forest principles practice ontario fitzhenry whiteside markham co operation ont min nat resour p ref species composition much boreal forest north america already differs greatly pre exploitation state less spruce hardwoods second growth forest original forest hearnden et al ref name hear hearnden kw millson sv wilson wc ontario independent forest audit committee ont min nat resour sault ste marie p ref calculated spruce cover type declined total forested area ontario


mixedwood occupies greater proportion ontario 's second growth forest original component white spruce certainly much diminished growth performance certainly influenced site conditions thus kind degree site preparation relation nature site important avoid assumption site preparation particular designation particular silvicultural outcome scarification instance covers wide range operations scarify also given way scarifying significantly different results depending site conditions

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Silviculture


time treatment point fact term commonly misapplied ''scarification'' defined ref name ford loosening top soil open areas breaking forest floor preparation regenerating direct seeding natural seedfall term often misapplied practices include scalping screefing blading pare low surface vegetation together roots expose weed free surface generally preparation sowing planting thereon thus surprising literature used support view growth


seedlings scarified sites much superior growth similar sites scarified ref name wald waldron rm factors affecting natural white spruce regeneration prepared seedbeds riding mountain forest experimental area manitoba dep rural devel branch ottawa deptl publ p ref ref name butt butt g bancroft b folk r ingress engelmann spruce subalpine fir southern interior essf bc min victoria bc project unpub rep cited coates et al ref ref name youngblood ap zasada jc white spruce artificial regeneration options river


floodplains interior alaska j res ref evidence supports contrary view scarification reduce growth ref name day ref name herr herring lj mcminn rg natural advanced regeneration engelmann spruce subalpine fir compared years site treatment chron ref ref name mcm mcminn rg comparative productivity seedbed natural planted regeneration following various site treatments white spruce clearcuts p '' in'' murray ed yield advantages artificial regeneration high latitudes proc th internat workshop forest regeneration usda serv pacific northwest range exp sta gen tech


rep pnw p cited coates et al ref detrimental results expected scarification impoverishes rooting zone exacerbates edaphic climatic constraints burning site preparation enhanced spruce seedling growth ref name butt must supposed burning could detrimental nutrient capital significantly depleted obvious factor greatly influencing regeneration competition vegetation pure stand norway spruce instance roussel ref name rous roussel l couvert et photom trie bull soc forest franche comt abs ref found following relationships align center border width


specific solutions specific set circumstances management objectives following common methods clearcut harvesting conventional clearcut harvesting relatively simple trees cutblock felled bunched bunches aligned skidding direction skidder drags bunches closest log deck ref name saud sauder ea techniques maintain windfirm understory p ''in'' feric west vancouver bc work program ref feller buncher operators concentrate width felled swath number trees bunch alignment bunch providing perimeter boundary


industrial complexes something abolish convert something else clearcutting impact many site factors important effect regeneration including air soil temperatures kubin kemppainen ref name kubin kubin e kemppainen l effect clearcutting boreal spruce forest air soil temperature conditions acta forestalia fennica p ref instance measured temperatures northern finland three clear felled areas three neighouring forest stands dominated norway spruce clear felling significant influence air temperature ground surface daily


air temperature maxima nbsp cm greater clear felled area uncut forest daily minima nbsp cm lower night frosts common clear felled area daily soil temperatures nbsp cm depth nbsp c nbsp c greater clear felled area uncut forest temperatures depths nbsp cm nbsp cm nbsp c nbsp c greater differences clear felled uncut areas diminish years following cutting coppicing regeneration method depends sprouting cut trees hardwoods coast


redwood certain pines naturally sprout stumps managed coppicing coppicing generally used produce fuelwood pulpwood products dependent small trees close relative coppicing pollarding three systems coppice woodland management generally recognized simple coppice coppice standards coppice selection system compound coppicing '''coppicing standards''' highest quality trees retained multiple rotations order obtain larger trees different purposes direct seeding prochnau ref name proch prochnau ae direct seeding experiments white spruce alpine fir douglas fir


lodgepole pine central interior british columbia bc min lands victoria bc mofl res note p cited coates et al ref four years sowing found viable white spruce seed sown mineral soil produced surviving seedlings seed seedling ratio engelmann spruce smith clark ref name smith smith jhg clark mb growth survival engelmann spruce alpine fir seed spots bolean lake bv chron cited coates et al ref obtained average seventh year seed seedling


ratios scarified seedbeds dry sites moist sites litter seedbeds group selection group selection method uneven aged regeneration method used mid tolerant species regeneration desired group selection method still result residual stand damage dense stands however directional falling minimize damage additionally foresters select across range diameter classes stand maintain mosaic age diameter classes classical european silviculture achieved impressive results systems henri biolley 's switzerland


response past experience particularly central european countries negative effects pure uniform stands species often unsuited site greatly increased risk soil degradation biotic diseases increased mortality decreased increment generated widespread concern especially reinforcement environmental stresses less uneven aged mixed forests preponderantly native species hand treated along natural lines proved healthier resistant kinds external dangers long run stands productive easier protect however irregular stands


type definitely difficult manage new methods techniques sought particularly establishment inventories well increment control yield regulation germany instance since beginning nineteenth century influence gl hartig yield regulation effected almost exclusively allotment formula methods based conception uniform normal forest regular succession cutting areas france hand efforts made apply another kind forest management one aimed bring parts


forest state highest productive capacity perpetuity french forester gurnaud published description determining increment yield method based fact careful selective harvesting productivity residual stand improved timber removed cultural operation method increment stands accurately determined periodically object gradually converting forest selective management continuous experimentation condition equilibrium maximum productive capacity henri biolley first apply


gurnaud 's inspired ideas practical forestry managed forests swiss district according principles devoting almost years study increment treatment stands directed towards highest production proving practicability check method published study giving theoretical basis management forests check method describing procedures applied practice partly developed simplified evaluating results biolley 's pioneering work formed basis upon swiss forest management practices


later developed ideas generally accepted today trend intensifying forest management productivity countries ideas application careful continuous treatment stands aid volume check method meeting ever growing interest britain ireland example increased application continuous cover forestry principles create permanently irregular structures many woodlands patch cut row broadcast seeding spot row seeders use less seed broadcast ground aerial seeding may induce clumping row spot seeding confer greater ability


control seed placement broadcast seeding also small percentage total area needs treated aspen type great lakes region direct sowing seed conifers usually failed ref name kitt however gardner ref name gard gardner ac regeneration problems options white spruce river floodplains yukon territory p ''in'' murray van veldhuizen rm eds forest regeneration high ref trials yukon included broadcast seeding white spruce seed nbsp kg ha secured stocking scarified spring broadcast treatment three years


seeding concluded technique held considerable promise seed tree even aged regeneration method retains widely spaced residual trees order provide uniform seed dispersal across harvested area seed tree method seed trees per acre ha left standing order regenerate forest retained regeneration become established point may removed may always economically viable biologically desirable enter stand remove remaining seed trees seed tree cuts also viewed clearcut natural regeneration


note p cited coates et al ref areas selection logging expected favour spruce less tolerant hardwood species zasada ref name zas lodgepole pine ref name coat ref shelter spot seeding use shelters improve germination survival spot seedings seeks capture benefits greenhouse culture albeit miniature hakmet seed shelter instance semi transparent plastic cone nbsp cm high openings nbsp cm diameter nbsp cm diameter base nbsp mm diameter nbsp mm diameter top ref name lah l hde f tuohisaari ecological study


effects shelters germination germling development scotch pine norway spruce siberian larch comm inst reprint p ref miniature greenhouse increases air humidity reduces soil desiccation raises air soil temperatures levels favourable germination seedling growth offered unprotected conditions shelter designed break years exposure ultraviolet radiation seed shelters spring sowing significantly improved stocking compared bare spot seeding sheltering significantly improve growth stocking bare seedspots extremely low possibly due


smothering seedlings abundant broadleaf herbaceous litter particularly aspen red raspberry exacerbated strong competition graminoids raspberry cone shelters cerkon usually produced greater survival unsheltered seeding scarified seedspots trials direct seeding techniques interior alaska funnel shelters cerbel usually produced greater survival unsheltered seeding non scarified seedspots ref name put putman zasada jc direct seeding techniques regenerate white spruce interior alaska j res ref shelter types manufactured ab cerbo trollh ttan sweden made light degradable white opaque plastic


nbsp cm high installed white spruce seed sown alaska burned site summer protected white plastic cones small spots scarified hand white funnels placed directly residual ash organic material ref name put putman zasada jc raven damage plastic seeding shelters interior alaska north j appl cited coates et al ref group six ravens ''corvus corax'' observed area one week sowing completed mid june damage averaged cones funnels


trees existing stand several years eventually culminates final cut creates new even aged stand even aged regeneration method removes trees series three harvests preparatory cut establishment cut removal cut success practising shelterwood system closely related length regeneration period ie time shelterwood cutting date new generation trees established quality new tree stand respect stand density growth value


increment shelter trees information establishment survival growth seedlings influenced cover shelter trees well growth trees needed basis modelling economic return practising shelterwood system method 's objective establish new forest reproduction shelter retained trees unlike seed tree method residual trees alter understory environmental conditions ie sunlight temperature moisture influence tree seedling growth method also find middle ground light ambiance less light accessible competitors


still able provide enough light tree regeneration hence shelterwood methods often chosen site types characterized extreme conditions order create new tree generation within reasonable time period conditions valid foremost level ground sites either dry poor moist fertile shelterwood systems shelterwood systems involve two three exceptionally partial cuttings final cut made adequate natural regeneration obtained shelterwood system commonly applied two cut uniform shelterwood first initial regeneration seed cut


second final harvest cut stands less years old light preparatory cut useful ref name zas series intermediate cuts intervals years recommended intensively managed stands ref name alex operational economic standpoints however disadvantages shelterwood system harvesting costs higher trees left deferred cutting may damaged regeneration cut related extraction operations increased risk blowdown threatens seed source damage bark beetles likely increase regeneration may damaged final cut related


extraction operations difficulty site preparation would increased incidental damage regeneration might caused site preparation operations ref name alex ref name day day mw rudolph vj development white spruce plantation michigan state univ agric exp sta east lansing mi res pap p ref ref name zas zasada jc guidelines obtaining natural regeneration white spruce alaska usda serv pacific northwest range exp sta portland p ref ref name baldwin baldwin vc regeneration following shelterwood cutting new brunswick softwood stand dep fish environ serv


canopy layer least methods spot seeding spot seeding found economical reliable direct seeding methods converting aspen paper birch spruce pine ref name robert robertson wm cutting reproduction spruce stands chron ref chippewa national forest lake states seed spot sowing seeds white spruce white pine year aspen different degrees cutting gave second season results clearly indicating need remove disturb forest floor obtain germination seeded white spruce white


pine ref name kitt kittredge j jr gevorkiantz r forest possibilities aspen lands lake states minnesota agricultural exp sta minneapolis minnestota technical bulletin ref spot seeding coniferous seed including white spruce occasional success several constraining factors commonly limit germination success drying forest floor roots germinants reach underlying moisture reserves particularly hardwoods smothering small seedlings snow pressed leaf litter lesser vegetation kittredge gervorkiantz ref name kitt determined removal aspen forest floor increased germination percentage second season seed


seeder strip cutting harvesting cutblocks portion trees removed different clearcutting ref name saud first trails must located provide access felling skidding forwarding equipment trails must carefully located ensure trees remaining meet desired quality criteria stocking density second equipment must damage residual stand desiderata outlined sauder ref name saud dearth seed deficiency receptive seedbeds recognized major reasons lack success clearcut harvesting one remedy


attempted british columbia alberta alternate strip cutting ref name butt butt g backlog forest land rehabilitation sbs bwbs zones northern interior british columbia bc frda rep p ref greater seed source uncut trees cut strips disturbance forest floor within cut strips could expected increase amount natural regeneration trees cut diameter limit cut strips large trees leave strips often proved much temptation cut ref name coat


thus removing trees would otherwise major source seed unfortunate consequence strip thinning build spruce beetle populations shaded slash initial cut together increase number windthrown trees leave strips provided conditions ideally suited beetle ref name dye dyer eda taylor dw attractiveness logs containing female spruce beetles ''dendroctontus obesus'' coleopteral scolytidae entomol ref underplanting delong et al ref name del delong c dynamics boreal mixedwood ecosystems p ''in'' northern mixedwood proceedings symposium held fort st


preserve environmental values associated structurally complex forests uneven aged even aged methods differ scale intensity disturbance uneven aged methods maintain mix tree sizes ages within habitat patch periodically harvesting individual small groups trees even aged methods harvest overstory create fairly uniform habitat patch dominated trees age even aged management systems prime methods use studying effects birds mortality survey determine survival development reasons success failure conifer


pulpwood plantations mainly white spruce ontario quebec years old found bulk mortality occurred within first four years planting unfavourable site climate main causes failure ref name stie stiell wm pulpwood plantations ontario quebec pulp pap assoc woodlands section index f p ref advance growth naturally regenerated trees understorey prior harvesting constitute classic case good news bad news understorey white spruce particular importance mixedwoods dominated aspen b b


b sections manitoba ref name rowe rowe js forest regions canada dep environ serv ottawa publ p ref elsewhere latter part last century white spruce understorey mostly viewed money bank long term low interest deposit final yield realized slow natural succession ref name brace brace l bella understanding understorey dilemma opportunity ''in'' white spruce understories canada alberta agreement projects northern centre edmonton ab cited coates et al ref resource became increasingly threatened


intensification harvesting aspen white spruce plantations mixedwood sites proved expensive risky generally unsuccessful ref name brace prompted efforts see might done growing aspen white spruce landbase protecting existing white spruce advance growth leaving range viable crop trees first cut harvesting hardwoods spruce final cut information understorey component critical spruce management planning ability current harvesting technology crews employed provide adequate protection white spruce understories questioned


brace bella specialized equipment training perhaps financial incentives may needed develop procedures would confer degree protection needed system feasible effective understorey management planning requires improved mixedwood inventory avoidance damage understorey always desideratum sauder 's ref name saudnew sauder ea mixedwood harvesting section b white spruce understories canada alberta agreement projects northern centre edmonton ab various pagination ref paper mixedwood harvesting describes studies designed evaluate methods reducing non trivial damage understorey residuals would compromise


good supervision use appropriate equipment conscientious well trained operatorseven best plan reduce understorey damage unless implementation supervised ref name saud sauder ea sinclair awj harvesting mixedwood forest paper included white spruce understories canada alberta agreement projects northern centre edmonton ab ref new stands need established provide future supply commercial white spruce ha boreal mixedwoods four rowe 's ref name rowe regional forest sections straddling alberta saskatchewan manitoba roughly peace river ab brandon mb ref name brace brace l


protecting understorey white spruce harvesting aspen ''in'' white spruce understories canada alberta agreement projects northern centre edmonton ab ref harvesting using conventional equipment procedures dramatic increase demand aspen posed serious problem associated spruce understorey formerly white spruce understories developed commercial size natural succession protection hardwoods brace articulated widespread concern need protection spruce component boreal mixedwoods goes beyond concern future commercial softwood timber supply concerns


also include fisheries wildlife habitat aesthetics recreation general dissatisfaction clearcutting mixedwoods strong interest mixedwood perpetuation expressed recently public meetings forestry development northern alberta ref name brace basis tests three logging systems alberta brace ref name brace brace l test three logging systems alberta paper included white spruce understories canada alberta agreement projects northern centre edmonton ab ref affirmed significant amounts understorey retained using systems provided sufficient effort


directed towards protection potential benefits would include increased short term softwood timber supply improved wildlife habitat cutblock aesthetics well reduced public criticism previous logging practices stewart et al ref name stew stewart jd landh usser sm stadt kj lieffers vj predicting natural regeneration white spruce boreal mixedwood understories chron ref developed statistical models predict natural establishment height growth understorey white spruce boreal mixedwood forest alberta using data permanent sample plots supplementary information height growth white spruce regeneration amount type available


substrate discriminant model correctly classified sites presence absence white spruce understorey based amount spruce basal area rotten wood ecological nutrient regime soil clay fraction elevation although explained variation data sites white spruce understorey regression model related abundance regeneration rotten wood cover spruce basal area pine basal area soil clay fraction grass cover r half seedlings surveyed grew rotten wood mineral soil seedlings


ten times likely established substrates litter exposed mineral soil covered observed transect area advance growth management ''advance growth management'' ie use suppressed understorey trees reduce reforestation costs shorten rotations avoid denuding site trees also reduce adverse impacts aesthetic wildlife watershed values ref name mccaughey mccaughey ww schmidt wc understory tree release following harvest cutting spruce fir forests intermountain west usda serv intermountain range exp sta res pap int cited coates et al ref ref name john johnstone wd


growth fir spruce advance growth logging residuals following logging west central alberta dep environ serv northern res centre edmonton ab inf rep x p ref value advance growth must acceptable species composition distribution potential growth following release vulnerable excessive damage logging age advance growth difficult estimate size ref name alex alexander rr silvical characteristics engelmann spruce usda serv rocky mountain range exp sta fort collins co paper p ref white


mountain west stand culture symp sept oct missoula mt usda serv intermount res sta ogden ut gen tech rep int p ref trees older years shown rapid rates growth release clear relationship size advance growth growth rate released advance growth consists spruce fir latter apt respond release quickly former whereas spruce respond ref name smith smith rb wass ef tree growth adjacent contour skid roads


white spruce northwestern new brunswick enabling spruce overtop shrubs ref name bask baskerville gl response young fir spruce release shrub competition dep northern affairs national resources branch ottawa res div tech note p cited coates et al ref site preparation site preparation various treatments applied site order ready seeding planting purpose facilitate regeneration site chosen method site preparation may designed achieve singly combination


improved access reducing rearranging slash amelioration adverse forest floor soil vegetation biotic factors site preparation undertaken ameliorate one constraints would otherwise likely thwart objectives management valuable bibliography effects soil temperature site preparation subalpine boreal tree species prepared mckinnon et al ref name mck mckinnon lm mitchell ak vyse effects soil temperature site preparation subalpine boreal tree species bibliography nat resour serv victoria bc inf rep bc x


slash hazard reduction improve site conditions regeneration following benefits may accrue reduction logging slash plant competition humus prior direct seeding planting scarifying anticipation natural seeding partially cut stands connection seed tree systems b reduction elimination unwanted forest cover prior planting seeding prior preliminary scarification thereto c reduction humus cold moist sites favour regeneration reduction elimination slash grass brush fuels strategic areas around forested land reduce chances


damage wildfire prescribed burning preparing sites direct seeding tried occasions ontario none burns hot enough produce seedbed adequate without supplementary mechanical site preparation ref name scott changes soil chemical properties associated burning include significantly increased ph macadam ref name macadam sub boreal spruce zone central british columbia found persisting year burn average fuel consumption ha forest floor depth reduced increases correlated well


amounts slash total nbsp cm diameter consumed change ph depends severity burn amount consumed increase much two units hundred fold change ref name holt holt l white spruce seedbeds related natural regeneration pulp paper res instit montreal qc p ref deficiencies copper iron foliage white spruce burned clearcuts central british columbia might attributable elevated ph levels ref name ballard ballard tm spruce nutrition problems central interior relationship site preparation


proc interior spruce seedling performance state art symposium northern silviculture committee workshop feb prince george bc ref even broadcast slash fire clearcut give uniform burn whole area tarrant ref name tarr tarrant rf effect slash burning soil ph usda serv pacific northwest range exp sta portland res note p ref instance found ha slash burn burned severely burned lightly unburned burning windrowing obviously accentuates subsequent heterogeneity marked increases exchangeable calcium


also correlated amount slash least nbsp cm diameter consumed ref name macadam phosphorus availability also increased forest floor nbsp cm nbsp cm mineral soil layer increase still evident albeit somewhat diminished months burning however another study ref name tay taylor sw feller mc initial effects slashburning nutrient status sub boreal spruce zone ecosystems ''in'' papers presented fire management symposium april prince george bc central interior fire protection committee smithers bc ref sub boreal spruce zone found although increased


immediately burn phosphorus availability dropped pre burn levels within nine months nitrogen lost site burning ref name macadam ref name tay ref name litt little sn klock go influence residue removal prescribed fire distribution forest nutrients usda serv res pap pnw ref though concentrations remaining forest floor found macadam ref name macadam increased two six plots others showing decreases nutrient losses may outweighed least short term improved soil microclimate reduced thickness forest


floor low soil temperatures limiting factor ''picea abies'' forests alberta foothills often characterized deep accumulations organic matter soil surface cold soil temperatures make reforestation difficult result general deterioration site productivity endean johnstone ref name end endean f johnstone wd prescribed fire regeneration clearcut spruce fir sites foothills alberta environ serv northern res centre edmonton ab inf rep x p ref describe experiments test prescribed burning means seedbed preparation site


amelioration representative clear felled ''picea abies'' areas results showed general prescribed burning reduce organic layers satisfactorily increase soil temperature sites tested increases seedling establishment survival growth burned sites probably result slight reductions depth organic layer minor increases soil temperature marked improvements efficiency planting crews results also suggested process site deterioration reversed burning treatments applied ameliorative intervention slash weight oven dry weight entire crown


growing trees short often irregular crowns would probably overestimated open grown trees long crowns would probably underestimated need provide shade young outplants engelmann spruce high rocky mountains emphasized us forest service acceptable planting spots defined microsites north east sides logs stumps slash lying shadow cast material ref name ronco ronco f diagnosis sunburned trees j cited coates et al ref objectives management specify uniform spacing higher densities


obtainable existing distribution shade providing material redistribution importing material undertaken access site preparation sites might done simply facilitate access planters improve access increase number distribution microsites suitable planting seeding wang et al ref name wang wang gg siemens keenan v philippot survival growth black white spruce seedlings relation stock type site preparation plantation type southeastern manitoba chron ref determined field performance white black spruces eight nine years


outplanting boreal mixedwood sites following site preparation donaren disc trenching versus trenching two plantation types open versus sheltered southeastern manitoba donaren trenching slightly reduced mortality black spruce significantly increased mortality white spruce significant difference height found open sheltered plantations black spruce white spruce root collar diameter sheltered plantations significantly larger open plantations black spruce white spruce black spruce open plantation significantly smaller volume nbsp cm compared black spruce sheltered nbsp cm well


white spruce open nbsp cm sheltered nbsp cm plantations white spruce open plantations also smaller volume white spruce sheltered plantations transplant stock strip plantations significantly higher volume nbsp cm open plantations nbsp cm wang et al ref name wang recommended sheltered plantation site preparation used mechanical sophisticated site preparation equipment become operational ontario ref name hall hall j site preparation ontario chron ref need efficacious versatile equipment increasingly recognized time improvements made equipment originally developed field


staff field testing equipment sources increasing according j hall ref name hall ontario least widely used site preparation technique post harvest mechanical scarification equipment front mounted bulldozer blade rake v plow teeth dragged behind tractor imsett sfi scarifier rolling chopper drag type units designed constructed ontario 's department lands forests used anchor chain tractor pads separately combination finned steel drums barrels various sizes used sets alone combined tractor pad


anchor chain units j hall 's ref name hall report state site preparation ontario noted blades rakes found well suited post cut scarification tolerant hardwood stands natural regeneration yellow birch plows effective treating dense brush prior planting often conjunction planting machine scarifying teeth eg young 's teeth sometimes used prepare sites planting effective use found preparing sites seeding particularly backlog areas carrying light brush dense herbaceous growth rolling choppers found application


treating heavy brush could used stone free soils finned drums commonly used jack pine spruce cutovers fresh brushy sites deep duff layer heavy slash needed teamed tractor pad unit secure good distribution slash sfi scarifier strengthening quite successful years promising trials way cone scarifier barrel ring scarifier development begun new flail scarifier use sites shallow rocky soils recognition need become


effective efficient site preparation led ontario department lands forests adopt policy seeking obtaining field testing new equipment scandinavia elsewhere seemed hold promise ontario conditions primarily north thus testing begun brackekultivator sweden vako visko rotary furrower finland according j charton peterson motormanual scarification best suited small restoration projects less trees ecologically sensitive areas riparian zones areas prone erosion according j charton scarification


intensity effect first year seedling mortality growth scarification properly applied various site conditions ensure works positive manner planted seedlings since fireweed bluejoint grass shown soil moisture moderators reduced scarification intensity may beneficial planted seedlings wetter areas found kenai peninsula however factors encouraging natural regeneration promote pre beetle species compositions considered reforestation managers balance response scarification wet areas achieve proper balance planted seedling survival


growth achieving desired level natural regeneration mounding site preparation treatments create raised planting spots commonly improved outplant performance sites subject low soil temperature excess soil moisture mounding certainly big influence soil temperature draper et al ref name drap draper binder w fahlman r spittlehouse post planting ecophysiology interior spruce interior spruce seedling performance state art northern silvic committee prince george bc p mimeo ref instance documented well effect root growth outplants table mounds warmed


daily period assuming incident light em intensity range important photosynthesis mounds received four times total daily light energy reached control microsites orientation linear site preparation eg disk trenching linear site preparation orientation sometimes dictated topography considerations orientation chosen make significant difference disk trenching experiment sub boreal spruce zone interior british columbia investigated effect growth young outplants lodgepole pine microsite planting positions berm hinge trench


north south east west aspects well untreated locations furrows ref name burt burton p bedford l goldstein osberg effect disk trench orientation planting spot position ten year performance lodgepole pine new ref tenth year stem volumes trees south east west facing microsites significantly greater trees north facing untreated microsites however planting spot selection seen important overall trench orientation minnesota study n strips accumulated snow snow melted faster e w strips


forest central europe hardwood timber production live crown natural landscape permaculture plantations seed tree selection cutting silvology sustainable forest management world forestry congress references notes bibliography daniel w j helms f baker ''principles silviculture'' nd edition mcgraw hill new york pp nbsp evans j ''silviculture broadleaved woodland'' forestry commission bulletin hmso london pp nbsp hart c ''alternative silvicultural systems clear cutting britain review'' forestry commission bulletin hmso london pp nbsp nyland r ''silviculture concepts applications'' mcgraw hill


ritchiewiki http wwwnafsfedus spfo pubs silvics manual table contentshtm silvics north america volumes usda forest service agriculture handbook december http forestry devberkeleyedu blodgettphp blodgett forest research station https webarchiveorg web http nfdpccfmorg silviculture national ephp silviculture data canada since http nfdpccfmorg terms intro ephp silvicultural terms canada forest management logging


press isbn ref study behavioral economics includes market decisions made mechanisms drive public choice history adam smith author ''the wealth nations'' ''the theory moral sentiments'' classical period economics microeconomics closely linked psychology example adam smith wrote ''the theory moral sentiments'' proposed psychological explanations individual behavior including concerns fairness justice jeremy bentham wrote extensively psychological underpinnings utility development neoclassical economics economists sought reshape discipline natural science

Social science
Economics
Behavioural economics


deducing behavior assumptions nature economic agents developed concept ''homo economicus'' whose behavior fundamentally rational neo classical economists incorporate psychological explanations true francis edgeworth vilfredo pareto irving fisher '''economic psychology''' emerged th century works gabriel tarde george katona ref name katona year publisher literary licensing llc isbn ref laszlo garai ref name garai expected utility hypothesis discounted utility models began gain acceptance generating testable hypothesis decision making given uncertainty intertemporal consumption respectively observed repeatable anomalies eventually challenged hypotheses steps taken maurice


allais example setting allais paradox decision problem first presented contradicts expected utility hypothesis cognitive psychology began shed light brain information processing device contrast behaviorist models psychologists field ward edwards ref name ward ref amos tversky daniel kahneman began compare cognitive models decision making risk uncertainty economic models rational behavior mathematical psychology reflects longstanding interest preference transitivity measurement utility nobel laureates psychologist daniel


kahneman economist vernon l smith awarded nobel memorial prize economic sciences kahneman awarded prize integrated insights psychological research economic science especially concerning human judgment decision making uncertainty smith awarded prize established laboratory experiments tool empirical economic analysis especially study alternative market mechanisms ref name winners ref economist robert j shiller received nobel memorial prize economic sciences empirical analysis asset prices within field behavioral finance economist richard thaler awarded


nobel memorial prize economic sciences contributions behavioral economics pioneering work establishing people predictably irrational ways defy economic theory kahneman tversky late published works relate psychological concepts implications behavioral finance total six nobel prizes awarded behavioral research bounded rationality herbert simon winner turing award nobel prize economics bounded rationality idea individuals make decisions rationality limited


tractability decision problem cognitive limitations time available decision makers view act satisficers seeking satisfactory solution rather optimal one herbert simon proposed bounded rationality alternative basis mathematical modeling decision making complements rationality optimization views decision making fully rational process finding optimal choice given information available ref name bounded rationality first gerd last gigerenzer first reinhard last selten title bounded rationality adaptive toolbox publisher mit press year isbn ref simon used analogy pair scissors one blade represents human cognitive limitations structures environment illustrating minds


compensate limited resources exploiting known structural regularity environment ref name bounded rationality bounded rationality implicates idea humans take shortcuts may lead suboptimal decision making behavioral economists engage mapping decision shortcuts agents use order help increase effectiveness human decision making one treatment idea comes cass sunstein richard thaler 's ''nudge'' ref name nudge ref sunstein thaler recommend choice architectures modified light human agents' bounded rationality widely cited proposal sunstein thaler urges healthier food placed sight level order


increase likelihood person opt choice instead less healthy option critics ''nudge'' lodged attacks modifying choice architectures lead people becoming worse decision makers prospect theory daniel kahneman winner nobel prize economics kahneman tversky published ''prospect theory analysis decision risk'' used cognitive psychology explain various divergences economic decision making neo classical theory prospect theory two stages editing stage evaluation stage editing stage risky situations simplified using various


heuristics evaluation phase risky alternatives evaluated using various psychological principles include reference dependence evaluating outcomes decision maker considers reference level outcomes compared reference point classified gains greater reference point losses less reference point loss aversion losses avoided equivalent gains sought paper kahneman tversky found median coefficient loss aversion ie losses hurt times equivalent gains reward ref name tverskykahneman https linkspringercom article bf abstract ref non linear probability weighting decision makers


overweigh small probabilities underweigh large probabilities gives rise inverse shaped probability weighting function diminishing sensitivity gains losses size gains losses relative reference point increase absolute value marginal effect decision maker 's utility satisfaction falls prospect theory able explain everything two main existing decision theories expected utility theory rank dependent utility theory explain prospect theory used explain phenomena existing decision theories great difficulty explaining include backward bending labor supply curves asymmetric price elasticities


tax evasion co movement stock prices consumption ''journal risk uncertainty'' kahneman tversky gave revised account prospect theory called cumulative prospect theory ref name tverskykahneman new theory eliminated editing phase prospect theory focused evaluation phase main feature allowed non linear probability weighting cumulative manner originally suggested john quiggin 's rank dependent utility theory psychological traits overconfidence projection bias effects limited attention part theory developments include


conference university chicago special behavioral economics edition ''quarterly journal economics'' memory amos tversky kahneman 's nobel prize integrated insights psychological research economic science especially concerning human judgment decision making uncertainty ref name kahneman ref nudge theory '''nudge''' concept behavioral science political theory economics proposes positive reinforcement indirect suggestions ways influence behavior decision making groups individuals nudging contrasts ways achieve compliance education legislation enforcement concept influenced


british american politicians several nudge units exist around world national level uk germany japan others well international level oecd world bank un first formulation term associated principles developed cybernetics james wilk described brunel university academic j stewart art nudge sometimes referred micronudges also drew methodological influences clinical psychotherapy tracing back gregory bateson including contributions milton erickson watzlawick weakland fisch bill o'hanlon variant nudge


microtargeted design geared towards specific group people irrespective scale intended intervention richard thaler cass sunstein 's book ''nudge improving decisions health wealth happiness'' brought nudge theory prominence also gained following among us uk politicians private sector public health authors refer influencing behavior without coercion libertarian paternalism influencers choice architects ref name speak thaler sunstein defined concept form drawing behavioral economics nudge generally applied influence behavior


one frequently cited examples nudge etching image housefly men 's room urinals amsterdam 's schiphol airport intended improve aim ref name nudge nudging techniques aim capitalise judgemental heuristics people words nudge alters environment heuristic system decision making used resulting choice positive desired outcome example nudge switching placement junk food store fruit healthy options


located next cash register junk food relocated another part store united states appointed sunstein helped develop theory administrator office information regulatory affairs ref name speak ref notable applications nudge theory include formation british behavioural insights team often called nudge unit british cabinet office headed david halpern addition https nudgeunitupennedu penn medicine nudge unit world 's first behavioral design team embedded within health system prime minister david cameron president


barack obama sought employ nudge theory advance domestic policy goals terms australia government new south wales established behavioural insights community practice nudge theory also applied business management corporate culture relation health safety environment hse human resources regarding application hse one primary goals nudge achieve zero accident culture leading silicon valley companies forerunners applying nudge theory corporate setting companies using nudges various forms increase productivity


happiness employees recently companies gaining interest using called nudge management improve productivity white collar workers behavioral insights nudges currently used many countries around world criticisms citing example restaurant hygiene ratings 'nudge' consumers towards food safety argued mere public disclosure ratings sufficient ensure public health safety consumers may understand actual meaning expected behavioral change ratings tammy boyce public health foundation king 's fund said need


move away short term politically motivated initiatives 'nudging people' idea based good evidence n't help people make long term behaviour changes cass sunstein responded critiques length ''the ethics influence'' making case favor nudging charges nudges diminish autonomy threaten dignity violate liberties reduce welfare ethicists debated rigorously charges made various participants debate bovens goodwin wilkinson example charges nudges manipulative others yeung question


scientific credibility hausman welch inquired whether nudging permissible grounds distributive justice lepenies malecka questioned whether nudges compatible rule law similarly legal scholars discussed role nudges law behavioral economists bob sugden pointed underlying normative benchmark nudging still homo economicus despite proponents' claim contrary remarked nudging also euphemism psychological manipulation practiced social engineering exists anticipation simultaneously implicit criticism


nudge theory works hungarian social psychologists emphasize active participation nudge target ferenc merei laszlo garai ref name garai ref behavioral economics concepts conventional economics assumes people rational selfish practice often case leads failure traditional models behavioral economics studies biases tendencies heuristics affect decisions people make improve tweak overhaul traditional economic theory aids determining whether people make good bad choices whether could helped make


better choices applied decision made search heuristics decision made needs minimum two options behavioral economics employs search heuristics explain person may evaluate options search heuristics school thought suggests making choice costly gain information options methods exist maximise utility one might get searching information heuristic wholistic explanation search process alone combination


heuristics may used decision making process three primary search heuristics '''satisficing''' satisficing idea minimum requirement search met stop searching following satisficing heuristic person may necessarily acquire optimal product ie one would grant utility would find one good enough heuristic may problematic aspiration level set level products exist could meet requirements '''directed cognition''' directed cognition


search ie identify second valued quality set aspiration level using heuristic options eliminated fail meet minimum requirements chosen qualities heuristics cognitive effects outside searching behavioral economists psychologists identified number heuristics cognitive effects affect people 's decision making include '''mental accounting''' mental accounting refers propensity allocate resources specific purposes mental accounting behavioral bias causes one separate money different categories known mental accounts either


based source intention money '''anchoring''' anchoring describes people mental reference point compare results example person anticipates weather particular day would raining finds day actually clear blue skies would gain utility pleasant weather anticipated would bad '''herd behavior''' relatively simple bias reflects tendency people mimic everyone else follow general consensus represents concept


wisdom crowd '''framing effects''' stereotypes anecdotes act mental filters referred behavioral economics framing effects people may inclined make different decisions depending choices presented biases fallacies heuristics tactics mental shortcuts aid decision making process people also affected number biases fallacies behavioral economics identifies number biases negatively affect decision making '''present bias''' present bias reflects human tendency want rewards sooner describes people


likely forego greater payoff future favour receiving smaller benefit sooner example smoker trying quit although know future suffer health consequences immediate gain nicotine hit favourable person affected present bias present bias commonly split people aware present bias sophisticated naive '''gambler 's fallacy''' also known monte carlo fallacy gambler 's fallacy unmerited belief


event occurs frequently past less likely occur future vice versa despite probability remaining constant example coin flipped three times turned heads every single time person influenced gambler 's fallacy would predict tails simply abnormal number heads flipped past even though course probability heads still '''narrative fallacy''' narrative fallacy undue influence presented story narrative example startup may get funding investors swayed


narrative sounds plausible rather reasoned analysis available evidence '''loss aversion''' loss aversion refers tendency place greater weight loss disappointment words far likely try assign higher priority avoiding losses making investment gains result investors might want higher payout compensate losses high payout likely might try avoid losses altogether even investment 's risk acceptable rational standpoint '''recency bias''' person places greater


expectation particular outcome simply outcome occurred person may affected recency bias return coin flipping example given previous one two flips heads person affected recency bias would continue predict heads would flipped '''confirmation bias''' confirmation bias reflects tendency favour information results support one 's beliefs values '''familiarity bias''' familiarity bias simply describes tendency people return know comfortable familiarity bias discourages affected people exploring new options


may limit ability find optimal solution '''status quo bias''' status quo bias describes tendency people keep things way particular aversion change favor remaining comfortable known behavioral finance behavioral finance study influence psychology behavior investors financial analyst assumes investors always rational limits self control influenced biases ref name corporatefinanceinstitutecom ref example behavioral law economics scholars studying growth financial firms'


technological capabilities attributed decision science irrational consumer decisions'''''' also includes subsequent effects markets behavioral finance attempts explain reasoning patterns investors measures influential power patterns investor 's decision making central issue behavioral finance explaining market participants make irrational systematic errors contrary assumption rational market participants ref name ssrncom errors affect prices returns creating market inefficiencies traditional finance accepted theories finance referred traditional finance foundation traditional finance associated


modern portfolio theory mpt efficient market hypothesis emh modern portfolio theory stock portfolio 's expected return standard deviation correlation stocks mutual funds held within portfolio three concepts efficient portfolio created group stocks bonds efficient portfolio group stocks maximum highest expected return given amount risk assumed contains lowest possible risk given expected return efficient market hypothesis states information already reflected security 's price


finance school originally published mackay 's ''extraordinary popular delusions madness crowds'' presents chronological timeline various panics schemes throughout history work shows group behavior applies financial markets today le bon 's important work ''the crowd study popular mind'' discusses role crowds also known crowd psychology group behavior apply fields behavioral finance social psychology sociology history selden 's book ''psychology stock market'' one first apply field psychology directly


stock market classic discusses emotional psychological forces work investors traders financial markets three works along several others form foundation applying psychology sociology field finance foundation behavioral finance area based interdisciplinary approach including scholars social sciences business schools liberal arts perspective includes fields psychology sociology anthropology economics behavioral economics business administration side covers areas management marketing finance technology accounting critics contend behavioral


violate market efficiency investor must able trade earn abnormal profits case many anomalies specific example criticism appears explanations equity premium puzzle argued cause entry barriers practical psychological equity premium reduce electronic resources open stock market traders response others contend personal investment funds managed superannuation funds minimizing effect putative entry barriers addition professional investors fund managers seem


hold bonds one would expect given return differentials quantitative behavioral finance quantitative behavioral finance uses mathematical statistical methodology understand behavioral biases '''financial models''' financial models used money management asset valuation incorporate behavioral finance parameters examples thaler 's model price reactions information three phases underreaction adjustment overreaction creating price trend one characteristic overreaction average returns following announcements good news lower following bad news words overreaction occurs market reacts strongly long news


thus requiring adjustment opposite direction result outperforming assets one period likely underperform following period also applies customers' irrational purchasing habits stock image coefficient economic reasoning animals handful comparative psychologists attempted demonstrate quasi economic reasoning non human animals early attempts along lines focus behavior rats pigeons studies draw tenets comparative psychology main goal discover analogs human behavior experimentally tractable non human animals also methodologically similar


work ferster skinner ref name skin ref methodological similarities aside early researchers non human economics deviate behaviorism terminology although studies set primarily operant conditioning chamber using food rewards pecking bar pressing behavior researchers describe pecking bar pressing terms reinforcement stimulus response relationships instead terms work demand budget labor recent studies adopted slightly different approach taking evolutionary perspective comparing economic behavior humans species non human primate capuchin monkey ref name monkey ref animal studies many early studies non human


economic reasoning performed rats pigeons operant conditioning chamber studies looked things like peck rate case pigeon bar pressing rate case rat given certain conditions reward early researchers claim example response pattern pecking bar pressing rate appropriate analogy human labor supply ref name bat ref researchers field advocate appropriateness using animal economic behavior understand elementary components human economic behavior ref name kbook year publisher cambridge university press isbn ref paper battalio green kagel ref name bat write labor supply


typical laboratory environment study labor supply pigeons set follows pigeons first deprived food since animals become hungry food becomes highly desired pigeons placed operant conditioning chamber orienting exploring environment chamber discover pecking small disk located one side chamber food delivered effect pecking behavior becomes reinforced associated food long pigeon pecks disk stimulus regularly circumstance pigeon


said work food pecking food thought currency value currency adjusted several ways including amount food delivered rate food delivery type food delivered foods desirable others economic behavior similar observed humans discovered hungry pigeons stop working work less reward reduced researchers argue similar labor supply behavior humans like humans even need work much


given wage pigeons demonstrate decreases pecking work reward value reduced ref name bat demand human economics typical demand curve negative slope means price certain good increase amount consumers willing able purchase decreases researchers studying demand curves non human animals rats also find downward slopes researchers studied demand rats manner distinct studying labor supply pigeons specifically operant conditioning chamber containing rats experimental subjects require press


bar instead pecking small disk receive reward reward food reward pellets water commodity drink cherry cola unlike previous pigeon studies work analog pecking monetary analog reward work analog experiment bar pressing circumstances researchers claim changing number bar presses required obtain commodity item analogous changing price commodity item human economics ref name kag ref effect results demand studies non human animals show


bar pressing requirement cost increase number times animal presses bar equal greater bar pressing requirement payment decreases applied issues intertemporal choice david laibson professor economics harvard university behavioral economics applied intertemporal choice defined making decision effects decision happening different time intertemporal choice behavior largely inconsistent exemplified george ainslie 's hyperbolic discounting one prominently studied observations developed david laibson ted o'donoghue matthew rabin hyperbolic discounting describes tendency


discount outcomes near future outcomes far future pattern discounting dynamically inconsistent time inconsistent therefore inconsistent basic models rational choice since rate discount time ''t'' ''t '' low time ''t '' ''t'' near future high time ''t'' ''t'' present time ''t '' near future pattern also explained models sub additive discounting distinguish delay interval discounting people less patient per time unit shorter intervals regardless


impact include rational choice rational expectations game theory lewis turning point portfolio optimization counterfactual thinking areas research branches behavioral economics enrich model utility function without implying inconsistency preferences ernst fehr armin falk rabin studied fairness inequity aversion reciprocal altruism weakening neoclassical assumption perfect selfishness work particularly applicable wage setting work intrinsic motivation uri gneezy aldo rustichini identity george akerlof rachel kranton assumes agents derive utility adopting personal social norms


addition conditional expected utility according aggarwal addition behavioral deviations rational equilibrium markets also likely suffer lagged responses search costs externalities commons frictions making difficult disentangle behavioral effects market behavior conditional expected utility form reasoning individual illusion control calculates probabilities external events hence utility function action even causal ability affect external events behavioral economics caught among general public


success books dan ariely 's ''predictably irrational'' practitioners discipline studied quasi public policy topics broadband mapping ref name twsa faa ref ref name twsa xx ref applications behavioral economics include modeling consumer decision making process applications artificial intelligence machine learning silicon valley based start singularities using agm postulates proposed alchourr n g rdenfors makinson formalization concepts beliefs change rational entities symbolic logic create machine learning deduction engine uses latest data science big data algorithms order generate content


conditional rules counterfactuals capture customer 's behaviors beliefs university pennsylvania 's https chibeupennedu center health incentives behavioral economics chibe looks behavioral economics improve health outcomes chibe researchers found evidence many behavioral economics principles incentives patient clinician nudges gamification loss aversion helpful encourage vaccine uptake smoking cessation medication adherence physical activity example applications behavioral economics also exist disciplines example area supply chain management natural experiments biological point view human behaviors essentially


crises accompanied stock market crashes bubble growth share prices exceed historic highs periods market participants see something new inevitably induces stress response accompanying changes endocrine profiles motivations result quantitative qualitative changes behavior one example behavior affecting economics finance observed variably contrasted using behavioral economics behavioral economics' usefulness applies beyond environments similar stock exchanges selfish reasoning 'adult behaviors' similar identified within criminal concealment legal deficiencies neglect different


types observed discovered awareness indirect consequence lack least potential different experimental models methods used well behavioral economics' potential uses broad reliability needs scrutiny underestimation role novelty stressor primary shortcoming current approaches market research necessary account biologically determined diphasisms human behavior everyday low stress conditions response stressors ref name sarapultsev ref limitations experimental methods eg randomized control trials use economics famously analyzed angus


argued many issues stem behavioral economics concerned understanding ''how'' behavior deviates standard economic models rather understanding ''why'' people behave way understanding behavior occurs necessary creation generalizable knowledge goal science referred behavioral economics triumph marketing particularly cited example loss aversion traditional economists skeptical experimental survey based techniques behavioral economics uses extensively economists typically stress revealed preferences stated preferences surveys determination economic value experiments


surveys risk systemic biases strategic behavior lack incentive compatibility researchers point participants experiments conducted behavioral economists representative enough drawing broad conclusions basis experiments possible acronym weird coined order describe studies participants come western educated industrialized rich democratic societies responses matthew rabin dismisses criticisms countering consistent results typically obtained multiple situations geographies produce good theoretical insight behavioral economists however responded


criticisms focusing field studies rather lab experiments economists see fundamental schism experimental economics behavioral economics prominent behavioral experimental economists tend share techniques approaches answering common questions example behavioral economists investigating neuroeconomics entirely experimental verified field epistemological ontological methodological components behavioral economics increasingly debated particular historians economics economic methodologists according researchers ref name sarapultsev studying mechanisms form basis decision making especially financial


decision making necessary recognize decisions made stress stress nonspecific body response demands presented ref name selye title stress health disease publisher elsevier science year isbn ref related fields experimental economics experimental economics application experimental methods including statistical econometric computational study economic questions data collected experiments used estimate effect size test validity economic theories illuminate market mechanisms economic experiments usually use cash motivate subjects order mimic real world incentives experiments used help understand


markets exchange systems function experimental economics also expanded understand institutions law experimental law economics fundamental aspect subject design experiments experiments may conducted field laboratory settings whether individual group behavior variants subject outside formal confines include natural quasi natural experiments neuroeconomics neuroeconomics interdisciplinary field seeks explain human decision making ability process multiple alternatives follow course action studies economic behavior shape


understanding brain neuroscientific discoveries constrain guide models economics ref name neuroeconomicsdukeedu ref combines research methods neuroscience experimental behavioral economics cognitive social psychology ref name levalloisclithero ref research decision making behavior becomes increasingly computational also incorporated new approaches theoretical biology computer science mathematics neuroeconomics studies decision making using combination tools fields avoid shortcomings arise single perspective approach mainstream economics expected utility eu concept rational agents still used many economic behaviors


fully explained models heuristics framing ref name annualreviewsorg ref behavioral economics emerged account anomalies integrating social cognitive emotional factors understanding economic decisions neuroeconomics adds another layer using neuroscientific methods understanding interplay economic behavior neural mechanisms using tools various fields scholars claim neuroeconomics offers integrative way understanding decision making ref name neuroeconomicsdukeedu evolutionary psychology evolutionary psychology perspective states many perceived limitations rational choice explained rational context maximizing biological


fitness ancestral environment necessarily current one thus living subsistence level reduction resources may result death may rational place greater value preventing losses obtaining gains may also explain behavioral differences groups males less risk averse females since males variable reproductive success females unsuccessful risk seeking may limit reproductive success sexes males may potentially increase reproductive success successful risk seeking much females ref name aep paul h rubin c monica


capra evolutionary psychology economics title applied evolutionary psychology publisher oxford university press year isbn editor last roberts editor first craig doi acprof oso ref notable people economics george akerlof werner de bondt paul de grauwe linda c babcock douglas bernheim colin camerer armin falk urs fischbacher tshilidzi marwala susan e mayer ernst fehr simon g chter uri gneezy david laibson louis l vy garboua john list george loewenstein sendhil mullainathan john quiggin matthew rabin reinhard selten herbert simon vernon l smith robert sugden larry summers richard thaler abhijit banerjee esther duflo katy milkman finance malcolm baker nicholas barberis gunduz caginalp david hirshleifer andrew lo michael mauboussin


terrance odean richard l peterson charles plott robert prechter hersh shefrin robert shiller andrei shleifer robert vishny psychology george ainslie dan ariely ed diener ward edwards laszlo garai gerd gigerenzer daniel kahneman ariel kalil george katona walter mischel drazen prelec eldar shafir paul slovic john staddon amos tversky see also adaptive market hypothesis animal spirits keynes behavioralism behavioral operations research behavioral strategy big five personality traits confirmation bias cultural economics culture change economic sociology emotional bias fuzzy trace theory hindsight bias ''homo reciprocans'' important publications behavioral economics list cognitive biases methodological individualism nudge theory observational


techniques praxeology priority heuristic regret theory repugnancy costs socioeconomics socionomics references citations sources year publisher princeton university press isbn year publisher macmillan isbn ref palgrave title private truths public lies social consequences preference falsification last kuran first timur author link timur kuran publisher harvard university press year isbn pages http wwwhupharvardedu catalogphpisbn description ref none chapter preview http wwwsciencedirectcom science ob publicationurl hubeid x cid pubtype hs auth acct c version urlversion userid md f b e eac ed fad fe links year publisher w w norton isbn https webarchiveorg web http bookswwnortoncom books description https webarchiveorg web https wwwbehavioraleconomicscom behavioral economics guide https ssrncom abstract overview behavioral finance https webarchiveorg web http dremanbehavioralfinanceorg institute behavioral finance https webarchiveorg web http economicspsychologypolicyblogspotcouk stirling behavioural science blog stirling behavioural science centre university stirling https webarchiveorg web http wwwsabeonlineorg society advancement behavioural economics https webarchiveorg web http wwwusaprorg papers paperaspxpaperid behavioral economics past present future


colin f camerer george loewenstein http wwwmoneysciencecom pg blog admin read history behavioural finance published research history behavioural finance economics published research https webarchiveorg web http wwwessexacuk coursefinder course detailsaspxcourse msc l msc behavioural economics msc behavioural economics university essex https webarchiveorg web http wwwokandurucom beconhtm behavioral economics shipping business behavioral finance financial economics market trends microeconomics prospect theory


symptoms evaluate abnormal electrocardiograms assess risk developing arrhythmias future design treatment procedures increasingly include therapeutic methods typically radiofrequency ablation cryo ablation addition diagnostic prognostic procedures therapeutic modalities employed field include antiarrhythmic drug therapy implantation pacemakers implantable cardioverter defibrillators icd ref name fauci fauci anthony et al ''harrison 's textbook medicine'' new york mcgraw hill ref ep study cardiac electrophysiology study eps typically measures response injured cardiomyopathic myocardium pes specific pharmacological regimens order assess likelihood regimen

Applied science
Medicine and health
Internal medicine
Cardiac electrophysiology


successfully prevent potentially fatal sustained ventricular tachycardia vt ventricular fibrillation vf vf future sometimes ' 'series'' eps drug trials must conducted enable cardiologist select one regimen long term treatment best prevents slows development vt vf following pes studies may also conducted presence newly implanted newly replaced cardiac pacemaker aicd ref name fauci specialist physician specialist cardiac electrophysiology known heart electrician commonly simply electrophysiologist cardiac electrophysiology considered subspecialty


cardiology countries usually requires two years fellowship training beyond general cardiology fellowship early centers medicare medicaid services cms promoted cardiac electrophysiology specialty category united states cardiac electrophysiologists trained perform interventional cardiac electrophysiology studies eps well surgical device implantations ref name fauci mapping specialist mapping specialists typically educated bachelor 's master 's level employed either cardiac electrophysiology company clinic often certification international board heart rhythm examiners ibhre


certified electrophysiology specialist ceps necessary research cardiac electrophysiologist cardiac electrophysiologists specialize sub area electrophysiology turn sub area physiology specialization usually requires education doctoral phd dsc md level become principal investigator research projects area research often multi disciplinary involving chemistry bioelectrics biology biomedical engineering flagship tools used cardiac electrophysiologsts overlap toolbox neuroscientist including patch clamp optical mapping recent subdiscipline cardiac electrophysiology relatively young subdiscipline cardiology internal medicine developed


techniques interpretations'' th edition society heart rhythm society founded promotes education advocacy cardiac arrhythmia professionals including cardiac electrophysiologists patients largest society field carto system biosense webster subsidiary johnson johnson produces cardiac electrophysiology system called carto ref name macias system designed visualise real time calculated position orientation specialised rf ablation catheter within patient 's heart order minimise radiation exposure fluoroscopy increase accuracy targeted rf ablation reacquisition pacing sites ablation


navigation system calculates position orientation catheter tip using three known magnetic sources references system uses static magnetic fields calibrated computer controlled due nature magnetic fields orientation may also calculated tip stationary calculating strength orientation magnetic fields given location xyz position may calculated along roll pitch yaw orientation ref name macias ref notable cardiac electrophysiologists richard n fogoros american michel ha ssaguerre born french mark josephson american bruce lerman american michel mirowski


polish israeli american amiran revishvili born russian hein wellens dutch see also clinical cardiac electrophysiology electrical conduction system heart electrocardiogram ecg electrophysiology study radiofrequency ablation references https projectspropublicaorg docdollars doctors print elad anter cardiac doctor year


'''creative writing''' writing goes outside bounds normal professional journalistic academic technical forms literature typically identified emphasis narrative craft character development use literary tropes various traditions poetry poetics due looseness definition possible writing feature stories considered creative writing even though fall journalism content features specifically focused narrative character development fictional non fictional works fall category including forms novels biographies

Humanities
Languages and literature
Creative writing


short stories poems academic setting creative writing typically separated fiction poetry classes focus writing original style opposed imitating pre existing genres crime horror writing screen stage mdash screenwriting playwriting mdash often taught separately fit creative writing category well creative writing technically considered writing original composition sense creative writing contemporary process oriented name traditionally called literature including variety genres work ''foundations creativity''


mary lee marksberry references paul witty lou labrant 's ''teaching people 's language'' define creative writing marksberry notes academia unlike academic counterpart writing classes teach students compose work based rules language creative writing believed focus students self expression creative writing educational subject often available stages throughout k education perhaps refined form creative writing educational focus universities following reworking university education post war era creative writing progressively gained prominence


university setting uk first formal creative writing program established master arts degree university east anglia novelists malcolm bradbury angus wilson beginning formal creative writing programs ref programs study creative writing programs typically available writers high school level way graduate school university adult education traditionally programs associated english departments respective schools notion challenged recent time creative writing programs


spun department creative writing degrees undergraduates college bachelor fine arts degrees bfa continue pursue master fine arts creative writing terminal degree field one time rare phd programs becoming prevalent field writers attempt bridge gap academic study artistic pursuit creative writers typically decide emphasis either fiction poetry usually start short stories simple poems make schedule based emphasis including literature classes education


classes workshop classes strengthen skills techniques though programs study fields film theatre screenwriting playwriting become popular creative writing programs since creative writing programs attempt work closely film theatre programs well english programs creative writing students encouraged get involved extracurricular writing based activities publishing clubs school based literary magazines newspapers writing contests writing colonies conventions extended education classes classroom creative writing usually taught workshop format


rather seminar style workshops students usually submit original work peer critique students also format writing method process writing writing courses teach means exploit access latent creativity technical issues editing structural techniques genres random idea generating unblocking writer 's block noted authors michael chabon sir kazuo ishiguro kevin brockmeier ian mcewan karl kirchwey ref name twsoctbeqqq ref dame rose tremain reputed screenwriters david benioff darren star peter farrelly graduated university creative writing programs controversy academia creative writing


genre awareness prisons late american prisons began implementing creative writing programs due prisoner rights movement stemmed events attica prison riot creative writing programs among many art programs aim benefit prisoners time prison programs provide education structure creative outlet encourage rehabilitation programs' continuation relies heavily volunteers outside financial support sources authors activist groups poets playwrights essayists editors novelists known pen among


significant contributors creative writing programs america pen established prison writing committee implement advocate creative writing programs prisons throughout us pen writing committee improved prison libraries inspired volunteer writers teach prisoners persuaded authors host workshops founded annual literary competition prisoners workshops classes help prisoners build self esteem make healthy social connections learn new skills ease prisoner reentry creative writing programs offered juvenile correction facilities also proved beneficial alabama ''writing stories'' began anti violence


initiative encourage positive self expression among incarcerated youths program found participants gained confidence ability empathize see peers positive light motivation want return society live productive life one california study prison fine arts programs found art education increased emotional control decreased disciplinary reports participation creative writing art programs result significant positive outcomes inmates' mental health relationship families facility 's environment study evidenced improved writing skills enhanced one 's ability academic areas


study portraying writing fundamental tool building one 's intellect teaching prisoners creative writing encourage literacy teach necessary life skills provide prisoners outlet express regret accountability responsibility kind restorative justice elements action character conflict dialogue genre narration pace plot point view scene setting style suspense theme motif tone voice forms genres literature autobiography memoir creative non fiction personal journalistic essays children 's books drama epic flash fiction graphic novels comics novel novella play poetry screenplay short story dialogues blogs see also asemic writing author book report clarion workshop collaborative


'''moral psychology''' field study philosophy psychology historically term moral psychology used relatively narrowly refer study moral development ref name haidt kesebir ref moral psychology eventually came refer broadly various topics intersection ethics psychology philosophy mind ref name ellemers ref main topics field moral judgment moral reasoning moral sensitivity moral responsibility moral motivation moral identity moral action moral development moral diversity moral character especially related virtue ethics altruism psychological egoism moral luck moral forecasting moral emotion affective forecasting moral

Social science
Psychology
Moral psychology


disagreement today moral psychology thriving area research spanning many disciplines major bodies research biological ref name sevinc ref ref name moll ref cognitive computational ref name kleimanweiner ref ref name cushman ref ref name crockett ref cultural ref name henrich ref ref name purzycki ref basis moral judgment behavior growing body research moral judgment context artificial intelligence ref name awad ref ref name bonnefon ref history origins moral psychology traced back early philosophical works largely concerned moral education plato aristotle ancient greece well confucian tradition empirical studies moral judgment go back least far


work frank chapman sharp ref name sharp ref coinciding development psychology discipline separate philosophy since least philosophers psychologists attempted empirically evaluate morality individual ref name pittel ref especially attempting distinguish adults children terms judgment efforts failed attempted quantify much morality individual notably contentious idea rather understand individual 's psychological representation morality ref name wendorf ref ref introductory psychology courses students learn moral psychology studying psychologist lawrence kohlberg ref name ref proposed


highly influential theory moral development developed throughout theory built piaget 's observation children develop intuitions justice later articulate kohlberg proposed six stages broken three categories moral reasoning believed universal people cultures increasing sophistication justice based reasoning taken sign development moral cognitive development turn assumed necessary sufficient condition moral action ref name kohlberg ref researchers using kohlberg model found gap people said


interest shifting away developmental processes towards greater emphasis social cognitive affective neural processes involved moral judgment ref name haidt kesebir ref name ellemers methods trolley problem commonly used moral dilemma psychological research philosophers psychologists researchers fields created various methods studying topics moral psychology empirical studies dating back least ref name wendorf methods used studies include moral dilemmas trolley problem ref name sharp ref name greene structured interviews surveys means study moral psychology development well


use economic games neuroimaging studies natural language use interview techniques lawrence kohlberg presented approach studying differences moral judgment modeling evaluative diversity reflecting series developmental stages la jean piaget lawrence kohlberg 's stages moral development ref name higheststage ref obedience punishment orientation self interest orientation interpersonal accord conformity authority social order maintaining orientation social contract orientation universal ethical principles stages combined single stage labeled pre conventional stages combined single


stage labeled post conventional reason psychologists consistently categorize subjects resulting four stages using moral judgement interview asks subjects endorse answers standard set moral dilemmas ref name survey instruments united states europe several morality tests developed classify subjects either fit unfit make moral judgments ref name wendorf ref name verplaetse ref test takers would classify rank standardized lists personality traits hypothetical actions pictures hypothetical scenes early catalogs personality tests included sections specifically


morality tests though critics persuasively argued merely measured intelligence awareness social expectations ref name wendorf meanwhile kohlberg inspired new series morality tests defining issues test dubbed neo kohlbergian constituents scores relative preference post conventional justifications moral judgment test scores consistency one 's preferred justifications ref name lind ref ref name lind ref treat evaluative ability similar iq hence single score allowing categorization high score vs low score among recently developed survey measures moral foundations questionnaire ref name graham ref widely used survey measure five moral intuitions proposed


moral foundations theory care harm fairness cheating loyalty betrayal authority subversion sanctity degradation questions ask respondents rate various considerations terms relevant respondent 's moral judgments purpose questionnaire measure degree people rely upon five moral intuitions may coexist first two foundations cluster together liberal political orientation latter three cluster conservative political orientation ref name graham ref ref name graham ref addition survey instruments measuring endorsement moral foundations number contemporary survey measures exist relating broad taxonomies moral


values well specific moral beliefs concerns evolutionary origins cooperative behavior observed many nonhuman animals according haidt ref name haidt belief morality innate one theoretical commitments uniting many prominent psychologists studying morality twentieth century exceptions substantial amount research recent decades focused evolutionary origins various aspects morality ref name brosnan ref ref name tomasello ref ref name hare ref ''unto others evolution psychology unselfish behavior'' elliott sober david sloan wilson demonstrated diverse moralities could evolve


group selection ref name sober wilson ref particular dismantled idea natural selection favor homogeneous population creatures care personal welfare behave ways advance personal reproduction tim dean advanced general claim moral diversity would evolve frequency dependent selection moral approach vulnerable different set situations threatened ancestors ref name dean ref topics theories moral identity moral identity refers importance morality person 's identity typically construed either trait like individual difference set


chronically accessible schemas ref name hardy ref name hardy carlo ref moral identity theorized one key motivational forces connecting moral reasoning moral behavior ref name hardy carlo suggested meta analysis reporting moral identity positively albeit modestly associated moral behavior ref name hertz krettenauer ref moral values psychologist shalom schwartz defines individual values conceptions desirable guide way social actors egorganisational leaders policymakers individual persons select actions evaluate people events explain actions evaluations cultural values form basis social norms laws customs practices


individual values vary case case result unique life experience average values point widely held cultural beliefs result shared cultural values kristiansen hotte ref name kristiansen hotte ref reviewed many research articles regarding people 's values attitudes whether guide behavior research reviewed extension ajzen fishbein 's theory reasoned action conclude value attitude behavior depends individual moral reasoning another issue kristiansen hotte discovered research individuals tended create values justify reactions certain situations


types values different motives westerners explanations show self bettering biases easterners hand tend focus oriented biases ref name kristiansen hotte moral foundations theory moral foundations theory first proposed jonathan haidt craig joseph ref name haidt ref attempts explain origins variation human moral reasoning basis innate modular foundations notably moral foundations theory used describe difference moral foundations political liberals political conservatives ref name haidt graham ref ref name graham haidt joseph expanded previous research done shweder three ethics


theory ref name haidt shweder 's theory consisted three moral ethics ethics community autonomy divinity ref name shweder ref haidt graham took theory extended discuss five psychological systems specifically make three moral ethics theory five foundations morality importance vary throughout culture construct virtues based emphasized foundation five psychological foundations harm care starts sensitivity signs suffering offspring develops general dislike seeing suffering others potential feel compassion response fairness reciprocity


developed someone observes engages reciprocal interactions foundation concerned virtues related fairness justice ingroup loyalty constitutes recognizing trusting cooperating members one 's ingroup well wary members groups authority respect someone navigates hierarchal ingroups communities purity sanctity stems emotion disgust guards body responding elicitors biologically culturally linked disease transmission five foundations theory nativist cultural psychological theory modern moral psychology concedes morality


protecting individuals focuses primarily issues justice harm care fairness reciprocity ref name haidt graham research found justice related virtuesmake half moral world liberals justice related concerns make one fifth moral world conservatives ref name haidt graham liberals value harm care fairness reciprocity significantly moralities conservatives value five equally moral virtues lapsley narvaez outlined social cognition explains aspects moral functioning social cognitive approach personality six critical resources moral personality cognition self processes affective elements personality


changing social context lawful situational variability integration literature lapsley narvaez suggest moral values actions stem virtues controlled set self created schemas cognitive structures organize related concepts integrate past events claim schemas fundamental ability notice dilemmas appraise moral landscape time people develop greater moral expertise triune ethics theory triune ethics meta theory tem proposed darcia narvaez metatheory highlights relative contributions moral


development biological inheritance including human evolutionary adaptations environmental influences neurobiology role culture ref name ref tet proposes three basic mindsets shape ethical behavior self protectionism variety types engagement imagination variety types fueled protectionism engagement mindset influences perception affordances rhetorical preferences actions taken within mindset become ethic trump values engagement communal imagination represent optimal human functioning shaped evolved developmental niche evolved nest supports optimal psychosocial neurobiological development ref name narv ez darcia ref based worldwide anthropological research


eg hewlett lamb 's hunter gatherer childhoods narvaez uses small band hunter gatherers baseline evolved nest effects moral reasoning development moral development reasoning two overlapping topics study moral psychology historically received great amount attention even preceding influential work piaget kohlberg ref name wendorf moral reasoning refers specifically study people think right wrong acquire apply moral rules ref name pizarro ref moral development refers broadly age related changes thoughts emotions guide moral beliefs judgments behaviors ref


name barnett ref kohlberg 's stage theory jean piaget watching children play games noted rationales cooperation changed experience maturation ref name piaget ref identified two stages heteronomous morality centered outside self autonomous internalized morality lawerence kohlberg sought expand piaget 's work cognitive developmental theory moral reasoning dominated field decades focused moral development one 's progression capacity reason justice kohlberg 's interview method included hypothetical moral dilemmas conflicts interest notably heinz dilemma proposed six stages three levels development claiming anyone


interviewed children dilemmas followed longitudinally time would come six stages others preconventional level first two stages included punishment obedience orientation instrumental relativist orientation next level conventional level included interpersonal concordance good boy nice girl orientation along law order orientation lastly final postconventional level consisted social contract legalistic orientation universal ethical principle orientation according kohlberg individual considered cognitively mature depending stage moral reasoning grows advance education


world experience critics kohlberg 's approach carol gilligan jane attanucci argue emphasis justice emphasis additional perspective moral reasoning known care perspective justice perspective draws attention inequality oppression striving reciprocal rights equal respect care perspective draws attention ideas detachment abandonment striving attention response people need care orientation relationally based situational focus dependent needs others opposed


justice orientation 's objectivity ref name attanucci ref however reviews others found gilligan 's theory supported empirical studies since orientations individual dependent fact neo kohlbergian studies defining issues test females tend get slightly higher scores males attachment approach moral judgment aner govrin 's attachment approach moral judgment proposes early interactions caregiver child acquires internal representation system rules determine right wrong judgments construed used understood breaking moral situations defining features


attachment model moral judgment outlines framework universal moral faculty based universal innate deep structure appears uniformly structure almost moral judgments regardless content moral behaviour historically major topics study domain moral behavior included violence altruism ref name staub ref ref name baumeister ref bystander intervention obedience authority eg milgram experiment ref name milgram ref stanford prison experiment ref name haney ref ref name haidt kesebir recent research moral behavior uses wide range methods including using experience sampling try estimate actual prevalence various kinds moral


behavior everyday life ref name hofmann ref ref name hofmann ref research also focused variation moral behavior time studies phenomena moral licensing ref name monin ref ref name blanken ref yet studies focusing social preferences examine various kinds resource allocation decisions ref name henrich use incentivized behavioral experiments investigate way people weighted interests people 's deciding whether harm others example examine willing people administer electric shocks vs others exchange money james rest reviewed literature moral functioning identified least four components


necessary moral behavior take place sensitivity noticing interpreting situation reasoning making judgment regarding best moral option motivation moment also habitually moral identity implementation skills perseverance carry action reynolds ceranic researched effects social consensus one 's moral behavior depending level social consensus high vs low moral behaviors require greater lesser degrees moral identity motivate individual make choice endorse behavior also depending social consensus


particular behaviors may require different levels moral reasoning recent attempts develop integrated model moral motivation identified least six different levels moral functioning shown predict type moral pro social behavior moral intuitions moral emotions moral virtues vices behavioral capacities moral values moral reasoning moral willpower social intuitionist model moral motivation suggests moral behaviors typically product multiple levels moral functioning usually energized hotter levels intuition emotion behavioral virtue vice cooler levels values


reasoning willpower still important proposed secondary affect intensive processes moral behavior also studied umbrella personality psychology described terms traits individual differences self control agreeableness cooperativeness honesty humility ref name thielmann ref regarding interventions aimed shaping moral behavior meta analysis business ethics instruction programs found programs minimal impact increasing outcomes related ethical perceptions behavior awareness meta analysis suggested positive affect least momentarily increase prosocial behavior subsequent meta analyses


also showing prosocial behavior reciprocally increases positive affect actor value behavior consistency looking relations moral values attitudes behaviors previous research asserts less correspondence three aspects one might assume ref name darnell ref fact seems common people label behaviors justifying value rather value beforehand acting people likely act personal values low self monitoring high self consciousness due fact


aware less aware others may perceive self consciousness means literally conscious fearing judgement feeling anxiety others social situations different categories norms telling people may act accordance values still n't concrete either people typically act accordance social contextual personal norms likelihood norms also follow one 's moral values though certain assumptions situations would suggest major value attitude behavior relation


enough research confirm phenomenon moral willpower building earlier work metcalfe mischel delayed gratification ref name ref baumeister miller delaney explored notion willpower first defining self made three parts reflexive consciousness person 's awareness environment individual interpersonal seeks mold self one accepted others executive function ref name ref stated self free actions determined particular influences especially aware three prevalent


theories willpower describe limited supply energy cognitive process skill developed time research largely supported willpower works like moral muscle limited supply strength may depleted process referred ego depletion conserved replenished single act requiring much self control significantly deplete supply willpower ref name exertion reduces ability engage acts willpower short term exertions actually improve person 's ability exert willpower extended


periods long run ref name referencea ref additional research conducted may cast doubt idea ego depletion moral intuitions jonathan haidt introduced social intuitionist model claimed exceptions moral judgments made based upon socially derived intuitions moral intuitions happen immediately automatically unconsciously reasoning largely serving generate post hoc rationalizations justify one 's instinctual reactions ref name haidt provides four arguments doubt causal importance reason firstly haidt argues since dual process system brain making automatic evaluations assessments


marker hypothesis batson 's empathy altruism hypothesis ref name haidt following publication landmark fmri study ref name greene joshua greene separately proposed dual process theory moral judgment according intuitive emotional deliberative processes respectively give rise characteristically deontological consequentialist moral judgments deontologist someone rule based morality mainly focused duties rights contrast consequentialist someone believes best overall consequences ultimately matter moral emotions moral emotions variety social emotion involved forming communicating moral judgments