random variable math x math respective cumulative ' 'distribution functions'' math f f dots math converge cumulative distribution function math f math math x math wherever math f math continuous weak convergence also called common shorthand notation math displaystyle x n xrightarrow mathcal x math convergence probability sequence random variables math x x dots math said converge towards random variable math x math math lim n rightarrow infty p left left x n x right geq varepsilon right math every common shorthand notation math displaystyle x n xrightarrow p x math strong convergence sequence random variables math x x dots math said converge towards random variable math x math math p lim n rightarrow infty x n x math


strong convergence also known common shorthand notation math displaystyle x n xrightarrow mathrm x math names indicate weak convergence weaker strong convergence fact strong convergence implies convergence probability convergence probability implies weak convergence reverse statements always true law large numbers common intuition suggests fair coin tossed many times ''roughly'' half time turn ''heads'' half turn ''tails'' furthermore often coin tossed likely

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Probability theory


ratio number ''heads'' number ''tails'' approach unity modern probability theory provides formal version intuitive idea known law remarkable assumed foundations probability theory instead emerges foundations theorem since links theoretically derived probabilities actual frequency occurrence real world law large numbers considered pillar history statistical theory widespread influence lln states sample average


math overline x n frac n sum k n x k math sequence independent identically distributed random variables math x k math converges towards common expectation math mu math provided expectation math x k math finite different forms convergence random variables separates ''weak'' ' 'strong'' law large numbers weak law math displaystyle overline x n xrightarrow p mu math math n infty math strong law math displaystyle overline x n xrightarrow mathrm mu math math n infty math follows lln event probability ''p'' observed repeatedly independent experiments ratio observed frequency


event total number repetitions converges towards ''p'' example math math independent bernoulli random variables taking values probability ''p'' probability ''p'' math textrm e p math ''i'' math bar n math converges ''p'' almost surely central limit theorem central limit theorem clt one great results mathematics chapter explains ubiquitous occurrence normal distribution nature theorem states average many independent identically distributed random variables finite variance tends towards normal distribution ''irrespective''


cases one may use generalized central limit theorem gclt see also catalog articles probability theory expected value variance fuzzy logic fuzzy measure theory glossary probability statistics likelihood function list probability topics list publications statistics list statistical topics notation probability predictive modelling probabilistic logic combination probability theory logic probabilistic proofs non probabilistic theorems probability distribution probability axioms probability interpretations probability space statistical independence statistical physics subjective logic probability union pairwise independent events notes references first major treatise


blending calculus probability theory originally french ''th orie analytique des probabilit s'' english translation nathan morrison appeared title ''foundations theory probability'' chelsea new york second edition olav kallenberg ''foundations modern probability'' nd ed springer series statistics nbsp pp lively introduction probability theory beginner olav kallenberg ''probabilistic symmetries invariance principles'' springer verlag new york nbsp pp id peluang matematika


idea unconscious thoughts feelings central mental functioning milton jane caroline polmear julia fabricius ''a short introduction psychoanalysis'' sage p ref together form method treatment mental disorders discipline established early austrian neurologist sigmund freud developed practice theoretical model personality organization development psychoanalytic theory ref name mitchell juliet mitchell juliet ''psychoanalysis feminism radical reassessment freudian psychoanalysis'' london penguin books p ref freud 's work stems partly clinical work josef breuer others psychoanalysis

Social science
Psychology
Psychoanalysis


retains salient influence within psychiatry ref group lower roman psychoanalysis existed turn th century span years established one fundamental disciplines within psychiatry science psychoanalysis bedrock psychodynamic understanding forms fundamental theoretical frame reference variety forms therapeutic intervention embracing psychoanalysis also various forms psychoanalytically oriented psychotherapy related forms therapy using psychodynamic concepts sadock benjamin j virginia sadock ''kaplan sadock 's synopsis psychiatry'' th ed lippincott williams


supportive intervention individuals whose lives deformed biologic defect therapeutic interventions much patients chronic physical illness psychoanalyst psychiatric dialysis program look back role psychoanalysis treatment seriously mentally ill last scientifically enlightened phase humanistic tradition psychiatry tradition became extinct advances biology allowed us cure long comforted michels robert https webarchiveorg web http americanmentalhealthfoundationorg aphpid psychoanalysis psychiatry changing relationship ''the challenge psychoanalysis


psychotherapy solutions future'' new york american mental health foundation archived june ref psychoanalytic concepts also widely used outside therapeutic arena areas psychoanalytic literary criticism well analysis film fairy tales philosophical perspectives freudo marxism cultural phenomena basic tenets basic tenets psychoanalysis include person 's development determined often forgotten events early childhood rather inherited traits alone human behaviour cognition largely determined instinctual drives rooted unconscious attempts bring drives


awareness triggers resistance form defense mechanisms particularly repression conflicts conscious unconscious material result mental disturbances neurosis neurotic traits anxiety depression unconscious material found dreams unintentional acts including mannerisms slips tongue liberation effects unconscious achieved bringing material conscious mind therapeutic intervention centerpiece psychoanalytic process transference whereby patients relive infantile conflicts projecting onto analyst feelings love dependence anger practice


mind beyond psychoanalytic legend'' argues freud 's biological theories like libido rooted biological hypothesis accompanied work charles darwin citing theories krafft ebing molland havelock ellis haeckel wilhelm fliess influencing freud ref name idea psychoanalysis first began receive serious attention sigmund freud formulated theory psychoanalysis vienna freud neurologist trying find effective treatment patients neurotic hysterical symptoms freud realised mental processes conscious whilst


employed neurological consultant children 's hospital noticed many aphasic children apparent organic cause symptoms wrote monograph subject freud obtained grant study jean martin charcot famed neurologist salp tri paris freud followed clinical presentations charcot particularly areas hysteria paralyses anaesthesias charcot introduced hypnotism experimental research tool developed photographic representation clinical symptoms freud 's first theory explain hysterical symptoms presented ''studies hysteria''


co authored mentor distinguished physician josef breuer generally seen birth psychoanalysis ref name work based breuer 's treatment bertha pappenheim referred case studies pseudonym anna treatment pappenheim dubbed talking cure breuer wrote many factors could result symptoms including various types emotional trauma also credited work others pierre janet freud contended root hysterical symptoms repressed memories distressing occurrences almost always direct indirect sexual


associations ref name freud sigmund josef breuer ''studies hysteria'' ''standard editions'' edited j strachey london hogarth press ref around time freud attempted develop neuro physiological theory unconscious mental mechanisms soon gave remained unpublished lifetime term 'psychoanalysis' first introduced freud essay titled heredity etiology neuroses written published french freud also published ' 'seduction theory'' claiming uncovered repressed memories incidents sexual abuse current patients


proposed preconditions hysterical symptoms sexual excitations infancy ref name freud sigmund aetiology hysteria pp ''the standard edition'' edited j strachey london hogarth press http courseswashingtonedu freudlit hysterianoteshtml lay summary via university washington ref however privately acknowledged friend colleague wilhelm fliess longer believed theory though state publicly ref name freud sigmund views part played sexuality aetiology neuroses pp ''the standard edition'' edited j


strachey london hogarth press ref though reported patients feeling remembering infantile sexual scenes assured emphatically unbelief ref name later accounts claimed told sexually abused infancy became received historical account challenged several freud scholars latter part th century argued imposed preconceived notions patients however building claims patients reported infantile sexual abuse experiences freud subsequently contended clinical


earlier project freud outlined ''topographic theory'' theory mostly later supplanted structural theory unacceptable sexual wishes repressed system unconscious unconscious due society 's condemnation premarital sexual activity repression created anxiety topographic theory still popular much europe although fallen favour much north america freud published ''three essays theory sexuality'' laid discovery ''psychosexual phases'' oral ages anal phallic oedipal first genital


latency puberty mature genital puberty onward early formulation included idea societal restrictions sexual wishes repressed unconscious state energy unconscious wishes could turned anxiety physical symptoms therefore early treatment techniques including hypnotism abreaction designed make unconscious conscious order relieve pressure apparently resulting symptoms method would later left aside freud giving free association bigger role ''on narcissism'' freud turned attention titular subject narcissism still using


energic system freud characterized difference energy directed self versus energy directed others called ''cathexis'' mourning melancholia suggested certain depressions caused turning guilt ridden anger self ref name freud sigmund http wwwenglishupennedu cavitch pdf library freud mourningandmelancholiapdf mourning melancholia pp ''standard edition'' edited j strachey london hogarth press via university pennsylvania also available via https webarchiveorg web http wwwenglishupennedu cavitch pdf library freud mourningandmelancholiapdf internet archive ref child beaten began address problems self destructive behavior moral masochism frank sexual masochism based experience


depressed self destructive patients pondering carnage world war freud became dissatisfied considering oral sexual motivations behavior freud addressed power identification leader members groups motivation behavior ''group psychology analysis ego'' year freud suggested '' 'dual drive' theory'' sexuality aggression ''beyond pleasure principle'' try begin explain human destructiveness also first appearance structural theory consisting three new concepts id ego


superego three years later summarised ideas id ego superego ''the ego id'' ref name freud sigmund ego id ''standard edition'' edited j strachey london hogarth press lay summaries via https wwwsimplypsychologyorg psychehtml simply psychology https dailyjstororg virtual roundtable ego id jstor daily roundtable https www ndedu dlapsle lab articles chapters files entry encyclopedia human behavior finalized formatted pdf glossary via university notre dame ref book revised whole theory mental functioning considering repression one many defense mechanisms occurred reduce anxiety hence freud characterised repression cause result


development oedipus complex freud 's theories however characterized phase according freud oedipus complex centre neurosis foundational source art myth religion philosophy therapy indeed human culture civilization first time anyone inner circle characterised something oedipus complex contributing intrapsychic development notion rejected freud followers time principle multiple function clarified robert waelder widened formulation psychological symptoms


caused relieved conflict simultaneously moreover symptoms phobias compulsions represented elements drive wish sexual aggressive superego anxiety reality defenses also anna freud sigmund 's daughter published seminal book ''the ego mechanisms defense'' outlining numerous ways mind could shut upsetting things consciousness ref name freud anna ''the ego mechanisms defence'' revised ed london hogarth press ref present hitler 's power grew freud family many colleagues fled london within year sigmund freud died


united states also following death freud new group psychoanalysts began explore function ego led heinz hartmann group built upon understandings ' 'synthetic'' function ego mediator psychic functioning distinguishing ''autonomous'' ego functions eg memory intellect could secondarily affected conflict ego psychologists paved way focus analytic work attending defenses mediated ego exploring deeper roots unconscious conflicts addition burgeoning interest child psychoanalysis


although criticized since inception psychoanalysis used research tool childhood development ref group lower roman cf ''the psychoanalytic study child'' academic journal ref still used treat certain mental disturbances ref name wallerstein wallerstein ''forty two lives treatment study psychoanalysis psychotherapy'' ref freud 's early thoughts childhood development female sexuality challenged challenge led development variety understandings female sexual development many modified timing normality several freud 's theories gleaned treatment women


mental disturbances several researchers followed karen horney 's studies societal pressures influence development women first decade st century approximately training institutes psychoanalysis united states accredited american psychoanalytic association apsaa component organization international psychoanalytical association ipa graduated psychoanalysts practicing united states ipa accredits psychoanalytic training centers component organisations throughout rest world including countries serbia france germany austria italy switzerland many others well


six institutes directly united states psychoanalysis movement freud founded ''psychological wednesday society'' edward shorter argues beginning psychoanalysis movement society became vienna psychoanalytic society year first international congress psychoanalysis held salzburg austria ref name alfred adler one active members society early years second congress psychoanalysis took place nuremberg germany ref name congress ferenczi called creation


international psychoanalytic association jung president life third congress held weimar ref name ref london psychoanalytical society founded ernest jones developments alternative forms psychotherapy cognitive behavioural therapy cbt psychoanalysis main modality psychotherapy behavioural models psychotherapy started assume central role psychotherapy ref name group aaron beck psychiatrist trained psychoanalytic tradition set test psychoanalytic models depression empirically found conscious ruminations loss personal failing


correlated depression suggested distorted biased beliefs causal factor depression publishing influential paper decade research using construct schemas explain depression ref name norcrossvandenbos beck developed empirically supported hypothesis cause depression talking therapy called cognitive behavioral therapy cbt early attachment theory attachment theory developed theoretically john bowlby formalized empirically mary ainsworth bowlby trained psychoanalytically concerned properties psychoanalysis ref name ref response developed alternative


conceptualization child behaviour based principles ethology ref name holmes argues attachment theories conceptualization testable psychoanalysis ref name bowlby 's theory attachment rejects freud 's model psychosexual development based oedipal model ref name response publications bowlby shunned psychoanalytical circles accept theories conceptualization taken mother infant research ref name bowlby 's work attachment largely ignores internal intrapersonal psychodynamic aspects psychology holmes argues work winnocott wilfred bion carried analogous work


intrapersonally within psychoanalysis ref name bowlby joined british psychoanalytical society trained joan riviere kleinian time conflict kleinian freudian psychoanalysis became training secretary council later becoming deputy president donald winnicott ref name bowlby troubled dogmatism psychoanalysis time arcane terminology lack attention environment child behaviour concepts derived talking therapy child behaviour ref name bowlby published world health organization report ''maternal care mental health'' argued


signposts objects bowlby also introduced concept separation anxiety holmes argues similar freud 's later conceptualization anxiety holmes argues bowlby 's theory differs psychoanalysis interpersonal describing reality terms relationship individuals rather mental state implied harmony mother infant rather conflict downplays psychosexual model child psychology replacing drives play nurturing ref name theories predominant psychoanalytic theories organised several theoretical schools although perspectives differ emphasize influence unconscious


literary analysis archetypal literary criticism topographic theory ''topographic theory'' named first described sigmund freud ''the interpretation dreams'' theory hypothesizes mental apparatus divided systems conscious preconscious unconscious systems anatomical structures brain rather mental processes although freud retained theory throughout life largely replaced ' 'structural theory'' ref name langs r langs robert ''freud precipice freud 's fate pushed psychoanalysis edge'' lanham md jason aronson ref topographic theory remains one


meta psychological points view describing mind functions classical psychoanalytic theory structural theory structural theory divides psyche id ego super ego id present birth repository basic instincts freud called ''triebe'' drives unorganized unconscious operates merely 'pleasure principle' without realism foresight ego develops slowly gradually concerned mediating urging id realities external world thus operates 'reality principle' super ego held part


ego self observation self criticism reflective judgmental faculties develop ego super ego partly conscious partly unconscious ref name langs r theoretical clinical approaches twentieth century many different clinical theoretical models psychoanalysis emerged ego psychology ego psychology initially suggested freud ''inhibitions symptoms anxiety'' ref name major steps forward would made anna freud 's work defense mechanisms first published book ''the ego mechanisms defence'' ref name theory refined hartmann loewenstein kris


theory notably different altering concepts related repressed thoughts stored ref name ref name modern conflict theory addresses emotional symptoms character traits complex solutions mental conflict dispenses concepts fixed id ego superego instead posits conscious unconscious conflict among wishes dependent controlling sexual aggressive guilt shame emotions especially anxiety depressive affect defensive operations shut consciousness aspect others moreover healthy functioning adaptive also determined great extent resolutions conflict major objective


modern conflict theory psychoanalysis change balance conflict patient making aspects less adaptive solutions also called compromise formations conscious rethought adaptive solutions found current theoreticians follow work charles brenner especially ''the mind conflict'' include sandor abend jacob arlow jerome blackman ref name blackman jerome '' defenses mind shields itself'' ref object relations theory ''object relations theory'' attempts explain human relationships study mental representations self others organized clinical symptoms suggest


object relations problems typically developmental delays throughout life include disturbances individual 's capacity feel warmth empathy trust sense security identity stability consistent emotional closeness stability relationships significant others klein discusses concept introjection creating mental representation external objects projection applying mental representation reality ref name ref wilfred bion introduced concept ''containment'' projections mother child relationship mother understands infants projections modifies returns child ref name concepts regarding internal representation aka 'introspect' 'self object representation' 'internalization self


other' although often attributed melanie klein actually first mentioned sigmund freud early concepts drive theory ''three essays theory sexuality'' freud 's paper mourning melancholia example hypothesized unresolved grief caused survivor 's internalized image deceased becoming fused survivor survivor shifting unacceptable anger toward deceased onto complex self image ref name vamik volkan linking objects linking phenomena expanded freud 's thoughts describing syndromes established pathological mourning vs reactive depression


based similar dynamics melanie klein 's hypotheses regarding internalization first year life leading paranoid depressive positions later challenged ren spitz eg ''the first year life'' divided first year life coenesthetic phase first six months diacritic phase second six months mahler fine bergman describe distinct phases subphases child development leading separation individuation first three years life stressing importance constancy parental figures face child 's destructive aggression


internalizations stability affect management ability develop healthy autonomy john frosch otto kernberg salman akhtar sheldon bach developed theory self object constancy affects adult psychiatric problems psychosis borderline states blos described similar separation individuation struggles occur adolescence course different outcome first three years life teen usually eventually leaves parents' house varying culture adolescence erik erikson described 'identity crisis' involves identity diffusion anxiety order adult able experience warm ethics warmth


empathy trust holding environment identity closeness stability relationships teenager must resolve problems identity redevelop self object constancy ref name self psychology ''self psychology'' emphasizes development stable integrated sense self empathic contacts humans primary significant others conceived 'selfobjects' ''selfobjects'' meet developing self 's needs mirroring idealization twinship thereby strengthen developing self process treatment proceeds transmuting internalizations patient gradually internalizes selfobject functions provided therapist self psychology proposed originally heinz kohut


developed arnold goldberg frank lachmann paul anna ornstein marian tolpin others lacanian psychoanalysis lacanian psychoanalysis integrates psychoanalysis structural linguistics hegelian philosophy especially popular france parts latin america lacanian psychoanalysis departure traditional british american psychoanalysis jacques lacan frequently used phrase retourner freud return freud seminars writings claimed theories extension freud 's contrary anna freud ego psychology object relations self theories also claims


necessity reading freud 's complete works part lacan 's concepts concern mirror stage real imaginary symbolic claim unconscious structured language though major influence psychoanalysis france parts latin america lacan ideas taken longer translated english thus lesser impact psychoanalysis psychotherapy english speaking world united kingdom united states ideas widely used analyze texts literary theory due


increasingly critical stance towards deviation freud 's thought often singling particular texts readings colleagues lacan excluded acting training analyst ipa thus leading create school order maintain institutional structure many candidates desired continue analysis adaptive paradigm ''adaptive paradigm'' psychotherapy develops work robert langs ''adaptive paradigm'' interprets psychic conflict primarily terms conscious unconscious adaptation reality langs recent work measure returns


earlier freud langs prefers modified version topographic model mind conscious preconscious unconscious structural model id ego super ego including former 's emphasis trauma though langs looks death related traumas rather sexual traumas ref name langs r time langs model mind differs freud 's understands mind terms evolutionary biological principles relational psychoanalysis ''relational psychoanalysis'' combines interpersonal psychoanalysis object relations theory inter subjective theory critical mental health introduced stephen mitchell relational psychoanalysis stresses


individual 's personality shaped real imagined relationships others relationship patterns enacted interactions analyst patient new york key proponents relational psychoanalysis include lew aron jessica benjamin adrienne harris fonagy target london propounded view necessity helping certain detached isolated patients develop capacity mentalization associated thinking relationships arietta slade susan coates daniel schechter new york additionally contributed application relational psychoanalysis treatment adult patient parent clinical


study mentalization parent infant relationships intergenerational transmission attachment trauma interpersonal relational psychoanalysis term ''interpersonal relational psychoanalysis'' often used professional identification psychoanalysts broader umbrella debate precisely differences two schools without current clear consensus psychopathology mental disturbances adults various psychoses involve deficits autonomous ego functions see integration organization thought abstraction ability relationship reality reality testing depressions psychotic features self preservation function may also damaged sometimes overwhelming depressive affect


integrative deficits often causing general psychiatrists call loose associations blocking flight ideas verbigeration thought withdrawal development self object representations also impaired clinically therefore psychotic individuals manifest limitations warmth empathy trust identity closeness stability relationships due problems self object fusion anxiety well patients whose autonomous ego functions intact still show problems object relations diagnosis often falls category known borderline borderline patients also show deficits often controlling impulses affects fantasies ability test reality


remains less intact adults experience guilt shame indulge criminal behavior usually diagnosed psychopathy antisocial personality disorder ''neurotic symptoms'' including panic phobias conversions obsessions compulsions depressions usually caused deficits functions instead caused intrapsychic conflicts conflicts generally among sexual hostile aggressive wishes guilt shame reality factors conflicts may conscious unconscious create anxiety depressive affect anger finally various elements managed defensive operations essentially shut brain mechanisms make people unaware element


conflict ''repression'' term given mechanism shuts thoughts consciousness ''isolation affect'' term used mechanism shuts sensations consciousness neurotic symptoms may occur without deficits ego functions object relations ego strengths therefore uncommon encounter obsessive compulsive schizophrenics panic patients also suffer borderline personality disorder etc section partial ego psychoanalytic theory ''autonomous ego functions'' childhood origins freudian theories hold adult problems traced unresolved conflicts certain phases childhood adolescence caused


fantasy stemming drives freud based data gathered patients early career suspected neurotic disturbances occurred children sexually abused childhood ie ' 'seduction theory'' later freud came believe although child abuse occurs neurotic symptoms associated believed neurotic people often unconscious conflicts involved incestuous fantasies deriving different stages development found stage three six years age preschool years today called first genital stage filled fantasies romantic relationships


parents arguments quickly generated early th century vienna whether adult seduction children ie child sexual abuse basis neurotic illness still complete agreement although nowadays professionals recognize negative effects child sexual abuse mental health oedipal conflicts many psychoanalysts work children studied actual effects child abuse include ego object relations deficits severe neurotic conflicts much research done types trauma childhood adult sequelae studying childhood factors


dysfunctions wide variety relationship problems dating marital strife wide variety character problems example painful shyness meanness obnoxiousness workaholism hyperseductiveness hyperemotionality hyperfastidiousness fact many patients also demonstrate deficits makes diagnosis treatment selection difficult analytical organizations ipa apsaa european federation psychoanalytic psychotherapy established procedures models indication practice psychoanalytical therapy trainees analysis match analyst patient viewed another contributing factor indication contraindication psychoanalytic


treatment analyst decides whether patient suitable psychoanalysis decision made analyst besides made usual indications pathology also based certain degree fit analyst patient person 's suitability analysis particular time based desire know something illness come someone suitable analysis expresses desire know root causes illness evaluation may include one analysts' independent opinions include discussion


patient 's financial situation insurances techniques basic method psychoanalysis interpretation patient 's unconscious conflicts interfering current day functioning conflicts causing painful symptoms phobias anxiety depression compulsions strachey stressed figuring ways patient distorted perceptions analyst led understanding may forgotten ref group lower roman also see freud 's paper repeating remembering working ref particular unconscious hostile feelings toward analyst could found symbolic negative reactions robert langs later called frame therapy setup included times


sessions payment fees necessity talking patients made mistakes forgot showed peculiarities regarding time fees talking analyst usually find various unconscious resistances flow thoughts aka free association patient reclines couch analyst view patient tends remember experiences resistance transference able reorganize thoughts development insight interpretive work analyst although fantasy life understood examination dreams masturbation fantasies ref group lower roman cf marcus


j francis ''masturbation infancy senescence'' ref also important analyst interested patient reacts avoids fantasies various memories early life generally distorted freud called ' 'screen memories'' case early experiences age two cannot remembered ref group lower roman see child studies eleanor galenson evocative memory ref variations technique known among psychoanalysts ''classical technique'' although freud throughout writings deviated considerably depending problems given patient ''classical technique'' summarized allan compton comprising instructions telling


techniques adults sometimes called interpersonal intersubjective cf stolorow relational corrective object relations techniques techniques include expressing empathic attunement patient warmth exposing bit analyst 's personal life attitudes patient allowing patient autonomy form disagreement analyst cf h paul ''letters simon'' explaining motivations others patient misperceives ego psychological concepts deficit functioning led refinements supportive therapy techniques particularly applicable psychotic near psychotic cf eric marcus psychosis near psychosis


analyst silent refers analyst 's position taking sides internal struggles patient example patient feels guilty analyst might explore patient thinking causes guilt reassure patient feel guilty analyst might also explore identifications parents others led guilt interpersonal relational psychoanalysts emphasize notion impossible neutral sullivan introduced term ''participant observer'' indicate analyst inevitably interacts analysand suggested detailed inquiry


alternative interpretation detailed inquiry involves noting analysand leaving important elements account noting story obfuscated asking careful questions open dialogue group therapy play therapy although single client sessions remain norm psychoanalytic theory used develop types psychological treatment psychoanalytic group therapy pioneered trigant burrow joseph pratt paul f schilder samuel r slavson harry stack sullivan wolfe child centered counseling parents instituted early analytic history freud later developed irwin


marcus edith schulhofer gilbert kliman psychoanalytically based couples therapy promulgated explicated fred sander techniques tools developed first decade st century made psychoanalysis available patients treatable earlier techniques meant analytic situation modified would suitable likely helpful patients eagle believes psychoanalysis cannot self contained discipline instead must open influence integration findings theory disciplines psychoanalytic constructs adapted


disobedience withdrawal guarding various unpleasant feelings hostile wishes art therapy counselor may child draw portrait tell story portrait counselor watches recurring themes regardless whether art toys cultural variations psychoanalysis adapted different cultures long therapist counselor understands client 's culture example tori blimes found defense mechanisms valid normative sample thais use certain defense mechanisms related cultural values example thais


value calmness collectiveness buddhist beliefs low regressive emotionality psychoanalysis also applies freud used techniques allowed get subjective perceptions patients takes objective approach facing clients talk therapy sessions met patients wherever used free association clients would say whatever came mind without self censorship treatments little structure cultures especially asian cultures therefore likely freudian constructs used structured therapy ref name


experience since locations united states unlike ontario germany classical analysis usually requires sessions three five times per week covered health insurance many analysts may negotiate fees patients feel help financial difficulties modifications analysis include psychodynamic therapy brief therapies certain types group therapy ref group lower roman cf slavson r ''a textbook analytic group therapy'' ref carried less frequent basis usually twice three times week usually patient sits facing


therapist result defense mechanisms lack access unfathomable elements unconscious psychoanalysis expansive process involves sessions per week several years type therapy relies belief reducing symptoms actually help root causes irrational drives analyst typically 'blank screen' disclosing little order client use space relationship work unconscious without interference outside psychoanalyst uses various methods help


patient become self aware develop insights behavior meanings symptoms first foremost psychoanalyst attempts develop confidential atmosphere patient feel safe reporting feelings thoughts fantasies analysands people analysis called asked report whatever comes mind without fear reprisal freud called fundamental rule analysands asked talk lives including early life current life hopes aspirations future encouraged report fantasies flash thoughts dreams


fact freud believed dreams royal road unconscious devoted entire volume interpretation dreams freud patients lay couch dimly lit room would sit sight usually directly behind influence patients thoughts gestures expressions psychoanalyst 's task collaboration analysand help deepen analysand 's understanding factors outside awareness drive behaviors safe environment psychoanalytic setting analysand becomes attached analyst


pretty soon begins experience conflicts analyst experiences key figures life parents boss significant etc psychoanalyst 's role point conflicts interpret transferring internal conflicts onto analyst called transference many studies also done briefer dynamic treatments expedient measure shed light therapeutic process extent brief relational therapy brt brief psychodynamic therapy bpt time limited dynamic therapy tldp limit treatment


sessions average classical analysis may last years phobias depressions uncomplicated ego deficits object relations deficits analysis may run shorter period time longer analyses indicated serious disturbances object relations symptoms ingrained character pathology training research psychoanalysis continues practiced psychiatrists social workers mental health professionals however practice declined ref name science ref largely replaced similar broader psychodynamic psychotherapy mid th century ref name encmh psychoanalytic approaches continue listed uk


psychoanalysts undergo another hurdle specially vetted senior members institute supervising training analysts held highest clinical ethical standards moreover required extensive experience conducting psychoanalyses similarly class instruction psychoanalytic candidates rigorous typically classes meet several hours week full day two every weekend academic year varies institute candidates generally hour supervision week supervising training analyst psychoanalytic case minimum number cases varies


permitted access psychoanalytic training institutes apsaa currently independent institutes united states well institutes affiliated organizations american academy psychoanalysis dynamic psychiatry national association advancement psychoanalysis psychoanalytic institutes united states qualifications entry include terminal degree mental health field phd psyd msw md institutes restrict applicants already holding md phd institutes southern california confer phd


psyd psychoanalysis upon graduation involves completion necessary requirements state boards confer doctoral degree first training institute america educate non medical psychoanalysts national psychological association psychoanalysis new york city founded analyst theodor reik contemporary freudian originally new york freudian society offshoot national psychological association branch washington dc component society institute ipa psychoanalytic training set post doctoral fellowship university settings


duke university yale university new york university adelphi university columbia university psychoanalytic institutes may directly associated universities faculty institutes usually hold contemporaneous faculty positions psychology phd programs medical school psychiatry residency programs ipa world 's primary accrediting regulatory body psychoanalysis mission assure continued vigor development psychoanalysis benefit psychoanalytic patients works partnership constituent organizations countries support members us psychoanalytical organizations institutes associations


united states spread across states america apsaa affiliated societies active members practice given geographical area aims apsaa psychoanalytical organizations provide ongoing educational opportunities members stimulate development research psychoanalysis provide training organize conferences eight affiliated study groups united states study group first level integration psychoanalytical body within ipa followed provisional society finally member society division psychoanalysis


approximately individual members countries speaking different languages also psychoanalytic societies american association psychoanalysis clinical social work aapcsw established crayton rowe division federation clinical societies social work became independent entity known national membership committee psychoanalysis organization founded although social workers represented larger number people training psychoanalysts underrepresented supervisors teachers institutes


attended aapcsw members chapters holds bi annual national conference numerous annual local conferences experiences psychoanalysts psychoanalytic psychotherapists research infant child development led new insights theories developed results empirical research integrated psychoanalytic theory ref name npi ref united kingdom london psychoanalytical society founded ernest jones october world war expansion psychoanalysis united kingdom society reconstituted named british psychoanalytical society


soon institute psychoanalysis established administer society 's activities include training psychoanalysts development theory practice psychoanalysis provision treatment london clinic psychoanalysis publication books new library psychoanalysis psychoanalytic ideas institute psychoanalysis also publishes ''the international journal psychoanalysis'' maintains library furthers research holds public lectures society code ethics ethical committee society institute clinic located ''byron house'' west london


institute psychoanalysis th year one largest circulations psychoanalytic journal india psychoanalytical practice emerging slowly india yet recognised government india decriminalised suicide mental health bill psychoanalytic psychotherapy different forms psychoanalysis psychotherapies psychoanalytic thinking practiced besides classical psychoanalysis example psychoanalytic psychotherapy therapeutic approach widens accessibility psychoanalytic theory clinical practices evolved plus years larger number individuals examples well


known therapies also use insights psychoanalysis mentalization based treatment mbt transference focused psychotherapy tfp ref name npi also continuing influence psychoanalytic thinking mental health care research hundred years case reports studies journal ''modern psychoanalysis'' ''psychoanalytic quarterly'' ''international journal psychoanalysis'' ''journal american psychoanalytic association'' analyzed efficacy analysis cases neurosis character personality problems psychoanalysis modified object relations techniques shown effective many cases ingrained problems intimacy relationship cf


many books otto kernberg psychoanalytic treatment situations may run year many years depending severity complexity pathology psychoanalytic theory inception subject criticism controversy freud remarked early career physicians vienna ostracized findings hysterical conversion symptoms limited women challenges analytic theory began otto rank alfred adler turn th century continued behaviorists eg wolpe ' persisted eg miller


criticisms come object notion mechanisms thoughts feelings mind could unconscious criticisms also leveled idea infantile sexuality recognition children ages two six imagine things procreation criticisms theory led variations analytic theories work ronald fairbairn michael balint john bowlby past years criticisms centered issue empirical verification psychoanalysis used research tool childhood development cf journal


''the psychoanalytic study child'' developed flexible effective treatment certain mental disturbances ref name wallerstein freud 's early thoughts childhood development female sexuality challenged challenge led major research reformulation female sexual development corrected freud 's concepts also see various works eleanor galenson nancy chodorow karen horney fran oise dolto melanie klein selma fraiberg others recently psychoanalytic researchers integrated attachment theory work including alicia lieberman susan coates


daniel schechter explored role parental traumatization development young children 's mental representations self others effectiveness psychoanalytic profession resistant researching efficacy ref name businessinsidercomau ref evaluations effectiveness based interpretation therapist alone cannot proven ref name psychology tenth edition modules myers g ''psychology tenth edition modules'' new york worth publishers ref research results numerous studies shown efficacy therapy primarily related quality therapist rather school technique training ref name horvath horvath


alliance ''psychotherapy theory research practice training'' ref meta analyses found support evidence efficacy psychoanalytic therapy thus research needed ref name ref meta analyses published recent years showed psychoanalysis psychodynamic therapy effective outcomes comparable greater kinds psychotherapy antidepressant drugs arguments also subjected various criticisms particular inclusion pre post studies rather randomized controlled trials absence adequate comparisons control treatments serious limitation interpreting results ref name french


report inserm concluded psychoanalytic therapy less effective psychotherapies including cognitive behavioral therapy certain diseases ref name inserm american psychological association made comparisons psychodynamic treatment non dynamic competitor found superior inferior difference adequate study found could used basis make psychodynamic psychotherapy 'empirically validated' treatment ref name gerber ref meta analyses short term psychodynamic psychotherapy stpp found effect sizes cohen 's ranging compared treatment


found slightly better therapies follow reviews found effect size somatic disorders compared treatment treating depression ''harvard review psychiatry'' meta analysis intensive short term dynamic psychotherapy istdp found effect sizes ranging interpersonal problems depression overall istdp effect size compared treatment meta analysis long term psychodynamic psychotherapy found overall effect size modest study concluded recovery rate following ltpp


equal control treatments including treatment usual found evidence effectiveness ltpp limited best conflicting ref name referencea ref others found effect sizes according french review conducted inserm psychoanalysis presumed proven effective treating panic disorder post traumatic stress personality disorders find evidence effectiveness treating schizophrenia obsessive compulsive disorder specific phobia bulimia anorexia ref name inserm inserm collective expertise centre https wwwncbinlmnihgov books nbk pdf bookshelf nbk pdf psychotherapy three approaches evaluated ''inserm collective expert reports'' paris institut national de la sant et de la


recherche dicale ncbi ref systematic review medical literature cochrane collaboration concluded data exist demonstrating psychodynamic psychotherapy effective treating schizophrenia severe mental illness cautioned medication always used alongside type talk therapy schizophrenia cases ref name pmid ref french review found ref name inserm schizophrenia patient outcomes research team advises use psychodynamic therapy cases schizophrenia arguing trials necessary verify effectiveness criticism freud psychoanalysis criticized extreme


terms ref name brunner ref exchanges critics defenders psychoanalysis often heated come characterized ''freud wars'' linguist noam chomsky criticized psychoanalysis lacking scientific basis evolutionary biologist stephen jay gould considered psychoanalysis influenced pseudoscientific theories recapitulation theory psychologists hans eysenck john f kihlstrom others also criticized field pseudoscience ref name popper ref ref name georgiev ref debate status scientific theoretical foundations psychoanalysis lie philosophical currents lead interpretive phenomenology rather lead


scientific positivism making theory largely incompatible positivist approaches study mind ref name ref name popper popper karl r science conjectures refutations pp ''philosophy science occult'' edited p grim albany p https booksgooglede booksid vewakdw h c pg pa dq philosophy science occult edited p grim albany hl de sa x ved ahukewia fh hsahwnskqkhulldvwq aewahoecaiqag v onepage q freud f false preview google books see also ''conjectures refutations'' ref ref name webster richard webster richard ''why freud wrong sin science psychoanalysis'' london harper collins ref early critics psychoanalysis believed theories based little quantitative experimental research much clinical case study method philosopher frank cioffi cites false


claims sound scientific verification theory elements strongest basis classifying work freud school pseudoscience karl popper argued psychoanalysis pseudoscience claims testable cannot refuted falsifiable ref name popper blockquote clinical observations analysts naively believe confirm theory cannot daily confirmations astrologers find practice freud 's epic ego super ego id substantially stronger claim scientific status made


homer 's collected stories olympus blockquote addition imre lakatos wrote freudians nonplussed popper 's basic challenge concerning scientific honesty indeed refused specify experimental conditions would give basic assumptions ''sexual desire'' philosopher roger scruton rejects popper 's arguments pointing theory repression example freudian theory testable consequences scruton nevertheless concluded psychoanalysis genuinely scientific grounds involves unacceptable dependence metaphor philosopher physicist mario bunge argued psychoanalysis


different times situations ref name isabelle stengers states psychoanalytic circles tried stop historians accessing documents life freud ref name witch doctors richard feynman wrote psychoanalysts mere witch doctors likewise psychiatrist e fuller torrey ''witchdoctors psychiatrists'' agreed psychoanalytic theories scientific basis theories traditional native healers witchdoctors modern cult alternatives est ref name torrey e fuller ''witchdoctors psychiatrists'' p ref psychologist alice miller charged psychoanalysis similar poisonous pedagogies described


book ''for good'' scrutinized rejected validity freud 's drive theory including oedipus complex according jeffrey masson blames child abusive sexual behavior adults psychologist joel kupfersmid investigated validity oedipus complex examining nature origins concluded little evidence support existence oedipus complex ref name kupfersmid joel critical perspectives michel foucault gilles deleuze claimed institution psychoanalysis become center power confessional techniques resemble christian tradition jacques


lacan criticized emphasis american british psychoanalytical traditions viewed suggestion imaginary causes symptoms recommended return freud together deleuze f lix guattari criticised oedipal structure luce irigaray criticised psychoanalysis employing jacques derrida 's concept phallogocentrism describe exclusion woman freudian lacanian psychoanalytical theories deleuze guattari ''anti dipus'' take cases g rard mendel bela grunberger janine chasseguet smirgel prominent members respected associations ipa suggest traditionally psychoanalysis enthusiastically embraces police state freudian theory


survey scientific research suggested personality traits corresponding freud 's oral anal oedipal genital phases observed necessarily manifest stages development children studies also confirmed traits adults result childhood experiences however stages viewed crucial modern psychoanalysis crucial modern psychoanalytic theory practice power unconscious transference phenomenon idea unconscious contested human behavior observed human mental activity inferred however


psychoanalytic theory ie neuropsychoanalysis ref name side argues findings make psychoanalytic theory obsolete irrelevant shlomo kalo explains scientific materialism flourished th century severely harmed religion rejected whatever called spiritual institution confession priest particular badly damaged empty void institution left behind swiftly occupied newborn psychoanalysis writings kalo claims psychoanalysis basic approach erroneous represents mainline wrong assumptions happiness unreachable natural desire human exploit


theology since plato see also analytical psychology list schools psychoanalysis psychoanalytic sociology psychoanalysis music training analysis references notes citations reading introductions brenner charles ''an elementary textbook psychoanalysis'' elliott anthony ''psychoanalytic theory introduction'' nd ed duke university press br introduction explains psychoanalytic theory interpretations major theorists fine reuben ''the history psychoanalysis'' expanded ed northvale jason aronson samuel lawrence r ''shrink cultural history psychoanalysis america'' university nebraska press pp freud sigmund http wwwbritannicacom topic sigmund freud psychoanalysis psychoanalysis ''encyclop dia britannica''


reference works de mijolla alain ed ''international dictionary psychoanalysis'' enhanced american version detroit thomson gale laplanche jean j b pontalis language psycho analysis w w norton company freud sigmund ''an outline psychoanalysis'' epenguin general edelson marshall ''hypothesis evidence psychoanalysis'' chicago chicago university press etchegoyen horacio ''the fundamentals psychoanalytic technique'' new ed karnac books gellner ernest ''the psychoanalytic movement cunning unreason'' critical view freudian theory green andr psychoanalysis paradigm clinical thinking free association books irigaray luce ''key writings'' continuum jacobson


''freud beyond history modern psychoanalytic thought'' new york basic books pp xviii xx pollock griselda beyond oedipus feminist thought psychoanalysis mythical figurations feminine ''laughing medusa'' edited v zajko leonard oxford oxford university press spielrein sabina ''destruction cause becoming'' stoller robert ''presentations gender'' yale university press stolorow robert george atwood donna orange ''worlds experience interweaving philosophical clinical dimensions psychoanalysis'' new york basic books spitz ren ''the first year life psychoanalytic study normal deviant development object


relations'' international universities press hk veikko ''mind treatment psychoanalytic approach'' madison ct international universities press book series ''contemporary psychoanalytic studies'' amsterdam new york rodopi analyses discussions critiques aziz robert ''the syndetic paradigm untrodden path beyond freud jung'' albany state university new york press borch jacobsen mikkel ''lacan absolute master'' stanford stanford university press ''remembering anna century mystification'' london routledge burnham john ed ''after freud left century psychoanalysis america'' university chicago press pp cioffi frank ''freud


question pseudoscience'' open court publishing company crews frederick ''the memory wars freud 's legacy dispute'' new york new york review books crews frederick ed ''unauthorized freud doubters confront legend'' new york viking dufresne todd ''tales freudian crypt death drive text context'' stanford stanford university press ''against freud critics talk back'' stanford stanford university press erwin edward ''a final accounting philosophical empirical issues freudian psychology'' esterson allen ''seductive mirage exploration work sigmund freud'' chicago open court fisher seymour roger


anchor books responses critiques k hler thomas ''anti freud literatur von ihren anf ngen bis heute zur wissenschaftlichen fundierung von psychoanalyse kritik'' stuttgart kohlhammer verlag ollinheimo ari vuorinen risto metapsychology suggestion argument reply gr nbaum 's critique psychoanalysis ''commentationes scientiarum socialium'' helsinki finnish academy science letters robinson paul ''freud critics'' berkeley los angeles university california press gomez lavinia https booksgooglecom booksid zlaflqbui ic printsec frontcover hl en source gbs ge summary r cad v onepage q f false ''the freud wars introduction philosophy psychoanalysis'' routledge https wwwresearchgatenet publication freud wars introduction philosophy psychoanalysis review ''psychodynamic practice'' feb external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwipaorguk international psychoanalytical association ipa world 's primary regulatory body


psychoanalysis founded sigmund freud https wwwapaorg division div psychoanalysis division american psychological association apa branches psychology


'''paediatrics''' also spelled '''pediatrics''' '''p diatrics''' branch medicine involves medical care infants children adolescents american academy pediatrics recommends people seek pediatric care age united kingdom paediatrics covers patients age worldwide age limits pediatrics trending year year medical doctor specializes area known '''pediatrician''' '''paediatrician''' word ''pediatrics'' cognates mean healer children derive two greek words ''pais'' child ''iatros'' doctor healer pediatricians

Applied science
Medicine and health
Pediatrics


work hospitals children 's hospitals particularly working subspecialties eg neonatology outpatient primary care physicians history part great ormond street hospital london united kingdom first pediatric hospital english speaking world earliest mentions child specific medical problems appears ''hippocratic corpus'' published fifth century bc famous ''sacred disease'' publications discussed topics childhood epilepsy premature births first fourth centuries ad greek philosophers physicians celsus soranus ephesus aretaeus galen oribasius also discussed specific illnesses affecting children


works rashes epilepsy meningitis ref name ref already hippocrates aristotle celsus soranus galen ref name col ncol n ref understood differences growing maturing organisms necessitated different treatment '''' general boys treated way men even though pediatric works existed time scarce rarely published due lack knowledge pediatric medicine padua paolo bagellardo italian physician authored first medical book entirely childhood illnesses ''de infantium aegritudinibus ac remediis'' ref name


oldest traces pediatrics discovered ancient india children 's doctors called ''kumara bhrtya'' ref name col ncol n ''sushruta samhita'' ayurvedic text composed sixth century bc contains text pediatrics another ayurvedic text period ''kashyapa samhita'' second century ad manuscript greek physician gynecologist soranus ephesus dealt neonatal pediatrics byzantine physicians oribasius tius amida alexander trallianus paulus aegineta contributed field ref name col ncol n byzantines also built ''brephotrophia'' cr ches ref name col ncol n islamic golden age writers served bridge greco roman byzantine


medicine added ideas especially haly abbas yahya serapion abulcasis avicenna averroes persian philosopher physician al razi published monograph pediatrics titled ''diseases children'' well first definite description smallpox clinical entity ref name elgood ref also among first books pediatrics ''libellus opusculum de aegritudinibus et remediis infantium'' little book children diseases treatment italian pediatrician paolo bagellardo sequence came bartholom us metlinger 's ''ein regiment der jungerkinder'' cornelius roelans title buchlein latin compendium heinrich von louffenburg


considered first modern textbook subject however nineteenth century medical professionals acknowledged pediatrics separate field medicine first pediatric specific publications appeared ref name ref term pediatrics first introduced english dr abraham jacobi became first dedicated professor pediatrics world ref name ref pediatrics specialized field medicine continued develop mid th century german physician abraham jacobi known ''father american pediatrics''


hospital founded berlin established separate pediatric pavilion followed similar institutions saint petersburg vienna breslau wroc aw britain 's first pediatric hospital hospital sick children great ormond street founded charles west ref name ballbriga first children 's hospital scotland opened edinburgh us first similar institutions children 's hospital philadelphia opened boston children 's hospital ref name pearson ref subspecialties pediatrics created harriet lane home johns


hopkins edwards park differences adult pediatric medicine body size differences paralleled maturation changes smaller body infant neonate substantially different physiologically adult congenital defects genetic variance developmental issues greater concern pediatricians often adult physicians common adage children simply little adults ref name ref clinician must take account immature physiology infant child considering symptoms prescribing medications diagnosing illnesses pediatric physiology directly impacts pharmacokinetic properties drugs


enter body absorption distribution metabolism elimination medications differ developing children grown adults ref name ref name ref name despite completed studies reviews continual research needed better understand factors affect decisions healthcare providers prescribing administering medications pediatric population ref name absorption many drug absorption differences pediatric adult populations revolve around stomach neonates young infants increased stomach ph due decreased acid secretion thereby creating basic environment drugs taken mouth ref


name ref ref name ref name acid essential degrading certain oral drugs systemic absorption therefore absorption drugs children greater adults due decreased breakdown increased preservation less acidic gastric space ref name children also extended rate gastric emptying slows rate drug absorption ref name ref name drug absorption also depends specific enzymes come contact oral drug travels body supply enzymes increase children continue develop gastrointestinal tract ref name ref


half life factors contribute metabolism differences children adults ref name ref name ref drug metabolism even differ within pediatric population separating neonates infants young children ref name elimination drug elimination primarily facilitated via liver kidneys ref name infants young children larger relative size kidneys leads increased renal clearance medications eliminated urine ref name preterm neonates infants kidneys slower mature thus unable clear much drug fully developed kidneys


cause unwanted drug build important consider lower doses greater dosing intervals population ref name ref name diseases negatively affect kidney function also effect thus warrant similar considerations ref name pediatric autonomy healthcare major difference practice pediatric adult medicine children jurisdictions certain exceptions cannot make decisions issues guardianship privacy legal responsibility informed consent must always considered every pediatric procedure pediatricians often


treat parents sometimes family rather child adolescents legal class rights health care decisions certain circumstances concept legal consent combined non legal consent assent child considering treatment options especially face conditions poor prognosis complicated painful procedures surgeries means pediatrician must take account desires many people addition patient history pediatric autonomy term autonomy traceable ethical theory law states


autonomous individuals make decisions based logic hippocrates first use term medical setting created code ethics doctors called ''hippocratic oath'' highlighted importance putting patients' interests first making autonomy patients top priority health care ref name ref ancient times society view pediatric medicine essential scientific ref name ref experts considered professional medicine unsuitable treating children children also rights fathers regarded children property children 's health decisions entrusted ref name


laws prohibiting infanticide ref name twentieth century medical experts began put emphasis children 's rights united nations rights child convention medical experts developed best interest standard child prioritize children 's rights best interests event marked onset pediatric autonomy american academy pediatrics aap finally acknowledged best interest standard child ethical principle pediatric decision making still used today ref name parental authority current medical issues majority


time parents authority decide happens child philosopher john locke argued responsibility parents raise children god gave authority modern society jeffrey blustein modern philosopher author book ''parents children ethics family'' argues parental authority granted child requires parents satisfy needs believes parental autonomy parents providing good care children treating respect parents rights researcher kyriakos martakis md msc explains


research shows parental influence negatively affects children 's ability form autonomy however involving children decision making process allows children develop cognitive skills create opinions thus decisions health parental authority affects degree autonomy child patient result argentina new national civil commercial code enacted various changes healthcare system encourage children adolescents develop autonomy become crucial let children take accountability health decisions ref name ref cases pediatrician parent child work


benefit thus enhancing autonomy however radical theories question child 's moral worth continue debated today ref name authors often question whether treatment equality child adult author tamar schapiro notes children need nurturing cannot exercise level authority adults hence continuing discussion whether children capable making important health decisions day modern advancements according subcommittee clinical ethics argentinean pediatric society sap children understand moral feelings


future genetic intellectual disorders children make incapable making moral decisions people look upon kind testing child 's future autonomy risk still question whether parents request types testing children medical experts argue could endanger autonomous rights child possess future however parents contend genetic testing would benefit welfare children since would allow make better health care decisions exome sequencing children decision grant


parents right request medically ethical issue many still debate today education requirements aspiring medical students need years undergraduate courses college university get bs ba bachelor 's degree completing college future pediatricians need attend years medical school md mbbs later years residency training first year called internship completing years residency physicians eligible become certified pediatrics passing rigorous test deals


medical conditions related young children high school future pediatricians required take basic science classes biology chemistry physics algebra geometry calculus also advisable learn foreign language preferably spanish united states involved high school organizations extracurricular activities high school college students simply need fulfill basic science course requirements medical schools recommend need prepare take mcat medical college admission test junior early senior year college attending medical school student courses


focus basic medical sciences like human anatomy physiology chemistry etc first three years second year medical students start get hands experience actual patients training pediatricians training pediatricians varies considerably across world depending jurisdiction university medical degree course may either undergraduate entry graduate entry former commonly takes five six years usual commonwealth entrants graduate entry courses us usually lasting four five years previously completed three four year university degree


three year residency composed outpatient inpatient critical care rotations subspecialties within pediatrics require training form year fellowships subspecialties include critical care gastroenterology neurology infectious disease hematology oncology rheumatology pulmonology child abuse emergency medicine endocrinology neonatology others jurisdictions entry level degrees common branches medical profession jurisdictions specialization pediatrics may begin completion degree jurisdictions pediatric training begun immediately following completion entry level training jurisdictions junior medical doctors must undertake generalist unstreamed training number years


commencing pediatric specialization specialist training often largely control '''pediatric organizations'' see rather universities depends jurisdiction subspecialties subspecialties pediatrics include ''not exhaustive list'' addiction medicine multidisciplinary adolescent medicine child abuse pediatrics clinical informatics developmental behavioral pediatrics genetics metabolism headache medicine hospital medicine medical toxicology neonatology perinatology pain medicine multidisciplinary palliative care multidisciplinary pediatric allergy immunology pediatric cardiology pediatric cardiac critical care pediatric critical care neurocritical care pediatric cardiac critical care pediatric emergency medicine pediatric endocrinology pediatric gastroenterology transplant hepatology pediatric hematology pediatric infectious disease pediatric nephrology pediatric


oncology pediatric neuro oncology pediatric pulmonology primary care pediatric rheumatology sleep medicine multidisciplinary social pediatrics sports medicine specialties care children ''not exhaustive list'' child neurology addiction medicine multidisciplinary brain injury medicine clinical neurophysiology epilepsy headache medicine neurocritical care neuroimmunology neuromuscular medicine neuropsychiatry pain medicine multidisciplinary palliative care multidisciplinary pediatric neuro oncology sleep medicine multidisciplinary child adolescent psychiatry subspecialty psychiatry neurodevelopmental disabilities pediatric anesthesiology subspecialty anesthesiology pediatric dentistry subspecialty dentistry pediatric dermatology subspecialty dermatology pediatric gynecology pediatric neurosurgery subspecialty neurosurgery pediatric ophthalmology subspecialty ophthalmology pediatric orthopedic surgery subspecialty orthopedic surgery pediatric


otolaryngology subspecialty otolaryngology pediatric plastic surgery subspecialty plastic surgery pediatric radiology subspecialty radiology pediatric rehabilitation medicine subspecialty physical medicine rehabilitation pediatric surgery subspecialty general surgery pediatric urology subspecialty urology see also american academy pediatrics american osteopathic board pediatrics center media child health cmch children 's hospital list pediatric organizations list pediatrics journals medical specialty pediatric oncall pain babies royal college paediatrics child health references reading https bmcpediatrbiomedcentralcom ''bmc pediatrics'' open access http clpsagepubcom ''clinical pediatrics'' https wwwsciencedirectcom journal developmental review ''developmental review'' partial open access https jamanetworkcom journals jamapediatrics ''jama pediatrics''


https wwwjpedscom ''the journal pediatrics'' partial open access external links https curlieorg en health medicine medical specialties pediatrics pediatrics directory curlie https openmdcom directory pediatric pediatric health directory openmd childhood


'''''pediatrics''''' peer reviewed medical journal published american academy pediatrics inaugural january issue journal 's first editor chief hugh mcculloch articulated journal 's vision content journal intended encompass needs whole child physiologic mental emotional social structure single word pediatrics chosen indicate catholic intent ''pediatrics'' continuously published american academy pediatrics since january according ''journal citation reports'' journal impact factor ranking fourth


journals category pediatrics ref name wos ref editors following persons editor chief ''pediatrics'' hugh mcculloch charles may clement smith jerold f lucey present lewis first references external links publications established pediatrics journals monthly journals english language journals


oil painting depicting claude bernard father modern physiology pupils '''physiology''' ref name onlineetdict ref scientific study functions mechanisms living system ref name prosser ref sub discipline biology physiology focuses organisms organ systems individual organs cells biomolecules carry chemical physical functions living system ref name guyton ref according classes organisms field divided medical physiology animal physiology plant physiology cell physiology comparative physiology ref name guyton central physiological functioning biophysical biochemical processes homeostatic control mechanisms communication


cells ''physiological state'' condition normal function ''pathological state'' refers abnormal conditions including human diseases nobel prize physiology medicine awarded royal swedish academy sciences exceptional scientific achievements physiology related field medicine foundations cells although differences animal plant microbial cells basic physiological functions cells divided processes cell division cell signaling cell growth cell metabolism plants plant physiology subdiscipline botany concerned functioning plants closely related fields include plant


morphology plant ecology phytochemistry cell biology genetics biophysics molecular biology fundamental processes plant physiology include photosynthesis respiration plant nutrition tropisms nastic movements photoperiodism photomorphogenesis circadian rhythms seed germination dormancy stomata function transpiration absorption water roots production food leaves growth shoots towards light examples plant physiology animals humans human physiology seeks understand mechanisms work keep human body alive functioning ref name guyton scientific enquiry nature mechanical physical biochemical functions humans organs cells


composed principal level focus physiology level organs systems within systems endocrine nervous systems play major roles reception transmission signals integrate function animals homeostasis major aspect regard interactions within plants well animals biological basis study physiology integration refers overlap many functions systems human body well accompanied form achieved communication occurs variety ways electrical chemical


changes physiology impact mental functions individuals examples would effects certain medications toxic levels substances change behavior result substances often used assess health individuals ref name davis ref ref name zoldavis ref much foundation knowledge human physiology provided animal experimentation due frequent connection form function physiology anatomy intrinsically linked studied tandem part medical curriculum ref name nih ref comparative physiology involving evolutionary physiology environmental physiology comparative physiology considers


diversity functional characteristics across organisms ref name garland ref history classical era study human physiology medical field originates classical greece time hippocrates late th century bc outside western tradition early forms physiology anatomy reconstructed present around time china india elsewhere hippocrates incorporated theory humorism consisted four basic substances earth water air fire substance known corresponding humor black bile phlegm blood yellow bile respectively hippocrates also noted


emotional connections four humors galen would later expand critical thinking aristotle emphasis relationship structure function marked beginning physiology ancient greece like hippocrates aristotle took humoral theory disease also consisted four primary qualities life hot cold wet dry galen c nbsp ad first use experiments probe functions body unlike hippocrates galen argued humoral imbalances located specific organs including entire body ref name britannicacom ref modification theory better


equipped doctors make precise diagnoses galen also played hippocrates' idea emotions also tied humors added notion temperaments sanguine corresponds blood phlegmatic tied phlegm yellow bile connected choleric black bile corresponds melancholy galen also saw human body consisting three connected systems brain nerves responsible thoughts sensations heart arteries give life liver veins attributed nutrition growth ref name britannicacom galen also founder experimental physiology


respiration animal dissection lesions found center respiration medulla oblongata year charles bell finished work would later become known bell magendie law compared functional differences dorsal ventral roots spinal cord fran ois magendie described sensory roots produced first evidence cerebellum 's role equilibration complete bell magendie law french physiologist henri milne edwards introduced notion physiological division labor allowed compare study living things machines


inflammation resulted previous injuries surgical wounds later discovered implemented antiseptics operating room result decreased death rate surgery substantial amount ref name physiologyinfoorg ref physiological society founded london dining club american physiological society aps nonprofit organization founded society devoted fostering education scientific research dissemination information physiological sciences ivan pavlov performed research conditional responses involved dogs' saliva production response bell visual


george bartholomew recently evolutionary physiology become distinct subdiscipline august krogh nobel prize discovering capillaries blood flow regulated ref name physiologyinfoorg andrew huxley hugh huxley alongside research team discovered sliding filaments skeletal muscle known today sliding filament theory ref name physiologyinfoorg recently intense debates vitality physiology discipline dead alive ref name ref physiology perhaps less visible nowadays golden age th century ref name ref large part


name tucker ref hyde representative american association university women global advocate gender equality education attempted promote gender equality every aspect science medicine soon thereafter js haldane proposed women allowed formally join physiological society founded july six women officially admitted florence buchanan winifred cullis ruth c skelton sarah c sowton constance leetham terry enid tribe ref name physocorg ref centenary election women celebrated publication


book women physiologists centenary celebrations beyond physiological society prominent women physiologists include bodil schmidt nielsen first woman president american physiological society gerty cori along husband carl cori received nobel prize physiology medicine discovery phosphate containing form glucose known glycogen well function within eukaryotic metabolic mechanisms energy production moreover discovered cori cycle also known lactic acid cycle describes muscle tissue converts glycogen lactic acid via lactic acid fermentation barbara


mcclintock rewarded nobel prize physiology medicine discovery genetic transposition mcclintock female recipient unshared nobel prize gertrude elion along george hitchings sir james black received nobel prize physiology medicine development drugs employed treatment several major diseases leukemia autoimmune disorders gout malaria viral herpes linda b buck ref name nobelprizeorg ref along richard axel received nobel prize physiology medicine discovery odorant receptors


complex organization olfactory system fran oise barr sinoussi along luc montagnier received nobel prize physiology medicine work identification human immunodeficiency virus hiv cause acquired immunodeficiency syndrome aids elizabeth blackburn along carol w greider jack w szostak awarded nobel prize physiology medicine discovery genetic composition function telomeres enzyme called telomerase subdisciplines many ways categorize subdisciplines physiology based taxa studied human physiology animal physiology plant physiology


microbial physiology viral physiology based level organization cell physiology molecular physiology systems physiology organismal physiology ecological physiology integrative physiology based process causes physiological variation developmental physiology environmental physiology evolutionary physiology based ultimate goals research applied physiology eg medical physiology non applied eg comparative physiology physiological societies transnational physiological societies include american physiological society international union physiological sciences physiological society national physiological societies include brazilian society physiology see also outline physiology biochemistry biophysics cytoarchitecture defense physiology ecophysiology exercise physiology fish physiology insect physiology human body molecular biology metabolome


neurophysiology pathophysiology pharmacology physiome references bibliography '''human physiology''' widmaier ep raff h strang kt ''vander 's human physiology'' th edition mcgraw hill marieb en essentials human anatomy physiology th edition benjamin cummings '''animal physiology''' hill rw wyse ga anderson ''animal physiology'' rd ed sinauer associates sunderland moyes cd schulte pm ''principles animal physiology'' second edition pearson benjamin cummings boston randall burggren w french k ''eckert animal physiology mechanism adaptation'' th edition wh freeman company schmidt nielsen k ''animal physiology adaptation environment'' cambridge new york cambridge university press


withers pc ''comparative animal physiology'' saunders college publishing new york '''plant physiology''' larcher w ''physiological plant ecology'' th ed springer salisbury fb ross cw ''plant physiology'' brooks cole pub co taiz l zieger e ''plant physiology'' th ed sunderland massachusetts sinauer '''fungal physiology''' griffin dh ''fungal physiology'' second edition wiley liss new york '''protistan physiology''' levandowsky physiological adaptations protists ''cell physiology sourcebook essentials membrane biophysics'' amsterdam boston elsevier ap levandowski hutner sh eds ''biochemistry physiology protozoa'' volumes academic press new york ny nd ed laybourn parry


j ''a functional biology free living protozoa'' berkeley california university california press '''algal physiology''' lobban cs harrison pj ''seaweed ecology physiology'' cambridge university press stewart w p ed ''algal physiology biochemistry'' blackwell scientific publications oxford '''bacterial physiology''' el sharoud w ed ''bacterial physiology molecular approach'' springer verlag berlin heidelberg kim bh gadd mg ''bacterial physiology metabolism'' cambridge moat ag foster jw spector mp ''microbial physiology'' th ed wiley liss inc new york ny external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwphysiologyinfoorg physiologyinfoorg public information site sponsored american physiological society branches biology


'''photography''' art application practice creating durable images recording light either electronically means image sensor chemically means light sensitive material photographic film employed many fields science manufacturing eg photolithography business well direct uses art film video production recreational purposes hobby mass communication typically lens used focus light reflected emitted objects real image light sensitive surface inside camera timed exposure electronic image

Humanities
Visual arts
Fine arts
Photography


sensor produces electrical charge pixel electronically processed stored digital image file subsequent display processing result photographic emulsion invisible latent image later chemically developed visible image either negative positive depending purpose photographic material method processing negative image film traditionally used photographically create positive image paper base known print either using enlarger contact printing etymology word photography created


greek roots ''ph s'' genitive ''ph s'' light ''graph '' representation means lines drawing together meaning drawing light several people may coined new term roots independently hercules florence french painter inventor living campinas brazil used french form word ''photographie'' private notes brazilian historian believes written claim widely reported yet largely recognized internationally first use word franco brazilian inventor became widely known research boris


processes heliography ni pce photogenic drawing talbotype calotype talbot daguerreotype daguerre ref name eder history precursor technologies camera obscura used drawing photography result combining several technical discoveries relating seeing image capturing image discovery camera obscura dark chamber latin provides image scene dates back ancient china greek mathematicians aristotle euclid independently described camera obscura th th centuries bce ref name krebs ref th century ce byzantine mathematician anthemius tralles used type camera obscura


hole surface could projected onto screen side also first understood relationship focal point pinhole performed early experiments afterimages laying foundations invention photography th century ref name plott leonardo da vinci mentions natural camera obscura formed dark caves edge sunlit valley hole cave wall act pinhole camera project laterally reversed upside image piece paper renaissance painters used camera obscura


fact gives optical rendering color dominates western art box small hole one side allows specific light rays enter projecting inverted image onto viewing screen paper birth photography concerned inventing means capture keep image produced camera obscura albertus magnus discovered silver nitrate georg fabricius discovered silver chloride techniques described ibn al haytham 's book optics capable producing primitive photographs using medieval materials daniele barbaro described diaphragm ref name gernsheim gernsheim


helmut '' https booksgooglecom booksid gdsrjq bz ec pg pa concise history photography '' courier dover publications pp ref wilhelm homberg described light darkened chemicals photochemical effect fiction book ''giphantie'' published french author tiphaigne de la roche described interpreted photography ref name gernsheim around year british inventor thomas wedgwood made first known attempt capture image camera obscura means light sensitive substance used paper white leather treated silver nitrate although succeeded capturing shadows objects placed surface


boulevard du temple'' daguerreotype made louis daguerre generally accepted earliest photograph include people view busy street exposure lasted several minutes moving traffic left trace two men near bottom left corner one apparently boots polished remained one place long enough visible first permanent photoetching image produced french inventor nic phore ni pce destroyed later attempt make prints


ref name utexas ni pce successful made ''view window le gras'' earliest surviving photograph nature ie image real world scene formed camera obscura lens ''view window le gras'' earliest surviving camera photograph original plate left colorized reoriented enhancement right ni pce 's camera photographs required extremely long exposure least eight hours probably several days sought greatly improve bitumen process replace one


news created international sensation france soon agreed pay daguerre pension exchange right present invention world gift france occurred complete working instructions unveiled august year american photographer robert cornelius credited taking earliest surviving photographic self portrait latticed window lacock abbey england photographed william fox talbot shown positive form may oldest extant photographic negative made camera brazil hercules florence apparently started working


silver salt based paper process later naming ''photographie'' meanwhile british inventor william fox talbot succeeded making crude reasonably light fast silver images paper early kept work secret reading daguerre 's invention january talbot published hitherto secret method set improving first like pre daguerreotype processes talbot 's paper based photography typically required hours long exposures camera created calotype process used chemical development latent image greatly reduce exposure needed compete


daguerreotype original calotype forms talbot 's process unlike daguerre 's created translucent negative could used print multiple positive copies basis modern chemical photography present day daguerreotypes could replicated rephotographing camera talbot 's famous tiny paper negative oriel window lacock abbey one number camera photographs made summer may oldest camera negative existence france hippolyte bayard invented process producing direct positive paper prints


claimed invented photography earlier daguerre talbot british chemist john herschel made many contributions new field invented cyanotype process later familiar blueprint first use terms photography negative positive discovered sodium thiosulphate solvent silver halides informed talbot indirectly daguerre could used fix silver halide based photographs make completely light fast made first glass negative late advertisement campbell 's photograph gallery macon city directory


introduced process making natural color photographs based optical phenomenon interference light waves scientifically elegant important ultimately impractical invention earned nobel prize physics glass plates medium original camera photography late general introduction flexible plastic films although convenience film greatly popularized amateur photography early films somewhat expensive markedly lower optical quality glass plate equivalents late available large


formats preferred professional photographers new medium immediately completely replace old superior dimensional stability glass use plates scientific applications astrophotography continued niche field laser holography persisted st century film iso hurter driffield began pioneering work light sensitivity photographic emulsions work enabled first quantitative measure film speed devised first flexible photographic roll film marketed george eastman


founder kodak original film actually coating paper base part processing image bearing layer stripped paper transferred hardened gelatin support first transparent plastic roll film followed made highly flammable nitrocellulose known nitrate film although cellulose acetate safety film introduced kodak first found special applications alternative hazardous nitrate film advantages considerably tougher slightly transparent cheaper


changeover completed x ray films although safety film always used nbsp mm nbsp mm home movies nitrate film remained standard theatrical nbsp mm motion pictures finally discontinued films remained dominant form photography early st century advances digital photography drew consumers digital formats although modern photography dominated digital users film continues used enthusiasts professional photographers distinctive look film based photographs compared digital images likely due combination factors including


one particular hue depending process cyanotype process example produces image composed blue tones albumen print process publicly revealed produces brownish tones many photographers continue produce monochrome images sometimes established archival permanence well processed silver halide based materials full color digital images processed using variety techniques create black white results manufacturers produce digital cameras exclusively shoot monochrome monochrome printing electronic display used salvage certain photographs taken color unsatisfactory original form sometimes presented


black white single color toned images found effective although color photography long predominated monochrome images still produced mostly artistic reasons almost digital cameras option shoot monochrome almost image editing software combine selectively discard rgb color channels produce monochrome image one shot color color first color photograph made three color method suggested james clerk maxwell taken thomas sutton subject colored tartan patterned ribbon color photography explored beginning


color image transparent prints images could projected similar color filters superimposed projection screen additive method color reproduction color print paper could produced superimposing carbon prints three images made complementary colors subtractive method color reproduction pioneered louis ducos du hauron late color photography possible long kodachrome portrait sarah angelina acland demonstrates earliest years need special equipment long exposures complicated printing processes made extremely rare


russian photographer sergei mikhailovich prokudin gorskii made extensive use color separation technique employing special camera successively exposed three color filtered images different parts oblong plate exposures simultaneous unsteady subjects exhibited color fringes rapidly moving scene appeared brightly colored ghosts resulting projected printed images implementation color photography hindered limited sensitivity early photographic materials mostly sensitive blue slightly sensitive green virtually insensitive red discovery dye sensitization photochemist hermann vogel


starch grains served illuminate fragment correct color tiny colored points blended together eye synthesizing color subject additive method autochrome plates one several varieties additive color screen plates films marketed kodachrome first modern integral tripack monopack color film introduced kodak captured three color components multi layer emulsion one layer sensitized record red dominated part spectrum another layer recorded green part


finished color print minute two exposure introduced polaroid color photography may form images positive transparencies used slide projector color negatives intended use creating positive color enlargements specially coated paper latter common form film non digital color photography owing introduction automated photo printing equipment transition period centered around color film relegated niche market inexpensive multi megapixel digital cameras film continues preference photographers


distinctive look digital kodak dcs based nikon f body digital storage unit sony unveiled first consumer camera use charge coupled device imaging eliminating need film sony mavica mavica saved images disk images displayed television camera fully digital first digital camera record save images digital format fujix ds p created fujfilm kodak unveiled dcs first commercially available digital single


lens reflex camera although high cost precluded uses photojournalism professional photography commercial digital photography born digital imaging uses electronic image sensor record image set electronic data rather chemical changes film important difference digital chemical photography chemical photography resists photo manipulation involves film photographic paper digital imaging highly manipulative medium difference allows degree image post processing comparatively difficult film based photography permits different communicative potentials applications photography


medium respective recording medium plate film digital magnetic electronic memory photographers control camera lens expose light recording material required amount light form latent image plate film raw file digital cameras appropriate processing converted usable image digital cameras use electronic image sensor based light sensitive electronics charge coupled device ccd complementary metal oxide semiconductor cmos technology resulting digital image stored electronically reproduced paper camera


'camera obscura' dark room chamber far possible light excluded except light forms image discovered used th century painters subject photographed however must illuminated cameras range small large whole room kept dark object photographed another room properly illuminated common reproduction photography flat copy large film negatives used see process camera soon photographic materials became fast sensitive


enough taking candid surreptitious pictures small detective cameras made actually disguised book handbag pocket watch ''ticka'' camera even worn hidden behind ascot necktie tie pin really lens movie camera type photographic camera takes rapid sequence photographs recording medium contrast still camera captures single snapshot time movie camera takes series images called frame accomplished intermittent mechanism frames later played


back movie projector specific speed called frame rate number frames per second viewing person 's eyes brain merge separate pictures create illusion motion stereoscopic photographs monochrome color captured displayed two side side images emulate human stereoscopic vision stereoscopic photography first captured figures motion known colloquially photography accurate term stereoscopy cameras long realized using film recently digital electronic methods including cell phone cameras


dualphotography example dualphoto using smartphone based app dualphotography consists photographing scene sides photographic device eg camera back back dualphotography two networked cameras portal plane dualphotography dualphoto apparatus used simultaneously capture subject photographer sides geographical place thus adding supplementary narrative layer single image full spectrum ultraviolet infrared image rings saturn example application ultraviolet photography astronomy ultraviolet


infrared films available many decades employed variety photographic avenues since new technological trends digital photography opened new direction full spectrum photography careful filtering choices across ultraviolet visible infrared lead new artistic visions modified digital cameras detect ultraviolet visible much near infrared spectrum digital imaging sensors sensitive nbsp nm nbsp nm shelf digital camera contains infrared hot mirror filter blocks infrared bit


ultraviolet would otherwise detected sensor narrowing accepted range nbsp nm nbsp nm replacing hot mirror infrared blocking filter infrared pass wide spectrally transmitting filter allows camera detect wider spectrum light greater sensitivity without hot mirror red green blue cyan yellow magenta colored micro filters placed sensor elements pass varying amounts ultraviolet blue window infrared primarily red somewhat lesser green blue micro filters uses full spectrum photography fine art photography geology forensics


law enforcement layering layering photographic composition technique manipulates foreground subject middle ground background layers way work together tell story image layers may incorporated altering focal length distorting perspective positioning camera certain spot people movement light variety objects used layering light field digital methods image capture display processing enabled new technology light field photography also known synthetic aperture photography process allows focusing


various depths field selected ''after'' photograph captured explained michael faraday light field understood dimensional point space attributes two angles define direction ray passing point additional vector attributes captured optically use microlenses pixel point within dimensional image sensor every pixel final image actually selection sub array located microlens identified post image capture focus algorithm devices