ed nbsp european datum nad nbsp north american datum ellipsoids associated regional best fits geoids within areas validity minimizing deflections vertical areas gps satellites orbit geocenter point becomes naturally origin coordinate system defined satellite geodetic means satellite positions space computed system geocentric coordinate systems used geodesy divided naturally two classes inertial reference systems coordinate axes retain


orientation relative fixed stars equivalently rotation axes ideal gyroscopes ''x'' axis points vernal equinox co rotating also ecef earth centred earth fixed axes attached solid body earth ''x'' axis lies within greenwich observatory 's meridian plane coordinate transformation two systems described good approximation apparent sidereal time takes account variations earth 's axial rotation length day variations accurate description also takes polar motion account phenomenon closely monitored geodesists coordinate systems plane


munich archive lithography plates maps bavaria surveying mapping important fields application geodesy two general types coordinate systems used plane plano polar points plane defined distance ' 's'' specified point along ray specified direction '' '' respect base line axis rectangular points defined distances two perpendicular axes called ''x'' ''y'' geodetic practice contrary mathematical convention let ''x'' axis point north ''y'' axis


east rectangular coordinates plane used intuitively respect one 's current location case ''x'' axis point local north formally coordinates obtained three dimensional coordinates using artifice map projection impossible map curved surface earth onto flat map surface without deformation compromise often chosen called conformal projection preserves angles length ratios small circles mapped small circles small squares squares example projection utm universal transverse mercator within


map plane rectangular coordinates ''x'' ''y'' case north direction used reference ''map'' north ''local'' north difference two called meridian convergence easy enough translate polar rectangular coordinates plane let direction distance '' '' ' 's'' respectively math begin align x cos alpha sin alpha end align math reverse transformation given math begin align sqrt x alpha arctan frac x end align math heights geodesy point terrain


''heights'' sea level irregular physically defined surface heights come following variants orthometric heights dynamic heights geopotential heights normal heights advantages disadvantages orthometric normal heights heights metres sea level whereas geopotential numbers measures potential energy unit sup sup nbsp sup sup metric reference surface geoid equipotential surface approximating mean sea level normal heights reference surface actually called quasi geoid metre separation geoid density assumption continuation


continental masses ref name foroughitenzer ref heights related ''ellipsoidal height'' also known ''geodetic height'' express height point reference ellipsoid means geoid undulation satellite positioning receivers typically provide ellipsoidal heights unless fitted special conversion software based model geoid geodetic data geodetic point coordinates heights always obtained system constructed using real observations geodesists introduce concept geodetic datum physical realization coordinate system used describing point


locations realization result ''choosing'' conventional coordinate values one datum points case height data suffices choose ''one'' datum point reference benchmark typically tide gauge shore thus vertical data like nap normaal amsterdams peil north american vertical datum navd nbsp kronstadt datum trieste datum case plane spatial coordinates typically need several datum points regional ellipsoidal datum like ed nbsp fixed prescribing undulation geoid deflection


vertical ''one'' datum point case helmert tower potsdam however overdetermined ensemble datum points also used changing coordinates point set referring one datum make refer another datum called ' 'datum transformation'' case vertical data consists simply adding constant shift height values case plane spatial coordinates datum transformation takes form similarity ''helmert transformation'' consisting rotation scaling operation addition simple translation


plane helmert transformation four parameters space seven note terminology abstract coordinate system used mathematics geodesy called coordinate system iso terminology whereas international earth rotation reference systems service iers uses term reference system coordinates realized choosing datum points fixing geodetic datum iso says coordinate reference system iers says reference frame iso term datum transformation coordinate transformation point positioning deep benchmark point positioning determination coordinates


local mapping surveying measurements usually measuring tape corner prism familiar red white poles tied nowadays special measurements eg underground high precision engineering measurements performed gps higher order networks measured static gps using differential measurement determine vectors terrestrial points vectors adjusted traditional network fashion global polyhedron permanently operating gps stations auspices iers used define single global geocentric reference frame serves zero order global reference national measurements attached surveying


mappings frequently real time kinematic gps employed tying unknown points known terrestrial points close real time one purpose point positioning provision known points mapping measurements also known horizontal vertical control every country thousands known points exist normally documented national mapping agencies surveyors involved real estate insurance use tie local measurements geodetic problems geometric geodesy two standard problems exist first direct forward second inverse reverse first direct forward


geodetic problem given point terms coordinates direction azimuth distance point second point determine coordinates second point second inverse reverse geodetic problem given two points determine azimuth length line straight line arc geodesic connects plane geometry valid small areas earth 's surface solutions problems reduce simple trigonometry sphere however solution significantly complex inverse problem azimuths differ two end points


connecting great circle arc ellipsoid revolution geodesics may written terms elliptic integrals usually evaluated terms series expansion see example vincenty 's formulae general case solution called geodesic surface considered differential equations geodesic solved numerically observational concepts define basic observational concepts like angles coordinates defined geodesy astronomy well mostly viewpoint local observer '''plumbline''' '' 'vertical''' direction local gravity line


results following '''zenith''' point celestial sphere direction gravity vector point extended upwards intersects correct call '' 'direction''' rather point '''nadir''' opposite point rather direction direction gravity extended downward intersects obscured celestial sphere '''celestial horizon''' plane perpendicular point 's gravity vector '''azimuth''' direction angle within plane horizon typically counted clockwise north geodesy astronomy south france '''elevation''' angular height object horizon


alternatively zenith distance equal degrees minus elevation '''local topocentric coordinates''' azimuth direction angle within plane horizon elevation angle zenith angle distance '''north celestial pole''' extension earth 's precessing nutating instantaneous spin axis extended northward intersect celestial sphere similarly south celestial pole '''celestial equator''' instantaneous intersection earth 's equatorial plane celestial sphere '''meridian plane''' plane perpendicular celestial equator containing celestial poles '''local meridian''' plane containing direction zenith direction celestial pole measurements


vertical angles target points angles referred local vertical tacheometer additionally determines electronically electro optically distance target highly automated even robotic operations method free station position widely used local detail surveys tacheometers commonly employed although old fashioned rectangular technique using angle prism steel tape still inexpensive alternative real time kinematic rtk gps techniques used well data collected tagged recorded digitally entry geographic information system gis database geodetic gps receivers produce directly three dimensional coordinates


geocentric coordinate frame frame eg wgs frames regularly produced published international earth rotation reference systems service iers gps receivers almost completely replaced terrestrial instruments large scale base network surveys planet wide geodetic surveys previously impossible still mention satellite laser ranging slr lunar laser ranging llr long baseline interferometry vlbi techniques techniques also serve monitor irregularities earth 's rotation well plate tectonic motions gravity measured using gravimeters two kinds first absolute gravimeters based


measuring acceleration free fall eg reflecting prism vacuum tube used establish vertical geospatial control used field second relative gravimeters spring based common used gravity surveys large areas establishing figure geoid areas accurate relative gravimeters called superconducting gravimeters sensitive one thousandth one billionth earth surface gravity twenty superconducting gravimeters used worldwide studying earth 's tides rotation interior ocean atmospheric loading well verifying


plumbline astronomical means works fairly well provided ellipsoidal model figure earth used one geographical mile defined one minute arc equator equals one nautical mile one minute astronomical latitude radius curvature ellipsoid varies latitude longest pole shortest equator nautical mile metre originally defined millionth part length equator north pole along meridian paris target quite reached


actual implementation ppm current definitions means one kilometre roughly equal meridional minutes arc equals nautical mile though exact two units defined different bases international nautical mile defined exactly corresponding rounding four digits temporal change geodesy temporal change studied variety techniques points earth 's surface change location due variety mechanisms


continental plate motion plate tectonics episodic motion tectonic origin especially close fault lines periodic effects due tides tidal loading postglacial land uplift due isostatic adjustment mass variations due hydrological changes including atmosphere cryosphere land hydrology oceans sub daily polar motion length day variability earth 's center mass geocenter variations anthropogenic movements reservoir construction petroleum water extraction science studying deformations motions earth 's crust solidity whole called geodynamics often study earth 's irregular rotation also included definition geodynamics studies require terrestrial


reference frames realized stations belonging global geodedetic observing system ggos techniques studying geodynamic phenomena global scale include satellite positioning gps glonass galileo beidou long baseline interferometry vlbi satellite laser ranging slr lunar laser ranging llr doris regionally locally precise levelling precise tacheometers monitoring gravity change using land airborne shipborne spaceborne gravimetry satellite altimetry based microwave laser observations studying ocean surface sea level rise ice cover monitoring interferometric synthetic aperture radar insar using satellite images notable geodesists geodesists


boscovich rome berlin paris ino tadataka tokyo georg von reichenbach bavaria germany pierre simon laplace paris france adrien marie legendre paris france johann georg von soldner munich germany george everest england india friedrich wilhelm bessel k nigsberg germany heinrich christian schumacher germany russian empire carl friedrich gauss g ttingen germany friedrich georg wilhelm struve dorpat pulkovo russian empire johann jacob baeyer berlin germany george biddell airy cambridge london karl maximilian von bauernfeind munich germany wilhelm jordan germany herv faye france george gabriel stokes


england carlos ib ez e ib ez de ibero barcelona spain henri poincar paris france alexander ross clarke london england charles sanders peirce united states friedrich robert helmert potsdam germany heinrich bruns berlin germany lor nd e tv hungary th century geodesists alphabetically arranged tadeusz banachiewicz poland arne bjerhammar sweden guy bomford india william bowie us irene kaminka fischer us buckminster fuller united states john fillmore hayford us veikko aleksanteri heiskanen finland us reino antero hirvonen finland friedrich hopfner vienna austria martin hotine england


harold jeffreys london england william kaula los angeles us karl rudolf koch bonn germany feodosy nikolaevich krasovsky russian empire ussr mikhail sergeevich molodenskii russia john o'keefe us karl ramsayer stuttgart germany hellmut schmid switzerland yrj v l finland petr van ek fredericton canada felix andries vening meinesz netherlands thaddeus vincenty poland alfred wegener germany greenland hans georg wenzel germany see also fundamentals geodesics ellipsoid history geodesy physical geodesy earth 's circumference governmental agencies national mapping agency us national geodetic survey national geospatial intelligence agency united


states geological survey international organizations international association geodesy international federation surveyors international geodetic student organisation ric calais epsg geodetic parameter dataset meridian arc surveying references reading f r helmert http geographiclibsfnet geodesic papers helmert enhtml ''mathematical physical theories higher geodesy'' part acic st louis english translation ''die mathematischen und physikalischen theorieen der h heren geod sie'' vol teubner leipzig f r helmert http geographiclibsfnet geodesic papers helmert enhtml ''mathematical physical theories higher geodesy'' part acic st louis english translation ''die mathematischen und physikalischen theorieen der h heren


published ''surveying land information science salis'' http digitalcommonsuconnedu thmeyer articles part introduction ''salis'' vol pages december http digitalcommonsuconnedu thmeyer articles part ii physics gravity ''salis'' vol pages march http digitalcommonsuconnedu nrme articles part iii height systems ''salis'' vol pages june http digitalcommonsuconnedu nrme articles part iv gps heighting ''salis'' vol pages september external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwogporguk pubs pdf geodetic awareness guidance note geodesy subcommittee geomatics committee international association oil gas producers articles containing video clips


physics example describe symmetry group physical system affects solutions equations describing system term ' 'representation group'' also used general sense mean description group group transformations mathematical object formally representation means homomorphism group automorphism group object object vector space ''linear representation'' people use ' 'realization'' general notion reserve term ' 'representation'' special case linear

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Group representation


''p'' ''p'' divides order group called ''modular representation theory'' special case different properties see representation theory finite groups ''compact groups locally compact groups'' mdash many results finite group representation theory proved averaging group proofs carried infinite groups replacement average integral provided acceptable notion integral defined done locally compact groups using haar measure resulting theory central part harmonic


analysis pontryagin duality describes theory commutative groups generalised fourier transform see also peter weyl theorem ''lie groups'' mdash many important lie groups compact results compact representation theory apply techniques specific lie groups used well groups important physics chemistry lie groups representation theory crucial application group theory fields see representations lie groups representations lie algebras ''linear algebraic groups'' generally ''affine group schemes'' mdash analogues


studied sometimes using ad hoc techniques ' 'semisimple lie groups'' deep theory building compact case complementary ' 'solvable'' lie groups cannot classified way general theory lie groups deals semidirect products two types means general results called ''mackey theory'' generalization wigner 's classification methods representation theory also depends heavily type vector space group acts one distinguishes finite dimensional representations infinite dimensional ones infinite dimensional case additional structures important eg whether space


hilbert space banach space etc one must also consider type field vector space defined important case field complex numbers important cases field real numbers finite fields fields p adic numbers general algebraically closed fields easier handle non algebraically closed ones characteristic field also significant many theorems finite groups depend characteristic field dividing order group definitions '' 'representation''' group ''g'' vector space ''v''


field ''k'' group homomorphism ''g'' gl ''v'' general linear group ''v'' representation map math rho colon g mathrm gl v math math rho g g rho g rho g qquad text g g g math ''v'' called '' 'representation space''' dimension ''v'' called '' 'dimension''' representation common practice refer ''v'' representation homomorphism clear context case ''v'' finite dimension ''n'' common choose


basis ''v'' identify gl ''v'' group ''n'' ''n'' invertible matrices field ''k'' ''g'' topological group ''v'' topological vector space '''continuous representation''' ''g'' ''v'' representation '' '' application defined continuous '''kernel''' representation '' '' group ''g'' defined normal subgroup ''g'' whose image '' '' identity transformation math ker rho left g g mid rho g mathrm id right math faithful representation one homomorphism


injective words one whose kernel trivial subgroup ''e'' consisting group 's identity element given two ''k'' vector spaces ''v'' ''w'' two representations said '''equivalent''' '''isomorphic''' exists vector space isomorphism ''g'' ''g'' math alpha circ rho g circ alpha pi g math examples consider complex number ''u'' e sup sup property ''u'' sup sup cyclic group ''c'' sub sub ''u'' ''u'' sup sup representation math mathbb c math given math rho left


end bmatrix qquad sigma left u right begin bmatrix u end bmatrix math group ''c'' sub sub may also faithfully represented math mathbb r math given math tau left right begin bmatrix end bmatrix qquad tau left u right begin bmatrix b b end bmatrix qquad tau left u right begin bmatrix b b end bmatrix math math text u tfrac qquad b text im u tfrac sqrt math another example let math v math space homogeneous degree polynomials complex


numbers variables math x x x math math math acts math v math permutation three variables instance math math sends math x math math x math reducibility subspace ''w'' ''v'' invariant group action called ' 'subrepresentation'' ''v'' exactly two subrepresentations namely zero dimensional subspace ''v'' representation said '''irreducible''' proper subrepresentation nonzero dimension representation said '' 'reducible''' representation dimension zero considered neither reducible irreducible like number


considered neither composite prime assumption characteristic field ''k'' divide size group representations finite groups decomposed direct sum irreducible subrepresentations see maschke 's theorem holds particular representation finite group complex numbers since characteristic complex numbers zero never divides size group example first two representations given decomposable two dimensional subrepresentations given span span


third representation irreducible generalizations set theoretical representations ' 'set theoretic representation'' also known group action ''permutation representation'' group ''g'' set ''x'' given function ''g'' ''x'' sup ''x'' sup set functions ''x'' ''x'' ''g'' sub sub ''g'' sub sub ''g'' ''x'' ''x'' math rho x x math math rho g g x rho g rho g x math math math identity element ''g'' condition axioms group imply ''g'' bijection permutation ''g'' ''g'' thus may equivalently define


th century bc sun tzu proposed use guerrilla style tactics ''the art war'' rd century bc roman general quintus fabius maximus verrucosus also credited inventing many tactics guerrilla warfare guerrilla warfare used various factions throughout history particularly associated revolutionary movements popular resistance invading occupying armies guerrilla tactics focus avoiding head confrontations enemy armies instead engaging limited skirmishes goal exhausting adversaries forcing withdraw guerrilla groups often depend logistical political support

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics
Guerrilla warfare


either local population foreign backers engage armed struggle sympathize guerrilla group 's efforts etymology spanish guerrilla resistance napoleonic french invasion spain battle valdepe spanish word diminutive form 'war' term became popular early th century peninsular war defeat regular armies spanish portuguese people successfully rose napoleonic troops defeated highly superior army using guerrilla strategy correct spanish usage person member


unit male geri e female term ''guerrilla'' used english early refer individual ''fighters'' eg town taken guerrillas also spanish denote ''a group band'' fighters however languages ''guerrilla'' still denotes specific style warfare use diminutive evokes differences number scale scope guerrilla army formal professional army state ref name origin meaning guerrilla online etymology dictionary ref history


prehistoric tribal warriors presumably employed guerrilla style tactics enemy tribes evidence conventional warfare hand emerge bc egypt mesopotamia chinese general strategist sun tzu ''the art war'' th century bc became one earliest propose use guerrilla warfare ref name l leonard thomas ''encyclopedia developing world'' p one earliest proponents guerrilla war tactics chinese master warfare sun tzu ref inspired developments modern guerrilla warfare rd century bc quintus fabius maximus verrucosus


widely regarded father guerrilla warfare ref name fabiuss ref devised fabian strategy roman republic used great effect hannibal 's army strategy would influence guerrilla tactics modern era ref name fabiuss medieval roman empire guerrilla warfare frequently practiced eighth tenth centuries along eastern frontier umayyad abbasid caliphates tactics involved heavy emphasis reconnaissance intelligence shadowing enemy evacuating threatened population centres attacking enemy dispersed raid later tenth century form warfare codified military


manual known later latin name ''de velitatione bellica'' 'on skirmishing' would forgotten future since enlightenment ideologies nationalism liberalism socialism religious fundamentalism played important role shaping insurgencies guerrilla warfare th century chhatrapati shivaji maharaj founder maratha empire pioneered ''shiva sutra'' ''ganimi kava'' guerrilla tactics defeat many times larger powerful armies mughal empire ref name history mahrattas ref kerala varma pazhassi raja used guerrilla techniques war british east


india company india arthur wellesley adopted term guerrilla english spanish usage pazhassi revolt british arthur wellesley india commanded forces assigned defeat pazhassi 's techniques failed moroccan military leader abd el krim father unified moroccan tribes control took arms spanish french invaders first time history tunnel warfare used alongside modern guerrilla tactics caused considerable damage colonial armies


morocco early th century michael collins tom barry developed many tactical features guerrilla warfare guerrilla phase irish war independence collins developed mainly urban guerrilla warfare tactics dublin city irish capital operations small irish republican army ira units guerrillas quickly attacked target disappeared civilian crowds frustrated british enemy best example occurred bloody sunday november collins 's assassination unit known squad wiped group british intelligence


agents cairo gang early morning killed six wounded regular officers also killed purge afternoon british force mixed units took revenge shooting crowd football match croke park killing fourteen civilians injuring others west county cork tom barry commander ira west cork brigade fighting west cork rural ira fought much larger units fellows urban areas units called flying columns engaged british forces large battles usually


minutes kilmichael ambush november crossbarry ambush march famous examples barry 's flying columns causing large casualties enemy forces lakhdari drif bouhired bouali algerian women guerrillas war independence c algerian war started handful algerian guerrillas primitively armed guerrillas fought french eight years remains prototype modern insurgency counterinsurgency terrorism torture asymmetric warfare prevalent throughout world today south africa african national congress anc members studied


algerian war prior release apotheosis nelson mandela intifada israel palestinian fighters sought emulate additionally tactics al qaeda closely resemble algerians strategy tactics methods boer guerrillas second boer war south africa estonian forest brothers relaxing cleaning guns shooting exercise veskiaru j rva county estonia strategy guerrilla warfare type asymmetric warfare competition opponents unequal strength also type irregular warfare aims simply


defeat enemy win popular support political influence enemy 's cost accordingly guerrilla strategy aims magnify impact small mobile force larger cumbersome one successful guerrillas weaken enemy attrition eventually forcing withdraw tactics tactically guerrillas usually avoid confrontation large units formations enemy troops seek attack small groups enemy personnel resources gradually deplete opposing force minimizing losses guerrilla prizes mobility secrecy surprise organizing small units taking advantage


terrain difficult larger units use example mao zedong summarized basic guerrilla tactics beginning chinese civil war blockquote enemy advances retreat enemy camps harass enemy tires attack enemy retreats pursue blockquote least one author credits ancient chinese work ''the art war'' inspiring mao 's tactics ref name th century communist leaders including north vietnamese ho chi minh often used developed guerrilla warfare tactics provided model use elsewhere leading cuban foco theory


anti soviet mujahadeen afghanistan ref name mcneilly mark ''sun tzu art modern warfare'' p american arming support anti soviet mujahadeen afghanistan another example ref unconventional methods addition traditional military methods guerrilla groups may rely also destroying infrastructure using improvised explosive devices example typically also rely logistical political support local population foreign backers often embedded within thereby using population human shield many guerrilla groups adept public persuasion propaganda use force opposing


army may come suspect civilians potential guerrilla backers many guerrilla movements today also rely heavily children combatants scouts porters spies informants roles drawn international condemnation many states also recruit children armed forces guerrilla groups also use refugees weapons solidify power politically destabilize adversary farc guerrilla war displaced millions colombians tribal guerrilla warfare soviets afghanistan civilian population living area might suspected collaborated enemy find displaced


guerrillas fight territory growth th century growth guerrilla warfare th century inspired part theoretical works guerrilla warfare starting ''manual de guerra de guerrillas'' mat ram n mella written th century recently mao zedong 's ''on guerrilla warfare'' che guevara 's http www uakronedu worldciv pascher chehtml ''guerrilla warfare'' lenin 's http wwwmarxistsorg archive lenin works gw indexhtm text name written successful revolutions carried china cuba russia respectively texts characterized tactic guerrilla warfare according che guevara 's text used


side supported majority possesses much smaller number arms use defense oppression foco theory tuareg rebel fighter dshk technical northern niger p ref marxist revolutionary che guevara developed ''foco'' theory revolution book ''guerrilla warfare'' based experiences cuban revolution theory later formalised focal ism r gis debray central principle vanguardism cadres small fast moving paramilitary groups provide focus popular


discontent sitting regime thereby lead general insurrection although original approach mobilize launch attacks rural areas many ''foco'' ideas adapted urban guerrilla warfare movements comparison guerrilla warfare terrorism commonly accepted definition terrorism term frequently used political propaganda belligerents often governments power denounce opponents whose status terrorists disputed ref name urlfreedom fighters rebels rules civil war ref contrary terrorist groups guerillas usually work open positions armed units try


hold seize land refrain fighting enemy military force battle usually apply pressure control dominate territory population deny control enemy primary concern guerrillas enemy 's active military units terrorists largely concerned non military agents target mostly civilians guerrilla forces principally fight accordance law war ''jus bello'' sense respect rights innocent civilians refraining targeting see also counter insurgency fabian strategy free war freedom fighters disambiguation history guerrilla warfare yank


levy list guerrilla movements list guerrillas list revolutions rebellions militia partisan military resistance world war ii special forces unconventional warfare terrorism violent non state actor viet cong improvised explosive device tm improvised munitions handbook references reading asprey robert ''war shadows guerrilla history'' derradji abder rahmane algerian guerrilla campaign strategy tactics edwin mellen press new york usa hinckle warren steven chain david goldstein ''guerrilla krieg usa'' ''guerrilla war usa'' stuttgart deutsche verlagsanstalt keats john ''they fought alone'' time life macdonald peter ''giap


victor vietnam'' oller john ''the swamp fox francis marion saved american revolution'' boston da capo press peers william r brelis dean ''behind burma road story america 's successful guerrilla force'' boston little brown co polack peter ''guerrilla warfare kings revolution'' casemate thomas powers war without end review steve coll ''directorate cia america 's secret wars afghanistan pakistan'' penguin pp ''the new york review books'' vol lxv april pp nbsp forty plus years failure vietnam


war'' u north carolina press https wwwquestiacom library savage conflict decisive role guerrillas online weber olivier ''afghan eternity'' external links pakistani militants conduct raids iran https webarchiveorg web http abcnewsgocom blogs headlines abc news exclus abcnews exclusive secret war deadly guerrilla raids iran http insurgencyresearchgroupwordpresscom insurgency research group multi expert blog dedicated study insurgency development counter insurgency policy http wwwspartacus educationalcom vnguerrillahtm guerrilla warfare spartacus educational http wwwbritannicacom eb article guerrilla warfare encyclop dia britannica guerrilla warfare http wwwmarxistsorg reference archive mao works guerrilla warfare mao guerrilla warfare https webarchiveorg web http wwwarmymil prof writing volumes volume march html relearning counterinsurgency warfare https purlfdlpgov gpo gpo casebook insurgency revolutionary warfare united states army special operations command http wwwsepiamutinycom sepia archives html counter insurgency jungle warfare school cijws india warfare type spanish words


access date october ref '''graphic design''' profession academic discipline whose activity consists projecting visual communications intended transmit specific messages social groups specific objectives opposed art whose aim merely contemplation design based principle form follows specific function therefore graphic design interdisciplinary branch design ref name interdisciplinary whose foundations objectives revolve around definition problems determination objectives decision making creativity innovation lateral thinking along manual digital tools transforming proper interpretation activity

Applied science
Architecture and design
Visual communication
Graphic design


helps optimization graphic communications '' see also communication design '' also known visual communication design ''visual design'' ''editorial design'' role graphic designer communication process encoder interpreter message work interpretation ordering presentation visual messages design work based customer demand demand ends established linguistically either orally writing graphic design transforms linguistic message graphic manifestation graphic design field application different areas


knowledge focused visual communication system example applied advertising strategies also applied aviation world space exploration sense countries graphic design related associated production sketches drawings incorrect since visual communication small part huge range types classes applied given rapid massive growth information sharing demand experienced designers greater ever particularly development new technologies


need pay attention human factors beyond competence engineers develop terminology first known use term graphic design way understand today july issue volume number ''organized labor'' publication labor unions san francisco article technical education printers blockquote enterprising trades union br admittedly high standard intelligence prevails among printers assurance elemental principles design finger ends many


neon lights ginza tokyo babylon artisans pressed cuneiform inscriptions clay bricks tablets used construction bricks gave information name reigning monarch builder dignitary ref name ref first known road sign announcing name governor state mayor city egyptians developed communication hieroglyphics used picture symbols dating far back bc found rosetta stone rosetta stone found one napoleon 's engineers advertisement egyptian ruler ptolemy


true son sun father moon keeper happiness men ref name egyptians also invented papyrus paper made reeds found along nile transcribed advertisements common among people time dark ages small ad small small ad small monks created elaborate illustrated manuscripts lengthy history relatively recent explosion visual communication th st centuries distinction advertising art graphic design fine art disappeared share many elements theories


principles practices languages sometimes benefactor client advertising ultimate objective sale goods services graphic design essence give order information form ideas expression feeling artifacts document human experience graphic design united states began benjamin franklin used newspaper ''the pennsylvania gazette'' master art publicity promote books influence masses benjamin franklin 's ingenuity gained strength cunning replaced counterpart pennsylvania andrew


bradford postmaster printer competition instituted showed prowess running ad ''general magazine historical chronicle british plantations america'' precursor saturday evening post stressed benefits offered stove invented named ''pennsylvania fireplace'' invention still sold today known ''the franklin stove'' ref name advertising age advertising chicago illinois crain books ref american advertising initially imitated british newspapers magazines advertisements printed scrambled type uneven lines made


difficult read franklin better organized adding point type first line advertisement although later shortened centered making headlines franklin added illustrations something london printers attempted franklin first utilize logos early symbols announced services opticians displaying golden spectacles franklin taught advertisers use detail important marketing products advertisements ran lines including color names varieties sizes goods offered advent printing tang dynasty


wood blocks cut print textiles later reproduce buddhist texts buddhist scripture printed earliest known printed book beginning th century longer scrolls books produced using movable type printing making books widely available song dynasty ref name wilkinson ref th th century movable type used handbills trade cards printed wood copper engravings documents announced business location english painter william hogarth used skill engraving one first design business trade


mainz germany johannes gutenberg introduced movable type using new metal alloy use printing press opened new era commerce made graphics readily available since mass printing dropped price printing material significantly previously advertising word mouth france england example criers announced products sale ancient romans done printing press made books widely available aldus manutius developed book structure became foundation western publication design era graphic design called humanist old


style additionally william caxton england 's first printer produced religious books trouble selling discovered use leftover pages used announce books post church doors practice termed '' squis '' '' pin posters'' approximately becoming first form print advertising europe'''' term ''siquis'' came roman era public notices posted stating '' anybody '' latin '' si quis '' printed announcements followed later public registers ''wants'' called ''want ads'' areas first


periodical paris advertising termed advices advices know today ''want ad media'' ''advice columns'' harvard university received printing press england years passed london bookseller benjamin harris received another printing press boston harris published newspaper serial form ''publick occurrences foreign domestick'' four pages long suppressed government first edition john campbell credited first newspaper ''boston news letter'' appeared paper known revolution '' weeklies '' name


two first ads stolen anvils third real estate oyster bay owned william bradford pioneer printer new york first sell something value bradford published first newspaper new york 's first ''new york gazette'' bradford 's son preceded philadelphia publishing ''american weekly mercury'' ''the mercury'' william brooker 's ''massachusetts gazette'' first published day earlier nineteenth century henry cole became one major forces design education great britain informing government importance design


''journal design manufactures'' organized great exhibition celebration modern industrial technology victorian design william morris' kelmscott press published significant graphic design products arts crafts movement made lucrative business creating selling stylish books morris created market works graphic design right profession new type art kelmscott press characterized obsession historical styles historicism first significant reaction state


nineteenth century graphic design morris' work along rest private press movement directly influenced art nouveau ref name mccarthy fiona mccarthy ''william morris'' london faber faber ref first half ninetieth century diverse styles used various graphic designers several examples greek roman classical egyptian gothic early part century often regarded lackluster reviving historic styles however latter part century would showcase designers using existing styles conceptual framework expand styles instance designer


augustus wn pugin quote book ''the true principles pointed christian architecture'' says gothic style principle cover thanksgiving issue ''the chap book'' designed h bradley h bradley became one notable graphic designers late nineteenth century due creating art pieces various art nouveau styles bradley created number designs promotions literary magazine titled ''the chap book'' one thanksgiving poster finished poster recognized including


system curved lines forms poster also borrows elements japanese printing styles using flat colored planes bradley 's works proven inspiration concept art posters would become commonplace early twentieth century addition art posters would become significant aspect subject advertising twentieth century boeing aircraft livery designating air force one cyan forms us flag presidential seal caslon lettering designed different times different designers different purposes combined designer raymond loewy


one single aircraft exterior design frederick h meyer director instructor california school arts crafts taught class entitled graphic design lettering raffe 's ''graphic design'' published first book use graphic design title signage london underground classic design example modern era although lacked artistic training frank pick led underground group design publicity movement first underground station signs introduced design solid red disk blue bar


center name station station name white sans serif letters pick used expertise edward johnston design new typeface underground johnston redesigned underground sign logo include typeface blue bar center red circle soviet constructivism applied 'intellectual production' different spheres production movement saw individualistic art useless revolutionary russia thus moved towards creating objects utilitarian purposes designed buildings theater sets posters fabrics clothing furniture logos


menus etc jan tschichold codified principles modern typography book ''new typography'' later repudiated philosophy espoused book fascistic remained influential tschichold bauhaus typographers herbert bayer l szl moholy nagy el lissitzky greatly influenced graphic design pioneered production techniques stylistic devices used throughout twentieth century following years saw graphic design modern style gain widespread acceptance application post world war ii american economy revealed greater need graphic design mainly advertising packaging spread german bauhaus


school design chicago brought mass produced minimalism america sparking modern architecture design notable names mid century modern design include adrian frutiger designer typefaces univers frutiger paul rand took principles bauhaus applied popular advertising logo design helping create uniquely american approach european minimalism becoming one principal pioneers corporate identity subset graphic design alex steinweiss credited invention album cover josef ller brockmann designed posters severe yet accessible


manner typical era professional graphic design industry grew parallel consumerism raised concerns criticisms notably within graphic design community first things first manifesto first launched ken garland published first things first manifesto magazine ''emigre'' stating propose reversal priorities favor useful lasting democratic forms communication mindshift away product marketing toward exploration production new kind meaning scope


debate shrinking must expand consumerism running uncontested must challenged perspectives expressed part visual languages resources design editions attracted signatures practitioners thinkers rudy vanderlans erik spiekermann ellen lupton rick poynor manifesto also published adbusters known strong critiques visual culture applications colour graphic design applied everything visual road signs technical schematics interoffice memorandums reference manuals design aid selling product idea applied products elements


company identity logos colors packaging text part branding see also advertising branding become increasingly important range services offered graphic designers graphic designers often form part branding team graphic design applied entertainment industry decoration scenery visual story telling examples design entertainment purposes include novels vinyl album covers comic books dvd covers opening credits closing credits filmmaking programs props stage could also include artwork used shirts items screenprinted sale


scientific journals news reporting presentation opinion facts often improved graphics thoughtful compositions visual information known information design newspapers magazines blogs television film documentaries may use graphic design advent web information designers experience interactive tools increasingly used illustrate background news stories information design include data visualization involves using programs interpret form data visually compelling presentation tied information graphics skills graphic design project may involve stylization presentation


existing text either preexisting imagery images developed graphic designer elements incorporated traditional digital form involves use visual arts typography page layout techniques graphic designers organize pages optionally add graphic elements graphic designers commission photographers illustrators create original pieces designers use digital tools often referred interactive design multimedia design designers need communication skills convince audience sell designs process school concerned communication highlights channels media messages transmitted


senders receivers encode decode messages semiotic school treats message construction signs interaction receivers produces meaning communication agent typography typography includes type design modifying type glyphs arranging type type glyphs characters created modified using illustration techniques type arrangement selection typefaces point size tracking space characters used kerning space two specific characters leading line spacing typography performed typesetters compositors typographers graphic artists art directors clerical workers digital age typography


specialized occupation certain fonts communicate resemble stereotypical notions example report font types text akin typewriter vintage report page layout golden section book design page layout deals arrangement elements content page image placement text layout style page design always consideration printed material recently extended displays web pages elements typically consist type text images pictures print media occasionally place holder graphics dieline elements printed


single plate create edition modern times usually signed numbered form limited edition prints may published book form artist 's books single print could product one multiple techniquesthe pencil one basic graphic design tools aside technology graphic design requires judgment creativity critical observational quantitative analytic thinking required design layouts rendering executor merely following solution eg sketch script instructions provided another designer art director executor


usually considered designer strategy strategy becoming essential effective graphic design main distinction graphic design art graphic design solves problem well aesthetically pleasing balance strategy comes important graphic designer understand clients' needs well needs people interacting design designer 's job combine business creative objectives elevate design beyond purely aesthetic means tools method presentation eg


arrangements style medium important design development presentation tools change audience perceives project image layout produced using traditional media guides digital image editing tools computers tools computer graphics often take traditional names scissors pen graphic design tools grid used traditional digital form mid desktop publishing graphic art software applications introduced computer image manipulation creation capabilities previously manually executed computers enabled designers instantly see effects


lead paralysis endless iterations clear outcome designers use hybrid process combines traditional computer based technologies first hand rendered layouts used get approval execute idea polished visual product produced computer graphic designers expected proficient software programs image making typography layout nearly popular industry standard software programs used graphic designers since early products adobe systems incorporated adobe photoshop raster based program photo editing adobe illustrator vector based program drawing


often used final stage designers across world use coreldraw '''coreldraw''' vector graphics editor software developed marketed corel corporation open source software used edit vector graphis inkscape primary file format used inkscape scalable vector graphics svg import export file vector format designers often use pre designed raster images vector graphics work online design databases raster images may edited adobe photoshop vector logos illustrations adobe illustrator coreldraw final product


assembled one major page layout programs adobe indesign serif pageplus quarkxpress powerful open source programs free also used professionals casual users graphic design include inkscape vector graphics gimp photo editing image manipulation krita painting scribus page layout related design fields interface design since advent personal computers many graphic designers become involved interface design environment commonly referred graphical user interface gui included web design software design end user interactivity


design consideration layout interface combining visual communication skills understanding user interaction online branding graphic designers often work software developers web developers create look feel web site software application important aspect interface design icon design user experience design user experience design ux study analysis development creating products provide meaningful relevant experiences users involves creation entire process acquiring integrating product including aspects branding design usability function experiential graphic


design experiential graphic design application communication skills built environment area graphic design requires practitioners understand physical installations manufactured withstand environmental conditions buildings cross disciplinary collaborative process involving designers fabricators city planners architects manufacturers construction teams experiential graphic designers try solve problems people encounter interacting buildings space also called environmental graphic design examples practice areas environmental graphic designers wayfinding placemaking branded environments exhibitions museum displays public installations digital environments occupations


functionalist anonymous pictographs us national park service illustrate graphic design career paths cover parts creative spectrum often overlap workers perform specialized tasks design services publishing advertising public relations median pay per year main job titles within industry often country specific include graphic designer art director creative director animator entry level production artist depending industry served responsibilities may different titles dtp associate graphic artist responsibilities may involve specialized skills


illustration photography animation visual effects interactive design employment design online projects expected increase employment traditional media newspaper book design expect go graphic designers expected constantly learn new techniques programs methods graphic designers work within companies devoted specifically industry design consultancies branding agencies others may work within publishing marketing communications companies especially since introduction personal computers many graphic designers work house designers non design oriented organizations


graphic designers may also work freelance working terms prices ideas etc graphic designer typically reports art director creative director senior media creative designer becomes senior spend less time designing time leading directing designers broader creative activities brand development corporate identity development often expected interact directly clients example taking interpreting briefs crowdsourcing graphic design jeff howe ''wired magazine'' first used term crowdsourcing article rise crowdsourcing


spans creative domains graphic design architecture apparel design writing illustration etc tasks may assigned individuals group may categorized convergent divergent example divergent task generating alternative designs poster example convergent task selecting one poster design companies startups small businesses entrepreneurs benefitted lot design crowdsourcing since helps source great graphic designs fraction budget used spend getting logo design crowdsourcing one common major


companies operate design crowdsourcing space generally referred design contest sites see also related areas related topics references bibliography fiell charlotte fiell peter editors ''contemporary graphic design'' taschen publishers wiedemann julius taborda felipe editors ''latin american graphic design'' taschen publishers external links http videopbsorg video universal arts graphic design documentary produced book http wwwblsgov ooh arts design graphic designershtm graphic designers entry ''occupational outlook handbook'' bureau labor statistics united states department labor communication design


'''gastroenterology''' branch medicine focused digestive system disorders diseases affecting gastrointestinal tract include organs mouth anus along alimentary canal focus speciality physicians practicing field called '''gastroenterologists''' usually completed eight years pre medical medical education year long internship part residency three years internal medicine residency three years gastroenterology fellowship gastroenterologists perform number diagnostic therapeutic procedures including colonoscopy esophagogastroduodenoscopy egd endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography

Applied science
Medicine and health
Internal medicine
Gastroenterology


ercp endoscopic ultrasound eus liver biopsy gastroenterology trainees complete fourth year although often seventh year graduate medical education transplant hepatology advanced interventional endoscopy inflammatory bowel disease motility topics advanced endoscopy sometimes called interventional surgical endoscopy sub specialty gastroenterology focuses advanced endoscopic techniques treatment pancreatic hepatobiliary gastrointestinal disease interventional gastroenterologists typically undergo additional year rigorous training advanced endoscopic techniques including endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography endoscopic ultrasound guided diagnostic interventional procedures advanced resection techniques including endoscopic mucosal resection endoscopic


submucosal dissection additionally performance endoscopic bariatric procedures also performed advanced endoscopists '''hepatology''' '''hepatobiliary medicine''' encompasses study liver pancreas biliary tree traditionally considered sub specialty gastroenterology '''proctology''' encompasses disorders anus rectum colon considered sub specialty general surgery history drawings bozzini 's lichtleiter early endoscope citing egyptian papyri john f nunn identified significant knowledge gastrointestinal diseases among practicing physicians periods pharaohs irynakhty tenth dynasty bc court physician specializing


named ''lichtleiter'' light guiding instrument examine urinary tract rectum pharynx earliest description endoscopy charles emile troisier described enlargement lymph nodes abdominal cancer william prout discovered stomach juices contain hydrochloric acid william beaumont published ''experiments observations gastric juice physiology digestion'' following years experimenting test subject alexis st martin adolf kussmaul well known german physician developed gastroscope perfected technique sword swallower society physicians vienna carl


stoerk demonstrated esophagoscope made two telescopic metal tubes initially devised waldenburg karl wilhelm von kupffer described properties liver cells called kupffer cells hugo kronecker samuel james meltzer studied oesophageal manometry humans mcclendon 's ph probe twentieth century jesse mcclendon tested acidity human stomach ''in situ'' walter alvarez first electrogastrography research rudolf schindler described many important diseases involving human digestive system world war illustrated textbook portrayed father gastroscopy


georg wolf developed semiflexible gastroscope burrill bernard crohn described crohn 's disease basil hirschowitz introduced first prototype fibreoptic gastroscope twenty first century barry marshall robin warren australia awarded nobel prize physiology medicine discovery ''helicobacter pylori'' role peptic ulcer disease james leavitt assisted research nobel prize awarded posthumously included award disease classification '''international classification disease icd classification''' chapter xi diseases digestive


system k k https wwwwhoint classifications apps icd icd online '''mesh subject heading''' gastroenterology g https wwwnlmnihgov cgi mesh mb cgimode term gastroenterology field entry gastroenterological diseases c https wwwnlmnihgov cgi mesh mb cgimode term gastrointestinal diseases treec '''national library medicine catalogue nlm classification ''' digestive system w http wwwcfnlmnihgov class class wihtml wi gastroenterology community gastroenterological societies world gastroenterology organisation british society gastroenterology united european gastroenterology journals ''the american journal gastroenterology'' ''clinical gastroenterology hepatology'' ''endoscopy'' ''gastroenterology'' ''gastrointestinal endoscopy'' ''gut'' ''inflammatory bowel diseases'' ''journal clinical gastroenterology'' ''journal crohn 's colitis'' ''neurogastroenterology motility'' ''world journal gastroenterology'' gastroenterologists douglas rex david rubin john fordtran training united states gastroenterology internal medicine subspecialty certified american board internal medicine abim


herodotus often considered father history ref source george santayana '''history''' greek ''historia'' meaning inquiry knowledge acquired investigation ref name josephjanda ref study documentation past events invention writing systems considered prehistory history umbrella term comprising past events well memory discovery collection organization presentation interpretation events historians seek knowledge past using historical sources written documents oral accounts art material artifacts ecological markers ref name ref history also academic discipline uses narrative


describe examine question analyze past events investigate patterns cause effect ref name evans ref historians often debate narrative best explains event well significance different causes effects historians also debate nature history end well usefulness give perspective problems present ref name evans ref name tosh ref stories common particular culture supported external sources tales surrounding king arthur usually classified cultural heritage legends ref name low ref history differs myth


supported evidence however ancient cultural influences helped spawn variant interpretations nature history evolved centuries continue change today modern study history wide ranging includes study specific regions study certain topical thematic elements historical investigation history often taught part primary secondary education academic study history major discipline university studies herodotus th century bc greek historian often considered father history western tradition ref name fordham ref although


knowledge inquiry judge sense aristotle used word ''history animals'' ref name ferrater mora ferrater mora jos ''diccionario de filosofia'' barcelona editorial ariel ref ancestor word attested early homeric hymns heraclitus athenian ephebes' oath boiotic inscriptions legal sense either judge witness similar greek word borrowed classical latin ''historia'' meaning investigation inquiry research account description written account past events writing history historical narrative recorded knowledge past events story narrative ''history'' borrowed latin possibly via old


english meaning ''history'' story general restriction meaning branch knowledge deals past events formal record study past events esp human affairs arose mid th century ref name oed online oxford university press renaissance older senses word revived greek sense francis bacon used term late th century wrote natural history ''historia'' knowledge objects determined space time sort knowledge provided memory


science provided reason poetry provided fantasy expression linguistic synthetic vs analytic isolating dichotomy english like chinese vs designates separate words human history storytelling general modern german french germanic romance languages solidly synthetic highly inflected word still used mean history story ''historian'' sense researcher history attested european languages substantive ''history'' still used mean happened men scholarly


croce history contemporary history history facilitated formation true discourse past production narrative analysis past events relating human race modern discipline history dedicated institutional production discourse events remembered preserved authentic form constitute historical record ref name wordnet http wordnetprincetonedu perl webwn wordnet search history ref task historical discourse identify sources usefully contribute production accurate accounts past therefore constitution historian 's archive


result circumscribing general archive invalidating usage certain texts documents falsifying claims represent true past part historian 's role skillfully objectively utilize vast amount sources past often found archives process creating narrative inevitably generates silence historians remember emphasize different events past ref name study history sometimes classified part humanities times part social sciences also


seen bridge two broad areas incorporating methodologies individual historians strongly support one classification th century french historian fernand braudel revolutionized study history using outside disciplines economics anthropology geography study global history traditionally historians recorded events past either writing passing oral tradition attempted answer historical questions study written documents oral accounts beginning historians also used sources monuments inscriptions pictures


general sources historical knowledge separated three categories written said physically preserved historians often consult three writing marker separates history comes archaeology especially helpful unearthing buried sites objects contribute study history archaeological finds rarely stand alone narrative sources complementing discoveries archaeology 's methodologies approaches independent field history historical archaeology specific branch archaeology often contrasts conclusions contemporary textual sources


example mark leone excavator interpreter historical annapolis maryland usa sought understand contradiction textual documents idealizing liberty material record demonstrating possession slaves inequalities wealth made apparent study total historical environment varieties ways history organized including chronologically culturally territorially thematically divisions mutually exclusive significant intersections often present possible historians concern specific general although modern trend


toward specialization area called big history resists specialization searches universal patterns trends history often studied practical theoretical aim also may studied simple intellectual curiosity ref name graham ch ref history prehistory history world memory past experience ''homo sapiens sapiens'' around world experience preserved largely written records prehistory historians mean recovery knowledge past area written records exist writing culture understood


studying painting drawings carvings artifacts information recovered even absence written record since th century study prehistory considered essential avoid history 's implicit exclusion certain civilizations sub saharan africa pre columbian america historians west criticized focusing disproportionately western world british historian e h carr wrote ref definition includes within scope history strong interests peoples indigenous australians new zealand ori past oral records


maintained transmitted succeeding generations even contact european civilization historiography title page ''la historia d'italia'' historiography number related meanings ref name culturahistoricaorg ref firstly refer history produced story development methodology practices example move short term biographical narrative towards long term thematic analysis secondly refer produced specific body historical writing example medieval historiography means works medieval history written ref name culturahistoricaorg thirdly may refer history


produced philosophy history meta level analysis descriptions past third conception relate first two analysis usually focuses narratives interpretations world view use evidence method presentation historians professional historians also debate question whether history taught single coherent narrative series competing narratives historical methods class toccolours style float right margin em em width px text align left clear right depiction ancient library alexandria div style background f eaba text align center historical method basics div following questions


used historians modern work ''when was'' source written unwritten produced date produced localization produced authorship pre existing material produced analysis original form produced integrity evidential value contents credibility first four known historical criticism fifth textual criticism together external criticism ''the sixth final inquiry'' source called internal criticism historical method comprises techniques guidelines historians use primary sources


evidence research write history herodotus halicarnassus bc ref name lamberg karlovsky p ref generally acclaimed father history however contemporary thucydides credited first approached history well developed historical method work ''history peloponnesian war'' thucydides unlike herodotus regarded history product choices actions human beings looked cause effect rather result divine intervention though herodotus wholly committed idea ref name lamberg karlovsky p historical method thucydides emphasized chronology


nominally neutral point view human world result actions human beings greek historians also viewed history cyclical events regularly recurring ref name lamberg karlovsky p ref historical traditions sophisticated use historical method ancient medieval china groundwork professional historiography east asia established han dynasty court historian known sima qian bc author ''records grand historian'' ''shiji'' quality written work sima qian posthumously known father chinese historiography chinese historians subsequent


committed criticism approached past strange need interpretation originality ibn khaldun claim cultural difference another age must govern evaluation relevant historical material distinguish principles according might possible attempt evaluation lastly feel need experience addition rational principles order assess culture past ibn khaldun often criticized idle superstition uncritical acceptance historical data result introduced scientific method study history


france germany herbert spencer summarized methods rich ore spencer meant scientific theory history meanwhile henry thomas buckle expressed dream history becoming one day science contrary buckle 's dream th century historian greatest influence methods became leopold von ranke germany limited history really happened directed field away science ranke historical data collected carefully examined objectively put together critical rigor procedures merely prerequisites preliminaries science heart science


searching order regularity data examined formulating generalizations laws th century academic historians focused less epic nationalistic narratives often tended glorify nation great men objective complex analyses social intellectual forces major trend historical methodology th century tendency treat history social science rather art traditionally case leading advocates history social science diverse collection scholars


produce theory history far one theory history came pen professional historian whatever theories history written experts fields example marxian theory history recently field digital history begun address ways using computer technology pose new questions historical data generate digital scholarship sincere opposition claims history social science historians hugh trevor roper john lukacs donald creighton gertrude himmelfarb gerhard ritter argued key


era ''alltagsgeschichte'' history everyday life scholars martin broszat ian kershaw detlev peukert sought examine everyday life like ordinary people th century germany especially nazi period marxist historians eric hobsbawm e p thompson rodney hilton georges lefebvre eugene genovese isaac deutscher c l r james timothy mason herbert aptheker arno j mayer christopher hill sought validate karl marx 's theories analyzing history marxist perspective response marxist interpretation history historians fran ois furet richard pipes j c clark


post modernist criticism australian historian keith windschuttle 's book ''the killing history'' today historians begin research process archives either physical digital platform often propose argument use research support john h arnold proposed history argument creates possibility creating change ref name digital information companies google sparked controversy role internet censorship information access marxian theory marxist theory historical materialism theorises society fundamentally determined ''material conditions''


given time nbsp words relationships people order fulfill basic needs feeding clothing housing families overall marx engels claimed identified five successive stages development material conditions western europe marxist historiography orthodoxy soviet union since collapse communism mikhail krom says reduced margins scholarship potential shortcomings production history many historians believe production history embedded bias


events known facts history interpreted variety ways constantin fasolt suggested history linked politics practice silence ref name ref also said second common view link history politics rests elementary observation historians often influenced politics ref name according michel rolph trouillot historical process rooted archives therefore silences parts history forgotten may intentional part narrative strategy dictates areas history remembered ref name ref historical omissions


occur many ways profound effect historical records information also purposely excluded left accidentally historians coined multiple terms describe act omitting historical information including silencing ref name selective memory ref name ref erasures ref name ref gerda lerner twentieth century historian focused much work historical omissions involving women accomplishments explained negative impact omissions minority groups ref name environmental historian william cronon proposed three ways combat bias ensure authentic accurate narratives narratives must contradict known


fact must make ecological sense specifically environmental history published work must reviewed scholarly community historians ensure accountability ref name areas study class toccolours style float right margin em em width px text align left clear right style background f eaba particular studies fields approaches history listed histories fields history science history mathematics history philosophy ancient history study beginning human history early middle ages atlantic history study history people living near


atlantic ocean art history study changes social context art comparative history historical analysis social cultural entities confined national boundaries contemporary history study recent historical events counterfactual history study historical events might happened different causal circumstances cultural history study culture past digital history use computing technologies massive searches published sources economic history use economic models fitted past intellectual history study ideas context cultures produced


development time maritime history study maritime transport connected subjects material history study objects stories tell modern history study modern times era middle ages military history study warfare wars history sometimes considered sub branch military history naval history oral history collection study historical information utilizing spoken interviews people lived past events palaeography study ancient texts people 's history historical work perspective common


people political history study politics past psychohistory study psychological motivations historical events pseudohistory study past falls outside domain mainstream history sometimes equivalent pseudoscience social history study process social change throughout history women 's history history female human beings gender history related covers perspective gender world history study history global perspective special attention non western societies periods historical study often focuses events developments occur particular blocks


time historians give periods time names order allow organising ideas classificatory generalisations used historians ref name marwick p ref names given period vary geographical location dates beginning end particular period centuries decades commonly used periods time represent depends dating system used periods constructed retrospectively reflect value judgments made past way periods constructed names given affect way viewed studied ref


name tosh p ref prehistoric periodisation field history generally leaves prehistory archaeologists entirely different sets tools theories usual method periodisation distant prehistoric past archaeology rely changes material culture technology stone age bronze age iron age sub divisions also based different styles material remains prehistory divided series chapters periods history could unfold relative chronology also narrative chronology narrative content could form functional economic


stop combinedly periodisation boundaries different trajectories change also needed studied right get intertwined cultural phenomena geographical locations particular geographical locations form basis historical study example continents countries cities understanding historic events took place important historians often turn geography according jules michelet book ''histoire de france'' without geographical basis people makers history seem walking air weather patterns water supply landscape place


affect lives people live example explain ancient egyptians developed successful civilization studying geography egypt essential egyptian civilization built banks nile river flooded year depositing soil banks rich soil could help farmers grow enough crops feed people cities meant everyone farm people could perform jobs helped develop civilization also case climate historians like ellsworth huntington ellen churchill semple


peripheral coastal regions middle east south asia east asia southeast asia europe linked interior mass eurasian steppe central asia eastern europe history europe describes passage time humans inhabiting european continent present day history asia seen collective history several distinct peripheral coastal regions east asia south asia middle east linked interior mass eurasian steppe history east asia study past passed generation generation east asia history


middle east begins earliest civilizations region known middle east established around bc mesopotamia iraq history india study past passed generation generation sub himalayan region history southeast asia characterized interaction regional players foreign powers history oceania collective history australia new zealand pacific islands history australia starts documentation makassar trading indigenous australians australia 's north coast history new zealand dates back


least years discovered settled polynesians developed distinct ori culture centred kinship links land history pacific islands covers history islands pacific ocean military military history concerns warfare strategies battles weapons psychology combat new military history since concerned soldiers generals psychology tactics broader impact warfare society culture ref name pavkovic ref religious history religion main theme secular religious


historians centuries continues taught seminaries academe leading journals include ''church history'' ''the catholic historical review'' ''history religions'' topics range widely political cultural artistic dimensions theology liturgy subject studies religions regions areas world humans lived social ''social history'' sometimes called ''new social history'' field includes history ordinary people strategies institutions coping life golden age major growth field among scholars


sense outside elite system social history contrasted political history intellectual history history great men english historian g trevelyan saw bridging point economic political history reflecting without social history economic history barren political history unintelligible field often viewed negatively history politics left also defended history people put back subfields chief subfields social history include black history demographic history ethnic history gender history history childhood


history education history family labour history lgbt history rural history urban history american urban history women 's history cultural cultural history replaced social history dominant form typically combines approaches anthropology history look language popular cultural traditions cultural interpretations historical experience examines records narrative descriptions past knowledge customs arts group people peoples constructed memory past major topic cultural history includes study art society well


study images human visual production iconography diplomatic diplomatic history focuses relationships nations primarily regarding diplomacy causes wars recently looks causes peace human rights typically presents viewpoints foreign office long term strategic values driving force continuity change history type ''political history'' study conduct international relations states across state boundaries time historian muriel chamberlain notes first world war diplomatic history replaced constitutional history


flagship historical investigation important exact sophisticated historical studies adds trend reversed allowing social history replace economic although economic history well established since late th century recent years academic studies shifted toward economics departments away traditional history departments business history deals history individual business organizations business methods government regulation labour relations impact society also includes biographies individual companies executives entrepreneurs related economic history


business history often taught business schools environmental environmental history new field emerged look history environment especially long run impact human activities upon offshoot environmental movement kickstarted rachel carson 's ''silent spring'' world world history study major civilizations last years world history primarily teaching field rather research field gained popularity united states japan countries


realization students need broader exposure world globalization proceeds led highly controversial interpretations oswald spengler arnold j toynbee among others world history association publishes ''journal world history'' every quarter since h world discussion list serves network communication among practitioners world history discussions among scholars announcements syllabi bibliographies book reviews people 's people 's history type historical work attempts account historical events perspective common people people 's history


history world story mass movements outsiders individuals groups included past type writing history primary focus includes disenfranchised oppressed poor nonconformists otherwise forgotten people authors typically left socialist model mind approach history workshop movement britain intellectual intellectual history history ideas emerged mid th century focus intellectuals books


one hand study ideas disembodied objects career gender gender history subfield history gender studies looks past perspective gender outgrowth gender history women 's history stemmed many non feminist historians dismissing importance women history according joan w scott gender constitutive element social relationships based perceived differences sexes gender primary way signifying relations power meaning gender historians study social


effects perceived differences sexes genders utilize allotted power societal political structures despite relatively new field gender history significant effect general study history gender history traditionally differs women 's history inclusion aspects gender masculinity femininity today 's gender history extends include people identify outside binary lgbt history deals first recorded instances sex love sexuality ancient civilizations involves history lesbian gay bisexual transgender lgbt peoples


cultures around world public public history describes broad range activities undertaken people training discipline history generally working outside specialized academic settings public history practice quite deep roots areas historic preservation archival science oral history museum curatorship related fields term began used us canada late field become increasingly professionalized since time common settings public history museums historic homes historic sites parks


battlefields archives film television companies levels government historians benedetto croce ban zhao courtesy name huiban first known female chinese historian professional amateur historians discover collect organize present information past events discover information archaeological evidence written primary sources verbal stories oral histories archival material lists historians historians grouped order historical period writing necessarily period specialized chroniclers annalists though historians


true sense also frequently included judgement since th century western historians disavowed aspiration provide judgement history ref name curran p curran vivian grosswald ''herder holocaust debate difference determinism context comparative law'' fc decoste bernard schwartz eds ''holocaust 's ghost writings art politics law education'' https booksgooglecom booksid llnbsq yp gc pg pa lpg pa pp ref goals historical judgements interpretations separate legal judgements need formulated quickly events final ref name curran p curran vivian grosswald ''herder holocaust debate difference


religious affairs often rejected pseudohistory teaching scholarship vs teaching major intellectual battle took place britain early twentieth century regarding place history teaching universities oxford cambridge scholarship downplayed professor charles harding firth oxford 's regius professor history ridiculed system best suited produce superficial journalists oxford tutors votes professors fought back defence system saying successfully produced britain 's outstanding statesmen administrators prelates diplomats mission valuable training scholars


tutors dominated debate second world war forced aspiring young scholars teach outlying schools manchester university thomas frederick tout professionalizing history undergraduate programme introducing study original sources requiring writing thesis united states scholarship concentrated major phd producing universities large number colleges universities focused undergraduate teaching tendency st century latter schools increasingly demand scholarly productivity younger tenure track faculty furthermore universities increasingly relied


inexpensive part time adjuncts classroom teaching nationalism origins national school systems th century teaching history promote national sentiment high priority united states world war strong movement emerged university level teach courses western civilization give students common heritage europe us attention increasingly moved toward teaching world history requiring students take courses non western cultures prepare students life globalized economy university


national government written put national heritage favourable light example japan mention nanking massacre removed textbooks entire second world war given cursory treatment countries complained standard policy communist countries present rigid marxist historiography united states textbooks published company often differ content state state example content represented different different regions country history southern states slavery


american civil war treated controversial topics mcgraw hill education example criticised describing africans brought american plantations workers instead slaves textbook academic historians often fought politicization textbooks sometimes success st century germany history curriculum controlled states characterized superpatriotism rather almost pacifistic deliberately unpatriotic undertone reflects principles formulated international organizations unesco council europe thus oriented towards human rights democracy peace result german


textbooks usually downplay national pride ambitions aim develop understanding citizenship centered democracy progress human rights peace tolerance europeanness see also methods auxiliary sciences history archival research bibliography computational history list history journals popular history topics historiography argentina atlantic history historiography canada classics greek historiography historiography alexander great roman historiography historiography fall western roman empire historiography cold war chinese historiography historiography french revolution annales school france historiography germany bielefeld school germany historiography early islam historiography


japan middle ages dark ages historiography historiography crusades historiography switzerland historiography soviet union historiography united states frontier thesis historiography united kingdom historiography scotland historiography british empire world history historiography causes world war historiography world war ii themes list history awards history book historiography science subaltern studies regarding post colonial india whig history history portrayed story continuous progress references reading external links http wwwbesthistorysitesnet best history sites net https wwwbbccouk history bbc history site http wwwfordhamedu halsall internet history sourcebooks project


see also internet history sourcebooks project collections public domain copy permitted historical texts educational use http wwwhistorycom history channel online http wwwhistorycouk history channel uk humanities main topic articles


verve song history song michael jackson history song blue system ''backstreet dreams'' history song cast ''all change'' history song groove armada ''black light'' history song madonna single jump history song mai tai history song tenacious ''the pick destiny'' periodicals ''history'' journal ''history magazine royal australian historical society'' ''bbc history'' magazine british broadcasting association television history american tv network regional variants history australian tv channel australian version


channel history canadian tv network canadian english language tv channel history en espa ol spin channel history channel history european tv channel viasat history pan nordic television channel history tv indian version history channel operated network ''history'' web series taiwanese streaming drama anthology series arts entertainment media history theatrical genre computing command history feature found notably many operating system shells allows users recall edit rerun commands previously entered term also used variable lists found


variable may effect experiment 's internal validity medical history history patient see also herstory feminism historia disambiguation histoire disambiguation histories disambiguation hitstory disambiguation natural history disambiguation prehistory wikipedia material


pubic body facial hair deliberately removed show anatomy '''human body''' structure human composed many different types cells together create tissues subsequently organ systems ensure homeostasis viability human body comprises head neck trunk includes thorax abdomen arms hands legs feet study human body involves anatomy physiology histology embryology body varies anatomically known ways physiology focuses systems organs human body

Natural science
Biology
Anatomy
Human anatomy


functions many systems mechanisms interact order maintain homeostasis safe levels substances sugar oxygen blood body studied health professionals physiologists anatomists artists assist work composition class wikitable floatright style font size align bottom style text align left caption side bottom elements human body mass trace elements less combined less rowspan px style width pt '''element''' style width pt text align center '''symbol''' style width pt text align center '''percent mass''' style width pt text align center '''percent atoms''' oxygen


style text align center style text align right style text align right carbon style text align center c style text align right style text align right hydrogen style text align center h style text align right style text align right nitrogen style text align center n style text align right style text align right calcium style text align center ca style text align right style text align right phosphorus style text align center p style text align right style text align right potassium style text align center k style text align right style text align right sulfur style text align center style text align right style text align right sodium style text align center na style text align right style text align right chlorine style text align center cl style text align right style text align right magnesium style text align center mg style text align right style text align right trace


elements style text align right style text align right human body composed elements including hydrogen oxygen carbon calcium phosphorus ref name aboutchemical ref elements reside trillions cells non cellular components body adult male body water total water content made extracellular fluid including blood plasma interstitial fluid fluid inside cells content acidity composition water inside outside cells carefully maintained main electrolytes


cells cells sit extracellular matrix consists proteins collagen surrounded extracellular fluids weight average human body nearly non human cells non cellular material bone connective tissue genome cells body function dna dna sits within nucleus cell parts dna copied sent body cell via rna rna used create proteins form basis cells activity products proteins dictate cell function gene expression


cell able self regulate amount proteins produced however cells dna cells mature red blood cells lose nucleus mature tissues body consists many different types tissue defined cells act specialised function study tissues called histology often occurs microscope body consists four main types tissues lining cells epithelia connective tissue nerve tissue muscle tissue cells lie surfaces exposed outside world gastrointestinal tract epithelia


cavities include abdomen contains stomach example pleura contains lungs heart heart organ located thoracic cavity lungs slightly left surrounded pericardium holds place mediastinum serves protect blunt trauma infection help lubricate movement heart via pericardial fluid heart works pumping blood around body allowing oxygen nutrients waste hormones white blood cells transported diagram human heart heart


composed two atrium two ventricles primary purpose atrium allow uninterrupted venous blood flow heart ventricular systole allows enough blood get ventricles atrial systole lack atrium would cause decrease cardiac output purpose ventricles pump blood lungs right ventricle rest body left ventricle heart electrical conduction system control contractions relaxation muscle starts sinoatrial


node traveling atria causing pump blood ventricles travels atrioventricular node makes signal slow slightly allowing ventricles fill blood pumping starting cycle coronary artery disease leading cause death worldwide making deathsit caused buildup plaque coronary arteries supplying heart eventually arteries may become narrow enough blood able reach myocardium condition known myocardial infarction heart attack


cause heart failure cardiac arrest eventually death risk factors coronary artery disease include obesity smoking high cholesterol high blood pressure lack exercise diabetes cancer affect heart though exceedingly rare usually metastasized another part body lungs breasts heart cells quickly stop dividing growth occurs size increase rather cell division gallbladder gallbladder hollow pear shaped organ located posterior inferior middle part right lobe


liver variable shape size stores bile released small intestine via common bile duct help digestion fats receives bile liver via cystic duct connects common hepatic duct form common bile duct ref name nagral ref gallbladder gets blood supply cystic artery people emerges right hepatic artery ref name nagral gallstones common disease one stones form gallbladder biliary tract people asymptomatic


stone blocks biliary tract causes gallbladder attack symptoms may include sudden pain upper right abdomen center abdomen nausea vomiting may also occur typical treatment removal gallbladder procedure called cholecystectomy gallstones risk factor gallbladder cancer although quite uncommon rapidly fatal diagnosed early systems circulatory system circulatory system consists heart blood vessels arteries veins capillaries heart propels circulation blood serves transportation system transfer oxygen


fuel nutrients waste products immune cells signalling molecules ie hormones one part body another paths blood circulation within human body divided two circuits pulmonary circuit pumps blood lungs receive oxygen leave carbon dioxide systemic circuit carries blood heart rest body blood consists fluid carries cells circulation including move tissue blood vessels back well spleen bone marrow digestive system digestive system


digestive system consists mouth including tongue teeth esophagus stomach gastrointestinal tract small large intestines rectum well liver pancreas gallbladder salivary glands converts food small nutritional non toxic molecules distribution absorption body molecules take form proteins broken amino acids fats vitamins minerals last mainly ionic rather molecular swallowed food moves gastrointestinal tract means peristalsis systematic expansion contraction muscles push food one


system endocrine system consists principal endocrine glands pituitary thyroid adrenals pancreas parathyroids gonads nearly organs tissues produce specific endocrine hormones well endocrine hormones serve signals one body system another regarding enormous array conditions resulting variety changes function immune system immune system consists white blood cells thymus lymph nodes lymph channels also part lymphatic system immune system provides mechanism body distinguish cells tissues outside


cells substances neutralize destroy latter using specialized proteins antibodies cytokines toll like receptors among many others skin integumentary system integumentary system consists covering body skin including hair nails well functionally important structures sweat glands sebaceous glands skin provides containment structure protection organs serves major sensory interface outside world lymphatic system lymphatic system extracts transports metabolizes lymph fluid found cells lymphatic system similar


circulatory system terms structure basic function carry body fluid musculoskeletal system musculoskeletal system consists human skeleton includes bones ligaments tendons cartilage attached muscles gives body basic structure ability movement addition structural role larger bones body contain bone marrow site production blood cells also bones major storage sites calcium phosphate system split muscular system skeletal system nervous system


nervous system nervous system consists body 's neurons glial cells together form nerves ganglia gray matter turn form brain related structures brain organ thought emotion memory sensory processing serves many aspects communication controls various systems functions special senses consist vision hearing taste smell eyes ears tongue nose gather information body 's environment structural perspective nervous system typically subdivided two component parts central nervous system cns composed brain


spinal cord peripheral nervous system pns composed nerves ganglia outside brain spinal cord cns mostly responsible organizing motion processing sensory information thought memory cognition functions ref name livesciencecom kim ann zimmermann https wwwlivesciencecom nervous systemhtml nervous system facts function diseases ''live science'' accessed july ref remains matter debate whether cns directly gives rise consciousness peripheral nervous system pns mostly responsible gathering information sensory neurons directing body movements motor neurons ref name livesciencecom functional perspective nervous system


typically divided two component parts somatic nervous system sns autonomic nervous system ans sns involved voluntary functions like speaking sensory processes ans involved involuntary processes digestion regulating blood pressure nervous system subject many different diseases epilepsy abnormal electrical activity brain cause seizures multiple sclerosis immune system attacks nerve linings damaging nerves' ability transmit signals amyotrophic lateral sclerosis als also known lou gehrig 's disease motor neuron disease gradually reduces


movement patients also many diseases nervous system ref name livesciencecom reproductive system primary purpose reproductive system produce new humans form children ensure sexual development produce new humans composed gonads testes ovaries produce eggs sperm cells gametes produce hormones necessary proper sexual development rest glands ducts reproductive system responsible transportation sustaining gametes nurture offspring reproductive system


first stimulated hypothalamus puberty causes ovaries testes produce testosterone male estrogen progesterone female male puberty generally occurs ages characterized beginning sperm production development secondary sex characteristics increased height weight broadened shoulders pubic facial hair voice deepening muscle development female puberty generally occurs ages characterized ovulation menstruation growth secondary sex characteristics growth pubic underarm hair breast uterine vaginal growth widening hips