added accessories including games movies music major theories communication researchers identified several major theories associated study mass communication communication theory addresses processes mechanisms allow communication take place cultivation theory developed george gerbner marshall mcluhan discusses long term effects watching television hypothesizes television individual consumes likely person believe real world similar seen television cultivation closely related idea mean world syndrome asserts people watch


news frequently likely believe world 'mean' place contingency theory informs organizations communicate ethically publics especially crisis agenda setting theory centers around idea media outlets tell public think think agenda setting hypothesizes media power influence public discourse tell people important issues facing society spiral silence developed elisabeth noelle neumann hypothesizes people likely reveal opinion public believe

Journalism, media studies and communication


majority opinion fear revealing unpopular opinion would subject social outcast theory relevant mass communication hypothesizes mass media power shape people 's opinions well relay opinion believed majority opinion media ecology hypothesizes individuals shaped interaction media communication media profoundly affect individuals view interact environment according semiotic theory communication characteristics words images gestures situations always interpretive sign systems entitled


read interpreted regardless form may referred texts study semiotics thing literal reading methods study communication researchers study communication various methods verified repetitive cumulative processes quantitative qualitative methods used study mass communication main focus mass communication research learn content mass communication affects attitudes opinions emotions ultimately behaviors people receive message several prominent methods study follows studying cause


effect relationships communication done experiment quantitative method regularly involves exposing participants various media content recording reactions show causation mass communication researchers must isolate variable studying show occurs observed effect variable could cause observed effect survey another quantitative method involves asking individuals respond set questions order generalize responses larger population content analysis sometimes known textual analysis refers process identifying categorical


association also prominent professional organizations organizations publishes different refereed academic journal reflects research performed field mass communication see also augmentative alternative communication communication communication rights communication studies communication theory field cross cultural communication history communication intercultural communication media influence media studies mediatization proactive communications social science notes references hartley j mass communication o'sullivan fiske eds ''key concepts communication cultural studies'' routledge mackay h o'sullivan ''the media reader continuity transformation'' sage mcquail ''mcquail 's mass communication


theory fifth edition '' sage thompson john b ''the media modernity'' polity griffin e first look communication theory mcgraw hill new york ny babbie e practice social research thomas higher education belmont california media studies communication studies


'''historical theology''' study history christian doctrine grenz guretzki nordling describe division theological discipline seeks understand delineate church interpreted scripture developed doctrine throughout history time apostles present day twofold function historical theology show origin development beliefs held present day help contemporary theologians identify theological errors past avoided present overview according friedrich schleiermacher historical theology


give rise theological ideas statements systems field focuses relationship theology contexts well major theological philosophical influences upon figures topics studied methodological foundation aims similar used intellectual historians researching historical epistemology particularly matthew daniel eddy investigate cultural connections theology disciplines existed past evangelical position maintains historical theology must aligned word god must always reference scripture see also history


'''financial econometrics''' application statistical methods financial market data financial econometrics branch financial economics field economics areas study include capital markets financial institutions corporate finance corporate governance topics often revolve around asset valuation individual stocks bonds derivatives currencies financial instruments differs forms econometrics emphasis usually analyzing prices financial assets traded competitive liquid markets people working finance industry researching finance sector often use econometric techniques range activities

Social science
Economics
Financial econometrics


example support portfolio management valuation securities financial econometrics essential risk management important know often 'bad' investment outcomes expected occur future days weeks months years topics sort topics financial econometricians typically familiar include analysis high frequency price observations arbitrage pricing theory asset price dynamics optimal asset allocation cointegration event study nonlinear financial models autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity realized variance fund performance analysis returns based style analysis tests random walk hypothesis capital asset


pricing model term structure interest rates yield curve value risk volatility estimation techniques exponential smoothing models riskmetrics research community society financial econometrics sofie global network academics practitioners dedicated sharing research ideas fast growing field financial econometrics independent non profit membership organization committed promoting expanding research education organizing sponsoring conferences programs activities intersection finance econometrics including links macroeconomic fundamentals sofie co founded robert f engle eric ghysels premier quality journals


robert j shiller empirical analysis asset prices highly influential researchers include torben g andersen tim bollerslev neil shephard references econometrics mathematical finance financial economics financial data analysis


thumb '''ecological engineering''' uses ecology engineering predict design construct restore manage ecosystems integrate human society natural environment benefit ref name mi wj mitsch se jorgensen introduction ecological engineering wj mitsch se jorgensen editors ''ecological engineering introduction ecotechnology'' john wiley sons new york pp ref origins key concepts definitions applications ecological engineering emerged new idea early definition taken several decades refine implementation still undergoing adjustment

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Ecological engineering


broader recognition new paradigm relatively recent ecological engineering introduced howard odum others ref name od ht odum et al ''experiments engineering marine ecosystems'' ''publication institute marine science university texas'' ref utilizing natural energy sources predominant input manipulate control environmental systems origins ecological engineering odum 's work ecological modeling ecosystem simulation capture holistic macro patterns energy material flows affecting efficient use resources mitsch jorgensen ref name mj summarized


five basic concepts differentiate ecological engineering approaches addressing problems benefit society nature based self designing capacity ecosystems field acid test ecological theories relies system approaches conserves non renewable energy sources supports ecosystem biological conservation mitsch jorgensen ref name mj wj mitsch se jorgensen introduction ecological engineering wj mitsch se jorgensen editors ''ecological engineering introduction ecotechnology'' john wiley sons new york pp ref first


'biotechnology' describing genetic engineering cellular level 'bioengineering' meaning construction artificial body parts applications ecological engineering classified spatial scales mesocosms hundreds meters ecosystems km regional systems km complexity design likely increases spatial scale applications increasing breadth depth likely impacting field 's definition opportunities design use ecosystems interfaces society nature explored implementation ecological engineering focused creation


restoration ecosystems degraded wetlands multi celled tubs greenhouses integrate microbial fish plant services process human wastewater products fertilizers flowers drinking water applications ecological engineering cities emerged collaboration fields landscape architecture urban planning urban horticulture ref name address human health biodiversity targeted un sustainable development goals holistic projects stormwater management applications ecological engineering rural landscapes included wetland treatment community reforestation traditional ecological knowledge permaculture


example broader applications emerged distinct disciplines ecological engineering david holmgren cites influence howard odum development permaculture design guidelines functional classes design principles ecological engineering design combine systems ecology process engineering design engineering design typically involves problem formulation goal problem analysis constraints alternative solutions search decision among alternatives specification complete solution temporal design framework provided matlock et al ref name md matlock others ecological engineering rationale standardized curriculum professional certification


united states ''ecological engineering'' ref stating design solutions considered ecological time selecting alternatives design incorporate ecological economics design evaluation ref name acknowledge guiding value system promotes biological conservation benefiting society nature ref name mj ref name ecological engineering utilizes systems ecology engineering design obtain holistic view interactions within society nature ecosystem simulation energy systems language also known energy circuit language energese howard odum one illustration systems ecology approach


renewable energy resources increase sustainability mitsch jorgensen ref name mj identified five functional classes ecological engineering designs ecosystem utilized reduce solve pollution problem example phytoremediation wastewater wetland bioretention stormwater filter excess nutrients metals pollution ecosystem imitated copied address resource problem example forest restoration replacement wetlands installing street side rain gardens extend canopy cover optimize residential urban cooling ecosystem recovered disturbance example mine land restoration lake restoration channel aquatic restoration mature riparian corridors ecosystem modified ecologically sound way


example selective timber harvest biomanipulation introduction predator fish reduce planktivorous fish increase zooplankton consume algae phytoplankton clarify water ecosystems used benefit without destroying balance example sustainable agro ecosystems multispecies aquaculture introducing agroforestry plots residential property generate primary production multiple vertical levels mitsch jorgensen ref name mj identified design principles ecological engineering yet expected contribute single design ecosystem structure function determined forcing functions system energy inputs ecosystems available storage


ecosystem limited ecosystems open dissipative systems thermodynamic balance energy matter entropy spontaneous appearance complex chaotic structure attention limited number governing controlling factors strategic preventing pollution restoring ecosystems ecosystem homeostatic capability results smoothing depressing effects strongly variable inputs match recycling pathways rates ecosystems reduce pollution effects design pulsing systems wherever possible ecosystems self designing systems processes ecosystems characteristic time space scales


accounted environmental management biodiversity championed maintain ecosystem 's self design capacity ecotones transition zones important ecosystems membranes cells coupling ecosystems utilized wherever possible components ecosystem interconnected interrelated form network consider direct well indirect efforts ecosystem development ecosystem history development ecosystems species vulnerable geographical edges ecosystems hierarchical systems parts larger landscape physical biological processes interactive


important know physical biological interactions interpret properly eco technology requires holistic approach integrates interacting parts processes far possible information ecosystems stored structures mitsch jorgensen ref name mj identified following considerations prior implementing ecological engineering design create conceptual model determine parts nature connected project implement computer model simulate impacts uncertainty project optimize project reduce uncertainty increase beneficial impacts academic curriculum colleges academic curriculum


proposed ecological engineering ref name institutions around world starting programs key elements curriculum environmental engineering systems ecology restoration ecology ecological modeling quantitative ecology economics ecological engineering technical electives complementing set courses prerequisites courses physical biological chemical subject areas integrated design experiences according matlock et al ref name design identify constraints characterize solutions ecological time incorporate ecological economics design evaluation economics ecological engineering demonstrated using energy principles wetland


using nutrient valuation dairy farm literature howard odum man ecosystem proceedings lockwood conference suburban forest ecology ''bulletin connecticut agric station'' wj mitsch ''ecological engineering cooperative role planetary life support systems'' ''environmental science technology'' hd van bohemen http repositorytudelftnl view ir uuid dcd b bf b c c fe b ''ecological engineering civil engineering works'' doctoral thesis tu delft netherlands see also afforestation agroecology agroforestry analog forestry biomass biomass ecology buffer strip collaborative innovation network constructed wetland deforestation deforestation roman period desertification ecological engineering methods energy efficient landscaping environmental engineering forest


farming forest gardening great green wall great plains shelterbelt great plan transformation nature example applied ecological engineering hedgerow home gardens human ecology macro engineering megaprojects permaforestry sahara forest project sand fence seawater greenhouse sustainable agriculture terra preta three north shelter forest program wildcrafting windbreak references external links https webarchiveorg web http ecological engineeringcom defshtml ecological engineering webtext ecological engineering group http groupsengroregonstateedu eess ecological engineering student society website eess oregon state university https webarchiveorg web http wwwcfwufledu ecological engineeringasp ecological engineering webtext howard todum center wetlands university florida organizations http aeesocietyorg american ecological engineering


society homepage http groupsengroregonstateedu eess ecological engineering student society website eess oregon state university https webarchiveorg web http aspweorg american society professional wetland engineers homepage wiki http wwwecological engineeringcom ecological engineering group homepage http wwwieesch international ecological engineering society homepage scientific journals http wwwelseviercom wps find journaldescriptioncws home description description ecological engineering since general description field https archivetoday http wwwspringerlinkcom content landscape ecological engineering since ecological restoration environmental terminology environmental engineering environmental social science engineering disciplines climate change policy


since conception field committed development discipline value oriented problem oriented prioritizing research aimed solving complex environmental problems pursuit individual well within larger society ref name proshansky proshansky ref solving problems involving human environment interactions whether global local one must model human nature predicts environmental conditions humans respond well model help design manage protect restore environments enhance reasonable behavior predict likely outcomes conditions met diagnose problem situations

Social science
Psychology
Environmental psychology


expected develop also catalyst attracting schools knowledge pursuit aside research psychologists geographers economists landscape architects policy makers sociologists anthropologists educators product developers discovered participated field ref name proshansky although environmental psychology arguably best known comprehensive description field also known human factors science cognitive ergonomics ecological psychology ecopsychology environment behavior studies person environment studies closely related fields include architectural psychology socio architecture behavioral geography environmental sociology social ecology environmental design research history origins field


activity impact extreme environments effects color form pol e ''blueprints history environmental psychology first birth american transition'' medio ambiente comportamiento humano among major scholars roots environmental psychology jakob von uexk kurt lewin egon brunswik later gerhard kaminski carl friedrich graumann end world war ii brought demand guidance urgent building programme destruction war provide government planning requirements many countries set research centres studied


people used space uk building research centre studied space use houses later noise levels heating lighting requirements glass maker pilkingtons set daylight research unit led thomas markus provide information influence natural lighting buildings guidelines daylight requirements peter manning developed pilkington research unit university liverpool studied offices employing one first people obtain phd environmental psychology brian wells markus went set building performance research unit


university strathclyde employing psychologist david canter supervised wells manning phd pilkington research unit canter went university surrey set environmental psychology programme department psychology head department terence lee conducted phd concept neighbourhood supervision sir frederick bartlett university cambridge parallel developments people us begun consider issues environmental design one


first areas consideration psychiatric hospitals psychiatrists worked architects take account experience patients mentally ill robert sommer wrote book 'personal space' edward hall commented anthropologist people related spatially amos rapoport caused considerable interest amongst architects book 'house form culture' showing form buildings solely functional sorts cultural influences contributed emergence architecture 'post modernism' took symbolic qualities architecture seriously


campaign deal depredations environment gave impetus change direction field aspects buildings making sense cities broader issues climate change impact people global environment orientations problem oriented environmental psychology direct study relationship environment environment affects inhabitants specific aspects field work identifying problem identification said problem discovering solution therefore necessary environmental psychology problem oriented one important aspect


problem oriented field identifying problems solutions arise research acquired solutions aid making society function better whole create wealth knowledge inner workings societies environmental psychologist harold proshansky discusses field also value oriented field 's commitment bettering society problem identification ref name referencea proshansky p ref panyang discusses importance understanding problem also necessity solution proshansky also points problems problem oriented approach environmental psychology first problems identified must


everyday life ref name proshansky proshansky p ref hard reject laboratory research laboratory experiments theories may tested without damaging actual environment serve models testing solutions proshansky makes point well discussing difficulty overall problem oriented approach states important however environmental psychologist utilize aspects research analysis findings take account general individualized aspects problems ref name proshansky proshansky p ref environmental psychology addresses environmental problems density crowding


noise pollution sub standard living urban decay ref name referencea noise increases environmental stress although found control predictability greatest factors stressful effects noise context pitch source habituation also important variables environmental psychologists theorized density crowding also adverse effect mood may cause stress related illness behavior understand solve environmental problems environmental psychologists believe concepts principles come directly physical settings problems looked ref name referencea example factors reduce feelings crowding within buildings include


concert school corridors creating defensible space calhoun personal space territory area personal territory public space eg office key feature many architectural designs 'defensible space' reduce negative effects crowding urban environments term coined john b calhoun result multiple environmental experiments conducted rats originally beginning experiment measure many rats could accommodated given space expanded determining rats given proper food shelter


environmental psychology relies interaction disciplines order approach problems multiple perspectives first discipline category behavioral sciences include sociology political science anthropology economics environmental psychology also interacts interspecializations field psychology include developmental psychology cognitive science industrial organizational psychology psychobiology psychoanalysis social neuroscience addition scientific fields study environmental psychology also works design field includes studies architecture interior design urban planning industrial object design landscape architecture preservation ref name proshansky proshansky p ref space time orientation


space time orientation highlights importance past examining problems past mind creates better understanding past forces social political economic forces may relevance present future problems time place also important consider 's important look time extended periods physical settings change time change respect physical properties change individuals using space change time ref name proshansky proshansky p ref looking spaces time help monitor changes possibly predict future problems


variety tests administered children order determine temperament temperament split three types easy difficult slow warm alexander thomas stella chess herbert g birch margaret hertzig sam korn created infant temperament test rated using nine temperament criteria finding child 's temperament birth enables us know expect child progresses adulthood concepts nature restoration early studies showing patients view nature hospital recovered faster


patients window view brick wall extent nature mental physical restorative properties central branch field although positive effects nature established theoretical underpinning restorative still discussed cited theory attention restoration theory claims nature soft fascination restores ability direct attention secondly stress reduction theory claims humans evolved nature type environment relaxing adjusted senses newer theoretical work


includes conditioned restoration theory suggests two step process first step involves associating nature relaxation second step involves retrieving relaxation presented associated stimulus place identity many years harold proshansky colleagues graduate school university center city university new york explored concept place identity place identity traditionally defined 'sub structure self identity person consisting broadly conceived cognitions physical world individual lives' ref name proshanskyet proshansky et al p ref cognitions define


daily experiences every human one 's attitudes feelings ideas memories personal values preferences toward range type physical settings understand environment live overall experience person interacts various places spaces able evaluate properties different environments fulfill various needs place contains components satisfy person biologically socially psychologically culturally creates environmental past person 'good' 'bad' experiences place person able reflect define


personal values attitudes feelings beliefs physical world place identity described individual 's incorporation place larger concept self potpourri memories conceptions interpretations ideas related feelings specific physical settings well types settings ref name proshanskyet proshansky et al ref theorists instrumental creation idea place identity three humanistic geographers tuan relph buttimer share couple basic assumptions person lives creates memories within place attachment built one 's


comfortable uncomfortable certain broad kinds physical settings prefers specific spaces others time since term place identity introduced theory model identity dominated environmental psychology place attachment many different perceptions bond people places hypothesized studied widespread terms include place attachment sense place one consistent thread woven throughout recent research place attachment deals importance amount time spent certain place length association place


researchers writers made case time experience place important deepening meanings emotional ties central person place relationship little depth research studied factors role forging connection place attachment defined one 's emotional affective ties place generally thought result long term connection certain environment different simple aesthetic response saying certain place special beautiful example one emotional response


beautiful ugly landscape place response may sometimes shallow fleeting distinction one schroeder labeled meaning versus preference according schroeder definition meaning thoughts feelings memories interpretations evoked landscape whereas preference degree liking one landscape compared another deeper lasting emotional attachment develop schroeder 's terms meaning enduring relationship place usually critical factor chigbu carried rural study place attachment using qualitative approach


check impact community uturu nigeria found direct relationship level community development environmental consciousness leanne rivlin theorized one way examine individual 's environmental consciousness recognize physical place significant look people place relationship environmental cognition involved human cognition plays crucial role environmental perception different areas brain engage environmentally relevant information believe orbitofrontal cortex integrates environmentally relevant information many distributed areas brain due anterior location within frontal cortex


orbitofrontal cortex may make judgments environment refine organism 's understanding error analysis processes specific prefrontal cortex certain single brain area dedicated organism 's interactions environment rather brain areas dedicated task one area probably orbitofrontal cortex may collate various pieces informational puzzle order develop long term strategy engagement ever changing environment moreover orbitofrontal cortex may show greatest change blood oxygenation bold level organism thinks


broad amorphous category referred environment research area showing increase climate change related emotional experiences seen inherently adaptive engagement emotional experiences leads greater sense connection others increased capacity tolerate reflect emotions recent concern environment environmental consciousness awareness come related growth development understanding consciousness toward biophysical environment problems behavior settings earliest noteworthy discoveries field environmental psychology


dated back roger barker created field ecological psychology founding research station oskaloosa kansas field observations expanded theory social settings influence behavior empirical data gathered oskaloosa helped develop concept behavior setting help explain relationship individual immediate environment explored work paul gump book ''big school small school high school size student behavior'' one first insightful explanations groups tend less satisfying


members increase size studies illustrated large schools similar number behavior settings small schools resulted students' ability presume many different roles small schools eg school band school football team larger schools propensity deliberate social choices book ''ecological psychology'' barker stresses importance town 's behavior environment residents' ordinary instrument describing environment hybrid eco behavioral character behavior settings appear


present midwest 's inhabitants difficulty nouns combine milieu standing behavior common eg oyster supper basketball game turkey dinner golden gavel ceremony cake walk back surgery gift exchange livestock auction auto repair barker argued students implement methods psychologist 'transducer' ie methods studied man 'natural environment' rather methods psychologist operators ie experimental methods basically barker preferred fieldwork direct observation rather controlled experiments minute minute observations kansan children morning night jotted young maternal graduate students may


intimate poignant documents social science barker spent career expanding called ecological psychology identifying behavior settings publishing accounts ''one boy 's day'' ''midwest children'' natural environment research findings environmental psychology research observed various concepts relating humans' innate connection natural environments begins early childhood one study shows fostering children 's connectedness nature turn create habitual pro ecological behaviors time connectedness nature shown huge contributor predicting people 's general pro ecological pro social behaviors


connectedness nature also shown benefit well happiness general satisfaction nature deficit disorder recently coined explain lack connectedness nature due lack consciousness identification nature disconnect research required make definitive claims effects connectedness nature applications impact built environment environmental psychologists rejected laboratory experimental paradigm simplification skewed view cause effect relationships human behaviors experiences environmental psychologists examine one parameters produce effect measures controlled impossible manipulate


real world settings laboratory ref name proshansky proshansky ref environmental psychology oriented towards influencing work design professionals architects engineers interior designers urban planners etc thereby improving human environment civic scale efforts towards improving pedestrian landscapes paid extent involvement figures like jane jacobs copenhagen 's jan gehl one prime figure late writer researcher william h whyte still refreshing perceptive city based accumulated observations skilled manhattan pedestrians provides steps patterns use urban plazas role impact architecture


human behavior debated within architectural profession views range supposing people adapt new architectures city forms believing architects cannot predict impact buildings humans therefore base decisions factors undertake detailed precedent studies local building types used society environmental psychology conquered whole architectural genre concerned retail stores commercial venues power manipulate mood behavior customers eg stadiums casinos malls airports


philip kotler 's landmark paper atmospherics alan hirsch 's effects ambient odors slot machine usage las vegas casino creation management gruen transfer retail relies heavily psychology original research focus groups direct observation one william whyte 's students paco underhill makes living shopping anthropologist advanced research remains trade secret proprietary environmental psychology consulted thoroughly discussing future city design eco cities eco towns studied determine societal benefits creating sustainable ecological designs eco cities allow humans


live synch nature develop sustainable living techniques development eco cities require knowledge interactions environmental economic political socio cultural factors based ecological principles ref name thesmartcityjournalcom ref organizations project public spaces pps nonprofit organization works improve public spaces particularly parks civic centers public markets downtowns campuses staff pps made individuals trained environmental design architecture urban planning urban geography urban design environmental psychology landscape architecture arts administration information management organization collaborated many major institutions improve appearance functionality


settings che five subgroups specialize aiding specific populations children 's environments research group health society research group housing environments research group public space research group youth studies research group relevant scientific groups international association people environment studies iaps environmental design research association edra http wwwurbanecologyorg urban ecology urban ecologist international eco city conference first collectives establish idea eco cities townships ref name thesmartcityjournalcom challenges field saw significant research findings fair surge interest


late early seen challenges nomenclature obtaining objective repeatable results scope fact research rests underlying assumptions human perception fully understood interdisciplinary field difficult lacks solid definition purpose hard field fit organizational structures ref name proshansky proshansky p ref words guido francescato speaking environmental psychology encompasses somewhat bewildering array disparate methodologies conceptual orientations interpretations making difficult delineate degree precision field


might contribute construction society unfolding history grand challenge field environmental psychology today understand impact human behavior climate climate change understanding people engage pro environment behaviors help predict necessary requirements engage others making sustainable change environmental psychology received nearly enough supporters considered interdisciplinary field within psychology harold proshanksy one founders environmental psychology quoted saying look


field environmental psychology today concerned future since emergence early grown point match fields social personality learning cognitive psychology sure increased membership number journals devoted even amount professional organizational support enjoys enough one could look major university find field specialization department psychology importantly interdisciplinary center institute


university courses university victoria offers general advanced undergraduate courses environmental psychology graduate courses psychology nature well environmental psychology built environment psychology graduate department also offers individualized masters phd programs environmental psychology supervision dr robert gifford antioch university new england graduate school offers graduate programs involving environmental education planning approach environmental psychology diverse field many different approaches students variety programs choose arizona state university offers master 's environmental resources


takes planning approach field environmental psychology phd program cuny graduate center takes multidisciplinary approach examining changing serious problems associated urban environment view towards affecting public policy using social science theory research methods gc cuny first academic institution us grant phd environmental psychology discussed detail program website recent research addressed experiences recently housed homeless people privatization public space socio spatial conflicts children 's safety public environment relocation community


people affected physical virtual environments well people affect nature program offers courses environmental behaviour environment neuroscience human factors virtual environments cognitive design change management greening organizations architecture estetics ohio state university city regional planning program school architecture offers specialization environmental psychology urban design physical planning behavior master 's phd level dissertations examined topics environmental aesthetics spatial cognition ethnic enclaves neighborhood decline neighborhood satisfaction restorative livable places behavior change


prescott college offers master 's program incorporates number foundations environmental psychology well sub fields program provides includes environmental education environmental studies ecology botany resource policy planning another description program follows program includes instruction contextual theory statistics physiological social psychological responses natural technological hazards disease environmental perception cognition loneliness stress psychological aspects environmental design planning university california irvine offers doctoral specialization design behavior research within department planning policy design


school social ecology undergraduate coursework environmental psychology offered jointly departments psychology social behavior planning policy design program public health university michigan offers master science master arts degrees new http wwwseasumichedu school sustainability environment seas focus people affect affected environments includes pragmatic approach promoting environmental stewardship behavior well focus nearby nature affects people 's mental vitality physical health well emerging theme helping people


remain optimistic learning respond well increasingly difficult biophysical circumstances another strain environmental psychology developed ergonomics beginning movement traced back david canter 's work founding performance research unit university strathclyde glasgow scotland expanded traditional ergonomics study broader issues relating environment extent human beings situated within cf situated cognition canter led field uk years editor ''journal environmental


psychology'' years recently turned attention criminology university surrey first institution offered architectural psychology course uk starting since graduates countries https wwwsurreyacuk environmental psychology research group research environmental psychology research group eprg within university surrey students msc environmental psychology automatically members undertaking research thirty years eprg 's mission gain better understanding environmental psychological effects space matter size


help social sciences psychology methodologies four categories research projects fall sustainable development environmental risk architectural assessment environmental design environmental education interpretation universities uk offer courses subject expanding field see apa 's list additional environmental psychology graduate programs http wwwapadivisionsorg division resources graduate programsaspx contributors notable researchers writers field include david canter emeritus professor university liverpool developed environmental psychology program university surrey established kenneth craik journal environmental


psychology best known psychology place theory development building evaluations part building performance research unit university strathclyde irwin altman distinguished professor emeritus university utah robert gifford phd department psychology university victoria current editor ''journal environmental psychology'' author ''environmental psychology principles practice'' th edition james j gibson best known coining word affordance description environment offers animal terms action roger hart professor environmental psychology director center


human environments children 's environments research group graduate center city university new york rachel stephen kaplan professors psychology university michigan kaplans known research effect nature people 's relationships health including attention restoration theory renowned field environmental psychology cindi katz professor environmental psychology graduate center city university new york setha low professor environmental psychology director public space research group graduate center city university new york kevin lynch research


formation mental maps francis mcandrew cornelia h dudley professor psychology knox college author environmental psychology bill mollison developed environmental psychology unit university tasmania also permaculture david holmgren amos rapoport distinguished professor emeritus department architecture leanne rivlin professor environmental psychology graduate center city university new york susan saegert director environmental psychology phd program housing environments research group city university new york robert sommer pioneer field first studied personal space


perhaps best known book ''personal space behavioral basis design'' also author numerous books including ''design awareness'' hundreds articles daniel stokols chancellor 's professor school social ecology university california irvine edited ''handbook environmental psychology'' irwin altman author ''perspectives environment behavior'' co author ''health behavior environmental stress'' sheldon cohen gary evans david krantz allan wicker expanded behavior setting theories include areas study including qualitative research social psychology gary winkel professor environmental psychology


graduate center city university new york james swan professor media producer writer authored one first popular articles environmental education produced symposiums gaia hypothesis significance place produced several documentary films environmental topics co executive producer ''wild justice'' tv series national geographic channel david uzzell first professor environmental psychology uk university surrey research public understandings climate crisis behaviour change environmental practices environmental labour studies environmental risk heritage interpretation see also aesthetics biophilia hypothesis biosphere ''children youth


environments'' journal climatotherapy cognitive geography connectedness nature scale conservation psychology crime prevention environmental design disciplinary architecture deep ecology eco anxiety ecopsychology environmental dependence syndrome evolutionary psychology feng shui healing environments healthy building human factors interior design psychology ''journal environmental psychology'' mental environment nidotherapy situational strength urban design references notes bibliography allesch christian g person environment reflections roots environmental psychology barker roger garlock ecological psychology concepts methods studying environment human behavior barrera hern ndez laura fernanda sotelo castillo mirsha alicia echeverr castro sonia beatriz tapia fonllem c sar octavio connectedness


nature impact sustainable behaviors happiness children ''frontiers psychology'' ''' ''' doi fpsyg issn nbsp barrera hern ndez laura fernanda sotelo castillo mirsha alicia echeverr castro sonia beatriz tapia fonllem c sar octavio connectedness nature impact sustainable behaviors happiness children ''frontiers psychology'' ''' ''' doi fpsyg issn nbsp bell p greene fisher j baum ''environmental psychology'' ft worth harcourt brace canter psychology place london architectural press available ebook chigbu ue fostering rural sense place missing piece uturu nigeria ''development practice'' ''' ''' https wwwresearchgatenet publication environmental psychology overview de


young r environmental psychology overview ann h huffman stephanie klein eds nowiki nowiki ''green organizations driving change io psychology'' pp ny routledge eco innovations designing eco cities eco towns ''the smart city journal'' retrieved gifford r ''environmental psychology principles practice'' th ed colville wa optimal books gifford r ed ''research methods environmental psychology'' new york wiley ittelson w h proshansky h rivlin l winkel g ''an introduction environmental psychology'' new york holt rinehart winston translated german japanese proshansky h https booksgooglecom booksid izd aaaamaaj field environmental psychology securing


future ''handbook environmental psychology'' eds stokols altman new york john wiley sons proshansky harold abbe fabian robert kaminoff place identity physical world socialization self ''journal environmental psychology'' ''' ''' rivlin l g paths towards environmental consciousness pp nbsp ''environment behavior studies emergence intellectual traditions'' eds altman k christensen ny plenum rqvist patrik grand challenges environmental psychology ''frontiers psychology'' ''' ''' doi fpsyg issn nbsp stokols altman eds ''handbook environmental psychology'' new york john wiley sons


'''african american literature''' body literature produced united states writers african descent begins works late th century writers phillis wheatley high point slave narratives african american literature dominated autobiographical spiritual narratives genre known slave narratives th century accounts people generally escaped slavery journeys freedom ways claimed lives harlem renaissance great period flowering literature arts influenced writers

Humanities
Languages and literature
World literature
African-American literature


came north great migration immigrants jamaica caribbean islands african american writers recognized highest awards including nobel prize given toni morrison among themes issues explored literature role african americans within larger american society african american culture racism slavery social equality african american writing tended incorporate oral forms spirituals sermons gospel music blues rap african americans' place american society changed centuries focus


african american literature american civil war literature primarily consisted memoirs people escaped slavery genre slave narratives included accounts life slavery path justice redemption freedom early distinction literature freed slaves literature free blacks born north free blacks expressed oppression different narrative form free blacks north often spoke slavery racial injustices using spiritual narrative spiritual addressed many themes slave narratives


largely ignored current scholarly conversation turn th century non fiction works authors w e b du bois booker washington debated confront racism united states civil rights movement authors richard wright gwendolyn brooks wrote issues racial segregation black nationalism today african american literature become accepted integral part american literature books ''roots saga american family'' alex haley ''the color purple'' alice walker pulitzer


prize ''beloved'' toni morrison achieving best selling award winning status broad terms african american literature defined writings people african descent living united states highly varied african american literature generally focused role african americans within larger american society means american ref name coon p katherine driscoll coon rip tent teaching african american literature ''teaching african american literature'' ed graham routledge p ref princeton university professor albert j raboteau said african american literary study


identity individualized republic often tried exercise political social autonomy face resistance white public thus early theme african american literature like american writings meant citizen post revolutionary america characteristics themes african american literature influenced great african diasporic heritage shaped many countries created within larger realm post colonial literature although scholars distinguish two saying african american literature differs post colonial literature


written members minority community reside within nation vast wealth economic power african american oral culture rich poetry including spirituals gospel music blues rap oral poetry also appears african american tradition christian sermons make use deliberate repetition cadence alliteration african american literature especially written poetry also prose strong tradition incorporating forms oral poetry characteristics occur works african american writers scholars resist using western literary theory analyze african american literature harvard literary scholar


henry louis gates jr said desire allow black tradition speak nature various functions rather read analyze terms literary theories borrowed whole traditions appropriated without one trope common african american literature signifying gates claims signifying trope subsumed several rhetorical tropes including metaphor metonymy synecdoche irony also hyperbole litotes metalepsis signifying also refers way african american authors read critique african american texts act


rhetorical self definition history early african american literature african american history predates emergence united states independent country african american literature similarly deep roots phillis wheatley c lucy terry author oldest known piece african american literature bars fight terry wrote ballad native american attack deerfield massachusetts enslaved deerfield time attack many residents killed mostly women children taken forced march overland montreal later ransomed


redeemed families community others adopted mohawk families girls joined french religious order ballad first published additional couplet ''the springfield republican'' josiah holland ''history western massachusetts'' poet phillis wheatley c published book ''poems various subjects religious moral'' three years american independence wheatley first african american publish book first achieve international reputation writer born senegal gambia wheatley captured


sold slavery around age seven kidnapped massachusetts purchased owned boston merchant time mastered new language english poetry praised many leading figures american revolution including george washington thanked poem written honor whites found hard believe black woman could write refined poetry wheatley defend prove written work authenticating preface attestation


provided beginning book signed list prominent white male leaders massachusetts affirming authorship critics cite wheatley 's successful use defensive authentication document first recognition african american literature ref name cashmore anthology ref result skepticism surrounding work ''poems various subjects'' republished several introductory documents designed authenticate wheatley poetry substantiate literary motives another early african american author jupiter hammon domestic slave queens new york hammon considered first published black writer america published poem


evening thought salvation christ penitential cries broadside early wrote ode phillis wheatley discussed shared humanity common bonds hammon gave address negroes state new york writing age lifetime slavery hammon said ever get heaven shall find nobody reproach us black slaves also promoted idea gradual emancipation way end slavery hammon thought


slave long island death th century speech later reprinted several abolitionist groups william wells brown victor jour produced earliest works fiction african american writers jour born free new orleans free person color moved france age published short story ''le mul tre'' mulatto first known work fiction african american written french published french journal


apparently influence later american literature jour never returned african american themes subsequent works ref name norton victor jour philip barnard translator mulatto nellie mckay henry louis gates eds ''the norton anthology african american literature'' second edition norton ref brown hand prominent abolitionist lecturer novelist playwright historian born slavery kentucky working riverboats based st louis missouri escaped ohio began work abolitionist causes making way buffalo new york later boston massachusetts


brown lived several years frank j webb novel ''the garies friends'' also published england prefaces harriet beecher stowe henry lord brougham first african american fiction portray passing mixed race person deciding identify white rather black also explored northern racism context brutally realistic race riot closely resembling philadelphia race riots ref name maillard mary maillard https wwwjstororg stable pennmaghistbio 'faithfully drawn real life' autobiographical elements frank j webb 's garies friends ''pennsylvania magazine history


biography'' ref first novel published united states african american woman harriet wilson 's ''our nig'' ref wells brown 's clotel president 's daughter precedes wilson 's novel six years date march expressed difficulties lives northern free blacks ''our nig'' rediscovered republished henry louis gates jr early labeled work fiction argued may first novel published african american parallels wilson 's narrative life discovered leading scholars argue work


considered autobiographical despite disagreements ''our nig'' literary work speaks difficult life free blacks north indentured servants ''our nig'' counter narrative forms sentimental novel mother centered novel th century another recently discovered work early african american literature ''the bondwoman narrative'' written hannah crafts crafts fugitive slave murfreesboro north carolina work written would first african american novel written united states novel


published introduction henry louis gates jr work never published crafts' lifetime suggest entry publishing world novel described style slave narratives sentimental novel novel crafts went beyond genre slave narrative evidence read library master influenced works narrative serialized bears resemblances charles dickens' style many critics still attempting decode literary significance


establish contributions study early african american literature slave narratives genre african american literature developed middle th century slave narrative accounts written fugitive slaves lives south often escaping freedom wanted describe cruelties life slavery well persistent humanity slaves persons time controversy slavery led impassioned literature sides issue novels ''uncle tom 's cabin'' harriet beecher stowe 's representing


abolitionist view evils slavery southern white writers produced anti tom novels response purporting truly describe life slavery well severe cruelties suffered free labor north examples include ''aunt phillis 's cabin'' mary henderson eastman ''the sword distaff'' william gilmore simms slave narratives integral african american literature former slaves north america caribbean wrote accounts lives published separate books pamphlets ref name ref slave narratives broadly categorized


three distinct forms tales religious redemption tales inspire abolitionist struggle tales progress ref name tales written inspire abolitionist struggle famous tend strong autobiographical motif many recognized literary th century writings african americans two best known frederick douglass 's autobiography ''incidents life slave girl'' harriet jacobs jacobs born slave edenton north carolina first woman author slave narrative


united states although narrative ''incidents life slave girl'' written pseudonym linda brent autobiography traced series letters jacobs various friends advisors importantly lydia maria child eventual editor ''incidents'' narrative details jacobs' struggle freedom also two children jacobs' narrative occupies important place history african american literature discloses first hand account specific injustices black women suffered slavery especially sexual harassment


late th early th centuries authors narratives include james gronniosaw john marrant george white william l andrews argues early narratives gave twin themes afro american 'pregeneric myth' knowledge freedom earliest narrative form spiritual narratives important predecessors slave narratives proliferated literary scene th century spiritual narratives often left study african american literature scholars deemed historical sociological documents despite importance understanding african american literature whole african american women wrote spiritual narratives


negotiate precarious positions black women early america women claimed authority preach write spiritual narratives citing epistle james often calling doers word study women spiritual narratives significant understanding african american life antebellum north offer historical context literary tropes women wrote narratives clear knowledge literary genres biblical narratives contributed advancing message african american women agency countered dominant racist sexist discourse


early american society zilpha elaw born america free parents preacher five years england without support denomination published ''memoirs life religious experience ministerial travel labours mrs zilpha elaw american female colour'' still living england narrative meant account spiritual experience yet critics argue work also meant literary contribution elaw aligns literary tradition respectable women time


trying combat immoral literature time ref name foster ref maria w stewart published collection religious writings autobiographical experience attached publication called ''meditations pen mrs maria w stewart'' also two works published titled ''religion pure principles morality'' ''meditations'' maria stewart known public speeches talked role black women race relations works praised alexander crummell william lloyd garrison stewart 's works argued


refashioning jeremiad tradition focus specific plight african americans america period jarena lee published two religious autobiographical narratives ''the life religious experience jarena lee'' ''religious experience journal mrs jarena lee'' two narratives published respectively works spoke lee 's life preacher african methodist church narratives endorsed methodists woman preaching contrary church doctrine critics argue lee 's contribution african american literature lies disobedience


christianity education liberty among colored population generally'' later published ''a narrative life travels mrs nancy prince'' publications spiritual narratives travel narratives ref name foster similar jarena lee prince adhered standards christian religion framing unique travel narrative christian perspective yet narrative poses counter narrative th century 's ideal demure woman voice society little knowledge world sojourner truth leading advocate abolitionist feminist movements


th century born isabella wealthy dutch master ulster county new york adopted name sojourner truth years struggle first attain freedom work mission felt god intended new name signify new person become spirit traveler dedicated speaking truth god revealed truth played significant role civil war worked tirelessly several civil rights fronts recruited black troops michigan helped relief efforts freedmen


principles behavior life period african american newspapers popular venue essays poetry fiction well journalism newspaper writers like jennie carter developing large following portrait web dubois photographed among prominent post slavery writers w e b du bois doctorate philosophy harvard university one original founders naacp turn century du bois published highly influential collection essays entitled ''the souls black folk'' essays


educator founder tuskegee institute historically black college alabama among published works ''up slavery'' ''the future american negro'' ''tuskegee people'' ''my larger education'' contrast du bois adopted confrontational attitude toward ending racial strife america washington believed blacks first lift prove equal whites asking end racism viewpoint popular among blacks many whites time washington 's political views would later


fall fashion elizabeth keckley former slave managed establish successful career dressmaker catered washington political elite obtaining freedom however soon publishing ''behind scenes thirty years slave four years white house'' lost job found reduced odd jobs although acknowledged cruelties enslavement resentment towards keckley chose focus narrative incidents moulded character proved worth salt ''behind


scenes'' details keckley 's life slavery work mary todd lincoln efforts obtain freedom keckley also deeply committed programs racial improvement protection helped found home destitute women children washington dc result addition keckley taught wilberforce university ohio josephine brown born youngest child abolitionist author william wells brown wrote biography father ''biography american bondman daughter'' brown wrote first ten chapters narrative studying france


means satisfying classmates' curiosity father returning america discovered narrative father life written published years print thus produced rest chapters constitute ''biography american bondman'' brown qualified teacher also extremely active advocate slavery although us citizen jamaican marcus garvey newspaper publisher journalist activist pan africanism became well known united states founded universal


negro improvement association african communities league unia encouraged black nationalism people african ancestry look favorably upon ancestral homeland wrote number essays published editorials unia house organ ''negro world'' newspaper lecture material writings compiled published nonfiction books second wife amy jacques garvey ''philosophy opinions marcus garvey africa africans'' ''more philosophy opinions marcus garvey'' paul laurence dunbar often wrote rural black dialect


day first african american poet gain national prominence first book poetry ''oak ivy'' published much dunbar 's work ''when malindy sings'' includes photographs taken hampton institute camera club ''joggin' erlong'' provide revealing glimpses lives rural african americans day though dunbar died young prolific poet essayist novelist among ''the uncalled'' ''the fanatics'' short story writer african american writers also rose prominence late th early th centuries among


charles w chesnutt well known short story writer essayist mary weston fordham published ''magnolia leaves'' book poetry religious spiritual occasionally feminist themes introduction booker washington frances e w harper wrote four novels several volumes poetry numerous stories poems essays letters born free parents baltimore maryland harper received uncommonly thorough education uncle william watkins' school publication harper ''eliza harris'' one many responses harriet beecher stowe 's ''uncle tom cabin'' brought national attention


harper hired maine anti slavery society first six weeks managed travel twenty cities giving least thirty one lectures book ''poems miscellaneous subjects'' collection poems essays prefaced william lloyd garrison published sold copies within three years harper often characterized noble christian woman one scholarly well read women day also known strong advocate slavery post civil war repressive measures blacks harlem renaissance


harlem renaissance flowering african american literature art based african american community harlem new york city part larger flowering social thought culture numerous black artists musicians others produced classic works fields jazz theater renaissance perhaps best known literature came langston hughes photographed carl van vechten left among renowned writers renaissance poet langston hughes whose first work published ''the brownies' book''


first received attention publication ''the book american negro poetry'' edited james weldon johnson anthology featured work period 's talented poets including claude mckay also published three novels ''home harlem'' ''banjo'' ''banana bottom'' nonfiction book harlem negro metropolis collection short stories hughes published collection poetry ''the weary blues'' novel ''not without laughter'' perhaps famous poem negro speaks rivers wrote young teen single recognized character jesse


b simple plainspoken pragmatic harlemite whose comedic observations appeared hughes 's columns ''chicago defender'' ''new york post'' ''simple speaks mind'' perhaps best known collection simple stories published book form death hughes published nine volumes poetry eight books short stories two novels number plays children 's books translations another notable writer renaissance novelist zora neale hurston author classic novel ''their eyes watching god'' although hurston wrote books ranged anthropology short stories


novel ''the living easy'' examined life upper class black family another popular renaissance writer countee cullen poems described everyday black life trip made baltimore ruined racial insult cullen 's books include poetry collections ''color'' ''copper sun'' ''the ballad brown girl'' frank marshall davis 's poetry collections ''black man 's verse'' ''i american negro'' published black cat press earned critical acclaim author wallace thurman also made impact novel ''the blacker theerry


opportunities american south settled northern cities chicago found work factories sectors economy richard wright photographed carl van vechten migration produced new sense independence black community contributed vibrant black urban culture seen harlem renaissance migration also empowered growing civil rights movement made powerful impression black writers ' ' black activists pushing end segregation racism create new sense black nationalism


black authors attempting address issues writings one first writers james baldwin whose work addressed issues race sexuality baldwin best known novel ''go tell mountain'' wrote deeply personal stories essays examining like black homosexual time neither identities accepted american culture baldwin wrote nearly books including classics ''another country'' ''the fire next time'' baldwin 's idol friend


author richard wright baldwin called greatest black writer world wright best known novel ''native son'' tells story bigger thomas black man struggling acceptance chicago baldwin impressed novel titled collection essays ''notes native son'' reference wright 's novel however friendship fell apart due one book 's essays everybody 's protest novel criticized ''native son'' lacking credible characters psychological complexity among wright 's books autobiographical novel


''black boy'' ''the outsider'' ''white man listen '' great novelist period ralph ellison best known novel ''invisible man'' national book award even though complete another novel lifetime ''invisible man'' influential secured place literary history ellison 's death second novel ''juneteenth'' pieced together plus pages written years fuller version manuscript published ''three days shooting'' ralph


ellison circa civil rights time period also saw rise female black poets notably gwendolyn brooks became first african american win pulitzer prize awarded book poetry ''annie allen'' along brooks female poets became well known ' nikki giovanni sonia sanchez time number playwrights also came national attention notably lorraine hansberry whose play ''a raisin sun'' focuses poor black family living chicago play


new york drama critics' circle award another playwright gained attention amiri baraka wrote controversial broadway plays recent years baraka became known poetry music criticism also worth noting number important essays books human rights written leaders civil rights movement one leading examples martin luther king jr 's letter birmingham jail recent history beginning african american literature reached mainstream books black writers continually achieved best selling award winning status also


time work african american writers began accepted academia legitimate genre american literature part larger black arts movement inspired civil rights black power movements african american literature began defined analyzed number scholars writers generally credited helping promote define african american literature genre time period including fiction writers toni morrison alice walker poet james emanuel james emanuel took major step toward defining african american literature edited theodore gross ''dark


symphony negro literature america'' collection black writings released major publisher ref name james http lcweb locgov service mss eadxmlmss eadpdfmss ms pdf james emanuel register papers library congress prepared michael womack manuscript division library congress washington dc retrieved may ref anthology emanuel 's work educator city college new york credited introducing study african american poetry heavily influenced birth genre ref name james influential african american anthologies time included ''black fire anthology afro american writing'' edited


leroi jones known amiri baraka larry neal ''the negro caravan'' co edited sterling brown arthur p davis ulysses lee ''we speak liberators young black poets anthology'' edited orde coombs published nobel laureate toni morrison lecture west point military academy march left toni morrison meanwhile helped promote black literature authors ' worked editor random house edited books authors toni cade bambara gayl jones morrison would later


emerge one important african american writers th century first novel ''the bluest eye'' published among famous novels ''beloved'' pulitzer prize fiction story describes slave found freedom killed infant daughter save life slavery another important morrison novel ''song solomon'' tale materialism unrequited love brotherhood morrison first african american win nobel prize literature novelist poet alice walker wrote famous


also garnered attention maya angelou read poem bill clinton 's inauguration rita dove pulitzer prize served poet laureate united states cyrus cassells 's ''soul make path shouting'' nominated pulitzer prize cassells recipient william carlos williams award natasha trethewey pulitzer prize poetry book ''native guard'' lesser known poets thylias moss also praised innovative work notable black playwrights include ntozake shange wrote ''for colored girls


considered suicide rainbow enuf'' ed bullins suzan lori parks prolific august wilson two pulitzer prizes plays recently edward p jones pulitzer prize fiction ''the known world'' novel black slaveholder antebellum south younger african american novelists include david anthony durham karen e quinones miller tayari jones kalisha buckhanon mat johnson zz packer colson whitehead name african american literature also crossed genre fiction pioneer area chester himes


' wrote series pulp fiction detective novels featuring coffin ed johnson gravedigger jones two new york city police detectives himes paved way later crime novels walter mosley hugh holton african americans also represented genres science fiction fantasy horror samuel r delany octavia e butler steven barnes tananarive due robert fleming brandon massey charles r saunders john ridley john faucette sheree thomas nalo hopkinson well known authors many novelist take influence writings like toni morrison 's ''beloved''


harriet jacobs ''incidents life slave girl'' allude social injustices african americans faced american history incorporating themes characteristics gothic science fiction dystopian genres stories like octavia e butler 's begun gain literary honor critique butler 's work ''fledgling'' illustrates unique vampire mythology tackling notions racial superiority gender roles authors like brandon massey strategically places stories gothic southern settings fuel fear plots much like morrison 's haunted house placing mystery suspense antebellum style houses


oprah 's book club times brought african american writers far broader audience otherwise might received hip hop literature become popular recently popular african american community st century internet facilitated publication african american literature founded memphis vaughn timbooktu pioneer offering online audience poetry fiction essays forms written word http wwwtimbooktucom indexhtml critiques african american literature well accepted united states numerous views significance traditions theories genre 's supporters african american literature arose


experience blacks united states especially regards historic racism discrimination attempt refute dominant culture 's literature power addition supporters see literature existing within outside american literature helping revitalize country 's writing critics african american literature part balkanization american literature addition within african american community like literature sometimes showcases black people refuting dominant literary culture throughout american history african americans discriminated


subject racist attitudes experience inspired black writers least early years african american literature prove equals european american authors henry louis gates jr said fair describe subtext history black letters urge refute claim blacks written traditions bearers inferior culture ref name stryz p ghost beloved specter scarlet letter jan stryz ''the new romanticism collection critical essays'' eberhard alsen p


ref refuting claims dominant culture african american writers also attempting subvert literary power traditions united states scholars assert writing traditionally seen something defined dominant culture white male activity ref name stryz p means american society literary acceptance traditionally intimately tied power dynamics perpetrated evils racial discrimination borrowing incorporating non written oral traditions folk life african diaspora african american literature broke mystique


connection literary authority patriarchal power producing literature african americans able establish literary traditions devoid white intellectual filter view african american literature tool struggle black political cultural liberation stated decades perhaps famously w e b du bois ref name jhu theory mason http wwwpressjhuedu books hopkins guide literary theory free african american theory criticism html african american theory criticism retrieved july ref existing inside outside american literature according joanne gabbin professor african american literature exists inside outside american literature somehow african american literature


relegated different level outside american literature yet integral part says bases theory experience black people united states even though african americans long claimed american identity united states history accepted full citizens actively discriminated result part america also outside similarly african american literature within framework larger american literature also independent result new styles storytelling unique voices


created relative isolation benefit new styles voices leave isolation help revitalize larger literary world mckay artistic pattern held true many aspects african american culture last century jazz hip hop two artistic examples developed isolation within black community reaching larger audience eventually revitalizing american culture since african american literature already popular mainstream audiences ability develop new styles voices remain authentic words critics may


thing past ref name cashmore anthology balkanization american literature conservative academics intellectuals argue african american literature exists separate topic balkanization literature last decades extension culture wars field literature ref name brodhead richard h brodhead http wwwyaleedu ynhti pubs brodhead html debate multiculturalism ''on common ground '' fall retrieved july ref according critics literature splitting distinct separate groupings rise identity politics united states parts


world critics reject bringing identity politics literature would mean women could write women women blacks blacks blacks ref name brodhead people opposed group based approach writing say limits ability literature explore overall human condition critics also disagree classifying writers basis race believe limiting artists tackle subject proponents counter exploration group ethnic dynamics writing deepens human understanding previously entire groups people ignored


naacp 's magazine ''the crisis'' topic saying want everything said us tell best highest noblest us insist art propaganda one added art propaganda ever must despite wailing purists ref name jhu theory du bois editors ''the crisis'' consistently stated literature tool struggle african american political liberation du bois 's belief propaganda value art showed clashed


author claude mckay best selling novel ''home harlem'' du bois thought novel 's frank depictions sexuality nightlife harlem appealed prurient demand white readers publishers looking portrayals black licentiousness du bois said 'home harlem' part nauseates dirtier parts filth feel distinctly like taking bath others made similar criticism wallace thurman 's novel ''the blacker berry'' addressing prejudice lighter skinned darker skinned blacks novel infuriated many african americans like


public airing dirty laundry many african american writers thought literature present full truth life people langston hughes articulated view essay negro artist racial mountain wrote black artists intended express freely matter black public white public thought recently critics accused alice walker unfairly attacking black men novel ''the color purple'' updated introduction novel ''oxherding tale'' charles johnson criticized walker 's novel negative portrayal african american men


period whether african american writers acquiesced kicked label knew stake accepting contesting identification negro writers writes bsent white suspicion commitment imposing black inferiority african american literature would existed literature warren bases part argument distinction mere existence literary texts formation texts coherent body literature ref name warrenwhat warren coherence responding racist narratives struggle civil rights establishes body


african american literature scholar suggests continuing refer texts produced civil rights era symptom nostalgia belief struggle civil rights yet ended ref name warrenwhat alternative reading karla f c holloway 's ''legal fictions constituting race composing literature'' duke university press suggests different composition tradition argues contemporary vitality thesis legally cognizable racial identities sustained constitutional legislative act nurture legal fiction african american identity ''legal fictions'' argues


social imagination race expressly constituted law expressively represented imaginative composition literary fictions long us law specifies black body discrete insular confers cognizable legal status onto body us fictions use legal identity construct narratives neo slave narratives contemporary novels walter mosley 's ''the man basement'' take constitutional fictions race frames contracts property evidence compose narratives cohere tradition criticism regarding african american literature spaces education


influenced stories taught schools nina mikkelsen 's ''insiders outsiders question authenticity shall write african american children'' ref name ref argues importance authenticity comes writing stories young african american audiences mikkelsen tracks significance students exposed diversity also maintaining authentic narratives incorporating stories include characters color also written people color perspective broad marketed towards writers readers incorporating themes analysis authentic narratives proves useful


classroom setting challenges previous diverse narratives might accomplished also dissecting demeaning culture authentic storytelling article fits discourse diverse literature students see classroom importance choosing texts 's storytelling resonates culture mikkelsen writes idea multicultural literature idea different world views cultural references built texture book focus emphasis subject matter challenging one readers


insiders culture depicted ref name believes providing students content portrays authentic genuine reflections multi cultural experiences allows better engagement connection classroom resonate cultures african american women 's literature african american women 's literature literature created american women african descent african american women like phillis wheatley peters lucy terry th century often cited founders african american literary tradition social issues discussed works african american women include racism sexism classism social equality anna julia


feminism furthermore cooper see higher education way improve socioeconomic situation african american communities also foundation continuous learning community based approach upliftment would cause universal betterment people humanity whole cooper advocated democratization public private higher education seen bastions white male elitism focus reproducing english culture cementing christian doctrine changing nature american culture grapples centuries relegating women racial


minorities lowest rungs society ann folwell stanford article mechanisms disease african american women writers social pathologies limits medicine ann folwell stanford argues novels african american women writers toni cade bambara paule marshall gloria naylor offer feminist critique biomedical model health reveals important role social racist classist sexist contexts bodies function barbara christian barbara christian discusses issue minority disclosure see also african american review black sermonic tradition aalbccom african american african american culture


african american history africanfuturism afrofuturism american literature ''baltimore afro american'' ''callaloo'' journal chicano literature ''ebony'' ''jet'' list african american writers list black new york times best selling authors mythology benjamin banneker ''negro digest'' ''the chicago defender'' ''the journal african american history'' southern gothic timeline african american children literature urban fiction american literature notes references andrews w f foster harris eds ''the oxford companion african american literature'' oxford brodhead r anatomy multiculturalism ''yale alumni magazine'' april excerpted https webarchiveorg web http wwwyaleedu ynhti pubs brodhead html cashmore e https webarchiveorg web http findarticlescom p articles mi fqp n v ai review norton anthology african american literature ''new statesman''


april dalrymple http wwwnewcriterioncom articlescfm imaginary scandal imaginary 'scandal' ''the new criterion'' may davis graham pineault burke eds ''teaching african american literature theory practice'' routledge gates h ''the trials phillis wheatley america 's first black poet encounters founding fathers'' basic civitas books gilyard k wardi ''african american literature'' penguin greenberg p http wwwjewishworldreviewcom cols greenberg asp hate rise identity journalism ''jewish world review'' june groden krieswirth eds http wwwpressjhuedu books hopkins guide literary theory free african american theory criticism html african american theory criticism ''johns hopkins guide literary theory


criticism'' grossman j https webarchiveorg web http wwwlibniuedu ipo iht html historical research narrative chicago great migration hamilton k https webarchiveorg web http wwwfindarticlescom p articles mi dxk ai writers' retreat despite proliferation black authors titles today 's marketplace many look literary journals carry torch written word ''black issues higher education'' november jay g ''american literature culture wars'' cornell university press excerpted https webarchiveorg web http wwwuwmedu gjay book introhtm lowney j https webarchiveorg web http findarticlescom p articles mi ai haiti black transnationalism remapping migrant geography home harlem ''african american review'' fall mckay n h gates eds ''the norton anthology african american


literature second edition'' w w norton company mitchem https webarchiveorg web http wwwfindarticlescom p articles mi ai longer nailed floor ''cross currents'' spring nishikawa k african american critical theory emmanuel nelson ed ''the greenwood encyclopedia multiethnic american literature'' vols westport ct greenwood press nishikawa k crime mystery fiction hans ostrom j david macey jr eds ''the greenwood encyclopedia african american literature'' vols westport ct greenwood press roach r https webarchiveorg web http wwwfindarticlescom p articles mi dxk n v ai powerful pages unprecedented public impact ww norton co 's norton anthology african american literature ''black issues higher


education'' september scott https wwwquestiacom library journal g harlem shadows evaluating wallace thurman harlem shadows evaluating wallace thurman 's blacker berry ''melus'' fall winter john callahan phd ''in african american grain call response twentieth century black fiction'' university illinois press reprinted reading dorson richard editor negro folktales michigan harvard university press negro tales pine bluff arkansas calvin michigan american negro folktales ostrom hans macey j david jr eds ''the greenwood encyclopedia african american literature'' vols westport ct greenwood press piacentino ed https webarchiveorg web https southernspacesorg seeds rebellion plantation fiction victor c jours mulatto seeds rebellion plantation fiction


victor jour 's 'the mulatto' ''southern spaces'' august external links http aalbccom african american literature book club http blackliteraturecom blackliteraturecom http xroadsvirginiaedu hyper wpa wpahomehtml american slave narratives online anthology https webarchiveorg web http wwwaccdedu sac english bailey aframlithtm brief chronology african american literature http digitalnyplorg schomburg writers aa tochtml african american women writers th century http wwwctadamscom famous html famous writers section mr africa poetry lounge http docsouthuncedu neh textshtml north american slave narratives http wwwblackwritersorg black writers conference https webarchiveorg web http blackauthorsconnectcom blackauthorsconnectcom http wwwutsaedu aalci african american literatures cultures institute university texas san antonio https wwwlocgov rr rarebook coll afamhtml african american pamphlets https wwwlocgov rr rarebook rare book special collections division library congress https wwwlibuchicagoedu e scrc findingaids viewphpeadid icuspclwillisa guide alfred


willis collection african american popular fiction https wwwlibuchicagoedu scrc university chicago special collections research center african american culture american literature ethnic background


'''jewish philosophy''' includes philosophy carried jews relation religion judaism modern ''haskalah'' jewish enlightenment jewish emancipation jewish philosophy preoccupied attempts reconcile coherent new ideas tradition rabbinic judaism thus organizing emergent ideas necessarily jewish uniquely jewish scholastic framework world view acceptance modern society jews secular educations embraced developed entirely new philosophies meet demands world found medieval discovery ancient greek philosophy among geonim


seen either continuations breaks canon rabbinic philosophy middle ages well historical dialectic aspects jewish thought resulted diverse contemporary jewish attitudes philosophical methods ancient jewish philosophy philosophy bible rabbinic literature sometimes views abraham philosopher suggested abraham introduced philosophy learned melchizedek jews ascribe ''sefer yetzirah'' book creation abraham midrash describes abraham understood world creator director comparing world


house light called argument design psalms contains invitations admire wisdom god works scholars suggest judaism harbors philosophical current ecclesiastes often considered genuine philosophical work hebrew bible author seeks understand place human beings world life 's meaning philo alexandria philo philo attempted fuse harmonize greek jewish philosophy allegory learned jewish exegesis stoicism philo attempted make


became important medieval christian scholars leveraged work karaites lend credence claims beliefs jews technically correct yet deceptive attribution jewish scholarship destruction second temple roman destruction second temple ce second temple judaism disarray jewish traditions preserved especially thanks shrewd maneuvers johanan ben zakai saved sanhedrin moved yavne philosophical speculation central part rabbinic judaism although seen mishnah


triggered new ideas intellectual exchange among jewish islamic scholars areas jurisprudence mathematics astronomy logic philosophy jewish scholars influenced islamic scholars islamic scholars influenced jewish scholars contemporary scholars continue debate muslim jew islamic scholars jewish scholars prior forced conversion islam jewish scholars willingly converted islam abdullah ibn salam others later reverted judaism still others born raised jews ambiguous religious beliefs ibn al rawandi although lived according customs


neighbors around ce amr ibn ubayd abu uthman al basri introduces two streams thought influence jewish islamic christian scholars qadariyah bahshamiyya mu tazila story bahshamiyya mu tazila qadariyah important intellectual symbiosis judaism islam islamic spain around ce mar natronai ben habibai moves kairouan spain transcribing talmud ''bavli'' academy kairouan memory later taking copy spain karaism borrowing mutakallamin basra karaites first jewish


group subject judaism ''mu tazila'' rejecting talmud rabbinical tradition karaites took liberty reinterpret tanakh meant abandoning foundational jewish belief structures scholars suggest major impetus formation karaism reaction rapid rise shi'i islam recognized judaism fellow monotheistic faith claimed detracted monotheism deferring rabbinic authority karaites absorbed certain aspects jewish sects followers abu isa shi'ism maliki sunnis yudghanites sufis influenced east islamic scholarship yet deferred ash'ari


contemplating sciences philosophic synthesis begins spread islam throughout middle east north africa rendered muslim jewish greek philosophy science medicine mathematics absorbed jewish scholars living arab world due arabic translations texts remnants library alexandria early jewish converts islam brought stories heritage known ''isra'iliyyat'' told ''banu isra'il'' pious men ancient israel one famous early mystics sufism hasan basra introduced numerous ''isra'iliyyat''


passes along discoveries talmudic scholars therein teachings brethren purity carried west cordovan hadith scholar alchemist maslama al qur ub died would central importance jewish philosophers islamic spain one themes emphasized brethren purity adopted spanish jewish philosophers microcosm macrocosm analogy th century spain became center philosophical learning reflected explosion philosophical inquiry among jews muslims christians jewish philosophy maimonides hiwi


acts examples position argued parting red sea natural phenomenon moses' claim greatness lay merely ability calculate right moment crossing also emphasized egyptian magicians able reproduce several moses' miracles proving could unique according scholars hiwi 's gravest mistake pentateuch redacted reflect views redacted texts became popular distributed children since views contradicted


views rabbanite karaite scholars hiwi declared heretic context however also regard hiwi flawed first critical biblical commentator zealous rationalistic views hiwi parallel ibn al rawandi sa adya gaon dedicated entire treatise written rhyming hebrew refutation w 's arguments two fragments preserved cairo geniza published davidson schirmann w 's criticisms also noted abraham ibn ezra 's commentary pentateuch sa'adya gaon denounced hiwi extreme rationalist mulhidun atheist deviator


abraham ibn daud described hiwi sectarian denied torah yet used formulate new torah liking sa'adya gaon saadia gaon son proselyte considered greatest early jewish philosopher early years tulunid egypt fatimid caliphate ruled egypt leaders tulunids ismaili imams influence upon jewish academies egypt resonate works sa'adya sa'adya 's ''emunoth deoth'' beliefs opinions originally called ''kitab al amanat wal l'tikadat'' book articles faith doctrines dogma


first systematic presentation philosophic foundation dogmas judaism completed sura academy ce little known saadia traveled tiberias ce study ab 'l kath r ya ibn zakariyy al katib al tabari tiberias jewish theologian bible translator tiberias whose main claim fame fact saadia gaon studied point mentioned jewish source apart andalusian heresiographer polemicist ibn hazm mentions jewish mutakallim rational theologian main source information ''kit b


al tanb h'' muslim historian al mas brief survey arabic translations bible al mas states israelites rely exegesis translation hebrew books ie torah prophets psalms twenty four books says number israelites praise highly almost met person mentions ab l kath r one also saadia sa ibn ya q b al fayy regardless know saadia traveled tiberias home learned scribes exegetes learn chose ab


al mukkamas author earliest known jewish philosophical work middle ages commentary ''sefer yetzirah'' regarded father jewish medieval philosophy sl mukkamas first introduce ''methods'' kalam judaism first jew mention aristotle writings proselyte rabbinic judaism karaite judaism argue al mukkamas student physician renowned christian philosopher hana close interaction hana familial affiliation islam gave al mukkamas unique view religious belief theology


abraham harkavy discovered imperial library st petersburg fifteen twenty chapters david 's philosophical work entitled ''ishrun alat'' twenty chapters survive one oldest surviving witnesses early kal begins epistemological investigations turns proofs creation world subsequent existence creator discusses unity creator including divine attributes concludes theodicy humanity revelation refutation religions mostly lost ce sa'adya gaon left palestine according al mas tanb h perfected


education feet ab 'l kath r ya ibn zakariyy al katib al tabari latter also mentioned ibn azm k al fi lal wa 'l ni al iii together w ibn marw n al muqammi sa'adya one mutakallim n jews since al muqammi made references specifically jewish issues little work translated arabic hebrew largely forgotten jewish tradition nonetheless significant impact subsequent jewish philosophical followers kal sa adya gaon samuel ibn naghrillah


denia spain traveled east acted ''rosh yeshivah'' baghdad academy solomon ibn gabirol solomon ibn gabirol born laga moved valencia ibn gabirol one first teachers neoplatonism europe role compared philo ibn gabirol occidentalized greco arabic philosophy restored europe philosophical teachings philo ibn gabirol largely ignored fellow jews parallel may extended adding philo ibn gabirol exercised considerable influence secular circles philo upon


early christianity ibn gabirol upon scholars medieval christianity christian scholars including albertus magnus thomas aquinas defer frequently abraham bar hiyya ha nasi abraham bar hiyya barcelona later arles provence student father hiyya al daudi one important figures scientific movement made jews provence spain italy intermediaries averroism mu tazila christian europe aided scientific movement original works translations interpreter another translator plato tiburtinus bar hiyya 's best student v philosophical works


meditation soul ethical work written rationalistic religious viewpoint apologetic epistle addressed judah ben barzillai hibat allah originally known hebrew name nethanel baruch ben melech al balad abu'l barak al baghd known ''hibat allah'' jewish philosopher physicist father law maimonides converted islam twilight years head baghdad yeshiva considered leading philosopher iraq historians differ motive conversion islam suggest reaction social slight inflicted upon


jew others suggest forcibly converted edge sword prompted maimonides comment upon anusim despite conversion islam works continued studied jewish baghdad academy well known academy thirteenth century follower avicenna 's teaching proposed explanation acceleration falling bodies accumulation successive increments power successive increments velocity writings include ''kit b al mu tabar'' book established personal reflection philosophical commentary kohelet written arabic


using hebrew aleph bet treatise reason stars visible night hidden daytime according hibat allah ''kit b al mu tabar'' consists main critical remarks jotted years reading philosophical text published insistence friends form philosophical work nethan'el al fayyumi natan'el al fayyumi yemen twelfth century author ''bustan al uqul'' garden intellects jewish version ismaili shi'i doctrines like ismailis natan'el al fayyumi argued god sent different prophets various nations


world containing legislations suited particular temperament individual nation ismaili doctrine holds single universal religious truth lies root different religions jews accepted model religious pluralism leading view muhammad legitimate prophet though jewish sent preach arabs hebrew prophets sent deliver messages israel others refused notion entirety natan'el 's son yaqub turned maimonides asking urgently counsel deal forced conversions islam religious persecutions


hand saladin maimonides' response ''epistle yemen'' bahya ben joseph ibn paquda bahye ben yosef ibn paquda zaragoza author first jewish system ethics ''al hidayah ila faraid al hulub'' guide duties heart bahya often followed method arabian encyclopedists known brethren purity adopts sufi tenets rather ismaili according bahya torah appeals reason knowledge proofs god 's existence therefore duty incumbent upon every one make god


moses ibn ezra whose education came isaac ibn ghiyyat trained rationalist shed favor neoplatonism like al ghazali judah halevi attempted liberate religion bondage philosophical systems particular work written arabic ''kitab al ujjah wal dalil fi nu r al din al dhalil'' translated judah ben saul ibn tibbon title ''kuzari'' elaborates upon views judaism relative religions time abraham ibn daud abraham ibn daud student rabbi baruch ben yitzhak ibn albalia maternal uncle


ibn daud 's philosophical work written arabic ''al 'akidah al rafiyah'' sublime faith preserved hebrew title ''emunah ramah'' ibn daud introduce new philosophy first introduce thorough systematic form derived aristotle accordingly hasdai crescas mentions ibn daud jewish philosopher among predecessors maimonides overshadowed maimonides ibn daud 's ''emunah ramah'' work maimonides indebted received little notice later philosophers true philosophy according ibn daud entice us religion tends rather