used code generation compilers augment regular context free grammars context sensitive conditions '''categorical functorial semantics''' uses category theory core mathematical formalism categorical semantics usually proven correspond axiomatic semantics gives syntactic presentation categorical structures also denotational semantics often instances general categorical semantics '''concurrency semantics''' catch term formal semantics describes concurrent computations historically important concurrent formalisms included actor model process calculi '''game semantics''' uses metaphor inspired game theory '''predicate transformer semantics''' developed


edsger w dijkstra describes meaning program fragment function transforming postcondition precondition needed establish describing relationships variety reasons one might wish describe relationships different formal semantics example prove particular operational semantics language satisfies logical formulas axiomatic semantics language proof demonstrates sound reason particular operational ''interpretation strategy'' using particular axiomatic ''proof system'' prove operational semantics high level machine related

Formal science
Computer science
Programming languages
Program semantics


reading textbooks working draft lecture notes external links semantics formal methods logic computer science


analytic philosophy '''philosophy language''' investigates nature language relations language language users world investigations may include inquiry nature meaning intentionality reference constitution sentences concepts learning thought gottlob frege bertrand russell pivotal figures analytic philosophy 's linguistic turn writers followed ludwig wittgenstein ''tractatus logico philosophicus'' vienna circle well logical positivists willard van orman quine ref name iep ref continental philosophy language studied separate discipline rather inextricable part many areas thought

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of language


phenomenology structural semiotics ref name kreps language mathematics hermeneutics existentialism deconstruction critical theory history ancient philosophy west inquiry language stretches back th century bc socrates plato aristotle stoics india greece linguistic speculation predates emergence grammatical traditions systematic description language emerged around th century bc india see ska around rd century bc greece see rhianus dialogue ''cratylus'' plato considered question whether names things determined convention


nature criticized conventionalism led bizarre consequence anything conventionally denominated name hence cannot account correct incorrect application name claimed natural correctness names pointed compound words phrases range correctness also argued primitive names natural correctness phoneme represented basic ideas sentiments example plato letter ''l'' sound represented idea softness however end ''cratylus''


admitted social conventions also involved faults idea phonemes individual meanings plato often considered proponent extreme realism aristotle interested issues logic categories meaning creation separated things categories species genus thought meaning predicate established abstraction similarities various individual things theory later came called ''nominalism'' however since aristotle took similarities constituted real commonality form often


considered proponent moderate realism stoic philosophers made important contributions analysis grammar distinguishing five parts speech nouns verbs appellatives names epithets conjunctions articles also developed sophisticated doctrine ''lekt n'' associated sign language distinct sign thing refers ''lekt n'' meaning sense every term complete ''lekt n'' sentence would call proposition ref name eco ref propositions considered truth bearers truth vehicles ie could called true


false sentences simply vehicles expression different ''lekt '' could also express things besides propositions commands questions exclamations medieval philosophy medieval philosophers greatly interested subtleties language usage many scholastics interest provoked necessity translating greek texts latin several noteworthy philosophers language medieval period according peter j king although disputed peter abelard anticipated modern theories reference also william ockham 's ''summa logicae'' brought forward one first serious proposals codifying


mental language scholastics high medieval period ockham john duns scotus considered logic ' 'scientia sermocinalis'' science language result studies elaboration linguistic philosophical notions whose complexity subtlety recently come appreciated many interesting problems modern philosophy language anticipated medieval thinkers phenomena vagueness ambiguity analyzed intensely led increasing interest problems related use ' 'syncategorematic'' words ''and'' ''or'' ''not'' ''if'' ''every'' study


''categorematic'' words ''terms'' properties also developed greatly ref name md marconi storia della filosofia del linguaggio ''l'enciclopedia garzantina della filosofia'' ed gianni vattimo milan garzanti editori ref one major developments scholastics area doctrine ' 'suppositio'' ref name kkp kretzmann n anthony kenny jan pinborg ''cambridge history later medieval philosophy'' cambridge cambridge university press ref suppositio term interpretation given specific context ''proper'' ''improper'' used metaphor metonyms


figures speech proper suppositio turn either formal material accordingly refers usual non linguistic referent charles man linguistic entity ''charles'' seven letters classification scheme precursor modern distinctions use mention language metalanguage ref name kkp tradition called speculative grammar existed th th century leading scholars included among others martin dacia thomas erfurt see ''modistae'' modern philosophy linguists renaissance


baroque periods johannes goropius becanus athanasius kircher john wilkins infatuated idea philosophical language reversing confusion tongues influenced gradual discovery chinese characters egyptian hieroglyphs ''hieroglyphica'' thought parallels idea might universal language music european scholarship began absorb indian linguistic tradition mid th century pioneered jean fran ois pons henry thomas colebrooke ''editio princeps'' varadar ja th century sanskrit grammarian dating early th century danish philosopher ren kierkegaard insisted


language ought play larger role western philosophy argues philosophy sufficiently focused role language plays cognition future philosophy ought proceed conscious focus language contemporary philosophy phrase linguistic turn used describe noteworthy emphasis contemporary philosophers put upon language language began play central role western philosophy early th century one central figures involved development german philosopher gottlob frege whose work philosophical logic philosophy language late


th century influenced work th century analytic philosophers bertrand russell ludwig wittgenstein philosophy language became pervasive time analytic philosophy circles philosophy whole understood matter philosophy language continental philosophy foundational work field ferdinand de saussure 's ''cours de linguistique g n rale'' ref name kreps david kreps ''bergson complexity creative emergence'' springer p ref published posthumously major topics subfields communication firstly field study seeks better understand speakers listeners language communication


used socially specific interests include topics language learning language creation speech acts secondly question language relates minds speaker interpreter investigated specific interest grounds successful translation words concepts equivalents another language composition parts long known different parts speech one part common sentence lexical word composed nouns verbs adjectives major question field perhaps single


syntax logic syntactic propositions arranged 'discourse' 'narrative' structures also encode meanings pragmatics like temporal relations pronominals possible use concept ''functions'' describe lexical meanings work also used describe meaning sentence take moment sentence horse red may consider horse product ''propositional function'' propositional function operation language takes entity case horse input outputs


''grammar'' sentence mind semantic trees hand focus upon role ''meaning'' words meanings combine provide insight onto genesis semantic facts mind language innateness learning major issues intersection philosophy language philosophy mind also dealt modern psycholinguistics important questions ''how much language innate language acquisition special faculty mind connection thought language'' three general


del linguaggio'' original title ''the language instinct'' milan arnaldo mondadori editori ref varying notions structure brain comes language connectionist models emphasize idea person 's lexicon thoughts operate kind distributed associative network nativist models assert specialized devices brain dedicated language acquisition ref name sp computation models emphasize notion representational language thought logic like computational processing mind performs emergentist models focus notion natural faculties


complex system emerge simpler biological parts reductionist models attempt explain higher level mental processes terms basic low level neurophysiological activity brain language thought important problem touches philosophy language philosophy mind extent language influences thought vice versa number different perspectives issue offering number insights suggestions linguists sapir whorf suggested language limited extent members linguistic community think certain subjects hypothesis paralleled


george orwell 's novel ''nineteen eighty four'' words language analytically prior thought philosopher michael dummett also proponent language first viewpoint ref name blackwellphil ref stark opposite sapir whorf position notion thought broadly mental content priority language knowledge first position found instance work paul grice ref name blackwellphil view closely associated jerry fodor language thought hypothesis according argument spoken written language derive intentionality meaning internal language encoded mind ref name lot fodor


j ''the language thought'' harvard university press ref main argument favor view structure thoughts structure language seem share compositional systematic character another argument difficult explain signs symbols paper represent anything meaningful unless sort meaning infused contents mind one main arguments levels language lead infinite regress ref name lot case many philosophers mind language


ruth millikan fred dretske fodor recently turned attention explaining meanings mental contents states directly another tradition philosophers attempted show language thought coextensive way explaining one without donald davidson essay thought talk argued notion belief could arise product public linguistic interaction daniel dennett holds similar ''interpretationist'' view propositional attitudes extent theoretical underpinnings cognitive semantics including notion semantic framing suggest


influence language upon thought however tradition views meaning grammar function conceptualization making difficult assess straightforward way thinkers like ancient sophist gorgias questioned whether language capable capturing thought studies prove languages shape people understand causality performed lera boroditsky example english speakers tend say things like john broke vase even accidents however spanish japanese speakers would likely say vase broke studies


conducted caitlin fausey stanford university speakers english spanish japanese watched videos two people popping balloons breaking eggs spilling drinks either intentionally accidentally later everyone asked whether could remember spanish japanese speakers remember agents accidental events well english speakers russian speakers make extra distinction light dark blue language better able visually discriminate shades blue piraha tribe brazil whose language terms like many instead numerals


masculine spanish german speakers said beautiful elegant fragile peaceful pretty slender spanish speakers said big dangerous long strong sturdy towering case even though testing done english language without grammatical gender series studies conducted gary lupyan people asked look series images imaginary aliens whether alien friendly hostile determined certain subtle features participants told guess whether alien friendly hostile


question meaningful units language composed smaller meaningful parts meaning whole derived meaning parts several distinctive explanations linguistic meaning associated body literature ideational theory meaning commonly associated british empiricist john locke claims meanings mental representations provoked signs although view meaning beset number problems beginning see main article details interest


renewed contemporary theorists guise ' 'semantic internalism'' truth conditional theory meaning holds meaning conditions expression may true false tradition goes back least frege associated rich body modern work spearheaded philosophers like alfred tarski donald davidson ref name tarsk tarski alfred semantical conception truth http wwwditextcom tarski tarskihtml pdf ref ref name tandi davidson ''inquiries truth interpretation'' oxford oxford university press ref see also wittgenstein 's picture theory language use theory meaning commonly associated later


wittgenstein helped inaugurate idea meaning use communitarian view language wittgenstein interested way communities use language far taken ref name lw wittgenstein l ''philosophical investigations'' third edition trans g e anscombe new york macmillan publishing co ref also associated p f strawson john searle robert brandom others ref name brand brandom r ''making explicit'' cambridge massachusetts harvard university press ref constructivist theory meaning claims speech passively describing given reality change social reality


hilary putnam saul kripke others ref name sk kripke ''naming necessity'' oxford basil blackwell ref verificationist theory meaning generally associated early th century movement logical positivism traditional formulation theory meaning sentence method verification falsification form thesis abandoned acceptance philosophers duhem quine thesis confirmation holism publication quine 's two dogmas empiricism however michael dummett advocated modified form verificationism since version


form 's knows p rather q' contrast traditional view whereby knowledge attributions binary structure form 's knows p' theories exist discuss non linguistic meaning ie meaning conveyed body language meanings consequences etc reference investigations language interacts world called '''theories reference''' gottlob frege advocate mediated reference theory frege divided semantic content every expression including sentences two components sense reference sense sentence thought


denoting analyzed russell existentially quantified logical constructions phrases denote sense object satisfies description however objects considered meaningful meaning proposition expressed sentences part hence directly referential way logically proper names russell frege 's account referring expression sense well referent mediated reference view certain theoretical advantages mill 's view example


logic teacher alexander aristotle obviously satisfies descriptions many others commonly associate necessarily true aristotle existed aristotle one descriptions aristotle may well existed without single one things known posterity may existed become known posterity may died infancy suppose aristotle associated mary description last great philosopher antiquity


actual aristotle died infancy mary 's description would seem refer plato deeply counterintuitive hence names ''rigid designators'' according kripke refer individual every possible world individual exists work kripke articulated several arguments frege russell descriptivism ref name sk see also kripke 's causal theory reference whole philosophical enterprise studying reference critiqued linguist noam chomsky various works social interaction language common claim language governed social


conventions questions inevitably arise surrounding topics one question exactly convention study second extent conventions even matter study language david kellogg lewis proposed worthy reply first question expounding view convention ''rationally self perpetuating regularity behavior'' however view seems compete extent gricean view speaker 's meaning requiring either one weakened taken true ref name blackwellphil questioned whether


conventions relevant study meaning noam chomsky proposed study language could done terms language internal language persons undermines pursuit explanations terms conventions relegates explanations domain metasemantics metasemantics term used philosopher language robert stainton describe fields attempt explain semantic facts arise ref name stainton one fruitful source research involves investigation social conditions give rise associated


meanings languages ''etymology'' study origins words ' 'stylistics'' philosophical argumentation makes good grammar relative particular language two examples fields taken metasemantic surprisingly many separate related fields investigated topic linguistic convention within research paradigms presumptions prop theoretical view interest philosopher language instance one major fields sociology symbolic interactionism based insight human social organization based almost entirely use


study linguistic transparency speaking accessible manner well performative utterances various tasks language perform called speech acts also applications study interpretation law helps give insight logical concept domain discourse literary theory discipline literary theorists claim overlaps philosophy language emphasizes methods readers critics use understanding text field outgrowth study properly interpret messages unsurprisingly closely tied ancient discipline


hermeneutics truth finally philosophers language investigate language meaning relate truth reality referred tend less interested sentences ''actually true'' ''what kinds meanings true false'' truth oriented philosopher language might wonder whether meaningless sentence true false whether sentences express propositions things exist rather way sentences used language continental philosophy continental philosophy language studied


separate discipline analytic philosophy rather inextricable part many areas thought phenomenology structural semiotics ref name kreps hermeneutics existentialism structuralism deconstruction critical theory idea language often related logic greek sense logos meaning discourse dialectic language concepts also seen formed history politics even historical philosophy field hermeneutics theory interpretation general played significant role th century continental philosophy language


ontology beginning martin heidegger heidegger combines phenomenology hermeneutics wilhelm dilthey heidegger believed language one important concepts ''dasein'' heidegger believed language today worn overuse important words would inadequate depth study ''sein'' example ''sein'' ''being'' word saturated multiple meanings thus invented new vocabulary linguistic styles based ancient greek germanic etymological word relations disambiguate commonly used words avoided words like consciousness ego human nature etc instead talked holistically world dasein


new concepts ''being world'' heidegger constructs theory language centered speech believed speech talking listening silence essential pure form language heidegger claims writing supplement speech even readers construct contribute talk reading important feature language ''projectivity'' idea language prior human speech means one thrown world existence characterized beginning certain pre comprehension world however naming articulation intelligibility


one primary access ''dasein'' ''being world'' ref name heidegger martin ''being time'' new york blackwell ref hans georg gadamer expanded ideas heidegger proposed complete hermeneutic ontology ''truth method'' gadamer describes language medium substantive understanding agreement take place two people ref name gadamer gadamer hans g ''truth method'' new york crossroad nd ed ref addition gadamer claims world linguistically constituted cannot exist apart language example monuments statues cannot communicate without aid language gadamer also claims every language


constitutes world view linguistic nature world frees individual objective environment fact world depends upon language presents world world exists man creature world ref name gadamer paul ric ur hand proposed hermeneutics reconnecting original greek sense term emphasized discovery hidden meanings equivocal terms symbols ordinary language philosophers worked tradition include luigi pareyson jacques


telephone smoke see horizon sign fire smoke signifies things world vision seem ''labeled'' precisely intelligent beings need interpret way humans everything meaning true communication including use human language however requires someone ' 'sender'' sends ''message'' ''text'' code someone else ' 'receiver'' language studied insofar one forms sophisticated form communication important figures


history semiotics charles sanders peirce roland barthes roman jakobson modern times best known figures include umberto eco j greimas louis hjelmslev tullio de mauro ref name volli investigations signs non human communications subject biosemiotics field founded late th century thomas sebeok thure von uexk problems philosophy language nature language languages thought sign systems semiotic tradition dating john locke culminating saussure 's notion language semiology interactive system semantic


symbolic level building saussurian structuralism louis hjelmslev saw organisation levels fully computational age enlightenment philosopher antoine arnauld argued people created language rationally step step process fulfill psychological need communicate others th century romanticism emphasised human agency free meaning construction lately eugenio co eriu underlined role intention processes others including esa itkonen believe social construction language takes place unconsciously saussure 's notion language social fact arises social interaction neither


crystallised hypothesised caused single mutation humans steven pinker argues result human cultural co evolution problem universals composition one debate captured interest many philosophers debate meaning ''universals'' one might ask example people say word ''rocks'' word represents two different answers emerged question said expression stands real abstract universal world called rocks others said


word stands collection particular individual rocks associate merely nomenclature former position called ''philosophical realism'' latter ''nominalism'' issue explicated examine proposition socrates man realist 's perspective connection connection two abstract entities entity man entity socrates two things connect way overlap nominalist 's perspective connection connection particular entity socrates


vast collection particular things men say socrates man say socrates part class men another perspective consider man ''property'' entity socrates third way nominalism extreme realism usually called moderate realism attributed aristotle thomas aquinas moderate realists hold man refers real essence form really present identical socrates men man exist separate distinct entity realist


formalized ''parts'' natural language investigation prominent members tradition formal semantics include tarski carnap richard montague donald davidson side divide especially prominent ' called ordinary language philosophers philosophers p f strawson john langshaw austin gilbert ryle stressed importance studying natural language without regard truth conditions sentences references terms believe social practical dimensions linguistic meaning could captured attempts formalization


ordinary language movement basically died influence crucial development fields speech act theory study pragmatics many ideas absorbed theorists kent bach robert brandom paul horwich stephen neale ref name brand recent work division semantics pragmatics become lively topic discussion interface philosophy linguistics instance work sperber wilson carston levinson keeping traditions mind question whether


grounds conflict formal informal approaches far decided theorists like paul grice skeptical claims substantial conflict logic natural language translation interpretation translation interpretation two problems philosophers language attempted confront wv quine argued indeterminacy meaning reference based principle ''radical translation'' ''word object'' quine asks readers imagine situation confronted previously undocumented group indigenous people


examine utterance part overall linguistic behaviour individual use observations interpret meaning utterances basis one form manual translation since reference indeterminate many manuals one correct others quine wittgenstein austin meaning something associated single word sentence rather something attributed attributed whole language ref name wvq


resulting view called ' 'semantic holism'' inspired quine 's discussion donald davidson extended idea radical translation interpretation utterances behavior within single linguistic community dubbed notion ''radical interpretation'' suggested meaning individual ascribed sentence could determined attributing meanings many perhaps individual 's assertions well mental states attitudes ref name tandi vagueness one issue troubled philosophers language logic problem vagueness words specific instances vagueness


interest philosophers language existence borderline cases makes seemingly impossible say whether predicate true false classic examples tall bald cannot said borderline case given person tall tall consequence vagueness gives rise paradox heap many theorists attempted solve paradox way ''n'' valued logics fuzzy logic radically departed classical two valued logics references reading atherton catherine ''the stoics ambiguity'' cambridge uk cambridge


ed blackwell companions philosophy malden massachusetts blackwell publishers lepore ernest barry c smith eds https archivetoday http wwwoupcouk isbn oxford handbook philosophy language oxford university press lycan w g https booksgooglecom booksid j wa scu c printsec frontcover v onepage q f false philosophy language contemporary introduction new york routledge miller james https webarchiveorg web http archiveseconutahedu archives pen l msg htm pen l message bad writing searle john https webarchiveorg web http wwwrevelinfbr site pdf entrevistas revel interview john searlepdf philosophy language interview john searle stainton robert j https archiveorg details philosophicalper stai ''philosophical perspectives language'' peterborough ont broadview press tarski alfred http wwwditextcom tarski tarskihtml semantical conception truth eco umberto ''semiotics philosophy language'' indiana university press semantics


meaning philosophy language semiotics language


painting marie bashkirtseff ''in studio'' depicts art school life drawing session ''dnipropetrovsk state art museum'' dnipropetrovsk ukraine '''visual arts education''' area learning based upon kind art one see visual arts drawing painting sculpture printmaking design jewelry pottery weaving fabrics etc design applied practical fields commercial graphics home furnishings contemporary topics include photography video film design computer art art education may focus students creating art learning criticize appreciate art combination

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Art education


two approaches french painting school following atelier method discussion class art appreciation shimer college art often taught drawing painting sculpture installation mark making drawing viewed empirical activity involves seeing interpreting discovering appropriate marks reproduce observed phenomenon drawing instruction component formal education west since hellenistic period east asia arts education nonprofessional artists typically focused brushwork calligraphy numbered among six arts gentlemen chinese zhou dynasty calligraphy chinese painting numbered among


four arts scholar officials imperial china alternative approach art education involves emphasis imagination interpreting creating art many educators ask students think artist made choice 've given answer 'll give context piece ask get students consider deeper meaning behind works rather showing pretty picture art education also experimentation purposeful play linking art conceptual messages personal experiences allowing students connect


piece emotion helps better understand artwork connects artist subject developing critical thinking skills alternative approaches visual culture issue based approaches students explore societal personal issues art also inform art education today prominent curricular models art education include sixfold model divided creative productive cultural historical critical responsive components provinces canada discipline based art education dbae came favor united states focused specific skills including techniques art criticism art history heavily


backed getty education institute arts dbae faded institute ceased funding teaching artistic behavior tab choice based model began massachusetts united states tab suggests students artists guided individual artistic intereststab based curricular models increased popularity classroom culture shifts preference direct instruction student centered inquiry based learning addition especially higher education liberal arts tradition art often taught art appreciation subject aesthetic criticism rather


study drawing would continue another six years would required master fresco tempera painting historically design precedence fine arts schools design established europe th century examples skill values early european art inspired later generations including colonists early america cultural appropriation within classroom individuals employ cultural appropriation ability produce works considerable aesthetic merit using properties art different cultures decoration emulation creative process foster greater understanding


ernesto de la c rcova department university buenos aires superior art school nation currently leading educational organization arts country una universidad nacional de las artes australia australian universities visual fine art departments courses within institutions moved studio based teaching models associated art schools integrated theoretical practical emphasis university western australia moved master 's degree theoretical emphasis theoretical ba art degree studio based teaching initiatives integrating contextual media


elements implemented part national studio teaching project supported australian learning teaching council altc since egypt first modern art school egypt opened cairo college fine arts early art schools largely taught western aesthetic traditions result independence effort incorporate egyptian middle eastern traditions art art appreciation courses however process slow students cairo college fine arts able major non european art history france


first academy acad mie royale de peinture et de sculpture'' founded nowadays artistic education includes visual arts education mandatory part school education second cycle six years old runs end lower secondary school '' '' art focused classes '' '' schools provide advanced art education parallel normal primary lower secondary education upper secondary schools possible prepare ''baccalaur technologique'' sciences technologies design applied arts std former f


tertiary education dedicated schools propose '''' dn made national diploma art design professions several '''' dma bachelor 's degree art professions '''' dsaa master degree applied arts italy art schools established italy early th century starting painting school venice founded greek painter named theophanes around netherlands dutch art teachers association nederlandse vereniging voor tekenonderwijs founded began publish monthly magazine since late th century growing diversity dutch society


made dutch art art education increasingly multicultural united kingdom formal art education emerged united kingdom early th century motivated part desire match quality design work done france model initially adopted german commercial schools prince albert particularly influential creation schools art uk currently uk art curriculum prescribed government 's national curriculum except public fee paying schools prince charles created prince 's drawing school hoxton


preserve teaching academic drawing united states adult art education class brooklyn museum study art appreciation america began artists today movement late th century began fade end picture study important part art education curriculum attention aesthetics classrooms led public interest beautifying school home community known art daily living idea bring culture child change parents picture study movement


died end result new ideas regarding learning art appreciation studio work became popular united states american educational philosopher school reformer john dewey influential broadening access art education united states late th early th century since world war ii artist training moved elementary schools contemporary art become increasingly academic intellectual field prior world war ii artist usually need college degree since time bachelor fine arts


master fine arts became recommended degrees professional artist facilitated passage gi bill sent wave world war ii veterans school art school included university art departments quickly expanded american artists might studied bohemian craft intensive schools like art students league black mountain college hans hofmann school art greenwich village began enrolling universities instead school visual arts pratt institute cooper union new york city art schools


across country like kansas city art institute san francisco art institute school art institute chicago school museum fine arts boston princeton yale become one first art academies trend spread united states around world enrollment art classes high school level peaked late early child left behind nclb retains arts part daily life require reporting assessment data area additional decline


arts education american public schools united states department education awards arts education model development dissemination grants support organizations art expertise development artistic curricula estimate nation 's public high schools end art programs various ed tech companies like kadenze edx attempted mitigate loss online arts education national organizations promoting arts education include americans arts including ''art ask more'' national arts education public awareness campaign association advancement arts education arts education


partnership professional organizations art educators include national art education association publishes practitioner friendly journal ''art education'' research journal ''studies art education'' ussea united states society education art insea international society education art education visual arts important effective influence allowing students early age comprehend implement foundational democratic process emphasized within united states societal structure ref name lowenfeldlecture oliviagude gude olivia http wwwarteducatorsorg research lowenfeldlecture oliviagudepdf art education democratic life lowenfeld lecture national art education association minnesota minneapolis april ref


national assessment educational progress naep studied eight grade students fields art music findings study concluded female students earned higher scores male peers music visual art olivia gude recipient national art education association 's lowenfeld lecture scholarship spoke numerous ways art education instrumental forming informed self world aware citizen asserts blockquote art education students develop enhanced skills understanding meaning making others quality art education youth develop capacity learn


thinks concern thoughtful citizens even little interest art example opinion piece ''wall street journal'' critical judi werthein 's ''brinco'' performance art piece consisted mainly werthein passing specially equipped sneakers illegal immigrants recommended study prominent art educator naea conference session special education art education combined special education even reforms create special accommodations children special needs typical classrooms comes art art therapists


often used connect students special needs however art therapists pull students classroom causing fall behind schoolwork math english science art therapy reserved students much chance long term improvements rather short term developmental skills seek increase round capabilities ref name vanmeter van meter l http wwwarttherapyorg upload toolkitspecialeducationpdf art therapy special education pdf retrieved november ref special educator jean lokerson art educator amelia jones wrote art room


place learning disabilities turn learning assets special needs students often come shells get enthusiastic creating art also way special educators teach students fundamentals may even realize ref name gerber gerber b http wwwarteducatorsorg research resource library naea lowenfeld lecturepdf art education special education promising partnership pdf paper presented national art education association national convention seattle wa retrieved november ref ongoing studies continue prove art special education go hand hand testing continues prove art classroom especially special


reconsidering role creativity art education special issue art education ref within naea research publications geared toward issues learning community advocacy research knowledge since art education research institute aeri held annual symposium supports critical systematic empirical theoretical research scholarship addresses key intellectual practical issues field art education aeri seeks promote broad range rigorous research practices methodologies drawn arts humanities social sciences improve inquiry related teaching learning


visual arts see also art schools arts education arts integration arts based environmental education teaching artist references external links https webarchiveorg web http portalunescoorg culture en evphp url id url topic url section html unesco portal arts education education subject


meshid ops othercodes '''replacement arthroplasty''' greek ''arthron'' joint limb articulate ''plassein'' form mould forge feign make image '''joint replacement surgery''' procedure orthopedic surgery arthritic dysfunctional joint surface replaced orthopedic prosthesis joint replacement considered treatment severe joint pain dysfunction alleviated less invasive therapies form arthroplasty often indicated various

Applied science
Medicine and health
Joint Replacement


glenoid however approach deltoid put risk potential damage ref name nerot techniques used depending surgeon 's preferences hip hip replacement performed total replacement hemi half replacement total hip replacement consists replacing acetabulum femoral head hemiarthroplasty generally replaces femoral head hip replacement currently common orthopaedic operation though patient satisfaction short long term varies widely unclear whether use assistive equipment would help post operative care knee knee replacement knee replacement involves


onto bone fixed using polymethylmethacrylate pmma cement alternative techniques exist affix implant without cement cement less techniques may involve osseointegration including porous metal prostheses operation typically involves substantial postoperative pain includes vigorous physical rehabilitation recovery period may weeks longer may involve use mobility aids eg walking frames canes crutches enable person 's return preoperative mobility ref name leopold ref ankle ankle replacement becoming treatment choice people requiring arthroplasty replacing conventional use arthrodesis ie fusion bones restoration range


confusion urinary tract infection uti intra operative risks mal positioning components shortening instability dislocation loss range motion fracture adjacent bone nerve damage damage blood vessels immediate risks infection either superficial deep dislocation medium term risks dislocation persistent pain loss range motion weakness indolent infection long term risks loosening components bond bone components cement may break fatigue result component moves inside bone causing pain fragments wear debris may cause inflammatory reaction bone absorption cause loosening


main controversies best appropriate bearing surface metal polyethylene metal metal ceramic ceramic cemented vs uncemented fixation components minimally invasive surgery technique major surgery performed complete pre anaesthetic work required elderly people usually would include ecg urine tests hematology blood tests cross match blood routine also high percentage people receive blood transfusion pre operative planning requires accurate xrays affected joint implant design selecting size matching xray images process known templating days' hospitalization followed several weeks


protected function healing rehabilitation may followed several months slow improvement strength endurance early mobilisation person thought key reducing chances complications ref name niams venous thromboembolism pneumonia modern practice mobilize people soon possible ambulate walking aids tolerated depending joint involved pre op status person time hospitalization varies day weeks average days regions physiotherapy used extensively


help people recover function joint replacement surgery graded exercise programme needed initially person 's muscles take time heal surgery exercises range motion joints ambulation strenuous later muscles healed aim exercise expands include strengthening recovery function materials ceramic materials commonly used joint replacement alumina al sub sub sub sub zirconia zro sub sub silica sio sub sub hydroxyapatite ca sub sub po sub sub sub sub oh sub sub titanium nitride tin silicon nitride si sub sub n sub sub combination titanium titanium carbide hard ceramic material often used components


arthroplasties due impressive degree strength toughness presents well compatibility medical imaging titanium carbide proved possible use combined sintered polycrystalline diamond surface pcd superhard ceramic promises provide improved strong long wearing material artificial joints pcd formed polycrystalline diamond compact pdc process involving high pressures temperatures compared ceramic materials cubic boron nitride silicon nitride aluminum oxide pcd shows many better characteristics including high level hardness relatively low coefficient


friction application artificial joints likely combined certain metals metal alloys like cobalt chrome titanium vanadium stainless steel aluminum nickel hafnium silicon cobalt chrome tungsten zirconium etc means people nickel allergy sensitivities metals risk complications due chemicals device knee replacements two parts ceramic made either ceramic different ones made ceramic however different weight ratios ceramic parts configured


shards break implant particles benign sharp also made shard break one two ceramic components would noticeable x rays check inspection implant implants hip implants ball implant could made ceramic ceramic layer attaches rest implant usually membrane help hold ceramic membrane help prevent cracks cracks


occur two points create separate piece membrane hold shard place n't leave implant cause injury cracks separations occur material membrane bio compatible polymer high fracture toughness high shear toughness prosthesis replacement prosthesis may need replaced due complications infection prosthetic fracture replacement may done one single surgical session alternatively initial surgery may performed remove previous prosthetic material new prosthesis


inserted separate surgery later time cases especially complicated infection ' 'spacer'' may used sturdy mass provide basic joint stability mobility permanent prosthesis inserted contain antibiotics help treating infection ref name mazzucchellirosso ref history stephen hudack surgeon based new york city began animal testing artificial joints ref name life ref new york orthopedic hospital part columbia presbyterian medical center funding office naval research


replacing hip joints humans ref name life two previously popular forms arthroplasty ''interpositional arthroplasty''' interposition tissue like skin muscle tendon keep inflammatory surfaces apart ''excisional arthroplasty'' joint surface bone removed leaving scar tissue fill gap forms arthroplasty include ' 'resection al arthroplasty'' ' 'resurfacing arthroplasty'' ''mold arthroplasty'' ''cup arthroplasty'' ' 'silicone replacement arthroplasty'' osteotomy restore modify joint congruity also form arthroplasty recent decades successful common form arthroplasty surgical


american academy orthopedic surgeons https wwwfdagov fdac features jointshtml patient information fda https webarchiveorg web http proceedingsjbjsorguk cgi content abstract b supp iii b p benum aamodt k haugan ''uncementeed custom femoral components hip arthroplasty'' implants medicine prosthetics orthopedic surgical procedures orthopedic implants


computer science particular knowledge representation reasoning metalogic area '''automated reasoning''' dedicated understanding different aspects reasoning study automated reasoning helps produce computer programs allow computers reason completely nearly completely automatically although automated reasoning considered sub field artificial intelligence also connections theoretical computer science philosophy developed subareas automated reasoning automated theorem proving less automated pragmatic subfield interactive theorem proving automated proof checking viewed guaranteed correct reasoning fixed assumptions extensive

Formal science
Computer science
Artificial intelligence
Automated reasoning


techniques early years development formal logic played big role field automated reasoning led development artificial intelligence formal proof proof every logical inference checked back fundamental axioms mathematics intermediate logical steps supplied without exception appeal made intuition even translation intuition logic routine thus formal proof less intuitive less susceptible logical errors consider cornell summer meeting brought together many logicians


computer scientists origin automated reasoning automated deduction ref name cornell http wwwcscornelledu info projects nuprl intro autodeduction autodedhtml automated deduction ad '' nature prl project '' retrieved ref others say began logic theorist program newell shaw simon martin davis implementation presburger 's decision procedure proved sum two even numbers even automated reasoning although significant popular area research went ai winter eighties early nineties field subsequently revived however example microsoft started using verification technology many


internal projects planning include logical specification checking language version visual c ref name cornell significant contributions '''principia mathematica''' milestone work formal logic written alfred north whitehead bertrand russell principia mathematica also meaning principles mathematics written purpose derive mathematical expressions terms symbolic logic principia mathematica initially published three volumes '''logic theorist''' lt first ever program developed allen newell cliff shaw


going increase rapidly visible future range problems handle co extensive range human mind applied '' '''examples formal proofs''' class wikitable year theorem proof system formalizer traditional proof first incompleteness boyer moore shankar ref name shankar ref g del quadratic reciprocity boyer moore russinoff ref name russinoff ref eisenstein fundamental calculus hol light harrison henstock fundamental algebra mizar


milewski brynski fundamental algebra coq geuvers et al kneser four color coq gonthier robertson et al prime number isabelle avigad et al selberg erd jordan curve hol light hales thomassen brouwer fixed point hol light harrison kuhn flyspeck isabelle bauer nipkow hales cauchy residue hol light harrison classical


reliance principle definition total recursive functions extensive use rewriting symbolic evaluation induction heuristic based failure symbolic evaluation hol light written ocaml hol light designed simple clean logical foundation uncluttered implementation essentially another proof assistant classical higher order logic coq developed france coq another automated proof assistant automatically extract executable programs specifications either objective caml haskell source code properties programs proofs formalized language called


calculus inductive constructions cic applications automated reasoning commonly used build automated theorem provers oftentimes however theorem provers require human guidance effective generally qualify proof assistants cases provers come new approaches proving theorem logic theorist good example program came proof one theorems principia mathematica efficient requiring fewer steps proof provided whitehead russell automated reasoning programs applied solve


war tolstoy 's christian centered philosophy war especially essays letter hindu kingdom god within direct influence gandhi 's hinduism centered non violent resistance philosophy sun tzu 's ''the art war'' focuses mostly weaponry strategy instead philosophy observations often broadened philosophy applied situations extending well beyond war see main wikipedia article ''the art war'' discussion application sun tzu 's philosophy areas war parts niccol machiavelli 's masterpiece ''the prince'' well ''discourses''

Applied science
Military sciences
Grand strategy
Philosophy of war


parts work titled ''the art war'' discuss philosophical points relating war though neither book could said work philosophy war war theory indian hindu epic mahabharata offers first written discussions war ' 'dharma yuddha'' righteous war one five ruling brothers ''pandavas '' asks suffering caused war ever justified long discussion ensues siblings establishing criteria like ''proportionality'' chariots cannot attack cavalry chariots attacking people distress ''just means''


poisoned barbed arrows ''just cause'' attacking rage fair treatment captives wounded philosophy war theorizes aspects war justifiable according morally acceptable principles ref name ref war theory based upon four core criteria followed determined go war four principles follows authority cause right intention last resort ref name authority criterion authority refers determined legality going war concept war pursuit


legally processed justified ref name ref ref name cause cause justifiable reason war appropriate necessary response war avoided must determined first according philosophy war theory ref name ref name right intention go war one must determine intentions right according morality right intention criterion requires determination whether war response measurable way conflict acted upon ref name last resort war last resort response meaning


conflict disagreeing parties solutions must attempted resorting war ref name traditions thought since philosophy war often treated subset another branch philosophy example political philosophy philosophy law would difficult define clear cut schools thought sense eg existentialism objectivism described distinct movements stanford encyclopedia philosophy refers carl von clausewitz called philosopher war implying major philosophical writer


develops philosophical system focusing ''exclusively'' war however discernible traditions thought war developed time writers able distinguish broad categories somewhat loosely teleological categories anatol rapoport 's introduction edition j j graham translation clausewitz 's ''on war'' identifies three main teleological traditions philosophy war cataclysmic eschatological political ''on war'' rapoport 's introduction possible teleological philosophies war three common rapoport says '''cataclysmic''' school thought


massive upheaval society subsequent new society free war varying theories resulting society may either utopia dystopia two subsets view messianic global theory marxist concept communist world ruled proletariat final worldwide revolution example global theory christian concept armageddon war usher second coming christ final defeat satan example theory could fall global messianic ''on


war'' rapoport 's introduction messianic eschatological philosophy derived jewish christian concept messiah sees wars culminating unification humanity single faith single ruler crusades jihads nazi concept master race th century american concept manifest destiny may also fall heading ''on war'' rapoport 's introduction see main articles information christian eschatology jewish eschatology '''political''' school thought clausewitz proponent sees war tool state page rapoport says later characterizes


philosophy behind vietnam war cold war conflicts neo clausewitzian rapoport also includes machiavelli early example political philosophy war ''on war'' rapoport 's introduction decades essay war terrorism iraq war begun united states president george w bush often justified doctrine preemption political motivation stating united states must use war prevent attacks september attacks ethical categories another possible system categorizing different schools thought


war found stanford encyclopedia philosophy see external links based ethics sep describes three major divisions ethics war realist pacifist war theory nutshell '''realists''' typically hold systems morals ethics guide ''individuals'' within societies cannot realistically applied societies whole govern way societies interact societies hence state 's purposes war simply preserve national interest kind thinking similar machiavelli 's philosophy thucydides


hobbes may also fall category '''pacifism''' however maintains moral evaluation war possible war always found immoral generally two kinds modern secular pacifism consider consequentialist form pacifism cp maintains benefits accruing war never outweigh costs fighting deontological form pacifism dp contends activity war intrinsically wrong since violates foremost duties justice killing human beings eugene victor


debs others famous advocates pacifistic diplomatic methods instead war '''just war theory''' along pacifism holds morals apply war however unlike pacifism according war theory ''is'' possible war morally justified concept morally justified war underlies much concept international law geneva conventions aristotle cicero augustine aquinas hugo grotius among philosophers espoused form war philosophy one common war theory evaluation war war justified


waged state nation 's self defense waged order end gross violations human rights political philosopher john rawls advocated criteria justification war see also absolute war aggressionism decisive victory deterrence theory war theory marxist explanations warfare militarism military industrial complex military science mutually assured destruction peace strength pre emptive war strategic victory tactical victory war studies references '''notes''' '''bibliography''' clausewitz carl von ''on war'' middlesex england penguin books j j graham translation anatol rapoport editor introduction notes c anatol rapoport '''further reading''' chanakya ''arthashastra'' https webarchiveorg web http wwwmssuedu projectsouthasia history primarydocs arthashastra indexhtm especially book


x http wwwmssuedu projectsouthasia history primarydocs arthashastra bookxhtm relating war discusses war along philosophical religious observations sacrifice derived vedic scripture heindel max ''the rosicrucian philosophy questions answers volume ii'' http wwwrosicruciancom qa qaeng htm question philosophy war ''world war reference'' ed describing philosophy war point view rosicrucian beliefs rawls john ''the law peoples'' discussion international law context political liberalism argues clausewitzian conception war wholly autonomous states seeking replace conception fair international society peoples


adhering principles international law external links https wwwieputmedu war philosophy war entry iep https platostanfordedu entries war war article sep war war


simulation brownian motion sample paths important tool calculating price financial instruments risk neutral measure '''computational finance''' branch applied computer science deals problems practical interest finance ref name seydel r diger u seydel '' ftp nozdrru biblio kolxo f fn seydel ru tools computational finance ed springer isbn fn pdf tools computational finance '' springer rd edition may ref slightly different definitions study data algorithms currently used finance ref name cfrl ref mathematics computer programs realize financial models systems ref name los cornelis los ''computational finance'' world scientific pub co inc december ref computational finance emphasizes practical numerical

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
Computational finance


methods rather mathematical proofs focuses techniques apply directly economic analyses ref name miranda mario j miranda paul l fackler ''applied computational economics finance'' mit press september ref interdisciplinary field mathematical finance numerical methods ref name ugur omur ugur ''introduction computational finance'' imperial college press december ref two major areas efficient accurate computation fair values financial securities modeling stochastic time series ref name duan jin chuan duan wolfgang karl h rdle james e gentle editors ''handbook computational finance'' springer october ref history


birth computational finance discipline traced harry markowitz early markowitz conceived portfolio selection problem exercise mean variance optimization required computer power available time worked useful algorithms approximate solutions ref name markowitz harry markowitz ''portfolio selection efficient diversification investments'' wiley second edition september ref mathematical finance began insight diverged making simplifying assumptions express relations simple closed forms require sophisticated computer science evaluate ref name fox justin fox ''the myth


rational market history risk reward delusion wall street'' harperbusiness june ref hedge fund managers ed thorp ref name poundstone william poundstone ''fortune 's formula untold story scientific betting system beat casinos wall street'' hill wang september ref michael goodkin working harry markowitz paul samuelson robert c merton ref name goodkin michael goodkin ''the wrong answer faster inside story making machine trades trillions'' wiley february ref pioneered use computers arbitrage trading academics


sophisticated computer processing needed researchers eugene fama order analyze large amounts financial data support efficient market hypothesis ref name fox main focus computational finance shifted options pricing analyzing mortgage securitizations ref name brown aaron brown ''red blooded risk secret history wall street'' wiley october ref late early group young quantitative practitioners became known rocket scientists arrived wall street brought along personal computers led explosion amount variety


computational finance applications ref name ehlers john f ehlers ''rocket science traders'' wiley july ref many new techniques came signal processing speech recognition rather traditional fields computational economics like optimization time series analysis ref name ehlers end winding cold war brought large group displaced physicists applied mathematicians many behind iron curtain finance people become known financial engineers quant term includes rocket scientists financial engineers well quantitative portfolio managers ref name brown aaron brown


grown supply computational finance software services ref name goodkin applications computational finance algorithmic trading quantitative investing high frequency trading see also outline finance quantitative analyst list quantitative analysts mathematical finance financial engineering quantlib master computational finance master quantitative finance financial reinsurance financial modeling references external links http ieee cisorg technical cfetc ieee computational finance economics technical committee http wwwscicomuwaterlooca paforsyt agonpdf introduction computational finance without agonizing pain http wwwbracilnet finance papers tsangmartinez compfinance ieee connections pdf introduction computational finance ieee computational intelligence society newsletter august https webarchiveorg web http wwwpuc riobr marcoind katia numhtml numerical techniques options https webarchiveorg web http wwwpuc riobr marcoind sim stoc prochtml monte carlo simulation stochastic processes http wwwessexacuk ccfea centre computational finance


economic agents ccfea http wwwrisknet type technical paper source journal computational finance journal computational finance mathematical finance actuarial science computational fields study


'''philosophy artificial intelligence''' branch philosophy technology explores artificial intelligence implications knowledge understanding intelligence ethics consciousness epistemology free furthermore technology concerned creation artificial animals artificial people least artificial creatures see artificial life discipline considerable interest philosophers ref name sep ref factors contributed emergence '''philosophy artificial intelligence''' scholars argue ai community 's dismissal philosophy detrimental philosophy artificial intelligence attempts answer questions

Humanities
Philosophy
Metaphysics
Philosophy of artificial intelligence


follows machine act intelligently solve ''any'' problem person would solve thinking human intelligence machine intelligence human brain essentially computer machine mind mental states consciousness sense human ''feel things are'' questions like reflect divergent interests ai researchers cognitive scientists philosophers respectively scientific answers questions depend definition intelligence consciousness exactly machines discussion important propositions philosophy


ai include following turing 's polite convention machine behaves intelligently human intelligent human ref name paraphrase essential point turing test ref dartmouth proposal every aspect learning feature intelligence precisely described machine made simulate ref name mmrs assertion printed program dartmouth conference widely considered birth ai also ref allen newell herbert simon 's physical


symbol system hypothesis physical symbol system necessary sufficient means general intelligent action ref name ns ref john searle 's strong ai hypothesis appropriately programmed computer right inputs outputs would thereby mind exactly sense human beings minds ref name swai version also quoted searle 's original formulation appropriately programmed computer really mind sense computers given right programs literally said understand cognitive states strong ai defined similarly


solve using intelligence question defines scope machines could future guides direction ai research concerns ''behavior'' machines ignores issues interest psychologists cognitive scientists philosophers answer question matter whether machine ' 'really'' thinking person thinks ''acting like'' thinking basic position ai researchers summed statement appeared proposal dartmouth workshop every aspect learning


feature intelligence precisely described machine made simulate ref name mmrs arguments basic premise must show building working ai system impossible practical limit abilities computers special quality human mind necessary intelligent behavior yet cannot duplicated machine methods current ai research arguments favor basic premise must show system possible also possible sidestep


words ordinary person would may call machine intelligent modern version experimental design would use online chat room one participants real person one participants computer program program passes test one tell two participants human ref name turing notes one except philosophers ever asks question people think writes instead arguing continually point usual polite convention everyone thinks turing 's test extends


polite convention machines machine acts intelligently human intelligent human one criticism turing test measures humanness machine 's behavior rather intelligence behavior since human behavior intelligent behavior exactly thing test fails measure intelligence stuart j russell peter norvig write aeronautical engineering texts define goal field 'making machines fly exactly like pigeons fool pigeons' intelligent


agent definition simple reflex agent twenty first century ai research defines intelligence terms intelligent agents agent something perceives acts environment performance measure defines counts success agent agent acts maximize expected value performance measure based past experience knowledge intelligent definitions like one try capture essence intelligence advantage unlike turing test also test unintelligent human traits making typing mistakes ability


insulted disadvantage fail differentiate things think things definition even thermostat rudimentary intelligence arguments machine display general intelligence brain simulated mri scan normal adult human brain hubert dreyfus describes argument claiming nervous system obeys laws physics chemistry every reason suppose ought able reproduce behavior nervous system


physical device argument first introduced early vividly described hans moravec associated futurist ray kurzweil estimates computer power sufficient complete brain simulation year non real time simulation thalamocortical model size human brain sup sup neurons performed took days simulate second brain dynamics cluster processors even ai 's harshest critics hubert dreyfus john searle agree brain simulation possible theory


john searle writes could man made machine think assuming possible produce artificially machine nervous system answer question seems obviously yes could digital computer think 'digital computer' mean anything level description correctly described instantiation computer program answer course yes since instantiations number computer programs think however searle points principle ''anything'' simulated


computer thus bringing definition breaking point leads conclusion process technically considered computation wanted know distinguishes mind thermostats livers writes thus merely simulating functioning living brain would admission ignorance regarding intelligence nature mind like trying build jet airliner copying living bird precisely feather feather theoretical understanding aeronautical engineering human thinking symbol processing allen newell herbert


simon proposed symbol manipulation essence human machine intelligence wrote physical symbol system necessary sufficient means general intelligent action ref name ns claim strong implies human thinking kind symbol manipulation symbol system ''necessary'' intelligence machines intelligent symbol system ' 'sufficient'' intelligence another version position described philosopher hubert dreyfus called psychological assumption mind viewed device operating bits information


according formal rules symbols newell simon dreyfus discussed word like high level symbols directly correspond objects world nowiki dog nowiki nowiki tail nowiki ai programs written used kind symbol modern ai based statistics mathematical optimization use high level symbol processing newell simon discussed arguments symbol processing arguments show human thinking consist solely high level symbol manipulation ''not'' show artificial intelligence impossible symbol processing


required g delian anti mechanist arguments kurt g del proved incompleteness theorem always possible construct g del statement given consistent formal system logic high level symbol manipulation program could prove despite true statement constructed g del statement unprovable given system truth constructed g del statement contingent consistency given system applying process subtly inconsistent system appear succeed actually yield false g del statement instead speculatively g del conjectured


human mind correctly eventually determine truth falsity well grounded mathematical statement including possible g del statement therefore human mind 's power reducible ''mechanism'' philosopher john lucas since roger penrose since championed philosophical anti mechanist argument ref name l ref g delian anti mechanist arguments tend rely innocuous seeming claim system human mathematicians idealization human mathematicians consistent completely free error believes fully consistency make logical inferences follow consistency


including belief g del statement provably impossible turing machine see halting problem therefore g delian concludes human reasoning powerful captured turing machine extension digital mechanical device however modern consensus scientific mathematical community actual human reasoning inconsistent consistent idealized version ''h'' human reasoning would logically forced adopt healthy counter intuitive open minded skepticism consistency ''h'' otherwise ''h'' provably inconsistent g del 's theorems lead


valid argument humans mathematical reasoning capabilities beyond machine could ever duplicate consensus g delian anti mechanist arguments doomed failure laid strongly ''artificial intelligence'' ''any'' attempt utilize g del 's incompleteness results attack computationalist thesis bound illegitimate since results quite consistent computationalist thesis ref name laforte laforte g hayes p j ford k g del 's theorem cannot refute computationalism artificial intelligence ref stuart russell peter norvig agree g del 's argument n't consider nature real world human reasoning applies


theoretically proved given infinite amount memory time practice real machines including humans finite resources difficulty proving many theorems necessary able prove everything order intelligent person less formally douglas hofstadter pulitzer prize winning book ''g del escher bach eternal golden braid'' states g del statements always refer system drawing analogy way epimenides paradox uses statements refer statement false lying course


epimenides paradox applies anything makes statements whether machines ''or'' humans even lucas consider lucas ca n't assert truth statement statement true cannot asserted lucas shows lucas subject limits describes machines people lucas 's argument pointless concluding human reasoning non computable penrose went controversially speculate kind hypothetical non computable processes involving collapse quantum mechanical states give humans special advantage existing computers existing quantum


computers capable reducing complexity turing computable tasks still restricted tasks within scope turing machines penrose lucas 's arguments existing quantum computers sufficient penrose seeks process involving new physics instance quantum gravity might manifest new physics scale planck mass via spontaneous quantum collapse wave function states suggested occur within neurons also spanning one neuron however scientists point plausible organic mechanism


response know rules govern complex behavior mean rules exist wrote cannot easily convince absence complete laws behaviour way know finding laws scientific observation certainly know circumstances could say 'we searched enough laws' russell norvig point years since dreyfus published critique progress made towards discovering rules govern


unconscious reasoning ref name russell ref situated movement robotics research attempts capture unconscious skills perception attention computational intelligence paradigms neural nets evolutionary algorithms mostly directed simulated unconscious reasoning learning statistical approaches ai make predictions approach accuracy human intuitive guesses research commonsense knowledge focused reproducing background context knowledge fact ai research general moved away high level symbol manipulation towards new models intended capture ''unconscious'' reasoning ref name russell


historian ai researcher daniel crevier wrote time proven accuracy perceptiveness dreyfus 's comments formulated less aggressively constructive actions suggested might taken much earlier ref name crevier p ref machine mind consciousness mental states philosophical question related problem minds hard problem consciousness question revolves around position defined john searle strong ai physical symbol system mind mental states ref name swai searle distinguished position


called weak ai physical symbol system act intelligently ref name swai searle introduced terms isolate strong ai weak ai could focus thought interesting debatable issue argued ''even assume'' computer program acted exactly like human mind would still difficult philosophical question needed answered ref name swai neither searle 's two positions great concern ai research since directly answer question machine display general intelligence unless


also shown consciousness ''necessary'' intelligence turing wrote wish give impression think mystery consciousness b ut think mysteries necessarily need solved answer question whether machines think ref name argument consciousness see also identify searle 's argument turing 's argument consciousness ref russell norvig agree ai researchers take weak ai hypothesis granted n't care strong ai hypothesis researchers believe


consciousness essential element intelligence igor aleksander stan franklin ron sun pentti haikonen although definition consciousness strays close intelligence see artificial consciousness answer question must clear mean minds mental states consciousness consciousness minds mental states meaning words mind consciousness used different communities different ways new age thinkers example use word consciousness describe something similar bergson 's lan vital invisible energetic fluid permeates life especially mind science fiction


writers use word describe essential property makes us human machine alien conscious presented fully human character intelligence desires insight pride science fiction writers also use words sentience sapience self awareness ghost ''ghost shell'' manga anime series describe essential human property others words mind consciousness used kind secular synonym soul philosophers neuroscientists cognitive scientists words used way


precise mundane refer familiar everyday experience thought head like perception dream intention plan way ' 'see'' something ''know'' something ''mean'' something ''understand'' something 's hard give commonsense definition consciousness observes philosopher john searle mysterious fascinating much ''what'' ''how'' lump fatty tissue electricity give rise familiar experience perceiving meaning thinking philosophers call


hard problem consciousness latest version classic problem philosophy mind called mind body problem related problem problem ''meaning'' ''understanding'' philosophers call intentionality connection ''thoughts'' ''what thinking about'' ie objects situations world third issue problem ''experience'' phenomenology two people see thing experience things inside head called qualia different person person neurobiologists believe


problems solved begin identify neural correlates consciousness actual relationship machinery heads collective properties mind experience understanding harshest critics artificial intelligence agree brain machine consciousness intelligence result physical processes brain difficult philosophical question computer program running digital machine shuffles binary digits zero one duplicate ability neurons create minds


mental states like understanding perceiving ultimately experience consciousness arguments computer cannot mind mental states searle 's chinese room john searle asks us consider thought experiment suppose written computer program passes turing test demonstrates general intelligent action suppose specifically program converse fluent chinese write program x cards give ordinary person speak chinese lock person room follow instructions cards copy chinese


people ned block envisioned entire population china involved brain simulation thought experiment called chinese nation chinese gym ned block also proposed blockhead argument version chinese room program factored simple set rules form see removing mystery program responses chinese room responses chinese room emphasize several different points '''the systems reply''' '''virtual mind reply''' reply argues


''the system'' including man program room cards understands chinese searle claims man room thing could possibly mind understand others disagree arguing possible ''two'' minds physical place similar way computer simultaneously two machines one physical like macintosh one virtual like word processor '''speed power complexity replies''' several critics point man room would probably take millions


years respond simple question would require filing cabinets astronomical proportions brings clarity searle 's intuition doubt '''robot reply''' truly understand believe chinese room needs eyes hands hans moravec writes 'if could graft robot reasoning program would n't need person provide meaning anymore would come physical world '''brain simulator reply''' program simulates sequence nerve firings synapses actual brain actual chinese speaker man room would


computational theory mind computationalism claims relationship mind brain similar identical relationship ''running program'' computer idea philosophical roots hobbes claimed reasoning nothing reckoning leibniz attempted create logical calculus human ideas hume thought perception could reduced atomic impressions even kant analyzed experience controlled formal rules latest version associated philosophers hilary putnam jerry fodor question bears earlier questions


human brain kind computer computers intelligent conscious answering practical philosophical questions ai terms practical question ai machine display general intelligence versions computationalism make claim hobbes wrote reasoning nothing reckoning ref name h words intelligence derives form ''calculation'' similar arithmetic physical symbol system hypothesis discussed implies artificial intelligence possible terms philosophical question ai machine mind mental


states consciousness versions computationalism claim stevan harnad characterizes mental states implementations right computer programs ref name harnad ref john searle 's strong ai discussed real target chinese room argument according harnad ref name harnad related questions machine emotions emotions defined terms effect behavior function inside organism emotions viewed mechanism intelligent agent uses maximize utility actions given definition


emotion hans moravec believes robots general quite emotional nice people ref name cq quoted ref fear source urgency empathy necessary component good human computer interaction says robots try please apparently selfless manner get thrill positive reinforcement interpret kind love ref name cq daniel crevier writes moravec 's point emotions devices channeling behavior direction beneficial survival one 's species machine self aware self awareness


noted sometimes used science fiction writers name essential human property makes character fully human turing strips away properties human beings reduces question machine subject thought ''think itself'' viewed way program written report internal states debugger ref name machine original creative turing reduces question whether machine take us surprise argues


obviously true programmer attest notes enough storage capacity computer behave astronomical number different ways must possible even trivial computer represent ideas combine new ways douglas lenat 's automated mathematician one example combined ideas discover new mathematical truths kaplan haenlein suggest machines display scientific creativity seems likely humans upper hand artistic creativity concerned scientists aberystwyth university wales uk 's university cambridge designed


machine deliberately set harm latter question machine conscious states intentions another form ref name question whether highly intelligent completely autonomous machines would dangerous examined detail futurists machine intelligence research institute obvious element drama also made subject popular science fiction considered many differently possible scenarios intelligent machines pose threat mankind see artificial intelligence fiction one issue machines may acquire autonomy intelligence required


extent computers robots might able acquire level autonomy degree could use abilities possibly pose threat hazard noted machines acquired various forms semi autonomy including able find power sources able independently choose targets attack weapons also noted computer viruses evade elimination achieved cockroach intelligence noted self awareness depicted science fiction probably unlikely potential hazards pitfalls ref name nytimes july https wwwnytimescom science robothtml r ref todayspaper


human interaction suggested need build friendly ai meaning advances already occurring ai also include effort make ai intrinsically friendly humane machine imitate human characteristics turing said customary offer grain comfort form statement peculiarly human characteristic could never imitated machine cannot offer comfort believe bounds set turing noted many arguments form machine never


x x many things blockquote kind resourceful beautiful friendly initiative sense humor tell right wrong make mistakes fall love enjoy strawberries cream make someone fall love learn experience use words properly subject thought much diversity behaviour man something really new ref name arguments various disabilities ref blockquote turing argues objections often based naive assumptions versatility machines disguised forms argument consciousness


writing program exhibits one behaviors make much impression ref name arguments tangential basic premise ai unless shown one traits essential general intelligence machine soul finally believe existence soul may argue thinking function man 's immortal soul alan turing called theological objection writes blockquote attempting construct machines irreverently usurping power creating souls


procreation children rather either case instruments providing mansions souls creates blockquote views role philosophy scholars argue ai community 's dismissal philosophy detrimental ''stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' philosophers argue role philosophy ai underappreciated ref name sep physicist david deutsch argues without understanding philosophy concepts ai development would suffer lack progress conferences main conference series issue https wwwpt aiorg philosophy theory


nowiki https wwwroutledgecom artificial knowing gender thinking machine adam p book nowiki benjamin ruha ''race technology abolitionist tools new jim code'' wiley https wwwwileycom en us race technology abolitionist tools new jim code p isbn bryson joanna arti cial intelligence ethics arti cial intelligence introductory overview law regulation crawford kate ''the atlas ai power politics planetary costs artificial intelligence'' yale university press haraway donna ''a cyborg manifesto'' malabou catherine ''morphing intelligence iq measurement artificial brains'' c shread trans columbia university press ''page numbers diagram contents refer lyceum


pdf print article'' philosophy science philosophy technology philosophy mind open problems articles containing video clips artificial intelligence


chromogenic immunohistochemistry normal kidney targeting protein cd immunofluorescence human skin using anti iga antibody skin patient henoch sch nlein purpura iga deposits found walls small superficial capillaries yellow arrows pale wavy green area top epidermis bottom fibrous area dermis '''immunohistochemistry''' '''ihc''' common application immunostaining involves process selectively identifying antigens proteins cells tissue section exploiting principle antibodies binding specifically antigens biological tissues ref name ja ramos vara ihc

Natural science
Chemistry
Histochemistry


takes name roots immuno reference antibodies used procedure histo meaning tissue compare immunocytochemistry albert coons conceptualized first implemented procedure visualising antibody antigen interaction accomplished number ways mainly either following ''chromogenic immunohistochemistry'' cih wherein antibody conjugated enzyme peroxidase combination termed immunoperoxidase catalyse colour producing reaction ref name ''immunofluorescence'' antibody tagged fluorophore fluorescein rhodamine immunohistochemical staining widely used diagnosis abnormal


cells found cancerous tumors specific molecular markers characteristic particular cellular events proliferation cell death apoptosis immunohistochemistry also widely used basic research understand distribution localization biomarkers differentially expressed proteins different parts biological tissue sample preparation preparation sample critical maintain cell morphology tissue architecture antigenicity target epitopes requires proper tissue collection fixation sectioning solution formalin often used fix tissue methods may used preparing tissue slices


tissue may sliced used whole dependent upon purpose experiment tissue sectioning tissue sample may embedded medium like paraffin wax cryomedia sections sliced variety instruments commonly microtome cryostat vibratome specimens typically sliced range nbsp slices mounted slides dehydrated using alcohol washes increasing concentrations eg cleared using detergent like xylene imaged microscope depending method


fixation tissue preservation sample may require additional steps make epitopes available antibody binding including deparaffinization antigen retrieval formalin fixed paraffin embedded tissues antigen retrieval often necessary involves pre treating sections heat protease ref name ja ramos vara ref steps may make difference target antigens staining staining reducing non specific immuno staining depending tissue type method antigen detection endogenous biotin enzymes may need blocked quenched respectively prior antibody staining although antibodies show preferential avidity specific epitopes


greater efficiency methods eliminate background staining include dilution primary secondary antibodies changing time temperature incubation using different detection system different primary antibody quality control minimum include tissue known express antigen positive control negative controls tissue known express antigen well test tissue probed way omission primary antibody better absorption primary antibody ref name ja ramos vara sample labeling antibody types antibodies used specific detection


polyclonal monoclonal polyclonal antibodies made injecting animals protein interest peptide fragment secondary immune response stimulated isolating antibodies whole serum thus polyclonal antibodies heterogeneous mix antibodies recognize several epitopes monoclonal antibodies made injecting animal taking specific sample immune tissue isolating parent cell using resulting immortalized line create antibodies causes antibodies show specificity single epitope immunohistochemical detection strategies antibodies classified primary secondary reagents primary antibodies


raised antigen interest typically unconjugated unlabeled secondary antibodies raised immunoglobulins primary antibody species secondary antibody usually conjugated linker molecule biotin recruits reporter molecules secondary antibody directly bound reporter molecule ref name ihc reporters reporter molecules vary based nature detection method popular chromogenic fluorescence detection mediated enzyme fluorophore respectively chromogenic reporters enzyme label reacts substrate yield intensely colored


product analyzed ordinary light microscope list enzyme substrates extensive alkaline phosphatase ap horseradish peroxidase hrp two enzymes used extensively labels protein detection array chromogenic fluorogenic chemiluminescent substrates available use either enzyme including dab bcip nbt produce brown purple staining respectively wherever enzymes bound reaction dab enhanced using nickel producing deep purple black staining fluorescent reporters small organic molecules used ihc detection traditionally include fitc tritc amca


commercial derivatives including alexa fluors dylight fluors show similar enhanced performance vary price chromogenic fluorescent detection methods densitometric analysis signal provide semi fully quantitative data respectively correlate level reporter signal level protein expression localization chromogenic immunohistochemistry cell exposed primary antibody red binds specific antigen purple square primary antibody binds secondary green antibody chemically coupled enzyme blue enzyme changes color substrate pigmented one brown


star target antigen detection methods ' 'direct method'' one step staining method involves labeled antibody eg fitc conjugated antiserum reacting directly antigen tissue sections technique utilizes one antibody therefore simple rapid sensitivity lower due little signal amplification contrast indirect approaches ref name ref however strategy used less frequently multi phase counterpart ''indirect method'' involves unlabeled primary antibody first layer binds target antigen tissue labeled secondary antibody second layer reacts primary antibody


individual binding affinity endogenous tissue targets leading nonspecific binding high background ranking proteins based nonspecific binding affinities highest lowest avidin streptavidin neutravidin protein indirect method aside greater sensitivity also advantage relatively small number standard conjugated labeled secondary antibodies needs generated example labeled secondary antibody raised rabbit igg purchased shelf useful primary antibody raised rabbit possible rabbit igg


provide contrast helps primary stain stand many stains show specificity specific classes biomolecules others stain whole cell ref name chromogenic fluorescent dyes available ihc provide vast array reagents fit every experimental design include hematoxylin hoechst stain dapi commonly used troubleshooting immunohistochemical techniques several steps prior final staining tissue antigen cause variety problems including strong background staining weak target antigen staining autofluorescence endogenous biotin reporter enzymes


primary secondary antibody cross reactivity common causes strong background staining weak staining may caused poor enzyme activity primary antibody potency furthermore autofluorescence may due nature tissue fixation method aspects ihc tissue prep antibody staining must systematically addressed identify overcome staining issues diagnostic ihc markers ihc excellent detection technique tremendous advantage able show exactly given protein located within tissue examined also effective way examine tissues


made widely used technique neurosciences enabling researchers examine protein expression within specific brain structures major disadvantage unlike immunoblotting techniques staining checked molecular weight ladder impossible show ihc staining corresponds protein interest reason primary antibodies must well validated western blot similar procedure technique even widely used diagnostic surgical pathology immunophenotyping tumors eg immunostaining e cadherin differentiate dcis ductal carcinoma situ stains positive lcis lobular carcinoma


situ stain positive recently immunohistochemical techniques useful differential diagnoses multiple forms salivary gland head neck carcinomas diversity ihc markers used diagnostic surgical pathology substantial many clinical laboratories tertiary hospitals menus antibodies used diagnostic prognostic predictive biomarkers examples commonly used markers include brdu used identify replicating cells used identify tumors well neuroscience research cytokeratins used identification carcinomas may also expressed sarcomas cd cd used


hodgkin 's disease alpha fetoprotein yolk sac tumors hepatocellular carcinoma cd kit gastrointestinal stromal tumors gist mast cell tumors cd calla renal cell carcinoma acute lymphoblastic leukemia prostate specific antigen psa prostate cancer estrogens progesterone receptor er pr staining used diagnostically breast gyn tumors well prognostic breast cancer predictive response therapy estrogen receptor identification b cell lymphomas using cd identification cell lymphomas using cd p ck ck also pin stained samples adenocarcinoma cells generally display red cytoplasms stained amacr


pin cocktail targeting p ck ck amacr latter also known p used distinguish prostate adenocarcinoma benign glands directing therapy variety molecular pathways altered cancer alterations targeted cancer therapy immunohistochemistry used assess tumors likely respond therapy detecting presence elevated levels molecular target chemical inhibitors tumor biology allows number potential intracellular targets many tumors hormone dependent presence hormone receptors used determine


tumor potentially responsive antihormonal therapy one first therapies antiestrogen tamoxifen used treat breast cancer hormone receptors detected immunohistochemistry imatinib intracellular tyrosine kinase inhibitor developed treat chronic myelogenous leukemia disease characterized formation specific abnormal tyrosine kinase imitanib proven effective tumors express tyrosine kinases notably kit gastrointestinal stromal tumors express kit detected immunohistochemistry monoclonal antibodies many proteins shown highly upregulated pathological states immunohistochemistry potential


targets therapies utilising monoclonal antibodies monoclonal antibodies due size utilized cell surface targets among overexpressed targets members egfr family transmembrane proteins extracellular receptor domain regulating intracellular tyrosine kinase neu also known erb b first developed molecule highly expressed variety cancer cell types notably breast cancer antibodies neu fda approved clinical treatment cancer drug name ''herceptin'' commercially available immunohistochemical tests dako herceptest


patterns large number different tissue types immunohistochemistry also used protein profiling common forms human cancer see also cutaneous conditions immunofluorescence findings chromogenic situ hybridization references external links https wwwproteinatlasorg human protein atlas http wwwpiercenetcom browsecfmfldid f b dc b e ca ba overview immunohistochemistry describes aspects ihc including sample prep staining troubleshooting https wwwnovusbiocom support application fluorescent ihc staining ffpe tissue immunofluorescent staining paraffin embedded tissue p https wwwbio rad antibodiescom blog ihc tip antigen retrieval pier hierhtml ihc tip antigen retrieval pier hier https webarchiveorg web http wwwurmcrochesteredu path zqu histostain indexhtml histochemical staining methods university rochester department pathology http wwwprosci inccom immunohistochemistry protocolhtml immunohistochemistry staining protocol histology immunologic


tests protein methods anatomical pathology staining laboratory techniques pathology


browning inglis hi power pistols john inglis munitions plant canada april '''arms industry''' also known '''arms trade''' global industry manufactures sells weapons military technology consists commercial industry involved research development engineering production servicing military material equipment facilities arms producing companies also referred '''arms dealers''' '''military industry''' produce arms armed forces states civilians departments government also operate arms industry buying selling weapons munitions military items arsenal

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Defense industry


goes procurement military hardware services military industry combined arms sales top largest arms producing companies military services companies excluding china totaled billion according sipri percent higher sales marks fourth consecutive year growth top arms sales billion spent international arms trade figure excludes domestic sales arms according institute volume international transfers major weapons percent higher


produced companies nearly countries governments award contracts supply country 's military arms contracts become substantial political importance link politics arms trade result development us president dwight eisenhower described military industrial complex armed forces commerce politics become closely linked similarly european multilateral defense procurement various corporations publicly held others private bid contracts often worth many billions dollars sometimes contract international joint strike


fighter competitive tendering process takes place decision made merits designs submitted companies involved times bidding competition takes place unimog truck international defence industry fair idef history painting shells shell filling factory world war early modern period england france netherlands states germany became self sufficient arms production diffusion migration skilled workers peripheral countries portugal russia modern arms industry emerged second half nineteenth


century product creation expansion first large military industrial companies smaller countries even newly industrializing countries like russia japan could longer produce cutting edge military equipment indigenous resources capacity increasingly began contract manufacture military equipment battleships artillery pieces rifles foreign firms british government awarded contract elswick ordnance company supply latest breech loading rifled artillery pieces galvanized private sector weapons production surplus increasingly exported foreign


countries armstrong became one first international arms dealers selling weapon systems governments across world brazil japan opened shipyard elswick specialize warship production time factory world could build battleship arm completely factory produced warships many navies including imperial japanese navy several armstrong cruisers played important role defeating russian fleet battle tsushima american civil war north small cognizable


advantage south due ability produce relatively small numbers breech loading rifles use muzzle loading rifled muskets largely sole variety shoulder arm utilized south began transition industrially produced mechanized weapons gatling gun industrial innovation defense industry adopted prussia defeat austria france respectively time machine gun begun entering militaries first example effectiveness boer war


russo japanese war however germany leaders innovation weapons used innovation nearly defeating allies world war france decided capitalize increasingly lucrative form trade repealed ban weapon exports regulatory framework period first world war characterized laissez faire policy placed little obstruction way weapons exports due carnage world war arms traders began regarded odium merchants death accused instigated