de clerec castilian narrative poetry known mester de clerec became popular thirteenth century verse form learned poets usually clerics hence name 'clerec a' poetry formal carefully counted syllables line popular themes christian legends lives saints tales classical antiquity poems cited villagers public plazas two traits separate form mester de juglar didacticism erudition gonzalo de berceo one greatest advocates school writing religious subjects spanish prose spanish prose


gained popularity mid thirteenth century king alfonso x castile gave support recognition writing form help groups intellectuals directed composition many prose works including ''las siete partidas'' first modern book laws land written people 's language another work la primera cr nica general accounted history spain creation end alfonso 's father 's reign san fernando direction works many others directed alfonso x called father spanish prose

Humanities
Languages and literature
Spanish Literature


demonstrated pulgar 's work ''claros varones de castilla'' represents detailed lives twenty four distinguished contemporaries explores moral psychological natures well physical traits pulgar official historian monarchs fernando isabel famous catholic monarchs spain position gave close encounters characters book making work realistic detailed lyric poetry middle ages lyric poetry middle ages divided three groups ''jarchas'' popular poems originating folk songs sung commoners courtly poetry


nobles alfonso x castile fits third group series three hundred poems written galician ''las cantigas de santa mar a'' another poet juan ruiz arcipreste de hita outstanding lyricist fourteenth century work ''libro de buen amor'' framework tale includes translations ovid satires little poems called ' 'serranillas'' twenty nine fables sermon christian armor many lyric poems praise virgin mary poet '' igo l pez de mendoza'' marqu de santillana begins show movement away


traditions middle ages shows knowledge latin authors familiarity works dante petrarch mendoza also first introduce sonnet spanish literature last great poet middle ages jorge manrique famous work laments death father coplas la muerte de su padre piece manrique shows classical feelings expressing universal manner things come end still considered poet middle ages finds peace


finality religion renaissance la celestina fernando de rojas th century may thought pre renaissance period literary production increases greatly outstanding poets century include juan de mena igo l pez de mendoza marquess santillana spanish literature middle ages concludes ''la celestina'' fernando de rojas important renaissance themes poetry garcilaso de la vega juan bosc n religious literature fray luis de le n san juan de la cruz santa teresa de jes prose anonymous ''el lazarillo de tormes'' among principal features


taken classical world ''carpe diem'' seize day take advantage moment recommends enjoyment life arrival old age ''collige virgo rosas'' literary means pick virgin roses metaphor similar '' carpe diem'' applied female beauty described always following plan young blonde serene clear eyes white skin red lips rosy cheeks etc ''beatus ille'' praise rural life away material things opposed life city dangers


intrigues ''locus amoenus'' description nature idyllic perfection gallery widths px heights px perrow file jorge manrique portraitjpg jorge manrique file fernando de rojasjpg fernando de rojas file fray bartolom de las casasjpg bartolom de las casas file attributed el greco portrait juan de vila google art projectjpg john vila image supuesto retrato de garcilaso de la vegajpg garcilaso de la vega image retrato de diego hurtado de mendoza recortadojpg diego hurtado de mendoza file santateresajpg teresa vila file retrato de fray luis de le njpg luis de le n file alonsodeercillajpg alonso de ercilla file fernando de herrera el divinojpg fernando de herrera file zurbar n atribuido john cross jpg john cross gallery baroque


'''baroque''' th century important topics prose francisco de quevedo baltasar graci n theater notable lope de vega pedro calder n de la barca tirso de molina poetry luis de g ngora culteranist francisco de quevedo conceptist works miguel de cervantes saavedra notable novels ''la galatea'' ''don quixote de la mancha'' baroque style used exaggerated motion clear easily interpreted detail produce drama tension exuberance grandeur sculpture painting literature dance music baroque characterized


following points pessimism renaissance achieved purpose imposing harmony perfection world humanists intended made man happier wars social inequality continued present pain calamities commonplace throughout europe intellectual pessimism took hold increased time passed shown angry character comedies epoch rascal characters picaresque novels based disillusionment renaissance ideals failed case spain political power dispelled disillusionment continued arise


literature many cases recall two centuries ''danza de la muerte'' manrique 's ''coplas la muerte de su padre'' quevedo said life formed successions deceased newborns turn deceased diapers shroud covers lifeless bodies leads conclusion nothing important except obtaining eternal salvation worry passing time loss confidence renaissance ideals gallery widths px heights px perrow file juan de la cueva jpg juan de la cueva file cervantes j ureguijpg miguel de cervantes file retrato de mateo alem njpg mateo alem n file diego rodr guez de silva


vel zquez luis de g ngora argote google art projectjpg luis de g ngora file lopedevegajpg lope de vega file franciscus suarez si jpg francisco su rez file guill n de castrojpg guill n de castro tirso de molina file francisco de quevedo pacheco jpg francisco de quevedo file juan ruiz de alarconjpg juan ruiz de alarc n file las glorias nacionales pedro calder n de la barca jpg pedro calder n de la barca file graci n grausjpg baltasar graci n gallery enlightenment gaspar melchor de jovellanos '''enlightenment''' th century arrival lights spain important topics prose fray benito jer nimo feijoo gaspar melchor de jovellanos jos cadalso


lyric salmantine school juan mel ndez vald lyric madrilenian group story tellers tom de iriarte f lix mar samaniego lyric sevillian school also theater leandro fern ndez de morat n ram n de la cruz vicente garc de la huerta enlightenment thinkers sought apply systematic thinking forms human activity carrying ethical governmental spheres exploration individual society state three phases spanish literature th century distinguished anti baroquism approximately fights


style preceding baroque considered excessively rhetorical twisted recreational literature cultivated interested essay satire utilizing language simplicity purity neoclassicism end th century strongly influenced french italian classicism writers also imitate old classics greek roman boom extended since reign fernando vi end century pre romanticism end th beginning th century influence english philosopher john locke together


novel scientific prose description regional customs journalism mariano jos de larra mentioned theater ngel de saavedra duke rivas jos zorrilla authors latter romanticism post romanticism appear gustavo adolfo b cquer rosal de castro anti romantic poets ram n de campoamor gaspar n ez de arce part revolt aristocratic social political norms enlightenment period reaction rationalization nature art literature romanticism stressed strong emotion source aesthetic experience placing new emphasis emotions trepidation


horror awe experienced confronting sublimity nature elevated folk art nature custom characteristics works romanticism rejection neoclassicism contrary scrupulous severity order rules observed th century romanticist writers combine genres verses different measures times mixing verse prose theater rule three units place space time despised alternate comedy drama subjectivism whatever kind work exalted soul author pours


feelings dissatisfaction world limits breaks flight desire love society patriotism etc way nature fuses state spirit melancholic tetric mysterious dark opposed neoclassicals barely showed interest landscape longings passionate love desire happiness possession infinite cause discomfort romanticist immense deception time time carries suicide case mariano jos de larra attraction nocturnal


mysterious romantics situate aching disillusioned feelings mysterious melancholic places ruins forests cemeteries similarly feel attraction toward supernatural things escape logic miracles apparitions visions afterlife diabolic witchlike escape world surrounds rejection bourgeois society forced live makes romanticist evaded circumstances imagining passed epochs ideals prevailed others inspired exotic contrast neoclassicals admired greco latin antiquity


romanticists prefer middle ages renaissance among frequent kinds works cultivate novel legend historic drama various themes romanticist works oneself espronceda 's ''song teresa'' heartwrenching confession love disillusion managed poeticize feelings great success passionate love sudden total deliveries quick abandonments exaltation distaste inspired legendary historic themes religion although often defiance consequent compassion even exaltation devil social demands revaluation marginalized types


beggar nature shown modalities variations usually set mysterious places cemeteries storms rough sea etc satire connected political literary events gallery widths px heights px perrow image portrait gustavo adolfo b cquer brother valeriano jpg gustavo adolfo b cquer image jos de espronceda detalle jpg ''el escritor jos de espronceda'' portrait antonio mar esquivel museo del prado madrid image rosal castro de murgu por luis sellierjpg rosal de castro image jose zorrillajpg jos zorrilla gallery realism ''portrait benito p rez gald s'' joaqu n sorolla leopoldo alas clar n '''realism''' end th century


mixed '''naturalism''' important topics novel juan valera jos mar de pereda benito p rez gald emilia pardo baz n leopoldo alas clar n armando palacio vald vicente blasco ib ez poetry ram n de campoamor gaspar n ez de arce poets theater jos echegaray manuel tamayo baus dramatists literary critics emphasizing men ndez pelayo realism offered depictions contemporary life society 'as were' spirit general realism realist authors opted depictions everyday banal activities experiences instead romanticized similarly stylized presentation


realistic works period characterized objective vision reality direct observation customs psychological characters eliminate subjective aspect fantastic events every feeling moves away reality novel image life gald artistic copy reality clar n defense thesis narrators write works approaching reality moral conception called omniscient narrators defense thesis usually compromises objectivity novel themes familiar reader marital conflicts infidelity defense ideals etc popular


colloquial language acquires great importance since situates characters real environment modernist literature juan ram n jim nez '''modernism''' several currents appear parnasianism symbolism futurism creationism literary modernism spain influenced disaster ' regenerationism free institution education founded ''giner de los r os'' modernism rooted idea traditional forms art literature religious faith social organization daily life become outdated therefore essential sweep aside intellectual movement thinks objectively scientifically causes decadence spain


nation th th century called regenerationism expresses pessimist judgement spain regenerationist intellectuals divulgated studies journals big diffusion movement expanded important modernist authors salvador rueda juan ram n jim nez miguel de unamuno rub n dar th century literature generation destruction spain 's fleet cuba us gunboats provoked general cultural crisis spain disaster led established writers seek practical political economic social solutions essays grouped


general exploration universal middle class values characteristic nineteenth century realism obsession questions national nature articles essays poems novels exploring spanish history geography carried existential overtones expressing overall sense deep malaise social injustice political bungling cultural indifference evident contemporary spanish society within matter years young authors transformed nation literary landscape sure established nineteenth century realists benito p rez gald continued write novels theater second decade twentieth century


case gald much admired new generation writers nevertheless novels unamuno azor n p baroja valle incl n theater latter poetry antonio machado unamuno definitive literary shift taken place shift form content pointing towards celebrated experimental writings spain 's vanguard writers thanks azor n 's designation fellow writers generation contemporary critics later literary historians catalogue interpret arrival new batches authors generational


terms nearly next one hundred years certainly terminology possesses certain organizational elegance indeed recognizes significant impact major political cultural events changing literary expressions tastes example connection literary celebration briefly united nearly every major vanguard poet spain generation novecentismo next supposed generation spanish writers following already calls question value terminology year year outbreak first world war publication


formal academic training predecessors many taught within walls academia one aza become president face second republic genre choice essay article arguments systematic tastes european contrast unamuno 's existential obsessions machado 's conceptual earth bound verse juan ram n 's poetry pursued esoteric version beauty truth still manifesting internalized sense existential dilemmas plagued intellectuals first half twentieth century juan ram n spain 's great modernist poet


maestro coming vanguardist generation awarded nobel prize literature jos ortega gasset became spokesman essential every generation writers first half twentieth century essays like meditations quijote rebellion masses famously dehumanization art ortega laid theories art society lucidly explained celebrated twentieth century vanguard experimentation holding fast elitist social vision whose eclipse art ironically expressed elusive voice generation arguably


least partially inwards group poets continues without contest celebrated studied spain 's twentieth century writers work provides capstone called silver age spanish letters period began veritable explosion novel production following bloodless coup would come tragic end outbreak civil war july writing supposed generation roughly divided three moments early years work arises still mostly local national


traditions culminating united celebration tri centennial death golden age poet luis de g ngora mid decade arrival spain 's second republic generation 's poets reached apex experimental writings manifesting clear awareness international vanguard isms sweeping major western capitals day generation 's writing increasingly displays imprint political social stresses would lead spain 's bloody civil war spanish civil war spanish civil war lasting july april devastating


impact trajectory spanish letters july spain height silver age every major writer three major generations still alive productive height reaching height literary powers several recognized among western civilization 's talented influential writers april miguel de unamuno antonio machado federico garc lorca among others dead small handful remaining writers fled exile dispersed across length american


continent never enjoy close associations conferences tertulias theater premiers often united pre war madrid among handful civil war poets writers miguel hern ndez stands young disciple associate generation hern ndez like lorca became martyr republican cause time post war prisoner fighting writing soldier poet throughout war languishing dying one franco 's prisons among important works perito en lunas pre war surrealist days viento


del pueblo evidence work soldier poet stand witnessing early dictatorship earliest years post war characterized hunger repression suffering significant literature published works period true pseudo fascist dictator francisco franco 's reactionary vision second spanish golden age material existential anguish facing majority country 's population time neo baroque poetry paeans franco 's spain satisfied censors enjoyed subsequent critical shelf life ironically narrative production one


celaya direct penning poems transparent titles hierro otero celaya economic cultural renewal however mid novel new generation experienced spanish civil war childhood coming age still informed material social political conditions spanish society works ngel gonz lez claudio rodr guez jos ngel valente jos agust n goytisolo francisco brines gloria fuertes among others less politically committed scholars differentiate poets social focus one communication experience


versus hierro 's celaya 's representation experience younger poets still interested talking spain least equally focused interactive processes communication reader contemporaneously living experiences rather passively ingest poet 's vision contemporary society poets came called variously generation produced poetry engaged reader interpretation production vision early brief social realist burst narrative already growing stale numerous


santos 's novel ''tiempo de silencio'' returned restless literary experimentation last seen spanish letters early among spain 's celebrated new novels period juan benet 's ''volver regi n'' camilo jos cela 's ''san camilo '' miguel delibes 's ''cinco horas con mario'' juan goytisolo 's called trilogy treason consisting ''se de identidad'' ''reivindicaci n del conde juli n'' ''juan sin tierra'' gonzalo torrente ballester 's ''la saga fuga de jb'' juan mars 's ''si te dicen que ca '' luis goytisolo 's tetralogy ''antagon a'' stand arguably


important poets group manifest decidedly baroque style full oblique cultural references metapoetic devices forms extreme poetic self consciousness spilling precious like works new novelists poetry select group readers exclusive poets writing democracy franco last died november important work establishing democracy immediate impact spanish letters elitist narrative poetry quickly gave way narrative poetry interested anew merely teaching via content


style delighting storytelling became mantra new generation spanish novelists eduardo mendoza 's ''la verdad sobre el caso savolta'' invited readers escape roaring spain 's pre political culturally vibrant silver age availing various new novel experiments narrative fragmentation use mixed media presence numerous often contradictory narrative voices mendoza 's novel could read enjoyed adventure story romantic dramatic appeal carmen mart n gaite 's novel ''el cuarto de atr s'' another manifestation happy melding experiment


old fashioned storytelling pulling readers various narrative levels explore dark memories spain 's recent political past light ironic touch romance novel next several years wealth young new writers among juan jos mill rosa montero javier mar luis mateo ez jos mar merino f lix de az cristina fern ndez cubas enrique vila matas carme riera later antonio mu oz molina almudena grandes would begin carving prominent place within spanish cultural field spanish narrative began appearing regularly best seller lists


ever expanding experiment real fiction begun 's ''todas las almas'' continued weekly newspaper columns 's ''negra espalda del tiempo'' extended st century trilogy ''tu rostro ana'' placed numerous critics nobel prize shortlists big money available novel publishing manifest explosion literary prizes awarded spain unlike uk 's man booker us pulitzer unpublished works literary prizes became little publicity opportunities long standing planeta nadal prizes already media events grew importance remuneration joined


still important overall industry literary celebrity celebrities range politically powerful figures like antonio mu oz molina jon juaristi brief media flashes like ray loriga jos ngel luc etxchebarr latter three representative members last twentieth century 's supposed literary generations generaci n x critics dubbed brought black humor certain kind post political social realism focused principally sex drugs rock n roll mental illness accompanies writers proved excellent marketing phenomenon works endure


doubtful new novelists whose work likely endure began publishing period include rafael chirbes bel n gopegui david trueba basques writers bernardo atxaga lvaro bermejo galician 's manuel rivas suso de toro among others final decade arguably five generations writers cela nchez ferlosio mendoza mu oz molina generation x authors sharing expanding literary space spanish narrative notwithstanding plethora prize money threatened drown quality media generated noise spanish literary field end


twentieth century promising since contemporary literature javier mar widely considered distinguished author contemporary spanish literature acclaimed widely read writers nationally internationally enrique vila matas rosa montero antonio mu oz molina well commercial authors like carlos ruiz zaf n recent years authors elvira navarro javier cercas published acclaimed best selling novels outline middle ages epics lay cid poema de fern n gonz lez mocedades de rodrigo alfonso x juan ruiz ''libro de buen amor'' gonzalo de berceo ''milagros


de jovellanos noeclassical poetry tom de iriarte ''f bulas literarias'' juan mel ndez vald f lix mar de samaniego neoclassical theater vicente garc de la huerta ''raquel'' leandro fern ndez de morat n ''el de las ni as'' th century romanticists romantic prose juan donoso cort mariano jos de larra marcelino men ndez pelayo romantic poetry manuel jos quintana gustavo adolfo b cquer ''rhymes'' ''legends'' jos de espronceda ''el estudiante de salamanca'' ''la canci n del pirata'' rosal de castro romantic theater adelardo l pez de ayala antonio garc guti rrez ''el trovador'' juan eugenio hartzenbusch ''los amantes de teruel'' francisco mart nez de la rosa ''la conjuraci n de venecia''


duque de rivas ''don lvaro la fuerza del sino'' jos zorrilla ''don juan tenorio'' realists benito p rez gald ''fortunata jacinta'' ''episodios nacionales'' ''misericordia'' leopoldo alas clar n ''la regenta'' ''su nico hijo'' vicente blasco ib ez ''arroz tartana'' ''los cuatro jinetes del apocalipsis'' emilia pardo baz n ''los pazos de ulloa'' enrique gaspar rimbau ''el anacron pete'' pedro antonio de alarc n ''el sombrero de tres picos'' armando palacio vald ''la hermana san sulpicio'' jos mar de pereda ''sotileza'' juan valera ''pepita jim nez'' ''juanita la larga'' concepci n arenal th century generation prose ngel ganivet p baroja ''the tree


knowledge'' miguel de unamuno ''mist'' jos mart nez ruiz azor n poetry antonio machado ''soledades'' ''campos de castilla'' manuel machado mario satz theater jacinto benavente ''los intereses creados'' ram n del valle incl n ''luces de bohemia'' ''martes de carnaval'' generation rafael alberti ''marinero en tierra'' vicente aleixandre maso alonso ''hijos de la ira'' manuel altolaguirre luis cernuda gerardo diego garc lorca ''yerma'' ''la casa de bernarda alba'' jorge guill n leopoldo panero emilio prados pedro salinas ''la voz ti debida'' miguel hern ndez ''el rayo que cesa'' philosophy george santayana mar zambrano jos ortega gasset ''meditaciones sobre el quijote'' alexandre


deulofeu juli n marias fernando savater xavier zubiri eugenio d'ors prose camilo jos cela ''la colmena'' ''la familia de pascual duarte'' fernando fern n g mez ''el viaje ninguna parte'' miguel delibes ''cinco horas con mario'' ''los santos inocentes'' gonzalo torrente ballester ''los gozos las sombras'' manuel v zquez montalb n ''yo mat kennedy'' max aub salvador de madariaga poetry ram n g mez de la serna ''greguer as'' jorge sempr n jos luis cano jos mar pem n theater santiago rusi ol alejandro casona ''la dama del alba'' antonio buero vallejo ''historia de una escalera'' manuel aza fernando arrabal paloma pedrero see also latin american literature philippine


literature spanish list spanish language authors list spanish language poets catalan literature galician language literature list asturian language authors premio cervantes prize awarded honour career writer spanish language regardless nationality jos mar gironella arabic literature literature produced islamic spain references gies david ed ''the cambridge history spanish literature'' cambridge university press external links http wwwcervantesvirtualcom la biblioteca virtual miguel de cervantes online spanish literature texts http wwwpalabravirtualcom palabra virtual latin american poetry


understanding hand eye expression seen street near bell tower xi'an china '''nonverbal communication''' '''nvc''' transmission messages signals nonverbal platform eye contact facial expressions gestures posture body language includes use social cues kinesics distance proxemics physical environments appearance voice paralanguage touch haptics also include use time chronemics eye contact actions looking talking listening frequency glances patterns fixation pupil dilation blink rate oculesics

Journalism, media studies and communication


study nonverbal communication started publication ''the expression emotions man animals'' charles darwin darwin began study nonverbal communication noticed interactions animals lions tigers dogs etc realized also communicated gestures expressions first time nonverbal communication studied relevance questioned today scholars argue nonverbal communication convey meaning verbal communication scholars state people trust forms nonverbal communication verbal communication ray birdwhistell ref group note confused dogwhistle ref concludes


nonverbal communication accounts percent human communication although according researchers communication type quantifiable reflect modern human communication especially people rely much written means speech contains nonverbal elements known paralanguage including voice quality rate pitch loudness speaking style well prosodic features rhythm intonation stress written texts nonverbal elements handwriting style spatial arrangement words physical layout page however much study nonverbal communication focused interaction individuals ref


signals may think universal decoding interpretation information received sensations given encoder decoding information utilizes knowledge one may certain received sensations example picture encoder holds two fingers decoder may know previous experience means two ' 'decoding rules'' state cases person may able properly assess nonverbal cues understand meaning whereas others might able effectively skills vary


person person people better others one individuals would socially conscious better interpersonal relationships example would gender woman found better decoders men since observant nonverbal cues well likely use culture plays important role nonverbal communication one aspect helps influence learning activities organized many indigenous american communities example often emphasis nonverbal communication acts


valued means children learn sense learning dependent verbal communication rather nonverbal communication serves primary means organizing interpersonal interactions also conveying cultural values children learn participate system young age importance symbol table non verbal communication patients according authors nonverbal communication represents two thirds communications ref name hogan k ref nonverbal communication portray message vocally correct body signals gestures body signals comprise physical features conscious unconscious gestures signals


mediation personal space ref name hogan k wrong message also established body language conveyed match verbal message nonverbal communication strengthens first impression common situations like attracting partner business interview impressions average formed within first four seconds contact ref name hogan k first encounters interactions another person strongly affect person 's perception person group absorbing message focused entire environment around meaning person uses five senses


interaction sight hearing smell touch taste ref name pease b ref many indigenous cultures use nonverbal communication integration children young age cultural practices children communities learn observing pitching nonverbal communication key aspect observation history research scientific research nonverbal communication behavior started publication charles darwin 's book ''the expression emotions man animals'' ref name pease b book darwin argued mammals humans animals


showed emotion facial expressions posed questions facial expressions emotions take particular forms wrinkle nose disgusted bare teeth enraged ref name krauss r ref darwin attributed facial expressions serviceable associated habits behaviors earlier evolutionary history specific direct functions ref name krauss r example species attacked biting baring teeth necessary act assault wrinkling nose reduced inhalation foul odors


response question asking facial expressions persist even longer serve original purposes darwin 's predecessors developed highly valued explanation according darwin humans continue make facial expressions acquired communicative value throughout evolutionary history ref name krauss r words humans utilize facial expressions external evidence internal state although ''the expression emotions man animals'' one darwin 's successful books terms quality overall impact field initial ideas started abundance research


types effects expressions nonverbal communication behavior ref name hecht ref despite introduction nonverbal communication emergence behaviorism paused research nonverbal communication ref name hecht behaviorism defined theory learning describes people 's behavior acquired conditioning ref name sanderson c ref behaviorists bf skinner trained pigeons engage various behaviors demonstrate animals engage behaviors rewards ref name sanderson c psychology researchers exploring behaviorism study nonverbal communication recorded film began


center advanced study behavioral sciences project came called ''natural history interview'' ref name social history natural ref initial participants included two psychiatrists frieda fromm reichman henry brosin two linguists norman mcquown charles hockett also two anthropologists clyde kluckhohn david schneider last two withdrew end participate major group project place two anthropologists ray birdwhistell already known founder kinesics study body motion communication gregory bateson


known generally human communication theorist joined team albert scheflen adam kendon among joined one small research teams continuing research year casbs ended ref name social history natural project analyzed film made bateson using analytic method called time ''natural history'' later mostly scheflen ''context analysis'' result remained unpublished enormous unwieldy available microfilm method involves transcribing filmed videotaped behavior excruciating detail


later used studying sequence structure human greetings social behaviors parties function posture interpersonal interaction ref name birdwhistell ref research nonverbal communication rocketed mid number psychologists researchers michael argyle janet dean fodor example studied relationship eye contact conversational distance ralph v exline examined patterns looking speaking looking listening ref name hecht eckhard hess produced several studies pertaining pupil dilation published ''scientific american'' robert sommer studied relationship personal space environment ref


name hecht robert rosenthal discovered expectations made teachers researchers influence outcomes subtle nonverbal cues may play important role process ref name hecht albert mehrabian studied nonverbal cues liking immediacy number scholarly volumes psychology summarized growing body research shirley weitz 's ''nonverbal communication'' marianne lafrance clara mayo 's ''moving bodies'' ref name hecht popular books included ''body language'' fast focused use nonverbal communication attract people ''how read


person like book'' nierenberg calero examined nonverbal behavior negotiation situations ref name hecht journal ''environmental psychology nonverbal behavior'' founded argyle hypothesized although spoken language used communicating meaning events external person communicating nonverbal codes used create strengthen interpersonal relationships ref name someone wishes avoid conflicting embarrassing events communication considered proper correct hypothesis communicate attitudes towards others non verbally instead verbally along philosophy michael argyle also found


concluded five main functions nonverbal body behavior gestures human communications self presentation one 's whole personality rituals cultural greetings expressing interpersonal attitudes expressing emotions accompany speech managing cues set interactions speaker listener ref name first impression takes one tenth second someone judge make first impression according study princeton university short amount time enough person determine several attributes individual attributes included attractiveness likeability


trustworthiness competence aggressiveness first impression lasting non verbal communicator way person portrays first encounter non verbal statement observer presentation include clothing visible attributes facial expressions facial traits general negative impressions also based presentation personal prejudice first impressions although sometimes misleading many situations accurate depiction others posture posture nonverbal cue associated positioning two used sources information individual 's characteristics attitudes feelings


name knapp hall ref also effectively used way individual convey desire increase limit avoid interaction another person studies investigating impact posture interpersonal relationships suggest mirror image congruent postures one person 's left side parallel person 's right side leads favorable perception communicators positive speech person displays forward lean decreases backward lean also signifies positive sentiment communication posture situation relative people change posture depending situation


demonstrated case relaxed posture individual within nonthreatening situation way one 's body tightens become rigid stress clothing clothing one common forms non verbal communication study clothing objects means non verbal communication known ''artifactics'' ''objectics'' types clothing individual wears convey nonverbal cues personality background financial status others respond ref name pease b individual 's clothing style demonstrate


people flaunt power wealth sex appeal creativity ref name forbescom study clothing worn women attending discoth ques carried vienna austria showed certain groups women especially women without partners motivation sex levels sexual hormones correlated aspects clothing especially amount skin displayed presence sheer clothing ref name grammer k ref way one chooses dress tells lot one 's personality fact study done university north carolina compared


way undergraduate women chose dress personality types study showed women dressed primarily comfort practicality self controlled dependable socially well adjusted ref name sarasota women n't like stand crowd typically conservative traditional views beliefs clothing although non verbal tells people personality individual like way person dresses typically rooted deeper internal motivations emotions experiences culture ref name forbes clothing expresses person even want day shows


people want associated fit clothing start relationships clue people wearer like ref name sarasota ref ref name forbes ref gestures policeman directing traffic gesture gestures may made hands arms body also include movements head face eyes winking nodding rolling one 's eyes although study gesture still infancy broad categories gestures identified researchers familiar called emblems quotable gestures conventional culture specific gestures


used replacement words hand wave used western cultures hello goodbye single emblematic gesture different significance different cultural contexts ranging complimentary highly offensive list emblematic gestures see list gestures universal gestures like shoulder shrug ref name pease b gestures also categorized either speech independent speech related speech independent gestures dependent upon culturally accepted interpretation direct verbal translation ref name knapp hall wave peace sign


examples speech independent gestures speech related gestures used parallel verbal speech form nonverbal communication used emphasize message communicated speech related gestures intended provide supplemental information verbal message pointing object discussion facial expressions anything serve practical means communication various muscles precisely control mouth lips eyes nose forehead jaw human faces estimated capable ten thousand different expressions versatility makes non verbals face extremely efficient honest


exact opposite adaptors since meanings intended communicated specific meaning person gives gesture person receive familiar symbolic gestures include raised fist bye bye thumbs contrast adapters symbolic gestures used intentionally serve clear communicative function sign languages highly developed systems symbolic gesture every culture set gestures unique specific culture similar gestures different meanings across cultures symbolic gestures usually


used absence speech also accompany speech conversational middle ground adapters symbolic gestures occupied conversational gestures gestures refer actions words accompany speech conversational gestures hand movements accompany speech related speech accompany though accompany speech conversational gestures seen absence speech made person speaking types conversational gestures specifically motor lexical movements motor movements rhymical


repetitive accompanied anything spoken due simple meaning speaker 's hand usually sticks one position paired verbal communication used stress certain syllables example would pointing someone direction individual saying way case sentence would stressed movements lexical movements complex rhythmic repetitive rather lengthy varied example would something like giving elaborate directions somewhere pairing


various hands movements signal various turns take distance according edward hall amount space maintain persons communicating shows importance science proxemics process seen feel towards others particular time ref name hall ref within american culture hall defines four primary distance zones intimate touching eighteen inches distance ii personal eighteen inches four feet distance iii social four twelve feet distance iv public twelve feet distance intimate distance


considered appropriate familiar relationships indicates closeness trust personal distance still close keeps another arm 's length considered comfortable distance interpersonal contact social distance used kind communication occurs business relationships sometimes classroom public distance occurs situations two way communication desirable possible ref name hall eye contact affect two skaters communicated body posture eye gaze physical contact eye contact instance two people look 's


eyes time primary nonverbal way indicating engagement interest attention involvement studies demonstrated people use eyes indicate interest includes frequently recognized actions winking movements eyebrows disinterest highly noticeable little eye contact made social setting individual interested however pupils dilate according eckman eye contact also called mutual gaze another major channel nonverbal communication duration eye contact meaningful aspect generally speaking longer


consist physiological aspects including pulse rate well levels perspiration ref name sanderson c addition eye aversion predictive deception eye aversion avoidance eye contact eye contact facial expressions provide important social emotional information overall pease states give amount eye contact makes everyone feel comfortable unless looking others cultural lookers gain credibility non lookers ref name pease b concealing deception nonverbal communication makes easier lie without revealed conclusion study people watched made


interviews persons accused stolen wallet interviewees lied cases people access either written transcript interviews audio tape recordings video recordings clues available watching larger trend interviewees actually lied judged truthful people clever lying use tone voice facial expressions give impression truthful contrary popular belief liar always avoid eye contact attempt


convincing liars deliberately made eye contact interviewers telling truth ref name mann ref however many cited examples cues deceit delivered via nonverbal paraverbal visual communication channels deceivers supposedly unwittingly provide clues concealed knowledge actual opinions studies examining nonverbal cues deceit rely upon human coding video footage cf vrij although recent study also demonstrated bodily movement differences truth tellers liars using automated body motion capture system across cultures traditionally thought talk nonverbal communication


found contain highly precise symbolic meanings similar verbal speech however meanings nonverbal communication conveyed use gesture posture changes timing ref name rogoff barbara ref nuances across different aspects nonverbal communication found cultures around world differences often lead miscommunication people different cultures usually mean offend differences based preferences mode communication like chinese prefer silence verbal communication ref name wang ref differences even based cultures perceive passage


time chronemics people handle time categorized two ways polychronic people many activities common italy spain monochronic people one thing time common america ref name kirch ref nonverbal communication vary across many axes gestures gaze clothing posture direction even environmental cues like lighting lot room cultural differences ref name morain ref japan country prides best customer service workers tend use wide arm gestures give clear


directions strangers accompanied ever present bow indicate respect one main factors differentiates nonverbal communication cultures high low context context relates certain events meaning ultimately derived ref name ref high context cultures rely mostly nonverbal cues gestures using elements closeness kind relationships others strict social hierarchies classes deep cultural tradition widely known beliefs rules contrast low context cultures depend largely words verbal communication communications direct social hierarchies way


less tense loose gestures gesture accepted dutch people meaning brilliant varies greatly cultures around world ubiquitous emoji culture gestures vary widely across cultures used mean common example pointing united states pointing gesture finger hand indicate come please beckoning dog pointing one finger also considered rude cultures asian cultures typically use entire hand point something ref


name culture ref examples include sticking tongue western countries seen mockery polynesia serves greeting sign reverence ref name kirch clapping north american way applauding spain used summon waiter restaurant differences nodding shaking head indicate agreement disagreement also exist northern europeans nodding heads say yes shaking head side side say greeks least three thousand


years used upward nod disagreement downward nod agreement ref name kirch many ways waving goodbye americans face palm outward move hand side side italians face palm inward move fingers facing person french germans face hand horizontal move fingers toward person leaving ref name kirch also important note gestures used informal settings often children ref name kirch people united states commonly use ok


gesture 's interpretation ref name humans use gestures better clarify speech speech independent gestures n't rely speech meaning usually transpire single gesture ref name many speech independent gestures made hand ring gesture usually comes across asking someone okay ref name several could performed face example nose wrinkle could universally mean disapproval disgust ref name nodding head side side indicate understanding lack speaker talking


speech independent speech n't need actual speech understanding gesture still needs context ref name using middle finger gesture could used within different contexts could comical derogatory way know one analyzes behaviors surrounding depending speaker speaker addressing ref name displays emotion emotions key factor nonverbal communication gestures hand movements vary across cultures way people display emotions example


many cultures arab iranian cultures people express grief openly mourn loud asian cultures general belief unacceptable show emotion openly people westernized countries laughter sign amusement parts africa sign wonder embarrassment ref name kirch emotional expression varies culture ref name wong p ref native americans tend reserved less expressive emotions ref name herring ref frequent touches common chinese people however actions like touching patting hugging


kissing america less frequent often publicly displayed ref name wang according rebecca bernstein ''point park university winking facial expression particularly varied meaning '' according latin culture wink display invitation romantic pursuit yoruba nigeria taught children follow certain nonverbal commands winking tells 's time leave room chinese comes offensive gesture ref name nonverbal actions according matsumoto juang nonverbal motions different people indicate important channels communication nonverbal actions match


harmonize message portrayed otherwise confusion occur ref name hecht instance individual would normally seen smiling gesturing broadly saying sad message author states nonverbal communication important aware especially comparing gestures gaze tone voice amongst different cultures latin american cultures embrace big speech gestures middle eastern cultures relatively modest public expressive within cultures different rules made staring gazing women may especially avoid eye contact men


taken sign sexual interest ref name culture cultures gaze seen sign respect western culture eye contact interpreted attentiveness honesty hispanic asian middle eastern native american cultures eye contact thought disrespectful rude lack eye contact mean person paying attention voice category changes within cultures depending whether cultures expressive non expressive many variants voice depict different reactions acceptable physical distance another


major difference nonverbal communication cultures latin america middle east acceptable distance much shorter europeans americans feel comfortable american european might wonder person invading personal space standing close person might wonder american european standing far addition latin americans french italians arabs distance people much closer distance americans general close distance


groups foot distance lovers feet distance family friends feet strangers ref name kirch opposite way native americans value distance protect ref name herring children 's learning indigenous american communities nonverbal communication commonly used facilitate learning indigenous american communities nonverbal communication pivotal collaborative participation shared activities children indigenous american communities learn interact using nonverbal communication intently observing adults ref name rogoff barbara nonverbal communication allows continuous keen observation signals


learner participation needed culture plays important role nonverbal communication one aspect helps influence learning activities organized many indigenous american communities example often emphasis nonverbal communication acts valued means children learn study children us mexican presumed indigenous backgrounds european american heritages watched video children working together without speaking found mexican heritage children far likely describe children 's actions collaborative saying children


example direct involvement mazahua children take marketplace used type interactional organization learning without explicit verbal instruction children learn run market stall take part caregiving also learn basic responsibilities non structured activities cooperating voluntarily within motivational context participate explicitly instructing guiding children teaches integrate small coordinated groups solve problem consensus shared space ref name paradise r mazahua separate together practices shown participation everyday interaction later learning activities establishes enculturation


observed case study children guided task folding paper figure observing posture gaze guide projected onto homes communities children wait certain cues others initiative cooperate collaborate one aspect nonverbal communication aids conveying precise symbolic meanings context embeddedness idea many children indigenous american communities closely involved community endeavors spatially relationally help promote nonverbal communication given words always necessary


children closely related context endeavor active participants coordination based shared reference helps allow maintain promote nonverbal communication idea context embeddedness allows nonverbal communication means learning within native american alaskan athabaskans cherokee communities observing various family community social interactions social engagement dominated nonverbal communication example children elicit thoughts words verbally elders expected structure speech carefully demonstrates cultural humility respect excessive acts speech conversational genre


shifts reveal weakness disrespect careful self censorship exemplifies traditional social interaction athapaskin cherokee native americans mostly dependent nonverbal communication nonverbal cues used children warm springs indian reservation community within parameters academic learning environments includes referencing native american religion stylized hand gestures colloquial communication verbal nonverbal emotional self containment less movement lower face structure attention eyes face face engagement therefore children 's approach social situations within reservation classroom example may act barrier


predominantly verbal learning environment warm springs children benefit learning model suits nonverbal communicative structure collaboration traditional gesture observational learning shared references important note nonverbal communication prevalent indigenous american communities verbal communication also used preferably verbal communication substitute one 's involvement activity instead acts additional guidance support towards completion activity ref name rogoff barbara disadvantages nonverbal communication across cultures people studied mainly nonverbal communication may skilled verbal


traits also convey certain messages nonverbal communication instance eye color hair color height research height generally found taller people perceived impressive melamed bozionelos studied sample managers united kingdom found height key factor promoted height benefits depressors tall people often command respect short people height also detrimental aspects one one communication instance need 'talk level' 'eye eye'


discussion another person want perceived big boots ref name pease b chronemics chronemics way time used use time communicate send messages nonverbally way use time give n't give time others communicate different messages chronemics send messages others value also send messages power go see someone position power supervisor uncommon kept waiting however


would probably consider bad form make powerful person wait indeed rule seems time powerful people valuable time less powerful people movement body position kinesics kinesics defined movements specifically study movements involving hands body face form nonverbal communication powerful messages sends witnessing term first coined ray birdwhistell considered term body language inaccurate instead opted explain nonverbal


behaviors stemming body movement research around behavior provides examples someone casually smiling leaning forward well maintaining eye contact radiate non dominating intimate demeanor contrast someone leaning back stoic facial expression little eye contact could emit unfriendly dominating demeanor ref name sundaram webster c role nonverbal communication service encounters ''journal services marketing'' ref additional research expresses eye contact important part nonverbal communication involved kinesics longer appropriate levels eye contact give


haptics touching communication high five example communicative touch haptics study touching nonverbal communication haptic communication refers people animals communicate via touching touches among humans defined communication include handshakes holding hands kissing cheek lips hand back slapping high fives pat shoulder brushing arm touching oneself may include licking picking holding scratching ref name knapp hall behaviors referred adapters tells may send messages reveal intentions feelings


surviving possess sense touch even retain sight hearing babies perceive touch even without sight hearing tend fare much better chimpanzees sense touch highly developed newborns see hear poorly cling strongly mothers harry harlow conducted controversial study involving rhesus monkeys observed monkeys reared terry cloth mother wire feeding apparatus wrapped soft terry cloth provided level tactile stimulation comfort monkey real parent


physical abuse proxemics proxemics defined use space form communication includes far near position others influenced culture race ethnicity gender age edward hall invented term realized culture influences people use space communication working diplomats ref name leeds hurwitz ref published findings proxemics ''the silent language'' ref name hall example high contact cultures people generally comfortable closer proximity whereas individuals low contact cultures feel comfortable


greater amount personal space hall concluded proxemics could cause misunderstandings cultures cultures use proxemics varies customary one culture may range confusing offensive members different culture ref name hall ref intimate space distance less inches commonly used individuals engaging someone feel comfortable spouse partner friend child parent personal space distance inches feet usually used individuals


interacting friends social distance common type proximity used communicating colleagues classmates acquaintances strangers public distance creates greatest gap individual audience categorized distances greater feet distance often used speeches lectures formal occasions relation verbal communication communicating face face someone 's sometimes hard differentiate parts conversing communicated via verbally non verbally studies done subject concluded relaxed natural settings communication


verbal non verbal signals cues contribute surprisingly similar ways argyle ref name argyle michael ref using video tapes shown subjects analysed communication submissive dominant attitude high low context high context resorting strict social classes take short quick response route portray dominance low context opposite taking time explain everything putting lot importance communication building trust respect others submissive relaxed manner found non verbal cues times effect verbal cues


important effect body posture communicated superior status specific culture context said person grew efficient way hand study hsee et al subjects judge person dimension happy sad found words spoken minimal variation intonation impact times larger face expressions seen film without sound therefore considering certain non verbal mannerisms facial expressions physical cues conflict meaning compared spoken language emotions different set ups scenarios would


yield different responses meanings using types communication ways complement provided 're used together wisely conversation ref name ref seeking communicate effectively 's important nonverbal conversation supports verbal conversation vice versa nonverbal cues converge saying verbally message reinforced mindfulness one technique help improve awareness nvc become mindful present body moving better control external nonverbal communication results


effective communication interaction communicating nonverbal messages interact verbal messages six ways repeating conflicting complementing substituting regulating accenting moderating conflicting conflicting verbal nonverbal messages within interaction sometimes send opposing conflicting messages person verbally expressing statement truth simultaneously fidgeting avoiding eye contact may convey mixed message receiver interaction conflicting messages may occur variety reasons often stemming feelings uncertainty ambivalence frustration mixed messages occur nonverbal communication becomes primary tool people use attain additional information


clarify situation great attention placed bodily movements positioning people perceive mixed messages interactions definitions nonverbal communication creates limited picture minds ways create clearer one different dimensions verbal nonverbal communication discovered structure versus non structure linguistic versus non linguistic continuous versus discontinuous learned versus innate left versus right hemispheric processing ref name malandro ref complementing accurate interpretation messages made easier nonverbal verbal communication complement nonverbal cues


used elaborate verbal messages reinforce information sent trying achieve communicative goals messages shown remembered better nonverbal signals affirm verbal exchange ref name knapp hall substituting nonverbal behavior sometimes used sole channel communication message people learn identify facial expressions body movements body positioning corresponding specific feelings intentions nonverbal signals used without verbal communication convey messages nonverbal behavior effectively communicate message verbal methods used enhance understanding ref name knapp hall


name malandro linguistic versus non linguistic assigned symbols system nonverbal communication nodding head one symbol indicates agreement cultures others means disagreement hand verbal communication system symbols specific meanings ref name malandro continuous discontinuous verbal communication based discontinuous units whereas nonverbal communication continuous communicating nonverbally cannot stopped unless one would leave room even intrapersonal processes still take place individuals communicating without presence someone else


body still manages undergo nonverbal communication example words spoken heated debate still angry faces cold stares distributed example nonverbal communication continuous ref name malandro learned versus innate learned non verbal cues require community culture reinforcement example table manners innate capabilities upon birth dress code non verbal cue must established society hand symbols whose interpretation vary culture culture innate nonverbal cues learned cues must gradually


reinforced admonition positive feedback innate non verbal cues built features human behavior generally innate cues universally prevalent regardless culture example smiling crying laughing require teaching similarly body positions fetal position universally associated weakness due universality ability comprehend cues limited individual cultures ref name malandro left versus right hemispheric processing type processing involves neurophysiological approach nonverbal communication explains right hemisphere processes nonverbal stimuli involving spatial pictorial gestalt


tasks left hemisphere involves verbal stimuli involving analytical reasoning tasks important know implications processing differences verbal nonverbal communication messages possible individuals may use correct hemisphere appropriate times comes interpreting message meaning ref name malandro clinical studies influence disease drugs receptivity nonverbal communication studied teams three separate medical schools using similar paradigm researchers university pittsburgh yale university ohio state university


subjects observe gamblers slot machine awaiting payoffs amount payoff read nonverbal transmission prior reinforcement technique developed studies directed psychologist robert e miller psychiatrist james giannini groups reported diminished receptive ability heroin addicts phencyclidine abusers contrasted increased receptivity cocaine addicts men major depression manifested significantly decreased ability read nonverbal cues compared euthymic men subjects tested ability read nonverbal cues intuitive paradigms apparently employed others cause effect approach


used subjects former group answered quickly reinforcement occurred could give rationale particular responses subjects latter category delayed response could offer reasons choice level accuracy two groups vary handedness obese women women premenstrual syndrome found also possess diminished abilities read cues contradistinction men bipolar disorder possessed increased abilities woman total paralysis nerves facial expression found unable transmit receive nonverbal facial


cues whatsoever changes levels accuracy levels nonverbal receptivity members research team hypothesized biochemical site brain operative reception nonverbal cues certain drugs enhanced ability others diminished neurotransmitters dopamine endorphin considered likely etiological candidate based available data however primary cause primary effect could sorted basis paradigm employed child comprehension increased emphasis gestures exists intonations facial expression used speakers often anticipate


recipients interpret utterances wish less obvious interpretation may mark utterance eg special intonations facial expressions specific emphasis known 'marking' spotted learned form non verbal communication toddlers groundbreaking study carpenter et al ''journal child language'' concluded act marking gesture recognized three year olds two year olds study two three year old toddlers tested recognition markedness within gestures experiment conducted


room examiner test subjects first study three year olds examiner sat across child individually allowed play various objects including purse sponge box sponge allowing child play objects three minutes examiner told child time clean motioned pointing objects measured responses children first pointing marking gesture see child 's


reaction request reached objects clean observing child 's response examiner asked pointed marking gesture facial expression lead child believe objects supposed cleaned results showed three year old children able recognize markedness responding gesture cleaning objects opposed gesture presented without marked second study experiment performed two year olds results different


part children recognize difference marked unmarked gesture responding prevalently marked gesture unlike results three year olds shows sort nonverbal communication learned young age better recognized three year old children two year old children making easier us interpret ability recognize markedness learned early stages development somewhere three four years age boone cunningham conducted study determine age children begin


levels year olds adults could correctly identify four emotions little difference scores two groups ages nonverbal communication decoding skills improve dramatically comprehension nonverbal facial cues byproduct work pittsburgh yale ohio state team investigation role nonverbal facial cues heterosexual nondate rape males serial rapists adult women studied nonverbal receptive abilities scores highest subgroup rape victims next tested reported women


raped least two occasions different perpetrators highly significant impairment abilities read cues either male female senders results troubling indicating predator prey model authors note whatever nature preliminary findings responsibility rapist manner level diminished final target study group medical students taught medical students ohio state university ohio university northeast ohio medical college invited serve subjects students indicating preference


specialties family practice psychiatry pediatrics obstetrics gynecology achieved significantly higher levels accuracy students planned train surgeons radiologists pathologists internal medicine plastic surgery candidates scored levels near mean see also notes references references external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwgcastrategiescom booksandarticles credibility respect power sending right nonverbal signals credibility respect power sending right nonverbal signals debra stein http wwwlinguaggiodelcorpoit biblio online nonverbal library free available articles topic http center nonverbal studiesorg htdocs html ''the nonverbal dictionary gestures signs body language cues'' david b givens http wwwpsychologytodaycom blog spycatcher psychology today nonverbal communication blog posts joe navarro http sitesgooglecom site nonverbalcommunicationportal home nvc


portal useful portal providing information nonverbal communication http brktrailcom bodylanguage breaking trail online using body language traveling hank martin https psycnetapaorg record significance posture position communication attitude status relationships mehrabian albert


'''indian literature''' refers literature produced indian subcontinent republic india thereafter republic india officially recognised languages earliest works indian literature orally transmitted sanskrit literature begins oral literature rig veda collection literature dating period bce sanskrit epics ''ramayana'' ''mahabharata'' subsequently codified appeared towards end nd millennium bce classical sanskrit literature developed rapidly first centuries first millennium bce tamil sangam

Humanities
Languages and literature
Indian Literature


odia gujarati marathi telugu urdu ref name award ref two assamese tamil one sanskrit archaic indian languages vedic literature examples early works written vedic sanskrit include core vedas upanishads examples include sulba sutras earliest texts geometry epic sanskrit literature ved vyasa 's ''mahabharata'' valmiki 's ''ramayana'' written epic sanskrit regarded greatest sanskrit epics classical sanskrit literature famous poet playwright k lid sa wrote one epic ''raghuvamsha'' ''dynasty raghu'' written classical sanskrit rather epic sanskrit


examples works written classical sanskrit include p ini 's ''ashtadhyayi'' standardised grammar phonetics classical sanskrit ''laws manu'' famous text hinduism k lid sa often considered greatest playwright sanskrit literature one greatest poets sanskrit literature ''recognition shakuntala'' ''meghaduuta'' famous sanskrit plays famous plays include ''mricchakatika'' shudraka ''svapna vasavadattam'' bhasa ''ratnavali'' sri harsha later poetic works include ''gita govinda'' jayadeva famous works chanakya 's ''arthashastra'' vatsyayana 's ''kamasutra'' prakrit literature


notable prakrit languages jain prakrit ardhamagadhi pali g ndh r '''''' maharashtri shauraseni one earliest extant prakrit works h la 's anthology poems maharashtri g h sattasa dating rd th century ce k lid sa harsha also used maharashtri plays poetry jainism many svetambara works written maharashtri many vagho 's plays written shauraseni sizable number jain works rajasekhara 's ''karpuramanjari'' canto bha ik vya written called like vernacular ''bh sama''


read two languages simultaneously prakrit sanskrit surviving g ndh ran buddhist texts written g ndh r language northwestern prakrit spoken gandh ra pali literature theravada buddhist tipitaka triple basket pali language mostly indian origin later pali literature however mostly produced outside mainland indian subcontinent particularly sri lanka southeast asia canonical pali literature includes buddhist discourses ' 'suttas'' abhidharma works poetry works monastic discipline ''vinaya'' ''jataka tales'' also later post canonical works written india ''milindapanha'' dialogue buddhist


monk indo greek king tamil literature '''sangam literature''' tamil ''sanga ilakkiyam '' ancient tamil literature period history south india known thamizhagam tamilagam spanning c bce ce akananuru kurunthogai natrinai dated bce collection contains poems tamil composed poets remain anonymous


available sangam literature third sangam period known sangam period refers prevalent sangam legends claiming literary academies lasting thousands years giving name corpus literature religious poems among shorter poems occur ''paripaatal'' rest corpus sangam literature deals human relationship emotions sangam literature deals emotional material topics love war governance trade bereavement greatest tamil scholars like thiruvalluvar wrote ethics various issues


vaishnavite periods srimanta sankardev madhabdev damodardev haridevand bhattadev among srimanta sankardev widely acknowledged top assamese litt rateur time generally acknowledged one introduced drama poetry classical dance form called satriya classical music form called borgeet art painting stage enactment drama called bhaona satra tradition monastic lifestyle main disciples madhabdev damodardev followed footsteps enriched assamese literary world contributions damodardev 's disciple bhattadev acknowledged first indian prose writer introduced unique prose writing style assamese


post vaishnavite age assamese literature notable modern assamese writers lakshminath bezbaruah padmanath gohain baruah hemchandra goswami hem chandra barua atul chandra hazarika nalini bala devi birendra kumar bhattacharya amulya barua navakanta barua syed abdul malik bhabananda deka jogesh das homen borgohain bhabendra nath saikia lakshmi nandan bora nirmal prabha bordoloi mahim bora hiren gohain arun sharma hiren bhattacharyya mamoni raisom goswami nalini prava deka nilamani phukan arupa kalita patangia dhrubajyoti bora arnab jan deka rita chowdhury anuradha sharma pujari manikuntala bhattacharya sananta tanty nabakanta barua samir tanty several others comprehensive introductory book ''assamese language literature sahityarathi


lakshminath bezbaroa'' originally authored leading assamese litt rateur ''awahon ramdhenu era'' pioneer assam economist bhabananda deka together three deputies parikshit hazarika upendra nath goswami prabhat chandra sarma published book officially released new delhi nov president india dr zakir hussain commemoration birth centenary celebration doyen assamese literature lakshminath bezbaroa almost half century historic book recovered edited assamese award winning short story writer novelist arnab jan deka published assam foundation india


second enlarged edition officially released december occasion th birth anniversary lakshminath bezbaroa th death anniversary bhabananda deka great britain based bilingual magazine ''luit thames'' ''luitor pora thamsoloi'' editor dr karuna sagar das bengali literature rabindranath tagore author many works including gitanjali india 's national anthem 'jana gana mana' awarded nobel prize literature profoundly sensitive fresh beautiful verse consummate skill made poetic thought expressed english words part


literature west first person non european lineage win nobel prize bankim chandra chatterjee author india 's national song 'vande mataram' first evidence bengali literature known charyapada charyageeti buddhist hymns th century charyapada oldest known written form bengali famous bengali linguist harprashad shastri discovered palm leaf charyapada manuscript nepal royal court library internationally famous bengali writer nobel laureate rabindranath tagore received nobel prize literature


work gitanjali wrote national anthem india bangladesh namely jana gana mana amar sonar bangla respectively first asian nobel prize rabindranath written enormous number poems songs essays novels plays short stories songs remain popular still widely sung bengal kazi nazrul islam one generation younger tagore also equally popular valuable influential socio cultural context bengal though virtually unknown foreign countries among later generation poets jibanananda das considered important figure


famous indian bengali writers sharat chandra chattopadhyay bankim chandra chattopadhyay michael madhusudan dutt sunil gangopadhyay bibhutibhushan bandyopadhyay etc sukanta bhattacharya august may bengali poet playwright along rabindranath tagore kazi nazrul islam one key figures modern bengali poetry despite fact works publication posthumously life poems widely circulated death reputation grew extent became one popular bengali poet th century bengali


second commonly spoken language india hindi result bengal renaissance th th centuries many india 's famous relatively recent literature poetry songs bengali history bengali literature one pathbreaking literary movement group poets artists called hungryalists bhojpuri literature chhattisgarhi literature literature chhattisgarh reflects regional consciousness evolution identity distinct others central india social problems lower castes untouchables highlighted writings


khub chand baghel plays ''jarnail singh'' ''unch neech'' english literature th century several indian writers distinguished traditional indian languages also english language inherited british result british colonisation india developed unique dialect english known indian english indian english typically follows british spelling pronunciation opposed american books published india reflect phenomenon indian english literature however tends utilise internationally recognisable vocabulary colloquial indian english way american


raj kamal jha vikas swarup khushwant singh shashi tharoor nayantara sehgal anita desai kiran desai ashok banker shashi deshpande arnab jan deka jhumpa lahiri kamala markandaya gita mehta manil suri manjiri prabhu ruskin bond chitra banerjee divakaruni bharati mukherjee category indian writing english poetry rabindranath tagore wrote bengali english responsible translations work english early notable poets english include derozio michael madhusudan dutt toru dutt romesh chunder dutt sri aurobindo sarojini naidu brother harindranath chattopadhyay writers workshop collective


calcutta founded poet essayist p lal advocate publish indian writing english press first publish pritish nandy sasthi brata others continues day provide forum english writing india modern times indian poetry english typified two different poets dom moraes winner hawthornden prize age first book poems ''a beginning'' went occupy pre eminent position among indian poets writing english nissim ezekiel came india 's tiny


bene israel jewish community created voice place indian poets writing english championed work contemporaries english poetry india jayanta mahapatra gieve patel k ramanujan arun kolatkar dilip chitre arvind krishna mehrotra eunice de souza kersi katrak p lal kamala das among several others younger generations poets writing english include g sharat chandra hoshang merchant makarand paranjape anuradha bhattacharyya arundhathi subramaniam jeet thayil ranjit hoskote sudeep sen abhay k jerry pinto k srilata gopi kottoor tapan kumar pradhan arnab jan deka anju makhija robin ngangom rukmini bhaya


like avadhi brij famous figures period kabir tulsidas modern times dehlavi dialect hindi belt became prominent sanskrit ''chandrakanta'' written devaki nandan khatri considered first work prose hindi munshi premchand famous hindi novelist ''chhayavadi'' poets include suryakant tripathi 'nirala' prem bajpai jaishankar prasad sumitranandan pant mahadevi varma renowned poets include ramdhari singh 'dinkar' maithili sharan gupt agyeya harivansh rai bachchan dharmveer bharti gujarati literature gandhi extensively wrote gujarati gujarati literature 's history may


traced ad since literature flourished till date well known laureates gujarati literature hemchandracharya narsinh mehta mirabai akho premanand bhatt shamal bhatt dayaram dalpatram narmad govardhanram tripathi gandhi k munshi umashankar joshi suresh joshi pannalal patel rajendra keshavlal shah gujarat vidhya sabha gujarat sahitya sabha gujarati sahitya parishad ahmedabad based literary institutions promoting spread gujarati literature umashankar joshi pannalal patel rajendra keshavlal shah raghuveer chaudhary jnanpith award highest literary award india kannada literature kannada writer jnanpith award winner year


u r ananthamurthy oldest existing record kannada prose halmidi inscription ce poetry ''tripadi'' metre kappe arabhatta record ce folk form literature began earlier literature kannada ''gajashtaka'' ce king shivamara ii ''chudamani'' ce thumbalacharya examples early literature considered extinct ''kavirajamarga'' king nripatunga amoghavarsha ce earliest existing literary work kannada writing literary criticism poetics meant standardise various written kannada dialects used literature previous


centuries book makes reference kannada works early writers king durvinita th century ravikirti author aihole record ce early extant prose work ''vaddaradhane'' shivakotiacharya ce provides elaborate description life bhadrabahu shravanabelagola since earliest available kannada work one grammar guide sorts unify existing variants kannada grammar literary styles safely assumed literature kannada must started several centuries earlier ref name extinct works ref pampa popularised champu style


unique kannada wrote epic vikramarjuna vijaya also wrote adipurana famous poets like ponna wrote shantinatapurana bhuvanaikaramabhyudaya jinaksharamale gatapratyagata ranna wrote shantipurana ghadayudha jain poet nagavarma ii wrote kavyavalokana karnatabhashabhushana vardhamanapurana janna author yashodhara charitha rudhrabhatta durgashima wrote jagannatha vijaya panchatantra respectively works medieval period based jain hindu principles vachana sahitya tradition th century purely native unique world literature ref name classical ref sum contributions sections society vachanas pithy


comments period 's social religious economic conditions importantly held mirror seed social revolution caused radical examination ideas caste creed religion important writers vachana literature include basavanna allama prabhu akka mahadevi kumara vyasa wrote ''karnata bharata katamanjari'' arguably famous influential kannada writer th century bhakti movement gave rise dasa sahitya around th century significantly contributed evolution carnatic music present form period witnessed


great haridasas like purandara dasa aptly called ''pioneer carnatic music'' kanaka dasa vyasathirtha vijaya dasa modern kannada th century influenced many movements notably ''navodaya'' ''navya'' ''navyottara'' ''dalita'' ''bandaya'' contemporary kannada literature highly successful reaching people classes society works kannada literature received eight jnanpith awards highest number awarded literature indian language also received forty seven sahitya academy awards kashmiri literature kodava literature kodava written usually kannada script sometimes


minor modifications language significant written literature twentieth century appachcha kavi playwright nadikerianda chinnappa folk compiler two important poets writers kodava language konkani literature konkani literature konkani language complex much contested history one indian languages written five scripts roman nagari kannada persian arabic malayalam also extensive oral literature first modern konkani novel 'kristanv ghorabo' written eduardo jose bruno de souza 'mhaji ba kh ya geli' shenoy goembab


first modern short story konkani literature prominent konkani writers include ravindra kelekar bakibab borkar chandrakant keni damodar mauzo arvind mhambro c f d'costa pundalik naik hema naik bonaventure d'pietro dilip borkar mahabaleshwar sail v j p saldana meena kakodkar jess fernandes k sukhthankar nayana adarkar many others malayalam literature even years since start malayalam calendar commenced ad malayalam literature remained preliminary stage time malayalam literature consisted mainly various genres songs ''ramacharitham'' written ''cheeramakavi'' collection poems written


end preliminary stage malayalam literature 's evolution oldest malayalam book available thunchaththu ramanujan ezhuthachan th century considered father malayalam language influence acceptance malayalam alphabet extremely popular poetic works like adhyathmaramayanam several noted works written th century th century malayalam literary movement came prominence malayalam literature flourished various genres today fully developed part indian literature maithili literature maithili literature entire collection poetry novels short


stories documents writings maithili language famous literary figure maithili poet vidyapati wrote poems language people ie maithili time state 's official language sanskrit sanskrit used literary language use maithili instead sanskrit literature became common vidyapati jyotirishwar mentions lorika vachaspati ii ''tattvachintamani'' vidyapati ''danavakyavali'' profusely used typical maithili words daily use maithili script mithilakshara tirhuta popularly known


great antiquity ''lalitavistara'' mentions vaidehi script early latter half th century ad marked change occurred northeastern alphabet inscriptions adityasena exhibit change first time eastern variety develops becomes maithili script comes use assam bengal nepal earliest recorded epigraphic evidence script found mandar hill stone inscriptions adityasena th century ad fixed baidyanath temple deoghar language buddhist dohas described belonging


mixed maithili kamrupi language meitei literature meitei literature literature written meitei language manipuri meiteilon including literature composed meitei writers manipur assam tripura myanmar bangladesh history meitei literature traced back thousands years flourish meitei civilization despite massive devastation burning meitei scriptures puya meithaba meitei literature survived resilience meiteis would demonstrate event devastation proves ability survive throughout history early literary works found meitei literature poetry prose


combination one famous meitei writers twentieth century k binodini devi marathi literature marathi literature began saint poets like dnyaneshwar tukaram ramdas eknath modern marathi literature marked theme social reform well known figures phase include mahatma jyotiba phule lokhitwadi others prominent modern literary figures include jnanpith award winners vishnu sakharam khandekar vishnu vaman shirvadakar ''kavi kusumagraj'' govind vinayak karandikar though earliest known marathi inscription found foot statue shravanabelgola karnataka dated c ce marathi


products tradition th century well known works like yatharthadeepika vaman pandit naladamayanti swayamvara raghunath pandit pandava pratap harivijay ramvijay shridhar pandit mahabharata moropant produced however versatile voluminous writer among poets moropanta whose mahabharata first epic poem marathi historical section old marathi literature unique contained prose poetry prose section contained bakhars written foundation maratha kingdom chhatrapati shivaji maharaj poetry section contained povadas


katavas composed shahirs period regarded closing period old marathi literature beginning modern marathi literature modern period period late th century maharashtra period colonial modernity like corresponding periods indian languages period dominated english educated intellectuals age prose reason period reformist didacticism great intellectual ferment first english book translated marathi


first marathi newspaper started many books social reforms written baba padamji yamuna paryatana mahatma jyotiba phule lokhitwadi justice mahadev govind ranade hari narayan apte etc lokmanya tilak 's newspaper kesari set provided platform sharing literary views marathi time efficiently aided marathi drama also different genre called 'sangit natya' musicals first play va bhave 's ''sita swayamvar'' later kirioskar gb deval l brought romantic aroma social content krishnaji prabhakar khadilkar


banned play ''kichaka vadh'' set trend political playwriting later stage ably served stalwarts like ram ganesh gadkari prahlad keshav atre drama flourished best indian actors available take variety protagonists mohan agashe sriram lagoo kashinath ghanekar prabhakar panshikar playing many immortal characters penned greats like vasant kanetkar kusumagraj vijay tendulkar name drama movement ably supported marathi films enjoy continuous success starting vshantaram pioneer dadasaheb


phalke marathi cinema went influence contemporary hindi cinema director raja paranjape music director sudhir phadke lyricist gmadgulkar actor raja gosavi came together give quite hits later period marathi language spoken people throughout influenced drama cinema along contemporary literature modern marathi poetry began mahatma jyotiba phule 's compositions later poets like keshavsuta balakavi govindagraj poets ravi kiran mandal like madhav julian wrote poetry influenced romantic victorian english poetry largely sentimental lyrical prahlad keshav atre


renowned satirist politician wrote parody sort poetry collection jhenduchi phule sane guruji contributed children 's literature marathi major works ''shyamchi aai'' shyam 's mother ''astik'' believer ''gode shevat'' sweet ending etc translated simplified many western classics published book stories titled ''gode goshti'' sweet stories mizo literature '''mizo literature''' literature written mizo tawng principal language mizo peoples written oral traditions undergone considerable change th century


poetry especially devotional poetry eminent ancient odia poets include kabi samrat upendra bhanja kavisurya baladev rath odia language replete classicism various forms poetry like champu chhanda bhajan janan poi chautisha etc written medieval ages th century swabhab kavi gangadhar meher fakir mohan senapati gouri shankar ray gopal chandra praharaj pandit nilmani vidyaratna kabibar radhanath ray prominent figures prose poetry writings odia literature th century godabarish mohapatra kalindi charana panigrahi kanhu charan mohanty godabarish mishra


gopinath mohanty sachidananda routray sitakant mahapatra born september surendra mohanty manoj das kishori charan das ramakanta rath born december binapani mohanty jagadish mohanty sarojini sahoo rajendra kishore panda padmaj pal ramchandra behera pratibha satpathy nandini sahu debaraj samantray names created odia literature recently government india accorded classical status odia time bengali tried overpower odia language along west bengal chhattisgarh madhya pradesh andhra pradesh tookaway many parts odisha letting odisha nothingness despair mostly bengalis claimed


odia derived form bengali language cannot independently existthe famous bengali pandits like kantilal bhattacharya rajendra mitra claimed odia ekta swotontro bhasa hobena ie odia cannot withstand independent language unaware fact odia language older bengali even one oldest languages world one classical languages owing immense contributions sacrifices pioneers like fakirmohan senapati gopabandhu das madhusudan das nilakantha das gourishankar ray maharaja krushna chandra gajapati many odisha odia language


adi granth janamsakhis stories life legend guru nanak early examples punjabi prose literature nanak composed punjabi verse incorporating vocabulary sanskrit arabic persian indic languages characteristic gurbani tradition sufi poetry developed shah hussain sultan bahu shah sharaf ali haider bulleh shah contrast persian poets preferred ghazal poetic expression punjabi sufi poets tended compose kafi punjabi sufi poetry also influenced punjabi literary traditions particularly punjabi qissa genre


romantic tragedy also derived inspiration indic persian qur'anic sources qissa heer ranjha waris shah among popular punjabi qisse popular stories include sohni mahiwal fazal shah mirza sahiba hafiz barkhudar sassi punnun hashim shah qissa puran bhagat qadaryar victorian novel elizabethan drama free verse modernism entered punjabi literature introduction british education colonial rule setting christian mission ludhiana printing press installed using gurmukhi fonts


also issued first punjabi grammar publication punjabi dictionary reverend j newton ripple effect strengthening modernizing education system patronage singh sabha movement developments made possible 'modernism' emerge punjabi literary culture needs pointed 'modernism' used umbrella term cover whole range developments punjabi literary culture starting break tradition past


commitment progressive ideology experimental nature avant garde newness forward looking rajasthani literature sindhi literature tamil literature tamil literature rich long literary tradition spanning years sangam period th century bc rd century ce tolkaappiyam rd century bc credited oldest work tamil available today history tamil literature follows history tamil nadu closely following social political trends various periods secular nature early sangam poetry gave way works religious didactic nature


middle ages tirukkural fine example work human behaviour political morals wave religious revival helped generate great volume literary output saivite vaishnavite authors jain buddhist authors medieval period muslim european authors later also contributed growth tamil literature revival tamil literature took place late th century works religious philosophical nature written style made easier common people enjoy nationalist poets began utilise power poetry


influencing masses short stories novels began appear popularity tamil cinema also provided opportunities modern tamil poets emerge telugu literature telugu indian language third largest number speakers hindi bengali rich literary traditions earliest written literature dates back th century epic literary tradition started nannayya acclaimed telugu 's ''aadikavi'' meaning first poet belongs th th century vemana prince also called pedakomati vemaa reddy lived th century


wrote poems language common man questioned prevailing values conventions religious practices poems philosophy made unique poet masses viswanadha satyanarayana ''veyipadagalu'' doyen conventional yet creative literature first receive jnanpith award telugu followed c narayana reddy ravuri bharadwaja srirangam srinivasarao '''sri sri''' born popular th century poet lyricist srisri took telugu literary band wagon travelled roads kings queens muddy roads common man literary


movements old era telugu literature enriched many literary movements like veera shaiva movement gave birth dwipada kavitvam couplets bhakti movement gave rise compilations annamayya kshetrayya tyagaraja kancharla gopanna ramadasu renaissance movement heralded vemana stands old telugu literary movements new era romantic movement led krishnasashtri rayaprolu vedula progressive writers movement digambara kavitvam nagnamuni cherabanda raju jwalamukhi nikhileswar bhairavayya mahaswapna revolutionary writers' movement streevada kavitvam dalita kavitvam flourished telugu literature telugu literature standard bearer indian literature


respects fiction prose literature kandukuri veeresalingam said father modern telugu fiction kodavatiganti kutumba rao laid foundation realistic modern telugu novel short story rachakonda kalipatnam carried flag excellency annamaya gurajada appa rao kandukuri devulapalli jashuva unnava laxminarayana ''malapalli'' bucchi babu tripuraneni gopichand maa gokhale papineni sivasankar many profound impact telugu literature tripuri literature tripuri kokborok tiprakok native language tripuri people present tripura state north east india th centuries many royal family officials


contributes develop kokborok language many ways significant hint antiquity kokborok language found lines rajmala chronicle mentions rajmala first written kokborok tripuri tulu literature written literature tulu large literature literary dravidian languages tamil nevertheless tulu one five literary dravidian languages four tamil telugu kannada malayalam earliest available tulu literature survives date tulu translation great sanskrit epic


mahabharata called mahabharato written arunabja ad poet lived kodavur near udupi around late th early th century ad important literary works tulu devi mahatmyam 's ad tulu translation sri bhagavata ad written vishnu tunga kaveri ad script mainly used write religious literary works sanskrit even today official script eight tulu monasteries ashta mathas udupi founded madhvacharya udupi tulu pontiffs monasteries write names


world significant tulu migrated populations contribute tulu literature notable contributors tulu literature kayyar kinhanna rai k seetharam kulal amruta someshwara b viveka rai kedambadi jattappa rai venkataraja puninchattaya paltadi ramakrishna achar dr sunitha shetty dr vamana nandavara sri balakrishna shetty polali https enmwikipediaorg wiki tulu language urdu literature among traditions urdu poetry fine example linguistic cultural synthesis arab persian vocabulary based hindi language resulted vast extremely beloved class ghazal literature usually written muslims contexts ranging romance society philosophy


tassawuf sufism urdu soon became court language mughals higher forms called kohinoor indian languages surely refined enriched sophisticated ripended language literature producing poets like mir ghalib iqbal zauq faiz poetry mohammed iqbal invoked spirit freedom among muslims india thus contributing pivotal role making pakistan urdu literature fiction also flourished well umrao jaan ada mirza hadi ruswa first significant urdu novel premchand treated father modern


urdu fiction novel godan short stories like kafan art short story taken ahead manto bedi krishn chander host highly acclaimed writers urdu novel reached heights novels qurratulain haider abdullah hussain towards end th century urdu novel entered new phase trend setter novel makaan paigham afaqui urdu ghazal also recently changed colour penetration synchronization modern contemporary issues life foreign languages indian persian literature


early muslim period persian became official language northern part indian subcontinent used educated government language earliest days th century ad imported subcontinent various culturally persianised central asian turkic afghan dynasties several indians became major persian poets later notable amir khusro modern times muhammad iqbal much older sanskrit literature also translated persian time remained court language mughals soon replaced


urdu persian still held status despite spread urdu well early years british rule india british officials learn persian coming india concluded conversations persian however british effort expand influence made government ruling discontinue use persian commence use english instead thus started decline persian subcontinent 's official governmental language position taken new language british raj english many modern indian


languages still show signs relatively heavy persian influence notably urdu hindi literature north east india english literature north east india refers body work english language writers north east indiathey included many sub categories naga literature assamese literature meitei manipuri literature among others ancient india many intensive examples like incredible verses translated ramayana named ''saptakanda ramayana'' choral songs known oja pali theater performances known ''panchali'' also extensive part assamese literature awards sahitya akademi fellowship jnanpith award sahitya akademi award vyas


ref footer '''sumerian religion''' religion practiced adhered people sumer first literate civilization ancient mesopotamia sumerians regarded divinities responsible matters pertaining natural social orders ref name kramer ref overview beginning kingship sumer city states effectively ruled theocratic priests religious officials later role supplanted kings priests continued exert great influence sumerian society early times sumerian temples simple one room structures sometimes built elevated platforms towards end sumerian civilization


temples developed ziggurats tall pyramidal structures sanctuaries tops sumerians believed universe come series cosmic births first nammu primeval waters gave birth ki earth sky mated together produced son named enlil enlil separated heaven earth claimed earth domain humans believed created enki son nammu heaven reserved exclusively deities upon deaths mortals' spirits regardless behavior alive believed


go kur cold dark cavern deep beneath earth ruled goddess ereshkigal food available dry dust later times ereshkigal believed rule alongside husband nergal god death major deities sumerian pantheon included god heavens enlil god wind storm enki god water human culture ninhursag goddess fertility earth utu god sun justice father nanna god moon


akkadian period afterward inanna goddess sex beauty warfare widely venerated across sumer appeared many myths including famous story descent underworld sumerian religion heavily influenced religious beliefs later mesopotamian peoples elements retained mythologies religions hurrians akkadians babylonians assyrians middle eastern culture groups scholars comparative mythology noticed many parallels stories ancient sumerians recorded later early parts hebrew bible worship written cuneiform sumerian cuneiform


bce relief ur assyrian cuneiform circa bce sumerian myths passed oral tradition invention writing earliest myth discovered far epic gilgamesh sumerian written series fractured clay tablets early sumerian cuneiform used primarily record keeping tool late early dynastic period religious writings first became prevalent temple praise hymns ref name etcsl ref form incantation called ''nam ub'' prefix cast ref name lexicon ref tablets also made stone


clay stone used small pick make symbols architecture plaque libation scene bce royal cemetery ur sumerian city states temple complexes originally small elevated one room structures early dynastic period temples developed raised terraces multiple rooms toward end sumerian civilization ziggurats became preferred temple structure mesopotamian religious centers ref name byu ref temples served cultural religious political headquarters approximately bc rise military kings known lu gals man big ref name lexicon time political military leadership


often housed separate palace complexes priesthood early dynastic period ca bc advent ''lugal'' king sumerian city states virtually theocratic government controlled various en ens served high priests cults city gods female equivalents known nin priests responsible continuing cultural religious traditions city state viewed mediators humans cosmic terrestrial forces priesthood resided full time temple complexes administered matters state including large irrigation processes necessary