perceived others conducting espionage ref name slammer ref class wikitable caption espionage subject sees time espionage caption attitude manifestations basic belief structure ndash special even unique ndash deserving ndash individual 's situation satisfactory ndash easier option engage espionage ndash others frequently ndash bad person ndash performance government job presently employed separate espionage espionage really discount contribution workplace ndash security procedures really apply individual ndash


security programs eg briefings meaning individual unless connect something personally identify feels isolated consequences actions ndash individual sees situation context face continually narrowing options espionage seems reasonable process evolves espionage reduces barriers making essentially okay initiate crime ndash see espionage victimless crime ndash consider espionage figure might done mutually reinforcing often simultaneous events ndash subject finds

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics
Counter-intelligence


easy go around security safeguards able solve problem belittle security system feeling information really important espionage would hard information would really better protected ease accomplishment reinforces resolve attempts cope espionage activity ndash anxious initial hostile intelligence service contact also feel thrill excitement ndash relationship espionage activity hois develops process becomes much bearable espionage continues even flourishes ndash course long term activity subjects may


reconsider involvement ndash consider breaking role become operative government occurs access classified information lost perceived need prove ndash others find espionage activity becomes stressful longer want glamour present earlier subsides reluctant continue may even break contact ndash sometimes consider telling authorities done wanting reverse role n't confessing 're negotiating stressed want confess neither wants punishment attempt minimize


avoid punishment according press report project slammer congressional oversight counterespionage one fairly basic function observing one 's personnel behavior either suggests could targets foreign humint may already subverted news reports indicate hindsight red flags flying noticed ref name stein ref several major penetrations us services aldrich ames walker ring robert hanssen individual showed patterns spending inconsistent salary people changed spending may perfectly good reason inheritance


meetings security policy advisory board ref name spab ref funding cut caused loss impetus mid nineties research data used throughout security community emphasize blockquote essential multi faceted motivational patterns underlying espionage future slammer analyses focus newly developing issues espionage role money new dimensions loyalty seems developing trend toward economic espionage blockquote counter sigint signals intelligence military security organizations provide secure communications may monitor less secure systems commercial telephones general internet connections detect inappropriate


awareness orbits guide security personnel stop activity perhaps cover sensitive parts satellite overhead also applies imaging aircraft uavs although direct expedient shooting attacking launch support area option wartime counter osint open source intelligence concept well precedes recognition discipline osint idea censorship material directly relevant national security basic osint defense democratic societies even wartime censorship must watched carefully lest violate reasonable freedom


press balance set differently different countries different times united kingdom generally considered free press da notice formerly notice system many british journalists find system used fairly always arguments specific context counterintelligence note peter wright former senior member security service left service without pension moved australia publishing book spycatcher much book reasonable commentary revealed specific sensitive techniques


operation rafter means detecting existence setting radio receivers counter masint measurement signature intelligence masint mentioned completeness discipline contains varied range technologies type type strategy beyond current scope one example however draw operation rafter technique revealed wright 's book knowledge radiofrequency masint used pick internal frequency radio receivers would possible design shielded receiver would radiate signal rafter monitored theory offensive counterintelligence offensive


techniques current counterintelligence doctrine principally directed human sources counterespionage considered synonym offensive counterintelligence heart exploitation operations objective degrade effectiveness adversary 's intelligence service terrorist organization offensive counterespionage counterterrorism done one two ways either manipulating adversary fis terrorist manner disrupting adversary 's normal operations defensive counterintelligence operations succeed breaking clandestine network arresting persons involved exposing actions demonstrate disruption quite measurable effective


fis right actions taken defensive counterintelligence stops terrorist attacks succeeded offensive counterintelligence seeks damage long term capability adversary lead national adversary putting large resources protecting nonexistent threat lead terrorists assume sleeper agents country become unreliable must replaced possibly killed security risks greater level success seen defensive operations alone carry offensive counterintelligence however service must


corresponds defensive counterintelligence services security intelligence ' 'renseignement de curit '' means intelligence identity capabilities intentions hostile intelligence services organizations individuals may engaged espionage sabotage subversion terrorist activities organized crime criminal activities ''not'' ''emphasis added'' correspond directly offensive counterintelligence intelligence preparation necessary conduct offensive counterintelligence duties canadian forces national counter intelligence unit include identifying investigating countering threats security dnd cf espionage sabotage subversion terrorist activities criminal


activity identifying investigating countering actual possible compromise highly classified special dnd cf material conducting ci security investigations operations security briefings debriefings counter threats preserve security dnd cf interests mandate good statement mandate conduct offensive counterintelligence dnd makes useful clarification ref name dnd ref security intelligence process ' 'should confused with'' liaison conducted members canadian forces national investigation service cfnis purpose ''obtaining criminal intelligence'' collection type


information within mandate manipulating intelligence professional trained counterintelligence easy task unless already predisposed toward opposing side effort start sympathetic person take long term commitment creative thinking overcome defenses someone knows counterintelligence target also knows counterintelligence techniques terrorists hand although engage deception function security appear prone manipulation deception well placed adversary foreign intelligence services part due


fact many terrorist groups whose members often mistrust fight among disagree vary conviction internally cohesive foreign intelligence services potentially leaving vulnerable deception manipulation reading johnson william r ''thwarting enemies home abroad counterintelligence officer'' https wwwciagov library center study intelligence csi publications csi studies studies vol toward theory cihtml toward theory ci see also irregular warfare list counterintelligence organizations fbi counterintelligence division saeda institute world politics x counter espionage branch references external links types espionage intelligence analysis military intelligence espionage


'''indexer''' may refer indexer programming torrent indexer bittorrent tracker index disambiguation nbsp publishing library studies writer indexes literary non fiction publications see also index disambiguation w indexphpsearch document management systemsmetadatalibrary science indexer incategory information sciencedocument management systemsmetadatalibrary science

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Indexer


'' 'distributed algorithm''' algorithm designed run computer hardware constructed interconnected processors distributed algorithms used different application areas distributed computing telecommunications scientific computing distributed information processing real time process control standard problems solved distributed algorithms include leader election consensus distributed search spanning tree generation mutual exclusion resource allocation ref name lynch ref distributed algorithms sub type parallel algorithm typically executed concurrently separate parts algorithm run simultaneously independent processors limited information parts algorithm one

Formal science
Computer science
Algorithms
Distributed algorithms


major challenges developing implementing distributed algorithms successfully coordinating behavior independent parts algorithm face processor failures unreliable communications links choice appropriate distributed algorithm solve given problem depends characteristics problem characteristics system algorithm run type probability processor link failures kind inter process communication performed level timing synchronization separate processes ref name lynch standard problems atomic commit atomic commit


several computers nodes task begun network nodes unaware node serve leader coordinator task leader election algorithm run however node throughout network recognizes particular unique node task leader mutual exclusion non blocking data structures reliable broadcast reliable broadcast communication primitive distributed systems reliable broadcast defined following properties '''validity''' correct process sends message correct process eventually deliver message '''agreement'''


'''chemical reaction engineering''' reaction engineering reactor engineering specialty chemical engineering industrial chemistry dealing chemical reactors frequently term relates specifically catalytic reaction systems either homogeneous heterogeneous catalyst present reactor sometimes reactor ''per se'' present rather integrated process example reactive separations vessels retorts certain fuel cells photocatalytic surfaces issue solvent effects reaction kinetics also considered integral part origin chemical reaction engineering chemical reaction engineering

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering
Reaction engineering


discipline started early impulse researchers shell amsterdam research center university delft term chemical reaction engineering apparently coined jc vlugter preparing st european symposium chemical reaction engineering held amsterdam discipline chemical reaction engineering aims studying optimizing chemical reactions order define best reactor design hence interactions flow phenomena mass transfer heat transfer reaction kinetics prime importance order relate reactor performance feed composition operating conditions although originally


applied petroleum petrochemical industries general methodology combining reaction chemistry chemical engineering concepts allows optimization variety systems modeling engineering reactions needed chemical reaction engineering approaches indeed tailored development new processes improvement existing technologies books engineering chemical reactions nd edition lanny schmidt oxford university press chemical reaction engineering rd edition octave levenspiel john wiley sons elements chemical reaction engineering th edition h scott fogler prentice hall chemical reactor analysis design nd edition gilbert


multifaceted field iscre symposia unique gathering place reaction engineers research gains consolidated new frontiers explored state art various sub disciplines reaction engineering reviewed timely manner new research initiatives discussed awards chemical reaction engineering iscre board administers two premiere awards chemical reaction engineering senior junior researchers every three years neal r amundson award excellence chemical reaction engineering iscre board directors established neal r amundson award excellence chemical


reaction engineering award recognizes pioneer field chemical reaction engineering exerted major influence theory practice field originality creativity novelty concept application award made every three years iscre meeting consists plaque check amount amundson award generously supported grant exxonmobil corporation winners award include neal amundson professor university minnesota university houston rutherford aris professor university minnesota


octave levenspiel professor oregon state university vern weekman mobil gilbert froment professor ghent university texas university dan luss professor university houston lanny schmidt professor university minnesota milorad p dudukovic professor washington university w harmon ray professor university wisconsin announced nascre rutherford aris young investigator award chemical reaction engineering iscre inc board directors bestow first rutherford aris young investigator award excellence chemical reaction engineering award recognize outstanding contributions experimental


conservator carefully handles book preventive conservation protocols protect lifespan cultural objects allowing viewed safely '''disaster preparedness museums galleries libraries archives private collections''' involves actions taken plan prevent respond recover natural disasters events cause damage loss cultural property 'disasters' context may include large scale natural events earthquakes flooding bushfire well human caused events theft vandalism increasingly anthropogenic climate change factor cultural heritage disaster planning due rising sea

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Collections care


levels changes rainfall patterns warming average temperatures frequent extreme weather events primary goal disaster preparedness identify actions taken reduce either chance disaster occurring lessen effects example clearing building gutters reduces chance overflow leaks heavy rainfall storing collection objects inside closed cabinets reduces chance water damage water leaks still occur however disaster preparedness generally recognised ongoing process planning preparation response review order learn disasters occur


professions influenced disaster preparedness context include conservator restorers curators collection managers registrars plan prevent disasters occurring cultural heritage organisations often perform risk assessment identify potential hazards might ameliorated develop disaster emergency response plan tailored needs institution taking consideration factors like climate location specific collection vulnerabilities response plan includes details floor plans evacuation routes emergency supply locations contact information emergency response team members critical stakeholders collection


priority salvage lists locations used emergency salvage work storage countries jurisdictions may official requirements emergency preparedness plan quality assurance standards guidelines determined government local authorities categories disaster cultural property faces threats variety sources daily basis thieves vandals pests pollution light humidity temperature natural emergencies physical forces effects stemming issues treated sometimes reversed interventive conservation damage occurred however many sources


danger mentioned controllable others least predictable disaster preparedness strives mitigate occurrence damage deterioration risk management research implementation procedures enhance safety cultural heritage objects collections disaster preparedness considered integral part collections maintenance collections management related museum integrated pest management museum environments agents deterioration forces act upon materials cause change deteriorate time commonly held ten main agents deterioration incorrect


temperature incorrect relative humidity light dust pollutants also called contaminants pests physical forces theft vandalism fire water dissociation custodial neglect ref name routledge ref important recognize type damage agent may present well ways mitigate harmful effects forces vary intensity severity example earthquakes type physical force cause widespread severe damage cultural heritage handling accident single item dropped damaged also example physical forces may considered


climate may predictable degree geographic locations known prone earthquakes hurricanes etc exact timing intensity natural disasters uncertain examples natural disasters include hurricanes tornados floods blizzards landslides earthquakes aftershocks bushfires wildfires sandstorms dust storms types hazards cause extreme structural object damage museums many disasters resulted loss life livelihoods addition loss damage cultural heritage temperature heatwaves becoming common extreme many


areas world due effects anthropogenic climate change temperature major factor rate chemical deterioration higher average temperatures fluctuations cause cultural heritage deteriorate faster rate biological deterioration insects mould mold micro organisms may also occur quickly thrive higher temperatures cultural heritage 'disasters' relating extreme heat typically associated fire though extreme high temperatures cause structural damage desiccation textiles embrittlement paint layers softening melting adhesives plastics ref name npschp ref ref name historic house chp ref


change weather conditions may also cause low temperatures cause stiffening embrittlement collection items incorrect relative humidity cloud forest hygrometer relative humidity rh cause damage cultural heritage high low fluctuates widely frequently specific materials typically cause 'disasters' though high humidity major factor mould mold outbreaks mould mold outbreaks often associated flooding water leaks causing temporary increases moisture content air however mould


mold caused high humidity ongoing concern cultural heritage tropical climates contamination pollutants dust storms excessive dust deposition due building works building collapse caused damage cultural heritage physical forces physical forces may result collection disasters include earthquakes structural collapse buildings damage caused civil unrest war cultural heritage may deliberately targeted wartime due symbolic value many high profile examples loss caused events well devastating injuries loss life destruction


world trade centre building new york september resulted destruction civic business non profit archives library archaeological art collections examples broadway theatre archive photographs lost one largest existing urban archaeological assemblages five points area nineteenth century new york losses detailed report heritage emergency national task force hentf ''cataclysm challenge impact september nation cultural heritage'' two six century bamiyan buddha sculptures afghanistan destroyed


explosion set taliban forces though cultural damage usually dwarfed loss life humanitarian effects examples major earthquakes causing loss historic buildings moveable heritage include bohol philippines earthquake earthquake italy earthquakes christchurch new zealand many churches damaged destroyed earthquakes including paintings frescoes furniture manuscripts stained glass windows contained within earthquake nepal caused extensive damage museums temples monasteries libraries historic houses traditional craft practices also disrupted quakes fire


national museum brazil fire september many examples fire damaging cultural heritage fire cause internal external damage singular exhibits whole building depending cause speed responsiveness ref name getty conservation institute ref national museum brazil destroyed fire fire broke windsor castle damaging several rooms associated furnishings water flooding locations experience extreme weather conditions rainfall storms one relatively common type disaster affecting cultural collections extreme weather events also becoming common due


effects anthropogenic climate change water damage may also occur due storm surges coastal areas rising sea levels disasters also caused faulty pipe sprinkler systems improper use water cleaning florence floods pivotal moment development conservation profession secured display cabinets chester beatty library theft vandalism theft vandalism may planned acts opportunistic many high profile cases planned thefts cultural organisations worldwide though events come public notice thefts occurred


normal security controls interrupted building works civil protests even acts terrorism war dissociation extreme forms dissociation separation physical item information makes significant might include critical loss electronic data cannot retrieved closure sale collection parts entirety due financial political pressures risks risks collections categorised according agents deterioration may result direct damage loss collection material


instead affect reputation operation organisation example serious issues created due funding sponsorship scandals misuse funds presence looted cultural property material acquired unethical means political social perspectives activities undertaken governing body donor even institution 's founder wider societal economic pressures leading closure collecting organisations due loss income political business social religious media pressure groups may cases interfere operation cultural organisations leading selection bias propaganda discrimination


censorship attempts eg presentation exhibitions recruitment processes disaster preparedness plan office board emergency planning response salvage documents museums develop disaster emergency preparedness plans natural man made events may expected occur plans collection focussed separate sub component wider organisational operational risk management plans focus human safety business continuity including procedures related crisis management crisis communication order protect institution 's reputation case public relations crisis despite focus cultural heritage collection disaster preparedness plans


still emphasise need put human safety collection safety various contingency plans also included primary objectives emergency planning identify risks order anticipate possible avoid emergencies retain control emergency occurs mitigate potential damage quickly possible disaster preparedness plans usually created reviewed consultation various stakeholders copies disaster preparedness plan kept different locations within outside museum case emergency situation prevents access museum site training important part


disaster preparedness plan ensure staff familiar contents plan understand effectively carry established protocols variety templates guides published assist cultural organisations prepare disasters ''building emergency plan'' published getty conservation institute us ''be prepared'' published heritage collections council australia made available via australian institute conservation cultural materials dplan hosted north east document conservation centre nedcc emergency preparedness response wiki prepared american institute


conservation including emergency response salvage wheel wheel previously available iphone app requires updating bit format preparation prepare disasters cultural organisations may conduct regular risk assessments identify potential dangers collection related organisational activities assessment used prepare preventive maintenance programs prevent disasters occurring response plans identified scenarios preparatory activities include creating maintaining inventory collection identifying salvage priorities different disaster scenarios developing emergency telephone contact lists identifying critical resources


preventive maintenance variety teams within cultural organisation contribute upkeep maintenance facilities management ensure gas sewage electricity water services well maintained compliant local codes maintain fire doors fire detection suppression systems check building regularly fire risks emergency access routes signposted cleared obstacles collection management teams ensure items stored manner prevent water dust pest ingress storage enclosures furniture keeps collection objects least nbsp cm floor reduce risk floodwaters environmental monitoring


regular monitoring temperature relative humidity collection spaces storage display helps identify new trends unusual occurrences example sudden increase relative humidity detected early enough may possible correct environment mould growth occurs security measures physical security systems deter potential intruders eg warning signs security lighting perimeter markings detect intrusions monitor record intruders eg intruder alarms cctv systems trigger appropriate incident responses eg security guards police ref name security engineering ref resources personnel preparedness personnel includes providing museum staff emergency training


predetermined designated responsibilities ref name emergency plan collections ref trianing may take form 'desktop' walkthroughs scenarios quizzes hands salvage practice policies procedures attempt maintain control emergency policies procedures emergency plan outline chain command prescribed team roles responsibilities documentation requirements salvage priorities plan review revision periodically museums reevaluate disaster preparedness plan account changes contact numbers locations personnel revised salvage priority lists modifications impacting institution 's prevention mitigation preparedness strategy response immediate action taken within


first hours days stabilize environment assess damage report conditions recommendations may considered 'response' phase disaster contingency communication strategies disaster preparedness plan put action welfare staff visitors primary concern emergency safety must ensured first foremost ref name buck rebecca p buck rebecca gilmore jean mrm museum registration methods washington dc aam press p ref best response executed following prescribed emergency response plan remaining safe calm acting


deliberately risk assessments recommended identify hazards health safety implement controls recovery salvage work begins example damaged structures may need stabilised safe salvage teams enter collections facilities may contaminated sewage toxic chemicals hazardous substances may electrical risks damaged exposed wiring salvage teams also need safe dry warm rest areas toilet facilities response activities may include liaising first responders fire contacting organisation 's insurance company agents available information


commencing salvage activities important part response stage helps planning reduces recovery time provides record insurance purposes reporting photographs showing dislodged objects fallen help identify later based location documentation may need carried supervision emergency services personnel especially building damaged unstable ref name emergency plan collections disaster response team use information collected discuss next steps may include establishing salvage work areas establishing personal protective equipment hazardous substances mitigation


requirements recommendations additional security controls triage protocols salvage treatments emergency response salvage wheel nine categories collections material step step recovery water damaged records air dried hanging land registration authority leyte philippines photo taken society filipino archivists' assessment technical assistance records offices affected super typhoon haiyan yolanda recovery phase begins disaster situation brought control work retrieve treat damaged collection objects begin plans developed response phase put action regularly reviewed revised


long salvage operations continue ref name autogenerated emergency response recovery section buck r gilmore j ed museum registration methods ed washington dc aam press ref salvage activities effective salvage priorities established prior commencement recovery activities even disaster even occurred priority salvage lists common component disaster preparedness plans cultural organisations may prioritise objects based value vulnerability prospects recovery triage many online resources specify stabilize care various object formats


damaged material condition activities may include protecting undamaged objects plastic sheeting packing damaged objects move offsite eg freezer become wet isolating items become mouldy retrieving broken pieces become detached setting fans dry objects become wet ref name autogenerated building recovery may occur concurrently facilities security custodial departments health safety staff visitors emergency personal remain highest priority funding recovery efforts many disaster recovery activities limited lack available resources funding strategies


raise funds included approaches existing donors 'adopt artefact' campaigns groups individuals sponsor conservation damaged objects exhibits fundraising events social media increasingly played major role fundraising mobilizing recovery efforts see also risk management collections management collections museums conservation restoration movable cultural property conservator restorer preservation library archive materials digital preservation integrated pest management disaster recovery disaster response emergency management references external links http wwwmnhsorg preserve conservation reports emergencyplanpdf minnesota historical society emergency preparedness recovery plan http wwwmnhsorg preserve conservation floodresponsehtm disaster response recovery resources links https webarchiveorg web http wwwconnectingtocollectionsorg topics prepare respond emergencies connecting collections


discussions recordings articles emergency preparation response http wwwheritagepreservationorg catalog productaspintprodid purchase ''field guide emergency response'' heritage preservation http wwwnpsgov history museum publications conserveogram cons tochtml national park service conserve grams short focused leaflets discussing prepared emergency salvage artifacts material https amagavicorgau assets conservation planpdf develop conservation plan community museum museums victoria resource outlining develop conservation disaster preparedness plans community run museums https wwwnlagovau us fellowships scholarships grants community heritage grants preservation needs preservation needs assessments details steps involved creating preservation needs assessment museum gallery national library australia preservation library archival science collections


number naval powers brought end washington naval treaty upright naval arms race united kingdom germany took place ref name british concern rapid increase german naval power resulted costly building competition ''dreadnought'' class ships tense arms race lasted war broke war new arms race developed among victorious allies temporarily ended washington naval treaty addition british germans contemporaneous smaller naval arms races also broke russia

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Arms race


armaments stockpiling vast nuclear arsenals proxy wars fought world eg middle east korea vietnam superpowers' conventional weapons pitted dissolution soviet union end cold war tensions decreased nuclear arsenal countries reduced charles glaser argues numerous cases arms races suboptimal entailed waste resources damaged political relations increased probability war hindered states accomplishing goals however arms races optimal


security seeking states situations offense defense balance favors offense declining state faces rising adversary advances technology make existing weapons obsolete power advantage existing weaponry ref name uses evolutionary arms race system two populations evolving order continuously one members population concept related red queen 's hypothesis two organisms co evolve overcome fails progress relative interactant technology close analogues


arms races parasites hosts arms race computer virus writers antivirus software writers spammers internet service providers e mail software writers generically term used describe competition absolute goal relative goal staying ahead competitors rank knowledge arms race may also imply futility competitors spend great deal time money yet neither side gaining advantage see also nuclear arms race arms control arms industry cyber arms


race ai arms race lewis fry richardson mathematical analysis war second cold war missile gap one upmanship revolution military affairs security dilemma space race weaponization artificial intelligence saint petersburg declaration references reading brose eric arms race prior armament policy '' online international encyclopedia first world war'' freie universit berlin berlin doi ie https encyclopedia onlinenet article arms race prior armament policy online intriligator michael dagobert l brito arms races lead outbreak war ''journal conflict resolution'' https wwwacsubuffaloedu fczagare psc intriligatorpdf online mitchell david f jeffrey pickering


http wwwdavidfmitchellcom uploads armsbuildups mitchellpickeringpdf arms buildups use military force cameron g thies ed ''the oxford encyclopedia foreign policy analysis'' vol new york oxford university press smith theresa clair arms race instability war ''journal conflict resolution'' german language barnet richard j ''der amerikanische r stungswahn'' reinbek rowohlt bruhn j rgen ''der kalte krieg oder die totr stung der sowjetunion'' gie en focus military terminology geopolitical rivalry technological races weapons arms trafficking


'''social anthropology''' study patterns behaviour human societies cultures dominant constituent anthropology throughout united kingdom commonwealth much europe distinguished cultural anthropology ref name ukanthrobench ref united states social anthropology commonly subsumed within cultural anthropology sociocultural anthropology comparison cultural anthropology term ''cultural'' anthropology generally applied ethnographic works holistic spirit oriented ways culture affects individual experience aim provide rounded view knowledge customs institutions

Social science
Anthropology
Social anthropology


people ''social'' anthropology term applied ethnographic works attempt isolate particular system social relations comprise domestic life economy law politics religion give analytical priority organizational bases social life attend cultural phenomena somewhat secondary main issues social scientific inquiry topics interest social anthropologists included customs economic political organization law conflict resolution patterns consumption exchange kinship family structure gender relations childbearing socialization religion present day social anthropologists also concerned issues


globalism ethnic violence gender studies transnationalism local experience emerging cultures cyberspace also help bringing opponents together environmental concerns come conflict economic developments british american anthropologists including gillian tett karen ho studied wall street provided alternative explanation financial crisis technical explanations rooted economic political theory differences among british french american sociocultural anthropologies diminished increasing dialogue borrowing theory methods social cultural anthropologists integrate two found


institutes anthropology thus formal names institutional units longer necessarily reflect fully content disciplines cover institute social cultural anthropology oxford changed name reflect change composition others social anthropology university kent became simply anthropology retain name founded long term qualitative research including intensive field studies emphasizing participant observation methods traditionally encouraged social anthropology rather quantitative analysis surveys questionnaires brief field visits typically used economists political scientists


sociologists focus practice social anthropology distinguished subjects economics political science holistic range attention gives comparative diversity societies cultures across world capacity gives discipline examine euro american assumptions differentiated sociology main methods based long term participant observation linguistic competence commitment relevance illumination provided micro studies extends beyond strictly social phenomena culture art individuality cognition many social anthropologists use quantitative


methods particularly whose research touches topics local economies demography human ecology cognition health illness specializations specializations within social anthropology shift objects study transformed new intellectual paradigms appear musicology medical anthropology examples current well defined specialities recent currently cognitive development social ethical understandings novel technologies emergent forms family new socialities modelled kinship ongoing social fall demise state socialism politics resurgent religiosity analysis audit cultures accountability subject


enlivened contributed approaches disciplines philosophy ethics phenomenology logic history science psychoanalysis linguistics ethical considerations subject ethical reflexive dimensions practitioners developed awareness sense scholars create objects study ways anthropologists may contribute processes change societies study example hawthorne effect whereby studied may alter behaviour response knowledge watched studied history social anthropology


historical roots number th century disciplines including ethnology folklore studies classics among others see history anthropology immediate precursor took shape work edward burnett tylor james george frazer late th century underwent major changes method theory period new emphasis original fieldwork long term holistic study social behavior natural settings introduction french german social theory bronislaw malinowski one important influences british social anthropology emphasized long term fieldwork anthropologists work


cages termed human zoos congolese pygmy ota benga put american anthropologist madison grant cage bronx zoo labelled missing link orangutan white race mdash grant renowned eugenicist also author ''the passing great race'' exhibitions attempts illustrate prove movement validity scientific racism whose first formulation may found arthur de gobineau 's ''an essay inequality human races'' colonial exhibition paris still


displayed kanaks new caledonia indigenous village received million visitors six months thus demonstrating popularity human zoos anthropology grew increasingly distinct natural history end th century discipline began crystallize modern form example possible tk penniman write history discipline entitled ''a hundred years anthropology'' time field dominated comparative method assumed societies passed single evolutionary process primitive


advanced non european societies thus seen evolutionary living fossils could studied order understand european past scholars wrote histories prehistoric migrations sometimes valuable often also fanciful time europeans first accurately traced polynesian migrations across pacific ocean instance although believed originated egypt finally concept race actively discussed way classify rank human beings based difference tylor frazer eb tylor th century british anthropologist eb tylor october


january james george frazer january may generally considered antecedents modern social anthropologists britain although tylor undertook field trip mexico frazer derived material comparative studies extensive reading fieldwork mainly classics literature history greece rome work early european folklorists reports missionaries travelers contemporaneous ethnologists tylor advocated strongly unilinealism form uniformity mankind tylor particular laid groundwork theories cultural diffusionism


victorian idea progress rather idea non directional multilineal cultural change proposed later anthropologists tylor also theorized origins religious beliefs human beings proposing theory animism earliest stage noting religion many components believed important belief supernatural beings opposed moral systems cosmology etc frazer scottish scholar broad knowledge classics also concerned religion myth magic comparative studies influentially numerous editions ''the golden bough'' analyzed similarities


religious belief symbolism globally neither tylor frazer however particularly interested fieldwork interested examining cultural elements institutions fit together ''the golden bough'' abridged drastically subsequent editions first malinowski british school bronislaw malinowski anthropologist london school economics toward turn th century number anthropologists became dissatisfied categorization cultural elements historical reconstructions also came seem increasingly speculative influence several younger scholars new approach came predominate among british anthropologists


concerned analyzing societies held together present synchronic analysis rather diachronic historical analysis emphasizing long term one several years immersion fieldwork cambridge university financed multidisciplinary expedition torres strait islands organized alfred cort haddon including physician anthropologist william rivers well linguist botanist specialists findings expedition set new standards ethnographic description decade half later polish anthropology student bronis aw malinowski beginning expected brief period fieldwork old


model collecting lists cultural items outbreak first world war stranded new guinea subject austro hungarian empire resident british colonial possession effectively confined new guinea several years made use time undertaking far intensive fieldwork done anthropologists classic ethnography ''argonauts western pacific'' advocated approach fieldwork became standard field getting native 's point view participant observation theoretically advocated functionalist interpretation examined


social institutions functioned satisfy individual needs main lse entrance modern social anthropology founded britain london school economics political science following world war influences include methodological revolution pioneered bronis aw malinowski 's process oriented fieldwork trobriand islands melanesia alfred radcliffe brown 's theoretical program systematic comparison based conception rigorous fieldwork structure functionalist conception durkheim sociology intellectual founders include w h r rivers c haddon whose orientation reflected contemporary ''parapsychologies'' wilhelm wundt


marcel mauss radcliffe brown published account research entitled simply ''the andaman islanders'' paid close attention meaning purpose rituals myths time developed approach known structural functionalism focused institutions societies worked balance create equilibrium social system keep functioning harmoniously contrasted malinowski 's functionalism quite different later french structuralism examined conceptual structures language symbolism malinowski radcliffe brown 's influence stemmed fact like boas actively trained students


aggressively built institutions furthered programmatic ambitions particularly case radcliffe brown spread agenda social anthropology teaching universities across british empire commonwealth late postwar period appeared string monographs edited volumes cemented paradigm british social anthropology bsa famous ethnographies include ''the nuer'' edward evan evans pritchard ''the dynamics clanship among tallensi'' meyer fortes well known edited volumes include ''african systems kinship marriage'' ''african political systems'' post world war ii trends following


world war ii sociocultural anthropology comprised fields ethnography ethnology diverged american school cultural anthropology social anthropology diversified europe challenging principles structure functionalism absorbing ideas claude l vi strauss 's structuralism followers max gluckman embracing study conflict change urban anthropology networks together many colleagues rhodes livingstone institute students manchester university collectively known manchester school took bsa new directions introduction explicitly marxist informed theory emphasis conflicts conflict resolution


attention ways individuals negotiate make use social structural possibilities period gluckman also involved dispute american anthropologist paul bohannan ethnographic methodology within anthropological study law believed indigenous terms used ethnographic data translated anglo american legal terms benefit reader association social anthropologists uk commonwealth founded britain anthropology great intellectual impact contributed erosion christianity growth cultural relativism awareness


survival primitive modern life replacement diachronic modes analysis synchronic central modern culture ref name heyck heyck thomas william american historical review vol december pp ref later edmund leach students mary douglas nur yalman among others introduced french structuralism style l vi strauss countries british commonwealth social anthropology often institutionally separate physical anthropology primatology may connected departments biology zoology


wenner gren foundation anthropological research association seeks advance anthropology europe organizing biennial conferences editing academic journal ''social anthropology anthropologies social'' departments social anthropology different universities tended focus disparate aspects field departments social anthropology exist universities around world field social anthropology expanded ways anticipated founders field example subfield structure dynamics anthropologists associated social anthropology andre beteille aleksandar boskovic edmund snow carpenter mary douglas thomas hylland eriksen e


e evans pritchard raymond firth rosemary firth meyer fortes ernest gellner stephen glazier jack goody david graeber kalb adam kuper edmund leach murray leaf claude l vi strauss alan macfarlane bronis aw malinowski siegfried frederick nadel susan visvanathan ahj prins alfred radcliffe brown audrey richards juan mauricio renold victor turner marshall sahlins philippe descola marilyn strathern hebe vessuri douglas r white eric wolf robert layton judith macdougall david macdougall see also cultural anthropology ethnology ethnosemiotics list important publications anthropology rajamandala sociology structuralism notes references http wwwqaaacuk publications informationandguidance documents anthropology pdf benchmark statement anthropology uk reading malinowski bronislaw ''the trobriand islands'' malinowski bronislaw


''argonauts western pacific'' malinowski bronislaw ''the sexual life savages north western melanesia'' malinowski bronislaw ''coral gardens magic study methods tilling soil agricultural rites trobriand islands'' leach edmund political systems highland burma london g bell leach edmund ''social anthropology'' eriksen thomas h pp nbsp ''the social science encyclopedia'' kuper adam external links http wwwkripsynet masn tiki indexphppage welcome moving anthropology student network masn website offers tutorials information subject discussion forums large link collection interested scholars


batoning piece wood '''batoning''' technique cutting splitting wood using baton sized stick mallet repeatedly strike spine sturdy knife chisel blade order drive wood similar froe used batoning method used make kindling desired forms boards slats notches practice useful obtaining dry wood inside logs purpose fire making tools tools used batoning strong fixed blade preferably full tang knife

Human physical performance and recreation


clean crosscuts grain wood technique also especially useful chopping tool available hazards care must taken avoid damage knife breakage blade common result striking spine knife angle happens broken blade become irretrievably embedded within split survival situation catastrophic see also bushcraft fire making scoutcraft survival skills woodcraft references external links firelighting materials primitive technology procedural knowledge scoutcraft simple living survival skills woodworking


'''pediatric psychology''' multidisciplinary field scientific research clinical practice attempts address psychological aspects illness injury promotion health behaviors children adolescents families pediatric health setting psychological issues addressed developmental framework emphasize dynamic relationships exist children families health delivery system whole common areas study include psychosocial development environmental factors contribute development disorder outcomes children medical conditions treating comorbid behavioral emotional components illness

Social science
Psychology
Pediatric psychology


injury promoting proper health behaviors developmental disabilities educating psychologists health professionals psychological aspects pediatric conditions advocating public policy promotes children 's health role pediatric psychologist field pediatric psychology developed address unmet needs psychological services pediatric setting field blends together several distinct areas psychology behavioral medicine health psychology developmental psychology etc roberts maddux wurtele wright pediatric psychology integrated field science practice principles psychology applied within


psychological services mental health problems appearing medical settings involves mental issues related medical conditions treatment coping related chronic acute illnesses adherence quality life pain traumatic medical stress adjustment related issues psycho social continuum school reintegration behavioral problems psychological services mental health problems without concomitant health condition programs promotion health prevention early intervention provide assistance mental retardation developmental disabilities psychological training consultation physicians public health public policy interventions illness related address


behavioral problems well settings pediatric psychologists work allows brief interventions economical time efficient collaboration health care providers allows targeted assessment interventions pediatric healthcare providers seem value work pediatric psychologists stancin perrin ramirez recently surge interest pediatricians identification care children mental health problems resulted recognition precursors mental health disorders adulthood often identified early childhood eg anda et al least children


adolescents functional impairment due diagnosed mental health substance abuse disorder us department health human services clinically significant problems may yet rise level diagnosable psychiatric disorder briggs gowan et al shortage qualified mental health clinicians especially children younger families middle low income groups minority background primary care settings provide accessible least stigmatizing resources many families concerns children 's developmental behavior


health promotion health risk health outcome quality life intervention strategies exposure experience empirically supported interventions specifically applicable pediatric psychology delivered health care settings research methods systems evaluation exposure research design issues especially pertinent pediatric psychology health services research clinical trials professional ethical legal issues pertaining children adolescents families knowledge experience issues health care delivery practice psychology medical settings rights caregivers vs children making decisions regarding medical care issues diversity experience


patients diverse ethnic cultural backgrounds well sexual orientations health care settings understanding nonmainstream health practices influenced family 's cultural religious beliefs role multiple disciplines service delivering systems experience multidisciplinary teams delivering health care services prevention family support health promotion understanding principles behavior change relate healthy development health risk behavior prevention disease adulthood social issues affecting children adolescents families exposure experience advocacy pediatric health care including social issues affect health care delivery consultant liaison


roles health care settings exposure different consultation liaison models supervised experience providing consultation disease process medical management basic understanding various diseases medical management field pediatric psychology recognizes pediatric conditions emotional psychological aspects presenting problems require integrated medical psychological interventions traditional pediatric clinical psychology could meet needs future issues pediatric psychology growing field several topics raised need addressed within field discussed delphic poll future pediatric psychology pediatric psychologists


must demonstrate viability empirical support treatment interventions requires continued efforts demonstrate improvements pediatric outcomes health quality life psychological functioning development due pediatric psychologists' efforts also requires evidence medical cost offset evidence efficacy integration clinical research practice evidence effectiveness psychological interventions decreasing societal costs related pediatric conditions must also increasingly integrate psychologist pediatric primary care setting providing mental health services directly patients primary care settings provide consultation collaborative relationships pediatricians


allied staff conduct clinically based research primary care barriers care financial reimbursement policies need changed responsibility makes changes lies within several interacting disciplines health policy makers health care institutions pediatric psychologists collaborators pediatricians several factors addressed creating non dsm categories reimbursable services eliminating behavioral health carve outs payment multidisciplinary team services developing service systems recognize complexity problems children families currently depending clinic hospital psychologist affiliated services may may


covered insurance institution 's funds reimbursement issues prevent pediatric psychologists intervening effective ways pediatric psychologists trained data analysis research efforts made demonstrate benefits pediatric psychologists pediatricians collaborating necessary reimbursements instituted http wwwnextgenmdorg archives currently research findings indicate psychological interventions decrease medical costs chiles lambert hatch future research also target patient satisfaction collaboration pediatricians psychologists clinical research practice activities emphasize importance prevention problems childhood


promotion optimal physical mental health examples concerning pediatric psychologists improved services primary care example increasing number empirically supported interventions available treatment common childhood problems appropriate treat primary care setting ie disruptive behavior disorders mood disorders non adherence medical treatments etc example lavigne colleagues compared three interventions oppositional defiant disorder odd primary care pediatric practices n randomly assigned receive nurse led psychologist led group manualized parent training treatment minimum intervention


treatment book used sustained improvements occurred three conditions however better results parents attended intervention sessions evidence primary care environments appropriate setting delivering services prevention early intervention example pediatric psychologists take lead developing interventions test effectiveness promoting vaccine acceptance knowledge children likely vaccinated short rosenthal sturm zimet example education based tutorials created pediatric psychologists improve providers' knowledge comfort addressing parents' concerns related childhood


immunizations one promising approach researched found effective ie boom nelson laugman kohrt kozinetz levi history pediatric psychology official history pediatric psychology dates society pediatric psychology established within american psychological association however origins date back early lightner witmer often considered father clinical psychology witmer spent good deal time working tandem physicians improve children 's behaviors considering roughly years witmer


however thought psychiatric settings pediatric psychology positions ref name mensh ref specific pediatric psychology anderson presented american medical association thought pediatrics child psychology work together mutually important issues apparently limited response saw growing number pediatricians fielding questions regarding parent training result president american pediatric society julius richmond suggested pediatricians hire clinical psychologists work behavioral problems children ref name routh field advanced kagan


ref name kagan ref identified number areas psychologist could help new marriage pediatrics psychology addressed psychologists' role early identification disorders interventions much like clinical child psychologist kagan believed role included wide range psychopathology wright ref name wright ref however different idea pediatric psychologists job address narrower scope suggested pediatric psychologists take behavioral approach deal issues parent training child development short term therapy ref name mesibov ref public professional momentum pediatric


psychology forged logan wright apa formed committee determine whether formal organization needed committee consisting logan wright lee salk dorothea ross discovered need would filled annual apa convention formed society pediatric psychology ref name white ref following year spp recognized affiliate apa division clinical psychology section clinical child psychology http wwwsocietyofpediatricpsychologyorg inaugural spp meeting logan wright elected first president medical schools employing psychologists pediatric settings also rise


increase demand resulted federal funding establishment national institute child health human development four years later helped fund first pediatric psychology training program university iowa ref name routh next decade spp would consider sectionhood several divisions officially becoming section division ref name white would continue grow developed division apa http wwwsocietyofpediatricpsychologyorg spp solid foundation growing membership


service psychologists surveyed selected based either serving ''journal pediatric psychology'' review board functioning director pediatric training program twenty seven pediatric psychologists participated survey top three research trends ranked time included chronic illness prevention cost benefit interventions walker personally emphasized concern parenting practices regard prevention addressing children 's emotional well walker stated prevention provides best solution ref name walker ref clinical service trends ranked order importance future included pediatric behavioral medicine effective


treatment protocols common problems role medical setting walker attempted assuage contention surrounding definition pediatric psychologists role teasing differences clinical child psychology walker noted differences lie conceptualization intervention setting intervention course treatment among others pediatric psychologists employed medical schools universities walker believed future trends would include pediatric psychologists working part multidisciplinary team hospitals health clinics ref name walker final area interest ranked training areas importance future pediatric psychologists


top three included brief treatment techniques residency model biological medical issues time pediatric psychology considered subspecialty within field clinical child psychology debating whether branch field ref name walker brief article following reception distinguished service award spp mesibov ref name mesibov ref reflected three unique special characteristics identified within field pediatric psychology specifically applauded field 's practical application tackle difficult human needs multidisciplinary approach character pediatric psychologists


worked throughout career ref name mesibov history journal newsletter development spp produced need formal communication among members field thanks work allan barclay lee salk newsletter created ref name kazak ref ''the pediatric psychology newsletter'' distributed quarterly launched gail gardner acting first editor however due spp 's limited funds early years publication ceased help growing membership generous contributions early members newsletter restarted saw


continued growth quality volume submissions newsletter resulted transition ''journal pediatric psychology'' jpp newsletter per se would emerge leadership michael roberts ref name white jpp began steady publication appointment diane willis editor professor psychology university oklahoma psychologist ou child study center served editor helping create peer review system place today expanding content published


seeing go newsletter journal ref name kazak routh began serving editor gary mesibov serving associate editor would serve two terms although still financial uncertainty several important events occurred time psychological abstracts recognized jpp also marked beginning international subscriptions requested following year apa gave jpp status division journal ref name white popularity journal continued grow common topics jpp included chronic pain hyperactivity important event however may


successful contract negotiation plenum publishing ref name kazak helped alleviate ongoing financial concerns organization third editor jpp gerald koocher served michael roberts became associate editor growth jpp evident approximately articles submitted annually publication result journal became selective acceptance rate percent furthermore partnership plenum publishing renegotiated editorial board expanding membership chronic illness continued topic de jour


applied research emerged ref name kazak michael roberts served editor associate editors included annette la greca dennis harper jan wallander roberts' leadership jpp transitioned quarterly bimonthly publication chronic pain remained theme publications publications featured grant funded research ref name kazak annette la greca followed roberts editor serving associate editors across span included wallander dennis drotar kathleen lemanek later anne kazak jpp continued steady growth papers dedicated special themes explanatory


thought biopsychosocial model heavily influenced two main issues specificity problem base rate problem ref name taylor specificity problem problem address fact one environmental stressor often associated many different disorders ref name taylor example would work stress stressed work lead hypertension however also lead coronary heart disease nearly impossible tell path taken result stress could result ref name taylor base rate problem problem


states hard predict whether presence stressor lead development disorder reason behind experiencing environmental stressor may lead developing disorder however diagnosing patient alone would result absurd amount false positives ref name taylor example would smoking cancer doctors diagnose everyone ever smoked cigarette cigar cancer would quickly become apparent ineffective diagnostic criterion many individuals would


develop lung cancer holistic method main premise biopsychosocial model cannot separate biological factors environmental factors addressing illness must view person part whole system ref name taylor system theory one best methods observe holistic model systems theory states individual exists within hierarchy subsystems eg cells person family society etc subsystems interact ref name taylor example one lose family member individual


may feel stressed turn may weaken immune system cause catch cold cold considered biological nature ie bacterium virus aided outside factors great example biopsychosocial model approaches medical conditions order effectively assess illness one must identify treat contributing factors well actual biological factors need address physical mental social needs among many others lead health psychology field


pediatric psychology origins world war ii gave way rise amount psychologists worked medical schools pediatric population doctors worked variety problems addition illnessdoctors children patients variety problems eg developmental behavioral academic patients needs families receiving adequate attention psychology clinics time ref name aylward aylward b bender j graves roberts mc historical developments trends pediatric psychology mc roberts rg steele eds handbook pediatric


psychology th ed pp new york guilford press ref meet needs pediatric patients jerome kagan requested new marriage psychology pediatrics stressing early detection psychopathology psychosocial problems understanding prenatal perinatal factors relating psychological problems also emphasized ref name aylward term pediatric psychology first used logan wright article pediatric psychologist role model defined dealing primarily children medical setting nonpsychiatric nature ref name wright wright emphasized importance group identity pediatric psychology field formal


main goals organization promote unique research clinical contributions pediatric psychology ref name schroeder ref journal pediatric psychology founded helped professional recognition field allowed clinicians teachers researchers alike exchange ideas new discoveries ref name aylward respected scholarly journal aims increase knowledge regarding children suffer acute chronic illness attempt identify resolve contributing factors order yield optimal outcomes ref name schroeder society pediatric psychology


special interest groups pediatric psychology apa division formed special interests groups sigs consist following adherence special interest group consultation liaison special interest group craniofacial special interest group complementary alternative medicine special interest group diversity special interest group epilepsy special interest group obesity special interest group pediatric bioethics special interest group pediatric cardiology special interest group pediatric gastroenterology special interest group mission sig groups promote evidence based approaches research clinical service targeting specific interest adherence self management special interest group adherence self management interest


health care utilization costs morbidity health outcomes drotar potentially effective treatments become ineffective non adherence clinical benefits received example patients fail fill new prescriptions people chronic health conditions discontinue medication within six months adherence behavioral treatments also poor example patients quit smoking provider 's request even lung conditions rate leading causes death heart disease cancer stroke chronic lower respiratory diseases see https wwwcdcgov nchs fastats lcodhtm contain behavioral related causes


refuses medical treatments implement reward system reinforce adherence treatments http wwwnextgenmdorg archives also challenging family interaction styles play role adherence particular families divorced parents may struggle communication concerning child 's illness treatment pediatric psychologists may intervene working parents find way communicate effective barriers adherence removed craniofacial special interest group craniofacial special interest groups consists members society pediatric psychology share interest craniofacial conditions ref name sig complementary alternative medicine


special interest group complementary integrative medicine special interest group forum communication discussion role cim relates advancing health well pediatric populations ref name sig consultation liaison special interest group mission consultation liaison special interest group promote discussion education research networking among pediatric psychologists provided consultation liaison services pediatric patients families pediatric consultation liaison subspecialty practice pediatric psychology represents active collaboration pediatricians pediatric psychologists according society


pediatric psychology task force report recommendations training pediatric psychologists consultation liaison roles one types experience important developing competencies pediatric psychology ref name spirito ref pediatric psychologists often consult pediatricians providers disciplines variety inpatient outpatient settings ref name drotar drotar consulting pediatricians psychological perspectives new york plentum ref working understanding various consultation models often consult educate patients families physicians health care providers school psychologists counselors teachers professionals regarding pediatric illness accompanying psychosocial issues pediatric


psychologists also act liaisons medical subspecialties provide support professionals issues related management difficult families stressful physician family interactions professional burnout bereavement negotiating stressful situations ref name spirito consultation liaison models consultation vs liaison emphasis often considered synonymous terms consultation liaison important distinctions many psychologists provide services pediatric psychologists acting consultant role directly involved patient care request referring physician service consultation arrangement relationship consultant physicians often time limited consultation services terminated


relationship often ends pediatric psychologists liaison role often involved day day workings particular hospital service unit formally embedded within department working service psychologists liaison role often involved systemic mental health concerns unit concerns referred patients ref name strain strain j consultation psychiatry g wise j r rundell eds american psychiatric publishing textbook consultation liaison psychiatry psychiatry medically ill pp washington dc american psychiatric publishing ref patient centered vs systems centered focus


consultation liaison models sometimes differentiated based whether focus services primarily patient patient centered larger system patient family must rely medical care systems centered ref name strain patient centered services primary goal evaluate patient order provide direct treatment systems centered services focus services creating change professionals requesting services make effective intervention case question well similar cases ref name strain inpatient pediatric consultation liaison inpatient pediatric consultation liaison


pediatric psychologist advises physicians medical professionals provides direct services medically hospitalized children regarding behavioral emotional familial aspects child 's illness symptoms consultation liaison psychologist 's primary role includes evaluating children families mental health concerns recommending providing treatments educating families staff referring physicians wide array factors associated adjustment medical illness injury patient interventions include teaching coping skills evaluating side effects medication helping manage physical pain addressing physical pain among others defined narrowly inpatient pediatric consultation liaison involves pediatric psychologist providing


assessment guidance pediatrician colleague regarding care specific patient broadly defined pediatric consultation liaison psychologist systems level catalyst educating empowering multiple interacting components health care system fostering responsive environment maximizes overall quality life psychological adjustment patients families research inpatient pediatric consultation liaison services studies illustrating breadth services provided pediatric consultation liaison psychologists survey children 's hospital based child psychiatry consultation liaison services shaw colleagues reported returned surveys indicated common referral concerns


consultation liaison services included patient depression anxiety suicide risk assessment medication evaluation case controlled study pediatric consultation liaison services carter colleagues matched referrals controls age gender illness type severity completed parent self report behavioral rating scales assess adjustment nurses completed hospital ratings behavioral adjustment difficulties goal attainment satisfaction ratings obtained referring physicians parents consultant results indicated referrals exhibited behavior adjustment coping difficulties nonreferrals parent nurse self report referring physician consultant ratings goal attainment


high physician ratings satisfaction parent guardian ratings overall helpfulness consultation liaison services referral sources included equal distributions hematology oncology surgery trauma pulmonology sources reasons referral included assisting children coping physical illness injury improving treatment adherence assessing treating depression anxiety teaching pain management techniques assisting parent coping helping adjustment medical diagnoses resolving family conflicts review clinical reports treatment outcome studies pediatric consultation liaison services knapp harris surveyed illness specific general investigations psychiatric care children medical


seen outpatient follow health care providers making referrals generally satisfied services pediatric consultation liaison team reported high likelihood making future referrals another study rodrigue colleagues reviewed records referrals inpatient outpatient health sciences center based pediatric psychology service university florida health sciences center majority inpatient referrals general pediatrics pediatric hematology oncology adolescent psychiatry pediatric intensive care burn unit common reason referral inpatient outpatient assessment


cognitive neuropsychological functioning next externalizing behavior problems comprehensive psychological evaluation pre surgery transplant evaluation adjustment problems chronic illness also reported retrospective survey results suggested high overall satisfaction service quality early study referral problems pediatric consultation liaison services drotar ref name drotar reported referral questions included evaluation developmental delay adaptation adjustment chronic illness physical disability concerns regarding psychological factors physical symptom presentation behavior problems managing psychological crises five c 's pediatric consultation liaison services using alliterative pneumonic device called five c 's consultation crisis


directs interventions toward normalizing patient 's family 's state emotional distress helping patient family identify concrete actions take order cope successfully coping children exposed many stressors associated acute chronic illness injury course evaluation treatment ref name harbeck harbeck weber c fisher j lo dittner c promoting coping enhancing adaptation illness c roberts ed handbook pediatric psychology rd ed pp new york guilford ref acute stressors include short lengthy medical procedures venipunctures injections hospitalizations surgeries


chemotherapy among others stressors accompanying chronic illnesses may impact child family months years even lifetime often uncertain prognosis pediatric consultation liaison psychologists need aware individual developmental factors designing interventions help children adapt stressors illness injury treatment example limited linguistic cognitive abilities limit knowledge understanding health concepts younger children thus limiting ability use internal coping resources reach external supports compared older children adolescents children 's coping styles also differ


example children attempt gather information familiarize upcoming procedures whereas others avoid discussing stressors refuse look distract stressful stimuli differences coping styles shown associated child 's adaptation surgery hospitalization lower physiological stress response child cooperation pre post surgery ref name harbeck evidence suggesting primary control strategies whereby child modifies objective situation effective employed cope stressors child control whereas secondary control strategies strategies involving child modifying emotional


behavioral reactions stressor effective uncontrollable stressors interventions facilitate child family coping often begin providing basic information education illness treatment procedures often using videotaped vivo models demonstrate use positive coping strategies teach mastery skills coping interventions include cognitive behavioral strength building interventions operant reward programs integrating parent participation evaluation mobilization family social supports assisting patient family understanding navigating medical system directive expressive medical play therapy pain anxiety management skills training sensitizing medical staff


patient needs perceptions psychopharmacological interventions compliance adherence adherence medical treatment regimens major pediatric health concern ref name lagreca la greca bearman k j adherence pediatric treatment regimens c robers ed handbook pediatric psychology rd ed pp new york guilford ref estimates nonadherence high higher children 's adherence medical regimens heavily influenced developmental well family factors medical management chronic serious pediatric illness often requires stressful role relationship changes within family require redistribution time redefinition


responsibilities impact changes far reaching affecting factors marital satisfaction parent adjustment nonadherance prescribed medical regimens result variety factors including lack education training regimen difficulty understanding procedures fearfulness anxiety interference treatment normal activities parent child dynamics among others nonadherence poor adherence medical regimens may adversely affect health pediatric patient resulting hospitalization address disease processes adherence issues nonadherence issues include failure administer medications prescribed failure


follow dietary guidelines defiance physical activity restrictions uncooperativeness medical procedures several methods might employed help patients families monitor adherence including direct observations patient 's behavior assays blood urine saliva self report health care provider ratings pill counts variety monitoring devices example blood glucose meters ref name lagreca interventions sued facilitate patient family adherence inpatient pediatric setting include providing information education teaching mastery skills behavioral management contracting removing barriers monitoring charting performance medical treatment components addressing family


health care system dynamics normalizing reframing patient 's condition altering patient family lifestyle behaviors altering expectations family health care providers coincide realistic developmental needs negotiation compromise communication pediatric consultation liaison psychologists often deal situations wherein medical staff members made referral due behavioral difficulties child family disruptive functioning hospital unit often overwhelmed bewildered point significant frustration defensiveness patient family frequently unaware referral places consultant potentially volatile


situation strong diplomatic communication skills well sensitivity patient family hospital staff issues required situations ref name brown brown r macias chronically ill children adolescents j n hughes la greca j c conoley eds handbook psychological services children adolescents pp new york oxford ref arranging coordinating staffings difficult complex cases maintaining regular presence service rounds team meetings fostering ongoing collaborative relationships hospital staff promoting ever increasing cultural sensitivity respectfully listening reframing patient


family staff behaviors facilitate understanding across parties involved pediatric consultation liaison psychologist much defuse potentially volatile situations ref name brown collaboration carter von weiss ref name carter suggest collaboration listed one five c 's cannot emphasized enough underlies potential successfulness practice four relationship pediatric psychologist referring services evolved shared goals areas research teaching service ref name drotar close collaborative relationships potential critical impact clinical care patients


families diversity special interest group diversity special interest group committed promoting diversity pediatric psychology research clinical care increasing number society pediatric psychology members diverse backgrounds providing services resources members underrepresented groups ref name sig epilepsy special interest group epilepsy special interest group 's goals increase awareness epilepsy among society pediatric psychology members foster communication support pediatric psychologists liaison american epilepsy society ref name sig obesity special interest group obesity special interest group provides education


facilitate study discussion psychosocial aspects pediatric gastroenterological conditions develop collaborative relationships among practitioners carry psychological interventions pediatric gi populations educate clinical professionals psychosocial issues may affect child adolescent gastroenterological condition ref name sig pediatric pain special interest group pediatric pain common condition childhood adolescence many pediatric psychologists research provide clinical care area specialized programs developing pediatric pain special interest group provides forum communication discussion many developments field ref name sig


modern training road becoming pediatric psychologist long consists many years training clinicians strong background psychology coming undergraduate schooling ideal prospective students take courses developmental psychology health psychology developmental psychopathology abnormal psychology many others order competitive applying graduate schools students strong background research either assistant pediatric psychology lab conducting independent studies student 's may also find beneficial acquire field


experience children order demonstrate become adept clinicians addition admission graduate school necessary relationship three psychologists order provide letters recommendation become full fledged pediatric psychologist one must obtain doctoral degree form either phd psyd clinical counseling psychology graduate training typically requires years graduate school additional year spent internship programs require completion master 's thesis others


however require students complete dissertation consisting original research doctoral program use scientist practitioner boulder model emphasizes training clinical practice research methodology psyd program likely use vail model emphasizes clinical skills much research schools provide specialization child clinical psychology health psychology supplement normal training pediatric twist ref name hommel hommel ka commentary training pediatric psychology unpublished manuscript brigham young university provo ut ref another aspect graduate


order become independently licensed state ref name hommel finally pediatric psychologists go engage clinical practice others order practice clinical psychologist one must obtain doctoral degree approved program complete required amount supervised clinical hours pass examination professional practice psychology eppp knowledgeable state regulations ref name hommel pediatric psychologists may choose become certified american board professional psychology abpp apply advanced credentials american board clinical child adolescent


psychology abccap american board clinical health psychology abchp research main goal pediatric research understand child development occurring health related issues using ecological systems framework pediatric psychologists discover ways health issues might affect children families ways promote physical health psychological adjustment pediatric health populations important issues currently addressed pediatric psychology research across various diagnoses include ref name roberts roberts mc steele rg eds handbook pediatric psychology th ed new york guilford press ref cultural diversity issues evidence based practice inpatient pediatric consultation liaison adherence treatment regimens


chronic recurrent pain management pain distress due medical procedures pharmacology psychopharmacology medical traumatic stress palliative care end life bereavement ehealth application pediatric psycho oncology common research areas pediatric psychology neonatology prematurity developmental issues pediatric asthma cystic fibrosis diabetes mellitus sickle cell disease pediatric oncology traumatic brain injury spinal cord injury central nervous system disorders eg epilepsy spina bifida juvenile idiopathic arthritis cardiovascular disease pediatric organ transplantation abdominal pain related gastrointestinal disorders eg irritable bowel syndrome inflammatory bowel disease pediatric hiv aids pediatric burns feeding vomiting problems childhood obesity eating disorders elimination disorders eg enuresis


encopresis pediatric sleep autism spectrum disorders developmental disabilities behavior problems pediatric context attention deficit hyperactivity disorder pediatric context child abuse ref name roberts injuries safety unintentional injuries leading cause disability death children teens age years children adolescents die result unintentional injury childhood diseases combined health care providers multiple opportunities provide prevention materials injury guidance simon et al found less frequent injury guidance results frequent medically linked injuries


months age research suggests counseling increases parental safety behaviors counseling tailored risk behaviors particular family effective pediatric psychology significant role play formulating implementing evaluating injury prevention efforts future research directions positive resilience factors quality life pediatric psychologists increasingly understanding applying research resilience factors protective factors researchers discovered despite psychological risk factors associated childhood chronic illnesses majority children chronic illnesses fare well peers even better


cases furthermore study health related quality life hrqol unique pediatric setting encompasses domains physical psychological social functioning directly influenced chronic illnesses researchers found pediatric cancer survivors typically report positive outcomes lower levels reported children teens diabetes cystic fibrosis asthma may due part intensity duration treatments researchers' current goal identify areas functioning relatively untouched illness treatment focus domains hrqol


increased risk prevention intervention efforts target valuable domains see also developmental psychology pediatrics community psychology references pediatrics clinical psychology


three women pillory china alt three women pillory china x px '''criminology''' latin accusation ancient greek '' logia'' ''logos'' meaning word reason study crime deviant behaviour criminology interdisciplinary field behavioural social sciences draws primarily upon research sociologists political scientists economists psychologists philosophers psychiatrists biologists social anthropologists well scholars law criminologists people working researching study crime society 's response crime criminologists examine behavioral patterns possible criminals generally criminologists conduct


research investigations developing theories analyzing empirical patterns ref name ref interests criminologists include study nature crime criminals origins criminal law etiology crime social reaction crime functioning law enforcement agencies penal institutions broadly said criminology directs inquiries along three lines first investigates nature criminal law administration conditions develops second analyzes causation crime personality criminals third studies control crime rehabilitation offenders


thus criminology includes within scope activities legislative bodies law enforcement agencies judicial institutions correctional institutions educational private public social agencies history academic criminology mid th century criminology arose social philosophers gave thought crime concepts law term ''criminology'' coined italian law professor raffaele garofalo '''' later french anthropologist paul topinard used analogous french term '''' paul topinard 's major work appeared eighteenth early nineteenth centuries scholars crime focused reform criminal law causes


described multiple factor approach golden age theory endeavored show limits systematically connecting criminological research theory period seen significant turning point criminology schools thought three main schools thought early criminological theory spanning period mid th century mid twentieth century classical positivist chicago schools thought superseded several contemporary paradigms criminology sub culture control strain labelling critical criminology cultural criminology postmodern criminology feminist criminology others discussed


classical classical school arose mid th century basis utilitarian philosophy cesare beccaria ref name beccaria cesare ref author ''on crimes punishments'' jeremy bentham inventor ''panopticon'' philosophers school argued people free choose act basis deterrence idea humans 'hedonists' seek pleasure avoid pain 'rational calculators' weigh costs benefits every action ignores possibility irrationality unconscious drives 'motivators' punishment sufficient severity deter


people crime costs penalties outweigh benefits severity punishment proportionate crime ref name beccaria cesare swift certain punishment effective deterrent criminal behaviour school developed major reform penology society began designing prisons sake extreme punishment period also saw many legal reforms french revolution development legal system united states positivist positivist school argues criminal behaviour comes internal external factors individual 's control


criminal acts people said crimes internal factors driving differs biological positivism says criminals born criminals whereas psychological perspective recognizes internal factors results external factors limited abusive parents abusive relationships drug problems etc social positivism often referred sociological positivism discusses thought process criminals produced society school claims low income levels high poverty unemployment rates poor educational systems create fuel criminals crimes criminal personality notion


criminal personality derived school thought psychological positivism essentially means parts individual 's personality traits align many possessed criminals neuroticism anti social tendencies aggressive behaviors factors evidence correlation causation personality traits criminal actions ref name ref ref name ref ref name ref ref name ref ref name ref italian cesare lombroso italian sociologist working late th century often called father criminology one key contributors biological positivism founded italian school


criminology ref name siegel p ref lombroso took scientific approach insisting empirical evidence studying crime suggested physiological traits measurements cheekbones hairline cleft palate could indicate atavistic criminal tendencies approach whose influence came via theory phrenology charles darwin 's theory evolution superseded enrico ferri student lombroso believed social well biological factors played role believed criminals held responsible factors causing criminality beyond control criminologists since rejected lombroso 's biological theories since control groups


used studies ref name siegel p ref sociological positivist sociological positivism suggests societal factors poverty membership subcultures low levels education predispose people crime adolphe quetelet used data statistical analysis study relationship crime sociological factors found age gender poverty education alcohol consumption important factors crime lance lochner performed three different research experiments one proving education reduces crime rawson w rawson used crime statistics suggest link population density crime rates crowded cities producing crime joseph fletcher john


glyde read papers statistical society london studies crime distribution henry mayhew used empirical methods ethnographic approach address social questions poverty gave studies ''london labour london poor'' mile durkheim viewed crime inevitable aspect society uneven distribution wealth differences among people differential association sub cultural differential association sub cultural posits people learn crime association theory advocated edwin sutherland focused person becomes delinquent excess definitions favorable


park burgess identified five concentric zones often exist cities grow including zone transition identified volatile subject disorder henry mckay clifford r shaw focused juvenile delinquents finding concentrated zone transition chicago school school thought developed blames social structures human behaviors thought associated used within criminology essentially takes stance defending criminals criminal behaviors defense argument lies thoughts


people acts faults actually result society ie unemployment poverty etc people actually fact behaving properly ref name chicago school sociologists adopted social ecology approach studying cities postulated urban neighborhoods high levels poverty often experience breakdown social structure institutions family schools results social disorganization reduces ability institutions control behavior creates environment ripe deviant behavior researchers suggested added social psychological link


edwin sutherland suggested people learn criminal behavior older experienced criminals may associate theoretical perspectives used criminology include psychoanalysis functionalism interactionism marxism econometrics systems theory postmodernism genetics neuropsychology evolutionary psychology etc social structure theories theory applied variety approaches within bases criminology particular sociology generally conflict theory structural conflict perspective sociology sociology crime perspective broad enough embracing diversity positions disorganization social disorganization theory based work


henry mckay clifford r shaw chicago school social disorganization theory postulates neighborhoods plagued poverty economic deprivation tend experience high rates population turnover ref name bursik ref theory suggests crime deviance valued within groups society subcultures gangs groups different values social norm neighborhoods also tend high population heterogeneity ref name bursik high turnover informal social structure often fails develop turn makes difficult maintain social order community ecology since social ecology studies built


social disorganization theories many studies found crime rates associated poverty disorder high numbers abandoned buildings signs community deterioration ref name bursik working middle class people leave deteriorating neighborhoods disadvantaged portions population may remain william julius wilson suggested poverty concentration effect may cause neighborhoods isolated mainstream society become prone violence strain strain theory also known mertonian anomie advanced american sociologist robert merton suggests mainstream culture especially united states saturated dreams


opportunity freedom prosperity merton put ''american dream'' people buy dream becomes powerful cultural psychological motivator merton also used term ''anomie'' meant something slightly different durkheim merton saw term meaning dichotomy society expected citizens citizens could actually achieve therefore social structure opportunities unequal prevents majority realizing dream dejected turn illegitimate means crime order realize


others retreat drop deviant subcultures gang members calls hobos robert agnew developed theory include types strain derived financial constraints known general strain theory subcultural following chicago school strain theory also drawing edwin sutherland 's idea differential association sub cultural theorists focused small cultural groups fragmenting away mainstream form values meanings life albert k cohen tied anomie theory sigmund freud 's reaction formation idea suggesting delinquency among lower class youths


reaction social norms middle class youth especially poorer areas opportunities scarce might adopt social norms specific places may include toughness disrespect authority criminal acts may result youths conform norms deviant subculture richard cloward lloyd ohlin suggested delinquency result differential opportunity lower class youth ref name cloward ref youths may tempted take criminal activities choosing illegitimate path provides lucrative economic benefits conventional legal options


minimum wage paying jobs available ref name cloward delinquency tends occur among lower working class males lack resources available live impoverished areas mentioned extensively albert cohen cohen bias known occur among law enforcement agencies officers tend place bias minority groups without knowing sure committed crime delinquents may also commit crimes order secure funds loved ones committing armed robbery studied many scholars briar piliavin british


sub cultural theorists focused heavily issue class criminal activities seen imaginary solutions problem belonging subordinate class study chicago school looked gangs influence interaction gang leaders observation adults sociologists raymond gastil explored impact southern culture honor violent crime rates control another approach made social bond social control theory instead looking factors make people become criminal theories try explain


people commit crime rather commit crime simple example someone wants big yacht means buy one person cannot exert self control might try get yacht means illegal way whereas someone high self control likely either wait deny want seek intelligent intermediate solution joining yacht club use yacht group consolidation resources without violating social norms social bonds peers parents


others countering effect one 's low self control families low socio economic status factor distinguishes families delinquent children delinquent control exerted parents chaperonage addition theorists david matza gresham sykes argued criminals able temporarily neutralize internal moral social behavioral constraints techniques neutralization psychoanalytic psychoanalysis psychological theory therapy regards unconscious mind repressed memories trauma key drivers behavior especially deviant behavior ref name ref sigmund freud talks unconscious


desire pain relates psychoanalysis essay ''beyond pleasure principle'' ref name freud suggested unconscious impulses repetition compulsion death drive dominate person 's creativity leading self destructive behavior phillida rosnick article ''mental pain social trauma'' posits difference thoughts individuals suffering traumatic unconscious pain corresponds thoughts feelings reflections true selves enough correlation altered state mind criminality suggest causation sander gilman article ''freud making