perpetuated war order maximize profits arms sales inquiry allegations britain failed find evidence support however sea change attitude war generally meant governments began control regulate trade stacks shells shell filling factory world war volume arms trade greatly increased th century began used political tool especially cold war united states ussr supplied weapons proxies across


world particularly third world countries see nixon doctrine sectors ak series weapons produced greater numbers firearm used conflicts world land based weapon category includes everything light arms heavy artillery majority producers small many located third world countries international trade handguns machine guns tanks armored personnel carriers relatively inexpensive weapons substantial relatively little regulation international level result many weapons fall hands organized crime rebel forces

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Defense industry


terrorists regimes sanctions ref name autogenerated wwwfpaorg ref small arms control arms campaign founded amnesty international oxfam international action network small arms estimated million small arms circulation companies based different countries manufacture small arms well various components ammunition aerospace systems british mark v tank encompassing military aircraft land based naval aviation conventional missiles military satellites technologically advanced sector market also least competitive economic


standpoint handful companies dominating entire market top clients major producers virtually located western world russia united states easily first place prominent aerospace firms include rolls royce hal hindustan aeronautics limited bae systems dassault aviation sukhoi mikoyan eads leonardo thales group lockheed martin northrop grumman boeing also several multinational consortia mostly involved manufacturing fighter jets eurofighter largest military contract history signed october involved development joint strike fighter ref name autogenerated naval


systems world 's great powers maintain substantial naval forces provide global presence largest nations possessing aircraft carriers nuclear submarines advanced anti air defense systems vast majority military ships conventionally powered nuclear powered also large global market second hand naval vessels generally purchased developing countries western governments ref name autogenerated cybersecurity industry cybersecurity industry becoming important defense industry cyber attacks deemed one greatest risks defense next ten years cited nato


review therefore high levels investment placed cybersecurity industry produce new software protect ever growing transition digitally run hardware military industry vital protections used systems used reconnaissance surveillance intelligence gathering nevertheless cyber attacks cyber attackers become advanced field using techniques dynamic trojan horse network dthn internet worm zero day attack stealth bot result cybersecurity industry improve defense technologies remove vulnerability cyber attacks using systems


security information sim next generation firewalls ngfws ddos techniques threat computers grows demand cyber protection rise resulting growth cybersecurity industry expected industry dominated defense homeland security agencies make industry ref name auto cyber security review url http wwwcybersecurity reviewcom industry perspective cyber security defence industry website wwwcybersecurity reviewcom date may access date ref international arms transfers according research institute sipri volume international transfers major weapons percent higher five biggest exporters


united states russia china germany france five biggest importers india saudi arabia china united arab emirates pakistan flow arms middle east increased percent decrease flows regions africa americas asia oceania europe ref name sipriorg ref sipri identified countries exporters major weapons top exporters period responsible percent arms exports composition five largest exporters arms


changed remained unchanged compared although combined total exports major arms percent higher seen significant increases arms exports us france germany chinese exports rose marginally russian exports decreased ref name sipriorg countries three quarters countries imported major weapons top recipients accounted percent total arms imports period top five arms importers saudi arabia india egypt australia algeria accounted percent total arms imports


saudi arabia india among top five importers volume major arms international transfers percent higher percent largest arms importer saudi arabia importing arms majorly united states united kingdom france flow arms middle east increased percent also including india egypt australia algeria top five importers received percent total arms imports besides largest exporters


united states russia france germany china ref name sipriorg world 's largest arms exporters figures sipri trend indicator values tivs expressed millions numbers may represent real financial flows prices underlying arms low zero case military aid following estimates stockholm international peace research institute class wikitable sortable br rank supplier data sort type number arms exp br billion tiv


sgraffito lambert sevart weapons factory liege belgium early th century overall global arms exports rose per cent last years compared period increased per cent since note rankings exporters billion dollars less meaningful swayed single contracts much accurate picture export volume free yearly fluctuations presented year moving averages next sipri several


weapons represent transfer military resources rather financial value transfer ref name referencea ref class wikitable sortable br rank supplier data sort type number arms exp br billion tiv world 's largest arms importers units trend indicator values expressed millions us dollars prices numbers may represent real financial flows


prices underlying arms low zero case military aid ref name referencea class wikitable sortable br rank recipient data sort type number arms imp br billion tiv arms import rankings fluctuate heavily countries enter exit wars export data tend less volatile exporters tend technologically advanced stable production flows year moving averages present much accurate


picture import volume free yearly fluctuations list major weapon manufacturers list world 's largest arms manufacturers military service companies profit war economy origin shown well information based list published stockholm international peace research institute list provided sipri numbers billions us dollars class wikitable sortable style text align left rank company name defense revenue br us billions total revenue br defense


lockheed martin boeing northrop grumman raytheon technologies general dynamics aviation industry corporation china bae systems china electronics technology group norinco


l harris technologies united technologies since april raytheon technologies leonardo spa airbus thales group almaz antey arms control arms control refers international restrictions upon development production stockpiling proliferation usage small arms conventional weapons weapons mass destruction typically exercised use diplomacy seeks


persuade governments accept limitations agreements treaties although may also forced upon non consenting governments notable international arms control treaties global weapons sales geneva protocol chemical biological weapons outer space treaty signed entered force biological weapons convention signed entered force missile technology control regime mtcr chemical weapons convention signed entered force ottawa treaty anti personnel land mines signed entered force new start treaty signed russia united states april entered force


february arms trade treaty concluded entered force december see also references arms control arms trafficking military comparisons lists countries military industrial complex weapons trade industries economics


'''societal cultural aspects autism''' '' 'sociology autism''' come play recognition autism approaches support services therapies autism affects definition personhood ref name silverman autistic community divided primarily two camps neurodiversity movement pathology paradigm pathology paradigm advocates supporting research therapies treatments cure help minimize remove autistic traits seeing treatment vital help individuals afflicted autism neurodiversity movement believes autism seen different way advocates treatments therapies

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of autism


although prefer use person first terminology ''person autism'' members autistic community prefer identity first terminology ''autistic person'' ''autistic'' formal english stress autism part identity rather disease ref name harmon addition phrases like ' 'suffers autism'' objectionable many people ref name harmon autistic community developed abbreviations commonly used terms ''aspie'' person asperger syndrome ref name sanerdisease ''autie'' autistic person contrasted ''aspie'' refer specifically diagnosed classic autism


another autism spectrum disorder ref name mitchell ref ''autistics cousins'' ac cover term including aspies auties cousins ie people autistic traits formal diagnosis ''curebie'' person desire cure autism term highly derogatory ref name harmon ref ''neurodiversity'' tolerance people regardless neurological makeup ref name blumeatlantic ref ''neurotypical'' ''nt'' person developmental neurological disorders often used describe individual autism spectrum ''allistic'' person autistic may may neurodiverse ways


example dyslexic person someone adhd originally commonly however used satirically describe without autism autism spectrum disorders dsm v diagnostic criteria diagnostic statistical manual mental disorders fifth edition dsm update american psychiatric association 's apa classification diagnostic tool united states dsm serves universal authority psychiatric diagnosis overview autistic adults communication social problems often cause difficulties many areas autistic adult 's life study found adults asd commonly experience difficulty starting social interactions longing


greater intimacy profound sense isolation effort develop greater social self awareness much smaller proportion adult autistics marry general population ref name tsatsanis ref hypothesized autistic people subject assortative mating tend pair raise autistic offspring hypothesis publicized popular press ref name silberman ref empirically tested british psychologist simon baron cohen said increasingly technological society opened niches people asperger syndrome may choose fields highly systematised predictable people could


well workplace roles system centered connect nitty gritty detail product system ref name elsedifferent ref autistic savants ''autistic savant'' autistic person extreme talent one areas study although common association savant syndrome autism association made popular film ''rain man'' autistic people savants savantism unique autistic people though seem relation one ten autistic people may notable abilities prodigious savants like stephen wiltshire


rare people described identified century since savants first identified living identified prodigious savants worldwide gender aspects autistic women autism thought condition mostly affecting males males four times likely females diagnosed autistic among asperger syndrome high functioning autism males ten times likely diagnosed may due fact many diagnostic tools used diagnose autism crafted


find misdiagnosed personality disorders borderline personality disorder avoidant personality disorder schizoid personality disorder autistic females research orphans according yale 's ami klin drugs used treat anxiety hyperactivity may accompany autism rarely tested autistic females ref name bazelongirls autism may express differently sexes many females spectrum presenting subtly males may adept developing sophisticated social masking behaviours females prominent difficulties likely diagnosed present differently ref name ref autistic females


likely develop sophisticated social camouflage variety reasons ref name one theory women whole face complex social expectations men creating greater need prepare thoroughly social situations risk ostracism ref name another theory suggests women spectrum inborn need social interaction male counterparts leading many women girls invested creating social camouflage strategies ref name strategies developed variety ways observing copying social interactions


around well creating strategies attempt go undetected coping mechanisms take immense amount time energy learn practice dr shana nicols states often lead exhaustion withdrawal anxiety selective mutism depression ref name ref females may concerned viewed peers failure connect people outside immediate family could lead severe anxiety clinical depression ref name bazelongirls autistic girls normal intelligence may socially disadvantaged males


rising level social interaction comes middle school girls' friendships often hinge attention feelings lots rapid nuanced communication autistic girls may suffer additionally placed specialized educational programs surrounded males isolated female social contacts ref name bazelongirls females autism spectrum often internalize feelings frustration failure ref name believed suffer higher rates certain comorbidities anxiety depression percent respectively ref name due large part desire along difficulties


finding social inclusion along social sensory challenges lack diagnosis also lead autistic females higher rates depression anxiety self esteem issues left without clear understanding fit peers females spectrum also seem higher rates eating disorders anorexia females may related social isolation elevated levels anxiety along need control environment fully ref name although males females spectrum


higher risk experiencing bullying experiences often present differently based gender ref name although sample sizes small draw firm conclusions one study suggests autistic women less likely males long term marry families go college careers live independently intense interest specific topics plays significant factor lives autism spectrum genders females spectrum may focus different topics male counterparts autistic females rarely interests numbers stores specialized


knowledge ref name bazelongirls intense interests autistic females overlooked often seen applicable broader section society males females autism deal core symptom symptoms mixed ideas gender offer different lived experiences females male counterparts profile autism may change understood females whose autism may go undiagnosed ref name bazelongirls ref gender identity sexual orientation recent years people suggested overlap people autism non heterosexual identity


autistic people likely identified gay bisexual asexual well overlap transgender identity issue without controversy issue open confusion currently unclear whether correlation exists due innate characteristic autism may also cause unusual discrepancies sex gender whether result exposing group people experience difficulty abiding social norms including related gender sexism gender stereotypes relationships animals temple grandin temple grandin autistic designer


name georgeanimals ref despite similarities degree autistic individuals said think like animals remains undetermined non human animals well humans evolved cognitive specializations may may share characteristics species dawn prince hughes diagnosed asperger 's describes observations gorillas ''songs gorilla nation'' asperger syndrome interpersonal relationships individuals asperger syndrome may develop problems abilities engage successfully interpersonal relationships social impact asperger syndrome may lead problems social interaction peers problems severe mild depending


individual people often target bullying behavior children often target bullying school due idiosyncratic behavior precise language unusual interests impaired ability perceive respond socially expected ways nonverbal cues particularly interpersonal conflict results sought classmates rejected people may overly literal may difficulty interpreting responding sarcasm banter metaphorical speech difficulties social interaction may also manifest lack play children ref name attwood p ref problems


even arise family given unfavorable family environment child may subject emotional abuse child teen adult often puzzled mistreatment unaware done incorrectly unlike pervasive development disorders persons want social fail socialize successfully lead later withdrawal asocial behavior especially adolescence stage life especially risk drawn unsuitable inappropriate friendships social groups people often interact better considerably older younger


rather within age group ref name attwood p children often display advanced abilities age language reading mathematics spatial skills music sometimes gifted range may counterbalanced considerable delays developmental areas like verbal nonverbal communication lack motor coordination combination traits lead problems teachers authority figures child might regarded teachers problem child poor performer child 's extremely low tolerance perceive ordinary


mundane tasks typical homework assignments easily become frustrating teacher may well consider child arrogant spiteful insubordinate lack support understanding combination child 's anxieties result problematic behavior severe tantrums violent angry outbursts withdrawal employment may difficult impaired social skills likely interfere interview process people often superior skills passed due conflicts interviewers hired people may continue difficulty interpersonal communications ref name mawhood lynn


pp mawhood lynn howlin patricia outcome supported employment scheme high functioning adults autism asperger 's syndrome autism pp ref homelessness common among people ref name mawhood lynn pp researchers suggested autistic individuals less likely self enhance reputation compared without autism others argue autistic individuals less desire self enhancement non autistic individuals difficulties relationships two traits sometimes found individuals mind blindness inability predict beliefs intentions others alexithymia


inability identify interpret emotional signals oneself others reduce ability empathetically attuned others ref name cc moriguchi decety j ohnishi maeda matsuda h komaki g empathy judging pain fmri study alexithymia ''cerebral cortex'' ref ref name fmri bird j silani g brindley r singer frith u frith c ''alexithymia autistic spectrum disorders fmri investigation'' ref alexithymia functions independent variable relying different neural networks implicated theory mind tom ref name cc ref name fmri fact lack tom may


result lack information available mind due operation alexithymic deficit ref name cc ref name fmri second issue related alexithymia involves inability identify modulate strong emotions sadness anger leaves individual prone sudden affective outbursts crying rage according tony attwood inability express feelings using words may also predispose individual use physical acts articulate mood release emotional energy people report feeling detached world around


include autism spectrum disorders intense focus tendency work things logically often grants people high level ability field interest special interests coincide materially socially useful task person lead profitable career fulfilled life child obsessed specific area may succeed employment related area according elizabeth fein dynamic role playing games especially positive attractive people autism spectrum social information exchanged games


explicit top systematic follow set shared abstract rules baez rattazzi showed interpreting implicit social information daily life difficult autistics despite fact individuals commonly known lack tom recent research suggested tom may present individuals also act differently compared neurotypicals suggested double empathy problem autistic tom simply based use rules logic also suggested people autism spectrum understand predict thoughts motivations


better neurotypicals autistic interactions may display even greater social signals shared enjoyment ease rapport interacting means individuals present mind blindness alexithymia towards neurotypicals vice versa due bidirectional differences communication style well reciprocal lack understanding since two neurotypes clash autism rights movement rainbow colored infinity symbol represents diversity autism spectrum well greater neurodiversity movement opinions divided replacing jigsaw puzzle piece based symbols represent autism autism rights movement social movement within


autreat ref recognition autistic community minority group ref name un ref autism rights neurodiversity advocates believe autism spectrum genetic accepted natural expression human genome perspective distinct two likewise distinct views medical perspective autism caused genetic defect addressed targeting autism gene fringe theory autism caused environmental factors like vaccines pollution could cured addressing environmental causes ref name solomon movement controversial


wide variety supportive critical opinions movement among people autistic associated autistic people common criticism leveled autistic activists majority high functioning asperger syndrome represent views low functioning autistic people ref name synapse ref autistic pride autistic pride refers pride autism shifting views autism disease difference autistic pride emphasizes innate potential human phenotypic expressions celebrates diversity various neurological types express autistic pride asserts autistic people impaired damaged rather


unique set characteristics provide many rewards challenges unlike non autistic peers ref name sanerdisease ref ref name nprautism ref name ref curing autism controversial politicized issue autistic community divided several groups seek cure autism sometimes dubbed ''pro cure'' others consider cure unnecessary unethical ref name harmon ref name sanerdisease feel autism conditions harmful detrimental ref name harmon example may seen evolutionary adaptation ecological niche environmentalists radical autism rights campaigners autistic culture community john elder robison talks


autistics tend difficulty ref name blumenyt ref ref name blumemit ref gives autistic individuals way communicate form online communities conducting work conversation interviews online chat rooms rather via phone calls personal contact help level playing field many autistics ref name trivediproud ref ''new york times'' article said impact internet autistics may one day compared magnitude spread sign language among deaf opens new opportunities communication filtering sensory overload impedes communication among autistics ref name blumenyt globally autistic people


may perceived differently country country example many africans spiritual beliefs psychiatric disorders extends perceived causes autism ref name hughes hughes v february autism africa retrieved ref one survey nigerian pediatric psychiatric nurses cited preternatural causes autism ancestral spirits action devil ref name hughes events public recognition world autism day minnesota governor mark dayton declared world autism awareness day april world autism day also called world autism awareness day marked april


designated united nations general assembly end april activists left strollers near central park new york city raise awareness one children estimated autistic many celebration activities world april world autism day autism knows geographic boundaries affects individuals families every continent every country said suzanne wright co founder group autism speaks celebration world autism awareness day important way help world better understand scope


health crisis need compassion acceptance living autism remarkable day first many come promises time great hope happiness work build global autism community light blue autism speaks launched light blue initiative light blue sees prominent buildings across world including empire state building new york city cn tower toronto ontario canada turn lights blue raise awareness autism commemorate world autism awareness day however


autism speaks group well received autism rights activists due lack incorporation perspectives actual autistic people work focus searching 'cure' ref name willlingham ref autism sunday autism sunday global christian event observed second sunday february supported church leaders organisations around world event started small idea front room british autism campaigners ivan charika corea huge event celebrated many countries autism sunday launched london


historic service st paul 's cathedral autism awareness year archive date december puzzled ref year declared autism awareness year united kingdom idea initiated ivan charika corea parents autistic child charin autism awareness year led british institute brain injured children disabilities trust shirley foundation national autistic society autism london organizations united kingdom personal backing british prime minister tony blair first ever occasion partnership working autism


people' ref name sanerdisease autism community split issue view notion radical ref name sanerdisease autistic pride day autistic pride day aspies freedom initiative celebrated june year day celebrating neurodiversity autistic people modeled gay pride events often compare efforts civil rights lgbt social movements ref name sanerdisease autistics speaking day autistics speaking day asday november self advocacy campaign run autistic people raise awareness challenge negative stereotypes autism speaking


sharing stories first one held according one founders corina becker main goal asday acknowledge difficulties sharing strengths passions interests idea event developed opposition communication shutdown fundraising campaign led autism speaks year asked participants simulate autism staying away forms online communication one day autism acceptance project autism acceptance project founded est e klar mother


autistic child help autistic advisory board ref name ref project 's mission statement autism acceptance project dedicated promoting acceptance accommodations autistic people society project primarily supported autistic people supporters goal create positive perspective autism accept autism part life trials tribulations project also working enable autistic people gain right advocate along supporters policy decision formats government general committee


providing abundance resources project able reach multitude audiences using web site along lectures exhibitions ref name autism acceptance day first autism acceptance day celebrations organized paula durbin westby response traditional autism awareness campaigns autistic community found harmful insufficient ref name autismacceptancemonth ref autism acceptance day held every april ref name autismacceptancemonth awareness focuses informing others existence autism acceptance pushes towards validating honoring autism community providing tools educational material people


twainbow advocacy organization provides awareness education support autistic people identify lesbian gay bisexual transgender lgbt according founder twainbow portmanteau 'twain' meaning 'two' 'rainbow' lgbt autistic live two rainbows rainbow flag autism spectrum company also introduced lgbt autism gay pride flag representing population history donald triplett first person diagnosed autism ref name britannica diagnosed kanner first examined labeled case ref name britannica ref triplett noted savant abilities particularly


able name musical notes played piano mentally multiply numbers father oliver described socially withdrawn interested number patterns music notes letters alphabet us president pictures age two ability recite rd psalm memorized questions answers presbyterian catechism also interested creating musical chords ref name atlantic ref scholarship autism spectrum disorders received increasing attention social science scholars early goals improving support services therapies arguing autism tolerated


difference disorder autism affects definition personhood identity ref name silverman ref sociological research also investigated social institutions particularly families cope challenges associated autism media portrayals much public perception autism based portrayals biographies movies novels tv series many portrayals inaccurate contributed divergence public perception clinical reality autism ref name trapped ref example movie ''mozart whale'' opening scene gives four clues leading


character asperger syndrome two clues extraordinary savant skills savant skills needed film movies savant skills become stereotype autism spectrum incorrect assertion autistic people savants ref name draaisma ref works autistic characters rarely labeled ref name murray ref contrast bbc television miniseries ''the politician 's husband'' impact noah hoynes' aspergers boy 's behavior family steps noah 's loved ones take accommodate address prominent plot


fictional portrayals novels biographies movies tv series depictions autism media today often made way brings pity public concern topic viewpoint never actually shown leaving public without knowledge autism diagnosis ref name draaisma portrayals media characters atypical abilities example ability multiply large numbers without calculator may misinterpreted viewers accurate portrayals autistic people autism ref name autisticlicence ref additionally media frequently depicts autism


affecting children promotes misconception autism affect adults ref name ref notable individuals notable figures like american food animal handling systems designer author temple grandin american pulitzer prize winning music critic author tim page australian musician lead singer constant member rock band vines craig nicholls english actor filmmaker paddy considine ref name lockyer ref swedish environmental activist greta thunberg also autistic thunberg august started school strike climate movement explained gift living asperger syndrome helps see things outside box


become popular recent times ''new york'' magazine reported examples included ''time'' magazine suggested bill gates autistic biographer warren buffett wrote prodigious memory fascination numbers give vaguely autistic aura magazine also reported ''celebrity rehab'' dr drew pinsky deemed basketball player dennis rodman candidate asperger 's diagnosis ucla specialist consulted seemed concur nora ephron criticized conclusions writing popular speculative diagnoses suggest autism epidemic else wildly diagnosed thing used


words ref name nymag ref practice diagnosing autism cases controversial ref name sowell ref historical personalities also subject speculation autistic eg michelangelo see also autism friendly autism spectrum disorders media ''autism musical'' autistic art ''look eye'' ''new york times'' bestseller ''love spectrum'' social model disability references reading julia bascom editor ''loud hands autistic people speaking'' washington dc autistic self advocacy network temple grandin ''thinking pictures expanded edition life autism'' new york new york vintage external links


https webarchiveorg web http wwwwritersvoicenet podcast life aspergers john elder robison radio interview life asperger 's syndrome https wwwnytimescom health aspehtml asperger 's syndrome screen life ''the new york times'' august http wwwthispodcasthasautismcom ''this podcast autism'' podcast showcasing autistics achievements


set design model marcel jambon paris production giuseppe verdi 's ''otello'' set design new zealand opera production mozart 's ''magic flute''scenic design ''the family series'' glenn davis simple red curtain set design ''oresteia'' presented stairwell theater '''scenic design''' also known '' 'scenography''' '' 'stage design''' '' 'set design''' creation theatrical well film television scenery scenic designers come variety artistic backgrounds recent years mostly trained professionals holding bfa mfa degrees theater arts

Humanities
Performing arts
Theatre
Stage design


scenic designers design sets scenery aim support overall artistic goals production consideration scenic design also production design however accurately part visual production film television scenic designer scenic designer works director designers establish overall visual concept production design stage environment responsible developing complete set design drawings include following ''basic ground plan'' showing stationary scenic elements ''composite ground plan'' showing


moving scenic elements indicating onstage storage positions section stage space incorporating elements ''front elevations'' every ' 'scenic element'' additional elevations sections units required required drawing elements easily created one accurate cad model set design process planning scenic designers often make models ranging basic extremely complex ref name ref models often made final drawings delivered scene shop construction ref name starting point scenic designer often


question generate creative ideas designer search evidence research produce conceptual ideas best support content values design visual elements argued consuming part expanding horizons towards scenic concepts much witnessing creativity creative people begins us opening mind various possibilities ref name ref argued attitude toward learning seeking engaging creativity willing adventurous inquisitive curious process scenic design


greatly benefitted imagination highly visual whether outside inside colorful trees concerts star lit skies architecture great building scenic design process discovery ref name discovering best clarify support setting environment atmosphere ambience world created ref name responsibility scenic designer robert edmond jones drawing waist high table c scenic designer responsible collaborating theatre director members production design team create environment production communicating


details environment technical director production manager charge scenic artist prop master scenic designers responsible creating scale models scenery renderings paint elevations scale construction drawings part communication production staff training europe australia scenic designers take holistic approach theatrical design often responsible scenic design costume lighting sound referred theatre designers scenographers production designers notable set designers notable scenic designers past present include adolphe


appia boris aronson alexandre benois alison chitty antony mcdonald barry kay caspar neher cyro del nero aleksandra ekster david gallo edward gordon craig es devlin ezio frigerio christopher gibbs franco zeffirelli george tsypin howard bay inigo jones jean pierre ponnelle jo mielziner john lee beatty josef svoboda ken adam l bakst luciano damiani maria bj rnson ming cho lee motley natalia goncharova nathan altman nicholas georgiadis oliver smith ralph koltai emanuele luzzati neil patel robert wilson russell patterson brian sidney bembridge santo loquasto sean kenny todd rosenthal robin wagner tony walton roger kirk see also theatre decor reginald gray


drawing theater foundational text provides professional picture encyclopedic reference design process well illustrated detailed lined drawings photographs book conveys beauty craft scenic production design external links http wwwpqcz prague quadrennial performance design space largest scenography event world presenting contemporary work variety performance design disciplines genres costume stage light sound design theatre architecture dance opera drama site specific multi media performances performance art etc prague cz http wwwstephstuffcom scenography scenohtml scenography


'''entrepreneurial economics''' study entrepreneur entrepreneurship within economy accumulation factors production per se explain economic development necessary factors production sufficient economic growth william baumol wrote ''american economic review'' theoretical firm entrepreneurless prince denmark expunged discussion hamlet article prod economics profession attend neglected factor entrepreneurship difficult analyse using traditional tools economics eg calculus general equilibrium models current

Social science
Economics
Entrepreneurial economics


economic system interacted intensively another current thought underscores motivational aspects personal achievement overemphasized individual values attitudes personality thought however severely criticized many scholars kilby kunkel economic functions entrepreneur richard cantillon richard cantillon earliest scholar know paid considerable attention entrepreneur ref name praag ref introduced concept entrepreneur entrepreneur functionally described arbitrager motivating factor potential profit generated activity buying


certain price selling uncertain price jean baptiste say jean baptiste say entrepreneur period life recognizes superior kind labour entrepreneur coordinator modern leader manager within firm ref name praag kind super manager exercise function needs combination rare qualities experience judgement perseverance knowledge world well businessthe art superintendence administration say successful entrepreneur must demonstrate prudence probity regularity frank knight frank knight saw


entrepreneurs innovate stated whatever type everyone entrepreneur actually carries new combination loses character soon built business settles running people run business focus category person function perhaps influenced family history schumpeterian entrepreneur disrupts existing equilibrium innovation chaotic unpredictable economic process cannot modeled using equilibrium based analytic methods used mainstream economic theory israel kirzner israel


kirzner economist austrian school sees entrepreneur arbitrageur alert opportunities profit exist due market disequilibrium harvey leibenstein harvey leibenstein claimed entrepreneurship creative response x inefficiency entrepreneurs also gap fillers ability perceive market opportunities develop new goods services currently supplied postulates entrepreneurs special ability connect markets make market deficiencies additionally drawing theories jb say richard cantillon leibenstein suggests entrepreneurs ability combine various inputs


factor production economy see also social entrepreneurship reading casson mark c entrepreneur economic theory oxford martin robertson nd ed edward elgar chen j physical foundation economics analytical thermodynamic theory world scientific farmer jd shubik smits e economics next physical science glancey keith mcquaid ronald w entrepreneurial economics palgrave macmillan tabarok entrepreneurial economics bright ideas dismal science oxford university press vining gt van der voort r emergence entrepreneurial economics elsevier vogel


jh entrepreneurship evolution entropy law journal behavioral economics vol sharma vivek workbook entrepreneurship abza publications india parker c economics entrepreneurship cambridge university press nightingale p coad ''muppets gazelles political methodological biases entrepreneurship research'' spru working paper series spru science technology policy research university sussex references entrepreneurship


'''archival science''' '''archival studies''' study theory building curating archives collections documents recordings data storage devices build curate archive one must acquire evaluate recorded materials able access later end archival science seeks improve methods appraising storing preserving cataloging recorded materials archival record preserves data intended change order value society archives must trustworthy therefore archivist responsibility authenticate archival materials historical documents

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Archival science


ensure reliability integrity usability archival records must claim accurately represent activity created present coherent picture array content usable condition accessible location archive curator called ''archivist'' curation archive called ''archive administration'' background history earliest archival manuals jacob von rammingen ''von der registratur'' baldassare bonifacio ''de archivis'' archival science emerged diplomatics critical analysis documents ref name saa archival science ref jacob von rammingen wrote manuscript earliest known


archival manual expert ' 'registries'' ''registraturen'' german word later became known ''archives'' ref name weidling ref rammingen elaborated registry augsburg city council however since could attend council meeting described structure management archives writing although first work archival science rammingen refers earlier literature record keeping earlier manuals usually published archival science formal beginning jacob von rammingen 's manual printed heidelberg ref name weidling traditionally archival science involved study methods


archivist sir hilary jenkinson important archival thinkers past century include canadian archivist scholar terry cook south african archivist verne harris australian archival scholar sue mckemmish ucla faculty archival scholar anne gilliland university michigan faculty archival scholar margaret hedstrom american archival scholar university pittsburgh faculty member richard cox italian archival scholar faculty university british columbia luciana duranti american museum archival scholar david bearman critical archival studies ''archival science'' published series articles analyzing systems power archival practice became part


new movement critical archival studies ref name ref work applies critical theory archival science subjects including people institutions create archives justify perpetuate oppression ref name critical archival studies goal building archival practices resist reinforcing oppression based race class gender sexuality ability ref name example work includes research failures document racist acts ref name work influenced digital humanities uses archives becoming part digital humanities scholarship also works resist oppression archival studies shown emergence post custodial


debate relation indigenous community human rights archives ref name indicated archival institutions global north often enter repressive partnerships institutions global south ref name would involve transaction valuable material global south unfairly benefiting increasing inequality ref name archival studies provided measures decolonise archival practice order dismantle colonial imperialist implications especially regarding post custodial partnerships ref name ref michelle caswell prominent academic archivist introduced archival studies term symbolic annihilation describe


misrepresentation marginalised communities within archives ref name ref absence also found archival policies well description annotation practices ref name preservation usage accurate language description community archives therefore crucial accessibility inclusivity ref name would ensure consideration neglected community values contribute critical archival discussions regarding silence historical documentation ref name following us elections caswell published study reviewing manner white privilege implanted within archival institutions ref name ref ways dismantle white supremacy


pp ref forms functions mandates archival programs institutions tend differ based geographical location language nature society exist objectives control archives ref name cunningham instead current standards provided widely followed ica standard iso standard dirks standard act working guidelines archives follow adapt ways would best suit respective needs following introduction computer technology archival repositories beginning archivists increasingly recognized


need develop common standards descriptive practice order facilitate dissemination archival descriptive information standard developed archivists canada ''rules archival description'' also known rad first published standard rad aims provide archivists consistent common foundation description archival material within ''fonds'' based traditional archival principles comparable standard used united states ''describing archives content standard'' also known dacs standards place provide archivists tools describing making


accessible archival material public ref name cloonan mich le v cloonan preserving records enduring value currents archival thinking ed terry eastwood heather macneil santa barbara california libraries unlimited ref metadata comprises contextual data pertaining record aggregate records order compile metadata consistently enhance discoverability archival materials users well support care preservation materials archival institution archivists look standards appropriate various kinds metadata different purposes including administration description preservation digital storage retrieval example


common standards used archivists structuring descriptive metadata conveys information form extent content archival materials include machine readable cataloguing marc format encoded archival description ead dublin core ref name saametadata pearce moses richard http www archivistsorg glossary terms metadata metadata ''a glossary archival records terminology'' society american archivists retrieved ref provenance archival science provenance archival science refers origin source something information regarding origins custody ownership item collection ref name saa provenance ref fundamental principle archives provenance refers individual family organization created received


items collection practice provenance dictates records different origins kept separate preserve context ref name saa provenance methodology provenance becomes means describing records series level principle provenance describing records series level ensure records different origins kept separate provided alternative item level manuscript cataloguing ref name swetland ref practice provenance two major concepts ' 'respect des fonds'' original order ''respect des fonds'' rose conviction records entering archive essential connection person office


generated used archivists consider records originating particular administrative unit whether former still existing separate archival grouping fonds seek preserve describe records accordingly close attention evidence organized maintained time created ref name posner ref original order refers keeping records nearly possible order classification obtained offices origin gives additional credibility preserved records originating fonds ref name swetland records must kept order


placed course official activity agency concerned records artificially reorganized records kept original order likely reveal nature organizations created importantly order activities emerged ref name douglas douglas jennifer origins evolving ideas principle provenance ''currents archival thinking'' ed terry eastwood heather macneil santa barbara california libraries unlimited p ref infrequently practical considerations storage mean impossible maintain original order records


name douglas support research artificial systematic collections often arranged topic established records catalogued schemes ref name posner archival documents approached librarianship perspective records organized according classification schemes original context creation frequently lost obscured ref name douglas form archival arrangement come known historical manuscripts tradition emergence provenance principle ' 'respect des fonds'' original order adopted belgium france spread throughout europe following decades ref name posner following rise


state run archives france prussia rising volume modern records entering archive made adherence manuscript tradition impossible enough resources organize classify record provenance received pointed expression manual arrangement description archives dutch text published written three dutch archivists samuel muller johan feith robert fruin text provided first description principle provenance argued original order essential trait archival arrangement description ref name cook ref complementing work


dutch archivists supporting concept provenance historians era subject based classification aided research historians began concern objectivity source material advocates provenance provided objective alternative generally subjective classification schemes borrowed librarianship historians increasingly felt records maintained original order better reflect activity emerged debates although original order generally accepted principle debate surrounding theory regards personal archives ref name posner argued original order


always ideal personal archives far complex organizational archives ref name douglas however others prefer remain loyal principle original order maintain personal records created maintained much reason organizational archives therefore follow principles ref name douglas preservation archival science archival boxes nasa archives preservation defined society american archivists saa act protecting materials physical deterioration loss information ideally noninvasive way goal preservation maintain


much originality possible maintaining information material offer scientific principles professional practices applied technique obtain maximum effectiveness archival sense preservation refers care aggregates within collection conservation included practice often two definitions overlap ref name cloonan beginnings preservation preservation emerged establishment first central archives french revolution archives nationales established later transformed central archives ref name posner first


independent national archives goal preserve store documents records trend gained popularity soon countries began establishing national archives reasons maintain preserve records created received ref name cloonan cultural scientific change also helped bring idea practice preservation late eighteenth century many museums national libraries national archives established europe therefore ensuring preservation cultural heritage ref name cloonan archival preservation preservation like provenance concerned proper representation archival materials


archivists primarily concerned maintaining record along context produced making information accessible user ref name cloonan ''tout ensemble'' definition relating preservation definition encompasses idea context importance maintaining context record removed fellow records loses meaning order preserve record must preserved original entirety else may lose significance definition relates principle provenance ' 'respect des fonds'' similarly emphasizes idea


ref physical maintenance another key feature preservation many strategies place preserve archives properly rehousing items acid free containers storing items climate controlled areas copying deteriorating items preservation techniques carried respect provenance ref name cloonan digital preservation digital preservation involves implementation policies strategies actions order ensure digitized documents remain accurate accessible time due emerging technologies archives began expand require new forms preservation archival collections spread include new media microfilm audiofiles


visualfiles moving images digital documents many new types media suffer shorter life expectancy paper ref name cloonan quick advancement technological society old media becoming obsolete therefore migration old formats new formats necessary preservation digital medias remain accurate accessible ref name cumming metadata important part digital preservation preserves context usage migration digital record similarly traditional preservation metadata required preserve context authenticity accessibility record ref name cumming information access


society american archivists published guidelines graduate program archival studies guidelines adopted many universities practitioners archival science might come academic backgrounds library science information science history museology see also references external links http sophiasmithedu epnelson regionals directory regional state local archival organizations united states http wwwcertifiedarchivistsorg academy certified archivists http wwwarchivesorguk archives records association uk ireland http wwwarchivistsorgau australian society archivists http wwwarchivistsorg society american archivists


immunization diseases key preventive healthcare measure '''preventive healthcare''' '''prophylaxis''' consists measures taken disease prevention ref name hugh hugh r leavell e gurney clark science art preventing disease prolonging life promoting physical mental health efficiency leavell h r clark e g preventive medicine doctor community rd ed huntington ny robert e krieger publishing company ref disease disability affected environmental factors genetic predisposition disease agents lifestyle choices dynamic processes begin individuals realize affected disease prevention

Applied science
Medicine and health
Preventive medicine


relies anticipatory actions categorized primal ref name primalpreventionorg title ref ref name webarchiveorg ref primary secondary tertiary prevention ref name hugh year millions people die preventable deaths study showed half deaths united states due preventable behaviors exposures ref name mokdad ref leading causes included cardiovascular disease chronic respiratory disease unintentional injuries diabetes certain infectious diseases ref name mokdad study estimates people die year united states due poor diet sedentary lifestyle ref name mokdad according estimates made world health organization


million people died worldwide two thirds group non communicable diseases including cancer diabetes chronic cardiovascular lung diseases ref name ref increase year deaths attributed diseases ref name preventive healthcare especially important given worldwide rise prevalence chronic diseases deaths diseases many methods prevention disease one prevention teenage smoking information giving recommended adults children aim visit doctor regular check ups even


feel healthy perform disease screening identify risk factors disease discuss tips healthy balanced lifestyle stay date immunizations boosters maintain good relationship healthcare provider ref name encyclopedia ref pediatrics common examples primary prevention encouraging parents turn temperature home water heater order avoid scalding burns encouraging children wear bicycle helmets suggesting people use air quality index aqi check level pollution outside air engaging sporting activities common disease screenings


include checking hypertension high blood pressure hyperglycemia high blood sugar risk factor diabetes mellitus hypercholesterolemia high blood cholesterol screening colon cancer depression hiv common types sexually transmitted disease chlamydia syphilis gonorrhea mammography screen breast cancer colorectal cancer screening pap test check cervical cancer screening osteoporosis genetic testing also performed screen mutations cause genetic disorders predisposition certain diseases breast ovarian cancer ref name encyclopedia however measures affordable every individual cost


effectiveness preventive healthcare still topic debate ref name healthaffairs ref name cohen levels prevention preventive healthcare strategies described taking place primal ref name primalpreventionorg title primary ref name goldston goldston e ed ''concepts primary prevention framework program development'' sacramento california department mental health ref secondary tertiary prevention levels although advocated preventive medicine early twentieth century sara josephine baker hugh r leavell e gurney clark coined term primary prevention worked harvard columbia university schools public health respectively later expanded levels


include secondary tertiary prevention goldston notes levels might better described prevention treatment rehabilitation although terms primary secondary tertiary prevention still use today concept primal prevention created much recently relation new developments molecular biology last fifty years particularly epigenetics point paramount importance environmental conditions physical affective organism fetal newborn life called primal period life ref name webarchiveorg class wikitable level definition primal primordial


prevention primal prevention propounded separate category health promotion based evidence epigenetic processes start conception see primal primordial preventions primordial prevention refers measures designed avoid development risk factors first place early life ref name referencea ref ref name chiolero ref primary prevention methods avoid occurrence disease either eliminating disease agents increasing resistance disease ref name iom katz ather preventive medicine integrative medicine health public commissioned iom summit integrative medicine health


public retrieved ref examples include immunization disease maintaining healthy diet exercise regimen avoiding smoking ref name patterson ref secondary prevention methods detect address existing disease prior appearance symptoms ref name iom examples include treatment hypertension risk factor many cardiovascular diseases cancer screenings ref name patterson tertiary prevention methods reduce harm symptomatic disease disability death rehabilitation treatment ref name iom examples include surgical procedures halt spread progression disease ref name iom quaternary prevention methods mitigate avoid results


unnecessary excessive interventions health system including potential violations rights primal primordial preventions primal prevention health promotion ''par excellence'' ref name primalpreventionorg ref new knowledge molecular biology particular epigenetics points much affective well physical environment fetal newborn life may determine adult health way promoting health consists mainly providing future parents pertinent unbiased information primal health supporting child 's primal period life ie conception first anniversary according definition primal health research centre london includes adequate


parental leave ideally parents kin caregiving financial help needed primordial prevention refers measures designed prevent development risk factors first place early life ref name referencea ref name chiolero even preconception ruth etzel described population level actions measures inhibit emergence establishment adverse environmental economic social conditions could reducing air pollution prohibiting endocrine disrupting chemicals food handling equipment food contact materials ref name jama ref primary prevention primary prevention consists traditional health promotion specific protection ref name iom health promotion


activities include prevention strategies health education lifestyle medicine current non clinical life choices eating nutritious meals exercising daily prevent lifestyle related medical conditions improve quality life create sense overall well preventing disease creating overall well prolongs life expectancy ref name hugh ref name iom health promotional activities target specific disease condition rather promote health well general level ref name hugh hand specific protection targets type group diseases complements goals health promotion ref name iom food


basic tool preventive health care national health interview survey performed centers disease control first national survey include questions ability pay food difficulty paying food medicine problem facing americans better food options available food banks soup kitchens resources low income people obesity chronic conditions come along would better controlled food desert area restricted access healthy foods due lack supermarkets within


reasonable distance often low income neighborhoods majority residents lacking transportation several grassroots movements since encourage urban gardening using vacant lots grow food cultivated local residents mobile fresh markets another resource residents food desert specially outfitted buses bringing affordable fresh fruits vegetables low income neighborhoods scientific advancements genetics contributed knowledge hereditary diseases facilitated progress specific protective measures individuals carriers disease gene increased predisposition specific


disease genetic testing allowed physicians make quicker accurate diagnoses allowed tailored treatments personalized medicine ref name hugh similarly specific protective measures water purification sewage treatment development personal hygienic routines regular hand washing safe sex prevent sexually transmitted infections became mainstream upon discovery infectious disease agents decreased rates communicable diseases spread unsanitary conditions ref name hugh secondary prevention secondary prevention deals latent diseases attempts prevent asymptomatic disease progressing symptomatic disease ref name iom certain diseases


classified primary secondary depends definitions constitutes disease though general primary prevention addresses root cause disease injury ref name iom whereas secondary prevention aims detect treat disease early ref name cdc ref secondary prevention consists early diagnosis prompt treatment contain disease prevent spread individuals disability limitation prevent potential future complications disabilities disease ref name hugh early diagnosis prompt treatment syphilis patient would include course antibiotics destroy pathogen screening treatment


infants born syphilitic mothers disability limitation syphilitic patients includes continued check ups heart cerebrospinal fluid central nervous system patients curb damaging effects blindness paralysis ref name hugh preventative measures like vaccines medical screenings also important using ppe properly getting recommended vaccines screenings help decrease spread respiratory diseases protecting healthcare workers well patients ref name ref name tertiary prevention finally tertiary prevention attempts reduce damage caused symptomatic disease focusing mental physical social rehabilitation unlike secondary prevention


aims prevent disability objective tertiary prevention maximize remaining capabilities functions already disabled patient ref name hugh goals tertiary prevention include preventing pain damage halting progression complications disease restoring health functions individuals affected disease ref name cdc syphilitic patients rehabilitation includes measures prevent complete disability disease implementing work place adjustments blind paralyzed providing counseling restore normal daily functions greatest extent possible ref name hugh general use machinery adequate ventilation airflow


suggested patients order halt progression complications disease study conducted nursing homes prevent diseases concluded use evaporative humidifiers maintain indoor humidity within range reduce respiratory risk certain diseases thrive different humidities use humidifiers help kill particles diseases ref name ref ref name ref leading causes preventable death united states leading cause death united states tobacco however poor diet lack exercise may soon surpass tobacco leading cause death


behaviors modifiable public health prevention efforts could make difference reduce deaths ref name mokdad class wikitable leading causes preventable deaths united states year ref name mokdad cause deaths caused deaths tobacco smoking poor diet physical inactivity alcohol consumption infectious diseases toxicants traffic collisions firearm incidents sexually transmitted infections drug abuse worldwide leading causes preventable death worldwide share similar


trends united states differences two malnutrition pollution unsafe sanitation reflect health disparities developing developed world ref name mathers ref class wikitable leading causes preventable death worldwide year ref name mathers cause deaths caused millions per year hypertension smoking high cholesterol malnutrition sexually transmitted infections poor diet overweight obesity physical inactivity alcohol indoor air pollution solid fuels unsafe water poor sanitation


landmark study conducted world health organization international labour organization found exposure long working hours occupational risk factor largest attributable burden disease ie estimated fatalities ischemic heart disease stroke events study prevention exposure long working hours emerged priority prevention healthcare workplace settings child mortality million children died reaching age decrease million year ref name liu ref still far


fourth millennium development goal decrease child mortality two thirds year ref name countdown countdown decade report taking stock maternal newborn child survival geneva ref deaths due infection including diarrhea pneumonia malaria ref name liu deaths occurred neonates children ages days due pre term birth complications ref name countdown highest number child deaths occurred africa southeast asia ref name liu africa almost progress made reducing neonatal death since ref name countdown india nigeria


preventive treatment pregnancy preventive methods obesity obesity major risk factor wide variety conditions including cardiovascular diseases hypertension certain cancers type diabetes order prevent obesity recommended individuals adhere consistent exercise regimen well nutritious balanced diet healthy individual aim acquiring energy proteins fat complex carbohydrates avoiding alcohol well foods high fat salt sugar ref name obesity prevention case ac ref sedentary adults aim


least half hour moderate level daily physical activity eventually increase include least minutes intense exercise three times week ref name obesity prevention case ac preventive health care offers many benefits chose participate taking active role culture medical system society geared toward curing acute symptoms disease fact brought us emergency room ongoing epidemic within american culture prevalence obesity healthy eating regular exercise play significant role


reducing individual 's risk type diabetes study concluded million people united states diabetes including million diagnosed percent people diabetes type diabetes diabetes main cause kidney failure limb amputation new onset blindness american adults sexually transmitted infections us propaganda poster ''fool axis use prophylaxis'' sexually transmitted infections stis syphilis hiv common preventable safe sex practices stis asymptomatic cause range symptoms preventive measures


stis called prophylactics term especially applies use condoms ref name prophylactic ref highly effective preventing disease also devices meant prevent stis ref name prophylactic dental dams latex gloves means preventing stis include education use condoms barrier devices testing partners unprotected sex receiving regular sti screenings receive treatment prevent spreading stis partners specifically hiv regularly taking prophylactic antiretroviral drugs truvada post exposure prophylaxis started within hours optimally less hour exposure


high risk fluids also protect hiv transmission malaria prevention using genetic modification genetically modified mosquitoes used developing countries control malaria approach subject objections controversy thrombosis thrombosis serious circulatory disease affecting thousands usually older persons undergoing surgical procedures women taking oral contraceptives travelers consequences thrombosis heart attacks strokes prevention include exercise anti embolism stockings pneumatic devices pharmacological treatments cancer recent years cancer become global problem low middle income countries share majority cancer burden largely


due exposure carcinogens resulting industrialization globalization ref name global ref however primary prevention cancer knowledge cancer risk factors reduce one third cancer cases primary prevention cancer also prevent diseases communicable non communicable share common risk factors cancer ref name global lung cancer distribution lung cancer united states lung cancer leading cause cancer related deaths united states europe major cause death countries ref name lung ref tobacco environmental carcinogen major underlying cause lung


cancer ref name lung cancer deaths lung cancer cases associated tobacco use carcinogens include asbestos radioactive materials ref name lung cancer ref smoking second hand exposure smokers lead lung cancer eventually death ref name lung prevention tobacco use paramount prevention lung cancer individual community statewide interventions prevent cease tobacco use adults us ever smoked prior age school prevention educational programs well counseling resources help prevent


cease adolescent smoking ref name lung cancer cessation techniques include group support programs nicotine replacement therapy nrt hypnosis self motivated behavioral change studies shown long term success rates year hypnosis group therapy ref name lung cancer cancer screening programs serve effective sources secondary prevention mayo clinic johns hopkins memorial sloan kettering hospitals conducted annual x ray screenings sputum cytology tests found lung cancer detected higher rates earlier stages favorable treatment outcomes supports widespread investment programs ref name lung cancer legislation also affect smoking


prevention cessation massachusetts united states voters passed bill adding extra cent tax pack cigarettes despite intense lobbying million spent tobacco industry oppose bill tax revenue goes toward tobacco education control programs led decline tobacco use state lung cancer tobacco smoking increasing worldwide especially china china responsible one third global consumption production tobacco products ref name china ref tobacco control policies ineffective china home million regular


development healthy habits continue prevent cancer lifetime ref name skin centers disease control prevention cdc recommends several primary prevention methods including limiting sun exposure pm sun strongest wearing tighter weave natural cotton clothing wide brim hats sunglasses protective covers using sunscreens protect uv uv b rays avoiding tanning salons ref name skin sunscreen reapplied sweating exposure water swimming example several hours sun exposure ref name skin since skin cancer preventable cdc recommends


school level prevention programs including preventive curricula family involvement participation support school 's health services partnership community state national agencies organizations keep children away excessive uv radiation exposure ref name skin skin cancer sun protection data comes australia united states ref name skin cancer ref international study reported australians tended demonstrate higher knowledge sun protection skin cancer knowledge compared countries ref name skin cancer children adolescents adults sunscreen commonly used skin protection however many adolescents purposely used sunscreen low sun protection


factor spf order get tan ref name skin cancer various australian studies shown many adults failed use sunscreen correctly many applied sunscreen well initial sun exposure failed reapply necessary case control study brazil showed case participants control participants used sunscreen spf cervical cancer presence cancer adenocarcinoma detected pap test cervical cancer ranks among top three common cancers among women latin america sub saharan africa parts asia cervical cytology screening aims detect


abnormal lesions cervix women undergo treatment prior development cancer given high quality screening follow care shown reduce cervical cancer rates developed countries encourage sexually active women undergo pap test every years finland iceland developed effective organized programs routine monitoring managed significantly reduce cervical cancer mortality using fewer resources unorganized opportunistic programs united states canada ref name cervical ref developing nations latin america chile


colombia costa rica cuba public privately organized programs offered women routine cytological screening since however efforts resulted significant change cervical cancer incidence mortality nations likely due low quality inefficient testing however puerto rico offered early screening since witnessed almost decline cervical cancer incidence almost four fold decrease mortality brazil peru india several high risk nations sub saharan africa lack organized screening programs high incidence


consumption whole grains fruits vegetables reducing consumption red meat health disparities barriers accessing care access healthcare preventive health services unequal quality care received study conducted agency healthcare research quality ahrq revealed health disparities united states united states elderly adults years old received worse care less access care younger counterparts trends seen comparing racial minorities black hispanic asian white patients low income people high income people ref name ahrq


common barriers accessing utilizing healthcare resources included lack income education language barriers lack health insurance minorities less likely whites possess health insurance individuals completed less education disparities made difficult disadvantaged groups regular access primary care provider receive immunizations receive types medical care ref name ahrq ref additionally uninsured people tend seek care diseases progress chronic serious states also likely forgo necessary tests treatments filling prescription medications ref name hcab ref


sorts disparities barriers exist worldwide well often decades gaps life expectancy developing developed countries example japan average life expectancy years greater malawi ref name whoo ref low income countries also tend fewer physicians high income countries nigeria myanmar fewer physicians per people norway switzerland ratio ten fold higher ref name whoo common barriers worldwide include lack availability health services healthcare providers region great physical distance home


health service facilities high transportation costs high treatment costs social norms stigma toward accessing certain health services ref name pmid ref economics lifestyle based prevention lifestyle factors diet exercise rising top preventable death statistics economics healthy lifestyle growing concern little question positive lifestyle choices provide investment health throughout life gauge success traditional measures quality years life method qaly show great value ref name doiorg ref however method account cost chronic conditions


future lost earnings poor health developing future economic models would guide private public investments well drive future policy evaluate efficacy positive lifestyle choices health major topic economists globally americans spend three trillion year health care higher rate infant mortality shorter life expectancies higher rate diabetes high income nations negative lifestyle choices despite large costs little spent prevention lifestyle caused conditions comparison ''journal


american medical association'' estimated billion spent preventable disease diabetes another billion spent heart disease effort encourage healthy lifestyle choices workplace wellness programs rise economics effectiveness data continuing evolve develop health insurance coverage impacts lifestyle choices even intermittent loss coverage negative effects healthy choices us repeal affordable care act aca could significantly impact coverage many americans well prevention public


health fund us first mandatory funding stream dedicated improving public health including counseling lifestyle prevention issues weight management alcohol use treatment depression us chronic illnesses predominate cause death pathways treating chronic illnesses complex multifaceted prevention best practice approach chronic disease possible many cases prevention requires mapping complex pathways determine ideal point intervention cost effectiveness prevention achievable impacted length time takes see effects outcomes intervention


measure less savings avoiding morbidity net cost extending life span order establish reliable economics prevention illnesses complicated origin knowing best assess prevention efforts ie developing useful measures appropriate scope required effectiveness general consensus whether preventive healthcare measures cost effective increase quality life dramatically varying views constitutes good investment argue preventive health measures save money cost factoring treatment


costs absence measures ref name healthaffairs ref others argued favor good value conferring significant health benefits even measures save money ref name nejm ref furthermore preventive health services often described one entity though comprise myriad different services individually lead net costs savings neither greater differentiation services necessary fully understand financial health effects ref name healthaffairs study reported united states vaccinating children cessation smoking daily prophylactic use aspirin screening breast


colorectal cancers potential prevent premature death ref name healthaffairs preventive health measures resulted savings included vaccinating children adults smoking cessation daily use aspirin screening issues alcoholism obesity vision failure ref name healthaffairs authors estimated usage services united states increased population would net savings billion comprised total united states healthcare expenditure ref name healthaffairs despite potential decreasing healthcare spending utilization healthcare resources united states still remains


large ref name cohen ref diabetes prevention program research group conducted study evaluating costs benefits quality adjusted life years qalys lifestyle changes versus taking drug metformin found neither method brought financial savings cost effective nonetheless brought increase qalys addition scrutinizing costs preventive healthcare skeptics also examine efficiency interventions argue many treatments existing diseases involve use advanced equipment technology cases efficient use resources attempts prevent disease ref name cohen cohen suggested


preventive measures worth exploring investing could benefit large portion population bring cumulative widespread health benefits reasonable cost ref name cohen cost effectiveness childhood obesity interventions least four nationally implemented childhood obesity interventions united states sugar sweetened beverage excise tax ssb tv ad program active physical education active pe policies early care education ece policies ref name ref similar goals reducing childhood obesity effects interventions bmi studied cost effectiveness


analysis cea led better understanding projected cost reductions improved health outcomes childhood obesity intervention cost effectiveness study choices conducted evaluate compare cea four interventions ref name gortmaker sl ''et al'' states four initial interventions selected investigators represent broad range nationally scalable strategies reduce childhood obesity using mix policy programmatic strategies excise tax per ounce sweetened beverages applied nationally administered state level ssb elimination tax deductibility


advertising costs tv advertisements nutritionally poor foods beverages seen children adolescents tv ad state policy requiring public elementary schools physical education pe currently provided devote pe class time moderate vigorous physical activity active pe state policy make early child educational settings healthier increasing physical activity improving nutrition reducing screen time ece choices found ssb tv ad ece led net cost savings ssb tv ad increased quality adjusted life years produced yearly tax revenue


billion us dollars million us dollars respectively challenges evaluating effectiveness child obesity interventions include economic consequences childhood obesity short long term short term obesity impairs cognitive achievement academic performance believe secondary negative effects mood energy others suggest may physiological factors involved furthermore obese children increased health care expenses eg medications acute care visits long term obese children tend become obese adults associated increased risk


chronic condition diabetes hypertension effect cognitive development may also affect contributions society socioeconomic status choices noted translating effects interventions may fact differ among communities throughout nation addition suggested limited outcomes studied interventions may additional effect fully appreciated modeling outcomes interventions children long term challenging advances medicine medical technology unpredictable projections cost effective analysis may


effective whether economics evidence base health promotion disease prevention need interest preventive care driven imperative reduce health care costs improving quality care patient experience preventive care lead improved health outcomes cost savings potential services health assessments screenings prenatal care telehealth telemedicine reduce morbidity mortality low cost cost savings ref name ref specifically health assessments screenings cost savings potential varied cost effectiveness based screening assessment type inadequate prenatal care lead


increased risk prematurity stillbirth infant death time ultimate resource preventive care help mitigate time costs ref name folland goodman stano economics health health care th ed upper saddle river pearson education ref telehealth telemedicine one option gained consumer interest acceptance confidence improve quality care patient satisfaction economics investment benefits trade offs considering investment preventive care versus types clinical services preventive care good investment supported evidence


base drive population health management objectives ref name cohen ref name concepts cost saving cost effectiveness different relevant preventive care preventive care may save money may still provide health benefits thus need compare interventions relative impact health cost preventive care transcends demographics applicable people every age health capital theory underpins importance preventive care across lifecycle provides framework understanding variances health health care experienced treats health


stock provides direct utility health depreciates age aging process countered health investments theory supports individuals demand good health demand health investment derived demand ie investment health due underlying demand good health efficiency health investment process increases knowledge ie assumed educated efficient consumers producers health prevalence elasticity demand prevention also provide insights economics demand preventive care


alter prevalence rate given disease reduce even reverse growth prevalence ref name reduction prevalence subsequently leads reduction costs number organizations policy actions relevant discussing economics preventive care services evidence base viewpoints policy briefs robert wood johnson foundation organisation economic co operation development oecd efforts us preventive services task force uspstf provide examples improve health well populations eg preventive health assessments screenings prenatal care telehealth telemedicine


affordable care act aca major influence provision preventive care services although currently heavy scrutiny review new administration according centers disease control prevention cdc aca makes preventive care affordable accessible mandatory coverage preventive services without deductible copayment coinsurance cost sharing ref name auto ref us preventive services task force uspstf panel national experts prevention evidence based medicine works improve health americans making evidence based recommendations clinical preventive services consider cost


preventive service determining recommendation year organization delivers report congress identifies critical evidence gaps research recommends priority areas review national network perinatal quality collaboratives nnpqc sponsored cdc supports state based perinatal quality collaboratives pqcs measuring improving upon health care health outcomes mothers babies pqcs contributed improvements reduction deliveries weeks reductions healthcare associated bloodstream infections improvements utilization antenatal corticosteroids telehealth telemedicine realized significant growth development recently


center connected health policy national telehealth policy resource center produced multiple reports policy briefs topic telehealth telemedicine contribute preventive services policy actions provision preventive services guarantee utilization reimbursement remained significant barrier adoption due variances payer state level reimbursement policies guidelines government commercial payers americans use preventive services half recommended rate cost sharing deductibles co insurance copayments also reduce likelihood preventive services


used ref name auto despite aca 's enhancement medicare benefits preventive services effects preventive service utilization calling fact fundamental barriers exist affordable care act preventive healthcare patient protection affordable care act also known affordable care act obamacare passed became law united states march finalized newly ratified law address many issues us healthcare system included expansion coverage insurance market reforms better quality forecast efficiency costs


insurance market reforms act required insurance companies longer exclude people pre existing conditions allow children covered parents' plan age expand appeals dealt reimbursement denials affordable care act also banned limited coverage imposed health insurances insurance companies include coverage preventive health care services us preventive services task force categorized rated preventive health services either b insurance companies must comply present full coverage us preventive services


task force provided graded preventive health services appropriate coverage also provided many recommendations clinicians insurers promote better preventive care ultimately provide better quality care lower burden costs health insurance healthcare insurance companies willing pay preventive care despite fact patients acutely sick hope prevent developing chronic disease later life today health insurance plans offered marketplace mandated affordable care act required provide certain preventive care services free


horizon significant effects results one controversial subject use year time frame assess cost effectiveness diabetes preventive services congressional budget office preventive care services mainly focus chronic disease congressional budget office provided guidance research needed area economic impacts obesity us cbo estimate budgetary consequences bipartisan report published may recognizes potential preventive care improve patients' health individual population levels decreasing healthcare expenditure economic


case mortality modifiable risk factors chronic diseases heart disease stroke diabetes obesity cancer become common costly health problems united states projected number chronic disease cases would increase resulting trillion treatment lost economic output ref name auto ref also among top ten leading causes mortality chronic diseases driven risk factors largely preventable sub analysis performed deaths united states year revealed almost half


attributed preventable behaviors including tobacco poor diet physical inactivity alcohol consumption ref name auto ref recent analysis reveals heart disease cancer alone accounted nearly deaths modifiable risk factors also responsible large morbidity burden resulting poor quality life present loss future life earning years estimated focused efforts prevention treatment chronic disease may result million fewer chronic disease cases potentially reducing treatment costs billion ref name auto childhood vaccinations childhood immunizations largely responsible


workers workforce indirect costs related poor health behaviors associated chronic disease costs us employers billions dollars year according american diabetes association ada medical costs employees diabetes twice high workers without diabetes caused work related absenteeism billion reduced productivity work billion inability work due illness related disability billion premature mortality billion reported estimates cost burden due increasingly high levels overweight obese members workforce vary best estimates suggesting million


missed work days resulting billion year lost productivity according cdc healthy workforce health capital model explains individual investments health increase earnings increasing number healthy days available work earn income context health treated consumption good wherein individuals desire health improves quality life present investment good potential increase attendance workplace productivity time preventive health behaviors healthful diet regular exercise access


use well care avoiding tobacco limiting alcohol viewed health inputs result healthier workforce substantial cost savings quality adjusted life years health benefits preventive care measures described terms quality adjusted life years qalys saved qaly takes account length quality life used evaluate cost effectiveness medical preventive interventions classically one year perfect health defined qaly year degree less perfect health assigned value qaly ref name pmid ref


economic weighting system qaly used inform personal decisions evaluate preventive interventions set priorities future preventive efforts cost saving cost effective benefits preventive care measures well established robert wood johnson foundation evaluated prevention cost effectiveness literature found many preventive measures meet benchmark per qaly considered favorably cost effective include screenings hiv chlamydia cancers colon breast cervix vision screening screening abdominal aortic aneurysms men certain populations alcohol tobacco screening found


cost saving reviews cost effective others according rwjf analysis two preventive interventions found save costs reviews childhood immunizations counseling adults use aspirin minority populations health disparities increasing united states chronic diseases obesity diabetes cancer cardiovascular disease populations heightened risk health inequities growing proportion racial ethnic minorities including african americans american indians hispanics latinos asian americans alaska natives pacific islanders according racial ethnic approaches community health reach national cdc program


chronic disease population level issue requires population health level efforts national state level public policy effectively prevent rather individual level efforts united states currently employs many public health policy efforts aligned preventive health efforts discussed centers disease control prevention support initiatives health policies hi health impact years collaborative efforts aim consider prevention across sectors address social determinants health method primary prevention chronic disease obesity policies address obesity epidemic


proactive far reaching including variety stakeholders healthcare sectors recommendations institute medicine suggest concerted action taken across within five environments physical activity pa food beverage marketing messaging healthcare worksites schools sectors society including government business industry schools child care urban planning recreation transportation media public health agriculture communities home order obesity prevention efforts truly successful dozens current policies acting either federal state local


school levels states employ physical education requirement minutes physical education per week school policy national association sport physical education cities including philadelphia sugary food tax employed part amendment title philadelphia code finance taxes collections chapter sugar sweetened beverage tax approved establishes excise tax per fluid ounce distributors beverages sweetened caloric non caloric sweeteners distributors required file return


department department collect taxes among responsibilities policies source tax credits philadelphia policy businesses apply tax credits revenue department first come first served basis applies total amount credits particular year reaches one million dollars recently advertisements food beverages directed children received much attention children 's food beverage advertising initiative cfbai self regulatory program food industry participating company makes public pledge details commitment advertise foods


attendance however states allow exemptions philosophical moral reasons diseases vaccinations form part standard acip vaccination schedule diphtheria tetanus pertussis whooping cough poliomyelitis polio measles mumps rubella haemophilus influenzae type b hepatitis b influenza pneumococcal infections cdc website maintains schedules cdc website describes federally funded program vaccines children vfc provides vaccines cost children might otherwise vaccinated inability pay additionally advisory committee immunization practices acip expert vaccination advisory board informs vaccination policy


guides going recommendations cdc incorporating date cost effectiveness risk benefit evidence recommendations see also american board preventive medicine ''american journal preventive medicine'' american osteopathic board preventive medicine chemoprevention genetic modifications preventing possibility diseases occur epigenetics mental illness prevention public health pre exposure prophylaxis ''preventive medicine journal '' primary health care treatment prevention references external links http wwwuspreventiveservicestaskforceorg united states preventive services task force uspstf https canadiantaskforceca canadian task force preventive health care ctfphc http wwwecdceuropaeu en pages homeaspx european centre disease prevention control ecdc https wwwindocarein


preventive health checkup prevention medical terminology nursing specialties


mapping brain phrenology among first attempts correlate mental functions specific parts brain although largely discredited '''philosophy mind''' branch philosophy studies ontology nature mind relationship body mind body problem paradigmatic issue philosophy mind although number issues addressed hard problem consciousness nature particular mental states ref name kim ref ref name referencea siegel ''the contents visual experience'' new york oxford university press ref ref name macpherson f

Humanities
Philosophy
Metaphysics
Philosophy of mind


macpherson f haddock editors ''disjunctivism perception action knowledge'' oxford oxford university press ref aspects mind studied include mental events mental functions mental properties consciousness ontology mind nature thought relationship mind body dualism monism two central schools thought mind body problem although nuanced views arisen fit one category neatly dualism finds entry western philosophy thanks ren descartes th century ref name de ref substance dualists like descartes argue


mind independently existing substance whereas property dualists maintain mind group independent properties emerge cannot reduced brain distinct substance ref name du hart wd dualism samuel guttenplan org ''a companion philosophy mind'' blackwell oxford ref monism position mind body ontologically indiscernible entities dependent substances view first advocated western philosophy parmenides th century bce later espoused th century rationalist baruch spinoza ref name spin spinoza baruch ''tractatus theologico politicus''


theologico political treatise ref physicalists argue entities postulated physical theory exist mental processes eventually explained terms entities physical theory continues evolve physicalists maintain various positions prospects reducing mental properties physical properties many adopt compatible forms property dualism ref name schneider ref ref name depaulbaltimore ref ref name gibblowe ref ref name demircioglu ref ref name francescotti ref ref name gibb see also see also ref ontological status mental properties remains unclear ref name francescotti ref name mclaughlinandbennett ref ref name megill ref idealists maintain mind exists external world either mental


illusion created mind neutral monists ernst mach william james argue events world thought either mental psychological physical depending network relationships enter dual aspect monists spinoza adhere position neutral substance matter mind properties unknown substance common monisms th st centuries variations physicalism positions include behaviorism type identity theory anomalous monism functionalism ref name kim kim j


mind body problem ''oxford companion philosophy'' ted honderich ed oxford oxford university press ref modern philosophers mind adopt either reductive physicalist non reductive physicalist position maintaining different ways mind something separate body ref name kim approaches particularly influential sciences especially fields sociobiology computer science specifically artificial intelligence evolutionary psychology various neurosciences ref name psybio pinel j ''psychobiology'' prentice hall inc ref ref name ledoux ledoux j ''the synaptic self brains become are'' new york viking penguin ref ref name russnor russell norvig p


''artificial intelligence modern approach'' new jersey prentice hall ref ref name dawkrich dawkins r ''the selfish gene'' oxford oxford university press isbn ref reductive physicalists assert mental states properties eventually explained scientific accounts physiological processes states ref name pat ref ref name paul ref ref name smart ref non reductive physicalists argue although mind separate substance mental properties supervene physical properties predicates vocabulary used mental descriptions explanations indispensable cannot reduced language lower level explanations physical science ref name davidson ref ref name pu putnam hilary http wwwphiluunl joel putnampsychpredicatespdf psychological predicates w h capitan


merrill eds ''art mind religion'' pittsburgh university pittsburgh press ref continued neuroscientific progress helped clarify issues however far resolved modern philosophers mind continue ask subjective qualities intentionality mental states properties explained naturalistic terms ref name int ref ref name searleint ref however number issues recognized non reductive physicalism first irreconcilable self identity time secondly intentional states consciousness make sense non reductive physicalism thirdly free impossible reconcile either


reductive non reductive physicalism fourthly fails properly explain phenomenon mental causation ref name waning materialism ref mind body problem ren descartes' illustration mind body dualism mind body problem concerns explanation relationship exists minds mental processes bodily states processes ref name kim main aim philosophers working area determine nature mind mental states processes even minds affected affect body perceptual experiences depend stimuli arrive various sensory organs external world stimuli


cause changes mental states ultimately causing us feel sensation may pleasant unpleasant someone 's desire slice pizza example tend cause person move body specific manner specific direction obtain wants question possible conscious experiences arise lump gray matter endowed nothing electrochemical properties ref name kim related problem someone 's propositional attitudes eg beliefs desires cause individual 's