'''aquaponics''' food production system couples aquaculture raising aquatic animals fish crayfish snails prawns tanks hydroponics cultivating plants water whereby nutrient rich aquaculture water fed hydroponically grown plants nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia nitrates existing hydroponic aquaculture farming techniques form basis aquaponic systems size complexity types foods grown aquaponic system vary much system found either distinct farming discipline ref name uvi ref history woodcut th century chinese agricultural manual ''wang zhen 's book


farming'' showing rice grown floating raft planter system lit framed paddy pond aquaponics ancient roots although debate first occurrence aztec cultivated agricultural islands known ''chinampas'' system considered early form aquaponics agricultural use ref name boutwelluc ref plants raised stationary sometime movable islands lake shallows waste materials dredged chinampa canals surrounding cities used manually irrigate plants ref name boutwelluc south china whole southeast asia rice cultivated


farmed paddy fields combination fish cited examples early aquaponics systems although technology brought chinese settlers migrated yunnan around ad polycultural farming systems existed many far eastern countries raised fish oriental loach swamp eel common carp crucian carp well pond snails paddies ref name mcmurtry ref th century chinese agricultural manual ''wang zhen 's book farming'' described floating wooden rafts piled mud dirt


alchemy institute mcmurtry 's iavs institutes soon followed suit starting dr james rakocy colleagues university virgin islands researched developed use deep water culture hydroponic grow beds large scale aquaponics system ref name uvi aquaponic systems first james e last rakocy publisher university virgin islands agricultural experiment station access date march archive url https webarchiveorg web http wwwuviedu sites uvi pages aes aquaculture aquaponic systemsaspx archive date march url status dead ref institutes focused research ebb flow systems also known flood drain partially based original ideas developed north carolina state university coarse media


gravel expanded clay replaced sand bell syphons allowed ebb flow irrigation cycle ref name uvi ref systems also known speraneo systems based ideas developed tom paula speraneo owners aquaponics farm missouri ref name speraneo ref first aquaponics research canada small system added onto existing aquaculture research research station lethbridge alberta canada saw rise aquaponics setups throughout ' predominantly commercial installations raising high value crops trout lettuce setup based deepwater system developed


university virgin islands built greenhouse brooks alberta dr nick savidov colleagues researched aquaponics background plant science team made findings rapid root growth aquaponics systems closing solid waste loop found owing certain advantages system traditional aquaculture system run well low ph level favored plants fish parts aquaponic system commercial aquaponics system electric pump moves nutrient rich water fish tank solids


filter remove particles plants cannot absorb water provides nutrients plants cleansed returning fish tank aquaponics consists two main parts aquaculture part raising aquatic animals hydroponics part growing plants ref name srac ref ref name ncat ref aquatic effluents resulting uneaten feed raising animals like fish accumulate water due closed system recirculation aquaculture systems effluent rich water becomes toxic aquatic animal high concentrations contains nutrients essential plant growth ref name srac although consisting primarily


two parts aquaponics systems usually grouped several components subsystems responsible effective removal solid wastes adding bases neutralize acids maintaining water oxygenation ref name srac typical components include ''rearing tank'' tanks raising feeding fish ''settling basin'' unit catching uneaten food detached biofilms settling fine particulates ''biofilter'' place nitrification bacteria grow convert ammonia nitrates usable plants ref name srac ''hydroponics subsystem'' portion system plants grown absorbing excess nutrients


water ''sump'' lowest point system water flows pumped back rearing tanks depending sophistication cost aquaponics system units solids removal biofiltration hydroponics subsystem may combined one unit subsystem ref name srac prevents water flowing directly aquaculture part system hydroponics part utilizing gravel sand plant supporting medium solids captured medium enough surface area fixed film nitrification ref name srac ability


combine biofiltration hydroponics allows aquaponic system many cases eliminate need expensive separate biofilter live components aquaponic system depends different live components work successfully three main live components plants fish aquatic creatures bacteria systems also include additional live components like worms plants deep water culture hydroponics system plant grow directly effluent rich water without soil medium plants spaced closer together roots need expand outwards support weight


plant plant placed nutrient rich water channel nutrient film technique nft systemmany plants suitable aquaponic systems though ones work specific system depends maturity stocking density fish factors influence concentration nutrients fish effluent much nutrients made available plant roots via bacteria green leaf vegetables low medium nutrient requirements well adapted aquaponic systems including chinese cabbage lettuce basil spinach chives herbs watercress ref name ncat ref name spinach seedlings days old


radishes strawberries melons onions turnips parsnips sweet potato cauliflower cabbage broccoli eggplant well choys used stir fries ref name fish aquatic creatures filtered water hydroponics system drains catfish tank circulation freshwater fish common aquatic animal raised using aquaponics due ability tolerate crowding although freshwater crayfish prawns also sometimes used ref name srac branch aquaponics using saltwater fish called saltwater aquaponics many species warmwater coldwater fish adapt well


aquaculture systems practice tilapia popular fish home commercial projects intended raise edible fish warmwater fish species tolerate crowding changing water conditions ref name ref barramundi silver perch eel tailed catfish tandanus catfish jade perch murray cod also used ref name ncat temperate climates n't ability desire maintain water temperature bluegill catfish suitable fish species home systems koi goldfish may also used fish system need edible suitable fish include


channel catfish rainbow trout perch common carp arctic char largemouth bass striped bass ref name bacteria nitrification aerobic conversion ammonia nitrates one important functions aquaponic system reduces toxicity water fish allows resulting nitrate compounds removed plants nourishment ref name srac ammonia steadily released water excreta gills fish product metabolism must filtered water since higher concentrations ammonia commonly


ppm impair growth cause widespread damage tissues decrease resistance disease even kill fish ref name ref although plants absorb ammonia water degree nitrates assimilated easily ref name ncat thereby efficiently reducing toxicity water fish ref name srac ammonia converted safer nitrogenous compounds combined healthy populations types bacteria ''nitrosomonas'' convert ammonia nitrites ''nitrobacter'' convert nitrites nitrates nitrite still harmful fish due ability create methemoglobin cannot bind oxygen


attaching hemoglobin nitrates able tolerated high levels fish ref name high surface area provides space growth nitrifying bacteria grow bed material choices require careful analysis surface area price maintainability considerations hydroponic subsystem plants grown hydroponics systems roots immersed nutrient rich effluent water enables filter ammonia toxic aquatic animals metabolites water passed hydroponic subsystem cleaned oxygenated return


aquaculture vessels cycle continuous common aquaponic applications hydroponic systems include ''deep water raft aquaponics'' styrofoam rafts floating relatively deep aquaculture basin troughs raft tanks constructed quite large enable seedlings transplanted one end tank fully grown plants harvested thus ensuring optimal floor space usage ref name nelson pade inc website aquaponicscom language en us access date url status live archive url https webarchiveorg web https aquaponicscom methods aquaponics archive date ref ''recirculating aquaponics'' solid media gravel clay beads held container flooded water aquaculture type aquaponics also known ''closed loop


aquaponics'' ''reciprocating aquaponics'' solid media container alternately flooded drained utilizing different types siphon drains type aquaponics also known ''flood drain aquaponics'' ''ebb flow aquaponics'' ''nutrient film technique channels '' plants grown lengthy narrow channels film nutrient filled water constantly flowing past plant roots due small amount water narrow channels helpful bacteria cannot live therefore bio filter required method ref name systems use towers trickle fed top horizontal pvc pipes holes


pots plastic barrels cut half gravel rafts approach benefits since plants different growth stages require different amounts minerals nutrients plant harvesting staggered seedlings growing time mature plants ensures stable nutrient content water continuous symbiotic cleansing toxins water biofilter aquaponics system bacteria responsible conversion ammonia usable nitrates plants form biofilm solid surfaces throughout system constant contact


water submerged roots vegetables combined large surface area many bacteria accumulate together concentrations ammonia nitrites water surface area determines speed nitrification takes place care bacterial colonies important regulate full assimilation ammonia nitrite aquaponics systems include biofiltering unit helps facilitate growth microorganisms typically system stabilized ammonia levels range ppm nitrite levels range ppm nitrate levels range


ppm system startup spikes may occur levels ammonia ppm nitrite ppm nitrate levels peaking later startup phase nitrification process ammonia oxidized nitrite releases hydrogen ions water overtime person 's ph slowly drop use non sodium bases potassium hydroxide calcium hydroxide neutralize water 's ph ref name srac insufficient quantities naturally present water provide buffer acidification addition selected minerals nutrients


viable alternative relieves concern alternatives include growing duckweed aquaponics system feeds fish grown system excess worms grown vermiculture composting using prepared kitchen scraps well growing black soldier fly larvae feed fish using composting grub growers ref name new york times ref plant nutrients like hydroponics minerals micronutrients added improve plant growth iron deficient nutrient aquaponics added mixing iron chelate powder water potassium added potassium sulfate foliar


spray less vital nutrients include magnesium epsom salt calcium calcium chloride boron biological filtration aquaculture wastes yield high nitrate concentrations great leafy greens flowering plants high nutrient demands recommended introduce supplemental nutrients magnesium calcium potassium phosphorus common sources sulfate potash potassium bicarbonate monoammonium phosphate etc nutrient deficiency wastewater fish component ras completely masked using raw mineralized sludge usually containing times higher nutrient concentrations ras effluents wastewater sludge combined contain adequate n p mg ca fe


zn cu ni meet aquaponic crop needs potassium generally deficient requiring full fledged fertilization micronutrients b mo partly sufficient easily ameliorated increasing sludge release presumption surrounding definite phyto toxic sodium levels ras effluents reconsidered practical solutions available threat heavy metal accumulation exists within aquaponics loop water usage aquaponic systems typically discharge exchange water normal operation instead recirculate reuse water effectively system relies relationship animals plants maintain stable aquatic environment


experience minimum fluctuation ambient nutrient oxygen levels plants able recover dissolved nutrients circulating water meaning less water discharged water exchange rate minimized water added replace water loss absorption transpiration plants evaporation air surface water overflow system rainfall removal biomass settled solid wastes system result aquaponics uses approximately water conventionally irrigated farm requires vegetable production allows


aquaponic production crops fish areas water fertile land scarce aquaponic systems also used replicate controlled wetland conditions constructed wetlands useful biofiltration treatment typical household sewage nutrient filled overflow water accumulated catchment tanks reused accelerate growth crops planted soil may pumped back aquaponic system top water level energy usage aquaponics system uses downwards movement water greenhouse light reduce energy consumption aquaponic installations rely varying degrees


make profit whilst also covering operating expenses hydroponic plant components fish rearing components need almost constantly maximum production capacity ref name srac keep bio mass fish system maximum without limiting fish growth main stocking method help maintain maximum ''sequential rearing '' multiple age groups fish share rearing tank age group reaches market size selectively harvested replaced amount fingerlings ref name srac downsides method include stressing entire pool


fish harvest missing fish resulting waste food space difficulty keeping accurate records frequent harvests ref name srac ''stock splitting '' large quantities fingerlings stocked split two groups tank hits maximum capacity easier record eliminates fish forgotten stress free way operation via swimways connect various rearing tanks series hatches moving screens pumps move fish around ref name srac ''multiple rearing units '' entire groups fish moved larger rearing tanks current


rearing tanks n't exceed lbs gallon order reduce stress crowding efficiently feed fish promote healthy growth ref name srac disease pest management although pesticides normally used take care insects crops aquaponic system use pesticides would threaten fish ecosystem hand fish acquire parasites diseases therapeutants cannot used plants would absorb ref name srac order maintain symbiotic relationship plants fish non chemical methods traps physical barriers biological


control parasitic wasps ladybugs control white flies aphids used control pests ref name srac effective organic pesticide neem oil small quantity minimize spill fish 's water commercialization aquaponics often stalled bottlenecks pest disease management use chemical control methods highly complicated systems insecticides herbicides replaceable well established commercial biocontrol measures fungicides nematicides still relevant aquaponics monitoring cultural control first approaches contain pest population biological controls general adaptable


larger extent non chemical prophylactic measures highly proficient pest disease prevention designs automation monitoring control many tried create automatic control monitoring systems demonstrated level success instance researchers able introduce automation small scale aquaponic system achieve cost effective sustainable farming system commercial development automation technologies also emerged instance company developed system capable automating repetitive tasks farming features machine learning algorithm automatically detect eliminate diseased


underdeveloped plants acre aquaponics facility claims first indoor salmon farm united states also includes automated technology aquaponic machine made notable strides documenting gathering information regarding aquaponics economic viability aquaponics offers diverse stable polyculture system allows farmers grow vegetables raise fish time two sources profit farmers continue earn money even market either fish plants goes low cycle ref name flexibility aquaponic system


allows grow large variety crops including ordinary vegetables herbs flowers aquatic plants cater broad spectrum consumers ref name herbs lettuce speciality greens basil spinach especially well suited aquaponic systems due low nutritional needs ref name growing number environmentally conscious consumers products aquaponic systems organic pesticide free whilst also leaving small environmental footprint ref name aquaponic systems additionally economically efficient due low water usage effective nutrient cycling needing little land operate ref name


many variables including system design seasonal weather local costs energy land factor profitability aquaponic businesses according study included aquaponic businesses united states average investment cost aquaponic businesses businesses reporting annual revenue two primary aquaponic systems single recirculating aquaponic systems sraps coupled systems double recirculating aquaponic systems draps decoupled systems primary difference draps system water aquaculture fish system


maintaining aquaculture cheaper use extra fertilizer hydroponics non system based barriers economic success aquaponic systems could include systems require high degree knowledge multiple disciplines lack financing opportunities aquaponics fact general public understand aquaponics aquaponics business may require additional branding strategies compared hydroponics technology relatively well known point united states current examples europe urban farming company organization based switzerland created


offer method rooftop based aquaponic growing systems businesses purpose offer fresh sustainable produce local urban areas march european aquaponics association established among european countries opened organization european countries continue aquaponic research implementation aquaponic practices ecoponics aquaponics company based iceland joining similar companies iceland denmark spain advocate implementation commercial competitive aquaponics systems european countries caribbean island barbados created initiative start aquaponics systems


organic produce fish people living adverse climatic conditions salinity prone southern area flood prone haor area eastern region salam 's work innovates form subsistence farming micro production goals community personal levels whereas design work chowdhury graff aimed exclusively commercial level latter two approaches take advantage economies scale third palestinian agricultural lands gaza strip turned buffer zone israel aquaponic gardening system developed appropriate use rooftops


gaza city malaysia alor gajah melaka organization persatuan akuakutur malaysia takes innovative approach aquaponics growing lobster aquaponics aquaponics india aims provide aspiring farmers aquaponics solutions commercial backyard operation north america dakota college bottineau bottineau north dakota aquaponics program gives students ability obtain certificate aas degree aquaponics smith road facility denver started pilot program aquaponics feed inmates denver jail neighboring downtown facility consists inmates


generate pounds greens pounds fish year shift towards community integration aquaponics nonprofit foundation growing power offers milwaukee youth job opportunities training growing food community model spawned several satellite projects cities new orleans vietnamese fisherman community suffered deepwater horizon oil spill south bronx new york city whispering roots non profit organization omaha nebraska provides fresh locally grown healthy food socially


economically disadvantaged communities using aquaponics hydroponics urban farming recently aquaponics moving towards indoor production systems cities like chicago entrepreneurs utilizing vertical designs grow food year round systems used grow food year round minimal waste caribbean fusion farms mayag ez puerto rico first hurricane protected vertical farming operation using controlled environment aquaponics ceaq designated government puerto rico 'company strategic importance' due contribution making help island solve food security food sovereignty


miscellaneous addition aquaponic gardeners around world gathering online community sites forums share experiences promote development form gardening well creating extensive resources build home systems various modular systems made public utilize aquaponic systems produce organic vegetables herbs provide indoor decor time systems serve source herbs vegetables indoors universities promoting research modular systems get popular among city dwellers see also


hydroponics vertical farming references external links aquaculture hydroculture hydroponics


illustration systems approach biology '''systems biology''' computational mathematical analysis modeling complex biological systems biology based interdisciplinary field study focuses complex interactions within biological systems using holistic approach holism instead traditional reductionism biological research ref name tavassoly ref particularly year onwards concept used widely biology variety contexts human genome project example applied systems thinking biology led new collaborative ways working problems


biological field genetics one aims systems biology model discover emergent properties properties cells tissues organisms functioning system whose theoretical description possible using techniques systems biology ref name tavassoly typically involve metabolic networks cell signaling networks ref name tavassoly ref name pmid ref overview systems biology considered number different aspects field study particularly study interactions components biological systems interactions give rise function behavior system example


enzymes metabolites metabolic pathway heart beats ref name snoep ref name stcentury ref name noble paradigm systems biology usually defined antithesis called reductionist paradigm biological organisation although consistent scientific method distinction two paradigms referred quotations reductionist approach successfully identified components many interactions unfortunately offers convincing concepts methods understand system properties emerge nbsp pluralism causes effects biological networks better addressed observing quantitative


measures multiple components simultaneously rigorous data integration mathematical models sauer ''et al'' ref name sauer systems biology nbsp putting together rather taking apart integration rather reduction requires develop ways thinking integration rigorous reductionist programmes different nbsp means changing philosophy full sense term denis noble ref name noble series operational protocols used performing research namely cycle composed theory analytic computational modelling propose specific testable hypotheses biological system experimental validation


using newly acquired quantitative description cells cell processes refine computational model theory ref name kholodenko since objective model interactions system experimental techniques suit systems biology system wide attempt complete possible therefore transcriptomics metabolomics proteomics high throughput techniques used collect quantitative data construction validation models ref name romualdi application dynamical systems theory molecular biology indeed focus dynamics studied systems main conceptual difference


systems biology bioinformatics ref name voit ref socioscientific phenomenon defined strategy pursuing integration complex data interactions biological systems diverse experimental sources using interdisciplinary tools personnel history systems biology begun new field science around institute systems biology established seattle effort lure computational type people felt attracted academic settings university institute clear definition field actually roughly bringing together people


diverse fields use computers holistically study biology new ways ref name careers department systems biology harvard medical school launched predicted buzz generated fashionable new concept would cause major universities need systems biology department thus would careers available graduates modicum ability computer programming biology ref name careers national science foundation put forward challenge build mathematical model whole cell first


whole cell model ''mycoplasma genitalium'' achieved karr laboratory mount sinai school medicine new york whole cell model able predict viability ''m genitalium'' cells response genetic mutations earlier precursor systems biology distinct discipline may systems theorist mihajlo mesarovic international symposium case institute technology cleveland ohio titled ''systems theory biology'' mesarovic predicted perhaps future would thing systems biology ref name mesarovic ref name science according robert rosen


holistic biology become pass early th century empirical science dominated molecular chemistry become popular ref name science echoing forty years later kling writes success molecular biology throughout th century suppressed holistic computational methods ref name careers national institutes health made grant money available support ten systems biology centers united states hunter writes systems biology lived hype promised achieved caused


identification techniques advanced hplc systems coupled mass spectrometry sub disciplines include phosphoproteomics glycoproteomics methods detect chemically modified proteins glycomics organismal tissue cell level measurements carbohydrates lipidomics organismal tissue cell level measurements lipids molecular interactions within cell also studied called interactomics discipline field study protein protein interactions although interactomics includes interactions molecules neuroelectrodynamics computer 's brain 's computing function dynamic system studied along bio physical mechanisms fluxomics measurements rates metabolic reactions


biological system cell tissue organism ref name approaching systems biology problem two main approaches top bottom approach top approach takes much system account possible relies largely experimental results rna seq technique example experimental top approach conversely bottom approach used create detailed models also incorporating experimental data example bottom approach use circuit models describe simple gene network various technologies utilized


lines mouse models tumorigenesis xenograft models high throughput sequencing methods sirna based gene knocking high throughput screenings computational modeling consequences somatic mutations genome instability ref name barillot ref long term objective systems biology cancer ability better diagnose cancer classify better predict outcome suggested treatment basis personalized cancer medicine virtual cancer patient distant prospective significant efforts computational systems biology cancer made creating realistic multi scale ''in silico'' models various tumours ref name byrne ref systems biology approach often involves


development mechanistic models reconstruction dynamic systems quantitative properties elementary building blocks ref name dibernardo ref name dibernardo ref name dynamicmodel instance cellular network modelled mathematically using methods coming chemical kinetics ref name ref control theory due large number parameters variables constraints cellular networks numerical computational techniques often used eg flux balance analysis ref name dynamicmodel ref ref name bioinformatics data analysis aspects computer science informatics statistics also used systems biology include new forms computational models


use process calculi model biological processes notable approaches include stochastic calculus bioambients beta binders biopepa brane calculus constraint based modeling integration information literature using techniques information extraction text mining development online databases repositories sharing data models approaches database integration software interoperability via loose coupling software websites databases commercial suits network based approaches analyzing high dimensional genomic data sets example weighted correlation network analysis often used identifying clusters referred modules modeling relationship clusters calculating fuzzy


interactions proteins mass action kinetics utilized describe speed reactions system mass action kinetics provide differential equations model biological system mathematical model experiments determine parameter values use differential equations parameter values reaction rates proteins interaction system model determines behavior certain proteins biological systems bring new insight specific activities individual proteins sometimes possible gather reaction rates


system unknown reaction rates determined simulating model known parameters target behavior provides possible parameter values ref name use constraint based reconstruction analysis cobra methods become popular among systems biologists simulate predict metabolic phenotypes using genome scale models one methods flux balance analysis fba approach one study biochemical networks analyze flow metabolites particular metabolic network maximizing object interest plot concentrations vs time simple three protein negative feedback loop parameters


set either initial conditions reaction allowed proceed hits equilibrium plot change protein time see also biological computation biosystems journal computational biology exposome interactome list omics topics biology metabolic network modelling modelling biological systems molecular pathological epidemiology network biology network medicine synthetic biology systems biomedicine systems immunology systems medicine living systems references ref name snoep ref ref name stcentury ref zeng bj concept systems biological engineering nov communication transgenic animals cas china ref name sauer ref ref name noble ref ref


name kholodenko ref ref name romualdi ref ref name mesarovic ref ref name science ref ref name careers ref ref name dibernardo ref ref name dibernardo ref ref name hunter ref reading provides comparative review three books external links http wwwbio physicsat wiki indexphptitle biological systems biological systems bio physics wiki bioinformatics computational fields study


'''cross cultural studies''' sometimes called '''holocultural studies''' '''comparative studies''' specialization anthropology sister sciences sociology psychology economics political science uses field data many societies examine scope human behavior test hypotheses human behavior culture ref name ref cross cultural studies third form cross cultural comparisons first comparison case studies second controlled comparison among variants common derivation third comparison within sample cases unlike comparative studies examines similar characteristics societies cross cultural studies uses sufficiently large

Social science
Sociology
Cultural studies
Cross-cultural studies


sample statistical analysis made show relationships lack relationships traits question studies surveys ethnographic data cross cultural studies applied widely social sciences particularly cultural anthropology psychology history first cross cultural studies carried th century anthropologists edward burnett tylor lewis h morgan one edward tylor 's first studies gave rise central statistical issue cross cultural studies galton 's problem recent decades historians particularly historians science started looking mechanism networks knowledge


ideas skills instruments books moved across cultures generating new fresh concepts concerning order things nature ''cross cultural scientific exchanges eastern mediterranean '' avner ben zaken argued cross cultural exchanges take place cultural hazy locus margins one culture overlaps creating mutually embraced zone exchanges take place mundane ways stimulating zone ideas styles instruments practices move onward cultural centers urging renew update cultural notions modern era cross cultural studies modern era cross cultural studies began


george murdock murdock set number foundational data sets including human relations area files ''ethnographic atlas'' together douglas r white developed widely used standard cross cultural sample currently maintained open access electronic journal world cultures hofstede 's cultural dimensions theory framework cross cultural communication developed geert hofstede describes effects society 's culture values members values relate behavior using structure derived factor analysis original theory proposed four dimensions along cultural


computer framework automatically mines data social networks extracts meaningful information using data mining computes cultural distance multiple countries ref name difficulties performing cross cultural studies major issues reported methods data collection cross cultural studies ref name including difficulty access people many nations limited number samples negative effects translation positive self enhancement illusion issues either cause difficulty perform cross cultural study negative impacts validity final results ref name see also comparative cultural studies cross cultural cross cultural capital cross cultural


communication cross cultural psychiatry cross cultural psychology cultural bias cultural relativism ethnocentrism human relations area files kluckhohn strodtbeck 's values orientation theory standard cross cultural sample hofstede 's cultural dimensions theory references bibliography ember carol r melvin ember cross cultural research ''handbook methods cultural anthropology'' ed h r bernard pp nbsp walnut creek ca altamira press ember carol r melvin ember ''cross cultural research methods'' lanham md altamira press korotayev andrey https wwwacademiaedu world religions social evolution old world oikumene civilizations cross cultural perspective full version ''world religions social evolution old world oikumene civilizations cross cultural perspective'' lewiston ny edwin mellen press franco fm narasimhan plant names


uses indicators traditional knowledge indian journal traditional knowledge http noprniscairresin handle franco fm narasimhan w stanley relationship four tribal communities natural resources koraput region ethnobotany research applications vol https webarchiveorg web http lib ojs libsfuca indexphp era article view levinson david martin j malone ''toward explaining human culture critical review findings worldwide cross cultural research'' new ct hraf press macfarlane alan http repositoriescdliborg imbs socdyn wp contrast compare pp nbsp ''methodology fieldwork'' edited vinay kumar srivastava delhi oxford university press de munck v https wwwscribdcom doc munckkorotayev ethnology cultural units cross cultural research


ethnology murdock george p ''social structure'' new york macmillan murdock george p ''ethnographic atlas summary'' pittsburgh university pittsburgh prsrtjh sdxthgn fdty tesjtukcn bess murdock george p kin term patterns distribution ''ethnology'' murdock george p ''atlas world cultures'' pittsburgh university pittsburgh press murdock george p douglas r white http repositoriescdliborg imbs socdyn wp standard cross cultural sample standard cross cultural sample ''ethnology'' whiting john wm https archivetoday http www intersciencewileycom journal abstract ''george peter murdock '' ''american anthropologist'' external links journals https webarchiveorg web http ccrsagepubcom cross cultural research https webarchiveorg web http wwwiaccporg jccp journal cross cultural psychology https webarchiveorg web http worldculturesorg world


'''orthoptics''' profession allied eye care profession orthoptists experts diagnosing treating defects eye movements problems eyes work together called binocular vision caused issues muscles around eyes defects nerves enabling brain communicate eyes orthoptists responsible diagnosis non surgical management strabismus squint amblyopia lazy eye eye movement disorders ref name ioa international orthoptic association document professional role ref word ''orthoptics'' comes greek words ''orthos'' straight ''optik s'' relating sight

Applied science
Medicine and health
Surgery
Orthoptics


much practice orthoptists concerns disorders binocular vision defects eye movement orthoptists trained professionals specialize orthoptic treatment eye patches eye exercises prisms glasses commonly work paediatric patients also adult patients neurological conditions stroke brain tumours multiple sclerosis specific training countries orthoptists may involved monitoring forms eye disease glaucoma cataract screening diabetic retinopathy ref name vukicevic vukicevic koklanis k giribaldi ''orthoptics evolving meet increasing demand eye service''


insight news march sydney australia ref effectiveness children evidence orthoptics effective treating convergence insufficiency home based pencil computer training adults effectiveness less evident ref name cc ref history orthoptics long history supporting ophthalmic care french ophthalmologist louis emile javal began using ocular exercises treat strabismus squint described practice orthoptics writings late th century mary maddox pioneered orthoptic profession first documented orthoptist trained father ernest e maddox response increasing patient demand


time needed examine treat patients dr ernest maddox reputed ophthalmologist well inventor various instruments investigating binocular vision mary maddox started practice london early first hospital clinic opened royal westminster hospital ref name vukicevic ref name helveston ref first australian hospital clinic orthoptists established alfred hospital melbourne current orthoptic practice orthoptists mainly involved diagnosing managing patients binocular vision disorders relate amblyopia extraocular muscle balance version refractive errors


vergence accommodation imbalances positive relative accommodation negative relative accommodation work closely ophthalmologists ensure patients eye muscle disorders offered full range treatment options according international orthoptic association professional orthoptic practice involves following ref name internationalorthopticsorg ref '''primary activities''' ocular motility diagnosis co management vision screening uk school vision screening programmes children age years orthoptic led screening either conducted orthoptists health professionals received extensive training certification local orthoptic department assessment special needs assessment rehabilitation


neurological disorders '''secondary activities''' low vision assessment management glaucoma assessment stable glaucoma management biometry includes sonography work ref name australianorthopticboardorgau http wwwaustralianorthopticboardorgau registration registrationhtml ref fundus photography screening visual electrodiagnosis retinoscopy refraction using phoropter assess refractive errors '''further activities''' specific outpatient waiting list initiatives reduce delay children referred eye clinic filter screening joint multidisciplinary children vision screening clinics orthoptics optometry organisation prioritisation strabismus surgical admissions list according agreed criteria assistance surgical procedures qualifications training us students orthoptics must attend two years fellowship training


thirteen programs affiliated medical facilities universities us three canada offering orthoptic curriculum united kingdom orthoptic degree full time three year course including hospital placements develop refine clinical skills specialism admission criteria vary school school however national regulations require completion baccalaureate degree prior sitting national certifying exams personal interview customarily part admissions process uk majority orthoptists employed nhs hospitals community eye services contribute


wider eye care teams alongside ophthalmologists sometimes optometrists see also bates method convergence insufficiency diplopia dissociated vertical deviation esotropia exotropia eye care professional eyepatch glasses haploscope international orthoptic association pediatric ophthalmology pinhole glasses strabismus vision therapy vision rehabilitation references ophthalmology


'''forensic psychology''' subfield psychology involves application psychological knowledge methods civil criminal legal questions traditionally broad definition well narrow definition broader classification states forensic psychology involves application psychological areas research legal field narrower definition characterizes forensic psychology application clinical specialties legal institutions people come contact law ref name american psychological association apa officially recognized forensic psychology specialty narrower definition

Social science
Psychology
Forensic psychology


exception legal psychology typically include clinical matters within scope issues particular directly relating mental health best explained forensic psychology forensic psychology interlaced legal field requires understanding fundamental legal principles regarding standard legal practices standards used legal professionals expert witness testimony competence insanity definitions evaluations order able communicate effectively judges attorneys legal professionals history psychology established us


american students returning home study german psychologist wilhelm wundt experimental psychology lab many returning students interests law eg testimonies individual functional capacity addition schools field taught wundt nonetheless concept psychology officially begging use legal settings introduced several years later first decade th century hugo nsterberg first director harvard psychological laboratory founder applied psychology though attempted imbue expertise legal field approach reported


condescending abrasive caused anger scrutinization legal community toward research community rejected nsterberg ideas response labeling yellow psychology impractical exaggerated although interpretation history challenged following backlash psychology widely left untouched legal professionals post wwii clinical psychology became accepted legitimate allied health profession became successful contributing legal proceedings whereas cases brown v board education topeka led appreciation psychology ability influence legal decisions cases like jenkins


v us truly legitimized latter case dc circuit upheld first time clinical psychologists considered expert witnesses discussing mental illness american psychology law society ap ls created later converted division apa field continued grow organizations dedicated study application psychology law began develop american board forensic psychology abfp chartered eventually became part american board professional psychology abpp


merging marked development first certification psychologists wanting work within field forensic psychology later organizations conferences aided solidifying development forensic psychology american academy forensic psychology national invitational conference education training forensic psychology forensic psychology officially recognized professional specialty apa forensic psychology popular culture forensic psychology seen large spike popularity media among younger generations within recent years fact many undergraduate


many forensic psychology practices outside criminal proceedings training education broad sense forensic psychology subset applied psychology forensic psychologists may hold phd psyd clinical psychology counseling psychology social psychology organizational psychology school psychology experimental psychology specific license requirements united states forensic psychologist one clinical forensic psychologist one would need license practice clinical health services additional license practice clinical forensic psychology required psychologists provide healthcare services need


licensed states forensic psychologists ideally years postdoctoral experience training supervision mentoring forensic psychology countries training practitioner requirements may vary united kingdom example person must obtain graduate basis registration british psychological society normally undergraduate degree would followed stages academic supervised practice diploma forensic psychology would normally take years full time years part time assessment occurs via examination research supervised practice submission portfolio


showing expertise across range criminological legal applications psychology qualified chartered psychologist specialism forensic psychology practitioner must engage continued professional development demonstrate much kind year order renew practicing certificate roles forensic psychologist practice direct service evaluations assessments evaluations assessments completed forensic psychologists assess person 's psychological state legal purposes reasons completing evaluations involve acquiring information criminal court insanity incompetence criminal


done confidential obligation evaluator inform individual evaluated everything session open scrutiny forensic report expert testimony forensic psychologists conducting evaluations may also function expert witnesses many called court testify results evaluations variety employment settings forensic state psychiatric hospitals mental health centers private practice evaluators usually previous training clinical psychologists ref name ref child custody arrangements big part forensic psychologist


career many different assessments given children psychologist gives educated opinion placement custody arrangement child given psychological tests academical tests objective personality tests projective personality tests ref name ref used decide best custody arrangement child process also involves interviewing child assume whether would cause damage child ref name treatment treatment providers may asked administer psychological interventions require request services criminal


civil cases regard criminal cases forensic psychologists work individuals already sentenced reduce recidivism refers one 's likelihood repeating offense interventions may implemented settings drug alcohol abuse treatment sex offender treatment treatment mental illness anger management courses ref name civil proceedings treatment providers may treat families going divorce custody cases may also provide treatment individuals suffered psychological injuries result kind trauma ref name treatment


providers evaluators work types settings forensic state psychiatric hospitals mental health centers private practices consultations providing consultations allows forensic psychologists apply psychological expertise research help law enforcement attorneys legal professionals proceedings better understand human behavior eg criminal witness victim jury civil processes effects trauma life events working consultant forensic psychologist able involved legal proceedings responsibilities reviewing court records defendant 's psychosocial history assess mitigating


aggravating factors case serving jury consultant organizing focus groups shadow juries mock juries helping voir dire proceedings assessment without testimony results defendant 's evaluation disclosed prosecution team allowing defense team develop defense strategy among others essentially consultations take number forms including common ones '''law enforcement consultations''' may take form assisting criminal profiling developing hiring procedures methods determining psychological fitness returning officers simply lending expertise certain criminal behaviors ref name ref


name ref mentioned criminal profiling appealing aspect psychology prospective forensic psychologists despite fact n't widely used within field ref name several methods approaches related criminal profiling still lot skepticism efficiency accuracy criminal profiling general ref name couple common approaches scientific approach includes fbi 's crime scene analysis canter 's investigative psychology intuitive approach includes tukey 's behavioral evidence analysis ref name '''trial consultants''' psychologists work legal professionals


attorneys aid case preparation includes jury selection development case strategy witness preparation ref name textbook ref forensic psychologists working trial consultants rely research order best advise individuals working trial consultants often hired one specific side trial psychologists faced many ethical issues responsibility psychologist remain neutral consulting words consultant must choose side support consequentially omit create information would beneficial one side another prior accepting


case work important forensic psychologist weigh responsibilities consulting case ethical guidelines put place field forensic psychology ref name '''expert testimony''' matters relating psychology also area forensic psychologists play active role''' ref name ''' unlike fact witnesses limited testifying know observed expert witnesses ability express knowledge situation topic name suggests presumed experts certain topic possess


specialized knowledge expert witnesses forensic psychology called upon testify matters mental health clinical expertise areas expertise social experimental cognitive developmental role expert witness primary usually performed conjunction another role researcher academic evaluator clinical psychologist past expert witnesses primarily served court rather litigants however nowadays rarely happens recruitment expert witness completed trial attorneys regardless calls


psychology law whether criminal civil researchers test hypotheses empirically apply research issues related psychology law may also conduct research mental health law policy evaluation ref name handout famous psychologists field include saul kassin widely known studying false confessions elizabeth loftus gary wells known research eyewitness memory researchers provided expert witness testimony many cases education advocacy academic forensic psychologists engage teaching researching training supervision students among


education related activities professionals also advanced degree psychology likely phd often employed colleges universities addition holding professorships forensic psychologists may engage education presenting research hosting talks relating particular subject engaging educating community relevant forensic psychological topic ref name advocacy another form education forensic psychologists use psychological research influence laws policies may related certain movements black lives matter movement may even related


certain civil rights overlooked ref name forensic psychological evaluations common types evaluations forensic assessment competence competence legal setting refers defendant 's ability appreciate understand charges happening legal proceedings well ability help lawyer understand defend case ref name competence assessed psychologist concern regarding defendant typically voiced lawyer ref name ref though psychologist 's responsibility assess competence


ultimately judge decide whether defendant competent defendant found incompetent stand trial psychologist must give recommendation whether defendant restored competence treatment charges dropped completely due incompetence couple potential causes incompetence includes certain types brain damage occurrence psychotic episode preventing individual registering reality around ref name ref ref name jaaplorg ref several cases instrumental developing standard competence well determining


rights individual deemed incompetent stand trial youtsey v united states one cases set standard competence judge ruling trying sentencing individual deemed incompetent violates human rights despite ruling official guidelines determining sentencing matters competence developed ref name dusky v united states case upheld youtsey v united states ruling set specific criteria competence include rational factual understanding court proceedings able consult attorney


rational manner ref name melton ref case weiter v settle resulted decision psychologist 's opinion competency hearing considered opinion testimony additionally guidelines put place accurately evaluate competency eight guidelines established include requirements defendant appreciates one 's presence relation time place things understands court justice charged criminal offense recognizes judge presides court understands prosecutor try convict criminal charges understands


lawyer defend charge knows expected tell attorney time alleged offense understands jury determine whether guilty innocent charges sufficient memory discuss issues related alleged offense court proceedings time progressed cases added guidelines expectations evaluating competency forensic assessment insanity insanity opposed competence refers individual 's mental state time crime rather


time trial ref name ref name according legal principles insanity acceptable judge find someone criminally responsible punish defendant individual sane time crime order considered sane defendant must exhibited ''mens rea'' ''actus reus'' ''mens rea'' translated guilty mind indicates individual exhibited free intent harm time crime ''actus reus'' refers voluntary committing unlawful act insanity defense acknowledges


unlawful act occur individual displayed lack ''mens rea'' ref name melton burden proof determining defendant insane lies defense team notable case relating type assessment ''ford v wainwright'' decided forensic psychologists must appointed assess competency inmate executed death penalty cases various definitions insanity acknowledged within legal system ref name m'naghten mcnaugton rule defines insanity individual understanding nature quality


acts acts wrong due mental disease defect also referred cognitive capacity test meanwhile durham test established durham v united states states one declared insane actions caused mental disorder vague nature description causes definition used one state nh final definition acknowledged within courts brawner rule us v brawner also referred american law institute standard definition posits due


mental disease defect individual considered insane unable appreciate wrongfulness act unable conform behavior dictates law ref name melton evaluating insanity involves using crime scene analysis determine mental state time crime establishing diagnosis interviewing defendant relevant witnesses verifying impressions defendant ref name ref challenges associated type assessment involve defendant malingering determining defendant 's past mental state chance different experts may come different conclusions depending assessment method


used fact common society label psychological disorder insane though actually fall category insanity primarily involves psychotic disorders ref name ref name malinger ref risk assessment risk assessment evaluates dangerous individual could risk offending released also referred recidivism typically recidivism refers violent sex offending behavior risk assessments affect possibility inmate receiving parole released prison involve two general methods clinical prediction method involves using clinical judgement experience predict


risk actuarial prediction method utilizes research based formula predict risk two specific methods risk assessment involve violence risk appraisal guide vrag sex offender risk appraisal guide sorga created quinsey harris rice cormier types evaluations insanity competency assessments among common criminal assessments administered within legal system several types implemented include death penalty case assessments assessments child sexual abuse assessments child custody divorce cases civil court assessments ref name distinction


intentional conscious distortion '''relationship dynamics''' therapeutic interactions work toward developing trusting empathic therapeutic alliance forensic psychologist may ethically nurture client act helping role forensic evaluator divided loyalties substantial limits confidentiality guarantee client forensic evaluator must always aware manipulation adversary context legal setting concerns mandate emotional distance unlike therapeutic interaction ref name '''pace setting''' unlike therapeutic interactions may guided many factors forensic setting court


schedules limited resources external factors place great time constraints evaluation without opportunities reevaluation forensic examiner focuses importance accuracy finality legal dispositions forensic psychiatry tool death investigation nature cause death remain unknown immediate apparent features death especially due lack direct evidence fix whether unnatural death accidental suicide murder psychological psychiatric autopsy employed effective tool death investigation 'psychological autopsy' procedure investigating


person death reconstructing person thought felt preceding death reconstruction based upon information gathered personal documents police reports medical coroner records face face interview families friends others contact person death medico legal autopsy examines body deceased psychological autopsy considers mental state deceased conflict absence leads indicate circumstances pointing towards one possibility mode death said specifically


manner death suspicious giving divergent indications tool investigation employed team work forensic psychiatrists forensic pathologists toxicologists psychologists compile information behaviours motive distinguish among accident homicide suicide possible modes death theory underlying concept psychological autopsy suicide victims communicate intentions way technique developed clinical tool predicting suicide risk forensic application retrospective determination cause circumstances surrounding death branch


investigation originally developed edwin shneidman colleagues los angeles suicide prevention center psychological autopsy methodology involves two main elements extensive interviews family members close intimates collecting possible medical psychiatric relevant documents deceased psychological autopsies review specifics death decedent suicide risk factors shneidman example identified areas inquiry psychological autopsy studies areas include identifying information eg age marital status religious practices occupation details death brief outline


victim history eg previous suicide attempts death history victim family eg family history suicide affective illness description personality lifestyle victim victim typical pattern reaction stress emotional upsets periods disequilibrium recent stressors tensions anticipations troubles role alcohol drugs overall lifestyle victim death nature victim interpersonal relationship changes victim habits routines death eg hobbies appetite sexual patterns life routines information relating life side victim eg


upswings successes plans assessment intention rating lethality reaction informants victim death comments special features case information collected interviews could provide relevant information attempt reconstruct deceased background personal relationships personality traits lifestyle psychological autopsies proved helpful identifying explicating proximate causation determining role variety factors bringing suicide death usual sources psychological information suicide note interpretation suicide note important confirm suicide abetment suicide homicides


identify causation correct interpretation suicide note requires handwriting expert confirm note written offenders subject contents may reveal following intention reflected form suicide note individual billed themself intention strengthened history previous attempts b physical illness changes handwriting example tremors due alcoholism drug poisoning fear anxiety changes size letters gradually becoming small due intake antipsychotic drug may


referrals specialists police records may give information previous attempts suicide involvement anti social activities psychological autopsy accomplished reconstruction decedent character personality information gained variety sources reconstructed character personality used make retrospective prediction likelihood decedent committed particular act data collected analysis conclude indication suicide possibility decedent commit suicide shall ruled advantages


firm indication directions death investigation shall proceeded though psychological autopsy taken effective tool suspicious death investigation free disadvantages limitations availability selection experts professionals potential holding research oriented experience always important hurdle get professional ethics physician patient privileges always difficult barrier get valuable important inputs end process psychological autopsy retrospective prediction whether subject committed suicide process carried


experts occasion meet interview decedent life time experts gather information third parties documents could considered hearsay information diminishes evidentiary value standardised operational method derive conclusions information collected course psychological autopsy drawn professional much based experience correlate inputs psychological autopsy one effective tools death investigation could act firm step


stone investigation suspicious unnatural death direct evidence available systematically carried psychological autopsy would definitely provide scientific accurate leads death investigation india employment branch forensic psychiatry less used chief judicial magistrate court ernakulam kerala directed central bureau investigation employ forensic psychological autopsy death investigation qazi cmabdulla maulavi chembarika thereafter sunanda pushkar death case special team investigation employed psychiatric autopsy concluded


suicide another incident employing tool burari death case delhi members family found dead hanging questions cases answered whether suicide homicide availability experts area including experienced suicidologists concern time numerous reports regarding increasing incidents suicide shall sufficient concern state establish research centres institutions concentrated branch


forensic psychiatry another aspect concern extension rigor hearsay rule accepting information conclusions psychological autopsy opinion evidence given experts conducted systematic psychological autopsy shall given due weightage taking purview section evidence act ethics forensic psychology ethical recommendations expectations outlined forensic psychology specifically listed apa 's ''specialty guidelines forensic psychology'' ref name guidelines involve reminders forensic psychologists value integrity impartiality fairness well avoid conflicts


interest possible conflicts interest may arise situations psychologist working consultant one side another court case psychologist required testify evaluate something collides beliefs values psychologist faced decision choosing playing role individual 's evaluator treatment provider case ref name final conflict interest also relates ethical guidelines relating multiple relationships clients ref name also standard ethics


forensic psychologists expected offer certain amount reduced fee pro bono services individuals may able afford hiring psychologist court case otherwise ethical guidelines involve receiving informed consent clients communicating information regarding treatment evaluations respecting acknowledging privacy confidentiality privilege among clients remaining impartial objective involved trial weighing moral ethical costs complying court orders may conflict professional standards ref name ref name salary forensic psychologist wide range pay


rape trial examining complainant 's ingestion chemical substances prior sexual assault ''journal aggression maltreatment trauma'' ''' ''' doi issn nbsp loftus elizabeth f leading questions eyewitness report ''cognitive psychology'' ''' ''' doi viljoen jodi l jonnson melissa r cochrane dana vargen lee vincent gina impact risk assessment instruments rates pretrial detention postconviction placements release systematic review meta analysis ''law human behavior'' ''' ''' doi lhb issn nbsp x holcomb matthew j jacquin kristine juror perceptions child eyewitness testimony


influences juror decisions criminal trials involving recovered memories childhood sexual abuse ''journal child sexual abuse'' ''' ''' doi issn nbsp garry maryanne manning charles g loftus elizabeth f sherman steven j imagination inflation imagining childhood event inflates confidence occurred ''psychonomic bulletin review'' ''' ''' doi bf issn nbsp kassin saul drizin steven grisso thomas gudjonsson gisli h leo richard redlich allison police induced confessions risk factors recommendations ''law human behavior'' ''' ''' doi issn nbsp x see also applied psychology forensic psychiatry settled insanity competency evaluation law list


united states supreme court cases involving mental health media psychology footnotes reading adler j r ed ''forensic psychology concepts debates practice'' cullompton willan bartol c r bartol history forensic psychology k hess irving b weiner eds handbook forensic psychology nd ed london john wiley sons blackburn r forensic psychology legal criminological psychology feb vol part dalby j ''applications psychology law practice guide relevant issues practices theories'' chicago american


bar association davis j stalking crimes victim protection crc press pages hbk duntley j shackelford k toward evolutionary forensic psychology ''social biology '' http wwwtoddkshackelfordcom downloads duntley shackelford sb pdf full text gudjonsson g forensic psychology first century journal forensic psychiatry gh gudjonsson lionel haward ''forensic psychology guide practice'' pbk hbk jones l cross p walsh w simone criminal investigations child abuse research behind best practices trauma violence abuse melton g b


zapf p eds forensic assessments criminal civil law handbook lawyers ny oxford university press rogers r ed ''clinical assessment malingering deception'' rd ed new york ny guilford external links https aafpforensicorg american academy forensic psychology board certified forensic experts continuing education http wwwabfpcom american board forensic psychology board certification information http wwwall forensic psychologycom forensic psychology comprehensive guide forensic psychology https wwwap lsorg american psychology law society https wwweapleu european association psychology law https wwweaplstudentcom european association psychology law student society resources fact sheets forensic psychology


visual representation sampling process statistics quality assurance survey methodology '' 'sampling''' selection subset statistical sample individuals within statistical population estimate characteristics whole population statisticians attempt collect samples representative population question sampling lower costs faster data collection measuring entire population provide insights cases infeasible sample entire population observation measures one properties weight location colour independent objects individuals survey sampling

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Sampling Theory


sample time space combination dimensions instance investigation supermarket staffing could examine checkout line length various times study endangered penguins might aim understand usage various hunting grounds time time dimension focus may periods discrete occasions cases examined 'population' may even less tangible example joseph jagger studied behaviour roulette wheels casino monte carlo used identify biased wheel case 'population' jagger wanted


investigate overall behaviour wheel ie probability distribution results infinitely many trials 'sample' formed observed results wheel similar considerations arise taking repeated measurements physical characteristic electrical conductivity copper situation often arises seeking knowledge cause system ''observed'' population outcome cases sampling theory may treat observed population sample larger 'superpopulation' example researcher might study success rate new 'quit smoking' program


test group patients order predict effects program made available nationwide superpopulation everybody country given access treatment group yet exist since program n't yet available population sample drawn may population information desired often large complete overlap two groups due frame issues etc see sometimes may entirely separate instance one


population include one sample however general case usually possible practical way identify rats set rats voting compulsory way identify people vote forthcoming election advance election imprecise populations amenable sampling ways could apply statistical theory remedy seek sampling frame property


identify every single element include sample ref name robert groves et al ref straightforward type frame list elements population preferably entire population appropriate contact information example opinion poll possible sampling frames include electoral register telephone directory '''probability sample''' sample every unit population chance greater zero selected sample probability accurately determined combination traits makes possible produce unbiased estimates


simply add income estimate total person living household two adults one two chance selection reflect come household would count selected person 's income twice towards total person ''is'' selected household loosely viewed also representing person ''is n't'' selected '' blockquote example everybody probability selection makes probability sample fact person 's probability known every element


effects may turn ''any'' probability design nonprobability design characteristics nonresponse well understood since nonresponse effectively modifies element 's probability sampled sampling methods within types frames identified variety sampling methods employed individually combination factors commonly influencing choice designs include nature quality frame availability auxiliary information units frame accuracy requirements need measure accuracy whether detailed analysis sample expected cost operational concerns span id random sampling simple random


sampling span visual representation selecting simple random sample simple random sample srs given size subsets sampling frame equal probability selected element frame thus equal probability selection frame subdivided partitioned furthermore given ''pair'' elements chance selection pair similarly triples minimizes bias simplifies analysis results particular variance individual results within sample good indicator


variance overall population makes relatively easy estimate accuracy results simple random sampling vulnerable sampling error randomness selection may result sample n't reflect makeup population instance simple random sample ten people given country ''on average'' produce five men five women given trial likely represent one sex underrepresent systematic stratified techniques attempt overcome problem using information population choose


using systematic sampling technique systematic sampling also known interval sampling relies arranging study population according ordering scheme selecting elements regular intervals ordered list systematic sampling involves random start proceeds selection every ''k''th element onwards case ''k'' population size sample size important starting point automatically first list instead randomly chosen within first ''k''th element list simple example would select every th name


telephone directory 'every th' sample also referred 'sampling skip ' long starting point randomized systematic sampling type probability sampling easy implement stratification induced make efficient ''if'' variable list ordered correlated variable interest 'every th' sampling especially useful efficient sampling databases example suppose wish sample people long street starts poor area house ends expensive


district house simple random selection addresses street could easily end many high end low end vice versa leading unrepresentative sample selecting eg every th street number along street ensures sample spread evenly along length street representing districts note always start house end sample slightly biased towards low end randomly selecting start bias


eliminated however systematic sampling especially vulnerable periodicities list periodicity present period multiple factor interval used sample especially likely ''un' 'representative overall population making scheme less accurate simple random sampling example consider street odd numbered houses north expensive side road even numbered houses south cheap side sampling scheme given impossible get representative sample either houses sampled ''all''


odd numbered expensive side ''all'' even numbered cheap side unless researcher previous knowledge bias avoids using skip ensures jumping two sides odd numbered skip '' another drawback systematic sampling even scenarios accurate srs theoretical properties make difficult ''quantify'' accuracy two examples systematic sampling given much potential sampling error due variation neighbouring houses method never selects


selecting random sample using stratified sampling technique population embraces number distinct categories frame organized categories separate strata stratum sampled independent sub population individual elements randomly selected ref name robert groves et al ratio size random selection sample size population called sampling fraction several potential benefits stratified sampling first dividing population distinct independent strata enable researchers draw inferences specific


population overall population cases using stratified sampling approach may convenient aggregating data across groups though may potentially odds previously noted importance utilizing criterion relevant strata finally since stratum treated independent population different sampling approaches applied different strata potentially enabling researchers use approach best suited cost effective identified subgroup within population however potential drawbacks using stratified sampling first identifying strata implementing approach increase cost


stratified sampling approach effective three conditions met variability within strata minimized variability strata maximized variables upon population stratified strongly correlated desired dependent variable advantages sampling methods focuses important subpopulations ignores irrelevant ones allows use different sampling techniques different subpopulations improves accuracy efficiency estimation permits greater balancing statistical power tests differences strata sampling equal numbers strata varying widely size disadvantages requires selection


follows simple random sample addition allowing stratification ancillary variable poststratification used implement weighting improve precision sample 's estimates ref name robert groves et al oversampling choice based sampling one stratified sampling strategies choice based sampling data stratified target sample taken stratum rare target class represented sample model built biased sample effects input variables target often estimated


precision choice based sample even smaller overall sample size taken compared random sample results usually must adjusted correct oversampling probability proportional size sampling cases sample designer access auxiliary variable size measure believed correlated variable interest element population data used improve accuracy sample design one option use auxiliary variable basis stratification discussed another option probability proportional size 'pps' sampling


selection probability element set proportional size measure maximum simple pps design selection probabilities used basis poisson sampling however drawback variable sample size different portions population may still represented due chance variation selections systematic sampling theory used create probability proportionate size sample done treating count within size variable single sampling unit samples


identified selecting even intervals among counts within size variable method sometimes called pps sequential monetary unit sampling case audits forensic sampling blockquote ''example suppose six schools populations nbsp students respectively total students want use student population basis pps sample size three could allocate first school numbers nbsp nbsp second school nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp third school last school


nbsp generate random start equal nbsp count school populations multiples random start would select schools allocated numbers nbsp ie first fourth sixth schools'' blockquote pps approach improve accuracy given sample size concentrating sample large elements greatest impact population estimates pps sampling commonly used surveys businesses element size varies greatly auxiliary information often available nbsp instance survey attempting


measure number guest nights spent hotels might use hotel 's number rooms auxiliary variable cases older measurement variable interest used auxiliary variable attempting produce current estimates ref name myswedelohr ref cluster sampling visual representation selecting random sample using cluster sampling technique sometimes cost effective select respondents groups 'clusters' sampling often clustered geography time periods nearly samples sense 'clustered' time although rarely taken


account analysis instance surveying households within city might choose select city blocks interview every household within selected blocks clustering reduce travel administrative costs example interviewer make single trip visit several households one block rather drive different block household also means one need sampling frame listing elements target population instead clusters chosen cluster level frame element level frame created


selected clusters example sample requires block level city map initial selections household level map selected blocks rather household level map whole city cluster sampling also known clustered sampling generally increases variability sample estimates simple random sampling depending clusters differ one another compared within cluster variation reason cluster sampling requires larger sample srs achieve level accuracy cost savings clustering might still make


cheaper option cluster sampling commonly implemented multistage sampling complex form cluster sampling two levels units embedded one first stage consists constructing clusters used sample second stage sample primary units randomly selected cluster rather using units contained selected clusters following stages selected clusters additional samples units selected ultimate units individuals instance selected


last step procedure surveyed technique thus essentially process taking random subsamples preceding random samples multistage sampling substantially reduce sampling costs complete population list would need constructed sampling methods could applied eliminating work involved describing clusters selected multistage sampling reduce large costs associated traditional cluster sampling ref name myswedelohr however sample may full representative whole population quota sampling '''quota sampling''' population first segmented mutually exclusive sub groups


stratified sampling judgement used select subjects units segment based specified proportion example interviewer may told sample females males age second step makes technique one non probability sampling quota sampling selection sample non random example interviewers might tempted interview look helpful problem samples may biased everyone gets chance selection random element


greatest weakness quota versus probability matter controversy several years minimax sampling imbalanced datasets sampling ratio follow population statistics one resample dataset conservative manner called minimax sampling minimax sampling origin anderson minimax ratio whose value proved binary classification class sample sizes chosen equally ratio proved minimax ratio assumption lda classifier gaussian distributions notion minimax sampling recently developed


general class classification rules called class wise smart classifiers case sampling ratio classes selected worst case classifier error possible population statistics class prior probabilities would best ref name sampling minimax accidental sampling accidental sampling sometimes known '''grab''' '''convenience''' '''opportunity sampling''' type nonprobability sampling involves sample drawn part population close hand population selected readily available convenient may meeting person including person


area survey conducted different times day several times per week type sampling useful pilot testing several important considerations researchers using convenience samples include controls within research design experiment serve lessen impact non random convenience sample thereby ensuring results representative population good reason believe particular convenience sample would respond behave differently random sample population


question asked research one adequately answered using convenience sample social science research snowball sampling similar technique existing study subjects used recruit subjects sample variants snowball sampling respondent driven sampling allow calculation selection probabilities probability sampling methods certain conditions voluntary sampling voluntary sampling method type non probability sampling volunteers choose complete survey volunteers may invited advertisements social media ref name ref target population advertisements selected characteristics


like location age sex income occupation education interests using tools provided social medium advertisement may include message research link survey following link completing survey volunteer submits data included sample population method reach global population limited campaign budget volunteers outside invited population may also included sample difficult make generalizations sample may represent total population often volunteers strong interest


main topic survey line intercept sampling '''line intercept sampling''' method sampling elements region whereby element sampled chosen line segment called transect intersects element panel sampling '''panel sampling''' method first selecting group participants random sampling method asking group potentially information several times period time therefore participant interviewed two time points period data collection called wave method developed sociologist paul lazarsfeld


initial respondents using recruit respondents particularly useful cases population hidden difficult enumerate theoretical sampling theoretical sampling ref name ref occurs samples selected basis results data collected far goal developing deeper understanding area develop theories extreme specific cases might selected order maximize likelihood phenomenon actually observable replacement selected units sampling schemes may ''without replacement'' 'wor' nbsp element selected


sample ''with replacement'' 'wr' nbsp element may appear multiple times one sample example catch fish measure immediately return water continuing sample wr design might end catching measuring fish however return fish water tag release fish catching becomes wor design sample size determination formulas tables power function charts well known approaches determine sample


size steps using sample size tables postulate effect size interest check sample size table select table corresponding selected locate row corresponding desired power locate column corresponding estimated effect size intersection column row minimum sample size required sampling data collection good data collection involves following defined sampling process keeping data time order noting comments contextual events recording non responses applications sampling sampling enables selection right


data points within larger data set estimate characteristics whole population example million tweets produced every day necessary look determine topics discussed day necessary look tweets determine sentiment topics theoretical formulation sampling twitter data developed manufacturing different types sensory data acoustics vibration pressure current voltage controller data available short time intervals


predict time may necessary look data sample may sufficient errors sample surveys survey results typically subject error total errors classified sampling errors non sampling errors term error includes systematic biases well random errors sampling errors biases sampling errors biases induced sample design include '''selection bias''' true selection probabilities differ assumed calculating results '''random sampling error''' random variation results due elements


sample selected random non sampling error non sampling errors errors impact final survey estimates caused problems data collection processing sample design errors may include '''over coverage''' inclusion data outside population '''under coverage''' sampling frame include elements population '''measurement error''' eg respondents misunderstand question find difficult answer '''processing error''' mistakes data coding '''non response participation bias''' failure obtain complete data selected individuals sampling review held exact


process followed sampling rather intended order study effects divergences might subsequent analysis particular problem involves ''non response'' two major types non response exist ref name dillman et al dillman eltinge j l groves r little r j survey nonresponse design data collection analysis r groves dillman j l eltinge r j little eds ''survey nonresponse'' pp new york john wiley sons ref unit nonresponse lack completion part survey item non response submission


differences rest frame effects also mitigated weighting data population benchmarks available imputing data based answers questions nonresponse particularly problem internet sampling reasons problem may include improperly designed surveys ref name dillman et al surveying survey fatigue ref name sm fact potential participants may multiple e mail addresses n't use anymore n't check regularly survey weights many situations sample fraction may varied stratum data weighted correctly


represent population thus example simple random sample individuals united kingdom might include remote scottish islands would inordinately expensive sample cheaper method would use stratified sample urban rural strata rural sample could represented sample weighted appropriately analysis compensate generally data usually weighted sample design give individual equal chance selected instance households equal selection probabilities one person interviewed


within household gives people large households smaller chance interviewed accounted using survey weights similarly households one telephone line greater chance selected random digit dialing sample weights adjust weights also serve purposes helping correct non response methods producing random samples random number table mathematical algorithms pseudo random number generators physical randomization devices coins playing cards sophisticated devices ernie history random sampling using lots old


idea mentioned several times bible pierre simon laplace estimated population france using sample along ratio estimator also computed probabilistic estimates error expressed modern confidence intervals sample size would needed achieve particular upper bound sampling error probability estimates used bayes' theorem uniform prior probability assumed sample random alexander ivanovich chuprov introduced sample surveys imperial russia us ''literary digest'' prediction


survey methodology including recent literature questionnaire development informed cognitive psychology robert groves et alia ''survey methodology'' nd ed books focus statistical theory survey sampling require knowledge basic statistics discussed following textbooks david moore george p mccabe february ''introduction practice statistics'' th edition wh freeman company elementary book scheaffer et alia uses quadratic equations high school algebra scheaffer richard l william mendenhal r lyman ott ''elementary survey sampling'' fifth edition belmont


duxbury press mathematical statistics required lohr rndal et alia cochran classic historically important books deming kish remain valuable insights social scientists particularly us census institute social research university michigan kish leslie ''survey sampling'' wiley references ref ref name sampling minimax ref reading singh g n jaiswal k pandey k improved imputation methods missing data two occasion successive sampling communications statistics theory methods doi chambers r l skinner c j editors


federal military standards mil std mil std external links survey methodology scientific method


towing cargo handling equipment dangerous cargoes cargo storage dealing emergencies survival sea search rescue fire fighting degree knowledge needed within areas dependent upon nature work type vessel employed seafarer ref name stcenturya ref ship knowledge ship stability cargo operations seamanship involves loading cargo calculating effect ship stability ensuring correctly stowed secured car carrier seamanship commercial level involves knowledge different ship types example bulk carrier container

Applied science
Transportation
Marine transportation
Seafaring


ship oil tanker cruise ship platform supply vessel etc including basic knowledgehip recognition basic understanding nautical terms ship structure naval architecture cargo operations specific vessel seafarer working ref name stcenturya ref name knightix ref ship types specialist cargo equipment tools example bulk carrier may gantry cranes grabs cargo container ship may container lashings ref name stcenturya cargoes properly stowed secured prevent shifting sea ref name stcenturya oil tankers gas carriers somewhat complex due hazardous


nature cargos therefore greater degree seamanship may necessary vessel types compared others ref name stcenturya seamanship involves paying close attention stability vessel times ref name stcenturyg ref involves calculation vessel effects cargo various stages voyage departure sea arrival port allow safe passage prevent capsizing vessel turns side upside ref name stcenturyg includes familiarity application load line convention vessel


safely loaded markings ensure residual stability likely weather conditions ref name stcenturyg seafarers regularly inspect vessel ensure hull good condition navigation ref name stcenturyg seamanship skills apply safe use different types lifting gear whether cargo operations bringing stores supplies provisions ref name techniques ref example derricks union purchase arrangements midship aft cranes heavy lifting gear rigging sheer legs etc ref name techniques include knowledge calculations stresses effects stability ref name techniques navigation navigation art science


safely efficiently directing movements vessel one point another piloting uses water depth visible references dead reckoning uses courses distances last known position finding vessel 's present location safe navigation includes predicting future location route planning collision avoidance nautical navigation western nations like air navigation based nautical mile navigation also includes electronics gps loran long range navigation celestial navigation involves taking sights sextant planets moon stars sun using data nautical almanac


sight reduction tables determine positions accurate time information also needed nautical dusk navigation sea referencing horizon longer possible nautical dawn navigation becomes possible ice navigation involves navigating operating ship within sea ice conditions along general navigation seamanship involves able respond weather sea ref name stcenturyi ref example onset heavy rough weather may require alternative passage plan weather routeing ship well use alternative heading keep vessel rolling heaving ref


name stcenturyi additionally heavy weather precautions onboard lashing furniture accommodation keeping crew deck considered good seamanship navigating heavy weather ref name stcenturyi navigation seamanship also involves working knowledge correct marine communications global maritime distress safety system ref name knight ref seamanship also involves recognition navigation buoys including iala maritime buoyage lateral markscardinal marks safe water marks special marks isolated danger marks ref name knight ref ship handling pilotage mooring lines fundamental skill professional seamanship able manoeuvre vessel safely accuracy


precision sea also port pilotage ref name williamson ref unlike land based vehicles ship afloat subject forces water floats well resistance effects marine weather ref name williamson complicating factor mass ship accounted stopping starting inertia large vessels may take large distances stop therefore ship handlers must aware basic hydrodynamics charted area including depth water ship navigating ref name williamson ship handling


coastal areas may involve arriving departing berth anchorage buoy maneuvering confined channels harbours proximity ships whilst times navigating safely ref name williamson seamanship also involves safe navigation restricted waterways example river canal transits eg along suez canal ref name stcenturyh ref crew able keep vessel collisions moor vessel canal lockgate operations also respond local currents river conditions passage ref name stcenturyh two types operations berthing alongside another ship usually ship ship cargo transfer replenishment


sea occasionally included ship handling seamanship vessel types addition fully conversant principles ship handling good shiphandler pilot developed sense 'situational awareness' point well beyond ordinary member ship 's crew reactions appear instinctive positive times safe ref name williamson key ability ship handler good seamanship possess understanding wind tide swell influence vessel movement along passing vessels shape nearby seabed interaction effect ref


name williamson must also combined understanding specific vessel 's performance including propulsion stopping distance allow safe handling ref name williamson fundamental low speed maneuvering vessel types understanding configuration handedness propeller effect known propeller walk kick stern vessel port starboard depending configuration type propeller large variations propeller rotation speed changes propeller rotation direction take place single screw vessels rotation propeller reversed astern bell


standard established propeller would turn clockwise viewed astern would mean propeller would turn counterclockwise going astern stern would walk port aided docking operations port side preferred situation vessel would brought dock small bow angle backing would flatten angle slow stop vessel walk alongside exception vessels use controllable pitch propeller pitch direction rotation reversed go astern


propellers rotate counterclockwise times walk normal variations propulsion include known bucket rudders kort nozzles instead conventional rudder pair dish shaped rudders one either side propeller swivelled vertically direct propeller thrust degrees thus put vessel astern mode rudder rotated degrees without altering speed direction engine since conventional propeller rudder configuration propeller designed operate maximum efficiency going


ahead produces far less thrust going astern kort nozzle ahead astern thrust advantages nozzle ship steered astern conventional rudder cannot ship steered fully control standstill switching ahead astern mode give complete control speed mooring anchoring seamanship applies general mooring practices anchoring anchors device used secure vessel bed body water prevent craft drifting established marine


procedures anchoring anchorwork ref name stcenturyd also includes use drogues applicable anchor work includes understanding awareness types anchors marks anchors cable shackles ref name techniques ref includes learning established procedures securing anchors cable use windlasses prepare anchors clearing away anchors letting go letting go dropping anchor keeping anchor watch clearing foul hawse weighing anchor securing anchors sea ref name techniques pilotage navigation us naval vessel nigerian waters local pilot commercial vessels excess size limits determined


local authorities handled confined areas maritime marine pilot ref name williamson marine pilots seafarers extensive seafaring experience usually qualified master mariners trained expert ship handlers pilots conversant types vessel local waters possess good knowledge different propulsion systems well handling ships sizes weather tidal conditions ref name williamson also experts geographical areas work ref name williamson countries pilot takes 'conduct' navigation ship


master means master crew adhere pilot 's orders respect safe navigation vessel compulsory pilotage area however master may ''with good cause'' resume 'conduct' vessel 's navigation done lightly countries areas eg united kingdom united states america pilot 's role advisor however practice likely conduct vessel especially larger ships using tug boats assist places specifically panama canal


correct adequate maintenance ship structure equipment keep vessel seaworthy involves knowledge tasks painting greasing renewing ropes wires equipment items ref name stcenturyb ref seamanship also involves working knowledge relevant wires ropes chains shackles slings onboard includes mooring ropes using keep vessel secure port ref name stcenturyd ref seamanship vessel types may involves able maintain use marine cranes lifting equipment fitted ship larger ship types usually crane cargo operations bringing stores provisions


supplies crew ref name stcenturye ref seamanship knowledge experience integral part dry docking includes careful planning jobs tasks repairs adequate preparations eg painting dry docking calculations primarily stability upthrust safety within dry dock checks upon departure eg plugs returned sealed ref name stcenturyc ref lifeboat rescue boat survival craft maintenance operation essential part seamanship ref name stcenturyk ref involves able operate survival craft emergencies also able maintain effectively operate accordance solas requirements ref name stcenturyk stcw convention requires modern


seafarers familiar emergency operations including fire fighting personnel sea required undertake fire fighting training shore based training establishments ref name stcenturyl ref statutory requirement considered good seamanship regularly practice drill skills sea ref name stcenturyl emergency skills include man overboard rescue turn traditional seamanship skills swedish fid used ropework techniques traditional aspect seamanship historic traditional seamanship skills less frequently used modern commercial ships usually still practiced training colleges used smaller ships fishing vessels leisure craft ref name stcenturyf ref


include ropework included tying knots rope splicing wire splicing lashings whippings well rigging stage rigging bosuns ladder canvas work use chain blocks pulleys etc ref name stcenturyf traditional practices apply life onboard forms address captain use marine flag including courtesies flag signalling ref name stcenturyf specifically include items flag signalling terms single double letter meanings according international code ofssignals flag maintenance use ensigns also morse code procedure practice ref name techniques ref days