church large portion daily office made either direct portions scripture psalms lections allusions scriptural passages themes hymnography contained octoechos triodion pentecostarion etc entire psalter read course week twice great lent entire new testament exception book revelation read course year numerous passages read old testament vespers services gospel book considered icon christ placed


position honour holy table altar gospel book traditionally covered leather skin dead animal word god considered life giving traditionally gospel covered gold cloth eastern orthodox christians encouraged read study bible daily especially making use writings holy fathers guidance recent essays written various contemporary eastern orthodox scholars attempt reconcile react creationist interpretation genesis darwinian theory human evolution

Humanities
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Eastern Orthodox theology


god trinity hospitality abraham icon andrei rublev three angels represent three persons god eastern orthodox christians believe monotheistic conception god god one transcendent wholly independent removed material universe immanent involved material universe ref name theokritoff ref discussing god 's relationship creation eastern orthodox theology distinguishes god 's eternal essence totally transcendent ''uncreated energies'' reaches humanity ref name theokritoff god transcendent god touches mankind one


ref name theokritoff energies something proceed god god produces rather god distinct yet inseparable god 's inner eastern orthodox christians believe single god three one triune father son holy spirit one essence undivided ref name theokritoff trinity three distinct divine persons ''hypostases'' without overlap modality among one divine essence ''ousia'' greek uncreated immaterial eternal father eternal begotten proceed son


eternal begotten father holy spirit eternal proceeds father ref name theokritoff eastern orthodox doctrine regarding trinity summarised nicene creed essence god beyond human comprehension cannot defined approached human understanding christology eastern orthodox christians believe word god one person two natures fully divine fully human perfectly god perfectly man united person jesus christ unique event known incarnation throughout


ages point contention schismatic christian theological factions heterodox mainstream body christian believers orthodox christ divine set desires spiritual incentives human fleshly drives human body human mind human spirit able tempted sin suffer way would way god said suffered died ''in flesh'' jesus although divine nature impassible immortal eastern orthodox christians believe jesus nazareth


promised messiah jews god israel come people redeemer human race saves world sin effects comprehensible self revelation incomprehensible god pre eternal son begotten father ages begotten son god begotten father worlds ons light light god god begotten made one substance father said begotten timelessly god without mother begotten history man without


father eastern orthodox christians believe betrayal trial execution burial resurrection jesus christ truly rose dead third day following crucifixion feast resurrection christ called easter germanic languages known ''pascha'' eastern orthodox church aramaic variant language spoken time jesus hebrew ''pesach'' meaning passover resurrection christ christian passover pascha called feast feasts considered greatest feast church 's liturgical feasts


including feasts nativity christmas annunciation essence energies discussing god 's relationship creation distinction made within eastern orthodox theology god 's eternal essence uncreated energies though understood compromise divine simplicity energies essence inseparably god divine energies expressions divine action according eastern orthodox doctrine whereas persons trinity divine nature hence created beings united god participation divine energies divine essence ''ousia''


theodicy eastern orthodox theologian olivier clement wrote eastern orthodox perspective concept theodicy problem evil stem misconceived anthropology man ref name fatheralexanderorg http wwwfatheralexanderorg booklets english parables potapovhtm gospel parables eastern orthodox commentary father victor potapov ref early history christian community gnostics attacked god jews story cosmic creation contained torah regarded god inferior allowing creation imperfect negative events occur western roman catholic philosophers augustine anselm canterbury thomas aquinas ref name theodicy pg


fatalist approach sin taught gnostics later strict augustinians god created ' 'sarx'' flesh provision humanity led spirit god remedy fallen state using time earth seek reconcile god even common ' 'sarx'' separates us eastern orthodox authors see theodicy exclusively western preoccupation pavel florensky ''the pillar ground truth essay orthodox theodicy twelve letters'' archbishop stylianos ''theodicy eschatology fundamental orthodox viewpoint'' https booksgooglecom booksid zxsq fdcx ic pg pa ''theodicy


eschatology'' australian theological forum press http wwwfirstthingscom onthesquare tsunami theodicy tsunami theodicy david b hart eastern orthodox theologian author ''the beauty infinite'' http digitalcommonsbutleredu cgi viewcontentcgiarticle context facsch papers lady wench practical theodicy russian literature paul valliere regard one fathers church http wwwscandaloncouk philosophy theodicy irenaeushtm irenaeus' theodicy sin eastern orthodox approach sin dealt shuns perceived western legalism following rules strictly without heart help believer salvation sin fundamentally transgressing divine law rather


stands behavior misses mark fails live higher goal conforming god 's nature love thus eastern orthodox tradition sin viewed primarily guilty stain soul needs wiped rather pervading sickness failure achieve goal truly human life fulfilling one 's divine design function created likeness god sin therefore implies impetus become something created rather guilt


violating commandment person 's experience unique conquering one 's sinful habits requires individual attention correction ultimate goal salvific process become divinized reflect divine likeness becoming christ like one 's thought life behavior traditional practice eastern orthodoxy apostolic churches spiritual mentor guide one confesses treats sin individual basis experienced spiritually mature guide know apply strictness dealing sin administer mercy original sin


union humanity divinity jesus christ mode existence humanity restored person christ incorporated may participate renewal perfect mode existence saved sin death united god deification theosis ancestral sin cleansed humans baptism case theotokos moment christ took form within man seen inherently guilty sin committed adam view differs roman catholic doctrine


original sin adam conceived federal head legal representative human race first articulated latin father augustine hippo according orthodox humanity inherited consequences adam 's sin guilt difference stems augustine 's interpretation latin translation romans mean adam men sinned whereas orthodox reading greek interpret meaning humanity sins consequence inheritance adam mortal nature orthodox church teach born


guilty deserving damnation protestant doctrines predestination derived augustinian theory original sin especially prominent lutheran calvinist traditions part orthodox belief book ''ancestral sin'' john romanides addresses concept original sin understands inheritance ancestral sin previous generations romanides asserts original sin understood innate guilt apostolic doctrine church cohesive eastern orthodox faith rather unfortunate innovation later church fathers augustine


patristic tradition hell professed east neither absence god ontological separation soul presence god rather opposite heaven hell fully manifest divine presence experienced either pleasantly peace joy unpleasantly shame anguish depending upon one 's spiritual state preparedness satan eastern orthodoxy satan one three enemies humanity along sin death salvation orthodox icon resurrection th century fresco chora church istanbul disrupted communion god eastern orthodox christians hold man


originally created communion god acting manner contrary nature intrinsically ordered communion god disrupted communion man 's refusal fulfill image likeness god within corruption sickness sin whose consequence death entered man 's mode existence jesus came world perfect man perfect god united divine hypostasis logos second person holy trinity assumption human nature human existence restored


enabling human beings bring creation fullness participation divinity incorporation jesus christ st athanasius salvation saved therefore refers process saved death corruption fate hell orthodox church believes teachings practices represent true path participation gifts god yet understood orthodox believe must orthodox participate salvation god merciful orthodox believe nothing person orthodox non orthodox


earn salvation rather gift god however gift relationship accepted believer since god force salvation humanity man free reject gift salvation continually offered god saved man must work together god ' 'synergeia'' whereby entire including effort actions perfectly conformed united divine vladimir lossky incarnation prior christ 's incarnation earth man 's fate died fall adam


separated god man distorted mode existence acting natural thus disobeying god humanity placed terrible inescapable position god however raised humanity 's fallen nature uniting divine nature human nature accomplished incarnation second person holy trinity assumed human nature thus becoming man whilst retaining divine nature proper divinity fundamental orthodox christians accept christ god man natures complete viewed


way escaping hell separation god incarnation unites humanity divinity orthodox christians believe incarnation everything different said st basil stated strive become little gods within god little jesus christs within jesus christ words orthodox christians must seek perfection things lives strive acquire godly virtue believed god assuming humanity makes possible man participate divinity orthodox christians believe becoming separate gods pagan sense rather


believe humans may participate divine energies god without loss personal particularity humans therefore become grace god nature god became man man might become god ''de incarnatione'' athanasius alexandria resurrection resurrection christ central event liturgical year orthodox church understood literal terms real historical event jesus christ son god crucified died descended hades rescued souls held consequence sinned


hades could restrain infinite god rose dead thus saving humanity events released humanity bonds hades came back living man god individual human may partake immortality would impossible without resurrection main promise held god new covenant humanity according orthodox christian tradition every holy day orthodox liturgical year relates resurrection directly indirectly every sunday year dedicated celebrating resurrection many


keeps blind pride salvation therefore merely escape eternal bondage death entrance life christ noetic renewal spiritual therapy central concept eastern christianity ''nous'' typically translated mind understanding apperceptive relational faculty attention awareness center heart spirit person ref name greekorthodoxchurchorg http wwwgreekorthodoxchurchorg neptic monasticismhtml ref nous eye soul person ref name metropolitan orthodox psychotherapy section knowledge god according st gregory palamas metropolitan metropolitan hierotheos published birth theotokos monastery greece january


http wwwpelagiaorg htm b enorthodox psychotherapy htm ref nous logical intuitive understanding ref name pelagiaorg humanity 's nous damaged adam 's sin fall damaged consciousness human birth receives nous healed nourished means illumination see ''theoria'' ref name intratextcom orthodox dogmatic theology concise exposition protopresbyter michael pomazansky appendices new currents russian philosophico theological thought philosophy theology http wwwintratextcom ixt eng p nhtm ref orthodox thought church offers therapeutic treatment pain suffering search value existence orthodox christianity healing


therapeutic works individual overcome passions ie evil thoughts pasts addictions ref name pelagiaorg reorientation self faith ''pistis'' sometimes used interchangeably noesis eastern christianity faith intuitive noetic experience nous spirit transformative faith gift god among uncreated operations according anti latin polemicist john romanides western christianity offer spiritual cure spiritual problems expresses salvation worldly religious goal pursuit happiness rather seeking attain vision god transcend self


spiritual work done reconcile heart mind putting mind heart contemplating intuition ref name pelagiaorg ref according lossky rationalism reduces man nature cold mechanical concepts interpretations symbols reality reality ref name intratextcom mother god theotokos vladimir one venerated orthodox christian icons virgin mary great many traditions revolve around ever virgin mary ''theotokos'' birth giver incarnation preeternal word god believed orthodox christians remained


virgin christ 's birth many church 's beliefs concerning virgin mary reflected apocryphal text nativity mary included scripture considered accurate description events child mary consecrated age three serve temple temple virgin zachariah time high priest temple unthinkable carried mary holy holies sign importance would become ark god would


sin however orthodox accept roman catholic doctrine immaculate conception theotokos subject original sin orthodox understand yet lived life stainless pure theology orthodox church important understand christ moment conception fully god fully man therefore orthodox christians believe correct say mary indeed theotokos birth giver god greatest humans ever lived except course


believed lived age seventy called apostles died according tradition saint thomas arrived late present death desiring kiss hand one last time opened tomb body gone orthodox believe assumed heaven bodily however unlike roman catholic church held dogmatically holy day usually referred feast dormition assumption saints relics deceased relics saint demetrius


thessalonika greece eastern orthodox church saint defined anyone currently heaven whether recognized earth definition adam eve moses various prophets martyrs faith angels archangels given title ''saint'' service orthodox church saint formally recognized entire church called ''glorification'' however make saint simply accords place calendar regular services honor recently order


use graves three five years due limited space bones respectfully washed placed ossuary often person 's name written skull occasionally body exhumed something believed miraculous occurs reveal person 's sainthood numerous occurrences exhumed bones said suddenly give wonderful fragrance like flowers sometimes body said found incorrupt despite embalmed traditionally orthodox embalm dead buried three years orthodox body


touch relics order move carry procession however veneration faithful kiss relic show love respect toward saint every altar every orthodox church contains relics usually martyr church building interiors covered icons saints orthodox church sees baptism infants adults moment one incorporated christ person baptised given new name usually name saint well birthdays orthodox celebrate day saint person


named person 's name day see also history eastern orthodox theology history eastern orthodox theology th century palamism essence energies distinction ''theosis'' eastern christian theology christian contemplation phronema mariology theological differences catholic church eastern orthodox church ecclesiastical differences catholic church eastern orthodox church notes references sources reading vladimir lossky ''the mystical theology eastern church'' st vladimir 's seminary press james clarke co ltd vladimir lossky ''orthodox theology introduction'' svs press vladimir lossky ''in image likeness god''


svs press vladimir lossky ''the vision god'' svs press kallistos ware ''the orthodox way'' st vladimir 's seminary press tr mother mary archimandrite kallistos ware ''the lenten triodion'' st tikhon 's seminary press first published faber faber ltd kallistos ware ''the inner kingdom collected works vol '' st vladimir 's seminary press kallistos ware ''in image trinity collected works vol '' st vladimir 's seminary press ''communion intercommunion'' light life bishop kallistos ware ''how saved understanding


salvation orthodox tradition'' light life protopresbyter michael pomazansky ''orthodox dogmatic theology concise exposition'' st herman alaska brotherhood press online version http wwwintratextcom ixt eng indexhtm ''let light orthodox christian theory human evolution st century'' theandros summer https webarchiveorg web http theandroscom protozoehtml external links http orthodoxeuropeorg page aspx online orthodox catechism published russian orthodox church


selection weapons collected security officers airport '''weapon''' '''arm''' '''armament''' implement device used intent inflict physical damage harm weapons used increase efficacy efficiency activities hunting crime law enforcement self defense warfare broader context weapons may construed include anything used gain tactical strategic material mental advantage adversary enemy target ordinary objects sticks rocks bottles chairs vehicles used weapons many expressly designed

Applied science
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purpose range simple implements clubs axes swords complicated modern firearms tanks intercontinental ballistic missiles biological weapons cyberweapons something purposed converted enhanced become weapon war termed '''weaponized''' weaponized virus weaponized laser history use weapons major driver cultural evolution human history today since weapons type tool used dominate subdue autonomous agents animals allow expansion cultural niche


simultaneously weapon users ie agents humans groups cultures able adapt weapons enemies learning triggering continuous process competitive technological skill cognitive improvement arms race prehistoric array neolithic artifacts including bracelets axe heads chisels polishing tools use objects weapons observed among chimpanzees ref name pruetz ref leading speculation early hominids used weapons early five million years ago however confirmed using physical evidence wooden clubs spears unshaped stones would left ambiguous record


earliest unambiguous weapons found sch ningen spears eight wooden throwing spears dating back years site nataruk turkana kenya numerous human skeletons dating years ago may present evidence traumatic injuries head neck ribs knees hands including obsidian projectiles embedded bones might caused arrows clubs conflict two hunter gatherer groups evidence interpretation warfare nataruk challenged ancient history four wheeled ballista drawn armored cataphract horses earliest ancient


weapons evolutionary improvements late neolithic implements significant improvements materials crafting techniques led series revolutions military technology development metal tools began copper copper age nbsp bc followed bronze age leading creation bronze age sword similar weapons bronze age first defensive structures fortifications appeared well ref name ashow siegecraft ref indicating increased need security weapons designed breach fortifications followed soon battering ram use nbsp bc ref name ashow siegecraft


development iron working around bc greece important impact development ancient weapons introduction early iron age swords however superior bronze predecessors rather domestication horse widespread use spoked wheels c bc led creation light horse drawn chariot whose improved mobility proved important era ref name whedbee p ref spoke wheeled chariot usage peaked around nbsp bc declined ceasing militarily relevant th century bc cavalry developed horses


bred support weight human horse extended range increased speed attacks addition land based weaponry warships trireme use th century bc post classical history medieval indian weapons ancient chinese cannon displayed tower london european warfare post classical history dominated elite groups knights supported massed infantry combat ranged roles involved mobile combat sieges involved various siege weapons tactics knights horseback developed tactics charging


lances providing impact enemy formations drawing practical weapons swords entered melee contrast infantry age structured formations relied cheap sturdy weapons spears billhooks close combat bows distance armies became professional equipment standardized infantry transitioned pikes pikes normally seven eight feet length used conjunction smaller side arms short sword eastern middle eastern warfare similar tactics developed independent european influences introduction


gunpowder asia end period revolutionized warfare formations musketeers protected pikemen came dominate open battles cannon replaced trebuchet dominant siege weapon modern history early modern european renaissance marked beginning implementation firearms western warfare guns rockets introduced battlefield firearms qualitatively different earlier weapons release energy combustible propellants gunpowder rather counter weight spring energy released rapidly replicated without much


attached rifle polearm since mid th century north american french indian war beginning th century human powered weapons reduced primary weaponry battlefield yielding gunpowder based weaponry sometimes referred age rifles period characterized development firearms infantry cannons support well beginnings mechanized weapons machine gun particular note howitzers able destroy masonry fortresses fortifications single invention caused revolution military affairs rma establishing tactics


doctrine still use today ''see technology world war detailed discussion'' industrial age vickers successor maxim gun remained british military service consecutive years assault rifle cz bren produced czech republic important feature industrial age warfare technological escalation innovations rapidly matched replication countered another innovation technological escalation world war ww profound including wide introduction aircraft warfare naval warfare introduction aircraft carriers world war


world war marked entry fully industrialized warfare well weapons mass destruction ''eg'' chemical biological weapons new weapons developed quickly meet wartime needs promised military commanders independence horse resurgence maneuver warfare extensive use motor vehicles changes military technologies underwent second world war evolutionary defined development rest century interwar period innovation weapon design continued inter war period ww


realistic critics understood war could really outlawed worst excesses might banned poison gas became focus worldwide crusade poison gas win battles generals want soldiers hated far intensely bullets explosive shells chemical shells made per cent french ammunition supplies per cent british per cent american stock protocol prohibition use war asphyxiating poisonous gases bacteriological


allies continually attempted develop field nuclear armaments joint technological capabilities reached point able ensure destruction earth x fold new tactic developed realization armaments development funding shifted back primarily sponsoring development conventional arms technologies support limited wars rather total war ref name nucleardefunding ref types user '' person unit uses weapon'' personal weapons small arms designed used single person light weapons 'man portable'


weapons may require small team operate heavy weapons artillery similar weapons larger light weapons see salw hunting weapon used hunters sport getting food crew served weapons larger personal weapons requiring two people operate correctly fortification weapons mounted permanent installation used primarily within fortification mountain weapons use mountain forces operating difficult terrain vehicle weapons mounted type combat vehicle railway weapons designed mounted railway cars including


armored trains aircraft weapons carried used type aircraft helicopter aerial vehicle naval weapons mounted ships submarines space weapons designed used launched space autonomous weapons capable accomplishing mission limited human intervention function '' construction weapon principle operation'' antimatter weapons theoretical would combine matter antimatter cause powerful explosion archery weapons operate using tensioned string bent solid launch projectile artillery firearms


capable launching heavy projectiles long distances biological weapons spread biological agents causing disease infection chemical weapons poisoning causing reactions energy weapons rely concentrating forms energy attack lasers sonic attack explosive weapons use physical explosion create blast concussion spread shrapnel firearms use chemical charge launch projectiles improvised weapons common objects reused weapons crowbars kitchen knives incendiary weapons cause damage fire non lethal weapons designed subdue without killing magnetic weapons use magnetic fields propel projectiles focus particle


beams melee weapons operate physical extensions user 's body directly impact close target blade weapons designed pierce flesh cause bleeding blunt instruments designed break bones concuss produce crush injuries missiles rockets guided target launch also general term projectile weapons loitering munitions designed loiter battlefield striking target located nuclear weapons use radioactive materials create nuclear fission nuclear fusion detonations primitive weapons make little use technological industrial elements ranged weapons unlike melee weapons


target distant object person rockets use chemical propellant accelerate projectile suicide weapons exploit willingness operator surviving attack target '' type target weapon designed attack'' anti aircraft weapons target missiles aerial vehicles flight anti fortification weapons designed target enemy installations anti personnel weapons designed attack people either individually numbers anti radiation weapons target sources electronic radiation particularly radar emitters anti satellite weapons target orbiting satellites anti ship weapons target ships vessels water anti submarine weapons target submarines underwater


also substantial trade weapons use citizens self defence hunting sporting purposes contracts supply given country 's military awarded governments making arms contracts substantial political importance link politics arms trade result development military industrial complex armed forces commerce politics become closely linked according research institute sipri volume international transfers major weapons percent higher arms sales world largest private arms producing military services companies


totalled billion legislation production possession trade use many weapons controlled may local central government level international treaty examples controls include right self defense knife legislation air gun laws gun law arms trafficking laws arms control treaties space preservation treaty gun laws countries laws policies regulating aspects manufacture sale transfer possession modification use small arms civilians countries regulate access firearms typically restrict access certain categories firearms


restrict categories persons may granted license access firearms may separate licenses hunting sport shooting aka target shooting self defense collecting concealed carry different sets requirements permissions responsibilities arms control laws international treaties agreements place restrictions upon development production stockpiling proliferation usage weapons small arms heavy weapons weapons mass destruction arms control typically exercised use diplomacy seeks impose limitations upon consenting participants although may also comprise efforts nation


group nations enforce limitations upon non consenting country arms trafficking laws arms trafficking trafficking contraband weapons ammunition constitutes legal trade firearms varies widely depending local national laws lifecycle problems number issue around potential ongoing risks deployed weapons safe storage weapons eventual disposal longer effective safe ocean dumping unused weapons bombs including ordinary bombs uxo landmines chemical weapons common practice many nations often caused hazards ref name ref ref name wbgh ref unexploded ordnance


uxo bombs land mines naval mines similar explode employed still pose risk many years decades demining mine clearance areas past conflict difficult process every year landmines kill people severely maim countless nuclear terrorism serious concern fall soviet union prospect loose nukes available risk may receded similar situation may arise future science fiction strange exotic weapons recurring feature


theme science fiction cases weapons first introduced science fiction made reality science fiction weapons remain purely fictional often beyond realms known physical possibility prosaic science fiction features endless variety sidearms mostly variations real weapons guns swords among best known phaser used ''star trek'' television series films novels lightsaber blaster featured ''star wars'' movies comics novels tv series addition adding action entertainment


value weaponry science fiction sometimes become themes touch deeper concerns often motivated contemporary issues one example science fiction deals weapons mass destruction see also arms industry list martial arts weapons list practice weapons lists weapons military technology riot control toy weapon weapon mount offensive weapons references external links military equipment security


order multiplications necessary example expressions ''ab'' ''cd'' ''a'' ''bc'' ' 'd'' ''a'' ''b'' ''cd'' may yield different answers use ''non associative'' means associativity assumed mean associativity disallowed words non associative means necessarily associative noncommutative means necessarily commutative noncommutative rings algebra ''unital'' ''unitary'' identity element ''e'' ''ex'' ''x'' ''xe'' ''x'' algebra example octonions unital lie algebras never nonassociative algebra structure ''a'' may studied

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Non-associative algebra


associating associative algebras subalgebras full algebra ''k'' endomorphisms ''a'' ''k'' vector space two '' 'derivation algebra''' ''' associative enveloping algebra''' latter sense smallest associative algebra containing ''a'' generally authors consider concept non associative algebra commutative ring ''r'' ''r'' module equipped ''r'' bilinear binary multiplication operation structure obeys ring axioms apart associativity example ''r'' algebra naturally math mathbb z math algebra authors refer non associative math mathbb z math algebras


'''non associative rings''' algebras satisfying identities ring like structures two binary operations restrictions broad class one general study reason best known kinds non associative algebras satisfy identities properties simplify multiplication somewhat include following ones usual properties let denote arbitrary elements algebra field let powers positive non zero integer recursively defined ''x'' either ''x''''x'' right powers ''xx'' left powers depending authors


unital exist element ''x'' ''xe'' case define ''e'' associative ''x'' ''yz'' commutative ''yx'' anticommutative ''yx'' jacobi identity depending authors jordan identity ''y'' ''x'' ''x'' ''yx'' ''x'' ''yx'' depending authors alternative ''x'' ''xy'' left alternative ''y'' ''xx'' right alternative flexible ''x'' ''yx'' th power associative ''x'' ''x'' integers third power associative ''x'' ''xx'' fourth power associative ''x'' ''x''''x'' ''xx'' compare ''fourth power commutative''


power associative subalgebra generated element associative ie ''th power associative'' th power commutative ''x'' ''x''''x'' integers third power commutative ''x'' ''xx'' fourth power commutative ''x'' ''xx'' compare ''fourth power associative'' power commutative subalgebra generated element commutative ie ''th power commutative'' nilpotent index product elements association vanishes elements ''x'' ''x'' exist elements ''y'' ''y''


specific association nil index ''power associative'' exist element relations properties characteristic ''associative'' implies ''alternative'' two three properties ''left alternative'' ''right alternative'' ''flexible'' imply third one thus ''alternative'' implies ''flexible'' ''alternative'' implies ''jordan identity'' ''commutative'' implies ''flexible'' ''anticommutative'' implies ''flexible'' ''alternative'' implies ''power associative'' ''flexible'' implies ''third power associative'' ''second power associative'' ' 'second power commutative'' always true ''third power associative'' ''third power commutative'' equivalent ''th power associative''


''anticommutative'' incompatible ''unital'' ''jacobi identity'' incompatible ''commutative'' ''x''''x'' one two identities defining ''fourth power associative'' together imply ''power associative'' ''third power associative'' ''x''''x'' one two identities defining ''fourth power associative'' together imply ''power associative'' ''commutative'' ''anticommutative'' equivalent associator '''associator''' ''a'' ''k'' multilinear map math cdot cdot cdot times times math given ''xy'' ''z'' ''x'' ''yz'' measures degree nonassociativity math math


used conveniently express possible identities satisfied ''a'' let denote arbitrary elements algebra associative alternative left alternative right alternative implies permuting two terms changes sign ''x''''z''''y'' ''z''''y''''x'' ''y''''x''''z'' converse holds flexible implies permuting extremal terms changes sign ''z''''y''''x'' converse holds jordan identity ''y''''x'' depending authors third power associative '''nucleus''' set


elements associate others ''a'' ''a''''n''''a'' ''a''''a''''n'' nucleus associative subring ''a'' center '''center''' ''a'' set elements commute associate everything ''a'' intersection math c n nr rn forall r math nucleus turns elements ''c '' enough two sets math naa ana aan math math math


third also zero set examples euclidean space '''r''' sup sup multiplication given vector cross product example algebra anticommutative associative cross product also satisfies jacobi identity lie algebras algebras satisfying anticommutativity jacobi identity algebras vector fields differentiable manifold ''k'' '''r''' complex numbers '''c''' algebraic variety general ''k'' jordan algebras algebras satisfy commutative law jordan identity every associative algebra gives rise lie algebra using


commutator lie bracket fact every lie algebra either constructed way subalgebra lie algebra constructed every associative algebra field characteristic gives rise jordan algebra defining new multiplication ''xy'' ''xy'' ''yx'' contrast lie algebra case every jordan algebra constructed way called ' 'special'' alternative algebras algebras satisfying alternative property important examples alternative algebras octonions algebra reals generalizations octonions


fields associative algebras alternative isomorphism finite dimensional real alternative division algebras see reals complexes quaternions octonions power associative algebras algebras satisfying power associative identity examples include associative algebras alternative algebras jordan algebras field gf see previous section sedenions hyperbolic quaternion algebra '''r''' experimental algebra adoption minkowski space special relativity classes algebras graded algebras include algebras interest multilinear algebra tensor algebra


symmetric algebra exterior algebra given vector space graded algebras generalized filtered algebras division algebras multiplicative inverses exist finite dimensional alternative division algebras field real numbers classified real numbers dimension complex numbers dimension quaternions dimension octonions dimension quaternions octonions commutative algebras associative except octonions quadratic algebras require ''xx'' ' 're'' ' 'sx'' elements ''r'' ' 's'' ground field ''e''


carry two multiplications turning commutative algebras lie algebras different ways genetic algebras non associative algebras used mathematical genetics triple systems properties several properties may familiar ring theory associative algebras always true non associative algebras unlike associative case elements two sided multiplicative inverse might also zero divisor example non zero elements sedenions two sided inverse also zero divisors free non associative algebra '''free non associative algebra''' set ''x''


field ''k'' defined algebra basis consisting non associative monomials finite formal products elements ''x'' retaining parentheses product monomials ''u'' ''v'' ''u'' ''v'' algebra unital one takes empty product monomial kurosh proved every subalgebra free non associative algebra free associated algebras algebra ''a'' field ''k'' particular ''k'' vector space one consider associative algebra end sub ''k'' sub ''a'' ''k'' linear vector space endomorphism ''a'' associate algebra structure ''a''


two subalgebras end sub ''k'' sub ''a'' '' 'derivation algebra''' ''' associative enveloping algebra''' derivation algebra ' 'derivation'' ''a'' map ''d'' property math x cdot x cdot x cdot math derivations ''a'' form subspace der sub ''k'' sub ''a'' end sub ''k'' sub ''a'' commutator two derivations derivation lie bracket gives der sub ''k'' sub ''a'' structure lie algebra enveloping algebra linear maps ''l'' ''r'' attached element ''a'' algebra ''a'' math l x mapsto ax r


x mapsto xa math ''associative enveloping algebra'' ''multiplication algebra'' ''a'' associative algebra generated left right linear maps ''centroid'' ''a'' centraliser enveloping algebra endomorphism algebra end sub ''k'' sub ''a'' algebra ''central'' centroid consists ''k'' scalar multiples identity possible identities satisfied non associative algebras may conveniently expressed terms linear maps commutative ''l'' ''a'' equal corresponding ''r'' ''a'' associative ''l'' commutes ''r'' flexible every ''l'' ''a'' commutes


corresponding ''r'' ''a'' jordan every ''l'' ''a'' commutes ''r'' ''a'' sup sup alternative every ''l'' ''a'' sup sup ''l'' ''a'' sup sup similarly right ''quadratic representation'' ''q'' defined math q x mapsto cdot cdot x cdot cdot x math equivalently math q l l math article universal enveloping algebras describes canonical construction enveloping algebras well pbw type theorems lie algebras enveloping algebras universal property hold general non associative algebras best known example perhaps albert


algebra exceptional jordan algebra enveloped canonical construction enveloping algebra jordan algebras see also list algebras commutative non associative magmas give rise non associative algebras citations notes references


'''indigenous psychology''' defined kim berry scientific study human behavior mind native transported regions designed people ref name kimberry kim u berry j w indigenous psychologies experience research cultural context newbury park ca sage ref indigenous psychology generally advocates examining knowledge skills beliefs people studying natural contexts theories concepts methods developed correspond psychological phenomena indigenous psychology explicitly advocates incorporating content context research

Social science
Psychology
Indigenous psychology


indigenous psychology considered necessary since existing psychological theories necessarily universal may often represent psychology cultural traditions europe north america indigenous psychology seeks discover cultural views theories assumptions classifications coupled overarching social institutions influence psychological topics respective culture ref name lawsongrahambaker indigenous psychologies rooted systematic influences formal political educational institutions well social factors continue change state psychology psychologies grow basic political economic religious social components culture ref


name lawsongrahambaker baker kristin graham jean e lawson robert b history psychology globalization ideas applications pp nbsp upper saddle river nj pearson ref indigenous psychologies usually use two distinct categories psychological knowledge scientific applied knowledge reflected scientific professional psychology many indigenous countries prioritize two categories usually based application psychological knowledge overcome challenges facing culture strengthening education employment health population control religious conflict rather attempting fund new scientific research limited resources ref name lawsongrahambaker differences indigenous cultures similar


aspiration address forces shape affective behavioral cognitive human systems turn underlie attitudes behaviors beliefs expectations values members unique culture ref name lawsongrahambaker psychology fundamental issues heart focus indigenous psychology movement kim yang hwang distinguish characteristics indigenous psychology ref name kimyanghwang kim u yang k hwang k k contributions indigenous cultural psychology u kim k yang k k hwang eds indigenous cultural psychology understanding people context pp nbsp new york springer ref emphasizes examining


psychological phenomena ecological historical cultural context indigenous psychology needs developed cultural native ethnic groups advocates use multiple methods advocates integration insiders outsiders multiple perspectives obtain comprehensive integrated understanding acknowledges people complex sophisticated understanding necessary translate practical episodic understanding analytical knowledge part scientific tradition advocates multiple perspectives multiple psychologies absolute relativism although descriptive analysis starting point


research final goal discover psychological universals theoretically empirically verified part cultural sciences tradition human agency meaning context incorporated research design advocates linkage humanities focus human experience creativity social sciences focus empirical analysis verification two starting points research indigenous psychology identified indigenization without indigenization within although debate within indigenous psychology movement whether indigenous psychology represents universalistic


relativistic approach ref name chakkarath chakkarath p role indigenous psychologies building basic cultural psychology j valsiner ed oxford handbook culture psychology pp nbsp new york ny oxford university press ref characteristics advocated majority indigenous psychology movement political economic instability greatly hindered development psychology science latin america south africa indian asian psychology problem phenomenon present across majority non northwestern indigenous psychologies creating unstable societies ref name lawsongrahambaker lack national


capital creates shortage influential professional fields like psychology propagates science leading countries nations united states flourish economically affect poorer less flourishing countries interject western ideologies indigenous nations trade allwood berry note six sources influence development global indigenous psychologies ref name allwoodberry allwood cm berry jw origins development indigenous psychologies international analysis international journal psychology ref changes developing countries stimulated endogenous indigenous rethinking social


economic conditions social behavioral scientists dissatisfaction learned western disciplines solving problems homelands growing dissatisfaction unquestioned imitative explicative nature psychological research deeply rooted western psychology self reflection social cultural characteristics beyond western psychological construction awareness western psychologists nature psychology 'monocultural' 'euro american' 'indigenous psychology west' parochial insular stands western psychology disregarded interests research done


countries languages individual indigenous culture maintains emic explanations solutions psychological behavioral issues western psychology needs shift learn understand indigenous cultures setting allwood berry state science dual responsibility understand people terms search general principles human behavior development indigenous psychology valuable right may also collectively serve building blocks creating general psychology ref name allwoodberry south africa specifically


apartheid major downfall psychology period time intentionally neglected isolated field psychology afrikaner national party gained power created system apartheid maintain control country social economic political system ref name lawsongrahambaker india asian psychology three strands psychology defined rao ref name lawsongrahambaker general psychology universal relevance application country region specific psychology study geographically bound persons native based weltanschauung psychology driven understanding geographically bound persons yet


highly theoretical philosophical component order different countries better focus psychological standpoints different programs need instituted persons need become involved becoming psychologists current future states indigenous psychologies require sustained growth scientific research base pace applied professional interventions ref name lawsongrahambaker indigenous psychologies alike include two different categories psychological knowledge explicitly scientific applied knowledge reflected scientific professional psychology indigenous psychology prioritizes two distinctive way trends exist


heelas lock consists cultural views theories classifications assumptions coupled overarching social institutions influence psychological topics respective culture ref name lawsongrahambaker indigenous psychologies existed long time recently studied context global psychology international psychology influences indigenous psychology within indigenous psychology unique histories social mores needs practicalities certain culture addressed example many indian psychologists western training incorporated instruction include aspects indian culture necessarily relevant


western psychology learned place emphasis extended family community suited societal norms indian culture western culture ref name lawsongrahambaker western european american psychologies historically resources advance psychology applied fields scientifically case many indigenous psychologies example india population well one billion seventy universities teaching psychology lack trained professionals demands impoverished population left psychologists india


struggling meet needs citizens often taken priority scientific advancement indigenous psychology useful studying impact political economic religious social aspects specific society south africa example political racial turmoil decades centuries enduring violence apartheid development indigenous psychology focus limit influence western concepts encourage cultivation socially appropriate methods area according lawson graham baker south african psychology address specific issues related apartheid violence poverty racism


hiv aids overcome social unrest issues also addressed include addressing lingering individual trauma associated apartheid using inclusionary theory versus exclusionary policies past psychologies ref name lawsongrahambaker important understand importance globalization exploring indigenous psychologies may article monitor apa senior director international affairs merry bullock discusses globalization psychology ref name bullock bullock may toward global psychology american psychological association retrieved november apa website http wwwapaorg monitor may ceoaspx ref article defines globalization movement people


opportunities incorporating western psychological ideals ingenious psychologies writes ref name bullock future psychology expanding worldwide contributing formation psychologies tailored fit culture around world yet linked evolving global psychology ref name lawsongrahambaker understanding indigenous psychologies finding way incorporate already established psychological knowledge positively change field psychology important necessary find way indigenous psychologies global psychologies mix must careful assimilation predecessors follow result


desire mix differing cultural ideals assimilation refers processes whereby groups distinctive identities become culturally socially fused ref name hughes michael hughes c j sociology core th ed new york ny mcgraw hill ref assimilation occurs forces structural context society change often forcing cultural traditions undergo new development assimilation occurs often dominant group less controlling group interact provides way better social interaction communication happen often cause one culture losing traditions original beliefs


related indigenous psychology field called critical psychology branch psychology investigates psychology focuses individual disregards power differentials social racial impacts psychopathology branch may applicable specifically south africa due apartheid authors painter terre blanche analyze critical psychology compare call mainstream psychology describe steps taken apply social political economical racial influences field south africa concern psychology south africa mirroring psychology uk us would


psychological knowledge overcome challenges facing country strengthening education employment health population control ethnic religious conflicts rather allocating limited resources expand research psychology indigenous psychologies evolved profession science instability country greatly hinders development psychology indigenous psychologies may influenced western psychology develop better fit culture native american psychology concept parallel lives useful one understanding recent native american experience better understand native american indigenous ways knowing


impacted historical events following arrival european settlers north american continent ed edmo well known native american storyteller author poet comparing experience deliberate flooding celilo falls near dalles oregon order build dam friend lani roberts european american writes lives lived parallel fashion differences ethnic heritage grew geographical space lived radically different worlds result profound racism native people suffered ref


name xing xing j gonzales berry e eds seeing color indigenous peoples racialized ethnic minorities oregon lanham maryland university press america inc ref excellent resource better understanding native american psychology terms pathology stemming large part traumas inflicted native american peoples result contact european settlers harold napoleon 's book ''yuuyaraq way human being'' harold napoleon yup'ik eskimo wrote book try make sense profound sadness people understand came cause


alcohol ref name napoleon napoleon h yuuyaraq way human fairbanks alaska alaska native knowledge network ref napoleon writes yuuyaraq way human encompassed spirit world yup'ik lived outlined way living harmony spirit world spirit beings inhabited world ref name napoleon despite traumas inflicted native peoples great death forced migration relocation trail tears reservation life connection spirit something native americans common racial ethnic minority


groups united states african americans asian americans latino hispanic americans place strong emphasis interplay interdependence spiritual life healthy functioning ref name suesue sue w sue counseling culturally diverse theory practice hoboken new jersey john wiley sons inc ref west incorporating religion rational decision making process conduct therapy generally seen unscientific unprofessional spiritual indigenous healing methods beginning seen much offer western forms mental health practice ref name suesue


contributions valuable multiple belief systems exist society also counseling psychotherapy historically neglected spiritual dimension human existence ref name suesue certain western psychology much learn pathological well positive psychological traits associated specific indigenous psychological experiences ways knowing interest bridging gap contemporary forms therapy traditional non western indigenous healing derald wing sue david sue propose following guidelines western trained therapists dealing clients non western indigenous cultures ref


name suesue invalidate indigenous belief systems culturally diverse clients become knowledgeable indigenous beliefs healing practices realize learning indigenous healing beliefs entails experiential lived realities avoid overpathologizing underpathologizing culturally diverse client 's problems willing consult traditional healers make use services recognize spirituality intimate aspect human condition legitimate aspect mental health work willing expand definition helping role community work involvement another important contributor native american indigenous psychology


rupert ross although canada ross' efforts remain relevant many native american cultures especially alaska ross working crown attorney first nations went beyond confines current criminal justice system explore aboriginal people forced adhere ref name ross ross rupert dancing ghost exploring aboriginal reality canada penguin group ref ref name ross ross rupert returning teaching exploring aboriginal justice canada penguin group ref ross found physiological psychological differences prevented aboriginal people proper justice ref name ross ethics non interference anger shown respecting


praise gratitude conservation withdrawal tactic notion time must right rules guided traditional time ref name ross although assimilating degree ross suggested perhaps areas knowledge nation could learn ref name ross even western scientific method studying cause effect differed first nation believed humans give cause hence effect environment ref name ross ross wrote two books subject entitled ''dancing ghost exploring aboriginal reality'' ref name ross ''returning


need elaboration latin america come long way comes indigenous psychologies basically jump loopholes faced democracy experienced people worked field killed studying psychology along hardship losing teachers n't funding needed expand working together people latin america make happen sticking together get field study back feet ref name lawsongrahambaker latin american psychology


developed profession faster science ref name lawsongrahambaker latin america high social demand professional psychologists helped fuel need psychology research especially needed latin america constant changing social economic conditions ref name lawsongrahambaker research latin america recently become implemented order help population control economic development community psychology freire liberation psychology came th century original attempt focus issues overcrowding land reform


violence ref name lawsongrahambaker martin baro defined liberation psychology paradigm theories define problems situation rather problems demand select theorization martin baro many countries since taken theory thus created unique indigenous psychologies indian asian psychology indian asian psychology like south african latin american psychology suffers lack resources stemming political economic instability india asia ref name lawsongrahambaker though true indian asian especially chinese psychologies initially influenced european american psychology local


also important recognize shift taken place western psychology indian asian psychology currently many formal western training molded instruction better fit culture thereby integrating cultural traditional components practices ref name lawsongrahambaker three different strand psychology developed specific particular region general psychology country region specific psychology native based weltanschauung psychology ref name lawsongrahambaker indian asian people strong ties culture going countries tend look


things many centuries using different types studies psychology different still look friends family input advice needs happen strong countries ref name lawsongrahambaker south african psychology according robert b lawson jean e graham kristin baker psychology strongly influenced nation 's political turmoil particularly past sixty years ref name lawsongrahambaker colonial apartheid capitalist patriarchal forces influenced south african psychology resulting formation psychology


faced adversity apartheid period intentionally neglected isolated field psychology south africa first held democratic elections mid problems facing psychology science profession merely beginning surface ref name lawsongrahambaker south african psychology apartheid period dominated political influences selective economic sanctions segregation people exiled native land influences apartheid period resulted grossly underdeveloped psychological field time fall apartheid ref name lawsongrahambaker approximately psychologists population


african perspectives south africa desperate need psychologists willing able assist overcoming aftermath apartheid especially issues violence poverty racism hiv aids ref name lawsongrahambaker resources available south african psychologists limited due past apartheid constraints measures taken expand number psychologists trained basic researchers field clinical psychologists ref name lawsongrahambaker psychologists south africa race respond social pressures constraints placed field apartheid aftermath multiple efforts underway


develop south african psychology profession science ref name lawsongrahambaker south africa tough times bring president working hard get country back feet apartheid many racial issues needed resolved people 's trains thought need improved psychology one answers working get going even taken ref name lawsongrahambaker south africa apartheid system effects psychology apartheid system


longer able live south africa sent back african homelands causing lose citizenship exiled ref name lawsongrahambaker around anti apartheid era began helped reintegrate blacks south african society receiving pressure united states great britain apartheid system ruled south africa started become undone constitution south africa rewritten helped usher nelson mandela country 's political leader country control completely outlawed remainders apartheid system ref name lawsongrahambaker


apartheid system still place south african psychology became extremely underdeveloped due political power controlling everything society little diversity amongst psychologists south africa majority practicing psychologists white practice clinical psychology rather focusing research ref name lawsongrahambaker allow much chance many psychological breakthroughs findings come south africa apartheid system abolished new democratic system place education psychology revamped improving


field greatly efforts made encourage south africans especially blacks join research field psychology advocates hoping efforts help improve basic applied psychological research allow psychology south africa branch beyond ref name lawsongrahambaker filipino psychology philippine experience proven approaching psychology using western models cannot incorporate intricacies asian cultures ref name pe puaprotacio marcelino pe pua r protacio marcelino e sikolohiyang pilipino filipino psychology legacy virgilio g enriquez asian journal social psychology doi x ref addition many commentators thought


different west filipino psychology subjects treated active participants research undertaking called ''kalahok'' considered equal status researcher participants included research group individuals hence ''umpukan'' natural cluster required serve participants per se researcher merely acts facilitator introduced ''umpukan'' ''tulay'' 'bridge' also part ''umpukan'' esteemed member community studied ref name javier javier r


dsm iv clinical psychology review ref ref name poznyakreedclark poznyak v reed g clark n applying international public health perspective proposed changes dsm v addiction ref american psychiatric association 's diagnostic statistical manual mental disorders dsm continues used overarching framework mental illness across cultures may suppress distort indigenous understandings mental illness psychopathological processes virtue culture specific origin oversight dsm culturally bound within western ontological paradigms thus may whole part appropriate diverse


needs cultures ref name thakkerward possible imperative indigenous psychologies find meaningful points integration western psychologies may include systematic operationalization mental illness within rigorous diagnostic criteria ref name lawsongrahambaker however integration towards global psychology overarching cross cultural framework psychological phenomena transcendent specific cultural ontologies may require inclusion paradigms methodologies exist apart traditional western scientific understandings rigor moreover diagnostic criteria remain important point conversation controversy global psychology jeopardizes basic ability researchers generalize categorize


prevalence incidence mental illness global context ref name poznyakreedclark references cross cultural psychology anthropology


'''socialist economics''' comprises economic theories practices norms hypothetical existing socialist economic systems socialist economic system characterized social ownership operation means production ref name nove ref may take form autonomous cooperatives direct public ownership wherein production carried directly use rather profit socialist systems utilize markets allocating capital goods factors production among economic units designated market socialism planning utilized economic system designated socialist planned economy non market forms socialism usually include system

Social science
Economics
Socialist economics


accounting based calculation kind value resources goods socialist economics associated different schools economic thought marxian economics provided foundation socialism based analysis capitalism neoclassical economics evolutionary economics provided comprehensive models socialism th century proposals models socialist planned market economies based heavily neoclassical economics synthesis neoclassical economics marxian institutional economics term socialist economics may also applied analysis former existing economic systems implemented socialist states


works hungarian economist j nos kornai th century american individualist anarchist benjamin tucker connected classical economics adam smith ricardian socialists well pierre joseph proudhon karl marx josiah warren socialism held two schools socialist thought namely anarchist socialism state socialism maintaining common labor theory value socialists disagree degree social control regulation economy necessary far society intervene whether government particularly existing government correct vehicle


change issues disagreement history socialist economic thought karl marx friedrich engels believed hunter gatherer societies primitive agricultural societies communal called primitive communism engels wrote length book ''the origin family private property state'' based unpublished notes marx work lewis henry morgan values ' 'socialism'' roots pre capitalist institutions religious communes reciprocal obligations communal charity medieval europe development economic theory primarily reflects responds


monumental changes brought dissolution feudalism emergence specifically capitalist social relations commonly regarded movement belonging modern era many socialists considered advocacy preservation extension radical humanist ideas expressed enlightenment doctrine jean jacques rousseau 's ''discourse inequality'' wilhelm von humboldt 's ''limits state action'' immanuel kant 's insistent defense french revolution capitalism appeared mature form result problems raised industrial factory system requiring long term investment entailing corresponding risks


introduced internationalized commercial mercantilist framework historically speaking pressing needs new system assured supply elements industry land elaborate machinery labour imperatives led commodification elements according influential socialist economic historian karl polanyi 's classic account forceful transformation land money especially labour commodities allocated autonomous market mechanism alien inhuman rupture pre existing social fabric marx viewed process similar light referring part process


primitive accumulation whereby enough initial capital amassed begin capitalist production dislocation polyani others describe triggered natural counter movements efforts embed economy society counter movements included example luddite rebellions incipient socialist movements time movements gave birth acquired array intellectual defenders attempted develop ideas theory polanyi noted counter movements mostly reactive therefore full fledged socialist movements demands went wish mitigate capitalist market 's worst effects later full socialist program


developed arguing systemic transformation theorists believed even markets private property could tamed excessively exploitative crises could effectively mitigated capitalist social relations would remain significantly unjust anti democratic suppressing universal human needs fulfilling empowering creative work diversity solidarity within context socialism undergone four periods first th century period utopian visions occurred rise revolutionary socialist communist movements th century primary opposition rise corporations industrialization


polarisation socialism around question soviet union adoption socialist social democratic policies response response socialism neoliberal era present socialism developed socialist system economics utopian socialism first theories came hold term socialism began formulated late th century termed socialism early th century central beliefs socialism period rested exploitation labored owned capital rented land


housing abject misery poverty disease laboring classes seemed destined inspiration series schools thought argued life class masters capitalists becoming called would consist working classes driven subsistence wages see iron law wages socialist ideas found expression utopian movements often formed agricultural communes aimed self sufficient land included many religious movements christian socialism shakers america hutterites zionist kibbutzim


communes counterculture also manifestations utopian socialist ideas utopian socialism little offer terms systematic theory economic phenomena theory economic problems dissolved utopian society transcended material scarcity practice small communities common spirit could sometimes resolve allocation problems socialism classical political economy first organized theories socialist economics significantly impacted classical economic theory including elements adam smith robert malthus david ricardo smith conception common good provided market


class analysis concern dehumanizing aspects factory system concept rent unproductive ricardo argued renting class parasitic possibility general glut accumulation capital produce goods sale rather use became foundation rising critique concept free markets competition would sufficient prevent disastrous downturns economy whether need expansion would inevitably lead war socialist political economy marx charles fourier influential early french socialist


thinker key early socialist theorist political economy pierre joseph proudhon well known nineteenth century mutualist theorists first thinker refer anarchist others technocrats like henri de saint simon agrarian radicals like thomas spence william ogilvie william cobbett anti capitalists like thomas hodgskin communitarian utopian socialists like robert owen william thompson charles fourier anti market socialists like john gray john francis bray christian mutualist william batchelder greene well theorists chartist movement early proponents syndicalism first advocates socialism


promoted social leveling order create meritocratic technocratic society based upon individual talent count henri de saint simon first individual coin term socialism ref name fsmithacom ref saint simon fascinated enormous potential science technology led advocate socialist society would eliminate disorderly aspects capitalism would based upon equal opportunities saint simon advocated society people ranked according capacities rewarded according work ref name fsmithacom accompanied desire implement rationally organized economy based planning


geared towards large scale scientific material progress embodied desire semi planned economy ref name fsmithacom early socialist thinkers influenced classical economists ricardian socialists thomas hodgskin charles hall based work david ricardo reasoned equilibrium value commodities approximated producer prices commodities elastic supply producer prices corresponded embodied labor ricardian socialists viewed profit interest rent deductions exchange value karl marx ''das kapital'' karl marx influential german socialist thinker


economist karl marx employed systematic analysis attempt elucidate capitalism 's contradictory laws motion well expose specific mechanisms exploits alienates radically modified classical political economic theories marx transformed labor theory value worked upon adam smith david ricardo law value used purpose revealing commodity fetishism obscures reality capitalist society approach friedrich engels would call scientific socialism would stand branching point economic theory one direction went


rejected capitalist system fundamentally anti social arguing could never harnessed effectively realize fullest development human potentialities wherein free development condition free development marx 's ''das kapital'' incomplete work economic theory planned four volumes completed two left collaborator engels complete third many ways work modelled smith 's ''wealth nations'' seeking comprehensive logical description production consumption finance relation morality state work


philosophy anthropology sociology economics includes following topics law value capitalist production production immense multitude commodities generalised commodity production commodity two essential qualities firstly useful satisfy human want nature wants whether instance spring stomach fancy makes difference ref name marxists ref secondly sold market exchanged critically exchange value commodity independent amount labour required appropriate useful qualities ref name marxists however rather depends amount


socially necessary labour required produce commodities sold value origin capitalist profit cheating theft fact cost reproduction labour power worker 's wage less value created time work enabling capitalists yield surplus value profit investments historical property relations historical capitalism represents process momentous social upheaval rural masses separated land ownership means production force deprivation legal manipulation


creating urban proletariat based institution wage labour moreover capitalist property relations aggravated artificial separation city country key factor accounting metabolic rift human beings capitalism natural environment root current ecological dilemmas commodity fetishism marx adapted previous value theory show capitalism phenomena involved price system markets competition supply demand constitute powerful ideology obscures underlying social relations capitalist society commodity fetishism refers distortion appearance underlying social reality


expansion scale production growing interdependency state apparatus promote strong developmental tendency towards centralization capital material development result constant drive optimize profitability increasing productivity labour typically revolutionizing technology production techniques capitalism develops progressively reduce objective need work suggesting potential new era creative forms work expanded scope leisure socialization pre conditions social revolution socializing labour process concentrating workers urban settings large scale production processes


economic activity within political philosophy anarchism pierre joseph proudhon involved lyons mutualists later adopted name describe teachings mutualism anarchist school thought originates writings pierre joseph proudhon envisioned society person might possess means production either individually collectively trade representing equivalent amounts labor free market integral scheme establishment mutual credit bank would lend producers minimal interest rate high enough cover administration mutualism


based labor theory value holds labor product sold exchange ought receive goods services embodying amount labor necessary produce article exactly similar equal utility receiving anything less would considered exploitation theft labor usury ''the conquest bread'' peter kropotkin influential work presents economic vision anarcho communism collectivist anarchism revolutionary ref name patsouras louis p patsouras louis marx context iuniverse p ref doctrine advocates abolition state private ownership


means production instead envisions means production owned collectively controlled managed producers collectivization takes place workers' salaries would determined democratic organizations based amount time contributed production salaries would used purchase goods communal market collectivist anarchism commonly associated mikhail bakunin anti authoritarian sections first international early spanish anarchist movement anarcho communism theory anarchism advocates abolition state private property capitalism favor common ownership


means production ref name mayne ref direct democracy horizontal network voluntary associations workers' councils production consumption based guiding principle according ability according need unlike mutualism collectivist anarchism marxism anarcho communism defended peter kropotkin errico malatesta rejected labor theory value altogether instead advocating gift economy base distribution need ref name anarchist faq coherent modern economic political philosophy anarcho communism first formulated italian section first international carlo cafiero emilio covelli errico malatesta andrea costa


conclusions ideas support strongly anti corporatist anti hierarchical pro labor positions anti capitalism economics anti imperialism foreign policy marx non revolutionary socialists inspired writings john stuart mill later john maynard keynes keynesians provided theoretical justification state involvement existing market economies according keynesians business cycles could smoothed national ownership key industries state direction investment class antagonism would effectively tamedthey argue compact would form labour capitalist class would need


revolution joan robinson michael kalecki formed basis critical post keynesian economics times went well beyond liberal reformism marxist economists developed different tendencies based conflicting interpretations marx 's ideas 'law value' crisis theory monopoly capitalist school saw paul baran paul sweezy attempt modify marx 's theory capitalist development based upon assumption price competition reflect evolution stage economy state subject dominating influence giant corporations world systems analysis restated marx 's ideas worldwide division


labour drive accumulate holistic perspective capitalism 's historical development global system immanuel wallerstein wrote blockquote today socialist systems world economy feudal systems ''one'' world system world economy definition capitalist form socialism involves creation new kind world system neither redistributive world empire capitalist world economy socialist world government n't see projection least utopian also n't feel institution imminent


outcome long social struggle forms may familiar perhaps forms take place ''all'' areas world economy blockquote piero sraffa attempted construct value theory explanation normal distribution prices economy well income economic growth found net product surplus sphere production determined balance bargaining power workers capitalists subject influence non economic presumably social political factors


mutualist tendency associated pierre joseph proudhon also continued influencing development libertarian socialism anarchist communism syndicalism distributivism characteristics socialist economy system production goods services produced directly use contrast capitalist economic system goods services produced generate profit therefore indirectly use production socialism would directly solely use natural technical resources world held common controlled democratically sole object production would meet human needs goods services would


produced usefulness use value eliminating need market induced needs ensure sufficient amount demand products sold profit production socialist economy therefore planned coordinated suffer business cycle inherent capitalism socialist theories economic planning applies factors production allocation goods services produced consumption would distributed market karl marx stated lower stage communism would consist compensation based amount labor one


contributes social product ownership means production varies different socialist theories either based public ownership state apparatus direct ownership users productive property worker cooperative commonly owned society management control delegated operate use means production management control activities enterprises based self management self governance equal power relations workplace maximize occupational autonomy socialist form organization would eliminate controlling hierarchies hierarchy based


technical knowledge workplace remains every member would decision making power firm would able participate establishing overall policy objectives policies goals would carried technical specialists form coordinating hierarchy firm would establish plans directives work community accomplish goals ref name political economy socialism p ''the political economy socialism'' horvat branko p sandglass socialist model based observation two fundamentally different spheres activity decision making first


concerned value judgments consequently individual counts one sphere second technical decisions made basis technical competence expertise decisions first sphere policy directives second technical directives former based political authority exercised members organization latter professional authority specific member growing division labor organization involves clearly defined coordinating hierarchy eliminates power hierarchy ref however economies former socialist states excluding


said socialist movements however socialist movements defend systems place eastern europe soviet union remembering said public ownership means production signify many variants case soviet union satellites state controlled managed almost economy single huge enterprise furthermore products manufactured soviet type economies produced directly use given fact sold public market prices ie sold


deficit satisfy needs population may issue ''monthly review'' titled socialism albert einstein wrote blockquote convinced one way eliminate grave evils capitalism namely establishment socialist economy accompanied educational system would oriented toward social goals economy means production owned society utilized planned fashion planned economy adjusts production needs community would distribute work done among


able work would guarantee livelihood every man woman child education individual addition promoting innate abilities would attempt develop sense responsibility fellow men place glorification power success present society blockquote economic planning economic planning mechanism allocation economic inputs decision making based direct allocation contrast market mechanism based indirect allocation economy based economic planning appropriates resources needed allocation


comes form internal transfers rather market transactions involving purchasing assets one government agency firm another decision making carried workers consumers enterprise level economic planning synonymous concept ''command economy'' existed soviet union based highly bureaucratic administration entire economy accordance comprehensive plan formulated central planning agency specified output requirements productive units tried micromanage decisions policies enterprises command economy based


organizational model capitalist firm applies entire economy various advocates economic planning staunch critics command economies centralized planning example leon trotsky believed central planners regardless intellectual capacity operated without input participation millions people participate economy understand local conditions rapid changes economy therefore central planners would unable effectively coordinate economic activity lacked informal information economic planning socialism takes different form economic planning capitalist


mixed economies dirigisme central banking indicative planning former case planning refers production use value directly planning production latter case planning refers planning capital accumulation order stabilize increase efficiency process anti capitalism goal socialist economics neutralize capital case market socialism subject investment capital social planning coordinate production goods services directly satisfy demand opposed market induced needs eliminate business cycle crises


overproduction occur result economy based capital accumulation private property means production socialists generally aim achieve greater equality decision making economic affairs grant workers greater control means production workplace eliminate exploitation directing surplus value employees free access means subsistence requisite liberty ensures work voluntary class individual power coerce others performing alienating work ultimate goal marxist socialists


emancipation labor alienating work therefore freedom perform labor receive access material necessities life argued freedom necessity would maximize individual liberty individuals would able pursue interests develop talents without coerced performing labor others power elite ruling class case via mechanisms social control labor market state stage economic development possible contingent upon advances productive capabilities society


advanced stage social relations economic organization called ''pure communism'' economic value theories socialist economic theories base value good service use value rather cost production labor theory value exchange value marginal utility socialist theories mutualism market socialism attempt apply labor theory value socialism price good service adjusted equal amount labor time expended production labor time expended worker would correspond labor credits


would used currency acquire goods services market socialists base models neoclassical economics thus marginal utility oskar lange abba lerner proposed publicly owned enterprises set price equal marginal cost thereby achieving pareto efficiency anarcho communism defended peter kropotkin errico malatesta rejected labor theory value exchange value advocated gift economy base distribution need ref name anarchist faq communism based free consumption collectivism likely based distribution


goods according labour contributed http wwwinfoshoporg page anarchistfaqsectiona anarchist faq ref economic models systems robin hahnel michael albert identify five different economic models within socialist economics public enterprise centrally planned economy property owned state key economic decisions made centrally state eg former soviet union public enterprise state managed market economy one form market socialism attempts use price mechanism increase economic efficiency decisive productive assets remain ownership state eg socialist market economy china


socialist oriented market economy vietnam reforms mixed economy public private ownership mixed industrial planning ultimately subordinate market allocation eg model generally adopted social democrats th century sweden many different proposals socialist economic systems call type mixed economy multiple forms ownership means production co exist one another alternatively mixed economy may also socialist economy allows substantial role private enterprise contracting within dominant economic framework public ownership


extend soviet type planned economies reformed incorporate greater role markets allocation factors production public enterprise employee managed market economies another form market socialism publicly owned employee managed production units engage free market exchanges goods services one another well final consumers eg mid th century yugoslavia two theoretical models prabhat ranjan sarkar 's progressive utilization theory economic democracy public enterprise participatory planning economy featuring social ownership means production allocation based integration decentralized democratic


planning eg stateless communism libertarian socialism incipient historical forebear catalonia spanish revolution developed theoretical models include karl polanyi participatory economics inclusive democracy negotiated coordination model pat devine well cornelius castoriadis 's pamphlet workers' councils economics self managed society j nos kornai identifies five distinct types socialism classical marxist conception socialism stage economic development wage labour private property means production monetary relations made redundant development productive


socialism support socially progressive causes social democrats opposed market private property instead try ameliorate effects capitalism welfare state relies market fundamental coordinating entity economy degree public ownership public provision public goods economy otherwise dominated private enterprise east asian model socialist market economy based largely free market capital accumulation profit substantial private ownership along state ownership strategic industries monopolised single political party j nos kornai ultimately leaves


classification model either socialist capitalist reader socialism divided market socialism planned socialism based dominant mechanism resource allocation another distinction made type property structures different socialist systems public cooperative common dominant form economic management within economy hierarchical self managed economic democracy economic democracy model market socialism primarily developed american economist david schweickart schweickart 's model enterprises natural resources owned society form public banking


management elected workers within firm profits would distributed among workers respective enterprise lange lerner model lange lerner model involves public ownership means production utilization trial error approach achieving equilibrium prices central planning board central planning board would responsible setting prices trial error approach establish equilibrium prices effectively acting abstract ''walrasian auctioneer'' walrasian economics managers state owned firms would instructed set prices equal marginal cost p mc economic equilibrium


pareto efficiency would achieved lange model expanded upon american economist abba lerner became known lange lerner theorem particularly role social dividend forerunners lange model include neoclassical economists enrico barone fred taylor self managed economy self managed economy form socialism enterprises owned managed employees effectively negating employer employee wage labor dynamic capitalism emphasizing opposition alienation self managing cooperative aspect socialism members cooperative firms relatively free manage


affairs work schedules model developed extensively yugoslav economists branko horvat jaroslav vanek american economist benjamin ward worker self directed enterprise worker self directed enterprise recent proposal advocated american marxian economist richard wolff model shares many similarities model socialist self management employees direct enterprises places greater role democratically elected management within market economy democratic planned socialism democratic planned socialism form decentralized planned economy ref name democratic planned socialism ref feasible socialism


american economist james yunker detailed model social ownership means production achieved way private ownership achieved modern capitalism shareholder system separates management functions ownership yunker posits social ownership achieved public body designated bureau public ownership bpo owning shares publicly listed firms without affecting market based allocation capital inputs yunker termed model pragmatic market socialism require massive changes society would leave existing management system intact would least


efficient modern day capitalism providing superior social outcomes public ownership large established enterprises would enable profits distributed among entire population social dividend rather going largely class inheriting rentiers participatory economy participatory economics utilizes participatory decision making economic mechanism guide production consumption allocation resources given society computer managed allocation proposals utilizing computer based coordination information technology coordination optimization resource allocation also known cybernetics within economy outlined


socialist organizational attributes existed minor modes production within context capitalist economy throughout history examples include cooperative enterprises capitalist economy emerging free software movement based social peer peer production centrally planned economies centrally planned economy combines public ownership means production centralized state planning model usually associated soviet type command economy centrally planned economy decisions regarding quantity goods services produced planned advance planning agency early years soviet central


planning planning process based upon selected number physical flows inputs mobilized meet explicit production targets measured natural technical units material balances nbsp method achieving plan coherence later complemented replaced value planning money provided enterprises could recruit labour procure materials intermediate production goods services soviet economy brought balance interlocking three sets calculation namely setting model incorporating balances production manpower finance exercise undertaken annually involved process


iteration method successive approximation although nominally centrally planned economy reality formulation plan took place local level production process information relayed enterprises planning ministries aside soviet union eastern bloc economies economic model also utilized people 's republic china socialist republic vietnam republic cuba north korea soviet union soviet union european satellites aimed fully centrally planned economy dispensed almost entirely private ownership means


production workers still effectively received wage labour believe according marxist theory step towards genuine workers' state however marxists consider misunderstanding marx 's views historical materialism views process socialization characteristics soviet economic model included production quotas every productive unit farm mine factory judged basis whether production met quota would provided quota inputs needed start production


quota output would taken away given downstream production units distributed consumers allocation political control contrast systems prices ' 'determined'' allocation resources soviet bureaucracy determined allocation particularly means production prices constructed determined ''after'' formulation economy plan prices factor choices produced produced first place full employment every worker ensured employment however workers generally directed jobs central planning administration adjusted relative wages rates


influence job choice accordance outlines current plan clearing goods planning surplus product accumulated central planning authority would either reduce quota production increase quota use five year plans long term development key industries planning system soviet union developed stalin end second world war seven countries communist governments central eastern europe introduced central planning five six year plans


soviet model common features included nationalization industry transport trade compulsory procurement farming collectivization government monopolies foreign trade prices largely determined basis costs inputs method derived labour theory value prices therefore incentivize production enterprises whose inputs instead purposely rationed central plan taut planning began around soviet union became attenuated economic reforms enterprises encouraged make profits according communist doctrine planning


stated purpose enabling people communist party state institutions undertake activities would frustrated market economy including rapid expansion universal education health care urban development mass good quality housing industrial development regions country nevertheless markets continued exist soviet type planned economies even collectivization agriculture soviet union members collective farms anyone private garden plot free sell produce farm workers often


paid kind licensed markets operated every town city borough non state owned enterprises cooperatives collective farms able offer products services onwards wartime controls manpower removed people could apply quit jobs freely soviet union use market mechanisms went furthest yugoslavia czechoslovakia hungary soviet citizens right engage private handicraft collective farmers could raise sell livestock privately note households free dispose income


chose incomes lightly taxed dispute soviet model socialism various scholars political economists criticized claim centrally planned economy specifically soviet model economic development constitutes form socialism argue soviet economy structured upon accumulation capital extraction surplus value working class planning agency order reinvest surplus economy distribute managers senior officials indicating soviet union soviet style economies state capitalist unplanned


inequalities existed since prices controlled set market clearing levels element value added point sale occurs capitalist market economies prices built average cost inputs including wages taxes interest stocks working capital well allowances cover recoupment investment depreciation profit margin price charged customers wages reflect purchase price labour since labour commodity traded market employing organizations


means production wages set level permitted decent standard living rewarded specialist skills educational qualifications macroeconomic terms plan allocated whole national product workers form wages workers' use fraction withheld investment imports abroad difference average value wages value national output per worker imply existence surplus value since part consciously formulated plan development society presence inequality


socialist planned economies imply exploiting class existed soviet union communist party members able buy scarce goods special shops leadership elite took advantage state property live spacious accommodation sometimes luxury although received privileges commonly available additional income kind difference official remuneration comparison non party peers enterprise managers workers received wages bonuses related production targets planning authorities set outside cooperative


sector enjoyed greater economic freedoms whose profits shared among members cooperative profit taking class analysts maintain workers soviet union marxist leninist states genuine control means production institutions trade unions socialist critics point lack socialist social relations soviet style economies specifically lack self management bureaucratic elite based hierarchical centralized powers authority well lack genuine worker control means production


countries contrary claim building working toward establishment socialism countries example preamble socialist republic vietnam 's constitution states vietnam entered transition stage capitalism socialism country unified communist party constitution republic cuba states role communist party guide common effort toward goals construction socialism stalinists followers challenge view claim socialism established soviet


achieved soviet union according official textbooks first stage transition period capitalism socialism completed european socialist countries except poland yugoslavia mongolia cuba next stage developed socialism would reached economic integration socialist states becomes major factor economic progress social relations reconstructed collectivist principles communist writers accepted earlier stages constructing socialism exchange commodities basis average


socially necessary labour embodied within occurred involved mediation money socialist planned economies systems commodity production directed conscious way towards meeting needs people left anarchy market stage developed socialism state dictatorship proletariat changes state people reflecting increasing homogeneity society evening economic development levels within socialist countries would provide foundations stage perfected socialist society abundance


goods permitted distribution according need could world socialist system progress towards higher phase communism world socialist economic system world economic socialist system embraced one third world 's population generated percent global economic output height mid world socialist system could said comprise following countries socialist orientation though allies soviet union afghanistan albania angola bulgaria cambodia china cuba czechoslovakia eastern germany ethiopia hungary mozambique nicaragua north korea


laos mongolia poland romania vietnam south yemen yugoslavia soviet union system co existed alongside world capitalist system founded upon principles cooperation mutual assistance rather upon competition rivalry countries involved aimed even level economic development play equal part international division labour important role played council mutual economic assistance cmea comecon international body set promote economic development involved joint planning activity establishment international economic scientific technical bodies methods


natural human resources resulting document basic principles international socialist division labour adopted end despite objections romania certain aspects basic principles never implemented fully replaced adoption comprehensive programme extension improvement cooperation development socialist economic integration result many specialization agreements made cmea member states investment programmes projects importing country pledged rely exporting country consumption product question production