complex morphology language may adopted three models morphology stem attempts analyze languages less match different categories typology item arrangement approach fits naturally agglutinative languages item process word paradigm approaches usually address fusional languages little fusion involved word formation classical typology mostly applies inflectional morphology depending preferred way expressing non inflectional notions languages may classified synthetic using word formation analytic using syntactic phrases examples pingelapese micronesian language spoken pingelap atoll


two eastern caroline islands called high island pohnpei similar languages words pingelapese take different forms add even change meaning verbal suffixes morphemes added end word change form prefixes added front example pingelapese suffix ''kin'' means 'at added end verb ''ius'' use ''ius kin'' use good good ' 'sa '' example

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Morphology (linguistics)


verbal prefix added beginning word means correct incorrect also directional suffixes added root word give listener better idea subject headed verb ''alu'' means walk directional suffix used give detail '' da'' ''aluh da'' walk '' d''i ''aluh di'' walk '' eng'' away speaker listener ''aluh eng'' walk away directional suffixes


limited motion verbs added non motion verbs meanings figurative one following table gives examples directional suffixes possible meanings class wikitable directional suffix motion verb non motion verb '' da'' onset state '' di'' action completed '' la'' away change caused start new state '' doa'' towards action continued certain point time '' sang'' comparative see also morphome linguistics footnotes references reading linguistic typology linguistics terminology grammar


mushrooms considered kind fungal reproductive organ '''mycology''' branch biology concerned study fungi including genetic biochemical properties taxonomy use humans source tinder traditional medicine food entheogens well dangers toxicity infection biologist specializing mycology called '''mycologist''' mycology branches field phytopathology study plant diseases two disciplines remain closely related vast majority plant pathogens fungi overview historically mycology


branch botany although fungi evolutionarily closely related animals plants ref name hecht recognized decades ago ref name woese ref pioneer ''mycologists'' included elias magnus fries christian hendrik persoon anton de bary elizabeth eaton morse lewis david von schweinitz '''pier andrea saccardo''' ' 'developed system classifying imperfect fungi spore color form became primary system used classification dna analysis famous sylloge comprehensive list names used mushrooms sylloge still


alternative chemical based products effective crop diseases management ref name biocontrol field meetings find interesting species fungi known 'forays' first meeting organized woolhope naturalists' field club entitled foray among funguses ' 'sic'' fungi cause disease humans animals study pathogenic fungi infect animals referred medical mycology ref name sanblascalderone ref history believed humans started collecting mushrooms food prehistoric times mushrooms first written works euripides bc greek philosopher theophrastos


eresos bc perhaps first try systematically classify plants mushrooms considered plants missing certain organs later pliny elder ndash ad wrote truffles encyclopedia ''naturalis historia'' word ''mycology'' comes ancient greek ''muk s'' meaning fungus suffix '' logia'' meaning study quoting buller ahr micheli discovery reproduction fungi ''transactions royal society canada'' series ''' ''' ref middle ages saw little advancement body knowledge fungi however invention


printing press allowed authors dispel superstitions misconceptions fungi perpetuated classical authors start modern age mycology begins pier antonio micheli 's publication ''nova plantarum genera'' published florence seminal work laid foundations systematic classification grasses mosses fungi originated still current genus names ''polyporus'' p micheli ref name sf polyporus ''tuber'' p micheli ref name sf tuber dated though descriptions later amended invalid modern rules note referring scientific name genus


l kept name ever since linnaeus 's publication ref name sf acampestris english word agaric still used gilled mushroom corresponds linnaeus 's sense word ref name laessoe term ''mycology'' complementary term ''mycologist'' first used mj berkeley mycology drug discovery centuries certain mushrooms documented folk medicine china japan russia ref name smith although use mushrooms folk medicine centered largely asian continent people parts world like middle east poland belarus documented


using mushrooms medicinal purposes ref name shashkina mushrooms produce large amounts vitamin exposed ultraviolet uv light penicillin ciclosporin griseofulvin cephalosporin psilocybin examples drugs isolated molds fungi see also ethnomycology fungal biochemical test list mycologists list mycology journals marine fungi mushroom hunting mycotoxicology pathogenic fungi protistology references ref ref name hecht ref ref name kibby ref ref name kiger searching names ''agaricus'' ''boletus'' instance finds many mushroom species described linnaeus genera ref ref name laessoe page defines word agaric page gives modern


news aggregators visibility publication 's website search engine results traditional subscription business models distribution fall three main categories paid circulation model magazine sold readers price either per issue basis subscription annual fee monthly price paid issues sent post readers paid circulation allows defined readership statistics non paid circulation means cover price issues given away example street dispensers airline included products publications

Journalism, media studies and communication


model involves giving issues away unspecific populations statistics entail number issues distributed reads controlled circulation model used many trade magazines industry based periodicals distributed qualifying readers often free determined form survey costs eg printing postage associated medium print publishers may distribute free copies everyone requests one unqualified leads instead operate controlled circulation deciding may receive free subscriptions based person 's qualification member trade


likelihood buying example likelihood corporate purchasing authority determined job title allows high level certainty advertisements received advertiser 's target audience avoids wasted printing distribution expenses latter model widely used rise world wide web still employed titles example united kingdom number computer industry magazines use model including ''computer weekly'' ''computing'' finance ''waters magazine'' global media industry example would ''videoage international'' history front cover


october issue ''the illustrated london news'' earliest example magazines ''erbauliche monaths unterredungen'' literary philosophy magazine launched germany ref name mdes ref ''the gentleman 's magazine'' first published london first general interest magazine ref name history edward cave edited ''the gentleman 's magazine'' pen name sylvanus urban first use term magazine analogy military storehouse founded herbert ingram ''the illustrated london news'' first illustrated magazine ref name history ref britain oldest consumer magazine still print


''the scots magazine'' first published though multiple changes ownership gaps publication totalling years weaken claim ''lloyd 's list'' founded edward lloyd 's england coffee shop though online platform still updated daily published magazine since years france ''la gazette'' december ancient regime prominent magazines ''mercure de france'' ''journal des avans'' founded scientists ''gazette de france'' founded jean loret one france 's first journalists


thereby major elements changing political culture example eight catholic periodicals paris none officially owned sponsored church reflected range opinion among educated catholics current issues july revolution overthrew bourbon monarchy several strong supporters bourbon kings eight ultimately urged support new government putting appeals terms preserving civil order often discussed relationship church state generally urged priests focus spiritual matters


engage politics historian patricia dougherty says process created distance church new monarch enabled catholics develop new understanding church state relationships source political authority turkey general ''moniteur ottoman'' gazette written french first published order mahmud ii first official gazette ottoman empire edited alexandre blacque expense sublime porte name perhaps referred french newspaper ''le moniteur universel'' issued weekly


''takvim vekayi'' published months later intended translation ''moniteur'' ottoman turkish edited former consul denmark ''m franceschi'' later ''hassuna de ghiez'' lastly edited lucien rouet however facing hostility embassies closed satire satirical magazines turkey long tradition one earliest satirical magazines ''diyojen'' launched around satirical magazines leading ones ''penguen'' weekly circulation ''leman'' ''uykusuz'' historical examples include


uz aral 's magazine ''g rg r'' reached circulation ''marko pa a'' launched others include ''l manyak'' ''lombak'' united states colonial america publishing expensive industry colonial times paper printer 's ink taxed imported goods quality inconsistent interstate tariffs poor road system hindered distribution even regional scale many magazines launched failing within editions publishers kept trying benjamin franklin said envisioned one first magazines american colonies ''general magazine historical


magazines stimulated increase literary criticism political debate moving towards opinionated pieces objective newspapers ref name biagi increased time prints greater amount space write provided forum public arguments scholars critical observers ref name frank luther mott ref early periodical predecessors magazines started evolve modern definition late ref name frank luther mott works slowly became specialized general discussion cultural periodicals forced adapt consumer market yearned localization issues events ref name biagi progressive


era life'' jul issues general interest magazines focused specific subject referred numbers featured cover art relevant given topic case summer olympics mass circulation magazines became much common circulations hundreds thousands subscribers passed million mark age mass media rapid expansion national advertising cover price fell sharply cents one cause heavy coverage corruption politics local government


big business especially ''muckrakers'' journalists wrote popular magazines expose social political sins shortcomings relied investigative journalism reporting muckrakers often worked expose social ills corporate political corruption muckraking magazines notably ''mcclure 's'' took corporate monopolies crooked political machines raising public awareness chronic urban poverty unsafe working conditions social issues like child labor journalists specialized exposing waste corruption scandal operated state local level like ray stannard baker george creel brand whitlock others like lincoln steffens exposed political


corruption many large cities ida tarbell went john rockefeller 's standard oil company samuel hopkins adams showed fraud involved many patent medicines upton sinclair 's novel ''the jungle'' gave horrid portrayal meat packed also david graham phillips unleashed blistering indictment us senate roosevelt gave journalists nickname complained helpful raking muck st century according research department statista closures magazines outnumbered launches north america


edition ''ladies' home journal'' stopped monthly schedule home delivery subscribers become quarterly newsstand special interest publication magazine stand sweden according statistics end subscription levels top magazines declined ''time'' ''glamour'' ''espn magazine'' gaining numbers women 's magazines seven sisters american women 's magazines ''ladies' home journal'' ''good housekeeping'' ''mccall 's'' ''woman 's day'' ''redbook'' ''family circle'' ''better homes gardens'' magazines like ''godey 's lady 's book'' ''harper 's bazaar'' intended exclusively female audience emphasizing


equally airwise harley w mitchell relative general mitchell ref targeting women fashion new magazines appealed young german women sensuous image advertisements appropriate clothes accessories would want purchase glossy pages ''die dame'' ''das blatt der hausfrau'' displayed neue frauen new girl americans called flapper ideal young woman chic financially independent eager consumer latest fashions magazines kept date fashion arts sports modern technology automobiles telephones


parenting first women 's magazine targeted toward wives mothers published use advice columns advertisements various publications related parenting women 's magazines influenced views motherhood child rearing ref name ref mass marketed women 's magazines shaped transformed cultural values related parenting practices magazines targeting women parenthood exerted power influence ideas motherhood child rearing ref name religion religious groups used magazines spreading communicating religious doctrine years ''the friend'' founded philadelphia


million per issue celebrity human interest gossip magazines publishing stories photos high profile individuals celebrities long popular format united states ''people magazine'' ranked second behind espn magazine total reach reported reach million see also history journalism automobile magazines boating magazines british boys' magazines business magazines computer magazines customer magazines fantasy fiction magazines horror fiction magazines humor magazines inflight magazines literary magazines luxury magazines music magazines news magazines online magazines pornographic magazines pulp magazines science fiction magazines scientific journals shelter magazines home design


oliva ''magazines make history origins development influence'' covers ''time'' ''der spiegel'' ''life'' ''paris match'' ''national geographic'' ''reader 's digest'' '' hola '' ''people'' brooker peter andrew thacker eds ''the oxford critical cultural history modernist magazines volume britain ireland '' buxton william j catherine mckercher newspapers magazines journalism canada towards critical historiography ''acadiensis'' pp nbsp https wwwjstororg stable jstor http journalshilunbca indexphp acadiensis article view also online cox howard simon mowatt ''revolutions grub street history magazine publishing britain'' https wwwamazoncom revolutions grub street magazine publishing dp excerpt w rgler andreas http nbn resolvingde urn nbn de ''national transnational news distribution


'' european history online mainz institute european history retrieved december united states baughman james l ''henry r luce rise american news media'' https wwwamazoncom dp excerpt text search brinkley alan ''the publisher henry luce american century'' alfred knopf pp https wwwnytimescom books bookhtml magazine master builder book review janet maslin ''the new york times'' april damon moore helen ''magazines millions gender commerce ladies' home journal saturday evening post '' https wwwquestiacom library magazines millions gender commerce online elson robert ''time inc intimate history


publishing enterprise '' vol ''the world time inc intimate history '' official corporate history endres kathleen l therese l lueck eds ''women 's periodicals united states consumer magazines'' https wwwquestiacom library women periodicals united states consumer online haveman heather ''magazines making america modernization community print culture '' princeton johnson ronald maberry abby arthur johnson ''propaganda aesthetics literary politics afro american magazines twentieth century'' https wwwquestiacom library propaganda aesthetics literary politics online mott frank luther ''a history american magazines'' five volumes detailed coverage major magazines


leading scholar nourie alan barbara nourie ''american mass market magazines'' greenwood press https wwwquestiacom library american mass market magazines online rooks noliwe ''ladies' pages african american women 's magazines culture made them'' rutgers https wwwquestiacom library ladies pages african american women magazines online summer david e ''the magazine century american magazines since '' peter lang publishing pages examines rapid growth magazines throughout th century analyzes form 's current decline tebbel john mary ellen zuckerman ''the magazine america '' popular history wood james p ''magazines united states social economic influence'' https wwwquestiacom library magazines united states social economic online


zuckerman mary ellen ''a history popular women 's magazines united states '' greenwood press https wwwquestiacom library history popular women magazines united online external links publications format magazines magazine publishing newspapers promotion marketing communications revenue models


diamond cuboctahedron showing seven crystallographic planes imaged scanning electron microscopy interdisciplinary field '''materials science''' also commonly termed '''materials science engineering''' covers design discovery new materials particularly solids intellectual origins materials science stem age enlightenment researchers began use analytical thinking chemistry physics engineering understand ancient phenomenological observations metallurgy mineralogy ref name smith ref materials science still incorporates elements physics chemistry engineering field long considered academic institutions sub field related fields beginning

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering
Materials engineering


materials science began widely recognized specific distinct field science engineering major technical universities around world created dedicated schools study materials scientists emphasize understanding history material ''processing'' influences structure thus material 's properties performance understanding processing structure properties relationships called materials paradigm paradigm used advance understanding variety research areas including nanotechnology biomaterials metallurgy materials science also important part forensic engineering failure analysis investigating materials products structures components


fail function intended causing personal injury damage property investigations key understanding example causes various aviation accidents incidents history late bronze age sword dagger blade material choice given era often defining point phrases stone age bronze age iron age steel age historic arbitrary examples originally deriving manufacture ceramics putative derivative metallurgy materials science one oldest forms engineering applied science modern materials science evolved directly


metallurgy evolved mining likely ceramics earlier use fire major breakthrough understanding materials occurred late th century american scientist josiah willard gibbs demonstrated thermodynamic properties related atomic structure various phases related physical properties material important elements modern materials science products space race understanding engineering metallic alloys silica carbon materials used building space vehicles enabling exploration space materials science driven


materials including ceramics polymers semiconductors magnetic materials biomaterials nanomaterials generally classified three distinct groups ceramics metals polymers prominent change materials science recent decades active usage computer simulations find new materials predict properties understand phenomena fundamentals materials paradigm represented form tetrahedron material defined substance often solid condensed phases included intended used certain applications myriad materials around us found anything


buildings cars spacecraft main classes materials metals semiconductors ceramics polymers new advanced materials developed include nanomaterials biomaterials energy materials name basis materials science studying interplay structure materials processing methods make material resulting material properties complex combination produce performance material specific application many features across many length scales impact material performance constituent chemical elements 's microstructure macroscopic features processing together


laws thermodynamics kinetics materials scientists aim understand improve materials structure structure one important components field materials science materials science examines structure materials atomic scale way macro scale characterization way materials scientists examine structure material involves methods diffraction x rays electrons nowiki neutrons various forms spectroscopy chemical analysis raman spectroscopy energy dispersive spectroscopy chromatography thermal analysis electron microscope analysis etc structure studied following levels atomic structure


atomic structure deals atoms materials arranged give rise molecules crystals etc much electrical magnetic chemical properties materials arise level structure length scales involved angstroms chemical bonding atomic arrangement crystallography fundamental studying properties behavior material bonding obtain full understanding material structure relates properties materials scientist must study different atoms ions molecules arranged bonded


involves study use quantum chemistry quantum physics solid state physics solid state chemistry physical chemistry also involved study bonding structure crystallography doi cm ref crystallography science examines arrangement atoms crystalline solids crystallography useful tool materials scientists single crystals effects crystalline arrangement atoms often easy see macroscopically natural shapes crystals reflect atomic structure physical properties often controlled crystalline defects understanding crystal structures important prerequisite understanding crystallographic


defects mostly materials occur single crystal polycrystalline form aggregate small crystals grains different orientations powder diffraction method uses diffraction patterns polycrystalline samples large number crystals plays important role structural determination materials crystalline structure important materials exhibit regular crystal structure polymers display varying degrees crystallinity many completely non crystalline glass ceramics many natural materials amorphous possessing long range order atomic arrangements study


polymers combines elements chemical statistical thermodynamics give thermodynamic mechanical descriptions physical properties nanostructure buckminsterfullerene nanostructure materials atoms molecules form constituents nanoscale ie form nanostructure called nanomaterials nanomaterials subject intense research materials science community due unique properties exhibit nanostructure deals objects structures nbsp nm range many materials atoms molecules agglomerate together form objects nanoscale causes many interesting electrical magnetic optical mechanical properties describing nanostructures


'nanostructure' often used referring magnetic technology nanoscale structure biology often called ultrastructure microstructure microstructure pearlite microstructure defined structure prepared surface thin foil material revealed microscope magnification deals objects nbsp nm cm microstructure material broadly classified metallic polymeric ceramic composite strongly influence physical properties strength toughness ductility hardness corrosion resistance high low temperature behavior wear resistance traditional materials metals


ceramics microstructured manufacture perfect crystal material physically impossible example crystalline material contain defects precipitates grain boundaries hall petch relationship vacancies interstitial atoms substitutional atoms microstructure materials reveals larger defects advances simulation allowed increased understanding defects used enhance material properties macrostructure macrostructure appearance material scale millimeters meters structure material seen naked eye properties materials exhibit myriad properties including following mechanical properties


see strength materials chemical properties see chemistry electrical properties see electricity thermal properties see thermodynamics optical properties see optics photonics magnetic properties see magnetism properties material determine usability hence engineering application processing synthesis processing involves creation material desired micro nanostructure engineering standpoint material cannot used industry economical production method developed thus processing materials vital field materials science different materials require different processing synthesis methods example processing


also helps understanding phase diagrams phase equilibrium kinetics chemical kinetics study rates systems equilibrium change influence various forces applied materials science deals material changes time moves non equilibrium equilibrium state due application certain field details rate various processes evolving materials including shape size composition structure diffusion important study kinetics common mechanism materials undergo change kinetics


essential processing materials among things details microstructure changes application heat research materials science highly active area research together materials science departments physics chemistry many engineering departments involved materials research materials research covers broad range topics following non exhaustive list highlights important research areas nanomaterials scanning electron microscopy image carbon nanotubes bundles nanomaterials describe principle materials single unit sized least one dimension nanometers sup sup meter usually


nm nbsp nm nanomaterials research takes materials science based approach nanotechnology using advances materials metrology synthesis developed support microfabrication research materials structure nanoscale often unique optical electronic mechanical properties field nanomaterials loosely organized like traditional field chemistry organic carbon based nanomaterials fullerenes inorganic nanomaterials based elements silicon examples nanomaterials include fullerenes carbon nanotubes nanocrystals etc biomaterials iridescent nacre inside nautilus shell biomaterial matter surface construct


interacts biological systems study biomaterials called ''bio materials science'' experienced steady strong growth history many companies investing large amounts money developing new products biomaterials science encompasses elements medicine biology chemistry tissue engineering materials science biomaterials derived either nature synthesized laboratory using variety chemical approaches using metallic components polymers bioceramics composite materials often intended adapted medical applications biomedical devices perform augment replace natural function functions may benign


like used heart valve may bioactive interactive functionality hydroxylapatite coated hip implants biomaterials also used every day dental applications surgery drug delivery example construct impregnated pharmaceutical products placed body permits prolonged release drug extended period time biomaterial may also autograft allograft xenograft used organ transplant material electronic optical magnetic negative index metamaterial ref name aphys ref ref name comp ref semiconductors metals ceramics used today form highly complex systems


integrated electronic circuits optoelectronic devices magnetic optical mass storage media materials form basis modern computing world hence research materials vital importance semiconductors traditional example types materials materials properties intermediate conductors insulators electrical conductivities sensitive concentration impurities allows use doping achieve desirable electronic properties hence semiconductors form basis traditional computer field also includes new areas research superconducting materials spintronics


metamaterials etc study materials involves knowledge materials science solid state physics condensed matter physics computational materials science continuing increases computing power simulating behavior materials become possible enables materials scientists understand behavior mechanisms design new materials explain properties formerly poorly understood efforts surrounding integrated computational materials engineering focusing combining computational methods experiments drastically reduce time effort optimize materials properties given application involves simulating materials length scales using methods density functional theory molecular


dynamics monte carlo dislocation dynamics phase field finite element many industry radical materials advances drive creation new products even new industries stable industries also employ materials scientists make incremental improvements troubleshoot issues currently used materials industrial applications materials science include materials design cost benefit tradeoffs industrial production materials processing methods casting rolling welding ion implantation crystal growth thin film deposition sintering glassblowing etc analytic methods characterization methods electron microscopy x ray diffraction calorimetry nuclear microscopy hefib rutherford backscattering neutron diffraction small angle x ray scattering saxs etc besides material


characterization material scientist engineer also deals extracting materials converting useful forms thus ingot casting foundry methods blast furnace extraction electrolytic extraction part required knowledge materials engineer often presence absence variation minute quantities secondary elements compounds bulk material greatly affect final properties materials produced example steels classified based weight percentages carbon alloying elements contain thus extracting purifying methods used extract iron


blast furnace affect quality steel produced ceramics glasses si sub sub n sub sub ceramic bearing parts another application materials science study ceramics glasses typically brittle materials industrial relevance many ceramics glasses exhibit covalent ionic covalent bonding sio sub sub silica fundamental building block ceramics confused raw unfired clay usually seen crystalline form vast majority commercial glasses contain metal oxide fused silica high temperatures used prepare glass material viscous liquid


solidifies disordered state upon cooling windowpanes eyeglasses important examples fibers glass also used long range telecommunication optical transmission scratch resistant corning gorilla glass well known example application materials science drastically improve properties common components engineering ceramics known stiffness stability high temperatures compression electrical stress alumina silicon carbide tungsten carbide made fine powder constituents process sintering binder hot pressing provides higher density material chemical vapor deposition place film


ceramic another material cermets ceramic particles containing metals wear resistance tools derived cemented carbides metal phase cobalt nickel typically added modify properties composites nbsp diameter carbon filament running bottom left top right siting atop much larger human hair another application materials science industry making composite materials structured materials composed two macroscopic phases applications range structural elements steel reinforced concrete thermal insulating tiles play key integral role


nasa 's space shuttle thermal protection system used protect surface shuttle heat entry earth 's atmosphere one example reinforced carbon carbon rcc light gray material withstands entry temperatures protects space shuttle 's wing leading edges nose cap rcc laminated composite material made graphite rayon cloth impregnated phenolic resin curing high temperature autoclave laminate pyrolized convert resin carbon impregnated furfural alcohol vacuum chamber cured pyrolized convert


furfural alcohol carbon provide oxidation resistance reuse ability outer layers rcc converted silicon carbide examples seen plastic casings television sets cell phones plastic casings usually composite material made thermoplastic matrix acrylonitrile butadiene styrene abs calcium carbonate chalk talc glass fibers carbon fibers added added strength bulk electrostatic dispersion additions may termed reinforcing fibers dispersants depending purpose polymers repeating unit polymer


polypropylene expanded polystyrene polymer packaging polymers chemical compounds made large number identical components linked together like chains important part materials science polymers raw materials resins used make commonly called plastics rubber plastics rubber really final product created one polymers additives added resin processing shaped final form plastics around current widespread use include polyethylene polypropylene polyvinyl chloride pvc polystyrene nylons polyesters


acrylics polyurethanes polycarbonates also rubbers around natural rubber styrene butadiene rubber chloroprene butadiene rubber plastics generally classified ''commodity'' ' 'specialty'' ''engineering'' plastics polyvinyl chloride pvc widely used inexpensive annual production quantities large lends vast array applications artificial leather electrical insulation cabling packaging containers fabrication processing simple well established versatility pvc due wide range plasticisers additives accepts term additives polymer science refers chemicals


compounds added polymer base modify material properties polycarbonate would normally considered engineering plastic examples include peek abs plastics valued superior strengths special material properties usually used disposable applications unlike commodity plastics specialty plastics materials unique characteristics ultra high strength electrical conductivity electro fluorescence high thermal stability etc dividing lines various types plastics based material rather properties applications example polyethylene pe cheap low friction polymer commonly used


make disposable bags shopping trash considered commodity plastic whereas medium density polyethylene mdpe used underground gas water pipes another variety called ultra high molecular weight polyethylene uhmwpe engineering plastic used extensively glide rails industrial equipment low friction socket implanted hip joints metal alloys wire rope made steel alloy study metal alloys significant part materials science metallic alloys use today alloys iron steel stainless steel cast iron tool steel alloy steels make largest


proportion quantity commercial value iron alloyed various proportions carbon gives low mid high carbon steels iron carbon alloy considered steel carbon level steels hardness tensile strength steel related amount carbon present increasing carbon levels also leading lower ductility toughness heat treatment processes quenching tempering significantly change properties however cast iron defined iron carbon alloy less carbon stainless steel


defined regular steel alloy greater weight alloying content chromium nickel molybdenum typically also found stainless steels significant metallic alloys aluminium titanium copper magnesium copper alloys known long time since bronze age alloys three metals relatively recently developed due chemical reactivity metals electrolytic extraction processes required developed relatively recently alloys aluminium titanium magnesium also known valued high strength


built making materials interest industry semiconductor devices replaced thermionic devices vacuum tubes applications semiconductor devices manufactured single discrete devices integrated circuits ics consist number millions devices manufactured interconnected single semiconductor substrate semiconductors use today silicon makes largest portion quantity commercial value monocrystalline silicon used produce wafers used semiconductor electronics industry second silicon gallium arsenide gaas second popular semiconductor used due


combining existing metallurgy ceramics engineering departments splitting existing solid state physics research growing condensed matter physics pulling relatively new polymer engineering polymer science recombining previous well chemistry chemical engineering mechanical engineering electrical engineering field materials science engineering important scientific perspective well applications field materials utmost importance engineers applied fields usage appropriate materials crucial designing systems result materials science increasingly important part


engineer 's education field inherently interdisciplinary materials scientists engineers must aware make use methods physicist chemist engineer thus remain close relationships fields conversely many physicists chemists engineers find working materials science due significant overlaps fields emerging technologies class wikitable sortable emerging technology status potentially marginalized technologies potential applications related articles aerogel hypothetical experiments diffusion early uses traditional insulation glass improved insulation insulative glass


made clear sleeves oil pipelines aerospace high heat extreme cold applications amorphous metal experiments kevlar armor conductive polymers research experiments prototypes conductors lighter cheaper wires antistatic materials organic solar cells femtotechnology picotechnology hypothetical present nuclear new materials nuclear weapons power fullerene experiments diffusion synthetic diamond carbon nanotubes buckypaper programmable matter graphene hypothetical experiments diffusion early uses silicon based integrated circuit components higher strength weight ratios transistors


operate higher frequency lower cost display screens mobile devices storing hydrogen fuel cell powered cars filtration systems longer lasting faster charging batteries sensors diagnose diseases potential applications graphene high temperature superconductivity cryogenic receiver front end crfe rf microwave filter systems mobile phone base stations prototypes dry ice hypothetical experiments higher temperatures copper wire semiconductor integral circuits loss conductors frictionless bearings magnetic levitation lossless high capacity accumulators electric cars heat free integral circuits processors litracon experiments already used make europe gate


glass building skyscrapers towers sculptures like europe gate metamaterials hypothetical experiments diffusion classical optics microscopes cameras metamaterial cloaking cloaking devices metal foam research commercialization hulls space colonies floating cities multi function structures hypothetical experiments prototypes commercial composite materials wide range eg self health monitoring self healing material morphing nanomaterials carbon nanotubes hypothetical experiments diffusion early uses structural steel aluminium stronger lighter materials space elevator potential applications carbon nanotubes carbon fiber


programmable matter hypothetical experiments coatings catalysts wide range eg claytronics synthetic biology quantum dots research experiments prototypes lcd led quantum dot laser future use programmable matter display technologies tv projection optical data communications high speed data transmission medicine laser scalpel silicene hypothetical research field effect transistors subdisciplines main branches materials science stem three main classes materials ceramics metals polymers ceramic engineering metallurgy polymer science polymer engineering additionally broadly applicable materials independent endeavors materials


characterization computational materials science materials informatics also relatively broad focuses across materials specific phenomena techniques crystallography nuclear spectroscopy surface science tribology related fields condensed matter physics mineralogy solid state chemistry solid state physics supramolecular chemistry professional societies american ceramic society asm international association iron steel technology materials research society minerals metals materials society see also bio based material bioplastic forensic materials engineering list emerging materials science technologies list materials science journals list materials analysis methods materials science science fiction timeline materials technology references citations bibliography reading http wwwmaterialmomentsorg top html timeline


materials science minerals metals materials society tms accessed march external links http wwwmatscitechorg ms conference organized main materials societies https ocwmitedu courses materials science engineering mit opencourseware mse building engineering eo materiala enierarto


disorders ref name workwyourdoc ref neurologists treat myriad neurologic conditions including stroke seizures movement disorders parkinson 's disease autoimmune neurologic disorders multiple sclerosis headache disorders like migraine dementias alzheimer 's disease neurologists may also involved clinical research clinical trials basic translational research neurology nonsurgical specialty corresponding surgical specialty neurosurgery ref name workwyourdoc scope many neurological disorders described listed affect central nervous system brain spinal cord peripheral nervous system autonomic nervous system muscular system broadly neurology covers

Applied science
Medicine and health
Internal medicine
Neurology


stroke seizures multiple sclerosis headaches dementia movement disorders history academic discipline began th th centuries work research many neurologists thomas willis robert whytt matthew baillie charles bell moritz heinrich romberg duchenne de boulogne william hammond jean martin charcot c miller fisher john hughlings jackson neo latin ''neurologia'' appeared various texts denoting anatomical focus nerves variably understood vessels notably used willis preferred greek training ref employment field hospitals clinics related occupation polish neurologist edward flatau greatly


influenced developing field neurology published human brain atlas wrote fundamental book migraines jean martin charcot considered one fathers neurology many neurologists also additional training interest one area neurology stroke epilepsy headache neuromuscular disorders sleep medicine pain management movement disorders united states canada neurologists physicians completed postgraduate training period known residency specializing neurology graduation medical school additional training period typically lasts four years first year devoted


training internal medicine average neurologists complete total eight ten years training includes four years medical school four years residency optional one two years fellowship neurologists may treat general neurologic conditions neurologists go receive additional training focusing particular subspecialty field neurology training programs called fellowships one two years duration subspecialties include brain injury medicine clinical neurophysiology epilepsy neurodevelopmental disabilities neuromuscular medicine pain medicine sleep medicine neurocritical care vascular neurology


stroke behavioral neurology child neurology headache multiple sclerosis neuroimaging neurooncology neurorehabilitation germany compulsory year psychiatry must done complete residency neurology united kingdom ireland neurology subspecialty general internal medicine five years medical school two years foundation trainee aspiring neurologist must pass examination membership royal college physicians irish equivalent complete two years core medical training entering specialist training neurology intending become neurologists would also spend


two years working psychiatric units obtaining diploma psychological medicine however uncommon mrcpsych takes three years obtain would longer practical period research essential obtaining higher degree aids career progression many found eased attachment institute neurology queen square london neurologists enter field rehabilitation medicine known physiatry us specialise neurological rehabilitation may include stroke medicine well traumatic brain injuries physical examination neurological examination


neurologist reviews patient 's health history special attention patient neurologic complaints patient takes neurological exam typically exam tests mental status function cranial nerves including vision strength coordination reflexes sensation gait information helps neurologist determine whether problem exists nervous system clinical localization localization pathology key process neurologists develop differential diagnosis tests may needed confirm diagnosis ultimately guide therapy appropriate management clinical tasks neurologists examine patients referred


neurophysiologic studies including electroencephalography eeg needle electromyography emg nerve conduction studies ncss evoked potentials also commonly ordered neurologists frequently perform lumbar punctures assess characteristics patient 's cerebrospinal fluid advances genetic testing made genetic testing important tool classification inherited neuromuscular disease diagnosis many neurogenetic diseases role genetic influences development acquired neurologic diseases active area research commonly encountered conditions treated neurologists include headaches radiculopathy neuropathy stroke dementia seizures epilepsy alzheimer 's disease attention deficit hyperactivity disorder


electrodiagnostic medicine studies needle emg ncss us physicians typically specialize aspects clinical neurophysiology ie sleep eeg emg ncss american board clinical neurophysiology certifies us physicians general clinical neurophysiology epilepsy intraoperative monitoring american board electrodiagnostic medicine certifies us physicians electrodiagnostic medicine certifies technologists nerve conduction studies sleep medicine subspecialty field us several medical specialties including anesthesiology internal medicine family medicine neurology neurosurgery distinct specialty involves different training path


emphasizes surgical treatment neurological disorders also many nonmedical doctors doctoral degrees usually phds subjects biology chemistry study research nervous system working laboratories universities hospitals private companies neuroscientists perform clinical laboratory experiments tests learn nervous system find cures new treatments diseases disorders great deal overlap occurs neuroscience neurology many neurologists work academic training hospitals conduct research neuroscientists addition treating patients teaching neurology medical students general


caseload neurologists responsible diagnosis treatment management conditions mentioned surgical endovascular intervention required neurologist may refer patient neurosurgeon interventional neuroradiologist countries additional legal responsibilities neurologist may include making finding brain death suspected patient died neurologists frequently care people hereditary genetic diseases major manifestations neurological frequently case lumbar punctures frequently performed neurologists neurologists may develop interest particular subfields


role neurologists stroke care many primary well tertiary hospitals cases nervous system infectious diseases treated infectious disease specialists cases headache diagnosed treated primarily general practitioners least less severe cases likewise cases sciatica treated general practitioners though may referred neurologists surgeons neurosurgeons orthopedic surgeons sleep disorders also treated pulmonologists psychiatrists cerebral palsy initially treated pediatricians care may transferred adult neurologist patient reaches certain


dementia relationship clinical neurophysiology countries united states germany neurologists may subspecialize clinical neurophysiology field responsible eeg intraoperative monitoring electrodiagnostic medicine nerve conduction studies emg evoked potentials countries autonomous specialty eg united kingdom sweden spain overlap psychiatry past prior advent advanced diagnostic techniques mri neurologists considered psychiatry neurologic overlap although mental illnesses believed many neurological disorders affecting central nervous system traditionally


distinction neurology psychiatry always biological basis dominance psychoanalytic theory first three quarters th century since largely replaced focus pharmacology despite shift medical model brain science advanced point scientists clinicians point readily discernible pathological lesions genetic abnormalities serve reliable predictive biomarkers given mental disorder neurological enhancement emerging field neurological enhancement highlights potential therapies improve things workplace


efficacy attention school overall happiness personal lives however field also given rise questions neuroethics psychopharmacology lifestyle drugs negative positive effects neurology different types drugs depend people lives cheyanne ldorsey see also american board psychiatry neurology american osteopathic board neurology psychiatry ''developmental neurorehabilitation'' list neurologists list women neuroscientists neuroepigenetics neurohospitalist physician interested inpatient neurological care references


drawing santiago ram n cajal neurons pigeon cerebellum '''neuroscience''' scientific study nervous system ref name merriam ref multidisciplinary science combines physiology anatomy molecular biology developmental biology cytology computer science mathematical modeling understand fundamental emergent properties neurons glia neural circuits understanding biological basis learning memory behavior perception consciousness described eric kandel epic challenge biological sciences scope neuroscience broadened time include different approaches used study


nervous system different scales techniques used neuroscientists expanded enormously molecular cellular studies individual neurons imaging sensory motor cognitive tasks brain history illustration ''gray 's anatomy'' lateral view human brain featuring hippocampus among neuroanatomical features earliest study nervous system dates ancient egypt trepanation surgical practice either drilling scraping hole skull purpose curing head injuries mental disorders relieving cranial pressure first recorded neolithic period manuscripts


dating nbsp bc indicate egyptians knowledge symptoms brain damage early views function brain regarded cranial stuffing sorts egypt late middle kingdom onwards brain regularly removed preparation mummification believed time heart seat intelligence according herodotus first step mummification take crooked piece iron draw brain nostrils thus getting rid portion skull cleared


rest rinsing drugs view heart source consciousness challenged time greek physician hippocrates believed brain involved sensation since specialized organs eg nbsp eyes ears tongue located head near brain also seat intelligence plato also speculated brain seat rational part soul aristotle however believed heart center intelligence brain regulated amount heat heart ref name stanley ref view


electrical excitability muscles neurons first half th century jean pierre flourens pioneered experimental method carrying localized lesions brain living animals describing effects motricity sensibility behavior emil du bois reymond demonstrated electrical nature nerve signal whose speed hermann von helmholtz proceeded measure richard caton found electrical phenomena cerebral hemispheres rabbits monkeys adolf beck published similar observations spontaneous electrical activity brain rabbits dogs ref name adolf beck pioneer ref studies


research work brain damaged patients paul broca suggested certain regions brain responsible certain functions time broca 's findings seen confirmation franz joseph gall 's theory language localized certain psychological functions localized specific areas cerebral cortex localization function hypothesis supported observations epileptic patients conducted john hughlings jackson correctly inferred organization motor cortex watching progression seizures body carl wernicke developed theory specialization specific


name rioch ref rioch originated integration basic anatomical physiological research clinical psychiatry walter reed army institute research starting period schmitt established neuroscience research program within biology department massachusetts institute technology bringing together biology chemistry physics mathematics first freestanding neuroscience department called psychobiology founded university california irvine james l mcgaugh followed department neurobiology harvard medical school founded stephen kuffler understanding neurons


nervous system function became increasingly precise molecular th century example alan lloyd hodgkin andrew huxley presented mathematical model transmission electrical signals neurons giant axon squid called action potentials initiated propagated known hodgkin huxley model richard fitzhugh j nagumo simplified hodgkin huxley called fitzhugh nagumo model bernard katz modeled neurotransmission across space neurons known synapses beginning eric kandel collaborators examined biochemical changes neurons


associated learning memory storage ''aplysia'' catherine morris harold lecar combined models morris lecar model increasingly quantitative work gave rise numerous biological neuron models models neural computation result increasing interest nervous system several prominent neuroscience organizations formed provide forum neuroscientists th century example international brain research organization founded international society neurochemistry european brain behaviour society society neuroscience


recently application neuroscience research results also given rise applied disciplines neuroeconomics neuroeducation neuroethics neurolaw time brain research gone philosophical experimental theoretical phases work brain simulation predicted important future modern neuroscience human nervous system scientific study nervous system increased significantly second half twentieth century principally due advances molecular biology electrophysiology computational neuroscience allowed neuroscientists study nervous system aspects structured works develops


malfunctions changed example become possible understand much detail complex processes occurring within single neuron neurons cells specialized communication able communicate neurons cell types specialized junctions called synapses electrical electrochemical signals transmitted one cell another many neurons extrude long thin filament axoplasm called axon may extend distant parts body capable rapidly carrying electrical signals influencing activity neurons muscles


synaptic networks whose intricacies begun unraveled least one three approximately genes belonging human genome expressed mainly brain due high degree plasticity human brain structure synapses resulting functions change throughout life making sense nervous system 's dynamic complexity formidable research challenge ultimately neuroscientists would like understand every aspect nervous system including works develops malfunctions altered


refers categorization definition identification neuronal astrocytic cell types organism usually refers mouse brain since understanding mouse brain seen stepping stone understand human modern advances classification neuronal cells enabled electrophysiological recording single cell genetic sequencing high quality microscopy recently combined single method pipeline called patch seq methods simultaneously applied using miniature tools efficiency method large amounts data generated allowed researchers make


also considerable interest questions addressed cellular neuroscience include mechanisms neurons process signals physiologically electrochemically questions include signals processed neurites somas neurotransmitters electrical signals used process information neuron neurites thin extensions neuronal cell body consisting dendrites specialized receive synaptic inputs neurons axons specialized conduct nerve impulses called action potentials somas cell bodies neurons contain nucleus another major area cellular neuroscience investigation development


nervous system questions include patterning regionalization nervous system neural stem cells differentiation neurons glia neurogenesis gliogenesis neuronal migration axonal dendritic development trophic interactions synapse formation computational neurogenetic modeling concerned development dynamic neuronal models modeling brain functions respect genes dynamic interactions genes neural circuits systems proposed organization motor semantic neural circuits action language comprehension adapted shebani et al questions systems neuroscience include neural circuits formed used anatomically physiologically produce functions


reflexes multisensory integration motor coordination circadian rhythms emotional responses learning memory words address neural circuits function large scale brain networks mechanisms behaviors generated example systems level analysis addresses questions concerning specific sensory motor modalities vision work songbirds learn new songs bats localize ultrasound somatosensory system process tactile information related fields neuroethology neuropsychology address question neural substrates underlie specific animal human behaviors neuroendocrinology psychoneuroimmunology examine interactions nervous system


endocrine immune systems respectively despite many advancements way networks neurons perform complex cognitive processes behaviors still poorly understood cognitive behavioral neuroscience cognitive neuroscience addresses questions psychological functions produced neural circuitry emergence powerful new measurement techniques neuroimaging eg fmri pet spect eeg meg electrophysiology optogenetics human genetic analysis combined sophisticated experimental techniques cognitive psychology allows neuroscientists psychologists address abstract questions cognition emotion mapped specific neural substrates although many studies still hold reductionist


stance looking neurobiological basis cognitive phenomena recent research shows interesting interplay neuroscientific findings conceptual research soliciting integrating perspectives example neuroscience research empathy solicited interesting interdisciplinary debate involving philosophy psychology psychopathology moreover neuroscientific identification multiple memory systems related different brain areas challenged idea memory literal reproduction past supporting view memory generative constructive dynamic process neuroscience also allied social behavioral sciences well nascent interdisciplinary fields


mathematical descriptions spiking neurons used describe behavior single neurons well dynamics neural networks computational neuroscience often referred theoretical neuroscience nanoparticles medicine versatile treating neurological disorders showing promising results mediating drug transport across blood brain barrier ref name jlfs ref implementing nanoparticles antiepileptic drugs enhances medical efficacy increasing bioavailability bloodstream well offering measure control release time concentration ref name jlfs although nanoparticles assist therapeutic drugs adjusting physical properties achieve desirable effects inadvertent


increases toxicity often occur preliminary drug trials ref name international efforts nanoinformatics research applied nanomedicine ref furthermore production nanomedicine drug trials economically consuming hindering progress implementation computational models nanoneuroscience provide alternatives study efficacy nanotechnology based medicines neurological disorders mitigating potential side effects development costs ref name jlfs nanomaterials often operate length scales classical quantum regimes ref name modeling structure property nanoneedles ref due associated uncertainties length scales nanomaterials operate difficult predict behavior prior vivo studies ref name jlfs


classically physical processes occur throughout neurons analogous electrical circuits designers focus analogies model brain activity neural circuit ref name statistical analysis information processing properties ref success computational modeling neurons led development stereochemical models accurately predict acetylcholine receptor based synapses operating microsecond time scales ref name statistical analysis information processing properties ultrafine nanoneedles cellular manipulations thinner smallest single walled carbon nanotubes computational quantum chemistry used design ultrafine nanomaterials highly symmetrical structures optimize geometry reactivity stability ref name modeling structure property


nanoneedles behavior nanomaterials dominated long ranged non bonding interactions ref name software systems biology tools integrated platforms ref electrochemical processes occur throughout brain generate electric field inadvertently affect behavior nanomaterials ref name modeling structure property nanoneedles molecular dynamics simulations mitigate development phase nanomaterials well prevent neural toxicity nanomaterials following vivo clinical trials ref name international efforts nanoinformatics research applied nanomedicine testing nanomaterials using molecular dynamics optimizes nano characteristics therapeutic purposes testing different environment conditions nanomaterial shape fabrications nanomaterial


surface properties etc without need vivo experimentation flexibility molecular dynamic simulations allows medical practitioners personalize treatment nanoparticle related data translational nanoinformatics links neurological patient specific data predict treatment response ref name software systems biology tools integrated platforms neuroscience medicine neurology psychiatry neurosurgery psychosurgery anesthesiology pain medicine neuropathology neuroradiology ophthalmology otolaryngology clinical neurophysiology addiction medicine sleep medicine medical specialties specifically address diseases nervous system terms also refer clinical disciplines involving diagnosis treatment diseases neurology works diseases


central peripheral nervous systems amyotrophic lateral sclerosis als stroke medical treatment psychiatry focuses affective behavioral cognitive perceptual disorders anesthesiology focuses perception pain pharmacologic alteration consciousness neuropathology focuses upon classification underlying pathogenic mechanisms central peripheral nervous system muscle diseases emphasis morphologic microscopic chemically observable alterations neurosurgery psychosurgery work primarily surgical treatment diseases central peripheral nervous systems translational research mri head patient benign familial macrocephaly recently boundaries


various specialties blurred influenced basic research neuroscience example brain imaging enables objective biological insight mental illnesses lead faster diagnosis accurate prognosis improved monitoring patient progress time integrative neuroscience describes effort combine models information multiple levels research develop coherent model nervous system example brain imaging coupled physiological numerical models theories fundamental mechanisms may shed light psychiatric disorders ref name gordon ref another important area translational research brain computer interfaces machines


able communicate influence brain brain computer interfaces bcis currently researched potential repair neural systems restore certain cognitive functions however ethical considerations dealt accepted major branches modern neuroscience education research activities roughly categorized following major branches based subject scale system examination well distinct experimental curricular approaches individual neuroscientists however often work questions span several distinct subfields class wikitable list major branches neuroscience branch


description affective neuroscience affective neuroscience study neural mechanisms involved emotion typically experimentation animal models behavioral neuroscience behavioral neuroscience also known biological psychology physiological psychology biopsychology psychobiology application principles biology study genetic physiological developmental mechanisms behavior humans non human animals cellular neuroscience cellular neuroscience study neurons cellular level including morphology physiological properties clinical neuroscience scientific study biological mechanisms


underlie disorders diseases nervous system cognitive neuroscience cognitive neuroscience study biological mechanisms underlying cognition computational neuroscience computational neuroscience theoretical study nervous system cultural neuroscience cultural neuroscience study cultural values practices beliefs shape shaped mind brain genes across multiple timescales developmental neuroscience developmental neuroscience studies processes generate shape reshape nervous system seeks describe cellular basis neural development address


underlying mechanisms evolutionary neuroscience evolutionary neuroscience studies evolution nervous systems molecular neuroscience molecular neuroscience studies nervous system molecular biology molecular genetics protein chemistry related methodologies nanoneuroscience interdisciplinary field integrates nanotechnology neuroscience neural engineering neural engineering uses engineering techniques interact understand repair replace enhance neural systems neuroanatomy neuroanatomy study anatomy nervous systems neurochemistry neurochemistry study neurochemicals interact influence function neurons


neuroethology neuroethology study neural basis non human animals behavior neurogastronomy neurogastronomy study flavor affects sensation cognition memory neurogenetics neurogenetics study genetical basis development function nervous system neuroimaging neuroimaging includes use various techniques either directly indirectly image structure function brain neuroimmunology neuroimmunology concerned interactions nervous immune system neuroinformatics neuroinformatics discipline within


bioinformatics conducts organization neuroscience data application computational models analytical tools neurolinguistics neurolinguistics study neural mechanisms human brain control comprehension production acquisition language neurophysics neurophysics branch biophysics dealing development use physical methods gain information nervous system neurophysiology neurophysiology study structure function nervous system generally using physiological techniques include measurement stimulation electrodes optically ion


voltage sensitive dyes light sensitive channels neuropsychology neuropsychology discipline resides umbrellas psychology neuroscience involved activities arenas basic science applied science psychology closely associated biopsychology clinical psychology cognitive psychology developmental psychology neuroscience closely associated cognitive behavioral social affective neuroscience areas applied medical domain related neurology psychiatry paleoneurobiology paleoneurobiology field combines techniques used paleontology archeology study brain


evolution especially human brain social neuroscience social neuroscience interdisciplinary field devoted understanding biological systems implement social processes behavior using biological concepts methods inform refine theories social processes behavior systems neuroscience systems neuroscience study function neural circuits systems neuroscience organizations largest professional neuroscience organization society neuroscience sfn based united states includes many members countries since founding sfn


fens comprises set national level organizations including british neuroscience association german neuroscience society ''neurowissenschaftliche gesellschaft'' french ''soci des neurosciences'' first national honor society neuroscience nu rho psi founded numerous youth neuroscience societies support undergraduates graduates early career researchers also exist simply neuroscience project encephalon brain initiative announced us international brain initiative created currently integrated seven national level brain research initiatives us europe allen institute japan china australia canada korea israel spanning


four continents public education outreach addition conducting traditional research laboratory settings neuroscientists also involved promotion awareness knowledge nervous system among general public government officials promotions done individual neuroscientists large organizations example individual neuroscientists promoted neuroscience education among young students organizing international brain bee academic competition high school secondary school students worldwide united states large organizations society neuroscience promoted neuroscience education developing primer


called brain facts collaborating public school teachers develop neuroscience core concepts k teachers students cosponsoring campaign dana foundation called brain awareness week increase public awareness progress benefits brain research canada cihr canadian national brain bee held annually mcmaster university neuroscience educators formed faculty undergraduate neuroscience fun share best practices provide travel awards undergraduates presenting society neuroscience meetings neuroscientists also collaborated education experts study refine educational techniques optimize learning among


central processor one example computer spinnaker supercomputer sensors also made smart neuromorphic technology example event camera 's brainscales brain inspired multiscale computation neuromorphic hybrid systems hybrid analog neuromorphic supercomputer located heidelberg university germany developed part human brain project 's neuromorphic computing platform complement spinnaker supercomputer based digital technology architecture used brainscales mimics biological neurons connections physical level additionally since components made silicon


model neurons operate average times hours real time seconds machine simulation biological counterparts recent advances neuromorphic microchip technology led group scientists create artificial neuron replace real neurons diseases nobel prizes related neuroscience class wikitable plainrowheaders sortable scope col year scope col prize field scope col class unsortable image scope col laureate scope col lifetime scope col style width pt country scope col class unsortable rationale scope col class unsortable ref physiology


px scope row data sort value pavlov ivan ivan petrovich pavlov russian empire recognition work physiology digestion knowledge vital aspects subject transformed enlarged ref name nobel ref rowspan rowspan physiology px scope row data sort value golgi camilo camillo golgi kingdom italy rowspan recognition work structure nervous system rowspan ref name nobel ref px scope row data sort value ram n cajal santiago santiago ram n cajal


restoration spain physiology px scope row data sort value b r ny robert robert b r ny austria hungary work physiology pathology vestibular apparatus ref name nobel ref rowspan rowspan physiology px scope row data sort value sherrington charles charles scott sherrington united kingdom rowspan discoveries regarding functions neurons rowspan ref name nobel ref px scope row data sort value adrian edgar edgar douglas adrian united kingdom rowspan rowspan physiology px scope row data sort value dale


henry henry hallett dale united kingdom rowspan discoveries relating chemical transmission nerve impulses rowspan ref name nobel ref px scope row data sort value loewi otto otto loewi austria br germany physiology px scope row data sort value heymans corneille corneille jean fran ois heymans belgium discovery role played sinus aortic mechanisms regulation respiration ref name nobel ref rowspan rowspan physiology px scope row data sort value erlanger joseph joseph erlanger


united states rowspan discoveries relating highly differentiated functions single nerve fibres rowspan ref name nobel ref px scope row data sort value gasser herbert herbert spencer gasser united states rowspan rowspan physiology px scope row data sort value hess walter walter rudolf hess switzerland discovery functional organization interbrain coordinator activities internal organs ref name nobel ref px scope row data sort value moniz ant nio ant nio caetano egas moniz portugal


px scope row data sort value lorenz konrad konrad lorenz austria px scope row data sort value tinbergen nikolaas nikolaas tinbergen netherlands rowspan rowspan physiology px scope row data sort value guillemin roger guillemin france rowspan discoveries concerning peptide hormone production brain rowspan ref name nobel ref px scope row data sort value schally andrew v schally poland rowspan rowspan physiology x px scope row data sort value sperry roger w sperry united states discoveries concerning functional specialization cerebral hemispheres ref name nobel


scope row data sort value hubel david h hubel canada rowspan discoveries concerning information processing visual system rowspan ref name nobel x px scope row data sort value wiesel torsten n wiesel sweden rowspan rowspan physiology px scope row data sort value cohen stanley cohen united states rowspan discoveries growth factors rowspan ref name nobel ref px scope row data sort value levi montalcini rita levi montalcini italy physiology px scope row data sort value prusiner stanley stanley b prusiner united states discovery prions


https wwwncbinlmnihgov entrez queryfcgicmd search db books doptcmdl genbookhl term characteristics neuron bnchm bbook buid rid bnchm section basic neurochemistry molecular cellular medical aspects th ed george j siegel bernard w agranoff r wayne albers stephen k fisher michael uhler editors published lippincott williams wilkins damasio r ''descartes' error emotion reason human brain '' new york avon books hardcover paperback gardner h ''the shattered mind person brain damage '' new york vintage books goldstein k ''the organism '' new york zone books hardcover paperback subhash kak architecture knowledge quantum mechanics neuroscience computers consciousness


motilal banarsidass llinas r ''i vortex neurons self'' mit press hardcover paperback luria r ''the man shattered world history brain wound '' cambridge massachusetts harvard university press hardcover paperback luria r ''the mind mnemonist little book vast memory '' new york basic books inc medina j ''brain rules principles surviving thriving work home school ''seattle pear press hardcover dvd pinker ''how mind works '' w


oliver sacks hardcover paperback http wwwscholarpediaorg article encyclopedia neuroscience encyclopedia neuroscience scholarpedia expert articles sternberg e ''are machine brain mind means human '' amherst new york prometheus books churchland p http wwwthemontrealreviewcom neuroscience tells us moralityphp ''braintrust neuroscience tells us morality'' princeton university press external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwneuinfoorg neuroscience information framework nif http wwwasneurochemorg american society neurochemistry http wwwbnaorguk british neuroscience association bna http wwwfensorg federation european neuroscience societies http nbauthtmcedu neuroscience neuroscience online electronic neuroscience textbook http wwwhhmiorg biointeractive neuroscience lectureshtml hhmi neuroscience lecture series ''making mind molecules motion memory'' http wwwneurosciencesassofr ''soci des neurosciences'' http facultywashingtonedu chudler neurokhtml neuroscience kids


neurology nervous system neurophysiology


'''nuclear physics''' field physics studies atomic nuclei constituents interactions addition study forms nuclear matter nuclear physics confused atomic physics studies atom whole including electrons discoveries nuclear physics led applications many fields includes nuclear power nuclear weapons nuclear medicine magnetic resonance imaging industrial agricultural isotopes ion implantation materials engineering radiocarbon dating geology archaeology applications studied field nuclear engineering particle physics evolved


nuclear physics two fields typically taught close association nuclear astrophysics application nuclear physics astrophysics crucial explaining inner workings stars origin chemical elements history henri becquerel since cloud chambers played important role particle detectors eventually lead discovery positron muon kaon history nuclear physics discipline distinct atomic physics starts discovery radioactivity henri becquerel ref name brm ref made investigating phosphorescence uranium salts discovery electron


j j thomson year later indication atom internal structure beginning th century accepted model atom j j thomson 's plum pudding model atom positively charged ball smaller negatively charged electrons embedded inside years followed radioactivity extensively investigated notably marie curie pierre curie ernest rutherford others turn century physicists also discovered three types radiation emanating atoms named alpha beta gamma radiation experiments otto


hahn james chadwick discovered beta decay spectrum continuous rather discrete electrons ejected atom continuous range energies rather discrete amounts energy observed gamma alpha decays problem nuclear physics time seemed indicate energy conserved decays nobel prize physics awarded jointly becquerel discovery marie pierre curie subsequent research radioactivity rutherford


awarded nobel prize chemistry investigations disintegration elements chemistry radioactive substances albert einstein formulated idea mass energy equivalence work radioactivity becquerel marie curie predates explanation source energy radioactivity would wait discovery nucleus composed smaller constituents nucleons rutherford discovers nucleus ernest rutherford published retardation particle radium passing matter hans geiger expanded


work communication royal society experiments rutherford done passing alpha particles air aluminum foil gold leaf work published geiger ernest marsden greatly expanded work published geiger rutherford went royal society explain experiments propound new theory atomic nucleus understand published eventual classical analysis rutherford published may ref name radvanyi ref key preemptive experiment performed ref name radvanyi ref name jariskog ref ref name godenko ref ref name chemeuropecom https wwwchemeuropecom en encyclopedia rutherford modelhtml


rutherford model https wwwlumitoscom en media portals chemeurope com small lumitos ag small rutherford directed famous geiger marsden experiment suggested rutherford 's analysis retrieved june ref university manchester ernest rutherford 's assistant professor ref name godenko ref name chemeuropecom johannes ref name jariskog hans geiger undergraduate marsden ref name godenko ref name chemeuropecom performed experiment geiger marsden rutherford 's supervision fired alpha particles helium nuclei thin film gold foil plum pudding model predicted alpha particles come foil trajectories slightly bent rutherford instructed team


look something shocked observe particles scattered large angles even completely backwards cases likened firing bullet tissue paper bounce discovery rutherford 's analysis data led rutherford model atom atom small dense nucleus containing mass consisting heavy positively charged particles embedded electrons order balance charge since neutron unknown example model


modern one nitrogen consisted nucleus protons electrons total particles nucleus surrounded orbiting electrons eddington stellar nuclear fusion around arthur eddington anticipated discovery mechanism nuclear fusion processes stars paper ''the internal constitution stars'' ref name eddington ref ref name eddington ref time source stellar energy complete mystery eddington correctly speculated source fusion hydrogen helium liberating enormous energy according einstein 's equation ''e mc sup sup '' particularly remarkable


development since time fusion thermonuclear energy even stars largely composed hydrogen see metallicity yet discovered studies nuclear spin rutherford model worked quite well studies nuclear spin carried franco rasetti california institute technology known protons electrons spin rutherford model nitrogen total nuclear particles paired cancel 's spin final odd particle left


nucleus net spin rasetti discovered however nitrogen spin james chadwick discovers neutron chadwick realized radiation observed walther bothe herbert becker ir ne fr ric joliot curie actually due neutral particle mass proton called neutron following suggestion rutherford need particle year dmitri ivanenko suggested electrons nucleus protons neutrons neutrons


spin particles explained mass due protons neutron spin immediately solved problem spin nitrogen one unpaired proton one unpaired neutron model contributed spin direction giving final total spin discovery neutron scientists could last calculate fraction binding energy nucleus comparing nuclear mass protons neutrons composed differences nuclear masses calculated way nuclear reactions measured


found agree einstein 's calculation equivalence mass energy within proca 's equations massive vector boson field alexandru proca first develop report massive vector boson field equations theory mesonic field nuclear forces proca 's equations known wolfgang pauli mentioned equations nobel address also known yukawa wentzel taketani sakata kemmer heitler fr hlich appreciated content proca 's equations developing theory atomic nuclei


yukawa 's particle yukawa 's papers modern model atom complete center atom contains tight ball neutrons protons held together strong nuclear force unless large unstable nuclei may undergo alpha decay emit energetic helium nucleus beta decay eject electron positron one decays resultant nucleus may left excited state case decays ground state emitting high energy photons gamma decay study


strong weak nuclear forces latter explained enrico fermi via fermi 's interaction led physicists collide nuclei electrons ever higher energies research became science particle physics crown jewel standard model particle physics describes strong weak electromagnetic forces modern nuclear physics heavy nucleus contain hundreds nucleons means approximation treated classical system rather quantum mechanical one resulting liquid drop model nucleus energy arises partly


surface tension partly electrical repulsion protons liquid drop model able reproduce many features nuclei including general trend binding energy respect mass number well phenomenon nuclear fission superimposed classical picture however quantum mechanical effects described using nuclear shell model developed large part maria goeppert mayer j hans jensen nuclei certain magic numbers neutrons protons particularly stable shells filled complicated models nucleus also proposed


interacting boson model pairs neutrons protons interact bosons ab initio methods try solve nuclear many body problem ground starting nucleons interactions much current research nuclear physics relates study nuclei extreme conditions high spin excitation energy nuclei may also extreme shapes similar rugby balls even pears extreme neutron proton ratios experimenters create nuclei using artificially induced fusion nucleon transfer reactions employing ion beams accelerator beams


even higher energies used create nuclei high temperatures signs experiments produced phase transition normal nuclear matter new state quark gluon plasma quarks mingle one another rather segregated triplets neutrons protons nuclear decay eighty elements least one stable isotope never observed decay amounting total stable nuclides however thousands isotopes characterized unstable radioisotopes decay time scales ranging fractions


atom protons neutrons converted oxygen atom protons neutrons within seconds created decay neutron nitrogen nucleus converted weak interaction proton electron antineutrino element transmuted another element different number protons alpha decay typically occurs heaviest nuclei radioactive element decays emitting helium nucleus protons neutrons giving another element plus helium many cases process continues several steps kind including


types decays usually beta decay stable element formed gamma decay nucleus decays excited state lower energy state emitting gamma ray element changed another element process nuclear transmutation involved exotic decays possible see first main article example internal conversion decay energy excited nucleus may eject one inner orbital electrons atom process produces high speed electrons beta decay unlike beta decay


transmute one element another nuclear fusion nuclear fusion two low mass nuclei come close contact strong force fuses requires large amount energy strong nuclear forces overcome electrical repulsion nuclei order fuse therefore nuclear fusion take place high temperatures high pressures nuclei fuse large amount energy released combined nucleus assumes lower energy level binding energy per nucleon increases mass number


nickel stars like sun powered fusion four protons helium nucleus two positrons two neutrinos uncontrolled fusion hydrogen helium known thermonuclear runaway frontier current research various institutions example joint european torus jet iter development economically viable method using energy controlled fusion reaction nuclear fusion origin energy including form light electromagnetic radiation produced core stars including sun nuclear fission nuclear


also easily absorb neutrons initiate fission self igniting type neutron initiated fission obtained chain reaction chain reactions known chemistry physics fact many familiar processes like fires chemical explosions chemical chain reactions fission nuclear chain reaction using fission produced neutrons source energy nuclear power plants fission type nuclear bombs detonated hiroshima nagasaki japan end world war ii heavy nuclei uranium thorium may also undergo spontaneous fission much likely


undergo decay alpha decay neutron initiated chain reaction occur must critical mass relevant isotope present certain space certain conditions conditions smallest critical mass require conservation emitted neutrons also slowing moderation greater cross section probability initiating another fission two regions oklo gabon africa natural nuclear fission reactors active billion years ago measurements natural neutrino emission demonstrated around half heat emanating earth 's core


results radioactive decay however known results fission chain reactions production heavy elements according theory universe cooled big bang eventually became possible common subatomic particles know neutrons protons electrons exist common particles created big bang still easily observable us today protons electrons equal numbers protons would eventually form hydrogen atoms almost neutrons created big bang absorbed helium


first three minutes big bang helium accounts helium universe today see big bang nucleosynthesis relatively small quantities elements beyond helium lithium beryllium perhaps boron created big bang protons neutrons collided heavier elements carbon element number elements greater atomic number see today created inside stars series fusion stages proton proton chain cno cycle triple alpha process progressively heavier elements created


evolution star energy released fusion processes involving smaller atoms iron binding energy per nucleon peaks around iron nucleons since creation heavier nuclei fusion requires energy nature resorts process neutron capture neutrons due lack charge readily absorbed nucleus heavy elements created either ' 'slow'' neutron capture process called ' 's'' process ''rapid'' ''r'' process ' 's'' process occurs thermally pulsing stars called agb asymptotic giant branch stars takes hundreds thousands


years reach heaviest elements lead bismuth ''r'' process thought occur supernova explosions provide necessary conditions high temperature high neutron flux ejected matter stellar conditions make successive neutron captures fast involving neutron rich species beta decay heavier elements especially called waiting points correspond stable nuclides closed neutron shells magic numbers see also isomeric shift neutron degenerate matter nuclear chemistry nuclear matter nuclear model nuclear spectroscopy nucleonica web driven nuclear science portal qcd matter references bibliography ''general chemistry'' linus


pauling dover ''introductory nuclear physics'' kenneth krane rd edition undergraduate textbook ''theoretical nuclear subnuclear physics'' john walecka nd edition graduate textbook ''nuclear physics nutshell'' carlos bertulani princeton press external links http wwwaiporg history exhibits rutherford ernest rutherford 's biography american institute physics http dnpapsorg american physical society division nuclear physics http wwwansorg american nuclear society https webarchiveorg web http alsoswluedu qsearchaspxbrowse science fnuclear physics annotated bibliography nuclear physics alsos digital library nuclear issues http wwwnucleonicanet wiki indexphp main page nuclear science wiki http www ndsiaeaorg nuclear data services iaea http wwwbbccouk programmes p nuclear physics bbc radio discussion jim


al khalili john gribbin catherine sutton ''in time'' jan


babylonian clay tablet ybc c bc annotations approximation square root four sexagesimal figures six decimal figures sup sup sup sup '''numerical analysis''' study algorithms use numerical approximation opposed symbolic manipulations problems mathematical analysis distinguished discrete mathematics numerical analysis finds application fields engineering physical sciences st century also life social sciences medicine business even arts current growth computing power

Formal science
Mathematics
Numerical analysis


enabled use complex numerical analysis providing detailed realistic mathematical models science engineering examples numerical analysis include ordinary differential equations found celestial mechanics predicting motions planets stars galaxies numerical linear algebra data analysis stochastic differential equations markov chains simulating living cells medicine biology modern computers numerical methods often relied hand interpolation formulas using data large printed tables since mid th century computers calculate required functions instead many formulas continue used


software algorithms ref name c brezinski c wuytack l numerical analysis historical developments th century elsevier ref numerical point view goes back earliest mathematical writings tablet yale babylonian collection ybc gives sexagesimal numerical approximation square root length diagonal unit square numerical analysis continues long tradition rather giving exact symbolic answers translated digits applicable real world measurements approximate solutions within specified error bounds used general introduction overall goal field numerical analysis


design analysis techniques give approximate accurate solutions hard problems variety suggested following advanced numerical methods essential making numerical weather prediction feasible computing trajectory spacecraft requires accurate numerical solution system ordinary differential equations car companies improve crash safety vehicles using computer simulations car crashes simulations essentially consist solving partial differential equations numerically hedge funds private investment funds use tools fields numerical analysis attempt calculate value stocks


derivatives precisely market participants airlines use sophisticated optimization algorithms decide ticket prices airplane crew assignments fuel needs historically algorithms developed within overlapping field operations research insurance companies use numerical programs actuarial analysis rest section outlines several important themes numerical analysis history field numerical analysis predates invention modern computers many centuries linear interpolation already use years ago many great mathematicians past preoccupied numerical analysis ref name c obvious names


functions values many points function values longer useful computer available large listing formulas still handy mechanical calculator also developed tool hand computation calculators evolved electronic computers found computers also useful administrative purposes invention computer also influenced field numerical analysis ref name c since longer complicated calculations could done direct iterative methods consider problem solving ''x'' sup sup


unknown quantity ''x'' style margin auto text align right direct method ''x'' sup sup ''subtract '' ''x'' sup sup ''divide '' ''x'' sup sup nbsp ''take cube roots'' ''x'' nbsp iterative method apply bisection method ''f'' ''x'' ''x'' sup sup minus initial values ''a'' ''b'' ''f'' ''a'' minus ''f'' ''b'' style margin auto class wikitable iterative method ''a'' ''b'' mid ''f'' mid


minus minus table concluded solution algorithm might return number range error less discretization numerical integration upright two hour race speed car measured three instants recorded following table style margin auto class wikitable time


km h '' 'discretization''' would say speed car constant finally instance total distance traveled first minutes approximately nbsp times nbsp nbsp nbsp would allow us estimate total distance traveled example '''numerical integration''' see using riemann sum displacement integral velocity ill conditioned problem take function note ''f''


''f'' change ''x'' less turns change ''f'' ''x'' nearly evaluating ''f'' ''x'' near ''x'' ill conditioned problem well conditioned problem contrast evaluating function near ''x'' well conditioned problem instance ''f'' ''f'' modest change ''x'' leads modest change ''f'' ''x'' direct methods compute solution problem finite number steps methods would give precise answer performed infinite precision arithmetic


examples include gaussian elimination qr factorization method solving systems linear equations simplex method linear programming practice finite precision used result approximation true solution assuming stability contrast direct methods iterative methods expected terminate finite number steps starting initial guess iterative methods form successive approximations converge exact solution limit convergence test often involving residual specified order decide sufficiently accurate solution hopefully found even


using infinite precision arithmetic methods would reach solution within finite number steps general examples include newton 's method bisection method jacobi iteration computational matrix algebra iterative methods generally needed large problems iterative methods common direct methods numerical analysis methods direct principle usually used though eg gmres conjugate gradient method methods number steps needed obtain exact solution large approximation accepted manner


iterative method discretization furthermore continuous problems must sometimes replaced discrete problem whose solution known approximate continuous problem process called 'discretization' example solution differential equation function function must represented finite amount data instance value finite number points domain even though domain continuum generation propagation errors study errors forms important part numerical analysis several ways error


introduced solution problem round round errors arise impossible represent real numbers exactly machine finite memory practical digital computers truncation discretization error truncation errors committed iterative method terminated mathematical procedure approximated approximate solution differs exact solution similarly discretization induces discretization error solution discrete problem coincide solution continuous problem example compute solution math x math ten iterations


nonzero value differential element chosen numerical stability well posed problems numerical stability notion numerical analysis algorithm called 'numerically stable' error whatever cause grow much larger calculation ref name stab higham n j accuracy stability numerical algorithms vol siam ref happens problem 'well conditioned' meaning solution changes small amount problem data changed small amount ref name stab contrary problem 'ill conditioned' small error data


computing improved guesses ''x'' sub sub ''x'' sub sub etc one method famous babylonian method given ''x'' sub ''k'' sub ''x sub k sub '' ''x sub k sub '' another method called 'method x' given ''x'' sub ''k'' sub ''x'' sub ''k'' sub sup sup sup sup ''x'' sub ''k'' sub notetag fixed point iteration equation math x x x f x math whose solutions include math sqrt math iterates always move right since math f x geq x math hence math x sqrt math converges math x sqrt math diverges iterations scheme calculated table form initial guesses ''x'' sub sub ''x'' sub sub class wikitable babylonian babylonian method x


guess ''x'' sub sub hence babylonian method numerically stable method x numerically unstable '''numerical stability''' affected number significant digits machine keeps machine used keeps four significant decimal digits good example loss significance given two equivalent functions math f x x left sqrt x sqrt x right math math g x frac x sqrt x sqrt x math comparing results math f left sqrt sqrt right left right math math begin alignat g frac sqrt sqrt frac frac end alignat math comparing two results clear loss significance caused


catastrophic cancellation subtracting approximations nearby numbers math sqrt math math sqrt math despite subtraction computed exactly huge effect results even though functions equivalent shown math begin alignat f x x left sqrt x sqrt x right x left sqrt x sqrt x right frac sqrt x sqrt x sqrt x sqrt x x frac sqrt x sqrt x sqrt x sqrt x x frac x x sqrt x sqrt x x frac sqrt x sqrt x frac x sqrt x sqrt x g x end alignat math desired value computed using infinite precision example modification one taken mathew numerical methods using matlab rd ed areas study field numerical analysis includes many sub disciplines major ones computing values


functions class wikitable style float right width px clear right margin left em interpolation observing temperature varies degrees celsius degrees linear interpolation data would conclude degrees degrees pm extrapolation gross domestic product country growing average per year billion last year might extrapolated billion year line points regression linear regression given ''n'' points line


computed passes close possible ''n'' points much glass lemonade optimization suppose lemonade sold lemonade stand per glass glasses lemonade sold per day increase one less glass lemonade sold per day could charged profit would maximized due constraint charge whole cent amount charging per glass yield maximum income per day wind direction blue true


method solving ordinary differential equation one simplest problems evaluation function given point straightforward approach plugging number formula sometimes efficient polynomials better approach using horner scheme since reduces necessary number multiplications additions generally important estimate control round errors arising use floating point arithmetic interpolation extrapolation regression interpolation solves following problem given value unknown function number points