formulate rules model knowledge speakers languages phonological orthographic modifications base word origin may partial literacy skills studies indicated presence modification phonology orthography makes morphologically complex words harder understand absence modification base word origin makes morphologically complex words easier understand morphologically complex words easier comprehend include base word polysynthetic languages chukchi words composed many morphemes chukchi word mey levtp rk n example meaning


fierce headache composed eight morphemes ''t mey levt p rk n'' may glossed morphology languages allows consonant vowel understood morphemes grammar language indicates usage understanding morpheme discipline deals specifically sound changes occurring within morphemes morphophonology semantics pragmatics semantics pragmatics branches linguistics concerned meaning subfields traditionally divided according aspects meaning thought arise grammar versus linguistic social context semantics conception

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics


concerned grammatical lexical meanings pragmatics concerned meaning context framework formal semantics studies denotations sentences way composed meanings constituent expressions formal semantics draws heavily philosophy language uses formal tools logic computer science cognitive semantics ties linguistic meaning general aspects cognition drawing ideas cognitive science prototype theory pragmatics encompasses phenomena speech acts implicature talk interaction ref name mey mey jacob l ''pragmatics introduction'' oxford blackwell nd ed ref unlike semantics


examines meaning conventional coded given language pragmatics studies transmission meaning depends structural linguistic knowledge grammar lexicon etc speaker listener also context utterance pre existing knowledge involved inferred intent speaker factors respect pragmatics explains language users able overcome apparent ambiguity since meaning relies manner place time etc utterance ref name mey phonetics phonology phonetics phonology branches linguistics concerned sounds


equivalent aspects sign languages phonetics largely concerned physical aspects sounds articulation acoustics production perception phonology concerned linguistic abstractions categorizations sounds typology language varieties languages exist wide continuum conventionalization blurry divisions concepts dialects languages languages undergo internal changes lead development subvarieties linguistic registers accents dialects similarly languages undergo changes caused contact speakers languages new language varieties may born


contact situations process language genesis contact varieties contact varieties pidgins creoles language varieties often arise situations sustained contact communities speak different languages pidgins language varieties limited conventionalization ideas conveyed simplified grammars may grow complex linguistic contact continues creole languages language varieties similar pidgins greater conventionalization stability children grow contact situations may learn local pidgin native language process acquisition transmission new grammatical


features lexical items created introduced fill gaps pidgin eventually developing complete language language contact situations result development pidgin creole researchers studied features contact situations make contact varieties likely develop often varieties arise situations colonization enslavement power imbalances prevent contact groups learning 's language sustained contact nevertheless maintained subjugated language power relationship substrate language dominant language serves superstrate often


words lexicon contact variety come superstrate making lexifier grammatical structures come substrate always case dialect dialect variety language characteristic particular group among language 's speakers group people speakers dialect usually bound social identity differentiates dialect register discourse latter case cultural identity always play role dialects speech varieties


said become standard varieties relativity constructed popularly sapir whorf hypothesis relativists believe structure particular language capable influencing cognitive patterns person shapes world view universalists believe commonalities human perception human capacity language relativists believe varies language language person person sapir whorf hypothesis elaboration idea expressed writings american linguists edward sapir benjamin lee whorf sapir 's


student harry hoijer termed thus th century german linguist leo weisgerber also wrote extensively theory relativity relativists argue case differentiation level cognition semantic domains emergence cognitive linguistics also revived interest linguistic relativity thinkers like george lakoff argued language reflects different cultural metaphors french philosopher language jacques derrida 's writings especially deconstruction seen closely associated relativist movement linguistics heavily criticized media


linguistic structures broken component parts combined according sub conscious rules multiple levels analysis instance consider structure word tenth two different levels analysis level internal word structure known morphology word tenth made one linguistic form indicating number another form indicating ordinality rule governing combination forms ensures ordinality marker th follows number ten level sound structure known phonology structural analysis shows


n sound tenth made differently n sound ten spoken alone although speakers english consciously aware rules governing internal structure word pieces tenth less often aware rule governing sound structure linguists focused structure find analyze rules govern native speakers use language grammar grammar system rules governs production use utterances given language rules apply sound well meaning


include componential subsets rules pertaining phonology organisation phonetic sound systems morphology formation composition words syntax formation composition phrases sentences modern frameworks deal principles grammar include structural functional linguistics generative linguistics sub fields focus grammatical study language include following '''phonetics''' study physical properties speech sound production perception delves acoustic articulatory properties '''phonology''' study sounds abstract elements speaker 's mind distinguish meaning phonemes


'''morphology''' study morphemes internal structures words modified '''syntax''' study words combine form grammatical phrases sentences '''semantics''' study lexical grammatical aspects meaning ref name meaning grammar introductio ref '''pragmatics''' study utterances used communicative acts role played situational context non linguistic knowledge transmission meaning ref name meaning grammar introductio '''discourse analysis''' analysis language use texts spoken written signed '''stylistics''' study linguistic factors rhetoric diction stress place


discourse context '''semiotics''' study signs sign processes semiosis indication designation likeness analogy metaphor symbolism signification communication discourse discourse language social practice baynham multilayered concept social practice discourse embodies different ideologies written spoken texts discourse analysis examine expose ideologies discourse influences genre chosen response different situations finally micro level discourse influences language text spoken written phonological lexico grammatical level grammar discourse linked parts


system particular discourse becomes language variety used way particular purpose referred register may certain lexical additions new words brought play expertise community people within certain domain specialization registers discourses therefore differentiate use vocabulary times use style people medical fraternity example may use medical terminology communication specialized field medicine


often referred part medical discourse lexicon lexicon catalogue words terms stored speaker 's mind lexicon consists words bound morphemes parts words ca n't stand alone like affixes analyses compound words certain classes idiomatic expressions collocations also considered part lexicon dictionaries represent attempts listing alphabetical order lexicon given language usually however bound morphemes included lexicography closely linked


domain semantics science mapping words encyclopedia dictionary creation addition new words lexicon called coining neologization new words called neologisms often believed speaker 's capacity language lies quantity words stored lexicon however often considered myth linguists capacity use language considered many linguists lie primarily domain grammar linked competence rather growth vocabulary


canonical works literature popular fiction news advertisements forms communication popular culture well usually seen variation communication changes speaker speaker community community short stylistics interpretation text jacques derrida instance distinguished speech writing proposing written language studied linguistic medium communication palaeography therefore discipline studies evolution written scripts signs symbols language formal study language also led


growth fields like psycholinguistics explores representation function language mind neurolinguistics studies language processing brain biolinguistics studies biology evolution language language acquisition investigates children adults acquire knowledge one languages approaches humanistic fundamental principle humanistic linguistics language invention created people semiotic tradition linguistic research considers language sign system arises interaction meaning form organisation linguistic levels considered computational linguistics


essentially seen relating social cultural studies different languages shaped social interaction speech community frameworks representing humanistic view language include structural linguistics among others ref name humanistic ref structural analysis means dissecting linguistic level phonetic morphological syntactic discourse smallest units collected inventories eg phoneme morpheme lexical classes phrase types study interconnectedness within hierarchy structures layers functional analysis adds structural analysis assignment semantic functional roles unit may example noun phrase may function


event schemas ref name arbib ref impact cognitive constraints biases human language similarly neuro linguistic programming language approached via senses ref name delcarmenguarddonanelo ref ref name ibarretxe antu ano ref ref name gibbs colston ref closely related approach evolutionary linguistics includes study linguistic units cultural replicators possible study language replicates adapts mind individual speech community construction grammar framework applies meme concept study syntax ref name dahl ref ref name kirby ref ref name zehentner ref ref name macwhinney ref generative versus evolutionary approach sometimes called formalism functionalism respectively reference however different


use terms human sciences methodology linguistics primarily descriptive ref name martinet ref linguists describe explain features language without making subjective judgments whether particular feature usage good bad analogous practice sciences zoologist studies animal kingdom without making subjective judgments whether particular species better worse another prescription hand attempt promote particular linguistic usages others often favouring particular dialect acrolect may aim establishing linguistic standard


aid communication large geographical areas may also however attempt speakers one language dialect exert influence speakers languages dialects see linguistic imperialism extreme version prescriptivism found among censors attempt eradicate words structures consider destructive society prescription however may practised appropriately language instruction like elt certain fundamental grammatical rules lexical items need introduced second language speaker attempting acquire language sources contemporary


languages changing fit spoken language recorded speech evolved human beings invented writing individuals learn speak process spoken language easily earlier writing nonetheless linguists agree study written language worthwhile valuable research relies corpus linguistics computational linguistics written language often much convenient processing large amounts linguistic data large corpora spoken language difficult create hard find typically transcribed written addition linguists turned text based discourse occurring


various formats computer mediated communication viable site linguistic inquiry study writing systems graphemics case considered branch linguistics analysis th century linguists analysed language diachronic plane historical focus meant would compare linguistic features try analyse language point view changed later however rise saussurean linguistics th century focus shifted synchronic approach study geared towards analysis


comparison different language variations existed given point time another level syntagmatic plane linguistic analysis entails comparison way words sequenced within syntax sentence example article followed noun syntagmatic relation words paradigmatic plane hand focuses analysis based paradigms concepts embedded given text case words type class may replaced text


achieve conceptual understanding history earliest activities description language attributed th century bc indian grammarian p ini wrote formal description sanskrit language '''' today modern day theories grammar employ many principles laid nomenclature th century term ''philology'' first attested ref name etymonline definition philology ref commonly used refer study language predominantly historical focus ref name introduction philology manuscript culture stephen g


nichols vol jan pp published medieval academy america ref since ferdinand de saussure 's insistence importance synchronic analysis however focus shifted term ''philology'' generally used study language 's grammar history literary tradition especially united states philology never popularly considered science language ref name etymonline definition philology although term ''linguist'' sense student language dates ref name etymonline linguist term ''linguistics'' first attested ref name etymonline linguist ref


successors founded university see musaeum alexandria school philologists studied ancient texts taught greek speakers languages school first use word grammar modern sense plato used word original meaning chn grammatik art writing also title one important works alexandrine school dionysius thrax throughout middle ages study language subsumed topic philology study ancient languages texts practised


educators roger ascham wolfgang ratke john amos comenius comparative philology th century first use comparative method william jones sparked rise comparative linguistics bloomfield attributes first great scientific linguistic work world jacob grimm wrote ''deutsche grammatik'' ref name bloomfield ref soon followed authors writing similar comparative studies language groups europe study language broadened indo european language general wilhelm von humboldt bloomfield asserts ref name bloomfield '' ''on variety


structure human language influence upon mental development human race'' th century developments shift focus historical comparative linguistics synchronic analysis early th century structural analysis improved leonard bloomfield louis hjelmslev zellig harris also developed methods discourse analysis functional analysis developed prague linguistic circle andr martinet sound recording devices became commonplace dialectal recordings made archived audio lingual method provided technological solution foreign language learning also saw


new rise comparative linguistics study language universals linguistic typology towards end century field linguistics became divided areas interest advent language technology digitalised corpora areas research sociolinguistics sociolinguistics study language shaped social factors sub discipline focuses synchronic approach linguistics looks language general set languages display variation varieties given point time study language variation different


varieties language dialects registers idiolects tackled study style well analysis discourse sociolinguists research style discourse language well theoretical factors play language society developmental linguistics developmental linguistics study development linguistic ability individuals particularly acquisition language childhood questions developmental linguistics looks children acquire different languages adults acquire second language process language acquisition


neurolinguistics neurolinguistics study structures human brain underlie grammar communication researchers drawn field variety backgrounds bringing along variety experimental techniques well widely varying theoretical perspectives much work neurolinguistics informed models psycholinguistics theoretical linguistics focused investigating brain implement processes theoretical psycholinguistics propose necessary producing comprehending language neurolinguists study physiological mechanisms brain processes information related language evaluate linguistic psycholinguistic theories


using aphasiology brain imaging electrophysiology computer modelling amongst structures brain involved mechanisms neurolinguistics cerebellum contains highest numbers neurons major role terms predictions required produce language applied linguistics linguists largely concerned finding describing generalities varieties within particular languages among languages applied linguistics takes results findings applies areas linguistic research commonly applied areas language education lexicography translation language planning involves governmental policy implementation related


language use natural language processing applied linguistics argued something misnomer applied linguists actually focus making sense engineering solutions real world linguistic problems literally applying existing technical knowledge linguistics moreover commonly apply technical knowledge multiple sources sociology eg conversation analysis anthropology constructed language fits applied linguistics today computers widely used many areas applied linguistics speech synthesis speech recognition use phonetic phonemic knowledge provide voice interfaces computers applications computational linguistics machine translation computer assisted


translation natural language processing areas applied linguistics come forefront influence effect theories syntax semantics modelling syntactic semantic theories computers constraints linguistic analysis sub discipline applied linguistics used many governments verify claimed nationality people seeking asylum hold necessary documentation prove claim ref name linguistic analysis ref often takes form interview personnel immigration department depending country interview conducted either asylum seeker 's native language


interpreter international ''lingua franca'' like english ref name linguistic analysis australia uses former method germany employs latter netherlands uses either method depending languages involved ref name linguistic analysis tape recordings interview undergo language analysis done either private contractors within department government analysis linguistic features asylum seeker used analysts make determination speaker 's nationality reported findings linguistic analysis play critical role government 's decision refugee status


teaching second foreign language policy makers work governments implement new plans education teaching based linguistic research since inception discipline linguistics linguists concerned describing analysing previously undocumented languages starting franz boas early became main focus american linguistics rise formal linguistics mid th century focus language documentation partly motivated concern document rapidly disappearing languages indigenous peoples ethnographic dimension boasian approach language


language question consisting texts recordings sound video stored accessible format within open repositories used research translation sub field translation includes translation written spoken texts across media digital print spoken translate literally means transmute meaning one language another translators often employed organizations travel agencies governmental embassies facilitate communication two speakers know 's language translators also employed work within computational linguistics


setups like google translate automated program translate words phrases two given languages translation also conducted publishing houses convert works writing one language another order reach varied audiences academic translators specialize familiar various disciplines technology science law economics etc clinical linguistics clinical linguistics application linguistic theory field speech language pathology speech language pathologists work corrective measures treat communication swallowing disorders chaika showed people schizophrenia


display speech disorders like rhyming inappropriately attentional dysfunction patient shown color chip asked identify responded looks like clay sounds like gray take roll hay heyday may day color chip actually clay colored first response correct' however people suppress ignore words rhyme 've said unless deliberately producing pun poem rap even speaker shows connection words chosen rhyme overall meaning discourse people schizophrenia speech


dysfunction show relation rhyme reason even produce stretches gibberish combined recognizable words computational linguistics computational linguistics study linguistic issues way computationally responsible ie taking careful note computational consideration algorithmic specification computational complexity linguistic theories devised shown exhibit certain desirable computational properties implementations computational linguists also work computer language software development evolutionary linguistics evolutionary linguistics study emergence language faculty human evolution also


application evolutionary theory study cultural evolution among different languages also study dispersal various languages across globe movements among ancient communities evolutionary linguistics highly interdisciplinary field including linguists biologists neuroscientists psychologists mathematicians others shifting focus investigation linguistics comprehensive scheme embraces natural sciences seeks yield framework fundamentals language understood forensic linguistics forensic linguistics application linguistic analysis forensics forensic analysis investigates style language lexical


use linguistic grammatical features used legal context provide evidence courts law forensic linguists also used expertise framework criminal cases see also articulatory synthesis axiom categoricity critical discourse analysis cryptanalysis decipherment global language system hermeneutics integrational linguistics integrationism interlinguistics language engineering language geography metalinguistics metacommunicative competence microlinguistics onomastics reading speech processing stratificational linguistics outline lists index linguistics articles list departments linguistics list summer schools linguistics list schools linguistics list unsolved problems linguistics references


bibliography external links http linguistlistorg linguist list global online linguistics community news information updated daily http wwwsilorg linguistics glossaryoflinguisticterms indexhtm glossary linguistic terms sil international last updated http wwwglottopediaorg glottopedia mediawiki based encyclopedia linguistics construction https webarchiveorg web http wwwlsadcorg info ling fieldscfm linguistic sub fields according linguistic society america linguistics language related wiki articles http wwwscholarpediaorg article language scholarpedia http encitizendiumorg wiki linguistics citizendium https personalunizares garciala bibliographyhtml linguistics section bibliography literary theory criticism philology ed ja garc landa university zaragoza spain cognitive science language indian inventions


title page ''systema naturae'' leiden '''linnaean taxonomy''' mean either two related concepts particular form biological classification taxonomy set carl linnaeus set forth ''systema naturae'' subsequent works taxonomy linnaeus three kingdoms divided ''classes'' turn lower ranks hierarchical order term rank based classification organisms general taxonomy traditional sense word rank based scientific classification term especially used opposed cladistic systematics groups

Natural science
Biology
Linnaean taxonomy


organisms clades attributed linnaeus although neither invented concept ranked classification goes back plato aristotle gave present form fact exact present form linnaean taxonomy really exist collective abstracting term actually several separate fields use similar approaches '''linnaean name''' also two meanings depending context may either refer formal name given linnaeus personally ''giraffa camelopardalis'' linnaeus formal name


accepted nomenclature opposed modernistic clade name taxonomy linnaeus ''imperium naturae'' linnaeus established three kingdoms namely ''regnum animale'' ''regnum vegetabile'' ''regnum lapideum'' approach animal vegetable mineral kingdoms survives today popular mind notably form parlour game question animal vegetable mineral work linnaeus huge impact science indispensable foundation biological nomenclature regulated nomenclature codes two works first edition ''species plantarum'' plants


tenth edition ''systema naturae'' accepted part starting points nomenclature binomials names species generic names take priority others however impact science value taxonomy linnaeus' kingdoms turn divided ''classes'' turn ''orders'' ''genera'' singular ''genus'' ' 'species'' singular ' 'species'' additional rank lower species though precisely correspond use terms modern taxonomy classification plants classes orders


plants according ''systema sexuale'' never intended represent natural groups opposed ''ordines naturales'' ''philosophia botanica'' use identification used purpose well nineteenth century within class several orders key sexual system th edition ''systema naturae'' ''kalmia'' classified according linnaeus' sexual system class decandria order monogyna stamens one pistil linnaean classes plants sexual system page numbers refer ''species plantarum'' classis


monandria flowers stamen classis diandria flowers stamens classis triandria flowers stamens classis tetrandria flowers stamens classis pentandria flowers stamens classis hexandria flowers stamens hexandria monogynia pp nbsp hexandria polygynia pp nbsp classis heptandria flowers stamens classis octandria flowers stamens classis enneandria flowers stamens classis decandria flowers stamens classis dodecandria flowers stamens classis icosandria flowers stamens perigynous classis polyandria flowers many


stamens inserted receptacle classis didynamia flowers stamens long short gymnospermia angiospermia classis tetradynamia flowers stamens long short classis monadelphia flowers anthers separate filaments united least base pentandria decandria polyandria classis diadelphia flowers stamens united two separate groups hexandria octandria decandria classis polyadelphia flowers stamens united several separate groups pentandria icosandria polyandria classis syngenesia flowers stamens united anthers polygamia aequalis polygamia superba polygamia frustranea polygamia necessaria monogamia


classis gynandria flowers stamens united pistils classis monoecia monoecious plants classis dioecia dioecious plants classis polygamia polygamodioecious plants classis cryptogamia flowerless plants including ferns fungi algae bryophytes classes based number stamens subdivided number pistils eg ''hexandria monogynia'' six stamens one pistil index genera p nbsp contrast ''ordines naturales'' numbered piperitae vagae classification animals classification animals animal kingdom higher taxonomy linnaeus still


less recognizable names still use usually quite groups divided animal kingdom six classes tenth edition classis mammalia mammals classis aves birds classis amphibia amphibians classis pisces classis insecta classis vermes classification minerals taxonomy minerals long since dropped use tenth edition ''systema naturae'' linnaean classes classis petr classis miner classis fossilia classis vitamentra rank based


scientific classification rank based method classifying living organisms originally popularized much later named linnaeus although changed considerably since time greatest innovation linnaeus still important aspect system general use binomial nomenclature combination genus name second term together uniquely identify species organism within kingdom example human species uniquely identified within animal kingdom name ''homo sapiens'' species animal binomen technical term


including many genera subordinated animal kingdom via intermediary classes orders treats ''homo'' genus species ''homo sapiens'' ' 'sapiens'' latin knowing understanding playing differentiating role analogous played scholastic system ''rationalis'' word ''homo'' latin human used scholastics denote species genus strength linnaean taxonomy used organize different kinds living organisms simply practically every species given unique one hopes stable name


compared common names often neither unique consistent place place language language uniqueness stability course result acceptance working systematists biologists specializing taxonomy merely binomial names rules governing use names laid formal nomenclature codes species placed ranked hierarchy starting either ' 'domains'' ''kingdoms'' domains divided kingdoms kingdoms divided ''phyla'' singular ''phylum'' mdash animals term ' 'division'' used plants fungi


equivalent rank phylum current international code botanical nomenclature allows use either term phyla divisions divided ''classes'' turn ''orders'' ''families'' ''genera'' singular ''genus'' ' 'species'' singular ' 'species'' ranks species zoology ' 'subspecies'' see ''form'' ''morph'' botany ''variety'' varietas ''form'' forma etc groups organisms ranks called ''taxa'' singular ''taxon'' ''taxonomic groups'' linnaean system proven robust remains extant working classification system present enjoys universal scientific


alternatives time understanding relationships living things changed linnaeus could base scheme structural similarities different organisms greatest change widespread acceptance evolution mechanism biological diversity species formation following publication charles darwin 's ''on origin species'' became generally understood classifications ought reflect phylogeny organisms descent evolution led evolutionary taxonomy various extant extinct linked together construct phylogeny largely meant


term 'linnaean taxonomy' used modern context cladistics originating work willi hennig onwards taxon grouped include common ancestor group 's members thus avoid phylogeny taxa may either monophyletic including descendants genus ''homo'' paraphyletic excluding descendants genus ''australopithecus'' originally linnaeus established three kingdoms scheme namely plants animals additional group minerals long since abandoned since various life forms moved three new


kingdoms monera prokaryotes ie bacteria protista protozoans algae fungi five kingdom scheme still far phylogenetic ideal largely supplanted modern taxonomic work division three domains bacteria archaea contain prokaryotes eukaryota comprising remaining forms arrangements seen definitive based genomes organisms knowledge increases classifications change representing presumptive evolutionary relationships especially given wide acceptance cladistic methodology numerous molecular phylogenies challenged long accepted classifications


within framework linnaean taxonomy sometimes seen problematic therefore systematists proposed phylocode replace see also history plant systematics phylogenetic tree nbsp ndash way express insights evolutionary relationships zoology mnemonic list mnemonic sentences used help people remember list linnaean ranks references bibliography books dawkins richard ''the ancestor 's tale pilgrimage dawn life'' boston houghton mifflin ereshefsky marc ''the poverty linnaean hierarchy philosophical study biological taxonomy'' cambridge cambridge university press gould


stephen jay ''wonderful life burgess shale nature history'' w w norton co pavord anna ''the naming names search order world plants'' bloomsbury articles websites external links http wwwbgbmorg iapt nomenclature code saintlouis stluistitlehtm international code botanical nomenclature saint louis code electronic version http wwwiapt taxonorg nomen mainphp international code nomenclature algae fungi plants melbourne code electronic version https webarchiveorg web http icznorg iczn website zoological nomenclature https webarchiveorg web http wwwicznorg iczn indexjsp text iczn electronic version http wwwzoobankorg zoobank world register animal names http wwwthe icsporg international committee systematics prokaryotes bacteria https webarchiveorg web http wwwicznorg iczn indexjsp international code


zoological nomenclature th edition international union biological sciences https wwwncbinlmnihgov ictvdb ictvdb website virus nomenclature international union microbiological societies http tolweborg tree life https webarchiveorg web http wwwfinitesitecom dandelion linnaeushtml european species names linnaean czech english german french taxonomy taxonomy biology biological nomenclature botanical nomenclature zoological nomenclature swedish inventions


library palais bourbon paris duke humfrey 's library oxford england '''library''' collection materials books media easily accessible use display purposes responsible housing updated information order meet user 's needs daily basis library provides physical hard copies documents digital access soft copies materials may physical location virtual space library 's collection include printed materials physical resources many formats dvd cd cassette well

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Library


access information music content held bibliographic databases library may vary widely size may organized use maintained public body government institution schools corporation private individual addition providing materials libraries also provide services librarians trained experts finding selecting circulating organizing information interpreting information needs navigating analyzing large amounts information variety resources library buildings often provide quiet conducive areas studying well common


areas group study collaboration may provide public facilities access electronic resources instance computers access internet library 's clientele therefore services offered vary depending type users public library different needs special library example libraries may also community hubs programs delivered people engage lifelong learning modern libraries extend services beyond physical walls building providing material accessible electronic means including home via internet hence managing information


information world become easy simply information provided accessed virtually people remote areas places away library services library offers variously described library services information services combination library information services although different institutions sources define terminology differently history history libraries began first efforts organize collections documents ref name britannica first libraries consisted archives earliest form writing clay tablets cuneiform script discovered sumer dating back


world throughout history along bloody massacres destruction libraries critical conquerors wish destroy every trace vanquished community recorded memory prominent example found mongol massacre nizaris alamut torching library fame boasts conqueror juwayni spread throughout world etymology term ''library'' based latin 'book' 'document' contained latin 'collection books' 'container books' modern languages use derivations ancient


collaboration libraries often provide public facilities access electronic resources internet public institutional collections services may intended use people choose cannot afford purchase extensive collection need material individual reasonably expected require professional assistance research services offered library variously described library services information services combination library information services although different institutions sources define terminology differently organizations departments often called one names however


world static roles libraries slowly changing order suit changing world services provided libraries gone extra mile supporting research reference services reference services include current awareness services cas selective dissemination information sdi telephone services therefore services creates conducive environment library clients privilege interact library staff order express view information related needs librarians information specialists libraries usually staffed combination professionally trained librarians paraprofessional staff sometimes called library technicians support staff


topics related education librarians allied staff include accessibility collection acquisition materials arrangement finding tools book trade influence physical properties different writing materials language distribution role education rates literacy budgets staffing libraries specially targeted audiences architectural merit patterns usage role libraries nation 's cultural heritage role government church private sponsorship since issues computerization digitization arisen ref name britannica ref librarians trained updated trending information order relevant information types


poet laureate rita dove 's definition library entrance maine state library augusta maine united states many institutions make distinction circulating lending library materials expected intended loaned patrons institutions libraries reference library material lent travelling libraries early horseback libraries eastern kentucky bookmobiles generally lending type modern libraries often mixture containing general collection circulation reference collection restricted library premises


also increasingly digital collections enable broader access material may circulate print enables libraries expand collections even without building larger facility lamba reinforced idea observing today libraries become increasingly multi disciplinary collaborative networked applying web tools libraries would connect users community enhance communication also help librarians promote library activities services products target actual potential users academic libraries round reading room maughan library main university library


king 's college london london england academic libraries generally located college university campuses primarily serve students faculty academic institutions academic libraries especially public institutions accessible members general public whole part therefore library services extended general public fee academic libraries create services order mobilize also enhance literacy levels communities libraries known institutions enables improvement reading culture parts


world university library budapest hungary academic libraries libraries hosted post secondary educational institutions colleges universities main functions provide support research consultancy resource linkage students faculty educational institution academic libraries nbsp house current reliable relevant information resources spread disciplines serve assuage information requirements students faculty however cases books housed libraries come e resources subscribe given institution serving order provide backups also


possible types information furthermore libraries collaborate libraries exchange books specific course related resources usually provided library copies textbooks article readings held 'reserve' meaning loaned short term basis usually matter hours academic libraries provide resources usually associated libraries ability check laptop computers web cameras scientific calculators academic libraries offer workshops courses outside formal graded coursework meant provide


students tools necessary succeed programs workshops may include help citations effective search techniques journal databases electronic citation software workshops provide students skills help achieve success academic careers often future occupations may learn inside classroom robarts library university toronto canada academic library provides quiet study space students campus may also provide group study space meeting rooms north america europe parts world academic libraries


becoming increasingly digitally oriented library provides gateway students researchers access various resources print physical digital academic institutions subscribing electronic journals databases providing research scholarly writing software usually provide computer workstations computer labs students access journals library search databases portals institutional electronic resources internet access course task related software ie word processing spreadsheet software academic libraries take new roles instance acting electronic repository institutional scholarly research academic knowledge collection curation digital copies


students' theses dissertations moreover academic libraries increasingly acting publishers profit basis especially form fully open access institutional publishers children 's libraries children 's library montreal quebec canada children 's libraries special collections books intended juvenile readers usually kept separate rooms general public libraries children 's libraries entire floors wings dedicated bigger libraries smaller ones may separate room area children educational agency seeking acquaint young


world 's literature cultivate love reading work supplements public schools services commonly provided public libraries may include storytelling sessions infants toddlers preschool children school programs intention developing early literacy skills love books one popular programs offered public libraries summer reading programs children families adults another popular reading program children paws read similar programs children read certified therapy dogs since animals calming influence judgment


children learn confidence love reading many states types programs parents need simply ask librarian see available local library national libraries interior national library finland helsinki finland national library wales aberystwyth national state library serves national repository information right legal deposit legal requirement publishers country need deposit copy publication library unlike public library national library rarely allows citizens borrow


books often collections include numerous rare valuable significant works wider definitions national library putting less emphasis repository character first national libraries origins royal collections sovereign supreme body state many national libraries cooperate within national libraries section international federation library associations institutions ifla discuss common tasks define promote common standards carry projects helping fulfill duties national libraries europe participate european library


service conference european national librarians cenl public lending libraries raczy ski library public library pozna poland public library provides services general public library part countywide library system citizens active library card around county use library branches associated library system library serve city however member county public library system much materials located within public library available borrowing library staff decides upon number


items patrons allowed borrow well details borrowing time allotted typically libraries issue library cards community members wishing borrow books often visitors city able obtain public library card community library ethiopia many public libraries also serve community organizations provide free services events public reading groups toddler story time many communities library source connection vast world obtainable knowledge understanding entertainment according study pennsylvania library association public


bookshelves also supported floors often built translucent blocks permit passage light transparent reasons modesty introduction electrical lighting huge impact library operated use glass floors largely discontinued though floors still often composed metal grating allow air circulate multi story stacks space needed method moving shelves tracks compact shelving introduced cut otherwise wasted aisle space library term coined library 's response


challenge google attempt meet changing needs users using web technology aspects library include commenting tagging bookmarking discussions use online social networks libraries plug ins widgets inspired web attempt make library user driven institution despite importance public libraries routinely budgets cut state legislature funding dwindled badly many public libraries forced cut hours release employees reference libraries main reading room


new york city public library th avenue reference library lend books items instead read library typically libraries used research purposes example university items reference libraries may historical even unique many lending libraries contain reference section holds books dictionaries common reference books therefore lent reference sections may referred reading rooms may also include newspapers periodicals example reading room


hazel h ransom reading room harry ransom center university texas austin maintains papers literary agent audrey wood ref name ransom http researchhrcutexasedu hrcxtf viewdocid ead xml audrey wood inventory collection harry ransom humanities research center ''wwwhrcutexasedu'' retrieved april ref research libraries quaid e azam library bagh e jinnah lahore pakistan research library collection materials one subjects research library supports scholarly scientific research generally include primary well secondary sources maintain permanent collections attempt provide access necessary materials


science digital libraries digital libraries libraries house digital resources defined organization service provide access digital works preservation responsibility provide future access materials provides items easily affordably ref name chowdhury foo ref definition digital library implies digital library uses variety software networking technologies standards facilitate access digital content data designated user community access digital libraries influenced several factors either individually together common factors influence


access library 's content characteristics information needs target users library 's digital interface goals objectives library 's organizational structure standards regulations govern library use access depend users ability discover retrieve documents interest require turn preservation question digital objects cannot preserved passively must curated digital librarians ensure trust integrity digital objects one biggest considerations digital librarians need provide long term access


resources two issues requiring watchfulness media failure format obsolescence media failure particular digital item unusable sort error problem scratched cd rom example display contents correctly another unscratched disk problem format obsolescence digital format superseded newer technology items old format unreadable unusable dealing media failure reactive process something done problem presents contrast format obsolescence


organizations including hospitals churches museums research laboratories law firms many government departments agencies maintain libraries use employees specialized research related work depending particular institution special libraries may may accessible general public elements thereof specialized institutions law firms research laboratories librarians employed special libraries commonly specialists institution 's field rather generally trained librarians often required advanced degrees specifically library related field due specialized content


clientele library special libraries also include women 's libraries lgbtq libraries serve needs women lgbtq community libraries lgbtq community extensive history currently many libraries archives special collections devoted preserving helping lgbtq community women 's libraries vancouver women 's library women 's library lse examples women 's libraries offer services women girls focus women 's history long room trinity college library trinity college dublin ireland legal deposit


copyright library entitled receive copy books published uk special libraries governmental law libraries hospital libraries military base libraries commonly open public visitors institution question depending particular library clientele serves special libraries may offer services similar research reference public academic children 's libraries often restrictions lending books patients hospital restricting public parts military collection given highly individual nature special libraries visitors


special library often advised check services restrictions apply particular library special libraries distinguished special collections branches parts library intended rare books manuscripts special materials though special libraries special collections typically related library 's specialized subject area information specific types special libraries see law libraries medical libraries music libraries transportation libraries organization library shelves hong kong showing numbers classification scheme help readers locate works section libraries


handles user accounts loaning returning shelving materials collection development orders materials maintains materials budgets reference staffs reference desk answering questions users using structured reference interviews instructing users developing library programming reference may broken user groups materials common collections children 's literature young adult literature genealogy materials technical services works behind scenes cataloging processing new materials deaccessioning weeded materials stacks maintenance shelves materials returned library patron use shelves materials processed


existing ones development implementation outreach services reading enhancement services adult literacy children 's programming library materials like books magazines periodicals cds etc managed dewey decimal classification theory modified dewey decimal classification theory practical reliable system library materials management international organization standardization iso published several standards regarding management libraries technical committee tc focused libraries documentation information centers publishing archives records management museum documentation indexing abstracting services information science following partial


demands made upon general condition may resulted one following causes effort erect monumental building commission library buildings librarians priorities may different conform type architecture unsuited library purposes appointment often competition architect unschooled requirements library failure consult librarian library experts much advancement undoubtedly made toward cooperation architect librarian many good designers made library buildings


library denmark dynix early long lasting popular digital catalogue patrons may know fully use library 's resources due individuals' unease approaching staff member ways library 's content displayed accessed may impact use antiquated clumsy search system staff unwilling untrained engage patrons limit library 's usefulness public libraries united states beginning th century problems drove emergence library instruction movement advocated library


user education one early leaders john cotton dana basic form library instruction sometimes known information literacy libraries inform users materials available collections access information computer age accomplished card catalogue cabinet multiple cabinets containing many drawers filled index cards identified books materials large library card catalogue often filled large room emergence internet however led adoption electronic catalogue databases often referred


process may assisted signage maps gps systems rfid tagging finland highest number registered book borrowers per capita world half finland 's population registered borrowers us public library users borrowed average roughly books per user per year book circulation per user declined approximately growth audiovisuals circulation estimated total circulation accounts half decline shift digital libraries interior bibliotheca alexandrina alexandria egypt showing


stacks computer terminals st century increasing use internet gather retrieve data shift digital libraries greatly impacted way people use physical libraries average american academic library saw overall number transactions decline approximately libraries trying keep digital world new generation students used information one click away example university california library system saw decline circulation


books facts might consequence increased availability e resources arl university libraries spent almost nbsp million electronic resources increase nearly nbsp million previous year report open e book forum found close million e books sold generating nearly nbsp million revenue another example shift digital libraries seen cushing academy 's decision dispense library printed books volumes switch entirely digital media resources jos vasconcelos


library mexico city mexico discussion paper exploring changing use libraries reported decreased library usage undergraduate students become used retrieving information internet traditional library finding information simply searching internet seen easier faster reading entire book survey conducted netlibrary undergraduate students said finding information online made sense going library three quarters said enough time go library retrieving information internet may


efficient time saving visiting traditional library research showed undergraduates likely searching entire web mid swedish company distec invented library book vending machine known golibrary offers library books people branch limited hours high traffic locations el cerrito del norte bart station california internet british museum reading room library may make use internet number ways creating library website making contents catalogues searchable online


specialised search engines google scholar offer way facilitate searching academic resources journal articles research papers online computer library center allows anyone search world 's largest repository library records worldcat online database ref name grossman https wwwtheguardiancom technology jan library search engines books grossman w ca n't find library book search engine ''the guardian'' accessed march ref websites librarything amazon provide abstracts reviews recommendations books ref name grossman libraries provide computers internet access allow people search information online online information access particularly


attractive younger library users ref name mla dcms laser ref digitization books particularly print projects google books provides resources library online users due holdings valuable material libraries important partners search engines google realizing potential projects received reciprocal benefits cases negotiated effectively ref name darnton http wwwnybookscom articles darnton r google future books ''new york review books'' accessed march ref prominence reliance internet grown library


services moved emphasis mainly providing print resources providing computers internet access libraries face number challenges adapting new ways information seeking may stress convenience quality reducing priority information literacy skills ref name bell ref potential decline library usage particularly reference services puts necessity services doubt library scholars acknowledged libraries need address ways market services compete internet mitigate risk losing users includes promoting information literacy


skills training considered vital across library profession ref name bell ref name cilip ref name kenney ref many us based research librarians rely acrl framework information literacy order guide students faculty research however marketing services adequately supported financially order successful problematic library services publicly funded find difficult justify diverting tight funds apparently peripheral areas branding marketing privacy aspect library usage internet age matter growing concern advocacy privacy workshops run


library freedom project teach librarians digital tools tor network thwart mass surveillance associations international federation library associations institutions ifla leading international association library organisations global voice library information profession annual conference provides venue librarians learn one another library associations asia include indian library association ila indian association special libraries information centers iaslic bengal library association bla kolkata pakistan library association pakistan librarians welfare organization bangladesh association librarians


name rowlandsetal ref nigerian library association recognized group librarians working nigeria established ibadan public library advocacy support given public library financial philosophical goals needs often takes form monetary material donations campaigning institutions oversee library sometimes advocacy groups friends libraries community members originally library advocacy centered library current trends show libraries positioning demonstrate provide economic value community means


directly related checking books media international protection libraries considered part cultural heritage one primary objectives many state domestic conflicts risk destruction looting financing often carried robbing valuable library items national international coordination regarding military civil structures protection libraries operated blue shield international unesco international perspective despite partial dissolution state structures unclear security situations result wars unrest robust


fuchs walther ''bibliotheken bauen tradition und vision building books traditions visions'' basel birkh user ellsworth ralph e ''academic library buildings guide architectural issues solutions'' pp boulder associated university press fraley ruth anderson carol lee ''library space planning assess allocate reorganize collections resources physical facilities'' new york neal schuman publishers irwin raymond ''the national library service united kingdom '' london grafton co x p lewanski richard c ''lilbrary directories library science dictionaries'' ''bibliography reference series'' ed


santa barbara calif clio press ''nb'' publisher also named american bibliographical center robert k logan marshall mcluhan ''the future library electric media digital media new york peter lang publishing mason ellsworth ''mason library buildings'' metuchen nj scarecrow press monypenny phillip guy garrison ''the library functions states ie us commentary survey library functions states'' auspices survey standard committee american association state libraries chicago american library association xiii p orr jm ''designing library


buildings activity'' nd ed london andre deutsch thompson godfrey ''planning design library buildings'' london architectural press external links http wwwlib weborg libweb directory library servers countries via www https webarchiveorg web http wwwhssedacuk chb centre history book hssedacuk ''the free library'' ''a library primer'' john cotton dana http wwwibiblioorg librariesfaq libraries frequently asked questions ibiblioorg https wwwgutenbergorg ebooks ''a library primer'' john cotton dana setting basics organizing running library project gutenberg library science book promotion


pronunciation states republicempire ethnicity latins era vulgar latin developed romance languages th th centuries formal language continued scholarly ''lingua franca'' medieval europe cilicia well liturgical language catholic church familycolor indo european fam

Applied science
Divinity
Scriptural study and languages
Latin


italic fam latino faliscan script latin alphabet nbsp agency ref today pontifical academy latin iso la iso lat iso


roman empire trajan adpng mapcaption map indicating greatest extent roman empire emperor trajan area governed latin speakers dark red many languages latin spoken within empire map romance c enpng mapcaption range romance languages modern descendants latin europe notice


ipa nation holy see '''latin''' classical language belonging italic branch indo european languages latin originally spoken area around rome known latium power roman republic became dominant language italy subsequently throughout western roman empire eventually becoming dead language modern linguistic definition latin contributed many words english language particular latin ancient greek roots


used english descriptions theology sciences medicine law late roman republic bc old latin standardised classical latin vulgar latin colloquial form spoken time attested inscriptions works comic playwrights like plautus terence author petronius late latin written language rd century colloquial form vulgar latin developed th th centuries romance languages italian sardinian venetian neapolitan sicilian piedmontese lombard french franco proven al occitan corsican ladin friulan romansh catalan valencian aragonese spanish asturian galician


two three aspects two numbers latin alphabet derived etruscan greek alphabets ultimately phoenician alphabet history linguistic landscape central italy beginning roman expansion number historical phases language recognized distinguished subtle differences vocabulary usage spelling morphology syntax hard fast rules classification different scholars emphasize different features result list variants well alternative names addition historical phases ecclesiastical latin refers styles used


writers roman catholic church late antiquity onward well protestant scholars western roman empire fell germanic kingdoms took place germanic people adopted latin language suitable legal formal uses old latin lapis niger probably oldest extant latin inscription rome c nbsp bc semi legendary roman kingdom earliest known form latin old latin spoken roman kingdom later part roman republic period attested inscriptions


roots schools served sort informal language academy dedicated maintaining perpetuating educated speech vulgar latin philological analysis archaic latin works plautus contain snippets everyday speech indicates spoken language vulgar latin termed speech masses cicero existed concurrently literate classical latin informal language rarely written philologists left individual words phrases cited classical authors found graffiti free develop


reason suppose speech uniform either diachronically geographically contrary romanised european populations developed dialects language eventually led differentiation romance languages decline roman empire meant deterioration educational standards brought late latin postclassical stage language seen christian writings time line everyday speech decline education also desire spread word masses despite dialectal variation found


widespread language languages spain france portugal italy retained remarkable unity phonological forms developments bolstered stabilising influence common christian roman catholic culture moorish conquest spain cutting communications major romance regions languages began diverge seriously vulgar latin dialect would later become romanian diverged somewhat varieties largely separated unifying influences western part empire one key marker whether given romance feature


found vulgar latin compare parallel classical latin preferred classical latin likely came undocumented contemporaneous vulgar latin example romance horse italian french spanish portuguese romanian came latin however classical latin used therefore likely spoken form vulgar latin began diverge distinct languages th century latest earliest extant romance writings begin appear throughout period confined everyday speech


medieval latin used writing ref name ref medieval latin latin malmesbury bible medieval latin written latin use portion postclassical period corresponding latin vernacular existed spoken language developed various incipient romance languages however educated official world latin continued without natural spoken base moreover latin spread lands never spoken latin germanic slavic nations became useful international communication member states holy roman empire allies without


institutions roman empire supported uniformity medieval latin lost linguistic cohesion example classical latin used auxiliary verbs perfect pluperfect passive compound tenses medieval latin might use instead ref name thorley ref furthermore meanings many words changed new vocabularies introduced vernacular identifiable individual styles classically incorrect latin prevail ref name thorley renaissance latin th century printed books incunabula latin vernacular languages playing secondary role ref name istc ref renaissance briefly reinforced


position latin spoken language adoption renaissance humanists often led members clergy shocked accelerated dismantling vestiges classical world rapid loss literature strove preserve could restore latin introduced practice producing revised editions literary works remained comparing surviving manuscripts later th century replaced medieval latin versions supported scholars rising universities attempted


scholarship discover classical language ref name new latin early modern age latin still important language culture europe therefore end th century majority books almost diplomatic documents written latin afterwards diplomatic documents written french romance language later native languages contemporary latin despite native speakers latin still used variety purposes contemporary world religious use signs wallsend metro station english


latin tribute wallsend 's role one outposts roman empire eastern end hadrian 's wall hence name segedunum largest organisation retains latin official quasi official contexts catholic church catholic church required mass carried latin second vatican council permitted use vernacular latin remains language roman rite tridentine mass also known extraordinary form traditional latin mass celebrated latin although mass paul vi


also known ordinary form novus ordo usually celebrated local vernacular language often said latin part whole especially multilingual gatherings official language holy see primary language public journal working language roman rota vatican city also home world 's automatic teller machine gives instructions latin pontifical universities postgraduate courses canon law taught latin papers written language


anglican church publication ''book common prayer'' latin edition published use universities oxford leading public schools english private academies liturgy still permitted conducted latin several latin translations since including latin edition usa anglican book common prayer polyglot european union adopted latin names logos institutions sake linguistic compromise ecumenical nationalism common continent


sign continent 's heritage eu council use latin mottos western world many organizations governments schools use latin mottos due association formality tradition roots western culture canada 's motto sea sea provincial mottos also latin canadian victoria cross modelled british victoria cross inscription valour canada officially bilingual canadian medal replaced english inscription latin spain 's motto ''plus ultra''


meaning even figuratively also latin origin taken personal motto charles v holy roman emperor king spain charles reversal original phrase land beyond according legend inscribed warning pillars hercules rocks sides strait gibraltar western end known mediterranean world charles adopted motto following discovery new world columbus also metaphorical suggestions taking risks


striving excellence several states united states latin mottos connecticut 's motto transplanted sustains kansas 's hardships stars colorado 's nothing without providence michigan 's seek pleasant peninsula look based sir christopher wren st paul 's cathedral missouri 's health people highest law new york state 's ever upward north carolina 's rather seem south carolina 's still breathing hope virginia 's thus always tyrants west


virginia 's mountaineers always free many military organizations today latin mottos always ready motto united states coast guard always faithful motto united states marine corps semper supra always motto united states space force adversity struggle stars motto royal air force raf colleges universities adopted latin mottos example harvard university 's motto truth veritas goddess truth daughter saturn mother virtue modern uses switzerland adopted


country 's latin short name coins stamps since room use nation 's four official languages similar reason adopted international vehicle internet code ''ch'' stands country 's full latin name films ancient settings ''sebastiane'' ''the passion christ'' made dialogue latin sake realism occasionally latin dialogue used association religion philosophy film television series ''the exorcist'' ''lost'' jughead subtitles usually shown


latin wikipedia articles legacy italian french portuguese spanish romanian catalan romansh romance languages direct descendants latin also many latin borrowings english albanian ref name sawicka sawicka irena https ispanwawpl journals indexphp ch article view ch crossroad west east orient case albanian culture colloquia humanistica instytut slawistyki polskiej akademii nauk page even according albanian linguists albanian vocabulary composed percent latin words different periods albanological studies emerging happened albanian classified romance language already exists idea


fragments analyzed philology part subject matter field classics works published manuscript form invention printing published carefully annotated printed editions loeb classical library published harvard university press oxford classical texts published oxford university press latin translations modern literature ''the hobbit'' ''treasure island'' ''robinson crusoe'' ''paddington bear'' ''winnie pooh'' ''the adventures tintin'' ''asterix'' ''harry potter'' ''max moritz'' ''how grinch stole christmas '' ''the cat hat''


latin greek words dubbed inkhorn terms spilled pot ink many words used author forgotten useful ones survived 'imbibe' 'extrapolate' many common polysyllabic english words latin origin medium old french romance words make respectively english german dutch vocabularies ref name walter ref figures rise dramatically non compound non derived words included influence roman governance roman technology less developed nations


long list latin legal terms international auxiliary languages heavily influenced latin interlingua sometimes considered simplified modern version language latino sine flexione popular early th century latin inflections stripped away among grammatical changes logudorese dialect sardinian language closest contemporary language latin education multivolume latin dictionary university graz library austria throughout european history education classics considered crucial wished join literate circles instruction latin


essential aspect today 's world large number latin students us learn ''wheelock 's latin classic introductory latin course based ancient authors'' book first published written frederic wheelock received phd harvard university ''wheelock 's latin'' become standard text many american introductory latin courses living latin movement attempts teach latin way living languages taught means spoken written communication available vatican city institutions us


example eton harrow haberdashers' aske 's boys' school merchant taylors' school rugby latin programme via facilis london based charity run latin courses united states canada american classical league supports every effort study classics subsidiaries include national junior classical league members encourages high school students pursue study latin national senior classical league encourages students continue study classics college league also sponsors national latin exam classicist mary beard wrote ''the


times literary supplement'' reason learning latin written ref name timesonline train brain ref official status latin official language european states latin official language kingdom hungary th century mid th century hungarian became exclusive official language best known latin language poet croatian hungarian origin janus pannonius latin official language croatian parliament sabor th th century oldest preserved records


reconstruction explicit statements pronunciation ancient authors misspellings puns ancient etymologies spelling latin loanwords languages historical development romance languages consonants consonant phonemes classical latin follows class wikitable ipa style text align center colspan rowspan rowspan labial rowspan dental rowspan palatal colspan velar rowspan glottal plain labial rowspan plosive small voiced small b small voiceless small p


k k rowspan fricative small voiced small z small voiceless small f h colspan nasal n colspan rhotic r colspan approximant l j w native classical latin appeared greek loanwords starting around first century bc probably pronounced initially doubled vowels


contrast classical greek classical latin poetry letter vowels always counts two consonants metrical purposes ref name allen z ref consonant b usually sounds b however precedes b pronounced pt ps consonants blend together ch ph th sounds would pronounced kh ph th latin q always followed vowel u together make kw sound ref name wheelock th ed ref old classical latin latin alphabet


distinction uppercase lowercase letters exist place used respectively represented vowels consonants letterforms similar modern uppercase seen inscription colosseum shown top article spelling systems used latin dictionaries modern editions latin texts however normally use place classical era systems use consonant sounds except combinations never used notes concerning


mapping latin phonemes english graphemes given class wikitable notes latin br grapheme latin br phoneme english examples always ''k'' ' 'sky'' ska ''t'' ' 'stay'' ste ' 's'' ' 'say'' se rowspan always ''g'' ''good'' ''ng'' ' 'sing'' rowspan ''n'' ''man'' n ''ng'' ' 'sing''


rowspan doubled light l l ''link'' l nk positions dark l ''bowl'' bo similar ''qu'' ' 'squint'' skw nt sometimes beginning syllable w ''wine'' wa n rowspan sometimes beginning syllable ''y'' j ''yard'' j j vowels becomes pronounced parts two


separate syllables capi kapi jo letter representing ''x'' english ''axe'' ks classical latin modern italian double consonant letters pronounced long consonant sounds distinct short versions consonants thus ''nn'' classical latin year italian pronounced doubled english ''unnamed'' english distinctive consonant length doubling occurs boundary two words morphemes example vowels simple vowels class wikitable style text align center


front central back close mid open classical latin exist letter distinct v written form used represent vowel consonant adopted represent upsilon loanwords greek pronounced like speakers also used native latin words confusion greek words similar meaning classical latin distinguished


long short vowels long vowels except frequently marked using apex sometimes similar acute accent long written using taller version called long modern texts long vowels often indicated macron short vowels usually unmarked except necessary distinguish words marked breve however would also signify long vowel writing vowel larger letters word repeating vowel twice


row ref name wheelock th ed acute accent used modern latin texts indicates stress spanish rather length long vowels classical latin technically pronounced entirely different short vowels difference described table class wikitable pronunciation latin vowels latin br grapheme latin br phone modern examples rowspan similar last ''a'' ''part'' pa similar ''a'' ''father'' f rowspan ''e'' ''pet'' p


difference quality posited w sidney allen book ''vox latina'' however andrea calabrese disputed short vowels differed quality long vowels classical period based part upon observation sardinian lucanian dialects long short vowel pair merged distinguished typical italo western romance vowel system short u merge long e thus latin 'siccus' becomes 'secco' italian 'siccu' sardinian vowel letter followed end word


vowel letter followed represented short nasal vowel diphthongs classical latin several diphthongs two common fairly rare rare least native latin words ref name classical diphthongs ref also debate whether truly diphthong classical latin due rarity absence works roman grammarians roots classical latin words ie etc matching similar pronunciation classical words


considered diphthong sequences sometimes represent diphthongs also represented sequence two vowels different syllables bronze began represented sequences two vowels vowel one semivowels beware whose warned released destroyed new old latin diphthongs changed long vowels classical latin old latin diphthong


sequence became classical old latin changed classical except words whose became classical two developments sometimes occurred different words root instance classical punishment punish ref name classical diphthongs early old latin usually changed classical vulgar latin romance languages merged classical latin period form speaking deliberately avoided well educated speakers ref name classical diphthongs class wikitable style text align center diphthongs classified beginning sound front


back close ui mid ei br eu oe br ou open colspan ae br au syllables syllables latin signified presence diphthongs vowels number syllables number vowel sounds ref name wheelock th ed consonant separates two vowels go syllable second vowel two consonants vowels last consonant go second vowel exception occurs phonetic


stop liquid come together situation thought single consonant go syllable second vowel ref name wheelock th ed length syllables latin considered either long short within word syllable may either long nature long position ref name wheelock th ed syllable long nature diphthong long vowel hand syllable long position vowel followed one consonant ref name wheelock


th ed stress two rules define syllable stressed latin language ref name wheelock th ed word two syllables emphasis first syllable word two syllables two cases second last syllable long syllable stress second last syllable long syllable one stressed instead ref name wheelock th ed orthography duenos inscription th century bc one


germanic languages latin still uses ''v'' purpose ''j'' distinguished original ''i'' late middle ages letter ''u'' ''v'' ref name although latin dictionaries use ''j'' rarely used latin text used classical times many languages use classical latin contain sentence punctuation letter case interword spacing apices sometimes used distinguish length vowels interpunct used times separate words first line catullus originally


written mourn venuses cupids interpunct would rendered modern edition lugete veneres cupidinesque macrons l g te vener cup din sque apices l g te vener cup din sque modern latin text written old roman cursive inspired vindolanda tablets oldest surviving handwritten documents britain word ''romani'' 'romans' bottom left roman cursive script commonly found many wax tablets excavated sites forts especially extensive set discovered vindolanda


hadrian 's wall britain notable fact vindolanda tablets show spaces words spaces avoided monumental inscriptions era alternative scripts occasionally latin written scripts praeneste fibula th century bc pin old latin inscription written using etruscan script rear panel early th century franks casket inscription switches old english anglo saxon runes latin latin script latin runes grammar latin synthetic fusional language terminology linguistic


typology traditional terminology inflected language typologists apt say inflecting words include objective semantic element markers specifying grammatical use word fusion root meaning markers produces compact sentence elements love produced semantic element love first person singular marker suffixed grammatical function changed changing markers word inflected express different grammatical functions semantic element usually change inflection uses affixing infixing affixing prefixing


suffixing latin inflections never prefixed example love formed stem future tense marker suffixed third person singular marker suffixed inherent ambiguity may denote one grammatical category masculine feminine neuter gender major task understanding latin phrases clauses clarify ambiguities analysis context natural languages contain ambiguities one sort another inflections express gender number case adjectives nouns


pronouns process called ' 'declension'' markers also attached fixed stems verbs denote person number tense voice mood aspect process called ''conjugation'' words uninflected undergo neither process adverbs prepositions interjections nouns regular latin noun belongs one five main declensions group nouns similar inflected forms declensions identified genitive singular form noun first declension predominant ending letter ''a'' signified genitive singular ending '' ae'' second declension predominant ending letter


''us'' signified genitive singular ending '' i'' third declension predominant ending letter ''i'' signified genitive singular ending '' is'' fourth declension predominant ending letter ''u'' signified genitive singular ending '' s'' fifth declension predominant ending letter ''e'' signified genitive singular ending '' ei'' seven latin noun cases also apply adjectives pronouns mark noun 's syntactic role sentence means inflections thus word order


important latin english less inflected general structure word order latin sentence therefore vary cases follows '''nominative''' used noun subject predicate nominative thing person acting '''girl''' ran '''genitive''' used noun possessor connected object horse man man 's horse instances word ''man'' would genitive case translated latin also indicates


partitive material quantified group people number gifts ''people'' ''gifts'' would genitive case nouns genitive special verbs adjectives cup full '''wine''' master '' 'slave''' beaten '''dative''' used noun indirect object sentence special verbs certain prepositions used agent reference even possessor merchant hands stola '''to woman''' '''accusative''' used noun direct


object subject object preposition demonstrating place man killed '''the boy''' '''ablative''' used noun demonstrates separation movement source cause agent instrument noun used object certain prepositions adverbial walked '''with boy''' '''vocative''' used noun used direct address vocative form noun often nominative exception second declension nouns ending '' us'' '' us'' becomes '' e''


vocative singular ends '' ius'' ending '' '' distinct nominative plural vocative singular '''master''' shouted slave '''locative''' used indicate location corresponding english far less common six cases latin nouns usually applies cities small towns islands along common nouns words house ground country singular first second declensions form coincides


genitive becomes rome plural declensions singular declensions coincides ablative becomes athens fourth declension word locative form home differs standard form cases latin lacks definite indefinite articles mean either boy running boy running adjectives two types regular latin adjectives first second declension third declension called forms similar identical first second declension


third declension nouns respectively latin adjectives also comparative superlative forms also number latin participles latin numbers sometimes declined adjectives see ''numbers'' em first second declension adjectives em declined like first declension nouns feminine forms like second declension nouns masculine neuter forms example dead declined like regular first declension noun girl declined like regular second declension masculine noun lord master declined like regular second declension neuter noun help em third declension adjectives em


found omitting ' 're'' ''r '' deponent verbs ending present infinitive form infinitive first conjugation ends '' re'' '' ri'' active passive respectively love exhort second conjugation '' re'' '' r '' warn fear third conjugation '' ere'' '' '' lead use fourth '' re'' '' r '' hear attempt ref name wheelock ref stem categories descend indo european therefore compared similar conjugations indo european languages irregular verbs verbs


follow regular conjugations formation inflected form irregular verbs latin ''esse'' ' 'velle'' want ''ferre'' carry ''edere'' eat ' 'dare'' give ''ire'' go ''quire'' able ''fieri'' happen compounds ref name wheelock six general tenses latin present imperfect future perfect pluperfect future perfect three moods indicative imperative subjunctive addition infinitive participle gerund gerundive supine three persons first second third two numbers singular plural two voices active passive two aspects perfective


imperfective verbs described four principal parts first principal part first person singular present tense active voice indicative mood form verb verb impersonal first principal part third person singular second principal part present active infinitive third principal part first person singular perfect active indicative form like first principal part verb impersonal third principal part third person singular fourth principal part supine form alternatively nominative singular


perfect passive participle form verb fourth principal part show one gender participle three genders ''us ''for masculine ''a'' feminine ''um'' neuter nominative singular fourth principal part future participle verb cannot made passive modern latin dictionaries show one gender tend show masculine many older dictionaries instead show neuter coincides supine fourth principal part sometimes omitted intransitive verbs strictly latin


indicative mood active voice six tenses future tense first listed endings first second conjugations second listed endings third fourth conjugations class wikitable rowspan tense colspan singular colspan plural st person nd person rd person st person nd person rd person present mus tis nt future b bis bit et bimus mus bitis tis bunt ent


alphabet represent greek sounds subsequently romans transplanted greek art medicine science philosophy italy paying almost price entice greek skilled educated persons rome sending youth educated greece thus many latin scientific philosophical words greek loanwords meanings expanded association greek words craft art ref name h ref roman empire 's expansion subsequent trade outlying european tribes romans borrowed northern central european words beaver germanic origin breeches celtic


origin ref name h specific dialects latin across latin speaking regions former roman empire fall influenced languages specific regions dialects latin evolved different romance languages adoption christianity roman society christian vocabulary became part language either greek hebrew borrowings latin neologisms continuing middle ages latin incorporated many words surrounding languages including old english germanic languages ages latin speaking populations produced new adjectives nouns verbs affixing compounding meaningful segments


example compound adjective powerful produced adjectives powerful dropping final ' 's'' concatenating often concatenation changed part speech nouns produced verb segments verbs nouns adjectives phrases neo latin phrases mentioned accents show stress placed latin words normally stressed either second last penultimate syllable called latin ref name lkhs tore janson ''latin kulturen historien spr ket'' first edition ref third last syllable called latin


pause inserted exception following words ''est'' english ''es'' sg lose vowel ''e'' instead '''''' small one person small '''''' small one person small hello '''''' small one person small '''''' small one person small greetings '''''' small one person small '''''' small one person small goodbye '''''' take care '''''' small male small '''''' small female small '''''' small male small '''''' small female small '''''' small male small '''''' small female small '''''' small male small '''''' small female small welcome '''''' ''''''


'''''' good '''''' i'm fine '''''' bad '''''' i'm good '''''' roughly 'kwaeso 'kwe please '''''' please '''''' '''''' '''''' '''''' '''''' '''''' yes '''''' '''''' '''''' '''''' thank give thanks '''''' '''''' many thanks '''''' '''''' '''''' thank much '''''' small one person small '''''' small one person small '''''' 're welcome '''''' old ''' v gint qu nque ann n tus sum'''''' ann n ta sum''' small female small years old ''''''


toilet '''''' speak literally know '''''' latin '''''' greek '''''' english '''''' '''''' german sometimes also '''''' french '''''' '''''' russian '''''' italian '''''' '''''' spanish '''''' polish '''''' portuguese '''''' romanian '''''' swedish '''''' welsh '''''' chinese '''''' japanese '''''' korean '''''' hebrew '''''' arabic '''''' persian '''''' hindi '''''' '''''' love numbers ancient times numbers latin written letters today numbers


written arabic numbers well roman numerals numbers every whole hundred declined nouns adjectives differences masculine feminine neuter one f n ii two f n iii three iiii small small iv four v five vi six


vii seven viii eight viiii small small ix nine x ten l fifty c one hundred f n five hundred one thousand numbers change endings modern descendants spanish gender naming number isolation masculine


counted example text also called ''the gallic war'' written gaius julius caesar begins following passage text may marked long vowels possible elisions word boundary apices vowel letters including customarily nf ns long vowel automatically produced see also accademia vivarium novum classical compound contemporary latin greek latin roots english hybrid word international roman law moot court latin grammar latin mnemonics latin obscenity latin school latino sine flexione latin without inflections list greek


latin roots english list latin abbreviations list latin greek words commonly used systematic names list latin phrases list latin translations modern literature list latin words english derivatives list latinised names lorem ipsum romanization cultural toponymy vulgar latin references bibliography external links language tools searches lewis short 's ''a latin dictionary'' lewis 's ''an elementary latin dictionary'' online results search line latin english english latin dictionary complete declension conjugation online results identifies grammatical functions words entered online results identifies grammatical functions


ut austin https webarchiveorg web http wwwlearnlangscom latin lessons free lesson online latin course learnlangs http learn org latinphp learn latin grammar vocabulary audio http frcoultercom latin linkshtml latin links resources compiled fr gary coulter course ecclesiastical latin http wwwnationalarchivesgovuk latin beginners defaulthtm beginners' latin national archives united kingdom grammar study phonetics libraries http wwwthelatinlibrarycom latin library ancient latin books writings without translations ordered author https penelopeuchicagoedu thayer e roman texts lacuscurtius small collection greek roman authors along books writings original texts latin greek translations english occasionally languages available latin language news audio http ephemerisalcuinusnet


ephemeris online latin newspaper latin messages universe world https webarchiveorg web http ephemerisalcuinusnet ephemeris archive archived copy online latin newspaper http ylefi radio tiede nuntii latini nuntii latini finnish yle radio https wwwradiobremende bremenzwei rubriken latein nuntii latini monthly review german radio bremen bremen zwei https webarchiveorg web http wwwhaverfordedu classics audio classics podcasts latin ancient greek haverford college https sitesgooglecom site janualinguae latin latinum latin language course latin language youtube index latin language online communities http wwwalcuinusnet gll grex latine loquentium flock speaking latin https webarchiveorg web http circuluslatinusinterretialiscouk circulus latinus interretialis internet latin circle https wwwvaticanva roman curia institutions connected latinitas documents index enhtm latinitas foundation vatican https discordcom invite latin latin discord forum languages attested th century bc fusional


languages languages andorra languages france languages italy languages portugal languages romania languages spain languages vatican city subject object verb languages


'''latin''' always referenced upper case cooperation scheme among newspapers latin america organized reuters lasted news agency ''per se'' rather permanent exchange mechanism ''the new york times'' revealed latin used cia covert operations counterinformation influencing public opinion latin america today similar schemes carried peri dicos asociados latinoamericanos grupo de diarios rica notes latin american media newspaper associations


medical analogy reference librarians diagnose treat information deficiencies ultimate help provided may consist reading material form book journal article instruction use specific searchable information resources library 's online catalog subscription bibliographic fulltext databases simply factual information drawn library 's print online reference collection information also provided patrons electronic resources ref name bls librarians typically reference desk consulted either person telephone email online chat although library user may asked come

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Reference desk


library person help involved research questions staffed knowledgeable reference desk essential part library services provided reference desk may vary depending type library purpose resources staff history reference services become commonplace libraries late services initially began public libraries ref name evolution library reference ref first librarians hesitant offer reference services many libraries large enough staff provide services without duties


neglected ref name evolution library reference beginning boston public library libraries began hire librarians whose primary duty provide reference services ref name evolution library reference one earliest proponents references services samuel swett green wrote article titled personal relations librarians readers large impact future reference services ref name evolution library reference utor defined reference services direct personal assistance readers seeking information direct contact reference librarian user reference desks changed dramatically


emergence information technology resources resources often kept library reference desk may include computer internet access librarians use public web subscription databases find evaluate information research sources small collection reference books called ' 'ready reference'' often used librarians reach quickly especially phone books returned time someone else use later day library 's full reference collection usually nearby well newspaper clipping


files rare restricted items must returned reference desk index cards answers frequently asked questions drawers folders pamphlets photocopies pages previous experience difficult find enable librarians find information quickly without leaving desk even faster could look reference book using internet books items held library users asked librarian phone set aside pick later day


within next days books circulating collection set aside students working special assignment temporarily designated used within library project due printed lists items library catalogue newspapers school yearbooks old telephone directories college course catalogues local history sources services services often available library reference desk include sign sheet reserving computers internet access word processing software ability place book 'on hold'


librarian staffs reference desk usually following virtue professional training experience librarian look brief factual answer specific question librarian use catalogue find whether library owns item particular title author contains short story chapter song poem particular title compile list books particular author particular subject librarian briefly teach user use catalogue use


advanced features recommend proper subject words terms used catalogue topic user mind librarian often take library user directly shelves books certain topic without using catalogue librarian familiar contents hundreds reference books recommend books might contain answer particular question librarian teach library user use online databases magazine newspaper articles recommend words search strategies topic


user mind librarian recommend reliable web sites give advice searching internet information evaluate reliability information web sites library n't information given topic library user wants information librarian refer library user another library organization contacted phone mail offer aid devices tablets e readers range general assistance questions navigate e reader tablet devices instructing classes questions


vary devices compatible library 's e book platform check books read electronic books staff qualifications united states staff library reference desks usually required master 's degree library science ref name bls librarians program accredited american library association ref name librarian education ref however lack qualified applicants particularly rural areas person associate degree certificate library technology bachelor 's degree library science may perform duties many academic libraries student


john v richardson jr debbie weismann http wwwciliporguk publications updatemagazine archive archive june chanhtm hour reference service article ben chan http wwwmichaellorenzencom eric digital referencehtml trends issues digital reference services http wwwmichaellorenzencom eric reference serviceshtml building maintaining digital reference services http wwwmichaellorenzencom mbwahtml management wandering around reference rovering quality reference service http wwwalaorg ala mgrps divs rusa resources guidelines indexcfm reference user services association guidelines http polarisgseisuclaedu jrichardson dis personalhtm personal relations librarians readers samuel swett green library resources reference