killed general henry ware lawton united states army making latter highest ranking casualty course war world war members italian ''arditi'' corps wielding daggers german stormtroopers italian arditi first modern shock troops elite assault units trained much higher level average troops tasked carry daring attacks bold raids enemy defenses unlike stormtroopers arditi units within infantry divisions considered separate combat arm ref name arditi ref world war ii britain


british commandos prototype modern special forces volunteers undergo arduous training course commandos modern special forces emerged second world war british commandos formed following winston churchill 's call specially trained troops hunter class develop reign terror enemy coast staff officer lieutenant colonel dudley clarke already submitted proposal general sir john dill chief imperial general staff dill aware churchill 's intentions approved clarke 's proposal ref name haskew ref june first commando

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Special forces


raid took place ref name haskew autumn men volunteered november new units organised special service brigade consisting four battalions command brigadier j c haydon special service brigade quickly expanded units became known commandos ref name haskew commando lieutenant colonel commanding officer numbered around men divided man troops divided man sections december middle east commando depot formed responsibility


training supplying reinforcements commando units theatre ref name moreman ref february commando training depot achnacarry scottish highlands established brigadier charles haydon command lieutenant colonel charles vaughan commando depot responsible training complete units individual replacements ref name moreman training regime time innovative physically demanding far advance normal british army training ref name moreman depot staff hand picked ability outperform volunteers british commandos wearing green beret carrying


continued day night river crossings mountain climbing weapons training unarmed combat map reading small boat operations syllabus reaching wartime strength individual units four assault brigades commandos served theatres war arctic circle europe mediterranean middle east south east asia operations ranged small groups men landing sea parachute brigade assault troops spearheading allied invasions europe asia first modern special forces units established men


served commandos including parachute regiment special air service special boat service inter allied commando organised british volunteers occupied europe led french commandos marine dutch korps commandotroepen belgian paracommando brigade united states army rangers united states marine raiders influenced degree british commandos lieutenant david stirling first modern special forces unit sas formed july unorthodox idea plan lieutenant david stirling june volunteered guards commando later named


machine guns force initially consisted five officers ranks following extensive training kabrit camp river nile l detachment sas brigade undertook first operations western desert stirling 's vision eventually vindicated series successful operations sas attacked bouerat transported long range desert group carried deep penetration covert reconnaissance patrols intelligence missions attacks behind enemy lines caused severe damage harbour petrol tanks storage facilities ref name sm ref followed march raid


burma fighting japanese company chosen immortals immediately german occupation greece april may greek government fled egypt started form military units exile air force lt colonel g alexandris suggested creation army unit along lines british sas august company chosen immortals formed cavalry major antonios stefanakis palestine men unit renamed sacred band close cooperation commander british sas regiment lt colonel david stirling


company moved sas base qabrit egypt begin training new role operating british direction special forces unit fought alongside sas western desert aegean australia following advice british australia began raising special forces first units formed independent companies began training wilson 's promontory victoria early tutelage british instructors establishment officers men independent companies trained stay behind forces role later


employed japanese south west pacific area notably fighting guerrilla campaign timor well actions new guinea total eight independent companies raised organised mid commando squadrons placed command divisional cavalry regiments designated cavalry commando regiments part structure total commando squadrons raised continued act independently often assigned brigade level later stages war taking part


fighting new guinea bougainville borneo employed largely long range reconnaissance flank protection roles addition units australians also raised z special unit special unit special unit largely employed intelligence gathering role z special force undertook direct action missions one notable actions came part operation jaywick several japanese ships sunk singapore harbour second raid singapore known operation rimau unsuccessful united states united states army rangers day


norway later known devil 's brigade called black devils mystified german soldiers first special service force dispatched occupied aleutian islands italy southern france merrill 's marauders merrill 's marauders modeled chindits took part similar operations burma late november alamo scouts sixth army special reconnaissance unit formed conduct reconnaissance raider work southwest pacific theater personal command lt general walter krueger commanding general sixth us army krueger envisioned alamo scouts consisting small teams


highly trained volunteers would operate deep behind enemy lines provide intelligence gathering tactical reconnaissance advance sixth us army landing operations special forces tab us army created special forces tab later decided personnel least days' wartime service prior certain units including devil 's brigade alamo scouts oss operational groups would receive tab services world war nbsp ii placing lineage today 's us canadian via devil 's brigade special forces axis powers axis powers


americans spread rumor skorzeny leading raid paris kill capture general dwight eisenhower although untrue eisenhower confined headquarters several days skorzeny labelled dangerous man europe italy italy decima flottiglia mas responsible sinking damage considerable british tonnage mediterranean also italian special forces like adra ''arditi distruttori regia aeronautica'' regiment used raids allied airbases railways north africa one mission


destroyed b flying fortress bombers japan imperial japanese army first deployed army paratroops combat battle palembang sumatra netherlands east indies february operation well planned men st parachute raiding regiment seizing palembang airfield paratroopers nd parachute raiding regiment seized town important oil refinery paratroops subsequently deployed burma campaign st glider tank troop formed four type ha go light tanks paratroop brigades organized ''teishin shudan''


lower six regiments manpower equivalent standard infantry battalion lacked form artillery rely units logistical support men longer parachute trained relied aircraft transport men nd raiding brigade group assigned attack american air bases luzon leyte night december flown ki transports aircraft shot commandos managed land burauen area leyte force destroyed


planes inflicted numerous casualties annihilated finland world war ii finnish army border guard organized sissi forces long range reconnaissance patrol ''kaukopartio'' units open volunteers operated far behind enemy lines small teams conducted intelligence gathering missions raids eg enemy supply depots strategic targets generally highly effective example battle ilomantsi soviet supply lines harassed point soviet artillery unable exploit massive numerical advantage finnish artillery operations


also classified secret political sensitivity operations authorized military historians could publish operations individual soldiers required take secrets grave famous lrrp commander lauri rni later joined us army train us personnel special operations bangladesh liberation war '''mukti bahini''' guerrilla resistance movement formed bangladeshi military paramilitary civilians war liberation transformed east pakistan bangladesh ref name alagappa p ref ref name banglapediamuktibahini ref march sheikh mujibur rahman issued call


people east pakistan prepare struggle ref name banglapediaos ref later evening resistance demonstrations began ref name banglapediaos pakistan army began full scale retaliation operation searchlight continued may ref name banglapediaos formal military leadership resistance set april provisional government bangladesh military council headed general g osmani eleven sector commanders ref name tripathi ''the colonel would repent bangladesh war unquiet legacy'' salil tripathi yale university press pg ref bangladesh armed forces established


situation east pakistan stable normal khaled mosharraf sector commander mukti bahini planned deploy special commando team task assigned team carry commando operations terrorize dhaka major objective team prove situation actually normal moreover pakistan time expecting economic aid world bank assumed spent buy arms plan make world bank mission understand true situation east pakistan stop sanctioning aid ref name mosharraf ref khaled along


situation east pakistan normal commando team also aimed inspiring people dhaka frequently victims killing torture crack platoon successfully fulfilled objectives world bank mission report clearly described hazardous situation prevailing east pakistan report world bank mission urged ending military regime east pakistan crack platoon carried several successful important operations power supply dhaka devastated caused severe problems pakistan army military administration dhaka chinese restaurants


guerrilla fighters air powerirish army ranger wing operators patrol chad typically guerrilla fighters would engage enemy soldiers tanks causing move could seen attacked air special forces used wartime peacetime military operations laotian civil war bangladesh liberation war vietnam war portuguese colonial war south african border war falklands war troubles northern ireland jaffna university helidrop first second gulf wars afghanistan croatia kosovo bosnia first second chechen wars iranian embassy siege london


air france flight marseille operation defensive shield operation khukri moscow theater hostage crisis operation orchard japanese embassy hostage crisis lima sri lanka ltte raid osama bin laden 's compound pakistan indian line control strike indian counter insurgency operation myanmar barisha raid syria us invasion afghanistan involved special forces several coalition nations played major role removing taliban power special forces continued play role combating taliban subsequent operations


gender restrictions removed parts world females applying special forces units selections norwegian special operation forces established female unit jegertroppen see also list military special forces units commando airborne forces long range reconnaissance patrol frogman list military diving units special operations police tactical unit notes references breuer william b ''daring missions world war ii'' john wiley sons haskew michael e ''encyclopaedia elite forces second world war'' barnsley pen sword molinari andrea ''desert raiders


axis allied special forces '' osprey publishing combat occupations counter terrorism types military forces warfare type


'''phenomenology''' within sociology '''phenomenological sociology''' study formal structures concrete social existence made available analytical description acts intentional consciousness object analysis meaningful lived world everyday life lifeworld task phenomenological sociology account describe formal structures given object investigation terms subjectivity object constituted consciousness ref name gurwitsch ref makes description different naive subjective descriptions man street traditional social scientist

Social science
Sociology
Phenomenological sociology


operating natural attitude everyday life utilization phenomenological methods context social phenomenologists talk social construction reality view social order creation everyday interaction often looking conversations find methods people use maintain social relations ref name novak ref leading exponent phenomenological sociology alfred sch tz sch tz sought provide critical philosophical foundation max weber 's interpretive sociology '' verstehende soziologie '' applying methods insights derived phenomenological philosophy edmund husserl study social world ref name schutz ref ref name barber ref


building bridge husserlian phenomenology weberian sociology serves starting point contemporary phenomenological sociology however prominence weberian themes field mean versions phenomenological sociology must based point fact historical evidence would suggest elements weberian sociology based certain phenomenological themes especially regard theory intended meaning act ideas regarding theory concept formation instance weber may taken influence wilhelm dilthey 's theory


''weltanschauung'' may also taken husserl 's theory meaning husserl 's work directed establishing formal structures intentional consciousness sch tz concerned establishing formal structures termed lifeworld husserl 's work conducted transcendental phenomenology consciousness sch tz 's work conducted mundane phenomenology social world ref name natanson ref difference respective projects rests level analysis objects taken topic study type phenomenological reduction employed purposes analysis ultimately two


distinct phenomenological projects seen complementary structures latter dependent structures former valid phenomenological descriptions formal structures life world wholly consistent descriptions formal structures intentional consciousness latter former derives validity verifiability truth value ref name sokolowski ref keeping husserl 's conception phenomenology first philosophy foundation ground philosophy sciences ref name husserl ref core assumptions general thesis natural attitude ideational


foundation fact world straightforward common sense social experience unites world individual objects unified world meaning assume shared share culture ref name schutz alfred ''the problem social reality collected papers i'' hague martinus nijhoff note citation assumption original author provided information schutz without elaboration ref forms underpinning thoughts actions projected assumption belief naturally occurring social world factually objective


existential status unquestioned natural appearance social objects persons language institutions etc existential thing status objects occurring nature rocks trees animals etc although often referred general thesis natural attitude thesis formal sense term non thematic assumption belief underlies sense objectivity facticity world objects appearing world facticity world common sense unquestioned virtually unquestionable sanctionable


abstractions idealizations constituted accordance sciences' pre determined interpretive schemes ref name husserl schutz 's phenomenological descriptions made within phenomenological attitude phenomenological reduction epoche serves suspend assumption belief reveal phenomena occurring within natural attitude objects consciousness stock knowledge term stock knowledge coined sch tz ref name ref ref name concept vital phenomenological sociologists claim social reality intersubjective phenomenologists tend focus establishing structures intentional consciousness husserl calls proponents phenomenological


sociology interested structures lifeworld latter refers world directly experienced subjectivity everyday life go everyday lives draw stocks knowledge make interpretations stock knowledge typically deep background configuration series past experiences comprising one native language linguistic rules conventional modes interpreting expressions events numerous theories methods aural visual forms shared cultural normative understandings like ref name sch tz argued interpretation world based upon


stock previous experiences reduction martin heidegger characterizes husserl 's phenomenological research project analytic description intentionality ''a priori'' phenomenon intentionality provides mode access conducting phenomenological investigations ultimate ground foundation guaranteeing findings resulting inquiry recognizing consciousness formal structure intentionality always ''consciousness of'' intended object husserlian phenomenology located access point radical new form scientific description methodologically access field obtained


applied mundane analysis social world consists bracketing equivalents methodical disregard putting play suspension thesis natural attitude bracketing nothing bracketing existential belief existence objective world existential status world ''not'' called question result bracketing attention shifted objects world occur nature objects world appear consciousness phenomenon intentional consciousness descriptions


objects world transformed naive descriptions objects occurring nature phenomenological descriptions objects appearing consciousness short purpose mundane phenomenological analysis within natural attitude epoche transforms objects occurring nature objects subjectivity objects consciousness objects intended keep mind positivism meaning object definition objective meaning object property object independent particular observer observers regardless orientation


perspective phenomenology object always intended constituted meaningful particular intending subject particular orientation particular perspectival viewing point addition phenomenologically speaking meaning object cannot separated phenomenality materiality cannot constituted qua meaningful object without meaning bestowing act intending part constituting subject phenomenology undertaken within natural attitude meaning inherently accrue object thing add object label separable


social meanings architectural business intentionality 'made meaningful us' intersubjectively available entity proposal subject creating object creating meaning object individual achievement particular situation misrepresentation actually taking place within 'natural attitude everyday life' subject 's role constitution meaningful objects better understood reading interpretation meaning object intended reading interpretation object 's meaning intersubjective achievement intending subject


takes place within intersubjective realm natural attitude see also conversation analysis ethnomethodology references bibliography barber michael alfred schutz ''stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' web touches phenomenological sociology natanson maurice edmund husserl ''philosopher infinite tasks'' evanston il northwestern university press paperback provides sociologists introduction phenomenology schutz alfred ''the phenomenology social world'' evanston il northwestern university press paperback touches phenomenological method smith davis woodruff phenomenology ''stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' web provides introduction phenomenology


sokolowski robert ''introduction phenomenology'' new york cambridge university press paperback touches phenomenological method wender jonathan phenomenology cultural criminology return astonishment pp ''cultural criminology unleashed'' edited j ferrell k hayward w morrison presdee london routledge zaner r editorial introduction pp xv xxxv ''the collected works aron gurwitsch viii'' new york springer touches phenomenological method phenomenology sociological theories philosophy social science


''bufo periglenes'' '''batrachology''' branch zoology concerned study amphibians including frogs toads salamanders newts caecilians sub discipline herpetology includes also non avian reptiles snakes lizards amphisbaenids turtles terrapins tortoises crocodilians tuatara '''batrachologists''' may study evolution ecology ethology anatomy amphibians amphibians cold blooded vertebrates largely found damp habitats although many species special behavioural adaptations allow live deserts trees underground regions wide seasonal variations temperature species amphibians ref name amphibiaweb ref notable batrachologists jean

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Batrachology


marius ren guib gabriel bibron oskar boettger george albert boulenger edward drinker cope fran ois marie daudin franz werner leszek berger references herpetology subfields zoology


'''limacology''' latin slug greek '' logia'' branch zoology deals slugs ie shell less gastropod mollusks person studies limacology referred limacologist however slugs extremely polyphyletic group thus limacology taxonomically accurate term rarely used see also mollusks gastropods reading malacology gastropods humans

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Limacology


'''informatics''' study computational systems especially data storage retrieval ref name ref according acm ''europe and'' ''informatics europe'' informatics synonymous computer science computing profession ref name ref central notion transformation information ref name countries term informatics used different meaning context library science ref name wellisch ref different meanings informatics forum completed houses researchers university edinburgh 's school informatics countries depending local interpretations term informatics used synonymously

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Informatics


mean information systems information science information theory information engineering information technology information processing theoretical practical fields germany term ''informatics'' almost exactly corresponds modern computer science accordingly universities continental europe usually translate informatics computer science sometimes information computer science although technical universities may translate computer science engineering united states however term ''informatics'' mostly used context data science library science ref name wellisch applications healthcare biomedical informatics first appeared us university washington uses term


refer social computing countries term associated natural computation neural computation ref name government canada uses term refer operational units offering network computer services various departments etymology german informatician karl steinbuch engineer helmut gr ttrup coined word ''informatik'' developed ''informatik anlage'' quelle mail order management one earliest commercial applications data processing april steinbuch published paper called ''informatik automatische informationsverarbeitung'' informatics automatic information processing morphology ''informat'' ion ''ics'' uses accepted form


names sciences conics mathematics linguistics optics matters practice economics politics tactics linguistically meaning extends easily encompass science information practice information processing german word ''informatik'' usually translated english ''computer science'' universities ''computer science engineering'' technical universities german equivalents institutes technology depending context informatics also translated ''computing'' ' 'scientific computing'' ''information computer technology'' french term ''informatique'' coined philippe dreyfus month also proposed


interested field soon learned formal education programs none emerged late unfortunately introduced term informatics context archival science small part informatics professional development therefore played significant role development health informatics ref name according imhoff et al healthcare informatics application computer technology problems healthcare covers aspects generation handling communication storage retrieval management analysis discovery synthesis data information knowledge entire scope


informatics library science fields geoinformatics irrigation informatics term informatics usually mean information science context related library science first meaning informatics introduced russia ai mikhailov rs gilyarevskii ai chernyi referred scientific discipline studies structure properties scientific information ref name ref context term also used international neuroinformatics coordinating facility scientists use term however refer science information processing data management ref name ref english speaking world


term ''informatics'' first widely used compound medical informatics taken include cognitive information processing communication tasks medical practice education research including information science technology support tasks many compounds use viewed different areas ''applied informatics'' informatics information processing science early kk kolin proposed interpretation informatics fundamental science studies information processes nature society technical systems ref name broad interpretation ''informatics'' study structure algorithms


influential book ''decoding universe'' published former president association computing machinery peter denning wrote research assessment exercise uk funding councils includes new ''computer science informatics'' unit assessment uoa whose scope described follows ''the uoa includes study methods acquiring storing processing communicating reasoning information role interactivity natural artificial systems implementation organisation use computer hardware software resources subjects characterised rigorous application analysis experimentation


design construction informatics forum completed mit schwarzman college computing established construction planned completed controversial fields evolutionary informatics new field comes concept intelligent design according ''evolutionary informatics lab'' evolutionary informatics studies evolving systems incorporate transform export information influential book ''introduction evolutionary informatics '' published'''' informatics computer science class wikitable united states germany russia france italy english transcription computer science computing ''informatik'' '' '' latinized


''informatika'' ''informatique'' ''informatica'' informatics theoretical computer science ''theoretische informatik'' '' '' ''informatique th orique'' ''informatica teorica'' theoretical informatics computer engineering ''technische informatik'' '' '' ''ing nierie g nie informatique'' ''ingegneria informatica'' technical informatics neurocomputing neural computation ''neuroinformatik'' '' '' ''neuro informatique'' ''neuroinformatica'' neuroinformatics related topics computer scientists study computational processes systems computing research repository corr classification distinguishes following main topics computer science alphabetic order artificial intelligence computation language computational complexity computational engineering finance science computational geometry computational game theory computer vision pattern recognition computers society cryptography security data structures


algorithms databases digital libraries distributed parallel cluster computing emerging technologies formal languages automata theory general literature graphics hardware architecture human computer interaction information retrieval information theory logic computer science machine learning mathematical software multiagent systems multimedia networking internet architecture neural computing evolutionary computing numerical analysis operating systems computer science performance programming languages robotics social information networks software engineering sound symbolic computation systems control journals conferences ''information computation'' ''acta informatica'' ''information processing letters'' ''neural information processing systems'' ''journal automata languages combinatorics'' ''international journal cognitive informatics


natural intelligence'' ''conference computer vision pattern recognition'' ''symposium theory computing'' ''european conference computer vision'' ''brain informatics'' ''international conference computer vision'' ''international conference machine learning'' ''algorithmica'' ''symposium foundations computer science'''' '' ''european symposium algorithms'' ''fundamenta informaticae'' ''symposium discrete algorithms'' ''journal logic computation'' ''bioinformatics'' ''neural computing applications'' autonomous agents multi agent systems ''international symposium fundamentals computation theory'' ''international colloquium automata languages programming'' ''journal scientific computing'' ''annual ieee symposium foundations computer science'' ''annual symposium computational geometry'' ''simulation gaming'' ''journal


machine learning research'' ''journal artificial intelligence research'' ''acm transactions graphics'' ''ieee transactions visualization computer graphics'' ''ieee transactions computers'' ''ieee acm international symposium microarchitecture'' ''acm symposium computer communications security'' ''symposium parallelism algorithms architectures'' ''symposium foundations computer science'' community related organisations informatics europe association computing machinery ieee computer society scottish informatics computer science alliance computing research association association advancement artificial intelligence american society information science technology international federation information processing association logic language information gesellschaft f r


informatik association women computing computer science teachers association computability europe european association theoretical computer science raspberry pi foundation academic schools departments mit schwarzman college computing massachusetts institute technology department informatics university hamburg school computer science engineering university washington department computer science engineering university notre dame school informatics university edinburgh department computer science university oxford department computer science engineering santa clara university faculty computer science engineering university michigan


models neural computation cellular automaton computer simulation computational circuit entscheidungsproblem swarm intelligence biomimetics information processing robotics algorithmics neural computation real time computing computer architecture artificial intelligence references reading artificial intelligence cognitive science computer science education information science computational fields study


'''modelling biological systems''' significant task systems biology mathematical biology '''computational systems biology''' aims develop use efficient algorithms data structures visualization communication tools goal computer modelling biological systems involves use computer simulations biological systems including cellular subsystems networks metabolites enzymes comprise metabolism signal transduction pathways gene regulatory networks analyze visualize complex connections cellular processes unexpected emergent property complex system may result interplay cause effect among

Natural science
Biology
Systems biology
Computational systems biology


simpler integrated parts see biological organisation biological systems manifest many important examples emergent properties complex interplay components traditional study biological systems requires reductive methods quantities data gathered category concentration time response certain stimulus computers critical analysis modelling data goal create accurate real time models system 's response environmental internal stimuli model cancer cell order find weaknesses signalling pathways modelling ion channel mutations


organism consumed another organism'' time series lotka volterra model note two populations exhibit cyclic behaviour creating cellular model particularly challenging task systems biology mathematical biology involves use computer simulations many cellular subsystems networks metabolites enzymes comprise metabolism transcription translation regulation induction gene regulatory networks complex network biochemical reaction transport processes spatial organization make development predictive model living cell grand challenge st century listed


national science foundation nsf whole cell computational model bacterium ''mycoplasma genitalium'' including genes gene products interactions built scientists stanford university j craig venter institute published july cell dynamic computer model intracellular signaling basis merrimack pharmaceuticals discover target cancer medicine mm membrane computing task modelling specifically cell membrane multi cellular organism simulation open source simulation c elegans cellular level pursued


openworm community far physics engine https githubcom openworm openworm wiki geppetto overview gepetto built models neural connectome muscle cell created neuroml format protein folding protein structure prediction prediction three dimensional structure protein amino acid sequence prediction protein 's tertiary structure primary structure one important goals pursued bioinformatics theoretical chemistry protein structure prediction high importance medicine example drug design biotechnology example design


novel enzymes every two years performance current methods assessed casp experiment human biological systems brain model blue brain project attempt create synthetic brain reverse engineering mammalian brain molecular level aim project founded may brain mind institute '' cole polytechnique'' lausanne switzerland study brain 's architectural functional principles project headed institute 's director henry markram using blue gene supercomputer running michael hines 's neuron software simulation consist simply


artificial neural network involves partially biologically realistic model neurons ref name brainsim graham rowe duncan https wwwnewscientistcom article dn mission build simulated brain beginshtml mission build simulated brain begins ''newscientist'' june ref hoped proponents eventually shed light nature consciousness number sub projects including cajal blue brain coordinated supercomputing visualization center madrid cesvima others run universities independent laboratories uk us israel human brain project builds work blue brain project ref name hbp homepage http wwwhumanbrainprojecteu indexhtml human brain project ref ref name hbp video https wwwyoutubecom watchv n om mrq video


henry markram presenting human brain project june ref one six pilot projects future emerging technologies research program european commission ref name fet flagships homepage http cordiseuropaeu fp ict programme fet flagship home enhtml fet flagships initiative homepage ref competing billion euro funding model immune system last decade seen emergence growing number simulations immune system virtual liver virtual liver project million euro research program funded german government made seventy research group distributed across germany goal produce virtual liver dynamic


mathematical model represents human liver physiology morphology function ref name virtual liver ref tree model electronic trees e trees usually use l systems simulate growth l systems important field complexity science life universally accepted system describing changes plant morphology cellular modular level yet devised widely implemented tree generating algorithms described papers http portalacmorg citationcfmid creation rendering realistic trees https doiorg f real time tree rendering ecological models ecosystem models mathematical representations ecosystems typically simplify complex foodwebs major components


trophic levels quantify either numbers organisms biomass inventory concentration pertinent chemical element instance carbon nutrient species nitrogen phosphorus models ecotoxicology purpose models ecotoxicology understanding simulation prediction effects caused toxicants environment current models describe effects one many different levels biological organization eg organisms populations challenge development models predict effects across biological scales http wwwecotoxmodelsorg ecotoxicology models discusses types ecotoxicological models provides links


applications reading external links http wwwmodelingimmunityorg center modeling immunity enteric pathogens miep bioinformatics biosimulation computational science mathematical theoretical biology mathematical modeling scientific modeling simulation systems biology systems theory


'''asian american literature''' body literature produced united states writers asian descent asian american literature became category n't see direct impact viewership later perhaps earliest references asian american literature appeared david hsin fu wand 's ''asian american heritage anthology prose poetry'' published one earlier pieces asian american literature produced combined asian american resources project carp ''aiiieeeee anthology asian american writers'' anthology collected staples long forgotten asian american literature

Humanities
Languages and literature
Asian American Literature


criticized lack visibility literature anthology brought light necessity visibility criticism asian american literature visibility came recognition new literature elaine kim 's seminal book criticism ''asian american literature introduction writings social context'' published first critical book topic asian american writers conference oakland museum march poster reading st edition aiiieeeee rd edition aiiieeeee anthology asian american writers since field asian american


literature asian american literary criticism grown remarkably numerous authors produce literary critical work used defining asian american literature remains troublesome task critics written asian american literature implicitly explicitly define written asian americans usually asian americans definition poses number problems ongoing source discussion asian american literary critics asian american america united states include rest americas asian american writes characters


asian american asian american literature someone asian american writes asian americans asian american literature fluidity ethnicity race play major role culture identity characteristics themes common themes asian american literature include race culture finding sense identity topics subjective pinpointed ideas tie gender sexuality age establishing traditional adaptive culture western racism towards asians long standing traditions played major role shaping future asian americans literature touches


upon effects traditional asian culture asian americans living liberal country mindset induced result juxtaposition cultures creates extreme cognitive dissonance particularly among women asian descent authors also touch upon lack visibility criticism asian american literature asian american writers prominent touched upon ''aiiieeeee '' history lacking one questions asian american literature never exposed taken seriously possible racism played strong role perception asian authors


ethnically hostile asian environments seems emigration compounded alienations authors acknowledge asian american identity n't late term asian american created attempt advocate political solidarity cultural nationalism term coined allowed asians united states better identify subgroup shared concerns well articulate individuality visibility asian american literature asian american literature finally categorized see major resurgence


carp 's'' aiiieeeee anthology asian american writers'' edited frank chin jeffery paul chan lawson fusao inada others anthology helped field gain ground recovering previous generations asian american authors result older authors sam tagatac toshio mori become prevalent gaining new exposure publication one defining features carp 's anthology touched upon stereotypes asians whole published work receive criticism writing line racial views anthology paved way authors write


express feelings individual identity crisis concerning racism anthology helped fight cultural assimilation played large role model minority biggest example day day life asian americans however critics challenged carp 's intentions surfacing hypocrisy since anthology 's editors rejected concept dual personality thereby rejected foreign born asians perhaps important figure recognition asian american literature legitimate literary field maxine hong kingston whose work earned widespread notice born stockton california second generation chinese


american published ''the woman warrior'' story cycle mixed fictional autobiography chinese folktales attempt articulate life chinese americans process self identity liberal world second novel ''china men'' sequel ''the woman warrior'' also describes hardships chinese settlement american culture two novels gained attention many garnering empathy understanding chinese americans however kingston 's success also aroused ire frank chin accused perpetuating falsehoods chinese culture especially chinese


chinese american men addition talents individual writers multiple organizations formed hopes achieving outcome aiiieeeee anthology asian american writers one organizations association asian american studies founded aaas hopes promote understanding professional activity field asian american studies including asian american literature literary criticism controversy regarding decisions aaas boycott israeli academic institutions extending theme visibility ethnic racial issues


annual award asian american literature asian american authors plenty asian american authors publication ''aiiieeeee anthology asian american writers'' push surfacing old new asian american writers key asian american authors include carlos bulosan frank chin justin chin louis chu sui sin far jessica hagedorn david henry hwang gish jen maxine hong kingston jhumpa lahiri lee chang rae lee janice mirikitani toshio mori bharati mukherjee celeste ng viet thanh nguyen john okada han ong ruth l ozeki shawna


yang ryan bienvenido santos lisa see sj sindu amy tan le thi diem thuy adrian tomine monique truong onoto watanna shawn wong bryan thao worra hisaye yamamoto karen tei yamashita lois ann yamanaka paul yoon charles yu r zamora linmark see also list asian american writers chinese american literature list american writers korean descent asian american literary awards asian pacific american awards literature references references external links american literature ethnic background asian american culture


efficient solutions vehicle routing problem require tools combinatorial optimization integer programming '''applied mathematics''' application mathematical methods different fields physics engineering medicine biology finance business computer science industry thus applied mathematics combination mathematical science specialized knowledge term applied mathematics also describes professional specialty mathematicians work practical problems formulating studying mathematical models past practical applications motivated development mathematical theories became subject study pure mathematics abstract concepts studied

Formal science
Mathematics
Applied mathematics


pedagogical legacy united states early th century subjects classical mechanics often taught applied mathematics departments american universities rather physics departments fluid mechanics may still taught applied mathematics departments ref name stolz ref engineering computer science departments traditionally made use applied mathematics divisions fluid mechanics often considered branch applied mathematics mechanical engineering today term applied mathematics used broader sense includes classical areas noted well areas become increasingly important


way universities organize departments courses degrees many mathematicians distinguish applied mathematics concerned mathematical methods applications mathematics within science engineering biologist using population model applying known mathematics would ' 'doing'' applied mathematics rather ''using'' however mathematical biologists posed problems stimulated growth pure mathematics mathematicians poincar arnold deny existence applied mathematics claim applications mathematics similarly non mathematicians blend applied mathematics applications mathematics use development mathematics


solve industrial problems also called industrial mathematics success modern numerical mathematical methods software led emergence computational mathematics computational science computational engineering use high performance computing simulation phenomena solution problems sciences engineering often considered interdisciplinary utility mathematical finance concerned modelling financial markets historically mathematics important natural sciences engineering however since world war ii fields outside physical sciences spawned creation new areas mathematics


de boor c elementary numerical analysis algorithmic approach society industrial applied mathematics ref ref name green greenspan numerical analysis crc press ref ref name linz linz p theoretical numerical analysis courier dover publications ref statistics probably widespread mathematical science used social sciences areas mathematics notably economics proving increasingly useful disciplines status academic departments academic institutions consistent way group label courses programs degrees applied mathematics schools single mathematics department whereas others


separate departments applied mathematics pure mathematics common statistics departments separated schools graduate programs many undergraduate institutions include statistics mathematics department many applied mathematics programs opposed departments consist primarily cross listed courses jointly appointed faculty departments representing applications phd programs applied mathematics require little coursework outside mathematics others require substantial coursework specific area application respects difference reflects distinction application mathematics applied mathematics universities uk host departments


''applied mathematics theoretical physics'' much less common separate departments pure applied mathematics notable exception department applied mathematics theoretical physics university cambridge housing lucasian professor mathematics whose past holders include isaac newton charles babbage james lighthill paul dirac stephen hawking brown university division applied mathematics oldest applied math program us ref name ref schools separate applied mathematics departments range brown university large division applied mathematics offers degrees


doctorate santa clara university offers ms applied mathematics research universities dividing mathematics department pure applied sections include mit brigham young university also applied computational emphasis acme program allows students graduate mathematics degree emphasis applied math students program also learn another skill computer science engineering physics pure math etc supplement applied math skills associated mathematical sciences applied mathematics substantial overlap statistics applied mathematics associated following mathematical sciences scientific computing


scientific computing includes applied mathematics especially numerical analysis ref name stoer ref name conte ref name green ref name linz computing science especially high performance computing mathematical modelling scientific discipline computer science computer science relies logic algebra discrete mathematics graph theory combinatorics operations research management science operations research management science often taught faculties engineering business public policy statistics applied mathematics substantial overlap discipline statistics statistical theorists study improve statistical procedures mathematics statistical research often raises mathematical questions statistical theory relies probability decision theory makes extensive use


scientific computing analysis optimization design experiments statisticians use algebra combinatorial design applied mathematicians statisticians often work department mathematical sciences particularly colleges small universities actuarial science actuarial science applies probability statistics economic theory assess risk insurance finance industries professions mathematical economics mathematical economics application mathematical methods represent theories analyze problems economics applied methods usually refer nontrivial mathematical techniques approaches mathematical economics based statistics probability mathematical programming well computational methods


mathematical modelling optimisation combinatorics probability statistics useful areas outside traditional mathematics specific mathematical physics authors prefer describing ''applicable mathematics'' union new mathematical applications traditional fields applied mathematics ref name rektorys https booksgooglecom booksid sztcaaaqbaj pg pr dq survey applicable mathematics v onepage q applicable mathematics survey applicable mathematics pg xvii foreword k rektorys nd edition illustrated springer ref outlook terms applied mathematics applicable mathematics thus interchangeable disciplines line applied mathematics specific areas application often blurred many universities teach mathematical statistical courses outside respective departments departments


conferences siam major publisher research journals books applied mathematics https webarchiveorg web http mathndedu research research groups mathematics applicable mathematics applicable mathematics research group notre dame university https webarchiveorg web http wwwhopeacuk research researchcentres researchcentredetails centreforapplicablemathematics centre applicable mathematics liverpool hope university https webarchiveorg web http wwwgcuacuk ebe aboutus subjectgroups applicablemathematics applicable mathematics research group glasgow caledonian university


'''comics studies''' also '''comic''' '' 's''' '''art studies''' '' 'sequential art studies''' '''graphic narrative studies''' academic field focuses comics sequential art although comics graphic novels generally dismissed less relevant pop culture texts scholars fields semiotics aesthetics sociology composition studies cultural studies considering comics graphic novels complex texts deserving serious scholarly study confused technical aspects comics creation comics studies exists creation '''comics theory''' approaches comics critically art writing '''comics

Humanities
Languages and literature
Comics studies


historiography''' study history comics ref name crucifix beno crucifix https wwwacademiaedu redrawing comics graphic novel comics historiography canonization authors histories medium redrawing comics graphic novel comics historiography canonization authors' histories medium whither comics studies panel international conference french association american studies toulouse france may ref comics theory significant overlap '''philosophy comics''' ie study ontology ref name meskin ref epistemology aesthetics comics relationship comics art forms relationship text image comics ref name meskin comics studies also interrelated '''comics criticism''' analysis evaluation comics


comics medium theorizing comics although occasional investigation comics valid art form specifically gilbert seldes' ''the lively arts'' martin sheridan 's ''comics creators'' david kunzle 's ''the early comic strip narrative strips picture stories european broadsheet c '' contemporary anglophone comics studies north america said burst onto academic scene eisner 's ''comics sequential art'' scott mccloud 's ''understanding comics'' continental comics studies trace roots back


pioneering work semioticians roland barthes particularly essay rhetoric image published english anthology ''image music text'' umberto eco particularly book ''apocalittici e integrati'' works first attempts general system '''comics semiotics''' recently analysis comics begun undertaken cognitive scientists prominent neil cohn used tools linguistics detail theoretical structure comics' underlying visual language also used psychological experimentation cognitive neuroscience test theories actual comprehension work


suggested similarities way brain processes language way processes sequential images cohn 's theories universally accepted scholars like thierry groensteen hannah miodrag barbara postema offering alternative understandings defining comics width em comics nbsp sometimes four legged sometimes two legged sometimes fly sometimes n't nbsp employ metaphor mixed medium defining comics entails cutting gordian knotted enigma wrapped mystery nbsp cartoonist comics theorist scott mccloud similar problems defining literature film consensus reached definition


comics medium attempted definitions descriptions fallen prey numerous exceptions theorists rodolphe pffer r nbsp c harvey eisner david carrier alain rey lawrence grove emphasize combination text images though prominent examples pantomime comics throughout history critics thierry groensteen scott mccloud emphasized primacy sequences images towards close th century different cultures' discoveries 's comics traditions rediscovery forgotten early comics forms rise new forms made defining comics


complicated task composition studies field composition studies interest comics graphic novels growing partially due work comics theorists also due composition studies' growing focus multimodality visual rhetoric composition studies theorists looking comics sophisticated texts sites complex literacy gunther kress defines multimodality use several semiotic modes design semiotic product event together particular way mode combined simply text whose meanings realized


one semiotic code kristie fleckenstein sees relationship image text mutually constitutive mutually infused relationship names imageword fleckenstein sees imageword offering double vision writing reading based fusion image word double vision literacy dale jacobs sees reading comics form multimodal literacy multiliteracy rather debased form print literacy according jacobs comics help educators move toward attending multimodal literacies shift focus print multiple modalities encourages educators embrace


pedagogy give students skills effectively negotiate multiple modalities comics historiography comics historiography study history comics ref name crucifix studies historical process comics became autonomous art medium integral part culture area study premodern sequential art scholars scott mccloud consider egyptian paintings pre columbian american picture manuscripts first form comics sequential art another area study th century emergence subculture comics readers '''comicphilia''' passionate interest comic books person


passionate interest comics informally called '''comicphile''' '''comics buff''' first attempts comics historiography began united states work thomas craven martin sheridan coulton waugh mid publication jules feiffer 's ''the great comic book heroes'' field began take root historiography became accepted practice work maurice horn jim steranko ron goulart bill blackbeard martin williams late saw wave books celebrating american comics' centennial notable


writers topics include jacobs gerard jones rick marschall r c harvey educational institutions comics studies becoming increasingly common academic institutions across world notable examples include ohio state university university florida university toronto mississauga university california santa cruz among others west liberty university currently university offering four year undergraduate literature degree comics studies britain growing interest comics led establishment center comics studies scottish centre comics studies sccs university dundee


scotland beside formal programs degrees common see individual courses dedicated comics graphic novels many educational institutions sol davidson 's new york university thesis ''culture comic strips'' earned first phd comics france jean christophe menu awarded doctorate art art sciences universit paris panth sorbonne defending thesis ''the comics double language frontiers comics practical theoretical editorial prospects'' teesside university began offering ba comics graphic novels well


comics since appointed team renowned comics practitioners including fionnuala doran julian lawrence con chrisoulis nigel kitching tara mcinerney university lancaster started offering phd degree comics studies year french comics studies scholar beno peeters student roland barthes appointed uk 's first ever comics professor lancaster university scholarly publications notable academic journals specifically dedicated comics studies listed alphabetical order ''cuco cuadernos de c mic'' published editorial de universidad de alcal ''european comic


art'' ''imagetext'' peer reviewed open access journal began spring based university florida ''image narrative'' stylized ''image narrative'' peer reviewed e journal visual narratology ''inks journal comics studies society'' published ohio state university press ''international journal comic art'' ''journal graphic novels comics'' ''revista latinoamericana de estudios sobre la historieta'' ''studies comics'' ''sane sequential art narrative education'' based university nebraska lincoln ''the comics grid journal comics scholarship'' first published january open access researcher led peer reviewed


art list comics critics university press mississippi great comics artists series comics popular culture category wilhelm busch museum people donald ault peter coogan mark evanier thierry groensteen jeet heer james kakalios shirrel rhoades peter sanderson jim steranko michael uslan kent worcester references works cited reading ayaka carolene ian hague eds ''representing multiculturalism comics graphic novels'' routledge bongco mila ''reading comics language culture concept superhero comic books'' routledge bonura massimo provenzano federico ''teorie e storia del fumetto il fumetto e le sue teorie comunicative'' palermo zap


edizioni bramlett frank ed ''linguistics study comics'' springer bramlett frank roy cook aaron meskin eds ''the routledge companion comics'' routledge burke liam ''the comic book film adaptation exploring modern hollywood 's leading genre'' university press mississippi caswell lucy shelton jared gardner ''drawing line comics studies inks '' ohio state university press esther claudio julio ca ero eds ''on edge panel essays comics criticism'' cambridge scholars publishing cohn neil ed ''the visual narrative reader'' bloomsbury denson shane christina meyer daniel stein ''transnational perspectives


graphic narratives comics crossroads'' bloomsbury dipaolo marc ''war politics superheroes ethics propaganda comics film'' mcfarland dong lan ed ''teaching comics graphic narratives essays theory strategy practice'' mcfarland duncan randy matthew j smith ''the power comics history form culture'' continuum earle harriet ''comics trauma new art war'' university press mississippi fuchs wolfgang j reinhold reitberger ''comics anatomy mass medium'' little brown co gravett paul ''comics art'' yale university press groensteen thierry ''comics


narration'' university press mississippi groensteen thierry ''the system comics'' university press mississippi hague ian ''comics senses multisensory approach comics graphic novels'' routledge hatfield charles ''alternative comics emerging literature'' university press mississippi heer jeet worcester kent eds ''a comics studies reader'' university press mississippi klock geoff ''how read superhero comics why'' continuum kukkonen karin ''studying comics graphic novels'' wiley blackwell kukkonen karin ''contemporary comics storytelling'' university nebraska press lund martin ''re constructing man steel superman jewish


american history invention jewish comics connection'' palgrave macmillan magnussen anne hans christian christiansen eds ''comics culture analytical theoretical approaches comics'' museum tusculanum press mclaughlin jeff ed ''comics philosophy'' university press mississippi meesters gert creativity comics exploring frontiers medium respecting explicit self imposed constraints tony veale kurt feyaerts charles forceville ed ''creativity agile mind multi disciplinary study multi faceted phenomenon'' walter de gruyter pp nbsp miller ann bart beaty eds ''the french comics theory reader'' leuven university press miodrag hannah


''comics language reimagining critical discourse form'' university press mississippi pizzino christopher ''arresting development comics boundaries literature'' u texas press postema barbara ''narrative structure comics making sense fragments'' boydell brewer reynolds richard ''super heroes modern mythology'' university press mississippi saraceni mario ''the language comics'' routledge schmitz emans monika ed ''comic und literatur konstellationen'' walter de gruyter smith matthew randy duncan eds ''critical approaches comics theories methods'' routledge smith matthew randy duncan eds ''the secret origins comics


form'' kitchen sink press booker keith ed ''comics time history icons idols ideas'' santa barbara california abc clio booker keith ed ''encyclopedia comic books graphic novels'' santa barbara california abc clio couperie pierre c maurice horn editors ''a history comic strip'' crown publishers craven thomas editor ''cartoon cavalcade collection best american humorous cartoons turn century present'' simon schuster feiffer jules ''the great comic book heroes origins early adventures classic super heroes


comic books'' dial press gabilliet jean paul ''of comics men cultural history american comic books'' university press mississippi goulart ron ''the adventurous decade comic strips thirties'' crown publishers goulart ron ''the great comic book artists'' st martin 's press goulart ron ''ron goulart 's great history comic books definitive illustrated history s'' contemporary books goulart ron ''the encyclopedia american comics present'' facts file goulart ron ''the comic book reader 's companion z guide everyone 's favorite art form''


harper perennial goulart ron ''the funnies years american comic strips'' adams media corp goulart ron ''comic book encyclopedia ultimate guide characters graphic novels writers artists comic book universe'' harper collins hajdu david ''the ten cent plague great comic book scare changed america'' picador originally farrar straus giroux harvey r c ''the art funnies aesthetic history'' university press mississippi harvey r c ''the art comic book aesthetic history'' university press mississippi horn maurice editor ''the world


encyclopedia comics'' chelsea house horn maurice ''the world encyclopedia cartoons'' chelsea house horn maurice editor '' years american newspaper comics illustrated encyclopedia'' gramercy books jacobs gerard jones ''the comic book heroes first history modern comic books silver age present'' crown publishers jones gerard ''men tomorrow geeks gangsters birth comic book'' basic books marschall rick ''america 's great comic strip artists yellow kid peanuts'' abbeville press petersen robert ''comics manga graphic novels history


graphic narratives'' abc clio pustz matthew ed ''comic books american cultural history anthology'' continuum sheridan martin ''comics creators life stories american cartoonists'' hale cushman flint steranko jim ''the steranko history comics'' vol supergraphics steranko jim ''the steranko history comics'' vol supergraphics walker brian ''the comics '' harry n abrams walker brian ''the comics since '' harry n abrams waugh colton ''the comics'' macmillan williams paul james lyons eds ''the rise american comics artist creators contexts'' university press


mississippi wright bradford w ''comic book nation transformation youth culture america'' johns hopkins university press external links http wwwteachingcomicsorg national association comic art educators' page http wwwcomicsresearchorg comicsresearchorg http comicsintheclassroomnet comics classroom https webarchiveorg web http wwwinstituteforcomicsstudiesorg indexhtml institute comics studies defunct http comicsresearchorg comics research annotated bibliographies comics scholarship http wwwenjolrasworldcom comic book annotations bibliographies http wwwcorneredangelcom amwess academichtml online bibliographies anime manga research http wwwvisuallanguagelabcom neil cohn 's visual language lab website https webarchiveorg web http cognitivecomicswebscom cognitivecomics ndeditionpdf cognitive comics constructivist approach sequential art https wwwcomicsgridcom comics grid journal comics scholarship https comicssocietyorg comics studies society css https ohiostatepressorg inkshtml inks


journal publisher 's site https wwwjssccnet english japan society studies cartoons comics jsscc nihon manga gakkai https wwwacbdfr association des critiques et journalistes de bande dessin e https erevistaspublicacionesuahes ojs indexphp cuadernosdecomic cuco cuadernos de c mic http rleshmognocom revista latinoamericana de estudios sobre la historieta literary theory postmodern theory


fano plane projective plane field two elements one simplest objects galois geometry '''galois geometry''' named th century french mathematician variste galois branch finite geometry concerned algebraic analytic geometry finite field ''galois field'' narrowly ''a'' nbsp galois geometry may defined projective space finite field objects study include affine projective spaces finite fields various structures contained particular arcs ovals hyperovals unitals blocking sets ovoids caps spreads

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
Galois geometry


dimensional points dimensional etc modifier sometimes term ''projective'' instead ''geometric'' used necessary since concept dimension differs concept used vector spaces number elements basis normally two different concepts name cause much difficulty separate areas due context subject vector spaces projective spaces play important roles confusion highly likely vector space concept times referred ''algebraic'' dimension construction let denote vector space


geometric dimension projective subspaces given common geometric names points lines planes solids dimensional subspaces respectively whole space dimensional subspace dimensional subspace called ''hyperplane'' prime number vector subspaces algebraic dimension vector space given gaussian binomial coefficient math left begin matrix n end matrix right q frac q n q n q cdots q n q q q q cdots q q math therefore number dimensional projective subspaces given math left


begin matrix n k end matrix right q frac q n q n q cdots q n q k q k q k q cdots q k q k math thus example number lines pg math left begin matrix end matrix right frac frac math follows total number points math left begin matrix n end matrix right q frac q n q q n q n cdots q


math also equals number hyperplanes number lines point calculated math q n q n cdots q math also number hyperplanes fixed point let subspaces galois geometry intersection subspace set theoretic union may '''join''' subspaces denoted smallest subspace contains dimensions join intersection


two subspaces related formula math uw u w u cap w math coordinates respect fixed basis every vector uniquely represented tuple elements projective point equivalence class vectors many different coordinates vectors correspond point however related one another since non zero scalar multiple others gives rise concept homogeneous coordinates used represent points projective space history gino


fano early writer area galois geometries article ref name fano ref proving independence set axioms projective ''n'' space among things considered consequences fourth harmonic point equal conjugate leads configuration seven points seven lines contained finite three dimensional space points lines planes line contained three points ref name fano planes space consist seven points seven lines known


theorem states galois geometry odd order projective plane defined finite field odd characteristic every oval conic result often credited establishing galois geometries significant area research international mathematical congress segre presented survey results galois geometry known time see also incidence geometry notes references external links '' https encyclopediaofmathorg wiki galois geometry galois geometry '' encyclopaedia mathematics springerlink finite geometry finite fields algebraic geometry analytic geometry


'''empirical sociology''' study sociology based methodological methods techniques collecting processing communicating primary sociological information describes situation aspects social life economy law family politics research empirical sociology often concerned aspects everyday life common sense treats resource form knowledge empirical sociology inductively studies people appreciate get along empirical sociology american tradition roots social reform movements progressive era definition task empirical

Social science
Sociology
Empirical sociology


barry smart book sociology phenomenology marxian analysis empirical sociology established eastern europe polish sociologist ludwig gumplowicz done sociological research society law gumplowicz 's main contribution development empirical sociology focus groups people austrian philosopher science sociologist otto neurath instrumental development empirical sociology approaches empirical sociology like parsons 's systems theory defined criticized positivism adorno positivism characterized two necessarily related features empiricism positivism empirical positivist approaches sociology


argue data collection analysis important empiricism idea knowledge based senses tell us rather thoughts feelings empirical sociology therefore view sociology based data gathered senses rather abstract object theory positivism initially looks like empiricism positivism level belief social issues studied using methods physical sciences references notes resources sociology science empiricism


gottfried wilhelm leibniz argued idealized numbers containing infinitesimals introduced history calculus fraught philosophical debates meaning logical validity fluxions infinitesimal numbers standard way resolve debates define operations calculus using epsilon delta procedures rather infinitesimals '''nonstandard analysis''' instead reformulates calculus using logically rigorous notion infinitesimal numbers nonstandard analysis originated early mathematician abraham robinson wrote blockquote idea infinitely small ''infinitesimal'' quantities seems appeal naturally intuition rate

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Analysis
Non-standard analysis


use infinitesimals widespread formative stages differential integral calculus objection distance two distinct real numbers cannot infinitely small gottfried wilhelm leibniz argued theory infinitesimals implies introduction ideal numbers might infinitely small infinitely large compared real numbers ''to possess properties latter'' blockquote robinson argued law continuity leibniz 's precursor transfer principle robinson continued blockquote however neither disciples successors able


theory blockquote intuitionist arend heyting praised nonstandard analysis standard model important mathematical research introduction non zero element ordered field math mathbb f math infinitesimal absolute value smaller element math mathbb f math form math frac n math math n math standard natural number ordered fields infinitesimal elements also called non archimedean generally nonstandard analysis form mathematics relies nonstandard models transfer principle field satisfies transfer principle real numbers hyperreal field nonstandard real analysis


uses fields ''nonstandard models'' real numbers robinson 's original approach based nonstandard models field real numbers classic foundational book subject ''nonstandard analysis'' published still print ref name nsa ref page robinson writes blockquote existence nonstandard models arithmetic discovered thoralf skolem skolem 's method foreshadows ultrapower construction blockquote several technical issues must addressed develop calculus infinitesimals example enough construct ordered field infinitesimals see article hyperreal numbers


discussion relevant ideas basic definitions section outline one simplest approaches defining hyperreal field math mathbb r math let math mathbb r math field real numbers let math mathbb n math semiring natural numbers denote math mathbb r mathbb n math set sequences real numbers field math mathbb r math defined suitable quotient math mathbb r mathbb n math follows take nonprincipal ultrafilter math f subseteq p mathbb n math particular math f math contains fr chet filter consider pair sequences math u u n v v n mathbb r mathbb n math say math u math math v math


equivalent coincide set indices member ultrafilter formulas math n mathbb n u n v n f math quotient math mathbb r mathbb n math resulting equivalence relation hyperreal field math mathbb r math situation summarized formula math mathbb r mathbb r mathbb n f math motivation least three reasons consider nonstandard analysis historical pedagogical technical historical much earliest development infinitesimal calculus newton leibniz formulated using expressions ''infinitesimal number'' ''vanishing quantity'' noted article hyperreal numbers


formulations widely criticized george berkeley others challenge developing consistent satisfactory theory analysis using infinitesimals first met abraham robinson ref name nsa curt schmieden detlef laugwitz published article eine erweiterung der infinitesimalrechnung extension infinitesimal calculus proposed construction ring containing infinitesimals ring constructed sequences real numbers two sequences considered equivalent differed finite number elements arithmetic operations defined elementwise however ring constructed way contains zero divisors thus


transfer principle mentioned another pedagogical application nonstandard analysis edward nelson 's treatment theory stochastic processes ref name ele edward nelson ''radically elementary probability theory'' princeton university press http wwwmathprincetonedu nelson books reptpdf full text ref technical recent work done analysis using concepts nonstandard analysis particularly investigating limiting processes statistics mathematical physics sergio albeverio et al ref name alb sergio albeverio jans erik fenstad raphael h egh krohn tom lindstr '' https booksgooglecom bookshl en lr id rb ygjzsc oi fnd pg pp dq nonstandard methods stochastic analysis mathematical physics ots eaaznfwove sig houhgnpwbpi q r iatf v onepage q nonstandard methods stochastic analysis mathematical physics f false nonstandard methods stochastic analysis mathematical physics '' academic press ref discuss applications approaches nonstandard analysis two main different approaches nonstandard analysis


semantic model theoretic approach syntactic approach approaches apply areas mathematics beyond analysis including number theory algebra topology robinson 's original formulation nonstandard analysis falls category ' 'semantic approach'' developed papers based studying models particular saturated models theory since robinson 's work first appeared simpler semantic approach due elias zakon developed using purely set theoretic objects called superstructures approach ''a model theory'' replaced object called ' 'superstructure''


set starting superstructure one constructs another object using ultrapower construction together mapping satisfies transfer principle map relates formal properties moreover possible consider simpler form saturation called countable saturation simplified approach also suitable use mathematicians specialists model theory logic ' 'syntactic approach'' requires much less logic model theory understand use approach developed mid mathematician edward nelson nelson introduced


axioms compatible nonstandard analysis axioms zf abdeljalil saghe proposed explicit approach construct field nonstandard analysis without using ultrafilters year another approach introduced anggha nugraha create calls na infinitesimal analysis approach sort two approaches mentioned semantic syntactic approaches semantically proposed model math mathbb r z math ways simplified version math mathbb r math however let get way goal


using common language talk math mathbb r z math math mathbb r math axiomatically also talked syntax used principles reminiscent bell well microstability nevertheless need distinguish internal external sets strategy https linkspringercom article b logi chunk permeate worry inconsistencies arise conflating two another advantage using approach works reasonably intuitively without getting bogged technical complication robinson 's book abraham robinson 's book ''nonstandard analysis'' published


topics developed book already present article title robinson ref name robinson robinson abraham 'non standard analysis' kon nederl akad wetensch amsterdam proc indag math ref addition containing first full treatment nonstandard analysis book contains detailed historical section robinson challenges received opinions history mathematics based pre nonstandard analysis perception infinitesimals inconsistent entities thus robinson challenges idea augustin louis cauchy 's sum theorem


cours d'analyse concerning convergence series continuous functions incorrect proposes infinitesimal based interpretation hypothesis results correct theorem invariant subspace problem abraham robinson allen bernstein used nonstandard analysis prove every polynomially compact linear operator hilbert space invariant subspace given operator hilbert space consider orbit point iterates applying gram schmidt one obtains orthonormal basis let corresponding nested sequence coordinate subspaces matrix


expressing respect almost upper triangular sense coefficients nonzero sub diagonal coefficients bernstein robinson show polynomially compact hyperfinite index matrix coefficient infinitesimal next consider subspace finite norm infinitely close let operator math p w circ math acting orthogonal projection denote polynomial compact


teturo kamae 's proof individual ergodic theorem l van den dries alex wilkie 's treatment gromov 's theorem groups polynomial growth nonstandard analysis used larry manevitz shmuel weinberger prove result algebraic topology real contributions nonstandard analysis lie however concepts theorems utilize new extended language nonstandard set theory among list new applications mathematics new approaches probability ref name ele hydrodynamics measure theory nonsmooth harmonic analysis etc also applications nonstandard analysis theory


stochastic processes particularly constructions brownian motion random walks albeverio et al ref name alb excellent introduction area research applications calculus application mathematical education h jerome keisler wrote ''elementary calculus infinitesimal approach'' ref name ec covering nonstandard calculus develops differential integral calculus using hyperreal numbers include infinitesimal elements applications nonstandard analysis depend existence ' 'standard part'' finite hyperreal standard part denoted standard real number infinitely close one visualization devices


keisler uses imaginary infinite magnification microscope distinguish points infinitely close together keisler 's book print freely available website see references critique despite elegance appeal aspects nonstandard analysis criticisms voiced well errett bishop alain connes paul halmos documented criticism nonstandard analysis logical framework given set ' 'superstructure'' set set defined conditions math v math math v n v n cup wp v n math math v


bigcup n mathbf n v n math thus superstructure obtained starting iterating operation adjoining power set taking union resulting sequence superstructure real numbers includes wealth mathematical structures instance contains isomorphic copies separable metric spaces metrizable topological vector spaces virtually mathematics interests analyst goes within working view nonstandard analysis set mapping satisfies additional properties formulate principles first


state definitions formula ''bounded quantification'' quantifiers occur formula range restricted sets form math forall x phi x alpha ldots alpha n math math exists x phi x alpha ldots alpha n math example formula math forall x exists b quad x math bounded quantification universally quantified variable ranges existentially quantified variable ranges powerset hand math forall x


ldots n iff p ldots n math ''countable saturation'' ''a'' sub ''k'' sub sub ''k'' '''n''' sub decreasing sequence nonempty internal sets ''k'' ranging natural numbers math bigcap k k neq emptyset math one show using ultraproducts map exists elements called ' 'standard'' elements called hyperreal numbers first consequences symbol denotes nonstandard natural numbers extension principle superset set nonempty see apply countable saturation sequence internal sets math n k


mathbf n k geq n math sequence math ''a sub n sub '' sub ''n'' '''n''' sub nonempty intersection proving result begin definitions hyperreals ''r'' ' 's'' ''infinitely close'' math r cong iff forall theta mathbf r r leq theta math hyperreal ''infinitesimal'' infinitely close example hyperinteger ie element infinitesimal hyperreal ''limited'' ''finite'' absolute value dominated less standard


integer limited hyperreals form subring containing reals ring infinitesimal hyperreals ideal set limited hyperreals set infinitesimal hyperreals ''external'' subsets means practice bounded quantification bound internal set never ranges sets '''example''' plane ranging internal model plane euclidean geometry plane restricted limited values analogous dehn plane external limited


plane parallel postulate violated example line passing point axis infinitesimal slope parallel axis '''theorem''' limited hyperreal unique standard real denoted infinitely close mapping ring homomorphism ring limited hyperreals mapping st also external one way thinking standard part hyperreal terms dedekind cuts limited hyperreal defines cut considering pair sets


set standard rationals less set standard rationals greater real number corresponding seen satisfy condition standard part one intuitive characterization continuity follows '''theorem''' real valued function interval continuous every hyperreal interval see microcontinuity details similarly '''theorem''' real valued function differentiable real value every infinitesimal


hyperreal number value math f' x operatorname st left frac f x h f x h right math exists independent case real number derivative saturation possible improve saturation allowing collections higher cardinality intersected model saturated whenever math math collection internal sets finite intersection property math leq kappa math math bigcap neq emptyset math useful instance topological space may want sup ''x'' sup saturation ensure intersection


standard neighborhood base nonempty cardinal saturated extension constructed see also overspill nonstandard calculus transfer principle internal set theory ''elementary calculus infinitesimal approach'' hyperreal number hyperinteger infinitesimal surreal number non classical analysis smooth infinitesimal analysis criticism nonstandard analysis influence nonstandard analysis hyperfinite set constructive nonstandard analysis calculus made easy reading e e rosinger math https arxivorg abs math short introduction nonstandard analysis arxivorg references bibliography crowell '' http wwwlightandmattercom calc calculus '' text using infinitesimals robert goldblatt ''lectures hyperreals'' introduction nonstandard analysis graduate texts mathematics springer verlag hermoso '' http mathforumorg drmath faq analysis hyperrealshtml nonstandard


robert ''nonstandard analysis'' wiley new york skolem th ber die nicht charakterisierbarkeit der zahlenreihe mittels endlich oder abz hlbar unendlich vieler aussagen mit ausschliesslich zahlenvariablen fundamenta mathematicae stroyan k '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwmathuiowaedu stroyan infsmlcalculus infsmlcalchtm brief introduction infinitesimal calculus '' gordon e kusraev kutateladze '' https wwwspringercom mathematics analysis book infinitesimal analysis '' tao epsilon room ii pages year three mathematical blog american mathematical society providence ri pp nbsp external links https peopleclasufledu block files keeganpdf ''the ghosts departed quantities'' lindsay keegan real closed field infinity


larger interest details battles equipment uniforms use essential subjects military history study causes war social cultural foundations military doctrine side logistics leadership technology strategy tactics used changed time hand war theory explores moral dimensions warfare better limit destructive reality caused war seeks establish doctrine military ethics applied field military history studied academies service schools military command seeks

Applied science
Military sciences
Military history


repeat past mistakes improve upon current performance instilling ability commanders perceive historical parallels battle capitalize lessons learned past certifying military history instructors combat studies institute deemphasizes rote detail memorization focuses themes context relation current future conflict using motto past prologue discipline military history dynamic changing development much subject area societies organisations make use dynamic nature discipline military


history largely related rapidity change military forces art science managing well frenetic pace technological development taken place period known industrial revolution recently nuclear information ages important recent concept revolution military affairs rma attempts explain warfare shaped emerging technologies gunpowder highlights short outbursts rapid change followed periods relative stability popular versus academic military history terms


history profession major countries military history orphan despite enormous popularity general public william h mcneill points branch discipline flourishes intellectual ghetto books question published fall two distinct classes works aimed popular readership written journalists men letters outside academic circles professional work nearly always produced within military establishment study military history universities remains seriously underdeveloped indeed lack interest disdain military history probably constitute one strangest prejudices


profession recent decades university level courses military history remain popular often use films humanize combat experience example eugene p scleh history professor university maine explored advantages problems teaching course modern war images entirely films students said found documentaries valuable dramas however military historians frustrated marginal status major history departments historiography military history historiography study history method discipline history study


specialised topic case military history eye gaining accurate assessment conflicts using available sources reason military history periodised creating overlaying boundaries study analysis descriptions battles leaders may unreliable due inclination minimize mention failure exaggerate success military historians use historiographical analysis effort allow unbiased contemporary view records one military historian jeremy black outlined problems st century military historians face inheritance predecessors eurocentricity technological bias focus leading


military powers dominant military systems separation land sea recently air conflicts focus state state conflict lack focus political tasking forces used ref name pix black black p ix ref challenges sufficient military historians limits method complicated lack records either destroyed never recorded value military secret may prevent salient facts reported scholars still know exact nature greek fire instance researching operation enduring freedom


operation iraqi freedom example presented unique challenges historians due records destroyed protect classified military information among reasons historians utilize knowledge government regulation military organization employing targeted systematic research strategy piece together war histories despite limits wars studied detailed periods human history military historians often compared organization tactical strategic ideas leadership national support militaries different nations early historian jeffrey kimball studied influence historian 's political position


members subscriptions free h war sponsored h net network based michigan state university h war six coeditors academic advisory board sets policy sponsors daily moderated discussions current topics announcements new publications conferences reports developments conferences h net family lists sponsored published scholarly book reviews thousands deal books military history broadly conceived wikipedia wide coverage military history articles editors sponsor wikipedia wikiproject military history encourage readers


join military war museums canadian war museum military museums specialize military histories often organized national point view museum particular country displays organized around conflicts country taken part typically take broad view warfare 's role nation 's history typically include displays weapons military equipment uniforms wartime propaganda exhibits civilian life wartime decorations among others military museum may dedicated particular area imperial war


museum duxford military aircraft deutsches panzermuseum tanks lange max museum western front world war international spy museum espionage national world war museum world war day paratroopers historical center normandy wwii airborne generalist canadian war museum mus e de l'arm e italian alpine wall one find popular museum bunkers small museum https wwwn bunkercom n bunker olang kronplatz heard dolomites south tyrol us army state national


guards operate military history museums across united states three abroad curators debate whether goal providing diverse representations war terms positive negative aspects warfare war seldom presented good thing soldiers heavily praised david lowenthal observed today 's museums nothing seems horrendous commemorate yet andrew whitmarsh notes museums frequently portray sanitised version warfare actual bomber dropped atomic bomb japan became focus angry national controversy veterans attacking curators historians


smithsonian institution planned put fuselage public display uproar led cancellation exhibit early historians documentation military history begins confrontation sumer current iraq elam current iran c bc near modern basra prominent records military history trojan war homer 's ''iliad'' though historicity challenged ''the histories'' herodotus bc bc often called father history next thucydides whose impartiality despite athenian allowed take advantage


exile research war different perspectives carefully examining documents interviewing eyewitnesses approach centered analysis leader taken xenophon bc bc ''anabasis'' recording expedition cyrus younger anatolia records roman julius caesar bc bc enable comparative approach campaigns ''commentarii de bello gallico'' ''commentarii de bello civili'' technological evolution relief ramses ii located abu simbel fighting battle kadesh chariot new weapons development dramatically alter face


war cost warfare preparations training soldiers leaders rule thumb enemy potentially war winning weapon either match neutralize ancient era chariots originated around bc chariot effective fast weapon one man controlled maneuvering chariot second bowman could shoot arrows enemy soldiers became crucial maintenance several governments including new egyptian kingdom shang dynasty nation states early middle zhou dynasty


military unit types technologies developed ancient world slinger hoplite auxiliaries infantry archery chariots cavalry settled agrarian civilizations infantry became core military action infantry started opposing armed groups soldiers underneath commanders greeks early romans used rigid heavily armed phalanxes macedonians hellenistic states would adopt phalanx formations sarissa pikemen romans would later adopt flexible maniples neighbors made extremely successful field battle kingdoms warring states east asia also adopted


infantry combat transition chariot warfare centuries earlier archers major component many ancient armies notably persians scythians egyptians nubians indians koreans chinese japanese cavalry became important tool sicilian expedition led athens attempt subdue syracuse well trained syracusan cavalry became crucial success syracusans macedonian alexander great effectively deployed cavalry forces secure victories battles battle cannae second punic war battle carrhae roman persian wars importance


cavalry would repeated also horse archers ability shoot horseback nbsp parthians scythians mongols various steppe people especially fearsome tactic rd th century ad heavily armored cavalry became widely adopted parthians sasanians byzantines eastern han dynasty three kingdoms etc early indo iranians developed use chariots warfare scythed chariot later invented india soon adopted persians war elephants sometimes deployed fighting ancient warfare first used india later adopted


age primitive forts surrounded ditches filled water forts built mud bricks stones wood available materials romans used rectangular fortresses built wood stone long fortifications contraptions break dating back times romans earlier siege warfare often necessary capture forts middle ages japanese samurai boarding mongol ships military unit types technologies used medieval period artillery cataphract condottieri fyrd rashidun mobile guard mamluk janissary


knight see also chivalry crossbow pikeman samurai sipahi trebuchet bows arrows often used combatants egyptians shot arrows chariots effectively crossbow developed around bc china used lot middle ages english welsh longbow th century also became important middle ages helped give english large early advantage hundred years' war even though english eventually defeated battle cr cy battle agincourt excellent examples destroy enemy using longbow dominated


battlefields century gunpowder illustration eruptor proto cannon capable firing cast iron bombs filled gunpowder th century ming dynasty book huolongjing small english civil war era cannon nbsp mm howitzer firing shell evidence gunpowder evolving slowly formulations chinese alchemists early th century first experiments life force metal transmutation later experiments pyrotechnics incendiaries th century developments gunpowder led many new weapons improved time chinese used incendiary devices based


siege warfare mongols starting mid th century pots wicks flax cotton used containing combination sulfur saltpeter potassium nitrate aconitine oil resin ground charcoal wax joseph needham argued chinese able destroy buildings walls using devices experimentation present western europe combination saltpeter sulfur charcoal used exclusively explosives propellant firearms chinese often referred fire drug arrived europe fully fleshed gunpowder ref name ref cannons


first used europe early th century played vital role hundred years' war first cannons simply welded metal bars form cylinder first cannonballs made stone battle cr cy cannon used battle agincourt would used first infantry firearms fire lances hand cannons held one hand explosive charge ignited lit match hot coal held hand mid th


century came matchlock allowing gun aimed fired held steady hands used arquebus starting clever complicated firing mechanisms invented generate sparks ignite powder instead lit match starting wheel lock snaplock snaphance finally flintlock mechanism simple reliable becoming standard musket early th century beginning th century first european fire ships used ships filled flammable materials set fire sent enemy lines


tactic successfully used francis drake scatter spanish armada battle gravelines would later used chinese russians greeks several countries naval battles naval mines invented th century though used great numbers american civil war used heavily first second world wars air deployed naval mines used mine north vietnamese port haiphong vietnam war iraqi navy saddam hussein used naval mines extensively tanker war part


iran iraq war first navigable submarine built cornelius drebbel could cruise depth feet nbsp however first military submarine constructed isaac peral ''turtle'' developed david bushnell american revolution robert fulton improved submarine design creating ''nautilus'' howitzer type field artillery developed th century fire high trajectory explosive shells targets could reached flat trajectory projectiles organizational changes resulting better training intercommunication made concept


able develop better rocket new rocket longer needed rocket stick higher accuracy series advancements rifles first repeating rifle designed company bought winchester made new improved versions springfield rifles arrived mid th century also machine guns arrived late th century automatic rifles light machine guns first arrived beginning th century later part th century self propelled torpedo developed hnoms rap


world 's first torpedo boat early guns artillery fire lance predecessor gun invented china tenth eleventh century barrel originally designed bamboo shoots later metal joseph needham notes long preparations tentative experiments made china everything came islam west fully fledged whether fire lance explosive bomb rocket metal barrel handgun bombard ref name europe guns scholars state exact time method


migration china remains mystery evidence firearms found iran central asia late fourteenth century roughly guns referenced india reliable references guns russia begins around illustration pot shaped gun found holkham hall milemete manuscript dated shows earliest advent firearms european history illustration shows arrow set pot shaped gun pointed directly structure archaeological evidence gun arrows discovered eltz castle dated relation


historical event feud archbishop trier leading siege seem confirm least one types guns like milemete used early examples ref name ref according peter fraser purton best evidence earliest gun europe loshult gun dated fourteenth century discovered loshult made bronze measured inches length replica loshult created using similar gunpowder compounds present day materials determine effectiveness weapon gunpowder


research group designed recreation found high elevations loshult could fire far meters ref name though inaccurate missing targets meters loshult could fire range projectiles arrows shot ref name determined loshult could effectively fired ranks soldiers structures written works cabinet des titres imperial library paris found evidence canons france works illustrate canons used board ships rouen time


iron fire arm provided forty eight bolts made iron freather also one pound saltpetre half pound sulphur make powder propel arrows ref name ref researchers unable determine sizes canons others outside artifacts recovered sir henry brackenbury able surmise approximate size cannons comparing receipts firearms corresponding amounts gunpowder purchased receipts show transaction livres canons brackenbury able deduce comparing costs