system'' pp jacques jacobus polak ''an international economic system'' pp frederic l pryor ''economic evolution structure pp frederic l pryor ''economic systems foraging agricultural industrial societies'' pp graeme snooks ''global transition general theory'' palgravemacmillan pp external links https wwwbritannicacom topic economic system economic system ''encyclop dia britannica'' entry https webarchiveorg web http wwwmdk org mspp vsc social studies bygrade glossaryshtml social studies vsc glossary https webarchiveorg web http wwwanthrowayneedu ant glossarycultanthtm glossary cultural anthropology http wwwelseviercom wps find journaldescriptioncws home description description economic systems refereed journal analysis market non market solution elsevier since https webarchiveorg web http wwwhelsinkifi webec framephtml economic systems webec political economy


'''purchasing''' process business organization uses acquire goods services accomplish goals although several organizations attempt set standards purchasing process processes vary greatly organizations purchasing part wider procurement process typically also includes expediting supplier quality transportation logistics details purchasing managers directors procurement managers directors guide organization acquisition procedures standards organizations use three way check foundation purchasing programs involves three departments organization completing separate parts acquisition process


order accounts payable department go directly requestor purchase order verify goods services received typically done goods services bypass receiving department examples software delivered electronically nre work non reoccurring engineering services consulting hours etc historically purchasing department issued purchase supplies services equipment raw materials effort decrease administrative costs associated repetitive ordering basic consumable items blanket master agreements put place types agreements typically


longer duration increased scope maximize quantities scale concept additional supplies required simple release would issued supplier provide goods services another method decreasing administrative costs associated repetitive contracts common material use company credit cards also known purchasing cards simply p cards p card programs vary internal checks audits ensure appropriate use purchasing managers realized contracts low dollar value consumables place procurement take smaller role


operation use contracts still oversight forms audits monthly statement reviews time available negotiate major purchases setting long term contracts contracts typically renewable annually trend away daily procurement function tactical purchasing resulted several changes industry first reduction personnel purchasing departments smaller need army clerks processing orders individual parts past another change focus negotiating contracts


procurement large capital equipment functions permitted purchasing departments make biggest financial contribution organization new term job title emerged strategic sourcing sourcing managers professionals focused bidding process negotiating suppliers entire supply function roles able add value maximize savings organizations value manifested lower inventories fewer personnel getting end product consumer quicker purchasing managers' success roles resulted new assignments outside traditional purchasing


function logistics materials management distribution warehousing purchasing managers becoming supply chain managers handling additional functions organization 's operation purchasing managers ones become supply chain managers logistic managers material managers distribution managers etc rose broader function responsibility purchasing functions accounting purchases amount goods company bought throughout year also refers information kind quality quantity cost goods bought maintained added inventory purchases


offset purchase discounts purchase returns allowances added depends free board fob policy trade purchaser new inventory added shipment policy fob shipping point seller remove item inventory hand purchaser added inventory receipt policy fob destination seller remove item inventory delivered goods bought purpose direct selling research development added inventory


defense acquisition university press ref model acquisition process ref name daup process allows given system enter process development phases example system using unproven technology would enter beginning stages process would proceed lengthy period technology maturation system based mature proven technologies might enter directly engineering development conceivably even production process includes four phases development ref name daup concept technology development intended explore alternative concepts based


assessments operational needs technology readiness risk affordability concept technology development phase begins concept exploration stage concept studies undertaken define alternative concepts provide information capability risk would permit objective comparison competing concepts system development demonstration phase phase could entered directly result technological opportunity urgent user need well come concept technology development last longest phase sustainment disposal phase program phase necessary activities


accomplished maintain sustain system field cost effective manner possible selection bidders process organization identifies potential suppliers specified supplies services equipment suppliers' credentials history analyzed products services offer bidder selection process varies organization organization include running credit reports interviewing management testing products touring facilities process always done order importance rather order expense often purchasing managers research potential bidders obtaining information organizations


products media sources industry contacts additionally purchasing might send request information rfi potential suppliers help gather information engineering would also inspect sample products determine company organisation produce products need bidder passes stages engineering may decide testing materials verify quality standards tests expensive involve significant time multiple technicians engineers engineering management must make decision based cost products likely procure importance


bidders product production factors credit checks interviewing management touring plants well steps could utilized engineering manufacturing supply chain managers decide could help decision cost justifiable organizations might minority procurement goals consider selection bidders organizations identify goals use woman owned minority owned businesses significant utilizing minority suppliers may qualify firm potential bidder contract company governmental entity looking increase minority supplier programs selection process include


meet specifications product purchasing managers must consider utilizing sole source option work engineering broaden specifications project permit alteration specifications sole source option part selection bidders acknowledges sometimes one reasonable supplier services products limited applications product cannot support one manufacturer proximity service provided products newly designed invented competition yet available bidding process


process organization utilizes procure goods services equipment processes vary significantly stringent informal large corporations governmental entities likely stringent formal processes processes utilize specialized bid forms require specific procedures detail stringent procedures require bids open several staff various departments ensure fairness impartiality responses usually detailed bidders responding exactly specified following published procedures disqualified smaller private businesses likely less formal procedures


bids form email bidders specifying products services responses bidders detailed proposed dollar amount bid processes multi tiered acquisitions specified dollar amount user discretion permitting request choose ever want level low high depending organization rationale savings realized processing request expensive items minimal justify time expense purchasing departments watch


abuses user discretion privilege acquisitions mid range processed slightly formal process process may involve user providing quotes three separate suppliers purchasing may asked required obtain quotes formal bid process starts low high depending organization bid usually involves specific form bidder fills must returned specified deadline depending commodity purchased organization bid may specify weighted evaluation criterion bids would


evaluated discretion purchasing end users bids could evaluated cross functional committee bids may evaluated end user buyer purchasing especially small private firms bidders could evaluated criteria factors little anything actual bid examples factors history bidder company history bidder company senior management firms bidder breadth products technical evaluation technical evaluations evaluations technical suitability


quoted goods services required normally performed prior commercial evaluation phase procurement process technical representative company usually engineer review proposal designate bidder either technically acceptable technically unacceptable technical evaluation usually carried set pre determined technical evaluation criteria two types criteria general criteria whereby scores given met essential criteria failing shall render bid technically disqualified commercial evaluation cost money calculated multiplying


applicable currency 's interest rate amount money paid prior receipt goods money remained buyer 's account interest would drawn interest essentially additional cost associated progress milestone payments manufacturing location taken consideration evaluation stage primarily calculate freight costs regional issues instance common europe factories close month august summer holiday labor agreements may also taken consideration may drawn


including warranty transfer risk assignment auditing rights confidentiality remedies etc good negotiators high levels documented cost savings receive premium within industry relative compensation depending employment agreement buyer employer buyer 's cost savings result creation value business may result flat rate bonus percentage payout purchasing agent documented cost savings purchasing departments considered support function key business actually revenue generating departments example


company needs buy million usd widgets purchasing department secures widgets usd purchasing department would saved company usd savings could exceed annual budget department effect would pay department 's overhead employee 's salaries computers office space etc post award administration post award administration typically consists making minor changes additions subtractions way change terms agreement seller 's scope supply changes often minor auditing purposes must documented


existing agreement examples include increasing quantity line item changing metallurgy particular component order closeout closing order see also ecoleas ing purchasing process supply chain management logistics material requirements planning group purchasing organization tendering total cost acquisition chartered institute purchasing mergers acquisitions references freight transport procurement systems engineering


'''welsh literature''' literature originating wales welsh writers welsh language literature literature welsh language welsh literature english literature english language welsh culture

Humanities
Languages and literature
Welsh Literature


photo broadcast journalists interviewing government official building collapse '''broadcast journalism''' field news journals broadcast electronic methods instead older methods printed newspapers posters works radio via air cable internet television via air cable internet world wide web media disperse pictures static moving visual text sounds description broadcast articles written packages readers voice overs vo sound tape sot sack edited set video clips news story

Journalism, media studies and communication


common television typically narrated reporter story audio video graphics video effects news anchor presenter usually reads lead introduction package aired may conclude story additional information called tag reader article read without accompanying video sound sometimes shoulder digital screen graphic added voice vo video article narrated anchor sound tape sot sound video usually recorded field usually interview


purposes began change man named edward r murrow edward murrow american traveled england order broadcast news world war ii stayed london throughout war first report events bombings london updated people hitler 's reign murrow gained fame mainly reporting hitler 's german army annexing austria many americans relied broadcasts throughout war gain information war people also began rely radio information attacks pearl


harbor people found bombing president roosevelt 's broadcast interrupting daily programming set americans edge people began rely heavily radio major announcements throughout world war ii world war ii time radio broadcasting became much larger industry easiest quickest way people get updates going throughout world informative radio continued television reporting also began take flight throughout television news sources grew radio still dominated n't john


f kennedy 's assassination television newscasting took radio could capture sound event television showed people true horror assassination one first major events news companies competed get news public first cbs news first report kennedy shot killed news crews spent next several days covering everything happening washington including kennedy 's funeral set standard news stations cover major events quicker get


public happening jfk assassination helped transform television journalism today instantaneous coverage live coverages major events television offered faster coverage radio allowed viewers feel experiencing event could visualize exactly going nbc national broadcasting company cbs columbia broadcasting system two competing forces news broadcasting early years broadcast journalism nbc established cbs divide industry


competing radio news already established women hard time immersing radio news seeing radio broadcasts men small number women hosted programs homemakers entertainment broadcast world war ii doors women broadcasting opened also due shortage men home war news outlets looked women fill gaps times larger


numbers women began enter broadcast news field radio television major sources broadcast journalism today even rapidly expanding technology television still focuses covering major events radio broadcasts focus analyzing stories rather reporting breaking news although history broadcast journalism origins early days radio transmission television attractive visuals rapid dissemination empowered broadcast journalism emerge influential form journalism rise internet new forms journalism associated


digital technologies ref name maniou papadopoulou ref internet often beats broadcast journalism terms reporting breaking news field broadcast journalism constantly adapt changing technology today television television tv news considered many influential medium journalism american public local news national tv newscasts primary news sources numbers audience viewers effect viewer considered persuasive medium message ref name macluhan ref television dominated attractive visuals including beauty


action shock short soundbites fast cuts changes camera angle television viewing numbers become fragmented introduction cable news channels cable news network cnn fox news channel msnbc journalist works location loma prieta earthquake san francisco 's marina district october local television industry divides local television north america media markets television markets defined viewing area ranked number audience viewers new broadcast journalists generally start smaller markets fewer viewers move


larger television stations television networks gaining experience larger stations usually resources better pay united states stations typically broadcast local news three four times day around morning noon midday pm evening night nightly local newscasts minutes include sports coverage weather news anchors shown sitting desk television studio news anchors read teleprompters contain local interest stories breaking news reporters frequently tell stories outside formal television


studio field remote broadcast setting electronic news gathering eng techniques used production trucks daytime television morning shows include soft news feature pieces evening news emphasizes hard news education many young journalists start learning broadcast journalism high school courses learn navigate newsroom equipment learn ethics standards journalism ref name ref although learning responsibilities journalist important education required work broadcast journalism bachelor 's degree journalism broadcast journalism interactive


media ref name lead career broadcast production however heavy amount education receive hands activity internships working campus broadcasting stations real world view field combined classes teach students ins outs writing capturing video interviewing editing creates developed prepared journalist ref name finding job broadcasting field tough due decreased viewing limited number stations location online media presence causing employment predicted decline


ref name news jobs news anchors formerly anchormen serve masters ceremonies usually shown facing professional video camera television studio reading unseen teleprompters anchors often pairs co anchors sit side side often alternate reading meteorologists stand front chroma key backgrounds describe weather forecasting show maps charts pictures reporters research write stories sometimes use video editing prepare story air package reporters usually engaged electronic field production efp accompanied


camera shots elements either recorded live television video production technical director td operates video switcher controls mixes elements show smaller stations director technical director person graphics operator operates character generator cg produces lower third screen titles full page digital screen graphics audio technician operates audio mixing console technician charge microphones music audio tape often production assistants operate teleprompters professional video cameras serve lighting rigging


broadcast news internet key convergence frequently broadcast journalists also write text stories web usually accompanied graphics sound original story websites offer audience interactive form learn story referred related articles offer comments publication print stories home technological convergence also lets newsrooms collaborate media broadcast outlets sometimes partnerships print counterparts social media citizen broadcast journalism new form technology allowed regular civilians post


stories see outlets snapchat facebook twitter become new trend allegedly fear take broadcast journalism known news companies like fox news employing citizen journalists new phenomenon journalism fake news terms fake news yellow journalism taken broadcast journalism throughout years impact broadcast journalism played role news election spread ref name ref fake news defines viewers see news may misleading false main aim yellow


journalism gather attention people society many false misleading stories came election hillary clinton donald trump ref name see also references https webarchiveorg web http wwwnielsenmediacom nc portal site public menuitem b cacebc e vgnextoid f b vgnvcm arcrd portal nielsen media dma ranks https webarchiveorg web http science edularcnasagov eddocs meteorolhtml atmospheric science data center meteorologist television terminology broadcasting occupations


'''feminist archaeology''' employs feminist perspective interpreting past societies often focuses gender also considers gender tandem factors sexuality race class feminist archaeology critiqued uncritical application modern western norms values past societies additionally concerned increasing representation women discipline archaeology reducing androcentric bias within field feminist archaeology expanded recent years include intersectional analyses black feminist archaeology indigenous archaeology post colonial archaeology emergence feminist archaeology feminist archaeology initially emerged

Social science
Archaeology
Feminist archaeology


late early along objections epistemology espoused processual school archaeological thought symbolic hermeneutic archaeologies margaret conkey janet spector paper ''archaeology study gender'' summed feminist critique discipline time archaeologists unproblematically overlaying modern day western gender norms onto past societies example sexual division labor contexts artifacts attributed activities men projectile point production butchering kill sites prioritized research time funding


character discipline constructed around masculine values norms example women generally encouraged pursue laboratory studies instead fieldwork although exceptions throughout history discipline image archaeologist centered rugged masculine cowboy science two publications marked emergence feminist archaeology large scale edited volume ''engendering archaeology'' focused women prehistory thematic issue journal ''historical archaeology'' focused women gender post columbian america outside americas feminist archaeology


model women constrained certain activities due decreased mobility resulting pregnancy role raising young children model critiqued feminist anthropologists underplaying evolutionary importance women favor portraying strictly passive objects reproduction nothing adrienne zihlman tracing evolutionary achievements ascribed males hunters pointed female gathering activities could easily account adaptations joan gero challenged androcentric explanations tool making several levels first common assumption tool making almost exclusively associated men


almost certainly false least women far likely produce tools needed domestic contexts rather wait man come along argument behind assumption men possess greater upper body strength dismissed gero pointed physical strength imperative quality someone skilled making stone tools additionally gero pointed great emphasis research time money towards studies concerned masculine stone tools projectile points stone tools likely made


used women example utilized flakes relatively ignored feminist gender archaeologies since early feminist critiques archaeology gender gained enormous popularity within discipline label feminist embraced archaeologists however split gender feminist archaeologies formed gender archaeology become wide umbrella including limited feminist work employs queer theory practice theory performance theory among others many archaeologists engaged gender research avoid label feminist largely due perceived negative connotations word


others within discipline oversimplified understanding feminist archaeology 's history aims consequence mistakenly conflate postmodernism ref name autogenerated geller identity difference complicating gender archaeology ''annual review archaeology'' vol ref archaeologists argued continued incorporation feminist thought inherently political archaeological studies gender works gender archaeology actively engaged challenging patriarchal power structures beyond rectifying androcentric histories feminist archaeology engages challenging changing interpretive frameworks employed archaeologists feminism politics aimed changing gender based power relations noted feminist


employed feminists lacks characteristics gender currently common topic study archaeology among non feminists studies focus identifying gendered activities material culture gender roles past peoples present overtly political way non feminist archaeologists less compelled position within work reflect position affects work investigating gender independent feminism however elides aims early studies represents gender sex conceptually deficient manner ref name autogenerated ongoing feminist contributions archaeology feminist archaeologists


involves involvement descendant communities giving voice archaeological investigations interpretations past public demand allowing descendant communities voice african burial ground controversy highlighted importance kind work parallels drawn feminist archaeology indigenous archaeology focusing work break male white middle class western monopoly accessing knowledge past type work helps de center privileged position western knowledge without removing relevance additionally feminist archaeologists engaged use fiction help access


past taken form plays seen ''red light voices'' based letters diaries early th century prostitutes explore prostitution another example seen laurie wilkie fictional worker involved federal writers' project interjected archaeological study african american midwife post emancipation south janet spector interpreted meaning behind single artifact fictional narrative ''what awl means'' narrative argued effective means archaeologists create multivocal broadly accessible interpretations presentations use storytelling demonstrate


narrative powerful tool bringing texture nuance humanity women experiences evidenced archaeology intersectional analysis common analytical technique employed feminist non feminist archaeologists intersectional analysis following assertions black feminists leading third wave feminism us maintains gender cannot accessed must studied conjunction forms identity ref name autogenerated historical archaeology linkage gender race class increasingly explored aspects identity notably sexuality examined well relation gender


intersectional analysis limited feminist archaeology illustrated prevalent use gender race class means exploring identity historical archaeologists although many studies focused white middle class women recent anglo american past articulation gender aspects identity starting applied native american women african americans work kathleen deagan spanish colonial sites us caribbean pioneered movement study gender spanish colonies use black feminist work calls attention inherent


american archaeological record rejects separation prioritization one another form oppression ref name ref name ref black feminist archeology heavily inspired black feminist anthropology addition archaeological theory introduced create purposefully coarse textured analytical framework ref name theoretical approach connects contemporary concepts racism sexism past draws connections past influences way past influenced shaped present black feminist archaeological contributions prehistoric archaeology archaeologist kathleen sterling proposes two ways black feminist


theory applied archaeology outside historical north american contexts studying paleolithic people europe way attempts cognizant interpretations primitiveness also acknowledging conceptions primitiveness racially coded studying anatomically modern humans amh neanderthals way interacted ref name sterling provides example black feminist theory applied latter though exact dates contested variable said anatomically modern humans amh neanderthals interacted lived among


successfully leading interaction competition leads idea neanderthal extinction caused cro magnons competing lines sterling 's assertion implies neanderthals inferior race ref name however new analyses complicated relationship new finds collapsed shelter mammoth bones red ochre non butchery marks mammoth bones dated arrival amhs area suggest neanderthals capable performing kind symbolic activity without influence direction amhs another complicating factor dna evidence shows


substantial sexual interaction species homo across eurasia dna shows interbreeding species prevalent enough continue persist modern genomes today much overwhelming percentages modern populations ref name unfortunately little know dynamics relationships neanderthals amhs citing new york times article dr chris stringer describes inbreeding neanderthals amhs aggressive acts competing human groups says akin modern day hunter gatherer groups behavior sterling suggests


reinforces tribal stereotypes ideas innateness violence primitiveness men also implied sterling juxtaposes view prehistoric competition sexual violence experienced enslaved black women united states criminality imposed relations black men white women consensual interactions people different races seen historical impossibly woman granted sexual agency ref name still competition explain probabilities infanticide abortion abandonment children born neanderthal amh interaction ignore agency


women populations sterling claims instead neanderthals withering away climatic violence sterling posits rather absorbed amh communities interbreeding child rearing view echoes theories neanderthal disappearance acknowledges autonomy agency well despite leading extinction species ref name sterling uses black feminist framework showcase different aspects life identity intersect impact areas interest produce complex understandings prehistoric life ref name historical archaeology whitney battle baptiste proponent black feminist archaeology


provided home return family granted compensation parish gained working hand daily chores tasks served african household years another child sarah gilbert taken foster abolition slavery massachusetts appears lucy stayed hannah foster matriarch foster family limitation lack opportunities post emancipation massachusetts may contributed decision age lucy warned town letter read


name commonwealth massachusetts directed warn give notice unto lucy negroe woman formerly servant job foster common practice meant reduce populations black indigenous populations new england two years passed without incident lucy seems returned andover said given profession faith south parish congregational church month later peter lucy son baptized peter age location birth paternal relation unknown following death hannah


foster lucy granted one cow one hundred dollars acre land per instructions information comes fate children suggesting degree familiarity lucy foster matriarch much known lucy following death ref name point contention lucy story battle baptiste question poverty poverty shaped lucy identity identity shaped poverty suggests like many african american women time


lucy likely continued work service jobs kinds manual labor like cooking laundry sewing evidenced number needles thimbles buttons found material assemblage lucy listed overseers poor remains listed death never told abandon property move alms house battle baptiste questions poverty looks like material record material record interpreted bullens terms lucy material record wide array


items including pearlware chinese porcelain red ware whitewall totaling vessels suggesting ideas poverty variable throughout time battle baptiste reanalyzed lucy foster homestead envisioned lucy independent respected placed system negotiated freedom still experienced degree restriction based identity assemblage found lucy foster home could also evidence relative social position andover due isolation possible positioning advantageous night travelers could evidence role anti slavery


movement contribution underground railroad ref name despite storied life lucy foster lived importance site one first excavated african american sites united states story well known archaeology massachusetts ref name household studies archaeological studies domestic sites particularly affected ongoing feminist work long standing trend archaeology associate women domestic spaces placed opposition association men public spaces continuous locus feminist research since advent


new millennium shift away dichotomized spatial separation gender historical archaeology feminist archaeologists crucial widening definition constitutes household familial model based western norms household archaeology projects studying brothels fraternities engaging broader household literature archaeologists begun conceive household long considered autonomous analytical units political spaces occupied social actors occupying different social positions shaped gender race age occupation socioeconomic status feminist archaeology study masculinity feminist concern


primarily women however emerging concern exploration intricacies masculinities archaeology rising masculine identity constructs social reproduction normative masculinity topics addressed limited number archaeologists area study general however remains relatively unexplored impact feminism archaeology feminist archaeology lasting impact archaeology continues grow today implementation feminist thought archaeology visibility women past present steadily increasing one


biggest contributions feminist archaeology revisitation past cultural circumstances led reevaluation women roles revealed situations women present previously thought ref name ref said remains issue women 's roles indeed illuminated roles activities performed engaged critically margaret conkey says unproblematized addition reinterpretation androcentrism gynocentrism naming ancient figurines goddesses misses point meaningful feminist critique ref name despite positive changed affected archaeology feminist thought still


widely implemented mainstream archaeology often done women gender considered archaeological analyses often one factor amid myriad others within larger framework central tenant ref name additionally lack crossover mainstream feminist academia archaeological theory showcasing feminist archaeology yet made jump mainstream feminist circles ref name see also marija gimbutas queer archeology references bibliography external links http archaeologyaboutcom od fterms g feministhtm feminist archaeology http wwwfemarcde en femarc women 's network archaeology archaeological theory


real estate economists analyze supply demand pricing real estate '''real estate economics''' application economic techniques real estate markets tries describe explain predict patterns prices supply demand closely related field '''housing economics''' narrower scope concentrating residential real estate markets research '' 'real estate trends''' focuses business structural changes affecting industry draw partial equilibrium analysis supply demand urban economics spatial economics basic extensive research surveys finance overview real estate markets

Social science
Economics
Real estate economics


main participants real estate markets '''users''' people owners tenants purchase houses commercial property investment also live utilize business businesses may may require buildings use land land used ways agriculture forestry mining '''owners''' people pure investors occupy real estate purchase typically rent lease property parties '''renters''' people pure consumers '''developers''' people involved developing


land buildings sale market '''renovators''' people supply refurbished properties market '''facilitators''' group includes banks real estate brokers lawyers government regulators others facilitate purchase sale real estate choices users owners renters form demand side market choices owners developers renovators form supply side order apply simple supply demand analysis real estate markets number modifications need made standard microeconomic assumptions procedures particular unique characteristics real


estate market must accommodated characteristics include '''durability''' real estate durable building last decades even centuries land underneath practically indestructible result real estate markets modelled ' 'stock flow market'' although proportion highly variable time vast majority building supply consists stock existing buildings small proportion consists flow new development stock real estate supply period determined existing stock previous period rate deterioration


existing stock rate renovation existing stock flow new development current period effect real estate market adjustments tend mitigated relatively large stock existing buildings '''heterogeneity''' every unit real estate unique terms location building financing makes pricing difficult increases search costs creates information asymmetry greatly restricts substitutability get around problem economists beginning muth define supply terms service units physical unit deconstructed services


transaction costs seller typically range purchase price countries continental europe transaction costs buyer seller range '''long time delays''' market adjustment process subject time delays due length time takes finance design construct new supply also due relatively slow rate change demand lags great potential disequilibrium short run adjustment mechanisms tend slow relative fluid markets '''both


investment good consumption good''' real estate purchased expectation attaining return investment good intention using consumption good functions may separated market participants concentrating one function combined case person lives house dual nature good means uncommon people invest real estate invest money asset worth open market '''immobility'''


real estate locationally immobile save mobile homes land underneath still immobile consumers come good rather good going consumer physical marketplace spatial fixity means market adjustment must occur people moving dwelling units rather movement goods example tastes change people demand suburban houses people must find housing suburbs impossible bring existing house lot suburb even mobile homeowner could move


house must still find new lot spatial fixity combined close proximity housing units urban areas suggest potential externalities inherent given location housing industry housing industry development construction sale homes interests represented united states national association home builders nahb australia trade association representing residential housing industry housing industry association also refers housing market means supply demand houses usually particular country region housing market includes


number first second children net migration immigration minus emigration non family household formation number double family households death rates divorce rates marriages housing economics elemental unit analysis individual standard partial equilibrium models rather households demand housing services typically one household per house size demographic composition households variable entirely exogenous endogenous housing market sense price housing services increase household size tend also increase income also


important determinant empirical measures income elasticity demand north america range de leeuw permanent income elasticity measured results slightly higher kain quigley transitory income varies year year across individuals positive transitory income tend cancel negative transitory income many housing economists use permanent income rather annual income high cost purchasing real estate many people real estate costliest item ever buy price housing also


important factor price elasticity demand housing services north america estimated negative polinsky ellwood negative maisel burnham austin individual household 's housing demand modelled standard utility choice theory utility function math u u x x x x x n math constructed household 's utility function various goods services math x math subject budget constraint math p x p x p nx n math math math household 's available income math ps math prices


various goods services equality indicates money spent goods services must equal available income unrealistic model must adjusted allow borrowing saving measure wealth lifetime income permanent income required model must also adjusted account heterogeneity real estate done deconstructing utility function housing services math x math separated constituent components math z z z z z n math utility function rewritten math u u x x x z z z z z n x n math varying price housing services math x math


solving points optimal utility household 's demand schedule housing services constructed market demand calculated summing individual household demands supply housing customer perusing real estate listings agent 's office linxia city china developers produce housing supply using land labour various inputs electricity building materials quantity new supply determined cost inputs price existing stock houses technology production typical single family dwelling suburban north america one assign approximate cost


percentages follows acquisition costs site improvement costs labour costs materials costs finance costs administrative costs marketing costs multi unit residential dwellings typically break follows acquisition costs site improvement costs labour costs materials costs finance costs administrative costs marketing costs public subdivision requirements increase development costs depending jurisdiction differences building codes account variation development costs however subdivision building code costs typically increase market value buildings


least amount cost outlays production function math q f lnm math constructed math q math quantity houses produced math n math amount labour employed math l math amount land used math math amount materials production function must however adjusted account refurbishing augmentation existing buildings second production function constructed includes stock existing housing ages determinants two functions summed yielding total production function alternatively hedonic pricing model


regressed long run price elasticity supply quite high george fallis estimates short run supply tends price inelastic supply price elasticity depends elasticity substitution supply restrictions significant substitutability land materials labour materials high value locations developers typically construct multi story concrete buildings reduce amount expensive land used labour costs increased since new materials capital intensive techniques employed reduce amount labour used however supply restrictions


exist developers intersection construction costs value housing services determine maximum level new housing starts '''hso''' finally amount housing starts current period added available stock housing next period next period supply curve '''sh''' shift right amount '''hso''' adjustment depreciation right diagram right shows effects depreciation supply existing housing deteriorates due wear stock housing supply depreciates supply housing '''sho'''


shift left '''sh ''' resulting new equilibrium demand '''r ''' since number homes decreased demand still exists increase demand '''ro''' '''r ''' shift value function '''vo''' '''v ''' result houses produced profitably housing starts increase '''hso''' '''hs ''' supply housing shift back initial position '''sh ''' '''sho''' increase demand px diagram right shows effects increase demand short run


increase demand housing shift '''do''' '''d ''' either price quantity adjustment price stay supply housing must increase supply '''sho''' must increase '''hs''' increase costs right diagram right shows effects increase costs short run construction costs increase say '''cco''' '''cc ''' developers find business less profitable selective ventures addition developers may leave industry quantity


housing starts decrease '''hso''' '''hs ''' eventually reduce level supply '''sho''' '''sh ''' existing stock housing depreciates prices tend rise '''ro''' '''r ''' real estate financing different ways real estate financing governmental commercial sources institutions homebuyer builder obtain financial aid savings loan associations commercial banks savings banks mortgage bankers brokers life insurance companies credit unions federal agencies individual investors builders last decade residential prices increased every year average double digits


beijing shanghai however many observers researchers argue fundamentals housing sector sector specific macroeconomic may driving force behind housing price volatility savings loan associations important purpose institutions make mortgage loans residential property organizations also known savings associations building loan associations cooperative banks new england homestead associations louisiana primary source financial assistance large segment american homeowners ref name multiple ref home financing institutions give primary attention single family residences


equipped make loans area important characteristics savings loan association ref name multiple generally locally owned privately managed home financing institution receives individuals' savings uses funds make long term amortized loans home purchasers makes loans construction purchase repair refinancing houses state federally chartered commercial banks due changes banking laws policies commercial banks increasingly active home financing acquiring mortgages real estate institutions follow two main practices ref


name multiple banks maintain active well organized departments whose primary function compete actively real estate loans areas lacking specialized real estate financial institutions banks become source residential farm mortgage loans banks acquire mortgages simply purchasing mortgage bankers dealers addition dealer service companies originally used obtain car loans permanent lenders commercial banks wanted broaden activity beyond local area recent years however companies concentrated acquiring mobile home loans volume commercial banks


savings loan associations service companies obtain loans retail dealers usually non recourse basis almost bank service company agreements contain credit insurance policy protects lender consumer defaults ref name multiple savings banks depository financial institutions federally chartered primarily accept consumer deposits make home mortgage loans ref name multiple mortgage bankers brokers mortgage bankers companies individuals originate mortgage loans sell investors service monthly payments may act agents dispense funds taxes insurance mortgage brokers present homebuyers loans


variety loan sources income comes lender making loan like bank tap variety lenders shop behalf borrower achieve best available terms despite legislation could favor major banks mortgage bankers brokers keep market competitive largest lenders must continue compete price service according burnette brightgreen homeloans port orange florida mortgage banker broker conduit vital maintain competitive balance mortgage industry without largest


lenders would able unduly influence rates pricing potentially hurting consumer competition drives every organization industry constantly improve performance consumer winner scenario ref name multiple life insurance companies life insurance companies another source financial assistance companies lend real estate one form investment adjust portfolios time time reflect changing economic conditions individuals seeking loan insurance company deal directly local branch office local real estate broker acts loan


correspondent one insurance companies ref name multiple credit unions cooperative financial institutions organized people share common bond example employees company labor union religious group credit unions offer home loans addition financial services ref name multiple federally supported agencies certain conditions fund limitations veterans administration va makes direct loans creditworthy veterans housing credit shortage areas designated va 's administrator areas generally rural small cities towns near metropolitan commuting areas large cities areas gi loans private


pay little federal income tax subject number special requirements set forth internal revenue code one requirement annually distribute least taxable income form dividends shareholders sources individual investos constitute fairly large somewhat declining source money home mortgage loans experienced observers claim lenders prefer shorter term obligations usually restrict loans less two thirds value residential property likewise building contractors sometimes accept second mortgages partial payment


''urban housing markets recent directions research policy'' university toronto press toronto fallis g ''housing economics'' butterworth toronto kain j f quigley j ''housing markets racial discrimination'' national bureau economic research new york kawaguchi ''real estate economics'' seibunsha tokyo kawaguchi ''real estate financial engineering seibunsha tokyo muth r demand non farm housing acharberger ed ''the demand durable goods'' university chicago press chicago external links http wwwhumboldtedu econindex realestate humboldt real estate economics real estate market conditions humboldt county california


department economics humboldt state university grant thornton international business report http wwwinternationalbusinessreportcom files ibr construction real estate lopdf construction real estate industry focus https movingcompanyguyscom office moving office moving office relocations jose francisco bellod redondo university malaga http ideasrepecorg erv contri html statistics detection real estate bubbles spanish case performance spanish housing market spanish may urban economics real estate industry


'''information broker''' '''ib''' also known '' 'data broker''' individual company specializes collecting personal data data companies mostly public records sometimes sourced privately selling licensing information third parties variety uses sources usually internet based since may include census electoral roll records social networking sites court reports purchase histories varying regulations around world limiting collection information individuals privacy laws vary united states little protection consumer history credit

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Information broker


costs data storage made much easier companies collect analyze store transfer large amounts data individuals gave rise information broker data broker industry ref name ref terminology information broker sometimes abbreviated ib terms used information brokers include data brokers independent information specialists ref name inc information data agents ref name cleverism ref data providers data suppliers ref name clearcode ref information resellers data vendors ref name ste syndicated data brokers information product companies ref name gartner information consultants freelance librarians information specialists also sometimes termed information brokers training information brokers often


library science degree however towards end th century people degrees science law business medicine disciplines entered profession line terms information professional information broker became blurred ref name sabroski required academic qualification job information broker people may bachelor degree business marketing others may background library science may worked database provider ref name inc role information brokering described business buying selling information commodity


information brokers defined us federal trade commission companies collect information including personal information consumers wide variety sources purpose reselling information customers various purposes including verifying individual identity differentiating records marketing products preventing financial fraud ref name ste gartner defines information broker business aggregates information variety sources processes enrich cleanse analyze licenses organizations states data licensed particular limited uses rather sold


client ref name gartner ref information brokers ibs collect collate data concerning myriad topics ranging daily communications individual specialized data product registrations patents copyright data ref name campana ref mostly publicly available sources usually obtained online databases may also provide various services analysing data writing reports creating databases clients updating clients whenever new information specific topic person clients use data brokers save time money brokers trained skills needed retrieve


information effectively efficiently ref name inc information brokers secondary researchers find information variety subjects including companies often competitors ref name cleverism markets people products role includes analysis synthesis data find ref name specialists ref brokers may find everything else individual internet aggregate data information variety sources ref name clearcode information brokers sometimes specialise specific area market research statistics scientific data ref name cleverism clients information brokers come wide range industries professions including manufacturing financial institutions political


parties government agencies historians ref name fairy ref non profit organizations might benefit information helps apply grant funding real estate agents often use ibs undertake land title searches ref name cleverism advertising fraud detection risk mitigation three common reasons using data brokers ref name clearcode three broad categories defined federal trade commission ref name ste ref information brokers need screen clients carefully avoid criminals obtaining data individuals nefarious purposes us broking companies lexis nexis choicepoint duped phoney clients leading one case identity theft


large scale ref name ste data may harvested various sources including census change address motor vehicle related records user contributed material social networking sites media court reports voter registration lists consumer purchase histories wanted lists terrorist watch lists bank card transaction records health care authorities web browsing histories ref name worldprivacyforumorg ref ibs may also purchase information companies credit card company ref name clearcode information collected may include name address social security number driver 's licence number identifying information well occupation property ownership income etc advertising companies


often interested profiles categories rather personal information individual ref name clearcode data aggregated create individual profiles often made thousands pieces information person 's age race gender height weight marital status religious affiliation political affiliation occupation household income net worth home ownership status investment habits product preferences health related interests ref name government united states brokers sell profiles organizations use mainly target advertising marketing towards specific groups ref name fairy verify person 's identity including purposes


fraud detection sell individuals organizations research people various reasons ref name government united states ref many brokers work independently others employees large companies lexisnexis proquest ref name fairy privacy issues regulation information privacy laws strict united states european union data brokers work hard get around general data protection regulation gdpr regulations brought operation gdpr data collected use one six legal bases rather vague term legitimate interest


often abused misinterpreted ref name clearcode explicit consent users required information storage addition data processing related political opinion religious belief prohibited unless consent data subject granted us individuals generally cannot find data broker holds broker got used federal law permits enables consumers see make corrections opt data compiled brokers ref name ste files individuals generally sold lists examples cited testimony us


congress include lists rape victims seniors dementia financially vulnerable people people hiv police officers home address ref name worldprivacyforumorg ref name commercesenategov alcoholics sufferers erectile dysfunction ref name clearcode calls regulation us university california study requesting analyzing information sharing practices companies found many operating opt model described inconsistent consumer expectations recommended california state legislature require companies disclose information sharing policies using clear unambiguous language consider creating centralized user friendly method consumers opt


information sharing proposed us data accountability trust act introduced contained number requirements auditing verification accuracy data held information brokers additional measures case security breach bill also gave identified individuals means opportunity review correct data held related passed united states house representatives th united states congress failed pass united states senate revived th united states congress hr died


referred committee bill first introduced rep bobby rush il apr hr us federal trade commission recommended united states congress develop legislation enabling consumers see information data brokers hold recommendation renewed subsequent reports us government accountability office also called congress consider legislation ref name government united states ref name ftc ref october california governor gavin newsom signed action statute ab bill would require data brokers register


provide certain information attorney general bill would define data broker business knowingly collects sells third parties personal information consumer business direct relationship subject specified exceptions law created safeguard cloak invisibility unregistered unregulated untracked information broker previous data brokers roamed meant regulate purchasing data commercial third party buyers tracks data brokers information trades law meant protect privacy consumers


law also defines profession data broker legislatively put registration perimeters around profession purchases critical consumer data criticisms consumer rights breaches united states senate committee published ''a review data broker industry collection use sale consumer data marketing purposes'' ref name commercesenategov states today wide range companies known 'data brokers' collect maintain data hundreds millions consumers analyze package sell generally without consumer permission input main findings data brokers


collect huge volume detailed information hundreds millions consumers data brokers sell products identify financially vulnerable consumers data broker products provide information consumer offline behavior tailor online outreach marketers data brokers operate behind veil secrecy information produced data brokers criticized enabling discrimination pricing services opportunities example may white house report found web searches included black seeming first names jermaine likely result ads displayed include word arrest compared web searches


files world 's population ref name commercesenategov pieces information per consumer quoted senategov ref name commercesenategov cambridge analytica claimed psychological profiles million united states citizens based separate data sets ref name inkjun ref another source reporting million scandal emerged found facebook users consented sharing data data scraped million profiles social media platform seen breach trust facebook professional associations association independent information professionals aiip


professional association based baton rouge louisiana members countries worldwide representing primary secondary researchers ref name specialists fiction fiction information brokers usually find data story 's main character fictional information brokers varying importance varying methods example hacker information broker though may simply transferring whatever information find main character brokers may memorized data tell main character covertly also fee always involved information broker may alliance main


character one well examples information brokers contemporary fiction would edward g robinson 's character sol film ''soylent green'' shadow broker video game series ''mass effect'' nicholas wayne rachel elean duga gustav st germain carol president daily days newspaper company ''baccano '' izaya orihara light novel series ''durarara '' characters neil stephenson 's novel snow crash find work selling data stringers central intelligence corporation information broker characters play prominent role stories published dc comics


character trope best exemplified superhero oracle trope later used characters calculator proxy chloe sullivan felicity smoak well see also background check competitive intelligence information consultant information professional information warfare list broker microtargeting narrowcasting peekyou us people search website privacy laws united states psychological warfare price discrimination spokeo us people search references reading external links aiip members owners diverse information centric businesses located around world business occupations business intelligence research data brokers


'''applied arts''' arts apply design decoration everyday essentially practical objects order make aesthetically pleasing term used distinction fine arts produce objects practical use whose purpose beautiful stimulate intellect way practice two often overlap applied arts largely overlaps decorative arts modern making applied art usually called design example applied arts industrial design mass produced objects sculpture also counted


fine art architecture also counted fine art crafts also counted fine art ceramic art automotive design fashion design calligraphy interior design graphic design cartographic map design movements art movements mostly operated applied arts include following addition major artistic styles neoclassicism gothic others cover fine applied decorative arts art nouveau art deco arts crafts movement bauhaus productivism museums applied arts bauhaus archive die neue sammlung germany leipzig museum applied arts germany martin gropius bau museum applied arts belgrade serbia


museum applied arts budapest hungary museum f r angewandte kunst frankfurt germany museum f r angewandte kunst cologne germany museum f r angewandte kunst wien austria museum contemporary design applied arts mudac lausanne switzerland powerhouse museum sydney stieglitz museum applied arts saint petersburg russia prague museum decorative arts czech republic museum arts crafts zagreb victoria albert museum london see also art art 's sake design museum fine art sculpture painting references reading dormer peter ed ''the culture craft'' manchester university press https booksgooglecouk booksid wszasv krmc pg pt lpg pt google books design decorative arts crafts


wireless icon '''wireless network''' computer network uses wireless data connections network nodes wireless networking method homes telecommunications networks business installations avoid costly process introducing cables building connection various equipment locations admin telecommunications networks generally implemented administered using radio communication implementation takes place physical level layer osi model network structure examples wireless networks include cell phone networks wireless local area networks wlans wireless sensor networks satellite communication networks terrestrial microwave networks ref name zander ref

Formal science
Computer science
Computer communications (networks)
Wireless computing


history wireless networks first professional wireless network developed brand alohanet university hawaii became operational june first commercial wireless network wavelan product family developed ncr ethernet g cell phone network june wi fi protocol first release voip integration underlying technology advances mosfet mos transistor wireless technology enabled development digital wireless networks wide adoption rf cmos radio frequency cmos power mosfet ldmos lateral


earth based transmitters receivers resembling satellite dishes terrestrial microwaves low gigahertz range limits communications line sight relay stations spaced approximately apart ''communications satellites'' satellites communicate via microwave radio waves deflected earth 's atmosphere satellites stationed space typically geosynchronous orbit equator earth orbiting systems capable receiving relaying voice data tv signals ''cellular pcs systems'' use several radio communications technologies systems divide region covered multiple geographic areas area low power transmitter radio


relay antenna device relay calls one area next area ''radio spread spectrum technologies'' wireless local area networks use high frequency radio technology similar digital cellular low frequency radio technology wireless lans use spread spectrum technology enable communication multiple devices limited area ieee defines common flavor open standards wireless radio wave technology known wi fi ''free space optical communication'' uses visible invisible light communications cases line sight propagation used limits physical positioning communicating devices types wireless networks wireless pan


internet wireless local area network wlan links two devices short distance using wireless distribution method usually providing connection access point internet access use spread spectrum ofdm technologies may allow users move around within local coverage area still remain connected network products using ieee wlan standards marketed wi fi brand name fixed wireless technology implements point point links computers networks two distant locations often using dedicated microwave modulated laser light beams line sight paths


self heal automatically routing around node lost power various network layer protocols needed realize ad hoc mobile networks distance sequenced distance vector routing associativity based routing ad hoc demand distance vector routing dynamic source routing wireless man wireless metropolitan area networks type wireless network connects several wireless lans wimax type wireless man described ieee standard wireless wan wireless wide area networks wireless networks typically cover large areas neighbouring towns cities


city suburb networks used connect branch offices business public internet access system wireless connections access points usually point point microwave links using parabolic dishes nbsp ghz nbsp ghz band rather omnidirectional antennas used smaller networks typical system contains base station gateways access points wireless bridging relays configurations mesh systems access point acts relay also combined renewable energy systems photovoltaic solar panels wind systems stand alone systems cellular network


example frequency reuse factor pattern '''cellular network''' '''mobile network''' radio network distributed land areas called cells served least one fixed location transceiver known cell site base station cellular network cell characteristically uses different set radio frequencies immediate neighbouring cells avoid interference joined cells provide radio coverage wide geographic area enables large number portable transceivers eg mobile phones pagers etc communicate fixed transceivers telephones


anywhere network via base stations even transceivers moving one cell transmission although originally intended cell phones development smartphones cellular telephone networks routinely carry data addition telephone conversations global system mobile communications gsm gsm network divided three major systems switching system base station system operation support system cell phone connects base system station connects operation support station connects switching station call


transferred needs go gsm common standard used majority cell phones personal communications service pcs pcs radio band used mobile phones north america south asia sprint happened first service set pcs amps digital advanced mobile phone service upgraded version amps phased due advancement technology newer gsm networks replacing older system global area network global area network gan network used


supporting mobile across arbitrary number wireless lans satellite coverage areas etc key challenge mobile communications handing user communications one local coverage area next ieee project involves succession terrestrial wireless lans space network space networks networks used communication spacecraft usually vicinity earth example nasa 's space network uses examples usage include cellular phones part everyday wireless networks allowing easy personal communications another example intercontinental network systems use


link layers osi model standards differ specified signaling methods geographic ranges frequency usages among things differences make certain technologies better suited home networks others better suited network larger organizations ref name dean blockquote performance standard varies geographical range thus making one standard ideal next depending one trying accomplish wireless network ref name dean performance wireless networks satisfies variety applications voice video use technology also gives room


wireless networks offer many advantages comes difficult wire areas trying communicate across street river warehouse side premises buildings physically separated operate one ref name daddy wireless networks allow users designate certain space network able communicate devices network space also created homes result eliminating clutters wiring ref name center ref technology allows alternative installing physical network mediums tps coaxes fiber optics


also expensive home homeowners wireless technology effective option compared ethernet sharing printers scanners high speed internet connections wlans help save cost installation cable mediums save time physical installation also creates mobility devices connected network ref name center wireless networks simple require one single wireless access point connected directly internet via router ref name dean wireless network elements telecommunications network physical layer also consists many interconnected wireline network elements nes nes


stand alone systems products either supplied single manufacturer assembled service provider user system integrator parts several different manufacturers wireless nes products devices used wireless carrier provide support backhaul network well mobile switching center msc reliable wireless service depends network elements physical layer protected operational environments applications see gr ''generic requirements network elements used wireless networks physical layer criteria'' ref name wireless ref especially important


nes located cell tower base station bs cabinet attachment hardware positioning antenna associated closures cables required adequate strength robustness corrosion resistance resistance wind storms icing weather conditions requirements individual components hardware cables connectors closures shall take consideration structure attached difficulties interference compared wired systems wireless networks frequently subject electromagnetic interference caused networks types equipment


generate radio waves within close radio bands used communication interference degrade signal cause system fail ref name zander absorption reflection materials cause absorption electromagnetic waves preventing reaching receiver cases particularly metallic conductive materials reflection occurs cause dead zones reception available aluminium foiled thermal isolation modern homes easily reduce indoor mobile signals nbsp db frequently leading complaints bad reception long distance rural cell signals multipath fading


multipath fading two different routes taken signal due reflections cause signal cancel certain locations stronger places upfade hidden node problem hidden node problem station communicate station b station c also communicate station b however stations c cannot communicate signals interfere b hidden node problem occurs types network node visible wireless access point ap


capacity shared users thus individual user rate far lower increasing demand capacity crunch likely happen user loop uil may alternative solution ever upgrading newer technologies provisioning capacity channel understanding siso simo miso mimo using multiple antennas transmitting different frequency channels reduce fading greatly increase system capacity shannon 's theorem describe maximum data rate single wireless link relates bandwidth hertz noise


channel one greatly increase channel capacity using mimo techniques multiple aerials multiple frequencies exploit multiple paths receiver achieve much higher throughput factor product frequency aerial diversity end linux central regulatory domain agent crda controls setting channels network total network bandwidth depends dispersive medium dispersive medium generally better total bandwidth minimises interference many frequencies available noisy frequencies many aerials


used whether directional antenna use whether nodes employ power control cellular wireless networks generally good capacity due use directional aerials ability reuse radio channels non adjacent cells additionally cells made small using low power transmitters used cities give network capacity scales linearly population density ref name zander safety wireless access points also often close humans drop power distance fast following inverse square law ref name foster ref position


united kingdom 's health protection agency hpa radio frequency rf exposures wifi likely lower mobile phones also saw reason schools others use wifi equipment ref name hpawifi ref october hpa launched new systematic study effects wifi networks behalf uk government order calm fears appeared media recent period time ref name hpawifistudy ref dr michael clark hpa says published research mobile phones masts add


indictment wifi see also rendezvous delay wireless access point wireless community network wireless lan client comparison wireless site survey network simulation optical mesh network wireless mesh network wireless mobility management references reading external links de kabellose bertragungsverfahren


von wright 's first system obligatoriness permissibility treated features ''acts'' soon found deontic logic ''propositions'' could given simple elegant kripke style semantics von wright joined movement deontic logic specified came known standard deontic logic often referred '''sdl''' '''kd''' simply '''d''' axiomatized adding following axioms standard axiomatization classical propositional logic math rightarrow b rightarrow oa rightarrow ob math math pa lnot lnot math english axioms say

Humanities
Philosophy
Logic
Deontic Logic


respectively ought implies b ought ought b permissible case ought ''fa'' meaning forbidden ''a'' defined equivalently math lnot math math lnot pa math two main extensions '''sdl''' usually considered first results adding alethic modal operator math box math order express kantian claim ought implies math oa diamond math


math diamond equiv lnot box lnot math generally assumed math box math least '''kt''' operator commonly taken '''s ''' operator main extension results adding conditional obligation operator b read obligatory given conditional b motivation conditional operator given considering following good samaritan case seems true starving poor ought fed starving poor fed implies starving poor basic principles '''sdl''' infer ought


starving poor argument due basic k axiom '''sdl''' together following principle valid normal modal logic math vdash b rightarrow vdash oa ob math introduce intensional conditional operator say starving ought fed ''only condition fact starving'' symbols b following argument fails usual eg lewis semantics conditionals b implies b infer ob indeed one might define unary operator terms binary


conditional one b math oa equiv top math math top math stands arbitrary tautology underlying logic case '''sdl''' classical similarly alan r anderson shows define terms alethic operator math box math deontic constant ie ary modal operator standing sanction ie bad thing prohibition etc math oa equiv box lnot math intuitively right side biconditional says 's failing hold necessarily strictly implies sanction dyadic deontic logic important problem deontic logic properly represent conditional obligations


eg ''if smoke ought use ashtray '' clear either following representations adequate math mathrm smoke rightarrow mathrm ashtray math math mathrm smoke rightarrow mathrm ashtray math first representation vacuously true commit forbidden act ought commit act regardless whether second act obligatory permitted forbidden von wright cited aqvist second representation vulnerable gentle murder paradox plausible statements ''if murder ought murder gently''


''you commit murder'' ''to murder gently must murder'' imply less plausible statement ''you ought murder'' others argue ''must'' phrase ''to murder gently must murder'' mistranslation ambiguous english word meaning either ''implies'' ''ought'' interpreting ''must'' ''implies'' allow one conclude ''you ought murder'' repetition given ''you murder'' misinterpreting ''must'' ''ought'' results perverse axiom perverse logic use negations one easily check ambiguous word mistranslated considering


following two english statements equivalent statement ''to murder gently must murder'' equivalent ''if murder gently forbidden murder'' ''if murder gently impossible murder'' deontic logicians responded problem developing dyadic deontic logics contain binary deontic operators math mid b math means ''it obligatory given b'' math p mid b math means ''it permissible given b'' notation modeled used represent conditional probability dyadic deontic


gottfried wilhelm leibniz notes logical relations ''licitum'' permitted ''illicitum'' prohibited ' 'debitum'' obligatory ''indifferens'' facultative equivalent ''possibile'' ''impossibile'' ''necessarium'' ''contingens'' respectively mally 's first deontic logic von wright 's first ''plausible'' deontic logic ernst mally pupil alexius meinong first propose formal system deontic logic ''grundgesetze des sollens'' founded syntax whitehead 's russell 's propositional calculus mally 's deontic vocabulary consisted logical constants u unary


deontic logic proposed g h von wright paper ''deontic logic'' philosophical journal ''mind'' von wright also first use term deontic english refer kind logic although mally published german paper ''deontik'' since publication von wright 's seminal paper many philosophers computer scientists investigated developed systems deontic logic nevertheless day deontic logic remains one controversial least agreed upon areas logic g h von wright base deontic


possibility necessity purposes normative reasoning return leibniz although von wright 's system represented significant improvement mally 's raised number problems example ''ross 's paradox'' applies von wright 's deontic logic allowing us infer obligatory letter mailed obligatory either letter mailed letter burned seems imply permissible letter burned ''good samaritan paradox'' also applies system allowing us infer


obligatory nurse man robbed obligatory man robbed another major source puzzlement ''chisholm 's paradox'' formalisation von wright 's system following claims allows jointly satisfiable logically independent ought jones goes assistance neighbors ought jones goes tells coming jones n't go ought tell coming jones n't go j rgensen 's dilemma deontic logic faces j rgensen 's


dilemma problem best seen trilemma following three claims incompatible logical inference requires elements premises conclusions truth values normative statements truth values logical inferences normative statements responses problem involve rejecting one three premises http icrunilu leonvandertorre papers fotfs pdf input output logics reject first premise provide inference mechanism elements without presupposing elements truth values alternatively one deny second premise one way distinguish norm proposition norm according response


proposition norm truth value finally one deny third premise deny logic norms worth investigating see also deontological ethics imperative logic modal logic moral reasoning norm philosophy free choice inference notes bibliography lennart qvist deontic logic gabbay f guenthner ed ''handbook philosophical logic volume ii extensions classical logic'' dordrecht kluwer dov gabbay john horty xavier parent et al eds ''handbook deontic logic normative systems'' london college publications hilpinen risto deontic logic goble lou ed


''the blackwell guide philosophical logic'' oxford blackwell external links modal logic philosophical logic


researcher fires biopsy dart orca dart remove small piece whale 's skin bounce harmlessly animal '''cetology''' greek ''k tos'' whale '' logia'' '''whalelore''' also known '''whaleology''' branch marine mammal science studies approximately eighty species whales dolphins porpoises scientific order cetacea cetologists practice cetology seek understand explain cetacean evolution distribution morphology behavior community dynamics topics history bottlenose dolphin observations cetacea recorded since least classical

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Cetology


times ancient greek fishermen created artificial notch dorsal fin dolphins entangled nets could tell apart years later approximately years ago aristotle carefully took notes cetaceans traveling boats fishermen aegean sea book ''historia animalium'' ''history animals'' aristotle careful enough distinguish baleen whales toothed whales taxonomical separation still used today also described sperm whale common dolphin stating live least twenty five thirty years achievement remarkable


wild dogs would terrestrial animals text even illustrated hunting technique ''orcs'' called orcas ''speculum regale'' describes cetaceans including sperm whale narwhal many times seen terrible monsters killers men destroyers ships even bore odd names pig whale horse whale red whale creatures described said fierce seen good whales drove shoals herring towards shore seen helpful fisherman


many early studies based dead specimens myth little information gathered usually length rough outer body anatomy animals live water entire lives early scientists technology go study animals th century things would begin change cetaceans would proved mammals rather fish aristotle argued mammals pliny elder stated fish followed many naturalists however pierre belon g


rondelet persisted convincing mammals argued animals lungs uterus like mammals swedish botanist carl linnaeus published tenth edition ''systema naturae'' seen mammals decades later french zoologist paleontologist baron georges cuvier described animals mammals without hind legs skeletons assembled displayed first natural history museums closer look comparisons extinct animal fossils led zoologists conclude cetaceans came family ancient land mammals


th th centuries much information cetaceans came whalers whalers knowledgeable animals information regarding migration routes outer anatomy little information behavior people began studying animals intensively often dedicated research institutes tethys institute milan founded compiled extensive cetology database mediterranean came concern wild populations also capture larger animals orca gaining popularity dolphin shows marine parks studying cetaceans


cetology consists waiting paying close attention cetologists use equipment including hydrophones listen calls communicating animals binoculars optical devices scanning horizon cameras notes devices tools alternative method studying cetaceans examination dead carcasses wash shore properly collected stored carcasses provide important information difficult obtain field studies identifying individuals recent decades methods identifying individual cetaceans enabled accurate population counts insights life cycles social structures


various species one successful system photo identification system popularized michael bigg pioneer modern orca killer whale research mid bigg graeme ellis photographed local orcas british columbian seas examining photos realized could recognize certain individual whales looking shape condition dorsal fin also shape saddle patch unique human fingerprint one animal 's looks exactly like another 's could recognize certain individuals found animals travel stable


groups called pods researchers use photo identification identify specific individuals pods photographic system also worked well humpback whale studies researchers use color pectoral fins color scarring fluke identify individuals scars orca attacks found flukes humpbacks also used identification related journals http onlinelibrarywileycom journal issn mammal review http wwwworldcatorg title cetology oclc cetology see also cetologists cetology moby dick notes references ''whales giants sea'' ''transients mammal hunting killer whales'' john kb ford graeme ellis external links https wwwpbsorg odyssey odyssey log transcripthtml dolphins greek mythology https webarchiveorg web http wwwwhaletrackerscom whale


trackers documentary series whales dolphins porpoises cetacean research conservation mammalogy marine biology


predominately focused production metals metal production begins processing ores extract metal includes mixture metals make alloys metal alloys often blend least two different metallic elements however non metallic elements often added alloys order achieve properties suitable application study metal production subdivided ferrous metallurgy also known ''black metallurgy'' non ferrous metallurgy also known ''colored metallurgy'' ferrous metallurgy involves processes alloys based iron non ferrous metallurgy involves processes alloys based

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Metallurgical Engineering


metals production ferrous metals accounts world metal production modern metallurgists work emerging traditional areas part interdisciplinary team alongside material scientists engineers traditional areas include mineral processing metal production heat treatment failure analysis joining metals including welding brazing soldering emerging areas metallurgists include nanotechnology superconductors composites biomedical materials electronic materials semiconductors surface engineering many applications practices devices associated involved metallurgy established ancient china innovation blast furnace cast iron hydraulic powered


trip hammers double acting piston bellows ref name temple r robert kg temple ''the genius china years science discovery invention'' rd edition london andr deutsch pp ref etymology pronunciation ''metallurgy'' derives ancient greek worker metal mine metal work word originally alchemist 's term extraction metals minerals ending '' urgy'' signifying process especially manufacturing discussed sense ''encyclop dia britannica'' late th century extended general scientific study


metals alloys related processes english pronunciation common one uk commonwealth pronunciation common one us first listed variant various american dictionaries eg ''merriam webster collegiate'' ''american heritage'' history metallurgy gold ore boundary red mountain mine washington us artefacts varna necropolis bulgaria gold artefacts varna necropolis varna culture elite burial varna necropolis original find photo detail gold bulls varna culture earliest recorded metal employed humans appears gold


found free native small amounts natural gold found spanish caves dating late paleolithic period bc silver copper tin meteoric iron also found native form allowing limited amount metalworking early cultures ref name ephotos ref certain metals notably tin lead higher temperature copper recovered ores simply heating rocks fire blast furnace process known smelting first evidence extractive metallurgy dating th th millennia nbsp bc found archaeological sites


majdanpek jarmovac near priboj plo nik present day serbia date earliest evidence copper smelting found belovode site near plocnik site produced copper axe bc belonging vin culture earliest use lead documented late neolithic settlement yarim tepe iraq blockquote ''' earliest lead pb finds ancient near east th millennium bc bangle yarim tepe northern iraq slightly later conical lead piece halaf period arpachiyah near mosul native lead extremely rare artifacts


raise possibility lead smelting may begun even copper smelting ''' blockquote copper smelting also documented site time period soon bc although use lead seems precede copper smelting early metallurgy also documented nearby site tell maghzaliyah seems dated even earlier completely lacks pottery balkans site major neolithic cultures including butmir vin varna karanovo hamangia varna necropolis bulgaria burial site western industrial zone varna approximately nbsp km


city centre internationally considered one key archaeological sites world prehistory oldest gold treasure world dating bc bc discovered site gold piece dating bc recently founded durankulak near varna another important example signs early metals found third millennium nbsp bc places like palmela portugal los millares spain stonehenge united kingdom however ultimate beginnings cannot clearly ascertained new discoveries continuous ongoing mining areas ancient middle east boxes colors arsenic


brown copper red tin grey iron reddish brown gold yellow silver white lead black yellow area stands arsenic bronze grey area stands tin bronze near east bc discovered combining copper tin superior metal could made alloy called bronze represented major technological shift known bronze age extraction iron ore workable metal much difficult copper tin process appears invented


hittites nbsp bc beginning iron age secret extracting working iron key factor success philistines ref name keller w keller ''the bible history'' p ref historical developments ferrous metallurgy found wide variety past cultures civilizations includes ancient medieval kingdoms empires middle east near east ancient iran ancient egypt ancient nubia anatolia turkey ancient nok carthage greeks romans ancient europe medieval europe ancient medieval china ancient medieval india ancient


medieval japan amongst others many applications practices devices associated involved metallurgy established ancient china innovation blast furnace cast iron hydraulic powered trip hammers double acting piston bellows ref name temple r robert kg temple ''the genius china years science discovery invention'' rd edition london andr deutsch pp ref th century book georg agricola called ''de metallica'' describes highly developed complex processes mining metal ores metal extraction metallurgy time agricola described father metallurgy extraction


furnace bellows operated waterwheels yuan dynasty china aluminium plant iar nad hronom central slovakia extractive metallurgy practice removing valuable metals ore refining extracted raw metals purer form order convert metal oxide sulphide purer metal ore must reduced physically chemically electrolytically extractive metallurgists interested three primary streams feed concentrate metal oxide sulphide tailings waste mining large pieces ore feed broken crushing grinding order obtain particles small enough particle


either mostly valuable mostly waste concentrating particles value form supporting separation enables desired metal removed waste products mining may necessary ore body physical environment conducive leaching leaching dissolves minerals ore body results enriched solution solution collected processed extract valuable metals ore bodies often contain one valuable metal tailings previous process may used feed another process extract secondary product original ore additionally concentrate


may contain one valuable metal concentrate would processed separate valuable metals individual constituents metal alloys casting bronze common engineering metals include aluminium chromium copper iron magnesium nickel titanium zinc silicon metals often used alloys noted exception silicon much effort placed understanding iron carbon alloy system includes steels cast irons plain carbon steels contain essentially carbon alloying element used low cost high strength applications neither weight corrosion


major concern cast irons including ductile iron also part iron carbon system iron manganese chromium alloys hadfield type steels also used non magnetic applications directional drilling stainless steel particularly austenitic stainless steels galvanized steel nickel alloys titanium alloys occasionally copper alloys used resistance corrosion important aluminium alloys magnesium alloys commonly used lightweight strong part required automotive aerospace applications copper nickel alloys monel used highly corrosive environments non magnetic applications nickel based superalloys like inconel used high temperature applications


gas turbines turbochargers pressure vessels heat exchangers extremely high temperatures single crystal alloys used minimize creep modern electronics high purity single crystal silicon essential metal oxide silicon transistors mos integrated circuits production production engineering metallurgy concerned production metallic components use consumer engineering products involves production alloys shaping heat treatment surface treatment product determining hardness metal using rockwell vickers brinell hardness scales commonly used practice helps better understand metal 's elasticity plasticity


different applications production processes task metallurgist achieve balance material properties cost weight strength toughness hardness corrosion fatigue resistance performance temperature extremes achieve goal operating environment must carefully considered saltwater environment ferrous metals non ferrous alloys corrode quickly metals exposed cold cryogenic conditions may undergo ductile brittle transition lose toughness becoming brittle prone cracking metals continual cyclic loading suffer metal fatigue metals constant stress elevated temperatures creep


metalworking processes metals shaped processes casting molten metal poured shaped mold forging red hot billet hammered shape rolling billet passed successively narrower rollers create sheet extrusion hot malleable metal forced pressure die shapes cools machining lathes milling machines drills cut cold metal shape sintering powdered metal heated non oxidizing environment compressed die fabrication sheets metal


cut guillotines gas cutters bent welded structural shape laser cladding metallic powder blown movable laser beam eg mounted nc axis machine resulting melted metal reaches substrate form melt pool moving laser head possible stack tracks build three dimensional piece printing sintering melting amorphous powder metal space make object shape cold working processes product 's shape altered rolling fabrication processes product


cold increase strength product process called work hardening work hardening creates microscopic defects metal resist changes shape various forms casting exist industry academia include sand casting investment casting also called lost wax process die casting continuous castings forms advantages certain metals applications considering factors like magnetism corrosion heat treatment metals heat treated alter properties strength ductility toughness hardness resistance corrosion common heat treatment processes include annealing precipitation strengthening quenching


tempering '''annealing''' process softens metal heating allowing cool slowly gets rid stresses metal makes grain structure large soft edged metal hit stressed dents perhaps bends rather breaking also easier sand grind cut annealed metal '''quenching''' process cooling metal quickly heating thus freezing metal 's molecules hard martensite form makes metal harder '''tempering''' relieves stresses metal caused hardening


process tempering makes metal less hard making better able sustain impacts without breaking often mechanical thermal treatments combined known thermo mechanical treatments better properties efficient processing materials processes common high alloy special steels superalloys titanium alloys plating electroplating chemical surface treatment technique involves bonding thin layer another metal gold silver chromium zinc surface product done selecting coating material electrolyte solution material going coat


thermal spraying techniques another popular finishing option often better high temperature properties electroplated coatings thermal spraying also known spray welding process industrial coating process consists heat source flame coating material powder wire form melted sprayed surface material treated high velocity spray treating process known many different names hvof high velocity oxygen fuel plasma spray flame spray arc spray metalizing metallography allows metallurgist


study microstructure metals characterization metallurgists study microscopic macroscopic structure metals using metallography technique invented henry clifton sorby metallography alloy interest ground flat polished mirror finish sample etched reveal microstructure macrostructure metal sample examined optical electron microscope image contrast provides details composition mechanical properties processing history crystallography often using diffraction x rays electrons another valuable tool available modern metallurgist crystallography allows identification


influences theories frameworks analyses developed social sciences sociology political science economics law disciplines used better understand education systems function impacts policies might changed different conditions education policy sometimes considered sub field social policy public policy nevertheless connected aspects policy disciplines education takes place many forms many purposes many institutions examples educational institutions may include early childhood education centers kindergartens th grade two four year

Applied science
Public administration
Education policy


colleges universities graduate professional education institutes adult education establishments job training schemes accordingly education policy affect education people engage ages examples areas subject debate education policy specifically field schools include school size class size school choice school privatization tracking teacher selection education certification teacher pay teaching methods curricular content graduation requirements school infrastructure investment values schools expected uphold model issues education policy also address problems within higher education pell institute analyzes barriers experienced teachers


students within community colleges universities issues involve undocumented students sex education federal grant aides analysts see education policy terms social engineering important researchers affiliated departments psychology economics sociology human development addition schools departments education public policy examples education policy analysis may found academic journals ''education policy analysis archives'' university policy centers national education policy center housed university colorado boulder university colorado boulder education reform united states education reform


topic mainstream currently united states past years policy makers made steady increase state federal levels government involvement us schools us states spend budgets funding schools whereas small portion federal budget allocated education although states hold constitutional right education policy federal government advancing role building state local education policies education reform currently seen tangled web due