style background cff right intention ' 'samyag sa kalpa br samm sa kappa'' giving home adopting life religious mendicant order follow path concept states harvey aims peaceful renunciation environment non sensuality non ill lovingkindness away cruelty compassion style background cfc rowspan moral virtues br sanskrit '' la'' br p li ' 's la'' right speech ' 'samyag v c br samm v ca'' lying rude speech telling one person another says speaking leads salvation style background cfc right action ' 'samyag karman br samm kammanta'' killing injuring taking


p li ' 'sam dhi'' right effort ' 'samyag vy br samm v ma'' guard sensual thoughts concept states harvey aims preventing unwholesome states disrupt meditation style background fff right mindfulness ' 'samyag sm ti br samm sati'' never absent minded conscious one states harvey encourages mindfulness impermanence body feelings mind well experience five skandhas five hindrances four true realities seven factors awakening style background fff right concentration ' 'samyag sam dhi br samm sam dhi'' correct meditation concentration ' 'dhyana'' explained four jh nas ref name bucknellkangp ref theravada


presentations path theravada buddhism diverse tradition thus includes different explanations path awakening however teachings buddha often encapsulated theravadins basic framework four noble truths eighthfold path theravada buddhists also follow presentation path laid buddhaghosa 's visuddhimagga presentation known seven purifications ' 'satta visuddhi'' schema accompanying outline insight knowledges ''vipassan a'' used modern influential theravadin scholars mahasi sayadaw progress insight nyanatiloka thera


buddha 's path deliverance mahayana presentations path mah na buddhism based principally upon path bodhisattva ''bodhisattva'' refers one path buddhahood term ''mah na'' originally synonym ''bodhisattvay na'' bodhisattva vehicle earliest texts mah na buddhism path bodhisattva awaken ''bodhicitta'' st rd century ce tradition introduced ''ten bhumi'' doctrine means ten levels stages awakening development followed acceptance impossible achieve buddhahood


one current lifetime best goal nirvana oneself buddhahood climbing ten levels multiple rebirths mah na scholars outlined elaborate path monks laypeople path includes vow help teach buddhist knowledge beings help cross samsara liberate one reaches buddhahood future rebirth one part path ''p ramit '' perfections cross derived ''jatakas'' tales buddha 's numerous rebirths doctrine bodhisattva bh mis also eventually merged


sarv stiv da vaibh ika schema five paths yogacara school'' ref name watanabe chikafumi ''a study mahayanasamgraha iii relation practical theories philosophical theories'' phd dissertation university calgary pp ref '' mah na five paths presentation seen asanga 's ''mah nasa graha'' ref name mah na texts inconsistent discussion ''p ramit s'' texts include lists two others four six ten fifty two ref name ichimura p ref six paramitas studied ref name ichimura p ''d na p ramit '' perfection giving primarily monks nuns buddhist monastic establishment dependent


alms gifts lay householders return generating religious merit texts recommend ritually transferring merit accumulated better rebirth someone else '' la p ramit '' perfection morality outlines ethical behaviour laity mahayana monastic community list similar la eightfold path ie right speech right action right livelihood ref name mizunosekimori p ref ''k nti p ramit '' perfection patience willingness endure hardship ''v rya p ramit '' perfection vigour similar right effort eightfold path ref name mizunosekimori p ''dhy na p ramit '' perfection meditation similar


right concentration eightfold path ''praj p ramit '' perfection insight wisdom awakening characteristics existence karma rebirths impermanence self dependent origination emptiness ref name ichimura p complete acceptance buddha teaching conviction followed ultimate realisation dharmas non arising mah na sutras include ten ''p ramit '' additional four perfections skillful means vow power knowledge discussed ''p ramit '' highest rated perfection mahayana texts prajna paramita perfection insight insight mah na tradition states sh hei ichimura insight


non duality absence reality things east asian buddhism east asian buddhism influenced classic indian buddhist presentations path eighth fold path well classic indian mah na presentations found da zhidu lun many different presentations soteriology including numerous paths vehicles ''yanas'' different traditions east asian buddhism single dominant presentation zen buddhism example one find outlines path two entrances four practices'''' five ranks


ten ox herding pictures three mysterious gates linji indo tibetan buddhism indo tibetan buddhism path liberation outlined genre known lamrim stages path various tibetan schools lamrim presentations genre traced ati 's th century ''a lamp path enlightenment'' ''bodhipathaprad pa'' ref name thubten ref common buddhist practices hearing learning dharma deer park depicted wat chedi liam near chiang mai northern thailand various suttas present graduated path taught buddha ''sama aphala


sutta'' ''cula hatthipadopama sutta'' first step path hearing buddha teach dharma ref name said lead acquiring confidence faith buddha 's teachings ref name mahayana buddhist teachers yin shun also state hearing dharma study buddhist discourses necessary one wants learn practice buddha dharma likewise indo tibetan buddhism stages path ''lamrim'' texts generally place activity listening buddhist teachings important early practice refuge traditionally first step


buddhist schools requires taking three refuges also called three jewels sanskrit ''triratna'' pali ''tiratana'' foundation one 's religious practice practice may influenced brahmanical motif triple refuge found ''rigveda'' ''rigveda'' ''chandogya upanishad'' tibetan buddhism sometimes adds fourth refuge ''lama'' three refuges believed buddhists protective form reverence ancient formula repeated taking refuge affirms go buddha refuge go dhamma refuge


go sangha refuge reciting three refuges according harvey considered place hide rather thought purifies uplifts strengthens heart '' la'' buddhist ethics buddhist monks collect alms si phan laos giving key virtue buddhism '' la'' sanskrit ' 's la'' p li concept moral virtues second group integral part noble eightfold path generally consists right speech right action right livelihood one basic forms ethics buddhism


taking precepts includes five precepts laypeople eight ten precepts monastic life well rules dhamma ''vinaya'' ''patimokkha'' adopted monastery important elements buddhist ethics include giving charity ' 'd na'' mett good heedfulness appamada self respect hri 'regard consequences' apatrapya precepts buddhist scriptures explain five precepts minimal standard buddhist morality important system morality buddhism together monastic rules ref name goodman ref five precepts seen basic training applicable buddhists


undertake training precept ' 'sikkha padam'' abstain onslaught breathing beings includes ordering causing someone else kill pali suttas also say one approve others killing one scrupulous compassionate trembling welfare living beings undertake training precept abstain taking given according harvey also covers fraud cheating forgery well falsely denying one debt someone undertake training precept abstain misconduct concerning sense pleasures generally refers adultery


well rape incest also applies sex legally protection guardian also interpreted different ways varying buddhist cultures undertake training precept abstain false speech according harvey includes form lying deception exaggerationeven non verbal deception gesture indicationor misleading statements precept often also seen including forms wrong speech divisive speech harsh abusive angry words even idle chatter undertake training precept abstain alcoholic drink


drugs opportunity heedlessness according harvey intoxication seen way mask rather face sufferings life seen damaging one 's mental clarity mindfulness ability keep four precepts undertaking upholding five precepts based principle non harming p li pali canon recommends one compare oneself others basis hurt others compassion belief karmic retribution form foundation precepts undertaking five precepts part


regular lay devotional practice home local temple however extent people keep differs per region time sometimes referred '' r vakay na precepts'' mah na tradition contrasting ''bodhisattva'' precepts five precepts commandments transgressions invite religious sanctions power based buddhist belief karmic consequences impact afterlife killing buddhist belief leads rebirth hell realms longer time severe conditions murder victim


monk adultery similarly invites rebirth prostitute hell depending whether partner unmarried married moral precepts voluntarily self enforced lay buddhist culture associated belief karma rebirth within buddhist doctrine precepts meant develop mind character make progress path enlightenment monastic life buddhism additional precepts part ''patimokkha'' unlike lay people transgressions monks invite sanctions full expulsion ' 'sangha'' follows instance killing engaging sexual intercourse theft false


claims one 's knowledge temporary expulsion follows lesser offence sanctions vary per monastic fraternity ''nikaya'' lay people novices many buddhist fraternities also uphold eight ''asta shila'' ten ' 'das shila'' time time four lay devotee killing stealing lying intoxicants ref name gombrichpreceptsp four precepts ref name gombrichpreceptsp ref sexual activity abstain eating wrong time eg eat solid food noon abstain jewellery perfume adornment entertainment abstain sleeping high bed ie sleep


mat ground eight precepts sometimes observed lay people ''uposatha'' days full moon new moon first last quarter following lunar calendar ref name gombrichpreceptsp ten precepts also include abstain accepting money ref name gombrichpreceptsp addition precepts buddhist monasteries hundreds rules conduct part ''patimokkha'' ref vinaya ordination ceremony wat yannawa bangkok vinaya codes regulate various sangha acts including ordination vinaya specific code conduct ' 'sangha'' monks nuns includes


patimokkha set offences including rules decorum monks along penalties transgression theravadin tradition precise content ''vinaya pitaka'' scriptures vinaya differs different schools tradition different monasteries set standards implementation list ''pattimokkha'' recited every fortnight ritual gathering monks buddhist text vinaya rules monasteries traced buddhist traditions oldest surviving ancient chinese translations monastic communities buddhist tradition cut normal social ties family


community live islands unto within monastic fraternity ' 'sangha'' rules monk abides institutionalised rules living life vinaya prescribes merely means nearly end transgressions monk ''sangha'' vinaya rules invites enforcement include temporary permanent expulsion restraint renunciation living root tree ''trukkhamulik'anga'' one ' 'dhuta gas'' series optional ascetic practices buddhist monastics another important practice taught buddha restraint senses ''indriyasamvara''


main features signs ''nimitta'' said prevent harmful influences entering mind ref name layo p layo satipa h na direct path realization p windhorse publications ref practice said give rise inner peace happiness forms basis concentration insight ref name layo p related buddhist virtue practice renunciation intent desirelessness ''nekkhamma'' generally renunciation giving actions desires seen unwholesome path lust sensuality worldly things renunciation


cultivated different ways practice giving example one form cultivating renunciation another one giving lay life becoming monastic ''bhiksu'' ''bhiksuni'' practicing celibacy whether life monk temporarily also form renunciation many jataka stories focus buddha practiced renunciation past lives one way cultivating renunciation taught buddha contemplation ''anupassana'' dangers negative consequences sensual pleasure ''k na nava'' part graduated discourse contemplation taught


practice giving morality another related practice renunciation sense restraint taught buddha restraint eating moderation food monks generally means eating noon devout laypersons also follow rule special days religious observance ''uposatha'' observing uposatha also includes practices dealing renunciation mainly eight precepts buddhist monastics renunciation also trained several optional ascetic practices called ' 'dhuta ga'' different buddhist traditions related practices focus fasting followed mindfulness clear comprehension training faculty called mindfulness


pali ' 'sati'' sanskrit ' 'sm ti'' literally meaning recollection remembering central buddhism according analayo mindfulness full awareness present moment enhances strengthens memory indian buddhist philosopher asanga defined mindfulness thus non forgetting mind regard object experienced function non distraction ref name boin webb sara p boin webb sara english trans walpola r hula french trans sanskrit '' abhidharmasamuccaya compendium higher teaching philosophy asa ga '' p asian humanities press ref according rupert gethin ' 'sati'' also awareness things relation things


range meditation practices developed buddhist traditions meditation primarily refers attainment ' 'sam dhi'' practice ' 'dhy na'' pali ''jh na'' ''sam dhi'' calm undistracted unified concentrated state consciousness defined asanga one pointedness mind object investigated function consists giving basis knowledge ''j na'' ref name boin webb sara p ''dhy na'' state perfect equanimity awareness ''upekkh sati parisuddhi'' reached focused mental training practice ' 'dhy na'' aids maintaining calm mind avoiding disturbance calm mind mindfulness


disturbing thoughts feelings origins earliest evidence yogis meditative tradition states karel werner found ke hymn rigveda ref name karelwernerkesinrv ref evidence suggests meditation practised centuries preceding buddha meditative methodologies described buddhist texts earliest among texts survived modern era methodologies likely incorporate existed buddha well first developed within buddhism scholarly agreement origin source practice ' 'dhy na'' scholars like bronkhorst see


concept soul discussion criticises ascetic meditation jainism real self soul meditation hinduism four ''rupa jh na'' seated buddha gal viharaya polonnawura sri lanka buddhist texts teach various meditation schemas one prominent four ''rupa jh nas'' four meditations realm form stages progressively deepening concentration ref name bucknell robert reinterpreting jhanas journal international association buddhist studies ref according gethin states perfect mindfulness stillness lucidity described pali canon trance like


states without desire ref name trainor p ref early texts buddha depicted entering jh na awakening bodhi tree also final nirvana see ''mah saccaka sutta'' ''mah parinibb sutta'' four ''rupa jh nas'' ref name first ''jh na'' first ' 'dhyana'' entered one secluded sensuality unskillful qualities due withdrawal right effort ''p ti'' rapture non sensual ' 'sukha'' pleasure result seclusion ''vitarka vicara'' thought examination continues second ''jh na'' ''p ti'' rapture non sensual ' 'sukha'' pleasure result


concentration ' 'samadhi ji'' born samadhi ''ekaggata'' unification awareness free ''vitarka vicara'' discursive thought ' 'sampasadana'' inner tranquility third ''jh na'' ''p ti'' drops away ''upekkh '' equanimous affective detachment one mindful alert senses pleasure ' 'sukha'' body fourth ''jh na'' stage pure equanimity mindfulness ''upekkh satip risuddhi'' without pleasure pain happiness sadness wide variety scholarly opinions modern scholars traditional buddhists interpretation meditative states well varying opinions practice ref name formless attaiments


meanwhile focuses generation penetrating critical insight ''pa '' numerous doctrinal positions disagreements within different buddhist traditions regarding qualities forms meditation example pali ''four ways arahantship sutta'' said one develop calm insight insight calm time meanwhile vasubandhu 's ''abhidharmako ak rik '' vipa yan said practiced one reached samadhi cultivating four foundations mindfulness ' 'sm tyupasth na' 's beginning comments la vallee poussin series scholars argued


two meditation types reflect tension two different ancient buddhist traditions regarding use ' 'dhy na'' one focused insight based practice focused purely ' 'dhy na'' ref name buddhismuskundeuni hamburgde layo https wwwbuddhismuskundeuni hamburgde pdf personen analayo briefcriticismpdf brief criticism two paths liberation theory jocbs ref however scholars analayo rupert gethin disagreed two paths thesis instead seeing practices complementary ref name buddhismuskundeuni hamburgde ''brahma vihara'' statue buddha wat phra si rattana mahathat phitsanulok thailand four immeasurables four abodes also called ''brahma viharas'' virtues


directions meditation buddhist traditions helps person reborn heavenly brahma realm traditionally believed characteristic deity brahma heavenly abode resides four ''brahma vihara'' loving kindness p li ''mett '' sanskrit ''maitr '' active good towards compassion p li sanskrit ''karu '' results ''metta'' identifying suffering others one 's empathetic joy p li sanskrit ''mudit '' feeling joy others happy even one contribute form


sympathetic joy equanimity p li ''upekkh '' sanskrit ''upek '' even mindedness serenity treating everyone impartially according peter harvey buddhist scriptures acknowledge four ''brahmavihara'' meditation practices originate within buddhist tradition buddhist scripture ''digha nikaya'' ii asserts buddha calling brahmavihara practice contrasts practice brahmavihara sometimes brahmaloka along tradition meditation four immeasurables found pre buddha post buddha vedic sramanic literature aspects brahmavihara practice rebirths heavenly realm


depicts generation vairocana mandala section northern wall mural lukhang temple depicting ''tummo'' three channels ''nadis'' ''phowa'' buddhist traditions especially associated tantric buddhism also known vajrayana secret mantra use images symbols deities buddhas meditation generally done mentally visualizing buddha image mental image like symbol mandala syllable etc using image cultivate calm insight one may also visualize identify oneself imagined deity visualization practices


particularly popular vajrayana may also found mahayana theravada traditions tibetan buddhism unique tantric techniques include visualization also mantra recitation mandalas elements considered much effective non tantric meditations one popular meditation methods methods ''unsurpassable yoga tantra'' ''anuttarayogatantra'' turn seen highest advanced anuttarayoga practice divided two stages ''generation stage'' ''completion stage'' generation stage one meditates emptiness visualizes oneself deity well visualizing


mandala focus developing clear appearance divine pride understanding oneself deity one method also known deity yoga ' 'devata yoga'' numerous meditation deities ''yidam'' used mandala circular symbolic map used meditation completion stage one meditates ultimate reality based image generated completion stage practices also include techniques ''tummo'' ''phowa'' said work subtle body elements like energy channels ''nadi'' vital essences ''bindu'' vital winds ''vayu'' chakras


monks laity according peter harvey whenever buddhism healthy ordained also committed lay people practised formal meditation loud devotional chanting however adds harvey prevalent buddhist practice considered form meditation produces energy joy lovingkindness calm purifies mind benefits chanter throughout buddhist history meditation primarily practised buddhist monastic tradition historical evidence suggests serious meditation lay people exception recent history sustained meditation pursued minority monks buddhist monasteries


western interest meditation led revival ancient buddhist ideas precepts adapted western mores interpreted liberally presenting buddhism meditation based form spirituality insight knowledge monks debating sera monastery tibet ''praj '' sanskrit ''pa '' p li wisdom knowledge true nature existence another term associated ''praj '' sometimes equivalent ''vipassan '' p li ''vipa yan '' sanskrit often translated insight buddhist texts faculty insight often said cultivated four establishments mindfulness


early texts ''pa '' included one five faculties ''indriya'' commonly listed important spiritual elements cultivated see example ''pa '' along samadhi also listed one trainings higher states mind ''adhicittasikkha'' buddhist tradition regards ignorance ''avidy '' fundamental ignorance misunderstanding mis perception nature reality one basic causes ' 'dukkha'' ' 'samsara'' overcoming ignorance part path awakening overcoming includes contemplation impermanence non self nature reality


develops dispassion objects clinging liberates ' 'dukkha'' ' 'sa ra'' ''praj '' important buddhist traditions variously described wisdom regarding impermanent self nature dharmas phenomena functioning karma rebirth knowledge dependent origination likewise ''vipa yan '' described similar way ''pa isambhid magga'' said contemplation things impermanent unsatisfactory self scholars bronkhorst vetter argued idea insight leads liberation later development buddhism


liberating exactly regarded central insight varied along considered central teaching buddha however others collett cox damien keown argued insight key aspect early buddhist process liberation cooperates samadhi remove obstacles enlightenment ie savas therav da buddhism focus vipassan meditation continuously thoroughly know phenomena ' 'dhammas'' impermanent ''annica'' self ''anatta'' ' 'dukkha'' widely used method modern therav da practice ''vipassan '' found


''satipatthana sutta'' disagreement contemporary therav da regarding samatha vipassan vipassana movement strongly emphasize practice insight samatha theravadins disagree mah na buddhism development insight ''vipa yan '' tranquility '' amatha'' also taught practiced many different schools mah na buddhism large repertoire meditation techniques cultivate qualities include visualization various buddhas recitation buddha 's name use tantric buddhist mantras dharanis insight mah na buddhism also includes gaining direct understanding certain mah na


philosophical views emptiness view consciousness view seen meditation texts kamala la 's ''bh van krama'' stages meditation th century teaches insight ''vipa yan '' yog c ra madhyamaka perspective devotion tibetan buddhist prostration practice jokhang tibet according harvey forms buddhism consider ' 'saddh '' skt '' raddh '' trustful confidence faith quality must balanced wisdom preparation accompaniment meditation devotion skt bhakti pali bhatti important part practice buddhists devotional practices include ritual prayer


prostration offerings pilgrimage chanting buddhist devotion usually focused object image location seen holy spiritually influential examples objects devotion include paintings statues buddhas bodhisattvas stupas bodhi trees public group chanting devotional ceremonial common buddhist traditions goes back ancient india chanting aided memorization orally transmitted teachings rosaries called malas used buddhist traditions count repeated chanting common formulas mantras chanting thus type devotional group meditation leads


tranquility communicates buddhist teachings east asian pure land buddhism devotion buddha amitabha main practice nichiren buddhism devotion lotus sutra main practice devotional practices pujas common practice theravada buddhism offerings group prayers made deities particularly images buddha according karel werner scholars devotional worship significant practice theravada buddhism deep devotion part buddhist traditions starting earliest days guru devotion central practice tibetan buddhism ref


name wolter p ref guru considered essential buddhist devotee guru enlightened teacher ritual master vajrayana spiritual pursuits ref name wolter p ref name berkwitz ref someone seeking buddhahood guru buddha dharma sangha wrote th century buddhist scholar sadhanamala ref name berkwitz veneration obedience teachers also important theravada zen buddhism vegetarianism animal ethics vegetarian meal buddhist temple east asian buddhism tends promote vegetarianism based indian principle ahimsa non harming buddha 's ethics strongly condemn harming sentient beings including animals


seen heard reason suspect animal killed meat could given ref name phelps norm p phelps norm ''the great compassion buddhism animal rights'' new york lantern books p ref also buddha explicitly promote vegetarianism discourses state gaining one 's livelihood meat trade unethical however rule promotion specific diet rule actual killing animals food also


famed schism occurred buddhist community devadatta attempted make vegetarianism compulsory buddha disagreed ref name phelps norm p contrast various mahayana sutras texts like mahaparinirvana sutra surangama sutra lankavatara sutra state buddha promoted vegetarianism compassion indian mahayana thinkers like shantideva promoted avoidance meat throughout history issue whether buddhists vegetarian remained much debated topic variety opinions issue among modern buddhists east asian buddhism monastics


expected vegetarian practice seen virtuous taken devout laypersons theravadins sri lanka southeast asia practice vegetarianism eat whatever offered lay community mostly also vegetarians exceptions monks choose vegetarian abbots like ajahn sumedho encouraged lay community donate vegetarian food monks mahasi sayadaw meanwhile recommended vegetarianism best way make sure one 's meal pure three ways also new religious


movement santi asoke promotes vegetarianism according peter harvey theravada world vegetarianism universally admired little practiced rule killing many buddhist countries butchers others work meat trade non buddhists likewise tibetan buddhists historically tended vegetarian however strong debates pro vegetarian arguments pro vegetarian tibetans influential figures spoken written favor vegetarianism throughout history including well known figures like shabkar th karmapa ogyen trinley dorje mandated vegetarianism


monasteries buddhist texts depiction supposed first buddhist council rajgir communal recitation one original ways transmitting preserving early buddhist texts buddhism like indian religions initially oral tradition ancient times ref name lopez busc buddha 's words early doctrines concepts traditional interpretations orally transmitted one generation next earliest oral texts transmitted middle indo aryan languages called prakrits pali use communal recitation mnemonic techniques first buddhist canonical texts likely written sri lanka


years buddha died ref name lopez busc texts part ''tripitakas'' many versions appeared thereafter claiming words buddha scholarly buddhist commentary texts named authors appeared india around nd century ce ref name lopez busc texts written pali sanskrit sometimes regional languages palm leaf manuscripts birch bark painted scrolls carved temple walls later paper ref name lopez busc ref unlike bible christianity quran islam like major ancient indian religions consensus among different buddhist


materials languages sanskrit khotanese tibetan g ndh r modern study early buddhism often relies comparative scholarship using various early buddhist sources identify parallel texts common doctrinal content one feature early texts literary structures reflect oral transmission widespread repetition tripitakas development different early buddhist schools schools began develop textual collections termed ''tripi akas'' triple baskets many early ''tripi akas'' like p li ''tipitaka'' divided three sections ''vinaya pitaka'' focuses monastic rule ''sutta


pitaka'' buddhist discourses ''abhidhamma pitaka'' contain expositions commentaries doctrine p li ''tipitaka'' also known pali canon theravada school constitutes complete collection buddhist texts indic language survived today however many ''sutras'' ''vinayas'' ''abhidharma'' works schools survive chinese translation part chinese buddhist canon according sources early schools buddhism five seven ''pitakas'' much material pali canon specifically theravadin instead collection teachings


generally given greater authority early gamas abhidharma literature called r vakay na hinayana distinguish mah na tras mah na traditions mainly see different classes texts designed different types persons different levels spiritual understanding mah na tras mainly seen greater capacity mah na tras often claim articulate buddha 's deeper advanced doctrines reserved follow bodhisattva path path explained built upon motivation liberate living beings unhappiness hence


name ''mah na'' lit ''the great vehicle'' besides teaching bodhisattva mah na texts also contain expanded cosmologies mythologies many buddhas powerful bodhisattvas well new spiritual practices ideas modern theravada school treat mah na tras authoritative authentic teachings buddha likewise texts recognized authoritative many early buddhist schools cases communities mah ghika school split due disagreement buddhist monk geshe konchog wangdu reads mahayana sutras old woodblock copy tibetan kanjur recent


scholarship discovered many early mah na texts shed light development mah na among '' listamba sutra'' survives tibetan chinese translation text contains numerous sections remarkably similar pali suttas ref name karlpotter p '' listamba sutra'' cited mah na scholars th century yasomitra authoritative suggests buddhist literature different traditions shared common core buddhist texts early centuries history mah na literature diverged st century ce ref name karlpotter p mah na also large literature


philosophical exegetical texts often called '' stra'' treatises ''vrittis'' commentaries literature also written verse form ''karik s'' famous ''m lamadhyamika karik '' root verses middle way nagarjuna foundational text madhyamika school tantric texts gupta empire new class buddhist sacred literature began develop called tantras th century tantric tradition influential india beyond besides drawing mah na buddhist framework texts also borrowed deities material


indian religious traditions aiva pancharatra traditions local god goddess cults local spirit worship yaksha n ga spirits features texts include widespread use mantras meditation subtle body worship fierce deities antinomian transgressive practices ingesting alcohol performing sexual rituals history historical roots mah k yapa meets j vika ascetic one common rama groups ancient india historically roots buddhism lie religious thought iron age india around middle first millennium bce period


great intellectual ferment socio cultural change known second urbanisation marked growth towns trade composition upanishads historical emergence rama traditions ref new ideas developed vedic tradition form upanishads outside vedic tradition rama movements ref name olivelle br quote bronkhorst talks simultaneous emergence vedic non vedic asceticism olivelle thus challenge old vedic views consisted new theology written early upanishads like brhadaranyaka


mundaka upanishad new set ideas contained ref term rama refers several indian religious movements parallel separate historical vedic religion including buddhism jainism others j vika several rama movements known existed india th century bce pre buddha pre mahavira influenced stika n stika traditions indian philosophy ref name reginaldray reginald ray buddhist saints india oxford university press pp ref according martin wilshire rama tradition evolved india two phases namely paccekabuddha savaka phases former


tradition individual ascetic latter disciples buddhism jainism ultimately emerged ref name wiltshire martin wiltshire ascetic figures early buddhism de gruyter p ref brahmanical non brahmanical ascetic groups shared used several similar ideas rama traditions also drew upon already established brahmanical concepts philosophical roots states wiltshire formulate doctrines ref name reginaldray ref name wiltshire martin wiltshire ascetic figures early buddhism de gruyter pp ref brahmanical motifs found oldest buddhist texts using introduce explain buddhist ideas


example prior buddhist developments brahmanical tradition internalised variously reinterpreted three vedic sacrificial fires concepts truth rite tranquility restraint buddhist texts also refer three vedic sacrificial fires reinterpreting explaining ethical conduct rama religions challenged broke brahmanic tradition core assumptions atman soul self brahman nature afterlife rejected authority vedas upanishads ref name siderits p buddhism one among several indian religions ref name siderits p ref indian buddhism ajanta caves cave first period type chaitya


worship hall stupa idols history indian buddhism may divided five periods early buddhism occasionally called pre sectarian buddhism nikaya buddhism sectarian buddhism period early buddhist schools early mahayana buddhism late mahayana era vajrayana tantric age pre sectarian buddhism according lambert schmithausen pre sectarian buddhism canonical period prior development different schools different positions early buddhist texts include four principal pali nik yas parallel agamas found chinese canon together main body monastic


rules survive various versions patimokkha however texts revised time unclear constitutes earliest layer buddhist teachings one method obtain information oldest core buddhism compare oldest extant versions theravadin p li canon texts reliability early sources possibility draw core oldest teachings matter dispute according vetter inconsistencies remain methods must applied resolve inconsistencies overview early buddhism tilmann vetter


philological work four truths kr norman textual studies richard gombrich research early meditation methods johannes bronkhorst according schmithausen three positions held scholars buddhism distinguished stress fundamental homogeneity substantial authenticity least considerable part nikayic materials according warder cq publisher kernel doctrine presumably common buddhism period great schisms fourth third centuries bc may substantially buddhism buddha although cannot


proved rate buddhism presupposed schools existing hundred years parinirvana buddha evidence suggest formulated anyone else buddha immediate followers richard gombrich scepticism regard possibility retrieving doctrine earliest buddhism cautious optimism respect johannes bronkhorst donald lopez core teachings according mitchell certain basic teachings appear many places throughout early texts led scholars conclude gautama buddha


must taught something similar four noble truths noble eightfold path nirvana three marks existence five aggregates dependent origination karma rebirth according n ross reat doctrines shared theravada pali texts mahasamghika school 's '' listamba tra'' recent study bhikkhu analayo concludes theravada ''majjhima nikaya'' sarvastivada ''madhyama agama'' contain mostly major doctrines richard salomon study gandharan texts earliest manuscripts containing early discourses confirmed teachings consistent non mahayana buddhism


survives today theravada school sri lanka southeast asia ancient times represented eighteen separate schools however scholars argue critical analysis reveals discrepancies among various doctrines found early texts point alternative possibilities early buddhism authenticity certain teachings doctrines questioned example scholars think karma central teaching historical buddha disagree position likewise scholarly disagreement whether insight seen liberating early buddhism whether


later addition practice four ''jh nas'' scholars bronkhorst also think four noble truths may formulated earliest buddhism serve earliest buddhism description liberating insight according vetter description buddhist path may initially simple term middle way time short description elaborated resulting description eightfold path ashokan era early schools sanchi stupa near vidisha madhya pradesh india according numerous buddhist scriptures soon


parinirv sanskrit highest extinguishment gautama buddha first buddhist council held collectively recite teachings ensure errors occurred oral transmission many modern scholars question historicity event however richard gombrich states monastic assembly recitations buddha 's teaching likely began buddha 's lifetime served similar role codifying teachings called second buddhist council resulted first schism sangha modern scholars believe probably caused group reformists called sthaviras elders sought modify


vinaya monastic rule caused split conservatives rejected change called mah ghikas scholars accept happened point agreement dating especially dates reign ashoka map buddhist missions reign ashoka according edicts ashoka buddhism may spread slowly throughout india time mauryan emperor ashoka bce public supporter religion support oka descendants led


construction st pas sanchi bharhut temples mahabodhi temple spread throughout maurya empire neighbouring lands central asia island sri lanka mauryan period bce sthavira community gave rise several schools one theravada school tended congregate south another sarv stiv da school mainly north india likewise mah ghika groups also eventually split different sanghas originally schisms caused disputes


monastic disciplinary codes various fraternities eventually ce earlier schisms caused doctrinal disagreements following leading schisms sa gha started accumulate version tripi aka triple basket texts ref name britannicatipitaka http wwwbritannicacom topic tipitaka tipitaka encyclop dia britannica ref ref name crandall p ref tripi aka school included suttas buddha vinaya basket disciplinary code schools also added abhidharma basket texts detailed scholastic classification summary interpretation suttas ref name britannicatipitaka doctrine details abhidharmas various buddhist schools differ


significantly composed starting third century bce st millennium ce post ashokan expansion extent buddhism trade routes st century ce according edicts oka mauryan emperor sent emissaries various countries west india spread dharma particularly eastern provinces neighbouring seleucid empire even farther hellenistic kingdoms mediterranean matter disagreement among scholars whether emissaries accompanied buddhist missionaries buddhist expansion throughout asia central west asia buddhist influence grew greek speaking


buddhist monarchs ancient asian trade routes phenomenon known greco buddhism example evidenced chinese pali buddhist records ''milindapanha'' greco buddhist art gandh ra ''milindapanha'' describes conversation buddhist monk nd century bce greek king menander menander abdicates goes monastic life pursuit nirvana scholars questioned ''milindapanha'' version expressing doubts whether menander buddhist favourably disposed buddhist monks kushan empire ce came control silk road trade central south


asia brought interact gandharan buddhism buddhist institutions regions kushans patronised buddhism throughout lands many buddhist centers built renovated sarvastivada school particularly favored especially emperor kanishka ce ref name heirman ann p heirman ann bumbacher stephan peter editors spread buddhism brill p ref kushan support helped buddhism expand world religion trade routes ref name liu p ref buddhism spread khotan tarim basin china eventually parts far east ref name heirman ann p earliest written


documents buddhist faith gandharan buddhist texts dating st century ce connected dharmaguptaka school islamic conquest iranian plateau th century followed muslim conquests afghanistan later establishment ghaznavid kingdom islam state religion central asia th th century led decline disappearance buddhism regions ref name kudara ref mah na buddhism kushan future buddha maitreya gautama buddha bodhisattva avalokite vara monk second third century guimet museum origins mah na great


lokak ema nd century ce scholars traditionally considered earliest mah na tras include first versions prajnaparamita series along texts concerning ak obhya probably composed st century bce south india evidence mah na ever referred separate formal school sect buddhism separate monastic code vinaya rather existed certain set ideals later doctrines bodhisattvas records written chinese monks visiting india indicate mah na non mah na monks could found


grow influence following centuries large monastic university complexes nalanda established th century ce gupta emperor kumaragupta vikramashila established dharmapala c becoming quite powerful influential period late mah na four major types thought developed dhyamaka yog c ra buddha nature ''tath gatagarbha'' epistemological tradition dignaga dharmakirti according dan lusthaus dhyamaka yog c ra great deal common commonality stems early buddhism late indian buddhism tantra vajrayana adopted deities bhairava known yamantaka tibetan buddhism


gupta period th th centuries empire har avardana c ce buddhism continued influential india large buddhist learning institutions nalanda valabahi universities peak buddhism also flourished support p la empire th th centuries guptas palas tantric buddhism vajrayana developed rose prominence promoted new practices use mantras dharanis mudras mandalas visualization deities buddhas developed new class literature buddhist tantras new esoteric form buddhism traced


tantras especially bhairava vidyapitha tantras ronald davidson meanwhile argues sanderson 's claims direct influence shaiva ''vidyapitha'' texts problematic chronology ''vidyapitha'' tantras means well established shaiva tradition also appropriated non hindu deities texts traditions thus question buddhist tantras heavily influenced kapalika saiva movements argues davidson influence apparently mutual already later era buddhism losing state support regions india including lands karkotas pratiharas


late nd st century ce though literary sources open question first documented translation efforts foreign buddhist monks china nd century ce probably consequence expansion kushan empire chinese territory tarim basin first documented buddhist texts translated chinese parthian shigao ce first known mah na scriptural texts translations chinese kushan monk lokak ema luoyang ce china buddhism introduced neighbours


korea th century japan th th centuries vietnam c st nd centuries ref name dykstra yoshiko kurata p dykstra yoshiko kurata de bary william theodore ''sources japanese tradition'' new york columbia university press p ref chinese tang dynasty chinese esoteric buddhism introduced india chan buddhism zen became major religion chan continued grow song dynasty era strongly influenced korean buddhism japanese buddhism pure land buddhism also became popular period often practised together chan also


became state religion ref name larsfogelin ref theravada school arrived sri lanka sometime rd century bce sri lanka became base later spread southeast asia th century ce myanmar malaysia indonesia thailand cambodia coastal vietnam theravada buddhism dominant religion burma mon hanthawaddy kingdom also became dominant khmer empire th th centuries thai sukhothai kingdom reign ram khamhaeng schools traditions distribution major buddhist traditions buddhists generally classify either therav da


buddhism tibetan tradition also sometimes referred 'northern' buddhism br divide book two parts part one entitled buddhism south asia pertains early buddhism india part two entitled development buddhism outside india chapters buddhism southeast asia buddhism tibetan culture area east asian buddhism buddhism comes west br ''penguin handbook living religions'' p br prebish keown ''introducing buddhism'' ebook journal buddhist ethics printed ed harper buddhists various traditions yeunten ling tibetan institute scholars ''encyclopedia


religion'' use schemes buddhists variety schemes hinayana literally lesser inferior vehicle sometimes used mah na followers name family early philosophical schools traditions contemporary therav da emerged hinayana term considered derogatory variety terms used instead including r vakay na nikaya buddhism early buddhist schools sectarian buddhism conservative buddhism ref name kwmorganp ref traditions buddhism share philosophical outlook treat concepts central tradition however core concepts comparisons


drawn therav da mah na accept revere buddha sakyamuni founder mah na also reveres numerous buddhas amitabha vairocana well many bodhisattvas revered therav da accept middle way dependent origination four noble truths noble eightfold path three jewels three marks existence ''bodhipak adharmas'' aids awakening mah na focuses mainly bodhisattva path buddhahood sees universal practiced persons therav da focus teaching path teaches attainment


arhatship worthy goal strive towards bodhisattva path denied therav da generally seen long difficult path suitable thus bodhisattva path normative mah na optional path heroic therav da mah na sees arhat 's nirvana imperfect inferior preliminary full buddhahood sees arhatship selfish since bodhisattvas vow save beings arhats save therav da meanwhile accept arhat 's nirvana inferior preliminary attainment


selfish deed attain arhatship since arhats described compassionate destroyed root greed sense mah na accepts authority many mah na sutras along nikaya texts like agamas pali canon though sees mah na texts primary therav da accept mah na sutras ''buddhavacana'' word buddha therav da school monastics white clad laypersons celebrate vesak vipassakna dhaurak cambodia therav da tradition bases p li canon considers


sri lankan branch vibhajyav da sthaviras began establish island rd century bce onwards therav da flourished south india sri lanka ancient times spread first time mainland southeast asia th century elite urban centres th century therav da spread widely rural areas mainland southeast asia displacing mahayana buddhism traditions hinduism modern era buddhist figures anagarika dhammapala king mongkut sought focus tradition p li canon


well emphasize rational scientific nature therav da also opposing superstition movement often termed buddhist modernism influenced forms modern therav da another influential modern turn therav da vipassana movement led widespread adoption meditation laypersons therav da primarily practised today sri lanka burma laos thailand cambodia well small portions china vietnam malaysia bangladesh growing presence west especially part vipassana movement mah na traditions chinese buddhist monks performing formal ceremony hangzhou zhejiang province


many ways due adoption tantric practices discussed heading vajray na also commonly referred northern buddhism tibetan buddhists practicing ch various ritual implements damaru drum hand bell kangling thighbone trumpet ruins temple erdene zuu monastery complex mongolia variety strands eastern buddhism pure land school mah na widely practised today china different strands traditions generally fused together vietnamese mah na similarly eclectic japan


particular form separate denominations five major ones nichiren peculiar japan pure land shingon form vajrayana tendai zen korea nearly buddhists belong chogye school officially son zen substantial elements traditions vajray na traditions goal philosophy vajray na remains mah nist methods seen followers far powerful lead buddhahood one lifetime practice using mantras adopted hinduism first used vedas


tibetan buddhism preserves vajrayana teachings eighth century india ref name white tantric buddhism largely concerned ritual meditative practices central feature buddhist tantra deity yoga includes visualisation identification enlightened yidam meditation deity associated mandala another element tantra need ritual initiation empowerment abhi eka guru lama tantras like guhyasam ja tantra features new forms antinomian ritual practice use taboo substances like alcohol sexual yoga charnel ground practices evoke wrathful deities monasteries temples


buddhist institutions often housed centered around monasteries sanskrit ''viharas'' temples buddhist monastics originally followed life wandering never staying one place long three month rainy season ''vassa'' would gather together one place period intense practice depart earliest buddhist monasteries groves ''vanas'' woods ''ara as'' jetavana sarnath 's deer park originally seems two main types monasteries monastic settlements ' 'sangharamas'' built supported donors woodland camps ''avasas'' set


monks whatever structures built locales made wood sometimes temporary structures built rainy season time wandering community slowly adopted settled cenobitic forms monasticism also monasteries slowly evolved simpler collections rustic dwellings early buddhism larger permanent structures meant house entire community lived collective fashion gupta era even larger monastic university complexes like nalanda arose larger artistically ornate structures well large land grants accumulated wealth


area termed garan indo tibetan buddhism buddhist institutions generally housed gompas include monastic quarters stupas prayer halls buddha images complexity buddhist institutions varies ranging minimalist rustic forest monasteries large monastic centers like tawang monastery core traditional buddhist institutions monastic community ''sangha '' manage lead religious services supported lay community visit temples monasteries religious services holidays modern era buddhist meditation centre mostly used laypersons often also staffed


also become widespread buddhism modern era buryat buddhist monk siberia colonial era buddhism faced various challenges changes colonisation buddhist states christian countries persecution modern states like religions findings modern science challenged basic premises one response challenges come called buddhist modernism early buddhist modernist figures american convert henry olcott anagarika dharmapala reinterpreted promoted buddhism scientific rational religion saw compatible modern science east


asian buddhism meanwhile suffered various wars ravaged china modern era taiping rebellion world war ii also affected korean buddhism republican period new movement called humanistic buddhism developed figures taixu though buddhist institutions destroyed cultural revolution revival religion china japanese buddhism also went period modernisation meiji period central asia meanwhile arrival communist repression tibet mongolia


strong negative impact buddhist institutions though situation improved somewhat since buddhism west world parliament religions chicago interior thai buddhist wat nukari nurmij rvi finland encounters western travellers missionaries st francis xavier ippolito desideri buddhist cultures th century buddhism began studied western scholars work pioneering scholars eug ne burnouf max ller hermann oldenberg thomas william rhys davids paved


new buddhist institutions western countries including buddhist society london das buddhistische haus datsan gunzechoinei st petersburg publication translations buddhist literature western languages thereafter accelerated second world war immigration asia globalisation secularisation western culture well renewed interest buddhism among counterculture led growth buddhist institutions influential figures post war western buddhism include shunryu suzuki jack kerouac alan watts th ch nh h nh th dalai lama buddhist institutions grown central premises


buddhism cycles rebirth four noble truths problematic west contrast states christopher gowans ordinary asian buddhists today well past basic moral orientation governed belief karma rebirth asian buddhist laypersons states kevin trainor historically pursued buddhist rituals practices seeking better rebirth nirvana freedom rebirth ref image nouvelle g ographie universelle la terre et les hommes jpg alt buddha statue bamiyan image destroyed statue july


jpg alt statue destroyed islamist taliban buddhism spread across world buddhist texts increasingly translated local languages buddhism west often seen exotic progressive east regarded familiar traditional countries cambodia bhutan recognised state religion receives government support certain regions afghanistan pakistan militants targeted violence destruction historic buddhist monuments neo buddhism movements number modern movements buddhism emerged second


half th century new forms buddhism diverse significantly depart traditional beliefs practices india br ambedkar launched navayana tradition literally new vehicle ambedkar 's buddhism rejects foundational doctrines historic practices traditional theravada mahayana traditions monk lifestyle renunciation karma rebirth samsara meditation nirvana four noble truths others ref name skaria ref ambedkar 's navayana buddhism considers superstitions interprets original buddha someone taught class struggle social equality ref name zelliot ref ambedkar urged low caste indian dalits convert marxism inspired ref name skaria


reinterpretation called navayana buddhism also known bhimayana buddhism ambedkar 's effort led expansion navayana buddhism india ref name zelliot thai king mongkut r son king chulalongkorn r responsible modern reforms thai buddhism modern buddhist movements include secular buddhism many countries buddhism korea dhammakaya movement thailand several japanese organisations shinnyo en rissh k sei kai soka gakkai movements brought internal disputes strife within regional buddhist communities example dhammakaya movement thailand teaches true self


doctrine traditional theravada monks consider heretically denying fundamental ''anatta'' self doctrine buddhism sexual abuse misconduct buddhism immune sexual abuse misconduct scandals victims coming forward various buddhist schools zen tibetan huge cover ups catholic church happened within tibetan buddhism totally along lines says mary finnigan author journalist chronicling alleged abuses since mid one notably covered case media various western countries sogyal rinpoche


began ended retirement position rigpa 's spiritual director cultural influence buddhism profound influence various cultures especially asia buddhist philosophy buddhist art buddhist architecture buddhist cuisine buddhist festivals continue influential elements modern culture asia especially east asia sinosphere well southeast asia indosphere according litian fang buddhism permeated wide range fields politics ethics philosophy literature art customs asian regions buddhist teachings influenced development


also said site composition ''a gah daya sa hit '' influential medical work physician v gbha ref name salguero pierce ''toward global history buddhism medicine'' buddhist studies review issn online doi bsrvv ref buddhists spread traditional approaches health sometimes called buddhist medicine throughout east southeast asia remain influential today regions like sri lanka burma tibet thailand effort preserve sacred scriptures buddhist institutions temples monasteries housed schools educated populace promoted writing literacy led high


levels literacy among traditional buddhist societies burma according david steinberg early british observers claimed burma literate state suez japan one british traveler early nineteenth century believed burmese women higher percentage literacy british women buddhist institutions also forefront adoption chinese technologies related bookmaking including papermaking block printing buddhists often deployed large scale examples early buddhist adoption technologies buddhist charm first surviving printed


text chinese diamond sutra c first full printed book first hand colored print illustration guanyin dated gallery widths px heights px file collectie tropenmuseum temperaschilderij voorstellende de borobudur als bedevaartsoord tmnr jpg painting g b hooijer c reconstructing scene borobudur largest buddhist temple world file jingangjingjpg frontispiece chinese ''diamond tra'' oldest known dated printed book world gallery modern influence western world buddhism strong influence modern new age spirituality alternative spiritualities


began influence th century theosophists helena blavatsky first westerners take buddhism seriously spiritual tradition recently buddhist meditation practices influenced development modern psychology particularly practice mindfulness based stress reduction mbsr similar mindfulness based modalities influence buddhism psychology also seen certain forms modern psychoanalysis buddhism also influenced modern avant garde movements people like suzuki influence figures like jack kerouac allen ginsberg relationships


religious traditions shamanism shamanism widespread practice buddhist societies buddhist monasteries long existed alongside local shamanic traditions lacking institutional orthodoxy buddhists adapted local cultures blending traditions pre existing shamanic culture little conflict sects mostly limited shamanic practice animal sacrifice buddhists see equivalent killing one 's parents however buddhism requires acceptance buddha greatest cosmos local shamanic traditions bestowed inferior status ref name shamanism ref research himalayan religion shown buddhist


shamanic traditions overlap many respects worship localized deities healing rituals exorcisms shamanic gurung people adopted buddhist beliefs rebirth maintain shamanic rites guiding soul death geoffrey samuel describes shamanic buddhism vajrayana buddhism practiced tibet may described shamanic centered around communication alternative mode reality via alternative states consciousness tantric yoga ref name shamanism demographics percentage buddhists country according pew research center buddhism practised estimated


million million million people representing world 's total population china country largest population buddhists approximately million total population katharina wenzel teuber china zentrum germany ref mostly followers chinese schools ''mahayana'' making largest body buddhist traditions mahayana also practised broader east asia followed half world buddhists according demographic analysis reported peter harvey ''mahayana'' million adherents ''theravada'' million adherents ''vajrayana''


million adherents according buddhism grown total million adherents million asia million million asia buddhists live asia pacific south asia region north america million buddhists europe million south america africa middle east estimated combined total million buddhists buddhism dominant religion bhutan myanmar cambodia hong kong japan tibet laos macau mongolia singapore sri lanka thailand


survey http wwwsingstatgovsg docs default source default document library publications publications papers ghs ghs excel xls religion data ref style text align left br style text align left style text align left see also akriyavada buddhism jainism bhakti movement buddha 's dispensation buddhism eastern religions buddhism science buddhism country buddhist philosophy chinese folk religion criticism buddhism dalit buddhist movement easily confused buddhist representations iconography gautama buddha laos thailand index buddhism related articles jewish buddhist list buddhist temples list buddhists list converts buddhism outline buddhism persecution buddhists shinbutsu sh g


southern eastern northern buddhism tengrism buddhism three teachings buddhism central asia explanatory notes subnotes citations cited sources printed sources reprinted williams ''buddhism'' volume nb online transcript little text accidentally omitted section none contributions section envisage date bc bc insert akira hirakawa defends short chronology heinz bechert sets range bc editor last eliade editor first mircea display editors etal title encyclopedia religion location new york publisher macmillan year isbn


goleman daniel ''destructive emotions scientific dialogue dalai lama'' bantam kindle edition online sources date title global religious landscape report size distribution world 's major religious groups publisher pew research center url http wwwpewforumorg files globalreligion fullpdf archive url https webarchiveorg web http wwwpewforumorg files globalreligion fullpdf url status dead archive date august access date october work global religious landscape title buddhists date december publisher pew research center url http wwwpewforumorg global religious landscape buddhist access date march external links http buddhanetnet worldwide buddhist information education network buddhanet https suttacentralnet early buddhist texts translations parallels suttacentral https webarchiveorg web http alcuclaedu refguide refguidehtm east asian buddhist studies reference guide robert buswell william bodiford ucla https waybackarchive itorg https wwweastwestcenterorg sites default files filemanager asdp wabashdepauw buddhist asia bibliography china tibetpdf buddhist


'''biochemistry''' '''biological chemistry''' study chemical processes within relating living organisms sub discipline chemistry biology biochemistry may divided three fields structural biology enzymology metabolism last decades th century biochemistry become successful explaining living processes three disciplines almost areas life sciences uncovered developed biochemical methodology research ref name voet voet p ref biochemistry focuses understanding chemical basis allows biological molecules give rise processes occur


cell also depends upon reactions small molecules ions inorganic example water metal ions organic example amino acids used synthesize proteins ref name marks marks chapter ref mechanisms used cells harness energy environment via chemical reactions known metabolism findings biochemistry applied primarily medicine nutrition agriculture medicine biochemists investigate causes cures diseases nutrition studies maintain health wellness also effects nutritional deficiencies ref name ffl unicef


pp ref agriculture biochemists investigate soil fertilizers improving crop cultivation crop storage pest control also goals history gerty cori carl cori jointly nobel prize discovery cori cycle rpmi comprehensive definition biochemistry seen study components composition living things come together become life sense history biochemistry may therefore go back far ancient greeks ref name history science helvoort p ref however biochemistry


specific scientific discipline began sometime th century little earlier depending aspect biochemistry focused argued beginning biochemistry may discovery first enzyme diastase called amylase anselme payen others considered eduard buchner 's first demonstration complex biochemical process alcoholic fermentation cell free extracts birth biochemistry ref name ref might also point beginning influential work justus von liebig ''animal chemistry organic chemistry applications


physiology pathology'' presented chemical theory metabolism ref name history science even earlier th century studies fermentation respiration antoine lavoisier many pioneers field helped uncover layers complexity biochemistry proclaimed founders modern biochemistry emil fischer studied chemistry proteins f gowland hopkins studied enzymes dynamic nature biochemistry represent two examples early biochemists term biochemistry derived combination biology chemistry felix hoppe seyler used


term ''biochemie'' german synonym physiological chemistry foreword first issue ''zeitschrift f r physiologische chemie'' journal physiological chemistry argued setting institutes dedicated field study german chemist carl neuberg however often cited coined word ref name ben menahem ben menahem p ref credited franz hofmeister edwards pp ref generally believed life materials essential property substance often referred vital principle distinct found


non living matter thought living beings could produce molecules life friedrich w hler published paper serendipitous urea synthesis potassium cyanate ammonium sulfate regarded direct overthrow vitalism establishment organic chemistry ref name kauffman kauffman pp ref however w hler synthesis sparked controversy reject death vitalism hands since biochemistry advanced especially since mid th century development new techniques chromatography x ray diffraction dual polarisation interferometry nmr


compose human body shown abundant mass least abundant around two dozen chemical elements essential various kinds biological life rare elements earth needed life exceptions selenium iodine common ones aluminum titanium used organisms share element needs differences plants animals example ocean algae use bromine land plants animals seem need animals require sodium plants plants need boron silicon


linked together create large macromolecules known polymers monomers linked together synthesize biological polymer undergo process called dehydration synthesis different macromolecules assemble larger complexes often needed biological activity carbohydrates two main functions carbohydrates energy storage providing structure one common sugars known glucose carbohydrate carbohydrates sugars carbohydrates earth known type biomolecule used store energy genetic information well play important roles cell


cell interactions communications simplest type carbohydrate monosaccharide among properties contains carbon hydrogen oxygen mostly ratio generalized formula c sub ''n'' sub h sub ''n'' sub sub ''n'' sub ''n'' least glucose c sub sub h sub sub sub sub one important carbohydrates others include fructose c sub sub h sub sub sub sub sugar commonly associated sweet taste fruits ref name whiting whiting pp ref deoxyribose c sub sub h sub sub sub sub component dna monosaccharide switch acyclic open chain form cyclic form open chain form turned ring carbon atoms bridged


oxygen atom created carbonyl group one end hydroxyl group another cyclic molecule hemiacetal hemiketal group depending whether linear form aldose ketose cyclic forms ring usually ''' ''' ''' ''' atoms forms called furanoses pyranoses respectively analogy furan pyran simplest compounds carbon oxygen ring although lack carbon carbon double bonds two molecules example aldohexose glucose may form hemiacetal linkage hydroxyl carbon


oxygen carbon yielding molecule membered ring called glucofuranose reaction take place carbons form molecule membered ring called glucopyranose cyclic forms atom ring called heptoses rare two monosaccharides joined together glycosidic ester bond ' 'disaccharide'' dehydration reaction molecule water released reverse reaction glycosidic bond disaccharide broken two monosaccharides termed ''hydrolysis'' best known disaccharide sucrose


ordinary sugar consists glucose molecule fructose molecule joined together another important disaccharide lactose found milk consisting glucose molecule galactose molecule lactose may hydrolysed lactase deficiency enzyme results lactose intolerance around three six monosaccharides joined called ''oligosaccharide'' ''oligo '' meaning molecules tend used markers signals well uses ref name varki varki p ref many monosaccharides joined together form polysaccharide joined together one long


linear chain may branched two common polysaccharides cellulose glycogen consisting repeating glucose monomers ''cellulose'' important structural component plant 's cell walls ''glycogen'' used form energy storage animals sugar characterized reducing non reducing ends reducing end carbohydrate carbon atom equilibrium open chain aldehyde aldose keto form ketose joining monomers takes place carbon atom free hydroxy group pyranose


triglyceride composed oleoyl stearoyl palmitoyl chains attached glycerol backbone bottom common phospholipid phosphatidylcholine '''lipids''' comprise diverse range molecules extent catchall relatively water insoluble nonpolar compounds biological origin including waxes fatty acids fatty acid derived phospholipids sphingolipids glycolipids terpenoids eg retinoids steroids lipids linear open chain aliphatic molecules others ring structures aromatic cyclic ring planar flat structure others flexible others rigid lipids usually made one


molecule glycerol combined molecules triglycerides main group bulk lipids one molecule glycerol three fatty acids fatty acids considered monomer case may saturated double bonds carbon chain unsaturated one double bonds carbon chain lipids polar character addition largely nonpolar general bulk structure nonpolar hydrophobic water fearing meaning interact well polar solvents like water another part structure polar


hydrophilic water loving tend associate polar solvents like water makes amphiphilic molecules hydrophobic hydrophilic portions case cholesterol polar group mere oh hydroxyl alcohol case phospholipids polar groups considerably larger polar described lipids integral part daily diet oils milk products use cooking eating like butter cheese ghee etc composed fats vegetable oils rich various polyunsaturated fatty acids pufa lipid containing foods undergo digestion within


body broken fatty acids glycerol final degradation products fats lipids lipids especially phospholipids also used various pharmaceutical products either co solubilisers eg parenteral infusions else drug carrier components eg liposome transfersome proteins amino group left carboxyl group right proteins large molecules macro biopolymers made monomers called amino acids amino acid consists alpha carbon atom attached amino group nh sub sub carboxylic acid group cooh although exist nh sub sub sup sup coo sup sup


physiologic conditions simple hydrogen atom side chain commonly denoted r side chain r different amino acid standard ones r group made amino acid different properties side chains greatly influence overall three dimensional conformation protein amino acids functions modified form instance glutamate functions important neurotransmitter amino acids joined via peptide bond dehydration synthesis water molecule removed peptide


structures heme groups proteins structural functional roles instance movements proteins actin myosin ultimately responsible contraction skeletal muscle one property many proteins specifically bind certain molecule class molecules may ''extremely'' selective bind antibodies example proteins attach one specific type molecule antibodies composed heavy light chains two heavy chains would linked two light chains disulfide linkages amino acids antibodies specific variation


based differences n terminal domain enzyme linked immunosorbent assay elisa uses antibodies one sensitive tests modern medicine uses detect various biomolecules probably important proteins however enzymes virtually every reaction living cell requires enzyme lower activation energy reaction ref name molecules recognize specific reactant molecules called ' 'substrates'' catalyze reaction lowering activation energy enzyme speeds reaction rate sup sup ref name reaction would normally take


study structure combinations amino acids tend curl coil called helix sheet called sheet helixes seen hemoglobin schematic tertiary structure entire three dimensional shape protein shape determined sequence amino acids fact single change change entire structure alpha chain hemoglobin contains amino acid residues substitution glutamate residue position valine residue changes behavior hemoglobin much results


sickle cell disease finally quaternary structure concerned structure protein multiple peptide subunits like hemoglobin four subunits proteins one subunit examples protein structures protein data bank members protein family represented structures isomerase domains ingested proteins usually broken single amino acids dipeptides small intestine absorbed joined form new proteins intermediate products glycolysis citric acid cycle pentose phosphate pathway used form


twenty amino acids bacteria plants possess necessary enzymes synthesize humans mammals however synthesize half cannot synthesize isoleucine leucine lysine methionine phenylalanine threonine tryptophan valine must ingested essential amino acids mammals possess enzymes synthesize alanine asparagine aspartate cysteine glutamate glutamine glycine proline serine tyrosine nonessential amino acids synthesize arginine histidine cannot produce sufficient amounts young growing animals often considered essential amino acids


decide whether homologous scientists use sequence comparison methods methods like sequence alignments structural alignments powerful tools help scientists identify homologies related molecules relevance finding homologies among proteins goes beyond forming evolutionary pattern protein families finding similar two protein sequences acquire knowledge structure therefore function nucleic acids structure deoxyribonucleic acid dna picture shows monomers put together nucleic acids called prevalence cellular nuclei generic name family biopolymers


complex high molecular weight biochemical macromolecules convey genetic information living cells viruses ref name voet monomers called nucleotides consists three components nitrogenous heterocyclic base either purine pyrimidine pentose sugar phosphate group structural elements common nucleic acid constituents contain least one phosphate group compounds marked ''nucleoside monophosphate'' ''nucleoside diphosphate'' ''nucleoside triphosphate'' nucleotides simply phosphate lacking nucleosides common nucleic acids deoxyribonucleic acid dna ribonucleic acid rna phosphate group sugar nucleotide bond


guanine three number aside genetic material cell nucleic acids often play role second messengers well forming base molecule adenosine triphosphate atp primary energy carrier molecule found living organisms also nitrogenous bases possible two nucleic acids different adenine cytosine guanine occur rna dna thymine occurs dna uracil occurs rna metabolism carbohydrates energy source glucose energy source life forms instance polysaccharides broken monomers


enzymes glycogen phosphorylase removes glucose residues glycogen polysaccharide disaccharides like lactose sucrose cleaved two component monosaccharides glycolysis anaerobic glucose mainly metabolized important ten step pathway called glycolysis net result break one molecule glucose two molecules pyruvate also produces net two molecules atp energy currency cells along two reducing equivalents converting nad sup sup nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide oxidized form nadh nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide reduced form require oxygen oxygen available


molecules atp six nadh molecules two reduced ubi quinones via fadh sub sub enzyme bound cofactor releasing remaining carbon atoms carbon dioxide produced nadh quinol molecules feed enzyme complexes respiratory chain electron transport system transferring electrons ultimately oxygen conserving released energy form proton gradient membrane inner mitochondrial membrane eukaryotes thus oxygen reduced water original electron acceptors nad sup sup quinone regenerated humans breathe oxygen breathe carbon dioxide


energy released transferring electrons high energy states nadh quinol conserved first proton gradient converted atp via atp synthase generates additional '' '' molecules atp nadh quinols totaling molecules atp conserved per degraded glucose two glycolysis two citrate cycle clear using oxygen completely oxidize glucose provides organism far energy oxygen independent metabolic feature thought reason complex life appeared


earth 's atmosphere accumulated large amounts oxygen gluconeogenesis vertebrates vigorously contracting skeletal muscles weightlifting sprinting example receive enough oxygen meet energy demand shift anaerobic metabolism converting glucose lactate combination glucose noncarbohydrates origin fat proteins happens glycogen supplies liver worn pathway crucial reversal glycolysis pyruvate glucose utilize many sources like amino acids glycerol krebs cycle large scale protein fat catabolism usually occur suffer


starvation certain endocrine disorders liver regenerates glucose using process called gluconeogenesis process quite opposite glycolysis actually requires three times amount energy gained glycolysis six molecules atp used compared two gained glycolysis analogous reactions glucose produced undergo glycolysis tissues need energy stored glycogen starch plants converted monosaccharides joined di oligosaccharides combined pathways glycolysis exercise lactate 's crossing via bloodstream


liver subsequent gluconeogenesis release glucose bloodstream called cori cycle relationship molecular scale biological sciences schematic relationship biochemistry genetics molecular biology researchers biochemistry use specific techniques native biochemistry increasingly combine techniques ideas developed fields genetics molecular biology biophysics defined line disciplines biochemistry studies chemistry required biological activity molecules molecular biology studies biological activity genetics studies heredity happens carried genome shown following


lack one functional components respect called wild type normal phenotype genetic interactions epistasis often confound simple interpretations knockout studies '''''molecular biology''''' study molecular underpinnings biological phenomena focusing molecular synthesis modification mechanisms interactions central dogma molecular biology genetic material transcribed rna translated protein despite oversimplified still provides good starting point understanding field concept revised light emerging novel roles rna ''''chemical biology'''' seeks develop new tools based


small molecules allow minimal perturbation biological systems providing detailed information function chemical biology employs biological systems create non natural hybrids biomolecules synthetic devices example emptied viral capsids deliver gene therapy drug molecules see also lists important publications biochemistry chemistry list biochemistry topics list biochemists list biomolecules see also astrobiology biochemistry journal biological chemistry journal biophysics chemical ecology computational biomodeling dedicated bio based chemical ec number hypothetical types biochemistry international union biochemistry molecular biology metabolome metabolomics molecular biology


molecular medicine plant biochemistry proteolysis small molecule structural biology tca cycle notes '''a''' fructose sugar found fruits glucose sucrose also found varying quantities various fruits sometimes exceed fructose present example edible portion date glucose compared fructose sucrose however peaches contain sucrose fructose glucose ref name whiting p whiting gc p ref references cited literature reading fruton joseph ''proteins enzymes genes interplay chemistry


biology'' yale university press new keith roberts martin raff bruce alberts peter walter julian lewis alexander johnson ''molecular biology cell'' th edition routledge march hardcover pp rd edition garland nd edition garland kohler robert ''from medical chemistry biochemistry making biomedical discipline'' cambridge university press external links http biochemwebfenteanycom virtual library biochemistry molecular biology cell biology https wwwncbinlmnihgov books bvfcgicall bvviewshowtoc rid stryertoc depth biochemistry th ed full text berg tymoczko stryer courtesy ncbi http wwwsystemsxch systemsxch swiss initiative systems biology http biochemscienceoregonstateedu content biochemistry free easy


british red french blue armies begin engagement decisive battle waterloo prussian forces gray arriving northeast alt overhead diagram movement forces battle waterloo '''battle''' occurrence combat warfare opposing military units number size war usually consists multiple battles general battle military engagement well defined duration area force commitment engagement limited commitment forces without decisive results sometimes called skirmish word battle

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics
Battle


also used infrequently refer entire operational campaign although usage greatly diverges conventional customary meaning generally word battle used campaigns referring protracted combat encounter either one combatants methods resources strategic objectives throughout encounter prominent examples would battle atlantic battle britain battle stalingrad world war ii wars military campaigns guided military strategy whereas battles take place level


planning execution known operational mobility german strategist carl von clausewitz stated employment battles achieve object war essence strategy etymology battle loanword old french first attested late latin meaning exercise soldiers gladiators fighting fencing late latin taken germanic beat english word battery also derived via middle english characteristics defining characteristic fight concept military science changed


variations organisation employment technology military forces english military historian john keegan suggested ideal definition battle something happens two armies leading moral physical disintegration one origins outcomes battles rarely summarized neatly battle th st centuries defined combat large components forces military campaign used achieve military objectives duration battle longer week often reasons


planning called operation battles planned encountered forced one side unable withdraw combat battle always purpose reaching mission goal use military force ref name lbcdnv p dupuy ref victory battle achieved one opposing sides forces abandon mission surrender forces routs ie forces retreat renders militarily ineffective combat operations annihilates latter resulting deaths capture battle may end


field conducting night operations means prolonging battle typically siege warfare improvements transport sudden evolving trench warfare siege like nature first world war th century lengthened duration battles days weeks ref name lbcdnv created requirement unit rotation prevent combat fatigue troops preferably remaining combat area operations month finnish soldiers raate road winter war use term battle military history led


battle british infantry went top first day somme july would anticipated battle would last five months allied infantry dealt crushing defeat french battle waterloo fully expected fight next day battle wavre battlespace battlespace unified strategic concept integrate combine armed forces military theatre operations including air information land sea space includes environment factors


conditions must understood apply combat power protect force complete mission comprising enemy friendly armed forces facilities weather terrain electromagnetic spectrum factors battles decided various factors number quality combatants equipment skill commanders terrain among prominent weapons armour decisive many occasions armies achieved victory advanced weapons opponents extreme example battle omdurman large army sudanese mahdists armed traditional


manner destroyed anglo egyptian force equipped maxim machine guns artillery occasions simple weapons employed unorthodox fashion proven advantageous swiss pikemen gained many victories ability transform traditionally defensive weapon offensive one zulus early th century victorious battles rivals part adopted new kind spear iklwa forces inferior weapons still emerged victorious times example wars scottish independence disciplined troops often greater importance battle alesia


romans greatly outnumbered superior training battles also determined terrain capturing high ground main tactic innumerable battles army holds high ground forces enemy climb thus wear areas jungle forest dense vegetation act force multipliers benefit inferior armies terrain may lost importance modern warfare due advent aircraft though terrain still vital camouflage especially guerrilla warfare generals commanders also play important role hannibal julius caesar khalid


ibn walid subutai napoleon bonaparte skilled generals armies extremely successful times army trust commands leaders conviction success invariably higher morale army doubts every move british naval battle trafalgar owed success reputation admiral lord nelson types battle poltava russia sweden denis martens younger battles fought land sea air naval battles occurred since th


fought early battles probably fought rival hunting bands unorganized crowds battle megiddo first reliably documented battle fifteenth century bc armies organised disciplined many wars roman empire barbarians continued use mob tactics age enlightenment dawned armies began fight highly disciplined lines would follow orders officers fight unit instead individuals armies divided regiments battalions companies platoons armies would march line fire divisions native


result elite squads became much recognized distinguishable maneuver warfare also returned astonishing pace advent tank replacing cannon enlightenment age artillery since gradually replaced use frontal troops modern battles resemble second world war along indirect combat use aircraft missiles come constitute large portion wars place battles battles mostly reserved capturing cities naval ''battle scheveningen'' episode first anglo dutch war one significant


difference modern naval battles opposed earlier forms combat use marines introduced amphibious warfare today marine actually infantry regiment sometimes fights solely land longer tied navy good example old naval battle battle salamis ancient naval battles fought fast ships using battering ram sink opposing fleets steer close enough boarding hand hand combat troops often used storm enemy ships used romans pirates tactic usually


used civilizations could beat enemy ranged weaponry another invention late middle ages use greek fire byzantines used set enemy fleets fire empty demolition ships utilized tactic crash opposing ships set afire explosion invention cannons naval warfare became useful support units land warfare th century development mines led new type naval warfare ironclad first used american civil war resistant cannons soon made


wooden ship obsolete invention military submarines world war brought naval warfare surface development military aircraft world war ii battles fought sky well ocean aircraft carriers since become central unit naval warfare acting mobile base lethal aircraft aerial heinkel bombers battle britain although use aircraft part always used supplement land naval engagements since first


battle britain battle midway another important use aircraft came development helicopter first became heavily used vietnam war still continues widely used today transport augment ground forces today direct engagements aircraft rare modern fighter interceptors carry much extensive bombing payloads used bomb precision land targets rather fight aircraft anti aircraft batteries used much extensively defend incoming aircraft interceptors despite aircraft today much extensively used


june middle ages considered important settle suitable name battle could used chroniclers henry v england defeated french army october met senior french herald agreed name battle nearby castle called battle agincourt cases sides adopted different names battle battle gallipoli known turkey battle anakkale american civil war


first gulf war place names become synonymous battles passchendaele pearl harbor alamo thermopylae waterloo military operations many result battle given codenames necessarily meaningful indicative type location battle operation market garden operation rolling thunder examples battles known military codenames battleground site one battle conflict instances distinguished ordinal number first second battles bull run


ancre many combats small battles terms action affair skirmish firefight raid offensive patrol used describe small military encounters combats often take place within time space battle may objective necessarily decisive sometimes soldiers unable immediately gauge significance combat aftermath battle waterloo british officers doubt whether day 's events merited title battle would called action effects


fruit ''myristica fragrans'' species native indonesia source two valuable spices red aril mace enclosing dark brown nutmeg '''botany''' also called '''plant biology''' '''phytology''' science plant life branch biology '''botanist''' '''plant scientist''' '''phytologist''' scientist specialises field term botany comes ancient greek word ''botan '' meaning pasture herbs grass fodder turn derived feed graze traditionally botany also included study fungi


algae mycologists phycologists respectively study three groups organisms remaining within sphere interest international botanical congress nowadays botanists strict sense study approximately species land plants species vascular plants including approximately species flowering plants approximately bryophytes botany originated prehistory herbalism efforts early humans identify later cultivate edible medicinal poisonous plants making one oldest branches science medieval physic gardens often attached monasteries


cell imaging electron microscopy analysis chromosome number plant chemistry structure function enzymes proteins last two decades th century botanists exploited techniques molecular genetic analysis including genomics proteomics dna sequences classify plants accurately modern botany broad multidisciplinary subject contributions insights areas science technology research topics include study plant structure growth differentiation reproduction biochemistry primary metabolism chemical products development diseases evolutionary relationships systematics plant taxonomy dominant themes st century plant


little tennessee river valley generally firewood food ref name delcourt ref botany originated herbalism study use plants medicinal properties early recorded history botany includes many ancient writings plant classifications examples early botanical works found ancient texts india dating back bce ancient egypt ref name manniche lisa ancient egyptian herbal american university cairo press cairo ref archaic avestan writings works china purportedly bce modern botany traces roots back ancient greece specifically theophrastus c


bce student aristotle invented described many principles widely regarded scientific community father botany major works ''enquiry plants'' ''on causes plants'' constitute important contributions botanical science middle ages almost seventeen centuries later another work ancient greece made early impact botany ''de materia medica'' five volume encyclopedia herbal medicine written middle first century greek physician pharmacologist pedanius dioscorides ''de materia medica'' widely read


years important contributions medieval muslim world include ibn wahshiyya 's ''nabatean agriculture'' ab fa nawar 's ''book plants'' ibn bassal 's ''the classification soils'' early th century abu al abbas al nabati ibn al baitar wrote botany systematic scientific manner mid th century botanical gardens founded number italian universities padua botanical garden usually considered first still original location gardens continued practical value earlier physic gardens often associated monasteries


plants cultivated medical use supported growth botany academic subject lectures given plants grown gardens medical uses demonstrated botanical gardens came much later northern europe first england university oxford botanic garden throughout period botany remained firmly subordinate medicine german physician leonhart fuchs one three german fathers botany along theologian otto brunfels physician hieronymus bock also called hieronymus tragus fuchs brunfels broke away tradition


copying earlier works make original observations bock created system plant classification physician valerius cordus authored botanically pharmacologically important herbal ''historia plantarum'' pharmacopoeia lasting importance ''dispensatorium'' naturalist conrad von gesner herbalist john gerard c published herbals covering medicinal uses plants naturalist ulisse aldrovandi considered ''father natural history'' included study plants using early microscope polymath robert hooke discovered cells term coined cork short


time later living plant tissue early modern botany linnaean garden linnaeus' residence uppsala sweden planted according ''systema sexuale'' th century systems plant identification developed comparable dichotomous keys unidentified plants placed taxonomic groups eg family genus species making series choices pairs characters choice sequence characters may artificial keys designed purely identification diagnostic keys closely related natural phyletic order taxa synoptic keys


th century new plants study arriving europe increasing numbers newly discovered countries european colonies worldwide carl von linn carl linnaeus published species plantarum hierarchical classification plant species remains reference point modern botanical nomenclature established standardised binomial two part naming scheme first name represented genus second identified species within genus purposes identification linnaeus 's ''systema sexuale'' classified plants groups according number male sexual organs th group ''cryptogamia'' included


plants concealed reproductive parts mosses liverworts ferns algae fungi increasing knowledge plant anatomy morphology life cycles led realisation natural affinities plants artificial sexual system linnaeus adanson de jussieu candolle proposed various alternative natural systems classification grouped plants using wider range shared characters widely followed candollean system reflected ideas progression morphological complexity later bentham hooker system influential mid th century influenced candolle 's


anatomy'' ''anatomy seed plants'' key plant structural biology texts half century discipline plant ecology pioneered late th century botanists eugenius warming produced hypothesis plants form communities mentor successor christen c raunki r whose system describing plant life forms still use today concept composition plant communities temperate broadleaf forest changes process ecological succession developed henry chandler cowles arthur tansley frederic clements clements credited


idea climax vegetation complex vegetation environment support tansley introduced concept ecosystems biology building extensive earlier work alphonse de candolle nikolai vavilov produced accounts biogeography centres origin evolutionary history economic plants particularly since mid advances understanding physics plant physiological processes transpiration transport water within plant tissues temperature dependence rates water evaporation leaf surface molecular diffusion water vapour carbon


dioxide stomatal apertures developments coupled new methods measuring size stomatal apertures rate photosynthesis enabled precise description rates gas exchange plants atmosphere innovations statistical analysis ronald fisher frank yates others rothamsted experimental station facilitated rational experimental design data analysis botanical research discovery identification auxin plant hormones kenneth v thimann enabled regulation plant growth externally applied chemicals frederick campion steward pioneered techniques micropropagation plant tissue culture controlled plant


hormones synthetic auxin dichlorophenoxyacetic acid one first commercial synthetic herbicides th century developments plant biochemistry driven modern techniques organic chemical analysis spectroscopy chromatography electrophoresis rise related molecular scale biological approaches molecular biology genomics proteomics metabolomics relationship plant genome aspects biochemistry physiology morphology behaviour plants subjected detailed experimental analysis concept originally stated gottlieb haberlandt plant cells totipotent grown ''in vitro''


modern systematics aims reflect discover phylogenetic relationships plants modern molecular phylogenetics largely ignores morphological characters relying dna sequences data molecular analysis dna sequences families flowering plants enabled angiosperm phylogeny group publish phylogeny flowering plants answering many questions relationships among angiosperm families species theoretical possibility practical method identification plant species commercial varieties dna barcoding subject active current research scope importance botany involves recording description plants


structural components cells product photosynthesis plants release oxygen atmosphere gas required nearly living things carry cellular respiration addition influential global carbon water cycles plant roots bind stabilise soils preventing soil erosion plants crucial future human society provide food oxygen medicine products people well creating preserving soil historically living things classified either animals plants botany covered study organisms


introductory botany courses palaeobotanists study ancient plants fossil record provide information evolutionary history plants cyanobacteria first oxygen releasing photosynthetic organisms earth thought given rise ancestor plants entering endosymbiotic relationship early eukaryote ultimately becoming chloroplasts plant cells new photosynthetic plants along algal relatives accelerated rise atmospheric oxygen started cyanobacteria changing ancient oxygen free reducing atmosphere one free oxygen abundant billion years among important botanical


questions st century role plants primary producers global cycling life 's basic ingredients energy carbon oxygen nitrogen water ways plant stewardship help address global environmental issues resource management conservation human food security biologically invasive organisms carbon sequestration climate change sustainability human nutrition food eat comes directly indirectly plants rice virtually staple foods come either directly primary production plants indirectly animals eat plants photosynthetic organisms


base food chains use energy sun nutrients soil atmosphere converting form used animals ecologists call first trophic level modern forms major staple foods hemp teff maize rice wheat cereal grasses pulses bananas plantains well hemp flax cotton grown fibres outcome prehistoric selection thousands years among wild ancestral plants desirable characteristics botanists study plants


produce food increase yields example plant breeding making work important humanity 's ability feed world provide food security future generations botanists also study weeds considerable problem agriculture biology control plant pathogens agriculture natural ecosystems ethnobotany study relationships plants people applied investigation historical plant people relationships ethnobotany may referred archaeobotany palaeoethnobotany earliest plant people relationships arose indigenous people canada identifying edible plants


inedible plants ref name ref relationship indigenous people plants recorded ethnobotanists ref name plant biochemistry plant biochemistry study chemical processes used plants processes used primary metabolism like photosynthetic calvin cycle crassulacean acid metabolism others make specialised materials like cellulose lignin used build bodies secondary products like resins aroma compounds div style position relative margin left px margin right px width px height px float left box shadow px px px rgba div style position absolute paper chromatography