authenticity security typical police states ref name ervand p many new laws regulations created resentment among devout muslims clergy example mosques required use chairs men required wear western clothing including hat brim women encouraged discard hijab men women allowed freely congregate violating islamic mixing sexes tensions boiled bazaaris villagers rose rebellion imam reza shrine mashhad chanting slogans 'the shah new yezid' dozens


killed hundreds injured troops finally quelled unrest world war ii german armies highly successful soviet union iranian government expected germany win war establish powerful force borders rejected british soviet demands expel german residents iran response two allies invaded august easily overwhelmed weak iranian army ''operation countenance'' iran became major conduit allied lend lease aid soviet union purpose secure iranian oil fields ensure allied supply lines see ''persian

Humanities
History
Asian history
Iranian history


corridor'' iran remained officially neutral monarch rez sh h deposed subsequent occupation replaced young son mohammad reza pahlavi tehran conference allies issued tehran declaration guaranteed post war independence boundaries iran however war actually ended soviet troops stationed northwestern iran refused withdraw backed revolts established short lived pro soviet separatist national states northern regions azerbaijan iranian kurdistan azerbaijan people 's government republic kurdistan respectively late soviet troops withdraw iran


proper may receiving promise oil concessions soviet republics north soon overthrown oil concessions revoked mohammad reza shah tehran men celebrating iranian coup d' tat shah mohammad reza pahlavi initially hopes post occupation iran could become constitutional monarchy new young shah mohammad reza shah pahlavi initially took hands role government allowed parliament hold lot power elections held first shaky years although remained mired corruption parliament became chronically unstable


period iran saw rise fall six different prime ministers pahlavi increased political power convening iran constituent assembly finally formed senate iran legislative upper house allowed constitution never brought new senators largely supportive pahlavi intended prime minister mohammed mosaddeq received vote required parliament nationalize british owned oil industry situation known abadan crisis despite british pressure including economic blockade nationalization continued mosaddeq briefly


removed power quickly appointed shah due popular uprising support premier turn forced shah brief exile august failed military coup imperial guard colonel nematollah nassiri us organized coup removes mosaddeq shortly thereafter august successful coup headed retired army general fazlollah zahedi organized united states cia ref name bbc ref active support british mi known operation ajax operation boot respective agencies coup black propaganda


campaign designed turn population mosaddeq forced mosaddeq office mosaddeq arrested tried treason found guilty sentence reduced house arrest family estate foreign minister hossein fatemi executed zahedi succeeded prime minister suppressed opposition shah specifically national front communist tudeh party film iran shah iran ruled autocracy shah american support time revolution iranian government entered agreement international consortium foreign companies


ran iranian oil facilities next years splitting profits fifty fifty iran allowing iran audit accounts members board directors martial law ended years iran became closer west joining baghdad pact receiving military economic aid us iran initiated series economic social agrarian administrative reforms modernize country became known shah 's white revolution core program land reform modernization economic growth proceeded


unprecedented rate fueled iran 's vast petroleum reserves third largest world however reforms including white revolution greatly improve economic conditions liberal pro western policies alienated certain islamic religious political groups early june several days massive rioting occurred support ayatollah ruhollah khomeini following cleric 's arrest speech attacking shah two years later premier hassan ali mansur assassinated internal security service savak became violently active leftist guerilla groups mujaheddin e khalq mek emerged attacked regime foreign targets


nearly hundred iran political prisoners killed savak decade revolution many arrested tortured islamic clergy headed ayatollah ruhollah khomeini exiled becoming increasingly vociferous iran greatly increased defense budget early region 's strongest military power bilateral relations neighbor iraq good mainly due dispute shatt al arab waterway november iranian forces seized control three islands mouth persian gulf response iraq expelled


thousands iranian nationals following number clashes april iran abrogated accord demanded renegotiation mid shah returned oil industry national control following arab israeli war october iran join arab oil embargo west israel instead used situation raise oil prices using money gained modernization increase defense spending border dispute iraq iran resolved signing algiers accord march contemporary period revolution


islamic republic present ayatollah khomeini returns iran years exile france february '''iranian revolution''' also known '''islamic revolution''' ref name chamber http wwwiranchambercom history islamic revolution islamic revolutionphp islamic revolution iran chamber ref revolution transformed iran absolute monarchy shah mohammad reza pahlavi islamic republic ayatollah ruhollah khomeini one leaders revolution founder islamic republic ref name britannica time span said begun january first major demonstrations concluded approval new


theocratic constitution whereby ayatollah khomeini became supreme leader country december ref name britannica khomeini http wwwbritanniacacom eb article ruhollah khomeini encyclop dia britannica ref mohammad reza pahlavi left country exile january strikes demonstrations paralyzed country february ayatollah khomeini returned tehran ref name britannica khomeini final collapse pahlavi dynasty occurred shortly february iran 's military declared neutral guerrillas rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal shah armed street fighting iran officially became islamic republic april iranians overwhelmingly approved


national referendum make ideology iranian revolution ideology revolutionary government populist nationalist shi'a islamic unique constitution based concept ' 'velayat e faqih'' idea advanced khomeini muslims fact everyone requires guardianship form rule supervision leading islamic jurist jurists khomeini served ruling jurist supreme leader death iran 's rapidly modernising capitalist economy replaced populist islamic economic cultural policies much industry nationalized


laws schools islamicized western influences banned islamic revolution also created great impact around world non muslim world changed image islam generating much interest politics spirituality islam along fear distrust towards islam particularly islamic republic founder ref name nasr nasr vali ''the shia revival'' norton p ref khomeini khomeini served leader revolution supreme leader iran death june era dominated consolidation revolution


theocratic republic khomeini costly bloody war iraq consolidation lasted iran coped damage economy military apparatus government protests uprisings secularists leftists traditional muslims formerly ally revolutionaries rivals effectively suppressed many political opponents executed new regimes following events revolution marxist guerrillas federalist parties revolted regions comprising khuzistan kurdistan gonbad e qabus resulted severe fighting rebels revolutionary forces revolts began april lasted several


months year depending region kurdish uprising led kdpi violent lasting resulting casualties summer new constitution giving khomeini powerful post guardian jurist supreme leader clerical council guardians power legislation elections drawn assembly experts constitution new constitution approved referendum december iran hostage crisis early event history islamic republic long term impact


iran hostage crisis following admitting former shah iran united states cancer treatment november iranian students seized us embassy personnel labeling embassy den spies ref name carterpbs https wwwpbsorg wgbh amex carter sfeature sf hostagehtml pbs american experience jimmy carter days america reacts retrieved october ref fifty two hostages held days january american military attempt rescue hostages failed ref name atlantic ref takeover enormously popular iran thousands gathered support hostage takers thought strengthened prestige ayatollah khomeini


consolidated hold anti americanism time khomeini began referring america great satan america considered violation long standing principle international law diplomats may expelled held captive created powerful anti iranian backlash relations two countries remained deeply antagonistic american international sanctions hurt iran 's economy iran iraq war iranian soldier gas mask iran iraq war political social crisis iraqi leader saddam hussein attempted take advantage disorder


revolution weakness iranian military revolution 's antagonism western governments strong iranian military disbanded revolution shah ousted hussein ambitions position new strong man middle east sought expand iraq 's access persian gulf acquiring territories iraq claimed earlier iran shah 's rule chief importance iraq khuzestan boasted substantial arab population rich oil fields well unilateral behalf united arab emirates


islands abu musa greater lesser tunbs became objectives well ambitions mind hussein planned full scale assault iran boasting forces could reach capital within three days september iraqi army invaded iran khuzestan precipitating iran iraq war attack took revolutionary iran completely surprise although saddam hussein 's forces made several early advances iranian forces pushed iraqi army back iraq khomeini sought export islamic revolution westward iraq especially majority shi'a arabs living


country war continued six years khomeini words drank cup poison accepted truce mediated united nations tens thousands iranian civilians military personnel killed iraq used chemical weapons warfare iraq financially backed egypt arab countries persian gulf soviet union warsaw pact states united states beginning france united kingdom germany brazil people 's republic china also sold weapons iran kurdish


victims ref name r centre documents imposed war tehran ref iraq 's chemical weapons eight year war total iranian casualties war estimated almost relevant international agencies confirmed saddam engaged chemical warfare blunt iranian human wave attacks agencies unanimously confirmed iran never used chemical weapons war starting july lasting five months government systematically executed thousands political prisoners across iran commonly referred executions iranian


political prisoners iranian massacre main target membership people 's mojahedin organization iran pmoi although lesser number political prisoners leftist groups also included tudeh party iran communist party estimates number executed vary khamenei present deathbed khomeini appointed man constitutional reform council named president ali khamenei next supreme leader made number changes iran 's constitution smooth transition followed khomeini 's death june


persian gulf war country remained neutral restricting action condemnation us allowing fleeing iraqi aircraft refugees country iran greater secular behavior admiration western popular culture previous decades become way urban population expressed resentment invasive islamic policies government ref name westview press ref pressures population placed new supreme leader ayatollah ali khamenei led uneasy alliance president akbar hashemi rafsanjani alliance


attempted hinder ulama 's ability gain control state created sequence constitutional amendments removed office prime minister increased scope presidential power however new amendments curtail powers supreme leader iran way position still contained ultimate authority armed forces making war peace final say foreign policy right intervene legislative process whenever deemed necessary ref name westview press katami reformers conservatives struggle


mohammad khatami reformist president iran president rafsanjani 's economic policies led greater relations outside world government 's relaxation enforcement certain regulations social behavior met responses widespread disenchantment among general population ulama rulers country ref name westview press led defeat government 's candidate president backing supreme islamic jurist beaten independent candidate reformist mohammad khatami received vote


week police pro government vigilantes dispersed crowds khatami elected june efforts repeatedly blocked conservatives parliament conservative elements within iran 's government moved undermine reformist movement banning liberal newspapers disqualifying candidates parliamentary elections clampdown dissent combined failure khatami reform government led growing political apathy among iran 's youth june anti government protests several thousand students took place tehran several human rights protests also occurred ahmadinejad hardline conservatism iranian presidential


election mahmoud ahmadinejad mayor tehran became sixth president iran winning percent vote run poll former president ali akbar hashemi rafsanjani authorization ceremony kissed khamenei 's hand demonstration loyalty time american invasion iraq overthrow saddam hussein 's regime empowerment shi'a majority strengthened iran 's position region particularly mainly shi'a south iraq top shia leader week september renewed demands autonomous shi'a region least one


use nuclear weapons fatwa cited official statement iranian government august meeting international atomic energy agency iaea vienna ahmadinejad 's reelection hotly disputed marred large protests formed greatest domestic challenge leadership islamic republic years resulting social unrest widely known iranian green movement ref name mostaghim ref reformist opponent mir hossein mousavi supporters alleged voting irregularities july people arrested killed street demonstrations supreme leader ali


khamenei islamic officials blamed foreign powers fomenting protest rouhani pragmatism hassan rouani ebrahim raisi june hassan rouhani presidential election iran total number ballots cast rouhani votes press conference one day election day rouhani reiterated promise recalibrate iran 's relations world april following eight days tortuous discussions switzerland lasted night thursday iran six world powers united states united kingdom france china russia


zarif followed statement persian us secretary state john kerry top diplomats britain france germany also briefly took stage behind deal intended provisional framework comprehensive agreement signed marked significant breakthrough year history negotiations iran nuclear programme donald trump campaigning become president us repeatedly said would abandon iran nuclear deal elected president usa announced withdraw agreement


may iranian backed group known kataib hezbollah attacked united states embassy baghdad december january united states military executed drone strike baghdad airport killing qasem soleimani leader quds force elite branch islamic revolutionary guard corps august ebrahim raisi elected th president iran see also list monarchs persia list rulers iran outline iran politics iran religion culture ancient iran safavid conversion iran shia islam timeline tehran


timeline iranian revolution timeline iranian history general history middle east history caucasus notes references sources reading rudi matthee willem floor https booksgooglecom booksid mabawaaqbaj pg pa monetary history iran safavids qajars ibtauris april joseph roisman ian worthington https booksgooglecom booksid qsj uudkmc pg pa companion ancient macedonia pp pp achaemenid rule balkans eastern europe john wiley sons july van gorde christian ''christianity persia status non muslims iran'' lexington books pages traces role persians persia


later iran since ancient times additional discussion non muslim groups sabri ate ottoman iranian borderlands making boundary cambridge university press okt askol igorevich ivanchik vaxtang li eli achaemenid culture local traditions anatolia southern caucasus iran brill benjamin walker ''persian pageant cultural history iran'' arya press calcutta rezvani babak ethno territorial conflict coexistence caucasus central asia fereydan amsterdam university press mrt stephanie cronin iranian russian encounters empires revolutions since routledge chopra rm article brief review pre islamic splendour


'''popular culture studies''' study popular culture critical theory perspective combining communication studies cultural studies first institution offer bachelor 's master 's degrees popular culture bowling green state university department popular culture founded ray b browne ref name raybrowne ref following work frankfurt school popular culture taken terrain academic inquiry helped change outlooks established disciplines broke conceptual barriers called high low culture led people 's escalated interest popular culture encompasses diverse media

Journalism, media studies and communication


comic books television internet divisions high low culture increasingly seen political distinctions rather defensible aesthetic intellectual ones traditional theories popular culture theory mass society mass society formed th century industrialization process division labor large scale industrial organization concentration urban populations growing centralization decision making development complex international communication system growth mass political movements term mass society therefore introduced anticapitalist aristocratic ideologists used values practices


industrialized society theories popular culture often subjected bias originate generalist perspective alan swingewood points ''the myth mass culture'' aristocratic theory mass society linked moral crisis caused weakening traditional centers authority family religion society predicted jos ortega gasset eliot others would dominated philistine masses without centers hierarchies moral cultural authority society art survive cutting links masses


specific group stays power partially taking care partially repressing claims groups work anymore principle hegemony goal achieve oppressed social class loses meaning system taken state apparatus dominates theory progressive evolution third view popular culture fits liberal pluralist ideology often called progressive evolutionism overtly optimistic sees capitalist economy creating opportunities every individual participate culture fully democratized mass education


expansion leisure time cheap records paperbacks swingewood points ''the myth mass culture'' question domination anymore view popular culture threaten high culture regarded swingewood authentic expression needs people contemporary popular culture studies aside precursors umberto eco roland barthes popular culture studies know today developed late seventies eighties first influential works generally politically left wing rejected aristocratic view however also criticized


pessimism frankfurt school contemporary studies mass culture accept apparently popular culture forms may respond widespread needs public also proposed consumers may able resist indoctrination passive reception finally avoided concept mass culture may regarded monolithic instead tried describe culture whole complex formation discourses correspond particular interests dominated specific groups also always dialectically related producers consumers example tendency


andrew ross 's ''no respect intellectuals popular culture'' chapter history jazz blues rock present linear narrative opposing authentic popular music commercial record industry shows popular music us twenties today evolved complex interactions popular avant garde commercial circuits lower middle class youth blacks whites traces theory culture industry still traditional views long life theory abandoned monolithic pessimistic view culture industry


frankfurt school however still hotly debated criticism raised summarized three main arguments first culture industry theory completely abandoned marxist dialectic conception society every impulse according view comes resistance contradiction impossible audience manipulated passivity alan swingewood others emphasize frankfurt theory seen light left wing frustrations failure proletarian revolutions early century easy submission european nations fascism second reproach view


may elitist aristocratic counterpart establish lonely autonomous avant garde intellectual light zombie society thus former marxists arrive uncritical praise high culture brings us third argument already made sixties umberto eco state dominated mass society lonely lucid intellectual bermensch retreat ivory tower historicity contemporary situation taken account internal contradictions ignored thus revolution seen purely utopian culture industry theory therefore would


lead passivity thereby becomes objective ally system pretends criticize course mainly influence exercised frankfurt school matters texts present rigid view ''das schema der massenkultur'' instance adorno discusses nucleus individuality culture industry cannot manipulate forces continuously repeat manipulation however questioned view popular culture may still influential instance theories depicting narrative necessarily ideologically conservative like charles grivel 's ''production de l'int r romanesque''


black music white music industry studies analyzing cultural oppression homosexuality seem take less deterministic position writing new yorker music critic alex ross argued adorno 's work renewed importance digital age pop hegemony complete superstars dominating media wielding economic might tycoonsculture appears monolithic ever gigantic corporations google apple facebook amazon presiding unprecedented monopolies scholar jack zipes critiqued mass commercialisation corporate hegemony behind harry potter franchise argued


background type criticism often produced people also active popular literary writing often amounts paraphrase suffers uncritical identification study object one main aims type criticism establishment ahistorical canons within popular genres image legitimized culture approach however accused elitism well put simply intellectual view fully enjoy junk culture high culture background average reader never raise


learned intellectual discourse object example form appropriation thomas roberts 's ''an aesthetics junk fiction'' though roberts claims take distance studies canonical fiction justifies implicit decision impose canonical models popular fiction follows people read goethe alessandro manzoni pushkin pleasure also reading detective fiction pleasure detective story critics recognized perhaps even writers readers recognized illustrates frequent


distribution channels available also reason works may regarded representing audiences' values ideas beliefs attain commercial success time become subject unsurmountable pressures losing success power actors manage substitute society 's message de lizaur emerging field literary studies also developed full literary theory accounts popular works' aesthetics strategies resources genres meaningful criticism opposed criticism may reject certain postmodern theorists however proposed pessimistic interpretations capitalist popular


history popular culture also history intellectuals cultural experts whose self assigned task define borders popular legitimate contemporary society dispersed authority ever exercised technical intellectuals working specific purposes mankind academic world growing attention western popular culture marginal cultures threatens absolute values intellectuals built autonomy sixties marshall mcluhan caused wide irritation statement traditional book oriented intellectuals become irrelevant formulation cultural rules


commerce field art appearance paperbacks book clubs protecting art simplicity commerce precisely task intellectuals set important disappearance called grand narratives century questioning encompassing world views offering coherent interpretations world unequivocal guides action jim collins argues uncommon cultures master 's voice anymore decentralized assemblage conflicting voices institutions growing awareness historical cultural variability moral categories


problem intellectual class based position defense secular transhistorical values brings us second problem humanist intellectuals face fragmentation public th century intellectuals could still tell either writing colleagues teaching undifferentiated masses th century intellectuals face heterogeneous whole groups media producing discourses according logic interests thus cannot control reception messages anymore thereby see influence structuring culture threatened many


cultures ethnic minority groups fight franglais french contaminated american english france mainly fought intellectuals seeing traditional position french society threatened import american cultural products clem robyns describes recurring issues popular culture studies interactions popular legitimized culture blurring boundaries high low culture one main complaints made traditional intellectuals contemporary mass society number sociological studies literary institutions held responsible mix among first


culture inherently conservative whether used subversive strategy well equally hotly debated accepted popular culture forms function moment anti cultures bad taste products pornography horror fiction says instance andrew ross draw popular appeal precisely expressions disrespect imposed lessons educated taste expressions social resentment part groups subordinated excluded today 's civilized society question whether popular culture actually resist dominant ideology even


contribute social change much difficult answer many critics easily read popular fiction film attacks system neglecting exact ways called revolutionary message enacted capacities dominant doctrines recuperate critical messages tania modleski terror pleasure instance presents exploitation horror films attacks basic aspects bourgeois culture thus loving father cannibalizes child priests turn servants devil scholars claim presenting perversion supernatural least pathological horror films precisely


contribute perpetuating institutions similarly many critics exalt stories feature lone hero fighting ideals inert amoral system thus jim collins ''uncommon cultures'' sees crime fiction opposing smart private detective inefficient police force critique state justice hand thomas roberts demonstrates ''an aesthetics junk fiction'' study historical background private detective model detective story came existence middle th century time institution state police developed force


consisted mainly lower class people nevertheless disposed certain authority upper class fears among upper classes uncontrolled force eased domesticating police stories explicitly devoted inability pass correct judgment amply demonstrated forced bow individual intellect detective always belonged threatened upper class finally umberto eco 's studies superman james bond myths static good evil world view mentioned early lucid examples combination semiotic


political analysis still may ways wage revolt age mass media one way could introduce small gradual changes products otherwise conforming requirements dominant ideology problem course isolated messages get drowned discourse whole used avoid real changes scholars however describe opposition forces use logic media subvert ''no respect'' andrew ross mentions late sixties yippie movement yippies would stage media events public burning


dollar bills wall street thereby drawing heavy media coverage politics spectacle brought counterculture right conservative media filled forms subversive content whether strategy effective points possible idea mass media dependent public alan swingewood states ''the myth mass culture'' ideological messages mass media receive already mediated complex network institutions discourses media divided innumerable specific discourses transform finally public meaningfully


bourdieu ''ce que parler veut dire l' conomie des changes linguistiques'' paris fayard john edgar browning horror gothic utility cultural resource critical tool ''palgrave communications'' doi https doiorg x l carroll ''a philosophy mass art'' oxford clarendon press jim collins ''uncommon cultures popular culture post modernism'' new york london routledge umberto eco ''travels hyperreality'' new york harcourt umberto eco ''the structure bad taste'' amsterdam bert bakker alain finkielkraut ''la faite de la pens e'' paris gallimard charles grivel ''production de l'int r romanesque'' hague paris mouton martin gloger


''the new spirit capitalism popular culture comparative analysis focusing contemporary coming age cinema'' arnold p ukasik eds europe america mirror culture economy history krak w nomos pp nbsp j rgen habermas ''theorie des kommunikativen handelns'' frankfurt suhrkamp tania modleski terror pleasure contemporary horror film postmodern theory tania modleski ed ''studies entertainment critical approaches mass culture'' bloomington indianapolis indiana university press chandra mukerji michael schudson eds ''rethinking popular culture'' university california press thomas j roberts ''an aesthetics


''the myth mass culture'' london macmillan external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwuiowaedu commstud resources pop culturehtml communications studies resources university iowa https webarchiveorg web http wwwculturalstudiesnet cultural studies central http wwwpcaacaorg popular culture association american culture association pca aca popular culture cultural studies american studies


'''history australia''' story land peoples continent australia aboriginal australians first arrived australian mainland sea maritime southeast asia years ago penetrated parts continent rainforests north deserts centre sub antarctic islands tasmania bass strait artistic musical spiritual traditions established among longest surviving traditions human history first torres strait islanders ethnically culturally distinct aboriginal australians arrived


papua new guinea around years ago settled islands torres strait cape york peninsula forming northern tip australian landmass first known landing australia europeans dutch navigator willem janszoon later year spanish explorer lu vaz de torres sailed navigated called torres strait associated islands twenty nine dutch navigators explored western southern coasts th century named continent new holland macassan trepangers visited australia 's northern coasts possibly earlier


european explorers followed lieutenant james cook charted east coast australia great britain returned london accounts favouring colonisation botany bay sydney first fleet british ships arrived botany bay january establish penal colony first colony australian mainland century followed british established colonies continent european explorers ventured interior indigenous australians greatly weakened numbers diminished introduced diseases conflict colonists period gold rushes


agricultural industries brought prosperity autonomous parliamentary democracies began established throughout six british colonies mid th century colonies voted referendum unite federation modern australia came australia fought side britain two world wars became long standing ally united states threatened imperial japan world war ii trade asia increased post war immigration program received nbsp million migrants every continent supported immigration people almost every country world since


end world war ii population increased nbsp million per cent population born overseas indigenous prehistory rock painting ubirr kakadu national park evidence aboriginal art australia traced back years indigenous australians believed arrived australia years ago developed hunter gatherer lifestyle established enduring spiritual artistic traditions used range technologies adapted environments recent estimates indigenous population time british settlement range one million


animal vegetable food sources species animals including australian megafauna became extinct ago researchers variously attributed extinctions human hunting firing practices climate change combination factors kolaia man wearing headdress worn fire ceremony forrest river western australia aboriginal australian religious practices associated dreamtime practised tens thousands years inhabitants developed technologies better exploit diverse environments fibre nets use watercraft fishing developed bp complex tools edge ground axes hafted


wooden handles appeared bp ref name veth peter o'connor sue pp ref elaborate trade networks also developed ochre transported kilometres barrier range lake mungo years ago shells decorative beads transported kilometres bp ref name extensive trade networks developed later times earliest aboriginal rock art consists hand prints hand stencils engravings circles tracks lines cupules dated years ago around year ago aboriginal artists depicting humans animals however dating contentious


researchers believe known examples aboriginal rock art possibly recent aboriginal population confronted significant changes climate environment around years ago sea levels began fall temperatures south east continent dropped degrees celsius interior australia became arid around years ago new guinea tasmania connected australian continent quarter larger today ref name veth peter o'connor sue pp ref around years ago temperatures sea levels began rise tasmania became separated


spears found dating thousand years ago spear throwers probably developed recently years ago luritja man demonstrating method attack large curved boomerang cover thin shield sea levels stabilised around current level years ago warmer weather wetter conditions new coastlines led significant changes aboriginal social economic organisation new coastal societies emerged around tidal reefs estuaries flooded river valleys coastal islands incorporated local economies ref name veth peter o'connor sue pp ref


proliferation stone tool plant processing landscape modification technologies elaborate fish eel traps involving channels three kilometres long use western victoria years ago semi permanent collections wooden huts mounds also appeared western victoria associated systematic exploitation new food sources wetlands ref name aboriginal tasmanians isolated mainland years ago result possessed one quarter tools equipment adjacent mainland without hafted axes grinding technology stone tipped


weapons spear throwers boomerang bp ceased eat fish use bone tools coastal tasmanians switched fish abalone crayfish tasmanians moved interior tasmanians built watercraft reeds bark journeyed kilometres offshore visit islands hunt seals muttonbirds around years ago first phase occupation torres strait islands began years ago islands occupied distinctive torres strait island maritime culture emerged agriculture also developed islands


years ago villages appeared one genetic study suggested years ago indian explorers settled australia assimilated local population ref name antipode ref however recent studies support view nevertheless innovations imported mainland neighbouring cultures dingo introduced years ago shell fish hooks appeared australia years ago probably introduced torres strait polynesian seafarers mid fishing vessels indonesia regularly visited north coast australia search trepang sea


cucumber trade social relationships developed reflected aboriginal art ceremonies oral traditions aboriginal people adopted dugout canoes metal harpoon heads indonesians allowed better hunt dugong turtle coast nearby islands despite interactions neighbouring cultures basic structure aboriginal society unchanged family groups joined bands clans averaging people defined territory foraging clans attached tribes nations associated particular languages country time european contact


territory another group rights established marriage kinship invitation specific purposes ceremonies sharing abundant seasonal foods natural features land created ancestral beings group 's particular country provided physical spiritual nourishment ref name according australian aboriginal mythology animist framework developed aboriginal australia dreaming sacred era ancestral totemic spirit beings formed creation dreaming established laws structures society ceremonies performed ensure continuity life land extent


aboriginal societies agricultural controversial lake condah region western victoria inhabitants built elaborate eel fish traps hundreds gathered semi permanent stone bark huts eel season however groups still moved across territory several times year exploit seasonal food sources semi arid areas millet harvested stacked threshed seeds stored later use tropical areas tops yams replanted flood argues practices better classified resource management agriculture aboriginal societies develop


systematic cultivation crops permanent villages existed torres strait islands elizabeth williams called inhabitants settled regions murray valley complex hunter gatherers early european exploration dutch discovery exploration willem janszoon abel tasman first european discover van diemen 's land known tasmaniaalthough theory portuguese discovery exists lacks definitive evidence dutch east india company ship ''duyfken'' captained willem janszoon made first documented european landing australia year spanish expedition sailing nearby


p ref dirk hartog sailing course en route cape good hope batavia landed island shark bay western australia ref name manning clark p ''leeuwin'' made first recorded rounding south west corner continent gave name cape leeuwin ref name interesting historical notes ref south coast australia accidentally discovered fran ois thijssen named ''t land van pieter nuyts'' honour highest ranking passenger pieter nuyts extraordinary councillor india squadron dutch


ships sent governor general dutch east indies pieter de carpentier explore northern coast ships made extensive examinations particularly gulf carpentaria named honour de carpentier ref name interesting historical notes abel tasman 's voyage first known european expedition reach van diemen 's land later tasmania new zealand sight fiji second voyage also contributed significantly mapping australian mainland called new holland making observations land people north coast


new guinea following tasman 's voyages dutch able make almost complete maps australia 's northern western coasts much southern south eastern tasmanian coasts reflected map joan blaeu ''nova et accuratissima terrarum orbis tabula'' british french exploration lieutenant james cook first european map eastern coastline australia painting nathaniel dance holland left william dampier english buccaneer explorer landed north west coast new holland published influential descriptions aboriginal people lieutenant james


cook command travelled tahiti observe record transit venus cook also carried secret admiralty instructions locate supposed southern continent continent found disappointment alexander dalrymple fellow members royal society urged admiralty undertake mission cook decided survey east coast new holland major part continent charted dutch navigators april ''endeavour'' reached east coast new holland ten days later anchored botany


bay cook charted coast northern extent formally took possession east coast new holland august possession island west coast cape york peninsula noted journal could land upon eastern coast new holland western side make new discovery honour belongs dutch navigators ''and may lay claim property'' italicised words crossed original eastern coast latitude


formally claim sovereignty west coast australia attempt made follow colonisation colonisation plans colonisation ''two natives new holland advancing combat'' sketched cook 's illustrator sydney parkinson''a general chart new holland including new south wales botany bay adjacent countries new discovered lands'' published ''an historical narrative discovery new holland new south wales'' london fielding stockdale november leftalthough various proposals colonisation australia made prior none attempted


jean pierre purry sent plan dutch east india company colonisation area modern south australia company rejected plan comment prospect use benefit company rather certain heavy costs contrast emanuel bowen promoted benefits exploring colonising country writing john harris' ''navigantium atque itinerantium bibliotheca voyages travels'' recommended exploration east coast new holland view british colonisation way abel tasman 's route


van diemen 's land john callander put forward proposal britain found colony banished convicts south sea terra australis enable mother country exploit riches regions said world must present us many things entirely new hitherto little knowledge lain another planet sweden 's king gustav iii ambitions establish colony country swan river plan stillborn sixteen years cook 's landfall


east coast australia british government decided establish colony botany bay american revolutionary war saw britain lose north american colonies consider establishing replacement territories britain transported convicts new world searching alternative temporary solution floating prison hulks reached capacity public health hazard option building jails workhouses deemed expensive sir joseph banks eminent scientist accompanied james cook


voyage recommended botany bay suitable site penal settlement banks' plan send convicts botany bay could left devices burden british taxpayere phillips fox ''landing captain cook botany bay '' x pxunder banks' guidance american loyalist james matra also travelled cook produced new plan colonising new south wales matra argued country suitable plantations sugar cotton tobacco new zealand timber hemp flax


various soils earth capable may expected major alternative botany bay sending convicts africa convicts sent garrison british forts west africa experiment proved unsuccessful pitt government considered exiling convicts small river island gambia could form self governing community colony thieves expense government parliamentary select committee chaired lord beauchamp recommended gambia plan failed endorse alternative botany bay


second report beauchamp recommended penal settlement das voltas bay modern namibia plan dropped however investigation site found unsuitable two weeks later august pitt government announced intention send convicts botany bay government incorporated settlement norfolk island plan attractions timber flax proposed banks' royal society colleagues sir john call sir george young longstanding debate whether key consideration decision establish penal


colony botany bay pressing need find solution penal management problem whether broader imperial goals trade securing new supplies timber flax navy desirability strategic ports region paramount leading historians debate included sir ernest scott geoffrey blainey alan frost decision settle taken seemed outbreak civil war netherlands might precipitate war britain would confronted alliance three naval powers france


holland spain brought defeat circumstances naval base new south wales could facilitate attacks dutch spanish interests region would attractive specific plans using colony strategic base spanish interests occasionally made never implemented macintyre argues evidence military strategic motive establishing colony largely circumstantial hard reconcile strict ban establishing shipyard colony karskens points instructions provided first five


days arrival botany bay fleet moved suitable port jackson settlement established sydney cove january date later became australia 's national day australia day colony formally proclaimed governor phillip february sydney sydney cove offered fresh water supply safe harbour philip described 'with exception finest harbour world thousand sail line may ride perfect security' arthur phillip first governor new south wales


x pxgovernor phillip vested complete authority inhabitants colony personal intent establish harmonious relations local aboriginal people try reform well discipline convicts colony phillip several officers notably watkin tench left behind journals accounts tell immense hardships first years settlement often phillip 's officers despaired future new south wales early efforts agriculture fraught supplies overseas scarce male female convicts landed


europe protest conceived spain previously raised many objections opposing occupation malouines falkland islands meekly allowed formidable empire arise facing richest possessions empire must either invade liberate king points supporters penal colony frequently compared venture foundation rome first great seal new south wales alluded phillip however wrote would wish convicts lay foundations empire consolidation


governor william blighafter departure phillip colony 's military officers began acquiring land importing consumer goods obtained visiting ships former convicts also farmed land granted engaged trade farms spread fertile lands surrounding paramatta windsor camden colony self sufficient grain boat building developed order make travel easier exploit marine resources coastal settlements sealing whaling became important industries view sydney cove aboriginal ''warrane'' thomas watling new south wales corps formed england


large scale farming grazing lightly wooded pastures west great dividing range ref name central macquarie 's policy treatment emancipists considered treated social equals free settlers colony appointed emancipists key government positions including francis greenway colonial architect william redfern magistrate policy emancipists opposed many influential free settlers officers officials london became concerned cost public works london appointed j bigge conduct inquiry colony


macquarie resigned shortly report inquiry published expansion british settlement largely confined kilometre radius around sydney central plain van diemen 's land settler population mainland van diemen 's land following end napoleonic wars transportation convicts increased rapidly number free settlers grew steadily convicts arrived new south wales van diemen 's land however free settlers


locally born exceeded convict population new south wales squatters increasingly established unauthorised cattle sheep runs beyond official limits settled colony system annual licences authorising grazing crown land introduced attempt control pastoral industry booming wool prices high cost land settled areas encouraged squatting wool accounted half colony 's exports eastern third new south wales controlled fewer pastoralists


western boundary new south wales extended longitude east current boundary western australia result territory new south wales reached greatest extent covering area modern state well modern queensland victoria tasmania south australia northern territory ref name settler population new south wales grown including thousand living area became separate colony victoria establishment colonies van diemen 's land hosting nicholas baudin 's french


naval expedition sydney governor phillip gidley king decided establish settlement van diemen 's land modern tasmania partly forestall possible french settlement british settlement island soon centred launceston north hobart south first two decades settlement relied heavily convict labour small scale farming sheep grazing sealing whaling dog kangaroo economy emancipists escaped convicts hunted native game guns dogs free settlers encouraged offer land grants


main destination convicts transportation van diemen 's land ended colony officially changed name tasmania victoria melbourne landing watercolor w liardet pastoralists van diemen 's land began squatting port phillip hinterland mainland attracted rich grasslands john batman others negotiated transfer acres land kulin people however treaty annulled year british colonial office issued ''proclamation governor bourke'' stating unalienated land


colony vacant crown land irrespective whether occupied traditional landowners publication meant people found occupying land without authority government would considered illegal trespassers port phillip officially recognised district new south wales opened settlement main settlement melbourne established planned town instructions governor bourke squatters settlers van diemen 's land new south wales soon arrived large numbers district population europeans


river colony established sites modern fremantle perth becoming first convict free privatised colony australia however much arable land allocated absentee owners development colony hampered poor soil dry climate lack capital labour settlers half children colony accepted convicts year acute shortage labour south australia adelaide south australia founded free colony without convicts province south australia


established privately financed settlement based theory systematic colonisation developed edward gibbon wakefield intention found free colony based private investment little cost british government power divided crown board commissioners colonisation responsible shareholders settlement controlled promote balance land capital labour convict labour banned hope making colony attractive respectable families promote even balance male female settlers city


adelaide planned generous provision churches parks schools land sold uniform price proceeds used secure adequate supply labour selective assisted migration ref name ford lisa roberts david andrew pp ref ref name macintyre pp ref ref name foundingdocsgovau ref various religious personal commercial freedoms guaranteed letters patent enabling south australia act included guarantee rights 'any aboriginal natives' descendants lands 'now actually occupied enjoyed' ref name ref colony badly hit depression


overproduction wheat overinvestment infrastructure almost bankrupted conflict indigenous traditional landowners also reduced protections promised settlement became crown colony administered governor appointed legislative council economy recovered supported wheat farming sheep grazing boom copper mining settler population grown following year colony achieved limited self government partially elected legislative council ref name ref name ref name ref queensland brisbane moreton bay settlement watercolor h


bowerman moreton bay penal settlement established site present day brisbane place secondary punishment penal colony closed area opened free settlement population brisbane reached increasing numbers pastoralists grazing cattle sheep darling downs west town however several attempts establish settlements north tropic capricorn failed settler population north remained small frontier violence settlers indigenous population became severe pastoralism


lovers soon transported botany bay'' published london first governors saw new south wales place punishment reform convicts convicts worked government farms public works land clearing building majority assigned work private employers including emancipists transported convicts completed sentence pardoned called emancipists granted small plots land farming year government rations later assigned convict labour help work farms


convicts assigned military officers run businesses officers want directly associated trade convicts learnt commercial skills could help work sentence ended granted ticket leave form parole convicts soon established system piece work allowed work wages allocated tasks completed due shortage labour wage rates high male workers although much lower females engaged domestic work governor macquarie


ordered convicts work pm private employers pay wages additional work convicts emancipists children owned two thirds land cultivation half cattle one third sheep also worked trades small business emancipists employed half convicts assigned private masters wages employment opportunities convicts emancipists deteriorated sharp increase number convicts transported led oversupply labour series reforms recommended j bigge


also sought change nature colony make transportation object real terror food ration convicts cut opportunities work wages restricted convicts assigned rural work gangs bureaucratic control surveillance convicts made systematic isolated penal settlements established places secondary punishment rules tickets leave tightened land grants skewed favour free settlers large capital result convicts arrived far less likely become property owners


marry establish families free settlers humanitarian caroline chisholm leading advocate women 's issues family friendly colonial policy bigge reforms also aimed encourage affluent free settlers offering land grants farming grazing proportion capital colonies replaced land grants land sales auction fixed minimum price per acre proceeds used fund assisted migration workers australia attracted immigrants united kingdom although immigrants settled towns many


women independently husbands ration system also gave women children protection abandonment women active business agriculture early years colony among successful former convict turned entrepreneur mary reibey agriculturalist elizabeth macarthur one third shareholders first colonial bank founded women one goals assisted migration programs promote migration women families provide even gender balance colonies philanthropist caroline chisholm established


shelter labour exchange migrant women new south wales promoted settlement single married women rural areas hoped would civilising influence rough colonial manners act god 's police female proportion australian settler population increased per cent per cent religion early chaplains colony also civil magistrates power discipline convicts grant tickets leave church england recognised church


clergy worked closely governors richard johnson chief chaplain charged governor arthur phillip improving public morality colony also heavily involved health education ref name adbonlineanueduau ref samuel marsden various ministries became known missionary work severity punishments magistrate vehemence public denunciations catholicism irish convictsa painting depicting castle hill rebellion quarter convicts catholics frequently requested catholic priest perform rites lack official recognition catholicism


combined suspicion irish convicts increased irish led castle hill rebellion ref name catholicaustraliacomau ref two catholic priests operated temporarily colony governor macquarie appointed official catholic chaplains new south wales van diemen 's land ref name o'brien anne religion ''the cambridge history australia volume i'' pp ref bigge reports recommended status anglican church enhanced source stability moral authority colony anglican archdeacon appointed allocated seat first advisory legislative council anglican clergy


schools also received state support policy changed governor burke church acts government provided state support clergy church buildings four largest denominations anglican catholic presbyterian later methodist ref name church acts alleviate sectarianism many anglicans saw state support catholic church threat prominent presbyterian minister john dunmore lang also promoted sectarian divisions state support however led growth church activities charitable associations catholic sisters charity founded


provided hospitals orphanages asylums old disabled religious organisations also main providers school education first half nineteenth century notable example lang 's australian college opened many religious associations sisters st joseph co founded mary mackillop continued educational activities provision secular state schools grew exploration continent ''flinders prepares circumnavigate terra australis '' july george bass matthew flinders set sydney sloop


circumnavigated tasmania thus proving island ref name referencea ref matthew flinders led first circumnavigation australia aboard ship aboriginal explorer bungaree sydney district became first person born australian continent circumnavigate australian continent ref name referencea matthew flinders led first successful circumnavigation australia former convict john wilson two companions crossed blue mountains west sydney expedition ordered governor hunter hunter suppressed news feat fear would encourage convicts abscond


settlement gregory blaxland william lawson william wentworth crossed mountains different route road soon built central tablelands governor sir thomas brisbane commissioned hamilton hume former royal navy captain william hovell lead expedition find new grazing land south colony also find answer mystery new south wales' western rivers flowed weeks hume hovell journeyed port phillip back made many important discoveries including murray


river named hume many tributaries good agricultural grazing lands gunning new south wales corio bay port phillip charles sturt led expedition along macquarie river discovered darling river theory developed inland rivers new south wales draining inland sea leading second expedition sturt followed murrumbidgee river 'broad noble river' named murray river party followed river junction darling river sturt continued river


lake alexandrina murray meets sea south australia surveyor general sir thomas mitchell conducted series expeditions 'fill gaps' left previous expeditions mitchell employed three aboriginal guides meticulous recording aboriginal place names around colony also recorded violent encounter traditional owners murray men pursued shooting many could polish scientist explorer count paul edmund strzelecki conducted surveying work australian alps led


two aboriginal guides charlie tarra jackie became first european ascend australia 's highest peak named mount kosciuszko honour polish patriot tadeusz ko ciuszkojohn longstaff ''arrival burke wills king deserted camp cooper 's creek sunday evening april '' oil canvas national gallery victoriaeuropean explorers penetrated deeper interior quest discover new lands agriculture answer scientific enquiries german scientist ludwig leichhardt led three expeditions northern australia decade sometimes help aboriginal guides


identifying grazing potential region making important discoveries fields botany geology party disappeared attempting cross continent east west edmund kennedy led expedition far western queensland speared aborigines cape york peninsula burke wills led first south north crossing continent melbourne gulf carpentaria lacking bushcraft unwilling learn local aboriginal people burke wills died returned


gulf rendezvous point coopers creek discover rest party departed location matter hours previously became tragic heroes european settlers funeral attracting crowd story inspiring numerous books artworks films representations popular culture john mcdouall stuart succeeded traversing central australia south north expedition mapped route later followed australian overland telegraph line ref name macintyre p ref completion overland telegraph line


associated exploration gibson desert nullarbor plain exploring central australia ernest giles sighted kata tjuta location near kings canyon called mount olga following year willian gosse observed uluru named ayers rock honour chief secretary south australia sir henry ayers alexander forrest trekked north coast western australia overland telegraph discovering land suitable grazing kimberley region ref name impact british settlement indigenous population first fleet arrived sydney cove


colonists january aboriginal population sydney region estimated people first governor new south wales arthur phillip arrived instructions endeavour every possible means open intercourse natives conciliate affections enjoining subjects live amity kindness alexander schramm 's ''a scene south australia'' depicts german settlers aborigines disease relative isolation indigenous population years meant little resistance many introduced


diseases outbreak smallpox april killed half aboriginal population sydney region one death recorded among settlers source outbreak controversial researchers contend originated contact indonesian fisherman far north spread along aboriginal trade routes others argue likely deliberately spread settlers ref name ref smallpox outbreaks devastating aboriginal populations late affecting south eastern australia early travelling inland coburg peninsula north


great australian bight south late kimberley geraldton according josphine flood estimated aboriginal mortality rate smallpox per cent first exposure per cent tropics per cent arid interior introduced diseases measles influenza typhoid tuberculosis also resulted high death rates aboriginal communities butlin estimates aboriginal population area modern victoria around two smallpox outbreaks reduced settlement


port phillip aboriginal population victoria fell around estimated per cent deaths introduced diseases per cent natural causes per cent settler violence venereal diseases also factor indigenous depopulation reducing aboriginal fertility rates south eastern australia estimated per cent per cent aboriginal population regions queensland affected conflict dispossession mounted police engaging indigenous australians slaughterhouse creek


massacre australian frontier warsthe british settlement initially planned self sufficient penal colony based agriculture karskens argues conflict broke settlers traditional owners land settlers' assumptions superiority british civilisation entitlement land improved building cultivationproclamation issued van diemen 's land around lieutenant governor arthur explains precepts british justice pictorial form tasmanian aboriginals tasmania suffered higher level conflict british colonies australian


native police british unit aboriginal troopers largely responsible 'dispersal' aboriginal tribes eastern australia particularly new south wales queenslandbroome argues british claims exclusive possession land property irreconcilable aboriginal concepts communal ownership land food resources flood points conflict british law aboriginal customary law also source conflict example aboriginal groups considered right hunt animals traditional land whereas british settlers considered killing


livestock poaching conflict also arose cross cultural misunderstandings reprisals previous actions kidnapping aboriginal men women children reprisal attacks collective punishments perpetrated colonists aboriginal groups alike sustained aboriginal attacks settlers burning crops mass killing livestock obviously acts resistance loss traditional land food resources colony spread fertile lands around hawkesbury river north west sydney conflict settlers darug people intensified reaching peak


bands darug people led pemulwuy later son tedbury burned crops killed livestock raided settler huts stores pattern resistance repeated colonial frontier expanded military garrison established hawkesbury death toll settlers darug conflict erupted expansion colony dharawal country nepean region south west sydney following deaths several settlers governor macquarie despatched three military detachments dharawal


lands culminating appin massacre april least aboriginal people killed colony spread lightly wooded pastures west great dividing range opening way large scale farming grazing wiradjuri country ref name ref windradyne led group aboriginal men raids livestock stockmen 's huts resulting death colonists martial law declared august ended five months later windradyne followers ended armed resistance estimates aboriginal deaths


conflict range two decades sporadic violence settlers aboriginal tasmanians van diemen 's land black war broke following rapid expansion settler numbers sheep grazing island 's interior eumarrah leader north midlands people captured said patriotic duty kill many white people possible driven people kangaroo hunting grounds martial law declared settled districts van diemen 's land november extended


entire island october black line around troops settlers swept island intention driving aboriginal population settled districts george augustus robinson aboriginal ambassadors including truganini led series friendly missions aboriginal tribes effectively ended black war flood states around settler aboriginal tasmanian deaths frontier violence recorded period adds never known many aboriginal deaths went unreported clements estimates


colonists killed aboriginal people eastern van diemen 's land black war around aboriginal tasmanians eventually relocated flinders islandfighting near creen creek queensland september settlers pastoralists spread region modern victoria competition land natural resources sparked conflict traditional landowners aboriginal resistance intense unusual sheep runs abandoned repeated attacks broome estimates settlers aboriginal people died frontier conflict victoria growth swan river


colony centred fremantle perth led conflict number clans noongar people governor sterling established mounted police force october year led mixed force soldiers mounted police civilians punitive expedition pindjarup expedition culminated pinjarra massacre aboriginal people killed according neville green settlers aboriginal people died violent conflict western australia spread sheep cattle grazing grasslands


gulf country northern australia five settlers aboriginal people killed last recorded massacre aboriginal people settlers coniston northern territory least aboriginal people killed spread british settlement also led increase inter tribal aboriginal conflict people forced traditional lands territory often hostile tribes butlin estimated aboriginal deaths victoria inter tribal violence broome estimates total death


toll settler aboriginal conflict settlers aboriginal people reynolds suggested higher guesstimate settlers aboriginals killed project team university newcastle australia reached preliminary estimate aboriginal deaths frontier massacres cooperation protection first two years settlement aboriginal people sydney initial curiosity mostly avoided newcomers governor phillip number aboriginal people kidnapped attempt learn language customs one


australia volume i'' p nbsp ref established native institution provide elementary education aboriginal children settled aboriginal families farms sydney made first freehold land grant aboriginal people black town west sydney initiated annual native feast parramatta attracted aboriginal people far bathurst plains however native institution aboriginal farms failed aboriginal people continued live vacant waterfront land fringes sydney settlement adapting traditional practices new


semi urban environment ref name escalating frontier conflict saw colonial governments develop number policies aimed protecting aboriginal people protectors aborigines appointed south australia port phillip district western australia aim extend protection british law aboriginal people often result increase criminalisation protectors also responsible distribution rations delivering elementary education aboriginal children instruction christianity training occupations useful colonistsaboriginal farmers loddon aboriginal


protectorate station franklinford victoria colonial governments established small number reserves encouraged christian missions afforded protection frontier violence nsw governor granted acres aboriginal mission lake macquarie early also missions wellington valley port phillip moreton bay settlement aboriginal tasmanians flinders island operated effectively mission george robinson protectors aborigines also set government stations providing housing rations schools small farms however protection


stations victorian legislation forerunner racial segregation policies australian governments densely settled areas aboriginal people lost control land lived reserves missions fringes cities towns pastoral districts british waste land act gave traditional landowners limited rights live hunt gather food crown land pastoral leases many aboriginal groups camped pastoral stations aboriginal men often employed shepherds stockmen groups able retain connection


lands maintain aspects traditional culture autonomy federation colonial self government gold rushes towards representative government imperial legislation provided legislative council nominated governor new south wales new supreme court providing additional limits power governors number prominent colonial figures including william wentworth campaigned greater degree self government although divisions extent future legislative body popularly elected major issues public debate colonial self government


traditional british political rights land policy transportation whether colonies large population convicts former convicts could trusted self government australian patriotic association formed promote representative government new south walesthe opening australia 's first elected parliament sydney c british government abolished transportation new south wales granted limited representative government colony establishing reformed legislative council one third members appointed governor two thirds elected male voters met property qualification property qualification meant


per cent males eligible vote first legislative council elections increasing immigration free settlers declining number convicts growing middle class working class population led agitation liberal democratic reforms public meetings adelaide called representative government south australia constitutional association formed sydney called manhood suffrage anti transportation league founded van diemen 's land also demanded representative government port phillip district agitation representative government closely linked


demands independence new south wales imperial parliament passed ''australian colonies government act'' granting van diemen 's land south australia newly created colony victoria semi elected legislative councils new south wales model act also reduced property requirement voting government officials responsible governor rather legislative council imperial legislation provided limited representative government rather responsible government gold rushes ''mr eh hargraves gold discoverer australia feb th returning salute


monthly fee revenue used offset cost providing infrastructure administration policing gold fields size allowable claims small metres square much gold near surface licensing system favoured small prospectors large enterprises gold rush initially caused economic disruption including wage price inflation labour shortages male workers moved goldfields male population south australia fell three per cent tasmania per cent immigrants united kingdom continental europe


riots erupted victorian goldfields new south wales according stuart macintyre goldfields migrant reception centres nineteenth century crucibles nationalism xenophobia eureka stockade eureka stockade riot j b henderson watercolouras men moved gold fields quantity easily accessible gold diminished average income miners fell victorian miners increasingly saw flat monthly licence fee regressive tax complained official corruption heavy handed administration lack voting rights itinerant miners protests intensified


october three miners arrested following riot ballarat protesters formed ballarat reform league support arrested men demanded manhood suffrage reform mining licence administration land reform promote small farms protests followed protesters built stockade eureka field ballarat december troops overran stockade killing protesters five troops killed seriously wounded following royal commission monthly licence replaced annual miner 's right lower cost also gave holders right


vote build dwelling gold fields administration victorian goldfields also reformed stuart macintyre states eureka rebellion formative event national mythology southern cross eureka flag symbol freedom independence however according g l shaw eureka affair often painted great fight australian liberty rights working man leaders small capitalistsand even universal suffrage introducedonly fifth miners bothered vote


self government democracy polling booth melbourne david syne co c elections semi representative legislative councils held new south wales victoria south australia van diemen 's land produced greater number liberal members year new south wales legislative council petitioned british government requesting self government colony anti transportation league also saw convict system barrier achievement self government british government announced convict transportation van diemen 's land would cease invited eastern colonies draft constitutions enabling responsible self government


secretary state cited social economic transformation colonies following discoveries gold one factors making self government feasible constitutions new south wales victoria van diemen 's land renamed tasmania gained royal assent south australia constitutions varied created lower house elected broad male franchise upper house either appointed life new south wales elected restricted property franchise britain retained right veto legislation regarding matters imperial


interest queensland became separate colony immediately became self governing adopting constitution new south wales western australia granted self government ref name curthoys ann mitchell jessie advent self government ''the cambridge history australia volume i'' pp nbsp ref secret ballot adopted tasmania victoria south australia followed new south wales queensland western australia south australia introduced universal male suffrage lower house followed victoria new south wales queensland western australia tasmania queensland


excluded aboriginal australians voting western australia property qualification voting remained aboriginal australians asians africans people mixed descent ref name societies promote women 's suffrage formed victoria south australia new south wales women 's christian temperance union also established branches australian colonies promoting votes women range social causes female suffrage right stand office first south australia women vote western australia


restrictions based race women remainder australia full rights vote stand elected office decade federation although racial restrictions long boom land reform new south wales victoria queensland south australia introduced selection acts intended promote family farms mixed farming grazing legislation typically allowed individual selectors select small parcels unused crown land leased pastoral land purchase credit reforms initially little impact


concentration land ownership large landowners used loopholes laws buy land however refinements legislation improvements farming technology introduction crops adapted australian conditions eventually led diversification rural land use expansion railways allowed wheat cheaply transported bulk stimulating development wheat belt south australia queensland land cultivation increased hectares million hectares bushrangers william strutt 's ''bushrangers st kilda road'' scene frequent hold ups


victorian gold rush bushrangers known st kilda road robberiesthe period saw revival bushranging first bushrangers escaped convicts former convicts early years british settlement lived independently bush often supporting criminal activity early association bush freedom beginning enduring myth resurgence bushranging drew grievances rural poor several members kelly gang famous bushrangers sons impoverished small farmers


exploits ned kelly gang garnered considerable local community support extensive national press coverage time kelly 's capture execution murder story inspired numerous works art literature popular culture continuing debate extent rebel fighting social injustice oppressive police murderous criminal economic growth race gold australia 's largest export allowed colony import range consumer capital goods importantly increase population decades


following gold rush stimulated demand housing consumer goods services urban infrastructure half australian population lived towns making australia urbanised united kingdom united states canada average income per person australia per cent higher united states giving australia one highest living standards world size government sector almost doubled per cent national expenditure per cent colonial governments spent heavily infrastructure


railways ports telegraph schools urban services much money infrastructure borrowed london financial markets land rich governments also sold land finance expenditure keep taxes low building workers sydney melbourne first world win eight hour working day saw trade unions grow spread lower skilled workers also across colonial boundaries per cent male workers belonged union one highest rates world economic growth accompanied


expansion northern australia gold discovered northern queensland kimberley pilbara regions western australia sheep cattle runs spread northern queensland gulf country northern territory kimberley region western australia sugar plantations also expanded northern queensland period ref name ref gold discoveries northern australia attracted new wave chinese immigrants queensland sugar cane industry also relied heavily indentured south sea island workers whose low wages


poor working conditions became national controversy led government regulation industry additionally significant population japanese filipinos malays working pearling fishing population northern australia estimated europeans asians pacific islanders indigenous australians probably outnumbered groups leaving white australians minority north tropic capricorn ref name late trade unions anti chinese leagues community groups campaigned chinese immigration low wage chinese labour following intercolonial conferences issue


colonial governments responded series laws progressively restricted chinese immigration citizenship rights depression '' labor crisis riot george street sydney '' c falling wool prices collapse speculative property bubble melbourne heralded end long boom british banks cut back lending australia heavily indebted australian economy fell economic depression number major banks suspended business economy contracted per cent unemployment rose almost third workforce depression followed


federation drought strike shipping industry spread wharves railways mines shearing sheds employers responded locking workers employing non union labour colonial governments intervened police troops strike failed subsequent strikes shearers miners depression employer resistance trade unions saw union membership fall five per cent workforce defeat maritime strike led trade unions form political parties new south


coloured races labor supported reid government new south wales passing ''coloured races restriction regulation act'' forerunner white australia policy however britain japan voiced objections legislation new south wales tasmania western australia instead introduced european language tests restrict undesirable immigrants growth nationalism origins distinctly australian style painting often associated heidelberg school movement tom roberts' ''shearing rams'' iconic example late majority people living australian colonies native born


although per cent british irish heritage australian natives association friendly society open australian born males flourished campaigned australian federation within british empire promoted australian literature history successfully lobbied january australia national day bush balladeer banjo paterson penned number classic works including waltzing matilda regarded australia 's unofficial national anthemaustralian nationalists often claimed unification colonies australia 's destiny australians lived single continent vast majority shared british heritage


wrote choice old dead tree young tree green land belongs lord queen land belongs unified australia usually associated white australia ''the bulletin'' declared white men left religious class divisions old world behind australians saw proliferation books articles depicting australia sparsely populated white nation threatened populous asian neighbours white australia also meant exclusion cheap asian labour


idea strongly promoted labour movement according historian john hirst federation needed make white australia policy policy popular expression national ideal inspired federation growing nationalist sentiment associated development distinctively australian art literature artists heidelberg school arthur streeton frederick mccubbin tom roberts followed example european impressionists painting open air applied capturing light colour australian landscape


exploring distinctive universal mixed life city characteristic life station bush henry lawson banjo paterson writers associated ''the bulletin'' produced poetry prose exploring nature bush life themes independence stoicism masculine labour egalitarianism anti authoritarianism mateship protagonists often shearers boundary riders itinerant bush workers following decade lawson paterson writers steele rudd miles franklin joseph furphy helped forge distinctive national literature paterson 's ballad man snowy river


achieved popularity lyrics song waltzing matilda c helped make unofficial national anthem many australians according macintyre however even bush legend myth enshrined lost possibilities federation movement growing nationalist sentiment coincided business concerns economic inefficiency customs barriers colonies duplication services colonial governments lack single national market goods services colonial concerns german french ambitions region also led british pressure federated australian defence


free trade policies new south wales conflicted protectionist policies dominant victoria colonies nevertheless nsw premier henry parkes strong advocate federation tenterfield oration pivotal gathering support cause parkes also struck deal edmund barton leader nsw protectionist party whereby would work together federation leave question protective tariff future australian government decide representatives six colonies new zealand met melbourne


agreed principle federation colonies colonial legislatures nominate representatives attend constitutional convention following year national australasian convention held sydney future states new zealand represented draft constitutional bill adopted transmitted colonial parliaments approval people worsening economic depression parliamentary opposition however delayed progress early first citizens' federation league established riverina region new south wales many leagues soon formed colonies leagues organised


conference corowa july developed new plan federation involving constitutional convention directly elected delegates referendum colony endorse proposed constitution new nsw premier george reid endorsed corowa plan convinced majority premiers adopt colonies sent directly elected representatives constitutional convention although western australia chosen parliament queensland send delegates convention held sessions resulted proposed constitution commonwealth


australia resulted yes votes march delegates dispatched london including barton victorian parliamentarian alfred deakin leading advocate federation following intense negotiations british government federation bill passed imperial government july gained royal assent july western australia subsequently voted join new federation ref name irving helen pp ref federation white australia protectionism rise labor edmund barton left first prime minister australia alfred deakin second prime minister commonwealth


australia proclaimed governor general lord hopetoun january barton sworn australia 's first prime minister ref name irving helen pp ref first federal elections held march resulted narrow plurality protectionist party free trade party australian labor party alp polling third labor declared would support party offered concessions program barton 's protectionists formed government deakin attorney general ref name autogenerated ref immigration restriction act one first laws passed new australian parliament


centrepiece white australia policy aimed extend restrictions immigration asians previously enacted colonies like colonial legislation immigration restriction act used dictation test european language exclude asian migrants considered threat australia 's living standards majority british culture government also ended use indentured south sea islander labour queensland sugar cane industry announced workers would repatriated islands deakin stated white australia surface


reasoned policy goes roots national life whole social industrial political organisation governed government introduced female suffrage commonwealth jurisdiction time excluded aboriginal australians franchise unless already vote state jurisdictionopening first parliament australia x px implementing white australia policy one first acts new parliament pictured melbourne punch c may barton government also introduced tariff imports designed raise revenue


protect australian industry however tariff lower less extensive many protectionists wanted due need attract sufficient support labor parliamentarians free vote issue many favoured free trade three major parties supported system commonwealth conciliation arbitration settle industrial disputes extending across state borders labor insisted railway workers included system preference given unionised labour disagreements legislation instrumental fall deakin 's protectionist government april appointment


first national labor government prime minister chris watson watson government fell april free trade government prime minister reid successfully introduced legislation commonwealth conciliation arbitration court july deakin withdrew support reid government formed protectionist government support labor new government embarked series social reforms program dubbed new protection tariff protection australian industries would linked provision fair reasonable wages harvester case h


b higgins conciliation arbitration court set fair reasonable wage based needs male breadwinner supporting wife three children high court australia struck new protection legislation unconstitutional however harvester case set standard basic wage subsequently used conciliation arbitration court settling industrial disputes commonwealth new south wales queensland western australia used arbitration courts settle industrial disputes fix wages conditions victoria south australia tasmania used wage


boards achieve goals labor anti labor base labor party australian trade union movement grew members half million party also drew considerable support clerical workers catholics small farmers labor party adopted objectives federal level included cultivation australian sentiment based upon maintenance racial purity collective ownership monopolies year queensland branch party adopted overtly socialist objectiveprocession


support eight hour work day george street sydney october federal free trade party changed name anti socialist party december elections became largest party per cent vote compared per cent labor per cent protectionists deakin 's protectionist government remained power following passage legislation old age pensions new protective tariff labor withdrew support government november andrew fisher became second labor prime minister response


liberal protectionists anti socialists conservative corner group entered coalition known fusion formed government prime minister deakin june reid stated question whether australia follow course free enterprise state control elections may labor majority houses parliament fisher became prime minister labor government introduced series reforms including progressive land tax invalid pensions maternity allowance government established commonwealth bank referendums nationalise monopolies extend


commonwealth trade commerce powers defeated commonwealth took responsibility northern territory south australia anti labor parliamentary fusion formalised commonwealth liberal party former new south wales labor party leader joseph cook liberal party narrowly may elections labor still controlled senate cook government 's attempt pass legislation abolishing preferential treatment union members commonwealth public service triggered double dissolution parliament labor comfortably september elections fisher resumed office external affairs


defence federation commonwealth inherited small defence forces six former australian colonies units soldiers six australian colonies active part british forces boer war british government asked troops australia early australian government obliged national contingent men volunteered service war 's end june britain germany agreed partition eastern half new guinea british new guinea placed authority


australia saw territory vital protection shipping lanes passage papua act british new guinea became australian territory papua formal australian administration territory began agreement australia contributed cost royal navy pacific fleet provide nation 's defence britain reserved right deploy fleet outside australian waters following japan 's defeat russia war concern japanese naval power led calls australian fleet deakin proposed purchase


training introduced deakin government previous year defence expenditure increased million million accounted third commonwealth budget economy population breaking federation drought heralded period strong economic growth economy grew per cent fourteen years outbreak first world war pastoralism construction manufacturing government services leading way rural industries still major employer accounting quarter jobs manufacturing


fast catching employment grew per cent period employment manufacturing increased almost per cent australian population also grew strongly driven fall infant mortality increasing adult life expectancy revival state subsidised immigration population increased four million five million migrants arrived white almost britain first world war australian soldiers egypt kangaroo regimental mascot australia war united kingdom declared


war germany august declaration automatically involved britain 's colonies dominions ref name frank crowley p frank crowley p ref outbreak war came middle federal election campaign labor leader andrew fisher promised defend britain last man last shilling ref name frank crowley p major parties offered britain australian troops ''defence act '' precluded sending conscripts overseas new volunteer force australian imperial force aif raised meet commitment'' august ''


longstaff depiction battle amiens australian commanders forces played major role inflicting black day german army public enthusiasm war high initial quota aif quickly filled troops left egypt november one escort ships hmas ''sydney'' sinking german cruiser ''emden'' along way meanwhile september separate australian expeditionary force captured german new guinea arriving egypt aif incorporated australian new zealand army corps anzac british


general william birdwood anzacs formed part mediterranean expeditionary force task opening dardanelles allied battleships threatening constantinople capital ottoman empire entered war side central powersgeneral sir john monash anzacs along french british indian troops landed gallipoli peninsula april australian new zealand position anzac cove vulnerable attack troops suffered heavy losses establishing narrow beachhead become clear expeditionary force would unable


also sustained heavy losses british offensive around ypres overall almost australian troops killed november five australian divisions united australian corps may australian general john monash took command australian corps heavily involved halting german spring offensive allied counter offensive august year constituting one tenth british dominion soldiers western front australian corps responsible per cent territory reconquered prisoners captured field guns


taken counter offensive middle east australian light horse brigades prominent halting ottoman german threat suez canal romani august participated allied advance sinai palestine included light horse mounted charge beersheba october helped win third battle gaza pressed palestine syria advance led ottoman surrender october time war ended november australians served


overseas casualties included dead woundedthe highest casualty rate allied force australian troops also higher rates unauthorised absence crime imprisonment allied forces home front australians publicly opposed war volunteers aif outstripped capacity enlist train also surge female participation voluntary organisations red cross patriotic groups one woman one recruit league anti german leagues formed germans enemy aliens sent internment


cent course hostilities inflation rose first two years war real wages fell soon becoming prime minister hughes abandoned promised referendum give commonwealth power control prices although government later used wartime powers regulate prices basic goods lower wages perceptions profiteering businesses led wave strikes miners waterside workers shearers enlistments also declined falling month peak month hughes returned


political industrial unrest intensified august october major strike new south wales railway transport waterside coal workers defeated commonwealth new south wales governments arrested strike leaders organised special constables non union labour industrial workers world iww declared unlawful organisation members arrested september protests women 's peace army melbourne resulted extensive damage shops offices following falls enlistments hughes announced second referendum conscription


australia obtained special league nations mandate german new guinea allowing australia control trade immigration australia also gained per cent share formerly german ruled island nauru giving access rich superphosphate reserves australia argued successfully japanese proposal racial equality clause league nations covenant hughes feared would jeopardise white australia policy signatory treaty versailles full member league nations australia took important step towards international recognition sovereign nation inter war


years men money markets australian soldiers carrying prime minister billy hughes 'little digger' george street sydney return paris peace conference australian architecture brisbane city hall one expensive buildings second largest construction inter war period sydney harbour bridge war prime minister billy hughes led new conservative force nationalist party formed old liberal party breakaway elements labor prominent deep bitter split conscription estimated australians


died result spanish flu pandemic almost certainly brought home returning soldiers revd john flynn founder royal flying doctor service pioneer aviator sir charles kingsford smith edith cowan elected west australian legislative assembly first woman elected australian parliament success bolshevik revolution russia posed threat eyes many australians although small group socialists inspiration communist party australia formed though remaining electorally insignificant


revival stanley bruce became prime minister members nationalist party government voted remove wm hughes speaking early bruce summed priorities optimism many australians saying men money markets accurately defined essential requirements australia seeking britain migration campaign operated development migration commission brought almost britons australia although schemes settle migrants returned soldiers land generally success new irrigation areas western australia


dawson valley queensland proved disastrous australia costs major investment traditionally met state federal governments heavy borrowing overseas made governments loan council set co ordinate loans three quarters came overseas despite imperial preference balance trade successfully achieved britain five years australia bought imports britain sold exports wheat wool made two thirds australian exports


dangerous reliance two export commodities australia embraced new technologies transport communication coastal sailing ships finally abandoned favour steam improvements rail motor transport heralded dramatic changes work leisure cars lorries whole australia stage coach company cobb co established finally closed queensland northern territory aerial service become australian airline qantas established reverend john flynn founded royal flying doctor service


world 's first air ambulance daredevil pilot sir charles kingsford smith pushed new flying machines limit completing round australia circuit traversed pacific ocean via hawaii fiji us australia aircraft ''southern cross'' went global fame series aviation records vanishing night flight singapore dominion status george v prime ministers standing left right monroe newfoundland coates new zealand bruce australia hertzog union south africa cosgrave irish free state seated baldwin


ashmore island cartier islands australian antarctic territory transferred britain heard island mcdonald islands macquarie island transferred australia britain federal capital territory fct formed new south wales provide location proposed new federal capital canberra melbourne seat government fct renamed australian capital territory act northern territory transferred control south australian government commonwealth great depression ribbon ceremony open sydney harbour


historian geoff spenceley debt state new south wales accounted almost half australia 's accumulated debt december situation caused alarm amongst politicians economists notably edward shann university western australia political union business leaders reluctant admit serious problems ''australian finance'' magazine described loans occurring disconcerting frequency unrivalled british empire may loan pay maturing loans loan pay interest existing loans loan repay temporary loans


bankers thus well wall street crash australian economy already facing significant difficulties economy slowed manufacturing country slipped recession profits slumped unemployment rose unemployed men marched esplanade treasury building perth western australia see premier sir james mitchell elections held october labor party swept power landslide victory stanley bruce former prime minister lost seat new prime minister james scullin


largely inexperienced government almost immediately faced series crises hamstrung lack control senate lack control banking system divisions within party best deal situation government forced accept solutions eventually split party gravitated new south wales premier lang others prime minister scullin various plans resolve crisis suggested sir otto niemeyer representative english banks visited mid proposed deflationary plan involving cuts


government spending wages treasurer ted theodore proposed mildly inflationary plan labor premier new south wales jack lang proposed radical plan repudiated overseas debt premier 's plan finally accepted federal state governments june followed deflationary model advocated niemeyer included reduction per cent government spending reduction bank interest rates increase taxation march lang announced interest due london would paid federal government stepped meet debt may government