creation meaningful lives ref name see also occupational apartheid occupational therapy united kingdom occupational therapy management cerebral palsy occupational therapy substance use disorder references external links


literature written english language includes many countries united kingdom crown dependencies republic ireland united states countries former british empire english language developed course years earliest forms english set anglo frisian dialects brought great britain anglo saxon invaders fifth century called old english beowulf famous work old english achieved national epic status england despite set scandinavia however following norman conquest england

Humanities
Languages and literature
English literature


written form anglo saxon language became less common influence new aristocracy french became standard language courts parliament polite society ref name baugh pp baugh albert cable thomas ''the history english language'' upper saddle river new jersey prentice hall pp ref english spoken normans came known middle english form english lasted chancery standard late middle english london based form english became widespread geoffrey chaucer author ''the canterbury tales''


significant figure development legitimacy vernacular middle english time dominant literary languages england still french latin invention printing press johannes gutenberg also helped standardise language king james bible great vowel shift poet playwright william shakespeare widely regarded greatest writer english language one world 's greatest dramatists plays translated every major living language performed often


playwright nineteenth century sir walter scott 's historical romances inspired generation painters composers writers throughout europe ref name english literature p ''the oxford companion english literature'' p ref english language spread throughout world development british empire late th early th centuries height largest empire history british empire held sway million people world population time nineteenth twentieth centuries colonies usa started produce


withdrawal romans ending soon norman conquest works include genres epic poetry hagiography sermons bible translations legal works chronicles riddles ref name doma angus cameron anglo saxon literature ''dictionary middle ages'' vol pp ref surviving manuscripts period ref name doma ''widsith'' appears exeter book late th century gives list kings tribes ordered according popularity impact history attila king huns coming first followed


eormanric ostrogoths ref name hedeager ref may also oldest extant work tells battle goths huns also told later scandinavian works ''hervarar 's saga'' ''gesta danorum'' ref name hedeager lotte hedeager argues work far older however likely dates back late th early th century citing author 's knowledge historical details accuracy proof authenticity ref name hedeager note however authors john niles argued work invented th century ref


name hedeager ''anglo saxon chronicle'' collection annals old english th century chronicles history anglo saxons poem ''battle maldon'' also deals history work uncertain date celebrating battle maldon anglo saxons failed prevent viking invasion oral tradition strong early english culture literary works written performed epic poems popular including ''beowulf'' survived present day ''beowulf'' famous work old english


achieved national epic status england despite set scandinavia surviving manuscript nowell codex precise date debated estimates place close year beowulf conventional title composition dated th ref name hieatt ref early th century nearly anglo saxon authors anonymous twelve known name medieval sources four known vernacular works certainty c dmon bede alfred great cynewulf c dmon earliest english poet whose name


religious theme richard marsden describes ''the seafarer'' exhortatory didactic poem miseries winter seafaring used metaphor challenge faced committed christian classical antiquity forgotten anglo saxon england several old english poems adaptations late classical philosophical texts longest king alfred 's th century translation boethius' ''consolation philosophy'' middle english literature norman conquest england written form anglo saxon language became less common influence new


aristocracy french became standard language courts parliament polite society invaders integrated language literature mingled natives norman dialects ruling classes became anglo norman th century anglo saxon underwent gradual transition middle english political power longer english hands west saxon literary language influence dialect middle english literature written many dialects corresponded region history culture background individual writers ref name baugh pp


name given group bible translations middle english made direction instigation john wycliffe appeared bible translations chief inspiration cause lollard movement pre reformation movement rejected many teachings roman catholic church another literary genre romances appears english th century ''king horn'' ''havelock dane'' based anglo norman originals ''romance horn'' c th century


major writers english first appeared william langland geoffrey chaucer called pearl poet whose famous work ''sir gawain green knight'' langland 's ''piers plowman'' written c ''visio willelmi de petro plowman'' ''william 's vision piers plowman'' middle english allegorical narrative poem written unrhymed alliterative verse ''sir gawain green knight'' late th century middle english alliterative romance one better known arthurian stories established type known beheading game developing welsh irish english tradition ''sir gawain'' highlights importance


honour chivalry preserved manuscript sir gawayne three poems generally accepted work author including intricate elegiac poem ''pearl'' ref name gawayne ref english dialect poems midlands markedly different london based chaucer though influenced french scenes court ''sir gawain'' poems also many dialect words often scandinavian origin belonged northwest england ref name gawayne geoffrey chaucer middle english lasted chancery standard


london based form english became widespread printing press started standardise language chaucer best known today ''the canterbury tales'' collection stories written middle english mostly verse although prose presented part story telling contest group pilgrims travel together southwark shrine st thomas becket canterbury cathedral chaucer significant figure development legitimacy vernacular middle english time dominant literary languages england


still french latin time literature england written various languages including latin norman french english multilingual nature audience literature th century illustrated example john gower c contemporary william langland personal friend chaucer gower remembered primarily three major works ''mirroir de l'omme'' ''vox clamantis'' ''confessio amantis'' three long poems written anglo norman latin middle english respectively united common moral political themes significant religious works also created th


century including julian norwich c c richard rolle julian 's ''revelations divine love'' believed first published book written woman english language ref name ec ref major work th century ''le morte d'arthur'' sir thomas malory printed caxton ref name autogenerated ''the oxford companion english literature'' p ref compilation french english arthurian romances among earliest books printed england popular influential later revival


robin hood folk tales telling old stories actors travelled town town performing audiences return money hospitality mystery plays miracle plays among earliest formally developed plays medieval europe medieval mystery plays focused representation bible stories churches tableaux accompanying antiphonal song developed th th century reaching height popularity th century rendered obsolete rise professional theatre th century engraving performance chester mystery


play cycle four complete nearly complete extant english biblical collections plays late medieval period complete ''york cycle'' pageants performed city york middle th century besides middle english drama three surviving plays cornish known ordinalia grown religiously based mystery plays middle ages morality play genre medieval early tudor theatrical entertainment represented shift towards secular base european


theatre morality plays type allegory protagonist met personifications various moral attributes try prompt choose godly life one evil plays popular europe th th centuries ''the somonyng everyman'' ''the summoning everyman'' c usually referred simply ''everyman'' late th century english morality play like john bunyan 's allegory ''pilgrim 's progress'' ''everyman'' examines question christian salvation use allegorical characters english renaissance renaissance style ideas slow


disseminated widely households drama among earliest elizabethan plays ''gorboduc'' sackville norton thomas kyd 's ''the spanish tragedy'' ''gorboduc'' notable especially first verse drama english employ blank verse way developed elements earlier morality plays senecan tragedy direction would followed later playwrights ''the spanish tragedy'' elizabethan tragedy written thomas kyd popular influential time established new genre english literature theatre revenge


play william shakespeare william shakespeare stands period poet playwright yet unsurpassed shakespeare wrote plays variety genres including histories ''richard iii'' ''henry iv'' tragedies ''hamlet'' ''othello'' ''macbeth'' comedies ''midsummer night 's dream'' ''as like it'' ''twelfth night'' late romances tragicomedies shakespeare 's career continues jacobean period important figures elizabethan theatre include christopher marlowe ben jonson thomas dekker john fletcher francis beaumont jacobean period drama early th century shakespeare


wrote called problem plays well number best known tragedies including ''macbeth'' ''king lear'' final period shakespeare turned romance tragicomedy completed three major plays including ''the tempest'' less bleak tragedies four plays graver tone comedies end reconciliation forgiveness potentially tragic errors shakespeare 's death poet dramatist ben jonson leading literary figure jacobean era jonson 's aesthetics hark back middle ages characters embody


theory humours based contemporary medical theory jonson 's comedies include ''volpone'' ''bartholomew fair'' others followed jonson 's style include beaumont fletcher wrote popular comedy ''the knight burning pestle'' probably satire rising middle class another popular style theatre jacobean times revenge play popularized elizabethan era thomas kyd developed later john webster ''the white devil'' ''the duchess malfi'' revenge tragedies include ''the changeling'' written


represents culmination tradition bible translation english began work william tyndale became standard bible church england late renaissance poetry metaphysical poets john donne george herbert still alive later th century second generation metaphysical poets writing including richard crashaw andrew marvell thomas traherne henry vaughan cavalier poets another important group th century poets came classes supported king charles


pioneering literary criticism dryden first newspapers official break literary culture caused censorship radically moralist standards cromwell 's puritan regime created gap literary tradition allowing seemingly fresh start forms literature restoration interregnum royalist forces attached court charles went exile twenty year old charles ii nobility travelled charles ii therefore lodged decade midst continent 's literary scene poetry john milton religious epic poem ''paradise lost'' published


john milton one greatest english poets wrote time religious flux political upheaval milton best known epic poem ''paradise lost'' among important poems include ''l'allegro'' ''il penseroso'' ''comus'' masque ''lycidas'' milton 's poetry prose reflect deep personal convictions passion freedom self determination urgent issues political turbulence day celebrated ''areopagitica'' written condemnation pre publication censorship among history 's influential impassioned defenses free speech freedom press largest important


poetic form era satire general publication satire done anonymously great dangers associated satire john dryden influential english poet literary critic translator playwright dominated literary life restoration england point period came known literary circles age dryden established heroic couplet standard form english poetry dryden 's greatest achievements satiric verse works like mock heroic ''macflecknoe'' alexander pope heavily influenced dryden


often borrowed writers th century equally influenced dryden pope prose prose restoration period dominated christian religious writing restoration also saw beginnings two genres would dominate later periods fiction journalism religious writing often strayed political economic writing political economic writing implied directly addressed religion restoration also time john locke wrote many philosophical works two ''treatises government'' later inspired thinkers american revolution restoration


moderated strident sectarian writing radicalism persisted restoration puritan authors john milton forced retire public life adapt authors preached monarchy participated directly regicide charles partially suppressed consequently violent writings forced underground many served interregnum attenuated positions restoration john bunyan stands beyond religious authors period bunyan 's ''the pilgrim 's progress'' allegory personal salvation guide christian


life john bunyan 's ''the pilgrim 's progress'' restoration period common manner getting news would broadsheet publication single large sheet paper might written usually partisan account event impossible satisfactorily date beginning novel english however long fiction fictional biographies began distinguish forms england restoration period existing tradition ''romance'' fiction france spain popular england one significant figures rise novel


restoration period aphra behn author ''oroonoko'' first professional female novelist may among first professional novelists either sex england drama soon previous puritan regime 's ban public stage representations lifted drama recreated quickly abundantly famous plays early restoration period unsentimental hard comedies john dryden william wycherley george etherege reflect atmosphere court celebrate aristocratic macho lifestyle unremitting sexual intrigue conquest sharp drop


quality quantity mid saw brief second flowering drama especially comedy comedies like william congreve 's ''the way world'' john vanbrugh 's ''the relapse'' ''the provoked wife'' softer middle class ethos different aristocratic extravaganza twenty years earlier aimed wider audience th century augustan literature th century literature reflected worldview age enlightenment age reason rational scientific approach religious social political economic issues promoted secular


view world general sense progress perfectibility led philosophers inspired discoveries previous century people like isaac newton writings descartes john locke francis bacon sought discover act upon universally valid principles governing humanity nature society variously attacked spiritual scientific authority dogmatism intolerance censorship economic social restraints considered state proper rational instrument progress extreme rationalism skepticism age led naturally deism also played part


bringing later reaction romanticism encyclop die denis diderot epitomized spirit age term augustan literature derives authors responded term george great britain preferred george meant title reflect might instead saw reflection ancient rome 's transition rough ready literature highly political highly polished literature age exuberance scandal enormous energy inventiveness outrage reflected era english welsh


scottish irish people found midst expanding economy lowering barriers education beginnings industrial revolution poetry time poet james thomson produced melancholy ''the seasons'' edward young wrote poem ''night thoughts'' though outstanding poet age alexander pope also era saw serious competition proper model pastoral criticism poets struggled doctrine ' 'decorum'' matching proper words proper sense achieving


diction matched gravity subject time mock heroic zenith pope 's ''rape lock'' ''the dunciad'' still considered greatest mock heroic poems ever written pope also translated ''iliad'' ''odyssey'' since death pope constant state evaluation drama drama early part period featured last plays john vanbrugh william congreve carried restoration comedy alterations however majority stagings lower


farces much serious domestic tragedies george lillo richard steele produced highly moral forms tragedy characters concerns characters wholly middle class working class reflected marked change audience plays royal patronage longer important part theatrical success additionally colley cibber john rich began battle greater greater spectacles present stage figure harlequin introduced pantomime theatre began staged low comedy quite popular plays


became tertiary staging opera also began popular london significant literary resistance italian incursion john gay returned playhouse ''the beggar 's opera'' licensing act brought abrupt halt much period 's drama theatres brought state control prose including novel prose earlier part period overshadowed development english essay joseph addison richard steele 's ''the spectator'' established form british periodical essay however also


time english novel first emerging daniel defoe turned journalism writing criminal lives press writing fictional criminal lives ''roxana'' ''moll flanders'' also wrote ''robinson crusoe'' jonathan swift addison steele dominant one type prose jonathan swift author satire ''gulliver 's travels'' another ''a modest proposal'' ''drapier letters'' swift reluctantly defended irish people predations colonialism provoked riots arrests swift love irish roman catholics outraged


abuses saw effect licensing act cause one aspiring playwright switch writing novels henry fielding began write prose satire novels plays could pass censors interim samuel richardson produced ''pamela virtue rewarded'' henry fielding attacked saw absurdity novel ''joseph andrews'' ''shamela'' subsequently fielding satirised richardson 's ''clarissa'' ''tom jones'' tobias smollett elevated picaresque novel works ''roderick random''


''peregrine pickle'' age sensibility samuel johnson period known '''age sensibility''' also sometimes described age johnson samuel johnson often referred dr johnson english author made lasting contributions english literature poet essayist moralist literary critic biographer editor lexicographer johnson described arguably distinguished man letters english history nine years work johnson 's ''a dictionary english language'' published far reaching effect


modern english described one greatest single achievements scholarship ref name bate ref second half th century saw emergence three major irish authors oliver goldsmith richard brinsley sheridan laurence sterne goldsmith author ''the vicar wakefield'' pastoral poem ''the deserted village'' two plays ''the good natur 'd man'' ''she stoops conquer'' sheridan 's first play ''the rivals'' performed covent garden instant success went become significant london playwright


includes graveyard poets later whose works characterised gloomy meditations mortality added later practitioners feeling 'sublime' uncanny interest ancient english poetic forms folk poetry poets include thomas gray ''elegy written country churchyard'' edward young ''the complaint night thoughts life death immortality'' precursors james thomson james macpherson ref name britannicacom james macpherson first scottish poet gain international reputation claim


henry mackenzie 's ''the man feeling'' significant foreign influences germans goethe schiller august wilhelm schlegel french philosopher writer jean jacques rousseau ref name j cuddon pp ja cuddon pp ref edmund burke 's ''a philosophical enquiry origin ideas sublime beautiful'' another important influence ref name english literature pp ''the oxford companion english literature'' pp ref changing landscape brought industrial agricultural revolutions another influence growth romantic movement britain late th century horace walpole 's novel ''the


castle otranto'' created gothic fiction genre combines elements horror romance ann radcliffe introduced brooding figure gothic villain developed byronic hero ''the mysteries udolpho'' frequently cited archetypal gothic novel romanticism romanticism artistic literary intellectual movement originated europe toward end th century romanticism arrived later parts english speaking world william blake romantic period one major social change england wales depopulation countryside


rapid development overcrowded industrial cities took place period roughly movement many people england result two forces agricultural revolution involved enclosure land drove workers land industrial revolution provided employment romanticism may seen part reaction industrial revolution though also revolt aristocratic social political norms age enlightenment well reaction scientific rationalization nature french revolution


especially important influence political thinking many romantic poets landscape often prominent poetry period much romantics especially perhaps wordsworth often described 'nature poets' however longer romantic 'nature poems' wider concern usually meditations emotional problem personal crisis romantic poetry robert burns pioneer romantic movement death became cultural icon scotland poet painter printmaker william blake another early romantic poets though


''elegiac sonnets'' charlotte smith reintroduced sonnet english literature early romantic poets brought new emotionalism introspection emergence marked first romantic manifesto english literature preface ''lyrical ballads'' poems ''lyrical ballads'' mostly wordsworth though coleridge contributed rime ancient mariner among wordsworth 's important poems lines composed miles tintern abbey resolution independence ode intimations immortality recollections early childhood autobiographical epic ''the prelude'' robert southey another called lake


poets poet laureate years although fame long eclipsed william wordsworth samuel taylor coleridge thomas de quincey best known ''confessions english opium eater'' essayist william hazlitt friend coleridge wordsworth best known today literary criticism especially ''characters shakespeare 's plays'' second generation lord byron second generation romantic poets includes lord byron percy bysshe shelley felicia hemans john keats byron however still influenced th century satirists perhaps least 'romantic'


three preferring brilliant wit pope called 'wrong poetical system' romantic contemporaries byron achieved enormous fame influence throughout europe goethe called byron undoubtedly greatest genius century shelley perhaps best known ''ode west wind'' ''to skylark'' ''adonais'' elegy written death keats close circle admirers included progressive thinkers day work like ''queen mab'' reveals shelley direct heir french british revolutionary intellectuals shelley became


idol next three four generations poets including important victorian pre raphaelite poets robert browning dante gabriel rossetti well later w b yeats though john keats shared byron shelley 's radical politics best poetry political especially noted sensuous music imagery along concern material beauty transience life among famous works ode nightingale ode grecian urn autumn keats always regarded major romantic stature


came known celebratory representations english countryside lamentation changes taking place rural england poetry undergone major evaluation often considered among important th century poets george crabbe english poet romantic period wrote closely observed realistic portraits rural life heroic couplets augustan age modern critic frank whitehead said crabbe verse tales particular important indeed major poet whose work still


social standing economic security mary shelley remembered author ''frankenstein'' ''the last mohicans'' br illustration edition br jt merrill romanticism america european romantic movement reached america early th century american romanticism multifaceted individualistic europe like europeans american romantics demonstrated high level moral enthusiasm commitment individualism unfolding self emphasis intuitive perception assumption natural world inherently good human society corrupt ref name george l


france home victorian literature victorian novel charles dickens victorian era novel became leading literary genre english women played important part rising popularity authors readers monthly serialising fiction also encouraged surge popularity upheavals followed reform act many ways reaction rapid industrialization social political economic issues associated means commenting abuses government industry


known almost exclusively ''vanity fair'' bront sisters emily charlotte anne significant novelists ''jane eyre'' charlotte bront 's famous work first sisters' novels achieve success emily bront 's novel ''wuthering heights'' according juliet gardiner vivid sexual passion power language imagery impressed bewildered appalled reviewers led victorian public many early reviewers think written man ''the tenant wildfell hall''


anne bront considered one first feminist novels ref name intro ref elizabeth gaskell also successful writer ''north south'' contrasts lifestyle industrial north england wealthier south anthony trollope 's one successful prolific respected english novelists victorian era trollope 's novels portray lives landowning professional classes early victorian england george eliot pen name mary ann evans major novelist mid victorian period works especially ''middlemarch'' important examples


literary realism admired combination high victorian literary detail intellectual breadth removes narrow geographic confines often depict hg wells studying london taken c george meredith best remembered novels ''the ordeal richard feverel'' ''the egoist'' reputation stood high well th century seriously declined ref name english literature pp ''the oxford companion english literature'' pp ref interest rural matters changing social economic situation countryside seen


''the princess goblin'' ''phantastes'' wilkie collins' epistolary novel ''the moonstone'' generally considered first detective novel english language robert louis stevenson important scottish writer end nineteenth century author ''strange case dr jekyll mr hyde'' historical novel ''kidnapped'' hg wells 's writing career began science fiction novels like ''the time machine'' ''the war worlds'' describes invasion late victorian england martians wells seen along


considered watershed moment transcendentalism became major cultural movement ref name george l p nathaniel hawthorne romantic american novel developed fully nathaniel hawthorne 's ''the scarlet letter'' stark drama woman cast community committing adultery hawthorne 's fiction profound impact friend herman melville ''moby dick'' adventurous whaling voyage becomes vehicle examining themes obsession nature evil human struggle elements however psychological social realism competing romanticism


major american novelist late th early th centuries although born new york city spent adult years england many novels center americans live travel europe james confronted old world new world dilemma writing directly works include ''the portrait lady'' ''the bostonians'' ''the princess casamassima'' genre fiction sir arthur conan doyle wrote short stories four novels featuring sherlock holmes premier ghost story writer th century sheridan le fanu


dr watson lost world literary genre inspired real stories archaeological discoveries imperial adventurers h rider haggard wrote one earliest examples ''king solomon 's mines'' contemporary european politics diplomatic maneuverings informed anthony hope 's ruritanian adventure novel ''the prisoner zenda'' children 's literature literature children developed separate genre works become internationally known lewis carroll ''alice 's adventures wonderland'' sequel ''through looking glass'' robert louis stevenson 's ''treasure island'' classic pirate adventure end victorian era


leading edwardian era beatrix potter author illustrator best known children 's books featured animal characters thirties potter published highly successful children 's book ''the tale peter rabbit'' potter eventually went publish children 's books became wealthy woman victorian poetry alfred lord tennyson ca leading poets victorian period alfred lord tennyson robert browning elizabeth barrett browning matthew arnold poetry period heavily influenced romantics also went


dante gabriel rossetti poet illustrator painter translator founded pre raphaelite brotherhood william holman hunt john everett millais rossetti 's art characterised sensuality medieval revivalism arthur clough george meredith two important minor poets era ref name english literature pp ref name victorianweborg ref towards end th century english poets began take interest french symbolism victorian poetry entered decadent ''fin de si cle'' phase two groups poets emerged ''yellow book'' poets adhered tenets


aestheticism including algernon charles swinburne oscar wilde arthur symons rhymers' club group included ernest dowson lionel johnson irishman william butler yeats yeats went become important modernist th century also ae housman published expense ''a shropshire lad'' writers comic verse included dramatist librettist poet illustrator ws gilbert best known fourteen comic operas produced collaboration composer sir arthur sullivan famous include ''hms pinafore'' ''the pirates penzance'' novelist thomas hardy


poetic innovator major work ''leaves grass'' uses free flowing verse lines irregular length depict inclusiveness american democracy emily dickinson hand lived sheltered life genteel unmarried woman small town amherst massachusetts within formal structure poetry ingenious witty exquisitely wrought psychologically penetrating work unconventional day little published lifetime victorian drama gilbert sullivan 's ''hms pinafore'' change came victorian era profusion


london stage farces musical burlesques extravaganzas comic operas competed productions shakespeare 's plays serious drama dramatists like james planch thomas william robertson german reed entertainments began process elevating level formerly risqu musical theatre britain culminated famous series comic operas gilbert sullivan followed first edwardian musical comedies length runs theatre changed rapidly victorian period transport improved poverty london diminished street lighting made


safer travel night number potential patrons growing number theatres increased enormously plays could run longer still draw audiences leading better profits improved production values first play achieve consecutive performances london comedy ''our boys'' opening record performances bested ''charley 's aunt'' several gilbert sullivan 's comic operas broke performance barrier beginning ''hms pinafore'' alfred cellier bc stephenson 's hit ''dorothy'' ran performances ws gilbert oscar wilde became


general sense disillusionment victorian era attitudes certainty conservatism belief idea objective truth movement influenced ideas charles darwin ernst mach henri bergson friedrich nietzsche james g frazer karl marx ''das kapital'' psychoanalytic theories sigmund freud among others continental art movements impressionism later cubism also important important literary precursors modernism fyodor dostoevsky walt whitman charles baudelaire rimbaud august strindberg major british lyric poet first


decades twentieth century thomas hardy though modernist hardy important transitional figure victorian era twentieth century major novelist late nineteenth century hardy lived well third decade twentieth century though published poetry period another significant transitional figure victorians modernists late nineteenth century novelist henry james continued publish major novels twentieth century including ''the golden bowl'' polish born modernist novelist joseph conrad published first important works ''heart darkness'' ''lord jim'' however


victorian gerard manley hopkins 's highly original poetry published long death career another major modernist poet irishman wb yeats began late victorian era yeats one foremost figures twentieth century english literature modernism become important literary movement early decades new century also many fine writers like thomas hardy modernists early decades twentieth century georgian poets like rupert brooke walter de la mare maintained


conservative approach poetry combining romanticism sentimentality hedonism another georgian poet edward thomas one first world war poets along wilfred owen rupert brooke isaac rosenberg siegfried sassoon irish playwrights george bernard shaw jm synge se n o'casey influential british drama shaw 's career began last decade nineteenth century synge 's plays belong first decade twentieth century synge 's famous play ''the playboy western world'' caused outrage riots first performed dublin


george bernard shaw turned edwardian theatre arena debate important political social issues novelists considered modernists include h g wells john galsworthy nobel prize literature whose works include ''the forsyte saga'' em forster 's though forster 's work frequently regarded containing modernist victorian elements forster 's famous work ''a passage india'' reflected challenges imperialism earlier novels examined restrictions hypocrisy edwardian society england popular british writer early years twentieth century


arguably rudyard kipling highly versatile writer novels short stories poems addition wb yeats important early modernist poets american born poet ts eliot eliot became british citizen born educated america famous works prufrock ''the waste land'' ''four quartets'' amongst novelists joseph conrad important early modernists include dorothy richardson whose novel ''pointed roof'' one earliest examples stream consciousness technique dh lawrence published ''the rainbow''


man coal miners lewis jones south wales harold heslop county durham aldous huxley published famous dystopia ''brave new world'' year john cowper powys 's ''a glastonbury romance'' samuel beckett published first major work novel ''murphy'' year graham greene 's first major novel ''brighton rock'' published james joyce 's published ''finnegans wake'' creates special language express consciousness dreaming character also another irish modernist poet wb yeats died british


poet wh auden another significant modernist post modernism though seen modernism ending around regard english literature modernism petered postmodernism began contested almost hotly transition victorianism modernism occurred fact number modernists still living publishing including ts eliot dorothy richardson ezra pound furthermore basil bunting born published little ''briggflatts'' samuel beckett born ireland continued produce significant works


though view post modernist among british writers poet dylan thomas novelist graham greene whose works span evelyn waugh wh auden continued publishing postmodern literature continuation experimentation championed writers modernist period relying heavily example fragmentation paradox questionable narrators etc reaction enlightenment ideas implicit modernist literature postmodern literature like postmodernism whole difficult define little agreement exact characteristics


scope importance postmodern literature among postmodern writers americans henry miller william burroughs joseph heller kurt vonnegut hunter thompson truman capote thomas pynchon novel malcolm lowry published ''under volcano'' george orwell 's satire totalitarianism ''nineteen eighty four'' published novelists writing later anthony powell whose twelve volume cycle novels ''a dance music time'' comic examination movements manners power passivity english political cultural military life mid th century nobel prize laureate william


especially remembered dystopian novel ''a clockwork orange'' set distant future paul scott wrote monumental series last decade british rule india ''the raj quartet'' scotland late th century produced several important novelists including writer ''how late late'' james kelman like samuel beckett create humour grim situations alasdair gray whose ''lanark life four books'' dystopian fantasy set surreal version glasgow called unthank two


significant irish novelists john banville born colm ib n born martin amis pat barker born ian mcewan born julian barnes born prominent late twentieth century british novelists drama important cultural movement british theatre developed late early kitchen sink realism kitchen sink drama term coined describe art novels film television plays term angry young men often applied members artistic movement used style social realism depicts domestic lives


working class explore social issues political issues drawing room plays post war period typical dramatists like terence rattigan l coward challenged angry young men plays like john osborne 's ''look back anger'' absurdist play ''waiting godot'' irish writer samuel beckett profoundly affected british drama theatre absurd influenced harold pinter born birthday party whose works often characterised menace claustrophobia beckett also influenced tom stoppard born ''rosencrantz


guildenstern dead'' stoppard 's works however also notable high spirited wit great range intellectual issues tackles different plays important new element world british drama beginnings radio commissioning plays adaption existing plays bbc radio especially important television many major british playwrights fact either effectively began careers bbc works adapted radio including caryl churchill tom


stoppard whose first professional production fifteen minute ''just midnight'' programme bbc radio showcased new dramatists ref name autogenerated ref john mortimer made radio debut dramatist adaptation novel ''like men betrayed'' bbc light programme notable radio dramatists included brendan behan novelist angela carter among famous works created radio dylan thomas 's ''under milk wood'' samuel beckett 's ''all fall'' harold pinter 's ''a slight ache'' robert bolt 's ''a man seasons'' poetry major poets like


ts eliot wh auden dylan thomas still publishing period though wh auden 's career began published several volumes stature modern literature contested probably common critical view onward ranked one three major twentieth century british poets heir yeats eliot new poets starting careers include philip larkin ''the whitsun weddings'' ted hughes ''the hawk rain'' sylvia plath ''the


colossus'' irishman born northern ireland seamus heaney ''death naturalist'' northern ireland also produced number significant poets including derek mahon paul muldoon martian poetry aimed break grip 'the familiar' describing ordinary things unfamiliar ways though example eyes martian poets closely associated craig raine christopher reid another literary movement period british poetry revival wide reaching collection groupings subgroupings embraces performance sound


concrete poetry mersey beat poets adrian henri brian patten roger mcgough work self conscious attempt creating english equivalent american beats noteworthy later twentieth century poets welshman rs thomas geoffrey hill charles tomlinson carol ann duffy geoffrey hill born considered one distinguished english poets generation ref name harold bloom ref charles tomlinson born another important english poet older generation though since first publication built career seen notice international scene


native england ref name carcanetcouk ref literature commonwealth nations see also postcolonial australian canadian caribbean indian new zealand pakistani african ref group note see former british colonies nigeria kenya south african literature etc ref migrant literature doris lessing cologne significant number major writers came countries centuries settled british america producing significant writers least victorian period course important works english prior british empire


south african writer olive schreiner 's famous novel ''the story african farm'' published new zealander katherine mansfield published first collection short stories ''in german pension'' first major novelist writing english indian sub continent r k narayan began publishing england thanks encouragement english novelist graham greene caribbean writer jean rhys 's writing career began early though famous work ''wide sargasso sea'' published south africa 's alan paton 's famous ''cry beloved country'' dates


doris lessing southern rhodesia zimbabwe dominant presence english literary scene frequently publishing throughout th century nobel prize literature sir salman rushdie hay festival uk 's largest annual literary festival salman rushdie another post second world war writers former british colonies permanently settled britain rushdie achieved fame ''midnight 's children'' controversial novel ''the satanic verses'' inspired part life muhammad v naipaul born born


trinidad another immigrant wrote among things ''a bend river'' naipaul nobel prize literature ref name nobelweb ref nigeria number writers achieved international reputation works english including novelist chinua achebe well playwright wole soyinka soyinka nobel prize literature south african novelist nadine gordimer south african writers english novelist jm coetzee nobel prize playwright athol fugard kenya 's internationally renowned author ng g wa thiong'o written novels plays short stories


english poet derek walcott st lucia caribbean another nobel prize winner australian patrick white major novelist period whose first work published noteworthy australian writers end period poet les murray novelist peter carey born one four writers booker prize twice major canadian novelists include carol shields lawrence hill margaret atwood alice munro carol shields novel ''the stone diaries'' pulitzer prize fiction


continued internationally prominent genre fiction twentieth century many works published twentieth century examples genre fiction designation includes crime novels spy novel historical romance fantasy graphic novel science fiction jrr tolkien agatha christie important crime writer novels short stories plays best remembered detective novels well successful plays west end theatre another popular writer golden age detective fiction dorothy l sayers recent noteworthy writers genre ruth


fantasy genre jrr tolkien author ''the hobbit'' ''the lord rings'' cs lewis author ''the chronicles narnia'' jk rowling wrote highly successful ''harry potter'' series lloyd alexander winner newbery honor well newbery medal ''the chronicles prydain'' pentalogy another significant author fantasy novels younger readers like fantasy later decades th century genre science fiction began taken seriously work writers arthur c


clarke '' space odyssey'' michael moorcock another prominent writer genre douglas adams particularly associated comic science fiction work ''the hitchhiker 's guide galaxy'' mainstream novelists doris lessing margaret atwood also wrote works genre known macabre darkly comic fantasy works children roald dahl became one best selling authors th century best loved children 's novels include ''charlie chocolate factory'' ''matilda'' ''james giant peach'' ''the witches'' ''fantastic mr fox'' ''the bfg'' noted writers field comic


list english language poets irish literature irish theatre literature northern ireland literature languages britain scottish literature theatre scotland welsh literature english theatre wales women 's writing english list commonwealth writers prizes notes references bibliography external links http sitesgooglecom site theenglishliterarycanon english literary canon http wwwlibrarythingcom tag british literature british literature books tagged british literature librarything https webarchiveorg web http wwwbluk shakespeare ''discovering literature shakespeare'' british library http wwwbluk romantics victorians ''discovering literature romantics victorians'' british library http wwwbluk th century literature ''discovering literature th century'' british library http wwwluminariumorg medlit luminarium anthology middle english


'''orthodontics''' dictionarycom website wwwdictionarycom language en access date ref dentistry specialty addresses diagnosis prevention correction mal positioned teeth jaws misaligned bite patterns may also address modification facial growth known '' 'dentofacial orthopedics''' abnormal alignment teeth jaws common nearly developed world 's population according american association orthodontics malocclusions severe enough benefit orthodontic treatment although figure decreases less according aao statement referring medically necessary orthodontics conclusive scientific evidence health benefits orthodontic treatment however

Applied science
Medicine and health
Dentistry
Orthodontics


lacking although patients completed orthodontic treatment reported higher quality life untreated patients undergoing orthodontic treatment treatment may require several months years entails using dental braces appliances gradually adjust tooth position jaw alignment cases malocclusion severe jaw surgery may incorporated treatment plan treatment usually begins person reaches adulthood insofar pre adult bones may adjusted easily adulthood history modern science orthodontics dates mid ref name ref field 's influential


contributors include norman william kingsley ref name edward angle angle created first basic system classifying malocclusions system remains use today ref name mid braces made wrapping metal around tooth ref name advancements adhesives became possible instead bond metal brackets teeth ref name methods functional expanders typical treatment incorrectly positioned teeth malocclusion takes one three years braces adjusted every four weeks specialists called orthodontists university trained dental specialists versed prevention


diagnosis treatment dental facial irregularities orthodontists offer wide range treatment options straighten crooked teeth fix irregular bites align jaws correctly many ways adjust malocclusion growing patients options treat skeletal discrepancies either promoting restricting growth using functional appliances orthodontic headgear reverse pull facemask orthodontic work begins early permanent dentition stage skeletal growth completed skeletal growth completed jaw surgery option sometimes teeth extracted aid orthodontic treatment teeth extracted


half cases commonly premolars orthodontic therapy may include using fixed removable appliances orthodontic therapy delivered using appliances fixed place ref name ref example braces adhesively bonded teeth fixed appliances may provide greater mechanical control teeth optimal treatment outcome improved using fixed appliances fixed appliances may used example rotate teeth fit arch shape teeth mouth adjust multiple teeth different places change tooth angle teeth


side facing tongue called lingual braces brackets made stainless steel porcelain bonded center teeth using adhesive wires placed slot brackets allows controlled movement three dimensions apart wires forces applied using elastic bands ref name ref springs may used push teeth apart close gap several teeth may tied together ligatures different kinds hooks placed allow connecting elastic band ref name clear aligners alternative


braces insufficient evidence exists determine effectiveness ref name ros ref treatment duration time required braces varies person person depending severity problem amount room available distance teeth must travel health teeth gums supporting bone closely patient follows instructions average however braces put usually remain place one three years braces removed patients need wear retainer time first six months


sleep many years headgear orthodontic headgear sometimes referred extra oral appliance treatment approach requires patient device strapped onto head help correct malocclusion typically used teeth align properly headgear often used along braces orthodontic appliances braces correct position teeth orthodontic headgear name suggests worn strapped onto patient 's head often added orthodontic treatment help alter alignment jaw although situations


appliance help move teeth particularly molars full orthodontic headgear headcap fitting straps facebow elastics whatever purpose orthodontic headgear works exerting tension braces via hooks facebow coils elastic bands metal orthodontic bands attachable appliances directly patient 's mouth effective children teenagers jaws still developing easily manipulated adult fitted headgear usually help correct position teeth shifted teeth extracted thus headgear typically


used treat number jaw alignment bite problems overbite underbite palatal expansion palatal expansion achieved using either fixed removable appliances ref name referencea ref jaw surgery jaw surgery may required fix severe malocclusions bone broken surgery stabilised titanium bioresorbable plates screws allow healing take place surgery regular orthodontic treatment used move teeth final position treatment reduce pain orthodontic treatment low level laser therapy lllt vibratory devices


clear plastic custom fitted patient 's mouth tight fit holds teeth position many types brands clear retainers including zendura retainer essix retainer vivera retainer hawley retainer also removable orthodontic appliance made combination plastic metal molded custom fit patient 's mouth removable retainers worn different periods time depending patient need stabilise dentition ref name littlewood ref fixed retainers fixed retainers simple wire fixed tongue facing


part incisors using dental adhesive specifically useful prevent rotation incisors types fixed retainers include labial lingual braces brackets fixed teeth ref name littlewood gallery widths heights file hyrax rapid palatal expanderpng palatal expander file full orthodontic headgear headcap fitting strapsjpg orthodontic headgear file cephalometric radiographjpg x ray taken skull analysis file retainerjpg top bottom retainers gallery clear aligners invisalign invisalign another form orthodontics commonly used today many patients like appearance traditional metal braces opt clear removable aligners


invisalign one able see entire process start finish consultation aligners used lot flexibility fixing smile dentist able make changes one wants treatment ref name traditional braces require metal brackets invisalign depending case patient attachments teeth clear little buttons help move teeth also depending case individual might need interproximal reduction also known ipr dentist take little tool shave


year depending severity specific case treatment complete individual wear clear removable retainers training several specialty areas dentistry specialty orthodontics first recognized within dentistry ref name ref specifically american dental association recognized orthodontics specialty ref name country system training registering orthodontic specialists australia australia obtain accredited three year full time university degree orthodontics one need qualified dentist complete ahpra registered general dental


one many schools recognized bangladesh medical dental council bm dc offer post graduation orthodontic courses ref name ref applying post graduation training courses applicant must completed bachelor dental surgery bds examination dental college ref name application applicant must take admissions test held specific college ref name successful selected candidates undergo training six months canada canada obtaining dental degree doctor dental surgery dds doctor medical dentistry dmd would required accepted


school orthodontic training ref name ref currently schools country offering orthodontic specialty ref name candidates contact individual school directly obtain recent pre requisites entry ref name canadian dental association expects orthodontists complete least two years post doctoral specialty training orthodontics accredited program graduating dental degree pakistan pakistan enrolled student resident postgraduation orthodontic course approved pakistan medical dental council dentist must graduate bachelor dental


surgery bds equivalent degree pakistan medical dental council pmdc recognized program orthodontics master dental surgery mds orthodontics fcps orthodontics years post graduate degree programs latter conducted cpsp pakistan united states similar canada several colleges universities united states offer orthodontic programs every school different enrollment process every applicant required graduated dds dmd accredited dental school entrance accredited orthodontics program extremely competitive begins passing


national state licensing exam ref name ref program generally lasts two three years final year graduates complete written american board orthodontics abo exam ref name exam also broken two components written exam clinical exam ref name written exam comprehensive exam tests applicant 's knowledge basic sciences clinical concepts ref name clinical exam however consists board case oral examination bcoe case report examination cre case report oral examination croe ref name


certified certification must renewed every ten years ref name orthodontic programs award master science degree doctor science degree doctor philosophy degree depending school individual research requirements united kingdom throughout united kingdom several orthodontic specialty training registrar posts available ref name https wwwbosorguk portals public docs careers guidelines orthodontic specialty trainingpdf orthodontic specialty training uk pdf british orthodontic society british orthodontic society retrieved october ref program full time three years upon completion trainees graduate degree masters doctorate level ref name training may take place within hospital departments


linked recognized dental schools ref name obtaining certificate completion specialty training ccst allows orthodontic specialist registered general dental council gdc ref name orthodontic specialist provide care within primary care setting work hospital orthodontic consultant higher level training required post ccst trainee ref name work within university setting academic consultant completing research toward obtaining phd also required ref name see also orthodontic technology orthodontic indices list orthodontic functional appliances molar


'''molecular genetics''' sub field biology addresses differences structures expression dna molecules manifests variation among organisms molecular genetics often applies investigative approach determine structure function genes organism 's genome using genetic screens nbsp field study based merging several sub fields biology classical mendelian inheritance cellular biology molecular biology biochemistry biotechnology researchers search mutations gene induce mutations gene link gene sequence specific phenotype molecular genetics powerful methodology

Natural science
Biology
Genetics
Molecular genetics


terminating codons elucidated one noteworthy study performed sydney brenner collaborators using amber mutants defective gene encoding major head protein bacteriophage study demonstrated co linearity gene encoded polypeptide thus providing strong evidence sequence hypothesis amino acid sequence protein specified nucleotide sequence gene determining protein watson crick conjunction franklin wilkins figured structure dna cornerstone molecular genetics isolation restriction endonuclease ''e coli''


field called genomics links molecular structure gene protein rna encoded segment dna functional expression protein within organism today application molecular genetic techniques genomics studied many model organisms data collected computer databases like ncbi ensembl computer analysis comparison genes within different species called bioinformatics links genetic mutations evolutionary scale central dogma image shows example central dogma using


dna strand transcribed translated showing important enzymes used processes image shows example central dogma using dna strand transcribed translated showing important enzymes used processes central dogma basis genetics plays key role study molecular genetics central dogma states dna replicates dna transcribed rna rna translated proteins along central dogma genetic code used understanding rna translated proteins replication dna


screen random mutations generated mutagens chemicals radiation transposons individuals screened specific phenotype often secondary assay form selection may follow mutagenesis desired phenotype difficult observe example bacteria cell cultures cells may transformed using gene antibiotic resistance fluorescent reporter mutants desired phenotype selected non mutants mutants exhibiting phenotype interest isolated complementation test may performed determine phenotype results


one gene mutant genes characterized dominant resulting gain function recessive showing loss function epistatic mutant gene masks phenotype another gene finally location specific nature mutation mapped via sequencing forward genetics unbiased approach often leads many unanticipated discoveries may costly time consuming model organisms like nematode worm ''caenorhabditis elegans'' fruit fly ''drosophila melanogaster'' zebrafish ''danio rerio'' used successfully study phenotypes resulting gene mutations


pmid ref example forward genetics ''c elegans'' nematode using mutagenesis reverse genetics diagram illustrating development process avian flu vaccine reverse genetics techniques reverse genetics term molecular genetics techniques used determine phenotype resulting intentional mutation gene interest phenotype used deduce function un mutated version gene mutations may random intentional changes gene interest mutations may mis sense mutation caused nucleotide substitution nucleotide addition deletion induce frameshift


inherent bias regarding decision link phenotype particular function much faster terms production forward genetics gene interest already known see also complementation genetics dna damage naturally occurring dna damage theory aging epigenetics gene mapping genetic code genetic recombination genomic imprinting history genetics homologous recombination mutagenesis regulation gene expression timeline history genetics transformation genetics sources notes reading https webarchiveorg web http wwwinfobiogenfr services chromcancer dblinkshtml sites databases related genetics cytogenetics oncology atlas genetics cytogenetics oncology haematology jeremy


w dale simon f park molecular genetics bacteria th edition external links ncbi https wwwncbinlmnihgov primer genetics molecularhtml


approximately synonymous petrography current usage lithology focuses macroscopic hand sample outcrop scale description rocks petrography speciality deals microscopic details petroleum industry lithology specifically mud logging graphic representation geological formations drilled drawn log called mud log cuttings circulated borehole sampled examined typically microscope tested chemically needed methodology ljudmila dolar mantuani first female professor petrography yugoslavia petrology utilizes fields mineralogy petrography

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Petrology


optical mineralogy chemical analysis describe composition texture rocks petrologists also include principles geochemistry geophysics study geochemical trends cycles use thermodynamic data experiments order better understand origins rocks branches three branches petrology corresponding three types rocks igneous metamorphic sedimentary another dealing experimental techniques igneous petrology focuses composition texture igneous rocks rocks granite basalt crystallized molten rock magma igneous rocks


include volcanic plutonic rocks sedimentary petrology focuses composition texture sedimentary rocks rocks sandstone shale limestone consist pieces particles derived rocks biological chemical deposits usually bound together matrix finer material metamorphic petrology focuses composition texture metamorphic rocks rocks slate marble gneiss schist started sedimentary igneous rocks undergone chemical mineralogical textural changes due extremes pressure temperature experimental petrology employs high pressure high temperature apparatus


investigate geochemistry phase relations natural synthetic materials elevated pressures temperatures experiments particularly useful investigating rocks lower crust upper mantle rarely survive journey surface pristine condition also one prime sources information completely inaccessible rocks earth 's lower mantle mantles terrestrial planets moon work experimental petrologists laid foundation modern understanding igneous metamorphic processes built see also important publications


petrology ore pedology references citations sources best myron g ''igneous metamorphic petrology'' blackwell publishing blatt harvey tracy robert j owens brent ''petrology igneous sedimentary metamorphic'' w h freeman dietrich richard vincent skinner brian j ''gems granites gravels knowing using rocks minerals'' cambridge university press fei yingwei bertka constance mysen bjorn eds ''mantle petrology field observations high pressure experimentation'' houston tx geochemical society philpotts anthony ague jay ''principles igneous metamorphic petrology'' cambridge university press robb l


''introduction ore forming processes'' blackwell science external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwgeolabuncedu petunia igmetatlas mainmenuhtml atlas igneous metamorphic rocks minerals textures geology department university north carolina https webarchiveorg web http metpetdbrpiedu metamorphic petrology database metpetdb department earth environmental sciences rensselaer polytechnic institute https webarchiveorg web http wwwpetdborg petrological database ocean floor petdb center international earth science information network ciesin columbia university petroleum geology oilfield terminology


new york city one largest urban areas world '''urban geography''' subdiscipline geography derives study cities urban processes urban geographers urbanists examine various aspects urban life built environment scholars activists public participated studied critiqued flows economic natural resources human non human bodies patterns development infrastructure political institutional activities governance decay renewal notions socio spatial inclusions exclusions everyday life research interest urban geographers primarily concerned ways cities

Social science
Geography
Human geography
Urban geography


towns constructed governed experienced alongside neighboring disciplines urban anthropology urban planning urban sociology urban geography mostly investigates impact urban processes earth 's surface 's social physical structures urban geographical research part human geography physical geography two fundamental aspects cities towns geographic perspective location systems cities spatial distribution complex patterns movement flows linkages bind space urban structure cities systems study patterns distribution interaction within cities


quantitative qualitative structural behavioral perspectives research topics cities centers manufacturing services cities differ economic makeup social demographic characteristics roles play within city system one trace differences back regional variations local resources growth based early development urban pattern part subsequent shifts competitive advantage regions brought changing locational forces affecting regional specialization within framework market economy recognition different city types critical


classification cities urban geography classification emphasis given particular ''functional town classification'' basic underlying dimensions city system purpose classifying cities twofold one hand undertaken search reality hypotheses context recognition different types cities basis example functional specialization may enable identification spatial regularities distribution structure urban functions formulation hypotheses resulting patterns hand classification undertaken structure reality


order test specific hypotheses already formulated example test hypotheses cities diversified economy grow faster rate specialized economic base cities must first classified diversified specialized cities differentiated simplest way classify cities identify distinctive role play city system three distinct roles ''central places'' functioning primarily service centers local hinterlands ''transportation'' cities performing break bulk allied functions larger regions ' 'specialized function'' cities dominated one


activity mining manufacturing recreation serving national international markets composition city 's labor force traditionally regarded best indicator functional specialization different city types frequently identified analysis employment profiles specialization given activity said exist employment exceeds critical level relationship city system development manufacturing become apparent rapid growth spread cities within heartland hinterland framework conditioned large extent industrial developments


decentralization population within urban system recent years related large part movement employment manufacturing away traditional industrial centers manufacturing found nearly cities importance measured proportion total earnings received inhabitants urban area percent total earnings urban region derive manufacturing urban area arbitrarily designated manufacturing center location manufacturing affected myriad economic non economic factors nature material


inputs factors production market transportation costs important influences include agglomeration external economies public policy personal preferences although difficult evaluate precisely effect market location manufacturing activities two considerations involved nature demand product transportation costs urbanization urbanization transformation population rural urban major phenomenon modern era central topic study history discipline urban geography arrived critical sub discipline publication david


harvey 's ''social justice city'' heavily influenced previous work anne buttimer prior emergence discipline urban geography served academic extension otherwise professional development planning practice turn th century urban planning began profession charged mitigating negative consequences industrialization documented friedrich engels geographic analysis condition working class england study urban geography marcel aurousseau observed urban geography cannot considered subdivision


geography plays important part however urban geography emerge specialized discipline world war ii amidst increasing urban planning shift away primacy physical terrain study geography chauncy harris edward ullman among earliest exponents urban geography arose soviet union academic complement active urbanization communist urban planning focusing cities' economic roles potential spatial analysis behavioral analysis marxism humanism social theory feminism postmodernism arisen approximately order overlapping lenses used within


field urban geography west geographic information science using digital processing large data sets become widely used since major applications urban geography notable urban geographers urbanists ash amin mike batty walter benjamin anne buttimer michel de certeau tim cresswell mike davis friedrich engels matthew gandy peter hall urbanist milton santos david harvey jane jacobs henri lefebvre david ley peter marcuse doreen massey mitchell aihwa ong gillian rose geographer ananya roy neil smith geographer allen j scott edward w soja michael storper fulong wu akin mabogunje see also


urban geography research group royal geographical society institute british geographers urbanization urban planning


'''''urban geography''''' peer reviewed academic journal first published appears semi quarterly covers topics concerning urban policy planning race poverty ethnicity urban areas housing provision services urban economic activity ''urban geography'' published bellwether publishing ltd acquired taylor francis group available online print external links http wwwtandfonlinecom toc rurb current umlhyratrx taylor francis urban geography geography journals urban studies planning journals taylor francis academic journals


metaphase cell positive bcr abl rearrangement using fish '''cytogenetics''' essentially branch genetics also part cell biology cytology subdivision human anatomy concerned chromosomes relate cell behaviour particularly behaviour mitosis meiosis techniques used include karyotyping analysis g banded chromosomes cytogenetic banding techniques well molecular cytogenetics fluorescent ''in situ'' hybridization fish comparative genomic hybridization cgh history beginnings chromosomes first observed plant cells karl wilhelm von n geli behavior animal salamander

Applied science
Medicine and health
Clinical laboratory sciences
Cytogenetics


cells described walther flemming discoverer mitosis name coined another german anatomist von waldeyer next stage took place development genetics early th century appreciated set chromosomes karyotype carrier genes levitsky seems first define karyotype phenotypic appearance somatic chromosomes contrast genic contents investigation human karyotype took many years settle basic question many chromosomes


ancestral chromosomes reducing number applications cytogenetics mcclintock 's work maize barbara mcclintock began career maize cytogeneticist mcclintock harriet creighton demonstrated cytological recombination marked chromosomes correlated recombination genetic traits genes mcclintock carnegie institution continued previous studies mechanisms chromosome breakage fusion flare maize identified particular chromosome breakage event always occurred locus maize chromosome named ''ds '' dissociation locus mcclintock continued career cytogenetics studying


mechanics inheritance broken ring circular chromosomes maize cytogenetic work mcclintock discovered transposons find eventually led nobel prize natural populations drosophila dobzhansky coworkers collected ''drosophila pseudoobscura'' ''d nbsp persimilis'' wild populations california neighboring states using painter 's technique studied polytene chromosomes discovered wild populations polymorphic chromosomal inversions flies look alike whatever inversions carry example cryptic polymorphism evidence rapidly accumulated show natural selection


phylogenetically distant lily mouse led authors conclude organization meiotic crossing least higher eukaryotes probably universal distribution human abnormalities medical applications philadelphia translocation q q seen chronic myelogenous leukemia following advent procedures allowed easy enumeration chromosomes discoveries quickly made related aberrant chromosomes chromosome number congenital disorders syndrome cytogenetics revealed nature chromosomal defect simple trisomy abnormalities arising nondisjunction events cause cells aneuploidy additions deletions entire chromosomes one


parents fetus lejeune discovered patients syndrome extra copy chromosome syndrome also referred trisomy numerical abnormalities discovered include sex chromosome abnormalities female one x nbsp chromosome turner syndrome whereas additional x nbsp chromosome male resulting total chromosomes klinefelter syndrome many sex chromosome combinations compatible live birth including xxx xyy xxxx ability mammals tolerate aneuploidies sex chromosomes arises ability inactivate required


normal females compensate two copies chromosome genes x nbsp chromosome inactivated phenotypic effect seen individuals extra x nbsp chromosomes trisomy associated patau syndrome trisomy edwards syndrome peter nowell david hungerford discovered small chromosome white blood cells patients chronic myelogenous leukemia cml abnormal chromosome dubbed philadelphia chromosome scientists research philadelphia pennsylvania thirteen years later development advanced techniques abnormal


chromosome shown janet rowley result translocation chromosomes nbsp identification philadelphia chromosome cytogenetics diagnostic cml advent banding techniques human male karyotype late torbj rn caspersson developed quinacrine fluorescent staining technique q banding revealed unique banding patterns chromosome pair allowed chromosome pairs otherwise equal size differentiated distinct horizontal banding patterns banding patterns used elucidate breakpoints constituent chromosomes involved chromosome translocations deletions inversions within individual chromosome also identified


described precisely using standardized banding nomenclature g banding utilizing trypsin giemsa wright stain concurrently developed early allows visualization banding patterns using bright field microscope diagrams identifying chromosomes based banding patterns known ''idiograms'' maps became basis prenatal oncological fields quickly move cytogenetics clinical lab karyotyping allowed scientists look chromosomal alterations techniques expanded allow culture free amniocytes recovered amniotic fluid elongation techniques culture types allow higher resolution banding


beginnings molecular cytogenetics advances made molecular cytogenetics radioisotope labeled probes hybridized dna since movement made using fluorescent labeled probes hybridizing chromosomal preparations using existing techniques came known fluorescence ''in situ'' hybridization fish change significantly increased usage probing techniques fluorescent labeled probes safer advances micromanipulation examination chromosomes led technique chromosome microdissection whereby aberrations chromosomal structure could isolated cloned studied ever greater detail techniques karyotyping routine chromosome analysis karyotyping


refers analysis metaphase chromosomes banded using trypsin followed giemsa leishmanns mixture two creates unique banding patterns chromosomes molecular mechanism reason patterns unknown although likely related replication timing chromatin packing several chromosome banding techniques used cytogenetics laboratories quinacrine banding q banding first staining method used produce specific banding patterns method requires fluorescence microscope longer widely used giemsa banding g banding reverse banding r banding requires heat treatment reverses usual


black white pattern seen g bands q bands method particularly helpful staining distal ends chromosomes staining techniques include c banding nucleolar organizing region stains nbsp stains latter methods specifically stain certain portions chromosome c banding stains constitutive heterochromatin usually lies near centromere nbsp staining highlights satellites stalks acrocentric chromosomes high resolution banding involves staining chromosomes prophase early metaphase prometaphase reach maximal condensation prophase prometaphase chromosomes extended metaphase chromosomes number bands observable chromosomes


''bands per haploid set'' bph band level increases many allows detection less obvious abnormalities usually seen conventional banding slide preparation cells bone marrow blood amniotic fluid cord blood tumor tissues including skin umbilical cord chorionic villi liver many organs cultured using standard cell culture techniques order increase number mitotic inhibitor colchicine colcemid added culture stops cell division mitosis allows increased yield mitotic cells analysis cells


centrifuged media mitotic inhibitor removed replaced hypotonic solution causes white blood cells fibroblasts swell chromosomes spread added slide well lyses red blood cells cells allowed sit hypotonic solution carnoy 's fixative methanol glacial acetic acid added kills cells hardens nuclei remaining white blood cells cells generally fixed repeatedly remove debris remaining red blood cells cell suspension


dropped onto specimen slides aging slides oven waiting days ready banding analysis analysis analysis banded chromosomes done microscope clinical laboratory specialist cytogenetics clsp cg generally cells analyzed enough rule mosaicism acceptable level results summarized given board certified cytogeneticist review write interpretation taking account patient 's previous history clinical findings results given reported ''international system human cytogenetic nomenclature


'' iscn fluorescent situ hybridization interphase cells positive rearrangement fluorescent situ hybridization fish refers using fluorescently labeled probe hybridize cytogenetic cell preparations addition standard preparations fish also performed bone marrow smears blood smears paraffin embedded tissue preparations enzymatically dissociated tissue samples uncultured bone marrow uncultured amniocytes cytospin preparations slide preparation ''this section refers preparation standard cytogenetic preparations'' slide aged using salt solution usually consisting x ssc salt sodium citrate slides dehydrated ethanol probe mixture


added sample dna probe dna co denatured using heated plate allowed anneal least hours slides washed remove excess unbound probe counterstained ' diamidino phenylindole dapi propidium iodide analysis analysis fish specimens done fluorescence microscopy clinical laboratory specialist cytogenetics oncology generally large number interphase cells scored order rule low level residual disease generally cells counted scored congenital problems usually nbsp metaphase cells scored future


cytogenetics advances focus molecular cytogenetics including automated systems counting results standard fish preparations techniques virtual karyotyping comparative genomic hybridization arrays cgh single nucleotide polymorphism arrays see also cytotaxonomy karyotype molecular cytogenetics ploidy virtual karyotype references external links http wwwkaryotypercom cytogenetic directory http wwwkumcedu gec prof cytogenehtml cytogenetics resources https webarchiveorg web http homepagemaccom wildlifeweb cyto human human cytogenetics chromosomes karyotypes http wwwagt infoorg association genetic technologists http cytogeneticsorguk association clinical cytogeneticists http gladwinmedicalblogspotcom intro principles cytogeneticshtml gladwin medical blog https webarchiveorg web http wwwpiribocom publications technology cytogenetics market reporthtml cytogenetics technologiesmarkets companies https groupsgooglecom group cytogenetics methods trouble shooting cytogenetics methods trouble shooting department cytogenetics wikiversity


'''solid state physics''' study rigid matter solids methods quantum mechanics crystallography electromagnetism metallurgy largest branch condensed matter physics solid state physics studies large scale properties solid materials result atomic scale properties thus solid state physics forms theoretical basis materials science also direct applications example technology transistors semiconductors background solid materials formed densely packed atoms interact intensely interactions produce mechanical eg hardness elasticity thermal electrical

Natural science
Physics
Solid state physics


engineering purposes forces atoms crystal take variety forms example crystal sodium chloride common salt crystal made ionic sodium chlorine held together ionic bonds others atoms share electrons form covalent bonds metals electrons shared amongst whole crystal metallic bonding finally noble gases undergo types bonding solid form noble gases held together van der waals forces resulting polarisation


electronic charge cloud atom differences types solid result differences bonding history physical properties solids common subjects scientific inquiry centuries separate field going name solid state physics emerge particular establishment division solid state physics dssp within american physical society dssp catered industrial physicists solid state physics became associated technological applications made possible research solids early


used investigate solids liquids plasmas complex matter ref name martin pip today solid state physics broadly considered subfield condensed matter physics often referred hard condensed matter focuses properties solids regular crystal lattices crystal structure properties cubic lattice many properties materials affected crystal structure structure investigated using range crystallographic techniques including x ray crystallography neutron diffraction electron diffraction sizes individual crystals crystalline solid material vary depending material involved


conditions formed crystalline materials encountered everyday life polycrystalline individual crystals microscopic scale macroscopic single crystals produced either naturally eg diamonds artificially real crystals feature defects irregularities ideal arrangements defects critically determine many electrical mechanical properties real materials electronic properties properties materials electrical conduction heat capacity investigated solid state physics early model electrical conduction drude model applied kinetic theory


electrons solid assuming material contains immobile positive ions electron gas classical non interacting electrons drude model able explain electrical thermal conductivity hall effect metals although greatly overestimated electronic heat capacity arnold sommerfeld combined classical drude model quantum mechanics free electron model drude sommerfeld model electrons modelled fermi gas gas particles obey quantum mechanical fermi dirac statistics free electron model gave improved predictions heat capacity metals


since unceasing random movements atoms crystal disrupt periodicity use bloch 's theorem approximation proven tremendously valuable approximation without solid state physics analysis would intractable deviations periodicity treated quantum mechanical perturbation theory modern research modern research topics solid state physics include high temperature superconductivity quasicrystals spin glass strongly correlated materials two dimensional materials nanomaterials see also condensed matter physics crystallography nuclear spectroscopy references reading neil w ashcroft n david mermin ''solid state physics'' harcourt orlando charles


mathematics '''integral geometry''' theory measures geometrical space invariant symmetry group space recent times meaning broadened include view invariant equivariant transformations space functions one geometrical space space functions another geometrical space transformations often take form integral transforms radon transform generalizations classical context integral geometry first emerged attempt refine certain statements geometric probability theory early

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Probability theory
Integral geometry


work luis santal wilhelm blaschke connection follows classic theorem crofton expressing length plane curve expectation number intersections random line word 'random' must interpreted subject correct symmetry considerations sample space lines one affine group plane acts probability measure sought space invariant symmetry group case find unique invariant measure solves problem


problem buffon 's needle drop needle floor made planks calculate probability needle lies across crack generalising theory applied various stochastic processes concerned geometric incidence questions see stochastic geometry one interesting theorems form integral geometry hadwiger 's theorem euclidean setting subsequently hadwiger type theorems established various settings notably hermitian geometry using advanced tools valuation theory recent meaning '''integral geometry''' sigurdur helgason israel gelfand deals specifically


integral transforms modeled radon transform underlying geometrical incidence relation points lying lines crofton 's case seen freer light site integral transform composed ''pullback onto incidence graph'' ''push forward'' notes references


life often involving fossils pollen palynology paleohydrology study changes hydrology geological timescales paleosol physical geography plate tectonics behavior plates covering surface earth references reading external links http dinosaurpicturesorg ancient earth google earth style map showing continental evolution dinosaurpicturesorg https mappaleoenvironmenteu interactive tool visualize paleogeography reconstruct data mappaleoenvironmenteu physical geography

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Palaeogeography


visual representation schwarzschild wormhole wormholes never observed predicted exist mathematical models scientific theory '''theoretical physics''' branch physics employs mathematical models abstractions physical objects systems rationalize explain predict natural phenomena contrast experimental physics uses experimental tools probe phenomena advancement science generally depends interplay experimental studies theory cases theoretical physics adheres standards mathematical rigour giving little weight experiments observations ref group lower alpha

Natural science
Physics
Theoretical physics


debate whether theoretical physics uses mathematics build intuition illustrativeness extract physical insight especially normal experience fails rather tool formalizing theories links question using mathematics less formally rigorous intuitive heuristic way say mathematical physics ref example developing special relativity albert einstein concerned lorentz transformation left maxwell 's equations invariant apparently uninterested michelson morley experiment earth 's drift luminiferous aether conversely einstein awarded nobel prize explaining


photoelectric effect previously experimental result lacking theoretical formulation ref name ref ref overview '''physical theory''' model physical events judged extent predictions agree empirical observations quality physical theory also judged ability make new predictions verified new observations physical theory differs mathematical theorem based form axioms judgment mathematical applicability based agreement experimental results ref name nelson http wwwesoterickaorg cmc tthhtml theorems theories sam nelson ref ref name chu mark c chu carroll


march http scienceblogscom goodmath theories theorems lemmas c theories theorems lemmas corollaries good math bad math blog ref physical theory similarly differs mathematical theory sense word theory different meaning mathematical terms ref group lower alpha sometimes word theory used ambiguously sense describe scientific theories research sub fields programmes examples relativity theory quantum field theory string theory ref rquote right math mathrm ric k g math ''the equations einstein manifold used general relativity describe curvature spacetime'' physical theory involves one relationships various measurable quantities archimedes realized


ship floats displacing mass water pythagoras understood relation length vibrating string musical tone produces examples include entropy measure uncertainty regarding positions motions unseen particles quantum mechanical idea action energy continuously variable theoretical physics consists several different approaches regard theoretical particle physics forms good example instance phenomenologists might employ semi empirical formulas heuristics agree experimental results often without deep physical understanding ref group lower alpha work johann balmer


johannes rydberg spectroscopy semi empirical mass formula nuclear physics good candidates examples approach ref modelers also called model builders often appear much like phenomenologists try model speculative theories certain desirable features rather experimental data apply techniques mathematical modeling physics problems ref group lower alpha ptolemaic copernican models solar system bohr model hydrogen atoms nuclear shell model good candidates examples approach ref attempt create approximate theories called ''effective theories'' fully developed theories may


regarded unsolvable complicated theorists may try unify formalise reinterpret generalise extant theories create completely new ones altogether ref group lower alpha arguably celebrated theories physics newton 's theory gravitation einstein 's theory relativity maxwell 's theory electromagnetism share attributes ref sometimes vision provided pure mathematical systems provide clues physical system might modeled ref group lower alpha approach often favoured pure mathematicians mathematical physicists ref eg notion due riemann others space might curved theoretical problems need computational


investigation often concern computational physics theoretical advances may consist setting aside old incorrect paradigms eg aether theory light propagation caloric theory heat burning consisting evolving phlogiston astronomical bodies revolving around earth may alternative model provides answers accurate widely applied latter case correspondence principle required recover previously known result sometimes though advances may proceed along different paths example essentially correct theory may need conceptual factual revisions atomic theory


first postulated millennia ago several thinkers greece india two fluid theory electricity two cases point however exception wave particle duality theory combining aspects different opposing models via bohr complementarity principle thumb physical theories become accepted able make correct predictions incorrect ones theory least secondary objective certain economy elegance compare mathematical beauty notion sometimes called occam 's razor th century english philosopher william


occam ockham simpler two theories describe matter adequately preferred conceptual simplicity may mean mathematical complexity also likely accepted connect wide range phenomena testing consequences theory part scientific method physical theories grouped three categories ''mainstream theories'' ''proposed theories'' ''fringe theories'' history theoretical physics began least years ago pre socratic philosophy continued plato aristotle whose views held sway millennium rise


medieval universities acknowledged intellectual disciplines seven liberal arts ''trivium'' like grammar logic rhetoric ''quadrivium'' like arithmetic geometry music astronomy middle ages renaissance concept experimental science counterpoint theory began scholars ibn al haytham francis bacon scientific revolution gathered pace concepts matter energy space time causality slowly began acquire form know today sciences spun rubric natural philosophy thus began modern era theory copernican


century another important event th century discovery electromagnetic theory unifying previously separate phenomena electricity magnetism light pillars modern physics perhaps revolutionary theories history physics relativity theory quantum mechanics newtonian mechanics subsumed special relativity newton 's gravity given kinematic explanation general relativity quantum mechanics led understanding blackbody radiation indeed original motivation theory anomalies specific heats solids finally understanding


foundations superconductivity critical phenomena among others parallel applications relativity problems astronomy cosmology respectively achievements depended theoretical physics moving force suggest experiments consolidate results often ingenious application existing mathematics case descartes newton leibniz inventing new mathematics fourier 's studies heat conduction led new branch mathematics infinite orthogonal series modern theoretical physics attempts unify theories explain phenomena attempts understand universe


bang causality chaos theory classical field theory classical mechanics condensed matter physics including solid state physics electronic structure materials conservation law conservation angular momentum conservation energy conservation mass conservation momentum continuum mechanics cosmic censorship hypothesis cosmological constant cpt symmetry dark matter dynamics dynamo theory electromagnetism electroweak interaction field theory fluctuation theorem fluid dynamics fluid mechanics fractional quantum mechanics fundamental interaction general relativity gravitational constant heisenberg 's uncertainty principle kinetic theory gases laws thermodynamics maxwell 's equations newton 's laws motion pauli exclusion principle perturbation theory quantum mechanics physical cosmology planck constant poincar


superconformal field theory ads cft correspondence alternatives general relativity anthropic principle black hole thermodynamics brane cosmology brans dicke theory canonical quantum gravity causal dynamical triangulation causal fermion systems causal sets chern simons theory closed timelike curve conformal cyclic cosmology conformal field theory cosmic string cyclic model dark flow dark fluid de sitter invariant special relativity dilaton doubly special relativity einstein rosen bridge wormhole ekpyrotic universe er epr eternal inflation extra dimensions false vacuum fifth force f theory gauge gravitation theory gauge theory gravity geon grand unified theory gravastar graviphoton graviscalar gravitino graviton hawking radiation hartle hawking state heterotic string theory holographic principle kaluza klein theory large extra


sciences includes physics fields physical theories presented accordance known evidence body associated predictions made according theory fringe theories go become widely accepted part physics fringe theories end disproven fringe theories form protoscience others form pseudoscience falsification original theory sometimes leads reformulation theory examples aether classical element luminiferous aether digital physics electrogravitics stochastic electrodynamics tesla 's dynamic theory gravity thought experiments vs real experiments thought experiments situations


created one 's mind asking question akin suppose situation assuming true would follow usually created investigate phenomena readily experienced every day situations famous examples thought experiments schr dinger 's cat epr thought experiment simple illustrations time dilation usually lead real experiments designed verify conclusion therefore assumptions thought experiments correct epr thought experiment led bell inequalities tested various degrees rigor leading


acceptance current formulation quantum mechanics probabilism working hypothesis see also list theoretical physicists philosophy physics symmetry quantum mechanics timeline developments theoretical physics notes references reading duhem pierre la th orie physique son objet sa structure french nd edition english translation physical theory purpose structure republished joseph vrin philosophical bookstore feynman et al feynman lectures physics vol first edition addison wesley bestselling three volume textbook covering span physics reference graduate student


professional researcher alike landau et al course theoretical physics famous series books dealing theoretical concepts physics covering volumes translated many languages reprinted many editions often known simply landau lifschits landau lifschits literature longair ms theoretical concepts physics alternative view theoretical reasoning physics cambridge university press edition dec planck max https booksgooglecom books eight lectures theoretical physics dehtmlid kisvtatmapwc redir esc eight lectures theoretical physics library alexandria set lectures given columbia university sommerfeld arnold vorlesungen ber theoretische physik


'''behavioral neuroscience''' also known biological psychology biopsychology psychobiology ref name webby http wwwm wcom cgi bin dictionarysourceid mozilla search va psychobiology psychobiology merriam webster 's online dictionary ref application principles biology study physiological genetic developmental mechanisms behavior humans animals history behavioral neuroscience scientific discipline emerged variety scientific philosophical traditions th th centuries philosophy people like ren descartes proposed physical models explain animal well human behavior descartes suggested pineal gland midline unpaired structure brain many organisms point

Social science
Psychology
Biological psychology


contact mind body descartes also elaborated theory pneumatics bodily fluids could explain reflexes motor behavior theory inspired moving statues garden paris ref name carlson ref electrical stimulation lesions also show affect motor behavior humans record electrical activity actions hormones chemicals effects drugs body system affect ones daily behavior william james philosophers also helped give birth psychology one earliest textbooks new field ''the principles psychology''


william james argues scientific study psychology grounded understanding biology emergence psychology behavioral neuroscience legitimate sciences traced emergence physiology anatomy particularly neuroanatomy physiologists conducted experiments living organisms practice distrusted dominant anatomists th th centuries ref name shepherd ref influential work claude bernard charles bell william harvey helped convince scientific community reliable data could obtained living subjects even th th century behavioral neuroscience beginning


take form far back bc ref name history ref question seems continually arise connection mind body debate formally referred mind body problem two major schools thought attempt resolve mind body problem monism dualism ref name carlson plato aristotle two several philosophers participated debate plato believed brain mental thought processes happened ref name history contrast aristotle believed brain served purpose cooling emotions derived heart ref


name carlson mind body problem stepping stone toward attempting understand connection mind body another debate arose localization function functional specialization versus equipotentiality played significant role development behavioral neuroscience result localization function research many famous people found within psychology come various different conclusions wilder penfield able develop map cerebral cortex studying epileptic patients along rassmussen ref name carlson research localization function led behavioral neuroscientists better understanding parts


brain control behavior best exemplified case study phineas gage term psychobiology used variety contexts emphasizing importance biology discipline studies organic neural cellular modifications behavior plasticity neuroscience biological diseases aspects addition biology focuses analyzes behavior subjects concerned scientific point view context psychology helps complementary important discipline neurobiological sciences role psychology questions social


tool backs main strongest biological science term psychobiology first used modern sense knight dunlap book ''an outline psychobiology '' ref name dewsbury ref dunlap also founder editor chief journal ''psychobiology'' announcement journal dunlap writes journal publish research bearing interconnection mental physiological functions describes field behavioral neuroscience even modern sense ref name dewsbury relationship fields psychology biology many cases humans may serve experimental subjects