motor neuron almost nothing principles information handled biological neural networks known central claim anns embody new powerful general principles processing information principles ill defined often claimed emergent network allows simple statistical association basic function artificial neural networks described learning recognition alexander dewdney commented result artificial neural networks something nothing quality one imparts peculiar aura laziness distinct lack


pp ref displaying wide variety invariance weng ref name weng j weng https wwwamazoncom natural artificial intelligence introduction computational dp natural artificial intelligence introduction computational brain mind bmi press ref argued brain self wires largely according signal statistics therefore serial cascade cannot catch major statistical dependencies hardware large effective neural networks require considerable computing resources ref name ref brain hardware tailored task processing signals graph neurons simulating even simplified neuron von neumann architecture may consume vast amounts memory storage furthermore designer often needs transmit signals

Formal science
Computer science
Artificial intelligence
Artificial neural networks


many connections associated neurons require enormous cpu power time schmidhuber noted resurgence neural networks twenty first century largely attributable advances hardware computing power especially delivered gpgpus gpus increased around million fold making standard backpropagation algorithm feasible training networks several layers deeper ref name schidhub use accelerators fpgas gpus reduce training times months days neuromorphic engineering physical neural network addresses hardware difficulty directly


mixture better capture mechanisms human mind gallery gallery widths file single layer annsvg single layer feedforward artificial neural network arrows originating math scriptstyle x math omitted clarity p inputs network q outputs system value qth output math scriptstyle q math would calculated math scriptstyle q k sum x iw iq b q math file two layer annsvg two layer feedforward artificial neural network file artificial neural networksvg artificial neural network file ann dependency graph svg ann dependency graph file single layer feedforward artificial neural networkpng single layer feedforward artificial neural network inputs hidden


cnn connectionist expert system connectomics cultured neuronal networks deep learning differentiable programming encog genetic algorithm group method data handling habituation situ adaptive tabulation machine learning concepts models neural computation neuroevolution neural coding neural gas neural machine translation neural network software nonlinear system identification optical neural network parallel constraint satisfaction processes parallel distributed processing radial basis function network recurrent neural networks self organizing map spiking neural network systolic array tensor product network time delay neural network tdnn notes references bibliography pages title link mathematics control signals systems https webarchiveorg web http actcommdartmouthedu gvc papers approx superpositionpdf pdf created national science foundation contract number eet defense advanced


research projects agency dod arpa order contract f c title pattern recognition neural networks last ripley first brian author link brian ripley publisher cambridge university press year isbn external links http wwwasimovinstituteorg neural network zoo neural network zoo compilation neural network types https wwwyoutubecom watchv ra qnzuxcqo stilwell brain mind field episode featuring experiment humans act individual neurons neural network classifies handwritten digits computational statistics classification algorithms computational neuroscience market research mathematical psychology mathematical quantitative methods economics


'''paleoclimatology''' british spelling '''palaeoclimatology''' study climates direct measurements taken instrumental records span tiny part earth 's history reconstruction ancient climate important understand natural variation evolution current climate paleoclimatology uses variety proxy methods earth life sciences obtain data previously preserved within rocks sediments boreholes ice sheets tree rings corals shells microfossils combined techniques date proxies paleoclimate records used determine past states earth 's atmosphere scientific field paleoclimatology

Social science
Geography
Palaeoclimatology


came maturity th century notable periods studied paleoclimatologists frequent glaciations earth undergone rapid cooling events like younger dryas rapid warming paleocene eocene thermal maximum studies past changes environment biodiversity often reflect current situation specifically impact climate mass extinctions biotic recovery current global warming ref name sahneybenton recoveryfromprofoundextinction ref history notions changing climate probably evolved ancient egypt mesopotamia indus valley china prolonged periods droughts floods experienced ref name fairbridge ref seventeenth century robert hooke


postulated fossils giant turtles found dorset could explained warmer climate thought could explained shift earth 's axis ref name fairbridge fossils time often explained consequence biblical flood ref name 'cronin' systematic observations sunspots started amateur astronomer heinrich schwabe early th century starting discussion sun 's influence earth 's climate ref name fairbridge scientific study field paleoclimatology began take shape early th century discoveries glaciations natural changes earth 's


past climate helped understand greenhouse effect th century paleoclimatology became unified scientific field different aspects earth 's climate history studied variety disciplines ref name 'cronin' ref end th century empirical research earth 's ancient climates started combined computer models increasing complexity new objective also developed period finding ancient analog climates could provide information current climate change ref name 'cronin' reconstructing ancient climates palaeotemperature graphs compressed together oxygen content atmosphere last billion


paleoclimatology ice coring projects ice caps greenland antarctica yielded data going back several hundred thousand years years case epica project air trapped within fallen snow becomes encased tiny bubbles snow compressed ice glacier weight later years' snow trapped air proven tremendously valuable source direct measurement composition air time ice formed layering observed seasonal pauses ice accumulation used establish chronology


associating specific depths core ranges time changes layering thickness used determine changes precipitation temperature oxygen quantity changes ice layers represent changes average ocean surface temperature water molecules containing heavier evaporate higher temperature water molecules containing normal oxygen isotope ratio higher temperature increases also depends factors water 's salinity volume water locked ice sheets various cycles isotope ratios detected


pollen observed ice cores used understand plants present layer formed pollen produced abundance distribution typically well understood pollen count specific layer produced observing total amount pollen categorized type shape controlled sample layer changes plant frequency time plotted statistical analysis pollen counts core knowing plants present leads understanding precipitation temperature types fauna present palynology includes


auspices international partnerships ice core sciences ipics defined priority project obtain oldest possible ice core record antarctica ice core record reaching back towards million years ago ref name page international partnerships ice core sciences ipics ref dendroclimatology climatic information obtained understanding changes tree growth generally trees respond changes climatic variables speeding slowing growth turn generally reflected greater lesser thickness growth rings different species however respond changes climatic


variables different ways tree ring record established compiling information many living trees specific area older intact wood escaped decay extend time covered record matching ring depth changes contemporary specimens using method areas tree ring records dating back thousand years older wood connected contemporary record dated generally radiocarbon techniques tree ring record used produce information regarding precipitation temperature hydrology fire corresponding particular area sedimentary content longer time


scale geologists must refer sedimentary record data sediments sometimes lithified form rock may contain remnants preserved vegetation animals plankton pollen may characteristic certain climatic zones biomarker molecules alkenones may yield information temperature formation chemical signatures particularly mg ca ratio calcite foraminifera tests used reconstruct past temperature isotopic ratios provide information specifically record responds changes temperature ice volume record reflects range factors often difficult disentangle sea floor


core sample labelled identify exact spot sea floor sample taken sediments nearby locations show significant differences chemical biological composition sedimentary facies longer time scale rock record may show signs sea level rise fall features fossilised sand dunes identified scientists get grasp long term climate studying sedimentary rock going back billions years division earth history separate periods largely based visible changes sedimentary rock layers demarcate major changes


radioactive elements proxies older material radioactive material decayed proportion different elements different newer proxies one example radiometric dating radiocarbon dating air cosmic rays constantly convert nitrogen specific radioactive carbon isotope sup sup c plants use carbon grow isotope replenished anymore starts decaying proportion 'normal' carbon carbon gives information long plant material contact atmosphere notable climate events earth history knowledge precise climatic


events decreases record goes back time notable climate events known faint young sun paradox start huronian glaciation mya earth completely covered ice probably due great oxygenation event later neoproterozoic snowball earth mya precursor cambrian explosion andean saharan glaciation mya carboniferous rainforest collapse mya permian triassic extinction event mya oceanic anoxic events mya mya others cretaceous paleogene extinction event mya paleocene eocene thermal maximum paleocene eocene mya younger dryas big freeze bc holocene climatic optimum bc extreme weather events ad medieval warm


period little ice age year without summer history atmosphere earliest atmosphere first atmosphere would consisted gases solar nebula primarily hydrogen addition would probably simple hydrides found gas giants like jupiter saturn notably water vapor methane ammonia solar nebula dissipated gases would escaped partly driven solar wind ref name zahnle ref second atmosphere next atmosphere consisting largely nitrogen carbon dioxide inert gases produced outgassing volcanism supplemented gases produced


late heavy bombardment earth huge asteroids ref name zahnle major part carbon dioxide emissions soon dissolved water built carbonate sediments water related sediments found dating early billion years ago billion years ago nitrogen major part stable second atmosphere influence life taken account rather soon history atmosphere hints early life forms dated early billion years ago fact perfectly


found today suggesting fundamental features carbon cycle established early billion years ago third atmosphere constant rearrangement continents plate tectonics influences long term evolution atmosphere transferring carbon dioxide large continental carbonate stores free oxygen exist atmosphere billion years ago great oxygenation event appearance indicated end banded iron formations oxygen produced photosynthesis consumed oxidation reduced materials notably iron molecules


free oxygen start accumulate atmosphere rate production oxygen began exceed availability reducing materials point shift reducing atmosphere oxidizing atmosphere sub sub showed major variations reaching steady state end precambrian following time span phanerozoic eon oxygen breathing metazoan life forms began appear amount oxygen atmosphere fluctuated last million years reaching peak ref name beerling ref carboniferous period significantly


higher today 's two main processes govern changes atmosphere plants use carbon dioxide atmosphere releasing oxygen breakdown pyrite volcanic eruptions release sulfur atmosphere oxidizes hence reduces amount oxygen atmosphere however volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide plants convert oxygen exact cause variation amount oxygen atmosphere known periods much oxygen atmosphere associated rapid development animals today 's atmosphere contains oxygen high enough


rapid development animals climate geological ages timeline glaciations shown blue huronian glaciation first known glaciation earth 's history lasted million years ago cryogenian glaciation lasted million years ago andean saharan glaciation lasted million years ago karoo glaciation lasted million years ago quaternary glaciation current glaciation period began million years ago scientists published continuous high fidelity record variations earth 's climate past million years


identified four climate states separated transitions include changing greenhouse gas levels polar ice sheets volumes integrated data various sources warmest climate state since time dinosaur extinction hothouse endured mya mya nbsp c warmer average modern temperatures precambrian climate climate late precambrian showed major glaciation events spreading much earth time continents bunched rodinia supercontinent massive deposits tillites anomalous isotopic signatures found gave rise snowball earth


concentrations linked driving amplifying increased global temperatures royer et al ref name dana ref found climate sensitivity rest phanerozoic calculated similar today 's modern range values difference global mean temperatures fully glacial earth ice free earth estimated nbsp c though far larger changes would observed high latitudes smaller ones low latitudes one requirement development large scale ice sheets seems arrangement continental land masses near poles constant


rearrangement continents plate tectonics also shape long term climate evolution however presence absence land masses poles sufficient guarantee glaciations exclude polar ice caps evidence exists past warm periods earth 's climate polar land masses similar antarctica home deciduous forests rather ice sheets relatively warm local minimum jurassic cretaceous goes along increase subduction mid ocean ridge volcanism due breakup pangea supercontinent superimposed long term evolution hot cold climates many


short term fluctuations climate similar sometimes severe varying glacial interglacial states present ice age severe fluctuations paleocene eocene thermal maximum may related rapid climate changes due sudden collapses natural methane clathrate reservoirs oceans similar single event induced severe climate change meteorite impact proposed reason cretaceous paleogene extinction event major thresholds permian triassic ordovician silurian extinction events various reasons suggested quaternary climate doi access free ref note length glacial interglacial cycles averages


years holocene temperature variations quaternary geological period includes current climate cycle ice ages past million years starting quaternary late neogene period note graphic right strong year periodicity cycles striking asymmetry curves asymmetry believed result complex interactions feedback mechanisms observed ice ages deepen progressive steps recovery interglacial conditions occurs one big step graph left shows temperature change


past years various sources thick black curve average climate forcings climate forcing difference radiant energy sunlight received earth outgoing longwave radiation back space radiative forcing quantified based co sub sub amount tropopause units watts per square meter earth 's surface dependent radiative balance incoming outgoing energy earth either warms cools earth radiative balance originates changes solar insolation concentrations greenhouse gases aerosols climate change may


due internal processes earth sphere 's following external forcings internal processes forcings earth 's climate system involves atmosphere biosphere cryosphere hydrosphere lithosphere sum processes earth 's spheres affects climate greenhouse gasses act internal forcing climate system particular interests climate science paleoclimatology focus study earth climate sensitivity response sum forcings examples thermohaline circulation hydrosphere life biosphere external forcings milankovitch cycles determine earth distance position sun solar insolation total amount


solar radiation received earth volcanic eruptions considered internal forcing ref name ipcc ar ref human changes composition atmosphere land use ref name ipcc ar mechanisms timescales millions years uplift mountain ranges subsequent weathering processes rocks soils subduction tectonic plates important part carbon cycle weathering sequesters co sub sub reaction minerals chemicals especially silicate weathering co sub sub thereby removing co sub sub atmosphere reducing radiative forcing opposite effect volcanism responsible natural greenhouse


effect emitting co sub sub atmosphere thus affecting glaciation ice age cycles james hansen suggested humans emit co sub sub times faster natural processes done past ice sheet dynamics continental positions linked vegetation changes important factors long term evolution earth 's climate also close correlation co sub sub temperature co sub sub strong control global temperatures earth history see also references notes bibliography ''the climates geological past'' die klimate der geologischen vorzeit wladimir k ppen alfred wegener facsimile german


original english translation http wwwborntraeger cramerde ''the climates geological past klimate der geologischen vorzeit'' borntraeger berlin stuttgart karl heinz ludwig ''eine kurze geschichte des klimas von der entstehung der erde bis heute short history climate evolution earth till today '' herbst external links http wwwncdcnoaagov paleo paleohtml noaa paleoclimatology https webarchiveorg web http stratusastruclacbe textbook pdf chapter pdf short history climate climate history


'''athletic director''' commonly '''athletics director''' '''ad''' administrator many american clubs institutions colleges universities well larger high schools middle schools oversees work coaches related staff involved athletic programs position institution modern athletic directors often precarious position especially larger institutions although technically charge coaches often far less well compensated also less famous television radio programs many coaches attempting

Human physical performance and recreation


powerful coaches usually highest paid employees state based division school 's athletic needs athletic directors also charge scheduling games events monitoring team 's players making sure coaches players anyone heavily involved department complying sports agency 's regulations ref name chroncom ref bachelor 's degree required divisions master 's degree preferred larger schools ref name chroncom degrees normally consist sports management psychology physical education business management ref name chroncom top athletic directors high


athletic duties part position vanderbilt 's vice president student life university since returned traditional division model separate athletic department williams returning formal title athletic director resigned role shortly death athletic directors coaches formerly especially major football playing institutions particularly south head football coach also ad among coaches hold simultaneously hold ad position bear bryant texas alabama ray perkins alabama frank broyles arkansas pat dye


auburn ray graves florida wally butts georgia vince dooley georgia charles shira mississippi state bud wilkinson oklahoma robert neyland tennessee darrell royal texas emory bellard texas broyles retired arkansas football coach remained razorbacks athletic director dooley retired georgia football coach remained athletic director well lsu one exceptions rule south football coach charles mcclendon nearly bolted texas offered combined position football coach athletic director aggies january


remained baton rouge successful lobbying lsu athletic director carl maddox louisiana governor john mckeithen kentucky always kept coaching athletic director positions separate even period bear bryant coached football adolph rupp coached men 's basketball even though bryant rupp technically equals athletic director bernie shively bryant chafed impression far less powerful far less revered rupp main factor departure lexington usually done nominal sense giving coach additional prestige additional pay


knowledge supervision college president chancellor perhaps athletics committee supervision often token associate athletics director actually performed functions athletic director daily basis name coach institutions basketball predominant sport head men 's basketball coach treated similarly recent decades system almost entirely abandoned collegiate sports especially compliance aspects become far complicated undertaking run part time basis


last football coach hold positions major university derek dooley louisiana tech leaving become head coach tennessee season paul dietzel lsu tom osborne nebraska coached football teams respective schools national championships later came back athletic director working elsewhere dietzel left lsu following football season coached army south carolina returning lsu ad osborne served three terms united states house representatives coaching cornhuskers


returned nebraska ad johnny vaught coached ole miss share national championship rebels' athletic director original year tenure football coach hired coach also given duties athletic director three games season vaught stepped football coach end season remained athletic director additionally old line coaches demanded total control condition employment since either retired dooley 's


case forced died bryant died four weeks coaching final football game alabama leaving place new generation desirous arrangement made available additionally developed sources income shoe contracts radio television appearance fees endorsement contracts make income might come additional duty athletic director unnecessary increasingly college athletic directors less likely retired active coaches physical education sports administration degrees likely persons


majored business administration related field budget major athletic department large american university routinely level tens millions dollars enterprises demand professional management athletic directors professional organization us national association collegiate directors athletics individuals may referred athletic directors mentioned many us high schools someone performs duty least part time basis usually conjunction another coaching administrative position school districts


full time director athletics additionally corporations sponsor recreational competitive sports may employ athletic director see also list ncaa division athletic directors national association collegiate directors athletics references c jensen overman ''administration management physical education athletic programs'' th edition waveland press chapter school athletics program external links http wwwnacdacom national association collegiate directors athletics http wwwd acom division athletic directors' association https webarchiveorg web http wwwathleticmanagementcom group discussion indexphp group discussion high school athletic directors achieve success https webarchiveorg web http wwwlivestrongcom article duties sports director duties sports director livestrongcom aug


film screening room georgetown university washington dc '''film studies''' academic discipline deals various theoretical historical critical approaches cinema art form medium sometimes subsumed within media studies often compared television studies ref name dyer film studies less concerned advancing proficiency film production exploring narrative artistic cultural economic political implications cinema ref name dyer ref searching social ideological values film studies takes series critical approaches analysis production theoretical framework context

Journalism, media studies and communication


art writing film historiography modern film became invention industry late nineteenth century generation film producers directors existed significantly academic analysis followed later generations early film schools focused production subjective critique film rather critical approaches history theory used study academically since time film created concept film studies whole grew analyze formal aspects film created established moscow film school


reich among lecturers eg willi forst heinrich george complete studies academy student expected create film movement away hollywood productions turned cinema artistic independent endeavor creation auteur theory asserted film director 's vision art prompted film studies become truly considered academically worldwide film critic robin wood writings alfred hitchcock declared hitchcock 's films contained complexities shakespeare 's plays similarly


jean luc godard contributor influential magazine ''cahiers du cinema'' wrote jerry lewisis one hollywood something different one n't falling established categories norms principles lewis one today 's making courageous films stable enrollment proper budgets interest humanities numerous universities contained ability offer distinct film studies programs individuals created criteria film studies rather growing community film industry academics began criticize document analyze films eventually conforming


film theory criticism auteur theory schreiber theory modern film studies today film studies exists worldwide discipline specific schools dedicated aspects film studies grown encompass numerous methods teaching history culture society many liberal arts colleges universities contain courses specifically geared toward analysis film ref name colbo ref also exemplifying increased diversity film studies fact high schools across united states offer classes film theory many programs conjoin film studies media television studies taking knowledge parts visual production


approach growing technologies film youtube films concretely used teach reflection culture art around world primary medium due ever growing dynamic film studies wide variety curricula emerged analysis critical approaches used film although institution power form study material students usually expected grasp knowledge conceptual shifts film vocabulary analysis film form style sense ideological dimensions film awareness extra


textual domains possible direction film future universities offer students course field film analysis critically engage production films also allows students take part research seminars specialized topics enhance critical abilities common curriculum curriculum tertiary level film studies programs often include limited introduction film studies modes film studies close analysis film history film media analysis emphasis attention time period attention regional creation attention genre


attention creators methods film production diverse courses make film studies majors minors come exist within schools ref name film ref ref name gt ref ref name usc ref united states film studies united states universities offer courses specifically toward film studies schools committed minor major programs currently different tertiary institutions nationwide offer major program film studies ref name colbo number continues grow year new interest film studies discipline institutions offering film degrees part arts communications curriculum differ institutions dedicated film program curriculum


combination film study study film want able analyze numerous films released united states every year academic setting understand history cinema art form films reflect culture period united states around world world film studies film studies throughout world exist countries due high cost film production third world countries left film industry especially academic setting despite fact prosperous


countries ability study film aspects film studies discourse film found schools around world often international attention aesthetics film emerge film festivals example cannes film festival prestigious world though discourse revolves around film industry promotion exist within academic school setting numerous aspects analysis critical approaches taken account international stage prominent scholars hugo nsterberg ricciotto canudo germaine dulac b la bal zs siegfried kracauer vsevolod


pudovkin jean epstein sergei eisenstein lev kuleshov jean mitry rudolf arnheim paul rotha andr bazin alexandre astruc gilles deleuze stanley cavell andrew sarris jean louis baudry christian metz fran ois truffaut robin wood l burch raymond durgnat e ann kaplan jeanine basinger teresa de lauretis peter wollen richard barsam teshome gabriel raymond bellour molly haskell marsha kinder vivian sobchack claire johnston laura mulvey robert stam james naremore bill nichols james monaco jacques aumont pam cook peter bondanella barbara creed jonathan rosenbaum thomas elsaesser serge daney hamid naficy richard dyer ian christie dudley andrew annette kuhn janet staiger linda williams l carroll francesco


casetti david bordwell michel chion b ruby rich slavoj ek colin maccabe kristin thompson mary ann doane elizabeth cowie jonathan beller geoff andrew adrian martin david kipen mark cousins academic journals ''cinema journal'' ''film quarterly'' ''historical journal film radio television'' ''journal film video'' ''journal popular film television'' ''new review film television studies'' ''screen'' ''the velvet light trap'' ''television new media'' see also cinemeducation use film medical education cinephilia film genre filmmaking glossary motion picture terms experimental film fictional film history film philosophy film


bishop patrick mcgrath giving homily palo alto california '''homiletics''' ref name eb ''homil tik s'' ''homilos'' assembled crowd throng religion application general principles rhetoric specific art public preaching ref name eb ref one practices studies homiletics may called ''homilist'' simply ''preacher'' explanation homiletics means art preaching homiletics comprises study composition delivery religious discourses includes forms preaching sermons homilies catechetical instruction may defined study analysis classification

Applied science
Divinity
Field ministry
Homiletics


preparation composition delivery sermons ref name eb formation lectureships like lyman beecher course yale university resulted increased emphasis homiletics published volumes series useful source information regarding history practice discipline ref name eb branch pastoral theology ''catholic encyclopedia'' defines homiletics branch rhetoric treats composition delivery sermons homilies ref name ce ref definition particularly influential th century among thinkers like john broadus karl barth karl resisted definition term maintaining


mount example former discourse last supper example latter ref name ce cannot said preaching took definite rounded form sense modern sermon aim sow seed word scattered abroad like sower parable commission apostles included kinds former missionary preaching see paul apostle 's sermon referred exemplifies second kind preaching apostles supported


cf cor xiv particularly true justin martyr wearing philosopher 's cloak went purpose sermons faithful early ages simplest kind merely expositions paraphrases passage scripture read coupled ''extempore'' effusions heart explains little nothing way sermons homilies surviving period also explains strange statement made sozomen hist eccl vii xix cassiodorus tripartite history duchesne apparently accepts


one preached rome sozomen wrote time pope xystus iii office thomassin 's explanation sozomen 's statement preaching sense elaborate finished discourse time pope leo exception perhaps address virginity pope liberius office marcellina sister st ambrose occasion taking veil regarded private discourse ref name ce reason attributes stress persecution neander note says sozomen 's


set lectionary readings ref name autogenerated ref origen third century theologian preached books old testament many new today origen 's sermons scripture expository evangelistic fourth century system developed readings law prophets epistles gospels read order followed sermon ref name autogenerated john chrysostom recognized one greatest preachers age sermons begin exegesis followed application practical problems office preaching belonged bishops


priests preached permission even two distinguished men augustine hippo john chrysostom preached priests commissioned respective bishops origen layman expounded scriptures special permission felix priest martyr preached third century two bishops maximus quintus priests forbidden preach alexandria account arian controversy custom springing spread north africa valerius bishop hippo broke st augustine yet


priest preach unable facility latin language cum non satis expedite latino sermone concionari posset custom place possidius relates valerius justified action appeal east orientalibus ecclesiis id ex fieri sciens even time prohibition alexandria priests socrates sozomen interpreted scriptures publicly c sarea cappadocia cyprus candles lighted ''accensis lucernis'' soon church received freedom


constantine preaching developed much least external form first time perhaps except st cyprian art oratory applied preaching especially st gregory nazianzus florid cappadocia 's triumvirate genius already trained orator many hearers wonder otto bardenhewer expresses pay tribute taste time demanded florid grandiloquent style time condemned preachers used eloquence pronunciation


theatre notable preachers century st basil two gregories clover leaf cappadocia sts chrysostom ambrose augustine hilary noted orators number greatest st chrysostom greatest since st paul since equalled even gibbon justice praise teacher rhetoric libanius said intended john successor christians taken mistake however imagine preached oratorical sermons quite contrary st chrysostom 's homilies


models simplicity frequently interrupted discourse put questions order make sure understood st augustine 's motto humbled christ might exalted passing might refer strange feature time applause preacher greeted st chrysostom especially make frequent appeals hearers keep quiet bishops commonly preached outside dioceses especially great cities polished sermons evidently demand stipend given read two asiatic bishops


antiochus severianus went constantinople preach desirous money spiritual welfare hearers ref name ce decline west age described preaching decline west partly decay latin language cf f nelon dial east owing controversies arianism nestorianism eutychianism macedonianism heresies still preaching regarded chief duty bishops instance c sarius bishop arles gave charge temporal affairs diocese deacons


might devote time reading scriptures prayer preaching next great name preaching st gregory great particularly homilist preached twenty homilies dictated twenty illness loss voice unable preach personally urged bishops strongly preach holding example apostles threatened bishops sardinia edict issued king guntram stating assistance public judges used


laid bishops preach sundays feast days either ' 'suo marte'' though vicars second council reims xiv xv enjoined bishops preach homilies sermons fathers could understand third council tours xvii year bishops ordered make translation homilies fathers rustic roman tongue theodesque rustic roman tongue species corrupt latin patois understood uneducated thomassin de benef ii


l iii c lxxxv p nbsp charlemagne louis pious equally insistent necessity preaching former went far appoint special day bishop failed preach cathedral day deposed pastors ordered preach people best could knew scriptures preach least exhort hearers avoid evil good sixth council arles x ref name ce middle ages preaching


would compare favorably hollow declamation much lauded later period sermons wholly verse intense inclusiveness thought remind one sermon mount magna promisimus majora promissa sunt nobis servemus h c adspiremus ad illa voluptas brevis p na perpetua modica passio gloria infinita multorum vocatio paucorum electio omnium retributio st francis ref name ce preaching time francis assisi preaching honorius iii characteristics preaching time extraordinary use scripture mere introducing sacred text


accretion use comes entwinement preacher 's thought would almost appear many preachers knew scriptures heart ref name ce cases however admirable use marred exaggerated mystical interpretation originated east much sought jews secondly power part preachers adapting discourses wants poor ignorant thirdly simplicity aim impress single striking idea fourthly use familiar maxims examples illustrations life minds must


much touch nature fifthly intense realization necessarily resulted certain dramatic effect saw eyes heard ears past became present ref name ce scholastic philosophy supplied almost inexhaustible store information trained mind analysis precision whilst time supplied lucidity order cogency arrangement look vain even great orations chrysostom ref name ce philosophy regards man intellectual without considering emotions makes appeal solely intellectual


side even appeal philosophy like algebra speaking formal language intellect likely wanting view point persuasiveness inasmuch nature makes condensation rather amplification latter important thing oratory summa laus eloquenti amplificare rem ornando f nelon second dialogue describes portrayal de quincey holding thought mind gets time eddy newman gives masterly analysis sermons remarkable quality amplification


bourdaloue intellectual massillon intellectual emotional side v g latter 's sermon prodigal son philosophy indeed necessary oratory philosophy alone constitute oratory one sided may injurious effect logic therefore much useful referred one place well couched heads topics time open contracted palm graceful ornate rhetoric stated refers philosophy system individual philosophers scarcely necessary


say many scholastics sts thomas bonaventure noted preachers ref name ce discussion history preaching reference mystics called tendency mysticism main opposite philosophy mysticism makes warmth philosophy coldness cold mountain star pitched tent stood high philosophy next noted period history preaching renaissance period treated proper place preaching humanism contributed oratorical display piety pulpit


motto two representative types reuchlin erasmus back cicero quintilian erasmus visiting rome exclaimed quam mellitas eruditorum hominum confabulationes quot mundi lumina pierre batiffol says one good friday preaching pope famous orator roman court considered could better praise sacrifice calvary relating self devotion decius sacrifice iphigenia fortunately period last long good sense ecclesiastics rebelled religious upheaval soon followed gave something else think


reformation post reformation period air charged controversy favour high class preaching council trent recommended preachers turn aside polemics also pronounced primary duty preaching devolved bishops unless hindered legitimate impediment ordered preach person church impeded others churches pastors representatives ref name ce notable french preachers jacques b nigne bossuet french preachers classical seventeenth century period according voltaire probably greatest pulpit oratory time


sublime peroration became fashion following age dialogues f nelon however remained check dialogues bishop dupanloup said precepts f nelon well understood would long since fixed character sacred eloquence among us principles laid blaise gisbert ''l'eloquence chr tienne dans l'id e et dans la pratique'' amadeus bajocensis ''paulus ecclesiastes seu eloquentia christiana'' guido ab angelis ''de verbi dei pr dicatione'' sounded return simplicity style church fathers ref name ce


elusive committed pages book jesuit p de ravignan shared lacordaire pulpit notre dame less eloquent men followed semi religious semi philosophic style beginning grow tiresome jacques marie louis monsabr disciple lacordaire set aside confined explanation creed whereupon sententiously remarked bell ringing long enough time mass begin cf boyle irish eccl rec may ref name ce present day preaching present day clearly trace


influence many respects scholasticism matter form matter sermon may either moral dogmatic historical liturgical moral dogmatic meant one element predominate without however excluding form discourse may either formal set sermon homily catechetical instruction formal set sermon influence scholasticism strikingly seen analytic method resulting divisions subdivisions thirteenth century method however beginnings sermons sts bernard anthony


underlying syllogism every well thought sermon due scholasticism far appear question belongs treatise homiletics catechetical discourse much favoured pope pius x might regarded one characteristics preaching present day however old form preaching used christ st paul st cyril jerusalem st clement origen alexandria st augustine wrote special treatise thereon de catechizandis rudibus


also later times gerson chancellor university paris wrote de parvulis ad christum trahendis clement xi benedict xiv gave weight authority one greatest catechists st charles borromeo danger however nature subject form preaching becoming dry purely didactic mere catechesis doctrinism exclusion moral element sacred scripture recent days organized missionary preaching non catholics received new stimulus united


states particularly form religious activity flourished paulists amongst name father hecker deserving special mention mainly identified revival special facilities afforded central institute organization training impart catechetical instruction non controversial principles association calculated commend earnestly seeking religion ref name ce homiletic directory roman catholic church holy see congregation divine worship discipline sacraments headed february


cardinal prefect robert sarah published official guide directory use bishops priests deacons charged ministry preaching virtue ordination studying subject among others seminarians diaconal formation called ''homiletic directory'' ref name hd congregation divine worship discipline sacraments http onlineministriescreightonedu collaborativeministry homileticdirectorypdf homiletic directory vatican city ref directory developed response request made participants synod bishops held word god accordance instructions pope benedict


xvi ref name hd bibliography historical development st john chrysostom st augustine practice preceded theory certain ideas found church fathers collected paniel introduction work geschichte der christlich beredsamkeit first treat theory preaching st john chrysostom work priesthood ''peri hierosynes'' inasmuch contains reflections preaching st augustine 's ''de doctrina christiana'' ''ddc'' might regarded first manual subject first three books deal collecting materials


preaching modus inveniendi qu intelligenda sunt last presentation thereof modus proferendi qu intellecta sunt goes roman pagan orator cicero rules latter makes distinction evidently follows cicero ' 'sapientia'' wisdom ''eloquentia'' best expression sapientia without eloquentia good neither eloquentia without sapientia may harm ideal sapientia eloquentia adapts cicero 's ''ut doceat ut delectet ut flectat'' changing ''ut veritas pateat ut placeat ut moveat'' lays rules


sermon judged work augustine classic one homiletics ref name ce augustine explains homiletics book iv ''ddc'' describes practically relation classical theory oratory five parts ''inventio'' choice subject decision order ' 'dispositio'' structure oration ''elocutio'' arrangement words figure speech ''memoria'' learning heart ''pronuntiatio'' delivery constructed theory four parts basic principles rhetoric ''ddc'' study rhetoric scriptural


order continuous diligent study bible important mere memorization say pursue wisdom knowledge ''ddc'' best combination wisdom eloquence seen pauline letters prophetic writings ''ddc'' yet praise eloquence rather prefers concrete proclamation showing rhetorical technique ''ddc'' truth rhetoric preachers try deliver ''ddc'' significant practice discipline prayer augustine advises prayer


preacher preachers pray sermon ''ddc'' augustine good model practice preaching invited congregation pray ''epistula'' sermon also prayed ''sermones'' augustine homiletics time prayer precious time time time audience meets god truth time understand truth god fully prayer major means grace knowing god augustine says love


important discipline christian life sermon ''de disciplina christiana'' one adds another christian discipline besides love prayer come first preacher good example sermons manner life eloquent sermon ''copia dicendi forma vivendi'' ''ddc'' cases seems true sermon preacher cannot better life vice versa seems also true sermon cannot worse preacher life preacher endeavors humility


discipline love better sermon becomes three always necessary christian teachers humility discipline love greatest love goal command love tim cited ''ddc'' hugh st victor hugh st victor died middle ages laid three conditions sermon holy prudent noble respectively required sanctity knowledge eloquence preacher fran ois f nelon stipulated must prove must portray


fieri debet one historical landmarks preaching replete judicious instruction recommends preaching preceded prayer says important preach morals faith moral sermons human heart must studied best way massillon recommended later times look one 's original independent work rabanus maurus said drew largely st augustine ref name ce guibert 's work recommended pope


alexander model preachers st francis gave friars directions herein contained ref name ce alain de lille period belongs summa de arte pr dicatori alain de lille defines preaching manifesta et publica instructio morum et fidei informationi hominum deserviens ex rationum semit et auctoritatum fonte proveniens lays stress explanation use scripture recommends preacher insert verba commotiva remarks c sarius heisterbach died collected cruel sermons display skill construction considerable oratorical power


conrad brundelsheim died whose sermons come us cognomen brother sock sermones fratris socci one interesting preachers time germany humbert romans general superior dominicans second book work de eruditione pr dicatorum claims teach way promptly producing sermon set men variety circumstances linsenmayer history preaching gives information humbert severe critic sermons time trithemius quotes work


attributed simply compilation ideas preaching made another henry hesse credited treatise de arte pr dicandi probably due monograph quoted hartwig interesting classification forms sermon ''modus antiquissimus'' e postillatio purely exegetic homily modus modernus thematic style ''modus antiquus'' sermon biblical text ''modus subalternus'' mixture homiletic text sermon jerome dungersheym wrote tract ''de modo discendi et docendi ad


humanists johannes reuchlin ''liber congestorum de arte pr dicandi'' desiderius erasmus ''ecclesiastes seu de ratione concionandi'' return marked cicero quintilian masterwork art preaching rhetorica sacra lisbon luis de granada modern use rather old work shows easy grasp rhetoric founded principles aristotle demetrius cicero treats usual subjects invention arrangement style delivery easy polished latin class didacus stella liberdemodo concionandi valerio italy also wrote art


preaching another landmark preaching instructiones pastorum charles borromeo request valerio bishop verona wrote systematic treatise homiletics entitled rhetorica ecclesiastica points difference profane sacred eloquence emphasizes two principal objects preacher teach move ' 'docere et commovere'' ref name ce laurentius villavicentio work de formandis sacris concionibus disapproves transferring ancient modes speaking preaching would treat truths gospel according tim iii also recommended moderation


fighting heresy view st francis borgia whose contribution homiletics small practical work libellus de ratione concionandi claudius acquaviva general jesuits wrote instructio pro superioribus principally ascetic regulated spiritual training necessary preacher carolus regius sj deals orator christianus whole field homiletics grouping de concionatore de concione de concionantis prudenti et industri much found writings st vincent de paul st alphonsus liguori st francis de


sales especially celebrated letter andr fremiot archbishop bourges ref name ce among dominicans alexander natalis wrote institutio concionantium tripartita paris ref name ce rhetorica ecclesiastica jacobus de graffiis contained symposium instructions preaching franciscan francis panigarola jesuit francis borgia carmelite johannes jesu ref name ce dialogues f nelon works p blaise gisbert amadeus bajocensis guido ab angelis already referred nineteenth century homiletics took place branch pastoral theology many manuals written


thereon instance german compendia brand laberenz zarbl fluck sch ch italian gotti guglielmo audisio many french english ref name ce relation profane rhetoric assert independent character homiletics say independent origin matter purpose upholders view point passages scripture fathers notably words paul testimony cyprian arnobius lactantius gregory nazianzus augustine hippo jerome john chrysostom last named says great difference may summed


orator seeks personal glory preacher practical good ref name ce paul 's sermons many cases replete oratory ''eg'' sermon areopagus oratorical element generally enters largely scripture lactantius regretted trained preachers gregory well chrysostom augustine made use rhetoric preaching gregory censured use pulpit eloquence pronunciation theatre demetrius ''on style'' uses many tricks speech ref name ce references references reading aleksandrov andrian post constantine preaching three holy


hierarchs christian paradigm united europe historical religious dimension reign saint constantine great present reception editor sergiu popescu publisher mitropolia oltenia regional development foundation pages digby 's mores catholici vol ii pp nbsp neale medi val sermons alistair stewart sykes ''from prophecy preaching search origins christian homily'' leiden brill older literature cited exhaustively wg blaikie ''for work ministry'' dp kidder ''treatise homiletics'' external links http wwwchristianhomilycom sunday feast homily resources english homily videos


malayalam fr abraham mutholath http wwwpreachingorg homiletic thought evangelical perspective http wwwnewadventorg cathen ahtm homiletics ''catholic encyclopedia'' article http wwwsaintsworksnet bookslist newbooklisthtml sermons sermons material sermons http wwwamericanrabbicom american rabbi rabbinic resource sermons stories anecdotes writings today 's rabbis practical theology christian genres christian terminology


'''domestic policy''' administrative decisions directly related issues activity within state 's borders differs foreign policy refers ways government advances interests external politics domestic policy covers wide range areas including business education energy healthcare law enforcement money taxes natural resources social welfare personal rights freedoms shaping implementing domestic policy form government particular state largely determines domestic policy formed implemented authoritarian governments ruling group may pursue domestic policy goals without

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input consent people governed parliamentary democratic societies citizens much greater influence democracy formal design domestic policy chiefly responsibility elected leaders lawmaking bodies specialized government agencies number factors also play role process voters instance determine individuals political parties power determine policy mass media distribute opine information domestic issues influence beliefs opinions people lobbyists activist groups organizations also work


influence policy variety methods methods may include monetary donations promises support advertising campaigns demonstrations protests effectiveness domestic policy depends government bureaucracy system agencies puts laws programs action cases bureaucracies act slowly inefficiently fail apply policies originally intended domestic policy may also face challenges courts many countries courts power judicial review allows judges strike legislative executive action find violation polity 's


'''history iran''' commonly known mid th century persia western world intertwined history larger region also extent known greater iran comprising area anatolia west borders ancient india syr darya east caucasus eurasian steppe north persian gulf gulf oman south iran home one world 's oldest continuous major civilizations historical urban settlements dating back

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bc ref name peoplecn http enpeoplecn html people new evidence modern civilization began iran aug retrieved october ref south western western part iranian plateau participated traditional ancient near east elam early bronze age later various peoples kassites mannaeans gutians georg wilhelm friedrich hegel calls persians first historical people ref name irhegel ref medes unified iran nation empire bc ref name encyclop dia britannica concise encyclopedia article media http wwwbritannicacom ebc article encyclop dia britannica concise encyclopedia article media ref achaemenid empire bc founded cyrus


great first true global superpower state ruled balkans north africa also central asia spanning three continents seat power persis persepolis largest empire yet seen first world empire ref name book ref achaemenid empire civilization history connect global population accounting approximately million world 's million people around bc succeeded seleucid parthian sasanian empires successively governed iran almost years made


iran leading power world persia 's arch rival roman empire successor byzantine empire iranian empire proper begins iron age following influx iranian peoples iranian people gave rise medes achaemenid parthian sasanian empires classical antiquity major empire iran endured invasions macedonians arabs turks mongols iran continually reasserted national identity throughout centuries developed distinct political cultural entity muslim conquest persia ended sasanian empire


turning point iranian history islamization iran took place eighth tenth centuries leading eventual decline zoroastrianism iran well many dependencies however achievements previous persian civilizations lost great extent absorbed new islamic polity civilization iran long history early cultures empires suffered particularly hard late middle ages early modern period many invasions nomadic tribes whose leaders became rulers country affected negatively iran


iran officially became islamic republic april ref name britannica http wwwbritannicacom eb article encyclop dia britannica january ref course first half th century iran lost many territories caucasus part iran centuries comprising modern day eastern georgia dagestan republic azerbaijan armenia rapidly expanding emerging rival neighbor russian empire following russo persian wars ref name booksgooglenl timothy c dowling https booksgooglecom booksid ktq bqaaqbaj pg pa ''russia war mongol conquest afghanistan chechnya beyond'' pp abc clio december ref


prehistory paleolithic earliest archaeological artifacts iran found kashafrud ganj par sites thought date back years ago middle paleolithic mousterian stone tools made neanderthals also found ref name museum http wwwpbasecom k amj tehran museum retrieved march ref cultural remains neanderthals dating back middle paleolithic period mainly found zagros region fewer central iran sites kobeh kunji bisitun cave tamtama warwasi yafteh cave neanderthal radius discovered carleton coon


bisitun cave evidence upper paleolithic epipaleolithic periods known mainly zagros mountains caves kermanshah khorramabad number sites alborz central iran time people began creating rock art neolithic chalcolithic early agricultural communities chogha golan bc along settlements chogha bonut earliest village elam bc began flourish around zagros mountains region western iran ref name mma ref around time earliest known clay vessels modelled human animal terracotta


figurines produced ganj dareh also western iran ref name mma also year old human animal figurines tepe sarab kermanshah province among many ancient artefacts ref name museum south western part iran part fertile crescent humanity 's first major crops grown villages susa settlement first founded possibly early cal bc settlements chogha mish dating back bc ref name xinhuaciv http newsxinhuanetcom english content htm xinhua new evidence modern civilization began iran aug retrieved october ref year old


jars wine excavated zagros mountains display university pennsylvania ruins year old settlements tepe sialk testament two main neolithic iranian settlements zayandeh river culture ganj dareh bronze age cylinder ritual scene early nd millennium bc geoy tepe iran chogha zanbil one extant ziggurats outside mesopotamia considered best preserved example world parts modern day northwestern iran part kura araxes culture circa bc ca bc


stretched neighbouring regions caucasus anatolia ref name booksgooglenl page ref ref name ancient turkey page ref susa one oldest known settlements iran world based c dating time foundation city early bc ref name elam pp archaeology elam formation transformation ancient iranian state potts cambridge university press pp hardback ref time right establishment ancient sumerian city uruk bc general perception among archaeologists


susa extension sumerian city state uruk hence incorporating many aspects mesopotamian culture later history susa became capital elam emerged state founded bc ref name elam pp also dozens prehistoric sites across iranian plateau pointing existence ancient cultures urban settlements fourth millennium bc ref name xinhuaciv one earliest civilizations iranian plateau jiroft culture southeastern iran province kerman one artefact rich archaeological sites middle


emergence iranian peoples early iron age early bronze age saw rise urbanization organized city states invention writing uruk period near east bronze age elam made use writing early time proto elamite script remains undeciphered records sumer pertaining elam scarce early iron age gold cup national museum iran dating first half st millennium bc records become tangible rise neo assyrian empire records incursions iranian plateau


early th century bc tribes came iranian plateau pontic caspian steppe arrival iranians iranian plateau forced elamites relinquish one area empire another take refuge elam khuzestan nearby area became coterminous elam ref name elam ref bahman firuzmandi say southern iranians might intermixed elamite peoples living plateau mid first millennium bc medes persians parthians populated iranian plateau rise medes remained assyrian domination like


rest near east first half first millennium bc parts iranian azerbaijan incorporated urartu classical antiquity median achaemenid empire bc gallery mode packed cyrus tombjpg tomb cyrus great gate nations persepolisjpg ruins gate nations persepolis apadana palace persepolisjpg ruins apadana persepolis medes persians eastern stairs apadana persepolisjpg depiction united medes persians apadana persepolis persepolis tachara jpg ruins tachara persepolis gallery bc assyrian king ashurbanipal sacked susa ended


elamite supremacy region ref name mma ref years assyrian kings nearby northern mesopotamia wanting conquer median tribes western iran ref name bnet ref pressure assyria small kingdoms western iranian plateau coalesced increasingly larger centralized states ref name mma second half seventh century bc medes gained independence united deioces bc cyaxares deioces' grandson babylonian king nabopolassar invaded assyria laid siege eventually destroyed nineveh assyrian capital led fall neo assyrian empire ref


name nineveh ref urartu later conquered dissolved well medes medes credited founding iran nation empire established first iranian empire largest day cyrus great established unified empire medes persians leading achaemenid empire c bc achaemenid empire greatest extent cyrus great overthrew turn median lydian neo babylonian empires creating empire far larger assyria better able benign policies reconcile subjects persian rule longevity


empire one result persian king like assyrian also king kings ''x ya iya x ya iy n m'' ' 'sh hansh h'' modern persian great king megas basileus known greeks cyrus 's son cambyses ii conquered last major power region ancient egypt causing collapse twenty sixth dynasty egypt since became ill died leaving egypt stories developed related herodotus struck impiety ancient egyptian deities winner darius based claim membership collateral line achaemenid


empire darius' first capital susa started building program persepolis rebuilt canal nile red sea forerunner modern suez canal improved extensive road system reign mentions first made royal road shown map great highway stretching way susa sardis posting stations regular intervals major reforms took place darius coinage form ' 'daric'' gold coin shekel silver coin standardized coinage already


invented century lydia c bc standardized administrative efficiency increased old persian language appears royal inscriptions written specially adapted version cuneiform script cyrus great darius persian empire eventually became largest empire human history point ruling administrating known world well spanning continents europe asia africa greatest achievement empire persian empire represented world 's first superpower ref name autogenerated ref ref name encyclopediacom ref based


model tolerance respect cultures religions alt late sixth century bc darius launched european campaign defeated paeonians conquered thrace subdued coastal greek cities well defeating european scythians around danube river ref name companion ancient macedonia joseph roisman ian worthington https booksgooglecom booksid qsj uudkmc pg pa ''a companion ancient macedonia'' john wiley sons pp pp ref macedon became vassal kingdom persia ref name companion ancient macedonia bc athens lent support revolt miletus resulted


persians including territories north isthmus corinth ref name aeschylus burian ref however also turned greek victory following battles plataea salamis persia lost footholds europe eventually withdrew greco persian wars persians gained major territorial advantages captured razed athens twice bce bce however string greek victories persians forced withdraw thus losing control macedonia thrace ionia fighting continued several decades successful


greek repelling second invasion numerous greek city states athens' newly formed delian league eventually ended peace callias bc ending greco persian wars bc following death darius ii egypt rebelled amyrtaeus later pharaohs successfully resisted persian attempts reconquer egypt bc egypt reconquered artaxerxes iii center panoramic view persepolis center greek conquest seleucid empire bce bce seleucid empire bc antiochus defeated romans bce bce alexander great defeated


darius iii battles granicus issus gaugamela swiftly conquering persian empire bce alexander 's empire broke shortly death alexander 's general seleucus nicator tried take control iran mesopotamia later syria anatolia empire seleucid empire killed bce ptolemy keraunos greek language philosophy art came colonists seleucid era greek became common tongue diplomacy literature throughout empire parthian empire bc ad parthian prince national museum iran alt parthian empire ruled


parthians group northwestern iranian people realm arsacid dynasty reunited governed iranian plateau parni conquest parthia defeating seleucid empire later third century bc intermittently controlled mesopotamia ca bc ad parthian empire quickly included eastern arabia bagadates first native persian ruler greek rule parthia eastern arch enemy roman empire limited rome 's expansion beyond cappadocia central anatolia parthian armies included two types cavalry heavily armed armored cataphracts


lightly armed highly mobile mounted archers romans relied heavy infantry parthians hard defeat types cavalry much faster mobile foot soldiers parthian shot used parthian cavalry notably feared roman soldiers proved pivotal crushing roman defeat battle carrhae hand parthians found difficult occupy conquered areas unskilled siege warfare weaknesses neither romans parthians able completely annex 's


territory parthian empire subsisted five centuries longer eastern empires end empire came last ad empire 's organization loosened last king defeated one empire 's vassal peoples persians sasanians however arsacid dynasty continued exist centuries onwards armenia iberia caucasian albania eponymous branches dynasty sasanian empire ad rock face relief naqsh e rustam iranian emperor shapur horseback capturing roman emperor valerian kneeing philip arab standing


hunting scene gilded silver bowl showing king khosrau first shah sasanian empire ardashir started reforming country economically militarily period years iran one leading powers world alongside neighbouring rival roman byzantine empires empire 's territory height encompassed today 's iran iraq azerbaijan armenia georgia abkhazia dagestan lebanon jordan palestine israel parts afghanistan turkey syria parts pakistan central asia eastern arabia parts egypt sassanian empire 's lifespan


overshadowed frequent byzantine sasanian wars continuation roman parthian wars comprising roman persian wars last longest lasting conflict human history started first century bc predecessors parthians romans last roman persian war fought seventh century persians defeated romans battle edessa took emperor valerian prisoner remainder life eastern arabia conquered early khosrow ii 's rule egypt jordan palestine lebanon also annexed empire sassanians called


defeated issus constantinople finally nineveh resulting peace conclusion years lasting roman persian wars climactic byzantine sasanian war included siege byzantine capital constantinople war exhausted persians lost battle al q disiyyah hilla present day iraq invading muslim forces sasanian era encompassing length late antiquity considered one important influential historical periods iran major impact world many ways sassanian period witnessed highest achievement


persian civilization constitutes last great iranian empire adoption islam persia influenced roman civilization considerably sassanian times cultural influence extending far beyond empire 's territorial borders reaching far western europe ref name autogenerated durant ref africa china india also playing prominent role formation european asiatic medieval art influence carried forward muslim world dynasty 's unique aristocratic culture transformed islamic conquest destruction iran persian renaissance ref name autogenerated much later became known islamic culture architecture writing


contributions civilization taken sassanian persians broader muslim world center battle heraclius' army persians khosrow ii fresco piero della francesca c center medieval period early islamic period islamic conquest persia expansion umayyad caliphate sasanian king yazdegerd iii ruling iran muslims umar invaded country right bloody civil war several iranian nobles families king dinar house karen later kanarangiyans khorasan mutinied sasanian overlords although


house mihran claimed sasanian throne two prominent generals bahr ch bin shahrbaraz remained loyal sasanians struggle arabs mihrans eventually betrayed defeated kinsmen house ispahbudhan leader farrukhzad mutinied yazdegerd iii yazdegerd iii fled one district another local miller killed purse merv muslims conquered greater khorasan included modern iranian khorasan province modern afghanistan parts transoxiana muslim conquest


persia ended sasanian empire led eventual decline zoroastrian religion persia time majority iranians converted islam aspects previous persian civilizations discarded absorbed new islamic polity bernard lewis commented ref umayyad era muslim incursions caspian coast fall sasanian empire arabs umayyad caliphate adopted many persian customs especially administrative court mannerisms arab provincial governors undoubtedly either persianized arameans ethnic persians certainly


persian remained language official business caliphate adoption arabic toward end seventh century minting began capital damascus new islamic coins evolved imitations sasanian coins well byzantine pahlavi script coinage replaced arabic alphabet umayyad caliphate arab conquerors imposed arabic primary language subject peoples throughout empire al hajjaj ibn yusuf happy prevalence persian language divan ordered official language


mount damavand region masmughans damavand arabs invaded regions several times achieved decisive result inaccessible terrain regions prominent ruler dabuyids known farrukhan great r managed hold domains long struggle arab general yazid ibn al muhallab defeated combined dailamite dabuyid army forced retreat tabaristan death umayyad caliph hisham ibn abd al malik islamic world launched civil war abu muslim sent


khorasan abbasid caliphate initially propagandist revolt behalf took merv defeating umayyad governor nasr ibn sayyar became de facto abbasid governor khurasan period dabuyid ruler khurshid declared independence umayyads shortly forced recognize abbasid authority abu muslim became leader abbasid army defeated umayyads battle zab abu muslim stormed damascus capital umayyad caliphate later year abbasid period autonomous iranian dynasties


saffarid dynasty ad map iranian dynasties mid th century abbasid army consisted primarily khorasanians led iranian general abu muslim khorasani contained iranian arab elements abbasids enjoyed iranian arab support abbasids overthrew umayyads ref name islamic conquest ref according amir arjomand abbasid revolution essentially marked end arab empire beginning inclusive multi ethnic state middle east ref name said sa amir arjomand abd allah ibn al muqaffa abbasid revolution iranian studies vol


change meant many caliphs abbasids ended much ceremonial role ever vizier real power new persian bureaucracy began replace old arab aristocracy entire administration reflected changes demonstrating new dynasty different many ways umayyads ref name ahgc th century abbasid control began wane regional leaders sprang far corners empire challenge central authority abbasid caliphate ref name ahgc abbasid caliphs began enlisting ''mamluks'' turkic speaking warriors


moving central asia transoxiana slave warriors early th century shortly thereafter real power abbasid caliphs began wane eventually became religious figureheads warrior slaves ruled ref name islamic conquest babak khorramdin leader ''the khurram yah movement'' devout zoroastrian led persian freedom movement oppressive arab rule alt th century also saw revolt native zoroastrians known khurramites oppressive arab rule movement led persian freedom fighter babak khorramdin babak 's iranianizing rebellion base azerbaijan


northwestern iran called return political glories iranian past khorramdin rebellion babak spread western central parts iran lasted twenty years defeated babak betrayed afshin senior general abbasid caliphate power abbasid caliphs diminished series dynasties rose various parts iran considerable influence power among important overlapping dynasties tahirids khorasan saffarids sistan rule lasted maliks


abbasids power name mongol invasion sacked city definitively ended abbasid dynasty ref name ahgc abbassid period enfranchisement experienced ''mawali'' shift made political conception primarily arab empire one muslim empire ref name tobin tobin ref c requirement enacted required bureaucrats empire muslim ref name astren islamic golden age shu'ubiyya movement persianization process qotbeddin shirazi persian astronomer depicting epicyclic planetary model alt islamization


long process islam gradually adopted majority population iran richard bulliet 's conversion curve indicates iran converted islam relatively arab centric umayyad period beginning abbasid period mix persian well arab rulers muslim percentage population rose persian muslims consolidated rule country muslim population rose approximately mid th century close end th century ref name tobin seyyed hossein nasr suggests rapid increase conversion aided


persian nationality rulers although persians adopted religion conquerors centuries worked protect revive distinctive language culture process known persianization arabs turks participated attempt ref name britannica encyclop dia britannica '' seljuq '' online edition http wwwbritannicacom eb article link ref th th centuries non arab subjects ummah created movement called shu'ubiyyah response privileged status arabs behind movement persian references egyptians berbers aramaeans attested citing basis islamic notions equality races


nations movement primarily concerned preserving persian culture protecting persian identity though within muslim context samanid dynasty led revival persian culture first important persian poet arrival islam rudaki born era praised samanid kings samanids also revived many ancient persian festivals successor ghaznawids non iranian turkic origin also became instrumental revival persian culture persian manuscript describing ambassador india probably sent maukhari king arvavarman kannauj brought chess


persian court khosrow ref name ref culmination persianization movement ''shahnameh'' national epic iran written almost entirely persian voluminous work reflects iran 's ancient history unique cultural values pre islamic zoroastrian religion sense nationhood according bernard lewis ref name lewis blockquote iran indeed islamized arabized persians remained persians interval silence iran emerged separate different distinctive element within islam eventually adding new element even islam culturally politically remarkable even religiously iranian contribution


new islamic civilization immense importance work iranians seen every field cultural endeavour including arabic poetry poets iranian origin composing poems arabic made significant contribution sense iranian islam second advent islam new islam sometimes referred islam ajam persian islam rather original arab islam brought new areas new peoples turks first central asia middle east country came


contributed technology science medicine later influencing rise european science renaissance important scholars almost islamic sects schools thought persian lived iran including notable reliable hadith collectors shia sunni like shaikh saduq shaikh kulainy hakim al nishaburi imam muslim imam bukhari greatest theologians shia sunni like shaykh tusi imam ghazali imam fakhr al razi al zamakhshari greatest physicians astronomers logicians mathematicians metaphysicians philosophers scientists like avicenna nas r al n al greatest shaykh sufism like


undertaken ghaznavid ruler mahmud continued several years unable hold power long however particularly death mahmud seljuqs taken ghaznavid lands iran ref name ahgc seljuqs like ghaznavids persianate nature turkic origin slowly conquered iran course th century ref name islamic conquest dynasty origins turcoman tribal confederations central asia marked beginning turkic power middle east established sunni muslim rule


parts central asia middle east th th centuries set empire known great seljuq empire stretched anatolia west western afghanistan east western borders modern day china north east target first crusade today regarded cultural ancestors western turks present day inhabitants turkey turkmenistan remembered great patrons persian culture art literature language ref name britannica encyclop dia britannica '' seljuq '' online edition http wwwbritannicacom eb article link ''


turkish seljuqs islamic tradition strong literary heritage adopted cultural language persian instructors islam literary persian thus spread whole iran arabic language disappeared country except works religious scholarship '' ref ref name iranica zg ndenli '' persian manuscripts ottoman modern turkish libraries '' encyclop dia iranica online edition http wwwiranicaonlineorg articles persian manuscripts ottoman link ref ref name ravandi ravandi '' seljuq court konya persianisation anatolian cities '' mesogeios mediterranean studies vol pp ref alt founder dynasty tughril beg turned army ghaznavids


khorasan moved south west conquering wasting cities path caliph baghdad gave tughril beg robes gifts title king east tughril beg 's successor malik shah iran enjoyed cultural scientific renaissance largely attributed brilliant iranian vizier nizam al mulk leaders established observatory omar khayy much experimentation new calendar built religious schools major towns brought abu hamid ghazali one greatest islamic theologians eminent


scholars seljuq capital baghdad encouraged supported work ref name islamic conquest malik shah died empire split brother four sons quarreled apportioning empire among anatolia malik shah succeeded kilij arslan founded sultanate r syria brother tutush persia succeeded son mahmud whose reign contested three brothers barkiyaruq iraq muhammad baghdad ahmad sanjar khorasan seljuq power


iran weakened dynasties began step place including resurgent abbasid caliphate khwarezmshahs khwarezmid empire sunni muslim persianate dynasty east turkic origin ruled central asia originally vassals seljuqs took advantage decline seljuqs expand iran khwarezmshah ala ad din tekish defeated seljuq sultan toghrul iii battle seljuq empire iran collapsed former seljuq empire sultanate rum anatolia remained serious internal threat seljuqs reign


eurasia eve mongol invasions ''c'' mongol empire 's expansion khwarazmian dynasty lasted decades arrival mongols genghis khan unified mongols mongol empire quickly expanded several directions bordered khwarezm time khwarazmian empire ruled ala ad din muhammad muhammad like genghis intent expanding lands gained submission iran declared shah demanded formal recognition abbasid caliph al nasir caliph rejected


claim ala ad din muhammad proclaimed one nobles caliph unsuccessfully tried depose nasir mongol invasion iran began two diplomatic missions khwarezm sent genghis khan massacred bukhara samarkand herat tus nishapur razed whole populations slaughtered khwarezm shah fled die island caspian coast invasion transoxiana along main mongol force genghis khan used chinese specialist catapult unit battle used transoxania chinese may


used catapults hurl gunpowder bombs since already time genghis khan conquering transoxania persia several chinese familiar gunpowder serving genghis 's army whole regiments entirely made chinese used mongols command bomb hurling trebuchets invasion iran historians suggested mongol invasion brought chinese gunpowder weapons central asia one huochong chinese mortar books written around area afterward depicted gunpowder weapons resembled china destruction mongols


libraries cases replaced mosques buddhist temples mongols killed many iranian civilians destruction qanat irrigation systems north east iran destroyed pattern relatively continuous settlements producing many abandoned towns relatively quite good irrigation agriculture ilkhanate mongol successor khanates genghis 's death iran ruled several mongol commanders genghis' grandson hulagu khan tasked westward expansion mongol dominion however time ascended power mongol empire already dissolved dividing different factions arriving army established


hulagu 's great grandson ghazan saw establishment islam state religion ilkhanate ghazan famous iranian vizier rashid al din brought iran partial brief economic revival mongols lowered taxes artisans encouraged agriculture rebuilt extended irrigation works improved safety trade routes result commerce increased dramatically items india china iran passed easily across asian steppes contacts culturally enriched iran example iranians developed new style painting based unique fusion solid two dimensional mesopotamian painting feathery


light brush strokes motifs characteristic china ghazan 's nephew abu said died however ilkhanate lapsed civil war divided several petty dynasties prominently jalayirids muzaffarids sarbadars kartids mid th century black death killed country 's population sunnism shiism pre safavid iran imam reza shrine tomb eighth imam twelver shiites prior rise safavid empire sunni islam dominant religion accounting around population time according mortaza motahhari


th century ismail founded safavid dynasty initiated religious policy recognize shi'a islam official religion safavid empire fact modern iran remains officially shi'ite state direct result ismail 's actions timurid empire detailed map timurid empire tributary states sphere influence western central asia forensic facial reconstruction turco mongol conqueror timur skull performed soviet archaeologist anthropologist mikhail mikhaylovich gerasimov iran remained divided arrival timur iranified turco mongol belonging


iran lost bulk black sheep turkmen black sheep turkmen conquered white sheep turkmen uzun hasan uzun hasan successors masters iran rise safavids ref name lcweb locgov sufi poet hafez 's popularity became firmly established timurid era saw compilation widespread copying ' 'divan'' sufis often persecuted orthodox muslims considered teachings blasphemous sufism developed symbolic language rich metaphors obscure poetic references provocative philosophical teachings hafez concealed


sufi faith even employed secret language sufism developed hundreds years work sometimes credited brought perfection work imitated jami whose popularity grew spread across full breadth persianate world kara koyunlu kara koyunlu turkmen tribal federation ruled northwestern iran surrounding areas ce kara koyunlu expanded conquest baghdad however internal fighting defeats timurids rebellions armenians response persecution failed struggles


ag qoyunlu led eventual demise ak koyunlu aq qoyunlu confederation greatest extent aq qoyunlu turkmen leadership bayandur tribe tribal federation sunni muslims ruled iran large parts surrounding areas ce aq qoyunlu emerged timur granted diyar bakr present day turkey afterward struggled rival oghuz turks kara koyunlu aq qoyunlu successful defeating kara koyunlu struggle emerging safavid dynasty led downfall


early modern period persia underwent revival safavid dynasty prominent figure shah abbas historians credit safavid dynasty founding modern nation state iran iran 's contemporary shia character significant segments iran 's current borders take origin era ''eg treaty zuhab'' safavid empire safavid empire greatest extent '''safavid dynasty''' one significant ruling dynasties persia modern iran often considered beginning modern persian history ruled one greatest persian empires


muslim conquest persia established twelver school shi'a islam ref name savoryeiref official religion empire marking one important turning points muslim history safavids ruled experiencing brief restoration height controlled modern iran azerbaijan armenia georgia north caucasus iraq kuwait afghanistan well parts turkey syria pakistan turkmenistan uzbekistan safavid iran one islamic gunpowder empires along neighbours archrival principal enemy


ottoman empire well mughal empire safavid ruling dynasty founded ism il styled sh h ism il ref name ismailsafaviiranica http wwwiranicaonlineorg articles esmail safawi ismail safavi ''encyclop dia iranica'' ref practically worshipped qizilb sh followers ism il invaded shirvan avenge death father shaykh haydar killed siege derbent dagestan afterwards went campaign conquest following capture tabriz july enthroned sh h iran minted coins name proclaimed shi'ism official religion domain ref name savoryeiref although initially


masters azerbaijan southern dagestan safavids fact struggle power persia going nearly century various dynasties political forces following fragmentation kara koyunlu aq qoyunlu year victory tabriz ism il proclaimed persia domain ref name savoryeiref quickly conquered unified iran rule soon afterwards new safavid empire rapidly conquered regions nations peoples directions including armenia azerbaijan parts georgia mesopotamia iraq kuwait syria dagestan large parts


afghanistan parts turkmenistan large chunks anatolia laying foundation multi ethnic character would heavily influence empire notably caucasus peoples portrait shah abbas tahmasp son successor ismail carried multiple invasions caucasus incorporated safavid empire since shah ismail many centuries afterwards started trend deporting moving hundreds thousands circassians georgians armenians iran 's heartlands initially solely put royal harems


royal guards minor sections empire tahmasp believed could eventually reduce power qizilbash creating fully integrating new layer iranian society ''encyclop dia iranica'' states tahmasp problem circled around military tribal elite empire qizilbash believed physical proximity control member immediate safavid family guaranteed spiritual advantages political fortune material advancement new caucasian layer iranian society undisputed might qizilbash functioned much like ''ghazis'' neighbouring ottoman empire would


questioned fully diminished society would become fully meritocratic shah abbas successors would significantly expand policy plan initiated tahmasp deporting reign alone around georgians armenians circassians iran completing foundation new layer iranian society complete systematic disorganisation qizilbash personal orders eventually fully succeeded replacing power qizilbash caucasian ghulams new caucasian elements called ''ghilman'' '' servants '' almost always conversion


shi'ism depending given function would unlike qizilbash fully loyal shah masses caucasians deployed possible functions positions available empire well harem regular military craftsmen farmers etc system mass usage caucasian subjects remained exist fall qajar dynasty rostom also known ''rustam khan'' viceroy kartli eastern georgia alt greatest safavid monarchs shah abbas great came power aged abbas


able break dependence qizilbash military might therefore able centralize control safavid dynasty already established shah ismail abbas really became major power world along archrival ottoman empire became able compete equal foot also started promotion tourism iran rule persian architecture flourished saw many new monuments various iranian cities isfahan notable example except shah abbas great


shah ismail shah tahmasp shah abbas ii many safavid rulers ineffectual often interested women alcohol leisure activities end abbas ii 's reign marked beginning end safavid dynasty despite falling revenues military threats many later shahs lavish lifestyles shah soltan hosain particular known love wine disinterest governance declining country repeatedly raided frontiers finally ghilzai pashtun chieftain named mir wais khan began rebellion kandahar


defeated safavid army iranian georgian governor region gurgin khan peter great neighbouring imperial russia launched russo persian war capturing many iran 's caucasian territories including derbent shaki baku also gilan mazandaran astrabad mids chaos year afghan army led mir wais' son mahmud marched across eastern iran besieged took isfahan mahmud proclaimed 'shah' persia meanwhile persia 's imperial rivals ottomans russians took advantage chaos country seize


territory events safavid dynasty effectively ended conform treaty constantinople ottomans russians agreed divide newly conquered territories iran amongst nader shah successors nader shah iran 's territorial integrity restored native iranian turkic afshar warlord khorasan nader shah defeated banished afghans defeated ottomans reinstalled safavids throne negotiated russian withdrawal iran 's caucasian territories treaty resht treaty ganja nader become powerful able


depose safavids crowned shah nader one last great conquerors asia briefly presided probably powerful empire world financially support wars persia 's arch rival ottoman empire fixed sights weak rich mughal empire east accompanied loyal caucasian subjects including erekle ii ref name making georgian nation ronald grigor suny https booksgooglecom booksid riw kkzat sc pg pa dq erekle appointed king kakheti nader shah hl nl sa x ei vwuva tmmwqsggv jrocw ved ccmq aewaq v onepage q erekle appointed king kakheti nader shah f false making georgian nation indiana university press p ref invaded mughal india defeated numerically superior mughal


army less three hours completely sacked looted delhi bringing back immense wealth persia way back also conquered uzbek khanates except kokand made uzbeks vassals also firmly established persian rule entire caucasus bahrain well large parts anatolia mesopotamia undefeated years defeat dagestan following guerrilla rebellions lezgins assassination attempt near mazandaran often considered turning point nader 's impressive career frustration dagestanis resorted guerrilla warfare


nader conventional army could make little headway battle andalal battle avaria nader 's army crushingly defeated lost half entire force well forcing flee mountains though nader managed take dagestan campaign effective guerrilla warfare deployed lezgins also avars laks made iranian conquest particular north caucasian region time short lived one several years later nader forced withdraw around time assassination


attempt made near mazandaran accelerated course history slowly grew ill megalomaniac blinding sons suspected assassination attempts showing increasing cruelty subjects officers later years eventually provoked multiple revolts ultimately nader 's assassination nader 's death followed period anarchy iran rival army commanders fought power nader 's family afsharids soon reduced holding small domain khorasan many caucasian territories broke away various caucasian khanates ottomans


regained lost territories anatolia mesopotamia oman uzbek khanates bukhara khiva regained independence ahmad shah durrani one nader 's officers founded independent state eventually became modern afghanistan erekle ii teimuraz ii made kings kakheti kartli respectively nader loyal service capitalized eruption instability declared ' 'de facto'' independence erekle ii assumed control kartli teimuraz ii 's death thus unifying two kingdom kartli kakheti becoming first georgian ruler three centuries preside


politically unified eastern georgia due frantic turn events mainland iran would able remain ' 'de facto'' autonomous zand period capital shiraz karim khan zand dynasty ruled island relative calm peace otherwise bloody destructive period however extent zand power confined contemporary iran parts caucasus karim khan 's death led yet another civil war qajar dynasty eventually triumphed became kings iran civil war iran permanently lost


basra ottomans captured ottoman persian war bahrain al khalifa family bani utbah invasion late modern period qajar dynasty gallery mode packed heights px file mihr 'ali iranian active ca portrait fath 'ali shah qajar jpg mihr 'ali iranian active ca portrait fath ali shah qajar brooklyn museum file yek toman qajarjpg qajar era currency bill depiction naser al din shah qajar file map iran enpng map iran qajar dynasty th century file gulistan treatyjpg map showing th century northwestern borders iran comprising modern day eastern


georgia dagestan armenia republic azerbaijan ceded neighboring russian empire russo iranian wars gallery agha mohammad khan emerged victorious civil war commenced death last zand king reign noted reemergence centrally led united iran death nader shah last zands iran 's caucasian territories broken away various caucasian khanates agha mohammad khan like safavid kings nader shah viewed region different territories


mainland iran therefore first objective secured mainland iran reincorpate caucasus region iran georgia seen one integral territories agha mohammad khan resubjugation reintegration georgia iranian empire part process brought shiraz isfahan tabriz rule ''cambridge history iran'' states permanent secession inconceivable resisted way one would resist attempt separation fars gilan therefore natural agha


mohammad khan perform whatever necessary means caucasus order subdue reincorporate recently lost regions following nader shah 's death demise zands including putting iranian eyes seen treason part ''wali'' viceroy georgia namely georgian king erekle ii heraclius ii appointed viceroy georgia nader shah agha mohammad khan subsequently demanded heraclius ii renounce treaty russia submit persian suzerainty return peace security kingdom


name suny suny ronald grigor ''the making georgian nation'' p indiana university press ref response agha mohammad khan invaded caucasus region crossing aras river way georgia subjugated iran 's territories erivan khanate shirvan nakhchivan khanate ganja khanate derbent khanate baku khanate talysh khanate shaki khanate karabakh khanate comprise modern day armenia azerbaijan dagestan igdir reached georgia large army prevailed battle krtsanisi resulted capture sack tbilisi well effective resubjugation georgia ref


name booksgooglenl michael axworthy https booksgooglecom booksid k hyyyrpiggc pg pt ''iran empire mind history zoroaster present day'' penguin uk november ref upon return successful campaign tbilisi effective control georgia together georgian captives moved back mainland iran ref name lang agha mohammad formally crowned shah mughan plain predecessor nader shah sixty years earlier agha mohammad shah later assassinated preparing second expedition georgia shusha part republic azerbaijan


seasoned king heraclius died early reassertion iranian hegemony georgia last long russians marched tbilisi russians already actively occupied expansionist policy towards neighboring empires south namely ottoman empire successive iranian kingdoms since late th early th century next two years following russia 's entrance tbilisi time confusion weakened devastated georgian kingdom capital half ruins easily absorbed russia ref name lang ref name suny iran could permit


iranian territory occupied russia course th century ref name swietochowski borderland ref gallery mode packed heights px file battle persians russians state hermitage museumjpg painting showing battle sultanabad february state hermitage museum file russian troops storming lankaran fortress january th jpg storming lankaran painted franz roubaud file b b b bd b b bf b bb b b b b bf bb b bcjpeg battle elisabethpol ganja franz roubaud part collection museum history baku gallery migration caucasian muslims persian cossack brigade tabriz following official loss vast territories caucasus major demographic shifts bound


take place following war also per war ceded last territories large migrations called caucasian muhajirs set migrate mainland iran groups included ayrums qarapapaqs circassians shia lezgins transcaucasian muslims ref name caucasus survey ref battle ganja russo persian war many thousands ayrums qarapapaqs settled tabriz remaining part war well war large number ayrums qarapapaqs still remaining newly conquered russian territories


towards iran included masses caucasian azerbaijanis transcaucasian muslims well many north caucasian muslims circassians shia lezgins laks ref name caucasus survey many migrants would prove play pivotal role iranian history formed ranks persian cossack brigade established late th century ref name mepcorg ref initial ranks brigade would entirely composed circassians caucasian muhajirs ref name mepcorg brigade would prove decisive following decades qajar history furthermore treaty turkmenchay included


administration encouraged settling ethnic armenians iran proper ottoman turkey result number ethnic armenians matched muslims would crimean war russo turkish war brought another influx turkish armenians ethnic armenians established solid majority eastern armenia nevertheless city erivan retained muslim majority twentieth century according traveller h f b lynch city erivan armenian muslim tatars ref unlike armenians georgians


capture herat mohammad shah died succession passed son naser al din shah qajar proved ablest successful qajar sovereigns founded first modern hospital iran constitutional revolution deposition great persian famine believed caused death two million people new era history persia dawned persian constitutional revolution shah late th early th centuries shah managed remain power granting limited constitution making


country constitutional monarchy first majlis parliament convened october discovery petroleum british khuzestan spawned intense renewed interest persia british empire see william knox d'arcy anglo iranian oil company bp control persia remained contested united kingdom russia became known great game codified anglo russian convention divided persia spheres influence regardless national sovereignty world war country occupied british ottoman russian forces


essentially neutral see persian campaign russian revolution withdrawal britain attempted establish protectorate persia unsuccessful finally constitutionalist movement gilan central power vacuum caused instability qajar government resulted rise reza khan later become reza shah pahlavi subsequent establishment pahlavi dynasty military coup established reza khan officer persian cossack brigade dominant figure next years seyyed zia'eddin tabatabai also


leader important figure perpetration coup coup actually directed qajar monarchy according ''encyclop dia iranica'' targeted officials power actually role controlling government cabinet others role governing persia prime minister two years reza khan became first shah pahlavi dynasty pahlavi era reza shah reza shah ruled almost years september forced abdicate anglo soviet


invasion iran established authoritarian government valued nationalism militarism secularism anti communism combined strict censorship state propaganda reza shah introduced many socio economic reforms reorganizing army government administration finances ref name columbia encyclopedia columbia encyclopedia sixth edition http wwwbartlebycom rezashahhtml reza shah ref supporters reign brought law order discipline central authority modern amenities schools trains buses radios cinemas telephones ref name ervand p ervand ''history modern iran'' p ref however attempts modernisation criticised fast superficial reign time oppression corruption taxation lack