centralized communications allow standardization information may restrict free flow information decentralized communications make easy share information directly group members decentralized communications tend flow freely delivery information may fast accurate centralized communications another potential downside decentralized communications sheer volume information generated particularly electronic media '''status differentials''' relative differences status among group members group first formed members may equal level


may also affect group 's tolerance violation group norms eg people higher status may given freedom violate group norms group performance forsyth suggests many daily tasks undertaken individuals could performed isolation preference perform people ref name forsyth social facilitation performance gains study dynamogenic stimulation purpose explaining pacemaking competition norman triplett theorized bodily presence another rider stimulus racer arousing competitive instinct dynamogenic factor

Social science
Psychology
Group psychology


believed laid groundwork known social facilitation improvement task performance occurs people work presence people ref name forsyth triplett 's observation floyd allport found although people groups productive individuals quality product effort inferior ref name forsyth robert zajonc expanded study arousal response originated triplett research area social facilitation study zajonc considered two experimental paradigms first audience effects zajonc observed behaviour presence passive


individual resulting better performance presence others whereas social interference occurs task elicited nondominant response individual resulting subpar performance task ref name forsyth several theories analysing performance gains groups via drive motivational cognitive personality processes explain social facilitation occurs zajonc hypothesized '''compresence''' state responding presence others elevates individual 's drive level turn triggers social facilitation tasks simple easy execute impedes performance tasks challenging ref name forsyth nickolas cottrell proposed


'''evaluation apprehension model''' whereby suggested people associate social situations evaluative process cottrell argued situation met apprehension motivational response arousal elevated drive responsible increased productivity simple tasks decreased productivity complex tasks presence others ref name forsyth '''the presentation self everyday life''' erving goffman assumes individuals control perceived others suggests people fear perceived negative undesirable qualities characteristics people fear compels


individuals portray positive self presentation social image relation performance gains goffman 's '' 'self presentation theory''' predicts situations may evaluated individuals consequently increase efforts order project preserve maintain positive image ref name forsyth '''distraction conflict theory''' contends person working presence people interference effect occurs splitting individual 's attention task person simple tasks individual challenged task interference effect negligible performance therefore facilitated complex tasks drive


strong enough effectively compete effects distraction performance gain '''stroop task''' stroop effect demonstrated narrowing person 's focus attention certain tasks distractions improve performance ref name forsyth '''social orientation theory''' considers way person approaches social situations predicts self confident individuals positive outlook show performance gains social facilitation whereas self conscious individual approaching social situations apprehension less likely perform well due social interference effects ref name forsyth intergroup dynamics ''intergroup dynamics'' intergroup relations refers behavioural psychological


united states intergroup dynamics played significant role eric harris dylan klebold decision kill teacher students including ref name aronson intergroup conflict according social identity theory intergroup conflict starts process comparison individuals one group ingroup another group outgroup comparison process unbiased objective instead mechanism enhancing one 's self esteem ref name hoggw process comparisons individual tends favour ingroup outgroup exaggerate overgeneralize differences ingroup outgroup


intergroup competition sometimes relatively harmless particularly situations little history conflict example students different universities leading relatively harmless generalizations mild competitive behaviours ref name hoggw intergroup conflict commonly recognized amidst racial ethnic religious political groups formation intergroup conflict investigated popular series studies muzafer sherif colleagues called robbers cave experiment robbers cave experiment later used support realistic conflict theory prominent theories relating intergroup conflict include social dominance theory social self categorization theory intergroup conflict reduction


overall support efficacy ref name pettigrew cases even without four optimal conditions outlined allport prejudice groups reduced ref name pettigrew superordinate identities contact hypothesis several models developed number models utilize ' 'superordinate identity'' reduce prejudice broadly defined umbrella group identity includes groups conflict emphasizing superordinate identity individuals subgroups share common social identity ref name hornsey ref example conflict white black latino students high school one might try


emphasize high school group identity students share reduce conflict groups models utilizing superordinate identities include common ingroup identity model ingroup projection model mutual intergroup differentiation model ingroup identity model ref name hornsey similarly recategorization broader term used gaertner et al describe strategies aforementioned ref name gaertner interdependence also techniques reducing prejudice utilize interdependence two groups members across groups rely one another accomplish goal task robbers cave experiment sherif used strategy


reduce conflict groups ref name gaertner elliot aronson jigsaw classroom also uses strategy interdependence thick racial tensions abounding austin texas aronson brought examine nature tension within schools devise strategy reducing improve process school integration mandated brown v board education despite strong evidence effectiveness ''jigsaw classroom'' strategy widely used arguably strong attitudes existing outside schools still resisted notion racial ethnic minority groups


parshwanatha rd tirthankara revived jainism ahimsa th century bce led radical animal rights movement south asia c th century ce tamil scholar valluvar ''tirukkural'' taught ''ahimsa'' moral vegetarianism personal virtues plaque statue valluvar animal sanctuary south india describes kural 's teachings ahimsa non killing summing definition veganism '''animal rights''' philosophy according many sentient animals moral worth independent utility humans

Humanities
Philosophy
Ethics
Animal rights


speciesism since richard ryder adopted term arguing prejudice irrational maintain animals longer viewed property used food clothing research subjects entertainment beasts burden multiple cultural traditions around world jainism taoism hinduism buddhism shintoism animism also espouse forms animal rights parallel debate moral rights law schools north america often teach animal law ref name animal law courses ref several legal scholars steven wise gary l francione


relatively little outside jainism animal like bacteria despite overwhelming numbers hardly critics animal rights argue nonhuman animals unable enter social contract thus cannot possessors rights view summed philosopher roger scruton writes humans duties therefore humans rights ref name scruton another argument associated utilitarian tradition maintains animals may used resources long unnecessary suffering ref name ethical ref animals may moral standing inferior status human beings


interests may overridden though counts necessary suffering legitimate sacrifice interests vary considerably certain forms animal rights activism destruction fur farms animal laboratories animal liberation front attracted criticism including within animal rights movement prompted reaction us congress enactment laws including animal enterprise terrorism act allowing prosecution sort activity terrorism history religion basis animal rights religion animal worship


recognized early sharia recognition based qur'an hadith qur'an many references animals detailing souls form communities communicate god worship way muhammad forbade followers harm animal asked respect rights animals according christianity animals smallest largest cared loved according bible animals waited lord lord might give food hour lord gives


receive lord opens hand filled good things says god gave food animals made crows cry philosophical legal approaches overview martha nussbaum professor law ethics university chicago proponent capabilities approach animal rights two main philosophical approaches animal ethics utilitarian rights based former exemplified peter singer latter tom regan gary francione differences reflect distinction philosophers draw ethical theories judge rightness


act consequences consequentialism teleological ethics utilitarianism focus principle behind act almost regardless consequences deontological ethics deontologists argue acts never perform even failing entails worse outcome number positions defended consequentalist deontologist perspective including capabilities approach represented martha nussbaum egalitarian approach examined ingmar persson peter vallentyne capabilities approach focuses individuals require fulfill capabilities nussbaum argues animals need


approach animal rights based virtue ethics mark rowlands proposed contractarian approach ref name rowlands p utilitarianism nussbaum writes utilitarianism starting jeremy bentham john stuart mill contributed recognition moral status animals ethical theory utilitarian philosopher associated animal rights peter singer professor bioethics princeton university singer rights theorist uses language rights discuss ought treat individuals preference utilitarian meaning judges rightness act


extent satisfies preferences interests affected position reason give equal consideration interests human nonhumans though principle equality require identical treatment mouse man interest kicked moral logical grounds failing accord interests equal weight interests predicated ability suffer nothing established interests interests must given equal consideration ref name singer singer pp


taught ignore pain writes least one major veterinary hospital stock narcotic analgesics animal pain control interactions scientists often asked prove animals conscious provide scientifically acceptable evidence could feel pain ref name rollin rollin pp xii pp http wwwnaturecom embor journal v n full html rollin ref scientific publications made clear since majority researchers believe animals suffer feel pain though continues argued suffering may reduced inability experience


dread anticipation humans remember suffering vividly problem animal suffering animal consciousness general arose primarily argued animals language singer writes language needed communicate pain would often impossible know humans pain though observe pain behavior make calculated guess based argues reason suppose pain behavior nonhumans would different meaning pain behavior humans subjects life tom regan


animals subjects life tom regan professor emeritus philosophy north carolina state university argues ''the case animal rights'' nonhuman animals calls subjects life bearers rights ref name regan regan p ref writes moral rights humans based possession certain cognitive abilities abilities also possessed least nonhuman animals animals must moral rights humans although humans act moral agents marginal case humans infants least nonhumans


must status moral patients ref name regan moral patients unable formulate moral principles unable right wrong even though may beneficial harmful moral agents able engage moral action animals regan intrinsic value subjects life cannot regarded means end view places firmly abolitionist camp theory extend animals regarded subjects life ref name regan argues normal mammals


least one year age would qualify whereas singer primarily concerned improving treatment animals accepts hypothetical scenarios individual animals might used legitimately human nonhuman ends regan believes ought treat nonhuman animals would humans applies strict kantian ideal kant applied humans ought never sacrificed means end must treated ends abolitionism gary francione animals need right regarded property gary francione


beings latter almost always prevail francione 's ''animals property law'' first extensive jurisprudential treatment animal rights francione compares situation animals treatment slaves united states legislation existed appeared protect courts ignored institution slavery rendered protection unenforceable offers example united states animal welfare act describes example symbolic legislation intended assuage public concern treatment animals difficult implement argues


focus animal welfare rather animal rights may worsen position animals making public feel comfortable using entrenching view property calls animal rights groups pursue animal welfare issues people ethical treatment animals new welfarists arguing common th century animal protectionists animal rights movement indeed terms animal protection protectionism increasingly favored position animal rights movement united states contractarianism mark rowlands professor


p ff particularly pp ref idea operating behind veil ignorance choose social contract basic fairness justice matter position occupy rawls include species membership one attributes hidden decision makers original position rowlands proposes extending veil ignorance include rationality argues undeserved property similar characteristics including race sex intelligence ref name rowlands p ''prima facie'' rights theory american philosopher timothy garry proposed approach deems nonhuman animals


worthy ''prima facie'' rights philosophical context ''prima facie'' latin face first glance right one appears applicable first glance upon closer examination may outweighed considerations book ''ethics pluralistic approach moral theory'' lawrence hinman characterizes rights right real leaves open question whether applicable overriding particular situation ref name hinman p hinman lawrence ethics pluralistic approach moral theory fort worth tx harcourt brace college print ref idea


nonhuman animals worthy ''prima facie'' rights say sense animals rights overridden many considerations especially conflicting human 's right life liberty property pursuit happiness garry supports view arguing sum garry suggests humans obligations nonhuman animals animals ought uninfringible rights humans feminism animal rights ecofeminist carol adams written extensively link feminism animal rights starting ''the sexual politics meat'' women played


central role animal advocacy since th century ref name lansbury et al lansbury adams donovan gruen adams adams donovan adams mackinnon ref anti vivisection movement th early th century england united states largely run women including frances power cobbe anna kingsford lizzy lind af hageby caroline earle white garner writes per cent membership victoria street society one anti vivisection groups founded cobbe women per cent membership british


rspca modern animal advocacy movement similar representation women invariably leadership positions march animals washington dc largest animal rights demonstration held united states participants women platform speakers men ref name garner p garner pp ref nevertheless several influential animal advocacy groups founded women including british union abolition vivisection cobbe london animal welfare board india rukmini devi arundale people


ethical treatment animals co founded ingrid newkirk netherlands marianne thieme esther ouwehand elected parliament representing parliamentary group animals preponderance women movement led body academic literature exploring feminism animal rights feminism vegetarianism veganism oppression women animals male association women animals nature emotion rather reason association several feminist writers embraced ref name lansbury et al lori gruen writes women animals serve symbolic function


patriarchal society used dominated submissive british feminist mary wollstonecraft published ''a vindication rights woman'' thomas taylor cambridge philosopher responded anonymous parody ''a vindication rights brutes'' saying wollstonecraft 's arguments women 's rights could applied equally animals position intended ' 'reductio ad absurdum'' transhumanism transhumanists argue animal rights liberation uplift animal consciousness machines transhumanism also understands animal rights gradation spectrum types sentient rights including human


rights rights conscious artificial intelligences posthuman rights ref name evans ref critics r g frey r g frey professor philosophy bowling green state university preference utilitarian singer early work ''interests rights'' frey disagreed singer animal liberation wrote interests nonhuman animals must included judging consequences act grounds animals interests frey argues interests dependent desire desire exist without corresponding belief animals


beliefs belief state requires ability hold second order belief belief belief argues requires language someone say eg 'the cat believes door locked' person holding see cat holds declarative sentence 'the door locked' true see reason whatever crediting cat creature lacks language including human infants entertaining declarative sentences carl cohen carl cohen professor philosophy university michigan argues rights holders


must able distinguish interests right holders rights must capacity comprehend rules duty governing including applying rules nbsp must recognize possible conflicts interest community beings capable self restricting moral judgments concept right correctly invoked cohen rejects singer 's argument since brain damaged human could make moral judgments moral judgments cannot used distinguishing characteristic determining awarded rights cohen


writes test moral judgment test administered humans one one applied capacity members species general richard posner judge richard posner facts drive equality ref name posner judge richard posner united states court appeals seventh circuit debated issue animal rights peter singer posner posits moral intuition tells human beings prefer dog threatens human infant even requires causing pain dog


stop dog would caused infant favour child would monstrous spare dog ref name posner http wwwslatecom id entry posner june http wwwutilitariannet singer interviews debates htm posner singer debate full courtesy link utilitariannet also see posner ref singer challenges arguing formerly unequal rights gays women certain races justified using set intuitions posner replies equality civil rights occur ethical arguments facts mounted morally significant differences humans based race sex sexual orientation


movement strangest cultural shift within liberal worldview idea rights responsibilities argued distinctive human condition makes sense spread beyond species ref name scruton accused animal rights advocates pre scientific anthropomorphism attributing traits animals says beatrix potter like man vile within fiction appeal animal rights lies argued world animals non judgmental filled dogs return affection almost matter cats pretend


affectionate fact care argued fantasy world escape ref name scruton ref scruton singled peter singer prominent australian philosopher animal rights activist criticism wrote singer 's works including ''animal liberation'' contain little philosophical argument derive radical moral conclusions vacuous utilitarianism counts pain pleasure living things equally significant ignores everything said philosophical tradition real distinction persons animals ref name scruton tom regan countered


view rights distinguishing moral agents moral patients public attitudes according paper published harold herzog lorna dorr previous academic surveys attitudes towards animal rights tended suffer small sample sizes non representative groups however number factors appear correlate attitude individuals regarding treatment animals animal rights include gender age occupation religion level education also evidence suggest prior experience pets may factor people 's attitudes ref name signalandtaylor ref women likely


interest voting right vote study found support animal testing may based cogent philosophical rationales open debate warranted survey examine whether people believed evolution likely support animal rights creationists believers intelligent design found largely case according researchers respondents strong christian fundamentalists believers creationism less likely advocate animal rights less


fundamentalist beliefs findings extended previous research study found animal rights activists atheists agnostic study ''the washington post'' found positive attitudes toward animal rights also tend positive view universal healthcare favor reducing discrimination african americans lgbt community undocumented immigrants expanding welfare aid poor two surveys found attitudes towards animal rights tactics direct action diverse within animal rights communities near half two


surveys activists support direct action one survey concluded would mistake portray animal rights activists homogeneous ref name signalandtaylor see also animal cognition animal consciousness animal industrial complex animal liberation animal liberation movement animal liberationist animal rights country territory animal studies animal trial animal welfare institute antinaturalism politics cambridge declaration consciousness chick culling critical animal studies deep ecology ''do animals rights'' book list animal rights advocates list songs animal rights plant rights sentientism timeline animal welfare rights wild animal suffering world animal day references bibliography books


papers cited short form footnotes full citations news sources cited full footnotes benthall jonathan https wwwdoiorg j x animal liberation rights ''anthropology today'' volume issue april bentham jeremy ''principles penal law'' beauchamp tom moral standing animals marc bekoff ''encyclopedia animal rights animal welfare'' greenwood beauchamp tom introduction tom beauchamp rg frey eds ''the oxford handbook animal ethics'' oxford university press beauchamp tom b rights theory animal rights beauchamp frey ''op cit''


ideology animal rights movement'' temple university press francione gary ''animals property law'' temple university press francione gary ''animals persons'' columbia university press francione gary garner robert ''the animal rights debate abolition regulation'' columbia university press fellenz mark r ''the moral menagerie philosophy animal rights'' university illinois press frey rg ''interests rights case animals'' clarendon press frey rg animals lack beliefs desires peter singer tom regan eds ''animal rights human obligations'' prentice hall garner robert ''animals politics


agricultural ethics'' vol june pp nbsp hursthouse rosalind ''on virtue ethics'' oxford university press hursthouse rosalind b ''ethics humans animals'' routledge kant immanuel ''groundwork metaphysic morals'' kean hilda https wwwjstororg stable 'smooth cool men science' feminist socialist response vivisection ''history workshop journal'' autumn pp nbsp lansbury coral ''the old brown dog women workers vivisection edwardian england'' university wisconsin press legge debbi brooman simon ''law relating animals'' cavendish publishing leneman leah animal food road veganism


nash roderick ''the rights nature history environmental ethics'' university wisconsin press newkirk ingrid alf steven best anthony nocella eds ''terrorists freedom fighters reflections liberation animals'' lantern nussbaum martha beyond compassion humanity justice nonhuman animals cass sunstein martha nussbaum eds ''animal rights current debates new directions'' oxford university press nussbaum martha ''frontiers justice disability nationality species membership'' belknap press posner richard singer peter june http wwwslatecom articles news politics dialogues features animal rights html posner singer debate ''slate'' posner richard singer peter


animal rights sunstein nussbaum ''op cit'' rachels james darwin charles bekoff ''op cit'' redclift michael r ''the international handbook environmental sociology'' edward elgar publishing regan tom ''the case animal rights'' university california press regan tom ''defending animal rights'' university illinois press rollin bernard ''animal rights human morality'' prometheus books rollin bernard ''the unheeded cry animal consciousness animal pain science'' new york oxford university press rollin bernard http wwwnaturecom embor journal v n full html animal research moral science ''nature'' embo reports pp nbsp rowlands mark ''animal


peter http wwwnybookscom articles animal liberation ''the new york review books'' vol may singer peter ethics beyond species beyond instincts sunstein nussbaum ''op cit'' singer peter ''practical ethics'' cambridge university press sprigge tls https wwwncbinlmnihgov pmc articles pmc pdf jmedeth pdf interests rights case animals ''journal medical ethics'' june stamp dawkins marian ''animal suffering science animal welfare'' chapman hall stucki saskia https academicoupcom ojls article towards theory legal animal rights simple fundamental rights oxford journal legal studies sunstein cass r


nussbaum ''op cit'' wise steven http wwwbritannicacom eb article animal rights animal rights ''encyclop dia britannica'' reading lubinski joseph http animallawinfo topics tabbed topic page spusanimalrightshtm overview summary animal rights animal legal historical center michigan state university college law https webarchiveorg web http wwwanimallawinfo great apes indexhtm great apes law animal legal historical center michigan state university college law bekoff marc ed ''the encyclopedia animal rights animal welfare'' greenwood best steven nocella ii anthony j eds ''terrorists freedom fighters reflections liberation animals'' lantern books chapouthier georges nou jean claude eds ''the universal declaration


animal rights'' ligue fran aise des droits de l'animal dawkins richard http wwwanimal rights librarycom texts dawkins htm ''gaps mind'' cavalieri paola singer peter eds ''the great ape project'' st martin 's griffin dombrowski daniel ''babies beasts argument marginal cases'' university illinois press foltz richard ''animals islamic tradition muslim cultures'' oneworld publications franklin julian h ''animal rights moral philosophy'' university columbia press gruen lori http platostanfordedu entries moral animal moral status animals ''stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' july ''ethics animals'' cambridge university press hall lee ''capers


churchyard animal rights advocacy age terror'' nectar bat press linzey andrew clarke paul b eds ''animal rights historic anthology'' columbia university press mann keith ''from dusk 'til dawn insider 's view growth animal liberation movement'' puppy pincher press mcarthur jo anne wilson keith eds ''hidden animals anthropocene'' lantern publishing media neumann jean marc universal declaration animal rights creation new equilibrium species animal law review volume nibert david ''animal rights human rights entanglements oppression


liberation'' rowman litterfield patterson charles ''eternal treblinka treatment animals holocaust'' lantern rachels james ''created animals moral implications darwinism'' oxford university press regan tom singer peter eds ''animal rights human obligations'' prentice hall spiegel marjorie ''the dreaded comparison human animal slavery'' mirror books sztybel david treatment animals compared holocaust ''ethics environment'' spring tobias michael ''life force world jainism'' asian humanities press wilson scott http wwwieputmedu anim eth animals ethics ''internet encyclopedia philosophy''


bioethics political movements ethical schools movements ethical theories


dates back many centuries history pre columbian literature pre columbian cultures primarily oral though aztecs mayans instance produced elaborate codices oral accounts mythological religious beliefs also sometimes recorded arrival european colonizers case popol vuh moreover tradition oral narrative survives day instance among quechua speaking population peru quich guatemala colonial literature moment europeans encountered new world early explorers conquistadores produced written accounts cr nicas

Humanities
Languages and literature
Latin American Literature


experience columbus 's letters bernal az del castillo 's description conquest mexico times colonial practices stirred lively debate ethics colonization status indigenous peoples reflected instance bartolom de las casas 's ''brief account destruction indies'' mestizos natives also contributed body colonial literature authors el inca garcilaso de la vega guaman poma wrote accounts spanish conquest show perspective often contrasts colonizers' accounts colonial period written culture


often hands church context within sor juana de la cruz wrote memorable poetry philosophical essays toward end th century beginning th distinctive criollo literary tradition emerged including first novels jos joaqu n fern ndez de lizardi 's el periquillo sarniento libertadores also often distinguished writers sim n bol var andr bello nineteenth century literature th century period foundational fictions critic doris sommer 's words novels romantic naturalist traditions


attempted establish sense national identity often focused role rights indigenous dichotomy civilization barbarism pioneered latin america esteban echeverr influenced parisian romantics lived romanticism taken prominent literary figures see argentine domingo sarmiento 's ''facundo'' likewise alberto blest gana 's martin rivas widely acknowledged first chilean novel passionate love story national epic revolution foundation fictions


century latin america range neoclassicism beginning century romanticism middle century realism naturalism final third century finally invention modernismo distinctly latin american literary movement end nineteenth century next sections discuss prominent trends movements thoroughly romanticism realism naturalism emerging literary trends latin american wars independence occurred early nineteenth century latin america led literary themes identity resistance human rights writers often


''modernismo'' literary movement male authors mainly dominated colonial literature exception literary greats sor juana de la cruz shift began nineteenth century allowed female authors emerge increase women 's education writing brought women writers forefront including cuban romantic author gertrudis g mez de avellaneda novel ''sab'' romantic novel offering subtle critique slavery treatment women cuba peruvian naturalist author clorinda matto de turner wrote considered one important


also first truly latin american literature national differences longer much issue authors sought establish latin american connections jos mart instance though cuban patriot also lived mexico united states wrote journals argentina elsewhere uruguayan jos enrique rod wrote became read manifesto region 's cultural awakening ''ariel'' delmira agustini one female figures modernismo wrote poetry utilized typical modernist images swans adapted feminist


mexican rosario castellanos resistance colonialism trend emerged earlier nineteenth century also extremely important modernismo resistance literature promoted prominent modernists including aforementioned jos mart rub n dar mart warned readers imperialistic tendencies united states described latin america avoid allowing united states intervene affairs prime example sort message found mart 's ''our america'' published dar also worked highlight threat american imperialism seen


poem ''to roosevelt'' well works ''cake walk el baile de moda'' many works published ''la revista moderna de mexico'' modernist magazine time ref name arrango ramos argentine jorge luis borges invented almost new genre philosophical short story would go become one influential latin american writers time roberto arlt offered different style closer mass culture popular literature reflecting urbanization european immigration shaping southern cone writers


important emergents important controversy argentinian literature called florida group borges writers artists used meet richmond cafe centrical florida street buenos aires city vs boedo group roberto arlt used meet japanese cafe periferical boedo borough city venezuelan romulo gallegos wrote came one well known latin american novels twentieth century ''do barbara'' ''do barbara'' realist


vibrant tradition prose poetry th century latin america prose poem becomes prevalent format lyrical philosophical inquiry sensual sentiments region 's poets ref name ref masters prose poem include jorge luis borges everything nothing pablo neruda ''passions impressions '' octavio paz ''aguila sol ''eagle sun alejandra pizarnik sex night giannina braschi empire dreams ref name leaders vanguard whose poetry express love romance commitment left leaning regional politics cesar vallejo peru nobel laureate pablo neruda chile ref name following lead ernesto cardenal nicaragua


roque dalton el salvador nicol guill n cuba gonzalo rojas chile mario benedetti uruguay peruvians blanca varela jorge eduardo eielson javier sologuren modernismo several lesser known short lived poetry movements emerged latin america chile braulio arenas others founded mandr gora group strongly influenced surrealism well vicente huidobro 's ''creacionismo'' peru cesar moro emilio adolfo westphalen developed surrealism andes region boom gabriel garc rquez famous boom writers world war ii latin america enjoyed increasing economic prosperity new found confidence also


gave rise literary boom major seminal works boom published long became widely noticed admired commented beyond latin america many novels collections short stories somewhat rebellious general point view latin america culture authors crossed traditional boundaries experimented language often mixed different styles writing works structures literary works also changing boom writers ventured outside traditional narrative structures embracing non linearity experimental narration figure jorge luis borges


though boom author per se extremely influential boom generation latin american authors inspired north american european authors william faulkner james joyce virginia woolf legendary spanish poet dramatist federico garc lorca well 's works many authors knew one another led mutual crossbreeding styles boom launched latin american literature onto world stage distinguished daring experimental novels julio cort zar 's ''rayuela'' frequently published spanish quickly translated


english emir rodr guez monegal published influential latin american literature monthly ''mundo nuevo'' excerpts unreleased novels new writers guillermo cabrera infante severo sarduy including two chapters gabriel garc rquez 's ''cien os de soledad'' published book one boom 's defining novels led association latin american literature magic realism though important writers period mario vargas llosa carlos fuentes fit easily within framework year


focus social local issues rather universal times metaphysical themes political turmoil latin american countries cuba time influenced literary boom well works anticipated end prosperity occurring even predicted old problems would resurface near future works foreshadowed events come future latin america dictatorships economic turmoil dirty wars post boom mcondo roberto bola considered greatest united states impact


post boom author post boom literature sometimes characterized tendency towards irony humor narrative alfredo bryce echenique towards use popular genres work manuel puig writers felt success boom burden spiritedly denounced caricature reduces latin american literature magical realism hence chilean alberto fuguet coined mcondo antidote macondo ism demanded aspiring writers set tales steamy tropical jungles fantastic real happily coexisted mock


giannina braschi luisa valenzuela marcos aguinis ricardo piglia roberto ampuero jorge marchant lazcano alicia nez jaime bayly alonso cueto edmundo paz sold n gioconda belli jorge franco daniel alarcon v ctor montoya mario mendoza zambrano important figures include argentine c sar aira peruvian mexican mario bellatin colombian fernando vallejo whose ''la virgen de los sicarios'' depicted violence medell n influence drug trade emerging voices include fernando ampuero miguel gutierrez edgardo rivera martinez jaime march n manfredo kempff also considerable attention paid genre testimonio texts produced collaboration


subaltern subjects rigoberta mench finally new breed chroniclers represented journalistic carlos monsiv pedro lemebel draw also long standing tradition essayistic production well precedents engaged creative non fiction represented uruguayan eduardo galeano mexican elena poniatowska among others prominent th century writers octavio paz helped define modern poetry mexican personality according literary critic harold bloom eminent latin american author century argentine jorge luis borges controversial book ''the western


latin america among greatest poets th century pablo neruda according gabriel garc rquez neruda greatest poet th century language mexican writer poet octavio paz unique among latin american writers nobel prize neustadt prize cervantes prize paz also recipient jerusalem prize well honorary doctorate harvard important literary prize spanish language widely considered cervantes prize spain latin american authors prestigious


garc rquez colombia octavio paz mexico mario vargas llosa peru peruvian poet c sar vallejo considered thomas merton greatest universal poet since dante neustadt international prize literature perhaps important international literary award nobel prize counts several latin american authors among recipients include claribel alegr nicaragua lvaro mutis colombia jo cabral de melo neto brazil octavio paz mexico gabriel garc rquez colombia candidates prize include ricardo piglia argentina mario vargas llosa peru marjorie agosin chile eduardo galeano uruguay homero aridjis mexico luis fernando verissimo brazil


augusto monterroso guatemala ernesto cardenal nicaragua carlos fuentes mexico jorge luis borges argentina jorge amado brazil ernesto bato argentina carlos drummond de andrade brazil pablo neruda chile another important international literary award jerusalem prize recipients include marcos aguinis argentina mario vargas llosa peru ernesto sabato argentina octavio paz mexico jorge luis borges argentina latin american authors figured prominent literary critic harold bloom 's ''the western canon'' list enduring works world literature include rub n rio jorge luis borges alejo carpentier guillermo cabrera infante severo sarduy reinaldo arenas pablo neruda octavio paz


c sar vallejo miguel ngel asturias jos lezama lima jos donoso julio cort zar gabriel garc rquez mario vargas llosa carlos fuentes carlos drummond de andrade brazilian authors cam es prize prestigious literary award portuguese language include jo cabral de melo neto rachel de queiroz jorge amado antonio candido autran dourado rubem fonseca lygia fagundes telles jo ubaldo ribeiro ferreira gullar notable authors brazil 's pr mio machado de assis include rachel de queiroz cec lia meireles jo guimar es rosa rico ver ssimo l cio cardoso ferreira gullar prominent st century writers


latin american literature produced since spans wide realm schools styles th century latin american literary studies primarily centered around came boom scholarly optic since widened regularly examine latin american literature within fields global south postcolonial literature postmodern literature electronic literature hysterical realism speculative fiction latin american pop culture crime fiction horror fiction among fields ref name ref prominent st authors whose works widely available taught translated many languages include mario vargas llosa isabel allende jorge volpi junot diaz


giannina braschi elena poniatowska julia alvarez diamela eltit ricardo piglia ref name latin american nobel prize laureates literature gabriela mistral chile miguel angel asturias guatemala pablo neruda chile gabriel garc rquez colombia octavio paz mexico mario vargas llosa peru chronology late th century present day ''' ''' ''azul'' rub n dar nicaragua ''' ''' ''aves sin nido'' clorinda matto de turner peru ''' ''' ''dom casmurro'' joaquim maria machado de assis brazil ''' ''' ''ariel'' jos enrique rod uruguay ''' ''' ''el moto''


joaquin garcia monge costa rica ''' ''' ''los maitines de la noche'' julio herrera reissig uruguay ''' ''' ''os sert es'' euclides da cunha brazil ''' ''' ''horas lejanas'' dar herrera panama ''' ''' ''el hombre de oro'' rufino blanco fombona venezuela ''' ''' ''los de abajo'' mariano azuela mexico ''' ''' ''los sue os son


vida'' ricardo jaimes freyre bolivia ''' ''' ''irremediablemente'' alfonsina storni argentina ''' ''' ''los frutos cidos'' alfonso hern ndez cat cuba ''' ''' ''raza de bronce'' alcides arguedas bolivia ''' ''' ''la amada inm vil'' amado nervo mexico ''' ''' ''trilce'' c sar vallejo peru ''' ''' ''paulic ia desvairada'' rio de andrade brazil ''' ''' ''desolaci n'' gabriela mistral chile ''' ''' ''la se orita etc tera'' arqueles vela mexico ''' ''' ''la vor gine'' jos eustasio rivera colombia ''' ''' ''don segundo sombra'' ricardo g iraldes argentina ''' '''


''la canci n de una vida'' fabio fiallo dominican republic ''' ''' ''macuna ma'' rio de andrade brazil ''' ''' ''poemas en menguante'' mariano brull cuba ''' ''' ''do b rbara'' r mulo gallegos venezuela ''' ''' ''los siete locos'' roberto arlt argentina ''' ''' ''onda'' rogelio sin n panama ''' ''' ''o quinze'' rachel de queiroz


brazil ''' ''' ''altazor'' vicente huidobro chile ''' ''' ''las lanzas coloradas'' arturo uslar pietri venezuela ''' ''' ''s ngoro cosongo'' nicol guill n cuba ''' ''' ''huasipungo'' jorge icaza ecuador ''' ''' ''ang stia'' graciliano ramos brazil ''' ''' ''doble acento'' eugenio florit cuba ''' ''' ''olhai os l rios campo'' rico ver ssimo brazil ''' ''' ''el pozo'' juan carlos onetti uruguay ''' ''' ''la invenci n de morel'' adolfo bioy casares argentina ''' ''' ''mamita yunai'' carlos luis fallas costa rica ''' ''' ''el mundo es ancho ajeno'' ciro alegria


''' ''' ''la vida breve'' juan carlos onetti uruguay ''' ''' ''prisi n verde'' ram n amaya amador honduras ''' ''' ''la mano junto al muro'' guillermo meneses venezuela ''' ''' ''el confabulario'' juan jos arreola mexico ''' ''' ''la carne de ren '' virgilio pi era cuba ''' ''' ''los pasos perdidos'' alejo carpentier cuba ''' ''' ''el negrero'' lino nov calvo cuba ''' ''' ''morte e vida severina'' jo cabral de melo neto brazil ''' ''' ''pedro p ramo'' juan rulfo mexico ''' ''' ''grande sert veredas'' jo guimar es rosa


brazil ''' ''' ''la hora '' ernesto cardenal nicaragua ''' ''' ''gabriela cravo e canela'' jorge amado brazil ''' ''' ''los r os profundos'' jos mar arguedas peru ''' ''' ''a morte e morte de quincas berro d' gua'' jorge amado brazil ''' ''' ''hijo de hombre'' augusto roa bastos paraguay ''' ''' ''la tregua'' mario benedetti uruguay ''' ''' ''sobre h roes tumbas'' ernesto sabato argentina ''' ''' ''el siglo de las luces'' alejo carpentier cuba ''' ''' ''la amortajada'' mar luisa bombal chile ''' ''' ''la muerte de artemio cruz'' carlos fuentes mexico ''' ''' ''rayuela'' julio cort zar argentina ''' ''' ''la ciudad los perros'' mario vargas llosa peru ''' ''' ''a paix segundo gh''


brazil ''' ''' ''terra nostra'' carlos fuentes mexico ''' ''' ''el beso de la mujer ara a'' manuel puig argentina ''' ''' ''la guaracha del macho camacho'' luis rafael nchez puerto rico ''' ''' ''maitreya'' severo sarduy cuba ''' ''' ''casa de campo'' jos donoso chile ''' ''' ''o que isso companheiro'' fernando gabeira brazil ''' ''' ''respiraci n artificial'' ricardo piglia argentina ''' ''' ''la guerra del fin del mundo'' mario vargas llosa peru ''' ''' ''la casa de los esp ritus'' isabel allende chile ''' ''' ''el amor en los tiempos del c lera'' gabriel garc rquez colombia ''' ''' ''el desfile del amor'' sergio pitol mexico ''' ''' ''el imperio de los sue os'' giannina braschi puerto rico ''' ''' ''o alquimista'' paulo coelho


brazil ''' ''' ''como agua para chocolate'' laura esquivel mexico ''' ''' ''agosto'' rubem fonseca brazil ''' ''' ''la gesta del marrano'' marcos aguinis argentina ''' ''' ''antes que anochezca'' reinaldo arenas cuba ''' ''' ''maqroll el gaviero'' lvaro mutis colombia ''' ''' ''yo yo boing '' giannina braschi puerto rico ''' ''' ''los detectives salvajes'' roberto bola chile ''' ''' ''la pasion segun carmela'' marcos aguinis argentina ''' ''' ''la fiesta del chivo'' mario vargas llosa peru ''' ''' ''dois irm os'' milton hatoum brazil ''' '''


''la reina de rica'' jorge majfud uruguay ''' ''' ''ojos de otro mirar poemas'' homero aridjis mexico ''' ''' ''poes a'' dulce mar loynaz cuba ''' ''' '' '' roberto bola chile ''' ''' ''the brief wondrous life oscar wao'' junot az dominican republic ''' ''' ''united states banana'' giannina braschi puerto rico literature nationality latin american


ed ilan stavans ''the norton anthology latino literature'' eds ilan stavans edna acosta bel n harold augenbraum gustavo p rez firmat ''latin american women writers encyclopedia'' ed mar andr eva bueno ''a companion latin american literature culture'' ed sara castro klar n ''the cambridge companion latin american novel'' ed efra n kristal ''encyclopedia latin american caribbean literature '' ed daniel balderston ''literary cultures latin america comparative history'' ed mario j vald ''latin american writers work interviews '' ed george plimpton


''literatures latin america antiquity present'' willis barnstone ''cuerpos errantes literatura latina latinoamericana en estados unidos'' laura rosa loustau ''latin american writers supplement i'' ed carlos sol klaus ller bergh ''concise encyclopedia latin american literature'' ed verity smith ''latin american literature times volumes '' joyce moss ''mutual impressions writers americas reading one another'' ed ilan stavans ''encyclopedia latin american literature'' ed verity smith ''from romanticism modernismo latin america'' ed david william foster


''the cambridge history latin american literature'' ed roberto gonz lez echevarr ''modern latin american fiction writers'' ed william luis ''handbook latin american literature'' ed david william foster ''feminist readings spanish latin american literature'' ed lisa p cond ''past present future selected studies latin american indian literatures'' ed mary preuss ''the polemics possession spanish american narrative'' rolena adorno ''magical realism beyond contemporary spanish latin american novel'' ed roy c boland ''modern latin american fiction critical


minc ''tradition renewal essays twentieth century latin american literature culture'' ed merlin h forster ''modern latin american literature library literary criticism '' david william foster ''modern latin american literature'' david patrick gallagher ''contemporary latin american literature conference'' ed harvey leroy johnson external links http lanicutexasedu la region literature literature latin america lanic http wwwpalabravirtualcom palabra virtual latin american poetry http wwwminitextosorg minitextosorg contemporary short stories poetry essays theatre http wwwlatineoscom latineos latin america caribbean arts culture literature caribbean literature central american literature north american literature south american literature


'''humanism''' philosophical stance emphasizes individual social potential agency human beings considers human beings starting point serious moral philosophical inquiry meaning term humanism changed according successive intellectual movements identified generally term refers focus human well advocates human freedom autonomy progress views humanity responsible promotion development individuals espouses equal inherent dignity human beings emphasizes concern humans relation

Humanities
History
Philosophical history
Humanism


world starting th century humanist movements typically non religious aligned secularism frequently humanism refers nontheistic view centered human agency reliance science reason rather revelation supernatural source understand world humanists tend advocate human rights free speech progressive policies democracy humanist worldview maintain religion precondition morality object excessive religious entanglement education state humans according humanists shape values live good meaningful lives


definition word humanism derives latin concept ''humanitas'' first used cicero describe values related liberal education similar st century arts philosophy history literature word reappeared italian renaissance ''umanista'' reaching english language th century word humanist used describe group students classical literature advocating education based early th century term ''humanismus'' used germany several meanings entered english language


two distinct denotations one academic term linked study classic literature popular use signified non religious approach life implying antithesis theism probable bavarian theologian friedrich immanuel niethammer coined term ''humanismus'' describe new classical curriculum planned offer german secondary schools soon scholars georg voigt jacob burckhardt adopted term th century word refined acquiring contemporary meaning naturalistic approach life focusing well freedom humans defining humanism reveals


controversy surrounding humanism humanism defined champion human freedom dignity linked oppression byproduct modernity philosopher sidney hook defined humanism humanists negative characteristics according hook humanists opposed imposition one culture civilizations belong church established religion support dictatorships justify violence social reforms loyal organization abstract values hook also said humanists support elimination hunger improvements health


housing education also writing humanist philosopher h j blackham said humanism concept focuses improving social conditions humanity increasing autonomy dignity humans jeaneane fowler said definition humanism include rejection divinity emphasis human well freedom also comments lack shared belief system doctrine general humanists aiming happiness self fulfillment prominent humanist andrew copson attempted define humanism follows humanism naturalistic


understanding universe science free inquiry help us comprehend surrounding us scientific approach reduce humans anything lesser human beings humanists place importance pursuit self defined meaningful happy life humanism moral morality way humans improving lives humanists engage practical action improve personal social conditions according international humanist ethical union blockquote humanism democratic ethical life stance affirms human beings right responsibility give meaning shape


lives stands building humane society ethic based human natural values spirit reason free inquiry human capabilities theistic accept supernatural views reality blockquote dictionaries define humanism worldview life stance according merriam webster dictionary humanism nbsp doctrine attitude way life centered human interests values especially philosophy usually rejects supernaturalism stresses individual 's dignity worth capacity self realization reason history predecessors


pre socratic greek philosophers first western philosophers attempt explain world terms human reason natural law without relying myth tradition religion thales miletus led demythologization th century bce along rest milesian school thales' pupils anaximander anaximenes said nature available studied separately supernatural realm another pre socratic philosopher protagoras lived athens put forward fundamental humanist ideas fragments work survive made one first agnostic statements according one fragment


gods able know neither exist exist kind form many things prevent knowing obscurity brevity man 's life b dk according scholar mauro bonazzi attempt protagoras distance religion politics key concept radical humanism protagoras also said man measure things philosopher friedrich schiller defended protagoras charges relativism noting used word man refer humankind rather separate individuals


contemporary humanism endorse moral relativism socrates spoke need know thyself thought changed focus contemporary philosophy nature humans well socrates theist executed atheism investigated nature morality reasoning aristotle bce taught rationalism system ethics based human nature also parallels humanist thought rd century bce epicurus formed influential human centered philosophy focused achieving eudaimonia epicureans continued democritus' atomist theory materialistic theory suggests fundamental unit universe indivisible atom


human happiness living well friendship avoidance excesses key ingredients epicurean philosophy flourished beyond post hellenic world ancient greek literature translated arabic abbasid caliphate th th centuries influenced islamic currents rationalism many medieval muslim thinkers pursued humanistic rational scientific discourses search knowledge meaning values wide range islamic writings love poetry history philosophical theology show medieval islamic thought open humanistic ideas individualism occasional secularism skepticism liberalism free speech schools


established baghdad basra isfahan prominent example philosopher al jubba'i whose support individual freedom highlighted quote god created humans free one make good decisions faith person nobody allowed decide think depends human beliefs philosophers also advanced rational discourse islamic literature among ahmad miskawayh ibn sina avicenna ibn rushd averroes including nasr abu zayd naim supported separation religious state instructions renaissance portrait petrarch


painted altichiero david'' michelangelo artistic work renaissance illustrates emphasis given anatomical details humans intellectual movement later known renaissance humanism first appeared italy movement greatly influenced western culture modern day italian scholars discovered ancient greek thought particularly aristotle arabic translations africa spain renaissance humanism emerged italy along flourishment literature arts thirteenth century italy one first centers greek literature revival padua lovato lovati


others studied ancient texts wrote new literary works centers verona naples avignon petrarch often referred father humanism significant figure petrarch raised avignon inclined toward education early age studied alongside father also well educated petrarch 's enthusiasm ancient texts led discover manuscripts influential history renaissance cicero 's ''pro archia'' pomponius mela 's ''de chorographia'' petrarch wrote poems ''canzoniere'' ''de viris illustribus'' latin


described humanist ideas love antiquity evident significant contribution list books created outlining four major categories disciplines rhetoric moral philosophy poetry grammar would base humanistic studies ' 'studia humanitatis'' widely adopted educational purposes list relied heavily ancient writers especially cicero revival classicist authors continued petrarch 's death florence chancellor humanist coluccio salutati made city prominent bastion humanist values members circle notable humanists poggio bracciolini niccol niccoli leonardo


bruni rediscovered translated popularized ancient texts humanists succeeded setting principles education vittorino da feltre guarino veronese created schools based humanistic principles curriculum widely adopted sixteenth century humanistic ''paideia'' dominant outlook pre university education parallel advances education humanists renaissance made progress fields philosophy mathematics religion philosophy angelo poliziano nicholas cusa marsilio ficino contributed furthering understanding ancient classical philosophers gianfrancesco pico undermined dominance aristotelian philosophy revitalizing sextus empiricus skepticism religion


untouched increased interest humanistic paideia pope nicholas v initiated translation hebrew greek biblical texts latin humanist values spread outside italy books people individuals moving italy study returned homelands spread humanistic messages printing houses dedicated ancient text established venice basel paris end fifteenth century center humanism shifted italy northern europe erasmus rotterdam leading humanist scholar profound longest lasting effect renaissance humanism


morality greater confidence humankind abilities new philosophical social political ideas appeared thinkers rejected theism outright various currents formed atheism deism hostility organized religion notably enlightenment baruch spinoza redefined god signifying totality nature spinoza accused atheism remained silent matter naturalism also advanced prominent encyclop distes baron d'holbach wrote polemic ''system nature'' claiming religion built fear helped tyrants ages diderot helvetius also combined materialism sharp political critique also enlightenment


solely european affair fact intellectual thought continents africa asia contributed significantly well also notes enlightenment universal man encompass humans shaped gender race thinks shift man human process started enlightenment still ongoingalso crosson noted enlightenment especially britain scientific revolution produce notion universal man optimism reason prevail religious superstitions also gave birth pseudoscientific ideas


e beesly enforcing popularizing concept humankind paine 's ''the age reason'' along th century biblical criticism german hegelians david strauss ludwig feuerbach discuss importance freedom created forms humanism advances science philosophy eroded religious belief charles darwin 's theory natural selection offered naturalists explanation plurality species weakening previously convincing teleological argument existence god darwin 's theory also implied humans another species contradicting traditional theological view humans something animals


th century humanism promoted work philosophers j ayer antony flew bertrand russell whose advocacy atheism ''why christian'' popularized humanist ideas british humanist association evolved ethical union merged many smaller ethical rationalist groups elsewhere europe humanist organizations also flourished netherlands dutch humanist alliance gained wide base support world war ii norway norwegian humanist association also gained popular support us humanism evolved


aid significant figures unitarian church humanist magazines new humanist published humanist manifesto appeared american ethical union emerged newly founded small ethicist societies american humanist association aha established became popular european counterparts aha spread states prominent public figures isaac asimov john dewey erich fromm paul kurtz carl sagan gene roddenberry became members humanist organizations continents created international humanist ethical union iheu known


educational reform engaged civic ecclesiastical chancellors book collectors educators writers late th century began referred ''umanisti'' humanists developed th early th centuries modern humanism 's roots traced renaissance renaissance humanism differs vastly terms using humanism name include christian humanism historical current late middle ages christian scholars combined christian faith interest classical antiquity focus human well political humanism used describe political movements marxism communism


associated th century states movements however value freedom speech political dissent ethical humanism synonym ethical culture prominent us early th century focused relations humans scientific humanism emphasises belief scientific method component humanism works john dewey julian huxley largely synonymous secular humanism secular humanism coined mid th century initially attempt denigrate humanism embraced humanist associations synonymous contemporary humanist movement philosophical grounding


core elements humanistic thought education reason individualism strong belief universal human nature atheism common among humanists byproduct reason embracing science immanuel kant provided underpinning humanist narrative theory critical philosophy laid foundations world knowledge defending rationalism grounding along anthropology study psychology ethics human nature empirical world also supported idea moral autonomy individual fundamental philosophy deducing morality product


way live preset fixed values instead universalistic ethic code kant suggested universalistic procedure shapes various ethics differ among various group people humanists believe education plays fundamental role forming human nature traditional ideas western countries given mind priority body humanists see false dichotomy emphasize unity brain body humanists support sex education help people understand express feelings physical education promote health moral education sympathy tolerance consider


culture examinations let children focus passions promote deeper thinking unhelpful humanists opposed religious education schools mostly opposed indoctrination common counter argument parents right bring children way want humanists reply parents children hence right argue children raised make choices respecting autonomy humanism strongly based reason humanists humans reasonable beings reasoning


humans also consider human essence universal irrespective race social status diminishing importance collective identities signifying importance individuals themes humanism morality humanism secular approach morality humanism rejects supernatural sources morality inconsistencies rejects extra natural phenomena general popular belief religion linked morality highlighted dostoevsky 's axiom ''the brothers karamazov'' god exist everything permitted suggestion chaos ensue religious belief disappears according humanists people


act fear blind adherence dogma expectation reward selfish motivation rather morality humanists theism obstacle morality rather precondition humanists point subjectivity supposed objective divine commands referring euthyphro dilemma god command something good something good god commands goodness independent god humans reach goodness without religion relativism invited god creates goodness interpretation holy scriptures almost always includes human reasoning


interpreters reach contradictory theories indicating morality based human reasoning humanist attitude towards morality changed centuries modern era starting th century humanists oriented towards objective universalist stance ethics utilitarian philosophy aims increase human happiness decrease human suffering kantian ethics acting according maxim whereby time become universal law shaped humanist moral narrative early th century concepts free reason based scientific naturalism


influence humanists remained early th century reduced social progressiveness egalitarianism contemporary humanism considers morality natural phenomenon evolves around society morality seen tool aiming flourishing human rather set doctrines john r shook wrote blockquote humanism ethical philosophy regards humans moralities naturalistically understands proper functioning morality culture contributions human flourishing life regards every human equally worthy moral treatment protection respects people highly social


built hume 's naturalism empathy aristotelian virtue theory kant 's idealism according ellis morality aim eudaimonia aristotelian concept combines satisfying life virtue happiness improving societies global scale humanist andrew copson takes consequentialist utilitarian approach morality according copson humanist ethical traits aim human welfare philosopher stephen law emphasizes certain principles humanist ethics respect personal moral autonomy rejection god given moral commands aim human well emphasiz ing role reason making moral judgements humanism religion


successes science technology naturalistic arguments gain prominence public opinion hand traditional arguments existence god falling short ontological argument roughly god exists think lacks empirical evidence seemingly lacks understanding reality cosmological argument god necessary first cause also n't prove god 's existence since causes prime movers physical entities mass energy something else might cause universe teleological argument argument design eliminated darwin 's theory evolution


natural selection however failure rational arguments prove god 's existence prove god 's non existence popular cause religious belief personal experience also problematic personal experiences vague subject interpretation wishful thinking might also lead way desired conclusions humanism founded antithetic religious establishments religious views totally incompatible humanism many deists example mary wollstonecraft voltaire thomas paine views resonating humanistic approach life since deists god interfere daily life give


commands espouse humanistic perspective also many humanists anthropological interest religions evolved matured affect morality features human condition humanism meaning life th century problem meaning life arose along decline religion accompanied teleology puzzling society philosophers unlike religions humanism definite view meaning life humanists commonly say people create rather discover discover meaning many philosophers kierkegaard schopenhauer nietzsche wrote


meaning life godless world work albert camus echoed shaped humanism ''the myth sisyphus'' absurd hero sisyphus destined push heavy rock hill rock slips back must repeat task personal humanist interpretations meaning life vary pursuit happiness without recklessness excesses participation human history connection loved ones living animals plants answers far religious discourse appeal divinity overlooked humanist professor peter derks


identifies features contribute meaning life purpose life morally worthy positively evaluating oneself understanding one 's environment seen understood others ability connect emotionally others desire meaning life humanist professor anthony b pinn places meaning life quest calls complex subjectivity pinn advocating non theistic humanistic religion inspired african cultures says seeking never reaching meaning life contributes well pinn argues rituals ceremonies times


reflection provide opportunity assess meaning life improving well well living good life center humanist reflection humanists well intertwined values arise meaning life human sets humanist philosopher bertrand russell described good life one inspired love guided knowledge ac grayling noted good life life feels meaningful fulfilling one living despite platitudes humanism doctrine good life offers


certainties person decide constitutes good life humanists vital option meaningful fulfilling life open members society humanism politics practically humanism advocates democracy champions human rights progressive policies humanism emphasizes individual freedom open society secularism humanism freedom individual priority restriction placed upon due communal living well justified result humanism leans towards liberalism humanists believe society include everyone independent race religion


trajectory two axons leads libertarianism socialism respectively whole range various combinations exist individualistic humanists often philosophical perspective humanism political arena inclined libertarianism ethics tend follow scientistic approach lean collectivism applied view humanism lean towards socialism humanitarian approach ethics second group connections thought young marx especially anthropological views rejecting political practices factor holds many humanists away libertarian


view consequences feel bears libertarianism tied neoliberalism capitalistic society conceived inhumane historically humanism part major th century ideological currents liberalism marxism early th century socialism connected humanism twentieth century humanistic interpretation marxism focused marx 's early writings viewing marxism scientific socialism philosophical critique aimed overcoming alienation us liberalism associated mostly humanistic principles distinct european use word economical connotations


post war era jean paul sartre french existentialists advocated humanism tying socialism trying stay neutral cold war humanist psychology counselling humanist counseling applied psychology inspired humanism one major currents counseling various approaches discussion critical thinking replying existential anxiety focusing social political dimensions problems humanist counseling focuses respecting worldview clients placing correct cultural context approach emphasizes individual 's inherent drive towards self actualization


sources include philosophies existentialism phenomenology geographies humanism africa africa contemporary humanism shaped colonial history introduction christianity islam african philosophers focused interdependency among humans among humans nature pre colonial oral traditions reflecting african views human human good eliminated conquer european powers christianity islam advanced many inta african autrocities took place even africans never abandoned ideas human value mutual interdependence humans core features african humanism idea advanced


flourish even though scholar khurram hussain identifies traits among early islam world thinks resonate humanism notes islam unified diverse population provided political epistemological social solutions fragmented arab world also hussain argues form humanism within islamic anthropology support argument notes various examples ie lack original sin indicating islamic theology human free moral agent also points thought islamic scholars ibn al arab al j l placed human centre


universe place held god christian traditions khurram hussain also notes arab spring reviled humanistic values democracy freedom fairness popular middle east inheritable incompatible islam east asia east asia confucianism 's core ideas humanistic philosophy confucius bce eventually became basis state ideology successive chinese dynasties nearby polities east asia contains several humanistic traits placing high value human life discounting mysticism superstition including speculations ghosts afterlife


confucianism considered religious form humanism supernatural phenomena heaven tian supposedly guides world place ''analects confucius'' humanist features apparent respectfulness reasonableness kindness enthusiasm learning fundamental teaching confucius person could achieve ''ch n tzu'' quality noble kind education without religious appeals confucius advised people act according axiom negative mirror western golden rule one word one act upon throughout course one 's life according


confucius reciprocity shu would want others analects confucius' death disciple mencius bce centered philosophies secular humanistic concerns like nature good governance role education rather ideas founded state folk religions time early taoism buddhism also include humanistic characteristics societies china japan korea shaped prevalence humanistic confucianism humanistic currents thought east asia reflecting humanistic ideas daoism buddhism united states united states constitution


shaped humanistic ideas endorsed part enlightenment first presidents united states go far enough tackle gender race inequality issues black community experiencing injustice leaned towards atheism th century lately many black organisations rejecting theism humanistic related agenda loosely connected within black lives matter movement humanism latin america hard detect mainly dominance catholicism protestantism european positivism influenced thought scholars political leaders latin america th century


influences waved next century black literature reveal quest freedom justice community often subordinated white dominance recent years humanist organizations multiplied latin america europe europe various currents th century though freethinkers ethicists atheists rationalists merged form contemporary humanist movement various national organizations founded european humanist federation ehf affirming strong support secularism humanistic organizations strongly promote naturalistic world view scientific approach individualism solidarity vary terms practice one line


focus meet needs nonreligious peoples members one pursuing activism order bring social change two main patterns european humanism coexist within humanist organizations often collude demographics humanism humanists demographic data sparse scholar yasmin trejo examined results pew research center 's religious landscape study released trejo use self identification method measure humanists combined answers particular questions believe god universal


spirit picked answering comes questions right wrong following look guidance picking answers scientific information philosophy reason trejo finds humanists identify atheist agnostics nothing particular humanists identify religious following religious traditions also found humanists raised religious background humanists married non religious spouses one four humanists married christian


gender divide among humanists males trejo suggests explained fact atheists males women easily drifted away religion socialization community influence stereotypes findings high education level humanists higher general population indicates higher socialeconomic status finally overwhelming population humanists non hispanic whites trejo 's explanations minority groups usually religious humanist organizations richard dawkins accepting services humanism award british humanist association annual conference humanist organizations


exist several countries humanists international global organization humanists uk formerly british humanist association american humanist association two oldest humanist organizations london based humanists uk around members budget million cover operational costs membership includes high profile people richard dawkins brian cox salman rushdie polly toynbee stephen fry mostly known participation public debate promoting reason science secularism objecting state funding faith based events institutes humanists uk organizes conducts non religious ceremonies


target religious right high profile members academia public figures published work ''the humanist'' joined lead aha criticism criticism humanism focuses adherence human rights critics claimed western critics claim humanist values becoming tool western moral dominance form neo colonialism leading oppression lack ethical diversity critics argue humanism oppressive philosophy free biases white heterosexual males shaped anthropology professor talal


asad sees humanism project modernity secularized continuation western christian theology asad 's view catholic church passed christian doctrine love africa asia assisting enslavement large parts population humanist values times pretext western countries expand influence parts world humanize barbarians asad also argued humanism purely secular phenomenon takes christianity idea essence humanity asad optimistic western humanisms incorporate


humanistic traditions india china without subsuming ultimately eliminating sociology professor didier fassin sees humanism 's focus empathy compassion rather goodness justice problem according fassin humanism originated christian tradition particularly parable good samaritan empathy universalized fassin also claims humanism 's central essence sanctity human life religious victory hidden secular wrapper history professor samuel moyn attacks humanism advocacy human rights according moyn human rights declaration


anti colonial struggle transformed utopian vision replacing failing utopias th century humanist underpinning human rights transforms moral tool impractical ultimately non political also finds commonality humanism catholic discourse human dignity antihumanism antihumanism rejection humanism ground pre scientific ideology argument developed th th centuries parallel advancement humanism prominent thinkers questioned metaphysics humanism human nature concept freedom


nietzsche departing humanistic pro enlightenment viewpoint criticized humanism illusions number topics especially nature truth objective truth anthropomorphic illusion humanism meaningless nietzsche also argued replacing theism reason science truth nothing replacing one religion another according karl marx humanism bourgeois project attempts present radical atrocities world war ii questions human nature concept humanity renewed cold war influential marxist philosopher louis althusser introduced


term theoretical antihumanism attack humanism socialist currents leaned towards humanism eschewing structural formal interpretations marx according althusser marx 's early writings resonate humanistic idealism hegel kant feuerbach marx took radical turn towards scientific socialism rejecting concepts essence man antihumanists martin heidegger michel foucault attacked notion humanity using psychoanalysis marxism linguistic theory see also secular humanist alternatives amsterdam declaration anthropocentrism christian humanism community organizing extropianism ''existentialism humanism'' jean paul sartre john n


gray human dignity humanist celebrant humanistic buddhism humanistic economics humanistic psychology humanitas humanlight index humanism articles ''letter humanism'' martin heidegger list humanists marxist humanism materialism misanthropy natural rights objectivity philosophy paideia pluralistic rationalism post theism religious humanism secular humanism sentientism social psychology soka gakkai unitarian universalism ubuntu references sources reading gay peter ''the party humanity essays french enlightenment'' new york w w norton wernick andrew ''auguste comte religion humanity post theistic program french social theory'' cambridge university press external links http wwwamericanhumanistorg ''american humanist association''


http wwwiheuorg ''international humanist ethical union'' https wwwhumanismorguk ''humanists uk'' freethought philosophical movements philosophy life philosophy religion


sidewalks curbs traffic signals hagerstown maryland united states speed limits different areas unusually recommended limit nbsp km h autobahn group note variable message sign guiding traffic dutch motorway breakdown emergency stop emergency lane lanes may present risks traffic ''sacrifices modern moloch'' cartoon published new york times criticizing apparent acceptance society increasing automobile related fatalities '''road traffic safety''' refers methods measures used prevent road users killed seriously injured typical

Applied science
Transportation
Highway safety


road users include pedestrians cyclists motorists vehicle passengers horse riders passengers road public transport mainly buses trams best practices modern road safety strategy sustainable solutions classes road safety identified particularly low traffic rural remote roads hierarchy control applied similar classifications used improve occupational safety health highest level sustainable prevention serious injury death crashes sustainable requiring key result areas considered second level real time risk reduction involves providing users severe risk


specific warning enable take mitigating action third level reducing crash risk involves applying road design standards guidelines aashto improving driver behavior enforcement ref name oecdtowardszero ref traffic safety studied science years background guardrails save vehicle long fall c nbsp said original caption guard rails sometimes effective time safety testing ensured adequate protection even vehicles limited weight class road traffic


crashes become one world 's largest public health injury prevention problems issue acute victims overwhelmingly healthy crashes according world health organization million people killed world 's roads year report published estimated million people killed million injured traffic collisions roads around world year traffic accidents leading cause death among children years age report also noted


problem severe developing countries simple prevention measures could halve number deaths ref name bbc ref standard measures used assessing road safety interventions fatalities killed seriously injured ksi rates usually expressed per billion sup sup passenger kilometres countries using older road safety paradigms replace ksi rates crash rates example crashes per million vehicle miles vehicle speed within human tolerances avoiding serious injury death key goal modern road design impact speed affects severity injury vehicle occupants pedestrians occupants joksch found probability


death drivers multi vehicle collisions increased fourth power impact speed often referred mathematical term v delta v meaning change velocity injuries caused sudden severe acceleration deceleration difficult measure however crash reconstruction techniques estimate vehicle speeds crash therefore change speed used surrogate acceleration enabled swedish road administration identify ksi risk curves using actual crash reconstruction data led human tolerances serious injury death referenced interventions generally much easier


identify modern road safety paradigm focusses human tolerances serious injury death example elimination head ksi crashes simply required installation appropriate median crash barrier also roundabouts often speed reducing approaches feature ksi crashes old road safety paradigm purely crash risk far complex matter contributing factors highway crashes may related driver driver error illness fatigue vehicle brake steering throttle failures road lack sight distance poor roadside clear zones etc interventions


prevention road traffic injuries often evaluated cochrane library published wide variety reviews interventions prevention road traffic injuries purposes road traffic safety helpful classify roads three usages '''built up''' urban streets slower speeds greater densities diversity among road users '''non built up''' rural roads higher speeds '''major highways''' motorways interstates freeways autobahns etc reserved motor vehicles often designed minimize attenuate crashes injuries occur urban streets fatalities rural roads motorways


safest relation distance traveled example german autobahns carried motorized road traffic travel kilometres accounting germany 's traffic deaths autobahn fatality rate deaths per billion travel kilometres compared favorably rate urban streets rate rural roads ref name debast class wikitable sortable road class injury crashes fatalities injury rate ref group rate name crashes per travel kilometres ref fatality rate ref group rate name crashes fatalities per injury crashes autobahn align right align right align right align right align right rural align right align right


align right align right align right urban align right align right align right align right align right style background efefef total average style background efefef text align right style background efefef text align right style background efefef text align right style background efefef text align right style background efefef text align right history roadways originally carried sorts traffic indiscriminately beasts burden well pedestrians road behavior rules developed prioritize certain types traffic important people traversing crowded streets alleys ancient rome famous roman roads deployed minions


clear way litters allowed carts chariots even mighty preferred trample bystanders th century advent powered vehicles inspired british road safety law impose speed limits require person foot carrying red flag warning arrival frightening noisy mechanical contrivance subsequently motoring lobby groups pressed priority motorized traffic safety laws drove playing children streets ghettoized likes walkers bicycles wheel chairs scooters margins concepts like shared space living streets woonerven developed


counter paradigm mortality mortality units according irtad ref mortality statistics killed eu killed eu killed japan killed us colors ae c fe fefe c feaaa title cyclist title moped title motor bike title car title pedestrian title misc suv ygrid yaxismin colspan eu source european institutions ec eu eu japan source white paper traffic safety japan us source oecd ref name oecd ref us source nhtsa global mortality region per million inhabitant


colspan source world health organization global status report road safety us mortality state per million inhabitant colspan source citylab europe mortality selected countries per million inhabitant colspan source eurostat trans r acci serie data provided member countries voluntary basis '''fatalities billion traveled km''' '''fatalities billion traveled km''' fatalities vmt allow compare different class


roads france colspan source maille france soes e rapport de la commission des comptes des transports de la nation la documentation fran aise setra minist des transports built areas pedestrian crossing line markings street furniture curb extension mid block crosswalk traffic circle applied four way intersection means improving safety device proven record collision reductions traffic flow improvement turns cross intersection four virtual three way intersections utrecht specially painted bicycle lanes neighborhood roads many vulnerable road


users pedestrians bicyclists found traffic calming tool road safety though strictly traffic calming measure mini traffic circles implanted normal intersections neighbourhood streets shown reduce collisions intersections dramatically see picture shared space schemes rely human instincts interactions eye contact effectiveness characterised removal traditional traffic signals signs even removal distinction carriageway roadway footway sidewalk also becoming increasingly popular approaches shown


effective planned neighbourhoods studies recommend new network configurations fused grid way offset layout models organize neighbourhood area zone cut traffic means loops dead end streets also ensure pedestrians bicycles distinct advantage introducing exclusive shortcuts path connections blocks parks principle organization referred filtered permeability implying preferential treatment active modes transport new patterns recommended laying neighbourhoods based analyses collision data large regional


districts extended periods ref name referencea eric dumbaugh robert rae safe urban form revisiting relationship community design traffic safety journal american planning association vol summer ref ref name xie trb ref show four way intersections combined cut traffic significant contributors increased collisions modern safety barriers designed absorb impact energy minimize risk occupants cars bystanders example side rails anchored ground cannot skewer passenger compartment light poles designed break


patterns roads cambered crowned made rounded surfaces reduce standing water ice primarily prevent frost damage also increasing traction poor weather sections road surfaced porous bitumen enhance drainage particularly done bends elements highway engineering well often grooves cut surface cement highways channel water away rumble strips edges highways rouse inattentive drivers loud noise make driven


cases raised markers lanes reinforce lane boundaries often reflective pedestrian areas speed bumps often placed slow cars preventing going fast near pedestrians poor road surfaces lead safety problems much asphalt bituminous binder used asphalt concrete binder 'bleed' flush' surface leaving smooth surface provides little traction wet certain kinds stone aggregate become smooth polished constant wearing action vehicle tyres leading poor


wet weather traction either problems increase wet weather crashes increasing braking distances contributing loss control pavement insufficiently sloped poorly drained standing water surface also lead wet weather crashes due hydroplaning lane markers countries states marked cat 's eyes botts' dots reflective raised pavement markers fade like paint botts dots used icy winter frost snowplows break glue holds road although embedded


short shallow trenches carved roadway done mountainous regions california road hazards intersections areas usually marked several times roughly five twenty sixty seconds advance drivers less likely attempt violent manoeuvres road signs pavement marking materials retro reflective incorporating small glass spheres prisms efficiently reflect light vehicle headlights back driver 's eyes turning across traffic turning across traffic ie turning left right hand drive countries turning right left hand drive countries poses several risks serious


event rear end shunt pushed coming traffic think clear look away road entering optical illusion time presents oncoming vehicle away travelling slower looking away breaks illusion presumption negligence arises bare fact collision intersection circumstances may dictate left turn safer turn right american association state highway transportation officials aashto recommends publication geometric


design highways streets ref name green book ref left right turns provided ' 'same'' time gap states recognized statute presumption negligence raised ''because'' ''turn'' turn prohibited erected sign turns across traffic shown problematic older drivers ref name older driver handbook ref designing pedestrians cyclists pedestrians cyclists among vulnerable road users countries constitute half road deaths interventions aimed improving safety non motorised users


sidewalks pavements british english suitable width pedestrian traffic pedestrian crossings close desire line allow pedestrians cross roads safely segregated pedestrian routes cycle lanes away main highway overbridges tend unpopular pedestrians cyclists due additional distance effort underpasses pose heightened risk crime designed well work cyclists cases traffic calming speed humps low speed limits rigorously enforced possibly speed cameras shared space schemes giving ownership road space equal priority


road users regardless mode use pedestrian barriers prevent pedestrians crossing dangerous locations cycling infrastructure protected intersection american passive traffic safety measures adopted mid th century created roadways forgiving motorists traveling high speeds de prioritized cycling pedestrian facilities passive traffic safety policies led excessively wide streets clear zones adjacent roadways wide turn radii focus protecting drivers consequences high speeds passive traffic safety measures sought avoid influencing behavior drivers giving automobiles maximum convenience recent complete street policies


seek create design oriented traffic safety improvements actively slow drivers narrowing roadways better accommodating pedestrians cyclists pedestrians' advocates question equitability schemes impose extra time effort pedestrian remain safe vehicles example overbridges long slopes steps underpasses steps addition possible risk crime grade crossings desired crossing line make roads safe criticised proposing features successful pedestrian schemes tend avoid bridges underpasses instead use grade crossings pedestrian crossings


close intended route successful cycling schemes contrast avoid frequent stops even additional distance involved cyclists expend energy starting costa rica road deaths pedestrians however partnership aacr cosevi mopt irap proposed construction nbsp km pedestrian footpaths pedestrian crossings could save fatal serious injuries years safe traffic cycling along fully segregated ''fietspad'' properly designed cycling infrastructure amsterdam shared space shared space brighton uk pedestrians' association


approach developed hans monderman believed treat drivers like idiots act idiots ref name ref proposed trusting drivers behave successful forcing behave ref name es ref professor john adams expert risk compensation suggested traditional traffic engineering measures assumed motorists selfish stupid obedient automatons protected stupidity non motorists treated vulnerable stupid obedient automatons protected cars stupidity ref name adams ref reported results indicate 'shared space' approach leads


significantly reduced traffic speeds virtual elimination road casualties reduction congestion ref name es living streets share similarities shared spaces woonerven also sought reduce traffic speeds community housing zones use lower speed limits enforced use special signage road markings introduction traffic calming measures giving pedestrians priority motorists non built areas roads outside built areas also known rural roads including motorways roads classified urban road classified motorway


european union kind road people killed inside urban areas however numbers might change country country fatalities rural roads come many collisions due dangers exist roads important energy involved collisions due practiced speeds contrast risks collision less numerous motorways speeds lower rural roads major highways guard rail road kaluga oblast russia pan american highway central median freestanding obstructions major


highways including motorways freeways autobahnen interstates designed safer high speed operation generally lower levels injury per vehicle km roads example german autobahn fatality rate deaths per billion travel kilometers compared favorably rate urban streets rate rural roads ref name debast https injuryshieldcom traffic accident data summary statistics germany alt url ref safety features include limited access properties local roads grade separated junctions median dividers opposite direction traffic reduce likelihood head collisions removing roadside obstacles prohibition vulnerable road users slower vehicles placements energy attenuation


devices eg guard rails wide grassy areas sand barrels eliminating road toll booths ends guard rails high speed highways united states protected impact attenuators designed gradually absorb kinetic energy vehicle slow gently strike end guard rail head would devastating high speed several mechanisms used dissipate kinetic energy fitch barriers system sand filled barrels uses momentum transfer vehicle sand many systems tear deform steel members


absorb energy gradually stop vehicle countries major roads tone bands impressed cut edges legal roadway drowsing drivers awakened loud hum release steering drift edge road tone bands also referred rumble strips owing sound create alternative method use raised rib markings consists continuous line marking ribs across line regular intervals first specially authorised use motorways edge


line marking separate edge hard shoulder main carriageway objective marking achieve improved visual delineation carriageway edge wet conditions night also provides audible vibratory warning vehicle drivers stray carriageway run onto marking better motorways banked curves reduce need tire traction increase stability vehicles high centers gravity us developed prototype automated roadway reduce driver fatigue increase carrying capacity roadway roadside units participating


future wireless vehicle safety communications networks studied motorways far expensive space consumptive build ordinary roads used principal arterial routes developed nations motorways bear significant portion motorized travel example united kingdom 's nbsp km motorways represented less united kingdom 's roadways carry road traffic proportion traffic borne motorways significant safety factor example even though united kingdom higher fatality rates motorways non motorways finland nations shared


overall fatality rate result due united kingdom 's higher proportion motorway travel similarly reduction conflicts vehicles motorways results smoother traffic flow reduced collision rates reduced fuel consumption compared stop go traffic roadways improved safety fuel economy motorways common justifications building motorways however planned capacity motorways often exceeded shorter timeframe initially planned due estimation extent suppressed demand road travel developing nations significant


public debate desirability continued investment motorways effect january based primarily safety grounds uk 's highways agency 's policy new motorway schemes use high containment concrete step barriers central reserve existing motorways introduce concrete barriers central reserve part ongoing upgrades replacement systems reached end useful life change policy applies barriers central reserve high speed roads verge side barriers routes


continue use steel barriers people die hard shoulder highway without vehicles passing parked car following drivers unaware vehicle parked despite hazard lights truck drivers indicate parked putting cab seat behind truck uk aa police park vehicles hard shoulder slight angle following drivers see side vehicle therefore aware stopped highway crashes occur vicinity toll


collection booths countries reduced switching electronic toll systems ref name tollcrash ref vehicle safety safety improved various ways depending transport taken buses coaches safety improved various simple ways reduce chance crash occurring avoiding rushing standing unsafe places bus coach following rules bus coach greatly increase safety person travelling bus coach various safety features also implemented buses coaches


improve safety including safety bars people hold onto main ways stay safe travelling bus coach follows leave location early run catch bus coach bus stop always follow queue board alight bus stop official one never board alight red light crossing unauthorized bus stop board bus come halt without rushing pushing others sit stand


comprehensive requirements specifications safety related vehicle devices systems design construction may include passenger restraints seat belts often conjunction laws requiring use airbags crash avoidance equipment lights reflectors driver assistance systems electronic stability control crash survivability design including fire retardant interior materials standards fuel system integrity use safety glass ''sobriety detectors'' interlocks prevent ignition key working driver breathes one detects significant quantities alcohol used commercial transport companies


suggested use persistent drunk driving offenders voluntary basis ref name science ref dutch reach use far hand handle opening avoid dooring cyclists injuries exiting drivers passengers motorists passengers ref name rospacom ref front rear make dooring less likely practicing dutch reach opening car door reaching across body distant hand ref name rospacom ref name bostonglobecom ref motorbikes uk road casualty statistics show motorcycle riders nine times likely crash times likely die crash car drivers