program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel 's memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program 's memory may affect operation operating system


cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process' access computer 's memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu enter supervisor mode placing

Formal science
Computer science
Operating systems


kernel charge called segmentation violation seg v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway virtual memory many operating systems


trick programs using memory scattered around hard disk ram one continuous chunk memory called virtual memory use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would


program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application 's memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space


available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really ref name operating system ref multitasking multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one


two things one time generally done via time sharing means program uses share computer 's time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu called passing control


kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code


operating system preemptive control internal run times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many


single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals disk access file systems file systems allow users programs organize sort files computer often use directories folders access data stored disks central


feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive 's available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file


systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems


allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language


standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames


directories folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows reiserfs reiser ext


ext btrfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs g ext reiserfs available windows third party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system


usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device drivers device driver


specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently


hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems cannot expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled


function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system 's point view versions windows vista versions linux driver execution co operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel


preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks networking currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer 's operating system access resources remote computer support


usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server 's ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also


supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system 's sound hardware security computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed


systems may simply distinguish privileged non privileged systems commonly form requester ''identity'' user name establish identity may process ''authentication'' often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester '''identity''' ''authorization'' particular services resources accessible


requester logged system tied either requester 's user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs


directly access hardware resources cannot secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system 's kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created ''trusted computer system evaluation criteria'' tcsec standard


sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available


well intrusion detection prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek


goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p code based system java internal security especially relevant multi user systems allows user system private files users cannot tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing user interface operating system user interface bash command line command


typed 'prompt' output appears working way screen current command prompt bottom every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts


computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system unix vms many


unix unix like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell cannot separated windows numerous unix based guis existed time derived x competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software based toolkits desktop environments


motif prevalent toolkit desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac nbsp os gui changed dramatically introduction mac nbsp os nbsp x ref name intro date poisson ken http wwwislandnetcom kpolsson compsoft soft htm chronology personal computer software retrieved last checked ref real time operating systems real time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial


linux although operating systems support real time computing operating system development hobby hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single board computer powered microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system


either case hobbyist developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos diversity operating systems portability application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix


first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp ref name byte ref cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs market share see also comparison operating systems crash computing hypervisor interruptible operating system list


important publications operating systems list operating systems list pioneers computer science live cd glossary operating systems terms microcontroller mobile device mobile operating system network operating system object oriented operating system operating system projects system commander system image timeline operating systems notes references reading o'brien j marakas g ''management information systems'' e mcgraw hill irwin external links http wwwcbiumnedu iterations haighhtml multics history history operating systems computer science


'''economy''' area production distribution trade well consumption goods services different agents general defined 'as social domain emphasize practices discourses material expressions associated production use management scarce resources' ref name investopedia economics ref ref name investopedia ref ref name google play books ref given economy set processes involves culture values education technological evolution history social organization political structure legal systems well geography natural resource endowment ecology main factors factors

Applied science
Military sciences
Military weapons
Economic


time due technology innovation new products services processes expanding markets diversification markets niche markets increases revenue functions produces intellectual property changes industrial relations notably child labor replaced parts world universal access education market based economy one goods services produced exchanged according demand supply participants economic agents barter medium exchange credit debit value accepted within network unit currency command based economy one political


agents directly control produced sold distributed green economy low carbon resource efficient socially inclusive green economy growth income employment driven public private investments reduce carbon emissions pollution enhance energy resource efficiency prevent loss biodiversity ecosystem services ref name uneporg ref gig economy one short term jobs assigned chosen via online platforms new economy term referred whole emerging ecosystem new standards practices introduced usually result


technological innovations global economy refers humanity 's economic system systems overall range map shows gross domestic product gdp per capita every country today range fields study examining economy revolves around social science economics may include sociology economic sociology history economic history anthropology economic anthropology geography economic geography practical fields directly related human activities involving production distribution exchange consumption goods services whole engineering management business administration applied science finance professions occupations economic agents economic activities contribute


terminology distinguishes measures economy expressed real values adjusted inflation real gdp nominal values unadjusted inflation etymology english words economy economics traced back greek word ie household management composite word derived house household home manage distribute deal dispense way household management first recorded sense word economy phrase management conomic affairs found work possibly composed monastery economy later recorded general senses including thrift


administration frequently used current sense denoting economic system country area seems developed history ancient times storage room palace knossos long someone making supplying distributing goods services sort economy economies grew larger societies grew became complex sumer developed large scale economy based commodity money babylonians neighboring city states later developed earliest system economics think terms rules laws


bc referred specific mass barley related values metric silver bronze copper etc barley shekel originally unit currency unit weight british pound originally unit denominating one pound mass silver people exchange goods occurred social relationships also traders bartered marketplaces ancient greece present english word 'economy' originated many people bond slaves freeholders economic discussion driven scarcity middle ages


ducats minted circulating currency fugger family coins rare used absolute majority people middle ages medieval times known economy far subsistence level exchange occurred within social groups top great conquerors raised call venture capital ' 'ventura'' ital ''risk'' finance captures capital refunded goods would bring new world discoveries marco polo christopher columbus vasco


da gama led first global economy first enterprises trading establishments first stock exchange founded antwerp economy time meant primarily trade early modern times anders chydenius known pamphlet called ''the national gain'' ''den nationnale winsten'' proposes ideas free trade industry explores relationship economy society lays principles liberalism capitalism modern democracy book chydenius published theories closely corresponding adam smith 's invisible hand eleven years smith published


wars infrastructure economy meant national economy topic economic activities citizens state industrial revolution chsische maschinenfabrik chemnitz germany first economist true modern meaning word scotsman adam smith inspired partly ideas physiocracy reaction mercantilism also later economics student adam mari defined elements national economy products offered natural price generated use competition supply demand


division labor maintained basic motive free trade human self interest called self interest hypothesis became anthropological basis economics thomas malthus transferred idea supply demand problem overpopulation industrial revolution period th th century major changes agriculture manufacturing mining transport profound effect socioeconomic cultural conditions starting united kingdom subsequently spreading throughout europe north america eventually world onset industrial revolution marked major turning point


human history almost every aspect daily life eventually influenced way europe wild capitalism started replace system mercantilism today protectionism led economic growth period today called industrial revolution system production production division labor enabled mass production goods recognition concept economy contemporary concept economy n't popularly known american great depression ref name invention ref chaos two world wars devastating great depression policymakers searched new ways


controlling course economy explored discussed friedrich august von hayek milton friedman pleaded global free trade supposed fathers called neoliberalism however prevailing view held john maynard keynes argued stronger control markets state theory state alleviate economic problems instigate economic growth state manipulation aggregate demand called keynesianism honor late economic growth america europe often


called wirtschaftswunder ger ''economic miracle'' brought new form economy mass consumption economy john kenneth galbraith first speak affluent society countries economic system called social market economy late th beginning st century eset security company headquarters bratislava slovakia fall iron curtain transition countries eastern bloc towards democratic government market economies idea post industrial society brought importance role mark


together significance service sector receives instead industrialization attribute first use term daniel bell 's book ''the coming post industrial society'' others attribute social philosopher ivan illich 's book ''tools conviviality'' term also applied philosophy designate fading postmodernism late especially beginning st century spread internet mass media communication medium especially idea internet information economy given place growing importance


e commerce electronic businesses also term global information society understanding new type connected society created late new type economies economic expansions countries like china brazil india bring attention interest different usually dominating western type economies economic models economic phases precedence economy may considered developed following phases degrees precedence ancient economy mainly based subsistence farming industrial revolution phase lessened role subsistence farming converting


extensive mono cultural forms agriculture last three centuries economic growth took place mostly mining construction manufacturing industries commerce became significant due need improved exchange distribution produce throughout community economies modern consumer societies phase growing part played services finance technology knowledge economy modern economies phase precedences somewhat differently expressed three sector theory '''primary stage degree economy ''' involves extraction production raw materials corn coal wood iron


coal miner fisherman would workers primary degree '''secondary stage degree economy ''' involves transformation raw intermediate materials goods eg manufacturing steel cars textiles clothing builder dressmaker would workers secondary degree stage associated industrial economy also sub divided several economic sectors also called industries separate evolution industrial revolution phase dealt elsewhere '''tertiary stage degree economy ''' involves provision services consumers businesses baby sitting cinema banking shopkeeper


economy conventional economic analysis country relies heavily economic indicators like gdp gdp per capita often useful gdp includes economic activity money exchanged informal economy black market peddler graffiti kharkiv informal economy set economic activities operating partially avoid taxed regulated contrast formal economy informal economy thus included government 's gross national product gnp although informal economy often associated developing countries economic systems contain informal economy


proportion informal economic activity dynamic process includes many aspects economic social theory including exchange regulation enforcement nature necessarily difficult observe study define measure single source readily authoritatively defines informal economy unit study terms underground table books typically refer type economy term black market refers specific subset informal economy term informal sector used many earlier studies mostly replaced recent studies


use newer term informal sector makes significant portion economies developing countries often stigmatized troublesome unmanageable however informal sector provides critical economic opportunities poor expanding rapidly since integrating informal economy formal sector important policy challenge economic research economic research conducted fields different agricultural development econometrics environmental game theory industrial organization international labor macroeconomics mathematical monetary public regional urban education economics history see also


business ethics ecological economics econometrics economic equilibrium economic history includes list country economic system resistive economy economic union economics education history money list economic communities list economists list free trade agreements macroeconomics microeconomics mixed economy non market economics socialism solidarity economy steady state economy supply demand thermoeconomics world economy references bibliography aristotle politics book iix translated benjamin jowett http classicsmitedu aristotle politicshtml classicsmitedu barnes peter capitalism guide reclaiming commons san francisco https webarchiveorg web http whatiseconomycom joomla indexphpoption com content task view id whatiseconomycom dill alexander reclaiming hidden assets towards global freeware index global freeware research paper https webarchiveorg web http whatiseconomycom joomla indexphpoption com content task blogcategory id itemid


whatiseconomycom fehr ernst schmidt klaus economics fairness reciprocity altruism experimental evidence new theories discussion paper munich economics https webarchiveorg web http whatiseconomycom joomla indexphpoption com content task view id whatiseconomycom marx karl engels friedrich communist manifesto http wwwmarxistsorg archive marx works communist manifesto indexhtm marxistsorg stiglitz joseph e global public goods global finance global governance ensure global public interest served advancing public goods jean philippe touffut ed paris pp nbsp https webarchiveorg web http www gsbcolumbiaedu faculty jstiglitz download global public goodspdf gsbcolumbiaedu wealth nations measuring capital st century wealth nations report ian johnson francois bourguignon world bank washington https webarchiveorg web http whatiseconomycom joomla indexphpoption com content task view id whatiseconomycom


reading friedman milton ''capitalism freedom'' rothbard murray ''man economy state treatise economic principles'' galbraith john kenneth ''the affluent society'' mises ludwig von ''human action treatise economics'' keynes john maynard ''the general theory employment'' interest money marx karl ''das kapital'' smith adam ''an inquiry nature causes wealth nations'' main topic articles


'''ophthalmology''' branch medicine surgery deals diagnosis treatment disorders eye ref name mrcophth ref '''ophthalmologist''' physician specializes ophthalmology credentials include degree medicine followed additional four five years residency training ophthalmology residency training programs ophthalmology may require one year internship training internal medicine pediatrics general surgery additional specialty training fellowship may sought particular aspect eye pathology ophthalmologists allowed prescribe medications treat eye diseases perform laser therapy

Applied science
Medicine and health
Ophthalmology


surgical procedure eye surgeon responsible selecting appropriate surgical procedure patient taking necessary safety precautions subspecialties ophthalmology includes subspecialities deal either certain diseases diseases certain parts eye anterior segment surgery cornea ocular surface external disease glaucoma neuro ophthalmology ocular oncology oculoplastics orbit surgery ophthalmic pathology paediatric ophthalmology strabismus misalignment eyes refractive surgery medical retina deals treatment retinal problems non surgical means uveitis veterinary specialty training programs veterinary ophthalmology exist countries vitreo retinal surgery


deals surgical management retinal posterior segment diseases medical retina vitreo retinal surgery sometimes combined together called posterior segment subspecialisation etymology greek roots word ophthalmology eye study discourse ref name onlineetdict ref ref name lsj ref ie study eyes discipline applies animal eyes whether human since practice procedures quite similar respect disease processes although differences anatomy disease prevalence history ancient near east greek period ebers papyrus ancient egypt dating


discovering three layers two found fluid constant consistency lens forming congealing death surrounding layers seen juxtaposed contemporaries put forth existence three tubes leading eye one one tube eye met within skull greek physician rufus ephesus first century ad recognised modern concept eye conjunctiva extending fourth epithelial layer eye ref name mrcophth rufus first recognise two chambered eye one


ciliary body discovered sclera retina choroid cornea seen meet point two chambers seen hold fluid well lens attached choroid galen continued notion central canal dissected optic nerve saw solid mistakenly counted seven optical muscles one many also knew tear ducts ancient india indian surgeon sushruta wrote ''sushruta samhita'' sanskrit approximately sixth century ad describes ocular diseases


surgical well several ophthalmological surgical instruments techniques description cataract surgery compatible method couching described one first cataract surgeons medieval islam anatomy eye ad medieval islamic arabic persian scientists unlike classical predecessors considered normal combine theory practice including crafting precise instruments therefore found natural combine study eye practical application knowledge hunayn ibn ishaq others beginning medieval arabic period taught


crystalline lens exact center eye ref name clinical ophthalmology ref idea propagated end ref name clinical ophthalmology ibn al haytham alhazen book optics explained vision occurs light lands object bounces directed one 's eyes ibn al nafis arabic native damascus wrote large textbook ''the polished book experimental ophthalmology'' divided two parts ''on theory ophthalmology'' ''simple compounded ophthalmic drugs'' avicenna wrote canon rescheth means retiformis gerard cremona translated approximately


new term retina modern period early ophthalmology instruments seventeenth eighteenth centuries hand lenses used malpighi microscopes leeuwenhoek preparations fixing eye study ruysch later freezing eye petit allowed detailed study eye advanced model mistakes persisted pupil changed size seen vessels iris filling blood existence posterior chamber nature retina unaware functions leeuwenhoek noted existence photoreceptors however


properly described gottfried reinhold treviranus approximately jacques daviel advocated new treatment cataract extraction instead traditional method couching ref name wyman georg joseph beer austrian ophthalmologist leader first viennese school medicine introduced flap operation treatment cataract beer 's operation well popularized instrument used perform surgery beer 's knife north america indigenous healers treated eye diseases rubbing scraping eyes eyelids ref name ophthalmology eye diseases ref ophthalmic surgery great britain first


ophthalmic surgeon great britain john freke appointed position governors st bartholomew 's hospital major breakthrough came appointment baron de wenzel german became oculist king george iii great britain skill removing cataracts legitimized field ref name wyman ref first dedicated ophthalmic hospital opened london called moorfields eye hospital clinical developments moorfields founding institute ophthalmology part university college london sir stewart duke elder established


site largest eye hospital world nexus ophthalmic research central europe berlin ophthalmologist albrecht von graefe introduced iridectomy treatment glaucoma improved cataract surgery also considered founding father german ophthalmological society numerous ophthalmologists fled germany nazis began persecute jewish descent representative leader joseph igersheimer best known discoveries arsphenamine treatment syphilis fled turkey one eight emigrant directors faculty medicine


university istanbul built modern clinic trained students went united states becoming professor tufts university german ophthalmologist gerhard meyer schwickerath widely credited developing predecessor laser coagulation photocoagulation igersheimer conducted first experiments light coagulation performed first successful treatment retinal detachment light beam light coagulation self constructed device roof ophthalmic clinic university hamburg eppendorf ref name goes ref ref name boyd ref polish ophthalmology dates thirteenth century polish ophthalmological society founded


representative leader adam zamenhof introduced certain diagnostic surgical nonsurgical eye care procedures executed german nazis zofia falkowska head faculty clinic ophthalmology warsaw first use lasers practice contributions physicists prominent physicists late nineteenth early twentieth centuries included ernst abbe co owner zeiss jena factories germany developed numerous optical instruments hermann von helmholtz polymath made contributions many fields


science invented ophthalmoscope made theoretical calculations image formation optical systems also studied optics eye professional requirements ophthalmologists physicians md us mbbs uk elsewhere doms dnb typically complete undergraduate degree general medical school followed residency ophthalmology ophthalmologists typically perform optical medical surgical eye care australia new zealand australia new zealand fraco franzco equivalent postgraduate specialist qualification structured training system takes place five years postgraduate


training overseas trained ophthalmologists assessed using pathway published ranzco website completed formal training uk ccst cct usually deemed comparable bangladesh bangladesh ophthalmologist basic degree mbbs obtain postgraduate degree diploma ophthalmology specialty bangladesh diploma ophthalmology diploma community ophthalmology fellow member college physicians surgeons ophthalmology master science ophthalmology canada canada medical school ophthalmology residency


undertaken residency typically lasts five years culminates fellowship royal college surgeons canada frcsc subspecialty training undertaken approximately fellows frcsc variety fields anterior segment cornea glaucoma vision rehabilitation uveitis oculoplastics medical surgical retina ocular oncology ocular pathology neuro ophthalmology approximately vacancies open per year ophthalmology residency training canada numbers fluctuate per year ranging spots ten spots french speaking universities quebec end five years


members india ophthalmologist society various state level ophthalmologist societies hold regular conferences actively promote continuing medical education nepal nepal become ophthalmologist three years postgraduate study required completing mbbs degree postgraduate degree ophthalmology called medical doctor ophthalmology currently degree provided tilganga institute ophthalmology tilganga kathmandu bpklco institute medicine tu kathmandu bp koirala institute health sciences dharan kathmandu university dhulikhel national academy medical science kathmandu nepalese citizens also study subject bangladesh china india pakistan


countries graduates pass nepal medical council licensing exam become registered ophthalmologists nepal concurrent residency training form pg student resident medical college eye hospital institution according degree providing university 's rules regulations nepal ophthalmic society holds regular conferences actively promotes continuing medical education ireland ireland royal college surgeons ireland grants membership mrcsi ophth fellowship frcsi ophth qualifications conjunction irish college ophthalmologists total postgraduate training involves intern year minimum three years


basic surgical training years higher surgical training clinical training takes place within public health service executive funded hospitals dublin sligo limerick galway waterford cork minimum years training required eligibility work consultant posts trainees take extra time obtain msc md phd degrees undertake clinical fellowships uk australia united states pakistan pakistan mbbs four year full time residency program leads exit level fcps examination ophthalmology held auspices college physicians


surgeons pakistan tough examination assessed highly qualified pakistani eminent international ophthalmic consultants prerequisite final examinations intermediate module optics refraction module dissertation written research project carried supervision also assessed moreover two half year residency program leads mcps two year training doms also offered candidates military stringent two year graded course quarterly assessments held armed forces post graduate medical institute rawalpindi ms ophthalmology also one specialty


programs addition programs physicians various diplomas degrees allied eyecare personnel also offered produce competent optometrists orthoptists ophthalmic nurses ophthalmic technologists ophthalmic technicians field programs offered notably college ophthalmology allied vision sciences lahore pakistan institute community ophthalmology peshawar subspecialty fellowships also offered fields pediatric ophthalmology vitreoretinal ophthalmology king edward medical university al shifa trust eye hospital rawalpindi al ibrahim eye hospital karachi also started degree program field


philippines philippines ophthalmology considered medical specialty uses medicine surgery treat diseases eye one professional organization country duly recognized pma pcs philippine academy ophthalmology pao pao state standard philippine board ophthalmology pbo regulates ophthalmology residency programs board certification become general ophthalmologist philippines candidate must completed doctor medicine degree md equivalent eg mbbs completed internship medicine passed physician licensure exam


completed residency training hospital accredited philippine board ophthalmology accrediting arm pao attainment board certification ophthalmology pbo essential acquiring privileges major health institutions graduates residency programs receive training ophthalmology subspecialties neuro ophthalmology retina etc completing fellowship program varies length depending program 's requirements united kingdom united kingdom three colleges grant postgraduate degrees ophthalmology royal college ophthalmologists rcophth royal college surgeons edinburgh grant mrcophth frcophth mrcsed frcsed although membership


longer prerequisite fellowship royal college glasgow grants frcs postgraduate work specialist registrar one degrees required specialization eye diseases clinical work within nhs supplementary private work consultants ophthalmologists exist per population uk fewer ''pro rata'' nations european union united states new york ophthalmic hospital ophthalmologists typically complete four years undergraduate studies four years medical school three years eye specific training residency pursue additional training known


fellowship typically one two years ophthalmologists physicians specialize eye related structures perform medical surgical eye care may also write prescriptions corrective lenses often manage late stage eye disease typically involves surgery ophthalmologists must complete requirements continuing medical education maintain licensure recertification notable ophthalmologists following list physicians significantly contributed field ophthalmology th th centuries theodor leber discovered leber 's congenital amaurosis leber 's hereditary optic neuropathy leber 's miliary aneurysm leber 's stellate neuroretinitis carl


ferdinand von arlt elder austrian proved myopia largely due excessive axial length published influential textbooks eye disease ran annual eye clinics needy areas long concept volunteer eye camps became popular name still attached disease signs eg von arlt 's line trachoma son ferdinand ritter von arlt younger also ophthalmologist jacques daviel france claimed founder modern cataract surgery performed cataract extraction instead needling cataract pushing back


vitreous said carried technique patients reported successful however figures credible given total lack anaesthesia aseptic technique time franciscus donders dutch published pioneering analyses ocular biomechanics intraocular pressure glaucoma physiological optics made possible prescribing combinations spherical cylindrical lenses treat astigmatism joseph forlenze italy specialist cataract surgery became popular first french empire healing among many personalities minister jean tienne marie portalis


poet ponce denis lebrun nominated napoleon chirurgien oculiste lycees civil hospices charitable institutions departments empire also known free interventions mainly favour poor people albrecht von graefe albrecht von graefe germany probably important ophthalmologist nineteenth century along helmholtz donders one 'founding fathers' ophthalmology specialty brilliant clinician charismatic teacher international influence development ophthalmology pioneer


mapping visual field defects diagnosis treatment glaucoma introduced cataract extraction technique remained standard years many important surgical techniques iridectomy rationalised use many ophthalmically important drugs including mydriatics miotics also founder one earliest ophthalmic societies german ophthalmological society one earliest ophthalmic journals ''graefe 's archives ophthalmology'' allvar gullstrand allvar gullstrand sweden nobel prize winner research eye light refracting apparatus described


'schematic eye' mathematical model human eye based measurements known 'optical constants' eye measurements still used today hermann von helmholtz great german polymath invented ophthalmoscope published important work physiological optics including colour vision julius hirschberg germany became first use electromagnet remove metallic foreign bodies eye developed hirschberg test measuring strabismus peter adolph gad danish ophthalmologist founded first eye infirmary paulo brazil socrate polara


italy founded first dedicated ophthalmology clinic sicily entirely philanthropic endeavor later appointed first director ophthalmology department grand hospital palermo sicily sicilian government became convinced importance state support specialization herman snellen netherlands introduced snellen chart study visual acuity th st centuries vladimir petrovich filatov ukraine contributed tube flap grafting method corneal transplantation preservation grafts cadaver eyes tissue therapy founded filatov institute eye diseases tissue


therapy odessa one leading eye care institutes world shinobu ishihara japan invented ishihara color vision test common method determining color blindness also made major contributions study trachoma myopia ignacio barraquer spain invented first motorized vacuum instrument erisophake intracapsular cataract extraction founded barraquer clinic barraquer institute barcelona spain ernst fuchs austrian ophthalmologist known discovery description numerous ocular diseases abnormalities including fuchs' dystrophy fuchs heterochromic


iridocyclitis tsutomu sato japan pioneer incisional refractive surgery including techniques astigmatism invention radial keratotomy myopia jules gonin switzerland father retinal detachment surgery sir harold ridley united kingdom may first successfully implant artificial intraocular lens observing plastic fragments eyes wartime pilots well tolerated fought decades strong reactionary opinions concept accepted feasible useful charles schepens belgium father modern retinal surgery developer schepens


improved popularized radial keratotomy invented surgical cure cataract developed scleroplasty charles kelman united states developed ultrasound mechanized irrigation aspiration system phacoemulsification first allowing cataract extraction small incision helena ndume b namibia renowned ophthalmologist notable charitable work among sufferers eye related illnesses see also ''book ten treatises eye'' chinese ophthalmology copiale cipher eye care professional eye color eyeglasses optometry orthoptics prentice position references external links http eyewikiaaoorg eyewiki http wwwzeitzfrankozeitzde indexphp fachwoerterbuchhtml multilingual illustrated dictionary ophthalmology https wwwaaojournalorg aaojournal


carina nebula infrared light captured hubble 's wide field camera '''infrared astronomy''' sub discipline astronomy specializes observation analysis astronomical objects using infrared ir radiation wavelength infrared light ranges micrometers falls visible radiation ranges nanometers submillimeter waves infrared astronomy began decades discovery infrared light william herschel early progress limited early th century conclusive detections astronomical

Natural science
Space science
Astronomy
Infrared astronomy


objects sun moon made infrared light number discoveries made radio astronomy astronomers realized information available outside visible wavelength range modern infrared astronomy established infrared optical astronomy often practiced using telescopes mirrors lenses usually effective wavelength range includes visible infrared light fields also use solid state detectors though specific type solid state photodetectors used different infrared light absorbed many wavelengths


water vapor earth 's atmosphere infrared telescopes high elevations dry places much atmosphere possible also infrared observatories space including spitzer space telescope herschel space observatory history hubble 's ground breaking near infrared nicmos sofia infrared telescope aircraft shown test discovery infrared radiation attributed william herschel performed experiment placed thermometer sunlight different colors passed prism noticed temperature increase


induced sunlight highest ''outside'' visible spectrum beyond red color temperature increase highest infrared wavelengths due spectral response prism rather properties sun fact temperature increase prompted herschel deduce invisible radiation sun dubbed radiation calorific rays went show could reflected transmitted absorbed like visible light ref name caltech herschel ref high chajnantor plateau atacama large millimeter array provides extraordinary place


gives nichols credit first detection star infrared ref name rieke ref field infrared astronomy continued develop slowly early th century seth barnes nicholson edison pettit developed thermopile detectors capable accurate infrared photometry sensitive hundreds stars field mostly neglected traditional astronomers though scientists practiced infrared astronomy actually trained physicists success radio astronomy combined improvement infrared detector technology prompted astronomers


discovered stars double helix nebula light extrasolar planets continued working micrometer bands since infrared telescopes helped find new stars forming nebulae stellar nurseries infrared telescopes opened whole new part galaxy us also useful observing extremely distant things like quasars quasars move away earth resulting large redshift make difficult targets optical telescope infrared telescopes give much information may group international infrared astronomers proved


intergalactic dust greatly dims light distant galaxies actuality galaxies almost twice bright look dust absorbs much visible light emits infrared light modern infrared astronomy hubble infrared view tarantula nebula infrared radiation wavelengths longer visible light known near infrared behaves similar way visible light detected using similar solid state devices many quasars stars galaxies discovered reason near infrared region spectrum commonly incorporated


part optical spectrum along near ultraviolet many optical telescopes keck observatory operate effectively near infrared well visible wavelengths far infrared extends submillimeter wavelengths observed telescopes james clerk maxwell telescope mauna kea observatory artist impression galaxy w single galaxy glowing infrared light intensely trillion suns like forms electromagnetic radiation infrared utilized astronomers study universe indeed infrared measurements taken mass wise astronomical surveys


particularly effective unveiling previously undiscovered star clusters ref name fr ref ref name ref examples embedded star clusters fsr fsr camargo camargo majaess majaess ref name ca ref ref name ca b ref infrared telescopes includes major optical telescopes well dedicated infrared telescopes need chilled liquid nitrogen shielded warm objects reason objects temperatures hundred kelvins emit thermal energy infrared wavelengths infrared detectors kept cooled radiation detector would contribute noise


would dwarf radiation celestial source particularly important mid infrared far infrared regions spectrum achieve higher angular resolution infrared telescopes combined form astronomical interferometers effective resolution interferometer set distance telescopes rather size individual telescopes used together adaptive optics infrared interferometers two meter telescopes keck observatory four meter telescopes make large telescope interferometer achieve high angular resolution atmospheric windows infrared


principal limitation infrared sensitivity ground based telescopes earth 's atmosphere water vapor absorbs significant amount infrared radiation atmosphere emits infrared wavelengths reason infrared telescopes built dry places high altitude water vapor atmosphere suitable locations earth include mauna kea observatory meters sea level paranal observatory meters chile regions high altitude ice desert dome c antarctic even high altitudes transparency earth 's


atmosphere limited except infrared windows wavelengths earth 's atmosphere transparent ref name caltech windows ref main infrared windows listed class wikitable style width margin em auto em auto valign top width spectrum width wavelength br micrometres width astronomical br bands width telescopes near infrared r bands major optical telescopes near infrared j band major optical telescopes dedicated infrared telescopes near infrared h band major optical telescopes dedicated infrared telescopes near infrared k band major optical telescopes


dedicated infrared telescopes near infrared l band dedicated infrared telescopes optical telescopes near infrared band dedicated infrared telescopes optical telescopes mid infrared n band dedicated infrared telescopes optical telescopes mid infrared q band dedicated infrared telescopes optical telescopes far infrared z band dedicated infrared telescopes optical telescopes far infrared dedicated infrared telescopes optical telescopes far


infrared submillimeter submillimeter telescopes case visible light telescopes space ideal place infrared telescopes telescopes space achieve higher resolution suffer blurring caused earth 's atmosphere also free infrared absorption caused earth 's atmosphere current infrared telescopes space include herschel space observatory spitzer space telescope wide field infrared survey explorer since putting telescopes orbit expensive also airborne observatories stratospheric observatory infrared astronomy kuiper airborne observatory observatories


fly atmosphere water vapor atmosphere absorbs infrared light space infrared technology one common infrared detector arrays used research telescopes hgcdte arrays operate well micrometre wavelengths longer wavelength observations higher sensitivity detectors may used including narrow gap semiconductor detectors low temperature bolometer arrays photon counting superconducting tunnel junction arrays special requirements infrared astronomy include low dark currents allow long integration times associated low noise readout circuits sometimes


high pixel counts low temperature often achieved coolant run ref name werner ref space missions either ended shifted warm observations coolant supply used ref name werner example wise ran coolant october ten months launched ref name werner see also nicmos spitzer space telescope observatories space observatories many space telescopes detect electromagnetic radiation wavelength range overlaps least degree infrared wavelength range therefore difficult define space telescopes infrared telescopes


definition infrared space telescope taken space telescope whose main mission detecting infrared light seven infrared space telescopes operated space infrared astronomical satellite iras operated months joint mission usa nasa uk netherlands infrared space observatory iso operated esa mission midcourse space experiment msx operated bmdo mission spitzer space telescope operated nasa mission akari operated jaxa mission herschel space observatory operated esa mission wide field infrared survey explorer wise operated nasa mission addition james webb space


telescope infrared space telescope launched december spherex scheduled launch nasa also considering build wide field infrared survey telescope wfirst esa develops near infrared satellite euclid satellite planned launch many smaller space missions space based detectors infrared radiation operated space include infrared telescope irt flew space shuttle submillimeter wave astronomy satellite swas sometimes mentioned infrared satellite although submillimeter satellite infrared instruments space telescopes


nasa mission active kuiper airborne observatory nasa mission active sofia nasa dlr mission active since ground based observatories many ground based infrared telescopes exist around world largest vista ukirt irtf wiro see also far infrared astronomy infrared spectroscopy list largest infrared telescopes radio galaxy zoo references external links http coolcosmosipaccaltechedu cool cosmos caltech ipac ir educational resource site http irsaipaccaltechedu infrared science archive astronomical imaging observational astronomy infrared imaging


john f ross collegiate vocational institute institution vocational learning guelph ontario canada considered one first country oac vocational educiation '''vocational education''' education prepares people work technician take employment skilled craft trade tradesperson artisan vocational education sometimes referred ''career technical education'' vocational school type educational institution specifically designed provide vocational education vocational education take place post secondary education higher education level

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Vocational education


interact apprenticeship system post secondary level vocational education often provided highly specialized trade schools technical schools community colleges colleges education uk vocational universities institutes technology formerly called polytechnic institutes overview historically almost vocational education took place classroom job site students learning trade skills trade theory accredited instructors established professionals however recent years online vocational education grown popularity making learning various trade skills soft skills established professionals easier ever students even may


live far away traditional vocational school world bank 's world development report future work suggests flexibility general vocational education particularly higher education imperative enable workers compete changing labor markets technology plays increasingly important role trends emerged implementation tvet skills development worldwide late onwards number governments began emphasise role education preparing learners effectively world work school thought termed new vocationalism placed skills needs


good upstanding according condition well informed human beings citizens basis laid schooling vocational skills easily acquired later person always free move one occupation another often happens life philosopher julian nida r melin criticized discrepancies humboldt 's ideals contemporary european education policy narrowly understands education preparation labor market argued need decide mckinsey describe vocational training humboldt country argentina argentina one first countries


latin america run apprenticeship vocational programs basic programs delivered main cities entity charged delivering programs general workers' union spanish uni n general de trabajadores abbreviated ugt argentine national labor confederation massive development vocational education argentina took place period world war world war ii large influx immigrants europe presidency juan per n first formal apprenticeship vocational training programs offered free charge across country eventually becoming national workers' university


universidad obrera nacional national vocational programs law implemented august programs created supported federal government delivered provincial governments various technical colleges regional universities well industrial centers meant deal lack technical specialists argentina time rapid industrialization expansion across country degrees granted technician factory engineer many specialties currently vocational education programs delivered public private learning organizations supported argentine ministry labour ministry


tec nq one brisbane australian trade college one gold coast australian industry trade college one adelaide perth system encompasses public tafe private providers national training framework consisting australian quality training framework australian qualifications framework industry training packages define competency standards different vocational qualifications australia 's apprenticeship system includes apprenticeships traditional trades traineeships service oriented occupations involve legal contract employer apprentice trainee provide combination school based workplace training


apprenticeships typically last three four years traineeships one two years apprentices trainees receive wage increases progress training scheme states territories responsible providing funding government subsidised delivery jurisdiction commonwealth government https wwwasqagovau australian quality skills authority provides regulation registered training organisations except victoria western australia central concept vet system national recognition whereby assessments awards one registered training organisation must recognised others decisions vet


regulatory authority must recognised states territories allows national portability qualifications units competency crucial feature training package accounts publicly funded training almost apprenticeship training content vocational qualifications theoretically defined industry government training providers training package endorsed https wwwaiscnetau australian industry skills committee used rtos deliver nationally accredited training national centre vocational education research https wwwncvereduau ncver profit


company owned federal state territory ministries responsible training responsible collecting managing analysing evaluating communicating research statistics vocational education training vet boundaries vocational education tertiary education becoming blurred number vocational training providers melbourne polytechnic bhi wai offering specialised bachelor 's degrees specific areas adequately provided universities applied courses include equine studies winemaking viticulture aquaculture information technology music illustration culinary management many commonwealth independent states largest unified


system vocational education created soviet union professional`no tehnicheskoye uchilische tehnikum became less effective transition economies post soviet countries market economy european union education training responsibility member states single european labour market makes cooperation education imperative including vocational education training 'copenhagen process' based open method cooperation member states launched order help make vocational education training better attractive learners throughout europe process


based mutually agreed priorities reviewed periodically much activity monitored cedefop european centre development vocational training strong support particularly northern europe shift resources university education vocational training due perception oversupply university graduates many fields study aggravated graduate unemployment underemployment time employers experiencing shortage skilled tradespeople finland finland vocational education belongs secondary education nine year comprehensive school almost students choose go


either ''lukio'' high school institution preparing students tertiary education vocational school forms secondary education last three years give formal qualification enter university ''ammattikorkeakoulu'' ie finnish polytechnics certain fields eg police school air traffic control personnel training entrance requirements vocational schools include completion ''lukio'' thus causing students complete secondary education twice education vocational school free students low income families eligible state student grant curriculum primarily vocational


academic part curriculum adapted needs given course vocational schools mostly maintained municipalities completing secondary education one enter higher vocational schools ''ammattikorkeakoulu'' ''amk'' universities also possible student choose lukio vocational schooling education cases lasts usually three four years germany vocational education germany based german model law ''berufsausbildungsgesetz'' passed regulated unified vocational training system codified shared responsibility state unions


associations ''industrie und handelskammer'' chambers trade industry system popular modern germany two thirds young people aged began apprenticeship completed meaning approximately young people completed apprenticeship one three companies offered apprenticeships government signed pledge industrial unions companies except small ones must take apprentices greece greece vocational education training vet usually lyceum senior high school graduates provided public


private institute vocational training iek iek greek abbreviation iek course offerings adult education except times rarely offered course non adult students duration study two half academic years full time years semesters school education semester known curricular practicum job placement internship involve legal contract employer student trainee job placement provide combination school based training workplace practicum public ieks government funded free


education attended without tuition fee hong kong hong kong vocational education usually post secondary students hong kong institute vocational education ive provides training nine different vocational fields namely applied science business administration child education community services construction design printing textiles clothing hotel service tourism studies information technology electrical electronic engineering mechanical manufacturing industrial engineering hungary normally end elementary school age students directed one three types upper secondary education one academic track gymnasium two


vocational tracks vocational secondary schools szakk z piskola provide four years general education also prepare students ''maturata'' school leaving certificate schools combine general education specific subjects referred pre vocational education career orientation point many students enrol post secondary vet programme often institution vocational qualification although may also seek entry tertiary education vocational training schools szakiskola initially provide two years general education combined pre vocational education career orientation choose occupation receive two three years


skills qualifications framework nsqf competency based framework organizes qualifications according series levels knowledge skills aptitude levels graded one ten defined terms learning outcomes learner must possess regardless whether obtained formal non formal informal learning nsqf india notified december frameworks including nveqf national vocational educational qualification framework released ministry hrd stand superseded nsqf november new government india formed ministry skill development


entrepreneurship articulating need ministry prime minister said http indianexpresscom article india india others govt create ministry entrepreneurship skill development narendra modi sthashp ytnzrpdpuf separate ministry look promoting entrepreneurship skill development would created even developed countries accorded priority promoting skilled manpower continuation efforts harmonize consolidate skill development activities across country government launched st skill india development mission nsdm july also launched day http wwwskilldevelopmentgovin national policy html national policy skill development entrepreneurship today skill development efforts government http wwwdgetnicin content directorate general training public


private partnership arm national skill development corporation carried ministry skill india mission ministry works various central ministries departments state government implementing nsqf across government funded projects based five year implementation schedule complete convergence involvement private sector various aspects skill development enhanced access quality innovative financing models leading sustainable skill development organizations ground short term skill development programs largely offered private organizations combined long term programs offered indian technical institutes itis


high school graduates technological tracks students demonstrating technological potential schools supervised ministry labor social affairs services molsa may avail menta program provides scholastic emotional social support throughout high school college studies support helps students meet scholastic challenges demands vocational track via program strives expand number youth continuing college grades percentage eligible diploma end studies program formulated jdc ashalim cooperation heznek organization


ministry education ministry economy subsequently molsa education networks operating schools formative evaluation menta found program successful helping students complete matriculation strengthen sense self efficacy create picture future nbsp time findings suggested program better clarify target population improve supports transition college clearly define scope coordinators' role japan japanese vocational schools known part japan 's higher education system two year


schools many students study finishing high school although always required students graduate high school wide range majors others majors examples computer technology fashion english south korea vocational high schools offer programmes five fields agriculture technology engineering commerce business maritime fishery home economics principle students first year high school th grade follow common national curriculum second third years th th grades students offered courses relevant specialisation programmes students


government changed name vocational high schools professional high schools change name government also facilitated entry vocational high school graduates colleges universities vocational high school students continue tertiary education transferred junior colleges university tertiary level vocational education training provided junior colleges two three year programmes polytechnic colleges education junior colleges two year programmes polytechnic colleges leads industrial associate degree polytechnics also provide one year programmes craftsmen master craftsmen


government funding keeps student fees much lower charged tertiary institutions around students enrolled polytechnic colleges ref name autogenerated ref malaysia skills training longer depicted second class education malaysia numerous vocational education centres including vocational schools high schools train skilled students technic schools high schools train future engineers vocational colleges ministry education polytechnics community colleges ministry higher education mara advanced skills colleges mara skills institutes giatmaras majlis amanah


rakyat mara national youth skills institutes ministry youth sports first vocational institute malaysia industrial training institute kuala lumpur established manpower department institutes department including advanced technology training centres one centre instructor advanced skill training one japan malaysia technical institute itis mexico mexico federal state governments responsible administration vocational education federal schools funded federal budget addition funding sources state governments responsible


management decentralised institutions state centres scientific technological studies cecyte institutes training work icat institutions funded federal budget state budget state governments also manage fund decentralised institutions federation conalep schools compulsory education including primary lower secondary education finishes age half aged enrolled full time part time education programmes upper secondary level require payment tuition fee upper secondary vocational


education system mexico includes dozen subsystems administrative units within upper secondary education undersecretariat ministry public education responsible vocational programmes differ varying degrees content administration target group large number school types corresponding administrative units within ministry public education makes institutional landscape vocational education training complex international standards vocational education training provided upper secondary education undersecretariat includes three main types programme training work formaci n para el trabajo courses isced level


short training programmes taking typically three six months complete curriculum includes theory practice completing programme students may enter labour market programme provide direct access tertiary education complete lower secondary education may choose two broad options vocational upper secondary education isced level programmes normally take three years complete offer vocational degree well baccalaureate required entry tertiary education title technical professional nbsp baccalaureate profesional cnico nbsp bachiller offered various subsystems though


years level level diplomas considered formal start qualifications successfully entering labour market programmes attended either two pathways one either involving minimum school time apprenticeship pathway bbl beroepsbegeleidende leerweg involving maximum schooltime bol beroepsopleidende leerweg remaining time cases apprenticeship work company effect students choice trajectories leading professional qualifications bbl apprentices usually receive wage negotiated collective agreements employers taking


apprentices receive subsidy form tax reduction wages apprentice wva wet vermindering afdracht level graduates senior secondary vet may go directly institutes higher profession education training hbo hoger beroepsonderwijs entering university possibility social partners participate actively development policy january formed foundation co operation vocational education entrepreneurship st sbb nbsp stichting samenwerking beroepsonderwijs bedrijfsleven wwws bbnl responsibility advise minister development national vocational education training


system based full consensus constituent members representative organisations schools entrepreneurship centres expertise special topics qualification examination apprenticeships bpv beroepspraktijkvorming labourmarket efficiency vet centres expertices linked four vocational education programmes provided senior secondary vet content vet programmes trends future skill needs local county vocational training mbo raad wwwmboraadnl represents vet schools foundation advise quality operations provision vet new zealand new zealand served industry


education polytechnics private training establishments wananga others also deliver vocational training amongst areas norway nearly leaving lower secondary school enter upper secondary education around half follow one nine vocational programmes programmes typically involve two years school followed two years apprenticeship company first year provides general education alongside introductory knowledge vocational area second year courses become trade specific apprentices receive wage negotiated collective agreements ranging wage qualified worker percentage increase


apprenticeship period employers taking apprentices receive subsidy equivalent cost one year school two years vocational school programme students opt third year general programme alternative apprenticeship apprenticeship third year practical training school lead vocational qualifications upper secondary vet graduates may go directly vocational technical colleges wish enter university need take supplementary year education social partners participate actively development policy national council


part secondary education system schools combine general education specific subjects referred pre vocational education career orientation nine years ''educaci n escolar b sica'' primary school student choose go either ''bachillerato cnico'' vocational school ''bachillerato cient fico'' high school forms secondary education last three years usually located campus called ''colegio'' completing secondary education one enter universities also possible student choose cnico cient fico schooling russia spain spain vocational education


divided stages 're known ''formaci n profesional b sica'' started eso ''formaci n profesional de grado medio'' started eso graduating ''formaci n profesional b sica'' ''formaci n profesional de grado superior'' started bachillerato graduating ''formaci n profesional de grado medio'' university accessed graduating ''formaci n profesional de grado superior'' without need pass bachillerato typically two courses imparted graduation titulation called '''''ciclo''''' heavily specialized depending


related professional discipline spanish vocational education also features dual education system named ''formaci n profesional dual'' although vocational schools may feature sri lanka vocational training agricultural subjects ict related subjects available sri lanka ministry vocational technical training mvtt introduced national vocational qualifications nvq framework important milestone education economic social development sri lanka nvq framework consists seven levels instruction nvq levels craftsmen designation successful candidates issued national certificates nvq


commission tvec national apprentice industrial training authority naita department technical education training dtet university vocational technology uovt vocational training authority vta national youth services council nysc sweden nearly leaving compulsory schooling immediately enter upper secondary schools complete upper secondary education three years upper secondary education divided vocationally oriented academic national programmes slightly half students follow vocational programmes programmes offer broad general education basic eligibility continue studies post secondary level addition


local programmes specially designed meet local needs individual programmes school reform extended vocational upper secondary programmes one year aligning three years general upper secondary education increasing general education content making core subjects compulsory programmes core subjects occupy around one third total teaching time vocational academic programmes include english artistic activities physical education health mathematics natural science social studies swedish swedish second language religious studies addition core subjects students pursue optional courses subjects


specific programme special project vocational programmes include weeks workplace training arbetsplatsf rlagt l rande nbsp apl three year period schools responsible arranging workplace training verifying quality municipalities advisory bodies programme councils programmr vocational councils yrkesr composed employers' employees' representatives locality councils advise schools matters provision workplace training courses equipment purchase training supervisors apl ref name autogenerated switzerland swiss vocational education training system vet regarded many international experts strongest europe


mainstream upper secondary program serving swiss young people results one lowest youth unemployment rates europe managers staff take pride young apprentices several swiss ceo 's big multinational companies government members started careers vet apprentices example sergio ermotti ceo ubs level vocational education training mainly provided dual system apprentices rotate workplace vocational school industry training centers develop complementary practical skills relating occupation spend biggest amount time


workplace emphasizing importance job training rotation organised different ways either switching places week allocating entire weeks one place form learning program also start time devoted school education gradually increase share company training besides three four year vet programme federal vet diploma also option two year vocational education training vet programme federal vet certificate adolescents lower learning performance switzerland draws distinction vocational education


training programmes upper secondary level professional education training pet programmes take place tertiary b level half population aged vet pet qualification highest level education addition universities applied sciences fachhochschulen offer vocational education tertiary level pathways enable people shift one part education system another turkey students turkey may choose vocational high schools completing year long compulsory primary secondary education vocational high school graduates may pursue two year long polytechnics may continue


recent british governments made attempts promote expand vocational education business technology education council founded confer higher education awards particularly education colleges united kingdom conservative government promoted youth training scheme national vocational qualifications general national vocational qualifications however youth training marginalised proportion young people staying full time education increased ref name wolf publicly funded modern apprenticeships introduced provide quality training work based educational route numbers apprentices grown


recent years department children schools families stated intention make apprenticeships mainstream part england 's education system ref name world class apprenticeships world class apprenticeships government 's strategy future apprenticeships england dius dcsf ref uk higher engineering technician positions require years' apprenticeship require academic study hnc hnd higher city guilds level apprenticeships increasingly recognised gold standard work based training four levels apprenticeship available aged ''' intermediate level apprenticeships''' apprentices work towards work based


learning qualifications level competence qualification functional skills cases relevant knowledge based qualification ''' advanced level apprenticeships''' apprentices work towards work based learning level competence qualification functional skills cases relevant knowledge based qualification take four years complete ''' higher apprenticeships''' apprentices work towards work based learning qualifications level competence qualification functional skills cases knowledge based qualification foundation degree take four five years complete depending level


apprentice enrolls ''' degree professional apprenticeships''' similar higher apprenticeships differ provide opportunity gain full bachelor 's level master 's degree level courses designed partnership employers part time study taking place university take four six years complete depending level course level entry also perception deriving centuries social stratification selectivity status provision different kinds education england


vocational education inevitably narrowly utilitarian less influential less important academic cousin advanced 'a' levels divide sectors 'vocational' 'higher' education many ways peculiarly english also reflected higher education institutions occupations regarding academic credentials related provisions academic vocational divisions 'english model' together negative social political perceptions extent stymied debate regarding significance relevance vocational education provision learning work economy loo jameson p nbsp authors suggest divisions


higher education sectors england reconsidered loo jameson call opening new pathways occupation related provisions offer greater parity progression enhanced social mobility vocational education across academic levels england 's educational provision loo uses term technical vocational education training tvet unesco section offer rational term vocational england reach like minded users global educational community offers insights study pedagogy teachers work related programmes


especially investigates complex issue teachers use know delivery work related programmes complexity surrounds need deliverers disciplinary wider elements relating knowledge relevant work practices involves learning type know application work practices combination work know eg knowledge experiences dispositions values used enable deliver learners pedagogic activities rely different types knowledge experiences pedagogic work related theoretical framework uses initially


evans et al loo knowledge forms changed selecting relocating refocusing aspects used another setting particular recontextualization processes regarding content relating specifications programme pedagogic relating teaching activities occupational relating working activities work relating systems processes specific workplace organisation initial teaching occupational dimensions final modified know occupational pedagogic knowledge occupational teachers' capacities formed via content recontextualization pedagogic recontextualization occupational recontextualization integrated applied recontextualization iar also relevant


concepts offer insights application teaching occupational know include knowledgeable practice evans practice architecture kemmis green systems kahneman detailed description theoretical framework please refer chapter teachers teaching vocational professional education loo conceptual framework occupational pedagogy teachers illustrated page loo analysed empirical data discussed separate sections tvet higher professional education courses five case studies fashion textiles airline industry dental hygiene clinical


training emergency medicine doctors comparison chapter chapters offer critical understandings pedagogic occupational know acquired applied highly contextualized pedagogic occupational contexts culminating use teaching strategies approaches teaching sessions observations investigation include loo programme pathways occupational work occupational pathways direct work related provisions higher academic levels tvet level two strands practices exist outset teaching occupational basic disciplinary theoretical knowledge used provide occupational


relevance pedagogic work related areas iar process provides critical understanding modified teaching occupational work capacities combined inform application appropriate teaching strategies specific pedagogic settings users acquire occupational capacities course duration include abilities capabilities dispositions experiences judgement knowledge protocols skill sets techniques deliverers require relevant occupational experiences teach work related programmes continuous professional development needed deliverers maintain ongoing professionalism two practice strands teaching work finally investigation implications


teachers managers policymakers occupational courses teachers include insights sources types knowledge acquired recontextualized applied teaching working related occupational areas managers need empathise deliverers support professional needs policymakers need acknowledge complexities teaching occupational programmes curriculum professional staff institution adequately supported loo united states tvet technical vocational education training tvet technical vocational education training education training provides necessary knowledge skills


term describe field therefore likewise used umbrella term encompass education training activities vocational education ref name see also policy development skills tvet school work transition australia uk https vocationalitin vocational india commonwealth register institutions courses overseas students australia references sources reading achilles c lintz mn wayson ww observations building public confidence education educational evaluation policy analysis banach banach cassidy abc complete book school marketing ray township mi author


brodhead c w image vision vocational education vocational education journal january buzzell ch let image reflect pride vocational education journal november december kincheloe joe l toil trouble good work smart workers integration academic vocational education new york peter lang publishing kincheloe joe l tell workers socio economic foundations work vocational education boulder co westview press lauglo jon maclean rupert eds vocationalisation secondary education revisited https wwwspringercom series series technical vocational


education training issues concerns prospects vol springer o'connor pj trussell st marketing vocational education vocational education journal november december ries e 'v' 'v' many word 'vocational' n't work techniques november december ries trout j immutable laws marketing new york harpercollins publishers sharpe image control teachers staff power shape positive thinking vocational education journal january shields cj market vocational education curriculum


review november silberman hf improving status high school vocational education educational horizons fall tuttle ft let 's get serious image building vocational education journal november december people think us techniques september asian academy film television reeves diane lindsey career academy toolkit raleigh north carolina bright futures press external links http wwwunevocunescoorg worldtvetdatabase profiles national vocational education systems compiled variety national international sources unesco unevoc international centre technical vocational education training


http wwwftcgov bcp conline pubs services votechhtm choosing career vocational school us federal trade commission educational stages tertiary education


physiological parameters human circadian rhythm biological clock '''chronobiology''' field biology examines timing processes including periodic cyclic phenomena living organisms adaptation solar lunar related rhythms ref name chrono ref cycles known biological rhythms chronobiology comes ancient greek ''chr nos'' meaning time biology pertains study science life related terms ''chronomics'' ''chronome'' used cases describe either molecular mechanisms involved chronobiological phenomena quantitative aspects chronobiology particularly comparison cycles


organisms required chronobiological studies include limited comparative anatomy physiology genetics molecular biology behavior organisms related biological rhythms ref name chrono aspects include epigenetics development reproduction ecology evolution subject chronobiology studies variations timing duration biological activity living organisms occur many essential biological processes occur animals eating sleeping mating hibernating migration cellular regeneration etc b plants leaf movements photosynthetic reactions etc microbial organisms fungi protozoa even found bacteria especially among


cyanobacteria aka blue green algae see bacterial circadian rhythms best studied rhythm chronobiology circadian rhythm roughly hour cycle shown physiological processes organisms term ''circadian'' comes latin ''circa'' meaning around ' 'dies'' day meaning approximately day regulated circadian clocks circadian rhythm broken routine cycles hour day diurnal describes organisms active daytime nocturnal describes organisms active night crepuscular describes animals primarily active dawn dusk hours ex white tailed deer bats


circadian rhythms defined regulated endogenous processes biological cycles may regulated exogenous signals cases multi trophic systems may exhibit rhythms driven circadian clock one members may also influenced reset external factors endogenous plant cycles may regulate activity bacterium controlling availability plant produced photosynthate many important cycles also studied including infradian rhythms cycles longer day examples include circannual annual cycles govern migration reproduction cycles many plants animals


human menstrual cycle ultradian rhythms cycles shorter hours minute rem cycle hour nasal cycle hour cycle growth hormone production tidal rhythms commonly observed marine life follow roughly hour transition high low tide back lunar rhythms follow lunar month days relevant eg marine life level tides modulated across lunar cycle gene oscillations genes expressed certain hours day hours within


cycle time period process active called ''acrophase'' process less active cycle ''bathyphase'' ''trough'' phase particular moment highest activity ''peak'' ''maximum'' lowest point ''nadir'' history circadian cycle first observed th century movement plant leaves french scientist jean jacques d'ortous de mairan swedish botanist naturalist carl linnaeus carl von linn designed flower clock using certain species flowering plants arranging selected species


circular pattern designed clock indicated time day flowers open given hour example among members daisy family used hawk 's beard plant opened flowers hawkbit open flowers ref name linnean ref symposium cold spring harbor laboratory laid groundwork field chronobiology ref name kreitzman ref also patricia decoursey invented phase response curve one major tools used field since franz halberg


university minnesota coined word ''circadian'' widely considered father american chronobiology however colin pittendrigh halberg elected lead ''society research biological rhythms'' halberg wanted emphasis human medical issues pittendrigh background evolution ecology pittendrigh leader society members basic research types organisms plants well animals recently difficult get funding research organisms mice rats


humans fruit flies research developments light melatonin recently light therapy melatonin administration explored alfred j lewy ohsu josephine arendt university surrey uk researchers means reset animal human circadian rhythms additionally presence low level light night accelerates circadian entrainment hamsters ages thought related simulation moonlight second half th century substantial contributions formalizations made europeans j rgen aschoff colin pittendrigh pursued different complementary views


phenomenon entrainment circadian system light parametric continuous tonic gradual vs nonparametric discrete phasic instantaneous respectively chronotypes humans propensity morning people evening people behavioral preferences called chronotypes various assessment questionnaires biological marker correlations mealtimes also food entrainable biological clock confined suprachiasmatic nucleus location clock disputed working mice however fuller ''et al'' concluded food entrainable clock seems located dorsomedial hypothalamus restricted feeding takes


control functions activity timing increasing chances animal successfully locating food resources diurnal patterns internet study published plos one showed psychometric indicators measured twitter content follow diurnal pattern followup study appeared chronobiology international showed patterns disrupted uk lockdown modulators circadian rhythms scientists reported development light responsive days lasting modulator circadian rhythms tissues via ck inhibition modulators may useful chronobiology research repair organs


worker '' us government printing office september washington dc ota ba ntis pb ashikari higuchi ishikawa f tsunetsugu '' http wwwcamacuk societies cujif abstract htm interdisciplinary symposium 'human beings environments' approaches biological anthropology social anthropology developmental psychology '' sunday august ''biorhythm experiment management plan'' nasa ames research center moffett field ''biological rhythms human adaptation environment'' us army medical research materiel command amrmc us army research institute environmental medicine ebert kp ebmeier rechlin wp kaschka ''biological rhythms behavior'' ''advances biological psychiatry'' issn horne ja jim


stberg olov self assessment questionnaire determine morningness eveningness human circadian rhythms international journal chronobiology roenneberg till cologne wie wir ticken die bedeutung der chronobiologie f r unser leben dumont http wwwlinneanorg linnean society london external links http halbergchronobiologycenterumnedu halberg chronobiology center university minnesota founded franz halberg father chronobiology university virginia offers https webarchiveorg web http wwwcbtvirginiaedu tutorial tutorialmainhtml online tutorial chronobiology see science museum virginia publication https webarchiveorg web http wwwsmvorg jil mll ktwo mllk tl ca canplapdf plants tell time http wwwmanchesteracuk university manchester informative https webarchiveorg web http calmanacuk student projects sanders homehtm biological clock web site https webarchiveorg web http wwwpsychuni goettingende home ertel ertel dir myresearch retrospect ertel 's


analysis chizhevsky 's work biological processes circadian rhythm neuroscience


lorenz attractor arises study lorenz oscillator dynamical system mathematics '' 'dynamical system''' system function describes time dependence point geometrical space examples include mathematical models describe swinging clock pendulum flow water pipe number fish springtime lake given time dynamical system state given tuple real numbers vector represented point appropriate state space

Formal science
Mathematics
Applied mathematics
Dynamical systems


geometrical manifold ''evolution rule'' dynamical system function describes future states follow current state often function deterministic given time interval one future state follows current state however systems stochastic random events also affect evolution state variables physics '' 'dynamical system''' described particle ensemble particles whose state varies time thus obeys differential equations involving time derivatives order make prediction system 's future


behavior analytical solution equations integration time computer simulation realized study dynamical systems focus dynamical systems theory applications wide variety fields mathematics physics biology chemistry engineering economics history medicine dynamical systems fundamental part chaos theory logistic map dynamics bifurcation theory self assembly self organization processes edge chaos concept overview concept dynamical system origins newtonian mechanics natural sciences engineering disciplines evolution rule


advent computers finding orbit required sophisticated mathematical techniques could accomplished small class dynamical systems numerical methods implemented electronic computing machines simplified task determining orbits dynamical system simple dynamical systems knowing trajectory often sufficient dynamical systems complicated understood terms individual trajectories difficulties arise systems studied may known approximately mdash parameters system may known precisely terms may missing equations


approximations used bring question validity relevance numerical solutions address questions several notions stability introduced study dynamical systems lyapunov stability structural stability stability dynamical system implies class models initial conditions trajectories would equivalent operation comparing orbits establish equivalence changes different notions stability type trajectory may important one particular trajectory trajectories may periodic whereas others may