global warming scientists years impose significant changes prevent happening ref name shift towards environmental protection demands workforce heavily dedicated studying sustainable development individuals studying sustainable development likely focused reducing climate catastrophic global warming would take place careers sustainability studies sustainability studies degree emphasizes interdisciplinary approach since covers wide variety topics multiple perspectives lead multiple avenues future career law politics policy planning


journalism business architectural design marine sciences sustainability professionals salary range professional involved sustainability studies based average salaries involved engineering environmental sciences ref name career advice interview tips wayup guide date work career advice interview tips wayup guide access date ref starting salary ranged low end ref name chief sustainability executives earn average ref name see also list environmental degrees references academic disciplines

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Sustainability studies


academic specialization financial markets rather focused economic modeling poorly attentive sociological aspects number economic sociologists developed empirical investigation social structure cultural characteristics financial markets especially us pioneering researcher included contributions wayne e baker mitchel abolafia charles w smith based methods ethnographic observation social network analysis number researchers field science technology studies karin knorr cetina donald mackenzie started also developing empirical research

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of finance


area close attention role expert knowledge technology financial activities main topics research topics social studies finance include cultural world work habits traders professionals financial markets globalization regulation financial services processes innovation financial industry problems risk uncertainty characterize processes major references adler patricia adler peter eds ''the social dynamics financial markets'' greenwich connecticut jai press bernstein peter ''capital ideas improbable origins modern wall street'' new york


oxford oxford university press mackenzie donald ''an engine camera financial models shape markets'' cambridge massachusetts mit press external links http wwwsociologyedacuk research research themes social studies finance social studies finance web resource university edinburgh http ssfafreefr social studies finance association france http wwwjiscmailacuk lists ssfnhtml social studies finance network international mailing list interdisciplinary subfields sociology anthropology science technology studies networks


door theses wittenberg saxony anhalt germany '''protestantism''' form christianity originated th century reformation movement followers perceived errors catholic church protestants originating reformation reject roman catholic doctrine papal supremacy disagree among regarding number sacraments real presence christ eucharist matters ecclesiastical polity apostolic succession ref name haffner ref emphasize priesthood believers justification faith alone '''' rather faith good works teaching salvation comes divine

Humanities
Theology
Christian theology
Protestant theology


grace unmerited favor something merited '''' either affirm bible sole highest authority '''' scripture alone primary authority '''' scripture first christian doctrine rather parity sacred tradition ref name wels ref five ' 'solae'' lutheran reformed christianity summarise basic theological differences opposition catholic church ref name wels protestantism began germany martin luther published ''ninety five theses'' reaction abuses sale indulgences catholic church purported offer remission temporal punishment sins


purchasers term however derives letter protestation german lutheran princes edict diet speyer condemning teachings martin luther heretical although earlier breaks attempts reform catholic church notably peter waldo john wycliffe jan hus luther succeeded sparking wider lasting modern movement th century lutheranism spread germany denmark norway sweden finland latvia estonia iceland calvinist churches spread germany hungary netherlands scotland switzerland france protestant reformers


john calvin huldrych zwingli john knox political separation church england pope king henry viii began anglicanism bringing england wales broad reformation movement leadership archbishop canterbury reformer thomas cranmer whose work forged anglican doctrine identity today protestantism constitutes second largest form christianity catholicism total nbsp million nbsp billion adherents worldwide christians ref name pewforum ref ref name gordonconwelledu ref ref report gordon conwell theological seminary inclusion independents defined article mid ref


name gordonconwelledu protestants developed culture major contributions education humanities sciences political social order economy arts many fields ref name karl heussi pp karl heussi ''kompendium der kirchengeschichte'' auflage bingen germany pp ref protestantism diverse divided theologically ecclesiastically catholic church eastern orthodox church oriental orthodoxy ref name hillerbrand without structural unity central human authority ref name hillerbrand protestants developed concept invisible church contrast catholic eastern orthodox church oriental orthodox churches assyrian church


east ancient church east understand one original church one true church founded jesus christ ref name karl heussi pp denominations worldwide scope distribution membership others confined single country ref name hillerbrand majority protestants members handful protestant denominational families adventists anabaptists anglicans episcopalians baptists calvinist reformed ref includes presbyterianism congregationalism many united uniting churches well historic continental reformed churches france switzerland netherlands germany hungary lutherans methodists pentecostals ref name pewforum


nondenominational charismatic evangelical independent churches rise constitute significant part protestantism ref name booksgooglecom ref terminology protestant six princes holy roman empire rulers fourteen imperial free cities issued protest dissent edict diet speyer first individuals called protestants ref name etymonlinecom ref edict reversed concessions made lutherans approval holy roman emperor charles v three years earlier term ''protestant'' though initially purely political nature later acquired broader sense referring member


western church subscribed main protestant principles ref name etymonlinecom protestant adherent christian bodies separated church rome reformation group descended ref name auto ref reformation term ''protestant'' hardly used outside german politics people involved religious movement used word ''evangelical'' details see section gradually ''protestant'' became general term meaning adherent reformation german speaking area ultimately somewhat taken lutherans even though martin luther


insisted ''christian'' ''evangelical'' acceptable names individuals professed christ french swiss protestants instead preferred word ' 'reformed'' became popular neutral alternative name calvinists evangelical word ''evangelical'' refers gospel widely used involved religious movement german speaking area beginning nowadays ''evangelical'' still preferred among historical protestant denominations lutheran calvinist united lutheran reformed protestant traditions europe strong ties term


used protestant bodies german speaking area evangelical church germany thus german word '''' means protestantwhile german '''' refers churches shaped evangelicalism english word ''evangelical'' usually refers evangelical protestant churches therefore certain part protestantism rather protestantism whole english word traces roots back puritans england evangelicalism originated brought united states martin luther always disliked term ''lutheran'' preferring term ''evangelical'' derived ''euangelion'' greek word meaning good


middle th century order distinguish groups philippists calvinists reformational german word '''' roughly translates english reformational reforming used alternative '''' german different english ' 'reformed'' refers churches shaped ideas john calvin huldrych zwingli reformed theologians derived word reformation term emerged around time ''evangelical'' ''protestant'' theology main principles various experts subject tried determine makes


christian denomination part protestantism common consensus approved christian denomination considered protestant must acknowledge following three fundamental principles protestantism ref name encyclopedia protestantism scripture alone belief emphasized luther bible highest source authority church early churches reformation believed critical yet serious reading scripture holding bible source authority higher church tradition many abuses occurred western church


protestant reformation led reformers reject much tradition early th century less critical reading bible developed united states leading fundamentalist reading scripture christian fundamentalists read bible inerrant infallible word god catholic eastern orthodox anglican lutheran churches interpret literalist fashion without using historical critical method methodists anglicans differ lutherans reformed doctrine teach ''prima scriptura'' holds scripture primary source christian doctrine


works necessary consequence rather cause justification ref name schaffherzog ref however justification faith alone position faith ''nuda fides'' ref name ref john calvin explained therefore faith alone justifies yet faith justifies alone heat alone sun warms earth yet sun alone ref name lutheran reformed christians differ methodists understanding doctrine ref name bucher ref universal priesthood believers universal priesthood believers implies right


duty christian laity read bible vernacular also take part government public affairs church opposed hierarchical system puts essence authority church exclusive priesthood makes ordained priests necessary mediators god people ref name schaffherzog distinguished concept priesthood believers grant individuals right interpret bible apart christian community large universal priesthood opened


door possibility scholars cite doctrine tends subsume distinctions church single spiritual entity calvin referred universal priesthood expression relation believer god including freedom christian come god christ without human mediation ref name ref also maintained principle recognizes christ prophet priest king priesthood shared people ref name trinity trinity belief god one god three persons


father son jesus holy spirit protestants adhere nicene creed believe three persons god father god son god holy spirit one god movements emerging around time protestant reformation part protestantism eg unitarianism also reject trinity often serves reason exclusion unitarian universalism oneness pentecostalism movements protestantism various observers unitarianism continues presence mainly transylvania england united states well elsewhere five solae five ''''


five latin phrases slogans emerged protestant reformation summarize reformers' basic differences theological beliefs opposition teaching catholic church day latin word '''' means alone single use phrases summaries teaching emerged time reformation based overarching lutheran reformed principle '''' scripture alone ref name wels idea contains four main doctrines bible teaching needed salvation necessity doctrine necessary salvation comes bible


reformers concerned ecclesiology doctrine church body works different understanding process truths scripture applied life believers compared catholics' idea certain people within church ideas old enough special status giving understanding text second main principle '''' faith alone states faith christ sufficient alone eternal salvation justification though argued scripture hence logically consequent '''' guiding principle


work luther later reformers '''' placed bible source teaching '''' epitomises main thrust teaching reformers wanted get back namely direct close personal connection christ believer hence reformers' contention work christocentric solas statements emerged later thinking represent also part early reformation '''' ''christ alone'' protestants characterize dogma concerning pope christ 's representative head church earth concept works made meritorious


christ catholic idea treasury merits christ saints denial christ ''only'' mediator god man catholics hand maintained traditional understanding judaism questions appealed universal consensus christian tradition '''' ''grace alone'' protestants perceived catholic salvation dependent upon grace god merits one 's works reformers posited salvation gift god ie god 's act free grace dispensed holy spirit owing redemptive


holy spirit reformers believed human beings even saints canonized catholic church popes ecclesiastical hierarchy worthy glory christ 's presence eucharist lutheran depiction last supper lucas cranach elder protestant movement began diverge several distinct branches mid late th century one central points divergence controversy eucharist early protestants rejected catholic dogma transubstantiation teaches bread wine used sacrificial rite mass lose natural substance transformed


body blood soul divinity christ disagreed one another concerning presence christ body blood holy communion lutherans hold within lord 's supper consecrated elements bread wine true body blood christ form bread wine eat drink doctrine formula concord calls sacramental union god earnestly offers receive sacrament forgiveness sins eternal salvation reformed churches emphasize real


' 'spiritual'' presence ' 'sacramental presence'' christ saying sacrament sanctifying grace elect believer actually partake christ merely ''with'' bread wine rather elements calvinists deny lutheran assertion communicants believers unbelievers orally receive christ 's body blood elements sacrament instead affirm christ united believer faith toward supper outward visible aid often referred ' 'dynamic presence'' anglicans methodists refuse define presence preferring


leave mystery ref name neal ref prayer books describe bread wine outward visible sign inward spiritual grace body blood christ however words liturgies suggest one hold belief real presence spiritual sacramental present time example fed us spiritual food sacrament body blood spiritual food precious body blood son saviour jesus christ assuring


protestant forerunner jovinian attacked monasticism ascetism believed saved believer never overcome satan th century theologian gottschalk orbais condemned heresy catholic church gottschalk believed salvation jesus limited redemption elect theology gottschalk anticipated protestant reformation ratramnus also defended theology gottschalk denied real presence christ eucharist writings also influenced later protestant reformation claudius turin th century also held protestant ideas


faith alone rejection supremacy peter late arnold brescia italian canon regular became one first theologians attempt reform catholic church death teachings apostolic poverty gained currency among arnoldists later widely among waldensians spiritual franciscans though written word survived official condemnation early peter waldo founded waldensians advocated interpretation gospel led conflicts catholic church waldensians declared heretical subject


persecution despite movement continues exist day italy part wider reformed tradition john wycliffe later dubbed morning star reformation started activity english reformer rejected papal authority secular power translated bible vernacular english preached anticlerical biblically centred reforms beginning first decade th century jan hus catholic priest czech reformist professor influenced john wycliffe 's writings founded hussite movement strongly advocated reformist bohemian religious denomination excommunicated burned stake


constance bishopric constance secular authorities unrepentant persistent heresy execution revolt erupted hussites defeated five continuous crusades proclaimed pope girolamo savonarola later theological disputes caused split within hussite movement utraquists maintained bread wine administered people eucharist another major faction taborites opposed utraquists battle lipany hussite wars two separate parties among hussites moderate radical movements smaller regional hussite branches bohemia included


adamites orebites orphans praguers wessel gansfort hussite wars concluded victory holy roman emperor sigismund catholic allies moderate hussites defeat radical hussites tensions arose thirty years' war reached bohemia moderate radical hussitism increasingly persecuted catholics holy roman emperor 's armies th century german mysticist group called gottesfreunde criticized catholic church corruption many leaders executed attacking catholic church believed god 's judgement would soon come upon church


gottesfreunde democratic lay movement forerunner reformation put heavy stress holiness piety starting italian dominican friar girolamo savonarola calling christian renewal later martin luther read friar 's writings praised martyr forerunner whose ideas faith grace anticipated luther 's doctrine justification faith alone ref name ref hus' followers founded unitas fratrum unity brethren renewed leadership count nicolaus von zinzendorf herrnhut saxony almost total destruction


thirty years' war counter reformation today usually referred english moravian church german herrnhuter br dergemeine th century three german theologians anticipated reformation wessel gansfort johann ruchat von wesel johannes von goch held ideas predestination sola scriptura church invisible denied roman catholic view justification authority pope also questioned monasticism wessel gansfort also denied transubstantiation anticipated lutheran view justification faith alone reformation proper distribution protestantism catholicism central


europe eve thirty years' war protestant reformation began attempt reform catholic church october hallows' eve martin luther allegedly nailed ninety five theses disputation power indulgences door saints' church wittenberg germany detailing doctrinal practical abuses catholic church especially selling indulgences theses debated criticized many aspects church papacy including practice purgatory particular judgment authority pope luther would later write works


catholic devotion virgin mary intercession devotion saints mandatory clerical celibacy monasticism authority pope ecclesiastical law censure excommunication role secular rulers religious matters relationship christianity law good works sacraments ref name schofield schofield ''martin luther'' p ref reformation triumph literacy new printing press invented johannes gutenberg ref name cameron cameron ''european reformation'' ref luther 's translation bible german decisive moment spread literacy stimulated well printing distribution religious books


pamphlets onward religious pamphlets flooded much europe ref name edwards edwards ''printing propaganda martin luther'' ref following excommunication luther condemnation reformation pope work writings john calvin influential establishing loose consensus among various groups switzerland scotland hungary germany elsewhere expulsion bishop unsuccessful attempts bern reformer william farel calvin asked use organisational skill gathered student law discipline city geneva ''ordinances '' involved collaboration


church affairs city council consistory bring morality areas life establishment geneva academy geneva became unofficial capital protestant movement providing refuge protestant exiles europe educating calvinist missionaries faith continued spread calvin 's death protestantism also spread german lands france protestants nicknamed huguenots calvin continued take interest french religious affairs base geneva regularly trained pastors lead congregations despite


heavy persecution reformed tradition made steady progress across large sections nation appealing people alienated obduracy complacency catholic establishment french protestantism came acquire distinctly political character made obvious conversions nobles established preconditions series conflicts known french wars religion civil wars gained impetus sudden death henry ii france atrocity outrage became defining characteristics time illustrated intense st


potsdam giving free passage huguenot refugees late th century many huguenots fled england netherlands prussia switzerland english dutch overseas colonies significant community france remained c vennes region parallel events germany movement began switzerland leadership huldrych zwingli zwingli scholar preacher moved zurich although two movements agreed many issues theology unresolved differences kept separate long standing resentment german states swiss confederation led heated debate


much zwingli owed ideas lutheranism german prince philip hesse saw potential creating alliance zwingli luther meeting held castle known colloquy marburg become infamous failure two men could come agreement due disputation one key doctrine king henry viii put end papal jurisdiction england pope failed annul marriage catherine aragon opened door reformational ideas reformers church


cromwell policy known dissolution monasteries put effect following brief catholic restoration reign mary loose consensus developed reign elizabeth elizabethan religious settlement largely formed anglicanism distinctive church tradition compromise uneasy capable veering extreme calvinism one hand catholicism relatively successful puritan revolution english civil war th century success counter reformation continent growth puritan party dedicated


protestant reform polarised elizabethan age early puritan movement movement reform church england desire church england resemble closely protestant churches europe especially geneva later puritan movement often referred dissenters nonconformists eventually led formation various reformed denominations scottish reformation decisively shaped church scotland reformation scotland culminated ecclesiastically establishment church along reformed lines politically triumph english influence france john


knox regarded leader scottish reformation scottish reformation parliament repudiated pope 's authority papal jurisdiction act forbade celebration mass approved protestant confession faith made possible revolution french hegemony regime regent mary guise governed scotland name absent daughter important activists protestant reformation included jacobus arminius theodore beza martin bucer andreas von carlstadt heinrich bullinger balthasar hubmaier thomas cranmer william farel thomas ntzer laurentius


petri olaus petri philipp melanchthon menno simons louis de berquin primo trubar john smyth course religious upheaval german peasants' war swept bavarian thuringian swabian principalities eighty years' war low countries french wars religion confessional division states holy roman empire eventually erupted thirty years' war devastated much germany killing population main tenets peace westphalia ended thirty years' war


parties would recognize peace augsburg prince would right determine religion state options catholicism lutheranism calvinism principle ''cuius regio eius religio'' christians living principalities denomination ''not'' established church guaranteed right practice faith public allotted hours private treaty also effectively ended papacy 's pan european political power pope innocent x declared treaty null void invalid iniquitous unjust damnable reprobate inane empty


meaning effect times bull '''' european sovereigns catholic protestant alike ignored verdict ref name odccwestphalia cross ed westphalia peace ''oxford dictionary christian church'' ref post reformation great awakenings periods rapid dramatic religious revival anglo american religious history first great awakening evangelical revitalization movement swept protestant europe british america especially american colonies leaving permanent impact american protestantism resulted powerful preaching gave listeners sense deep personal revelation need salvation


jesus christ pulling away ritual ceremony sacramentalism hierarchy made christianity intensely personal average person fostering deep sense spiritual conviction redemption encouraging introspection commitment new standard personal morality methodist camp meeting second great awakening us second great awakening began around gained momentum membership rose rapidly among baptist methodist congregations whose preachers led movement past peak late described reaction skepticism


deism rationalism although forces became pressing enough time spark revivals fully understood enrolled millions new members existing evangelical denominations led formation new denominations third great awakening refers hypothetical historical period marked religious activism american history spans late early th century affected pietistic protestant denominations strong element social activism gathered strength postmillennial belief second coming christ would occur mankind reformed


entire earth affiliated social gospel movement applied christianity social issues gained force awakening worldwide missionary movement new groupings emerged holiness nazarene christian science movements ref name fogel robert william fogel ''the fourth great awakening future egalitarianism'' ref fourth great awakening christian religious awakening scholars notably robert fogel say took place united states late early others look era following world war ii terminology controversial thus idea


fourth great awakening generally accepted le r veil swept calvinist regions switzerland france protestant revival wales tremendous impact local population part british modernization drew many people churches especially methodist baptist ones noteworthy development th century protestant christianity rise modern pentecostal movement sprung methodist wesleyan roots arose meetings urban mission azusa street los angeles spread around world carried


considerable number seminaries held taught liberal perspective well post world war ii era trend began swing back towards conservative camp america 's seminaries church structures europe general move away religious observance belief christian teachings move towards secularism enlightenment largely responsible spread secularism several scholars argued link rise secularism protestantism attributing wide ranging freedom protestant majority countries north america south america australia


value independence constituted authority step arguing civic realm radical reformation non mainstream though parts germany switzerland austria majority would sympathize radical reformation despite intense persecution faced catholics magisterial protestants ref name horsch ref early anabaptists believed reformation must purify theology also actual lives christians especially political social relationships ref name referencea gonzalez ''a history christian thought'' ref therefore church supported state neither tithes taxes


use sword christianity matter individual conviction could forced anyone rather required personal decision ref name referencea protestant ecclesial leaders hubmaier hofmann preached invalidity infant baptism advocating baptism following conversion believer 's baptism instead doctrine new reformers taught earlier groups albigenses though radical reformers anabaptist identify mainstream anabaptist tradition thomas ntzer involved german peasants' war andreas karlstadt disagreed


theologically huldrych zwingli martin luther teaching nonviolence refusing baptize infants rebaptizing adult believers ref name gameo karlstadt ref kaspar schwenkfeld sebastian franck influenced german mysticism spiritualism view many associated radical reformation magisterial reformation gone far enough radical reformer andreas von bodenstein karlstadt example referred lutheran theologians wittenberg new papists since term magister also means teacher magisterial reformation also characterized emphasis authority teacher made evident prominence luther


one true church teaching belief ''invisible church'' consists profess faith jesus christ lutheran church traditionally sees main trunk historical christian tree founded christ apostles holding reformation church rome fell away ref name remensnyder ref ref name frey ref protestant denominations less accepting denominations basic orthodoxy questioned others individual denominations also formed subtle theological differences denominations simply regional ethnic expressions beliefs


countries established national churches linking ecclesiastical structure state jurisdictions protestant denomination established state religion include several nordic countries denmark including greenland ref name denmarkconstitution ref faroe islands church independent since iceland ref name icelandconstitution http wwwgovernmentis constitution constitution republic iceland article http wwwgovernmentis government iceland ref norway ref name abcnyheter http wwwabcnyheterno nyheter losere band men fortsatt statskirke l sere b nd men fortsatt statskirke abc nyheter ref established evangelical lutheran churches tuvalu established church reformed tradition world tonga methodist tradition church england officially established religious institution


england ref name eberle ref ref name fox ref ref name ferrante ref also mother church worldwide anglican communion finland first nordic country disestablish evangelical lutheran church introducing church act although church still maintains special relationship state described state religion finnish constitution laws passed finnish parliament ref name finlandconstitution ref sweden second nordic country united uniting churches glass window town church wiesloch ''stadtkirche wiesloch'' martin luther john calvin commemorating union


lutheran reformed churches grand duchy baden united uniting churches churches formed merger form union two different protestant denominations historically unions protestant churches enforced state usually order stricter control religious sphere people also organizational reasons modern christian ecumenism progresses unions various protestant traditions becoming common resulting growing number united uniting churches recent major examples church north


india united protestant church france protestant church netherlands mainline protestantism shrinks europe north america due rise secularism areas christianity minority religion indian subcontinent reformed anglican lutheran denominations merge often creating large nationwide denominations phenomenon much less common among evangelical nondenominational charismatic churches new ones arise plenty remain independent perhaps oldest official united church found germany evangelical church germany federation


lutheran united prussian union reformed churches union dating back first series unions synod idstein form protestant church hesse nassau august commemorated naming church idstein unionskirche one hundred years later around world united uniting church comprises different mix predecessor protestant denominations trends visible however united uniting churches one predecessors heritage reformed tradition many members world alliance reformed churches major


branches protestants differentiated according influenced important movements since reformation today regarded branches movements common lineage sometimes directly spawning individual denominations due earlier stated multitude denominations section discusses largest denominational families branches widely considered part protestantism alphabetical order adventist anglican baptist calvinist reformed lutheran methodist pentecostal small historically significant anabaptist branch also discussed chart shows mutual relations historical origins main protestant denominational


families parts due factors counter reformation legal principle ''cuius regio eius religio'' many people lived nicodemites professed religious affiliations less odds movement sympathized result boundaries denominations separate cleanly chart indicates population suppressed persecuted feigning adherence dominant faith generations continued influence church outwardly adhered calvinism specifically recognized holy roman empire


peace westphalia many calvinists lived crypto calvinists due counter reformation related suppressions catholic lands th th centuries many protestants lived crypto protestants meanwhile protestant areas catholics sometimes lived crypto papists although continental europe emigration feasible less common historical chart main protestant branches adventism adventism began th century context second great awakening revival united states name refers belief imminent second coming second advent jesus christ william miller started adventist movement


followers became known millerites although adventist churches hold much common theologies differ whether intermediate state unconscious sleep consciousness whether ultimate punishment wicked annihilation eternal torment nature immortality whether wicked resurrected millennium whether sanctuary daniel refers one heaven one earth ref name handbook ref movement encouraged examination whole bible leading seventh day adventists smaller adventist groups observe sabbath general conference seventh day adventists


compiled church 's core beliefs fundamental beliefs use biblical references justification adventism claimed nbsp million believers scattered various independent churches ref name christianity report ref largest church within movement seventh day adventist church nbsp million members gallery file james ellen whitejpg james springer white wife ellen g white founded seventh day adventist church file mozambique baptism jpg adventist pastor baptizes young man mozambique file loma linda university church jpg loma linda university seventh day adventist church loma linda california united states gallery anabaptism anabaptism traces origins radical


reformation anabaptists believe delaying baptism candidate confesses faith although consider movement offshoot protestantism others see distinct one amish hutterites mennonites direct descendants movement schwarzenau brethren bruderhof apostolic christian church considered later developments among anabaptists name ''anabaptist'' meaning one baptizes given persecutors reference practice baptizing converts already baptized infants anabaptists required baptismal candidates able make confessions


faith rejected baptism infants early members movement accept name ''anabaptist'' claiming since infant baptism unscriptural null void baptizing believers baptism fact first real baptism result views nature baptism issues anabaptists heavily persecuted th century th magisterial protestants catholics ref group lower alpha since middle th century german speaking world longer uses term wiedert ufer translation baptizers considering


use ''ausbund'' oldest hymnal still continuous use gallery file dirkwillemsrescuencsjpg dirk willems saves pursuer act mercy led recapture burned stake file lancaster county amish jpg amish family horse drawn square buggy file alexanderwohl churchjpg alexanderwohl mennonite church rural goessel kansas united states gallery anglicanism anglicanism comprises church england churches historically tied hold similar beliefs worship practices church structures ref name cofe ref word ''anglican'' originates '''' medieval latin phrase dating least means ''english church''


single anglican church universal juridical authority since national regional church full autonomy name suggests communion association churches full communion archbishop canterbury great majority anglicans members churches part international anglican communion ref name acomm ref nbsp million adherents church england declared independence catholic church time elizabethan religious settlement ref name cts ref many new anglican formularies mid th century corresponded closely contemporary reformed tradition reforms


developed service books book common prayer still acknowledged one ties bind anglican communion together gallery file thomas cranmer gerlach flickejpg thomas cranmer one influential figures shaping anglican theology self identity file book common prayer jpg various editions ''book common prayer'' contain words structured services worship anglican church file westminster abbey westjpg british coronations held westminster abbey royal peculiar direct jurisdiction monarch gallery baptists baptists subscribe doctrine baptism performed


professing believers believer 's baptism opposed infant baptism must done complete immersion opposed affusion sprinkling tenets baptist churches include soul competency liberty salvation faith alone scripture alone rule faith practice autonomy local congregation baptists recognize two ministerial offices pastors deacons baptist churches widely considered protestant churches though baptists disavow identity ref name baptist origins buescher john http teachinghistoryorg history content ask historian baptist origins http wwwteachinghistoryorg teaching history retrieved september ref diverse beginning identifying baptists today differ


extend people particular baptists believed extended elect roger williams established first baptist congregation north american colonies mid th century first great awakening increased baptist growth new england south ref name eboself http wwwbritannicacom ebchecked topic baptist baptist encyclop dia britannica online ref second great awakening south early th century increased church membership preachers' lessening support abolition manumission slavery part th century teachings baptist missionaries spread church every continent ref name odcc


self baptist world alliance reports nbsp million members congregations nbsp million baptists baptistic group members worldwide nbsp million north america ref name odcc self ref largest baptist association southern baptist convention membership associated churches totaling nbsp million gallery file roger williams statue franklin simmonsjpg roger williams early proponent religious freedom separation church state file baptism immersionjpg baptists subscribe doctrine baptism performed professing believers file first baptist church america angell


refer individual teaching calvin particulars calvinist theology may stated number ways perhaps best known summary contained five points calvinism though points identify calvinist view soteriology rather summarizing system whole broadly speaking calvinism stresses sovereignty rule god things salvation also life concept seen clearly doctrines predestination total depravity biggest reformed association world communion reformed churches nbsp million members


member denominations around world conservative reformed federations like world reformed fellowship international conference reformed churches well independent churches gallery file john calvin youngjpg john calvin 's theological thought influenced variety congregational continental reformed united presbyterian reformed churches file lorimer ordinationjpg ordination elders scottish kirk john henry lorimer file first congregational church cheshire ctjpg congregational church cheshire connecticut united states gallery lutheranism lutheranism identifies theology martin luther german monk priest ecclesiastical reformer theologian lutheranism advocates doctrine justification grace alone


faith alone basis scripture alone doctrine scripture final authority matters faith rejecting assertion made catholic leaders council trent authority comes scriptures tradition addition lutherans accept teachings first four ecumenical councils undivided christian church ref name olson ref ref name kelly ref unlike reformed tradition lutherans retain many liturgical practices sacramental teachings pre reformation church particular emphasis eucharist lord 's supper lutheran theology differs reformed theology christology purpose


movement originated revival within th century church england became separate church following wesley 's death vigorous missionary activity movement spread throughout british empire united states beyond today claiming approximately nbsp million adherents worldwide originally appealed especially laborers slaves soteriologically methodists arminian emphasizing christ accomplished salvation every human humans must exercise act receive opposed traditional calvinist doctrine monergism methodism traditionally low church liturgy although varies greatly individual congregations


wesleys greatly valued anglican liturgy tradition methodism known rich musical tradition john wesley 's brother charles instrumental writing much hymnody methodist church ref name methodist hymnbody ref many eminent hymn writers come methodist tradition gallery file john wesley george romney cropjpg john wesley primary founder methodism file methodistcommunion jpg united methodist elder celebrating eucharist file methodist central halljpg methodist central hall westminster london gallery pentecostalism pentecostalism movement places special emphasis direct personal experience god baptism holy spirit


term ''pentecostal'' derived pentecost greek name jewish feast weeks christians event commemorates descent holy spirit upon followers jesus christ described second chapter book acts branch protestantism distinguished belief baptism holy spirit experience separate conversion enables christian live holy spirit filled empowered life empowerment includes use spiritual gifts speaking tongues divine healing two defining characteristics pentecostalism


commitment biblical authority spiritual gifts miraculous pentecostals tend see movement reflecting kind spiritual power teachings found apostolic age early church reason pentecostals also use term ''apostolic'' ''full gospel'' describe movement pentecostalism eventually spawned hundreds new denominations including large groups assemblies god church god christ united states elsewhere nbsp million pentecostals worldwide movement growing many parts


world especially global south since pentecostalism increasingly gained acceptance christian traditions pentecostal beliefs concerning spirit baptism spiritual gifts embraced non pentecostal christians protestant catholic churches charismatic movement together pentecostal charismatic christianity numbers nbsp million adherents ref name pewglobalchristianity ref gallery file charlesparhampng charles fox parham associated glossolalia baptism holy spirit file rh worship teamjpg contemporary christian worship rock harbor church costa mesa united states file ravensburg freie christengemeinde saaljpg pentecostal church ravensburg germany gallery protestants many protestant denominations fit


neatly mentioned branches far smaller membership groups individuals hold basic protestant tenets identify simply christians born christians typically distance confessionalism creedalism christian communities calling non denominational evangelical often founded individual pastors little affiliation historic denominations ref name pew forum religion public life us religious landscape survey ref hussitism follows teachings czech reformer jan hus became best known representative bohemian reformation one forerunners protestant reformation early


hymnal hand written ''jistebnice hymn book'' predominantly religious movement propelled social issues strengthened czech national awareness among present day christians hussite traditions represented moravian church refounded czechoslovak hussite churches ref name n mec n mec ludv k czechoslovak heresy schism emergence national czechoslovak church american philosophical society philadelphia ref plymouth brethren conservative low church evangelical movement whose history traced dublin ireland late originating anglicanism ref name mackay ref among beliefs group emphasizes '''' brethren generally see denomination


network even collection overlapping networks like minded independent churches although group refused many years take denominational name stance still maintain title ''the brethren'' one many number comfortable bible designates believers ''brethren'' holiness movement refers set beliefs practices emerging within th century methodism number evangelical denominations parachurch organizations movements emphasized beliefs central doctrine estimated nbsp million adherents holiness movement


churches free methodist church salvation army wesleyan methodist church notable examples adherents holiness movement remained within mainline methodism eg united methodist church ref name winn ref quakers friends members family religious movements collectively known religious society friends central unifying doctrine movements priesthood believers many friends view members christian denomination include evangelical holiness liberal traditional conservative quaker understandings christianity unlike many groups emerged within christianity religious society


friends actively tried avoid creeds hierarchical structures unitarianism sometimes considered protestant due origins reformation strong cooperation protestants since th century excluded due nontrinitarian theological nature unitarians regarded nontrinitarian protestants simply nontrinitarians unitarianism popular region transylvania within today 's romania england united states originated almost simultaneously transylvania polish lithuanian commonwealth gallery file fox lely jpg george fox english dissenter founder religious society friends commonly known


quakers friends file friedensthal moravianjpg friedensthal moravian church christiansted st croix usvi founded file armee du salutjpg night shelter salvation army geneva switzerland gallery interdenominational movements indonesian reformed evangelical church megachurch also christian movements cross denominational lines even branches cannot classified level previously mentioned forms evangelicalism prominent example movements active exclusively within protestantism christian wide transdenominational movements sometimes capable affecting parts catholic church charismatic movement aims incorporate beliefs practices


similar pentecostals various branches christianity neo charismatic churches sometimes regarded subgroup charismatic movement put common label charismatic christianity called ''renewalists'' along pentecostals nondenominational churches various house churches often adopt akin one movements megachurches usually influenced interdenominational movements globally large congregations significant development protestant christianity united states phenomenon quadrupled past two decades since spread worldwide chart shows mutual relations historical origins


th th centuries emergence methodism great awakenings britain north america origins evangelicalism usually traced back english methodist movement nicolaus zinzendorf moravian church lutheran pietism presbyterianism puritanism ref name christianity report among leaders major figures evangelical protestant movement john wesley george whitefield jonathan edwards billy graham harold john ockenga john stott martyn lloyd jones estimated evangelicals corresponding christian population total world population americas africa asia home majority


evangelicals united states largest concentration evangelicals ref name many evangelicals ref evangelicalism gaining popularity outside english speaking world especially latin america developing world gallery file wilberforce john risingjpg william wilberforce british evangelical abolitionist file bundesarchiv bild sseldorf veranstaltung mit billy grahamjpg billy graham prominent evangelical revivalist preaching duisburg germany file glise nouvelle vie cultejpg worship service glise nouvelle vie evangelical pentecostal church longueuil canada file h meenlinna modern protestant churchjpg evangelical protestant church h meenlinna finland gallery charismatic movement hillsong church konstanz germany evangelical charismatic church


leaders california centered around annual gathering robinwood church huntington beach richard jensen 's ''touched spirit'' published played major role lutheran understanding charismatic movement congregational presbyterian churches profess traditionally calvinist reformed theology differing views regarding present day continuation cessation gifts '''' spirit ref name phen ref ref name epidemic ref generally however reformed charismatics distance renewal movements tendencies could perceived overemotional word faith toronto blessing brownsville revival lakeland revival prominent reformed charismatic denominations


sovereign grace churches every nation churches us great britain newfrontiers churches movement leading figure terry virgo minority seventh day adventists today charismatic strongly associated holding progressive adventist beliefs early decades church charismatic ecstatic phenomena commonplace neo charismatic churches neo charismatic churches category churches christian renewal movement neo charismatics include third wave broader numerous pentecostals first wave charismatics second wave combined owing remarkable growth


postdenominational independent charismatic groups ref name nidpcm ref neo charismatics believe stress post biblical availability gifts holy spirit including glossolalia healing prophecy practice laying hands seek infilling holy spirit however specific experience baptism holy spirit may requisite experiencing gifts single form governmental structure style church service characterizes neo charismatic services churches nineteen thousand denominations approximately nbsp million individual adherents identified neo charismatic neo charismatic tenets practices found many independent nondenominational


student theodore beza theological university geneva arminianism known soteriological diversification calvinism however others arminianism reclamation early church theological consensus dutch arminianism originally articulated remonstrance theological statement signed ministers submitted states general netherlands many christian denominations influenced arminian views man freed grace prior regeneration notably baptists th century methodists th century seventh day adventist church th


century original beliefs jacobus arminius commonly defined arminianism broadly term may embrace teachings hugo grotius john wesley others well classical arminianism wesleyan arminianism two main schools thought wesleyan arminianism often identical methodism two systems calvinism arminianism share history many doctrines history christian theology however differences doctrines divine predestination election many people view schools thought opposed short difference


concept role religion government gallery file philipp jakob spenerjpg philipp jakob spener german pioneer founder pietism file pietismjpg pietism strong cultural influence scandinavia file der breite und der schmale weg jpg ''the broad narrow way'' popular german pietist painting gallery puritanism english dissenters nonconformists nonconformism english presbyterianism ecclesiastical separatism th century denominations england puritans group english protestants th th centuries sought purify church england considered catholic practices maintaining church partially reformed puritanism


sense founded returning clergy exiled mary shortly accession elizabeth england activist movement within church england puritans blocked changing established church within severely restricted england laws controlling practice religion beliefs however transported emigration congregations netherlands later new england evangelical clergy ireland later wales spread lay society parts educational system particularly certain colleges


university cambridge first protestant sermon delivered england cambridge pulpit sermon delivered surviving today took distinctive beliefs clerical dress opposition episcopal system particularly conclusions synod dort resisted english bishops largely adopted sabbatarianism th century influenced millennialism formed identified various religious groups advocating greater purity worship doctrine well personal group piety puritans adopted reformed theology


also took note radical criticisms zwingli zurich calvin geneva church polity advocated separation christians favor autonomous gathered churches separatist independent strands puritanism became prominent although english civil war expanded wars three kingdoms began contest political power king england house commons divided country along religious lines episcopalians within church england sided crown presbyterians independents supported ''parliament''


defeat royalists house lords well monarch removed political structure state create commonwealth supporters presbyterian polity westminster assembly unable forge new english national church parliamentary new model army made primarily independents oliver cromwell first purged parliament abolished established protectorate england 's trans atlantic colonies war followed varying paths depending internal demographics older colonies included virginia offshoot bermuda


well barbados antigua west indies collectively targets act prohibiting trade barbadoes virginia bermuda antego episcopalians remained dominant church faction colonies remained royalist 'til conquered compelled accept new political order bermuda control local government ''army'' nine infantry companies militia plus coastal artillery royalists forced parliament backing religious independents exile settle bahamas eleutheran adventurers episcopalian established following restoration century later non conforming protestants along protestant refugees


continental europe among primary instigators war secession led founding united states america gallery file johncottoncroppedjpg john cotton sparked antinomian controversy free grace theology file landing baconpng pilgrim fathers landing plymouth rock file oldshipentrancejpg built old ship church hingham massachusetts oldest church america continuous ecclesiastical use gallery neo orthodoxy paleo orthodoxy karl barth often regarded greatest protestant theologian twentieth century ref name mcgrath ref ref name browncollinson ref non fundamentalist rejection liberal christianity along lines


christian existentialism ren kierkegaard attacked hegelian state churches day dead orthodoxy neo orthodoxy associated primarily karl barth j rgen moltmann dietrich bonhoeffer neo orthodoxy sought counter act tendency liberal theology make theological accommodations modern scientific perspectives sometimes called crisis theology existentialist sense word crisis also sometimes called ''neo evangelicalism'' uses sense evangelical pertaining continental european protestants rather american evangelicalism evangelical originally preferred label used lutherans calvinists replaced names catholics used label


literalism toward end th century tended confuse evangelicalism fundamentalism however labels represent distinct differences approach groups diligent maintain although fundamentalism 's dramatically smaller size often gets classified simply ultra conservative branch evangelicalism modernism liberalism modernism liberalism constitute rigorous well defined schools theology rather inclination writers teachers integrate christian thought spirit age enlightenment new understandings history natural sciences day led directly


new approaches theology opposition fundamentalist teaching resulted religious debates fundamentalist modernist controversy within presbyterian church united states america protestant culture although reformation religious movement also strong impact aspects life marriage family education humanities sciences political social order economy arts ref name karl heussi pp protestant churches reject idea celibate priesthood thus allow clergy marry ref name encyclopedia protestantism many


families contributed development intellectual elites countries since women entered ministry assumed leading positions eg bishops protestant churches reformers wanted members church able read bible education levels got strong boost middle eighteenth century literacy rate england percent scotland percent sweden eight ten men women able read write colleges universities founded example


work ethic protestant concept god man allows believers use god given faculties including power reason means allowed explore god 's creation according genesis make use responsible sustainable way thus cultural climate created greatly enhanced development humanities sciences another consequence protestant understanding man believers gratitude election redemption christ follow god 's commandments industry frugality calling discipline strong sense responsibility


heart moral code particular calvin rejected luxury therefore craftsmen industrialists businessmen able reinvest greater part profits efficient machinery modern production methods based progress sciences technology result productivity grew led increased profits enabled employers pay higher wages way economy sciences technology reinforced chance participate economic success technological inventions strong incentive inventors investors


protestant work ethic important force behind unplanned uncoordinated mass action influenced development capitalism industrial revolution idea also known protestant ethic thesis ref name sep ref however eminent historian fernand braudel leader important annales school wrote historians opposed tenuous theory protestant ethic although managed rid yet clearly false northern countries took place earlier long brilliantly occupied old capitalist


centers mediterranean invented nothing either technology business management social scientist rodney stark moreover comments critical period economic development northern centers capitalism catholic protestant reformation still lay well future british historian hugh trevor roper said idea large scale industrial capitalism ideologically impossible reformation exploded simple fact existed factor analysis latest wave world values survey data arno tausch corvinus university budapest found protestantism emerges close


combining religion traditions liberalism global value development index calculated tausch relies world values survey dimensions trust state law support shadow economy postmaterial activism support democracy non acceptance violence xenophobia racism trust transnational capital universities confidence market economy supporting gender justice engaging environmental activism etc episcopalians presbyterians well wasps tend considerably wealthier ref name episcopalians ref better educated graduate post graduate degrees per capita religious groups united states


disproportionately represented upper reaches american business law politics especially republican party numbers wealthy affluent american families vanderbilts astors rockefeller du pont roosevelt forbes whitneys morgans harrimans mainline protestant families ref name episcopalians science columbia university established church england protestantism important influence science according merton thesis positive correlation rise english puritanism german pietism one hand early experimental science ref name sztompka sztompka ref merton


thesis two separate parts firstly presents theory science changes due accumulation observations improvement experimental technique methodology secondly puts forward argument popularity science th century england religious demography royal society english scientists time predominantly puritans protestants explained correlation protestantism scientific values ref name gregory gregory ref merton focused english puritanism german pietism responsible development scientific revolution th th centuries explained


connection religious affiliation interest science result significant synergy ascetic protestant values modern science ref name becker becker ref protestant values encouraged scientific research allowing science identify god 's influence world creation thus providing religious justification scientific research ref name sztompka according ''scientific elite nobel laureates united states'' harriet zuckerman review american nobel prizes awarded american nobel prize laureates identified protestant background ref name scientific elite nobel laureates united statesh harriet zuckerman '' https booksgooglecom booksid hahczjfmd ic scientific elite


protestants according '' years nobel prize '' review nobel prizes awarded nobel prize laureates identified christianity various forms religious preference prizes ref name nobel prize baruch shalev '' https booksgooglecom booksid jrbml dgzqc years nobel prizes '' atlantic publishers distributors p reveals laureates belong different religion identified christianity various forms religious preference separating catholics protestants among christians proved difficult cases available information suggests


protestants involved scientific categories catholics involved literature peace categories atheists agnostics freethinkers comprise total nobel prize winners category literature preferences rise sharply striking fact involving religion high number laureates jewish faith total nobel prizes including chemistry medicine physics economics peace literature numbers especially startling light fact million people


worldly sphere orderly peaceful way luther 's doctrine priesthood believers upgraded role laymen church considerably members congregation right elect minister necessary vote dismissal treatise ''on right authority christian assembly congregation judge doctrines call install dismiss teachers testified scripture'' calvin strengthened basically democratic approach including elected laymen church elders presbyters representative church government huguenots added regional synods national


synod whose members elected congregations calvin 's system church self government system taken reformed churches adopted lutherans beginning j lich cleves berg th century politically calvin favored mixture aristocracy democracy appreciated advantages democracy invaluable gift god allows people freely elect authorities overlords calvin also thought earthly rulers lose divine right must put rise god protect rights ordinary


important persons events process english civil war oliver cromwell john milton john locke glorious revolution english bill rights act settlement later british took democratic ideals colonies eg australia new zealand india north america plymouth colony pilgrim fathers massachusetts bay colony practised democratic self rule separation powers congregationalists convinced democratic form government god mayflower compact social contract rights liberty enlightenment philosopher john locke argued individual conscience


free state control protestants also took initiative advocating religious freedom freedom conscience high priority theological philosophical political agendas since luther refused recant beliefs diet holy roman empire worms view faith free work holy spirit could therefore forced person persecuted anabaptists huguenots demanded freedom conscience practiced separation church state early seventeenth century baptists like john smyth thomas helwys published tracts defense


religious freedom thinking influenced john milton john locke 's stance tolerance leadership baptist roger williams congregationalist thomas hooker quaker william penn respectively rhode island connecticut pennsylvania combined democratic constitutions freedom religion colonies became safe havens persecuted religious minorities including jews united states declaration independence united states constitution american bill rights fundamental human rights made tradition permanent giving legal political framework great majority american protestants clergy laity strongly supported independence movement


social contract theory separation powers religious freedom separation church state achievements reformation early protestantism elaborated popularized enlightenment thinkers philosophers english scottish german swiss enlightenment thomas hobbes john locke john toland david hume gottfried wilhelm leibniz christian wolff immanuel kant jean jacques rousseau protestant backgrounds example john locke whose political thought based set protestant christian assumptions derived equality humans including equality genders adam eve genesis persons created equally free


governments needed consent governed also human rights advocated protestants example torture abolished prussia slavery britain united states william wilberforce harriet beecher stowe abraham lincoln southern protestants hugo grotius samuel pufendorf among first thinkers made significant contributions international law geneva convention important part humanitarian international law largely work henry dunant reformed pietist also founded red cross social teaching protestants founded hospitals homes disabled


elderly people educational institutions organizations give aid developing countries social welfare agencies nineteenth century throughout anglo american world numerous dedicated members protestant denominations active social reform movements abolition slavery prison reforms woman suffrage answer social question nineteenth century germany chancellor otto von bismarck introduced insurance programs led way welfare state health insurance accident insurance disability insurance old age pensions bismarck practical christianity programs copied many nations


particularly western world young men 's christian association founded congregationalist george williams aimed empowering young people liturgy protestant liturgy pattern worship used whether recommended prescribed protestant congregation denomination regular basis term liturgy comes greek means public work liturgy mainly important historical protestant churches mainline protestant churches evangelical protestant churches tend flexible cases liturgy often exclusively occurs sunday arts arts strongly inspired


protestant beliefs martin luther paul gerhardt george wither isaac watts charles wesley william cowper many authors composers created well known church hymns musicians like heinrich sch tz johann sebastian bach george frideric handel henry purcell johannes brahms philipp nicolai felix mendelssohn composed great works music prominent painters protestant background example albrecht rer hans holbein younger lucas cranach elder lucas cranach younger rembrandt vincent van gogh world literature enriched works edmund spenser john milton john bunyan john donne john dryden daniel defoe william wordsworth jonathan swift


johann wolfgang goethe friedrich schiller samuel taylor coleridge edgar allan poe matthew arnold conrad ferdinand meyer theodor fontane washington irving robert browning emily dickinson emily bront charles dickens nathaniel hawthorne thomas stearns eliot john galsworthy thomas mann william faulkner john updike many others gallery file martin luther denkmal wormsjpg luther monument worms features reformation 's crucial figures file reformationsdenkmalgenf jpg international monument reformation geneva switzerland file albrecht rer adoration trinity landauer altar google art projectjpg ''adoration trinity '' albrecht rer file lucas cranach lamentation christ schlei heim


crucifixion alte pinakothekjpg ''crucifixion christ'' lucas cranach elder file lucas cranach j adam eve wga jpg ''adam eve'' lucas cranach younger file huguenot lovers st bartholomew 's dayjpg ''a huguenot st bartholomew 's day refusing shield danger wearing roman catholic badge'' john everett millais file rembrandt harmensz van rijn return prodigal son google art projectjpg ''the return prodigal son'' detail c rembrandt file vincent van gogh church auvers sur oise view chevet google art projectjpg ''the church auvers''


mus e d'orsay paris vincent van gogh gallery catholic responses view catholic church protestant denominations cannot considered churches rather ''ecclesial communities'' ' 'specific faith believing communities'' ordinances doctrines historically catholic sacraments dogmas protestant communities sacramental ministerial priesthood therefore lack true apostolic succession ref name afac ref according bishop hilarion alfeyev eastern orthodox church shares view subject contrary protestant reformers often characterized concept ''catholic'' universal


church brushed aside protestant reformation contrary visible unity ''catholic'' ''universal church'' seen protestant reformers important essential doctrine reformation magisterial reformers martin luther john calvin huldrych zwingli believed reforming catholic church viewed become corrupted took seriously charges schism innovation denying charges maintaining catholic church left protestant reformers formed new radically different theological


opinion ecclesiology visible church catholic lower case c rather catholic upper case c accordingly indefinite number parochial congregational national churches constituting many ecclesiastical individualities one great spiritual republic various organizations form part although different opinions markedly far removed traditional historic catholic understanding roman catholic church one true church christ yet protestant understanding ''visible church'' genus speak many species


order justify departure catholic church protestants often posited new argument saying real visible church divine authority ' 'spiritual invisible hidden church'' notion began early days protestant reformation wherever magisterial reformation received support ruling authorities took place result reformed national protestant church envisioned part whole ''invisible church'' disagreeing certain important points doctrine doctrine linked practice considered normative reference point


reformed tradition either reject play designation ''protestant'' negative idea word invokes addition primary meaning preferring designation ''reformed'' ''evangelical'' even ''reformed catholic'' expressive call ''reformed catholicity'' defending arguments traditional protestant confessions ecumenism ref ecumenical movement influence mainline churches beginning least edinburgh missionary conference origins lay recognition need cooperation mission field africa asia oceania since world council


churches influential ineffective creating united church also ecumenical bodies regional national local levels across globe schisms still far outnumber unifications one expression ecumenical movement move form united churches church south india church north india us based united church christ united church canada uniting church australia united church christ philippines rapidly declining memberships strong engagement orthodox


churches ecumenical movement though reaction individual orthodox theologians ranged tentative approval aim christian unity outright condemnation perceived effect watering orthodox doctrine protestant baptism held valid catholic church given trinitarian formula intent baptize however ordination protestant ministers recognized due lack apostolic succession disunity catholic church sacraments except marriage performed protestant denominations ministers recognized valid therefore protestants


desiring full communion catholic church baptized although confirmed protestant ministers become catholics may ordained priesthood period study representatives lutheran world federation catholic church signed joint declaration doctrine justification apparently resolving conflict nature justification root protestant reformation although confessional lutherans reject statement ref name wels jd ref understandable since compelling authority within july delegates world methodist conference voted unanimously


included nbsp million sub saharan africa nbsp million americas nbsp million asia pacific region nbsp million europe nbsp million middle east north africa ref name pewforum protestants account nearly forty percent christians worldwide one tenth total human population ref name pewforum various estimates put percentage protestants relation total number world 's christians ref name clarke beyer ref name pewforum ref name hillerbrand relation world 's population ref name pewforum ref name diamond plattner costopoulos european countries profoundly influenced reformation protestantism still remains


practiced religion ref name clarke beyer include nordic countries united kingdom ref name clarke beyer historical protestant strongholds germany netherlands switzerland latvia estonia remains one popular religions although czech republic site one significant pre reformation movements ref name museeprotestantorg ref protestant adherents mainly due historical reasons like persecution protestants catholic habsburgs restrictions communist rule also ongoing secularization ref name museeprotestantorg last several decades religious practice declining secularization increased ref


ii decolonization africa abolition various restrictions protestants latin american countries occurred ref name diamond plattner costopoulos according one source protestants constituted respectively latin americans africans asians ref name diamond plattner costopoulos percentage protestants mentioned continents respectively ref name diamond plattner costopoulos according mark noll anglicans lived united kingdom remainder found united states across british commonwealth ref name noll anglicans found


africa ref name noll protestants lived india uk germany protestants brazil accounted many people protestants uk germany combined ref name noll almost many lived nigeria china europe ref name noll china home world 's largest protestant minority ref name pewforum protestantism growing africa ref name encyclopedia protestantism ref name time ref asia ref name encyclopedia protestantism ref name time latin america ref name time oceania ref name encyclopedia protestantism ref name witte alexander


declining anglo america ref name witte alexander europe ref name clarke beyer exceptions france ref name jean paul willaime ref eradicated abolition edict nantes edict fontainebleau following persecution huguenots claimed stable number even growing slightly ref name jean paul willaime according russia another country see protestant revival largest protestant denominational families historically pentecostal denominations anglican lutheran baptist united uniting churches


unions different denominations presbyterian reformed methodist adventist congregationalist brethren salvation army moravian denominations accounted protestants ref name pewforum united states home approximately protestants ref name pewforum according study protestant share us population dropped thus ending status religion majority first time ref name nones rise http wwwpewforumorg files nonesontherise fullpdf nones rise one five adults religious affiliation pew research center pew forum religion public life october ref


decline attributed mainly dropping membership mainline protestant churches ref name nones rise evangelical protestant black churches stable continue grow ref name nones rise protestantism projected rise slightly half world 's total christian population according experts hans j hillerbrand protestants numerous catholics according mark j rgensmeyer university california popular protestantism dynamic religious movement contemporary world alongside resurgent islam ref name booksgooglecom see also anti catholicism


reformation influence church architecture criticism protestantism european wars religion protestantism islam protestantism germany notes references reading bruce steve ''a house divided protestantism schism secularization'' routledge cook martin l ''the open circle confessional method theology'' minneapolis mn fortress press xiv p nb discusses place confessions faith protestant theology especially lutheranism dillenberger john claude welch ''protestant christianity interpreted development'' second ed new york macmillan publishing co giussani luigi trans damian bacich https wwwamazoncom american protestant theology historical sketch dp american protestant theology historical


coverage protestantism worldwide current historical pp https wwwamazoncom encyclopedia protestantism hans hillerbrand dp ref mt hardcover encoding utf index vol online melton j gordon ''encyclopedia protestantism'' facts file articles pp ryrie alec ''protestants radicals made modern world'' harper collins ryrie alec world 's local religion http wwwhistorytodaycom alec ryrie worlds local religionmc cid f mc eid abb ad ''history today'' sept online external links http wwwencyclopediacom topic protestantismaspx protestantism encyclopediacom https webarchiveorg web http wwwnewadventorg cathen ahtm protestantism ''catholic encyclopedia'' http historyscopercom protestantscopehtml historyscoper http wwwoikoumeneorg world council churches world body mainline protestant churches christian terminology th century introductions


'''fogponics''' '''atmoponics''' ancient greek atm meaning '' vapour '' '' steam '' subset aeroponics fogponics uses suspension nutrient enriched water deliver nutrients oxygen plant roots contrast geoponics organoponics use soil organic materials primary source nutrients well growth medium 'traditional' hydroponics uses submersion nutrient enriched water primary nutrient source using inert growth medium difference fogponics forms aeroponics aeroponics typically delivers


nutrient rich water roots using spray relatively large particles air fogponics uses one number mechanisms example ultrasonic compressed air heating elements form suspension much smaller particles water nbsp even vapour plants best absorb particles nbsp range assumed absorption rate well energy required grow inversely proportional particle size references see also grow box growroom horticultural techniques hydroculture


checkpoint potsdam germany july '''counterintelligence''' activity aimed protecting agency 's intelligence program opposition 's intelligence service includes gathering information conducting activities prevent espionage sabotage assassinations intelligence activities conducted behalf foreign powers organizations persons many countries multiple organisations focusing different aspect counterintelligence domestic international counter terrorism states formalise part police structure united states' federal bureau investigation others establish independent bodies

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics
Counter-intelligence


united kingdom 's mi history emir sher ali friends russian bear british lion great game saw rise systematic espionage surveillance throughout region powers modern tactics espionage dedicated government intelligence agencies developed course late th century key background development great game strategic rivalry conflict british empire russian empire throughout central asia counter russian ambitions region potential threat posed


british position india indian civil service built system surveillance intelligence counterintelligence existence shadowy conflict popularized rudyard kipling 's famous spy book ''kim'' portrayed great game phrase kipling popularized espionage intelligence conflict never ceases day night establishment dedicated intelligence counterintelligence organizations much colonial rivalries major european powers accelerating development military technology espionage became widely used became imperative expand role existing police


internal security forces role detecting countering foreign spies ''evidenzbureau'' founded austrian empire role late th century countering actions pan slavist movement operating serbia fallout dreyfus affair france responsibility french military counter espionage passed ret g n rale agency originally responsible order enforcement public safety overseen ministry interior okhrana founded task countering enemy espionage imperial russia st petersburg okhrana group photo


okhrana initially formed combat political terrorism left wing revolutionary activity throughout russian empire also tasked countering enemy espionage main concern activities revolutionaries often worked plotted subversive actions abroad set branch paris run pyotr rachkovsky monitor activities agency used many methods achieve goals including covert operations undercover agents perlustration interception reading private correspondence okhrana became notorious use agents provocateurs often succeeded penetrating activities revolutionary groups


including bolsheviks integrated counterintelligence agencies run directly governments also established british government founded secret service bureau first independent interdepartmental agency fully control government counterintelligence activities due intense lobbying william melville obtained german mobilization plans proof financial support boers british government authorized formation new intelligence section war office mo subsequently redesignated mo headed melville working cover flat london melville ran counterintelligence foreign intelligence


operations capitalizing knowledge foreign contacts accumulated years running special branch due success government committee intelligence support richard haldane winston churchill established secret service bureau joint initiative admiralty war office foreign office control secret intelligence operations uk overseas particularly concentrating activities imperial german government first director captain sir george mansfield smith cumming alias c secret service bureau split foreign counter intelligence domestic service


latter headed sir vernon kell originally aimed calming public fears large scale german espionage service authorized police powers kell liaised extensively special branch scotland yard headed basil thomson succeeded disrupting work indian revolutionaries collaborating germans war instead system whereby rival departments military services would work priorities little consultation cooperation newly established secret intelligence service interdepartmental submitted intelligence reports relevant government


departments first time governments access peacetime centralized independent intelligence counterintelligence bureaucracy indexed registries defined procedures opposed ''ad hoc'' methods used previously categories '''collective counterintelligence''' gaining information opponent 's intelligence collection capabilities whose aim entity br '''defensive counterintelligence''' thwarting efforts hostile intelligence services penetrate service br '''offensive counterintelligence''' identified opponent 's efforts system trying manipulate attacks either turning opponent 's agents double agents feeding false information report counterintelligence counterterror


government many governments organize counterintelligence agencies separately distinct intelligence collection services countries counterintelligence mission spread multiple organizations though one usually predominates usually domestic counterintelligence service usually part larger law enforcement organization federal bureau investigation united states united kingdom separate security service also known mi direct police powers works closely law enforcement especially special branch carry arrests searches warrant etc russian federation 's major domestic security


organization fsb principally came second chief directorate third chief directorate ussr 's kgb canada separates functions general defensive counterintelligence ''contre ing rence'' security intelligence intelligence preparation necessary conduct offensive counterintelligence law enforcement intelligence offensive counterintelligence military organizations counterintelligence forces capable conducting protective operations home deployed abroad ref name auto clark rm mitchell wl deception counterdeception counterintelligence cq press ref depending country various mixtures civilian military foreign operations example offensive counterintelligence mission


us cia 's national clandestine service defensive counterintelligence mission us diplomatic security service dss department state work protective security personnel information processed abroad us embassies consulates term counter espionage really specific countering humint since virtually offensive counterintelligence involves exploiting human sources term offensive counterintelligence used avoid ambiguous phrasing countries also deal proper organization defenses foreign intelligence services fis often separate services common authority head government france example


minister staffed principally subordinated directly prime minister 's office march madrid train bombings national investigation found problems interior ministry cni result national anti terrorism coordination center created spain 's commission called center operational coordination well information collection dissemination ref name archick ref military organic counterintelligence meet specific military needs counterintelligence missions frank wisner well known cia operations executive said autobiography director central intelligence allen w dulles ref name dulles ref dulles disposes


popular misconception counterintelligence essentially negative responsive activity moves chiefly reaction situations thrust upon counter initiatives mounted opposition rather sees effective information gathering protecting friendly intelligence services creatively vigorously attacks structure personnel hostile intelligence services ref name wisner ref today 's counterintelligence missions broadened time threat restricted foreign intelligence services fis control nation states threats broadened include threats non national


declaring persona non grata beyond minimum exploits fis personnel gain intelligence one 's side actively manipulates fis personnel damage hostile fis organization counterintelligence force protection source operations cfso human source operations conducted abroad intended fill existing gap national level coverage protecting field station force terrorism espionage counterintelligence part intelligence cycle security turn part intelligence cycle management variety security disciplines also fall intelligence security management complement counterintelligence including physical security


us departments agencies intelligence functions responsible security abroad except fall chief mission authority ref name matschulat ref governments try protect three things personnel installations operations many governments responsibility protecting things split historically cia assigned responsibility protecting personnel operations office security assigned security operations multiple groups within directorate operations counterintelligence staff area functional unit soviet russia division one point counterintelligence unit operated quite


autonomously direction james jesus angleton later operational divisions subordinate counterintelligence branches well smaller central counterintelligence staff aldrich ames counterintelligence branch europe division responsible directing analysis soviet intelligence operations us military services similar even complex split kind division clearly requires close coordination fact occurs daily basis interdependence us counterintelligence community also manifest relationships liaison services counterintelligence community cannot cut relationships


concern security experience shown must calculate risks involved ref name matschulat side ci coin counterespionage one purpose transcends others importance penetration emphasis kgb places penetration evident cases already discussed defensive security viewpoint best security system world cannot provide adequate defense technique involves people way sure enemy contained know plans advance detail blockquote moreover


high level penetration opposition tell whether service penetrated high level defector also adversary knows defected within limits take remedial action conducting ce without aid penetrations like fighting dark conducting ce penetrations like shooting fish barrel ref name matschulat blockquote british service cases cambridge five later suspicions mi chief sir roger hollis caused great internal dissension clearly british penetrated philby never determined


public forum serious penetrations us service also significant disruption contradictory accusations moles defectors anatoliy golitsyn yuri nosenko respective supporters cia british security service mi golitsyn generally believed angleton george kisevalter cia operations officer cia side joint us uk handling oleg penkovsky believe angleton 's theory nosenko kgb plant nosenko exposed john vassall kgb asset principally british admiralty arguments vassall


kgb sacrifice protect operations including nosenko possibly valuable source royal navy defensive counterintelligence defensive counterintelligence starts looking places one 's organization could easily exploited foreign intelligence services fis fis established term art counterintelligence community today 's world foreign shorthand opposing opposition might indeed country could transnational group internal insurgent group operations fis might one 's nation another friendly nation range actions


one 's friendly one counterintelligence counterterrorism analyses provide strategic assessments foreign intelligence terrorist groups prepare tactical options ongoing operations investigations counterespionage may involve proactive acts foreign intelligence services double agents deception recruiting foreign intelligence officers clandestine humint sources give greatest insight adversary 's thinking may also vulnerable adversary 's attacks one 's organization trusting enemy agent remember people started trusted countries may still loyal country


offensive counterintelligence operations wisner emphasized dulles' views best defense foreign attacks infiltration intelligence services active measures hostile services ref name wisner often called '''counterespionage''' measures taken detect enemy espionage physical attacks friendly intelligence services prevent damage information loss possible turn attempt back originator counterespionage goes beyond reactive actively tries subvert hostile intelligence service recruiting agents foreign service discrediting personnel actually loyal service taking away


resources would useful hostile service actions apply non national threats well national organizations hostile action one 's country friendly one co operating police hostile agents may arrested diplomats declared persona non grata perspective one 's intelligence service exploiting situation advantage one 's side usually preferable arrest actions might result death threat intelligence priority sometimes comes conflict instincts one 's law


enforcement organizations especially foreign threat combines foreign personnel citizens one 's country circumstances arrest may first step prisoner given choice co operating facing severe consequence including death sentence espionage co operation may consist telling one knows service preferably actively assisting deceptive actions hostile service counterintelligence protection intelligence services defensive counterintelligence specifically intelligence services involves risk assessment culture sources methods resources risk management must constantly reflect assessments


since effective intelligence operations often risk taking even taking calculated risks services need mitigate risk appropriate countermeasures fis especially able explore open societies environment able subvert insiders intelligence community offensive counterespionage powerful tool finding penetrators neutralizing tool understanding leads individuals turn side focus project slammer without undue violations personal privacy systems developed spot anomalous behavior especially use information systems


decision makers require intelligence free hostile control manipulation since every intelligence discipline subject manipulation adversaries validating reliability intelligence collection platforms essential accordingly counterintelligence organization validate reliability sources methods relate counterintelligence mission accordance common standards mission areas usic examine collection analysis dissemination practices intelligence activities recommend improvements best practices common standards ref name ncix ref intelligence vulnerable external also internal threats subversion treason leaks expose vulnerabilities governmental


national arsenals counterintelligence community seek manipulate foreign spies conduct aggressive investigations make arrests foreign officials involved expel engaging practices inconsistent diplomatic status exploit unwitting channel deception turn witting double agents ref name ncix witting term intelligence art indicates one aware fact piece information also aware connection intelligence activities victor suvorov pseudonym former soviet military intelligence gru officer makes point


hated volunteer ref name suvorov im ref blockquote counterintelligence force protection source operations attacks military diplomatic related facilities real threat demonstrated attacks french us peacekeepers beirut attack khobar towers saudi arabia attacks colombian bases us embassies local buildings kenya tanzania attack ''uss cole'' many others us military force protection measures set actions taken military personnel family members resources facilities critical information countries similar


doctrine protecting facilities conserving potential forces force protection defined defense deliberate attack accidents natural disasters counterintelligence force protection source operations cfso human source operations normally clandestine nature conducted abroad intended fill existing gap national level coverage well satisfying combatant commander 's intelligence requirements ref name fm ref military police patrols mingle local people may indeed valuable humint sources counterintelligence awareness likely cfsos gleghorn distinguishes protection national


intelligence services intelligence needed provide combatant commands information need force protection humint sources military reconnaissance patrols avoid mixing foreign personnel indeed may provide humint humint especially relevant counterintelligence ref name gleghorn ref active countermeasures whether force protection protection intelligence services protection national security interests apt involve humint disciplines purpose detecting fis agents involving screening debriefing non tasked human sources also called casual incidental sources walk ins write ins individuals volunteer information unwitting


sources individual providing useful information counterintelligence process divulging information may know aiding investigation defectors enemy prisoners war epw refugee populations expatriates interviewees individuals contacted course investigation official liaison sources blockquote physical security important override role force protection intelligence although intelligence disciplines used gather force protection intelligence humint collected intelligence ci agencies plays key role providing indications warning terrorist force protection threats blockquote force protection


forces deployed host countries occupation duty even home may supported sufficiently national level counterterrorism organization alone country colocating fpci personnel services military assistance advisory units allows agents build relationships host nation law enforcement intelligence agencies get know local environments improve language skills fpci needs legal domestic capability deal domestic terrorism threats example terrorist planning cycles khobar towers attack shows need long term fpci hizballah operatives believed conducted attack began


intelligence collection planning activities recognized american military personnel billeted khobar towers fall began surveillance facility continued plan june march saudi arabian border guards arrested hizballah member attempting plastic explosive country leading arrest two hizballah members hizballah leaders recruited replacements arrested continued planning attack defensive counterintelligence operations us doctrine although necessarily countries ci seen primarily counter fis humint


us army counterintelligence manual ci broader scope various intelligence collection disciplines overarching ci tasks described developing maintaining disseminating multidiscipline threat data intelligence files organizations locations individuals ci interest includes insurgent terrorist infrastructure individuals assist ci mission educating personnel fields security component multidiscipline threat briefing briefings tailored scope classification level briefings could used familiarize supported commands nature


multidiscipline threat posed command activity recent us joint intelligence doctrine restricts primary scope counter humint usually includes counter terror always clear doctrine responsible intelligence collection threats military resource full scope us military counterintelligence doctrine moved classified publication joint publication jp ''counterintelligence human intelligence support joint operations'' specific countermeasures intelligence collection disciplines listed class wikitable caption ci roles intelligence collection disciplines doctrine ref name fm caption discipline offensive ci


defensive ci humint counterreconnaissance offensive counterespionage deception operations security sigint recommendations kinetic electronic attack radio opsec use secure telephones sigsec deception imint recommendations kinetic electronic attack deception opsec countermeasures deception decoys camouflage accessible use satran reports satellites overhead hide stop activities viewed counter humint counter humint deals detection hostile humint sources within organization detection individuals likely become hostile humint sources mole double agent


additional category relevant broad spectrum counterintelligence one becomes terrorist acronym '''mice''' '''m'''oney '''i'' 'deology '''c'''ompromise coercion '''e'''go describes common reasons people break trust disclose classified materials reveal operations hostile services join terrorist groups makes sense therefore monitor trusted personnel risks areas financial stress extreme political views potential vulnerabilities blackmail excessive need approval intolerance criticism luck problems employee caught early assistance provided correct


espionage avoided useful employee retained sometimes preventive neutralization tasks overlap case earl edwin pitts pitts fbi agent sold secret information soviets fall ussr russians caught fbi false flag sting fbi agents posing russian fsb agents came pitts offer reactivate activities seemed motivated money ego perceived bad treatment fbi agent sentence required


tell fbi knew foreign agents ironically told suspicious actions robert hanssen taken seriously time motivations information operations disclosure go beyond slogans project slammer effort intelligence community staff director central intelligence come characteristics individual likely commit espionage united states examines espionage interviewing psychologically assessing actual espionage subjects additionally persons knowledgeable subjects contacted better understand subjects' private lives