doctrines contained mah na sutras philosophical treatises one unique interpretation emptiness dependent origination found madhyamaka school another influential doctrine mah na main philosophical view yog c ra school variously termed ''vij aptim trat v da'' doctrine


ideas mental impressions ''vij nav da'' doctrine consciousness according mark siderits classical yog c ra thinkers like vasubandhu mind ever aware mental images impressions may appear external objects actually thing outside mind several interpretations main theory many scholars see type idealism others kind phenomenology another influential concept unique mah na buddha nature ''buddhadh tu'' tathagata womb ''tath gatagarbha'' buddha nature concept found st millennium ce


buddhist texts ''tath gatagarbha tras'' according paul williams sutras suggest 'all sentient beings contain tathagata' 'essence core inner nature self' according karl brunnholzl earliest mahayana sutras based discuss notion tath gatagarbha buddha potential innate sentient beings began appear written form late second early third century doctrine seems conflict buddhist anatta doctrine non self leading scholars posit ''tath gatagarbha sutras'' written promote buddhism non buddhists


seen texts like ''la k vat ra tra'' state buddha nature taught help fear listen teaching anatta buddhist texts like ''ratnagotravibh ga'' clarify self implied ''tathagatagarbha'' doctrine actually self various interpretations concept advanced buddhist thinkers throughout history buddhist thought attempt avoid anything like hindu atman doctrine indian buddhist ideas various synthetic ways form basis subsequent mah na philosophy tibetan buddhism east asian buddhism paths liberation


noble eightfold path best known west wide variety paths models progress used described different buddhist traditions however generally share basic practices ' 'sila'' ethics ' 'samadhi'' meditation ' 'dhyana'' ''praj a'' wisdom known three trainings important additional practice kind compassionate attitude toward every living world devotion also important buddhist traditions tibetan traditions visualisations deities mandalas important value textual study regarded differently various buddhist traditions


central theravada highly important tibetan buddhism zen tradition takes ambiguous stance important guiding principle buddhist practice middle way ''madhyamapratipad'' part buddha 's first sermon presented noble eightfold path 'middle way' extremes asceticism hedonistic sense pleasures buddhism states harvey doctrine dependent arising conditioned arising ''prat tyasamutp da'' explain rebirth viewed 'middle way' doctrines permanent soul involved rebirth eternalism death final


rebirth annihilationism paths liberation early texts common presentation style path ''m rga'' liberation early buddhist texts graduated talk buddha lays step step training early texts numerous different sequences gradual path found ref name bucknell rod buddhist path liberation analysis listing stages ''the journal international association buddhist studies'' volume number ref one important widely used presentations among various buddhist schools


noble eightfold path eightfold path noble ones skt '' nowiki ' ry gam rga''' found various discourses famously ''dhammacakkappavattana sutta'' discourse turning dharma wheel suttas ''tevijja sutta'' ''cula hatthipadopama sutta'' give different outline path though many similar elements ethics meditation ref name according rupert gethin path awakening also frequently summarized another short formula abandoning hindrances practice four establishings mindfulness development awakening factors noble


eightfold path eightfold path consists set eight interconnected factors conditions developed together lead cessation dukkha eight factors right view right understanding right intention right thought right speech right action right livelihood right effort right mindfulness right concentration eightfold path fourth four noble truths asserts path cessation ' 'dukkha'' suffering pain unsatisfactoriness path teaches way enlightened ones stopped craving clinging karmic accumulations thus ended endless cycles