references reading https webarchiveorg web https complexityexplainedgithubio complexity explained lan amaral jm ottino http amaral laborg media publication pdfs amaral eurphysjb pdf ''complex networks augmenting framework study complex system'' walter clemens jr https webarchiveorg web http wwwsunypressedu p complexity science world afaspx ''complexity science world affairs'' suny press gogolin nersesyan tsvelik https webarchiveorg web http wwwcmthbnlgov tsvelik theoryhtml ''theory strongly correlated systems '' cambridge university press nigel goldenfeld leo p kadanoff http guavaphysicsuiucedu nigel articles complexityhtml ''simple lessons complexity'' kelly k http wwwkkorg outofcontrol contentsphp ''out control'' perseus books group springerlink series dynamic modeling econometrics economics finance year volume url https linkspringercom book editorsandaffiliations language en gb doi isbn cid syed mehmud https webarchiveorg web http predictivemodelercom sitecontent book ch applications actuarial hec model healthcare exchange complexity model report aug pdf ''a healthcare exchange complexity model'' https webarchiveorg web http wwwoeawacat byzanz repository preiser workingpapers calculating ipdf preiser kapeller


johannes calculating byzantium social network analysis complexity sciences tools exploration medieval social dynamics august stefan thurner peter klimek rudolf hanel ''introduction theory complex systems'' oxford university press https sfi edus amazonawscom sfi edu production uploads publication bulletin fall finalpdf sfi foundations frontiers external links interdisciplinary description complex systems https webarchiveorg web http havlinbiuacil course php introduction complex systems short course shlomo havlin http wwwscholarpediaorg article complex systems complex systems scholarpedia http cssocietyorg complex systems society https webarchiveorg web http wwwcomplexsystemsnetau australian complex systems research network https webarchiveorg web http informaticsindianaedu rocha complex csmhtml complex systems modeling based luis rocha https webarchiveorg web http wwwcrmcat complexsystems lines defaultsistemescomplexoshtm crm complex systems research group https webarchiveorg web http wwwccsruiucedu center complex systems research

Applied science
Business
Systems science
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univ illinois urbana champaign complex dynamics cybernetics emergence systems theory systems science mathematical modeling


'''financial economics''' branch economics characterized concentration monetary activities money one type another likely appear ''both sides'' trade ref name stanford william f sharpe http wwwstanfordedu wfsharpe mia int mia int htm financial economics ref concern thus interrelation financial variables share prices interest rates exchange rates opposed concerning real economy two main areas focus ref name miller merton h miller history finance eyewitness account ''journal portfolio management'' summer ref asset pricing corporate finance

Social science
Economics
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first perspective providers capital ie investors second users capital thus provides theoretical underpinning much finance subject concerned allocation deployment economic resources spatially across time uncertain environment ref name fama miller see fama miller ''the theory finance'' bibliography ref therefore centers decision making uncertainty context financial markets resultant economic financial models principles concerned deriving testable policy implications acceptable assumptions built


foundations microeconomics decision theory financial econometrics branch financial economics uses econometric techniques parameterise relationships mathematical finance related derive extend mathematical numerical models suggested financial economics emphasis mathematical consistency opposed compatibility economic theory whereas financial economics primarily microeconomic focus monetary economics primarily macroeconomic nature underlying economics class wikitable floatright width style text align center fundamental valuation result small math price j sum p x sj r math small math sum q x sj r math small math sum p x sj tilde e x tilde math small math sum pi x sj math small math x sj math dollar


payoffs state small math p math subjective personal probability assigned state math sum p math small math math risk aversion factors state normalized st math sum q math small math q equiv p math risk neutral probabilities small math tilde equiv r math stochastic discount factor small math pi q r math state prices math sum pi r math discipline essentially explores rational investors would apply decision theory problem investment subject thus built foundations microeconomics decision theory derives several key results application decision making uncertainty financial markets underlying economic logic distills fundamental valuation result ref


name rubinstein ref name cochrane culp aside developed following sections present value expectation utility underlying financial economics concepts present value expectation ref name rubinstein calculating present value allows decision maker aggregate cashflows returns produced asset future single value date question thus readily compare two opportunities concept therefore starting point financial decision making institute faculty actuaries ref developed johan de witt edmond halley


immediate extension combine probabilities present value leading expected value criterion sets asset value function sizes expected payouts probabilities occurrence math x math math p math respectively decision method however fails consider risk aversion student finance knows ref name rubinstein words since individuals receive greater utility extra dollar poor less utility comparatively rich approach therefore adjust weight assigned various outcomes states correspondingly math math see indifference price investors may


fact risk seeking opposed risk averse logic would apply choice uncertainty may characterized maximization expected utility formally resulting expected utility hypothesis states certain axioms satisfied subjective value associated gamble individual ''that individual' 's statistical expectation valuations outcomes gamble impetus ideas arise various inconsistencies observed expected value framework st petersburg paradox ellsberg paradox arbitrage free pricing equilibrium class wikitable floatright


jel g financial economics http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid g jel g general http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid g jel g general financial markets http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid g jel g financial institutions services http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid g jel g corporate finance governance tertiary category entries also searched concepts arbitrage free rational pricing equilibrium coupled derive classical ref name rubinstein see rubinstein bibliography ref neo classical ref name derman financial economics rational pricing assumption asset prices hence asset pricing models reflect arbitrage free price asset deviation price arbitraged away


assumption useful pricing fixed income securities particularly bonds fundamental pricing derivative instruments economic equilibrium general state economic forces supply demand balanced absence external influences equilibrium values economic variables change general equilibrium deals behavior supply demand prices whole economy several many interacting markets seeking prove set prices exists result overall equilibrium contrast partial equilibrium


analyzes single markets two concepts linked follows market prices allow profitable arbitrage ie comprise arbitrage free market prices also said constitute arbitrage equilibrium intuitively may seen considering arbitrage opportunity exist prices expected change therefore equilibrium ref name delbaen schachermayer arbitrage equilibrium thus precondition general economic equilibrium immediate formal extension idea fundamental theorem asset pricing shows markets described


additionally implicitly correspondingly complete one may make financial decisions constructing risk neutral probability measure corresponding market complete means price every asset every possible state world math math complete set possible bets future states world therefore constructed existing assets assuming friction essentially solving simultaneously ''n'' risk neutral probabilities math q math given ''n'' prices formal derivation proceed arbitrage arguments ref name rubinstein ref name delbaen schachermayer freddy delbaen walter schachermayer https wwwamsorg notices ispdf free lunch pdf notices


conditions ref name rubinstein ref name cochrane culp ref name backus approach consistent expectation based market ie arbitrage free per theorem therefore equilibrium opposed individual preferences thus continuing example pricing derivative instrument forecasted cashflows states math x math math x math multiplied math q math math q math discounted risk free interest rate per second equation pricing fundamental underlying instrument equilibrium hand risk appropriate premium risk free required discounting essentially


employing first equation math math math r math combined general may derived capm extensions seen uncertainty difference explained follows construction value derivative must grow risk free rate arbitrage arguments value must discounted correspondingly case option achieved manufacturing instrument combination underlying risk free bond see uncertainty underlying priced manufacturing course


possible instrument fundamental ie opposed derivative premium required risk state prices relationship established specialized arrow debreu model may derived ref lionel w mckenzie also cited independent proof equilibrium existence breeden litzenberger 's work established use state prices financial economics result suggests certain economic conditions must set prices aggregate supplies equal aggregate demands every commodity economy analysis often


undertaken assuming ' 'representative agent'' ref name doyne geanakoplos arrow debreu model applies economies maximally complete markets exists market every time period forward prices every commodity time periods direct extension concept state price security also called arrow debreu security contract agrees pay one unit numeraire currency commodity particular state occurs simplified example particular time future pays zero numeraire states price


security state price math pi math particular state world example state prices math pi math math pi math would equate present values math q math math q math ie one would pay today respectively state securities state price vector vector state prices states applied derivative valuation price today would simply math pi math math x math math pi math math x math fourth formula see regarding absence risk premium continuous random variable indicating continuum possible states value


found integrating state price density concepts extended martingale pricing related risk neutral measure state prices find immediate application conceptual tool contingent claim analysis ref name rubinstein also applied valuation problems ref name corp fin state prices see de matos well bossaerts degaard bibliography ref given pricing mechanism described one decompose derivative value true fact every security ref name miller linear combination state prices ie back solve state prices corresponding observed derivative prices ref name chance ref name corp fin state prices recovered state prices


used valuation instruments exposure underlyer decision making relating underlyer using related stochastic discount factor also called pricing kernel asset price computed discounting future cash flow stochastic factor math tilde math taking expectation ref name backus see david k backus http pagessternnyuedu dbackus notes econ assetpricingpdf fundamentals asset pricing stern nyu ref third equation essentially factor divides expected utility relevant future period function possible asset values realized state


utility due today wealth also referred intertemporal marginal rate substitution resultant models leverage e increases wacc k stays constant efficient frontier hyperbola sometimes referred 'markowitz bullet' upward sloped portion efficient frontier risk free asset available risk free asset straight line efficient frontier graphic displays cal capital allocation line formed risky asset single asset rather market case line cml capital market line


tangent line drawn point risk free asset feasible region risky assets tangency point represents market portfolio cml results combination market portfolio risk free asset point l addition leverage point r creates levered portfolios also cml class wikitable floatright width style text align center smalldiv capital asset pricing model capm math e r r f beta e r r f math small expected return used discounting cashflows asset math math risk free rate plus market premium multiplied


beta math rho im frac sigma sigma math asset 's correlated volatility relative overall market math math security market line representation capm displaying expected rate return individual security function systematic non diversifiable risk simulated geometric brownian motions parameters market data class wikitable floatright width style text align center smalldiv black scholes equation math frac partial v partial frac sigma frac partial v partial rs frac partial v partial rv math interpretation arbitrage arguments instantaneous impact time math math change spot price math math option price math v math must realize


growth math r math risk free rate option correctly manufactured ie hedged class wikitable floatright width style text align center smalldiv black scholes formula value call option math begin align c n n ke r frac sigma sqrt left ln left frac k right left r frac sigma right right sigma sqrt end align math interpretation value call risk free rated present value expected money value ie specific formulation fundamental valuation result math n math probability


call exercised math n math present value expected asset price expiration given asset price expiration exercise price applying economic concepts may derive various economic financial models principles two usual areas focus asset pricing corporate finance first perspective providers capital second users capital almost financial economics models questions addressed typically framed terms time uncertainty options information ref name stanford ref name doyne geanakoplos


miller division sometimes denoted deterministic random ref name luenberger stochastic certainty starting point investment certainty usually framed context corporation fisher separation theorem asserts objective corporation maximization present value regardless preferences shareholders related modigliani miller theorem shows certain conditions value firm unaffected firm financed depends neither dividend policy decision raise capital issuing stock selling debt proof


formal sense appropriate discount rate depend asset 's riskiness relative overall market opposed owners' preferences see net present value npv direct extension ideas typically applied corporate finance decisioning results well specific models developed see list equity valuation topics bond valuation cashflows coupons return principal deterministic may proceed fashion ref name luenberger see luenberger 's ''investment science'' bibliography ref immediate extension arbitrage free bond pricing discounts cashflow market


derived rate ie coupon 's corresponding zero rate opposed overall rate many treatments bond valuation precedes equity valuation cashflows dividends known ''per se'' williams onward allow forecasting based historic ratios published policy cashflows treated essentially deterministic see corporate finance theory certainty results commonly employed corporate finance uncertainty focus asset pricing models follows fisher 's formulation theory developing intertemporal equilibrium model underpins also


arbitrage free pricing equilibrium relationship rationality efficiency follows given ability profit private information self interested traders motivated acquire act private information traders contribute correct ie ''efficient'' prices efficient market hypothesis emh thus prices financial assets broadly efficient deviations equilibrium values could last long see earnings response coefficient emh implicitly assumes average expectations constitute optimal forecast ie prices using available information identical ''best


guess future'' assumption rational expectations emh allow faced new information investors may overreact may underreact required however investors' reactions follow normal distribution net effect market prices cannot reliably exploited make abnormal profit competitive limit market prices reflect available information prices move response news ref name shiller random walk hypothesis news course could good bad minor less common major


moves correspondingly normally distributed price therefore following log normal distribution conditions investors assumed act rationally investment decision must calculated loss sure follow correspondingly arbitrage opportunity presents arbitrageurs exploit reinforcing equilibrium certainty case specific assumption pricing prices calculated present value expected future dividends ref name cochrane culp christopher l culp john h cochrane http facultychicagoboothedu johncochrane research papers cochrane culp asset pricingpdf equilibrium asset pricing discount factors overview implications


derivatives valuation risk management ''modern risk management history'' peter field ed london risk books ref ref name shiller ref ref name doyne geanakoplos based currently available information required though theory determining appropriate discount rate ie required return given uncertainty provided mpt capm relatedly rationality sense arbitrage exploitation gives rise black scholes option values ultimately consistent capm general portfolio theory studies investors balance risk return investing many assets securities


capm focused describing equilibrium markets set prices assets relation risky result independent investor 's level risk aversion assumed utility function thus providing readily determined discount rate corporate finance decision makers ref name jensen smith jensen michael c smith clifford w theory corporate finance historical overview ''the modern theory corporate finance'' new york mcgraw hill inc pp ref investors argument proceeds follows one construct efficient frontier ie


combination assets offering best possible expected level return level risk see diagram mean variance efficient portfolios formed simply combination holdings risk free asset market portfolio mutual fund separation theorem combinations plotting capital market line cml given cml required return risky security independent investor 's utility function solely determined covariance beta aggregate ie market risk investors maximize utility leverage


opposed pricing see separation property finance cml diagram aside seen formula aside result consistent preceding equaling riskless return plus adjustment risk ref name cochrane culp modern direct derivation described bottom section generalized derive pricing models black scholes provides mathematical model financial market containing derivative instruments resultant formula price european styled options https wwwjstororg stable ref robert c merton ref name merton paper https wwwjstororg stable ref consistent previous versions formula


louis bachelier edward thorp ref name haug taleb haug e g taleb n n http citeseerxistpsuedu viewdoc downloaddoi rep rep type pdf never used black scholes merton option pricing formula ''wilmott magazine'' january ref although actuarial flavor established risk neutral discounting ref name derman vinzenz bronzin produced early results also model expressed black scholes equation partial differential equation describing changing price option time derived assuming log normal geometric brownian motion see brownian model financial markets key financial insight behind model one


formula without reference share 's expected return black scholes inheres risk neutrality intuitively consistent elimination risk mathematically consistent arbitrage free pricing equilibrium relatedly therefore pricing formula may also derived directly via risk neutral expectation 's lemma provides underlying mathematics calculus generally remains fundamental quantitative finance ref introduced area mathematics finance robert merton promoted continuous stochastic calculus continuous time processes mentioned shown two models consistent


expected classical financial economics thus unified black scholes equation alternatively derived capm price obtained black scholes model thus consistent expected return capm ref name chance chance http wwwbuslsuedu academics finance faculty dchance instructional tn pdf option prices expected returns ref ref name derman emanuel derman http wwwemanueldermancom media scientific approach financepdf ''a scientific approach capm options valuation'' ref black scholes theory although built arbitrage free pricing therefore consistent equilibrium based capital asset pricing models turn ultimately consistent arrow debreu theory derived via state pricing essentially expanding


fundamental result explaining required demonstrating unity ref name rubinstein rubinstein mark great moments financial economics iv fundamental theorem part ''journal investment management'' vol fourth quarter part ii vol first quarter see external links ref capm derived linking math math risk aversion overall market return setting return security math j math math x j price j math see black scholes formula found limit attaching binomial probability numerous possible spot prices states rearranging


return ie pricing extending basic capm multi factor models fama french three factor model carhart four factor model propose factors market return relevant pricing intertemporal capm consumption based capm similarly extend model intertemporal portfolio choice investor repeatedly optimizes portfolio inclusion consumption economic sense incorporates sources wealth market based investments investor 's calculation required return whereas extend capm single index model simple model assumes correlation security


back line ref apt developed stephen ross linear factor model structure apt used basis many commercial risk systems employed asset managers regards portfolio optimization black litterman model departs original markowitz model ie constructing portfolios via efficient frontier black litterman instead starts equilibrium assumption modified take account 'views' ie specific opinions asset returns investor question arrive bespoke asset allocation factors additional volatility considered


kurtosis skew multiple criteria decision analysis applied deriving pareto efficient portfolio universal portfolio algorithm applies machine learning asset selection learning adaptively historical data behavioral portfolio theory recognizes investors varied aims create investment portfolio meets broad range goals copulas lately applied recently case also genetic algorithms machine learning generally see techniques objectives derivative pricing crr formulae class wikitable floatright width style text align center smalldiv pde zero coupon bond math frac sigma r frac partial p partial r r sigma r varphi rt frac partial


p partial r frac partial p partial rp math stylized volatility smile showing implied volatility strike price black scholes formula returns market prices regards derivative pricing binomial options pricing model provides discretized version black scholes useful valuation american styled options discretized models type built least implicitly using state prices relatedly large number researchers used options extract state prices variety applications financial economics ref name rubinstein ref name chance ref name chance chance http wwwbuslsuedu academics finance faculty dchance instructional tn pdf option prices state prices ref path dependent


derivatives monte carlo methods option pricing employed modelling continuous time similarly uses risk neutral expected value various numeric techniques also developed theoretical framework extended martingale pricing standard approach drawing techniques models various underlyings applications also developed based logic using contingent claim analysis real options valuation allows option holders influence option 's underlying models employee stock option valuation explicitly assume non rationality part option holders credit


derivatives allow payment obligations delivery requirements might honored exotic derivatives routinely valued multi asset underlyers handled via simulation copula based analysis similarly various short rate models allow extension techniques fixed income interest rate derivatives vasicek cir models equilibrium based ho lee subsequent models based arbitrage free pricing general hjm framework describes dynamics full forward rate curve opposed working short rates widely applied valuation underlying instrument additional


derivatives relatedly extended particularly hybrid securities credit risk combined uncertainty future rates see ref hjm framework originates work david heath robert jarrow andrew morton following crash equity options traded american markets began exhibit known volatility smile given expiration options whose strike price differs substantially underlying asset 's price command higher prices thus implied volatilities suggested bsm pattern differs


across various markets modelling volatility smile active area research developments well implications standard theory discussed next section financial crisis development ref name youmbi didier kouokap youmbi https ssrncom abstract derivatives pricing crisis crisis changed pricing approach bank england prudential regulation authority ref counter derivative pricing relied bsm risk neutral pricing framework assumptions funding risk free rate ability perfectly replicate cashflows


rate considered better proxy risk free rate also practically interest paid cash collateral usually overnight rate ois discounting sometimes referred csa discounting swap pricing therefore yield curve construction modified previously swaps valued single self discounting interest rate curve whereas post crisis accommodate ois discounting valuation multi curve framework forecast curves constructed floating leg libor tenor discounting ''common'' ois curve corporate finance theory project valuation via decision tree corporate finance theory


evaluate projects incorporating valuation possible events states consequent management decisions ref name damodaran risk aswath damodaran http wwwsternnyuedu adamodar pdfiles papers probabilisticpdf probabilistic approaches scenario analysis decision trees simulations ''strategic risk taking framework risk management'' prentice hall ref correct discount rate reflecting point 's non diversifiable risk looking forward ref name damodaran risk ref borrowed operations research financial economics development ''per se'' related treatment forecasted cashflows equity valuation many cases following williams average likely cash flows discounted ref name markowitz interview ref opposed


developments include agency theory analyses difficulties motivating corporate management agent act best interests shareholders principal rather interests clean surplus accounting related residual income valuation provide model returns price function earnings expected returns change book value opposed dividends approach extent arises due implicit contradiction seeing value function dividends also holding dividend policy cannot influence value per modigliani miller 's irrelevance principle see typical


application real options capital budgeting type problems described however also applied questions capital structure dividend policy related design corporate securities ref name garbade kenneth garbade ''pricing corporate securities contingent claims'' mit press ref since stockholder bondholders different objective functions analysis related agency problems ref name damodaran ref cases state prices provide market implied information relating corporate applied analysis example convertible bonds must priced consistent


recovered state prices corporate 's equity ref name corp fin state prices ref name kruschwitz l ffler see kruschwitz l ffler per bibliography ref challenges criticism close link random walk hypothesis associated belief price changes follow normal distribution one hand ii market efficiency rational expectations wide departures commonly observed thus respectively two main sets challenges departures normality implied volatility surface z axis represents implied volatility percent x axes represent option delta


volatility volatility corresponding bsm price observed ' 'differ'' function strike price ie moneyness true price change distribution non normal unlike assumed bsm term structure volatility describes implied volatility differs related options different maturities implied volatility surface three dimensional surface plot volatility smile term structure empirical phenomena negate assumption constant volatility log normality upon black scholes built ref name haug taleb ref name holes within institutions function black scholes largely ''communicate'' prices


via implied volatilities much like bond prices communicated via ytm see consequence traders risk managers instead use smile consistent models firstly valuing derivatives directly mapped surface facilitating pricing ie non quoted strike maturity combinations non european derivatives generally hedging purposes two main approaches local volatility stochastic volatility first returns volatility local spot time point finite difference simulation based valuation ie opposed implied volatility holds overall way calculated prices numeric structures


market consistent arbitrage free sense second approach assumes volatility underlying price stochastic process rather constant models first calibrated observed prices applied valuation hedging question common heston sabr cev approach addresses certain problems identified hedging local volatility related local volatility lattice based implied binomial trinomial trees essentially discretization approach similarly less commonly used pricing built state prices recovered


risk neutral value counterparty funding related risk xva ''additional'' smile surface effect valid surface built price data relating fully collateralized positions therefore double counting credit risk etc appending xva case counterparty would surface mentioned top mathematical finance particularly financial engineering concerned mathematical consistency market realities compatibility economic theory extreme event approaches smile consistent modeling valuation adjustments seen


light recognizing james rickards amongst critics ref name taleb mandelbrot financial economics suggests instead theory needs revisiting almost entirely current system based idea risk distributed shape bell curve flawed problem economists practitioners never abandon bell curve like medieval astronomers believe sun


revolves around earth furiously tweaking geo centric math face contrary evidence never get right need copernicus departures rationality class wikitable floatright width style font size align center colspan market anomalies economic puzzles rowspan calendar effect january effect sell may mark twain effect santa claus rally closed end fund puzzle dividend puzzle equity home bias puzzle equity premium puzzle forward premium anomaly low volatility anomaly momentum anomaly post earnings announcement drift real exchange rate puzzles


related various economic puzzles concerning phenomena similarly contradicting theory ''equity premium puzzle'' one example arises difference observed returns stocks compared government bonds consistently higher risk premium rational equity investors demand abnormal return context see random walk hypothesis non random walk hypothesis sidebar specific instances generally particularly following financial crisis financial economics mathematical finance subjected deeper criticism notable nassim nicholas taleb claims


prices financial assets cannot characterized simple models currently use rendering much current practice best irrelevant worst dangerously misleading see black swan theory taleb distribution topic general interest thus financial crises failure financial economics model predict related problem systemic risk companies hold securities interconnectedness may entail valuation chain performance one company security impact phenomenon easily modeled regardless whether individual


value see noise economic adaptive market hypothesis attempt reconcile efficient market hypothesis behavioral economics applying principles evolution financial interactions information cascade alternatively shows market participants engaging acts others herd behavior despite contradictions private information copula based modelling similarly applied see also hyman minsky 's financial instability hypothesis well george soros' approach reflexivity financial markets economic theory obverse however various studies shown despite departures efficiency asset prices typically exhibit random walk


one cannot therefore consistently outperform market averages attain alpha practical implication therefore passive investing eg via low cost index funds average serve better active strategy ref name two william f sharpe http wwwstanfordedu wfsharpe art talks indexed investinghtm ''indexed investing prosaic way beat average investor'' presention monterey institute international studies retrieved may ref burton malkiel 's ''a random walk wall street'' first published th edition widely read popularization arguments see also john c bogle 's ''common sense mutual funds''


compare warren buffett 's ''the superinvestors graham doddsville'' relatedly institutionally inherent ''limits arbitrage'' opposed factors directly contradictory theory sometimes proposed explanation departures efficiency see also finance theories financial models deutsche bank prize financial economics economic model financial modeling fischer black prize list financial economics articles list financial economists master financial economics monetary economics outline economics outline finance historical notes references bibliography '''financial economics''' volume volume ii '''asset pricing''' '''corporate finance''' external links valign top surveys


https webarchiveorg web http wwwin moneycom artandpap present valuedoc great moments financial economics https webarchiveorg web http wwwin moneycom artandpap ii modigliani miller theoremdoc ii https webarchiveorg web http wwwin moneycom artandpap iii short sales stock pricesdoc iii https webarchiveorg web http wwwin moneycom artandpap iv fundamental theorem part idoc iva https webarchiveorg web http wwwin moneycom artandpap iv fundamental theorem part iidoc ivb archived mark rubinstein https webarchiveorg web http wwwfinance physicsorg library articles scienceandfinance sciencehtm scientific evolution finance archived chance pamela peterson https webarchiveorg web http wwweconbounedutr content spring ec lecture note markowitz pdf early history portfolio theory harry markowitz ''financial analysts journal'' vol jul aug pp nbsp https ssrncom abstract theory corporate finance historical overview michael c jensen clifford w smith http emanueldermancom stylized history quantitative finance stylized history quantitative finance emanuel derman https webarchiveorg web http wwwthederivativesbookcom chapters chappdf financial engineering tools trade discusses historical context derivative pricing ch phelim boyle


feidhlim boyle derivatives tools changed finance risk books june https wwwinklingcom read principles corporate finance brealey th chapter section know seven important ideas finance https wwwinklingcom read principles corporate finance brealey th chapter section know unsolved problems finance richard brealey stewart myers franklin allen https dspacemitedu handle overview modern financial economics mit working paper chi fu huang https webarchiveorg web http cepanewschooledu het essays capital fisherinvesthtm irving fisher 's theory investment gon alo l fonseca new school valign top '''course material''' http pagessternnyuedu dbackus notes econ assetpricingpdf fundamentals asset pricing prof david k backus nyu stern http antoniomeleorg financial economics financial economics classics contemporary prof antonio mele universit della svizzera italiana http wwwulbacbe cours solvay farber phdhtm microfoundations


financial economics prof andr farber solvay business school http arquivopt wayback http vikingsomyaleedu web pages finman classnotes noteshtml introduction investment theory prof william goetzmann yale school management http wwwstanfordedu wfsharpe mia miahtm macro investment analysis prof william f sharpe stanford graduate school business http ocwmitedu courses sloan school management finance theory fall finance theory mit opencourseware prof andrew lo mit http oycyaleedu economics econ financial theory open yale courses prof john geanakoplos yale university prof gl fonseca new school social research https wwwmautexasedu rtgs applied school rtg transpdf introduction financial economics gordan zitkovi university texas austin http jhqianorg apt apbookpdf introduction asset pricing theory junhui qian shanghai jiao tong university valign top '''links portals''' http wwwaeaweborg jel guide jelphpclass g jel classification codes guide http rfeorg showcatphpcat id


financial economics links aea 's rfe http wwwssrncom en indexcfm fen ssrn financial economics network http wwweconomicsnetworkacuk subjects financial economics financial economics listings economicsnetworkacuk https ficwhartonupennedu policy briefs financial economists roundtable fer financial economists roundtable http wwwnberorg jel g indexhtml nber working papers financial economics https webarchiveorg web http wwwqfinancecom information sourcessection financial economics financial economics resources qfinance archived https webarchiveorg web http wwwhelsinkifi webec webecghtml financial economics links webec archived '''actuarial resources''' http wwwsoaorg education exam req edu exam mfe detailaspx models financial economics mfe society actuaries http wwwactuariesorguk students pages ct financial economics financial economics ct institute faculty actuaries https webarchiveorg web http files sections primepdf primer financial economics f whelan c bowie j hibbert ''british actuarial journal'' volume issue april pp nbsp http wwwsoaorg files sections actuary journal finalpdf pension actuary 's guide financial economics gordon enderle jeremy


appearance cut surface lung showing honeycomb pattern end stage pulmonary fibrosis gross examination appearance colorectal polyp cauliflower shaped tumor attached colon mucosa horizontal line bottom '''anatomical pathology''' ''commonwealth'' '''anatomic pathology''' ''us'' medical specialty concerned diagnosis disease based macroscopic microscopic biochemical immunologic molecular examination organs tissues last century surgical pathology evolved tremendously historical examination whole bodies autopsy modernized practice centered diagnosis prognosis cancer

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Anatomical pathology


guide treatment decision making oncology modern founder italian scientist giovan battista morgagni forl anatomical pathology one two branches pathology clinical pathology diagnosis disease laboratory analysis bodily fluids tissues often pathologists practice anatomical clinical pathology combination known general pathology similar specialties exist veterinary pathology differences clinical pathology anatomic pathology relates processing examination diagnosis surgical specimens physician trained pathological diagnosis clinical pathology division processes test requests familiar


general public blood cell counts coagulation studies urinalysis blood glucose level determinations throat cultures subsections include chemistry hematology microbiology immunology urinalysis blood bank anatomical pathology divided subspecialties main ones surgical pathology breast gynecological endocrine gastrointestinal genitourinary soft tissue head neck dermatopathology neuropathology hematopathology cytopathology forensic pathology licensed practice pathology one complete medical school secure license practice medicine approved residency program certification us american board pathology american osteopathic board


pathology usually required obtain employment hospital privileges skills procedures procedures used anatomic pathology include gross examination examination diseased tissues naked eye important especially large tissue fragments disease often visually identified also step pathologist selects areas processed histopathology eye sometimes aided magnifying glass stereo microscope especially examining parasitic organisms histopathology microscopic examination stained tissue sections using histological techniques standard stains


haematoxylin eosin many others exist use haematoxylin eosin stained slides provide specific diagnoses based morphology considered core skill anatomic pathology science staining tissues sections called histochemistry immunohistochemistry use antibodies detect presence abundance localization specific proteins technique critical distinguishing disorders similar morphology well characterizing molecular properties certain cancers situ hybridization specific dna rna molecules identified sections using technique probe labeled


fluorescent dye technique called fish cytopathology examination loose cells spread stained glass slides using cytology techniques electron microscopy examination tissue electron microscope allows much greater magnification enabling visualization organelles within cells use largely supplanted immunohistochemistry still common use certain tasks including diagnosis kidney disease identification immotile cilia syndrome tissue cytogenetics visualization chromosomes identify genetic defects chromosomal translocation flow immunophenotyping determination


immunophenotype cells using flow cytometry techniques useful diagnose different types leukemia lymphoma subspecialties surgical pathology surgical pathology significant time consuming area practice anatomical pathologists surgical pathology involves gross microscopic examination surgical specimens well biopsies submitted non surgeons general internists medical subspecialists dermatologists interventional radiologists surgical pathology increasingly requires technologies skills traditionally associated clinical pathology molecular diagnostics oral maxillofacial pathology united states subspecialty trained doctors dentistry rather medical doctors


certified professional board practice oral maxillofacial pathology cytopathology cytopathology sub discipline anatomical pathology concerned microscopic examination whole individual cells obtained exfoliation fine needle aspirates cytopathologists trained perform fine needle aspirates superficially located organs masses cysts often able render immediate diagnosis presence patient consulting physician case screening tests papanicolaou smear non physician cytotechnologists often employed perform initial reviews positive uncertain cases examined pathologist cytopathology board certifiable


subspecialty us molecular pathology molecular pathology emerging discipline within anatomical clinical pathology focused use nucleic acid based techniques situ hybridization reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction nucleic acid microarrays specialized studies disease tissues cells molecular pathology shares aspects practice anatomic clinical pathology sometimes considered crossover discipline forensic pathology forensic pathologists receive specialized training determining cause death legally relevant information bodies persons died suddenly known medical condition


die non natural causes well dying result homicide criminally suspicious deaths majority forensic pathologists cases due natural causes often additional tests toxicology histology genetic testing used help pathologist determine cause death forensic pathologists often testify courts regarding findings cases homicide suspicious death also play large role public health investigating deaths workplace deaths custody well sudden unexpected deaths


children forensic pathologists often special areas interest within practice sudden death due cardiac pathology deaths due drugs sudden infant death sids various others training certification australia ''' also new zealand hong kong singapore malaysia saudi arabia ''' anatomical pathology one specialty training programs offered http wwwrcpaeduau royal college pathologists australasia rcpa rcpa qualify fellow rcpa anatomical pathology candidate must complete recognised undergraduate postgraduate medical qualification complete minimum years


clinical medical experience prerequisite selection training registrar training program minimum years served least two laboratories candidates must pass basic pathological sciences examination usually first year part examinations rd year part examinations th year fellows may continue subspecialty training canada anatomical pathology ap one specialist certificates granted https webarchiveorg web http wwwroyalcollegeca portal page portal rc public royal college physicians surgeons canada certificates related pathology include general pathology gp hematopathology neuropathology candidates


must completed four years medical school five years residency training united states anatomic pathology ap one two primary certifications offered american board pathology clinical pathology cp one three primary certifications offered american osteopathic board pathology certified anatomic pathology trainee must complete four years medical school followed three years residency training many us pathologists certified ap cp requires total four years residency completing residency


many pathologists enroll years fellowship training gain expertise subspecialty ap cp pathologists' assistants highly trained medical professionals specialized training anatomic forensic pathology become pathologists' assistant one must enter successfully complete naacls accredited program pass ascp board certification exam practice settings ''academic anatomical pathology'' practiced university medical centers pathologists also university faculty often diverse responsibilities may include training pathology residents teaching medical students conducting basic clinical translational research performing administrative


duties addition practice diagnostic anatomical pathology pathologists academic settings often sub specialize particular area anatomic pathology may serve consultants pathologists regarding cases specific area expertise ''group practice'' traditional private practice model arrangement group senior pathologists control partnership employs junior pathologists contracts independently hospitals provide diagnostic services well attracting referral business local clinicians practice outpatient setting group often owns laboratory histology ancillary testing


tissue may hold contracts run hospital owned labs many pathologists practice setting trained certified anatomical pathology clinical pathology allows supervise blood banks clinical chemistry laboratories medical microbiology laboratories well large ''corporate providers anatomical pathology services as'' ''ameripath'' united states model pathologists employees rather independent partners model criticized reducing physician independence defenders claim larger size practices allows economies scale greater specialization well sufficient volume


support specialized testing methods ''multispecialty groups'' composed physicians clinical specialties well radiology pathology another practice model case may large groups controlled hmo large health care organization others essence clinician group practices employ pathologists provide diagnostic services group groups may laboratories cases may make controversial arrangements pod labs allow clinician groups lease space clinician groups receiving direct insurance payments pathology services proposed changes


medicare regulations may essentially eliminate arrangements united states see also pathology digital pathology telepathology clinical pathology forensic pathology laser capture microdissection list pathologists history pathology united states canadian academy pathology notes references external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwpathsocorg conversations indexphpoption com content view frontpage itemid conversations pathologists website based book project sue armstrong sponsored genentech pathological society great britain ireland https webarchiveorg web http pathreportsin pathreportsin make anatomical pathology reporting paperless save trees https webarchiveorg web http wwwpathmaxcom mainhtml pathmax collection online pathology resources http wwwmybiopsyorg mybiopsyorg information common cancers


cancer related conditions https webarchiveorg web http thedoctorsdoctorcom f homehtml doctor 's doctor useful web site patients pathologists http wwwpathologie onlinede pathologie online online pathology resources http wwwpathologyoutlinescom pathology outlines online textbook anatomic pathology http wwwcaporg college american pathologists http wwwabpathorg american board pathology https webarchiveorg web http wwwcytopathnetorg cytopathnet online resource center cytopathology https webarchiveorg web https hgvorgau histology group victoria incorporated https wwwflickrcom groups labmed flickr group pathology lab medicine numerous photos illustrating work pathologists https webarchiveorg web http pathtalkorg pathtalkorg multiple author weblog anatomic pathologists illustrative cases specialty related discussions http wwwpathologypicscom pathologypicscom interactive histology database practicing anatomic pathologist well pathology trainees


'''hematology''' also spelled '''haematology''' british english branch medicine concerned study cause prognosis treatment prevention diseases related blood involves treating diseases affect production blood components blood cells hemoglobin blood proteins bone marrow platelets blood vessels spleen mechanism coagulation diseases might include hemophilia blood clots thrombus bleeding disorders blood cancers leukemia multiple myeloma lymphoma laboratory analysis blood frequently performed medical technologist medical laboratory scientist specialization physicians

Applied science
Medicine and health
Hematology


specialized hematology known '''hematologists''' '''haematologists''' routine work mainly includes care treatment patients hematological diseases although may also work hematology laboratory viewing blood films bone marrow slides microscope interpreting various hematological test results blood clotting test results institutions hematologists also manage hematology laboratory physicians work hematology laboratories commonly manage pathologists specialized diagnosis hematological diseases referred '''hematopathologists''' '''haematopathologists''' hematologists hematopathologists generally work conjunction formulate diagnosis


deliver appropriate therapy needed hematology distinct subspecialty internal medicine separate overlapping subspecialty medical oncology hematologists may specialize special interests example treating bleeding disorders hemophilia idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura treating hematological malignancies lymphoma leukemia cancers treating hemoglobinopathies science blood transfusion work blood bank bone marrow stem cell transplantation training starting hematologists us complete four year medical degree followed three four years residency internship programs completion


expand knowledge spending two three years learning experiment diagnose treat blood disorders applying career job openings look first hand practical experience recognized training program provides practice following cause abnormalities formation blood disorders diagnosis numerous blood related conditions cancers using experimentation proper care treatment patients best manner see also hematopathology references blood


heart murder victim '''forensic pathology''' pathology focuses determining cause death examining corpse post mortem examination performed medical examiner forensic pathologist usually investigation criminal law cases civil law cases jurisdictions coroners medical examiners also frequently asked confirm identity corpse duties forensic pathology application medical jurisprudence forensic pathologist medical doctor completed training anatomical pathology subsequently specialized forensic pathology requirements

Natural science
Biology
Pathology
Forensic pathology


becoming fully qualified forensic pathologist vary country country different requirements discussed forensic pathologist performs autopsies postmortem examinations determine cause death autopsy report contains opinion following pathological process injury disease directly results initiates series events lead person 's death also called mechanism death bullet wound head exsanguination caused stab wound manual ligature strangulation myocardial infarction resulting coronary artery disease etc manner death


circumstances surrounding cause death jurisdictions include following ref name fp ref homicide accidental natural suicide undetermined autopsy also provides opportunity issues raised death addressed collection trace evidence determining identity deceased forensic pathologist examines documents wounds injuries autopsy scene crime occasionally clinical setting rape investigation deaths custody forensic pathologists collect examine tissue specimens microscope histology identify presence absence natural


assisted autopsy mortuary technician sometimes called diener us forensic physicians sometimes referred forensic medical examiners police surgeons uk recently medical doctors trained examination provision medical treatment living victims assault including sexual assault individuals find police custody many forensic physicians uk practice clinical forensic medicine part time also practice family medicine another medical specialty united kingdom membership royal college pathologists prerequisite appointment coroner 's ''medical


expert'' doctors uk forensic pathologists pathologists allowed perform medicolegal autopsies wording coroners justice act merely stipulates registered medical practitioner anyone general medical council register investigation death deaths unknown cause considered unnatural investigated jurisdictions done '' forensic pathologist '' ''coroner'' ''medical examiner'' hybrid ''medical examiner coroner'' offices terminology consistent across jurisdictions jurisdictions title medical examiner used non physician


elected official involved medicolegal death investigation others law requires medical examiner physician pathologist forensic pathologist similarly title coroner applied physicians non physicians historically coroners physicians often serving primarily town mortician however jurisdictions topic coroner exclusively used physicians canadian coroners canada mix coroner medical examiner systems depending province territory ontario coroners licensed physicians usually exclusively family physicians


quebec mix medical non medical coroners whereas british columbia predominantly non physician coroner system alberta nova scotia examples systems coroners medical examiners united states united states coroner typically elected public official particular geographic jurisdiction investigates certifies deaths vast majority coroners lack doctor medicine degree amount medical training received highly variable depending profession eg law enforcement judges funeral directors emergency medical technicians nurses


contrast medical examiner typically physician holds degree doctor medicine doctor osteopathic medicine ideally medical examiner completed pathology residency fellowship forensic pathology jurisdictions medical examiner must doctor lawyer additional training forensic pathology history german speaking europe lectures forensic pathology regularly held freiburg mid th century vienna scientists like auguste ambroise tardieu johann ludwig casper carl liman made great effort develop forensic pathology


science based empirics forensic pathology first recognized united states american board pathology canada formally recognized formal training program fellowship currently established auspices royal college physicians surgeons canada education english speaking countries forensic pathology subspecialty anatomical pathology training requirements differ country country however common pathologists study medical school go study pathology many forensic pathologists


practice histo hospital pathologist moving onto forensic science australia currently three paths qualify forensic pathologist australia first train solely forensic pathology although significant amount anatomical pathology knowledge still required pass two examinations forensic pathology second commence training anatomical pathology complete initial anatomical pathology examination takes minimum three years go train solely forensic pathology complete forensic pathology examination takes minimum


two years third complete minimum years' training anatomical pathology qualify fellow anatomical pathology complete post fellowship year forensic pathology minimum twelve months training plus successful completion examination canada canada anatomical pathology five year residency residents wish become forensic pathologists must complete one year fellowship forensic pathology forensic pathology sub specialty royal college physicians surgeons two schools training programs university toronto university alberta mcmaster


university ceased training program india india speciality commonly referred forensic medicine toxicology legal medicine completion medical graduation mbbs one complete three years study training including thesis research leads award degree md forensic medicine one also alternately pass board examination conducted http wwwnatboardeduin national board examinations leading awarding diplomate national board dnb majority specialists attached department forensic medicine toxicology various medical colleges classification


posts includes assistant professor lecturer associate professor reader professor work profile specialists includes conducting autopsies clinical forensic examinations apart teaching medical students regularly appear courts expert witnesses typical department government institution conducts autopsies year depending upon jurisdiction apart clinical forensic examinations constitute major part work number cases run ten thousand year average institution largest association specialty indian academy forensic


pre medicine program making total duration formal education one become forensic specialist years forensic medicine also mandatory round medical school clerkship medical students assist doctors autopsies may also allowed perform autopsy supervision witness court united kingdom uk forensic histopathology five year training programme consisting two years histopathology followed three years forensic histopathology successful candidates eligible inclusion specialist register general medical council gmc


requirement work consultant forensic pathologist entry forensic histopathology specialty training requires completion uk foundation programme stages b histopathology specialty training pass frcpath part examination histopathology candidates year specialty training st entering forensic histopathology progress immediately stage c completion stages c minimum months pass frcpath part examination forensic histopathology allow candidate apply certificate completion training cct another option obtain


full frcpath general histopathology followed another months training forensic pathology qualify candidates either diploma royal college pathologists forensic pathology diprcpath forensic diploma medical jurisprudence dmj england wales candidate also need home office accredited require checks training portfolio completion security check expert witness training course run forensic science service currently approved centres forensic pathology training include belfast liverpool leicester cardiff london sheffield glasgow dundee


united states requires completing residency anatomic pathology job training one must perform upon completing medical school one may practice unsupervised ''anatomic pathology'' called three year residency us pathologists complete combined residency anatomic ''clinical pathology'' requires total four years united states told education high school typically years duration years undergraduate training years medical school years residency anatomic clinical pathology combined year forensic pathology fellowship


generally biggest hurdle gaining admission medical school although pass rate anatomic forensic pathology board examinations us approximately percent respectively courts require american board pathology certification order witness qualified expert field forensic pathology several diploma mills give online certificates field popular culture pathologists often feature crime fiction following television series listed alphabetically character 's name dr george bullard causton ''midsomer murders'' jordan


cavanaugh md forensic pathologist massachusetts office chief medical examiner series ''crossing jordan'' dr ravi chakrabarti medical examiner king county medical examiner 's office series ''izombie'' dr max debryn home office forensic pathologist detective series ''endeavour'' ''inspector morse'' dr laura hobson pathologist eventual love interest di robbie lewis later episodes ''inspector morse'' ''lewis'' dr maura isles chief medical examiner commonwealth massachusetts series ''rizzoli isles'' isabelle lightwood said best forensic pathologist new york


tv series ''shadowhunters'' dr donald ducky mallard chief medical examiner ncis major case response team ''ncis'' sven nyberg ystad police department 's forensic pathologist swedish british tv series ''wallander'' dr james jimmy palmer former medical examiner assistant chief medical examiner dr mallard 's retirement ''ncis'' dr marco pasquano vig ta 's local forensic pathologist italian series ''inspector montalbano'' dr r quincy chief medical examiner los angeles county us tv series ''quincy me'' dr samantha ryan forensic pathologist primary character series british


crime drama series ''silent witness'' dr nikki alexander forensic pathologist since series primary character since series british crime drama series ''silent witness'' dr camille saroyan head forensic division jeffersonian ''bones'' ambrose spellman coroner spellman sisters' mortuary main character netflix supernatural horror series ''chilling adventures sabrina'' see also forensic science post mortem chemistry references sources bartos leah https wwwpropublicaorg article forensic background problem forensic background problem ''propublica'' april https wwwpbsorg wgbh pages frontline real csi ''the real csi'' pbs frontline documentary april external


links http wwwthenameorg national association medical examiners name http wwwaafsorg american academy forensic sciences http wwwforensic science societyorguk forensic science society http wwwbafmorg british association forensic medicine http wwwbahidorg british association human identification https webarchiveorg web http wwwbafsorguk cgi bin somsidcgipage index f british academy forensic science http wwwforensicmedcouk forensic medicine medical students website providing educational resources forensic medicine http fflmacuk faculty forensic legal medicine royal college physicians http wwwrcpaeduau royal college pathologists australasia https webarchiveorg web http wwwfopjsyllabapresscom forensic oral pathology journal fopj http wwwpafmatcom punjab academy forensic medicine toxicology https webarchiveorg web http wwwpathologybookinfo essentials anatomic pathology rd editionhtml books forensic pathology https webarchiveorg web http wwwforensicindiacom icfmt web index htm indian congress forensic medicine


follow careers training link go disciplines career brochures go https webarchiveorg web http wwwrcpaeduau pathology disciplineshtm page directly http wwwrcpathorg royal college pathologists uk http wwwall forensic sciencecom forensic pathologyhtml forensic pathology david webb university huddersfield http wwwusmle forumscom residency match forum forensic medicine usahtml forensic pathology pathway residency fellowship usmle forums anatomical pathology pathology


many long written histories scholars also studied uralic languages another eurasian language family less early written material exists since significant comparative linguistic work expanding outside european languages well austronesian languages various families native american languages among many others comparative linguistics became part broadly conceived discipline historical linguistics indo european languages comparative study highly specialized field research carried subsequent development languages particular development

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Historical linguistics


modern standard varieties scholars undertaken studies attempting establish super families linking example indo european uralic families nostratic attempts met wide acceptance information necessary establish relatedness becomes less available time depth increases time depth linguistic methods limited due chance word resemblances variations language groups limit around years often assumed dating various proto languages also difficult several methods available dating approximate results obtained diachronic


synchronic analysis linguistics '' 'synchronic analysis''' one views linguistic phenomena given time usually present synchronic analysis historical language form also possible may distinguished diachronic regards phenomenon terms developments time diachronic analysis main concern historical linguistics however branches linguistics concerned form synchronic analysis study language change offers valuable insight state linguistic representation synchronic forms result historically evolving diachronic changes


lag behind speech reflecting linguistic developments written records difficult date accurately development modern title page often dating must rely contextual historical evidence inscriptions modern technology carbon dating used ascertain dates varying accuracy also work sociolinguists linguistic variation shown synchronic states uniform speech habits older younger speakers differ ways point language change synchronic variation linguistic change progress synchronic diachronic approaches reach quite different conclusions example germanic


strong verb like english ' 'sing sang sung'' irregular viewed synchronically native speaker 's brain processes learned forms derived forms regular verbs processed quite differently application productive rules example adding '' ed'' basic form verb ''walk walked'' insight psycholinguistics relevant also language didactics synchronic disciplines however diachronic analysis shows strong verb remnant fully regular system internal vowel changes


case indo european ablaut historical linguistics seldom uses category irregular verb principal tools research diachronic linguistics comparative method method internal reconstruction less standard techniques mass lexical comparison used linguists overcome limitations comparative method linguists regard unreliable findings historical linguistics often used basis hypotheses groupings movements peoples particularly prehistoric period practice however often unclear integrate linguistic evidence archaeological


genetic evidence example numerous theories concerning homeland early movements proto indo europeans interpretation archaeological record sub fields study classification indo european languages red extinct languages white categories unattested proto languages left half centum languages right half satem languages comparative linguistics comparative linguistics originally comparative philology branch historical linguistics concerned comparing languages order establish historical relatedness languages may related convergence borrowing genetic descent thus languages change also able cross relate genetic relatedness implies


common origin proto language comparative linguistics goal constructing language families reconstructing proto languages specifying changes resulted documented languages maintain clear distinction attested language reconstructed forms comparative linguists prefix asterisk form found surviving texts etymology etymology study history words entered language source form meaning changed time word may enter language loanword word one language adopted speakers


studied sociolinguistics variations based time studied historical linguistics dialectology treats topics divergence two local dialects common ancestor synchronic variation dialectologists concerned grammatical features correspond regional areas thus usually dealing populations living specific locales generations without moving also immigrant groups bringing languages new settlements phonology phonology sub field linguistics studies sound system specific language set languages whereas phonetics physical production perception


sounds speech phonology describes way sounds function within given language across languages important part phonology studying sounds distinctive units within language example p pin aspirated p spin english two sounds used complementary distribution used differentiate words considered allophones phoneme languages like thai quechua difference aspiration non aspiration differentiates words two sounds phones therefore considered


two distinct phonemes addition minimal meaningful sounds phonemes phonology studies sounds alternate p english topics syllable structure stress accent intonation principles phonological theory also applied analysis sign languages phonological units consist sounds principles phonological analysis applied independently modality designed serve general analytical tools language specific ones morphology morphology study formal means expression language context historical


linguistics formal means expression change time instance languages complex inflectional systems tend subject simplification process field studies internal structure words formal means expression words units lexicon subject matter lexicology words generally accepted clitics smallest units syntax clear languages words related words rules rules understood speaker reflect specific patterns regularities way words


formed smaller units smaller units interact speech way morphology branch linguistics studies patterns word formation within across languages attempts formulate rules model knowledge speakers languages context historical linguistics means expression change time see grammaticalisation syntax syntax study principles rules constructing sentences natural languages term ' 'syntax'' used refer directly rules principles govern sentence structure individual language


syntax modern irish modern researchers syntax attempt describe languages terms rules many professionals discipline attempt find general rules apply natural languages context historical linguistics characteristics sentence structure related languages changed time see grammaticalisation rates change varieties adaptation studies historical linguistics often use terms conservative innovative characterize extent change occurring particular language dialect compared related varieties particular ''conservative'' variety changes relatively less


''innovative'' variety variations plasticity often related socio economic situation language speakers example innovative dialect would american english vast number speakers open interaction speakers language groups changes seen terms developed business marketing among fields technology converse innovative language conservative language generally defined static nature imperviousness outside influences conservative languages spoken secluded areas


lack primary language speaking population neither descriptive terms carries value judgment linguistic studies determines form worthiness language compared language particularly conservative variety preserves features long since vanished elsewhere sometimes said archaic examples archaic language modern society survived set phrases nursery rhymes evolutionary context terms evolutionary theory historical linguistics opposed research origin language studies lamarckian acquired characteristics languages see also comparative


method swadesh list languages etymological dictionary genetic linguistics glottochronology grammaticalisation historical dictionary language families lexicostatistics list languages first written accounts mass lexical comparison paleolinguistics proto language real time sociolinguistics wave model references sources bernd kortmann ''english linguistics essentials'' anglistik amerikanistik cornlesen pp nbsp reading raimo anttila ''historical comparative linguistics'' nd ed john benjamins karl brugmann berthold delbr ck ''grundri der vergleichenden grammatik der indogermanischen sprachen'' theodora bynon ''historical linguistics'' cambridge university press henry hoenigswald ''language change linguistic reconstruction'' chicago univ chicago press richard janda brian joseph eds ''the handbook


historical linguistics'' blackwell roger lass ''historical linguistics language change'' cambridge university press winfred p lehmann ''historical linguistics introduction second edition '' holt april mcmahon ''understanding language change'' cambridge university press james milroy ''linguistic variation change'' blackwell c partridge ''tudor augustan english study syntax style caxton johnson'' series ''the language library'' london deutsch p sbn ml samuels ''linguistic evolution'' cambridge university press r l trask ed ''dictionary historical comparative linguistics '' fitzroy dearborn august schleicher ''compendium der vergleichenden


specimens typefaces designed eric gill '''type design''' art process designing typefaces involves drawing letterform using consistent style basic concepts design variables described typeface differs modes graphic production handwriting drawing fixed set alphanumeric characters specific characteristics used repetitively historically physical elements called sorts placed wooden frame modern typefaces stored used electronically art type designer develop pleasing

Applied science
Architecture and design
Visual communication
Type design


functional typeface contrast task typographer typesetter lay page using typeface appropriate work printed displayed history technology printing text using movable type invented china ref name needhamb ref vast number chinese characters esteem calligraphy held meant distinctive complete typefaces created china early centuries printing gutenberg 's important innovation mid th century development press printing casting


alloy usually containing lead low melting point cooled readily could easily filed finished early days type design imitate familiar handwritten forms common readers also account limitations printing process rough papers uneven thicknesses squeezing splashing properties ink eventual wear type beginning character drawn large size american type founders corporation others using technology foot


nbsp cm high outline traced benton pantograph based engraving machine pointer hand held vertex cutting tool opposite vertex size usually less quarter inch nbsp mm pantographic engraver first used cut punches later directly create matrices late typesetting moved metal photo composition time type design made similar transition physical matrixes hand drawn letters vellum mylar precise cutting rubyliths rubylith common material


printing trade red transparent film soft pliable bonded supporting clear acetate placing ruby master drawing letter craftsman would gently precisely cut upper film peel non image portions away resulting letterform existing remaining red material still adhering clear substrate would ready photographed using reproduction camera coming computers type design became form computer graphics initially transition occurred program called ikarus around widespread


transition began programs aldus freehand adobe illustrator finally dedicated type design programs called font editors fontographer fontlab process occurred rapidly mid virtually commercial type design transitioned digital vector drawing programs glyph design drawn traced stylus digitizing board modified scanned drawing composed entirely within program glyph digital form either bitmap pixel based vector scalable outline format given digitization typeface easily


modified another type designer modified font usually considered derivative work covered copyright original font software type design could copyrighted typeface typeface many countries though united states united states offered continues offer design patents option typeface design protection basic concepts fontforge open source application developing digital fonts stroke shape designed letterforms characters defined strokes arranged specific combinations shaping construction basis


gestural movements handwriting visual qualities given stroke derived factors surrounding formation kind tool used angle tool dragged across surface degree pressure applied beginning end stroke positive form establishes character 's archetypal shape counter spaces created around strokes called counters also known counterforms negative forms help define proportion density rhythm letterforms counter integral element western typography however concept may


apply universally non western typographic traditions complex scripts chinese make use compounding elements radicals within single character may additionally require consideration spacing characters also within characters body overall proportion characters body considers proportions width height cases involved latin uppercase lowercase individually character former case grid system used delineate vertical proportions gridlines baseline mean line x height cap line descent line ascent line


design variables type design takes consideration number design variables delineated based writing system vary consideration functionality aesthetic quality cultural expectations historical context style style describes several different aspects typeface variability historically related character function includes variations structural class serif sans serif script typefaces historical class oldstyle transitional neoclassical grotesque humanist etc relative neutrality ranging neutral typefaces stylized typefaces functional use text display caption typefaces weight text sample set


various weights weight refers thickness thinness typeface 's strokes global sense typefaces usually default medium regular weight produce appearance uniform grey value set text categories weight include hairline thin extra light light book regular medium semibold bold black heavy extra black ultra variable fonts computer fonts able store make use continuous range weight size variants single typeface contrast contrast refers variation weight may exist internally within


character thin strokes thick strokes extreme contrasts produce texts uneven typographic color smaller scale strokes within character may individually also exhibit contrasts weight called modulation width character within typeface overall width relative height proportions may changed globally characters narrowed widened typefaces narrowed called condensed typefaces widened called extended typefaces posture letterform structures may structured way changes angle


upright stem structures typeface 's baseline changing overall posture typeface latin script typefaces typeface categorized roman angle perpendicular forward leaning angle produces either italic letterforms designed reanalyzed cursive forms oblique letterforms slanted mechanically back leaning angle produces reverse oblique backslanted posture case proportion writing systems bicameral distinguishing two parallel sets letters vary use based prescribed grammar convention sets letters known cases


larger case called uppercase capitals also known majuscule smaller case called lowercase also known minuscule typefaces may also include set small capitals uppercase forms designed height weight lowercase forms writing systems unicameral meaning one case exists letterforms bicameral writing systems may typefaces unicase designs mix uppercase lowercase letterforms within single case principles design legible text based typeface remains one challenging assignments graphic design even visual quality


reading material paramount importance drawn character called glyph must even appearance every glyph regardless order sequence also typeface versatile must appear whether small large optical illusions occur apprehend small large objects entails best fonts version designed small use another version drawn large display applications also large letterforms reveal shape whereas small letterforms text settings reveal textures requires


typeface aspires versatility text display needs evaluated visual domains beautifully shaped typeface may particularly attractive legible texture seen text settings spacing also important part type design glyph consists shape character also white space around type designer must consider relationship space within letter form counter letter spacing designing type requires many accommodations quirks human perception


optical corrections required make shapes look right ways diverge might seem mathematically right example round shapes need slightly bigger square ones appear size overshoot vertical lines need thicker horizontal ones appear thickness character perceived geometrically round must usually slightly squared made slightly wider shoulders result subtleties excellence type design highly respected design professions profession type design performed type designer


craft blending elements art science pre digital era primarily learned apprenticeship professional training within industry since mid become subject dedicated degree programs handful universities including typeface design university reading uk type media program kabk royal academy art hague time transition digital type font editors inexpensive even open source free led great democratization type design


craft accessible anyone interest pursue nevertheless may take long time serious artist master israeli typographer henri friedlaender examines ''hadassah hebrew'' typeface sketches sequence shot study motza illit near jerusalem see also list institutions offering type design education list type designers references reading stiebner erhardt dieter urban ''initials decorative alphabets'' poole england blandford press typography articles containing video clips communication design


'''canadian literature''' literature multicultural country written languages including canadian english canadian french indigenous languages many others canadian gaelic influences canadian writers broad geographically historically representing canada 's diversity culture region mostly written english indigenous literature flourished recent years based upon many distinct oral traditions languages cultural practices dominant european cultures canada originally english french gaelic however recent decades canada 's literature strongly influenced immigrants countries since canada 's ethnic

Humanities
Languages and literature
Canadian Literature


cultural diversity openly reflected literature indigenous literature indigenous peoples canada culturally diverse ref name ref group literature language culture ref name ref ref name term indigenous literature therefore misleading writer jeannette armstrong states one interview would stay away idea native literature thing mohawk literature okanagan literature generic native canada ref name french canadian literature lower canada legislative library founded one first occident


quebec virtually literature though historians journalists learned priests published overall total output remain period kept burned parliament small rise quebec patriotism lower canada rebellion addition modern system primary school education led rise french canadian fiction ''l'influence d'un livre'' philippe ignace francois aubert de gasp widely regarded first french canadian novel genres first became popular rural novel historical novel french authors influential especially authors


like balzac gabrielle roy notable french canadian author father henri raymond casgrain became one quebec 's first literary theorists argued literature 's goal project image proper catholic morality however authors like louis honor fr chette arthur buies broke conventions write interesting works pattern continued new group authors educated universit laval universit de montr al novels psychological sociological foundations became norm gabrielle roy anne h bert even began earn international acclaim


happened french canadian literature period quebec theatre previously melodramas comedies became far involved french canadian literature began greatly expand turmoil second world war beginnings industrialization especially quiet revolution french canadian literature also began attract great deal attention globally acadian novelist antonine maillet winning prix goncourt experimental branch qu b cois literature also developed instance poet nicole brossard wrote formalist style roch carrier wrote story ''the


hockey sweater'' highlighted cultural social tensions english french speaking canada confederation canada officially became country following unification 'confederation' several colonies including upper lower canada one nation july argued literature written time colonial book often considered first work canadian literature ''the history emily montague'' frances brooke published brooke wrote novel sillery quebec following conquest new france susanna moodie catharine parr traill english


sisters adopted country moved upper canada recorded experiences pioneers parr traill 's ''the backwoods canada'' ''canadian crusoes'' moodie 's ''roughing bush'' ''life clearings'' however women wrote deaths placing country years certainly well past confederation moreover books often dealt survival rugged canadian environment themes appear canadian works including margaret atwood 's ''survival'' moodie parr trail 's sister agnes strickland remained


including charles g roberts archibald lampman bliss carman duncan campbell scott william wilfred campbell came prominence choosing world nature inspiration work drawn experiences best written tones isabella valancy crawford frederick george scott francis sherman also sometimes associated group period e pauline johnson william henry drummond writing popular poetry johnson 's based part mohawk heritage drummond poet habitant writing dialect verse l montgomery


novel ''anne green gables'' first published sold estimated million copies one best selling books worldwide stephen leacock best selling humour writer world best known book fiction sunshine sketches little town published three canada 's important post world war novelists hugh maclennan wo mitchell morley callaghan maclennan 's best known works ''barometer rising'' ''two solitudes'' callaghan best known


''such beloved'' ''more joy heaven'' mitchell 's loved novel seen wind perhaps reacting tradition largely emphasized wilderness least small town country experience poet leonard cohen 's novel ''beautiful losers'' labelled one reviewer revolting book ever written canada however despite beginning career poet major importance cohen perhaps best known folk singer songwriter international following canadian author farley mowat best known work ''never cry wolf''


governor general 's award winning children 's book ''lost barrens'' following world war ii writers mavis gallant mordecai richler norman levine margaret laurence irving layton added modernist influence canadian literature previously introduced f nbsp r scott nbsp j nbsp smith others associated ''mcgill fortnightly'' influence first broadly appreciated norman levine 's ''canada made me'' travelogue presented sour interpretation country example widely rejected country 's centennial year national government increased funding publishers numerous small presses began operating


throughout country best known canadian children 's writers include l montgomery monica hughes contemporary canadian literature arguably best known living canadian writer internationally especially since deaths robertson davies mordecai richler margaret atwood prolific novelist poet literary critic great th century canadian authors include margaret laurence mavis gallant michael ondaatje carol shields alistair macleod mazo de la roche gabrielle roy short story writer alice munro nobel prize literature group along nobel laureate alice munro called best living writer


short stories english part 'new wave' canadian writers starting careers 's first elevate canadian literature world stage lucy maud montgomery stephen leacock mazo de la roche morley callaghan post war decades canadian literature australian new zealand literature viewed appendage british literarure academic clara thomas decided concentrate canadian literature master 's thesis idea novel radical word decision reached ''the globe mail'' books


editor william arthur deacon personally reached thomas pledge newspaper 's resources support work ref name advocate https wwwtheglobeandmailcom arts books media author educator clara thomas relentless advocate canlit article author educator clara thomas relentless advocate canlit ''the globe mail'' november ref major canadian novelists include carol shields lawrence hill alice munro carol shields novel ''the stone diaries'' pulitzer prize fiction another novel ''larry 's party'' orange prize lawrence hill 's ''book negroes'' commonwealth writers' prize overall best book award alice munro became first canadian


win nobel prize literature ref name cbcca ref munro also received man booker international prize renewed sense nation helped foster new voices canadian poetry including margaret atwood michael ondaatje leonard cohen eli mandel margaret avison others al purdy milton acorn earle birney already published produced best work period tish poetry movement vancouver brought poetic innovation jamie reid george bowering fred wah frank davey daphne marlatt david cull lionel kearns former canadian parliamentary poet laureate


international awards '''nobel prize literature''' alice munro '''man booker international prize''' alice munro '''man booker prize''' michael ondaatje ''the english patient'' margaret atwood ''the blind assassin'' yann martel ''life pi'' margaret atwood ''the testaments'' '''pulitzer prize fiction''' carol shields ''the stone diaries'' '''national book critics circle award''' carol shields ''the stone diaries'' '''international dublin literary award''' alistair macleod ''no great mischief'' rawi hage ''de niro 's game'' '''orange prize''' anne michaels ''fugitive pieces'' carol shields ''larry 's party'' '''commonwealth writers' prize''' olive senior ''summer


lightning'' mordecai richler ''solomon gursky here'' rohinton mistry ''such long journey'' rohinton mistry ''a fine balance'' austin clarke ''the polished hoe'' lawrence hill ''the book negroes'' '''peace prize german book trade''' margaret atwood awards number notable canadian awards literature atlantic writers competition highlights talent across atlantic provinces books canada first novel award best first novel year canadian authors association awards adult literature honouring works canadian writers achieve excellence without sacrificing popular appeal since


business book award pat lowther award poetry written woman international council canadian studies' pierre savard award eg faye hammill ''literary culture female authorship canada '' prix aurora awards canadian science fiction fantasy english french rbc bronwen wallace award emerging writers rogers writers' trust fiction prize best work fiction shaughnessy cohen award political writing stephen leacock award humour wo mitchell literary prize writer made distinguished lifetime contribution canadian literature mentoring new writers room one 's


annual award poetry literature day novel contest annual literary marathon born canada writers' trust engel findley award distinguished writer mid career writers' trust mcclelland stewart journey prize awards children 's young adult literature young adult novel prize atlantic writers competition rross annett award children 's literature geoffrey bilson award historical fiction ann connor brimer award canadian library association book year award children cla young adult canadian book award sheila egoff children 's literature prize elizabeth mrazik cleaver canadian picture book award floyd chalmers award theatre


young adults amelia frances howard gibbon illustrator 's award information book year de book award max greta ebel memorial award children 's writing norma fleck award children 's non fiction governor general 's awards best canadian children 's literature text based illustrated english french qwf prize children 's young adult literature vicky metcalf award children 's literature reading k balachandran k '' https booksgooglecom booksid ddzcmnwk pkc pg pp canadian literature overview sarup sons eugene benson william toye eds '' https archiveorg details oxfordcompaniont toye oxford companion canadian literature '' online pp short articles experts faye hammill


'' https booksgooglecom booksid wk f fxyc l pg pp v onepage q f true canadian literature '' edinburgh univ press jeffrey heath '' https booksgooglecom booksid qmmrjzrlltwc l pg pp v onepage q f true profiles canadian literature '' volume dundurn press william h new '' https booksgooglecom booksid dx qsbwhubwc lpg pa dq canadian literature pg pp v onepage q f true native writers canadian writing '' ubc press william h new '' https booksgooglecom booksid mkh vj gpec lpg pa pg pp v onepage q f true encyclopedia literature canada '' univ toronto press william h new '' https booksgooglecom booksid njga uvbx yc lpg pp dq canadian literature pg pp v onepage q f true history canadian literature '' mcgill queen 's univ press michael newton ''seanchaidh na coille memory keeper forest anthology scottish gaelic literature canada'' reingard nischik '' https booksgooglecom booksid vygtagwa nsc lpg pa pg pp v onepage q f true history literature canada english canadian french canadian '' camden house pivato joseph ''echo essays


wars canadian poetry canadian science fiction list canadian writers list canadian short story writers canadian centenary series canada reads canadian content theatre canada references external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwcollectionscanadagcca writers index ehtml introduction canadian writers library archives canada http wwwcanlitca ''canadian literature'' canlit https wwwthecanadianencyclopediaca en article canadian literature ''canadian literature'' historica canadian encyclopedia library http canadian writersathabascauca canadian writers resource canadian authors publishing english french athabasca university alberta http journalshilunbca indexphp scl ''studies canadian literature'' university new brunswick https omekavicuutorontoca dominion dominion north literary print culture canada online exhibition celebrating prominent poets


authors historians comprises one hundred monographs organized topically eight collections north american literature english language literature canadiana


'''environmental science''' interdisciplinary academic field integrates physical biological information sciences including ecology biology physics chemistry plant science zoology mineralogy oceanography limnology soil science geology physical geography atmospheric science study environment solution environmental problems environmental science emerged fields natural history medicine enlightenment today provides integrated quantitative interdisciplinary approach study environmental systems environmental studies incorporates social sciences understanding human relationships perceptions policies towards environment environmental engineering focuses design

Natural science
Earth science
Environmental science


technology improving environmental quality every aspect environmental scientists study subjects like understanding earth processes evaluating alternative energy systems pollution control mitigation natural resource management effects global warming climate change environmental issues almost always include interaction physical chemical biological processes environmental scientists bring systems approach analysis environmental problems key elements effective environmental scientist include ability relate space time relationships well quantitative analysis environmental science came alive substantive active field scientific investigation


driven need multi disciplinary approach analyze complex environmental problems b arrival substantive environmental laws requiring specific environmental protocols investigation c growing public awareness need action addressing environmental problems events spurred development included publication rachel carson 's landmark environmental book ''silent spring'' along major environmental issues becoming public santa barbara oil spill cuyahoga river cleveland ohio catching fire also helped increase visibility environmental issues create new


field study terminology common usage environmental science ecology often used interchangeably technically ecology refers study organisms interactions well interrelate environment ecology could considered subset environmental science also could involve purely chemical public health issues example ecologists would unlikely study practice considerable similarities work ecologists environmental scientists substantial overlap ecology environmental science disciplines fisheries forestry wildlife components


blue marble composite images generated nasa left right earth 's atmosphere atmospheric sciences atmospheric sciences focus earth 's atmosphere emphasis upon interrelation systems atmospheric sciences include studies meteorology greenhouse gas phenomena atmospheric dispersion modeling airborne contaminants sound propagation phenomena related noise pollution even light pollution taking example global warming phenomena physicists create computer models atmospheric circulation infrared radiation transmission chemists examine inventory atmospheric chemicals reactions biologists analyze plant animal contributions


carbon dioxide fluxes specialists meteorologists oceanographers add additional breadth understanding atmospheric dynamics ecology biodiversity coral reef corals adapt modify environment forming calcium carbonate skeletons provides growing conditions future generations forms habitat many species defined ecological society america ecology study relationships living organisms including humans physical environment seeks understand vital connections plants animals world around ecologists might investigate relationship population