reconstructed environments lived visual depictions past marine terrestrial communities considered early form paleoecology overview paleoecological approaches classic paleoecology uses data fossils subfossils reconstruct ecosystems past involves study fossil organisms associated remains shells teeth pollen seeds help interpretation life cycle living interactions natural environment communities manner death burial interpretations aid reconstruction past environments ie paleoenvironments paleoecologists studied fossil record


try clarify relationship animals environment part help understand current state biodiversity identified close links vertebrate taxonomic ecological diversity diversity animals niches occupy ref name sahneybentonferry linksdiversityvertebrates ref classical paleoecology primarily reductionist approach scientists conduct detailed analysis relatively small groups organisms within shorter geologic timeframes evolutionary paleoecology uses data fossils evidence examine organisms environments change throughout time evolutionary paleoecologists take holistic approach looking organism environmental change accounting

Natural science
Earth science
Paleontology
Paleoecology


physical chemical changes atmosphere lithosphere hydrosphere across time studying patterns evolution extinction context environmental change evolutionary paleoecologists able examine concepts vulnerability resilience species environments community paleoecology uses statistical analysis examine composition distribution groups plants animals quantifying plants animals associated community paleoecologists able investigate structures ancient communities organisms advances technology helped propel field use physical models computer based analysis major principles


functions relationships fossil organisms may observed directly ecology scientists describe analyze individuals communities time paleoecologists make following assumptions organisms adapted restricted particular environment usually adapted particular lifestyle essentially organisms depend another organism whether directly indirectly fossil physical records inherently incomplete geologic record selective environments likely preserved others taphonomy affecting underrepresentation fossils extremely important


consideration interpreting fossil assemblages uniformitarianism concept processes took place geologic past ones observed taking place today paleoecology uniformitarianism used methodology paleoecologists make inferences ancient organisms environments based analogies find present paleoecological methods ''zygospira modesta'' atrypid brachiopods preserved original positions trepostome bryozoan cincinnatian upper ordovician southeastern indiana aim paleoecology build detailed model possible life environment previously living organisms found today fossils


process reconstructing past environments requires use ''archives'' eg sediment sequences ''proxies'' eg micro mega fossils sediment characteristics provide evidence biota physical environment ''chronology'' eg obtaining absolute relative dating events archive reconstruction takes consideration complex interactions among environmental factors temperatures food supplies degree solar illumination often much information lost distorted fossilization process diagenesis enclosing sediments making interpretation difficult proxies reconstructing past environments include charcoal pollen


millennial scale using paleoecological data addition studies provide historical pre industrialization baselines species composition disturbance regimes ecosystem restoration provide examples understanding dynamics ecosystem change periods large climate changes paleoecological studies used inform conservation management restoration efforts particular fire focused paleoecology informative field study land managers seeking restore ecosystem fire regimes see also historical ecology palaeogeography paleolimnology palynology ''palaeogeography palaeoclimatology palaeoecology'' peer reviewed journal references bibliography taylor pd wilson palaeoecology evolution marine hard substrate communities


''earth science reviews'' https webarchiveorg web http wwwwoosteredu geology taylor wilson pdf woosteredu acosta ''et al'' climate change peopling neotropics pleistocene holocene transition bolet n de la sociedad geol gica mexicana http boletinsgmigeolcuunammx bsgm indexphp component content article sitio articulos cuarta epoca acosta ecology subfields ecology


'''knowledge engineering''' '''ke''' refers technical scientific social aspects involved building maintaining using knowledge based systems background expert systems one first examples expert system mycin application perform medical diagnosis mycin example domain experts medical doctors knowledge represented expertise diagnosis expert systems first developed artificial intelligence laboratories attempt understand complex human decision making based positive results initial prototypes technology adopted us business community later worldwide

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Knowledge engineering


process building software essentially two approaches attempted use conventional software development methodologies develop special methodologies tuned requirements building expert systems many early expert systems developed large consulting system integration firms andersen consulting firms already well tested conventional waterfall methodologies eg method andersen trained staff virtually always used develop software clients one trend early expert systems development simply apply waterfall methods expert systems development


another issue using conventional methods develop expert systems due unprecedented nature expert systems one first applications adopt rapid application development methods feature iteration prototyping well instead detailed analysis design conventional software methods supported type approach final issue using conventional methods develop expert systems need knowledge acquisition ''knowledge acquisition'' refers process gathering expert knowledge capturing form rules ontologies knowledge acquisition


special requirements beyond conventional specification process used capture business requirements issues led second approach knowledge engineering development custom methodologies specifically designed build expert systems one first popular methodologies custom designed expert systems knowledge acquisition documentation structuring kads methodology developed europe kads great success europe also used united states see also knowledge level modeling knowledge management knowledge representation reasoning knowledge retrieval knowledge tagging method engineering references external links http wwwelseviercom wps find journaldescriptioncws home description description data knowledge engineering


elsevier journal http journalscambridgeorg action displayjournaljid ker knowledge engineering review cambridge journal https webarchiveorg web http wwwksiedu ijskhtml international journal software engineering knowledge engineering world scientific http wwwinformatikuni trierde ley db journals tkde indexhtml ieee transactions knowledge data engineering https webarchiveorg web http wwwblackwellpublishingcom journalaspref site expert systems journal knowledge engineering wiley blackwell semantic web ontology information science


'''solid mechanics''' also known '''mechanics solids''' branch continuum mechanics studies behavior solid materials especially motion deformation action forces temperature changes phase changes external internal agents solid mechanics fundamental civil aerospace nuclear biomedical mechanical engineering geology many branches physics materials science ref name applied mechanics specific applications many areas understanding anatomy living beings design dental prostheses surgical implants one common practical applications


solid mechanics euler bernoulli beam equation solid mechanics extensively uses tensors describe stresses strains relationship solid mechanics vast subject wide range solid materials available steel wood concrete biological materials textiles geological materials plastics fundamental aspects ' 'solid'' material support substantial amount shearing force given time scale natural industrial process action distinguishes solids fluids fluids also support ''normal forces'' forces directed perpendicular


material plane across act ''normal stress'' normal force per unit area material plane ''shearing forces'' contrast ''normal forces'' act parallel rather perpendicular material plane shearing force per unit area called ' 'shear stress'' therefore solid mechanics examines shear stress deformation failure solid materials structures common topics covered solid mechanics include '' 'stability structures''' examining whether structures return given equilibrium disturbance partial complete failure '' 'dynamical systems chaos''' dealing


one compound eg reinforced plastics reinforced concrete fiber glass '''variational formulations computational mechanics''' numerical solutions mathematical equations arising various branches solid mechanics eg finite element method fem '''experimental mechanics''' design analysis experimental methods examine behavior solid materials structures relationship continuum mechanics shown following table solid mechanics inhabits central place within continuum mechanics field rheology presents overlap solid fluid mechanics response models material rest shape shape departs away rest


shape due stress amount departure rest shape called deformation proportion deformation original size called strain applied stress sufficiently low imposed strain small enough almost solid materials behave way strain directly proportional stress coefficient proportion called modulus elasticity region deformation known linearly elastic region common analysts solid mechanics use linear material models due ease computation however real materials


done damping effects converted heat within material resulting hysteresis loop stress strain curve implies material response time dependence plasticity materials behave elastically generally applied stress less yield value stress greater yield stress material behaves plastically return previous state deformation occurs yield permanent viscoplasticity combines theories viscoelasticity plasticity applies materials like gels mud thermoelasticity


coupling mechanical thermal responses general thermoelasticity concerned elastic solids conditions neither isothermal adiabatic simplest theory involves fourier 's law heat conduction opposed advanced theories physically realistic models timeline leonardo da vinci made many contributions galileo galilei published book two new sciences examined failure simple structures galileo galilei published book two new sciences examined failure simple structures hooke 's law robert hooke isaac newton published philosophiae naturalis


principia mathematica contains newton 's laws motion isaac newton published philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica contains newton 's laws motion euler bernoulli beam equation daniel bernoulli introduced principle virtual work leonhard euler developed theory buckling columns leonhard euler developed theory buckling columns claude louis navier published treatise elastic behaviors structures carlo alberto castigliano presented dissertation intorno ai sistemi elastici contains theorem computing displacement partial derivative strain energy theorem includes method ''least work''


special case otto mohr formalized idea statically indeterminate structure timoshenko corrects euler bernoulli beam equation hardy cross' publication moment distribution method important innovation design continuous frames alexander hrennikoff solved discretization plane elasticity problems using lattice framework r courant divided domain finite subregions j turner r w clough h c martin l j topp 's paper stiffness deflection complex structures introduces name finite element method widely recognized first comprehensive treatment


method known today see also strength materials specific definitions relationships stress strain applied mechanics materials science continuum mechanics fracture mechanics impact mechanics references notes ref bibliography ld landau em lifshitz ''course theoretical physics theory elasticity'' butterworth heinemann je marsden tj hughes ''mathematical foundations elasticity'' dover pc chou n j pagano ''elasticity tensor dyadic engineering approaches'' dover rw ogden ''non linear elastic deformation'' dover timoshenko jn goodier theory elasticity ed new york mcgraw hill ga holzapfel ''nonlinear solid mechanics continuum approach engineering'' wiley


ai lurie ''theory elasticity'' springer lb freund ''dynamic fracture mechanics'' cambridge university press r hill ''the mathematical theory plasticity'' oxford university j lubliner ''plasticity theory'' macmillan publishing company j ignaczak ostoja starzewski ''thermoelasticity finite wave speeds'' oxford university press bigoni ''nonlinear solid mechanics bifurcation theory material instability'' cambridge university press c fung pin tong xiaohong chen ''classical computational solid mechanics'' nd edition world scientific publishing mechanics continuum mechanics rigid bodies mechanics km sv h llfasthetsl ra


'' 'relational database''' digital database based relational model data proposed e f codd ref name codd system used maintain relational databases '' 'relational database management system''' '''rdbms''' many relational database systems option using sql structured query language querying maintaining database history term relational database invented e f codd ibm codd introduced term research paper relational model data large shared data banks ref name codd ref paper later papers defined

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
Relational databases


meant relational one well known definition constitutes relational database system composed codd 's rules however commercial implementations relational model conform codd 's rules term gradually come describe broader class database systems minimum present data user relations presentation tabular form ie ''collection'' tables table consisting set rows columns provide relational operators manipulate data tabular form ibm began developing


system r research project develop prototype rdbms first system sold rdbms multics relational data store june oracle released relational software oracle corporation ingres ibm bs followed examples rdbms include db sap sybase ase informix first rdbms macintosh began developed code named silver surfer released th dimension known today first systems relatively faithful implementations relational model university michigan micro dbms massachusetts


others relational view shared many theorists strict adherents codd 's principles would disqualify dbmss relational clarification often refer rdbmss ''truly relational database management systems'' trdbms naming others ''pseudo relational database management systems'' prdbms commercial relational dbmss employ sql query language alternative query languages proposed implemented notably pre implementation ingres quel relational model model organizes data one tables relations columns rows unique key identifying row rows


also called records tuples columns also called attributes generally table relation represents one entity type customer product rows represent instances type entity lee chair columns representing values attributed instance address price example row class table corresponds class class corresponds multiple students relationship class table student table one many keys row table unique key rows table


linked rows tables adding column unique key linked row columns known foreign keys codd showed data relationships arbitrary complexity represented simple set concepts part processing involves consistently able select modify one one row table therefore physical implementations unique primary key pk row table new row written table new unique value primary key generated


key system uses primarily accessing table system performance optimized pks natural keys may also identified defined alternate keys ak often several columns needed form ak one reason single integer column usually made pk pks aks ability uniquely identify row within table additional technology may applied ensure unique id across world globally unique identifier broader system requirements primary keys within database used


define relationships among tables pk migrates another table becomes foreign key table cell contain one value pk migrates regular entity table design pattern represent either one one one many relationship relational database designs resolve many many relationships creating additional table contains pks entity tables relationship becomes entity resolution table named appropriately two fks combined form pk migration pks


tables second major reason system assigned integers used normally pks usually neither efficiency clarity migrating bunch types columns relationships relationships logical connection different tables established basis interaction among tables transactions order database management system dbms operate efficiently accurately must use acid transactions stored procedures programming within rdbms accomplished using stored procedures sps often procedures used greatly reduce amount information transferred within outside


system increased security system design may grant access stored procedures directly tables fundamental stored procedures contain logic needed insert new update existing data complex procedures may written implement additional rules logic related processing selecting data terminology relational database terminology relational database first defined june edgar codd ibm 's san jose research laboratory ref name codd ref codd 's view qualifies rdbms summarized codd 's rules relational database become predominant


type database models besides ' 'relational model'' include hierarchical database model network model table summarizes important relational database terms corresponding sql term class wikitable sql term relational database term description '''''row''''' '''''tuple''''' '''' 'record''''' data set representing single item '''''column''''' '''''attribute''''' '''''field''''' labeled element tuple eg address date birth '''''table''''' '''''relation''''' '''''base relvar''''' set tuples sharing attributes


set columns rows '''''view''''' '''' 'result set''''' '''''derived relvar''''' set tuples data report rdbms response query relations tables ' 'relation'' defined set tuples attributes tuple usually represents object information object objects typically physical objects concepts relation usually described table organized rows columns data referenced attribute domain conform constraints


relational model specifies tuples relation specific order tuples turn impose order attributes applications access data specifying queries use operations ' 'select'' identify tuples ''project'' identify attributes ''join'' combine relations relations modified using ''insert'' ' 'delete'' ''update'' operators new tuples supply explicit values derived query similarly queries identify tuples updating deleting tuples definition unique tuple contains candidate primary key obviously unique however


primary key need defined row record tuple definition tuple requires unique require primary key defined tuple unique attributes definition constitute superkey base derived relations relational database data stored accessed via relations relations store data called base relations implementations called tables relations store data computed applying relational operations relations relations sometimes called derived


relations implementations called views queries derived relations convenient act single relation even though may grab information several relations also derived relations used abstraction layer domain domain describes set possible values given attribute considered constraint value attribute mathematically attaching domain attribute means value attribute must element specified set character string '' abc '' instance integer domain


two attributes within table together uniquely identify record foreign key foreign key field relational table matches primary key column another table relates two keys foreign keys need unique values referencing relation foreign key used cross reference tables effectively uses values attributes referenced relation restrict domain one attributes referencing relation concept described formally tuples referencing relation projected


referencing attributes must exist tuple referenced relation projected attributes values referencing attributes match corresponding values referenced attributes stored procedures stored procedure executable code associated generally stored database stored procedures usually collect customize common operations like inserting tuple relation gathering statistical information usage patterns encapsulating complex business logic calculations frequently used application programming interface api security simplicity implementations stored procedures sql


rdbms 's often allow developers take advantage procedural extensions often vendor specific standard declarative sql syntax stored procedures part relational database model commercial implementations include index index one way providing quicker access data indices created combination attributes relation queries filter using attributes find matching tuples directly using index similar hash table lookup without check tuple turn analogous using index book go directly


page information looking found read entire book find looking relational databases typically supply multiple indexing techniques optimal combination data distribution relation size typical access pattern indices usually implemented via b trees r trees bitmaps indices usually considered part database considered implementation detail though indices usually maintained group maintains parts database use efficient


indexes primary foreign keys dramatically improve query performance b tree indexes result query times proportional log n n number rows table hash indexes result constant time queries size dependency long relevant part index fits memory relational operations queries made relational database derived relvars database expressed relational calculus relational algebra original relational algebra codd introduced eight relational operators two groups four operators


form except minus operator cartesian product x two relations join restricted criteria resulting every tuple first relation matched every tuple second relation cartesian product implemented sql cross join operator remaining operators proposed codd involve special operations specific relational databases selection restriction operation retrieves tuples relation limiting results meet specific criterion ie subset terms set theory sql equivalent


selection select query statement clause projection operation extracts specified attributes tuple set tuples join operation defined relational databases often referred natural join type join two relations connected common attributes mysql 's approximation natural join inner join operator sql inner join prevents cartesian product occurring two tables query table added sql query one additional inner join added


prevent cartesian product thus n tables sql query must n inner joins prevent cartesian product relational division operation slightly complex operation essentially involves using tuples one relation dividend partition second relation divisor relational division operator effectively opposite cartesian product operator hence name operators introduced proposed since codd 's introduction original eight including relational comparison operators extensions offer support nesting hierarchical data among others normalization


normalization first proposed codd integral part relational model encompasses set procedures designed eliminate non simple domains non atomic values redundancy duplication data turn prevents data manipulation anomalies loss data integrity common forms normalization applied databases called normal forms rdbms general structure relational database connolly begg define database management system dbms software system enables users define create maintain control access database ref name begg p ref rdbms extension acronym


sometimes used underlying database relational alternative definition ' 'relational database management system'' database management system dbms based relational model databases widespread use today based model rdbmss common option storage information databases used financial records manufacturing logistical information personnel data applications since relational databases often replaced legacy hierarchical databases network databases rdbms easier implement administer nonetheless relational stored data received continued unsuccessful challenges object database


management systems introduced attempt address called object relational impedance mismatch relational databases object oriented application programs well xml database management systems however due expanse technologies horizontal scaling computer clusters nosql databases recently become popular alternative rdbms databases distributed relational databases distributed relational database architecture drda designed workgroup within ibm period drda enables network connected relational databases cooperate fulfill sql requests messages protocols


structural components drda defined distributed data management architecture market share according db engines march widely used systems oracle database mysql microsoft sql server postgresql free software ibm db sqlite free software microsoft access mariadb free software hive free software specialized data warehouses teradata microsoft azure sql database according research company gartner five leading proprietary software relational database vendors revenue oracle ibm microsoft sap including sybase teradata


see also sql object database oodbms online analytical processing olap rolap relational online analytical processing data warehouse star schema snowflake schema list relational database management systems comparison relational database management systems references sources external links database theory types databases english inventions computer related introductions


'''arabic literature''' ala lc ''al adab al arab '' writing prose poetry produced writers arabic language arabic word used literature ''adab'' derived meaning etiquette implies politeness culture enrichment arabic literature emerged th century fragments written language appearing qur'an widely regarded finest piece literature arabic language would greatest lasting effect arabic culture literature arabic literature flourished islamic golden age remained

Humanities
Languages and literature
Arabic Literature


vibrant present day poets prose writers across arab world well arab diaspora achieving increasing success history ''jahili'' literature pre islamic period referred ''al jahiliyyah'' time ignorance ref name ref pre islamic arabia markets souq okaz addition destinations caravans throughout peninsula ref name markets poetry recited dialect quraysh tribe control souq okaz mecca became predominant ref name poetry jahili period


invective ref name prose literature jahili period transmitted orally written prose represents little passed ref name main forms parables ''al mathal'' speeches ''al khit ba'' stories ''al qisas'' ref name notable arab ruler writer orator ref name also one famous rulers arabs well one renowned speech givers ref name qur'an qur'an one influential examples arabic literature qur'an main holy


book islam significant influence arab language marked beginning islamic literature muslims believe transcribed arabic dialect quraysh tribe muhammad ref name islam spread quran effect unifying standardizing arabic ref name qur'an first work significant length written language also far complicated structure earlier literary works ' 'suras'' chapters contain ''ayat'' verses contains injunctions narratives homilies parables direct addresses


god instructions even comments received understood also admired layers metaphor well clarity feature mentions sura meccan suras believed revealed muhammad mecca hijra deal primarily principles religion whereas medinan suras believed revealed hijra deal primarily sharia prescriptions islamic life ref name word ''qur'an'' meant recitation early times text


transmitted orally various tablets scraps suras written compiled abu bakr first transcribed unified ''masahif'' copies qur'an uthman ref name although contains elements prose poetry therefore closest ''saj'' rhymed prose qur'an regarded entirely apart classifications text believed divine revelation seen muslims eternal 'uncreated' leads doctrine ''i'jaz'' inimitability qur'an implies nobody copy


work 's style doctrine ''i'jaz'' possibly slight limiting effect arabic literature proscribing exactly could written whilst islam allows muslims write read recite poetry qur'an states th sura ash shu'ara poets poetry blasphemous obscene praiseworthy sinful acts attempts challenge qu'ran 's content form forbidden muslims may exerted dominance pre islamic poets th century whose popularity may vied qur'an amongst people marked lack significant poets th


century one notable exception hassan ibn thabit wrote poems praise muhammad known prophet 's poet bible held important place literature languages qur'an important arabic source many ideas allusions quotes moral message informs many works aside qur'an ''hadith'' tradition muhammed supposed said done important literature entire body acts words called ' 'sunnah'' way ones regarded ' 'sahih''


genuine collected hadith significant collections hadith include muslim ibn al hajjaj muhammad ibn isma'il al bukhari important genre work qur'anic study ''tafsir'' commentaries arab writings relating religion also includes many sermons devotional pieces well sayings ali collected th century ''nahj al balaghah'' ''the peak eloquence'' rashidi rashidun rightly guided caliphs literary centers developed hijaz cities mecca medina


scholars found support patronage umayyads literature period limited served interests parties individuals free art form ref name notable writers political poetry include al akhtal al taghlibi jarir ibn atiyah al farazdaq al kumayt ibn zayd al asadi ref name also poetic forms ''rajaz'' mastered ''ar r 'uw yy t'' pastoral poetry mastered dhu ar rumma ref name abbasid illustration house wisdom yahya ibn mahmud al wasiti manuscript


''maqama al hariri'' abbasid period generally recognized beginning islamic golden age time significant literary production house wisdom baghdad hosted numerous scholars writers al jahiz omar khayyam number stories ''one thousand one nights'' feature abbasid caliph harun al rashid al hariri basra notable literary figure period important poets bashar ibn burd abu nuwas abu l 'atahiya muslim ibn al walid abbas ibn al ahnaf ref name andalusi image


manuscript ''hadith bayad wa riyad'' th century andalusi literature produced al andalus islamic iberia muslim conquest either catholic conquest granada expulsion moors ending ibn abd rabbih 's ''al iqd al far d'' unique necklace ibn tufail 's ''hayy ibn yaqdhan'' influential works literature tradition notable literary figures period include ibn hazm ziryab ibn zaydun wallada bint al mustakfi al mu'tamid ibn abbad ibn bajja al bakri ibn rushd hafsa bint al hajj al rukuniyya ibn tufail ibn arabi ibn quzman abu al baqa


ar rundi ibn al khatib ''muwashshah'' ''zajal'' important literary forms al andalus rise arabic literature al andalus occurred dialogue golden age jewish culture iberia jewish writers al andalus incorporating elements rhyme meter themes classical arabic poetry created poetry hebrew samuel ibn naghrillah joseph ibn naghrela ibn sahl al isra'ili wrote poetry arabic ref name ref maimonides wrote landmark ''dal lat al h 'ir n'' ''the guide perplexed'' arabic using hebrew alphabet maghrebi fatima al fihri founded al qarawiyiin university fes particularly


beginning th century sponsorship almoravid dynasty university played important role development literature region welcoming scholars writers throughout maghreb al andalus mediterranean basin ref name ref among scholars studied taught ibn khaldoun al bitruji ibn hirzihim sidi harazim ibn al khatib al wazzan leo africanus well jewish theologian maimonides ref name sufi literature played important role literary intellectual life region early period muhammad al jazuli 's book prayers ''dala'il al khayrat'' zaydani library


library saadi sultan zidan abu maali stolen spanish privateers th century kept el escorial monastery mamluk mamluk sultanate ibn abd al zahir ibn kathir notable writers history ottoman significant poets arabic literature time ottoman empire included al busiri author ''al burda'' ibn al wardi safi al din al hilli ibn nubata ref name abd al ghani al nabulsi wrote various topics including theology travel nahda th century revival took place arabic literature along


works william shakespeare oscar wilde samuel beckett william faulkner among many others poetry may ziadeh palestinian lebanese poet essayist translator literary salon host nahda poets like francis marrash ahmad shawqi hafiz ibrahim began explore possibility developing classical poetic forms neoclassical poets acquainted western literature mostly continued write classical forms others denouncing blind imitation classical poetry recurring themes ref name studies modern arabic prose poetry p sought inspiration french english romanticism next


generation poets called romantic poets began absorb impact developments western poetry far greater extent felt constrained neoclassical traditions previous generation tried uphold mahjari poets emigrants mostly wrote americas similarly beginning experiment possibilities arabic poetry experimentation continued middle east throughout first half th century prominent poets nahda renaissance nasif al yaziji ref name mahmoud sami el baroudi hafez ibrahim ref name ahmed shawqi ref name


rights people ref name jam l ad n al afgh n muhammad abduh founded revolutionary anti colonial pan islamic journal ''al urwah al wuthqa'' ref name abd al rahman al kawakibi qasim amin mustafa kamil reformers influenced public opinion writing ref name saad zaghloul revolutionary leader renowned orator appreciated eloquence reason ref name ibrahim al yaziji founded newspaper ''an najah'' achievement magazine ''at tabib'' magazine ''al bayan'' magazine ''ad diya'' translated bible arabic ref name launched newspaper called ''al istiqama'' righteousness challenge ottoman


authorities push social reforms shut year ref name mustafa lutfi al manfaluti studied muhammad abduh al azhar university prolific essayist published many articles encouraging people reawaken liberate ref name suleyman al boustani translated ''iliad'' arabic commented ref name khalil gibran ameen rihani two major figures mahjar movement within nahda ref name jurji zaydan founded ''al hilal'' magazine founded ''al muqtataf'' louis cheikho founded journal ''al machriq'' ref name


notable figures nahda mostafa saadeq al rafe'ie may ziadeh ref name muhammad al kattani founder one first arabophone newspapers morocco called ''at ' n'' author several poetry collections leader nahda maghreb modern literature taha hussein referred dean arabic literature arabic throughout th century arabic writers poetry prose theatre plays reflected changing political social climate arab world anti colonial themes prominent early th century writers continuing explore region 's


relationship west internal political upheaval also challenge writers suffering censorship persecution many contemporary arabic writers mahmoud saeed iraq wrote ''bin barka ally'' ''i one saw saddam city '' contemporary writers include sonallah ibrahim abdul rahman munif imprisoned government critical opinions time others written works supporting praising governments promoted positions authority within cultural bodies nonfiction writers academics also produced political polemics criticisms aiming shape arabic


politics best known taha hussein 's ''the future culture egypt'' important work egyptian nationalism works nawal el saadawi campaigned women 's rights tayeb salih sudan ghassan kanafani palestine two writers explored identity relationship foreign domestic powers former writing colonial post colonial relationships latter repercussions palestinian struggle poetry world war ii largely unsuccessful movement several poets write poems free verse ' 'shi'r hurr'' iraqi poets badr shakir al sayyab


nazik al malaika considered originators free verse arabic poetry experiments abandoned favour prose poetry first examples modern arabic literature found writings francis marrash two influential proponents nazik al malaika iman mersal development modernist poetry also influenced poetry arabic recently poets adunis pushed boundaries stylistic experimentation even poetry retains important status arab world mahmoud darwish regarded


palestinian national poet funeral attended thousands mourners syrian poet nizar qabbani addressed less political themes regarded cultural icon poems provide lyrics many popular songs novels two distinct trends found ''nahda'' period revival first neo classical movement sought rediscover literary traditions past influenced traditional literary genres ''maqama'' works like ''one thousand one nights'' contrast modernist movement began translating western modernist works primarily novels arabic


appropriation novel genre europe also importantly revival transformation traditional narrative genres wake napoleon 's expedition egypt arab world 's firsthand encounter industrialized imperial europe ref name logan ed p blockquote common theme modern arabic novel study family life obvious resonances wider family arabic world many novels unable avoid politics conflicts region war often acting background intimate family


began develop distinctly arab flavour seen elsewhere important arab playwright tawfiq al hakim whose first play telling qur'anic story seven sleepers second epilogue ''thousand one nights'' important dramatists region include yusuf al ani iraq saadallah wannous syria classical arabic literature poetry large proportion arabic literature th century form poetry even prose period either filled snippets poetry form


' 'saj''' rhymed prose themes poetry range high flown hymns praise bitter personal attacks religious mystical ideas poems women wine important feature poetry would applied literature idea must pleasing ear poetry much prose written design would spoken aloud great care taken make writing mellifluous possible religious scholarship research life times muhammad


determining genuine parts sunnah important early reason scholarship arabic language also reason collecting pre islamic poetry poets close prophet labid meeting muhammad converting islam writings illuminated times events occurred muhammad also inspired first arabic biographies known a''l sirah al nabawiyyah'' earliest wahb ibn munabbih muhammad ibn ishaq wrote best known whilst covering life prophet also told battles events early


islam numerous digressions older biblical traditions earliest works studying arabic language started name islam tradition caliph ali reading copy qur'an errors asked abu al aswad al du'ali write work codifying arabic grammar khalil ibn ahmad would later write ''kitab al ayn'' first dictionary arabic along works prosody music pupil sibawayh would produce respected work arabic grammar known simply ''al kitab'' ''the book'' caliphs followed 'abd al malik


made arabic official language administration new empire al ma'mun set ''bayt al hikma'' baghdad research translations basrah kufah two important seats learning early arab world strong rivalry institutions set mainly investigate fully islamic religion invaluable studying many subjects caliph hisham ibn abd al malik instrumental enriching literature instructing scholars translate works arabic first probably aristotle 's correspondence alexander great translated salm


abu al 'ala' east different literary genre scholar abdullah ibn al muqaffa translated animal fables ''panchatantra'' translations would keep alive scholarship learning particularly ancient greece dark ages europe works would often first introduced europe arabic versions culinary medieval cookbooks survived present day written arabic language classical arabic culinary literature comprised cookbooks also many works scholarship descriptions contemporary foods found


hippocrates rufus ephesus galen pergamum galen 's ''on properties foodstuffs'' translated arabic ''kitab al aghdiya'' cited contemporary medical writers caliphate reign abu bakr al razi al razi author early text food ''manafi al aghdhiya wa daf madarriha'' book benefits food remedies harmful effects interest galen 's work limited muslim scholars jewish scholar abu ya'qub isha ibn sulayman al isra'ili wrote ''book foods'' also arabic period rufus' original greek


language work survived present day known us arabic translation ref name zaouali non fiction literature compilations manuals late th century ibn al nadim baghdadi bookseller compiled crucial work study arabic literature ''kitab al fihrist'' catalogue books available sale baghdad gives overview state literature time one common forms literature abbasid period compilation collections facts ideas instructive stories poems


write ibn qutaybah also wrote one earliest histories arabs drawing together biblical stories arabic folk tales historical events subject sex frequently investigated arabic literature ''ghazal'' love poem long history times tender chaste times rather explicit sufi tradition love poem would take wider mystical religious importance sex manuals also written ''the perfumed garden'' '' awq al mah'' ''the dove 's neckring'' ibn hazm ''nuzhat al albab fi la yujad fi kitab'' ''delight


hearts concerning never found book'' ahmad al tifashi countering works one like ''rawdat al muhibbin wa nuzhat al mushtaqin'' ''meadow lovers diversion infatuated'' ibn qayyim al jawziyyah advises separate love lust avoid sin biography history geography aside early biographies muhammad first major biographer weigh character rather producing hymn praise al baladhuri ''kitab ansab al ashraf'' ''book genealogies noble'' collection biographies another important biographical dictionary begun


ibn khallikan expanded al safadi one first significant autobiographies ''kitab al i'tibar'' told usamah ibn munqidh experiences fighting crusades time period saw emergence genre ''tabaqat'' biographical dictionaries biographical compendia ibn khurdadhbih official postal service wrote one first travel books form remained popular one arabic literature books ibn hawqal ibn fadlan al istakhri al muqaddasi al idrisi famously travels ibn battutah give view many cultures wider


islamic world also offer muslim perspectives non muslim peoples edges empire also indicated great trading power muslim peoples become often sprawling accounts included details geography history writers concentrated solely history like al ya'qubi al tabari whilst others focused small portion history ibn al azraq history mecca ibn abi tahir tayfur writing history baghdad historian regarded greatest arabic historians though ibn khaldun whose history ''muqaddimah'' focuses


society founding text sociology economics diaries medieval near east arabic diaries first written th century though medieval diary resembles modern diary ibn banna th century diary earliest arranged order date ''ta'rikh'' arabic much like modern diaries literary theory criticism literary criticism arabic literature often focused religious texts several long religious traditions hermeneutics textual exegesis profound influence study


secular texts particularly case literary traditions islamic literature literary criticism also employed forms medieval arabic poetry literature th century notably al jahiz ''al bayan wa 'l tabyin'' ''al hayawan'' abdullah ibn al mu'tazz ''kitab al badi'' fiction literature arabic version ''one thousand one nights'' ibn abd rabbih 's book ''al iqd al far d'' considered one seminal texts arabic fiction arab world great distinction ''al fus'ha'' quality language ''al ammiyyah'' language common people many


writers would write works ''al ammiyyah'' common language felt literature improving educational purpose rather entertainment stop common role ''hakawati'' story teller would retell entertaining parts educational works one many arabic fables folk tales often written many cases nevertheless earliest novels including first philosophical novels written arabic authors epic literature famous example arabic fiction ''one thousand one nights''


''arabian nights'' easily best known work arabic literature still affects many ideas non arabs arabic culture good example lack popular arabic prose fiction stories aladdin ali baba usually regarded part ''tales one thousand one nights'' actually part ''tales'' first included french translation ''tales'' antoine galland heard told maronite hanna dyab existed incomplete arabic manuscripts great character


arabic literature sinbad ''tales'' ''one thousand one nights'' usually placed genre arabic epic literature along several works usually collections short stories episodes strung together long tale extant versions mostly written relatively late th century although many undoubtedly collected earlier many original stories probably pre islamic types stories collections include animal fables proverbs stories ''jihad'' propagation faith humorous tales moral tales tales wily con man ali zaybaq


language al hamadhani regarded originator ''maqama'' work taken abu muhammad al qasim al hariri one al hariri 's ''maqama'' study al hamadhani 's work ''maqama'' exceptionally popular form arabic literature one forms continued written decline arabic th th centuries romantic literature famous example romantic arabic poetry ''layla majnun'' dating back umayyad era th century tragic story undying love ''layla majnun'' considered part platonic


love arabic genre called couple never marry consummate relationship prominent arabic literature though literary motif found throughout world famous virgin love stories include ''qays lubna'' ''kuthair azza'' ''marwa al majnun al faransi'' ''antara abla'' th century ''encyclopedia brethren purity'' features fictional anecdote prince strays palace wedding feast drunk spends night cemetery confusing corpse bride story used gnostic parable soul 's pre existence


return terrestrial sojourn another medieval arabic love story ''hadith bayad wa riyad'' ''the story bayad riyad'' th century arabic love story main characters tale bayad merchant 's son foreigner damascus riyad well educated girl court unnamed hajib vizier minister 'iraq referred lady ''hadith bayad wa riyad'' manuscript believed illustrated manuscript known survived eight centuries muslim arab presence spain many


scheherazade ''one thousand one nights'' ''arabian nights'' tale fisherman discovers heavy locked chest along tigris river sells abbasid caliph harun al rashid chest broken open find inside dead body young woman cut pieces harun orders vizier ja'far ibn yahya solve crime find murderer within three days executed fails assignment suspense generated multiple plot twists occur story progresses may thus


considered archetype detective fiction satire comedy arabic poetry genre satirical poetry known ''hija'' satire introduced prose literature author al jahiz th century dealing serious topics known anthropology sociology psychology introduced satirical approach based premise however serious subject review could made interesting thus achieve greater effect one leavened lump solemnity insertion amusing anecdotes throwing


witty paradoxical observations well aware treating new themes prose works would employ vocabulary nature familiar ''hija'' satirical poetry example one zoological works satirized preference longer human penis size writing length penis sign honor mule would belong honorable tribe quraysh another satirical story based preference ''arabian nights'' tale called ali large member th century writer tha'alibi


recorded satirical poetry written poets salami abu dulaf salami praising abu dulaf 's wide breadth knowledge mocking ability subjects abu dulaf responding back satirizing salami return example arabic political satire included another th century poet jarir satirizing farazdaq transgressor sharia later arabic poets turn using term farazdaq like form political satire terms comedy satire became synonymous aristotle 's ''poetics'' translated arabic medieval islamic world elaborated upon


arabic writers islamic philosophers abu bischr pupil al farabi avicenna averroes due cultural differences disassociated comedy greek dramatic representation instead identified arabic poetic themes forms ''hija'' satirical poetry viewed comedy simply art reprehension made reference light cheerful events troublous beginnings happy endings associated classical greek comedy latin translations th century term comedy thus gained new semantic meaning medieval literature theatre puppet theatre passion plays popular


desert island earliest examples desert island story however hayy lives alone desert island story ''philosophus autodidactus'' meets castaway named absal story kamil extends beyond desert island setting ''theologus autodidactus'' castaways take back civilization developing earliest known coming age plot eventually becoming first example science fiction novel ibn al nafis described book ''theologus autodidactus'' defense system islam muslims' doctrines missions


ibn tufail 's work entitled ''philosophus autodidactus'' first appeared prepared edward pococke younger first english translation simon ockley published german dutch translations also published time translations later inspired daniel defoe write ''robinson crusoe'' also featured desert island narrative regarded first novel english ref name wainwright wainwright ref ''philosophus autodidactus'' also inspired robert boyle acquaintance pococke write philosophical novel set island ''the aspiring naturalist'' late th century ref name toomer story also anticipated rousseau 's '' mile''


ways also similar later story mowgli rudyard kipling 's ''the jungle book'' well character tarzan baby abandoned deserted tropical island taken care fed mother wolf european writers influenced ''philosophus autodidactus'' include john locke gottfried leibniz ref name wainwright melchis dech th venot john wallis christiaan huygens george keith robert barclay quakers samuel hartlib ref name toomer toomer p ref science fiction ''al risalah al kamiliyyah fil sira al nabawiyyah'' ''the treatise kamil prophet 's biography'' known english ''theologus autodidactus''


phonetic transliteration greek name meaning self taught theologian written arabian polymath ibn al nafis earliest known science fiction novel also early desert island story coming age story novel deals various science fiction elements spontaneous generation futurology apocalyptic themes end world doomsday resurrection afterlife rather giving supernatural mythological explanations events ibn al nafis attempted explain plot elements using extensive scientific knowledge anatomy biology physiology astronomy cosmology geology


herb immortality leads explore seas journey garden eden jahannam travel across cosmos different worlds much larger world anticipating elements galactic science fiction ref name irwin irwin p ref along way encounters societies jinns mermaids talking serpents talking trees forms life ref name irwin another ''arabian nights'' tale protagonist abdullah fisherman gains ability breathe underwater discovers underwater submarine society portrayed inverted reflection society land underwater society


follows form primitive communism concepts like money clothing exist ''arabian nights'' tales deal lost ancient technologies advanced ancient civilizations went astray catastrophes overwhelmed city brass features group travellers archaeological expedition across sahara find ancient lost city attempt recover brass vessel solomon used trap jinn along way encounter mummified queen petrified inhabitants lifelike humanoid robots automata seductive marionettes dancing without strings brass horseman robot directs


party towards ancient city ebony horse features robot ref name pinault form flying mechanical horse controlled using keys could fly outer space towards sun third qalandar 's tale also features robot form uncanny boatman ref name pinault pinault pp ref city brass ebony horse considered early examples proto science fiction examples early arabic proto science fiction include al farabi 's ''opinions residents splendid city'' utopian society elements flying carpet arabic literature


young readers languages growing number literary works written arabic young readers group readers mind young readers series new york university press library arabic literature lal offers contemporary even classical texts weaving words collection like tenth century anthology stories anecdotes ''al faraj ba al shiddah'' deliverance follows adversity'' '' medieval writer al mu assin ibn al al tan kh women arabic literature words clarissa burt despite historical social conditions contributed almost total eclipse


women 's poetic expression literary record maintained arabic culture pre islamic era nineteenth century significant exceptions women poets writing arabic made tremendous strides since dawn twentieth century presenting poetic offerings mainstream cultural forums contributing plethora new modern poetic currents literary cultural throughout arab world whilst playing major attested part arabic literature much history women continuing role women 's literature arabic relatively little researched


period generally believed main modern anthology medieval arabic women 's writing english translation abdullah al udhari pre islamic women 's literature seems limited genre ''marathiya'' 'elegy' earliest poetesses al khansa layla al akhyaliyyah th century concentration ''ritha nowiki ' nowiki '' elegy suggests form deemed acceptable women work however love lyric also important genre women 's poetry umayyad 'abbasid periods saw professional singing slave girls ''qiyan'' sing ''quayna'' sang love songs accompanied


music alongside panegyric competitive verse capping ''qiyan'' also sang love poetry ''ghazal'' ''risalat al qiyan'' ''epistle singing girls'' al jahiz reckoned accomplished singer might repertoire songs pre eminent 'abbasid singing girls included 'inan paramour harun al rashid r arib al ma'muniyya concubine al ma'mun r fadl ashsha'ira concubine al mutawakkil r meanwhile harun al rashid 's half sister ulayya bint al mahd also known poetic skills mystic poet basra rabi'a al 'adawiyya ref name tahera qutbuddin tahera qutbuddin 'women poets' ''medieval islamic civilisation


literary elite women still played important part characters arabic literature ''sirat al amirah dhat al himmah'' example arabic epic female warrior fatima dhat al himma protagonist scheherazade famous cunningly telling stories ''one thousand one nights'' save life mamluk period saw flourishing sufi master poet 'a'isha al ba'uniyya probably arabic speaking world 's prolific female author twentieth century living egypt syria came al ba'uni family noted judges


scholars belonged 'urmawi branch qadiriyya order 'a'isha composed least twelve books prose verse included three hundred long mystical religious poems ref name tahera qutbuddin al nahda earliest prominent female arabic writer modern period arab cultural renaissance al nahda took place hirih iran wrote fine arabic persian poetry women 's literary salons societies arab world also pioneered nineteenth early twentieth centuries initially christian arab women tended freedom


female arab authors blockquote unlocked constraints traditional ode several women long careers poetry writing entering areas expression women 's experience presented print many ways poetic work gone hand hand growth critical discourse women 's role status experience women 's desires fully participating members public society exceptions critical reception arab world women poets lukewarm best part


often filled criticism adherence lack thereof poetic principles held prescriptive mahy schools arabic literary criticism ref name clarissa burt p blockquote alongside maryana marrash may ziadeh mary 'ajami pioneering figures women 's writing arabic time period zaynab fawwaz modern lebanon egypt arguably wrote first novel arabic first woman write play language well aisha taymur modern turkey egypt malak hifni nasif pseudonym bahithat al badiyya egypt anbara salam khalidy modern palestine lebanon anbara


salam khalidy modern palestine lebanon salma al kadhimiyya iraq pseudonym umm nizar since second world war arabic women 's poetry become markedly prominent ref name clarissa burt p clarissa burt 'arts poets poetry arab states' ''encyclopedia women islamic cultures'' ed suad joseph leiden brill v p ref nazik al malaika iraq egypt daughter salma al kadhimiyya right poet vanguard early nationalist movement al malaika alongside badr shakir al sayyab considered initiator free verse movement arabic


also number significant female authors also wrote non fiction work mainly exploring female condition muslim societies includes authors zaynab al ghazali nawal el saadawi author sociologist fatema mernissi women writers arab world unavoidably courted controversy layla ba'albakki instance charged obscenity endangering public morality months published collection short stories titled ''tenderness moon'' lebanese vice squad actually traveled every bookstore book sold confiscate remaining copies erotic content algeria women 's


oral literature used ceremonies called ''b q lah'' also meaning ceramic pitcher became symbol national identity anti colonialism war independence poems usually four ten lines algerian arabic cover topics everyday like love work political like struggle independence since speaking algerian arabic considered cultural resistance time poems took revolutionary implication contemporary arabic literature suffice say although female arab authors still risk controversy discussing explicit themes taboo topic


works theme explored explicitly vigour due greater outreach thanks social media international awareness arab literature current arab female writers include hanan al sheikh salwa al neimi writer poet journalist joumanna haddad journalist poet assia djebar ahdaf soueif yasmine el rashidi amongst others confront less talked topics sex prostitution homosexuality political censorship prosecution within arab diaspora also internationally relation arab emigration contemporary female arab writers poets journalists alongside producing literature non fiction works often take activist role


ever growing web anthologies posted young arab computer geeks dedicated construction web archives arabic poetry poetic history similarly critical treatment women 's poetry well established line resources web based sites major paper publications throughout arab world yet produce clearly defined critical means articulating emerging values poetry measuring critical worth new productions encouraging production arab women 's poetry weight depth acclaim comparable work major arab


male poets day blockquote literary criticism many centuries vibrant culture literary criticism arabic speaking world poetry festivals pre islamic period often pitched two poets war verse one would deemed winner audience literary criticism also relates theology gained official status islamic stud es qur'an although nothing might termed 'literary criticism' modern sense applied work held ''i'jaz'' inimitable divinely inspired textual analysis called ''ijtihad''


referring independent reasoning permitted study allowed better understanding message facilitated interpretation practical use helped development critical method important later work literature clear distinction regularly drawn works literary language popular works meant part literature arabic usually considered worthy study criticism first studies arabic poetry ''qawa'id al shi'r'' ''the rules poetry'' tha'lab ''naqd al shi'r'' ''poetic criticism'' qudamah ibn ja'far works


continued tradition contrasting two poets order determine one best follows rule classical poetic structure plagiarism also became significant topic exercising critics' concerns works al mutanabbi particularly studied concern considered many greatest arab poets arrogant self regard abilities endear writers looked source verse collections facts written many different subjects numerous collections detailing every possible rhetorical figure used literature emerged


well write guides modern criticism first compared new works unfavourably classical ideals past standards soon rejected artificial adoption forms european romantic poetry dictated introduction corresponding critical standards taha hussayn well versed european thought would even dare examine qur'an modern critical analysis pointed ideas stories borrowed pre islamic poetry outstanding sudanese scholar literary critic long list publications poetry genres arabic language general


abdallah al tayyib arguably notable work ''a guide understanding arabic poetry'' written thirty five years published four volumes several thousand pages outside views arabic literature literature arabic influential outside islamic world one first important translations arabic literature robert ketton 's translation qur'an twelfth century would early eighteenth century much diverse arabic literature would recognised largely due arabists like forster fitzgerald arbuthnot books


''arabic authors manual arabian history literature'' antoine galland 's french translation ''thousand one nights'' first major work arabic found great success outside muslim world significant translators friedrich r ckert richard burton along others working fort william india since least th century arabic many works western asian languages fuelled fascination orientalist thinking artistic production west works dubious 'foreign' morals particularly popular even censored content homosexual references


permitted victorian society works chosen translation helped confirm stereotypes audiences compared variety scope literature written arabic relatively historical modern arabic works translated languages since mid th century increase translations arabic books languages arabic authors began receive certain amount acclaim egyptian writer naguib mahfouz works translated nobel prize literature writers including abdul rahman munif tayeb salih found


rex ed ''abbasid belles lettres'' cambridge university press auchterlonie paul ''arabic biographical dictionaries summary guide bibliography'' middle east libraries committee beeston f l johnstone serjeant r b smith g r ed ''arabic literature end umayyad period'' cambridge university press bosworth clifford edmund ''the mediaeval islamic underworld ban n arabic society literature'' brill el enany rasheed ''naguib mahfouz pursuit meaning'' routledge glass cyril ''the new encyclopedia islam'' altamira press hamori andras allegory


rodwell j ''the koran'' phoenix logan peter melville ed ''the encyclopedia novel'' volume wiley blackwell makdisi george may diary islamic historiography notes ''history theory'' volume xv marzolph ulrich van leeuwen richard wassouf hassan ''the arabian nights encyclopedia'' abc clio mcginnis jon reisman david c ''classical arabic philosophy anthology sources'' hackett publishing company menocal mar rosa scheindlin raymond p sells michael ed ''the literature al andalus'' cambridge university press moreh shmuel ''modern arabic poetry ndash development forms


themes influence western literature'' brill moreh shmuel live theater medieval islam sharon moshe ''studies islamic history civilization honour professor david ayalon'' brill moreh shmuel ''studies modern arabic prose poetry'' brill pinault david ''story telling techniques arabian nights'' brill publishers russell g ed ''the 'arabick' interest natural philosophers seventeenth century england'' brill somekh neo classical poets badawi mohammed mustafa ''modern arabic literature'' cambridge university press stone christopher ''popular culture nationalism lebanon


reading abdel malek kamal popular arabic religious narratives ''muhammad history thought culture encyclopedia prophet god'' vols edited c fitzpatrick walker santa barbara abc clio vol ii pp nbsp eglash ruth arabic manuscripts j'lem libraries go online http wwwjpostcom features thespotlight arabic manuscripts jlem libraries go online johnson davies denys ed ''the anchor book modern arabic fiction'' new york anchor books external links arabic ontology https ontologybirzeitedu lexicographic search engine http wwwlibrarycornelledu colldev mideast arablithtm cornell university link arabic literature https webarchiveorg web http bcubleidenunivnl bc olg selec tawq indexhtml original arabic manuscript tawq alhamama arab culture literature ethnicity


kelileh va demneh persian manuscript copy dated depicts jackal trying lead lion astray topkapi palace museum istanbul turkey scene ''shahnameh'' describing valour rustam '''persian literature''' comprises oral compositions written texts persian language one world 's oldest literatures ref name spooner ref ref name spooner ref ref name cwl ref spans two half millennia sources within greater iran including present day iran iraq afghanistan caucasus turkey regions central asia tajikistan south asia persian language historically either native

Humanities
Languages and literature
Persian Literature


official language example rumi one best loved persian poets born balkh modern day afghanistan wakhsh modern day tajikistan wrote persian lived konya modern day turkey time capital seljuks anatolia ghaznavids conquered large territories central south asia adopted persian court language thus persian literature iran mesopotamia azerbaijan wider caucasus turkey pakistan bangladesh india tajikistan parts central asia persian literature written persian consider works written ethnic persians


iranians languages greek arabic included time literature written persian written ethnic persians iranians turkic caucasian indic poets writers also used persian language environment persianate cultures described one great literature humanity including goethe 's assessment one four main bodies world literature persian literature roots surviving works middle persian old persian latter dates back far nbsp bce date


earliest surviving achaemenid inscription behistun inscription bulk surviving persian literature however comes times following muslim conquest persia c nbsp ce abbasids came power ce iranians became scribes bureaucrats islamic caliphate increasingly also writers poets new persian language literature arose flourished khorasan transoxiana political reasons early iranian dynasties post islamic iran tahirids samanids based khorasan persian poets ferdowsi saadi hafiz attar nezami rumi omar khayyam also


ancient commentaries zend thereof works sassanid geography travel also survived albeit arabic translations single text devoted literary criticism survived pre islamic iran however essays pahlavi ayin e name nebeshtan principles writing book bab e edteda ye kalileh demneh considered literary criticism zarrinkoub researchers quoted ''sho'ubiyye'' asserting pre islamic iranians books eloquence 'karvand' trace remains books indications among persian elite familiar greek rhetoric literary


criticism zarrinkoub persian literature medieval pre modern periods ''bahram gur courtiers entertained barbad musician'' page manuscript shahnama ferdowsi brooklyn museum initially overshadowed arabic umayyad early abbasid caliphates new persian soon became literary language central asian west asian lands rebirth language new form often accredited ferdowsi unsuri daqiqi rudaki generation used pre islamic nationalism conduit revive language customs ancient iran poetry


''bowl reflections'' early th century brooklyn museum strong persian inclination versifying everyday expressions one encounter poetry almost every classical work whether persian literature science metaphysics short ability write verse form pre requisite scholar example almost half avicenna 's medical writings verse works early era persian poetry characterized strong court patronage extravagance panegyrics known big big exalted style tradition royal patronage began perhaps sassanid


epic style poetry ferdowsi 's ''shahnama'' apex glorifying iranian historical past heroic elevated verses notables daqiqi asadi tusi presented ajam source pride inspiration helped preserve sense identity iranian people ages ferdowsi set model followed host poets later th century marks ascendancy lyric poetry consequent development ghazal major verse form well rise mystical


sufi poetry style often called araqi iraqi style araq e ajam known emotional lyric qualities rich meters relative simplicity language emotional romantic poetry something new however works vis ramin as'ad gorgani ''yusof zoleikha'' am'aq bokharai exemplify poets sana'i attar ostensibly inspired rumi khaqani shirvani anvari nizami highly respected ghazal writers however elite school rumi saadi hafiz shirazi regarding tradition persian love poetry safavid era persian historian


subject lyrical introductions panegyrics beginning persian poetry ghazal safavid era many subjects iranian safavids patrons persian poetry teimuraz kakheti didactic genre one mention sanai 's ''hadiqat ul haqiqah'' garden truth well nizami 's ''makhzan ul asr r'' treasury secrets attar 's works also belong genre major works rumi although tend classify lyrical type due mystical emotional qualities addition tend group


naser khosrow 's works style well however true gems genre two books saadi heavyweight persian literature ''bustan'' ''gulistan'' th century indian style persian poetry sometimes also called ''isfahani'' ''safavi'' styles took style roots timurid era produced likes amir khosrow dehlavi bhai nand lal goya prose writings significant prose writings era nizami arudhi samarqandi 's '' chah r maq leh '' well zahiriddin nasr muhammad aufi 's anecdote compendium ''jawami ul hikayat'' shams


al mo'ali abol hasan ghaboos ibn wushmgir 's famous work ''qabus nama'' ''a mirror princes'' highly esteemed belles lettres work persian literature also highly regarded ''siyasatnama'' nizam al mulk famous persian vizier ''kelileh va demneh'' translated indian folk tales also mentioned category seen collection adages persian literary studies thus convey folkloric notions biographies hagiographies historical works among major historical biographical works classical persian one mention abolfazl beyhaghi 's famous ''tarikh beyhaqi'' ''lubab ul albab'' zahiriddin nasr muhammad


considered oldest surviving example persian prose also shows attempt authors evaluate literary works critically storytelling ''one thousand one nights'' medieval folk tale collection tells story scheherazade '' ahrz d'' sassanid queen must relate series stories malevolent husband king shahryar '' ahry r'' delay execution stories told period one thousand one nights every night ends story suspenseful situation forcing king keep alive


another day individual stories created several centuries many people number different lands nucleus collection formed pahlavi sassanid persian book called ''haz r afs nah'' ''thousand myths'' collection ancient indian persian folk tales reign abbasid caliph harun al rashid th century baghdad become important cosmopolitan city merchants persia china india africa europe found baghdad time many stories originally folk stories thought collected orally


many years later compiled single book compiler th century translator arabic reputedly storyteller ''abu abd allah muhammad el gahshigar'' frame story shahrzad seems added th century persian dictionaries biggest persian dictionary ''dehkhoda dictionary'' volumes ali akbar dehkhoda largest comprehensive persian dictionary ever published comprising volumes pages published tehran university press utp supervision dehkhoda dictionary institute first published traces historical development persian language


providing comprehensive resource scholars academic researchers well describing usage many variations throughout world names persian lexicographical works dictionary earliest ''farhang oim'' ''farhang menakhtay'' late sassanid era rd th century widely used persian lexicons middle ages abu hafs soghdi asadi tusi written also highly regarded contemporary persian literature lexical corpus works dr mohammad moin first volume moin dictionary published


christian ravius completed persian latin dictionary printed leiden followed john richardson 's two volume oxford edition gladwin malda 's persian english dictionaries scharif peters' persian russian dictionary persian lexicographical translations currently english persian dictionaries manouchehr aryanpour soleiman haim widely used iran persian proverbs class wikitable persian proverbs '''thousands friends n't sufficient one enemy one many ''' div style text align right lang fa div '' hez r n st kam va yek doshman


zi '' '''the wise enemy better ignorant friend ''' div style text align right lang fa div '' doshman e n beh'tar az dust e n n ast '' '''the wise enemy lifts ignorant friend casts ''' div style text align right lang fa div ''doshman e n bolandat mikonad bar zaminat mizanad n n st '' '''there dead grave top 're crying equivalent barking wrong tree '''


div style text align right lang fa div ''dar qabr ke b l yash ger'y morde n st'' influence persian literature world literature sufi literature persia 's best beloved medieval poets sufis poetry widely read sufis morocco indonesia rumi particular renowned poet founder widespread sufi order hafez hugely admired east west inspired sufism actually


floor p willem floor edmund herzig https booksgooglecom booksid dxlgkw ic pg pa dq georgian culture influenced persian hl en sa x ei vyve qj teygput cibw ved ccgq aewaq v onepage q georgian culture influenced persian f false ''iran world safavid age'' ibtauris sep p ref cultural influence lasted arrival russians jamshid sh giunashvili remarks connection georgian culture persian literary work ''shahnameh'' ref farmanfarmaian ''journal persianate studies'' asia minor despite asia minor anatolia ruled various times prior middle ages various persian speaking dynasties originating iran language lost traditional foothold demise sassanian empire


staunch opposer shia islam ref name books google nl bertold spuler https booksgooglecom booksid rd vvympvtsc pg pa dq persian language anatolia hl en sa x ved cc q aewamovchmipz b perxgivqz sch havj v onepage q persian language anatolia f false ''persian historiography geography'' pustaka nasional pte ltd p ref major literary language empire noted earlier persian literature works ottoman rule idris bidlisi 's ''hasht bihisht'' begun covered reign first eight ottoman rulers ''salim namah'' glorification selim ref name books google nl period several centuries ottoman turkish highly persianised developed towards fully accepted language literature even able satisfy


demands scientific presentation ref name bertold spuler p bertold spuler https booksgooglecom booksid rd vvympvtsc pg pa dq persian language anatolia hl en sa x ved cc q aewamovchmipz b perxgivqz sch havj v onepage q persian language anatolia f false ''persian historiography geography'' pustaka nasional pte ltd p ref however number persian arabic loanwords contained works increased times ref name bertold spuler p ottomans produced thousands persian literary works throughout century long lifespan areas ghaznavid mughal rule south asia emergence ghaznavids successors ghurids timurids mughal empire persian culture literature gradually moved south asia


general earliest days persian literature language imported subcontinent culturally persianised turkic afghan dynasties persian became language nobility literary circles royal mughal courts hundreds years early th century hindustani replaced mughal empire th century official language indian subcontinent became persian british army force south asia begin conducting business english small '' clawson p nbsp '' small persian poetry fact flourished regions post safavid iranian literature stagnated dehkhoda


scholars th century example largely based works detailed lexicography produced india using compilations ghazi khan badr muhammad dehlavi 's ''adat al fudhala'' ibrahim ghavamuddin farughi 's ''farhang ibrahimi'' particularly muhammad padshah 's ''farhang anandraj'' western literature persian literature little known west th century became much better known following publication several translations works late medieval persian poets inspired works various western poets writers german literature goethe published ''west stlicher divan''


collection lyric poems inspired german translation hafiz german essayist philosopher nietzsche author book ''thus spoke zarathustra'' referring ancient persian prophet zoroaster c bce english literature selection ferdowsi 's ''shahnameh'' published james atkinson physician employed british east india company portion abridgment later versified british poet matthew arnold ''rustam sohrab'' american poet ralph waldo emerson another admirer persian poetry published several essays


discuss persian poetry ''letters social aims'' ''from persian hafiz'' ''ghaselle'' perhaps popular persian poet th early th centuries omar khayyam whose ''rubaiyat'' freely translated edward fitzgerald khayyam esteemed scientist poet native persia fitzgerald 's rendering became one quoted poets english khayyam 's line loaf bread jug wine thou known many could say wrote


br br br ''gar agar dast dahad ze maghz e gandom n ni'' br ''va'z va az mey mani ze g sfandi r ni'' br ''v ngah man neshaste dar v r ni'' br '''eyshi bovad n na de har solt ni'' ''ah would loaf bread fare'' br ''a joint lamb jug vintage rare'' br ''and wilderness encamped '' br ''no sultan 's pleasure could compare'' persian poet mystic


rumi known molana iran afghanistan tajikistan mevlana turkey attracted large following late th early st centuries popularizing translations coleman barks presented rumi new age sage also number literary translations scholars j arberry classical poets hafiz saadi khayyam rumi nizami ferdowsi widely known english read various translations works persian literature untranslated little known swedish literature last century numerous works


classical persian literature translated swedish baron eric hermelin translated works among others farid al din attar rumi ferdowsi omar khayyam saadi sanai influenced writings swedish mystic emanuel swedenborg especially attracted religious sufi aspects classical persian poetry translations great impact numerous modern swedish writers among karl wennberg willy kyrklund gunnar ekel f recently classical authors hafez rumi araqi nizami aruzi rendered swedish iranist ashk dahl n published several


jami rita bargigli sa 'di farrukhi manuchehri 'unsuri nahid norozi sohrab sepehri khwaju kerman ahmad shamlu faezeh mardani forugh farrokhzad abbas kiarostami complete translation firdawsi 's ''shah nama'' made italo pizzi th century contemporary persian literature history th century persian literature experienced dramatic change entered new era beginning change exemplified incident mid th century court nasereddin shah reform minded prime minister amir kabir chastised poet habibollah qa'ani lying panegyric qasida written kabir 's


new persian literary movement cannot understood without understanding intellectual movements among iranian philosophical circles given social political climate persia iran late th early th centuries led persian constitutional revolution idea change poetry necessary became widespread many argued persian poetry reflect realities country transition idea propagated notable literary figures ali akbar dehkhoda abolqasem aref challenged traditional system persian poetry terms introducing new content experimentation


rhetoric lexico semantics structure dehkhoda instance used lesser known traditional form mosammat elegize execution revolutionary journalist 'aref employed ghazal central genre within lyrical tradition p nbsp write payam e azadi message freedom researchers argue notion sociopolitical ramifications esthaetic changes led idea poets social leaders trying limits possibilities social change important movement modern persian literature centered question modernization westernization whether terms synonymous describing evolution iranian


society argued almost advocates modernism persian literature akhundzadeh kermani malkom khan dehkhoda aref bahar taqi rafat inspired developments changes occurred western particularly european literatures inspirations mean blindly copying western models rather adapting aspects western literature changing fit needs iranian culture following pioneering works ahmad kasravi sadeq hedayat moshfeq kazemi many others iranian wave comparative literature literary criticism reached symbolic crest emergence abdolhossein zarrinkoub


shahrokh meskoob houshang golshiri ebrahim golestan afghanistan persian literature afghanistan also experienced dramatic change last century beginning th century afghanistan confronted economic social change sparked new approach literature mahmud tarzi came back afghanistan years exile turkey influential government circles started fortnightly publication named ''saraj ul akhbar'' ''saraj'' first publication country field journalism literature launched new period change


modernization ''saraj'' played important role journalism also gave new life literature whole opened way poetry explore new avenues expression personal thoughts took social colour ah months cultural stagnation group writers founded herat literary circle year later another group calling kabul literary circle founded capital groups published regular magazines dedicated culture persian literature especially kabul publication little success becoming venues


modern persian poetry writing time kabul publication turned stronghold traditional writers poets modernism dari literature pushed fringes social cultural life two prominent classical poets afghanistan time abdul haq betab khalil ullah khalili betab received honorary title ''malek ul shoara'' king poets khalili drawn toward ''khorasan style'' poetry instead usual ''hendi style'' also interested modern poetry wrote poems modern style new aspects


thought meaning ah two poems nima youshij titled gharab ghoghnus published khalili wrote poem name sorude kuhestan song mountain rhyming pattern nima sent kabul literary circle traditionalists kabul refused publish written traditional rhyme criticized khalili modernizing style gradually new styles found way literature literary circles despite efforts traditionalists first book new poems published


year ah ah collection modern persian dari poetry published kabul first group write poems new style consisted mahmud farani baregh shafi solayman layeq sohail ayeneh others later vasef bakhtari asadullah habib latif nazemi others joined group share modernizing persian poetry afghanistan notable figures include leila sarahat roshani sayed elan bahar parwin pazwak poets like mayakovsky yase nien lahouti iranian poet living exile russia exerted special influence


persian poets afghanistan influence iranians eg farrokhi yazdi ahmad shamlou newly established afghan prose poetry especially second half th century must also taken consideration prominent writers afghanistan like asef soltanzadeh reza ebrahimi ameneh mohammadi abbas jafari grew iran influenced iranian writers teachers tajikistan new poetry tajikistan mostly concerned way life people revolutionary advent new poetry france asia


latin america impact modernization drive strong modern iranian poetry mohammad iqbal lahouri made profound impression tajik poetry period probably richest prolific period development themes forms persian poetry tajikistan tajik poets mere imitators one easily see traits foreign poets work two three poets able digest foreign poetry compose original poetry tajikistan format pictorial aspects short stories novels taken


russian european literature tajikistan 's prominent names persian literature golrokhsar safi eva mo'men ghena'at farzaneh khojandi bozor sobir layeq shir ali play among best known playwrights bahram beyzai akbar radi gholam hossein sa'edi esmaeel khalaj ali nassirian mirza aqa tabrizi bijan mofid novel well known novelists include mohammad ali jamalzadeh sadeq hedayat sadeq chubak gholam hossein sa'edi ahmad mahmoud jalal al e ahmad simin daneshvar bozorg alavi ebrahim golestan bahman sholevar mahmoud dowlatabadi bahram sadeghi ghazaleh alizadeh bahman forsi houshang golshiri reza baraheni abbas maroufi reza ghassemi zoya pirzad shahriyar mandanipour abutorab khosravi nazi safavi


satire dehkhoda iraj mirza kioumars saberi foumani obeid zakani ebrahim nabavi hadi khorsandi bibi khatoon astarabadi javad alizadeh emran salahi literary criticism pioneers persian literary criticism th century include mirza fath `ali akhundzade mirza malkom khan mirza `abd al rahim talebof zeyn al `abedin maraghe`i prominent th century critics include jamshid behnam allameh dehkhoda badiozzaman forouzanfar mohammad taqi bahar jalal homaei mohammad moin saeed nafisi parviz natel khanlari sadeq hedayat ahmad kasravi abdolhossein zarrinkoub shahrokh meskoob ali abdolrezaei saeed nafisi analyzed edited several critical works well known works rudaki sufi


reputation among intelligentsia also academia besides significant contribution maturity persian language literature zarrinkoub boosted comparative literature persian literary criticism zarrinkoub 's ''serr e ney'' critical comparative analysis rumi 's ''masnavi'' turn shahrokh meskoob worked ferdowsi 's ''shahnameh'' using principles modern literary criticism mohammad taghi bahar 's main contribution field book called ''sabk shenasi'' stylistics pioneering work practice persian literary historiography emergence development persian literature distinct institution


early part th century contends exemplary status sabk shinasi rests recognition disciplinary institutional achievements contends rather text persian stylistics sabk shinasi vast history persian literary prose significant intervention persian literary historiography jalal homaei badiozzaman forouzanfar student mohammad reza shafiei kadkani notable figures edited number prominent literary works critical analysis jami 's works carried ala khan afsahzad classic book prestigious award


iran 's year best book year persian short stories historically modern persian short story undergone three stages development formative period period consolidation growth period diversity period diversity period influence western literature iranian writers authors obvious new modern approaches writing introduced several genres developed specially field short story popular trends toward post modern methods speculative fiction poetry notable persian poets modern


classical include mehdi akhavan sales simin behbahani forough farrokhzad mohammad zohari bijan jalali mina assadi siavash kasraie fereydoon moshiri nader naderpour sohrab sepehri mohammad reza shafiei kadkani ahmad shamlou nima yushij houshang ebtehaj mirzadeh eshghi classical mohammad taghi bahar classical aref ghazvini classical ahmad niktalab new classic parvin etesami classical shahriar classical ali abdolrezaei post modernism new post modernism babak niktalab children 's poetry classical persian poetry modern times notable classical poets arisen since th century among mohammad taghi bahar parvin etesami celebrated mohammad taghi bahar title


king poets significant role emergence development persian literature distinct institution early part th century theme poems social political situation iran parvin etesami may called greatest persian woman poet writing classical style one remarkable series called ''mast va hoshyar'' drunk sober admiration many involved romantic poetry modern persian poetry nima yushij considered father modern persian poetry introducing many techniques forms


differentiate modern old nevertheless credit popularizing new literary form within country culture solidly based thousand years classical poetry goes disciples ahmad shamlou adopted nima 's methods tried new techniques modern poetry transformation brought nima youshij freed persian poetry fetters prosodic measures turning point long literary tradition broadened perception thinking poets came nima offered different understanding principles classical poetry


artistry confined removing need fixed length hemistich dispensing tradition rhyming focused broader structure function based contemporary understanding human social existence aim renovating poetry commit natural identity achieve modern discipline mind linguistic performance poet ref name mansur khaksar ref nima held formal technique dominating classical poetry interfered vitality vigor progress although accepted aesthetic properties extended poetry never


ceased widen poetic experience emphasizing natural order art nima youshij founded contemporary poetry successor ahmad shamlou continued sepid poem translates white poem draws sources poet avoided compulsory rules entered nimai school poetry adopted freer structure allowed direct relationship poet emotional roots previous poetry qualities poet vision well span subject could expressed general terms subsumed


formal limitations imposed poetic expression nima poetry transgressed limitations relied natural function inherent within poetry portray poet solidarity life wide world surrounding specific unambiguous details scenes sepid poetry continues poetic vision nima expressed avoids contrived rules imposed creation however distinct difference nimai poetry move away rhythms employed nima youshij paid attention overall harmonious rhyming created many experimental examples achieve end ref name mansur


khaksar ahmad shamlu discovered inner characteristics poetry manifestation literary creations classical masters well nimai experience offered individual approach distancing obligations imposed older poetry limitations entered nimai poem recognized role prose music hidden language structure sepid poetry contrast prosodic nimai rules poem written natural words incorporates prose like process without losing poetic distinction sepid poetry


developing branch nimai poetry built upon nima youshij 's innovations nima thought change construction tools poet expression conditional knowledge world revolutionized outlook sepid poetry could take root outside teaching application according simin behbahani sepid poetry receive general acceptance bijan jalali 's works considered founder sepid poetry according behbahani behbahani used char pareh style nima subsequently turned ghazal free flowing poetry style similar western sonnet simin behbahani


contributed historic development form ghazal added theatrical subjects daily events conversations poetry expanded range traditional persian verse forms produced significant works persian literature th century reluctant follower nima yushij mehdi akhavan sales published ''organ'' support contentions nima yushij 's groundbreaking endeavors persian poetry mehdi akhavan sales established bridge ''khorassani'' ''nima'' schools critics consider mehdi akhavan sales one best contemporary persian poets


one pioneers free verse new style poetry persian literature particularly modern style epics ambition long time introduce fresh style persian poetry forough farrokhzad important literary history iran three reasons first among first generation embrace new style poetry pioneered nima yushij demanded poets experiment rhyme imagery individual voice second first modern iranian woman graphically articulate private sexual landscapes woman 's perspective finally


transcended literary role experimented acting painting documentary film making fereydoon moshiri best known conciliator classical persian poetry new poetry initiated nima yooshij one major contributions moshiri 's poetry according observers broadening social geographical scope modern persian literature poet last generation islamic revolution worthy mention mohammad reza shafiei kadkani sereshk though khorassan sways allegiance nima youshij akhavan saless poetry shows influences hafiz


mowlavi uses simple lyrical language mostly inspired political atmosphere successful poets past four decades tried hard find synthesis two models ahmad shamloo nima youshij twenty first century new generation iranian poets continues work new poetry style attracts international audience thanks efforts translate works ditions bruno doucey published selection forty eight poems garus abdolmalekian entitled ''our fists table'' translated french


farideh rava notable names poet publisher babak abazari died mysterious circumstances january emerging young poet milad khanmirzaei '''post modern persian poetry''' since progressive evolution begun persian poetry leading modern poetry changed balancing principle rhythm rhyme traditional persian poetry free verse poetry following rhythm natural speech center attention language alone rhythm absent charm language leads main axle pushing


persian poetry forward three talked poets post modern poetry iran reza barahani ali abdolrezaei ali babachahi among ali abdolrezaei enjoyed wider admissibility due new language expressed prevailed period poets reza barahani butterflies addressed butterflies ali abdolrezaei paris renault sermon society shinema mothurt ali babachahi soft rain belong genre children 's poetry contemporary period growth manifestation children 's poetry persian language literature increased


period see emergence prominent poets mahmoud kianoosh abbas yamini sharif young poetry babak niktalab adolescent poetry persian literature awards sadegh hedayat award national ferdowsi prize houshang golshiri award bijan jalali award iran 's annual book prize martyr avini literary award mehrgan adab prize parvin etesami award yalda literary award isfahan literary award persian speculative art literature award jalal al e ahmad literary awards golden pen awards https webarchiveorg web http iranian studiescom awards lois roth lois roth persian translation prize jaleh esfahani poetry award authors poets see also academy


persian language literature diwan poetry includes description symbols takhallus pen name notes references sources reading aryanpur manoochehr ''a history persian literature'' tehran kayhan press chopra rm eminent poetesses persian iran society kolkata chopra rm rise growth decline indo persian literature published iran culture house new delhi iran society kolkata revised edition published zellem edward clawson patrick '' https booksgooglecom booksid fx haaaaqbaj eternal iran '' macmillan browne eg '' https wwwgooglecom booksid fshmk xyd cc literary history persia '' browne edward g ''islamic medicine'' rypka


jan ''history iranian literature'' reidel publishing company schimmel annemarie '' https booksgooglecom booksid jfxoagaaqbaj two colored brocade imagery persian poetry '' university north carolina press usa tikku gl ''persian poetry kashmir'' walker benjamin ''persian pageant cultural history iran '' calcutta arya press zellem edward chopra rm great poets classical persian sparrow publication kolkata external links http wwwpersian languagecom national committee expansion persian language literature http persianpackhumorg persian packard humanities institute persian literature translation currently https webarchiveorg web http persianpackhumorg persian main latest


archived version http wwwbritannicacom ebchecked topic persian literature persian literature encyclop dia britannica http wwwparstimescom literature persian literature poetry parstimescom literature history literature iranic literature persian language literature literature ethnicity literature language arts iran


micro sociology '''interactionism''' theoretical perspective sees social behavior interactive product individual situation words derives social processes conflict cooperation identity formation social interaction whereby subjectively held meanings integral explaining understanding social behavior ref name https wwwsciencedirectcom topics social sciences interactionism interactionism topics ''sciencedirect'' retrieved march ref perspective studies ways individuals shape shaped society interactions interactionism thus argues individual active conscious piece social context system rather merely passive object


environment ref name millov katar na marek blatn personality development systems theories pp ''international encyclopedia social behavioral sciences'' nd ed ref believes interactions guided meanings attached self others individual interacts situations interaction altered interaction ref name sense interactionism may stand contrast studies socialization insofar interactionism conceives individuals influence groups least much groups influence individuals ref name hodapp robert indirect effects genetic mental retardation disorders


theoretical methodological issues ''international review research mental retardation'' ref george herbert mead advocate pragmatism subjectivity social reality considered leader development interactionism ref name herbert blumer expanded mead 's work coined term ' 'symbolic interactionism'' perspective modern techniques one may observe human behavior three parts trait situation interaction trait situation 'trait' refers extent personality directly affects behaviour independent situation therefore consistently across different situations 'situation' takes account extent


different people provide basically response given situation 'interaction' involves ways situation affects individual people differently ref name subcategories scholars interactionism several subcategories classical interactionism ref name ethnomethodology holistic interactionism ref name phenomenology social action social constructionism symbolic interactionism blumerian interactionism verstehen influential scholars george herbert mead charles cooley w thomas herbert blumer everett hughes erving goffman anselm strauss ralph turner interactions interactionism micro sociological perspective argues meaning produced interactions individuals social interaction face face


control perception one 's image important concepts field interactionism include social role goffman 's presentation self methodology interactionists interested people see broader social context act within society extreme cases interactionists would deny social class issue arguing people one class cannot generalized think one way instead interactionists believe everyone different attitudes values culture beliefs therefore duty sociologist carry study within society


set gather qualitative data rejection positivist methods interactionists reject statistical quantitative data method preferred post positivists methods include experiments structured interviews questionnaires non participant observation secondary sources rejection based basic criticisms namely statistical data valid words methods provide people true picture society topic researched quantitative research biased therefore objective whilst sociologist would distant argued existence hypothesis implies research biased towards pre set conclusion