wander many different states system applications often require enumerating classes maintaining system within one class classifying possible trajectories led qualitative study dynamical systems properties change coordinate changes linear dynamical systems systems two numbers describing state examples dynamical systems possible classes orbits understood behavior trajectories function parameter may needed application parameter varied dynamical systems may bifurcation points


qualitative behavior dynamical system changes example may go periodic motions apparently erratic behavior transition turbulence fluid trajectories system may appear erratic random cases may necessary compute averages using one long trajectory many different trajectories averages well defined ergodic systems detailed understanding worked hyperbolic systems understanding probabilistic aspects dynamical systems helped establish foundations statistical mechanics

Formal science
Mathematics
Applied mathematics
Dynamical systems


developed many important approximation methods methods developed make possible define stability sets ordinary differential equations created modern theory stability dynamical system george david birkhoff proved poincar 's last geometric theorem special case three body problem result made world famous published '' https wwwamsorg online bks coll dynamical systems '' birkhoff 's durable result discovery called ergodic theorem combining insights physics ergodic hypothesis measure theory theorem solved


period late th century palestinian mechanical engineer ali h nayfeh applied nonlinear dynamics mechanical engineering systems ref name rega ref pioneering work applied nonlinear dynamics influential construction maintenance machines structures common daily life ships cranes bridges buildings skyscrapers jet engines rocket engines aircraft spacecraft ref name fi ref basic definitions dynamical system manifold ''m'' called phase state space endowed family smooth evolution functions sup ''t'' sup element ''t'' ''t'' time map point phase


function every point phase space ''m'' provides velocity vector dynamical system point vectors vectors phase space nbsp ''m'' tangent space ''t sub x sub m'' point nbsp ''x'' given smooth sup nbsp ''t'' sup autonomous vector field derived need higher order derivatives equation time dependence ''v'' ''x'' eliminated considering systems higher dimensions types differential equations used define evolution rule math g x dot x


math example equation arises modeling mechanical systems complicated constraints differential equations determining evolution function sup nbsp ''t'' sup often ordinary differential equations case phase space ''m'' finite dimensional manifold many concepts dynamical systems extended infinite dimensional manifolds mdash locally banach spaces mdash case differential equations partial differential equations late th century dynamical system perspective partial differential equations started gaining popularity examples arnold 's cat map baker 's map


example chaotic piecewise linear map billiards outer billiards bouncing ball dynamics circle map complex quadratic polynomial double pendulum dyadic transformation h non map irrational rotation kaplan yorke map list chaotic maps lorenz system quadratic map simulation system r ssler map swinging atwood 's machine tent map linear dynamical systems linear dynamical systems solved terms simple functions behavior orbits classified linear system phase space ''n'' dimensional euclidean space point phase space represented vector ''n'' numbers analysis linear


systems possible satisfy superposition principle ''u'' ''t'' ''w'' ''t'' satisfy differential equation vector field necessarily initial condition ''u'' ''t'' nbsp nbsp ''w'' ''t'' flows flow vector field v ''x'' affine function position phase space math dot x v x x b math ''a'' matrix ''b'' vector numbers ''x'' position vector solution system found using superposition principle linearity case ''b'' nbsp nbsp ''a'' nbsp nbsp straight line


direction nbsp ''b'' math phi x x b math ''b'' zero ''a'' nbsp nbsp origin equilibrium singular point flow ''x'' sub sub nbsp nbsp orbit remains initial conditions equation motion given exponential matrix initial point ''x'' sub sub math phi x e x math ''b'' eigenvalues ''a'' determine structure phase space eigenvalues eigenvectors ''a'' possible determine initial point


converge diverge equilibrium point origin distance two different initial conditions case ''a'' nbsp nbsp change exponentially cases either converging exponentially fast towards point diverging exponentially fast linear systems display sensitive dependence initial conditions case divergence nonlinear systems one necessary sufficient conditions chaotic behavior linear vector fields trajectories maps discrete time affine dynamical system form matrix difference equation math x n x n b math


''a'' matrix ''b'' vector continuous case change coordinates ''x'' nbsp nbsp ''x'' nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp ''a'' sup nbsp ndash sup ''b'' removes term ''b'' equation new coordinate system origin fixed point map solutions linear system ''a'' sup nbsp ''n'' sup ''x'' sub sub solutions map longer curves points hop phase space orbits organized curves fibers collections points map action map continuous case eigenvalues eigenvectors


''a'' determine structure phase space example ''u'' sub sub eigenvector ''a'' real eigenvalue smaller one straight lines given points along '' '' nbsp ''u'' sub sub '' '' nbsp nbsp '''r''' invariant curve map points straight line run fixed point also many discrete dynamical systems local dynamics qualitative properties dynamical systems change smooth change coordinates sometimes taken definition qualitative ' 'singular point'' vector field point nbsp ''v'' ''x'' nbsp nbsp


remain singular point smooth transformations ''periodic orbit'' loop phase space smooth deformations phase space cannot alter loop neighborhood singular points periodic orbits structure phase space dynamical system well understood qualitative study dynamical systems approach show change coordinates usually unspecified computable makes dynamical system simple possible rectification flow small patches phase space


general neighborhood periodic orbit rectification theorem cannot used poincar developed approach transforms analysis near periodic orbit analysis map pick point ''x'' sub sub orbit consider points phase space neighborhood perpendicular ''v'' ''x'' sub sub points poincar section ''s'' '' '' nbsp ''x'' sub sub orbit flow defines map poincar map ''f'' nbsp nbsp ''s'' nbsp nbsp ''s'' points starting ''s'' returning nbsp ''s'' points take amount time


come back times close time takes nbsp ''x'' sub sub intersection periodic orbit poincar section fixed point poincar map ''f'' translation point assumed ''x'' nbsp nbsp taylor series map ''f'' ''x'' nbsp nbsp ''j'' nbsp nbsp ''x'' nbsp nbsp ''x'' sup sup change coordinates ''h'' expected simplify ''f'' linear part math h circ f circ h x j cdot x math known conjugation equation finding conditions equation hold one


major tasks research dynamical systems poincar first approached assuming functions analytic process discovered non resonant condition '' '' sub sub nbsp nbsp '' '' sub '' '' sub eigenvalues ''j'' resonant one eigenvalue integer linear combination two others terms form '' '' sub ''i'' sub ndash multiples eigenvalues occurs denominator terms function ''h'' non resonant condition also known small divisor problem conjugation results results existence solution


conjugation equation depend eigenvalues ''j'' degree smoothness required ''h'' ''j'' need special symmetries eigenvalues typically complex numbers eigenvalues ''j'' unit circle dynamics near fixed point ''x'' sub sub ''f'' called ''hyperbolic'' eigenvalues unit circle complex dynamics called ''elliptic'' hyperbolic case hartman grobman theorem gives conditions existence continuous function maps neighborhood fixed point


map linear map ''j'' nbsp nbsp ''x'' hyperbolic case also ' 'structurally stable'' small changes vector field produce small changes poincar map small changes reflect small changes position eigenvalues ''j'' complex plane implying map still hyperbolic kolmogorov arnold moser kam theorem gives behavior near elliptic point bifurcation theory evolution map sup ''t'' sup vector field derived depends parameter structure phase space also depend


parameter small changes may produce qualitative changes phase space special value '' '' sub sub reached point phase space changes qualitatively dynamical system said gone bifurcation bifurcation theory considers structure phase space typically fixed point periodic orbit invariant torus studies behavior function parameter nbsp '' '' bifurcation point structure may change stability split new structures merge structures using taylor series approximations maps understanding


differences may eliminated change coordinates possible catalog bifurcations dynamical systems bifurcations hyperbolic fixed point ''x'' sub sub system family ''f sub sub '' characterized eigenvalues first derivative system ''df'' sub '' '' sub ''x'' sub sub computed bifurcation point map bifurcation occur eigenvalues ''df sub sub '' unit circle flow occur eigenvalues imaginary axis information see main article bifurcation theory bifurcations lead


units position nbsp nbsp momentum flow takes points subset ''a'' points sup nbsp ''t'' sup ''a'' invariance phase space means math mathrm vol mathrm vol phi math hamiltonian formalism given coordinate possible derive appropriate generalized momentum associated volume preserved flow volume said computed liouville measure hamiltonian system possible configurations position momentum reached initial condition energy conservation states


energy initial condition accessible states energy form energy shell sub manifold phase space volume energy shell computed using liouville measure preserved evolution systems volume preserved flow poincar discovered recurrence theorem assume phase space finite liouville volume let ''f'' phase space volume preserving map ''a'' subset phase space almost every point ''a'' returns ''a'' infinitely often poincar recurrence theorem


used zermelo object boltzmann 's derivation increase entropy dynamical system colliding atoms one questions raised boltzmann 's work possible equality time averages space averages called ergodic hypothesis hypothesis states length time typical trajectory spends region ''a'' vol ''a'' vol ergodic hypothesis turned essential property needed development statistical mechanics series ergodic like properties introduced capture relevant aspects physical systems


koopman approached study ergodic systems use functional analysis observable ''a'' function point phase space associates number say instantaneous pressure average height value observable computed another time using evolution function sup nbsp sup introduces operator ''u'' sup nbsp ''t'' sup transfer operator math u x phi x math studying spectral properties linear operator ''u'' becomes possible classify ergodic properties nbsp sup nbsp ''t'' sup using koopman approach considering action


flow observable function finite dimensional nonlinear problem involving sup nbsp ''t'' sup gets mapped infinite dimensional linear problem involving nbsp ''u'' liouville measure restricted energy surface basis averages computed equilibrium statistical mechanics average time along trajectory equivalent average space computed boltzmann factor exp minus ''h'' idea generalized sinai bowen ruelle srb larger class dynamical systems includes dissipative systems srb measures replace boltzmann factor defined attractors chaotic


systems nonlinear dynamical systems chaos simple nonlinear dynamical systems even piecewise linear systems exhibit completely unpredictable behavior might seem random despite fact fundamentally deterministic seemingly unpredictable behavior called ''chaos'' hyperbolic systems precisely defined dynamical systems exhibit properties ascribed chaotic systems hyperbolic systems tangent space perpendicular trajectory well separated two parts one points converge towards orbit ' 'stable manifold'' another points diverge orbit ''unstable


manifold'' branch mathematics deals long term qualitative behavior dynamical systems focus finding precise solutions equations defining dynamical system often hopeless rather answer questions like system settle steady state long term possible attractors long term behavior system depend initial condition note chaotic behavior complex systems issue meteorology known years involve complex mdash even chaotic mdash behavior chaos theory


surprising chaos found within almost trivial systems logistic map second degree polynomial horseshoe map piecewise linear geometrical definition dynamical system tuple math langle mathcal f mathcal rangle math math mathcal math manifold locally banach space euclidean space math mathcal math domain time non negative reals integers ''f'' evolution rule ''t'' nbsp nbsp ''f'' sup nbsp ''t'' sup math mathcal math ''f sup nbsp sup '' diffeomorphism manifold f mapping time domain math mathcal math space diffeomorphisms manifold


terms ''f'' ''t'' diffeomorphism every time ''t'' domain math mathcal math measure theoretical definition dynamical system may defined formally measure preserving transformation sigma algebra quadruplet ''x'' ''x'' set sigma algebra ''x'' pair ''x'' measurable space finite measure sigma algebra triplet ''x'' probability space map ''x'' ''x'' said measurable


every one math tau sigma sigma math map said '''preserve measure''' every one math mu tau sigma mu sigma math combining map said '''measure preserving transformation ''x'' ''' map ''x'' measurable measure preserving quadruple ''x'' defined '' 'dynamical system''' map embodies time evolution dynamical system thus discrete dynamical systems


iterates math tau n tau circ tau circ cdots circ tau math integer ''n'' studied continuous dynamical systems map understood finite time evolution map construction complicated multidimensional generalization dynamical systems defined single independent variable usually thought time general class systems defined multiple independent variables therefore called multidimensional systems systems useful modeling example image processing see also behavioral modeling cognitive modeling complex dynamics dynamic approach second language development feedback passivation infinite compositions


analytic functions list dynamical system topics oscillation people systems control sharkovskii 's theorem system dynamics systems theory principle maximum caliber references reading works providing broad coverage available reprint ''encyclopaedia mathematical sciences'' sub series dynamical systems reviews current research introductory texts unique perspective textbooks popularizations external links http wwwarxivorg list mathds recent arxiv preprint server daily submissions non refereed manuscripts dynamical systems http wwwscholarpediaorg article encyclopedia dynamical systems encyclopedia dynamical systems part scholarpedia peer reviewed written invited experts http wwwegwaldca nonlineardynamics indexphp nonlinear dynamics models


bifurcation chaos elmer g wiens http amathcoloradoedu faculty jdm faq contentshtml scinonlinear faq sept provides definitions explanations resources related nonlinear science online books lecture notes https arxivorg abs mathho geometrical theory dynamical systems nils berglund 's lecture notes course eth advanced undergraduate level https archiveorg details dynamicalsystems birk dynamical systems george birkhoff 's book already takes modern approach dynamical systems http chaosbookorg chaos classical quantum introduction dynamical systems periodic orbit point view http wwwcsbrownedu research ai dynamics tutorial homehtml learning dynamical systems tutorial learning dynamical systems https wwwmatunivieacat gerald ftp book ode ordinary differential equations dynamical systems lecture notes gerald


applicada http ndwcscascz nonlinear dynamics workgroup institute computer science czech academy sciences https dynamicalsystemsupcedu upc dynamical systems group barcelona polytechnical university catalonia https wwwccdcucsbedu center control dynamical systems computation university california santa barbara systems theory mathematical quantitative methods economics


famous tang dynasty guqin jiu huan pei guqin played since ancient times traditionally favored scholars literati instrument great subtlety refinement '''music history''' sometimes called historical musicology highly diverse subfield broader discipline musicology studies music historical point view theory music history could refer study history type genre music eg history indian music history rock practice research topics often categorized part

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Music history


ethnomusicology cultural studies whether ethnographically based terms music history historical musicology usually refer history notated music western elites sometimes called art music analogy art history tends focus elite art methods music history include source studies esp manuscript studies paleography philology especially textual criticism style criticism historiography choice historical method musical analysis iconography application musical analysis goals often part music history though pure analysis development new tools


music analysis likely seen field music theory intellectual products music historians include peer reviewed articles journals university press published music history books university textbooks new editions musical works biographies composers musicians studies relationship words music reflections upon role music society pedagogy although performers classical traditional instruments receive instruction music history whether history art music pop rock roll etc music teachers throughout lessons


begin late baroque classical eras might omit music wwii courses music majors traditionally span period middle ages current era depth types courses tend emphasize balance among acquisition musical repertory often emphasized listening examinations study analysis works biographical cultural details music musicians writing music perhaps music criticism music history courses university examine following eras medieval c c renaissance c c baroque c


c classical c c early romantic c c late romantic c c post 'great war' years c present specialized seminars music history tend use similar approach narrower subject introducing tools research music history range possible topics virtually limitless examples might music world war medieval renaissance instrumental music music politics mozart 's ''don giovanni'' women music methods tools music history nearly


many subjects therefore make strict categorization impossible however trends approaches outlined like historical discipline research music history roughly divided two categories establishing factual correct data interpretation data historical research fall one category solely rather employs combination methods categories act establishing factual data never fully separate act interpretation '''archival work''' may conducted find connections music musicians


collection documents broader interests eg vatican pay records letters patroness arts systematically study collection documents related musician cases records scores letters digitized archival work done online one example composer archival materials examined online arnold schoenberg center '''performance practice''' draws many tools historical musicology answer specific question music performed various places various times past scholars investigate


questions instruments voices used perform given work tempos tempo changes used ornaments used although performance practice previously confined early music baroque era since research performance practice examined historical eras early classical era piano concerti performed early history recording affected use vibrato classical music instruments used klezmer music '''biographical studies''' composers give us better sense chronology compositions


influences style works provide important background interpretation performers listeners works thus biography form one part larger study cultural significance underlying program agenda work study gained increasing importance early '''sociological studies''' focus function music society well meaning individuals society whole researchers emphasizing social importance music including classical music sometimes called new musicologists may examine intersection music music making issues


race class gender sexuality eg lgbtq disability among approaches '''semiotic studies''' conventionally province music analysts rather historians however crucial practice musical semiotics interpretation meaning work style situation historical context interpretative work scholars kofi agawu lawrence kramer fall analytic music historical history first studies western musical history date back middle th century gb martini published three volume history


titled ''storia della musica'' ''history music'' martin gerbert published two volume history sacred music titled ''de cantu de musica sacra'' gerbert followed work three volume work ''scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra'' containing significant writings sacred music rd century onwards ludwig van beethoven 's manuscript sketch piano sonata movement iv ''geschwind doch nicht zu sehr und mit entschlossenheit'' allegro handwriting piece completed th century work johannes wolf others developed


studies medieval music early renaissance music wolf 's writings history musical notation considered particularly notable musicologists historical musicology played critical role renewed interest baroque music well medieval renaissance music particular authentic performance movement owes much historical musicological scholarship towards middle th century musicology largest subfield historical musicology expanded significantly field study concurrently number musicological music journals increased create outlets publication research domination


german language scholarship ebbed significant journals sprang throughout west especially america critiques exclusion disciplines musics narrow definition historical musicology music history western culture definition arbitrarily excludes disciplines history cultures western forms music classical art serious high culture notated artificial implying omitted disciplines cultures musical styles genres somehow inferior somewhat broader definition incorporating musical humanities still problematic arbitrarily excludes relevant natural sciences acoustics psychology physiology neurosciences


information computer sciences empirical sociology aesthetics well musical practice musicological sub disciplines music theory music analysis likewise historically rather uneasily separated narrow definition historical musicology within historical musicology scholars reluctant adopt postmodern critical approaches common elsewhere humanities according susan mcclary p nbsp discipline music lags behind arts picks ideas media become outmoded historical musicologists preceded feminist musicologists late


begin address issues gender sexualities bodies emotions subjectivities dominated humanities twenty years ibid p nbsp mcclary 's words p nbsp almost seems musicology managed miraculously pass directly pre postfeminism without ever change even examine ways furthermore discussion musicology rock music susan mcclary robert walser also address key struggle within discipline musicology often dismisse questions socio musical interaction hand part classical music 's greatness ascribed autonomy


society p nbsp exclusion popular music according richard middleton strongest criticism historical musicology generally ignores popular music though musicological study popular music vastly increased quantity recently middleton 's assertion major works musicology theoretical historical act though popular music exist holds true academic conservatory training typically peripherally addresses broad spectrum musics many historical musicologists contemptuous condescending looking types production musical form listening associate ' 'different''


kind music'classical music'and generally find popular music lacking cites three main aspects problem p nbsp terminology historical musicology slanted needs history particular music 'classical music' acknowledges rich vocabulary certain areas harmony tonality certain part writing forms important musicology 's typical corpus yet points impoverished vocabulary areas rhythm pitch nuance gradation timbre less well developed classical music middleton argues number terms ideologically loaded


always involve selective often unconsciously formulated conceptions music ''is'' well claims historical musicology uses methodology slanted characteristics notation 'notational centricity' tagg p nbsp result musicological methods tend foreground musical parameters easily notated pitch relationships relationship words music hand historical musicology tends neglect difficulty parameters easily notated tone colour non western rhythms addition claims notation centric training western music schools induces particular


forms ''listening'' tend applied ''all'' sorts music appropriately result western music students trained historical musicology may listen funk latin song rhythmically complex dismiss low level musical work simple melody uses two five chords notational centricity also encourages reification score comes seen 'the music' perhaps music ideal form music use written score jazz blues


let us beat swords plowshares'' united nations garden '''disarmament''' act reducing limiting abolishing weapons disarmament generally refers country 's military specific type weaponry disarmament often taken mean total elimination weapons mass destruction nuclear arms general complete disarmament defined united nations general assembly elimination wmd coupled balanced reduction armed forces conventional armaments based principle undiminished security parties view promoting enhancing stability

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Disarmament


cause war escalating buildup armaments previous half century among great powers see anglo german naval arms race although treaty versailles effectively disarmed germany clause inserted called great powers likewise progressively disarm period time newly formed league nations made explicit goal covenant league committed signatories reduce armaments 'to lowest point consistent national safety enforcement common action international obligations' battleships dismantled


scrap philadelphia navy yard washington naval treaty imposed limits capital ships martin kobler addresses attendees disarmament ceremony goma democratic republic congo one earliest successful achievements disarmament obtained washington naval treaty signed governments great britain united states japan france italy prevented continued construction capital ships limited ships classification tons displacement size three country 's navies royal navy united states navy imperial japanese navy set ratio


temporary mixed commission armaments set league nations explore possibilities disarmament made government representatives famous individuals rarely agreed proposals ranged abolishing chemical warfare strategic bombing limitation conventional weapons tanks draft treaty assembled made aggressive war illegal bound member states defend victims aggression force since onus responsibility would practice great powers league


vetoed great britain feared pledge would strain commitment police british empire another commission set explore possibilities reduction army size met similar difficulties however acting outside league french foreign minister aristide briand us secretary state frank kellogg drafted treaty known kellogg briand pact denounced war aggression signatories pact set guidelines action event war used convict execute nazi


leaders war crimes final attempt made geneva disarmament conference chaired former british foreign secretary arthur henderson germany demanded revision versailles treaty granting military parity powers france determined keep germany demilitarised security meanwhile british americans willing offer france security commitments exchange conciliation germany talks broke adolf hitler withdrew germany conference nuclear disarmament united states ussr russian nuclear weapons stockpiles


numbers include warheads actively deployed including reserve status scheduled dismantlement stockpile totals necessarily reflect nuclear capabilities since ignore size range type delivery mode cooperative threat reduction program nuclear disarmament refers act reducing eliminating nuclear weapons end state nuclear free world nuclear weapons completely eliminated united kingdom campaign nuclear disarmament cnd held inaugural public meeting central hall westminster february attended five thousand people meeting hundred left


demonstrate downing street ref name minnion john minnion philip bolsover eds ''the cnd story'' allison busby ref cnd 's declared policies unconditional renunciation use production dependence upon nuclear weapons britain bringing general disarmament convention first aldermaston march organised cnd took place easter several thousand people marched four days trafalgar square london atomic weapons research establishment close aldermaston berkshire england demonstrate opposition nuclear weapons ref name cnd http wwwcndukorg pages binfo histhtml brief history cnd ref ref name guardianunlimited ref


groups include campaign nuclear disarmament greenpeace international physicians prevention nuclear war many large anti nuclear demonstrations protests june one million people demonstrated new york city 's central park nuclear weapons end cold war arms race largest anti nuclear protest largest political demonstration american history police disarmament black lives matter black block banner reading '' end gun violence disarm police '' pictured december columbus ohio police disarmament movement political movement advocates replacing policing


functioning lawful community disarmament conferences treaties strasbourg agreement hague peace conference treaty versailles locarno treaties kellogg briand pact world disarmament conference ten nation disarmament committee eighteen nation disarmament committee conference committee disarmament present conference disarmament cd ref name geneva confs http wwwunogch ee httphomepages e f f opendocument un office geneva disarmament geneva ref naval ndash london naval conference ndash washington naval conference geneva naval conference london naval conference leading london naval treaty london naval conference leading second london naval treaty weapons mass


disarmament measures may even intended first step towards kind reduction abolition aim may simply promote stability force structures hence new term cover cases become fashionable since namely arms control references references reading cuthbertson ian peter volten ''the guns fall silent end cold war future conventional disarmament'' routledge dupuy trevor n gay hammerman eds ''a documentary history arms control disarmament'' pp


new york pantheon marcus g raskin draft treaty comprehensive program common security general disarmament ''essays citizen national security state democracy'' armonk new york e sharpe inc wittner lawrence ''confronting bomb short history world disarmament movement'' stanford university press pp https listsh netorg cgi bin logbrowsepltrx vx list h peace month week b msg txtjp kd ax b wjthrtkq user pw online review see also arms control arms embargo chemical weapons global issue guns versus butter model list chemical arms control agreements military keynesianism nuclear disarmament decommissioning russian nuclear powered vessels peace dividend united nations office disarmament affairs


external links https wwwunorg disarmament united nations office disarmament affairs https nonproliferation elearningeu eu non proliferation disarmament elearning course http wwwdisarmamentinsightblogspotcom disarmament insight blogsite https wwwopcworg organisation prohibition chemical weapons http wwwseymourmelmancom archive related writings seymour melman website https webarchiveorg web http wwweconomicreconstructioncom archive related writings economic reconstruction website https wwwsipriorg research armament disarmament armament disarmament stockholm international peace research institute http wwwindianaedu league conferencedatahtm league nations conference listing https webarchiveorg web http wwwbartlebycom na navalconhtml naval conference ''columbia encyclopedia'' arms control foreign policy doctrines


agar plate streaked microorganisms '''bacteriology''' branch specialty biology studies morphology ecology genetics biochemistry bacteria well many aspects related subdivision microbiology involves identification classification characterization bacterial species similarity thinking working microorganisms bacteria protozoa fungi viruses tendency field bacteriology extend microbiology ref name macnealwilliams ref terms formerly often used interchangeably ref name poindexter ref however bacteriology classified distinct science introduction bacteriology

Natural science
Biology
Microbiology
Bacteriology


study bacteria relation medicine bacteriology evolved physicians needing apply germ theory test concerns relating spoilage foods wines th century identification characterizing bacteria associated diseases led advances pathogenic bacteriology koch 's postulates played role identifying relationships bacteria specific diseases since bacteriology many successful advances like effective vaccines example diphtheria toxoid tetanus toxoid also vaccines effective side effects example


typhoid vaccine bacteriology also provided discovery antibiotics history antonie van leeuwenhoek edelfeldt statue koch berlinthe discovery connection microorganisms disease dated back nineteenth century german physician robert koch introduced science microorganisms medical field identified bacteria cause infectious diseases process fermentation diseases french scientist louis pasteur developed techniques produce vaccines koch pasteur played role improving antisepsis medical treatment enormous positive effect


public health gave better understanding body diseases modern methods bacteriology technique introduced use stains method separating mixtures organisms plates nutrient media pasteur produced two successful vaccinations animals diseases caused bacteria successful importance bacteria recognized led study disease prevention treatment diseases vaccines bacteriology developed studied agriculture marine biology water pollution bacterial genetics biotechnology


see bacteria biology microbiology references reading


geometries consider two straight lines indefinitely extended two dimensional plane perpendicular third line plane euclidean geometry lines remain constant distance meaning line drawn perpendicular one line point intersect line length line segment joining points intersection remains constant known parallels hyperbolic geometry curve away increasing distance one moves points intersection common perpendicular

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
Non-Euclidean geometry


lines often called ultraparallels elliptic geometry lines curve toward intersect history background euclidean geometry named greek mathematician euclid includes oldest known mathematics geometries deviated widely accepted legitimate th century debate eventually led discovery non euclidean geometries began almost soon euclid wrote ''elements'' ''elements'' euclid begins limited number assumptions definitions five common notions five postulates seeks prove results propositions work


notorious postulates often referred euclid 's fifth postulate simply ''parallel postulate'' euclid 's original formulation blockquote straight line falls two straight lines manner interior angles side together less two right angles straight lines produced indefinitely meet side angles less two right angles blockquote mathematicians devised simpler forms property regardless form postulate however consistently appears complicated euclid 's


postulates blockquote draw straight line point point produce extend finite straight line continuously straight line describe circle centre distance radius right angles equal one another blockquote least thousand years geometers troubled disparate complexity fifth postulate believed could proved theorem four many attempted find proof contradiction including ibn al haytham alhazen th century omar khayy th century nas r al n al


th century giovanni girolamo saccheri th century theorems ibn al haytham khayyam al tusi quadrilaterals including lambert quadrilateral saccheri quadrilateral first theorems hyperbolic elliptic geometries theorems along alternative postulates playfair 's axiom played important role later development non euclidean geometry early attempts challenging fifth postulate considerable influence development among later european geometers including witelo levi ben gerson alfonso john wallis saccheri early attempts made trying formulate


non euclidean geometry however provided flawed proofs parallel postulate containing assumptions essentially equivalent parallel postulate early attempts however provide early properties hyperbolic elliptic geometries khayyam example tried derive equivalent postulate formulated principles philosopher aristotle ''two convergent straight lines intersect impossible two convergent straight lines diverge direction converge'' khayyam considered three cases right obtuse acute summit angles saccheri quadrilateral take


proving number theorems correctly refuted obtuse acute cases based postulate hence derived classic postulate euclid n't realize equivalent postulate another example al tusi 's son sadr al din sometimes known pseudo tusi wrote book subject based al tusi 's later thoughts presented another hypothesis equivalent parallel postulate essentially revised euclidean system axioms postulates proofs many propositions ''elements'' ref name katz work published rome


studied european geometers including saccheri ref name katz victor j katz ''history mathematics introduction'' p addison wesley blockquote manuscript probably written son sadr al din based nasir al din 's later thoughts subject new argument based another hypothesis also equivalent euclid 's importance latter work published rome studied european geometers particular became starting point work saccheri ultimately discovery non euclidean geometry blockquote ref


criticised work well wallis giordano vitale book ''euclide restituo'' used saccheri quadrilateral prove three points equidistant base ab summit cd ab cd everywhere equidistant work titled ''euclides ab omni naevo vindicatus'' ''euclid freed flaws'' published saccheri quickly discarded elliptic geometry possibility others euclid 's axioms must modified elliptic geometry work set work proving great number results hyperbolic geometry finally reached


point believed results demonstrated impossibility hyperbolic geometry claim seems based euclidean presuppositions ''logical'' contradiction present attempt prove euclidean geometry instead unintentionally discovered new viable geometry realize johann lambert wrote publish ''theorie der parallellinien'' attempted saccheri prove fifth postulate worked figure known ''lambert quadrilateral'' quadrilateral three right angles considered half saccheri quadrilateral quickly


eliminated possibility fourth angle obtuse saccheri khayyam proceeded prove many theorems assumption acute angle unlike saccheri never felt reached contradiction assumption proved non euclidean result sum angles triangle increases area triangle decreases led speculate possibility model acute case sphere imaginary radius carry idea time


widely believed universe worked according principles euclidean geometry discovery non euclidean geometry beginning th century would finally witness decisive steps creation non euclidean geometry circa carl friedrich gauss independently around german professor law ferdinand karl schweikart germinal ideas non euclidean geometry worked neither published results schweikart 's nephew franz taurinus publish important results hyperbolic trigonometry two papers yet admitting internal consistency hyperbolic geometry still believed special role


euclidean geometry russian mathematician nikolai ivanovich lobachevsky hungarian mathematician j nos bolyai separately independently published treatises hyperbolic geometry consequently hyperbolic geometry called lobachevskian bolyai lobachevskian geometry mathematicians independent basic authors non euclidean geometry gauss mentioned bolyai 's father shown younger bolyai 's work developed geometry several years though publish lobachevsky created non euclidean geometry negating parallel postulate bolyai worked geometry euclidean hyperbolic


geometry possible depending parameter nbsp ''k'' bolyai ends work mentioning possible decide mathematical reasoning alone geometry physical universe euclidean non euclidean task physical sciences bernhard riemann famous lecture founded field riemannian geometry discussing particular ideas called manifolds riemannian metric curvature constructed infinite family non euclidean geometries giving formula family riemannian metrics unit ball euclidean space simplest called


elliptic geometry considered non euclidean geometry due lack parallel lines formulating geometry terms curvature tensor riemann allowed non euclidean geometry apply higher dimensions beltrami first apply riemann 's geometry spaces negative curvature terminology gauss coined term non euclidean geometry referring work today call ''hyperbolic geometry'' several modern authors still consider ''non euclidean geometry'' ''hyperbolic geometry'' synonyms arthur cayley noted distance points inside conic could defined terms logarithm


projective cross ratio function method become called cayley klein metric felix klein exploited describe non euclidean geometries articles later book form cayley klein metrics provided working models hyperbolic elliptic metric geometries well euclidean geometry klein responsible terms hyperbolic elliptic system called euclidean geometry ''parabolic'' term generally fell use influence led current usage term non euclidean geometry mean either hyperbolic elliptic geometry mathematicians


would extend list geometries called non euclidean various ways axiomatic basis non euclidean geometry euclidean geometry axiomatically described several ways unfortunately euclid 's original system five postulates axioms one proofs relied several unstated assumptions also taken axioms hilbert 's system consisting axioms closely follows approach euclid provides justification euclid 's proofs systems using different sets undefined terms obtain geometry different paths approaches however


axiom logically equivalent euclid 's fifth postulate parallel postulate hilbert uses playfair axiom form birkhoff instance uses axiom says exists pair similar congruent triangles systems removal one axiom equivalent parallel postulate whatever form takes leaving axioms intact produces absolute geometry first propositions euclid ''the elements'' require use parallel postulate anything equivalent true statements absolute geometry


obtain non euclidean geometry parallel postulate equivalent ''must'' replaced negation negating playfair 's axiom form since compound statement exists one one done two ways either exist one line point parallel given line exist lines point parallel given line first case replacing parallel postulate equivalent statement plane given point p line passing


p exist two lines p meet keeping axioms yields hyperbolic geometry second case dealt easily simply replacing parallel postulate statement plane given point p line passing p lines p meet give consistent set axioms follows since parallel lines exist absolute geometry statement says parallel lines problem known different guise khayyam saccheri lambert


triangle equal surface sphere euclidean space locally laws euclidean geometry good approximations small triangle face earth sum angles nearly two dimensional euclidean geometry modelled notion flat plane elliptic geometry simplest model elliptic geometry sphere lines great circles equator meridians globe points opposite called antipodal points identified considered


eugenio beltrami first showed surface called pseudosphere appropriate curvature model portion hyperbolic space second paper year defined klein model models entirety hyperbolic space used show euclidean geometry hyperbolic geometry equiconsistent hyperbolic geometry logically consistent euclidean geometry reverse implication follows horosphere model euclidean geometry hyperbolic model within two dimensional plane given line point ''a''


introduction also following lambert quadrilateral quadrilateral three right angles fourth angle lambert quadrilateral acute geometry hyperbolic right angle geometry euclidean obtuse geometry elliptic consequently rectangles exist statement equivalent parallel postulate euclidean geometry saccheri quadrilateral quadrilateral two sides equal length perpendicular side called ''base'' two angles saccheri quadrilateral called ' 'summit angles'' equal measure summit


angles saccheri quadrilateral acute geometry hyperbolic right angles geometry euclidean obtuse angles geometry elliptic sum measures angles triangle less geometry hyperbolic equal geometry euclidean greater geometry elliptic ' 'defect'' triangle numerical value minus sum measures angles triangle result may also stated defect triangles hyperbolic geometry


role geometry prime example synthetic priori knowledge derived senses deduced logic nbsp knowledge space truth born unfortunately kant concept unalterably true geometry euclidean theology also affected change absolute truth relative truth way mathematics related world around result paradigm shift non euclidean geometry example scientific revolution history science mathematicians scientists changed


analytic geometry plane described cartesian coordinates ''c'' ''xy'' ''x'' ''y'' points sometimes identified complex numbers sup sup euclidean plane corresponds case since modulus given math z z ast x epsilon x epsilon x math quantity square euclidean distance origin instance ''z z'' unit circle planar algebra non euclidean geometry


arises cases split complex number conventionally replaces epsilon math z z ast x mathbf j x mathbf j x math ''z z'' unit hyperbola dual number approach non euclidean geometry explains non euclidean angles parameters slope dual number plane hyperbolic angle split complex plane correspond angle euclidean geometry indeed arise polar decomposition complex number kinematic geometries hyperbolic geometry found


plane instance split complex number ''z'' e sup ''a''j sup represent spacetime event one moment future frame reference rapidity ''a'' furthermore multiplication ''z'' amounts lorentz boost mapping frame rapidity zero rapidity ''a'' kinematic study makes use dual numbers math z x epsilon quad epsilon math represent classical description motion absolute time space equations math x prime x vt quad prime math equivalent shear mapping linear algebra math begin pmatrix x'


t' end pmatrix begin pmatrix v end pmatrix begin pmatrix x end pmatrix math dual numbers mapping math prime x prime epsilon v epsilon x epsilon x vt epsilon math another view special relativity non euclidean geometry advanced e b wilson gilbert lewis ''proceedings american academy arts sciences'' revamped analytic geometry implicit split complex number algebra synthetic geometry premises deductions fiction non euclidean geometry often makes appearances works science fiction fantasy


many unnatural things follow unique laws geometry lovecraft 's cthulhu mythos sunken city r'lyeh characterized non euclidean geometry heavily implied achieved side effect following natural laws universe rather simply using alternate geometric model sheer innate wrongness said capable driving look upon insane main character robert pirsig 's ''zen art motorcycle maintenance'' mentioned riemannian geometry multiple occasions ''the brothers karamazov'' dostoevsky discusses non euclidean geometry


character ivan christopher priest 's novel ''inverted world'' describes struggle living planet form rotating pseudosphere robert heinlein 's ''the number beast'' utilizes non euclidean geometry explain instantaneous transport space time parallel fictional universes zeno rogue 's ''hyperrogue'' roguelike game set hyperbolic plane allowing player experience many properties geometry many mechanics quests locations strongly dependent features hyperbolic geometry renegade legion science fiction setting fasa 's wargame role playing game fiction faster light travel


communications possible use hsieh ho 's polydimensional non euclidean geometry published sometime middle nd century ian stewart 's ''flatterland'' protagonist victoria line visits kinds non euclidean worlds see also hyperbolic space l n rt sphere projective geometry non euclidean surface growth notes references ''notes hyperbolic geometry'' strasbourg master class geometry pp nbsp irma lectures mathematics theoretical physics vol z rich european mathematical society ems pages doi anderson james w ''hyperbolic geometry'' second edition springer beltrami eugenio ''teoria fondamentale degli spaz di curvatura costante''


relativity odyssey non euclidean geometries world scientific pp nbsp nikolai lobachevsky ''pangeometry'' translator editor papadopoulos heritage european mathematics series vol european mathematical society milnor john w '' http projecteuclidorg euclidbams hyperbolic geometry first years '' bull amer math soc ns volume number pp nbsp stewart ian ''flatterland'' new york perseus publishing softcover john stillwell ''sources hyperbolic geometry'' american mathematical society papadopoulos et guillaume th ret ''la th orie des parall les de johann heinrich lambert'' critical edition lambert 's memoir french translation historical


'''gender studies''' interdisciplinary academic field devoted analysing gender identity gendered representation like queer studies men 's studies originated interdisciplinary program women 's studies concerning women feminism gender politics ref name whitman ref rise prominence especially western universities coincided rise deconstructionism ref name gottshall ref disciplines frequently contribute gender studies include sexuality gender sexuality fields literature linguistics human geography history political science archaeology economics sociology psychology anthropology cinema musicology media studies human development law public health medicine ref name uchicago ref also analyzes race


ethnicity location class nationality disability intersect categories gender sexuality ref name race ethnicity gender class healey j f ''race ethnicity gender class sociology group conflict change'' ref ref name indiana ref regarding gender simone de beauvoir said one born woman one becomes one ref name de beauvoir de beauvoir second sex ref view proposes gender studies term gender used refer social cultural constructions masculinity femininity state male female entirety ref name stephanie garrett garrett


gender p vii ref however view held gender theorists beauvoir 's view many sociologists support see sociology gender though many contributors field gender studies different backgrounds opposing views psychoanalyst jacques lacan feminists judith butler gender pertinent many disciplines literary theory drama studies film theory performance theory contemporary art history anthropology sociology sociolinguistics psychology however disciplines sometimes differ approaches gender studied politics gender viewed


posits development gender roles role play childhood counter idea gender identity innate biologically determined according lacan sexuation individual much development gender identity genetically sexed male female ref name lacan post feminism ref julia kristeva significantly developed field semiotics contends patriarchal cultures like individuals exclude maternal feminine come ref name kristeva abject ref bracha l ettinger transformed subjectivity contemporary psychoanalysis since early


matrixial feminine maternal prematernal eros ref name referencea ref borderlinking bordureliance borderspacing bordurespacement co emergence matrixial feminine difference defines particular gaze source trans subjectivity transjectivity males females ettinger rethinks human subject informed archaic connectivity maternal proposes idea demeter persephone complexity feminist psychoanalytic theory feminist theorists juliet mitchell nancy chodorow jessica benjamin jane gallop bracha l ettinger shoshana felman griselda pollock luce irigaray jane flax developed feminist psychoanalysis argued psychoanalytic theory vital


feminist project must like theoretical traditions criticized women well transformed free vestiges sexism ie censored shulamith firestone ''the dialectic sex'' calls freudianism misguided feminism discusses freudianism ''almost'' completely accurate exception one crucial detail everywhere freud writes penis word replaced power critics elizabeth grosz accuse jacques lacan maintaining sexist tradition psychoanalysis ref name grosz ref others judith butler bracha l ettinger jane gallop used lacanian work though


criticized psychoanalysis perpetuate family social model patriarchal based rigid timeless version parental order literary theory psychoanalytically oriented french feminism focused visual literary theory along virginia woolf 's legacy well adrienne rich 's call women 's revisions literary texts history well galvanized generation feminist authors reply texts griselda pollock feminists articulated myth poetry ref name vanda zajko vanda zajko miriam leonard eds ''laughing medusa'' oxford university press ref literature ref name vanda zajko


point view gender post modern influence emergence post modernism theories affected gender studies ref name lacan post feminism causing movement identity theories away concept fixed essentialist gender identity post modern fluid multiple identities impact post structuralism literary theory aspect post modernism gender studies prominent challenge grand narratives post structuralism paved way emergence queer theory gender studies necessitated field expanding purview sexuality addition expansion include sexuality studies influence post modernism gender


studies also turned lens toward masculinity studies due work sociologists theorists r w connell michael kimmel e anthony rotundo changes expansions led contentions within field one second wave feminists queer theorists line drawn two camps lies problem feminists see queer theorists arguing everything fragmented grand narratives also trends categories feminists argue erases categories gender altogether


nothing antagonize power dynamics reified gender words fact gender socially constructed undo fact strata oppression genders development theory history history gender studies looks different perspectives gender discipline examines ways historical cultural social events shape role gender different societies field gender studies focusing differences men women also looks sexual differences less binary definitions gender categorization universal suffrage revolution


twentieth century women 's liberation movement promoted revision feminists actively interrogate usual accepted versions history known time goal many feminist scholars question original assumptions regarding women 's men 's attributes actually measure report observed differences women men ref name chafetz janet saltzman chafetz janet saltzman handbook sociology gender new york kluwer academic plenum print ref initially programs essentially feminist designed recognize contributions made women well


men soon men began look masculinity way women looking femininity developed area study called men 's studies ref name douglas fedwa douglas fedwa ''encyclopedia sex gender'' detroit macmillan reference print ref late scholars recognized need study field sexuality due increasing interest lesbian gay rights scholars found individuals associate sexuality gender together rather separate entities ref name douglas fedwa although doctoral programs women 's studies


existed since first doctoral program potential phd gender studies united states approved november kabul university became first university afghanistan offer master 's degree course gender women 's studies women 's studies women 's studies interdisciplinary academic field devoted topics concerning women feminism gender politics often includes feminist theory women 's history eg history women 's suffrage social history women 's fiction women 's health feminist psychoanalysis feminist gender studies influenced practice humanities social sciences men 's


studies men 's studies interdisciplinary academic field devoted topics concerning men gender politics often includes feminist theory men 's history social history men 's fiction men 's health feminist psychoanalysis feminist gender studies influenced practice humanities social sciences timothy laurie anna hickey moody suggest 'have always dangers present institutionalisation masculinity studies semi gated community' note 'a certain triumphalism vis vis feminist philosophy haunts much masculinities research' within studies men important distinguish specific approach often defined critical studies


men approach largely developed anglophone countries early especially united kingdom centred around work jeff hearn david morgan colleagues ref name ref influence approach spread globally since inspired primarily range feminist perspectives including socialist radical places emphasis need research practice explicitly challenge men 's boys' sexism ref name although explores broad range men 's practices tends focus especially issues related sexuality


men 's violences although originally largely rooted sociology since engaged broad range disciplines including social policy social work cultural studies gender studies education law recent years critical studies men research made particular use comparative transnational perspectives like men 's studies masculinity studies generally critical studies men critiqued failure adequately focus issue men 's relations children key site development men 's masculinity formations men 's relations women men 's relations men


asia pacific social development world bank web march ref however countries less economically stable papua new guinea timor leste laos cambodia provinces remote locations women tend bear cost social domestic conflicts natural disasters ref name auto places india polynesia widely identified third gender categories example hijra kinnar kinner people india often regarded third gender hijra often considered offensive term terms kinnar kinner often used individuals places india


power society ref name performativity gender locates construction gendered sexed desiring subject regulative discourses part butler 's argument concerns role sex construction natural coherent gender sexuality account gender heterosexuality constructed natural opposition male female sexes perceived natural social imaginary ref name performativity gender ref criticisms historian theorist bryan palmer argues gender studies' current reliance post structuralism reification discourse avoidance structures oppression struggles resistance


obscures origins meanings consequences historical events processes seeks counter current trends gender studies argument necessity analyze lived experiences structures subordination power psychologist debra w soh postulates gender studies composed dubious scholarship unscientific ideology causes needless disruption lives children feminist philosopher rosi braidotti criticized gender studies take feminist agenda studies masculinity results transferring funding feminist faculty positions kinds


positions cases positions advertised 'gender studies' given away 'bright boys' competitive take gay studies special significance discussion role mainstream publisher routledge opinion responsible promoting gender way deradicalizing feminist agenda marketing masculinity gay male identity instead calvin thomas countered joseph allen boone points 'many men academy feminism 's supportive 'allies' ''are'' gay' disingenuous ignore


ways mainstream publishers routledge promoted feminist theorists gender studies particularly queer studies within gender studies criticized catholic church attack human biology pope francis said teaching gender identity schools ideological colonization threatens traditional families fertile heterosexuality france one first countries claim became widespread catholic movements marched streets paris bill gay marriage adoption scholar law gender bruno perreau argues fear deep historical


roots rejection gender studies queer theory expresses anxieties national identity minority politics jayson harsin argues french anti gender theory movement demonstrates qualities global right wing populist post truth politics teaching certain aspects gender theory banned public schools new south wales independent review state teaches sex health education controversial material included teaching materials state governmental attitudes gender studies picketing gender ideology warsaw central eastern europe anti gender movements rise especially


sex gender distinction social construction gender third gender transgender women philosophy references bibliography c rdenas micha barbara fornssler ''trans desire affective cyborgs'' new york atropos press ettinger bracha l proto ethical compassion responsibility besidedness three primal mother phantasies enoughness devouring abandonment ''athena philosophical studies'' vol frug mary joe postmodern feminist legal manifesto unfinished draft ''harvard law review'' vol march pp nbsp external links https wwwgenderportaleu genport gateway gender science resources https webarchiveorg web http xyonlinenet indexshtml xy men masculinities gender politics https webarchiveorg web http moodleeduiucedu wiked indexphp gender inequities classroom wiked gender inequities


classroom http wwwintellinatecom science social sciences psychology childrens gender beliefshtml children 's gender beliefs http urfakpetrsuru gender centerhtm karelian center gender studies regional ngo kcgs https webarchiveorg web http wwwturtlebayandbeyondorg homosexuality nordic countries defund gender ideology nordic countries defund gender ideology http vimeocom gender equality paradox http wwwhnkcnewscom obama pushes equal pay women obama pushes equal pay women http asiafoundationorg asia apec unleashing women entrepreneurship asia entrepreneurship asia look changing culture women entrepreneurship asia https wwwlibuchicagoedu e scrc findingaids viewphpeadid icuspclcsgs preliminary description university chicago center study gender sexuality records https wwwlibuchicagoedu scrc university chicago special collections research center critical theory interdisciplinary subfields sociology social philosophy academic disciplines


'''business administration''' also known '''business management''' administration commercial enterprise includes aspects overseeing supervising business operations point view management leadership also covers fields include office building administration accounting finance designing development quality assurance data analysis sales project management information technology management research development marketing overview administration business includes performance management business operations decision making well efficient organization people resources direct activities towards common goals

Applied science
Business
Business administration


objectives general administration refers broader management function including associated finance personnel mis services administration refer bureaucratic operational performance routine office tasks usually internally oriented reactive rather proactive administrators broadly speaking engage common set functions meet organization 's goals henri fayol described functions administrator five elements administration according fayol five functions management planning organizing commanding coordinating controlling sometimes '''''creating output''''' includes processes


management mba degree originated united states early th century nation industrialized companies sought scientific approaches management core courses mba program cover various areas business accounting finance marketing human resources operations manner relevant management analysis strategy programs also include elective courses doctor business administration doctor business administration dba dba drba drba research doctorate awarded basis advanced study research field business administration dba


terminal degree business administration equivalent phd business administration phd management phd management highest academic degree awarded study management degree intended seeking academic research teaching careers faculty professors study management business schools worldwide doctor management newer form management doctorate doctor management dm dmgt dba dman doctoral degree conferred upon individual trained advanced study research applied


science professional practice management doctorate elements research practice relative social managerial concerns within society organizations see also outline business administration business economics business informatics business studies references management type


'''consumer education''' preparation individual capable making informed decisions comes purchasing products consumer culture generally covers various consumer goods services prices consumer expect standard trade practices etc consumer education help consumers make informed decisions researchers found effects drop time suggesting need continual education new dimensions consumer education also beginning emerge people become aware need ethical consumerism sustainable consumer behaviour

Applied science
Family and consumer science
Consumer education


increasingly globalized society background consumer education education found several areas study formal school curriculum incorporated knowledge many disciplines including economics game theory information theory law mathematics psychology teaching subject considered important body literatures reveals consumers generally well informed impulsive hardly critical behavior influenced habit suggestion training teachers also include instruction regarding different branches consumerism consumer education focuses functional skills rights two elements inseparable sense


awareness several rights leads functional skills also instances consumer education conducted purpose changing consumer perceptions educational drive increase consumer confidence example e commerce content traditionally subject matter taught consumer education would found label home economics beginning late th century however rise consumerism need individual manage budget make informed purchases save future become paramount outcomes consumer education include improved understanding consumer goods


services also increased awareness consumer 's rights consumer market better capability take actions improve consumer well contents included consumer education also vary country country instance united kingdom focus protection children effects exploitative consumer society philippines emphasis issues related immediate public interest eg boiling water drinking examining sugar impurities see also consumerism credit counseling family consumer science financial education financial literacy ethical consumerism


sustainable consumption references consumer


little free library exchanging books literary materials '' 'sociology knowledge''' study relationship human thought social context within arises effects prevailing ideas societies specialized area sociology instead deals broad fundamental questions extent limits social influences individuals' lives social cultural basis knowledge world complementary sociology knowledge sociology ignorance including study nescience ignorance knowledge gaps

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of knowledge


non knowledge inherent features knowledge making sociology knowledge pioneered primarily sociologist mile durkheim beginning th century work deals directly conceptual thought language logic influenced societal milieu arise early work co written marcel mauss ''primitive classification'' durkheim mauss study primitive group mythology order argue classification systems collectively based divisions within systems derive social categories later durkheim ''the elementary forms religious life'' would elaborate


theory knowledge examining language concepts categories space time used logical thought sociological origin neither durkheim mauss specifically coined used term 'sociology knowledge' work important first contribution field specific term 'sociology knowledge' said widespread use since number german speaking sociologists notably max scheler karl mannheim wrote extensively sociological aspects knowledge dominance functionalism middle years th century sociology


received significant movement towards cultural relativism cross cultural comparison became dominant methodology importantly social science created philosophers sought turn ideas actions unite theory practice attempt restructure society whole earlier viewpoints sociology knowledge requires certain viewpoint first expounded giambattista vico ''new science'' written early th century great deal first sociologists study relationship knowledge society book justification new historical sociological methodology main point


natural world social world known different ways former known external empirical methods whilst latter known internally well externally words human history construct creates key epistemological distinction natural world social world central concept social sciences primarily focused historical methodology vico asserts order study society 's history necessary move beyond chronicle events examining cultural elements society


termed civil world civil world made actions thoughts ideas myths norms religious beliefs institutions product human mind since elements socially constructed better understood physical world understood abstraction vico highlights human nature products fixed entities therefore necessitate historical perspective emphasizes changes developments implicit individuals societies also emphasizes dialectical relationship society culture key new historical perspective vico 's ideas whilst permeated


penchant etymology theory cyclical history ''corsi e ricorsi '' significant nonetheless underlying premise understanding knowledge social structure dependent upon ideas concepts employ language used vico mostly unknown time first establish foundations sociology knowledge even concepts necessarily picked later writers evidence montesquieu karl marx read vico 's work however similarities works superficial limited mainly overall conception


projects characterised cultural relativism historicism approaches sociology knowledge mile durkheim mile durkheim credited first professor successfully establish field sociology institutionalizing department sociology universit de bordeaux works deal number subjects including suicide family social structures social institutions large part work deals sociology knowledge publishing short articles subject earlier career example essay ''de quelques formes primitives de classification'' written


marcel mauss durkheim 's definitive statement concerning sociology knowledge comes magnum opus ''the elementary forms religious life'' book goal elucidation social origins function religion also social origins impact society language logical thought durkheim worked largely kantian framework sought understand concepts categories logical thought could arise social life argued example categories space time ''a priori'' rather category space


depends society 's social grouping geographical use space group 's social rhythm determines understanding time durkheim sought combine elements rationalism empiricism arguing certain aspects logical thought common humans exist products collective life thus contradicting tabula rasa empiricist understanding whereby categories acquired individual experience alone universal ''a priori'' truths kant argued since content categories differed society society another key elements durkheim 's theory knowledge


somewhat contradictory aspect exist externally individual since created controlled individual society whole yet simultaneously within individual society virtue individual 's participation within society arguably important repr sentation collective language according durkheim product collective action language collective action language contains within history accumulated knowledge experience individual would capable creating durkheim says 'repr sentations collectives' language particular


add learn personal experience wisdom science group accumulated course centuries thinking concepts merely seeing reality general side projecting light upon sensation illuminates penetrates transforms language social product literally structures shapes experience reality idea developed later french philosophers michel foucault karl mannheim german political philosophers karl marx friedrich engels argued ''die deutsche


ideologie'' ''the german ideology'' elsewhere people 's ideologies including social political beliefs opinions rooted class interests broadly social economic circumstances live men developing material inter course change along real existence thinking products thinking determined consciousness consciousness ''marx engels gesamtausgabe'' influence doctrine phenomenology hungarian born german sociologist karl mannheim gave impetus growth sociology


make less true mannheim felt stratum free floating intellectuals claimed loosely anchored class structure society could perfectly realize form truth creating dynamic synthesis ideologies groups sociology mannheim specified particular attention forms transmission culture knowledge follows constellations senses options generations related transmission reproduction values see guglielmo rinzivillo ''scienza e valori karl mannheim'' rome armando pp


et seq isbn phenomenological sociology phenomenological sociology study formal structures concrete social existence made available analytical description acts intentional consciousness object analysis meaningful lived world everyday life lebenswelt life world husserl task like every phenomenological investigation describe formal structures object investigation subjective terms object constituted consciousness gurwitsch makes description different naive subjective descriptions man street


research projects lies level analysis objects taken topics study type phenomenological reduction employed purposes analysis ultimately two projects seen complementary structures latter dependent structures former valid phenomenological descriptions formal structures life world wholly consistent descriptions formal structures intentional consciousness latter former derives validity truth value sokolowski phenomenological tie sociology


knowledge stems two key historical sources mannheim 's analysis mannheim dependent insights derived husserl 's phenomenological investigations especially theory meaning found husserl 's logical investigations husserl formulation central methodological work interpretation weltanschauung mannheim see fn fn essay forms centerpiece mannheim 's method historical understanding central conception sociology knowledge research program concept weltanschauung employed mannheim origins hermeneutic philosophy wilhelm dilthey relied


husserl 's theory meaning methodological specification interpretive act mannheim see fn also noteworthy husserl 's analysis formal structures consciousness sch tz 's analysis formal structures life world specifically intended establish foundations consciousness understanding interpretation social world subject cultural historical change phenomenological position although facticity social world may culturally historically relative formal structures consciousness processes come know


understand facticity understanding actual social world unavoidably dependent understanding structures processes consciousness found constitute possible social world alternatively facticity social world ''and'' structures consciousness prove culturally historically relative impasse regard meaningful scientific understanding social world subjective opposed objective grounded nature positivism inter subjective grounded structures consciousness phenomenology relative cultural


idealization formations particular concrete individuals living particular socio historical group michel foucault particularly important contemporary contribution sociology knowledge found work michel foucault ''madness civilization'' postulated conceptions madness considered reason knowledge subject major culture bias respect mirroring similar criticisms thomas szasz time foremost critic psychiatry eminent psychiatrist point foucault szasz agreed sociological processes played major role defining madness


illness prescribing cures ''the birth clinic archeology medical perception'' foucault extended critique institutional clinical medicine arguing central conceptual metaphor gaze implications medical education prison design carceral state understood today concepts criminal justice intersection medicine better developed work szasz others confined critique current psychiatric practice ''the order things'' ''the archeology knowledge'' introduced abstract notions mathesis taxonomia explain subjective 'ordering'


govern lives ref name foucault ref social control maintained 'the disciplinary society' codes control sexuality ideas knowledge perpetuated social institutions ref name foucault ref words discourses ideologies subject us authority turn people 'subjected beings' turn afraid punished sway social norms ref name foucault foucault believes institutions overtly regulate control lives institutions schools reinforce dominant ideological forms thinking onto populace force us becoming obedient docile beings ref name foucault hence dominant ideology serves


interests ruling class appearing 'neutral' needs questioned must go unchallenged ref name foucault knowledge ecology knowledge ecology concept originating knowledge management aimed bridging gap static data repositories knowledge management dynamic adaptive behavior natural systems particular relying concept interaction emergence knowledge ecology related concept information ecology elaborated different academics practitioners thomas h davenport bonnie nardi swidler new sociology knowledge new sociology


knowledge postmodern approach considering knowledge culture drawing upon marxist french structuralist american pragmatist traditions introduces new concepts dictate knowledge socialized modern era new kinds social organizations structures robert k merton american sociologist robert k merton dedicates section social theory social structure revised expanded study sociology knowledge part iii titled ''the sociology knowledge mass communications'' legitimation code theory legitimation code theory lct emerged framework study knowledge


lct builds work basil bernstein suggesting lct masculinist framework neglects feminist turn bernstein 's work southern theory southern theory approach sociology knowledge looks global production sociological knowledge dominance global north first developed major australian sociologist raewyn connell book ''southern theory'' colleges university sydney elsewhere southern theory kind decolonising perspective within sociology knowledge seeks emphasize perspectives global south


counter bias towards perspectives theorists social scientists global north see also sociology scientific knowledge sociology scientific ignorance socially constructed reality social constructivism epistemology ontology knowledge management knowledge noogenesis bibliography sociology sociologists knowledge mile durkheim marcel mauss max scheler karl mannheim werner stark alfred schutz harold garfinkel peter l berger thomas luckmann michel foucault kurt heinrich wolff basil bernstein references notes reading michael barber ''the participating citizen biography alfred schutz'' suny standard biography alfred schutz berger peter thomas luckmann ''the social construction


reality treatise sociology knowledge'' new york doubleday aron gurwitsch ''the field consciousness'' duquesne direct detailed presentation phenomenological theory perception available english language peter hamilton ''knowledge social structure introduction classical argument sociology knowledge'' routledge kegan paul london boston fantastic source covers origins social science vico montesquieu hegel marx main schools thought area durkheim mannheim phenomenological sociological approaches edmund husserl ''the crisis


european sciences transcendental phenomenology'' northwestern classic introduction phenomenology father transcendental phenomenology edmund husserl ''logical investigations'' humanities press karl mannheim interpretation weltanschauung karl mannheim kurt heinrich wolff ed transaction press important collection essays including key text maurice natanson ''edmund husserl philosopher infinite tasks'' northwestern quality commentary husserlian phenomenology relation phenomenology alfred schutz alfred schutz ''collected papers'' vi kluwer academic classic essays phenomenological theory applied social sciences kurt heinrich


wolff ''versuch zu einer wissenssoziologie'' berlin alfred schutz ''the phenomenology social world'' northwestern schutz 's initial attempt bridge gap phenomenology weberian sociology alfred schutz ''the structures life world'' northwestern schutz 's final programmatic statement phenomenology life world robert sokolowski ''introduction phenomenology'' cambridge accessible quality introductions phenomenology currently available guglielmo rinzivillo ''scienza e valori karl mannheim'' rome armando isbn vico giambattista new science giambattista vico first exposition key ideas fundamental


social sciences sociology knowledge external links social epistemology mile durkheim


cross section topics diverse molecular genetics behavior neuroscience biomechanics biochemistry systematics physiology developmental biology ecology morphology paleontology million insect species described two thirds known species ref name chapman ref insect species date back around nbsp million years ago many kinds interactions humans forms life earth history plate ''transactions entomological society'' ''trigonopterus'' species described simultaneously using dna barcoding entomology rooted nearly human cultures prehistoric times primarily context agriculture especially biological


control beekeeping natural philosopher pliny elder ad wrote book kinds insects scientist kufa ibn al r b ad wrote book flies ''kit b al dab b'' however scientific study modern sense began relatively recently th century ulisse aldrovandi 's ''de animalibus insectis'' insect animals published microscopist jan swammerdam published ''history insects'' correctly describing reproductive organs insects metamorphosis maria sibylla merian published book ''metamorphosis insectorum surinamensium'' tropical insects


published definitive entomological encyclopedia ''introduction entomology'' regarded subject 's foundational text also helped found royal entomological society london one earliest societies world earlier antecedents aurelian society date back late th century growth agriculture colonial trade spawned era economic entomology created professional entomologist associated rise university training field biology entomology developed rapidly th th centuries studied large


numbers people including notable figures charles darwin jean henri fabre vladimir nabokov karl von frisch winner nobel prize physiology medicine two time pulitzer prize winner e wilson also history people becoming entomologists museum curation research assistance ref name starrs nmnh ref sophie lutterlough smithsonian national museum natural history insect identification increasingly common hobby butterflies dragonflies popular insects easily recognized order hymenoptera bees wasps ants coleoptera beetles however


insects lepidoptera butterflies moths typically identifiable genus species use identification keys monographs class insecta contains large number species species beetles alone characteristics separating unfamiliar often subtle invisible without microscope often difficult even specialist led development automated species identification systems targeted insects example daisy abis spida draw wing pest control entomological society america launched new professional certification


program pest control industry called associate certified entomologist ace qualify true entomologist individual would normally require advanced degree entomologists pursuing phd true entomologists traditional sense individuals attain ace certification may referred aces associate certified entomologists taxonomic specialization example collection barcode pinned beetle specimen many entomologists specialize single order even family insects number subspecialties given informal names typically always derived


scientific name group coleopterology beetles dipterology flies odonatology dragonflies damselflies hemipterology true bugs isopterology termites lepidopterology moths butterflies melittology ''apiology'' bees myrmecology ants orthopterology grasshoppers crickets etc trichopterology caddis flies vespology social wasps entomologists several prominent american entomologists organizations like scientific specialties entomologists number local national international organizations also many organizations specializing specific subareas amateur entomologists' society deutsches entomologisches institut entomological society america entomological society canada entomological society japan entomologischer


verein krefeld http wwwentosocindiaorg entomological society india international union study social insects netherlands entomological society royal belgian entomological society royal entomological society london russian entomological society soci entomologique de france https wwwaustentsocorgau australian entomological society https entoorgnz entomological society new zealand research collection list selected large insect collections housed museums universities research institutes asia zoological survey india national pusa collection division entomology indian agricultural research institute new delhi india pakistan museum natural history garden avenue shakarparian islamabad pakistan museum zoologicum bogoriense indonesia africa natal museum pietermaritzburg south


africa australasia entomology research collection lincoln university new zealand curator john marris lincoln university entomology research collection lincoln new zealand museum new zealand te papa tongarewa wellington new zealand new zealand arthropod collection landcare research manaaki whenua auckland new zealand europe bavarian state collection zoology zoologische staatssammlung nchen mus um national d'histoire naturelle paris france museum f r naturkunde berlin germany kelvingrove art gallery glasgow scotland natural history museum budapest hungarian natural history museum natural history museum geneva natural history museum leiden netherlands natural history museum london united kingdom natural history museum oslo norway natural


history museum st petersburg zoological collection russian academy science naturhistorisches museum vienna austria oxford university museum natural history oxford royal museum central africa brussels belgium swedish museum natural history stockholm sweden world museum liverpool ''bug house'' united states academy natural sciences philadelphia american museum natural history new york city auburn university museum natural history auburn alabama audubon insectarium new orleans bohart museum entomology davis california california academy sciences san francisco carnegie museum natural history pittsburgh cleveland museum natural history cleveland entomology research museum university


california riverside essig museum entomology berkeley california field museum natural history chicago florida museum natural history university florida gainesville florida illinois natural history survey champaign illinois j gordon edwards museum san jose california museum comparative zoology cambridge massachusetts natural history museum los angeles county los angeles national museum natural history washington dc new mexico state university arthropod museum north carolina state university insect museum raleigh north carolina peabody museum natural history new connecticut san diego natural history museum san diego california national museum play rochester ny texas university


victoria bug zoo victoria british columbia see also arachnology carcinology cultural entomology ethnoentomology forensic entomology forensic entomologist forensic entomology law insect thermoregulation insects stamps list entomological journals medical entomology myriapodology timeline entomology timeline entomology timeline entomology since references reading chiang hc g c jahn entomology cambodia irri australia project chinese ''chinese entomol soc newsltr'' taiwan davidson e ''big fleas little fleas discoveries invertebrate diseases advancing modern science'' university arizona press tucson


pages cedric gillot '' entomology'' second edition plenum press new york ny london triplehorn charles norman f johnson borror delong 's introduction study insects th edition thomas brooks cole classic textbook north america capinera jl editor ''encyclopedia entomology'' nd edition springer external links subfields arthropodology


'''marketing''' process intentionally stimulating demand purchases goods services potentially including selection target audience selection certain attributes themes emphasize advertising operation advertising campaigns attendance trade shows public events design products packaging attractive buyers selection terms sale price discounts warranty return policy product placement media people believed influence buying habits others agreements retailers wholesale distributors resellers attempts create awareness loyalty


positive feelings brand marketing typically conducted seller typically retailer manufacturer sometimes tasks contracted dedicated marketing firm advertising agency rarely trade association government agency agricultural marketing service advertises behalf entire industry locality often specific type food eg got milk food specific area city region tourism destination one primary components business management commerce marketers direct product businesses b b marketing directly


consumers b c marketing ref name regardless marketed several factors apply including perspective marketers use known market orientations determine marketers approach planning stage marketing ref name marketing mix outlines specifics product sold ref name ref name affected environment surrounding product ref name results marketing research market research ref name markresub market research subset marketing research ref ref name characteristics product 's target market ref name factors


determined marketers must decide methods used promote product ref name including use coupons price inducements ref name marketingcignyt ref term marketing commonly known attracting customers incorporates knowledge gained studying management exchange relationships business process identifying anticipating satisfying customers' needs wants definition marketing currently defined american marketing association ama activity set institutions processes creating communicating delivering exchanging offerings value customers clients partners society large ref name def american marketing association https wwwamaorg definition marketing marketing


marketing recent definitions marketing place emphasis consumer relationship opposed pure exchange process instance prolific marketing author educator philip kotler evolved definition marketing defined marketing satisfying needs wants exchange process defined process companies engage customers build strong customer relationships create customer value order capture value customers return related definition sales process engineering perspective defines marketing set processes interconnected interdependent


functions business aimed achieving customer interest satisfaction ref name selden ref besides customers definitions marketing highlight marketing 's ability produce value shareholders firm well context marketing defined management process seeks maximise returns shareholders developing relationships valued customers creating competitive advantage ref name paliwoda ref instance chartered institute marketing defines marketing customer centric perspective focusing management process responsible identifying anticipating satisfying customer requirements profitably past marketing practice tended seen


creative industry included advertising distribution selling even today many parts marketing process eg product design art director brand management advertising inbound marketing copywriting etc involve use creative arts however marketing makes extensive use social sciences psychology sociology mathematics economics anthropology neuroscience profession widely recognized science marketing science developed concrete process followed create marketing plan concept marketing concept proposes complete organizational objectives organization anticipate needs wants potential consumers


satisfy effectively competitors concept originated adam smith 's book ''the wealth nations'' would become widely used nearly years later marketing marketing concepts directly related given centrality customer needs wants marketing rich understanding concepts essential ''needs '' something necessary people live healthy stable safe life needs remain unfulfilled clear adverse outcome dysfunction death needs objective physical need food water shelter subjective


psychological need belong family social group need self esteem ''wants '' something desired wished aspired wants essential basic survival often shaped culture peer groups ''demands '' needs wants backed ability pay potential become economic demands marketing research conducted purpose new product development product improvement often concerned identifying consumer 's ''unmet needs'' ref name hague ref customer needs central market segmentation concerned


dividing markets distinct groups buyers basis distinct needs characteristics behaviors might require separate products marketing mixes needs based segmentation also known ''benefit segmentation'' places customers' desires forefront company designs markets products services although needs based segmentation difficult practice proved one effective ways segment market ref name hague addition great deal advertising promotion designed show given product 's benefits meet customer 's needs wants


expectations unique way b b b c marketing two major segments marketing business business b b marketing business consumer b c marketing ref name b b marketing b b business business marketing refers marketing strategy content geared towards business organization company sells products services businesses organizations vs consumers typically uses b b marketing strategies examples products sold b b marketing include major equipment accessory equipment raw materials component parts processed materials supplies business services ref name four major categories b b product purchasers


producers use products sold b b marketing make goods eg mattel buying plastics make toys resellers buy b b products sell retail wholesale establishments eg walmart buying vacuums sell stores governments buy b b products use government projects eg purchasing contractor services repair infrastructure institutions use b b products continue operation eg schools buying printers office use ref name b c marketing business consumer marketing b c marketing refers tactics strategies company promotes products services individual people traditionally


could refer individuals shopping personal products broad sense recently term b c refers online selling consumer products c b marketing consumer business marketing c b marketing business model end consumers create products services consumed businesses organizations diametrically opposed popular concept b c business consumer companies make goods services available end consumers c c marketing customer customer marketing c c marketing represents market environment one customer purchases goods


another customer using third party business platform facilitate transaction c c companies new type model emerged e commerce technology sharing economy differences b b b c marketing different goals b b b c marketing lead differences b b b c markets main differences markets demand purchasing volume number customers customer concentration distribution buying nature buying influences negotiations reciprocity leasing promotional methods ref name demand b b demand derived businesses buy products based much demand


final consumer product businesses buy products based customer 's wants needs b c demand primarily customers buy products based wants needs ref name purchasing volume businesses buy products large volumes distribute consumers consumers buy products smaller volumes suitable personal use ref name number customers relatively fewer businesses market direct consumers ref name customer concentration businesses specialize particular market tend geographically concentrated customers buy products businesses concentrated ref name distribution b b products


pass directly producer product business b c products must additionally go wholesaler retailer ref name buying nature b b purchasing formal process done professional buyers sellers b c purchasing informal ref name buying influences b b purchasing influenced multiple people various departments quality control accounting logistics b c marketing influenced person making purchase possibly others ref name negotiations b b marketing negotiating lower prices added benefits commonly accepted b c


marketing particularly western cultures prices fixed ref name reciprocity businesses tend buy businesses sell example business sells printer ink likely buy office chairs supplier buys business 's printer ink b c marketing occur consumers also selling products ref name leasing businesses tend lease expensive items consumers tend save buy expensive items ref name promotional methods b b marketing common promotional method personal selling b c marketing mostly uses sales promotion public relations


advertising social media ref name marketing management orientations marketing orientation defined philosophy business management ref name mc namara cited deshpande r ''developing market orientation'' thousand oaks ca sage p ref corporate state mind organisation al culture although scholars continue debate precise nature specific concepts inform marketing practice commonly cited orientations follows product concept mainly concerned quality product largely supplanted marketing orientation except haute couture arts