stationary respect background flow flow unsteady turbulent flows unsteady definition turbulent flow however statistically stationary random velocity field statistically stationary statistics invariant shift time ref name pope ref roughly means statistical properties constant time often mean field object interest constant statistically stationary flow steady flows often tractable otherwise similar unsteady flows governing equations steady problem one dimension fewer time


governing equations problem without taking advantage steadiness flow field laminar versus turbulent flow transition laminar turbulent flow turbulence flow characterized recirculation eddies apparent randomness flow turbulence exhibited called laminar presence eddies recirculation alone necessarily indicate turbulent flow phenomena may present laminar flow well mathematically turbulent flow often represented via reynolds decomposition flow broken sum average component perturbation component


believed turbulent flows described well use navier stokes equations direct numerical simulation dns based navier stokes equations makes possible simulate turbulent flows moderate reynolds numbers restrictions depend power computer used efficiency solution algorithm results dns found agree well experimental data flows flows interest reynolds numbers much high dns viable option ref name pope given state computational power next decades flight


vehicle large enough carry human nbsp moving faster well beyond limit dns simulation nbsp million transport aircraft wings airbus boeing reynolds numbers million based wing chord dimension solving real life flow problems requires turbulence models foreseeable future reynolds averaged navier stokes equations rans combined turbulence modelling provides model effects turbulent flow modelling mainly provides additional momentum transfer reynolds stresses although turbulence also enhances


equations small neglected ''slender body theory'' methodology used stokes flow problems estimate force flow field around long slender object viscous fluid ' 'shallow water equations'' used describe layer relatively inviscid fluid free surface surface gradients small ''darcy 's law'' used flow porous media works variables averaged several pore widths rotating systems ''quasi geostrophic equations'' assume almost perfect balance pressure gradients coriolis force useful


study atmospheric dynamics multidisciplinary types flows according mach regimes many flows flow water pipe occur low mach numbers subsonic flows many flows practical interest aerodynamics turbomachines occur high fractions transonic flows excess supersonic even hypersonic flows new phenomena occur regimes instabilities transonic flow shock waves supersonic flow non equilibrium chemical behaviour due ionization hypersonic flows practice flow regimes treated separately reactive versus non reactive


liquid metals salt water fluid flow equations solved simultaneously maxwell 's equations electromagnetism relativistic fluid dynamics relativistic fluid dynamics studies macroscopic microscopic fluid motion large velocities comparable velocity light branch fluid dynamics accounts relativistic effects special theory relativity general theory relativity governing equations derived riemannian geometry minkowski spacetime terminology concept pressure central study fluid statics fluid dynamics pressure identified every


point body fluid regardless whether fluid motion pressure measured using aneroid bourdon tube mercury column various methods terminology necessary study fluid dynamics found similar areas study particular terminology used fluid dynamics used fluid statics terminology incompressible fluid dynamics concepts total pressure dynamic pressure arise bernoulli 's equation significant study fluid flows


two pressures pressures usual sense cannot measured using aneroid bourdon tube mercury column avoid potential ambiguity referring pressure fluid dynamics many authors use term static pressure distinguish total pressure dynamic pressure static pressure identical pressure identified every point fluid flow field point fluid flow flow come rest say speed equal zero adjacent solid body immersed fluid


total flow conditions function fluid velocity different values frames reference different motion avoid potential ambiguity referring properties fluid associated state fluid rather motion prefix static commonly used static temperature static enthalpy prefix fluid property static condition density static density mean thing static conditions independent frame reference total flow conditions defined isentropically bringing


poiseuille 's law pressure head relativistic euler equations stokes stream function stream function streamlines streaklines pathlines torricelli 's law types fluid flow aerodynamic force convection cavitation compressible flow couette flow effusive limit free molecular flow incompressible flow inviscid flow isothermal flow open channel flow pipe flow secondary flow stream thrust averaging superfluidity transient flow two phase flow fluid properties list hydrodynamic instabilities newtonian fluid non newtonian fluid surface tension vapour pressure fluid phenomena balanced flow boundary layer coanda effect convection cell convergence bifurcation darwin drift drag force droplet vaporization hydrodynamic stability kaye effect lift force magnus effect ocean


current ocean surface waves rossby wave shock wave soliton stokes drift thread breakup turbulent jet breakup upstream contamination venturi effect vortex water hammer wave drag wind applications acoustics aerodynamics cryosphere science fluidics fluid power geodynamics hydraulic machinery meteorology naval architecture oceanography plasma physics pneumatics computer graphics fluid dynamics journals ''annual review fluid mechanics'' ''journal fluid mechanics'' ''physics fluids'' ''experiments fluids'' ''european journal mechanics b fluids'' ''theoretical computational fluid dynamics'' ''computers fluids'' ''international journal numerical methods fluids'' ''flow turbulence combustion'' miscellaneous important publications fluid


dynamics isosurface keulegan carpenter number rotating tank sound barrier beta plane immersed boundary method bridge scour finite volume method unsteady flow see also hydrodynamic aerodynamics references reading originally published th extended edition appeared first originally published http wwwscholarpediaorg article encyclopedia fluid dynamics encyclopedia fluid dynamics scholarpedia external links http webmitedu hml ncfmfhtml national committee fluid mechanics films ncfmf containing films several subjects fluid dynamics realmedia format https webarchiveorg web http wwwsalihnetfreeserverscom engineering fm fm bookshtml list fluid dynamics books piping aerodynamics continuum mechanics


'''finance''' term management creation study money investments ref name investopedia ref name drake fabozzi pamela drake frank fabozzi https mediawileycom product data excerpt pdf finance ref specifically deals questions individual company government acquires moneycalled capital context business spend invest money ref name freedictionary https financial dictionarythefreedictionarycom finance finance farlex financial dictionary ref finance often divided following broad categories personal finance corporate finance public finance ref name investopedia time correspondingly ''finance'' overall system ref name investopedia ref ref name drake fabozzi


ie financial markets allow flow money via investments financial instruments within areas flow facilitated financial services sector finance therefore refers study securities markets including derivatives institutions serve intermediaries markets thus enabling flow money economy major focus within finance thus investment managementcalled money management individuals asset management institutionsand finance includes associated activities securities trading stock broking investment banking financial engineering risk management fundamental


areas valuation assets stocks bonds loans also extension entire companies ref name irons ref asset allocation mix investments portfolio also fundamental although closely related disciplines economics finance distinct economy social institution organizes society 's production distribution consumption goods services must financed similarly although areas overlap financial function accounting profession financial accounting reporting historical financial information whereas finance forward looking given wide scope


finance studied several academic disciplines correspondingly several related degrees professional certifications lead field financial system federal reserve monitors us financial system works ensure supports healthy stable economy bond issued baltimore ohio railroad bonds form borrowing used corporations finance operations share certificate dated issued radium hill company floor new york stock exchange traders floor c introduction electronic readouts computer screens chicago board


trade corn futures market oil traders houston financial system consists flows capital take place individuals personal finance governments public finance businesses corporate finance finance thus studies process channeling money savers investors entities need savers investors money available could earn interest dividends put productive use individuals companies governments must obtain money external source loans credit lack sufficient funds operate general entity whose income exceeds


lending often indirect financial intermediary bank via purchase notes bonds corporate bonds government bonds mutual bonds bond market lender receives interest borrower pays higher interest lender receives financial intermediary earns difference arranging loan bank aggregates activities many borrowers lenders bank accepts deposits lenders pays interest bank lends deposits borrowers banks allow borrowers lenders different sizes coordinate activity investing typically


funds pension funds wealth managers stock brokers typically servicing retail investors private individuals inter institutional trade investment fund management scale referred wholesale finance institutions extend products offered related trading include bespoke options swaps structured products well specialized financing financial engineering inherently mathematical institutions major employers quants see institutions risk management regulatory capital compliance play major roles areas finance finance comprises broadly three areas personal finance corporate finance public


finance although numerous areas investments risk management quantitative finance financial engineering discussed next section development finance typically overlap likewise specific arrangements public private partnerships personal finance wealth management consultation financial advisor counsels client appropriate investment strategy personal finance defined mindful planning monetary spending saving also considering possibility future risk personal finance may involve paying education financing durable goods real estate cars buying insurance investing saving


managerial finance studies financial management firms rather corporations alone concepts applicable financial problems firms ref name drake fabozzi area often referred business finance typically corporate finance relates ''long term'' objective maximizing value entity 's assets stock return shareholders also balancing risk profitability entails three primary areas capital budgeting selecting projects invest accurately determining value crucial judgements asset values


focus ' 'short term'' elements profitability cash flow working capital management inventory credit debtors ensuring firm safely profitably carry financial ''and operational'' objectives ie service maturing short term debt repayments scheduled long term debt payments sufficient cash flow ongoing upcoming operational expenses see public finance president george w bush speaking federal budget requesting additional funds congress us federal revenues outlays public finance describes finance


related sovereign states sub national entities related public entities agencies generally encompasses long term strategic perspective regarding investment decisions affect public entities long term strategic periods typically encompass five years public finance primarily concerned identification required expenditures public sector entity source entity 's revenue budgeting process debt issuance municipal bonds public works projects central banks federal reserve system banks united states bank england united kingdom strong players public finance act


lenders last resort well strong influences monetary credit conditions economy investment management share prices listed korean newspaper excitement bubble burst viewing prices via ticker tape shortly wall street crash modern price ticker infrastructure underpins contemporary exchanges allows ultimately individual day trading well wholesale computer executed program trading high frequency trading investment management professional asset management various securities typically shares bonds also assets real estate commodities order


meet specified investment goals benefit investors investors may institutions insurance companies pension funds corporations charities educational establishments private investors either directly via investment contracts commonly via collective investment schemes like mutual funds exchange traded funds reits heart investment management ref name drake fabozzi asset allocation diversifying exposure among asset classes among individual securities within asset class appropriate client 's investment policy turn function risk profile investment goals investment horizon see investor profile


portfolio optimization process selecting best portfolio given client 's objectives constraints fundamental analysis approach typically applied valuing evaluating individual securities overlaid portfolio manager 's investment style broadly active vs passive value vs growth small cap vs large cap investment strategy well diversified portfolio achieved investment performance general largely function asset mix selected individual securities less impactful specific approach philosophy also significant depending extent


complementary market cycle quantitative fund managed using computer based techniques increasingly machine learning instead human judgement actual trading also typically automated via sophisticated algorithms risk management crowds gathering outside new york stock exchange wall street crash people queuing outside northern rock branch united kingdom withdraw savings financial crisis risk management general study control risks balance possibility gains process measuring risk developing


related corporate finance two ways firstly firm exposure market risk direct result previous capital investments funding decisions credit risk arises business' credit policy often addressed credit insurance secondly disciplines share goal enhancing least preserving firm 's economic value see also alm treasury management enterprise risk management domain strategic management addresses risks firm 's overall objectives banks wholesale institutions risk management focuses hedging various positions held institution trading positions long


term exposures calculating monitoring resultant regulatory economic capital basel iv calculations mathematically sophisticated within domain quantitative finance credit risk inherent business banking additionally institutions exposed counterparty credit risk investment managers apply various risk management techniques portfolios may relate portfolio whole individual stocks bond portfolios typically managed via cashflow matching immunization derivative portfolios positions greeks vital risk management tool


measure sensitivity small change given underlying parameter portfolio rebalanced accordingly including additional derivatives offsetting characteristics financial theory class wikitable floatright width style text align left smalldiv math sum n frac fcff wacc frac left frac fcff n wacc n g n right wacc n n math financial theory studied developed within disciplines management financial economics accountancy applied mathematics abstractly ref name drake fabozzi ''finance'' concerned investment deployment assets liabilities space time ie performing valuation asset allocation today based risk uncertainty


future outcomes appropriately incorporating time value money determining present value future values discounting must risk appropriate discount rate turn major focus finance theory ref name freedictionary since debate whether finance art science still open recent efforts organize list unsolved problems finance managerial finance decision trees sophisticated valuation approach sometimes applied corporate project valuations standard business school curricula various scenarios considered discounted cash flows probability weighted managerial


working area typically based business school finance departments accounting management science financial economics efficient frontier prototypical concept portfolio optimization introduced remains mainstay investing finance modigliani miller theorem foundational element finance theory introduced forms basis modern thinking capital structure even leverage e increases wacc k stays constant financial economics branch economics studies interrelation financial variables prices interest rates shares opposed real economic variables ie goods


services thus centers pricing decision making risk management financial markets produces many commonly employed financial models financial econometrics branch financial economics uses econometric techniques parameterize relationships suggested discipline two main areas focus asset pricing theoretical corporate finance first perspective providers capital ie investors second users capital respectively asset pricing theory develops models used determining risk appropriate discount rate pricing derivatives analysis essentially explores rational investors


would apply risk return problem investment uncertainty twin assumptions rationality market efficiency lead modern portfolio theory capm black scholes theory option valuation advanced levels often response financial crises study extends neoclassical models incorporate phenomena assumptions hold general settings asset pricing theory also includes investment theory portfolio theory applied portfolio management much corporate finance theory contrast considers investment certainty fisher separation


theorem theory investment value modigliani miller theorem theory methods developed decisioning funding dividends capital structure discussed recent development incorporate uncertainty contingency thus various elements asset pricing decisions employing example real options analysis financial mathematics class wikitable floatright width style text align left smalldiv math begin align c n n ke r frac sigma sqrt left ln left frac k right left r frac sigma right right sigma sqrt end align math black scholes formula value


call option although lately use considered naive underpinned development derivatives theory since introduction trees widely applied mathematical finance used calculating oas common methods simulation pdes used settings beyond envisaged black scholes post crisis even settings banks use local stochastic volatility models incorporate volatility surface financial mathematics field applied mathematics concerned financial markets field largely focused modeling derivatives although important subfields


numerical methods applied terms practice field referred quantitative finance mathematical finance comprises primarily three areas quantitative finance overlaps heavily financial engineering area generally underpins bank 's customer driven derivatives business delivering bespoke otc contracts exotics designing various structured products mentioned encompasses modeling programming support initial trade subsequent hedging management quantitative finance also significantly overlaps financial risk management mentioned regards hedging regards compliance regulations basel


price setting mechanisms returns processes researchers experimental finance study extent existing financial economics theory makes valid predictions therefore prove well attempt discover new principles theory extended applied future financial decisions research may proceed conducting trading simulations establishing studying behavior people artificial competitive market like settings behavioral finance behavioral finance studies ''psychology'' investors managers affects financial decisions markets relevant making decision impact either negatively positively


one areas behavioral finance grown last decades become integral aspect finance behavioral finance includes topics empirical studies demonstrate significant deviations classical theories models psychology affects impacts trading prices forecasting based methods studies experimental asset markets use models forecast experiments strand behavioral finance dubbed quantitative behavioral finance uses mathematical statistical methodology understand behavioral biases conjunction valuation history finance babylonian tablet


part economic archives temple sky god anu fertility goddess ishtar uruk recording payment made c bc courtyard amsterdam stock exchange world 's first formal stock exchange jima rice exchange world 's first futures exchange established osaka origin finance traced start civilization earliest historical evidence finance dated around bc banking originated babylonian empire temples palaces used safe places storage valuables initially valuable


could deposited grain cattle precious materials eventually included period sumerian city uruk mesopotamia supported trade lending well use interest sumerian interest ''mas'' translates calf greece egypt words used interest ''tokos'' ''ms'' respectively meant give birth cultures interest indicated valuable increase seemed consider lender 's point view code hammurabi bc included laws governing banking operations babylonians accustomed charging interest


rate per cent per annum jews allowed take interest jews allowed take interest gentiles time law forbidding practising usury gentiles took interest jews torah considered equitable jews take interest gentiles hebrew interest ''neshek'' bc cowrie shells used form money china bc lydians started use coin money lydia first place permanent retail shops opened herodotus mentions use


crude coins lydia earlier date around bc use coins means representing money began years bce cities greek empire aegina bce athens bce corinth bce started mint coins roman republic interest outlawed altogether ''lex genucia'' reforms julius caesar ceiling interest rates set later justinian lowered even see also outline finance financial crisis


notes references external links http knowledgewhartonupennedu categorycfmcid wharton finance knowledge project https peopledukeedu charvey classes wpg glossaryhtm hypertextual finance glossary campbell harvey http pagessternnyuedu adamodar corporate finance resources aswath damodaran https volwebutkedu jwachowi wacho worldhtml index financial management resources james van horne http wwwdonchancecom instructional derivativescourseusingteachingnoteshtm financial mathematics derivatives risk management resources chance https wwwmymoneygov mymoneyfive personal finance resources financial literacy education commission mymoneygov https gsdrcorg professional dev public financial management public finance resources gsdrcorg


transformations functions fourier transform transformations defining continuous unitary etc operators function spaces point view turned particularly useful study differential integral equations usage word ''functional'' noun goes back calculus variations implying function whose argument function term first used hadamard 's book subject however general concept functional previously introduced italian mathematician physicist vito volterra theory nonlinear functionals

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Analysis
Functional analysis


continued students hadamard particular fr chet l vy hadamard also founded modern school linear functional analysis developed riesz group polish mathematicians around stefan banach modern introductory texts functional analysis subject seen study vector spaces endowed topology particular infinite dimensional spaces contrast linear algebra deals mostly finite dimensional spaces use topology important part functional analysis extension theory measure integration probability infinite dimensional spaces also known '''infinite dimensional analysis''' normed


vector spaces basic historically first class spaces studied functional analysis complete normed vector spaces real complex numbers spaces called banach spaces important example hilbert space norm arises inner product spaces fundamental importance many areas including mathematical formulation quantum mechanics machine learning partial differential equations fourier analysis generally functional analysis includes study fr chet spaces topological vector spaces endowed norm important object study functional analysis


continuous linear operators defined banach hilbert spaces lead naturally definition c algebras operator algebras hilbert spaces hilbert spaces completely classified unique hilbert space isomorphism every cardinality orthonormal basis finite dimensional hilbert spaces fully understood linear algebra infinite dimensional separable hilbert spaces isomorphic math ell aleph math separability important applications functional analysis hilbert spaces consequently mostly deals space one open problems functional analysis prove every bounded linear operator hilbert space


one math int x left f x right p mu x infty math math mu math counting measure integral may replaced sum require math sum x x left f x right p infty math necessary deal equivalence classes space denoted written simply math ell p math case math x math set non negative integers banach spaces large part study involves dual space space continuous linear maps space underlying field called functionals banach space canonically identified subspace


bidual dual dual space corresponding map isometry general onto general banach space bidual need even isometrically isomorphic way contrary finite dimensional situation explained dual space article also notion derivative extended arbitrary functions banach spaces see instance fr chet derivative article linear functional analysis major foundational results four major theorems sometimes called four pillars functional analysis hahn banach theorem open


mapping theorem closed graph theorem uniform boundedness principle also known banach steinhaus theorem important results functional analysis include uniform boundedness principle uniform boundedness principle banach steinhaus theorem one fundamental results functional analysis together hahn banach theorem open mapping theorem considered one cornerstones field basic form asserts family continuous linear operators thus bounded operators whose domain banach space pointwise boundedness equivalent uniform boundedness operator norm theorem first


published stefan banach hugo steinhaus also proven independently hans hahn blockquote '''theorem uniform boundedness principle ''' let ''x'' banach space ''y'' normed vector space suppose ''f'' collection continuous linear operators ''x'' ''y'' ''x'' ''x'' one math sup nolimits f x infty math math sup nolimits f b xy infty math blockquote spectral theorem many theorems known spectral theorem one particular many applications functional analysis theorem let ''a''


may complex valued hahn banach theorem hahn banach theorem central tool functional analysis allows extension bounded linear functionals defined subspace vector space whole space also shows enough continuous linear functionals defined every normed vector space make study dual space interesting '''hahn banach theorem ''' ref name rudin title functional analysis date publisher mcgraw hill isbn language en ref sublinear function linear functional linear subspace dominated math varphi x leq p x qquad forall x u math exists


linear extension whole space exists linear functional math psi x varphi x qquad forall x u math math psi x le p x qquad forall x v math open mapping theorem open mapping theorem also known banach schauder theorem named stefan banach juliusz schauder fundamental result states continuous linear operator banach spaces surjective open map precisely ref name rudin '''open mapping theorem''' ''x'' ''y'' banach spaces ''a'' ''x'' ''y'' surjective continuous linear operator ''a''


open map ''u'' open set ''x'' ''a'' ''u'' open ''y'' proof uses baire category theorem completeness ''x'' ''y'' essential theorem statement theorem longer true either space assumed normed space true ''x'' ''y'' taken fr chet spaces closed graph theorem closed graph theorem states following ''x'' topological space ''y'' compact hausdorff space graph


linear map ''t'' ''x'' ''y'' closed ''t'' continuous topics foundations mathematics considerations spaces considered functional analysis infinite dimension show existence vector space basis spaces may require zorn 's lemma however somewhat different concept schauder basis usually relevant functional analysis many important theorems require hahn banach theorem usually proved using axiom choice although strictly weaker boolean prime ideal theorem suffices baire category theorem needed prove many important theorems also requires form


axiom choice points view functional analysis includes following tendencies ''abstract analysis'' approach analysis based topological groups topological rings topological vector spaces ''geometry banach spaces'' contains many topics one combinatorial approach connected jean bourgain another characterization banach spaces various forms law large numbers hold ''noncommutative geometry'' developed alain connes partly building earlier notions george mackey 's approach ergodic theory ''connection quantum mechanics'' either narrowly defined mathematical physics broadly interpreted example


volumes includes visualization charts edwards r e ''functional analysis theory applications'' hold rinehart winston eidelman yuli vitali milman antonis tsolomitis ''functional analysis introduction'' american mathematical society friedman ''foundations modern analysis'' dover publications paperback edition july gilesjr ''introduction analysis normed linear spaces''cambridge university press hirsch f lacombe g elements functional analysis springer hutson v pym js cloud mj ''applications functional analysis operator theory'' nd edition elsevier science kantorovitz s''introduction modern analysis'' oxford university press nd ed kolmogorov fomin sv ''elements


theory functions functional analysis'' dover publications kreyszig e ''introductory functional analysis applications'' wiley lax p ''functional analysis'' wiley interscience lebedev lp vorovich ii ''functional analysis mechanics'' springer verlag michel anthony n charles j herget ''applied algebra functional analysis'' dover pietsch albrecht ''history banach spaces linear operators'' birkh user boston inc reed simon b functional analysis academic press riesz f sz nagy b ''functional analysis'' dover publications rudin w ''functional analysis'' mcgraw hill science saxe karen ''beginning functional analysis'' springer schechter


''principles functional analysis'' ams nd edition shilov georgi e ''elementary functional analysis'' dover sobolev sl ''applications functional analysis mathematical physics'' ams vogt meise r ''introduction functional analysis'' oxford university press yosida k ''functional analysis'' springer verlag th edition external links https wwwmatunivieacat gerald ftp book fa indexhtml topics real functional analysis gerald teschl university vienna https webarchiveorg web http wwwmathnyuedu phd students vilensky functional analysispdf lecture notes functional analysis yevgeny vilensky new york university https wwwyoutubecom playlistlist ple c c e lecture videos functional analysis http wwwuccsedu gmorrow greg morrow university colorado colorado springs


''netherlandish proverbs'' pieter bruegel elder '''folklore''' expressive body culture shared particular group people encompasses traditions common culture subculture group includes oral traditions tales proverbs jokes include material culture ranging traditional building styles handmade toys common group folklore also includes customary lore taking actions folk beliefs forms rituals celebrations christmas weddings folk dances initiation rites one either singly combination considered folklore artifact


essential form folklore also encompasses transmission artifacts one region another one generation next folklore something one typically gain formal school curriculum study fine arts instead traditions passed along informally one individual another either verbal instruction demonstration academic study folklore called folklore studies folkloristics explored undergraduate graduate phd levels overview indian folk worship batu caves selangor malaysia folk dancing plovdiv bulgaria serbian folk


rural frequently poor illiterate peasants modern definition ''folk'' social group includes two persons common traits express shared identity distinctive traditions folk flexible concept refer nation american folklore single family expanded social definition ''folk'' supports broader view material ie lore considered ''folklore artifacts'' include things people make words verbal lore things make hands material lore things make


actions customary lore folklore longer considered limited old obsolete folk artifacts continue passed along informally rule anonymously always multiple variants folk group individualistic community based nurtures lore community new groups emerge new folklore created surfers motorcyclists computer programmers ref name dundes ref direct contrast high culture single work named artist protected copyright law folklore function shared identity within common social group ref name bauman ref identified folk


artifacts professional folklorist strives understand ' 'significance'' beliefs customs objects group since cultural units would passed along unless continued relevance within group meaning however shift morph example halloween celebration st century hallows' eve middle ages even gives rise set urban legends independent historical celebration cleansing rituals orthodox judaism originally good public health land little water customs signify


people identification orthodox jew comparison common action tooth brushing also transmitted within group remains practical hygiene health issue rise level group defining tradition tradition initially remembered behavior loses practical purpose reason transmission unless imbued meaning beyond initial practicality action meaning core folkloristics study folklore increasingly theoretical sophistication social sciences become evident


folklore naturally occurring necessary component social group indeed around us folklore old antiquated continues created transmitted group used differentiate us origin development folklore studies folklore began distinguish autonomous discipline period romantic nationalism europe particular figure development johann gottfried von herder whose writings presented oral traditions organic processes grounded locale german states


invaded napoleonic france herder 's approach adopted many fellow germans systematized recorded folk traditions used process nation building process enthusiastically embraced smaller nations like finland estonia hungary seeking political independence dominant neighbours folklore field study developed among th century european scholars contrasting tradition newly developing modernity focus oral folklore rural peasant populations considered residue survivals past continued exist within


lower strata society kinder und hausm rchen brothers grimm first published best known means collection verbal folklore european peasantry time interest stories sayings songs continued throughout th century aligned fledgling discipline folkloristics literature mythology turn th century number sophistication folklore studies folklorists grown europe north america whereas european folklorists remained focused oral folklore homogenous peasant populations regions


american folklorists led franz boas ruth benedict chose consider native american cultures research included totality customs beliefs folklore distinction aligned american folkloristics cultural anthropology ethnology using techniques data collection field research divided alliance folkloristics humanities europe social sciences america offers wealth theoretical vantage points research tools field folkloristics whole even continues point discussion within field term


''folkloristics'' along alternative name ''folklore studies'' ref group note word ''folkloristics'' favored alan dundes used title publication term ''folklore studies'' defined used simon bronner see ref became widely used distinguish academic study traditional culture folklore artifacts american folklife preservation act public law passed us congress january coincide bicentennial celebration folkloristics united states came age blockquote folklife means traditional expressive culture shared within various groups


united states familial ethnic occupational religious regional expressive culture includes wide range creative symbolic forms custom belief technical skill language literature art architecture music play dance drama ritual pageantry handicraft expressions mainly learned orally imitation performance generally maintained without benefit formal instruction institutional direction blockquote added extensive array legislation designed protect natural cultural heritage united states law also marks shift national awareness gives voice growing understanding cultural diversity


national strength resource worthy protection paradoxically unifying feature something separates citizens country longer view cultural difference problem solved tremendous opportunity diversity american folklife find marketplace teeming exchange traditional forms cultural ideas rich resource americans diversity celebrated annually smithsonian folklife festival many folklife fests around country numerous definitions according william bascom major article topic


four functions folklore folklore lets people escape repressions imposed upon society folklore validates culture justifying rituals institutions perform observe folklore pedagogic device reinforces morals values builds wit folklore means applying social pressure exercising social control definition folk friends farm folklore theater mansoura egypt folk th century social group identified original term folklore characterized rural illiterate poor peasants living countryside


differing identities concomitant social groups first group us born family family unique family folklore child grows individual identities also increase include age language ethnicity occupation etc cohorts folklore one folklorist points idle speculation decades fieldwork demonstrated conclusively groups folklore ref name dundes modern understanding folklore function shared identity within social group ref name bauman


folklore include jokes sayings expected behavior multiple variants always transmitted informal manner part learned observation imitation repetition correction group members informal knowledge used confirm inforce identity group used internally within group express common identity example initiation ceremony new members used externally differentiate group outsiders like folkdance demonstration community festival significant folklorists


two opposing equally valid ways use study group start identified group order explore folklore identify folklore items use identify social group beginning expansion concept folk began unfold study folklore individual researchers identified folk groups previously overlooked ignored one notable example found issue ''journal american folklore'' published dedicated exclusively articles


women 's folklore approaches come man 's perspective ref group note contributors issue among others claire farrer joan n radner susan lanser elaine lawless jeannie b thomas ref groups highlighted part broadened understanding folk group non traditional families occupational groups families pursued production folk items multiple generations folklore genres uae folk dance khaliji women flip hair brightly coloured traditional dress individual folklore artifacts commonly classified one three types material verbal customary lore part


self explanatory categories include physical objects '''material folklore''' common sayings expressions stories songs '' 'verbal folklore''' beliefs ways things '''customary folklore''' also fourth major subgenre defined children 's folklore games '''childlore''' collection interpretation fertile topic peculiar school yards neighborhood streets ref name opie ref genres subtypes intended organize categorize folklore artifacts provide common vocabulary consistent labeling folklorists communicate said artifact unique fact one characteristics


folklore artifacts variation within genres types direct contrast manufactured goods goal production create identical products variations considered mistakes however required variation makes identification classification defining features challenge classification essential subject area folkloristics remains labeling adds little understanding traditional development meaning artifacts necessary genre classifications misleading oversimplification subject area


folklore artifacts never self contained stand isolation particulars self representation community different genres frequently combined mark event birthday celebration might include song formulaic way greeting birthday child verbal presentation cake wrapped presents material well customs honor individual sitting head table blowing candles wish might also special games played birthday parties generally played


times adding complexity interpretation birthday party seven year old identical birthday party child six year old even though follow model artifact embodies single variant performance given time space task folklorist becomes identify within surfeit variables constants expressed meaning shimmer variations honoring individual within circle family friends gifting express value worth group


course festival food drink signifiers event verbal tradition story jahangir anarkali popular folklore former territories mughal empire formal definition verbal lore words written oral spoken sung voiced forms traditional utterance show repetitive patterns ref name dorson ref crucial repetitive patterns verbal lore conversation words phrases conforming traditional configuration recognized speaker audience narrative types definition consistent structure follow existing model


narrative form ref group note vladimir propp first defined uniform structure russian fairy tales groundbreaking monograph ''morphology folktale'' published russian see ref one simple example english phrase elephant walks bar instantaneously flags following text joke might one 've already heard might one speaker thought within current context another example child 's song old macdonald farm performance distinctive animals named order sounds


populations believed folk artifacts would die population became literate past two centuries belief proven wrong folklorists continue collect verbal lore written spoken form social groups variants might captured published collections much still transmitted orally indeed continues generated new forms variants alarming rate listed small sampling types examples verbal lore aloha ballads blessings bluegrass chants charms cinderella country music cowboy poetry creation


stories curses english similes epic poetry fable fairy tale folk belief folk etymologies folk metaphors folk poetry folk music folksongs folk speech folktales oral tradition ghostlore greetings hog calling insults jokes keening latrinalia legends limericks lullabies myth oaths leave taking formulas fakelore place names prayers bedtime proverbs retorts riddle roasts sagas sea shanties street vendors superstition tall tale taunts toasts tongue twisters urban legends word games yodeling material culture horse sulky weathervane smithsonian american art museum genre material culture includes artifacts touched held lived eaten tangible objects physical


folk artifacts folklorists interested physical form method manufacture construction pattern use well procurement raw materials meaning make use objects important primary significance studies complex balance continuity change design decoration traditional highlanders' pins hand made goldsmith podhale polandin europe prior industrial revolution everything made hand folklorists th century wanted secure oral traditions rural


folk populace became literate folklorists sought identify hand crafted objects production processes lost industrial manufacturing verbal lore continues actively created transmitted today 's culture handicrafts still found around us possibly shift purpose meaning many reasons continuing handmake objects use example skills may needed repair manufactured items unique design might required cannot found stores many crafts considered simple home


maintenance cooking sewing carpentry many people handicrafts also become enjoyable satisfying hobby handmade objects often regarded prestigious extra time thought spent creation uniqueness valued folklorist hand crafted objects embody multifaceted relationships lives craftsmen users concept lost mass produced items connection individual craftsman many traditional crafts ironworking glass making elevated fine applied arts taught art schools


repurposed folk art characterized objects whose decorative form supersedes utilitarian needs folk art found hex signs pennsylvania dutch barns tin man sculptures made metalworkers front yard christmas displays decorated school lockers carved gun stocks tattoos words naive self taught individualistic used describe objects exceptional rather representative creation featured contrast understanding folklore artifacts nurtured passed along within community ref group note henry glassie distinguished folklorist studying technology cultural context notes


turkish one word sanat refers objects distinguishing art craft latter distinction glassie emphasizes based medium social class raises question difference arts crafts difference found merely labeling ref many objects material folklore challenging classify difficult archive unwieldy store assigned task museums preserve make use bulky artifacts material culture end concept living museum developed beginning scandinavia end


th century open air museums display artifacts also teach visitors items used actors reenacting everyday lives people segments society relying heavily material artifacts pre industrial society many locations even duplicate processing objects thus creating new objects earlier historic time period living museums found throughout world part thriving heritage industry list represents small sampling objects skills included studies material culture autograph books bunad embroidery


lore presents birthday cake special games musical chairs individual customs making wish blow candles folklore artifact right potentially worthy investigation cultural analysis together combine build custom birthday party celebration scripted combination multiple artifacts meaning within social group santa claus giving gifts children common folk practice associated christmas western nations hajji firuz fictional character iranian folklore appears streets beginning nowruz


dances streets singing playing tambourine folklorists divide customs several different categories ref name sweterlitsch custom '' 'seasonal celebration''' thanksgiving new year 's '''life cycle celebration''' individual baptism birthday wedding custom also mark '''community festival''' event examples carnival cologne mardi gras new orleans category also includes smithsonian folklife festival celebrated summer mall washington dc fourth category includes customs related '''folk beliefs''' walking


ladder one many symbols considered unlucky '''occupational groups''' tend rich history customs related life work traditions sailors lumberjacks ref group note folklorist archie green specialized workers' traditions lore labor groups ref area ecclesiastical folklore includes modes worship sanctioned established church tends large complex usually treated specialized area folk customs requires considerable expertise standard church ritual order adequately interpret folk customs beliefs originated


official church practice customary folklore always performance single gesture complex scripted customs participating custom either performer audience signifies acknowledgment social group customary behavior intended performed understood within group handkerchief code sometimes used gay community initiation rituals freemasons customs designed specifically represent social group outsiders belong group st patrick 's day parade new york


numerous throughout western world ostensibly parading diversity community economic groups discovered folk parades festivals good business shades people streets eating drinking spending attracts support business community also federal state organizations local street parties paradoxically parading diversity within community events come authenticate true community business interests ally varied folk social groups promote interests community whole


small sampling types examples customary lore amish barn raising birthday cakewalk cat 's cradle chaharshanbe suri christmas crossed fingers folk dance folk drama folk medicine giving finger halloween hoodening gestures groundhog day louisiana creole people mime native hawaiians ouiji board powwows practical jokes saint john 's eve shakers symbols thanksgiving thumbs trick treating whaling yo yos childlore games children 's games'' pieter bruegel elder five boys playing game buck buck lower right hand corner painting childlore distinct branch folklore deals activities passed


children studied terms derivative adult social groups shown culture children quite distinctive generally unnoticed sophisticated world adults quite little affected particular interest folklorists mode transmission artifacts lore circulates exclusively within informal pre literate children 's network folk group include artifacts taught children adults however children take taught teach children turning childlore


take artifacts turn something else old mcdonald 's farm transformed animal noises scatological version animal poop childlore characterized lack dependence literary fixed form children operate among world informal oral communication unimpeded necessity maintaining transmitting information written means close folklorists come observing transmission social function folk knowledge spread literacy th century seen genres original


collections children 's lore games th century driven fear culture childhood would die early folklorists among alice gomme britain william wells newell united states felt need capture unstructured unsupervised street life activities children lost fear proved unfounded comparison modern school playground recess painting children 's games pieter breugel elder see activity level similar many games


hand clapping jump roping ball bouncing furthermore many physical games used develop strength coordination endurance players team games negotiations rules run longer game social skills rehearsed even uncovering neuroscience undergirds developmental function childlore artifacts play centuries listed small sampling types examples childlore games buck buck counting rhymes dandling rhymes finger toe rhymes counting games dreidel eeny meeny miny


moe games traditional games london bridge falling lullabies nursery rhymes playground songs ball bouncing rhymes rhymes riddles ring ring roses jump rope rhymes stickball street games folk history case made considering folk history distinct sub category folklore idea received attention folklorists richard dorson field study represented ''the folklore historian'' annual journal sponsored history folklore section american folklore society concerned connections folklore history well history folklore studies


study folk history particularly well developed ireland ''handbook irish folklore'' standard book used field workers irish folklore commission recognizes historical tradition separate category traditionally referred ' 'seanchas'' henry glassie made pioneering contribution classic study ''passing time ballymenone'' another notable exponent historian guy beiner presented depth studies irish folk history identifying number characteristic genres named history telling stories divided tales mini histories songs ballads especially rebel songs poems rhymes


toasts prophecies proverbs sayings place names variety commemorative ritual practices often recited dedicated storytellers ' 'seanchaithe'' folk historians ' 'staireolaithe'' beiner since adopted term ' 'vernacular historiography'' attempt move beyond confines artificial divides oral literary cultures lie heart conceptualizations oral tradition folklore performance context folk dance kalash pakistan slovene folklore dancers lacking context folklore artifacts would uninspiring objects without life performance artifacts come alive active meaningful component


social group intergroup communication arises performance transmission cultural elements takes place american folklorist roger abrahams described thus folklore folklore performed organized entities performance items folklore sense control inherent power capitalized upon enhanced effective performance without transmission items folklore individual quirky tales objects understanding folkloristics occurred second half th century two terms folklore performance


text context dominated discussions among folklorists terms contradictory even mutually exclusive borrowings fields study one linguistic formulation appropriate given discussion performance frequently tied verbal customary lore whereas context used discussions material lore formulations offer different perspectives folkloric understanding specifically folklore artifacts need remain embedded cultural environment gain insight meaning community concept cultural folklore performance shared ethnography


anthropology among social sciences cultural anthropologist victor turner identified four universal characteristics cultural performance playfulness framing use symbolic language employing subjunctive mood viewing performance audience leaves daily reality move mode make believe self evident fits well types verbal lore reality place among symbols fantasies nonsense traditional tales proverbs jokes customs lore children games also fit easily language folklore performance material culture requires


moulding turn performance consider performance creation artifact quilting party performance recipients use quilt cover marriage bed language context works better describe quilting patterns copied grandmother quilting social event winter months gifting quilt signify importance event traditional pattern chosen social event gifting occur within broader context community even


considering context structure characteristics performance recognized including audience framing event use decorative figures symbols go beyond utility object backstory second world war folk artifacts understood collected cultural shards earlier time considered individual vestigial artifacts little function contemporary culture given understanding goal folklorist capture document disappeared collected supporting data bound books archived classified


less successfully historic geographic method worked isolate track collected artifacts mostly verbal lore across space time following second world war folklorists began articulate holistic approach toward subject matter tandem growing sophistication social sciences attention longer limited isolated artifact extended include artifact embedded active cultural environment one early proponent alan dundes essay texture text context first published public presentation dan ben amos american folklore society brought


behavioral approach open debate among folklorists richard dorson called young turks movement toward behavioral approach folklore approach shifted conceptualization folklore extractable item 'text' emphasis folklore kind human behavior communication conceptualizing folklore behavior redefined job folklorists ref group note extensive discussion found 'text context' controversy emergence behavioral approaches folklore ref folklore became verb action something people something


performance active context folklore artifacts get transmitted informal direct communication either verbally demonstration performance includes different modes manners transmission occurs tradition bearer audience presentation traditional wallachian pipes wallachian open air museum ro nov pod radho czech republic transmission communicative process requiring binary one individual group actively transmits information form another individual group defined role folklore process tradition bearer individual actively passes along


knowledge artifact either mother singing lullaby baby irish dance troupe performing local festival named individuals usually well known community knowledgeable traditional lore anonymous folk nameless mass without history individuality audience performance half transmission process listen watch remember become active tradition bearers many passive tradition bearers maintain memory specific traditional artifact presentation


content active communication audience performer performer presenting audience audience turn actions reactions actively communicating performer purpose performance create something new create something already exists performance words actions known recognized valued performer audience folklore first foremost remembered behavior members cultural reference group identify value performance piece shared cultural


knowledge j b heinbucher elements folk culture might center local culture import part self identity instance folk dance highly popular estonia evolved sort national sport ref group note see http wwwestonicaorg en culture art dance folk dance folk dance estonica ref xix estonian dance celebration held together estonian song festival framing performance initiate performance must frame sort indicate follow indeed performance frame brackets outside normal discourse customary lore


easy example seen common introduction joke heard one joke day elephant walks bar signals listeners following joke taken literally joke completed punch line joke another traditional narrative marker english framing fairy tale phrases upon time lived happily ever many languages similar phrases used frame traditional tale linguistic


formulas removes bracketed text ordinary discourse marks recognized form stylized formulaic communication performer audience subjunctive voice framing narrative device serves signal story teller audience narrative follows indeed fiction verbal lore understood historical fact reality moves framed narration subjunctive mood marks space fiction history story tradition art teaching exist within narrated performed expressive 'event' outside normal


ref theory addresses question multiple performers multiple audiences artifact maintains identity across time geography anderson credited audience censoring narrators deviated far known traditional text performance two way communication process performer addresses audience words actions audience turn actively responds performer performance deviates far audience expectations familiar folk artifact respond negative feedback wanting avoid negative reaction performer adjust performance conform


audience expectations social reward audience major factor motivating narrators ref name el shamy ref dynamic feedback loop performer audience gives stability text performance reality model simplistic multiple redundancies active folklore process performer heard tale multiple times heard different story tellers multiple versions turn tells tale multiple times different audience expect hear version know expanded model redundancy


non linear narrative process makes difficult innovate single performance corrective feedback audience immediate heart autopoetic self maintenance 'virality' meme transmission enough assume sort recursive action maintains degree integrity artifact certain features sufficient allow us recognize instance type context material lore material folk artifacts becomes fruitful return terminology alan dundes text context text designates physical artifact


single item made individual specific purpose context unmasked observation questions concerning production usage made made use use raw materials come designed etc questions limited skill interviewer study southeastern kentucky chair makers michael owen jones describes production chair within context life craftsman henry glassie study folk


name el shamy material culture context becomes cultural environment object made chair used house sold wares none artisans anonymous folk individuals making living tools skills learned within valued context community toelken 's conservative dynamic continuum two performances identical performer attempts keep performance within expectations happens despite multitude changing variables given performance one time less audience different social political environment changed


new technologies new values new awareness context changes must artifact without modifications map existing artifacts evolving cultural landscape lose meaning joking active form verbal lore makes tension visible joke cycles come go reflect new issues concern artifact longer applicable context transmission becomes nonstarter loses relevancy contemporary audience transmitted longer folklore becomes instead historic relic ref name el shamy electronic age folklorists


begun identify advent electronic communications modify change performance transmission folklore artifacts clear internet modifying folkloric process killing despite historic association folklore anti moderinity people continue use traditional expressive forms new media including internet jokes joking plentiful ever traditional face face interactions electronic transmission new communication modes also transforming traditional stories many different configurations fairy tale snow white offered multiple media forms children


adults including television show video game see also notes footnotes references external links neologisms


designer gown reflecting contemporary fashion trend haute couture fashion show paris '''fashion''' form self expression autonomy particular period place specific context clothing footwear lifestyle accessories makeup hairstyle body posture ref name ref term implies look defined fashion industry ''trending'' everything considered ''fashion'' available popularized fashion system industry media due increased mass production commodities clothing lower prices global reach sustainability become urgent issue among politicians brands


consumers definitions fashion reconstructed roman women 's fashion florence taipei fashion scholar susan b kaiser states everyone forced appear unmediated others everyone evaluated attire evaluation includes consideration colors materials silhouette garments appear body garments identical style material also appear different depending wearer 's body shape whether garment washed folded mended new ''fashion'' defined number different ways application sometimes unclear though term ''fashion'' connotes


difference new fashions season also connote sameness example reference fashions implying general uniformity fashion signify latest trends may often reference fashions previous era leading understanding fashions different time period appearing fashionable defined relatively insular esteemed often rich aesthetic elite make look exclusive fashion houses haute couturiers 'look' often designed pulling references subcultures social groups


often used together fashion differs ''clothing'' describes material technical garment devoid social meaning connections ''costume'' come mean fancy dress masquerade wear fashion contrast describes social temporal system influences activates dress social signifier certain time context philosopher giorgio agamben connects fashion qualitative ancient greek concept meaning right critical opportune moment clothing quantitative concept personification chronological sequential time exclusive brands may claim label


''haute couture'' term technically limited members paris ref name kawamura yuniija haute couture aspirational inspired art culture cases reserved economic elite fashion also source art allowing people display unique tastes styling ref name ref different fashion designers influenced outside stimuli reflect inspiration work example gucci 's 'stained green' jeans may look like grass stain others display purity freshness summer ref name fashion unique self fulfilling may


unreflected 'blind' imitation ref name sociologist georg simmel thought fashion something helped overcome distance individual society ref name clothing fashions reconstructed roman women 's fashions florence fashion form expression fashion people wear specific context stranger would appear setting adorning something different stranger would considered fashion early western travelers visited india persia turkey china would frequently remark absence change fashion countries secretary japanese bragged inaccurately


spanish visitor japanese clothing changed thousand years however conceptions non western clothing undergoing little evolution generally held untrue instance considerable evidence ming china rapidly changing fashions chinese clothing similar changes clothing seen japanese clothing genroku period later centuries edo period time clothing trends switched flashy expensive displays wealth subdued subverted ones changes clothing often took place times economic


social change occurred ancient rome medieval caliphate followed long period without significant changes th century moorish spain musician ziryab introduced c rdoba sophisticated clothing styles based seasonal daily fashions native baghdad modified inspiration similar changes fashion occurred th century middle east following arrival turks introduced clothing styles central asia far east additionally long history fashion west africa ref name ref cloth used form currency trade


portuguese dutch early th century ref name locally produced cloth cheaper european imports assembled new styles accommodate growing elite class west africans resident gold slave traders ref name exceptionally strong tradition weaving oyo empire areas inhabited igbo people ref name fashion europe western hemisphere beginning europe continual increasingly rapid change clothing styles fairly reliably dated late medieval times historians including james laver fernand braudel


styles remained different counter movement th th centuries imposed similar styles mostly originating ancien r gime france though rich usually led fashion increasing affluence early modern europe led bourgeoisie even peasants following trends distance still uncomfortably close elites factor fernand braudel regards one main motors changing fashion albrecht rer 's drawing contrasts well turned ''bourgeoise'' nuremberg left counterpart venice venetian lady 's high chopines make look taller marie antoinette wife


louis xvi leader fashion choices white muslin dress called highly influential widely worn ref name dam ref th century national differences pronounced ten th century portraits german italian gentlemen may show ten entirely different hats albrecht rer illustrated differences actual composite contrast nuremberg venetian fashions close th century illustration right spanish style late th century began move back synchronicity among upper class europeans struggle


mid th century french styles decisively took leadership process completed th century though different textile colors patterns changed year year cut gentleman 's coat length waistcoat pattern lady 's dress cut changed slowly men 's fashions primarily derived military models changes european male silhouette galvanized theaters european war gentleman officers opportunities make notes different styles steinkirk cravat necktie parties wore shirts clothing


cut style little cause change number centuries though distribution dressed dolls france since th century abraham bosse produced engravings fashion pace change picked increased publication french engravings illustrating latest paris styles western europeans dressing alike thought local variation became first sign provincial culture later badge conservative peasant although tailors dressmakers doubt responsible many innovations


textile industry indeed led many trends history fashion design generally understood date english born charles frederick worth opened first authentic ''haute couture'' house paris haute house name established government fashion houses met standards industry fashion houses continue adhere standards keeping least twenty employees engaged making clothes showing two collections per year fashion shows presenting certain number patterns costumers since idea fashion


designer celebrity right become increasingly dominant although fashion feminine masculine additional trends androgynous idea unisex dressing originated designers pierre cardin rudi gernreich created garments stretch jersey tunics leggings meant worn males females impact unisex wearability expanded broadly encompass various themes fashion including androgyny mass market retail conceptual clothing fashion trends sheepskin jackets flight jackets duffel coats unstructured clothing influenced men


attend social gatherings without dinner jacket accessorize new ways men 's styles blended sensuality expressiveness growing gay rights movement emphasis youth allowed new freedom experiment style fabrics wool crepe previously associated women 's attire marcus clarks' spring summer catalogue four major current fashion capitals acknowledged paris milan new york city london headquarters significant fashion companies renowned major influence global fashion fashion


dressmakers tailors beginning th century rise new technologies sewing machine rise global trade development factory system production proliferation retail outlets department stores clothing became increasingly mass produced standard sizes sold fixed prices although fashion industry developed first europe america international highly globalized industry clothing often designed one country manufactured another sold worldwide example american fashion company might source fabric china


clothes manufactured vietnam finished italy shipped warehouse united states distribution retail outlets internationally fashion industry long time one largest employers united states ref name auto remains st century however us employment fashion began decline considerably production increasingly moved overseas especially china data fashion industry typically reported national economies expressed terms industry 's many separate sectors aggregate figures world production textiles clothing


difficult obtain however measure clothing industry accounts significant share world economic output fashion industry consists four levels production raw materials principally fiber textiles also leather fur production fashion goods designers manufacturers contractors others retail sales various forms advertising promotion levels focus fashion industry consist many separate interdependent sectors sectors include textile design production fashion design manufacturing fashion retailing marketing merchandising fashion shows media marketing


sector devoted goal satisfying consumer demand apparel conditions enable participants industry operate profit ref name auto fashion trend fashion trend signifies specific look expression spread across population specific time place trend considered ephemeral look defined seasons collections released fashion industry trend thus emerge street style across cultures influencers celebrities fashion trends influenced several factors including cinema celebrities climate creative explorations


innovations designs political economic social technological examining factors called pest analysis fashion forecasters use information help determine growth decline particular trend social influences celebrities britney spears popularised concept wearing underwear outerwear red carpet fashion italian actors gabriel garko laura torrisi wearing designer formal wear venice film festival fashion inherently social phenomenon person cannot fashion oneself something defined fashion needs dissemination followers dissemination


take several forms top trickle bottom bubble transversally across cultures viral memes media fashion relates social cultural context environment according matika elements popular culture become fused person 's trend associated preference genre music like music news literature fashion fused everyday lives fashion seen purely aesthetic fashion also medium people create overall effect express opinions overall art mirrors performers frequently accomplish


music videos music video formation beyonc according carlos pop star pays homage creole roots tracing roots louisiana cultural nerve center post abolition era present day beyonc catalogs evolution city 's vibrant style tumultuous history atop new orleans police car red white gucci high collar dress combat boots sits among ruins hurricane katrina immediately implanting biggest national debate police brutality race relations modern day annual seasonal runway show


reflection fashion trends designer 's inspirations designers like vivienne westwood runway shows platform voice politics current events aw menswear show according water ref name dazed ref models severely bruised faces channeled eco warriors mission save planet another recent example staged feminist protest march chanel 's ss show rioting models chanting words empowerment signs like feminist feminine ladies first according water ref name dazed show tapped chanel 's long history championing female independence founder coco chanel


trailblazer liberating female body post wwi era introducing silhouettes countered restrictive corsets favour annual academy awards ceremony also venue fashion designers creations celebrated social media also place fashion presented often influencers paid huge amounts money promote product clothing item business hopes many viewers buy product back advertisement instagram popular platform advertising facebook snapchat twitter platforms also used


economic influences circular economy increasing environmental awareness economic imperative spend think later getting increasingly scrutinized ref name ref today 's consumer tends mindful consumption looking enough better durable options people also become conscious impact everyday consumption environment society initiatives often described move towards sustainable fashion yet critics argue circular economy based growth oxymoron increasing spiral consumption rather utopian cradle cradle circular solution today 's linear


economical system manufacturers extract resources earth make products soon discarded landfills hand circular model production goods operates like systems nature waste demise substance becomes food source growth something new companies mud jeans based netherlands employ leasing scheme jeans dutch company represents new consuming philosophy using instead owning according mud 's website concept also protects company volatile cotton prices consumers


pay month pair jeans year return jeans mud trade new pair start another year long lease keep mud responsible repairs lease period ref name another ethical fashion company patagonia set first multi seller branded store ebay facilitate secondhand sales consumers take common threads pledge sell store gear listed patagoniacom 's used gear section ref name china 's domestic spending consumption share gross domestic product


china fallen six decades percent percent china plans reduce tariffs number consumer goods expand hour transit visa plan cities effort stimulate domestic consumption ref name ref announcement import tax reductions follows changes june government cut tariffs clothing cosmetics various goods half among changes easier tax refunds overseas shoppers accelerated openings duty free shops cities covered hour visa scheme hour visa


introduced beijing shanghai january extended chinese cities ref name according reports time chinese consumer spending countries japan slowed even though yen dropped clearly trend next years domestic fashion market show increase china interesting market fashion retail chinese consumers' motivation shop fashion items unique western audiences ref name parker ref demographics limited association shopping motivation occupation income education level


impact unlike western countries chinese high street shoppers prefer adventure social shopping online shoppers motivated idea shopping another difference gratification idea shopping influence spending k per month fashion items regular spending influenced value shopping marketing fur fashion sale tallinn estonia market research consumers different groups varying needs demands factors taken consideration thinking consumers' needs include key demographics understand consumers' needs predict fashion trends fashion companies market research two research methods primary


secondary ref name consumer research methods ref secondary methods taking information already collected example using book article research primary research collecting data surveys interviews observation focus groups primary research often focuses large sample sizes determine customer 's motivations shop ref name parker benefits primary research specific information fashion brand 's consumer explored surveys helpful tools questions open ended closed ended negative factor surveys interviews present answers biased due wording survey


face face interactions focus groups people beneficial several points addressed depth however drawbacks tactic small sample size hard know greater public would react way focus group ref name consumer research methods observation really help company gain insight consumer truly wants less bias consumers performing daily tasks necessarily realizing observed example observing public taking street


style photos people consumer get dressed morning knowing would photo taken necessarily wear would normally wear observation patterns seen helping trend forecasters know target market needs wants knowing needs consumers increase fashion companies' sales profits research studying consumers' lives needs customer obtained help fashion brands know trends consumers ready symbolic consumption consumption driven need symbolic meaning consumers


example us economy robust divorce rate increasing government approved birth control pill factors inspired younger generation rebel entrenched social norms civil rights movement struggle social justice equal opportunity blacks women 's liberation movement seeking equal rights opportunities greater personal freedom women full bloom leg baring mini skirt introduced became white hot trend fashion designers began experiment shapes garments loose sleeveless dresses micro minis flared skirts trumpet


sleeves fluorescent colors print patterns bell bottom jeans fringed vests skirts became ' 'de rigueur'' outfits concern protest us involvement failing vietnam war also influenced fashion camouflage patterns military clothing developed help military personnel less visible enemy forces seeped streetwear designs camouflage trends disappeared resurfaced several times since appearing high fashion iterations designers valentino dior dolce gabbana combined camouflage runway ready wear collections today variations camouflage including pastel shades


every article clothing accessory continue enjoy popularity technology influences today technology plays sizable role society technological influences correspondingly increasing within realm fashion wearable technology become incorporated example clothing constructed solar panels charge devices smart fabrics enhance wearer comfort changing color texture based environmental changes printing technology influenced designers iris van herpen kimberly ovitz technology evolves printers become accessible designers eventually consumers could potentially reshape design


production fashion industry entirely internet technology enabling far reaches online retailers social media platforms created previously unimaginable ways trends identified marketed sold immediately trend setting styles easily displayed communicated online attract customers posts instagram facebook quickly increase awareness new trends fashion subsequently may create high demand specific items brands new buy button technology link styles direct sales machine vision technology developed track fashions spread society industry see


direct correlation fashion shows influence street chic outfits effects quantified provide valuable feedback fashion houses designers consumers regarding trends media latin dancers costumes woman wearing backless dress deep slits lower portion man wearing shirt top buttons open media plays significant role comes fashion instance important part fashion fashion journalism editorial critique guidelines commentary found television magazines newspapers fashion websites social networks


fashion blogs recent years fashion blogging youtube videos become major outlet spreading trends fashion tips creating online culture sharing one 's style website social media accounts like instagram tiktok twitter media outlets readers viewers world learn fashion making accessible addition fashion journalism another media platform important fashion industry advertisement advertisements provide information audiences promote sales products services fashion industry utilizes advertisements attract consumers promote


products generate sales decades ago technology still underdeveloped advertisements heavily relied radio magazines billboards newspapers days various ways advertisements television ads online based ads using internet websites posts videos live streaming social media platforms fashion printed media two subsets print styling editorial lifestyle editorial styling high fashion styling seen fashion magazines tends artistic fashion forward lifestyle styling focuses overtly commercial goal like department store


advertisement website advertisement fashion 's sold models hired promote product photo dressing practices powerful traditionally mediated art practices courts looks french court disseminated prints th century became prevalent promotion centralized court around king louis xiv style became known name beginning th century fashion magazines began include photographs various fashion designs became even


influential past cities throughout world magazines greatly sought profound effect public taste clothing talented illustrators drew exquisite fashion plates publications covered recent developments fashion beauty perhaps famous magazines ''la gazette du bon ton'' founded lucien vogel regularly published exception war years see top worn along pasties model fashion show usa fashion trends get popularised


trend starting ready wear perfume lines heavily advertised magazines dwarf original couture businesses recent development within fashion print media rise text based critical magazines aim prove fashion superficial creating dialogue fashion academia industry examples development ''fashion theory'' ''fashion practice journal design creative process fashion industry'' ''vestoj'' fashion television television coverage began small fashion features fashion


segments various entertainment shows became frequent dedicated fashion shows ''fashion television'' started appear ''fashiontv'' pioneer undertaking since grown become leader fashion television new media channels fashion industry beginning promote styles bloggers social media 's vogue specified chiara ferragni blogger moment due rises followers fashion blog became popular days fall fashion week new york city came close ''the new


''project runway'' drama series ''ugly betty'' specific fashion brands featured film product placement opportunities bespoke items subsequently led trends fashion videos general useful promoting fashion industry evident television shows directly spotlighting fashion industry also movies events music videos showcase fashion statements well promote specific brands product placements controversial advertisements fashion industry racism fashion advertisements fashion advertisements accused


may offended seemed insincere another fashion advertisement regarding racism gap american worldwide clothing brand gap collaborated ellen degeneres advertisement features playful four young girls tall white girl leaning arm shorter black girl 's head ad released viewers harshly criticized underlies passive racism representative root black culture magazine commented ad portrays message black people undervalued seen like props white people look better


different points views issue saying people sensitive getting offended regardless various views thoughts gap replaced ad different image apologized critics sexism fashion advertisements many fashion brands published ads provocative sexy attract customers attention british high fashion brand jimmy choo blamed sexism ad featured female british model wearing brand 's boots two minute ad men whistle model walking street red sleeveless mini


dress ad gained much backlash criticism viewers since sexual harassment misconduct huge issue time even till many people showed dismay social media posts leading jimmy choo pull ad social media platforms french luxury fashion brand yves saint laurent also faced issue print ad shown paris female model wearing fishnet tights roller skate stilettos almost lying legs opened front camera advertisement brought harsh comments viewers


french advertising organization directors going advertising codes related respect decency dignity prohibiting submission violence dependence well use stereotypes even said ad causing mental harm adolescents lot sarcastic comments made social media ad poster removed city public relations social media mexican sports reporter wearing little black dress knee high boots fashion public relations involves touch company 's audiences creating strong relationships reaching media


initiating messages project positive images company social media plays important role modern day fashion public relations enabling practitioners reach wide range consumers various platforms building brand awareness credibility key implication good public relations cases hype built new designers' collections released market due immense exposure generated practitioners social media blogs microblogs podcasts photo video sharing sites become increasingly important fashion public relations interactive nature platforms allows practitioners


engage communicate public real time tailor clients' brand campaign messages target audience blogging platforms instagram tumblr wordpress squarespace sharing sites bloggers emerged expert fashion commentators shaping brands great impact trend women fashion public relations industry sweaty betty pr founder roxy jacenko oscar de la renta 's pr girl erika bearman acquired copious followers social media sites providing brand identity behind scenes look companies


work social media changing way practitioners deliver messages ref name conceitomcombr concerned media also customer relationship building pr practitioners must provide effective communication among platforms order engage fashion public industry socially connected via online shopping consumers ability share purchases personal social media pages facebook twitter instagram etc practitioners deliver brand message effectively meet needs public word mouth publicity generated potentially provide wide reach designer


products fashion political activism fashion concerns people signifies social hierarchies fashion intersects politics social organization societies whereas haute couture business suits associated people power also groups aiming challenge political order also use clothes signal position explicit use fashion form activism usually referred fashion activism complex relationship fashion feminism feminists argued participating feminine fashions women contributing maintaining gender differences part women 's


oppression ref name femininity ref brownmiller felt women reject traditionally feminine dress focusing comfort practicality rather fashion ref name femininity others believe fashion system repressive requiring women seasonally change clothes keep trends greer advocated argument seasonal changes dress ignored argues women liberated replacing compulsiveness fashion enjoyment rejecting norm create personal styling rejection seasonal fashion led many protests alongside rejection fashion


socialist racial environmental grounds ref name tandfonlinecom ref however mosmann pointed relationship protesting fashion creating fashion dynamic language style used protests become part fashion ref name tandfonlinecom fashion designers brands traditionally kept political conflicts movement industry towards taking explicit positions across political spectrum maintaining rather apolitical stance designers brands today engage explicitly current debates ref name newyorkercom ref example considering us 's political climate surrounding months presidential


election fashion weeks london milan new york paris paulo amongst others many designers took opportunity take political stances leveraging platforms influence reach customers also led confusion around democratic values fashion always inclusive platform political debate one way broadcast top messages taking explicit political stance designers appear favor issues around phrased using clear language virtuous undertones example aiming amplify greater message unity inclusion diversity feminism


fashion space designer mara hoffman invited founders ''women 's march washington'' open show featured modern silhouettes utilitarian wear described critics made modern warrior clothing still work prabal gurung debuted collection shirts featuring slogans future female silenced nevertheless persisted proceeds going aclu planned parenthood gurung 's charity shikshya foundation nepal ref name newyorkercom similarly ''the business fashion'' launched '' tiedtogether'' movement social media encouraging member


designers used diy fashions tradition punk movement address elitism industry promote inclusion diversity anthropological perspective academic lens sporting various fashions seen form fashion language mode communication produced various fashion statements using grammar fashion perspective promoted work influential french philosopher semiotician roland barthes anthropology study culture human societies examines fashion asking certain styles deemed socially appropriate others


theory interactionism certain practice expression chosen power community becomes fashion defined certain time people influence power particular style meaning already occurring set beliefs style may greater chance become fashion according cultural theorists ted polhemus lynn procter one describe fashion adornment two types fashion anti fashion capitalization commoditization clothing accessories shoes etc


constituted anti fashion becomes part fashion lines fashion anti fashion blurred expressions outside changes fashion swept along trends signify new meanings examples range elements ethnic dress becomes part trend appear catwalks street cultures example tattoos travel sailors laborers criminals popular culture cultural theorist malcolm bernard fashion anti fashion differ polar opposites anti fashion fixed changes little time varying depending cultural social group one associated


centuries ago cases retaining crests actors considered 'perfected' role anti fashion concerned maintaining status quo fashion concerned social mobility time expressed terms continuity anti fashion terms change fashion fashion changing modes adornment anti fashion fixed modes adornment theoretical lens change fashion part larger industrial system structured powerful actors system deliberate change style promoted channels influenced industry


paid advertisements intellectual property fashion industry intellectual property enforced within film industry music industry robert glariston intellectual property expert mentioned fashion seminar held la copyright law regarding clothing current hot button issue industry often draw line designers inspired design outright stealing different places take inspiration others' designs contributes fashion industry 's ability establish clothing trends past years wgsn dominant


source fashion news forecasts encouraging fashion brands worldwide inspired one another enticing consumers buy clothing establishing new trends argued key component industry 's success intellectual property rules interfere process trend making would view counter productive hand often argued blatant theft new ideas unique designs design details larger companies often contributes failure many smaller independent design companies since fakes distinguishable poorer quality


still demand luxury goods trademark logo copyrighted many fashion brands make one visible aspects garment accessory handbags especially designer 's brand may woven fabric lining fabric bag made making brand intrinsic element bag world intellectual property organization wipo held conference calling stricter intellectual property enforcement within fashion industry better protect small medium businesses promote competitiveness within textile clothing industries


see also references bibliography braudel fernand https booksgooglecom booksid rpgvp vmojcc printsec frontcover ''civilization capitalism th th centuries vol structures everyday life'' william collins sons london reading breward christopher ''the culture fashion new history fashionable dress'' manchester manchester university press cabrera ana lesley miller genio figura la influencia de la cultura espa ola en la moda fashion theory journal dress body culture cumming valerie ''understanding fashion history'' costume fashion press hollander anne ''seeing clothes'' berkeley university california press hollander anne ''sex suits


evolution modern dress'' new york knopf hollander anne ''feeding eye essays'' new york farrar straus giroux hollander anne ''fabric vision dress drapery painting'' london national gallery kawamura yuniya ''fashion ology introduction fashion studies'' oxford new york berg lipovetsky gilles translated catherine porter ''the empire fashion dressing modern democracy'' woodstock princeton university press mcdermott kathleen ''style fashion invented kings belongs us illustrated history '' many hand drawn color illustrations extensive annotated bibliography reading guide perrot


philippe translated richard bienvenu ''fashioning bourgeoisie history clothing nineteenth century'' princeton nj princeton university press steele valerie ''paris fashion cultural history'' ed rev updated oxford berg steele valerie ''fifty years fashion new look now'' new yale university press steele valerie ''encyclopedia clothing fashion'' detroit thomson gale davis f maids' uniforms blue jeans drama status ambivalences clothing fashion qualitative sociology external links aesthetics concepts aesthetics cultural trends history clothing


bass guitar time signal open string note hz functions mathematics '''fourier analysis''' study way general functions may represented approximated sums simpler trigonometric functions fourier analysis grew study fourier series named joseph fourier showed representing function sum trigonometric functions greatly simplifies study heat transfer subject fourier analysis encompasses vast spectrum mathematics sciences engineering process decomposing function oscillatory components often called fourier

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Analysis
Fourier analysis


analysis operation rebuilding function pieces known '''fourier synthesis''' example determining component frequencies present musical note would involve computing fourier transform sampled musical note one could synthesize sound including frequency components revealed fourier analysis mathematics term ''fourier analysis'' often refers study operations decomposition process called fourier transformation output fourier transform often given specific name depends domain properties


function transformed moreover original concept fourier analysis extended time apply abstract general situations general field often known harmonic analysis transform used analysis see list fourier related transforms corresponding inverse transform used synthesis applications fourier analysis many scientific applications physics partial differential equations number theory combinatorics signal processing digital image processing probability theory statistics forensics option pricing cryptography numerical analysis acoustics oceanography sonar optics diffraction geometry protein structure analysis areas


simple multiplication means provide efficient way compute convolution based operations signal filtering polynomial multiplication multiplying large numbers ref name knuth discrete version fourier transform see evaluated quickly computers using fast fourier transform fft algorithms ref name conte forensics laboratory infrared spectrophotometers use fourier transform analysis measuring wavelengths light material absorb infrared spectrum ft method used decode measured signals record wavelength data using computer fourier calculations rapidly carried


matter seconds computer operated ft ir instrument produce infrared absorption pattern comparable prism instrument ref name saferstein fourier transformation also useful compact representation signal example jpeg compression uses variant fourier transformation discrete cosine transform small square pieces digital image fourier components square rounded lower arithmetic precision weak components eliminated entirely remaining components stored compactly image reconstruction image square reassembled preserved approximate fourier transformed components


inverse transformed produce approximation original image signal processing fourier transform often takes time series function continuous time maps frequency spectrum takes function time domain frequency domain decomposition function sinusoids different frequencies case fourier series discrete fourier transform sinusoids harmonics fundamental frequency function analyzed function math math function time represents physical signal


even images fourier analysis isolate narrowband components compound waveform concentrating easier detection removal large family signal processing techniques consist fourier transforming signal manipulating fourier transformed data simple way reversing transformation ref name rabiner examples include equalization audio recordings series bandpass filters digital radio reception without superheterodyne circuit modern cell phone radio scanner image processing remove periodic anisotropic artifacts jaggies interlaced video strip artifacts strip aerial photography wave patterns radio frequency interference