sticks tree twigs bird feathers animal bones porcupine quills found historic times different forms tooth cleaning tools used indian medicine ayurveda used neem tree ' 'daatun'' products create teeth cleaning twigs similar products person chews one end neem twig somewhat resembles bristles toothbrush uses brush teeth muslim world miswak ' 'siwak'' made twig root antiseptic properties widely used since islamic golden age rubbing


baking soda chalk teeth also common however negative side effects time australian healthcare hospital association 's ahha recent evidence brief suggests dental check ups conducted every years adults every years children documented dental professionals frequently advise frequent visits advice contraindicated evidence suggesting check frequency based individual risk factors ahha 's check schedule professional cleaning includes tooth scaling tooth polishing tartar accumulated

Applied science
Medicine and health
Dentistry
Dental hygiene


debridement usually followed fluoride treatment however american dental hygienists' association adha stated evidence scaling polishing gums provides therapeutic value cleaning done gums well cochrane oral health group found three studies meeting criteria inclusion study found little evidence support claims benefits supragingival gum tooth scaling tooth polishing dental sealants applied dentists cover protect fissures grooves chewing surfaces


back teeth preventing food becoming trapped thereby halt decay process elastomer strip shown force sealant deeper inside opposing chewing surfaces also force fluoride toothpaste inside chewing surfaces aid remineralising demineralised teeth cleanings dental hygienist good oral hygiene essential preventing tartar build causes problems mentioned done careful frequent brushing toothbrush combined use dental floss interdental brushes prevent accumulation plaque teeth powered toothbrushes reduce dental plaque gingivitis


manual toothbrushing short long term ref name ref evidence needed determine clinical importance findings ref name patients need aware importance brushing flossing teeth daily new parents need educated promote healthy habits children sources problems plaque dental plaque also known dental biofilm sticky yellow film consisting wide range bacteria attaches tooth surfaces visible around gum line starts reappear tooth surface cleaned


regular brushing encouraged ref name darby high sugar diet encourages formation plaque sugar fermentable carbohydrates converted acid plaque acid causes breakdown adjacent tooth eventually leading tooth decay ref name caries ref plaque left subgingival gum surface undisturbed increased risk tooth decay also go irritate gums make appear red swollen ref name darby bleeding may noticed tooth brushing flossing signs inflammation


indicate poor gum health gingivitis ref name inflammation ref ref name darby calculus longer plaque stays tooth surface harder attached tooth becomes referred calculus needs removed dental professional ref name darby treated inflammation lead bone loss eventually lead affected teeth becoming loose ref name bone loss ref preventive care tooth brushing routine tooth brushing principal method preventing many oral diseases perhaps important activity individual


practice reduce plaque buildup ref name creeth ref controlling plaque reduces risk individual suffering plaque associated diseases gingivitis periodontitis caries three common oral diseases ref name oh ref average brushing time individuals seconds seconds ref name dahl ref ref name van der weijden ref ref name van der weijden fa ref ref name saxer saxer barbakow j yankell sl new studies estimated actual toothbrushing times dentifrice use ''j clin dent'' ref ref name robinson ref ref name beals beals ngo feng cook grau dg weber da development laboratory evaluation new toothbrush


novel brush head design ''am j dent'' ref many oral health care professionals agree tooth brushing done minimum two minutes practiced least twice day ref name mccracken ref brushing least two minutes per session optimal preventing common oral diseases removes considerably plaque brushing seconds ref name creeth ref name mccracken toothbrushing clean depth nbsp mm inside gingival pockets sustained regime plaque removal gum line affect ecology microbes


gums may reduce number pathogens pockets nbsp mm depth ref name slots ref toothpaste dentifrice fluoride alternatives nano hydroxyapatite important tool readily use tooth brushing fluoride alternative dentifrice important protective factor caries important supplement needed remineralize already affected enamel currently insufficient evidence evaluate caries inhibiting characteristics slow release fluoride glass beads however terms preventing gum disease use toothpaste increase effectiveness activity respect


amount plaque removed ref name creeth people use toothpaste nano hydroxyapatite instead fluoride performs function people believe fluoride toothpaste neurotoxin manual toothbrush modern manual tooth brush dental tool consists head nylon bristles attached long handle help facilitate manual action tooth brushing furthermore handle aids reaching far back teeth erupt oral cavity tooth brush arguably person 's best tool removing dental plaque teeth thus capable preventing


plaque related diseases used routinely correctly effectively oral health professionals recommend use tooth brush small head soft bristles effective removing plaque without damaging gums ref name brushing ref technique crucial effectiveness tooth brushing disease prevention ref name brushing back forth brushing effective removing plaque gum line tooth brushing employ systematic approach angle bristles degree angle towards gums make small circular motions angle ref name brushing action increases effectiveness


guided tooth tooth slowly following contour gums crowns tooth ref name brushing motion toothbrush head removes need manually oscillate brush make circles flossing tooth brushing alone remove plaque surfaces tooth surfaces interdental ref name claydon one technique used access areas dental floss proper technique used flossing remove plaque food particles teeth gums american dental association ada reports


plaque may removed method ref name council ref ada recommends cleaning teeth part one 's daily oral hygiene regime ref name council types floss include ref name darby unwaxed floss unbound nylon filaments spread across tooth plaque debris get trapped easy removal ref name darby waxed floss less susceptible tearing shredding used tight contacts areas overhanging restorations ref name darby polytetrafluoroethylene teflon slides easily tight contacts fray ref name darby dental hygienist demonstrates dental flossing type floss used


personal preference however without proper technique may effective ref name schmid ref correct technique ensure maximum plaque removal follows ref name darby floss length nbsp cm wrapped around middle fingers upper teeth grasp floss thumb index finger lower teeth index fingers ensure length roughly inch left fingers ease floss gently teeth using back forth motion position floss way becomes securely wrapped around interdental surface tooth


c shape ensure floss taken gum margins using back forth motion different options market make flossing easier dexterity coordination barrier preference normal floss floss threaders ideal cleaning orthodontic appliances flossettes ideal children poor dexterity ref name darby special flossettes made orthodontics interdental brushes interdental brushes come range color coded sizes consist handle piece


wire covered tapered bristles designed placed interdental space plaque removal ref name darby studies indicate interdental brushes equally effective floss removing plaque reducing gum inflammation ref name darby especially recommended people orthodontics often use well floss steps using interdental brush follows ref name darby identify size required largest size fit without force ideal necessary one size used insert bristles interdental space degree


debris ref name darby steps using tongue scraper rinse tongue scraper order clean remove present debris start back tongue gently scrape forwards sure clean sides tongue well middle portion cleaning completed rinse tongue scraper debris left behind rinse mouth ref name tongue cleaner ref oral irrigation dental professionals recommend subgingival irrigation also known water flossing way clean teeth gums oral irrigators may used


recently replaced standalone tool called gum stimulator designed massage gum line bases areas teeth stimulators help increase circulation gum line clear away bacteria might removed brushing flossing alone ref name editors ref food drink foods help muscles bones also help teeth gums vitamin c necessary example prevent scurvy manifests serious gum disease eating balanced diet limiting sugar intake help prevent tooth decay periodontal


disease ''f ration dentaire internationale'' fdi world dental federation promoted foods raw vegetables plain yogurt cheese fruit dentally beneficial echoed american dental association ada beneficial foods community water fluoridation addition fluoride adjust natural fluoride concentration community 's water supply level recommended optimal dental health approximately ppm parts per million fluoride primary protector dental cavities fluoride makes surface teeth resistant acids process remineralization drinking fluoridated water recommended dental professionals


others say using toothpaste alone enough milk cheese nuts chicken also rich calcium phosphate may also encourage remineralization body ca n't absorb required calcium lacks vitamin fatty fish salmon instance major source vitamin helps teeth gums get benefits calcium green black tea richly endowed polyphenols acts suppressor bacterias cause plaque therefore helps sustaining oral health advisable meal foods high


fiber like vegetables may help increase flow saliva bolus fibre like celery string fresh carrot broccoli force saliva trapped food inside pits fissures chewing surfaces cavities occur dilute carbohydrates like sugar neutralize acid remineralize teeth easy reach surfaces harmful foods sugars commonly associated dental cavities carbohydrates especially cooked starches eg crisps potato chips may also damage teeth although lesser degree indirectly since starch converted glucose salivary amylase enzyme


saliva first sugars foods 'sticky' toffee likely cause damage teeth less 'sticky' foods certain forms chocolate fruits sucrose table sugar commonly associated cavities amount sugar consumed one time less important often food drinks contain sugar consumed frequently sugars consumed greater time tooth exposed low ph levels point demineralisation occurs people


important therefore try encourage infrequent consumption food drinks containing sugar teeth chance repaired remineralisation fluoride limiting sugar containing foods drinks meal times one way reduce incidence cavities sugars fruit fruit juices eg glucose fructose maltose also cause cavities sucrose used streptococcus mutans bacteria produce biofilm sucrose split glucansucrase allows bacteria use resulting glucose building glucan polymer film resulting fructose fuel converted lactic


acid acids contained fruit juice vinegar soft drinks lower ph level oral cavity causes enamel demineralize drinking drinks orange juice cola throughout day raises risk dental cavities sup source sup another factor affects risk developing cavities stickiness foods foods sweets may stick teeth reduce ph mouth extended time particularly sugary important teeth cleaned least twice day preferably toothbrush fluoride toothpaste


remove food sticking teeth regular brushing use dental floss also removes dental plaque coating tooth surface chewing gum chewing gum assists oral irrigation around teeth cleaning removing particles teeth poor condition may damage remove loose fillings well dental chewing gums claim improve dental health sugar free chewing gum stimulates saliva production helps clean surface teeth ice chewing solid objects ice chip teeth leading tooth fractures chewing ice


name pmid ref regular vomiting seen bulimia nervosa morning sickness also causes significant damage due acid erosion people intellectual disability increased risk developing oral health problems like gum diseases dental decay general population people severe disability understanding importance oral hygiene developing skills achieve higher quality oral care may top priority therefore studies conducted assess different interventions improve knowledge skills people intellectual disabilities carer mouthwash three commonly used kinds


mouthwash saline salty water essential oils listerine etc chlorhexidine gluconate saline saline warm salty water usually recommended procedures like dental extractions study completed warm saline mouthrinse compared mouthrinse preventing alveolar osteitis dry socket extraction group instructed rinse saline prevalence alveolar osteitis less group ref name pmid ref essential oils eo cetyl pyridinium chloride cpc essential oils found listerine mouthwash contains eucalyptol menthol thymol methyl salicylate cpc containing mouthwash contains cetyl pyridinium chloride


found brands colgate plax crest pro health oral b pro health rinse meta analyses completed eo cpc mouthrinses compared found plaque gingivitis levels lower eo mouthrinse used adjunct mechanical plaque removal toothbrushing interdental cleaning ref name pmid ref chlorhexidine chlorhexidine gluconate antiseptic mouthrinse used two week time periods due brown staining teeth tongue compared essential oils efficacious controlling plaque levels better effect gingivitis


therefore generally used post surgical wound healing short term control plaque ref name pmid ref sodium hypochlorite mentioned earlier sodium hypochlorite common household bleach used solution seconds two three times week cheap effective means combating harmful bacteria commercial product requires diluting product factor half tablespoon full glass water solution lose activity time may discarded one day ref name slots appliances care dentures dentures must


kept extremely clean recommended dentures cleaned mechanically twice day soft bristled brush denture cleansing paste recommended use toothpaste abrasive acrylic leave plaque retentive scratches surface ref name dentureabrase ref dentures taken night leaving whilst sleeping linked poor oral health leaving denture sleep reduces protective cleansing antibacterial properties saliva candida albicans oral thrush denture stomatitis inflammation redness oral mucosa underneath


denture ref name sleeppneumonia ref elderly wearing denture sleep proven greatly increase risk pneumonia ref name sleeppneumonia recommended dentures stored dry container overnight keeping dentures dry hours significantly reduces amount candida albicans acrylic denture ref name overnightcandidia ref approximately week recommended soak denture overnight alkaline peroxide denture cleansing tablet proved reduce bacterial mass pathogenicity ref name cleaningandovernight ref ref retainers dentures recommended clean '' 'retainers''' properly least


day avoiding toothpaste using soap soak overnight alkaline peroxide denture cleansing tablet week hot temperatures warp shape retainer therefore rinsing cold water preferred keeping retainer plastic case rinsing beforehand considered help reduce number bacteria transferred back mouth braces undertaking '''braces''' treatment recommended use small sized specialized toothbrush soft head access hard reach areas brushing every meal highly advisable ref name ref name using high fluoride


toothpaste treatment effective using normal toothpaste ref name ref regular flossing important brushing helps remove plaque build well smaller food particles stuck braces teeth floss threaders braces interdental brushes also option ref name ref ref name ref furthermore fluoride foam high fluoride concentrations application dentist every weeks treatment could reduce dental decay however research needs carried regarding ref name education become dental hygienist us one must


attend college university approved commission dental accreditation take national board dental hygiene examination several degrees one may receive associate degree attending community college common takes two years obtain one may work dental office also option receiving bachelor 's degree master 's degree one plans work educational institute either teaching research oral hygiene systemic diseases several recent clinical studies suggest oral disease inflammation oral bacteria


oral infections may risk factor serious systemic diseases cardiovascular disease heart attack stroke bacterial pneumonia oral hygiene care critically ill patients reported reduce risk ventilator associated pneumonia low birth weight extreme high birth weight one 's baby diabetes complications osteoporosis see also dental floss mouth breathing obligate nasal breathing periodontology tooth brushing list oral health dental topics list basic dentistry topics references ref ref name kilian oralmircobiome ref ref name adler microbiotashifts ref ref name bartold periodontitus ref ref name hmpc healthyhmb ref ref


name marsh biofilmsandhost ref ref name peterson ref ref name grine earlyhominiddentalpathology ref ref name camenchumpalpth ref external links https wwwwhoint oral health en world health organization site oral health periodontology hygiene


'''ecclesiastical history catholic church''' refers history catholic church institution written particular perspective traditional approach historiography generally identified starting point eusebius caesarea work ''church history'' since assumption contemporary historians catholic church also catholics adopt perspective traditional approach chapter historiography yet closed applying definite area central academic history th st centuries approach traditional catholic view according

Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church


''catholic encyclopedia'' ecclesiastical history scientific investigation methodical description temporal development church considered institution founded jesus christ guided holy ghost salvation mankind covers life church manifestations beginning existence day among various divisions mankind hitherto reached christianity church remains essentially despite changes undergoes time changes help exhibit fully internal external life ref name


ce ref branches therefore include history missions widest sense history ecclesiastical polity heresies opponents relations church non catholic religious associations history dogma ecclesiastical theology ecclesiastical sciences general history liturgy history ecclesiastical art history catholic hierarchy constitution canon law church history religious orders history discipline religious life christian civilization methods critical treatment sources requires palaeography diplomatics criticism apart approach skeptic ecclesiastical


development christianity rejecting possibility supernatural intervention incapable appreciating work church far agent divine design ref name ce well taking church subject matter church centered takes church 's teachings estimation catholic historian insists supernatural character church doctrines institutions standards life far rest divine revelation acknowledge continual guidance church holy ghost


objective reality certain truth foundation true scientific pragmatism ecclesiastical history ref name ce universality fact schisms occurred christian history subordinated claim universality catholic church treated one church among many catholic historian admit various forms christian religion may taken roughly speaking connected whole consider one many imperfect attempts adapt teachings institutions christ changing needs times


progressive steps towards future higher unity wherein alone must seek perfect ideal christianity one divine revelation given us christ one ecclesiastical tradition based hence one church true one e church aforesaid revelation found entirety whose institutions developed basis revelation guidance holy spirit ref name ce hand effect churches outside catholic church factored discussion traditional periodization


first period foundation church development fixed standards ecclesiastical life within limits gr co roman civilization second period church major force new romanic german slavic states europe secession oriental christendom ecclesiastical unity final overthrow byzantine empire third period collapse religious unity among western european nations reformation within catholic church faced protestantism immense geographical expansion church missionaries south america part north america numerous asia africa


turning points considered pontificate gregory great generally end th middle th century close first period others took sixth general council trullan synod end th century others close first period st boniface iconoclasts charlemagne west kraus regards beginning th century close first period east end century similarly along


line division second third periods crowded events great importance ecclesiastical life renaissance influence upon intellectual life conquest constantinople turks discovery americas new problems church solve consequence appearance luther heresy protestantism council trent decisive influence evolution interior life church protestant historians regarded appearance luther beginning third period catholic authors eg


kraus closed second period middle th century authors perfectly agree turning points inserted within chief periods true conversion constantine great affected life church profoundly reign first christian emperor generally accepted marking sub division first period second period especially prominent personalities usually mark limits several sub divisions eg charlemagne gregory vii boniface viii though leads undervaluation important factors e g


prove fact directly part remnant fact class belong e g liturgical customs ecclesiastical institutions acts popes councils art products etc also monuments set commemorate events e g inscriptions tradition mediate sources e rest upon statements witnesses communicate event others tradition may oral narrative legends written writings particular authors pictorial pictures statues remains remains church 's past give direct evidence historical facts following inscriptions ie texts


written durable material either meant perpetuate knowledge certain acts describe character purpose particular object christian inscriptions different epochs countries accessible numerous collections monuments erected christian purposes especially tombs sacred edifices monasteries hospitals sick pilgrims objects used liturgy private devotions liturgies rituals particularly liturgical books various kinds used divine service necrologies confraternity books used prayers public services living dead papal


acts bulls briefs great extent edited papal ''bullaria'' ''regesta'' special ecclesiastico national collections acts decrees general councils particular synods collections official decrees roman congregations bishops ecclesiastical authorities rules faith ' 'symbola fldei'' drawn public use church various collections made official collections ecclesiastical laws juridically obligatory whole church rules constitutions orders congregations concordats ecclesiastical secular power civil laws since often contain


matters bearing religion ecclesiastical interest tradition comprise sources rest tradition alone unlike remains part fact collections acts martyrs legends lives saints collections lives popes ''liber pontificalis'' bishops particular churches works ecclesiastical writers contain information historical events extent ecclesiastical literature belongs category ecclesiastico historical works take less character sources especially time


e g charters privileges pronounce genuineness understand correctly use methodically usually combined paleography '''historical methodology''' enables student treat correct critical way sources known combine results researches methodical narrative '''bibliography''' practical science finding quickly literature bearing given ecclesiastico historical subject '''chronology''' recognize fix accuracy dates found sources first important chronological investigations undertaken scaliger ''de emendatione temporum''


study scientifically use monuments owe origin christian influences '''numismatics''' science coins various countries ages since popes also numerous bishops possessed secular power exercised right coinage numismatics belongs least certain epochs auxiliary sciences church history '''sphragistics''' science seals gk ' 'spragis'' seal object study various seals stamps used sealing letters documents guarantee authenticity '''heraldry''' teaches student


read accurately coats arms etc used ecclesiastical secular lords frequently throws light family historical personages time character particular events history religious monuments historians peoples among christianity first spread possessed highly developed civilization literature rich works history chronicles compiled rd century julius africanus hippolytus rome fragments survive th century ecclesiastical history properly called makes appearance church historians first period


also lost presbyter hesychius jerusalem died apollinarian timotheus berytus sabinus heraclea middle th century church history eusebius continued simultaneously three writers three continuations reached us first written socrates scholasticus advocate ' 'scholasticus'' constantinople church history expressly calls continuation work eusebius describes seven books period abdication diocletian author honest exhibits critical acumen use sources


latin scholar rufinus wove many documents narrative theodoret wrote also ''history monks'' sets forth lives thirty famous ascetics orient like ''history holy fathers'' ''historia lausiaca'' called one lausus book dedicated palladius written work theodoret one principal sources history oriental monasticism theodoret also published compendium heretical falsehoods e short history heresies refutation together similar ''panarion''


''epiphanius'' offers material earliest heresies th century historians found continuators theodorus lector compiled brief compendium works mentioned three continuators eusebius socrates sozomen theodoret wrote two books independent continuation summary far reign emperor justin fragments work reached us zacharias rhetor first advocate berytus phoenicia least bishop mitylene island lesbos composed yet layman ecclesiastical history


th century work continuation socrates sozomen theodoret treats six books period based good sources borrows profane historians occasionally evagrius credulous nestorianism monophysitism however work deserves careful attention among chronicles belong close gr co roman antiquity special mention due ''chronicon paschale'' called paschal easter canon forms basis christian chronology year monophysite bishop john nikiu egypt compiled universal


versions greek syriac works important native armenian chronicle ecclesiastico historical character ascribed moses chorene historical personage th century author history greater armenia calls moses chorene claims lived th century disciple famous st mesrop q v self testimony compiler must rejected since work makes use sources th th centuries trace found armenian literature


whole reliable ancient history nd rd century christ based popular legends another armenian historian eliseus vartaped q v comprehensive ecclesiastico historical works appear latin west later greek east first beginnings historical science confined translations additions thus st jerome translated ''chronicle'' eusebius continued time opened special field history christian literature ''de viris illustribus'' ''chronicon'' ed schoene vols berlin ''de vir ill'' ed richardson


first independent history revelation church written sulpicius severus published ''historia chronica sacra'' two books reaches beginning world p l xx ed hahn vienna short treatise contains little historical information little later orosius wrote ''historia adversus paganos'' seven books universal history standpoint christian apologist begins deluge comes purpose orosius refute pagan charge great misfortunes


roman empire due victory christianity p l xxxi ed zangemeister vienna end view far grander loftier conception st augustine wrote famous ''de civitate dei'' composed issued sections apologetic philosophy history standpoint divine revelation work important church history account numerous historical archaeological digressions ed dombart nd ed leipzig middle th century cassiodorus caused works socrates sozomen theodoret


translated latin amalgamated version one complete narrative title ''historia tripartita'' p l lxix lxx together works rufinus orosius one principal sources middle ages western peoples drew knowledge early church history rich material ecclesiastical history also contained national histories western peoples ''history goths'' written cassiodorus possess extract jordanis ''de origine actibusque getarum'' ed mommsen ''mon germ hist auct antiquissimi'' v berlin especially important


''history franks'' ten books gregory tours reaches ed arndt ''mon germ hist scriptores rerum meroving'' hanover gregory wrote also ''liber de vit patrum'' work entitled ''in glori martyrum'' book ''de virtutibus ie miracles juliani'' ''de virtutibus martini'' ed cit pt ii ad krusch beginning th century st isidore seville composed ''chronicle west goths'' ''historia de regibus gothorum vandalorum et suevorum'' ed mommsen ''chronica minora'' ii several similar chronicles th


th century edited mommsen ''monumenta germaniae historica auctores antiquissimi'' title ''chronica minora'' church historians second period second period church history produced copious specialized historical literature works deal often particular nations dioceses abbeys general histories rare moreover owing dominant position church among western peoples ecclesiastical secular history epoch closely interwoven east church history almost completely identified history imperial court owing close relations


syriac church th century particularly history crusades another patriarch jacobites gregory abulpharagius bar hebraeus maphrian e primate syro jacobite church also wrote universal chronicle three parts must also mention ''bibliotheca'' ''myriobiblon'' photios constantinople died authors described passages quoted work ''on heresies'' st john damascene throughout period west furnishing abundant material ecclesiastical history genuinely historical works th century haymo bishop halberstadt died


undertook write ecclesiastical history first four centuries taking rufinus principal authority subsequently aid latin versions georgius syncellus nicephorus especially theophanes added material roman abbot anastasius bibliothecarius librarian wrote ''church history'' time leo armenian died middle th century ordericus vitalis abbot st evroul normandy wrote ''historia ecclesiastica'' thirteen books reaches especial value history normandy england


crusades dominican bartholomew lucca called also ptolem us de fiadonibus died covered longer period work twenty four books reaches continued henry diessenhofen ''flores chronicorum seu catalogus pontificum romanorum'' bernard guidonis bishop lod died may counted among works general history church extensive relatively best historical work period ''summa historialis'' st antoninus deals secular ecclesiastical history creation national histories appeared towards


erchembert added history lombards beneventum paulus wrote also history bishops metz ''gesta episcoporum mettensium'' ad ''mon germ hist script'' ii historical works scandinavian north found ecclesiastical historian adam bremen covers period work special importance history diocese hamburg bremen flodoard died wrote history archdiocese reims ''historia ecclesi remensis'' important source history church france time


works church history could circulated directions middle th middle th century first large work church history appeared period composed interests lutheranism mathias flacius called ''illyricus'' native illyria united five lutherans john wigand mathias judex basilius faber andreas corvinus thomas holzschuher produce extensive work exhibit history church convincing apology strict lutheranism see ''centuriators magdeburg'' ''centuri '' partisan work institutions


roman church appear works satan darkness called forth catholic refutations particularly c sar baronius urged philip neri undertook task producing ecclesiastical history brought end th century published title ''annales ecclesiastici'' vols rome numerous editions continuations appeared middle th end th century catholic church historians middle th century french writers active ecclesiastico historical research writings fathers


church ancient sources published better editions auxiliary sciences history well cultivated antoine godeau bishop vence wrote ''histoire de l' glise'' reaching th century vols paris several editions appeared work translated italian german oratorian cabassut ''historia ecclesiastica'' lyons although jesuit louis maimbourg write continuous ecclesiastical history published numerous treatises paris arianism iconoclasm greek schism struggle popes emperors western schism lutheranism calvinism among


successors th century compare unfavourably predecessors criticism sources scientific accuracy following noteworthy fran ois timol de choisy ''histoire de l' glise'' vols paris bonaventure racine jansenist ''abr g de l'histoire ecclesiastique'' vols cologne properly paris gabriel ducreu ''les si cles chr tiens'' vols paris nd ad vols paris widest circulation attained ''histoire de l' glise'' b rault bercastel italy period productive mainly however christian arch ology special departments history names cardinals noris bona pallavicini archbishop


vols rome mansi continued two volumes compendia general church history widely read written augustinian lorenzo berti ''breviarium histori ecclesiastic '' pisa turin also wrote three volumes ''dissertationes historic '' florence carlo sigonio treated first three centuries vols milan giuseppe zola treats period ''commentarium de rebus ecclesiasticis'' vols pavia also wrote ''prolegomena comment de rebus eccl'' vols pavia spain augustinian enrique fl rez began period monumental work ecclesiastical history


christ'' royko prague ''epitome hist eccl'' gmeiner vols gratz similar works wolf schmalzfuss st ger becker netherlands produced compendia e g mutsaerts vols antwerp rosweyde vols antwerp chefneux ''eccl cathol speculum chronographicum'' vols li ge protestant church historians time publication ''magdeburg centuries'' see protestant scholars undertook extensive independent work province church history division reformed lutherans one hand domestic feuds among lutherans


antoine basnage opponent baronius ''annales politico eccles'' vols rotterdam spanheim ''introductio ad hist et antiquit sacr'' leyden ''historia ecclesiastica'' leyden reformed churches produced moreover number manuals church history e g turettini ''hist eccles compendium'' halle venema ''institut histor eccl'' vols leyden jablonski ''institut hist eccl'' vols frankfort similar protestant manuals appeared england e g milner ''history church christ'' vols london murray ''history religion'' vols london priestley ''history christian church'' dring th


century lutherans produced ''compendium histor eccl'' seckendorf bockler gotha new era lutheran ecclesiastical historiography dates arnold 's ''unparteiische kirchen und ketzerhistorie'' vols frankfort pietist author friendly sects hostile catholic church orthodox lutheranism calmer eberhard weissmann 's ''introductio memorabilia ecclesiastica histori sacr novi test'' vols bingen latin historical writings joh lor mosheim particularly ''de rebus christ ante constantinum magnum'' helmstadt ''institutiones histor eccles antiquioris et recentioris'' helmstadt treat church


institution secular origin ''institutiones'' translated german continued two pupils j von einem rud schlegel leipzig heilbronn progress made works pfaff chancellor bingen ''institutiones histor eccl'' bingen baumgarten ''auszug der kirchengeschichte'' vols halle pertsch ''versuch einer kirchengeschichte'' vols leipzig cotta ''versuch einer ausf hrlichen kirchenhistorie des neuen testamentes'' vols bingen specialised works written two walchs joh georg walch issuing ''eine geschichte der reigionsstreitigkeiten innerhalb und ausserhalb der evangelisch lutherischen kirche'' two parts comprising


five volumes jena son christian wilhelm published lengthy ''ketzergeschichte'' whose eleventh volume reaches iconoclasts leipzig latter also wrote ''religionsgeschichte der neuesten zeit'' beginning clement xiv planck added three volumes ''historie der kirchenversammlungen'' leipzig ''historic der r p pste'' g ttingen major lutheran work general church history j mathias schr ckh pupil mosheim professor wittenberg ''christliche kirchengeschichte bis zur reformation'' thirty five volumes leipzig continued ''kirchengeschichte seit der reformation'' eight volumes leipzig


appreciation catholic medieval world departments learning appeared desire objective judgment sources ecclesiastical history studied via historical criticism catholic ecclesiastical historians catholic germany changes first noticeable particularly work convert count leopold von stolberg ''geschichte der religion jesu christi'' issued fifteen volumes first four contain history old testament reach similarly less important ''geschichte der christlichen kirche'' vols ravensburg locherer rather uncritical


exhibiting influence schr ckh remained unfinished reaches excellent ''geschichte der christlichen kirche'' j othmar von rauschen also incomplete useful compendium serious scientific character begun hortig professor landshut ''handbuch der christlichen kirchengeschichte'' completed two volumes landshut reached reformation third volume brought work french revolution added successor llinger scholar later abandoned catholic attitude principles earlier days excelled previous writers johann adam hler wrote several special historical works


dissertations exceptional merit lectures general church history published death pupil benedictine pius gams ''kirchengeschichte'' vols ratisbon larger epoch making works must added several compendia like klein ''historia ecclesiastica'' gratz ruttenstock ''institutiones hist eccl'' vols vienna cherrier ''instit hist eccl'' vols pestini bare summaries facts others like ritter ''handbuch der kirchengeschichte'' vols bonn th ed ennen alzog ''universalgeschichte der christlichen kirche'' mains th ed f x kraus


lengthy narratives critical thorough particular periods epochs ecclesiastical history soon found careful cultivation e g riffel ''kirchengeschichte der neuen und neuesten zeit vom anfang der glaubensspaltung im jahrhundert'' vols mainz damberger ''synchronistische geschichte der kirche und der welt im mittelalter'' volumes ratisbon last volume edited rattinger reaches llinger hler must rank karl joseph hefele third great german catholic historians whose valuable ''konziliengeschichte'' really comprehensive work general church history first seven volumes work freiburg


reach new edition begun author freiburg carried kn pfler vole v vii hergenr ther later cardinal undertook continue work published two volumes viii ix carry history councils opening council trent hergenr ther fourth great church historian catholic germany ''handbuch der allgemeinen kirchengeschichte'' vols freiburg im b rd ed th ed revised j p kirsch sqq exhibits vast erudition recognition even protestants independent


general church history appeared rohrbacher better ''histoire universelle de l' glise catholique'' nancy exhibits little independent research diligently executed work author made generous skilful use best recent literature new ed continuation guillaume paris second work darras q v recent years science ecclesiastical history made great progress france genuine criticism thorough scholarly narrative critical tendency aroused sustained principally louis duchesne continues flourish inspires


important works particularly special ecclesiastical history among writings duchesne ''histoire ancienne de l' glise'' vols already issued paris deserves particular mention another important publication ''biblioth que de l'enseignement de l'histoire eccl siastique'' series monographs different authors fourteen volumes far appeared paris gone several editions useful manual marion 's ''histoire de l' glise'' paris belgium bollandist de smedt wrote ''introductio generalis historiam ecclesiasticam critice tractandam'' louvain manual church history published wouters ''compendium hist eccl''


vols louvain also wrote ''dissertationes selecta capita hist eccl'' vols louvain josef andreas jungmann dealt general church history end th century ''dissertationes select historiam ecclesiasticam'' character ecclesiastico historical studies louvain seen ''revue d'histoire eccl siastique'' edited cauchie ladeuze italy manuals appeared italy church history e g delsignore ''institutiones histor eccles'' edited tissani vols rome palma ''pr lectiones hist eccl'' vols rome prezziner storia della chiesa vols florence ign mozzoni ''prolegomena alla


come present standard rate standpoint methodical critical treatment spain ecclesiastical history spain inspired two major works one villanueva ''viage literario las iglesias de espa a'' madrid de la fuente ''historia ecclesiastica de espa a'' nd ed vols madrid field general history amat 's ''historia ecclesiastica tratado de la iglesia de jesu christo'' vols madrid nd ed appeared thorough work juan manuel de berriozobal wrote ''historia de la iglesia en sus primos siglos''


vols madrid dominican francisco rivaz madrazo published manual ''curso de historia ecclesiastica'' vols rd ed madrid netherlands first scientific catholic manual church history dutch written albers ''handboek der algemeene kerkgeschiedenis'' vols nijmegen nd ed england special ecclesiastical history point multitude english works scotland brief catholic general account history church scotland walsh ''history catholic church scotland'' alphons bellesheim full bibliography translated english dom


hunter blair ''history catholic church scotland'' vols london sqq non catholic work calderwood 's ''history kirk'' vols edinburgh ireland first major catholic work general ecclesiastical history ireland lanigan ''ecclesiastical history ireland'' vols nd ed dublin reaching beginning th century single volume work franciscan michael john brenan ''ecclesiastical history ireland'' nd edition dublin united states learned documentary work john gilmary shea ''history catholic church


united states'' vols new york o'gorman 's ''a history roman catholic church united states'' new york contains useful bibliography australia australia see cardinal moran 's ''history catholic church australasia'' sydney protestant church historians among protestants church history cultivated chiefly german lutherans works came authoritative among non catholics another protestant school sympathy semler 's views first leaders called neo bingen school johann christian baur whose ecclesiastico historical writings directly anti christian ''das christentum und die kirche der drei ersten jahrhunderte''


bingen ''die christliche kirche vom bis zum jahrhundert'' bingen ''die christliche kirche des mittelalters'' bingen ''die neuere zeit'' bingen ''das neunzehnte jahrhundert'' bingen baur rationalistic adherents schwegler rits hl rothe wrote also special works origins church ''allgemeine kirchengeschichte'' gfr rer parts stuttgart written prior conversion product spirit though constantly attacked school whose chief representative adolf harnack predominated german protestantism ller ''lehrbuch der kirchengeschichte'' writes moderation similarly ''kirchengeschichte'' bingen


sqq th century also reformed see produced less province general church history lutherans important general ecclesiastical history produced anglican scholars edited w stephens w hunt ''a history english church'' various writers hunt stephens capes gairdner hutton overton greek orthodox writers greek orthodox writers produced two works general church history ''historia ekklesiastike'' diomedes kyriakus vols athens ''ekklesiastike historia apo iesou christou mechri ton kath hemas chronon'' philaretes bapheides constantinople see also history catholic church


history according catholic church timeline catholic church notes references attribution entry cites edward freeman ''the methods historical study'' london ernst bernheim ''lehrbuch der historischen methods'' rd ed leipzig meister ''grundriss der geschichtswissenschaft'' vol pt leipzig de smedt ''principes de la critique historique'' liege charles victor langlois charles seignobos ''introduction aux tudes historiques'' rd ed paris ''introduction study history'' full text english http wwwgutenbergorg browse authors langlois gutenbergorg alois kn pfler ''wert und bedeutung des studium der kirchengeschichte'' munich cf also schr rs ''hist jahrb''


pp nbsp albert ehrhard ''stellung und aufgabe der kirchengeschichte der gegenwart'' stuttgart de smedt ''introductio generalis ad historiam ecclesiasticam critice tractandam'' ghent joseph nirschl ''prop deutik der kirchengeschichte'' mainz heinrich kihn ''enzyklop die und methodologie der theologie'' freiburg im br karl rudolf hagenbach ''enzyclop die und methodologie der theologischen wissenschaften'' th ed leipzig hugo hurter ''nomenclator literarius theologi catholic '' rd ed innsbruck joseph hergenr ther ''handbuch der allgemeinen kirchengeschichte'' th ed kirsch freiburg im br introduction hippolyte delehaye ''les l gendes hagiographiques'' nd ed paris leopold fonck ''wissenschaftliches arbeiten beitr ge zur methodik des akademischen studiums''


innsbruck historiography history catholic church


'''modern''' may refer history modern history early modern period late modern period th century th century th century contemporary history moderns faction freemasonry existed th century philosophy sociology modernity loosely defined concept delineating number societal economic ideological features contrast pre modern times societies late modernity art modernism modernist poetry modern art form art modern dance dance form developed early th century modern architecture broad movement period architectural history modern music disambiguation geography modra slovak city referred

Applied science
Military sciences
Military history
Modern


german language modern typography modern typeface raster font packaged windows xp another name typeface classification known didone typography modern generic font family name fixed pitch serif sans serif fonts example courier pica used eg opendocument format rich text format music modern buzzcocks album modern ep ep gas modern records los angeles record label modern amber smith album uses modernform group traded modern furniture manufacturer distributor thailand modern defense chess opening modern political party polish political party


see also contemporary disambiguation early modern human modern age disambiguation modern man disambiguation modern times disambiguation postmodernism modern disambiguation


educational scores higher rich countries less economic inequality '''education economics''' '''economics education''' study economic issues relating education including demand education financing provision education comparative efficiency various educational programs policies early works relationship schooling labor market outcomes individuals field economics education grown rapidly cover virtually areas linkages education education investment economics distinguishes addition physical capital another form capital

Social science
Economics
Education economics


less critical means production human capital investments human capital education three major economic effects expected ref name weil ref ''increased expenses'' accumulation human capital requires investments physical capital ''increased productivity'' people gain characteristics enable produce output hence ' 'return investment'' form higher incomes investment costs investments human capital entail investment cost investment typically european countries education expenditure takes form government consumption although costs


eu countries comparison investments physical capital gdp thus two similar magnitude average years schooling versus gdp per capita us returns investment human capital form education shares many characteristics physical capital require investment create created economic value physical capital earns return people willing pay use piece physical capital work allows produce output measure productive value physical capital


simply measure much return commands market case human capital calculating returns complicated cannot separate education person see much rents get around problem returns human capital generally inferred differences wages among people different levels education hall jones calculated international data average returns education per year first four years schooling grades per year next four years


grades year beyond eight years thus someone years schooling expected earn average sup sup sup sup sup sup times much someone schooling predicted versus actual gdp per worker figure shows much one would expect country 's gdp higher based data average years schooling effects productivity economy wide effect human capital incomes estimated rather significant wages paid developed countries payments


human capital raw labor ref name weil higher productivity well educated workers one factors explain higher gdps therefore higher incomes developed countries strong correlation gdp education clearly visible among countries world shown upper left figure course correlation imply causation 's possible richer countries choose spend education however hanushek found scores internationally standardized tests student achievement better explaining economic growth years schooling discussed


multiple studies found investing education poor children average substantially reduces risk poverty adults increases life expectancy children perry preschool program matched controls followed decades since perry preschool participants substantially fewer teenage pregnancies fewer high school dropouts less crime higher incomes average adults results intergenerational children perry preschool children similarly fewer school suspensions higher levels education employment lower levels participation crime


compared children control group distinguish part gdp explained education causes weil ref name weil calculated much one would expect country 's gdp higher based data average schooling based mentioned calculations hall jones returns education gdps predicted weil 's calculations plotted actual gdps done figure left demonstrating variation education explains variation gdp finally matter


externalities considered usually speaking externalities one thinks negative effects economic activities included market prices pollution negative externalities however also positive externalities positive effects someone benefit without pay education bears major positive externalities giving one person education raises output also output around educated workers bring new technologies methods information consideration others teach


things others act example positive externalities education include effects personal networks roles educated workers play positive externalities human capital one explanation governments involved education people left would take account full social benefit education words rise output wages others amount would choose obtain would lower social optimum ref name weil demand education liberal approaches


dominant model demand education based human capital theory central idea undertaking education investment acquisition skills knowledge increase earnings provide long term benefits appreciation literature sometimes referred cultural capital increase human capital follow technological progress knowledgeable employees demand due need skills whether understanding production process operating machines studies attempted calculate returns additional schooling percent increase income


acquired additional year schooling later results attempted allow different returns across persons level education statistics shown countries high enrollment graduation rates grown faster countries without united states world leader educational advances beginning high school movement also seems correlation gender differences education level growth development observed countries equal distribution percentage women versus men graduated high school looking correlations


data education seems generate economic growth however could causality relationship backwards example education seen luxury good may richer households seeking educational attainment symbol status rather relationship education leading wealth educational advance variable economic growth though explains average annual increase labor productivity period lack significant correlation formal educational achievement productivity growth


economists see reason believe today 's world many skills capabilities come way learning outside traditional education outside schooling altogether alternative model demand education commonly referred screening based economic theory signalling central idea successful completion education signal ability marxist critique although marx engels write widely social functions education concepts methods theorized criticized influence marx education used reproduction


capitalist societies marx engels approached scholarship revolutionary scholarship education serve propaganda struggle working class ref name marxist persperctive ref classical marxian paradigm sees education serving interest capital seeking alternative modes education would prepare students citizens progressive socialist mode social organizations marx engels understood education free time essential developing free individuals creating many sided human beings thus education become essential part life people unlike capitalist society organized


mainly around work production commodities ref name marxist persperctive financing provision countries school education predominantly financed provided governments public funding provision also plays major role higher education although wide agreement principle education least school level financed mainly governments considerable debate desirable extent public provision education supporters public education argue universal public provision promotes equality opportunity social cohesion opponents public provision advocate alternatives vouchers pre primary


education financing compared areas basic education globally comparable data pre primary education financing remain scarce much existing non formal private programmes may fully accounted deduced level provision pre primary financing remains inadequate especially considered expected benefits globally pre primary education accounts lowest proportion total public expenditure education spite much documented positive impact quality early childhood care education later learning social outcomes ref name ref education production function q ref ''education production function''


application economic concept production function field education relates various inputs affecting student 's learning schools families peers neighborhoods etc measured outputs including subsequent labor market success college attendance graduation rates frequently standardized test scores original study eventually prompted interest idea education production functions sociologist james coleman coleman report published concluded marginal effect various school inputs student achievement small compared impact families friends later work


eric hanushek richard murnane economists introduced structure production consideration student learning outcomes hanushek ''et al'' reported high correlation adjusted growth rate adjusted test scores ref name hanushek eg ref large number successive studies increasingly involving economists produced inconsistent results impact school resources student performance leading considerable controversy policy discussions interpretation various studies controversial part findings directly influenced policy debates two separate lines study particularly widely


charles clotfelter david card claudia goldin richard murnane james heckman alan krueger sarah e turner see also academic inflation education policy educational devaluation case education sources notes references roland b nabou heterogeneity stratification growth macroeconomic implications community structure school finance ''american economic review'' p https wwwjstororg pss p mark blaug economics education ''economics education review'' pp nbsp http ericedgov ericwebportal custom portlets recorddetails detailminijsp nfpb true ericextsearch searchvalue ej ericextsearch searchtype accno ej abstract clive r belfield ed ''modern classics economics education'' elgar https webarchiveorg web http wwwe elgarcouk bookentry mainlassoid description eric hanushek


economics schooling production efficiency public schools ''journal economic literature'' september eric hanushek trade child quantity quality ''journal political economy'' p https wwwjstororg pss p stephen hoenack economics education developing countries assessment state art ''economics education review'' pp nbsp https archivetoday http wwwsciencedirectcom science ob articleurl udi b vb vwc wp user rdoc fmt orig search sort view c acct c version urlversion userid md ba e ff cb b b f ea b abstract caroline hoxby productivity schools local public goods producers ''journal public economics'' pp nbsp https archivetoday http wwwsciencedirectcom science ob articleurl udi b v x brvd user rdoc fmt orig search sort view c acct c version urlversion userid md f e b fb dcd c abstract competition among public schools benefit students


taxpayers ''american economic review'' p https wwwjstororg pss p geraint johnes jill johnes ed ''international handbook economics education'' elgar george psacharopoulos harry patrinos returns investment education update ''education economics'' pp nbsp steven g rivkin eric hanushek john f kain teachers schools academic achievement ''econometrica'' pp nbsp sherwin rosen human capital new palgrave dictionary economics v pp nbsp selected entries education ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' nd edition education developing countries paul glewwe


http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde e q education topicid result number abstract human capital fertility growth oded galor http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde h q education topicid result number abstract intergenerational transmission lance lochner http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde f q intergenerational transmission topicid result number abstract local public finance john quigley http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde l abstract population health economic implications david canning david e bloom http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde e q education topicid result number abstract reading external links world bank http wwwworldbankorg en topic education economics education http gpseducationoecdorg revieweducationpolicies node filter oecd 's education gps review education policy analysis statistics forcetoc


''anopheles stephensi'' '''arthropodology''' greek ''arthron'' joint ''gen'' ''pous'' ''podos'' foot together mean jointed feet biological discipline concerned study arthropods phylum animals include insects arachnids crustaceans others characterized possession jointed limbs field important medicine studied together parasitology medical arthropodology study parasitic effect arthropods parasites also vectors first annual '' conference medical arthropodology'' held madurai tamil nadu

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Arthropodology


memorial murdered jews europe berlin germany use space emphasis depth loss holocaust genocide '' 'sociology space''' sub discipline sociology mostly borrows theories developed within discipline geography including sub fields human geography economic geography feminist geography sociology space examines social material constitution spaces concerned understanding social practices institutional forces material complexity humans spaces interact sociology space inter disciplinary area study drawing various theoretical

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of space


existence objects within interval points objects viewed one two three dimensions however human geographers interest objects within space relative position involves description explanation prediction distribution phenomena thus relationships objects space central study michel foucault defines space space live draws us erosion lives time history occurs space claws gnaws


us also heterogeneous space live inside set relations nigel thrift also defines space outcome series highly problematic temporary settlements divide connect things different kinds collectives slowly provided meaning render durable sustainable short space social space live create relationships people societies surroundings space outcome hard continuous work building maintaining collectives bringing different things alignments kinds different


spaces therefore exist may may relate thus space understand social action history sociology space georg simmel seen classical sociologist important field simmel wrote sociology space book sociology investigations forms sociation concerns included process metropolitanisation separation leisure spaces modern economic societies category space long played subordinate role sociological theory formation


late come realised certain changes society cannot adequately explained without taking greater account spatial components life shift perspective referred topological turn space concept directs attention organisational forms juxtaposition focus differences places mutual influence applies equally micro spaces everyday life macro spaces nation state global levels theoretical basis growing interest social sciences space set primarily english french speaking sociologists philosophers


human geographers particular importance michel foucault essay spaces author proclaims age space henri lefebvre seminal work la production de l espace latter provided grounding marxist spatial theory david harvey manuel castells edward soja others built marxist theories space predicated structural ie capitalist global determinants spaces growing homogenization space confronted action theoretical conceptions stress importance corporeal placing perception spaces albeit habitually predetermined


subjective constructions one example theory space german sociologist martina l w approaches deriving post colonialism discourse attracted greater attention recent years also contrast marxist concepts space british geographer doreen massey german sociologist helmuth berking instance emphasise heterogeneity local contexts place relatedness knowledge world duality space martina l w developed idea relational model space focuses orderings living entities social goods examines space constituted processes perception


respect constitution space l w distinguishes analytically two generally mutually determining factors spacing synthesis spacing refers act placing state placed social goods people places according l w however ordering created placings effectively constituted space elements compose actively interlinked people processes perception ideation recall l w calls synthesis concept empirically tested studies lars meier examined constitution space everyday life


financial managers london singapore cedric janowicz carried ethnographical space sociological study food supply ghanaian city accra silke streets looked processes space constitution creative industries leipzig marxist approaches important proponent marxist spatial theory henri lefebvre proposed social space relations production reproduced dialectical contradictions spatial rather temporal lef bvre sees societal production space dialectical interaction three factors space constituted spatial practice meaning space


reproduced everyday life representation space meaning space developed cognitively spaces representation lefebvre means complex symbolisations ideational spaces lefebvre view spatial production resulted space non reflexive everydayness marked alienation dominating mathematical abstract concepts space reproduced spatial practice lefebvre sees line flight alienated spatiality spaces representation notions non alienated mythical pre modern artistic visions space marxist spatial theory given decisive new impetus david harvey particular


interested effects transition fordism flexible accumulation experience space time shows various innovations economic technological levels breached crisis prone inflexibility fordist system thus increasing turnover rate capital causes general acceleration economic cycles according harvey result time space compression feeling long term future continuity lost relationship proximity distance becomes difficult determine postcolonial theories space theories space


inspired post colonialism discourse focus heterogeneity spaces according doreen massey calling country africa developing country appropriate since expression implies spatial difference temporal difference massey b logic treats country different merely early version countries developed world view condemns eurocentrism vein helmuth berking criticises theories postulate increasing homogenisation world globalisation globocentrism confronts distinctiveness importance local knowledge resources production


different specific places claims local contexts form sort framework filter global processes globally circulating images symbols appropriated thus attaining meaning instance film character conan barbarian different figure radical rightwing circles germany black ghettoes chicago southside mcdonald means something different moscow paris third space lefebvrian unity theory mind body problem brought together triad social space mental space physical space history lefebvre 's statement social


space social product influenced marx 's commodity fetishism lefebvre 's theory social space influenced bauhaus art movement absolute abstract space lefebvre introduced concept triadic ' 'representational spaces'' synthesis mind body dualism opposed monism phenomenology edward soja david harvey carry new tradition human geography lefebvre argues three aspects spatial existence exist kind trichotomic philosophical triad third space ie representational social spaces pace directly ''lived'' associated images symbols ref name henri even though


many disciplines field human geography well known approach ''thirdspace'' formulated soja second space ie conceptualized representations space c onceptualized space space scientists planners dominant space society mode production ref name henri first space ie perceived physical space embodies close association within perceived space daily reality daily routine urban reality routes networks link places set aside work 'private' life leisure ref name henri ref influenced paul ric ur j n entrikin attempts solve


mind body problem social space presupposing cartesian dualism argue narrative intermediary mind extension discussion soja argues old ways thinking space first second space theories longer accommodate way world works believed spaces may contained within one social category may include different aspects many categories developed within boundaries number categories eg two different cultures combine together emerge third culture third hybrid space displaces original values constitute


set new values perspectives different first two spaces thus third space theory explain complexity poverty social exclusion social inclusion gender race issues relational view space work geographer critical theorist nigel thrift wrote relational view space rather seeing space viewed container within world proceeds space seen co product proceedings explained four constructed space modern human geography four different


kinds space according modern geography thinks space empirical construction space unblocking space image space place space '''first space''' empirical construction space empirical space refers process whereby mundane fabric daily life constructed simple things like cars houses mobiles computers roads simple great achievements daily life play important role making today example today technology gps suddenly come existence


fact laid th century developed throughout time first space real tangible also known physical space '''second space''' unblocking space type space refers process whereby routine pathways interaction set around boundaries often drawn routine may include movement office workers interaction drunk teenagers flow goods money people information unlike old time geography people accepted space blocked boundary example capitalist space neoliberal space


city space began realize thing like boundaries space space world flowing transforming continuously difficult describe fixed way second space ideology conceptual also known mental space example second space explain behaviors people different social class social segregation among rich poor people '''third space''' image space refers process whereby images produced new kind space images may different


form shape ranging painting photograph portrait post card religious theme entertainment nowadays highly influenced images many ways certain images tell us new social cultures values something new see world images symbols sign kind spatial expression '''fourth space''' place refers process whereby spaces ordered ways open affective embodied potentials place space meaning place represent different type


space fourth type space tries understand place vital actor bringing people 's lives certain ways place let us understand kind things hidden form us scale local global andrew herod mentioned scale within human geography typically seen one two ways either real material thing actually exists result political struggle social process way framing understanding world people lives across globe


brought question ontological status global local theorizing concept scale taken granted although physical human geographers looked issues regional scale national scale questions whether scale simply mental device categorizing ordering world whether scales really exists material social products particularly debated among materialists idealists geographers draw upon immanuel kant idealist philosophy scales handy conceptual mechanism ordering world others drawing upon marxist ideas materialism argue scales


really exist world real social products idealists based kantian inspiration global defined geologically given limits earth local defined spatial resolution useful comprehending process practices materialists national scale scale actively created economic political processes scale existed logical hierarchy global regional notion becoming focus politics producing scales central materialist arguments concerning


global scale important recognize social actors may work hard become local work become global people paid attention transnational corporations gone global institutions governance become supranational labour unions sought globalize operations match increasingly globalized city scale global local kevin cox mentioned moving local global scale movement one discrete arena another process developing networks associations


allow actors shift various spaces engagement according view scale seen process rather fixed entity words global local static arenas within social life plays constantly made social actions example political organization might attempt go global engage actors opportunities outside space likewise transnational corporation may attempt go local tailoring products operations different places discourses global local gibson graham identified


least six ways relationship local global often viewed global local seen interpretive frames analyzing situations drawing dirlik gibson graham suggests representation global something national regional anything local meaning global local derive meaning according french social theorist bruno latour local global offer different points view networks nature neither local global


less long less connected also latour view impossible distinguish local ends global begins concept global local proposed gibson graham instance multinational firms actually multi local rather global local global view local entry point world global flows encircle planet global local actually processes rather locations spaces hybrids global local


world scaled five different popular metaphors ladder concentric circles matryoshka nesting dolls earthworm burrows tree roots first using metaphor hierarchical ladder global highest rung ladder seen local scales second use concentric metaphor leaves us particular way conceptualizing scalar relationship places second metaphor local seen relatively small circle regional larger circle encompassing national


global scales still larger circles encompassing local regional hierarchy russian matryoshka nesting dolls global contain scales work way round instance local cannot contain global fourth metaphor concerning thinking scale french social theorist bruno latour argued world places networked together metaphor leaves us image scale global local connected together totally separated tree roots


metaphor similar earthworm burrow metaphor earthworm burrows tree roots penetrating different strata soil difficult determine exactly one scale ends another begins thinking use metaphor aware choice metaphor another made basis empirically accurate representation something basis someone attempting understand particular phenomenon appreciation metaphors important suggests talk scale impacts upon ways


engage socially politically scaled world may impact conduct social economic political praxis make landscapes heroda see also contact zone sociology architecture urban sociology latrinalia references external links http wwwraumsoziologiede website research centre stadt raum und ort darmstadt university technology space life sociology space


middle english '''' middle french ''r f rer'' latin ' 'referre'' carry back formed prefix ' 're'' ''ferre'' bear number words derive root including ' 'refer'' ' 'referee'' ' 'referential'' ' 'referent'' ' 'referendum'' verb ' 'refer '' derivatives may carry sense connect link meanings ' 'reference'' described article another sense consult reflected expressions reference work reference desk job reference etc semantics triangle reference influential book ''the meaning meaning'' c

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Reference


k ogden richards semantics reference generally construed relationships nouns pronouns objects named hence word john refers person john word refers previously specified object object referred called ' 'referent'' word sometimes word object relation called denotation word denotes object converse relation relation object word called exemplification object exemplifies word denotes syntactic analysis word refers previous word previous word


called antecedent meaning gottlob frege argued reference cannot treated identical meaning hesperus ancient greek name evening star phosphorus ancient greek name morning star refer venus astronomical fact ' hesperus phosphorus ' still informative even meanings hesperus phosphorus already known problem led frege distinguish sense reference word cases seem complicated classified within framework acceptance notion secondary reference may


necessary fill gap see also opaque context linguistic sign concept linguistic sign combination content expression former may refer entities world refer abstract concepts eg thought certain parts speech exist express reference namely anaphora pronouns subset reflexives expresses co reference two participants sentence could agent actor patient acted man washed theme recipient showed mary various possible


combinations computer science computer science references data types refer object elsewhere memory used construct wide variety data structures linked lists generally reference value enables program directly access particular data item programming languages support form reference specific type reference used c language see reference c notion reference also important relational database theory see referential integrity library information sciences references many types printed matter may come


state toward control system 's output tends alter controlled quantity main proposition behavior oriented time around control certain quantities respect specific reference conditions scholarship academics scholarship reference '''bibliographical reference''' piece information provided footnote bibliography written work book article essay report oration text type specifying written work another person used creation text bibliographical reference mostly includes full name


author title work year publication primary purpose references allow readers examine sources text either validity learn subject items often listed end work section marked ''references'' ''bibliography'' references particularly important use citations since copying material another author without proper reference without required permissions considered plagiarism may tantamount copyright infringement subject legal proceedings ' 'reference''


section contains works indeed cited main text work contrast ''bibliographical'' section often contains works cited author used background reading listed potentially useful reader keeping diary allows individual use references personal organization whether anyone else understands systems reference used however scholars studied methods reference key role communication co operation ' 'different'' people also misunderstandings arise modern academic study bibliographical references developing since


th century law patent law reference document used show state knowledge given time therefore may make claimed invention obvious anticipated examples references patents country magazine articles phd theses indexed thus accessible interested finding information subject matter extent internet material similarly accessible arts art reference item work based may include existing artwork reproduction ie photo


class wikitable style float right margin em em '''total molar composition seawater salinity ''' component concentration mol kg '''o ''' ''' ''' ''' ''' ''' ''' ''' ''' ''' ''' ''' ''' '''c sub sub ''' ''' ''' '''b sub sub ''' total boron ''' ''' ''' ''' '''ocean chemistry''' also known '''marine chemistry''' influenced plate tectonics

Natural science
Chemistry
Marine chemistry


seafloor spreading turbidity currents sediments ph levels atmospheric constituents metamorphic activity ecology field chemical oceanography studies chemistry marine environments including influences different variables marine life adapted chemistries unique earth 's oceans marine ecosystems sensitive changes ocean chemistry impact human activity chemistry earth 's oceans increased time pollution industry various land use practices significantly affecting oceans moreover increasing levels carbon dioxide earth 's atmosphere led ocean acidification negative effects marine


halogenated organic compounds chemical ecology extremophiles diagram showing ocean chemistry around deep sea hydrothermal vents alt ocean provides special marine environments inhabited extremophiles thrive unusual conditions temperature pressure darkness environments include hydrothermal vents black smokers cold seeps ocean floor entire ecosystems organisms symbiotic relationship compounds provided energy process called chemosynthesis plate tectonics magnesium calcium ratio changes associated hydrothermal activity mid ocean ridge locations seafloor spreading mid ocean ridges global scale ion exchange system ref name ref hydrothermal vents


spreading centers introduce various amounts iron sulfur manganese silicon elements ocean recycled ocean crust helium isotope accompanies volcanism mantle emitted hydrothermal vents detected plumes within ocean spreading rates mid ocean ridges vary nbsp mm yr rapid spreading rates cause increased basalt reactions seawater magnesium calcium ratio lower magnesium ions removed seawater consumed rock calcium ions removed rock released


grown mineralogy reef building sediment producing organisms thus regulated chemical reactions occurring along mid ocean ridge rate controlled rate sea floor spreading ref name ref name human impacts marine pollution climate change increased carbon dioxide levels resulting anthropogenic factors otherwise potential impact ocean chemistry global warming changes salinity significant implications ecology marine environments one proposal suggests dumping massive amounts lime base reverse acidification increase sea 's ability


absorb carbon dioxide atmosphere ocean acidification marine chemistry planets moons planetary scientist using data cassini spacecraft researching marine chemistry saturn 's moon enceladus using geochemical models look changes time ref name enceladus pete spotts http featurescsmonitorcom discoveries cassini spacecraft finds evidence liquid water enceladus cassini spacecraft finds evidence liquid water enceladus june christian science monitor ref presence salts may indicate liquid ocean within moon raising possibility existence life least chemical precursors organic life ref name enceladus see also seawater


rise project references chemical oceanography oceanographical terminology geochemistry


'''strategic studies''' interdisciplinary academic field centered study conflict peace strategies often devoting special attention relationship international politics geostrategy international diplomacy international economics military power scope studies also subjects role intelligence diplomacy international cooperation security defense subject normally taught post graduate academic professional usually strategic political strategic military levels academic foundations subject began classic texts initially orient sun tzu ''art war'' went gain

Applied science
Military sciences
Grand strategy
Strategic studies


european focus carl von clausewitz ''on war'' like clausewitz many academics field reject monocausal theories hypotheses reduce study conflict one independent variable one dependent variable already late eighteenth century colourful mathematician named dietrich heinrich von b low attempted establish mathematical formulae conduct war carl von clausewitz rejected b low approach popular claim warfare could reduced positivist teachable principles war instead formulae find clausewitz stressing time whole purpose educating


nineteenth century two world wars spurred strategic thinkers mahan corbett giulio douhet liddell hart later andr beaufre cold war danger degenerating nuclear war produced expansion discipline authors like bernard brodie michael howard raymond aron lucien poirier lawrence freedman colin gray many others higher education subject taught africa asia americas europe nigeria institute peace strategic studies nigerian defence academy university ibadan covenant university conflict peace strategic studies afe babalola university


nigeria nassarawa state university keffi offers security strategic studies masters phd level south africa faculty military science university stellenbosch provides number courses strategic studies undergraduate phd level faculty military science co located south african military academy saldanha also involved teaching discipline south african defence war colleges europe subject taught university st andrews university reading aberystwyth university university aberdeen university


exeter university hull king 's college london university leeds united kingdom university rome iii universit degli studi di milano university turin three italy university granada spain national defence university finland charles university prague netherlands defence college breda netherlands universit paris nord sciencespo france university college cork ireland university warsaw poland americas taught chile canada brazil mexico united states brazil taught universidade federal


rio grande sul universidade federal rio de janeiro universidade federal fluminense canada taught university calgary royal military college canada chile taught national academy political strategic studies ministry defense us subject taught many state private military universities including university missouri united states military academy united states air force academy georgetown university johns hopkins university missouri state university university texas el paso temple university us army war college air university 's


air war college us naval war college marine corps war college national defense university asia pacific also taught several countries bangladesh taught national universities bangladesh university professionals national defense university military academies australia taught australian national university new zealand taught victoria university wellington singapore rajaratnam school international studies singapore malaysia university malaya pakistan subject taught several universities predominantly quaid azam university


qau national defence university ndu university punjab fatima jinnah women 's university india deen dyal upadhyay gorakhpur universitysavitribai phule pune university university allahabad national defence university pakistan turkish war academy also strategic research institute saren subject taught masters doctoral levels see also us army strategist references peace conflict studies


principle diagram cybernetic system feedback loop '''cybernetics''' wide ranging field concerned regulatory purposive systems core concept cybernetics circular causality feedback observed outcomes actions taken inputs action ways support pursuit maintenance particular conditions disruption cybernetics named example circular causality steering ship helmsperson maintains steady course changing environment adjusting steering continual response effect observed examples

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Cybernetics


circular causal feedback include technological devices thermostats action heater responds measured changes temperature regulating temperature room within set range biological examples coordination volitional movement nervous system processes social interaction conversation cybernetics concerned feedback processes steering however embodied including ecological technological biological cognitive social systems context practical activities designing learning managing conversation practice cybernetics cybernetics' transdisciplinary ref name transdisciplinary ref antidisciplinary


character meant intersects number fields leading wide influence diverse interpretations cybernetics origins exchanges numerous fields including anthropology mathematics neuroscience psychology engineering initial developments consolidated meetings macy conferences ratio club prominent cybernetics precursor fields computing artificial intelligence cognitive science complexity science robotics amongst others closely related systems science developed parallel early focuses included purposeful


defined variety ways reflecting richness conceptual base one well known definitions norbert wiener characterised cybernetics concerned control communication animal machine ref name w ref another early definition macy cybernetics conferences cybernetics understood study circular causal feedback mechanisms biological social systems margaret mead emphasised role cybernetics form cross disciplinary thought made possible members many disciplines communicate easily language


could understand definitions include art governing science government andr marie amp art steersmanship ross ashby study systems nature capable receiving storing processing information use control andrey kolmogorov branch mathematics dealing problems control recursiveness information focuses forms patterns connect gregory bateson art securing efficient operation louis couffignal ref name couffignal couffignal louis essai une finition g n rale de la cybern tique ''the first international congress cybernetics'' namur belgium june paris


gauthier villars pp ref art effective organization stafford beer science art manipulating defensible metaphors showing may constructed inferred result existence gordon pask art creating equilibrium world constraints possibilities ernst von glasersfeld science art understanding humberto maturana ability cure temporary truth eternal triteness herbert brun way thinking ways thinking one larry richards etymology simple feedback model ab negative


feedback word ''cybernetics'' comes greek ''kybern tik '' meaning governance ie pertinent ''kybern '' latter meaning steer navigate govern hence ''kyb rn sis'' meaning government government ''kybern s'' governor pilot helmsperson ship french physicist mathematician andr marie amp first coined word cybernetique essay ''essai sur la philosophie des sciences'' describe science civil government term used norbert wiener book ''cybernetics'' define study control communication animal machine


book states although term ''cybernetics'' date back summer shall find convenient use referring earlier epochs development field ref name w closely related fields systems cybernetics sometimes understood within context broad field systems systems approaches influenced cybernetics include critical systems thinking incorporates viable system model work stafford beer systemic design drawn work cyberneticians ranulph glanville klaus krippendorff paul pangaro system dynamics based


louis kauffman eigenform notion eigenform example self referential system produces stable form plays important role work heinz von foerster inextricably linked second order cybernetics feedback circular causality feedback process outputs system taken new inputs system homeostasis law requisite variety self organisation history precursors ctesibius' water clock visualized th century french architect claude perrault word ''cybernetics'' first used context study


self governance plato republic ''alcibiades'' signify governance people ref name johnson ref word 'cybern tique' also used physicist andr marie amp denote sciences government classification system human knowledge first artificial automatic regulatory system water clock invented mechanician ktesibios based tank poured water reservoir using run mechanism used cone shaped float monitor level water reservoir adjust rate flow water accordingly


maintain constant level water reservoir first artificial truly automatic self regulatory device required outside intervention feedback controls mechanism devices constructed ktesibios others hero alexandria philo byzantium su song early examples cybernetic principles action james watt late th century james watt 's steam engine equipped governor centrifugal feedback valve controlling speed engine james clerk maxwell published theoretical article governors one first


discuss refine principles self regulating devices jakob von uexk applied feedback mechanism via model functional cycle ''funktionskreis'' order explain animal behaviour origins meaning general electronic control systems originated work bell telephone laboratories engineer harold black using negative feedback control amplifiers russian physiologist p k anokhin published book concept feedback back afferentation studied precursors include kenneth craik tefan odobleja foundations norbert wiener study mathematical modelling regulatory processes became


continuing research effort two key articles published behavior purpose teleology arturo rosenblueth norbert wiener julian bigelow based research living organisms arturo rosenblueth mexico paper logical calculus ideas immanent nervous activity warren mcculloch walter pitts early john von neumann contributed unique unusual addition world cybernetics von neumann cellular automata logical follow von neumann universal constructor result deceptively simple thought experiments concept self


replication cybernetics adopted core concept foundations cybernetics developed series transdisciplinary conferences funded josiah macy jr foundation conferences chaired mcculloch participants included ross ashby gregory bateson heinz von foerster margaret mead john von neumann norbert wiener spring wiener invited congress harmonic analysis held nancy france important geographical locus early cybernetics together us uk event organized bourbaki mathematician szolem mandelbrojt


stay france wiener received offer write manuscript unifying character part applied mathematics found study brownian motion telecommunication engineering following summer back united states wiener decided introduce neologism ''cybernetics'' coined denote study teleological mechanisms scientific theory popularized book ''cybernetics control communication animal machine'' ref name w uk became focus ratio club wiener popularized social implications


cybernetics drawing analogies automatic systems regulated steam engine human institutions best selling ''the human use human beings cybernetics society'' houghton mifflin published qian xuesen published work engineering cybernetics basis science segregating engineering concepts cybernetics theoretical understanding cybernetics described far historically biological computer lab university illinois urbana champaign direction heinz von foerster major center cybernetic research almost years beginning cybernetics soviet union cybernetics


soviet union initially considered pseudoscience ideological weapon imperialist reactionaries soviet philosophical dictionary later criticised narrow form cybernetics mid late viktor glushkov others salvaged reputation field soviet cybernetics incorporated much became known computer science west design self regulating control systems real time planned economy explored economist oskar lange cyberneticist viktor glushkov soviet cyberneticists split artificial intelligence artificial intelligence ai founded distinct discipline dartmouth workshop


uneasy coexistence ai gained funding prominence consequently cybernetic sciences study artificial neural networks downplayed discipline shifted world social sciences therapy ref name cariani ref development new directions new cyberneticians emerged multiple fields especially biology ideas maturana varela atlan according jean pierre dupuy realized cybernetic metaphors program upon molecular biology based rendered conception autonomy living impossible consequently thinkers led


invent new cybernetics one suited organizations mankind discovers nature organizations invented ref name jpd jean pierre dupuy autonomy social reality contribution systems theory theory society elias l khalil kenneth e boulding eds ''evolution order complexity'' ref however question whether features new cybernetics could applied social forms organization remained open debate ref name jpd according harries jones unlike predecessor new cybernetics concerns interaction


hans van der zouwen according bailey ref name kb kenneth bailey ''sociology new systems theory toward theoretical synthesis'' p ref views information constructed reconstructed individual interacting environment provides epistemological foundation science viewing observer dependent another characteristic new cybernetics contribution towards bridging ''micro macro gap'' links individual society ref name kb another characteristic noted transition classical cybernetics new cybernetics involves transition classical problems


new problems shifts thinking involve among others change emphasis system steered system steering factor guides steering decisions b new emphasis communication several systems trying steer ref name kb recent endeavors true focus cybernetics systems control emergent behavior related fields game theory analysis group interaction systems feedback evolution metamaterials study materials properties beyond newtonian properties constituent atoms


led revived interest field ref name kelly ref notable subfields theories notable subfields theories cybernetics include autopoiesis double bind theory double bind theory first described gregory bateson colleagues ref name schizophrenia bateson g jackson haley j weakland j toward theory schizophrenia''behavioral science'' vol ref theory origins schizophrenia conversation theory enactivism cybernetics associated enactive approach cognitive science work francisco varela good regulator theorem perceptual control theory radical constructivism radical constructivism approach


epistemology developed initially ernst von glasersfeld closely associated second order cybernetics second order cybernetics second order cybernetics also known cybernetics cybernetics recursive application cybernetics practice cybernetics according critique seen development cybernetics relation family therapy social sciences creative arts design research philosophy associated margaret mead heinz von foerster biological computer laboratory american society cybernetics viable system model notable devices projects distinctive quality cybernetics especially developed


british cyberneticians often progressed experimental devices social projects notable examples include colloquy mobiles colloquy mobiles installation gordon pask cybernetic serendipity exhibition elmer elsie elmer elsie pair robot tortoises developed william grey walter fun palace fun palace radical architectural project developed architect cedric price theatre director joan littlewood cybernetician gordon pask although unbuilt project widely influential notably design centre pompidou homeostat homeostat


wide variety applications approaches associations natural sciences technology biology many early cyberneticians worked neurophysiology including grey walter warren mcculloch arturo rosenblueth remained focus cybernetics developed applications cybernetics biology include physicist george gamow 's article ''scientific american'' called information transfer living cell biologists jacques monod fran ois jacob use cybernetics language formulating early theory gene regulatory networks engineering computing medicine medical technology cybernetics used general


reference science interjection disciplines medicine technology involves sciences bionics prosthetics neural network microchip implants neuroprosthetics brain computer interface earth system science geocybernetics aims study control complex co evolution ecosphere anthroposphere ref name schellnhuber schellnhuber h j discourse earth system analysis scope challenge pp schellnhuber h j wenzel v eds earth system analysis integrating science sustainability berlin springer ref example dealing planetary problems anthropogenic global warming ref name schellnhuber schellnhuber h j earth system analysis second copernican