encompasses drug composition properties synthesis drug design molecular cellular mechanisms organ systems mechanisms signal transduction cellular communication molecular diagnostics interactions chemical biology therapy medical applications antipathogenic capabilities two main areas pharmacology pharmacodynamics pharmacokinetics pharmacodynamics studies effects drug biological systems pharmacokinetics studies effects biological systems drug broad terms pharmacodynamics discusses chemicals biological receptors pharmacokinetics discusses absorption distribution metabolism excretion adme chemicals biological systems pharmacology synonymous pharmacy two terms frequently confused


pharmacology biomedical science deals research discovery characterization chemicals show biological effects elucidation cellular organismal function relation chemicals contrast pharmacy health services profession concerned application principles learned pharmacology clinical settings whether dispensing clinical care role either field primary contrast two distinctions direct patient care pharmacy practice science oriented research field driven pharmacology etymology word ''pharmacology'' derived greek ''pharmakon'' drug poison


'' logia'' study knowledge cf etymology ''pharmacy'' pharmakon related pharmakos ritualistic sacrifice exile human scapegoat victim ancient greek religion modern term ''pharmacon'' used broadly term ' 'drug'' includes endogenous substances biologically active substances used drugs typically includes pharmacological agonists antagonists also enzyme inhibitors monoamine oxidase inhibitors history ref image morphin morphinesvg width


alt link thumbtime caption opium 's major active constituent morphine first isolated known act opioid agonist ref name luch ref footer background footer align footer


origins clinical pharmacology date back middle ages pharmacognosy avicenna 's ''the canon medicine'' peter spain 's ''commentary isaac'' john st amand 's ''commentary antedotary nicholas'' early pharmacology focused herbalism natural substances mainly plant extracts medicines compiled books called pharmacopoeias crude drugs used since prehistory preparation substances natural sources however active ingredient crude drugs purified substance adulterated substances traditional medicine varies cultures


may specific particular culture traditional chinese mongolian tibetan korean medicine however much since regarded pseudoscience pharmacological substances known entheogens may spiritual religious use historical context th century english physician nicholas culpeper translated used pharmacological texts culpeper detailed plants conditions could treat th century much clinical pharmacology established work william withering pharmacology scientific discipline advance mid th century amid great biomedical resurgence


period ref name rang ref second half nineteenth century remarkable potency specificity actions drugs morphine quinine digitalis explained vaguely reference extraordinary chemical powers affinities certain organs tissues ref name ahm ref first pharmacology department set rudolf buchheim recognition need understand therapeutic drugs poisons produced effects ref name rang subsequently first pharmacology department england set university college london pharmacology developed th century biomedical science


disease defects pathogens create methods preventive care diagnostics ultimately personalized medicine divisions discipline pharmacology divided many sub disciplines specific focus systems body variety topics involved pharmacology including neuropharmacology renal pharmacology human metabolism intracellular metabolism intracellular regulation pharmacology also focus specific systems comprising body divisions related bodily systems study effects drugs different systems body include neuropharmacology central peripheral nervous systems immunopharmacology immune system divisions


include cardiovascular renal endocrine pharmacology psychopharmacology study use drugs affect psyche mind behavior eg antidepressants treating mental disorders eg depression incorporates approaches techniques neuropharmacology animal behavior behavioral neuroscience interested behavioral neurobiological mechanisms action psychoactive drugs related field neuropsychopharmacology focuses effects drugs overlap nervous system psyche pharmacometabolomics also known pharmacometabonomics field stems metabolomics quantification analysis metabolites produced body ref name daouk weinshilboum


drug discovery characterization drugs related organism 's entire genome pharmacology regarding individual genes pharmacogenetics studies genetic variation gives rise differing responses drugs pharmacoepigenetics studies underlying epigenetic marking patterns lead variation individual 's response medical treatment clinical practice drug discovery toxicologist working labpharmacology applied within clinical sciences clinical pharmacology application pharmacological methods principles study drugs humans example posology study medicines dosed pharmacology closely


related toxicology pharmacology toxicology scientific disciplines focus understanding properties actions chemicals ref name pharmtox ref however pharmacology emphasizes therapeutic effects chemicals usually drugs compounds could become drugs whereas toxicology study chemical 's adverse effects risk assessment ref name pharmtox pharmacological knowledge used advise pharmacotherapy medicine pharmacy drug discovery drug discovery field study concerned creating new drugs encompasses subfields drug design development ref name sd ref drug discovery starts drug design inventive process


engineering branch engineering safety pharmacology specialises detecting investigating potential undesirable effects drugs development medication vital concern medicine also strong economical political implications protect consumer prevent abuse many governments regulate manufacture sale administration medication united states main body regulates pharmaceuticals food drug administration enforce standards set united states pharmacopoeia european union main body regulates pharmaceuticals ema enforce standards set european pharmacopoeia metabolic


stability reactivity library candidate drug compounds assessed drug metabolism toxicological studies many methods proposed quantitative predictions drug metabolism one example recent computational method sporcalc slight alteration chemical structure medicinal compound could alter medicinal properties depending alteration relates structure substrate receptor site acts called structural activity relationship sar useful activity identified chemists make many similar compounds called analogues


try maximize desired medicinal effect take anywhere years decade expensive ref name revisealchem ref one must also determine safe medicine consume stability human body best form delivery desired organ system tablet aerosol extensive testing take six years new medicine ready marketing selling ref name revisealchem long timescales every potential new medicines typically one ever reach


value drug development uses techniques medicinal chemistry chemically design drugs overlaps biological approach finding targets physiological effects wider contexts pharmacology studied relation wider contexts physiology individuals example pharmacoepidemiology concerns variations effects drugs populations bridge clinical pharmacology epidemiology pharmacoenvironmentology environmental pharmacology study effects used pharmaceuticals personal care products ppcps environment elimination body human health ecology intimately related


environmental pharmacology studies environmental effect drugs pharmaceuticals personal care products environment drugs may also ethnocultural importance ethnopharmacology studies ethnic cultural aspects pharmacology ref name int soc ethnopharm ref emerging fields photopharmacology emerging approach medicine drugs activated deactivated light energy light used change shape chemical properties drug resulting different biological activity done ultimately achieve control drugs active reversible manner prevent side effects pollution


drugs environment theory pharmacology trio dose response curves dose response curves studied extensively pharmacology study chemicals requires intimate knowledge biological system affected knowledge cell biology biochemistry increasing field pharmacology also changed substantially become possible molecular analysis receptors design chemicals act specific cellular signaling metabolic pathways affecting sites directly cell surface receptors modulate mediate cellular signaling pathways controlling cellular function chemicals pharmacologically relevant properties effects pharmacokinetics describes effect


body chemical eg half life volume distribution pharmacodynamics describes chemical 's effect body desired toxic systems receptors ligands cholinergic synapse targets synapses modulated pharmacological agents case cholinergics muscarine anticholinergics atropine target receptors transporter inhibitors hemicholinium target membrane transport proteins anticholinesterases sarin target enzymes pharmacology typically studied respect particular systems example endogenous neurotransmitter systems major systems studied pharmacology categorised ligands include acetylcholine adrenaline glutamate


gaba dopamine histamine serotonin cannabinoid opioid molecular targets pharmacology include receptors enzymes membrane transport proteins enzymes targeted enzyme inhibitors receptors typically categorised based structure function major receptor types studied pharmacology include g protein coupled receptors ligand gated ion channels receptor tyrosine kinases pharmacology pharmacodynamics defined body reacts drugs pharmacology models include hill equation cheng prusoff equation schild regression pharmacodynamics theory often investigates binding affinity ligands receptors medication said narrow wide ''therapeutic index''


certain safety factor ''therapeutic window'' describes ratio desired effect toxic effect compound narrow therapeutic index close one exerts desired effect dose close toxic dose compound wide therapeutic index greater five exerts desired effect dose substantially toxic dose narrow margin difficult dose administer may require therapeutic drug monitoring examples warfarin antiepileptics aminoglycoside antibiotics anti cancer drugs narrow therapeutic margin toxic side effects almost always encountered


doses used kill tumors effect drugs described loewe additivity one several common reference models pharmacokinetics pharmacokinetics study bodily absorption distribution metabolism excretion drugs describing pharmacokinetic properties chemical active ingredient active pharmaceutical ingredient api pharmacologists often interested ''l adme'' liberation api disintegrated solid oral forms breaking smaller particles dispersed dissolved medication absorption api absorbed skin intestine oral mucosa


distribution api spread organism metabolism api converted chemically inside body substances active well could toxic excretion api excreted bile urine breath skin drug metabolism assessed pharmacokinetics important drug research prescribing administration drug policy safety drug policy united states food drug administration fda responsible creating guidelines approval use drugs fda requires approved drugs fulfill two requirements


societies european association clinical pharmacology therapeutics organisations representing standardisation regulation clinical scientific pharmacology systems medical classification drugs pharmaceutical codes developed include national drug code ndc administered food drug administration drug identification number din administered health canada food drugs act hong kong drug registration administered pharmaceutical service department health hong kong national pharmaceutical product index south africa hierarchical systems also developed including anatomical therapeutic chemical classification system atc ddd administered


pharmacology interdisciplinary involves biophysical computational sciences analytical chemistry pharmacist needs well equipped knowledge pharmacology application pharmaceutical research pharmacy practice hospitals commercial organisations selling customers pharmacologists however usually work laboratory undertaking research development new products pharmacological research important academic research medical non medical private industrial positions science writing scientific patents law consultation biotech pharmaceutical employment alcohol industry food industry forensics law enforcement public health environmental ecological sciences pharmacology often taught pharmacy medicine students part


medical school curriculum see also references ref ref name daouk weinshilboum ref external links http wwwaspetorg american society pharmacology experimental therapeutics http wwwbpsacuk british pharmacological society http wwwichorg international conference harmonisation http wwwusporg us pharmacopeia http wwwiupharorg international union basic clinical pharmacology http wwwiuphar dborg iuphar committee receptor nomenclature drug classification http wwwguidetopharmacologyorg iuphar bps guide pharmacology reading biochemistry life sciences industry


'''political science''' scientific study politics social science dealing systems governance power analysis political activities political thought political behavior associated constitutions laws modern political science generally divided three subdisciplines comparative politics international relations political theory notable subdisciplines public policy administration domestic politics government often studied within comparative politics political economy political methodology furthermore political science related draws upon fields economics law sociology history philosophy human geography journalism political anthropology psychology


social policy political science methodologically diverse appropriates many methods originating psychology social research cognitive neuroscience approaches include positivism interpretivism rational choice theory behaviouralism structuralism post structuralism realism institutionalism pluralism political science one social sciences uses methods techniques relate kinds inquiries sought primary sources historical documents official records secondary sources scholarly journal articles survey research statistical analysis case studies experimental research model building history origins social political science contemporary political science started take shape latter half


th century time began separate political philosophy traces roots back works aristotle plato written nearly years ago term political science always distinguished political philosophy modern discipline clear set antecedents including also moral philosophy political economy political theology history fields concerned normative determinations ought deducing characteristics functions ideal state advent political science university discipline marked creation


university departments chairs title political science arising late th century fact designation political scientist typically doctorate field also apply master 's subject integrating political studies past unified discipline ongoing history political science provided rich field growth normative positive political science part discipline sharing historical predecessors american political science association ''american political science review''


founded respectively effort distinguish study politics economics social phenomena behavioural revolution new institutionalism behavioral revolution stressing systematic rigorously scientific study individual group behavior swept discipline focus studying political behavior rather institutions interpretation legal texts characterized early behavioral political science including work robert dahl philip converse collaboration sociologist paul lazarsfeld public opinion scholar bernard berelson late early witnessed takeoff


uneven recent developments perestroika movement political science introduced reaction supporters movement called mathematicization political science identified movement argued plurality methodologies approaches political science relevance discipline outside evolutionary psychology theories argue humans evolved highly developed set psychological mechanisms dealing politics however mechanisms evolved dealing small group politics characterized ancestral environment much larger political


structures today 's world argued explain many important features systematic cognitive biases current politics ref name aep michael bang petersen evolutionary psychology mass politics ref national regional politics government sometimes referred area studies photo b tokyo tower surrounding areajpgunited states capitol united states america photo united nations general assembly hall jpgparliament australia australia photo b anicet charles gabriel lemonnier reading voltairejpgjatiyo sangsad bangladesh photo stockmarketjpgnational diet japan photo b social network analysis visualizationpngparliament malaysia malaysia photo zal uchilischa


pravovedeniajpgnational assembly nigeria photo b banderas europeas en la comisi n europeajpgparliament south africa south africa size spacing color ffffff color border white width caption '''main sub disciplines political science''' top left right ''' ''' domestic politics government ''' ''' comparative politics ''' ''' international relations ''' ''' political theory ''' ''' political economy ''' ''' political methodology ''' ''' public administration ''' ''' public policy overview political science social study concerning allocation transfer power decision making roles systems governance including governments international organizations political behaviour


public policies measures success governance specific policies examining many factors including stability justice material wealth peace public health political scientists seek advance positive theses attempt describe things opposed analysing politics others advance normative theses making specific policy recommendations study politics policies closely connected example comparative analyses types political institutions tend produce certain types policies political science provides analysis predictions political governmental issues ref name maddocks ref political


scientists examine processes systems political dynamics countries regions world often raise public awareness influence specific governments ref name maddocks political scientists may provide frameworks journalists special interest groups politicians electorate analyze issues according chaturvedy ref country specific studies political scientists may study political phenomena within one specific country example may study politics united states politics china case united states political scientists known americanists look variety data including constitutional development elections


public opinion public policy social security reform foreign policy us congressional committees us supreme court political scientists often focus politics country example political scientist indonesia may become expert politics indonesia anticipating crises theory political transitions methods analyzing anticipating ref name crises form important part political science several general indicators crises methods proposed anticipating critical transitions among one statistical indicator crisis simultaneous increase variance correlations


large groups proposed crisis anticipation may successfully used various areas applicability early diagnosis political crises demonstrated analysis prolonged stress period preceding ukrainian economic political crisis simultaneous increase total correlation major public fears ukrainian society statistical dispersion pre crisis years feature shared certain major revolutions predicted theory apparent inevitability crises revolutions also developed


study major crises political crises external crises affect politics limited attempts predict regime transitions major changes political institutions political scientists also study governments handle unexpected disasters voters democracies react governments' preparations responses crises cognate fields political scientists work broadly one following five areas political philosophy political theory public administration public law public policy program evaluation program evaluation systematic method collecting analyzing using information answer questions projects policies


programs particularly effectiveness efficiency public private sectors stakeholders often want know whether programs funding implementing voting receiving objecting producing intended effect program evaluation first focuses definition important considerations often include much program costs per participant program could improved whether program worthwhile whether better alternatives whether unintended outcomes whether program goals appropriate useful policy analysis technique used public administration enable civil servants


activists others examine evaluate available options implement goals laws elected officials subfields political science many political scientists conduct research one four areas described political philosophy concerned foundations political community institutions focusing human nature moral purposes political association comparative politics compares contemporary political systems discovers general laws theories international relations concerned developing understanding states non state international actors interact political methodology studies philosophical bases social science political science empirical research design


analysis political science departments also classify methodology well scholarship domestic politics particular country distinct fields united states american politics often treated separate subfield contrast traditional classification academic departments organize scholarship thematic categories including political philosophy political behaviour including public opinion collective action identity political institutions including legislatures international organizations political science conferences journals often emphasize scholarship specific categories american political science association example organized sections address various methods topics


political inquiry research methods political science methodologically diverse political scientists approach study politics host different ontological orientations variety different tools political science essentially study human behaviour aspects politics observations controlled environments often challenging reproduce duplicate though experimental methods increasingly common see experimental political science citing difficulty former american political science association president lawrence lowell said limited impossibility experiment politics observational experimental science ref name lowell lawrence https wwwjstororg stable seq metadata info tab contents


physiology politics ''american political science review'' ref political scientists historically observed political elites institutions individual group behaviour order identify patterns draw generalizations build theories politics like social sciences political science faces difficulty observing human actors partially observed capacity making conscious choices unlike subjects non human organisms biology inanimate objects physics despite complexities contemporary political science progressed adopting variety methods theoretical approaches understanding


traditional focuses social sciences example sociological norms psychological biases connected political phenomena cases political science may either inherit methods study develop contrasting approach ref name wedeen ref example lisa wedeen argued political science 's approach idea culture originating gabriel almond sidney verba exemplified authors like samuel p huntington could benefit aligning closely study culture anthropology ref name wedeen turn methodologies developed within political science may influence researchers fields like


public health conceive approach political processes policies education political science possibly like social sciences whole described discipline lives fault line 'two cultures' academy sciences humanities ref name stoner ref thus american colleges separate school college arts sciences per se political science may separate department housed part division school humanities liberal arts ref name marist see eg department http wwwmaristedu liberalarts polsci political science marist college part division


institutions especially outside united states see political science part broader discipline ''political studies'' ''politics'' ''government'' ''political science'' implies use scientific method ''political studies'' implies broader approach although naming degree courses necessarily reflect content separate programs often professional degrees international relations public policy uncommon undergraduate postgraduate levels master 's level programs public administration professional degrees covering public policy along applied subjects often seen linked politics discipline


may reflected housed department national honor society college university students government politics united states pi sigma alpha writing political science different genres writings political sciences including limited argument essays research papers political theory writing responses articles texts events thoughts reflective papers common piece writing political sciences research papers investigate original research question see also comparative politics history political science international relations outline political science structured


list political topics arranged subject area index politics articles alphabetical list political subjects political history world political lists lists political topics political philosophy references reading '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwapsanetorg content cfm evolution political science '' november apsr centennial volume ''american political science review'' ''apsanet'' february ''european political processes essays readings'' compiled ed original essays henry albinski lawrence k pettit boston allyn bacon vii p ''oxford handbooks political science'' abbott kenneth w duncan snidal hard soft law international


governance international organization atchison amy l editor political science everybody introduction political science university toronto press badie bertrand et al international encyclopedia political science sage blatt jessica race making american political science university pennsylvania press bleich erik islamophobia much theorizing measuring emerging comparative concept american behavioral scientist bornschier v western society transition new brunswick nj transaction bornschier v culture politics economic development london routledge routledge frontiers


political economy bornschier v hegemonic decline west european unification future structure core journal world systems research https doiorg jwsr bornschier v chase dunn c k transnational corporations underdevelopment new york praeger brand ulrich markus wissen crisis continuity capitalist society nature relationships imperial mode living limits environmental governance review international political economy brand ulrich markus wissen limits capitalist nature theorizing overcoming imperial mode living rowman littlefield brand ulrich green economy next oxymoron lessons


learned failures implementing sustainable development gaia ecological perspectives science society caramani daniele editor comparative politics fifth ed oxford university press elsenhans h rise demise capitalist world system leipzig leipziger universit tsverlag elsenhans h saving capitalism capitalists world capitalism global history los angeles sage elsenhans h hartmut elsenhans critique capitalism conversations theory policy implications edited n wilcock c scholz houndmills basingstoke hampshire palgrave macmillan doi elsenhans h development capitalism rent political economy hartmut


elsenhans edited h warnecke berger cham switzerland palgrave macmillan doi elsenhans h babones brics bust stanford university press gerardo l munck richard snyder eds ''passion craft method comparative politics'' baltimore md johns hopkins university press goodin klingemann hans dieter ''a new handbook political science'' oxford new york oxford university press goodin robert e editor oxford handbook political science oxford university press grinin l korotayev tausch ''economic cycles crises global periphery'' springer international publishing heidelberg new york dordrecht london


third ed cambridge university press kohler gernot et al globalization critical perspectives nova science publishers new york contributions samir amin immanuel wallerstein christopher chase dunn kimmo kiljunen andre gunder frank et al klingemann hans dieter ed ''the state political science western europe'' opladen barbara budrich publishers lowndes vivien et al editors theory methods political science fourth ed palgrave macmillan noel hans doi https doiorg http wwwdegruytercom view j xml ten things political scientists know ''the forum'' vol iss article de gruyter morlino leonardo et al political science


global perspective sage norris pippa cancel culture myth reality political studies norris pippa democratic deficit critical citizens revisited cambridge university press roskin cord rl medeiros ja jones ws ''political science introduction'' th ed new york pearson prentice hall rosenberger sieglinde birgit sauer politics religion gender framing regulating veil routledge schram sf caterino b eds '' https booksgooglecom booksid kyj gj demqc making political science matter debating knowledge research method '' new york london new york university press google books february senghaas european


experience historical critique development theory leamington spa warwickshire berg senghaas dieter senghaas pioneer peace development research berlin springer springerbriefs pioneers science practice doi shively w phillips power choice introduction political science fifteenth ed rowman littlefield solomon hussein islamic state coming global confrontation palgrave macmillan tausch prager f '' https booksgooglecom booksid tzywcwaaqbaj printsec frontcover v onepage q f false towards socio liberal theory world development '' basingstoke macmillan new york st martin 's press springer tausch arno globally visible political science st century bibliometric analyses


strategic consequences october available ssrn https ssrncom abstract taylor c l russett b eds karl w deutsch pioneer theory international relations springer van evera stephen guide methods students political science cornell university press zippelius reinhold ''geschichte der staatsideen history political ideas '' th ed munich ch beck zippelius reinhold ''allgemeine staatslehre politikwissenschaft political science '' th ed munich ch beck external links professional organizations https webarchiveorg web http wwwecpreu european consortium political research https webarchiveorg web http icrhstsukubaacjp en institute comparative research human social sciences icr japan https webarchiveorg web http iapssorg international association


political science students http wwwipsaorg international political science association http wwwisanetorg international studies association https webarchiveorg web http wwwmpsanetorg midwest political science association http wwwpsaacuk political studies association uk https webarchiveorg web http spsanet southern political science association reading http ipsaportaluninait ipsaportal top websites political science https ooirorg indexphpcategory polisci observatory international research ooir latest papers trends political science http wwwpoliticalscienceorg prol political science research online prepublished research library guides


media conferences one approach used public relations '''public relations''' '''pr''' practice managing disseminating information individual organization business government agency nonprofit organization public order affect public perception public relations pr publicity differ pr controlled internally whereas publicity controlled contributed external parties public relations may include organization individual gaining exposure audiences using topics public interest news items require direct payment exposure mostly

Journalism, media studies and communication


media based differentiates advertising form marketing communications public relations aims create obtain coverage clients free also known earned media rather paying marketing advertising also known paid media early st century advertising also part broader pr activities example good public relations would generating article featuring pr firm 's client rather paying client advertised next article aim public relations inform public prospective customers investors partners employees


stakeholders ultimately persuade maintain positive favorable view organization leadership products political decisions public relations professionals typically work pr marketing firms businesses companies government public officials public information officers nongovernmental organizations nonprofit organizations jobs central public relations include account coordinator account executive account supervisor media relations manager public relations specialists establish maintain relationships organization 's target audience media relevant trade media opinion leaders common responsibilities include designing communications campaigns writing press releases content


news working press arranging interviews company spokespeople writing speeches company leaders acting organization 's spokesperson preparing clients press conferences media interviews speeches writing website social media content managing company reputation crisis management managing internal communications marketing activities like brand awareness event management success field public relations requires deep understanding interests concerns company 's many stakeholders public relations professional must know effectively address concerns using powerful tool public relations trade publicity


definitions ivy lee man turned around rockefeller name image friend edward louis bernays established first definition public relations early th century follows management function tabulates public attitudes defines policies procedures interests organization followed executing program action earn public understanding acceptance however lee later asked role hearing united transit commission said never able find satisfactory phrase describe ref name twoway


historian eric goldman noted definition public relations webster 's would disputed practitioners critics field ref name twoway ref according bernays public relations counsel agent working modern media communications group formations society order provide ideas public 's consciousness furthermore also concerned ideologies courses actions well material goods services public utilities industrial associations large trade groups secures popular support august world assembly public relations associations


mutually beneficial relationships organizations publics blockquote public relations also defined practice managing communication organization publics history public relations historical roots pre dating th century textbooks regard establishment publicity bureau boston marking founding public relations profession academics found early forms public influence communications management ancient civilizations aristotle 's ''rhetoric'' example explains core foundations persuasion believed evolutionary aspect pr improved


led sophisticated commercial publicity efforts public relations talent entered private sector historians believe modern day public relations first established us ivy lee edward bernays spread internationally meanwhile nascent soviet russia artists poets mayakovsky engaged public relations campaigns various state agencies causes note example likbez many american companies pr departments spread practice europe set european subsidiaries wake marshall plan second half


united states education public relations practitioners typically bachelor 's degree journalism communications public relations marketing english ref name bls public relations specialists ref many senior practitioners advanced degrees survey found forty percent chief communications officers fortune companies master 's degrees survey members public relations society america found percent held accreditation public relations salary ''pr week'' survey found median annual compensation public relations practitioners sector medians ranging non profit sector


worker federal aviation administration earned average approximately ref name fp highest earning public affairs worker within us government meanwhile earned ref name fp salaries public relations specialists local government vary widely chief communications officer utah transit authority earned total compensation early career public information officer city conway south carolina pay range beginning approximately per year canada ''indeed'' reported average annual salary public relations manager june according


stats canada growth demand journalists canada demand pr practitioners continues grow journalists transition public relations smoothly bring much needed skill set profession public relations practitioners typically bachelor 's degree communications public relations journalism english ref name bls public relations specialists senior practitioners advanced degrees industry seen influx journalists newsrooms decline salaries tend higher tactics public relations professionals present face organization individual usually articulate


objectives official views issues relevance primarily media public relations contributes way organization perceived influencing media maintaining relationships stakeholders according dr jacquie l etang queen margaret university public relations professionals viewed discourse workers specializing communication presentation argument employing rhetorical strategies achieve managerial aims ref name l'etang ref specific public relations disciplines include financial public relations communicating financial results business strategy consumer lifestyle public relations gaining publicity particular product service crisis communication responding


news releases vnrs anrs often produced distributed tv outlets hopes used regular program content audience targeting fundamental technique used public relations identify target audience tailor messages relevant audience sometimes interests differing audiences stakeholders common public relations effort necessitate creation several distinct complementary messages messages however relevant thus creating consistency overall message theme audience targeting tactics important public relations


practitioners face kinds problems low visibility lack public understanding opposition critics insufficient support funding sources hand stakeholder theory identifies people stake given institution issue audiences stakeholders presumptive stakeholders stakeholders members target audience example charity commissions public relations agency create advertising campaign raise money find cure disease charity people disease stakeholders audience anyone


likely donate money public relations experts possess deep skills media relations market positioning branding powerful agents help clients deliver clear unambiguous information target audience matters public public relations public group whose members common interest common values particular subject political party members would considered stakeholders people stake interest organization issue potentially involves organization group 're interested publics


public relations '''''traditional publics''''' groups individual ongoing long term relationship may include employees media governments investors customers ref name ref '''''non traditional publics''''' groups typically unfamiliar organization individual relationship may become traditional publics due changes organization society group changing event occurs ref name '''''latent publics''''' group whose values come contact values organization whose members n't yet realized members public yet


aware relationship ref name '''''aware publics''''' group members aware existence commonality values interests organization organized attempted respond commonality '''''intervening publics''''' public helps individual send message another public could media someone stature ref name '''''primary publics ''''' public directly affect organization 's pursuit values driven goals publics would include media employees government shareholder financial institutions immediate community ref name '''''secondary publics''''' high interest


tv radio magazines promote ideas messages tailored specifically target audience social media marketing new way achieve goal also continuation strategy existed decades lister et al said digital media seen continuation extension principal technique already place social media platforms enable users connect audiences build brands increase sales drive website traffic involves publishing content social media profiles engaging followers analyzing results


running social media advertisements goal produce content users share social network help company increase brand exposure broaden customer reach major social media platforms currently facebook instagram twitter linkedin pinterest youtube snapchat digital technology evolved methods measure effective online public relations effectiveness improved public relations society america developing pr strategies since identified steps measure online public relations effectiveness ''engagement'' measure number people engaged item social shares likes


comments ''impressions'' measure number people may viewed item ''items'' measure content blog posts articles etc originally appeared digital media ''mentions'' measure many online items mention brand organization product ''reach'' measure far pr campaign managed penetrate overall terms particular audience types public relations arenas publicists work host different types business verticals entertainment technology music travel television food consumer electronics many publicists build career


specific business space leverage relationships contacts different kinds press strategies b b business business b c business consumer business business publicity highlights service providers provide services products businesses business consumer publicizes products services regular consumers toys travel food entertainment personal electronics music techniques litigation public relations management communication process course legal dispute adjudicatory processing affect outcome effect client 's overall reputation


acknowledging new code ethics advocacy first time core value discipline ref name carolyn bronstein field public relations generally highly un regulated many professionals voluntarily adhere code conduct one professional bodies avoid exposure ethical violations ref name marshall ref chartered institute public relations public relations society america institute public relations organizations publish ethical code still edelman 's semi annual trust survey found percent survey respondents


public believed paid communicators within company credible ref name journal ref individuals public relations growing increasingly concerned company 's marketing practices questioning whether agree company 's social responsibility seek influence marketing counseling policy making role hand individuals marketing increasingly interested incorporating publicity tool within realm marketing according scott cutlip social justification public relations right organization fair hearing point view public forum obtain


hearing ideas requires skilled advocate marketing communications strategist ira gostin believes code conduct conducting business using public relations public relations specialists ability influence society fact checking presenting accurate information necessary maintain credibility employers clients public relation code ethics public relation student society america established set fundamental guidelines people within public relations professions practice use business atmosphere values '''''advocacy''''' serving public interest acting responsible


'''''loyalty''''' stay devoted client remembering duty still serve public interest '''''fairness''''' honorably conduct business clients employers competitors peers vendors media general public respecting opinions right free expression spin spin interpreted historically mean overt deceit meant manipulate public since shifted describing polishing truth ref name safire today spin refers providing certain interpretation information meant sway public opinion companies may use spin create appearance


company events going slightly different direction actually ref name safire safire william https wwwnytimescom magazine spinner spunhtmlscp sq spin definition st cse ''the spinner spun'' ref within field public relations spin seen derogatory term interpreted professionals meaning blatant deceit manipulation skilled practitioners spin sometimes called spin doctors stuart ewen 's ''pr social history spin'' argues public relations real menace democracy renders public discourse powerless corporations able hire public relations professionals transmit messages media channels


persuasion provides boundaries persuasive practices '''''truthfulness''''' message examples communicating something factually true accurate downplay diminish evidence creating false narrative image influence people believe something believe '''''authenticity''''' persuader examples people question honesty integrity truly believe presented benefit reading support advocate statement person product '''''respect''''' persuadee examples presenting statements self interest


genuinely care issue person product presented persuadees rational self thinking beings ethical responsibility hold presenting information '''''equity''''' persuasive appeal examples appeal fair nondiscriminatory target persuadees capable understanding claims context statements present sensitive various interests needs concerns persuadees '''''social responsibility''''' common good examples unfairly stereotyped groups society statements actions statements actions cause harms various groups


society negative consequences group society based statements actions fairly presented issues concern groups may underrepresented society statements actions communicated responsible various societal groups public interest public politics civil society ''propaganda'' bernays argued manipulation public opinion necessary part democracy public relations lobby groups created influence government policy corporate policy public opinion typically way benefits sponsoring


organization fact bernays stresses fact dominated almost every aspect lives relatively small number persons mastered 'mental processes social patterns masses include behavior political economic spheres morals theory individual chooses opinion behavior public issues however practice impossible one study variables approaches particular question come conclusion without external influence reason society agreed upon 'invisible


government' interpret behalf information narrow choice field practical scale lobby group hides true purpose support base known front group front groups form astroturfing intend sway public government without disclosing financial connection corporate political interests create fake grass roots movement giving appearance trusted organization serves public actually serve sponsors politicians also employ public relations professionals help project views policies even


personalities best advantages see also edward bernays brand management grassroots impression management list press release agencies list public relations journals media intelligence media manipulation promotion marketing propaganda public relations india publicist reputation management notes references reading kelleher ''public relations'' st ed new york ny oxford university press stoykov lubomir ''public relations management'' nd ed sofia alma communication communication design business ethics


'''procedural law''' '''adjective law''' jurisdictions referred '' 'remedial law''' '''rules court''' comprises rules court hears determines happens civil lawsuit criminal administrative proceedings rules designed ensure fair consistent application due process us fundamental justice common law countries cases come court substantive law refers actual claim defense whose validity tested procedures procedural law different procedural law context procedural


law '''procedural rights''' may also refer exhaustively rights information access justice right counsel rights public participation right confront accusers well basic presumption innocence meaning prosecution regularly must meet burden proof though different jurisdictions various exceptions rights encompassing general civil political rights environmental law procedural rights reflected within unece convention access information public participation decision making access justice environmental matters known aarhus convention legal procedure although different legal processes aim


resolve many kinds legal disputes legal procedures share common features legal procedure example concerned due process absent special conditions court impose penalty civil criminal individual received notice lawsuit brought received fair opportunity present evidence standardization means cases brought parties informed evidence presented facts determined intended maximize fairness proceeding nevertheless strict procedural


rules certain drawbacks example impose specific time limitations upon parties may either hasten frequently slow pace proceedings furthermore party unfamiliar procedural rules may run afoul guidelines nothing merits case yet failure follow guidelines may severely damage party 's chances procedural systems constantly torn arguments judges greater discretion order avoid rigidity rules arguments judges less discretion order avoid


outcome based personal preferences judge law facts legal procedure larger sense also designed effect best distribution judicial resources example courts general jurisdiction united states criminal cases given priority civil cases criminal defendants stand lose freedom therefore accorded first opportunity case heard european history concepts procedural law substantive law various languages procedural law contrast substantive law concept available


procedure ''actio'' similar english word act procedure ''legis actiones'' ''actio'' included procedural substantive elements procedure ''praetor'' granted denied litigation granting denying respectively ''actio'' granting ''actio'' ''praetor'' end created claims ie procedural act caused substantive claims exist priority procedure substance contrary think relationship nowadays issue priority whether one serves since


''actio'' composed elements procedure substance difficult separate parts even scientific handling law developed medieval times new universities italy particular bologna mantua come full clear separation english system writs middle ages similar problem roman tradition ''actio'' germany unity procedure substance ''actio'' definitely brought end codification ''b rgerliches gesetzbuch'' bgb came force


january expression ''anspruch'' bgb meaning claim cleared procedural elements time founding terms ''formelles materielles recht'' however world war ii expression ''formelles recht'' obviously found contaminated broad extent replaced ''prozessrecht'' narrowing idea behind law litigation thereby excluding eg law procedures law competences see also civil procedure criminal procedure hearing law legal technicality vyavahara reading andreas kollmann ''begriffs und problemgeschichte des verh ltnisses


''god save honorable court choice supreme court justices shapes history'' new york random house zelermyer william ''the legal system operation'' st paul mn west publishing http wwwmpilu max planck institute luxembourg procedural law external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwuscourtsgov rules us federal court rules legal procedure


though napoleonic code among first government acts modern times introduce notion absolute ownership statute protection personal property rights present medieval islamic law jurisprudence ref name makdisi ref feudalist forms common law courts medieval early modern england theory word ''property'' everyday usage refers object objects owned person car book cellphone relationship person law concept acquires nuanced rendering factors consider include nature object


owned privately persons associations government five general justifications given private property rights ref name private property efficient way manage resources decentralized basis allowing expertise specialization develop regard property private property powerful incentive owners put productive use stand gain investment private property allows exchanges modifications private property important source individual autonomy giving individuals independence identity distinct others private property dispersed


often laws competition antitrust property lead commodification certain domains people would prefer commodified social relations debate certain countries example whether organ sales sex services legal private property gives individuals power exacerbate time lead much inequality within society propensity inequality justification wealth redistribution natural rights property ''second treatise government'' english philosopher john locke asserted right individual


one part world according bible god gave world humanity common claimed although persons belong god fruits labor person works labor enters object thus object becomes property person however locke conditioned property lockean proviso enough good left common others us supreme court justice james wilson undertook survey philosophical grounds american property law proceeds two


three degrees possession lowest possession use possession use disposition highest states useful skillful industry soul active life industry reward reward property useful active industry property natural result simple reasoning able present conclusion exclusive opposed communal property preferred wilson however give survey communal property arrangements history colonial virginia also ancient sparta property rights


owner property must able exclude others thing question even though right exclude subject limitations implication owner use thing unless another restriction zoning law prevents ref name traditionalists argue three main rights define property right exclusion use transfer alternative view property favored legal realists property simply denotes bundle rights defined law social policy ref name rights included bundle known property rights bundles


law secondly states shall private property taken public use without compensation line limits power practice eminent domain fifth amendment takings must public use require compensation market value property seized united states puts limitations one one generally water air wild animals priority different parties may claim competing interest property mistake fraud claims inconsistent example party


sue damages property right exercisable land minor property rights may created contract case easements covenants equitable servitudes separate distinction evident rights granted insufficiently substantial confer nonowner definable interest right thing clearest example rights license general even licenses created binding contract give rise property interests property rights personal rights property rights also distinguished personal rights practically


contemporary societies acknowledge basic ontological ethical distinction past groups lacking political power often disqualified benefits property extreme form meant people become objects property legally things chattels see slavery commonly marginalized groups denied legal rights property include jews england married women western societies late th century dividing line personal rights property rights always easy draw instance one 's reputation property commercially exploited affording


property rights question proprietary character personal rights particularly relevant case rights human tissue organs body parts rights women control body times places subordinated people 's control fetus example government intervention controls conditions birthing prohibiting requiring caesarian sections whether woman becomes pregnant carries pregnancy term also subject laws mandating forbidding abortion restricting access birth control woman 's


right control body pregnancy possible pregnancy work food substances ingests activities engages also frequently subject restrictions many parties response number countries passed laws banning pregnancy discrimination english judges recently made point women lack right exclusive control bodies formerly considered fundamental common law right united states quasi property interest explicitly declared dead body also united states


recognised people alienable proprietary right publicity persona patent patenting biotechnological processes products based human genetic material may characterised creating property human life particularly difficult question whether people rights intellectual property developed others body parts pioneering case issue supreme court california held ''moore v regents university california'' individuals property right classification property law characterised great deal historical continuity


technical terminology basic distinction common law systems real property land personal property chattels mid th century principles governing transfer real property personal property intestacy quite different though dichotomy significance anymore distinction still fundamental essential differences two categories obvious example fact land immovable thus rules govern use must differ reason distinction legislation often drafted employing traditional terminology


division land chattels criticised satisfactory basis categorising principles property law since concentrates attention proprietary interests objects interests moreover case fixtures chattels affixed placed land may become part land real property generally sub classified corporeal hereditaments tangible real property land incorporeal hereditaments intangible real property easement way although tenancy involves rights real property leasehold estate typically


considered personal property derived contract law civil law system distinction movable immovable property movable property roughly corresponding personal property immovable property corresponding real estate real property associated rights obligations thereon possession concept possession developed legal system whose principal concern avoid civil disorder general principle person possession land goods even wrongdoer entitled take action anyone interfering possession unless person interfering able


demonstrate superior right england torts interference goods act significantly amended law relating wrongful interference goods abolished longstanding remedies doctrines transfer property term transfer property generally means act living person company state conveys property present future one living persons one living persons state private company transfer property consensual non consensual transfer property


perform act consensual transfers common method acquiring interest property result consensual transaction previous owner example sale gift inheritance law inheritor person entitled receive share heritor 's person died property subject rules inheritance jurisdiction heritor citizen heritor died owned property time death dispositions may also regarded


consensual transactions since effect provide distribution deceased person 's property nominated beneficiaries person may also obtain interest property trust established benefit owner property non consensual transfers also possible property pass one person another independently consent property owner example occurs person dies intestate goes bankrupt property taken execution court judgment cases person


eminent domain eminent domain refers ability state buyout private property individuals order use property public use eminent domain requires state justly compensate property owner acquisition land practice dates back least th century common examples include buying land individuals order state build public roads transportation systems governmental buildings construct certain public goods state also uses eminent domain power large urban renewal projects buy


large portions typically poor housing areas order rebuild eminent domain also consists enabling state condemn certain real estate construction development rights various reasons one must meet location specific regulatory standards building codes order construct property general rule stairs us inch rise inch run exactly inches riser vertical minimum inches tread horizontal step failure meet regulatory standards result


inability receive state building permits state destruction property legal fines increased liability kelo v new london us pivotal case increased scope eminent domain power state us supreme court ruled private property could condemned state ''and'' transferred private company legal successor property law economics finance term legal successor may refer legally established successor property rights inheritance interest terms liabilities debt case bankruptcy lender


legal successor interest right collect debt lease historically leases served many purposes regulation varied according intended purposes economic conditions time leaseholds example mainly granted agriculture late eighteenth century early nineteenth century growth cities made leasehold important form landholding urban areas modern law landlord tenant common law jurisdictions retains influence common law particularly ''laissez faire'' philosophy dominated law contract law


property th century growth consumerism law consumer protection recognised common law principles assuming equal bargaining power parties may cause unfairness consequently reformers emphasised need assess residential tenancy laws terms protection provide tenants legislation protect tenants common ownership single individuals property mostly owned single human however many jurisdictions stipulations limit property owning capacity two main limiting factors include citizenship competency maintaining property many countries non citizens cannot


property limited greatly capacity property united states allows foreign entities buy property united states stipulations surrounding tribal land owned indigenous native americans incompetent individuals also cannot property least without legal guardian incompetent individuals consist largely children cognitively impaired legally recognized allowed property cannot deal without consent legal guardians children capacity pay property taxes groups western legal


systems allow number different forms group ownership property group ownership property law referred co tenancy concurrent ownership two owners property referred co owners concurrent owners us common law property owned many different people parties property shared infinitely divisible number people three types concurrent estates ways people jointly property joint tenancy tenancy common tenancy entirety joint tenancy joint tenancy owner


property undivided interest along full complete ownership owner joint tenancy full right occupy use one owner dies joint tenancy owner takes control deceased owner 's interest tenancy common tenancy common shares ownership equal unequal size one person may larger share property another even owners unequal amount shares owners still right use


property one owner dies share property transferred designated individual contract tenancy entirety tenancy entirety owner property undivided interest along full complete ownership spouse full right occupy use property available married couples spouse cannot transfer interest property without consent spouse couple divorces goes court judge granted wide discretion


corporations created general incorporation statutes allow fictitious legal persons property rights state owners community state many different roles concerning property facilitator protector owner capitalist market economies state largely serves mediator facilitates enforces private property laws communist ideals oppose private property laws communism marxism advocates full state public ownership property private property made us stupid one sided object ''ours'' exists us


capital directly possessed eaten drunk worn inhabited etc short ''used'' us marx however important note many communist societies russia china today forms private property laws encourage economic activity private property laws spur agency individual responsibility united states federal government owns roughly million acres billion acres land united states four major federal land management agencies administer million acres land september


law detinue escheat rei vindicatio replevin torrens title trover infectious invalidity property law different jurisdictions united states property law english property law scots property law south african property law australian property law notes references aa berle 'property production revolution' https wwwjstororg pss columbia law review aa berle 'family lawsuits real property' http wwwwagensellerlawcom practice area real estate litigation attorney family lawsuits real property things keep mind los angeles article review real property common law legal systems common law


'''philosophy law''' branch philosophy examines nature law law 's relationship systems norms especially ethics political philosophy ref name ref ref name ref asks questions like law criteria legal validity relationship law morality philosophy law jurisprudence often used interchangeably though jurisprudence sometimes encompasses forms reasoning fit economics sociology philosophy law sub divided analytical jurisprudence normative jurisprudence ref name ref analytical jurisprudence aims define law

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of law


identifying law 's essential features normative jurisprudence investigates non legal norms shape law legal norms generated law guide human action ref name analytical jurisprudence analytical jurisprudence seeks provide general account nature law tools conceptual analysis account general sense targeting universal features law hold times places ref name ref whereas lawyers interested law specific issue specific jurisdiction philosophers law interested identifying features


law shared across cultures times places taken together foundational features law offer kind universal definition philosophers general approach allows philosophers ask questions example separates law morality politics practical reason ref name often scholars field presume law unique set features separate phenomena though share presumption field traditionally focused giving account law 's nature scholars begun examine nature domains within law eg tort law


contract law criminal law scholars focus makes certain domains law distinctive one domain differs another particularly fecund area research distinction tort law criminal law generally bears difference civil criminal law several schools thought developed around nature law influential natural law theory asserts law inherent nature constitutive morality least part ref name view legislators enact even successfully enforce


immoral laws laws legally invalid view captured maxim unjust law true law 'unjust' means 'contrary natural law' natural law theory medieval origins philosophy thomas aquinas late th century john finnis revived interest theory provided modern reworking legal positivism view law depends primarily social facts legal positivism traditionally associated three doctrines pedigree thesis separability thesis discretion thesis ref name pedigree thesis says


right way determine whether directive law look directive 's source thesis claims fact directive issued proper official within legitimate government example determines directive 's legal validity directive 's moral practical merits separability thesis states law conceptually distinct morality ref name law might contain morality separability thesis states sense necessary truth laws reproduce satisfy certain demands morality though fact often done legal


positivists disagree extent separability thesis exclusive legal positivists notably joseph raz go standard thesis deny possible morality part law discretion thesis states judges create new law given discretion adjudicate cases existing law underdetermines result earliest proponent legal positivism john austin influenced writings jeremy bentham early th century austin held law command sovereign backed threat punishment


contemporary legal positivism long abandoned view twentieth century two positivists profound influence field hans kelsen h l hart kelsen influential notion 'grundnorm' ultimate basic legal norm scholars especially europe accept today anglophone world hart influential scholar ref name hart rejected earlier claim sanctions essential law instead argued law rule based according hart law system primary rules guide conduct law 's subjects


secondary rules regulate primary rules may changed identified adjudicated hart 's theory although widely admired sparked vigorous debate among late twentieth century philosophers law including ronald dworkin john rawls joseph raz john finnis legal realism asserts law product decisions made courts law enforcement attorneys often decided contradictory arbitrary grounds according legal realism law rational system rules norms legal realism critical idea law nature analyzed abstract


instead legal realists advocate empirical approach jurisprudence founded social sciences actual practice law world reason legal realism often associated sociology law united states legal realism gained prominence late th century oliver wendell holmes john chipman grey ref name legal realism became influential scandinavia th century axel h gerstr legal interpretivism denies law source based law necessarily depends human interpretation guided moral norms communities given judges


discretion adjudicate cases one way legal interpretivism says judges characteristically adjudicate way best preserves moral norms institutional facts social practices societies part consistent legal interpretivism one cannot know whether society legal system force laws one knows moral truths justifications practices society contrast legal positivism legal realism possible legal interpretivist claim ''no one''


society knows laws one may know best justification practices legal interpretivism originated ronald dworkin late th century book ''law 's empire'' recent years debates nature law become increasingly fine grained one important debate exists within legal positivism separability law morality exclusive legal positivists claim legal validity norm never depends moral correctness inclusive legal positivists claim moral considerations ''may'' determine legal validity norm necessary


law moral political theories provide foundation law three approaches influential contemporary moral political philosophy approaches reflected normative theories law utilitarianism view laws crafted produce best consequences historically utilitarian thought regarding law associated philosopher jeremy bentham contemporary legal theory utilitarian approach frequently championed scholars work law economics tradition deontology view laws reflect obligation preserve autonomy


philosophy law including critical legal studies libertarian theories law philosophical approaches legal problems philosophers law also concerned variety philosophical problems arise particular legal subjects constitutional law contract law criminal law tort law thus philosophy law addresses diverse topics theories contract law theories criminal punishment theories tort liability question whether judicial review justified notable philosophers law socrates plato aristotle thomas aquinas hadley arkes francis bacon john locke francisco suarez francisco de vitoria hugo grotius benedict de


spinoza john austin legal philosophy frederic bastiat evgeny pashukanis jeremy bentham emilio betti norberto bobbio ant nio castanheira neves jules coleman ronald dworkin francesco d'agostino francisco el de tejada sp nola carlos cossio miguel reale john finnis lon l fuller leslie green robert p george germain grisez h l hart georg wilhelm friedrich hegel oliver wendell holmes jr alf ross tony honor rudolf jhering immanuel kant johann gottlieb fichte hans kelsen joel feinberg david lyons robert alexy reinhold zippelius neil maccormick william e may martha nussbaum gustav radbruch joseph raz jeremy waldron friedrich karl von savigny robert summers roberto unger


catharine mackinnon john rawls pierre schlag robin west carl schmitt j rgen habermas carlos santiago nino geoffrey warnock scott j shapiro shen buhai shang yang han fei zhu xi see also legal maxim critical legal studies critical rationalism constitutional economics indeterminacy debate legal theory judicial activism jurisprudence justice law law economics law literature legal formalism interpretivism legal legal positivism legal realism libertarian theories law natural law philosophy theology fundamental theory catholic canon law rule law rule according higher law virtue jurisprudence ''mens rea'' ''actus reus'' references reading thomas aquinas ''summa


contra gentiles'' many editions hadley arkes ''first things'' princeton new jersey princeton university press ronald dworkin ''taking rights seriously'' cambridge massachusetts harvard university press ronald dworkin ''a matter principle'' cambridge massachusetts harvard university press ronald dworkin ''law 's empire'' cambridge massachusetts harvard university press ronald dworkin ''freedom 's law moral reading american constitution'' cambridge massachusetts harvard university press lon l fuller ''the morality law'' new ct yale university press john chipman gray ''the nature sources law'' peter smith reprint h l hart ''the concept law''


oxford oxford university press h l hart ''punishment responsibility'' oxford oxford university press sterling harwood ''judicial activism restrained defense'' london austin winfield publishers georg wilhelm friedrich hegel ''philosophy right'' oxford university press ian farrell morten ebbe juul nielsen ''legal philosophy questions'' new york automatic press april oliver wendell holmes jr ''the common law'' dover reprint immanuel kant ''metaphysics morals doctrine right '' cambridge university press reprint hans kelsen ''pure theory law'' lawbook exchange ltd reprint catharine mackinnon ''toward feminist theory


state cambridge harvard university press duncan kennedy ''a critique adjudication'' cambridge massachusetts harvard university press david lyons ''ethics rule law'' cambridge cambridge university press david lyons ''moral aspects legal theory'' cambridge cambridge university press neil maccormick ''legal reasoning legal theory'' oxford oxford university press joseph raz ''the authority law'' oxford oxford university press reprint robert summers ''instrumentalism american legal theory'' ithaca ny cornell university press robert summers ''lon fuller'' stanford ca stanford university press roberto mangabeira unger ''the critical legal studies movement''


plasma '''plasma''' ref name https wwwperseustuftsedu hopper textdoc perseus atext aentry dpla fsma henry george liddell robert scott ''a greek english lexicon'' perseus ref one four fundamental states matter consists gas ionsatoms molecules least one orbital electron stripped extra electron attached thus electric charge abundant form ordinary matter universe ref name itptma ref mostly associated stars ref name piel ref including sun ref name phillips ref ref name aschwanden ref extends rarefied intracluster medium possibly intergalactic regions ref name bopa ref plasma first systematically studied irving langmuir


ref name itpp ref ref name itpd ref artificially generated heating neutral gas subjecting strong electromagnetic field presence charged particles makes plasma electrically conductive dynamics individual particles macroscopic plasma motion governed collective electromagnetic fields sensitive externally applied fields ref name itpd b ref response plasma electromagnetic fields used many modern technological devices plasma televisions plasma etching ref name itptma ref depending temperature density certain amount neutral particles may also present case plasma called partially ionized


neon signs lightning examples partially ionized plasmas unlike phase transitions three states matter transition plasma well defined matter interpretation context ref name itpd ref whether given degree ionization suffices call substance 'plasma' depends specific phenomenon considered early history microfields calculated n body simulation note fast moving electrons slow ions resembles bodily fluid plasma first identified laboratory sir william crookes crookes presented lecture called radiant matter


fourth state matter plasma called ''fourth state matter'' solid liquid gas state matter ionized substance becomes highly electrically conductive point long range electric magnetic fields dominate behaviour ref name chen francis f ref ref name freidberg jeffrey p ref plasma typically electrically quasineutral medium unbound positive negative particles ie overall charge plasma roughly zero although particles unbound free sense experiencing forces moving charged particles generate electric currents


movement charged plasma particle affects affected fields created charges turn governs collective behaviour many degrees variation ref name sturrock ref plasma distinct states matter particular describing low density plasma merely ionized gas wrong misleading even though similar gas phase assume definite shape volume following table summarizes principal differences class wikitable property gas plasma interactions '''binary''' two particle collisions rule


three body collisions extremely rare '''collective''' waves organized motion plasma important particles interact long ranges electric magnetic forces electrical conductivity '''very low''' gases excellent insulators electric field strengths tens kilovolts per centimeter '''very high''' many purposes conductivity plasma may treated infinite independently acting species '''one''' gas particles behave similar way largely influenced collisions one another gravity '''two more''' electrons ions possess


higher unity ref name chen francis f ref name freidberg jeffrey p readily shown criterion equivalent smallness ratio plasma electrostatic thermal energy densities plasmas called weakly coupled '''bulk interactions''' debye length much smaller physical size plasma criterion means interactions bulk plasma important edges boundary effects may take place criterion satisfied plasma quasineutral '''collisionlessness''' electron plasma frequency measuring plasma oscillations


charged particle beams electron cloud penning trap positron plasmas dusty plasma dusty plasma contains tiny charged particles dust typically found space dust particles acquire high charges interact plasma contains larger particles called grain plasma laboratory conditions dusty plasmas also called ''complex plasmas'' properties parameters rendition earth 's plasma fountain showing oxygen helium hydrogen ions gush space regions near earth 's poles faint yellow area shown north pole represents gas lost earth space


green area aurora borealis plasma energy pours back atmosphere density ionization degree plasma exist ionization necessary term plasma density usually refers electron density math n e math number charge contributing electrons per unit volume degree ionization math alpha math defined fraction neutral particles ionized math display block alpha frac n n n n math math n math ion density math n n math neutral density number particles per unit volume case fully ionized matter math alpha math


quasineutrality plasma electron ion densities related math n e langle z rangle n math math langle z rangle math average ion charge units elementary charge temperature plasma temperature commonly measured kelvin electronvolts measure thermal kinetic energy per particle high temperatures usually needed sustain ionization defining feature plasma degree plasma ionization determined electron temperature relative ionization energy weakly density thermal equilibrium relationship given saha equation


low temperatures ions electrons tend recombine bound states atoms ref name nicholson ref plasma eventually become gas cases electrons heavy plasma particles ions neutral atoms separately relatively well defined temperature energy distribution function close maxwellian even presence strong electric magnetic fields however large difference mass electrons ions temperatures may different sometimes significantly especially common weakly ionized technological plasmas ions often near ambient temperature electrons reach


thousands kelvin opposite case z pinch plasma ion temperature may exceed electrons plasma potential lightning example plasma present earth 's surface typically lightning discharges kiloamperes megavolts emits radio waves light x even gamma rays plasma temperatures approach k electron densities may exceed sup sup sup sup since plasmas good electrical conductors electric potentials play important role average potential space charged particles independent measured called plasma potential


space potential electrode inserted plasma potential generally lie considerably plasma potential due termed debye sheath good electrical conductivity plasmas makes electric fields small results important concept quasineutrality says density negative charges approximately equal density positive charges large volumes plasma math n e langle z rangle n math scale debye length charge imbalance special case ' 'double layers'' formed charge separation


small otherwise dissipated repulsive electrostatic force magnetization existence charged particles causes plasma generate affected magnetic fields plasma magnetic field strong enough influence motion charged particles said magnetized common quantitative criterion particle average completes least one gyration around magnetic field line making collision ie math nu mathrm ce nu mathrm coll math math nu mathrm ce math electron gyrofrequency math nu mathrm coll math electron collision rate often case electrons magnetized


ions magnetized plasmas ''anisotropic'' meaning properties direction parallel magnetic field different perpendicular electric fields plasmas usually small due plasma high conductivity electric field associated plasma moving velocity math mathbf v math magnetic field math mathbf b math given usual lorentz formula math mathbf e mathbf v times mathbf b math affected debye shielding mathematical descriptions complex self constricting magnetic field lines current paths field aligned birkeland current develop plasma completely describe


state plasma particle locations velocities describe electromagnetic field plasma region would need written however generally practical necessary keep track particles plasma therefore plasma physicists commonly use less detailed descriptions two main types fluid model fluid models describe plasmas terms smoothed quantities like density averaged velocity around position see plasma parameters one simple fluid model magnetohydrodynamics treats plasma single fluid governed combination maxwell 's


equations navier stokes equations general description two fluid plasma ions electrons described separately fluid models often accurate collisionality sufficiently high keep plasma velocity distribution close maxwell boltzmann distribution fluid models usually describe plasma terms single flow certain temperature spatial location neither capture velocity space structures like beams double layers resolve wave particle effects kinetic model kinetic models describe particle velocity distribution function point plasma therefore need


assume maxwell boltzmann distribution kinetic description often necessary collisionless plasmas two common approaches kinetic description plasma one based representing smoothed distribution function grid velocity position known particle cell pic technique includes kinetic information following trajectories large number individual particles kinetic models generally computationally intensive fluid models vlasov equation may used describe dynamics system charged particles interacting electromagnetic field magnetized plasmas gyrokinetic approach


substantially reduce computational expense fully kinetic simulation plasma science technology plasmas object study academic field ''plasma science'' ''plasma physics'' including sub disciplines space plasma physics currently involves following fields active research features across many journals whose interest includes plasma theory plasma equilibria stability plasma interactions waves beams guiding center adiabatic invariant debye sheath coulomb collision plasmas nature astrophysical plasma northern southern polar lights earth 's ionosphere interplanetary medium planetary magnetospheres space plasma industrial plasmas plasma chemistry plasma processing


plasma spray plasma display plasma sources dusty plasmas plasma diagnostics thomson scattering langmuir probe ball pen probe faraday cup spectroscopy interferometry ionospheric heating incoherent scatter radar plasma applications dielectric barrier discharge enhanced oil recovery fusion power plasma actuator eg serpentine geometry plasma actuator magnetic fusion energy mfe nbsp tokamak stellarator reversed field pinch magnetic mirror dense plasma focus inertial confinement fusion icf plasma weapons ion implantation ion thruster magpie implosion experiments plasma ashing food processing nonthermal plasma cold plasma plasma arc waste disposal recycling plasma acceleration plasma medicine e g dentistry ref name tws ref plasma window plasmas appear nature various


forms locations usefully broadly summarised following table class wikitable common forms plasma style width artificially produced style width terrestrial plasmas style width space astrophysical plasmas style vertical align top found plasma displays including tv screens inside fluorescent lamps low energy lighting neon signs rocket exhaust ion thrusters area front spacecraft 's heat shield entry atmosphere inside corona discharge ozone generator fusion energy research electric arc arc lamp arc welder plasma torch plasma ball sometimes called


plasma sphere plasma globe arcs produced tesla coils resonant air core transformer disruptor coil produces arcs similar lightning alternating current rather static electricity plasmas used semiconductor device fabrication including reactive ion etching sputtering surface cleaning plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition laser produced plasmas lpp found high power lasers interact materials inductively coupled plasmas icp formed typically argon gas optical emission spectroscopy mass spectrometry magnetically induced plasmas mip typically produced using microwaves resonant coupling method static electric sparks capacitively coupled plasmas ccp dielectric barrier discharges dbd


lightning magnetosphere contains plasma earth 's surrounding space environment ionosphere plasmasphere polar aurorae polar wind plasma fountain upper atmospheric lightning eg blue jets blue starters gigantic jets elves sprites st elmo 's fire fire sufficiently hot stars br plasmas heated nuclear fusion solar wind interplanetary medium br space planets interstellar medium br space star systems intergalactic medium br space galaxies io jupiter flux tube accretion disks interstellar nebulae space astrophysics plasmas far common phase ordinary matter universe


mass volume earth 's surface ionosphere plasma magnetosphere contains plasma within solar system interplanetary space filled plasma expelled via solar wind extending sun 's surface heliopause furthermore distant stars much interstellar space intergalactic space also likely filled plasma albeit low densities astrophysical plasmas also observed accretion disks around stars compact objects like white dwarfs neutron stars black holes close binary star systems plasma associated ejection material


nucleus ref name chen ref voltage increases current stresses material electric polarization beyond dielectric limit termed strength stage electrical breakdown marked electric spark material transforms insulator conductor becomes increasingly ionized underlying process townsend avalanche collisions electrons neutral gas atoms create ions electrons seen figure right first impact electron atom results one ion two electrons therefore number charged particles


group note note non thermal non equilibrium plasmas ionized lower energy densities thus temperature dispersed evenly among particles heavy ones remain cold ref examples industrial commercial plasma sizable temperature density ranges plasmas find applications many fields research technology industry example industrial extractive metallurgy ref name gomez ref ref name sza atkiewicz ref surface treatments plasma spraying coating etching microelectronics ref name nrc ref metal cutting ref name nemchinsky ref welding well everyday vehicle exhaust cleanup fluorescent luminescent lamps ref name hippler ref fuel ignition even playing part


supersonic combustion engines aerospace engineering ref name peretich ref low pressure discharges ''glow discharge plasmas'' non thermal plasmas generated application dc low frequency rf nbsp khz electric field gap two metal electrodes probably common plasma type plasma generated within fluorescent light tubes ''capacitively coupled plasma ccp '' similar glow discharge plasmas generated high frequency rf electric fields typically nbsp mhz differ glow discharges sheaths much less intense widely used microfabrication integrated circuit manufacturing industries plasma etching plasma enhanced


chemical vapor deposition ''cascaded arc plasma source'' device produce low temperature ev high density plasmas hdp ''inductively coupled plasma icp '' similar ccp similar applications electrode consists coil wrapped around chamber plasma formed ''wave heated plasma'' similar ccp icp typically rf microwave examples include helicon discharge electron cyclotron resonance ecr atmospheric pressure ''arc discharge '' high power thermal discharge high temperature k generated using various power supplies commonly used


metallurgical processes example used smelt minerals containing al sub sub sub sub produce aluminium ''corona discharge '' non thermal discharge generated application high voltage sharp electrode tips commonly used ozone generators particle precipitators ''dielectric barrier discharge dbd '' non thermal discharge generated application high voltages across small gaps wherein non conducting coating prevents transition plasma discharge arc often mislabeled 'corona' discharge industry similar application corona discharges common usage discharge


jets plasma jets produced fast propagating guided ionization waves known plasma bullets ''capacitive discharge '' nonthermal plasma generated application rf power eg nbsp mhz one powered electrode grounded electrode held small separation distance order nbsp cm discharges commonly stabilized using noble gas helium argon piezoelectric direct discharge plasma nonthermal plasma generated high side piezoelectric transformer pt generation variant particularly suited high efficient compact devices separate high voltage power


supply desired mhd converters world effort triggered study magnetohydrodynamic converters order bring mhd power conversion market commercial power plants new kind converting kinetic energy high velocity plasma electricity moving parts high efficiency research also conducted field supersonic hypersonic aerodynamics study plasma interaction magnetic fields eventually achieve passive even active flow control around vehicles projectiles order soften mitigate shock waves lower thermal transfer reduce drag


ionized gases used plasma technology technological engineered plasmas usually ''weakly ionized gases'' sense tiny fraction gas molecules ionized kinds weakly ionized gases also nonthermal cold plasmas presence magnetics fields study magnetized nonthermal weakly ionized gases involves resistive magnetohydrodynamics low magnetic reynolds number challenging field plasma physics calculations require dyadic tensors dimensional phase space used combination high hall parameter critical value triggers problematic electrothermal instability limited


technological developments complex plasma phenomena although underlying equations governing plasmas relatively simple plasma behaviour extraordinarily varied subtle emergence unexpected behaviour simple model typical feature complex system systems lie sense boundary ordered disordered behaviour cannot typically described either simple smooth mathematical functions pure randomness spontaneous formation interesting spatial features wide range length scales one manifestation plasma complexity features interesting example sharp spatially intermittent


also leads formation filamentary structures ref name mwbrkdwn ref see also plasma pinch filamentation also refers self focusing high power laser pulse high powers nonlinear part index refraction becomes important causes higher index refraction center laser beam laser brighter edges causing feedback focuses laser even tighter focused laser higher peak brightness irradiance forms plasma plasma index refraction lower one causes defocusing


laser beam interplay focusing index refraction defocusing plasma makes formation long filament plasma micrometers kilometers length one interesting aspect filamentation generated plasma relatively low ion density due defocusing effects ionized electrons see also filament propagation impermeable plasma impermeable plasma type thermal plasma acts like impermeable solid respect gas cold plasma physically pushed interaction cold gas thermal plasma briefly studied group led


hannes alfv n possible applications insulation fusion plasma reactor walls however later found external magnetic fields configuration could induce kink instabilities plasma subsequently lead unexpectedly high heat loss walls group materials scientists reported successfully generated stable impermeable plasma magnetic confinement using ultrahigh pressure blanket cold gas spectroscopic data characteristics plasma claimed difficult obtain due high pressure


passive effect plasma synthesis different nanostructures clearly suggested effective confinement also showed upon maintaining impermeability tens seconds screening ions plasma gas interface could give rise strong secondary mode heating known viscous heating leading different kinetics reactions formation complex nanomaterials gallery gallery file hallthruster jpg hall effect thruster electric field plasma double layer effective accelerating ions electric fields used ion drives file wispy 'plasma dancer' limb sunogv solar plasma file plasma spraying


processjpg plasma spraying file mast plasma imagejpg tokamak plasma nuclear fusion research file argon plasmajpg argon plasma hawkeye linearly magnetized experiment hlmx university iowa gallery see also plasma torch ambipolar diffusion hannes alfv n prize plasma channel plasma parameters plasma nitriding magnetohydrodynamics mhd magnetohydrodynamic converter marklund convection electrically powered spacecraft propulsion plasma propulsion engine electric field screening list plasma physicists list plasma physics articles important publications plasma physics ieee nuclear plasma sciences society luli quark gluon plasma nikola tesla space physics total electron content plasma display aurora notes references group note references external links http fusedwebllnlgov cpep chart pages plasma statematterhtml plasmas


fourth state matter introduction plasma physics https webarchiveorg web http farsidephutexasedu teaching plasma lectures lectureshtml graduate course given richard fitzpatrick http silaspsfcmitedu introplasma indexhtml mit introduction ihhutchinson https webarchiveorg web http starfireneuiucedu plasma material interaction http c pobarnesosnet homepage lpl grapeplasma make glowing ball plasma microwave grape http stewdioorg plasma video http comphysnarodru openpic nbsp hybrid particle cell simulation plasma dynamics http plasma gateweizmannacil pf plasma formulary interactive electromagnetism articles containing video clips astrophysics electrical conductors gases plasma


'''psychometrics''' field study within psychology concerned theory technique measurement psychometrics generally refers specialized fields within psychology education devoted testing measurement assessment related activities psychometrics concerned objective measurement latent constructs cannot directly observed examples latent constructs include intelligence introversion mental disorders educational achievement ref name ref levels individuals nonobservable latent variables inferred mathematical modeling based observed individuals' responses items tests scales ref name practitioners described psychometricians although


engage psychometric research go title psychometricians usually possess specific qualification degrees certifications psychologists advanced graduate training psychometrics measurement theory addition traditional academic institutions practitioners also work organizations educational testing service psychological corporation psychometric researchers focus construction validation assessment instruments including surveys scales open close ended questionnaires others focus research relating measurement theory eg item response theory intraclass correlation specialize learning development professionals historical foundation psychological


testing come two streams thought first darwin galton cattell measurement individual differences second herbart weber fechner wundt psychophysical measurements similar construct second set individuals research led development experimental psychology standardized testing ref name kaplan rm kaplan rm saccuzzo dp ''psychological testing principles applications issues'' th ed belmont ca wadsworth cengage learning ref victorian stream charles darwin inspiration behind sir francis galton scientist advanced development


one another importantly measure differences galton wrote book entitled ''hereditary genius'' book described different characteristics people possess characteristics make fit others today differences sensory motor functioning reaction time visual acuity physical strength important domains scientific psychology much early theoretical applied work psychometrics undertaken attempt measure intelligence galton often referred father psychometrics devised included mental tests among anthropometric measures james mckeen cattell pioneer