''the economic development china japan studies economic history political economy'' https archiveorg details economicdevelopm cowa online free borrow hansen valerie ''the silk road new history'' oxford university press jones eric ''the european miracle environments economies geopolitics history europe asia cambridge lockwood william w ''the economic development japan growth structural change'' https archiveorg details economicdevelopm lock online free borrow pomeranz kenneth ''the great divergence china europe making modern world economy'' schulz forberg hagen ed ''a global conceptual history asia '' smith alan k


''creating world economy merchant capital colonialism world trade '' routledge von glahn richard ''the economic history china'' relations europe belk russell china global trade history western perspective journal china marketing online hoffman philip ''why europe conquer world'' princeton ji fengyuan west china discourses agendas change ''critical discourse studies'' lach donald f ''asia making europe'' vol u chicago press lach donald f ''southeast asia eyes europe sixteenth century''


u chicago press lach donald f edwin j van kley asia eyes europe seventeenth century ''the seventeenth century '' lach donald f ''china eyes europe sixteenth century'' u chicago press lee christina h ed ''western visions far east transpacific age '' routledge nayar pramod k marvelous excesses english travel writing india ''journal british studies'' pettigrew william mahesh gopalan eds ''the east india company essays anglo indian connection'' routledge smith


alan k ''creating world economy merchant capital colonialism world trade '' routledge steensgaard niels european shipping asia ''scandinavian economic history review''


term ''latin america'' primarily refers spanish portuguese speaking countries new world arrival europeans late th early th centuries region home many indigenous peoples number advanced civilizations notably south olmec maya muisca inca th century map americas region came control crowns spain portugal imposed roman catholicism respective languages spanish portuguese brought african slaves colonies laborers particularly regions

Humanities
History
Latin American history


indigenous populations could made work absent early nineteenth century nearly areas spanish america attained independence armed struggle exceptions cuba puerto rico brazil become monarchy separate portugal became republic late nineteenth century political independence european monarchies result abolition black slavery new sovereign nations political independence resulted political economic instability spanish america immediately independence great britain united states exercised significant influence post independence era


resulting form neo colonialism whereby country 's political sovereignty remained place foreign powers exercised considerable power economic sphere origin term definition idea part americas cultural racial affinity romance cultures traced back particular writing french saint simonian michel chevalier postulated part americas inhabited people latin race could therefore ally latin europe struggle teutonic europe anglo saxon america


slavic europe ref name mignolo ref idea later taken latin american intellectuals political leaders mid late nineteenth century longer looked spain portugal cultural models rather france actual term latin america coined france napoleon iii played role campaign imply cultural kinship france transform france cultural political leader area install maximilian emperor mexico mid twentieth century especially united states trend occasionally classify


territory south united states latin america especially discussion focused contemporary political economic relations rest world rather solely cultural aspects concurrently move avoid oversimplification talking latin america caribbean united nations geoscheme since concept definitions latin american modern going back nineteenth century anachronistic talk history latin america arrival europeans nevertheless many varied


cultures exist pre columbian period strong direct influence societies emerged result conquest therefore cannot overlooked introduced next section pre columbian period latin america populated several millennia possibly long years many models migration new world precise dating many early civilizations difficult text sources however highly developed civilizations flourished various times places andes


brazil fell sphere influence owing treaty tordesillas developing land sugar production since lack large complex society mineral resources european colonization western hemisphere native population died mainly disease come known columbian exchange diseases smallpox measles decimated populations immunity size indigenous populations studied modern era historians dominican friar bartolom de las casas raised alarm


earliest days spanish settlement caribbean ''a short account destruction indies'' conquerors colonists latin america also major impact population latin america spanish conquistadors committed savage acts violence natives according bartolom de las casas europeans worked native population death separated men women could reproduce hunted killed natives escaped dogs las casas claimed spaniards made natives work day night mines


would test sharpness blades natives las casas estimated around three million natives died war slavery overworking talking cruelty las casas said future generations believe writing knowledgeable eyewitness hardly believe spanish power native culture religion forbidden spanish even went far burning maya codices like books codices contained information astrology religion gods rituals four codices known exist today dresden codex


paris codex madrid codex hi codex spanish also melted countless pieces golden artwork could bring gold back spain destroyed countless pieces art viewed unchristian colonial era religion traveling new world spanish crown regulated immigration overseas colonies travelers required register house trade seville since crown wished exclude anyone non christian jews crypto jews muslims passing christian travelers' backgrounds vetted ability regulate flow people enabled spanish


crown keep grip religious purity overseas empire spanish crown rigorous attempt allow christians passage new world required proof religion way personal testimonies specific examples individuals dealing crown allow understanding religion affected passage new world francisca de figueroa african iberian woman seeking entrance americas petitioned spanish crown order gain license sail cartagena behalf witness attest religious purity


elvira de medina wrote witness knows parents grandparents old christians unsullied cast lineage moorish jewish caste recently converted holy catholic faith despite francisca 's race allowed entrance americas 'decree majesty' presented read presidents official judges case de contraction seville order allow passage province cartagena francisca de figueroa example points importance


aggressive prosecution witches african iberian throughout latin america according european tradition witch nbsp bruja nbsp thought reject god sacraments instead worship devil observe witches' sabbath rejection god seen abomination tolerated authorities either spain latin america specific example trial paula de eguiluz shows appeal christianity help lessen punishment even case witch trial paula de eguiluz woman african descent born


santo domingo grew slave sometime youth learned trade witches publicly known sorceress paula accused witchcraft brujeria divination apostasy declarations contrary church doctrine paula tried began hearings without much knowledge crowns way conducting legal proceedings needed appeals christianity announcements faith individual hoped lessen sentence learning quickly paula correctly recited lord 's prayer creed salve regina ten commandments


second hearing trial finally third hearing trial paula ended testimony ask ing lord forgive dreadful sins errors requests merciful punishment appeals christianity profession faith allowed paula return previous life slave minimal punishment spanish crown placed high importance preservation christianity latin america preservation christianity allowed colonialism rule latin america three hundred years nineteenth century revolutions postcolonial era countries latin america date


independence following model american french revolutions latin america achieved independence independence destroyed old common market existed spanish empire bourbon reforms created increased dependence financial investment provided nations already begun industrialize therefore western european powers particular great britain france united states began play major roles since region became economically dependent nations independence also created new self consciously latin american ruling class intelligentsia times avoided spanish


portuguese models quest reshape societies elite looked towards catholic european models particular france new latin american culture seek input indigenous peoples failed efforts spanish america keep together initial large states emerged independence gran colombia federal republic central america ref name frca details ref united provinces south america resulted number domestic interstate conflicts plagued new countries brazil contrast hispanic neighbors remained united monarchy avoided problem civil interstate wars domestic


wars often fights federalists centrists ended asserted military repression opponents expense civilian political life new nations inherited cultural diversity colonial era strived create new identity based around shared european spanish portuguese language culture within country however cultural class divisions created tension hurt national unity disputed territories latin america next decades long process create sense nationality new national borders


created around often centuries old audiencia jurisdictions bourbon intendancies become areas political identity many areas borders unstable since new states fought wars gain access resources especially second half nineteenth century important conflicts paraguayan war also known war triple alliance war pacific paraguayan war pitted argentina brazil uruguay paraguay utterly defeated result paraguay suffered demographic collapse population went


estimated persons last population around men war pacific chile defeated combined forces bolivia peru chile gained control saltpeter rich areas previously controlled peru bolivia bolivia became land locked nation mid century region also confronted growing united states seeking expand north american continent extend influence hemisphere mexican american war mexico lost half territory united states france attempted


indirectly control mexico south america brazil consolidated control large swaths amazon basin expense neighbors united states implemented aggressive policy defend expand political economic interests latin america culminated creation pan american conference successful completion panama canal united states intervention final cuban war independence export natural resources provided basis latin american economies nineteenth century allowed development wealthy


elite restructuring colonial economic political realities resulted sizable gap rich poor landed elites controlling vast majority land resources brazil instance land belonged population gold mining fruit growing particular monopolized wealthy landowners great owners completely controlled local activity furthermore principal employers main source wages led society peasants whose connection larger political realities remained thrall farming mining magnates endemic


political instability nature economy resulted emergence caudillos military chiefs whose hold power depended military skill ability dispense patronage political regimes least theory democratic took form either presidential parliamentary governments prone taken caudillo oligarchy political landscape occupied conservatives believed preservation old social hierarchies served best guarantee national stability prosperity liberals sought bring progress freeing


colombia acquire panama canal zone start century united states continued interventionist attitude aimed directly defend interests region officially articulated theodore roosevelt 's big stick doctrine modified old monroe doctrine simply aimed deter european intervention hemisphere conclusion spanish american war new government cuba united states signed platt amendment authorized united states intervene cuban affairs united states deemed necessary colombia united states sought


concession territory panama build much anticipated canal across isthmus colombian government opposed panamanian insurrection provided united states opportunity united states backed panamanian independence new nation granted concession interventions carried region united states first decades twentieth century several military incursions central america caribbean mostly defense commercial interests became known banana wars greatest political upheaval second decade


century took place mexico president porfirio az office since promised would step francisco madero moderate liberal whose aim modernize country preventing socialist revolution launched election campaign az however changed mind ran office madero arrested election day az declared winner events provoked uprisings became start mexican revolution revolutionary movements organized key leaders appeared pancho villa north emiliano


zapata south madero mexico city madero 's forces defeated federal army early assumed temporary control government second election later november madero undertook moderate reforms implement greater democracy political system failed satisfy many regional leaders become revolutionary situation madero 's failure address agrarian claims led zapata break madero resume revolution february victoriano huerta conservative general organized coup d' tat support united states madero


killed four days later revolutionary leaders villa zapata venustiano carranza continued militarily oppose federal government huerta 's control allies zapata villa took mexico city march found outside elements capital withdrew respective bastions allowed carranza assume control central government organized repression rebel armies villa zapata led particular general lvaro obreg n mexican constitution still current constitution proclaimed initially little enforced efforts


war recover pre war levels indeed chile war bought end period scientific cultural influence writer eduardo de la barra scorningly called german bewichment ref name carlos ref sports sports became increasingly popular drawing enthusiastic fans large stadia international olympic committee ioc worked encourage olympic ideals participation following latin american games rio de janeiro ioc helped establish national olympic committees prepare future competition brazil however sporting political rivalries slowed progress opposing factions fought control


international sport summer olympics paris summer olympics amsterdam saw greatly increased participation latin american athletes english scottish engineers brought futebol soccer brazil late international committee ymca north america playground association america played major roles training coaches jacobo rbenz guzm n guatemalan revolution great depression posed great challenge region collapse world economy meant demand raw materials drastically declined undermining many economies


latin america intellectuals government leaders latin america turned backs older economic policies turned toward import substitution industrialization goal create self sufficient economies would industrial sectors large middle classes would immune ups downs global economy despite potential threats united states commercial interests roosevelt administration understood united states could wholly oppose import substitution roosevelt implemented good neighbor policy allowed nationalization american companies latin america mexican president l zaro c rdenas


nationalized american oil companies created pemex c rdenas also oversaw redistribution quantity land fulfilling hopes many since start mexican revolution platt amendment also repealed freeing cuba legal official interference united states politics second world war also brought united states latin american nations together postwar period expansion communism became greatest political issue united states governments region start cold war forced governments choose


united states soviet union following costa rica civil war nation established new constitution recognized first legitimate democracy latin america however new costa rican government constitutionally required ban presence standing military seek regional influence distracted conflicts neighboring nicaragua several socialist communist insurgencies broke latin america throughout entire twentieth century successful one cuba cuban revolution led fidel castro


freezing cuban assets united states placing embargo nation kennedy administration authorized funding support invasion cuba exiles invasion failed radicalized revolutionary government 's position cuba officially proclaimed socialist openly became ally soviet union military collaboration cuba soviet union included placement intercontinental ballistic missiles cuba precipitated cuban missile crisis october late th century military regimes revolutions military junta argentina saw widespread repression deemed


political dissidents leftists acquired significant political influence prompted right wing ecclesiastical authorities large portion individual country 's upper class support coups d' tat avoid perceived communist threat fueled cuban united states intervention led political polarization south american countries periods ruled military dictatorships supported united states america around regimes southern cone collaborated operation condor killing many leftist dissidents including urban guerrillas washington


consensus set specific economic policy prescriptions considered standard reform package promoted crisis wracked developing countries washington dc based institutions international monetary fund imf world bank us treasury department ' recent years several latin american countries led socialist left wing governments including argentina venezuela campaigned degree adopted policies contrary washington consensus set policies latin counties governments left including brazil chile peru practice adopted bulk


left left leaning leaders bolivia brazil chile union south american nations summit since countries left wing political parties risen power hugo ch vez venezuela lula da silva dilma rousseff brazil fernando lugo paraguay n stor cristina kirchner argentina tabar v zquez jos mujica uruguay lagos bachelet governments chile evo morales bolivia daniel ortega nicaragua manuel zelaya honduras although deposed june ''coup d' tat'' rafael correa ecuador part


wave left wing politicians also often declare socialists latin americanists anti imperialists turn right blue countries right wing governments red countries left wing centre left governments '''conservative wave''' political phenomenon emerged mid south america brazil began roughly around time dilma rousseff tight election presidential election kicking fourth term workers' party highest position government addition according political analyst inter union department parliamentary advice ant nio


caribbean conference latin american history latin american studies pre columbian '''oasisamerica ''' apache comanche coahuiltecan cocopah pima puebloan peoples navajo quechan '''aridoamerica ''' caxcan guachichil guamare chichimeca jonaz cora huichol mayos otomi o'odham pame tecuexe tepehu nes yaquis zacateco '''mesoamerica ''' aztec huastec mixtec maya olmec pipil tarascan teotihuac n toltec totonac zapotec '''south america ''' arawak chav n chibcha chimor chachapoya huari inca island carib kalina mapuche moche nazca tairona tiwanaku colonization british colonization americas danish colonization americas dutch colonization americas new netherland french new france portuguese russian spanish new spain conquistador spanish conquest yucat n spanish conquest mexico


spanish missions california swedish history region history country topics latin americans latin american integration feminist history latin america history jews latin america latin america united states relations latin american debt crisis territorial evolution caribbean references reading bakewell peter ''a history latin america blackwell history world'' blackwell bethell leslie ed ''the cambridge history latin america'' cambridge university press vol burns e bradford ''latin america concise interpretive history'' paperback prenticehall th edition https webarchiveorg web http wwwbepresscom ngs vol iss art goebel michael globalizatitionalism latin america c ''new global


catholic church latin america conquest revolution beyond'' new york university press pages trigger bruce wilcomb e washburn eds ''the cambridge history native peoples americas'' vols historiography murillo dana velasco modern local history spanish american historiography ''history compass'' doi hic colonial era adelman jeremy ed ''colonial legacies problem persistence latin american history'' new york routledge alchon suzanne austin ''a pest land new world epidemics global perspective'' albuquerque university new mexico press andrien kenneth j


''the human tradition colonial spanish america'' wilmington scholarly resources brading da ''the first america spanish monarchy creole patriots liberal state '' new york cambridge university press ca izares esguerra jorge ''how write history new world histories epistemologies identities eighteenth century atlantic world'' stanford stanford university press brown jonathan c ''latin america social history colonial period'' wadsworth publishing company nd edition crosby alfred w ''the columbian exchange biological cultural consequences '' th anniversary edition westport praeger denevan william ed ''the native population


hoberman louisa schell susan migden socolow eds ''cities society colonial spanish america'' albuquerque university new mexico press hoberman louisa schell susan migden socolow eds ''the countryside colonial spanish america'' albuquerque university new mexico press johnson lyman l sonya lipsett rivera eds ''the faces honor sex shame violence colonial latin america'' albuquerque university new mexico press kagan richard ''urban images hispanic world '' new yale university press kinsbruner jay ''the colonial spanish american city urban life age atlantic capitalism'' austin


university texas press klein herbert ''the american finances spanish empire royal income expenditures colonial mexico peru bolivia '' albuquerque university new mexico press klein herbert ben vinson iii ''african slavery latin america caribbean'' nd edition new york oxford university press landers jane g barry robinson eds ''slaves subjects subversives blacks colonial latin america'' albuquerque university new mexico press lane kris ''pillaging empire piracy americas '' armonk ny sharpe lanning john tate ''the


royal protomedicato regulation medical profession spanish empire'' ed john jay tepaske durham duke university press lockhart james schwartz stuart b ''early latin america'' new york cambridge university press lynch john ''the hispanic world crisis change '' oxford basil blackwell macleod murdo j ''spanish central america socioeconomic history '' revised edition austin university texas press mcknight kathryn j ''afro latino voices narratives early modern ibero atlantic world '' hackett publishing company muldoon james ''the americas spanish world order justification conquest


seventeenth century'' philadelphia university pennsylvania press myers kathleen ann ''neither saints sinners writing lives women spanish america'' new york oxford university press pagden anthony ''spanish imperialism political imagination studies european spanish american social political theory '' new yale university press paquette gabriel b ''enlightenment governance reform spain empire '' new york palgrave macmillan pearce adrian ''british trade spanish america '' liverpool liverpool university press perry elizabeth mary anne j cruz eds ''cultural encounters impact inquisition


spain new world'' berkeley los angeles university california press powers karen vieira ''women crucible conquest gendered genesis spanish american society '' albuquerque university new mexico press robinson david j ed ''migration colonial spanish america'' new york cambridge university press russell wood ajr ''slavery freedom colonial brazil'' nd ed oneworld publications safier neil ''measuring new world enlightenment science south america'' chicago university chicago press schwartz stuart b ''all saved religious tolerance salvation atlantic world'' new


yale university press socolow susan migden ''the women colonial latin america'' new york cambridge university press stein stanley j barbara h stein ''apogee empire spain new spain age charles iii '' baltimore johns hopkins university press stein stanley j barbara h stein ''silver trade war spain america making early modern europe'' baltimore johns hopkins university press super john ''food conquest colonization sixteenth century spanish america'' albuquerque university new mexico press trusted marjorie ''the arts spain iberia latin


america '' university park penn state press twinam ann ''public lives private secrets gender honor sexuality illegitimacy colonial spanish america'' stanford stanford university press van oss ac ''church society spanish america'' amsterdam aksant weber david j ''b rbaros spaniards savages age enlightenment'' new yale university press independence era adelman jeremy ''sovereignty revolution iberian atlantic'' princeton princeton university press andrien kenneth j lyman l johnson eds ''the political economy spanish america age revolution '' albuquerque university new mexico


press blanchard peter ''under flags freedom slave soldiers wars independence spanish america'' pittsburgh university pittsburgh press chasteen john charles ''americanos latin america 's struggle independence'' new york oxford university press davies catherine claire brewster hilary owen ''south american independence gender politics text'' liverpool liverpool university press halper n donghi tulio ''the aftermath revolution latin america'' new york harper row johnson lyman l enrique tandanter eds ''essays price history eighteenth century latin america'' albuquerque university new mexico press lynch john ed


''latin american revolutions old new world origins'' university oklahoma press lynch john ''the spanish american revolutions '' mcfarlane anthony ''war independence spanish america'' racine karen sim n bol var friends recent biographies independence figures colombia venezuela ''history compass'' feb https doiorg hic rodr guez jaime e ''independence spanish america'' cambridge university press modern era barclay glen ''struggle continent diplomatic history south america '' pp bulmer thomas victor ''the economic history latin america since independence'' nd ed cambridge https wwwquestiacom library economic history latin america since independence online burns e bradford


articles schoultz lars ''beneath united states history us policy toward latin america'' harvard university press skidmore thomas e smith peter h ''modern latin america'' oxford university press stein stanley j shane j hunt principal currents economic historiography latin america ''journal economic history'' vol march pp nbsp https wwwjstororg stable jstor valenzuela arturo https webarchiveorg web http wwwjournalofdemocracyorg articles gratis valenzuela pdf latin american presidencies interrupted ''journal democracy'' volume number october woodward ralph lee ''positivism latin america order progress reconcilable'' lexington mass heath history


americas history north america history south america latin american history latin american studies


'''object oriented programming''' '''oop''' programming paradigm based concept objects contain data code data form fields often known attributes ''properties'' code form procedures often known ''methods'' feature objects object 's procedures access often modify data fields objects notion c oop computer programs designed making objects interact one another oop languages diverse popular ones class based meaning

Formal science
Computer science
Programming languages
Object-oriented programming


objects instances classes also determine types many widely used programming languages c java python etc multi paradigm support object oriented programming greater lesser degree typically combination imperative procedural programming significant object oriented languages include java c c python r php visual basicnet javascript ruby perl simscript object pascal objective c dart swift scala kotlin common lisp matlab smalltalk history uml notation class button class variables data functions inheritance subclass created subset button


sketchpad sutherland defined notions object instance class concept covered master definition albeit specialized graphical interaction also mit algol version aed established direct link data structures plexes dialect procedures prefiguring later termed messages methods member functions ref name simuladev development simula languages kristen nygaard ole johan dahl p http cs exhibitionsuni kluacat fileadmin template documents text development simula languagespdf uni klacat ref simula introduced important concepts today essential part object oriented programming class object inheritance dynamic binding ref name auto ref object oriented simula programming language used mainly researchers involved


physical modelling models study improve movement ships content cargo ports ref name auto first version smalltalk programming language developed xerox parc alan kay dan ingalls adele goldberg smalltalk included programming environment dynamically typed first interpreted compiled smalltalk became noted application object orientation language level graphical development environment smalltalk went various versions interest language grew ref name bertrand meyer ref smalltalk influenced ideas


introduced simula designed fully dynamic system classes could created modified dynamically ref name st ref smalltalk influenced lisp community incorporate object based techniques introduced developers via lisp machine experimentation various extensions lisp loops flavors introducing multiple inheritance mixins eventually led common lisp object system integrates functional programming object oriented programming allows extension via meta object protocol attempts design processor architectures included hardware support objects


memory successful examples include intel iapx linn smart rekursiv goldberg edited august issue byte magazine introducing smalltalk object oriented programming wider audience association computing machinery organised first ''conference object oriented programming systems languages applications'' oopsla unexpectedly attended people mid objective c developed brad cox used smalltalk itt inc bjarne stroustrup used simula phd thesis eventually went create object oriented c ref name bertrand meyer


bertrand meyer also produced first design eiffel language focused software quality eiffel purely object oriented programming language notation supporting entire software lifecycle meyer described eiffel software development method based small number key ideas software engineering computer science object oriented software construction essential quality focus eiffel meyer 's reliability mechanism design contract integral part method language tiobe programming language popularity index graph object oriented java blue


procedural c black competed top position early mid object oriented programming developed dominant programming paradigm programming languages supporting techniques became widely available included visual foxpro c delphi dominance enhanced rising popularity graphical user interfaces rely heavily upon object oriented programming techniques example closely related dynamic gui library oop language found cocoa frameworks mac os x written objective c object oriented dynamic messaging extension c based smalltalk oop toolkits also enhanced


popularity event driven programming although concept limited oop eth z rich niklaus wirth colleagues also investigating topics data abstraction modular programming although common use earlier modula included succeeding design oberon included distinctive approach object orientation classes object oriented features added many previously existing languages including ada basic fortran pascal cobol adding features languages initially designed often led problems compatibility


maintainability code recently number languages emerged primarily object oriented also compatible procedural methodology two languages python ruby probably commercially important recent object oriented languages java developed sun microsystems well c visual basicnet vbnet designed microsoft 's net platform two frameworks shows way benefit using oop creating abstraction implementation vbnet c support cross language inheritance allowing classes defined one language subclass classes defined language features


object oriented programming uses objects associated techniques structures supported directly languages claim support oop performs operations operands features listed common among languages considered strongly class object oriented multi paradigm oop support notable exceptions mentioned ref name armstrongquarks deborah j armstrong ''the quarks object oriented development'' survey nearly years computing literature identified number fundamental concepts found large majority definitions oop descending order popularity inheritance object class encapsulation method message passing polymorphism


abstraction ref ref name pierce section object oriented programming lists dynamic dispatch encapsulation multi methods multiple dispatch subtype polymorphism inheritance delegation open recursion self ref shared non oop languages variables store information formatted small number built data types like integers alphanumeric characters may include data structures like strings lists hash tables either built result combining variables using memory pointers procedures also known functions methods routines subroutines take input generate output manipulate data modern languages include structured programming constructs like loops


conditionals modular programming support provides ability group procedures files modules organizational purposes modules namespaced identifiers one module conflict procedure variable sharing name another file module objects classes languages support object oriented programming oop typically use inheritance code reuse extensibility form either classes prototypes use classes support two main concepts classes definitions data format available procedures given type class object may also contain data


procedures known class methods ie classes contain data members member functions objects instances classes objects sometimes correspond things found real world example graphics program may objects circle square menu online shopping system might objects shopping cart customer product sometimes objects represent abstract entities like object represents open file object provides service translating measurements us customary metric packt books date september publisher packt publishing limited location birmingham england uk isbn page edition url https wwwpacktpubcom application development mastering php design patterns access date december language en ref width


align right object said instance particular class example object name field set mary might instance class employee procedures object oriented programming known methods variables also known fields members attributes properties leads following terms class variables belong ''class whole'' one copy one instance variables attributes data belongs individual ''objects'' every object copy one


member variables refers class instance variables defined particular class class methods belong ''class whole'' access class variables inputs procedure call instance methods belong ''individual objects'' access instance variables specific object called inputs class variables objects accessed somewhat like variables complex internal structure many languages effectively pointers serving actual references single instance said object memory within heap


programming uses classes sometimes called class based programming prototype based programming typically use classes result significantly different yet analogous terminology used define concepts ''object'' ''instance'' languages classes objects composed using concepts like traits mixins class based vs prototype based class based languages ''classes'' defined beforehand ''objects'' instantiated based classes two objects ''apple'' ''orange'' instantiated class ''fruit'' inherently fruits guaranteed may handle way


''fruit'' class n't exist explicitly equivalence class objects sharing prototype attributes methods ''prototype'' delegated objects equivalence class defined prototype attributes methods ''owned'' individually object may shared objects equivalence class eg attribute ' 'sugar content'' may unexpectedly present ''apple'' single inheritance implemented prototype dynamic dispatch message passing responsibility object external code select procedural code execute


response method call typically looking method run time table associated object feature known dynamic dispatch distinguishes object abstract data type module fixed static implementation operations instances call variability relies single type object called ie least one parameter object involved method choice one speaks multiple dispatch method call also known ''message passing''


conceptualized message name method input parameters passed object dispatch encapsulation encapsulation object oriented programming concept binds together data functions manipulate data keeps safe outside interference misuse data encapsulation led important oop concept data hiding class allow calling code access internal object data permits access methods strong form abstraction information hiding known encapsulation languages java example


let classes enforce access restrictions explicitly example denoting internal data code private code keyword designating methods intended use code outside class code public code keyword methods may also designed public private intermediate levels code protected code allows access class subclasses objects different class languages like python enforced convention example code private code methods may names start underscore encapsulation prevents external code concerned internal workings object


facilitates code refactoring example allowing author class change objects class represent data internally without changing external code long public method calls work way also encourages programmers put code concerned certain set data class organizes easy comprehension programmers encapsulation technique encourages decoupling composition inheritance delegation objects contain objects instance variables known object composition


example object employee class might contain either directly pointer object address class addition instance variables like first name position object composition used represent relationships every employee address every employee object access place store address object either directly embedded within separate location addressed via pointer languages support classes almost always support inheritance allows classes arranged hierarchy represents type relationships example class


objects application domain subclasses override methods defined superclasses multiple inheritance allowed languages though make resolving overrides complicated languages special support mixins though language multiple inheritance mixin simply class represent type relationship mixins typically used add methods multiple classes example class unicodeconversionmixin might provide method unicode ascii included class filereader class webpagescraper n't share common parent abstract classes cannot instantiated objects


exist purpose inheritance concrete classes instantiated java code final code keyword used prevent class subclassed doctrine composition inheritance advocates implementing relationships using composition instead inheritance example instead inheriting class person class employee could give employee object internal person object opportunity hide external code even class person many public attributes methods languages like go support inheritance


open closed principle advocates classes functions open extension closed modification delegation another language feature used alternative inheritance polymorphism subtyping form polymorphism calling code agnostic class supported hierarchy operating parent class one descendants meanwhile operation name among objects inheritance hierarchy may behave differently example objects type circle square derived common class called shape draw


subclass thereof oop languages simula generally accepted first language primary features object oriented language created making simulation programs came called objects important information representation smalltalk another early example one much theory oop developed concerning degree object orientation following distinctions made languages called pure oo languages everything treated consistently object primitives characters punctuation


oberon languages abstract data type support may used resemble oo programming without features object orientation includes object ''based'' prototype based languages examples javascript lua modula clu chameleon languages support multiple paradigms including oo tcl stands among tcloo hybrid object system supports prototype based programming class based oo oop dynamic languages recent years object oriented programming become especially popular dynamic programming languages python powershell ruby groovy dynamic languages built oop principles perl php adding object oriented features since perl


php coldfusion since version document object model html xhtml xml documents internet bindings popular javascript ecmascript language javascript perhaps best known prototype based programming language employs cloning prototypes rather inheriting class contrast class based programming another scripting language takes approach lua oop network protocol messages flow computers request services client server environment designed linearizations objects defined class objects known client server


example simple linearized object would consist length field code point identifying class data value complex example would command consisting length code point command values consisting linearized objects representing command 's parameters command must directed server object whose class superclass recognizes command able provide requested service clients servers best modeled complex object oriented structures distributed data management architecture ddm took approach used class


objects define objects four levels formal hierarchy fields defining data values form messages length code point data values objects collections objects similar would found smalltalk program messages parameters managers similar ibm objects directory files files consisting metadata records managers conceptually provide memory processing resources contained objects client server consisting managers necessary implement full processing environment supporting aspects directory services security


concurrency control initial version ddm defined distributed file services later extended foundation distributed relational database architecture drda design patterns challenges object oriented design addressed several approaches common known design patterns codified gamma ''et al'' broadly term design patterns used refer general repeatable solution pattern commonly occurring problem software design commonly occurring problems implications solutions particular object oriented development inheritance behavioral subtyping intuitive assume


inheritance creates semantic relationship thus infer objects instantiated subclasses always ' 'safely'' used instead instantiated superclass intuition unfortunately false oop languages particular allow mutable objects subtype polymorphism enforced type checker oop languages mutable objects cannot guarantee behavioral subtyping context behavioral subtyping undecidable general cannot implemented program compiler class object hierarchies must carefully designed considering possible incorrect uses cannot detected syntactically


issue known liskov substitution principle gang four design patterns ''design patterns elements reusable object oriented software'' influential book published erich gamma richard helm ralph johnson john vlissides often referred humorously gang four along exploring capabilities pitfalls object oriented programming describes common programming problems patterns solving april book th printing book describes following patterns ''creational patterns'' factory method pattern abstract factory pattern singleton pattern builder pattern prototype pattern ''structural


patterns'' adapter pattern bridge pattern composite pattern decorator pattern facade pattern flyweight pattern proxy pattern ''behavioral patterns'' chain responsibility pattern command pattern interpreter pattern iterator pattern mediator pattern memento pattern observer pattern state pattern strategy pattern template method pattern visitor pattern object orientation databases object oriented programming relational database management systems rdbmss extremely common software since relational databases n't store objects directly though rdbmss object oriented features approximate general need bridge two worlds problem bridging object oriented programming accesses data patterns relational databases


known object relational impedance mismatch number approaches cope problem general solution without downsides ref name rdmdbobjectmis ref one common approaches object relational mapping found ide languages visual foxpro libraries java data objects ruby rails' activerecord also object databases used replace rdbmss technically commercially successful rdbmss real world modeling relationships oop used associate real world objects processes digital counterparts however everyone agrees oop


faster said oop paper good ideas looking glass paradigm closely reflects structure systems 'in real world' therefore well suited model complex systems complex behaviours contrast kiss principle steve yegge others noted natural languages lack oop approach strictly prioritizing ''things'' objects nouns ''actions'' methods verbs ref name executionikon ref problem may cause oop suffer convoluted solutions procedural programming ref name executionikon ref oop control flow oop developed increase reusability maintainability source code ref name realisticcodereuse ref transparent representation control flow


mnemonic invented michael feathers stands advocates five programming practices single responsibility principle open closed principle liskov substitution principle interface segregation principle dependency inversion principle grasp general responsibility assignment software patterns another set guidelines advocated craig larman criticism oop paradigm criticised number reasons including meeting stated goals reusability modularity ref name badprop ref name armstrongjoe overemphasizing one aspect software design modeling data objects expense important aspects computation algorithms ref name stepanov ref name hickey luca cardelli claimed oop code intrinsically less efficient


procedural code oop take longer compile oop languages extremely poor modularity properties respect class extension modification tend extremely complex ref name badprop ref latter point reiterated joe armstrong principal inventor erlang quoted saying ref name armstrongjoe armstrong joe ''coders work reflections craft programming'' peter seibel ed http wwwcodersatworkcom codersatworkcom accessed november ref study potok et al shown significant difference productivity oop procedural approaches christopher j date stated critical comparison oop


technologies relational particular difficult lack agreed upon rigorous definition oop ref name datepage c j date introduction database systems th ed page ref however date darwen proposed theoretical foundation oop uses oop kind customizable type system support rdbms ref name thirdmanifesto c j date hugh darwen ''foundation future database systems third manifesto'' nd edition ref article lawrence krubner claimed compared languages lisp dialects functional languages etc oop languages unique strengths inflict heavy burden unneeded complexity ref name lawrence ref alexander


stepanov compares object orientation unfavourably generic programming ref name stepanov ref paul graham suggested oop 's popularity within large companies due large frequently changing groups mediocre programmers according graham discipline imposed oop prevents one programmer much damage ref name graham ref leo brodie suggested connection standalone nature objects tendency duplicate code violation n't repeat principle software development steve yegge noted opposed functional programming ref name yegge ref rich hickey creator clojure described object systems overly simplistic models


real world emphasized inability oop model time properly getting increasingly problematic software systems become concurrent ref name hickey rich hickey jvm languages summit keynote http wwwinfoqcom presentations yet rich hickey yet november ref eric raymond unix programmer open source software advocate critical claims present object oriented programming one true solution written object oriented programming languages tend encourage thickly layered programs destroy transparency ref name eric raymond ref raymond compares unfavourably approach taken unix c programming language ref name eric raymond


handle several attempts formalizing concepts used object oriented programming following concepts constructs used interpretations oop concepts co algebraic data types ref name poll ref abstract data types existential types allow definition modules support dynamic dispatch recursive types encapsulated state inheritance records basis understanding objects function literals stored fields like functional programming languages actual calculi need considerably complex incorporate essential features oop several extensions system f sub sub deal mutable objects


top inheritance performed cloning maps sometimes called prototyping see also comparison programming languages object oriented programming comparison programming paradigms component based software engineering design contract object association object database object model reference object modeling language object oriented analysis design object relational impedance mismatch third manifesto object relational mapping systems cades common object request broker architecture corba distributed component object model distributed data management architecture jeroo modeling languages idef interface description language lepus uml references reading external links http wwwcodeprojectcom articles introduction object oriented programming concep introduction object oriented programming concepts oop lwc nirosh https thenewstackio many developers hating object oriented programming discussion cons


oop http javasuncom docs books tutorial java concepts indexhtml oop concepts java tutorials programming paradigms norwegian inventions


political anthropology subfield sociocultural anthropology like anthropology whole remains immune precise delimitation core '''political anthropology''' comparative fieldwork based examination politics broad range historical social cultural settings history political anthropology origins political anthropology roots th century time thinkers lewis h morgan sir henry maine tried trace evolution human society 'primitive' 'savage' societies 'advanced' ones early approaches ethnocentric speculative often racist nevertheless laid

Social science
Anthropology
Political Anthropology


would acquiesce threat force withdrawn fact determines part played political life european administration authors volume tended practice examine african political systems terms internal structures ignored broader historical political context colonialism several authors reacted early work work ''political systems highland burma'' edmund leach argued necessary understand societies changed time rather remaining static equilibrium special version conflict oriented


political anthropology developed called 'manchester school' started max gluckman gluckman focused social process analysis structures systems based relative stability view conflict maintained stability political systems establishment establishment crosscutting ties among social actors gluckman even suggested certain degree conflict necessary uphold society conflict constitutive social political order transition work developed full fledged subdiscipline canonized volumes ''political anthropology'' edited victor turner


marc swartz late political anthropology flourishing subfield two hundred anthropologists listing subdicipline one areas interests quarter british anthropologists listed politics topic studied political anthropology developed different way united states authors morton fried elman service eleanor leacock took marxist approach sought understand origins development inequality human society marx engels drawn ethnographic work morgan authors


extended tradition particular interested evolution social systems time process approach developed stressing role agents bailey barth meaningful development anthropologists started work situations colonial system dismantling focus conflict social reproduction carried marxist approaches came dominate french political anthropology pierre bourdieu work kabyle strongly inspired development early work marriage french post structuralism marxism process approach


interest anthropology grew session anthropology organized ninth international congress anthropological ethnological sciences proceedings eventually published ''political anthropology state art'' newsletter created shortly thereafter developed time journal '' http polarjournalorg polar political legal anthropology review '' anthropology concerned states institutions whole century roughly political anthropology developed discipline concerned primarily politics stateless societies new development started


still unfolding anthropologists started increasingly study complex social settings presence states bureaucracies markets entered ethnographic accounts analysis local phenomena result sudden development sudden discovery contextuality anthropologists studied peasant societies latin america asia increasingly started incorporate local setting village larger context redfield famous distinction small big traditions redfield also witnessed emergence europe category anthropological investigation boissevain essay towards


anthropology europe boissevain friedl perhaps first systematic attempt launch comparative study cultural forms europe anthropology carried europe anthropology europe turn toward study complex society made anthropology inherently political first longer possible carry fieldwork say spain algeria india without taking account way aspects local society tied state market true early ethnographies europe sometimes done carried


fieldwork villages southern europe isolated units islands however tendency openly criticised jeremy boissevain boissevain friedl said clearly anthropologists tribalised europe wanted produce relevant ethnography could longer afford contrary often heard colleagues political social sciences anthropologists nearly half century careful link ethnographic focus wider social economic political structures mean abandon ethnographic focus


local phenomena care detail direct way turn towards complex society also signified political themes increasingly taken main focus study two main levels first anthropologists continued study political organization political phenomena lay outside state regulated sphere patron client relations tribal political organization second anthropologists slowly started develop disciplinary concern states institutions relationship formal informal political institutions anthropology state developed


thriving field today geertz comparative work balinese state early famous example today rich canon anthropological studies state see example abeles hastings donnan thomas wilson others started early productive subfield anthropology borders addresses ways state borders affect local populations people border areas shape direct state discourse state formation see example alvarez thomassen vereni donnan wilson heavy focus ethnicity nationalism


developed identity identity politics soon became defining themes discipline partially replacing earlier focus kinship social organization made anthropology even obviously political nationalism extent simply state produced culture studied ethnicity extent simply political organization cultural difference barth benedict anderson book ''imagined communities reflections origin spread nationalism'' discusses nationalism came sees invention printing press main spark enabling shared national emotions characteristics events history imagined


think weber indeed pointed long ago herzfeld concern political institutions also fostered focus institutionally driven political agency anthropology policy making shore wright focus evident development anthropology anthropology development last decades established one discipline largest subfields political actors like states governmental institutions ngos international organizations business corporations primary subjects analysis ethnographic work anthropologists cast critical eye discourses


practices produced institutional agents development encounter local culture see example ferguson development anthropology tied global political economy economic anthropology concerns management redistribution ideational real resources see example hart vein escobar famously argued international development largely helped reproduce former colonial power structures many themes last two decades opened taken together making anthropology increasingly political post colonialism post communism gender multiculturalism migration forget umbrella term globalization


jonathan spencer eds routledge encyclopedia social cultural anthropology nd ed london new york routledge pp nbsp alvarez robert r mexican us border making anthropology borderlands annual review anthropology bailey frederick g strategems spoils social anthropology politics new york schocken books inc barth fredrik political leadership among swat pathans london athlone press bellier irene moralit langues et pouvoirs dans les institutions europ ennes social anthropology boissevain jeremy john friedl beyond community social process europe


london lse cambridge harvard university press mcdonald maryon unity diversity tensions construction europe social anthropology redfield robert folk culture yucutan chicago university chicago press rhodes rod aw paul 't hart mirko noordegraaf eds observing government elites basingstoke palgrave sharma aradhana akhil gupta eds anthropology state reader malden oxford blackwell shore chris susan wright eds anthropology policy critical perspectives governance power london routledge spencer jonathan anthropology politics state democracy


violence south asia cambridge cambridge university press thomassen bj rn border studies europe symbolic political boundaries anthropological perspectives europaea journal europeanists vereni pietro boundaries frontiers persons individuals questioning identity national borders europaea wright susan ed anthropology organizations london routledge zabusky stacia e launching europe ethnography european cooperation space science princeton princeton university press anthropology anthropology


soldiers french army training nd battalion parachute regiment british army nepalese soldiers training exercise '''military education training''' process intends establish improve capabilities military personnel respective roles military training may voluntary compulsory duty begins recruit training proceeds education training specific military roles sometimes includes additional training military career '''directing staff''' military personnel comprise instructional staff military training institution countries military education training parts

Applied science
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Military education and training


personnel may continue receive training careerkazakhstani military personnel almaty institute kazakh ground forces see also assault course military academy list united states military schools academies list defunct united states military academies royal military academy sandhurst royal military college canada military academies russia refresher training staff college history physical training fitness references education military supporting service occupations


'''endodontics''' greek roots ''endo '' inside ''odont '' tooth dental specialty concerned study treatment dental pulp overview endodontics encompasses study practice basic clinical sciences normal dental pulp etiology diagnosis prevention treatment diseases injuries dental pulp along associated periradicular conditions clinical terms endodontics involves either preserving part dental pulp health removing pulp irreversible disease includes teeth irreversibly inflamed infected pulpal tissue

Applied science
Medicine and health
Dentistry
Endodontics


endodontics involve treatment dental pulp present also includes preserving teeth failed respond non surgical endodontic treatment teeth developed new lesions eg root canal treatment required periradicular surgery endodontic treatment one common procedures dental pulp containing nerves arterioles venules lymphatic tissue fibrous tissue becomes diseased injured endodontic treatment required save tooth procedures root canal treatment root canal treatment dental procedure used treat infected tooth pulp would


otherwise extracted pulp soft tissue core tooth contains nerves blood supply connective tissue necessary tooth health ref name ref usually caused bacteria enter pulp deep cavity failed filling ref name root canal treatment required dental pulp irreversibly damaged involves coronal apical pulp ref name ref root canal treatment also carried teeth doubtful pulpal state placing post retained crowns overdentures root canal therapy performed pain relief infected inflamed pulp


treatment local anaesthesia delivered make procedure pain free tooth treated isolated using rubber dam prevents saliva entering tooth treatment protects airway fine files strong chemicals used root canal treatment procedure often carried single ref name multiple appointments ref name root canal treatment involves removing damaged infected pulp shaping entire root canal system cleaning disinfecting entire root canal system filling sealing root canal system placing direct restoration composite filling


indirect restoration crown instrument fractures common procedural mishaps root canal treatment essential prevent instrument fractures success removing broken instrument depends location direction type instrument ref name ref sodium hypochlorite accident result long term functional aesthetic complications extrusion sodium hypochlorite irrigating solution root canal procedure cause severe inflammatory reaction tissue damage treatment provided based severity injury tooth discolouration result root canal treatment occur pulpal tissue remnants


completely removed root canal sealer material containing silver used ref name periradicular surgery periradicular surgeries involve root surface include apicoectomy removal root end root resection removal entire root repair injured root due perforation resorption removal broken fragments tooth filling material exploratory surgery look root fractures ref name ref apicoectomy apicoectomy surgical procedure apex root resected root end filling placed preventing bacterial leakage


root canal system periradicular tissues ref name ref microsurgical technique used carry apicectomy improves post operative healing apicoectomy carried previous root canal treatment fails root canal treatment possible ref name may result anatomical features root dilaceration compromise completion cleaning obturating root canal system procedural errors including ledges perforations may also indications apicectomy local anaesthetic utilised achieve anaesthesia well haemostasis improved visualisation flap


gum designed raised allow exposure periapical lesion ref name ref bone removal osteotomy carried enable access root apex diseased tissue removed point curettage ref name root end resection carried removing mm apically canal obturated flap sutured number root end filling materials available including zinc oxide eugenol cements mineral trioxide aggregate complications may arise include pain anti inflammatory agents analgesics taken swelling intermittent ice aid eradicating swelling


resolves usually within hours ecchymosis discolouration often occur distant surgical site paraesthesia usually transient result inflammatory swelling sensation return normal weeks serious infection rare treated antibiotics administered caution avoid bacterial resistance maxillary sinus perforation procedures non surgical endodonic procedures include pulp capping pulpotomy apexification pulpal regeneration hemisection root overlying portion crown separated rest tooth optionally removed another non periradicular endodontic surgery ref


name tools microsurgical endodontics use magnification devices microscopes dental loupes widely accepted among endodontists practitioners ref name ref use believed increase accuracy visualization operating field however cochrane review found evidence determine whether difference outcome procedure done magnification devices conventional procedure done magnification american association endodontists strongly encourages members pursue use oral microscope ensure highest level excellence


use cbct also becoming standard care training endodontists specialist dentists additional training experience formal qualifications endodontic treatment apicectomies microsurgery dental emergency trauma management ref name endodontics recognized specialty many national dental organizations including dental board australia british general dental council american dental association royal college dentists canada indian dental association royal australasian college dental surgeons australia australia endodontics recognized one thirteen registered dental specialties addition dental degree endodontists


additional three years postgraduate university training area endodontics recognized registered dental board australia general dentist permitted law perform endodontic treatment must competent skills required endodontic treatment refer complex cases specialist management united states united states finishing dental degree dentist must undergo additional years postgraduate training become endodontist american dental association coda accredited programs minimum two years length following successful completion


training dentist becomes board eligible sit american board endodontology examination successful completion board certification results diplomate status american board endodontics although general dentists perform endodontic treatment several things set endodontists apart endodontists use microscopes treatment better treat small internal anatomy teeth without taking away much tooth structure causing iatrogenic damage also endodontists use cbct imaging assess case difficulty diagnosis treatment planning endodontic cases see also american association endodontists dental implant endodontic therapy journal


factors ref name ford ref specific silviculture practice controlling establishment management forest stands distinction forestry silviculture silviculture applied stand level forestry broader concept adaptive management common silviculture forestry include natural conserved land without stand level management treatments applied silvicultural systems origin forestry german speaking europe defined silvicultural systems broadly high forest coppice standards compound coppice short rotation coppice coppice systems well varied silvicultural systems include several harvesting

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Silviculture


production temperate boreal climates deal tropical forestry misapplication philosophy tropical forests problematic also alternative silvicultural tradition developed japan thus created different biocultural landscape called ' 'satoyama'' harvesting comes regeneration may split natural artificial see tending includes release treatments pruning thinning intermediate treatments conceivable three phases harvesting regeneration tending may happen time within stand depending goal particular stand


regeneration regeneration basic continuation forested well afforestation treeless land regeneration take place self sown seed natural regeneration artificially sown seed planted seedlings whichever case performance regeneration depends growth potential degree environment allows potential expressed ref name gross ref seed course needed regeneration modes natural artificial sowing raising planting stock nursery natural regeneration human assisted natural regeneration means establishing forest age class natural


elevation seedlings somewhat general level forest floor reduces danger smothering leaves snow pressed minor vegetation microsite likely subject flooding advantages conferred microsites include light higher temperatures rooting zone better mycorrhizal development ref name baldwin ref ref name mork reviewed j ref ref name rowe ref survey porcupine hills manitoba spruce seedlings rooted rotten wood ref name rowe ref name phel ref mineral soil seedbeds receptive undisturbed forest floor ref name alex ref generally moister


readily rewetted organic forest floor however exposed mineral soil much organic surfaced soil subject frost heaving shrinkage drought forces generated soil frost drought quite enough break roots ref name sutton sutton rf soil properties root development forest trees review ont region sault ste marie inf rep x p ref range microsites occurring forest floor broadened frequency distribution influenced site preparation microsite microclimate microclimates near ground


better characterized vapour pressure deficit net incident radiation rather standard measurements air temperature precipitation wind pattern ref name aspect important component microclimate especially relation temperature moisture regimes germination seedling establishment engelmann spruce much better north south aspect seedbeds fraser experimental forest colorado ratios seeds year old seedlings determined north aspect bladed shaded bladed unshaded undisturbed shaded seedbeds respectively ref name alex ref clearcut openings adjacent adequate seed source


tree heights wide could expected secure acceptable regeneration year old trees per hectare whereas undisturbed unshaded north aspects seedbed treatments tested south aspects seed seedling ratios high restocking clearcut opening would questionable least seven variable factors may influence seed germination seed characteristics light oxygen soil reaction ph temperature moisture seed enemies ref name bald ref moisture temperature influential affected exposure difficulty securing natural regeneration norway spruce scots pine northern europe led


adoption various forms reproduction cuttings provided partial shade protection seedlings hot sun wind ref name bald ref main objective echeloned strips border cuttings northeast exposure protect regeneration overheating originated germany deployed successfully alarik others sweden ref name alar ref south west exposures direct insolation heat reflected tree trunks often result temperatures lethal young seedlings ref name hart ref well desiccation surface soil inhibits germination sun less injurious eastern exposures


stand component species maximum density spruce regeneration determined rods inside edge stand north e exposure ha almost balsam fir seedlings prepared seedbed remains receptive relatively short period seldom long years sometimes short years seedbed receptivity moist fertile sites decreases particular rapidity especially sites seedbed preparation scheduled take advantage good seed years poor seed years site preparation carried mesic drier sites


chance success generally longer receptivity seedbeds moister sites ref name eis ref although indifferent seed year suffice seed distribution good environmental conditions favourable seedling germination survival ref name nob ref small amounts seed particularly vulnerable depredation small mammals ref name rad ref considerable flexibility possible timing site preparation coincide cone crops treatment applied either logging takes place partial cuts logging ref name coat cut leave strips seedbed preparation carried single


ont tech devel unit thunder bay cofrda rep nwoftdu tech rep p ref piling burning logging slash however leave suitable exposures mineral soil ref name coat season planting artificial regeneration view reducing time needed produce planting stock experiments carried white spruce three coniferous species wisconsin seed longer frost free growing season florida vs days central wisconsin northern florida respectively ref name anon anon northern conifer planting stock produced long photoperiods florida p ''in''


rep lake states exp sta ref species studied adapted long photoperiods extended daylengths hours applied florida seedlings grown extended daylength wisconsin natural daylength areas two growing seasons white spruce long days florida wisconsin twice tall plants natural wisconsin photoperiods natural days florida short local photoperiod white spruce severely dwarfed low rate survival black spruce responded similarly two growing seasons long


constant temperature lumens sup sup light regime nbsp c nbsp c day night temperatures recommended white spruce ref name nien ref name pollard ref however temperature optima necessarily different ages sizes ref name nien r tinus investigated effects combinations day night temperature height caliper dry weight seed sources engelmann spruce seed sources appeared similar temperature requirements night optima slightly lower daylight optima ref name tin ref tree provenance important artificial regeneration good provenance takes account


planting environment commonly method managing seed stock deployment system defined seed zones within seed stock moved without risk climatic maladaptation ref name joyce ref ontario adopted seed zone system based ga hills' ref name hills ref site regions provincial resource district boundaries ontario 's seed zones based homogeneous climatic regions developed ontario climate model ref name mackey ref ref name joyce regulations stipulate source identified seedlots may either general collection seed zone origin known


stand collection specific latitude longitude movement general collection seed stock across seed zone boundaries prohibited use stand collection seed stock another seed zone acceptable ontario climate model shows planting site place seed origin climatically similar seed zones white spruce quebec based mainly ecological regions modifications administrative convenience ref name li ref seed quality varies source seed orchards produce seed highest quality order decreasing seed quality produced seed production


areas seed collection areas follow controlled general collections uncontrolled general collections producing least characterized seed seeds dewinging extraction seed first separated cones mixed foreign matter often times volume seed less firmly attached membranous wings seed must detached cleaned foreign matter ref name toum ref testa must incur damage dewinging process two methods used dry wet dry seed may rubbed gently sieve mesh


seed without wings pass large quantities seed processed dewinging machines use cylinders heavy wire mesh rapidly revolving stiff brushes within remove wings wet process seed wings attached spread nbsp cm nbsp cm deep tight floor slightly moistened throughout light leather flails used free seed wings b wang described unique wet dewinging procedure using cement mixer ref name wang ref used petawawa tree seed processing facility wings white norway spruce seed removed


dampening seed slightly run fanning mill last time ref name toum moistened seed must dried fermentation moulding sets seed viability fluorescein diacetate fda biochemical viability test several species conifer seed including white spruce estimates proportion live seed viability seedlot hence percentage germination seedlot accuracy predicting percentage germination within seedlots ref name nol white spruce seed tested viability indirect method fluorescein diacetate fda


test ref name nol noland tl mohammed gh seymour n testing tree seed viability fda tell p '' in'' proc working together common future lustr co op ann gen meet workshop feb timmins ref ultra sound' ref name coat direct growth method germination' samples white spruce seed inspected varied viability averaged ref name toum ref inspection reported viability white spruce seed ref name toum germinative testing results germination test commonly expressed ''germinative capacity'' ''germination


percentage'' percentage seeds germinate period time ending germination practically complete extraction processing white spruce seeds gradually lost moisture total germination increased mittal et al ref name mitt mittal rk wang bsp fungi associated seeds eastern white pine white spruce cone processing seed extraction j res ref reported white spruce seed algonquin park ontario obtained maximum rate days total germination days week pre chilling pre treatment sodium hypochlorite increased germinability


encouraged russian success using ultrasonic waves improve germinative energy percentage germination seeds agricultural crops timonin ref name timon timonin mi effect ultra sound germination white spruce jack pine j bot cited coates et al ref demonstrated benefits white spruce germination exposure seeds minutes ultrasound generated mse ultrasonic disintegrator power consumption va power impact amperes ref name timon however seeds germinated minutes exposure ultrasound seed dormancy


seed dormancy complex phenomenon always consistent within species ref name haddon haddon bd winston da germination two years storage artificially ripened white spruce seed p ''in'' wang bsp pitel ja eds proc internat sympos forest tree seed storage sept chalk river environ serv cited coates et al ref cold stratification white spruce seed break dormancy specified requirement ref name wang wang bsp testing treatment canadian white spruce seed overcome dormancy assoc official seed analysts proc ref ref name zas zasada jc foote mj


determination recommended testing methods spruce ''picea'' species p ''in ''assoc seed anal st annu meet proc cited coates et al ref hellum ref name hell hellum ak case cold stratification white spruce seed prior nursery seeding dep rural devel branch ottawa publ p ref regarded stratification unnecessary cone handling storage conditions affect dormancy cold humid storage nbsp c relative humidity cones prior extraction seemingly eliminated dormancy overcoming need stratify ref name haddon


periods cold damp weather period cone storage might provide natural cold stratification treatment dormancy removed cone storage subsequent kiln drying seed storage reactivate dormancy haddon winston ref name haddon found reduction viability stratified seeds years storage suggested stress might caused stratification eg changes seed biochemistry reduced embryo vigor seed aging actual damage embryo questioned quality year old seed even though high germination occurred samples


stratified cold stratification cold stratification term applied storing seeds strictly layers moist medium often peat sand view maintaining viability overcoming dormancy cold stratification term applied storage near freezing temperatures even medium used common method cold stratification soak seed tap water h superficially dry store moist weeks even months temperatures freezing ref name van den driessche van den driessche r forest nursery handbook bc


serv victoria bc res notes p ref ref name san santon j effect stratification germination freshly harvested seed several spruce pine species eastern canada dep fish serv petawawa exp sta chalk river inf rep ps x p ref ref name wang wang bsp beneficial effects stratification germination tree seeds p ''in'' proc nurserymen 's meeting dryden june omnr toronto ref although hellum ref name hell found cold stratification alberta seed source led irregular germination decreasing germination increasing length


stratification period hocking 's ref name hock hocking effects stratification alberta white spruce lodgepole pine seeds emergence operational seedbeds environ serv ottawa bi mo res notes ref paired test stratified nonstratified alberta seed several sources revealed trends response stratification hocking suggested seed maturity handling storage needed controlled need stratification could determined later winston haddon ref name wins winston da haddon bd effects early cone collection artificial ripening white spruce red pine germination j


res ref found storage white spruce cones weeks nbsp c prior extraction obviated need stratification seed ripeness seed maturity cannot predicted accurately cone flotation cone moisture content cone specific gravity province bc found embryo occupying corrosion cavity megagametophyte firm whitish colour best predictors white spruce bc ref name kolo kolotelo anatomy morphology conifer tree seed forest nursery technical series bc min p ref quebec forecast seed maturity weeks


advance monitoring seed development relation heat sums phenological progression inflorescence fireweed ''epilobium angustifolium'' l associated plant species ref name merc cone collection earlier one week seed maturity would reduce seed germination viability storage ref name merc mercier maturation et indices de maturit des semences d' pinette blanche maturation maturity indexes white spruce seeds quebec min quebec qc memoire rech p fre e ref four stages maturation determined monitoring carbohydrates polyols organic acids respiration metabolic activity white spruce seeds require


week post harvest ripening period cones obtain maximum germinability ref name car caron ge wang bsp schooley ho effect tree spacing cone storage prechilling germination ''picea glauca'' seed chron ref however based cumulative degree days seed trees stand showed week cone storage sufficient ref name car caron ge wang bsp schooley ho variation ''picea glauca'' seed germination associated year cone collection j res ref forest tree nurseries see plant nursery forest tree plantations plantation establishment criteria plantations may considered successful outplant performance satisfies certain


criteria term free growing applied jurisdictions ontario 's free grow ftg equivalent relates forest stand meets minimum stocking standard height requirement essentially free competition surrounding vegetation might impede growth ref name ont ontario class environmental assessment timber management ont min nat resour witness statements evidence panels xvii compiled sections separately paginated ref ftg concept introduced advent forest management agreement program ontario became applicable management units policy procedures methodologies readily applicable forest


unit managers assess effectiveness regeneration programs still development class environmental assessment hearings british columbia forest practices code ref name forest british columbia ministry forests forest practices code british columbia silvicultural systems guidebook bc mof bc ministry environment p ref governs performance criteria minimize subjectivity assessing deciduous competition whether plantation established minimum specifications number health height competition specified british columbia however minimum specifications still subjectively set may need fine tuned order


avoid unwarranted delay according established status plantation example vigorous white spruce strong multi budded leading shoot crown fully exposed light sides would qualify free growing current british columbia code would hardly warrant description unestablished competition competition arises individual organisms sufficiently close together incur growth constraint mutual modification local environment ref name milt milthorpe fl nature analysis competition plants different species p '' in'' mechanisms biological competition sympos soc exp biol cambridge univ press


cambridge uk ref plants may compete light moisture nutrients seldom space ''per se'' vegetation management directs site 's resources usable forest products rather eliminating competing plants ref name buse buse lj baker wd determining necessity priority tending young spruce plantations northwestern ontario ont min nat resour northwestern ont technol devel unit thunder bay tech note tn p ref ideally site preparation ameliorates competition levels relieve outplant constraints severe enough cause prolonged check diversity boreal sub boreal broadleaf conifer mixed tree species


stands commonly referred mixedwoods largely preclude utility generalizations call development management practices incorporating greater inherent complexity broadleaf conifer mixtures relative single species mixed species conifer forest ref name simard simard mixtures paper birch conifers ecological balancing act pp pg comeau kd thomas eds silviculture temperate boreal broadleaf conifer mixtures bc ministry forests research branch victoria bc land management handbook ref harvesting disturbance mixedwood stands commonly enter prolonged period hardwoods overtop coniferous component subjecting


intense competition understorey well established regeneration growth potential understorey conifers mixedwood stands correlated density competing hardwoods ref name green green ds describing condition specific determinants competition boreal sub boreal mixedwood stands chron ref help apply free grow regulations british columbia alberta management guidelines based distance dependent relations within limited radius crop trees developed lieffers et al ref name lie lieffers vj pinno b stadt kj light dynamics free grow standards aspen dominated mixedwood forests chron ref found free growing stocking standards


adequately characterize light competition broadleaf conifer components boreal mixedwood stands noted adequate sampling using current approaches would operationally prohibitive many promising plantations failed lack tending young crop trees often ill equipped fight competition resurgent following initial site preparation planting perhaps direct evaluation effect competition plantation establishment provided effective herbicide treatment given performed correctly without contamination waters state fact herbicide treatment always produce positive results


obscure demonstrated potential herbicides significantly promoting plantation establishment factors vitiate effectiveness herbicide treatment include weather especially temperature prior application weather especially wind application weather especially precipitation hours application vegetation characteristics including species size shape phenological stage vigour distribution weeds crop characteristics including species phenology condition effects treatments preliminary shearblading burning prescribed accidental site preparation herbicide used including dosage formulation carrier spreader mode application


lot go wrong herbicide treatment good better method site preparation competition indices study competition dynamics requires measure competition level measure crop response various competition indices developed eg bella ref name bella bella ie new competition model individual trees sci ref hegyi ref name heg hegyi f simulation model managing jack pine stands p ''in'' fries j ed growth models tree stand simulation r coll dep yield


res res note ref based stem diameter arney ref name arn arney jd computer simulation douglas fir tree stand growth oregon state univ corvallis phd thesis cited morris macdonald orig seen ref ek monserud ref name ek ek ar monserud ra trials program forest growth reproduction simulation mixed species forest stands p ''in'' fries j ed growth models tree stand simulation r coll dep yield res res note ref howard newton ref name howard km newton overtopping successional coast range vegetation slows


douglas fir seedlings j ref based canopy development daniels ref name dan daniels rf simple competition indices correlation annual loblolly pine tree growth sci ref wagner ref name wag wagner rg method assessing severity weeds young plantations ''in'' use herbicides forest vegetation management co ordinated research alternative forestry treatments systems crafts univ oregon dep sci portland cited morris macdonald orig seen ref weiner ref name wei weiner j neighbourhood interference amongst ''pinus rigida'' individuals j ecol ref proximity based models studies generally considered


stage initial planting seeding treatment crop eg spacing pruning thinning improvement cutting competing vegetation eg weeding cleaning ref name ford planting many trees per unit area spacing planted easily answered question establishment density targets regeneration standards commonly based traditional practice implicit aim getting stand quickly free grow stage ref name ajw wb willcocks j bell w initial forest plantation density affects future stand growth omnr northeast science technology nest tech note tn


p ref money wasted trees planted needed achieve desired stocking rates chance establish plantations proportionately diminished ingress natural regeneration site difficult predict often becomes surprisingly evident years planting carried early stand development harvesting disturbance undoubtedly varies greatly among sites peculiar characteristics practical purposes total volume produced stand given site constant optimum wide range density stocking


decreased increased altering amount growing stock levels outside range ref name smith smith dm practice silviculture th ed wiley sons new york ny p ref initial density affects stand development close spacing leads full site utilization quickly wider spacing ref name omn omnr ontario ministry natural resources operational guidelines tree improvement ontario ont min nat resour toronto sections separately paginated ref economic operability advanced wide spacing even total production less closely spaced stands beyond


establishment stage relationship average tree size stand density important ref name ajw wb various density management diagrams conceptualizing density driven stand dynamics developed ref name drew drew jt flewelling jw stand density management alternative approach application douglas fir plantations sci ref ref name arch archibald dj bowling c jack pine density management diagram boreal ontario ont min nat resour northeast science technology tech note tn nwst tn p ref smith brand 's ref name smith smith nj brand dg compatible growth models stand density diagrams p ''in'' ek ar shifley sr burk te


eds forest growth modelling prediction vol proc iufro conf august minneapolis mn ref diagram mean tree volume vertical axis number trees ha horizontal axis stand either many little trees big ones self thinning line shows largest number trees given size ha carried given time however willcocks bell ref name ajw wb caution using diagrams unless specific knowledge stand trajectory known lake states plantations made spacing trees


saplings' seedlings' competition mowing application herbicide method removal surroundings cleaning release select saplings competition overtopping trees comparable age treatment favors trees desired species stem quality liberation cutting treatment releases tree seedling saplings removing older overtopping trees spacing crowded regeneration tends stagnate problem aggravated species little self pruning ability white spruce spacing thinning natural regeneration trees selected retention fixed intervals


cut term juvenile spacing used cut trees unmerchantable ref name llo lloyd gd juvenile spacing rgw sub boreal spruce biogeoclimatic region british columbia p ''in'' haavisto vf smith cr mason c eds space grow spacing thinning northern ontario proc sympos june sault ste marie ont region ont min nat resour joint rep ref spacing used obtain wide range forest management objectives especially undertaken reduce density control stocking young stands prevent


stagnation shorten rotation ie speed production trees given size volume growth individual trees merchantable growth stands increased ref name herm hermelin j spacing eastern canada new brunswick experience p ''in'' haavisto vf smith cr mason c eds space grow spacing thinning northern ontario proc sympos june sault ste marie ont region ont min nat resour joint rep ref primary rationale spacing thinning projected decline maximum allowable cut ref name nic nicks bd company perspective


natural regeneration spruce fir maine fitted helicopter thru valve boom emits herbicide spray droplets nbsp nbsp diameter ref name mackay mackay reducing stem density herbicides options p ''in'' haavisto vf smith cr mason c eds space grow spacing thinning northern ontario proc sympos june sault ste marie ont region ont min nat resour joint rep ref low pressure swaths wide leave strips wide obtained knife edge precision herbicide applied helicopter flying


sandy nutritionally poor soils fresh moisture regime ref name bell bella ie spacing effects years planting three conifers manitoba serv edmonton ab manage note p ref twenty years planting red pine largest average dbh greater jack pine white spruce dbh less half pines crown width showed gradual increase spacing conifers results date suggesting optimum spacings pines white spruce recommended planting


sites comparable data generated espacement trials trees planted range densities spacings site classes used trial petawawa ontario first old field white spruce plantations used investigate stand development relation spacing petawawa ontario regular rows planted average spacings feet ref name stie stiell wm berry ab


greater wider closer spacings c current annual volume increment culminates sooner closer wider spacings smaller espacement trial begun near thunder bay ontario included white spruce spacings ref name ont omnr ontario ministry natural resources forest management research area thunder bay spacing trial omnr toronto queen 's printer p ref closest spacing mortality begun years wider spacings oldest interior spruce espacement trial british columbia established near houston


prince rupert forest region ref name pollack pollack jc johnstone w coates kd lepage p influence initial espacement growth year old white spruce plantation bc min victoria bc res note p ref spacings used trees measured years planting wide espacements trees developed larger diameters crowns branches years basal area total volume ha greatest closest espacement table recent trials prince george region


british columbia table manitoba ref name bell bella ie de franceschi jp spacing effects years planting three conifers manitoba dep environ serv northern res centre edmonton ab inf rep x p ref planting density white spruce effect growth growing seasons even spacings low slowness juvenile growth crown closure delay response intra competition initially close spacing might even provide positive nurse effect offset negative response competition thinning see thinning thinning


stand lowering inter tree competition water removal tree stand repercussions remaining trees ground silvicultural thinning powerful tool used influence stand development stand stability characteristics harvestable products tending thinning regimes wind snow damage intimately related considering intensive conifer plantations designed maximum production ref name nav navratil branter k zasada j regeneration mixedwoods p ''in'' shortreid ed proc northern mixedwood symposium fort st john bc sept


pacific centre victoria bc frda report ref previous studies demonstrated repeated thinnings course forest rotation increase carbon stores relative stands clear cut short rotations carbon benefits differ according thinning method eg thinning versus precommercial thinning early development forest stand density trees remain high competition among trees nutrients natural regeneration artificial seeding resulted dense overstocked young stands natural thinning cases eventually reduce stocking silviculturally desirable


levels time trees reach merchantable size others overmature defective others still unmerchantable reduce unbalance obtain economic returns early stage one kind cleaning done known precommercial thinning generally one two times precommercial thinning done facilitate growth tree yield merchantable wood greatly increased rotation shortened precommercial thinning ref name day day mw pre commercial thinning conifers silvicides michigan state univ agric exp sta east lansing mi quarterly


bull ref mechanical chemical methods applied costliness militated ready adoption pruning pruning silvicultural practice refers removal lower branches young trees also giving shape tree clear knot free wood subsequently grow branch stubs clear knot free lumber higher value pruning extensively carried radiata pine plantations new zealand chile however development finger joint technology production lumber mouldings led many forestry companies reconsidering pruning


practices ''brashing'' alternative name process pruning done trees cost effectively limited number trees two types pruning natural self pruning artificial pruning cases self pruning happen branches receive enough sunlight die wind also take part natural pruning break branches artificial pruning people paid come cut branches natural trees planted close enough effect cause self pruning low branches


energy put growing light reasons branchiness stand conversion term ' 'stand conversion'' refers change one silvicultural system another includes ' 'species conversion'' ie change one species set species another ref name ford change effected intentionally various silvicultural means incidentally default eg high grading removed coniferous content mixedwood stand becomes exclusively self perpetuating aspen general sites likely considered conversion growth yield discussing yields


average cubic feet per acre sup sup ha sup sup ha average sup sup ha per year reasonable still somewhat optimistic principal way forest resource managers influence growth yield manipulate mixture species number density distribution stocking individuals form canopy stand ref name dav davis ls johnson kn forest management rd ed mcgraw hill new york ny p ref ref name burg burgess larocque gr brand dg forest growth future yields importance today 's regeneration practices p ''in'' wagner rg colombo sj eds regenerating canadian