include positions advertising public relations acting law business marketing information assurance directing high school britain british children take english language english literature gcse subjects many go study level continues debate within teaching community regarding relevance shakespeare contemporary teens arguing modern texts upholding virtues classics see also level ontario canada students high school specific course requirements must meet graduate regards english studies students


must take four full credits english one grade level well ontario high school students must also pass literacy test see also american literature academic discipline literati english second language academic english references o'hara shelly ''what major english'' hoboken wiley publishing inc university chicago ''courses programs study'' college http collegecataloguchicagoedu de vane william clyde ''the english major'' college english vol oct pp nbsp https wwwjstororg stable history english major http wwwchassutorontoca ian arnoldhtm external links http wwwessenglishorg european society

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
English studies


study english esse http wwwisle linguisticsorg international society linguistics english isle http wwwadeorg association departments english us canada https webarchiveorg web http wwwncteorg cccc conference college composition communication http wwwenglishorg sigma tau delta int english honor society int english honour society http wwwmlaorg modern language association ''mla'' https webarchiveorg web http wwwmlaorg related professional professional organizations related ''mla'' english language english language literature literary criticism literary theory literary education english language culture academic disciplines


relief camp bhuj gujarat earthquake '''disaster response''' second phase disaster management cycle consists number elements example warning evacuation search rescue providing immediate assistance assessing damage continuing assistance immediate restoration construction infrastructure ie provisional storm drains diversion dams aim emergency response provide immediate assistance maintain life improve health support morale affected population assistance may range providing specific limited aid assisting refugees transport temporary shelter food

Applied science
Public administration
Disaster response


establishing semi permanent settlement camps locations also may involve initial repairs damaged diversion infrastructure focus response phase putting people safe prevent next disasters meeting basic needs people permanent sustainable solutions found main responsibility address needs respond disaster lies government governments whose territory disaster occurred addition humanitarian organisations often strongly present phase disaster management cycle particularly countries government lacks


resources respond adequately needs definition disaster noun defined calamitous event especially one occurring suddenly causing great loss life damage hardship flood aircraft crash angry person response defined context noun answer reply words action ''business dictionary'' provide comprehensive definition disaster response aggregate decisions measures contain mitigate effects disastrous event prevent loss life property


occurring district provincial level large number people affected recent case study disaster response undertaken ifrc viewed level disaster response depends number factors particular situation awareness studies undertaken son aziz pe mora shows initial work demand gradually spreads increases based wide range variables including scale disaster vulnerability affected area turn affected population density site specific conditions eg exposure hazardous conditions effects cascading disasters resulting


inter dependence elements critical infrastructure british government 's emergency response recovery guidance disaster response refers decisions actions taken accordance strategic tactical operational objectives defined emergency responders high level protect life contain mitigate impacts emergency create conditions return normality response encompasses decisions actions taken deal immediate effects emergency many scenarios likely relatively short last matter hours days rapid implementation


actions life safety communication directives within standard nfpa recognize disasters day day emergencies characteristically different nevertheless prescribed response elements support nfpa standard statoil 's practical application emergency response across three distinct lines incorporate nfpa 's elements line responsible operational management incident line typically housed site responsible tactical guidance additional resource management finally case major incidents line provides strategic guidance group resource management government media relations


impossible plan every disaster crisis emergency statoil investigation terrorist attacks amenas place emphasis importance disaster response report concludes disaster response framework may utilized array disaster situations amenas organizations united nations office coordination humanitarian affairs ocha responsible bringing together humanitarian actors ensure coherent response emergencies require international response ocha plays key role operational coordination crisis situations includes assessing


situations needs agreeing common priorities developing common strategies address issues negotiating access mobilizing funding resources clarifying consistent public messaging monitoring progress organisation united kingdom provision communications disaster response raynet uk organisation provision disaster response road vehicles x response canada globalmedic established non sectarian humanitarian aid ngo provide disaster relief services large scale catastrophes around world ref name ottawa sun czekaj laura ready world paramedics train international disasters ''ottawa sun'' november ref ref


name globalmedic us ref ''time'' magazine recognized work globalmedic ''time'' issue ref name time ref roster volunteers across canada includes professional rescuers police officers firefighters paramedics donate time respond international disasters personnel divided rapid response teams rrts operate rescue units water purification units wpus designed provide safe drinking water emergency medical units emus use inflatable field hospitals provide emergency medical treatment since globalmedic teams deployed humanitarian disasters around world india


national disaster management authority responsible planning mitigating effects natural disasters anticipating avoiding man made disasters also coordinates capacity building response government agencies crises emergencies ref name ndma functions ref national disaster response force inter government disaster response agency specializes search rescue rehabilitation ref name abt ref us federal emergency management agency coordinates federal operational logistical disaster response capability needed save sustain lives minimize suffering protect property timely effective manner communities become overwhelmed disasters centers disease control


prevention offer https wwwemergencycdcgov hazards specificasp information specific types emergencies disease outbreaks natural disasters severe weather well chemical radiation accidents also https wwwcdcgov niosh emres emergency preparedness response program national institute occupational safety health develops resources address responder safety health responder recovery operations among volunteers american red cross chartered congress lead coordinate non profit efforts supported disaster relief organizations many religious denominations community service agencies licensed amateur radio operators support volunteer organizations


emergency telecommunications service supports federal state local tribal government personnel industry non governmental organizations crisis emergency providing emergency access priority handling local long distance calls public switched telephone network nationwide wireless priority service allows user wait celluar bandwidth open wireless mesh networks deployed rapidly enable internet connectivity substitute failed mobile phone networks emergency post disaster communication including disaster response coordination emergency calls mesh networks batman often developed deployed open source volunteer


communities little resources electricity emergency power systems mobile microgeneration units mobile charging power supply stations specially designed extended smart grids could support important electrical systems loss normal power supply restore power supply small regions whose connections main power grid cut transportation transportation infrastructure may become unpassable due disaster complicating logistics evacuation disaster response technologies may allow quick ad hoc sufficient restoration transportation network substitutions parts include rapid construction stable bridges


based mobile lightweight locally sourced materials components militaries involved waste management disaster waste often managed ad hoc manner waste generated disaster overwhelm existing solid waste management facilities affect response activities depending type disaster scope recovery duration conventional waste may need managed similar ways may associated transportation network restoration emergency accommodation accommodation terms emergency accommodation sometimes considered element infrastructure temporary accommodation people animals


disasters issue sometimes existing private accommodation infrastructure logistics repurposed disaster response water supply water supply drainage sewerage infrastructure functioning wastewater treatment plants may disrupted disasters vaccination infrastructure long term disaster response well medical infrastructure local disaster regions increased health risk may include vaccination infrastructure response coordination websites volunteers well people involved disaster response locals civil organizations like technische hilfswerk coordinated coordinate help websites similar icts


preventing traffic jams disaster tourists obstruction transportation network allocating different forms help locations need reporting missing persons increasing efficiency websites specific individual affected regions set european floods emergency response systems smart emergency response system sers prototype built smartamerica challenge united states government initiative sers created team nine organizations led mathworks project featured white house june described todd park us chief technology officer


mission wi fi network created fly drones equipped antennas addition autonomous rotorcrafts planes ground vehicles simulated simulink visualized environment google earth unlock ability observe operations mass scale international charter space major disasters provides charitable retasking satellite assets providing coverage space agencies etc wide albeit contingent focuses beginning disaster cycle timely data essence digital technologies increasingly used


response need pertinent effective continuous analysis situation information order evaluate needs resources mhealth shown provide effective disaster preparedness real time collection medical data well helping identify create needs assessments disasters using mobile technology heath set stage dynamic organization medical resources promotion patient care done quick triage patient tracking documentation storage maintenance managing effective influential response requires cooperation also facilitated mhealth retrospective study demonstrated


applying mhealth lead decrease unnecessary hospital transfers disasters ref name marres et al ref addition provide field hospital administrators real time census information essential planning resource allocation inter facility patient transfers inter agency collaboration mhealth technology systems improve post operative care patient handoffs volunteer providers ref name marres et al data entry mobile devices widely used facilitate registration displaced individuals conduct surveys identify need assistance capture data issues food security vaccination rates mortality mhealth harness power


information improve patient outcomes efforts led harvard humanitarian initiative operational medicine institute haiti earthquake resulted creation web based mhealth system created patient log unique entries used ground medical providers field hospital administrators helped facilitate provider triage improve provider handoffs track vulnerable populations unaccompanied minors pregnant women traumatic orthopedic injuries specified infectious diseases also haiti earthquake international red crescent sent million smss viole mobile phone users resulted


receiver reporting gained useful information reported sms helped preparedness problematic individual collective responses previous experiences false alarms cause people ignore legitimate danger signals fire alarm amanda ripley points contrary many portrayals movies among general public fires large scale disasters remarkable lack panic sometimes dangerous denial lack reaction rationalization warning signs obvious says often attributed local national character


appears universal typically followed consultations nearby people signals finally get enough attention disaster survivors advocate training everyone recognize warning signs practice responding study published showed social networks function poorly pathways inconvenient truths people would rather ignore interplay communication action may depend structure social networks also showed communication networks suppress necessary evacuations test scenarios spontaneous diffuse emergence false reassurance compared groups isolated individuals larger


women consequently addressing needs first helps disaster relief responses reach many people possible meeting gender inclusive needs critical men women also different needs must addressed specifically biological differences men women create different needs instance needs women post disaster context include access menstrual products access secure toilet going non secure toilet leave women vulnerable potential rape sexual assault critical pre post natal


services name areas also immediate needs need addressed post disaster relief responses beyond women 's immediate needs women face long term income disparities result disasters women women 's income disproportionately impacted disasters study undertaken le masson et al found following hurricane katrina ratio women 's men 's earnings new orleans declined prior disaster underlying disproportionate impact gendered vulnerabilities one notable gendered vulnerability double burden double


unpaid care work work women carers another critical underlying gendered vulnerability unequal access economic resources globally women less access livelihoods assets financial accounts opportunities men ref name ref times disaster lack access sufficient financial resources force women turn risky behaviour prostitution transactional sex means survival crises also tend increase burdens care household responsibilities women making ability economically support dependents difficult ref name see also hurricane


response references bibliography son jeongwook aziz zeeshan feniosky pe mora http wwwemeraldinsightcom journalshtmissn x structural survey vol iss pp nbsp nfpa ''standard disaster emergency management business continuity programs'' edition nfpa statoil ''the amenas attack report investigation terrorist attack amenas prepared statoil asa 's board directors'' statoil asa external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwrsgborguk emergency radio society great britain website rsgb http www x responseinfo x response network https wwwyoutubecom watchv oofhmaewwp video smart emergency response system https wwwemergencycdcgov hazards specificasp cdc 's information specific types emergencies https wwwcdcgov niosh emres emergency preparedness response resources national institute


helminth ''spinochordodes'' parasitising bush cricket ''meconema'' sp plate f lix dujardin 's ''histoire naturelle des helminthes ou vers intestinaux'' '''helminthology''' study parasitic worms helminths field studies taxonomy helminths effects hosts origin first compound word greek '' '' helmins meaning worm th early th century wave publications helminthology period described science 's golden era period authors f lix dujardin ref name dujardin ref william blaxland benham peter simon pallas marcus elieser

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Helminthology


bloch otto friedrich ller ref name llerdall biodiversity heritage library ref johann goeze friedrich zenker charles wardell stiles carl asmund rudolphi otto friedrich bernhard von linstow ref name linstow ref johann gottfried bremser started systematic scientific studies subject ref name ernst ref japanese parasitologist satyu yamaguti one active helminthologists th century wrote six volume ''systema helminthum'' ref name anonymous anonymous special edition list papers dr satyu yamaguti collaborators notice distribution meguro parasitological museum news http wwwkiseichuorg documents mpmnews pdf pdf ref see also nematology references


applied sense consistent agrophysics agrochemistry outside russia history xenophon ndash bc cato ndash bc early edaphologists xenophon noted beneficial effect turning cover crop earth cato wrote de agri cultura farming recommended tillage crop rotation use legumes rotation build soil nitrogen also devised first soil capability classification specific crops jan baptist van helmont ndash performed famous experiment growing willow tree pot soil supplying rainwater five years weight gained

Natural science
Earth science
Edaphology


tree greater weight loss soil concluded willow made water although partly correct experiment reignited interest edaphology areas study agricultural soil science agricultural soil science application soil chemistry physics biology dealing production crops terms soil chemistry places particular emphasis plant nutrients importance farming horticulture especially regard soil fertility fertilizer components physical edaphology strongly associated crop irrigation drainage soil husbandry strong tradition within agricultural


soil science beyond preventing soil erosion degradation cropland soil husbandry seeks sustain agricultural soil resource though use soil conditioners cover crops environmental soil science environmental soil science studies interaction pedosphere beyond crop production fundamental applied aspects field address vadose zone functions septic drain field site assessment function land treatment wastewater stormwater erosion control soil contamination metals pesticides remediation contaminated soils restoration wetlands soil degradation environmental nutrient management also studies soil context land use


planning global warming acid rain see also soil functions soil zoology sustainable agriculture notes references references https webarchiveorg web http wwweioneteuropaeu gemet conceptcp european environment information observation network eionet url last accessed sssa https wwwsoilsorg publications soils glossary soil science glossary url last accessed external links soil science physical geography


academy death philosopher bc '''platonism''' philosophy plato philosophical systems closely derived though contemporary platonists necessarily accept doctrines plato ref name ao platonism profound effect western thought platonism least affirms existence abstract objects asserted exist third realm distinct sensible external world internal world consciousness opposite nominalism ref name ao philosophers affirm existence abstract objects sometimes called platonists

Humanities
Philosophy
Philosophical traditions and schools
Platonism


deny existence sometimes called nominalists terms platonism nominalism established senses history philosophy denote positions little modern notion abstract object connection essential bear mind modern platonists small 'p' need accept doctrines plato modern nominalists need accept doctrines medieval nominalists http platostanfordedu archives spr entries abstract objects abstract objects gideon rosen stanford encyclopedia philosophy spring edition edward n zalta ed ref apply properties types propositions meanings


numbers sets truth values see abstract object theory philosophers affirm existence abstract objects sometimes called platonists deny existence sometimes called nominalists terms platonism nominalism also established senses history philosophy denote positions little modern notion abstract object narrower sense term might indicate doctrine platonic realism form mysticism central concept platonism distinction essential theory forms distinction reality


form good source forms could known reason ''sophist'' later work forms ''being'' ' 'sameness'' ' 'difference'' listed among primordial great kinds plato established academy rd century bc arcesilaus adopted academic skepticism became central tenet school bc antiochus added stoic elements rejected skepticism began period known middle platonism rd century ad plotinus added additional mystical elements establishing neoplatonism summit existence one good


source things virtue meditation soul power elevate attain union one many platonic notions adopted christian church understood plato 's forms god 's thoughts position also known divine conceptualism neoplatonism became major influence christian mysticism west saint augustine doctor catholic church heavily influenced plotinus' ''enneads'' turn foundations whole western christian thought many ideas plato incorporated roman catholic church ref name litlist ref philosophy timaeus''


detail vatican fresco school athens primary concept theory forms true founded upon forms eternal unchangeable perfect types particular objects moral responsible sense imperfect copies multitude objects sense involved perpetual change thereby deprived genuine existence ref name seyffert oskar seyffert ''dictionary classical antiquities'' page ref number forms defined number universal concepts derived particular objects sense ref name seyffert following excerpt may representative


plato 's middle period metaphysics epistemology blockquote socrates since beautiful opposite ugly two br glaucon course br since two one br grant also br account true unjust good bad forms one manifest everywhere association actions bodies one another appears many br 's right br draw distinction one side called lovers sights


lovers crafts practical people side arguing one would alone call philosophers br mean br lovers sights sounds like beautiful sounds colors shapes everything fashioned thought unable see embrace nature beautiful br 's sure br fact people would able reach beautiful see n't br certainly br someone believes beautiful things n't believe


beautiful n't able follow anyone could lead knowledge n't think living dream rather wakened state n't dreaming whether asleep awake think likeness likeness rather thing like br certainly think someone dreaming br someone take opposite case believes beautiful see things participate n't believe participants


participants living dream awake br 's much awake br ''republic'' bk v e translation gma grube blockquote book vi ''republic'' identifies highest form form good cause ideas knowing forms contingent conceptions derived impressions sense never give us knowledge true ie forms ref name seyffert obtained soul 's activity within apart troubles disturbances


sense say exercise reason ref name seyffert dialectic instrument process leading us knowledge forms finally highest form good first sciences ref name seyffert later neoplatonism beginning plotinus identified good ''republic'' transcendent absolute one ref name brenk ref first hypothesis ''parmenides'' c platonist ethics based form good virtue knowledge recognition supreme form good ref name seyffert since cognition three parts soul


reason spirit appetite share get three virtues wisdom courage moderation ref name seyffert bond unites virtues virtue justice part soul confined performance proper function ref name seyffert platonism profound effect western thought many interpretations ''timaeus'' platonism like aristotelianism poses eternal universe opposed nearby judaic tradition universe created historical time continuous history recorded unlike aristotelianism platonism describes idea prior matter


identifies person soul many platonic notions secured permanent place christianity ref name oxford platonism cross f l ed oxford dictionary christian church new york oxford university press ref history ancient philosophy academy site plato 's academy athens platonism originally expressed dialogues plato figure socrates used expound certain doctrines may may similar thought historical socrates plato 's master plato delivered lectures academy precinct containing sacred grove outside walls


living ensouled world soul pre eminence period belongs plutarch eclectic nature platonism time shown incorporation pythagoreanism numenius apamea jewish philosophy philo alexandria neoplatonism many western churchmen including augustine hippo influenced platonism third century plotinus recast plato 's system establishing neoplatonism middle platonism fused mysticism summit existence stands one good source things ref name seyffert oskar seyffert ''dictionary classical antiquities'' page ref generates


reflection reason ''nous'' wherein contained infinite store ideas ref name seyffert world soul copy ''nous'' generated contained ''nous'' one informing matter nonexistent constitutes bodies whose existence contained world soul ref name seyffert nature therefore whole endowed life soul soul chained matter longs escape bondage body return original source ref name seyffert virtue philosophical thought power


elevate reason state ecstasy behold ascend one good primary reason cannot know ref name seyffert attain union good god true function human beings ref name seyffert plotinus' disciple porphyry followed iamblichus developed system conscious opposition christianity platonic academy established period renowned head proclus died celebrated commentator plato 's writings academy persisted roman emperor justinian closed medieval philosophy christianity platonism platonism


various philosophers ref name oxford aristotle became influential plato th century st thomas aquinas 's philosophy still certain respects fundamentally platonic ref name oxford modern philosophy renaissance renaissance also saw renewed interest platonic thought including interest plato ref name oxford th th th century england plato 's ideas influenced many religious thinkers including cambridge platonists ref name oxford orthodox protestantism continental europe however distrusts natural reason often critical platonism ref name oxford issue reception plato early modern europe deal


sex elements corpus ''christoplatonism'' term used refer dualism opined plato holds spirit good matter evil ref name christoplatonism ref influenced christian churches though bible 's teaching directly contradicts philosophy thus receives constant criticism many teachers christian church today according methodist church ''christoplatonism'' directly contradicts biblical record god calling everything created good ref name christoplatonism contemporary philosophy modern platonism apart historical platonism originating thinkers plato plotinus also encounter theory


abstract objects modern sense blockquote platonism view exist things abstract objects abstract object object exist space time therefore entirely non physical non mental platonism sense contemporary view ref name sep p https platostanfordedu entries platonism platonism metaphysics stanford encyclopedia philosophy ref blockquote contemporary platonists trace views gottlob frege '''modern platonism''' endorsed one way another one time another numerous philosophers bernard bolzano argue anti psychologism plato 's works


decisively influential th century philosophers alfred north whitehead process philosophy critical realism metaphysics nicolai hartmann analytic contemporary philosophy platonists trace ideas gottlob frege 's influential paper thought argues platonism respect propositions influential book ''the foundations arithmetic'' argues platonism respect numbers seminal text logicist project ref name sep p contemporary analytic philosophers espoused platonism metaphysics include bertrand russell ref name sep p alonzo church ref name sep p kurt g del ref name sep p w v


quine ref name sep p david kaplan ref name sep p saul kripke ref name sep p edward zalta peter van inwagen iris murdoch espoused platonism moral philosophy book ''the sovereignty good'' paul benacerraf 's epistemological challenge contemporary platonism proved influential criticism continental contemporary continental philosophy edmund husserl 's arguments psychologism believed derive platonist conception logic influenced frege mentor bolzano husserl explicitly mentioned bolzano g w leibniz hermann lotze inspirations position ''logical investigations'' prominent contemporary continental philosophers interested


platonism general sense include leo strauss simone weil alain badiou see also innatism list ancient platonists plato 's unwritten doctrines debates plato 's esotericism people harold f cherniss scholar plato 's relation aristotle references reading ackermann c ''the christian element plato platonic philosophy'' translated asbury samuel ralph edinburgh clark cassirer ernst ''the platonic renaissance england'' translated james p pettegrove edinburgh nelson kristeller paul oskar renaissance platonism ''renaissance thought classic scholastic humanistic strains'' new york harper walker daniel pickering ''the


ancient theology studies christian platonism fifteenth eighteenth century'' london duckworth external links http wwwjohn uebersaxcom plato cphtm christian platonism christian neoplatonism http wwwjohn uebersaxcom plato iphtm islamic platonists neoplatonists academic skepticism catholic theology doctrine schools thought western culture


dissolution website legislature congress legislature type bicameral legislature place

Social science
Political science
American politics


capitol upperhouse senate upperhouse speaker kamala harris upperhouse speaker title vice president president senate upperhouse appointer direct election lowerhouse house representatives lowerhouse speaker


nancy pelosi lowerhouse speaker title speaker house representatives lowerhouse appointer exhaustive ballot title hosag president current hosag joe biden appointer hosag electoral


college cabinet cabinet united states current cabinet cabinet joe biden cabinet leader president cabinet deputyleader vice president cabinet appointer


president cabinet hq white house cabinet ministries judiciary federal judiciary united states judiciary head john roberts judiciary head title


chief justice courts courts united states court supreme court chief judge john roberts court seat


judiciary 's function interpret united states constitution federal laws regulations includes resolving disputes executive legislative branches federal government 's layout explained constitution two political parties democratic party republican party dominated american politics since american civil war although parties existed major differences political system united states many developed countries include increased power upper house legislature wider scope power held supreme court


separation powers legislature executive dominance two main parties united states one world 's developed countries third parties minimal influence almost representation national state level federal entity created us constitution dominant feature american governmental system citizens also subject state government various units local government counties municipalities special districts state government new york state senate chamber state governments power make laws subjects


granted federal government denied states us constitution include education family law contract law crimes unlike federal government powers granted constitution state government inherent powers allowing act unless limited provision state national constitution like federal government state governments three branches executive legislative judicial chief executive state popularly elected governor typically holds office four year term although states


th century used nearly american cities structure like state national governments elected mayor chief executive branch elected council represents various neighborhoods forming legislative branch mayor appoints heads city departments officials sometimes approval council power veto ordinances laws city often responsible preparing city 's budget council passes city ordinances sets tax rate property apportions money among various


city departments cities grown council seats usually come represent single neighborhood commission combines legislative executive functions one group officials usually three number elected city wide commissioner supervises work one city departments commissioners also set policies rules city operated one named chairperson body often called mayor although power equivalent commissioners council manager city manager response


increasing complexity urban problems need management ability often possessed elected public officials answer entrust executive powers including law enforcement provision services highly trained experienced professional city manager council manager plan adopted large number cities plan small elected council makes city ordinances sets policy hires paid administrator also called city manager carry decisions manager draws city budget supervises departments usually


set term manager serves long council satisfied work county government county subdivision state sometimes always containing two townships several villages new york city large divided five separate boroughs county right hand arlington county virginia united states' smallest county located across potomac river washington dc urbanized suburban area governed unitary county administration cities city


county governments merged creating consolidated city county government us counties one town city designated county seat government offices located board commissioners supervisors meets small counties boards chosen county larger ones supervisors represent separate districts townships board collects taxes state local governments borrows appropriates money fixes salaries county employees supervises elections builds maintains highways bridges administers national state county welfare programs small counties


specific meaning simply informal term applied populated places incorporated unincorporated municipalities moreover states term town equivalent civil townships used states government usually entrusted elected board council may known variety names town village council board selectmen board supervisors board commissioners board may chairperson president functions chief executive officer may elected mayor governmental employees may include clerk treasurer police fire officers


health welfare officers one unique aspect local government found mostly new england region united states town meeting year sometimes often needed registered voters town meet open session elect officers debate local issues pass laws operating government body decide road construction repair construction public buildings facilities tax rates town budget town meeting existed three centuries places often cited purest form


direct democracy governmental power delegated exercised directly regularly people suffrage women 's suffragists parade new york city carrying placards signatures million women suffrage nearly universal citizens years age older states district columbia contribute electoral vote president however district us holdings like puerto rico guam lack representation congress constituencies right choose political figure outside


respective areas commonwealth territory district elect non voting delegate serve house representatives voting rights sometimes restricted result felony conviction laws vary widely state election president indirect suffrage voters vote electors compose united states electoral college turn vote president presidential electors originally expected exercise judgement modern practice though expected vote pledged faithless electors unincorporated areas states contain unincorporated


areas areas land governed local authorities rather county state federal governments residents unincorporated areas need pay taxes county state federal governments opposed municipal government well notable example paradise nevada unincorporated area many casinos commonly associated las vegas situated unincorporated territories united states possesses number unincorporated territories including island territories across globe ref name ref areas land


jurisdiction state government established congress organic act citizens territories vote members local governments also elect representatives serve congress though observer status ref name unincorporated territories us include american samoa baker island howland island jarvis island johnston atoll kingman reef midway atoll navassa island palmyra atoll wake island others american samoa territory native resident population governed local authority despite fact organic


act passed congress american samoa established constitution self governed ever since seeking statehood independence often debated us territories puerto rico even referendums issues held congressional approval needed changes status take place citizenship status residents us unincorporated territories caused concern ability influence participate politics united states recent decades supreme court established voting fundamental right us citizens even though residents


territories hold full voting rights ref name ref despite residents must still abide federal laws cannot equitably influence well register national selective service system led scholars argue residents territories essentially second class citizens ref name legal justifications discrepancies stem insular cases series supreme court cases consider reflective imperialism racist views held united states ref name unequal access political participation us territories also criticized


affecting us citizens move territories action requires forfeiting full voting rights would held states ref name campaign finance successful participation especially federal elections requires large amounts money especially television advertising money difficult raise appeals mass base although election candidates parties success raising money citizens internet howard dean internet appeals parties generally depend wealthy donors organizations traditionally democrats depended


donations organized labor republicans relied business donations since however democrats' business donations surpassed labor organizations dependency donors controversial led laws limiting spending political campaigns enacted see campaign finance reform opponents campaign finance laws cite first amendment 's guarantee free speech challenge campaign finance laws attempt circumvent people 's constitutionally guaranteed rights even laws upheld complication compliance first amendment requires careful cautious drafting legislation leading laws


still fairly limited scope especially comparison countries united kingdom france canada political culture colonial origins american political culture deeply rooted colonial experience american revolution colonies unique within european world vibrant political culture attracted ambitious young men politics time american suffrage widespread world every man owned certain amount property allowed vote despite fact fewer british men could vote white american


men eligible roots democracy apparent deference typically shown social elites colonial elections although declined sharply american revolution colony wide range public private business decided elected bodies especially assemblies county governments topics public concern debate included land grants commercial subsidies taxation well oversight roads poor relief taverns schools americans spent great deal time court private lawsuits common legal affairs overseen local judges juries


central role trained lawyers promoted rapid expansion legal profession dominant role lawyers politics apparent notable individuals including john adams thomas jefferson among many others american colonies unique world context growth representation different interest groups unlike europe royal court aristocratic families established church control american political culture open merchants landlords petty farmers artisans anglicans presbyterians quakers germans scotch irish yankees yorkers many identifiable groups


representatives elected legislature lived districts unlike england common member parliament absentee member parliament finally dramatically americans fascinated increasingly adopted political values republicanism stressed equal rights need virtuous citizens evils corruption luxury aristocracy none colonies political parties sort formed shifting factions vied power american ideology statue liberty symbol american freedom openness


immigration republicanism along form classical liberalism remains dominant ideology central documents include declaration independence constitution federalist anti federalist papers bill rights lincoln 's gettysburg address among others among core tenets ideology following civic duty citizens responsibility understand support government participate elections pay taxes perform military service opposition political corruption democracy government answerable citizens may change representatives elections equality law laws attach


special privilege citizen government officials subject law others freedom religion government neither support suppress religion freedom speech government cannot restrict law action personal non violent speech citizen marketplace ideas time united states' founding economy predominantly one agriculture small private businesses state governments left welfare issues private local initiative uk industrialized countries laissez faire ideology largely discredited great depression


fiscal policy characterized keynesian consensus time modern american liberalism dominated economic policy virtually unchallenged ref name weeks weeks j inequality trends developed oecd countries j k j baudot eds ''flat world big gaps economic liberalization globalization poverty inequality'' new york zed books ref ref name thomas ref since late early however laissez faire ideology become powerful force american politics ref name clark clark b ''political economy comparative approach'' westport ct preager ref american welfare state expanded threefold wwii


gdp since late ref name alber ref ref name barr barr n ''economics welfare state'' new york oxford university press usa ref today modern american liberalism modern american conservatism engaged continuous political battle characterized economist describes greater divisiveness close bitterly fought elections ref name economist ref world war ii united states pursued noninterventionist policy foreign affairs taking sides conflicts foreign powers country abandoned policy became superpower country mostly supports internationalism researchers looked


authoritarian values main argument paper long run economic changes globalization negative impact social identity historically dominant groups leads increase authoritarian values increased incentive force minority groups conform social norms political parties elections women 's march washington dc protested election president donald trump united states constitution never formally addressed issue political parties primarily founding fathers originally intend american politics partisan federalist papers


alexander hamilton james madison respectively wrote specifically dangers domestic political factions addition first president united states george washington member political party time election throughout tenure president remains day independent held office furthermore hoped political parties would formed fearing conflict stagnation nevertheless beginnings american two party system emerged immediate circle advisers including hamilton madison partisan


style background f width px style width px democratic style text align right style text align right style background f width px style width px republican style text align right style text align right style background dddddd width px style width px party preference style text align right style text align right style background dddddd width px style width px style text align right style text align right style background eee colspan style text align right totals style text align right style text align right modern political party system united states two party system dominated democratic party republican party two parties


every united states presidential election since controlled united states congress since least time time several third parties achieved relatively minor representation national state levels among two major parties democratic party generally positions center left american politics supports american liberalism platform republican party generally positions center right supports american conservatism platform elections elections roosevelt high school des moines iowa united kingdom similar parliamentary systems us


elections united states constitution defines basic extent federal elections held article one article two various amendments state law regulates aspects electoral law including primaries eligibility voters beyond basic constitutional definition running state 's electoral college running state local elections gerrymandering gerrymandering process frequently used adjust boundaries electoral districts order advantage one political party representing confluence elections political parties addition primarily favoring voters


one party gerrymandering also criticized impact minority voters united states minority voters often concentrated single districts reduce potential otherwise influence elections districts though process also help ensure election representative race ref name however racial groups asian americans form majority district 's population miss potential benefit ref name similarly women rarely concentrated way compose significant majority district 's population meaning


party ref name organization american political parties american political parties loosely organized countries two major parties particular formal organization national level controls membership thus american say member democratic republican parties quite different briton 's stating member conservative labour parties us states voter register member one another party vote primary election one another party


person may choose attend meetings one local party committee one day another party committee next day party identification becomes somewhat formalized person runs partisan office states means declaring oneself candidate nomination particular party intent enter party 's primary election office party committee may choose endorse one another seeking nomination end choice choose vote primary often difficult


national committee republican national committee acts hub much fund raising campaign activities particularly presidential campaigns exact composition committees different party made primarily representatives state parties affiliated organizations others important party however national committees power direct activities members party parties also separate campaign committees work elect candidates specific level significant hill committees work elect candidates


election usually regarded referendum sitting president 's performance voters either voting president 's party 's candidates turn helps next session congress either pass block president 's agenda respectively political pressure groups k street washington dc become metonym american lobbying industry alt street sign k street tall office buildings background special interest groups advocate cause specific constituency business organizations favor low corporate taxes restrictions right strike whereas labor unions support


minimum wage legislation protection collective bargaining private interest groups churches ethnic groups concerned broader issues policy affect organizations beliefs one type private interest group grown number influence recent years political action committee pac independent groups organized around single issue set issues contribute money political campaigns united states congress presidency pacs limited amounts contribute directly candidates federal elections


restrictions however amounts pacs spend independently advocate point view urge election candidates office pacs today number thousands number interest groups mushroomed operating offices washington dc representing directly congress federal agencies says michael schudson book ''the good citizen history american civic life'' many organizations keep eye washington seek financial moral support ordinary citizens since many focus narrow set


concerns even single issue often single issue enormous emotional weight compete parties citizens' dollars time passion amount money spent special interests continues grow campaigns become increasingly expensive many americans feeling wealthy interests whether corporations unions pacs powerful ordinary citizens little counteract influences survey members american economic association find vast majority regardless political affiliation discontent current state democracy america


primary concern relates prevalence influence special interest groups within political process tends lead policy consequences benefit special interest groups politicians conjecture maintenance policy status quo hesitance stray perpetuates political environment fails advance society 's welfare general developments many america 's founding fathers hated thought political parties sure quarreling factions would interested contending working common good wanted citizens vote candidates


without interference organized groups different views new country 's proper course already developed held opposing views tried win support cause banding together followers alexander hamilton hamiltonian faction took name federalist favored strong central government would support interests commerce industry followers thomas jefferson jeffersonians anti federalists took name democratic republicans preferred decentralized agrarian republic federal government limited


power federalists disappeared organization replaced whigs brought life opposition election year president andrew jackson jackson 's presidency split democratic republican party jacksonians became democratic party following leadership john quincy adams became national republicans two party system still existence today born note national republicans john quincy adams party today 's republican party issue slavery took center stage disagreement particular question whether slavery


permitted country 's new territories west whig party straddled issue sank death overwhelming electoral defeat franklin pierce presidential election ex whigs joined know nothings newly formed republican party know nothing party short lived republicans would survive intense politics leading civil war primary republican policy slavery excluded territories six years later new party captured presidency abraham lincoln election parties well established


country 's dominant political organizations party allegiance become important part people 's consciousness party loyalty passed fathers sons party activities including spectacular campaign events complete uniformed marching groups torchlight parades part social life many communities however boisterous folksiness diminished municipal reforms civil service reform corrupt practices acts presidential primaries replace power politicians national conventions helped clean politics development two party system united states since


country run two major parties try defeat party destroy occasional minor third political parties appear time time seldom last decade various times socialist party farmer labor party populist party years considerable local strength faded away merged mainstream example minnesota farmer labor party merged state 's democratic party officially known democratic farmer labor party present small libertarian party


lasted years usually largest national elections rarely elects anyone new york state number additional third parties sometimes run candidates office sometimes nominate nominees two main parties district columbia dc statehood party served third party one issue almost public officials america elected single member districts win office beating opponents system determining winners called ''first past post'' one gets plurality wins


whereby political party would create ballot thus voter would put party 's ballot voting box late nineteenth century states began adopt australian secret ballot method eventually became national standard secret ballot method ensured privacy voters would protected hence government jobs could longer awarded loyal voters state would responsible creating one official ballot fact state legislatures dominated democrats republicans provided parties opportunity pass discriminatory laws minor


america political labels democratic republican cover virtually public officeholders therefore voters everywhere mobilized name two parties says nelson w polsby professor political science book ''new federalist papers essays defense constitution'' yet democrats republicans everywhere variations sometimes subtle sometimes blatant political cultures states yield considerable differences overall means vote democratic republican differences suggest one may justified referring american two party system


masking something like hundred party system political spectrum two major parties th century overall political philosophy republican party democratic party underwent dramatic shift earlier philosophies republican party considered classically liberal two major parties democratic party classically conservative populist two changed great deal presidency democrat franklin roosevelt whose new deal included founding social security well variety


federal services public works projects roosevelt 's performance twin crises depression world war ii led sort polarization national politics centered around combined increasingly liberal policies turn fdr 's democrats left republican party right early parties essentially expressed centrist approach politics national level liberal moderate conservative wings influential within parties early conservative wing became dominant


independent ross perot pushed major parties put forth centrist presidential candidates like bill clinton bob dole polarization congress said cemented republican takeover others say polarization existed since late democrats controlled houses congress liberals within republican party conservatives within democratic party democratic leadership council neoliberals typically fulfilled roles called political mavericks radical centrists brokers compromise two major parties also helped respective parties


gain certain regions might ordinarily elect member party republican party used approach centrist republicans rudy giuliani george pataki richard riordan arnold schwarzenegger elections sent many centrist conservative democrats state federal legislatures including several notably kansas montana switched parties religious groups religious groups churches often become political pressure groups parts political coalitions despite establishment clause us constitution recent decades one notable coalitions composed conservative evangelical


protestants broader republican party ref name ref however scholars argued coalition may starting split non conservative moderate evangelical protestants supported candidate barack obama ref name even political coalitions religious groups political parties split change relative religions christianity noted continual dominant impact politics united states ref name dominance translated pressuring policymakers pass laws influenced religious views laws related morality personal conduct ref name ref study focusing type


political pressure used alcohol gambling laws states case studies measuring impact religious groups found large conservative protestant populations strong religious pressures greater association restrictive initial laws economic development demonstrating presence religious groups potentially influence policy ref name concerns oligarchy views suggest political structure united states many respects oligarchy small economic elite overwhelmingly dominate policy law academic researchers suggest drift toward oligarchy occurring way


majority citizens disagrees economic elites elites tend prevail getting way ref name gilenspage characterizing united states oligarchy plutocracy outright gilens page give weight idea civil oligarchy used jeffrey winters saying winters posited comparative theory 'oligarchy' wealthiest citizens even 'civil oligarchy' like united states dominate policy concerning crucial issues wealth income protection study gilens page reached conclusions ref ej dionne jr described considers


effects ideological oligarchical interests judiciary journalist columnist scholar interprets recent supreme court decisions ones allow wealthy elites use economic power influence political outcomes favor speaking supreme court 's ''mccutcheon v fec'' ''citizens united v fec'' decisions dionne wrote thus court conferred wealthy people right give vast sums money politicians undercutting rights millions citizens cast ballot nobel prize winning economist paul krugman wrote concerns political representation observations historical trends


matching policy views power political system ref name ref name ref serving congressional committee chair considered good example relationship chairs control issues addressed committees especially hearings bring substantial attention certain issues ref name though minorities like african americans latinos rarely served committee chairs studies shown presence directly led significantly higher likelihoods minority issues addressed ref name given racial ethnic minorities backgrounds historically marginalized participating


take interests account ref name women minorities issue occur even levels government meant closest constituents among members congress house representatives scholars noted positions even close proximity constituents necessarily translate understanding needs experiences constituents still feel unrepresented ref name democracy lack faith one 's representatives cause search less democratic alternative forms representation like unelected individuals


interest groups ref name racial ethnic minorities risk seeking alternative representation especially acute lived experiences often lead different political perspectives difficult white representatives fully understand adequately address ref name moreover studies begun increasingly show people races genders tend prefer members congress share race gender also lead engagement constituents representatives well higher likelihoods contacting faith congressperson ref name addition making


likely constituents trust representatives descriptive representation help sustain individual 's positive perceptions government considering women particular suggested broader economic social equality could result first working toward ensuring equitable political representation women would also help promote increased faith women representatives ref name ref race ethnicity political representation african american members us house blue hispanics latinos red native americans yellow asian americans green whites gray


americans nationwide congressperson race majority black americans represented members congress different race ref name scholars partially explained discrepancy focusing obstacles black candidates face factors like election type campaign costs district demographics historical barriers voter suppression hinder likelihood black candidate winning election even choosing enter election process ref name demographics particular noted large influence black candidate success research shown


americans entering races winning elections ref name hispanic latino americans populous minority demographic identified us census hispanic latino americans become increasingly important constituency spread throughout united states ref name ref despite also constituting population least quarter house districts latino representation congress correspondingly increased ref name furthermore latino members congress represented one quarter total latino population us ref name many potential explanations disparity


including issues related voter suppression surveys latino voters identified trends unique demographic though survey data still indicated descriptive representation important hispanic latino voters ref name descriptive representation may considered important analysis national survey latinos revealed political participation substantive representation strongly associated possibly indicating voters mobilize behalf candidates whose policy views reflect rather share ethnic background ref name moreover breakdown rationale emphasizing descriptive representation


reveals additional factors behind supporting latino candidates view may greater respect appreciation spanish belief latinos linked together indicating significance shared cultural experiences values ref name although reasons behind choosing vote latino candidates monolithic election latinos congress identified resulting benefits minorities overall argued unique district related issues take equal greater precedence latino interests hispanic latino members congress studies also shown


latinos likely support african american members congress vice versa beyond expected shared party membership ref name native americans similar minority groups native americans often lack representation due electoral policies gerrymandering particular noted method concentrating native voters limited number districts reduce ability influence multiple elections ref name ref despite structural efforts limit political representation states large native american populations higher levels representation south dakota native population multiple federally


recognized tribal nations used case study representation ref name study conducted interviews former state elected officials south dakota revealed even though many felt able implement limited number significant changes tribal communities still considered absolutely essential native americans least descriptive representation prevent complete exclusion political process ref name moreover formerly elected state local government officials asserted ensuring issues concerns tribal nations addressed


understood depended politicians native backgrounds ref name historically backed suspicion skepticism predominantly white us government also considered important reason representatives reflect histories views native americans ref name asian americans pacific islanders relative larger minority demographics united states asian americans pacific islanders aapi face different challenges related political representation congressional districts population includes asian americans elevate likelihood represented someone different race ethnicity ref


name minorities result people feeling unrepresented member congress ref name gender political representation women members us house blue men gray women members us senate blue men gray women made continual socioeconomic progress many key areas society employment education comparison men women voted higher rates forty years making lack proportional representation political system surprising ref name ref


women candidates likely receive votes members party independents ref name social inequality sexism social inequality sexism noted scholars influencing electoral process women survey attitudes toward women candidates women respondents far likely view process running office hostile women men especially considering public hesitancy support women candidates media coverage public discrimination ref name political fundraising candidates also area inequality men donate higher rate


women compounded gender racial inequalities related income employment ref name however recent increases women focused fundraising groups started alter imbalance ref name given disproportionate levels household labor often become responsibility women discrimination within households also identified major influence capability women run office ref name women lgbtq community scholars raised concern unequal attention paid needs lesbians compared transgender bisexual queer women lesbian civil rights described


receiving focus politicians ref name social pressures influences social pressures another influence women run office often coinciding sexism discrimination scholars argued views discrimination prompted decrease supply women willing run office though partially countered argue women actually strategic trying identify election favorable conditions ref name factors like overrepresentation men described influencing perceptions men somehow inherently


effective politicians leaders scholars argue could pressure women stay elections ref name however others contend overrepresentation men actually result political momentum women year woman ref name within racial ethnic groups social influences also shape political engagement among latinos latinas likely partake nonelectoral activities like community organizing compared men ref name despite differences political activity social pressures elected women political parties voiced support electing


women congress increase acceptance voices experiences ref name furthermore studies found increasing descriptive representation women provide positive social influences democracy whole improved perceptions individual 's political efficacy government 's responsiveness needs people ref name women vote woman candidate party studies also found influences magnified ref name lgbt political representation white house illuminated colors rainbow flag ''obergefell v hodges'' ruling


legalized sex marriage nationally although scholars disputed benefits descriptive representation small number argued form representation actually negative impacts group represents ref name ref studies bills relating lgbt rights state legislatures provided nuanced analysis pro lgbt bills tend introduced higher numbers lgbt representatives elected state legislatures may also indicate increased likelihood substantive representation ref name increases openly lgbt state lawmakers also hypothesized inadvertently result anti lgbt legislation potentially


emphasizing value openly lgbt members congress ref name descriptive representation provided benefits overall scholars noted groups community transgender bisexual people tend receive less focus gays lesbians ref name reform see also foreign relations united states gun politics united states political ideologies united states politics southern united states initiatives referendums united states references reading barone michael et al ''the almanac american politics '' pages covers every member congress


governor depth new edition every two years since brewer mark l sandy maisel ''parties elections america electoral process'' th ed https wwwamazoncom parties elections america electoral process dp excerpt edwards george c martin p wattenberg robert l lineberry ''government america people politics policy'' th edition finkelman paul peter wallenstein eds ''the encyclopedia american political history'' short essays scholars greene jack p ed ''encyclopedia american political history studies principal movements ideas'' vol long essays scholars hershey marjorie r ''party politics america'' th edition


hetherington marc j bruce larson ''parties politics public policy america'' th edition pp kazin michael rebecca edwards adam rothman eds ''the princeton encyclopedia american political history'' vol maisel l sandy ed ''political parties elections united states encyclopedia'' vol garland short essays scholars maisel l sandy ''american political parties elections short introduction'' pp o'connor karen larry j sabato alixandra b yanus ''american government american government roots reform'' th ed wilson james q


et al ''american government institutions policies'' th ed https wwwamazoncom american government institutions james wilson dp excerpt external links official party websites http constitutionpartycom official constitution party web site http wwwdemocratsorg official democratic party web site http wwwgopcom official republican party web site http wwwgporg official green party web site http wwwlporg official libertarian party web site


'''argentine literature''' ie set literary works produced writers originated argentina one prolific relevant influential whole spanish speaking world renowned writers jorge luis borges julio cort zar leopoldo lugones ernesto bato history origins matter fact name country comes latinism first appeared literary source martin del barco centenera 's epic poem ''la argentina'' composition runs verses describes landscape well conquest territory word reintroduced

Humanities
Languages and literature
Argentine Literature


center due foundation national university c rdoba two names stand period gaspar ju rez baviano antonia de la paz figueroa also known beata antula gradually economic prosperity port cultural axis moved eastward letters colonial age viceroyalty neoclassicism baroque epic grew protection independentist fervor vicente l pez planes pantale n rivarola esteban de luca th century argentine baroque literature poor comparison europe parts new world


aesthetic intellectual brought esteban echeverr wrote first local realistic story ''el matadero'' slaughterhouse well nativist poem ''la cautiva'' captive pampas background barbed wit opposition powerful buenos aires governor juan manuel de rosas forced exile middle th century jos rmol published first argentine novel ''amalia'' historical novel set dark year mixed fictional characters amalia daniel bello eduardo belgrano actual historical characters like juan manuel de rosas


spano ricardo guti rrez chronicle writers folk literature lucio v mansilla published ''una excursi n los indios ranqueles'' sort chronicle voluntary expedition sign peace treaty indians work enrolled realistic aesthetic anticipated generaci n del ' would deeply influenced modernism juana manuela gorriti one first popular female writers mainly due melodramatic narrative works like novel ''la hija del mazorquero'' foundation ''la alborada'' cultural magazine ''literatura gauchesca'' cover ''mart n fierro'' jos hern ndez


edition european oriented indeed euro centric themes styles would remain norm argentine letters especially buenos aires century romantic poetry ''la cautiva'' latter ''santos vega'' rafael obligado gave lot importance nature ''pampa'' sharing elements picturesque imitation gaucho literature purporting use language gauchos reflect mentality first current known ''poes nativista'' nativist poetry became literary tradition second known ''poes gauchesca'' developed parallel part generation 's understanding national


identity although also product literary authors writing takes voice gaucho protagonist beginning ''gauchesca'' related ''payador 's singing'' payador modern equivalent illiterate medieval singers payador 's work opposition ''gauchesca'' sung spontaneously first ''gauchesco'' author bartolom hidalgo wrote war independence therefore works strong political ideology compositions mainly ''cielitos'' ''payadoresque'' songs provocative political messages ' 'di logos patri ticos'' conversations two characters current affairs second period ''gauchesca''


influenced political faction fights estanislao del campo hilario ascasubi representative writers period del campo wrote ''fausto'' poem read parody gauchesca intelligent joke towards city people poem anastasio el pollo meets friend tells impressions particular event seen devil el pollo n't know pretends n't saw actually opera performance teatro col n last author gauchesca jos hern ndez author mart n fierro gauchesca


leaves political influences becomes social sense gauchos disappearing mainly due sarmiento new economic model hern ndez considered responsible consolidating gauchesco style generation generation emphasized european color cultural supremacy buenos aires migratory current mixed ethnicity accentuated change ''big village'' ''cosmopolitan metropolis'' poetry period lyric leopoldo az almafuerte latter usually depicts worker 's life passionate attacks contradictions contemporary society almafuerte pseudonym pedro bonifacio


palacios also teacher journalist whose opinions articles gave lot problems essay recent genre developed late th century jos manuel estrada pedro goyena joaqu n v gonz lez narrative works oscillated social issues folk literature predominant tendency realism best represented miguel autobiographical novel ''juvenilia'' writers influenced realism lucio v mansilla francisco sicardi benito lynch carlos mar ocantos naturalism also important tendency towards end century argentine naturalism commanded eugenio cambaceres


novels ''sin rumbo'' ''m sica sentimental'' almost forgotten today cambaceres inspired mile zola 's theory naturalistic approach literary work ideology suffered considerable alterations juli n martel antonio argerich added highly loaded moral touch argentine naturalism modern adolfo bioy casares victoria ocampo jorge luis borges mar del plata towards end th century led nicaraguan rub n dar modernism appears latin american literature preciosity manner strong influence symbolism sum new genre inspires clearest voice


poetry leopoldo lugones author first argentine science fiction story first truly modern generation argentine literature martinfierristas c movement contributes intellectual doctrine number current trends come together trend represented florida group adscript ultra smo oliverio girondo jorge luis borges leopoldo marechal macedonio fern ndez trend boedo impressed russian realism ra l gonz lez tu n c sar tiempo el catelnuovo ricardo g iraldes however remains classical style giving whole new freshness ''gauchesca'' poetry writing


perhaps novel ''don segundo sombra'' benito lynch eccentric short story writer like g iraldes easily fit generation wrote quirky tales enchanted neo ''gauchoesque'' manner time end decade beginning following one emerged ''nov simos'' newest generation poets arturo cambours ocampo carlos carlino jos portogalo fiction writers arturo cerretani roberto arlt luis maria albamonte luis horacio vel zquez playwrights roberto valenti juan oscar ponferrada javier villafa e group promoted philosophical reflection new essence ''argentinidad'' leopoldo marechal 's


novel ad n buenosayres published praised julio cort zar also worthy note literary work leonardo castellani jesuit priest left considerable bulk essays novels tales poetry expelled company jesus outspoken castellani also widely ignored like contemporary marechal literary ''intelligentsia'' time due nationalist ideology generation ' ''generation '' centers poetry developed descriptive nostalgic meditative work ricardo e molinari vicente barbieri olga


orozco le n benar alfonso sola gonz les fiction writers subscribed idealism magic realism mar granata adolfo bioy casares julio cort zar silvina ocampo subtler form realism manuel mujica la nez ernesto l castro ernesto sabato abelardo arias urban touches well folk literature joaqu n g mez bas roger pl essayists abound antonio pag larraya emilio carilla luis soler ca stand although greatest argentine essayist sarmiento ezequiel mart nez estrada also belonged generation ' many


writers number european ones contributed extensively ''sur'' literary journal published victoria ocampo noted commentator day 's culture neohumanism existentialism influences julio cort zar photograph sara facio another milestone arose new humanism response world war ii aftermath one level avant gardists like ra l gustavo aguirre edgar bayley julio llin another existentialists jos isaacson julio ar stides miguel ngel viola away reconcile tendencies regionalist tendency alfredo veirav jaime valos alejandro


among vicissitudes renewed field ethical aesthetic ideas current marked reunion among survivors different generations intellectual coalition review values texts argentina faced end century examples alan pauls mario areca bal cristobo ernesto de sanctis marco denevi edgar brau see also latin american boom latin american literature latin american poetry cultural movement notes references reading arce emilia isabel https wwwlibutexasedu etd arcee arcee pdf la institucionalizaci n del rol materno durante gobiernos autoritarios respuestas de escritoras argentinas brasile la


''' native american studies''' also known american indian indigenous american aboriginal native first nations studies interdisciplinary academic field examines history culture politics issues spiritual sociology contemporary experience native peoples north america ref name native taking hemispheric approach americas increasingly debate focused differences rather similarities ethnic studies disciplines african american studies asian american studies latino studies particular political sovereignty many indigenous nations marks substantive differences historical experience racial ethnic groups

Social science
Sociology
Cultural studies
Native American Studies


united states canada drawing numerous disciplines anthropology sociology history literature political science gender studies native american studies scholars consider variety perspectives employ diverse analytical methodological tools work ref name native heitshu marshall ref two key concepts shape native american studies according crow creek lakota scholar elizabeth cook lynn indigenousness defined culture geography philosophy sovereignty legally historically defined ref name c cook lynn p ref practitioners advocate decolonization indigenous peoples political autonomy establishment discipline dedicated alleviating contemporary problems facing indigenous peoples ref name native


history native american historical experience marked forcible sometimes cooperative attempts assimilation mainstream european american culture americanization beginning missionaries leading federally controlled schools aim educate american indians could return communities facilitate cultural assimilation described david beck article american indian higher education colonization self determination schools tool assimilation focus academic training industrial domestic jobs ref name native civil rights movement contested mainstream methods assimilationist


indoctrination curriculum k schools universities throughout united states american indian students coupled sympathetic professors assisted creating programs new goals rather focused education community assimilation move educate empowerment programs practiced community outreach focused student retention campus arose movement school programs fostered new interpretation american indian history sociology politics ref name native first convocation american indian scholars march princeton university indigenous scholars drafted plan develop native american studies


academic disclipine would defend indigenous control land indigenous rights would ultimately reform us indian policy discipline would informed traditional knowledge especially oral history would defend indigenous nationhood america ref name c contrast western anthropology knowledge base native american studies endogenous emerging indigenous communities developers native american studies widely dismissed scientific objectivity ref name c since western cultural biases historically informed anthropology disciplines decolonizing native american studies linda tuhiwai smith professor education maori development pro vice chancellor maori university


waikato hamilton new zealand smith explains word research linked european colonialism indigenous peoples apprehensive cautious connection pursuit knowledge research deeply embedded multiple layers european colonial processes colonial definitions understandings native peoples reported west representations sent back attached indigenous identity way research powerful indigenous researchers must afforded opportunity critique fine tune methodologies group accurately represented periodization philip


deloria professor native american history harvard university popularly accepted authority field explores historiography native america history focusing important questions deloria acknowledges abundance work canon also understands lack diversity among authors examination system organization possible future inclusions multiplicities field deloria leads reader question epistemology highlights idea ' 'difference'' insisting historians must analyze non native writers viewed native americans different natives viewed


assessments another focus deloria periodization provides four broad historical periods written native american history analyzing work frontiers history racial science modernist history native narrative shifts historical writing identified states suggests changes social political epistemological positions within non indian societies helped produce new kinds history writing deloria research brings conclusion interesting new work field native american history come native non native writers fully explored


work side academic journals ''american indian quarterly'' ''american indian culture research journal'' ''canadian journal native studies'' ''european review native american studies'' ''native studies review'' ''studies american indian literatures'' ''sail'' ''transmotion'' ''w azo review'' conferences native american literature symposium notable scholars taiaiake alfred kanien kehaka kahnawake mohawk paula gunn allen laguna pueblo sioux greg cajete santa clara pueblo dean chavers lumbee brenda child red lake indian reservation allison hedge coke huron muscogee creek cherokee elizabeth cook lynn crow creek sioux philip deloria standing rock sioux vine deloria jr standing rock sioux raymond demallie jack forbes powhatan renape lenape daniel heath


justice cherokee nation trudie lamb richmond schaghticoke stacy leeds cherokee nation devon mihesuah choctaw lorin morgan richards simon j ortiz acoma pueblo luana ross flathead nation greg sarris federated indians graton rancheria james thomas stevens mohawk charlene teters spokane tribe gerald vizenor white earth anishinaabe robert williams jr lumbee craig womack muskogee nation alfred young man cree see also center world indigenous studies cultural studies din college press indian country today indigenous law centre postcolonialism publications ''alternative international journal indigenous peoples'' ''first american art magazine'' ''journal aboriginal health'' ''journal indigenous studies'' ''tribal college journal''


hatchet knife sometimes saw staple tools bushcraft billhook common tool europe saw blade used bushcraft tool france '''bushcraft''' use practice skills acquiring developing knowledge understanding order survive thrive natural environment '''bushcraft skills''' therefore provide basic physiological necessities human life food foraging tracking hunting trapping fishing water sourcing purification shelter building firecraft may supplemented expertise twine making knots lashings wood carving campcraft medicine health natural navigation

Human physical performance and recreation


bushcraft includes knowledge handle certain tools bushcraft knives axes bushcrafter use tools create many different types constructions dugout canoes frame shelters term bushcraft popularized southern hemisphere les hiddins bush tucker man well northern hemisphere mors kochanski recently gained considerable currency united kingdom due popularity ray mears bushcraft survival television programs origin phrase bushcraft comes skills used bush country australia often


phrases wilderness skills woodcraft used describe skills used world etymology miniature bowdrill kit ''oxford english dictionary'' definition bushcraft skill matters pertaining life bush word used current sense australia south africa least far back bush sense probably direct adoption dutch 'bosch' 'bos' originally used dutch colonies woodland country covered natural wood extended usage british colonies applied uncleared


included ''bushcraft science travel'' ''bushcraft shifts science travel countries'' ''the history australian exploration '' ernest favenc published ''my brilliant career'' miles franklin published ''campaign pictures war south africa '' g hales published ''the explorers australia life work'' ernest favenc published ''we never never'' jeannie gunn published ''the life captain matthew flinders'' ernest scott published trademark word bushcraft


registered us patent trademark office trademark bushcraft usa llc november service mark providing line forum bushcraft providing line forums transmission messages among computer users concerning bushcraft ser led concern validity mark among internet users asserted senior uses mark general context mors kochanski early however formal opposition ever filed assertion continuous use commerce


mark related internet forums bushcraft usa publicly enforced mark internet forums using term promoters irish born australian writer richard graves titled outdoor manuals bushcraft books canadian wilderness instructor mors kochanski published northern bushcraft book expanded edition book stated numerous occasions book title explicit reference graves' work term enjoyed recent popularity largely thanks ray mears cody lundin les hiddins les stroud dave canterbury mors kochanski


television programs see also batoning outdoor education scoutcraft survivalism woodcraft czech tramping people bradford angier horace kephart jamie maslin dick proenneke lofty wiseman richard harry graves mors kochanski references external links https webarchiveorg web http paytitiorg selva tours english jungle tours native bushcraft medical plants peru survival skills primitive technology


honeybee drinking water '''melittology''' greek ''melitta'' bee '' logia'' branch entomology concerning scientific study bees may also called '''apicology''' melittology covers species found clade anthophila within superfamily apoidea comprising species including bumblebees honey bees subdivisions '''apiology''' latin bee ancient greek '' logia'' scientific study honey bees honey bees often chosen study group answer questions evolution social systems '''apidology''' variant spelling ''apiology'' used outside

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Apiology


western hemisphere primarily europe sometimes used interchangeably ''melittology'' melittological societies melittologists apiologists served number scientific societies national international scope main role encourage study bees apicultural research ''international bee research association'' ''national bee association new zealand'' ''british beekeepers association'' ''german beekeepers association'' ''federation irish beekeepers' associations'' melittological journals '' https wwwapidologieorg apidologie '' '' https americanbeejournalcom american bee journal '' ''journal apicultural research'' ''journal melittology'' see also bee honey bee beekeeping entomology bee vespology melissopalynology references bees subfields


lagoon nebula large low density cloud partially ionized gas '''astrophysical plasma''' plasma outside solar system studied part astrophysics commonly observed space ref name mitnews ref accepted view scientists much baryonic matter universe exists state ref name bopa ref matter becomes sufficiently hot energetic becomes ionized forms plasma process breaks matter constituent particles includes negatively charged electrons positively charged ions ref name goldbook ref electrically charged particles susceptible influences local electromagnetic fields includes strong fields

Natural science
Space science
Numerical simulations
Astrophysical plasma


generated stars weak fields exist star forming regions interstellar space intergalactic space ref name lazarian ref similarly electric fields observed stellar astrophysical phenomena inconsequential low density gaseous mediums astrophysical plasma often differentiated space plasma typically refers plasma sun solar wind ionospheres magnetospheres earth planets ref name spacephy ref ref name unisheffield ref ref name mathew ref ref name bologh ref ref name ratcliffe ref ref name cade ref observing studying astrophysical plasma plasmas stars generate interact magnetic fields resulting variety dynamic astrophysical phenomena


phenomena sometimes observed spectra due zeeman effect forms astrophysical plasmas influenced preexisting weak magnetic fields whose interactions may determined directly polarimetry indirect methods ref name lazarian particular intergalactic medium interstellar medium interplanetary medium solar winds consist diffuse plasmas astrophysical plasma may also studied variety ways emit electromagnetic radiation across wide range electromagnetic spectrum astrophysical plasmas generally hot electrons plasmas continually emitting x rays process called


bremsstrahlung radiation may detected x ray telescopes located upper atmosphere space astrophysical plasmas also emit radio waves gamma rays possible related phenomena scientists interested active galactic nuclei astrophysical plasmas could directly related plasmas studied laboratories many phenomena seemingly exhibit array complex magnetohydrodynamic behaviors turbulence instabilities ref name mitnews although phenomena may occur astronomical scales large galactic core many astrophysicists suggest significantly involve plasma effects caused matter consumed


super massive black holes big bang cosmology entire universe plasma state prior recombination ref name peebles ref afterwards much universe reionized first quasars formed studying astrophysical plasmas part mainstream academic astrophysics though plasma processes part standard cosmological model current theories indicate might minor role play forming largest structures voids galaxy clusters superclusters early history norwegian explorer physicist kristian birkeland predicted space filled plasma wrote birkeland assumed


mass universe found empty space ref name nape print full text online ref plasma physicist hannes alfv n argued plasma pervaded universe could generate galactic magnetic field alfv n developed magnetohydrodynamics enables plasmas modeled waves fluid alfv n received nobel prize physics development alfv n later proposed possible basis plasma cosmology although theory faced scrutiny see also list plasma physics articles references external links '' https webarchiveorg web http astrosuntncornelledu us rus us russia


collaboration plasma astrophysics '' plasma physics solar phenomena space physics stellar phenomena


'''asian studies''' term used usually north america australia europe known oriental studies field concerned asian people cultures languages history politics within asian sphere asian studies combines aspects sociology history cultural anthropology many disciplines study political cultural economic phenomena asian traditional contemporary societies asian studies forms field post graduate study many universities branch area studies many western universities combine asian african studies single faculty institute

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Asian studies


like soas london often combined islamic studies similar way history discipline west covered oriental studies branches south asian studies indology bengal studies dravidian studies tamilology pakistan studies sindhology southeast asian studies filipinology philippine studies thai studies vietnamese studies myanmar studies indonesian studies east asian studies sinology chinese studies taiwan studies japanese studies ainu studies okinawan studies ryukyuan studies jurchen studies khitan studies korean studies manchurology mongolian studies tangutology tibetology tibetan studies uyghur studies middle eastern studies jewish studies iranian studies central asian studies turkology semitic


studies assyriology hebraic studies jewish studies often overlapping middle eastern studies islamic studies often overlapping middle eastern central asian studies see also asian american studies east asian studies black asian studies association cultural studies egyptology european studies international journal asian studies journal asian studies bachelor asian studies external links http wwwiiasasia international institute asian studies http wwwh netorg buddhism gradstudieshtm graduate programs asian http asiapacificanueduau anu college asia pacific http gsssuvanl programmes english masters english master programmes english master programmes content folder contemporary asian studies contemporary asian studieshtml contemporary asian studies university amsterdam http wwwaceluse masters programme study asia lund centre east south east asian studies lund university area studies


graphical user interface presented displayed computer screen result processed user input usually primary interface human machine interaction touch user interfaces popular small mobile devices overlay visual output visual input '''user interface ui design''' '''user interface engineering''' design user interfaces machines software computers home appliances mobile devices electronic devices focus maximizing usability user experience goal user interface design make user 's interaction

Applied science
Architecture and design
User experience design
User interface design


changing user needs interface design involved wide range projects computer systems cars commercial planes projects involve much basic human interactions yet also require unique skills knowledge result designers tend specialize certain types projects skills centered expertise whether software design user research web design industrial design processes printable template mobile desktop app design pdf user interface design requires good understanding user needs mainly focuses needs


platform user expectations several phases processes user interface design demanded upon others depending project note remainder section word ' 'system'' used denote project whether website application device functionality requirements gathering assembling list functionality required system accomplish goals project potential needs users user task analysis form field research 's analysis potential users


system studying perform tasks design must support conducting interviews elaborate goals typical questions involve would user want system would system fit user 's normal workflow daily activities technically savvy user similar systems user already use interface look feel styles appeal user information architecture development process information flow system ie phone tree systems would option tree flowchart web


sites would site flow shows hierarchy pages prototyping development wire frames either form paper prototypes simple interactive screens prototypes stripped look feel elements content order concentrate interface usability inspection letting evaluator inspect user interface generally considered cheaper implement usability testing see step used early development process since used evaluate prototypes specifications system usually


cannot tested users common usability inspection methods include cognitive walkthrough focuses simplicity accomplish tasks system new users heuristic evaluation set heuristics used identify usability problems ui design pluralistic walkthrough selected group people step task scenario discuss usability issues usability testing testing prototypes actual user mdash often using technique called think aloud protocol ask user talk thoughts experience user interface design testing allows


designer understand reception design viewer 's standpoint thus facilitates creating successful applications graphical user interface design actual look feel design final graphical user interface gui design control panels faces voice controlled interfaces involve oral auditory interaction gesture based interfaces witness users engaging design spaces via bodily motions may based findings developed user research refined fix usability problems found results testing depending type interface created process typically involves computer programming


standard establishes framework ergonomic principles dialogue techniques high level definitions illustrative applications examples principles principles dialogue represent dynamic aspects interface mostly regarded feel interface seven dialogue principles suitability task dialogue suitable task supports user effective efficient completion task self descriptiveness dialogue self descriptive dialogue step immediately comprehensible feedback system explained user request


controllability dialogue controllable user able initiate control direction pace interaction point goal met conformity user expectations dialogue conforms user expectations consistent corresponds user characteristics task knowledge education experience commonly accepted conventions error tolerance dialogue error tolerant despite evident errors input intended result may achieved either minimal action user suitability individualization dialogue capable individualization


extent user finds overall system acceptable satisfaction effectiveness efficiency satisfaction seen quality factors usability evaluate factors need decomposed sub factors finally usability measures information presented described part iso standard organization information arrangement alignment grouping labels location display graphical objects coding information abbreviation colour size shape visual cues seven attributes attributes presented information represent static aspects interface generally regarded


look interface attributes detailed recommendations given standard recommendations supports one seven attributes seven presentation attributes clarity information content conveyed quickly accurately discriminability displayed information distinguished accurately conciseness users overloaded extraneous information consistency unique design conformity user 's expectation detectability user 's attention directed towards information required legibility information easy read comprehensibility meaning clearly understandable unambiguous interpretable recognizable user guidance part


iso standard describes user guidance information readily distinguishable displayed information specific current context use user guidance given following five means prompts indicating explicitly specific prompts implicitly generic prompts system available input feedback informing user 's input timely perceptible non intrusive status information indicating continuing state application system 's hardware software components user 's activities error management including error prevention error correction user support error management error messages line help