receptor models termed intrinsic efficacy intrinsic activity signal amplification capacity corresponding receptor downstream signaling pathways thus existence magnitude receptor reserve depends agonist efficacy tissue signal amplification ability measured effect pathways activated cause signal amplification receptor reserve sensitive agonist 's intrinsic efficacy usually defined full high efficacy agonists ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref often response determined function log ''l'' consider many orders magnitude concentration however biological physical theory


relates effects log concentration convenient graphing purposes useful note receptors bound ''l'' ''k sub sub '' graph shown represents conc response two hypothetical receptor agonists plotted semi log fashion curve toward left represents higher potency potency arrow indicate direction increase since lower concentrations needed given response effect increases function concentration multicellular pharmacodynamics concept pharmacodynamics expanded include '''multicellular pharmacodynamics''' mcpd mcpd study

Applied science
Medicine and health
Pharmaceutical sciences
Pharmacodynamics


static dynamic properties relationships set drugs dynamic diverse multicellular four dimensional organization study workings drug minimal multicellular system mmcs ''in vivo'' ''in silico'' '''networked multicellular pharmacodynamics''' net mcpd extends concept mcpd model regulatory genomic networks together signal transduction pathways part complex interacting components cell toxicodynamics pharmacokinetics pharmacodynamics termed toxicokinetics toxicodynamics field ecotoxicology focus toxic effects wide


range organisms corresponding models called toxicokinetic toxicodynamic models ref name pmid ref see also mechanism action dose response relationship pharmacokinetics adme antimicrobial pharmacodynamics pharmaceutical company schild regression references external links vijay http wwwingentaconnectcom content adis pdr art predictive software drug design development pharmaceutical development regulation werner e https wwwncbinlmnihgov entrez queryfcgicmd retrieve db pubmed dopt abstract list uids query hl silico multicellular systems biology minimal genomes ddt vol pp dec introduces concepts mcpd net mcpd dr david w bourne ou college pharmacy http wwwboomerorg pkin pharmacokinetic pharmacodynamic resources https wwwashporg media store files p sample chapter pdf introduction pharmacokinetics pharmacodynamics pharmacy medicinal chemistry life sciences industry


'''agricultural economics''' applied field economics concerned application economic theory optimizing production distribution food fiber products agricultural economics began branch economics specifically dealt land usage focused maximizing crop yield maintaining good soil ecosystem throughout th century discipline expanded current scope discipline much broader agricultural economics today includes variety applied areas considerable overlap conventional economics ref name sumner et al daniel sumner julian alson joseph w

Social science
Economics
Agricultural economics


glauber evolution economics agricultural policy ''american journal agricultural economics'' v pp ref agricultural economists made substantial contributions research economics econometrics development economics environmental economics agricultural economics influences food policy agricultural policy environmental policy origins cartoon showing us president calvin coolidge carrying mcnary haugen farm relief bill dustpan trash labeled veto economics defined study resource allocation scarcity agricultural economics application economic methods optimizing decisions made agricultural producers grew prominence around


turn th century field agricultural economics traced back works land economics henry charles taylor greatest contributor period establishment department agricultural economics university wisconsin another contributor nobel economics prize winner theodore schultz among first examine development economics problem related directly agriculture schultz also instrumental establishing econometrics tool use analyzing agricultural economics empirically noted landmark article agricultural supply analysis


rooted shifting sand implying simply done correctly one scholar field ford runge summarizes development agricultural economics follows blockquote agricultural economics arose late th century combined theory firm marketing organization theory developed throughout th century largely empirical branch general economics discipline closely linked empirical applications mathematical statistics made early significant contributions econometric methods afterwards agricultural sectors oecd countries contracted agricultural


economists drawn development problems poor countries trade macroeconomic policy implications agriculture rich countries variety production consumption environmental resource problems blockquote agricultural economists made many well known contributions economics field models cobweb model hedonic regression pricing models new technology diffusion models zvi griliches multifactor productivity efficiency theory measurement random coefficients regression farm sector frequently cited prime example perfect competition economic paradigm asia agricultural economics offered first


university philippines los ba os department agricultural economics today field agricultural economics transformed integrative discipline covers farm management production economics rural finance institutions agricultural marketing prices agricultural policy development food nutrition economics environmental natural resource economics since agricultural economics primarily focused seven main topics according ford runge agricultural environment resources risk uncertainty food consumer economics prices incomes market structures trade development technical change human capital major topics agricultural


economics agricultural environment natural resources field environmental economics agricultural economists contributed three main areas designing incentives control environmental externalities water pollution due agricultural production estimating value non market benefits natural resources environmental amenities appealing rural landscape complex interrelationship economic activities environmental consequences ref name kling et al catherine l kling kathleen segerson jason f shogren environmental economics agricultural economists helped advance field ''american journal agricultural economics'' v pp ref regard natural resources agricultural economists


developed quantitative tools improving land management preventing erosion managing pests protecting biodiversity preventing livestock diseases ref name lichtenberg et al erik lichtenberg james shortle james wilen david zilberman natural resource economics conservation contributions agricultural economics agricultural economists ''american journal agricultural economics'' v pp ref food consumer economics one time field agricultural economics focused primarily farm level issues recent years agricultural economists studied diverse topics related economics food consumption addition economists' long standing emphasis effects prices incomes


researchers field studied information quality attributes influence consumer behavior agricultural economists contributed understanding households make choices purchasing food preparing home food prices determined definitions poverty thresholds consumers respond price income changes consistent way survey experimental tools understanding consumer preferences ref name unnevehr et al laurian unnevehr james eales helen jensen jayson lusk jill mccluskey jean kinsey food consumer economics ''american journal agricultural economics'' v pp ref production economics farm management agricultural economics research


addressed diminishing returns agricultural production well farmers' costs supply responses much research applied economic theory farm level decisions studies risk decision making uncertainty real world applications crop insurance policies understanding farmers developing countries make choices technology adoption topics important understanding prospects producing sufficient food growing world population subject new resource environmental challenges water scarcity global climate change ref name chavas et al jean paul chavas robert g chambers rulon pope production economics farm management


agricultural economists aaae australian agricultural resource economics society substantial work agricultural economics internationally conducted international food policy research institute united states primary professional association agricultural applied economics association aaea holds annual conference also co sponsors annual meetings allied social sciences association assa aaea publishes ''american journal agricultural economics'' ''applied economic perspectives policy'' careers agricultural economics graduates agricultural applied economics departments find jobs many sectors economy agricultural management agribusiness commodities


states farms farm crisis food grading food security land economics subsidizing transport economics vertical archipelago references external links independent research institutions http wwwifpriorg international food policy research institute ifpri academic professional associations http wwwaaae africaorg african association agricultural economists aaae http wwwaaresinfo australian agricultural resource economics association http wwwaaeaorg agricultural applied economics association aaea http caesusaskca canadian agricultural economics society caes http wwweaaeorg european association agricultural economists http wwwiaae ageconorg international association agricultural economists iaae government agencies https webarchiveorg web http wwwusaidgov work agriculture us agency international development bureau economic growth agriculture trade http wwwersusdagov us department agriculture economic research service https eceuropaeu info food farming fisheries farming en european commission farming


academic journals https webarchiveorg web http wwwiaae ageconorg journal journalhtml ''agricultural economics'' agecon http wwwaaeaorg publications ajae ''american journal agricultural economics'' ajae http wwwaaeaorg publications aepp ''applied economic perspectives policy'' aepp https archiveslibumdedu repositories resources department agricultural resource economics records university maryland libraries food industry


quantum physics materials science applied mechanics electronics nanotechnology microfabrication microelectronics computing photonics mechanical engineering electrical engineering nuclear engineering biophysics control theory aerodynamics energy solid state physics etc discipline devoted creating optimizing engineering solutions enhanced understanding integrated application mathematical scientific statistical engineering principles discipline also meant cross functionality bridges gap theoretical science practical engineering emphasis research development design analysis notable many languages term engineering physics would directly translated english technical physics countries

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Electrical Engineering
Engineering physics


would translated engineering physics would translated technical physics disciplines leading academic degrees former specializing nuclear power research latter closer engineering physics institutions engineering applied physics major discipline specialization within scope engineering science applied science many universities engineering science programs may offered levels btech bsc msc phd usually core basic advanced courses mathematics physics chemistry biology forms foundation curriculum typical


elective areas may include fluid dynamics quantum physics economics plasma physics relativity solid mechanics operations research quantitative finance information technology engineering dynamical systems bioengineering environmental engineering computational engineering engineering mathematics statistics solid state devices materials science electromagnetism nanoscience nanotechnology energy optics whereas typical engineering programs undergraduate generally focus application established methods design analysis engineering solutions defined fields eg traditional domains civil mechanical engineering engineering science programs undergraduate focus creation use advanced experimental computational techniques standard approaches inadequate ie


development engineering solutions contemporary problems physical life sciences applying fundamental principles careers qualified engineering physicists degree engineering physics work professionally engineers physicists high technology industries beyond becoming domain experts multiple engineering scientific fields branches style width vertical align top accelerator physics ref name michigan http wwwenginumichedu college academics bulletin depts engin phys engineering physics university michigan ref acoustics ref name illinois aerospace systems aerodynamics agrophysics analog electronics anti gravity applied mathematics applied mechanics artificial intelligence astrodynamics atomic force microscopy imaging audio engineering ref name illinois http physicsillinoisedu academics undergraduates ep optionshtml engineering physics curriculum university illinois urbana champaign ref ballistics biomechanics


biosensors bioelectronics biophysics bionanotechnology chemical engineering chemical physics communication physics computational physics computer engineering ref name berkeley http engineeringscienceberkeleyedu engineering physics engineering physics berkeley ref ref name connecticut https careeruconnedu wp content uploads sites engineering physicspdf engineering physics microelectronics university connecticut ref computer vision composite materials control theory cryogenics cybernetical physics data mining digital electronics digital signal processing ref name illinois directed energy weapons econophysics electrical engineering electric propulsion electrochemistry electromagnetism electromagnetic propulsion electronic warfare embedded systems energy engineering ref name illinois fiber optics financial engineering ref name illinois fluid dynamics geoengineering geophysics ict internet engineering information theory instrumentation control interreality physics virtual reality laser physics materials science mechanical engineering mechatronics ref name pacific http wwwpacificedu academics schools colleges school engineering computer science academics majors engineering physics html university pacific engineering physics curriculum ref


social physics space physics space technology spacecraft propulsion spintronics spin engineering statistical mechanics stealth technology systems engineering systems biology superconductors thin films nanostructured materials vehicle dynamics wind engineering see also applied physics engineering engineering science mechanics environmental engineering science index engineering science mechanics articles notes references external links http wwwxavieredu engineering physics engineering physics xavier http wwwpolymtlca phys en physicist engineer profession engineering physicist profession https wwwqueensuca physics undergrad studies engineering physics careers engineering physics engineering physicist professional profile http sesegruhedu society engineering science inc https wcillnlgov us weapon physics design weapon physics design program applied interdisciplinary physics engineering education ja


diagram actors facilitating economic exchange relations '''economic sociology''' study social cause effect various economic phenomena field broadly divided classical period contemporary one known new economic sociology classical period concerned particularly modernity constituent aspects including rationalisation secularisation urbanisation social stratification sociology arose primarily reaction capitalist modernity economics played role much classic sociological inquiry specific term economic sociology first coined william stanley jevons later

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of markets


used works mile durkheim max weber georg simmel ref name pressprincetonedu ref weber 's work regarding relationship economics religion cultural disenchantment modern west perhaps iconic approach set forth classic period economic sociology contemporary economic sociology may include studies modern social aspects economic phenomena economic sociology may thus considered field intersection economics sociology frequent areas inquiry contemporary economic sociology include social consequences economic exchanges social meanings involve


social interactions facilitate obstruct classical economic sociology arose new approach analysis economic phenomena emphasizing particularly role economic structures institutions play upon society influence society holds nature economic structures institutions relationship capitalism modernity salient issue perhaps best demonstrated weber 's ''the protestant ethic spirit capitalism'' simmel 's ''the philosophy money'' economic sociology may said begun tocqueville 's ''democracy america'' ''the old regime revolution''


ref name pressprincetonedu marx 's historical materialism would attempt demonstrate economic forces influence structure society fundamental level mile durkheim 's ''the division labour society'' published whilst max weber 's ''economy society'' released year contemporary contemporary economic sociology focuses particularly social consequences economic exchanges social meanings involve social interactions facilitate obstruct influential figures modern economic sociology include fred l block james coleman paula england mark granovetter harrison white paul dimaggio joel podolny lynette spillman richard swedberg


viviana zelizer united states well carlo trigilia ref name gil ref donald angus mackenzie laurent th venot jens beckert europe may added amitai etzioni developed idea socioeconomics chuck sabel wolfgang streeck michael mousseau work tradition political economy sociology focus mathematical analysis utility maximisation th century led see economics discipline moving away roots social sciences many critiques economics economic policy begin accusation abstract modelling missing


key social phenomenon needs addressed economic sociology attempt sociologists redefine sociological terms questions traditionally addressed economists thus also answer attempts economists gary becker bring economic approaches nbsp particular utility maximisation game theory nbsp analysis social situations obviously related production trade karl polanyi book ''the great transformation'' first theorist propose idea embeddedness meaning economy embedded social institutions vital market


destroy aspects human life concept embeddedness serves sociologists study technological developments mark granovetter patrick mcguire mapped social networks determined economics electrical industry united states ronen shamir analyzed electrification mandatory palestine facilitated creation ethnic based dual economy polanyi 's form market skepticism however criticized intensifying rather limiting economization society new economic sociology contemporary period economic sociology often known ''new economic sociology'' consolidated work mark granovetter titled economic action


social structure problem embeddedness ref name granovetter ref works elaborated concept embeddedness states economic relations individuals firms take place within existing social relations thus structured relations well greater social structures relations part social network analysis primary methodology studying phenomenon granovetter 's theory strength weak ties ronald burt 's concept structural holes two best known theoretical contributions field marxist sociology modern marxist thought focused social implications capitalism


commodity fetishism economic development within system economic relations produce important theorists include georg luk cs theodor adorno max horkheimer walter benjamin guy debord louis althusser nicos poulantzas ralph miliband j rgen habermas raymond williams fredric jameson antonio negri stuart hall socioeconomics economic sociology sometimes synonymous socioeconomics socioeconomics deals analytical political moral questions arising intersection economy society broad interdisciplinary perspective links beyond sociology political economy moral philosophy institutional economics history academic associations society advancement socio economics sase


international academic association whose members involved social studies economy economic processes ''socio economic review'' established official journal sase journal aims encourage work relationship society economy institutions markets moral commitments rational pursuit self interest articles focus economic action social historical context drawing sociology political science economics management policy sciences according ''journal citation reports'' journal impact factor ranking th journals


category economics st journals category political science th journals category sociology ref name wos ref american sociological association 's economic sociology section became permanent section january according website members another group scholars area works research committee economy society rc within international sociological association economic sociology political economy es pe founded online scholarly society gathers researchers interested economic sociology related topics see also behavioral economics behavioral strategy cultural economics


critique political economy economic anthropology economic democracy economics empiricism fiscal sociology industrial sociology political economy notes references gary becker kevin murphy ''social economics market behavior social environment'' harvard university press http wwwhupharvardedu catalog becsochtml description http wwwhupharvardedu catalog becsochtmlshow contents toc peter hedstr charlotta stern rational choice sociology ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' nd edition http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde r q sociology topicid result number abstract albert benschop ''naar een nieuwe economische sociologie'' https webarchiveorg web http wwwsociositenet labor econsoc indexphp university amsterdam guill n mauro f randall collins paula england marshall meyer eds ''new economic sociology developments emerging field'' new york


russell sage foundation portes alejandro ''economic sociology systematic inquiry'' princeton nj princeton university press smelser neil j ''the sociology economic life'' englewood cliffs nj prentice hall smelser neil j richard swedberg introducing economic sociology pp neil j smelser richard swedberg eds ''the handbook economic sociology'' second edition princeton nj princeton university press smelser neil j richard swedberg eds ''the handbook economic sociology'' second edition princeton nj princeton university press stinchcombe arthur l ''economic sociology'' new york academic press richard swedberg ''economics sociology


redefining boundaries conversations economists sociologists'' princeton university press https archiveorg details economicssociolo swed description chapter preview links pp https archiveorg details economicssociolo swed v https archiveorg details economicssociolo swed vi richard swedberg ''principles economic sociology'' princeton http pressprincetonedu titles html description ch http pressprincetonedu chapters html extract scroll chapter preview https booksgooglecom booksid ngpu nwc printsec frontcover dq principles economic sociology source bl ots emrrs l sig z cqup wtri uzn fs ns ixi hl en ei xec wglafiu csag sa x oi book result ct result resnum ved cb q aewba v onepage q f false links richard swedberg economic sociology ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' nd edition http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde e q economic sociology topicid result number abstract reading ''socio economic review'' ''the american journal economics sociology'' external links http econsocmpifgde economic sociology european electronic newsletter socioeconomics interdisciplinary subfields economics


brazilian philosopher educator paulo freire promoted book ''pedagogy oppressed'' subsequently spread internationally developing particularly strong base united states proponents sought develop means using teaching combat racism sexism oppression grew incorporated elements fields like human rights movement civil rights movement disability rights movement indigenous rights movement postmodern theory feminist theory postcolonial theory queer theory critics argued appropriate institutions higher education explicitly promote radical political activism among students

Applied science
Education
Critical pedagogy


suggested adherents critical pedagogy focused promoting political perspectives classroom expense teaching pupils skills proficiency writing background concept critical pedagogy traced back paulo freire 's best known work ''the pedagogy oppressed'' freire professor history philosophy education federal university pernambuco brazil sought works develop philosophy adult education demonstrated solidarity poor common struggle survive engaging


adapted deal wide range social educational issues freire 's pedagogy revolved around anti authoritarian interactive approach aimed examine issues relational power students workers ref name po center curriculum used fundamental goal based social political critiques everyday life freire 's praxis required implementation range educational practices processes goal creating better learning environment also better world freire maintained merely educational technique way living educative practice ref


transformation product praxis collective level ref name critical pedagogy web critical pedagogue ira shor mentored worked closely freire freire 's death defines critical pedagogy critical pedagogy explores dialogic relationships teaching learning proponents claim continuous process call unlearning learning relearning reflection evaluation effect actions students particular students believe historically continue disenfranchised call traditional schooling


educational philosophy since developed henry giroux others since praxis oriented educational movement guided passion principle help students develop consciousness freedom recognize authoritarian tendencies connect knowledge power ability take constructive action freire wrote introduction work ''teachers intellectuals toward critical pedagogy learning'' another leading critical pedagogy theorist freire called intellectual cousin peter mclaren wrote foreword mclaren giroux co edited one book critical pedagogy co authored another among leading figures


particular order bell hooks gloria jean watkins joe l kincheloe patti lather myles horton antonia darder gloria ladson billings peter mclaren khen lampert howard zinn donaldo macedo dermeval saviani sandy grande michael apple stephanie ledesma educationalists including jonathan kozol parker palmer sometimes included category critical pedagogues known anti schooling unschooling deschooling perspectives include ivan illich john holt ira shor john taylor gatto matt hern critical pedagogy several strands foundations ref name kincheloe joe critical pedagogy primer new york peter lang ref postmodern anti racist feminist postcolonial queer


theories play role expanding enriching freire 's original ideas critical pedagogy shifting main focus social class include issues pertaining religion military identification race gender sexuality nationality ethnicity age much work also draws anarchism gy rgy luk cs wilhelm reich postcolonialism discourse theories edward said antonio gramsci gilles deleuze rhizomatic learning michel foucault ''radical teacher'' magazine dedicated critical pedagogy issues interest critical educators many contemporary critical pedagogues embraced postmodern anti essentialist perspectives individual language


watered birth act counterrevolution particular argued critical pedagogy simultaneously pursued communism national liberation malott ford first authors bring harry haywood 's work critical pedagogy believed critical pedagogy divorced radical roots yet malott went investigate roots found revolutionary fact argued permeated anti communism hostility actually existing struggles oppressed peoples henry giroux michael apple stanley aronowitz others except mclaren took


positions us imperialism founded critical pedagogy result malott ford moved away critical pedagogy ford developed ''political'' pedagogy built mclaren 's revolutionary critical pedagogy took distanced expository position link project explicitly communism yet later abandoned starting point instead turned attention educational ''forms'' joe l kincheloe shirley r steinberg created paulo nita freire project international critical pedagogy mcgill university line kincheloe steinberg 's contributions critical pedagogy


project attempts move field next phase evolution second phase critical pedagogy seeks become worldwide decolonizing movement dedicated listening learning diverse discourses people around planet kincheloe steinberg also embrace indigenous knowledges education way expand critical pedagogy question educational hegemony joe l kincheloe expanding freire 's notion pursuit social change alone could promote anti intellectualism promotes balanced approach education postmodernists ref name one major texts taking


intersection critical pedagogy indigenous knowledge sandy grande 's ''red pedagogy native american social political thought'' rowman littlefield agreement perspective four arrows aka trent jacobs challenges anthropocentrism critical pedagogy writes achieve transformative goals differences western indigenous worldview must considered approaching intersection indigenous perspectives pedagogy another perspective critical pedagogy place examines impacts place classroom ira shor professor city university new york provides


processes classroom begin envision strive something different course achieving goal automatic easy suggests role teacher critical process students need helped teachers separate unconditional acceptance conditions existence separation achieved students may prepared critical entry examination everyday life classroom environment achieves liberating intent one potential outcomes students


assume responsibility class power thus distributed amongst group role teacher becomes much mobile mention challenging encourages growth student 's intellectual character rather mere mimicry professorial style teachers however simply abdicate authority student centered classroom later years life freire grew increasingly concerned felt major misinterpretation work insisted teachers cannot deny position authority due student centeredness critical pedagogy insists


upon inherent conflicts associated large collections top content standards disciplines ref name critical pedagogy advocates insist teachers vital discussion standards based education reform united states pedagogy requires student learn teacher teach externally imposed information exemplifies banking model education outlined freire structures knowledge left unexamined critical pedagogue teaching act must incorporate social critique alongside cultivation intellect joe l kincheloe argues direct opposition


points importance engaged pedagogy responsibility teachers well students must classroom resistance students students sometimes resist critical pedagogy student resistance critical pedagogy attributed variety reasons student objections may due ideological reasons religious moral convictions fear criticism discomfort controversial issues kristen seas argues resistance context thus occurs students asked shift perspectives also subjectivities accept reject assumptions contribute pedagogical arguments


see coercive agree feel excluded ref name karen kopelson concludes many students come university order gain access eventual enfranchisement 'the establishment' critique reject privileges ref name overcome student resistance critical pedagogy teachers must enact strategic measures help students negotiate controversial topics critical pedagogy teaching rapidly changing demographics classroom united states resulted unprecedented amount linguistic cultural


diversity order respond changes advocates critical pedagogy call question focus practical skills teacher credential programs practical focus far often occurs without examining teachers' assumptions values beliefs ideological posture informs often unconsciously perceptions actions working linguistic minority politically socially economically subordinated students teaching considered inherently political act critical pedagogue critical element teacher education becomes addressing implicit biases also known implicit cognition implicit stereotypes subconsciously affect teacher 's


tradition regarded oppressive texts served unmasking function told texts must unmasked ref name searle blockquote maxine hairston took hard line critical pedagogy first year college composition classroom argued everywhere turn find composition faculty leaders profession new voices asserting right duty put ideology radical politics center teaching ref name ref hairston confers blockquote classes focus complex issues racial discrimination economic


injustices inequities class gender taught qualified faculty depth information historical competence critical social issues warrant society 's deep tangled cultural conflicts neither explained resolved simplistic ideological formulas ref name blockquote sharon o'dair said compositionists focus almost exclusively ideological matters ref name ref argues focus expense proficiency student writing skills composition classroom ref name end o'dair explained recently advocated working class pedagogies privilege activism language instruction ref name


jeff smith argued students want gain rather critique positions privilege encouraged critical pedagogues scholars worked field critical pedagogy also critiqued movement various angles curry stephenson malott written several books critical pedagogy identified critical pedagogue renounced critiqued previous work ''history education engaging global class war'' writes long journey self reflection de indoctrination culminated break malott writes term critical pedagogy created henry


giroux attempt dismiss socialism legacy karl marx period derek r ford also broke critical pedagogy claiming dead end ford concerned proficiency like o'dair agrees focus critique expense imagination actual political engagement serves produce critical pedagogue enlightened isolated researcher reveals truth behind curtain malott ford however note exceptions critiques within field work peter mclaren see also


adult education critical psychology critical thinking inclusive school john asimakopoulos pedagogy oppressed praxis intervention praxis school rouge forum social criticism student voice reading gottesman isaac ''the critical turn education marxist critique poststructuralist feminism critical theories race'' new york routledge salmani nodoushan pashapour critical pedagogy rituals distinction true professionalism ''journal educational technology '' references philosophy education pedagogy critical theory popular education


'''urban studies''' based study urban development cities includes studying history city development architectural point view impact urban design community development efforts core theoretical methodological concerns urban studies field come social science disciplines history economics sociology geography political science anthropology professional fields urban planning architecture landscape architecture urban design urban studies helps understanding human values development interactions physical environment ref name ref ref name ref history


study cities changed dramatically time new frames analysis applied development urban areas first college programs created observe cities developed based anthropological research ghetto communities mid urban study programs expanded beyond looking current historical impacts city design began studying designs impacted future interactions people improve city development architecture open spaces interactions people different types capital forms community ref name urban history


support spatial structure question city 's structure operates normative analysis construct opinions supported facts promote better urban planning methods scholars also researched cities outside united kingdom united states developed limited degree urban history previously focused mostly european american cities developed time instead focusing non european cities developed ref name decade urban history ashgate 's historical urban studies series ref additional geographic areas researched field include south africa australia latin america india ref name history urban studies comment


respective systems whole ref name handbook urban studies studying cities israel zangwill wrote one first books ghettos europe impacted jewish children descendants original residents ''children ghetto'' ref name '' '' also wrote two books european ghettos louis wirth next scholar write ghettos wrote sociological perspective ref name louis wirth roberts ezra park also became first sociologists publish immigrant neighborhoods america


suggestions future design ref name roberts ezra park student george zimmel chicago ref name famous scholars studied segregation american ghettos impoverished neighborhoods include du bois ref name haynes ref name johnson ref name horace cayton ref name ref kenneth clark ref name william julius wilson ref name areas research field transdisciplinary uses theories variety academic fields places within urban context ref name transdisciplinarity challenges ref wide variety academic fields refers urban environment


location studied environmental studies economics geography public health sociology ref name history urban studies comment however scholars field research specific elements contribute city operates housing ref name handbook urban studies housing ref transportation ref name handbook urban studies transportation ref change addition researchers also study residents interact within city race ref name handbook urban studies race relations ref gender ref name handbook urban studies gender ref differences lead social inequalities concentrated disadvantage urban areas criticism researchers struggle


define basic terms precisely city defined due roles cities change ref name handbook urban studies defining city ref researchers must careful describe urban areas work manipulated positive elements city boosters wanting promote specific city ref name superlatives contemporary urban studies ref see also index urban studies articles list urban theorists urban theory urban ecology urban economics urban geography urban planning urban sociology references external links https wwwlibuchicagoedu e scrc findingaids viewphpeadid icuspclcfus guide university chicago center urban studies records


https wwwlibuchicagoedu scrc university chicago special collections research center poverty united states race united states african american studies


'''data management''' comprises disciplines related managing data valuable resource concept concept data management arose technology moved sequential processing first punched cards magnetic tape random access storage since possible store discrete fact quickly access using random access disk technology suggesting data management important business process management used arguments customer 's home address stored large number places computer systems however period

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
Data management


data subject data ethics data architecture data architecture data flows data modeling design database storage management data maintenance database administration database management system business continuity planning data subsetting data security data access data erasure data privacy data security reference master data data integration master data management reference data data integration inter operability data movement etl elt data interoperability documents content document management system records management data warehousing business


intelligence business intelligence data analysis data mining data warehouse data mart metadata metadata management metadata metadata discovery metadata publishing metadata registry data quality data discovery data cleansing data integrity data enrichment data quality data quality assurance secondary data usage modern management usage term ' 'data'' increasingly replaced ''information'' even ''knowledge'' non technical context thus data management become information management knowledge management trend obscures raw data processing renders interpretation implicit distinction


purpose produce enterprise ready applications faster improve data access speed iterative testing empower collaboration architects developers dbas consistently achieve service level targets automate simplify operations provide contextual intelligence across solution stack support business growth accommodate new initiatives without expanding infrastructure simplify application upgrades consolidation retirement facilitate alignment consistency governance define business policies standards front share extend apply throughout lifecycle see also open data fair data pseudonymization information architecture enterprise architecture information design information system controlled vocabulary data curation data retention data management plan computer data storage data proliferation


study high level mental functions language memory self awareness purview behavioral cognitive neuroscience systems neuroscientists typically employ techniques understanding networks neurons seen function way electrophysiology using either single unit recording multi electrode recording functional magnetic resonance imaging fmri pet scans term commonly used educational framework common sequence graduate school neuroscience courses consists cellular molecular neuroscience first semester systems neuroscience second semester also sometimes used distinguish

Natural science
Biology
Systems biology
Systems neuroscience


subdivision within neuroscience department university see also example systems ascending reticular activating system auditory system gustatory system motor system olfactory system reward system sensory system somatosensory system visual system related concepts sensory neuroscience neural oscillation neural correlate neural substrate references bear f et al eds ''neuroscience exploring brain'' baltimore maryland williams wilkins hemmen j l sejnowski j '' problems systems neuroscience'' oxford university press neuroscience systems biology


glotto anci glottoname ancient hebrew glotto sama glottoname samaritan notice ipa '''biblical hebrew''' also called '''classical hebrew''' archaic form hebrew language language canaanite branch semitic languages spoken israelites area known land israel roughly west jordan river east mediterranean sea term hebrew ''ibrit'' used language bible ref name barton ref referred ' 'sefat kena'an''

Humanities
Theology
Biblical studies
Biblical Hebrew


ie language canaan ''yehudit'' ie judaean ref name barton name used ancient greek mishnaic hebrew texts ref name barton hebrew language attested epigraphically th century nbsp bce ref name eurekalertorg ref name bar spoken hebrew persisted beyond second temple period ended siege jerusalem ce eventually developed mishnaic hebrew spoken fifth century nbsp ce biblical hebrew recorded hebrew bible reflects various stages hebrew language consonantal skeleton well vocalization system added middle


ages masoretes also evidence regional dialectal variation including differences biblical hebrew spoken northern kingdom israel southern kingdom judah consonantal text transmitted manuscript form underwent redaction second temple period earliest portions parts amos isaiah hosea micah dated late th early th centuries bce biblical hebrew written number different writing systems around th century nbsp bce th century bce hebrews used paleo hebrew alphabet


retained samaritans use descendent samaritan script day however imperial aramaic alphabet gradually displaced paleo hebrew alphabet exile babylon became source modern hebrew alphabet scripts lacking letters represent sounds biblical hebrew although sounds reflected greek latin transcriptions translations time scripts originally indicated consonants certain letters known latin term ''matres lectionis'' became increasingly used mark vowels middle ages various systems diacritics


developed mark vowels hebrew manuscripts tiberian vocalization still wide use biblical hebrew possessed series emphatic consonants whose precise articulation disputed likely ejective pharyngealized earlier biblical hebrew possessed three consonants letters writing system time merged consonants stop consonants developed fricative allophones influence aramaic sounds eventually became marginally phonemic pharyngeal glottal consonants underwent weakening regional dialects reflected modern samaritan hebrew reading tradition


vowel system biblical hebrew changed time reflected differently ancient greek latin transcriptions medieval vocalization systems modern reading traditions biblical hebrew typical semitic morphology nonconcatenative morphology arranging semitic roots patterns form words biblical hebrew distinguished two genders masculine feminine three numbers singular plural uncommonly dual verbs marked voice mood two conjugations may indicated aspect tense matter debate tense aspect verbs also influenced conjugation called waw consecutive construction default word


order verb subject object verbs inflected number gender person subject pronominal suffixes could appended verbs indicate object nouns indicate possession nouns special construct states use possessive constructions nomenclature earliest written sources refer biblical hebrew language canaan ref name hebrew bible also calls language judaean judahite ref name hellenistic period greek writings use names ''hebraios'' ''hebra sti'' mishnaic hebrew find 'hebrew' hebrew language ref name origin


term obscure suggested origins include biblical eber ethnonyms abiru apiru apiru found sources egypt near east derivation root pass alluding crossing jordan river ref name jews also began referring hebrew holy tongue mishnaic hebrew ref name term ''classical hebrew'' may include pre medieval dialects hebrew including mishnaic hebrew may limited hebrew contemporaneous hebrew bible term ''biblical hebrew'' refers pre mishnaic dialects sometimes excluding dead sea scroll hebrew


term ''biblical hebrew'' may may include extra biblical texts inscriptions eg siloam inscription generally also includes later vocalization traditions hebrew bible 's consonantal text commonly early medieval tiberian vocalization history coin issued bar kokhba revolt paleo hebrew text reads simeon front freedom jerusalem back archeological record prehistory biblical hebrew far complete record biblical hebrew ref name enws ref early northwest semitic enws materials attested nbsp bce nbsp bce end


bronze age ref name enws northwest semitic languages including hebrew differentiated noticeably iron age nbsp bce although earliest stages biblical hebrew highly differentiated ugaritic canaanite amarna letters ref name wo hebrew developed latter half second millennium nbsp bce jordan mediterranean sea area known canaan ref name ref israelite tribes established kingdom canaan beginning first millennium nbsp bce later split kingdom israel north kingdom judah south


disputed succession ref name sthist ref earliest hebrew writing yet discovered found khirbet qeiyafa dates th century nbsp bce ref name eurekalertorg ref ref name bar kingdom israel destroyed assyrians nbsp bce ref name sthist kingdom judah conquered babylonians nbsp bce upper classes exiled babylonian captivity solomon 's temple destroyed ref name sthist ref name later persians made judah province permitted jewish exiles return rebuild temple ref name sthist according ''gemara'' hebrew period similar imperial aramaic hanina bar hama


said god sent exiled jews babylon babylonian language akin ''leshon hakodesh'' aramaic became common language north galilee samaria ref name hebrew remained use judah however returning exiles brought back aramaic influence aramaic used communicating ethnic groups persian period ref name ref alexander conquered judah nbsp bce beginning period hellenistic greek domination ref name hellenistic period judea became independent hasmonean dynasty later romans ended independence making herod great governor ref


currently classical hebrew generally taught public schools israel biblical hebrew forms sometimes used modern hebrew literature much archaic biblical constructions used modern english literature since modern hebrew contains many biblical elements biblical hebrew fairly intelligible modern hebrew speakers ref name blau ref primary source biblical hebrew material hebrew bible ref name wo ref ref name b epigraphic materials area israelite territory written form hebrew called inscriptional hebrew although meagerly attested ref name b ref ref name wo extrabiblical linguistic material iron age primarily


epigraphic texts written hard materials pottery stones walls etc epigraphic texts israelite territory written hebrew form language may called inscriptional hebrew dialect strikingly different hebrew preserved masoretic text unfortunately meagerly attested ref according waltke o'connor inscriptional hebrew strikingly different hebrew preserved masoretic text ref name wo damp climate israel caused rapid deterioration papyrus parchment documents contrast dry environment egypt survival


hebrew bible may attributed scribal determination preserving text copying ref name wo ref manuscript hebrew bible dates nbsp bce although two silver rolls ketef hinnom scrolls seventh sixth century nbsp bce show version priestly blessing ref name wo ref name yheb vowel cantillation marks added older consonantal layer bible nbsp ce beginning th century ref name b ref group nb known final redaction talmud mention additions ca ce dated manuscripts vocalization


aramaic rowspan arabic colspan examples hebrew aramaic arabic meaning rowspan 'gold' z 'scale' rowspan 'year' 'three' rowspan 'shadow' 'land'


'shout' biblical hebrew northwest semitic language canaanite subgroup biblical hebrew evolved proto semitic language underwent number consonantal mergers parallel canaanite languages ref name bmerge ref name sclas ref group nb however noteworthy akkadian shares many sound shifts less closely related hebrew aramaic see ref evidence mergers occurred adaptation hebrew alphabet ref group nb however example old aramaic borrowed canaanite alphabet still interdentals marked


millennium nbsp bce disappear almost totally afterwards ref name sclas mimation absent singular nouns often retained plural hebrew ref name sclas northwest semitic languages formed dialect continuum iron age nbsp bce phoenician aramaic extreme ref name sclas ref ref name scon hebrew classed phoenician canaanite subgroup also includes ammonite edomite moabite ref name sclas moabite might considered hebrew dialect though possessed distinctive aramaic features ref name scon ref ref name bmoab ref although ugaritic shows large degree affinity hebrew poetic structure vocabulary grammar


lacks canaanite features like canaanite shift shift similarities likely result either contact preserved archaism ref name b ref hebrew underwent canaanite shift proto semitic tended shift perhaps stressed ref name sclas ref name blau ref hebrew also shares canaanite languages shifts widespread reduction diphthongs full assimilation non final n following consonant word final ie bat bant ref name sclas also evidence rule assimilation


following coronal consonant pre tonic position shared hebrew phoenician aramaic typical canaanite words hebrew include roof table window old thing old person expel ref name sclas morphological canaanite features hebrew include masculine plural marker first person singular pronoun interrogative pronoun definite article appearing first millennium nbsp bce third person plural feminine verbal marker ref name sclas eras biblical hebrew preserved hebrew bible composed multiple linguistic layers consonantal skeleton text


ancient vocalization cantillation later additions reflecting later stage language ref name b additions added ce hebrew already ceased used spoken language around ce biblical hebrew reflected consonantal text bible extra biblical inscriptions may subdivided era oldest form biblical hebrew archaic hebrew found poetic sections bible inscriptions dating around nbsp bce early monarchic period ref name sb ref ref name r ref stage also known old hebrew paleo hebrew


oldest stratum biblical hebrew oldest known artifacts archaic biblical hebrew various sections tanakh including song moses exodus song deborah judges biblical poetry uses number distinct lexical items example prose 'see' 'great' cognates northwest semitic languages example 'do' 'gold' common canaanite ugaritic grammatical differences include use relative particles negative various differences verbal pronominal morphology


name sb ref name r late biblical hebrew shows aramaic influence phonology morphology lexicon trend also evident later developed tiberian vocalization system ref name sb ref qumran hebrew attested dead sea scrolls ca nbsp bce ce continuation late biblical hebrew ref name r qumran hebrew may considered intermediate stage biblical hebrew mishnaic hebrew though qumran hebrew shows idiosyncratic dialectal features dialects dialect variation biblical hebrew attested well known shibboleth incident judges nbsp jephthah 's forces gilead caught ephraimites trying


cross jordan river making say ''''' '''ibbole '' 'ear corn' ref name bshib ref ephraimites' identity given away pronunciation '''' 's'''ibbole '' ref name bshib apparent conclusion ephraimite dialect standard ref name bshib alternative explanation suggested proto semitic phoneme shifted dialects hebrew may retained hebrew trans jordan ref group nb consequence would leave open possibility proto semitic phonemes may preserved regionally one point see


grammatical differences southern dialects northern dialect spoken around samaria shows frequent simplification attested samaria ostraca th century nbsp bce eg 'wine' southern judean dialect instead adds epenthetic vowel added halfway first millennium nbsp bce ref name sclas ref group nb contraction also found ugaritic el amarna letters phoenician anaptyctic vowel found old aramaic deir alla ref ref name bdip word play amos may reflect given amos addressing


population northern kingdom vocalization would forceful ref name bdip ref possible northern features include use 'who that' forms like 'to know' rather infinitives certain verbs form 'to do' rather ref name b samaria ostraca also show standard 'year' aramaic ref name b ref guttural phonemes merged time dialects ref name sgut ref found dead sea scroll hebrew jerome attested existence contemporaneous hebrew speakers still distinguished pharyngeals ref name sgut samaritan hebrew also


shows general attrition phonemes though occasionally preserved ref name samgut ref orthography class wikitable style float right margin left px text align center name paleo hebrew block samaritan phonetic br value br pre exilic br ipa aleph aleph style font size style font size beth beth style font size style font size gimel gimel style font size style font size daleth daleth style font size style font size heh style font size style font size waw


waw style font size style font size zayin zayin style font size style font size heth heth style font size style font size teth teth style font size style font size yodh yodh style font size style font size kaph kaph style font size style font size lamedh lamedh style font size style font size mem mem style font size style font size nun nun style font size style font size


samekh samekh style font size style font size ayin ayin style font size style font size ref name b ref name r pe pe style font size style font size tsade sadhe style font size style font size qoph qoph style font size style font size resh resh style font size style font size shin shin style font size style font size taw taw style font size style font size


earliest hebrew writing yet discovered found khirbet qeiyafa dates th century nbsp bce ref name eurekalertorg nbsp cm x nbsp cm nbsp x nbsp trapezoid pottery sherd ostracon five lines text written ink written proto canaanite alphabet old form predates paleo hebrew phoenician alphabets ref name eurekalertorg ref name bar ref tablet written left right indicating hebrew writing still formative stage ref name bar israelite tribes settled land israel used late form proto sinaitic alphabet known proto canaanite found


israel around th century nbsp bce developed early phoenician early paleo hebrew found gezer calendar c th century nbsp bce script developed paleo hebrew script th th centuries nbsp bce ref name ref ref name tscript ref name paleo hebrew alphabet 's main differences phoenician script curving left downstrokes long legged letter signs consistent use waw concave top x shaped taw ref name ref group nb times moabites ammonites edomites philistines would also use paleo hebrew script see ref oldest inscriptions paleo hebrew


script dated around middle th century nbsp bce famous mesha stele moabite language might considered dialect hebrew ref name yheb ref ref name bmoab ancient hebrew script continuous use early th century nbsp bce end first temple period second temple period paleo hebrew script gradually fell disuse completely abandoned among jews failed bar kochba revolt ref name tscript ref name yb ref samaritans retained ancient hebrew alphabet evolved modern samaritan alphabet ref name tscript ref ref name yb


end first temple period aramaic script separate descendant phoenician script became widespread throughout region gradually displacing paleo hebrew ref name yb oldest documents found aramaic script fragments scrolls exodus samuel jeremiah found among dead sea scrolls dating late rd early nd centuries nbsp bce ref name ysq ref seems earlier biblical books originally written paleo hebrew script later books written directly later assyrian script ref name tscript qumran texts written assyrian script write


tetragrammaton divine names paleo hebrew practice also found several jewish greek biblical translations ref name tscript ref group nb though translations wrote tetragrammaton square script see ref spoken hebrew continued evolve mishnaic hebrew scribal tradition writing torah gradually developed ref name ybook ref number regional book hand styles developed purpose torah manuscripts occasionally literary works distinct calligraphic styles used mainly private purposes ref name ybook mizrahi ashkenazi book hand styles later adapted printed fonts invention


babylonian vocalization system wrote superscript indicate took value masoretes added shin dot distinguish two varieties letter ref name b original hebrew alphabet consisted consonants gradually letters also became used indicate vowels known ''matres lectionis'' used function ref name ref name thought product phonetic development instance bayt 'house' shifted construct state retained spelling ref name b ref examples early


versus later ref name relative terms ' 'defective'' ''full'' ''plene'' used refer alternative spellings word less matres lectionis respectively ref name ref group nb ktiv male hebrew term full spelling become de rigueur modern hebrew ref hebrew bible presumably originally written defective orthography found texts known today ref name extant textual witnesses hebrew bible masoretic text generally conservative use matres lectionis samaritan pentateuch


forebearers full qumran tradition showing liberal use vowel letters masoretic text mostly uses vowel letters long vowels showing tendency mark long vowels except word internal ref name b ref group nb rare cases used medially true vowel letter eg usual 'fish' cases however used vowel letter stem conservative spelling words originally contained eg 'head' original see also number exceptions rule


marking long vowels eg following syllable contains vowel letters like 'voices' rather vowel letter already marks consonant 'nations' rather within bible often little consistency spelling see ref qumran tradition back vowels usually represented whether short long ref name tq ref ref name sq ref generally used long final often written analogy words like eg sometimes ref name tq ref name sq


found finally forms like tiberian tiberian may used quality vowel final position eg medial position eg ref name tq pre samaritan samaritan texts show full spellings many categories eg vs masoretic genesis rarely show full spelling qumran type general vowels biblical hebrew indicated original text various sources attest various stages development greek latin transcriptions words biblical text provide early evidence


nature biblical hebrew vowels particular evidence rendering proper nouns koine greek septuagint rd nd centuries nbsp bce ref name jobes silva ref greek alphabet transcription hebrew biblical text contained secunda rd century nbsp ce likely copy preexisting text nbsp bce ref group nb secunda transliteration hebrew biblical text contained hexapla recension old testament compiled origen rd century nbsp ce evidence text secunda written nbsp bce despite later date


hexapla example time origen pronounced merger already begun around nbsp bce secunda used represent hebrew see ref th th centuries nbsp ce various systems vocalic notation developed indicate vowels biblical text prominent best preserved system still use tiberian vocalization system created scholars known masoretes around ce ref name b ref ref name rvoc also various extant manuscripts making use less common vocalization systems babylonian palestinian known


vocalized samaritan manuscripts middle ages see ref systems often record vowels different stages historical development example name judge samson recorded greek ''samps n'' first vowel tiberian shows effect law attenuation whereby closed unstressed syllables became systems together used reconstruct original vocalization biblical hebrew early stage documents written paleo hebrew script words divided short vertical lines


' 's'' place earlier '' '' represent canaanite ' 's'' around bc likely canaanite already dialectally split time northern early phoenician dialect greeks contact could preserved affricate pronunciation c bc least unlike southern canaanite dialects like hebrew egyptians contact contradiction originally hebrew letters represented two possible phonemes velar pharyngeal distinction unmarked hebrew orthography however uvular phonemes


merged pharyngeal counterparts respectively c nbsp bce class wikitable style text align center rowspan proto semitic rowspan ipa rowspan hebrew rowspan aramaic rowspan arabic colspan examples hebrew aramaic arabic meaning rowspan rowspan br br br 'five' br 'shout' 'salt' rowspan rowspan br br


br 'raven' br 'west' 'slave' observed noting phonemes distinguished consistently septuagint pentateuch eg isaac versus rachel becomes sporadic later books generally absent ezra nehemiah phoneme also directly indicated hebrew orthography clearly attested later developments written also used later merged normally indicated result three etymologically distinct


vanishing completely often creating long vowel except original sometimes reflex ref name samgut geminate consonants phonemically contrastive biblical hebrew secunda never geminate tiberian tradition cannot geminate historically first degeminated followed finally evidenced changes quality preceding vowel ref group nb vowel originally geminate usually shows compensatory lengthening eg 'the father' preceding tends remain short original also remains short generally


cause compensatory lengthening eg 'he compassion' see ref vowels vowel system biblical hebrew changed considerably time following vowels reconstructed earliest stage hebrew attested secunda various vocalization traditions tiberian varieties babylonian palestinian samaritan tradition vowels span style background bbddee padding px px absent span traditions color coded style width proto hebrew ref name david ref style width biblical hebrew ref name david style width secunda hebrew ref name j ref style width tiberian babylonian palestinian hebrew style width


samaritan hebrew align center class wikitable front back close align center align center close mid align center align center open align center colspan class wikitable front back close align center align center close mid align center align center open colspan align center align center class wikitable front back close align center align center close mid align center align center


open align center colspan sup sup reduced align center colspan align center class wikitable front back close align center align center close mid align center align center open mid align center style background bbddee sup sup align center style background bbddee sup sup open align center colspan reduced align center colspan style background bbddee sup sup sup sup sup sup br sup sup align center class wikitable front back close align center align center mid align center


align center sup sup open align center align center reduced colspan align center sup sup valign top orthography alternates ref name j ref palestinian tradition babylonian tradition ref name b ref ref name seph group nb respect palestinian tradition corresponds modern sephardi pronunciation babylonian tradition modern yemenite pronunciation ref ref group nb vowels certainly phonemic status tiberian tradition phonemic value final stressed position


positions may reflect loss opposition see ref palestinian tradition ref name b ref name seph group nb ref name ref marginal palestinian babylonian one pronounced later palestinian hebrew contrast open post tonic syllables eg 'his hand' 'his hands' stems contracted diphthong ref name bhou ref environments appears closed syllables open syllables eg ref name bhou closed post tonic syllables ref name bh ref


sound changes following sections present vowel changes biblical hebrew underwent approximate chronological order proto central semitic proto semitic ancestral language semitic languages traditional reconstructions possessed consonants monophthong vowels consisting three qualities two lengths long vowels occurred open syllables two diphthongs ref name b ref stress system proto semitic unknown commonly described much like system classical latin modern pronunciation classical arabic penultimate second last syllable light


short vowel followed single consonant stress goes antepenult third last otherwise goes penult various changes mostly morphology took place proto semitic proto central semitic language root central semitic languages phonemic system inherited essentially unchanged emphatic consonants may changed realization central semitic ejectives pharyngealized consonants morphology proto central semitic shows significant changes compared proto semitic especially verbs much like classical arabic nouns singular usually declined three cases u


nominative accusative genitive circumstances never construct state nouns also took final nasal case ending ''nunation'' final n occurred languages ''mimation'' final others original meaning marker uncertain classical arabic final n nouns indicates indefiniteness disappears noun preceded definite article otherwise becomes definite meaning languages final n may present whenever noun construct state old canaanite mimation uncertain meaning occurrence


word ''uru alemim'' jerusalem given egyptian transcription broken plural forms arabic declined like singulars often take singular agreement well dual strong plural forms use endings long vowel diphthong declined two cases nominative objective combination accusative genitive objective form often becoming default one loss case endings hebrew arabic special form nunation mimation co occurred dual masculine sound plural endings whenever noun construct state endings evidently felt inherent


part ending result still used examples arabic strong masculine plural '' na'' nominative '' na'' objective dual endings '' ni'' nominative '' ayni'' objective corresponding construct state endings '' '' strong masculine plural '' ay'' dual strong feminine endings classical arabic '' tu'' nominative '' ti'' objective marked singular style '' n'' nunation indefinite state hebrew almost lost broken plural ever vestigial forms may remain extended strong plural endings dual strong plural endings likely much like


arabic forms given one point objective case forms ultimately surviving example dual '' ayim'' probably '' aymi'' extended mimation ending cf arabic '' ayni'' dual construct '' '' '' ay'' without mimation similarly '' m'' '' ma'' '' t'' '' ti'' note expected plural construct state '' '' replaced dual '' '' feminine nouns point ended suffix took normal case endings ending became final loss non presence case ending hebrew arabic show later shift


ah final consonant therefore silent absolute state becomes construct state words take suffixes eg ra law becomes rat law ra xa law etc equivalent arabic letter marb ah modified final form letter indicates phoneme shifting pronunciation varies construct absolute state canaanite shift hebrew shows canaanite shift whereby often shifted conditions shift


disputed ref name blau ref group nb fact scope application different samaritan tiberian hebrew eg 'here' tiberian vs samaritan see even tiberian hebrew doublets found eg 'zealous' see ref shift occurred th century nbsp bce demonstrated presence amarna letters c nbsp bce proto hebrew result canaanite shift proto hebrew vowel system reconstructed possibly rare ref name david furthermore stress point appears shifted consistently


penultimate next last syllable still non phonemic predominant final stress biblical hebrew result loss final unstressed vowels shift away remaining open syllables see loss final unstressed vowels final unstressed short vowels dropped words making possible long vowels occur closed syllables appears proceeded two steps final short mood etc markers dropped verbal forms final short case markers dropped nominal forms vowel lengthening stressed open syllables occurred ''between'' two steps


result short vowels beginning vcv ending lengthened nouns verbs noticeable short eg ''kataba'' 'he wrote' ' 'dabara'' 'word' acc' dropping final short vowels verb forms tended erase mood distinctions also gender distinctions however unexpected vowel lengthening occurred many situations preserve distinctions example suffix conjugation first singular '' tu'' appears remade '' '' already proto hebrew basis possessive '' '' likewise first singular personal pronoun '' ana'' became '' ''


similarly second singular inherited '' ta ti'' competed lengthened '' '' masculine feminine forms expected result would '' t'' '' '' masculine '' t'' '' '' feminine fact variants forms found bible '' h'' marking long '' '' '' y'' marking long '' '' situation appears quite fluid several centuries '' t'' '' '' forms found competition writing speech cf secunda hexapla origen records pronunciations although quite often disagreement written


syllable pretonic position ie directly stressed syllable later short vowels lengthened stressed open syllables ref name janssens ref ref group nb parallels aramaic syllable structure suggest pretonic lengthening may occurred second temple period see ref process lengthening high vowels lowered secunda lengthened reflexes kept short generally reflexes ref group nb long written short written length distinction also found lxx see ref ref group nb secunda preserved


short syllables closed two consonants third syllable stress see ref reduction short open stressed syllables stressed open syllables short vowel ie syllables consisting short vowel followed consonant another vowel vowel reduced stressed moved one syllable later word usually last syllable word stress originally penultimate loss final short vowels made many words final stress however words whose final syllable long vowel ended consonant


feminine short vowel lowering law attenuation tiberian loss phonemic vowel length attested tiberian form note many perhaps hebrew words schwa directly


final stress due stress shift sound change shifted many originally penultimate stressed words final stress changes seen divide words number main classes based stress syllable properties proto hebrew words open penult short vowel ending become final stressed eg 'he killed' pheb proto hebrew words closed penult short vowel ending become penultimate due segholate rule eg 'king' proto hebrew words open short penult longer ending become final stressed due


stress shift eg 'they killed' pheb proto hebrew words closed penult longer ending remain penultimate eg 'i killed' pheb proto hebrew words open long penult longer ending pre stress reduction short vowel reduced second syllable stress ref name j occasionally reduced rather lengthened pretonic position especially initial eg 'his name' ref name j ref ref group nb secunda also cases pretonic gemination see ref thus vowel system


secunda ref name j later developments later jewish traditions tiberian babylonian palestinian show similar vowel developments tiberian time short vowels stressed syllables open pretonic lengthened making vowel length allophonic ref group nb fact first stressed vowels lengthened pause see seen forms like tiberian pausal shift tiberian hebrew occurred lengthening loss phonemicity length since words like allophonically long


n't show shift ref ref name blau ref vowels open stressed syllables allophonic length eg 'he mercy' previously short tiberian degemination psem ref name blau ref group nb attested testimony rabbi joseph qim th century medieval arabic transcriptions see also possible evidence cantillation marks' behavior babylonian pata see ref babylonian palestinian vocalizations systems also mark vowel length ref name length ref name b ref name jqimhi ref


tiberian babylonian systems lengthened become back vowel ref name b ref name r unaccented closed syllables become tiberian babylonian palestinian generally becoming second vowel geminates eg first otherwise ref name b ref name ref name r ref group nb palestinian reflexes tiberian thus reflect qamatz gadol qamatz qatan distinction ref tiberian tradition pretonic vowels reduced commonly secunda occur occasional eg 'nails' common


eg 'open place' ref name j ref name breduc ref tiberian hebrew pretonic commonly preserved geminating following consonant eg 'red' pl cf 'red' sg pretonic gemination also found forms vowels like 'prisoner' babylonian palestinian systems one reduced vowel phoneme like secunda though palestinian hebrew developed pronunciation ref name j ref name b however tiberian tradition possesses three reduced vowels questionable phonemicity ref name b ref ref group nb see 'ships'


'i' 'sickness' 'ornament' 'ascend ' num ' pestle' prov alternates frequently rarely contrasts eg 'edom' versus 'edomite' clearly phonemic bears minimal functional load written ''mobile wa'' zwnj ''hataf patah'' zwnj ref non guttural letter pronounced ultrashort copy following vowel guttural eg preceding eg always pronounced


gutturals eg ref name ref ref name b ref reduced etymological become gutturals eg 'you mp said' cf 'he said' generally non gutturals rarely may still occur especially stops spirantized counterparts eg mi ref name b ref ref name ref samaritan qumran hebrew full vowels place reduced vowels tiberian hebrew ref name samaritan hebrew also reflect etymological vowel length however elision guttural consonants created new phonemic vowel length eg 'great' vs


may reflex closed stressed syllables eg may become either ref name bhlong ref name bhlong ref reduced vowels traditions appear full vowels though may evidence samaritan hebrew similar vowel reduction samaritan results neutralization distinction closed post tonic syllables eg 'house' 'the house' ref name bh various specific conditioned shifts vowel quality also occurred diphthongs frequently monopthongized scope


results shift varied among dialects particular samaria ostraca show ref group nb see semitic form borrowed proto indo european eventually yielding latin ''v num'' english ''wine'' ref southern 'wine' samaritan hebrew shows instead shift ref name sclas ref name ssam original tended shift eg 'word' 'outside' 'outer' beginning second half second millennium nbsp bce ref name sdis ref carried completely samaritan hebrew met resistance


'heart' ref name bhp ref ref group nb known case philippi 's law apply word 'nest' shift extended analogy similar forms eg 'name' 'reputation' ref traditions short vowel tended shift unstressed closed syllables known law attenuation common tiberian tradition eg tiberian 'seven' exceptions frequent ref name b ref less common babylonian vocalization eg


colspan colspan sup sup class wikitable rowspan proto semitic rowspan proto hebrew colspan lengthened sup sup colspan reduced sup sup colspan word final colspan otherwise sup sup sc b p sm sup sup sc b p sm sup sup sc b p sm sup sup sc b p sm sup sup colspan colspan sup sup


rowspan colspan colspan sup sup colspan colspan sup sup sup sup sup sup colspan sup sup sup sup sup sup colspan colspan sup sup colspan sup sup sup sup div style font size samaritan vowels may lengthened presence etymological guttural consonants results closed post tonic syllables conditions law attenuation conditions phillipi 's law samaritan


nearly complementary distribution open syllables closed syllables lengthening occurs open pretonic syllables stressed syllables precise conditions depend vowel tradition reduction occurs open syllables two syllables away stress sometimes also pretonic stressed open syllables effectively closed syllables common geminate consonants samaritan hebrew full vowels traditions reduced vowels always correlate proto hebrew ancestors div stress proto hebrew generally


penultimate stress ref name j ref ref group nb purposes vowel quality shifts words construct state treated stress fell immediately first syllable following word see ref ultimate stress later traditions hebrew usually resulted loss final vowels many words preserving location proto semitic stress ref group nb additionally short stressed vowels open syllables reduced lost stress leading ultimate stress forms like tiberian hebrew words penultimate stress pause break reading ultimate stress context


'she watched' penultimate vowel original form lengthened pause context lengthened lost stress reduced due sound shift see ref tiberian hebrew phonemic stress eg 'they built' vs 'in us' stress commonly ultimate less commonly penultimate antipenultimate stress exists marginally eg 'into tent' ref name b ref ref group nb clear reduced vowel considered comprising whole syllable note example rule whereby word 's


stress shifts preceding open syllable avoid adjacent another stressed syllable skips ultrashort vowels eg 'with go pit' 'pierced sword' see ref seem evidence stress secunda varying tiberian tradition despite sharing loss final vowels tiberian hebrew samaritan hebrew generally preserved proto semitic stress predominantly penultimate stress occasional ultimate stress evidence qumran hebrew similar stress pattern samaritan hebrew ref name ref


grammar medieval grammarians arabic hebrew classified words belonging three parts speech arabic ''ism'' 'noun' ''fi l'' 'verb' '' arf'' 'particle' grammarians included categories ref name pos ref particular adjectives nouns show affinity european languages ref name pos biblical hebrew typical semitic morphology characterized use roots words biblical hebrew formed ''root'' sequence consonants general associated meaning ref name sroot ref roots usually triconsonantal biconsonantal roots less common depending words analyzed


rare cases quadri quinquiconsonantal roots ref name sroot roots modified affixation form words ref name sroot verbal patterns productive consistent noun patterns less predictable ref name sroot ref nouns adjectives common nominal prefix used used substantives location 'assembly' instruments 'key' abstractions 'judgement' ref name prefs ref vowel normally appears sometimes case contracted ref name prefs prefix used denote action verb


derived common initial verbs eg 'thanksgiving' ydy ref name prefs prefixed used adjectives eg 'deceptive' also occurs nouns initial sibilants eg 'finger' ref name prefs latter case prefix added phonetic reasons prefix called either prothetic prosthetic ref name prefs prefixed often occurs quadriliteral animal names perhaps prefix eg 'bat' 'mouse' 'scorpion' ref name prefs proto semitic nouns marked case singular markers nominative


accusative used also adverbials genitive evidenced akkadian ugaritic arabic amarna letters show probably still present hebrew c nbsp bce ref name scase ref development hebrew final dropped first later elided well ref name b ref mimation nominal suffix unclear meaning found early canaanite shown early egyptian transcriptions c nbsp bce jerusalem ''uru alimim'' indication presence nbsp bce ref name b ref group nb suggested construct forms long


lacking absolute later stem forms like proto semitic allow long vowels closed syllables loss mimation final short vowel see ref final preserved originally meaning 'at night' prose replacing 'night' connective vowels prepositions originally adverbials eg 'with us' nouns preserve forms like ref group nb unstressed suffix words like 'to earth' occurring also exclamations like used ornamentally poetry eg


may originally terminated consonantal later elided following suffix evidenced ugaritic orthography almost purely consonantal appears see ref construct state nouns lost case vowels early period similar akkadian shown reflexes absolute construct reflexes however forms like show yet feature proto hebrew biblical hebrew two genders masculine feminine reflected nouns adjectives pronouns verbs hebrew distinguishes


singular plural numbers plural forms may also used collectives honorifics hebrew morphological dual form nouns naturally occur pairs units measurement time contrasts plural 'day' 'two days' 'days' ref name wdual ref widespread misconception hebrew plural denotes three objects truth denotes two objects however adjectives pronouns verbs dual forms nominal dual forms function plurals 'six wings' isaiah ref name wdual finite verbs marked


hexapla nd century nbsp ce eg versus psalms ref name bseg ref may reflect dialectal variation phonetic versus phonemic transcriptions ref name bseg palestinian babylonian traditions anaptyctic vowel segolates palestinian tradition eg 'land' tiberian deuteronomy babylonian eg 'item' tiberian jeremiah qumran tradition sometimes shows type back epenthetic vowel first vowel back eg tiberian 'tent' biblical hebrew two sets personal pronouns


free standing independent pronouns nominative function pronominal suffixes genitive accusative ref name wp ref first person suffix different possessive objective forms ref name sb verbs verbal consonantal roots placed derived verbal stems known ''binyanim'' hebrew binyanim mainly serve indicate grammatical voice ref name sb ref includes various distinctions reflexivity passivity causativity ref name sb verbs binyanim three non finite forms one participle two infinitives three modal forms cohortative imperative jussive two major conjugations prefixing suffixing ref name sconj ref ref group nb modal forms may taken


remained jussive ''yaqtula'' cohortative roots biblical hebrew jussive form identical indicative form differentiation typical forms long short forms eg indicative jussive indicative jussive see ref meaning prefixing suffixing conjugations also affected conjugation meaning respect tense aspect matter debate ref name sconj word order default word order biblical hebrew commonly thought vso though one scholar argued


due prevalence clauses ''wayyiqtol'' verb form compared less marked forms use svo either often least comparable degree attributive adjectives normally follow noun modify biblical hebrew possession normally expressed status constructus construction possessed noun occurs phonologically reduced construct form followed possessor noun normal absolute form pronominal direct objects either suffixed verb alternatively expressed object marking pronoun ref name glinert ref tense aspect biblical hebrew


came either event begun event begun still process habitual cyclic action ongoing repetition imperfect also express modal conditional verbs well commands jussive cohortative moods conjectured imperfect express modal quality paragogic nun added certain imperfect forms often future tense also uses past present certain contexts biblical hebrew tense necessarily reflected verb


forms per se rather determined primarily context participles also reflect ongoing continuous actions also subject context determining tense verbal forms past tense circumstances ref name ref '' u perfect u simple past'' narrative reflects simple completed action perception emotion mental process also past tense perspective prior verb used future tense '' u imperfect u waw consecutive preterite'' simple past tense takes prefix conjunction appears beginning clause 's connected


narrative sequence previous clauses conjunction translated 'and then' 'then' 'but' 'however' sometimes translated even parenthetical function suggesting clause like side note main focus narrative '' u imperfect u past'' reflecting past action also suggesting process done eg brought horse halt began hear '' u imperfect u cyclic past'' reflecting habitual cyclic action time eg job would always '' u participle u past


tense'' active passive participle used imperfect verbal sense past eg spirit god hovering verbal forms present tense circumstances ref name '' u perfect u proverbial general present'' general truth present tense referring specific event eg sun sets west '' u perfect u stative present'' present tense verbs depict state rather action including verbs perception emotion mental process eg love hate understand know '' u perfect u present perfect'' present


perfect verb eg walked '' u imperfect u present condition'' imperfect verb present one implies action going time still ongoing present especially used questions present eg seeking '' u imperfect u cyclic present'' imperfect verb present reflecting cyclic action present eg said city son makes father glad '' u participle u present tense'' active passive participle used imperfect verbal sense present eg going


prefix conjunction continue subjunctive mood narrative sequence '' u perfect u waw consecutive jussive cohortative'' takes prefix conjunction continue jussive cohortative moods narrative sequence '' u perfect u promise future'' completeness verb form expresses imminent action context promises threats language contracts covenants general eg give land pleasure '' u perfect u prophetic future'' completeness verb form expresses imminent action context prophecy eg go


exile '' u imperfect u future'' reflects future event yet come completion one yet begun future tense perspective prior verb used past tense '' u imperfect u subjunctive'' reflects potential theoretical modal verb conditional clauses eg go stay '' u imperfect u jussive cohortative'' reflects non immediate command invitation permission wishful request eg let light may eat tree let 's go someone would get drink sample text following sample


psalm appears masoretic text medieval tiberian niqqud cantillation greek transcription secunda hexapla along reconstructed pronunciation border width style table layout fixed style padding right px center '''''tiberian hebrew''''' center center '''secunda''' ref name j center span style font size span span style font size span span style font size span span style font size span center '''''pronunciation secunda ''''' ref name j ipa center span style font size span span style font size span span style font size span span style font size span notes references group nb references bibliography external links biblical hebrew resources https wwwualbertaca ebenzvi assist hebrew bible hebrewbibstudyhtml resources study


biblical hebrew prof e ben zvi university alberta brown driver briggs hebrew lexicon appendix containing biblical aramaic wikisource http ehebrewnet learn ancient hebrew free resources study biblical hebrew online ehebrewnet grammar vocabulary writing http veracityomaddencom heb thechartpdf handy dandy hebrew grammar chart prof shawn madden southeastern baptist theological seminary http wwwhebrew christianscom grammar grammarhtml basic biblical hebrew grammar introductory http wwwhebrew christianscom grammar unit one aleph bet aleph bethtml learn write biblical hebrew characters http wwwbiblescripturenet hebrewhtml alphabet biblical hebrew language hebrew bible canaanite languages hebrew hebrew words phrases languages attested th century bc languages extinct st century sacred languages


'''psychopathology''' study abnormal cognition behaviour experiences differs according social norms rests upon number constructs deemed social norm particular era biological psychopathology study biological etiology abnormal cognitions behaviour experiences child psychopathology specialisation applied children adolescents animal psychopathology specialisation applied non human animals concept linked philosophical ideas first outlined galton linked appliance eugenical ideations around constitutes human history early explanations

Social science
Psychology
Psychopathology


mental illnesses influenced religious belief superstition psychological conditions classified mental disorders initially attributed possessions evil spirits demons devil idea widely accepted sixteenth seventeenth centuries individuals suffered called possessions tortured treatment foucault outlines history madness viewed seers joan arc religious practitioners used technique hoping bring patients back sanity increasingly shift great confinement ref name allpsych ref greek physician hippocrates one


first reject idea mental disorders caused possession demons devil firmly believed symptoms mental disorders due diseases originating brain hippocrates suspected states insanity due imbalances fluids body identified fluids four particular blood black bile yellow bile phlegm later became basis chemical imbalance theory used widely within present furthermore far hippocrates philosopher plato would come argue mind body spirit worked


unit imbalance brought compositions individual could bring distress lack harmony within individual philosophical idea would remain perspective seventeenth century ref name allpsych later challenged laing along laing esterson noted family environment led formation adaptive strategies eighteenth century 's romantic movement idea healthy parent child relationships provided sanity became prominent idea philosopher jean jacques rousseau introduced notion trauma childhood could negative implications later adulthood ref name allpsych


scientific discipline psychopathology founded karl jaspers referred static understanding purpose graphically recreate mental phenomenon experienced client nineteenth century greatly influenced rousseau 's ideas philosophy austrian psychoanalyst sigmund freud would bring psychotherapy become father psychoanalysis clinical method treating psychopathology dialogue patient psychoanalyst talking therapy would originate ideas individual 's experiences natural human efforts make sense world life ref name allpsych wednesday


meetings vienna adler took another perspective stated rooted social life individual outlined collected works adler study psychiatric disorders study psychopathology interdisciplinary contributions coming clinical psychology social psychology developmental psychology well neuropsychology psychology subdisciplines related fields include psychiatry neuroscience criminology social work sociology epidemiology statistics ref name text book psychopathology ref psychopathology broadly separated descriptive explanatory descriptive psychopathology involves categorising defining understanding symptoms reported people observed


behaviour assessed according social norm explanatory psychopathology looks find explanations certain kinds symptoms according theoretical models psychodynamics cognitive behavioural therapy understanding constructed drawing upon constructivist grounded theory charmaz interpretative phenomenological analysis smith flowers larkin ref name sims ref several ways characterise presence psychopathology individual whole one strategy assess person along four dimensions deviance distress dysfunction danger known collectively four ds another conceptualisation p factor


sees psychopathology general overarching construct influences psychiatric symptoms four ds description four ds defining abnormality ''deviance'' term describes idea specific thoughts behaviours emotions considered deviant unacceptable common society clinicians must however remember minority groups always deemed deviant may anything common groups therefore define individual 's actions deviant abnormal behaviour deemed unacceptable culture belong however many disorders relation


patterns deviance therefore need evaluated differential diagnostic model ''distress'' term accounts negative feelings individual disorder may feel deeply troubled affected illness behaviours feelings cause distress individual others around considered abnormal condition upsetting person experiencing distress related dysfunction useful asset accurately perceiving dysfunction individual 's life two always related individual highly dysfunctional


time experiencing minimal stress important characteristic distress dysfunction rather limit individual stressed issue ''dysfunction'' term involves maladaptive behaviour impairs individual 's ability perform normal daily functions getting ready work morning driving car maladaptive behaviour problem large enough considered diagnosis 's highly noted look dysfunction across individual 's life experience chance dysfunction may appear clear observable view places


less likely appear maladaptive behaviours prevent individual living normal healthy lifestyle however dysfunctional behaviour always caused disorder may voluntary engaging hunger strike ''danger'' term involves dangerous violent behaviour directed individual others environment two important characteristics danger danger self danger others diagnosing large vulnerability danger danger diagnosis within diagnoses continuum severity example


dangerous behaviour may suggest psychological disorder engaging suicidal activity behaviours feelings potentially harmful individual individuals around seen abnormal p factor benjamin lahey colleagues first proposed general psychopathology factor simply p factor construct shares conceptual similarity g factor general intelligence instead conceptualising psychopathology consisting several discrete categories mental disorders p factor dimensional influences whether psychiatric symptoms general present absent symptoms present combine


genetic predisposition mental illness existence p factor may explain challenging find causes consequences biomarkers treatments specificity individual mental disorders ref name caspi review p factor found many studies support validity generally stable throughout one 's life high p factor associated many adverse effects including poor academic performance impulsivity criminality suicidality reduced foetal growth lower executive functioning greater number psychiatric diagnoses partial genetic basis p factor also supported ref name ref


medicine mental health united states particularly professionals include psychologists counsellors physicians social workers psychiatric nurses nurse practitioners marriage family therapists ref name apa ref see also adverse childhood experiences movement biological psychiatry cerebral atrophy evidence based medicine glossary psychiatry neurodegeneration neuroimmunology neuroinflammation stress early childhood traumatic brain injury references reading atkinson l et al attachment issues psychopathology intervention lawrence erlbaum berrios ge ''the history mental symptoms descriptive psychopathology since th century'' cambridge cambridge university press freud psychopathology everyday


life macmillan keating p et al constructivist perspectives developmental psychopathology atypical development lawrence erlbaum maddux j e et al psychopathology foundations contemporary understanding lawrence erlbaum mcmaster university psychological disorders discover psychology pp nbsp introduction toronto nelson education sims ''symptoms mind introduction descriptive psychopathology rd ed '' elsevier widiger et al adult psychopathology issues controversies annual review psychology abnormal psychology pathology


mitigate hazards resulting adverse natural human made conditions principal objective engineering geologist protection life property damage caused various geological conditions practice engineering geology also closely related practice geological engineering geotechnical engineering difference content disciplines mainly lies training experience practitioner history although study geology around centuries least modern form science practice engineering geology

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Geotechnical engineering
Engineering geology


commenced recognized discipline late th early th centuries first book titled engineering geology published william penning early th century charles berkey american trained geologist considered first american engineering geologist worked several water supply projects new york city later worked hoover dam multitude engineering projects first american engineering geology textbook written ries watson reginald w brock first dean applied science university


attention failure st francis dam california death people engineering failures occurred following years also prompted requirement engineering geologists work large engineering projects one earliest definitions engineering geologist professional engineering geologist provided executive committee division engineering geology geological society america practice one important roles engineering geologist interpretation landforms earth processes identify potential geologic related


residential commercial industrial developments governmental military installations public works stormwater drainage system power plant wind turbine transmission line sewage treatment plant water treatment plant pipeline aqueduct sewer outfall tunnel trenchless construction canal dam reservoir building foundation railroad transit highway bridge seismic retrofit power generation facility airport park mine quarry developments mine tailing dam mine reclamation mine tunneling wetland habitat restoration programs government commercial industrial hazardous waste remediation sites coastal engineering sand replenishment bluff sea cliff stability harbor pier waterfront development