follow period averaged years study effects similar men women meta analytic research also links high strain jobs stroke evidence consistent eri model high work related effort coupled low control job related rewards adversely affects cardiovascular health least five studies men linked effort reward imbalance cvd another large study links eri incidence coronary disease job related burnout cardiovascular health evidence prospective study job related burnout controlling traditional risk factors smoking


hypertension increases risk coronary heart disease course next three half years workers initially disease free job loss physical health research suggested job loss adversely affects cardiovascular health ref name kasl cobb well health general musculoskeletal disorders musculoskeletal disorders msds involve injury pain joints muscles approximately million workers us suffer msds third common cause disability early retirement american workers europe msds often reported

Social science
Psychology
Occupational health psychology


workplace health problem ref name hauke hauke flintrop j brun e rugulies r impact work related psychosocial stressors onset musculoskeletal disorders specific body regions review meta analysis longitudinal studies ''work stress'' ref development musculoskelelatal problems cannot solely explained basis biomechanical factors eg repetitive motion although factors major contributors msd risk ref name bigos bigos batti spengler fisher l fordyce w hansson wortley prospective study work perceptions psychosocial factors affecting


report back injury ''spine '' ref evidence accumulated show psychosocial workplace factors eg high strain jobs also contribute development musculoskeletal problems ref name bigos systematic reviews meta analyses high quality longitudinal studies indicated psychosocial working conditions eg supportive coworkers monotonous work related development msds ref name hauke workplace mistreatment many forms workplace mistreatment ranging relatively minor discourtesies serious cases bullying violence workplace incivility workplace incivility defined low intensity deviant behavior ambiguous intent harm targetuncivil


gender creates offensive workplace interferes individual able perform job workplace violence workplace violence significant health hazard employees physically psychologically ref name schonfeld nonfatal assault workplace assaults nonfatal annual physical assault rate us assaultive behavior workplace often produces injury psychological distress economic loss one study california workers found rate non fatal officially documented assaults per workers per year workers education retail


health care sectors subject excess risk minnesota workers' compensation study found women workers twofold higher risk injured assault men health social service workers transit workers members education sector high risk injury compared workers economic sectors ref name lamar west virginia workers' compensation study found workers health care sector lesser extent education sector elevated risk assault related injury another workers' compensation study found excessively high rates assault related


injury schools healthcare lesser extent banking addition physical injury results victim workplace violence individuals witness violence without directly victimized increased risk experiencing adverse psychological effects including high levels distress arousal found study los angeles teachers homicide work associated homicides united states labor force numbered approximately rate works homicides per million workers one year men


likely victims workplace homicide women ref name lamar lamar wj gerberich sg lohman wh zaidman b work related physical assault ''journal occupational environmental medicine '' ref mental disorder research found psychosocial workplace factors among risk factors number categories mental disorder ref name madsen madsen e h nyberg magnusson hanson l l ferrie j e ahola k alfredsson l batty g bjorner j b borritz burr h chastang j f de graaf r dragano n hamer jokela knutsson koskenvuo


koskinen leineweber c kivim ki job strain risk factor clinical depression systematic review meta analysis additional individual participant data ''psychological medicine ' https doiorg x ref increased consumption alcohol workplace factors found related increased alcohol consumption well alcohol use disorder dependence employees rates excessive alcohol use vary occupation high rates construction transportation industries well among waiters waitresses within transportation sector heavy truck drivers material movers shown


especially high risk prospective study eca subjects followed one year initial interviews provided data newly incident cases alcohol use disorder study found workers jobs combined low control high physical demands increased risk developing alcohol problems although findings confined men depression using data eca study eaton anthony mandel garrison found members three occupational groups lawyers secretaries special education teachers types teachers showed elevated rates


''dsm iii'' major depression adjusting social demographic factors eca study involved representative samples american adults five geographical areas providing relatively unbiased estimates risk mental disorder occupation however data cross sectional conclusions bearing cause effect relations warranted evidence canadian prospective study indicated individuals highest quartile occupational stress high strain jobs per demand control model increased risk experiencing episode major depression literature review meta analysis links high demands low control low support clinical depression ref name


madsen meta analysis pooled results well designed longitudinal studies indicated number facets psychosocial work environment eg low decision latitude high psychological workload lack social support work effort reward imbalance job insecurity increase risk common mental disorders depression ref name stansfeld personality disorders depending diagnosis severity individual job personality disorders associated difficulty coping work workplace potentially leading problems others interfering interpersonal relationships indirect effects also play role


psychiatric disorder psychological distress often expressed affective depressive psychophysical psychosomatic eg headaches stomachaches etc anxiety symptoms relation adverse working conditions psychological distress thus important avenue research literature review meta analysis high quality longitudinal studies link high demands low control low support distress symptoms lower levels job satisfaction also related increased distress negative health outcomes psychosocial working conditions parkes studied relation working conditions psychological distress british student nurses found natural experiment student nurses experienced


increased psychological distress ref name paul paul k moser k unemployment impairs mental health meta analyses ''journal vocational behavior '' ref impact involuntary unemployment comparatively weaker countries greater income equality better social safety nets ref name paul research evidence also indicates poorer mental health slightly significantly increases risk later job loss ref name paul economic insecurity ohp research concerned understanding impact economic crises individuals' physical mental health well b calling attention personal organizational means ameliorating


impact crisis ref name probst sears probst tm sears le stress financial crisis ''newsletter society occupational health psychology '' http wwwsohp onlineorg newsletterdownloads sohpnewsletterv january pdf ref economic insecurity contributes least partly psychological distress work family conflict ref name sinclair probst sinclair rr probst hammer lb schaffer mm low income families occupational health implications economic stress work family conflict research practice ag antoniou cl cooper eds ''the psychology recession workplace'' pp northampton us edward elgar publishing ref ongoing job insecurity even absence


job loss related higher levels depressive symptoms psychological distress worse overall health ref name burgard burgard sa brand je house js perceived job insecurity worker health united states ''social science medicine '' ref work family balance employees must balance working lives home lives work family conflict situation demands work conflict demands family vice versa making difficult adequately giving rise distress ref name sinclair probst ref name greenhaus greenhaus jg allen work family balance


review extension jc quick le tetrick eds ''handbook occupational health psychology'' nd ed pp washington dc american psychological association ref although research conducted work family conflict also phenomenon work family enhancement occurs positive effects carry one domain ref name greenhaus accidents safety psychosocial factors influence risk occupational accidents lead employee injury death one prominent psychosocial factor organization 's safety climate safety climate refers employees' ' 'shared'' beliefs regarding priority organization assigns


intervention organizational health center ohc california industrial complex ohc helped improve organizational individual health well help workers manage job stress innovations included labor management partnerships suicide risk reduction conflict mediation occupational mental health support ohc practitioners also coordinated services previously underutilized local community services city thus reducing redundancy service delivery hugentobler israel schurman detailed different multi layered intervention mid sized michigan manufacturing plant hub intervention stress wellness committee swc solicited ideas workers


ways improve well ''and'' productivity innovations swc developed included improvements ensured two way communication workers management reduction stress resulting diminished conflict issues quantity versus quality interventions described adkins hugentobler et al positive impact productivity ohp research national institute occupational safety health niosh research agenda aimed reducing incidence preventable work related disorders accidents example niosh research aimed reducing problem sleep apnea among heavy truck tractor trailer drivers concomitantly


life threatening accidents disorders lead another goal niosh improve health safety workers assigned shift work work long hours third example niosh 's efforts goal reducing incidence falls among iron workers military first responders mental health advisory teams united states army employ ohp related interventions combat troops ohp also role play interventions aimed helping first responders modestly scaled interventions schmitt described three different modestly scaled ohp related interventions


schmitt ref name schmitt health promotion organizations play role promoting healthy behaviors employees providing resources encourage behaviors behaviors areas reduction sedentary behaviour exercise nutrition smoking cessation prevention although dimensions problem workplace violence vary economic sector one sector education limited success introducing programmatic psychologically based efforts reduce level violence research suggests continue difficulties successfully screening applicants jobs may prone


engaging aggressive behavior suggesting aggression prevention training existing employees may alternative screening small number studies evaluating effectiveness training programs reduce workplace violence documented total worker health many companies implemented worker safety health measures fragmented way ref name schill schill l chosewood l c niosh total worker health program overview ''journal occupational environmental medicine '' suppl ref new approach worker safety health emerged response driven efforts advanced niosh


niosh trademarked approach naming total worker health total worker health involves coordination evidence based health promotion practices level individual worker b umbrella like health safety practices level organizational unit ref name schill total worker health ndash type interventions integrate health protection health promotion components health promotion components individually oriented words oriented toward wellness well individual workers example component smoking cessation program umbrella like health safety practices ordinarily implemented level unit


organization example component introducing factory wide equipment reduce worker exposures aerosols review ref name anger anger w k elliot l bodner olson r rohlman truxillo montgomery effectiveness total worker health interventions ''journal occupational health psychology '' ref total worker health type interventions ie interventions integrate individual employee health promotion components organizational level occupational safety heath components indicated integrated programs prevent work related disorder reduce injury see also references reading


de lange ah taris tw kompier maj houtman ild bongers pm ' 'very'' best millennium longitudinal research demand control support model ''journal occupational health psychology '' everly gs jr introduction occupational health psychology pa keller lg ritt eds ''innovations clinical practice source book vol '' pp nbsp sarasota fl professional resource exchange frese stress work psychosomatic complaints causal interpretation ''journal applied psychology '' karasek ra job demands job decision latitude mental strain implications job


redesign ''administrative science quarterly '' kasl sv epidemiological contributions study work stress cl cooper rl payne eds ''stress work'' pp nbsp chichester uk wiley kasl sv cobb blood pressure changes men undergoing job loss preliminary report ''psychosomatic medicine '' kelloway ek barling j hurrell jj jr eds ''handbook workplace violence'' thousand oaks ca sage publications leka houdmont j eds ''occupational health psychology'' chichester uk wiley blackwell parkes kr occupational stress among student nurses natural experiment ''journal applied psychology ''


quick jc murphy lr hurrell jj jr eds ''work well assessments instruments occupational mental health'' washington dc american psychological association quick jc tetrick le eds ''handbook occupational health psychology'' nd ed washington dc american psychological association raymond j wood patrick w psychology training work health ''american psychologist '' sauter sl murphy lr eds ''organizational risk factors job stress'' washington dc american psychological association schonfeld occupational health psychology ds dunn ed ''oxford bibliographies psychology'' new york oxford university press


schonfeld chang c h ''occupational health psychology work stress health'' new york ny springer publishing company siegrist j adverse health effects high effort low reward conditions work ''journal occupational health psychology '' zapf dormann c frese longitudinal studies organizational stress research review literature reference methodological issues ''journal occupational health psychology '' external links http shellcasusfedu pspector ohp journalshtm list academic journals publish ohp related articles paul spector http wwweaohporg european academy occupational health psychology http sohp onlineorg society occupational health psychology applied


psychology psychology behavioural sciences occupational safety health


ref '''natural product''' chemical compound substance produced living organism found nature ref name url natural product webster ref ref name pmid ref broadest sense natural products include substance produced life ref name samuelson ref ref name urlnatural products research information researchers nccam ref natural products also prepared chemical synthesis semisynthesis total synthesis played central role development field organic chemistry providing challenging synthetic targets term natural product also extended commercial purposes refer cosmetics dietary supplements foods produced

Natural science
Chemistry
Natural product chemistry


likes biotic materials eg wood silk bio based materials eg bioplastics cornstarch bodily fluids eg milk plant exudates natural materials eg soil coal restrictive definition natural product organic compound synthesized living organism ref name hanson remainder article restricts narrow definition natural products may classified according biological function biosynthetic pathway source one estimate number natural product molecules ref name pmid ref function following albrecht kossel 's original proposal ref name


kossel ref natural products often divided two major classes primary secondary metabolites ref name kliebenstein ref ref name karlovsky ref primary metabolites intrinsic function essential survival organism produces secondary metabolites contrast extrinsic function mainly affects organisms secondary metabolites essential survival increase competitiveness organism within environment ability modulate biochemical signal transduction pathways secondary metabolites useful medicinal properties natural products especially within field organic


chemistry often defined primary secondary metabolites restrictive definition limiting natural products secondary metabolites commonly used within fields medicinal chemistry pharmacognosy ref name bhat primary metabolites molecular building blocks life primary metabolites defined kossel components basic metabolic pathways required life associated essential cellular functions nutrient assimilation energy production growth development wide species distribution span many phyla frequently one kingdom primary metabolites include carbohydrates lipids amino


coenzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase oxoglutarate dehydrogenase transketolase involved carbohydrate metabolism vitamin b riboflavin constituent fmn fad necessary many redox reactions vitamin b nicotinic acid niacin synthesized tryptophan component coenzymes nad nadp turn required electron transport krebs cycle oxidative phosphorylation well many redox reactions vitamin b pantothenic acid constituent coenzyme basic component carbohydrate amino acid metabolism well biosynthesis


fatty acids polyketides vitamin b pyridoxol pyridoxal pyridoxamine pyridoxal phosphate cofactor many enzymes especially transaminases involve amino acid metabolism vitamin b cobalamins contain corrin ring similar structure porphyrin essential coenzyme catabolism fatty acids well biosynthesis methionine ref name dewick dna rna store transmit genetic information composed nucleic acid primary metabolites ref name lehninger first messengers signaling molecules control metabolism cellular differentiation signaling molecules include hormones growth factors turn


composed peptides biogenic amines steroid hormones auxins gibberellins etc first messengers interact cellular receptors composed proteins cellular receptors turn activate second messengers used relay extracellular message intracellular targets signaling molecules include primary metabolites cyclic nucleotides diacyl glycerol etc ref name sitaramayya ref secondary metabolites representative examples major classes secondary metabolites secondary contrast primary metabolites dispensable absolutely required survival furthermore secondary metabolites typically narrow species distribution secondary metabolites broad range


functions include pheromones act social signaling molecules individuals species communication molecules attract activate symbiotic organisms agents solubilize transport nutrients siderophores etc competitive weapons repellants venoms toxins etc used competitors prey predators ref name pmid ref many secondary metabolites function unknown one hypothesis confer competitive advantage organism produces ref name pmid ref alternative view analogy immune system secondary metabolites specific function machinery place


produce diverse chemical structures important secondary metabolites therefore produced selected ref name firn ref general structural classes secondary metabolites include alkaloids phenylpropanoids polyketides terpenoids ref name hanson biosynthesis chapter biosynthetic pathways leading major classes natural products described ref name bhat ref name dewick ref photosynthesis gluconeogenesis monosaccharides polysaccharides cellulose chitin glycogen etc acetate pathway fatty acids polyketides shikimate pathway aromatic amino acids phenylpropanoids mevalonate pathway methyletrythritol phosphate pathway terpenoids steroids amino acids alkaloids


carbohydrates carbohydrates essential energy source life forms addition polysaccharides formed simpler carbohydrates important structural components many organisms cell walls bacteria plants carbohydrate products plant photosynthesis animal gluconeogenesis photosynthesis produces initially phosphoglyceraldehyde three carbon atom containing sugar triose ref name dewick triose turn may converted glucose six carbon atom containing sugar variety pentoses five carbon atom containing sugars calvin cycle animals three carbon precursors lactate glycerol


converted pyruvate turn converted carbohydrates liver fatty acids polyketides process glycolysis sugars broken acetyl coa atp dependent enzymatically catalyzed reaction acetyl coa carboxylated form malonyl coa acetyl coa malonyl coa undergo claisen condensation lose carbon dioxide form acetoacetyl coa additional condensation reactions produce successively higher molecular weight poly keto chains converted polyketides ref name dewick polyketide class natural products diverse structures functions include prostaglandins macrolide antibiotics


one molecule acetyl coa starter unit several molecules malonyl coa extender units condensed fatty acid synthase produce fatty acids ref name dewick fatty acid essential components lipid bilayers form cell membranes well fat energy stores animals sources natural products may extracted cells tissues secretions microorganisms plants animals ref name gb ref ref name pmid crude unfractionated extract one sources contain range structurally diverse often novel chemical compounds chemical diversity nature based biological diversity


researchers collect samples around world analyze evaluate drug discovery screens bioassays effort search biologically active natural products known bioprospecting ref name gb ref name pmid pharmacognosy provides tools detect isolate identify bioactive natural products could developed medicinal use active principle isolated traditional medicine biological material known hit subsequent scientific legal work performed validate hit eg elucidation mechanism action confirmation intellectual property


products generally secondary metabolites complex chemical structures total semisynthesis always commercially viable cases efforts made design simpler analogues comparable potency safety amenable total semisynthesis ref name pmid ref prokaryotic bacteria botulinum toxin types b botox dysport xeomin myobloc used medicinally cosmetically natural products bacterium ''clostridium botulinum'' ref name mad serendipitous discovery subsequent clinical success penicillin prompted large scale search environmental microorganisms might produce anti infective natural products soil water samples collected


bleomycin ''streptomyces verticillus'' two examples botulinum neurotoxin responsible botulism injected specific muscles controlling eyelid prevent muscle spasm ref name mad ref also glycopeptide bleomycin used treatment several cancers including hodgkin 's lymphoma head neck cancer testicular cancer newer trends field include metabolic profiling isolation natural products novel bacterial species present underexplored environments examples include symbionts endophytes tropical environments ref name akb ref subterranean bacteria found deep underground via mining drilling ref name xsk ref ref name xks ref marine bacteria ref name djd ref archaea


many archaea adapted life extreme environments polar regions hot springs acidic springs alkaline springs salt lakes high pressure deep ocean water possess enzymes functional quite unusual conditions enzymes potential use food chemical pharmaceutical industries biotechnological processes frequently involve high temperatures extremes ph high salt concentrations high pressure examples enzymes identified date include amylases pullulanases cyclodextrin glycosyltransferases cellulases xylanases chitinases proteases alcohol dehydrogenase esterases ref name cg ref archaea represent source


novel chemical compounds also example isoprenyl glycerol ethers ''thermococcus'' ''methanocaldococcus jannaschii'' respectively ref name ctk ref eukaryotic fungi antibiotic penicillin natural product derived fungus ''penicillium chrysogenum'' ref name pmid several anti infective medications derived fungi including penicillin cephalosporins antibacterial drugs ''penicillium chrysogenum'' ''cephalosporium acremonium'' respectively ref name ljl griseofulvin antifungal drug ''penicillium griseofulvum'' ref name ar ref medicinally useful fungal metabolites include lovastatin ''pleurotus ostreatus'' became lead series drugs lower cholesterol levels cyclosporin ''tolypocladium inflatum''


used suppress immune response organ transplant operations ergometrine ''claviceps'' spp acts vasoconstrictor used prevent bleeding childbirth ref name dewick asperlicin ''aspergillus alliaceus'' another example asperlicin novel antagonist cholecystokinin neurotransmitter thought involved panic attacks could potentially used treat anxiety plants opioid analgesic drug morphine natural product derived plant ''papaver somniferum'' ref name pmid plants major source complex highly structurally diverse chemical compounds phytochemicals structural


diversity attributed part natural selection organisms producing potent compounds deter herbivory feeding deterrents ref name le ref major classes phytochemical include phenols polyphenols tannins terpenes alkaloids ref name amh ref though number plants extensively studied relatively small many pharmacologically active natural products already identified clinically useful examples include anticancer agents paclitaxel omacetaxine mepesuccinate ''taxus brevifolia'' ''cephalotaxus harringtonii'' respectively ref name pcs ref antimalarial agent artemisinin ''artemisia annua'' ref name ref acetylcholinesterase inhibitor galantamine ''galanthus'' spp used treat alzheimer 's disease ref name paa ref plant derived drugs


plant feeding deterrents biological activity attributed natural selection organisms capable killing paralyzing prey defending predators likely survive reproduce ref name pmid ref specific chemical target interactions venom constituents proved important tools studying receptors ion channels enzymes cases also served leads development novel drugs example teprotide peptide isolated venom brazilian pit viper ''bothrops jararaca'' lead development antihypertensive agents cilazapril captopril ref name pmid also echistatin


disintegrin venom saw scaled viper ''echis carinatus'' lead development antiplatelet drug tirofiban ref name pmid ref addition terrestrial animals amphibians described many marine animals examined pharmacologically active natural products corals sponges tunicates sea snails bryozoans yielding chemicals interesting analgesic antiviral anticancer activities ref name akc ref two examples developed clinical use include conotoxin marine snail ''conus magus'' ref name bl ref ref name p ref ecteinascidin tunicate ''ecteinascidia turbinata'' ref name r ref former conotoxin used relieve severe chronic pain ref name p ref name


bl latter ecteinascidin used treat metastatic soft tissue sarcoma ref name bes ref natural products derived marine animals investigation possible therapies include antitumour agents discodermolide sponge ''discodermia dissoluta'' ref name rmp ref eleutherobin coral ''erythropodium caribaeorum'' bryostatins bryozoan ''bugula neritina'' ref name rmp medical uses natural products sometimes pharmacological activity therapeutic benefit treating diseases ref name brahmachari ref ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref moreover synthetic analogs natural products improved potency safety prepared therefore natural products often used


starting points drug discovery natural product constituents inspired numerous drug discovery efforts eventually gained approval new drugs ref name pmid ref ref name gransalke ref traditional medicine representative examples drugs based natural products indigenous peoples ancient civilizations experimented various plant animal parts determine effect might ref name pmid trial error isolated cases traditional healers shamans found sources provide therapeutic effect representing knowledge crude drug passed generations practices traditional chinese medicine ayurveda ref name pmid ref ref name patrick ref extracts natural


products led modern discovery active constituents eventually development new drugs ref name pmid ref name sneader c ref modern natural product derived drugs large number currently prescribed drugs either directly derived inspired natural products ref name crc press ref name pmid ref oldest natural product based drugs analgesics bark willow tree known antiquity pain relieving properties due presence natural product salicin turn may hydrolyzed salicylic acid synthetic derivative acetylsalicylic acid better known


aspirin widely used pain reliever mechanism action inhibition cyclooxygenase cox enzyme ref name schr r ref another notable example opium extracted latex ''papaver somniferous'' flowering poppy plant potent narcotic component opium alkaloid morphine acts opioid receptor agonist ref name busse ref recent example n type calcium channel blocker ziconotide analgesic based cyclic peptide cone snail toxin conotoxin mviia species ''conus magus'' ref name pmid ref significant number anti infectives based natural products ref name pmid ref


paclitaxel based terpenoid natural product taxol isolated ''taxus brevifolia'' pacific yew tree ref name sneader ref class drugs widely used lower cholesterol hmg coa reductase inhibitors example atorvastatin developed mevastatin polyketide produced fungus ''penicillium citrinum'' ref name li ref finally number natural product drugs used treat hypertension congestive heart failure include angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor captopril captopril based peptidic bradykinin potentiating factor isolated venom brazilian arrowhead viper ''bothrops jararaca'' ref name sneader b ref limiting


enabling factors numerous challenges limit use natural products drug discovery resulting st century preference pharmaceutical companies dedicate discovery efforts toward high throughput screening pure synthetic compounds shorter timelines refinement ref name li natural product sources often unreliable access supply high probability duplication inherently create intellectual property concerns patent protection vary composition due sourcing season environment susceptible rising extinction rates ref name li biological resource drug discovery natural products remains abundant small percentages microorganisms plant species insects


assessed bioactivity ref name li enormous numbers bacteria marine microorganisms remain unexamined ref name pawar ref field metagenomics proposed examine genes function soil microbes ref name pawar ref name blow ref pharmaceutical firms exploited resource fully choosing instead develop diversity oriented synthesis libraries known drugs natural sources lead compounds higher potential bioactivity ref name li isolation purification penicillin g first class fungal antibiotic first studied scottish microbiologist alexander fleming late made practical therapeutic via natural


product isolation late ernst boris chain howard florey others three named scientists sharing nobel prize medicine work fleming recognized antibacterial activity clinical potential pen g unable purify stabilize ref name kb ref developments chromatographic separations freeze drying helped move progress forward production commercial quantities penicillin natural products natural products begin mixtures compounds natural source often complex mixtures product interest must isolated purified


''isolation'' natural product refers depending context either isolation sufficient quantities pure chemical matter chemical structure elucidation derivitzation degradation chemistry biological testing research needs generally milligrams grams historically often isolation analytical quantities substance interest focus identification quantitation substance eg biological tissue fluid quantity isolated depends analytical method applied generally always sub microgram scale ref name makingower ref ease active agent isolated


purified depends structure stability quantity natural product methods isolation applied toward achieving two distinct scales product likewise distinct generally involve extraction precipitation adsorptions chromatography sometimes crystallizations cases isolated substance purified ''chemical homogeneity'' ie specific combined separation analytical methods lc ms methods chosen orthogonal achieving separations based distinct modes interaction substance isolating matrix goal repeated detection single species present putative pure sample early isolation almost inevitably


followed ' 'structure determination'' especially important pharmacologic activity associated purified natural product structure determination refers methods applied determine chemical structure isolated pure natural product process involves array chemical physical methods changed markedly history natural products research earliest days focused chemical transformation unknown substances known substances measurement physical properties melting point boiling point related methods determining molecular weight modern era methods focus mass spectrometry nuclear


magnetic resonance methods often multidimensional feasible small molecule crystallography instance chemical structure penicillin determined dorothy crowfoot hodgkin work later received nobel prize chemistry synthesis many natural products complex structures perceived complexity natural product qualitative matter consisting consideration molecular mass particular arrangements substructures functional groups rings etc respect one another number density functional groups stability groups molecule whole


synthesis cost effective otherwise particular complex often many accessible required routes simply expensive allow synthesis practical industrial scale however available study natural products must yield isolation purification may suffice isolation provides appropriate quantities natural product intended purpose eg drug alleviate disease drugs penicillin morphine paclitaxel proved affordably acquired needed commercial scales solely via isolation procedures without significant synthetic chemistry contributing however


cases needed agents available without synthetic chemistry manipulations semisynthesis process isolating natural product source costly terms committed time material expense may challenge availability relied upon natural resource ecological consequences resource instance estimated bark entire yew tree ''taxus brevifolia'' would harvested extract enough paclitaxel single dose therapy ref name urlstory taxol ref furthermore number structural analogues obtainable structure activity analysis sar simply


intermediate may easily extracted higher yield ultimate desired product example paclitaxel manufactured extracting deacetylbaccatin iii ''t brevifolia'' needles carrying four step synthesis secondly route designed semisynthetic starting material ultimate product may permit analogues final product synthesized newer generation semisynthetic penicillins illustration benefit approach total synthesis cobalamin early natural product isolated structurally characterized ref name pmid ref variable r group methyl ' adenosyl group


cyanide hydroxide anion proof synthesis vitamin b sub sub accomplished groups rb woodward ref name woodward ref eschenmoser ref name eschenmoser ref general total synthesis natural products non commercial research activity aimed deeper understanding synthesis particular natural product frameworks development fundamental new synthetic methods even tremendous commercial societal importance providing challenging synthetic targets example played central role development field organic chemistry ref name heathcock ref ref name nicolaou ref prior development


analytical chemistry methods twentieth century structures natural products affirmed total synthesis called structure proof synthesis ref name dal ref early efforts natural products synthesis targeted complex substances cobalamin vitamin b sub sub essential cofactor cellular metabolism ref name woodward ref name eschenmoser symmetry examination dimerized trimerized natural products shown element bilateral symmetry often present bilateral symmetry refers molecule system contains c sub sub c sub sub c sub v sub point group identity c sub sub symmetry tends much abundant types bilateral symmetry finding sheds


light compounds might mechanistically created well providing insight thermodynamic properties make compounds favorable density functional theoretical dft hartree fock semiempirical calculations also show favorability dimerization natural products due evolution energy per bond equivalent trimer tetramer proposed due steric hindrance core molecule natural products dimerize trimerize head head fashion rather head tail ref name pmid ref research teaching research teaching activities related natural products fall


number diverse academic areas including organic chemistry medicinal chemistry pharmacognosy ethnobotany traditional medicine ethnopharmacology biological areas include chemical biology chemical ecology chemogenomics systems biology molecular modeling chemometrics chemoinformatics chemistry natural products chemistry distinct area chemical research important development history chemistry isolating identifying natural products important source substances early preclinical drug discovery research understand traditional medicine ethnopharmacology find pharmacologically useful areas chemical space achieve many technological advances made


evolution technology associated chemical separations development modern methods chemical structure determination nmr addition natural products prepared organic synthesis provide confirmation structure give access larger quantities natural products interest process structure natural products revised challenge synthesising natural products led development new synthetic methodology synthetic strategy tactics regard natural products play central role training new synthetic organic chemists


principal motivation development new variants old chemical reactions eg evans aldol reaction well discovery completely new chemical reactions eg woodward cis hydroxylation sharpless epoxidation suzuki miyaura cross coupling reactions biochemistry biosynthesis natural products interest knowledge biosynthesis enables improved routes valuable natural products knowledge used access larger quantities natural products interesting biological activity allow medicinally useful natural products alkaloids produced efficiently economically ref name wws ref history antoine lavoisier friedrich w hler


lavoisier showed end th century organic substances consisted limited number elements primarily carbon hydrogen supplemented oxygen nitrogen quickly focused isolation substances often interesting pharmacological activity plants main source compounds especially alkaloids glycosides long known opium sticky mixture alkaloids including codeine morphine noscapine thebaine papaverine opium poppy papaver somniferum possessed narcotic time mind altering properties morphine already


natural product found urine heating ammonium cyanate inorganic substance math mathrm nh ocn xrightarrow circ c h nconh math reaction showed need life force order prepare organic substances idea however initially met high degree skepticism years later synthesis acetic acid carbon adolph wilhelm hermann kolbe idea accepted organic chemistry since developed independent area research dedicated study carbon containing compounds since element common detected


atoms within compound direct cause development structure theories radical theory jean baptiste dumas substitution theory auguste laurent however took august kekul formulated definite structure theory posited carbon tetravalent bind form carbon chains occur natural products expanding concept concept natural product initially based organic compounds could isolated plants extended include animal material middle


th century german justus von liebig hermann emil fischer turned attention study carbohydrates purines work awarded nobel prize also succeeded make synthetically laboratory variety carbohydrates including glucose mannose discovery penicillin alexander fleming fungi micro organisms added arsenal sources natural products ref name dias milestones several large classes natural products known important milestones included terpenes first systematically studied otto


among others robert robinson nobel prize see also biogenic substance ethnobotany pharmacognosy phytotherapy secondary metabolite journals ''chemistry natural compounds'' ''journal natural products'' ''natural product reports'' ''natural product research'' references reading external links natural products chemistry nature


mathematics '''arithmetic combinatorics''' field intersection number theory combinatorics ergodic theory harmonic analysis scope arithmetic combinatorics combinatorial estimates associated arithmetic operations addition subtraction multiplication division additive combinatorics special case operations addition subtraction involved ben green explains arithmetic combinatorics review additive combinatorics tao vu important results szemer di 's theorem szemer di 's theorem result arithmetic combinatorics concerning arithmetic progressions subsets integers erd tur n conjectured ref name erdos turan ref every set integers

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Number theory
Arithmetic combinatorics


''a'' positive natural density contains ''k'' term arithmetic progression every ''k'' conjecture became szemer di 's theorem generalizes statement van der waerden 's theorem green tao theorem extensions green tao theorem proved ben green terence tao states sequence prime numbers contains arbitrarily long arithmetic progressions words exist arithmetic progressions primes ''k'' terms ''k'' natural number proof extension szemer di 's theorem terence tao tamar ziegler extended result cover polynomial progressions precisely


given integer valued polynomials ''p'' sub sub ''p'' sub ''k'' sub one unknown ''m'' constant term infinitely many integers ''x'' ''m'' ''x'' nbsp nbsp ''p'' sub sub ''m'' ''x'' nbsp nbsp ''p'' sub ''k'' sub ''m'' simultaneously prime special case polynomials ''m'' ''m'' ''km'' implies previous result length ''k'' arithmetic progressions primes breuillard green tao theorem breuillard green tao theorem proved emmanuel breuillard ben green terence tao gives complete classification approximate groups result seen nonabelian version freiman 's theorem generalization gromov 's theorem groups


polynomial growth example ''a'' set ''n'' integers large small sumset math x xy math difference set math x xy math product set math cdot xy xy math sizes sets related confused terms difference set product set meanings extensions sets studied may also subsets algebraic structures integers example groups rings fields see also additive number theory approximate group corners


theorem ergodic ramsey theory problems involving arithmetic progressions schnirelmann density shapley folkman lemma sidon set sum free set sum product problem notes references http wwwcsberkeleyedu luca pubs addcomb sigactpdf additive combinatorics theoretical computer science luca trevisan sigact news june http peoplemathgatechedu ecroot e pdf open problems additive combinatorics e croot v lev https wwwamsorg notices fea taopdf rotating needles stability waves emerging connections combinatorics analysis pde terence tao ams notices march reading https wwwmathuclaedu tao w highlights arithmetic combinatorics resources terence tao http mathstanfordedu ksound notespdf additive combinatorics winter k soundararajan http lucatrevisanwordpresscom earliest connections additive combinatorics computer science earliest connections additive combinatorics computer science luca trevisan additive number theory sumsets harmonic analysis


references group us nursing workforce beyond journal nursing regulation volume issue '''nursing''' profession within health care sector focused care individuals families communities may attain maintain recover optimal health quality life nurses may differentiated health care providers approach patient care training scope practice nurses practice many specialties differing levels prescription authority nurses comprise largest component healthcare environments evidence international

Applied science
Medicine and health
Nursing


team members focuses treating illness improve quality life united kingdom united states advanced practice nurses clinical nurse specialists nurse practitioners diagnose health problems prescribe medications therapies depending individual state regulations nurses may help coordinate patient care performed members multidisciplinary health care team therapists medical practitioners dietitians nurses provide care interdependently example physicians independently nursing professionals history traditional nursing historians face challenge determining whether care provided sick


body carefully observe dissecting examine different parts foundation modern nursing members religious orders nuns monks often provided nursing like care ref name bloy ref examples exist christian ref name ferngren ref islamic ref name sachedina ref buddhist ref name debary ref traditions amongst others phoebe mentioned romans described many sources first visiting nurse ref name egenes ref ref name striepe ref traditions influential development ethos modern nursing religious roots modern nursing remain evidence today many countries one example united kingdom use


historical title sister refer senior nurse past ref name wand ref reformation th century protestant reformers shut monasteries convents allowing hundred municipal hospices remain operation northern europe nuns serving nurses given pensions told get married stay home nursing care went inexperienced traditional caretakers rooted roman catholic church removed positions nursing profession suffered major setback approximately years th century russian sisters mercy crimea


crimean war grand duchess elena pavlovna issued call women join order exaltation cross krestodvizhenskaya obshchina year service military hospitals first section twenty eight sisters headed aleksandra petrovna stakhovich directress order went crimea early november florence nightingale influential figure development modern nursing uniform created nightingale employed crimean war often considered first nurse theorist nightingale linked health five environmental factors pure


fresh air pure water efficient drainage cleanliness light especially direct sunlight deficiencies five factors resulted lack health illness role nursing education first defined nightingale florence nightingale laid foundations professional nursing crimean war ref name winkel ref ''notes nursing'' became popular nightingale model professional education set first school nursing connected continuously operating hospital medical school spread widely europe north america ref name quinn ref nightingale also


pioneer graphical presentation statistical data nightingale 's recommendations built upon successes jamaican doctresses mary seacole like nightingale served crimean war seacole practised hygiene use herbs healing wounded soldiers suffering diseases th century crimea central america jamaica predecessors great success healers colony jamaica th century included seacole 's mother mrs grant sarah adams cubah cornwallis grace donne mistress doctress jamaica 's wealthiest planter simon taylor important nurses


development profession include agnes hunt shropshire first orthopedic nurse pivotal emergence orthopedic hospital robert jones agnes hunt hospital oswestry shropshire agnes jones established nurse training regime brownlow hill infirmary liverpool linda richards established quality nursing schools united states japan officially first professionally trained nurse us graduating ''new england hospital women children'' boston clarissa harlowe clara barton pioneer american teacher patent clerk


charity built hospitals provided nursing services period turn modern deaconess movement began germany ref name naumann ref within half century deaconesses europe ref name blackmore ref formal use nurses modern military began latter half nineteenth century nurses saw active duty first boer war egyptian campaign sudan campaign th century recruiting poster australian nurses world war hospital based training came fore early emphasis practical experience nightingale style


school began disappear hospitals physicians saw women nursing source free inexpensive labor exploitation nurses uncommon employers physicians educational providers ref name chin ref many nurses saw active duty world war profession transformed second world war british nurses army nursing service part every overseas campaign nurses volunteered service us army navy occupation nazis brown nurses strong two dozen german red cross nurses awarded iron cross


heroism fire modern era saw development undergraduate post graduate nursing degrees advancement nursing research desire association organization led formation wide variety professional organizations academic journals growing recognition nursing distinct academic discipline accompanied awareness need define theoretical basis practice ref name alligood ref th early th century nursing considered women 's profession doctoring men 's profession increasing expectations workplace equality late th century nursing became officially


gender neutral profession though practice percentage male nurses remains well female physicians early st century definition although nursing practice varies various specialties countries nursing organizations offer following definitions ref retrieved july ref profession nurse indonesia examining patient nurse treating patient burns ziguinchor paigc hospital authority practice nursing based upon social contract delineates professional rights responsibilities well mechanisms public accountability almost countries nursing practice defined


governed law entrance profession regulated national state level aim nursing community worldwide professionals ensure quality care maintaining credentials code ethics standards competencies continuing education ref name icn http wwwicnch abouticnhtm international council nurses retrieved august ref number educational paths becoming professional nurse vary greatly worldwide involve extensive study nursing theory practice well training clinical skills nurses care individuals ages cultural backgrounds


healthy ill holistic manner based individual 's physical emotional psychological intellectual social spiritual needs profession combines physical science social science nursing theory technology caring individuals work nursing profession nurses hold one credentials depending scope practice education united states licensed practical nurse lpn works independently registered nurse rn significant difference lpn rn found requirements entry practice determines entitlement scope practice rns


provide scientific psychological technological knowledge care patients families many health care settings rns may earn additional credentials degrees united states multiple educational paths qualify candidate sit licensure examination rn associate degree nursing adn awarded nurse completed two year undergraduate academic degree awarded community colleges junior colleges technical colleges bachelor 's degree granting colleges universities upon completion course study usually lasting two years also referred associate nursing associate


applied science nursing aas associate science nursing asn bachelor science nursing bsn awarded nurse earned american four year academic degree science principles nursing granted tertiary education university similarly accredited school completing either lpn either rn education programs united states graduates eligible sit licensing examination become nurse passing required nursing license national licensure examination nclex test standardized exam including multiple choice


select apply fill blank hot spot questions nurses take become licensed costs two hundred dollars take nclex examines nurses ability properly care client study books practice tests available purchase nurses follow traditional role working hospital setting options include pediatrics neonatal maternity obgyn geriatrics ambulatory nurse anesthetists informatics ehealth many options nurses explore depending type degree education acquired rns may also pursue different roles advanced practice nurses


nurses doctors' assistants possible certain situations nurses often independently caring patients assisting nurses rns treat patients record medical history provide emotional support provide follow care nurses also help doctors perform diagnostic tests nurses almost always working nurses nurses assist doctors emergency room trauma care help needed gender issues nurse runwell hospital wickford essex despite equal opportunity legislation nursing continued female dominated profession many countries


according 's ''state world 's nursing'' approximately nursing workforce female instance male female ratio nurses approximately canada united states ratio represented around world notable exceptions include francophone africa includes countries benin burkina faso cameroon chad congo c te d'ivoire democratic republic congo djibouti guinea gabon mali mauritania niger rwanda senegal togo male female nurses ref name min ref europe countries spain portugal czech republic italy nurses


male ref name min united kingdom nurses midwives registered nursing midwifery council nmc male number male nurses united states doubled however female nurses still common male nurses receive pay average research indicated negative effects diversity within nursing heavier focus diversity nursing quality care performance nurses hindered research demonstrates people begin different work setting


create issues addressed correctly hospitals begin focus diversity patients quality care negatively affected diversity becomes main goal minorities usa nursing statistically speaking united states nursing positions held people minority backgrounds remaining positions held caucasian individuals particularly women diversity nursing lacking low numbers diverse populations nursing field create difficulties amongst treating diverse patients theory process nursing practice actual provision nursing care


providing care nurses implement nursing care plan using nursing process based around specific nursing theory selected consideration care setting population served providing nursing care nurse uses nursing theory best practice derived nursing research ref name weber ref general terms nursing process method used assess diagnose needs plan outcomes interventions implement interventions evaluate outcomes care provided like disciplines profession developed different theories derived sometimes diverse philosophical beliefs paradigms worldviews


help nurses direct activities accomplish specific goals scope activities activities daily living assistance nurses manage coordinate care support activities daily living adl often provision care delegated nursing assistants includes assisting patient mobility moving activity intolerant patient within bed medication medication management administration part hospital nursing roles however prescribing authority varies jurisdictions many areas registered nurses administer manage medications prescribed professional full prescribing authority nurse practitioner physician


nurses responsible evaluating patients throughout care including medication administration adjustments medications often made collaborative effort prescriber nurse regardless prescriber nurses legally responsible drugs administer may legal implications error prescription nurse could expected noted reported error united states nurses right refuse medication administration deem potentially harmful patient united kingdom


nurses taken additional specialist training allows prescribe medications scope practice ref name rcn ref patient education patient 's family often involved education effective patient education leads fewer complications hospital visits specialties practice settings nursing diverse health care professions nurses practice wide range settings generally nursing divided depending needs person nursed major populations communities public family individual across lifespan adult gerontology pediatrics neonatal women 's health gender related mental health informatics ehealth acute care


hospitals ambulatory settings physician offices urgent care settings camps etc school college infirmaries also specialist areas cardiac nursing orthopedic nursing palliative care perioperative nursing obstetrical nursing oncology nursing nursing informatics telenursing radiology emergency nursing nurses practice wide range settings including hospitals private homes schools pharmaceutical companies nurses work occupational health settings also called industrial health settings free standing clinics physician offices nurse led clinics long term care facilities camps also work cruise ships military service nurses act advisers consultants health care insurance


world informatics acting consultants creation computerized charting programs software nurse authors publish articles books provide essential reference materials occupational hazards video describing occupational hazards exist among nurses internationally serious shortage nurses one reason shortage due work environment nurses practice recent review empirical human factors ergonomic literature specific nursing performance nurses found work generally poor environmental conditions countries states passed legislation regarding acceptable nurse patient


ratios fast paced unpredictable nature health care places nurses risk injuries illnesses including high occupational stress nursing particularly stressful profession nurses consistently identify stress major work related concern among highest levels occupational stress compared professions stress caused environment psychosocial stressors demands nursing including new technology must mastered emotional labor involved nursing physical labor shift work high workload stress puts nurses risk short term long term health problems including sleep disorders


depression mortality psychiatric disorders stress related illnesses illness general nurses risk developing compassion fatigue moral distress worsen mental health also high rates occupational burnout emotional exhaustion burnout exhaustion increase risk illness medical error suboptimal care provision ref name ref nurses also risk violence abuse workplace violence typically perpetrated non staff eg patients family whereas abuse typically perpetrated hospital personnel american nurses reported threatened work


physically assaulted ref name different types workplace violence nurses experience first physical violence hitting kicking beating punching biting using objects inflict force upon someone second psychological violence something done impair another person threats coercion third sexual violence include completed attempted non consensual sexual act workplace violence also categorized two different levels interpersonal violence organizational coercion interpersonal violence could committed co workers patients others hospital main form


include specific setting example emergency department long patient wait times frequent interruptions uncertainty regarding patients' treatment heavy workloads ref name ref organizational factors include inefficient teamwork organizational injustice lack aggression stress management programs distrust colleagues ref name individual psychosocial factors may include nurses young inexperienced previous experiences violence lack communication skills ref name misunderstandings may also occur due communication barrier nurses patients ref name ref example could patient 's condition affected medication pain anxiety many


nurses reported manifestations burn due frequent exposure heavily impact nurses' mental health cause nurses feel unsatisfied profession unsafe work environment prevention number interventions mitigate occupational hazards nursing individual focused organization focused individual focused interventions include stress management programs customized individuals stress management programs reduce anxiety sleep disorders symptoms stress organizational interventions focus reducing stressful aspects work environment defining stressful characteristics developing solutions


nursing assistants makes decisions nursing issues states terms nurse nursing may used conjunction practice registered nurse rn licensed practical vocational nurse lpn lvn hospital setting registered nurses often delegate tasks lpns unlicensed assistive personnel rns limited employment bedside nurses employed physicians attorneys insurance companies governmental agencies community public health agencies private industry school districts ambulatory surgery centers among others registered nurses independent consultants work others work large manufacturers


chemical companies research nurses conduct assist conduct research evaluation outcome process many areas biology psychology human development health care systems many employers offer flexible work schedules child care educational benefits bonuses percent registered nurses union members covered union contract ref name united states department labor bureau labor statistics united states department labor bureau labor statistics ref nursing nation 's largest health care profession registered nurses licensed practical nurses nationwide licensed rns


nbsp million employed nursing nurses comprise largest single component hospital staff primary providers hospital patient care deliver nation 's long term care primary pathway professional nursing compared technical level practice four year bachelor science nursing bsn degree registered nurses prepared either bsn program three year associate degree nursing three year hospital training program receiving hospital diploma take state licensing exam number diploma programs declined steadily less percent basic


rn education programs nursing education shifted hospital operated instruction college university system educational licensure requirements diploma nursing oldest method nursing education hospital based diploma program lasts approximately three years students take credit hours anatomy physiology microbiology nutrition chemistry subjects college university move intensive nursing classes rns us initially educated nursing diploma programs ref name ana american nurses association http wwwanaorg readroom fsdemogr htm education nursing facts today 's registered nurse numbers demographics washington dc american nurses


association ref according health services resources administration 's survey nurses six percent nurses graduated nursing programs united states received education diploma school nursing ref name hrsa health resources service administration https drivegooglecom openid aztwzmpyp wulkjax vqkzn txgcfm e findings national sample survey registered nurses washington dc us department health human services health resources service administration bureau health professions division nursing ref associate degree nursing common initial nursing education two year associate degree nursing associate applied science nursing associate science


bsn program students usually obtain general education requirements spend remaining time nursing courses new programs first two years substituted active lpn license along required general studies advocates adn diploma programs state programs job training approach educating students bsn academic degree emphasizes research nursing theory states require specific amount clinical experience bsn adn students bsn degree qualifies holder administrative research


consulting teaching positions would usually available adn necessary patient care functions nursing schools may accredited either accreditation commission education nursing acen commission collegiate nursing education ccne graduate education advanced education nursing done master 's doctoral levels prepares graduate specialization advanced practice registered nurse aprn advanced roles leadership management education clinical nurse leader cnl advanced generalist focuses improvement quality


safety outcomes patients patient populations administrative staff management focus doctoral programs nursing prepare student work nursing education health care administration clinical research public policy advanced clinical practice programs confer phd nursing doctor nursing practice dnp advanced practice registered nurse aprn areas advanced nursing practice include nurse practitioner np certified nurse midwife cnm certified registered nurse anesthetist crna clinical nurse specialist cns nurse practitioners cnss work assessing diagnosing treating patients fields diverse family


adn graduates licensed technical nurses work supervision bsn graduates others feel job experiences diploma adn graduates makes deficiency theoretical preparation shortage united states rns largest group health care workers united states nbsp million employed ref name blsgov http wwwblsgov oes current oes htm bureau labor statistics registered nurses ref reported number new graduates foreign trained nurses insufficient meet demand registered nurses often referred nursing shortage


expected increase foreseeable future data support idea nursing shortage voluntary shortage words nurses leaving nursing volition estimated approximately nbsp million nurses chose work nurse bureau labor statistics bls reported healthcare jobs created rns make majority healthcare work force therefore positions filled primarily nurses bls also states nbsp million nursing job openings due


increase workforce replacements causes international council nursing icn largest international health professional organization world recognizes shortage nurses growing crisis world shortage impacts healthcare everyone worldwide one many reasons nurses pursue become nurses late lives leads non lengthy employment time national survey prepared federation nurses health professionals found one five nurses plans leave profession within five years


unsatisfactory working conditions including low pay severe staffing high stress physical demands mandatory overtime irregular hours approximately percent nursing jobs found hospitals ref name blsgov however due administrative cost cutting increased nurse 's workload rapid growth outpatient services hospital nursing jobs experience slower average growth employment home care nursing homes expected grow rapidly though people living well many need kind long term care available nursing home many nurses also needed help staff growing


nurses tomorrow decrease faculty everywhere due many factors including decrease satisfaction workforce poor salaries reduction full time equivalent throughout span years nursing faculty shortage written increasing amount clear consensus organized plan fix ongoing issue continuing education health care knowledge growing steadily nurses stay ahead curve continuing education continuing education classes programs enable nurses provide best possible care patients advance nursing careers keep


board nursing requirements american nurses association american nursing credentialing center devoted ensuring nurses access quality continuing education offerings continuing education classes calibrated provide enhanced learning levels nurses many states also regulate continuing nursing education nursing licensing boards requiring continuing nursing education cne condition licensure either initial renewal accept courses provided organizations accredited state licensing boards american nursing credentialing center ancc organizations designated approver continuing nursing education


ancc exceptions rule including state california florida kentucky national healthcare institute ref name nhinstitute ref created list assist nurses determining cne credit hours requirements list inclusive offers details contact nursing licensing boards directly ref name http wwwnursingworldorg ref ref name http wwwnhinstituteorg ref board certification professional nursing organizations certification boards voluntary certification exams demonstrate clinical competency particular specialty completion prerequisite work experience allows rn register examination passage gives rn permission use professional


prisoners psychological issues ''canada'' history canadian nursing dates back quebec augustine nuns ref name test http wwwcna nursesca cna nursing certification specialties default easpx link text ref nuns trying open mission cared spiritual physical needs patients establishment mission created first nursing apprenticeship training north america ref name test nineteenth century catholic orders nursing trying spread message across canada nurses female occasional consultation physician towards end nineteenth century hospital care medical services


improved expanded much due nightingale 's influence first formal nursing training program started general marine hospital st catharines ontario ref name test education canadian nurses prospective nurses heavily encouraged canadian nurses association continue education receive bachelor 's degree degree may result better patient outcomes canadian provinces territories exception yukon quebec require nurses bachelor 's degree ref name test length time generally required obtain degree


passing test based competencies specific medical surgical domain nursing care provided certification gerontological nursing involves providing care elderly offered rns nps also lpns ''latin america'' latin american nursing based three levels training professional registered b technical c auxiliary nursing education latin america caribbean includes principles values universal health primary health care principles underpin transformative education modalities critical complex thinking development problem solving


evidence based clinical decision making lifelong learning pan american health organization world health organization paho proposes strategy universal access health universal health coverage improve health outcomes basic objectives health systems based right person receive best standard health without exposing people financial difficulties nursing intervention europe ''spain'' see nursing spain ''united kingdom'' practice lawfully registered nurse united kingdom practitioner must hold current valid registration nursing midwifery council title registered nurse


granted holding registration protected title laid nurses midwives health visitors act ref name act united kingdom government http wwwopsigovuk acts acts htm nurses midwives health visitors act london hmso ref april nurses united kingdom expected revalidate every three years involves providing evidence development active practice first second level first level nurses make bulk registered nurses uk previously known titles registered general nurse rgn registered sick children 's nurse rscn registered mental nurse


rmn registered nurse mentally handicapped rnmh titles used similar including registered nurse adult rna registered nurse child rnc registered nurse mental health rnmh registered nurse learning disabilities rnld second level nurse training longer provided however still legally able practice united kingdom registered nurse many either retired undertaken conversion courses become first level nurses entitled refer registered nurses registration nursing midwifery council register nurses although refer


enrolled nurses ens state enrolled nurses sens advanced practice '''nurse practitioners''' nurses obtain minimum master 's degree desired post grad certificate often perform roles similar physicians physician assistants prescribe medications independent supplementary prescribers although still legally regulated unlike physician 's assistants nurse practitioners nps referral admission rights hospital specialties commonly work primary care eg general practitioner gp surgeries accident emergency e departments pediatrics although increasingly seen areas


practice uk title nurse practitioner legally protected '''specialist community public health nurses''' traditionally district nurses health visitors group oversees research publication activities '''lecturer practitioners also called practice education facilitators ''' nurses work national health service nhs universities typically work days per week setting university train pre registration student nurses see often teach specialist courses post registration nurses '''lecturers''' nurses employed nhs instead work full time universities teaching performing research managers


many nurses worked clinical settings long time choose leave clinical nursing join ranks nhs management used seen natural career progression reached ward management positions however advent specialist nursing roles see become less attractive option nonetheless many nurses fill positions senior management structure nhs organizations even board members others choose stay little closer clinical roots becoming clinical nurse managers ''modern matrons'' nurse education pre registration


become registered nurse one must complete program recognised nursing midwifery council nmc currently involves completing degree available range universities offering courses chosen branch specialty see leading academic award professional registration st level registered nurse course split learning university ie lectures assignments examinations practice ie supervised patient care within hospital community setting courses three occasionally four years' long first year known


midwifery council http wwwnmcorguk pre registration training london nmc ref student nurses england wales apply bursary government support nurse training may also eligible student loan although speculation available future ref name nursingtimes ref student nurses scotland still receive standard bursary means tested tuition fees continue paid however eligible student loans project nurse education responsibility hospitals based universities


advanced life support nurses undertake many nurses qualified diploma choose upgrade qualification degree studying part time many nurses prefer option gaining degree initially often opportunity study specialist field part upgrading financially england also much lucrative diploma students get full bursary initial training employers often pay degree course well nurse 's salary ref name nursing midwifery education nursing midwifery education ref become specialist nurses


european economic area eea countries switzerland list covered directive ec asia ''india'' nursing education governed india central body indian nursing council norms implemented respective state nursing councils list state nursing councils available official web page indian nursing council first formal education nursing offered madras medical college madras presidency indian nursing council act act year number act december enactment date enactment december act act objective act constitute


nursing council india establish uniform standards training nurses midwives health visitors implemented sections section indicates specific legislative role council nursing profession dominated females british colonial period madras presidency men actively engaged profession ''iran'' see nursing iran ''israel'' nurses israel wide variety responsibilities including hospital care patient education wound care prenatal monitoring midwifery well baby clinics nursing israeli culture begins shifra puah two jewish midwives


helped jewish women ancient egypt give birth modern day nursing established nurses sent israel haddassah organization well nursing school founded henrietta szold times united kingdom regulated midwifery israel nurses mentioned regulation decree today nurses midwives regulated israeli ministry health ''japan'' history nursing established part japan 's healthcare system midwives ordinance ref name nurse ref registered nurse ordinance came play


types nurses japan recognizes four types nursing public health nursing midwifery registered nursing assistant nursing public health type nursing designed help public also driven public 's needs goals public health nurses monitor spread disease keep vigilant watch environmental hazards educate community care treat train community disasters midwifery nurses involved midwifery independent organization midwife takes care pregnant woman labour


postpartum assist things like breastfeeding caring child nursing assistant nursing assistants also known nurse assistants cnas certified nursing assistants assist patients basic daily tasks individuals assistant nurses follow orders registered nurse report back licensed nurse patient 's condition assistant nurses always supervised licensed registered nurse education japan established first nursing university country ref name test associate degree level certification years soon people began want nursing degrees higher level


education soon bachelor 's degree nursing bsn established currently japan offers doctorate level degrees nursing good number universities three ways individual could become registered nurse japan obtaining high school degree person could go nursing university four years earn bachelor 's degree go junior nursing college three years go nursing school three years ref name test regardless individual attends school must take national exam attended nursing university


bit advantage went nursing school take national exam registered nurse public health nurse midwife cases becoming midwife public health nurse student must take one year course desired field attending nursing university passing national exam become registered nurse nursing universities best route someone wants become nurse japan ref name test offer wider range general education classes also allow


rigid teaching style nursing nursing universities train students able make critical educated decisions field physicians ones teaching potential nurses enough available nurses teach students increases dominance physicians nurses students attend nursing college nursing school receive degree one graduated nursing university would educational background classes offered nursing colleges nursing


schools focused practical aspects nursing institutions offer many general education classes students attend schools solely focusing nursing educations school students attend nursing college school opportunity become midwife public health nurse go training institute desired field graduating nursing school college ref name test japanese nurses never renew licenses passed exam license life ref


name test today like united states japan need nurses driving force behind need fact country aging needs medical care people however number available nurses seem increasing nurses face poor working conditions low social status cultural idea married women quit jobs family responsibilities ref name nurse ref average japanese nurses make around yen month one higher paying jobs however physicians make twice much nurses ref name worldsalaries ref


similar cultures japanese people view nurses subservient physicians according american nurses association article japan nursing work described using negative terminology 'hard dirty dangerous low salary holidays minimal chance marriage family poor image' organizations unite japanese nurses like japanese nursing association jna jna professional organization union members jna lobby politicians produces publications nursing according american nurses association 's article japan jna works toward improvement nursing practice


many activities including development policy research group influence policy development code ethics nurses standards nursing practice jna also provides certification specialists mental health oncology community health ref name test organizations including categorize nurses specialty like emergency nursing disaster nursing one older unions relates nursing japanese federation medical workers union created ref name test union includes physicians well nurses organization involved


'''nursing human resource law''' ref name test ''taiwan'' taiwan ministry health welfare charge regulation nursing taiwan union nurses association tuna union unit taiwan fighting nurses payment working time issues australia catholic religious institutes influential development australian nursing founding many australia 's hospitals irish sisters charity first arrive established st vincent 's hospital sydney free hospital poor orders like sisters mercy


included national curricula variable application agency registered nurses hold university degree enrolled nurses progress registered nurse status get credit previous study nurse practitioners started emerging postgraduate programs work private practice public hospitals clinics mental health nurses must complete training advanced mental health practitioners order administer client referrals ''mental health act'' australia enjoys luxury national curriculum vocational nurses trained technical education tafe colleges private registered training organization rto enrolled


history nursing united kingdom history nursing united states history philippine nurses united states index nursing articles licensed practical nurse list nurses list nursing specialties men nursing nightingale pledge nurse uniform nurse client relationship nurse scheduling problem nursing care plan nursing ethics nursing australia nursing germany nursing hong kong nursing india nursing islam nursing japan nursing kenya nursing pakistan nursing taiwan nursing philippines nursing united states nursing school nurse stereotypes nursing theory registered nurse transcultural nursing


wet nurse references bibliography reading advanced practice leadership radiology nursing springer publishing longe jacqueline ed ''gale encyclopedia nursing allied health'' vol historical bullough vern l bonnie bullough ''the emergence modern nursing'' nd ed d'antonio patricia ''american nursing history knowledge authority meaning work'' pp dock lavinia lloyd ''a short history nursing earliest times present day'' https booksgooglecom booksid iqc j exqc full text online abbreviated version four volume ''a history nursing'' https booksgooglecom booksid uijtaaaamaaj vol online donahue patricia ''nursing


finest art illustrated history'' rd ed includes illustrations pp https wwwamazoncom dp x excerpt text search fairman julie joan e lynaugh ''critical care nursing history'' https wwwamazoncom critical care nursing history caregiving dp excerpt text search judd deborah ''a history american nursing trends eras'' pp https wwwamazoncom dp excerpt text search kalisch philip beatrice j kalisch '' advance american nursing'' rd ed th ed titled ''american nursing history'' snodgrass mary ellen ''historical encyclopedia nursing'' pp ancient times present external links http libraryuncgedu dp wv itemsearchaspxt k nurse uncg library betty


h carter women veterans historical project nurse military supporting service occupations rehabilitation team health care occupations


tower babel common symbol discussions nationalism painting pieter bruegel elder '''nationalism studies''' interdisciplinary academic field devoted study nationalism related issues nationalism subject scholarly discussion since least late eighteenth century since early received enough attention distinct field emerge ref name zkirimli p ref authors eric hobsbawm carlton j h hayes hans kohn elie kedourie john hutchinson ernest gellner karl deutsch walker connor anthony smith benedict anderson

Social science
Political science
Nationalism studies


laid foundation nationalism studies post war period early ideas enthusiastically taken academics journalists others looking understand explain apparent resurgence nationalism marked events collapse soviet union rwanda genocide yugoslav wars history field development field divided four stages late eighteenth nineteenth centuries nationalism first emerged interest philosophical ii period first world war end


second nationalism became subject formal academic inquiry iii post war period late several sociologists political scientists developed general theories nationalism context worldwide decolonization 'ethnic revival' west iv period following fall communism led surge interest nationalism crystallization nationalism studies field ref name zkirimli p eighteenth nineteenth centuries first world war umut zkirimli explains interest nationalism largely ethical philosophical scholars


period predominantly historians social philosophers concerned 'merits defects' doctrine origins spread national phenomena ref name zkirimli p ref nation state seen progressive stage historical development human societies liberals marxists expected nationalism would eventually give way cosmopolitan world order context nations nationalism taken granted authors discussed motivated political concern attempts fashion general theory nationalism applicable cases ref name zkirimli


study nationalism future field authors michal luczewski ruhtan yal ne believe field becoming increasingly difficult study according michal luczewski researchers talking past decades valuable knowledge produced around years since time field stuck contemporary scientific facts common sense theories answers basic questions nationalism nation nation exist answered countless times leaving swath contradictory theories lack


reality accomplished utilizing empirical evidence luczewski also recommends starting small consecutively micro level general steps macro one journals one earliest journals devoted study nationalism ''canadian review studies nationalism'' founded university prince edward island thomas spira journal ''nationalities papers'' founded journals field include following ''ethnicities'' ''ethnopolitics'' ''ethnic racial studies'' ''immigrants minorities'' ''journal ethnic migration studies'' ''journal ethnopolitics minority issues europe''


''nationalism ethnic politics'' ''national identities'' ''nations nationalism'' ''nationalities papers'' ''studies ethnicity nationalism'' associations http wwwcasscedu arena association research ethnicity nationalism americas arena association study ethnicity nationalism asen association study nationalities asn research groups centres institutes chairs http wwwchairsgcca web chairholders viewprofile easpid province id universityid subjectid disciplineid researcher mcgarry keyword canada research chair nationalism democracy queen 's university http www warwickacuk fac soc crer centre research ethnic relations university warwick http sockomhelsinkifi ceren english centre research ethnic relations nationalism university helsinki http wwwsurreyacuk arts cronem indexhtm centre research nationalism ethnicity multiculturalism university surrey http wwwbristolacuk sociology ethnicitycitizenship centre


study ethnicity citizenship university bristol http wwwcsecbhamacuk centre study ethnicity culture university birmingham http wwwqueensuca edg indexhtml ethnicity democratic governance queen 's university http isanetccitarizonaedu sections enm ethnicity nationalism migration section international studies association http wwwqueensuca edg visitinghtml fulbright chair ethnicity multicultural citizenship queen 's university http wwwglobalism nationalismorg globalism nationalism rmit university academic programs http wwwbuedu uni iass nationalism indexhtml boston school nationalism studies boston university http wwwbbkacuk study pg politics tmsnlecn tmrnlecnhtml nationalism ethnic conflict birkbeck university london http nationalismceuhu nationalism studies program central european university http wwwspsedacuk gradschool taught programmes msc nationalism studies nationalism studies university edinburgh http wwwbtkeltehu en alias nationalism studies short term program e tv lor nd university http www lseacuk government degreeprogrammes programmes masters msccomparativepoliticsstreams nationalismandethnicityaspx nationalism ethnicity london school


economics see also ethnicity national identity sovereign state state polity references footnotes bibliography reading external links websites http wwwnationalismprojectorg nationalism project mailing lists http wwwsurreyacuk arts cronem mail grouphtm centre research nationalism ethnicity multiculturalism mail group http wwwqueensuca cded newshtml citizenship democracy ethnocultural diversity newsletter http wwwh netorg citizen h citizenship discussion network http wwwh netorg ethnic h ethnic discussion network http wwwh netorg national h nationalism discussion network http wwwlseacuk collections asen mailisthtm nationalism research ethnic studies works nationalism


social structures significantly influence larger systems economic systems legal systems political systems cultural systems etc social structure also said framework upon society established determines norms patterns relations various institutions society since term general use social science especially variable whose sub components needed distinguished relationship sociological variables well academic literature result rising influence structuralism concept social stratification instance uses

Social science
Sociology
Structural sociology


idea ' 'social structure'' explain societies separated different ' 'strata'' levels guided partially underlying structures social system also important modern study organizations organization 's structure may determine flexibility capacity change etc sense structure important issue management ''macro'' scale social structure pertains system socioeconomic stratification notably '''class structure''' social institutions patterned relations large social groups ''meso'' scale concerns structure social networks individuals


organizations ''micro'' scale social structure includes ways 'norms' shape behavior individuals within social system scales always kept separate example john levi martin theorized certain macro scale structures emergent properties micro scale cultural institutions ie structure resembles used anthropologist claude levi strauss likewise ethnography recent study describes indigenous social structure republic panama changed macro social structures impeded planned panama canal expansion ref name mcfarland press ref marxist sociology also historically mixed different meanings social structure though


simply treating cultural aspects social structure phenomenal economic ones social norms believed influence social structure relations majority minority align majority considered 'normal' align minority considered 'abnormal' majority minority relations create hierarchical stratification within social structures favors majority aspects society history early history early study social structures considerably informed study institutions culture agency social interaction history alexis de tocqueville supposedly


first use term social structure later karl marx herbert spencer ferdinand nnies mile durkheim max weber would contribute structural concepts sociology latter example investigated analyzed institutions modern society market bureaucracy private enterprise public administration politics eg democracy one earliest comprehensive accounts social structure provided karl marx related political cultural religious life mode production underlying economic structure marx argued economic base substantially determined cultural political superstructure society subsequent


marxist accounts louis althusser proposed complex relationship asserted relative autonomy cultural political institutions general determination economic factors last instance ref name calhoun calhoun craig social structure ''dictionary social sciences'' oxford oxford university press ref german sociologist ferdinand nnies published study ''the present problems social structure'' argues ''constitution'' multitude unity creates social structure basing approach concept social mile durkheim drawing analogies biological social


systems popularized herbert spencer others introduced idea diverse social institutions practices played role assuring functional integration society assimilation diverse parts unified self reproducing whole context durkheim distinguished two forms structural relationship mechanical solidarity organic solidarity former describes structures unite similar parts shared culture latter describes differentiated parts united social exchange material interdependence ref name calhoun marx weber georg simmel generally developed wide ranging approach provided observations insights domination


subordination competition division labor formation parties representation inner solidarity external exclusiveness many similar features state religious communities economic associations art schools family kinship networks however diverse interests give rise associations forms interests realized may yet identical later developments notion social structure extensively developed th century key contributions structuralist perspectives drawing theories claude l vi strauss well feminist marxist functionalist eg developed talcott parsons followers variety


variety central topics social science including relation structure agency influential attempts combine concept social structure agency anthony giddens' theory structuration pierre bourdieu 's practice theory giddens emphasizes duality structure agency sense structures agency cannot conceived apart one another permits argue structures neither independent actors determining behavior rather sets rules competencies actors draw aggregate reproduce giddens 's analysis


respect closely parallels jacques derrida 's deconstruction binaries underlie classic sociological anthropological reasoning notably universalizing tendencies l vi strauss 's structuralism bourdieu 's practice theory also seeks subtle account social structure embedded rather determinative individual behavior ref name calhoun recent work margaret archer morphogenesis theory tom r burns helena flam actor system dynamics theory social rule system theory immanuel wallerstein world systems theory provide elaborations applications sociological classics structural sociology definitions concepts noted social structure identified relationship


definite entities groups enduring patterns behaviour participants social system relation institutionalised norms cognitive frameworks structure actions actors social system institutional vs relational furthermore lopez scott distinguish two types structure ref name '''institutional structure''' social structure seen comprising cultural normative patterns define expectations agents hold 's behaviour organize enduring relations '''relational structure''' social structure seen comprising


relationships understood patterns causal interconnection interdependence among agents actions well positions occupy micro vs macro social structure also divided microstructure macrostructure '''microstructure''' pattern relations basic elements social life cannot divided social structure eg pattern relations individuals group composed individuals individuals social structure structure organizations pattern relations social positions social roles positions


roles structure '''macrostructure''' pattern relations objects structure eg political social structure political parties political parties social structure types sociologists also distinguish '''normative structures''' pattern relations given structure organisation norms modes operations people varying social positions '''ideal structures''' pattern relations beliefs views people varying social positions '''interest structures''' pattern relations goals desires people varying social positions '''interaction structures''' forms communications


people varying social positions modern sociologist sometimes differentiate three types social structures '''relation structures''' family larger family like clan structures '''communication structures''' structures information passed eg organizations '''sociometric structures''' structures sympathy antipathy indifference organisations studied jacob l moreno social rule system theory reduces structures particular rule system arrangements ie types basic structures shares role theory organizational institutional sociology network analysis concern structural properties developments time


provides detailed conceptual tools needed generate interesting fruitful propositions models analyses origin development structures believe social structure naturally developed caused larger systemic needs eg need labour management professional military classes conflicts groups eg competition among political parties elites masses others believe structuring result natural processes social construction sense may created power elites seek retain power economic systems place emphasis upon competition


cooperation ethnography contributed understandings social structure revealing local practices customs differ western practices hierarchy economic power construction ref name mcfarland press thorough account evolution social structure perhaps provided structure agency accounts allow sophisticated analysis co evolution social structure human agency socialised agents degree autonomy take action social systems action one hand mediated existing institutional structure expectations may hand influence


transform institutional structure critical implications notion social structure may mask systematic biases involves many identifiable sub variables eg gender argue men women otherwise equal qualifications receive different treatment workplace gender would termed social structural bias variables time job hours worked might masked modern social structural analysis takes account multivariate analysis techniques analytic problem combine various aspects social life whole remains see also


related concepts agency sociology base superstructure cognitive social structures conflict theory formative context morphological analysis norm sociology political structure power social political socialization social model social network social order social reproduction social space social structure united states sociotechnical systems theory structural functionalism structural violence structure agency systems theory technological determinism theory structuration values related theorists mile durkheim anthony giddens niklas luhmann karl marx robert k merton george murdock talcott parsons ferdinand nnies eric trist max weber references reading abercrombie nicholas stephan hill bryan turner social structure pp nbsp ''the penguin