idea beliefs interpreted subjective probabilities subject laws probability theory act norms rationality norms divided static constraints governing rationality beliefs moment dynamic constraints governing rational agents change beliefs upon receiving new evidence characteristic bayesian expression principles found form dutch books illustrate irrationality agents series bets lead loss agent matter probabilistic events occurs


bayesians applied fundamental principles various epistemological topics bayesianism cover topics traditional epistemology ref name talbott ref indian pramana indian schools philosophy hindu nyaya carvaka schools jain buddhist philosophical schools developed epistemological tradition independently western philosophical tradition called pramana pramana translated instrument knowledge refers various means sources knowledge indian philosophers held reliable school indian philosophy theories pramanas valid means knowledge unreliable


vedic text taittir ya ra yaka c th th centuries bce lists four means attaining correct knowledge ' 'sm ti'' tradition scripture ''pratyak a'' perception ''aitihya'' communication one expert tradition ''anum na'' reasoning inference indian traditions widely discussed pramanas ''pratyak a'' perception ''anum a'' inference ''upam a'' comparison analogy ''arth patti'' postulation derivation circumstances ''anupalabdi'' non perception negative cognitive proof '' abda'' word testimony past present reliable experts nyaya school beginning ny ya tras gotama th century bce nd century ce proponent realism supported four pramanas


perception inference comparison analogy testimony buddhist epistemologists dignaga dharmakirti generally accepted perception inference carvaka school materialists accepted pramana perception hence among first empiricists indian traditions another school aj ana included notable proponents philosophical skepticism theory knowledge buddha early buddhist texts interpreted form pragmatism well form correspondence theory likewise buddhist philosopher dharmakirti interpreted holding form pragmatism correspondence theory view


true effective power ''arthakriya'' buddhist madhyamika school 's theory emptiness shunyata meanwhile interpreted form philosophical skepticism main contribution epistemology jains theory many sided ness multi perspectivism anekantavada says since world multifaceted single viewpoint limited ''naya'' partial standpoint interpreted kind pluralism perspectivism according jain epistemology none pramanas gives absolute perfect knowledge since limited points view domains inquiry epistemology


social epistemology social epistemology deals questions knowledge contexts knowledge attributions cannot explained simply examining individuals isolation one another meaning scope knowledge attributions must widened include broader social contexts ref name sep social ref also explores ways interpersonal beliefs justified social contexts ref name sep social common topics discussed contemporary social epistemology testimony deals conditions belief x true resulted told x true constitutes knowledge peer disagreement deals


revise beliefs light people holding beliefs contradict mine group epistemology deals means attribute knowledge groups rather individuals group knowledge attributions appropriate formal epistemology formal epistemology uses formal tools methods decision theory logic probability theory computability theory model reason issues epistemological interest ref name sep formal ref work area spans several academic fields including philosophy computer science economics statistics focus formal epistemology tended differ somewhat traditional


epistemology topics like uncertainty induction belief revision garnering attention analysis knowledge skepticism issues justification metaepistemology metaepistemology metaphilosophical study methods aims subject matter epistemology general metaepistemology aims better understand first order epistemological inquiry goals metaepistemology identifying inaccurate assumptions made epistemological debates determining whether questions asked mainline epistemology ''right'' epistemological questions asking see also anekantavada epistemological pluralism evolutionary epistemology feminist epistemology knowledge first epistemology moral epistemology logy reformed epistemology self evidence sociology knowledge virtue epistemology theory


knowledge ib course references notes citations sources works cited ayer alfred jules ''language truth logic'' bonjour laurence ''epistemology classic problems contemporary responses'' lanham md rowman littlefield bovens luc hartmann stephan ''bayesian epistemology'' oxford oxford university press butchvarov panayot ''the concept knowledge'' evanston northwestern university press cohen stewart contextualism skepticism reasons tomberlin dancy jonathan ''an introduction contemporary epistemology'' second edition john wiley sons derose keith https fitelsonorg epistemology derosepdf contextualism explanation defense greco sosa


descartes rene ''meditations first philosophy'' feldman richard contextualism skepticism tomberlin pp nbsp gettier edmund justified true belief knowledge ''analysis'' vol pp nbsp http wwwditextcom gettier gettierhtml online text greco j sosa e ''blackwell guide epistemology'' blackwell publishing harris errol e ''hypothesis perception'' george allen unwin london reprinted routledge london hay clare ''the theory knowledge coursebook'' lutterworth press cambridge hawthorne john case closure ''contemporary debates epistemology'' peter sosa matthias steup ed hendricks vincent f ''mainstream formal epistemology'' new


york cambridge university press kant immanuel ''critique pure reason'' keeton morris empiricism ''dictionary philosophy'' dagobert runes ed littlefield adams company totowa nj pp nbsp kirkham richard gettier problem rest mistake ''mind'' klein peter ''certainty refutation skepticism'' minneapolis mn university minnesota press kyburg ''probability logic rational belief'' middletown ct wesleyan university press korzybski alfred ''science sanity introduction non aristotelian systems general semantics'' fifth edition ft worth tx institute general semantics morin edgar


''la thode tome la connaissance de la connaissance'' method rd volume knowledge knowledge morton adam ''a guide theory knowledge'' third edition oxford blackwell publishing nelson quee ''the slightest philosophy'' indianapolis dog ear publishing pages niiniluoto ilkka ''critical scientific realism'' oxford oxford univ press plato ''meno'' popper karl r '' https wwwresearchgatenet filepostfileloaderhtmlid ae f ed e ec dd b assetkey objective knowledge evolutionary approach '' oxford oxford univ press preyer g siebelt f ulfig '' https booksgooglecom booksid kn oqnd oc printsec frontcover v onepage q f false language mind epistemology '' dordrecht kluwer academic publishers russell bertrand ''the problems philosophy'' new york oxford university press russell bertrand


''an inquiry meaning truth'' nottingham spokesman books santayana george ''scepticism animal faith'' new york charles scribner 's sons london constable co spir african ''denken und wirklichkeit versuch einer erneuerung der kritischen philosophie'' thought reality attempt renewal critical philosophy second edition leipzig jg findel steup matthias knowledge skepticism ''contemporary debates epistemology'' peter sosa matthias steup eds tomberlin james ed ''philosophical perspectives epistemology'' blackwell publishing wittgenstein ludwig ''tractatus logico philosophicus'' frank p ramsey ck ogden trns dover http wwwkfsorg jonathan witt tlphhtml online text external links ''stanford encyclopedia


philosophy'' articles ''internet encyclopedia philosophy'' articles ''encyclopedia britannica'' https wwwbritannicacom topic epistemology epistemology avrum stroll ap martinich links http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg london philosophy study guide offers many suggestions read depending student 's familiarity subject http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg ep methhtm epistemology methodology http philpapersorg browse knowledge knowledge philpapers http pantheonyaleedu kd epistemologyhtm epistemology brief introduction topic keith derose http dostoevskiansmilesblogspotcom justified true belief criticalhtml justified true belief critical rationalism mathew toll https webarchiveorg web http wwwgalilean libraryorg int html epistemology introduction part https webarchiveorg web http wwwgalilean libraryorg int html part paul newall galilean library http wwwditextcom clay knowhtml ''teaching theory knowledge'' marjorie clay ed


electronic publication council philosophical studies https webarchiveorg web http wwwgalilean libraryorg manuscriptphppostid introduction epistemology paul newall aimed beginners


'''education''' process facilitating learning acquisition knowledge skills values morals beliefs habits personal development educational methods include teaching training storytelling discussion directed research education frequently takes place guidance educators however learners also educate education take place formal informal settings experience formative effect way one thinks feels acts may considered educational methodology teaching called pedagogy formal education commonly divided formally stages preschool kindergarten primary school secondary school


rearing '' duc '' educate train related homonym '' c '' lead forth take raise erect '' '' ' 'd c '' lead conduct history historical madrasah baku azerbaijan nalanda ancient centre higher learning plato 's academy mosaic pompeii education began prehistory adults trained young knowledge skills deemed necessary society pre literate societies achieved orally imitation story telling passed knowledge values skills one generation next cultures began extend


knowledge beyond skills could readily learned imitation formal education developed schools existed egypt time middle kingdom matteo ricci left xu guangqi right chinese edition ''euclid 's elements'' published plato founded academy athens first institution higher learning europe city alexandria egypt established bce became successor athens intellectual cradle ancient greece great library alexandria built rd century bce european civilizations suffered collapse literacy organization following


aztecs also well developed theory education equivalent word nahuatl called ''tlacahuapahualiztli'' means art raising educating person art strengthening bringing men broad conceptualization education prescribed begins home supported formal schooling reinforced community living historians cite formal education mandatory everyone regardless social class gender also word ''neixtlamachiliztli'' act giving wisdom face concepts underscore complex set educational practices


well integrated across western europe encouraged freedom inquiry produced great variety fine scholars natural philosophers including thomas aquinas university naples robert grosseteste university oxford early expositor systematic method scientific experimentation saint albert great pioneer biological field research founded university bologne considered first oldest continually operating university elsewhere middle ages islamic science mathematics flourished islamic caliphate established across middle east extending iberian peninsula


west indus east almoravid dynasty mali empire south renaissance europe ushered new age scientific intellectual inquiry appreciation ancient greek roman civilizations around johannes gutenberg developed printing press allowed works literature spread quickly european age empires saw european ideas education philosophy religion arts sciences spread across globe missionaries scholars also brought back new ideas civilizations nbsp jesuit china missions played


standard classification education isced created unesco statistical base compare education systems ref name isced ref defined levels education fields though fields later separated form different project current version isced rather levels created dividing tertiary pre doctorate level three levels also extended lowest level isced cover new sub category early childhood educational development programmes target children age years early childhood young children kindergarten japan education


designed support early development preparation participation school society programmes designed children age isced level ref name isced preschools provide education ages approximately three seven depending country children enter primary education children readily interact peers educator ref name isced also known nursery schools kindergarten except us term ''kindergarten'' refers earliest levels primary education kindergarten provides child centred preschool curriculum three seven year old children aim


unfolding child 's physical intellectual moral nature balanced emphasis isced level ref name isced primary nepali village school students isced level ref name isced primary elementary education consists first four seven years formal structured education general primary education consists six eight years schooling starting age five seven although varies sometimes within countries globally around children aged six twelve enrolled primary education proportion rising education


programs driven unesco countries committed achieving universal enrollment primary education many countries compulsory division primary secondary education quite arbitrary generally occurs eleven twelve years age education systems separate middle schools transition final stage secondary education taking place around age fifteen schools provide primary education mostly referred ''primary schools ''or ''elementary schools'' primary schools often subdivided infant schools junior schools


india example compulsory education spans twelve years eight years elementary education five years primary schooling three years upper primary schooling various states republic india provide years compulsory school education based national curriculum framework designed national council educational research training secondary covers two isced levels isced lower secondary education isced upper secondary education ref name isced contemporary educational systems world secondary education comprises formal education occurs adolescence united states canada


australia primary secondary education together sometimes referred k education new zealand year used purpose secondary education give common knowledge ensure literacy prepare higher education train directly profession secondary education united states emerge rise large corporations advancing technology factories required skilled workers order meet new job demand high schools created curriculum focused practical job skills would better prepare students


white collar skilled blue collar work proved beneficial employers employees since improved human capital lowered costs employer skilled employees received higher wages secondary education longer history europe grammar schools academies date early th century form public schools fee paying schools charitable educational foundations date even back spans period typically universal compulsory primary education optional selective tertiary postsecondary higher education isced eg university


isced education vocational school ref name isced high school senior twelfth grade classrooms calhan colorado united states depending system schools period part may called secondary high schools gymnasiums lyceums middle schools colleges vocational schools exact meaning terms varies one system another exact boundary primary secondary education also varies country country even within generally around seventh tenth year schooling lower programs isced level lower secondary education


usually organized around subject oriented curriculum differing primary education teachers typically pedagogical training specific subjects often isced level class students several teachers specialized knowledge subjects teach programmes isced level aim lay foundation lifelong learning human development upon introducing theoretical concepts across broad range subjects developed future stages education systems may offer vocational education programs isced level providing skills relevant employment ref name isced upper programs


isced level upper secondary education typically designed complete secondary education process lead skills relevant employment skill necessary engage tertiary courses offer students varied specialized depth instruction differentiated range options learning streams ref name isced community colleges offer another option transitional stage education provide nonresidential junior college courses people living particular area tertiary students laboratory saint petersburg state polytechnical university universities often host prominent guest speakers student audiences eg first lady


united states michelle obama delivering remarks peking university beijing china higher education also called tertiary third stage postsecondary education non compulsory educational level follows completion school high school secondary school tertiary education normally taken include undergraduate postgraduate education well vocational education training colleges universities mainly provide tertiary education collectively sometimes known tertiary institutions individuals complete tertiary education generally receive certificates diplomas academic degrees isced distinguishes levels tertiary education isced equivalent


first degree isced equivalent masters advanced professional qualification isced advanced research qualification usually concluding submission defence substantive dissertation publishable quality based original research ref name isced ref category isced reserved short cycle courses requiring degree level study ref name isced higher education typically involves work towards degree level foundation degree qualification developed countries high proportion population enter higher education time lives higher education therefore important


professional vocational technical curriculum although known today liberal arts education began europe term liberal arts college commonly associated institutions united states williams college barnard college vocational carpentry normally learned apprenticeship experienced carpenter vocational education form education focused direct practical training specific trade craft vocational education may come form apprenticeship internship well institutions teaching courses carpentry agriculture engineering medicine architecture arts


disabilities recently opened anyone experienced difficulty learning ref name credo reference ref unconventional forms alternative considered alternative today alternative systems existed since ancient times public school system widely developed beginning th century parents found reasons discontented new system alternative education developed part reaction perceived limitations failings traditional education broad range educational approaches emerged including alternative schools self learning homeschooling unschooling example alternative schools include montessori schools waldorf schools steiner schools friends


american transcendentalists amos bronson alcott ralph waldo emerson henry david thoreau founders progressive education john dewey francis parker educational pioneers maria montessori rudolf steiner recently john caldwell holt paul goodman frederick mayer george dennison ivan illich indigenous teaching indigenous knowledge models methods yanyuan county sichuan china indigenous education refers inclusion indigenous knowledge models methods content within formal non formal educational systems often post colonial context growing recognition use indigenous education methods response erosion


loss indigenous knowledge language processes colonialism furthermore enable indigenous communities reclaim revalue languages cultures improve educational success indigenous students informal learning '''informal learning''' one three forms learning defined organisation economic co operation development oecd informal learning occurs variety places home work daily interactions shared relationships among members society many learners includes language acquisition cultural norms manners volunteer reads aloud children


laos informal learning often reference person peer expert guide learner learners personal interest informally taught learners tend expand existing knowledge conceive new ideas topic learned ref name rogoff ref example museum traditionally considered informal learning environment room free choice diverse potentially non standardized range topics flexible structures socially rich interaction externally imposed assessments informal learning often takes place outside educational establishments follow specified


curriculum also occur within educational settings even formal learning situations educators structure lessons directly utilize students informal learning skills within education setting ref name rogoff late th century education play began recognized making important contribution child development early th century concept broadened include young adults emphasis physical activities lp jacks also early proponent lifelong learning described education recreation master art living draws sharp distinction work


play labour leisure mind body education recreation hardly knows simply pursues vision excellence whatever leaves others determine whether working playing always seems enough well education recreation opportunity learn seamless fashion life 's activities ref name ullah ref concept revived university western ontario teach anatomy medical students ref


name ullah self directed learning autodidacticism also autodidactism self directed learning one may become autodidact nearly point one 's life notable autodidacts include abraham lincoln us president srinivasa ramanujan mathematician michael faraday chemist physicist charles darwin naturalist thomas alva edison inventor tadao ando architect george bernard shaw playwright frank zappa composer recording engineer film director leonardo da vinci engineer scientist mathematician evidence based evidence based education use well designed scientific studies determine education methods work best consists evidence based teaching evidence based learning evidence based learning methods spaced repetition


increase rate learning evidence based education movement roots larger movement towards evidence based practices open learning electronic technology children computing david shankbone many large university institutions starting offer free almost free full courses open education harvard mit berkeley teaming form edx universities offering open education prestigious private universities stanford princeton duke johns hopkins university pennsylvania caltech well notable public universities including tsinghua peking edinburgh university michigan university virginia open education called


biggest change way people learn since printing press despite favourable studies effectiveness many people may still desire choose traditional campus education social cultural reasons many open universities working ability offer students standardized testing traditional degrees credentials conventional merit system degree currently common open education campus universities although open universities already offer conventional degrees open university united kingdom presently many major open education sources offer form


certificate colleges surveyed nearly half said tuition online courses higher campus based ones meta analysis found online blended educational approaches better outcomes methods used solely face face interaction public schooling beijing normal university governed directly chinese ministry education example collaboration different entities education sector education sector education system group institutions ministries education local educational authorities teacher training institutions schools universities etc whose primary purpose provide education children


environmental social economic concerns facing world today agenda includes sustainable development goals sdgs including sdg education since percentage children developing world attending school increased small minority boys attended school start twenty first century majority children regions world attended form school ref name ref percent children enrolled formal primary schooling ref name however learning crisis emerged across globe due fact large


proportion students enrolled school learning world bank study found percent children low middle income countries cannot read understand simple story end primary school schooling increased rapidly last decades learning followed suit universal primary education one eight international millennium development goals towards progress made past decade though barriers still remain ref name autogenerated liesbet steer geraldine baudienville http wwwodiorguk resources detailsaspid title funding basic education drives donor financing basic education london overseas development institute ref securing charitable funding


parents prefer children earn money short term rather work towards long term benefits education study conducted unesco international institute educational planning indicates stronger capacities educational planning management may important spill effect system whole ref name ref sustainable capacity development requires complex interventions institutional organizational individual levels could based foundational principles ref name national leadership ownership touchstone intervention strategies must context relevant context specific plans employ


integrated set complementary interventions though implementation may need proceed steps partners commit long term investment capacity development working towards short term achievements outside intervention conditional impact assessment national capacities various levels certain percentage students removed improvisation academics usually practiced schools th grade internationalisation nearly every country universal primary education similarities systems even ideas schools share internationally led increase international student exchanges european socrates erasmus programme facilitates exchanges


across european universities soros foundation provides many opportunities students central asia eastern europe programs international baccalaureate contributed internationalization education global campus online led american universities allows free access class materials lecture files recorded actual classes programme international student assessment international association evaluation educational achievement objectively monitor compare proficiency students wide range different nations internationalization education sometimes equated critics westernization education critics say


internationalization education leads erosion local education systems indigenous values norms replaced western systems cultural ideological values orientation technology developing countries olpc laptop introduced children haiti technology plays increasingly significant role improving access education people living impoverished areas developing countries however lack technological advancement still causing barriers regards quality access education developing countries charities like one laptop per child dedicated providing infrastructures disadvantaged may


access educational materials olpc foundation group mit media lab supported several major corporations stated mission develop laptop delivering educational software laptops widely available sold cost given away based donations africa new partnership africa 's development nepad launched e school program provide primary high schools computer equipment learning materials internet access within years international development agency project called nabuurcom started support former american president bill


clinton uses internet allow co operation individuals issues social development india developing technologies bypass land based telephone internet infrastructure deliver distance learning directly students indian space research organisation launched edusat communications satellite providing access educational materials reach country 's population greatly reduced cost funding developing countries survey literature research low cost private schools lcps found year period july debate around lcpss achieving education efa objectives polarized


finding growing coverage international policy ref name eldis ref polarization due disputes around whether schools affordable poor reach disadvantaged groups provide quality education support undermine equality financially sustainable report examined main challenges encountered development organizations support lcpss ref name eldis surveys suggest types schools expanding across africa asia success attributed excess demand surveys found concern equity concern widely found literature suggesting growth low cost private schooling may exacerbating perpetuating already existing inequalities


developing countries urban rural populations lower higher income families girls boys report findings suggest girls may represented lcps reaching low income families smaller numbers higher income families ref name eldis quality educational outcomes difficult generalize quality private schools achieve better results government counterparts even social background taken account studies find opposite quality terms levels teacher absence teaching activity pupil teacher ratios countries better lcpss


government schools ref name eldis choice affordability poor parents choose private schools perceptions better quality teaching facilities english language instruction preference nevertheless concept 'choice' apply contexts groups society partly limited affordability excludes poorest forms exclusion related caste social status ref name eldis cost effectiveness financial sustainability evidence private schools operate low cost keeping teacher salaries low financial situation may precarious reliant


fees low income households ref name eldis report showed cases successful voucher oversupply quality private places efficient administrative authority subsidy programs evaluations effectiveness international support sector rare ref name eldis addressing regulatory ineffectiveness key challenge emerging approaches stress importance understanding political economy market lcps specifically relationships power accountability users government private providers produce better education outcomes poor ref name eldis theory class size experiment united states found attending


part understood relationship disciplines informed primarily psychology bearing relationship discipline analogous relationship medicine biology educational psychology turn informs wide range specialties within educational studies including instructional design educational technology curriculum development organizational learning special education classroom management educational psychology draws contributes cognitive science learning sciences universities departments educational psychology usually housed within faculties education possibly accounting lack representation educational psychology content introductory psychology textbooks lucas blazek


decades commonly employed learning modalities visual learning based observation seeing learned auditory learning based listening instructions information kinesthetic learning based movement eg hands work engaging activities commonly employed modalities include musical interpersonal verbal logical intrapersonal dunn dunn focused identifying relevant stimuli may influence learning manipulating school environment time joseph renzulli recommended varying teaching strategies howard gardner identified wide range modalities multiple intelligences theories myers briggs type indicator keirsey temperament sorter based


works jung focus understanding people 's personality affects way interact personally affects way individuals respond within learning environment work david kolb anthony gregorc 's type delineator follows similar simplified approach theories propose individuals benefit variety learning modalities others suggest individuals may preferred learning styles learning easily visual kinesthetic experiences consequence latter theory effective teaching present variety teaching methods cover


three learning modalities different students equal opportunities learn way effective guy claxton questioned extent learning styles visual auditory kinesthetic vak helpful particularly tendency label children therefore restrict learning ref name titleguy claxton speaking 's point school ref recent research argued adequate evidence base justify incorporating learning styles assessments general educational practice mind brain education educational neuroscience emerging scientific field brings together researchers cognitive neuroscience developmental cognitive


neuroscience educational psychology educational technology education theory related disciplines explore interactions biological processes education ref name ansaricoch ref ref name cochansari ref ref name goswami ref ref name meltzoffscience ref researchers educational neuroscience investigate neural mechanisms reading ref name goswami numerical cognition ref name ansarinrn ref attention attendant difficulties including dyslexia ref name mccandlissnoble ref ref name gabrieliscience ref dyscalculia ref name price ref adhd relate education several academic institutions around world beginning devote resources establishment educational neuroscience research philosophy john locke 's work ''some thoughts concerning education''


written still reflects traditional education priorities western world academic field philosophy education philosophical study education problems central subject matter education methods philosophy ref name noddingspoe ref philosophy education may either philosophy process education philosophy discipline education may part discipline sense concerned aims forms methods results process educating educated may metadisciplinary


relation education theory practice purpose broad consensus education 's chief aim aims different places different times used educational systems different purposes prussian education system th century example wanted turn boys girls adults would serve state 's political goals authors stress value individual emphasizing potential positively influencing students' personal development promoting autonomy forming cultural identity establishing career occupation authors emphasize education 's contributions


societal purposes including good citizenship shaping students productive members society thereby promoting society 's general economic development preserving cultural values purpose education given time place affects taught taught education system behaves example st century many countries treat education positional good ref name ref competitive approach people want students get better education students ref name approach lead unfair treatment students especially disadvantaged marginalized groups ref name


example system city 's school system may draw school district boundaries nearly students one school low income families nearly students neighboring schools come affluent families even though concentrating low income students one school results worse educational achievement entire school system curriculum formal education curriculum set courses content offered school university idea '''curriculum''' stems latin word ''race course'' referring course deeds experiences


children grow become mature adults curriculum prescriptive based general syllabus merely specifies topics must understood level achieve particular grade standard academic discipline branch knowledge formally taught either university via method discipline usually several sub disciplines branches distinguishing lines often arbitrary ambiguous examples broad areas academic disciplines include natural sciences mathematics computer science social sciences humanities applied sciences instruction instruction


facilitation another 's learning instructors primary secondary institutions often called teachers direct education students might draw many subjects like reading writing mathematics science history instructors post secondary institutions might called teachers instructors professors depending type institution primarily teach specific discipline studies united states suggest quality teachers single important factor affecting student performance countries score highly international tests multiple policies place ensure teachers


leader order close gap imitation therefore country 's ability learn leader function stock human capital recent study determinants aggregate economic growth stressed importance fundamental economic institutions role cognitive skills level individual large literature generally related work jacob mincer earnings related schooling human capital work motivated many studies also controversial chief controversies revolve around interpret


impact schooling students indicated high potential learning testing high intelligence quotient may achieve full academic potential due financial difficulties economists samuel bowles herbert gintis argued fundamental conflict american schooling egalitarian goal democratic participation inequalities implied continued profitability capitalist production development computer supported group learning world changing ever quickening rate means lot knowledge becomes obsolete inaccurate quickly emphasis therefore shifting


teaching skills learning picking new knowledge quickly agile way possible finnish schools begun move away regular subject focused curricula introducing instead developments like phenomenon based learning students study concepts like climate change instead also active educational interventions implement programs paths specific non traditional students first generation students education also becoming commodity longer reserved children adults need governmental bodies like finnish innovation fund sitra finland proposed compulsory lifelong education studies found automation


likely eliminate nearly half jobs developed countries roughly next two decades automation therefore considered major factor race education technology automation technologies application may render certain currently taught skills knowledge redundant increasing need curricula material related application automation argued formal education teaching workers wrong things deep reform essential facilitate development digital knowledge technical skills well nonroutine cognitive noncognitive


soft skills formal state organized education system built industrial revolution model focuses iq memorization losing relevance fschools found rarely teach forms learning many children certain age hate school terms material subjects taught much waste time gets forgotten quickly useless modern society moreover material currently taught may taught highly time efficient manner analyzing educational issues time using relevant


forms student feedback efficiency analysis found important research investigates education facilitate students' interest topics jobs scientific research data economic players financial markets economic mechanisms consider important contemporary future human civilization states research data indicate future environmental conditions far dangerous currently believed review concluding current challenges humanity faces enormous ref name tg top ref effective resolval challenges may require novel lesson plans tailored towards skills knowledge found required


reasonable taught respective age respective methodology despite novel technological computation information retrieval technologies smartphones mathematical software world wide web environmental education widely taught extensively facilitated potentially important protection generation often unquantified economic value clean air agents economy breathe education often considered national investment may always optimize cost efficiency optimizing terms contemporary economic value metrics evaluations finance gdp


without consideration economic values priorizations beyond tools minimized marine pollution maximized climate change mitigation researchers found growing disconnect humans nature schools properly preparing students become scientists tomorrow ref name scienceaau ref also find critical thought social responsibility health safety often neglected ref name scienceaau according unesco country meet basic needs people teaching science strategic imperative one example skill commonly taught formal education systems around world


increasingly critical individuals' lives modern society large digital media literacy ability access analyze evaluate create act using forms modern icts scientists calling inclusion curricula well adult education studies shown active learning rarely applied schools highly efficacious studies found massive open online courses offer pathway employment currently bypasses conventional universities degree programs often relevant contemporary economic activities students' interests online courses commonly


part formal education typically completed selected entirely behalf student sometimes support peers online forums contrast blended learning merges online education forms face face communication traditional class based education classrooms revealing general capacity increasingly relevant resource efficient effective approaches education deploying using managing various tools platforms education typically imply increase economic investment expenses education often large many calling increases potential policies development international open source educational software


using latest technologies may minimize costs hardware requirements problem resolval efforts deployment times increasing robustness security functional features software covid pandemic beginning early covid pandemic disrupted education systems throughout world affecting nearly billion learners countries closures schools learning spaces impacted percent world 's student population percent low lower middle income countries many schools made alternative plans pandemic leading variety person hybrid online plans led challenges many students teachers


families including children learning disabilities learning language native one ref name unlvedu ref september countries localized school closures united states estimated million students forced cease person instruction april switch virtual learning experience particularly challenging families cannot afford proper technology laptops printers reliable internet connection schools close parents often asked facilitate learning children home struggle perform


task especially true parents limited education resources students require special education found difficult progress curriculum without tools support require polling suggests schools serve majority students color far less likely access technology needed remote learning ref name unlvedu black households us home broadband service black americans owned desktop laptop computer without access internet computer black parents


disadvantage educating children mental health students greatly impacted due pandemic estimated three ten participating school home emotional mental health negatively impacted similarly social lives students also upended detrimental health students worldwide also negatively impacted educational quality issue years come covid shone light opportunity gaps educators policymakers direct necessary resources mitigating


coming years ref name unlvedu see also education justice notes references references attribution external links http statsuisunescoorg reportfolders reportfoldersaspxcs referer cs chosenlang en unesco institute statistics international comparable statistics education systems http wwwworldbankorg en topic education world bank education http saberworldbankorg indexcfm systems approach better education results saber http datatopicsworldbankorg education education statistics edstats http gpseducationoecdorg oecd education gps statistics policy analysis interactive portal http statsoecdorg indexaspxdatasetcode rgradsty oecd statistics http wwwiiepunescoorg information services publications search iiep publicationshtml iiep publications education systems https flipboardcom topic education covid closed schools black hispanic poor kids took biggest hit rid xeatumc zm mx fma aa beee c fnbcnewscom covid closed schools black hispanic poor kids took biggest hit math reading main topic articles


'''ethics''' '''moral philosophy''' branch ref name ref philosophy involves systematizing defending recommending concepts right wrong behavior ref name ieputmedu ''internet encyclopedia philosophy'' http wwwieputmedu ethics ethics ref field ethics along aesthetics concerns matters value fields comprise branch philosophy called axiology ethics seeks resolve questions human morality defining concepts good evil right wrong virtue vice justice crime field intellectual inquiry moral philosophy related fields moral psychology descriptive ethics value theory three major areas study


within ethics recognized today ref name ieputmedu meta ethics concerning theoretical meaning reference moral propositions truth values determined normative ethics concerning practical means determining moral course action applied ethics concerning person obligated permitted specific situation particular domain action ref name ieputmedu history defining ethics english word ''ethics'' derived ancient greek word '' thik s'' meaning relating one 's character comes root word '' thos'' meaning character moral nature


word transferred latin ''ethica'' french '' thique'' transferred english rushworth kidder states standard definitions ''ethics'' typically included phrases 'the science ideal human character' 'the science moral duty' richard william paul linda elder define ethics set concepts principles guide us determining behavior helps harms sentient creatures ref name reference ref ''cambridge dictionary philosophy'' states word ethics commonly used interchangeably 'morality' nbsp sometimes used narrowly


mean moral principles particular tradition group individual paul elder state people confuse ethics behaving accordance social conventions religious beliefs law treat ethics stand alone concept ref name referencea ref word ''ethics'' english refers several things refer philosophical ethics moral philosophy project attempts use reason answer various kinds ethical questions english moral philosopher bernard williams writes attempting explain moral philosophy makes inquiry philosophical one reflective generality style argument


claims rationally persuasive williams describes content area inquiry addressing broad question one live ethics also refer common human ability think ethical problems particular philosophy bioethicist larry churchill written ethics understood capacity think critically moral values direct actions terms values generic human capacity ethics also used describe particular person 's idiosyncratic principles habits example joe strange ethics ethics


normative science meta ethics meta ethics branch philosophical ethics asks understand know mean talk right wrong ref name bbc ref ethical question pertaining particular practical situation eat particular piece chocolate cake cannot meta ethical question rather applied ethical question meta ethical question abstract relates wide range specific practical questions example ever possible secure knowledge right wrong meta ethical question


put forward similar view difference facts values studies know ethics divide cognitivism non cognitivism respectively take descriptive non descriptive approaches moral goodness value non cognitivism view judge something morally right wrong neither true false may example expressing emotional feelings things cognitivism seen claim talk right wrong talking matters fact ontology ethics value bearing things


properties kind things stuff referred ethical propositions non descriptivists non cognitivists believe ethics need specific ontology since ethical propositions refer known anti realist position realists hand must explain kind entities properties states relevant ethics value guide motivate actions moral skepticism moral skepticism moral scepticism class metaethical theories members entail one moral knowledge many moral skeptics also make


stronger modal claim moral knowledge impossible moral skepticism particularly moral realism holds view knowable objective moral truths proponents moral skepticism include pyrrho aenesidemus sextus empiricus david hume max stirner friedrich nietzsche jl mackie moral skepticism divided three sub classes moral error theory moral nihilism epistemological moral skepticism non cognitivism three theories share conclusions follows never justified believing moral claims claims form state affairs x good action


denies ii dogmatic moral skepticism hand ''affirms'' ii cites ii 's truth reason unjustified believing moral claim noncognitivism holds never know moral claim true moral claims ''incapable'' true false truth apt instead moral claims imperatives eg n't steal babies expressions emotion eg stealing babies boo expressions pro attitudes believe babies stolen normative ethics normative ethics study ethical action branch ethics investigates


set questions arise considering one ought act morally speaking normative ethics distinct meta ethics normative ethics examines standards rightness wrongness actions meta ethics studies meaning moral language metaphysics moral facts ref name bbc normative ethics also distinct descriptive ethics latter empirical investigation people 's moral beliefs put another way descriptive ethics would concerned determining proportion people believe killing always wrong normative ethics concerned whether correct


hold belief hence normative ethics sometimes called prescriptive rather descriptive however certain versions meta ethical view called moral realism moral facts descriptive prescriptive time traditionally normative ethics also known moral theory study makes actions right wrong theories offered overarching moral principle one could appeal resolving difficult moral decisions turn th century moral theories became complex longer concerned solely rightness wrongness interested many different kinds


moral status middle century study normative ethics declined meta ethics grew prominence focus meta ethics part caused intense linguistic focus analytic philosophy popularity logical positivism virtue ethics socrates virtue ethics describes character moral agent driving force ethical behavior used describe ethics early greek philosophers socrates aristotle ancient indian philosophers valluvar socrates bc one first greek philosophers encourage scholars


common citizen turn attention outside world condition humankind view knowledge bearing human life placed highest knowledge secondary self knowledge considered necessary success inherently essential good self aware person act completely within capabilities pinnacle ignorant person flounder encounter difficulty socrates person must become aware every fact context relevant existence wishes attain self knowledge posited people naturally good


know right evil bad actions results ignorance criminal truly aware intellectual spiritual consequences actions would neither commit even consider committing actions person knows truly right automatically according socrates correlated knowledge virtue similarly equated virtue joy truly wise man know right good therefore happy ref name sahakiansahakian ref aristotle nbsp bc posited ethical system may termed virtuous aristotle 's


surest path happiness aristotle asserted soul man three natures body physical metabolism animal emotional appetite rational mental conceptual physical nature assuaged exercise care emotional nature indulgence instinct urges mental nature human reason developed potential rational development considered important essential philosophical self awareness uniquely human moderation encouraged extremes seen degraded immoral example courage moderate virtue extremes cowardice recklessness man simply live live well conduct governed


stoicism epictetus stoic philosopher epictetus posited greatest good contentment serenity peace mind ''apatheia'' highest value self mastery one 's desires emotions leads spiritual peace unconquerable central philosophy individual 's independent inviolate allowing person disturb mental equilibrium essence offering slavery person free anger control internal world therefore freedom freedom material attachments also necessary thing breaks


avoided rather embraced spiritual exercises needed health spirit physical exercise required health body also stated sex sexual desire avoided greatest threat integrity equilibrium man 's mind abstinence highly desirable epictetus said remaining abstinent face temptation victory man could proud ref name sahakiansahakian contemporary virtue ethics modern virtue ethics popularized late th century large part due revival aristotelianism


response gem anscombe 's modern moral philosophy anscombe argues consequentialist deontological ethics feasible universal theories two schools ground divine law deeply devoted christian anscombe proposed either give ethical credence notions divine law take virtue ethics necessitate universal laws agents investigated virtue vice held universal standards wish utilitarian consequentialist ground theories religious conviction ref name vries ref alasdair macintyre wrote book


''after virtue'' key contributor proponent modern virtue ethics although claim macintyre supports relativistic account virtue based cultural norms objective standards ref name vries martha nussbaum contemporary virtue ethicist objects macintyre 's relativism among others responds relativist objections form objective account work non relative virtues aristotelian approach however nussbaum 's accusation relativism appears misreading ''whose justice whose rationality'' macintyre 's ambition taking rational path beyond relativism quite clear stated rival claims made different traditions


contemporary virtue ethics modern stoicism movement intuitive ethics ethical intuitionism also called moral intuitionism family views moral epistemology definitions metaphysics minimum ethical intuitionism thesis intuitive awareness value intuitive knowledge evaluative facts forms foundation ethical knowledge view core foundationalism moral knowledge view moral truths known non inferentially ie known without one needing infer truths one believes epistemological view implies


ref usually furthermore taken essential ethical intuitionism self evident ''a priori'' moral knowledge counts considering moral sense theory species intuitionism see rational intuition versus moral sense section article discussion ethical intuitionism first clearly shown use philosopher francis hutcheson later ethical intuitionists influence note include henry sidgwick ge moore harold arthur prichard cs lewis influentially robert audi objections ethical intuitionism include whether objective moral values assumption ethical


system based upon question many disagree ethics absolute whether occam 's razor cancels theory entirely hedonism hedonism posits principal ethic maximizing pleasure minimizing pain several schools hedonist thought ranging advocating indulgence even momentary desires teaching pursuit spiritual bliss consideration consequences range advocating self gratification regardless pain expense others stating ethical pursuit maximizes pleasure happiness people ref name sahakiansahakian


cyrenaic hedonism founded aristippus cyrene cyrenaics supported immediate gratification pleasure eat drink merry tomorrow die even fleeting desires indulged fear opportunity forever lost little concern future present dominating pursuit immediate pleasure cyrenaic hedonism encouraged pursuit enjoyment indulgence without hesitation believing pleasure good ref name sahakiansahakian epicureanism epicurean ethics hedonist form virtue ethics epicurus presented sustained argument pleasure correctly understood coincide virtue rejected extremism


name cambridge ref mozi 's era war famines common population growth seen moral necessity harmonious society material wealth mohist consequentialism refers basic needs like shelter clothing order mohist consequentialism refers mozi 's stance warfare violence viewed pointless threat social stability ref name norden ref stanford sinologist david shepherd nivison ''the cambridge history ancient china'' writes moral goods mohism interrelated basic wealth reproduction people production wealth nbsp people plenty


would good filial kind unproblematically ref name cambridge mohists believed morality based promoting benefit heaven eliminating harm heaven contrast bentham 's views state consequentialism utilitarian hedonistic individualistic importance outcomes good community outweighs importance individual pleasure pain ref name handbook ref consequentialism consequentialism refers moral theories hold consequences particular action form basis valid moral judgment action create structure judgment


see rule consequentialism thus consequentialist standpoint morally right action one produces good outcome consequence view often expressed aphorism '' ends justify means '' term consequentialism coined gem anscombe essay modern moral philosophy describe saw central error certain moral theories propounded mill sidgwick ref name anscombe ref since term become common english language ethical theory defining feature consequentialist moral theories weight given consequences evaluating rightness


wrongness actions ref name mackie ref consequentialist theories consequences action rule generally outweigh considerations apart basic outline little else unequivocally said consequentialism however questions many consequentialist theories address sort consequences count good consequences primary beneficiary moral action consequences judged judges one way divide various consequentialisms many types consequences taken matter consequences count good states


affairs according utilitarianism good action one results increase positive effect best action one results effect greatest number closely related eudaimonic consequentialism according full flourishing life may may enjoying great deal pleasure ultimate aim similarly one might adopt aesthetic consequentialism ultimate aim produce beauty however one might fix non psychological goods relevant effect thus one might pursue increase material equality


political liberty instead something like ephemeral pleasure theories adopt package several goods promoted equally whether particular consequentialist theory focuses single good many conflicts tensions different good states affairs expected must adjudicated utilitarianism jeremy bentham john stuart mill utilitarianism ethical theory argues proper course action one maximizes positive effect happiness welfare ability live according personal preferences jeremy bentham john stuart mill influential proponents


people affected action john stuart mill exposition utilitarianism proposed hierarchy pleasures meaning pursuit certain kinds pleasure highly valued pursuit pleasures ref name mill ref noteworthy proponents utilitarianism neuroscientist sam harris author ''the moral landscape'' moral philosopher peter singer author amongst works ''practical ethics'' major division within utilitarianism ''act utilitarianism'' ''rule utilitarianism'' act utilitarianism principle utility applies directly alternative act situation choice right act


one brings best results least bad results rule utilitarianism principle utility determines validity rules conduct moral principles rule like promise keeping established looking consequences world people break promises world promises binding right wrong following breaking rules sanctioned utilitarian value ref name carnegie mellon university ref proposed middle ground two types two level utilitarianism rules applied ordinary circumstances allowance


choose actions outside rules unusual situations call deontology deontological ethics deontology greek ' 'deon'' obligation duty '' logia'' approach ethics determines goodness rightness examining acts rules duties person act strove fulfill ref name platostanfordedu http platostanfordedu entries ethics deontological stanfordedu ref contrast consequentialism rightness based consequences act act deontology act may considered right even produces bad consequence follows ''rule''


moral law according deontological view people ' 'duty'' act ways deemed inherently good truth telling example follow objectively obligatory rule rule utilitarianism kantianism immanuel kant right immanuel kant 's theory ethics considered deontological several different reasons ref name orend brian orend brian ''war international justice kantian perspective'' west waterloo ontario wilfrid laurier university press ref first kant argues act morally right way people must act duty ''pflicht'' second kant argued consequences actions make


right wrong motives person carries action kant 's argument act morally right way one must act purely duty begins argument highest good must good good without qualification ref name transition kant immanuel 'first section transition common rational knowledge morals philosophical' groundwork metaphysic morals ref something good intrinsically good good without qualification addition thing never makes situation ethically worse kant argues


things usually thought good intelligence perseverance pleasure fail either intrinsically good good without qualification pleasure example appears good without qualification people take pleasure watching someone suffer seems make situation ethically worse concludes one thing truly good kant argues consequences act willing cannot used determine person good good consequences could arise accident action motivated


desire cause harm innocent person bad consequences could arise action well motivated instead claims person goodwill 'acts respect moral law' ref name transition people 'act respect moral law' act way ''because'' duty thing truly good goodwill goodwill good willer chooses something person 's duty ie respect law


defines respect concept worth thwarts self love kant 's three significant formulations categorical imperative act according maxim also would become universal law act way always treat humanity whether person person never simply means always time end every rational must act maxim always legislating member universal kingdom ends


kant argued absolutely good thing good single determining factor whether action morally right motive person acting bad maxim eg lie action wrong even good consequences come essay ''on supposed right lie philanthropic concerns'' arguing position benjamin constant ''des r actions politiques'' kant states hence lie defined merely intentionally untruthful declaration another man


require additional condition must harm another jurists require definition ''mendacium est falsiloquium praeiudicium alterius'' lie always harms another human nevertheless harm humanity general inasmuch vitiates source right ''rechtsquelle'' practical principles right must contain rigorous truth exceptions would destroy universality account alone bear name principles divine command theory although deontologists religious belief 'divine command


theory' actually cluster related theories essentially state action right god decreed right according ralph cudworth english philosopher william ockham ren descartes eighteenth century calvinists accepted various versions moral theory held moral obligations arise god 's commands divine command theory form deontology according rightness action depends upon action performed duty good consequences arising action


god commands people work sabbath people act rightly work sabbath ''because god commanded so'' work sabbath lazy action truly speaking right even though actual physical action performed god commands covet neighbour 's goods theory holds would immoral even coveting provides beneficial outcome drive succeed well one thing clearly distinguishes kantian deontologism


divine command deontology kantianism maintains man rational makes moral law universal whereas divine command maintains god makes moral law universal discourse ethics photograph jurgen habermas whose theory discourse ethics influenced kantian ethics german philosopher j rgen habermas proposed theory discourse ethics claims descendant kantian ethics proposes action based communication involved interests intentions discussed understood rejecting form coercion manipulation


sensed experienced humans noumena spiritual world inaccessible humans dichotomy necessary kant could explain autonomy human agent although human bound phenomenal world actions free intelligible world habermas morality arises discourse made necessary rationality needs rather freedom pragmatic ethics associated pragmatists charles sanders peirce william james especially john dewey pragmatic ethics holds moral correctness evolves similarly scientific knowledge socially course


many lifetimes thus prioritize social reform attempts account consequences individual virtue duty although may worthwhile attempts social reform provided ref name lafollette ref ethics care care ethics contrasts well known ethical models consequentialist theories eg utilitarianism deontological theories eg kantian ethics seeks incorporate traditionally feminized virtues values proponents care ethics contend absent traditional models ethics values include importance empathetic relationships compassion care focused feminism branch feminist thought informed primarily ethics


care developed carol gilligan ref name gilligan nel noddings body theory critical caring socially assigned women consequently devalued write care focused feminists regard women 's capacity care human strength taught expected men well women noddings proposes ethical caring potential concrete evaluative model moral dilemma ethic justice noddings care focused feminism requires practical application relational ethics predicated ethic care role ethics role ethics


ethical theory based family roles ref name ames ref unlike virtue ethics role ethics individualistic morality derived person 's relationship community ref name fraser ref confucian ethics example role ethics ref name ames though straightforwardly uncontested confucian roles center around concept filial piety ''xiao'' respect family members ref name chang ref according roger ames henry rosemont confucian normativity defined living one 's family roles maximum effect morality determined person 's fulfillment role parent child confucian roles


practices enhance humanity 's capacity freedom well namely practices emphasise solidarity equality justice kropotkin argues ethics evolutionary inherited sort social instinct cultural history rejects religious transcendental explanation morality origin ethical feeling animals humans found claims natural fact sociality mutualistic symbiosis humans combine instinct justice ie equality practice reason construct non supernatural anarchistic system ethics


kropotkin suggests principle equality core anarchism golden rule blockquote principle treating others one wishes treated oneself principle equality fundamental principle anarchism one manage believe anarchist unless practices wish ruled fact declare wish rule nobody wish deceived wish always told nothing


truth fact declare wish deceive anybody promise always tell truth nothing truth whole truth wish fruits labor stolen us fact declare respect fruits others' labor right indeed demand treated one fashion reserving treat others fashion entirely different sense equality revolts


idea blockquote postmodern ethics th century saw remarkable expansion evolution critical theory following earlier marxist theory efforts locate individuals within larger structural frameworks ideology action antihumanists louis althusser michel foucault structuralists roland barthes challenged possibilities individual agency coherence notion 'individual' basis personal identity part social construction critical theory developed later th century post structuralism sought problematize human relationships knowledge 'objective' reality jacques derrida argued


unchangeable postmodern world means act collectively globally solve large scale problems discredited dismantled lost problems handled locally problem handling means building mini order expense order elsewhere cost rising global disorder well depleting shrinking supplies resources make ordering possible considers emmanuel levinas 's ethics postmodern unlike modern ethical philosophy leaves outside self ambivalent presence levinas 's philosophy readmits


neighbor crucial character process moral self comes david couzens hoy states emmanuel levinas 's writings face derrida 's meditations relevance death ethics signs ethical turn continental philosophy occurred hoy describes post critique ethics obligations present necessarily fulfilled neither forced one enforceable hoy 's post critique model uses term ''ethical resistance'' examples would individual 's resistance


consumerism retreat simpler perhaps harder lifestyle individual 's resistance terminal illness hoy describes levinas 's account attempt use power mobilize sectors population exert political power ethical resistance instead resistance powerless hoy concludes applied ethics applied ethics discipline philosophy attempts apply ethical theory real life situations discipline many specialized fields engineering ethics bioethics geoethics public service ethics business ethics specific questions applied ethics


used aspects determining public policy well individuals facing difficult decisions sort questions addressed applied ethics include getting abortion immoral euthanasia immoral affirmative action right wrong human rights determine animals rights well individuals right self determination ref name bbc specific question could someone else make better life moral sacrifice needed without questions


answer almost never yes right wrong statement many buttons pushed overall condition improved benefit particular faction shown people consider character moral agent ie principle implied virtue ethics deed action ie principle implied deontology consequences action ie principle implied utilitarianism formulating moral judgments moreover effect three components depends value


component ref name moral judgment ref particular fields application bioethics bioethics study controversial ethics brought advances biology medicine bioethicists concerned ethical questions arise relationships among life sciences biotechnology medicine politics law philosophy also includes study commonplace questions values ethics ordinary arise primary care branches medicine bioethics also needs address emerging biotechnologies affect basic biology future humans developments include cloning gene therapy human genetic engineering astroethics life


space manipulation basic biology altered dna rna proteins eg three parent baby baby born genetically modified embryos would dna mother father female donor correspondingly new bioethics also need address life core example biotic ethics value organic gene protein life seek propagate ref name bioethics ref life centered principles ethics may secure cosmological future life business ethics business ethics also corporate ethics form applied ethics professional ethics examines ethical principles moral ethical problems


arise business environment including fields like medical ethics business ethics represents practices individual group exhibits within organization negatively positively affect businesses core values applies aspects business conduct relevant conduct individuals entire organizations business ethics normative descriptive dimensions corporate practice career specialization field primarily normative academics attempting understand business behavior employ descriptive methods range quantity business ethical issues reflect interaction profit maximizing behavior non economic


concerns interest business ethics accelerated dramatically within major corporations within academia example today major corporations promote commitment non economic values headings ethics codes social responsibility charters adam smith said people trade seldom meet together even merriment diversion conversation ends conspiracy public contrivance raise prices governments use laws regulations point business behavior perceive beneficial directions ethics implicitly regulates areas details behavior


lie beyond governmental control emergence large corporations limited relationships sensitivity communities operate accelerated development formal ethics regimes business ethics also relates unethical activities interorganizational relationships strategic alliances buyer supplier relationships joint ventures unethical practices include instance opportunistic behaviors contract violations deceitful practices corporations tried burnish ethical image creating whistle blower protections anonymity case citi call ethics hotline though unclear whether firms citi take offences reported


hotlines seriously machine ethics ''moral machines teaching robots right wrong'' wendell wallach colin allen conclude issues machine ethics likely drive advancement understanding human ethics forcing us address gaps modern normative theory providing platform experimental investigation ref name wallach ref effort actually program machine artificial agent behave though instilled sense ethics requires new specificity normative theories especially regarding aspects customarily considered common sense example machines unlike humans support wide selection learning algorithms


controversy arisen relative ethical merits options may reopen classic debates normative ethics framed new highly technical terms military ethics military ethics concerned questions regarding application force ethos soldier often understood applied professional ethics war theory generally seen set background terms military ethics however individual countries traditions different fields attention military ethics involves multiple subareas including following among others laws war justification


initiation military force decisions may targeted warfare decisions choice weaponry collateral effects weaponry may standards handling military prisoners methods dealing violations laws war political ethics political ethics also known political morality public ethics practice making moral judgements political action political agents public sector ethics public sector ethics set principles guide public officials service constituents including decision making behalf constituents


fundamental concept public sector ethics notion decisions actions based best serves public 's interests opposed official 's personal interests including financial interests self serving political interests publication ethics publication ethics set principles guide writing publishing process professional publications follow principles authors must verify publication contain plagiarism publication bias ref name publication ethics ref way avoid misconduct research principles also apply experiments referenced analyzed publications


ensuring data recorded honestly accurately plagiarism failure give credit another author 's work ideas used publication obligation editor journal ensure article contain plagiarism published publication already published proven contain plagiarism editor journal retract article publication bias occurs publication one sided prejudiced results best practice author try include information parties involved


affected topic author prejudiced certain results lead erroneous conclusions drawn misconduct research occur experimenter falsifies results ref name j ref falsely recorded information occurs researcher fakes information data used conducting actual experiment ref name j faking data researcher alter results experiment better fit hypothesis originally predicted conducting medical research important honor healthcare rights patient protecting anonymity publication ref name publication ethics ''respect


name gilligan ref used qualitative research especially ethnography autoethnography researchers employ relational ethics value respect connection people study researchers communities live work ellis p nbsp relational ethics also help researchers understand difficult issues conducting research intimate others died developing friendships participants relational ethics close personal relationships form central concept contextual therapy ethics nanotechnologies ethics nanotechnology study ethical issues emerging advances nanotechnology ethics


quantification ethics quantification study ethical issues associated different forms visible invisible forms quantification animal ethics animal ethics term used academia describe human animal relationships animals ought treated subject matter includes animal rights animal welfare animal law speciesism animal cognition wildlife conservation moral status nonhuman animals concept nonhuman personhood human exceptionalism history animal use theories justice ethics technology ethics technology sub field ethics addressing ethical questions specific technology age


prominent works philosopher hans jonas devoted ethics technology subject also explored following work mario bunge term technoethics moral psychology moral psychology field study began issue philosophy properly considered part discipline psychology use term moral psychology relatively narrowly refer study moral development however others tend use term broadly include topics intersection ethics psychology philosophy mind topics


ones involve mind relevant moral issues main topics field moral responsibility moral development moral character especially related virtue ethics altruism psychological egoism moral luck moral disagreement evolutionary ethics evolutionary ethics concerns approaches ethics morality based role evolution shaping human psychology behavior approaches may based scientific fields evolutionary psychology sociobiology focus understanding explaining observed ethical preferences choices descriptive ethics descriptive ethics less philosophical end


spectrum since seeks gather particular information people live draw general conclusions based observed patterns abstract theoretical questions clearly philosophical ethical knowledge possible central descriptive ethics descriptive ethics offers value free approach ethics defines social science rather humanity examination ethics start preconceived theory rather investigates observations actual choices made moral agents practice philosophers rely descriptive ethics choices made unchallenged society culture


consider etiquette simple negative ethics ie one evade uncomfortable truth without wrong one notable advocate view judith martin miss manners according view ethics summary common sense social decisions practices arbitration law eg claim ethics matter balancing right versus right ie putting priorities two things right must traded carefully situation observed choices made ordinary people without expert aid advice vote buy decide


worth valuing major concern sociology political science economics see also morality integrity applied ethics axiological ethics contemporary ethics corporate social responsibility declaration geneva declaration helsinki deductive reasoning dharma effective altruism environmental ethics ethical movement ethics religion ethics paper internalism externalism humanism index ethics articles alphabetical list ethics related articles neuroethics outline ethics list ethics related articles arranged sub topic practical philosophy science morality secular ethics sexual ethics theory justification trail ethics notes references hoy ''critical resistance poststructuralism postcritique'' massachusetts institute technology cambridge massachusetts lyon


''postmodernity'' nd ed open university press buckingham singer p ''writings ethical life'' harper collins publishers london reading aristotle ''nicomachean ethics'' http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg london philosophy study guide offers many suggestions read depending student 's familiarity subject http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg ethicshtm ethics ''encyclopedia ethics'' lawrence c becker charlotte b becker editors second edition three volumes new york routledge scholarly encyclopedia signed peer reviewed articles mostly topics figures special interest western philosophy azurmendi j violence


search new values ''euskal herria krisian'' elkar pp nbsp blackburn http wwwworldcatorg title good short introduction ethics oclc ''being good short introduction ethics'' oxford oxford university press de finance joseph ''an ethical inquiry'' rome editrice pontificia universit gregoriana de la torre miguel christian ethics margins orbis books derrida j ''the gift death'' translated david wills university chicago press chicago fagothey austin ''right reason'' tan books publishers rockford illinois levinas e ''totality infinity essay exteriority'' translated alphonso lingis duquesne university press pittsburgh


art valiz amsterdam lafollette hugh ed ''ethics practice anthology'' wiley blackwell th edition oxford entire issue ''pacific island studies'' devoted studying constructing moral communities pacific islands vol https jonathannapelacenterbyuhedu pacific institute pacific studies journalq pacific institute volume link paul r ehrlich may https wwwyoutubecom watchv gv w knhlme conference population environment ethics stand video min ''university lausanne'' nagel thomas types intuition thomas nagel human rights moral knowledge ''london review books'' vol june pp deontology consequentialism utilitarianism external links http wwwgalilean libraryorg manuscriptphppostid introduction ethics


paul newall aimed beginners http wwwditextcom frankena ethicshtml ''ethics'' ed william frankena http wwwopen net ethicsbites indexhtml ethics bites open university podcast series podcast exploring ethical dilemmas everyday life http bioethicsgeorgetownedu nrc national reference center bioethics literature world 's largest library ethical issues medicine biomedical research http wwwutilitariannet singer htm ethics entry encyclop dia britannica peter singer https webarchiveorg web http wwwphilosophyarchivecom indexphptitle philosophy ethics philosophy ethics philosophy archive http wwwklicecouk kirby laing institute christian ethics resources events research range ethical subjects christian perspective https wwwyoutubecom watchv oc zwhaoyyg basic principle ethics summary talk http icoges iageth international association geoethics iageth http wwwgeoethicsorg international association


promoting geoethics iapg http wwwscuedu ethics markkula center applied ethics santa clara university resources analyzing real world ethical issues tools address axiology philosophy life philosophy mind social philosophy main topic articles


'''endocrinology''' ''endocrine'' '' ology'' branch biology medicine dealing endocrine system diseases specific secretions known hormones also concerned integration developmental events proliferation growth differentiation psychological behavioral activities metabolism growth development tissue function sleep digestion respiration excretion mood stress lactation movement reproduction sensory perception caused hormones specializations include behavioral endocrinology comparative endocrinology endocrine system consists several glands different parts body secrete hormones directly blood rather


duct system therefore endocrine glands regarded ductless glands hormones many different functions modes action one hormone may several effects different target organs conversely one target organ may affected one hormone endocrine system endocrinology study endocrine system human body system glands secrete hormones hormones chemicals affect actions different organ systems body examples include thyroid hormone growth hormone insulin endocrine system involves number feedback mechanisms


often one hormone thyroid stimulating hormone control action release another secondary hormone thyroid hormone much secondary hormone may provide negative feedback primary hormone maintaining homeostasis original definition bayliss starling see specified classified hormone chemical must produced organ released small amounts blood transported blood distant organ exert specific function definition holds classical hormones


tetraiodothyronine thyroxine make subset class derive combination two iodinated tyrosine amino acid residues peptide protein peptide hormones protein hormones consist three case thyrotropin releasing hormone case follicle stimulating hormone amino acid residues molecular mass large grams per mole hormones secreted pituitary gland peptide hormones leptin adipocytes ghrelin stomach insulin pancreas steroid steroid hormones converted parent compound cholesterol


mammalian steroid hormones grouped five groups receptors bind glucocorticoids mineralocorticoids androgens estrogens progestogens forms vitamin calcitriol steroid like bind homologous receptors lack characteristic fused ring structure true steroids profession although every organ system secretes responds hormones including brain lungs heart intestine skin kidneys clinical specialty endocrinology focuses primarily ''endocrine organs'' meaning organs whose primary function hormone secretion organs include pituitary thyroid adrenals ovaries testes


pancreas ''endocrinologist'' physician specializes treating disorders endocrine system diabetes hyperthyroidism many others see list diseases work medical specialty endocrinology involves diagnostic evaluation wide variety symptoms variations long term management disorders deficiency excess one hormones diagnosis treatment endocrine diseases guided laboratory tests greater extent specialties many diseases investigated ''excitation stimulation'' ''inhibition suppression'' testing might involve injection stimulating agent test


function endocrine organ blood sampled assess changes relevant hormones metabolites endocrinologist needs extensive knowledge clinical chemistry biochemistry understand uses limitations investigations second important aspect practice endocrinology distinguishing human variation disease atypical patterns physical development abnormal test results must assessed indicative disease diagnostic imaging endocrine organs may reveal incidental findings called incidentalomas may may represent disease endocrinology involves caring person well disease


endocrine disorders chronic diseases need lifelong care common endocrine diseases include diabetes mellitus hypothyroidism metabolic syndrome care diabetes obesity chronic diseases necessitates understanding patient personal social level well molecular physician patient relationship important therapeutic process apart treating patients many endocrinologists involved clinical science medical research teaching hospital management training endocrinologists specialists internal medicine pediatrics reproductive endocrinologists deal primarily problems fertility menstrual function often training first obstetrics


qualify internist pediatrician gynecologist years specializing depending local training system us canada training board certification internal medicine pediatrics gynecology medical school called residency formal training subspecialize adult pediatric reproductive endocrinology called fellowship typical training north american endocrinologist involves years college years medical school years residency years fellowship us adult endocrinologists board certified american board internal medicine abim


american osteopathic board internal medicine aobim endocrinology diabetes metabolism diseases medicine diseases see main article ''endocrine diseases'' endocrinology also involves study diseases endocrine system diseases may relate little much secretion hormone little much action hormone problems receiving hormone societies organisations endocrinology encompasses many conditions diseases many organizations provide education patients public hormone foundation public education affiliate


adult paediatric endocrinology respectively united kingdom society endocrinology british society paediatric endocrinology diabetes main professional organisations european society paediatric endocrinology largest international professional association dedicated solely paediatric endocrinology numerous similar associations around world history arnold berthold known pioneer endocrinology earliest study endocrinology began china ref name genius chinese isolating sex pituitary hormones human urine using medicinal purposes bc ref name genius ref used many complex methods


sublimation steroid hormones ref name genius another method specified chinese texts earliest dating specified use saponin beans ''gleditsia sinensis'' extract hormones gypsum containing calcium sulfate also known used ref name genius although relevant tissues endocrine glands identified early anatomists humoral approach understanding biological function disease favoured ancient greek roman thinkers aristotle hippocrates lucretius celsus galen according freeman et al theories held sway advent


germ theory physiology organ basis pathology th century arnold berthold noted castrated cockerels develop combs wattles exhibit overtly male behaviour found replacement testes back abdominal cavity bird another castrated bird resulted normal behavioural morphological development concluded erroneously testes secreted substance conditioned blood turn acted body cockerel fact one two things could true testes modified activated


mucosa responsible named substance secretin coined term ''hormone'' chemicals act way joseph von mering oskar minkowski made observation removing pancreas surgically led increase blood sugar followed coma eventual death symptoms diabetes mellitus banting best realized homogenizing pancreas injecting derived extract reversed condition neurohormones first identified otto loewi incubated frog 's heart innervated vagus nerve attached saline bath left


solution time solution used bathe non innervated second heart vagus nerve first heart stimulated negative inotropic beat amplitude chronotropic beat rate activity seen hearts occur either heart vagus nerve stimulated vagus nerve adding something saline solution effect could blocked using atropine known inhibitor heart vagal nerve stimulation clearly something secreted vagus nerve affecting heart vagusstuff loewi called causing myotropic


muscle enhancing effects later identified acetylcholine norepinephrine loewi nobel prize discovery recent work endocrinology focuses molecular mechanisms responsible triggering effects hormones first example work done earl sutherland sutherland investigated whether hormones enter cells evoke action stayed outside cells studied norepinephrine acts liver convert glycogen glucose via activation phosphorylase enzyme homogenized liver membrane fraction soluble fraction phosphorylase soluble added norepinephrine


membrane fraction extracted soluble products added first soluble fraction phosphorylase activated indicating norepinephrine 's target receptor cell membrane located intracellularly later identified compound cyclic amp camp discovery created concept second messenger mediated pathways like loewi nobel prize groundbreaking work endocrinology see also comparative endocrinology endocrine disease hormone hormone replacement therapy neuroendocrinology pediatric endocrinology reproductive endocrinology infertility wildlife endocrinology references endocrine system hormones


range animal behaviours change behavior lizards throughout natural selection '''ethology''' scientific study animal behaviour usually focus behaviour natural conditions viewing behaviour evolutionarily adaptive trait behaviourism term also describes scientific objective study animal behaviour usually referring measured responses stimuli trained behavioural responses laboratory context without particular emphasis evolutionary adaptivity throughout history different naturalists studied aspects animal behaviour ethology scientific roots work charles darwin

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Ethology


particular animal group often study one type behaviour aggression number unrelated species ethology rapidly growing field since dawn st century researchers examined reached new conclusions many aspects animal communication emotions culture learning sexuality scientific community long thought understood new fields neuroethology developed understanding ethology animal behaviour important animal training considering natural behaviours different species breeds enables trainers select individuals best suited perform required task


also enables trainers encourage performance naturally occurring behaviours discontinuance undesirable behaviours ref name mcgreevyboakes ref etymology term ''ethology'' derives greek language ''ethos'' meaning character '' logia'' meaning study term first popularized american myrmecologist person studies ants william morton wheeler ref name insectbehavior ref history beginnings ethology charles darwin explored expression emotions animals ethology considered topic biology ethologists concerned particularly evolution behaviour understanding terms


natural selection one sense first modern ethologist charles darwin whose book ''the expression emotions man animals'' influenced many ethologists pursued interest behaviour encouraging prot g george romanes investigated animal learning intelligence using anthropomorphic method anecdotal cognitivism gain scientific support early ethologists eug ne marais charles whitman oskar heinroth wallace craig julian huxley instead concentrated behaviours called instinctive natural occur members species specified circumstances


beginning studying behaviour new species construct ethogram description main types behaviour frequencies occurrence provided objective cumulative database behaviour subsequent researchers could check supplement ref name insectbehavior growth field due work konrad lorenz niko tinbergen ethology developed strongly continental europe years prior world war ii ref name insectbehavior war tinbergen moved university oxford ethology became stronger uk additional influence william thorpe robert


hinde patrick bateson sub department animal behaviour university cambridge period ethology began develop strongly north america lorenz tinbergen von frisch jointly awarded nobel prize physiology medicine work developing ethology ethology well recognized scientific discipline number journals covering developments subject ''animal behaviour'' ''animal welfare'' ''applied animal behaviour science'' ''animal cognition'' ''behaviour'' ''behavioral ecology'' ''ethology international journal behavioural biology'' http isheorg international society human ethology


founded promote exchange knowledge opinions concerning human behaviour gained applying ethological principles methods published journal '' http isheorg human ethology bulletin human ethology bulletin '' paper published journal ''behaviour'' ethologist peter verbeek introduced term peace ethology sub discipline human ethology concerned issues human conflict conflict resolution reconciliation war peacemaking peacekeeping behaviour social ethology recent developments english ethologist john h crook distinguished comparative ethology social ethology argued much ethology existed far


really comparative ethology examining animals individuals whereas future ethologists would need concentrate behaviour social groups animals social structure within ref name crook goss custard pp ref e wilson 's book ''sociobiology new synthesis'' appeared ref name wilsonsociobiology since time study behaviour much concerned social aspects also driven stronger sophisticated darwinism associated wilson robert trivers w hamilton related development behavioural ecology also helped transform ethology ref name davies furthermore substantial rapprochement


comparative psychology occurred modern scientific study behaviour offers less seamless spectrum approaches animal cognition traditional comparative psychology ethology sociobiology behavioural ecology dr tobias starzak professor albert newen institute philosophy ii ruhr university bochum postulated animals may beliefs relationship comparative psychology comparative psychology also studies animal behaviour opposed ethology construed sub topic psychology rather one biology historically comparative psychology included research animal behaviour


strongly north america ethology stronger europe practical standpoint early comparative psychologists concentrated gaining extensive knowledge behaviour species ethologists interested understanding behaviour across wide range species facilitate principled comparisons across taxonomic groups ethologists made much use cross species comparisons comparative psychologists instinct kelp gull chicks peck red spot mother 's beak stimulate regurgitating reflex merriam webster dictionary defines instinct largely inheritable unalterable tendency organism make complex


specific response environmental stimuli without involving reason ref name merriam ref fixed action patterns important development associated name konrad lorenz though probably due teacher oskar heinroth identification fixed action patterns lorenz popularized instinctive responses would occur reliably presence identifiable stimuli called sign stimuli releasing stimuli fixed action patterns considered instinctive behavioural sequences relatively invariant within species almost inevitably run completion one example releaser beak movements many bird species


respond irrelevant stimuli example prairie dogs ''cynomys ludovicianus'' give alarm calls predators approach causing individuals group quickly scramble burrows prairie dog towns located near trails used humans giving alarm calls every time person walks expensive terms time energy habituation humans therefore important adaptation context ref name breed ref associative learning associative learning animal behaviour learning process new response becomes associated particular stimulus first studies associative learning made russian


incubated artificially stimulus presented critical period continued days hatching cultural learning observational learning imitation imitation advanced behaviour whereby animal observes exactly replicates behaviour another national institutes health reported capuchin monkeys preferred company researchers imitated researchers monkeys spent time imitators also preferred engage simple task even provided option performing task non imitator


new object related behaviours trial error learning haggerty devised experiment monkey climbed side cage placed arm wooden chute pulled rope chute release food another monkey provided opportunity obtain food watching monkey go process four occasions monkey performed different method finally succeeded trial error another example familiar cat dog owners ability animals open doors action humans operating handle open