arabic compulsory elementary schools egypt egypt 's economy depends mainly tourism many modern languages taught spoken children learn arabic school english also mandatory beginning first grade years age another language mandatory last two years high school years french german commonly learned also schools specialize particular languages instance french schools egypt students learn arabic french english later german schools egypt students learn arabic german


english probably basic french well european union european union school systems mandatory study least one foreign language stage school career tendency start earlier even first year primary school additional languages chosen optional subject common foreign language chosen increasingly english popular first foreign language member states european union english language instruction followed

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Modern Language


french german pupils learn english foreign language whether choice language obligatory parental teaching largely provided generalist teachers primary school specialists middle secondary schools exception ireland irish gaelic english mandatory languages although majority students also study modern language may compulsory second level united kingdom children united kingdom learn english school wales children english language medium state


schools learn welsh second language age mainly taught medium english welsh language schools teach mainly medium welsh addition ''modern foreign languages'' compulsory component state education system least one language studied end key stage particular schools may require younger students study additional languages may given option continue schools required teach program languages according local national guidelines primary school pupils


key stage aged entitled teaching modern foreign language english taught immigrant adults youths necessary modern languages studied universities colleges various degrees awarded modern languages modern humanities research association founded cambridge early change name mhra unincorporated charity became incorporated company name october declared aim encourage promote advanced study research field modern humanities


include modern medieval european languages literatures cultures united states although official language united states children learn american english part institutional education responsibility k education sits us department education individual state 's state education agency state department education public school districts containing large numbers english language learners ells notably students speak spanish chinese navajo offer bilingual education two way setting uses student 's native language well english impart curriculum


national association bilingual education notes controversial sometimes political topic portion citizens believe english education us also hosts many english second language esl programs people learned english school frequently immigrants us global world economy makes knowledge world language valuable work skill growing number elementary middle school school districts offer modern language courses usually optional basis students increasingly advised times required study foreign language


high school frequently college university level commonly studied foreign language us determined number students enrolled foreign language classes colleges universities order popularity spanish french german american sign language italian japanese chinese latin russian arabic venezuela children learn spanish school begin learn english age six pre school schools like san jose de tarbes caracas children begin learn french english promoted pre school


middle school growing number chinese immigrants certain areas country also small schools learning chinese starting age eight auxiliary languages international auxiliary languages definition associated particular country geographic region esperanto probably best known widespread interlingua much less popular still growing auxiliary language likewise spoken mainly northern eastern europe south america substantial numbers speakers central europe ukraine russia constructed languages recent years


africa '''african studies''' study africa especially continent 's cultures societies opposed geology geography zoology etc field includes study africa 's history pre colonial colonial post colonial demography ethnic groups culture politics economy languages religion islam christianity traditional religions specialist african studies often referred africanist key focus discipline interrogate epistemological approaches theories methods traditional disciplines using critical lens inserts african centred ways knowing references africanists argue need deexoticize africa banalise

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
African studies


rather understand africa exceptionalized exoticized ref name mamdani mamdani chapter mamdani ''citizen subject contemporary africa legacy late colonialism'' ref african scholars recent times focused decolonizing african studies reconfiguring reflect african experience african lens history early anthropological foundations much knowledge africa modern academic fields including african studies european exploration africa transatlantic slave trade explorers missionaries well colonial scramble africa european imperialists ref name olukoshi ref ref name nolte ref start


decolonization africa cold war international development agendas area studies increasing policy relevance emerging environment resulted mass development african studies organizations eg centers institutes throughout continental africa ref name olukoshi following african independence many colonial staff europe africa became staff emergent african studies organizations ref name olukoshi following african independence end world war ii colonial methods producing knowledge underwent challenges changes ref name nolte due world war ii occurring africa directly partaking african


world viewed many africans distinct option apart eastern world western world african leaders eg nnamdi azikiwe kwame nkrumah leopold senghor refused accept presumptions european imperialism advocated africans knowledge due essential political economic wellness citizenry ref name nolte consequently dialectics african independence made way european scholars basil davidson thomas hodgkin contest colonial ideas standards eg requirements documentary evidence like used history europe


resulted history africa dismissed ref name nolte inherent dynamics africa value use african orature form evidence underscored african scholar kenneth dike ref name nolte general history africa developed various african scholars eg jacob ajayi adu boahen ali mazrui djibril tamsir niane bethwell allan ogot ki zerbo ref name nolte period colonialism ceased african intellectuals constructed organized african higher education system africa response development europeans


united kingdom created african studies institutions ref name nolte shortcomings western disciplinary approaches study africa resulted development interdisciplinary configuration african studies ref name nolte degree interaction eg collaboration debate african counterparts african studies association united kingdom asauk founded first yearly conference organized attended ref name nolte spread nationalism african higher education system began undergo africanization effects began set question criticism fundamental ideas


african studies began occur well improvement scientific theories research methods developed african studies studied african affairs phenomena undertaken driven africans african intellectuals drove nationalist historiography drew local epistemic communities partaking international academic community ref name olukoshi increasing realization lasting impacts enslavement colonialism still present middle walter rodney theorized authored europe underdeveloped africa ref name nolte african scholars added theorization highlighting patterns


domination inequality europeans africans ref name nolte deconstructionist methods contributed increasing realization european imperialistic ideas conceptualizations evidence data truth interfered ability researchers engage ideas conceptualizations held lived africans daily lives ref name nolte research focus africa decreased united kingdom counterbalanced increasing research focus africa united states ref name nolte civil rights movement increasing collaboration african african american scholars ref name nolte


african studies also experienced turmoil eg book famine brain drain collapse culture research collapse local epistemic communities professional associations decline ability scholars travel locally infrastructure decay ref name olukoshi nationalist historiography spread earlier began contract even neoliberal analyses criticisms expanded sought frame condition africa terms pathology power relates principles good governance market efficiency ref name olukoshi guise african development african systems higher education eg university missions visions curriculums conceptual tools


theoretical foundations social research subsequently revised conform vision principles neoliberalism ref name olukoshi development studies became increasingly interconnected african studies undergone growth discipline enriched fields eg humanities social sciences natural sciences ref name olukoshi considerable number african studies organizations financed financially influenced foreign government aid provided north america europe asia undergone volatility pattern foreign government aid become volatile consequently trends africanist scholarship tended reflect general optimism pessimism


africa ref name olukoshi given increasing indication post cold war world lead increasing peace africa became greater focal point study north america europe early ref name nolte reasons increased study range restoration civil democratic institutions government africa third wave african literature africa next coming scholars inspired literature africa projected largest youth demographic world increasing investment asian countries including china united kingdom seeking


reposition brexit ref name nolte increasing interest study africa contributed growth african studies associations including asauk africa europe group interdisciplinary studies aegis well increased research focus africa african studies organizations africa ref name nolte marketization african higher education resulted funding grants rather posts transition toward contract based eg fixed term part time hiring academic professionals ref name nolte due market forces long term academic relationships eg networks collaborations became increasingly temporary subsequently stifled ability


innovative studies undertaken ref name nolte additionally research focuses became increasingly narrowed would likely attract grant money ref name nolte transition academic publications print internet media colonial racial hierarchies generally reinforced online anglophone media publications mediated international non african academic discourses print based media publications mediated african academic discourses ref name nolte african scholars continue experience racism bias discrimination well continue underrepresented higher education system united kingdom ref name nolte furthermore exclusivity predominance european american epistemologies


methodologies contribute perceptions european scholars experts bearers universal truth african scholars scholars color bearing limited expertise cultural heritage identity ref name nolte imperialistic power dynamics non africans africans shaping narrative african studies africa remains ongoing problem ref name nolte council development social science research africa codesria contributes considerable funding african studies research various countries eg ghana kenya nigeria senegal south africa africa much funding sources research originate


sources abroad ref name nolte non african africanists tend operate role perceived experts field shape image view africa countries abroad whereas african researchers tend operate role consultants assistants ref name nolte consequently narrative african studies tend reflect non african interests views rather african interests views ref name nolte since african independence long term effects persisting elements enslavement colonialism eg racist fantasies projections silencing past continue affect africans continent diaspora ref name nolte roughly


two racialized regions sub saharan africa north africa ref name mohamed sub saharan africa racist geographic construction serves objectified compartmentalized region africa proper africa noire black africa ref name mohamed african diaspora also considered part racialized construction sub saharan africa ref name mohamed north africa serves racialized region european africa conceptually disconnected sub saharan africa conceptually connected middle east asia islamic world ref name mohamed result racialized constructions conceptual


separation africa darker skinned north africans called haratin long resided maghreb reside south saharan africa become analogically alienated indigeneity historic reality north africa ref name mohamed origin term haratin remains speculative term may date much earlier th century ce involuntarily assigned darker skinned maghrebians ref name mohamed prior modern use term haratin identifier utilized contrast bidan bayd white sumr asmar suud aswad


empire serves precursor later narratives grouped darker skinned maghrebians together identified origins sub saharan west africa ref name mohamed ii gold serving motivation behind saadian invasion songhai empire made way changes latter behaviors toward dark skinned africans ref name mohamed ii result changing behaviors toward dark skinned africans darker skinned maghrebians forcibly recruited army ismail ibn sharif black guard based claim descended enslaved peoples times saadian invasion ref name mohamed


ii shurafa historians modern period would later utilize events narratives manumission enslaved hartani vague term merit needing definition implicit evidence historicity questionable ref name mohamed ii narratives derived shurafa historians would later become analogically incorporated americanized narratives eg trans saharan slave trade imported enslaved sub saharan west africans darker skinned magrebian freedmen present day european africanist paradigm ref name mohamed ii opposed developed field research analogy present day european africanist paradigm


conceptually alienates dehistoricizes denaturalizes darker skinned north africans north africa darker skinned africans throughout islamic world large primarily rooted americanized textual tradition inherited th century european christian abolitionists ref name mohamed consequently reliable history opposed antiquated analogy based history darker skinned north africans darker skinned africans islamic world limited ref name mohamed part textual tradition generally associates inherited status servant dark skin eg negro labor negro cultivators negroid slaves freedman ref name mohamed european africanist paradigm uses


primary reference point construction origins narratives darker skinned north africans eg imported slaves sub saharan west africa ref name mohamed darker skinned north africans darker skinned africans islamic world treated allegory alterity another part textual tradition trans saharan slave trade presence regions treated african diaspora north africa islamic world ref name mohamed altogether darker skinned north africans eg black apparently mixed maghrebians darker skinned africans islamic world inherited status servant


guarded harems ref name mohamed ii simulated narrative also based major assumption indigenous peoples maghreb purely white berbers became biracialized miscegenation black concubines ref name mohamed existing within geographic racial binary pale skinned moors residing north closer mediterranean region dark skinned moors residing south closer sahara ref name mohamed ii religious polemical narrative involving suffering enslaved european christians barbary slave trade also adapted fit simulated narrative comparable number


enslaved africans transported muslim slaver caravans south saharan africa north africa islamic world ref name mohamed despite inherited part th century religious polemical narratives use race secularist narrative present day european africanist paradigm given paradigm appearance possessing scientific quality ref name mohamed ii religious polemical narrative eg holy cause hostile neologisms th century european abolitionists africa africans silenced still preserved secularist narratives present day european africanist paradigm ref name mohamed orientalist


stereotyped hypersexuality moors viewed th century european abolitionists deriving quran ref name mohamed ii reference times prior often used concert biblical references th century european abolitionists may indicate realities described moors may literary fabrications ref name mohamed ii purpose apparent literary fabrications may affirm view bible greater quran affirm viewpoints held readers composed works ref name mohamed ii adoption th century european abolitionists religious polemical


narrative present day european africanist paradigm may due correspondence established textual tradition ref name mohamed ii use stereotyped hypersexuality moors th century european abolitionists present day european africanist paradigm common ref name mohamed ii due lack considerable development field research regarding enslavement islamic societies resulted present day european africanist paradigm relying unreliable estimates trans saharan slave trade ref name mohamed ii however insufficient data also used justification continued use faulty present day european


africanist paradigm ref name mohamed ii darker skinned maghrebians particularly morocco grown weary lack discretion foreign academics shown toward bear resentment toward way depicted foreign academics consequently find intended activities foreign academics predictable ref name mohamed ii rather continuing rely faulty present day european africanist paradigm mohamed recommends revising improving current africanist paradigm eg critical inspection origins introduction present characterization saharan caravan reconsideration makes trans saharan slave trade within


context africa distinct trans atlantic slave trade realistic consideration experiences darker skinned maghrebians within regional context ref name mohamed ii conceptual problems merolla ref name merolla ref indicated academic study sub saharan africa north africa europeans developed north africa conceptually subsumed within middle east arab world whereas study sub saharan africa viewed conceptually distinct north africa region viewed inherently ref name merolla common pattern conceptual separation continental africa two regions view


conceptual sameness within region sub saharan africa continued present day ref name merolla yet increasing exposure problem discussion conceptual separation africa begun develop ref name merolla sahara served trans regional zone peoples africa ref name merolla authors various countries eg algeria cameroon sudan africa critiqued conceptualization sahara regional barrier provided counter arguments supporting interconnectedness continental africa historic cultural connections well trade west africa north africa east africa eg north africa


niger mali north africa tanzania sudan major hubs islamic learning niger mali ref name merolla africa conceptually compartmentalized meaning black africa africa south sahara sub saharan africa ref name merolla north africa conceptually orientalized separated sub saharan africa ref name merolla historic development occurred within longer time frame epistemic development eg form content present day racialized conceptual separation africa came result berlin conference scramble africa ref name merolla african berber literary studies scholarship


remained largely separate one another ref name merolla conceptual separation africa studies may due editing policies studies anglophone francophone world affected international politics anglophone francophone world ref name merolla studies anglophone world clearly followed trend conceptual separation africa francophone world nuanced may stem imperial policies relating french colonialism north africa sub saharan africa ref name merolla study north africa largely initiated


arabophone francophone world denial arabic language become africanized throughout centuries present africa shown conceptual separation africa remains pervasive francophone world denial may stem historic development characterization islamic arabia existing diametric binary europe ref name merolla among studies francophone world ties north africa sub saharan africa denied downplayed ties eg religious cultural regions peoples eg arab language literature berber language literature


african diaspora eg black beautiful invoked utilized black identity oppose colonialism racism ref name merolla berber studies largely sought establish ties berbers north africa arabs middle east merolla indicated efforts establish ties berbers north africa sub saharan africans sub saharan africa recently started undertaken ref name merolla notable africanists university based centers austria institut f r afrikawissenschaften est university vienna belgium ghent university canada institute african studies carleton university ottawa china school asian


african studies beijing foreign studies university china school asian african studies shanghai international studies university ethiopia center african studies university addis ababa ethiopia germany department african studies ref name auto ref humboldt university germany germany institute asian african studies humboldt university germany germany institute african studies university bayreuth germany germany institute african studies university leipzig germany ghana kwame nkrumah institute african studies university ghana legon ghana netherlands african studies centre leiden nigeria institute african diaspora studies university lagos nigeria institute african studies university ibadan portugal


https ceiiscte iulpt en centre international studies formerly centre african studies iscte university institute lisbon portugal african studies centre university porto porto portugal https cesarcisegulisboapt center african development studies cesa iseg ulisboa https wwwisegulisboapt instituto superior de economia e gest da universidade de lisboa russia department african studies st petersburg university russia department african studies institute asian african countries moscow state university south africa centre african studies cas university cape town sweden center african studies dalarna university sweden uk centre african studies university cambridge uk centre


african studies leeds uk centre west african studies birmingham uk school oriental african studies us department african middle eastern south asian languages literatures rutgers state university new jersey us african studies center boston university us african studies center michigan state university us african studies center ucla us africana cultures policy studies institute us university florida center african studies us department african studies howard university us program african studies northwestern university national transnational centers nordic africa institute africa research institute associations aegis europe


african studies mphil research master african studies '''nigeria''' university lagos masters african diaspora studies university ibadan nigeria masters phd african studies '''switzerland''' university basel center african studies basel african studies '''united kingdom''' university cambridge centre african studies mphil african studies '''united states america''' beloit college african studies minor interdisciplinary undergraduate minor field concentration florida international university masters african studies african studies certificate howard university undergraduate minor major african studies masters african studies phd african studies


ohio university masters african studies rutgers university undergraduate major minor african middle eastern south asian languages literatures regional focus university michigan undergraduate major minor afroamerican african studies also certificate african studies graduate students see also area studies list africanists list african studies journals africa bibliography categorised list publications field since african demographics history africa culture africa religion africa economy africa outline africa list articles relating africa ethiopian studies


ethiopian historiography africana studies references https webarchiveorg web http wwwafricanstudiesorg awards prizes distinguished africanist award awards prizes distinguished africanist award winners asa distinguished africanist award winners reading gershenhorn jerry academic affair african american scholars development african studies programs united states ''journal african american history'' winter gershenhorn jerry st clair drake pan africanism african studies politics knowledge ''journal african american history'' summer external links https webarchiveorg web http africamsuedu aejp african e journals project michigan state university provides directory journals africa urls find tables contents abstracts full text


articles online full text archive back issues african scholarly journals social sciences humanities http wwwilissafricade en als iliss advancedhtmlquery tt kw african studies sbj geo res search african studies centres worldwide excerpt website database ilissafrica http wwwinformafricacom african studies african study african language publishing children south africa african study african language publishing children south africa ''this african study focuses dearth teaching learning materials african languages required deliver effective bilingual education potential role translation offering solutions problem'' bibliography library guides african studies http wwwlibraryafricancamacuk african studies library http wwwafricancamacuk centre african studies university cambridge uk https webarchiveorg web http wwwnaiuuse library africainfo studyingafrica ''studying


berkovitsa hmiv petko slaveykov smesena kitka '''bulgarian literature''' literature written bulgarians residents bulgaria written bulgarian language usually latter defining feature bulgarian literature said one oldest among slavic peoples roots late th century times simeon first bulgarian empire notable modern bulgarian works literature ''the peach thief'' emiliyan stanev ''september'' geo milev ''under yoke'' ivan vazov ''the windmill'' elin pelin ''depths'' dora gabe book ''wild stories'' divi razkazi

Humanities
Languages and literature
Bulgarian Literature


nikolay haytov included unesco historical collection middle ages bulgarian empire welcoming disciples cyril methodius expelled great moravia country became centre rich literary activity known golden age medieval bulgarian culture late th th early th century literature bulgaria prospered many books translated byzantine greek also new works created many scholars worked preslav ohrid literary schools creating cyrillic script needs chernorizets hrabar wrote


bulgarian empire followed another period upsurge time patriarch evtimiy th century evtimiy founded tarnovo literary school significantly affected literature serbia muscovite russia many writers fled abroad ottoman conquest apart evtimiy established writers period constantine kostenets first half th century gregory tsamblak medieval bulgarian literature dominated religious themes works hymns treatises religious miscellanies apocrypha hagiographies often heroic instructive early ottoman rule fall second bulgarian empire


ottomans serious blow bulgarian literature culture general literary activity largely ceased concentrated monasteries established centres bulgarian culture foreign empire religious theme continued dominant works produced main literary form th th century instructive sermons first translated greek compiled bulgarians title page ''abagar'' first printed book modern bulgarian literary tradition continued exist relatively uninterrupted early ottoman rule northwestern


bulgaria chiprovtsi uprising end th century among bulgarian catholics supported catholic states central europe many works written mixture vernacular bulgarian church slavonic serbo croatian called illyric among first book printed modern bulgarian breviary ''abagar'' published rome filip stanislavov bishop nikopol illyrian movement south slavic unity affected bulgarian literature th th century hristofor zhefarovich 's ''stemmatographia'' thought earliest example


modern bulgarian secular poetry quatrains although essentially collection engravings bulgarian national revival nearly five centuries ottoman government bulgaria played decisive role developing bulgarian culture country separated european renaissance movements higher forms artistic expression developed mostly folklore songs fairy tales new revival bulgarian literature began th century historiographical writings paisius hilendar ''istoriya slavyanobolgarskaya'' another influential work ''life sufferings sinful sophronius'' sophronius vratsa period


literature came alive writings mainly revolutionary anti turkish themes earlier stage bulgarian renaissance prominent poets time vasil drumev rayko zhinzifov dobri chintulov noted poet revolutionary hristo botev worked late th century nowadays regarded arguably foremost bulgarian poet period managed use living language folklore songs give expression modern ideas doubts questions works small number intensive dialogue form strong emotional


message hristo botev monument among writers engaged revolutionary activity also lyuben karavelov georgi sava rakovski rakovski 's best known work ''gorski patnik'' translated ''a traveller woods'' ''forest wanderer'' penned crimean war hiding turkish authorities near town kotel considered one first bulgarian literary poems actually published typical feature period increase interest bulgarian folklore figures like miladinov brothers kuzman shapkarev made collections folk songs ethnographic studies another


first professional bulgarian man letters founding father new bulgarian literature vazov popular productive works include prose poetry equal virtuosity novel ''under yoke'' depicts ottoman oppression bulgaria famous piece classical bulgarian literature translated languages famous short novels include ''nemili nedragi'' ''chichovtzi'' others also wrote large number short stories travel writings memoirs essays pieces criticism dramas comedies etc famous collections include ''draski


sharki'' ''videno chuto'' others one significant collections poems ''the epopee forgotten'' consisting odes dedicated heroes bulgarian history images ideas remembered poetry collections include ''pryaporets gusla'' ''tagite na bulgaria'' ''gusla'' ''slivnitza'' ''luleka mi zamirisa'' others surprising example early modern philosophical thought found poetic works renowned intellectual stoyan mihaylovski bulgarian modernist literature poet pencho slaveykov son prominent bulgarian renaissance poet teacher petko slaveykov


one erudite writers time made conscious effort set beginnings modern literature modernism country introducing european philosophical metaphysical ideas partly modified rebuilt upon traditional linguistic imagery heritage slaveykov famous ''philosophical poems'' ''epic songs'' symbolist poetry collection ''dream happiness'' among others wrote mystifying anthology poets titled ''on island blissful'' gathered one place traditional ideas bulgarian poetry time presenting like belonging


imaginary island epic unfinished ''song blood'' dealt struggle turks quest slaveykov supported prominent intellectuals scientists writers poets critics one remarkable prose writers first years liberation aleko konstantinov humorous travel writings ''bay ganyo'' ''to chicago back'' shrewd vivid best remembered character bay ganyo one controversial curious characters bulgarian literature diverse layers rich nuances similarly vejk czechs tartarin


tarascon french ostap bender russian peoples bay ganyo collective image many typical bulgarian features although ridiculed could never receive one sided positive negative evaluation interpretation writer killed accidentally career surge along petko todorov krastyo krastev peyo yavorov pencho slaveykov established modernist circle ''misal'' ''thought'' krastyo krastev respected literary critic erudite petko todorov one greatest stylists time person european education manners manages modernize


bulgarian drama also wrote series powerful impressionist stories based folklore motives titled ''idylls'' peyo yavorov considered symbolist poet one finest poetic talents ''fin de si cle'' kingdom bulgaria poems yavorov diverse topics always strong impact emotional intellectual diverse original forms rich refined language largely introspective express loneliness modern man impossibility reach happiness love life constant threat presentiment death focus also


describing historical mythological visionary subjects decadent emotional nuances influence french russian symbolist movements popular bulgarian poets quite large number contributed fast paced literary development country first decades th century among dimcho debelyanov teodor trayanov nikolay liliev emanuil popdimitrov dimitar boyadjiev many others symbolism turned one influential movements felt poetry come throughout th century bulgaria remains close european


one effort overcome reality burden monotony heaviness quest meaning foundation different dimension reality outer high spiritual mystic unknown unintelligible one new dreamlike reality closer beauty harmony answer looked images purity beauty language bulgarian literature world wars dimcho debelyanov poet whose death first world war cut promising literary career body work collected friends following death


became popular post war bulgaria hristo smirnenski another talented symbolist poet extremely melodious language whose early death could mourned interwar period bulgarian literature remembered dramatic social changes also reforms literary genres great part associated figure activity geo milev published modernist magazine ''vezni'' ''scale'' sofia contributing poet translator theatre reviewer director editor anthologies even painter experienced influence


avant garde movements like german expressionism french surrealism skillful poems ''the cruel ring'' ''the icons sleep'' ''september'' prose pieces ''a little expressionist calendar year'' combine traditional motives modern ideas experimental language killed age although career span years greatly respected regarded many one influential modernist poets translators geo milev bulgarian poetry reach new peak another prematurely killed poet nikola vaptsarov managed


fondness traditions myths elin pelin light hearted witty latter also famous writer children literature used vivid elaborate language images remarkable writer historical novels fani popova mutafova reaches peak popularity second world war despite talent suffers repressions communist regime another figure hardly forgotten period humorous writer drawer chudomir whose short stories often longer pages brilliant style originality


unique finesse writings remain widely admired bulgarian literature second world war bulgarian literature fell control communist party particularly early years required conform style called socialist realism dimitar dimov forced revise best selling novel ''tobacco'' adapted cinema film ''tobacco'' make acceptable viewpoint socialist realism adding communists working class characters storylines writer dimitar talev also prevented time communist regime publish


novels similarly many intellectuals exiled province continued write best known work ''the iron candlestick'' dimov talev also renowned story tellers many story collections along novels time even early communists came power development careers showed ideological restrictions writers face future anton donchev yordan radichkov emiliyan stanev stanislav stratiev nikolay haytov ivailo petrov vera mutafchieva among talented respected writers managed publish


allowed published even read nevertheless postwar period plenteous still feeble modern bulgarian poetry political changes thousands poetry collections published poets stable respect time atanas dalchev valeri petrov dalchev also remembered one finest translators wide range languages general tendencies noticed poetry becomes intimate confessional requires invention order influence provoke


nevertheless sometimes originality turns end free verse allowed higher intensity language diversity forms abstractness increased started affecting balance philosophical depth clearness search lyricism sometimes evident meaning poems collapse eastern bloc followed considerable increase private publications literary awards well complicated distribution consequent devaluation writer social status altogether strident lack national consensus insufficient historical distance yet factors


make impossible distinguish famous influential younger voices generally considered better established poets previous generation maintained popularity scarcely reaches outside national borders include konstantin pavlov boris hristov ekaterina yosifova dobromir tonev edvin sugarev ani ilkov georgi gospodinov iana boukova kristin dimitrova references references external links http wwwslovobg f en virtual library bulgarian literature slovoto https poetrytranslatedwordpresscom english translations bulgarian poetry


world map illustrating cultural areas '''cultural geography''' subfield within human geography though first traces study different nations cultures earth dated back ancient geographers ptolemy strabo cultural geography academic study firstly emerged alternative environmental determinist theories early th century believed people societies controlled environment develop ref name peetrichard peet richard modern geographical thought blackwell ref rather studying pre determined regions based upon environmental classifications cultural geography became interested cultural landscapes ref name peetrichard

Social science
Geography
Human geography
Cultural geography


disciplines including anthropology sociology literary theory feminism single definition culture dominates within cultural geography regardless particular interpretation culture however geographers wholeheartedly reject theories treat culture took place head pin overview topics within field study globalization theorised explanation cultural convergence geography studies geography culture theories cultural hegemony cultural assimilation via cultural imperialism cultural areal differentiation study differences way life encompassing ideas attitudes languages practices institutions


structures power whole range cultural practices geographical areas study cultural landscapes cultural ecology topics include sense place colonialism post colonialism internationalism immigration emigration ecotourism history charles booth th century produced series books ''life labour people london'' various maps highlighting poverty city though first traces study different nations cultures earth dated back ancient geographers ptolemy strabo cultural geography academic study firstly emerged alternative environmental


determinist theories early twentieth century believed people societies controlled environment develop ref name peetrichard rather studying pre determined regions based upon environmental classifications cultural geography became interested cultural landscapes ref name peetrichard led carl sauer called father cultural geography university california berkeley result cultural geography long dominated american writers sauer defined landscape defining unit geographic study saw cultures societies developed landscape also shaped ref name sauer


interaction natural landscape humans creates cultural landscape ref name sauer sauer 's work highly qualitative descriptive challenged regional geography richard hartshorne hartshorne called systematic analysis elements varied place place project taken quantitative revolution cultural geography sidelined positivist tendencies effort make geography hard science although writers david lowenthal continued write subjective qualitative aspects landscape new kind critique positivism


geography directly challenged deterministic abstract ideas quantitative geography revitalized cultural geography manifested engagement geographers yi fu tuan edward relph anne buttimer humanism phenomenology hermeneutics break initiated strong trend human geography toward post positivism developed label new cultural geography deriving methods systematic social cultural critique critical geography ongoing evolution cultural geography cultural map world based work political scientists ronald inglehart christian welzel regional map gamelan kulintang piphat music culture


southeast asia since new cultural geography emerged drawing diverse set theoretical traditions including marxist political economic models feminist theory post colonial theory post structuralism psychoanalysis drawing particularly theories michel foucault performativity western academia diverse influences postcolonial theory concerted effort deconstruct cultural order reveal power relations fundamental spatial processes sense place particular areas interest identity politics organized space construction subjectivity particular places examples


areas study include feminist geography children 's geographies parts tourism geography behavioral geography sexuality space recent developments political geography music geography within ''new cultural geography'' turned attention critiquing ideas seeing views identity space static followed critiques foucault made 'poststructuralist' theorists michel de certeau gilles deleuze area non representational geography population mobility research dominated others attempted incorporate critiques back new cultural geography groups within


geography community differing views role culture analyze context geography commonly thought physical geography simply dictates aspects culture shelter clothing cuisine however systematic development idea generally discredited environmental determinism geographers likely understand culture set symbolic resources help people make sense world around well manifestation power relations various groups structure social change constrained enabled


many ways look culture means light various geographical insights general geographers study cultural processes involve spatial patterns processes requiring existence maintenance particular kinds places journals academic peer reviewed journals primarily focused cultural geography contain articles contribute area '' http wwwtandfonlinecom toc rjcg current journal cultural geography '' '' http onlinelibrarywileycom journal issn antipode '' '' http onlinelibrarywileycom journal issn area '' '' http wwwsagepubcom journalsproddescnavprodid journal cultural geographies '' '' http wwwenvplancom dhtml society space environment planning '' '' https webarchiveorg web http geography compasscom cultural geography compass cultural geography section '' '' http wwwtandfonlinecom toc rscg current u qvbpldvnk social cultural geography '' '' http onlinelibrarywileycom journal issn transactions institute british geographers '' learned


age western asia occurred bce bronze became widespread term bronze age used describe period followed stone age well describe cultures developed techniques technologies working copper alloys bronze originally copper arsenic later copper tin tools supplanting stone many uses stone age artifacts discovered include tools used modern humans predecessor species genus ''homo'' possibly earlier partly contemporaneous genera ''australopithecus'' ''paranthropus'' bone tools discovered

Humanities
History
Ancient history
The Stone Age


used period well rarely preserved archaeological record stone age subdivided types stone tools use stone age first period three age system frequently used archaeology divide timeline human technological prehistory functional periods next two bronze age iron age respectively historical significance modern awash river ethiopia descendant palaeo awash source sediments oldest stone age tools found stone age contemporaneous evolution


genus ''homo'' possible exception early stone age species prior ''homo'' may manufactured tools according age location current evidence cradle genus east african rift system especially toward north ethiopia bordered grasslands closest relative among living primates genus ''pan'' represents branch continued deep forest primates evolved rift served conduit movement southern africa also north nile north africa


stone tool use fossilised animal bones tool marks million years old found lower awash valley ethiopia ref name nhmacuk archaeological discoveries kenya identifying may oldest evidence hominin use tools known date indicated ''kenyanthropus platyops'' million year old pliocene hominin fossil discovered lake turkana kenya may earliest tool users known oldest stone tools excavated site lomekwi west turkana northwestern kenya date million years old ref name harmand


pleistocene excavators locality point species made pliocene tools remains unknown fragments ''australopithecus garhi'' ''australopithecus aethiopicus'' ''homo'' possibly ''homo habilis'' found sites near age gona tools july scientists reported discovery china known oldest stone tools outside africa estimated nbsp million years old ref name nyt cz ref end stone age innovation technique smelting ore regarded ending stone age beginning bronze age first highly significant metal manufactured bronze alloy copper


tin arsenic smelted separately transition stone age bronze age period modern people could smelt copper yet manufacture bronze time known copper age technically chalcolithic eneolithic meaning 'copper stone' chalcolithic convention initial period bronze age bronze age followed iron age transition stone age occurred nbsp bce much humanity living north africa eurasia first evidence human


metallurgy dates th th millennia nbsp bce archaeological sites majdanpek yarmovac plo nik modern day serbia including copper axe nbsp bce belonging vinca culture though conventionally considered part chalcolithic provides earliest known example copper metallurgy note rudna glava mine serbia tzi iceman mummy bce carried copper axe flint knife regions sub saharan africa stone age followed directly iron age middle east southeast asian regions progressed


past stone age technology around nbsp bce europe rest asia became post stone age societies nbsp bce proto inca cultures south america continued stone age level around nbsp bce gold copper silver made entrance peoples americas notably develop widespread behavior smelting bronze iron stone age period although technology existed stone tool manufacture continued even stone age ended given area europe north america millstones use well th century still


many parts world concept stone age terms stone age bronze age iron age intended suggest advancements time periods prehistory measured type tool material rather example social organization food sources exploited adaptation climate adoption agriculture cooking settlement religion like pottery typology stone tools combined relative sequence types various regions provide chronological framework evolution humanity society serve diagnostics date rather characterizing people


society lithic analysis major specialised form archaeological investigation involves measurement stone tools determine typology function technologies involved includes scientific study lithic reduction raw materials methods used make prehistoric artifacts discovered much study takes place laboratory presence various specialists experimental archaeology researchers attempt create replica tools understand made flintknappers craftsmen use sharp tools reduce flintstone flint tool variety stone toolsin addition


lithic analysis field prehistorians utilize wide range techniques derived multiple fields work archaeologists determining paleocontext relative sequence layers supplemented efforts geologic specialists identifying layers rock developed deposited geologic time paleontological specialists identifying bones animals palynologists discovering identifying pollen spores plant species physicists chemists laboratories determining ages materials carbon potassium argon methods study stone age never limited stone tools archaeology even though


important forms evidence chief focus study always society living people belonged useful concept stone age limitations date range period ambiguous disputed variable depending upon region question possible speak general 'stone age' period whole humanity groups never developed metal smelting technology remained called 'stone age' encountered technologically developed cultures term innovated describe archaeological


cultures europe may always best relation regions parts indies oceania farmers hunter gatherers used stone tools european colonisation began archaeologists late th early th centuries ce adapted three age system ideas hoped combine cultural anthropology archaeology way specific contemporaneous tribe used illustrate way life beliefs people exercising particular stone age technology description people living today term ' 'stone age''


validity africa outside nile valley blockquote consequently proposed new system africa three stage system clark regarded three age system valid north africa sub saharan africa three stage system best practice failure african archaeologists either keep distinction mind explain one mean contributes considerable equivocation already present literature effect two stone ages one part three age constituting three stage refer one artifacts technologies vary


locality time three stage system proposed astley john hilary goodwin professional archaeologist clarence van riet lowe civil engineer amateur archaeologist article titled stone age cultures south africa journal ''annals south african museum'' dates early stone age paleolithic late stone age neolithic ''neo'' new fairly solid regarded goodwin absolute therefore proposed relative chronology periods floating dates called earlier later stone age middle


stone age would change name would mean mesolithic duo thus reinvented stone age sub saharan africa however iron working technologies either invented independently came across sahara north see ''iron metallurgy africa'' neolithic characterized primarily herding societies rather large agricultural societies although copper metallurgy africa well bronze smelting archaeologists currently recognize separate copper age bronze age moreover technologies included 'stages' goodwin called exactly since


original relative terms become identified technologies paleolithic mesolithic longer relative moreover tendency drop comparative degree favor positive resulting two sets early middle late stone ages quite different content chronologies voluntary agreement archaeologists respect decisions pan african congress prehistory meets every four years resolve archaeological business brought delegates actually international organization takes name topic louis leakey hosted first one nairobi


nature boundary distinct boundary population suddenly stopped using customs characteristic suddenly started using b unlikely scenario process evolution realistically distinct border period b transition existed customs gradually dropped b acquired transitions exist proof continuity b stone age europe characteristically deficit known transitions th early th century innovators modern


three age system recognized problem initial transition gap paleolithic neolithic louis leakey provided something answer proving man evolved africa stone age must begun carried repeatedly europe migrant populations different phases stone age thus could appear without transitions burden african archaeologists became greater must find missing transitions africa problem difficult ongoing adoption first pan african congress three stage chronology


amended third congress include first intermediate period early middle encompass fauresmith sangoan technologies second intermediate period middle later encompass magosian technology others chronologic basis definition entirely relative arrival scientific means finding absolute chronology two intermediates turned wisps fact middle lower paleolithic fauresmith considered facies acheulean sangoan facies lupemban magosian artificial mix two different


periods seriously questioned intermediates wait next pan african congress two years hence officially rejected advisory basis burg wartenstein conference ''systematic investigation african later tertiary quaternary'' conference anthropology held wenner gren foundation burg wartenstein castle owned austria attended scholars attended pan african congress including louis leakey mary leakey delivering pilot presentation typological analysis early stone age tools included


contribution ''olduvai gorge'' excavations beds ii however although intermediate periods gone search transitions continued chronology time series plot temperature previous million years jens jacob worsaae first proposed division stone age older younger parts based work danish kitchen middens began subsequent decades simple distinction developed archaeological periods today major subdivisions three age stone age cross two epoch boundaries geologic time scale geologic pliocene pleistocene


extending million years ago first documented use stone tools hominans ''homo habilis'' end pleistocene around nbsp bce ref name thoth schick paleolithic era ended mesolithic areas early neolithisation epipaleolithic lower paleolithic sites dating lower paleolithic period years ago simple pebble tools found association remains may earliest human ancestors somewhat sophisticated lower paleolithic tradition known chopper chopping tool industry widely distributed


eastern hemisphere tradition thought work hominin species named homo erectus although fossil tools yet found believed h erectus probably made tools wood bone well stone years ago new lower paleolithic tool hand ax appeared earliest european hand axes assigned abbevillian industry developed northern france valley somme river later refined hand axe tradition seen acheulian industry evidence found


oldowan stone tool western sahara oldowan africa earliest documented stone tools found eastern africa manufacturers unknown million year old site lomekwi kenya ref name harmand better known later tools belonging industry known oldowan type site olduvai gorge tanzania tools formed knocking pieces river pebble stones like hammerstone obtain large small pieces one sharp edges original stone called core


resultant pieces flakes typically necessarily small pieces detached larger piece case larger piece may called core smaller pieces flakes prevalent usage however call results flakes confusing split half called bipolar flaking consequently method often called core flake recently tradition called small flake since flakes small compared subsequent acheulean tools blockquote essence oldowan making often immediate use small flakes blockquote another naming scheme pebble


core technology pbc blockquote pebble cores artifacts shaped varying amounts hard hammer percussion blockquote various refinements shape called choppers discoids polyhedrons subspheroid etc date reasons variants ascertained ref name shea ref blockquote functional standpoint pebble cores seem designed specific purpose blockquote however would manufactured purpose ref name shea blockquote pebble cores useful many cutting scraping chopping tasks particularly efficient tasks sharp edged rock blockquote whole point utility


butchering plant residues bonded silicon tools confirm use chop plants ref name barham ref although exact species authoring tools remains unknown mode tools africa manufactured used predominantly ''homo habilis'' cannot said developed tools contributed tradition technology continued tradition yet unknown origin chimpanzees sometimes naturally use percussion extract prepare food wild may use either unmodified stones stones split creating oldowan tool tradition may well


far older current record towards end oldowan africa new species appeared range ''homo habilis'' ''homo erectus'' earliest unambiguous evidence whole cranium knm er find identifier koobi fora kenya dated mya ref name b ref early skull fragment knm er dated mya considered good candidate also ref name b ref transitions paleoanthropology always hard find impossible based long legged limb morphology shared ''h habilis'' ''h rudolfensis'' east africa evolution one


two suggested ref name b ref immediate cause new adjustments appears increasing aridity region consequent contraction parkland savanna interspersed trees groves favor open grassland dated mya transitional period percentage grazers among fossil species increased dispersing food supply requiring facility among hunters travel longer distances comfortably ''h erectus'' obviously ultimate proof dispersal ''h erectus'' across much africa asia substantially development


mode technology use fire ref name b ''h erectus'' carried mode tools eurasia according current evidence may change time mode tools documented mya mya africa mya outside genus homo known ''h habilis'' ''h rudolfensis'' mya latest habilis upper jaw koobi fora kenya mya ''h erectus'' dated mya according chronology mode inherited ''homo'' unknown


hominans probably ''australopithecus'' ''paranthropus'' must continued mode mode extinction later mya meanwhile living contemporaneously regions ''h habilis'' inherited tools around mya mya ''h erectus'' came stage lived contemporaneously others mode shared number hominans ranges presumably subsisting different niches archaeology precise enough say oldowan africa tools oldowan tradition first came archaeological attention


europe intrusive well defined compared acheulean puzzling archaeologists mystery would elucidated african archaeology olduvai meanwhile early th century term pre acheulean came use climatology cep brooks british climatologist working united states used term describe chalky boulder clay underlying layer gravel hoxne central england acheulean tools found whether tools would found type known hugo obermaier contemporary german archaeologist working spain


quipped blockquote unfortunately stage human industry corresponds deposits cannot positively identified say pre acheulean blockquote uncertainty clarified subsequent excavations olduvai nevertheless term still use pre acheulean contexts mainly across eurasia yet unspecified uncertain understanding turn pebble tool ample associations mode ''h erectus'' eurasia ''h erectus'' nbsp mode associations scantier exist especially far east one strong piece evidence


prevents conclusion ''h erectus'' reached eurasia yiron israel mode tools found dating mya earlier known ''h erectus'' finds date correct either another hominan preceded ''h erectus'' africa earliest ''h erectus'' yet found initial appearance gona ethiopia mya pebble tools date mya sterkfontein member south africa mya el kherba algeria north africa manufacturers already left pebble tools yiron israel


mya riwat pakistan mya renzidong south china mya ref name shea ref identification fossil skull mojokerta pernung peninsula java dated mya ''h erectus'' suggests african finds earliest found africa fact erectus originate africa plains asia ref name b outcome issue waits substantial evidence erectus found also dmanisi georgia mya association pebble tools pebble tools found latest first


presence multiple hominans living contemporaneously near long periods accepted proved true moreover time previously assumed earliest culture arrived northern europe rest africa eurasia progressed middle upper palaeolithic across earth three time contemporaneous given region progression oldowan acheulean lower upper doubt acheulean africa acheulean tool worked entire surface end oldowan africa brought appearance acheulean


mode stone tools earliest known instances mya layer kokiselei west turkana kenya ref name b sterkfontein south africa member west mya ref name barham fairly certain fairly standard date mode often found association ''h erectus'' makes sense advanced tools innovated advanced hominan consequently typically given credit innovation mode tool biface consisting two concave surfaces intersecting form cutting edge


way around except case tools intended feature point work planning go manufacture mode tool manufacturer hits slab larger rock use blank large flakes struck blank worked bifaces hard hammer percussion anvil stone finally edge retouched small flakes hit bone wood soft hammer sharpen resharpen core either blank another flake blanks ported manufacturing supply places


nature provided suitable stone although mode tools easily distinguished mode close similarity oldowan acheulean lead confusion oldowan tools carefully prepared form regular edge one distinguishing criterion size flakes contrast oldowan small flake tradition acheulean large flake primary technological distinction remaining oldowan acheulean preference large flakes cm blanks making large cutting tools handaxes cleavers acheulean large cutting


tool lct become part standard terminology well ref name shea north africa presence mode remains mystery oldest finds thomas quarry morocco mya ref name shea archaeological attention however shifts jordan rift valley extension east african rift valley east bank jordan slowly sliding northward east africa thrust away africa evidence use nile valley deficit hominans could easily reached palaeo jordan river ethiopia along shores red sea


one side crossing would necessary likely theoretical unproven land bridge either gibraltar sicily meanwhile acheulean went africa past mya mark also past extinction ''h erectus'' last acheulean east africa olorgesailie kenya dated mya owner still ''h erectus'' ref name shea south africa acheulean elandsfontein mya associated saldanha man classified ''h heidelbergensis'' advanced yet modern descendant


likely ''h erectus'' thoman quarry hominans morocco similarly likely homo rhodesiensis evolutionary status ''h heidelbergensis'' acheulean africa mode first known africa 'ubeidiya israel site jordan river frequented long term hundreds thousands years homo shore variable level palaeo lake long since vanished geology created successive transgression regression lake resulting four cycles layers tools located first two cycles li limnic inferior


fi fluviatile inferior mostly fi cycles represent different ecologies therefore different cross sections fauna makes possible date appear faunal assemblages ferenta faunal unit italy known excavations selvella pieterfitta dated mya 'ubeidiya marks bones animal species found indicate manufacturers tools butchered kills large predators activity termed scavenging living floors process bones obtain marrow activities


cannot understood therefore even typical economic activity hominans interests selective primarily harvesting meat cervids estimated available without spoiling four days kill majority animals site palaearctic biogeographic origin however overlapped range african biogeographic origin biome mediterranean savanna animals passing simply overlap normal ranges hominans ''h erectus'' left several cranial fragments teeth undetermined


species may ''h ergaster'' tools classified lower acheulean developed oldowan latter disputed classification created mary leakey describe acheulean like tradition bed ii olduvai dated mya date tools therefore probably exceed mya often given date chronology definitely later kenya supports africa hypothesis acheulean hominans biface trihedral amar merdeg zagros foothill ilam national museum iran southwest asia


levant called acheulean extended slowly eastward arriving isampur india mya appear china korea mya indonesia discernible boundary marking furthest extent acheulean eastward mya called movius line proposer hallam l movius east side line small flake tradition continues tools additionally worked mode flaking sides athirampakkam chennai tamil nadu acheulean age started


mya also prior north india europe cause movius line remains speculative whether represents real change technology limitation archeology mya evidence available movius indicates prevalence acheulean example acheulean site bose china dated k mya authors chronologically later east asian acheulean remain unknown whether evolved region brought named boundary line mode mode west nevertheless mode


equally late europe far east earliest comes rock shelter estrecho de qu par spain dated greater mya teeth undetermined hominan found also last mode southern europe deposit fontana ranuccio near anagni italy dated mya generally linked ''homo cepranensis'' late variant ''h erectus'' fragment whose skull found ceprano nearby dated mya middle paleolithic period best known era


neanderthals lived europe near east c years ago technology mainly mousterian neanderthal physical characteristics found also ambiguous association recent ch telperronian archeological culture western europe several local industries like szeletian eastern europe eurasia evidence neanderthals africa australia americas neanderthals nursed elderly practised ritual burial indicating organised society earliest evidence mungo man settlement australia dates around years ago modern humans likely crossed asia island hopping evidence symbolic


behavior body ornamentation burial ambiguous middle paleolithic still subject debate bhimbetka rock shelters exhibit earliest traces human life india approximately years old upper paleolithic gwion gwion rock paintings found north west kimberley region western australia years ago europe upper paleolithic ends end pleistocene onset holocene era end last ice age modern humans spread across earth period known upper


paleolithic upper paleolithic marked relatively rapid succession often complex stone artifact technologies large increase creation art personal ornaments period kya evolved kya ch telperronian aurignacian gravettian solutrean magdalenian industries except ch telperronian associated anatomically modern humans authorship ch telperronian still subject much debate scholars date arrival humans australia years ago possible range years


environments epipaleolithic mesolithic period starting end last ice age years ago around years ago characterized rising sea levels need adapt changing environment find new food sources development mode microlith tools began response changes derived previous paleolithic tools hence term epipaleolithic intermediate paleolithic neolithic hence term mesolithic middle stone age used parts eurasia outside choice word depends exact circumstances


inclination archaeologists excavating site microliths used manufacture efficient composite tools resulting intensification hunting fishing increasing social activity development complex settlements lepenski vir domestication dog hunting companion probably dates period earliest known battle occurred mesolithic period site egypt known cemetery neolithic skara brae scotland europe 's complete neolithic village neolithic new stone age approximately characterized adoption agriculture shift


far east others due increased need harvest process plants ground stone polished stone artifacts became much widespread including tools grinding cutting chopping skara brae located orkney scotland one europe 's best examples neolithic village community contains stone beds shelves even indoor toilet linked stream first large scale constructions built including settlement towers walls eg jericho tell es sultan ceremonial sites eg stonehenge gantija temples gozo maltese archipelago oldest surviving free standing


parallel africa upper middle paleolithic however since radiocarbon dating shown middle stone age fact contemporaneous middle paleolithic early stone age therefore contemporaneous lower paleolithic happens include main technologies oldowan acheulean produced mode mode stone tools respectively distinct regional term warranted however location chronology sites exact typology middle stone age msa middle stone age period african prehistory early stone age


late stone age began around years ago ended around years ago considered equivalent european middle paleolithic associated anatomically modern almost modern ''homo sapiens'' early physical evidence comes omo herto ethiopia dated respectively c ka c ka later stone age lsa later stone age lsa sometimes also called '''late stone age''' refers period african prehistory beginnings roughly contemporaneous european upper paleolithic lasts historical times


includes cultures corresponding mesolithic neolithic regions material culture tools stone tools made variety stones example flint chert shaped ''chipped'' use cutting tools weapons basalt sandstone used ground stone tools quern stones wood bone shell antler deer materials widely used well recent part period sediments clay used make pottery agriculture developed certain animals domesticated well species non primates able use stone


tools sea otter breaks abalone shells primates use manufacture stone tools combination abilities marked apes men men generally hominans depend tool use survival key anatomical behavioral features required tool manufacture possessed hominans larger thumb ability hold means assortment grips food drink food sources palaeolithic hunter gatherers wild plants animals harvested environment liked animal organ meats including


livers kidneys brains large seeded legumes part human diet long agricultural revolution evident archaeobotanical finds mousterian layers kebara cave israel ref name doi jjas ref moreover recent evidence indicates humans processed consumed wild cereal grains far back years ago upper paleolithic ref name pmid ref near end wisconsin glaciation years ago mass extinction megafauna woolly mammoth occurred asia europe north america australia first holocene extinction event possibly forced modification


dietary habits humans age emergence agricultural practices plant based foods also became regular part diet number factors suggested extinction certainly hunting also deforestation climate change net effect fragment vast ranges required large animals extinguish piecemeal fragment shelter habitat around million years ago ''homo habilis'' believed constructed first man made structure east africa consisting simple arrangements stones hold branches trees position


similar stone circular arrangement believed around years old discovered terra amata near nice france concerns dating raised see terra amata several human habitats dating back stone age discovered around globe including tent like structure inside cave near grotte du lazaret nice france structure roof supported timber discovered dolni vestonice czech republic dates around bce walls made packed clay blocks stones many huts made mammoth bones found eastern


europe siberia people made huts expert mammoth hunters examples found along dniepr river valley ukraine including near chernihiv moravia czech republic southern poland animal hide tent dated around bce magdalenian discovered plateau parain france art prehistoric art visible artifacts prehistoric music inferred found instruments parietal art found rocks kind latter petroglyphs rock paintings art may may religious function ref name ranger ref


chauvet cave signs dots sometimes drawn rare human representations include handprints half human half animal figures cave chauvet ard che ' 'd partement'' france contains important cave paintings paleolithic era dating bce ref name netburn ref altamira cave paintings spain done bce show among others bisons hall bulls lascaux dordogne france dates bce rock painting bhimbetka india world heritage site meaning many paintings remains unknown may used seasonal


bow one hand fistful arrows file five men leads one band one figure high crowned hat scenes elsewhere men wear head dresses knee ornaments otherwise fight nude scenes depict dead wounded bristling arrows one reminded tzi iceman copper age mummy revealed alpine melting glacier collapsed loss blood due arrow wound back stone age rituals beliefs poulnabrone dolmen county clare ireland '''monte


built neolithic bronze age modern popular culture imaginative depiction stone age viktor vasnetsov image caveman commonly associated stone age example documentary series showing evolution humans stone age called ''walking cavemen'' last programme showed humans living caves idea human beings dinosaurs coexisted sometimes portrayed popular culture cartoons films computer games ''the flintstones'' ''one million years bc'' ''chuck rock'' notion hominids


stone age art megalith pleistocene prehistoric warfare timeline stone age notes references reading external links http humanoriginssiedu evidence human evolution timeline interactive human timeline interactive smithsonian national museum natural history august


specific approach often defined critical studies men approach largely developed anglophone countries early especially united kingdom centred around work jeff hearn david morgan colleagues ref name ref influence approach spread globally since inspired primarily range feminist perspectives including socialist radical places emphasis need research practice explicitly challenge men 's boys' sexism ref name although explores broad range men 's practices tends

Social science
Sociology
Gender studies
Men's studies


focus especially issues related sexuality men 's violences although originally largely rooted sociology since engaged broad range disciplines including social policy social work cultural studies gender studies education law recent years critical studies men research made particular use comparative transnational perspectives like men 's studies masculinity studies generally critical studies men critiqued failure adequately focus issue men 's relations children key site development men 's oppressive masculinity formations men 's


relations women men 's relations men two sites heavily researched comparison topics masculinity early men 's studies scholars studied social construction masculinity ref name ref australian sociologist raewyn connell best known connell introduced concept hegemonic masculinity describing practice legitimizes men 's dominant position society justifies subordination common male population women marginalized ways man pervasive across societies ref name ref results multiple masculinities ref name ref specifically hierarchy masculinities


men experience privilege men marginalized identities ref name concept attracted several criticisms see led connell reformulating areas hegemonic masculinity newer version looks power social dynamics found gender hierarchy geography masculinity local regional global levels social embodiment dynamics masculinity including complex interlayering multiple masculinities ref name connell emphasizes masculinity constantly evolving meaning curriculum research field always change ref name michael kimmel


american sociologist feminist specializing gender studies written manhood america according kimmel masculinity began defined reaffirmed around th century america involved proving one 's masculine worth well providing one 's family ref name ref thereby also affected political arena workplace family society large ref name ref kimmel posits imbibing masculinity happens young boys home school watching adults interact ref name kimmel described term 'toxic masculinity' male enacted cultural norms harmful men society encourages


negative behaviors related dominance aggression sexuality ref name eric anderson american sociologist sexologist specializing adolescent men 's gender sexualities researched written relationship hegemonic masculinity homophobia ref name ref according anderson 's empirical research found decreasing homophobia lead inclusive masculinity hegemonic masculinity limited men 's behavior fear perceived gay ref name kimmel describes theory inclusive masculinity theory cultural expectations cultural expectations boys men tough stoic aggressive unemotional harmful men 's development


let experience true range human emotions increased levels anger depression even result shortened life expectancy violence research violence major focus men 's studies research focuses men perpetrators victims violence well involve men boys anti violence work sexuality studying relation masculinity male sexual shame revealed greater endorsement traditionally masculine values associated increased sexual shame turn predictive depression


health men 's studies scholars studied aspects men 's health illness premature death coronary heart disease work care men 's studies notably concerned challenging gendered arrangements work care male breadwinner role policies increasingly targeting men fathers tool changing gender relations organizations american men 's studies association amsa traces roots organized field men 's studies early work scholars involved anti sexist organization called men 's studies task group mstg


national organization changing men nocm included martin acker shepherd bliss harry brod sam femiano martin fiebert michael messner however men 's studies classes also pre date nocm small number taught various colleges across united states throughout ref name conferences men masculinity conferences sparked creation newsletters journals ''men 's studies newsletter'' successor ''men 's studies review'' pertaining growing field men 's studies became prime resources interested field providing news bibliographies firsthand experiences following newsletters


journals came men 's studies press thus moving academic field masculinity studies books ref name ''see also'' ref nocm changed name national organization men sexism nomas mstg became men 's studies association msa msa explicitly pro feminist group felt constraining split away several years later form american men 's studies association amsa although nomas would let amsa become self governing entity led clashes ideologies two groups ref name journals


men masculinities field includes least eight focused journals ''culture society masculinities'' ''journal men 's studies'' ''masculinities social change'' ''masculinities journal identity culture'' ''men masculinities'' ''new male studies'' https wwwtandfonlinecom toc rnor current ''norma international journal masculinity studies'' ''psychology men masculinity'' feminist criticism field men 's studies received criticism due separative nature rest gender studies feminists view men 's studies taking away potential limited funding dedicated women 's studies ref name timothy laurie anna hickey moody insist atomisation masculinity


studies distinct gender studies feminist inquiry queer studies must understood provisional hazardous rather result absolute differences phenomena investigated expertise required feminists also argue many gender race studies created discuss oppression race genders experience since men primary oppressor men 's studies n't included within oppression studies risks leveling structure power granting men 's studies equal complementary place women 's studies ref name ref joyce e canaan christine griffin described


suspicions new men 's studies tnms saying coincidence tnms constructed present context source potential research publishing deals even jobs already well paid boys holding prestigious positions researchers transgender studies including jack halberstam also questioned relationship male biology gender identity within masculinity studies ref name men 's studies scholars responded explaining importance men 's studies harry brod american sociologist explains importance men 's studies prior study feminists looking


generalization men study focuses study masculinities male experiences specific varying social historical cultural formations ref name connell adds field masculinity studies may help identify men 's interest change see also gender studies masculism men feminism men 's liberation men 's movement men 's rights women 's studies reading brod harry ''the making masculinities new mens studies'' boston allen unwin inc connell rw ''masculinities'' nd ed berkeley calif university california press connell r w messerschmidt james w


hegemonic masculinity rethinking concept ''gender society'' ''' ''' kimmel michael ''the politics manhood profeminist men respond mythopoetic men 's movement mythopoetic leaders answer '' philadelphia temple university press messner michael ''politics masculinities men movements'' thousand oaks calif sage publications references


social science '''antipositivism''' also '''interpretivism''' '''negativism''' '''antinaturalism''' theoretical stance proposes social realm cannot studied scientific method investigation utilized within natural sciences investigation social realm requires different epistemology fundamental antipositivist epistemology belief concepts language researchers use research shape perceptions social world investigating defining ref name th canadian ref interpretivism anti positivism developed among researchers dissatisfied post positivism theories considered general ill suited reflect nuance

Social science
Sociology
Interpretive sociology


variability found human interaction values beliefs researchers cannot fully removed inquiry interpretivists believe research ''on'' human beings ''by'' human beings cannot yield objective results thus rather seeking objective perspective interpretivists look meaning subjective experiences individuals engaging social interaction many interpretivist researchers immerse social context studying seeking understand formulate theories community group individuals observing inside interpretivism inductive practice influenced philosophical frameworks hermeneutics phenomenology


symbolic interactionism interpretive methods used many fields social sciences including history sociology political science anthropology others history beginning giambattista vico early eighteenth century later montesquieu study natural history human history separate fields intellectual enquiry natural history human control whereas human history human creation antipositivism informed epistemological distinction natural world social realm natural world understood external characteristics whereas social realm understood externally


internally thus known early nineteenth century intellectuals led hegelians questioned prospect empirical social analysis karl marx died establishment formal social science nonetheless rejected sociological positivism auguste comte despite attempt establish historical materialist science society enhanced positivism mile durkheim served foundation modern academic sociology social research yet retained many mechanical elements predecessor hermeneuticians wilhelm dilthey theorized detail distinction natural social science 'geisteswissenschaft' whilst neo kantian philosophers heinrich rickert


maintained social realm abstract meanings symbolisms inconsistent scientific methods analysis edmund husserl meanwhile negated positivism rubric phenomenology turn twentieth century first wave german sociologists formally introduced ' 'verstehende'' interpretive sociological antipositivism proposing research concentrate human cultural norms values symbols social processes viewed resolutely subjective perspective antipositivist however one seeks relationships ahistorical invariant generalizable ref name classical statements ref pursued natural scientists interaction theory constructed concepts data always


fundamental social science subjection distinguishes physical science durkheim noted importance constructing concepts abstract eg collective consciousness social anomie order form workable categories experimentation weber georg simmel pioneered verstehen 'interpretative' approach toward social science systematic process outside observer attempts relate particular cultural group indigenous people terms point view work simmel particular sociology acquired possible character beyond positivist data collection grand deterministic systems


structural law relatively isolated sociological academy throughout lifetime simmel presented idiosyncratic analyses modernity reminiscent phenomenological existential writers comte durkheim paying particular concern forms possibilities social individuality sociology engaged neo kantian critique limits human perception antipositivism thus holds methodological unity sciences three goals positivism ' 'description control prediction'' incomplete since lack ''understanding'' science aims understanding causality control exerted succeeded sociology


knowledge would able control ignorant could lead social engineering perspective led controversy one draw line subjective objective research much less draw artificial line environment human organization see environmental sociology influenced study hermeneutics base concepts antipositivism expanded beyond scope social science fact phenomenology basic principles core simply put positivists see sociology science anti positivists frankfurt school antipositivist tradition continued


observation alone sociologist zygmunt bauman argued innate tendency express moral concern identify 's wants stifled modernity positivistic science dogmatic bureaucracy 'fit in' modernity 's approved classifications liable extinguished see also grounded theory holism humanistic sociology philosophy social science poststructuralism social action symbolic interactionism references philosophy science sociological theories history sociology philosophy social science politics science symbolic interactionism


'''critical theory''' approach social philosophy focuses reflective assessment critique society culture order reveal challenge power structures roots sociology literary criticism argues social problems stem social structures cultural assumptions individuals argues ideology principal obstacle human liberation critical theory first introduced considered form social science recently argued fall different category '''critical theory''' capitalized also refers specifically school thought

Social science
Sociology
Critical sociology


practiced frankfurt school theoreticians herbert marcuse theodor adorno walter benjamin erich fromm max horkheimer horkheimer described theory critical insofar seeks liberate human beings circumstances enslave although product modernism although many progenitors critical theory skeptical postmodernism critical theory one major components modern postmodern thought widely applied humanities social sciences today ref name ritzer george pg ritzer george ''sociological theory'' ''from modern postmodern social theory beyond '' mcgraw hill higher education new york


critical theory capitalized product several generations german philosophers social theorists frankfurt school broader sense philosophical approach seeks emancipation human beings actively works change society accordance human needs usually called critical theory without capitalization philosophical approaches within broader definition include feminism critical race theory forms postcolonialism ref name sep winter ref max horkheimer first defined critical theory essay traditional critical theory social theory oriented toward critiquing changing society whole contrast traditional


theory oriented toward understanding explaining wanting distinguish critical theory radical emancipatory form marxist philosophy horkheimer critiqued model science put forward logical positivism colleagues saw covert positivism authoritarianism orthodox marxism communism described theory ''critical'' insofar seeks liberate human beings circumstances enslave critical theory involves normative dimension either criticizing society terms general theory values norms ''oughts'' criticizing society terms


espoused values ie ''immanent critique'' ref name sep fall ref core concepts critical theory directed totality society historical specificity ie came configured specific point time improve understanding society integrating major social sciences including geography economics sociology history political science anthropology psychology postmodern critical theory another major product critical theory analyzes fragmentation cultural identities order challenge modernist era constructs metanarratives rationality universal truths politicizing social problems situating


causation kant contrast pushed employment ''a priori'' metaphysical claims requisite anything said knowable would established upon abstractions distinct perceivable phenomena marx explicitly developed notion ''critique'' ''critique ideology'' linking practice social revolution stated th section ''theses feuerbach'' philosophers interpreted world various ways point change adorno horkheimer one distinguishing characteristics critical theory theodor w adorno


max horkheimer elaborated ''dialectic enlightenment'' ambivalence ultimate source foundation social domination ambivalence gave rise pessimism new critical theory possibility human emancipation freedom ambivalence rooted historical circumstances work originally produced particularly rise nazism state capitalism culture industry entirely new forms social domination could adequately explained terms traditional marxist sociology adorno horkheimer state intervention economy effectively abolished


traditional tension marxism 's relations production material productive forces society market unconscious mechanism distribution goods replaced centralized planning contrary marx 's prediction ''preface contribution critique political economy'' shift lead era social revolution fascism totalitarianism critical theory left habermas 's words without anything reserve might appeal forces production enter baneful symbiosis relations production


supposed blow wide open longer dynamism upon critique could base hope adorno horkheimer posed problem account apparent persistence domination absence contradiction according traditional critical theory source domination habermas habermas proponent '''critical social theory''' raised epistemological discussion new level ''knowledge human interests'' identifying critical knowledge based principles differentiated either natural sciences


humanities orientation self reflection emancipation although unsatisfied adorno horkheimer 's thought ''dialectic enlightenment'' habermas shares view form instrumental rationality era modernity marks move away liberation enlightenment toward new form enslavement ref name outhwaite william pp habermas 's work critical theory transcended theoretical roots german idealism progressed closer american pragmatism habermas 's ideas relationship modernity rationalization sense strongly influenced max weber dissolved elements critical


theory derived hegelian german idealism though epistemology remains broadly marxist perhaps two influential ideas concepts public sphere communicative action latter arriving partly reaction new post structural called postmodern challenges discourse modernity habermas engaged regular correspondence richard rorty strong sense philosophical pragmatism may felt thought frequently traverses boundaries sociology philosophy modern critical theorists popular postmodern philosophers researchers focused understanding critiquing critical theory include axel honneth


rahel jaeggi honneth known works ''pathology reason'' ''the legacy critical theory'' attempts explain purpose critical theory modern context ref name auto ref jaeggi focuses original intent critical theory modern understanding argue created new foundation modern usage critical theory ref name auto honneth better known two established theory many use understand critical theory ''theory recognition'' theory asserts order someone responsible


identity must also recognized around without recognition peers society critical theory could occur like many others put stock critical theory jaeggi vocal capitalism 's cost society throughout many writings theories remained doubtful necessity use capitalism regard critical theory jaeggi 's interpretations critical theory seem work foundations habermas follow along lines honneth terms look economy theory 's lens


shares many honneth 's beliefs many works try defend criticism honneth received academia postmodern critical social theory focusing language symbolism communication social construction critical theory applied social sciences critique social construction postmodern society ref name agger ref modernist critical theory described concerns forms authority injustice accompanied evolution industrial corporate capitalism political economic system postmodern critical theory politicizes social problems situating historical cultural contexts implicate process


collecting analyzing data relativize findings ref name lindtaylor ref meaning seen unstable due social structures' rapid transformation result research focuses local manifestations rather broad generalizations postmodern critical research also characterized ''crisis representation'' rejects idea researcher 's work objective depiction stable instead many postmodern scholars adopted alternatives encourage reflection 'politics poetics' work accounts embodied collaborative dialogic improvisational aspects qualitative research clarified term ''critical theory''


often appropriated author works sociological terms yet attacks social human sciences thus attempting remain outside frames inquiry michel foucault described one author jean baudrillard also described critical theorist extent unconventional critical sociologist appropriation similarly casual holding little relation frankfurt school ref name kellner ref contrast habermas one key critics postmodernism ref name aylesworth ref communication studies onward language symbolism text meaning came seen


theoretical foundation humanities influence ludwig wittgenstein ferdinand de saussure george herbert mead noam chomsky hans georg gadamer roland barthes jacques derrida thinkers linguistic analytic philosophy structural linguistics symbolic interactionism hermeneutics semiology linguistically oriented psychoanalysis jacques lacan alfred lorenzer deconstruction habermas redefined ''critical social theory'' study communication communicative competence communicative rationality one hand distorted communication two versions critical theory began overlap much greater degree pedagogy critical theorists


widely credited paulo freire first applications critical theory education pedagogy considering best known work ''pedagogy oppressed'' seminal text known philosophy social movement ''critical pedagogy'' ref name auto ref dedicated oppressed based experience helping brazilian adults learn read write freire includes detailed marxist class analysis exploration relationship colonizer colonized book calls traditional pedagogy banking model education treats student empty


vessel filled knowledge argues pedagogy instead treat learner co creator knowledge contrast banking model teacher critical theory model dispenser knowledge participant learns students conversation even learn teacher goal liberate learner oppressive construct teacher versus student dichotomy analogous colonizer colonized enough student analyze societal power structures hierarchies merely recognize imbalance


inequity critical theory pedagogy must also empower learner reflect act reflection challenge oppressive status quo ref name auto ref name ko akowski see eg ko akowski leszek ''main currents marxism'' w w norton company ch ref criticism critical theorists often called marxist intellectuals tendency denounce marxist concepts combine marxian analysis sociological philosophical traditions resulted accusations revisionism orthodox marxist marxist leninist philosophers martin jay said first generation critical theory best understood promoting


specific philosophical agenda ideology gadfly systems ref name martin jay ref critical theory criticized offering clear road map political action praxis often explicitly repudiating solutions marcuse 's great refusal promoted abstaining engaging active political change see also outline critical theory critical philosophy information criticism marxist cultural analysis critical race theory lists list critical theorists list works critical theory journals ''constellations'' ''representations'' ''critical inquiry'' ''telos'' ''law critique'' references footnotes bibliography problematizing global knowledge ''theory culture


society'' calhoun craig ''critical social theory culture history challenge difference'' blackwell survey introduction current state critical social theory charmaz k positivism postmodernism implications methods ''studies symbolic interaction'' conquergood http wwwcsunedu vcspc g rethinkingethnogpdf rethinking ethnography towards critical cultural politics ''communication monographs'' corchia luca https booksgooglecom id u sag esoc ''la logica dei processi culturali j rgen habermas tra filosofia e sociologia'' genova edizioni ecig dahms harry ed ''no social science without critical theory'' ''current perspectives social theory'' emerald jai


gandler stefan ''fragmentos de frankfurt ensayos sobre la teor cr tica'' xico st century publishers universidad aut noma de quer taro geuss raymond ''the idea critical theory habermas frankfurt school'' cambridge university press honneth axel ''la soci du pris vers une nouvelle th orie critique'' la couverte horkheimer max ''critical theory selected essays'' new york continuum publishing lindlof r b c taylor ''qualitative communication research methods'' nd ed thousand oaks ca sage morgan marcia '' https philpapersorg rec morkac kierkegaard critical theory '' new york lexington books rolling james h https surfacesyredu cgi viewcontentcgiarticle context tl secular blasphemy


edizioni il campano arnus university books pages sim van loon b introducing critical theory graphic guide icon books ltd archival collections http wwwoaccdliborg findaid ark tf q nb guide critical theory offprint collection special collections archives uc irvine libraries irvine cali http wwwoaccdliborg findaid ark kt k guide critical theory institute audio video recordings university california irvine special collections archives uc irvine libraries irvine california http wwwoaccdliborg findaid ark kt x nf pd university california irvine critical theory institute manuscript materials special collections archives uc irvine libraries irvine california conflict theory continental philosophy humanities philosophical schools traditions


social psychology th ed pp san francisco mcgraw hill ref yet culture indeed act kind agent pressing problem field research culture label sometimes excuse merely metaphor really something influencing people behavior example gerd baumann argued culture real thing abstract purely analytical notion cause behavior denotes abstraction thus neither normative predictive heuristic means towards explaining people understand

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