dictionary sociology'' th ed london penguin eloire fabien bourdieusian conception social capital methodological reflection application ''forum social economics'' murdock george ''social structure'' new york macmillan porpora douglas v ''the concept social structure'' new york greenwood press four concepts social structure ''journal theory social behaviour'' smelser neal j social structure pp nbsp ''the handbook sociology'' edited n j smelser london sage structure sociological terminology structure emergence structural functionalism


governmental agencies topics within military sociology include dominant assumptions held military changes military members' willingness fight military unionization postmodern military military professionalism transition veterans civilian life increased utilization women military industrial academic complex military 's dependence research institutional organizational structure military military society military occupation shortly united states ended conscription initiated volunteer force sociologist charles moskos introduced institutional occupational model military organizations

Social science
Sociology
Military sociology


asked whether military seen occupation rather institution although military still retains institutional principles patriotic values historic traditions etc military becoming oriented principles business economics fairly categorized profession explored relating professions grouping power compensation different ranks within military granting people power many young people look military compensation benefits opportunity attend college without enormous loans moskos used united


corporate ness expertise oversee military matters called objective control ref name crabb p janowitz hand asserted role military modern society complex high stakes duty professional soldier went well beyond execution violence elite military obligation maintain stable international relations required management expertise political skills addition classical military officer skillset janowitz concerned military profession could become self perpetuating self serving clique therefore important


military socially representative citizen served ref name crabb p according sam c sarkesian robert e connor military profession holds view unique profession six key elements paramount shaping character military profession listed profession defined area competence based expert knowledge system continuing education designed maintain professional competence profession obligation society must serve without concern remuneration


system values perpetuate professional character establish maintain legitimate relationships society institutional framework within profession functions profession control system rewards punishments position determine quality entering profession recruitment practices perhaps institution places much emphasis procedures assimilating new members armed forces assimilation involves continuous process recruitment selection training career development must new recruit officer enlisted officer learn


new difficult skills also expected master elaborate code professional behavior etiquette since membership military means participation organizational community regulates behavior job american military utilizes citizen soldier concept gather military personnel across country term means ability quickly round call troops war military tour virtual moment 's notice assignment tour military personnel returned civilian life according norman hilman


million men enlisted military peacetime draft rapid transitional period many soldiers may felt lost confused differences previous life civilian new military life calls demand conform new orders expected followed without question although many men women voluntarily joined armed forces view joining military working government selling negative characterization military life real turn


whose spouses deployed prior coped present deployment positive reactions felt job away home important rest family children supportive take care things family member away children begin taking adult responsibilities like cooking cleaning getting groceries etc despite positive coping skills military families well coping long separation family family members stressors stress reactions


accompany start family greater numbers young civilian families ref name baker ref like young civilian families young military families may also experience maturity issues life inexperience low incomes living away home ref name baker issues compounded fact young military families also experience special hardships experienced young civilian families ref name baker example many young families military civilian often endure difficulties civilian families likely support family friends less likely option military families eg


military base stationed foreign country ref name baker another hardship experienced commonly military families compared civilian families frequent relocation approximately military families relocate every year compared civilian families special planning must undertaken families parents active duty either could deployed time ref name baker planning contingency especially difficult military families one active duty parent parent less likely stay home children past ref name baker rather


likely find employment attend college therefore find constant relocations stressful due commitments working studying respectively ref name baker military families option living parents place employment ref name baker families living base house must follow rules base command housing office maintain property afforded little privacy ref name baker short may experience pressure conform base 's standards behavior ref name baker families may opt live


base base housing usually expensive inconvenient ref name baker stress military service de soir suggests seven stages way partners married personnel experience stress deployment initial shock protest period usually lasts two weeks stage family members upset angry news deployment usually time heightened emotions past many families given month 's notice get ready deployment recently many families given year


notice deployment might make stressful time anticipation even worse many recent reports suggest ideal preparation time deployment would months disengagement alienation last days prior departure couples enter stage experience periods distancing feelings uncertainty future mission also stage lot latent problems concern may surface could add potential stress arguments confessions ca n't address fully last moments person 's deployment moments create lot


emotional distress emotional disorganization shortly family member deployed feelings sadness possible symptoms clinical depression may begin along issues sleeping problems getting back rhythm life eating disorders issues last six weeks perhaps longer especially deployment n't go well reports bad news family best way get family spouses period deployed personnel contact family soon arrive destinations


soon military authority permits help family feel less stress deployment duration constant contact key part decreasing stressful family life recovery stabilization usually six weeks family fall back distressed family pattern recover becoming accustomed situation missing family member deployed starting maintaining daily routine stage best way keep mind deployed may deployed may point involvement


home front groups essential military families need share enjoy time others military spouses partners deployed long periods time seeking support groups one many ways people cope stressful issues age factor united states almost half enlisted force men women ref name primary average age trend youth perpetuated fact people enter service years age leave


widespread change attitudes towards youth develop consequently prolongation perceived youth period ref name youth religion military past us service academies required attendance religious services found unconstitutional us court appeals district columbia circuit anderson v laird despite naval academy still prayer meals attendance required meals caused students naval academy seek legal help american civil liberties union comparable practice


pre meal prayers compulsory meals virginia military institute found unconstitutional th us circuit court appeals mellen v bunting religious spectrum united states military comparable general population comparison nearest available age group demographic year olds make eighty percent military slight variations mainline protestants catholics jews muslims buddhists underrepresented christian religions christian missionary alliance church god seventh day adventists assemblies god others


disproportionately overrepresented nearly three times percentage applicable demographic reporting atheism religion slightly overrepresented none differences account spread christians self identifying protestant constituting largest discrepancy data studies suggest servicemembers may less likely identify mainstream religious organizations country 's general population ref name primary minorities military throughout history non indigenous members minority groups absorbed military service examples practice ancient armies include hannibal 's use ethiopian soldiers roman auxilia


byzantine empire 's recruitment middle eastern population ottoman empire 's use religious minorities millet system cases military service voluntary minorities saw opportunity progress socially society perhaps achieve citizenship extension children history minority groups military organizations minorities often segregated dominant racial group forming separate contingents groups true ancient military organizations also recent historical context french canadian regiments canada


world war world war ii british army conscription various minority groups conquests colonialism segregation minority groups caucasian commanded minority composed regiments similar time periods mentioned previously case united states african american participation military world war ii high due better treatment afforded african americans military caucasian members end job exclusion reenlistment rates increased average close double caucasian servicemen similar situation arose


united kingdom minority participation situations saw sharp disparity upper rank distribution lesser extent still disproportionately low level upper ranked minorities class wikitable countries special programmes minorities military countries parallel military structures two groups equal status countries special programmes minorities military example countries usa australia new zealand canada uk switzerland belgium france germany spain romania bulgaria


local population foreign war highlight contribution minorities national military effort greater cohesion military possible disadvantages may lead minorities represented requires money training administration minority rights treated non issue violated women military military gender issues diverse plural field within military sociology roles women include transmitter cultural values children reproducers boundaries active militants national struggles women served


military throughout history women 's military recruitment rejects idea 'women protected' recruitment important latin america israel nicaragua rwanda northern ireland turkey wife chief commander represents mother military family states developing world egalitarian many women recruited military achieve modern ideal women 's customary role nurturer mother increased equality inclusion women military could change reason war raison d' tre wars sexual assault united states military


issue military women pentagon survey found approximately women men sexually assaulted cases reported new pentagon report found troops reported cases assault many people optimistic increase reports indicative victims growing comfortable system reported however cases went trial resulted convictions world war ii women served women 's army auxiliary corp waac later renamed women 's army corps wac addition


waves women accepted volunteer emergency services jane addams cynthia enloe identified women contributed key ideas military sociology ref name routledgecom https wwwroutledgecom sociology military studies classical current foundations soeters p book soeters joseph sociology military studies classical current foundations new york routledge ref addams 's influence stems feminist perspectives peace influence peacekeeping enloe 's influence traced feminist view military homosexuality military homosexuals recruited served us military world war ii likely every war clinton presidency clinton administration


began policy n't ask n't tell n't pursue meaning military personnel neither compelled n't ask allowed n't tell harassed n't pursue disclose discuss sexual identity serving military n't ask n't tell n't pursue policy actually effect increasing discharges due homosexuality estimates made million gay lesbian veterans us population based census information homosexual women partners reported higher rates military service


women homosexual male veterans served similar amount time heterosexual male veterans ref name primary david r segal mady wechsler segal america military population population bulletin vol ref military science recently interest modern militaries constructed knowledge military science modern armed forces taken aura hard science arguably combination hard science sociology soft science military history humanities postmodern deconstructions assumptions behind modern military science effective revealing modern militaries


socially constructed reality military society political control military modern relationship military state state relies military protect external threats well violence various internal groups concurrently military draws called 'violent resources' state society resources include money technology raw materials manpower relationship changed somewhat th th centuries however internal centers power specific sectors society eg skilled builders guilds somewhat autonomous rest


sectors direct control sovereign power could avoid feeding resources state meant pre modern militaries somewhat weaker modern version due lack state funded resources also powerful sectors society controlled certain privately funded resources could raise mercenary forces needed system began evolve states started exert control society exploiting 'existential fears' led creation various bureaucratic methods including mass conscription tax systems territorial centralization result


various civil sectors began work exclusively state turn desired stronger military used sectors extract resources manpower exclusive military use 'modern' military reliant state existence whereas pre modern times military could tool various autonomous sectors society military 's use research industry burkard schmitt research fellow eu institute security studies identifies two types research pure research done bottom specific demand long


term oriented capability research done top research type defined mostly military use specific goal mind ref name security schmitt burkard european union armaments getting bigger bang euro ''institute security studies august '' http wwwisseuropaeu uploads media cp epdf wwwiss euorg july ref europe european countries significant investments research technology national sensitivities defense companies hesitant share research findings long hindered research europe beginning change formation strengthening eu common security


defence policy csdp eu currently implementing agenda advanced research relating global security crucial future european security idea europe research undertaken member states goal member states something aid future research harmonization military requirements ref name security united states american model research based old german standard americans emulated starting founding american chemical society use research industry develop new deadly


chemical biological weapons intriguing aspect modern military german universities involved early chemical gas development use world war german universities carefully cultivated ideal science emphatically value free activity bestowed upon wards right duty serve interests knowledge brush aside interests welfare scientific pursuits might clash american universities also chemical labs harvard university began work poison gas world war chemical industry began influence politics


great interdependence industry military politics amount research done relates us economy includes largest military budget world created strong link military state corporate america called military industrial complex military also dominated large university science departments concept military industrial academic complex mia notable scholars following scholars published widely military sociology many held editorial responsibilities journal armed forces society leadership positions professional organization


inter university seminar armed forces society ius morris janowitz founder inter university seminar armed forces society founder editor chief armed forces society david r segal editor chief armed forces society president chair inter university seminar armed forces society james burk editor chief armed forces society president chair inter university seminar armed forces society charles moskos president chair inter university seminar armed forces society mady segal military families women military brenda moore women minorities editorial board armed forces society joseph soeters peacekeeping methods editorial board


bullying military references recommended reading armed forces society caforio giuseppe ed ''handbook sociology military'' kluwer academic plenum publishers grandstaff mark military sociology charles messenger ed ''reader 's guide military history'' pp https booksgooglecom booksid vt faqaaqbaj pg pa online evaluates major books malesevic sinisa ''the sociology war violence'' cambridge cambridge university press paparone chris ''the sociology military science'' ny bloomsbury sarkesian sam c williams john allen bryant fred b ''soldiers society national security'' lynne rienner publishers boulder reading segal david morten ender sociology


military officer education ''armed forces society'' vol pp nbsp http afssagepubcom cgi content abstract ender morten ryan kelty irving smith sociology west point ''armed forces society'' vol pp nbsp http afssagepubcom cgi content abstract kawano hitoshi expanding role sociology japan national defense academy ''armed forces society'' vol pp nbsp http afssagepubcom cgi content abstract obraztsov igor teaching sociology military educational institutions russia ''armed forces society'' vol pp nbsp http afssagepubcom cgi content abstract kucera thomas http afssagepubcom content early x abstract strategic significance ethical imperatives case german armed forces ''armed forces society'' available online paparone


chris http journalssagepubcom doi abs fight critical exploration us military doctrine organization military science


airways waterways canals pipelines terminals airports railway stations bus stations warehouses trucking terminals refueling depots including fueling docks fuel stations seaports terminals may used interchange passengers cargo maintenance means transport different kinds transport facilities used carry people cargo may include vehicles riding animals pack animals vehicles may include wagons automobiles bicycles buses trains trucks helicopters watercraft spacecraft aircraft modes mode transport solution makes use particular type vehicle infrastructure


allowed machines enhance human power human powered transport remains popular reasons cost saving leisure physical exercise environmentalism sometimes type available especially underdeveloped inaccessible regions although humans able walk without infrastructure transport enhanced use roads especially using human power vehicles bicycles inline skates human powered vehicles also developed difficult environments snow water watercraft rowing skiing even air entered human powered aircraft animal powered animal powered transport use working


animals movement people commodities humans may ride animals directly use pack animals carrying goods harness alone teams pull sleds wheeled vehicles air air france airbus lands london heathrow airport alt white jet aircraft coming land undercarriage fully extended wing turbofan engine fixed wing aircraft commonly called airplane heavier air craft movement air relation wings used generate lift term used distinguish rotary wing aircraft


movement lift surfaces relative air generates lift gyroplane fixed wing rotary wing fixed wing aircraft range small trainers recreational aircraft large airliners military cargo aircraft two things necessary aircraft air flow wings lift area landing majority aircraft also need airport infrastructure maintenance restocking refueling loading unloading crew cargo passengers vast majority aircraft land take land capable take landing


ice snow calm water aircraft second fastest method transport rocket commercial jets reach single engine aircraft aviation able quickly transport people limited amounts cargo longer distances incurs high costs energy use short distances inaccessible places helicopters used april ''the guardian'' article notes estimates people planes time land land transport covers land based transport systems provide movement people


goods services land transport plays vital role linking communities land transport key factor urban planning consists two kinds rail road rail intercity express german high speed passenger train alt white electric train red cheatline emerging tunnel countryside beijing subway one world 's largest busiest rapid transit networks rail transport train runs along set two parallel steel rails known railway railroad rails anchored perpendicular ties sleepers timber concrete steel


maintain consistent distance apart gauge rails perpendicular beams placed foundation made concrete compressed earth gravel bed ballast alternative methods include monorail maglev train consists one connected vehicles operate rails propulsion commonly provided locomotive hauls series unpowered cars carry passengers freight locomotive powered steam diesel electricity supplied trackside systems alternatively cars powered known multiple


unit also train powered horses cables gravity pneumatics gas turbines railed vehicles move much less friction rubber tires paved roads making trains energy efficient though efficient ships intercity trains long haul services connecting cities modern high speed rail capable speeds requires specially built track regional commuter trains feed cities suburbs surrounding areas intra urban transport performed high capacity tramways rapid transits often making backbone city 's public transport freight trains traditionally used box cars


function urban space easement route ref name difference road street ref common road vehicle automobile wheeled passenger vehicle carries motor users roads include buses trucks motorcycles bicycles pedestrians billion automobiles worldwide road transport offers complete freedom road users transfer vehicle one lane one road another according need convenience flexibility changes location direction speed timings travel available modes transport possible provide


door door service road transport automobiles provide high flexibility low capacity require high energy area use main source harmful noise air pollution cities buses allow efficient travel cost reduced flexibility road transport truck often initial final stage freight transport water automobile ferry croatia water transport movement means watercraft barge boat ship sailboat body water sea ocean lake canal river need buoyancy common


watercraft making hull dominant aspect construction maintenance appearance th century first steam ships developed using steam engine drive paddle wheel propeller move ship steam produced boiler using wood coal fed steam external combustion engine ships internal combustion engine using slightly refined type petroleum called bunker fuel ships submarines use nuclear power produce steam recreational educational craft still use wind power smaller craft use


winding cold alaskan country side background mountains partly snow capped pipeline transport sends goods pipe commonly liquid gases sent pneumatic tubes also send solid capsules using compressed air liquids gases chemically stable liquid gas sent pipeline short distance systems exist sewage slurry water beer long distance networks used petroleum natural gas cable transport broad mode vehicles pulled cables instead internal power source commonly used steep gradient typical solutions include aerial


tramways elevators escalators ski lifts also categorized conveyor transport spaceflight transport earth 's atmosphere outer space means spacecraft large amounts research gone technology rarely used except put satellites orbit conduct scientific experiments however man landed moon probes sent planets solar system suborbital spaceflight fastest existing planned transport systems place earth distant place earth faster transport could


achieved part low earth orbit following trajectory even faster using propulsion rocket steer elements infrastructure bridges golden gate bridge allow roads railways cross bodies water tunnels tampere tunnel allow traffic pass underground rock formations infrastructure fixed installations allow vehicle operate consists roadway terminal facilities parking maintenance rail pipeline road cable transport entire way vehicle travels must constructed air watercraft


able avoid since airway seaway need constructed however require fixed infrastructure terminals terminals airports ports stations locations passengers freight transferred one vehicle mode another passenger transport terminals integrating different modes allow riders interchanging modes take advantage mode 's benefits instance airport rail links connect airports city centres suburbs terminals automobiles parking lots buses coaches operate simple stops freight


means propulsion also exist vehicles also need system converting energy movement commonly done wheels propellers pressure vehicles commonly staffed driver however systems people movers rapid transits fully automated passenger transport vehicle must compartment seat platform passengers simple vehicles automobiles bicycles simple aircraft may one passengers driver operation incheon international airport south korea alt tilted aerial view modern airport aircraft parked next arms


extend central building private transport subject owner vehicle operates vehicle public transport freight transport operations done private enterprise governments infrastructure vehicles may owned operated company may operated different entities traditionally many countries national airline national railway since many privatized international shipping remains highly competitive industry little regulation ports public owned policy population world increases


cities grow size population according united nations world 's population live cities number expected rise public transport policy must evolve meet changing priorities urban world institution policy enforces order transport nature chaotic people attempt travel one place another fast possible policy helps reduce accidents save lives functions relocation travelers cargo common uses transport however uses exist strategic


tactical relocation armed forces warfare civilian mobility construction emergency equipment passenger local transit bus operated action canberra australia alt light green orange white bus stopping front multi story building passenger transport travel divided public private transport public transport scheduled services fixed routes private vehicles provide ad hoc services riders desire latter offers better flexibility lower capacity higher environmental impact travel may part daily commuting business leisure migration short haul transport


dominated automobile mass transit latter consists buses rural small cities supplemented commuter rail trams rapid transit larger cities long haul transport involves use automobile trains coaches aircraft last become predominantly used longest including intercontinental travel intermodal passenger transport journey performed use several modes transport since human transport normally starts ends walking passenger transport considered intermodal public transport may also involve intermediate change vehicle within


across modes transport hub bus railway station taxis buses found ends public transport spectrum buses cheapest mode transport necessarily flexible taxis flexible expensive middle demand responsive transport offering flexibility whilst remaining affordable international travel may restricted individuals due legislation visa requirements medical ambulance world war ian ambulance vehicle used transport people places treatment instances also


provide hospital medical care patient word often associated road going emergency ambulances form part emergency medical services administering emergency care acute medical problems ''air medical services'' comprehensive term covering use air transport move patients healthcare facilities accident scenes personnel provide comprehensive prehospital emergency critical care types patients aeromedical evacuation rescue operations aboard helicopters propeller aircraft jet aircraft ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref freight bulk carrier ''bw fjord'' freight transport shipping key


responsibility risk transport freight train shipping containers united kingdom containerization standardization iso containers vehicles ports revolutionized international domestic trade offering huge reduction transshipment costs traditionally cargo manually loaded unloaded haul ship car containerization allows automated handling transfer modes standardized sizes allow gains economy scale vehicle operation one key driving factors international trade globalization since ref


name bcn bardi coyle novack ref bulk transport common cargo handled roughly without deterioration typical examples ore coal cereals petroleum uniformity product mechanical handling allow enormous quantities handled quickly efficiently low value cargo combined high volume also means economies scale become essential transport gigantic ships whole trains commonly used transport bulk liquid products sufficient volume may also transported pipeline air freight become common products high value


downtown area transport key necessity specialization allowing production consumption products occur different locations throughout history transport spur expansion better transport allows trade greater spread people economic growth always dependent increasing capacity rationality transport infrastructure operation transport great impact land transport largest drainer energy making transport sustainability major issue due way modern cities communities planned operated physical distinction home


work usually created forcing people transport places work study leisure well temporarily relocate daily activities passenger transport also essence tourism major part recreational transport commerce requires transport people conduct business either allow face face communication important decisions move specialists regular place work sites needed planning transport planning allows high utilization less impact regarding new infrastructure using models transport forecasting planners able predict future transport patterns


operative level logistics allows owners cargo plan transport part supply chain transport field also studied transport economics component creation regulation policy authorities transport engineering sub discipline civil engineering must take account trip generation trip distribution mode choice route assignment operative level handled traffic engineering engineering roundabout bristol united kingdom attempts make traffic flow free moving alt aerial view roundabout junction several streets vehicles traverse around roundabout surrounded buildings


mostly multi storey negative impacts incurred transport often becomes subject controversy related choice mode well increased capacity automotive transport seen tragedy commons flexibility comfort individual deteriorate natural urban environment density development depends mode transport public transport allowing better spatial utilization good land use keeps common activities close people 's homes places higher density development closer transport lines hubs minimize need transport economies agglomeration beyond


much broader range skills traditionally relied spanning areas environmental impact analysis public health sociology economics viability old mobility solutions increasingly questioned environment traffic congestion persists paulo brazil despite drive days based license numbers alt looking busy road banked sides tall buildings covered advertisement billboards transport major use energy burns world 's petroleum creates air pollution including nitrous oxides particulates significant contributor global warming


energy efficiency environmental impacts transport systems include traffic congestion automobile oriented urban sprawl consume natural habitat agricultural lands reducing transport emissions globally predicted significant positive effects earth 's air quality acid rain smog climate change tesla automobile manufacturing company building electric cars cut co emission point use approach becoming popular among cities worldwide prioritize public transport bicycles pedestrian movement redirecting vehicle movement create minute neighbourhoods promotes exercise


greatly reducing vehicle dependency pollution policies levying congestion charge cars travelling within congested areas peak time sustainable development united nation 's first formally recognized role transport sustainable development united nation 's earth summit united nation 's world conference global leaders unanimously recognized transport mobility central achieving sustainability targets recent years data collected show transport sector contributes quarter global greenhouse gas emissions therefore sustainable transport mainstreamed across


several sustainable development goals especially related food security health energy economic growth infrastructure cities human settlements meeting sustainable transport targets said particularly important achieving paris agreement various sustainable development goals sdgs promoting sustainable transport order meet defined goals include sdg health increased road safety sdg energy sdg decent work economic growth sdg resilient infrastructure sdg sustainable cities access transport expanded public transport sdg sustainable consumption


sailed vessels dates back time immemorial efficient way transport large quantities large distances prior industrial revolution first watercraft canoes cut tree trunks early water transport accomplished ships either rowed used wind propulsion combination two importance water led cities grew sites trading located rivers sea shore often intersection two bodies water mechanical industrial revolution transport remained slow


costly production consumption gravitated close feasible industrial revolution th century saw several inventions fundamentally change transport telegraphy communication became instant independent transport physical objects invention steam engine closely followed application rail transport made land transport independent human animal muscles speed capacity increased allowing specialization manufacturing located independently natural resources th century also saw development steam ship sped global transport development combustion


name cooper cooper ''et al'' ref scientific spaceflight began rapid growth interest dwindled introduction containerization gave massive efficiency gains freight transport fostering globalization ref name bcn international air travel became much accessible commercialization jet engine along growth automobiles motorways rail water transport declined relative importance introduction shinkansen japan high speed rail asia europe started attracting passengers long haul routes away airlines ref name cooper early


us history private joint stock corporations owned aqueducts bridges canals railroads roads tunnels transport infrastructure came government control late th early th centuries culminating nationalization inter city passenger rail service establishment amtrak recently however movement privatize roads infrastructure gained ground adherents see also environmental impact aviation energy efficiency transport ieee intelligent transportation systems society list emerging transportation technologies ''journal transport land use'' outline transport public transport rail transport country speed record taxicabs country


transportation engineering references bibliography external links https webarchiveorg web http ucblibrariescoloradoedu govpubs us trnsprthtm transportation ''ucb libraries govpubs'' http americanhistorysiedu onthemove america move online transportation exhibition national museum american history smithsonian institution https webarchiveorg web http wwwtransportorg world transportation organization world transportation organization non profit advisory organization logistics economics transport utility industries


'''forensic developmental psychology''' field psychology focuses children 's actions reactions forensic context children 's reports victims witnesses crime ref name bruck ref bruck poole first coined term forensic developmental psychology ref name bruck although forensic developmental psychology specifically focuses child 's reliability credibility competency courtroom setting also includes topics autobiographical memory memory distortion eyewitness identification narrative construction personality attachment ref name bruck distinction forensic developmental forensic developmental psychology class wikitable scope col width px scope col width px

Social science
Psychology
Forensic developmental psychology


forensic psychology scope col width px developmental psychology scope col width px forensic developmental psychology valign top '''what it''' field psychology focuses field criminal investigation law areas study ability testify court reformulating psychological findings legal language courtroom providing information legal personnel way understood field psychology studies growth development throughout individual 's lifespan areas study infant childhood adolescence development early adulthood middle adulthood older adults cognitive development ref


name dev field psychology focuses children 's actions reactions forensic context ref name bruck areas study autobiographical memory memory distortion eyewitness identification narrative construction personality attachment ref name bruck valign top '''work setting''' criminal civic court systems treatment facilities ref name http wwwallpsychologycareerscom career forensic psychologisthtml forensic psychologist psychology career center ref schools universities nonprofit agencies hospitals ref name dev http wwwallpsychologycareerscom career careers developmental psychologyhtml careers developmental psychology psychology career center ref day cares preschools ref name dev rehabilitation hospitals clinics residential facilities nursing homes ref name dev criminal civic court systems ref name bruck valign top '''types patients''' individuals families adults elderly


juvenile populations ref name prisons correctional facilities ref name governmental agencies criminal profiling ref name client base mostly criminal ref name physically mentally disabled children adults ref name dev patients dealing substance abuse ref name dev victims abuse ref name dev families ref name dev aging population ref name dev strong focus children adolescents may include adults well ref name bruck criminal civic court systems valign top '''career paths''' lawyers psychologists ref name consultants attorneys courts ref name expert witnesses ref name treatment facilities develop intervention techniques treatment programs prisoners ref


court regards children competency refers child 's capacity relative intelligence ability distinguish truth lie duty tell truth ref name whe wheeler v us ref order determine child 's competency four factors may considered ref name hau child 's ability distinguish true lies along duty speak truth child 's ability perceive occurrence accurately time child 's ability independently recollect occurrence child 's ability verbally translate memory occurrence answer simple questions


differentiate truth lie well recall past incidents whereas states may require child able tell truth ref name hau along competency child 's reliability credibility must tested well however guidelines determining child 's reliability credibility stringent determining child 's competency ref name hau although important establish child 's relative reliability credibility testimony judge cannot bar witness testifying grounds competent credible ref name hau factors impacting


trial although attorneys required use language developmentally appropriate young child witnesses children may still difficulty understanding difficult terminology associated courtroom even child 's report accurate adults also make inaccurate inferences based report ref name klem however research suggests reliability children 's communicative competence minimized better clearer instructions well thorough preparation trial memory skills inconsistency children 's memory potentially creates problem reliability children 's reports study done klemfuss


ceci indicates general memory skill inconsistently associated children 's accuracy ref name klem children younger age also tend remember higher proportion details inaccurately reports compared children ages along problem poor memory development young age problem remembering information accurately certain period time according beuscher roberts individuals tend remember higher ratio accurate inaccurate information time susceptibility suggestion suggestibility defined ceci bruck


degree encoding storage retrieval reporting events influenced internal external factors ref name bruck ref although children 's autobiographical recall highly accurate many situations increased exposure suggestion potentially increase inaccuracy child 's report ref name klem previous research focused impact single piece misinformation accuracy children 's reports current research focusing multiple suggestive techniques affect accuracy children 's reports ref name bruck ref ceci friedman suggest combination implicit explicit suggestive techniques


bribes threats repetitions questions large impact young children 's reports ref name bruck ref techniques especially prevalent interviewer bias present interview child ref name bruck interviewer bias refers interviewers' prejudices opinions event influence manner conduct interview occur interviewers mold interview maximize disclosures consistent beliefs gathering confirmatory evidence neglecting disconfirmatory evidence ref name bruck several factors may contribute child 's susceptibility suggestion internal external factors ref name bruck


example child 's memory report could permanently altered would internal factor child could simply trying please report interviewer another adult would external factor ref name bruck another factor contributes increased susceptibility suggestion seen use peer pressure ceci bruck stated children exposed higher amounts peer pressure prone change perception event question even initial report accurate ref name bruck although difficult predict whether


child susceptible suggestion age language skills currently reliable predictors children 's resistance suggestion ref name bruck truth lie competency another difficulty encountered child 's credibility reliability courtroom setting truth lie competency truth lie competency refers child 's relative accurate conception truth child perceives truth compared adult 's perceptions ref name mc ref order determine whether child providing truthful testimony judge must determine whether child accurate conception truth adult perspective


child 's testimony ref name hau three traditional methods assessing child 's ability differentiate truth lies asking child define two concepts explain difference truth lies identify examples truth lies statements ref name mc although limited research suggests young children may differing definitions lies older children adults ref name hau developmentally inappropriate methods gauging child 's truth lie competency could also hinder child 's ability distinguish truth lie ref name mc two specific factors may also influence child 's definition


lie include intention speaker virulence said ref name hau furthermore child 's perception truth influenced personal gain reward child 's desire please significant others parents lawyers therapists credibility deception detection although legal system takes care ensure children sufficiently competent testifying still difficult determine child 's credibility ref name klem relative difficulty determining child 's reliability credibility techniques exist determine child 's ability recount narratives accurately ref name bruck one


potential method determining reliability child 's report number fantastical highly implausible imaginary details within narrative ref name bruck according bruck ceci hembrooke higher number fantastical details correlated false narratives ref name bruck furthermore children describe false narratives tend creatively utilize incorrect information construct false narrative ref name bruck research also suggests accuracy credibility children 's reports closely related reports influenced suggestion ref name bruck study done nysse carris et al adults rate videos children 's truthfulness


deceitfulness ref name nys ref study 's results indicated adults' accuracy low slightly chance rating children ref name nys furthermore study concluded adults tend biased labeling children liars ref name nys general adults even adults experts field cannot reliably predict accuracy child 's report child 's competence ref name klem references forensic psychology developmental psychology


charles v wise commissions translation aristotle first square shows ordering translation second square translation made third fourth squares show finished translation brought presented king '''translation''' communication meaning source language text means equivalent target language text english language draws terminological distinction exist every language ''translating'' written text ''interpreting'' oral signed communication users different languages distinction translation begin appearance writing

Journalism, media studies and communication


services facilitated language localisation etymology rosetta stone secular icon art translation english word translation derives latin word ''translatio'' comes ''trans'' across ''ferre'' carry bring '' latio'' turn coming ''latus'' past participle ''ferre'' thus ''translatio'' carrying across bringing across case text one language another ref name translator p christopher kasparek translator 's endless toil p ref slavic languages germanic languages dutch afrikaans calqued words


words translation instead simply adapted second two alternative latin words ref name translator p ancient greek term translation ''metaphrasis'' speaking across supplied english metaphrase literal word word translation contrasted paraphrase saying words ''paraphrasis'' ref name translator p metaphrase corresponds one recent terminologies formal equivalence paraphrase dynamic equivalence ref name kasparek p kasparek translator 's endless toil p ref strictly speaking concept metaphrase word word translation imperfect concept given word


given language often carries one meaning similar given meaning may often represented given language one word nevertheless metaphrase paraphrase may useful ''ideal'' concepts mark extremes spectrum possible approaches translation theories western theory john dryden discussions theory practice translation reach back antiquity show remarkable continuities ancient greeks distinguished ''metaphrase'' literal translation ''paraphrase'' distinction adopted english poet translator john dryden described translation judicious blending


two modes phrasing selecting target language counterparts equivalents expressions used source language cicero dryden cautioned however license imitation ie adapted translation painter copies life privilege alter features lineaments ref name kasparek p general formulation central concept translation equivalence adequate proposed since cicero horace st century bce rome famously literally cautioned translating word word ref name kasparek p despite occasional theoretical diversity actual ''practice''


translation hardly changed since antiquity except extreme metaphrasers early christian period middle ages adapters various periods especially pre classical rome th century translators generally shown prudent flexibility seeking equivalents literal possible paraphrastic necessary original meaning crucial values eg style verse form concordance musical accompaniment films speech articulatory movements determined context ref name kasparek p samuel johnson general translators sought preserve context reproducing original order sememes hence word order necessary reinterpreting


loanwords languages importation languages concepts untranslatable among modern european languages ref name kasparek p greater problem however translating terms relating cultural concepts equivalent target language full comprehension situations require provision gloss generally greater contact exchange existed two languages languages third one greater ratio metaphrase paraphrase may used translating among however due shifts ecological niches


words common etymology sometimes misleading guide current meaning one language example english ''actual'' confused cognate french present current polish present current topical timely feasible ref name kasparek p kasparek translator 's endless toil p ref swedish ''aktuell'' topical presently importance russian urgent topical dutch ''actueel'' current translator 's role bridge carrying across values cultures discussed least since terence nd century bce roman adapter greek comedies translator 's role


however means passive mechanical one also compared artist main ground seems concept parallel creation found critics cicero dryden observed translation type drawing life comparison translator musician actor goes back least samuel johnson 's remark alexander pope playing homer flageolet homer used bassoon ref name kasparek p johann gottfried herder translation art easy one th century roger bacon


wrote translation true translator must know languages well science translate finding translators wanted away translation translators altogether ignacy krasicki translator bible german martin luther credited first european posit one translates satisfactorily toward language lg kelly states since johann gottfried herder th century axiomatic one translates toward language compounding demands


translator fact dictionary thesaurus ever fully adequate guide translating scottish historian alexander tytler ''essay principles translation'' emphasized assiduous reading comprehensive guide language dictionaries point also including listening ' 'spoken'' language earlier made polish poet grammarian onufry kopczy ski ref name kasparek p kasparek translator 's endless toil p ref translator 's special role society described posthumous essay poland 's la fontaine roman


products historians view ancient medieval records piece together events took place non western pre western environments also though heavily influenced western traditions practiced translators taught western style educational systems chinese related translation traditions retain theories philosophies unique chinese tradition near east traditions translating material among languages ancient egypt mesopotamia assyria syriac language anatolia israel hebrew language go back several millennia exist partial translations sumerian ''epic gilgamesh'' c bce southwest asian languages


second millennium bce early example bilingual document bce treaty kadesh ancient egyptian hittie empires babylonians first establish translation profession first translations greek coptic texts arabic possibly indirectly syriac translations seem undertaken early late seventh century ce second abbasid caliph funded translation bureau baghdad eighth century bayt al hikma famous library baghdad generously endowed collection included books many languages became leading


centre translation works antiquity arabic translation department translations european languages arabic versions lost greek roman texts began middle eleventh century benefits gained arabs knowledge classical texts recognised european scholars particularly establishment escuela de traductores de toledo spain caxton dictes sayengis philosophres sayings philosophers translation english eleventh century egyptian text reached english translation latin


french translation foreign works publishing arabic revived establishment madrasa al alsum school tongues egypt ce asia buddhist ''diamond sutra'' translated chinese kum raj va world 's oldest known dated printed book ce separate tradition translation south southeast east asia primarily texts indian chinese civilizations connected especially rendering religious particularly buddhist texts governance chinese empire classical indian translation characterized loose adaptation rather closer translation commonly


found europe chinese translation theory identifies various criteria limitations translation east asian sphere chinese cultural influence important translation ''per se'' use reading chinese texts also substantial influence japanese korean vietnamese languages substantial borrowings chinese vocabulary writing system notable japanese kanbun system glossing chinese texts japanese speakers though indianized states southeast asia often translated sanskrit material local languages literate elites scribes commonly used sanskrit primary language


culture government perry link special aspects translating chinese illustrated perry link 's discussion translating work tang dynasty poet wang wei ce untranslatables set aside problems translator especially chinese poetry two translator think poetic line says thinks understands render target language difficulties according link arise addressing second problem impossibility perfect answers spawns endless debate almost always


center letter versus spirit dilemma literalist extreme efforts made dissect every conceivable detail language original chinese poem dissection though writes link normally art poem approximately scalpel anatomy instructor life frog ref name lxiii p chinese characters avoiding grammatical specificity offer advantages poets simultaneously challenges poetry translators associated primarily absences subject number tense ref name lxiii p perry link magician chinese poetry ''the new york review


books'' vol lxiii november p ref norm classical chinese poetry common even modern chinese prose omit subjects reader listener infers subject grammars western languages however require subject stated although often avoided using passive impersonal construction translators cited eliot weinberger 's '' ways looking wang wei'' supply subject weinberger points however subject inserted controlling individual mind poet enters


destroys effect chinese line without subject writes experience becomes universal immediate reader another approach subjectlessness use target language 's passive voice particularizes experience much ref name lxiii p nouns number chinese writes link want talk chinese one rose may use measure word say one blossom roseness ref name lxiii p chinese verbs tense less several ways specify something happened happen


verb tense one poets creates great advantage ambiguity according link weinberger 's insight subjectlessness produces effect universal immediate applies timelessness well ref name lxiii p link proposes kind uncertainty principle may applicable translation chinese language translation islamic world translation material arabic expanded creation arabic script th century gained great importance rise islam islamic empires arab translation initially focused primarily politics rendering


intensive study arabic persian translations classical works well scientific philosophical works arab oriental origins arabic lesser degree persian became important sources material perhaps techniques revitalized western traditions time would overtake islamic oriental traditions th century middle east 's islamic clerics copyists translator contributed mightily advance islamic enlightenment egyptian cleric rifaa al tahtawi spent five years paris late teaching religion muslim students


returning cairo encouragement muhammad ali ottoman viceroy egypt al tahtawi became head new school languages embarked intellectual revolution initiating program translate two thousand european turkish volumes ranging ancient texts geography geometry voltaire 's biography peter great along ''marseillaise'' entire ''code napol on'' biggest meaningful importation foreign thought arabic since abbasid times muhammad abduh movement translate english european texts transformed arabic ottoman turkish languages


debellaigue one influential liberal islamic thinkers time muhammad abduh egypt 's senior judicial authority chief mufti turn th century admirer darwin visited darwin 's exponent herbert spencer home brighton spencer 's view society organism laws evolution paralleled abduh 's ideas world war britain france divided middle east 's countries apart turkey pursuant sykes picot agreement violation solemn wartime promises postwar arab autonomy came immediate reaction


muslim brotherhood emerged egypt house saud took hijaz regimes led army officers came power iran turkey b oth illiberal currents modern middle east writes de bellaigue islamism militarism received major impetus western empire builders often happens countries undergoing social crisis aspirations muslim world 's translators modernizers muhammad abduh largely yield retrograde currents fidelity transparency dryden fidelity faithfulness felicity ref name little art p marina warner politics translation review kate briggs ''this


use text literary qualities social historical context etc criteria judging transparency translation appear straightforward unidiomatic translation sounds wrong extreme cases word word translation often results patent nonsense schleiermacher nevertheless certain contexts translator may consciously seek produce literal translation translators literary religious historic texts often adhere closely possible source text stretching limits target language produce unidiomatic text also translator may adopt expressions source language order


provide local color venuti current western translation practice dominated dual concepts fidelity transparency always case periods especially pre classical rome th century many translators stepped beyond bounds translation proper realm ''adaptation'' adapted translation retains currency non western traditions indian epic ''ramayana'' appears many versions various indian languages stories different similar examples found medieval christian literature adjusted text local customs


mores many non transparent translation theories draw concepts german romanticism obvious influence german theologian philosopher friedrich schleiermacher seminal lecture different methods translation distinguished translation methods move writer toward reader ie transparency move reader toward author ie extreme fidelity foreignness source text schleiermacher favored latter approach motivated however much desire embrace foreign nationalist desire oppose france 's cultural domination promote


german literature recent decades prominent advocates non transparent translation included french scholar antoine berman identified twelve deforming tendencies inherent prose translations american theorist lawrence venuti called translators apply foreignizing rather domesticating translation strategies equivalence question fidelity vs transparency also formulated terms respectively ''formal'' equivalence ' 'dynamic'' ''functional'' equivalence expressions associated translator eugene nida originally coined describe ways translating bible two approaches applicable translation formal equivalence corresponds


metaphrase dynamic equivalence paraphrase formal equivalence sought via literal translation attempts render text literally word word latter expression word word rendering classical latin necessary expense features natural target language contrast dynamic equivalence ''functional'' equivalence conveys essential thoughts expressed source text necessary expense literality original sememe word order source text 's active vs passive voice etc however sharp boundary formal functional equivalence contrary represent


spectrum translation approaches used various times various contexts translator various points within text sometimes simultaneously competent translation entails judicious blending formal functional equivalents common pitfalls translation especially practiced inexperienced translators involve false equivalents false friends false cognates back translation back translation translation translated text back language original text made without reference original text comparison back translation original text sometimes used check


accuracy original translation much accuracy mathematical operation sometimes checked reversing operation results reverse translation operations useful approximate checks always precisely reliable back translation must general less accurate back calculation linguistic symbols words often ambiguous whereas mathematical symbols intentionally unequivocal context machine translation back translation also called round trip translation translations produced material used medical clinical trials informed consent forms back translation often required ethics committee institutional


review board mark twain back translated short story celebrated jumping frog calaveras county mark twain provided humorously telling evidence frequent unreliability back translation issued back translation french translation short story celebrated jumping frog calaveras county published back translation volume together english language original french translation private history 'jumping frog' story latter included synopsized adaptation story twain stated appeared unattributed twain professor sidgwick 's ''greek prose composition''


p nbsp title athenian frog adaptation time taken independent ancient greek precursor twain 's jumping frog story document survives translation original lost researchers sometimes undertake back translation effort reconstruct original text example involves novel ''the saragossa manuscript'' polish aristocrat jan potocki wrote novel french anonymously published fragments portions original french language manuscript subsequently lost however missing fragments survived polish translation made


edmund chojecki complete french copy since lost french language versions complete ''saragossa manuscript'' since produced based extant french language fragments french language versions back translated chojecki 's polish version many works influential classical physician galen survive medieval arabic translation survive renaissance latin translations arabic thus second remove original better understand galen scholars attempted back translation works order reconstruct original greek historians suspect document


testament sources originally written aramaic language seek prove case showing difficult passages existing greek text new testament make much sense back translated aramaic example incomprehensible references fact aramaic puns work greek due similar indications believed nd century gnostic gospel judas survives coptic originally written greek john dryden dominant english language literary figure age illustrates use back translation translators' influence


evolution languages literary styles dryden believed first person posit english sentences end prepositions latin sentences cannot end prepositions dryden created proscription preposition stranding objected ben jonson 's phrase bodies souls frighted though provide rationale preference dryden often translated writing latin check whether writing concise elegant latin considered elegant long lived language compare back translated writing back


differences source language target language differences tend greater two languages belonging different language families often source language translator 's second language target language translator 's first language geographical settings however source language translator 's first language enough people speak source language second language ref name ref instance survey found professional slovene translators translate second language usually english ref name cases source language translator 's first language


meaning content linguist roman jakobson went far assert cognitive experience classified expressed living language ref name linguist ghil'ad zuckermann suggests limits translation ''per se'' rather ''elegant'' translation ref name revivalistics ref source target texts translation '' 'source text''' '''st''' text written given source language translated another language '''target text''' '''tt''' translated text written intended target language result


different approaches translation falling broadly source text oriented target text oriented categories translators competent translators show following attributes ' 'very good'' knowledge language written spoken ''from which'' translating source language ''excellent'' command language ''into which'' translating target language familiarity subject matter text translated profound understanding etymological idiomatic correlates two languages including sociolinguistic register appropriate finely tuned sense ''metaphrase'' translate literally ''paraphrase''


experience viewed light serious misconception assume person fair fluency two languages virtue fact alone consistently competent translate ref name kasparek p emily wilson professor classical studies university pennsylvania translator writes hard produce good literary translation certainly true translations ancient greek roman texts also true literary translation general difficult readers foreign languages translators


writers translators translators read write time always playing multiple instruments one person band one person bands sound good translator 's role relation original text compared roles interpretive artists eg musician actor interprets work musical dramatic art translating especially text complexity like human activities involves ''interpretation'' choices must made implies interpretation ref name kasparek p pp ''london review books'' vol


march pp quotation p ref mark polizzotti writes good translation offers reproduction work interpretation representation performance play sonata representation script score one among many possible representations translation text complexity work art unique unrepeatable english language novelist joseph conrad whose writings zdzis aw najder described verging auto translation conrad 's polish french linguistic personae advised niece polish translator aniela zag rska


n't trouble scrupulous may tell french opinion ''il vaut mieux interpr ter que traduire'' better interpret translate ''il s'agit donc de trouver les quivalents et l ch je vous prie laissez vous guider plut par votre temp rament que par une conscience v '' question finding equivalent expressions dear beg let guided temperament strict conscience conrad advised another translator prime requisite good


translation idiomatic idiom ''clearness'' language language 's force picturesqueness last mean picture producing power arranged words conrad thought ck scott moncrieff 's english translation marcel proust 's '' la recherche du temps perdu'' ''in search lost time'' scott moncrieff 's rendering ''remembrance things past'' preferable french original emily wilson writes translation always involves interpretation requires every translator think deeply humanly possible verbal poetic interpretative choice translation


simplest brief texts requires painstakingly close reading source text draft translation resolve ambiguities inherent language thereby asymptotically approach accurate rendering source text ref name pharaoh christopher kasparek translator 's foreword boles aw prus ''pharaoh'' translated polish foreword notes christopher kasparek amazon kindle e book asin bo mdn czv ref part ambiguity translator involves structure human language psychologist neural scientist gary marcus notes virtually every sentence people generate ambiguous often multiple ways brain good


comprehending language usually notice example linguistic ambiguity pronoun disambiguation problem pdp machine way determining pronoun sentence refers disambiguation infallible human either ambiguity concern translators writings poet literary critic william empson demonstrated literary critics ambiguity may desirable indeed essential poetry diplomacy problematic ordinary prose christopher kasparek also cautions competent translation


analogously dictum mathematics kurt g del 's incompleteness theorems generally requires information subject matter present actual source text therefore translation text complexity typically requires research translator 's part ref name pharaoh christopher kasparek translator 's foreword boles aw prus ''pharaoh'' translated polish foreword notes christopher kasparek amazon kindle e book asin bo mdn czv ref translator faces two contradictory tasks translating strive omniscience concerning text reviewing resulting translation adopt reader unfamiliarity


analogously n process translator also constantly seesawing respective linguistic cultural features two languages ref name pharaoh christopher kasparek translator 's foreword boles aw prus ''pharaoh'' translated polish foreword notes christopher kasparek amazon kindle e book asin bo mdn czv ref thus writes kasparek translating text complexity like performing musical dramatic work involves ''interpretation'' choices must made entails interpretation bernard shaw aspiring felicitous understanding literary works wrote preface volume ''three plays puritans'' 'i would give half dozen


shakespeare 's plays one prefaces ought written' ref name pharaoh christopher kasparek translator 's foreword boles aw prus ''pharaoh'' translated polish foreword notes christopher kasparek amazon kindle e book asin bo mdn czv ref translators may render parts original text provided inform readers action translator assume role censor surreptitiously delete bowdlerize passages merely please political moral interest ref name billiani francesca billiani francesca ref translating served school writing many author much copying


oral sign language communication either simultaneously consecutively two among three speakers speaking signing language term interpreting rather interpretation preferentially used activity anglophone translators avoid confusion meanings word interpretation unlike english many languages employ two separate words denote activities written live communication oral sign language translators translator interpreter time th century however translator writers used word


longer use even english always make distinction frequently using translating synonym interpreting interpreters sometimes played crucial roles history prime example la malinche also known ''malintzin'' ''malinalli'' ''do marina'' early th century nahua woman mexican gulf coast child sold given maya slave traders xicalango thus become bilingual subsequently given along women invading spaniards became instrumental spanish conquest mexico acting interpreter adviser intermediary lover hern n cort lin shu


nearly three centuries later united states comparable role interpreter played lewis clark expedition sacagawea child lemhi shoshone woman kidnapped hidatsa indians thus become bilingual sacagawea facilitated expedition 's traverse north american continent pacific ocean famous chinese man letters lin shu knew foreign languages rendered western literary classics chinese help friend wang shouchang studied france wang interpreted texts lin


rendered chinese lin 's first translation ''past stories camellia woman paris'' alexandre dumas fils 's ''la dame aux cam lias'' published immediate success followed many translations french english sworn translation sworn translation also called certified translation aims legal equivalence two documents written different languages performed someone authorized local regulations vary widely country country countries recognize self declared competence others require translator official state appointee countries


united kingdom certain government institutions require translators accredited certain translation institutes associations order able carry certified translations telephone many commercial services exist interpret spoken language via telephone also least one custom built mobile device thing device connects users human interpreters translate english languages internet web based human translation generally favored companies individuals wish secure accurate translations view frequent inaccuracy machine translations human translation


remains reliable accurate form translation available recent emergence translation crowdsourcing translation memory techniques internet applications translation agencies able provide demand human translation services businesses individuals enterprises instantaneous like machine counterparts google translate babel fish defunct web based human translation gaining popularity providing relatively fast accurate translation business communications legal documents medical records software localization web based human translation also appeals private website users bloggers contents websites translatable urls websites translatable


typically involve human intervention form pre editing post editing ref name nist see https wwwnistgov speech tests mt annually performed nist tests since bilingual evaluation understudy ref proper terminology work preparation source text machine translation pre editing reworking machine translation human translator post editing commercial machine translation tools produce useful results especially machine translation system integrated translation memory translation management system unedited machine translation publicly available tools internet google translate babel fish defunct babylon deepl translator stardict produce rough


text possible equivalents grouped pronunciation also companies ectaco produce pocket devices provide machine translations claude piron relying exclusively unedited machine translation however ignores fact communication human language context embedded takes person comprehend context original text reasonable degree probability certainly true even purely human generated translations prone error therefore ensure machine generated translation useful human publishable quality translation achieved translations must reviewed edited


human claude piron writes machine translation best automates easier part translator 's job harder time consuming part usually involves extensive research resolve ambiguities source text grammatical lexical exigencies target language require resolved research necessary prelude pre editing necessary order provide input machine translation software output meaningless ref name nist weaknesses pure machine translation unaided human expertise artificial intelligence professional translator mark


polizzotti held machine translation google translate like unlikely threaten human translators anytime soon machines would never grasp nuance connotation writes paul taylor perhaps limit computer without knowing manipulating imperfect representations external reality literary translation nonfiction book robert wechsler literary translation performative rather creative art translation literary works novels short stories plays poems etc considered literary pursuit right notable canadian literature ' 'specifically'' translators figures


first important translation west septuagint collection jewish scriptures translated early koine greek alexandria rd st centuries bce dispersed jews forgotten ancestral language needed greek versions translations scriptures throughout middle ages latin ''lingua franca'' western learned world th century alfred great king wessex england far ahead time commissioning vernacular anglo saxon translations bede 's ''ecclesiastical history'' boethius' ''consolation philosophy'' meanwhile christian church frowned even partial adaptations


st jerome 's ''vulgate'' c ce standard latin bible asia spread buddhism led large scale ongoing translation efforts spanning well thousand years tangut empire especially efficient efforts exploiting newly invented block printing full support government contemporary sources describe emperor mother personally contributing translation effort alongside sages various nationalities tanguts took mere decades translate volumes taken chinese centuries render arabs undertook large scale efforts translation conquered greek world


made arabic versions philosophical scientific works middle ages translations arabic versions made latin chiefly c rdoba spain ref name cohen jm cohen p ref king alfonso x wise castile th century promoted effort founding ''schola traductorum'' school translation toledo arabic texts hebrew texts latin texts translated tongues muslim jewish christian scholars also argued merits respective religions latin translations greek original arab works scholarship science helped


advance european scholasticism thus european science culture broad historic trends western translation practice may illustrated example translation english language geoffrey chaucer first fine translations english made th century geoffrey chaucer adapted italian giovanni boccaccio ''knight 's tale'' ''troilus criseyde'' began translation french language ''roman de la rose'' completed translation boethius latin chaucer founded english poetic tradition ''adaptations'' translations earlier established literary languages ref name cohen first


great english translation ''wycliffe bible'' c showed weaknesses underdeveloped english prose end th century great age english prose translation begin thomas malory 's ''le morte darthur'' adaptation arthurian romances free fact hardly called true translation first great tudor translations accordingly ''tyndale new testament'' influenced ''authorized version'' lord berners' version jean froissart 's ''chronicles'' ref name cohen marsilio ficino meanwhile renaissance italy new period history translation


opened florence arrival court cosimo de' medici byzantine scholar georgius gemistus pletho shortly fall constantinople turks latin translation plato 's works undertaken marsilio ficino erasmus' latin edition ''new testament'' led new attitude translation first time readers demanded rigor rendering philosophical religious beliefs depended exact words plato aristotle jesus ref name cohen non scholarly literature however continued rely ''adaptation'' france 's ''pl iade'' england 's tudor poets elizabethan translators


adapted themes horace ovid petrarch modern latin writers forming new poetic style models english poets translators sought supply new public created rise middle class development printing works original authors ''would written'' writing england day ref name cohen elizabethan period translation saw considerable progress beyond mere paraphrase toward ideal stylistic equivalence even end period actually reached middle th century


concern verbal accuracy ref name cohen jm cohen p ref second half th century poet john dryden sought make virgil speak words would probably written living englishman great dryden 's poem however one reading dryden experiencing roman poet 's concision similarly homer arguably suffers alexander pope 's endeavor reduce greek poet 's wild paradise order works live worthy ''english'' epics point access latin greek ref name cohen edward fitzgerald throughout


th century watchword translators ease reading whatever understand text thought might bore readers omitted cheerfully assumed style expression best texts made conform translation scholarship cared predecessors shrink making translations translations third languages languages hardly knew case james macpherson 's translations ossian texts actually translator 's composition ref name cohen


english translation modernized translation modern rendering applied either literature classical languages latin greek notably bible see modern english bible translations literature earlier stage language works william shakespeare largely understandable modern audience though difficulty geoffrey chaucer 's middle english ''canterbury tales'' understandable modern readers heavy dependence footnotes oregon shakespeare festival commissioned professional translation entire shakespeare canon including disputed works ''edward


iii'' contemporary vernacular english broadway canon premiered month long series staged readings modern translation applicable language long literary history example japanese th century ''tale genji'' generally read modern translation see ''genji '' modern readership modern translation often involves literary scholarship textual revision frequently one single canonical text particularly noteworthy case bible shakespeare modern scholarship result substantive textual changes anna north writes translating long dead language homer used


variant ancient greek called homeric greek contemporary english easy task translators bring skills opinions stylistic sensibilities text result every translation different almost new poem example emily wilson 's translation homer 's ''odyssey'' conscious choice wilson lays bare morals time place invites us consider different similar modern translation meets opposition traditionalists english readers prefer authorized king james version


bible modern translations shakespeare original ca modern translations opposite process involves translating modern literature classical languages purpose extensive reading examples see list latin translations modern literature poetry hofstadter jakobson nabokov views possibility satisfactorily translating poetry show broad spectrum depending partly degree latitude desired translator regard poem 's formal features rhythm rhyme verse form etc also relating much suggestiveness imagery host poem recaptured


approximated target language douglas hofstadter book ''le ton beau de marot'' argued good translation poem must convey much possible literal meaning also form structure meter rhyme alliteration scheme etc russian born linguist semiotician roman jakobson however paper linguistic aspects translation declared poetry definition untranslatable vladimir nabokov another russian born author took view similar jakobson 's considered rhymed metrical versed poetry principle untranslatable therefore rendered


english translation alexander pushkin 's ''eugene onegin'' prose hofstadter ''le ton beau de marot'' criticized nabokov 's attitude toward verse translation hofstadter published translation ''eugene onegin'' verse form however host contemporary literary translators poetry lean toward alexander von humboldt 's notion language third universe existing midway phenomenal reality 'empirical world' internalized structures consciousness perhaps poet sholeh wolp translator th century iranian epic poem ''the conference birds'' means writes blockquote twelfth century persian


contemporary english different sky sea best poet reflect one nbsp sea reflect sky moving stars shifting clouds gestations moon migrating birds ultimately sea sky nature liquid ripples waves fish living sea understand sky reflection becomes part water therefore translation ''the conference birds'' faithful original text aims


creation still living breathing work literature blockquote poet sherod santos writes task reproduce content flint steel one 's language spark robert lowell called 'the fire finish original' according walter benjamin blockquote poet 's words endure language even greatest translation destined become part growth language eventually perish renewal translation far removed sterile equation two dead languages literary forms


book example symbolic book title stieg larsson 's ''the girl dragon tattoo'' whose original swedish title ''m n som hatar kvinnor'' men hate women symbolic book titles usually indicate theme issues atmosphere work translators working long book titles translated titles often shorter indicate theme book plays translation plays poses many problems added element actors speech duration translation literalness relationship arts drama acting successful play translators able


create language allows actor playwright work together effectively play translators must also take account several aspects final performance varying theatrical acting traditions characters' speaking styles modern theatrical discourse even acoustics auditorium ie whether certain words effect new audience original audience audiences shakespeare 's time accustomed modern playgoers actors longer stage time modern translators tend simplify sentence structures earlier dramas included compound sentences intricate hierarchies subordinate


clauses chinese literature translating chinese literature translators struggle find true fidelity translating target language ''the poem behind poem'' barnstone argues poetry ca n't made sing mathematics n't factor creativity translator notable piece work translated english ''wen xuan'' anthology representative major works chinese literature translating work requires high knowledge genres presented book poetic forms various prose types including memorials letters proclamations praise poems edicts historical philosophical political


disquisitions threnodies laments dead examination essays thus literary translator must familiar writings lives thought large number authors making ''wen xuan'' one difficult literary works translate sung texts translation text sung vocal music purpose singing another language sometimes called singing translation closely linked translation poetry vocal music least western tradition set verse especially verse regular patterns rhyme since late th century musical


setting prose free verse also practiced art music though popular music tends remain conservative retention stanzaic forms without refrains rudimentary example translating poetry singing church hymns german chorales translated english catherine winkworth translation sung texts generally much restrictive translation poetry former little freedom choose versified translation translation dispenses verse structure one might modify omit rhyme singing translation


assignment syllables specific notes original musical setting places great challenges translator option prose sung texts less verse adding deleting syllable subdividing combining notes respectively even prose process almost like strict verse translation need stick closely possible original prosody sung melodic line considerations writing singing translation include repetition words phrases placement rests punctuation quality vowels


sung high notes rhythmic features vocal line may natural original language target language sung translation may considerably completely different original thus resulting contrafactum translations sung texts whether type meant sung less literal type meant read also used aids audiences singers conductors work sung language known familiar types translations presented subtitles surtitles projected


monks translated indian sutras chinese occasionally adjusted translations better reflect china 's distinct culture emphasizing notions filial piety one first recorded instances translation west rd century bce rendering books biblical old testament hebrew koine greek translation known septuagint name refers supposedly seventy translators seventy two versions commissioned translate bible alexandria egypt according legend translator worked solitary confinement cell according


vulgate translation bible includes crucial instances overdetermination example isaiah 's prophecy announcing savior born virgin uses word '''almah'' also used describe dancing girls solomon 's court simply means young nubile jerome writes marina warner translates ''virgo'' adding divine authority virulent cult sexual disgust shaped christian moral theology moslem ''quran'' free linguistic trap connect mariam mary 's miraculous nature moral horror sex apple eve offered adam according mark polizzotti


could equally well apricot orange banana jerome liked pun ''malus malum'' apple evil ref name little art p pope francis suggested phrase lead us temptation lord 's prayer found gospels matthew first gospel written c ce luke third gospel written c ce properly translated let us fall temptation commenting god lead people temptation satan important early christian authors interpreted bible 's greek text jerome 's latin vulgate similarly pope


hippo familiar jerome 's latin vulgate rendering observed many people say way 'and allow us led temptation' ce brothers saints cyril methodius byzantine empire 's apostles slavs began translating parts bible old church slavonic language using glagolitic script devised based greek alphabet periods preceding contemporary protestant reformation saw translations bible vernacular local european languages development contributed western christianity 's split roman catholicism protestantism disparities


catholic protestant renderings crucial words passages due protestant perceived need reform roman catholic church lasting effects religions cultures languages respective countries exerted bible translations martin luther 's german new testament jakub wujek 's polish revised jesuits william tyndale 's new testament revisions ''king james version'' english mistranslation michelangelo 's horned moses efforts translate bible english martyrs william tyndale c convicted heresy antwerp


strangled death tied stake dead body burned earlier john wycliffe c mid managed die natural death years later council constance declared heretic decreed works earthly remains burned order confirmed pope martin v carried wycliffe 's corpse exhumed burned ashes cast river swift debate religious schism different translations religious texts continue demonstrated example king james


movement famous ''mistranslation'' biblical text rendering hebrew word ''keren'' several meanings horn context plausibly means beam light result centuries artists including sculptor michelangelo rendered moses lawgiver horns growing forehead chinese translation verses ''quran'' 's ' 'surah'' chapter fallibility translation process contributed islamic world 's ambivalence translating ''quran'' also spelled ''koran'' original arabic received prophet muhammad allah god angel


gabriel incrementally ce year muhammad 's death prayers ''quran'' miraculous inimitable word allah recited arabic however translated least languages ref name fatani ref fundamental difficulty translating ''quran'' accurately stems fact arabic word like hebrew aramaic word may range meanings depending context said linguistic feature particularly semitic languages adds usual similar difficulties encountered translating two


word passage ''quran'' moreover interpretation quranic passage also depend historic context muhammad 's life early community properly researching context requires detailed knowledge ''hadith'' ' 'sirah'' vast complex texts hence analogously translating chinese literature attempt accurate translation ''quran'' requires knowledge arabic language target language including respective evolutions also deep understanding two cultures involved experimental literature experimental literature


kathy acker novel ''don quixote'' giannina braschi novel ''yo yo boing '' features translative writing highlights discomforts interlingual translingual encounters literary translation creative practice ref name fisher ref authors weave translations texts acker 's postmodern fiction fragments preserves materiality catullus latin text ways tease semantics syntax without wholly appropriating method unsettles notion fixed finished translation ref name fisher whereas braschi 's trilogy experimental works ''empire dreams'' ''yo yo boing '' ''united states


representation translation process translation science fiction texts involves specific concerns ref name ref science fiction translator tends acquire specific competences assume distinctive publishing cultural agency case mass fiction genres professional specialization role often recognized publishers scholars translation science fiction accounts transnational nature science fiction 's repertoire shared conventions tropes world war ii many european countries swept wave translations english due prominence english source language use pseudonyms


pseudotranslations became common countries italy ref name hungary english often used vehicular language translate languages chinese japanese ref name iannuzzi ref recently international market science fiction translations seen increasing presence source languages english ref name iannuzzi technical translation technical translation renders documents manuals instruction sheets internal memos minutes financial reports documents limited audience directly affected document whose useful life often limited thus user guide particular model


refrigerator useful owner refrigerator remain useful long refrigerator model use similarly software documentation generally pertains particular software whose applications used certain class users see also american literary translators association applied linguistics back translation bible translations bilingual dictionary bilingual pun calque certified translation chinese translation theory code mixing contrastive linguistics dictionary based machine translation european master 's translation example based machine translation false cognate false friend first language hindi punjabi machine translation system homophonic translation humour translation howlers hybrid word


indirect translation international federation translators interpreting notes inttranet language brokering language industry language interpretation language localisation language professional language transfer legal translation lexicography lingua franca linguistic validation list translators list women translators literal translation machine translation medical translation metaphrase mobile translation national translation mission ntm neural machine translation paraphrase phono semantic matching postediting pre editing pseudotranslation register sociolinguistics rule based machine translation second language self translation skopos theory statistical machine translation syntax technical translation transcription linguistics translating legal equivalence translation associations translation criticism translation memory translation scholars translation services european parliament translation studies translation quality standards transliteration untranslatability vehicular


encyclopaedia'' routledge pp nbsp poets critics seamus heaney charles tomlinson tim parks others discuss theory practice translation greenblatt stephen ever master king lear ''the new york review books'' vol lxiv february pp nbsp hays gregory found translation review denis feeney ''beyond greek beginnings latin literature'' harvard university press ''the new york review books'' vol lxiv june pp nbsp kaiser walter hero translation review jean findlay ''chasing lost time life ck scott moncrieff soldier spy


pp paper ''the new york review books'' vol lxiii november pp nbsp marcus gary human researchers need new ways distinguish artificial intelligence natural kind ''scientific american'' vol march pp nbsp ''multiple'' tests artificial intelligence efficacy needed single test athletic prowess cannot one ultimate test intelligence one test construction challenge would test perception physical action two important elements intelligent behavior entirely absent original turing test another proposal


give machines standardized tests science disciplines schoolchildren take far insuperable stumbling block artificial intelligence incapacity reliable disambiguation v irtually every sentence people generate ambiguous often multiple ways prominent example known pronoun disambiguation problem machine way determining pronoun sentence refers ange mlinko whole earth troubador review ''the essential ws merlin'' edited michael wiegers copper canyon pp ''the new york review books'' vol lxiv


new york review books'' vol lxiv june pp nbsp snell hornby mary schopp j rgen f http nbn resolvingde urn nbn de translation ''european history online'' mainz institute european history retrieved august tatarkiewicz w adys aw ''o doskona ci'' perfection warsaw pa stwowe wydawnictwo naukowe english translation christopher kasparek subsequently serialized ''dialectics humanism polish philosophical quarterly'' vol vi autumn vol viii spring reprinted w adys aw tatarkiewicz ''on perfection'' warsaw university press center universalism pp nbsp book collection papers professor tatarkiewicz taylor paul


insanely complicated hopelessly inadequate review brian cantwell smith ''the promise artificial intelligence reckoning judgment'' mit october pp gary marcus ernest davis ''rebooting ai building artificial intelligence trust'' ballantine september pp judea pearl dana mackenzie ''the book new science cause effect'' penguin may pp ''london review books'' vol january pp nbsp tobler stefan sab u antoaneta https contentsciendocom view journals ress article p xml ''translating confession'' review ecumenical studies issn warner marina politics translation review kate


briggs ''this little art'' mireille gansel ''translation transhumance'' translated ros schwartz mark polizzotti ''sympathy traitor translation manifesto'' boyd tonkin ed ''the best novels translation'' clive scott ''the work literary translation'' ''london review books'' vol october pp nbsp wilson emily doggish translation review ''the poems hesiod theogony works days shield herakles'' translated greek barry b powell university california press pp ''the new york review books'' vol lxv


january pp nbsp wilson emily ah miserable review three separate translations ''the oresteia'' aeschylus oliver taplin liveright november jeffrey scott bernstein carcanet april david mulroy wisconsin april ''london review books'' vol october pp nbsp wilson emily pleasures translation review mark polizzotti ''sympathy traitor translation manifesto'' mit press pp ''the new york review books'' vol lxv may pp nbsp reading davis lydia eleven pleasures translating ''the new york review


books'' vol lxiii december pp nbsp like reproduce word order order ideas original text whenever possible p ranslation eternally compromise settle best rather achieving perfection though occasional perfect solution problem finding equivalent expression target language p nbsp flesch rudolf ''the art clear thinking'' chapter danger language work pp nbsp chapter pursuit translation pp nbsp barnes noble books ross amos flora early theories translation