northern ethiopia mt dates around th th centuries bc d'mt traded red sea egypt mediterranean providing frankincense th rd centuries d'mt declined several successor states took place later greater trade south arabia mainly port saba adulis became important commercial center ethiopian highlands interaction peoples two regions southern arabia sabaeans northern ethiopians resulted ge'ez culture language eventual development ge'ez script trade links increased


coins silver gold ad king ezana ad converted miaphysite christianity believes one united divine human nature christ supposedly frumentius aedesius became stranded red sea coast scholars believed process complex gradual simple conversion around time ezana sacked meroe syrian monastic tradition took root within ethiopian church th century aksum powerful enough add saba arabian peninsula empire end th century sasanian empire


pushed aksum peninsula spread islam western asia northern africa aksum 's trading networks mediterranean faltered red sea trade diminished diverted persian gulf dominated arabs causing aksum decline ad capital moved south interior highlands aksum much diminished west africa western sahel rise settled communities occurred largely result domestication millet sorghum archaeology points sizable urban populations west africa beginning nd millennium


bc symbiotic trade relations developed trans saharan trade response opportunities afforded north south diversity ecosystems across deserts grasslands forests agriculturists received salt desert nomads desert nomads acquired meat foods pastoralists farmers grasslands fishermen niger river forest dwellers provided furs meat nok sculpture terracotta louvre dhar tichitt oualata present day mauritania figure prominently among early urban centers dated bc stone settlements litter region former savannah sahara inhabitants fished


become large thriving market town towns similar djenne jeno also developed site dia also mali along niger river around bc ref name arazi ref farther south central nigeria around bc nok culture developed jos plateau ref name pb breunig peter nok african sculpture archaeological context p ref highly centralized community nok people produced lifelike representations terracotta including human heads human figures elephants animals bc smelting iron ad nok culture vanished based stylistic


branch niger congo family began second millennium bc spread cameroon eastward great lakes region first millennium bc bantu languages spread great lakes southern east africa one early movement headed south upper zambezi valley nd century bc bantu speakers pushed westward savannahs present day angola eastward malawi zambia zimbabwe st century ad second thrust great lakes eastward years ago expanding indian ocean coast kenya tanzania eastern group eventually


met southern migrants great lakes malawi zambia zimbabwe groups continued southward eastern groups continuing mozambique reaching maputo nd century ad expanding far durban later first millennium ad expansion reached great kei river present day south africa sorghum major bantu crop could thrive winter rainfall namibia western cape khoisan people inhabited remaining parts southern africa medieval early modern th th centuries sao civilization sao civilization flourished sixth


century bc late th century ad central africa sao lived chari river south lake chad territory later became part present day cameroon chad earliest people left clear traces presence territory modern cameroon today several ethnic groups northern cameroon southern chad particularly sara people claim descent civilization sao sao artifacts show skilled workers bronze copper iron ref name fanso fanso ref finds include bronze sculptures


terracotta statues human animal figures coins funerary urns household utensils jewelry highly decorated pottery spears largest sao archaeological finds occurred south lake chad kanem empire kanem bornu empires kanem empire centered chad basin known kanem empire th century ad onward lasted independent kingdom bornu height encompassed area covering much chad also parts modern southern libya eastern niger northeastern nigeria northern cameroon parts south sudan


central african republic history empire mainly known royal chronicle ''girgam'' discovered german traveller heinrich barth kanem rose th century region north east lake chad kanem empire went decline shrank th century defeated bilala invaders lake fitri region around th century ad central sudanic empire kanem capital njimi founded kanuri speaking nomads kanem arose engaging trans saharan trade exchanged slaves


captured raiding south horses north africa turn aided acquisition slaves late th century islamic sayfawa saifawa dynasty founded humai hummay ibn salamna sayfawa dynasty ruled years making one longest lasting dynasties human history ref name burns pp addition trade taxation local farms around kanem became source state income kanem reached peak ''mai'' king dunama dibalemi ibn salma empire reportedly able field cavalry extended fezzan


north sao state south islam became firmly entrenched empire pilgrimages mecca common cairo hostels set aside specifically pilgrims kanem bornu empire kanuri people led sayfuwa migrated west south lake established bornu empire late th century bornu empire expanded recaptured parts kanem conquered bulala satellite states bornu included damagaram west baguirmi southeast lake chad around sayfawa


dynasty moved capital bornu tributary state southwest lake chad new capital birni ngarzagamu overgrazing caused pastures kanem become dry addition political rivalry bilala clan becoming intense moving bornu better situated empire exploit trans saharan trade widen network trade links hausa states also established providing horses salt bilma bonoman gold ref name shillington pp shillington pp ref mai ali gazi ibn dunama c defeated bilala reestablishing complete


control kanem ref name collins burns p collins burns p ref early th century sayfawa dynasty solidified hold bornu population much rebellion latter half th century ''mai'' idris alooma modernized military contrast songhai empire turkish mercenaries used train military sayfawa dynasty first monarchs south sahara import firearms ref name collins burns p empire controlled sahel borders darfur east hausaland west


made warfare bloody last ''mai'' deposed bringing end long lived sayfawa dynasty ref name collins burns p place al kanemi dynasty ' 'shehu'' rose power shilluk kingdom shilluk kingdom centered south sudan th century along strip land along western bank white nile lake north latitude capital royal residence town fashoda kingdom founded mid th century ad first ruler nyikang


th century shilluk kingdom faced decline following military assaults ottoman empire later british sudanese colonization anglo egyptian sudan baguirmi kingdom kingdom baguirmi existed independent state th th centuries southeast lake chad country chad baguirmi emerged southeast kanem bornu empire kingdom 's first ruler mbang birni besse later reign bornu empire conquered made state tributary ab ch capital wadai french taken wadai empire wadai


empire centered chad central african republic th century tunjur people founded wadai kingdom east bornu th century th century revolt maba people established muslim dynasty first wadai paid tribute bornu durfur th century wadai fully independent become aggressor neighborsto west bornu th century kingdom kano become powerful hausa kingdoms unstable truce


kingdom katsina north absorbed sokoto caliphate fulani jihad threatened bornu luba empire luba pottery sometime ad kongolo mwamba nkongolo balopwe clan unified various luba peoples near lake kisale founded kongolo dynasty later ousted kalala ilunga kalala expanded kingdom west lake kisale new centralized political system spiritual kings court council head governors sub heads way village heads direct communicator


ancestral spirits chosen conquered states integrated system represented court titles authority resided spiritual power rather military authority army relatively small luba able control regional trade collect tribute redistribution numerous offshoot states formed founders claiming descent luba luba political system spread throughout central africa southern uganda rwanda burundi malawi zambia zimbabwe western congo two major empires claiming luba descent lunda empire maravi empire bemba


people basimba people northern zambia descended luba migrants arrived zambia th century lunda empire lunda town dwelling luba royal family ilunga tshibinda married lunda queen rweej united lunda peoples son luseeng expanded kingdom son naweej expanded empire known first lunda emperor title lord vipers luba political system retained conquered peoples integrated system assigned royal


adviser tax collector state conquered numerous states claimed descent lunda imbangala inland angola claimed descent founder kinguri brother queen rweej could tolerate rule tshibunda ''kinguri'' became title kings states founded queen rweej 's brother luena lwena lozi luyani zambia also claim descent kinguri th century lunda chief warrior called mwata kazembe set eastern lunda kingdom valley luapula river lunda 's western expansion also saw claims descent


yaka pende lunda linked central africa western coast trade kingdom lunda came end th century invaded chokwe armed guns kingdom kongo kongo th century ad farming bakongo people ''ba'' plural prefix unified kingdom kongo ruler called ''manikongo'' residing fertile pool malebo area lower congo river capital m'banza kongo superior organization able conquer neighbors extract


tribute experts metalwork pottery weaving raffia cloth stimulated interregional trade via tribute system controlled ''manikongo'' later maize corn cassava manioc would introduced region via trade portuguese ports luanda benguela maize cassava would result population growth region parts africa replacing millet main staple th century ''manikongo'' held authority atlantic west kwango river east territory assigned ''mani mpembe'' provincial governor


''manikongo'' afonso christian took throne slave trading increased afonso 's wars conquest jaga invaded kongo laying waste kingdom forcing ''manikongo'' exile manikongo lvaro reinstated help portuguese mercenaries latter part portuguese tried gain control kongo manikongo ant nio kongolese army destroyed army afro portuguese battle mbwila empire dissolved petty polities fighting among


war captives sell slavery kongo gained captives kingdom ndongo wars conquest ndongo ruled ''ngola'' ndongo would also engage slave trading portuguese tom transit point brazil kingdom welcoming kongo viewed portuguese great suspicion enemy portuguese latter part th century tried gain control ndongo defeated mbundu ndongo experienced depopulation slave raiding leaders established another state matamba affiliated


queen nzinga put strong resistance portuguese coming terms portuguese settled along coast trade dealers venturing conquest interior slavery wreaked havoc interior states initiating wars conquest captives imbangala formed slave raiding state kasanje major source slaves th th centuries horn africa somalia citadel gondershe somalia important city medieval somali ajuran empire birth islam opposite somalia 's red sea coast meant somali merchants sailors


living arabian peninsula gradually came influence new religion converted arab muslim trading partners migration muslim families islamic world somalia early centuries islam peaceful conversion somali population somali muslim scholars following centuries ancient city states eventually transformed islamic mogadishu berbera zeila barawa merka part ''berber'' medieval arab term ancestors modern somalis civilization ref name laitin david laitin said samatar ''somalia nation search state'' westview


houses four five stories high big palaces centre addition many mosques cylindrical minarets th century duarte barbosa noted many ships kingdom cambaya modern day india sailed mogadishu cloth spices return received gold wax ivory barbosa also highlighted abundance meat wheat barley horses fruit coastal markets generated enormous wealth merchants mogadishu center thriving weaving industry known ''toob benadir'' specialized markets egypt syria together


merca barawa served transit stop swahili merchants mombasa malindi gold trade kilwa jewish merchants strait hormuz brought indian textiles fruit somali coast exchange grain wood trading relations established malacca th century cloth ambergris porcelain main commodities trade giraffes zebras incense exported ming empire china established somali merchants leaders commerce asia africa influenced chinese language borrowings


somali language process hindu merchants surat southeast african merchants pate seeking bypass portuguese blockade omani meddling used somali ports merca barawa two powers' jurisdiction conduct trade safety without problems ethiopia zagwe dynasty ruled many parts modern ethiopia eritrea approximately name dynasty comes cushitic speaking agaw northern ethiopia ad many centuries solomonic dynasty ruled ethiopian empire king


fasilides 's castle early th century ethiopia sought make diplomatic contact european kingdoms first time since aksumite times letter king henry iv england emperor abyssinia survives emperor yeshaq sent two emissaries alfonso v aragon sent return emissaries failed complete return trip first continuous relations european country began kingdom portugal emperor lebna dengel inherited throne father proved important development


empire subjected attacks adal general imam ahmad ibn ibrahim al ghazi called ''gra '' left handed portugal assisted ethiopian emperor sending weapons four hundred men helped son gelawdewos defeat ahmad establish rule abyssinian adal war also one first proxy wars region ottoman empire portugal took sides conflict emperor susenyos converted roman catholicism years revolt civil unrest followed resulting thousands deaths jesuit missionaries offended orthodox faith


local ethiopians june susenyos 's son emperor fasilides declared state religion ethiopian orthodox christianity expelled jesuit missionaries europeans north africa maghreb great mosque kairouan also known mosque uqba first built umayyad general uqba ibn nafi oldest prestigious mosque maghreb north africa located city kairouan tunisia ad umayyad caliphate conquered north africa th century majority population north africa


muslim ref name shillington pp shillington pp ref th century ad unity brought islamic conquest north africa expansion islamic culture came end conflict arose successor prophet umayyads initially taken control caliphate capital damascus later abbasids taken control moving capital baghdad berber people independent spirit hostile outside interference affairs arab exclusivity orthodox islam adopted shi'ite kharijite islam


sanhaja berbers like soninke practiced indigenous religion alongside islam abdallah ibn yasin found ready converts lamtuna sanhaja dominated soninke south zenata berbers north lamtuna converted almoravid movement help yahya ibn umar brother abu bakr ibn umar sons lamtuna chief almoravids created empire extending sahel mediterranean death abdallah ibn yassin yahya ibn umar abu bakr split empire


half yusuf ibn tashfin big ruled one individual abu bakr took south continue fighting soninke yusuf ibn tashfin took north expanding southern spain death abu bakr saw breakdown unity increase military dissension south caused expansion soninke almoravids held responsible bringing ghana empire view longer credited th th centuries large scale movement bedouins


arabian peninsula quarter million arab nomads egypt moved maghreb following northern coast referred banu hilal going south atlas mountains banu sulaym movement spread use arabic language hastened decline berber language arabisation north africa later arabised berber group hawwara went south nubia via egypt almohad empire c abd al mu'min declared jihad almoravids charging decadence corruption united


northern berbers almoravids overthrowing forming almohad empire period maghreb became thoroughly islamised saw spread literacy development algebra use number zero decimals th century almohad states split three rival states muslim states largely extinguished iberian peninsula christian kingdoms castile aragon portugal around portugal engaged ' 'reconquista'' north africa capturing ceuta later centuries spain portugal acquired ports north african coast


end granada war spain defeated muslims emirate granada effectively ending eight centuries muslim domination southern iberia almohad minaret safi pashas tripoli traded horses firearms armor via fez sultans bornu empire slaves th century arab nomad tribe claimed descent muhammad 's daughter saadis conquered united morocco prevented ottoman empire reaching atlantic expelled portugal morocco 's western coast ahmad al mansur brought state height power


invaded songhay control gold trade diverted western coast africa european ships east tunis morocco 's hold songhay diminished th century ahmad 's death kingdom split two sultanates fes marrakesh later reunited moulay al rashid founder alaouite dynasty brother successor ismail ibn sharif strengthened unity country importing slaves sudan build military nile valley egypt fatimid caliphate ad


overlords paid share caliphs retained left eventually became landlords constituted settled land aristocracy fill military ranks mamluk turkish slave cavalry sudanese slave infantry used berber freemen also recruited tax revenues farms diminished soldiers revolted wreaked havoc countryside slowed trade diminished power authority fatimid caliphs fatimid egypt came threat european crusaders threat kurdish general named al ad n suf ibn ayy b saladin small band


professional soldiers emerged outstanding muslim defender saladin defeated christian crusaders egypt 's borders recaptured jerusalem death al adid last fatimid caliph saladin became ruler egypt ushering ayyubid dynasty rule egypt returned sunni islam cairo became important center arab islamic learning mamluk slaves increasingly recruited turkey southern russia military service support military tied ''iqta'' form land taxation soldiers given ownership return military service


time mamluk slave soldiers became powerful landed aristocracy point getting rid ayyubid dynasty establishing mamluk dynasty powerful mamluks referred ''amirs'' years mamluks controlled egypt military dictatorship egypt extended territories syria palestine thwarted crusaders halted mongol invasion battle jalut mamluk egypt came viewed protector islam medina mecca eventually ''iqta'' system declined proved unreliable providing


adequate military mamluks started viewing ''iqta'' hereditary became attuned urban living farm production declined dams canals lapsed disrepair mamluk military skill technology keep pace new technology handguns cannons rise ottoman empire egypt easily defeated end ottoman mamluk war egypt became part ottoman empire istanbul government revived ''iqta'' system trade reestablished red sea could completely connect indian ocean trade growing portuguese presence


th th centuries hereditary mamluks regained power leading mamluks referred ''beys'' pashas viceroys represented istanbul government name operating independently th century dynasties pashas became established government weak corrupt napoleon invaded egypt local forces little ability resist french conquest however british empire ottoman empire able remove french occupation events marked beginning th century anglo franco rivalry egypt sudan christian islamic nubia christian nubia nile cataracts


ezana aksum sacked meroe people associated site ballana moved nubia southwest founded three kingdoms makuria nobatia alodia would rule years makuria third cataract along dongola reach capital dongola nobadia north capital faras alodia south capital soba makuria eventually absorbed nobadia people region converted monophysite christianity around ce church initially started writing coptic greek finally old


nubian nilo saharan language church aligned egyptian coptic church egypt conquered rashidun caliphate effectively blocked christian nubia aksum mediterranean christendom arabs egypt invaded christian nubia nubian archers soundly defeated invaders baqt bakt treaty drawn recognizing christian nubia regulating trade treaty controlled relations christian nubia islamic egypt almost six hundred years ref name collins burns p ref th century christian nubia began decline authority monarchy diminished church


nobility arab bedouin tribes began infiltrate nubia causing havoc ''fakirs'' holy men practicing sufism introduced islam nubia nubia become divided petty fiefdoms invaded mamluks th century nubia open arab immigration arab nomads intermingled population introduced arab culture arabic language th century makuria nobadia islamized th century abdallah jamma headed arab confederation destroyed soba capital alodia last holdout christian nubia later alodia would fall funj sultanate ref


name th century funj herders migrated north alodia occupied kingdom expanded reaching peak establishing capital sennar badi ii abu daqn c end th century funj converted islam pushed empire westward kordofan expanded eastward halted ethiopia controlled nubia rd cataract economy depended captured enemies fill army merchants travelling sennar badi iv army turned


king making nothing figurehead funj conquered muhammad ali pasha egypt southern africa settlements bantu speaking peoples iron using agriculturists herdsmen long already well established south limpopo river th century ce displacing absorbing original khoisan speakers slowly moved south earliest ironworks modern day kwazulu natal province believed date around southernmost group xhosa people whose language incorporates certain linguistic traits earlier khoi san people reaching great fish river today 's eastern cape


province great zimbabwe mapungubwe towers great zimbabwe kingdom mapungubwe first state southern africa capital mapungubwe state arose th century ce wealth came controlling trade ivory limpopo valley copper mountains northern transvaal gold zimbabwe plateau limpopo zambezi rivers swahili merchants chibuene mid th century mapungubwe abandoned decline mapungubwe great zimbabwe rose zimbabwe plateau ''zimbabwe'' means stone building great zimbabwe first city


southern africa center empire consolidating lesser shona polities stone building inherited mapungubwe building techniques enhanced came maturity great zimbabwe represented wall great enclosure dry stack stone masonry technology also used build smaller compounds area great zimbabwe flourished trading swahili kilwa sofala rise great zimbabwe parallels rise kilwa great zimbabwe major source gold royal court lived luxury wore indian cotton surrounded copper gold ornaments


ate plates far away persia china around great zimbabwe decline city abandoned attributed decline rise trading town ingombe ilede ref name shillington pp shillington pp ref new chapter shona history ensued nyatsimba mutota northern shona king karanga engaged conquest son mutope conquered zimbabwe plateau going mozambique east coast linking empire coastal trade called empire ''wilayatu 'l mu'anamutapah'' ''mwanamutapa'' lord


plundered lands kingdom mutapa ''monomotapa'' portuguese corruption build stone structures northern shonas traditions building stone death matope empire split two small empires torwa south mutapa north split occurred rivalry two shona lords changa togwa ''mwanamutapa'' line changa able acquire south forming kingdom butua capital khami ref name shillington pp mutapa empire continued north ''mwenemutapa''


line th century portuguese able establish permanent markets zambezi river attempt gain political military control mutapa partially successful decisive battle allowed put puppet ''mwanamutapa'' named mavura signed treaties gave favorable mineral export rights portuguese portuguese successful destroying ''mwanamutapa'' system government undermining trade mutapa decay chiefs would allow digging gold fear portuguese theft population declined kingdom butua


grazing land related group ovambanderu expanded ghanzi northwestern botswana nama khoi speaking sheep raising group moved northward came contact herero would set stage much conflict two groups expanding lozi states pushed mbukushu subiya yei botei okavango chobe northern botswana south africa botswana sotho tswana south african ethnic groups development sotho tswana states based highveld south limpopo river began around ce chief 's power rested cattle connection ancestor


seen toutswemogala hill settlements stone foundations stone walls north highveld south vaal river northwest vaal river developed early tswana states centered towns thousands people disagreements rivalry arose different groups moved form states ref name shillington pp shillington pp ref nguni peoples southeast drakensberg mountains lived nguni speaking peoples zulu xhosa swazi ndebele engaged state building new states developing rivalry disagreements population pressure causing movement new regions th century process warfare


state building migration later became known mfecane nguni difaqane sotho major catalyst consolidation zulu kingdom metalworkers cultivators millet cattle herders ref name shillington pp khoisan boers political map southern africa khoisan lived southwestern cape province winter rainfall plentiful earlier khoisan populations absorbed bantu peoples sotho nguni bantu expansion stopped region winter rainfall bantu languages incorporated click consonant khoisan languages khoisan traded


bantu neighbors providing cattle sheep hunted items return bantu speaking neighbors traded copper iron tobacco ref name shillington pp th century dutch east india company established replenishing station table bay restocking water purchasing meat khoikhoi khoikhoi received copper iron tobacco beads exchange order control price meat stock make service consistent dutch established permanent settlement table bay grew fresh fruit vegetables established hospital sick sailors


increase produce dutch decided increase number farms table bay encouraging freeburgher ''boers'' farmers lands worked initially slaves west africa land taken khoikhoi grazing land triggering first khoikhoi dutch war victors emerged dutch assumed right conquest claimed cape series wars pitting khoikhoi boers assumed khoikhoi land claimed cattle second khoikoi dutch war cattle raid khoikhoi also died thousands


european diseases th century cape colony grown slaves coming madagascar mozambique indonesia settlement also started expand northward khoikhoi resistance raids guerrilla warfare slowed expansion th century boers started practice pastoralism known ''trekboers'' common source ''trekboer'' labor orphan children captured raids whose parents killed southeast africa prehistory according theory recent african origin modern humans mainstream position held within scientific community humans originate either southeast africa


horn africa first millennium ce nilotic bantu speaking peoples moved region swahili coast swahili coast door zanzibar following bantu migration coastal section southeast africa mixed bantu community developed contact muslim arab persian traders leading development mixed arab persian african swahili city states swahili culture emerged exchanges evinces many arab islamic influences seen traditional bantu culture many afro arab members bantu swahili people original speech community centered


coastal parts tanzania particularly zanzibar kenya seaboard referred swahili coast bantu swahili language contains many arabic language loan words consequence interactions earliest bantu inhabitants southeast coast kenya tanzania encountered later arab persian settlers variously identified trading settlements rhapta azania menouthias referenced early greek chinese writings ad ad ultimately giving rise name tanzania early writings perhaps document first wave bantu settlers reach southeast africa


migration historically swahili people could found far north northern kenya far south ruvuma river mozambique arab geographers referred swahili coast land ''zanj'' blacks although believed descendants persian colonists ancient swahili recognized historians historical linguists archaeologists bantu people sustained important interactions muslim merchants beginning late th early th centuries ad arab slave traders captives along ruvuma river mozambique along swahili coast


medieval swahili kingdoms known island trade ports described greek historians metropolises established regular trade routes islamic world asia ports mombasa zanzibar kilwa known chinese sailors zheng medieval islamic geographers berber traveller abu abdullah ibn battuta main swahili exports ivory slaves gold traded arabia india persia china portuguese arrived mission economically control christianize swahili coast portuguese attacked kilwa first


cities later swahili resistance portuguese attempt establishing commercial control never successful late th century portuguese authority swahili coast began diminish help omani arabs portuguese presence removed swahili coast eventually became part sultanate oman trade recovered regain levels past urewe '''urewe''' culture developed spread around lake victoria region africa african iron age culture 's earliest dated artifacts located kagera region


tanzania extended far west kivu region democratic republic congo far east nyanza western provinces kenya north uganda rwanda burundi sites urewe culture date early iron age th century bc th century ad origins urewe culture ultimately bantu expansion originating cameroon research early iron age civilizations sub saharan africa undertaken concurrently studies african linguistics bantu expansion urewe culture may correspond


eastern subfamily bantu languages spoken descendants first wave bantu peoples settle east africa first sight urewe seems fully developed civilization recognizable distinctive stylish earthenware highly technical sophisticated iron working techniques given current level knowledge neither seems developed altered nearly years however minor local variations ceramic ware observed urewe name site kenya brought prominence publication mary leakey 's archaeological findings described early iron


age period great lakes region central east africa around lake victoria madagascar merina queen ranavalona madagascar apparently first settled austronesian speakers southeast asia th century ad subsequently bantu speakers east african mainland th th century according archaeological linguistic data austronesians introduced banana rice cultivation bantu speakers introduced cattle farming practices year arab indian trade settlement started northern madagascar exploit indian ocean trade th century islam


introduced island traders madagascar functioned east african medieval period contact port swahili seaport city states sofala kilwa mombasa zanzibar several kingdoms emerged th century sakalava kingdom th century west coast tsitambala kingdom th century east coast merina th century central highlands th century merina controlled whole island portuguese first europeans island raiding trading settlements british later french arrived latter part


th century madagascar popular transit point pirates radama invited christian missionaries early th century queen ranavalona cruel banned practice christianity kingdom estimated christians perished radama ii madagascar took french orientation great commercial concession given french second franco hova war french invaded madagascar taking antsiranana diego suarez declaring madagascar protectorate lake plateau states empires th th centuries large southeast african kingdoms states emerged


buganda ref name roland oliver pp roland oliver et al africa south equator africa since cambridge cambridge university press pp ref karagwe ref name roland oliver pp kingdoms uganda tanzania kitara bunyoro ad numerous states arisen lake plateau among great lakes east africa cattle herding cereal growing banana cultivation economic mainstays states ntusi bigo earthworks representative one first states bunyoro kingdom oral tradition stipulates part empire kitara


dominated whole lakes region luo ethnic elite bito clan ruled bantu speaking nyoro people society essentially nyoro culture based evidence pottery settlement patterns economic specialization ref name burns pp collins burns pp ref bito clan claimed legitimacy descended bachwezi clan said ruled empire kitara however little known kitara scholars even question historical existence founding leaders various polities lake region seem claimed descent


bachwezi ref name burns pp million tara part second african loss nafi uma two losses buganda buganda kingdom founded kato kimera around th century ad kato kintu may migrated northwest lake victoria early bc buganda ruled ''kabaka'' ''bataka'' composed clan heads time ''kabakas'' diluted authority ''bataka'' buganda becoming centralized monarchy th century buganda engaged expansion serious rival


bunyoro buganda wealthy nation state ''kabaka'' ruled ''lukiko'' council ministers buganda naval fleet hundred vessels manned thirty men buganda supplanted bunyoro important state region however early th century buganda became province british uganda protectorate rwanda southeast bunyoro near lake kivu bottom western rift kingdom rwanda founded perhaps th century tutsi batutsi pastoralists formed elite king called ''mwami'' hutu bahutu


farmers groups spoke language strict social norms marrying interaction according oral tradition kingdom rwanda founded mwami ruganzu ii ruganzu ndori c capital near kigali took years attain truly centralized kingdom mwami kigeli iv kigeri rwabugiri subjugation hutu proved difficult subduing tutsi last tutsi chief gave mwami mutara ii mutara rwogera last hutu holdout conquered mwami yuhi


v yuli musinga burundi south kingdom rwanda kingdom burundi founded tutsi chief ntare rushatsi c like rwanda burundi built cattle raised tutsi pastoralists crops hutu farmers conquest political innovations mwami ntare rugaamba c burundi pursued aggressive expansionist policy one based diplomacy force maravi maravi kingdom maravi claimed descent karonga ''kalonga'' took title king maravi connected central africa east coastal trade swahili kilwa


th century maravi empire encompassed area lake malawi mouth zambezi river ''karonga'' mzura much extend empire mzura made pact portuguese establish man army attack shona return aid defeating rival lundi chief zimba turned portuguese assisted shona welcomed back portuguese trade maravi empire long survive death mzura th century broken


previous polities west africa sahelian empires states ghana ghana empire ghana empire may established kingdom early th century ad founded among soninke dinge cisse ghana first mentioned arab geographer al farazi late th century ghana inhabited urban dwellers rural farmers urban dwellers administrators empire muslims ''ghana'' king practiced traditional religion two towns existed one muslim administrators berber arabs lived connected stone paved road king 's residence


rural dwellers lived villages joined together broader polities pledged loyalty ''ghana'' ''ghana'' viewed divine physical well reflected whole society ghana converted islam around conquering aoudaghost ghana empire grew wealthy taxing trans saharan trade linked tiaret sijilmasa aoudaghost ghana controlled access goldfields bambouk southeast koumbi saleh percentage salt gold going territory taken empire involved production th century ghana decline


thought sacking koumbi saleh berbers almoravid dynasty cause longer accepted several alternative explanations cited one important reason transfer gold trade east niger river taghaza trail ghana 's consequent economic decline another reason cited political instability rivalry among different hereditary polities empire came end takrur northern senegal took capital mali mali empire greatest extent mali empire began th century ad


sorghum millet rice vital function northern borders sahel grazing cattle sheep goats camels major activities mande society organize around village land cluster villages called ''kafu'' ruled ''farma'' ''farma'' paid tribute ''mansa'' dedicated army elite cavalry infantry maintained order commanded royal court formidable force could raised tributary regions necessary ref name burns pp collins burns pp ref conversion islam gradual process power ''mansa'' depended


upholding traditional beliefs spiritual foundation power sundiata initially kept islam bay later ''mansas'' devout muslims still acknowledged traditional deities took part traditional rituals festivals important mande islam became court religion sundiata 's son uli ''mansa'' uli made pilgrimage mecca becoming recognized within muslim world court staffed literate muslims secretaries accountants muslim traveller ibn battuta left vivid descriptions empire ref name burns pp mali reached peak power extent


th century ''mansa'' musa made famous ''hajj'' mecca slaves holding bar gold worth mitqals ''mansa'' musa 's ''hajj'' devalued gold mamluk egypt decade made great impression minds muslim european world invited scholars architects like ishal al tuedjin al sahili integrate mali islamic world ref name burns pp mali empire saw expansion learning literacy sakura freed slave usurped throne ''mansa'' drove tuareg timbuktu established


empire lost bambouk goldfields disintegrated petty polities ref name burns pp songhai songhai empire c songhai people descended fishermen middle niger river established capital kukiya th century ad gao th century songhai speak nilo saharan language sonni ali songhai began conquest capturing timbuktu tuareg extended empire north deep desert pushed mossi south niger expanded southwest djenne army


consisted cavalry fleet canoes sonni ali muslim portrayed negatively berber arab scholars especially attacking muslim timbuktu death heirs deposed general muhammad ture muslim soninke origins muhammad ture founded askiya dynasty ''askiya'' title king consolidated conquests sonni ali islam used extend authority declaring jihad mossi reviving trans saharan trade abbasid shadow caliph cairo declare caliph sudan established timbuktu


found venture unprofitable gold trade diverted europeans coast trans saharan trade diverted east bornu expensive equipment purchased gold sent across sahara unsustainable scenario moroccans remained married population referred ''arma'' ''ruma'' established timbuktu military caste various fiefs independent morocco amid chaos groups began assert including fulani futa tooro encroached west bambara empire one states


broke songhai sacked gao tuareg massacred ''arma'' ref name burns pp collins burns pp ref sokoto caliphate comparison africa years fulani migratory people moved mauritania settled futa tooro futa djallon subsequently throughout rest west africa th century ce converted islam th century established macina southern mali declared jihads non muslims several states formed jihadist wars futa toro futa djallon macina


oualia bundu important states sokoto caliphate fulani empire city gobir usman dan fodio accused hausa leadership practicing impure version islam morally corrupt launched fulani war jihad among population restless high taxes discontented leaders jihad fever swept northern nigeria strong support among fulani hausa usman created empire included parts northern nigeria benin cameroon sokoto capital retired


unity spirit osei tutu engaged massive territorial expansion built ashante army based akan state akwamu introducing new organization turning disciplined militia effective fighting machine ashante conquered denkyira giving access coastal trade europeans especially dutch opoku ware engaged expansion adding southern akan states growing empire turned north adding techiman banda gyaaman gonja states black volta ''asantehene'' opoku attacked powerful northern state


dagomba gaining control important middle niger trade routes kusi obodom succeeded opoku solidified newly territories osei kwadwo imposed administrative reforms allowed empire governed effectively continue military expansion osei kwame panyin osei tutu kwame osei bonsu continued territorial consolidation expansion ashante empire included present day ghana large parts ivory coast ''ashantehene'' inherited position mother assisted capital kumasi civil service men talented trade diplomacy


military head called ''gyaasehene'' men arabia sudan europe employed civil service appointed ''ashantehene'' capital towns ''ankobia'' special police used bodyguards ''ashantehene'' sources intelligence suppress rebellion communication throughout empire maintained via network well kept roads coast middle niger linking together trade cities th century ashante empire remained powerful later destroyed british superior weaponry


organization following four anglo ashanti wars dahomey dahomey amazons women fighting unit dahomey kingdom founded early th century aja people allada kingdom moved northward settled among fon began assert power years later established kingdom dahomey capital agbome king houegbadja c organized dahomey powerful centralized state declared lands owned king subject taxation primogeniture kingship established neutralizing input


village chiefs cult kingship established captive slave would sacrificed annually honor royal ancestors slave trading states whydah allada taken giving dahomey direct access slave coast trade europeans king agadja attempted end slave trade keeping slaves plantations producing palm oil european profits slaves dahomey 's dependency firearms great king agaja dahomey conquered oyo empire dahomey pay tribute taxes slaves mostly paid


cowrie shells th century palm oil main trading commodity france conquered dahomey second franco dahomean war established colonial government troops fought dahomey native africans yoruba oyo empire surrounding states c traditionally yoruba people viewed inhabitants united empire contrast situation today yoruba cultural linguistic designation speakers language niger congo family name comes hausa word refer oyo empire first yoruba state


ile ife said founded around ad supernatural figure first ''oni'' oduduwa oduduwa 's sons would founders different city states yoruba daughters would become mothers various yoruba ''obas'' kings yoruba city states usually governed ''oba'' ''iwarefa'' council chiefs advised ''oba'' th century yoruba city states formed loose confederation ''oni'' ife head ife capital time went individual city states became powerful


''obas'' assuming powerful spiritual positions diluting authority ''oni'' ife rivalry became intense among city states oyo empire rose th century oyo state conquered kingdom nupe possession cavalry important tactical advantage ''alafin'' king oyo sent exile returning ''alafin'' orompoto c built army based heavily armed cavalry long service troops made invincible combat northern grasslands thinly wooded forests end


administrative dignitaries women wielded power queen mother produced future ''oba'' wielded immense influence benin never significant exporter slaves alan ryder 's book benin europeans showed early th century wrecked dynastic disputes civil wars however regained much former power reigns oba eresoyen oba akengbuda th century benin mainly exported pepper ivory gum cotton cloth portuguese dutch resold african societies coast british sacked city niger


delta igbo niger delta comprised numerous city states numerous forms government city states protected waterways thick vegetation delta region transformed trade th century delta 's city states comparable swahili people east africa like bonny kalabari warri kings others like brass republics small senates cross river old calabar ruled merchants ''ekpe'' society ''ekpe'' society regulated trade made rules members known house systems


houses like pepples bonny well known americas europe igbo lived east delta anioma west niger river kingdom nri rose th century ''eze'' nri leader political entity composed villages village autonomous independent territory name recognized neighbors villages democratic males sometimes females part decision making process graves igbo ukwu ad contained brass artifacts local manufacture


glass beads egypt india indicative extraregional trade th century southern africa british german missionaries traders penetrated present day namibia herero nama peoples competed guns ammunition providing cattle ivory ostrich feathers germans firmly established british region germans declared coastal region orange river kunene river german protectorate part german south west africa pursued aggressive policy land expansion white settlements exploited rivalry nama herero


export herero labor south africa ref name shillington pp ref herero rebelled german general lothar von trotha implemented extermination policy battle waterberg drove herero west kalahari desert end herero alive previous population nama resistance crushed nama herero cattle land confiscated diminished population remaining nama herero assuming subordinate position labor imported among ovambo ref name nguniland zulu warriors


moment great disorder southern africa ''mfecane'' crushing started northern nguni kingdoms mthethwa ndwandwe swaziland scarce resource famine dingiswayo mthethwa died shaka zulu people took established zulu kingdom asserting authority ndwandwe pushing swazi north scattering ndwandwe swazi caused mfecane spread shaka expanded empire along drakensberg foothills tribute paid far south tugela umzimkulu rivers replaced chiefs conquered polities


''indunas'' responsible introduced centralized dedicated disciplined military force seen region new weapon short stabbing spear shaka assassinated half brother dingane lacked military genius leadership skills shaka voortrekkers tried occupy zulu land early months defeated survivors regrouped ncome river soundly defeated zulu however voortrekkers dared settle zulu land dingane killed civil war brother mpande took strengthened zulu


territories north zulu kingdom invaded britain quest control south africa zulu kingdom victorious battle isandlwana defeated battle ulundi one major states emerge mfecane sotho kingdom founded thaba bosiu moshoeshoe around confederation different polities accepted absolute authority moshoeshoe kingdom invited missionaries strategic means acquiring guns horses cape orange


free state slowly diminished kingdom never completely defeated moshoeshoe asked sotho kingdom annexed britain save remnant became british protectorate basutoland sotho tswana arrival ancestors tswana speakers came control region vaal river botswana yet dated precisely although ad seems consensus estimate massive cattle raising complex prospered ad various peoples connected trade routes ran via limpopo river indian ocean


trade goods asia beads made way botswana likely exchange ivory gold rhinoceros horn first written records relating modern day botswana appear records show bangwaketse become predominant power region rule makaba ii bangwaketse kept vast herds cattle well protected desert areas used military prowess raid neighbours chiefdoms area time capitals fairly prosperous equilibrium came end


incursions eight years intermittent tensions hostilities eventually came peace agreement potchefstroom point modern day border south africa botswana agreed afrikaners batswana traded worked together peacefully refugees zulu expansion shaka came contact basotho people residing highveld pressures caused one group basotho kololo migrate north past okavango swamp across zambezi barotseland part zambia kololo conquered


cohesive nation ref name ref inspired leadership helped small nation survive dangers pitfalls zulu hegemony inward expansion voortrekkers designs imperial britain destroyed indigenous south african kingdoms th century moshoeshoe established capital butha buthe easily defensible mountain northern drakensberg mountains laying foundations eventual kingdom lesotho ref name capital later moved thaba bosiu ref name deal encroaching voortrekker groups moshoeshoe encouraged french missionary activity kingdom ref name ref missionaries sent paris evangelical


missionary society provided king foreign affairs counsel helped facilitate purchase modern weapons ref name aside acting state ministers missionaries primarily casalis arbousset played vital role delineating sesotho orthography printing sesotho language materials first sesotho translation bible appeared losing western lowlands boers free state basotho wars moshoeshoe successfully appealed queen victoria proclaim lesotho known basutoland protectorate britain british administration placed maseru site


lesotho 's current capital ref name ross local chieftains retained power internal affairs britain responsible foreign affairs defence protectorate british sponsored process borders basutoland finally demarcated ref name ross many clans territory within basutoland large numbers sesotho speakers resided areas allocated orange free state sovereign voortrekker republic bordered basotho kingdom voortrekkers zulu attack boer camp february th century khoikhoi territory boer control khoikhoi lost economic


political independence absorbed boer society boers spoke afrikaans language dialect derived dutch longer called boers afrikaners khoikhoi used commandos raids khoikhoi later xhosa mixed khoi slave european population called cape coloureds outcasts within colonial society also arose khoikhoi lived far frontier included kora oorlams griqua british took cape colony dutch boers embarked journey expansion east great


overcome year pattern one development repeating rifles easier quicker load muskets artillery used increasingly hiram maxim developed maxim gun model modern day machine gun european states kept weapons largely among refusing sell weapons african leaders african germs took numerous european lives deterred permanent settlements diseases yellow fever sleeping sickness yaws leprosy made africa inhospitable place europeans deadliest disease malaria endemic throughout tropical africa discovery


central africa knowledge africa increased numerous european explorers began explore continent mungo park traversed niger river james bruce travelled ethiopia located source blue nile richard francis burton first european lake tanganyika samuel white baker explored upper nile john hanning speke located source nile lake victoria significant european explorers included heinrich barth henry morton stanley coiner term dark continent africa book silva porto alexandre de serpa pinto rene caille friedrich gerhard rohlfs gustav nachtigal george schweinfurth


joseph thomson famous explorers david livingstone explored southern africa traversed continent atlantic luanda indian ocean quelimane european explorers made use african guides servants established long distance trading routes ref name burns pp collins burns pp ref missionaries attempting spread christianity also increased european knowledge africa ref name burns pp european nations met berlin west africa conference discuss partitioning africa agreed european claims parts africa would


came colonies sufficient numbers strong impact british settler colonies included british east africa kenya northern southern rhodesia zambia zimbabwe respectively south africa already significant population european settlers boers france planned settle algeria eventually incorporate french state equal basis european provinces algeria 's proximity across mediterranean allowed plans scale areas colonial administrations manpower resources fully administer territory rely local power


structures help various factions groups within societies exploited european requirement purposes attempting gain positions power within communities cooperating europeans one aspect struggle included terence ranger termed invention tradition order legitimize claims power eyes colonial administrators people native elites would essentially manufacture traditional claims power ceremonies result many societies thrown disarray new order following scramble africa early


secondary focus colonial regimes suppression slavery slave trade end colonial period mostly successful aim though slavery still active africa france versus britain fashoda crisis central east africa fashoda incident part scramble africa france establishment continuous west east axis continent objective contrast british north south axis tensions britain france reached tinder stage africa several points war


possible never happened serious episode fashoda incident french troops tried claim area southern sudan much powerful british force purporting acting interests khedive egypt arrived confront heavy pressure french withdrew securing british control area status quo recognised agreement two states acknowledging british control egypt france became dominant power morocco france suffered humiliating defeat overall european colonial territories diiriye guure 's dhulbahante garesa 's forts


taleh somalia capital dervish state dhulbahante garesas first places airstriked african history areas controlled european colonial powers african continent modern day borders shown '''belgium''' congo free state belgian congo today 's democratic republic congo ruanda urundi comprising modern rwanda burundi '''france''' french west africa mauritania senegal french sudan mali french guinea guinea ivory coast niger french upper volta burkina faso french dahomey benin french algeria algeria tunisia french morocco french somaliland djibouti madagascar comoros


french equatorial africa gabon middle congo republic congo oubangi chari central african republic chad '''germany''' german kamerun cameroon part nigeria german east africa rwanda burundi tanzania german south west africa namibia german togoland togo eastern part ghana italian invasion libya propaganda postcard made italian army '''italy''' italian north africa libya eritrea italian somaliland part somalia '''portugal''' portuguese west africa angola mainland angola portuguese congo cabinda province angola portuguese east africa mozambique portuguese guinea


guinea bissau cape verde islands tom e pr ncipe tom island pr ncipe island fort jo baptista de ajud ouidah benin '''spain''' riffian rebels rif war spanish morocco spanish sahara western sahara r de oro saguia el hamra spanish morocco tarfaya strip ifni spanish guinea equatorial guinea fernando po r muni annob n '''united kingdom''' end result boer wars annexation boer republics british empire egypt anglo egyptian sudan sudan british somaliland part somalia british east africa kenya uganda protectorate


uganda tanganyika part tanzania zanzibar part tanzania bechuanaland botswana southern rhodesia zimbabwe northern rhodesia zambia british south africa south africa transvaal part south africa cape colony part south africa colony natal part south africa orange free state part south africa gambia sierra leone nigeria cameroons parts cameroon nigeria british gold coast ghana nyasaland malawi basutoland lesotho swaziland '''independent states''' liberia founded american colonization society united states declared independence


ethiopian empire abyssinia borders drawn italian eritrea french somaliland modern djibouti briefly occupied italy abyssinia crisis sudan independent mahdi rule british rule th century european powers divided almost africa ethiopia liberia independent ruled world war ii forces nationalism grew much stronger colonial holdings became independent states process usually peaceful


several long bitter bloody civil wars algeria kenya elsewhere across africa powerful new force nationalism drew upon organizational skills natives learned british french armies world wars led organizations controlled endorsed either colonial powers traditional local power structures collaborating colonial powers nationalistic organizations began challenge traditional new colonial structures finally displaced leaders nationalist movements took control european authorities exited many


ruled decades died structures included political educational religious social organizations recent decades many african countries undergone triumph defeat nationalistic fervor changing process loci centralizing state power patrimonial state political map africa world war battle ngomano november vast majority continent colonial control european governments world wars significant events geopolitical history africa africa theater war saw fighting wars


important regions total war footing colonial powers impacted governance african colonies resource allocation conscription taxation world war several campaigns africa including togoland campaign kamerun campaign south west africa campaign east african campaign allied forces primarily british also french belgian south african portuguese sought force germans african colonies german forces badly outnumbered due allied naval superiority cut reinforcement resupply allies eventually conquered


german colonies german forces east africa managed avoid surrender throughout war though could hold territory world war former german colonies africa taken france belgium british empire world war colonial powers continued consolidate control african territories areas particularly southern east africa large settler populations successful pressing additional devolution administration called home rule white settlers many cases settler regimes harsher african populations tending see


threat political power opposed colonial regimes generally endeavored co opt local populations economic production great depression strongly affected africa 's non subsistence economy much based commodity production western markets demand increased late africa 's economy rebounded well africa site one first instances fascist territorial expansions italy attempted conquer ethiopia rebuffed first italo ethiopian war ethiopia lay two italian colonies italian somaliland eritrea


invaded october overwhelming advantage armor aircraft may italian forces occupied capital addis ababa effectively declared victory ethiopia colonies consolidated italian east africa world war ii political areas controlled european powers british red belgian orange colonies fought allies italian green axis french colonies dark blue fought alongside allies fall france june vichy control free french prevailed late portuguese brown spanish teal colonies remained


neutral africa large continent whose geography gave strategic importance war north africa scene major british american campaigns italy germany east africa scene major british campaign italy vast geography provided major transportation routes linking united states middle east mediterranean regions sea route around south africa heavily used even though added days voyages avoid dangerous suez region lend lease supplies russia often came way internally long distance road railroad connections


facilitated british war effort union south africa dominion status largely self governing british possessions ruled colonial office usually close ties local chiefs kings italian holdings target successful british military campaigns belgian congo two belgian colonies major exporters terms numbers wealth british controlled richest portions africa made extensive use geography manpower natural resources civilian colonial officials made special effort upgrade african infrastructure promote


agriculture integrate colonial africa world economy recruit half million soldiers war britain made plans utilization africa quickly set command structures army set west africa command recruited soldiers east africa command created september support overstretched middle east command provided largest number men chiefly kenya tanganyika uganda southern command domain south africa royal navy set south atlantic command based sierra leone


set primarily army new recruits almost always volunteers usually provided close cooperation local tribal leaders war military pay scales far exceeded civilians natives could earn especially food housing clothing allowances included largest numbers construction units called pioneer units soldiers raf navy also recruiting volunteers fighting great deal guard duty construction work served middle east special effort made challenge white supremacy certainly war


large extent war nevertheless soldiers drilled train european standards given strong doses propaganda learn leadership organizational skills proved essential formation nationalistic independence movements minor episodes discontent nothing serious among natives afrikaner nationalism factor south africa pro german afrikaner prime minister replaced jan smuts afrikaner enthusiastic supporter british empire government closely cooperated london raised volunteers white


one third eligible white men french africa early french established volunteer units black soldiers sub sahara africa termed ''tirailleurs senegalais'' served military operations throughout empire including soldiers world war world war ii became pows germany veterans played central role postwar independence movement french africa authorities west africa declared allegiance vichy regime colony french gabon vichy forces defeated free french forces invasion french west africa


two battles dakar july september gabon fell free france battle gabon november west africa remained vichy control november vichy forces tried resist overwhelming allied landings north africa operation ''torch'' november vichy admiral fran ois darlan suddenly switched sides fighting ended allies gave darlan control north african french forces exchange support french north africa well french west africa vichy eliminated factor africa darlan assassinated


december two factions free french led charles de gaulle henri giraud jockeyed power de gaulle finally world war ii military since germany lost african colonies following world war world war ii reach africa italy joined war june controlling libya italian east africa fall france june france 's colonies north west africa controlled vichy government though much central africa fell free french control fighting vichy


free french forces battle dakar battle gabon fall france africa active theater ground combat italian invasion greece october western desert campaign italian forces libya sought overrun egypt controlled british simultaneously east african campaign italian east african forces overran british somaliland british outposts kenya anglo egyptian sudan italy 's efforts conquer egypt including crucial suez canal sudan fell short unable reestablish supply italian east africa without


three days second front relieved pressure british egypt began pushing west meet torch forces eventually pinning german italian forces tunisia conquered may tunisia campaign ending war africa significant operations occurred french colony madagascar invaded british may deny ports axis potentially japanese reached eastern indian ocean french garrisons madagascar surrendered november post war africa decolonization dates independence


mozambique angola portugal djibouti france zimbabwe united kingdom namibia south africa eritrea later split ethiopia east africa mau mau uprising took place kenya put british local forces state emergency remained place kenya became independent jomo kenyatta served first president early also signaled start major clashes hutus tutsis rwanda burundi


culminated rwandan genocide conflict people murdered north africa moroccan nationalism developed istiqlal party formed pushing independence sultan mohammed v morocco called independence march morocco became independent france mohammed v became ruler independent morocco algeria formed national liberation front fln split france resulted algerian war lasted independence negotiations muhammad ahmed ben bella elected president algeria million french nationals predominantly


israel allied arab countries first arab israeli war right state israel founded egypt went war six day war lost sinai peninsula israel went war yet yom kippur war president egypt anwar sadat prime minister israel menachem begin signed camp david accords gave back sinai peninsula egypt exchange recognition israel accords still effect today sadat


philosophy separate racial goals leading divisive laws 'petty apartheid' grander scheme african homelands apartheid ended nelson mandela african national congress elected president south african general election country 's first non racial election central africa ambazonian nationalism gained steam central regions africa traditionally regarded regions kilwa mouth zambesi river due isolated position coasts area received minimal attention historian pertaining africa also one


varied sources european colonial imperialists including germany cameroon britain northern cameroons belgium congo france caf due territory among main trope regarding central africa traversing lands nature tropicals since one main protracted issues within central africa ongoing secession movement secessionist entity ambazonia impasse cameroon ambazonia gained steam fon gorji dinka filed international lawsuit cameroon claiming ambazonian territories held illegally latter describing cameroonian


claims ambazonian territories illegal fifteen years later stalemate would escalate abmazonia formally declared federal republic ambazonia west africa following world war ii nationalist movements arose across west africa notably ghana kwame nkrumah ghana became first sub saharan colony achieve independence followed next year france 's colonies west africa 's nations entirely autonomous since independence many west african nations plagued corruption instability notable civil wars nigeria sierra leone liberia ivory coast succession military


coups ghana burkina faso many states failed develop economies despite enviable natural resources political instability often accompanied undemocratic government see also ebola virus epidemic sierra leone ebola virus epidemic guinea ebola virus epidemic liberia historiography british africa first historical studies english appeared followed one four approaches territorial narrative typically written veteran soldier civil servant gave heavy emphasis seen apologia essays designed justify


british policies popularizers tried reach large audience compendia appeared designed combine academic official credentials professional scholarship appeared around began study business operations typically using government documents unpublished archives economic approach widely practiced primarily provide descriptions changes underway previous half century american historian william l langer published ''the diplomacy imperialism '' book still widely cited oxford professor reginald coupland published ''the exploitation east africa slave trade scramble''


another popular treatment world war ii diverted scholars wartime projects accounted pause scholarship ref name british empire tropical africa ref many african students studying british universities produced demand new scholarship started supply well oxford university became main center african studies activity well cambridge university london school economics perspective british government policymakers international business operations slowly gave way new interest activities natives


especially nationalistic movements growing demand independence ref name british empire tropical africa major breakthrough came ronald robinson john andrew gallagher especially studies impact free trade africa ''the oxford history south africa'' vols published attempting synthesize available materials ''the oxford handbook modern african history'' published bringing scholarship date economic history africa military history africa genetic history africa historiographic conceptual problems north africa sub saharan africa historiographic conceptual problems


current major problem african studies mohamed ref name mohamed ref ref name mohamed ii ref identified inherited religious orientalist colonial paradigm european africanists preserved present day secularist post colonial anglophone african historiography ref name mohamed african african american scholars also bear responsibility perpetuating european africanist preserved paradigm ref name mohamed following conceptualizations africa developed leo africanus hegel european africanists conceptually separated continental africa two racialized regions sub saharan africa north africa ref name mohamed sub saharan africa racist geographic construction serves objectified compartmentalized region africa proper africa noire black africa ref


name mohamed african diaspora also considered part racialized construction sub saharan africa ref name mohamed north africa serves racialized region european africa conceptually disconnected sub saharan africa conceptually connected middle east asia islamic world ref name mohamed result racialized constructions conceptual separation africa darker skinned north africans called haratin long resided maghreb reside south saharan africa become analogically alienated indigeneity historic reality


ii narratives derived shurafa historians would later become analogically incorporated americanized narratives eg trans saharan slave trade imported enslaved sub saharan west africans darker skinned magrebian freedmen present day european africanist paradigm ref name mohamed ii opposed developed field research analogy present day european africanist paradigm conceptually alienates dehistoricizes denaturalizes darker skinned north africans north africa darker skinned africans throughout islamic world large primarily rooted americanized textual tradition inherited th century european christian abolitionists ref name mohamed consequently reliable history


textual tradition trans saharan slave trade presence regions treated african diaspora north africa islamic world ref name mohamed altogether darker skinned north africans eg black apparently mixed maghrebians darker skinned africans islamic world inherited status servant associated dark skin trans saharan slave trade conflated modeled analogy african americans trans atlantic slave trade ref name mohamed trans saharan slave trade used literary device narratives analogically explain origins darker skinned


construction hypersexualized moors concubines eunuchs ref name mohamed concubines harems used explanatory bridge allegation comparable numbers forcibly enslaved africans limited amount present day darker skinned maghrebians characterized diasporic descendants ref name mohamed eunuchs characterized sentinels guarded harems ref name mohamed ii simulated narrative also based major assumption indigenous peoples maghreb purely white berbers became biracialized miscegenation black concubines ref name mohamed existing within geographic racial binary


pale skinned moors residing north closer mediterranean region dark skinned moors residing south closer sahara ref name mohamed ii religious polemical narrative involving suffering enslaved european christians barbary slave trade also adapted fit simulated narrative comparable number enslaved africans transported muslim slaver caravans south saharan africa north africa islamic world ref name mohamed despite inherited part th century religious polemical narratives use race secularist narrative present day european


africanist paradigm given paradigm appearance possessing scientific quality ref name mohamed ii religious polemical narrative eg holy cause hostile neologisms th century european abolitionists africa africans silenced still preserved secularist narratives present day european africanist paradigm ref name mohamed orientalist stereotyped hypersexuality moors viewed th century european abolitionists deriving quran ref name mohamed ii reference times prior often used concert biblical references th century european abolitionists may indicate realities described moors may literary


predictable ref name mohamed ii rather continuing rely faulty present day european africanist paradigm mohamed recommends revising improving current africanist paradigm eg critical inspection origins introduction present characterization saharan caravan reconsideration makes trans saharan slave trade within context africa distinct trans atlantic slave trade realistic consideration experiences darker skinned maghrebians within regional context ref name mohamed ii conceptual problems merolla ref name merolla ref indicated academic study sub saharan africa north africa europeans developed north


africa conceptually subsumed within middle east arab world whereas study sub saharan africa viewed conceptually distinct north africa region viewed inherently ref name merolla common pattern conceptual separation continental africa two regions view conceptual sameness within region sub saharan africa continued present day ref name merolla yet increasing exposure problem discussion conceptual separation africa begun develop ref name merolla sahara served trans regional zone peoples africa ref name merolla


anglophone world clearly followed trend conceptual separation africa francophone world nuanced may stem imperial policies relating french colonialism north africa sub saharan africa ref name merolla study north africa largely initiated arabophone francophone world denial arabic language become africanized throughout centuries present africa shown conceptual separation africa remains pervasive francophone world denial may stem historic development characterization


islamic arabia existing diametric binary europe ref name merolla among studies francophone world ties north africa sub saharan africa denied downplayed ties eg religious cultural regions peoples eg arab language literature berber language literature middle east north africa established diminishing differences two selectively focusing similarities two ref name merolla francophone world construction racialized regions black africa sub saharan africans white africa north africans eg berbers


arabs also developed ref name merolla despite invoked utilized identities reference racialized conceptualizations africa eg north africa sub saharan africa oppose imposed identities berbers invoked north african identity oppose arabized islamicized identities sub saharan africans eg negritude black consciousness african diaspora eg black beautiful invoked utilized black identity oppose colonialism racism ref name merolla berber studies largely sought establish ties berbers north africa arabs middle east merolla indicated efforts establish ties berbers


north africa sub saharan africans sub saharan africa recently started undertaken ref name merolla see also economic history africa african historiography historians africa list history journals africa list kingdoms pre colonial africa list sovereign states dependent territories africa outline africa history africa africa europe relations africa united states relations africa china relations soviet union africa relations notes references akyeampong emmanuel robert h bates eds ''africa 's development historical perspective'' beshah girma aregay merid wolde ''the question union churches luso ethiopian relations '' lisbon junta de investiga es


ultramar centro de estudos hist ricos ultramarinos collins robert burns james ''a history sub saharan africa'' ny cambridge ehret christopher ''the civilizations africa'' charlottesville virginia university virginia iliffe john ''africans history continent'' nd ed ny cambridge university press manning patrick ''the african diaspora history culture'' ny columbia looks slave trade adaptation africans new conditions struggle freedom equality establishment black diaspora local influence around world covers


africa history'' cambridge university press fage jd roland oliver eds ''the cambridge history africa'' vol falola toyin ''africa'' volume fitzsimons william sizing small wars african empire assessment context legacies nineteenth century colonial warfare ''journal african military history'' https doiorg freund bill ''the making contemporary africa'' lynne rienner boulder including substantial annotated bibliography pp nbsp herbertson j j r howarth eds ''the oxford survey british empire'' vol https archiveorg details inernetdli page n mode africa pp comprehensive coverage


south africa british colonies july robert ''a history african people'' waveland press killingray david richard rathbone eds ''africa second world war'' springer lamphear john ed ''african military history'' routledge obenga th ophile ''pour une nouvelle histoire'' pr sence africaine paris reader john ''africa biography continent'' hamish hamilton roberts stephen h ''history french colonial policy '' vol https archiveorg details inernetdli vol online also https archiveorg details inernetdli vol online comprehensive scholarly history shillington kevin ''history africa'' new york st martin 's thornton john k ''warfare atlantic


africa '' routledge unesco ''general history africa'' volumes worden nigel ''the making modern south africa'' oxford uk cambridge us blackwell atlases ajayi ajf michael crowder ''historical atlas africa'' color maps fage jd ''atlas african history'' freeman grenville gsp ''the new atlas african history'' kwamena poh michael et al ''african history maps'' longman mcevedy colin ''the penguin atlas african history'' nd ed https wwwamazoncom penguin atlas african history revised dp excerpt historiography boyd kelly ed ''encyclopedia historians historical writers'' rutledge external links https wwwscientificamericancom article race evolution science human origins race evolution science


words '''fabric''' '''cloth''' '''material''' often used textile assembly trades tailoring dressmaking synonyms ''textile'' however subtle differences terms specialized usage textile material made interlacing fibers including carpeting geotextiles may necessarily used production goods clothing upholstery ''fabric'' material made weaving knitting spreading felting stitching crocheting bonding may used production products clothing upholstery thus requiring step

Applied science
Family and consumer science
Textiles


production ''cloth'' may also used synonymously ''fabric'' often specifically refers piece fabric processed cut textiles made alpaca wool otavalo artisan market andes mountains ecuador etymology textile word 'textile' comes latin adjective meaning 'woven' stems past participle verb 'to weave' originally applied woven fabrics term textiles used encompass diverse range materials including fibres yarns fabrics well related items fabrics


asian people northwest romblon first clothes worn least years ago perhaps much earlier probably made animal skins helped protect early humans elements point people learned weave plant fibers textiles discovery dyed flax fibers cave republic georgia dated bce suggests textile like materials made early paleolithic era weaving shed finlayson co factory tampere finland textile machinery cambrian factory llanwrtyd wales


speed scale textile production altered almost beyond recognition industrialization introduction modern manufacturing techniques functions clothing made textiles thailand textiles assortment uses common clothing containers bags baskets household textiles used carpeting upholstered furnishings window shades towels coverings tables beds flat surfaces art workplace textiles used industrial scientific processes filtering miscellaneous uses include flags backpacks tents nets handkerchiefs cleaning rags


transportation devices balloons kites sails parachutes textiles also used provide strengthening composite materials fibreglass industrial geotextiles textiles used many traditional hand crafts sewing quilting embroidery textiles produced industrial purposes designed chosen technical characteristics beyond appearance commonly referred ''technical textiles'' technical textiles include textile structures automotive applications medical textiles implants geotextile reinforcement embankments agrotextiles textiles crop protection protective clothing clothing resistant heat radiation fire fighter clothing molten metals


welders stab protection bullet proof vests due often highly technical legal requirements products textiles typically tested order ensure meet stringent performance requirements forms technical textiles may produced experiment scientific qualities explore possible benefits may future threads coated zinc oxide nanowires woven fabric shown capable self powering nanosystems using vibrations created everyday actions like wind body movements generate energy fiber sources types textiles made many


materials four main sources animal wool silk plant cotton flax jute bamboo mineral asbestos glass fibre synthetic nylon polyester acrylic rayon first three natural th century supplemented artificial fibers made petroleum textiles made various strengths degrees durability finest microfibre made strands thinner one denier sturdiest canvas textile manufacturing terminology wealth descriptive terms light gauze like gossamer heavy grosgrain cloth beyond animal animal textiles commonly made hair fur skin silk case


wool commonly used warm clothing animal textiles made hair fur ''alpaca wool'' ''vicu wool'' ' 'llama wool'' ''camel hair'' generally used production coats jackets ponchos blankets warm coverings ''cashmere'' hair indian cashmere goat mohair hair north african angora goat types wool known softness used production sweaters scarfs ''angora'' refers long thick soft hair angora rabbit qiviut fine inner wool muskox '''silk''' animal


textile made fibres cocoon chinese silkworm spun smooth fabric prized softness two main types silk 'mulberry silk' produced bombyx mori 'wild silk' tussah silk wild silk silkworm larvae produce first type cultivated habitats fresh mulberry leaves consumption tussah silk produced silkworms feeding purely oak leaves around four fifths world 's silk production consists cultivated silk silk production consists pillow covers dresses tops skirts bed sheets curtains plant close


view barong tagalog made pi fiber philippines grass rush hemp sisal used making rope first two entire plant used purpose last two fibres plant utilized coir coconut fibre used making twine also floormats doormats brushes mattresses floor tiles sacking '''straw''' '''bamboo''' used make hats straw dried form grass also used stuffing kapok fibres '''pulpwood trees''' cotton rice hemp nettle used


making paper '''cotton''' '''flax''' '''jute''' '''hemp''' '''modal''' even '''banana''' '''bamboo fibre''' used clothing pi pineapple fibre ramie also fibres used clothing generally blend fibres cotton nettles also used make fibre fabric similar hemp flax use milkweed stalk fibre also reported tends somewhat weaker fibres like hemp flax inner bark '''lacebark tree''' fine netting used make clothing


cloth virtually fireproof fabric replaced nylon outer layer united states space suits since '''metal fibre''' '''metal foil''' '''metal wire''' variety uses including production cloth gold jewellery hardware cloth us term coarse woven mesh steel wire used construction much like standard window screening heavier open weave minerals natural synthetic fabrics may combined emery cloth layer emery abrasive glued cloth backing also sand cloth us term


fine wire mesh abrasive glued employed like emery cloth coarse sandpaper synthetic variety contemporary fabrics left evenweave cotton velvet printed cotton calico felt satin silk hessian polycotton woven tartan clan campbell scotland embroidered skirts alfaro n ez family cochas peru using traditional peruvian embroidery methods fabric tunnel moulvibazar district bangladesh synthetic textiles used primarily production clothing well manufacture geotextiles synthetic fibers chemically constructed therefore unsustainable '''polyester''' fibre used types


clothing either alone blended fibres cotton '''aramid''' fibre eg twaron used flame retardant clothing cut protection armour '''acrylic''' fibre used imitate wools including cashmere often used replacement '''nylon''' fibre used imitate silk used production pantyhose thicker nylon fibres used rope outdoor clothing '''spandex''' trade name ''lycra'' polyurethane product made tight fitting without impeding movement used make activewear bras swimsuits '''olefin fibre''' fibre used activewear linings


warm clothing olefins hydrophobic allowing dry quickly sintered felt olefin fibres sold trade name tyvek '''ingeo''' polylactide fibre blended fibres cotton used clothing hydrophilic synthetics allowing wick away perspiration '''lurex''' metallic fibre used clothing embellishment '''milk''' proteins also used create synthetic fabric milk casein fibre cloth developed world war germany developed italy america milk fibre fabric


durable wrinkles easily ph similar human skin possesses anti bacterial properties marketed biodegradable renewable synthetic fibre '''carbon fibre''' mostly used composite materials together resin carbon fibre reinforced plastic fibres made polymer fibres carbonization blends blended textiles fabric yarn produced combination two types different fibers yarns obtain desired traits blending possible various stages textile manufacturing final composition liable properties resultant product natural


synthetic fibers blended overcome disadvantage single fiber properties achieve better performance characteristics aesthetic effects devor heather effect cross dyeing stripes pattern etc clothing woven blend cotton polyester durable easier maintain material woven solely cotton sharing functional properties blending makes products economical union union fabrics th century term blended fabrics longer used nowiki ''mixture'' ''mixed cloth'' nowiki another term used blended cloths different types yarns


used warp weft sides blended textiles new '''mashru''' th century fabric one earliest forms mixed cloth material composed silk cotton '''siamoise''' th century cotton linen material composition fiber composition fiber blend composition mixtures fibers important criterion analyze behavior properties functional aspects commercial classification merchandise common blend cotton polyester regular blended fabric polyester cotton called nowiki ' 'reverse blend'' nowiki ratio


cotton predominates percentage fibers changes price required properties blending adds value textiles helps reducing cost artificial fibers less expensive natural fibers adding advantage properties final product instance small amount spandex adds stretch fabrics wool add warmth production methods class wikitable style float left margin em colspan '''top five exporters textiles ''' br small billion small china style text align right india style text align right italy style text align right germany style text align right


bangladesh style text align right colspan style font size ''source '' ref name stat ref '''weaving''' textile production method involves interlacing set longer threads called warp set crossing threads called weft done frame machine known loom number types weaving still done hand vast majority mechanized '''knitting''' '''looping''' '''crocheting''' involve interlacing loops yarn formed either knitting needle needle crochet hook together line processes


different knitting several active loops one time knitting needle waiting interlock another loop looping crocheting never one active loop needle knitting performed machine crochet performed hand '''spread tow''' production method tow fibres spread thin tapes tapes woven warp weft method mostly used composite materials spread tow fabrics made carbon aramid fibres '''braiding''' '''plaiting''' involves intertwining


threads together cloth '''knotting''' involves tying threads together used making tatting macrame '''lace''' made interlocking threads together independently using backing alongside methods described create fine fabric open holes work lace made either hand machine '''carpets''' '''rugs''' '' 'velvet''' '' 'velour''' '' 'velveteen''' referred '''pile fabrics''' made interlacing secondary yarn woven cloth creating tufted layer known nap pile '''non woven textiles''' manufactured bonding fibres make fabric bonding may


thermal mechanical chemical adhesives used '''''felting''''' involves applying pressure friction mat fibres working rubbing together fibres become interlocked tangled forming nonwoven textile liquid soapy water usually added lubricate fibres open microscopic scales strands wool '''''barkcloth''''' made pounding bark soft flat treatments double ikat weaving made tausug people sulu made banana leaf stalk fiber abac textiles often dyed


november ref since advances technologies permanent press process finishing agents used strengthen fabrics make wrinkle free recently nanomaterials research led additional advancements companies nano tex nanohorizons developing permanent treatments based metallic nanoparticles making textiles resistant things water stains wrinkles pathogens bacteria fungi textiles receive range treatments reach end user formaldehyde finishes improve crease resistance biocidic finishes flame retardants dyeing many types


fabric possibilities almost endless however many finishes may also detrimental effects end user number disperse acid reactive dyes example shown allergenic sensitive individuals specific dyes within group also shown induce purpuric contact dermatitis although formaldehyde levels clothing unlikely levels high enough cause allergic reaction due presence chemical quality control testing utmost importance flame retardants mainly brominated form also


concern environment potential toxicity concerned testing additives possible number commercial laboratories also possible textiles tested according oeko tex certification standard contains limits levels use certain chemicals textiles products see also list textile fibres textile arts textile manufacturing nbsp terminology textile printing technical textile timeline clothing textiles technology references reading introduction teresa archuleta sagel pages black white well colour plates fisher curator emirta textiles


costumes museum international folk art arai masanao textile industry research institute gunma http digitalcommonsunledu cgi viewcontentcgiarticle context tsaconf kitsch art moderne popular textiles women first half twentieth century japan https webarchiveorg web http digitalcommonsunledu cgi viewcontentcgiarticle context tsaconf archive ''textile society america symposium proceedings'' textile society america january clothing industry


torus one frequently studied objects algebraic topology '''algebraic topology''' branch mathematics uses tools abstract algebra study topological spaces basic goal find algebraic invariants classify topological spaces homeomorphism though usually classify homotopy equivalence although algebraic topology primarily uses algebra study topological problems using topology solve algebraic problems sometimes also possible algebraic topology example allows convenient proof subgroup free group free group main branches algebraic topology

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
Algebraic topology


main areas studied algebraic topology homotopy groups mathematics homotopy groups used algebraic topology classify topological spaces first simplest homotopy group fundamental group records information loops space intuitively homotopy groups record information basic shape holes topological space homology algebraic topology abstract algebra '''homology''' part greek ''homos'' identical certain general procedure associate sequence abelian groups modules given mathematical object topological space group


cohomology homology theory algebraic topology '''cohomology''' general term sequence abelian groups defined cochain complex cohomology defined abstract study '''cochains''' cocycles coboundaries cohomology viewed method assigning algebraic invariants topological space refined algebraic structure homology cohomology arises algebraic dualization construction homology less abstract language cochains fundamental sense assign 'quantities' ''chains'' homology theory manifolds '''manifold''' topological space


near point resembles euclidean space examples include plane sphere torus realized three dimensions also klein bottle real projective plane cannot embedded three dimensions embedded four dimensions typically results algebraic topology focus global non differentiable aspects manifolds example poincar duality knot theory '''knot theory''' study mathematical knots inspired knots appear daily life shoelaces rope mathematician 's knot differs ends joined together


cannot undone precise mathematical language knot embedding circle dimensional euclidean space math mathbb r math two mathematical knots equivalent one transformed via deformation math mathbb r math upon known ambient isotopy transformations correspond manipulations knotted string involve cutting string passing string complexes simplicial complex '' 'simplicial complex''' topological space certain kind constructed gluing together points line segments triangles ''n'' dimensional counterparts see illustration simplicial complexes


confused abstract notion simplicial set appearing modern simplicial homotopy theory purely combinatorial counterpart simplicial complex abstract simplicial complex '''cw complex''' type topological space introduced j h c whitehead meet needs homotopy theory class spaces broader better categorical properties simplicial complexes still retains combinatorial nature allows computation often much smaller complex method algebraic invariants older name subject combinatorial topology implying


statements topological spaces statements groups great deal manageable structure often making statement easier prove two major ways done fundamental groups generally homotopy theory homology cohomology groups fundamental groups give us basic information structure topological space often nonabelian difficult work fundamental group finite simplicial complex finite presentation homology cohomology groups hand abelian many important


cases finitely generated finitely generated abelian groups completely classified particularly easy work setting category theory general constructions algebraic topology functorial notions category functor natural transformation originated fundamental groups homology cohomology groups ''invariants'' underlying topological space sense two topological spaces homeomorphic associated groups associated morphisms also correspond continuous mapping spaces induces group homomorphism associated groups homomorphisms used show non existence


norman steenrod generalized approach defined homology cohomology functors equipped natural transformations subject certain axioms eg weak equivalence spaces passes isomorphism homology groups verified existing co homology theories satisfied axioms proved axiomatization uniquely characterized theory applications algebraic topology classic applications algebraic topology include brouwer fixed point theorem every continuous map unit ''n'' disk fixed point free rank ''n''th homology group simplicial complex ''n''th betti number


allows one calculate euler poincar characteristic one use differential structure smooth manifolds via de rham cohomology ech sheaf cohomology investigate solvability differential equations defined manifold question manifold orientable top dimensional integral homology group integers non orientable ''n'' sphere admits nowhere vanishing continuous unit vector field ''n'' odd ''n'' nbsp nbsp sometimes called hairy ball theorem borsuk ulam theorem continuous map ''n'' sphere euclidean ''n'' space identifies least one


use covering morphisms groupoids technique yielded subgroup theorems yet proved methods algebraic topology see topological combinatorics notable algebraic topologists important theorems algebraic topology see also notes references '' discusses generalized versions van kampen 's theorem applied topological spaces simplicial sets '' '' gives broad view higher dimensional van kampen theorems involving multiple groupoids '' gives general theorem fundamental groupoid set base points space union open sets first dimensional version van


kampen 's theorem provides homotopy theoretic approach basic algebraic topology without needing basis singular homology method simplicial approximation contains lot material crossed modules functorial algebraic approach originally greenberg geometric flavoring added harper modern geometrically flavoured introduction algebraic topology reading section provides category theoretic presentation theorem colimit category groupoids


'''natural science''' branch science concerned description understanding prediction natural phenomena based empirical evidence observation experimentation mechanisms peer review repeatability findings used try ensure validity scientific advances natural science divided two main branches life science physical science life science alternatively known biology physical science subdivided branches physics chemistry earth science astronomy branches natural science may divided specialized branches also known fields empirical sciences


natural sciences use tools formal sciences mathematics logic converting information nature measurements explained clear statements laws nature modern natural science succeeded classical approaches natural philosophy usually traced taoists traditions asia occident ancient greece galileo descartes bacon newton debated benefits using approaches mathematical experimental methodical way still philosophical perspectives conjectures presuppositions often overlooked remain necessary natural science systematic data collection including discovery science succeeded natural history


emerged th century describing classifying plants animals minerals today natural history suggests observational descriptions aimed popular audiences ref name wordnet definition ref criteria philosophers science suggested several criteria including karl popper 's controversial falsifiability criterion help differentiate scientific endeavors non scientific ones validity accuracy quality control peer review repeatability findings amongst respected criteria today 's global scientific community natural science impossibility assertions come widely accepted overwhelmingly probable rather considered proved point unchallengeable basis


cycle field encompasses diverse set disciplines examines phenomena related living organisms scale study range sub component biophysics complex ecologies biology concerned characteristics classification behaviors organisms well species formed interactions environment biological fields botany zoology medicine date back early periods civilization microbiology introduced th century invention microscope however th century biology became unified science


scientists discovered commonalities living things decided best studied whole key developments biology discovery genetics evolution natural selection germ theory disease application techniques chemistry physics level cell organic molecule modern biology divided subdisciplines type organism scale studied molecular biology study fundamental chemistry life cellular biology examination cell basic building block life