challenging calls different skills behaviour required large practices increasing specialisation october gp practices england list size average list size reached average number registered patients per gp england risen since england gp forward view published nhs england promised billion real terms increase budget general practice jeremy hunt pledged increase number


doctors working general practice trainee places available gp career plus scheme intended retain gps aged profession providing flexible roles providing cover carrying specific work managing long term conditions home visits july simon stevens announced programme designed recruit around gps eu possibly new zealand australia according nhs improvement deterioration access general practice produce deterioration emergency department figures gps

Applied science
Medicine and health
Primary care
General practice


increasingly employing pharmacists manage increasingly complex medication regimes aging population practices employing pharmacists following rollout nhs england clinical pharmacists general practice programme also moves employ care navigators sometimes enhanced role receptionist direct patients different services pharmacy physiotherapy doctor needed september trained care navigators covering patients employed across wakefield estimated saved gp hours month trial four nhs


trusts northumbria healthcare nhs foundation trust yeovil district hospital nhs foundation trust royal wolverhampton nhs trust southern health nhs foundation trust taken multiple gp practices interests integration gp federations become popular among english general practitioners consultations according local government association million gp consultations england minor conditions illnesses million blocked noses according king 's fund number telephone face face contacts patients gps rose although gp numbers stagnated


mean consultation length uk increased steadily time around minutes around minutes ref name irving et al ref shorter mean consultation length number developed countries around world ref name irving et al proportion patients england waiting longer seven days see gp rose million gp appointments million working day mondays year november got


day appointment million patients october compared november see doctor least days booked appointment million waited days million people month failed turn appointment commercial providers rare uk private gp service established poole road medical centre bournemouth patients pay skip waiting lists see doctor gp hand online service using babylon health 's app


launched november lillie road health centre conventional gp practice west london recruited new patients first month years old service widely criticised gps cherry picking patients long term medical conditions might need home visits actively discouraged joining service richard vautrey warned risked 'undermining quality continuity care fragmenting service provided public' covid pandemic united kingdom led sudden


'''family medicine''' medical specialty within primary care provides continuing comprehensive health care individual family across ages genders diseases parts body specialist usually primary care physician named '''family physician''' often referred '''general practice''' practitioner '''general practitioner''' historically role performed doctor qualifications medical school works community however since family medicine general practice become specialty right


specific training requirements tailored country names specialty emphasize 's holistic nature roots family based knowledge patient context family community centering disease prevention health promotion according world organization family doctors wonca aim family medicine promoting personal comprehensive continuing care individual context family community issues values underlying practice usually known primary care ethics scope practice family physicians


united states may hold either md degree physicians specialize family medicine must successfully complete accredited three four year family medicine residency united states addition medical degree eligible sit board certification examination required hospitals health plans american board family medicine requires diplomates maintain certification ongoing process continuing medical education medical knowledge review patient care oversight chart audits practice based learning quality improvement projects retaking board certification


usually refers hospital based services varies place place time many countries initiatives move services hospitals community expectation save money convenient family physicians deliver range acute chronic preventive medical care services addition diagnosing treating illness also provide preventive care including routine checkups health risk assessments immunization screening tests personalized counseling maintaining healthy lifestyle family physicians also manage chronic illness often coordinating care provided subspecialists many american


family physicians deliver babies provide prenatal care us family physicians treat patients back pain physician subspecialist many orthopedists neurosurgeons combined family medicine family physicians play important role healthcare system country us example nearly one four office visits made family physicians million office visits year nearly million next largest medical specialty today family physicians provide care america underserved rural populations


medical specialty ref name facts family medicine ref canada education training canada aspiring family physicians expected complete residency family medicine accredited university obtaining doctor medicine degree although residency usually duration two years graduates may apply complete third year leading certification college family physicians canada disciplines emergency medicine palliative care care elderly sports exercise medicine women 's health amongst many others institutions mcgill university montreal graduates


family medicine residency programs eligible complete master 's degree doctor philosophy phd family medicine predominantly consists research oriented program united states history medical family practice concern family health medicine united states existed far back early american public health advocate bailey barton burritt labeled father family health movement ''the new york times'' following world war ii two main concerns shaped advent family medicine first medical specialties


subspecialties increased popularity adverse effect number physicians general practice time many medical advances made concern within general practitioner gp population four years medical school plus one year internship longer adequate preparation breadth medical knowledge required profession ref name pisacano nicholas j ref many doctors wanted see residency program added training would give additional training knowledge prestige would allow board certification


increasingly required gain hospital privileges ref name pisacano nicholas j february family medicine known family practice recognized distinct specialty us twentieth specialty recognized ref name pisacano nicholas j education training family physicians complete undergraduate degree medical school three years specialized medical residency training family medicine residency training includes rotations internal medicine pediatrics obstetrics gynecology psychiatry surgery emergency medicine geriatrics addition electives wide range disciplines residents also must provide care panel


continuity patients outpatient model practice entire period residency specialty focuses treating whole person acknowledging effects outside influences stages life family physicians see anyone problem experts common problems many family physicians deliver babies addition taking care patients ages order become board certified family physicians must complete residency family medicine possess full unrestricted medical license take written cognitive examination process


hundred hours continuing medical education within prior six years also required eligible sit exam family physicians may pursue fellowships several fields including adolescent medicine geriatric medicine sports medicine sleep medicine hospital medicine hospice palliative medicine american board family medicine american osteopathic board family medicine offer certificates added qualifications caqs topics shortage family physicians many sources cite shortage family physicians also primary care providers ie internists pediatricians general practitioners per capita supply


primary care physicians increased percent per year since ref name gaogov ref recent decrease number md graduates pursuing residency primary care offset number graduates graduates international medical schools imgs enter primary care residencies ref name gaogov still projections indicate demand family physicians exceed supply ref name gaogov number students entering family medicine residency training fallen high according national residency matching program data fifty five family


medicine residency programs closed since programs opened nation family physicians workforce report american academy family physicians indicated united states would need family physicians meet need primary medical care reach figure family physicians must complete residencies year currently nation attracting half number future family physicians needed address shortage leading family medicine organizations launched initiative ensure


several factors including lesser prestige associated specialty lesser pay increasingly frustrating practice environment salaries family physicians united states respectable lower average physicians average ref name aafp ref however faced debt medical school medical students opting higher paying specialties potential ways increase number medical students entering family practice include providing relief medical education debt loan repayment programs restructuring fee service reimbursement health care services family physicians trained manage acute


chronic health issues individual simultaneously yet appointment slots may average ten minutes ref name pmid ref addition facing shortage personnel physicians family medicine experience highest rates burnout among medical specialties percent current practice family physicians us practice solo small group private practices hospital employees practices similar sizes owned hospitals however specialty broad allows variety career options including education emergency medicine urgent care inpatient medicine international wilderness medicine public health sports medicine


research others choose practice consultants various medical institutions including insurance companies united kingdom history general practice services pattern services uk largely established national insurance act established list system came friendly societies across country every patient entitled list panel general practitioner applied paid national insurance contributions adult population covered panel doctor national health


service established extended whole population practice would responsible patient record kept '''lloyd george envelope''' would transferred necessary another practice patient changed practice uk unlike many countries patients normally direct access hospital consultants gp controls access secondary care lloyd george envelopes whalsay health centre practices generally small often single handed operating doctor 's home often doctor 's wife acting receptionist


scotland wales northern ireland practices england average practice list size june million patients great deal consolidation larger practices especially england lakeside healthcare largest practice england partners patients maintaining general practices isolated communities become challenging calls different skills behaviour required large practices increasing specialisation


october gp practices england list size average list size reached average number registered patients per gp england risen since british medical association conducted survey gp premises half respondents thought surgeries suitable present needs said would able handle expected future demands pressure coronavirus epidemic general practice shifted quickly remote


hunt pledged increase number doctors working general practice trainee places available gp career plus scheme intended retain gps aged profession providing flexible roles providing cover carrying specific work managing long term conditions home visits july simon stevens announced programme designed recruit around gps eu possibly new zealand australia according nhs improvement deterioration access general practice produce


deterioration emergency department figures gps increasingly employing pharmacists manage increasingly complex medication regimes aging population practices employing pharmacists following rollout nhs england clinical pharmacists general practice programme also moves employ care navigators sometimes enhanced role receptionist direct patients different services pharmacy physiotherapy doctor needed september trained care navigators covering patients employed across wakefield estimated saved gp hours


month trial four nhs trusts northumbria healthcare nhs foundation trust yeovil district hospital nhs foundation trust royal wolverhampton nhs trust southern health nhs foundation trust taken multiple gp practices interests integration gp federations become popular among english general practitioners consultations according local government association million gp consultations england minor conditions illnesses million blocked noses according king 's fund number telephone face face contacts patients gps


rose although gp numbers stagnated mean consultation length uk increased steadily time around minutes around minutes ref name irving et al ref shorter mean consultation length number developed countries around world ref name irving et al proportion patients england waiting longer seven days see gp rose million gp appointments million working day mondays


year november got day appointment million patients october compared november see doctor least days booked appointment million waited days million people month failed turn appointment commercial providers rare uk private gp service established poole road medical centre bournemouth patients pay skip waiting lists see doctor gp hand


online service using babylon health 's app launched november lillie road health centre conventional gp practice west london recruited new patients first month years old service widely criticised gps cherry picking patients long term medical conditions might need home visits actively discouraged joining service richard vautrey warned risked 'undermining quality continuity care fragmenting service provided public' covid pandemic


united kingdom led sudden move remote working march proportion telephone appointments increased patient satisfaction patients rate overall experience primary care good practices run limited companies operating apms contracts small minority performed worse four five key indicators frequency consulting preferred doctor ability get convenient appointment rating doctor communication skills ease contacting practice telephone overall experience northern ireland


particularly acute problems general practice northern ireland proved difficult recruit doctors rural practices british medical association collected undated resignation letters gps threatened leave nhs charge consultation fees demanded increased funding recruitment improved computer systems new gp contract announced june northern ireland department health included funding practice based pharmacists extra million increased indemnity costs million population growth million premises upgrades ireland ireland


sciences community health three year residency candidates receive integrated inpatient outpatient learning also receive field training community health centres clinics medical council india permits accredited medical colleges medical schools conduct similar residency programme family medicine successful completion three year residency candidates awarded doctor medicine family medicine govt medical college calicut started md fm course aiims institutes also started course called md community family medicine recent years even though acute


pathfinder healthcare plans build eight primary health centres india british model general practice according dr niti pall primary health care poorly developed india centres run commercially patients charged rupees initial consultation prescribed generic drugs dispensed attached pharmacies japan family medicine first recognized specialty currently approximately certified family doctors ref name new era postgraduate certifi ref japanese government made commitment increase number


family doctors effort improve cost effectiveness quality primary care light increasing health care costs ref name takemura ref japan primary care association jpca currently largest academic association family doctors japan jpca family medicine training scheme consists three year programme following two year internship ref name new era postgraduate certifi japanese medical specialty board define standard specialty training programme board certified family doctors japan free access healthcare system meaning patients bypass primary care services addition family medicine specialists japan


also organ specialist primary care clinics ref name takemura doctors working clinics typically formal training family medicine mean consultation length family medicine clinic minutes review literature recently published detailing context structure process outcome family medicine japan ref name building primary care japan literature review ref see also atc codes anatomical therapeutic chemical classification system classification pharmaco therapeutic referrals general practice icd international classification diseases icpc plus international classification primary care icpc primary care


referral medicine walk clinic notes references reading family medicine united states national health service


'''programming paradigms''' way classify programming languages based features languages classified multiple paradigms paradigms concerned mainly implications execution model language allowing side effects whether sequence operations defined execution model paradigms concerned mainly way code organized grouping code units along state modified code yet others concerned mainly style syntax grammar common programming paradigms include ref name symbolic programming lisp ref

Formal science
Computer science
Programming languages
Programming paradigms


imperative programmer instructs machine change state procedural groups instructions procedures object oriented groups instructions part state operate declarative programmer merely declares properties desired result compute functional desired result declared value series function applications logic desired result declared answer question system facts rules mathematical desired result declared solution


optimization problem reactive desired result declared data streams propagation change symbolic techniques reflection allow program refer might also considered programming paradigm however compatible major paradigms thus real paradigm right example languages fall '''imperative paradigm''' two main features state order operations occur constructs explicitly control order allow side effects state modified one


point time within one unit code later read different point time inside different unit code communication units code explicit meanwhile '''object oriented''' programming code organized objects contain state modified code part object object oriented languages also imperative languages contrast languages fit '' 'declarative paradigm''' state order execute operations instead supply number available operations


system along conditions allowed execute implementation language 's execution model tracks operations free execute chooses order independently comparison multi paradigm programming languages overview isbn ref software engineering process defined differing ''methodologies'' programming languages models computation defined differing ''paradigms'' languages designed support one paradigm smalltalk supports object oriented programming haskell supports functional programming programming languages support multiple paradigms object pascal c java javascript c


structures many programming paradigms well known techniques ''forbid'' ''enable'' instance pure functional programming disallows use side effects structured programming disallows use goto statement partly reason new paradigms often regarded doctrinaire overly rigid accustomed earlier styles ref name rubin goto ref yet avoiding certain techniques make easier understand program behavior prove theorems program correctness programming paradigms also compared ''programming models'' allows invoking execution model using api programming models also


classified paradigms based features execution model parallel computing using programming model instead language common reason details parallel hardware leak abstractions used program hardware causes programmer map patterns algorithm onto patterns execution model inserted due leakage hardware abstraction consequence one parallel programming language maps well computation problems thus convenient use base sequential


paradigm rather include features several paradigms see comparison multi paradigm programming languages history different approaches programming developed time identified either time retrospectively early approach consciously identified structured programming advocated since mid concept programming paradigm dates least turing award lecture robert w floyd entitled ''the paradigms programming'' cites notion paradigm used thomas kuhn ''the structure scientific revolutions'' machine code


lowest level programming paradigms machine code directly represents instructions contents program memory sequence numbers assembly language machine instructions represented mnemonics memory addresses given symbolic labels sometimes called first second generation languages assembly languages developed support library copy quite sophisticated conditional macro generation preprocessing abilities call subroutines external variables common sections globals enabling significant code use isolation hardware specifics via use logical operators read write get put assembly still


used time critical systems often embedded systems gives direct control machine procedural languages next advance development procedural languages third generation languages first described high level languages use vocabulary related problem solved example common business oriented language cobol uses terms like file move copy formula translation fortran using mathematical language terminology developed mainly scientific engineering problems algorithmic language algol focused appropriate language define algorithms using mathematical language terminology targeting


scientific engineering problems like fortran programming language one pl hybrid commercial scientific general purpose language supporting pointers beginners purpose symbolic instruction code basic developed enable people write programs c general purpose programming language initially developed dennis ritchie bell labs languages follow procedural paradigm describe step step exactly procedure according particular programmer least followed solve specific problem efficacy efficiency solution therefore entirely subjective


highly dependent programmer 's experience inventiveness ability object oriented programming following widespread use procedural languages object oriented programming oop languages created simula smalltalk c eiffel python php java c languages data methods manipulate kept one unit called object perfect encapsulation one distinguishing features oop way another object user would able access data via object 's ''methods'' thus object 's inner workings may changed without affecting code uses


object still controversy raised alexander stepanov richard stallman programmers concerning efficacy oop paradigm versus procedural paradigm need every object associative methods leads skeptics associate oop software bloat attempt resolve dilemma came polymorphism object oriented programming considered paradigm language possible create even object oriented assembler language high level assembly hla example fully supports advanced data types object oriented assembly language programming despite early origins thus differing


programming paradigms seen rather like ''motivational memes'' advocates rather necessarily representing progress one level next precise comparisons competing paradigms' efficacy frequently made difficult new differing terminology applied similar entities processes together numerous implementation distinctions across languages paradigms literate programming form imperative programming structures programs human centered web hypertext essay documentation integral program program structured following logic prose exposition rather compiler convenience independent


imperative branch declarative programming paradigms developed languages computer told problem solve problem program structured set properties find expected result procedure follow given database set rules computer tries find solution matching desired properties archetype declarative language fourth generation language sql family functional languages logic programming functional programming subset declarative programming programs written using paradigm use


functions blocks code intended behave like mathematical functions functional languages discourage changes value variables assignment making great deal use recursion instead logic programming paradigm views computation automated reasoning body knowledge facts problem domain expressed logic formulas programs executed applying inference rules answer problem found set formulas proved inconsistent symbolic programming paradigm describes programs able manipulate formulas program components data ref name symbolic programming lisp


programs thus effectively modify appear learn making suited applications artificial intelligence expert systems natural language processing computer games languages support paradigm include lisp prolog differentiable programming structures programs differentiated throughout usually via automatic differentiation ref name innes ref support multiple paradigms programming languages support one programming paradigm allow programmers use suitable programming style associated language constructs given job see also comparison programming paradigms domain specific language modeling language programming domain turing


completeness von neumann programming languages references external links http wwwinfouclacbe pvr paradigmshtml classification principal programming paradigms http wwwjaneveme articles understanding programming paradigms programming paradigms evolve get adopted programming language classification programming language topics


laboratory experiment neuroethologists hope uncover general principles nervous system study animals exaggerated specialized behaviors endeavor understand nervous system translates biologically relevant stimuli natural behavior example many bats capable echolocation used prey capture navigation auditory system bats often cited example acoustic properties sounds converted sensory map behaviorally relevant features sounds philosophy neuroethology integrative approach study animal behavior draws upon several

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Neuroethology


disciplines approach stems theory animals' nervous systems evolved address problems sensing acting certain environmental niches nervous systems best understood context problems evolved solve accordance krogh 's principle neuroethologists often study animals specialists behavior researcher wishes study eg honeybees social behavior bat echolocation owl sound localization etc scope neuroethological inquiry might summarized j rg peter ewert pioneer neuroethology considers types questions central neuroethology


introductory text field stimuli detected organism environmental stimuli external world represented nervous system information stimulus acquired stored recalled nervous system behavioral pattern encoded neural networks behavior coordinated controlled nervous system ontogenetic development behavior related neural mechanisms often central addressing questions neuroethology comparative methodologies drawing upon knowledge related organisms' nervous systems anatomies life histories behaviors


environmental niches unusual many types neurobiology experiments give rise behavioral questions many neuroethologists often begin research programs observing species' behavior natural environment approaches understanding nervous systems include systems identification approach popular engineering idea stimulate system using non natural stimulus certain properties system 's response stimulus may used analyze operation system approach useful linear systems nervous system notoriously nonlinear neuroethologists argue


approach limited argument supported experiments auditory system show neural responses complex sounds like social calls predicted knowledge gained studying responses due pure tones one non natural stimuli favored auditory neurophysiologists non linearity system modern neuroethology largely influenced research techniques used neural approaches necessarily diverse evident variety questions asked measuring techniques used relationships explored model systems employed techniques utilized since include use


neuroethological subjects tend traditional neurobiological model systems ie ''drosophila'' ''c elegans'' ''danio rerio'' neuroethological approaches emphasizing comparative methods uncovered many concepts central neuroscience whole lateral inhibition coincidence detection sensory maps discipline neuroethology also discovered explained vertebrate behavior entire neural circuit described electric fish jamming avoidance response beyond conceptual contributions neuroethology makes indirect contributions advancing human health understanding simpler nervous systems many clinicians used concepts uncovered neuroethology branches neuroscience


endogenous instinctive behaviors involving complex sequence movements triggered released certain kind stimulus sequence always proceeds completion even original stimulus removed also species specific performed nearly members lorenz constructed famous hydraulic model help illustrate concept well concept action specific energy drives niko tinbergen born netherlands worked closely lorenz development fap theory studies focused egg retrieval response nesting geese tinbergen performed extensive research


releasing mechanisms particular faps used bill pecking behavior baby herring gulls model system led concept supernormal stimulus tinbergen also well known four questions believed ethologists asking given animal behavior among mechanism behavior physiological neural molecular level question thought many regards keystone question neuroethology tinbergen also emphasized need ethologists neurophysiologists work together studies unity


become reality field neuroethology unlike behaviorism studies animals' reactions non natural stimuli artificial laboratory conditions ethology sought categorize analyze natural behaviors animals field setting similarly neuroethology asks questions neural bases ''naturally occurring'' behaviors seeks mimic natural context much possible laboratory although development ethology distinct discipline crucial advent neuroethology equally important development comprehensive understanding neuroscience contributors new understanding spanish


neuroanatomist ramon cajal born physiologists charles sherrington edgar adrian alan hodgkin andrew huxley charles sherrington born great britain famous work nerve synapse site transmission nerve impulses work reflexes spinal cord research also led hypothesize every muscular activation coupled inhibition opposing muscle awarded nobel prize work along lord edgar adrian made first physiological recordings neural activity


single nerve fibers alan hodgkin andrew huxley born respectively great britain known collaborative effort understand production action potentials giant axons squid pair also proposed existence ion channels facilitate action potential initiation awarded nobel prize efforts result pioneering research many scientists sought connect physiological aspects nervous sensory systems specific behaviors scientists karl von frisch erich von holst theodore bullock


frequently referred fathers neuroethology neuroethology really come though new sophisticated experimental methods allowed researchers masakazu konishi walter heiligenberg j rg peter ewert others study neural circuits underlying verifiable behavior modern neuroethology international society neuroethology represents present discipline neuroethology founded occasion nato advanced study institute advances vertebrate neuroethology august organized j p ewert dj ingle rr capranica held university kassel hofgeismar germany cf report trends


neurosci first president theodore h bullock society met every three years since first meeting tokyo membership draws many research programs around world many members students faculty members medical schools neurobiology departments various universities modern advances neurophysiology techniques enabled exacting approaches ever increasing number animal systems size limitations dramatically overcome survey recent congress meeting symposia topics gives idea field 's breadth comparative aspects spatial


memory rodents birds humans bats influences higher processing centers active sensing primates owls electric fish rodents frogs animal signaling plasticity many time scales electric fish frogs birds song production learning passerine birds primate sociality optimal function sensory systems flies moths frogs fish neuronal complexity behavior insects computational contributions genes behavior drosophila honeybees zebrafish eye head movement crustaceans humans robots hormonal actions brain behavior rodents primates fish frogs birds cognition insects honeybee application technology neuroethology help create advancements technology advanced understanding


animal behavior model systems generalized study simple related animals humans example neuronal cortical space map discovered bats specialized champion hearing navigating elucidated concept computational space map addition discovery space map barn owl led first neuronal example jeffress model understanding translatable understanding spatial localization humans mammalian relative bat today knowledge learned neuroethology applied new technologies example randall beer colleagues used algorithms learned


condition uncontrolled subject dynamics environment early example walter rudolf hess developed focal brain stimulation technique examine cat 's brain controls vegetative functions addition behaviors even though breakthrough technological abilities technique used many neuroethologists originally compromised cat 's natural state therefore minds devalued experiments' relevance real situations intellectual obstacles like overcome led golden age neuroethology focusing simple robust


forms behavior applying modern neurobiological methods explore entire chain sensory neural mechanisms underlying behaviors zupanc new technology allows neuroethologists attach electrodes even sensitive parts animal brain interacts environment founders neuroethology ushered understanding incorporated technology creative experimental design since even indirect technological advancements battery powered waterproofed instruments allowed neuroethologists mimic natural conditions lab study behaviors objectively addition electronics required amplifying neural signals


transmitting certain distance enabled neuroscientists record behaving animals performing activities naturalistic environments emerging technologies complement neuroethology augmenting feasibility valuable perspective natural neurophysiology another challenge perhaps part beauty neuroethology experimental design value neuroethological criteria speak reliability experiments discoveries represent behavior environments evolved neuroethologists foresee future advancements using new technologies techniques computational neuroscience neuroendocrinology molecular genetics mimic natural environments case studies jamming avoidance response


nbsp hz difference fish avoid signals interfere behavior known jamming avoidance response neighbor 's frequency higher fish 's discharge frequency fish lower frequency vice versa sign frequency difference determined analyzing beat pattern incoming interference consists combination two fish 's discharge patterns neuroethologists performed several experiments ''eigenmannia' 's natural conditions study determined sign frequency difference manipulated fish 's discharge injecting


value neuroethologists place studying animals natural habitats feature analysis toad vision recognition prey predators toad first studied depth j rg peter ewert ewert see also began observing natural prey catching behavior common toad ''bufo bufo'' concluded animal followed sequence consisted stalking binocular fixation snapping swallowing mouth wiping however initially toad 's actions dependent specific features sensory stimulus whether demonstrated worm anti worm configurations observed worm configuration signaled prey


initiated movement along object 's long axis whereas anti worm configuration signaled predator due movement along short axis zupanc ewert coworkers adopted variety methods study predator versus prey behavior response conducted recording experiments inserted electrodes brain toad presented worm anti worm stimuli technique repeated different levels visual system also allowed feature detectors identified focus discovery prey selective neurons optic tectum whose axons could traced towards


snapping pattern generating cells hypoglossal nucleus discharge patterns prey selective tectal neurons response prey objects freely moving toads predicted prey catching reactions snapping another approach called stimulation experiment carried freely moving toads focal electrical stimuli applied different regions brain toad 's response observed thalamic pretectal region stimulated toad exhibited escape responses tectum stimulated area close prey selective neurons toad engaged prey catching behavior carew furthermore neuroanatomical experiments carried


toad 's thalamic pretectal tectal connection lesioned resulting deficit noted prey selective properties abolished responses prey selective neurons prey catching behavior experiments suggest prey selectivity results pretecto tectal influences ewert coworkers showed toads stimulus response mediating pathways translate perception visual sign stimuli action adequate behavioral responses addition modulatory loops initiate modify specify mediation ewert regarding latter example telencephalic caudal ventral striatum involved loop gating stimulus response mediation


manner directed attention telencephalic ventral medial pallium primordium hippocampi however involved loops either modify prey selection due associative learning specify prey selection due non associative learning respectively computational neuroethology computational neuroethology cn ref name franklin ref cne concerned computer modelling neural mechanisms underlying animal behaviors together term artificial ethology term computational neuroethology first published literature achacoso yamamoto spring based pioneering work connectome c elegans publications computational neuroethology


argued depth later randall beer ref name beer ref dave cliff acknowledged strong influence michael arbib 's ''rana computatrix'' computational model neural mechanisms visual guidance frogs toads cne systems work within closed loop environment perceive perhaps artificial environment directly rather human input typical ai systems ref name franklin example barlow et al developed time dependent model retina horseshoe crab ''limulus polyphemus'' connection machine model cm instead feeding model retina idealized input


signals exposed simulation digitized video sequences made underwater compared response real animals model systems bat echolocation nocturnal flight navigation prey capture location objects using echo returns call oscine bird song zebra finch ''taeniopygia guttata'' canary ''serinus canaria'' white crowned sparrow ''zonotrichia leucophrys'' song learning model human speech development electric fish navigation communication jamming avoidance response jar corollary discharge expectation generators spike timing dependent plasticity barn owl auditory spatial map nocturnal prey location capture toad vision discrimination


prey versus predator http wwwjoerg peter ewertde html video image processing toad 's visual system behavior brain function http wwwjoerg peter ewertde html artificial neuronal net circadian rhythm influence various circadian controlled behaviors suprachiasmatic nucleus cricket song mate attraction corollary discharge fish mauthner cells c start escape response underwater directional hearing fly microscale directional hearing ''ormia ochracea'' sex differences visual system bibionidae spatial navigation chasing behavior fannia canicularis noctuid moths ultrasound avoidance response bat calls ''aplysia'' sea hares learning memory startle response rat spatial memory


navigation salmon homing olfactory imprinting thyroid hormones crayfish escape startle behaviors aggression formation social hierarchies cichlid fish aggression attack behaviors honey bee learning navigation vision olfaction flight aggression foraging monarch butterfly navigational mechanisms http nelsonbeckmanuiucedu courses neuroethol model systemshtml model systems information see also niko tinbergen karl von frisch konrad lorenz erich von holst theodore h bullock j rg peter ewert eric knudsen masakazu konishi martin giurfa references references sources beer randall roy e ritzmann thomas mckenna biological neural networks invertebrate neuroethology robotics boston academic press camhi jm


neuroethology nerve cells natural behavior animals sinauer associates carew tj feature analysis toads behavioral neurobiology sunderland sinauer pp nbsp carew tj behavioral neurobiology cellular organization natural behavior sinauer associates ewert j p neural basis visually guided behavior scientific american ewert j p motion perception shapes visual world amphibians prete fr ed complex worlds simpler nervous systems cambridge mit press pp nbsp hoyle g scope neuroethology behavioural brain science graham hoyle put forth rather narrow definition goals subject


matter neuroethology links field field ethology followed commentaries many prominent neuroethologists makes fascinating reading metzner w jamming avoidance response ''eigenmannia'' controlled two separate motor pathways journal neuroscience pfluger h j r menzel neuroethology roots future j comp physiol zupanc gkh behavioral neurobiology integrative approach oxford university press oxford uk reading textbooks sillar kt picton lp heitler wj neuroethology predation escape john wiley sons inc new york zupanc


gkh behavioral neurobiology integrative approach oxford university press new york carew tj behavioral neurobiology cellular organization natural behavior sinauer sunderland mass simmons p young nerve cells animal behaviour second edition cambridge university press new york simmons p young nerve cells animal behaviour third edition cambridge university press new york camhi j neuroethology nerve cells natural behavior animals sinauer associates sunderland mass guthrie dm neuroethology introduction wiley new york ewert j p neuroethology introduction neurophysiological fundamentals behaviour springer verlag new york


ewert j p neuroethologie einf hrung die neurophysiologischen grundlagen des verhaltens ht springer verlag heidelberg berlin new york kandel er cellular basis behavior introduction behavioral neurobiology wh freeman roeder kd nerve cells insect behavior harvard university press cambridge mass marler p hamilton wj mechanisms animal behavior john wiley sons inc new york articles http wwwscholarpediaorg article neuroethology g nther k h zupanc neuroethology scholarpedia external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwneuroethologyorg international society neuroethology https webarchiveorg web http nelsonbeckmanuiucedu neuroethologyhtml topics neuroethology https webarchiveorg web http wwwtamieorg insectpng http wwwscholarpediaorg article neuroethology collected neuroethology articles scholarpedia ethology neurophysiology


'''whiteness studies''' study structures produce white privilege examination whiteness analyzed race culture source systemic racism exploration social phenomena generated societal compositions perceptions group behaviors white people interdisciplinary arena inquiry developed beginning united states white trash studies critical race studies particularly since late th century focused proponents describe cultural historical sociological aspects people identified white social

Social science
Sociology
Cultural studies
Whiteness studies


th century writers argued phenotypical significances attributed specific races without biological association called race therefore biological phenomenon many scientists demonstrated racial theories based upon arbitrary clustering phenotypical categories customs overlook problem gradations categories thomas k nakayama robert l krizek write whiteness strategic rhetoric asserting essay whiteness strategic rhetoric whiteness product discursive formation rhetorical construction nakayama krizek write 'true


essence' 'whiteness' historically contingent constructions social location nakayama krizek also suggest naming whiteness one calls centrality reveals invisible central position whiteness considered normal neutral therefore name whiteness means one identifies whiteness rhetorical construction dissected unearth values beliefs major areas research whiteness studies include nature white privilege white identity historical process white racial identity created relation culture white identity possible processes


social change affect white identity definitions whiteness zeus leonardo defines whiteness racial discourse whereas category white people represents socially constructed identity usually based skin color steve garner notes whiteness stable consensual meaning meanings attached 'race' always time place specific part national racial regime development field studies whiteness unique identity could said begin among black people needed understand whiteness survive particularly slave societies american colonies united states ref


name hooksrepresentations bell hooks representations whiteness black imagination ''black looks'' republished roediger ''black white'' ref ref name ganley https dialoguejournalorgau archives link journal ref important theme literature beyond general invisibility blacks whites unwillingness white people consider black people study anthropologically ref name hooksrepresentations american author james weldon johnson wrote novel ''the autobiography ex colored man'' colored people country know understand white people better white people know understand author james baldwin wrote spoke extensively whiteness defining


central social problem insisting choice biological identity ''the fire next time'' non fiction book race relations united states baldwin suggests blockquote white people country quite enough learning accept love achieved tomorrow may well never negro problem longer exist longer needed blockquote major black theory whiteness connects identity group acts terrorism ie slavery


rape torture lynching black people treated sub human white academics united states united kingdom uk began study whiteness early creating discipline called whiteness studies canon wars late term refers political controversy centrality white authors perspectives united states culture led scholar shelley fisher fishkin ask imaginative construction 'whiteness' shaped american literature american history ref name fishkin interrogate ref field developed large body work early according


fishkin extends across disciplines literary criticism history cultural studies sociology anthropology popular culture communication studies music history art history dance history humor studies philosophy linguistics folklore ref name fishkin interrogate according ''the washington post'' least institutions united states including princeton university university california los angeles university new mexico university massachusetts amherst offer offered courses whiteness studies whiteness studies often overlaps post colonial theory study orientalism anti racist education one contribution white studies rich benjamin 's ''searching


whitopia improbable journey heart white america'' book examines white social beliefs white anxiety contemporary united states context enormous demographic cultural social change book explains white privilege segregation might flourish even absence explicit racial animus another contribution whiteness studies gloria wekker ''white innocence paradoxes colonialism race'' discusses immutability fluidity white identity relationship innocence context post colonial netherlands first decade twenty first century wekker analysis process


separating dutch facilitated skin tone non christian religious practices according wekker process racialization reserved mid late twentieth century immigrant groups muslims black surinamese black antilleans means delineating groups outside constructed immutable norms dutch society sociologist michael eric dyson contributed discussion white identity book tears cannot stop sermon white america dyson 's book specifically addresses five dysfunctional ways regarded white respond confronted reality whiteness simultaneously artificial powerful well


dysfunctional ways black people sometimes respond white racism areas study whiteness whiteness studies draws research definition race originating united states applying racial stratification worldwide research emphasizes historically recent social construction white identity stated w e b du bois discovery personal whiteness among world 's peoples modern thing nineteenth twentieth century matter indeed discipline examines white native african black identities emerged interaction institutions slavery colonial settlement citizenship industrial labor


scholars winthrop jordan traced evolution legally defined line blacks whites colonial government efforts prevent cross racial revolts among unpaid laborers princeton professor nell irvin painter book ''the history white people'' says idea whiteness matter biology also includes concepts labor gender class images personal beauty p xi earliest european societies including greeks romans concept race classified people ethnicity social class lowest class slaves


definition whiteness precisely definition nonblackness continued expand dark skin happen rich light skin racial background beautiful well way inclusion pp nbsp ndash academic joseph pugliese among writers applied whiteness studies australian context discussing ways australian aboriginals marginalized wake european colonization australia whiteness came defined central australian identity diminishing aboriginal identity process pugliese discusses


th century white australia policy conscious attempt preserve purity whiteness australian society likewise stefanie affeldt considers whiteness concept yet fully developed time first convicts settlers arrived social relation negotiated driven forward particular labour movement eventually federation australia verlaying social differences shared membership 'white race' catalyst consolidation australian colonies commonwealth australia white backlash white backlash white rage association


benefit organized oriented towards white people horace mann bond one early scholars identify bias privilege operating white education systems bond critiqued suggestions african americans intelligent enough participate schools white americans campaigned calls literacy tests suffrage challenged southern manifesto identified bias funding white education rather universal funding even within reformist movement desegregated schools whiteness privilege continued us education jim crow versions segregationist ideology lost legitimacy


due legal political failures privacy individualism discourses mask white fear newer forms exclusion contemporary education according scholar charles r lawrence iii white identity analyzing whiteness forge new understandings white identity field exploration academics since publications largely founded modern whiteness studies mid exploring ruth frankenberg 's works interchanging use two concepts separation examined scholars attempting intellectually disengtangle sociologist howard winant favoring deconstructionist rather abolitionist study whiteness suggests


people begin first repudiating white skin privileges ref name perry various versions pamphlet white blindspot containing pieces allen noel ignatin noel ignatiev focused struggle white skin privilege significantly influenced students democratic society sds sectors new left june ''the new york times'' reporting national office sds calling fight 'white skin privileges' ref name perry allen extended analysis white privilege racial oppression social control


colonial period ground breaking ''class struggle origin racial slavery invention white race'' ref name struggle introduction jeffrey b perry ref continued research developed ideas seminal two volume ''the invention white race'' published ref name intervention vol ref ref name intervention vol ii ref almost forty years allen offered detailed historical analysis origin maintenance functioning white skin privilege white privilege writings white supremacy us history class struggle origin racial slavery invention white race ref


control formation late th early th century anglo american plantation colonies principally virginia maryland central process ruling class plantation bourgeoisie conferring white race privileges european american working people privileges interests african americans also poison ruinous baited hook class interests working people white supremacy reinforced white skin privilege main retardant working class consciousness us struggle radical social change direct principal efforts challenging white supremacy white skin privileges ref name perry http wwwjeffreybperrynet files perrypdf pdf ref allen 's work influenced students


democratic society sds sectors new left paved way white privilege race social construct whiteness studies also raised important questions developments areas avoided using term whiteness using quotation marks ref name summary pt ref name perry laura pulido writes relation white privilege racism blockquote white privilege highly structural spatial form racism nbsp suggest historical processes suburbanization decentralization instances white privilege contributed contemporary patterns environmental racism ref name pulido blockquote pulido defines environmental


racism idea nonwhites disproportionately exposed pollution ref name pulido ref writers peggy mcintosh say social political cultural advantages accorded whites global society argues advantages seem invisible white people obvious non whites mcintosh argues whites utilize whiteness consciously unconsciously framework classify people understand social locations addition even though many white people understand whiteness associated privilege acknowledge privilege view average non racist essentially whiteness invisible


white people ref name mcintosh ref instance blockquote think whites carefully taught recognize white privilege males taught recognize male privilege begun untouched way ask like white privilege come see white privilege invisible package unearned assets count cashing day 'meant' remain oblivious ref name mcintosh blockquote mcintosh calls americans acknowledge white privilege effectively attain equality american society argues blockquote redesign social


systems need first acknowledge colossal unseen dimensions silences denials surrounding privilege key political tool keep thinking equality equity incomplete protecting unearned advantage conferred dominance making taboo subjects ref name mcintosh blockquote white privilege also related white guilt shannon jackson writes article ''white noises performing white writing performance'' rhetorics white guilt tiresome cliche disingenuous everywhere stereotype 'the guilty white' almost entrenched negativity 'the racist white' people actively


try dis identify white shift white racial shift decline abbreviated phrase whiteshift intersection connectedness whiteness source study academic research within field whiteness studies relation demographic decline white people phenomenon analyzed producing formal articulation whiteness social category relation fear based politics us academic vron ware examined fear based element sociology resentment intersection class whiteness ware analyzed white decline


portrayal british media facilitated victim grievance culture particularly among white british working class communities political scientist charles king proposed context numerical decline white americans whiteness progressively revealed driven social power rather biology schools thought critical whiteness studies offshoot critical race theory theorists '''critical whiteness studies''' seek examine construction moral implications whiteness order reveal deconstruct assumed links white privilege white supremacy barbara applebaum defines field scholarship whose aim


reveal invisible structures produce reproduce white supremacy privilege presumes certain conception racism connected white supremacy anoop nayak describes underpinned belief whiteness modern invention changed time place social norm become chained index unspoken privileges bonds whiteness yet broken deconstructed betterment humanity great deal overlap critical whiteness studies critical race theory demonstrated focus legal


historical construction white identity use narratives whether legal discourse testimony fiction tool exposing systems racial power whiteness architecture early st century architectural historians published studies related construction whiteness built environment studies grappled exclusionary nature architectural profession erected barriers nonwhite practitioners ways architects designers employed motifs art programs color schemes reflected aspirations european americans recently racialization space criticisms writers david horowitz douglas


american culture cswac stated speech speech given rd national conference whiteness university chicago ref regarding whiteness studies ws broadly kay wrote blockquote ws teaches white branded literally flesh evidence kind original sin try mitigate evilness ca n't eradicate goal ws entrench permanent race consciousness everyone eternal victimhood nonwhites eternal guilt whites famously framed ws chief guru noel ignatiev former professor harvard


university ' 'sic'' ignatiev phd student tutor harvard never professor teaching massachusetts college art key solving social problems age abolish white race words abolish privileges white skin ref name kay blockquote addition criticism mass media whiteness studies earned mixed reception academics fields historian eric arnesen wrote whiteness become blank screen onto claim analyze project


notes particular datum almost entirely ignored whiteness studies scholars religion played prominent role conflicts among various american classes says type keyword literalism persists whiteness studies important words phrases primary sources taken historical context whiteness many different definitions word nothing less moving target ref name arnesen arnesen notes whiteness studies scholars entirely far left political spectrum suggests apparent vitriol towards white americans due part


white workers fulfilling predictions marxist theory proletariat would overcome racial national class distinctions unite overthrow capitalism cites example david roediger afterword seminal ''wages whiteness'' asserts book written reaction appalling extent white male workers voted reaganism ref name arnesen arnesen argues absence supporting evidence whiteness studies often rely amateurish freudian speculation motives white people psychoanalysis whiteness differs 'talking cure' freudianism partly


neglect speech study without accurate scholarship arnesen writes time retire whiteness precise historical categories analytical tools ref name arnesen historian peter kolchin offered positive assessment declared best whiteness studies unfulfilled potential offers novel valuable means studying history ref name kolchin https wwwcwuedu diversity sites ctscwuedudiversity files documents whitenesspdf pdf ref particularly praises scholarship development ''concept'' whiteness united states notes definition implications white racial identity shifted decades yet


kolchin describes persistent sense unease certain aspects whiteness studies consensus definition whiteness thus word used vague contradictory ways scholars even leaving term undefined articles essays ref name kolchin kolchin also objects persistent dualism evident work best whiteness studies authors often claim whiteness social construct also arguing paradoxically whiteness omnipresent unchanging reality existing independent socialization ref name kolchin kolchin agrees entering post racial paradigm might beneficial humanity


challenges didactic tone whiteness studies scholars single white racial identification negative praising black asian self identification scholars whiteness studies sometimes seriously undermine arguments interpreting historical evidence independent broader context eg karen brodkin 's examination american anti semitism largely neglects roots european anti semitism finally kolchin categorically rejects argument common amongst many whiteness scholars racism whiteness intrinsically uniquely american expresses concern belief moral emptiness whiteness thin line saying whiteness


evil saying whites evil ref name kolchin theodore w allen pioneering writer white skin privilege white privilege death offered critical review roediger wages whiteness revised edition ref name wages personally put whiteness quotes shied away using term allen explained blockquote abstract noun abstraction attribute people role play white race actual objective thing anthropologic historically developed identity european americans anglo americans


dealt functions history recognized slough heading whiteness seems get away basic white race identity trauma ref name wages ref name perry blockquote scholarly debate whiteness studies pioneer david roediger eric kaufmann scholar political demography identity politics author ''whiteshift'' criticised defending white identity politics criticizes field whole arguing blockquote white studies suffers number serious flaws


lead us question whether approach continue advance frontiers knowledge wider sphere ethnic racial studies flaws include constructivism fails recognise cognitive social processes underpin social 'reality' excessive emphasis ethnic boundaries opposed ethnic narratives thereby overstating degree malleability possible ethnic identity tacit belief white exceptionalism overemphasises ideological character whiteness deifies whites elision dominant ethnicity race threefold parochialism terms place time


horizon role race ethnic studies ref name ref blockquote kaufmann proposes alternative approach study white identity emerging concept dominant ethnicity using anthony smith 's definition ethnic group named imagined human community many whose members believe myth shared ancestry place origin ref name list courses ''us race theory problem whiteness'' arizona state university ref name washingtonpost see also african american studies anti racism anti bias curriculum blanqueamiento casta critical race theory historical definitions race postmodernism post racial race discussion biological concept


race applicability human population racial ethnic socialization ''raising race questions'' social criticism social identity white people white privilege white identity white identity politics white racial identity development whiteness theory references reading books introduction jeffrey b perry introduction https rouoweduau cgi viewcontentcgiarticle context lhapapers book chapters reproduction two pamphlets cd rom publication journal articles https wwwcwuedu diversity sites ctscwuedudiversity files documents whitenesspdf pdf http wwwjeffreybperrynet files perrypdf pdf allen theodore w http wwwsojournertruthnet uafwspdf white supremacy us history speech delivered guardian forum national question april rpt white supremacy


collection chicago sojourner truth organization external links http nathanrtoddnetfirmscom documents spanierman todd neville whiteness bibpdf towards bibliography critical whiteness studies http wwwacrawsaorgau australian critical race whiteness studies association http wwwiconoclasticnet eccw indexhtml european american collaborative challenging whiteness http wwwcamelproductionsnet ''frederick douglass white negro '' documentary african american irish relationship definition racism controversy postmodernism critical race theory political theories politics race post structuralism social constructionism social justice white culture


world whether salvation possible outside institution church relationship church state questions theology liturgy issues ecclesiology may used specific sense particular church denomination 's character self described otherwise sense word phrases catholic ecclesiology protestant ecclesiology ecumenical ecclesiology word ''ecclesiology'' defined th century science building decoration church buildings still used sense context architectural history etymology


first published october dealt study building decoration churches particularly encouraged restoration anglican churches back supposed gothic splendour centre wave victorian restoration spread across england wales second half th century successor ''ecclesiology today'' still published ecclesiological society successor ccs registered charity situation regarding etymology summed alister mcgrath 'ecclesiology' term changed meaning


recent theology formerly science building decoration churches promoted cambridge camden society ecclesiological society journal ecclesiologist ecclesiology stands study nature christian church catholic ecclesiology stained glass window catholic church depicting st peter 's basilica rome sitting upon rock reference matthew present day catholics interpret jesus saying building church rock apostle peter line popes claim petrine succession catholic ecclesiology today


plurality models views catholic theology since acceptance scholarly biblical criticism began early mid th century shift clearly marked encyclical ''divino afflante spiritu'' avery robert cardinal dulles sj contributed greatly use models understanding ecclesiology work models church defines five basic models church prevalent throughout history catholic church include models church institution mystical communion sacrament herald servant


ecclesiological model church institution holds catholic church alone one holy catholic apostolic church church divine apostolic origin led pope view church dogmatically defined catholic doctrine therefore ' 'de fide'' view catholic church composed baptized professing catholics clergy laity unified visible society founded christ hierarchy derives spiritual authority centuries via apostolic succession bishops especially bishop rome pope


whose successorship comes st peter apostle christ gave keys kingdom heaven thus popes catholic view god ordained universal jurisdiction whole church earth catholic church considered christ 's mystical body universal sacrament salvation whereby christ enables human receive sanctifying grace model church mystical communion draws two major biblical images first mystical body christ developed paul 's epistles second people god image goes beyond aristotelian scholastic model


'' communitas perfecta '' held previous centuries ecclesiological model draws upon sociology articulations two types social relationships formally organized structured society gesellschaft informal interpersonal community gemeinschaft catholic theologian arnold rademacher maintained church inner core community gemeinschaft outer core society gesellschaft interpersonal aspect church given primacy structured church result real community believers similarly yves congar argued ultimate reality church fellowship persons


ecclesiology opens ecumenism prevailing model used second vatican council ecumenical efforts council using model recognized document ''lumen gentium'' body christ subsists visible society governed successor peter bishops communion although many elements sanctification truth found outside visible structure eastern orthodox ecclesiology eastern orthodox perspective church one even though manifested many places eastern orthodox ecclesiology operates plurality unity


questions internal institutional administrative organization church also questions universal ecclesiastical order protestant ecclesiology article vii church ''augsburg confession'' states one holy church continue forever church congregation saints gospel rightly taught sacraments rightly administered rock matthew refers preaching ministry jesus christ view discussed length ''treatise'' magisterial reformation ecclesiology martin luther argued catholic church


lost sight doctrine grace lost claim considered authentic christian church argument open counter criticism catholics thus guilty schism heresy donatism cases therefore opposing central teachings early church especially church father st augustine hippo ref name ht mcgrath alister e ''historical theology introduction history christian thought'' oxford blackwell publishers p ref also challenged catholic doctrine catholic church indefectible infallible dogmatic teachings


radical reformation ecclesiology single radical reformation ecclesiology variety views expressed among various radical reformation participants key radical reformer menno simons known anabaptist wrote ref direct contrast hierarchical sacramental ecclesiology characterised incumbent roman catholic tradition well new lutheran prominent protestant movements reformation radical reformation ecclesiology holds true church heaven institution kind earth merit name 'church god' ref name ht see also great


church east west schism ecclesiological disputes eastern orthodox theology branch theory anglican theology historical protestant ecclesiology see augsburg confession article xxviii ecclesiastical power baptist confession faith chapter church theology john calvin ecclesiology sacraments notes references group notes references sources reading flanagan donal ed ''the meaning church papers maynooth union summer school '' dublin ire gill son ''nb'' mostly concerns roman catholic church 's ecclesiology also includes lengthy chapter reformed presbyterian standpoint church protestant theology external links


https webarchiveorg web http wwwbrillcom ecclesiology ecclesiology journal https webarchiveorg web http wwworthodox churchinfo ecclesiologypdf primer eastern orthodox roman catholic ecclesiology orthodox perspective http wwwoodegrcom english biblia episkopos periehhtm eucharist bishop church unity church divine eucharist bishop first three centuries professor metropolitan pergamus chairman athens academy john zizioulas christian terminology systematic theology


camping kullu district himachal pradesh india '''outdoor recreation''' '''outdoor activity''' refers recreation engaged doors commonly natural settings activities encompass outdoor recreation vary depending physical environmental carried activities include fishing hunting backpacking horseback riding mdash completed individually collectively outdoor recreation broad concept encompasses varying range activities landscapes outdoor recreation typically pursued purposes physical exercise general wellbeing spiritual renewal opportunity partake nature

Human physical performance and recreation


whilst wide variety outdoor recreational activities classified sports demand participant athlete rather collectivist idea fore outdoor recreation outdoor recreation necessarily encompass degree competitiveness rivalry embodied sporting matches championships competition generally less stressed individual team sports organized opposing squads pursuit trophy championship activity involves exceptional excitement physical challenge risk sometimes referred


adventure recreation adventure training rather extreme sport traditional examples outdoor recreational activities include hiking camping mountaineering cycling dog walking canoeing caving kayaking rafting rock climbing running sailing skiing sky diving surfing new pursuits often hybrids prior ones emerge gain identities coasteering canyoning fastpacking plogging lungomare barcola trieste direction miramare castle place urban outdoor recreation many cities recreational areas various outdoor activities created population include natural parks parks playgrounds sports facilities


also areas free sea access beach area venice beach california promenade des anglais nice waterfront barcola trieste purpose seating area surrounding bushland sydney australia outdoor recreation includes variety activities individuals participate although activities established sports individuals participate without association teams competitions clubs activities include backpacking canoeing canyoning caving climbing hiking hill walking hunting kayaking rafting broader groupings include water sports snow sports horseback riding outdoor recreation allows individuals engage


physical activity outdoors various activities completed individually communally sports mainly played indoors settings fields able transition outdoor setting recreational non competitive purposes outdoor activities serve physical social setting recreation nature provides opportunity individuals practice enhance learn new skills test stamina endurance partake fun social settings walking alongside towering trees lining avenue pines saratoga spa state park new york whitewater rafting outdoor activities also frequently used


medium education team building list activities context class wikitable sortable mountain forest beach sea freshwater air desert family cultural historical '''exercise''' abseiling airsoft coasteering angling fly fishing ballooning disc golf amateur photography benchmarking geolocating fitness trail backpacking atv riding clam digging canoeing gliding safari amusement park indigenous culture outdoor fitness canyoning driving vehicle adventure park parasailing canyoning flying safari park bungee jumping outdoor gym caving potholing birdwatching plogging jetskiing paragliding sandboarding camping sightseeing metal detecting


disc golf camping running kayaking paramotoring corn maze tourism plogging ice climbing caving potholing scuba diving raft building skydiving disc golf mountain biking disc golf snorkeling stand paddleboarding wingsuit flying gardening mountain climbing elephant safari sport fishing water sports leash dog park mountaineering horseback riding swimming waterskiing outdoor party plogging hunting water sports whitewater rafting picnic rock climbing mushroom hunting windsurfing


plogging skiing orienteering surfing swimming skyrunning paintball zip line snowboarding plogging snowshoeing tree climbing trekking wildlife safari trekking trekkers gorbea park south biscay basque country spain trekking enjoying great walk day hikes overnight extended hikes example day trek hiking day returning


night lodge hot meal comfortable bed trekking enjoyable undertaken generally physically fit physical preparation trekking includes cycling swimming jogging long walks ensure safest experience possible generally good idea form experience basic survival skills first aid orienteering going extended hikes staying overnight 's also expected backpackers leave trace enjoying outdoors mountain biking mountain biker levin new zealand activity mountain biking involves steering mountain cycle


rocky tracks around boulder strewn paths tackle trails requirements physical strength stamina strong mountain cycle mountain bikes atbs terrain bikes feature rugged frame fork frames often built aluminum lightweight stiff making efficient ride many styles mountain biking practiced including mountain downhill trials dirt jumping trail riding cross country latter two common balance core strength endurance physical traits required go mountain biking riders also need bike handling skills


ability make basic repairs bikes advanced mountain bikers often attempt technical descents well intense styles mountain biking hilling free riding canyoning canyoning sundarijal kathmandu nepal canyoning activity involves climbing descending jumping trekking canyons sport originates caving involves caving climbing techniques people mention canyoning typically referring descents involve rope work climbing jumps technical nature canyoning frequently done remote rugged settings often


businesses field adventure recreation along hands training activities included adventure recreation basic courses needed business accounting required obtain degree uk house commons' education skills committee supports outdoor education committee encourages fieldwork projects since helps development soft skills social skills particularly hard reach children activities also take place school trips visits local community even school grounds outdoor enthusiast theodore roosevelt noted outdoorsman conservationist


pittock eddie bauer gaylord dubois euell gibbons clay perry arthur hasketh groom bill jordan corey ford pioneering female outdoor enthusiasts include mary seacole isabella bird emma rowena gatewood claire marie hodges mina benson hubbard beryl markham freya stark margaret murie celia hunter rachel carson terry tempest williams marjory stoneman douglas ruth dyar mendenhall arlene blum sparsely populated areas mountains lakes rivers scenic views rugged terrain popular outdoor enthusiasts united states state parks national parks offer campgrounds opportunities recreation sort uk rural scotland


areas england wales designated right roam areas available outdoor enthusiasts foot areas also open mountain bikers horse riders culinary techniques foods popular outdoor enthusiasts include dutch ovens grilling cooking open fires often rock fire rings fish fries granola trail mix sometimes referred gorp good old raisins peanuts outdoor recreation days weeks months nationally internationally number days designated outdoors include canadian rivers day national cleanup day national


public lands day national trails day world oceans day global running day synonyms bbc uses word free luftz leev synonym outdoor recreation scandinavia see also adventure travel hazards outdoor recreation health effects sunlight exposure plogging notes references external links


'''sociology family''' subfield subject sociology researchers academics study family structure social institution unit socialization various sociological perspectives seen example patterned social relations group dynamics main areas focus class wikitable pillars focus areas examples demographics family size age ethnicity diversity gender average age marriage getting older traditional male breadwinner female homemaker increase divorce rates domain sphere aspects family life considered important

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of fatherhood


family government group views marriage sexuality state policies concern family structure benefits change interaction interactions family members organizations impact policy measures increase gender fluid roles within family household baby boomer generation influence living multi generational household ref name ref long distance relationships overseas workers ideology family based beliefs psychological effects choices parents affect children effects sex couples marriages children male female infertility social class economic indicators capital mobility professions


household income highest level education family members mobility immigrant families united states ref name low birthrates among highly educated women japan methodology quantitative one best known sources gathering historical contemporary data families national census survey united states national census occurs every household every years smaller surveys taken called american community survey held larger us census bureau related subsidiaries state census bureau collects data


american families nation states communities data provides statistics trends household family composition show number children young adults couples living united states wave families living arrangements organized clusters childcare children child support families households fertility grandparents grandchildren marriage divorce sex couples qualitative another method ethnographic participatory observation research families usually reduces sample size intimate analysis conjugal family structure general qualitative approach


research excellent way investigate group dynamics family relationships specifically qualitative research topic families particularly useful looking deeper meanings family interactions relationships learning insider views relational processes observing interactions looking family within greater context providing voice marginalized family members eg case abuse often qualitative data able provide ample data rich meaningful especially structurally diverse families sociology interracial intimacy construction race western


society degree globally led distinct view interracial intimacy although interracial relationships marriages become far popular socially acceptable united states western europe since civil rights era unions continue viewed less total acceptance significant portions population historically ''american families'' stephanie coontz treats difficulties couples went time ''loving v virginia'' interracial marriage bans declared unconstitutional bans functioned enforce one drop rule reenforce identity privilege internationally


far right continues promote ideas racial purity working normalization interracial couples families pre modern family life religious discourse historically religious discourses played significant role constituting family members constructing particular forms behavior families religion particularly important discourses female sexuality example role religion respect the'witchcraft craze' medieval europe according turner device regulate behavior women attack women witches principally 'a critique sexuality' 'women


closely associated witchcraft argued particularly susceptible sexual advances devil women seen irrational emotional lacking self restraint especially vulnerable satanic temptation' turner argues attempts regulate female sexuality religious discourse case western europe understood context concerns managing private property ensuring continuity thus land owning aristocracy point marriage produce male heir property household since child mortality common women


less continuously pregnant marriage guarantee living male heir furthermore heir legitimate disputes inheritance avoided legitimacy could ensured heads households marrying virgins ensuring chastity wives duration marriage equally daughters sexually pure eligible marriage property holding families marriages prompted solely need produce children none elements eroticism sexual compatibility


contemporary marriages pre modern europe interests reflected character marriages private arranged contracts could easily dissolved event child production compromised woman 's infertility infidelity entry church marriage arrangements different definitions marriage emerged lifelong marriages demanded concern regulate sexuality particularly sexuality women sociology marriage judeo christian belief system marriage modeled adam eve 's lifetime commitment man woman married couple produces children constituting nuclear family sociologists dispute


degree idealized arrangement reflect true structure families american society article ''the american family nostalgia trap'' sociologist stephanie coontz first posited american family always defined first foremost economic needs instance colonial times families often relied slaves indentured servants support economically modern breadwinner homemaker model argues coontz little historical basis myth happy nuclear family correct family structure arise modern family


breadwinner role still expected take care home considered neo traditionalist one believes woman expected work desires n't interfere real domestic job home ref name wade lisa professor ref consequently forces women disadvantaged career opportunities structured around primary obligation homemaker reasserts gender labor market inequality families marriage increasingly become areas gender matters however important note gender differences marriage often


partners husband low education end divorce substantially higher rate marriages partners husband low education young women medium education levels tend highest rates marriage highly educated men tend marry highly educated women moreover men women attained high levels education delay marriage past age individuals typically marry trend becomes stronger age proportion married high educations married women similarly high educations reaches


men years old ref name bruze another important intersectional factor consider relation gender marriage marriage markets marriage market means economics affects marries whose bonds endure means future generations workers parents analyzing marriage markets pertain marriage several benefits first marriage market conditions forces influence marriage outside subjects affect means impact general trends marriage decisions ref name harknett ref words individual circumstances cause people make decisions marriages might specific personal


situation marriage markets impact peoples' decisions marriage macro level means stead incomes job make sound marriage addition job stability benefits employers greater productivity families though cohesion second marriage market conditions may capture many economic influences ref name harknett empirical findings indicate financial stability important requisite marriage weak marriage markets high unemployment couples would like get married may delay due unemployment financial troubles furthermore even couples already married may face doubts future economic


status partners create marital instability conversely strong labor markets unemployment low may improve employment situation financial situation either partner may facilitate marriage increase economic stability ref name harknett thus marriage markets strong unemployment low marriage may perceived attractive individuals marriage markets weak unemployment high intersection class gender social class interacts gender impact male female dynamic marriage particularly respect temporal flexibility work home ref name gertsel ref research shows class


advantaged men women use class privilege flexibility provides ways support conventional gender roles conversely men women access flexibility control time pressured weaken conventional gender expectations regarding marriage family jobs gertsel clawson conducted study collected data four groups paid care workers divided class gender ref name gertsel two class advantaged groups nurses doctors nurses almost exclusively women doctors almost exclusively men group


number choices work hours ability utilize family friendly workplace policies two class disadvantaged groups female nursing assistants cnas male emergency medical technicians emts class disadvantaged group fewer choices regarding work hours faced greater constraints flexibility control time women particular need flexible work hours order meet inflexible demands marriage family place upon traditional gender expectations stipulate woman primary caregiver ref name gertsel results study demonstrate class intersecting gender influences ability


men women obtain utilize flexibility time furthermore gender shapes particular variety flexibility demanded advantaged occupations men women able acquire flexibility desire however choose use control affords different manners women cut back paid work hours take leaves handle domestic labor child care words make job sacrifices hand men less likely utilize family friendly policies make work sacrifices spend less home time working essence


men women class advantaged occupations use flexibility status provides enact neotraditional gender expectations ref name gertsel moreover men also workplace advantage employers portray fathers committed productive responsible men without children working class men tend emphasize bread winning masculinity middle class men focus traditional gender based division labor average fathers spend forty three hours week working pay eighteen hours per week house kids ultimately comes fathers two thirds paid work one third


leave absence ref name gertsel notably mothers would join workforce sufficient child care away home america average cost infant care year childcare young children age four cost full time minimum wage workers earnings one single year ref name wade lisa professor reason low income families save money leaving one parent home outside workforce care children unfortunately individuals specialize unpaid labor


household may feel subordinated breadwinner feel minimal voice relationship financial decisions additionally women take time workforce raise young children lose wages benefits social security contributions illustrate mothers take three years work family decrease income also considered mommy tax ref name wade lisa professor course less noticeable among women married breadwinners willing share income


wealth stay home spouse thus class disadvantage makes difficult men women adhere traditional gender expectations researchers showed class advantage used gender traditional ways class disadvantage may lead violation traditional gender expectations way undoes gender ref name gertsel today see shift gender roles twice many stay home fathers two decades ago ref name wade lisa professor four five stay home fathers report home due


generally accommodating family life lower level occupations ref name gertsel furthermore number hours worked work spillover family life telling predictors perceived imbalance marriage keene quadagno found greater likelihood perceived imbalance work duties caused men women miss family event make difficult maintain home ref name keene additional research keene quadagno suggests gender expectations men prioritize work lives women prioritize marriage home life longer exist ref name keene


however persists unequal division labor home men women one theoretical approach explain concept gender similarity approach predicts convergence men 's women 's work family demands lead convergence attitudes toward work family responsibilities feelings work family balance ref name keene contrast gender differences approach stipulates normative differences men women remain family still primarily defined women 's sphere paid work men 's domain ref name keene empirical evidence support theories


research supports convergence men 's women 's work experiences men women make adjustments marriage personal lives meet employer 's expectations also making adjustments work maintain marital family obligations however analysis abovementioned study supports gender differences model gender differences exist division household labor chores men working hours women spending time domestic child care responsibilities ref name keene average mothers spend twenty five hours week working pay thirty two hours unpaid work introduction


rate western countries generally increased time divorce rates however started decrease last twenty years us divorce rate changed per marriages per marriages respectively people less inclined stay unhappy relationships keep family unit intact maintain consistency children 's lives way previous generations divorce rates canada united states fluctuated


similar pattern though united states still highest divorce rate world higher canada 's ref name macionis ref following several possible causes increased rate divorce individualism today 's society families spend time apart together individuals family focus personal happiness earning income support family consumes time actually spent family feelings longer mutual many people end marriages longer satisfied sexual needs merely lost feelings one another


often happens one partner finds exciting relationship chooses move forward new relationship cases partner may even commit adultery also may result divorce partner discovers partner unfaithful women become independent women equal rights proven time potential ability support women find much easier leave unhappy marriages also work focused thus giving less time cope relationship stress stress


big factor marriages working support family trying stabilize finances big factor stress also partners working cases leaves less family time makes raising children difficult often happens stage couples raising young children socially acceptable today 's generation divorce socially acceptable instead discouraging divorce unsatisfying relationship widely accepted sometimes even encouraged acceptable also easier get divorce legally


previous years according divorce act parents falling love many scholars attempted explain humans enter relationships stay relationships end relationships levinger 's theory divorce based theoretical tradition consisting three basic components attractions barriers alternatives attraction theory proportional rewards one gets relationship minus cost relationship things seen gains relationship love sex companionship emotional support daily assistance rewards relationship


costs would negative aspects relationship domestic violence infidelity quarrels limitations personal freedom generally people tend stay high rewards low cost relationships however reverse situation costly marriage benefits automatically lead divorce couples must overcome barriers religious beliefs social stigma financial dependence law restrictions successfully dissolve marriage another theory explain relationships end mate ejection theory brian boutwell jc barnes km beaver mate ejection theory looks dissolution


marriage evolutionary point view species seek successfully reproduce according theory gender differences process ejection example woman upset husband emotionally cheats man upset wife physically cheats reason stems evolutionary roots man emotionally cheating wife equates loss reduction resources wife raise children whereas act physical infidelity wife threatens husband 's chance


pass genes next generation via reproduction circumstances call mate ejection ancestral conditions favored dissolution mateship constituted recurrent adaptive problem human evolutionary history thus imposed selection pressures evolution strategic solutions put differently capability emancipating certain relationships could conferred fitness benefit ancestral humans effect divorce children three longitudinal studies divorce marin county project clinical study families began virginia county study series longitudinal studies marriage


divorce remarriage binuclear family studies families helped expand literature divorce binuclear study based findings marin county project virginia county study research used understand implications divorce children later life judith wallerstein 's research effect divorce children based marin county project suggests children divorced parents often reach adulthood psychologically troubled individuals find difficult maintain satisfying relationships others quantitative research done scholars supports wallerstein 's conclusion


shown children divorced parents increased risk experiencing psychological problems troubled marriages divorcing poor relationships parents especially father wallerstein however disputed extreme version theory claims difference children divorced continuously married parents dramatic pervasive one opponent wallerstein 's conclusions mavis hetherington argues negative effects divorce children exaggerated children grow without long term harm hetherington 's data showed children divorced parents


reach adulthood serious social emotional psychological problem compared children continuously married parents children grow well functioning adults twenty years families binuclear study interviewed offspring families interviewed completed postgraduate training completed college completed post secondary training received high school diplomas majority interviewed children employed effects technology past decades technology drastically advanced


effect society dr schoppe sullivan studied effects technology particularly social media parents way raise children studied approximately oo dual income families first child observing social media pressured roles parents found increased level confidence fathers opposite effect mothers fathers felt confident viewing parents social media mothers worried viewing posts depicting ideal perfect family photos concerned comments would


receive posts others criticizing parenting led directly increased levels stress lower confidence affected children 's reactions parents altering behavior children sociology motherhood contemporary theories surrounding motherhood mother children mahabalipuram mothering social practice nurturing caring dependent children dynamic process social interactions relationships mothering typically associated women since typically women mother children however women mother mothering nurturing caring work inevitable exclusive domain


individual 's mothering actions shaped beliefs family individuality nature childhood nature child also often shaped childhood past experiences children dynamic interactions mother child create deep meaningful connections ref name investigating motherhood particularistic approach particularistic approach mothering suggests role mother activities understandings cannot separated context live according theory mothering takes place within specific historical contexts framed interlocking structures race class gender furthermore


mother 's strategies meanings develops influenced different social locations intersections regional local political economy class ethnicity culture sexual preference ref name investigating motherhood conventional notions motherhood motherhood ideology influenced idealization family structure perpetuates image heterosexual couple children sociologists refer bourgeois family arose typical th th century european households often considered traditional western structure family model father acts economic support sometimes disciplinarian


family mother female relative oversees child rearing east asian western traditional families fathers heads families meant duties included providing financial support making critical decisions must obeyed without question rest family members asian american men brought stringent gender role expectations focus group harmony filial piety carrying family name conforming expectations parents mother 's role family