powerful computing machines atanasoff berry computer eniac term ''computer'' came refer machines rather human predecessors became clear computers could used mathematical calculations field computer science broadened study computation general ibm founded watson scientific computing laboratory columbia university new york city renovated fraternity house manhattan 's west side ibm 's first laboratory devoted pure science lab forerunner ibm 's research division today operates research facilities around world ultimately


close relationship ibm university instrumental emergence new scientific discipline columbia offering one first academic credit courses computer science computer science began established distinct academic discipline early ref name denning cs discipline world 's first computer science degree program cambridge diploma computer science began university cambridge computer laboratory first computer science department united states formed purdue university since practical computers became available many applications computing become


distinct areas study rights etymology although first proposed ref name tedre ref term computer science appears article ''communications acm'' ref name fine ref louis fein argues creation ''graduate school computer sciences'' analogous creation harvard business school justifying name arguing like management science subject applied interdisciplinary nature characteristics typical academic discipline ref name fine efforts others numerical analyst george forsythe rewarded universities went


naur first professor datalogy term used mainly scandinavian countries alternative term also proposed naur data science used multi disciplinary field data analysis including statistics databases early days computing number terms practitioners field computing suggested ''communications acm'' ''turingineer'' ''turologist'' ''flow charts man'' ''applied meta mathematician'' ''applied epistemologist'' three months later journal ''comptologist'' suggested followed next year ''hypologist'' term ''computics'' also suggested europe terms derived


computers astronomy telescopes ref group note see entry computer science wikiquote history quotation ref design deployment computers computer systems generally considered province disciplines computer science example study computer hardware usually considered part computer engineering study commercial computer systems deployment often called information technology information systems however much cross fertilization ideas various computer related disciplines computer science research also often intersects disciplines cognitive science linguistics mathematics physics


biology earth science statistics philosophy logic computer science considered much closer relationship mathematics many scientific disciplines observers saying computing mathematical science ref name denning cs discipline early computer science strongly influenced work mathematicians kurt g del alan turing john von neumann r zsa p ter alonzo church continues useful interchange ideas two fields areas mathematical logic category theory domain theory algebra ref name tedre relationship computer science software engineering contentious


engineering emphasis computer science departments mathematics emphasis numerical orientation consider alignment computational science types departments tend make efforts bridge field educationally across research philosophy epistemology computer science despite word science name debate whether computer science discipline science mathematics engineering ref name plato https platostanfordedu entries computer science episstatcompscie ref allen newell herbert simon argued since argued computer science classified empirical science since makes use empirical


testing evaluate correctness programs problem remains defining laws theorems computer science exist defining nature experiments computer science ref name plato proponents classifying computer science engineering discipline argue reliability computational systems investigated way bridges civil engineering airplanes aerospace engineering ref name plato also argue empirical sciences observe presently exists computer science observes possible exist scientists discover laws observation proper laws


found computer science instead concerned creating phenomena ref name plato proponents classifying computer science mathematical discipline argue computer programs physical realizations mathematical entities programs deductively reasoned mathematical formal methods ref name plato computer scientists edsger w dijkstra tony hoare regard instructions computer programs mathematical sentences interpret formal semantics programming languages mathematical axiomatic systems ref name plato paradigms computer science number computer scientists argued distinction three separate paradigms computer science peter


wegner argued paradigms science technology mathematics peter denning 's working group argued theory abstraction modeling design amnon h eden described rationalist paradigm treats computer science branch mathematics prevalent theoretical computer science mainly employs deductive reasoning technocratic paradigm might found engineering approaches prominently software engineering scientific paradigm approaches computer related artifacts empirical perspective natural sciences identifiable branches artificial intelligence computer science focuses methods involved design specification programming


verification implementation testing human made computing systems fields discipline computer science spans range topics theoretical studies algorithms limits computation practical issues implementing computing systems hardware software ref name csab ref csab formerly called computing sciences accreditation board made representatives association computing machinery acm ieee computer society ieee cs identifies four areas considers crucial discipline computer science ''theory computation'' ''algorithms data structures'' ''programming methodology languages'' ''computer elements architecture'' addition


four areas csab also identifies fields software engineering artificial intelligence computer networking communication database systems parallel computation distributed computation human computer interaction computer graphics operating systems numerical symbolic computation important areas computer science ref name csab theoretical computer science ''theoretical computer science'' mathematical abstract spirit derives motivation practical everyday computation aim understand nature computation consequence understanding provide efficient methodologies theory computation according peter denning fundamental question underlying computer science


automated ref name denning cs discipline ref theory computation focused answering fundamental questions computed amount resources required perform computations effort answer first question computability theory examines computational problems solvable various theoretical models computation second question addressed computational complexity theory studies time space costs associated different approaches solving multitude computational problems famous p np problem one millennium prize problems open problem theory computation style border px


reliably storing communicating data coding theory study properties codes systems converting information one form another fitness specific application codes used data compression cryptography error detection correction recently also network coding codes studied purpose designing efficient reliable data transmission methods style border px solid ccc text align center margin auto cellspacing px px px px px coding theory channel capacity algorithmic information theory signal detection theory kolmogorov


computer science depending affecting mathematics software engineering linguistics active research area numerous dedicated academic journals formal methods particular kind mathematically based technique specification development verification software hardware systems use formal methods software hardware design motivated expectation engineering disciplines performing appropriate mathematical analysis contribute reliability robustness design form important theoretical underpinning software engineering especially safety security involved formal methods useful


verification style border px solid ccc text align center margin auto cellspacing px math gamma vdash x text int math px px px px formal semantics type theory compiler design programming languages formal verification automated theorem proving computer systems computational processes artificial intelligence artificial intelligence ai aims required synthesize goal orientated processes problem solving decision making environmental adaptation learning communication found humans animals origins cybernetics dartmouth conference artificial intelligence research necessarily cross disciplinary drawing areas expertise


applied mathematics symbolic logic semiotics electrical engineering philosophy mind neurophysiology social intelligence ai associated popular mind robotic development main field practical application embedded component areas software development require computational understanding starting point late alan turing 's question computers think question remains effectively unanswered although turing test still used assess computer output scale human intelligence automation evaluative predictive tasks increasingly successful substitute


human monitoring intervention domains computer application involving complex real world data style border px solid ccc text align center margin auto cellspacing px px px px computational learning theory computer vision neural networks planning scheduling px px px px natural language processing computational game theory evolutionary computation autonomic computing px px px px representation reasoning pattern recognition robotics swarm intelligence computer architecture organization computer architecture digital


computer organization conceptual design fundamental operational structure computer system focuses largely way central processing unit performs internally accesses addresses memory computer engineers study computational logic design computer hardware individual processor components microcontrollers personal computers supercomputers embedded systems term architecture computer literature traced work lyle r johnson frederick p brooks jr members machine organization department ibm 's main research center style border px solid ccc text align center margin auto cellspacing px


px px px processing unit microarchitecture multiprocessing processor design px px px px ubiquitous computing systems architecture operating systems input output px px px px embedded system real time computing dependability interpreter concurrent parallel distributed computing concurrency property systems several computations executing simultaneously potentially interacting number mathematical models developed general concurrent computation including petri nets process calculi


parallel random access machine model multiple computers connected network using concurrency known distributed system computers within distributed system private memory information exchanged achieve common goals computer networks branch computer science aims manage networks computers worldwide computer security cryptography computer security branch computer technology objective protecting information unauthorized access disruption modification maintaining accessibility usability system intended users historical cryptography art


graphics study digital visual contents involves synthesis manipulation image data study connected many fields computer science including computer vision image processing computational geometry heavily applied fields special effects video games style border px solid ccc text align center margin auto cellspacing px px px px px px computer graphics computer animation rendering mixed reality virtual reality solid modeling image sound processing information take form images


sound video multimedia bits information streamed via signals processing central notion informatics european view computing studies information processing algorithms independently type information carrier whether electrical mechanical biological field plays important role information theory telecommunications information engineering applications medical image computing speech synthesis among others ''what lower bound complexity fast fourier transform algorithms'' one unsolved problems theoretical computer science style border px solid ccc text align center margin auto cellspacing


px px px px px px fft algorithms image processing speech recognition data compression medical image computing speech synthesis applied computer science computational science finance engineering scientific computing computational science field study concerned constructing mathematical models quantitative analysis techniques using computers analyze solve scientific problems major usage scientific computing simulation various processes including computational fluid dynamics physical electrical electronic systems circuits well societies social situations notably war games


along habitats among many others modern computers enable optimization designs complete aircraft notable electrical electronic circuit design spice well software physical realization new modified designs latter includes essential design software integrated circuits style border px solid ccc text align center margin auto cellspacing px px px px px px px px px numerical analysis computational physics computational chemistry bioinformatics neuroinformatics psychoinformatics medical informatics computational engineering computational musicology social


computing human computer interaction social computing area concerned intersection social behavior computational systems human computer interaction research develops theories principles guidelines user interface designers software engineering software engineering study designing implementing modifying software order ensure high quality affordable maintainable fast build systematic approach software design involving application engineering practices software software engineering deals organizing analyzing software n't deal creation manufacture new software


internal arrangement maintenance example software testing systems engineering technical debt software development processes discoveries philosopher computing bill rapaport noted three ''great insights computer science'' gottfried wilhelm leibniz 's george boole 's alan turing 's claude shannon 's samuel morse 's insight ''two objects'' computer deal order represent anything information computable problem represented using bistable pair flip flop two easily distinguishable states magnetized de magnetized high voltage low voltage etc alan turing 's insight


''five actions'' computer perform order anything every algorithm expressed language computer consisting five basic instructions move left one location move right one location read symbol current location print current location print current location corrado b hm giuseppe jacopini 's insight ''three ways combining'' actions complex ones needed order computer anything three rules needed combine


set basic instructions complex ones ' 'sequence'' first '' selection'' case else ' 'repetition'' case note three rules boehm 's jacopini 's insight simplified use goto means elementary structured programming programming paradigms programming languages used accomplish different tasks different ways common programming paradigms include functional programming style building structure elements computer programs treats


computation evaluation mathematical functions avoids state mutable data declarative programming paradigm means programming done expressions declarations instead statements imperative programming programming paradigm uses statements change program 's state much way imperative mood natural languages expresses commands imperative program consists commands computer perform imperative programming focuses describing program operates object oriented programming programming paradigm based concept objects may contain data form fields often known


attributes code form procedures often known methods feature objects object 's procedures access often modify data fields object associated thus object oriented computer programs made objects interact one another service oriented programming programming paradigm uses services unit computer work design implement integrated business applications mission critical software programs many languages offer support multiple paradigms making distinction matter style technical capabilities academia conferences


important events computer science research conferences researchers public private sectors present recent work meet unlike academic fields computer science prestige conference papers greater journal publications one proposed explanation quick development relatively new field requires rapid review distribution results task better handled conferences journals education '''computer science''' known near synonyms '''computing''' '''computer studies''' taught uk schools since days batch processing mark sensitive cards


paper tape usually select students bbc produced micro computer classroom network computer studies became common gce level students year old computer science level students importance recognised became compulsory part national curriculum key stage september became entitlement pupils age ref name jones ref us school districts deciding curriculum provision fractured according report association computing machinery acm computer


science teachers association csta states adopted significant education standards high school computer science israel new zealand south korea included computer science national secondary education curricula several others following see also computer engineering computer programming digital revolution information communications technology information technology list computer scientists list computer science awards list important publications computer science list pioneers computer science list unsolved problems computer science programming language software engineering notes references reading overview within chapters every one


new significantly revised one find kind information references computer science one imagine absolute nothing computer science found kilogram encyclopaedia survey articles christoph meinel ''zentralblatt math'' set unique possibly useful theoretical computer science community support teaching research books used anyone wanting simply gain understanding one areas someone desiring


research topic instructors wishing find timely information subject teaching outside major areas expertise rocky ross ''sigact news'' since definitive reference work computer computing computer science alphabetically arranged classified broad subject areas entries cover hardware computer systems information data software mathematics computing theory computation methodologies applications computing milieu editors done commendable job blending historical perspective practical reference information encyclopedia remains essential public academic library reference


collections joe accardin northeastern illinois univ chicago selected literature covering period interest lies content papers still timely today also put together ideas expressed different times complement nicely n bernard ''zentralblatt math'' articles peter j denning '' http portalacmorg citationcfmid coll dl acm cfid cftoken computer science science '' communications acm april peter j denning '' http portalacmorg citationcfmid dl acm coll cfid cftoken great principles computing curricula '' technical symposium computer science education research evaluation computer science informatics europe http wwweqanieeu media como conference tanca research assessment new initiative informatics europepdf report shorter journal version


bertrand meyer christine choppy jan van leeuwen jorgen staunstrup ''research evaluation computer science'' communications acm vol pp nbsp april curriculum classification association computing machinery https webarchiveorg web http wwwacmorg class overviewhtml acm computing classification system joint task force association computing machinery acm association information systems ais ieee computer society ieee cs https webarchiveorg web http wwwacmorg education curric vols cc march finalpdf computing curricula overview report september norman gibbs allen tucker model curriculum liberal arts degree computer science ''communications acm'' volume issue march external links http wwwlibuwaterlooca society compsci sochtml scholarly


societies computer science https wwwyoutubecom watchv fjmu km cso computer science http jeffhuangcom best paper awardshtml best papers awards computer science since http seethzch meyer gallery photographs computer scientists bertrand meyer http wwweecsberkeleyedu department historyshtml eecsberkeleyedu bibliography academic search engines http citeseerxistpsuedu citeseer sup ''x'' sup article search engine digital library repository scientific academic papers focus computer information science http dblpuni trierde dblp computer science bibliography article computer science bibliography website hosted universit trier germany http liinwwwiraukade bibliography collection computer science bibliographies collection computer science bibliographies professional organizations http wwwacmorg association computing machinery http wwwcomputerorg ieee computer society http wwwinformatics europeorg informatics europe http wwwaaaiorg homehtml aaai https webarchiveorg web http membercentralaaasorg categories computer science


'''physical cosmology''' branch cosmology concerned study cosmological models '''cosmological model''' simply '''cosmology''' provides description largest scale structures dynamics universe allows study fundamental questions origin structure evolution ultimate fate ref name gfr ellis overview see ref cosmology science originated copernican principle implies celestial bodies obey identical physical laws earth newtonian mechanics first allowed physical laws understood physical cosmology understood began development

Natural science
Space science
Cosmology
Physical cosmology


albert einstein 's general theory relativity followed major observational discoveries first edwin hubble discovered universe contains huge number external galaxies beyond milky way work vesto slipher others showed universe expanding advances made possible speculate origin universe allowed establishment big bang theory georges lema tre leading cosmological model researchers still advocate handful alternative cosmologies however cosmologists agree big bang theory best explains observations


dramatic advances observational cosmology since including cosmic microwave background distant supernovae galaxy redshift surveys led development standard model cosmology model requires universe contain large amounts dark matter dark energy whose nature currently well understood model gives detailed predictions excellent agreement many diverse observations ref name pdg ref cosmology draws heavily work many disparate areas research theoretical applied physics areas relevant cosmology include particle physics experiments theory theoretical observational astrophysics general


relativity quantum mechanics plasma physics subject history modern cosmology developed along tandem tracks theory observation albert einstein published theory general relativity provided unified description gravity geometric property space time time einstein believed static universe found original formulation theory permit ref name liddle ref masses distributed throughout universe gravitationally attract move toward time however realized equations permitted introduction constant term


could counteract attractive force gravity cosmic scale einstein published first paper relativistic cosmology added ''cosmological constant'' field equations order force model static universe einstein model describes static universe space finite unbounded analogous surface sphere finite area edges however called einstein model unstable small perturbations eventually start expand contract ref name liddle later realized einstein 's model one


larger set possibilities consistent general relativity cosmological principle cosmological solutions general relativity found alexander friedmann early equations describe friedmann lema tre robertson walker universe may expand contract whose geometry may open flat closed history universe gravitational waves hypothesized arise cosmic inflation faster light expansion big bang ref name bicep ref name nasa ref name nyt vesto slipher later carl wilhelm wirtz interpreted red shift spiral nebulae


doppler shift indicated receding earth however difficult determine distance astronomical objects one way compare physical size object angular size physical size must assumed another method measure brightness object assume intrinsic luminosity distance may determined using inverse square law due difficulty using methods realize nebulae actually galaxies outside milky way speculate


cosmological implications belgian roman catholic priest georges lema tre independently derived friedmann lema tre robertson walker equations proposed basis recession spiral nebulae universe began explosion primeval atom later called big bang edwin hubble provided observational basis lema tre 's theory hubble showed spiral nebulae galaxies determining distances using measurements brightness cepheid variable stars discovered relationship redshift galaxy distance interpreted evidence galaxies receding


model universe roughly point time ref name aip ref number years support theories evenly divided however observational evidence began support idea universe evolved hot dense state discovery cosmic microwave background lent strong support big bang model ref name aip since precise measurements cosmic microwave background cosmic background explorer early cosmologists seriously proposed theories origin evolution cosmos one consequence


standard general relativity universe began singularity demonstrated roger penrose stephen hawking ref name earman ref alternative view extend big bang model suggesting universe beginning singularity age universe infinite presented ref name ls ref ref name pl ref ref name ar ref energy cosmos lightest chemical elements primarily hydrogen helium created big bang process nucleosynthesis ref name burles sequence stellar nucleosynthesis reactions smaller atomic nuclei combined larger atomic nuclei ultimately forming


stable iron group elements iron nickel highest nuclear binding energies ref name b fh ref net process results ''later energy release'' meaning subsequent big bang ref name frautschi ref reactions nuclear particles lead ' 'sudden energy releases'' cataclysmic variable stars novae gravitational collapse matter black holes also powers energetic processes generally seen nuclear regions galaxies forming ''quasars'' ''active galaxies'' cosmologists cannot explain cosmic phenomena exactly related accelerating expansion universe using conventional forms energy


energy obviously transferred system seems permanently lost hand cosmologists insist energy conserved sense follows law conservation energy different forms energy may dominate cosmos relativistic particles referred radiation non relativistic particles referred matter relativistic particles particles whose rest mass zero negligible compared kinetic energy move speed light close non relativistic particles much higher rest mass energy


move much slower speed light universe expands matter radiation become diluted however energy densities radiation matter dilute different rates particular volume expands mass energy density changed increase volume energy density radiation changed increase volume increase wavelength photons make thus energy radiation becomes smaller part universe 's total energy matter expands early universe


said 'radiation dominated' radiation controlled deceleration expansion later average energy per photon becomes roughly ev lower matter dictates rate deceleration universe said 'matter dominated' intermediate case treated well analytically expansion universe continues matter dilutes even cosmological constant becomes dominant leading acceleration universe 's expansion history universe history universe central issue cosmology history universe divided different periods


called epochs according dominant forces processes period standard cosmological model known lambda cdm model equations motion within standard cosmological model equations motion governing universe whole derived general relativity small positive cosmological constant solution expanding universe due expansion radiation matter universe cool become diluted first expansion slowed gravitation attracting radiation matter universe however become diluted cosmological constant becomes


dominant expansion universe starts accelerate rather decelerate universe happened billions years ago ref name springel ref particle physics cosmology earliest moments universe average energy density high making knowledge particle physics critical understanding environment hence scattering processes decay unstable elementary particles important cosmological models period rule thumb scattering decay process cosmologically important certain epoch time scale describing process smaller comparable


time scale expansion universe time scale describes expansion universe math h math math h math hubble parameter varies time expansion timescale math h math roughly equal age universe point time timeline big bang observations suggest universe began around billion years ago since evolution universe passed three phases early universe still poorly understood split second universe hot particles energies


higher currently accessible particle accelerators earth therefore basic features epoch worked big bang theory details largely based educated guesses following early universe evolution universe proceeded according known high energy physics first protons electrons neutrons formed nuclei finally atoms formation neutral hydrogen cosmic microwave background emitted finally epoch structure formation began matter started aggregate first stars quasars ultimately


galaxies clusters galaxies superclusters formed future universe yet firmly known according cdm model continue expanding forever areas study active areas inquiry cosmology described roughly chronological order include big bang cosmology presented ''timeline big bang'' early universe early hot universe appears well explained big bang roughly sup sup seconds onwards several problems one compelling


reason using current particle physics universe flat homogeneous isotropic '' see cosmological principle '' moreover grand unified theories particle physics suggest magnetic monopoles universe found problems resolved brief period cosmic inflation drives universe flatness smooths anisotropies inhomogeneities observed level exponentially dilutes monopoles ref name guth ref physical model behind cosmic inflation extremely simple yet confirmed particle physics difficult problems reconciling inflation quantum


field theory cosmologists think string theory brane cosmology provide alternative inflation ref name pogosian ref another major problem cosmology caused universe contain far matter antimatter cosmologists observationally deduce universe split regions matter antimatter would x rays gamma rays produced result annihilation observed therefore process early universe must created small excess matter antimatter currently understood process called ''baryogenesis'' three required


conditions baryogenesis derived andrei sakharov requires violation particle physics symmetry called cp symmetry matter antimatter ref name canetti ref however particle accelerators measure small violation cp symmetry account baryon asymmetry cosmologists particle physicists look additional violations cp symmetry early universe might account baryon asymmetry ref name pandolfi ref problems baryogenesis cosmic inflation closely related particle physics resolution might come high energy theory experiment rather observations universe big bang


theory big bang nucleosynthesis theory formation elements early universe finished universe three minutes old temperature dropped nuclear fusion could occur big bang nucleosynthesis brief period could operate lightest elements produced starting hydrogen ions protons principally produced deuterium helium lithium elements produced trace abundances basic theory nucleosynthesis developed george gamow ralph asher alpher robert herman ref name peebles ref


used many years probe physics time big bang theory big bang nucleosynthesis connects abundances primordial light elements features early universe ref name burles ref specifically used test equivalence principle ref name boucher ref probe dark matter test neutrino physics ref name cyburt ref cosmologists proposed big bang nucleosynthesis suggests fourth sterile species neutrino ref name lucente ref standard model big bang cosmology ''' cdm''' '''lambda cold dark matter''' '''lambda cdm''' model parametrization big bang cosmological model


universe contains cosmological constant denoted lambda greek ''' ''' associated dark energy cold dark matter abbreviated '''cdm''' frequently referred '' 'standard model''' big bang cosmology ref name planck ref ref name carlisle ref cosmic microwave background cosmic microwave background radiation left decoupling epoch recombination neutral atoms first formed point radiation produced big bang stopped thomson scattering charged ions radiation first observed arno penzias robert woodrow wilson perfect thermal black body spectrum temperature


kelvins today isotropic one part sup sup cosmological perturbation theory describes evolution slight inhomogeneities early universe allowed cosmologists precisely calculate angular power spectrum radiation measured recent satellite experiments cobe wmap ref name lamarre ref many ground balloon based experiments degree angular scale interferometer cosmic background imager boomerang ref name sievers ref one goals efforts measure basic parameters lambda cdm model increasing accuracy well test predictions big


bang model look new physics results measurements made wmap example placed limits neutrino masses ref name hinshaw ref newer experiments quiet atacama cosmology telescope trying measure polarization cosmic microwave background ref name naess ref measurements expected provide confirmation theory well information cosmic inflation called secondary anisotropies ref name jackson ref sunyaev zel 'dovich effect sachs wolfe effect caused interaction galaxies clusters cosmic microwave background ref name scranton ref ref name refregier ref march astronomers


bicep collaboration announced apparent detection ''b'' mode polarization cmb considered evidence primordial gravitational waves predicted theory inflation occur earliest phase big bang ref name bicep ref ref name nasa ref ref name nyt ref ref name nyt ref however later year planck collaboration provided accurate measurement cosmic dust concluding b mode signal dust strength reported bicep ref name axv ref ref name nyt ref january joint analysis bicep planck data published european space agency announced signal


universe measure matter power spectrum approach ''sloan digital sky survey'' df galaxy redshift survey ref name cole ref ref name nichol ref another tool understanding structure formation simulations cosmologists use study gravitational aggregation matter universe clusters filaments superclusters voids simulations contain non baryonic cold dark matter suffice understand universe largest scales much dark matter universe visible baryonic matter advanced simulations starting include baryons study formation


individual galaxies cosmologists study simulations see agree galaxy surveys understand discrepancy ref name kuhlen ref complementary observations measure distribution matter distant universe probe reionization include lyman alpha forest allows cosmologists measure distribution neutral atomic hydrogen gas early universe measuring absorption light distant quasars gas ref name weinberg ref centimeter absorption line neutral atomic hydrogen also provides sensitive test cosmology ref name furlanetto ref weak lensing distortion distant image gravitational lensing due


dark matter ref name munshi ref help cosmologists settle question structure formed universe dark matter evidence big bang nucleosynthesis cosmic microwave background structure formation galaxy rotation curves suggests mass universe consists non baryonic dark matter whereas consists visible baryonic matter gravitational effects dark matter well understood behaves like cold non radiative fluid forms haloes around galaxies dark matter never detected laboratory particle physics nature dark matter remains


completely unknown without observational constraints number candidates stable supersymmetric particle weakly interacting massive particle gravitationally interacting massive particle axion massive compact halo object alternatives dark matter hypothesis include modification gravity small accelerations mond effect brane cosmology ref name klasen ref dark energy universe flat must additional component making addition dark matter baryons energy density universe called dark energy order interfere


theory'' predicts cosmological constant cc much like dark energy orders magnitude larger observed ref name adler ref steven weinberg number string theorists '' see string landscape '' invoked 'weak anthropic principle' ie reason physicists observe universe small cosmological constant physicists life could exist universe larger cosmological constant many cosmologists find unsatisfying explanation perhaps weak anthropic principle self evident given living observers exist must least one universe cosmological constant


name sahni ref modification gravity largest scales ref name nojiri ref effect cosmology dark energy models describe given dark energy 's equation state varies depending upon theory nature dark energy one challenging problems cosmology better understanding dark energy likely solve problem ultimate fate universe current cosmological epoch accelerated expansion due dark energy preventing structures larger superclusters forming known whether acceleration continue


indefinitely perhaps even increasing big rip whether eventually reverse lead big freeze follow scenario ref name jambrina ref gravitational waves gravitational waves ripples curvature spacetime propagate waves speed light generated certain gravitational interactions propagate outward source gravitational wave astronomy emerging branch observational astronomy aims use gravitational waves collect observational data sources detectable gravitational waves binary star systems composed white dwarfs neutron stars black holes events


supernovae formation early universe shortly big bang ref name colpi ref ligo scientific collaboration virgo collaboration teams announced made first observation gravitational waves originating pair merging black holes using advanced ligo detectors ref name discovery ref ref name 'abbot' ref ref name 'nsf' ref june second detection gravitational waves coalescing black holes announced ref name nyt ref besides ligo many gravitational wave observatories detectors construction areas inquiry cosmologists also study whether primordial black holes formed universe happened ref


name kovetz ref detection cosmic rays energies gzk cutoff ref name takeda ref whether signals failure special relativity high energies equivalence principle ref name boucher whether einstein 's general theory relativity correct theory gravitation ref name turyshev ref fundamental laws physics everywhere universe ref name uzan ref see also accretion hubble 's law illustris project list cosmologists photon physical ontology quantum cosmology string cosmology universal rotation curve references reading popular textbooks introductory cosmology general relativity without full tensor apparatus deferred last part


http wwwdamtpcamacuk user gr public cos homehtml cambridge cosmology cambridge university public home page http mapgsfcnasagov unihtml cosmology nasa wmap group http cfcpuchicagoedu center cosmological physics university chicago chicago https wwwpbsorg wgbh nova origins origins nova online provided ''pbs'' individuals gale george http platostanfordedu entries cosmology cosmology methodological debates ''the stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' edward n zalta ed madore barry f '' http nedwwwipaccaltechedu level level knowledgebase extragalactic astronomy cosmology'' caltech carnegie pasadena california usa tyler pat phil newman '' http universegsfcnasagov beyond einstein '' laboratory high energy astrophysics lhea nasa goddard space flight center wright ned '' http wwwastrouclaedu wright cosmologhtm cosmology


tutorial faq '' division astronomy astrophysics ucla philosophy physics philosophy time astronomical sub disciplines astrophysics


experiments measure various material properties applying physical laws quantum mechanics electromagnetism statistical mechanics theories develop mathematical models diversity systems phenomena available study makes condensed matter physics active field contemporary physics one third american physicists self identify condensed matter physicists division condensed matter physics largest division american physical society ref name aps history ref field overlaps chemistry materials science engineering nanotechnology relates closely atomic physics biophysics theoretical physics condensed matter shares important

Natural science
Physics
Condensed matter physics


concepts methods particle physics nuclear physics ref name marvincohen ref variety topics physics crystallography metallurgy elasticity magnetism etc treated distinct areas grouped together ' 'solid state physics'' around study physical properties liquids added list forming basis comprehensive specialty condensed matter physics ref name rmp bell telephone laboratories one first institutes conduct research program condensed matter physics ref name rmp ref etymology according physicist philip warren anderson use


term condensed matter designate field study coined volker heine changed name group cavendish laboratories cambridge ''solid state theory'' ''theory condensed matter'' ref name pwa princeton ref felt better included interest liquids nuclear matter ref name wsn ref although anderson heine helped popularize name condensed matter used europe years prominently springer verlag journal ''physics condensed matter'' launched name condensed matter physics emphasized commonality


scientific problems encountered physicists working solids liquids plasmas complex matter whereas solid state physics often associated restricted industrial applications metals semiconductors physicists felt comprehensive name better fit funding environment cold war politics time ref name martin pip ref references condensed states traced earlier sources example introduction book ''kinetic theory liquids'' ref name frenkel ref yakov frenkel proposed kinetic theory liquids must accordingly developed generalization extension kinetic theory


solid bodies matter fact would correct unify title 'condensed bodies' history condensed matter physics classical physics heike kamerlingh onnes johannes van der waals helium ''liquefactor'' leiden one first studies condensed states matter english chemist humphry davy first decades nineteenth century davy observed forty chemical elements known time twenty six metallic properties lustre ductility high electrical thermal conductivity ref name goodstein ref indicated


atoms john dalton 's atomic theory indivisible dalton claimed inner structure davy claimed elements believed gases nitrogen hydrogen could liquefied right conditions would behave metals ref name davy ref ref state metallic hydrogen exists sufficiently high pressures gpa yet observed michael faraday assistant davy 's lab successfully liquefied chlorine went liquefy known gaseous elements except nitrogen hydrogen oxygen ref name goodstein shortly


irish chemist thomas andrews studied phase transition liquid gas coined term critical point describe condition gas liquid indistinguishable phases ref name thomasandrews ref dutch physicist johannes van der waals supplied theoretical framework allowed prediction critical behavior based measurements much higher temperatures ref name atkins ref james dewar heike kamerlingh onnes successfully able liquefy hydrogen newly discovered helium respectively ref name goodstein paul drude proposed first theoretical model classical electron moving


metallic solid ref name marvincohen drude 's model described properties metals terms gas free electrons first microscopic model explain empirical observations wiedemann franz law ref name kittel ref ref name hoddeson ref however despite success drude 's free electron model one notable problem unable correctly explain electronic contribution specific heat magnetic properties metals temperature dependence resistivity low temperatures ref name kragh ref three years helium first liquefied onnes working university leiden discovered superconductivity mercury observed


electrical resistivity mercury vanish temperatures certain value ref name vandelft ref phenomenon completely surprised best theoretical physicists time remained unexplained several decades ref name slichter aip supercond ref albert einstein said regarding contemporary theories superconductivity far reaching ignorance quantum mechanics composite systems far able compose theory vague ideas ref name schmalian ref advent quantum mechanics drude 's classical model augmented wolfgang pauli arnold sommerfeld felix bloch physicists pauli realized free electrons metal


must obey fermi dirac statistics using idea developed theory paramagnetism shortly sommerfeld incorporated fermi dirac statistics free electron model made better explain heat capacity two years later bloch used quantum mechanics describe motion electron periodic lattice ref name kragh mathematics crystal structures developed auguste bravais yevgraf fyodorov others used classify crystals symmetry group tables crystal structures basis series ''international tables crystallography'' first published ref


name aroyo ref band structure calculations first used predict properties new materials john bardeen walter brattain william shockley developed first semiconductor based transistor heralding revolution electronics ref name marvincohen replica first point contact transistor bell labs edwin herbert hall working johns hopkins university discovered voltage developed across conductors transverse electric current conductor magnetic field perpendicular current phenomenon arising due nature charge carriers conductor came termed hall effect


properly explained time since electron experimentally discovered years later advent quantum mechanics lev landau developed theory landau quantization laid foundation theoretical explanation quantum hall effect discovered half century later magnetism property matter known china since bc ref name mattis magnetism ref however first modern studies magnetism started development electrodynamics faraday maxwell others nineteenth century included classifying materials ferromagnetic paramagnetic


diamagnetic based response magnetization ref name chatterjee ferromagnetism ref pierre curie studied dependence magnetization temperature discovered curie point phase transition ferromagnetic materials ref name mattis magnetism pierre weiss introduced concept magnetic domains explain main properties ferromagnets ref name visintin domains ref first attempt microscopic description magnetism wilhelm lenz ernst ising ising model described magnetic materials consisting periodic lattice spins collectively acquired magnetization ref name mattis magnetism ising model solved exactly show spontaneous magnetization cannot occur one dimension


widom scaling ideas unified kenneth g wilson formalism renormalization group context quantum field theory ref name fisher rmp quantum hall effect discovered klaus von klitzing dorda pepper observed hall conductance integer multiples fundamental constant math e h math see figure effect observed independent parameters system size impurities ref name von klitzing ref theorist robert laughlin proposed theory explaining unanticipated precision integral plateau also implied hall conductance


proportional topological invariant called chern number whose relevance band structure solids formulated david j thouless collaborators ref name avron hall ref ref name thouless ref shortly horst st rmer daniel tsui observed fractional quantum hall effect conductance rational multiple constant math e h math laughlin realized consequence quasiparticle interaction hall states formulated variational method solution named laughlin wavefunction ref name wen ref study topological properties fractional hall effect remains active field research ref name ref decades later


aforementioned topological band theory advanced david j thouless collaborators expanded leading discovery topological insulators karl ller johannes bednorz discovered first high temperature superconductor material superconducting temperatures high kelvins realized high temperature superconductors examples strongly correlated materials electron electron interactions play important role ref name physics world str el ref satisfactory theoretical description high temperature superconductors still known field strongly correlated materials continues active research topic david


field researchers aarhus university discovered spontaneous electric fields creating prosaic films various gases recently expanded form research area spontelectrics several groups released preprints suggest samarium hexaboride properties topological insulator ref name nature ref accord earlier theoretical predictions ref name tki ref since samarium hexaboride established kondo insulator ie strongly correlated electron material expected existence topological dirac surface state material would lead topological insulator strong electronic correlations theoretical theoretical condensed matter physics


involves use theoretical models understand properties states matter include models study electronic properties solids drude model band structure density functional theory theoretical models also developed study physics phase transitions ginzburg landau theory critical exponents use mathematical methods quantum field theory renormalization group modern theoretical studies involve use numerical computation electronic structure mathematical tools understand phenomena high temperature superconductivity topological phases gauge symmetries emergence theoretical understanding


condensed matter physics closely related notion emergence wherein complex assemblies particles behave ways dramatically different individual constituents ref name coleman ref ref name example range phenomena related high temperature superconductivity understood poorly although microscopic physics individual electrons lattices well known ref name nsf emergence ref similarly models condensed matter systems studied collective excitations behave like photons electrons thereby describing electromagnetism emergent phenomenon ref name levin rmp ref emergent properties also occur interface materials one example lanthanum aluminate strontium titanate interface


two band insulators joined create conductivity superconductivity electronic theory solids metallic state historically important building block studying properties solids ref name ashcroftmermin first theoretical description metals given paul drude drude model explained electrical thermal properties describing metal ideal gas newly discovered electrons able derive empirical wiedemann franz law get results close agreement experiments ref name hoddeson classical model improved arnold sommerfeld incorporated fermi dirac statistics


lu jeu sham proposed density functional theory gave realistic descriptions bulk surface properties metals density functional theory dft widely used since band structure calculations variety solids ref name perdew symmetry breaking states matter exhibit ' 'symmetry breaking'' relevant laws physics possess form symmetry broken common example crystalline solids break continuous translational symmetry examples include magnetized ferromagnets break rotational symmetry exotic states ground state bcs superconductor


breaks u phase rotational symmetry goldstone 's theorem quantum field theory states system broken continuous symmetry may exist excitations arbitrarily low energy called goldstone bosons example crystalline solids correspond phonons quantized versions lattice vibrations ref name goldstone ref phase transition phase transition refers change phase system brought change external parameter temperature classical phase transition occurs finite temperature order system destroyed example ice melts


becomes water ordered crystal structure destroyed quantum phase transitions temperature set absolute zero non thermal control parameter pressure magnetic field causes phase transitions order destroyed quantum fluctuations originating heisenberg uncertainty principle different quantum phases system refer distinct ground states hamiltonian matrix understanding behavior quantum phase transition important difficult tasks explaining properties rare earth magnetic insulators high temperature superconductors substances ref name vojta two classes phase transitions


occur ''first order transitions'' ' 'second order'' ''continuous transitions'' latter two phases involved co exist transition temperature also called critical point near critical point systems undergo critical behavior wherein several properties correlation length specific heat magnetic susceptibility diverge exponentially ref name vojta ref critical phenomena present serious challenges physicists normal macroscopic laws longer valid region novel ideas methods must invented find new laws describe system ref name nrc ref simplest theory describe continuous phase


transitions ginzburg landau theory works called mean field approximation however roughly explain continuous phase transition ferroelectrics type superconductors involves long range microscopic interactions types systems involves short range interactions near critical point better theory needed ref name university ref near critical point fluctuations happen broad range size scales feature whole system scale invariant renormalization group methods successively average shortest wavelength fluctuations stages retaining effects next stage


thus changes physical system viewed different size scales investigated systematically methods together powerful computer simulation contribute greatly explanation critical phenomena associated continuous phase transition ref name nrc experimental experimental condensed matter physics involves use experimental probes try discover new properties materials probes include effects electric magnetic fields measuring response functions transport properties thermometry ref name exptcm ref commonly used experimental methods include spectroscopy probes x rays infrared light inelastic neutron scattering study thermal response specific


probe atomic length scales used measure variations electron charge density ref name chaikin lubensky ref neutrons also probe atomic length scales used study scattering nuclei electron spins magnetization neutrons spin charge coulomb mott scattering measurements made using electron beams scattering probes ref name chaikin lubensky ref name zhang ref similarly positron annihilation used indirect measurement local electron density ref name siegel ref laser spectroscopy excellent tool studying microscopic properties medium example study forbidden transitions media nonlinear optical


spectroscopy ref name nrc external magnetic fields experimental condensed matter physics external magnetic fields act thermodynamic variables control state phase transitions properties material systems ref name iupap report ref nuclear magnetic resonance nmr method external magnetic fields used find resonance modes individual electrons thus giving information atomic molecular bond structure neighborhood nmr experiments made magnetic fields strengths tesla higher magnetic fields improve quality nmr measurement data ref name statesastronomy quantum oscillations another experimental method high magnetic


fields used study material properties geometry fermi surface ref name doiron leyraud ref high magnetic fields useful experimentally testing various theoretical predictions quantized magnetoelectric effect image magnetic monopole half integer quantum hall effect ref name statesastronomy ref nuclear spectroscopy local structure structure nearest neighbour atoms condensed matter investigated methods nuclear spectroscopy sensitive small changes using specific radioactive nuclei nucleus becomes probe interacts surrounding electric magnetic fields hyperfine interactions methods


suitable study defects diffusion phase change magnetism common methods eg nmr ssbauer spectroscopy perturbed angular correlation pac especially pac ideal study phase changes extreme temperature nbsp c due temperature dependence method cold atomic gases first bose einstein condensate observed gas ultracold rubidium atoms blue white areas represent higher density ultracold atom trapping optical lattices experimental tool commonly used condensed matter physics atomic molecular optical physics method involves using optical lasers form


interference pattern acts ''lattice'' ions atoms placed low temperatures cold atoms optical lattices used ''quantum simulators'' act controllable systems model behavior complicated systems frustrated magnets ref name buluta science ref particular used engineer one two three dimensional lattices hubbard model pre specified parameters study phase transitions antiferromagnetic spin liquid ordering ref name greiner nature ref ref name jaksch aop ref ref name gas rubidium atoms cooled temperature nk


used control processes nanometer scale given rise study nanofabrication ref name yeh perspective ref quantum computation information represented quantum bits qubits qubits may decohere quickly useful computation completed serious problem must solved quantum computing may realized solve problem several promising approaches proposed condensed matter physics including josephson junction qubits spintronic qubits using spin orientation magnetic materials topological non abelian anyons fractional quantum hall effect states ref name yeh perspective condensed matter physics also important uses


biophysics example experimental method magnetic resonance imaging widely used medical diagnosis ref name yeh perspective see also notes references reading anderson philip w ''basic notions condensed matter physics'' crc press girvin steven yang kun ''modern condensed matter physics'' cambridge university press coleman piers introduction many body physics ''cambridge core'' retrieved p chaikin c lubensky ''principles condensed matter physics'' cambridge university press st edition alexander altland ben simons ''condensed matter field theory'' cambridge


university press michael p marder ''condensed matter physics second edition'' john wiley sons lillian hoddeson ernest braun j rgen teichmann spencer weart eds ''out crystal maze chapters history solid state physics'' oxford university press external links materials science


'''cultural anthropology''' branch anthropology focused study cultural variation among humans contrast social anthropology perceives cultural variation subset posited anthropological constant portmanteau term sociocultural anthropology includes cultural social anthropology traditions edward burnett tylor founder cultural anthropology anthropologists pointed culture people adapt environment non genetic ways people living different environments often different cultures much anthropological theory originated appreciation interest tension local

Social science
Anthropology
Cultural anthropology


particular cultures global universal human nature web connections people distinct places circumstances ref name cunha ref cultural anthropology rich methodology including participant observation often called fieldwork requires anthropologist spending extended period time research location interviews surveys history rise cultural anthropology took place within context late th century questions regarding cultures primitive civilized occupied mind freud many others colonialism processes increasingly brought european thinkers direct


indirect contact primitive others ref name rhodes ref relative status various humans modern advanced technologies included engines telegraphs others lacked anything face face communication techniques still lived paleolithic lifestyle interest first generation cultural anthropologists theoretical foundations concept culture one earliest articulations anthropological meaning term culture came sir edward tylor writes first page book culture civilization taken broad ethnographic sense complex whole includes knowledge belief


art morals law custom capabilities habits acquired man member society term civilization later gave way definitions given v gordon childe culture forming umbrella term civilization becoming particular kind culture ref name magolda ref according kay milton former director anthropology research queens university belfast culture general specific means culture something applied human beings specific certain group people african american culture irish american culture specific cultures


unilineal evolution model left cultures progress set stages multilineal evolution model right distinctive culture histories emphasized ethnologists argued different groups capability creating similar beliefs practices independently advocated independent invention like lewis henry morgan additionally supposed similarities meant different groups passed stages cultural evolution see also classical social evolutionism morgan particular acknowledged certain forms society culture could possibly arisen others example industrial farming could


diffusion independent invention mutually exclusive competing theories ethnographers quickly reached consensus processes occur plausibly account cross cultural similarities ethnographers also pointed superficiality many similarities noted even traits spread diffusion often given different meanings function one society another analyses large human concentrations big cities multidisciplinary studies ronald daus show new methods may applied understanding man living global world caused


sociology argued apparently similar patterns development reflect fundamental similarities structure human thought see structuralism mid th century number examples people skipping stages going hunter gatherers post industrial service occupations one generation numerous th century evolutionism effectively disproved cultural relativism cultural relativism principle established axiomatic anthropological research franz boas later popularized students boas first articulated idea civilization something absolute relative ideas conceptions


true far civilization goes ref name levitsky ref although boas coin term became common among anthropologists boas' death express synthesis number ideas boas developed boas believed sweep cultures found connection sub species vast pervasive cannot relationship culture race cultural relativism involves specific epistemological methodological claims whether claims require specific ethical stance matter debate principle


confused moral relativism cultural relativism part response western ethnocentrism ethnocentrism may take obvious forms one consciously believes one 's people 's arts beautiful values virtuous beliefs truthful boas originally trained physics geography heavily influenced thought kant herder von humboldt argued one 's culture may mediate thus limit one 's perceptions less obvious ways understanding culture confronts anthropologists two problems first escape unconscious bonds one 's culture inevitably bias perceptions


least partially culture context cultural relativism fundamental methodological importance calls attention importance local context understanding meaning particular human beliefs activities thus virginia heyer wrote cultural relativity phrase starkest abstraction states relativity part whole part gains cultural significance place whole cannot retain integrity different situation theoretical approaches actor network theory cultural materialism culture theory feminist anthropology functionalism symbolic interpretive anthropology political economy


anthropology practice theory structuralism post structuralism systems theory anthropology comparison social anthropology rubric ''cultural'' anthropology generally applied ethnographic works holistic approach oriented ways culture affects individual experience aim provide rounded view knowledge customs institutions people ''social'' anthropology term applied ethnographic works attempt isolate particular system social relations comprise domestic life economy law politics religion give analytical priority organizational bases social life attend cultural


could classified categories cultural evolution scale progression ranged ' 'savagery'' ''barbarism'' ''civilization'' generally morgan used technology bowmaking pottery indicator position scale franz boas founder modern discipline franz boas one pioneers modern anthropology often called father american anthropology franz boas established academic anthropology united states opposition morgan 's evolutionary perspective approach empirical skeptical overgeneralizations eschewed attempts establish universal laws example boas studied immigrant children


social reform theories race continue popular subjects anthropologists today called four field approach origins boasian anthropology dividing discipline four crucial interrelated fields sociocultural biological linguistic archaic anthropology eg archaeology anthropology united states continues deeply influenced boasian tradition especially emphasis culture margaret mead ruth benedict kroeber mead benedict boas used positions columbia university american museum natural history amnh train develop multiple generations students first


chair columbia 's anthropology department sidelined favor ralph linton mead limited offices amnh wolf sahlins mintz political economy mid anthropology tended increasingly model natural sciences anthropologists lloyd fallers clifford geertz focused processes modernization newly independent states could develop others julian steward leslie white focused societies evolve fit ecological niche approach popularized marvin harris economic anthropology influenced karl polanyi practiced marshall


marshall sahlins drew l vi strauss fernand braudel examine relationship symbolic meaning sociocultural structure individual agency processes historical transformation jean john comaroff produced whole generation anthropologists university chicago focused themes also influential issues nietzsche heidegger critical theory frankfurt school derrida lacan ref name lewis lewis herbert '' https wwwjstororg stable misrepresentation anthropology consequences '' ''american anthropologist'' ref geertz schneider interpretive anthropology many anthropologists reacted renewed emphasis materialism scientific modelling derived


marx emphasizing importance concept culture authors david schneider clifford geertz marshall sahlins developed fleshed concept culture web meaning signification proved popular within beyond discipline geertz state ref geertz 's interpretive method involved called thick description cultural symbols rituals political economic action kinship read anthropologist document foreign language interpretation symbols must framed anthropological audience ie transformed


experience near foreign concepts culture experience distant theoretical concepts anthropologist interpretations must reflected back originators adequacy translation fine tuned repeated way process called hermeneutic circle geertz applied method number areas creating programs study productive analysis religion cultural system particularly influential outside anthropology david schnieder 's cultural analysis american kinship proven equally influential schneider demonstrated american folk cultural emphasis blood connections undue influence


anthropological kinship theories kinship biological characteristic cultural relationship established different terms different societies prominent british symbolic anthropologists include victor turner mary douglas post modern turn late authors james clifford pondered ethnographic authority particular anthropological knowledge possible authoritative reflecting trends research discourse initiated feminists academy although excused commenting specifically pioneering critics nevertheless key aspects feminist theory methods became ' 'de rigueur'' part


'post modern moment' anthropology ethnographies became interpretative reflexive ref name janiewski p dolores janiewski lois w banner ''reading benedict reading mead feminism race imperial visions'' https booksgooglecom booksid ruhcvdeuikc pg pa p quotation ref explicitly addressing author 's methodology cultural gendered racial positioning influence ethnographic analysis part general trend postmodernism popular contemporaneously currently anthropologists pay attention wide variety issues pertaining contemporary world including globalization medicine biotechnology indigenous rights virtual communities anthropology industrialized societies socio cultural anthropology subfields anthropology


art cognitive anthropology anthropology development ecological anthropology economic anthropology feminist anthropology anthropology gender sexuality ethnohistory historical anthropology kinship family legal anthropology multimodal anthropology media anthropology medical anthropology political anthropology political economy anthropology psychological anthropology public anthropology anthropology religion cyborg anthropology transpersonal anthropology urban anthropology visual anthropology methods modern cultural anthropology origins developed reaction th century ethnology involves organized comparison human societies scholars like eb tylor jg frazer england worked mostly materials collected others usually missionaries traders explorers colonial officials earning


moniker arm chair anthropologists participant observation participant observation one principal research methods cultural anthropology relies assumption best way understand group people interact closely long period time ref name ref method originated field research social anthropologists especially bronislaw malinowski britain students franz boas united states later urban research chicago school sociology historically group people studied small non western society however today may


specific corporation church group sports team small town ref name restrictions subject participant observation long group people studied intimately observing anthropologist long period time allows anthropologist develop trusting relationships subjects study receive inside perspective culture helps give richer description writing culture later observable details like daily time allotment hidden details like taboo behavior


easily observed interpreted longer period time researchers discover discrepancies participants say often believe happen formal system actually happen different aspects formal system contrast one time survey people 's answers set questions might quite consistent less likely show conflicts different aspects social system conscious representations behavior ref name dewalt dewalt k dewalt b r wayland c b participant observation h r bernard ed ''handbook methods cultural


subjects expand common ground larger area difference single connection established becomes easier integrate community likely accurate complete information shared anthropologist participant observation begin anthropologist must choose location focus study ref name focus may change anthropologist actively observing chosen group people idea one wants study beginning fieldwork allows anthropologist spend


often requires permits governments research institutions area study always needs form funding ref name majority participant observation based conversation take form casual friendly dialogue also series structured interviews combination two often used sometimes along photography mapping artifact collection various methods ref name cases ethnographers also turn structured observation anthropologist 's observations directed specific set questions trying answer ref


name ref case structured observation observer might required record order series events describe certain part surrounding environment ref name anthropologist still makes effort become integrated group studying still participates events observe structured observation directed specific participant observation general helps standardize method study ethnographic data compared across several groups needed fulfill specific purpose research governmental


policy decision one common criticism participant observation lack objectivity ref name anthropologist background set experiences individual likely interpret culture different way ethnographer lot eventually write culture researcher influenced perspective considered problem especially anthropologists write ethnographic present present tense makes culture seem stuck time ignores fact


may interacted cultures gradually evolved since anthropologist made observations ref name avoid past ethnographers advocated strict training anthropologists working teams however approaches generally successful modern ethnographers often choose include personal experiences possible biases writing instead ref name participant observation also raised ethical questions since anthropologist control reports culture terms representation anthropologist greater power subjects study


drawn criticism participant observation general ref name additionally anthropologists struggled effect presence culture simply present researcher causes changes culture anthropologists continue question whether appropriate influence cultures study possible avoid influence ref name ethnography th century cultural social anthropologists turned crafting ethnographies ethnography piece writing people particular place time typically anthropologist lives among people another


society period time simultaneously participating observing social cultural life group numerous ethnographic techniques resulted ethnographic writing details preserved cultural anthropologists also curate materials spend long hours libraries churches schools poring records investigate graveyards decipher ancient scripts typical ethnography also include information physical geography climate habitat meant holistic piece writing people question today often includes longest possible timeline past events ethnographer obtain


primary secondary research bronis aw malinowski developed ethnographic method franz boas taught united states boas' students alfred l kroeber ruth benedict margaret mead drew conception culture cultural relativism develop cultural anthropology united states simultaneously malinowski ar radcliffe brown 's students developing social anthropology united kingdom whereas cultural anthropology focused symbols values social anthropology focused social groups institutions today socio cultural anthropologists attend elements early th century socio cultural anthropology developed different forms europe


sets predecessors equal interest people people say cross cultural comparison one means anthropologists combat ethnocentrism engage process cross cultural comparison important test called human universals ethnographic record monogamy example frequently touted universal human trait yet comparative study shows human relations area files inc hraf research agency based yale university since mission encourage facilitate worldwide comparative studies human culture society


behavior past present name came institute human relations interdisciplinary program building yale time institute human relations sponsored hraf 's precursor ''cross cultural survey'' see george peter murdock part effort develop integrated science human behavior culture two ehraf databases web expanded updated annually ''ehraf world cultures'' includes materials cultures past present covers nearly cultures second database ''ehraf archaeology'' covers major archaeological traditions many sub traditions sites around


east eurasia yurak samoyed basseri west punjabi gond toda santal uttar pradesh burusho kazak khalka mongols lolo lepcha garo hajong lakher burmese lamet vietnamese rhade khmer siamese semang nicobarese andamanese vedda tanala negeri sembilan atayal chinese manchu koreans japanese ainu gilyak yukaghir insular pacific javanese miao balinese iban badjau toraja tobelorese alorese tiwi aranda orokaiva kimam kapauku kwoma manus new ireland trobrianders siuai tikopia pentecost mbau fijians ajie maori marquesans western samoans gilbertese marshallese trukese yapese palauans ifugao chukchi north america ingalik aleut copper eskimo montagnais mi'kmaq saulteaux ojibwa slave kaska


nahane eyak haida bellacoola twana yurok pomo yokuts northern paiute klamath kutenai gros ventres hidatsa pawnee omaha dhegiha huron creek natchez comanche chiricahua zuni havasupai tohono o'odham huichol aztec popoluca south america quich miskito mosquito bribri talamanca cuna goajiro haitians calinago warrau warao yanomamo kalina caribs saramacca munduruku cubeo tucano cayapa jivaro amahuaca inca aymara siriono nambikwara trumai timbira tupinamba botocudo shavante aweikoma cayua guarani lengua abipon mapuche tehuelche yaghan multi sited ethnography ethnography dominates socio cultural anthropology nevertheless many contemporary socio cultural anthropologists rejected earlier models ethnography treating local cultures bounded isolated


anthropologists continue concern distinct ways people different locales experience understand lives often argue one cannot understand particular ways life solely local perspective instead combine focus local effort grasp larger political economic cultural frameworks impact local lived realities notable proponents approach include arjun appadurai james clifford george marcus sidney mintz michael taussig eric wolf ronald daus growing trend anthropological research analysis use multi sited ethnography discussed george marcus' article


ethnography world system emergence multi sited ethnography looking culture embedded macro constructions global social order multi sited ethnography uses traditional methodology various locations spatially temporally methodology greater insight gained examining impact world systems local global communities also emerging multi sited ethnography greater interdisciplinary approaches fieldwork bringing methods cultural studies media studies science technology studies others multi sited ethnography research tracks subject across spatial temporal boundaries example multi sited ethnography may follow thing


particular commodity transported networks global capitalism multi sited ethnography may also follow ethnic groups diaspora stories rumours appear multiple locations multiple time periods metaphors appear multiple ethnographic locations biographies individual people groups move space time may also follow conflicts transcend boundaries example multi sited ethnography nancy scheper hughes' work international black market trade human organs research follows organs transferred various legal


nuyoo culture pregnancy must preceded sex multiple men order necessary accumulation semen late twentieth century shifts interest twenty first century western ideas kinship evolved beyond traditional assumptions nuclear family raising anthropological questions consanguinity lineage normative marital expectation shift traced back reassessment kinship 's basic principles offered edmund leach rodney neeham david schneider others ref name instead relying narrow ideas western normalcy kinship studies increasingly catered ethnographic voices human


agency intersecting power structures historical contex ref name ref study kinship evolved accommodate fact cannot separated institutional roots must pay respect society lives including society 's contradictions hierarchies individual experiences within shift progressed emergence second wave feminism early introduced ideas marital oppression sexual autonomy domestic subordination themes emerged time included frequent comparisons eastern western kinship systems increasing amount attention paid


anthropologists' societies swift turn focus traditionally paid largely foreign non western communities ref name kinship studies began gain mainstream recognition late surging popularity feminist anthropology particularly work related biological anthropology intersectional critique gender relations time arrival third world feminism movement argued kinship studies could examine gender relations developing countries isolation must pay respect racial economic nuance well critique became relevant instance


anthropological study jamaica race class seen primary obstacles jamaican liberation economic imperialism gender identity largely ignored third world feminism aimed combat early twenty first century promoting categories coexisting factors jamaica marriage institution often substituted series partners poor women cannot rely regular financial contributions climate economic instability addition common practice jamaican women artificially lightening skin tones order secure economic survival anthropological


findings according third world feminism cannot see gender racial class differences separate entities instead must acknowledge interact together produce unique individual experiences ref name rise reproductive anthropology kinship studies also experienced rise interest reproductive anthropology advancement assisted reproductive technologies arts including vitro fertilization ivf advancements led new dimensions anthropological research challenge western standard biogenetically based kinship relatedness parenthood according anthropologists maria c inhorn daphna birenbaum carmeli arts pluralized notions relatedness


led dynamic notion kinning namely kinship process something construction rather natural given ref name ref technology questions kinship emerged difference biological genetic relatedness gestational surrogates provide biological environment embryo genetic ties remain third party genetic surrogate adoptive maternities involved anthropologists acknowledged possibility three biological mothers single child ref name arts also anthropological questions concerning intersections wealth fertility


arts generally available highest income bracket meaning infertile poor inherently devalued system also issues reproductive tourism bodily commodification individuals seek economic security hormonal stimulation egg harvesting potentially harmful procedures ivf specifically many questions embryotic value status life particularly relates manufacturing stem cells testing research ref name current issues kinship studies adoption revealed challenged western cultural disposition towards genetic blood


tie western biases single parent homes also explored similar anthropological research uncovering household single parent experiences greater levels scrutiny routinely seen 'other' nuclear patriarchal family power dynamics reproduction explored comparative analysis conventional unconventional families used dissect western assumptions child bearing child rearing contemporary kinship studies critiques kinship studies kinship anthropological field inquiry heavily criticized across discipline one critique


inception framework kinship studies far structured formulaic relying dense language stringent rules ref name another critique explored length american anthropologist david schneider argues kinship limited inherent western ethnocentrism schneider proposes kinship field applied cross culturally theory relies european assumptions normalcy states widely circulated book ''a critique study kinship'' k inship defined european social scientists european social scientists use folk culture


source many ways formulating understanding world however critique challenged argument linguistics cultural divergence allowed european bias bias lifted centering methodology fundamental human concepts polish anthropologist anna wierzbicka argues mother father examples fundamental human concepts westernized conflated english concepts parent sibling recent critique kinship studies solipsistic focus privileged western


human relations promotion normative ideals human exceptionalism ''critical kinship studies'' social psychologists elizabeth peel damien riggs argue move beyond human centered framework opting instead explore kinship posthumanist vantage point anthropologists focus intersecting relationships human animals non human animals technologies practices institutional anthropology role anthropology institutions expanded significantly since end th century ref name ref much development attributed rise anthropologists working outside academia increasing importance globalization institutions


field anthropology ref name anthropologists employed institutions profit business nonprofit organizations governments ref name instance cultural anthropologists commonly employed united states federal government ref name two types institutions defined field anthropology total institutions social institutions ref name ref total institutions places comprehensively coordinate actions people within examples total institutions include prisons convents hospitals ref name social institutions hand constructs regulate individuals' day day lives kinship religion economics ref name


organizations organization parts society ref name institutional anthropology may also focus inner workings institution relationships hierarchies cultures formed ref name ways elements transmitted maintained transformed abandoned time ref name ref additionally anthropology institutions examines specific design institutions corresponding strength ref name levitsky specifically anthropologists may analyze specific events within institution perform semiotic investigations analyze mechanisms knowledge culture organized dispersed ref name manifestations


institutional anthropology participant observation critical understanding intricacies way institution works consequences actions taken individuals within ref name ref simultaneously anthropology institutions extends beyond examination commonplace involvement individuals institutions discover organizational principles evolved manner ref name common considerations taken anthropologists studying institutions include physical location researcher places important interactions often take place private fact members institution often examined


workplace may much idle time discuss details everyday endeavors ref name ref ability individuals present workings institution particular light frame must additionally taken account using interviews document analysis understand institution ref name involvement anthropologist may met distrust information released public directly controlled institution could potentially damaging ref name see also age area hypothesis anthropology religion bibliography anthropology ceremonial pole community studies communitas cross cultural


psychology cultural psychology cultural evolution cultural relativism culture change culturology digital anthropology engaged theory ethnobotany ethnomusicology ethnozoology folkloristics guilt shame fear spectrum cultures intangible cultural heritage kluckhohn strodtbeck 's values orientation theory nomads references external links http hrafyaleedu official website human relations area files hraf based yale university https hrafyaleedu cross cultural research basic guide cross cultural research basic guide cross cultural research hraf anthropology


cardiologists study disorders heart study adult child heart disorders different training pathways therefore adult cardiologist often simply called cardiologist inadequately trained take care children pediatric cardiologists trained take care adult heart disease surgical aspects included cardiology domain cardiothoracic surgery example coronary artery bypass surgery cabg cardiopulmonary bypass valve replacement surgical procedures performed surgeons cardiologists however insertion stents pacemakers performed cardiologists adult cardiology cardiology

Applied science
Medicine and health
Internal medicine
Cardiology


years residency cardiology dm diplomate national board dnb cardiology per doximity adult cardiologists make average united states ref name r hamblin james january https wwwtheatlanticcom health archive physician salaries doctors make theatlanticcom ref cardiac electrophysiology cardiac electrophysiology science elucidating diagnosing treating electrical activities heart term usually used describe studies phenomena invasive intracardiac catheter recording spontaneous activity well cardiac responses programmed electrical stimulation pes studies performed assess complex arrhythmias elucidate symptoms evaluate


abnormal electrocardiograms assess risk developing arrhythmias future design treatment procedures increasingly include therapeutic methods typically radiofrequency ablation cryoablation addition diagnostic prognostic procedures therapeutic modalities employed field include antiarrhythmic drug therapy implantation pacemakers automatic implantable cardioverter defibrillators aicd ref name fauci fauci anthony et al ''harrison 's textbook medicine'' new york mcgraw hill ref cardiac electrophysiology study eps typically measures response injured cardiomyopathic myocardium pes specific pharmacological regimens order assess likelihood regimen successfully prevent potentially


fatal sustained ventricular tachycardia vt ventricular fibrillation vf future sometimes ' 'series'' eps drug trials must conducted enable cardiologist select one regimen long term treatment best prevents slows development vt vf following pes studies may also conducted presence newly implanted newly replaced cardiac pacemaker aicd ref name fauci clinical cardiac electrophysiology clinical cardiac electrophysiology branch medical specialty cardiology concerned study treatment rhythm disorders heart


cardiologists expertise area usually referred electrophysiologists electrophysiologists trained mechanism function performance electrical activities heart electrophysiologists work closely cardiologists cardiac surgeons assist guide therapy heart rhythm disturbances arrhythmias trained perform interventional surgical procedures treat cardiac arrhythmia training required become electrophysiologist long requires years medical school within us three years internal medicine residency three years clinical cardiology fellowship one two instances


years clinical cardiac electrophysiology ref name demazumder ref cardiogeriatrics cardiogeriatrics geriatric cardiology branch cardiology geriatric medicine deals cardiovascular disorders elderly people cardiac disorders coronary heart disease including myocardial infarction heart failure cardiomyopathy arrhythmias atrial fibrillation common major cause mortality elderly people vascular disorders atherosclerosis peripheral arterial disease cause significant morbidity mortality aged people imaging cardiac imaging includes echocardiography echo cardiac magnetic resonance imaging cmr computed tomography heart cct


specialize cardiac imaging may undergo training imaging modes focus single imaging modality echocardiography uses standard two dimensional three dimensional doppler ultrasound create images heart specialize echo may spend significant amount clinical time reading echos performing transesophageal echo tee particular using tee procedures insertion left atrial appendage occlusion device cardiac mri utilizes special protocols image heart structure function specific sequences certain diseases hemochromatosis amyloidosis cardiac ct utilizes special protocols image heart


structure function particular emphasis coronary arteries interventional cardiology interventional cardiology branch cardiology deals specifically catheter based treatment structural heart diseases large number procedures performed heart catheterization commonly involves insertion sheath femoral artery practice large peripheral artery vein cannulating heart x ray visualization commonly fluoroscopy main advantages using interventional cardiology radiology approach avoidance scars pain long post operative recovery


additionally interventional cardiology procedure primary angioplasty gold standard care acute myocardial infarction procedure also done proactively areas vascular system become occluded atherosclerosis cardiologist thread sheath vascular system access heart sheath balloon tiny wire mesh tube wrapped around cardiologist finds blockage stenosis inflate balloon occlusion site vascular system flatten compress plaque vascular wall complete


stent placed type scaffold hold vasculature open permanently cardiomyopathy heart failure specialization general cardiology cardiomyopathies leads also specializing heart transplant pulmonary hypertension cardiooncology recent specialization cardiology cardiooncology area specializes cardiac management cancer particular plans chemotherapy experienced cardiac complications chemotherapy preventive cardiology cardiac rehabilitation recent times focus gradually shifting preventive cardiology due increased cardiovascular disease burden


early age per premature deaths due cardiovascular diseases low middle income countries clinical cardiology sub specialty cardiology looks preventive cardiology cardiac rehabilitation preventive cardiology also deals routine preventive checkup though non invasive tests specifically electrocardiography stress tests lipid profile general physical examination detect cardiovascular diseases early age cardiac rehabilitation upcoming branch cardiology helps person regain overall strength live normal life cardiovascular


would attempt surgically cure blue babies eventually figured anastomosis systemic artery pulmonary artery called blalock taussig shunt tetralogy fallot pulmonary atresia double outlet right ventricle transposition great arteries persistent truncus arteriosus ebstein 's anomaly various congenital cyanotic heart diseases blood newborn oxygenated efficiently due heart defect adult congenital heart disease children congenital heart disease surviving adulthood hybrid adult pediatric cardiology


lead significant number deaths cardiovascular disease leading cause death united states caused total deaths primary responsibility heart pump blood throughout body pumps blood body called systemic circulation lungs called pulmonary circulation back body means heart connected affects entirety body simplified heart circuit circulation plenty known healthy


heart bulk study cardiology disorders heart restoration possible function heart muscle squeezes blood functions like pump part heart susceptible failure dysfunction heart divided mechanical electrical parts electrical part heart centered periodic contraction squeezing muscle cells caused cardiac pacemaker located sinoatrial node study electrical aspects sub field electrophysiology called cardiac electrophysiology


epitomized electrocardiogram ecg ekg action potentials generated pacemaker propagate throughout heart specific pattern system carries potential called electrical conduction system dysfunction electrical system manifests many ways may include wolff parkinson white syndrome ventricular fibrillation heart block mechanical part heart centered fluidic movement blood functionality heart pump mechanical part ultimately purpose heart many disorders heart disrupt ability move blood


failure move sufficient blood result failure organs may result death severe heart failure one condition mechanical properties heart failed failing means insufficient blood circulated coronary circulation coronary circulation circulation blood blood vessels heart muscle myocardium vessels deliver oxygen rich blood myocardium known coronary arteries vessels remove deoxygenated blood heart muscle known cardiac veins include great cardiac vein


middle cardiac vein small cardiac vein anterior cardiac veins left right coronary arteries run surface heart called epicardial coronary arteries arteries healthy capable autoregulation maintain coronary blood flow levels appropriate needs heart muscle relatively narrow vessels commonly affected atherosclerosis become blocked causing angina heart attack see also circulatory system coronary arteries run deep within myocardium referred subendocardial coronary arteries classified


heart disorders cardiology concerned normal functionality heart deviation healthy heart many disorders involve heart outside heart vascular system collectively two together termed cardiovascular system diseases one part tend affect coronary artery disease coronary artery disease also known ischemic heart disease group diseases includes stable angina unstable angina myocardial infarction one causes sudden cardiac death ref name wong ref within


exercise obesity high blood cholesterol poor diet excessive alcohol among others ref name b ref risks include depression underlying mechanism involves atherosclerosis arteries heart number tests may help diagnoses including electrocardiogram cardiac stress testing coronary computed tomographic angiography coronary angiogram among others prevention eating healthy diet regular exercise maintaining healthy weight smoking ref name hlb p sometimes medication diabetes high cholesterol high blood pressure also used ref name hlb p ref limited evidence screening people low risk symptoms treatment


involves measures prevention ref name hlb tr additional medications antiplatelets including aspirin beta blockers nitroglycerin may recommended ref name hlb tr procedures percutaneous coronary intervention pci coronary artery bypass surgery cabg may used severe disease ref name hlb tr ref stable cad unclear pci cabg addition treatments improve life expectancy decreases heart attack risk cad common cause death globally resulting million deaths million deaths ref name gdb b ref risk death cad


given age decreased especially developed countries number cases cad given age also decreased united states cad present ref name us rates higher among men women given age ref name us ref cardiomyopathy heart failure formally cardiomyopathy impaired function heart numerous causes forms heart failure cardiac