temperament child parent stress development one hypothesis etiology child psychopathology experts believe child temperament large factor development child psychopathology high susceptibility child psychopathology marked low levels effortful control high levels emotionality neuroticism parental divorce often large factor childhood depression psychopathological disorders ref name muris ref divorce involves long drawn separation one parent bad mouthing say divorce lead psychopathological disorders


development psychopathological disorders biological factors hormones genetics neurotransmitters psychological self esteem coping skills cognitive issues social factors family rearing negative learning experiences stress child 's temperament using array neurological scans exams psychological evaluations family medical history observing child daily factors help physician find etiology psychopathological disorder help release child symptoms therapy medication use social skills training life style changes ref name muris child psychopathology cause separation anxiety parents attention deficit disorders children sleep disorders children

Social science
Psychology
Psychopathology
Child psychopathology


aggression peers adults night terrors extreme anxiety anti social behavior depression symptoms aloof attitude sensitive emotions rebellious behavior line typical childhood development aggression found manifest children five years age early stress aggression parental child relationship correlates manifestation aggression aggression children causes problematic peer relationships difficulty adjusting coping problems children fail overcome acceptable ways coping emotion expression put tract psychopathological disorders violent anti social behaviors adolescence adulthood


higher rate substance abuse children coping aggression issues causes cycle emotional instability manifestation psychopathological disorders neurology etiology borderline personality disorder bpd one many psychopathology disorders child suffer neurobiological scheme borderline personality disorder may effects left amygdala study bpd patients versus control patients faced expressions happy sad fearful bpd patients showed significantly activation versus control patients neutral faces bpd patients attributed negative qualities faces ref


name knowlton ref stated gabbard experimenter study hyperactive amygdala may involved predisposition hyper vigilant reactive relatively benign emotional expressions misreading neutral faces clearly related transference misreadings occur psychotherapy creation bad object experiences linked projective identification ref name knowlton also linked bpd presence serotonin transporter htt short allele demonstrated larger amygdala neuronal activity presented fearful stimuli comparison individuals long allele htt found dunedin longitudinal study


short allele htt predisposes person hyperactivity amygdala response trauma thus moderated impact stressful life events leading higher risk depression suicidal idealities qualities observed individuals long alleles htt however environment child change impact gene proving correct treatment intensive social support healthy nurturing environment modify genetic vulnerability ref name knowlton possibly studied documented child psychopathologies attention deficit hyperactivity disorder adhd


level childhood tasks ref name nevels ref agenesis corpus callosum etiology agenesis corpus callosum acc used determine frequency social behavioral problems children prevalence rate acc described defect brain million axons make corpus collosum either completely absent partially gone many cases anterior commissure still present allow passing information one cerebral hemisphere children normal intelligence level younger children ages two five


areas social communications social interactions show symptoms autism repetitive restricted behaviors category ref name badaruddin ref difficulties acc may lead etiology child psychopathological disorders depression adhd manifest many autistic like disorders cause future psychological disorders later adolescence etiology child psychopathology multi factor path slew factors must taken account diagnosis disorder child 's genetics environment temperament past medical history family medical history prevalence symptoms neuro anatomical structures


factors considered diagnosing child psychopathological disorder ref name badaruddin thousands children year misdiagnosed put wrong treatment may result manifestation disorders child would gotten else wise hundreds causes psychopathological disorders one manifests different ages stages child development come due trauma stress disorders may disappear reappear presence trauma depression stress similar one brought disorder


child beginning treatment estimated children age eight suffer psychopathology disorder girls frequently manifested disorders boys similar situations age sixteen thirty percent children fit criteria least one psychopathology disorder small number children receive treatment disorder anxiety depression disorders children whether noted unnoted found precursor similar episodes adulthood usually large stressor similar one person experienced childhood brings


anxiety depression adulthood multifinality refers idea two children react stressful event quite differently may display divergent types problem behavior psychopathological disorders extremely situational take account child genetics environment stressor many factors tailor best type treatment relieve child psychopathology symptoms many child psychopathology disorders treated control medications prescribed pediatrician psychiatrist extensive evaluation child school visits psychologists physicians medication prescribed


patient may need go several trials medicines find best fit many cause uncomfortable undesired side effects dry mouth suicidal thoughts occur many classes drugs physician choose psychostimulants beta blockerss atypical antipsychotics lithium alpha agonists traditional antipsychotics ssris anticonvulsant mood stabilizers given multifinality psychopathological disorders two children may medication two completely different disorders disorder taking two completely different medications adhd successfully treated


disorder child psychopathology medications used high abuse rate especially among college aged students psycho stimulants ritalin amphetamine related stimulant drugs eg adderall antidepressants wellbutrin successfully used treat adhd success rate many drug treatment options paired behavioral treatment therapy social skills lessons lithium shown extremely effective treating adhd bipolar disorder lithium treats mania depression helps prevent relapse mechanism lithium include inhibition gsk glutamate antagonism


nmda receptors together make lithium neuroprotective medicine drug relieves bipolar symptoms aggressiveness irritability lithium many many side effects requires weekly blood tests tests toxicity drug medications act cell membrane ion channels gaba inhibitory neurotransmission also inhibit excitatory glutamate transmission shown extremely effective treating array child psychopathological disorders pharmaceutical companies process creating new drugs improving market help avoid negative possibly life altering short term long term side effects making


drugs safe use younger children long periods time adolescent development psychotherapy treatments common psychological disorders children psychological disorders commonly found children include depression anxiety conduct disorder adolescents depression combination antidepressants cognitive behavioral interpersonal psychotherapy recommended contrast much evidence efficacy antidepressants children years age therefore combination parent training cognitive behavioral psychotherapy recommended children adolescents suffering anxiety disorders cognitive behavioral therapy combination exposure based techniques


highly recommended evidence based treatment research suggests children adolescents conduct disorder disruptive behavior may benefit psychotherapy includes behavioral component parental involvement future child psychopathology future child psychopathology etiology treatment two way path many professionals agree many children suffer disorder receive proper treatment rate receive treatment leaving many children dark boat physicians also say disorders need


recognized children treated properly also even children show qualifying symptoms disorder degree diagnosis also receive treatment therapy avoid manifestation disorder treating children even slight degrees psychopathological disorder children show improvements relationships peers family teachers also improvements school mental health personal development ref name leadbeater ref many physicians believe best prevention help starts home school child physicians psychologists contacted theory


research current trend us understand child psychopathology systems based perspective called developmental psychopathology recent emphasis also understanding psychological disorders relational perspective attention also given neurobiology practitioners follow attachment theory believe early attachment experiences children promote adaptive strategies lay groundwork maladaptive ways coping later lead mental health disorders research clinical work child psychopathology tends fall several main areas etiology epidemiology diagnosis assessment treatment parents considered reliable


source information spend time children adult child 's psychopathology connected parental behaviors clinicians researchers experienced problems children 's self reports rely adults provide information see also mental disorders diagnosed childhood references external links cause medicine child adolescent psychiatry


'''second order cybernetics''' also known '''cybernetics cybernetics''' recursive application cybernetics reflexive practice cybernetics according critique cybernetics role observer appreciated acknowledged rather disguised become traditional western science ref name rg glanville r second order cybernetics f parra luna ed systems science cybernetics encyclopaedia life support systems eolss oxford eolss retrieved http wwweolssnet ref second order cybernetics developed late mid margaret mead heinz von foerster others

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Cybernetics
Second-order cybernetics


foerster referred control control communication communication differentiated first order cybernetics cybernetics observed systems second order cybernetics cybernetics observing systems ref name hvf foerster heinz von ed cybernetics cybernetics control control communication communication nd ed minneapolis mn future systems ref closely allied radical constructivism developed around time ernst von glasersfeld ref name rg rc glanville r radical constructivism second order cybernetics cybernetics human knowing retrieved


http wwwingentaconnectcom content imp chk art ref sometimes considered break earlier concerns cybernetics much continuity previous work thought distinct tradition within cybernetics origins issues evident macy conferences cybernetics initially developed ref name su umpleby brief history cybernetics united states oesterreichische zeitschrift fuer geschichtswissenschaften austrian journal contemporary history pp https doiorg oezg ref ref name brand brand bateson g mead god sake margaret conversation gregory bateson margaret mead coevolutionary


quarterly retrieved http wwwoikosorg forgodhtm ref concerns include autonomy epistemology ethics language self consistency self referentiality self organizing capabilities complex systems characterised cybernetics circularity taken seriously overview terminology second order cybernetics abbreviated '''c ''' '''soc''' sometimes referred '''cybernetics cybernetics''' ref name mm ref name hvf ref name hvf foerster h von cybernetics cybernetics k krippendorff ed communication control new york ny gordon breach pp ref rarely '''new cybernetics''' ref name dupuy jean pierre dupuy autonomy social


reality contribution systems theory theory society elias l khalil kenneth e boulding eds ''evolution order complexity'' ref ref name gp gordon pask introduction different kinds cybernetics gertrudis van de vijver ed new perspectives cybernetics springer netherlands pp ref '' 'second cybernetics''' terms often used interchangeably also stress different aspects specifically especially phrased cybernetics cybernetics second order cybernetics recursive application cybernetics closely associated mead 's address american society cybernetics


cybernetics practiced way second order cybernetics cybernetics may used interchangeably qualifier 'second order' used drawing distinctions critiquing approaches eg differentiating purely technological applications way emphasising reflexivity additionally especially referred new cybernetics second order cybernetics may refer substantial developments direction scope taken cybernetics onwards greater focus social philosophical concerns initial development second order cybernetics took shape late mid keynote address inaugural


organise light ideas concerned practice cybernetics asc subject cybernetic critique idea returned ranulph glanville time president society ref name rg glanville ranulph introduction conference cybernetics cybernetics kybernetes ref mead 's paper published collection edited heinz von foerster ref name mm mead uncontactable due field work time foerster titled paper cybernetics cybernetics


initial development second order cybernetics consolidated mid series significant developments publications included publication cybernetics cybernetics book edited foerster ref name hvf developed course option bcl examining various texts cybernetics according principals proposed ref name hvf autopoiesis developed biologists humberto maturana francisco varela conversation theory developed gordon pask bernard scott dionysius kallikourdis ref name pask ct radical constructivism developed ernst von glasersfeld explorations self reference including foerster 's eigen forms glanville 's


theory objects participant observers key concept second order cybernetics observers actors designers modellers users understood participants within systems engaged contrast detachment implied objectivity conventional scientific practice includes cyberneticians inclusion practice cybernetics well inclusion participants within consideration design systems generally second order cybernetics' emphasis participation inclusion led affinities overlaps action research ref name su design ref name


rg try glanville r try fail fail better cybernetics design design cybernetics kybernetes https doiorg ref ref name bs creative arts ref name ts scholte proposal role arts new phase second order cybernetics kybernetes vol pp https doiorg k ref second order cybernetics continues use terms observing observers following foerster 's formulation ranulph glanville suggested using terms composition composers instead better indicate active role participation ethical implications


critique objectivity developed second order cybernetics led concern ethical issues foerster developed critique morality ethical terms arguing ethics remain implicit action ref name hvf ethics foerster heinz von ethics second order cybernetics cybernetics human knowing ref foerster 's position described ethics enabling ethics form recursive ethical questioning varela published short book ethical know glanville identified number desirable ethical qualities implicit cybernetic devices black box distinction autonomy conversation others


drawn connections design critical systems heuristics relationship first order cybernetics diagram stewart brand 's conversation margaret mead gregory bateson noting norbert wiener understood participant observers contrast detached input output approach typical engineering relationship first order second order cybernetics compared isaac newton 's view universe albert einstein ref name rg newton description remains appropriate usable many circumstances even flights moon first order cybernetics also provides everything


needed many circumstances way newtonian view understood special restricted version einstein view first order cybernetics may understood special restricted version second order cybernetics distinction first second order cybernetics sometimes used form periodisation however obscure continuity earlier later cybernetics ref name bs sweeting b design research variety second order cybernetic practice riegler k h ller umpleby eds new horizons second order cybernetics pp world


engineering cybernetics ref name su pask summarized differences old new cybernetics shift emphasis ref name ac alessio cavallaro annemarie jonson darren tofts ''prefiguring cyberculture intellectual history'' mit press p ref information coupling reproduction order order schroedinger generation order noise von foerster transmission data conversation external observation participant observation third higher orders see definition third higher orders cybernetics next step development discipline


widespread acceptance attempts define third order cybernetics concerned embedding participant observer second order cybernetics explicitly within broader social ecological contexts foerster discouraged definition higher orders regarding distinction first second either regarding position cyberneticians regard system concern heinz von foerster biological computer laboratory second order cybernetics closely identified heinz von foerster work biological computer laboratory bcl university illinois urbana champaign foerster attributes origin second order cybernetics


attempts cyberneticians construct model mind blockquote brain required write theory brain follows theory brain aspirations completeness account writing theory even fascinating writer theory account translated domain cybernetics cybernetician entering domain account activity cybernetics becomes cybernetics cybernetics ' 'second order cybernetics'' blockquote associated theories


heinz von foerster inextricably linked second order cybernetics radical constructivism radical constructivism approach epistemology developed initially ernst von glasersfeld closely associated second order cybernetics especially work heinz von foerster humberto maturana practice application creative arts second order cybernetics point reference creative arts including theatre studies music theory practitioners creative arts whose work associated second order cybernetics include roy ascott herbert br n tom scholte design


learning development educational technology radical constructivism applied educational research practice challenges traditional assumptions learning teaching family therapy ideas second order cybernetics influential systemic constructivist approaches family therapy bateson 's work mental research institute palo alto key influence family therapists influenced aspects second order cybernetics include lynn hoffman bradford keeney paul watzlawick management organisation organizational cybernetics distinguished management cybernetics use many terms


interpret according another philosophy systems thinking organizational cybernetics contrast offers significant break assumption hard approach full flowering organizational cybernetics represented beer 's viable system model organizational cybernetics studies organizational design regulation self regulation organizations systems theory perspective also takes social dimension consideration researchers economics public administration political science focus changes institutions organisation mechanisms social steering various levels sub national national european international different sectors including private semi private public sectors


latter sector emphasised ref name nsm http wwwrunl imr programmes programmes oc organisational cybernetics nijmegen school management netherlands ref mathematics logic second order cybernetics influenced george spencer brown 's laws form later developed francisco varela calculus self reference ref name rg mathematicians logicians working second order cybernetics include gotthard g nther lars l fgren louis kauffman sociocybernetics political science unlike predecessor new cybernetics concerns interaction autonomous political actors subgroups practical reflexive consciousness subject produces


reproduces structure political community dominant consideration recursiveness self reference political action regard expression political consciousness ways systems build upon ref name phj peter harries jones self organizing polity epistemological analysis political life laurent dobuzinskis ''canadian journal political science'' vol jun pp ref geyer van der zouwen discuss number characteristics emerging new cybernetics one characteristic new cybernetics views information constructed


new emphasis communication several systems trying steer ref name kb kenneth bailey ''sociology new systems theory toward theoretical synthesis'' p ref geyer j van der zouwen recognize four themes sociocybernetics new cybernetics ref name gz rf geyer g vd zouwen sociocybernetics ''cybernetics applied systems'' cv negoita ed p ref epistemological foundation science observer observer system feedback feedforward loops constructed observer objects observed observer


transition classical rather mechanistic first order cybernetics modern second order cybernetics characterized differences summarized gordon pask problem shifts cybernetics result thorough reconceptualization many easily accepted taken granted concepts yield new notions stability temporality independence structure versus behaviour many concepts actor oriented systems approach promulgated made possible bridge micro macro gap social science thinking reformulation sociocybernetics actor oriented observer dependent self steering time variant paradigm human systems clearly articulated geyer van


der zouwen stated sociocybernetics social cybernetics could defined application general systems approach social science social cybernetics indeed one way knowledge transfer implies feed back loop area application social sciences theory applied namely cybernetics consequently sociocybernetics indeed viewed part new cybernetics result application social science problems cybernetics changed moved originally rather mechanistic point


group therapy organisations american society cybernetics department contemporary history university vienna department contemporary history university vienna holds archives several second order cyberneticians including ranulph glanville heinz von foerster gordon pask stuart umpleby well archive american society cybernetics school designing society school designing society project teachers performers artists activists influenced cybernetics question would consider desirable society given


serious playful thoughtful discussion founders guests include susan parenti mark enslin herbert brun larry richards premise school social change realized transformation current new society change system improvements current society changes system journals journals focuses second order cybernetics include constructivist foundations cybernetics human knowing limitations criticism andrew pickering criticised second order cybernetics form linguistic turn moving away performative practices finds valuable


earlier cybernetics pickering however approvingly reference work figures associated second order cybernetics bateson pask idea participant observers fall within scope second order cybernetics broadly considered see also autonomous agency theory constructivism philosophy science constructivism psychological school double loop learning meta system systems systemics systems science viable system theory notes references reading bunnell pille dancing ambiguity cybernetics human knowing chapman jocelyn ed love cybernetics personal narratives cyberneticians routledge foerster heinz von observing systems


seaside ca intersystems publications foerster heinz von understanding understanding essays cybernetics cognition new york ny springer verlag foerster heinz von albert ller karl h ller beginning heaven earth name seven days second order cybernetics translated elinor rooks michael kasenbacher new york ny fordham university press glanville ranulph living cybernetics kybernetes https doiorg k glasersfeld ernst von declaration american society cybernetics cybernetics applied systems edited cv negiota new york marcel decker krippendorff klaus cybernetics reflexive turns


cybernetics human knowing maturana humberto r francisco j varela tree knowledge biological roots human understanding boston shambhala ller albert karl h ller eds unfinished revolution heinz von foerster biological computer laboratory bcl vienna edition echoraum ller karl h new science cybernetics evolution living research designs vol methodology vienna edition echoraum poerksen bernhard certainty uncertainty dialogues introducing constructivism ingram pub services riegler alexander karl h ller stuart umpleby eds new horizons


second order cybernetics series knots everything vol singapore world scientific scott bernard second order cybernetics historical introduction kybernetes https doiorg external links international sociological association isa https sociocyberneticsorg research committee sociocybernetics isa rc http pcpvubacbe papers cybernetics epstpdf cybernetics second order cybernetics http wwwpangarocom nofo new order old rise second order cybernetics implications machine intelligence https constructivistinfo constructivist foundations international peer reviewed academic journal focuses constructivist approaches science philosophy including radical constructivism enactivism second order cybernetics theory autopoiesis neurophenomenology https webarchiveorg web http wwwnickgreenpwpblueyondercouk gpprogpdf heinz von foerster 's self organization https webarchiveorg web http attainable utopiascom tiki cyberneticorders


'''mathematical psychology''' approach psychological research based mathematical modeling perceptual thought cognitive motor processes establishment law like rules relate quantifiable stimulus characteristics quantifiable behavior practice often constituted task performance mathematical approach used goal deriving hypotheses exact thus yield stricter empirical validations five major research areas mathematical psychology learning memory perception psychophysics choice decision making language thinking measurement scaling ref name batchelder ref although psychology independent subject science

Social science
Psychology
Mathematical psychology


topic mathematical psychology mathematical psychology therefore closely related psychometrics however psychometrics concerned individual differences population structure mostly static variables mathematical psychology focuses process models perceptual cognitive motor processes inferred 'average individual' furthermore psychometrics investigates stochastic dependence structure variables observed population mathematical psychology almost exclusively focuses modeling data obtained experimental paradigms therefore even closely related experimental psychology cognitive psychology psychonomics like computational neuroscience econometrics mathematical psychology theory often uses statistical optimality


mathematics psychology th century choice decision making theory rooted development probability theory blaise pascal considered situations gambling extended pascal 's wager th century nicolas bernoulli proposed st petersburg paradox decision making daniel bernoulli gave solution laplace proposed modification solution later bayes published paper essay towards solving problem doctrine chances milestone bayesian statistics robert hooke worked modeling human memory precursor study


memory mathematics psychology th century research developments german england th century made psychology new academic subject since german approach emphasized experiments investigation psychological processes human share england approach measurement individual differences applications mathematics also different german wilhelm wundt established first experimental psychology laboratory math german psychology mainly applied sensory psychophysics ernst weber created first mathematical law mind weber 's law based variety


experiments gustav fechner contributed math theories sensations perceptions one fechner 's law modifies weber 's law mathematical modeling long history psychology starting th century ernst weber gustav fechner among first apply successful mathematical technique functional equations physics psychological processes thereby established fields experimental psychology general psychophysics particular researchers astronomy th century mapping distances stars denoting exact time star 's passing


cross hair telescope lack automatic registration instruments modern era time measurements relied entirely human response speed noted small systematic differences times measured different astronomers first systematically studied german astronomer friedrich bessel bessel constructed ''personal equations'' measurements basic response speed would cancel individual differences astronomical calculations independently physicist hermann von helmholtz measured reaction times determine nerve conduction speed developed resonance theory hearing young helmholtz theory color vision


two lines work came together research dutch physiologist f c donders student j j de jaager recognized potential reaction times less objectively quantifying amount time elementary mental operations required donders envisioned employment ''mental chronometry'' scientifically infer elements complex cognitive activity measurement ' 'simple reaction time'' ref name leahey ref although developments sensation perception johann herbart developed system mathematical theories cognitive area understand mental process consciousness origin english psychology


traced theory evolution darwin emergence english psychology francis galton interested individual differences humans psychological variables math english psychology mainly statistics work methods galton foundation psychometrics galton introduced bivariate normal distribution modeling traits individual also investigated measurement error built model also developed stochastic branching process examine extinction family names also tradition interest studying intelligence english


psychology started galton james mckeen cattell alfred binet developed tests intelligence first psychological laboratory established germany wilhelm wundt amply used donders' ideas however findings came laboratory hard replicate soon attributed method introspection wundt introduced problems resulted individual differences response speed found astronomers although wundt seem take interest individual variations kept focus study ''general human mind'' wundt 's us student james mckeen cattell


fascinated differences started work stay england failure wundt 's method introspection led rise different schools thought wundt 's laboratory directed towards conscious human experience line work fechner weber intensity stimuli united kingdom influence anthropometric developments led francis galton interest focussed individual differences humans psychological variables line work bessel cattell soon adopted methods galton helped laying foundation psychometrics th


century many statistical methods developed even th century charles spearman invented factor analysis studies individual differences variance covariance german psychology english psychology combined taken united states statistical methods dominated field beginning century two important statistical developments structural equation modeling sem analysis variance anova since factor analysis unable make causal inferences method structural equation modeling developed sewall wright correlational data infer causality still major research area today


statistical methods formed psychometrics psychometric society established journal ''psychometrika'' published since united states behaviorism arose opposition introspectionism associated reaction time research turned focus psychological research entirely learning theory ref name leahey europe introspection survived gestalt psychology behaviorism dominated american psychology end second world war largely refrained inference mental processes formal theories mostly absent except vision hearing war developments engineering mathematical logic computability theory computer science mathematics


military need understand human performance limitations brought together experimental psychologists mathematicians engineers physicists economists mix different disciplines mathematical psychology arose especially developments signal processing information theory linear systems filter theory game theory stochastic processes mathematical logic gained large influence psychological thinking ref name leahey ref name batchelder two seminal papers learning theory ''psychological review'' helped establish field world still dominated behaviorists paper bush mosteller instigated linear operator approach learning paper estes


started stimulus sampling tradition psychological theorizing two papers presented first detailed formal accounts data learning experiments mathematical modeling learning process greatly developed behavioral learning theory flourishing one development stimulus sampling theory williams k estes linear operator models robert r bush frederick mosteller signal processing detection theory broadly used perception psychophysics nonsensory area cognition von neumann 's book ''the theory games economic behavior'' establish importance game theory decision making r


duncan luce howard raiffa contributed choice decision making area area language thinking comes spotlight development computer science linguistics especially information theory computation theory chomsky proposed model linguistics computational hierarchy theory allen newell herbert simon proposed model human solving problems development artificial intelligence human computer interface active areas computer science psychology psychometricians emphasized structure measurement error development high power statistical methods measurement psychological quantities


little psychometric work concerned structure psychological quantities measured cognitive factors behind response data scott suppes studied relationship structure data structure numerical systems represent data coombs constructed formal cognitive models respondent measurement situation rather statistical data processing algorithms example unfolding model another breakthrough development new form psychophysical scaling function along new methods collecting psychophysical data like stevens' power law saw surge mathematical


theories psychological processes including luce 's theory choice tanner swets' introduction signal detection theory human stimulus detection miller 's approach information processing ref name batchelder ref end number mathematical psychologists increased handful tenfold counting psychometricians concentrated indiana university michigan pennsylvania stanford ref name batchelder ref name estes http wwwmathpsychorg indexphpoption com content view article id itemid estes w k history society ref regularly invited us social science research counsel teach summer workshops mathematics social scientists stanford


university promoting collaboration better define field mathematical psychology mathematical models brought together sequence volumes edited luce bush galanter two readings three handbooks series volumes turned helpful development field summer need felt journal theoretical mathematical studies areas psychology excluding work mainly factor analytical initiative led r c atkinson r r bush w k estes r luce p suppes resulted


appearance first issue ''journal mathematical psychology'' january ref name estes influence developments computer science logic language theory modeling gravitated towards computational mechanisms devices examples latter constitute called cognitive architectures eg production rule systems act r well connectionist systems neural networks important mathematical expressions relations physical characteristics stimuli subjective perception weber fechner law ekman 's law stevens 's power law thurstone 's law comparative judgment theory signal detection borrowed radar engineering matching law rescorla wagner


renewal models simple decision cascade model level change race model recruitment model sprt decision field theory memory scanning visual search push stack serial exhaustive search ses model error response times fast guess model sequential effects linear operator model learning linear operator model stochastic learning theory measurement theory theory conjoint measurement journals organizations central journals ''journal mathematical psychology'' ''british journal mathematical statistical psychology'' three annual conferences field annual meeting ''society mathematical psychology'' us annual european mathematical psychology group meeting


paper prototype made part design process video game ''diamond trust london'' '''game design''' art applying design aesthetics create game entertainment educational exercise experimental purposes increasingly elements principles game design also applied interactions form gamification game designer developer robert zubek defines game design breaking elements says following gameplay interaction player mechanics systems mechanics systems

Human physical performance and recreation


rules objects game player experience users feel 're playing game games board games card games dice games casino games role playing games sports video games war games simulation games benefit principles game design academically game design part game studies game theory studies strategic decision making primarily non game situations games historically inspired seminal research fields probability artificial intelligence economics optimization theory applying game design current research topic metadesign history sports see history


commercial game publishing late th century many games formerly evolved via folk processes became commercial properties often custom scoring pads preprepared material example similar public domain games generala yacht yatzy led commercial game yahtzee mid today many commercial games taboo balderdash pictionary time 's descended traditional parlour games adapting traditional games become commercial properties example game design similarly many sports soccer baseball result folk processes others designed


basketball invented james naismith new media technological advances provided new media games throughout history printing press allowed packs playing cards adapted mahjong tiles mass produced leading many new card games accurate topographic maps produced lithographs provided free prussian officers helped popularize wargaming cheap bookbinding printed labels wrapped around cardboard led mass produced board games custom boards inexpensive hollow lead figurine casting contributed development miniature wargaming cheap custom dice led poker dice flying discs led disc golf ultimate personal computers


contributed popularity computer games leading wide availability video game consoles video games smart phones led proliferation mobile games first games new medium frequently adaptations older games pong one first widely disseminated video games adapted table tennis later games often exploit distinctive properties new medium adapting older games creating original games new media examples game design theory game studies gaming theory discipline deals critical study games game


design players role society culture prior late twentieth century academic study games rare limited fields history anthropology video game revolution took early academic interest games resulting field draws diverse methodologies schools thought influences may characterized broadly three ways social science approach humanities approach industry engineering approach broadly speaking social scientific approach concerned question games


people using tools methods surveys controlled laboratory experiments ethnography researchers investigated positive negative impacts playing games could people sociologically informed research sought move away simplistic ideas gaming either 'negative' 'positive' rather seeking understand role location complexities everyday life ref name crawford ref general terms humanities approach concerned question meanings made games using tools methods interviews ethnographies participant observation researchers investigated various


roles videogames play people 's lives activities together meaning assign experiences industry perspective lot game studies research seen academic response videogame industry 's questions regarding products creates sells main question approach deals summarized create better games accompanying makes game good good taken mean many different things including providing entertaining engaging experience easy learn play innovative novel


experiences different approaches studying problem included looking describing design games extracting guidelines rules thumb making better games strategic decision making game theory study strategic decision making specifically study mathematical models conflict cooperation intelligent rational decision makers alternative term suggested descriptive name discipline ''interactive decision theory'' subject first addressed zero sum games one person 's gains exactly equal net losses participant participants today however game theory applies wide


range behavioral relations developed umbrella term logical side decision science games studied game theory well defined mathematical objects fully defined game must specify following elements ''players'' game ''information'' ''actions'' available player decision point ''payoffs'' outcome rasmusen refers four essential elements acronym papi ref name r eric rasmusen ''games information'' th ed http wwwwileycom wileycda wileytitle productcd ehep html description https booksgooglecom booksid xemujwnbmuc printsec fnd pg pr chapter preview br nbsp nbsp david kreps ''game theory economic modelling'' http econpapersrepecorg bookchap oxpobooks htm description br


nbsp nbsp r aumann hart ed ''handbook game theory economic applications'' v http wwwsciencedirectcom science handbooks ch v http wwwsciencedirectcom science article pii ch ref game theorist typically uses elements along solution concept choosing deduce set equilibrium strategies player strategies employed player profit unilaterally deviating strategy equilibrium strategies determine equilibrium game stable state either one outcome occurs set outcomes occur known probability design elements games


characterized player ref name craw ref player experiences often referred gameplay major key elements identified context tools rules define overall context game tools play games often classified components required play eg miniatures ball cards board pieces computer places use leather well established ball popular game piece throughout recorded history resulting worldwide popularity ball games rugby basketball football cricket


tennis volleyball tools idiosyncratic certain region many countries europe instance unique standard decks playing cards games chess may traced primarily development evolution game pieces many game tools tokens meant represent things token may pawn board play money intangible item point scored games hide seek tag utilise obvious tool rather interactivity defined environment games similar rules


may different gameplay environment altered example hide seek school building differs game park auto race radically different depending track street course even cars rule development whereas games often characterized tools often defined rules rules subject variations changes enough change rules usually results new game exceptions games deliberately involve changing rules even


certain point storyline roleplay games single multiplayer games require multiple players single player games unique respect type challenges player faces unlike game multiple players competing reach game 's goal single player game element environment one 's skills time chance also true cooperative games multiple players share common goal win lose together many games described single player cooperative could alternatively described


designer often drastically affect narrative elements game however due lack unified standardized teaching understanding narrative elements games individual interpretations methods terminology vary wildly narrative elements games created unconsciously intuitively however general rule game narratives increase complexity scale player choice game mechanics increase complexity scale one example removing players ability directly affect plot limited time lack player choice necessitates increase mechanical complexity


could used metaphor symbolize depression felt character narrative luck strategy game 's tools rules result requiring skill strategy luck combination thereof classified accordingly games skill include games physical skill wrestling tug war hopscotch target shooting horseshoes games mental skill checkers chess games strategy include checkers chess go arimaa tic tac toe often require special equipment play games chance include gambling games blackjack mah jongg roulette etc


well snakes ladders rock paper scissors require equipment cards dice games contain two three elements example american football baseball involve physical skill strategy tiddlywinks poker monopoly combine strategy chance many card board games combine three trick taking games involve mental skill strategy element chance many strategic board games risk settlers catan carcassonne use educational tool learning play children develop social cognitive skills mature emotionally


revision additional design design may needed development team game designer game designer inventor person invents game 's concept central mechanisms rules often game designer also invents game 's title game n't abstract theme sometimes activities done game publisher designer maybe dictated licensed property designing game based film game developer game developer person fleshes details game 's design oversees testing revises


game response player feedback often game designer also developer although publishers extensive development games suit particular target audience licensing game designer larger games collectible card games video games team used designer developer roles usually split among multiple people game artist game artist artist creates art one types games many graphic elements games created designer producing prototype game revised


developer based testing refined artist combined artwork game prepared publication release video games game artists responsible aspects game development call visual art ref name gamespot http ukgamespotcom features want artist gamespot uk want artist accessed november ref game artists often vital credited role playing games collectible card games video games ref name artofvideogames http americanartsiedu exhibitions archive games exhibitions art video games accessed november ref concept game concept idea


game briefly describing core play mechanisms players represent win lose game concept may pitched game publisher similar manner film ideas pitched potential film producers alternatively game publishers holding game license intellectual property media may solicit game concepts several designers picking one design game typically paying designer advance future royalties design design game concept fleshed mechanisms specified terms components boards cards screen entities etc rules


play sequence possible player actions defined well game starts ends winning condition video games storyboards screen mockups may created prototype game prototype draft version game used testing typically creating prototype marks shift game design game development testing although prototyping regards human computer interaction interaction design studied use prototyping game design remained relatively unexplored 's known game design clear benefits prototyping exploring new


place focus groups test consumer reactions publication testing various balance issues may identified requiring changes game 's design video game testing software testing process quality control video games ref name novak moore novak p ref ref name oxland oxland p ref primary function game testing discovery documentation software defects aka bugs interactive entertainment software testing highly technical field requiring computing expertise analytic competence critical evaluation skills endurance ref name oxland oxland p ref issues different types games pose different game design issues board games charles darrow 's


patent ''monopoly'' includes specific design elements developed prototype phase prototypes common later stages board game design prototype circles many cities today provide opportunity designers play critique 's games ref name neyfakh ref name wadley board game design development rules presentational aspects board game player takes part game player 's self subjection rules create sense purpose duration game ref name neyfakh neyfakh leon quest fun sometimes addictive new technology


comes simple cardboard box ''boston globe'' march ref maintaining players' interest throughout gameplay experience goal board game design ref name wadley wadley carma rules game takes invent next 'monopoly' ''deseret news'' november ref achieve board game designers emphasize different aspects social interaction strategy competition target players differing needs providing short versus long play luck versus skill ref name wadley beyond board game design reflects culture board game produced ancient board


games known today years old frequently abstract character design primarily focused core set simple rules still played today games like go c bc mancala c ad chess c ad gone many presentational rule variations case chess example new variants developed constantly focus certain aspects game variation 's sake traditional board games date nineteenth early twentieth century whereas ancient board game design primarily focused rules alone traditional board


games often influenced victorian mores academic eg history geography moral didacticism important design features traditional games puritan associations dice devil meant early american game designers eschewed use board games entirely ref name johnson johnson bruce e board games affordable abundant boxed amusements ' recall cultural climate era ''country living'' december ref even traditional games use dice like ''monopoly'' based ''the landlord 's game'' rooted educational efforts explain political concepts masses


board game design began emphasize amusement education characters comic strips radio programmes television shows began featured board game adaptations ref name johnson recent developments modern board game design traced germany led increased popularity german style board games also known eurogames designer games design emphasis board games give players meaningful choices ref name neyfakh manifested eliminating elements like randomness luck replaced skill strategy resource competition


removing potential players fall irreversibly behind early stages game reducing number rules possible player options produce alan r moon described elegant game design ref name neyfakh concept elegant game design identified ''the boston globe'' 's leon neyfakh related mihaly csikszentmihalyi 's concept flow book flow psychology optimal experience ref name neyfakh modern technological advances democratizing effect board game production services like kickstarter providing designers essential startup capital tools


mahjong game similar thought distant ancestor western card game rummy western dominoes games believed developed asian tile games th century ''magic gathering'' first collectible card game trading card game line card board games clear cut many card games solitaire involve playing cards form tableau spatial layout board many board games turn uses specialized cards provide random events chance cards monopoly game


central mechanism driving play many card driven wargames cards typically shuffled revealed gradually play card games involve randomness either initially play hidden information cards player 's hand contrast many board games game 's current state visible participants even though players may also small amount private information letter tiles player 's rack scrabble players play cards revealing information interacting previous plays


central card game design partnership card games bridge rules limiting communication players team become important part game design idea limited communication extended cooperative card games hanabi dice games set poker dice dice cup dice games among oldest known games often associated gambling non gambling dice games yatzy poker dice yahtzee became popular mid th century line dice board games clear cut


dice often used randomization devices board games monopoly risk serving central drivers play games backgammon pachisi dice games differ card games throw dice independent event whereas odds given card drawn affected previous cards drawn revealed deck dice game design often centers around forming scoring combinations managing rolls either limiting number yahtzee introducing press luck element ca n't stop


casino games casino games designed mathematically favor house house edge slot machine range widely percent casino game design entail creation entirely new casino game creation variation existing casino game creation new side bet existing casino game ref name lubin lubin dan casino game design cocktail napkin sketch casino floor available http gamingmathcom misc casino game designpdf retrieved december ref casino game mathematician michael shackleford noted much common casino game designers today


make successful variations entirely new casino games ref name shackleford shackleford michael http wizardofoddscom gambling ten commandments game inventors ten commandments game inventors wizardofoddscom retrieved december ref gambling columnist john grochowski points emergence community style slot machines mid example successful variation existing casino game type unlike majority games designed primarily interest player one central aims casino game design optimize house advantage maximize revenue gamblers successful casino game design works provide entertainment player revenue gambling


house maximise player entertainment casino games designed simple easy learn rules emphasize winning ie whose rules enumerate many victory conditions loss conditions ref name shackleford provide players variety different gameplay postures eg card hands ref name lubin player entertainment value also enhanced providing gamblers familiar gaming elements eg dice cards new casino games ref name lubin ref name shackleford maximise success gambling house casino games designed easy croupiers operate pit managers oversee ref name lubin ref name shackleford two fundamental rules casino game


design games must non fraudable ref name lubin including nearly possible immune advantage gambling ref name shackleford must mathematically favor house winning shackleford suggests optimum casino game design give house edge smaller ref name shackleford role playing games design role playing games requires establishment setting characters basic gameplay rules mechanics role playing game produced additional design elements often devised players many instances example character creation left players likewise progression


role playing game determined large part gamemaster whose individual campaign design may directed one several role playing game theories central core tabletop role playing game theory different people want different things games probably famous category rpg theory gns theory assumes people want one three things game better interestingly challenging game create interesting story better simulation words better rules support worldbuilding gns theory abandoned


creator partly neglects emotional investment partly n't work properly techniques people use dice pools better create game want consistent goal agreement makes good game 's overarching theory generally agreed sports sports games made rules sport game portrays video games prototypes created pre production design phase often used proof concept implementation new rules gameplay features video game design


process takes place pre production phase video game development video game industry game design describes creation content rules video game ref name brathwaite ref goal process game designer provide players opportunity make meaningful decisions relation playing game ref name brathwaite elements video game design establishment fundamental gameplay rules provide framework within players operate addition narrative structures provide players reason care playing game establish


rules narrative internally consistent game world created requiring visual audio programming development world character level design amount work required accomplish often demands use design team may divided smaller game design disciplines order maintain internal consistency teams specialized software design document known game design document sometimes even broader scope game bible document provides overall contextual guidance ambient mood appropriate tone less tangible aspects game world important aspects


burgun keith ''game design theory new philosophy understanding games'' publisher k peters crc press costikyan greg ''uncertainty games'' mit press elias george skaff ''characteristics games'' mit press hofer margaret ''the games played golden age board table games'' princeton architectural press huizinga johan ''homo ludens study play element culture'' beacon press kankaanranta marja helena ''design use serious games intelligent systems control automation science engineering '' springer norman donald ''the design everyday things'' basic books peek


steven ''the game inventor 's handbook'' betterway books peterson jon ''playing world'' unreason press salen tekinbad katie ''rules play game design fundamentals'' mit press schell jesse ''the art game design book lenses'' crc press tinsman brian ''the game inventor 's guidebook invent sell board games card games role playing games everything '' morgan james publishing woods stewart ''eurogames design culture play modern european board games'' mcfarland zubek robert august ''elements game design'' mit press game theory


continuously however distinct tcp syn flood vulnerability land attacks since found services like snmp windows tcp kerberos global services systems design flaws would allow device accept request wire appearing causing repeated replies vulnerable systems list vulnerable operating systems aix amigaos amitcp kickstart beos preview release powermac bsdi digital vms freebsd release fixed required updates hp external jetdirect print servers ibm os irix

Applied science
Military sciences
Battlespace
Land


mac os mactcp opentransport netapp nfs server netbsd fixed required updates nextstep novell openvms ucx qnx rhapsody developer release sco openserver smp sco unixware sunos windows nt xp sp prevention firewalls intercept discard poison packet thus protecting host attack operating systems released updates fixing security hole see also slowloris computer security high orbit ion cannon low orbit ion cannon redos


denial service attack references external links http insecureorg sploits landipdoshtml insecureorg 's original post attack http wwwinternetnewscom security articlephp article xp 's vulnerability denial service attacks types cyberattacks


predecessor species originated bodies water areas land meets large bodies water called coastal zones division land water fundamental concept humans demarcation line land water vary local jurisdiction factors maritime boundary one example political demarcation variety natural boundaries exist help clearly define water meets land solid rock landforms easier demarcate marshy swampy boundaries clear point land ends body water


heath' word many cognates languages 'an open space' 'enclosure church' 'heath' 'waste land heath' 'fallow land' etymological evidence within gothic usage suggests original meaning ''land'' 'a definite portion earth 's surface owned individual home nation' meaning extended 'solid surface earth' original meaning associated ''country'' continuous area land surrounded ocean called landmass although may often written


one word distinguish usage land mass measure land area also used two words landmasses include supercontinents continents islands four major continuous landmasses earth afro eurasia americas antarctica australia land capable ploughed used grow crops called arable land country region may referred motherland fatherland homeland people many countries places names incorporating land eg iceland greenland new zealand history earth hadean eon earth earliest material found


solar system dated billion years ago ref name bowring housch ref therefore earth must formed accretion around time ref name age earth ref primordial earth formed formation evolution solar system bodies occurred tandem sun theory solar nebula partitions volume molecular cloud gravitational collapse begins spin flatten circumstellar disc planets grow tandem star nebula contains gas ice grains dust including primordial nuclides nebular theory planetesimals commence


forming particulate matter accrues cohesive clumping gravity assembly primordial earth proceeded ref name nature ref earth 's atmosphere oceans formed volcanic activity outgassing included water vapor origin world 's oceans condensation augmented water ice delivered asteroids proto planets comets ref name watersource ref model atmospheric greenhouse gases kept oceans freezing newly forming sun luminosity ref name asp ref earth 's magnetic field established helped prevent atmosphere stripped away solar


likely rapid growth ref name tp ref early earth history ref name rg ref followed long term steady continental area ref name science ref ref name jaes ref ref name ajes ref continents formed plate tectonics process ultimately driven continuous loss heat earth 's interior time scales lasting hundreds millions years supercontinents formed broken apart three times roughly million years ago one earliest known supercontinents rodinia began break apart continents later recombined form pannotia finally pangaea also broke apart ref name ref area land area also known land size


refers total surface area land geographical region country may include discontinuous sections land islands earth 's total planimetric flat land area approximately total surface including covered ice water covers approximately planimetric earth 's surface mainly form oceans ice formations proportion decreased land 's increased terrain cover land cover physical material surface earth class wikitable style text align center margin em auto land cover millions


hectares million ha nbsp km sup sup small fao code small type share small change small note artificial surfaces including urban associated areas herbaceous crops arable land woody crops arable land multiple layered crops arable land tree covered areas large decrease mangroves shrub covered areas large decrease


shrubs herbaceous vegetation aquatic regularly flooded sparsely natural vegetated areas terrestrial barren land large decrease permanent snow glaciers inland water bodies coastal water bodies intertidal areas grassland total land area terrain


topsoil relief increase total land cover approximately million hectares gha proportions remain ref name mdpi soil systems ref cultural perspectives creation myths many religions recall story involving creation world supernatural deity deities including accounts wherein land separated oceans air earth often personified deity particular goddess many cultures mother goddess also portrayed fertility deity aztecs earth called ''tonantzin'' mother incas earth called ''pachamama'' mother


earth chinese earth goddess hou tu similar gaia greek goddess personifying earth bhuma devi goddess earth hinduism influenced graha norse mythology earth giantess j r mother thor daughter annar ancient egyptian mythology different cultures earth geb male sky nut female past varying levels belief flat earth jewish conception flat earth found biblical post biblical times ref group note picture universe


talmudic texts earth center creation heaven hemisphere spread biblical writings genesis creation story various psalms extol firmament stars sun earth give similar explanations hebrews saw earth almost flat surface consisting solid liquid part sky realm light heavenly bodies move earth rested cornerstones could moved except jehovah earthquake according hebrews sun


restricted intellectual elite topic overview judaism encyclopedia science religion ed j wentzel vrede van huyssteen vol new york macmillan reference pp hava tirosh samuelson ref imago mundi'' babylonian map oldest known world map th century bc babylonia early egyptian mesopotamian thought world portrayed flat disk floating ocean egyptian universe pictured rectangular box north south orientation slightly concave surface egypt center similar model found homeric account th century bc


okeanos personified body water surrounding circular surface earth begetter life possibly gods biblical earth flat disc floating water ref name berlin ref pyramid texts coffin texts reveal ancient egyptians believed nun ocean circular body surrounding ''nbwt'' term meaning dry lands islands therefore believed similar ancient near eastern circular earth cosmography surrounded water spherical form earth suggested early greek philosophers belief espoused pythagoras contrary popular


belief educated people middle ages believe earth flat misconception often called myth flat earth evidenced thinkers thomas aquinas european belief spherical earth widespread point time prior circumnavigation planet introduction space flight belief spherical earth based observations secondary effects earth 's shape parallels drawn shape planets beyond earth planets known humans either gaseous jovian planets solid


terrestrial planets terrestrial planets include mercury venus earth mars inner planets rocky surface metal interiors jovian planets consist jupiter saturn uranus neptune planets larger land surface small rocky core surrounded large thick atmosphere gas giants jupiter saturn whose planetary geology well understood thought surface layers composed liquid hydrogen rather solid land possibility uranus neptune ice giants possessing hot highly compressed supercritical water thick atmospheres hypothesised


also bought sold although ownership extraterrestrial real estate recognized authority climate land earth interacts influences climate heavily since surface land heats cools faster air water ref name pbs learning media pbs learning media http wwwpbslearningmediaorg resource ttv sciessland effect land masses climate effect land masses climate ref latitude elevation topography reflectivity land use varying effects latitude land influence much solar radiation reaches surface high latitudes receive less solar radiation low latitudes ref name pbs learning media height


land important creating transforming airflow precipitation earth large landforms mountain ranges divert wind energy make air parcel less dense able hold less heat ref name pbs learning media air rises cooling effect causes condensation precipitation reflectivity earth called planetary albedo type land cover receives energy sun affects amount energy reflected transferred earth ref name alan betts atmospheric research alan betts atmospheric research http alanbettscom understanding climate change question climate energy balance earth climate energy balance earth ref vegetation


relatively low albedo meaning vegetated surfaces good absorbers sun 's energy forests albedo grasslands albedo comparison sandy deserts albedo ref name alan betts atmospheric research land use humans also plays role regional global climate densely populated cities warmer create urban heat islands effects precipitation cloud cover temperature region ref name pbs learning media notes references external links http wwwgeomorphorg international association geomorphologists http wwwphysicalgeographynet physicalgeographynet educational website physical geography geography terminology geomorphology


'''systems philosophy''' discipline aimed constructing new philosophy sense worldview using systems concepts discipline first described ervin laszlo book ''introduction systems philosophy toward new paradigm contemporary thought'' described reorientation thought world view ensuing introduction systems new scientific paradigm overview soon laszlo founded systems philosophy placed context ludwig von bertalanffy one founders general system theory categorized three domains within systemics namely

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Systems philosophy


systems science concerned scientific exploration theory systems various sciencesand general system theory doctrine principles applying systems systems technology concerned problems arising modern technology society comprising hardware computers automation self regulating machinery etc software new theoretical developments disciplines systems philosophy concerned new philosophy nature regards world great organization organismic rather mechanistic nature systems philosophy consists four main areas systems


concerned using insights branches systems philosophy solve practical problems especially social philosophical ones term systems philosophy often used convenient shorthand refer philosophy systems usage misleading philosophy systems fact merely element systems philosophy called systems ontology von bertalanffy systems metaphysics laszlo systems ontology provides important grounding systems thinking encompass essential focus systems philosophy articulating worldview grounded systems perspectives


humanistic concerns origin development systems philosophy founding systems philosophy systems philosophy founded ervin laszlo book ''introduction systems philosophy toward new paradigm contemporary thought'' ''foreword'' written ludwig von bertalanffy systems philosophy ervin laszlo 's sense term means using systems perspective model nature reality use solve important human problems laszlo laszlo developed idea behind systems philosophy independently von bertalanffy 's work ''general system theory'' published met


sciences contingent expressions arrangements projections underlying intelligibly ordered reality nature underlying unity way conditions phenomenal reality could understood would provide powerful aid solving pressing sociological problems answering deep philosophical questions subsequent years systems philosophy developed four important ways discussed laszlo evolutionary futures first development due ervin laszlo grounded concern way global resources exploited take global systemic effects account appears


likely catastrophic global consequences work area focused developing models interventions bring human thriving sustainable way global scale laszlo promotes work area club budapest international foundation founder president journal ''world futures journal general evolution'' editor ozbekhan global problematique contemporary laszlo hasan ozbekhan original proposal club rome identified ''continuous critical problems'' ccps intertwine generate global


problematique work shoved aside club humanistic adopted system dynamics approach jay forrester decision resulted volume ''the limits growth'' ozbekhan sat alexander christakis revisited ccps using methodology ''structured dialogic design'' sdd available generated influence map identified leverage points alleviating global problematique subsequently online class flinders university generated influence map bore remarkable similarities produce ozbekhan christakis reynaldo trevino


bethania arango aligned '' global challenges millennium project'' ccps generated actions shows influence among challenges identifies actions addressing leverage points apostel worldview integration second strand inspired leo apostel grounded concern disciplinary worldviews becoming increasingly fragmented thus undermining potential inter disciplinary trans disciplinary work required address world 's pressing social cultural economic problems effort initiated via publication apostel et al book ''worldviews fragmentation


integration'' apostel promoted agenda forming worldviews group founding leo apostel center interdisciplinary studies free university brussels work units focused developing systematic models structure nature worldviews using promote work towards unified perspective world midgley systemic intervention third initiative led gerald midgley reflects concerns developments philosophy language philosophy science philosophy sociology suggested objectivity modelling reality unattainable ideal human values


condition included excluded investigation content selection condition subjects interest delineated boundary critique implication may impossible ''in practice'' obtain objective agreement nature reality rightness theories inspired midgley develop practices systemic interventions could bypass debates focusing ''processes'' involved making boundary judgements practical situations supports systematic intervention practices exploit rather trying unify plurality theories methods reflect different value conditioned perspectives perspective grounded


value relativism dominating academic discourse problematic social individual welfare contrary holistic implications systems philosophy inconsistent universalist aspects moral intuitions spiritual experiences promoting research towards elucidating ontological foundations values normative intuitions incorporate values laszlo 's model natural systems way holistic apostel advocated non reductive midgley advocates empirically supported william james advocated rousseau promotes work center systems philosophy founder director collaborative projects


university hull visiting fellow centre systems studies full member centre spirituality studies controversies systems philosophy relationship systems philosophy general system theory relationship general system theory gst systems philosophy sp subject technical debate within field systems studies gst presented von bertalanffy theory encapsulates models principles laws apply generalized systems subclasses irrespective particular kind nature


component elements relationships forces theory systems less special kind universal principles applying systems general subject matter gst derivation principles valid systems general however early seeking broaden term stand general subject ' 'systems inquiry'' arguing ' 'systems science'' includes systemics 'classical' version gst ' 'systems technology'' ' 'systems philosophy'' aspects gst


seeks elucidate perspective gst foundation upon build systems philosophy view taken systems scientists b la h b n thy regarded systems philosophy one four distinct conceptual domains ' 'systems inquiry'' alongside ''theory'' ''methodology'' ''application'' systems philosopher david rousseau following laszlo reiterated gst provides formal model nature nature ''understanding'' nature nature requires interpretation gst involving concrete commitments systems philosophy aims provide david pouvreau suggested


quandary resolved coinage new term general systemology replace usage gst sense encompassing conception later von bertalanffy envisaged perspectivism vs realism systems philosophy important debate systems philosophy reflects nature natural systems asks whether reality really composed objectively real systems whether concept natural systems merely reflects way humans might regard world terms relative concerns ervin laszlo 's original conception systems philosophy philosophy


natural systems use systems paradigm show nature organized organization gives rise functional properties find exercised processes nature however immediately problematic clearly case natural systems ''open systems'' continuously exchange matter energy environment might make look boundary system environment function interests observer something inherent actually existing system taken


mean system boundaries subjective constructions eg c west churchman argued boundaries social personal constructs define limits knowledge taken pertinent analysis ervin laszlo acknowledged problem without conceding ultimate relativism saying conceive radical separation forming formed substance space time universe conceived continuum spatio temporal events disclose stresses tensions within constitutive matrix cosmic matrix evolves patterned flows flows hit upon configurations intrinsic stability thus


way identity system maintained time despite continuing interactions changing environment systems destroyed transformed absent radical interactions eg fission atom death organism identity dynamically maintained internal autopoietic processes although draw boundaries around ''conceptual'' systems ways serve needs purposes nature according systems philosophy intrinsic ways drawing boundaries mismatch models 'solutions' might work well practice way answer


''ontological'' question natural systems exist made conditional epistemological virtue considerations systems argued exist systems practice produces positive results real world debate systems philosophy thus parallels wider discussion academia existence real world possibility objective knowledge see eg science wars technological success science often used argument favoring realism relativism constructivism systemic debate far resolved indeed case wider


reading diederik aerts b d'hooghe r pinxten wallerstein eds ''worldviews science us interdisciplinary perspectives worlds cultures society'' proceedings workshop worlds cultures society world scientific publishing company diederik aerts leo apostel b de moor hellemans e maex h van belle j van der veken '' http wwwvubacbe clea dissemination groups archive vzw worldviews worldviews fragmentation integration '' brussels vub press archie bahm five types systems philosophy ''international journal general systems'' archie bahm five systems concepts society ''behavioral science'' gregory bateson


''mind nature necessary unity'' new york dutton gregory bateson ''steps ecology mind'' chicago il university chicago press kenneth boulding ''the world total system'' beverly hills ca sage publications mario bunge ''ontology furniture world'' reidel mario bunge ''ontology ii world systems'' dordrecht reidel mario bunge ''matter mind philosophical inquiry'' new york ny springer francis heylighen ''what world view'' f heylighen c joslyn v turchin eds principia cybernetica web principia cybernetica brussels http cleamc vubacbe worlviewhtml arthur koestler


''the ghost machine'' henry regnery co alexander laszlo krippner ''systems theories origins foundations development'' js jordan ed systems theories priori aspects perception amsterdam elsevier science ch pp nbsp laszlo humanistic systems sciences birth third culture ''pluriverso'' april pp nbsp laszlo laszlo e contribution systems sciences humanities ''systems research behavioral science'' april pp nbsp ervin laszlo ''introduction systems philosophy toward new paradigm contemporary thought'' new york


ny gordon breach laszlo e b ''the systems view world natural philosophy new developments sciences'' george braziller laszlo e systems philosophy human values ''systems research behavioral science'' laszlo e ''the systems view world holistic vision time'' cresskill nj hampton press laszlo e religion versus science conflict reference truth value cash value ''zygon'' laszlo e ''science reenchantment cosmos rise integral vision reality'' inner traditions laszlo


e b new grounds union science spirituality ''world futures journal general evolution'' gerald midgley ''systemic intervention philosophy methodology practice'' springer rousseau systems philosophy unity knowledge forthcoming ''systems research behavioral science'' rousseau ''minds souls nature systems philosophical analysis mind body relationship'' phd thesis university wales trinity saint david school theology religious studies islamic studies jan smuts ''holism evolution'' new york macmillan co vidal c ''wat een wereldbeeld'' worldview h van


belle j van der veken eds nieuwheid denken de wetenschappen en het creatieve aspect van de werkelijkheid novel thoughts science creative aspect reality acco uitgeverij jennifer wilby ''applying critical systematic review process hierarchy theory'' presented conference japan advanced institute science technology retrieved https dspacejaistacjp dspace handle wilby j new framework viewing philosophy principles practice systems science ''systems research behavioral science'' external links http wwwedpsycinteractiveorg materials sysphilhtml systems philosophy applications bibliography w huitt valdosta georgia usa last revised


december http wwwreligion onlineorg showarticleasptitle organization process systems philosophy whiteheadian metaphysics james e huchingson philosophy science philosophy technology philosophy


study behavior structures geo structures subject seismic loading considered subset structural engineering geotechnical engineering mechanical engineering chemical engineering applied physics etc however tremendous costs experienced recent earthquakes led expansion scope encompass disciplines wider field civil engineering mechanical engineering nuclear engineering social sciences especially sociology political science economics finance main objectives earthquake engineering foresee potential consequences strong earthquakes urban areas civil infrastructure design construct maintain structures perform

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Earthquake engineering


happens contact surfaces structure either ground adjacent structures gravity waves tsunami loading expected given location earth 's surface estimated engineering seismology related seismic hazard location seismic performance '''earthquake''' '' 'seismic performance''' defines structure 's ability sustain main functions safety serviceability ''at'' ''after'' particular earthquake exposure structure normally considered ' 'safe'' endanger lives well around


partially completely collapsing structure may considered ' 'serviceable'' able fulfill operational functions designed basic concepts earthquake engineering implemented major building codes assume building survive rare severe earthquake sustaining significant damage without globally collapsing ref name recommendedlateralforce ref hand remain operational frequent less severe seismic events seismic performance assessment engineers need know quantified level actual anticipated seismic performance associated direct damage individual building


subject specified ground shaking assessment may performed either experimentally analytically experimental assessment experimental evaluations expensive tests typically done placing scaled model structure shake table simulates earth shaking observing behavior kinds experiments first performed century ago ref name seismicexperiments ref recently become possible perform scale testing full structures due costly nature tests tend used mainly understanding seismic behavior structures validating models


methods structural dynamics ref name dynamicsofstructures ref decades prominent instrument seismic analysis earthquake response spectrum method also contributed proposed building code 's concept today ref name earthquakespectra ref however methods good linear elastic systems largely unable model structural behavior damage ie non linearity appears numerical ' 'step step integration'' proved effective method analysis multi degree freedom structural systems significant non linearity transient process ground motion excitation ref name dynamicsofstructures ref use finite element method one common approaches analyzing


models analyzed evaluate performance buildings capabilities structural analysis software major consideration process restrict possible component models analysis methods available importantly numerical robustness latter becomes major consideration structures venture non linear range approach global local collapse numerical solution becomes increasingly unstable thus difficult reach several commercially available finite element analysis software 's csi sap csi perform mtr sassi scia engineer ectools abaqus ansys used


seismic performance evaluation buildings moreover research based finite element analysis platforms opensees mastodon based moose framework ruaumoko older drain several open source research earthquake engineering shake table testing friction pendulum bearings eerc research earthquake engineering means field analytical investigation experimentation intended discovery scientific explanation earthquake engineering related facts revision conventional concepts light new findings practical application developed theories national science foundation nsf main united


states government agency supports fundamental research education fields earthquake engineering particular focuses experimental analytical computational research design performance enhancement structural systemsaccess date ref earthquake engineering research institute eeri leader dissemination earthquake engineering research related information us globally definitive list earthquake engineering research related shaking tables around world may found experimental facilities earthquake engineering simulation worldwide prominent e defense shake table japan major us research programs nsf


also supports george e brown jr network earthquake engineering simulation nsf hazard mitigation structural engineering program hmse supports research new technologies improving behaviour response structural systems subject earthquake hazards fundamental research safety reliability constructed systems innovative developments analysis model based simulation structural behaviour response including soil structure interaction design concepts improve structure performance flexibility application new control techniques structural systems nees advances knowledge discovery innovation earthquakes tsunami loss reduction nation 's civil infrastructure


new experimental simulation techniques instrumentation ref name nees ref nees network features geographically distributed shared use laboratories support several types experimental work ref name nees geotechnical centrifuge research shake table tests large scale structural testing tsunami wave basin experiments field site research participating universities include cornell university lehigh university oregon state university rensselaer polytechnic institute university buffalo state university new york university california berkeley university california davis university california los angeles university california san diego university california santa barbara university illinois urbana champaign university minnesota university nevada reno university texas austin ref


name nees buffalo testing facility equipment sites labs central data repository connected global earthquake engineering community via neeshub website nees website powered hubzero software developed purdue university nanohub specifically help scientific community share resources collaborate cyberinfrastructure connected via internet provides interactive simulation tools simulation tool development area curated central data repository animated presentations user support telepresence mechanism uploading sharing resources statistics users usage patterns cyberinfrastructure allows researchers securely store organize share data within


statically applying ''horizontal inertia forces'' based scaled peak ground accelerations mathematical model building ref name seismicdesignofbuildingstructures ref development computational technologies static approaches began give way dynamic ones dynamic experiments building non building structures may physical like shake table testing virtual ones cases verify structure 's expected seismic performance researchers prefer deal called real time histories though last cannot real hypothetical earthquake specified either building code particular research requirements therefore strong


incentive engage earthquake simulation seismic input possesses essential features real event sometimes earthquake simulation understood creation local effects strong earth shaking structure simulation access date ref theoretical experimental evaluation anticipated seismic performance mostly requires '' 'structure simulation''' based concept structural likeness similarity similarity degree analogy resemblance two objects notion similarity rests either exact approximate repetitions patterns compared items general building model


said similarity real object two share ''geometric similarity'' ''kinematic similarity'' ' 'dynamic similarity'' vivid effective type similarity ''kinematic'' one ''kinematic similarity'' exists paths velocities moving particles model prototype similar ultimate level ''kinematic similarity'' ''kinematic equivalence'' case earthquake engineering time histories story lateral displacements model prototype would seismic vibration control '''seismic vibration control''' set technical means aimed mitigate


seismic impacts building non building structures seismic vibration control devices may classified ''passive'' ''active'' ''hybrid'' ''passive control devices'' feedback capability structural elements ground ''active control devices'' incorporate real time recording instrumentation ground integrated earthquake input processing equipment actuators within structure ''hybrid control devices'' combined features active passive control systems ref name activehybrid ref ground seismic waves reach start penetrate base building energy flow density due reflections reduces dramatically usually however remaining


portions incident waves major earthquake still bear huge devastating potential seismic waves enter superstructure number ways control order soothe damaging effect improve building 's seismic performance instance dissipate wave energy inside superstructure properly engineered dampers disperse wave energy wider range frequencies absorb resonant portions whole wave frequencies band help called ''mass dampers'' mausoleum cyrus oldest base isolated structure world devices


last kind abbreviated correspondingly tmd tuned ''passive'' amd ''active'' hmd ''hybrid mass dampers'' studied installed high rise buildings predominantly japan quarter century however quite another approach partial suppression seismic energy flow superstructure known seismic base isolation pads inserted major load carrying elements base building substantially decouple superstructure substructure resting shaking ground first evidence earthquake


protection using principle base isolation discovered pasargadae city ancient persia iran dates back th century bce samples seismic vibration control technologies today dry stone walls peru dry stone walls machu picchu temple sun peru peru highly seismic land centuries dry stone construction proved earthquake resistant using mortar people inca civilization masters polished 'dry stone walls' called ashlar blocks stone cut fit together tightly without mortar


incas among best stonemasons world ever seen many junctions masonry perfect even blades grass could fit stones stones dry stone walls built incas could move slightly resettle without walls collapsing passive structural control technique employing principle energy dissipation coulomb damping suppressing resonant amplifications tuned mass damper tuned mass damper taipei world 's third tallest skyscraper typically tuned mass dampers huge concrete blocks mounted skyscrapers


structures move opposition resonance frequency oscillations structures means sort spring mechanism taipei skyscraper needs withstand typhoon winds earthquake tremors common area asia pacific purpose steel pendulum weighing metric tonnes serves tuned mass damper designed installed atop structure suspended nd th floor pendulum sways decrease resonant amplifications lateral displacements building caused earthquakes strong gusts hysteretic dampers '''hysteretic damper''' intended


building sufficiently elastic tend settle back original positions earthquake '''metallic yielding dampers myds ''' metallic yielding dampers name implies yield order absorb earthquake 's energy type damper absorbs large amount energy however must replaced earthquake may prevent building settling back original position '''viscoelastic dampers veds ''' viscoelastic dampers useful used wind seismic applications usually limited small displacements concern


reliability technology brands banned use buildings united states '''straddling pendulum dampers swing ''' base isolation base isolation seeks prevent kinetic energy earthquake transferred elastic energy building technologies isolating structure ground thus enabling move somewhat independently degree energy transferred structure energy dissipated vary depending technology used '''lead rubber bearing''' lrb tested


ucsd caltrans srmd facility lead rubber bearing lrb type base isolation employing heavy damping invented bill robinson new zealander ref name tearagovtnz ref heavy damping mechanism incorporated vibration control technologies particularly base isolation devices often considered valuable source suppressing vibrations thus enhancing building 's seismic performance however rather pliant systems base isolated structures relatively low bearing stiffness high damping called damping force may turn main pushing force strong earthquake video shows


three story town house santa monica california shown photo taken prior northridge earthquake exposure base isolation device conceptually similar ''lead rubber bearing'' one two three story town houses like well instrumented recording vertical horizontal accelerations floors ground survived severe shaking northridge earthquake left valuable recorded information study '''simple roller bearing''' simple roller bearing base isolation device intended protection various building non building structures potentially damaging lateral impacts


strong earthquakes metallic bearing support may adapted certain precautions seismic isolator skyscrapers buildings soft ground recently employed name ''metallic roller bearing'' housing complex stories tokyo japan '''friction pendulum bearing''' friction pendulum bearing fpb another name '''friction pendulum system''' fps based three pillars ref name fps ref articulated friction slider spherical concave sliding surface enclosing cylinder lateral displacement restraint snapshot link video clip shake table testing fpb system supporting rigid building model


presented right seismic design '''seismic design''' based authorized engineering procedures principles criteria meant design retrofit structures subject earthquake exposure ref name seismicdesignofbuildingstructures criteria consistent contemporary state knowledge earthquake engineering structures ref name earthquakedesigncriteria ref therefore building design exactly follows seismic code regulations guarantee safety collapse serious damage price poor seismic design may enormous nevertheless seismic design always trial error process whether based physical laws empirical knowledge


structural performance different shapes materials san francisco city hall destroyed earthquake fire san francisco earthquake fire practice seismic design seismic analysis seismic evaluation new existing civil engineering projects engineer normally pass examination ''seismic principles'' state california include seismic data seismic design criteria seismic characteristics engineered systems seismic forces seismic analysis procedures seismic detailing construction quality control build complex structural systems ref name seismicdesignhandbook ref seismic design largely uses relatively small number basic structural elements


say nothing vibration control devices non seismic design project normally according building codes structures designed withstand largest earthquake certain probability likely occur location means loss life minimized preventing collapse buildings seismic design carried understanding possible failure modes structure providing structure appropriate strength stiffness ductility configuration ref name buildingconfiguration ref ensure modes cannot occur seismic design requirements '''seismic design requirements''' depend type structure locality


project authorities stipulate applicable seismic design codes criteria ref name recommendedlateralforce instance california department transportation 's requirements called ''the seismic design criteria'' sdc aimed design new bridges california incorporate innovative seismic performance based approach metsamor nuclear power plant closed armenian earthquake significant feature sdc design philosophy shift ''force based assessment'' seismic demand ' 'displacement based assessment'' demand capacity thus newly adopted displacement approach based comparing ''elastic displacement'' demand ''inelastic displacement''


capacity primary structural components ensuring minimum level inelastic capacity potential plastic hinge locations addition designed structure seismic design requirements may include ''ground stabilization'' underneath structure sometimes heavily shaken ground breaks leads collapse structure sitting upon following topics primary concerns liquefaction dynamic lateral earth pressures retaining walls seismic slope stability earthquake induced settlement ref name geoearthquakeengineering ref nuclear facilities jeopardise safety case earthquakes hostile external events therefore seismic design based criteria


far stringent applying non nuclear facilities fukushima nuclear accidents damage nuclear facilities followed hoku earthquake tsunami however drawn attention ongoing concerns japanese nuclear seismic design standards caused many governments evaluate nuclear programs doubt also expressed seismic evaluation design certain plants including fessenheim nuclear power plant france failure modes '''failure mode''' manner earthquake induced failure observed generally describes way failure occurs though


costly time consuming learning real earthquake failure remains routine recipe advancement ' 'seismic design'' methods typical modes earthquake generated failures presented typical damage unreinforced masonry buildings earthquakes lack reinforcement coupled poor mortar inadequate roof wall ties result substantial damage '''unreinforced masonry building''' severely cracked leaning walls common earthquake damage also hazardous damage may occur walls roof floor diaphragms separation framing walls jeopardize vertical support


niigata earthquake '''soil liquefaction''' cases soil consists loose granular deposited materials tendency develop excessive hydrostatic pore water pressure sufficient magnitude compact liquefaction loose saturated deposits may result non uniform settlements tilting structures caused major damage thousands buildings niigata japan earthquake car smashed landslide rock sichuan earthquake '''landslide rock fall''' landslide geological phenomenon includes wide range ground movement including '''rock falls''' typically action gravity primary