america keimyung university daegu korea hansung university seoul korea pyeongtaek university pyeongtaek gyeonggi korea kyunghee university yongin gyonggi korea also providing american studies major seoul national university seoul korea yonsei university seoul korea offers undergraduate interdisciplinary course american studies american studies association korea asak researches multicultural context american korean circumstance contrast chinese institution focuses america cold war era asak focuses multicultural problem politics affects modern day american society international american studies association founded bellagio italy international american studies association ref


name iasa ref held world congresses leyden ottawa lisbon beijing rio de janeiro sixth world congress iasa szczecin poland august alcal de henares madrid ref name iasa events ref iasa worldwide independent non governmental association americanists furthering international exchange ideas information among scholars nations various disciplines study teach america regionally hemispherically nationally transnationally iasa registered netherlands non profit international educational organization members forty countries around world associations scholarly

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
American studies


journals american studies association founded publishes ''american quarterly'' primary outlet american studies scholarship since second largest american studies journal ''american studies'' sponsored mid america american studies association university kansas today american studies journals countries see also american literature academic discipline american studies germany american studies united kingdom cultural studies high school american studies lehman college outline academic disciplines public humanities references reading herlihy mera jeffrey ''after american studies rethinking legacies


transnational exceptionalism'' routledge bieger laura ramon saldivar johannes voelz eds ''the imaginary worlds american studies transnational turn'' dartmouth college press university press new england pp kurian george ed ''encyclopedia american studies'' vol groiler maddox lucy ed ''locating american studies evolution discipline'' johns hopkins university press pease donald e robyn wiegman eds ''the futures american studies'' duke university press lipsitz george ''american studies moment danger'' university minnesota press '' american studies crossroads https webarchiveorg web http ragazinecc discourse american studies external links https webarchiveorg web http eas refpressjhuedu


studies association library guides area studies


notoc '''church history''' '''ecclesiastical history''' academic discipline studies history christianity way christian church developed since inception henry melvill gwatkin defined church history spiritual side history civilized people ever since master 's coming renwick however defines account church 's success failure carrying christ 's great commission renwick suggests fourfold division church history missionary activity church organization doctrine effect human life church history often always studied christian


perspective writers different christian traditions often highlight people events particularly relevant denominational history catholic orthodox writers often highlight achievements ecumenical councils evangelical historians may focus protestant reformation great awakenings notable church historians leonard j arrington hans werner debrunner henry melvill gwatkin diarmaid macculloch george marsden martin e marty mark noll jaroslav pelikan catherine pepinster philip schaff carl trueman paul woolley see also ecclesiastical history catholic church historical theology references reading reinhold zippelius ''staat und kirche eine geschichte von der antike


bis zur gegenwart'' nd ed mohr siebeck bingen ''church history religious culture'' journal http wwwbrillcom chrch history christianity christian theology fields history


information including geodesy geographic information systems remote sensing satellite navigation cartography term almost exclusively restricted perspective surveying engineering toward geographic information ''geoinformatics'' proposed alternative comprehensive term use common parts world especially europe overview etymology term proposed french g omatique end scientist bernard dubuisson reflect time recent changes jobs surveyor photogrammetrist term first employed french ministry public works memorandum dated

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Geomatics


techniques data capture manipulation storage diffusion geomatics includes tools techniques used land surveying remote sensing cartography geographic information systems gis global navigation satellite systems gps glonass galileo compass photogrammetry geophysics geography related forms earth mapping term originally used canada since adopted international organization standardization royal institution chartered surveyors many international authorities although especially united states shown preference term ''geospatial technology'' related field ''hydrogeomatics'' covers area associated surveying work carried


surface sea areas water older term hydrographics considered specific preparation marine charts failed include broader concept positioning measurements marine environments ''geospatial network'' network collaborating resources sharing coordinating geographical data data tied geographical references one example network open geospatial consortium 's efforts provide ' 'ready global access geographic information'' growing number university departments titled surveying survey engineering topographic


science titled using terms geomatics geomatics engineering others switched program titles spatial information technology similar names rapid progress increased visibility geomatics since made possible advances computer hardware computer science software engineering well airborne space observation remote sensing technologies science deriving information object using sensor without physically contacting called remote sensing part geomatics science '''geospatial science''' '' 'spatial information science''' academic discipline


incorporating fields surveying geographic information systems hydrography cartography spatial science typically concerned measurement management analysis display spatial information describing earth physical features built environment ref name qut ref term '' 'spatial science''' '' 'spatial sciences''' primarily used australia australian universities offer degrees spatial science include curtin university university tasmania university adelaidemelbourne university rmit university us texas university offers bachelor 's degree spatial sciences home spatial sciences laboratory beginning university


southern california started place emphasis spatial science branch geography department traditional human physical geography courses concentrations either offered regular basis phased place university offers graduate programs strictly related spatial science geography department offers spatial science minor rather original geography major spatial information practitioners within asia pacific region represented professional body called surveying spatial sciences institute sssi engineering '''geomatic engineering geodesy geoinformatics engineering geospatial engineering'''


rapidly developing engineering discipline focuses spatial information ie information location location primary factor used integrate wide range data spatial analysis visualization geomatics engineers apply engineering principles spatial information implement relational data structures involving measurement sciences thus using geomatics acting spatial information engineers geomatics engineers manage local regional national global spatial data infrastructures geomatics engineering also involves aspects computer engineering software engineering civil engineering geomatics field incorporates several others older field land surveying


large scale governmental viewpoint therefore geomatics engineer involved extremely wide variety information gathering activities applications geomatics engineers design develop operate systems collecting analyzing spatial information land oceans natural resources manmade features traditional land surveying strand geomatics engineering concerned determination recording boundaries areas real property parcels preparation interpretation legal land descriptions tasks closely related civil engineering include design layout public infrastructure urban subdivisions mapping


control surveys construction projects geomatics engineers serve society collecting monitoring archiving maintaining diverse spatial data infrastructures geomatics engineers utilize wide range technologically advanced tools digital theodolite distance meter total stations global positioning system gps equipment digital aerial imagery satellite air borne computer based geographic information systems gis tools enable geomatics engineer gather process analyze visualize manage spatially related information solve wide range technical societal problems geomatics engineering field activity integrates acquisition processing analysis display management spatial information


exciting new grouping subjects spatial environmental information sciences broad range employment opportunities well offering challenging pure applied research problems vast range interdisciplinary fields different schools different countries education curriculum administered name surveying others names geomatics civil engineering surveying geomatics engineering geospatial information engineering surveying engineering geodesy geoinformatics occupations one time often taught civil engineering education programs universities include departments


relevant geo data sciences informatics computer science applied mathematics facts demonstrate breadth depth scope highly interdisciplinary nature geomatics engineering job ''geospatial engineer'' well established us military applications application areas include aeromagnetic surveys airborne geophysics air navigation services archaeological excavation survey gis applications coastal zone management mapping disaster informatics disaster risk reduction response environment infrastructure management land management reform natural resource monitoring development seismic interpretation subdivision planning urban regional planning oceanography meteorology parks resource management climate change environmental


monitoring areas knowledge geomatics integrates science technology new traditional disciplines geodesy geodynamics global positioning system gps global navigation satellite system gnss surveying including land cadastral aerial mining engineering surveying hydrography navigation location based services cartography digital mapping geographic information systems gis spatial database management geographic information technology geoit spatial analysis spatial data mining knowledge discovery spatial statistics computer aided design cad scientific visualization geovisualization geovisual analytics visual communication design graphic design multimedia technology remote sensing digital earth image processing photogrammetry computer vision land information systems lis land management cadastre


real property law applications programming project management geoinformatics land surveying lidar digital terrain modelling see also solid image references reading ''geomatics canada'' ottawa natural resources canada issn yvan b dard geomatics karen kemp encyclopedia geographic information science sage https booksgooglecom booksid fruqhizxk ec pg pt yvan b dard geomatics years history already ''geomatica'' https wwwresearchgatenet publication geomatics years history already geomatics chap mario gomarasca basics geomatics springer https booksgooglecom booksid baq fjixdgsc pg pa geomatics sec mathias lemmens geo information technologies applications environment springer https booksgooglecom booksid n tuawyg uqc pg pa external links international master 's program https wwwhs karlsruhede geomatics geomatics karlsruhe university applied sciences namibia 's http fnrssnustna q department geo spatial technology geomatics geomatics program


http wwwnichollsedu doas degree programs geomatics bachelor science geomatics nicholls state university http sfrcufledu geomatics geomatics program university florida canada 's http wwwgeomaticsgovntca nwtdpaspx northwest territories centre geomatics uk 's https webarchiveorg web https wwwgeomatics groupcouk geocms environment agency geomatics group http wwwgim internationalcom ''gim international'' lemmer netherlands geodetical information trading centre issn http wwwgeometres sans frontieresorg g om tres sans fronti res association de g ometres pour aide au veloppement http wwwsurveyntuagr en school rural surveying engineering national technical university athens meng


mathematics computer science '''computational number theory''' also known '''algorithmic number theory''' study computational methods investigating solving problems number theory arithmetic geometry including algorithms primality testing integer factorization finding solutions diophantine equations explicit methods arithmetic geometry computational number theory applications cryptography including rsa elliptic curve cryptography post quantum cryptography used investigate conjectures open problems number theory including riemann hypothesis birch swinnerton dyer conjecture abc conjecture modularity conjecture sato tate conjecture explicit aspects

Formal science
Mathematics
Computational number theory


langlands program software packages magma computer algebra system sagemath number theory library pari gp fast library number theory reading references ref ref name bachshallit ref ref name cohen ref external links number theory number theory


br image blue circle diabetessvg image size px alt hollow circle thick blue border clear centre caption universal blue circle symbol diabetes field endocrinology symptoms frequent urination increased thirst increased hunger ref name complications diabetic ketoacidosis hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state

Applied science
Medicine and health
Diabetology


prevention treatment healthy diet physical exercise ref name medication insulin anti diabetic medication like metformin ref name ref name afp prognosis frequency million ref name idf deaths million ref name idf '''diabetes mellitus''' commonly known '' 'diabetes''' group metabolic disorders characterized high blood sugar level prolonged period time symptoms often include frequent urination increased thirst increased appetite ref


name left untreated diabetes cause many health complications ref name acute complications include diabetic ketoacidosis hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state death ref name kit ref serious long term complications include cardiovascular disease stroke chronic kidney disease foot ulcers damage nerves damage eyes cognitive impairment ref name ref name sa ref diabetes due either pancreas producing enough insulin cells body responding properly insulin produced ref name green ref three main types diabetes mellitus ref name type diabetes results failure pancreas produce enough insulin due loss


beta cells ref name form previously referred insulin dependent diabetes mellitus juvenile diabetes ref name loss beta cells caused autoimmune response cause autoimmune response unknown ref name type diabetes begins insulin resistance condition cells fail respond insulin properly ref name disease progresses lack insulin may also develop form previously referred non insulin dependent diabetes mellitus adult onset diabetes ref name common cause combination excessive body weight insufficient exercise ref name gestational diabetes


third main form occurs pregnant women without previous history diabetes develop high blood sugar levels ref name type diabetes must managed insulin injections ref name ref prevention treatment type diabetes involves maintaining healthy diet regular physical exercise normal body weight avoiding use tobacco ref name type diabetes may treated oral antidiabetic medications without insulin ref name top ref control blood pressure maintaining proper foot eye care important people disease ref name insulin oral medications cause low blood


sugar hypoglycemia weight loss surgery obesity sometimes effective measure type diabetes ref name picot ref gestational diabetes usually resolves birth baby estimated nbsp million people diabetes worldwide adult population type diabetes making cases ref name idf ref rates similar women men ref name vos trends suggest rates continue rise ref name idf diabetes least doubles person 's risk early death ref name diabetes resulted approximately nbsp million deaths ref name idf th leading cause


death globally global economic cost diabetes related health expenditure estimated billion ref name idf united states diabetes cost nearly us nbsp billion average medical expenditures among people diabetes times higher signs symptoms overview significant symptoms diabetes classic symptoms untreated diabetes unintended weight loss polyuria increased urination polydipsia increased thirst polyphagia increased hunger symptoms may develop rapidly weeks months type diabetes usually develop much slowly may subtle absent type diabetes ref


name fact diabetes mellitus website access date ref several signs symptoms mark onset diabetes although specific disease addition known symptoms listed include blurred vision headache fatigue slow healing cuts itchy skin prolonged high blood glucose cause glucose absorption lens eye leads changes shape resulting vision changes long term vision loss also caused diabetic retinopathy number skin rashes occur diabetes collectively known diabetic dermadromes diabetic emergencies people diabetes usually


diabetes depending medication used cases mild considered medical emergencies effects range feelings unease sweating trembling increased appetite mild cases serious effects confusion changes behavior aggressiveness seizures unconsciousness rarely permanent brain damage death severe cases ref name kenny ref ref name verrotti ref rapid breathing sweating cold pale skin characteristic low blood sugar definitive mild moderate cases self treated eating drinking something high rapidly absorbed carbohydrates severe cases lead unconsciousness


must treated intravenous glucose injections glucagon complications retinopathy nephropathy neuropathy potential complications diabetes forms diabetes increase risk long term complications typically develop many years may first symptom otherwise received diagnosis time major long term complications relate damage blood vessels diabetes doubles risk cardiovascular disease deaths people diabetes due coronary artery disease macrovascular diseases include stroke peripheral artery disease complications


lead tissue scarring urine protein loss eventually chronic kidney disease sometimes requiring dialysis kidney transplantation ref name dmcomp damage nerves body known diabetic neuropathy common complication diabetes ref name dmcomp symptoms include numbness tingling sudomotor dysfunction pain altered pain sensation lead damage skin diabetes related foot problems diabetic foot ulcers may occur difficult treat occasionally requiring amputation additionally proximal diabetic neuropathy causes painful muscle atrophy weakness link cognitive deficit diabetes compared


without diabetes disease fold greater rate decline cognitive function ref name cognitive ref diabetes especially insulin increases risk falls older people causes class wikitable style float right margin px comparison type diabetes ref name ref feature type diabetes type diabetes onset sudden gradual age onset mostly children mostly adults body size thin normal often obese ketoacidosis common rare autoantibodies usually


pregnancy type type diabetes first diagnosed pregnancy specific types collection dozen individual causes diabetes variable disease thought people may combinations forms ref name tuomi ref term diabetes without qualification refers diabetes mellitus type type nbsp diabetes characterized loss insulin producing beta cells pancreatic islets leading insulin deficiency type classified immune mediated idiopathic majority type nbsp diabetes immune mediated nature cell mediated autoimmune attack leads


loss beta cells thus insulin ref name rother ref causes approximately diabetes mellitus cases north america europe affected people otherwise healthy healthy weight onset occurs sensitivity responsiveness insulin usually normal especially early stages although called juvenile diabetes due frequent onset children majority individuals living type diabetes adults ref name change brittle diabetes also known unstable diabetes labile diabetes term traditionally used describe dramatic recurrent swings


glucose levels often occurring apparent reason insulin dependent diabetes term however biologic basis used ref name merck ref still type nbsp diabetes accompanied irregular unpredictable high blood sugar levels potential diabetic ketoacidosis serious low blood sugar levels complications include impaired counterregulatory response low blood sugar infection gastroparesis leads erratic absorption dietary carbohydrates endocrinopathies eg addison 's disease ref name merck phenomena believed occur frequently persons type nbsp diabetes ref name pmid ref autoimmune attack


type diabetes type nbsp diabetes partly inherited multiple genes including certain hla genotypes known influence risk diabetes genetically susceptible people onset diabetes triggered one environmental factors ref name petzoldsolimena ref viral infection diet several viruses implicated date stringent evidence support hypothesis humans ref name petzoldsolimena ref name butaliakaplan ref among dietary factors data suggest gliadin protein present gluten may play role development type diabetes mechanism fully understood ref


name serenacamhi ref ref name visserrozing ref type diabetes occur age significant proportion diagnosed adulthood latent autoimmune diabetes adults lada diagnostic term applied type diabetes develops adults slower onset condition children given difference use unofficial term type diabetes condition adults lada frequently initially misdiagnosed type diabetes based age rather cause type reduced insulin secretion absorption leads high glucose content blood type diabetes characterized


insulin resistance may combined relatively reduced insulin secretion ref name green defective responsiveness body tissues insulin believed involve insulin receptor however specific defects known diabetes mellitus cases due known defect classified separately type diabetes common type diabetes mellitus ref name many people type diabetes evidence prediabetes impaired fasting glucose impaired glucose tolerance meeting criteria type diabetes progression prediabetes overt type diabetes slowed reversed lifestyle changes


obese may high waist hip ratio ref name green dietary factors sugar sweetened drinks associated increased risk ref name ssb ref type fats diet also important saturated fat trans fats increasing risk polyunsaturated monounsaturated fat decreasing risk ref name fat eating white rice excessively may increase risk diabetes especially chinese japanese people lack physical activity may increase risk diabetes people ref name pmid ref adverse childhood experiences including abuse neglect household difficulties increase likelihood type diabetes


later life neglect strongest effect antipsychotic medication side effects specifically metabolic abnormalities dyslipidemia weight gain unhealthy lifestyles including poor diet decreased physical activity potential risk factors gestational diabetes gestational diabetes resembles type diabetes several respects involving combination relatively inadequate insulin secretion responsiveness occurs pregnancies may improve disappear delivery ref name ndic stats ref recommended pregnant women get tested starting around weeks gestation ref name ref often diagnosed second third trimester


skeletal muscle malformations increased levels insulin fetus 's blood may inhibit fetal surfactant production cause infant respiratory distress syndrome high blood bilirubin level may result red blood cell destruction severe cases perinatal death may occur commonly result poor placental perfusion due vascular impairment labor induction may indicated decreased placental function caesarean section may performed marked fetal distress increased risk injury associated macrosomia shoulder dystocia types maturity onset diabetes young mody


rare autosomal dominant inherited form diabetes due one several single gene mutations causing defects insulin production significantly less common three main types constituting cases name disease refers early hypotheses nature due defective gene disease varies age presentation severity according specific gene defect thus least subtypes mody people mody often control without using insulin cases diabetes caused body 's tissue receptors


responding insulin even insulin levels normal separates type nbsp diabetes form uncommon genetic mutations autosomal mitochondrial lead defects beta cell function abnormal insulin action may also genetically determined cases disease causes extensive damage pancreas may lead diabetes example chronic pancreatitis cystic fibrosis diseases associated excessive secretion insulin antagonistic hormones cause diabetes typically resolved hormone excess removed many drugs impair insulin secretion toxins damage pancreatic beta cells


whereas others increase insulin resistance especially glucocorticoids provoke steroid diabetes icd diagnostic entity ''malnutrition related diabetes mellitus'' icd code e deprecated world health organization current taxonomy introduced ref name defdiagclass ref yet another form diabetes people may develop double diabetes type diabetic becomes insulin resistant hallmark type diabetes family history type diabetes first discovered following list disorders may increase risk diabetes ref name robbins unless


otherwise specified reference table ref genetic defects cell function maturity onset diabetes young mitochondrial dna mutations genetic defects insulin processing insulin action defects proinsulin conversion insulin gene mutations insulin receptor mutations exocrine pancreatic defects chronic pancreatitis pancreatectomy pancreatic neoplasia cystic fibrosis hemochromatosis fibrocalculous pancreatopathy endocrinopathies growth hormone excess acromegaly cushing syndrome hyperthyroidism hypothyroidism pheochromocytoma glucagonoma infections cytomegalovirus infection coxsackievirus b drugs glucocorticoids thyroid hormone adrenergic agonists statins ref name pmid ref pathophysiology blood sugar red sugar lowering hormone insulin blue humans course day three meals one


obtains glucose three main sources intestinal absorption food breakdown glycogen glycogenolysis storage form glucose found liver gluconeogenesis generation glucose non carbohydrate substrates body ref name greenspanendo ref insulin plays critical role regulating glucose levels body insulin inhibit breakdown glycogen process gluconeogenesis stimulate transport glucose fat muscle cells stimulate storage glucose form glycogen ref name greenspanendo insulin released blood beta cells cells found


islets langerhans pancreas response rising levels blood glucose typically eating insulin used two thirds body 's cells absorb glucose blood use fuel conversion needed molecules storage lower glucose levels result decreased insulin release beta cells breakdown glycogen glucose process mainly controlled hormone glucagon acts opposite manner insulin ref name ganongsphys ref amount insulin available insufficient cells respond poorly


inhibits reabsorption water kidney resulting increased urine production polyuria increased fluid loss lost blood volume replaced osmotically water body cells body compartments causing dehydration increased thirst polydipsia ref name greenspanendo addition intracellular glucose deficiency stimulates appetite leading excessive food intake polyphagia diagnosis diabetes mellitus diagnosed test glucose content blood diagnosed demonstrating one following ref name defdiagclass fasting plasma glucose level nbsp nbsp mmol l nbsp mg dl test blood taken period fasting ie


morning breakfast patient sufficient time fast overnight plasma glucose nbsp nbsp mmol l nbsp mg dl two hours nbsp gram oral glucose load glucose tolerance test ogtt symptoms high blood sugar plasma glucose nbsp nbsp mmol l nbsp mg dl either fasting fasting glycated hemoglobin hba sub c sub nbsp nbsp mmol mol nbsp dcct positive result absence unequivocal high blood sugar confirmed repeat methods different day preferable measure fasting glucose level ease measurement considerable


major risk factor progression full blown diabetes mellitus well cardiovascular disease american diabetes association ada since uses slightly different range impaired fasting glucose nbsp mmol l nbsp mg dl glycated hemoglobin better fasting glucose determining risks cardiovascular disease death cause prevention known preventive measure type nbsp diabetes ref name type nbsp diabetes accounts cases worldwide often prevented delayed maintaining normal body weight engaging physical activity eating healthy diet ref name higher levels


physical activity minutes per day reduce risk diabetes ref name bmj ref dietary changes known effective helping prevent diabetes include maintaining diet rich whole grains fiber choosing good fats polyunsaturated fats found nuts vegetable oils fish ref name harvardnutrition ref limiting sugary beverages eating less red meat sources saturated fat also help prevent diabetes ref name harvardnutrition tobacco smoking also associated increased risk diabetes complications smoking cessation important preventive measure


well relationship type diabetes main modifiable risk factors excess weight unhealthy diet physical inactivity tobacco use similar regions world growing evidence underlying determinants diabetes reflection major forces driving social economic cultural change globalization urbanization population aging general health policy environment management diabetes management concentrates keeping blood sugar levels close normal without causing low blood sugar usually accomplished dietary changes exercise weight loss use appropriate medications insulin oral


medications learning disease actively participating treatment important since complications far less common less severe people well managed blood sugar levels per american college physicians goal treatment hba sub c sub level attention also paid health problems may accelerate negative effects diabetes include smoking high blood pressure metabolic syndrome obesity lack regular exercise ref name nice ref specialized footwear widely used reduce risk ulcers risk diabetic feet although evidence efficacy remains


equivocal ref name pmid ref principles managing diabetes may similar across general population diabetes however considerations may need addressed tailoring intervention mainly special populations considering severe mental illness efficacy type diabetes self management interventions still poorly explored insufficient scientific evidence show whether interventions similar results observed general population lifestyle people diabetes benefit education disease treatment dietary changes exercise goal keeping short term long term blood glucose levels within acceptable bounds


addition given associated higher risks cardiovascular disease lifestyle modifications recommended control blood pressure weight loss prevent progression prediabetes diabetes type decrease risk cardiovascular disease result partial remission people diabetes ref name ada ref ref name ada ref single dietary pattern best people diabetes ref name em healthy dietary patterns mediterranean diet low carbohydrate diet dash diet often recommended although evidence support one others ref name ada ref name ada according ada reducing overall carbohydrate intake individuals diabetes


experience fewer complications kidney problems eye problems however debate whether appropriate cost effective people later life risk hypoglycemia may significant ref name pozzilli ref number different classes anti diabetic medications type nbsp diabetes requires treatment insulin ideally using basal bolus regimen closely matches normal insulin release long acting insulin basal rate short acting insulin meals ref name niceng ref type diabetes generally treated medication taken mouth eg metformin although eventually require injectable


treatment insulin glp agonists ref name niceng ref metformin generally recommended first line treatment type nbsp diabetes good evidence decreases mortality ref name afp ref works decreasing liver 's production glucose ref name drugs ref several groups drugs mostly given mouth may also decrease blood sugar type diabetes include agents increase insulin release sulfonylureas agents decrease absorption sugar intestines acarbose agents inhibit enzyme dipeptidyl peptidase dpp inactivates incretins glp gip sitagliptin agents make body sensitive insulin


thiazolidinedione agents increase excretion glucose urine sglt inhibitors ref name drugs insulin used type nbsp diabetes long acting formulation usually added initially continuing oral medications ref name afp doses insulin increased glucose targets reached ref name afp blood pressure lowering cardiovascular disease serious complication associated diabetes many international guidelines recommend blood pressure treatment targets lower nbsp mmhg people diabetes however limited evidence regarding lower targets systematic review found potential harm treating


targets lower mmhg subsequent systematic review found evidence additional benefit blood pressure lowering mmhg although increased risk adverse events american diabetes association recommendations people diabetes albuminuria receive inhibitor renin angiotensin system reduce risks progression end stage renal disease cardiovascular events death ref name ref evidence angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors aceis superior inhibitors renin angiotensin system angiotensin receptor blockers arbs aliskiren


preventing cardiovascular disease although recent review found similar effects aceis arbs major cardiovascular renal outcomes ref name ref evidence combining aceis arbs provides additional benefits ref name aspirin use aspirin prevent cardiovascular disease diabetes controversial ref name aspirin recommended people high risk cardiovascular disease however routine use aspirin found improve outcomes uncomplicated diabetes american diabetes association recommendations aspirin use based expert consensus clinical experience low dose aspirin


use reasonable adults diabetes intermediate risk cardiovascular disease year cardiovascular disease risk ref name national guidelines england wales national institute health care excellence nice recommend use aspirin people type type diabetes confirmed cardiovascular disease ref name niceng ref name niceng surgery weight loss surgery obesity type diabetes often effective measure ref name picot many able maintain normal blood sugar levels little medications following surgery long term mortality


decreased ref name schum however short term mortality risk less surgery body mass index cutoffs surgery appropriate yet clear ref name schum ref recommended option considered unable get weight blood sugar control pancreas transplant occasionally considered people type nbsp diabetes severe complications disease including end stage kidney disease requiring kidney transplantation self management support countries using general practitioner system united kingdom care may take place mainly


outside hospitals hospital based specialist care used case complications difficult blood sugar control research projects circumstances general practitioners specialists share care team approach home telehealth support effective management technique ref name polisena ref use technology deliver educational programs adults type diabetes includes computer based self management interventions collect tailored responses facilitate self management ref name pal ref adequate evidence support effects cholesterol blood pressure behavioral change physical activity levels dietary depression weight health related quality life


biological cognitive emotional outcomes ref name pal epidemiology rates diabetes worldwide worldwide prevalence nbsp million people diabetes worldwide ref name idf ref estimated nbsp million people ref name shi ref nbsp million ref name ref accounting shifting age structure global population prevalence diabetes among adults nearly double rate ref name idf ref name type nbsp makes cases ref name vos ref ref name data indicate rates roughly equal women men ref name vos male excess diabetes


found many populations higher type incidence possibly due sex related differences insulin sensitivity consequences obesity regional body fat deposition contributing factors high blood pressure tobacco smoking alcohol intake estimates diabetes resulted nbsp million deaths making th leading cause death ref name top ref name however another nbsp million deaths worldwide attributable high blood glucose increased risks cardiovascular disease associated complications eg kidney failure often lead premature death often listed underlying cause


death certificates rather diabetes ref name example international diabetes federation idf estimated diabetes resulted nbsp million deaths worldwide ref name idf using modeling estimate total number deaths could directly indirectly attributed diabetes ref name idf diabetes occurs throughout world common especially type developed countries greatest increase rates however seen low middle income countries ref name diabetic deaths occur fastest prevalence increase expected occur asia africa people


diabetes probably live ref name wild increase rates developing countries follows trend urbanization lifestyle changes including increasingly sedentary lifestyles less physically demanding work global nutrition transition marked increased intake foods high energy dense nutrient poor often high sugar saturated fats sometimes referred western style diet ref name ref name wild ref global number diabetes cases might increase ref name idf history diabetes one first diseases described egyptian manuscript bce mentioning


great emptying urine ref name history ebers papyrus includes recommendation drink take cases ref name roberts ref first described cases believed type nbsp diabetes ref name history ref indian physicians around time identified disease classified ''madhumeha'' honey urine noting urine would attract ants ref name history ref name roberts term diabetes pass first used nbsp bce greek apollonius memphis ref name history disease considered rare time roman empire galen commenting seen two cases


snakebite also provokes excessive thirst work remained unknown west first latin edition published venice ref name laios ref two types diabetes identified separate conditions first time indian physicians sushruta charaka nbsp ce one type associated youth another type overweight ref name history effective treatment developed early part th century canadians frederick banting charles herbert best isolated purified insulin ref name history followed development


long acting insulin nph ref name history etymology word ' 'diabetes'' comes latin ' 'diab s'' turn comes ancient greek ' 'diab s'' literally means passer siphon ref name oed diabetes oxford english dictionary ' 'diabetes'' retrieved ref ancient greek physician aretaeus cappadocia fl stcentury ce used word intended meaning excessive discharge urine name disease ref name onlineetymology diabetes ref ultimately word comes greek ' 'diabainein'' meaning pass ref name oed diabetes composed ' 'dia'' meaning ''bainein'' meaning go ref name onlineetymology diabetes word diabetes


designation disease noticed urine person diabetes sweet taste glycosuria sweet taste noticed urine ancient greeks chinese egyptians indians persians society culture st vincent declaration result international efforts improve care accorded diabetes important terms quality life life expectancy also economicallyexpenses due diabetes shown major drain healthand productivity related resources healthcare systems governments several countries


established less successful national diabetes programmes improve treatment disease ref name eo dubois bankauskaite ref people diabetes neuropathic symptoms numbness tingling feet hands twice likely unemployed without symptoms ref name pmid ref diabetes related emergency room er visit rates united states higher among people lowest income communities per population highest income communities per population approximately diabetes related er visits uninsured ref name hcup usahrq ref naming term type nbsp diabetes replaced several former terms


including childhood onset diabetes juvenile diabetes insulin dependent diabetes mellitus likewise term type nbsp diabetes replaced several former terms including adult onset diabetes obesity related diabetes noninsulin dependent diabetes mellitus beyond two types agreed upon standard nomenclature diabetes mellitus also occasionally known sugar diabetes differentiate diabetes insipidus animals animals diabetes commonly encountered dogs cats middle aged animals commonly affected female dogs twice likely affected males according sources male cats prone females species breeds


may affected small dog breeds particularly likely develop diabetes miniature poodles ref name merck ref feline diabetes strikingly similar human type diabetes burmese russian blue abyssinian norwegian forest cat breeds higher risk breeds overweight cats also higher risk symptoms may relate fluid loss polyuria course may also insidious diabetic animals prone infections long term complications recognized humans much rarer animals principles treatment weight loss oral antidiabetics subcutaneous insulin management


emergencies eg ketoacidosis similar humans ref name merck references external links icd medlineplus emedicinesubj med emedicinetopic emedicine mult mesh http wwwdiabetesorg american diabetes association http wwwdiabetesatlasorg idf diabetes atlas http ndepnihgov national diabetes education program http carediabetesjournalsorg content supplement ada 's standards medical care diabetes wikipedia medicine articles ready translate metabolic disorders wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready translate endocrine diseases cardiovascular diseases disability


center wine grapes long island center vineyard brhlovce slovakia '''viticulture''' latin word ''vine'' '''winegrowing''' '''wine growing''' cultivation harvesting grapes branch science horticulture native territory ''vitis vinifera'' common grape vine ranges western europe persian shores caspian sea vine demonstrated high levels adaptability new environments hence viticulture found every continent except antarctica ref name johnson pp ref duties '''viticulturist''' include monitoring controlling pests diseases fertilizing irrigation canopy management monitoring


fruit development characteristics deciding harvest vine pruning winter months viticulturists often intimately involved winemakers vineyard management resulting grape characteristics provide basis winemaking begin great number varieties approved european union true grapes winegrowing viticulture history earliest evidence grape vine cultivation winemaking dates back years history viticulture closely related history wine evidence humans cultivated wild grapes make wine far back neolithic period


evidence suggests earliest domestication ''vitis vinifera'' occurred area modern countries georgia armenia oldest known winery discovered areni cave vayots dzor armenia dated bc site contained wine press fermentation vats jars cups ref name year old wine ref ref name archaeology ref ref name wine making facility ref archaeologists also found ''v vinifera'' seeds vines commenting importance find mcgovern said fact winemaking already well developed nbsp bc suggests technology probably goes back much earlier ref name wine making facility also evidence grape


domestication near east early bronze age around nbsp bc evidence ancient viticulture provided cuneiform sources ancient writing clay tablets plant remains historical geography archaeological excavations remnants ancient wine jars used determine culture wine consumption cultivated grape species addition winemaking grapes grown production raisins earliest act cultivation appears favoring hermaphroditic members ''vitis vinifera'' species barren male vines female vines dependent nearby


bc phoenicians developed viticulture practices later used carthage around bc carthaginian writer mago recorded practices two volume work one artifacts survive roman destruction carthage third punic war roman statesman cato elder influenced texts around bc wrote ''de agricultura'' expounded roman viticulture agriculture ref name johnson pg ref around ad roman writer columella produced detailed work roman viticulture twelve volume text ''de rustica'' columella 's work


one earliest detail trellis systems raising vines ground columella advocated use stakes versus previously accepted practice training vines grow along tree trunks benefits using stakes trees largely minimize dangers associated climbing trees necessary prune dense foliage order give vines sunlight later harvest ref name johnson pg ref roman expansion across western europe brought roman viticulture areas would become world 's best known winegrowing regions spanish rioja german


mosel french bordeaux burgundy rh ne roman viticulturists among first identify steep hillsides one better locations plant vines cool air runs downhill gathers bottom valleys cool air beneficial much rob vine heat needs photosynthesis winter increases risk frost ref name johnson pp ref medieval catholic monks particularly cistercians prominent viticulturists middle ages around time early system ''metayage'' emerged france laborers ''prendeur'' working


tr riches heures du duc de berry dates back depicts horticulture viticulture france ref name unwin images illustrate peasants bending prune grapes vines behind castle walls additional illustrations depict grape vines harvested vine cut three spurs around knee height many viticultural practices developed time period would become staples european viticulture th century varietals studied intently see vines suitable particular area around time early concept ''terroir'' emerged


similar areas like c te d'or monks divided land separate vineyards many still exist today like montrachet la roman e ref name johnson pg ref mythology greek mythology demigod dionysus bacchus roman mythology son zeus invented grapevine winepress closest satyr friend died trying bring vine dionysus deemed important dionysus forced vine bear fruit fame spread finally became god bible makes numerous references wine grapevine symbolically literally grapes first mentioned


john sense vine placed sole symbol tomb constantia great grape vine vast majority world 's wine producing regions found temperate latitudes hemisphere ref name fraga within bands annual mean temperatures presence large bodies water mountain ranges positive effects climate vines nearby lakes rivers serve protection drastic temperature drops night releasing heat water stored day


warm vines grape grape classified berry vine grapes organized systems known clusters grape clusters vary compactness result long clusters resulting grapes spreading short clusters resulting grapes packed together ref name rib reau gayon ref grape species clusters ripen collectively allows harvested together others grapes may ripen individually within cluster grape berry contains pedicel attaches rachis main function rachis allow grapes


receive water nutrients ref name rib reau gayon pollination fertilization grapes results one four seeds within berry fertilization occur seedless grapes formed sought production raisins regardless pollination fertilization plants produce around grapes skin grape accounts total weight grape depending variety grape skin ripens contains majority aromatic substances tannin ref name unwin ref factors become important winemaking


methods including color extraction aroma dissolution although skin contains majority tannin small percentages found throughout grape developmental stages however tannin 's important role grape 's ripening stage function formulate color body shape ref name unwin growing vines napa valley vineyard side road although many factors affect overall quality grape vine three important climate slope soil ref name unwin ref often collectively referred ''terroir'' climate


order produce grapes suitable winemaking ideal circumstances vine receive rainfall winter spring months rain harvesttime create many hazards fungal diseases berry splitting optimum weather growing season long warm summer allows grapes opportunity ripen fully develop balance levels acids sugars grape ref name sotheby pp ref hot sunny climates frost free growing season days ref name vine ref climates


allow grapes ripen faster higher sugar levels lower acidity cooler climates frost free growing season around days cooler seasons force grapes ripen earlier produces fresher acidic harvest ref name unwin general average yearly temperature crops average around order achieve highest quality grape '''summer ''' ideal temperatures summer average around ref name unwin ideal summer temperatures enable fruits ripen temperature sunshine important factors ripening '''winter ''' ideal temperatures winter average around


terrain vines growing slope receive greater intensity sun 's rays sunshine falling angle perpendicular hillside flatter terrain intensity sunlight diluted spreads across wider surface area small slopes elevated surrounding ground best safest places crops small elevations less prone frost ref name vine additionally slope affords better drainage obviating possibility vine might sit overly moist soil cooler regions northern hemisphere south facing slopes receive


put energy developing remaining grapes theory results better ripening development numerous mature flavour compounds absence green harvest healthy vigorous vine produce dilute unripe grapes europe many appellations restrict yield permitted given area even incentive perform green harvesting presented excess crop often excess must sold pittance used industrial alcohol production rather wine concept thinning sacrificing part grape crop ie


green harvesting aim improving quality remaining grapes predates modern critics practice increased recent times vineyards found california areas grapes grow easily mccoy field blend mechanical harvesting sauvignon blanc grapes c tes de duras france field blend wine produced two different grape varieties interplanted vineyard days precise varietal identification let alone rigorous clonal selection vineyard might planted taking cuttings another vineyard therefore approximately copying genetic makeup


meant one vine could zinfandel next carignan making wine little equipment spare separate vinification different varieties field blends allowed effortless though inflexible blending fermentation tanks cheap enough field blend anachronism almost wines assembled blending smaller individual lots however california oldest lowest yielding zinfandel comes vineyards field blended ridge vineyards owns lytton springs vineyards sonoma county planted ridge calls traditional field blend


reading echikson tom ''noble rot'' ny norton mccoy elin ''the emperor wine'' ny harpercollins abu hamdeh nh compaction subsoiling effects corn growth soil bulk density soil society america journal conradie wj jl van zyl pa myburgh effect soil preparation depth nutrient leaching nutrient uptake young vitis vinifera lcv pinot noir south african journal enol vitic dami ie b bordelon dc ferree brown ellis rn william doohan midwest grape production guide


ohio state univ coop extension service bulletin gil emilio arn jaume llorens jordi sanz ricardo llop jordi rosell polo joan gallart montserrat escol alexandre https wwwmdpicom advanced technologies improvement spray application techniques spanish viticulture overview sensors issn pmc pmc kurtural sk desired soil properties vineyard site selection university kentucky cooperative extension service hortfact kurtural sk vineyard design university kentucky cooperative extension service hortfact kurtural sk vineyard site


selection university kentucky cooperative extension service hortfact llorens jordi gil emilio llop jordi escol alexandre https wwwmdpicom ultrasonic lidar sensors electronic canopy characterization vineyards advances improve pesticide application methods sensors pp doi issn llorens jordi gil emilio llop jordi queralt meritxell https wwwmdpicom georeferenced lidar vine plantation map generation sensors issn phin john still print open air grape culture practical treatise garden vineyard culture vine manufacture domestic wine designed


use amateurs others schonbeck mw cover cropping green manuring small farms new england new york research report new alchemy institute hatchville rd falmouth tesic dejan keller rj hutton influence vineyard floor management practices grapevine vegetative growth yield fruit composition american journal enol vitic zabadal jt anderson ja vineyard establishment preplant decisions msu extension fruit bulletins tesic dejan keller rj hutton influence vineyard floor


management practices grapevine vegetative growth yield fruit composition american journal enol vitic external links http wwwajevonlineorg ajev american journal enology viticulture http wwwipmucdavisedu pmg selectnewpestgrapeshtml grape pest management guidelines ipm uc ipm online pest https webarchiveorg web http wwwsafecroporg english output proceedingshtml safecrop proceedings th international workshop grapevine downy powdery mildew https webarchiveorg web http wwwgrovesnurseriescouk uploads downloads downloadfile file groves guide grape vines dormantpdf guide grape vines http wwwextensionorg grapes viticulture wwwextensionorg wine terminology


'''neuroeconomics''' interdisciplinary field seeks explain human decision making ability process multiple alternatives follow course action studies economic behavior shape understanding brain neuroscientific discoveries constrain guide models economics ref name neuroeconomicsdukeedu center neuroeconomics study duke university http dibsdukeedu research cides research neuroeconomics ref combines research neuroscience experimental behavioral economics cognitive social psychology ref name levalloisclithero ref research decision making behavior becomes increasingly computational also incorporated new approaches theoretical biology computer science mathematics neuroeconomics studies decision making using


combination tools fields avoid shortcomings arise single perspective approach mainstream economics expected utility eu concept rational agents still used many economic behaviors fully explained models heuristics framing ref name annualreviewsorg ref behavioral economics emerged account anomalies integrating social cognitive emotional factors understanding economic decisions neuroeconomics adds another layer using neuroscientific methods understanding interplay economic behavior neural mechanisms using tools various fields neuroeconomics works toward integrated account


irrational choice ref name glimcher ref converging trends set stage sub discipline neuroeconomics emerge varying complementary motivations parent discipline behavioural economists cognitive psychologists looked towards functional brain imaging experiment develop alternative theories decision making groups physiologists neuroscientists looked towards economics develop algorithmic models neural hardware pertaining choice split approach characterised formation neuroeconomics academic pursuit without criticism however numerous neurobiologists claimed attempting synchronise complex models economics real human animal behaviour


would futile neoclassical economists also argued merge would unlikely improve predictive power existing revealed preference theory ref name glimcher ref ref name harrison ref despite early criticisms neuroeconomics grew rapidly inception late leading many scholars father fields economics neuroscience psychology take notice possibilities interdisciplinary collaboration meetings scholars early researchers neuroeconomics began take place early important among meeting took place princeton university organized neuroscientist jonathan


cohen economist christina paxson princeton meeting gained significant traction field often credited formative beginning present day society neuroeconomics ref name glimcher ref subsequent momentum continued throughout decade research steadily increasing number publications containing words decision making brain rose impressively ref name glimcher ref critical point reached first edition neuroeconomics decision making brain publishedthis marked watershed moment field accumulated growing wealth research widely accessible textbook


success publication sharply increased visibility neuroeconomics helped affirm place economic teachings worldwide ref name glimcher ref major research areas field decision making largely concerned processes individuals make single choice among many options processes generally assumed proceed logical manner decision largely independent context different options first translated common currency monetary value compared one another option largest overall utility value


assumptions economic model tested directly example padoa schioppa assad tracked firing rates individual neurons monkey orbitofrontal cortex animals chose two kinds juice firing rate neurons directly correlated utility food items differ types food offered suggests accordance economic theory decision making neurons directly comparing form utility across different options choosing one highest value ref name padoaschioppa ref similarly common measure


prefrontal cortex dysfunction frsbe correlated multiple different measures economic attitudes behavior supporting idea brain activation display important aspects decision process ref name spinella ref neuroeconomics studies neurobiological along computational bases decision making framework basic computations may applied neuroeconomics studies proposed rangel c camerer p r montague ref name rangel camerer montague ref divides process decision making five stages implemented subject first representation problem formed includes analysis


internal states external states potential course action second values assigned potential actions third based valuations one actions selected fourth subject evaluates desirable outcome final stage learning includes updating processes order improve future decisions decision making risk ambiguity decisions made form uncertainty decision sciences psychology economics usually define risk uncertainty several possible outcomes probability known probabilities unknown


uncertainty takes form ambiguity utility maximization first proposed daniel bernoulli used explain decision making risk theory assumes humans rational assess options based expected utility gain ref name annualreviewsorg research experience uncovered wide range expected utility anomalies common patterns behavior inconsistent principle utility maximization example tendency overweight small probabilities underweight large ones daniel kahneman amos tversky proposed prospect theory encompass observations offer alternative model ref


name annualreviewsorg seem multiple brain areas involved dealing situations uncertainty tasks requiring individuals make predictions degree uncertainty outcome increase activity area ba frontomedian cortex ref name volz ref well generalized increase activity mesial prefrontal cortex ref name knutson ref frontoparietal cortex ref name paulus mp ref prefrontal cortex generally involved reasoning understanding particular areas may specifically involved determining best course action relevant information


available ref name paulus mp rogalsky c simmons feinstein js stein mb ref situations involve known risk rather ambiguity insular cortex seems highly active example subjects played 'double nothing' game could either stop game keep accumulated winnings take risky option resulting either complete loss doubling winnings activation right insula increased individuals took gamble ref name paulus mp rogalsky c simmons feinstein js stein mb hypothesized main role


important part dopamine reward pathway brain far risk averse normal rats suggests dopamine may important mediator risky behavior ref name cardinal rn ref individual level risk aversion among humans influenced testosterone concentration studies exhibiting correlation choice risky career financial trading business testosterone exposure ref name john coates mark gurnell aldo rustichini ref name paola sapienza luigi zingales dario maestripieri addition daily achievements traders lower digit ratio sensitive circulating testosterone ref


name john coates mark gurnell aldo rustichini ref long term study risk aversion risky career choice conducted representative group mba students revealed females average risk averse difference genders vanishes low organizational activational testosterone exposure leading risk averse behaviour students high salivary testosterone concentration low digit ratio disregarding gender tend choose risky career finance eg trading investment banking ref name paola sapienza luigi zingales dario maestripieri ref serial functionally localized model vs distributed hierarchical model


support implementation choice including mutual inhibition recurrent neural networks hierarchical organization timescales information processing across cortex loss aversion one aspect human decision making strong aversion potential loss loss aversion cost losing specific amount money higher value gaining amount money one main controversies understanding loss aversion whether process truly exists brain manifested neural representation positive negative outcomes whether side effect


neural effects increased attention arousal losses another issue whether one could find loss aversion response neural sub systems impulsive emotional system driven aversion potentially negative outcomes whose responses monitored controlled system responsible reasoned comparison among options basic controversy loss aversion research whether losses actually experienced negatively equivalent gains merely predicted painful actually experienced equivalently neuroeconomic research attempted distinguish hypotheses measuring different


physiological changes response loss gain studies found skin conductance pupil dilation heart rate higher response monetary loss equivalent gain three measures involved stress responses one might argue losing particular amount money experienced strongly gaining amount hand studies behavioral loss aversion suggest effect losses merely attention known loss attention attentional orienting responses also


lead increased autonomic signals ref name yh brain studies initially suggested increased mid prefrontal anterior cingulate cortex rapid response following losses compared gains interpreted neural signature loss aversion however subsequent reviews noticed paradigm individuals actually show behavioral loss aversion ref name yh ref casting doubts interpretability findings respect fmri studies one study found evidence increase activation areas related negative emotional reactions response loss aversion another found individuals


damaged amygdalas lack loss aversion even though normal levels general risk aversion suggesting behavior specific potential losses ref name martino b ref conflicting studies suggest research needs done determine whether brain response losses due loss aversion merely alerting orienting aspect losses well examine areas brain respond specifically potential losses intertemporal choice addition risk preference another central concept economics intertemporal choices


decisions involve costs benefits distributed time intertemporal choice research studies expected utility humans assign events occurring different times dominant model economics explains discounted utility du du assumes humans consistent time preference assign value events regardless occur similar eu explaining risky decision making du inadequate explaining intertemporal choice ref name annualreviewsorg example du assumes people value bar candy today bars tomorrow also value bar received


reward suggests limbic system forms part dopamine reward pathway involved making impulsive decisions cortex responsible general aspects intertemporal decision process neurotransmitter serotonin seems play important role modulating future discounting rats reducing serotonin levels increases future discounting affecting decision making uncertainty ref name mobini ref seems dopamine system involved probabilistic uncertainty serotonin may responsible temporal uncertainty since delayed reward involves potentially uncertain future


addition neurotransmitters intertemporal choice also modulated hormones brain humans reduction cortisol released hypothalamus response stress correlated higher degree impulsivity intertemporal choice tasks ref name takahashi ref drug addicts tend lower levels cortisol general population may explain seem discount future negative effects taking drugs opt immediate positive reward social decision making research decision making tends focus individuals making choices outside social


context also important consider decisions involve social interactions types behavior decision theorists study diverse altruism cooperation punishment retribution one frequently utilized tasks social decision making prisoner 's dilemma situation payoff particular choice dependent decision individual also another individual playing game individual choose either cooperate partner defect partner course typical game individuals


tend prefer mutual cooperation even though defection would lead higher overall payout suggests individuals motivated monetary gains also reward derived cooperating social situations idea supported neural imaging studies demonstrating high degree activation ventral striatum individuals cooperate another person case people play prisoner 's dilemma computer ventral striatum part reward pathway research suggests may areas reward system


paradigm neuroeconomic studies ultimatum game game player gets sum money decides much wants offer player player either accepts rejects offer accepts players get amount proposed player rejects nobody gets anything rational strategy player would accept offer value zero however shown people often reject offers consider unfair neuroimaging studies indicated several brain regions activated response unfairness


ultimatum game include bilateral mid anterior insula anterior cingulate cortex acc medial supplementary motor area sma cerebellum right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex dlpfc shown low frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation dlpfc increases likelihood accepting unfair offers ultimatum game another issue field neuroeconomics represented role reputation acquisition social decision making social exchange theory claims prosocial behavior originates intention maximize social rewards minimize social costs case approval others may viewed significant positive reinforcer ie


reward neuroimaging studies provided evidence supporting idea shown processing social rewards activates striatum especially left putamen left caudate nucleus fashion areas activated processing monetary rewards findings also support called common neural currency idea assumes existence shared neural basis processing different types reward sexual decision making regarding choice sexual partner research studies conducted humans nonhuman primates notably cheney seyfarth deaner ''et al'' hayden ''et al'' suggest


persistent willingness accept fewer physical goods higher prices return access socially high ranking individuals including physically attractive individuals whereas increasingly high rewards demanded asked relate low ranking individuals neurobiological basis preference includes neurons lateral intraparietal cortex lip related eye movement operative situations two alternative forced choices methodology behavioral economics experiments record subject 's decisions various design parameters use data generate formal models predict performance neuroeconomics extends approach adding states nervous system


set explanatory variables goal neuroeconomics help explain decisions enrich data sets available testing predictions furthermore neuroeconomic research used understand explain aspects human behavior conform traditional economic models behavior patterns generally dismissed 'fallacious' 'illogical' economists neuroeconomic researchers trying determine biological reasons behaviors using approach researchers may able find explanations seemingly sub optimal behaviors neurobiological research techniques several different techniques


utilized understand biological basis economic behavior neural imaging used human subjects determine areas brain active particular tasks techniques fmri ref name volz ref name knutson ref name paulus mp pet best suited giving detailed pictures brain give information specific structures involved task techniques erp event related potentials ref name billeke ref oscillatory brain activity ref name billeke ref used gain detailed knowledge time course events within general area


brain addition studying areas brain studies aimed understanding functions different brain chemicals relation behavior done either correlating existing chemical levels different behavior patterns changing amount chemical brain noting resulting behavioral changes example neurotransmitter serotonin seems involved making decisions involving intertemporal choice ref name mobini dopamine utilized individuals make judgments involving uncertainty ref name fiorillo cd furthermore artificially increasing oxytocin levels increases trust behavior humans ref


correlates prefrontal cortex dysfunction correlated general economic attitudes ref name spinella previous studies investigated behavioral patterns patients psychiatric disorders schizophrenia ref name chung ref autism depression addiction get insights pathophysiology animal studies highly controlled experiments get specific information importance brain areas economic behavior involve either lesioning entire brain areas measuring resulting behavior changes ref name cardinal rn using electrodes measure firing individual neurons response particular stimuli ref name padoaschioppa notable theorists gallery vernonsmith jpg vernon


also common psychiatric syndromes involving addiction delusion criticisms beginnings neuroeconomics throughout swift academic rise criticisms voiced field 's validity usefulness glenn w harris emanuel donchin criticized emerging field former publishing concerns paper 'neuroeconomics critical reconsideration' ref name harrison ref ref name psych ref harris surmises much neuroscience assisted insights economic modelling academic marketing hype true substance field yet present needs seriously reconsidered also mentions


methodologically many studies neuroeconomics flawed small sample sizes limited applicability review learnings neuroeconomics published arkady konovalov shared sentiment field suffers experimental shortcomings primary among lack analogous ties specific brain regions psychological constructs value review mentions although early neuroeconomic fmri studies assumed specific brain regions singularly responsible one function decision making process subsequently shown recruiting multiple different functions practice reverse


inference therefore seen much less use hurt field ref name konovalov ref instead fmri standalone methodology rather collected connected self reports behavioral data validity using functional neuroimaging consumer neuroscience improved carefully designing studies conducting meta analyses connecting psychometric behavioral data data neuroimaging ariel rubinstein economist university tel aviv spoke neuroeconomic research saying standard experiments provide little information procedures choice difficult extrapolate choice observations entire


choice function want know human procedures choice need look somewhere else ref name isbn ref comments echo salient consistent argument traditional economists neuroeconomic approach use non choice data response times eye tracking neural signals people generate decision making excluded economic analysis ref name isbn ref critiques also included claims neuroeconomics field oversells ref name isbn ref neuroeconomic studies misunderstand underestimate traditional economic models applications currently real world applications predictions neuroeconomics still unknown


developed burgeoning field continues grow criticisms made accumulation research findings far produced little way pertinent recommendations economic policy makers many neuroeconomists insist potential field enhance understanding brain 's machinations decision making may prove highly influential future ref name konovalov particular findings specific neurological markers individual preferences may important implications well known economic models paradigms example finding increase computational capacity likely related


increased gray matter volume could lead higher risk tolerance loosening constraints govern subjective representations probabilities rewards lottery tasks ref name woodford ref economists also looking neuroeconomics assist explanations group aggregate behaviour market level implications example many researchers anticipate neurobiological data may used detect individuals groups individuals likely exhibit economically problematic behaviour may applied concept market bubbles occurrences majorly consequential modern society regulators could gain substantial insights formulation


lack prediction prevention ref name de martino ref neuroeconomic work also seen close relationship academic investigations addiction researchers acknowledged publication 'advances neuroscience addiction nd edition' neuroeconomic approach serves powerful new conceptual method likely critical progress understanding addictive behaviour neuromarketing another applied example distinct discipline closely related neuroeconomics broader neuroeconomics academic aims since studies basic mechanisms decision making neuromarketing applied sub field uses neuroimaging tools market investigations ref name urlneuroeconomics scholarpedia ref ref name pmid ref


insights derived brain imaging technologies fmri typically used analyse brain 's response particular marketing stimuli see also journals ''journal neuroscience psychology economics'' references reading glimcher paul w ernst fehr eds ''neuroeconomics'' ''decision making brain'' london academic press david krueger ''the secret language money'' mcgraw hill professional http webmecom bendemartino site publications files pnas de martino pdf pdf paul w glimcher colin camerer russell poldrack ernst fehr ''neuroeconomics decision making brain'' academic press colin camerer george loewenstein drazen prelec http wwwhsscaltechedu camerer jelfinalpdf neuroeconomics neuroscience inform economics ''journal economic literature'' daniel houser


kevin mccabe https archivetoday http booksemeraldinsightcom displayaspk cur gbp sf kword index sort sort date st neuroeconomics sf eh cat class dc neuroeconomics advances health economics health services research v emerald group publishing limited bingley west yorkshire peter kenning hilke plassmann http wwwsciencedirectcom science ob publicationurl tockey toc fla cdi pubtype j view c auth acct c version urlversion userid md f fa ca f e dcec brain research bulletin special issue neuroeconomics paul glimcher ''decisions uncertainty brain science neuroeconomics'' mit press https webarchiveorg web http wwwhnlbcmtmcedu articles read montagueberns neuronpdf pdf http wwwpauljzakcom indexphppage published alternative source john cassidy http wwwnewyorkercom fact content articles fa fact mind games neuroeconomics tells us money brain ''new yorker september flie bach k weber b trautner p dohmen sunde u elger ce falk http wwwsciencemagorg content short social comparison affects reward related brain activity human ventral striatum science


weber b rangel wibral falk http wwwpnasorg content early medial prefrontal cortex exhibits money illusion pnas hardy vall e b forthcoming http decisisnet files papers hardy compass neuroeconomicspdf decision making neuroeconomic perspective philosophy compass http repositumtuwienacat obvutwoa download pdf pdf external links http wwwscholarpediaorg article neuroeconomics scholarpedia neuroeconomics https michael deppede human reward system neuroeconomics neuroeconomics behavioral economics social psychology cognitive psychology


'''ethnomethodology''' study social order produced processes social interaction ref name garfinkel h pp garfinkel h 'the origins term ethnomethodology' rturner ed ethnomethodology penguin harmondsworth pp ref generally seeks provide alternative mainstream sociological approaches radical form poses challenge social sciences whole ref name garfinkel h garfinkel h ''ethnomethodology 's program working durkheim 's aphorism'' rowman littleford lanham ref early investigations led founding conversation analysis found place accepted

Social science
Sociology
Interpretive sociology
Ethnomethodology


discipline within academy according psathas possible distinguish five major approaches within ethnomethodological family disciplines see ethnomethodology fundamentally descriptive discipline engage explanation evaluation particular social order undertaken topic study however applications found within many applied disciplines software design management studies definition term 's meaning broken three constituent parts ''ethno'' ''method'' ''ology'' purpose explanation using appropriate southern california example ''ethno'' refers particular socio cultural


establishing matters fact developing evidence chains determining reliability witness testimony establishing organization speakers jury room determining guilt innocence defendants etc topics interest methods serve constitute social order juror members jury well researchers interested parties specific social setting ref name garfinkel h garfinkel h studies ethnomethodology polity press cambridge ref interest developed garfinkel 's critique talcott parsons' attempt derive general theory society critique


originated reading alfred schutz though garfinkel ultimately revised many schutz 's ideas garfinkel also drew study principles practices financial accounting classic sociological theory methods durkheim weber traditional sociological concern hobbesian problem order ref name annerawls anne rawls harold garfinkel blackwell companion major social theorists ed g ritzer blackwell london ref ethnomethodologist participants produce order social settings shared sense making practices thus essential natural reflexivity activity making sense social setting


ongoing production setting two effect identical furthermore practices methods witnessably enacted making available study ref name garfinkel h ref name garfinkel h opens broad multi faceted area inquiry john heritage writes open ended reference study kind sense making procedure term represents signpost domain uncharted dimensions rather staking clearly delineated territory theory methods ethnomethodology perplexed commentators due radical approach questions theory method ref name doug doug maynard steve


introduction ''ethnomethodology 's program'' might interpreted suggest softening position towards end garfinkel 's life ref name annerawls ref name garf harold garfinkel ethnomethodology 's program new york rowman littlefield page ref however position consistent ethnomethodology 's understanding significance member 's methods certain lines philosophical thought regarding philosophy science polanyi kuhn feyerabend study actual practices scientific procedure ref name lynch also strong correspondence later philosophy ludwig wittgenstein especially applied social studies


peter winch references also made garfinkel 's work husserl transcendental phenomenology gurwitsch gestalt theory frequently course works social phenomenologist alfred schutz phenomenology natural attitude among others hand authors theoretical references cited garfinkel constitute rigorous theoretical basis ethnomethodology ethnomethodology durkheimian although shares interests durkheim phenomenology although borrows husserl schutz 's studies lifeworld ''lebenswelt'' form gestalt theory although describes social orders


gestalt like properties wittgensteinian although makes use wittgenstein 's understanding rule use etc instead borrowings fragmentary references theoretical works ethnomethodology appropriated theoretical ideas expressed purposes ' 'doing'' ethnomethodological investigations similarly ethnomethodology advocates formal methods enquiry insisting research method dictated nature phenomenon studied ref name garfinkel h ref name garfinkel h ref name annerawls ethnomethodologists conducted studies variety ways ref name doug point investigations discover things


persons particular situations ' 'do'' methods ''they'' use create patterned orderliness social life ref name garf michael lynch noted leading figures field repeatedly emphasised obligatory set methods employed ethnomethodologists prohibition using research procedure whatsoever ''adequate'' particular phenomena study ref name garf ref name lynch michael lynch social science encyclopedia routledge nd ed ref leading policies methods definitions fundamental assumption ethnomethodological studies characterised anne rawls speaking garfinkel one assumes


garfinkel meaningful patterned orderly character everyday life something people must work achieve one must also assume methods members society must shared methods use mutually construct meaningful orderliness social situations ref name annerawls ethnomethodology empirical enterprise rawls states ethnomethodology thoroughly empirical enterprise devoted discovery social order intelligibility sense making witnessable collective achievements keystone ethnomethodological argument local social orders exist


orders witnessable scenes produced possibility intelligibility based actual existence detailed enactment orders ref name annerawls ethnomethodology however conventionally empiricist empirical nature specified weak form ''unique adequacy requirement'' unique adequacy requirement methods weak form researcher 'vulgar competence' research setting able function ordinary member setting unique adequacy requirement methods strong


form identical requirement ethnomethodological indifference ethnomethodological indifference policy deliberate agnosticism indifference towards dictates prejudices methods practices sociological analysis traditionally conceived examples theories deviance analysis behavior rule governed role theory institutional de formations theories social stratification etc dictates prejudices serve pre structure traditional social scientific investigations independently subject matter taken topic study investigatory setting subjected scrutiny ref name garf policy ethnomethodological indifference specifically conceived


observer 's descriptions taking place given situation activity also reveal observer 's inescapable reliance hermeneutic circle defining methodology social understanding lay persons social scientists ref name mark okrent pages mark okrent ''heidegger 's pragmatism'' cornell university press pages ref breaching experiment method revealing exposing common work performed members particular social groups maintaining clearly recognisable shared social order example driving wrong way busy one way street reveal myriads


useful insights patterned social practices moral order community road users point exercisea person pretending stranger boarder householdis demonstrate gaining insight work involved maintaining given social order often best revealed breaching social order observing results breachespecially activities related reassembly social order normalisation social setting ref name garf sacks' gloss question aspect social order


recommends method answering researcher seek members society daily lives responsible maintenance aspect social order opposition idea questions best answered sociologist sacks' original question concerned objects public places possible see objects belong somebody found answer activities police officers decide whether cars abandoned durkheim 's aphorism durkheim famously recommended


basic principle objectivity social facts ref name annerawls usually taken mean assume objectivity social facts principle study thus providing basis sociology science garfinkel 's alternative reading durkheim treat objectivity social facts achievement society 's members make achievement process focus study ref name garf ethnomethodological respecification durkheim 's statement via misreading see quote appears also textual link rationale provided literature


links involve leap faith part reader n't believe one method interpretation necessarily better one form justification interpretation outweighs competitor accounts accounts ways members signify describe explain properties specific social situation consist verbal non verbal objectifications always indexical situation occur see simultaneously reflexivethey serve constitute situation account consist something simple


wink eye material object evidencing state affairs documents etc something complex story detailing boundaries universe indexicality concept indexicality key core concept ethnomethodology garfinkel states derived concept indexical expressions appearing ordinary language philosophy wherein statement considered indexical insofar dependent sense upon context embedded bar hillel phenomenon acknowledged various forms analytical philosophy sociological theory


methods considered limited scope remedied specification operationalisation ethnomethodology phenomenon universalised forms language behavior deemed beyond remedy purposes establishing scientific description explanation social behavior ref name garf harold garfinkel ''studies ethnomethodology'' malden polity press blackwell publishing first published ref consequence degree contextual dependence segment talk behavior range problem establishing working consensus regarding description phrase concept behavior


end game social scientific description note serious development concept must eventually assume theory meaning foundation see gurwitsch without foundational underpinning traditional social scientist ethnomethodologist relegated merely telling stories around campfire brooks misreading text misreading text fragments text denote making erroneous reading text whole part garfinkel states means denote alternate reading text fragment text


acausal non mentalistic determination meaningful action context see also reflexivity social theory documentary method interpretation documentary method method understanding utilised everyone engaged trying make sense social world includes ethnomethodologist garfinkel recovered concept work karl mannheim repeatedly demonstrates use method case studies appearing central text ''studies ethnomethodology'' ref name garf mannheim defined term search identical homologous pattern meaning underlying variety totally different realisations meaning garfinkel states


documentary method interpretation consists treating actual appearance document pointing standing behalf presupposed underlying pattern ref name garf documents serve constitute underlying pattern interpreted basis already known underlying pattern seeming paradox quite familiar hermeneuticians understand phenomenon version hermeneutic circle ref name mark okrent pages phenomenon also subject analysis perspective gestalt theory part whole relationships phenomenological theory perception


social orders theoretically speaking object ethnomethodological research social order taken group member 's concern methodologically social order made available description specific social setting accounting specific social orders sensible coherencies accounts order specific social setting participants relative specific social project realised setting social orders made available participants researchers phenomena order actual accounting partial adumbrated appearances sensibly coherent social orders appearances parts adumbrates social


social practices real people real settings methods people produce maintain shared sense social order ref name garf differences sociology since ethnomethodology become anathema certain sociologists since practicing like perceive efforts constituting radical break prior sociologies little attempt link ethnomethodology prior sociologies ref name paul attewell pp attewell paul ethnomethodology since garfinkel ''theory society'' ''' ''' ref however whilst ethnomethodology distinct sociological methods seek compete


provide remedies practices ethnomethodological approach differs much sociological approach sociology psychology even though speak social action mean ethnomethodology use traditional sociological forms sounding board programmatic development establish benchmarks differences traditional sociological forms study ethnomethodology means ethnomethodology established order repair criticize undermine poke fun traditional sociological forms essence distinctive difference sociological approaches ethnomethodology


latter adopts commonsense attitude towards knowledge contrast traditional sociological forms inquiry hallmark ethnomethodological perspective make theoretical methodological appeals outside assumptions regarding structure actor actors' characterisation social reality refer subjective states individual groups individuals attribute conceptual projections value states sentiments goal orientations mini max economic theories behavior etc actor group actors posit specific normative order transcendental feature social scenes etc


ethnomethodologist methodic realisation social scenes takes place within actual setting scrutiny structured participants setting reflexive accounting setting 's features job ethnomethodologist describe methodic character activities account way transcends made available actual accounting practices individual 's party settings differences therefore summed follows traditional sociology usually offers analysis society takes facticity factual character


objectivity social order granted ethnomethodology concerned procedures practices methods social order produced shared traditional sociology usually provides descriptions social settings compete actual descriptions offered individuals party settings ethnomethodology seeks describe procedures practices methods individuals use actual descriptions settings varieties according george psathas five types ethnomethodological study identified psathas may characterised ''the organisation practical actions practical reasoning'' including


earliest studies garfinkel 's seminal ''studies ethnomethodology'' ref name garf ''the organisation talk interaction'' recently known conversation analysis harvey sacks established approach collaboration colleagues emanuel schegloff gail jefferson ''talk interaction within institutional organisational settings'' early studies focused talk abstracted context produced usually using tape recordings telephone conversations approach seeks identify interactional structures specific particular settings ''the study work'' 'work' used refer social activity analytic interest


work accomplished within setting performed ''the haecceity work'' makes activity eg makes test test competition competition definition definition discussion varieties diversity ethnomethodological investigations found maynard clayman 's work ref name doug relationship conversation analysis relationship ethnomethodology conversation analysis contentious times given overlapping interests close collaboration founders subsequent divergence interest among many practitioners


much study social orders inexorably intertwined constitutive features talk social orders ethnomethodology committed interest conversational talk role talk plays constitution order talk seen indexical embedded specific social order also naturally reflexive constitutive order anne rawls pointed many fact developed serious interest ethnomethodology also used conversation analysis developed sacks schegloff jefferson one research tools ref


name annerawls hand study conversational talk divorced situated context takes character purely technical method formal analytic enterprise right form ethnomethodology ref name annerawls danger misunderstanding rawls notes conversation analysis become another formal analytic enterprise like formal method brings analytical toolbox preconceptions formal definitions operational procedures situation setting study analytical concepts generated within one setting conceptually applied


generalised another application represents violation strong form ''unique adequacy requirement'' methods links phenomenology even though ethnomethodology characterised phenomenological sensibility ref name doug reliable commentators acknowledged strong influence phenomenology ethnomethodology maynard kardash orthodox adherents disciplinethose follow teachings garfinkeldo represent branch form phenomenology phenomenological sociology confusion two disciplines stems part practices ethnomethodologists including garfinkel sift


phenomenological texts recovering phenomenological concepts findings relevant interests transpose concepts findings topics study social order interpretive transpositions make ethnomethodologist phenomenologist ethnomethodology form phenomenology muddy waters phenomenological sociologists seize upon ethnomethodological findings examples applied phenomenology even results ethnomethodological investigations clearly make use phenomenological methods formulate findings language phenomenology called phenomenological analyses social structures ''prima facie'' reference


structures intentional consciousness raise questions phenomenological status analyses garfinkel speaks phenomenological texts findings appropriated intentionally misread purposes exploring topics study social order ref name garf appropriations methodical misread ings phenomenological texts findings clearly made purposes furthering ethnomethodological analyses mistaken logical extensions phenomenological texts findings ref name garf lastly claim garfinkel 's work ethnomethodology form phenomenology


phenomenological sociology state ethnomethodology phenomenological sensibility strong influence phenomenology ethnomethodology equivalent describing ethnomethodology form phenomenology see garfinkel liberman even though ethnomethodology form phenomenology reading understanding phenomenological texts developing capability seeing phenomenologically essential actual ethnomethodological studies garfinkel states regard work phenomenologist aron gurwitsch especially ''field consciousness'' ethnomethodology 's phenomenological ''urtext'' ca n't anything unless read


wes sharrock ''harold garfinkel'' volumes sage sage masters series compendium theoretical papers ethnomethodological studies discussions lynch michael wes sharrock ''ethnomethodology'' volumes sage sage research series compendium theoretical papers ethnomethodological studies discussions maynard douglas kardash teddy 'ethnomethodology' pp nbsp g ritzer ed ''encyclopedia sociology'' boston blackwell psathas george talk social structure studies work ''human studies'' ''' ''' typology ethnomethodological studies social practices vom lehn dirk ''harold garfinkel creation development ethnomethodology'' left coast press external links


http wwwpaultenhavenl emcahtm ethno ca news primary source ethnomethodology conversation analysis information resources https webarchiveorg web http aiemcanet aiemcanet australian institute conversation analysis ethnomethodology sociological theories science technology studies methods sociology


industrial engineers factory '''industrial engineering''' engineering profession concerned optimization complex processes systems organizations developing improving implementing integrated systems people money knowledge information equipment industrial engineering central manufacturing operations industrial engineers use specialized knowledge skills mathematical physical social sciences together principles methods engineering analysis design specify predict evaluate results obtained systems processes ref name salvendy gabriel handbook industrial engineering john wiley sons inc rd edition p ref several

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Industrial engineering


industrial engineering principles followed manufacturing industry ensure effective flow systems processes operations includes lean manufacturing six sigma information systems process capability dmaic principles allows create new systems processes situations useful coordination labour materials machines also improve quality productivity systems physical social ref name depending sub specialties involved industrial engineering may also overlap operations research systems engineering manufacturing engineering production engineering supply chain engineering management science management engineering financial engineering ergonomics human factors engineering safety engineering


logistics engineering others depending viewpoint motives user history origins industrial engineering general consensus among historians roots industrial engineering profession date back industrial revolution technologies helped mechanize traditional manual operations textile industry including flying shuttle spinning jenny perhaps importantly steam engine generated economies scale made mass production centralized locations attractive first time concept production system genesis


factories created innovations ref name maynard zandin maynard zandin maynard 's industrial engineering handbook mcgraw hill professional th edition june p ref also suggested perhaps leonardo da vinci first industrial engineer evidence applied science analysis human work examining rate man could shovel dirt around year others also state ie profession grew charles babbage study factory operations specifically work manufacture straight pins however generally


argued early efforts valuable merely observational attempt engineer jobs studied increase overall output specialization labor watt 's steam engine technical university madrid adam smith 's concepts division labour invisible hand capitalism introduced treatise wealth nations motivated many technological innovators industrial revolution establish implement factory systems efforts james watt matthew boulton led first integrated machine manufacturing facility world including application concepts cost