disproving null hypothesis done using statistical tests quantify sense null proven false given data used test working null hypothesis two basic forms error recognized type errors null hypothesis falsely rejected giving false positive type ii errors null hypothesis fails rejected actual relationship populations missed giving false negative multiple problems come associated framework ranging obtaining sufficient sample size specifying adequate null hypothesis


ref name lundresearchltd measurement processes generate statistical data also subject error many errors classified random noise systematic bias types errors eg blunder analyst reports incorrect units also occur presence missing data censoring may result biased estimates specific techniques developed address problems introduction statistics mathematical body science pertains collection analysis interpretation explanation presentation data branch mathematics consider statistics

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics


distinct mathematical science rather branch mathematics many scientific investigations make use data statistics concerned use data context uncertainty decision making face uncertainty applying statistics problem common practice start population process studied populations diverse topics people living country every atom composing crystal ideally statisticians compile data entire population operation called census may organized governmental statistical institutes ''descriptive statistics''


sample also prone uncertainty draw meaningful conclusions entire population ''inferential statistics'' needed uses patterns sample data draw inferences population represented accounting randomness inferences may take form answering yes questions data hypothesis testing estimating numerical characteristics data estimation describing associations within data correlation modeling relationships within data example using regression analysis inference extend forecasting prediction estimation unobserved values either associated population studied


include extrapolation interpolation time series spatial data data mining mathematical statistics mathematical statistics application mathematics statistics mathematical techniques used include mathematical analysis linear algebra stochastic analysis differential equations measure theoretic probability theory history gerolamo cardano pioneer mathematics probability early writings statistical inference date back arab mathematicians cryptographers islamic golden age th th centuries al khalil wrote ''book cryptographic messages'' contains first use permutations combinations list possible arabic


words without vowels ref name lb ref book ''manuscript deciphering cryptographic messages'' al kindi gave detailed description use frequency analysis decipher encrypted messages al kindi also made earliest known use statistical inference later arab cryptographers developed early statistical methods decoding encrypted messages ibn adlan later made important contribution use sample size frequency analysis ref name lb earliest european writing statistics dates back publication ''natural political observations upon bills mortality'' john graunt early applications


statistical thinking revolved around needs states base policy demographic economic data hence ' 'stat '' etymology scope discipline statistics broadened early th century include collection analysis data general today statistics widely employed government business natural social sciences mathematical foundations modern statistics laid th century development probability theory gerolamo cardano blaise pascal pierre de fermat mathematical probability theory arose study games chance although concept


standard deviation correlation regression analysis application methods study variety human characteristics height weight eyelash length among others ref name galton ref pearson developed pearson product moment correlation coefficient defined product moment method moments fitting distributions samples pearson distribution among many things ref name pearson criterion ref galton pearson founded ''biometrika'' first journal mathematical statistics biostatistics called biometry latter founded world 's first university statistics department university college london ronald fisher coined term null hypothesis


lady tasting tea experiment never proved established possibly disproved course experimentation ref name oed oed quote ''' ''' ra fisher ''the design experiments'' ii may speak hypothesis 'null hypothesis' null hypothesis never proved established possibly disproved course experimentation ref second wave initiated william sealy gosset reached culmination insights ronald fisher wrote textbooks define academic discipline universities around world fisher 's


important publications seminal paper ''the correlation relatives supposition mendelian inheritance'' first use statistical term variance classic work ''statistical methods research workers'' ''the design experiments'' developed rigorous design experiments models originated concepts sufficiency ancillary statistics fisher 's linear discriminator fisher information book ''the genetical theory natural selection'' applied statistics various biological concepts fisher 's principle ref name edwards ref w f edwards called probably celebrated argument evolutionary


expansion earlier developments emerged collaborative work egon pearson jerzy neyman introduced concepts type ii error power test confidence intervals jerzy neyman showed stratified random sampling general better method estimation purposive quota sampling today statistical methods applied fields involve decision making making accurate inferences collated body data making decisions face uncertainty based statistical methodology use modern computers expedited large scale statistical computations


extend sample population whole major problem lies determining extent sample chosen actually representative statistics offers methods estimate correct bias within sample data collection procedures also methods experimental design experiments lessen issues outset study strengthening capability discern truths population sampling theory part mathematical discipline probability theory probability used mathematical statistics study sampling distributions sample statistics generally


properties statistical procedures use statistical method valid system population consideration satisfies assumptions method difference point view classic probability theory sampling theory roughly probability theory starts given parameters total population deduce probabilities pertain samples statistical inference however moves opposite direction inductively inferring samples parameters larger total population experimental observational studies common goal statistical research project investigate causality particular draw


manipulation modified values measurements contrast observational study involve experimental manipulation instead data gathered correlations predictors response investigated tools data analysis work best data randomized studies also applied kinds data like natural experiments observational studies statistician would use modified structured estimation method eg difference differences estimation instrumental variables among many others produce consistent estimators experiments basic steps statistical experiment planning research including finding


number replicates study using following information preliminary estimates regarding size treatment effects alternative hypotheses estimated experimental variability consideration selection experimental subjects ethics research necessary statisticians recommend experiments compare least one new treatment standard treatment control allow unbiased estimate difference treatment effects design experiments using blocking reduce influence confounding variables randomized assignment treatments subjects allow unbiased estimates treatment effects experimental error


stage experimenters statisticians write ''experimental protocol'' guide performance experiment specifies the'' primary analysis'' experimental data performing experiment following experimental protocol analyzing data following experimental protocol examining data set secondary analyses suggest new hypotheses future study documenting presenting results study experiments human behavior special concerns famous hawthorne study examined changes working environment hawthorne plant western electric company researchers interested determining


whether increased illumination would increase productivity assembly line workers researchers first measured productivity plant modified illumination area plant checked changes illumination affected productivity turned productivity indeed improved experimental conditions however study heavily criticized today errors experimental procedures specifically lack control group blindness hawthorne effect refers finding outcome case worker productivity changed due observation hawthorne study became productive


lighting changed observed ref name pmid ref observational study example observational study one explores association smoking lung cancer type study typically uses survey collect observations area interest performs statistical analysis case researchers would collect observations smokers non smokers perhaps cohort study look number cases lung cancer group case control study another type observational study people without


outcome interest eg lung cancer invited participate exposure histories collected types data various attempts made produce taxonomy levels measurement psychophysicist stanley smith stevens defined nominal ordinal interval ratio scales nominal measurements meaningful rank order among values permit one one injective transformation ordinal measurements imprecise differences consecutive values meaningful order values permit order preserving transformation interval measurements meaningful distances measurements defined zero value arbitrary


case longitude temperature measurements celsius fahrenheit permit linear transformation ratio measurements meaningful zero value distances different measurements defined permit rescaling transformation variables conforming nominal ordinal measurements cannot reasonably measured numerically sometimes grouped together categorical variables whereas ratio interval measurements grouped together quantitative variables either discrete continuous due numerical nature distinctions often loosely correlated data type computer science dichotomous categorical variables may


represented boolean data type polytomous categorical variables arbitrarily assigned integers integral data type continuous variables real data type involving floating point computation mapping computer science data types statistical data types depends categorization latter implemented categorizations proposed example mosteller tukey distinguished grades ranks counted fractions counts amounts balances nelder described continuous counts continuous ratios count ratios categorical modes data see also chrisman van den berg issue whether


appropriate apply different kinds statistical methods data obtained different kinds measurement procedures complicated issues concerning transformation variables precise interpretation research questions relationship data describe merely reflects fact certain kinds statistical statements may truth values invariant transformations whether transformation sensible contemplate depends question one trying answer methods descriptive statistics '' 'descriptive statistic''' count noun sense


summary statistic quantitatively describes summarizes features collection information '' 'descriptive statistics''' mass noun sense process using analyzing statistics descriptive statistics distinguished inferential statistics inductive statistics descriptive statistics aims summarize sample rather use data learn population sample data thought represent inferential statistics '''statistical inference''' process using data analysis deduce properties underlying probability distribution ref name oxford upton g cook ''oxford dictionary statistics'' oup


random sample unknown parameter whose probability distribution ' 'does depend unknown parameter'' called pivotal quantity pivot widely used pivots include z score chi square statistic student 's value two estimators given parameter one lower mean squared error said efficient furthermore estimator said unbiased expected value equal true value unknown parameter estimated asymptotically unbiased expected value converges limit true value


often involve development null hypothesis usually necessarily relationship exists among variables change occurred time best illustration novice predicament encountered criminal trial null hypothesis h sub sub asserts defendant innocent whereas alternative hypothesis h sub sub asserts defendant guilty indictment comes suspicion guilt h sub sub status quo stands opposition h sub sub maintained unless h sub sub supported evidence beyond reasonable doubt however failure reject h sub sub


case imply innocence merely evidence insufficient convict jury necessarily ''accept'' h sub sub ''fails reject'' h sub sub one prove null hypothesis one test close true power test tests type ii errors statisticians call alternative hypothesis simply hypothesis contradicts null hypothesis error working null hypothesis two broad categories error recognized type errors null hypothesis falsely rejected giving false positive type ii


prediction mean squared error used obtaining efficient estimators widely used class estimators root mean square error simply square root mean squared error least squares fit red points fitted blue fitted line many statistical methods seek minimize residual sum squares called methods least squares contrast least absolute deviations latter gives equal weight small big errors former gives weight large errors residual sum squares also differentiable provides handy


property regression least squares applied linear regression called ordinary least squares method least squares applied nonlinear regression called non linear least squares also linear regression model non deterministic part model called error term disturbance simply noise linear regression non linear regression addressed polynomial least squares also describes variance prediction dependent variable axis function independent variable x axis deviations errors noise disturbances estimated fitted curve measurement processes generate


whole population estimates obtained sample approximate population value confidence intervals allow statisticians express closely sample estimate matches true value whole population often expressed confidence intervals formally confidence interval value range sampling analysis repeated conditions yielding different dataset interval would include true population value possible cases ''not'' imply probability true value confidence interval


value use credible interval bayesian statistics approach depends different way interpreting meant probability bayesian probability principle confidence intervals symmetrical asymmetrical interval asymmetrical works lower upper bound parameter left sided interval right sided interval also asymmetrical two sided interval built violating symmetry around estimate sometimes bounds confidence interval reached asymptotically used approximate true bounds significance statistics


alternative hypothesis critical region set values estimator leads refuting null hypothesis probability type error therefore probability estimator belongs critical region given null hypothesis true statistical significance probability type ii error probability estimator n't belong critical region given alternative hypothesis true statistical power test probability correctly rejects null hypothesis null hypothesis false referring statistical significance


necessarily mean overall result significant real world terms example large study drug may shown drug statistically significant small beneficial effect drug unlikely help patient noticeably although principle acceptable level statistical significance may subject debate significance level largest p value allows test reject null hypothesis test logically equivalent saying p value probability assuming null hypothesis true


observing result least extreme test statistic therefore smaller significance level lower probability committing type error problems usually associated framework see criticism hypothesis testing difference highly statistically significant still practical significance possible properly formulate tests account one response involves going beyond reporting significance level include ''p'' value reporting whether hypothesis rejected accepted p value however indicate size importance


observed effect also seem exaggerate importance minor differences large studies better increasingly common approach report confidence intervals although produced calculations hypothesis tests ''p'' values describe size effect uncertainty surrounding fallacy transposed conditional aka prosecutor 's fallacy criticisms arise hypothesis testing approach forces one hypothesis null hypothesis favored since evaluated probability observed result given null hypothesis probability


null hypothesis given observed result alternative approach offered bayesian inference although requires establishing prior probability ref name ioannidis ref rejecting null hypothesis automatically prove alternative hypothesis everything inferential statistics relies sample size therefore fat tails p values may seriously mis computed examples well known statistical tests procedures exploratory data analysis '''exploratory data analysis''' '''eda''' approach analyzing data sets summarize main characteristics often visual methods statistical model used primarily eda seeing


data tell us beyond formal modeling hypothesis testing task misuse misuse statistics produce subtle serious errors description interpretation subtle sense even experienced professionals make errors serious sense lead devastating decision errors instance social policy medical practice reliability structures like bridges rely proper use statistics even statistical techniques correctly applied results difficult interpret lacking expertise statistical significance trend


data measures extent trend could caused random variation sample may may agree intuitive sense significance set basic statistical skills skepticism people need deal information everyday lives properly referred statistical literacy general perception statistical knowledge frequently intentionally misused finding ways interpret data favorable presenter ref name huff huff darrell ''how lie statistics'' ww norton company inc new york ref mistrust


misunderstanding statistics associated quotation three kinds lies lies damned lies statistics misuse statistics inadvertent intentional book ''how lie statistics'' ref name huff outlines range considerations attempt shed light use misuse statistics reviews statistical techniques used particular fields conducted eg warne lazo ramos ritter ways avoid misuse statistics include using proper diagrams avoiding bias ref name statistics archaeology ref misuse occur conclusions overgeneralized claimed


representative really often either deliberately unconsciously overlooking sampling bias ref name misuse statistics ref bar graphs arguably easiest diagrams use understand made either hand simple computer programs ref name statistics archaeology unfortunately people look bias errors noticed thus people may often believe something true even well represented ref name misuse statistics make data gathered statistics believable accurate sample taken must representative whole ref


name modern elementary statistics ref according huff dependability sample destroyed bias allow degree skepticism assist understanding statistics huff proposed series questions asked case ref name huff says axe grind know resources know facts 's missing give us complete picture someone change subject offer us right answer wrong problem make sense conclusion logical consistent


already know confounding variable problem ''x'' ''y'' may correlated causal relationship depend third variable ''z'' ''z'' called confounding factor misinterpretation correlation concept correlation particularly noteworthy potential confusion cause statistical analysis data set often reveals two variables properties population consideration tend vary together connected example study annual income also looks age death might find poor people tend


well encompassing ''mathematical statistics'' mathematical statistics includes manipulation probability distributions necessary deriving results related methods estimation inference also various aspects computational statistics design experiments statistical consultants help organizations companies n't house expertise relevant particular questions machine learning data mining machine learning models statistical probabilistic models capture patterns data use computational algorithms statistics academia statistics applicable wide variety academic disciplines including natural social sciences government


business business statistics applies statistical methods econometrics auditing production operations including services improvement marketing research study two journals tropical biology found frequent statistical tests analysis variance anova chi square test student test linear regression pearson correlation coefficient mann whitney u test kruskal wallis test shannon diversity index tukey 's test cluster analysis spearman rank correlation test principal component analysis ref name ref typical statistics course covers descriptive statistics probability binomial normal distributions test hypotheses confidence intervals linear regression correlation modern fundamental statistical courses undergraduate students


models increased computing power also led growing popularity computationally intensive methods based resampling permutation tests bootstrap techniques gibbs sampling made use bayesian models feasible computer revolution implications future statistics new emphasis experimental empirical statistics large number general special purpose statistical software available examples available software capable complex statistical computation include programs mathematica sas spss r business statistics business statistics widely used management


decision support tool particularly applied financial management marketing management production services operations management statistics also heavily used management accounting auditing discipline management science formalizes use statistics mathematics business econometrics application statistical methods economic data order give empirical content economic relationships typical business statistics course intended business majors covers descriptive statistics collection description analysis summary data probability typically binomial normal distributions test hypotheses confidence intervals linear


regression correlation follow courses may include forecasting time series decision trees multiple linear regression topics business analytics generally see also professional certification programs cfa often include topics statistics statistics applied mathematics arts traditionally statistics concerned drawing inferences using semi standardized methodology required learning sciences tradition changed use statistics non inferential contexts considered dry subject taken many fields degree requirement viewed enthusiastically initially derided mathematical purists


considered essential methodology certain areas number theory scatter plots data generated distribution function may transformed familiar tools used statistics reveal underlying patterns may lead hypotheses predictive methods statistics forecasting combining chaos theory fractal geometry used create video works process art jackson pollock relied artistic experiments whereby underlying distributions nature artistically revealed advent computers statistical methods applied formalize distribution driven natural processes make analyze moving video art methods


social research including biostatistics computational biology computational sociology network biology social science sociology social research fields inquiry use applied statistics extensively specialized terminology disciplines include addition particular types statistical analysis also developed specialised terminology methodology jackknife resampling multivariate statistics statistical classification structured data analysis structural equation modelling survey methodology survival analysis statistics various sports particularly baseball known sabermetrics cricket statistics form key basis tool business manufacturing well used understand measurement


many scientific fields growing determination reform statistical analysis researchers suggest changing statistical methods whereas others would away threshold defining significant results p nbsp https wwwopenintroorg stat textbookphpstat book os ''openintro statistics'' rd edition diez barr cetinkaya rundel stephen jones https booksgooglecom booksid mywdbqaaqbaj ''statistics psychology explanations without equations'' palgrave macmillan external links electronic version tibco software inc https docstibcocom data science textbook data science textbook http onlinestatbookcom indexhtml ''online statistics education interactive multimedia course study'' developed rice university lead developer university houston clear lake tufts university national science foundation https webarchiveorg web http wwwatsuclaedu stat ucla statistical computing resources https platostanfordedu entries statistics


philosophy statistics stanford encyclopedia philosophy data formal sciences information mathematical quantitative methods economics research methods arab inventions


''the dying gaul'' ''the capitoline gaul'' roman marble copy hellenistic work late rd century bce capitoline museums rome assyrian ''lamassu'' gate guardian khorsabad circa bce michelangelo 's ''moses'' c san pietro vincoli rome tomb pope julius ii netsuke tigress two cubs mid th century japan ivory shell inlay ''the angel north'' antony gormley '''sculpture''' branch visual arts operates three dimensions one plastic arts durable sculptural processes originally used carving removal

Humanities
Visual arts
Fine arts
Sculpture


material modelling addition material clay stone metal ceramics wood materials since modernism almost complete freedom materials process wide variety materials may worked removal carving assembled welding modelling moulded cast sculpture stone survives far better works art perishable materials often represents majority surviving works pottery ancient cultures though conversely traditions sculpture wood may vanished almost entirely however ancient sculpture brightly painted


lost ref name artmuseumsharvardedu http wwwartmuseumsharvardedu exhibitions sackler godsincolorhtml gods color painted sculpture classical antiquity september january arthur sackler museum ref sculpture central religious devotion many cultures recent centuries large sculptures expensive private individuals create usually expression religion politics cultures whose sculptures survived quantities include cultures ancient mediterranean india china well many central south america africa western tradition sculpture began ancient greece greece widely seen


producing great masterpieces classical period middle ages gothic sculpture represented agonies passions christian faith revival classical models renaissance produced famous sculptures michelangelo 's statue ''david'' modernist sculpture moved away traditional processes emphasis depiction human body making constructed sculpture presentation found objects finished art works types basic distinction sculpture round free standing sculpture statues attached except possibly base surface


various types relief least partly attached background surface relief often classified degree projection wall low bas relief high relief sometimes intermediate mid relief sunk relief technique restricted ancient egypt relief usual sculptural medium large figure groups narrative subjects difficult accomplish round typical technique used architectural sculpture attached buildings small scale sculpture decorating objects much pottery metalwork jewellery relief sculpture may also decorate


meaning either sculpture large attached building term properly covers many types small works three dimensions using techniques including coins medals hardstone carvings term small carvings stone take detailed work large colossal statue enduring appeal since antiquity largest record indian statue unity another grand form portrait sculpture equestrian statue rider horse become rare recent decades


smallest forms life size portrait sculpture head showing bust representation person chest small forms sculpture include figurine normally statue tall reliefs plaquette medal coin modern contemporary art added number non traditional forms sculpture including sound sculpture light sculpture environmental art environmental sculpture street art sculpture kinetic sculpture involving aspects physical motion land art site specific art sculpture important form public art collection sculpture


garden setting called sculpture garden purposes subjects ''moai'' easter island concentration resources large sculpture may serious political effects one common purposes sculpture form association religion cult images common many cultures though often colossal statues deities characterized ancient greek art like statue zeus olympia actual cult images innermost sanctuaries egyptian temples none survived evidently rather small even largest temples


often true hinduism simple ancient form lingam common buddhism brought sculpture religious figures east asia seems earlier equivalent tradition though simple shapes like ''bi'' ''cong'' probably religious significance small sculptures personal possessions go back earliest prehistoric art use large sculpture public art especially impress viewer power ruler goes back least great sphinx years ago


archaeology art history appearance sometimes disappearance large monumental sculpture culture regarded great significance though tracing emergence often complicated presumed existence sculpture wood perishable materials record remains ref name google books see example martin robertson '' https booksgooglecom booksid bousvd vnqc pg pa shorter history greek art '' p cambridge university press ref totem pole example tradition monumental sculpture wood would leave traces archaeology ability summon resources create monumental sculpture transporting


usually heavy materials arranging payment usually regarded full time sculptors considered mark relatively advanced culture terms social organization recent unexpected discoveries ancient chinese bronze age figures sanxingdui twice human size disturbed many ideas held early chinese civilization since much smaller bronzes previously known undoubtedly advanced cultures indus valley civilization appear monumental sculpture though producing sophisticated figurines seals mississippian culture seems progressing towards


use small stone figures collapsed cultures ancient egypt easter island culture seem devoted enormous resources large scale monumental sculpture early stage medal john viii palaeologus c pisanello first portrait medal medium essentially made collecting collecting sculpture including earlier periods goes back years greece china mesoamerica many collections available semi public display long modern museum invented th century relatively restricted range subjects found


large sculpture expanded greatly abstract subjects use representation type subject common today much sculpture made intermittent display galleries museums ability transport store increasingly large works factor construction small decorative figurines often ceramics popular today though strangely neglected modern contemporary art rococo ancient greece tanagra figurines major industry east asian pre columbian art small sculpted fittings furniture objects


go well back antiquity nimrud ivories begram ivories finds tomb tutankhamun portrait sculpture began egypt narmer palette shows ruler nd century bce mesopotamia surviving statues gudea ruled lagash c bce ancient greece rome erection portrait statue public place almost highest mark honour ambition elite might also depicted coin cultures egypt near east public statues


almost exclusively preserve ruler wealthy people portrayed tombs rulers typically people given portraits pre columbian cultures beginning olmec colossal heads years ago east asian portrait sculpture entirely religious leading clergy commemorated statues especially founders monasteries rulers ancestors mediterranean tradition revived initially tomb effigies coins middle ages expanded greatly renaissance invented new forms personal portrait medal animals human


figure earliest subject sculpture always popular sometimes realistic often imaginary monsters china animals monsters almost traditional subjects stone sculpture outside tombs temples kingdom plants important jewellery decorative reliefs form almost large sculpture byzantine art islamic art important eurasian traditions motifs palmette vine scroll passed east west two millennia one form sculpture found many prehistoric cultures around world


specially enlarged versions ordinary tools weapons vessels created impractical precious materials either form ceremonial use display offerings jade types greenstone used china olmec mexico neolithic europe early mesopotamia large pottery shapes produced stone bronze used europe china large axes blades like oxborough dirk materials techniques sumerian male worshipper alabaster shell eyes bce materials used sculpture diverse changing throughout history classic materials outstanding durability metal especially bronze


stone pottery wood bone antler less durable cheaper options precious materials gold silver jade ivory often used small luxury works sometimes larger ones chryselephantine statues common less expensive materials used sculpture wider consumption including hardwoods oak box boxwood lime linden terracotta ceramics wax common material models casting receiving impressions cylinder seals engraved gems cast metals pewter zinc spelter vast number materials


almost entirely natural materials natural settings sculpture ice sculpture sand sculpture gas sculpture deliberately short lived recent sculptors used stained glass tools machine parts hardware consumer packaging fashion works sculptors sometimes use found objects chinese scholar 's rocks appreciated many centuries stone modern reconstruction original painted appearance late archaic greek marble figure temple aphaea based analysis pigment traces c bce stone sculpture ancient activity pieces rough natural stone shaped controlled


removal stone owing permanence material evidence found even earliest societies indulged form stone work though areas world abundance good stone carving egypt greece india europe petroglyphs also called rock engravings perhaps earliest form images created removing part rock surface remains ''in situ'' incising pecking carving abrading monumental sculpture covers large works architectural sculpture attached buildings hardstone carving carving artistic purposes


semi precious stones jade agate onyx rock crystal sard carnelian general term object made way alabaster mineral gypsum soft mineral easy carve smaller works still relatively durable engraved gems small carved gems including cameos originally used seal rings copying original statue stone important ancient greek statues nearly known copies traditionally achieved pointing along freehand methods pointing involved setting grid string squares


wooden frame surrounding original measuring position grid distance grid statue series individual points using information carve block copy made metal ludwig gies cast iron plaquette x cm ''refugees'' bronze related copper alloys oldest still popular metals cast metal sculptures cast bronze sculpture often called simply bronze common bronze alloys unusual desirable property expanding slightly set thus filling


finest details mould strength lack brittleness ductility advantage figures action created especially compared various ceramic stone materials see marble sculpture several examples gold softest precious metal important jewellery silver soft enough worked hammers tools well cast repouss chasing among techniques used gold silversmithing casting group manufacturing processes liquid material bronze copper glass aluminum iron


usually poured mould contains hollow cavity desired shape allowed solidify solid casting ejected broken complete process ref name jepsculpture ref although final stage cold work may follow finished cast casting may used form hot liquid metals various materials ''cold set'' mixing components epoxies concrete plaster clay casting often used making complex shapes would otherwise difficult uneconomical make methods oldest surviving casting copper


piece metal joined evenly red shine shine piece shine soon become 'pool' metal liquified welder must get pools join fusing metal cooled location pools joined one continuous piece metal also used heavily oxy fuel sculpture creation forging forging process heating metal certain point soften enough shaped different forms one common example heating


end steel rod hitting red heated tip hammer anvil form point hammer swings forger rotates rod gradually forms sharpened point blunt end steel rod glass dale chihuly blown glass glass may used sculpture wide range working techniques though use large works recent development carved though considerable difficulty roman lycurgus cup unique various ways moulding


glass hot casting done ladling molten glass moulds created pressing shapes sand carved graphite detailed plaster silica moulds kiln casting glass involves heating chunks glass kiln liquid flow waiting mould kiln hot glass also blown hot sculpted hand tools either solid mass part blown object recent techniques involve chiseling bonding plate glass polymer silicates uv light carved wooden bodhisattva china 's song


dynasty shanghai museum pottery pottery one oldest materials sculpture well clay medium many sculptures cast metal originally modelled casting sculptors often build small preliminary works called maquettes ephemeral materials plaster paris wax unfired clay plasticine many cultures produced pottery combines function vessel sculptural form small figurines often popular modern western culture stamps moulds used ancient civilizations ancient rome mesopotamia


china wood carving detail crucifixion jesus christ spanish wood polychrome wood carving extremely widely practiced survives much less well main materials vulnerable decay insect damage fire therefore forms important hidden element art history many cultures ref name google books outdoor wood sculpture last long parts world little idea totem pole tradition developed many important sculptures china japan particular wood great


majority african sculpture oceania regions wood light suitable masks sculpture intended carried take fine detail also much easier work stone often painted carving paint wears less well wood often missing surviving pieces painted wood often technically described wood polychrome typically layer gesso plaster applied wood paint applied social status


sculptors nuremberg sculptor adam kraft self portrait ''st lorenz church'' worldwide sculptors usually tradesmen whose work unsigned traditions example china sculpture share prestige literati painting affected status sculpture even ancient greece sculptors phidias became famous appear retained much social status artisans perhaps much greater financial rewards although signed works middle ages artists th century gislebertus sometimes signed work sought


different cities especially trecento onwards italy figures arnolfo di cambio nicola pisano son giovanni goldsmiths jewellers dealing precious materials often doubling bankers belonged powerful guilds considerable status often holding civic office many sculptors also practised arts andrea del verrocchio also painted giovanni pisano michelangelo jacopo sansovino architects sculptors maintained large workshops even renaissance physical nature work perceived leonardo da vinci others pulling status sculpture


painters less prominent th century anti sculpture movements aniconism remained restricted judaism accept figurative sculpture th century expanding early christianity initially accepted large sculptures christianity buddhism sculpture became significant christian eastern orthodoxy never accepted monumental sculpture islam consistently rejected nearly figurative sculpture except small figures reliefs animal figures fulfill useful function like famous lions supporting fountain alhambra many forms protestantism also approve religious sculpture


much iconoclasm sculpture religious motives early christians beeldenstorm protestant reformation destruction buddhas bamyan taliban history prehistoric periods europe venus hohle fels also known venus schelklingen upper paleolithic venus figurine hewn ivory mammoth tusk found near schelklingen germany dated years ago belonging early aurignacian beginning upper paleolithic associated assumed earliest presence ''homo sapiens''


europe cro magnon along l wenmensch oldest undisputed example upper paleolithic art figurative prehistoric art general earliest undisputed examples sculpture belong aurignacian culture located europe southwest asia active beginning upper paleolithic well producing earliest known cave art people culture developed finely crafted stone tools manufacturing pendants bracelets ivory beads bone flutes well three dimensional figurines nbsp cm tall l wenmensch found hohlenstein stadel area germany anthropomorphic lion man figure


carved woolly mammoth ivory dated bp making along venus hohle fels oldest known uncontested example figurative art much surviving prehistoric art small portable sculptures small group female venus figurines venus willendorf bp found across central europe swimming reindeer years ago one finest number magdalenian carvings bone antler animals art upper paleolithic although outnumbered engraved pieces sometimes classified


sculpture two largest prehistoric sculptures found tuc d'audobert caves france around years ago masterful sculptor used spatula like stone tool fingers model pair large bison clay limestone rock beginning mesolithic europe figurative sculpture greatly reduced remained less common element art relief decoration practical objects roman period despite works gundestrup cauldron european iron age bronze age trundholm sun chariot ancient near east


ancient near east life sized stone urfa man modern turkey comes bce 'ain ghazal statues around bce modern jordan made lime plaster reeds half life size statues two heads side side busts small clay figures people animals found many sites across near east pre pottery neolithic represent start less continuous tradition region gallery width px height px file loewenmensch jpg l wenmensch hohlenstein stadel


ulmer museum ulm germany oldest known anthropomorphic animal human statuette aurignacian era c bp file venus von willendorf jpg venus willendorf c bp file venus de laussel vue generale noirjpg venus laussel c bp upper palaeolithic carving bordeaux museum france file speerschleuder lamadeleinejpg ''creeping hyena'' c bp mammoth ivory found la madeleine france file glam ice age jpg ''swimming reindeer'' c bp female male swimming reindeer late magdalenian period found montastruc tarn et garonne france file urfa manjpg urfa man anl urfa museum sandstone meters c bce file stone statue late jomon periodjpg j mon dog figure st millennium bce japan file solvognen jpg trundholm sun chariot perhaps bce side


survived sculptures sumerian akkadian period generally large staring eyes long beards men many masterpieces also found royal cemetery ur c bce including two figures ''ram thicket'' ''copper bull'' bull 's head one lyres ur many subsequent periods ascendency neo assyrian empire th century bce mesopotamian art survives number forms cylinder seals relatively small figures round reliefs various sizes


including cheap plaques moulded pottery home religious apparently burney relief unusually elaborate relatively large x nbsp inches x nbsp cm terracotta plaque naked winged goddess feet bird prey attendant owls lions comes th th centuries bce may also moulded stone stelae votive offerings ones probably commemorating victories showing feasts also found temples unlike official ones lack inscriptions would explain fragmentary stele vultures


early example inscribed type assyrian black obelisk shalmaneser iii large solid late one conquest whole mesopotamia much surrounding territory assyrians created larger wealthier state region known grandiose art palaces public places doubt partly intended match splendour art neighbouring egyptian empire unlike earlier states assyrians could use easily carved stone northern iraq great quantity assyrians developed style extremely large


schemes finely detailed narrative low reliefs stone palaces scenes war hunting british museum outstanding collection including ''lion hunt ashurbanipal'' lachish reliefs showing campaign produced little sculpture round except colossal guardian figures human headed lamassu sculpted high relief two sides rectangular block heads effectively round also five legs views seem complete even dominating region continued cylinder seal tradition designs


often exceptionally energetic refined gallery width px height px file guennol lionessjpg guennol lioness rd millennium bce high file statue gudea met jpg one statues gudea ruler around bce file lilith periodo de isin larsa babiloniajpg burney relief old babylonian around bce file sculpted reliefs depicting ashurbanipal last great assyrian king hunting lions gypsum hall relief north palace nineveh irak c bc british museum jpg part ''lion hunt ashurbanipal'' c bce nineveh gallery ancient egypt thutmose ''bust nefertiti'' bce egyptian museum berlin monumental sculpture


ancient egypt world famous refined delicate small works exist much greater numbers egyptians used distinctive technique sunk relief well suited bright sunlight main figures reliefs adhere figure convention painting parted legs seated head shown side torso front standard set proportions making figure using fists go ground hair line forehead appears early narmer palette dynasty however


large statues except represent pharaoh ''as'' another deity however deities frequently shown paintings reliefs famous row four colossal statues outside main temple abu simbel show rameses ii typical scheme though exceptionally large small figures deities animal personifications common found popular materials pottery larger sculpture survives egyptian temples tombs dynasty iv bce latest idea ka statue firmly established put tombs


marble figures usually female small represented elegantly simplified geometrical style typical standing pose arms crossed front figures shown different poses including complicated figure harpist seated chair subsequent minoan mycenaean cultures developed sculpture influence syria elsewhere later archaic period around bce kouros developed large standing statues naked youths found temples tombs kore clothed female equivalent elaborately dressed


hair archaic smile seem served number functions perhaps sometimes representing deities sometimes person buried grave kroisos kouros clearly influenced egyptian syrian styles greek artists much ready experiment within style th century greek sculpture developed rapidly becoming naturalistic much active varied figure poses narrative scenes though still within idealized conventions sculptured pediments added temples including parthenon athens remains pediment


around using figures round fortunately used infill new buildings persian sack bce recovered fresh unweathered condition significant remains architectural sculpture come paestum italy corfu delphi temple aphaea aegina much munich greek sculpture originally included least colour ny carlsberg glyptotek museum copenhagen denmark done extensive research recreation original colours gallery width px height px file head figurine spedos louvre jpg cycladic statue bce head figure


woman h file goulandris master cycladic female figurine walters jpg cycladic female figurine c bce high file exhibit archaeologycal museum athensjpg mycenae bce silver rhyton gold horns rosette forehead file marble statue kouros youth met dt jpg lifesize new york kouros c bce metropolitan museum art file mad sphinxjpg naxian sphinx delphi bce figure high file acma kore jpg ''peplos kore'' c bce athens acropolis museum file aphaia pediment laomedon e xi glyptothek munich jpg late archaic warrior east pediment temple aphaea c file limestone sarcophagus amathus


sarcophagus met dt jpg amathus sarcophagus amathus cyprus nd quarter th century bce archaic period metropolitan museum art gallery classical high classical high relief elgin marbles originally decorated parthenon c bce fewer original remains first phase classical period often called severe style free standing statues mostly made bronze always value scrap severe style lasted around reliefs soon statues relatively rigid poses figures relaxed asymmetrical turning positions


best known works parthenon marbles traditionally since plutarch executed team led famous ancient greek sculptor phidias active day famous colossal chryselephantine statue zeus olympia c one seven wonders ancient world ''athena parthenos'' cult image parthenon ''athena promachos'' colossal bronze figure stood next parthenon lost known many representations also credited creator life size


warrior completely detached background missing parts relief high made sculptures subject damage late classical style developed free standing female nude statue supposedly innovation praxiteles developed increasingly complex subtle poses interesting viewed number angles well expressive faces trends taken much hellenistic period hellenistic pergamene style hellenistic period pergamon altar early nd century hellenistic period conventionally dated death alexander great


bce ending either final conquest greek heartlands rome bce final defeat last remaining successor state alexander 's empire battle actium bce also marks end republican rome ref name referencec alexander great hellenistic age p xiii green p ref thus much longer previous periods includes least two major phases pergamene style experimentation exuberance sentimentality vulgarity nd century bce classicising return


austere simplicity elegance beyond generalizations dating typically uncertain especially later copies known usually case initial pergamene style especially associated pergamon takes name wealthy kings state among first collect also copy classical sculpture also commissioned much new work including famous pergamon altar whose sculpture mostly berlin exemplifies new style mausoleum halicarnassus another seven wonders famous ''laoco n


sons'' vatican museums late example bronze original ''the dying gaul'' illustrated top know part group actually commissioned pergamon bce ludovisi gaul also copy group called farnese bull possibly nd century marble original still larger complex small greek terracotta figurines popular ornaments home hellenistic sculpture greatly expanded range subjects represented partly result greater general prosperity emergence wealthy class


large houses decorated sculpture although know examples subjects seem best suited home children animals fact placed temples public places much popular home decoration market tanagra figurines centres small pottery figures produced industrial scale religious others showing animals elegantly dressed ladies sculptors became technically skilled representing facial expressions conveying wide variety emotions portraiture individuals well representing different ages races


reliefs mausoleum rather atypical respect work free standing group compositions several figures seen round like ''laocoon'' pergamon group celebrating victory gauls became popular rare barberini faun showing satyr sprawled asleep presumably drink example moral relaxation period readiness create large expensive sculptures subjects fall short heroic conquests alexander hellenistic culture dominant courts near


east central asia increasingly adopted european elites especially italy greek colonies initially controlled south hellenistic art artists spread widely especially influential expanding roman republic encountered buddhism easternmost extensions hellenistic area massive called alexander sarcophagus found sidon modern lebanon probably made start period expatriate greek artists hellenized persian governor wealth period led greatly increased production luxury forms


small sculpture including engraved gems cameos jewellery gold silverware gallery width px height px file reggio calabria museo nazionale bronzi di riacejpg riace bronzes rare bronze figures recovered sea c file hermes infant dionysus praxitelesjpg ''hermes infant dionysos'' possibly original praxiteles th century file italia del sud due statuette femminili dolenti ac cajpg two elegant ladies pottery figurines file bronze statuette horse met dp jpg ''bronze statuette horse'' late nd st century bce metropolitan museum art file nike samothrake louvre n jpg ''the winged victory samothrace'' c


bce louvre file venus de milo louvre n jpg ''venus de milo'' c bce greek louvre file laocoon pio clementino inv jpg ''laoco n sons'' greek late hellenistic perhaps copy bce ce white marble vatican museum file apollon du belv cortile ottagono museo pio clementino vatican jpg leochares ''apollo belvedere'' c ce roman copy greek bronze original bce vatican museums gallery europe greeks roman sculpture section trajan 's column ce scenes dacian wars early roman art influenced art greece


copies roman period nd century bce sculptors working rome greek often enslaved conquests corinth bce sculptors continued mostly greeks often slaves whose names rarely recorded vast numbers greek statues imported rome whether booty result extortion commerce temples often decorated used greek works native italian style seen tomb monuments often featured portrait busts prosperous middle class romans portraiture arguably


main strength roman sculpture survivals tradition masks ancestors worn processions funerals great families otherwise displayed home many busts survive must represent ancestral figures perhaps large family tombs like tomb scipios later mausolea outside city famous bronze head supposedly lucius junius brutus variously dated taken rare survival italic style republic preferred medium bronze similarly stern forceful


heads seen coins late republic imperial period coins well busts sent around empire placed basilicas provincial cities main visual form imperial propaganda even londinium near colossal statue nero though far smaller metre high colossus nero rome lost augustan state greco roman style ara pacis bce romans generally attempt compete free standing greek works heroic exploits history mythology early produced historical works relief culminating


great roman triumphal columns continuous narrative reliefs winding around commemorating trajan ce marcus aurelius survive rome ara pacis altar peace bce represents official greco roman style classical refined among major examples earlier used reliefs arch constantine base column antoninus pius campana reliefs cheaper pottery versions marble reliefs taste relief imperial period expanded sarcophagus forms luxury small


sculpture continued patronized quality could extremely high silver warren cup glass lycurgus cup large cameos like gemma augustea gonzaga cameo great cameo france much wider section population moulded relief decoration pottery vessels small figurines produced great quantity often considerable quality moving late nd century baroque phase rd century roman art largely abandoned simply became unable produce sculpture classical tradition change whose causes remain much discussed even important


imperial monuments showed stumpy large eyed figures harsh frontal style simple compositions emphasizing power expense grace contrast famously illustrated arch constantine rome combines sections new style roundels earlier full greco roman style taken elsewhere ''four tetrarchs'' c new capital constantinople venice ernst kitzinger found monuments stubby proportions angular movements ordering parts symmetry repetition rendering features drapery folds incisions rather


modelling hallmark style wherever appears consists emphatic hardness heaviness angularity short almost complete rejection classical tradition revolution style shortly preceded period christianity adopted roman state great majority people leading end large religious sculpture large statues used emperors however rich christians continued commission reliefs sarcophagi sarcophagus junius bassus small sculpture especially ivory continued christians building style


consular diptych gallery width px height px file museo archeologico di firenze coperchio di sepolcro muliebre da tuscania terracotta con tracce di policromia iii sec dcjpg etruscan sarcophagus rd century bce file capitoline brutus musei capitolini mc jpg capitoline brutus dated rd st century bce file statue augustusjpg ''augustus prima porta'' statue emperor augustus st century ce vatican museums file tomba dei decii dalla via ostiense dcjpg tomb relief decii ce file claudius pio clementino inv jpg bust emperor claudius c ce reworked bust emperor caligula found called otricoli basilica lanuvium italy vatican museums


file commode herculejpg commodus dressed hercules c ce late imperial baroque style file venice tetrarchs jpg ''the four tetrarchs'' c showing new anti classical style porphyry san marco venice file great cameo france cdm paris bab white backgroundjpg cameo gem known great cameo france c ce allegory augustus family gallery early medieval byzantine silver monster chape scottish anglo saxon st ninian 's isle treasure c gero cross c cologne germany first great example revival large sculpture


early christians opposed monumental religious sculpture though continuing roman traditions portrait busts sarcophagus reliefs well smaller objects consular diptych objects often valuable materials also main sculptural traditions far known barbaric civilizations migration period seen objects found th century burial treasure sutton hoo jewellery scythian art hybrid christian animal style productions insular art following continuing byzantine tradition carolingian art revived ivory carving often panels treasure


bindings grand illuminated manuscripts well crozier heads small fittings byzantine art though producing superb ivory reliefs architectural decorative carving never returned monumental sculpture even much small sculpture round however west carolingian ottonian periods beginnings production monumental statues courts major churches gradually spread late th th century records several apparently life size sculptures anglo saxon churches probably precious metal around wooden frame like golden madonna essen


anglo saxon example survived survivals large non architectural sculpture exceptionally rare much finest gero cross crucifix evidently commonest type sculpture charlemagne set one palatine chapel aachen around continued grow popularity especially germany italy rune stones nordic world pictish stones scotland possibly high cross reliefs christian great britain northern sculptural traditions bridged period christianization gallery width px height px file byzantine ivory jpg ''archangel ivory''


increasingly decorated architectural stone reliefs new focuses sculpture developed tympanum church doors th century inhabited capital figures often narrative scenes outstanding abbey churches sculpture include france v zelay moissac spain silos romanesque art characterised vigorous style sculpture painting capitals columns never exciting period often carved complete scenes several figures large wooden crucifix german innovation right start


period free standing statues enthroned madonna high relief sculptural mode period compositions usually little depth needed flexible squeeze shapes capitals church typanums tension tightly enclosing frame composition sometimes escapes recurrent theme romanesque art figures still often varied size relation importance portraiture hardly existed objects precious materials ivory metal high status period much monumental


sculpture know names makers painters illuminators architect masons metalwork including decoration enamel became sophisticated many spectacular shrines made hold relics survived best known shrine three kings cologne cathedral nicholas verdun bronze gloucester candlestick brass font li ge superb examples different style metal casting former highly intricate energetic drawing manuscript painting font shows mosan style classical majestic


bronze doors triumphal column fittings hildesheim cathedral gniezno doors doors basilica di san zeno verona substantial survivals aquamanile container water wash appears introduced europe th century often took fantastic zoomorphic forms surviving examples mostly brass many wax impressions impressive seals survive charters documents although romanesque coins generally great aesthetic interest cloisters cross unusually large ivory crucifix complex carving including many figures prophets


others attributed one relatively artists whose name known master hugo also illuminated manuscripts like many pieces originally partly coloured lewis chessmen well preserved examples small ivories many pieces fragments remain croziers plaques pectoral crosses similar objects gallery width px height px file renier de huy jpg jpg baptismal font st bartholomew 's church li ge ''baptism christ'' file basilique ste marie madeleine de v zelay tympanjpg tympanum v zelay abbey burgundy france file cathedral ourense spain jpg ''facade'' cathedral ourense spain file ap stoles del p rtico de la gloriajpg ''p rtico


da gloria'' cathedral santiago de compostela galicia spain c th th centuries gallery gothic french ivory virgin child end th century cm high curving fit shape ivory tusk gothic period essentially defined gothic architecture entirely fit development style sculpture either start finish facades large churches especially around doors continued large typanums also rows sculpted figures spreading around statues western royal portal chartres cathedral c show


nudity relief panels pulpit siena cathedral fontana maggiore perugia giovanni 's pulpit pistoia another revival classical style seen international gothic work claus sluter followers burgundy flanders around late gothic sculpture continued north fashion large wooden sculpted altarpieces increasingly virtuoso carving large numbers agitated expressive figures surviving examples germany much iconoclasm elsewhere tilman riemenschneider veit stoss others continued style well th century gradually


absorbing italian renaissance influences life size tomb effigies stone alabaster became popular wealthy grand multi level tombs evolved scaliger tombs verona large moved outside church th century industry exporting nottingham alabaster altar reliefs groups panels much europe economical parishes could afford stone retables small carvings mainly lay often female market became considerable industry paris centres types ivories included small devotional polyptychs single figures especially


virgin mirror cases combs elaborate caskets scenes romances used engagement presents wealthy collected extravagantly elaborate jewelled enamelled metalwork secular religious like duc de berry 's holy thorn reliquary ran short money melted cash gallery width px height px file chartres jpg west portal chartres cathedral c file chartres cathedral martyrs ttaylorjpg south portal chartres cathedral c file reims jpg west portal reims cathedral annunciation group file pisabaptisterypulpit jpg nicola pisano ''nativity'' ''adoration magi'' pulpit pisa baptistery file bamberger dom bamberger reiterjpg bamberg


horseman near life size stone equestrian statue first kind since antiquity file french casket scenes romances walters topjpg lid walters casket ''siege castle love'' left jousting paris file siege castle love louvre oa jpg ''siege castle love'' mirror case louvre ladies losing file piet naumburg cathedral ajpg central german piet file dijon mosesbrunnen jpg claus sluter david prophet ''well moses'' file holy thorn reliquary basejpg base holy thorn reliquary ''resurrection dead'' gold


enamel gems file english resurrection walters jpg section panelled altarpiece ''resurrection christ'' english nottingham alabaster remains colour file rothenburg ob der tauber st jakob jpg detail last supper tilman riemenschneider 's ''altar holy blood'' rothenburg ob der tauber bavaria gallery renaissance michelangelo ''piet '' michelangelo tomb pope julius ii c statues rachel leah left right ''moses'' renaissance sculpture proper often taken begin famous competition doors florence baptistry


trial models submitted winner lorenzo ghiberti filippo brunelleschi survive ghiberti 's doors still place undoubtedly eclipsed second pair entrance called ''gates paradise'' took dazzlingly confident classicizing compositions varied depths relief allowing extensive backgrounds intervening years seen ghiberti 's early assistant donatello develop seminal statues including ''davids'' marble bronze equestrian statue gattamelata well reliefs leading figure later period andrea


del verrocchio best known equestrian statue bartolomeo colleoni venice pupil leonardo da vinci designed equine sculpture ''the horse'' milan succeeded making clay model destroyed french archers ambitious sculptural plans never completed period marked great increase patronage sculpture state public art wealthy homes especially italy public sculpture remains crucial element appearance historic city centres church sculpture mostly moved inside


outside public monuments became common portrait sculpture usually busts became popular italy around neapolitan francesco laurana specializing young women meditative poses antonio rossellino others often depicted knobbly faced men affairs also young children portrait medal invented pisanello also often depicted women relief plaquettes another new small form sculpture cast metal michelangelo active sculptor great masterpieces including ''david'' ''piet '' ''moses'' pieces tomb pope julius ii medici chapel


could ignored subsequent sculptors iconic david ''contrapposto'' pose borrowed classical sculpture differs previous representations subject david depicted battle goliath giant 's defeat instead shown victorious donatello verocchio done david looks tense battle ready gallery width px height px file ghiberti portajpg lorenzo ghiberti panel ''sacrifice isaac'' florence baptistry doors oblique view file cantoria della robbia opa florence jpg luca della robbia detail ''cantoria'' c museo dell'opera del duomo florence file florence david


donatellojpg donatello ''david'' c bargello museum florence file firenzepalvecchiodonatellojpg donatello ''judith holofernes'' c palazzo vecchio florence file francesco laurana pushkinjpg francesco laurana female bust cast file verrochioorsanmichellejpg verrocchio ''doubting thomas'' orsanmichele florence file michelangelos davidjpg michelangelo ''david'' c galleria dell'accademia florence file 'dying slave' michelangelo jbu jpg michelangelo ''dying slave'' c gallery mannerist adriaen de vries ''mercury psyche'' northern mannerist life size bronze made rudolf ii holy roman emperor painting early italian mannerist sculpture largely attempt find original style would top achievement high renaissance sculpture essentially meant michelangelo


much struggle achieve played commissions fill places piazza della signoria florence next michelangelo 's ''david'' baccio bandinelli took project ''hercules cacus'' master little popular maliciously compared benvenuto cellini sack melons though long lasting effect apparently introducing relief panels pedestal statues first time like works mannerists removes far original block michelangelo


would done cellini 's bronze ''perseus head medusa'' certainly masterpiece designed eight angles view another mannerist characteristic indeed mannered compared ''david' 's michelangelo donatello originally goldsmith famous gold enamel salt cellar first sculpture shows talent best examples show period extended range secular subjects large works beyond portraits mythological figures especially favoured previously mostly found small works small bronze figures collector 's cabinets often mythological


subjects nudes popular renaissance form giambologna originally flemish based florence excelled later part century also creating life size sculptures two joined collection piazza della signoria followers devised elegant elongated examples ''figura serpentinata'' often two intertwined figures interesting angles gallery width px height px file fontainebleau escalier roijpg stucco overdoor fontainebleau probably designed primaticcio painted oval inset file persee florencejpg benvenuto cellini ''perseus head medusa'' file samson slaying philistinejpg giambologna ''samson slaying


philistine'' file giambologna raptodasabinajpg giambologna ''rape sabine women'' florence italy ' nbsp high marble gallery baroque rococo gian lorenzo bernini ''apollo daphne'' galleria borghese baroque sculpture groups figures assumed new importance dynamic movement energy human forms spiralled around empty central vortex reached outwards surrounding space baroque sculpture often multiple ideal viewing angles reflected general continuation renaissance move away relief sculpture created round designed placed


middle large space elaborate fountains bernini 's fontana dei quattro fiumi rome gardens versailles baroque speciality baroque style perfectly suited sculpture gian lorenzo bernini dominating figure age works ''the ecstasy st theresa'' much baroque sculpture added extra sculptural elements example concealed lighting water fountains fused sculpture architecture create transformative experience viewer artists saw classical tradition admired hellenistic later roman sculpture rather


classical periods seen today protestant reformation brought almost total stop religious sculpture much northern europe though secular sculpture especially portrait busts tomb monuments continued dutch golden age significant sculptural component outside goldsmithing partly direct reaction sculpture prominent roman catholicism late middle ages statues rulers nobility became increasingly popular th century much sculpture continued baroque lines trevi fountain completed rococo style better suited smaller works


arguably found ideal sculptural form early european porcelain interior decorative schemes wood plaster french domestic interiors austrian bavarian pilgrimage churches gallery width px height px perrow file mus e des beaux arts de dijon louis xiv jpg bust louis xiv antoine coysevox file francesco mochi santa ver nica vaticanojpg saint veronica francesco mochi saint peter 's basilica file perseus andromeda puget louvre mr jpg pierre paul puget ''perseus andromeda'' mus e du louvre file bustelli liebesgruppe der gest rte schl fer bnmjpg franz anton bustelli rococo nymphenburg porcelain group gallery neo classical antonio canova ''psyche revived love 's


kiss'' neoclassical style arrived late th century gave great emphasis sculpture jean antoine houdon exemplifies penetrating portrait sculpture style could produce antonio canova 's nudes idealist aspect movement neoclassical period one great ages public sculpture though classical prototypes likely roman copies hellenistic sculptures sculpture familiar representatives italian antonio canova englishman john flaxman dane bertel thorvaldsen european neoclassical manner also took hold united states pinnacle occurred somewhat


later exemplified sculptures hiram powers gallery width px height px file benjamin franklin met dt jpg jean antoine houdon ''bust benjamin franklin'' metropolitan museum art file jas e velo de ouro bertel thorvaldsen jpg bertel thorvaldsen ''jason golden fleece'' file badger church jane henrietta brownejpg john flaxman memorial church badger shropshire c file greek slavejpg hiram powers ''the greek slave'' yale university art gallery gallery asia greco buddhist sculpture asia one first representations buddha st nd century ce gandhara greco buddhist art artistic


manifestation greco buddhism cultural syncretism classical greek culture buddhism developed period close years central asia conquests alexander great th century bce islamic conquests th century ce greco buddhist art characterized strong idealistic realism hellenistic art first representations buddha human form helped define artistic particularly sculptural canon buddhist art throughout asian continent present though dating uncertain appears strongly hellenistic styles


lingered east several centuries declined around mediterranean late th century ce aspects greek art adopted others spread beyond greco buddhist area particular standing figure often relaxed pose one leg flexed flying cupids victories became popular across asia apsaras greek foliage decoration also influential indian versions corinthian capital appearing origins greco buddhist art found hellenistic greco bactrian kingdom bce located today 's afghanistan


hellenistic culture radiated indian subcontinent establishment small indo greek kingdom bce indo greeks kushans interaction greek buddhist culture flourished area gandhara today 's northern pakistan spreading india influencing art mathura hindu art gupta empire extend rest south east asia influence greco buddhist art also spread northward towards central asia strongly affecting art tarim basin dunhuang caves ultimately sculpted figure china


dynamited destroyed march taliban gallery china seated bodhisattva guanyin wood pigment th century northern song dynasty chinese ritual bronzes shang western zhou dynasties come period thousand years c bce exerted continuing influence chinese art cast complex patterned zoomorphic decoration avoid human figure unlike huge figures recently discovered sanxingdui spectacular terracotta army assembled tomb qin shi huang first


emperor unified china bce grand imperial version figures long placed tombs enable deceased enjoy lifestyle afterlife alive replacing actual sacrifices early periods smaller figures pottery wood placed tombs many centuries afterwards reaching peak quality tang dynasty tomb figures tradition unusually large pottery figures persisted china tang sancai tomb figures later buddhist statues near life size set yixian glazed pottery luohans


later figures temples tombs came replace earlier equivalents wood native chinese religions usually use cult images deities even represent large religious sculpture nearly buddhist dating mostly th th century initially using greco buddhist models arriving via silk road buddhism also context large portrait sculpture total contrast areas medieval china even painted images emperor regarded private imperial tombs spectacular avenues approach lined real mythological animals


scale matching egypt smaller versions decorate temples palaces small buddhist figures groups produced high quality range media relief decoration sorts objects especially metalwork jade earlier periods large quantities sculpture cut living rock pilgrimage cave complexes outside rock reliefs mostly originally painted notable contrast literati painters sculptors sorts regarded artisans names recorded ming dynasty onwards statuettes


religious secular figures produced chinese porcelain media became important export gallery width px height px file liu dingjpg bronze ding late shang dynasty th century th century bce file chinese tomb guardian bcjpg tomb guardian usually placed inside doors tomb protect guide soul warring states period c rd century bce file soldier horsejpg lifesize calvalryman terracotta army qin dynasty c rd century bce file gold monsterjpg thumb gold stag eagle 's head ten heads antlers object inspired art siberian altai mountain possibly pazyryk


unearthed site nalinggaotu shenmu county near xi'an china ref name jr ref possibly hun people lived prairie northern china dated th rd century bce ref name jr han dynasty period ref name shm shaanxi history museum ref name shm ref file nswag dinastia han figurina dipinta di danzatricejpg tomb figure dancing girl han dynasty bce ce file cmoc treasures ancient china exhibit bronze cowrie containerjpg bronze cowrie container yaks dian kingdom th century bce bce tradition western han file wei maitreyajpg northern wei dynasty maitreya file china pferd und pferdeknecht linden museumjpg tang dynasty tomb figure


' 'sancai'' glaze pottery horse groom file mahayanabuddhajpg seated buddha tang dynasty c file leshan da fo flickr feet head modifiedjpg leshan giant buddha tang dynasty completed file song bodhisattva jpg wooden bodhisattva song dynasty file chinese cup dragon handles walters profilejpg chinese jade cup dragon handles song dynasty th century file bodhisattva guanyin nantoy collectionjpg guanyin bodhisattva ''blanc de chine dehua porcelain '' chaozong ming dynasty early th century file man blowing conch wanli reign period jpg blue underglaze statue man pipe jingdezhen porcelain ming wanli period file china beijing


lion outside tibetan monastery jpg chinese guardian lion outside yonghe temple beijing qing dynasty c gallery japan nara daibutsu c nara japan towards end long neolithic j mon period pottery vessels flame rimmed extravagant extensions rim called sculptural stylized pottery dog figures produced many characteristic snow goggle eyes kofun period rd th century ce haniwa terracotta figures humans animals simplistic style erected outside important tombs arrival buddhism th century


brought sophisticated traditions sculpture chinese styles mediated via korea th century h ry ji contents survived intact east asian buddhist temple date works including ''shaka trinity'' bronze showing historical buddha flanked two bodhisattvas also guardian kings four directions j ch said one greatest buddhist sculptors heian period also history buddhist statues japan j ch redefined body shape buddha statues perfecting technique yosegi zukuri


combination several woods peaceful expression graceful figure buddha statue made completed japanese style sculpture buddha statues called j ch j ch style determined style japanese buddhist statues later period achievement dramatically raised social status ''busshi'' buddhist sculptor japan kamakura period minamoto clan established kamakura shogunate samurai class virtually ruled japan first time jocho 's successors sculptors kei school buddhist statues created realistic dynamic statues suit


tastes samurai japanese buddhist sculpture reached peak unkei kaikei tankei famous made many new buddha statues many temples kofuku ji many buddha statues lost wars fires almost subsequent significant large sculpture japan buddhist shinto equivalents buddhism declined japan th century monumental sculpture became largely architectural decoration less significant however sculptural work decorative arts developed remarkable level technical achievement refinement small objects inro


netsuke many materials metal '''' japanese sword mountings th century export industries small bronze sculptures extreme virtuosity ivory porcelain figurines types small sculpture increasingly emphasizing technical accomplishment gallery width px height px file clevelandart jpg 'flame style' vessel neolithic j mon period c bce earthenware carved applied decoration height nbsp cm diameter nbsp cm file dogu miyagi bce bcejpg dog snow goggle eyes bce file arte giapponese nobile haniwa vi secjpg th century haniwa figure file horyu ji jpg kongo rishiki guardian deity central gate h ry ji file jianzhen sh dai ji jpg priest ganjin jianzhen nara period th century


file taishakuten akra jijpg taishakuten akra ji file seated dainichi nyoraijpg dainichi nyorai unkei enj ji file tsuchiya yasuchika tsuba rabbit viewing autumn moon walters jpg tsuba sword fitting rabbit viewing autumn moon bronze gold silver file izumiya tomotada netsuke form dog walters three quarterjpg izumiya tomotada netsuke form dog late th century file eagle suzuki chokichi suzuki jpg eagle suzuki chokichi tokyo national museum file yamada ch zabur wind god walters jpg yamada ch zabur ''wind god'' repouss iron


c gallery indian subcontinent gupta terracotta relief th century ce krishna killing horse demon keshi first known sculpture indian subcontinent indus valley civilization bce found sites mohenjo daro harappa modern day pakistan include famous small bronze female dancer called ''priest king'' however figures bronze stone rare greatly outnumbered pottery figurines stone seals often animals deities finely depicted collapse indus valley civilization little record sculpture


buddhist era apart hoard copper figures somewhat controversially c bce daimabad thus great tradition indian monumental sculpture stone appears begin relative cultures development indian civilization relatively late reign asoka bce pillars ashoka erected around india carrying edicts topped famous sculptures animals mostly lions six survive large amounts figurative sculpture mostly relief survive early buddhist pilgrimage stupas sanchi probably developed


tradition using wood also embraced hinduism ref name harle harle ref pink sandstone hindu jain buddhist sculptures mathura st rd centuries ce reflected native indian traditions western influences received greco buddhist art gandhara effectively established basis subsequent indian religious sculpture ref name harle style developed diffused india gupta empire c remains classical period indian sculpture covering earlier ellora caves though elephanta caves probably slightly later later large scale sculpture


remains almost exclusively religious generally rather conservative often reverting simple frontal standing poses deities though attendant spirits apsaras yakshi often sensuously curving poses carving often highly detailed intricate backing behind main figure high relief celebrated bronzes chola dynasty c south india many designed carried processions include iconic form shiva nataraja massive granite carvings mahabalipuram dating previous pallava dynasty gallery width px height px file dancing girl mohenjo darojpg dancing girl sculpture mohenjo daro rd


file wla lacma celestial nymph ca rajasthanjpg marble sculpture female yakshi typical curving pose c rajasthan file natarajartemple jpg gopuram thillai nataraja temple chidambaram tamil nadu densely packed rows painted statues file jpg sculpture guardian entrance mandapam sri jalagandeeswarar temple vellore tamil nadu gallery south east asia th century khmer lintel sculpture region tends characterised high degree ornamentation seen great monuments hindu buddhist khmer sculpture th th centuries angkor wat elsewhere enormous th century buddhist complex


borobudur java hindu monuments bali include many reliefs well figures round borobudur relief panels buddha statues many semi concealed openwork stupas many large guardian figures thailand laos sculpture mainly buddha images often gilded large temples monasteries small figurines private homes traditional sculpture myanmar emerged bagan period elsewhere region wood sculptures bagan ava periods lost traditional anitist sculptures philippines dominated


anitist designs mirroring medium used culture involved highlighted environments sculptures usually placed christian islamic sculptures philippines different motifs compared christian islamic sculptures elsewhere later periods chinese influence predominated vietnam laos cambodia wooden sculpture survives across region gallery width px height px file collectie tropenmuseum reli f op de borobudur tmnr jpg relief sculpture borobudur temple indonesia c file borobudur buddha statue dhyana mudra amitabha jpg vairocana buddha borobudur temple indonesia c file mindanao burial pottery


sarimanok sculpture lanao philippines file jayavarman vii guimet jpg head jayavarman vii khmer art cambodia c late th century file ananda temple bagan myanmar jpg buddha ananda temple bagan myanmar c file fronton guimet jpg stone bas relief apsaras bayon temple cambodia c file prajnaparamita java side detailjpg prajnaparamita singhasari art east java indonesia c th century file buraq sculpture mindanao philippinesjpg islamic sculture buraq southern philippines file wat si chum sukhothaijpg phra achana wat si chum big buddha image sukhothai thailand c th century file buddhaimage jpg buddha calling earth witness buddha 's hands


''bh misparsa mudr '' subduing ra position ho phra kaeo temple vientiane laos gallery islam ivory traces paint th th century egypt islam famously aniconic vast majority sculpture arabesque decoration relief openwork based vegetable motifs tending geometrical abstract forms early mshatta facade mostly berlin animals within dense arabesques high relief figures animals men mostly low relief found conjunction decoration many later pieces various materials including metalwork ivory ceramics figures


animals round often acceptable works used private contexts object clearly practical medieval islamic art contains many metal animals aquamaniles incense burners supporters fountains stone lions supporting famous one alhambra culminating largest medieval islamic animal figure known pisa griffin way luxury hardstone carvings dagger hilts cups may formed animals especially mughal art degree acceptability relaxations strict islamic rules varies periods regions islamic


spain persia india often leading relaxation typically highest courtly contexts gallery width px height px file mschatta fassade pergamonmuseum jpg mshatta facade palace near damascus file arte islamica ippogrifo xi sec jpg pisa griffin nbsp cm high probably th century file turquoise epigraphic ornament mba lyon jpg part th century ceramic panel samarkand white calligraphy blue arabesque background file dagger horse head louvre oa jpg mughal dagger hilt jade gold rubies emeralds blade damascened steel inlaid gold gallery africa mask gabon two chiwara c late th early th centuries art institute chicago female


left male vertical styles historically exception monumental egyptian sculpture african sculpture created wood organic materials survived earlier centuries ago older pottery figures found number areas masks important elements art many peoples along human figures often highly stylized vast variety styles often varying within context origin depending use object wide regional trends apparent sculpture common among groups settled cultivators


areas drained niger congo rivers west africa ref name honour fleming honour fleming ref direct images deities relatively infrequent masks particular often made religious ceremonies today many made tourists airport art african masks influence european modernist art inspired lack concern naturalistic depiction nubian kingdom kush modern sudan close often hostile contact egypt produced monumental sculpture mostly derivative styles north west


africa earliest known sculptures nok culture thrived bce ce modern nigeria clay figures typically elongated bodies angular shapes later west african cultures developed bronze casting reliefs decorate palaces like famous benin bronzes fine naturalistic royal heads around yoruba town ife terracotta metal th th centuries akan goldweights form small metal sculptures produced period apparently representing proverbs narrative element rare african sculpture royal regalia


included impressive gold sculptured elements many west african figures used religious rituals often coated materials placed ceremonial offerings mande speaking peoples region make pieces wood broad flat surfaces arms legs shaped like cylinders central africa however main distinguishing characteristics include heart shaped faces curved inward display patterns circles dots populations african great lakes known sculpture ref name honour fleming however one style region pole sculptures carved human shapes


width px height px file nok sculpture louvre jpg nok terracotta th century bce th century ce file ife sculpture inva jpg ife head terracotta probably th centuries ce file yoruba bronze headjpg yoruba bronze head sculpture ife nigeria c th century file afrikaabteilung ethnological museum berlin jpg sculpture 'queen mother' benin th century file queen mother pendant mask iyoba met dp jpg th century ivory mask benin file benin kingdom louvre jpg one benin bronzes th th century nigeria file masque probablement bobo burkina faso jpg mask burkina faso th century file statuette mambia nig riajpg mambila figure nigeria gallery ethiopia eritrea creation sculptures ethiopia eritrea traced back ancient


past kingdoms mt aksum christian art established ethiopia conversion paganism christianity th century ce reign king ezana axum christian imagery decorated churches asksumite period later eras instance lalibela life size saints carved church bet golgotha tradition made reign zagwe ruler gebre mesqel lalibela th century likely crafted th century solomonic dynasty ref name briggs p briggs p ref however


church saint george lalibela one several examples rock cut architecture lalibela containing intricate carvings built th th centuries proven archaeology ref name sobania p sobania p ref gallery width px height px file ancient figurine national museum addis ababa ethiopia jpg stone statue addi galamo tigray province th th century bce file axumite jar spout jpg jar spout early kingdom aksum file et axum asv img stelae parkjpg obelisk axum th century ce file ethiopian processional cross walters jpg processional cross zagwe dynasty th century file bet golgothajpg one seven life size saints carved


wall church bet golgotha lalibela th century traditionally believed made reign gebre mesqel lalibela ref name briggs p gallery sudan ancient sudan development sculpture stretches simple pottery kerma culture beginning around bce monumental statuary architecture kingdom kush last phase meroitic period ending around ce conquest ethiopia 's aksum ref name harkless harkless p ref beyond pottery items kerma culture also made furniture contained sculptures gold cattle hoofs legs


beds ref name harkless sculpture kingdom kush included full sized statues especially kings queens smaller figurines commonly depicting royal servants reliefs stone influenced contemporary ancient egyptian sculptural tradition gallery width px height px file dipper national museum sudanjpg ceramic jug kerma culture file shabti king taharqajpg shabti nubian king taharqa pyramid nuri sudan twenty fifth dynasty egypt bce file anlamani statue closeupofhead museumoffineartsbostonpng statue kushite pharaoh aspelta napata period c bce file archaeological sites island meroe jpg column elephant part temple


complex musawwarat es sufra rd century bce file prince arikankharer slaying enemies meroitic beginning first century ad sandstone worcester art museum img jpg traces paint relief depicting prince arikhankharer smiting enemies meroitic period kingdom kush early st century ce file amanitore bustjpg relief ruler candace mero named kandake amanitore st century ce gallery americas sculpture latin america developed two separate distinct areas mesoamerica north peru south areas sculpture initially stone


later terracotta metal civilizations areas became technologically proficient mesoamerican region produced monumental sculpture massive block like works olmec toltec cultures superb low reliefs characterize mayan aztec cultures andean region sculptures typically small often show superb skill pre columbian gallery width px height px file wla metmuseum olmec baby figurejpg olmec baby figure bce file wla metmuseum olmec jadeite mask jpg olmec jadeite mask bce file san lorenzo monument jpg olmec colossal head bce file harvestermountainlordjpg la mojarra stela nd century ce file teotihuac n


chalchiuhtlicuejpg chalchiuhtlicue teotihuac n ce file teotihuacan mask branly jpg teotihuacan mask ce file teotihuacan temple feathered serpent jpg teotihuacan detail temple feathered serpent ce file funerary urn oaxacajpg funerary urn shape bat god jaguar oaxaca ce file moche portrait ceramic quai branly n jpg moche portrait vessel stirrup spout peru bce ce file k'inich janaab pakal ijpg k'inich janaab pakal palenque maya ce file ahkal mo' naab iiijpg ahkal mo' naab iii palenque th century ce file palenque reliefjpg upakal k'inich th century ce palenque file jaina island type figure art institutejpg jaina island


type figure mayan ce file remojadas lachendes gesicht jpg classic veracruz culture face ce file atlante tollan xicocotitlan hidalgo mexicojpg atlante tula c ce file double headed turquoise serpentjpg ''double headed serpent'' turquoise red white mosaic wood aztec possibly mixtec c gallery north america st james panel reredos cristo rey church santa fe new mexico c north america wood sculpted totem poles masks utensils war canoes variety uses distinct variation different cultures regions developed styles pacific northwest coast group elaborate


highly stylized formal styles developed forming basis tradition continues today addition famous totem poles painted carved house fronts complemented carved posts inside well mortuary figures items among inuit far north traditional carving styles ivory soapstone still continued arrival european catholic culture readily adapted local skills prevailing baroque style producing enormously elaborate retablos mostly church sculptures variety hybrid styles famous examples canada


altar area notre dame basilica montreal quebec carved peasant ''habitant'' labourers later artists trained western academic tradition followed european styles late th century began draw indigenous influences notably mexican baroque grotesque style known churrigueresque aboriginal peoples also adapted church sculpture variations carpenter gothic one famous example ''church holy cross'' skookumchuck hot springs british columbia history sculpture united states europeans' arrival reflects country 's th century foundation roman republican civic values


protestant christianity compared areas colonized spanish sculpture got extremely slow start british colonies next place churches given impetus need assert nationality independence american sculpture mid late th century often classical often romantic showed bent dramatic narrative almost journalistic realism public buildings last quarter th century first half th century often provided architectural setting sculpture especially relief international style


architecture design art deco characterized work paul manship lee lawrie others became popular traditional sculpture education would almost completely replaced bauhaus influenced concern abstract design minimalist sculpture replaced figure public settings architects almost completely stopped using sculpture designs modern sculptors st century use classical abstract inspired designs beginning swing back toward figurative public sculpture many new public pieces united states figurative design gallery


width px height px file mountrushmorejpg gutzon borglum son lincoln borglum ''mount rushmore'' l r george washington thomas jefferson theodore roosevelt abraham lincoln file robert gould shaw memorial detailjpg robert gould shaw memorial augustus saint gaudens plaster version file beaumont tower lee lawrie sculptorjpg lee lawrie ''the sower'' art deco relief beaumont tower michigan state university file lincoln statue lincoln memorialjpg daniel chester french ''abraham lincoln'' lincoln memorial washington dc file tlingit k'alyaan totem pole august jpg ''k'alyaan'' totem pole tlingit kiks di clan erected sitka national historical park commemorate lives lost battle


sitka file broncho buster met dp jpg frederic remington ''the bronco buster'' cast metropolitan museum art file dancer gazelles manshipjpg paul manship ''dancer gazelles'' smithsonian american art museum washington dc file scout gertrude vanderbilt whitneyjpg gertrude vanderbilt whitney ''buffalo bill scout'' commemorating buffalo bill cody wyoming gallery moving toward modern art th early th century early modernism continuing realism gallery width px height px file jeanne d'arc fran ois rudejpg fran ois rude romantic ''jeanne d' arc'' louvre file ugolino sons met dp jpg jean baptiste carpeaux ''ugolino sons'' metropolitan museum art


file per hasselberg sn klockan rottneros parkjpg ''per hasselberg sn klockan'' snowdrop paris copy bronze c nicci rome italy placed rottneros park near sunne v rmland sweden file auguste rodin burghers calais photo jpg auguste rodin ''the burghers calais'' calais france file eros piccadillyjpg alfred gilbert called ''eros'' world 's first aluminium statue piccadilly circus london file paul gauguin oviri sauvage partially glazed stoneware x x cm mus e d'orsay parisjpg paul gauguin ''oviri sauvage '' partially glazed stoneware x x cm mus e d'orsay paris file jard n mus e rodin pensador jpg auguste rodin ''the thinker'' mus e rodin


paris file le jour et la nuit par antoine bourdellejpg antoine bourdelle ''day night'' marble mus e bourdelle paris file la valsejpg camille claudel ''the waltz'' cast second version file jan tursa p ed koupel jpg jan tursa ''before bath'' national gallery prague file la nuit aristide maillol paris november jpg aristide maillol ''the night la nuit '' tuileries garden paris file la penseejpg robert wl rick ''the thought'' morez gallery edgar degas ''little dancer fourteen years'' cast mixed media sculpture modeled c bronze partly tinted cotton modern classicism contrasted many ways classical sculpture


th century characterized commitments naturalism antoine louis barye melodramatic fran ois rude sentimentality jean baptiste carpeaux kind stately grandiosity lord leighton several different directions classical tradition taken century turned study live model post renaissance tradition still fundamental auguste rodin renowned european sculptor early th century often considered sculptural impressionist students including camille claudel hugo rheinhold attempting model fleeting moment ordinary life modern classicism showed lesser


interest naturalism greater interest formal stylization greater attention paid rhythms volumes spaces well greater attention contrasting qualities surface open closed planar broken etc less attention paid story telling convincing details anatomy costume greater attention given psychological effect physical realism influences earlier styles worldwide used early masters modern classicism included aristide maillol alexander matveyev joseph bernard antoine bourdelle georg kolbe libero andreotti gustav vigeland jan stursa constantin br ncu century progressed modern classicism


adopted national style two great european totalitarian empires nazi germany soviet russia co opted work earlier artists kolbe wilhelm lehmbruck germany matveyev russia years ussr new generations sculptors trained chosen within system distinct style socialist realism developed returned th century 's emphasis melodrama naturalism classical training rooted art education western europe americas classical variants th century marginalized