conchologists history shell collecting precursor conchology dates back thousands years archaeologists sometimes uncovered stone age oceanic seashell necklaces areas far ocean indicating traded shell jewellery found archaeological sites around world sea shells ''recreatione dell'occhio e della mente'' filippo bonanniduring renaissance people began collecting natural objects beauty private cabinets curiosities attractiveness variety durability ubiquity shells frequently became large part collections scientific interest began develop towards end


th century jesuit priest filippo bonanni published two volume atlas ''ricreazione dell'occhio et della mente nell'osservazione delle chiocciole'' recreation eye mind observation molluscs first treatise devoted entirely mollusc shells martin lister published ''historia conchyliorum'' comprehensive conchological text engraved plates plate lister 's book showing calls ''buccinis shells'' george rumpf rumphius published first genuine mollusc taxonomy suggested categories single shelled ones modern polyplacophora limpets abalone snails whelks gastropoda two shelled ones

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Conchology


bivalvia include tusk shells internal shells cephalopods many rumpf 's terms later adopted carl linnaeus study zoology including conchology revolutionized linnaeus system binomial nomenclature six hundred eighty three approximately animal species linnaeus described considered molluscs although linnaeus placed several different phyla time ref name ref ref english word conchology coined british sephardi naturalist emanuel mendez da costa published https wwwbiodiversitylibraryorg item page mode ''the elements conchology introduction


knowledge shells'' london since number prominent conchologists published studies shells john mawe produced arguably first conchology guidebook ''the voyager 's companion shell collector 's pilot'' well ''the linn system conchology'' hugh cuming famous huge collection numerous discoveries new species thomas say wrote fundamental work ''american conchology descriptions shells north america illustrated coloured figures original drawings executed nature'' six volumes r tucker abbott arguably prominent conchologist


th century authoring dozens books working museum director bailey matthews shell museum best known works ''american seashells'' ''seashells world'' ''the kingdom seashell'' john dupont also known extensive collection donated delaware museum natural history japanese emperor hirohito also amassed huge collection competent respected amateur conchologist museums many museums worldwide contain large scientifically important shell collections however cases research collections readily accessible


general public exhibits world 's largest assemblage mollusc shells held smithsonian institution c million lots ref name sierwald ref representing perhaps species burke museum natural history culture also large collection donated dr phil nudelman includes specimens species mostly indo pacific region caribbean mediterranean us academy natural sciences philadelphia american museum natural history new york city bailey matthews shell museum sanibel island florida museum world dedicated


entirely shells charleston marine life center oregon institute marine biology charleston oregon denver museum nature science denver colorado approximately shell lots museum comparative zoology harvard massachusetts national museum natural history washington dc smithsonian c million lots largest worldwide ref name sierwald europe austria vienna naturhistorisches museum belgium brussels royal belgian institute natural sciences one three largest collections france paris mus um national d'histoire naturelle lots million specimens germany frankfurt naturmuseum senckenberg lots living taxa


fossil taxa berlin berlin 's natural history museum netherlands leiden natural history museum leiden sweden stockholm swedish museum natural history united kingdom ref name gbcollections ref london natural history museum million specimens type specimens ref name gbcollections cardiff national museum cardiff second largest uk collection million specimens manchester manchester museum fourth largest uk collection lots cambridge cambridge university museum zoology lots organizations like scientific fields conchologists number local national international organizations also many organizations specializing specific subareas association fran aise de


conchyliologie belgian society conchology club conchylia german austrian society shell collecting conchological society great britain ireland conchologists america conquiliologistas brasil nederlandse malacologische vereniging unitas malacologica depictions shells stamps coins shells featured postage stamps worldwide featured many coins including bahamian dollar cuban peso haitian gourde nepalese rupee philippine peso see also conchologists references sources national geographic magazine march magic lure sea shells paul


zahl seashells northern hemisphere surrey r tucker abbott external links http wwwshellmuseumorg bailey matthews shell museum sanibel island http wwwworldwideconchologycom mainframesshtml site amateurs conchological organizations http wwwxenophoraorg indexphp association fran aise de conchyliologie https webarchiveorg web http wwwconchologistsofamericaorg home conchologists america http wwwconchsocorg conchological society great britain ireland http wwwclub conchyliade club conchylia german austrian society shell collecting https webarchiveorg web http wwwbvc gloriamarisbe belgian society conchology https webarchiveorg web http wwwconchasbrasilorgbr default asp conquiliologistas brasil subfields zoology


'''feminist geography''' sub discipline human geography applies theories methods critiques feminism study human environment society geographical space ref name rose ref feminist geography emerged members women 's movement called academia include women producers subjects academic work ref name feminist geographers aim incorporate positions race class ability sexuality study geography discipline subject several controversies ref name ref geography women geography women examines effects geography gender inequality

Social science
Geography
Feminist Geography


theoretically influenced welfare geography liberal feminism feminist geographers emphasize various gendered constraints put place distance spatial separation instance spatial considerations play role confining women certain locations social spheres book ''companion feminist geography'' seager johnson argue gender narrow minded approach understanding oppression women throughout decades colonial history ref name understanding geography women requires critical approach questions dimensions age class ethnicity orientation socio economic factors ref name seager


j nelson l eds companion feminist geography williston vt usa blackwell publishing ref early objection concept geography women however claimed gender roles mainly explained gender inequality however foord gregson argue idea gender roles emerges static social theory narrows focus women portrays women victims gives narrow reading distance instead claim concept geography women able display spatial constraint separation enter construction women 's positions


theorist edward said critiqued idea geographical spaces context actions gendered practices representation fabricated dominant ideological beliefs response feminist geographers argue misrepresentations gender roles taken granted feminist movements reveal challenges colonial present lie within confinement women limited spatial opportunities therefore feminist geographies built principle gender applied developed terms space socialist feminist geography socialist feminist geography theoretically influenced marxism socialist feminism seeks explain inequality relationship capitalism patriarchy


interdependence geography gender relations economic development capitalism socialist feminist geography revolves around questions reduce gender inequality caused patriarchy capitalism focuses predominantly spatial separation gender place locality uncertainty regarding appropriate articulation gender class analysis fuels key theoretical debate within field socialist feminist geography example analyzing married mainland chinese immigrant women living new york city women remain primary object analysis gender remains primary social relation however socialist feminist geographers also recognize many factors


class affect women 's post migration experiences circumstances ref name longhurt ref socialist feminist geographers first worked primarily urban scale anglo american feminist geographers focused social spatial separation suburban homes paid employment seen vital day day generational development maintenance traditional gender relations capitalist societies socialist feminist geographers also analyze ways effects geographical differences gender relations reflect also partly determine local economic changes judith butler 's concept citationality ref name explores lack agency surrounding facilitation


presence women within discipline geography subsequently feminist geographers conclude whenever performative measures taken diminish women 's rights geographical space surrounding conventions adapt make seem norm ref name mckenzie j perform else discipline performance london gbr routledge ref feminist geographies difference feminist geographies difference approach feminist geography concentrates construction gendered identities differences among women examines gender constructions nature cultural post structural postcolonial psychoanalytic theories well writings women color lesbian women gay


men women third world countries approach feminist geographers emphasize study micro geographies body mobile identities distance separation place imagined geographies colonialism post colonialism environment nature since late many feminist geographers moved three new research areas categories gender men women formation gender relations identities differences relativism situational knowledge firstly feminist geographers contested expanded categories genders men women also begun investigate differences constructions gender


relations across race ethnicity age religion sexuality nationality paying particular attention women positioned along multiple axes difference secondly gain better understanding gender relations identities formed assumed feminist geographers drawn upon broader extent social theory culture building upon theoretical platform feminist geographers able discuss debate influence post structuralist psychoanalytic theories multiple identifications ref name ref lastly difference relativism situated knowledge key area discussion discussions feminist geographers discovered ways


reconcile partial perspectives commitment political action social change critical human geography critical human geography defined diverse rapidly changing set ideas practices within human geography linked shared commitment emancipatory politics within beyond discipline promotion progressive social change development broad range critical theories application geographical research political practice ref name longhurt critical human geography emerged field anglophonic geography mid presents broad alliance progressive approaches


discipline critical human geographers focus key publications mark different eras critical human geography drawing upon anarchism anti colonialism critical race theory environmentalism feminism marxism nonrepresentational theory post marxism post colonialism post structuralism psychoanalysis queer theory situationism socialism critical human geography understood multiple dynamic contested rather specific sub discipline geography feminist geography often considered part broader postmodern critical theory approach draws upon theories michel foucault jacques derrida judith butler many post colonial theorists feminist geographers often focus lived experiences individuals groups geographies


localities rather theoretical development without empirical work ref name rose many feminist geographers study subjects geographers focus specifically gender divisions ref name mcdowell mcdowell linda space place gender relations ''progress human geography'' ref developed concerns wider issues gender family sexuality race class examples areas focus include geographic differences gender relations gender equality geography women eg spatial constraints welfare geography construction gender identity use nature spaces places geographies sexuality queer theory


children 's geographies feminist geographers also deeply impacted respondent contemporary globalization neoliberal discourses manifested transnationally translocally ref name feminist geography also critiques human geography academic disciplines arguing academic structures traditionally characterized patriarchal perspective contemporary studies confront nature previous work reinforce masculine bias academic study ref name moss moss pamela ''feminisms geography rethinking space place knowledges'' rowman littlefield publishers ref british geographer gillian rose 's ''feminism geography'' ref name rose one sustained criticism claims


fundamentally bound understand hegemonic presence white male subject history geography materiality everyday space ref name mckittrick building sylvia wynter 's theories racialized production public private space mckittrick challenges social landscapes presume subaltern populations relationship production space ref name mckittrick mckittrick katherine ''demonic grounds black women cartographies struggle'' minneapolis mn university minnesota press p ref writes document black female geographies order allow us engage narrative locates draws


black histories black subjects order make visible social lives often displaced rendered ungeographic mckittrick stakes claim co articulation race gender articulate space writing emphasizing racism sexism simply bodily identity based racism sexism also spatial acts illustrate black women 's geographic experiences knowledges made possible domination moreover many feminist geographers critiqued human geography centering masculine knowledge emphasizing objective knowledge arguing instead use situated knowledge understands observation analysis


rooted partial objectivity ref name ref challenges feminist geography linda mcdowell joanne p sharp foundational feminist geographers scholars describe struggle gaining recognition academia saying long struggle gain recognition within geography discipline gender relations central organizing feature material symbolic worlds theoretical basis discipline feminist geographers struggle academia variety ways firstly ideas originate feminist discourse often seen commonsense wider field accepts thereby rendering geography


explicitly feminist invisible furthermore feminist geography understood subfield geography gender explicitly addressed permitting wider discipline disengage feminist challenges finally within field geographers believe feminist practice fully integrated academy making feminist geography obsolete challenges feminist geography also embedded subfield epistemology feminist geography argues positionalities lived experiences geographers central scholarship researched way feminist geographers must maintain diverse identities fully engage


discipline linda peake gill valentine point feminist geography addressed gender issues twenty five countries across world scholarship field feminist geography primarily conducted white female scholars institutions global north way feminist geography faces barriers rooted academy lack diversity field feminist geographers draw upon broad range social cultural theory including psychoanalysis post structuralism develop fuller understanding gender relations identities shaped assumed


led fundamental rethinking gender contradictions possibilities presented seeming instability insistent repetitions gender norms practice focus multiple identifications influence post structuralist psychoanalytic theories allowed feminist geographers enter dialogue strands critical geography open dialogue however also allowed tensions build geographers united states geographers great britain theoretical differences among feminist geographers obvious past since national differences america british geographers begun


katherine demonic grounds black women cartographies struggle minneapolis mn university minnesota press mcdowell linda ''doing gender feminisms feminists research methods human geography'' transactions institute british geographers mcdowell linda sharp joanne p eds ''a feminist glossary human geography'' london arnold mcdowell linda ''gender identity place understanding feminist geographies'' cambridge polity press pratt geraldine working feminism philadelphia temple university press gillian rose ''feminism geography limits geographical knowledge'' univ minnesota press seager joni nelson lise eds


''companion feminist geography blackwell companions geography '' blackwell publishers valentine gill ''public space culture childhood'' london ashgate johnston rj jd sidaway ''geography geographers'' london arnold chapter feminist geographies simonsen kirsten practice spatiality embodied emotions outline geography practice human affairs kern leslie feminist city field guide verso books scientific journals ''gender place culture journal feminist geography'' routledge issn x online issn feminism education feminism society human geography


hans von aachen ''allegory'' ''the triumph justice'' '''social policy''' plan action government institutional agencies aim improve reform society professionals universities consider social policy subset public policy practitioners characterize social policy public policy two separate competing approaches public interest similar md healthcare social policy deemed holistic public policy whichever persuasions university adheres social policy begins study welfare state social


services consists guidelines principles legislation associated activities affect living conditions conducive human welfare person 's quality life department social policy london school economics defines social policy interdisciplinary applied subject concerned analysis societies' responses social need seeks foster students capacity understand theory evidence drawn wide range social science disciplines including economics sociology psychology geography history law philosophy political science malcolm wiener center social policy


harvard university describes social policy public policy practice areas health care human services criminal justice inequality education labor social policy might also described actions affect well members society shaping distribution access goods resources society social policy often deals wicked problems discussion 'social policy' united states canada also apply governmental policy social issues tackling racism lgbt issues sex marriage legal status abortion guns euthanasia


recreational drugs prostitution countries issues would classified health policy domestic policy study social policy either stand alone degree social policy university york oxford university university pennsylvania specialization part public policy degree program mcgill university balsillie school international affairs harris school public policy hertie school governance global south social policy offered along public policy degree programmes institute public policy national


law school india university bangalore combined development policy history social policy first conceived richard titmuss within field social administration britain titmuss 's essay social division welfare laid development social policy gradually absorb social administration titmuss essayist whose work concerned failure market inadequacy selective social services superiority collectivism universal approaches scholars describe social policy interdisciplinary field practice scholars like fiona williams pete alcock believe social


century germany social security policies united states introduced rubric new deal beveridge report national health service act britain thus two major models social insurance arose practice bismarkian welfare germany beveridgean welfare britain social policy st century complex state subject local national governments well supranational political influence example membership european union conditional member states' adherence social chapter


european union law types lady justice depicts justice equipped three symbols sword symbolizing court 's coercive power human scale weighing competing claims hand blindfold indicating impartiality social policy aims improve human welfare meet human needs education health housing economic security important areas social policy wellbeing welfare poverty reduction social security justice unemployment insurance living conditions animal rights pensions health care social housing family policy social care child protection social exclusion education policy crime criminal justice urban development labor issues united states social


policy us secretary state william jennings bryan first major us political figure incorporate formal social policy official government decisions champion social justice bryan pictured social security administration headquarters woodlawn maryland united states pioneer generous social spending relative comparable countries provided substantial social spending civil war veterans families however united states would go lag behind advanced industrial democracies social spending religious racial ideological scientific philosophical movements ideas historically influenced american


poverty quality life insurance growing policy topic recent example health care law social policy patient protection affordable care act formed th us congress signed law president barack obama democrat march moreover former president franklin roosevelt 's ground breaking new deal paragon example social policy focused predominantly program providing work stimulating economy public spending projects rather cash payment programs response great depression


affecting united states one example recent widely discussed education policy change passage child left behind act nclb administration republican president george w bush bipartisan support law took effect january attempting raise standards education address educational inequities framed achievement gap issues schools framed issues accountability child left behind act required every state assess students basic skills receive federal funding law attempt address issues underlying us


education 's provisions widely viewed unsuccessful states continued create standards assessing nclb also led closure numerous schools labeled low performing failing disproportionately impacting schools served predominately black students rural communities provisions nclb changed replaced race top every child succeeds act passed administration president barrack obama critics social policies point toward depiction welfare state make hobbesian leviathan see also criminology education policy great society health policy housing


policy medicaid medicare social insurance social security administration social security united states social theory references reading http wwwwileyonlinelibrarycom journal spol social policy administration titmuss r http wwwibiblioorg hyperwar un uk uk civil social indexhtml ''problems social policy'' hm stationery office dean h ''social policy'' cambridge polity press esping andersen g ''the three worlds welfare capitalism'' princeton princeton university press http wwwingentaconnectcom content tpp pap art ferragina emanuele martin seeleib kaiser welfare regime debate past present futures ''policy politics'' comparative politics


'''scenography''' inclusive '' 'scenic design''' '''lighting design''' '' 'sound design''' '''costume design''' practice crafting stage environments atmospheres contemporary english usage scenography combination technological material stagecrafts represent enact produce sense place performance inclusive techniques scenic design set design scenography holistic approach study practice aspects design performance etymology cultural interpretations term scenography greek origin ' 'sk n '' meaning 'stage scene building' ''grapho'' meaning 'to describe' originally detailed within aristotle 's

Humanities
Performing arts
Theatre
Scenography


''poetics'' 'skenographia' nevertheless within continental europe term closely aligned professional practice sc nographie synonymous english language term 'theatre design' recently term used museography regards curation museum exhibits history first use term antonio caimi describes category artists practising ''pittura scenica e l'architettura teatrale'' inspired artist ferdinando galli bibiena also known painter quadratura architectural painting usually trompe l' il depictions architecture ceilings walls caimi also


calls ''arte scenografica'' notes required ingenious engineering create movable sets create illusions environments galli da bibiena family pedigree scenographic artistry emerged late seventeenth century bologna spread throughout northern italy austria germany another large family known theatrical scenography members quaglio surname caimi goes mention practitioners scenography second half th century early th century lombardy including bernardino galliari gaspare galliari pasquale canna pietro gonzaga paolo landriani giovanni perego alessandro sanquirico bomenico menozzi carlo fontana baldassare


cavallotti carlo ferrari filippo peroni carlo ferrario enrico rovecchi angelo moja luigi vimercati brothers mofta modena among others review history italian influenced scenic painting architecture design nineteenth century provided landriani usage scenographic design also aligned professional practice scenographer important distinguish individual elements comprise 'design' performance event light environment costume etc term 'scenography' artistic perspective concerning visual experiential spatial composition performance influenced work


original creation joslin mckinney philip butterworth expand upon suggest scenography simply concerned creating presenting images audience concerned audience reception engagement sensory well intellectual experience emotional well rational scenographic theory one theory scenography rachel hann argued distinction 'scenography' 'scenographics' hann introduces framework plotting usage key terminologies part differentiation approach scenographic trait ''orientating'' scenography ''crafting'' intention


traits draw attention orders world employing methods sculpt irritate distinct worlding orientations whether materiality texture familiarity proximity well ideologies nation identity sit together part broader geography hann consolidates position arguing speak staging speak scenographics enact 'othering' place scenographics interventional acts orientation complicate reveal score processes worlding approach positions scenography crafting place orientation theatre making strategy alongside dramaturgy choreography usage


place orientation loci scenography seeks capture understanding inclusive physical well metaphysical relations affect individuals design experience assemblage place could role directed sound systems cultivating feeling isolation usage tightly focused lantern orientate spatial dimensions place scent old well worn desk along costumes mould relations bodies stage environments practice hann argues interrelations distinct methods scenography costume scenery


light sound give rise act scenography scenography neither exclusively visual spatial lastly hann proposes scenographics formative staged atmospheres arguing stages without scenographics based argument stages also scenes challenges deterministic assumption stages precede scenography model stages become manifest place orienting traits scenographics rather way around implications theatre scenographic even defined objects 'setting'


theatre performed stage hann summarises position using hybrid 'stage scene' discussing tensions histories practices particularly reference original greek ' 'skene'' physical tent hut ultimately shaped current conceptualizations 'the stage' see also scenic design set construction theatrical scenery costume video design lighting design sound design dramaturgy choreography references selected bibliography aronson ''looking abyss essays scenography'' ann arbor university michigan press aronson ''the history theory environmental scenography'' revised nd edition london bloomsbury methuen


aronson ''the routledge companion scenography'' london routledge baugh c ''theatre performance technology development transformation scenography'' revised nd edition basingstoke palgrave macmillan beacham r c ''adolphe appia artist visionary modern theatre'' reading harwood academic publishers brockett g mitchell hardberger l ''making scene history stage design technology europe united states'' austin tx university texas press craig e g ''towards new theatre'' london heinemann reprinted london mercury books hann r ''beyond scenography'' oxon new


york routledge hannah harsl f eds ''performance design'' nijalsgade denmark museum tusculanum press howard p ''what scenography'' london routledge second edition mcauley g ''space performance making meaning theatre'' ann arbor university michigan press mckinney j butterworth p ''the cambridge introduction scenography'' cambridge cambridge university press mckinney j palmer ''scenography expanded introduction contemporary performance design'' london bloomsbury methuen svoboda j burian j ed ''the secret theatrical space'' new york applause theatre books journals http wwwintellectbookscouk journals view journalid viewpage ''scene'' published intellect since


http wwwtandfonlinecom loi rdes theatre performance design published routledge since external links http wwwpqcz en prague quadrennial performance design space largest scenography event world presenting contemporary work variety performance design disciplines genres costume stage light sound design theatre architecture dance opera drama site specific multi media performances performance art etc prague cz http wwwwsd com world stage design four yearly international designer based exhibition showcase celebrate work individual designers http wwwuices en scenography master 's degree urban scenography barcelona http wwwscenography internationalcouk scenography international online journal http wwwpalatineorguk directory indexphp tct tctsc palatine directory


agricultural aircraft applies low insecticide bait western corn rootworm '''pest control''' regulation management species defined pest member animal kingdom impacts adversely human activities human response depends importance damage done range tolerance deterrence management attempts completely eradicate pest pest control measures may performed part integrated pest management strategy agriculture pests kept bay cultural chemical biological means ploughing cultivation soil sowing mitigate

Applied science
Agriculture
Pest control


pest burden modern trend limit use pesticides far possible achieved monitoring crop applying insecticides necessary growing varieties crops resistant pests possible biological means used encouraging natural enemies pests introducing suitable predators parasites homes urban environments pests rodents birds insects organisms share habitat humans feed spoil possessions control pests attempted exclusion repulsion physical


employed since comparatively easy destroy weeds burning ploughing kill larger competing herbivores techniques crop rotation companion planting also known intercropping mixed cropping selective breeding pest resistant cultivars long history red weaver ants feeding snail used control pests china southeast asia africa many centuries chemical pesticides first used around bc sumerians used sulphur compounds insecticides ref name cornell modern pest control stimulated spread across united states


weaver ants ''oecophylla smaragdina'' intentionally placed citrus plantations control beetles caterpillars ref name cornell cites ref also china ducks used paddy fields consume pests illustrated ancient cave art indian mynah brought mauritius control locusts time citrus trees burma connected bamboos allow ants pass help control caterpillars ladybirds used citrus plantations california control scale insects biological control experiments followed introduction ddt cheap


tillage one oldest methods weed control well useful pest control wireworms larvae common click beetle destructive pests newly ploughed grassland repeated cultivation exposes birds predators feed ref name agroatlas ref crop rotation help control pests depriving host plants major tactic control corn rootworm reduced early season incidence colorado potato beetle much trap cropping trap crop crop


plant attracts pests diverting nearby crops ref name ref pests aggregated trap crop easily controlled using pesticides methods ref name ref however trap cropping often failed cost effectively reduce pest densities large commercial scales without use pesticides possibly due pests' ability disperse back main field ref name pesticides spraying pine logs insecticide ''ips sexdentatus'' pine engraver beetle pesticides applied crops agricultural aircraft tractor mounted crop sprayers aerial spray modern aircraft seed dressings


control pests however successful control pesticides easy right formulation must chosen timing often critical method application important adequate coverage retention crop necessary killing natural enemies target pest minimized particularly important countries natural reservoirs pests enemies countryside surrounding plantation crops co exist delicate balance often less developed countries crops well adapted local situation pesticides needed progressive farmers using


fertilizers grow improved crop varieties often susceptible pest damage indiscriminate application pesticides may detrimental longer term ref name hill ref efficacy chemical pesticides tends diminish time organism manages survive initial application pass genes offspring resistant strain developed way serious pests developed resistance longer killed pesticides used kill ancestors necessitates higher concentrations chemical frequent applications


movement expensive formulations ref name georghiou ref pesticides formulated kill pests many detrimental effects non target species particular concern damage done honey bees solitary bees pollinating insects regard time day spray applied important ref name carrington widely used neonicotinoids banned flowering crops countries effects bees ref name carrington ref pesticides may cause cancer health problems humans well harmful wildlife ref name national institute environmental health sciences ref


track kill remove area culled animals known vermin may targeted deemed harmful agricultural crops livestock facilities serve hosts vectors transmit pathogens across species humans population control mean protecting vulnerable species ecosystems pest control via hunting like forms harvest imposed artificial selective pressure organisms targeted varmint hunting potentially selecting desired behavioural demographic changes eg animals avoiding human populated areas crops livestock


arrival pests alert foresters outbreaks example spruce budworm destructive pest spruce balsam fir monitored using pheromone traps canadian forests several decades ref name humme ref regions new brunswick areas forest sprayed pesticide control budworm population prevent damage caused outbreaks ref name macdonald ref homes cities many unwelcome animals visit make home residential buildings industrial sites urban areas contaminate foodstuffs damage structural timbers chew fabrics infest stored dry goods inflict great economic


loss others carry diseases cause fire hazards nuisance control pests attempted improving sanitation garbage control modifying habitat using repellents growth regulators traps baits pesticides ref name o'connor ref general methods physical pest control dog control van rekong peo himachal pradesh india physical pest control involves trapping killing pests insects rodents historically local people paid rat catchers caught killed rodents using dogs traps domestic scale sticky flypapers used trap flies larger buildings insects may trapped using


smooth bore shotguns specifically made fire caliber snake shot mm flobert commonly used gardeners farmers snakes rodents birds pest garden guns short range weapons little harm past yards 're relatively quiet fired snake shot compared standard ammunition guns especially effective inside barns sheds snake shot shoot holes roof walls importantly injure livestock ricochet also used pest control airports warehouses stockyards etc ref


granules formulation contains food attractant target species suitable poison ants slow acting toxin needed workers time carry substance back colony flies quick acting substance prevent egg laying nuisance ref name o'conner baits slugs snails often contain molluscide metaldehyde dangerous children household pets article scientific american described effective elimination cockroach infestation using fresh cucumber peels bait placed rodent bait box warfarin traditionally used kill rodents


many populations developed resistance anticoagulant difenacoum may substituted cumulative poisons requiring bait stations topped regularly ref name o'conner ref poisoned meat used centuries kill animals wolves ref name anderson birds prey poisoned carcasses however kill wide range carrion feeders targeted species ref name anderson ref raptors israel nearly wiped following period intense poisoning rats crop pests fumigation tent fumigation house america fumigation treatment structure kill pests


wood boring beetles sealing surrounding airtight cover tent fogging liquid insecticide extended period typically hours costly inconvenient structure cannot used treatment targets life stages pests ref name fbaur ref alternative space treatment fogging misting disperse liquid insecticide atmosphere within building without evacuation airtight sealing allowing work within building continue cost reduced penetration contact insecticides generally used minimize long lasting residual effects ref


name fbaur sterilization populations pest insects sometimes dramatically reduced release sterile individuals involves mass rearing pest sterilising means x rays means releasing wild population particularly useful female mates insect disperse widely technique successfully used new world screw worm fly species tsetse fly tropical fruit flies pink bollworm codling moth among others laboratory studies conducted u chloro propanediol attempted


early rat control although proved unsuccessful ref name sterile ref new york city tested sterilization traps ref name swartz ref demonstrating reduction rat populations ref name swartz product contrapest approved sterilization rodents united states environmental protection agency august insulation boron known pesticide impregnated paper fibers cellulose insulation certain levels achieve mechanical kill factor self grooming insects ants cockroaches termites addition insulation attic walls structure provide control common pests


addition known insulation benefits robust thermal envelope acoustic noise canceling properties epa regulates type general use pesticide within united states allowing sold installed licensed pest management professionals part integrated pest management program simply adding boron epa registered pesticide insulation qualify pesticide dosage method must carefully controlled monitored methods specific pests natural rodent control brown rat infestation several wildlife rehabilitation organizations encourage natural form rodent control exclusion predator support


preventing secondary poisoning altogether united states environmental protection agency notes proposed risk mitigation decision nine rodenticides without habitat modification make areas less attractive commensal rodents even eradication prevent new populations recolonizing habitat united states environmental protection agency prescribed guidelines natural rodent control safe trapping residential areas subsequent release wild people sometimes attempt limit rodent damage using repellents balsam fir oil tree ''abies balsamea'' epa approved non toxic rodent repellent ''acacia polyacantha'' subsp ''campylacantha'' root


emits chemical compounds repel animals including rats ref name plantz http wwwplantzafricacom plantab acaciapolyhtm plantzafricacom ref ref name world http wwwworldagroforestrycentreorg sea products afdbases af asp speciesinfoaspspid world agroforestry centre ref pantry pests red flour beetle ''tribolium castaneum'' attacks stored grain products worldwide insect pests including mediterranean flour moth indian mealmoth cigarette beetle drugstore beetle confused flour beetle red flour beetle merchant grain beetle sawtoothed grain beetle wheat weevil maize weevil rice weevil infest stored dry foods flour cereals pasta ref name jacobs home foodstuffs found infested usually discarded storing products sealed containers


prevent problem reoccurring eggs insects likely go unnoticed larvae destructive life stage adult noticeable stage ref name jacobs ref since pesticides safe use near food alternative treatments freezing four days baking half hour kill insects present clothes moths larva pupa adult clothes moth ''tineola bisselliella'' characteristic damage fabric larvae clothes moths mainly ''tineola bisselliella'' ''tinea pellionella'' feed fabrics carpets particularly stored


soiled adult females lay batches eggs natural fibres including wool silk fur well cotton linen blends developing larvae spin protective webbing chew fabric creating holes specks excrement damage often concentrated concealed locations collars near seams clothing folds crevices upholstery round edges carpets well furniture ref name ucipm ref methods control include using airtight containers storage periodic laundering garments trapping freezing heating use chemicals mothballs contain volatile insect repellents


dichlorobenzene deter adults kill larvae permethrin pyrethroids insecticides may need used ref name ucipm carpet beetles carpet beetles members family dermestidae adult beetles feed nectar pollen larvae destructive pests homes warehouses museums feed animal products including wool silk leather fur bristles hair brushes pet hair feathers museum specimens tend infest hidden locations may feed larger areas fabrics clothes moths leaving behind specks excrement brown hollow bristly looking


cast skins ref name carpet ref management infestations difficult based exclusion sanitation possible resorting pesticides necessary beetles fly outdoors larvae survive lint fragments dust inside bags vacuum cleaners warehouses museums sticky traps baited suitable pheromones used identify problems heating freezing spraying surface insecticide fumigation kill insects suitably applied susceptible items protected attack keeping clean airtight containers ref name carpet bookworms books sometimes attacked cockroaches


silverfish ref name ransom book mites booklice ref name greenfield ref various beetles feed covers paper bindings glue leave behind physical damage form tiny holes well staining faeces ref name ransom ref book pests include larder beetle larvae black carpet beetle drugstore beetle attack leather bound books common clothes moth brown house moth attack cloth bindings attacks largely problem historic books modern bookbinding materials less susceptible type damage evidence attack may found


form tiny piles book dust specks frass damage may concentrated spine projecting edges pages cover prevention attack relies keeping books cool clean dry positions low humidity occasional inspections made treatment freezing lengthy periods insect eggs resistant survive long periods low temperatures ref name ransom beetles house timber split open reveal larvae house longhorn beetle ''hylotrupes bajulus'' burrows partially filled frass various beetles


bostrichoidea superfamily attack dry seasoned wood used structural timber houses make furniture cases larvae damage invisible outside timber chewing away wood interior item examples powderpost beetles attack sapwood hardwoods furniture beetles attacks softwoods including plywood damage already done time adult beetles bore way leaving neat round holes behind first householder knows


beetle damage often chair leg breaks piece structural timber caves prevention chemical treatment timber prior use construction furniture manufacture ref name gerozisis ref termites termites colonies close proximity houses extend galleries underground make mud tubes enter homes insects keep sight chew way structural decorative timbers leaving surface layers intact well cardboard plastic insulation materials presence may become apparent winged insects appear swarm


home spring regular inspection structures trained professional may help detect termite activity damage becomes substantial inspection monitoring termites important termite alates winged reproductives may always swarm inside structure control extermination professional job involving trying exclude insects building trying kill already present soil applied liquid termiticides provide chemical barrier prevents termites entering buildings lethal baits used eaten foraging insects carried back nest shared


accumulations standing water approaches include biological control larvae use fish predators genetic control introduction pathogens growth regulating hormones release pheromones mosquito trapping airfields jet engine fan blades damaged bird strike birds significant hazard aircraft difficult keep away airfields several methods explored stunning birds feeding bait containing stupefying substances tried ref name murton may possible reduce numbers airfields reducing number earthworms invertebrates


soil treatment ref name murton ref leaving grass long airfields rather mowing also deterrent birds sonic nets trialled produce sounds birds find distracting seem effective keeping birds away affected areas guidelines legislation guidelines legislation regarding usage permitted methods application storage conditions pesticides chemicals vary country country often legislated state territory australia australian capital territory act environment protection act act new south wales south australia pesticides regulations sa pursuant controlled substances act


sa victoria health pest control regulations vic pursuant health act vic western australia health pesticide regulations wa pursuant health act wa india insecticides act malaysia pesticide act singapore control vectors pesticides act united kingdom prevention damage pests act see also bee removal electronic pest control garden guns ipm crsp nuisance wildlife management rabbits australia references external links https wwwepagov safepestcontrol pest control pesticide safety consumers


'''institutional economics''' focuses understanding role evolutionary process role institutions shaping economic behavior original focus lay thorstein veblen 's instinct oriented dichotomy technology one side ceremonial sphere society name core elements trace back ''american economic review'' article walton h hamilton institutional economics emphasizes broader study institutions views markets result complex interaction various institutions eg individuals firms states social norms earlier tradition continues today leading

Social science
Economics
Institutional economics


heterodox approach economics ref name samuels warren j samuels institutional economics ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde edition current q institutional economics topicid result number abstract ref traditional institutionalism rejects ' 'reduction'' institutions simply tastes technology nature see naturalistic fallacy tastes along expectations future habits motivations determine nature institutions limited shaped people live work institutions regular basis shapes world views fundamentally traditional institutionalism modern counterpart institutionalist political economy emphasizes legal foundations economy see john r commons


evolutionary habituated volitional processes institutions erected changed see john dewey thorstein veblen daniel bromley institutional economics focuses learning bounded rationality evolution rather assuming stable preferences rationality equilibrium central part american economics first part th century including famous diverse economists thorstein veblen wesley mitchell john r commons ref name rutherford malcolmdewey reese rutherford institutionalism old ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' nd edition v pp http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde edition current q result number abstract ref institutionalists see karl marx belonging


institutionalist tradition described capitalism historically bounded social system institutionalist economists disagree marx 's definition capitalism instead seeing defining features markets money private ownership production indeed evolving time result purposive actions individuals significant variant new institutional economics later th century integrates later developments neoclassical economics analysis law economics major theme since publication ''legal foundations capitalism'' john r commons since


heated debate role law formal institution economic growth behavioral economics another hallmark institutional economics based known psychology cognitive science rather simple assumptions economic behavior authors associated school include robert h frank warren samuels marc tool geoffrey hodgson daniel bromley jonathan nitzan shimshon bichler elinor ostrom anne mayhew john kenneth galbraith gunnar myrdal even sociologist c wright mills highly influenced institutionalist approach major studies thorstein veblen thorstein veblen came norwegian immigrant


family rural mid western america thorstein veblen wrote first influential book university chicago ''the theory leisure class'' analyzed motivation capitalism people conspicuously consume riches way demonstrating success conspicuous leisure another focus veblen 's critique concept conspicuous consumption direct contradiction neoclassical view capitalism efficient ''the theory business enterprise'' veblen distinguished motivations industrial production people use things business motivations


used misused industrial infrastructure profit arguing former often hindered businesses pursue latter output technological advance restricted business practices creation monopolies businesses protect existing capital investments employ excessive credit leading depressions increasing military expenditure war business control political power two books focusing criticism first consumerism second profiteering advocate change wall street crash thorstein veblen 's warnings tendency wasteful consumption necessity creating


commons devoted much time advisory mediation work government boards industrial commissions wesley mitchell wesley clair mitchell american economist known empirical work business cycles guiding national bureau economic research first decades mitchell 's teachers included economists thorstein veblen j l laughlin philosopher john dewey clarence ayres clarence ayres principal thinker called texas school institutional economics ayres developed ideas thorstein veblen dichotomy technology institutions separate


inventive inherited aspects economic structures claimed technology always one step ahead socio cultural institutions ayres heavily influenced philosophy john dewey dewey ayres utilized instrumental theory value analyze problems propose solutions according theory something value enhances furthers life process mankind therefore become criterion utilized determining future courses action argued ayres institutionalist normal sense term since


identified institutions sentiments superstition consequence institutions played kind residual role theory development core center technology ayres strong influence hegel institutions ayres function schein connotation deception illusion hegel appropriate name ayres' position would techno behaviorist rather institutionalist adolf berle adolf augustus berle jr adolf berle one first authors combine legal economic analysis work stands


founding pillar thought modern corporate governance like keynes berle paris peace conference subsequently resigned diplomatic job dissatisfied versailles treaty terms book gardiner c means ''the modern corporation private property'' detailed evolution contemporary economy big business argued controlled big firms better held account directors companies held account shareholders companies rules found company law statutes might include rights elect fire


management require regular general meetings accounting standards america typical company laws eg delaware clearly mandate rights berle argued unaccountable directors companies therefore apt funnel fruits enterprise profits pockets well manage interests ability supported fact majority shareholders big public companies single individuals scant means communication short divided conquered berle served president franklin delano roosevelt 's administration


justification turns distribution well existence wealth force exists direct ratio number individuals hold wealth justification stockholder 's existence thus depends increasing distribution within american population ideally stockholder 's position impregnable every american family fragment position wealth opportunity develop individuality becomes fully actualized blockquote john kenneth galbraith john kenneth galbraith worked new deal administration franklin delano roosevelt although wrote later developed


earlier institutional economists galbraith critical orthodox economics throughout late twentieth century ''the affluent society'' galbraith argues voters reaching certain material wealth begin vote common good uses term conventional wisdom refer orthodox ideas underpin resulting conservative consensus age big business unrealistic think markets classical kind big businesses set terms marketplace use combined resources advertising programmes support demand products result individual


society complicit government serve irrational technostructure public space simultaneously impoverished galbraith paints picture stepping penthouse villas unpaved streets landscaped gardens unkempt public parks ''economics public purpose'' galbraith advocates new socialism social democracy solution nationalization military production public services health care plus disciplined salary price controls reduce inequality hamper inflation new institutional economics new developments economic theory organizations information property rights transaction costs attempt made integrate institutionalism


recent developments mainstream economics title new institutional economics ref name nie ronald coase new institutional economics ''american economic review'' pp https wwwjstororg pss br nbsp nbsp institutional structure production nobel prize lecture https wwwnobelprizeorg nobel prizes economics laureates coase lecturehtml pdf reprinted ''american economic review'' pp https wwwjstororg pss br nbsp nbsp douglass c north new institutional economics third world development ''the new institutional economics third world development'' j harriss j hunter c lewis ed pp https booksgooglecom bookshl en lr id oxm oma wqc oi fnd pg pa onepage q f false br nbsp nbsp elinor ostrom institutional analysis digging deeper markets hierarchies


since based fundamental premise neoclassicists oppose economics cannot separated political social system within embedded institutionalism today earlier approach central element american economics interwar years marginalized relative mainstream economics postwar period ascendence neoclassical keynesian approaches continued however leading heterodox approach critiquing neoclassical economics alternative research program economics notably work ha joon chang geoffrey hodgson leading swedish economist


lars p lsson syll believer institutional economics outspoken opponent kinds social constructivism postmodern relativism criticism critics institutionalism maintained concept institution central social science senseless use buzzword particular theoretical school consequence elusive meaning concept institution resulted bewildering never ending dispute scholars institutionalists similar confusion supposed core theory words


institutional economics become popular means things people end day meaning nothing ref name david hamilton pp david hamilton institutional economics institutional american journal economics sociology vol july pp ref indeed argued term institutionalists misplaced beginning since veblen hamilton ayres preoccupied evolutionary objectifying forces technology institutions secondary place within theories institutions almost kind anti stuff key


concern technology institutions rather institutional veblen hamilton ayres position anti institutional ref name david hamilton pp response according thaler sunstein person generally best described econ person mainly self interest mind rather human institutional economics consistent thaler sunstein sees humans social part community extracted neoclassical economics https wwwmetaeconomicsinfo metaeconomics overview metaeconomics frame dual interest theory argues essential integrate institutional neoclassical economics journals '' http wwwmesharpecom mall results aspacr jei journal economic issues ''


article abstract http wwwafeenet divisionphppage jei sub volume indexes links '' http journalscambridgeorg action displayjournaljid joi journal institutional economics '' links selected articles http journalscambridgeorg action displaybackissuesjid joi article abstracts '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwmohrde en journals economics journal institutional theoretical economics jite journalhtml journal institutional theoretical economics '' see also institutional economists category constitutional economics critical juncture theory history economic thought economic sociology historical school economics related school developed prussia institutional logic institutionalist political economy new institutionalism perspectives capitalism substantivism notes references kapp k william ''the foundations institutional economics'' routledge bromley daniel ''sufficient reason volitional pragmatism meaning economic institutions'' princeton university press chang ha joon ''globalization economic development


review issue http wwwpaeconnet paereview issue davis pdf economics yet pluralistic science ''post autistic economics review'' issue september pp nbsp easterly william institutions resolve ethnic conflict ''economic development cultural change'' vol pp http wwwhksharvardedu fs pnorris acrobat stm articles easterly institutions ethnic conflictpdf fiorito luca massimiliano vatiero beyond legal relations wesley newcomb hohfeld 's influence american institutionalism ''journal economics issues'' galbraith john kenneth power useful economist ''american economic review'' hodgson geoffrey approach institutional economics ''journal economic literature'' pp http wwwgeoffrey hodgsoninfo user bin approachinecpdf close bookmarks ed


li rita yi man everyday life application neo institutional economics global perspective germany lambert schmid allan ''conflict cooperation institutional behavioral economics'' blackwell samuels warren j ''the legal economic nexus'' routledge ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' polterovich victor institutional traps http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde edition current q institutional economics topicid result number abstract rutherford malcolm institutionalism old http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde edition current q institutional economics topicid result number abstract samuels warren j institutional economics http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde edition current q institutional economics topicid result number abstract external links http wwwafeenet association evolutionary economics http wwwwinirorg world interdisciplinary network institutional research http nobelprizeorg nobel prizes economics laureates north lecturehtml douglass north nobel lecture http wwwmsuedu user schmid insteconhtm institutional behavioral economics http cepanewschooledu het schools instituthtm american institutional school http wwwmncnet norway veblenhtml thorstein veblen


bibliography https webarchiveorg web http socserv mcmasterca eecon ugcm veblen leisure indexhtml veblen leisureclass https webarchiveorg web http socserv socscimcmasterca econ ugcm veblen econevoltxt veblen economics evolutionary science https webarchiveorg web http socserv socscimcmasterca econ ugcm veblen ownersh veblen beginning ownership av thorstein veblen https webarchiveorg web http socserv socscimcmasterca econ ugcm veblen busent indexhtml veblen theory business enterprise http wwwgeoffrey hodgsoninfo geoffrey hodgson 's website thorstein veblen


'''offensive''' may refer offensive former name dutch political party socialist alternative offensive military attack offensive language fighting words insulting language words utterance inflict injury tend incite immediate breach peace profanity strongly impolite rude offensive language see also offense disambiguation charm offensive

Applied science
Military sciences
Strategy
Offensive


'''teuthology''' greek cuttlefish squid '' logia'' study cephalopods ref name test https darchivemblwhoilibraryorg bitstream handle chapter pdfsequence natural history squid p ref branch malacology study molluscs marine zoology someone studies teuthology known '''teuthologist''' see also references references malacology marine biology subfields zoology

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Teuthology


leads biculturalism multiculturalism rather complete assimilation promotes development cultural sensitivity allows empathic understanding across different cultures description intercultural communication idea knowing communicate within different parts world understanding theories people able understand certain norms prevalent adapting new cultures intercultural communication uses theories within groups people achieve sense cultural diversity hopes people able learn new things different cultures theories used give people enhanced perspective

Journalism, media studies and communication


appropriate act situations without disrespecting people within cultures also enhances perspective achieving cultural diversity ideas intercultural communication many people intercultural business communication argue culture determines individuals encode messages medium choose transmitting way messages interpreted ref name ref regard intercultural communication proper studies situations people different cultural backgrounds ''interact'' aside language intercultural communication focuses social attributes thought patterns cultures different groups people also involves understanding different cultures languages


customs people countries learning tools facilitate cross cultural interaction subject cultural agility term presently used design complex set competencies required allow individual organization perform successfully cross cultural situations intercultural communication plays role social sciences anthropology cultural studies linguistics psychology communication studies intercultural communication also referred base international businesses several cross cultural service providers assist development intercultural communication skills research major part development intercultural communication skills ''intercultural


study intercultural communication requires intercultural understanding intercultural understanding ability understand value cultural differences language example important cultural component linked intercultural understanding ref name saint jacques bernard intercultural communication globalized world intercultural communication reader edited larry samovar richard e porter edwin r mcdaniel edition boston mass cengage learning ref theories following types theories distinguished different strands focus effective outcomes accommodation adaption identity negotiation management communication networkson acculturation adjustment social engineering


effective outcomes cultural convergence theory two cultures come together similarities ideas aspects become prevalent members two cultures get know one another relatively closed social system communication among members unrestricted system whole tend ''converge'' time toward state greater cultural ''uniformity'' system tend diverge toward diversity communication restricted communication accommodation theory theory focuses linguistic strategies decrease increase communicative distances relation linguistics communication accommodation theory


idea two people speaking one another one participant modifies way speak accommodate another person given context similar code switching sense people changing dialects given language adjust different setting others understand communication accommodation theory seeks explain predict people adjust communicative behavior social interaction social consequences result adjustments intercultural adaption intercultural adaptation idea living culture extended period time people


start develop ideas rules values among themes culture adaptation theories conclude order adapt immigrants need fully engage changing one 's self beliefs society 's majority elaborate example someone lives abroad imperative ready change order live cohesively new culture understanding intercultural competence know people understanding takes thrive culture following norms ideals presented https wwwmonashedu arts monash intercultural lab monash intercultural lab intercultural competence text intercultural competence c andbackgrounds e home abroad intercultural adaptation involves learned communicative competence communicative


limited people color women people disabilities gay men lesbians lower social classes co cultural theory developed mark p orbe looks strategic ways co cultural group members communicate others addition co cultural framework provides explanation different persons communicate based six factors cultural fusion theory interfaith thanksgiving dinnercultural fusion theory explains immigrants acculturate dominant culture move maintain important aspects culture adopting aspects dominant culture creates intercultural identity within


individual native identity well new host culture identity identity negotiation management identity management theory identity negotiation cultural identity theory double swing model communication networks networks outgroup communication competence intracultural versus intercultural networks networks acculturation acculturation adjustment acculturation defined process individual individuals exchanging adopting certain culture values practices dominant culture location posses acculturation differs assimilation people adopting new culture habits still processing original culture habits young


order able communicate effectively hosts try develop accurate predictions explanations hosts' behaviors assimilation deviance alienation states assimilation adaption permanent outcomes adaption process rather temporary outcomes communication process hosts immigrants alienation assimilation therefore group individual outcome relationship deviant behavior neglectful communication assimilation assimilation process absorbing traits dominant culture point group assimilated becomes indistinguishable host


culture assimilation either forced done voluntarily depending situations conditions regardless situation condition rare see minority group replace even forget previous cultural practices ref name assimilation ref alienation alienation frequently refers someone ostracized withdrawn people would ordinarily expected associate hajda representative theorist researcher social alienation says alienation individuals feeling uneasiness discomfort reflects exclusion self exclusion social cultural participation three perspectives intercultural communication


theories meaning meanings theory misunderstanding takes place people assume word direct connection referent common past reduces misunderstanding definition metaphor feedforward basic english partial linguistic remedies lack shared experience face negotiation theory members collectivistic high context cultures concerns mutual face inclusion lead manage conflict another person avoiding obliging compromising concerns self face autonomy people individualistic low context cultures manage conflict dominating problem solving standpoint theory individual 's experiences knowledge


communication behaviors shaped large part social groups belong individuals sometimes view things similarly times different views see world ways view world shaped experiences social group identify part feminist standpoint theory claims social groups belong shape know communicate theory derived marxist position economically oppressed classes access knowledge unavailable


dialects rather inferior superior ways speaking men 's report talk focuses status independence women 's support talk seeks human connection cultural critical studies theory theory states mass media impose dominant ideology rest society connotations words images fragments ideology perform unwitting service ruling elite marxism aims explain class struggle basis social relations economics authentic intercultural communication authentic intercultural communication possible theory found revisited


explains importance truth intention getting understanding furthermore strategic intent hidden ca n't authentic intercultural communication ref name fox ref intercultural communication could miscommunication term called misfire later theory founded three layers intercultural communication ref name fox first level effective communication second level miscommunication third level systemically distorted communication difficult go first level due speaker 's position structure ref name fox history assimilation forced assimilation common european colonial empires


th th th centuries colonial policies regarding religion conversion removal children division community property shifting gender roles primarily impacted north south america australia africa asia voluntary assimilation also part history dating back spanish inquisition late th th centuries many muslims jews voluntarily converted roman catholicism response religious prosecution secretly continuing original practices another example europeans moved united states ref name assimilation intercultural competence intercultural communication competent


accomplishes objectives manner appropriate context relationship intercultural communication thus needs bridge dichotomy appropriateness effectiveness ref name lustig koester lustig koester ref proper means intercultural communication leads decrease miscommunication ref name cc ref '''appropriateness ''' valued rules norms expectations relationship violated significantly '''effectiveness ''' valued goals rewards relative costs alternatives accomplished '''competent communication''' interaction seen effective achieving certain rewarding objectives way also related context


situation occurs words conversation achievable goal used appropriate time location ref name lustig koester components intercultural communication linked identity means competent communicator person affirm others' avowed identities well goal attainment also focus within intercultural competence involves communicator convey sense communication appropriateness effectiveness diverse cultural contexts ref name lustig koester ethnocentrism plays role intercultural communication capacity avoid ethnocentrism foundation intercultural communication


competence ethnocentrism inclination view one 's group natural correct others aberrant people must aware engage fix intercultural communication easy solution one way listed components intercultural competence ref name lustig koester context judgment person competent made relational situational context means competence defined single attribute meaning someone could strong one section moderately good


another situationally speaking competence defined differently different cultures example eye contact shows competence western cultures whereas asian cultures find much eye contact disrespectful appropriateness means one 's behaviors acceptable proper expectations given culture effectiveness behaviors lead desired outcome achieved motivations emotional associations communicate interculturally feelings one 's reactions thoughts experiences motivation intentions thoughts guide one 's choices goal plan directs one 's


behavior two things play part motivation ref name lustig koester basic tools improvement following ways improve communication competence display interest showing respect positive regard person orientation knowledge terms people use explain perception world empathy behaving ways shows one understands point view others task role behavior initiate ideas encourage problem solving activities relational role behavior interpersonal harmony mediation tolerance unknown ambiguity ability react new situations little


intended meaning mutual understanding aim promoting future appreciation robustness diversity traits flexibility tolerating high levels uncertainty self reflection open mindedness sensitivity adaptability thinking outside box lateral thinking effective communication depends informal understandings among parties involved based trust developed trust exists implicit understanding within communication cultural differences may overlooked problems dealt easily meaning trust developed communicated varies across societies similarly cultures greater propensity


interpret message message receiver interprets may different speaker intended areas interest cross cultural business strategies cross cultural business communication helpful building cultural intelligence coaching training cross cultural communication management facilitation cross cultural negotiation multicultural conflict resolution customer service business organizational communication cross cultural understanding incoming expats cross cultural understanding begins responsible project reaches delivering service content ability communicate negotiate effectively work people cultures vital international


business management important points consider develop cultural sensitivity anticipate meaning receiver get careful encoding use words pictures gestures avoid slang idioms regional sayings selective transmission build relationships face face possible careful decoding feedback get feedback multiple parties improve listening observation skills follow actions facilitation connection person 's personality traits ability adapt host country 's environment including ability communicate within environment two key personality traits openness resilience openness includes traits tolerance ambiguity extroversion introversion open mindedness resilience


hand includes internal locus control persistence tolerance ambiguity resourcefulness factors combined person 's cultural racial identity level liberalism comprise person 's potential adaptation miscommunication business setting business environment communication vital could many instances could miscommunication globalization significant factor intercultural communication affects business environments business setting could difficult communicate due different ways thinking feeling behaving due globalization employees negative


emotions business environment reason one gets negative feelings miscommunication ref name sukei ref one study done entails communication non native english speaking native english speaking people united states ref name evanssuklun ref study showed business environment non native english speakers native english speakers similar experiences workplace although native english speakers tried breakdown miscommunication non native english speakers offended terms used ref name evanssuklun cultural perceptions common conceptualizations attributes define collectivistic individualistic cultures operationalizing perceptions cultural identities


kathryn sorrells phd shows us navigate complexities cultural differences along power differences model help understand individual better communicate others may different order continue living globalized society one use praxis model understand cultural differences based race ethnicity gender class sexual orientation religion nationality etc within institutional historical systems power intercultural communication praxis model requires us respond someone comes different culture


us open way media influential think cultures think selves however important educate learn communicate others sorrells' praxis model sorrells process made six points entry navigating intercultural spaces including inquiry framing positioning dialogue reflection action inquiry first step intercultural praxis model overall interest learning understanding individuals different cultural backgrounds world views challenging one 's perceptions framing


awareness local global contexts shape intercultural interactions ref name ref thus ability shift micro meso macro frames positioning consideration one 's place world compared others position might influence world views certain privileges dialogue turning point process understanding differences possible tensions develops experience engagement cultures outside one 's next reflection allows one learn introspection values differences well enables action within world


meaningful effective responsible ways ref name finally leads action aims create conscious world working toward social justice peace among different cultures sorrells argues context globalization intercultural praxis offers us process critical reflective thinking acting enables us navigate intercultural spaces inhabit interpersonally communally globally ref name interdisciplinary orientation cross cultural communication endeavors bring together relatively unrelated areas cultural anthropology established areas communication core establish understand people different


cultures communicate charge also produce guidelines people different cultures better communicate cross cultural communication many scholarly fields combination many fields fields include anthropology cultural studies psychology communication field also moved toward treatment interethnic relations toward study communication strategies used co cultural populations ie communication strategies used deal majority mainstream populations study languages one 's serve help one understand


speaker understands grammar language well elements language socially situated order reach communicative competence human experience culturally relevant elements language also culturally relevant ref name rymes one must carefully consider semiotics evaluation sign systems compare cross cultural norms communication ref name rymes several potential problems come language socialization however sometimes people generalize label cultures stereotypical subjective characterizations another primary concern documenting alternative cultural norms revolves around fact social actor uses language


listener indication way information received '''example non verbal cues''' facial expressions hand gestures use objects body movement terms intercultural communication language barriers effected verbal forms communication instance opportunity miscommunication two parties barriers contribute miscommunication would type words chosen conversation due different cultures different meaning vocabulary chosen allows message sender receiver misconstrued nonverbal communication nonverbal communication


cosmetics time monochronic cultures time experienced linearly something spent saved made wasted time orders life people tend concentrate one thing time polychronic cultures people tolerate many things happening simultaneously emphasize involvement people cultures people may highly distractible focus several things change plans often occulesics form kinesics includes eye contact use eyes convey messages proxemics concern influence proximity space communication eg terms


personal space terms office layout example space communicates power us germany paralanguage refers something said rather content said eg rate speech tone inflection voice noises laughing yawning silence nonverbal communication shown account interpreted communication ref name samovar larry pp samovar larry porter richard mcdaniel edwin roy carolyn intercultural communication reader nonverbal communication pp ref minor variations body language speech rhythms punctuality often cause mistrust misperception situation among cross cultural


parties nonverbal communication cause problems intercultural communication misunderstandings nonverbal communication lead miscommunication insults cultural differences example handshake one culture may recognized appropriate whereas another culture may recognize rude inappropriate ref name samovar larry pp see also adaptive behavior adaptive behaviors clyde kluckhohn cross cultural communication cultural competence cultural diversity cultural intelligence cultural schema theory cultural sensitivity culture shock framing social sciences human communication intercultural competence intercultural dialogue intercultural simulation intergroup dialogue lacuna model multilingualism richard lewis value personal cultural references notes


intercultural business using english second language fox christine authenticity intercultural communication ''international journal intercultural relations'' ''' ''' doi issn nbsp graf mertesacker interkulturelle kompetenz als globaler erfolgsfaktor eine explorative und konfirmatorische evaluation von f nf fragebogeninstrumenten f r die internationale personalauswahl z manag griffin e first look communication theory th ed boston mcgraw hill n groh ''theories culture'' london routledge gudykunst william b mr hammer strangers hosts uncertainty reduction based theory intercultural adaption kim wb gudykunst eds ''cross cultural


adaption'' newbury park sage gudykunst william b intercultural communication theories gudykunst william b ed ''cross cultural intercultural communication'' thousand oaks sage hidasi judit ''intercultural communication outline'' sangensha tokyo hogan christine f facilitating cultural transitions change practical approach stillwater usa square books available amazon hogan christine f facilitating multicultural groups practical guide london kogan page kelly michael elliott imelda fant lars eds third level third space intercultural communication language european higher education bern peter lang kim yy cross cultural adaption integrative theory


rl wiseman ed ''intercultural communication theory'' thousand oaks ca sage messner w sch fer n icca facilitator 's manual intercultural communication collaboration appraisal london createspace messner w sch fer n advancing competencies intercultural collaboration u b umer p kreutter w messner eds globalization professional services heidelberg springer mcguire mcdermott communication assimilation deviance alienation states yy kim wb gudykunst eds ''cross cultural adaption'' newbury park ca sage monash university intercultural competence important https wwwmonashedu arts monash intercultural lab monash intercultural lab intercultural competence text intercultural competence c andbackgrounds e home abroad oetzel john g


intercultural small groups effective decision making theory wiseman richard l ed ''intercultural communication theory'' thousands oaks sage spitzberg b h model intercultural communication competence l samovar r e porter ed intercultural communication reader belmont wadsworth publishing su kei shum significance intercultural communication businesses obstacles managers overcome achieving effective intercultural communication pdf wiseman richard l intercultural communication competence gudykunst william b ed ''cross cultural intercultural communication'' thousand oaks sage lustig w koester j intercultural


competence interpersonal communication across cultures myron w lustig jolene koester boston pearson allyn bacon c mehrabian ''nonverbal communication'' aldine transaction nowiki https doiorg nowiki cultural anthropology human communication sociolinguistics interculturalism communication studies interlinguistics cultural competence culture cultural concepts pragmatics


'''tort''' common law jurisdiction civil wrong breach contract causes claimant suffer loss harm resulting legal liability person commits tortious act include intentional infliction emotional distress negligence financial losses injuries invasion privacy many things word 'tort' stems old french via norman conquest latin via roman empire ref name ref tort law involves claims action seeking obtain private civil remedy typically monetary damages tort claims may compared criminal law


deals criminal wrongs punishable state wrongful act assault battery may result civil lawsuit criminal prosecution countries civil criminal legal systems separate tort law may also contrasted contract law also provides civil remedies breach duty arises contract whereas contractual obligation one agreed parties obligations tort criminal law fundamental imposed regardless whether parties contract


contract tort successful claimants must show suffered foreseeable loss harm direct result breach duty terminology person commits act called '''tortfeasor''' although crimes may torts cause legal action civil torts necessarily result criminal action harm civil torts may due negligence amount criminal negligence victim harm recover loss damages lawsuit prevail plaintiff lawsuit commonly referred


'''injured party''' must show actions lack action legally recognizable cause harm equivalent tort civil law jurisdictions delict moreover tort law differs criminal law whilst contain punitive elements tort law known vindicatory 'compensatory' ref name nature 'the overall object tort law define cases law may justly hold one party liable compensate another' '''legal injuries''' limited physical injuries may include emotional economic reputational injuries well violations


may impose liability intentional action reckless behaviour carelessness product liability without negligence us eu innocence blameless inadvertence ''provided'' strict liability battery assault trespass laws also deter certain types undesirable behaviour liability however criminal law term 'guilty' used whereas tort law case 'liable' used instead ref name history roman law contained provisions torts form delict later influenced civil law jurisdictions continental europe distinctive body law arose


common law word traced english tort law word 'tort' first used legal context although different words used similar concepts prior time medieval period torts crimes common law originate germanic system compensatory fines wrongs oe ''unriht'' clear distinction crimes wrongs ref name malone anglo saxon law wrongs required payment money kind ''b t'' literally 'remedy' wronged person clan ''w te'' literally 'blame fault' paid king holder


court disturbances public order ''weregild'' murder fine based victim 's worth intended prevent blood feuds ref name malone malone ws http guweb gonzagaedu dewolf torts pdf louis pdf ruminations role fault history common law torts ''louisiana law review'' ref wrongs later law codes ''botleas'' 'without remedy' eg theft open murder arson treason one 's lord unable compensated convicted ''botleas'' crime king 's mercy items creatures caused death also destroyed deodands assessing intention matter


court alfred great 's doom book distinguish unintentional injuries intentional ones whereas culpability depended status age gender norman conquest fines paid courts king quickly became revenue source wrong became known ''tort'' ''trespass'' arose division civil pleas pleas crown petty assizes ie novel disseisin mort d'ancestor darrein presentment established remedy interference possession freehold land trespass action early civil


plea damages paid victim payment made defendant imprisoned plea arose local courts slander breach contract interference land goods persons although details exact origin unclear became popular royal courts writ trespass created made ' 'de cursu'' available right fee however restricted interference land forcible breaches king 's peace may arisen either appeal felony assize


novel disseisin replevin later statute westminster trespass case action arose defendant direct force ref name malone scope increased became simply action case english judicature act passed abolished separate actions trespass trespass case ref name malone english case ''beaulieu v finglam'' imposed strict liability escape fire additionally strict liability imposed release cattle ref name malone negligently handling fire particular importance societies given capacity


destruction relatively limited firefighting resources liability common carrier arose around also emphasized medieval period ref name malone unintentional injuries relatively infrequent medieval period transportation improved carriages became popular th th centuries however collisions carelessness became prominent court records ref name malone general scholars england william blackstone took hostile view litigation rules champerty maintenance vexatious litigation existed restriction assignment cause action related rule based public policy english


influence right victims receive redress regarded later english scholars one rights englishmen ref name goldberg goldberg jcp https ssrncom abstract constitutional status tort law due process right law redress wrongs ''yale law journal'' ref blackstone 's ''commentaries laws england'' published late th century contained volume private wrongs torts even used word ''tort'' places ref name goldberg united states influence united states tort law influenced english law blackstone 's ''commentaries''


several state constitutions specifically providing redress torts ref name goldberg addition reception statutes adopted english law however tort law viewed relatively undeveloped mid th century first american treatise torts published subject became particularly established oliver wendell holmes jr wrote subject ref name goldberg holmes' writings described first serious attempt common law world give torts coherent structure distinctive substantive domain ref name golberg zipursky goldberg jcp zipursky bc https ssrncom abstract torts wrongs ''texas law


review'' ref although holmes' summary history torts critically reviewed us case palsgraf v long island railroad co heavily influenced british judges house lords case donoghue v stevenson modern development law torts various jurisdictions developed independently case united states survey trial lawyers pointed several modern developments including strict liability products based ''greenman v yuba power products'' limitation various immunities eg sovereign immunity charitable immunity comparative negligence broader rules admitting evidence


comparative law international comparison modern tort law common law jurisdictions based upon english tort law foundational differences civil law jurisdiction may based roman concept delict even among common law countries however significant differences exist example england legal fees winner paid loser english rule versus american rule attorney fees common law systems include united states tort law australian tort law canadian tort law irish tort law scots law delict jewish law rabbinic damages another


anglo american comparisons ''duke law journal'' ref class actions relatively uncommon outside united states ref name atiyah english law less generous plaintiff following ways contingent fee arrangements restricted english judges tried decisions set damages rather juries wrongful death lawsuits relatively restricted punitive damages relatively unavailable collateral source rule restricted strict liability product liability relatively unavailable ref name atiyah england 's welfare state free healthcare national health service may limit lawsuits ref name atiyah hand


england workers compensation system lawsuits due workplace injuries relatively common facilitated trade unions whereas united states system workers' compensation insurance provides compensation employee injured work even employee fault injury otherwise prohibits lawsuits employer although lawsuits third parties responsible injury manufacturer defective ladder employee injured permitted ref name atiyah united states also faced rise fault insurance


automobile liability several states ref name atiyah england ombudsmen may also take cases could alternatively become tort lawsuits ref name atiyah comparing australia united states australia 's tort law similarly state law however federal common law torts unlike united states influence united states law australia limited however united states law may influenced australia 's development strict liability claims products indirectly legislation affected european union class actions introduced australia ref name cane australia universal healthcare 'welfare state' systems


relieve injured persons others pay medical expenses also limit lawsuits ref name cane new zealand fault accident compensation system limited development personal injury tort law ref name cane conflict laws certain instances different jurisdictions' law may apply tort case rules developed law apply occurs particularly united states states may different state laws also may occur countries federal system states internationally categories torts


provides cause action leading damages relief case designed protect legal rights including personal safety property cases intangible economic interests noneconomic interests tort negligent infliction emotional distress united states negligence actions include claims coming primarily car accidents personal injury accidents many kinds including clinical negligence worker 's negligence forth product liability cases involving warranties may also considered negligence actions particularly united states may apply regardless negligence intention


strict liability order win action negligence plaintiff must prove duty breach duty causation scope liability damages defendant may assert various defenses plaintiff case including comparative fault assumption risk '''intentional torts''' include among others certain torts arising occupation use land tort nuisance example involves strict liability neighbor interferes another 's enjoyment real property trespass allows owners sue entrances person structure overhanging building land


several intentional torts involve land examples include false imprisonment tort unlawfully arresting detaining someone defamation jurisdictions split libel slander false information broadcast damages plaintiff 's reputation intentional torts include battery assault trespass chattels intentional infliction emotional distress misrepresentation alienation affections cases development tort law spurred lawmakers create alternative solutions disputes example areas workers' compensation laws arose legislative response court rulings restricting extent employees could sue


united states established 'tort negligence' opposed negligence component specific actions ''donoghue'' mrs donoghue drank opaque bottle containing decomposed snail claimed made ill could sue mr stevenson damages breach contract instead sued negligence majority determined definition negligence divided four component parts plaintiff must prove establish negligence elements determining liability negligence plaintiff owed '' 'duty care'''


special relationship eg doctor patient principle '' 'dereliction breach''' duty tortfeasor '' 'directly caused''' injury defendant 's actions plaintiff would suffered injury plaintiff suffered '' 'damage''' result breach damage '' 'remote''' proximate cause show breach caused damage certain cases negligence assumed doctrine ' 'res ipsa loquitur'' latin thing speaks particularly united states related concept ''negligence per se'' example business


realm auditor duty care company auditing documents created true reliable representation company 's financial position however per esanda finance corporation ltd v peat marwick hungerfords auditors provide duty care third parties rely reports exception auditor provides third party privity letter explicitly stating third party rely report specific purpose cases privity letter establishes duty care case ''chapman


v hearse'' added precedent negligence previous cases reasonable foreseeability applied narrowly include predictable actions ''chapman v hearse'' extended include damages nature could reasonably foreseen proximate cause proximate cause means must able show harm caused tort suing ref name march v stamare ref defense may argue prior cause superseding intervening cause common situation prior cause becomes issue personal injury car accident


intentional torts intentional torts intentional acts reasonably foreseeable cause harm individual intentional torts several subcategories torts person include assault battery false imprisonment intentional infliction emotional distress fraud although latter also economic tort property torts involve intentional interference property rights claimant plaintiff commonly recognized include trespass land trespass chattels personal property conversion intentional tort requires overt act form intent causation cases transferred intent


occurs defendant intends injure individual actually ends injuring another individual satisfy intent requirement causation satisfied long defendant substantial factor causing harm statutory torts statutory tort like imposes duties private public parties however created legislature courts example european union 's ''product liability directive'' imposes strict liability defective products harm people strict liability uncommon although necessarily statutory another example


england common law liability landowner guests trespassers replaced occupiers' liability act similar situation occurred us state california judicial common law rule established ''rowland v christian'' amended statute statutory torts also spread across workplace health safety laws health safety food cases federal state statutes may preempt tort actions particularly discussed terms us fda preemption although actions united states medical devices preempted due ''riegel v


greater expectation cleanliness quiet ref name nuisance cavert w https wwwacademiaedu right clean air coal smoke property nuisance law early modern london right clean air coal smoke property nuisance law early modern london world conference environmental history ref case ''jones v powell'' provides early example person 's professional papers damaged vapors neighboring brewery although outcome case unclear ref name nuisance whitelocke court king 's bench recorded saying since water supply area already contaminated nuisance actionable better spoiled


commonwealth stand need good liquor english law related category tort liability created case ''rylands v fletcher'' strict liability established dangerous escape hazard including water fire animals long cause remote ''cambridge water co ltd v eastern counties leather plc'' chemicals factory seeped floor water table contaminating east anglia 's water reservoirs ref name elworthyholder ref ''rylands'' rule remains use england wales australian law merged