control systems reduce waste increase productivity institution skills training craftsmen ref name maynard zandin charles babbage became associated industrial engineering concepts introduced book economy machinery manufacturers wrote result visits factories england united states early book includes subjects time required perform specific task effects subdividing tasks smaller less detailed elements advantages gained repetitive tasks ref name maynard zandin


interchangeable parts eli whitney simeon north proved feasibility notion interchangeable parts manufacture muskets pistols us government system individual parts mass produced tolerances enable use finished product result significant reduction need skill specialized workers eventually led industrial environment studied later ref name maynard zandin pioneers frederick taylor generally credited father industrial engineering discipline earned degree

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Industrial engineering


mechanical engineering stevens institute technology earned several patents inventions books ''shop management'' ''the principles scientific management'' published early beginning industrial engineering improvements work efficiency methods based improving work methods developing work standards reduction time required carry work abiding faith scientific method taylor 's contribution time study sought high level precision predictability manual tasks ref name maynard zandin husband wife team frank gilbreth


lillian gilbreth cornerstone industrial engineering movement whose work housed purdue university school industrial engineering categorized elements human motion basic elements called therbligs development permitted analysts design jobs without knowledge time required job developments beginning much broader field known human factors ergonomics ref name maynard zandin first course industrial engineering offered elective pennsylvania state university became separate


capitalist welfare welfare capitalism flag providing financial incentives employees increase productivity technische hochschule berlin first german university introduce degree course studies developed willi prion still called business technology intended provide descendants industrialists adequate education comprehensive quality management system total quality management tqm developed forties gaining momentum world war ii part recovery japan war american institute industrial engineering formed


early work f w taylor gilbreths documented papers presented american society mechanical engineers interest grew merely improving machine performance performance overall manufacturing process notably starting presentation henry r towne paper ''the engineer economist'' modern practice development decision support systems supply material requirements planning mrp one emphasize timing issue inventory production compounding transportation etc industrial organization


israeli scientist dr jacob rubinovitz installed cmms program developed iai control data israel south africa worldwide seventies penetration japanese management theories kaizen kanban japan realized high levels quality productivity theories improved issues quality delivery time flexibility companies west realized great impact kaizen started implementing continuous improvement programs w edwards deming made significant contributions minimization variance starting continuing end


life nineties following global industry globalization process emphasis supply chain management customer oriented business process design theory constraints developed israeli scientist eliyahu goldratt also significant milestone field compared engineering disciplines engineering traditionally decompositional understand whole something first broken parts one masters parts puts back together create better understanding master whole approach industrial systems engineering ise opposite one part cannot


understood without context whole system changes one part system affect entire system role single part better serve whole system also industrial engineering considers human factor relation technical aspect situation factors influence entire situation ref name ref engineering disciplines focus design inanimate objects industrial engineers integrate combinations people information materials equipment produce innovative efficient organizations addition manufacturing industrial engineers work consult


every industry including hospitals communications e commerce entertainment government finance food pharmaceuticals semiconductors sports insurance sales accounting banking travel transportation ref name ref industrial engineering branch engineering closely related human resources apply social skills work types employees engineers salespeople top management one main focuses industrial engineer improve working environments people change worker change workplace ref name engineers including industrial engineers take mathematics calculus differential equations industrial engineering


different based discrete variable math whereas engineering based continuous variable math emphasize use linear algebra difference equations opposed use differential equations prevalent engineering disciplines emphasis becomes evident optimization production systems sequencing orders scheduling batches determining number materials handling units arranging factory layouts finding sequences motions etc industrial engineers deal almost exclusively systems discrete components ref name etymology etymology originally applied


manufacturing use industrial industrial engineering somewhat misleading since grown encompass methodical quantitative approach optimizing process system organization operates fact industrial industrial engineering means industry broadest sense people changed term industrial broader terms industrial manufacturing engineering industrial systems engineering industrial engineering operations research industrial engineering management sub disciplines industrial engineering many sub disciplines common listed although industrial engineers focus exclusively one


sub disciplines many deal combination supply chain logistics facilities energy management ''' big methods engineering big ''' ''' big facilities engineering energy management big ''' ''' big financial span lang fa dir rtl engineering span big ''' ''' big energy engineering big ''' big '''human factors ''' '''safety engineering''' big ''' big information systems engineering management big ''' ''' big manufacturing engineering big ''' ''' big operations engineering management big '''''' big operations research optimization big ''' ''' big policy planning big ''' ''' big production engineering big '''''' big '''quality reliability engineering''' big big '''supply chain management logistics''' big ''' big systems engineering analysis big ''' ''' big systems simulation big ''' ''' big related disciplines big ''' '''organization development change management''' '''behavioral economics''' education industrial engineers study interaction human beings machines materials information procedures environments


developments designing technological system universities offer degrees bachelor masters doctoral level undergraduate curriculum class toccolours style float right margin left em font size line height em width px colspan style text align center ''' ''us news'' undergraduate rankings''' '''university''' '''rank''' colspan georgia institute technology purdue university university michigan virginia polytechnic institute state university cornell university pennsylvania state university university california berkeley university


wisconsin madison northwestern university stanford university united states undergraduate degree earned bachelor science bs bachelor science engineering bse industrial engineering ie variations title include industrial operations engineering ioe industrial systems engineering ise isye typical curriculum includes broad math science foundation spanning chemistry physics mechanics ie statics kinematics dynamics materials science computer science electronics circuits engineering design standard range engineering mathematics ie calculus linear algebra differential equations statistics engineering undergraduate


virginia tech pennsylvania state university purdue university university wisconsin madison cornell university massachusetts institute technology usual graduate degree earned master science ms master science engineering mse industrial engineering various alternative related concentration titles typical ms curricula may cover manufacturing engineering analytics machine learning computer aided manufacturing engineering economics financial engineering human factors engineering ergonomics safety engineering lean six sigma management sciences materials management operations management operations research optimization techniques predetermined


various operational logistics consulting efficiency expert developing new financial algorithm loan system bank streamlining operation emergency room location usage hospital planning complex distribution schemes materials products referred supply chain management shortening lines queues bank hospital theme park modern industrial engineers typically use predetermined motion time system computer simulation especially discrete event simulation along extensive mathematical tools modeling mathematical optimization queueing theory computational methods system analysis evaluation optimization industrial engineers also use


tools data science machine learning work owing strong relatedness disciplines field similar technical background required industrial engineers including strong foundation probability theory linear algebra statistics well coding skills see also related topics associations industrial revolution notes reading badiru ed ''handbook industrial systems engineering'' crc press b blanchard fabrycky w ''systems engineering analysis'' th edition prentice hall salvendy g ed ''handbook industrial


'''randomized algorithm''' algorithm employs degree randomness part logic procedure algorithm typically uses uniformly random bits auxiliary input guide behavior hope achieving good performance average case possible choices random determined random bits thus either running time output random variables one distinguish algorithms use random input always terminate correct answer expected running time finite las vegas

Formal science
Computer science
Algorithms
Randomized algorithms


algorithms example quicksort algorithms chance producing incorrect result monte carlo algorithms example monte carlo algorithm mfas problem fail produce result either signaling failure failing terminate cases probabilistic algorithms practical means solving problem common practice randomized algorithms approximated using pseudorandom number generator place true source random bits implementation may deviate expected theoretical behavior mathematical guarantees may depend existence ideal


k math div algorithm guarantee success run time bounded number iterations always less equal k taking k constant run time expected absolute math theta math randomized algorithms particularly useful faced malicious adversary attacker deliberately tries feed bad input algorithm see worst case complexity competitive analysis online algorithm prisoner 's dilemma reason randomness ubiquitous cryptography cryptographic applications pseudo random numbers cannot used since


adversary predict making algorithm effectively deterministic therefore either source truly random numbers cryptographically secure pseudo random number generator required another area randomness inherent quantum computing example las vegas algorithm always outputs correct answer running time random variable monte carlo algorithm related monte carlo method simulation guaranteed complete amount time bounded function input size parameter ''k'' allows ' 'small probability


error'' observe las vegas algorithm converted monte carlo algorithm via markov 's inequality output arbitrary possibly incorrect answer fails complete within specified time conversely efficient verification procedure exists check whether answer correct monte carlo algorithm converted las vegas algorithm running monte carlo algorithm repeatedly till correct answer obtained computational complexity computational complexity theory models randomized algorithms ''probabilistic turing machines'' las vegas monte carlo algorithms considered several


complexity classes studied basic randomized complexity class rp class decision problems efficient polynomial time randomized algorithm probabilistic turing machine recognizes instances absolute certainty recognizes yes instances probability least complement class rp co rp problem classes possibly nonterminating algorithms polynomial time average case running time whose output always correct said zpp class problems yes instances allowed identified error called


bpp class acts randomized equivalent p ie bpp represents class efficient randomized algorithms history historically first randomized algorithm method developed michael rabin closest pair problem computational geometry study randomized algorithms spurred discovery randomized primality test ie determining primality number robert solovay volker strassen soon afterwards michael rabin demonstrated miller 's primality test turned randomized algorithm time practical deterministic algorithm primality


known miller rabin primality test relies binary relation two positive integers ''k'' ''n'' expressed saying ''k'' witness compositeness ''n'' shown witness compositeness ''n'' ''n'' composite ie ''n'' prime ''n'' composite least three fourths natural numbers less ''n'' witnesses compositeness fast algorithm given ''k'' ''n'' ascertains whether ''k'' witness compositeness


error made astronomically small indeed even though deterministic polynomial time primality test since found see aks primality test replaced older probabilistic tests cryptographic software expected foreseeable future examples quicksort quicksort familiar commonly used algorithm randomness useful many deterministic versions algorithm require ''o'' ''n'' sup sup time sort ''n'' numbers well defined class degenerate inputs already sorted array specific class inputs generate behavior defined


protocol pivot selection however algorithm selects pivot elements uniformly random provably high probability finishing ''o'' ''n'' nbsp log nbsp ''n'' time regardless characteristics input randomized incremental constructions geometry computational geometry standard technique build structure like convex hull delaunay triangulation randomly permute input points insert one one existing structure randomization ensures expected number changes structure caused insertion small expected running time algorithm


bounded technique known randomized incremental construction min cut '''input''' graph ''g'' ''v''''e'' '''output''' cut partitioning vertices ''l'' ''r'' minimum number edges ''l'' ''r'' recall contraction two nodes ''u'' ''v'' multi graph yields new node ''u'' ' edges union edges incident either ''u'' ''v'' except edge connecting ''u'' ''v'' figure gives example contraction vertex ''a'' ''b'' contraction resulting graph may parallel


loop algorithm repeats inner loop nodes remain corresponding cut obtained run time one execution math n math ''n'' denotes number vertices ''m'' times executions outer loop output minimum cut among results figure gives example one execution algorithm execution get cut size min cut iteration ''i'' edge selected contraction partition ''v'' induced span class texhtml ''c'' ''c''


''u''''v'' ''e'' ''u'' ''l''''v'' ''r'' span well defined since ''g'' connected consider edge ''u''''v'' ''c'' initially ''u''''v'' distinct vertices ''as long pick edge get merged'' thus end algorithm two compound nodes covering entire graph one consisting vertices ''l'' consisting vertices ''r'' figure size min cut ''c'' ''a''''b'' n't select ''a''''b'' contraction get


min cut lemma follows analysis algorithm probability algorithm succeeds nbsp nbsp probability attempts fail independence probability attempts fail math display block prod pr c neq c prod pr c c math lemma probability probability edge ''c'' selected iteration ''i'' consider inner loop let denote graph ''j'' edge contractions vertices use chain rule conditional possibilities probability edge chosen iteration ''j''


''c'' given edge ''c'' chosen math frac k e g j math note still min cut size ''k'' lemma still least math frac n j k math edges thus math frac k e g j geq frac n j frac n j n j math chain rule probability finding min cut ''c'' math display block pr c c geq left frac n n right left frac n n right left frac n n right ldots left frac right left frac right left frac right math cancellation gives math pr c c geq frac n n math thus probability algorithm succeeds least math left frac n n right math math frac n n ln n math equivalent math frac n math algorithm finds min cut probability math frac n math time math mn n


log n math derandomization randomness viewed resource like space time derandomization process ' 'removing'' randomness using little possible currently known algorithms derandomized without significantly increasing running time instance computational complexity unknown whether p bpp ie know whether take arbitrary randomized algorithm runs polynomial time small error probability derandomize run polynomial time without using randomness specific methods


employed derandomize particular randomized algorithms method conditional probabilities generalization pessimistic estimators discrepancy theory used derandomize geometric algorithms exploitation limited independence random variables used algorithm pairwise independence used universal hashing use expander graphs dispersers general ''amplify'' limited amount initial randomness last approach also referred generating pseudorandom bits random source leads related topic pseudorandomness changing randomized algorithm use hash function source


randomness algorithm 's tasks derandomizing algorithm brute forcing possible parameters seeds hash function technique usually used exhaustively search sample space making algorithm deterministic eg randomized graph algorithms randomness helps model computation restricted turing machines currently open question whether ability make random choices allows problems solved polynomial time cannot solved polynomial time without ability question whether p bpp however contexts


problem associated evaluation discrepancy loss approximated correct computation effectively addressed resorting randomization communication complexity equality two strings verified reliability using math log n math bits communication randomized protocol deterministic protocol requires math theta n math bits defending strong opponent volume convex body estimated randomized algorithm arbitrary precision polynomial time b r ny f redi showed deterministic algorithm true unconditionally ie without relying


complexity theoretic assumptions assuming convex body queried black box complexity theoretic example place randomness appears help class ip ip consists languages accepted high probability polynomially long interaction powerful prover verifier implements bpp algorithm ip pspace however required verifier deterministic ip np chemical reaction network finite set reactions like b c operating finite number molecules


ability ever reach given target state initial state decidable even approximating probability ever reaching given target state using standard concentration based probability reaction occur next undecidable specifically limited turing machine simulated arbitrarily high probability running correctly time random chemical reaction network used simple nondeterministic chemical reaction network possible reaction happen next computational power limited primitive recursive functions see also probabilistic analysis algorithms atlantic city algorithm


probabilistic analysis'' cambridge university press new york ny rajeev motwani p raghavan ''randomized algorithms'' cambridge university press new york ny rajeev motwani p raghavan http portalacmorg citationcfmid randomized algorithms survey randomized algorithms chapter randomized computation pp nbsp tsay w lovejoy david r karger ''random sampling cut flow network design problems'' mathematics operations research analysis algorithms


collection storage control transport regulation measurement use water ref name prasuhn alan l prasuhn alan l ''fundamentals hydraulic engineering'' holt rinehart winston new york ref beginning hydraulic engineering project one must figure much water involved hydraulic engineer concerned transport sediment river interaction water alluvial boundary occurrence scour deposition ref name prasuhn alan l hydraulic engineer actually develops conceptual designs various features interact water spillways outlet works

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Hydraulic engineering


dams culverts highways canals related structures irrigation projects cooling water facilities thermal power plants fundamental principles examples fundamental principles hydraulic engineering include fluid mechanics fluid flow behavior real fluids hydrology pipelines open channel hydraulics mechanics sediment transport physical modeling hydraulic machines drainage hydraulics fluid mechanics ''fundamentals hydraulic engineering'' defines hydrostatics study fluids rest ref name prasuhn alan l fluid rest exists force known pressure acts upon fluid 's surroundings pressure measured


n sup sup constant throughout body fluid pressure p given body fluid increases increase depth upward force body acts base found equation math p rho gy math '' rho '' density water ''g'' specific gravity ''y'' depth body liquid rearranging equation gives pressure head math frac p rho g math four basic devices pressure measurement piezometer manometer differential manometer bourdon gauge well inclined manometer ref name prasuhn alan l prasuhn states br


undisturbed submerged bodies pressure acts along surfaces body liquid causing equal perpendicular forces body act pressure liquid reaction known equilibrium advanced applications pressure plane surfaces curved surfaces dams quadrant gates name ref name prasuhn alan l behavior real fluids real ideal fluids main difference ideal fluid real fluid ideal flow ''p'' sub sub ''p'' sub sub real flow ''p'' sub sub ''p'' sub sub ideal


fluid incompressible viscosity real fluid viscosity ideal fluid imaginary fluid fluids exist viscosity viscous flow viscous fluid deform continuously shear force pascles law whereas ideal fluid deform laminar flow turbulence various effects disturbance viscous flow stable transition unstable bernoulli 's equation ideal fluid bernoulli 's equation holds along streamlines math frac p rho g frac u g frac p rho g frac u g frac p rho g frac u g math flow comes contact


shear viscous related forces assumed act ideal fluid intermolecular cohesive forces fluid great enough hold fluid together hence fluid flow action slightest stress flow continue long stress present ref name finnemore e john finnemore joseph franzini fluid mechanics engineering applications mcgraw hill ref flow inside layer either vicious turbulent depending reynolds number ref name prasuhn alan l applications common topics design hydraulic engineers include hydraulic structures dams levees water


distribution networks including domestic fire water supply distribution automatic sprinkler systems water collection networks sewage collection networks storm water management sediment transport various topics related transportation engineering geotechnical engineering equations developed principles fluid dynamics fluid mechanics widely utilized engineering disciplines mechanical aeronautical even traffic engineers related branches include hydrology rheology related applications include hydraulic modeling flood mapping catchment flood management plans shoreline management plans estuarine strategies coastal protection flood alleviation history antiquity earliest uses hydraulic engineering irrigate


crops dates back middle east africa controlling movement supply water growing food used many thousands years one earliest hydraulic machines water clock used early nd millennium bc early examples using gravity move water include qanat system ancient persia similar turpan water system ancient china well irrigation canals peru ancient china hydraulic engineering highly developed engineers constructed massive canals levees dams channel flow


water irrigation well locks allow ships pass sunshu ao considered first chinese hydraulic engineer another important hydraulic engineer china ximen bao credited starting practice large scale canal irrigation warring states period nbsp bc nbsp bc even today hydraulic engineers remain respectable position china becoming general secretary communist party china hu jintao hydraulic engineer holds engineering degree tsinghua university banaue rice terraces philippine cordilleras ancient sprawling man made structures unesco world


heritage site archaic epoch philippines hydraulic engineering also developed specially island luzon ifugaos mountainous region cordilleras built irrigations dams hydraulic works famous banaue rice terraces way assisting growing crops around bc rice terraces year old terraces carved mountains ifugao philippines ancestors indigenous people rice terraces commonly referred eighth wonder world commonly thought terraces built minimal equipment


largely hand terraces located approximately metres nbsp ft sea level fed ancient irrigation system rainforests terraces said steps put end end would encircle half globe eupalinos megara ancient greek engineer built tunnel eupalinos samos th century bc important feat civil hydraulic engineering civil engineering aspect tunnel fact dug ends required diggers maintain


accurate path two tunnels met entire effort maintained sufficient slope allow water flow hydraulic engineering highly developed europe aegis roman empire especially applied construction maintenance aqueducts supply water remove sewage cities ref name finnemore addition supplying needs citizens used hydraulic mining methods prospect extract alluvial gold deposits technique known hushing applied methods ores tin


lead th century somali ajuran empire hydraulic empire africa hydraulic empire ajuran state monopolized water resources jubba shebelle rivers hydraulic engineering also constructed many limestone wells cisterns state still operative use today rulers developed new systems agriculture taxation continued used parts horn africa late th century ref name ref advances hydraulic engineering occurred muslim world th


th centuries known islamic golden age particular importance 'water management technological complex' central islamic green revolution ref name burke ref extension precondition emergence modern technology various components 'toolkit' developed different parts afro eurasian landmass within beyond islamic world however medieval islamic lands technological complex assembled standardized subsequently diffused rest old world ref name burke ref rule single islamic caliphate different regional


hydraulic technologies assembled identifiable water management technological complex global impact various components complex included canals dams ''qanat'' system persia regional water lifting devices ''noria shaduf'' screwpump egypt windmill islamic afghanistan ref name burke original islamic developments included ' 'saqiya'' flywheel effect islamic spain ref name flywheel ahmad hassan http wwwhistory science technologycom notes notes htm flywheel effect ''saqiya'' ref reciprocating suction pump ref name hill donald routledge hill mechanical engineering medieval near east ''scientific american'' may pp cf donald routledge hill http homeswipnetse islam articles historyofscienceshtm


mechanical engineering ref ref name suction pump ref ref name hill donald routledge hill ''a history engineering classical medieval times'' routledge pp ref crankshaft connecting rod mechanism iraq ref name ganchy ref ref name crank ahmad hassan http wwwhistory science technologycom notes notes htm crank connecting rod system continuously rotating machine ref geared hydropowered water supply system syria ref name turner howard r turner ''science medieval islam illustrated introduction'' p university texas press ref water purification methods islamic chemists modern times many respects fundamentals hydraulic engineering changed since ancient times liquids still moved


part gravity systems canals aqueducts though supply reservoirs may filled using pumps need water steadily increased ancient times role hydraulic engineer critical one supplying example without efforts people like william mulholland los angeles area would able grow simply enough local water support population true many world 's largest cities much way central valley


california could become important agricultural region without effective water management distribution irrigation somewhat parallel way happened california creation tennessee valley authority tva brought work prosperity south building dams generate cheap electricity control flooding region making rivers navigable generally modernizing life region leonardo da vinci performed experiments investigated speculated waves jets eddies streamlining isaac newton formulating laws motion law viscosity


addition developing calculus paved way many great developments fluid mechanics using newton 's laws motion numerous th century mathematicians solved many frictionless zero viscosity flow problems however flows dominated viscous effects engineers th th centuries found inviscid flow solutions unsuitable experimentation developed empirical equations thus establishing science hydraulics ref name finnemore late th century importance dimensionless numbers relationship turbulence recognized dimensional analysis born ludwig prandtl published key paper proposing


flow fields low viscosity fluids divided two zones namely thin viscosity dominated boundary layer near solid surfaces effectively inviscid outer zone away boundaries concept explained many former paradoxes enabled subsequent engineers analyze far complex flows however still complete theory nature turbulence modern fluid mechanics continues combination experimental results theory modern hydraulic engineer uses kinds computer aided design cad tools many engineering disciplines also making use technologies


like computational fluid dynamics perform calculations accurately predict flow characteristics gps mapping assist locating best paths installing system laser based surveying tools aid actual construction system see also references reading vincent j zipparro hans hasen eds ''davis' handbook applied hydraulics'' mcgraw hill th edition https wwwamazoncom davis handbook applied hydraulics zipparro dp amazoncom classification organics secondary effluents rebhun j manka environmental science technology pp nbsp external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwiahrnet site indexhtml international association hydraulic engineering research http wwwworldhistoryblogcom hydraulic engineering prehistorichtml hydraulic engineering prehistoric mexico http wwwhecusacearmymil hydrologic


engineering center chanson h http espacelibraryuqeduau viewphppid uq hydraulic engineering st century journal hydraulic research iahr vol pp nbsp issn hydraulics civil engineering water resources management


prisoner 's dilemma game theory '''managerial economics''' branch economics involving application economic methods managerial decision making process ref name trefor jones ''business economics managerial decision making'' wiley http wwwwileycom wileycda wileytitle productcd ehep html description chapter preview https booksgooglecom booksid qr torfhbwqc printsec find pg pr v onepage q f false links br nbsp nbsp nick wilkinson ''managerial economics problem solving approach'' cambridge university press http wwwcambridgeorg gb knowledge isbn item site locale en gb description https booksgooglecom booksid fv b j ec printsec find pg pr v onepage q f false preview br nbsp nbsp maria moschandreas ''business economics'' nd edition thompson learning https booksgooglecom booksid ncvfjhtulyac printsec find pg pa v onepage q f false description chapter preview https booksgooglecom booksid ncvfjhtulyac printsec find pg pr v onepage q f false links ref managerial economics aims provide framework decision making directed maximise profits

Social science
Economics
Managerial economics


calculus nature managerial economics managerial economics certain degree prescriptive nature suggests course action managerial problem ref name banton ref managerial economics aims provide tools techniques make informed decisions maximize profits minimize losses firm ref name banton managerial economics use many different business applications although common areas focus relation risk pricing production capital decisions manager makes ref name relivingmbadays ref decision making steps guided tools


multiple possible solutions problem previosly defined discover alternatives depth analysis required solve problem faced business options potential solutions collated ref name lucidchart ref cases one possible solution problem exists example business striving gain attraction social media could improve quality content collaborate creators combination two ref name lucidchart ref forecast consequences step involves assessing consequences problem solutions detailed step possible consequences


solution provides detail output solution changes changes inputs ref name maverick ref sensitivity analysis allows strengths weaknesses designed solution analyzed managerial economics forces making managerial decisions managers use managerial economics analyze micro macroeconomic environments microeconomics considers actions individual firms ref name msq ref comparison macroeconomics considers actions behaviour economy whole ref name msq ref managerial economics studies analyze compare alternative solutions find one likely achieve business goals decision making process


role managerial economics provide relevant analytical tools analytical methods forecasting analysis macroeconomic trends essential managerial economics macroeconomy focuses broadly principles output unemployment political social issues inflation economic conditions values play large factor managerial economics ability provide overview global market conditions imperative managers understand political structure country whether authoritarian democratic political stability attitudes towards private sector affect growth development organizations example


managerial economics using macroeconomic principles manager choosing hire new staff rather training old ones time rate unemployment high possible talent pool would large microeconomic consideration managerial economics includes consumer demand supply opportunity cost revenue cost ref name msq ref microeconomics also gives indication effective allocation resources business available microeconomic theories considerations used via managerial economics make decisions regarding business understanding principles microeconomics managers well informed


make accurate decisions regarding form ref name msq ref example managerial economics using microeconomic principles decision manager increase price goods sold manager evaluate price elasticity product equate respective demand product price change ref name msq ref main theories managerial economics microeconomics dominant focus behind managerial economics key aspects include supply demand supply demand relationship law supply demand describes relationship producers consumers product


business strive employ cheapest combination inputs produce quantity demanded production function described function formula q f lk q denotes production firm l variable inputs k fixed inputs opportunity cost opportunity cost value represents cost opportunities misses conducting another activity opportunity cost details costs benefits action business considering pursuing decision maker position choose action


highest payoff theory exchange price theory principle uses conjecture supply demand set accurate price good aim price theory allocate price good supply good met equal demand product manager sets price high good consumer may think worth cost decide purchase good hence creating excess supply opposite occurs price set


informed business decisions analytical methods used managerial economics price elasticity analysis price elasticity extremely useful tool managerial economics provides managers predicted change demand associated increase price charged good price elasticity principle also outlines changes demand goods changes income populous formula elasticity q p q sub sub p sub sub q change demand respective change price p q sub sub p sub sub representing quantity price good change made


price elasticity extremely important managerial economics aids optimization marginal revenue firms marginal analysis economics margin change revenue cost producing one extra unit output marginal cost marginal revenue extremely important marginal economics profit firm maximized marginal cost equal marginal revenue mathematical model analysis development economics management econometric analysis methods applied use differential calculus powerful tool


employ decision rules manage risk ''production analysis'' microeconomic techniques used analyze production efficiency optimum factor allocation costs economies scale estimate firm 's cost function ''pricing analysis'' microeconomic techniques used analyze various pricing decisions including transfer pricing joint product pricing price discrimination price elasticity estimations choosing optimum pricing method ''capital budgeting'' investment theory used examine firm 's capital purchasing decisions core managerial economics decision making process taking two options optimizing business decision considering fixed


performing incentivized behavior example agent provided base salary independent achieving particular goal set management scenario incentive agent act accordance goal receive salary regardless ref name employees perform accordance pay also pay peers pay inequality act disincentive reducing employee output attendance significant amount irrelevant whether higher lower salary


co workers pay disparity also lowers ability employees work interests cooperate workers effectively pay inequality may discernible effect employee aware peer higher salary produces greater output tournament theory used describe different pay levels exist different roles business hierarchy idea tournament theory agents put effort achieve promotions rewarded higher non incremental pay rate reward higher pay rate incentivizes behavior leads


economics'' nd edition http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde p q managerial economics topicid result number abstract keith weigelt ''managerial economics'' elmer g wiens http wwwegwaldca economics econpagephp public firm managerial incentives khan ahsan managerial economics economic analysis rd edition pakistan arya sri managerial economics mefa external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwedushareonlinein management eco newpdf http wwwswlearningcom economics hirschey managerial econ chap pdf management business economics


'''mental health''' state well individual realizes abilities cope normal stresses life work productively fruitfully able make contribution community according world health organization ref name factsheet ref mental health includes subjective well perceived self efficacy autonomy competence intergenerational dependence self actualization one 's intellectual emotional potential among others ref name ref perspectives positive psychology holism mental health may include individual 's ability enjoy life create balance life

Social science
Social work
Mental health


health ref name manwell e mental disorders defined health conditions affect alters cognitive functioning emotional responses behavior associated distress impaired functioning dsm used classification system various mental disorders ref name regier ref mental health associated number lifestyle factors diet exercise stress drug abuse social connections interactions ref name regier therapists psychiatrists psychologists social workers nurse practitioners family physicians help manage mental illness treatments therapy counseling medication history early history mid th century william sweetser


first coin term ''mental hygiene'' seen precursor contemporary approaches work promoting positive mental health ref name mandell ref isaac ray fourth president american psychiatric association one founders defined mental hygiene art preserving mind incidents influences calculated deteriorate qualities impair energies derange movements ref name mandell american history mentally ill patients thought religiously punished response persisted along inhumane confinement stigmatization individuals ref name ref dorothea dix


important figure development mental hygiene movement dix school teacher endeavored help people mental disorders expose sub standard conditions put ref name barlow barlow dh durand vm steward sh ''abnormal psychology integrative approach'' second canadian edition toronto nelson p ref became known mental hygiene movement ref name barlow movement uncommon people affected mental illness would considerably neglected often left alone deplorable conditions without sufficient clothing ref name barlow support


federal government set state psychiatric hospitals however understaffed resourced accused violating human rights ref name emil kraepelin developed taxonomy mental disorders dominated field nearly years later proposed disease model abnormality subjected analysis considered normality relative physical geographical cultural aspects defining group beginning th century clifford beers founded mental health america national committee mental hygiene publication accounts patient


several lunatic asylums ''a mind found itself'' ref name roots concept mental ref opened first outpatient mental health clinic united states ref name cliffordbeersclinic clifford beers clinic october ''about clifford beers clinic'' retrieved june http wwwcliffordbeersorg aboutushtm cliffordbeersorg ref mental hygiene movement similar social hygiene movement times associated advocating eugenics sterilization considered mentally deficient assisted productive work contented family life post wwii years references mental hygiene gradually replaced term 'mental health' due


previous conditions however remains debate conditions community resources proven transition beneficial many patients increase overall satisfaction better quality life friendships patients costly proved true circumstance treatment facilities enough funding staff equipment well proper management however idea polarizing issue critics deinstitutionalization argue poor living conditions prevailed patients lonely acquire proper medical care


treatment homes ref name ref additionally patients moved state psychiatric care nursing residential homes deficits crucial aspects treatment cases result shift care health workers patients families proper funding medical expertise give proper care ref name hand patients treated community mental health centers lack sufficient cancer testing vaccinations otherwise regular medical check ups ref name critics state deinstitutionalization argue simply transition transinstitutionalization idea


conclusion lack empathy mentally ill argument social stigmatization mental illnesses widely marginalized discriminated society ref name source researchers analyze compensation prisoners detainees unable unwilling pay fine petty crimes unemployed homeless extraordinarily high degree mental illnesses substance use disorders ref name compensation prisoners lose prospective job opportunities face social marginalization lack access resocialization programs ultimately facilitate reoffending ref name research


sheds light mentally ill case poor punished certain circumstances beyond control vicious cycle repeats thus prisons embody another state provisioned mental hospital families patients advocates mental health professionals still call increase well structured community facilities treatment programs higher quality long term inpatient resources care structured environment united states continue access mental health care increase overall treatment mentally ill however


still lack studies mental health conditions mhcs raise awareness knowledge development attitude seeking medical treatment mhcs bangladesh people rural areas often seek treatment traditional healers mhcs sometimes considered spiritual matter epidemiology mental illnesses common cancer diabetes heart disease percent americans age meet criteria mental illness evidence suggests million people worldwide mental illness major depression ranks fourth among top leading causes disease worldwide


function everyday life individual 's emotional health impact physical health poor mental health lead problems inability make adequate decisions substance use disorders ref name richards ref good mental health improve life quality whereas poor mental health worsen according richards campania muse burke growing evidence showing emotional abilities associated pro social behaviors stress management physical health ref name richards research also concluded people lack emotional expression inclined anti social behaviors eg substance use disorder


alcohol use disorder physical fights vandalism reflects one 's mental health suppressed emotions ref name richards adults children face mental illness may experience social stigma exacerbate issues global prevalence mental health seen unstable continuum individual 's mental health may many different possible values ref name keyes ref mental wellness generally viewed positive attribute even person diagnosed mental health condition definition mental health highlights emotional well capacity live full creative life flexibility


deal life 's inevitable challenges discussions formulated terms contentment happiness many therapeutic systems self help books offer methods philosophies espousing strategies techniques vaunted effective improving mental wellness positive psychology increasingly prominent mental health holistic model mental health generally includes concepts based upon anthropological educational psychological religious sociological perspectives also models theoretical perspectives personality social clinical health developmental psychology ref name witmersweeney ref ref name hattiemyerssweeney p ref tripartite model mental well ref name keyes ref name referencea ref views mental well encompassing three components emotional well social


years age cases go undetected untreated ref name depression one leading causes illness disability among adolescents ref name suicide fourth leading cause death year olds ref name exposure childhood trauma cause mental health disorders poor academic achievement ignoring mental health conditions adolescents impact adulthood ref name ref preschool children show natural reduction behavioral problems remaining experience long term consequences ref name impairs physical mental health limits opportunities live fulfilling lives ref name result


written lisa goodman colleagues summarized smith 's research ptsd homeless single women mothers st louis missouri found respondents met diagnostic criteria describes homelessness risk factor mental illness ref name homelessness psychological traum ref least two commonly reported symptoms psychological trauma social disaffiliation learned helplessness highly prevalent among homeless individuals families ref name hwang ref mental illness prevalent people infrequently receive appropriate care ref name homelessness psychological traum case management linked services effective care approach improving symptoms


one primary needs improve quality life ref name post migration trauma cause depressive disorders psychological distress immigrants ref name ref name ref name cultural religious considerations mental health socially constructed socially defined concept different societies groups cultures institutions professions different ways conceptualizing nature causes determining mentally healthy deciding interventions appropriate ref name weare p ref thus different professionals different cultural class political religious backgrounds impact methodology applied treatment context


deaf mental health care necessary professionals cultural competency deaf hard hearing people understand properly rely trained qualified certified interpreters working culturally deaf clients research shown stigma attached mental illness due stigma individuals may resist labeling may driven respond mental health diagnoses denialism family caregivers individuals mental disorders may also suffer discrimination face stigma addressing eliminating social stigma perceived stigma attached mental illness


recognized crucial education awareness surrounding mental health issues united kingdom royal college psychiatrists organized campaign ''changing minds'' help reduce stigma united states efforts entities born way foundation ''the manic monologues'' specifically focus removing stigma surrounding mental illness ref name wapo stigma ref ref name kqed stigma ref national alliance mental illness nami us institution founded represent advocate struggling mental health issues nami helps educate mental illnesses health issues also working eliminate


relationships physical organizational environment psychiatric symptoms etc aims harmony quality life self actualization personal adaptation across systems psychiatric social workers mental health professionals assist patients family members coping mental health issues various economic social problems caused mental illness psychiatric dysfunctions attain improved mental health well vital members treatment teams departments psychiatry behavioral sciences hospitals employed outpatient inpatient settings hospital nursing homes state


local governments substance use clinics correctional facilities health care services private practice etc united states social workers provide mental health services according government sources percent mental health professionals clinically trained social workers percent psychiatrists percent psychologists percent psychiatric nurses mental health social workers japan professional knowledge health welfare skills essential person 's well social work training enables professional carry consultation assistance mental disabilities social reintegration consultation regarding rehabilitation


centers influencing factors economic factors unemployment shown hurt individual 's emotional well self esteem broadly mental health increasing unemployment shown significant impact mental health predominantly depressive disorders important consideration reviewing triggers mental health disorders population survey unequal rich countries alt x pxemotional mental disorders leading cause disabilities worldwide investigating degree severity untreated emotional mental disorders throughout world top priority world mental health wmh survey initiative created


extent nature unmet treatment needs second step could cross national comparison service use unmet needs countries different mental health care systems comparisons help uncover optimum financing national policies delivery systems mental health care knowledge provide effective emotional mental health care become imperative worldwide unfortunately countries insufficient data guide decisions absent competing visions resources near constant pressures cut insurance entitlements wmh surveys done africa nigeria south africa americas colombia mexico united states


asia pacific japan new zealand beijing shanghai people 's republic china europe belgium france germany italy netherlands spain ukraine middle east israel lebanon countries classified world bank criteria low income nigeria lower middle income china colombia south africa ukraine higher middle income lebanon mexico high income coordinated surveys emotional mental health disorders severity treatments implemented aforementioned countries surveys assessed frequency types adequacy mental health service use countries wmh surveys complete wmh also examined unmet needs treatment


already diminished health budgets mental health care rely heavily pocket spending citizens ill equipped stress centre addiction mental health discuss certain amount stress normal part daily life small doses stress help people meet deadlines prepared presentations productive arrive time important events however long term stress become harmful stress becomes overwhelming prolonged risks mental health problems medical problems increase also note studies found language


deteriorate mental health even harm humans protection promotion terms mental health promotion prevention often confused promotion defined intervening ''optimize'' positive mental health addressing determinants positive mental health ie protective factors specific mental health problem identified ultimate goal improving positive mental health population mental health prevention defined intervening ''minimize'' mental health problems ie risk factors addressing determinants mental health problems specific mental health problem identified individual group


population focus ultimate goal reducing number future mental health problems population ref name mhppyouth ref order improve emotional mental health root issue resolved prevention emphasizes avoidance risk factors promotion aims enhance individual 's ability achieve positive sense self esteem mastery well social inclusion mental health promotion attempts increase protective factors healthy behaviors help prevent onset diagnosable mental disorder reduce risk factors lead development mental


disorder ref name mhppyouth important improve emotional mental health surrounding positive relationships humans feed companionships interactions people another way improve emotional mental health participating activities allow relax take time yoga example activity calms one 's entire body nerves according study well richards campania muse burke mindfulness considered purposeful state may practice belief


importance value mindful valuing self care activities may influence intentional component mindfulness ref name richards mental health conventionally defined hybrid absence mental disorder presence well focus increasing preventing mental disorders prevention beginning appear mental health strategies including report ''prevention mental disorders'' eu pact mental health us national prevention strategy ref name commentators argued pragmatic practical approach mental disorder prevention work would


california based project working combat negative perception mental health reduce stigma associated social media benefit mental health also lead deterioration managed properly limiting social media intake beneficial care navigation mental health care navigation helps guide patients families fragmented often confusing mental health industries care navigators work closely patients families discussion collaboration provide information best therapies well referrals practitioners facilities specializing particular forms emotional improvement difference therapy


care navigation care navigation process provides information directs patients therapy rather providing therapy still care navigators may offer diagnosis treatment planning though many care navigators also trained therapists doctors care navigation link patient therapies clear recognition mental health requires medical intervention demonstrated study kessler et al prevalence treatment mental disorders united states despite prevalence mental health disorders remaining unchanged period number


patients seeking treatment mental disorders increased threefold methods pharmacotherapy pharmacotherapy therapy uses pharmaceutical drugs pharmacotherapy used treatment mental illness use antidepressants benzodiazepines use elements lithium prescribed medical professional trained field psychiatry physical activity people physical exercise improve mental well physical health playing sports walking cycling form physical activity trigger production various hormones sometimes including endorphins elevate person 's


mood studies shown cases physical activity impact antidepressants treating depression anxiety moreover cessation physical exercise may adverse effects mental health conditions depression anxiety could lead many different negative outcomes obesity skewed body image lower levels certain hormones many health risks associated mental illnesses activity therapies activity therapies also called recreation therapy occupational therapy promote healing active engagement example occupational therapy would promoting activity improves daily life


self care improving hobbies similarly recreational therapy focuses movement walking yoga riding bike therapies proven improve mental health resulted healthier happier individuals recent years example coloring recognized activity proven significantly lower levels depressive symptoms anxiety many studies expressive therapies expressive therapies creative arts therapies form psychotherapy involves arts art making therapies include art therapy music therapy drama therapy dance therapy poetry therapy


proven music therapy effective way helping people suffer mental health disorder drama therapy approved nice treatment psychosis psychotherapy psychotherapy general term scientific based treatment mental health issues based modern medicine includes number schools gestalt therapy psychoanalysis cognitive behavioral therapy psychedelic therapy transpersonal psychology psychotherapy dialectical behavioral therapy group therapy involves type therapy takes place setting involving multiple people include psychodynamic groups expressive therapy groups support groups including


twelve step program problem solving psychoeducation groups self compassion according neff self compassion consists three main positive components negative counterparts self kindness versus self judgement common humanity versus isolation mindfulness versus identification furthermore evidence study shin lin suggesting specific components self compassion predict specific dimensions positive mental health emotional social psychological well social emotional learning collaborative academic social emotional learning casel addresses five broad interrelated areas competence highlights examples self awareness self management social awareness relationship skills'' ' 'responsible decision making meta analysis done alexendru


boncu iuliana costeau mihaela minulescu looking social emotional learning sel studies effects emotional behavior outcomes found small significant effect size across studies looked externalized problems social emotional skills meditation woman towards right man towards left sitting cross legged eyes closed hands resting knees palms facing practice mindfulness meditation several mental health benefits bringing reductions depression anxiety stress ref name goyal ref ref name galla ref ref name sharma ref ref name khoury ref mindfulness meditation may also


effective treating substance use disorders ref name chiesa ref ref name garland ref mindfulness meditation appears bring favorable structural changes brain ref name tang ref ref name posner ref ref name holzel ref heartfulness meditation program proven show significant improvements state mind health care professionals study posted us national library medicine showed professionals varied stress levels able improve conditions meditation program conducted benefited aspects burnouts emotional wellness people anxiety disorders participated stress reduction program conducted researchers mental


health service line wg hefner veterans affairs medical center salisbury north carolina participants practiced mindfulness meditation study concluded mindfulness meditation training program effectively reduce symptoms anxiety panic help maintain reductions patients generalized anxiety disorder panic disorder panic disorder agoraphobia mental fitness mental fitness mental health movement encourages people intentionally regulate maintain emotional wellbeing friendship regular human contact activities include meditation calming exercises aerobic exercise mindfulness


routine maintaining adequate sleep mental fitness intended build resilience every day mental health challenges prevent escalation anxiety depression suicidal ideation help cope escalation feelings occur spiritual counseling spiritual counsellors meet people need offer comfort support help gain better understanding issues develop problem solving relation spirituality types counselors deliver care based spiritual psychological theological principles laws public health policies many factors influence mental health including mental


illness disability suicide ultimately result combination biology environment access utilization mental health treatment public health policies influence access utilization subsequently may improve mental health help progress negative consequences depression associated disability united states emotional mental illnesses particular concern united states since us highest annual prevalence rates percent mental illnesses among comparison developing developed countries approximately percent people united states


started action mental health community support movement called cmch act amendments ref name us public health service ref dorothea dix submitted memorial legislature massachusetts describing abusive treatment horrible conditions received mentally ill patients jails cages almshouses revealed memorial proceed gentlemen briefly call attention present state insane persons confined within commonwealth cages closets cellars stalls pens chained naked beaten rods lashed obedience many asylums built


period high fences walls separating patients community members strict rules regarding entrance exit recommendation came new york state legislature establish separate asylum chronic mentally ill patients hospitals placed chronic patients separate wings wards different buildings ''a mind found itself'' clifford whittingham beers described humiliating treatment received deplorable conditions mental hospital one year later national committee mental hygiene ncmh founded small group reform minded scholars


scientists including beers marked beginning mental hygiene movement movement emphasized importance childhood prevention world war catalyzed idea additional emphasis impact maladjustment convinced hygienists prevention practical approach handle mental health issues however prevention successful especially chronic illness condemnable conditions hospitals even prevalent especially pressure increasing number chronically ill influence depression ref name us public health service joint commission mental health published


report called action mental health whose goal community clinic care take burden prevention early intervention mental illness therefore leave space hospitals severe chronic patients court started rule favor patients' whether forced treatment community mental health centers built cover percent population serve million individuals year lengths treatment decreased months days ref name koyanagi c p ref however


issues still existed due inflation especially community nursing homes received less money support care treatment provided fewer half planned centers created new methods fully replace old approaches carry full capacity treating power ref name koyanagi c p besides community helping system fully established support patients' housing vocational opportunities income supports benefits ref name us public health service many patients returned welfare criminal justice institutions became homeless movement deinstitutionalization facing


great challenges ref name torrey book excerpts ref realizing simply changing location mental health care state hospitals nursing houses insufficient implement idea deinstitutionalization national institute mental health nimh created community support program csp provide funds communities set comprehensive mental health service supports help mentally ill patients integrate successfully society program stressed importance supports addition medical care including housing living expenses employment transportation education set new national priority


people serious mental disorders addition congress enacted mental health systems act prioritize service mentally ill emphasize expansion services beyond clinical care alone ref name koyanagi c ref later influence congress supreme court many programs started help patients regain benefits new medicaid service also established serve people diagnosed chronic mental illness people temporally hospitalized also provided aid care pre release program created


enable people apply reinstatement prior discharge ref name koyanagi c p around years start deinstitutionalization first state hospital begin close number hospitals dropped around finally report mental health showed efficacy mental health treatment giving range treatments available patients choose ref name koyanagi c however several critics maintain deinstitutionalization mental health point view thoroughgoing failure seriously mentally ill either homeless


prison either case especially latter getting little mental health care failure attributed number reasons degree contention although general agreement community support programs ineffective best due lack funding ref name torrey book national prevention strategy included mental emotional well recommendations including better parenting early intervention programs increase likelihood prevention programs included future us mental health policies ref name ref nimh researching suicide hiv aids prevention


national prevention strategy could lead focusing broadly longitudinal prevention studies united states representative tim murphy introduced helping families mental health crisis act hr bipartisan bill went substantial revision reintroduced murphy congresswoman eddie bernice johnson november passed health subcommittee vote see also abnormal psychology emotional resilience ethnopsychopharmacology information ecology mental environment mental health day mental health covid pandemic mental health first aid self help groups mental health technology mental health issues world


mental health day references reading http onlinebookslibraryupennedu webbin book lookupnamekey sweetser c william c online books william sweetser external links https wwwwhoint health topics mental health mental health https wwwcanadaca en public healthhtml public health agency canada http wwwnimhnihgov national institute mental health united states https eceuropaeu health non communicable diseases mental health en health eu portal mental health eu http wwwdhgovuk en policyandguidance healthandsocialcaretopics mentalhealth indexhtm mental health department health united kingdom disability social constructionism positive psychology


'''military justice''' also '''military law''' legal system bodies law procedure governs conduct active duty personnel armed forces country nation states civil law military law distinct bodies law respectively govern conduct civil society conduct armed forces body law specific judicial procedures enforce law among legal questions unique system military justice practical preservation good order discipline command responsibility legality orders war time observation

Applied science
Military sciences
Military law


code conduct matters legal precedence concerning civil military jurisdiction civil offenses criminal offenses committed active duty military personnel military justice different distinct martial law imposition direct military authority upon civilian population place civilian legal system law authorised government rule martial law declared times emergency civil unrest war imposition restricted civil law canada commands canadian forces cf royal canadian navy canadian army royal canadian


air force canadian joint operations command canadian special operations forces command primarily governed national defence act nda section nda authorizes governor council 's creation queen 's regulations orders qr os qr os subordinate legislation force law since principle ' 'delegatus non potest delegare'' achieved rigid standing canada qr os authorize military officials generate orders similar equal status instruments found canadian forces administrative orders defence administrative orders directives


used direction authorities within cf administer day day considerations forces example officer cadets attending military college organized subject regulations appropriate academic success enforcement discipline might expected fully trained members volume iv appendix queen 's regulations orders canadian military colleges qr canmilcols applies judge advocate general jag headed canadian military legal branch since first world war branch interprets canadian forces' internal rules code discipline


also international humanitarian laws codes war geneva conventions canadian practice armed combat strictly regulated environment legal officers crucial part planning goes operational decisions military law centre grounds royal military college canada staffed military lawyers oversees education officers troops legal matters trains military lawyers advises ottawa matters policy doctrine legal education integrated regular training cf members undergo finland jurisdiction finnish military law concerns members


military area wartime also civilians serving defence forces civilian institutions put direction defence forces military jurisdiction ref name vna rikoslaista http wwwfinlexfi fi laki alkup valtioneuvoston asetus sotilasrikoksia koskevien rangaistuss nn sten soveltamisalasta government decree application military criminal statutes retrieved ref ref name rikoslaki http wwwfinlexfi fi laki ajantasa rikoslaki penal code retrieved ref enemy prisoners war fall finnish military jurisdiction imprisonment ref name rikoslaki military crimes germany persons military jurisdiction usual civilian criminal law military criminal law th chapter


penal code encompasses crimes military persons commit important various types service crime encompasses voluntary negligent disobedience orders regulations guard crime encompassing misdeed guarding duty absence without leave desertion diverse forms disobedience superiors misuses position superior behaviour unsuitable military person crimes subject usual civilian law ref name rikoslaki military jurisdiction investigate military crimes proper also number crimes


specifically listed belonging military jurisdiction ref name skpl https wwwfinlexfi fi laki alkup laki sotilaskurinpidosta ja rikostorjunnasta puolustusvoimissa act maintenance military discipline crime fighting defence forces retrieved ref include eg various types murder assault theft fraud forgery computer hacking illegal divulging classified information however military jurisdiction crime committed another military person defence forces ref name rikoslaki ref name sokl https wwwfinlexfi fi laki ajantasa sotilasoikeudenk yntilaki retrieved ref unlike crimes military crimes separate sentence ranges peace wartime wartime crimes carry


punishment may given instead fine summary proceedings courts law ref name skpl investigation summary discipline crime falls military jurisdiction usually investigated serviceman 's unit investigation serviceman 's superior company commander power detain suspect battalion commander military police officers also right arrest suspect conduct searches inside military area ref name skpl company commander superior feels crime non trivial requires professional investigation may submit


issue defence command investigation defence command addition power arrest power use almost measures available finnish police defence command requires use invasive investigative measures eg wiretaps use deep cover agents computer intrusion may either request police conduct measure hand case police agreed investigator competent policeman police considers necessary may always take case however ref name skpl


border guard border guard headquarters internal law enforcement authority defence command defence forces addition regular law enforcement powers border guard investigation ready case brought company commander sergeant major superior consideration hearing suspect disposing superior either frees suspect suspicion gives appropriate punishment within range allowed ref name skpl range ref name skpl company sergeant major private warning three shifts extra


duty conscripts involuntarily activated reservists company commander private warning five shifts extra duty days confinement garrison public letter reprimand battalion commander fifteen days confinement garrison brigade commander superiors disciplinary fines one disciplinary fine one fifth individual 's daily gross income conscripts least conscript 's daily allowance peacetime professional soldiers exception certain soldiers deployed international missions cannot given


disciplinary punishment public letter reprimand fine ref name skpl superior feel powers allow give sufficient punishment transfer matter next higher superior brigade commander determines cannot give sufficient punishment transfer matter public prosecutor commence prosecution civilian court ref name skpl serviceman feels punishment unjust appeal brigade commander brigade commander 's decision appealed district court within seven days however


appeals prevent execution punishment ref name skpl trial appeals military crimes go court handled civilian courts military members district court learned civilian judge two military members one officer warrant officer nco private court appeals acts first instance prosecution officers least major 's rank military member least major 's rank supreme court finland two


officers least colonel 's rank members handling military crimes ref name sokl members named specific case serve two year terms military members district court selected court appeals motion commander finnish army military members courts appeals selected ministry justice motion ministry defence military members supreme court selected president finland ref name sokl sentences courts military crimes


served civilian prisons exception formed disciplinary arrest may sentenced days served detention facilities convict 's garrison military person holds permanent temporary paid position state military servant officers ncos regular active service sentenced dismissal addition punishments convicted military civilian crime two years prison special grounds leniency sentence


life sentence dismissal mandatory court may also sentence dismissal shorter prison sentence crime shows person unsuitable state employment ref name rikoslaki military person longer service summary disciplinary procedure cannot used military longer law enforcement power issue cases former service member investigated civilian police case handled court military members sentencing disciplinary punishments cannot used instead disciplinary punishment ordinary day fine


state military servants persons serving deployed force international mission may administratively dismissed commander finnish contingent conscript reservist cannot dismissed service suspended brigade commander suspected committed crime shows may endanger safety others following person may declared permanently unfit duty defence forces regional office safety security reasons exception principle military jurisdiction concerns military persons penal code


finland partly due fact bar criminality set consciously low crime absence without leave committed soldier even minute late slightest wilful negligent disregard standing order regulation fulfils indicia service crime legislator purposefully given military superiors legal tools maintain discipline punishing even slight appearances bad conduct feel necessary hand handing unofficial punishments discouraged extreme


number military crimes yearly somewhat absolute majority handled summary measures ie punishments given military superiors military crimes year end handling district courts ref name tyotilasto http wwwoikeusministeriofi fi index julkaisut julkaisuarkisto files omth tumioist tyotlastot pdf tuomioistuinten ty tilastoja finnish ministry justice helsinki retrieved ref number appeals vanishingly small year courts appeals handled total military criminal cases ref name tyotilasto germany members branch ''bundeswehr'' german armed forces subject ordinary civil


cooperate emergencies regular police authorized maintain order military police arrived soldiers violate military regulations may also receive penalties form non judicial punishment severe cases judicial punishments special type court procedures defined military discipline code ''wehrdisziplinarordnung'' wdo note wdo describes proceed offenses yet covered military penal code clearly military regulation head unit immediate superior acts primary disciplinary master exclusive right choose


non judicial punishment fines curfews arrests seven days forwarding decision next superior officer unit arrest extended days calling military service court ''truppendienstgericht'' power punishment like degradation shortening salary five years judge court civil one two military officers attending every case act consultants judge germany federal military prisons soldier sentenced jail six months


punishment executed soldier 's barracks administration remain arrest time continue serving unit duty times unless court imposed limits otherwise soldiers detained civil state prisons case soldier sentenced jail one year six months case bribery discharged armed forces india india army act navy act air force act laws define statutory provisions applicable men women


uniform three acts available search official website certain para military forces india laws akin ones applicable defence services includes border security force act coast guard act indo tibetan border police force act assam rifles act acts draw inspiration army act military courts india coming extreme stress establishment armed forces tribunal increasing voice country reform lines liberal democracies seeing


military justice system united kingdom united kingdom 's arrangements justice armed forces dates back many centuries articles war late th century added annual army act embodied naval discipline act air force act added process harmonisation started introduction quinquennial armed forces act armed forces act replaces three separate service discipline acts earlier armed forces acts system law armed forces


operate previous decade european convention human rights echr considerable impact administration military justice particularly need independence courts martial system nevertheless underlying premise service justice system discipline matter commanders armed forces act completed harmonisation service law took full effect november guidance application related matters provided manual service law one motivating factor behind changes legislation combining discipline acts across armed forces


trend towards tri service operations defence organisations deals military offences civil offences committed circumstances offences civilians associated armed forces armed forces overseas including family members authority commanding officer deal offences summarily court martial service civilian court custody appeals act also creates post director service prosecutions summary dealing commanding officer co central feature acceptable within echr accused always right elect trial court martial


cases dealt summarily typically co lieutenant colonel equivalent nato grade co may delegate powers summary dealing subordinate superior officer co higher authority may vary co 's powers summary dealing implication every person subject service law must co co must higher authority military judicial system headed judge advocate general civilian part ministry justice administrative procedures enable service man


woman discharged unsatisfactory behaviour process similar private sector also allow superior rank award three extra duties similar subordinate minor infractions since introduced significantly reduced number cases dealt summarily united states united states constitution authorized creation system military justice article section permits us congress make rules government regulation land naval forces congress issued rules first


articles war military justice american civil war governed lieber code articles war superseded uniform code military justice ucmj ucmj federal law found title united states code chapter implemented manual courts martial executive order issued president united states capacity commander chief united states armed forces court martial convictions united states may appealed military courts appeal united states court


civilians grounds expected military personnel oaths office many terms used date back era code written see also court martial laws war martial law references reading loose leaf publication updated times per year external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwadh genevach rulac rule law armed conflicts project military supporting service occupations


'''''materials science engineering''''' may refer several journals field materials science engineering ''materials science engineering a'' ''materials science engineering b'' ''materials science engineering c'' ''materials science engineering r'' reviews materials science journals elsevier academic journals

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Materials Science and Engineering


photograph apollo orbital unit rilles vicinity crater aristarchus moon '''planetary science''' rarely '''planetology''' scientific study planets including earth moons planetary systems particular solar system processes form studies objects ranging size micrometeoroids gas giants aiming determine composition dynamics formation interrelations history strongly interdisciplinary field originally growing astronomy earth science ref name taylor incorporates many disciplines including planetary geology together geochemistry geophysics

Natural science
Space science
Planetary science


cosmochemistry atmospheric science oceanography hydrology theoretical planetary science glaciology exoplanetology ref name taylor ref allied disciplines include space physics concerned effects sun bodies solar system astrobiology interrelated observational theoretical branches planetary science observational research involve combination space exploration predominantly robotic spacecraft missions using remote sensing comparative experimental work earth based laboratories theoretical component involves considerable computer simulation mathematical modelling planetary scientists generally located astronomy physics earth sciences departments universities research centres though


several purely planetary science institutes worldwide several major conferences year wide range peer reviewed journals planetary scientists work private research centres often initiate partnership research tasks history history planetary science may said begun ancient greek philosopher democritus reported hippolytus saying blockquote ordered worlds boundless differ size neither sun moon others greater us yet others number intervals


objects intense later study galileo 's study lunar mountains also began study extraterrestrial landscapes observation moon certainly possess smooth polished surface suggested worlds might appear like face earth ref name taylor b ref advances telescope construction instrumental resolution gradually allowed increased identification atmospheric surface details planets moon initially heavily studied always exhibited details surface due proximity earth technological improvements gradually


produced detailed lunar geological knowledge scientific process main instruments astronomical optical telescopes later radio telescopes finally robotic exploratory spacecraft solar system relatively well studied good overall understanding formation evolution planetary system exists however large numbers unsolved questions ref name sternplanetarysoc ref rate new discoveries high partly due large number interplanetary spacecraft currently exploring solar system disciplines planetary science studies observational theoretical astronomy geology exogeology atmospheric science emerging subspecialty planetary oceans


planetary astronomy observational theoretical science observational researchers predominantly concerned study small bodies solar system observed telescopes optical radio characteristics bodies shape spin surface materials weathering determined history formation evolution understood theoretical planetary astronomy concerned dynamics application principles celestial mechanics solar system extrasolar planetary systems every planet branch planet subject named nb terms


formation inferring physical processes acted surface planetary geomorphology includes study several classes surface features impact features multi ringed basins craters volcanic tectonic features lava flows fissures rilles glacial features aeolian features space weathering erosional effects generated harsh environment space continuous micro meteorite bombardment high energy particle rain impact gardening example thin dust cover surface lunar regolith result micro meteorite bombardment hydrological features liquid involved range water hydrocarbon ammonia depending location within


solar system category includes study paleohydrological features paleochannels paleolakes history planetary surface deciphered mapping features top bottom according deposition sequence first determined terrestrial strata nicolas steno example stratigraphic mapping prepared apollo astronauts field geology would encounter lunar missions overlapping sequences identified images taken lunar orbiter program used prepare lunar stratigraphic column geological map moon cosmochemistry geochemistry petrology one main problems generating


hypotheses formation evolution objects solar system lack samples analysed laboratory large suite tools available full body knowledge derived terrestrial geology brought bear direct samples moon asteroids mars present earth removed parent bodies delivered meteorites suffered contamination oxidising effect earth 's atmosphere infiltration biosphere meteorites collected last decades antarctica almost


provide detailed constraints theories evolution martian lithosphere july samples martian meteorites discovered earth many found either antarctica sahara desert apollo era apollo program kilograms lunar samples collected transported earth soviet luna robots also delivered regolith samples moon samples provide comprehensive record composition solar system body beside earth numbers lunar meteorites growing quickly last


years april meteorites officially classified lunar eleven us antarctic meteorite collection japanese antarctic meteorite collection hot desert localities africa australia middle east total mass recognized lunar meteorites close nbsp kg geophysics space probes made possible collect data visible light region areas electromagnetic spectrum planets characterized force fields gravity magnetic fields


studied geophysics space physics measuring changes acceleration experienced spacecraft orbit allowed fine details gravity fields planets mapped example gravity field disturbances lunar maria measured lunar orbiters led discovery concentrations mass mascons beneath imbrium serenitatis crisium nectaris humorum basins solar wind deflected magnetosphere scale planet 's magnetic field sufficiently strong interaction solar wind forms magnetosphere around planet


early space probes discovered gross dimensions terrestrial magnetic field extends earth radii towards sun solar wind stream charged particles streams around terrestrial magnetic field continues behind magnetic tail hundreds earth radii downstream inside magnetosphere relatively dense regions solar wind particles van allen radiation belts geophysics includes seismology tectonophysics geophysical fluid dynamics mineral physics geodynamics mathematical geophysics geophysical surveying planetary geodesy also known planetary geodetics deals measurement representation planets solar


system gravitational fields geodynamic phenomena polar motion three dimensional time varying space science geodesy elements astrophysics planetary sciences shape earth large extent result rotation causes equatorial bulge competition geologic processes collision plates vulcanism resisted earth 's gravity field principles applied solid surface earth orogeny mountains higher deep sea trenches deeper quite simply mountain tall


example would develop much pressure base due gravity rock would become plastic mountain would slump back height roughly geologically insignificant time geologic principles applied planets besides earth instance mars whose surface gravity much less largest volcano olympus mons high peak height could maintained earth earth geoid essentially figure earth abstracted topographic features therefore mars


geoid areoid essentially figure mars abstracted topographic features surveying mapping two important fields application geodesy atmospheric science cloud bands clearly visible jupiter atmosphere important transitional zone solid planetary surface higher rarefied ionizing radiation belts planets atmospheres existence depends mass planet planet 's distance sun nbsp distant frozen atmospheres occur besides four gas giant planets almost terrestrial planets earth venus mars significant atmospheres two moons


planetary science planetary science frequently makes use method comparison give greater understanding object study involve comparing dense atmospheres earth saturn 's moon titan evolution outer solar system objects different distances sun geomorphology surfaces terrestrial planets give examples main comparison made features earth much accessible allows much greater range measurements made earth analogue studies particularly common


planetary geology geomorphology also atmospheric science use terrestrial analogues first described gilbert professional activity journals ''annual review earth planetary sciences'' ''earth planetary science letters'' ''earth moon planets'' ''geochimica et cosmochimica acta'' ''icarus'' ''journal geophysical research planets'' ''meteoritics planetary science'' ''planetary space science'' ''the planetary science journal'' professional bodies division planetary sciences dps american astronomical society american geophysical union meteoritical society europlanet major conferences lunar planetary science conference lpsc organized lunar planetary institute houston held annually since


year major institutions non exhaustive list includes institutions universities major groups people working planetary science alphabetical order used national space agencies canadian space agency csa annual budget cad million china national space administration cnsa people 's republic china budget billion est centre national d' tudes spatiales french national centre space researchbudget billion deutsches zentrum f r luft und raumfahrt ev german abbreviated dlr german aerospace center budget billion european space agency esa budget billion indian space research organisation isro israel space agency isa italian


space agency budget billion japan aerospace exploration agency jaxa budget billion nasa considerable number research groups including jpl gsfc ames budget billion national space organization taiwan russian federal space agency budget billion uk space agency uksa institutions arctic planetary science institute https asuedu arizona state university 's https seseasuedu school earth space exploration australian national university 's https webarchiveorg web http rsaaanueduau psi welcomehtml planetary science institute brown university http wwwplanetarybrownedu planetary geosciences group caltech 's http wwwgpscaltechedu division geological planetary sciences http webgpscaltechedu options planetary planetary sciences subdivision cornell university 's http wwwgeocornelledu eas peopleplaces faculty matt planetary space planetary science curtin university 's


https sciengcurtineduau schools school earth planetary sciences school earth planetary sciences florida institute technology 's http cosfitedu pss department physics space sciences johns hopkins university 's http wwwjhuapledu applied physics laboratory lunar planetary institute max planck institute solar system research 's http wwwmpsmpgde planetary science department planets comets mit http eapswebmitedu dept earth atmospheric planetary sciences open university http pssriopenacuk planetary space sciences research institute planetary science institute stony brook university 's http wwwstonybrookedu geosciences geosciences department soon open center planetary exploration ucl birkbeck 's http wwwuclacuk cps centre planetary sciences university arizona 's http wwwlplarizonaedu lunar planetary lab university arkansas 's http spacecenteruarkedu center space planetary sciences


university california los angeles 's https epssuclaedu department earth planetary space sciences university california santa cruz 's https epsucscedu department earth planetary sciences university hawaii 's http wwwhigphawaiiedu hawaii institute geophysics planetology university copenhagen 's center planetary research university central florida http planetsucfedu planetary sciences group university british columbia https wwweoasubcca department earth ocean atmospheric sciences university western ontario 's centre planetary science exploration university tennessee http epsutkedu department earth planetary sciences university colorado 's department http apscoloradoedu astrophysical planetary sciences https wustledu washington university st louis 's https epswustledu department


earth planetary sciences inaf http wwwiapsinafit istituto di astrofisica e planetologia spaziali basic concepts asteroid celestial mechanics comet dwarf planet extrasolar planet gas giant icy moon kuiper belt magnetosphere minor planet planet planetary differentiation planetary system definition planet space weather synestia terrestrial planet see also planetary cartography planetary coordinate system selenography study surface physical features moon theoretical planetology timeline solar system exploration references reading carr michael h saunders r strom r g wilhelms e ''the geology terrestrial planets'' nasa morrison david


professional newsletter weekly distribution http womeninplanetarysciencewordpresscom women planetary science professional networking news space science astronomical sub disciplines


characterizes ixd design field opposed science engineering field ref name aboutface disciplines software engineering heavy focus designing technical stakeholders interaction design focused meeting needs optimizing experience users within relevant technical business constraints ref name aboutface history term ''interaction design'' coined bill moggridge bill verplank mid took years concept started take hold ref name aboutface verplank adaptation computer science term ''user interface design''

Applied science
Architecture and design
User experience design
Interaction design


industrial design profession moggridge improvement ' 'soft face'' coined refer application industrial design products containing software ref name designinginteractions ref earliest programs design interactive technologies visible language workshop started muriel cooper mit interactive telecommunications program founded nyu martin elton later headed red burns first academic program officially named interaction design established carnegie mellon university master design interaction design outset program


focused mainly screen interfaces shifting greater emphasis big picture aspects interaction people organizations culture service system gillian crampton smith founded computer related design royal college art rca london changed design interactions headed anthony dunne crampton smith helped found interaction design institute ivrea small institute olivetti 's hometown northern italy dedicated solely interaction design institute moved milan october merged domus academy people originally involved idii


set copenhagen institute interaction design ciid ivrea crampton smith philip tabor added interaction design ixd track visual multimedia communication iuav university venice italy swedish foundation strategic research founded interactive institute swedish research institute field interaction design methodologies goal oriented design goal oriented design goal directed design concerned satisfying needs desires users product service ref name aboutface alan cooper argues ''the inmates running asylum'' need new


interface shneiderman proposes principles designing usable interfaces called eight golden rules interface design well known heuristics creating usable systems personas personas archetypes describe various goals observed behaviour patterns among users ref name designing digital age ref persona encapsulates critical behavioural data way designers stakeholders understand remember relate personas use storytelling engage users' social emotional aspects helps designers either visualize best product behaviour see recommended design successful ref name designing digital age cognitive dimensions


cognitive dimensions framework provides vocabulary evaluate modify design solutions cognitive dimensions offer lightweight approach analysis design quality rather depth detailed description provide common vocabulary discussing notation user interface programming language design dimensions provide high level descriptions interface user interacts examples include ''consistency'' ''error proneness'' ''hard mental operations'' ''viscosity'' ''premature commitment'' concepts aid creation new designs existing ones ' 'design maneuvers'' alter design within particular dimension affective interaction design designers must aware


elements influence user emotional responses instance products must convey positive emotions avoiding negative ones ref name sharp ref important aspects include motivational learning creative social persuasive influences one method help convey aspects example use dynamic icons animations sound help communicate creating sense interactivity interface aspects fonts color palettes graphical layouts influence acceptance studies showed affective aspects affect perceptions usability ref name sharp emotion pleasure theories exist explain interface responses include norman 's emotional design model patrick jordan 's


pleasure model mccarthy wright 's technology experience framework five dimensions concept dimensions interaction design introduced moggridge 's book ''designing interactions'' crampton smith wrote interaction design draws four existing design languages silver later proposed fifth dimension behaviour words dimension defines interactions words element users interact visual representations visual representations elements interface user perceives may include limited typography diagrams icons graphics physical objects space dimension defines objects