instance german idealism school developed work kant culminated georg wilhelm friedrich hegel viewed highly many continental philosophers conversely hegel viewed relatively minor figure work analytic philosophers analytic philosophy analytic program philosophy ordinarily dated work english philosophers bertrand russell ge moore early th century building work german philosopher mathematician gottlob frege turned away dominant forms hegelianism objecting particular idealism


purported obscurity began develop new sort conceptual analysis based recent developments logic prominent example new method conceptual analysis russell 's paper denoting paper widely seen exemplar analytic program philosophy although contemporary philosophers self identify analytic widely divergent interests assumptions methods often rejected fundamental premises defined analytic movement analytic philosophy contemporary state usually taken defined particular style ref name autogenerated see eg brian leiter

Humanities
History
Philosophical history
Contemporary philosophy


overhaul analytic philosophic tradition particular rorty argued analytic philosophers must learn important lessons work continental philosophers ref name rorty rorty richard ''philosophy mirror nature'' ref authors paul livingston shaun gallagher contend exist valuable insights common traditions others timothy williamson called even stricter adherence methodological ideals analytic philosophy crude stereotypes williamson refers passage analytic philosophers produce carefully argued rigorous analyses trivially small philosophic puzzles


continental philosophers produce profound substantial results deducing broad philosophical systems lack supporting arguments clarity expression williamson seems distance stereotypes accuse analytic philosophers often fitting critical stereotype continental philosophers moving fast reach substantial results via poor arguments continental philosophy kierkegaard nietzsche kafka dostoevsky history continental philosophy taken begin early institutional roots descend directly phenomenology result edmund husserl often credited


founding figure continental philosophy although since analytic continental philosophy starkly different views philosophy kant continental philosophy also often understood extended sense include post kant philosophers movements important continental philosophy analytic philosophy term continental philosophy like analytic philosophy marks broad range philosophical views approaches easily captured definition even suggested term may pejorative descriptive functioning label types western philosophy rejected disliked analytic philosophers indeed continental


analyzed apart historical origins third continental philosophers tend take strong interest unity theory practice tend see philosophical inquiries closely related personal moral political transformation fourth continental philosophy emphasis metaphilosophy ie study nature aims methods philosophy emphasis also found analytic philosophy starkly different results another approach approximating definition continental philosophy listing philosophical movements central continental philosophy german idealism phenomenology


existentialism antecedents thought kierkegaard nietzsche hermeneutics structuralism post structuralism deconstruction french feminism critical theory frankfurt school branches western marxism bridging divide increasing number contemporary philosophers contested value plausibility distinguishing analytic continental philosophy philosophers like richard j bernstein w moore explicitly attempted reconcile traditions taking point departure certain themes shared notable scholars tradition see also th century philosophy analytic philosophy experimental philosophy nbsp emerging field philosophical inquiry


makes use empirical data often gathered surveys probe intuitions ordinary people order inform research long standing unsettled philosophical questions logical positivism nbsp first dominant school analytic philosophy first half th century naturalism nbsp view scientific method hypothesize predict test repeat effective way investigate reality ordinary language philosophy nbsp dominant school analytic philosophy middle th century quietism nbsp metaphilosophy view role philosophy therapeutic remedial postanalytic philosophy nbsp postanalytic philosophy describes detachment


systematic reflection analysis poststructuralism nbsp structuralism fashionable movement france studied underlying structures inherent cultural products texts post structuralism derive critique structuralist premises specifically post structuralism holds study underlying structures culturally conditioned therefore subject myriad biases misinterpretations postmodern philosophy nbsp postmodern philosophy skeptical nihilistic toward many values assumptions philosophy derive modernity humanity essence distinguishes humans animals assumption one form government demonstrably


better another social constructionism nbsp central concept continental philosophy social construction concept practice creation artifact particular group critical theory nbsp critical theory examination critique society culture drawing knowledge across social sciences humanities frankfurt school nbsp term frankfurt school informal term used designate thinkers affiliated institute social research influenced western philosophy footnotes references works cited reading '''the professionalization philosophy''' campbell james ''a thoughtful profession early years


american philosophical association'' open court publishing '''the analytic continental divide''' james chase jack reynolds analytic versus continental arguments methods value philosophy durham acumen james luchte http luchtewordpresscom martin heidegger rudolf carnap radical phenomenology logical positivism roots continentalanalytic divide martin heidegger rudolf carnap radical phenomenology logical positivism roots continental analytic divide ''philosophy today'' vol fall levy neil analytic continental philosophy explaining differences ''metaphilosophy'' vol april prado cg ''a house divided comparing analytic continental philosophy'' humanity books weinberg justin ''an empirical approach analytic continental divide''


daily nous https dailynouscom empirical approach analytic continental divide '''analytic philosophy''' dummett michael ''origins analytical philosophy'' harvard university press floyd juliet ''future pasts analytic tradition twentieth century philosoph'' oxford university press glock hans johann ''what analytic philosophy'' cambridge university press martinich ap ''analytic philosophy anthology blackwell philosophy anthologies '' wiley blackwell martinich ap ''a companion analytic philosophy blackwell companions philosophy '' wiley blackwell soames scott ''philosophical analysis twentieth century volume dawn analysis'' princeton university press soames scott ''philosophical analysis twentieth century volume age meaning'' princeton university


press stroll avrum ''twentieth century analytic philosophy'' columbia university press williamson timothy ''the philosophy philosophy blackwell brown lectures philosophy '' wiley blackwell '''continental philosophy''' cutrofello andrew ''continental philosophy contemporary introduction'' routledge external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwphilosophicalgourmetcom analyticasp philosophical gourmet report 's description analytic continental philosophy


'''community informatics''' ci interdisciplinary field concerned using information communication technology ict empower members communities support social cultural economic development ref name source gurstein http eprintsrclisorg community informatics readingpdf community informatics matter polimetrica milan ref ref name source community informatics may contribute enhancing democracy supporting development social capital building well connected communities moreover probable similar actions may let people experience new positive social change ref name source community informatics several considerations social context shared values distinct

Social science
Sociology
Community informatics


processes taken members community social technical systems ref name source formally located academic discipline within variety academic faculties including information science information systems computer science planning development studies library science among others draws insights community development range backgrounds disciplines interdisciplinary approach interested using icts different forms community action distinct pure academic study ict effects ref name source background humans live communities urban areas community neighborhood conflated


may limited definition communities defined people coming together pursuit common aims shared practices means including physical electronic social networks proliferate even ability define amorphous cultures ensure growth survival continuing norms mores bases way life communities use infrastructure icts method continuing cultures within context internet world wide web cultural identity defined within context technologies


cultural enrichment technology however general lag populations benefit services impediments geographic location lack funds gaps technology expertise skills required operate systems date considerable investment supporting electronic development business communities one many social tools example corporate intranets purpose built exchange social networking services ebay myspace developing applications individual use far less understanding investment human technical networks processes


delivery channel goods services rural low income communities progress ict remarkably fast general communities become information based digital divide appears great challenge proponents although access information technology north america europe high complete opposite regions world particularly africa parts asia instance asean region alone countries leaders digital technology singapore malaysia thailand side


formation process ref name source ref understanding nature communities participation process surely ensure designing implementing successful ict solution benefits members community communicating performing certain tasks ref name source following points include brief description nature potential community formation community place group people may form community according place live enjoy staying work ref name source usually participate communities within three places since gather together consistent basis


highly expected community formed ref name source beside home work gathering people usually like spend time informal places called third places meet new old friends chance meet new people ref name source community socio spatial entity group people may form community frequent direct interactions live close proximity ref name source members community may strong bond focused common goals give higher status communities ref name source


moreover number members increases community may become reputable higher status communities ref name source community links people group people may form community common shared identity ref name source people may form community support advocate common shared values morals norms believe ref name source community may set symbols associated status communities ref name source inclusion exclusion community depend whether


member share identity others community ref name source instance people descend one origin may form community people origin join community even though know advance ref name source community interests group people may form community similar affinity particular activity experience subject ref name source geographical location necessary forming community inclusion exclusion community depends whether new member affinity


ref name source communities linked life stage group people may form community share similar experience distinct life stage ref name source experience could related members relatives children ref name source instance parents elementary school children may form community care children school ref name source mentioned previous type community formation members community common interest caring children school ref name source type


academic discipline ci seen field practice applied information communications technology community informatics technique looking economic social development within construct technology online health communities social networking websites cultural awareness enhancement online connections networks electronic commerce information exchanges well myriad aspects contributes creating personal group identity term brought prominence michael gurstein michael gurstein says community informatics technology strategy discipline connects community level


economic social development emergence community civic networks electronic commerce online participation self help virtual health communities tele centres well types online institutions corporations brought first representative collection academic papers although others brian loader colleagues university teesside used term mid ci brings together practices community development organization insights fields sociology planning computer science critical theory women 's studies library information sciences management information systems management studies outcomes community networks


community based ict enabled service applications increasing interest grassroots organizations ngos civil society governments private sector multilateral agencies among others self organized community initiatives varieties different countries concerned ways harness ict social capital poverty alleviation empowerment local relation larger economic political social environments claim potentially form 'radical practice' community informatics may fact gel single field within academy remain convenient locale interdisciplinary activity drawing upon many fields social practice


endeavour well knowledge community applications technology however one begin see emergence postmodern trans discipline presenting challenge existing disciplinary stove pipes perspectives rapidly evolving fields technology practice technology change public policy commercial interest whether trans discipline maintain momentum remains seen given incertitude boundaries disciplines community development furthermore continuing disconnect coming information science perspective social theories including general theories organisation unfamiliar


medium first formal meeting researchers academic interest initiatives held conjunction global community networking conference buenos aires argentina meeting began process linking community based ict initiatives developed countries initiatives undertaken developing countries often part larger economic social development programmes funded agencies un development programme world bank international development research centre academics researchers interested ict efforts developed countries began see common overlapping interests interested similar work


less developed countries example issue sustainability technical cultural economic problem community informatics resulted special issue journal community informatics well subject ongoing conferences prato italy conferences south africa canada beginnings ci recognized various trials community networking clement essential development occurred due change cost computers modems moreover examples using computer networking initiate enhance social activities


acknowledged women 's groups balka labor movement mazepa ref name source ref social informatics beyond immediate concern community social informatics refers body research study examines social aspects computerization including roles information technology social organizational change uses information technologies social contexts ways social organization information technologies influenced social forces social practices historically social informatics research strong scandinavian countries uk northern europe europe researchers pointed


problems difficulty also seen relationship strict technology research management research ref name orlikowski problems conceptualising evaluating complex social interventions relying technical base familiar community health community education long standing debates desire accountable especially ''quantifiable'' outcome focused social development typically practised government supported foundations participatory qualitatively rich process driven priorities grass roots community activists familiar theorists paulo freire deweyan pragmatism theoretical practical tensions also familiar disciplines program


evaluation social policy perhaps paradoxically management information systems continual debate relative virtue values different forms research action spread around different understandings virtues otherwise allegedly scientific value free activity frequently associated responsible deterministic public policy philosophies contrasted interpretive process driven viewpoints bottom practice driven activity community informatics would fact probably benefit closer knowledge relationship theorists practitioners evaluators rigorous qualitative research practice concern potential


practice hijacked policy academic agendas rather driven community goals developed developing countries ethics technology intervention indigenous communities sufficiently explored even though icts increasingly looked upon important tool social economic development communities moreover neither explicit theoretical positions ideological positioning yet emerged many projects appear developed particular disciplinary affiliation arising directly policy practice imperatives 'do something' technology funding opportunities arise


grassroots working grassroots identify ict possible resources respond local issues problems opportunities papers documented outcomes questions issues research elaboration https webarchiveorg web http ccnrwebstylusnet wiki wiki october prato conference demonstrate many social rather technical issues key questions concern practitioner community settings bring change nature authentic manufactured community ethical frameworks politics community research different strain critique emerged gender studies theorists argued


feminist contributions field yet fully acknowledged community informatics research area yet welcome feminist interventions exists despite presence several gender oriented studies leadership roles played women community informatics initiatives research practice interests research practice ranges concerns purely virtual communities situations virtual online communication used enhance existing communities urban rural remote geographic locations developed developing countries applications icts range areas interest communities including social


networking projects countries australia canada local community projects working maori families new zealand gates foundation active supporting public libraries countries chile area rapidly developing interest use ict means enhance citizen engagement e governance counterpart counterweight transaction oriented initiatives key conceptual element framing concept community informatics effective use introduced initially michael gurstein critique research pre occupation digital divide


ict access ci concerned icts used practice simply facilitating access notion effective use bridge ci research research analysis constituent elements effective use ci policy developing enabling structures programmes supportive effective use practice implementing applications services support local communities another way understand ci clement shade 's access rainbow clement shade ref name clement shade clement andrew shade leslie access rainbow conceptualizing universal access information communications infrastructure chapter x ''community informatics


governance literacy social facilitation service access providers content services software tools devices carriage even though elements important important one content service layer middle since actual utility direct upper layers focus social dimensions lower layers focus technical aspects ref name clement shade many practitioners would dispute necessary connection university research regarding academic theorising interventions constraining irrelevant grassroots activity beyond control traditional institutions simply


irrelevant practical local goals commonalities differences may fact due national cultural differences example capacity many north american particularly us universities engage service learning part progressive charters communities large small part long standing tradition absent elsewhere tradition service learning almost entirely absent uk australia new zealand limited significance canada state traditionally played much stronger role delivery community services information


countries uk tradition locally based grassroots community technology example manchester hebden bridge italy netherlands also appears strong connection development local civic networks based around tradition civic oppositionism connected work progressive academics latin america africa many parts asia efforts driven external funding agencies part larger programs initiatives support broader economic social development goals however efforts become significantly indigenized


particularly latin america bottom ict efforts increasingly playing leading role defining future use ict within local communities canada canadian research alliance community innovation networking cracin established goal explore archive status achievements ci activities canada research partnership scholastics specialists public sector delegates ref name source networks emerging online personal networks researchers practitioners community informatics community networking many countries well international groupings


past decade also seen conferences many countries emerging literature theoreticians practitioners including line journal community informatics surprising fact much common found people developed non developed countries meet common theme struggle convince policy makers legitimacy approach developing electronically literate societies instead top trickle approach approach dominated technical rather social solutions end tend help vendors rather communities common criticism


frequently raised amongst participants events prato conferences focus technical solutions evades social changes communities need achieve values activities people oriented outcomes order make better use technology field tends progressive bent concerned use technology social cultural development connected desire capacity building expanding social capital number countries governments foundations funded variety community informatics projects initiatives particularly tightly controlled though


well articulated social planning perspective though knowledge long term effects forms social intervention use technology still early stages public libraries community networks even though community networks public libraries similitudes various ways obstacles upset probability cooperation future albeit cns libraries concerned giving information services society exchange accounts lacking two communities mission libraries frequently rather barely engaged regards managing people


information processing theory sociology internet urban informatics references references external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwcommunityinformaticsnet center community informatics research development training https webarchiveorg web http wwwciiillinoisedu community informatics university illinois urbana champaign http communityinformaticsorg community informatics research group university pittsburgh http ci journalnet journal community informatics http wwwcirnwikispacescom community informatics research network http wwwafcnorg association community networking community networks information communication technologies development library science interdisciplinary subfields sociology computational fields study


ibm blue gene p supercomputer intrepid argonne national laboratory runs processor cores using normal data center air conditioning grouped racks cabinets connected high speed torus network computing power top supercomputer year measured flops '' 'supercomputer''' computer high level performance compared general purpose computer performance supercomputer commonly measured floating point operations per second flops instead million instructions per second mips since supercomputers perform sup sup nbsp flops hundred quadrillion flops nbsp petaflops nbsp pflops ref name june

Formal science
Computer science
Parallel computing
High-performance computing


ref comparison desktop computer performance range hundreds gigaflops tens teraflops since november world 's fastest supercomputers run linux based operating systems additional research conducted united states european union taiwan japan china build faster powerful technologically superior exascale supercomputers supercomputers play important role field computational science used wide range computationally intensive tasks various fields including quantum mechanics weather forecasting climate research oil gas exploration molecular modeling computing structures


properties chemical compounds biological macromolecules polymers crystals physical simulations simulations early moments universe airplane spacecraft aerodynamics detonation nuclear weapons nuclear fusion essential field cryptanalysis supercomputers introduced several decades fastest made seymour cray control data corporation cdc cray research subsequent companies bearing name monogram first machines highly tuned conventional designs ran quickly general purpose contemporaries decade increasing amounts


parallelism added one four processors typical vector processors operating large arrays data came dominate notable example highly successful cray vector computers remained dominant design today massively parallel supercomputers tens thousands shelf processors became norm ref name hoffman ref ref name jouppi ref us long leader supercomputer field first cray 's almost uninterrupted dominance field later variety technology companies japan made major strides field


opened arm machine four racks right cooling system cray preserved deutsches museum univac built livermore atomic research computer larc today considered among first supercomputers us navy research development center still used high speed drum memory rather newly emerging disk drive technology also among first supercomputers ibm stretch ibm built ibm los alamos national laboratory requested computer times faster existing


kilburn designed atlas memory space million words bits magnetic storage capacity unaffordable actual core memory atlas words drum providing memory words atlas operating system swapped data form pages magnetic core drum atlas operating system also introduced time sharing supercomputing one program could executed supercomputer one time atlas joint venture ferranti


manchester university designed operate processing speeds approaching one nbsp microsecond per instruction one nbsp million instructions per second cdc designed seymour cray finished marked transition germanium silicon transistors silicon transistors could run quickly overheating problem solved introducing refrigeration supercomputer design thus cdc became fastest computer world given outperformed contemporary computers times dubbed ' 'supercomputer'' defined supercomputing market one hundred computers sold


million ref name hannan cray left cdc form company cray research ref name hannan ref four years leaving cdc cray delivered nbsp mhz cray became one successful supercomputers history ref name hill ''readings computer architecture'' mark donald hill norman paul jouppi gurindar sohi page ref ref name edwin ''milestones computer science information technology'' edwin reilly page ref cray released eight central processing units cpus liquid cooling electronics coolant liquid fluorinert pumped


supercomputer architecture reached nbsp gigaflops making first supercomputer break gigaflop barrier massively parallel designs cabinet massively parallel blue gene l showing stacked blades holding many processors computer seriously challenge cray 's performance illiac iv machine first realized example true massively parallel computer many processors worked together solve different parts single larger problem contrast vector systems designed run single stream data quickly possible


success illiac iv widely seen pointing way future supercomputing cray argued famously quipping plowing field would rather use two strong oxen chickens early several teams working parallel designs thousands processors notably connection machine cm developed research mit cm used many simplified custom microprocessors connected together network share data several updated versions followed cm supercomputer massively parallel processing computer capable


sr obtained peak performance nbsp gflops using processors connected via fast three dimensional crossbar network intel paragon could intel processors various configurations ranked fastest world paragon mimd machine connected processors via high speed two dimensional mesh allowing processes execute separate nodes communicating via message passing interface software development remained problem cm series sparked considerable research issue similar designs using custom hardware made many companies including


evans sutherland es maspar ncube intel ipsc goodyear mpp mid general purpose cpu performance improved much supercomputer could built using individual processing units instead using custom chips turn st century designs featuring tens thousands commodity cpus norm later machines adding graphic units mix ref name hoffman ref name jouppi cpu share top diagram three dimensional torus interconnect used systems blue gene cray xt etc systems massive number processors generally


take one two paths grid computing approach processing power many computers organized distributed diverse administrative domains opportunistically used whenever computer available ref name prodan ref another approach many processors used proximity eg computer cluster centralized massively parallel system speed flexibility '''' becomes important modern supercomputers used various approaches ranging enhanced infiniband systems three dimensional torus interconnects ref name bluenight knight https wwwnewscientistcom article dn ibm creates worlds powerful computer ibm creates world 's powerful computer ''newscientistcom news service'' june ref use multi core


processors combined centralization emerging direction eg cyclops system ref name cellular computer architecture cyclops ' pages ref ref name guangming ''analysis performance results computing betweenness centrality ibm cyclops '' guangming tan vugranam c sreedhar guang r gao journal supercomputing volume number september ref price performance energy efficiency general purpose graphics processing units gpgpus improved number petaflops supercomputers tianhe nebulae started rely ref name gpgpu ref however systems k computer continue use conventional processors


sparc based designs overall applicability gpgpus general purpose high performance computing applications subject debate gpgpu may tuned score well specific benchmarks overall applicability everyday algorithms may limited unless significant effort spent tune application ref name hansh ref however gpus gaining ground jaguar supercomputer transformed titan retrofitting cpus gpus ref name pc ref ref name titanreg ref high performance computers expected life cycle three years requiring upgrade gyoukou supercomputer unique


uses massively parallel design liquid immersion cooling special purpose supercomputers number special purpose systems designed dedicated single problem allows use specially programmed fpga chips even custom asics allowing better price performance ratios sacrificing generality examples special purpose supercomputers include belle deep blue hydra playing chess gravity pipe astrophysics mdgrape protein structure prediction molecular dynamics deep crack breaking des cipher energy usage heat management summit supercomputer november fastest supercomputer


world ref name nytimes ref measured power efficiency gflops watt also rd energy efficient world ref name greenlistjune ref throughout decades management heat density remained key issue centralized supercomputers ref name th ref ref name charley ''the supermen story seymour cray technical wizards behind supercomputer'' charles j murray pages ref ref name rupak ''parallel computational fluid dyynamics recent advances future directions'' edited rupak biswas page ref large amount heat generated system may also effects eg reducing lifetime


system components ref name huang ''supercomputing research advances'' yongge hu ng pages ref diverse approaches heat management pumping fluorinert system hybrid liquid air cooling system air cooling normal air conditioning temperatures ref name tokhi ''parallel computing real time signal processing control'' tokhi mohammad alamgir hossain pages ref ref name sysx typical supercomputer consumes large amounts electrical power almost converted heat requiring cooling example tianhe consumes nbsp megawatts mw electricity cost power cool system


significant eg nbsp mw kwh hour million per year ibm hs blade heat management major issue complex electronic devices affects powerful computer systems various ways ref name spectrum ref thermal design power cpu power dissipation issues supercomputing surpass traditional computer cooling technologies supercomputing awards green computing reflect issue ref name wufeng acm queue magazine volume issue january doi journal queue volume issue pages doi cid doi access free ref packing thousands processors together inevitably generates significant amounts heat density


need dealt cray liquid cooled used fluorinert cooling waterfall forced modules pressure ref name tokhi however submerged liquid cooling approach practical multi cabinet systems based shelf processors system x special cooling system combined air conditioning liquid cooling developed conjunction liebert company ref name sysx ''computational science iccs th international conference'' edited vaidy sunderam pages ref blue gene system ibm deliberately used low power processors deal heat density ref


name theregsc ref ibm power released closely packed elements require water cooling ibm aquasar system uses hot water cooling achieve energy efficiency water used heat buildings well energy efficiency computer systems generally measured terms flops per watt roadrunner ibm operated nbsp mflops w november blue gene q reached nbsp mflops w june top two spots green list occupied blue gene machines new york one achieving nbsp mflops w degima cluster nagasaki placing


third nbsp mflops w copper wires transfer energy supercomputer much higher power densities forced air circulating refrigerants remove waste heat ability cooling systems remove waste heat limiting factor many existing supercomputers infrastructure capacity actual peak demand machine designers generally conservatively design power cooling infrastructure handle theoretical peak electrical power consumed supercomputer designs future supercomputers power limited thermal design power supercomputer whole amount power


cooling infrastructure handle somewhat expected normal power consumption less theoretical peak power consumption electronic hardware software system management operating systems since end th century supercomputer operating systems undergone major transformations based changes supercomputer architecture ref name padua ''encyclopedia parallel computing'' david padua pages ref early operating systems custom tailored supercomputer gain speed trend move away house operating systems adaptation generic software linux ref name mackenzie ''knowing


machines essays technical change'' donald mackenzie page ref since modern massively parallel supercomputers typically separate computations services using multiple types nodes usually run different operating systems different nodes eg using small efficient lightweight kernel cnk cnl compute nodes larger system linux derivative server nodes ref name europar ''euro par parallel processing th international euro par conference'' marco danelutto marco vanneschi domenico laforenza page ref ref name europar ''euro par parallel processing th international euro par conference'' wolfgang e


nagel wolfgang v walter wolfgang lehner page ref ref name alam '' https webarchiveorg web https pdfssemanticscholarorg aeb c b b f f f f pdf evaluation oak ridge national laboratory cray xt '' sadaf r alam etal ''international journal high performance computing applications'' february vol ref traditional multi user computer system job scheduling effect tasking problem processing peripheral resources massively parallel system job management system needs manage allocation computational communication resources well gracefully deal inevitable hardware failures tens thousands processors present ref name yariv open job management


architecture blue gene l supercomputer yariv aridor et al ''job scheduling strategies parallel processing'' dror g feitelson pages ref although modern supercomputers use linux based operating systems manufacturer specific linux derivative industry standard exists partly due fact differences hardware architectures require changes optimize operating system hardware design ref name padua software tools message passing alma correlator parallel architectures supercomputers often dictate use special programming techniques exploit speed software tools distributed processing include


standard apis mpi pvm vtl open source software beowulf common scenario environments pvm mpi loosely connected clusters openmp tightly coordinated shared memory machines used significant effort required optimize algorithm interconnect characteristics machine run aim prevent cpus wasting time waiting data nodes gpgpus hundreds processor cores programmed using programming models cuda opencl moreover quite difficult


grid computing approach one earliest successful grid computing projects since quasi opportunistic approaches quasi opportunistic supercomputing form distributed computing whereby super virtual computer many networked geographically disperse computers performs computing tasks demand huge processing power ref name kravtsov ref quasi opportunistic supercomputing aims provide higher quality service opportunistic grid computing achieving control assignment tasks distributed resources use intelligence availability reliability individual systems within supercomputing network however quasi opportunistic distributed execution demanding parallel computing software grids


achieved implementation grid wise allocation agreements co allocation subsystems communication topology aware allocation mechanisms fault tolerant message passing libraries data pre conditioning ref name kravtsov high performance computing clouds cloud computing recent rapid expansions development grabbed attention high performance computing hpc users developers recent years cloud computing attempts provide hpc service exactly like forms services available cloud software service platform service infrastructure service hpc users may benefit cloud different angles scalability resources demand fast


inexpensive hand moving hpc applications set challenges good examples challenges virtualization overhead cloud multi tenancy resources network latency issues much research currently done overcome challenges make hpc cloud realistic possibility penguin computing r hpc amazon web services univa silicon graphics international rescale sabalcore gomput started offer hpc cloud computing penguin demand pod cloud bare metal compute model execute code user given virtualized login node pod computing nodes


connected via non virtualized nbsp gbit ethernet qdr infiniband networks user connectivity pod data center ranges nbsp mbit nbsp gbit citing amazon 's ec elastic compute cloud penguin computing argues virtualization compute nodes suitable hpc penguin computing also criticized hpc clouds may allocated computing nodes customers far apart causing latency impairs performance hpc applications performance measurement capability versus capacity supercomputers generally aim maximum capability computing rather capacity computing capability computing typically thought using maximum computing power solve


single large problem shortest amount time often capability system able solve problem size complexity computer eg complex weather simulation application ref name natcap capacity computing contrast typically thought using efficient cost effective computing power solve somewhat large problems many small problems ref name natcap ''the potential impact high end capability computing four illustrative fields science engineering'' committee potential impact high end computing illustrative fields science engineering national research council


october page ref architectures lend supporting many users routine everyday tasks may lot capacity typically considered supercomputers given solve single complex problem ref name natcap performance metrics logscale speed nbsp years general speed supercomputers measured benchmarked flops floating point operations per second terms mips million instructions per second case general purpose computers ref name xifu ref measurements commonly used si prefix tera combined shorthand


tflops sup sup flops pronounced ''teraflops'' peta combined shorthand pflops sup sup flops pronounced ''petaflops'' petascale supercomputers process one quadrillion sup sup nbsp trillion flops exascale computing performance exaflops eflops range eflops one quintillion sup sup flops one million tflops single number reflect overall performance computer system yet goal linpack benchmark approximate fast computer solves numerical problems widely used industry ref name jackpaper ref flops measurement either quoted based theoretical floating point performance processor


derived manufacturer 's processor specifications shown rpeak top lists generally unachievable running real workloads achievable throughput derived linpack benchmarks shown rmax top list linpack benchmark typically performs lu decomposition large matrix linpack performance gives indication performance real world problems necessarily match processing requirements many supercomputer workloads example may require memory bandwidth may require better integer computing performance may need high performance system achieve high


levels performance ref name jackpaper top list top supercomputers world june since fastest supercomputers ranked top list according linpack benchmark results list claim unbiased definitive widely cited current definition fastest supercomputer available given time recent list computers appeared top top list peak speed given rmax rating lenovo became world 's largest provider top


supercomputers units produced ref name bus ref class wikitable year supercomputer rmax br tflop location fujitsu fugaku kobe japan ibm summit oak ridge us ibm nvidia mellanox sierra livermore us sunway taihulight wuxi china nudt tianhe guangzhou china dell frontera austin us cray hpe piz daint lugano switzerland cray hpe trinity new mexico us fujitsu abci tokyo japan lenovo supermuc ng garching germany applications stages supercomputer application may


summarized following table class wikitable decade uses computer involved weather forecasting aerodynamic research cray probabilistic analysis radiation shielding modeling cdc cyber brute force code breaking eff des cracker nuclear test simulations substitute legal conduct nuclear non proliferation treaty asci q molecular dynamics simulation tianhe scientific research outbreak prevention electrochemical reaction research ibm blue gene p computer used simulate number artificial neurons equivalent approximately one percent human cerebral cortex containing


nbsp billion neurons approximately nbsp trillion connections research group also succeeded using supercomputer simulate number artificial neurons equivalent entirety rat 's brain modern day weather forecasting also relies supercomputers national oceanic atmospheric administration uses supercomputers crunch hundreds millions observations help make weather forecasts accurate challenges difficulties pushing envelope supercomputing underscored ibm 's abandonment blue waters petascale project advanced simulation computing program currently uses supercomputers maintain simulate united states nuclear


carlo many layers could identical simplifying design manufacture process cost operating high performance supercomputers risen mainly due increasing power consumption mid top supercomputer required range nbsp kilowatts top supercomputers required nbsp megawatts ref name thmpi ref study commissioned darpa identified power consumption pervasive challenge achieving exascale computing time megawatt per year energy consumption cost nbsp million dollars supercomputing facilities constructed efficiently remove increasing amount heat produced


modern multi core central processing units based energy consumption green list supercomputers supercomputer nbsp exaflops would required nearly nbsp megawatts operating systems developed existing hardware conserve energy whenever possible cpu cores use execution parallelized application put low power states producing energy savings supercomputing applications increasing cost operating supercomputers driving factor trend toward bundling resources distributed supercomputer infrastructure national supercomputing centers first emerged us followed


germany japan european union launched partnership advanced computing europe prace aim creating persistent pan european supercomputer infrastructure services support scientists across european union porting scaling optimizing supercomputing applications ref name thmpi iceland built world 's first zero emission supercomputer located thor data center reykjav k iceland supercomputer relies completely renewable sources power rather fossil fuels colder climate also reduces need active cooling making one greenest facilities world computers funding supercomputer hardware also became


increasingly difficult mid top supercomputer cost nbsp million euros top supercomputers required investment nbsp million euros ref name thmpi national governments put place different strategies fund supercomputers uk national government funded supercomputers entirely high performance computing put control national funding agency germany developed mixed funding model pooling local state funding federal funding ref name thmpi fiction many science fiction writers depicted supercomputers works historical construction


computers much fiction deals relations humans computers build possibility conflict eventually developing examples supercomputers fiction include hal multivac machine stops glados evitable conflict vulcan 's hammer colossus wopr deep thought see also acm ieee supercomputing conference acm sighpc high performance technical computing jungle computing nvidia tesla personal supercomputer parallel computing supercomputing china supercomputing europe supercomputing india supercomputing japan testing high performance computing applications ultra network technologies quantum computing notes references external links mcdonnell marshall https tracetennesseeedu utk chembiopubs supercomputer


design initial effort capture environmental economic societal impacts chemical biomolecular engineering publications works american inventions cluster computing concurrent computing distributed computing architecture parallel computing


'''figurational sociology''' research tradition figurations humans evolving networks interdependent humans unit investigation although methodological stance determinate school practice tradition one essential feature concern ''process'' ' 'state'' figurational sociology also referred '''process sociology''' feature attempt correct built language prejudice tilts theory reduce processes static elements separating example human actors actions linguists rely etymology gain rich understanding word 's history may help understand

Social science
Sociology
Figurational sociology


elias usually acknowledged early primary practitioner consequence ground breaking work ''the civilizing process'' references external links morrow raymond may http wwwasanetorg images journals docs pdf cs may csfeaturepdf norbert elias figurational sociology comeback century ''contemporary sociology'' ''' ''' pdf file kb sociological theories history sociology


nasa ames research center '''synthetic biology''' '''synbio''' multidisciplinary area research seeks create new biological parts devices systems redesign systems already found nature branch science encompasses broad range methodologies various disciplines biotechnology genetic engineering molecular biology molecular engineering systems biology membrane science biophysics chemical biological engineering electrical computer engineering control engineering evolutionary biology due powerful genetic engineering capabilities decreased dna synthesis sequencing costs field synthetic biology rapidly growing

Natural science
Biology
Systems biology
Synthetic biology


companies across countries actively engaged synthetic biology applications companies estimated net worth billion global market definition synthetic biology currently generally accepted definition examples use mixture physical engineering genetic engineering create new therefore synthetic life forms emerging field research aims combine knowledge methods biology engineering related disciplines design chemically synthesized dna create organisms novel enhanced characteristics


traits designing constructing biological modules biological systems biological machines design existing biological systems useful purposes ref name nakanoeckford title molecular communication last nakano first tadashi last eckford first andrew w last haraguchi first tokuko date september publisher cambridge university press isbn name list style vanc ref applying engineering paradigm systems design biological systems order produce predictable robust systems novel functionalities exist nature european commission include possibility molecular assembler based upon biomolecular systems ribosome ref name roadmap ref synthetic biology traditionally divided two different approaches top bottom u top u approach involves using metabolic


la vie et g n rations spontan es'' also noted term another publication ''la biologie synth tique'' ''' ''' jacob monod postulate cellular regulation molecular networks study ''lac'' operon ''e coli'' envisioned ability assemble new systems molecular components ''' ''' first molecular cloning amplification dna plasmid published ''pnas'' cohen boyer ''et al'' constituting dawn synthetic biology ''' ''' arber nathans smith win nobel prize physiology medicine discovery restriction enzymes leading szybalski offer editorial


comment journal ''gene'' blockquote work restriction nucleases permits us easily construct recombinant dna molecules analyze individual genes also led us new era synthetic biology existing genes described analyzed also new gene arrangements constructed evaluated blockquote ''' ''' first dna amplification polymerase chain reaction pcr using thermostable dna polymerase published ''science'' mullis ''et al'' obviated adding new dna polymerase pcr cycle thus greatly simplifying dna mutagenesis assembly ''' ''' two papers


usa ''' ''' researchers develop light sensing circuit ''e coli'' another group designs circuits capable multicellular pattern formation ''' ''' researchers engineer synthetic circuit promotes bacterial invasion tumour cells ''' ''' researchers publish ''science'' first synthetic bacterial genome called ''m mycoides'' jcvi syn ref name gibson genome made chemically synthesized dna using yeast recombination ''' ''' functional synthetic chromosome arms engineered yeast ''' ''' charpentier doudna labs publish ''science'' programming crispr cas bacterial immunity targeting dna cleavage technology greatly simplified expanded eukaryotic gene editing ''' ''' scientists eth zurich report


creation first bacterial genome named ''caulobacter ethensis '' made entirely computer although related viable form ''c ethensis '' yet exist ref name ea ref ref name pnas ref ''' ''' researchers report production new synthetic possibly artificial form viable life variant bacteria ''escherichia coli'' reducing natural number codons bacterial genome codons instead order encode amino acids ref name nyt ref ref name nat ref perspectives engineers view biology ''technology'' words given system includes ''biotechnology'' ''biological engineering'' synthetic biology includes


broad redefinition expansion biotechnology ultimate goals able design build engineered live biological systems process information manipulate chemicals fabricate materials structures produce energy provide food maintain enhance human health well advance fundamental knowledge biological systems see biomedical engineering environment studies synthetic biology subdivided broad classifications according approach take problem hand standardization biological parts biomolecular engineering genome engineering metabolic engineering biomolecular engineering includes approaches aim create toolkit functional units


hand writers synthetic biologists interested testing irreducibility biological systems due complexity natural biological systems would simpler rebuild natural systems interest ground order provide engineered surrogates easier comprehend control manipulate writers draw inspiration refactoring process sometimes used improve computer software enabling technologies several novel enabling technologies critical success synthetic biology concepts include standardization biological parts hierarchical abstraction permit using parts synthetic systems basic


technologies include reading writing dna sequencing fabrication measurements multiple conditions needed accurate modeling computer aided design cad dna gene synthesis driven dramatic decreases costs oligonucleotide oligos synthesis advent pcr sizes dna constructions oligos increased genomic level researchers reported synthesis kbp kilo bp hepatitis c virus genome chemically synthesized mers researchers stony brook university succeeded synthesizing bp poliovirus genome published sequence producing second synthetic


genome spanning two years bp genome bacteriophage phi x assembled two weeks ref name assembly ref team j craig venter institute constructed patented synthetic genome novel minimal bacterium ''mycoplasma laboratorium'' working getting functioning living cell ref name ball ref reported several companies offering synthesis genetic sequences base pairs bp long price per bp turnaround time less two weeks oligonucleotides harvested


photolithographic inkjet manufactured dna chip combined pcr dna mismatch error correction allows inexpensive large scale changes codons genetic systems improve gene expression incorporate novel amino acids see george church 's anthony forster 's synthetic cell projects favors synthesis scratch approach additionally crispr cas system emerged promising technique gene editing described important innovation synthetic biology space nearly years ref name washpost crispr ref methods take months years edit gene sequences crispr speeds time weeks ref name washpost crispr due ease


use accessibility however raised ethical concerns especially surrounding use biohacking sequencing dna sequencing determines order nucleotide bases dna molecule synthetic biologists use dna sequencing work several ways first large scale genome sequencing efforts continue provide information naturally occurring organisms information provides rich substrate synthetic biologists construct parts devices second sequencing verify fabricated system intended third fast cheap reliable sequencing facilitate rapid detection identification synthetic systems organisms modularity


used ref name primer ref standardized dna parts biobrick plasmids invented tom knight ref name auto biobricks stored registry standard biological parts cambridge massachusetts biobrick standard used thousands students worldwide international genetically engineered machine igem competition ref name primer sequence overlap two genetic elements genes coding sequences called overlapping genes prevent individual manipulation ref name ref increase genome modularity practice genome refactoring improving internal structure existing system future use simultaneously maintaining external system function ref name ref


interactions coiled coils sh domain peptide binding spytag spycatcher offer control addition necessary regulate protein protein interactions cells light using light oxygen voltage sensing domains cell permeable small molecules chemically induced dimerization living cell molecular motifs embedded bigger network upstream downstream components components may alter signaling capability modeling module case ultrasensitive modules sensitivity contribution module differ sensitivity module sustains isolation ref name altszylerultrasens ref ref name altszylerultrasens ref modeling models inform design


engineered biological systems better predicting system behavior prior fabrication synthetic biology benefits better models biological molecules bind substrates catalyze reactions dna encodes information needed specify cell multi component integrated systems behave multiscale models gene regulatory networks focus synthetic biology applications simulations model biomolecular interactions transcription translation regulation induction gene regulatory networks microfluidics microfluidics particular droplet microfluidics emerging tool used construct new components analyse characterize widely employed screening assays


activity stf usually transcriptional regulation used zinc fingers components complex forming stfs eukaryotic translation mechanisms ref name khalil applications biosensors biosensor refers engineered organism usually bacterium capable reporting ambient phenomenon presence heavy metals toxins one system lux operon ''aliivibrio fischeri'' codes enzyme source bacterial bioluminescence placed respondent promoter express luminescence genes response specific


environmental stimulus one sensor created consisted bioluminescent bacterial coating photosensitive computer chip detect certain petroleum pollutants bacteria sense pollutant luminesce another example similar mechanism detection landmines engineered ''ecoli'' reporter strain capable detecting tnt main degradation product dnt consequently producing green fluorescent protein gfp modified organisms sense environmental signals send output signals detected serve diagnostic purposes microbe cohorts used ref name pmid ref biosensors could also used detect pathogenic signatures


sars cov wearable food drink researchers presented bioprinting method produce steak like cultured meat however synthetic nutrition products animal food products instance also products synthetic coffee reported close commercialization ref name synthcoffee ref ref name labgrown ref ref name vttresearch vtt news url https wwwvttresearchcom en news ideas sustainable coffee grown finland land drinks coffee capita produces first website wwwvttresearchcom access date october language en ref similar fields research production based synthetic biology used production food drink genetically engineered microbial food cultures eg solar energy based protein powder cell free artificial synthesis


eg synthetic starch see biobased economy agriculture materials photosynthetic microbial cells used step synthetic production spider silk ref name spider silk ref ref name foong higuchi takeuchi malay oktaviani p ref biological computers biological computer refers engineered biological system perform computer like operations dominant paradigm synthetic biology researchers built characterized variety logic gates number organisms demonstrated analog digital computation living cells demonstrated bacteria engineered perform analog digital computation human cells research demonstrated


universal logic evaluator operates mammalian cells subsequently researchers utilized paradigm demonstrate proof concept therapy uses biological digital computation detect kill human cancer cells another group researchers demonstrated principles computer engineering used automate digital circuit design bacterial cells researchers demonstrated 'boolean logic arithmetic dna excision' blade system engineer digital computation human cells researchers implemented perceptron biological systems opening way machine learning systems cell transformation


cells use interacting genes proteins called gene circuits implement diverse function responding environmental signals decision making communication three key components involved dna rna synthetic biologist designed gene circuits control gene expression several levels including transcriptional post transcriptional translational levels traditional metabolic engineering bolstered introduction combinations foreign genes optimization directed evolution includes engineering ''e coli'' yeast commercial production precursor antimalarial drug artemisinin entire organisms yet created scratch although


living cells transformed new dna several ways allow constructing synthetic dna components even entire synthetic genomes desired genetic code obtained integrated living cell expected manifest desired new capabilities phenotypes growing thriving cell transformation used create biological circuits manipulated yield desired outputs ref name ref name integrating synthetic biology materials science would possible use cells microscopic molecular foundries produce materials properties whose properties genetically encoded engineering


produced curli fibers amyloid component extracellular material biofilms platform programmable nanomaterial nanofibers genetically constructed specific functions including adhesion substrates nanoparticle templating protein immobilization designed proteins top protein one first proteins designed fold never seen nature ref name kuhlman ref natural proteins engineered example directed evolution novel protein structures match improve functionality existing proteins produced one group generated helix bundle capable binding oxygen similar


properties hemoglobin yet bind carbon monoxide similar protein structure generated support variety oxidoreductase activities another formed structurally sequentially novel atpase ref name wanghecht ref another group generated family g protein coupled receptors could activated inert small molecule clozapine n oxide insensitive native ligand acetylcholine receptors known dreadds novel functionalities protein specificity also engineered using computational approaches one study able use two different computational methods bioinformatics molecular modeling method mine sequence databases


computational enzyme design method reprogram enzyme specificity methods resulted designed enzymes greater fold specificity production longer chain alcohols sugar another common investigation expansion natural set amino acids excluding stop codons codons identified amino acids coded generally organisms certain codons engineered code alternative amino acids including nonstandard amino acids methyl tyrosine exogenous amino acids fluorophenylalanine typically projects make use coded nonsense suppressor trna aminoacyl trna synthetase pairs


organisms though cases substantial engineering required researchers investigated protein structure function reducing normal set amino acids limited protein sequence libraries made generating proteins groups amino acids may replaced single amino acid instance several non polar amino acids within protein replaced single non polar amino acid one project demonstrated engineered version chorismate mutase still catalytic activity amino acids used researchers companies practice synthetic biology synthesize industrial enzymes


high activity optimal yields effectiveness synthesized enzymes aim improve products detergents lactose free dairy products well make cost effective improvements metabolic engineering synthetic biology example biotechnological technique utilized industry discover pharmaceuticals fermentive chemicals synthetic biology may investigate modular pathway systems biochemical production increase yields metabolic production artificial enzymatic activity subsequent effects metabolic reaction rates yields may develop efficient new strategies improving cellular properties industrially important biochemical production designed nucleic acid systems


nucleic acids proteins ''in vitro'' ''in vivo'' example may researchers announced successfully introduced two new artificial nucleotides bacterial dna including individual artificial nucleotides culture media able exchange bacteria times generate mrna proteins able use artificial nucleotides ref name nyt ref ref name nature ref ref name natj ref space exploration synthetic biology raised nasa 's interest could help produce resources astronauts restricted portfolio compounds sent earth ref name verseux c ref mars particular synthetic biology


could lead production processes based local resources making powerful tool development manned outposts less dependence earth ref name verseux c work gone developing plant strains able cope harsh martian environment using similar techniques employed increase resilience certain environmental factors agricultural crops synthetic life gene functions minimal genome synthetic organism ''syn '' ref name hutchison ref one important topic synthetic biology ' 'synthetic life'' concerned hypothetical organisms created ''in vitro'' biomolecules


chemical analogues thereof synthetic life experiments attempt either probe origins life study properties life ambitiously recreate life non living abiotic components synthetic life biology attempts create living organisms capable carrying important functions manufacturing pharmaceuticals detoxifying polluted land water ref name enzymes ref medicine offers prospects using designer biological parts starting point new classes therapies diagnostic tools ref name enzymes living artificial cell defined completely synthetic cell capture energy maintain ion gradients contain


commonly used bacteria ''salmonella typhimurium'' ''escherichia coli'' ''bifidobacteria'' ''streptococcus'' ''lactobacillus'' ''listeria'' ''bacillus subtilis'' species property unique cancer therapy terms tissue colonization interaction immune system ease application cell based platform immune system plays important role cancer harnessed attack cancer cells cell based therapies focus immunotherapies mostly engineering cells cell receptors engineered trained detect cancer epitopes chimeric antigen receptors cars composed fragment antibody fused intracellular


cell signaling domains activate trigger proliferation cell second generation car based therapy approved fda gene switches designed enhance safety treatment kill switches developed terminate therapy patient show severe side effects mechanisms finely control system stop reactivate since number cells important therapy persistence severity growth cells also controlled dial effectiveness safety therapeutics although several mechanisms improve safety control limitations include difficulty inducing large dna


circuits cells risks associated introducing foreign components especially proteins cells organoids synthetic biology used organoids bioprinted organs bioprinted food like meat see food drink transplants induced regeneration ongoing research development synthetic biology based methods inducing regeneration humans well creation transplantable artificial organs nanoparticles artificial cells micro droplets synthetic biology used creating nanoparticles used drug delivery well purposes complementing research development


seeks created synthetic cells mimics functions biological cells applications include medicine designer nanoparticles make blood cells eat away inside portions atherosclerotic plaque cause heart attacks synthetic micro droplets algal cells synergistic algal bacterial multicellular spheroid microbial reactors example could used produce hydrogen hydrogen economy biotechnology ref name phys droplets ref ethics creation new life tampering existing life raised ethical concerns field synthetic biology actively discussed ref name common ethical questions include


biology main features biosafety biosecurity creation new life forms ethical issues mentioned include regulation new creations patent management new creations benefit distribution research integrity ref name ref ethical issues surfaced recombinant dna genetically modified organism gmo technologies extensive regulations genetic engineering pathogen research place many jurisdictions amy gutmann former head presidential bioethics commission argued avoid temptation regulate synthetic biology general genetic engineering particular according gutmann regulatory parsimony especially important emerging


technologieswhere temptation stifle innovation basis uncertainty fear unknown particularly great blunt instruments statutory regulatory restraint may inhibit distribution new benefits counterproductive security safety preventing researchers developing effective safeguards creation life one ethical question whether acceptable create new life forms sometimes known playing god currently creation new life forms present nature small scale potential benefits dangers remain unknown


careful consideration oversight ensured studies ref name many advocates express great potential value agriculture medicine academic knowledge among fields creating artificial life forms creation new entities could expand scientific knowledge well beyond currently known studying natural phenomena yet concern artificial life forms may reduce nature 's purity ie nature could somehow corrupted human intervention manipulation potentially influence adoption engineering like principles instead biodiversity nature focused ideals also concerned artificial life form


released nature could hamper biodiversity beating natural species resources similar algal blooms kill marine species another concern involves ethical treatment newly created entities happen sense pain sentience self perception life given moral legal rights ethical support synthetic biology ethics moral rationales support certain applications synthetic biology include potential mititgation substantial global problems detrimental environmental impacts conventional agriculture including meat production animal welfare food security human health well potential


reduction human labor needs via therapies diseases reduction human suffering prolonged life biosafety biocontainment ethically appropriate considering biosafety measures accidental introduction synthetic life natural environment avoided much ethical consideration critical thought given questions biosafety refers biological containment also refers strides taken protect public potentially hazardous biological agents even though concerns important remain unanswered products synthetic biology present concern biological safety negative


consequences environment argued synthetic technologies benign incapable flourishing outside world due unnatural characteristics yet example transgenic microbe conferred fitness advantage wild general existing hazard controls risk assessment methodologies regulations developed traditional genetically modified organisms gmos considered sufficient synthetic organisms extrinsic biocontainment methods laboratory context include physical containment biosafety cabinets gloveboxes well personal protective equipment agricultural context


include isolation distances pollen barriers similar methods biocontainment gmos synthetic organisms may offer increased hazard control engineered intrinsic biocontainment methods limit growth uncontained environment prevent horizontal gene transfer natural organisms examples intrinsic biocontainment include auxotrophy biological kill switches inability organism replicate pass modified synthetic genes offspring use xenobiological organisms using alternative biochemistry example using artificial xeno nucleic acids xna instead dna ref name ref name ref regarding auxotrophy bacteria yeast


engineered unable produce histidine important amino acid life organisms thus grown histidine rich media laboratory conditions nullifying fears could spread undesirable areas biosecurity ethical issues relate biosecurity biosynthetic technologies could deliberately used cause harm society environment since synthetic biology raises ethical issues biosecurity issues humanity must consider plan deal potentially harmful creations kinds ethical measures could possibly employed deter nefarious biosynthetic technologies


key issues safety security ethics science society interface project defined public education ongoing dialogue among scientists businesses government ethicists ref name priorities ref key security issues synbiosafe identified involved engaging companies sell synthetic dna biohacking community amateur biologists key ethical issues concerned creation new life forms subsequent report focused biosecurity especially called dual use challenge example synthetic biology may lead efficient production medical treatments may also lead synthesis modification harmful pathogens eg smallpox biohacking community remains


source special concern distributed diffuse nature open source biotechnology makes difficult track regulate mitigate potential concerns biosafety biosecurity cosy another european initiative focuses public perception communication better communicate synthetic biology societal ramifications broader public cosy synbiosafe published ''synbiosafe'' minute documentary film october international association synthetic biology proposed self regulation proposes specific measures synthetic biology industry especially dna synthesis companies implement group led scientists leading dna synthesis companies published practical


plan developing effective oversight framework dna synthesis industry ref name b gl h et al united states january alfred p sloan foundation funded woodrow wilson center hastings center j craig venter institute examine public perception ethics policy implications synthetic biology july national academies' committee science technology law convened symposium opportunities challenges emerging field synthetic biology publication first synthetic genome accompanying media coverage life created


president barack obama established presidential commission study bioethical issues study synthetic biology commission convened series meetings issued report december titled new directions ethics synthetic biology emerging technologies commission stated venter 's achievement marked significant technical advance demonstrating relatively large genome could accurately synthesized substituted another amount creation life noted synthetic biology emerging field creates potential risks rewards commission recommend policy


oversight changes called continued funding research new funding monitoring study emerging ethical issues public education ref name bioethicsgov synthetic biology major tool biological advances results potential developing biological weapons possible unforeseen negative impacts human health potential environmental impact ref name ref proliferation technology could also make production biological chemical weapons available wider array state non state actors security issues may avoided regulating industry uses biotechnology policy legislation federal guidelines genetic


manipulation proposed president 's bioethics commission response announced creation self replicating cell chemically synthesized genome put forward recommendations regulating science educating public ref name opposition march environmental civil society groups including friends earth international center technology assessment etc group issued manifesto ''the principles oversight synthetic biology'' manifesto calls worldwide moratorium release commercial use synthetic organisms


robust regulations rigorous biosafety measures established groups specifically call outright ban use synthetic biology human genome human microbiome richard lewontin wrote safety tenets oversight discussed ''the principles oversight synthetic biology'' reasonable main problem recommendations manifesto public large lacks ability enforce meaningful realization recommendations health safety hazards synthetic biology include biosafety hazards workers public biosecurity hazards


stemming deliberate engineering organisms cause harm environmental hazards biosafety hazards similar existing fields biotechnology mainly exposure pathogens toxic chemicals although novel synthetic organisms may novel risks ref name ref ref name ref biosecurity concern synthetic redesigned organisms could theoretically used bioterrorism potential risks include recreating known pathogens scratch engineering existing pathogens dangerous engineering microbes produce harmful biochemicals ref name ref lastly environmental hazards include adverse effects biodiversity ecosystem services including potential changes


land use resulting agricultural use synthetic organisms ref name ref synthetic biology example dual use technology potential used ways could intentionally unintentionally harm humans damage environment often scientists host institutions funding bodies consider whether planned research could misused sometimes implement measures reduce likelihood misuse existing risk analysis systems gmos generally considered sufficient synthetic organisms although may difficulties organism built bottom individual genetic sequences ref name ref name ref synthetic biology generally falls


existing regulations gmos biotechnology general regulations exist downstream commercial products although generally regulations jurisdiction specific synthetic biology ref name ref ref name ref see also ''acs synthetic biology'' journal bioengineering biomimicry carlson curve chiral life concept computational biology computational biomodeling dna digital data storage engineering biology international genetically engineered machine non cellular life open synthetic biology regenerative medicine synthetic intelligence synthetic morphology synthetic virology ''systems synthetic biology'' journal tissue engineering xenobiology references bibliography european commission http eceuropaeu environment integration research newsalert pdf synthetic biology biodiversity fb enpdf synthetic biology biodiversity science


environment policy future brief produced european commission dg environment science communication unit uwe bristol http eceuropaeu science environment policy european commission science environment policy pdf pages external links http openwetwareorg wiki synbio books synthetic biology books popular science book textbooks http syntheticbiologywebuncedu introductory summary synthetic biology concise overview synthetic biology concepts developments applications http wwwwikigenesorg e mesh e html collaborative overview article synthetic biology http wwwsfgatecom business article controversial dna startup wants let customers php controversial dna startup wants let customers create creatures ''san francisco chronicle'' https wwwyoutubecom watchv ru pfctswf 's alive life synthetic biology future creation september ''world


science festival'' biotechnology molecular genetics systems biology bioinformatics biocybernetics appropriate technology emerging technologies


museum anthropology ubc '''museology''' '''museum studies''' study museums explores history museums role society well activities engage including curating preservation public programming education terminology words used describe study museums vary depending language geography example museology becoming prevalent english commonly used refer study museums french mus ologie spanish museolog german museologie italian museologia portuguese museologia english speakers

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Museology


general public museums typically served nationalist interests primary purpose often celebrate state country colonial power though world fairs great exhibition london chicago world fair temporary first examples large scale exhibition spaces dedicated nationalist agendas britain america wanted assert international leaders science industry cases world 's fairs became basis museums instance field museum chicago grew world 's columbian exposition museums association first professional


membership organization working museum field established london developed museums journal first publication devoted entirely theory practice museums soon magazines appeared like museumskunde germany american association museum museum work united states creation international council museums icom study museums gained increasing momentum exposure though time scholarly focus operational museology museum practice ref name ref beginning new


forms museology emerging way revitalize educational role museums one attempt envision museums role concept ecomuseums first proposed publicly icom th international conference france ecomuseums proliferated europe still exist around world today challenging traditional museums dominant museum narratives explicit focus community control development heritage sustainability robert lumley book museum time machine expressed growing disquiet traditional museological presuppositions operations ref name following year peter vergo published


critically acclaimed edited collection new museology work aimed challenge traditional old field museology named one paperbacks year sunday times britain around time ivan karp co organized two ground breaking conferences smithsonian exhibiting cultures museums communities soon resulted highly influential volumes names redefined museums studies ref name exhibitingcultures ref scholars engaged various new museological practices sometimes disagree trend officially began exactly encompasses whether


ongoing field study however common thread new museology always involved form radical reassessment roles museums within society ref name critical theorists like michel foucault walter benjamin benedict anderson also profound influence late th early st century museology disciplines began critically reassessed often adding term critical new titles ie critical race theory discourse critical museology also emerged intensifying around turn st century arose similar critical discourse


new museology shares many features much many scholars disagree extent distinguish one words scholars say new museology watershed moment late th century critical museology related separate movement early st century others argue new museology ongoing field study many manifestations names one critical museology ref name ref name ref latest movements museology tend focus museums interdisciplinary multi vocal accessible


open criticism critical discourses dominate contemporary museology many different kinds museums exist today engaged new innovative practices others traditional therefore less critical ref name operational museology operational museology refers day day operations museum including organizational regulatory structures institutional policies protocols procedural ethical etc collections management including conservation restoration exhibitions programs ref name ref name much scholarship around operational museology last years scholars argue


multi vocal perspective present critical narratives regarding current sociopolitical issues history museums however keep nationalistic approaches pertaining th century ref name p ref museums convey reflexive critical narratives others enact mass mediums oriented toward international tourist networks institutions tend display spectacular exhibition designs grant little space complex narratives critical messages scholars identified recent transformation way museums define functions produce programming strategies become spaces encounters meaningful experiences instance ''the metamorphosis museal exhibitionary


experiential complex beyond'' andreas huyssen observes museum formerly conceived container past accumulated objects conceived site activity experience ever expanding present ref name critical museology overview field critical museology emerged key discourse contemporary museology broad field study engages critically museums calling question foundation assumptions field ref name ref demonstrates critical museology close connection new museology also challenges foundational assumptions museology critical museology may


also extend beyond traditional museum include cultural centres heritage sites memorials art galleries ref name exhibitingcultures ref name ref development field given museums historically linked colonialism imperialism european missionary work morally politically problematic past objects museums hold purchased though always fairly often exclusive benefit collector large proportion museum collections taken spoils war otherwise removed without consent people community owned museums along


collections collectors played key role establishing reiterating dominance colonial europe narratives cultural superiority critical museology developed questioning foundational assumptions museum studies museums including history architecture display programming provenance objects ref name recent work also analyzed exhibition design show diverse media combined exhibitions communicate shape visitors' interpretations values anthropologists field anthropology actively engaged problematic collecting practices two centuries anthropologists also central


emergence critical museology late th early st centuries ref name ref included reconstructing analyzing collection histories relationships grew around pitt rivers museum 's relational museum project also led interdisciplinary working groups developed new approaches globalizing processes critical museology foregrounded museum frictions third innovative volume co edited ivan karp additionally anthropologists spearheaded recent methodological pedagogical developments critical museology including curatorial dreaming curating labs like http hennessyiatsfuca mcl making culture lab simon fraser university http capslcerevca curating public


canada long term process involves dismantling bureaucratic cultural linguistic psychological legacies colonial power ref name ref agreed upon end goal decolonization process decolonizing museum aimed assist ing communities efforts address legacies historical unresolved grief speaking hard truths colonialism thereby creating spaces healing understanding ref name collaboration consultation repatriation key components decolonizing museums australian museums leaders developing repatriation processes consultation collaboration indigenous communities beginning late projects


involving collaboration consultation source communities taken many forms ranging developing traveling exhibits revising collection catalogues establishing community cultural centers working photographic collections together canada collaboration consultation first formally suggested task force report museums first peoples seen many museums essential practice institution holds collections belonging indigenous peoples ref name ref north america around world objects collections particularly sacred objects human remains repatriated returned


communities origin native american graves protection repatriation act formalized process repatriating indigenous cultural objects united states canada formal policy around repatriation many museums internal policies many objects returned indigenous communities way though repatriation policies typically well intended process often complicated institutional community government politics varying degrees success newer concept indigenization museums moves away focusing exclusively collaborative methods towards employing indigenous people


work positions power within museums means opening museum sustained indigenous influences restructuring museum reflect indigenous approaches knowledge sharing examples indigenizing museum practice include art gallery ontario 's appointing wanda nanibush curator canadian indigenous art wood land school takeover sbc gallery contemporary art montreal appointment aboriginal curators south australia museum australian museum national museum australia museum contemporary art australia creation reciprocal research network


interactive online resource co developed musqueam indian band sto lo nation tribal council u mista cultural centre museum anthropology ubc facilitate collaborative research knowledge exchange communities scholars cultural institutions canada internationally linear trajectory decolonizing indigenizing work museums major milestones canada include indians canada pavilion expo lubicon cree boycott spirit sings shell sponsored exhibition glenbow museum resulting task force report museums first peoples ref


name truth reconciliation commission canada final report calls action specifically address museums archives ref name new methodologies vienna method vienna method subsequently called isotypes developed gesellschafts und wirtschaftsmuseum museum social economic affairs vienna support otto gl ckel vienna city council museum sought make sociological economic information accessible whole population regardless level education https wwwpeterlangcom searchpagesize sort datedescending q kraeutler hadwig searchwithinsubmit museum interventions interventions museums first employed artists like marcel duchamp


looking challenge established elite art traditions expectations museum visitors late th century interventions become methodology used artists also groups including activists museum visitors even museums way democratize exhibitions challenge dominant narratives problematize provenance museum objects artist interventions central aspect institutional critique artist interventions co organized commissioned museums like fred wilson mining museum maryland historical society michael nicholl yahgulanaas meddling


museum ubc museum anthropology artists' interventions pitt rivers museum oxford others done without explicit permission like andrea fraser museum highlights philadelphia museum art one best known artist interventions museum james luna ''artifact piece'' first performed san diego museum man ''the decade show'' new york luna luise artist lay almost naked display case filled artifacts order challenge representations


tradition activist interventions used responses censorship exhibited artworks corcoran gallery art cancelled ''the perfect moment'' exhibition robert mapplethorpe explicit photography protesters projected mapplethorpe photos exterior museum similar protests occurred david wojnarowicz film ''a fire belly'' removed ''hide seek difference desire american portraiture'' exhibit national portrait gallery internal institutional interventions interventions directed museums outside sources museums also engage interventions way performing self critique


example moma mounted meta intervention exhibit called ''messing moma critical interventions museum modern art now'' similar way ethnographic exhibitions incorporating contemporary art way disrupt conventional expectations narratives another critical intervention museums conception permanent exhibitions long lasting galleries presenting museum collections critically reveal approach connections institution history practices cultural social context institution embedded practice seeks highlight transformations paradigms


past present https wwweltiempocom cultura arte teatro exposiciones sobre historia del arte en el museo de antioquia additionally section permanent exhibition titled ''galleries decolonial dialogues persistence dogma'' displays anachronistic array works documents order convey enduring colonial dogmas determined country cultural values visual experiences th century https wwwmuseodeantioquiaco exposicion la persistencia del dogma project redeveloping museum permanent galleries part larger institutional transformation makes museum antioquia great example comprehensive critical museology practices https wwwrevistaarcadiacom agenda articulo museo que paso aqui un especial sobre el museo de antioquia another example museum critical approach artistic residency project artist nadia granados curator carolina chac n


group sex workers based downtown medell n developed award winning cabaret performance ''nadie sabe qui n soy yo'' one knows performers funded group las guerreras del centro collective highlight lives stories sex workers artistic performances knitting circles community actions ''nadie sabe qui n soy yo'' beginning series curatorial educational collaborations las guerreras del centro museum antioquia collaborative projects destigmatizing empowering critical museology practices generate new spaces exchanges


promoted past eg depiction indigenous peoples belonging another time somehow primitive extinguished cultures curatorial dreaming curatorial dreaming originally developed challenge museum critics typically expected provide practical solutions issues identify exhibits critique develop imagined exhibitions intended alternative mode critical intellectual practice form theorizing concrete ref name curating workshops courses labs last three decades proliferation


university montreal offered inaugural https wwwconcordiaca artsci academics summer critical museologyhtml international field school critical museology may https wwwuwcacza faculties art history pages apmhsaspx african programme museum heritage studies cape town includes curatorial module within comprehensive diploma program engages critically museum heritage studies leading program continent see also museum education conservation restoration cultural heritage museum anthropology natural history museum world 's fair references bibliography assembly first nations canadian museums association task force report museums first people retrieved nowiki http museumsin touchorg uploaded web docs task force report pdf nowiki bennett birth


museum history theory politics london routledge berger fred wilson objects installations baltimore maryland center art visual culture fw nbsp nowiki http wwwbmoreartcom mining museum changed art worldhtml nowiki butler r lehrer e curatorial dreams critics imagine exhibition mcgill queen university press canclini n g hybrid cultures strategies entering leaving modernity minneapolis university minnesota press curating public scholarship lab capsl nowiki http capslcerevca nowiki davis p ecomuseums sense place continuum international publishing london duncan c art museums ritual citizenship ivan karp steven lavine eds exhibiting cultures smithsonian institution fletcher


k r james luna smithsonian magazine retrieved nowiki http wwwsmithsonianmagcom arts culture james luna nowiki gamarekian b crowd corcoran protests mapplethorpe cancellation new york times retrieved nbsp nowiki https wwwnytimescom arts crowd corcoran protests mapplethorpe cancellationhtml nowiki hampton j inside year long experiment indigenous institutional critique retrieved nowiki http docswixstaticcom ugd b fa f b b eece c ab f pdf nowiki houston k mining museum changed art world bmoreart nowiki http wwwbmoreartcom mining museum changed art worldhtml nowiki huygens developing decolonisation practice settler colonisers case study aotearoa new zealand settler colonial studies igloliorte h loft croft b l decolonize abc art books canada international council museums icom key concepts museology


retrieved july nowiki http icommuseum fileadmin user upload pdf key concepts museology museologie anglais bdpdf nowiki international field school critical museology retrieved nowiki https wwwconcordiaca artsci academics summer critical museologyhtml nowiki kishlansky geary p brien p civilization west th edition vol c new york pearson education kennicott p 'fire' man wojnarowicz censored smithsonian sounded alarm dire times washington post retrieved nowiki https wwwwashingtonpostcom wp dyn content article ar html nowiki la k spotlight andrea fraser harvard crimson nbsp nowiki http wwwthecrimsoncom article fraser art institutional nowiki levell n site specificity dislocation michael nicholl yahgulanaas haida manga meddling journal material culture nowiki http journalssagepubcom doi abs nowiki lewis g instruction recreation centenary history


museums association london quiller press libraries archives canada nd indians canada pavilion retrieved nowiki https wwwcollectionscanadagcca expo ehtml nowiki liepe l ''a case middle ages public display medieval church art sweden '' stockholm royal swedish academy letters history antiquities linklater present wood land school lonetree decolonizing museums representing native america national tribal museums unc press lorente j p white cube critical museography development interrogative plural subjective museum discourses katarzyna murawska muthesius piotr piotrowski eds museum critique


critical museum routledge macdonald g alsford canadian museums representation culture multicultural nation cultural dynamics making culture lab nowiki http hennessyiatsfuca mcl making culture lab nowiki martin r andrea fraser museum highlights gallery talk tate art artists retrieved nowiki http wwwtateorguk art artworks fraser museum highlights gallery talk nowiki mccall v gray c museums new museology theory practice organizational change museum management curatorship messing moma retrieved nowiki https wwwmomaorg interactives exhibitions messingwithmoma nowiki mollica j send sfmoma retrieved nowiki https wwwsfmomaorg send sfmoma nowiki murawska muthesius k piotrowski p museum critique critical museum


routledge national native american graves protection repatriation act retrieved nowiki https wwwnpsgov nagpra nowiki reciprocal research network retrieved nowiki https wwwrrncommunityorg pages nowiki ryzik text happiness sadness get art back new york times retrieved nowiki https wwwnytimescom arts design sfmoma texting emojis arthtml nowiki nchez laws l panamanian museums historical memory new york berghahn books shelton critical museology manifesto museum worlds stam informed muse implications 'the new museology' museum practice museum management curatorship tobias j nbsp messing moma critical interventions museum modern art retrieved


''calliostoma tigris'' shell ''lobatus gigas'' queen conch '''conchology''' ''konkhos'' cockle study mollusc shells conchology one aspect malacology study molluscs however malacology study molluscs whole organisms whereas conchology confined study shells includes study land freshwater mollusc shells well seashells extends study gastropod 's operculum conchology sometimes seen archaic study relying one aspect organism 's morphology misleading however shell often

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Conchology


replaced protein support structure versus shell collecting vendor tanzania variety large seashells sale terms ' 'shell collector'' ''conchologist'' regarded two distinct categories shell collectors conchologists primarily concerned aesthetic value shells instead scientific study also true conchologists shell collectors type research requires access private institutional shell collections debate conchological community people regarding shell collectors regardless motivation