application information science web design considers example issues classification information retrieval big ia view information architecture involves organization website also factors user experience thereby considering usability issues information design information architect richard saul wurman clarified use term '''information architect''' wrote mean architect used words ''architect foreign policy'' mean architect creating systemic structural orderly principles make something work thoughtful making either artifact idea


policy informs clear keynote address first annual acia conference information architecture october peter morville presented information architecture n't superficial appearances 's mission critical infrastructure notable people information architecture richard saul wurman credited coining term information architecture relation design information peter morville president semantic studios co author ''information architecture world wide web'' louis rosenfeld founder rosenfeld media co author ''information architecture world wide web''

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Information architecture


jesse james garrett adam greenfield christina wodtke see also applications architecture card sorting chief experience officer content management content strategy controlled vocabulary data management data presentation architecture digital humanities ecological interface design enterprise information security architecture faceted classification human factors ergonomics informatics interaction design process architecture site map social information architecture tree testing user experience design wayfinding web graph web literacy infrastructure references bibliography reading data management enterprise architecture information governance information science information technology management information technology records management technical communication


'''language education''' process practice teaching second foreign language primarily branch applied linguistics interdisciplinary field four main learning categories language education communicative competencies proficiencies cross cultural experiences multiple literacies need increasing globalization created great need people workforce communicate multiple languages common languages used areas trade tourism international relations technology media science many countries korea kim yeong seo japan kubota china kirkpatrick zhichang

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Language education


frame education policies teach least one foreign language primary secondary school levels however countries india singapore malaysia pakistan philippines use second official language governments according gao china recently putting enormous importance foreign language learning especially english language history ancient medieval period need learn foreign languages old human history ancient near east akkadian language diplomacy amarna letters many centuries latin dominant language education


allied sensation experience teaching must oral schoolroom models things else pictures published world 's first illustrated children 's book ''orbis sensualium pictus'' study latin gradually diminished study living language mere subject school curriculum decline demanded new justification study claimed study latin developed intellectual ability study latin grammar became end grammar schools th th centuries focused teaching grammatical


aspects classical latin advanced students continued grammar study addition rhetoric ref name richards ref th century study modern languages become part curriculum european schools th century based purely academic study latin students modern languages much exercises studying grammatical rules translating abstract sentences oral work minimal students instead required memorize grammatical rules apply decode written texts target language tradition inspired method became known grammar translation method ref name richards th th centuries henry


sweet key figure establishing applied linguistics tradition language teaching innovation foreign language teaching began th century became rapid th century led number different sometimes conflicting methods claiming major improvement previous contemporary methods earliest applied linguists included jean manes ca heinrich gottfried ollendorff henry sweet otto jespersen harold palmer worked setting language teaching principles approaches based linguistic psychological theories left many specific


practical details others devise ref name richards history foreign language education th century methods teaching related might appear history failure students us universities foreign language major attain minimum professional proficiency even reading knowledge required phd degree comparable second year language students read researchers native english speakers read assess information written languages english even number famous linguists monolingual ref name diller ref


however anecdotal evidence successful second foreign language learning easy find leading discrepancy cases failure language programs tends make research second language acquisition emotionally charged older methods approaches grammar translation method direct method dismissed even ridiculed newer methods approaches invented promoted complete solution problem high failure rates foreign language students books language teaching list various methods used


past often ending author 's new method new methods usually presented coming author 's mind authors generally give credence done explain relates new method example descriptive linguists seem claim unhesitatingly scientifically based language teaching methods work led audio lingual method developed us army world war ii however significant evidence contrary also often inferred even stated older methods


almost completely separate histories gaining ground one time another examples researchers empiricist side jesperson palmer leonard bloomfield promote mimicry memorization pattern drills methods follow basic empiricist position language acquisition results habits formed conditioning drilling extreme form language learning seen much learning species human language essentially communication behaviors seen species theoretical side example francois gouin md


berlitz emile b de sauz whose rationalist theories language acquisition dovetail linguistic work done noam chomsky others led wider variety teaching methods ranging grammar translation method gouin 's series method direct methods berlitz de sauz methods students generate original meaningful sentences gain functional knowledge rules grammar follows rationalist position man born think language use uniquely human trait impossible species given human languages share many


common traits idea humans share universal grammar built brain structure allows us create sentences never heard still immediately understood anyone understands specific language spoken rivalry two camps intense little communication cooperation ref name diller st century time language education developed schools become part education curriculum around world countries united states language education also referred


teaching foreign language classrooms high school spanish taught second language class native english speakers american private school massachusetts language education may take place general school subject specialized '''language school''' many methods teaching languages fallen relative obscurity others widely used still others small following offer useful insights sometimes confused terms approach method technique hierarchical concepts '''approach''' set assumptions nature language language learning


involve procedure provide details assumptions implemented classroom setting related second language acquisition theory three principal approaches structural view treats language system structurally related elements code meaning eg grammar functional view sees language vehicle express accomplish certain function requesting something interactive view sees language vehicle creation maintenance social relations focusing patterns moves acts negotiation interaction found conversational exchanges


approach fairly dominant since ref name richards '''method''' plan presenting language material learned based upon selected approach order approach translated method instructional system must designed considering objectives teaching learning content selected organized types tasks performed roles students roles teachers examples structural methods grammar translation audio lingual method examples functional methods include oral approach


situational language teaching examples interactive methods include direct method series method communicative language teaching language immersion silent way suggestopedia natural approach tandem language learning total physical response teaching proficiency reading storytelling dogme language teaching '''technique''' strategy specific concrete stratagem trick designed accomplish immediate objective derived controlling method less directly approach ref name richards online self study courses hundreds languages available self study scores publishers range costs using variety


methods course acts teacher choose methodology classroom teachers audio recordings books audio '' 'recordings''' use native speakers one strength helping learners improve accent recordings pauses learner speak others continuous learner speaks along recorded voice similar learning song audio recordings self study use many methods used classroom teaching produced records tapes cds dvds websites audio recordings teach words target language using explanations


learner 's language alternative use sound effects show meaning words target language language recordings target language comprehensible regardless learner 's native language language '''books''' published centuries teaching vocabulary grammar simplest books phrasebooks give useful short phrases travelers cooks receptionists others need specific vocabulary complete books include vocabulary grammar exercises translation writing practice also various language learning tools entering market recent years internet software


'''software''' interact learners ways books audio cannot software records learner analyzes pronunciation gives feedback software present additional exercises areas particular learner difficulty concepts mastered software pronounce words target language show meaning using pictures instead oral explanations language software target language comprehensible regardless learner 's native language '''websites''' provide various services geared toward language education sites designed specifically learning languages


software runs web advantage avoiding downloads disadvantage requiring internet connection publishers use web distribute audio texts software use offline example various travel guides example lonely planet offer software supporting language education websites offer learning activities quizzes puzzles practice language concepts language exchange sites connect users complementary language skills native spanish speaker wants learn english native english speaker wants learn spanish language exchange websites essentially treat


''knowledge language'' commodity provide marketlike environment commodity exchanged users typically contact via chat voip email language exchanges also viewed helpful tool aid language learning language schools language exchanges tend benefit oral proficiency fluency colloquial vocabulary acquisition vernacular usage rather formal grammar writing skills across australasia 'education perfect' online learning site frequently used enables teachers monitor students' progress students gain point every new word remembered annual


international education perfect languages contest held may many websites helpful learning languages even though designed maintained marketed purposes countries websites languages learners elsewhere use primary material study news fiction videos songs etc study conducted center applied linguistics noted use technology media begun play heavy role facilitating language learning classroom help internet students readily exposed foreign media music videos


television shows films result teachers taking heed internet 's influence searching ways combine exposure classroom teaching translation sites let learners find meaning foreign text create foreign translations text native language speech synthesis text speech tts sites software let learners hear pronunciation arbitrary written text pronunciation similar native speaker course development learning management systems moodle used teachers including language teachers web conferencing tools bring remote learners


together eg elluminate live players computer games practice target language interacting massively multiplayer online games virtual worlds virtual world second life started used foreign language tuition sometimes entire businesses developed addition spain 's language cultural institute instituto cervantes island second life internet content free often government nonprofit sites bbc online book foreign service institute minimal ads ad supported newspapers youtube require payment learning strategies language learning


strategies attracted increasing focus way understanding process language acquisition listening way learn clearly listening used learn language learners employ consciously listening understand one level listening focused listening something learners employ strategy focused listening strategy listening helps students listen attentively distractions focused listening important learning foreign language slightest accent word change meaning completely reading way learn many


people read understand strategy reading text learn grammar discourse styles also employed speaking way learn alongside listening reading exercises practicing conversation skills important aspect language acquisition language learners gain experience speaking foreign languages person language classes language meet ups university language exchange programs joining online language learning communities eg https wwwconversationexchangecom conversation exchange https wwwtandemnet tandem traveling country language spoken learning vocabulary translation rote memorization two strategies employed traditionally


strategies also used guessing based looking contextual clues spaced repetition use various apps games tools eg http wwwduolingocom duolingo http wwwlingomonkeycom lingomonkey http wwwvocabularystickerscom vocabulary stickers knowledge brain works utilized creating strategies remember words learning esperanto esperanto widely used international auxiliary language founded l l zamenhof polish jewish ophthalmologist aimed eliminate language barriers international contacts esperanto artificial language created basis indo european languages


major growth point elt english language teaching industry last ten years people though use phrase 'blended learning' refer learning taking place focus activities example playing card game requires calling cards may allow blended learning numbers skill teaching talking language skills four basic ones listening speaking reading writing however socially based skills identified recently summarizing describing narrating etc addition general learning skills


study skills knowing one learns applied language classrooms ref name holden ref four basic skills generally taught isolation rigid order listening speaking however since recognized generally use one skill time leading integrated exercises ref name holden speaking skill often underrepresented traditional classroom due fact considered harder teach test numerous texts teaching testing writing


relatively speaking recent textbooks stress importance students working students pairs groups sometimes entire class pair group work give opportunities students participate actively however supervision pairs groups important make sure everyone participates equally possible activities also provide opportunities peer teaching weaker learners find support stronger classmates ref name holden sandwich technique foreign language teaching '' 'sandwich technique''' oral insertion idiomatic translation mother tongue unknown phrase


learned language repetition order convey meaning rapidly completely possible mother tongue equivalent given almost aside slight break flow speech mark intruder modeling dialogue sentence students repeat teacher gives oral mother tongue equivalent unknown words phrases repeats foreign language phrase students imitate l l l example german teacher english might engage following exchange students teacher let


try lass mich versuchen let try students let try mother tongue mirroring mother tongue mirroring adaptation time honoured technique literal translation word word translation pedagogical purposes aim make foreign constructions salient transparent learners many cases spare technical jargon grammatical analysis differs literal translation interlinear text used past since takes progress learners made account focuses upon specific structure time didactic device


used extent remains intelligible learner unless combined normal idiomatic translation technique seldom referred used days back chaining back chaining technique used teaching oral language skills especially polysyllabic difficult words ref name ue backchaining ''glossary'' retrieved april http wwwusingenglishcom glossary backchaininghtml ref teacher pronounces last syllable student repeats teacher continues working backwards end word beginning example teach name mussorgsky' teacher pronounce last syllable '' sky''


student repeat teacher repeat '' sorg '' attached '' sorg sky'' remains first syllable ''mus sorg sky'' code switching code switching special linguistic phenomenon speaker consciously alternates two languages according different time places contents objects factors code switching shows functions one environment mother tongue playing dominant role students' life study children bilingual family immigrant family say capability using


code switching relating transformation phonetics words language structure expression mode thinking mode cultural differences needed guided developed daily communication environment people learn foreign language circumstance filled using native language ability code switching cannot stimulated thus efficiency foreign language acquisition would decrease therefore teaching strategy code switching used help students better gain conceptual competences provide rich semantic context understand specific vocabularies region practices


ages one five mastery language largely acquired naturally living verbal communication environment long good guiding creating opportunities children children 's language ability easy developed cultivated compulsory education compulsory education people period access second foreign language first time period professional foreign language education academic atmosphere provided students get help motivation teachers activated


peers time one would able undergo lot specialized learning order truly master great number rules vocabulary grammar verbal communication adult education learning foreign language adulthood means one pursuing higher value themself obtaining new skill stage individuals already developed ability supervise themself learning language however time pressure also obstacle adults elderly education compared life stages period hardest learn


new language due gradual brain deterioration memory loss notwithstanding difficulty language education seniors slow brain degeneration active ageing language study holidays increasing number people combining holidays language study native country enables student experience target culture meeting local people holiday often combines formal lessons cultural excursions leisure activities homestay perhaps time travel country afterwards language study holidays popular across europe malta uk popular almost everyone speaks english


first language asia due ease transportation variety nearby countries holidays become increasingly popular central south america countries guatemala ecuador peru consequence increasing popularity several international language education agencies flourished recent years though education systems around world invest enormous sums money language teaching outcomes terms getting students actually speak language learning outside classroom often unclear increasing prevalence international business transactions important


multiple languages one 's disposal also evident businesses outsourcing departments eastern europe minority language education minority language education policy principal policy arguments favor promoting minority language education need multilingual workforces intellectual cultural benefits greater inclusion global information society access education minority language also seen human right granted european convention human rights fundamental freedoms european charter regional minority languages un human rights committee bilingual education implemented


many countries including united states order promote use appreciation minority language well majority language concerned materials e learning minority language education suitable resources teaching learning minority languages difficult find access led calls increased development materials minority language teaching internet offers opportunities access wider range texts audios videos language learning use web tools language education offers opportunities material development lesser taught languages bring


together geographically dispersed teachers learners acronyms abbreviations '''all''' apprenticeship language learning '''call''' computer assisted language learning '''clil''' content language integrated learning '''celi''' certificato di conoscenza della lingua italiana '''cll''' community language learning '''dele''' diploma de espa ol como lengua extranjera '''delf''' dipl d' tudes en langue fran aise '''efl''' english foreign language '''eal d''' english additional language dialect '''eap''' english academic purposes '''ell''' english language learning '''elt''' english language teaching '''esl''' english second language '''esp''' english specific purposes english specific purposes '''fll''' foreign language learning '''flt''' foreign language teaching '''hll''' heritage


language learning '''iatefl''' international association teachers english foreign language international association teachers english foreign language '''l ''' first language native language mother tongue '''l ''' second language additional language '''ldl''' lernen durch lehren german learning teaching '''lote''' languages english '''sla''' second language acquisition '''tell''' technology enhanced language learning '''tefl''' teaching english foreign language '''tefla''' teaching english foreign language adults '''tesol''' teaching english speakers languages '''teyl''' teaching english young learners '''tpr''' total physical response '''tprs''' teaching proficiency reading


storytelling unicert european language education system many universities based common european framework reference languages see also english language learning teaching information language teaching acronyms abbreviations specific english see also american council teaching foreign languages eikaiwa school error analysis linguistics foreign language anxiety foreign language writing aid foreign language reading aid glossary language teaching terms ideas language education region language festival language mooc language policy lexicography linguistic rights list language acquisition researchers monolingual learner 's dictionary self access language learning centers


tandem language learning references sources australian japanese relations today skwirk retrieved may http wwwskwirkcom p c u c australian japanese relations today nsw australian japanese relations today conflict consensus care changing attitudes parry australian university students japanese host families short term stays university queensland retrieved may https espacelibraryuqeduau view uq phd submissionpdf p rez milans urban schools english language education late modern china critical sociolinguistic ethnography new york london routledge gao xuesong andy strategic language learningmultilingual matters canada kim yeong seo history english education korea kirkpatrick zhichang x chinese pragmatic norms china english world englishes vol pp nbsp kubota k ideologies


english japan world englishes vol pp nbsp phillips j k foreign language education whose definition ''the modern language journal'' '' '' american council teaching foreign languages ''language learning st century st century skills map'' reading bernhardt e b ed life language immersion classrooms clevedon england multilingual matters ltd genesee f second language learning immersion review us programs review educational research genesee f learning two languages studies immersion bilingual education cambridge mass newbury house publishers hult


fm king ka eds educational linguistics practice applying local globally global locally clevedon uk multilingual matters hult fm ed directions prospects educational linguistics new york springer lindholm leary k theoretical conceptual foundations dual language education programs k lindholm leary dual language education pp nbsp clevedon england multilingual matters ltd mckay sharon schaetzel kirsten http wwwcalorg caelanetwork resources facilitatinghtml ''facilitating adult learner interactions build listening speaking skills'' caela network briefs caela center applied linguistics meunier fanny granger sylviane https booksgooglecom booksid qwjbyfxs smc printsec frontcover phraseology foreign language learning teaching amsterdam philadelphia john


https wwwefcom wwen ef education first https wwwbbccouk learningenglish bbc learning english applied linguistics


'''agronomy''' science technology producing using plants agriculture food fuel fiber chemicals recreation land conservation agronomy come include research plant genetics plant physiology meteorology soil science application combination sciences biology chemistry economics ecology earth science genetics professionals agronomy termed agronomists plant breeding agronomist field sampling trial plot flax topic agronomy involves selective breeding plants produce best crops various conditions plant breeding increased crop yields improved


nutritional value numerous crops including corn soybeans wheat also resulted development new types plants example hybrid grain named triticale produced crossbreeding rye wheat triticale contains usable protein either rye wheat agronomy also instrumental fruit vegetable production research additionally development turfgrass use plant breeding resulted reduction need fertilizer water inputs requirements well turf types show increased resistance diseases biotechnology purdue university agronomy professor george van scoyoc explains


difference forest prairie soils soldiers indiana national guard 's agribusiness development team beck agricultural center west lafayette indiana agronomist mapping plant genome agronomists use biotechnology extend expedite development desired characteristics biotechnology often laboratory activity requiring field testing new crop varieties developed addition increasing crop yields agronomic biotechnology applied increasingly novel uses food example oilseed present used mainly margarine food oils modified produce fatty


agronomists develop methods preserve soil decrease effects erosion wind water example technique known contour plowing may used prevent soil erosion conserve rainfall researchers agronomy also seek ways use soil effectively solving problems problems include disposal human animal manure water pollution pesticide accumulation soil well preserving soil future generations burning paddocks crop production pasture management techniques include till farming planting soil binding grasses along contours steep


slopes using contour drains depths much metre agroecology agroecology management agricultural systems emphasis ecological environmental applications topic associated closely work sustainable agriculture organic farming alternative food systems development alternative cropping systems theoretical modeling theoretical production ecology quantitative study growth crops plant treated kind biological factory processes light carbon dioxide water nutrients harvestable products main parameters considered temperature sunlight standing crop biomass plant production distribution


nutrient water supply see also agricultural engineering agricultural policy agroecology agrology agrophysics crop farming food systems horticulture green revolution vegetable farming references bibliography wendy b murphy ''the future world agriculture'' watts antonio saltini ''storia delle scienze agrarie'' vols bologna external links https wwwagronomyorg american society agronomy asa https wwwcropsorg crop science society america cssa https wwwsoilsorg soil science society america sssa http wwweuropean agronomyorg european society agronomy https wwwnalusdagov main national agricultural library nal comprehensive agricultural library http wwwfisaonlinede indexphpact home lang en information system agriculture food research


end prehistory therefore came different dates different places term less often used discussing societies prehistory ended relatively recently sumer mesopotamia indus valley civilization ancient egypt first civilizations develop scripts keep historical records took place already early bronze age neighboring civilizations first follow civilizations reached end prehistory iron age three age system division prehistory stone age followed bronze age iron age remains

Applied science
Military sciences
Military history
Prehistoric


use much eurasia north africa generally used parts world working hard metals arrived abruptly contact eurasian cultures oceania australasia much sub saharan africa parts americas exceptions pre columbian civilizations americas areas develop complex writing systems arrival eurasians prehistory reaches relatively recent periods example usually taken end prehistory australia period culture written others


turkey erected ritual use early neolithic people years ago early sketch imagining adult juvenile prehistoric times making stone tool nineteenth century concept early humans wilderness beginning term prehistory refer vast span time since beginning universe earth often refers period since life appeared earth even specifically time since human like beings appeared ref name fagan fagan brian ''world prehistory brief introduction'' new york prentice hall seventh edition chapter one ref ref name renfrew renfrew colin


''prehistory making human mind'' new york modern library ref end date marking end prehistory typically defined advent contemporary written historical record date consequently varies widely region region depending date relevant records become useful academic resource example egypt generally accepted prehistory ended around bce whereas new guinea end prehistoric era set much recently russian anthropologist nicholai miklukho maklai spent several years living among native peoples described


way life comprehensive treatise europe relatively well documented classical cultures ancient greece ancient rome neighbouring cultures including celts lesser extent etruscans little writing historians must decide much weight give often highly prejudiced accounts protohistoric cultures greek roman literature time periods dividing human prehistory eurasia historians typically use three age system whereas scholars pre human time periods typically use well defined geologic record internationally defined stratum base within geologic time


scale three age system periodization human prehistory three consecutive time periods named respective predominant tool making technologies stone age bronze age iron age ref name minds ref prehistory americas see pre columbian era history term notion prehistory began surface enlightenment work antiquarians used word 'primitive' describe societies existed written records first use word prehistory english however occurred ''foreign quarterly review'' use geologic time scale pre human time periods


three age system human prehistory system emerged late nineteenth century work british german scandinavian anthropologists archeologists antiquarians ref name minds means research main source information prehistory archaeology branch anthropology scholars beginning make use evidence natural social sciences ref name iberia prehistory iberia debating early social stratification state edited mar cruz berrocal leonardo garc sanju n antonio gilman pg ref ref name edge ''historical archaeology back edge'' edited pedro paulo funari martin hall


sian jones p ref ref name pal ''through ages palestinian archaeology introductory handbook'' walter e ras p ref view articulated advocates deep history primary researchers human prehistory archaeologists physical anthropologists use excavation geologic geographic surveys scientific analysis reveal interpret nature behavior pre literate non literate peoples ref name fagan human population geneticists historical linguists also providing valuable insight questions ref name renfrew cultural anthropologists help provide context societal interactions objects human origin pass among people allowing analysis


article arises human prehistoric context ref name renfrew therefore data prehistory provided wide variety natural social sciences anthropology archaeology archaeoastronomy comparative linguistics biology geology molecular genetics paleontology palynology physical anthropology many others human prehistory differs history terms chronology way deals activities archaeological cultures rather named nations individuals restricted material processes remains artifacts rather written records prehistory anonymous reference terms prehistorians use neanderthal


iron age modern labels definitions sometimes subject debate stone age concept stone age found useful archaeology world although archaeology americas called different names begins lithic stage sometimes paleo indian sub divisions described used eurasia consistently across whole area palaeolithic mitochondrial population genetics numbers millennia present accuracy disputed palaeolithic means old stone age begins first use stone


tools paleolithic earliest period stone age early part palaeolithic called lower palaeolithic predates ''homo sapiens'' beginning ''homo habilis'' related species earliest stone tools dated around million years ago evidence control fire early humans lower palaeolithic era uncertain best limited scholarly support widely accepted claim ''h erectus'' ''h ergaster'' made fires nbsp bp present period site bnot ya'akov bridge israel use


fire enabled early humans cook food provide warmth light source night early ''homo sapiens'' originated years ago ushering middle palaeolithic anatomic changes indicating modern language capacity also arise middle palaeolithic middle palaeolithic era first definitive evidence human use fire sites zambia charred bone wood dated bp systematic burial dead music early art use increasingly sophisticated multi part tools highlights middle paleolithic throughout palaeolithic humans generally


lived nomadic hunter gatherers hunter gatherer societies tended small egalitarian although hunter gatherer societies abundant resources advanced food storage techniques sometimes developed sedentary lifestyles complex social structures chiefdoms social stratification long distance contacts may established case indigenous australian highways known songlines mesolithic dugout canoe mesolithic middle stone age greek ''mesos'' 'middle' ''lithos'' 'stone' period development human technology palaeolithic neolithic periods stone age mesolithic period began end


pleistocene epoch bp ended introduction agriculture date varied geographic region areas near east agriculture already underway end pleistocene mesolithic short poorly defined areas limited glacial impact term epipalaeolithic sometimes preferred regions experienced greater environmental effects last ice age ended much evident mesolithic era lasting millennia northern europe societies able live well rich food supplies marshlands fostered


warmer climate conditions produced distinctive human behaviours preserved material record maglemosian azilian cultures conditions also delayed coming neolithic late bce bp northern europe remains period far often limited middens forested areas first signs deforestation found although would begin earnest neolithic space needed agriculture mesolithic characterized areas small composite flint tools microliths microburins fishing tackle


stone adzes wooden objects eg canoes bows found sites technologies first occur africa associated azilian cultures spreading europe ibero maurusian culture northern africa kebaran culture levant however independent discovery ruled neolithic entrance gantija phase temple complex ar qim malta bce array neolithic artifacts including bracelets axe heads chisels polishing tools neolithic stone artifacts definition polished except specialty items chipped neolithic means new stone age


although several species human beings paleolithic neolithic ''homo sapiens sapiens'' remained ''homo floresiensis'' may survived right dawn neolithic years ago period primitive technological social development began bce parts middle east later parts world ref name bellwood https wwwamazoncom gp reader pageid n checksum n ernzhriuc fsrw myf cetic x mvhcabli bnres figure ''first farmers origins agricultural societies'' peter bellwood ref ended bce neolithic progression behavioral cultural characteristics


changes including use wild domestic crops domesticated animals early neolithic farming limited narrow range plants wild domesticated included einkorn wheat millet spelt keeping dogs sheep goats bce included domesticated cattle pigs establishment permanently seasonally inhabited settlements use pottery neolithic period saw development early villages agriculture animal domestication tools onset earliest recorded incidents warfare neolithic era commenced beginning farming


produced neolithic revolution ended metal tools became widespread copper age bronze age geographical regions iron age term ''neolithic'' commonly used old world application cultures americas oceania fully develop metal working technology raises problems monumental building luni sul mignone blera italy bce settlements became permanent circular houses single rooms made mudbrick settlements might surrounding stone wall keep domesticated animals protect inhabitants


tribes later settlements rectangular mud brick houses family lived together single multiple rooms burial findings suggest ancestor cult people preserved skulls dead vin culture may created earliest system writing megalithic temple complexes gantija notable gigantic structures although late eurasian neolithic societies formed complex stratified chiefdoms even states states evolved eurasia rise metallurgy neolithic societies whole relatively simple egalitarian ref name leonard katz rigby ref clothing appears


made animal skins indicated finds large numbers bone antler pins ideal fastening leather wool cloth linen might become available later neolithic suggested finds perforated stones depending size may served spindle whorls loom weights chalcolithic artist 's impression copper age walled city los millares iberia old world archaeology chalcolithic eneolithic copper age refers transitional period early copper metallurgy appeared alongside widespread use stone tools period weapons


high temperature years ago find june extends known record copper smelting years suggests copper smelting may invented independently separate parts asia europe time rather spreading single source ref name archaeologyws ref emergence metallurgy may occurred first fertile crescent gave rise bronze age th millennium bce traditional view although finds vin culture europe securely dated slightly earlier fertile crescent


script egypt c bce bronze age earliest period civilizations reached end prehistory introducing written records bronze age parts thereof thus considered part prehistory regions civilizations adopted developed system keeping written records later periods invention writing coincides areas early beginnings bronze age soon appearance writing people started creating texts including written accounts events records administrative matters term bronze


age refers period human cultural development advanced metalworking least systematic widespread use included techniques smelting copper tin naturally occurring outcroppings ores combining cast bronze naturally occurring ores typically included arsenic common impurity copper tin ores rare reflected fact tin bronzes western asia bce bronze age forms part three age system prehistoric societies system follows neolithic areas world


copper common ore deposits tin rare old world often traded carried considerable distances mines stimulating creation extensive trading routes many areas far apart china england valuable new material used weapons long time apparently available agricultural tools much seems hoarded social elites sometimes deposited extravagant quantities chinese ritual bronzes indian copper hoards european hoards unused axe heads end


bronze age large states often called empires arisen egypt china anatolia hittites mesopotamia literate iron age iron age part prehistory civilizations introduced written records bronze age remaining civilizations iron age often conquest empires continued expand period example europe conquest roman empire means term iron age replaced roman gallo roman similar terms conquest archaeology


iron age refers advent ferrous metallurgy adoption iron coincided changes past cultures often including sophisticated agricultural practices religious beliefs artistic styles makes archaeological iron age coincide axial age history philosophy although iron ore common metalworking techniques necessary use iron different needed metal used earlier iron slow spreading long mainly used weapons bronze remained typical tools well art timeline dates


approximate conjectural obtained research fields anthropology archaeology genetics geology linguistics subject revision due new discoveries improved calculations bp stands present bce stands common era paleolithic lower paleolithic c million bp genus ''homo'' appears c million bp evidence early human tools c bp hunting gathering c bp control fire early humans middle paleolithic c bp mousterian neanderthal culture europe c bp anatomically modern humans '' homo sapiens sapiens ''


appear africa one whose characteristics lack significant body hair compared primates see eg omo remains c bp invention clothing c bp toba volcano supereruption c bp ''homo sapiens'' exit africa single population ref name nyt ref ref name traces indicated marker chromosome traces distant past gary stix ''scientific american'' july pp ref next millennia descendants population migrate southern india malay islands australia japan china siberia alaska northwestern coast north


america ref name traces c bp behavioral modernity point including language sophisticated cognition upper paleolithic c bp bce beginnings ch telperronian culture france c bp bce first human settlement southern half australian mainland indigenous australians including future sites sydney ref name settlers' history rewritten ref ref name aboriginal people place ref perth melbourne c bp bce beginnings aurignacian culture exemplified cave paintings parietal art chauvet cave france c bp bce new guinea


populated colonists asia australia c bp bce herd reindeer slaughtered butchered humans vezere valley today france c bp gravettian period europe harpoons needles saws invented c bp last glacial maximum lgm subsequently ice melts glaciers retreat late glacial maximum latter period human beings return western europe see magdalenian culture enter north america eastern siberia first time see paleo indians pre clovis culture settlement americas


c bp bce people around world use fibers make baby carriers clothes bags baskets nets c bp bce settlement consisting huts built rocks mammoth bones founded near doln v stonice moravia czech republic oldest human permanent settlement found archaeologists c bp bce small scale trial cultivation plants ohalo ii hunter gatherers' sedentary camp shore sea galilee israel c bp bce


wisent sculpted clay deep inside cave known le tuc d'audoubert french pyrenees near border spain c bp bce humid period begins north africa region would later become sahara wet fertile aquifers full mesolithic epipaleolithic c bce natufian culture culture sedentary hunter gatherers may cultivated rye levant eastern mediterranean neolithic c bce figs parthenocarpic therefore sterile type cultivated early


neolithic village gilgal jordan valley nbsp km north jericho find predates domestication wheat barley legumes may thus first known instance agriculture c bce circles shaped stone pillars erected g bekli tepe southeastern anatolia region turkey pre pottery neolithic ppna period yet unexcavated structures site thought date back epipaleolithic c bc bce northern mesopotamia northern iraq cultivation barley wheat begins first used beer gruel


bce approximate date death tzi iceman found preserved ice tztal alps copper bladed axe characteristic technology era found corpse c bce stonehenge construction begins first version consisted circular ditch bank wooden posts region old world prehistoric africa predynastic egypt prehistoric central north africa prehistoric asia east asia prehistoric china prehistoric korea japanese paleolithic east asian bronze age chinese bronze age south asia prehistory india south asian stone age


quebec oceania prehistoric australia see also archaeoastronomy archaeology archaic homo sapiens band society behavioral modernity history family holocene human evolution lineage bonded society paleoanthropology pantribal sodalities periodization prehistoric art list stone age art prehistoric medicine prehistoric migration prehistoric music prehistoric religion prehistoric technology prehistoric warfare three age system younger dryas references external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwscienceulsteracuk cma slan submerged landscapes archaeological network neanderthal site https wwwwebcitationorg queryurl http wwwgeocitiescom patrickbringmans veldwezelt hezerwaterhtml date veldwezelt hezerwater belgium https webarchiveorg web http wwwnorthpacificprehistorycom ''north pacific prehistory'' academic journal specialising northeast asian north american archaeology http wwwneolithiqueeu indexhtml prehistory algeria morocco https webarchiveorg web http sd bcca sd school courtmid library subject resources socials early humanshtm early humans


collection resources students courtenay middle school library world history


'''comparative religion''' branch study religions concerned systematic comparison doctrines practices themes impacts including migration world 's religions general comparative study religion yields deeper understanding fundamental philosophical concerns religion ethics metaphysics nature forms salvation also considers compares origins similarities shared various religions world studying material facilitates broadened sophisticated understanding human beliefs practices regarding sacred numinous spiritual divine

Humanities
Theology
Comparative Religion


field comparative religion common geographical classification ref name eb main world religions distinguishes groups middle eastern religions including iranian religions indian religions east asian religions african religions american religions oceanic religions classical hellenistic religions ref name eb ref also exist various sociological classifications religious movements history statue ibn hazm father modern comparative religious studies c rdoba spain al biruni ibn hazm islamic golden age compared study religious pluralism works significant fields theology philosophy ref name arberry ibn hazm


'' http wwwmuslimphilosophycom hazm dove prefacehtml ring dove treatise art practice arab love '' preface trans j arberry luzac oriental ref ref name brill r arnaldez http referenceworksbrillonlinecom entries encyclopaedia islam ibn hazm com ibn azm encyclopaedia islam second edition brill online reference january ref ref name gulf joseph kechichian http gulfnewscom gulf news al nisr portfolio weekend review mind mind gulf news december ref ref name hadithsunnah ref social scientists th century took strong interest comparative primitive religion work max ller edward burnett tylor william robertson smith james george frazer mile durkheim max weber rudolf otto nicholas de lange professor


hebrew jewish studies cambridge university says examples demonstrate point buddhism chinese folk religions belief systems historically seen mutually exclusive blended time different beliefs pure land buddhism shows marked difference western conceptions religions see adherence one religion precluding membership another faith hinduism buddhism provide another insight form soteriology comparative study religions may approach religions base idea salvation eternal life death religions like hinduism


vietnam consisting confucianism daoism various schools mahayana greater vehicle buddhism shint indian religions including early buddhism hinduism jainism sikhism sometimes also theravada way elders buddhism hindu buddhist inspired religions south southeast asia african religions ancient belief systems various indigenous peoples africa excluding ancient egyptian religion considered belong ancient middle east american religions beliefs practices various indigenous peoples two american continents oceanic religions religious systems


monotheistic present day rabbinic judaism judaism considered religious jews expression covenant god established children israel jews hold torah part larger text known tanakh hebrew bible also believe supplemental oral tradition represented later texts midrash talmud christians believe christianity fulfillment continuation jewish old testament christians believe jesus hebrew ''yeshua'' awaited messiah christ foretold old testament prophecies believe subsequent new


testament scripture christians general believe jesus incarnation son god creeds generally hold common incarnation ministry suffering death cross resurrection jesus salvation mankind islam believes present christian jewish scriptures corrupted time longer original divine revelations given jewish people moses jesus prophets muslims quran final complete revelation god arabic ''allah'' believe revealed muhammad alone


b b considered mirza husayn `ali bah 'u 'll h b b 's spiritual successor founded bah movement minority followed subh azal came called azalis bah division eventually became full fledged religion bah faith comparison abrahamic religions judaism christianity islam number adherents bah faith minor abrahamic religions significant three major abrahamic faiths christianity judaism two religions diverge theology practice historical interaction islam judaism started


christianity similar ones islam islam accepts many aspects christianity part faithwith differences interpretationand rejects aspects islam believes quran final revelation god completion previous revelations including bible mandaeism also known sabianism gnostic monotheistic religion ref name mandaens ref john baptist chief prophet frequent baptism part core beliefs according scholars mandaeism originated sometime first three centuries ce either southwestern mesopotamia syro palestinian area ref name auto ref however scholars take view


mandaeism older dates pre christian times mandaeans assert religion predates judaism christianity islam monotheistic faith mandaeans believe descend directly shem noah 's son ref name auto drower ethel stefana mandaeans iraq iran oxford clarendon press ref also john baptist 's original disciples ref name drowerharangawaita drower ethel stefana haran gawaita baptism hibil ziwa biblioteca apostolica vatican ref iranian religions several important religions religious movements originated greater iran among speakers various iranian languages include zoroastrianism mithraism ts g


din yazdanism ahl e haqq zurvanism manichaeism mazdakism depiction faravahar popular symbol zoroastrianism perhaps one important religions come iran zoroastrianism properly speaking world religion became widespread iranian world especially achaemenid sasanian empires went decline alongside many iranian religions rise islam caliphates religion still survives today small numbers particularly notable example parsis india ref name sundermann w zoroastrian motifs non zoroastrian traditions journal royal asiatic


society ref scholars often noted similarities zoroastrianism abrahamic religions especially christianity 've particularly noted due historic relationship jews zoroastrian persian empires well relationship greek philosophy persia christianity 've debated whether zoroastrianism played influencing role religions particular areas concern shared sense duality forces good evil light darkness addition shared belief resurrection dead well emphasis


free moral responsibility mankind seen influenced three major abrahamic faiths well gnosticism bah faith ref name manichaeism another iranian faith shares many similarities zoroastrianism fact manichaeism shares belief prophethood zoroaster also maintaining prophethood gautama buddha jesus christ shares dualist cosmology pits good light evil darkness adversary oppose benevolent god manichaeism mandaeism also share common belief many figures


stories abrahamic faiths raised questions influences origins indian religions ''rig veda'' one oldest vedic texts shown rig veda manuscript devanagari early nineteenth century comparative religion indian religions consists religions originated south asia thought kinship religions india stems fact jains buddhists sikhs look back hinduism common mother ref name al biruni deeply studied vedic religions works essential details pre th century


india 's religions cultures found adi shankaracharya early th century philosopher theologian consolidated doctrine advaita vedanta earlier generations scholars proposed ce proposals ce bce early bce gautama buddha mentioned avatar vishnu puranic texts hinduism hindus believe buddha accepted incorporated many tenets hinduism doctrine ref name prominent modern hindu reformers mahatma gandhi vivekananda acknowledge buddhist influence gandhi like hindus believe buddha established non hindu tradition


writes regard jainism buddhism separate hinduism east asian taoic religions chinese character depicting ''tao'' central concept taoism taoic religion religion religious philosophy focuses east asian concept ''tao'' way forms large group eastern religions including taoism confucianism jeung san shintoism kuan tao chondogyo chen tao large parts east asia buddhism taken taoic features ''tao'' roughly stated flow universe force behind


china japan korea taiwan influences inherited zen buddhism ch'an buddhism arrived japan adapted zen buddhism despite far influence historically noted similarities traditional chinese religious beliefs christianity noted jesuit missionaries became known figurists figurists promoted idea ancient chinese knew truth christian revelation many figures described chinese texts actually figures concepts christianity noted parallels include shared flood myths similarities fu xi


tang dynasty also led increasing similarities chinese buddhism nestorian christianity christians began using buddhist taoist concepts explain faith time jingjiao documents created sometimes called sutras demonstrated blending christianity buddhism ref name chin ken pa jingjiao lenses chinese political theology ''religions '' ref two also formed monastic tradition furthered similarities fusion became heavy emperor wuzong tang dynasty began persecuting buddhists th century claimed christianity merely heresy buddhism


judaism christianity judaism islamic jewish relations hinduism judaism paganism neopaganism christianity paganism christianity neopaganism sikhism hinduism sikhism islam sikhism jainism sikhism taoism taoism religions zoroastrianism zoroastrianism religions zoroastrianism bah faith see also comparative mythology comparative theology hierographology inclusivism institute interreligious dialogue interfaith list founders religious traditions list religions panbabylonism parallelomania parliament world 's religions patternism religious pluralism religious universalism notes references reading chopra r ''a study


vols macmillan muhiyaddin ''a comparative study religions today'' vantage press us paden william e comparative religion ''the routledge companion study religion'' routledge pp http spiritual mindscom religion philosophy routledge companion study religionpdf page online paden william e'' new patterns comparative religion passages evolutionary perspective'' bloomsbury paden william e ''interpreting sacred ways viewing religion'' https wwwamazoncom interpreting sacred ways viewing religion dp excerpt paden william e ''religious worlds comparative study religion'' https wwwamazoncom religious worlds comparative study religion ebook dp b agv bcq excerpt saso michael r ''mystic shaman oracle priest myshop prayers without words'' sino asian institute america us


sharpe eric j ''comparative religion history'' london duckworth nd revised edition shaw jeffrey ''illusions freedom thomas merton jacques ellul technology human condition'' wipf stock smart ninian ''dimensions sacred anatomy world 's beliefs'' smith huston ''the world 's religions great wisdom traditions'' harperone us rev rep edition external links http wwwpatheoscom library lenses side sidehtml patheoscom 's side side comparative lenses http wwwreligioustoleranceorg religioustoleranceorg http wwwreligionfactscom religionfactscom https webarchiveorg web http wwwcomparative religioncom comparative religioncom https archivetoday http wwwstudiesincomparativereligioncom studies comparative religion http wwwgodcontentionorg answers questions faith several worldviews comparative religion studies


inspired aldous huxley 's perennial philosophy religious discussions debates voice text telegram group https tme discussreligion discuss religion


us soldier observing victims malmedy massacre december us prisoners war murdered waffen ss belgium '''war crime''' violation laws war gives rise individual criminal responsibility actions combatants intentionally killing civilians intentionally killing prisoners war torture taking hostages unnecessarily destroying civilian property deception perfidy rape pillaging conscription child soldiers committing genocide ethnic cleansing granting quarter despite surrender flouting legal distinctions proportionality military necessity ref name cassese ref

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
War crimes


formal concept war crimes emerged codification customary international law applied warfare sovereign states lieber code union army american civil war hague conventions international war ref name cassese aftermath second world war war crime trials leaders axis powers established nuremberg principles law fact international criminal law defines war crime geneva conventions legally defined new war crimes established


states could exercise universal jurisdiction war criminals ref name cassese late th century early st century international courts extrapolated defined additional categories war crimes applicable civil war ref name cassese list war crimes defined united nations source united nations intentional murder innocent people torture inhuman treatment including biological experiments willfully causing great suffering serious injury body health compelling prisoner war protected person serve forces hostile power use children age


sixteen years armed forces groups using participate actively hostilities intentionally directing attack civilian population taking direct part hostilities extensive destruction appropriation property justified military necessity carried unlawfully wantonly destroying seizing property adversary unless demanded necessities conflict using poison poisoned weapons intentionally directing attack building dedicated religion education art science charitable purposes historic monuments hospitals long 's used military infrastructure wilfully depriving prisoner war


protected person rights fair regular trial attacking bombarding towns villages dwellings buildings undefended military infrastructure unlawful deportation transfer unlawful confinement taking hostages intentional assault knowledge assault would result loss life casualty civilians damage civilian objects extensive long term severe damage natural environment would clearly excessive relation concrete direct history japanese soldiers suzhou china early examples first trial


war crime peter von hagenbach realised ad hoc tribunal holy roman empire command responsibility actions soldiers knight deemed duty prevent criminal behaviour military force despite argued obeyed superior orders von hagenbach convicted condemned death beheaded ref name greppi http wwwicrcch web eng siteeng nsf html jq x evolution individual criminal responsibility international law edoardo greppi associate professor international law university turin italy international committee red cross


pp october ref ref name grant http wwwlawharvardedu alumni bulletin spring galleryphpexhibit highlights first international war crimes tribunal linda grant harvard law bulletin ref hague conventions hague conventions international treaties negotiated first second peace conferences hague netherlands respectively along geneva conventions among first formal statements laws war war crimes nascent body secular international law geneva conventions geneva conventions four related treaties adopted continuously expanded represent legal basis framework conduct


war international law every single member state united nations currently ratified conventions universally accepted customary international law applicable every situation armed conflict world however additional protocols geneva conventions adopted containing pertinent detailed comprehensive protections international humanitarian law persons objects modern warfare still ratified several states continuously engaged armed conflicts namely united states israel india pakistan iraq iran others accordingly states retain different codes values wartime conduct


signatories routinely violated geneva conventions way either uses ambiguities law political maneuvering sidestep laws' formalities principles three conventions revised expanded fourth one added first geneva convention ''for amelioration condition wounded sick armed forces field'' convention ''for amelioration condition wounded sick armed forces field'' adopted significantly revised replaced version version later first geneva convention


second geneva convention ''for amelioration condition wounded sick shipwrecked members armed forces sea'' convention ''for amelioration condition wounded sick shipwrecked members armed forces sea'' adopted significantly revised replaced second geneva convention third geneva convention ' 'relative treatment prisoners war'' convention ' 'relative treatment prisoners war'' adopted significantly revised replaced third geneva convention hrw wrote saudi arabian led military intervention yemen


definition london charter published august also see nuremberg principles along war crimes charter also defined crimes peace crimes humanity often committed wars concert war crimes international military tribunal far east also known tokyo trial tokyo war crimes tribunal simply tribunal convened may try leaders empire japan three types crimes class crimes peace class b war crimes


confinement transfer taking hostages directing attacks civiliansbodo league massacre korean war directing attacks humanitarian workers un peacekeepers killing surrendered combatant misusing flag truce settlement occupied territory deportation inhabitants occupied territory using poison weapons using civilians shields using child soldiers firing upon combat medic clear insignia following acts part non international conflict murder cruel degrading treatment torture directing attacks civilians humanitarian workers un


peacekeepers following acts part international conflict civilians killed shelling eastern ukraine according hrw report use indiscriminate rockets populated areas violates international humanitarian law laws war may amount war crimes taking hostages summary execution pillage rape sexual slavery forced prostitution forced pregnancy however court jurisdiction crimes ''part plan policy part large scale commission crimes'' prominent indictees heads state government sudanese president omar


al bashir wanted icc war crimes crimes humanity date present former heads state heads government charged war crimes include german gro admiral president karl nitz japanese prime ministers generals hideki j kuniaki koiso aftermath world war ii former serbian president slobodan milo evi brought trial charges genocide crimes humanity war crimes three republics pertained superior responsibility bosnia croatia indictments individual responsibility kosovo indictment acquitted however


died custody trial could concluded former liberian president charles g taylor also brought hague charged war crimes trial stretched march convicted april aiding abetting crimes humanity former bosnian serb president radovan karad arrested belgrade july brought belgrade 's war crimes court days extradited netherlands currently hague custody international criminal tribunal former yugoslavia


trial began march found guilty genocide srebrenica war crimes crimes humanity charges total sentenced years' imprisonment ref name nyt ref sentenced life appeal ref name washpost ref omar al bashir former head state sudan charged three counts genocide crimes humanity war crimes regarding war darfur region sudan first head state charged genocide international criminal court current warrants arrest actions darfur shahbag protests demanding


first gulf war ratko mladi indicted genocide amongst violations humanitarian law bosnian war captured serbia may extradited face trial hague wherein found guilty sentenced life prison joseph kony leader lord 's resistance army guerrilla group used operate uganda definition picture taken polish underground nazi secret police rounding polish intelligentsia palmiry near warsaw mass execution ''ab aktion'' war crimes serious violations rules customary treaty


law concerning international humanitarian law become accepted criminal offenses individual responsibility ref name shaw ref colloquial definitions ''war crime'' include violations established protections ''laws war'' also include failures adhere norms procedure rules battle attacking displaying peaceful flag truce using flag ruse mount attack enemy troops use chemical biological weapons warfare also prohibited numerous chemical arms control agreements biological weapons convention wearing enemy uniforms


civilian clothes infiltrate enemy lines espionage sabotage missions legitimate ruse war though fighting combat assassinating individuals behind enemy lines disguised constitutes unlawful perfidy attacking enemy troops deployed way parachute war crime however protocol article geneva conventions explicitly forbids attacking parachutists eject disabled aircraft surrendering parachutists landed ref name protocol ''protocol additional geneva conventions august relating protection victims international armed conflict'' international


committee red cross geneva switzerland http wwwicrcorg ihlnsf c b e b f c b fee fdc e b protocol ref article hague convention ''iv laws customs war land'' explicitly forbids belligerents punish enemy spies without previous trial rule war also known law armed conflict permit belligerents engage combat war crime occurs superfluous injury unnecessary suffering inflicted upon enemy war crimes also include acts mistreatment prisoners war civilians war crimes sometimes part instances mass murder genocide though crimes


broadly covered international humanitarian law described crimes humanity un security council adopted resolution noted rape forms sexual violence constitute war crimes crimes humanity constitutive act respect genocide see also war rape international criminal court convicted someone sexual violence first time specifically added rape war crimes conviction congo vice president jean pierre bemba gombo soviet pows died nazi custody war crimes also included deliberate attacks citizens property neutral states


japanese attack pearl harbor attack pearl harbor happened us japan peace without cause self defense attack declared tokyo trials go beyond justification military necessity therefore constituted war crime war crimes significant international humanitarian law area international tribunals nuremberg trials tokyo trials convened recent examples international criminal tribunal former yugoslavia international criminal tribunal rwanda established


persist enough constitute social instability legalities war sometimes accused containing favoritism toward winners victor 's justice controversies ruled war crimes examples include allies' destruction axis cities world war ii firebombing dresden ''operation meetinghouse'' raid tokyo destructive single bombing raid history atomic bombings hiroshima nagasaki regard strategic bombing world war ii international treaty instrument protecting civilian population specifically attack aircraft ref


name gomez ref therefore aerial attacks civilians officially war crimes allies trials nuremberg tokyo never prosecuted germans including luftwaffe commander chief hermann g ring bombing raids warsaw rotterdam british cities blitz well indiscriminate attacks allied cities v flying bombs v rockets japanese aerial attacks crowded chinese cities although treaties specific aerial warfare ref name gomez protocol article geneva conventions explicitly prohibits bombardment cities civilian population might


concentrated regardless method ref name protocol see aerial bombardment international law controversy arose allies designated german pows protection geneva convention prisoners war disarmed enemy forces allegedly unprotected geneva convention prisoners war many used forced labor clearing minefields ref name modern history pp p mackenzie treatment prisoners war world war ii ''the journal modern history'' vol sep pp ref december six months war ended


estimated french authorities german prisoners still killed maimed month mine clearing accidents ref name modern history pp wording third geneva convention intentionally altered convention soldiers fall power following surrender mass capitulation enemy protected well taken prisoner course fighting legality civilian casualties law armed conflict loac death non combatants necessarily violation many things


take account civilians ''cannot'' made object attack death injury civilians conducting attack military objective governed principles proportionality military necessity permissible military necessity permits destruction life nbsp persons whose destruction incidentally unavoidable armed conflicts war nbsp permit killing innocent inhabitants purposes revenge satisfaction lust kill destruction property lawful must imperatively demanded necessities war example


conducting operation ammunition depot terrorist training camp would prohibited farmer plowing field area farmer object attack operations would adhere proportionality military necessity hand extraordinary military advantage would necessary justify operation posing risks collateral death injury thousands civilians grayer cases legal question whether expected incidental harm excessive may subjective reason states chosen apply clearly excessive standard


determining whether criminal violation occurred ref name ref justification military action civilians made object attack proportionality analysis unnecessary conclude attack unlawful international criminal tribunal former yugoslavia aerial strikes pilots generally rely information supplied external sources headquarters ground troops specific position fact military target case former yugoslavia nato pilots hit civilian object chinese embassy belgrade military significance pilots


war crimes bangladesh atrocities allied war crimes world war ii british war crimes german war crimes consequences nazism holocaust war crimes wehrmacht international military tribunal far east islamic state iraq levant war crimes findings italian war crimes japanese war crimes saudi arabian led intervention yemen korean war crimes soviet war crimes russian war crimes united states senate committee philippines united states war crimes legal issues american service members' protection act command responsibility international criminal court law war rome statute international criminal court rule law


rule law armed conflicts project rulac russell tribunal special court sierra leone international criminal court invasion iraq war crimes law belgium war crimes act universal jurisdiction miscellaneous chronicles terror civilian internee commando order commissar order crimes humanity crime peace crime aggression doctors' trial forensic archaeology human shield international criminal court investigations katyn massacre list denaturalized former citizens united states including denaturalized concealing involvement war crimes obtain country 's citizenship looting mass atrocity crimes mass killing military use children


nazi human experimentation nkvd prisoner massacres quarter nuremberg principles perfidy razakars pakistan satellite sentinel project srebrenica massacre state terrorism terror bombing transitional justice unlawful combatant wartime sexual violence winter soldier investigation references reading hagopian patrick ''american immunity war crimes limits international law'' amherst university massachusetts press external links http abmmorg australian bunker military museum abmmorg http wwwusfcaedu philosophy pdf files war crimes responsibility psychology atrocitypdf war crimes responsibility psychology atrocity human rights first https webarchiveorg web http wwwhumanrightsfirstinfo pdf etn hrf dic rep webpdf command 's responsibility detainee deaths us custody iraq afghanistan https webarchiveorg web http wwwadh genevach rulac therule law armed conflicts project https webarchiveorg web http wwwiraqispecialtribunalorg en homehtm iraqi


special tribunal https webarchiveorg web http wwwcrimesofwarorg crimes war project https wwwunorg law icc rome treaty international criminal court https webarchiveorg web http wwwsc slorg special court sierra leone https wwwunorg icty un international criminal tribunal former yugoslavia http wwwictrorg un international criminal tribunal rwanda http wwwglobalpolicyorg intljustice etimorindxhtm ad hoc court east timor http archivescbcca idd conflict war war criminals cbc digital archives fleeing justice war criminals canada https webarchiveorg web http wwwpoliticaanticrimencom sites themes bluemasters pdfs bjc rjmpdf criminological analysis invasion occupation iraq ronald c kramer raymond j michalowski https wwwfbigov news stories july investigating human rights investigating human rights reaching diaspora communities us war crimes tips fbi http wwwlegislationgovuk ukpga uk 's geneva conventions amendment act bans war


life table table page '''actuarial science''' discipline applies mathematical statistical methods assess risk insurance finance industries professions generally actuaries apply rigorous mathematics model matters uncertainty actuaries professionals trained discipline many countries actuaries must demonstrate competence passing series rigorous professional examinations actuarial science includes number interrelated subjects including mathematics probability theory statistics finance economics computer science historically actuarial science used deterministic models construction tables premiums science gone revolutionary

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Actuarial science


changes since due proliferation high speed computers union stochastic actuarial models modern financial theory many universities undergraduate graduate degree programs actuarial science study published job search website careercast ranked actuary job united states study used five key criteria rank jobs environment income employment outlook physical demands stress similar study ''us news world report'' included actuaries among best professions expects great demand future


life insurance pensions healthcare actuarial science became formal mathematical discipline late th century increased demand long term insurance coverage burial life insurance annuities long term coverages required money set aside pay future benefits annuity death benefits many years future requires estimating future contingent events rates mortality age well development mathematical techniques discounting value funds set aside invested led development important actuarial concept referred


present value future sum certain aspects actuarial methods discounting pension funds come criticism modern financial economics traditional life insurance actuarial science focuses analysis mortality production life tables application compound interest produce life insurance annuities endowment policies contemporary life insurance programs extended include credit mortgage insurance key person insurance small businesses long term care insurance health savings accounts health insurance including insurance provided directly employers social insurance actuarial science focuses


analysis rates disability morbidity mortality fertility contingencies effects consumer choice geographical distribution utilization medical services procedures utilization drugs therapies also great importance factors underlay development resource base relative value scale rbrvs harvard multi disciplined study actuarial science also aids design benefit structures reimbursement standards effects proposed government standards cost healthcare pension industry actuarial methods used measure costs alternative strategies


regard design funding accounting administration maintenance redesign pension plans strategies greatly influenced short term long term bond rates funded status pension benefit arrangements collective bargaining employer 's old new foreign competitors changing demographics workforce changes internal revenue code changes attitude internal revenue service regarding calculation surpluses equally importantly short long term financial economic trends common mergers acquisitions several pension plans combined least


administered equitable basis benefit changes occur old new benefit plans blended satisfying new social demands various government discrimination test calculations providing employees retirees understandable choices transition paths benefit plans liabilities properly valued reflecting earned benefits past service benefits future service finally funding schemes developed manageable satisfy standards board regulators appropriate country financial accounting standards board united states social welfare programs office


chief actuary ocact social security administration plans directs program actuarial estimates analyses relating ssa administered retirement survivors disability insurance programs proposed changes programs evaluates operations federal old age survivors insurance trust fund federal disability insurance trust fund conducts studies program financing performs actuarial demographic research social insurance related program issues involving mortality morbidity utilization retirement disability survivorship marriage unemployment poverty old age families children etc projects future workloads addition office charged conducting cost analyses relating


supplemental security income ssi program general revenue financed means tested program low income aged blind disabled people office provides technical consultative services commissioner board trustees social security trust funds staff appears congressional committees provide expert testimony actuarial aspects social security issues applied forms insurance actuarial science also applied property casualty liability general insurance forms insurance coverage generally provided renewable period yearly coverage cancelled end


period either party property casualty insurance companies tend specialize complexity diversity risks one division organize around personal commercial lines insurance personal lines insurance individuals include fire auto homeowners theft umbrella coverages commercial lines address insurance needs businesses include property business continuation product liability fleet commercial vehicle workers compensation fidelity surety insurance insurance industry also provides coverage exposures catastrophe weather related risks earthquakes patent infringement forms corporate espionage terrorism one kind


formed meet expenses burial cremation monuments precursors burial insurance friendly societies small sum paid communal fund weekly basis upon death member fund would cover expenses rites burial societies sometimes sold shares building columb ria burial vaults owned fund precursor mutual insurance companies early examples mutual surety assurance pacts traced back various forms fellowship within saxon clans england germanic forebears celtic society


death group cohort people age despite uncertainty date death one individual study became basis original life table one could set insurance scheme provide life insurance pensions group people calculate degree accuracy much person group contribute common fund assumed earn fixed rate interest first person demonstrate publicly could done edmond halley halley 's comet


fame halley constructed life table showed could used calculate premium amount someone given age pay purchase life annuity early actuaries james dodson 's pioneering work long term insurance contracts premium charged year led formation society equitable assurances lives survivorship commonly known equitable life london william morgan often considered father modern actuarial science work field many


life insurance companies pension funds created following years equitable life first use word actuary chief executive officer previously actuary meant official recorded decisions acts ecclesiastical courts companies use mathematical scientific methods often failed forced adopt methods pioneered equitable technological advances th th centuries calculations performed without computers calculations life insurance premiums reserving requirements rather complex actuaries developed techniques make


calculations easy possible example commutation functions essentially precalculated columns summations time discounted values survival death probabilities actuarial organizations founded support actuaries actuarial science protect public interest promoting competency ethical standards however calculations remained cumbersome actuarial shortcuts commonplace non life actuaries followed footsteps life insurance colleagues th century revision new york based national council workmen 's compensation insurance rates took two months around clock work day night teams


actuaries mathematical foundations stochastic processes developed actuaries could begin estimate losses using models random events instead deterministic methods used past introduction development computer revolutionized actuarial profession pencil paper punchcards current high speed devices modeling forecasting ability actuary rapidly improved still heavily dependent assumptions input models actuaries needed adjust new world actuarial science related modern financial economics traditional actuarial science


modern financial economics us different practices caused different ways calculating funding investment strategies different regulations regulations armstrong investigation glass steagall act adoption mandatory security valuation reserve national association insurance commissioners cushioned market fluctuations financial accounting standards board fasb us canada regulates pensions valuations funding history historically much foundation actuarial theory predated modern financial theory early twentieth century actuaries developing many techniques


organizations cognizant need reflect combined approach tables loss models stochastic methods financial theory however assumption dependent concepts still widely used setting discount rate assumption mentioned earlier particularly north america product design adds another dimension debate financial economists argue pension benefits bond like funded equity investments without reflecting risks achieving expected returns pension products reflect risks unexpected returns cases pension beneficiary assumes risk employer assumes


risk current debate seems focusing four principles financial models free arbitrage assets liabilities identical cash flows price odds fasb value asset independent financing final issue deals pension assets invested essentially financial economics state pension assets invested equities variety theoretical practical reasons actuaries criminal justice increasing trend recognize actuarial skills


models assess risk sex offense recidivism actuarial models associated tables mnsost r static sorag used since late determine likelihood sex offender offend thus whether institutionalized set free see also actuarial control cycle actuarial exam actuarial notation actuarial present value black swan theory actuarial associations data mining list actuarial topics ruin theory scenario optimization references works cited date bibliography external links insurance demography formal sciences applied


'''organology''' ancient greek 'instrument' 'the study of' science musical instruments classifications embraces study instruments' history instruments used different cultures technical aspects instruments produce sound musical instrument classification degree overlap organology ethnomusicology subsets musicology branch science acoustics devoted musical instruments history number ancient cultures left documents detailing musical instruments used role society documents sometimes included classification system first major documents

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Organology


subjects west however date th century works sebastian virdung 's ''musica getuscht und ausgezogen'' martin agricola 's ''musica instrumentalis deudsch'' one important organologists th century michael praetorius ''syntagma musicum'' one quoted works time subject source much know renaissance musical instruments praetorius 's ''theatrum instrumentorium'' contains possibly first pictures african instruments european publication much th th centuries little work


done organology explorers returned europe instruments different cultures however end th century musical instrument collections quite large led renewed interest subject one important organologists th century curt sachs well writing ''real lexicon der musikinstrumente'' ''the history musical instruments'' devised erich von hornbostel hornbostel sachs scheme instrument classification first published zeitschrift f r ethnologie hornbostel sachs system classified musical instruments four distinct categories idiophones


american musical instrument society based united states outside perspectives hornbostel sachs classification system according one paper written henry johnson published university oxford universally used classification system established musical instruments hornbostel sachs become paradigm organology many cultures additionally eliot bates states paper published journal society ethnomusicology hornbostel sachs system intended classify specificity unique instruments rather highlight commonalities across world instruments alternative perspectives classification


musical instruments margaret kartomi professor chairperson department music monash university melbourne approached topic musical instrument classification intention understanding musical instruments classified across cultures approach justified observation concepts upon outside european researcher might classify musical instruments particular culture likely different way native culture choose classify musical instruments book emphasizes complexity underlies process classifying musical instruments classification system often


shaped socially influenced structured ideas belief systems connections ethnomusicology th edition ucla publication selected reports ethnomusicology published devoted issues organology first paper journal written sue carole devale entitled organizing organology attempted provide comprehensive system defining study organology particularly within context ethnomusicology devale defines organology science sound instruments word choice definition intentional devale avoids use term music musical rather sound function


instruments balinese slit drum serves signal event rather aid musical performance also defines three primary branches classificatory analytical applied serve basis study organology classificatory branch essentially encompasses ways musical instruments categorized cross culturally cultural specific systems analytical branch contains body work done analyzing specific aspects sound instruments cultural context implications instruments applied branch aspects organology exist within realm museum


work involves preservation musical instruments well instrument making devale also emphasizes throughout paper importance connections exist three branches often essential consider aspects organology within three branches work research kind within field states branches independent theory practice research processes conducted instruments sounds continuously flow permeate whole another notable paper topic connection ethnomusicology organology


object context music together understanding meanings connected areas specific general environments ie contexts sound producing instrument played understood eliot bates cornell university approached topic ethnomusicological study musical instruments focusing specifically terms social life musical instruments bates argues social adequately studied theorized paucity attention given social relations mobilized around material objects thing power possess


essentially bates states material objects often hold significant social value important study object necessarily sake categorization understanding way played works meaning holds musician audience prominent organologists ivor darreg microtonal instrument builder leo fender innovator several electric guitar constructions bridges electronic configurations bart hopkin founder magazine ''experimental musical instruments'' erich von hornbostel co creator hornbostel sachs musical instrument classification system victor charles mahillon organologist museum curator bob moog harry partch microtonal string


division musical theorist curt sachs musicologist organologist andre schaeffner leon theremin anthony baines historical organologist early authority bagpipes william waterhouse author new langwill index dictionary musical wind instrument makers inventors ethno organologists adolf chybinski polish organologist hnat khotkevych ukrainian engineer musicologist filaret kolessa ukrainian folklorist ethno organologist volodymyr kushpet contemporary ukrainian ethno organologist klyment kvitka russian ukrainian ethno organologist mykola lysenko ukrainian composer founder ukrainian organology igor matsiyevsky russian ukrainian ethno organologist mgperera sri lankan musicians


wrote geetha sikshana book see also experimental musical instrument music instrument technology new interfaces musical expression musical instrument classification references external links http wwwgalpinsocietyorg galpin society http wwwamisorg american musical instrument society https webarchiveorg web http windworldcom experimental musical instruments http wwwmetmuseumorg works art departmentaspdep vw department musical instruments metropolitan museum art home large collection historic musical instruments musicology


'''bioethics''' study ethical issues emerging advances biology medicine technologies proposes discussion moral discernment society often related medical policy practice also broader questions environment well bioethics concerned ethical questions arise relationships among life sciences biotechnology medicine politics law theology philosophy includes study values relating primary care branches medicine ethics ordinary ethical education science animal environmental ethics ethics also relates many


sciences outside realm biological sciences bioethics also https wwwamazoncom bioethics nonpresence body philosophy machines ebook dp b x n f claimed new ethic answer complex questions contemporary society certain acts regulated communities consider legitimacy regulation called ethics bioethics include standards followed us regulate activities linked biological activities etymology term ''bioethics'' greek ''bios'' life ''ethos'' behavior coined fritz jahr article bioethical imperative regarding use animals plants scientific research american biochemist van rensselaer potter used term describe


relationship biosphere growing human population potter 's work laid foundation global ethics discipline centered around link biology ecology medicine human values ref name pmid ref sargent shriver spouse eunice kennedy shriver claimed invented word bioethics living room home bethesda maryland stated thought word returning discussion earlier evening georgetown university discussed others possible kennedy family sponsorship institute focused around application moral philosophy concrete


morality medical treatments technological innovations timing medical treatment humans others would broaden scope ethical evaluation include morality actions might help harm organisms capable feeling fear scope bioethics expand biotechnology including cloning gene therapy life extension human genetic engineering astroethics life space manipulation basic biology altered dna xna proteins developments affect future evolution may require new principles address life core biotic ethics values life


basic biological processes structures seeks propagation ref name bioethics ref panbiotic seeks secure expand life galaxy historian yuval noah harari sees existential threat arms race artificial intelligence bioengineering expressed need close co operation nations solve threats technological disruption harari said ai biotechnology could destroy means human principles ''hippocrates refusing gifts artaxerxes'' anne louis girodet trioson one first areas addressed modern bioethicists human experimentation national commission


protection human subjects biomedical behavioral research initially established identify basic ethical principles underlie conduct biomedical behavioral research involving human subjects however fundamental principles announced belmont report namely respect persons beneficence justice influenced thinking bioethicists across wide range issues others added non maleficence human dignity sanctity life list cardinal values overall belmont report guided research direction focused protecting vulnerable subjects well pushing


transparency researcher subject research flourished within past years due advance technology thought human subjects outgrown belmont report need revision desired another important principle bioethics placement value discussion presentation numerous discussion based bioethics groups exist universities across united states champion exactly goals examples include ohio state bioethics society bioethics society cornell professional level versions organizations also exist many bioethicists especially medical scholars accord


highest priority autonomy believe patient determine course action consider line beliefs words patient always freedom choose treatment medical ethics ethics affects medical decisions made healthcare providers patients ref name medical ethics study moral values judgments apply medicine four main moral commitments respect autonomy beneficence nonmaleficence justice using four principles thinking physicians specific concern scope practice


help physicians make moral decisions scholarly discipline medical ethics encompasses practical application clinical settings well work history philosophy theology sociology medical ethics tends understood narrowly applied professional ethics whereas bioethics expansive application touching upon philosophy science issues biotechnology two fields often overlap distinction matter style professional consensus medical ethics shares many principles branches healthcare ethics nursing ethics bioethicist assists health care research community


examining moral issues involved understanding life death resolving ethical dilemmas medicine science examples would topic equality medicine intersection cultural practices medical care ethical distribution healthcare resources pandemics issues bioterrorism medical sociology practice bioethics clinical care studied medical sociology many scholars consider bioethics arose response perceived lack accountability medical care ref name ref studying clinical practice ethics medical care hauschildt vries


found ethical questions often reframed clinical judgments allow clinicians make decisions ethicists often put key decisions hands physicins rather patients ref name communication strategies suggested ethicists act decrease patient autonomy examples include clinicians discussing treatment options one another prior talking patients family present united front limited patient automony hiding uncertainty amongst clinicians decisions overarching goals treatment reframed technical matters excluding patients families palliative care experts used intermediaries guide patients towards less invasive


end live treatment ref name study hauschild vries found ethical consultants trained clinicians ref name studying informed consent corrigan found social processes resulted limitations patients choice also times patients could find questions regarding consent medical trials burdensome perspectives methodology bioethicists come wide variety backgrounds training diverse array disciplines field contains individuals trained philosophy h tristram engelhardt jr rice university baruch brody rice university peter singer princeton university daniel callahan


leading journals field include ''the journal medicine philosophy'' ''hastings center report'' ''american journal bioethics'' ''journal medical ethics'' ''bioethics'' ''kennedy institute ethics journal'' ''cambridge quarterly healthcare ethics'' bioethics also benefited process philosophy developed alfred north whitehead another discipline discusses bioethics field feminism ''international journal feminist approaches bioethics'' played important role organizing legitimizing feminist work bioethics ref name many religious communities histories inquiry bioethical issues developed


rules guidelines deal issues within viewpoint respective faiths jewish christian muslim faiths developed considerable body literature matters case many non western cultures strict separation religion philosophy exist many asian cultures example lively discussion bioethical issues buddhist bioethics general characterized naturalistic outlook leads rationalistic pragmatic approach buddhist bioethicists include damien keown india vandana shiva leading bioethicist