woolgar malcolm ashmore sociology scientific knowledge ssk major international networks principal associations easst recently established groups japan south korea taiwan latin america made major contributions recent years critical analysis biosciences informatics sociology mathematical knowledge studies mathematical practice quasi empiricism mathematics also rightly part sociology knowledge since focus community practice mathematics since eugene wigner raised issue hilary putnam made rigorous


question fields physics mathematics agree well debated proposed solutions point fundamental constituents mathematical thought space form structure number proportion also fundamental constituents physics also worthwhile note physics merely modeling reality objective basis upon observational demonstration another approach suggest deep problem division human scientific thinking using words 'mathematics' 'physics' useful practical everyday function categorize distinguish

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of science


fundamental contributions sociology mathematical knowledge made sal restivo david bloor restivo draws upon work scholars oswald spengler ''the decline west'' raymond louis wilder leslie alvin white well contemporary sociologists knowledge science studies scholars david bloor draws upon ludwig wittgenstein contemporary thinkers claim mathematical knowledge socially constructed irreducible contingent historical factors woven recently paul ernest proposed social constructivist account mathematical knowledge drawing works


sociologists criticism ssk received criticism theorists actor network theory ant school science technology studies theorists criticise ssk sociological reductionism human centered universe ssk say relies heavily human actors social rules conventions settling scientific controversies debate discussed article titled ''epistemological chicken'' see also disputes notes references reading bloor david ''knowledge social imagery'' london routledge bloor david https reclusfileswordpresscom bloor anti latourpdf anti latour ''studies history philosophy science part a'' volume issue march pages chu


dominique ''the science myth god society self never know'' collins hm '' https journalssagepubcom doi abs seven sexes study sociology phenomenon replication experiments physics sociology '' collins hm '' https booksgooglecom bookshl en lr id gpdhoo iubmc oi fnd pg pa dq changing order replication induction scientific practice ots l kevz sig rymbl mmkt yib vxpkr llm v onepage q changing order replication induction scientific practice f false changing order replication induction scientific practice '' london sage collins harry steven yearley epistemological chicken ''science practice culture'' pickering ed chicago university chicago press edwards ashmore potter j https webarchiveorg web http www stafflboroacuk ssde death furniturepdf death furniture rhetoric politics theology bottom line arguments


ed handbook '' 'sociology''' p london sage jasanoff markle g pinch petersen j eds ''handbook science technology society'' rev ed london sage relevant materials http wwwcbcca radio ideas think science part historical sociologist simon schaffer steven shapin interviewed ssk http wwwsociologyofignorancecom sociology ignorance website featuring sociology scientific ignorance https wwwsciencedirectcom topics social sciences sociology scientific knowledge sociology scientific knowledge sciencedirect webpage external links scientific knowledge sociology science


expression '''collective behavior''' first used franklin henry giddings employed later robert park ernest burgess herbert blumer ralph h turner lewis killian neil smelser refer social processes events reflect existing social structure laws conventions institutions emerge spontaneous way use term expanded include reference cells social animals like birds fish insects including ants collective behavior takes many forms generally violates societal norms collective behavior tremendously destructive riots

Social science
Sociology
Collective behavior


mob violence silly fads anywhere collective behavior always driven group dynamics encouraging people engage acts might consider unthinkable typical social circumstances defining field turner killian first sociologists back theoretical propositions visual evidence form photographs motion pictures collective behavior action prior sociologists relied heavily upon eyewitness accounts turned far less reliable one would hope turner killian 's approach based largely upon arguments blumer argued social


forces really forces actor active creates interpretation acts others acts basis interpretation examples instances collective behavior los angeles riot hula hoop fad stock market crashes phantom gasser episodes virginia mattoon il claim diverse episodes belong single field inquiry theoretical assertion sociologists would agree blumer neil smelser


agree others indicating formulation satisfied leading sociological thinkers four forms although several schema may used classify forms collective behavior following four categories blumer generally considered useful sociologists crowd scholars differ classes social events fall rubric collective behavior fact class events authors include crowds clark mcphail one treats crowds collective behavior synonyms although consider mcphail 's work overly simplistic


important contribution gone beyond speculations others carry pioneering empirical studies crowds finds form elaborate set types classic treatment crowds gustave lebon ''the crowd study popular mind'' author interpreted crowds french revolution irrational reversions animal emotion inferred reversion characteristic crowds general lebon believed crowds somehow induced people lose ability think rationally somehow recover ability


left crowd speculated could explain might occur freud expressed similar view ''group psychology analysis ego'' authors thought ideas confirmed various kinds crowds one economic bubble holland tulip mania prices tulip bulbs rose astronomical heights array crazes historical oddities narrated charles mackay 's ''extraordinary popular delusions madness crowds'' university chicago robert park herbert


blumer agreed speculations lebon crowds indeed emotional crowd capable emotion negative ones anger fear number authors modify common sense notion crowd include episodes participants assembled one place dispersed large area turner killian refer episodes ' 'diffuse'' crowds examples billy graham 's revivals panics sexual perils witch hunts red scares expanded definition crowd justified


propositions hold true among compact crowds diffuse crowds well psychologists claimed three fundamental human emotions fear joy anger neil smelser john lofland others proposed three corresponding forms crowd panic expression fear craze expression joy hostile outburst expression anger three emotions characterize either ''compact'' ' 'diffuse'' crowd result scheme six types crowds lofland offered explicit discussion types


public boom distinguishes '''crowd''' expresses ''common emotion'' '''public''' discusses ' 'single issue'' thus public equivalent members society obviously usual use word public park blumer many publics issues public comes discussion issue begins ceases reaches decision mass crowd public blumer adds third form collective behavior


'''mass''' differs crowd public defined form interaction efforts use mass media address audience first mass medium printing social movement change intellectual gears confront blumer 's final form collective behavior social movement identifies several types among ''active'' social movements french revolution ''expressive'' ones alcoholics anonymous active movement tries change society expressive one tries


change members social movement form collective behavior satisfies least well first definition offered beginning article episodes less fluid forms change often forms furthermore seen history labor movement many religious sects social movement may begin collective behavior time become firmly established social institution reason social movements often considered separate field sociology


books articles far numerous sum studies forms collective behavior put together social movements considered many wikipedia articles article field social movements whole would much longer essay study collective behavior spun wheels many years began make progress appearance turner killian 's collective behavior smelser 's ''theory collective behavior'' books pushed topic collective behavior back consciousness american sociologists


theories contributed immensely understanding collective behavior social disturbances u elsewhere late ' early ' inspired another surge interest crowds social movements studies presented number challenges armchair sociology earlier students collective behavior theories developed explain social scientists developed theories explain crowd behavior '''contagion theory''' contagion theory formulated gustave le bon according le bon crowds exert hypnotic influence members shielded anonymity large numbers people


abandon personal responsibility surrender contagious emotions crowd crowd thus assumes life stirring emotions driving people toward irrational even violent action le bon 's theory although one earliest explanations crowd behavior still accepted many people outside sociology however critics argue collective mind documented systematic studies furthermore although collective behavior may involve strong emotions feelings necessarily irrational turner killian argue convincingly contagion never actually occurs participants collective behavior


lose ability think rationally '''convergence theory''' whereas contagion theory states crowds cause people act certain way convergence theory states people want act certain way come together form crowds developed floyd allport later expanded upon neil miller john dollard learning theory central argument convergence theories collective behavior reveals otherwise hidden tendencies individuals take part episode asserts people similar attributes find like minded persons


release underlying tendencies people sometimes things crowd would courage alone crowds diffuse responsibility behavior claimed originate within individuals crowds addition intensify sentiment simply creating critical mass like minded people '''emergent norm theory''' according ralph turner lewis killian crowds begin collectivities composed people mixed interests motives especially case less stable crowds expressive acting protest crowds norms may vague changing one person decides break


proper determinants present collective behavior becomes inevitable conversely key determinants present collective behavior occur unless missing determinants fall place primarily social although physical factors location weather may also contribute hinder development collective behavior '''complex adaptive systems theory''' dutch scholar jaap van ginneken claims contagion convergence emergent norms instances synergy emergence autopoiesis self creation patterns new entities typical newly discovered meta category complex adaptive


systems also helps explain key role salient details path dependence rapid shifts see also references ref ref name miller miller david l ''introduction collective behavior collective action'' prospect heights il waveland press ed ref ref name locher locher david ''collective behavior'' upper saddle river nj prentice hall ref ref name mcphail mcphail clark ''the myth madding crowd'' new york aldine de gruyter ref ref name lebon lebon gustave ''the crowd study popular mind'' atlanta cherokee publishing company ref ref name castellanofortunatoloreto castellano c fortunato loreto v statistical physics social dynamics rev mod


phys ''' ''' ref ref name freud br english translation ref ref name mackay mackay charles ''extraordinary popular delusions madness crowds'' ref ref name lofland ref ref name allport allport floyd ''social psychology'' cambridge houghton mifflin riverside press ref ref name millerdollard miller neil john dollard ''social learning imitation'' new yale university press ref ref name ginneken jaap van ginneken ''collective behavior public opinion rapid shifts opinion communication'' mahwah nj erlbaum ref reading basco michael ''socio anthropology mendiola manila blumer herbert collective behavior lee ed ''principles sociology'' new york barnes noble pp nbsp lang


kurt gladys lang ''collective dynamics'' naldi giovanni lorenzo pareschi giuseppe toscani ''mathematical modelling collective behavior socio economic life sciences'' https wwwspringercom birkhauser mathematics book birkhauser rule james b ''theories civil violence'' berkeley university california external links http arquivopt wayback http groupspsychindianaedu group experiment environments gee project sponsored http cognitrnpsychindianaedu percepts concepts laboratory indiana university crowd psychology social movements sociological theories


'''grand strategy''' '''high strategy''' long term strategy pursued highest levels nation interests issues grand strategy typically include choice primary versus secondary theaters war distribution resources among various services general types armaments manufacturing favor international alliances best suit national goals considerable overlap foreign policy grand strategy focuses primarily military implications policy country 's political leadership typically directs grand strategy input senior military officials development nation 's grand strategy may extend

Applied science
Military sciences
Grand strategy


across many years even multiple generations concept grand strategy extended describe multi tiered strategies general including strategic thinking level corporations political parties business grand strategy general term broad statement strategic action grand strategy states means used achieve long term objectives examples business grand strategies customized specific firm include market concentration market development product development innovation horizontal integration divestiture liquidation defining grand strategy military historian b h liddell hart states blockquote


role grand strategy higher strategy co ordinate direct resources nation band nations towards attainment political object war goal defined fundamental policy grand strategy calculate develop economic resources man power nations order sustain fighting services also moral resources foster people 's willing spirit often important possess concrete forms power grand strategy regulate distribution power several services


services industry moreover fighting power one instruments grand strategy take account apply power financial pressure least ethical pressure weaken opponent 's furthermore horizons strategy bounded war grand strategy looks beyond war subsequent peace combine various instruments regulate use avoid damage future state peace security prosperity blockquote grand strategy expands traditional


empire blockquote era hadrian roman emperors employed military strategy preclusive security establishment linear barrier perimeter defence around empire legions stationed great fortresses blockquote fortresses existed along perimeter empire often accompanied actual walls example hadrian 's wall due perceived impenetrability perimeter defenses emperors kept central reserve army roman system roads allowed soldiers move one frontier another purpose reinforcements siege relative ease roads also allowed


logistical advantage rome enemies supplies could moved easily across roman road system soldiers way legions could win battle military combat skill superior numbers could simply outlast invaders historian ea thompson wrote think terms millions bushels wheat emperor constantine moved legions frontiers one consolidated roving army way save money protect wealthier citizens within cities however grand strategy according ancient sources


costly effects roman empire weakening frontier defenses allowing susceptible outside armies coming also people lived near roman frontiers would begin look barbarians protection roman armies departed argument considered originated writings eunapius stated th century ad historian zosimus blockquote constantine abolished frontier security removing greater part soldiery frontiers cities needed auxiliary forces thus deprived help people


frontier regions best anachronistic probably reflects zosimus' prejudices constantine corruption soldiers lived cities literary commonplace world war ii example modern grand strategy decision allies world war ii concentrate defeat germany first decision joint agreement made attack pearl harbor drawn us war sensible one germany powerful member axis directly threatened existence united kingdom


soviet union conversely japan 's conquests garnered considerable public attention mostly colonial areas deemed less essential planners policy makers specifics allied military strategy pacific war therefore shaped lesser resources made available theatre commanders cold war us uk used policy containment part grand strategy cold war united states conversation around grand strategy united states evolved significantly since country 's founding nation shifting strategy continental expansion


isolation european conflicts opposition european empires western hemisphere first century major debate acquisition empire culminating conquest philippines cuba spanish american war followed rapid shifts offshore balancing liberal internationalism isolationism around world wars cold war saw increasing use deep onshore engagement strategies including creation number permanent alliances significant involvement states' internal politics major counterinsurgency war vietnam end cold war


early strategic debate eventually coalesced strategy primacy culminating invasion iraq aftershocks war along economic downturn rising national debt deepening political gridlock led renewed strategic debate centered two major schools thought primacy restraint return offshore balancing also proposed prominent political scientists stephen walt john mearsheimer end cold war collapse soviet union removed focal point us strategy containing soviet union


major debate emerged future direction us foreign policy piece ''international security'' entitled competing visions us grand strategy barry r posen andrew l ross identified four major grand strategic alternatives debate ref name competing ref neo isolationism selective engagement cooperative security primacy neo isolationism stemming defensive realist understanding international politics authors call neo isolationism advocates united states remove active participation international politics order maintain national security holds threats american homeland


united states need intervene abroad stressing particular understanding nuclear weapons authors describe proponents believe destructive power nuclear weapons retaliatory potential united states assure political sovereignty territorial integrity united states proliferation weapons countries like britain france china russia prevents emergence competing hegemon eurasian landmass ref name order pages ref united states' security absence threats means national defense seldom justify intervention abroad ref name order pages even proponents argue


united states responsible cannot afford costs maintaining world order ref name order ref also believe pursuit economic well best left private sector united states attempt spread values increases resentment towards us turn decreases security ref name order short neo isolationism advises united states preserve freedom action strategic independence ref name order practical terms authors discuss implementation called neo isolationist grand strategy would involve less focus


issue nuclear proliferation withdrawal nato major cuts united states military presence abroad authors see military force structure prioritizes secure nuclear second strike capability intelligence naval special operations forces limiting forward deployment forces europe asia ref name order pages posen ross identify prominent scholars political figures earl ravenal patrick buchanan doug bandow ref name order pages similar roots realist tradition international relations selective engagement advocates united states intervene regions world directly


affect security prosperity focus therefore lies powers significant industrial military potential prevention war amongst states proponents strategy believe europe asia middle east matter united states europe asia contain great powers greatest military economic impact international politics middle east primary source oil much developed world addition particular concerns selective engagement also focuses preventing nuclear proliferation conflict could lead


east actually represents shift current engagement piece barry posen classified selective engagement advocate caveat united states act reduce likelihood great power war also oppose rise eurasian hegemon capable threatening united states robert j art argues selective engagement best strategy twenty first century definition selective ref name art ref steers middle course isolationist unilateralist course one hand world policeman highly interventionist role ref


name art therefore art concludes avoids overly restrictive overly expansive definitions us interests finding instead compromise much little militarily additionally selective engagement best strategy achieving realist goals preventing wmd terrorism maintaining great power peace securing supply oil liberal goals preserving free trade spreading democracy observing human rights minimizing impact climate change ref name art realist goals represent vital interests liberal goals represent desirable interests desirable interests unimportant art maintains lesser importance


dilemma deter interstate conflict posen ross ref name auto propose collective action effective means preventing potential state non state aggressors threatening states cooperative security considers nuclear proliferation regional conflicts humanitarian crises major interests united states authors imagine grand strategy would involve stronger support international institutions agreements frequent use force humanitarian purposes international institutions ultimately entail deployment multinational force authors suppose united states' contribution would emphasize command control communications intelligence defense suppression


precision guided munitions considered time united states' comparative advantage aerospace power ref name pages collective action problems problems effective formation international institutions vacillating feelings democratic populations limitations arms control offered authors noted criticisms collective security primacy 'primacy holds preponderance us power ensures peace' ref name primacy ref result advocates united states pursue ultimate hegemony dominate international system economically politically militarily rejecting return bipolarity multipolarity preventing


emergence peer competitor therefore proponents argue us foreign policy focus maintaining us power preventing power becoming serious challenger united states mind supporters strategy argue us work contain china competitors rather engage regards humanitarian crises regional conflicts primacy holds us intervene directly impact national security along lines selective engagement collective security however advocate active prevention nuclear


proliferation level similar collective security implementation strategy would entail military forces similar levels cold war emphasis military modernization research development note however quest primacy likely prove futile five reasons diffusion economic technological capabilities interstate balancing united states danger hegemonic leadership fatally undermine valuable multilateral institutions feasibility preventive war dangers imperial overstretch daniel drezner professor international politics tufts university outlines three arguments offered


global economic growth reducing security tensions public goods benefit hegemon much actors ref name drezner drezner maintains empirical evidence supporting third argument strongest though qualifiers although precise causal mechanism remain disputed hegemonic eras nevertheless strongly correlated lower trade barriers greater levels globalization however drezner highlights caveat cost maintaining global public goods catches superpower providing countries free ride hegemon allowing grow faster technologies diffuse


hegemonic power rest world facilitating catch chinese analysts posited phenomena occurring right allowing china outgrow united states primacy vs selective engagement barry posen director security studies program massachusetts institute technology believes activist us foreign policy continues define us strategy twenty first century undisciplined expensive bloody strategy done harm good us national security ref name posen ref makes enemies almost fast slays discourages allies paying defense


convinces powerful states band together oppose washington 's plans raising costs carrying foreign policy ref name posen united states able afford adventurism posen argues american power projection completely unchallenged last decade however american power relatively declining pentagon continues depend continuous infusions cash simply retain current force structure levels spending great recession united states' ballooning debt rendered unsustainable ref name posen posen proposes united states abandon hegemonic


strategy replace one restraint translates jettisoning quest shaping world satisfactory us values instead advances vital national security interests us military would go war must large troop contingents unprecedentedly peaceful regions europe would significantly downsized incentivizing nato members provide security scenario united states would leeway using resources combat pressing threats security strategy restraint therefore would help preserve country 's prosperity


security hegemonic strategy sure posen makes clear advocating isolationism rather united states focus three pressing security challenges preventing powerful rival upending global balance power fighting terrorists limiting nuclear proliferation ref name posen john ikenberry princeton university stephen brooks william wohlforth dartmouth college push back posen 's selective engagement thesis arguing american engagement bad posen makes advocates selective engagement argue overstate costs current us


finally united states wields security leverage authors argue shapes overall structure global economy washington wins us allies favor status quo one reason inclined support existing system value military alliances ref name brooks ted carpenter senior fellow cato institute believes proponents primacy suffer light switch model two positions exist many seemingly proponents us preeminence recognize existence options current policy promiscuous global interventionism


assessed case case basis nevertheless united states must refrain using military might campaigns directly deal us interests sense moral indignation instead calculating assessment national interest governs us foreign policy united states become involved even murky conflicts tangible american interests stake ref name carpenter today posen argued four schools us grand strategy identified replaced two liberal hegemony came


fusion primacy cooperative security restraint came fusion neo isolationism selective engagement ref name ref scholars proposed third policy offshore balancing liberal hegemony proponents liberal hegemony favor world order united states hegemon uses power advantage create liberal international system times use force enforce spread liberal values individual rights free trade rule law united states strives retain overwhelming military power theory potential competitors even try


compete global stage also retains extensive network permanent alliance commitments around world using alliance system advance retain hegemonic power solidify emerging liberal political systems according posen strategy sees threats emanating three major sources failed states rogue states illiberal peer competitors ref name failed states view sources instability rogue states sponsor terrorism acquire weapons mass destruction behave unpredictably illiberal peer competitors would compete directly united states would complicate spread liberal institutions


construction liberal states ref name support liberal hegemonic strategies among major thinkers political parties helps explain broad elite support invasion iraq intervention libya even though us military involvement conflicts initiated presidents different parties chief difference foreign policy republican democratic proponents liberal hegemony according posen support international institutions means achieving hegemony restraint proponents grand strategy restraint call united states significantly reduce


possible states prefer free ride cheap ride passing buck states bear cost balancing restraint proponents also emphasize deterrent power nuclear weapons tremendously raise stakes confrontations great powers breeding caution rather rewarding aggression restraint advocates see nationalism powerful force one makes states even resistant outside conquest thus makes international system stable restraint proponents also argue drawing thinkers like prussian strategist carl von clausewitz military force blunt expensive unpredictable instrument


accordingly used rarely clear goals ref name restraint distinct isolationism isolationists favor restricting trade immigration tend believe events outside world little impact within united states already noted sometimes confused non interventionism restraint however sees economic dynamism key source national power accordingly tends argue relatively open trade system restrainers call supporting trade system via significant naval patrols others suggest international economy resilient disruptions rare exceptions require


powerful state guarantee security global trade offshore balancing offshore balancing united states would refrain significant involvement security affairs overseas except prevent state establishing hegemony offshore balancers identify world 's three key strategic regions western europe northeast asia persian gulf strategy advocates significantly reduced overseas presence compared liberal hegemony argues intervention necessary circumstances restraint offshore balancing associated offensive realist theories state behavior believes conquest often enable states


gain power thus hegemon regions large economies high populations critical resources could quickly become global menace us national interests see also grand strategy wargame strategy military doctrine military strategy military tactics naval strategy operational mobility principles war simulation strategic defence studies centre wargaming total war war termination art war john lewis gaddis references notes reading biddle stephen http wwwstrategicstudiesinstitutearmymil pubs displaycfmpubid american grand strategy assessment pp april clausewitz carl von ''on war'' fuller jfc ''the generalship alexander great'' benjamin isaac ''the limits


empire roman army east'' oxford oxford university press nd rev ed kolliopoulos ''grand strategy ancient sparta'' piotita publications kondilis p ''theory war'' ''power decision'' liddell hart b h ''strategy'' london faber nd rev ed luttwak e ''the grand strategy roman empire'' papasotiriou harry ''grand strategy byzantine empire'' platias ''international relations grand strategy thucydides'' posen barry p ''restraint new foundation us grand strategy'' cornell university press wright steven ''the united states persian gulf security foundations war terror'' ithaca


press external links https archiveorg details petergowaninterview peter gowan interview us grand strategy since military strategy


'''human sexuality''' way people experience express sexually ref name cavendish ref ref name ferrante ref involves biological erotic physical emotional social spiritual feelings behaviors ref name greenberg ref ref name bolin ref broad term varied historical contexts time lacks precise definition ref name bolin biological physical aspects sexuality largely concern human reproductive functions including human sexual response cycle ref name greenberg ref name bolin someone 's sexual orientation pattern sexual interest opposite sex ref name ampsycholassn whatis ref physical emotional aspects sexuality include bonds individuals expressed

Social science
Sociology
Sexology
Human sexuality


supported weak evidence distorted numerous confounding factors ref name bailey ref supported cross cultural evidence cultures tolerant homosexuality significantly higher rates ref name levay ref ref name balthazart ref evolutionary perspectives human coupling reproduction reproduction strategies social learning theory provide views sexuality sociocultural aspects sexuality include historical developments religious beliefs cultures described sexually repressive study sexuality also includes human identity within social groups sexually transmitted infections stis stds birth control methods development sexual orientation considerably evidence supporting


innate causes sexual orientation learned ones especially males evidence includes cross cultural correlation homosexuality childhood gender nonconformity moderate genetic influences found twin studies evidence prenatal hormonal effects brain organization fraternal birth order effect finding rare cases infant males raised girls due physical deformity nevertheless turned attracted females hypothesized social causes supported weak evidence distorted numerous confounding factors ref name bailey cross cultural evidence also leans toward non social causes cultures tolerant homosexuality


relatives offset cost reproducing much directly supported studies western cultures several studies samoa found support hypothesis another hypothesis involves sexually antagonistic genes cause homosexuality expressed males increase reproduction expressed females studies western non western cultures found support hypothesis ref name bailey ref name bussch ref gender differences psychological theories exist regarding development expression gender differences human sexuality number including neo analytic theories sociobiological theories social learning theory social role theory


script theory agree predicting men approving casual sex sex happening outside stable committed relationship marriage also promiscuous higher number sexual partners women theories mostly consistent observed differences males' females' attitudes toward casual sex marriage united states aspects human sexuality sexual satisfaction incidence oral sex attitudes toward homosexuality masturbation show little observed difference males females observed gender differences regarding number sexual partners


modest males tending slightly females ref name oliver hyde ref biological physiological aspects like mammals humans primarily grouped either male female sex ref name leonard isbn ref biological aspects humans' sexuality deal reproductive system sexual response cycle factors affect aspects also deal influence biological factors aspects sexuality organic neurological responses heredity hormonal issues gender issues sexual dysfunction ref name rathus spencer ref physical anatomy reproduction males females anatomically


similar extends degree development reproductive system adults different reproductive mechanisms enable perform sexual acts reproduce men women react sexual stimuli similar fashion minor differences women monthly reproductive cycle whereas male sperm production cycle continuous ref name referencea ref brain hypothalamus important part brain sexual functioning small area base brain consisting several groups nerve cell bodies receives input limbic system


studies shown within lab animals destruction certain areas hypothalamus causes elimination sexual behavior ref name referencea hypothalamus important relationship pituitary gland lies beneath pituitary gland secretes hormones produced hypothalamus four important sexual hormones oxytocin prolactin follicle stimulating hormone luteinizing hormone ref name referencea oxytocin sometimes referred love hormone ref name sigelman released sexes sexual intercourse orgasm achieved ref name hornstein oxytocin suggested critical thoughts


behaviors required maintain close relationships ref name sigelman ref ref name hornstein ref hormone also released women give birth breastfeeding ref name smith ref prolactin oxytocin responsible inducing milk production women follicle stimulating hormone fsh responsible ovulation women acts triggering egg maturity men stimulates sperm production luteinizing hormone lh triggers ovulation release mature egg ref name referencea male anatomy reproductive system males also internal external genitalia responsible procreation sexual intercourse production spermatozoa sperm also cyclic unlike


female ovulation cycle sperm production cycle constantly producing millions sperm daily ref name referencea external male anatomy external male genitals depilated male genitalia penis scrotum penis provides passageway sperm urine ref name aall ref penis consists nerves blood vessels fibrous tissue three parallel cylinders spongy tissue ref name os ref components penis include shaft glans root cavernous bodies spongy body ref name os three cylindrical bodies spongy tissue filled blood vessels run along length shaft ref name os two bodies


lie side side upper portion penis corpora cavernosa cavernous bodies ref name os third called corpus spongiosum spongy body tube lies centrally beneath others expands end form tip penis glans ref name os raised rim border shaft glans called corona ref name ppe ref urethra connects urinary bladder penis urine exits penis urethral meatus ref name aph ref urethra eliminates urine acts channel semen sperm exit


possible reason sperm produced environment slightly lower normal body temperature penis little muscular tissue exists root ref name thb ref shaft glans muscle fibers unlike primates male humans lack penile bone ref name os internal male anatomy access date november ref male internal reproductive structures testicles duct system prostate seminal vesicles cowper 's gland ref name referencea testicles male gonads sperm male hormones produced millions sperm produced daily several hundred seminiferous


tubules cells called leydig cells lie tubules produce hormones called androgens consist testosterone inhibin testicles held spermatic cord tubelike structure containing blood vessels nerves vas deferens muscle helps raise lower testicles response temperature changes sexual arousal testicles drawn closer body ref name referencea sperm gets transported four part duct system first part system epididymis testicles converge form seminiferous tubules coiled tubes


urethra carries urine semen ref name referencea ref name referenceb similar female g spot prostate provides sexual stimulation lead orgasm anal sex ref name rosenthal ref prostate gland seminal vesicles produce seminal fluid mixed sperm create semen ref name referencea prostate gland lies bladder front rectum consists two main zones inner zone produces secretions keep lining male urethra moist outer zone produces seminal fluids facilitate passage semen ref name referenceb seminal vesicles


secrete fructose sperm activation mobilization prostaglandins cause uterine contractions aid movement uterus bases help neutralize acidity vagina cowper 's glands bulbourethral glands two pea sized structures beneath prostate female anatomy reproductive system external female anatomy external female genitals depilated mons veneris also known mound venus soft layer fatty tissue overlaying pubic bone following puberty area grows size many nerve endings sensitive stimulation ref name referencea labia minora labia majora collectively


labia minora merge labia majora ref name innerbodycom ref sexually unstimulated state labia minora protects vaginal urethral opening covering base labia minora bartholin 's glands add drops alkaline fluid vagina via ducts fluid helps counteract acidity outer vagina since sperm cannot live acidic environment ref name referencea clitoris developed embryonic tissue penis glans alone consists many cases nerve endings


touch surrounded ring sphincter muscles called bulbocavernosus muscle underneath muscle opposite sides vaginal opening vestibular bulbs help vagina grip penis swelling blood arousal within vaginal opening hymen thin membrane partially covers opening many virgins rupture hymen historically considered loss one 's virginity though modern standards loss virginity considered first sexual intercourse hymen ruptured activities sexual intercourse


develop puberty response increase estrogen adult breast consists milk producing mammary glands irregularly shaped lobes include alveolar glands lactiferous duct leading nipple lobes separated dense connective tissues support glands attach tissues underlying pectoral muscles ref name innerbodycom connective tissue forms dense strands called suspensory ligaments extends inward skin breast pectoral tissue support weight breast ref name innerbodycom heredity quantity fatty tissue determine size


breasts ref name referencea men typically find female breasts attractive holds true variety cultures women stimulation nipple seems result activation brain 's genital sensory cortex region brain activated stimulation clitoris vagina cervix may many women find nipple stimulation arousing women able orgasm nipple stimulation alone ref name lehmiller internal female anatomy access date november ref female internal reproductive organs vagina uterus fallopian tubes ovaries vagina sheath like canal


extends vulva cervix receives penis intercourse serves depository sperm vagina also birth canal expand labor delivery vagina located bladder rectum vagina normally collapsed sexual arousal opens lengthens produces lubrication allow insertion penis vagina three layered walls self cleaning organ natural bacteria suppress production yeast ref name referencea g spot named ernst gr fenberg first reported


may located front wall vagina may cause orgasms area may vary size location women may absent various researchers dispute structure existence regard extension clitoris ref name hines ref ref name balon segraves ref ref name kilchevsky ref uterus womb hollow muscular organ fertilized egg ovum implant grow fetus ref name referencea uterus lies pelvic cavity bladder bowel vagina usually positioned degree


angle tilting forward although women tilts backwards ref name innerbodycom uterus three layers innermost layer endometrium egg implanted ovulation thickens implantation implantation occur sloughed menstruation cervix narrow end uterus broad part uterus fundus ref name referencea ovulation ovum travels fallopian tubes uterus extend sides uterus finger like projections ends tubes brush ovaries receive


ovum released ovum travels three four days uterus ref name referencea sexual intercourse sperm swim funnel uterus lining tube secretions sustain egg sperm encouraging fertilization nourishing ovum reaches uterus ovum divides fertilization identical twins produced separate eggs fertilized different sperm mother gives birth non identical fraternal twins ref name innerbodycom ovaries female gonads develop embryonic tissue testicles ovaries suspended


ligaments source ova stored developed ovulation ovaries also produce female hormones progesterone estrogen within ovaries ovum surrounded cells contained within capsule called primary follicle puberty one follicles stimulated mature monthly basis matured called graafian follicles ref name referencea female reproductive system produce ova ova present birth mature woman 's lifetime ref name innerbodycom ovulation based monthly cycle


th day fertile days one four menstruation production estrogen progesterone decreases endometrium starts thinning endometrium sloughed next three six days menstruation ends cycle begins fsh surge pituitary gland days five thirteen known pre ovulatory stage stage pituitary gland secretes follicle stimulating hormone fsh negative feedback loop enacted estrogen secreted inhibit release fsh estrogen thickens endometrium uterus surge luteinizing hormone


lh triggers ovulation day lh surge causes graafian follicle surface ovary follicle ruptures ripe ovum expelled abdominal cavity fallopian tubes pick ovum fimbria cervical mucus changes aid movement sperm days post ovulatory stage graafian follicle called corpus luteum secretes estrogen production progesterone increases inhibiting lh release endometrium thickens prepare implantation ovum travels fallopian tubes uterus ovum fertilized implant


resolution period unaroused state cycle begins ref name referencea male sexual response cycle starts excitement phase two centers spine responsible erections vasoconstriction penis begins heart rate increases scrotum thickens spermatic cord shortens testicles become engorged blood plateau phase penis increases diameter testicles become engorged cowper 's glands secrete pre seminal fluid orgasm phase rhythmic contractions occur every seconds consists two phases emission phase contractions vas


deferens prostate seminal vesicles encourage ejaculation second phase orgasm ejaculation called expulsion phase cannot reached without orgasm resolution phase male unaroused state consisting refractory rest period cycle begin rest period may increase age ref name referencea female sexual response begins excitement phase last several minutes several hours characteristics phase include increased heart respiratory rate elevation blood pressure flushed skin blotches redness may occur


chest back breasts increase slightly size nipples may become hardened erect onset vasocongestion results swelling clitoris labia minora vagina muscle surrounds vaginal opening tightens uterus elevates grows size vaginal walls begin produce lubricating liquid second phase called plateau phase characterized primarily intensification changes begun excitement phase plateau phase extends brink orgasm initiates resolution stage reversal changes begun


excitement phase orgasm stage heart rate blood pressure muscle tension breathing rates peak pelvic muscle near vagina anal sphincter uterus contract muscle contractions vaginal area create high level pleasure though orgasms centered clitoris ref name referencea ref name koedt ref sexual dysfunction sexual problems sexual disorders according dsm iv tr disturbances sexual desire psycho physiological changes characterize sexual response cycle cause marked distress interpersonal difficulty sexual dysfunctions result physical psychological disorders physical causes include hormonal


dysfunction women anorgasmia occurs women psychological disorders guilt anxiety caused sexual assault last sexual disorder painful intercourse sexual disorder result pelvic mass scar tissue sexually transmitted disease also three common sexual disorders men including sexual desire ejaculation disorder erectile dysfunction lack sexual desire men loss libido low testosterone also psychological factors anxiety depression ejaculation disorder three types retrograde ejaculation retarded ejaculation premature


ejaculation erectile dysfunction disability maintain erection intercourse psychological aspects one form behavior psychological aspects sexual expression studied context emotional involvement gender identity intersubjective intimacy darwinian reproductive efficacy sexuality humans generates profound emotional psychological responses theorists identify sexuality central source human personality psychological studies sexuality focus psychological influences affect sexual behavior experiences ref name rathus spencer early psychological analyses carried sigmund freud believed psychoanalytic approach


also proposed concepts psychosexual development oedipus complex among theories gender identity person 's sense gender whether male female non binary ref name morrowmessinger ''sexual orientation gender expression social work practice'' edited deana f morrow lori messinger p gender identity refers individual 's personal sense identity masculine feminine combination thereof ref gender identity correlate assigned sex birth differ societies set gender categories serve basis formation


person 's social identity relation members society sexual behavior intimate relationships strongly influenced person 's sexual orientation ref name coon coon mitterer jo introduction psychology gateways mind behavior th ed australia thomson wadsworth ref sexual orientation enduring pattern romantic sexual attraction combination persons opposite sex sex sexes ref name coon heterosexual people romantically sexually attracted members opposite sex gay lesbian people romantically sexually attracted people sex


bisexual romantically sexually attracted sexes ref name ampsycholassn whatis idea homosexuality results reversed gender roles reinforced media 's portrayal male homosexuals effeminate female homosexuals masculine ref name king b however person 's conformity non conformity gender stereotypes always predict sexual orientation society believes man masculine heterosexual man feminine homosexual strong evidence homosexual bisexual orientation must associated atypical gender roles early st century homosexuality


longer considered pathology theories linked many factors including genetic anatomical birth order hormones prenatal environment homosexuality ref name king b need procreate many reasons people sex according one study conducted college students meston buss four main reasons sexual activities physical attraction means end increase emotional connection alleviate insecurity sexuality age child sexuality sigmund freud published ''three essays theory sexuality'' children often regarded


asexual sexuality later development sigmund freud one first researchers take child sexuality seriously ideas psychosexual development oedipus conflict much debated acknowledging existence child sexuality important development ref name santrock jw santrock jw topical approach life span development th ed new york mcgraw hill ref freud gave sexual drives importance centrality human life actions behavior said sexual drives exist discerned children birth explains theory infantile sexuality says


bodies sexual functions example wonder babies come notice differences males females many engage genital play often mistaken masturbation child sex play also known playing doctor includes exhibiting inspecting genitals many children take part sex play typically siblings friends ref name santrock jw sex play others usually decreases children grow may later possess romantic interest peers curiosity levels remain high years main surge sexual interest occurs adolescence ref


sexual activity decreases time type sexual expression may change many couples experience increased intimacy love ref name jrank http familyjrankorg pages sexuality adulthood aginghtml sexuality adulthood aging jrank marriage family encyclopedia net industries ref sociocultural aspects women 's liberation march washington dc august farragut square lafayette park gay liberation march london uk ca gay liberation front banner visible location believed trafalgar square human sexuality understood part social life humans governed implied rules behavior status quo


narrows view groups within society ref name rathus spencer socio cultural context society including effects politics mass media influences forms social norms throughout history social norms changing continue change result movements sexual revolution rise feminism ref name escoffier ref ref name friedan ref sex education age manner children informed issues sexuality matter sex education school systems almost developed countries form sex education nature


issues covered varies widely countries australia much europe age appropriate sex education often begins pre school whereas countries leave sex education pre teenage teenage years sex education covers range topics including physical mental social aspects sexual behavior geographic location also plays role society 's opinion appropriate age children learn sexuality according ''time'' magazine cnn teenagers united states reported major sources sexual information peers media compared


named parents sex education course ref name referencea united states sex education programs encourage abstinence choice restrain oneself sexual activity contrast comprehensive sex education aims encourage students take charge sexuality know safe healthy pleasurable sex choose proponents abstinence education believe teaching comprehensive curriculum would encourage teenagers sex proponents comprehensive sex education argue many teenagers sex regardless equipped


definite rules constraints underlying continuities key regulatory standards contended tension recognition pleasure interest need procreate sake social order economic survival hunter gatherers also placed high value certain types sexual symbolism common tension hunter gatherer societies expressed art emphasized male sexuality prowess also blurred gender lines sexual matters one example male dominated portrayals egyptian creation myth sun god atum masturbates water creating nile river sumerian myth


gods' semen filled tigris ref name referencec agricultural societies emerged sexual framework shifted ways persisted many millennia much asia africa europe parts americas one common characteristic new societies collective supervision sexual behavior due urbanization growth population population density children would commonly witness parents sex many families shared sleeping quarters due land ownership determination children 's paternity became important society family life became patriarchal changes sexual ideology used control female


sexuality differentiate standards gender ideologies sexual possessiveness increases jealousy emerged retaining precedents earlier civilizations classical civilization established somewhat distinctive approach gender artistic expression sexual beauty behaviors homosexuality distinctions portrayed sex manuals also common among civilizations china greece rome persia india sexual history ref name referencec high middle ages homosexual acts appear ignored tolerated christian church ref name psychologyucdavisedu ref th century hostility toward homosexuality


cultures became prevalent new contacts created serious issues around sexuality sexual traditions also major shifts sexual behavior period puberty began occurring younger ages new focus adolescence time sexual confusion danger emerged new focus purpose marriage increasing regarded love rather economics reproduction ref name referencec havelock ellis sigmund freud adopted accepting stances toward homosexuality ellis said homosexuality inborn therefore immoral disease many homosexuals made


significant contributions society ref name psychologyucdavisedu freud wrote human beings capable becoming either heterosexual homosexual neither orientation assumed innate ref name king b ref according freud person 's orientation depended resolution oedipus complex said male homosexuality resulted young boy authoritarian rejecting mother turned father love affection later men general said female homosexuality developed girl loved mother identified father became fixated stage ref name king b alfred kinsey initiated


personality disturbance ref name ref definition remained professional understanding homosexuality american psychiatric association removed homosexuality list diagnoses mental disorders ref name research heterosexual homosexual men evelyn hooker revealed correlation homosexuality psychological maladjustment findings played pivotal role shifting scientific community away perspective homosexuality something needed treated cured sexuality colonialism race european conquerors colonists found sexuality norm vasco n ez de balboa


spanish explorer discovered indigenous people central america different sexual practices balboa found indigenous men resulting feeding forty men dogs different sexual practices north america united states europeans used claims sexual immorality justify discrimination racial ethnic minorities scholars also study ways colonialism affected sexuality today argue due racism slavery dramatically changed way previously understood book ''carnal knowledge imperial power gender race


morality colonial asia'' laura stoler investigates dutch used sexual control gender specific sexual sanctions distinguish rulers ruled enforce colonial domination onto people indonesia america native tribes recorded embraced two spirit people within tribes total number tribes could greater documented two spirit people still members communities fall western gender categories male female rather third gender category system gender contradicts


gender binary assertion sex gender ref name ref instead conforming traditional roles men women two spirit fill special niche communities example two spirited people commonly revered possessing special wisdom spiritual powers ref name two spirited people also take part marriages either monogamous polygamous ones historically european colonizers perceived relationships involving two spirited people homosexuality therefore believed moral inferiority native people ref name reaction colonizers began impose religious social norms indigenous communities diminishing


reinforce racial ethnic nationalist regimes ref name nagel ref ref name nagel ref united states people color face effects colonialism different ways stereotypes mammy jezebel black women lotus blossom dragon lady asian women spicy latina ref name mammy jezebel sistahs racismorg ref stereotypes contrast standards sexual conservatism creating dichotomy dehumanizes demonizes stereotyped groups example stereotype lies intersection racism classism misogyny archetype welfare queen cathy cohen describes welfare queen stereotype


demonizes poor black single mothers deviating conventions surrounding family structure reproductive sexual rights reproductive sexual rights encompass concept applying human rights issues related reproduction sexuality concept modern one remains controversial since deals directly indirectly issues contraception lgbt rights abortion sex education freedom choose partner freedom decide whether sexually active right bodily integrity freedom decide whether children global issues exist cultures


extent manifest differently depending specific contexts according swedish government sexual rights include right people decide bodies sexuality reproductive rights comprise right individuals decide number children intervals born rights accepted cultures practices criminalization consensual sexual activities related homosexual acts sexual acts outside marriage acceptance forced marriage child marriage failure criminalize non consensual sexual encounters


educate people contraceptives quickly stigmatized population control tactic due policy limiting births disregarding limitation target ecological political large economic conditions stigma targeted lower class women need access contraception birth control finally began lose stigma ruling us v one package declared prescribing contraception save person 's life well longer illegal comstock law although opinions varied birth control available women


birth control clinics united states advertising services remained illegal stigma continued lose credibility first lady eleanor roosevelt publicly showed support birth control four terms husband served however federal government began fund family planning subsidized birth control services lower class women families order president lyndon b johnson funding continued family planning services population research act today health insurance marketplace plans required cover forms


contraception including sterilization procedures result affordable care act signed president barack obama stigma activism aids epidemic doctors diagnosed first reported cases aids america disease disproportionately affected continues affect gay bisexual men especially black latino men reagan administration criticized apathy towards aids epidemic audio recordings reveal ronald reagan 's press secretary larry speakes viewed epidemic joke mocking aids calling gay plague epidemic also carried stigma coming


indirectly homosexual activities ref name geiling instead campaigns government primarily relied scare tactics order instill fear men sex men ref name geiling addition prevention campaigns activists also sought counteract narratives led social death people living aids ref name wright ref gay men san francisco new york city created denver principles foundational document demanded rights agency dignity people living aids ref name wright article emergence gay identity gay social movements developing countries matthew roberts discusses


international aids prevention campaigns created opportunities gay men interact openly gay men countries ref name roberts ref interactions allowed western gay culture introduced gay men countries homosexuality n't important identifier thus group organizers self identified gay creating basis development gay consciousness different countries ref name roberts sexual behavior general activities health humans sexual intercourse sexual activity general shown health benefits improved sense smell reduction stress blood pressure ref


adolescents young adults aged years least one four us teenage girls sexually transmitted disease ref name cdc us year olds sexual intercourse year olds report using condoms first sexual intercourse one study young women age years felt low risk acquiring std creating relationship ''the flirtation'' eugene de blaas people consciously subconsciously seek attract others form deep relationships may


companionship procreation intimate relationship involves interactive processes whereby people find attract potential partners maintain relationship processes involve attracting one partners maintaining sexual interest include flirting attraction sexual attention another encourage romance sexual relations involve body language conversation joking brief physical contact flirting socially accepted way attracting someone different types flirting people usually one way flirting makes comfortable flirting people polite playful physical


etc sometimes difficult know whether person interested flirting styles vary according culture different cultures different social etiquette example length eye contact closely one stands someone seduction process whereby one person deliberately entices another engage sexual behavior behavior one person seducing would usually unless sexually aroused seduction seen positive negative since word seduction latin meaning lead astray viewed negatively sexual


attraction sexual attraction attraction basis sexual desire quality arousing interest ref name sexual attraction ref ref name sexual attraction ref sexual attractiveness sex appeal individual 's ability attract sexual erotic interest another person factor sexual selection mate choice attraction physical qualities traits person qualities context appear attraction may person 's aesthetics movements voice smell besides factors attraction may


enhanced person 's adornments clothing perfume hair length style anything else attract sexual interest another person also influenced individual genetic psychological cultural factors amorphous qualities person sexual attraction also response another person depends combination person possessing traits also criteria person attracted though attempts made devise objective criteria sexual attractiveness measure one several bodily forms capital asset


' 'see erotic capital'' person 's sexual attractiveness large extent subjective measure dependent another person 's interest perception sexual orientation example gay lesbian person would typically find person sex attractive one sex bisexual person would find either sex attractive addition asexual people usually experience sexual attraction either sex though may romantic attraction homoromantic biromantic heteroromantic interpersonal attraction includes factors physical psychological similarity familiarity possessing


regarding marriage family creating laws protecting individuals violence harassment persecution ref name sexualitylaw ref united states two fundamentally different approaches applied different states regarding way law used attempt govern person 's sexuality black letter approach law focuses study pre existing legal precedent attempts offer clear framework rules within lawyers others work ref name sexualitylaw contrast socio legal approach focuses broadly relationship law society offers contextualized view


relationship legal social change ref name sexualitylaw issues regarding human sexuality human sexual orientation come forefront western law latter half twentieth century part gay liberation movement 's encouragement lgbt individuals come closet engaging legal system primarily courts therefore many issues regarding human sexuality law found opinions courts ref name minnesota ref sexual privacy issue privacy useful sexual rights claims scholars criticized usefulness saying perspective


narrow restrictive law often slow intervene certain forms coercive behavior limit individuals' control sexuality female genital mutilation forced marriages lack access reproductive health care many injustices often perpetuated wholly part private individuals rather state agents result ongoing debate extent state responsibility prevent harmful practices investigate practices occur ref name sexualitylaw state intervention regards sexuality also occurs considered


acceptable certain instances eg sex sexual activity prostitution ref name sexualitylaw legal systems surrounding prostitution topic debate proponents criminalization argue sex work immoral practice tolerated proponents decriminalization point criminalization harm good within feminist movement also debate whether sex work inherently objectifying exploitative whether sex workers agency sell sex service sex work criminalized sex workers support law enforcement


fall victim violence survey street based sex workers nyc said threatened experienced violence many said police help said experienced violence police officers different identities black transgender poor result person likely criminally profiled police example new york law loitering purpose engaging prostitution nicknamed walking trans law often transgender women


assumed sex workers arrested simply walking public religious sexual morality religions sexual behavior regarded primarily spiritual others treated primarily physical hold sexual behavior spiritual within certain kinds relationships used specific purposes incorporated religious ritual religions distinctions physical spiritual whereas religions view human sexuality way completing gap exists spiritual physical many religious conservatives especially abrahamic religions


hand religious liberals define sexuality related labels terms sexual attraction self identification ref name tolerance may also view sex activity morally neutral legally acceptable opposite sex activity unrelated mental illness genetically environmentally caused result bad parenting fixed also tend favor sex marriage ref name tolerance judaism according judaism sex man woman within marriage sacred enjoyed celibacy considered sinful ref name referencea christianity early christianity desire including sexual desire lust considered


immoral sinful according authors ref name knust ref ref name pagels ref ref name wiesner hanks ref elaine pagels says beginning fifth century augustine actually declared spontaneous sexual desire proof penalty universal original sin though view goes christian predecessors ref name pagels according jennifer wright knust paul framed desire force christians gained control whereas non christians enslaved ref name knust also said bodies christians members christ 's body thus sexual desire must eschewed ref name knust roman catholic church roman catholic church


teaches sexuality noble worthy unitive procreative end reason sexual activity 's ideal occur context marriage man woman open possibility life pope francis teaches amoris laetitia attitude would solve everything applying general rules deriving undue conclusions particular theological considerations also warns discussions doctrinal moral pastoral issues need settled interventions magisterium called form consciences


replace church authoritative teachings sexuality found catechism church places primacy conscience especially regulation births anglicanism anglican church teaches human sexuality gift loving god designed man woman monogamous lifetime union marriage also views singleness dedicated celibacy christ like states people sex attraction loved god welcomed full members body christ church leadership variety views regard


homosexual expression ordination expressions sexuality considered sinful including promiscuity prostitution incest pornography paedophilia predatory sexual behaviour sadomasochism may heterosexual homosexual adultery violence wives female circumcision church concerned pressures young people engage sexually encourages abstinence evangelicalism matters sexuality several evangelical churches promote virginity pledge among young evangelical christians invited commit public ceremony sexual abstinence christian marriage pledge often symbolized purity ring evangelical churches young adults


unmarried couples encouraged marry early order live sexuality according god although churches discreet subject evangelical churches united states switzerland speak satisfying sexuality gift god component harmonious christian marriage messages worship services conferences many evangelical books websites specialized subject perceptions homosexuality evangelical churches varied range liberal moderate conservative islam islam sexual desire considered natural urge


suppressed although concept free sex accepted urges fulfilled responsibly marriage considered good deed hinder spiritual wayfaring term used marriage within quran ''nikah'' literally means sexual intercourse although islamic sexuality restrained via islamic sexual jurisprudence emphasizes sexual pleasure within marriage acceptable man one wife must take care wives physically mentally emotionally financially spiritually muslims believe sexual intercourse act worship


fulfils emotional physical needs producing children one way humans contribute god 's creation islam discourages celibacy individual married however homosexuality strictly forbidden islam muslim lawyers suggested gay people put death hand argued islam open playful approach sex long within marriage free lewdness fornication adultery many muslims sex reference quran indicates bar anal intercourse adultery muslim marital home bonded


''nikah'' marital contract husband wife wives enjoy even indulge within privacy marital home limitless scope heterosexual sexual acts within monogamous polygamous marriage hinduism hinduism emphasizes sex appropriate husband wife satisfying sexual urges sexual pleasure important duty marriage sex marriage considered interfere intellectual development especially birth age said brahmacharya avoided kama sensual pleasures one four


sikhism way living discouraged including celibacy homosexuality however comparison religions issue sexuality sikhism considered one paramount importance see also references reading gregersen e ''sexual practices story human sexuality'' new york f watts lyons andrew p harriet eds ''sexualities anthropology reader'' malden wiley blackwell richardson niall smith clarissa werndly angela ''studying sexualities theories representations cultures'' london palgrave macmillan soble alan ed ''sex plato paglia'' philosophical encyclopedia volumes greenwood press


lay summary primary source appearing university calgary ''science'' prolactin release sexual activity mice possible relationship stroke therapy external links http digitalcommonslibrarytmcedu cgi viewcontentcgiarticle context childrenatrisk examining relationship media use aggression sexuality body image journal applied research children informing policy children risk vol iss article http wwwsexologyit glossary sexologyhtml glossary clinical sexology glossario di sessuologia clinica https webarchiveorg web http www hu berlinde sexology ies indexhtml international encyclopedia sexuality https webarchiveorg web http www rzhu berlinde sexology gesund archiv ies beginhtm full text janssen df https webarchiveorg web http www hu berlinde sexology gesund archiv gus indexatlashtm ''growing sexually volume world reference atlas'' full text masters william h virginia e johnson


robert c kolodny ''crisis heterosexual behavior age aids'' first ed new york grove press ix p https webarchiveorg web http nsrcsfsuedu national sexuality resource center https webarchiveorg web http data org pdf global sex surveypdf durex global sex survey https webarchiveorg web http wwwdata org indexaspx data org https webarchiveorg web http dbjhuccporg popinform basichtml popline searchable database world 's reproductive health literature https webarchiveorg web http wwwkinseyinstituteorg ccies continuum complete international encyclopedia sexuality kinsey institute http wwwsexualityinstituteorg sexuality rights institute http wwwasiasrcorg south southeast asia resource centre sexuality http wwweducatedearthnet videophpid mri video human copulation


argument terminology used logic two kinds '''logical reasoning''' often distinguished addition formal deduction induction abduction given precondition ''premise'' conclusion ''logical consequence'' rule ''material conditional'' implies ''conclusion'' given ''precondition'' one explain following deductive reasoning determines whether truth ''conclusion'' determined ''rule'' based solely truth premises example rains things outside get wet grass outside therefore rains grass gets wet mathematical logic philosophical logic

Humanities
Philosophy
Logic
Logical Reasoning


commonly associated type reasoning inductive reasoning attempts support determination ''rule'' hypothesizes ''rule'' numerous examples taken ''conclusion'' follows ''precondition'' terms ''rule'' example grass got wet numerous times rained therefore grass always gets wet rains type reasoning commonly associated generalization empirical evidence may persuasive arguments deductively valid see problem induction abductive reasoning sometimes called ''inference best explanation'' selects


cogent set ''preconditions'' given true ''conclusion'' ''rule'' attempts select possible ''premises'' true also support ''conclusion'' though uniquely example rains grass gets wet grass wet therefore might rained kind reasoning used develop hypothesis turn tested additional reasoning data diagnosticians detectives scientists often use type reasoning within context mathematical model three kinds reasoning described follows construction creation


structure model ''abduction'' assigning values probability distributions parameters model ''induction'' executing running model ' 'deduction'' kinds reasoning beside three common categories defeasible reasoning paraconsistent reasoning probabilistic reasoning statistical reasoning see non demonstrative reasoning comparison kinds reasoning see also analogy argument argumentation theory critical thinking dialogical logic fallacy inference informal logic logic reason references logic reasoning analogy arguments causal inference concepts epistemology concepts logic concepts metaphysics critical thinking deductive reasoning empiricism epistemology science inductive


reasoning metaphilosophy philosophical logic philosophy logic philosophy mathematics problem solving skills rationalism thought truth de schlussfolgerung nl redenering


'''policy analysis''' technique used public administration enable civil servants activists others examine evaluate available options implement goals laws elected officials process also used administration large organizations complex policies defined process determining various policies achieve given set goals light relations policies goals policy analysis divided two major fields ref name b hrs ref analysis existing policy analytical descriptive attempts

Social science
Political science
Policy studies
Policy analysis


explain policies development analysis new policy prescriptive involved formulating policies proposals example improve social welfare areas interest purpose analysis determine types analysis conducted combination two kinds policy analyses together program evaluation defined ''policy studies'' policy analysis frequently deployed public sector equally applicable elsewhere nonprofit organizations non governmental organizations policy analysis roots systems analysis approach used united states secretary defense


robert mcnamara approaches various approaches policy analysis exist analysis ''for'' policy analysis ''of'' policy central approach social science educational policy studies linked two different traditions policy analysis research frameworks approach analysis ''for'' policy refers research conducted actual policy development often commissioned policymakers inside bureaucracy eg civil servants within policy developed analysis ''of'' policy academic exercise conducted academic researchers professors think tank researchers often seeking understand


particular policy developed particular time assess effects intended otherwise policy implemented three approaches distinguished analysis centric policy process meta policy approach ref name b hrs analysis centric analysis centric analycentric approach focuses individual problems solutions scope micro scale problem interpretation problem resolution usually involves technical solution primary aim identify effective efficient solution technical economic terms eg efficient allocation resources policy process access date ref policy process


approach puts focal point onto political processes involved stakeholders scope broader meso scale interprets problems using political lens ie interests goals elected officials aims determining processes means policy instruments eg regulation legislation subsidy used well tries explain role influence stakeholders within policy process ' 'stakeholders'' defined broadly include citizens community groups non governmental organizations businesses even opposing political parties changing relative power influence certain groups eg enhancing public participation


consultation solutions problems may identified buy wider group one way follows heuristic model called ''policy cycle'' simplest form policy cycle often depicted visually loop circle starts identification problem proceeds examination different policy tools could used respond problem goes implementation stage one policies put practice eg new regulation subsidy set place


finally policy implemented run certain period policy evaluated number different viewpoints used evaluation including looking policy 's effectiveness cost effectiveness value money outcomes outputs meta policy meta policy approach systems context approach ie scope macro scale problem interpretation usually structural nature aims explaining contextual factors policy process ie political economic socio cultural factors influence problems may result structural factors eg certain


economic system political institution solutions may entail changing structure methodology policy analysis uses qualitative methods quantitative methods qualitative research includes case studies interviews community members quantitative research includes survey research statistical analysis also called ' 'data analysis'' model building common practice define problem evaluation criteria identify evaluate alternatives recommend certain policy accordingly promotion best agendas product careful back room analysis policies ''a priori'' assessment ''a posteriori'' evaluation dimensions analyzing policies six dimensions policy analysis


categorized effects implementation policy across period time also collectively known durability policy means capacity content policy produce visible effective compatible change results time robustness '''effects''' class wikitable '''effectiveness''' effects policy targeted problem '''unintended effects''' unintended effects policy '''equity''' effects policy different population groups '''implementation''' class wikitable '''cost''' financial


policy analysis five e approach consists examining policy terms ref name kirst ashman ref effectiveness well work well predicted work efficiency much work entail significant costs associated solution worth ethical considerations ethically morally sound unintended consequences evaluations alternatives good compared approaches relevant approaches considered establishment recommendations positive change actually implemented better


amend replace remove add policy framework policies considered frameworks optimize general well commonly analyzed legislative bodies lobbyists every policy analysis intended bring evaluative outcome systemic policy analysis meant depth study addressing social problem following steps policy analysis defining problem assessed policy assessing policy objectives target populations studying effects policy policy implications distribution resources changes services rights statuses tangible benefits alternative policies


surveying existing possible policy models could addressed problem better parts could make effective evidence based models many models exist analyze development implementation public policy analysts use models identify important aspects policy well explain predict policy consequences models based upon types policies types government eg federal provincial municipal policies adopted within public institutions eg hospitals child care centers schools workplace eg policies govern employees employee manager relations evidence supported models governments public


policy determined range political institutions give policy legitimacy policy measures general government applies policy citizens monopolizes use force applying implementing policy government control law enforcement court systems imprisonment armed forces legislature executive judicial branches government examples institutions give policy legitimacy many countries also independent quasi independent arm 's length bodies funded government independent elected officials political leaders organizations may include government commissions tribunals regulatory agencies electoral commissions process


poverty public health issue view could best solved public health nurses government medical doctors substance abuse counsellors sent park outreach drug using individuals encourage voluntarily enter detoxification rehabilitation programs agenda setting formulation policy proposals various parties eg citizen groups congressional committees think tanks interest groups lobby groups non governmental organizations policy selection adoption legal enactment selected policy elected officials houses representatives stage '''policy legitimation''' conferred upon selected policy solution


policy implementation involves civil servants putting selected policy option practice depending choice made executive legislative branch could involve creating new regulation removing existing regulations creating new laws creating new government program service creating new subsidy grant etc policy evaluation policy place year several years civil servants independent consulting firm assesses policy see goals achieved policy implemented effectively etc model however criticized overly linear


simplistic reality stages policy process may overlap never happen also model fails take account multiple factors attempting influence process well complexity entails public institutions one widely used model public institutions herbert simon father rational models also used private corporations however many criticise model due characteristics model impractical relying unrealistic assumptions instance difficult model apply


public sector social problems complex ill defined interdependent problem lies thinking procedure implied model linear face difficulties extraordinary problems social problems sequences happenings rational model ''see rational planning model fuller discussion'' rational model decision making process making sound decisions policy making public sector rationality defined style behavior appropriate achievement given goals within limits imposed given conditions constraints important


note model makes series assumptions 'the model must applied system stable' 'the government rational unitary actor actions perceived rational choices' 'the policy problem unambiguous' 'there limitations time cost' furthermore context public sector policy models intended achieve maximum social gain simon identifies outline step step mode analysis achieve rational decisions ian thomas describes simon 's steps follows intelligence gathering comprehensive organization data potential


problems opportunities identified collected analyzed identifying problems accounting relevant factors assessing consequences options listing possible consequences alternatives could resolve problem ranking probability potential factor could materialize order give correct priority said factor analysis relating consequences values policies set relevant dimensional values example economic feasibility environmental protection set criteria appropriateness performance consequences option responsive judged choosing


assumptions stated simon never fully valid real world context criticism rational model include leaving gap planning implementation ignoring role people entrepreneurs leadership etc insufficiency technical competence ie ignoring human factor reflecting mechanical approach ie organic nature organizations requiring multidimensional complex models generation predictions often wrong ie simple solutions may overlooked incurring cost ie costs rational comprehensive planning may outweigh cost savings policy however thomas r dye president


brains make totally new policies past policies accepted legitimacy existing policies sunk costs discourage innovation incrementalism easier approach rationalism policies politically expedient n't necessitate radical redistribution values models necessarily struggle improve acceptability public policy criticisms policy approach include challenges bargaining ie successful limited resources downplaying useful quantitative information obscuring real relationships political entities anti intellectual approach problems ie preclusion imagination bias towards


conservatism ie bias far reaching solutions workplaces many contemporary policies relevant gender workplace issues actors analyze contemporary gender related employment issues ranging parental leave maternity programs sexual harassment work life balance gender mainstreaming juxtaposition variety research methodologies focused common theme richness understanding gained integrates usually separate bodies evaluation role gender welfare state developments employment transformations workplace policies work experience group model policy formed result forces pressures


influential groups pressure groups informally co opted policy making process regulatory agencies captured supposed regulate one group dominant time issues group bridge individual administration executive thus pressured interest groups task system establish rules game arrange compromises balance interests enact compromises policy enforce compromises several major types policy analysis broadly groupable competing approaches empirical versus normative policy analyses retrospective


versus prospective analyses prescriptive versus descriptive analyses techniques used policy analysis cost benefit analysis management objectives mbo operations research decision making based analytics program evaluation review technique pert critical path method cpm evaluation success policy measured changes behavior target population active support various actors institutions involved public policy authoritative communication prescribing unambiguous course action specified individuals groups certain situations must authority leader charged implementation monitoring policy


sound social theory underlying program target group evaluations help estimate effects produced program objectives alternatives however claims causality made randomized control trials policy change applied one group applied control group individuals randomly assigned groups obtain compliance actors involved government resort positive sanctions favorable publicity price supports tax credits grants aid direct services benefits declarations rewards voluntary standards mediation education demonstration programs training contracts subsidies loans general


expenditures informal procedures bargaining franchises sole source provider awardsetc steps conducting policy evaluation policy evaluation used examine content implementation impact policy helps understand merit worth utility policy following national collaborating centre healthy public policy 's ncchpp steps planning clarify policy engage stakeholders assess resources evaluability determine evaluation questions determine methods procedures develop evaluation plan implementation collect data process data analyze results utilization interpret disseminate results apply evaluation findings see also advocacy evaluation discourse analysis discursive


institutionalism eightfold path policy analysis governmental learning spiral eight step process citizen participation policy process approach policy analysis new public management political feasibility analysis propensity score matching references reading young e quinn l https webarchiveorg web http lgiosihu publications writing effective public policy papers young quinnpdf writing effective public policy papers guide policy advisers central eastern europe open society institute budapest evaluation methods policy social work systems analysis public policy research political science public administration


techniques local anesthesia topical anesthesia surface similar topical gel numbing getting injected lidocaine infiltration plexus block adverse effects depend local anesthetic method site administration discussed depth local anesthetic sub article overall adverse effects localized prolonged anesthesia paresthesia due infection hematoma excessive fluid pressure confined cavity severing nerves support tissue injection systemic reactions depressed cns syndrome allergic reaction vasovagal episode cyanosis due local anesthetic toxicity lack anesthetic effect due infectious pus

Applied science
Medicine and health
Regional Anesthesia


iliaca compartment block references external links http wwwnysoracom new york school regional anesthesia http medicalfreeonlinebookstoreorg showbookphpsubcategoryid anesthesia books http wwwnerveblocksnet general information tutorials peripheral regional anesthesia http wwwworldanaesthesiaorg free online manual regional anaesthesia john hyndman http wwwlife techcom anesthesia educ neuroshtml clinical use peripheral nerve stimulators neuromuscular junction https webarchiveorg web https esrakenescom esra european society regional anaesthesia congress anesthesia


'''attrition''' may refer attrition warfare military strategy wearing enemy continual losses personnel material war attrition fought egypt israel war attrition game model aggression game theory loss personnel withdrawal military attrition research loss participants experiment attrition dental loss tooth structure mechanical forces opposing teeth attrition erosion wearing away rocks rivers sea imperfect contrition also known attrition catholic theology customer attrition loss business clients customers

Applied science
Military sciences
Strategy
Attrition


physics '''newtonian dynamics''' understood dynamics particle small body according newton 's laws motion mathematical generalizations typically '''newtonian dynamics''' occurs three dimensional euclidean space flat however mathematics newton 's laws motion generalized multidimensional curved spaces often term '''newtonian dynamics''' narrowed newton 's second law math displaystyle mathbf mathbf f math newton 's second law multidimensional space consider math displaystyle n math particles masses math displaystyle ldots n math regular three dimensional euclidean space let math displaystyle mathbf r ldots mathbf r n math radius vectors

Natural science
Physics
Newtonian dynamics


vt math ie take form newton 's second law applied single particle unit mass math displaystyle math '''definition''' equations called equations '''newtonian dynamical system''' flat multidimensional euclidean space called configuration space system points marked radius vector math displaystyle mathbf r math space whose points marked pair vectors math displaystyle mathbf r mathbf v math called phase space dynamical system euclidean structure configuration space phase space dynamical system euclidean


r math newtonian dynamical system written constraint reduces one number degrees freedom newtonian dynamical system therefore constrained system math displaystyle n n k math degrees freedom '''definition''' constraint equations define math displaystyle n math dimensional manifold math displaystyle math within configuration space newtonian dynamical system manifold math displaystyle math called configuration space constrained system tangent bundle math displaystyle tm math called phase space constrained system let math displaystyle q ldots q n math internal coordinates point


use separate symbol treated independent variables quantities used internal coordinates point phase space math displaystyle tm math constrained newtonian dynamical system embedding induced riemannian metric geometrically vector function implements embedding configuration space math displaystyle math constrained newtonian dynamical system math displaystyle n math dimensional flat configuration space unconstrained newtonian dynamical system due embedding euclidean structure ambient space induces riemannian metric onto manifold math displaystyle math components


constrained newtonian dynamical system constraints described equations usually implemented mechanical framework framework produces auxiliary forces including force maintains system within configuration manifold math displaystyle math maintaining force perpendicular math displaystyle math called normal force force math displaystyle mathbf f math subdivided two components first component tangent configuration manifold math displaystyle math second component perpendicular math displaystyle math coincides normal force math displaystyle mathbf n math br like velocity vector tangent


force math displaystyle mathbf f parallel math internal presentation numblk math displaystyle mathbf f parallel sum n frac partial mathbf r partial q f math quantities math f ldots f n math called internal components force vector newton 's second law curved space newtonian dynamical system constrained configuration manifold math displaystyle math constraint equations described differential equations numblk math frac dq dt w qquad frac w dt sum n sum n j gamma ij w w j f qquad ldots n math math gamma ij math christoffel symbols metric connection produced riemannian metric relation lagrange equations mechanical systems constraints usually described lagrange equations numblk math frac dq dt w qquad frac dt left frac partial partial w right frac partial partial q q qquad ldots n math math q ldotsq nw ldotsw n math kinetic


energy constrained dynamical system given formula quantities math q ldots q n math inner covariant components tangent force vector math mathbf f parallel math see produced inner contravariant components math f ldots f n math vector math mathbf f parallel math means standard index lowering procedure using metric numblk math q sum n r g sr f r qquad ldots n math equations equivalent equations however metric geometric features configuration manifold math displaystyle math explicit metric recovered kinetic energy math displaystyle math


means formula numblk math g ij frac partial partial w partial w j math see also modified newtonian dynamics classical mechanics isaac newton


'''general practice''' name given various nations united kingdom india australia new zealand south africa services provided general practitioners nations us similar services may described family medicine primary care term primary care uk may also include services provided community pharmacy optometrist dental surgery community hearing care providers balance care primary care secondary care usually refers hospital based services varies place place time many

Applied science
Medicine and health
Primary care
General practice


countries initiatives move services hospitals community expectation save money convenient india group doctors based birmingham set social enterprise company pathfinder healthcare plans build eight primary health centres india british model general practice according dr niti pall primary health care poorly developed india centres run commercially patients charged rupees initial consultation prescribed generic drugs dispensed


attached pharmacies ireland ireland general practitioners working group practices primary care centres single practices health centres australia general practice services australia funded medicare benefits scheme mbs public health insurance scheme australians need referral gp able access specialist care general practitioners work general practitioner practice gpp gps supported practice nurses administrative staff move incorporate health professionals pharmacists general practice


provide integrated multidisciplinary healthcare team deliver primary care united kingdom pattern services uk largely established national insurance act established list system came friendly societies across country every patient entitled list panel general practitioner applied paid national insurance contributions adult population covered panel doctor national health service established extended whole


population practice would responsible patient record kept '''lloyd george envelope''' would transferred necessary another practice patient changed practice uk unlike many countries patients normally direct access hospital consultants gp controls access secondary care lloyd george envelopes whalsay health centre services provided general medical services contract regularly revised general practitioners estimated making home visits day seeing


patients surgeries ref name century general practice ref according nhs england almost salaried gps working part time pressure coronavirus epidemic general practice shifted quickly remote working something progressing slowly point hurley group clare gerada reported work online using digital triage system linked patient 's electronic patient record processes consultations per hour video calling used see


patients needed premises practices generally small often single handed operating doctor 's home often doctor 's wife acting receptionist nhs established plans building health centres built british medical association conducted survey gp premises half respondents thought surgeries suitable present needs said would able handle expected future demands number size practices gp practices closed