presence ganges river delta factory set calcutta time companies established portuguese dutch french danish similarly expanding region company 's victory robert clive battle plassey another victory battle buxar bihar consolidated company 's power forced emperor shah alam ii appoint ' 'diwan'' revenue collector bengal bihar orissa company thus became ' 'de facto'' ruler large areas lower gangetic plain also


proceeded degrees expand dominions around bombay madras anglo mysore wars anglo maratha wars left control large areas india south sutlej river defeat marathas native power represented threat company longer expansion company 's power chiefly took two forms first outright annexation indian states subsequent direct governance underlying regions collectively came comprise british india annexed regions included north western provinces comprising rohilkhand gorakhpur doab

Humanities
History
Asian history
Indian history


delhi assam ahom kingdom sindh punjab north west frontier province kashmir annexed anglo sikh wars period tenure marquess dalhousie governor general however kashmir immediately sold treaty amritsar dogra dynasty jammu thereby became princely state berar annexed along state oudh two years later ref name ludden expansion second form asserting power involved treaties indian rulers acknowledged company 's hegemony return limited internal autonomy since company operated financial constraints


set ''political'' underpinnings rule ref name brown p ref important support came ' 'subsidiary alliances'' indian princes first years company rule ref name brown p early th century territories princes accounted two thirds india ref name brown p indian ruler able secure territory wanted enter alliance company welcomed economical method indirect rule involve economic costs direct administration political costs gaining support alien subjects ref name brown ref


return company undertook defense subordinate allies treated traditional respect marks honor ref name brown subsidiary alliances created princely states hindu maharajas muslim nawabs prominent among princely states cochin jaipur travancore hyderabad mysore cis sutlej hill states central india agency cutch gujarat gaikwad territories rajputana bahawalpur ref name ludden expansion ref indian indenture system indian indenture system ongoing system indenture form debt bondage nbsp million indians transported various colonies


european powers provide labor mainly sugar plantations started end slavery continued resulted development large indian diaspora spread caribbean eg trinidad tobago pacific ocean eg fiji growth large indo caribbean indo african populations modern period independence c ce rebellion consequences indian rebellion large scale rebellion soldiers employed british east india company northern central india company 's rule spark


led mutiny issue new gunpowder cartridges enfield rifle insensitive local religious prohibition key mutineer mangal pandey ref name saul david page saul david p ''the indian mutiny'' penguin books ref addition underlying grievances british taxation ethnic gulf british officers indian troops land annexations played significant role rebellion within weeks pandey 's mutiny dozens units indian army joined peasant armies widespread rebellion rebel soldiers later joined indian nobility many


lost titles domains doctrine lapse felt company interfered traditional system inheritance rebel leaders nana sahib rani jhansi belonged group outbreak mutiny meerut rebels quickly reached delhi rebels also captured large tracts north western provinces awadh oudh notably awadh rebellion took attributes patriotic revolt british presence however british east india company mobilised rapidly assistance friendly princely states


took british remainder better part suppress rebellion due rebels poorly equipped outside support funding brutally subdued british aftermath power transferred british east india company british crown began administer india number provinces crown controlled company 's lands directly considerable indirect influence rest india consisted princely states ruled local royal families officially


princely states actual state governments three large mysore hyderabad kashmir absorbed independent nation british raj colonial government strengthened expanded infrastructure via court system legal procedures statutes indian penal code came education thomas babington macaulay made schooling priority raj famous minute february succeeded implementing use english medium instruction indians matriculated indian economy


british lord curzon split large province bengal largely hindu western half eastern bengal assam largely muslim eastern half british goal said efficient administration people bengal outraged apparent divide rule strategy also marked beginning organised anti colonial movement liberal party britain came power removed bengal reunified new viceroy gilbert minto new secretary state india john morley consulted


congress leaders political reforms morley minto reforms provided indian membership provincial executive councils well viceroy 's executive council imperial legislative council enlarged members separate communal representation muslims established dramatic step towards representative responsible government several socio religious organisations came time muslims set india muslim league mass party designed protect interests aristocratic muslims internally divided conflicting loyalties islam


british india distrust hindus akhil bharatiya hindu mahasabha rashtriya swayamsevak sangh rss sought represent hindu interests though latter always claimed cultural organisation sikhs founded shiromani akali dal however largest oldest political party indian national congress founded attempted keep distance socio religious movements identity politics indian renaissance bengali renaissance refers social reform movement nineteenth early twentieth centuries bengal region indian subcontinent period british rule dominated


bengali hindus historian nitish sengupta describes renaissance started reformer humanitarian raja ram mohan roy ended asia 's first nobel laureate rabindranath tagore flowering religious social reformers scholars writers described historian david kopf one creative periods indian history period bengal witnessed intellectual awakening way similar renaissance movement questioned existing orthodoxies particularly respect women marriage dowry system caste system religion one earliest social movements


emerged time young bengal movement espoused rationalism atheism common denominators civil conduct among upper caste educated hindus played important role reawakening indian minds intellect across indian subcontinent famines company rule india british raj famines india worst ever recorded famines often resulting crop failures due el ni exacerbated destructive policies colonial government ref name davis included great famine nbsp million nbsp million people died great bengal


famine million people died indian famine nbsp million people died ref name davis davis mike ''late victorian holocausts'' verso p ref bengal famine million people died third plague pandemic mid th century killed nbsp million people india million indians died british rule despite persistent diseases famines population indian subcontinent stood nbsp million reached nbsp million world war world war


volunteered army volunteered non combat roles compared pre war annual recruitment men army saw action western front within month start war first battle ypres year front line duty sickness casualties reduced indian corps point withdrawn nearly indians fought turks mesopotamian campaign indian formations also sent east africa egypt gallipoli indian army imperial service troops fought


lives fighting world war afghan wars commemorated india gate world war ii british india officially declared war nazi germany september ref name kux ref british raj part allied nations sent two half million volunteer soldiers fight british command axis powers additionally several indian princely states provided large donations support allied campaign war india also provided base american operations support china china burma india theatre indians fought distinction throughout world


including european theatre germany north africa germany italy italians east africa middle east vichy french south asian region defending india japanese fighting japanese burma indians also aided liberating british colonies singapore hong kong japanese surrender august soldiers subcontinent died world war ii indian national congress denounced nazi germany would fight anyone else india independent congress launched quit india movement


army mohan singh dissolved ina fought japanese direction mostly burma ref name fayviiii ref bose also headed provisional government free india azad hind government exile based singapore ref name sarkar ref government azad hind currency court civil code eyes indians existence gave greater legitimacy independence struggle british neighbouring burma invaded japan already captured indian territory andaman nicobar islands japan gave nominal control islands provisional government


free india october following march indian national army help japan crossed india advanced far kohima nagaland advance mainland indian subcontinent reached farthest point indian territory retreating battle kohima june imphal july region bengal british india suffered devastating famine estimated million died famine frequently characterised man made sources asserting wartime colonial policies exacerbated


crisis indian independence movement year publisher cambridge university press isbn page quote first modern nationalist movement arise non european empire one became inspiration many others indian congress ref file surya sen jpg surya sen leader chittagong armoury raid raid april armoury police auxiliary forces chittagong bengal bangladesh file bhagat singh 's execution lahore tribune front pagejpg front page ''tribune'' march reporting execution bhagat singh rajguru sukhdev british murder year old police officer j p saunders bhagat


th century rise indian nationalism ref name modern india bipin chandra p ''modern india'' bipin chandra p ref leading indians seek first self rule later complete independence however historians divided causes rise probable reasons include clash interests indian people british interests ref name modern india bipin chandra p racial discriminations revelation india 's past first step toward indian self rule appointment councillors advise british viceroy first indian appointed provincial councils indian members also set


councillors' participation subsequently widened legislative councils british built large british indian army senior officers british many troops small minority groups gurkhas nepal sikhs ref name business standard ref civil service increasingly filled natives lower levels british holding senior positions bal gangadhar tilak indian nationalist leader declared swaraj destiny nation popular sentence swaraj birthright shall ref name google ref became source inspiration indians tilak backed rising


public leaders like bipin chandra pal lala lajpat rai held point view notably advocated swadeshi movement involving boycott imported items use indian made goods triumvirate popularly known lal bal pal india 's three big provinces maharashtra bengal punjab shaped demand people india 's nationalism congress split two factions radicals led tilak advocated civil agitation direct revolution overthrow british empire abandonment things british moderates led


leaders like dadabhai naoroji gopal krishna gokhale hand wanted reform within framework british rule ref name india ''india 's struggle independence'' chandra bipan mridula mukherjee aditya mukherjee sucheta mahajan kn panikkar new delhi penguin books ref partition bengal increased revolutionary movement indian independence disenfranchisement lead take violent action british adopted carrot stick approach recognition india 's support first world war response renewed nationalist demands means achieving proposed measure later


enshrined government india act introduced principle dual mode administration diarchy elected indian legislators appointed british officials shared power colonel reginald dyer ordered troops fire weapons peaceful protestors including unarmed women children resulting jallianwala bagh massacre led non cooperation movement massacre decisive episode towards end british rule india leaders mahatma gandhi began highly popular mass movements campaign british raj using largely peaceful


methods gandhi led independence movement opposed british rule using non violent methods like non co operation civil disobedience economic resistance however revolutionary activities british rule took place throughout indian subcontinent others adopted militant approach like hindustan republican association founded chandrasekhar azad bhagat singh sukhdev thapar others sought overthrow british rule armed struggle government india act major success regard ref name india india azad muslim conference gathered delhi april voice support independent united india ref


name qasmirobb ref members included several islamic organisations india well nationalist muslim delegates ref name haq ref ref name ahmed ref ref name ali ref pro separatist india muslim league worked try silence nationalist muslims stood partition india often using intimidation coercion ref name ahmed ref name ali murder india azad muslim conference leader allah bakhsh soomro also made easier pro separatist india muslim league demand creation pakistan ref name ali world war ii c ref january several mutinies broke armed services starting


raf servicemen frustrated slow repatriation britain mutinies came head mutiny royal indian navy bombay february followed others calcutta madras karachi mutinies rapidly suppressed also early new elections called congress candidates eight eleven provinces late labour government decided end british rule india early announced intention transferring power later june participating formation interim government along desire


independence tensions hindus muslims also developing years muslims always minority within indian subcontinent prospect exclusively hindu government made wary independence inclined mistrust hindu rule resist foreign raj although gandhi called unity two groups astonishing display leadership muslim league leader muhammad ali jinnah proclaimed august direct action day stated goal highlighting peacefully demand muslim homeland british india


resulted outbreak cycle violence would later called great calcutta killing august communal violence spread bihar muslims attacked hindus noakhali bengal hindus targeted muslims garhmukteshwar united provinces muslims attacked hindus rawalpindi march hindus attacked driven muslims literacy india grew slowly independence acceleration rate literacy growth occurred period independence partition c present


muslims moving newly created nations india pakistan gained independence august respectively ref name symonds bangladesh formerly east pakistan east bengal seceded pakistan ref name raghavan ref historiography recent decades four main schools historiography historians study india cambridge nationalist marxist subaltern common orientalist approach image sensuous inscrutable wholly spiritual india died serious scholarship cambridge school led anil seal gordon johnson richard gordon david washbrook downplays ideology however school


historiography criticised western bias eurocentrism ref name google ref nationalist school focused congress gandhi nehru high level politics highlighted mutiny war liberation gandhi 's 'quit india' begun defining historical events school historiography received criticism elitism marxists focused studies economic development landownership class conflict precolonial india deindustrialisation colonial period marxists portrayed gandhi 's movement device bourgeois elite harness popular potentially revolutionary forces ends


marxists accused much ideologically influenced subaltern school begun ranajit guha gyan prakash focuses attention away elites politicians history looking peasants using folklore poetry riddles proverbs songs oral history methods inspired anthropology focuses colonial era typically emphasises caste downplays class annoyance marxist school recently hindu nationalists created version history support demands ''hindutva'' 'hinduness' indian society school thought


still process development march diana l eck professor comparative religion indian studies harvard university authored book ''india sacred geography'' idea india dates much earlier time british mughals cluster regional identities ethnic racial see also adivasi early indians economic history india history republic india foreign relations india indian maritime history linguistic history india military history india outline ancient india taxation


medieval india cambridge history india timeline indian history references notes citations sources printed sources reading general basham al ed ''the illustrated cultural history india'' oxford university press buckland ce ''dictionary indian biography'' pp https archiveorg details bub gb inftmns cryc full text chakrabarti dk india archaeological history palaeolithic beginnings early historic foundations dharma kumar meghnad desai eds ''the cambridge economic history india volume c c '' nd ed pp scholarly articles fisher michael ''an environmental history india earliest times twenty first century'' cambridge


guha ramachandra ''india gandhi history world 's largest democracy'' pp since james lawrence ''raj making unmaking british india'' https archiveorg details raj lawr online khan yasmin ''the raj war people 's history india 's second world war'' also published ''india war subcontinent second world war'' https wwwamazoncom gp product excerpt india war subcontinent second world war khan yasmin ''the great partition making india pakistan'' n ed yale https wwwamazoncom great partition making india pakistan dp x excerpt mcleod john ''the history india'' https booksgooglecom booksid dawmupho eac excerpt


british india chronology'' https booksgooglecom booksid es x u g uc excerpt riddick john f ''who british india'' entries https booksgooglecom booksid li uaqaaiaaj excerpt rothermund dietmar '' https archiveorg details economichistoryo roth economic history india pre colonial times '' sharma rs ''india 's ancient past'' oxford university press sarkar sumit ''modern india '' singhal dp ''a history indian people'' smith vincent ''the oxford history india'' rd ed old fashioned spear percival ''a history india'' volume penguin books first published stein burton ''a history india'' thapar romila ''early india origins


pp nbsp https wwwquestiacom pmqsta online primary highly detailed description india online resources india


nurses protesting nurses' protest trafalgar square uk saturday september '''medical sociology''' sociological analysis medical organizations institutions production knowledge selection methods actions interactions healthcare professionals social cultural rather clinical bodily effects medical practice field commonly interacts sociology knowledge science technology studies social epistemology medical sociologists also interested qualitative experiences patients often working boundaries public health social work demography gerontology explore phenomena

Social science
Sociology
Medical sociology


silverman phil strong bernice pescosolido carl may anne rogers anselm strauss renee fox joseph w schneider field medical sociology usually taught part wider sociology clinical psychology health studies degree course dedicated master 's degree courses sometimes combined study medical ethics bioethics britain sociology introduced medical curriculum following goodenough report medicine 'social explanations' aetiology disease meant doctors redirection medical thought purely clinical psychological criteria illness


introduction 'social' factors medical explanation strongly evidenced branches medicine closely related community social medicine later general practice history samuel w bloom argues study medical sociology long history tended done one advocacy response social events rather field study cites publication sanitary conditions labouring population great britain good example research medical sociology included element social science studying social


assa period starting american historical association american sociological society formed ref name russell sage foundation formed large philanthropic organization worked closely american sociological society medical sociology primary focus suggested policy reform ref name bloom argues presidency donald r young professor sociology started significiant development medical sociology ref name young motivated desire legitimize sociology encouraged esther lucile brown anthropologist studied


medical sociology tries conceptualize social interactions ref name ref investigating study social interactions used medicine however two fields different training career paths titles funding publication ref name rose callard argued distinction may arbitrary ref name strauss argued important maintain independence medical sociology medicine different persepctive sociology separate aims medicine ref name strauss feared medical sociology started adopt goals expected


medicine risked losing focus analysing society fears echoed since reid gold timmermans ref name rosenfeld argues study sociology focused solely making recommendations medicine limited use theory building findings cease apply different social situations ref name richard boulton argues medical sociology social medicin co produced sense social medicine responds conceptualization medical practices medical sociology alters medical practice medical understanding response effects changes analyzed


medical sociology ref name argues tendency view certain theories scientific method positivism basis knowledge conversely tendency view knowledge associated activity risk undermining field medical sociology ref name medical anthropology peter conrad notes medical anthropology studies phenomena medical sociology argues medical anthropology different origins originally studying medicine within non western cultures using different methodologies ref name ref argues convergence disciplines medical sociology started


sick person exempt normal social roles responsible condition try get well seek technically competent people help ref name concept sick role critiqued sociologists neo marxist phenomonological social interactionist perspective well anti establishment viewpoint ref name ref burnham argues part criticism rejection functionalism due associations conservatism sick role fell favour ref name labelling theory labelling


theory derived work howard becker studied sociology marijuana use argued norms deviant behaviour partly result definitions applied others eliot freidson applied concepts illness ref name labelling theory separates aspects individuals behaviour caused illness caused application label freidson distinguished labels based legitimacy degree legitimacy affected individuals responsibilities ref name labelling theory criticized ground explain


behaviours labelled deviant people engage behaviours labelled deviant labelling theory complete theory deviant behaviour ref name doctor patient relationship doctor patient relationship social interactions healthcare providers interact studied medical sociology different models interaction patient doctor may less prevalent different times one model medical consumerism partly given way patient consumerism medical paternalism medical paternalism perspective


doctors want best patient must take decisions behalf patient patient competent make decisions parsons argued though asymmetry knowledge power doctor patient relationship medical system provided sufficient safeguards protect patient justifying paternalistic role doctor medical system ref name ref system medical paternalism prominent following second world war mid freidson writing referred medicine professional dominance determining work


defining conceptualization problems brought best solutions ref name yeyoung oh nelson argues system paternalism part undermined organizational change following decades us whereby insurance companies managers pharmaceutical industry started competing role conceptualizing delivering medical services part motive cost saving ref name bioethics bioethics studies ethical concern medical treatment research many scholars believe bioethics arose due perceived lack accountability medical profession field


'''industrial organizational psychology''' '''i psychology''' applied discipline within psychology science human behavior pertains work psychology also known occupational psychology organizational psychology work psychology industrial work organizational psychology iwo broader global term field applied field discipline involves research practice psychologists apply psychological theories principles organizations individuals within psychologists trained scientist practitioner model contribute organization 's success improving recruitment job performance motivation job

Social science
Psychology
Occupational psychology


psychology international found throughout industrialized world north america term used united kingdom field known occupational psychology occupational psychology uk one nine protected titles within practitioner psychologist professions profession regulated health care professions council uk graduate programs psychology including occupational psychology accredited british psychological society australia title organizational psychologist protected law regulated australian health practitioner regulation agency ahpra organizational psychology one


us uk australia germany netherlands eastern european countries romania roots psychology trace back nearly beginning psychology science wilhelm wundt founded one first psychological laboratories leipzig germany mid ndash wundt trained two psychologists hugo nsterberg james mckeen cattell went major influence emergence psychology world war impetus development field simultaneously uk us instead viewing performance differences human errors cattell


one first recognize importance differences among individuals way better understanding work behavior walter dill scott contemporary cattell elected president american psychological association apa arguably prominent psychologist time scott along walter van dyke bingham worked carnegie institute technology developing methods selecting training sales personnel industrial side psychology originated research individual differences assessment prediction work performance industrial psychology crystallized world


war response need rapidly assign new troops duty scott bingham volunteered help testing placement million us army recruits together prominent psychologists adapted well known intelligence test stanford binet designed testing one individual time make suitable group testing new test called army alpha war growing industrial base us source momentum called industrial psychology private industry set


emulate successful testing army personnel mental ability testing soon became commonplace work setting organizational side field focused employee behavior feelings well world war uk government 's interest worker productivity munitions factories charles myers studied worker fatigue well ref name myers myers c industrial psychology great britain london jonathan cape ref following war elton mayo found rest periods improved morale reduced turnover philadelphia textile factory later joined ongoing hawthorne studies became interested workers' emotions


informal relationships affected productivity results studies ushered human relations movement world war ii brought renewed interest ability testing us military needed accurately place recruits new technologically advanced jobs also concern morale fatigue war industry workers arthur kornhauser examined impact productivity hiring mentally unstable workers ref name zickar zickar j remembering arthur kornhauser industrial psychology advocate worker well ''journal applied psychology '' doi ref kornhauser also examined link industrial working conditions worker mental health well


spillover worker 's personal life unsatisfying job ref name bowling k bowling k eschleman j wang q meta analytic examination relationship job satisfaction subjective well ''journal occupational organizational psychology'' ref ref name liljegren liljegren ekberg k job mobility predictor health burnout ''journal occupational organizational psychology'' ref zickar noted kornhauser 's contemporaries favored management kornhauser largely alone interest protecting workers ref name zickar vinchur koppes observed psychologists' interest job stress


relatively recent development p industrial psychology division former american association applied psychology became division within apa becoming division apa initially called industrial business psychology division ref name kopes kopes l l brief history society industrial organizational psychology accessed june http wwwsioporg history historyaspx ref name changed industrial psychology division renamed time division industrial organizational psychology unit become independent apa name changed


time society industrial organizational psychology ref name kopes name change division industrial psychology industrial organizational psychology reflected shift work industrial psychologists originally addressed work behavior individual perspective examining performance attitudes individual workers work became broader group behavior workplace became worthy subject study ref name kopes emphasis organizational underlined fact individual joins organization eg organization hired exposed


common goal common set operating procedures uk references occupational psychology became common references psychology according bryan vinchur organizational psychology increased popularity research practice traditional areas industrial psychology continued primarily driven employment legislation case law ref name bryan bryan l l k vinchur j history industrial organizational psychology kozlowski w j ed ''the oxford handbook organizational psychology'' pp new york oxford university press ref sup p sup focus


fairness validity selection efforts well job analyses undergirded selection instruments example psychology showed increased interest behaviorally anchored rating scales ref name bryan critics psychology accused discipline responsive concerns management ref name bryan changes psychology took place researchers increasingly adopted multi level approach attempting understand behavioral phenomena level organization level individual worker ref name bryan also increased interest


needs expectations employees individuals example emphasis organizational justice psychological contract took root well traditional concerns selection training ref name bryan methodological innovations eg meta analyses structural equation modeling adopted passage american disabilities act parallel legislation elsewhere world psychology saw increased emphasis fairness personnel decisions ref name bryan training research relied increasingly advances educational psychology cognitive science ref name bryan research methods described psychologists trained scientist practitioner model


psychologists rely variety methods conduct organizational research study designs employed psychologists include surveys experiments quasi experiments observational studies psychologists rely diverse data sources including human judgments historical databases objective measures work performance eg sales volume questionnaires surveys reliable measures strong evidence construct validity developed assess wide variety job relevant constructs researchers employ quantitative statistical methods quantitative methods used psychology include correlation multiple regression analysis variance advanced statistical methods employed research include logistic regression


structural equation modeling hierarchical linear modeling hlm also known multilevel modeling researchers also employed meta analysis psychologists also employ psychometric methods including methods associated classical test theory generalizability theory item response theory irt psychologists also employed qualitative methods largely involve focus groups interviews case studies psychologists conducting research organizational culture employed ethnographic techniques participant observation qualitative technique associated psychology flanagan 's critical incident technique psychologists also coordinated use quantitative qualitative methods study topics job analysis


job analysis encompasses number different methods including limited interviews questionnaires task analysis observation job analysis primarily involves systematic collection information job task oriented job analysis involves assessment duties tasks competencies job requires contrast worker oriented job analysis involves examination knowledge skills abilities characteristics ksaos required successfully perform work information obtained job analyses used many purposes including creation job relevant selection procedures development criteria performance appraisals conducting performance appraisals


hired individuals promoted within organization common selection tools include ability tests eg cognitive physical psycho motor knowledge tests personality tests structured interviews systematic collection biographical data work samples psychologists must evaluate evidence regarding extent selection tools predict job performance personnel selection procedures usually validated ie shown job relevant personnel selection using one following types validity content validity construct validity criterion related validity psychologists must adhere professional standards personnel selection efforts siop eg ''principles validation


use personnel selection procedures'' apa together national council measurement education eg ''standards educational psychological testing'' sources standards equal employment opportunity commission 's ''uniform guidelines'' also influential guiding personnel selection decisions meta analysis selection methods found general mental ability best overall predictor job performance attainment training performance appraisal management performance appraisal performance evaluation process individual 's group 's work behaviors outcomes assessed managers' others' expectations job ref name miner miner j b


job often psychologist would responsible training organizational personnel use performance appraisal instrument including ways minimize bias using rating scale provide effective performance feedback individual assessment psychometrics individual assessment involves measurement individual differences psychologists perform individual assessments order evaluate differences among candidates employment well differences among employees ref name u anastasi urbina ''psychological testing'' th ed upper saddle river new jersey prentice hall ref constructs measured pertain job performance candidates employment individual assessment


implications organizational performance emotions job stress evokes example job stressor conflict supervisor precipitate anger turn motivates counterproductive workplace behaviors ref name spector fox spector p e fox stressor emotion model counterproductive work behavior fox spector p e eds ''counterproductive workplace behavior investigations actors targets'' pp washington dc american psychological association ref number prominent models job stress developed explain job stress process including person environment p e fit model developed university


michigan social psychologists demand control support effort reward imbalance models developed sociologists research also examined occupational stress specific occupations including police general practitioners dentists another concern relation occupational stress family life researchers examined gender differences leadership style job stress strain context male female dominated industries unemployment related distress occupational stress also linked lack fit people jobs occupational safety accidents safety workplace important serious injuries


fatalities common ref name barling frone barling j frone r occupational injuries setting stage barling j frone r eds ''the psychology workplace safety'' pp washington dc american psychological association ref research linked accidents psychosocial factors workplace including overwork leads fatigue workplace violence working night shifts stress audits help organizations remain compliant various occupational safety regulations psychosocial hazards affect musculoskeletal disorders ref name barling frone ref name sprigg c sprigg c stride c b wall holman j smith p r


work characteristics musculoskeletal disorders mediating role psychological strain study call center employees ''journal applied psychology'' ref psychosocial factor related accident risk safety climate refers employees' perceptions extent work organization prioritizes safety contrast psychosocial safety climate refers management 's policies practices procedures aimed protecting workers' psychological health research safety leadership also relevant understanding employee safety performance research suggests safety oriented transformational leadership associated positive safety climate safe worker practices workplace bullying aggression


violence psychologists concerned related topics workplace bullying aggression violence example research found exposure workplace violence elicited ruminative thinking ruminative thinking associated poor well research found interpersonal aggressive behaviour associated worse team performance relation psychology occupational health psychology new discipline occupational health psychology ohp emerged health psychology ''and'' psychology well occupational medicine ref name everly everly gs jr introduction occupational health psychology pa keller lg ritt eds ''innovations clinical practice


source book'' vol pp sarasota fl professional resource exchange ref ref name schonfeld schonfeld chang c h ''occupational health psychology work stress health'' new york springer publishing company ref ref name spector https paulspectorcom occupational health psychology spector p occupational health psychology ref ohp concerns topic areas impact occupational stressors mental physical health health impact involuntary unemployment violence bullying workplace psychosocial factors influence accident risk safety work family balance interventions designed improve protect worker health ref name schonfeld ref name houdmont houdmont j leka


introduction occupational health psychology leka j houdmont eds ''occupational health psychology'' pp john wiley hoboken nj ref spector observed one problems facing psychologists late century interested health working people resistance within field publishing papers worker health ref name spector century psychologists joined ohp colleagues disciplines researching work health work design work design concerns content organisational one 's work tasks activities relationships responsibilities research


demonstrated work design important implications individual employees eg level engagement job strain chance injury teams eg effectively teams co ordinate activities organisations eg productivity safety efficiency targets society eg whether nation utilises skills population promotes effective aging psychologists review job tasks relationships individual 's way thinking work ensure roles meaningful motivating thus creating greater productivity job satisfaction deliberate interventions aimed altering work design sometimes referred ''work redesign'' interventions initiated


management organization eg job rotation job enlargement job enrichment individual workers eg job crafting role innovation idiosyncratic ideals remuneration compensation compensation includes wages salary bonuses pension retirement contributions employee benefits converted cash replace living expenses psychologists may asked conduct job evaluation purpose determining compensation levels ranges psychologists may also serve expert witnesses pay discrimination cases disparities pay similar work alleged employees training training evaluation training involves systematic teaching skills


concepts attitudes results improved performance another environment ref name goldstein l goldstein l ford j k ''training organizations needs assessment development evaluation'' th ed belmont california wadsworth ref many people hired job already versed tasks job requires training may needed help individual perform job effectively evidence indicates training often effective succeeds terms higher net sales gross profitability per employee similar performance management see psychologist would employ job analysis


concert application principles instructional design create effective training program training program likely include summative evaluation conclusion order ensure trainees met training objectives perform target work tasks acceptable level kirkpatrick describes four levels criteria evaluate training reactions extent trainees enjoyed training found worthwhile learning knowledge skill trainees acquired training behavior change behavior trainees exhibit job


trainingfor example perform trained tasks quickly results effect change knowledge behavior job example overall productivity increased costs decreased training programs often include formative evaluations assess effect training training proceeds formative evaluations used locate problems training procedures help psychologists make corrective adjustments training ongoing foundation training programs learning learning outcomes organized three broad categories cognitive skill based affective outcomes cognitive training aimed instilling declarative knowledge


knowledge rules facts principles eg police officer training covers laws court procedures skill based training aims impart procedural knowledge eg skills needed use special tool technical skills eg understanding workings software program affective training concerns teaching individuals develop specific attitudes beliefs predispose trainees behave certain way eg show commitment organization appreciate diversity needs assessment analysis corporate individual goals often undertaken prior development training program addition careful needs analysis required order


develop systematic understanding training needed taught trained ref name goldstein l training needs analysis typically involves three step process includes organizational analysis task analysis person analysis organizational analysis examination organizational goals resources well organizational environment results organizational analysis help determine training directed analysis identifies training needs different departments subunits systematically assesses manager peer technological support transfer training organizational analysis also


takes account climate organization subunits example climate safety emphasized throughout organization subunits organization eg production training needs likely reflect emphasis safety task analysis uses results job analysis determine needed successful job performance contributing training content organizations increasingly trying identify core competencies required jobs task analysis also include assessment competencies person analysis identifies individuals within organization receive training


kind instruction need employee needs assessed using variety methods identify weaknesses training address motivation workplace work motivation reflects energy individual applies initiate work related behavior determine form direction intensity duration ref name pinder pinder c c ''work motivation organizational behavior'' nd ed new york psychology press ref understanding motivates organization 's employees central psychology motivation generally thought theoretical construct fuels behavior incentive anticipated reward thought incline person


direction intensity arousal initiates action often fueled person 's need desire something missing life either totally partially direction refers path employees take accomplishing goals set intensity amount energy employees put goal directed work performance level intensity often reflects importance difficulty goal psychological processes involve four factors first motivation serves direct attention focusing particular issues people tasks etc second serves stimulate effort third motivation


influences persistence finally motivation influences choice application task related strategies ref name mitchell organizational climate organizational climate perceptions employees important organization behaviors encouraged versus discouraged assessed individual employees climate perceptions averaged across groups employees within department organization organizational climate climates usually focused specific employee outcomes called climate something dozen types climates assessed studied popular include customer service climate


emphasis placed providing good service shown relate employee service performance diversity climate extent organizations value differences among employees expect employees treat everyone respect linked job satisfaction psychosocial safety climate climates make employees emphasize psychological safety meaning people feel free express views without fear criticized ridiculed safety climate organizations emphasize safety fewer accidents injuries climate concerns organizational policies practices encourage discourage specific behaviors employees shared perceptions


culture eg loyalty customer service basic beliefs assumptions include individuals' impressions trustworthiness supportiveness organization often deeply ingrained within organization 's culture addition overall culture organizations also subcultures ref name khatib ref subcultures departmental eg different work units defined geographical distinction ref name khatib single type organizational culture researchers developed models describe different organizational cultures group behavior group behavior involves interactions among individuals collective group research teams group people


characteristics fundamentally influences teamwork team composition considered selection management teams increase likelihood team success achieve high quality results teams built members higher skill levels likely effective teams built around members lesser skills teams include members diversity skills also likely show improved team performance ref name barrick barrick r stewart l neubert j mount k relating member ability personality work team processes team effectiveness ''journal applied psychology'' ref team


members also compatible terms personality traits values work styles ref name barrick substantial evidence personality traits values shape nature teamwork influence team performance team task design fundamental question team task design whether task even appropriate team tasks require predominantly independent work best left individuals team tasks include tasks consist primarily interdependent work ref name jex jex britt w ''organizational psychology'' hoboken new jersey wiley ref given task


p futrell work teams applications effectiveness ''american psychologist'' ref provide resources teams operating multi team environment chartering new teams organizational enabling resources first identified examples enabling resources include facilities equipment information training leadership ref name jex team specific resources eg budgetary resources human resources typically made available team specific human resources represent individual contributors selected team members intra team processes eg task design task assignment involve team specific resources teams also function dynamic multi team environments teams often must respond shifting organizational contingencies


contingencies affecting teams include constraints arising conditions organizational resources exclusively earmarked certain teams resources scarce must shared multiple teams team rewards organizational reward systems drive strengthening enhancing individual team member efforts efforts contribute towards reaching team goals words rewards given individual team members contingent upon performance entire team ref name sun several design elements needed enable organizational reward systems operate successfully first collective assessment appropriate individual team members


group 's tasks must highly interdependent case individual assessment appropriate team assessment second individual level reward systems team level reward systems must compatible example would unfair reward entire team job well done one team member work team member would likely view teams teamwork negatively would want work team future third organizational culture must created supports rewards employees believe value


teamwork maintain positive attitude towards team based rewards team goals goals potentially motivate team members goals contain three elements difficulty acceptance specificity difficult goal conditions teams committed members tend outperform teams less committed members team members commit team goals team effectiveness function supportive members goals individual team members team goals interact team individual goals must coordinated individual goals must consistent team goals order team effective job satisfaction


commitment job satisfaction often thought reflect extent worker likes job individual aspects facets jobs one heavily researched topics psychology job satisfaction theoretical practical utility field linked important job outcomes including attitudinal variables eg job involvement organizational commitment absenteeism turnover intentions actual turnover job performance tension meta analyses found job satisfaction related life satisfaction happiness positive affect absence negative affect productive behavior productive behavior defined


employee behavior contributes positively goals objectives organization ref name jex employee begins new job transition period may contribute significantly assist transition employee typically requires job related training financial terms productive behavior represents point organization begins achieve return investment made new employee ref name jex io psychologists ordinarily focused productive behavior job task performance including role ''and'' extra role performance role performance tells managers


well employee performs required aspects job extra role performance includes behaviors necessarily required job nonetheless contribute organizational effectiveness taking role extra role performance account psychologist able assess employees' effectiveness well hired efficiency outputs relative inputs productivity much help organization reach goals three forms productive behavior io psychologists often evaluate include job performance organizational citizenship behavior see innovation ref name jex job performance job performance represents behaviors employees engage


effectiveness costs involved achieving results productivity results achieved period time efficiency value organization places given level performance effectiveness productivity efficiency utility ref name jex model job performance researchers attempted define set dimensions common jobs using common set dimensions provides consistent basis assessing performance enables comparison performance across jobs performance commonly broken two major categories role technical aspects job extra role non technical abilities communication


skills good team member distinction behavior challenged commonly made employees management ref name vandynelepine van dyne lepine helping voice extra role behaviors evidence construct predictive validity ''the academy management journal'' vol february pp ref model performance campbell breaks performance role extra role categories ref name campbell ref name campbell campbell j p alternative models job performance implications selection classification rumsey g walker c b harris j h eds ''personnel selection classification'' pp


hillsdale new jersey erlbaum ref campbell labeled job specific task proficiency non job specific task proficiency role dimensions written oral communication demonstrating effort maintaining personal discipline facilitating peer team performance supervision leadership management administration labeled extra role dimensions ref name jex murphy 's model job performance also broke job performance role extra role categories ref name murphy murphy k r toward broad conceptualization jobs job performance impact changes military environment structure assessment prediction job performance rumsey g walker c b harris j h eds ''personnel


selection classification'' pp hillsdale new jersey erlbaum ref however task orientated behaviors composed role category extra role category included interpersonally oriented behaviors time behaviors destructive hazardous behaviors ref name jex however challenged whether measurement job performance usually done pencil paper tests job skills tests site hands tests site hands tests high fidelity simulations symbolic simulations task ratings global ratings ref name murphy murphy k r dimensions job performance dillon r pelligrino j w eds ''testing theoretical applied perspectives'' pp new york praeger ref various tools often


used evaluate performance specific tasks overall job performance ref name jex van dyne lepine developed measurement model overall job performance evaluated using campbell 's role extra role categories ref name vandynelepine role performance reflected well employees met performance expectations performed well tasks made employees' job ref name jex jex britt w ''organizational psychology'' hoboken new jersey john wiley sons ref dimensions regarding well employee assists others work benefit group employee voices new ideas


projects changes procedure whether employee attends functions help group composed extra role category assess job performance reliable valid measures must established many sources error performance ratings error reduced rater training ref name pulakos pulakos e comparison rater training programs error training accuracy training ''journal applied psychology'' ref use behaviorally anchored rating scales scales used clearly define behaviors constitute poor average superior performance ref name campbell additional factors complicate


measurement job performance include instability job performance time due forces changing performance criteria structure job ref name murphy restriction variation individual performance organizational forces factors include errors job measurement techniques acceptance justification poor performance lack importance individual performance determinants job performance consist factors individual worker well environmental factors workplace according campbell 's model determinants job performance ref name campbell ref name campbell job


performance result interaction declarative knowledge knowledge facts things procedural knowledge knowledge needs done motivation reflective employee 's choices regarding whether expend effort level effort expend whether persist level effort chosen ref name jex interplay factors show employee may example low level declarative knowledge may still high level performance employee high levels procedural knowledge motivation regardless


job three determinants stand predictors performance general mental ability especially jobs higher complexity job experience although law diminishing returns personality trait conscientiousness people dependable achievement oriented plan well ref name jex determinants appear influence performance largely acquisition usage job knowledge motivation well expanding area research job performance determinants includes emotional intelligence ref name baron baron r handley r fund impact emotional intelligence performance druskat v


organization ref name organ organ w ''organizational citizenship behavior good soldier syndrome'' lexington massachusetts lexington books c heath co ref behaviors qualify ocbs fall one following five categories altruism courtesy sportsmanship conscientiousness civic virtue ref name organ ref name organ organ w inferences trends labor force satisfaction causal correlational analysis ''academy management journal'' ref ref name organ organ w organizational citizenship behavior good soldier rumsey g walker c b harris j eds ''personnel selection classification'' pp hillsdale new jersey lawrence


erlbaum associates ref ocbs also categorized ways example intended targets individuals supervisors organization whole ref name williamsanderson williams l j anderson e job satisfaction organizational commitment predictors organizational citizenship role behavior ''journal management'' ref alternative ways categorizing ocbs include compulsory ocbs engaged owing coercive persuasion peer pressure rather good ref name vigoda vigoda gadot e compulsory citizenship behavior theorizing dark sides good soldier syndrome organizations ''journal theory social behaviour''


ref extent ocbs voluntary subject debate ref name vigoda research suggests employees perform ocbs influence viewed within organization behaviors formally part job description performing influence performance appraisals ref name jex researchers advanced view employees engage ocbs form impression management term coined erving goffman goffman defined impression management way individual nbsp presents activity others ways


guides controls impression form kinds things may may sustaining performance researchers hypothesized ocbs performed good positive affect etc instead way noticed others including supervisors ref name bolino bolino c citizenship impression management good soldiers good actors ''academy management review'' ref innovation four qualities generally linked creative innovative behaviour individuals ref name jex task relevant skills general mental ability job specific knowledge task specific


subject specific knowledge often gained higher education however may also gained mentoring experience given field ref name jex creativity relevant skills ability concentrate problem long periods time abandon unproductive searches temporarily put aside stubborn problems ability put aside stubborn problems referred jex britt productive forgetting ref name jex creativity relevant skills also require individual contributor evaluate problem multiple vantage points one must able take perspective various users example


operation manager analyzing reporting issue developing innovative solution would consider perspective sales person assistant finance compensation compliance officer task motivation internal desire perform task level enjoyment ref name jex organizational level study damanpour identified four specific characteristics may predict innovation ref name jex population high levels technical knowledge organization 's level specialization level organization communicates externally functional differentiation counterproductive work behavior counterproductive work behavior cwb defined employee behavior goes goals


organization behaviors intentional unintentional result wide range underlying causes motivations cwbs instrumental motivations eg theft ref name spector fox proposed person environment interaction utilized explain variety counterproductive behaviors ref name spector fox instance employee sabotages another employee 's work may lax supervision environment underlying psychopathology person work concert result counterproductive behavior evidence emotional response eg anger job stress eg unfair treatment


followers creating shared organizational culture values managers deal complexity leaders deal initiating adapting change managers undertake tasks planning budgeting organizing staffing controlling problem solving contrast leaders undertake tasks setting direction vision aligning people shared goals communicating motivating approaches studying leadership broadly classified three categories leader focused approaches contingency focused approaches follower focused approaches leader focused approaches leader focused approaches look organizational leaders determine characteristics effective leadership according trait approach effective leaders possess certain traits


showing compassion problems arise office behaviors associated category initiating structure include facilitating task performance groups one example initiating structure behavior meeting one one subordinates explain expectations goals final leader focused approach ''power influence'' effective leader able influence others behave ways line organization 's mission goals influential leader depends social power potential influence subordinates six bases


situation adapt behavior accordingly ref name jex theories assume effective leader accurately read situation skillfully employ leadership style meets needs individuals involved task hand brief introduction prominent contingency focused theories follow fiedler contingency model holds leader 's effectiveness depends interaction characteristics characteristics situation path goal theory asserts role leader help subordinates achieve goals effectively leaders


must skillfully select four different leadership styles meet situational factors situational factors product characteristics subordinates characteristics environment leader member exchange theory lmx focuses leader subordinate relationships develop generally speaking subordinate performs well positive exchanges leader subordinate relationship strengthened performance job satisfaction enhanced subordinate feel commitment leader organization whole vroom yetton jago model focuses decision making respect ''feasibility set'' ref name jex


composed situational attributes addition contingency focused approaches mentioned high degree interest paid three novel approaches recently emerged first transformational leadership posits certain leadership traits inspire subordinates perform beyond capabilities second transactional leadership concerned keeping subordinates line deadlines organizational policy type leader fills managerial role lacks qualities necessary inspire subordinates induce meaningful change third authentic leadership


centered around empathy leader 's values character leader understands followers inspire subordinates cultivating personal connection leading share vision goals team although limited amount research conducted theories sure receive continued attention field io psychology matures follower focused approaches follower focused approaches look processes leaders motivate followers lead teams achieve shared goals understandably area leadership motivation draws heavily abundant research literature


domain motivation io psychology leaders held responsible followers' ability achieve organization 's goals ability motivate followers critical factor leadership effectiveness similarly area team leadership draws heavily research teams team effectiveness io psychology organizational employees frequently structured form teams leaders need aware potential benefits pitfalls working teams teams develop satisfy team members' needs ultimately bring team effectiveness performance emerging area


technique technique involves periodic assessment surveys employee attitudes feelings results conveyed organizational stakeholders may want take organization particular direction another tool team building technique many tasks within organization completed small groups teams team building important organizational success order enhance team 's morale problem solving skills io psychologists help groups build self confidence group cohesiveness working effectiveness ref name schultz ref relation organizational behavior human resource management psychology organizational


behavior researchers sometimes investigated similar topics overlap led confusion regarding two disciplines differ sometimes confusion within organizations regarding practical duties psychologists human resource management specialists training minimum requirement working io psychologist master 's degree normally degree requires two three years postgraduate work complete degrees granted io psychology year approximately two thirds master 's level ref name schultz comprehensive list us canadian master 's doctoral programs


found web site society industrial organizational psychology siop ref name sioporg ref admission io psychology phd programs highly competitive many programs accept small number applicants year graduate degree programs io psychology outside us canada siop web site lists ref name sioporg australia organizational psychologists must accredited australian psychological society aps become organizational psychologist one must meet criteria general psychologist 's licence three years studying bachelor 's degree psychology th year honours degree


postgraduate diploma psychology two year full time supervised practice plus hours professional development avenues available two year supervised training program honours ie pathway one year postgraduate coursework practical placements followed one year supervised training program ie pathway psychologists elect specialize organizational psychologists competencies many different sets competencies different specializations within io psychology io psychologists versatile behavioral scientists example io psychologist specializing selection recruiting expertise finding best talent


organization getting everyone board might need know much executive coaching io psychologists specialize specific areas consulting whereas others tend generalize areas expertise basic skills knowledge individual needs order effective io psychologist include independent learner interpersonal skills eg listening skills general consultation skills eg skills knowledge problem area job outlook us news world reports lists psychology third best science job strong job market


io psychologist whether academic consultant employee expected maintain high ethical standards apa 's ethical principles apply io psychologists example ethically io psychologist accept projects qualified organizations becoming global important io psychologist works outside home country psychologist aware rules regulations cultures organizations countries psychologist works also adhering ethical standards set home see also references footnotes reading anderson n ones


sinangil h k viswesvaran c eds ''handbook industrial work organizational psychology volume personnel psychology'' thousand oaks california sage publications anderson n ones sinangil h k viswesvaran c eds ''handbook industrial work organizational psychology volume organizational psychology'' sage publications borman w c ilgen r klimoski r j eds ''handbook psychology vol industrial organizational psychology'' hoboken new jersey john wiley sons borman w c motowidlo j expanding criterion domain include elements contextual performance schmitt n borman w c


eds ''personnel selection'' san francisco jossey bass pp nbsp bryan l l k vinchur j history industrial organizational psychology kozlowski w j ed ''the oxford handbook organizational psychology'' pp nbsp new york oxford university press campbell j p gasser b oswald f l substantive nature job performance variability murphy k r ed ''individual differences behavior organizations'' pp nbsp jossey bass copley f b ''frederick w taylor father scientific management'' vols ii new york taylor society dunnette ed ''handbook industrial organizational psychology'' chicago


rand mcnally dunnette hough l eds ''handbook industrial organizational psychology'' volumes palo alto california consulting psychologists press eunson baden ''behaving managing others'' mcgraw hill sidney guion rm ''assessment measurement prediction personnel decisions'' mahwah new jersey lawrence erlbaum associates hunter j e schmidt f l ''methods meta analysis correcting error bias research findings'' newbury park california sage publications jones ishmael ''the human factor inside cia 's dysfunctional intelligence culture'' new york encounter books koppes l l ed ''historical perspectives industrial organizational psychology'' lawrence


erlbaum associates lant k organizational cognition interpretation baum ed ''the blackwell companion organizations'' oxford blackwell publishers lowman r l ed ''the california school organizational studies handbook organizational consulting psychology comprehensive guide theory skills techniques'' jossey bass rogelberg g ed ''handbook research methods industrial organizational psychology'' malden massachusetts blackwell sackett p r wilk l within group norming forms score adjustment pre employment testing ''american psychologist'' schmidt f l hunter j e validity utility selection methods


personnel psychology practical theoretical implications years research findings ''psychological bulletin'' external links https webarchiveorg web http psychologyuwoca csiop canadian society industrial organizational psychology http dopbpsorguk british psychological society 's division occupational psychology 's dop website http wwwsiopsaorgza society industrial organisational psychology south africa http wwwea ohporg european academy occupational health psychology european association work organizational psychology http wwwsioporg society industrial organizational psychology applied psychology behavioural sciences systems psychology


world population bce ce vertical population scale logarithmic ref name uscb world population estimates '''human history''' '''world history''' narrative humanity 's past understood archaeology anthropology genetics linguistics since advent writing primary secondary sources humanity 's written history preceded prehistory beginning palaeolithic era old stone age followed neolithic era new stone age neolithic saw agricultural revolution begin bce near east 's fertile crescent period humans began systematic husbandry plants


animals agriculture advanced humans transitioned nomadic settled lifestyle farmers permanent settlements relative security increased productivity provided farming allowed communities expand increasingly larger units fostered advances transportation whether prehistoric historic times people always needed near reliable sources drinking water settlements developed early bce iran ref name peoplecn http enpeoplecn html people new evidence modern civilization began iran aug retrieved october ref ref name xinhuaciv http newsxinhuanetcom english content htm xinhua new evidence modern civilization began iran xinhuanetcom august ref


mesopotamia indus river valley indian subcontinent banks egypt 's nile river along china 's rivers farming developed grain agriculture became sophisticated prompted division labour store food growing seasons labour divisions led rise leisured upper class development cities provided foundation civilization growing complexity human societies necessitated systems accounting writing hinduism developed late bronze age indian subcontinent axial age witnessed introduction religions buddhism taoism confucianism


jainism civilizations flourishing ancient history antiquity including classical age golden age india ce saw rise fall empires post classical history middle ages c ce witnessed rise christianity islamic golden age c ce c ce timurid italian renaissances around ce mid th century introduction movable type printing europe revolutionized communication facilitated ever wider dissemination information hastening end middle ages ushering scientific revolution early modern period sometimes referred


lead chimpanzees bonobos closest living relatives modern humans around million years ago anatomically modern humans arose africa years ago ref name smithsonian institution achieved behavioral modernity years ago lascaux france c bce venus willendorf austria c bce paleolithic period began advent hominid tool use hominids ''homo erectus'' used simple wood stone tools millennia time progressed tools became far refined complex perhaps early million years ago certainly


years ago humans began use fire heat cooking paleolithic also saw humans develop language well conceptual repertoire included systematic burial dead adornment living signs early artistic expression found form cave paintings sculptures made ivory stone bone implying form spirituality generally interpreted either animism shamanism paleolithic humans lived hunter gatherers generally nomadic archaeological genetic data suggest source populations paleolithic hunter gatherers lived sparsely wooded areas dispersed


areas high primary production avoiding dense forest cover ref name gavashelishvili modern humans spread rapidly africa frost free zones europe asia around years ago ref name stringer ref rapid expansion humankind north america oceania took place climax recent ice age time temperate regions today extremely inhospitable yet end ice age years ago humans colonized nearly ice free parts globe rise civilization beginning around bce neolithic revolution marked development agriculture


fundamentally changed human lifestyle cereal crop cultivation animal domestication occurred middle east least bce form wheat barley sheep goats indus valley crops cultivated cattle domesticated bce yellow river valley china cultivated millet cereal crops bce yangtze valley domesticated rice earlier least bce americas sunflowers cultivated bce maize beans domesticated central america bce potatoes first cultivated


andes mountains south america llama also domesticated metalworking first used creation copper tools ornaments around bce gold soon followed primarily use ornaments need metal ores stimulated trade many areas early human settlement lacked necessary ores first signs bronze alloy copper tin date around bce alloy become widely used much later agriculture created food surpluses could support people directly engaged food production permitting far denser populations creation


first cities states cities centres trade manufacturing political power cities established symbiosis surrounding countrysides absorbing agricultural products providing return manufactured goods varying degrees military control protection early proto cities appeared jericho atalh k around bce monumental cuneiform inscription sumer mesopotamia th century bce development cities synonymous rise civilization early civilizations arose first lower mesopotamia bce followed egyptian civilization along nile river bce harappan civilization indus river valley present day india


least four ancient civilizations mesopotamia bce egypt around bce ref name ref china bce lowland mesoamerica bce ref name faganbeck ref typical neolithic tendency worship anthropomorphic deities entities sun moon earth sky sea often deified shrines developed evolved temple establishments complete complex hierarchy priests priestesses functionaries among earliest surviving written religious scriptures egyptian ''pyramid texts'' oldest date bce ancient history bce ce cradles


civilization great pyramids giza egypt bronze age part three age system stone age bronze age iron age system effectively describes early history civilization parts world bronze age saw development city states well emergence first civilizations settlements concentrated fertile river valleys tigris euphrates mesopotamia nile egypt indus indian subcontinent yangtze yellow rivers china sumer located mesopotamia first known complex civilization developed first city states


regarded first civilization europe next millennia river valleys saw monarchical empires rise power th st centuries bce empires akkad sumer arose mesopotamia following millennia civilizations developed across world trade increasingly became source power states access important resources controlling important trade routes rose dominance bce mycenaean greece began develop ended late bronze age collapse started affect many mediterranean civilizations bce india era


civilizations olmecs maya zapotecs moche nazca developed agriculture growing maize chili peppers cocoa tomatoes potatoes crops unique americas creating distinct cultures religions ancient indigenous societies would greatly affected good ill european contact early modern period axial age buddha socrates beginning th century bce axial age saw development set transformative philosophical religious ideas mostly independently many different places chinese confucianism indian buddhism jainism jewish monotheism claimed scholars


developed th century bce karl jaspers' axial age theory also includes persian zoroastrianism scholars dispute timeline zoroastrianism th century bce socrates plato made substantial advances development ancient greek philosophy east three schools thought would dominate chinese thinking well th century taoism legalism confucianism confucian tradition would become particularly dominant looked political morality force law power example tradition confucianism would later spread korea toward japan west


territory formation defended settlements become agricultural centres relative peace empires brought encouraged international trade notably massive trade routes mediterranean maritime trade web indian ocean silk road southern europe greeks later romans era known classical antiquity established cultures whose practices laws customs considered foundation contemporary western culture persepolis achaemenid empire th century bce parthenon athens pillar erected india 's maurya emperor ashoka trajan 's column rome terracotta army china c bce


obelisk axum ethiopia number regional empires period kingdom medes helped destroy assyrian empire tandem nomadic scythians babylonians nineveh capital assyria sacked medes bce median empire gave way successive iranian empires including achaemenid empire bce parthian empire bce ce sasanian empire ce several empires began modern day greece first delian league bce succeeding athenian empire bce centered present day greece later


would continue grow controlling much land england mesopotamia reaching greatest extent emperor trajan died ce rd century ce empire split western eastern regions usually separate emperors western empire would fall ce german influence odoacer eastern empire known byzantine empire capital constantinople would continue another thousand years constantinople conquered ottoman empire china qin dynasty bce first imperial dynasty china followed


han empire bce ce han dynasty comparable power influence roman empire lay end silk road han china developed advanced cartography shipbuilding navigation chinese invented blast furnaces created finely tuned copper instruments empires classical period han china advanced significantly areas government education mathematics astronomy technology many others maya observatory chichen itza mexico africa kingdom aksum centred present day ethiopia established st century ce major trading


arrival spanish th century ce maya civilization arose olmec mother culture gradually declined great mayan city states slowly rose number prominence maya culture spread throughout yucat n surrounding areas later empire aztecs built neighbouring cultures influenced conquered peoples toltecs areas experienced slow steady technological advances important developments stirrup moldboard plough arriving every centuries however regions periods rapid technological progress important perhaps hellenistic period


counterpart became increasingly decentralized divided time known crisis third century great empires eurasia located temperate subtropical coastal plains central asian steppes horse based nomads mainly mongols turks dominated large part continent development stirrup breeding horses strong enough carry fully armed archer made nomads constant threat settled civilizations pantheon rome italy originally roman temple catholic church gradual break


roman empire spanning several centuries nd century ce coincided spread christianity outward middle east western roman empire fell domination germanic tribes th century polities gradually developed number warring states associated one way another catholic church remaining part roman empire eastern mediterranean continued came called byzantine empire centuries later limited unity would restored western europe establishment revived roman empire


chinese golden age tang dynasty post classical history ce ce university timbuktu mali term post classical era though derived eurocentric name era classical antiquity takes broader geographic sweep era commonly dated th century fall western roman empire fragmented many separate kingdoms would later confederated holy roman empire byzantine empire survived late post classical medieval period post classical period also encompasses early muslim conquests subsequent islamic golden


muslim culture resulted swahili culture china experienced successive sui tang song yuan early ming dynasties middle eastern trade routes along indian ocean silk road gobi desert provided limited economic cultural contact asian european civilizations period civilizations americas mississippian culture ancestral puebloans wari inca maya aztecs reached zenith would compromised conquered contact european colonists beginning modern period greater middle east prior advent islam


era ce came conquer near east north africa parts europe ushering era learning science invention known islamic golden age knowledge skills ancient near east greece persia preserved postclassical era muslims also added new important innovations outside manufacture paper china decimal positional numbering india much learning development linked geography even prior islam 's presence city mecca served


centre trade arabia islamic prophet muhammad merchant new islamic tradition ''hajj'' pilgrimage mecca city became even centre exchanging goods ideas influence held muslim merchants african arabian arabian asian trade routes tremendous result islamic civilization grew expanded basis merchant economy contrast europeans indians chinese based societies agricultural landholding nobility merchants brought goods islamic faith china india southeast asia kingdoms


century new wave invaders mongol empire swept region eventually eclipsed turks founding ottoman empire modern day turkey around north africa saw rise polities formed berbers marinid dynasty morocco zayyanid dynasty algeria hafsid dynasty tunisia coastal region known barbary coast pirates based north african ports conducted operations included capturing merchant ships raiding coastal settlements many european captives sold north african markets part


barbary slave trade starting sui dynasty chinese began expanding eastern central asia confronted turkic nomads becoming dominant ethnic group central asia originally relationship largely cooperative tang dynasty began offensive turks capturing areas mongolian ordos desert th century islam began penetrate region soon became sole faith population though buddhism remained strong east desert nomads arabia could militarily match nomads steppe


early arab empire gained control parts central asia hephthalites powerful nomad groups th th centuries controlled much region th th centuries region divided among several powerful states including samanid empire seljuk empire khwarezmid empire largest empire rise central asia developed genghis khan united tribes mongolia mongol empire spread comprise central asia china well large parts russia middle east


exhausted continuous wars rashidun caliphate used opportunity expand caucasus early muslim conquests th century arrival mongols saw region invaded europe europe early middle ages characterized depopulation deurbanization barbarian invasion begun late antiquity barbarian invaders formed new kingdoms remains western roman empire th century north africa middle east part eastern roman empire became part caliphate conquest muhammad 's


successors although substantial changes society political structures new kingdoms incorporated many existing roman institutions could christianity expanded western europe monasteries founded th th centuries franks carolingian dynasty established empire covering much western europe lasted th century succumbed pressure new invaders vikings magyars saracens st peter 's basilica vatican city high middle ages began population europe increased greatly technological agricultural innovations allowed


long enough establish christian states near east italian merchants imported slaves work households sugar processing intellectual life marked scholasticism founding universities building gothic cathedrals churches one outstanding artistic achievements age late middle ages marked difficulties calamities famine plague war devastated population western europe black death alone killed approximately million people one deadliest pandemics human history starting asia


disease reached mediterranean western europe late killed tens millions europeans six years third half population perished middle ages witnessed first sustained urbanization northern western europe lasted beginning early modern period th century marked rise nation states division western christianity reformation rise humanism italian renaissance beginnings european overseas expansion allowed columbian exchange central eastern europe


famed rock cut architecture lalibela zagwe would fall solomonic dynasty claimed descent aksumite emperors would rule country well th century west african sahel region many islamic empires rose ghana empire mali empire songhai empire kanem bornu empire controlled trans saharan trade gold ivory salt slaves south sahel civilizations rose coastal forests include yoruba city noted art oyo empire kingdom


benin edo people centred benin city igbo kingdom nri produced advanced bronze art igbo ukwu akan noted intricate architecture central africa saw formation several states including kingdom kongo modern southern africa native africans created various kingdoms kingdom mutapa flourished trade swahili people east african coast built large defensive stone structures without mortar great zimbabwe capital kingdom zimbabwe khami capital kingdom butua


danangombe dhlo dhlo capital rozvi empire swahili people inhabitants east african coast kenya mozambique traded extensively asians arabs introduced islam built many port cities mombasa zanzibar kilwa known chinese sailors zheng islamic geographers south asia chennakesava temple belur india northern india fall ce gupta empire region divided complex fluid network smaller kingly states early muslim incursions began west ce


arab umayyad caliphate annexed much present day pakistan arab military advance largely halted point islam still spread india largely due influence arab merchants along western coast ninth century saw tripartite struggle control northern india among pratihara empire pala empire rashtrakuta empire important states emerged india time included bahmani sultanate vijayanagara empire post classical dynasties south india included chalukyas hoysalas cholas mughals marathas


mysores science engineering art literature astronomy philosophy flourished patronage kings northeast asia period relative disunity china reunified sui dynasty succeeding tang dynasty china entered golden age tang empire competed tibetan empire control areas inner central asia tang dynasty eventually splintered however half century turmoil song dynasty reunified china according william mcneill richest skilled populous country earth pressure nomadic


empires north became increasingly urgent north china lost jurchens jin song wars mongol empire conquered china along almost half eurasia 's landmass century mongol yuan dynasty rule ethnic chinese reasserted control founding ming dynasty mongol invasion japan japan imperial lineage established time asuka period yamato province developed clearly centralized state ref name hoj ref buddhism introduced emphasis


adoption elements chinese culture confucianism nara period th century marked emergence strong japanese state often portrayed golden age period imperial government undertook great public works including government offices temples roads irrigation systems heian period saw peak imperial power followed rise militarized clans beginning japanese feudalism feudal period japanese history dominated powerful regional lords daimyos military rule warlords shoguns ashikaga shogunate


tokugawa shogunate stretched emperor remained mostly figurehead power merchants weak postclassical korea saw end three kingdoms era three kingdoms goguryeo baekje silla silla conquered baekje goguryeo marking beginning northern southern states period unified silla south balhae successor state goguryeo north ce arrangement reverted later three kingdoms goguryeo called taebong eventually named goryeo emerging dominant


unifying entire peninsula ref name kta p ref founding goryeo dynasty ruled succeeded joseon dynasty ruled approximately years southeast asia angkor wat temple cambodia early th century beginning middle ages southeast asia saw fall ce kingdom funan chenla empire replaced khmer empire ce khmer people 's capital city angkor largest city world prior industrial age contained thousand temples famous angkor wat sukhothai


futuna samoa niue well specific islands parts micronesia kiribati pohnpei miscellaneous outliers vanuatu new caledonia specifically loyalty islands main island predominantly populated melanesian kanak people cultures northern australia evidence aboriginal groups regularly traded makassarese fishermen indonesia arrival europeans around time powerful thalassocracy appeared eastern polynesia centered around society islands specifically sacred taputapuatea marae drew eastern polynesian colonists places far away hawaii new


anthropology linguistics research americas machu picchu inca empire peru north america period saw rise mississippian culture modern day united states c ce marked extensive th century urban complex cahokia ancestral puebloans predecessors th th centuries built extensive permanent settlements including stone structures would remain largest buildings north america th century mesoamerica teotihuacan civilization fell classic maya collapse occurred aztec empire came dominate much mesoamerica th th centuries south america


th th centuries saw rise inca inca empire tawantinsuyu capital cusco spanned entire andes making extensive pre columbian civilization inca prosperous advanced known excellent road system unrivaled masonry modern history present span class anchor id modern history span gutenberg bible ca produced using movable type linear global historiographical approach '''modern history''' modern period modern era modern times history period following post classical history europe known middle ages spanning


present contemporary history includes events around present definitions terms modern history contemporary history changed time history occurred start dates modern history broken periods early modern period began around ended around notable historical milestones included continued european renaissance whose start dated variously age discovery islamic gunpowder empires reformation american revolution scientific revolution new information world discovered via


empirical research scientific method contrast earlier emphasis reason innate knowledge scientific revolution received impetus johannes gutenberg 's introduction europe printing using movable type invention telescope microscope globalization fuelled international trade colonization late modern period began sometime around europe experienced industrial revolution military political turbulence french revolution napoleonic wars followed ''pax britannica'' late modern period continues either end world war ii


present notable historical milestones included great divergence russian revolution contemporary history period also dubbed ''pax americana'' geopolitics includes historic events approximately closely relevant present time major developments include cold war continual hot wars proxy wars jet age dna revolution green revolution artificial satellites global positioning system gps development supranational european union information age rapid economic development india china increasing terrorism daunting array global ecological crises headed imminent existential threat


runaway global warming defining features modern era developed predominantly europe different periodizations sometimes applied parts world european periods used globally often context contact european culture age discovery humanities social sciences norms attitudes practices arising modern period known modernity corresponding terms post world war ii culture postmodernity late modernity early modern period early modern period period middle ages


industrial revolution roughly early modern period characterized rise science increasingly rapid technological progress secularized civic politics nation state capitalist economies began rise initially northern italian republics genoa early modern period saw rise dominance mercantilist economic theory decline eventual disappearance much european sphere feudalism serfdom power catholic church period included reformation disastrous thirty years' war age discovery european colonial expansion peak european


polymaths leonardo da vinci michelangelo inspired term renaissance man european expansion period european powers came dominate world although developed regions european classical civilization urbanized region world european civilization undergone lengthy period gradual decline collapse early modern period europe able regain dominance historians still debate causes europe 's success period stands contrast regions example one advanced civilizations middle ages china


developed advanced monetary economy ce china free peasantry longer subsistence farmers could sell produce actively participate market according adam smith writing th century china long one richest fertile best cultivated industrious urbanized prosperous countries world enjoyed technological advantage monopoly cast iron production piston bellows suspension bridge construction printing compass however seemed long since stopped progressing marco polo visited china


th century describes cultivation industry populousness almost terms travellers would th century one theory europe 's rise holds europe 's geography played important role success middle east india china ringed mountains oceans past outer barriers nearly flat contrast pyrenees alps apennines carpathians mountain ranges run europe continent also divided several seas gave europe degree protection peril central asian invaders era


firearms nomads militarily superior agricultural states periphery eurasian continent broke plains northern india valleys china unstoppable invasions often devastating golden age islam ended mongol sack baghdad india china subject periodic invasions russia spent couple centuries mongol tatar yoke central western europe logistically distant central asian heartland proved less vulnerable threats geography contributed important geopolitical


differences histories china india middle east unified single dominant power expanded reached surrounding mountains deserts ottoman empire controlled almost middle east ming dynasty ruled china mughal empire held sway india contrast europe almost always divided number warring states pan european empires notable exception roman empire tended collapse soon arose another doubtless important geographic factor rise europe mediterranean sea


millennia functioned maritime superhighway fostering exchange goods people ideas inventions nearly agricultural civilizations heavily constrained environments productivity remained low climatic changes easily instigated boom bust cycles brought civilizations' rise fall however qualitative change world history technological advance wealth generated trade gradually brought widening possibilities world map showing europeans' discoveries many also argued europe 's institutions allowed expand property rights free market economics stronger elsewhere


due ideal freedom peculiar europe recent years however scholars kenneth pomeranz challenged view europe 's maritime expansion unsurprisingly given continent 's geography largely work atlantic states portugal spain england france netherlands initially portuguese spanish empires predominant conquerors sources influence union resulted iberian union first global empire sun never set soon northern english french dutch began dominate atlantic series wars fought th th centuries


culminating napoleonic wars britain emerged new world power regional developments greater middle east hagia sophia istanbul formerly constantinople turkey ottoman empire conquering constantinople quickly became powerful state middle east persia came rule safavid empire succeeded afsharid empire zand empire qajar empire north africa wattasid sultanate zayyanid sultanate hafsid sultanate remained independent berber states th century areas north east central asia


held uzbeks pashtuns start th century russian empire began conquest caucasus europe russia ivan terrible crowned first tsar russia annexing turkic khanates east transformed russia regional power countries western europe expanding prodigiously technological advancement colonial conquest competed economically militarily state almost constant war often wars religious dimension either catholic versus protestant primarily eastern europe christian versus muslim


akan states search gold akwamu akyem fante adansi etc south african kingdom zimbabwe gave way smaller kingdoms mutapa butua rozvi ethiopia suffered invasion neighbouring muslim adal sultanate entered zemene mesafint age princes emperor became figurehead country ruled warlords though royal line later would recover emperor tewodros ii ajuran sultanate horn africa began decline th century succeeded geledi sultanate civilizations africa


advanced period oyo empire experienced golden age kingdom benin ashanti empire rose power modern day ghana kingdom kongo also thrived period south asia taj mahal mughal empire india indian subcontinent delhi sultanate deccan sultanates would give way beginning th century mughal empire starting northwest mughal empire would late th century come rule entire subcontinent except southernmost indian provinces would remain independent


muslim mughal empire hindu maratha empire founded west coast gradually gaining territory majority present day india mughals several decades particularly mughal maratha wars maratha empire would fall control british east india company former maratha mughal authority devolving british raj northeast asia ming dynasty section great wall china china ming gave way qing last chinese imperial dynasty would rule japan experienced azuchi momoyama period


followed edo period korean joseon dynasty ruled throughout period successfully repelling th th century invasions japan china expanded maritime trade europe significantly affected china japan period particularly portuguese presence macau nagasaki however china japan would later pursue isolationist policies designed eliminate foreign influences southeast asia portuguese overthrew malacca sultanate present day malaysia indonesian sumatra portuguese held important trading territory valuable associated navigational strait overthrown dutch