landscapes arenas humans interact environments kilometre wide scale instead defines 'landscape' regardless scale template spatial patterns influence ecological processes ref name wiens define 'landscape' area containing two ecosystems close proximity ref name sanderson scale heterogeneity incorporating composition structure function main concept landscape ecology ' 'scale'' scale represents real world translated onto map relating distance map image corresponding distance earth scale also spatial temporal measure object


process ref name turner amount spatial resolution ref name forman components scale include composition structure function important ecological concepts applied landscape ecology ''composition'' refers number patch types see represented landscape relative abundance example amount forest wetland length forest edge density roads aspects landscape composition ''structure'' determined composition configuration proportion different patches across landscape ''function'' refers element landscape interacts based

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Landscape ecology


life cycle events ref name turner ''pattern'' term contents internal order heterogeneous area land ref name forman landscape structure pattern implies spatial ''heterogeneity'' uneven distribution objects across landscape ref name forman heterogeneity key element landscape ecology separates discipline branches ecology landscape heterogeneity able quantify agent based methods well patch mosaic ''patch'' term fundamental landscape ecology defined relatively homogeneous area differs surroundings ref name forman


patches basic unit landscape change fluctuate process called ''patch dynamics'' patches definite shape spatial configuration described compositionally internal variables number trees number tree species height trees similar measurements ref name forman ''matrix'' background ecological system landscape high degree connectivity ''connectivity'' measure connected spatially continuous corridor network matrix ref name forman example forested landscape matrix fewer gaps forest cover open patches


higher connectivity ''corridors'' important functions strips particular type landscape differing adjacent land sides ref name forman ''network'' interconnected system corridors ''mosaic'' describes pattern patches corridors matrix form landscape entirety ref name forman boundary edge landscape patches boundary defined fuzzy ref name sanderson zone composed edges adjacent ecosystems ''boundary'' ref name forman ''edge'' means portion ecosystem near perimeter influences adjacent


ecotones ecoclines ecotopes type boundary ''ecotone'' transitional zone two communities ref name allaby ecotones arise naturally lakeshore human created cleared agricultural field forest ref name allaby ecotonal community retains characteristics bordering community often contains species found adjacent communities classic examples ecotones include fencerows forest marshlands transitions forest grassland transitions land water interfaces riparian zones forests characteristics ecotones include vegetational sharpness physiognomic change occurrence spatial


mapping classification landscapes ref name forman relatively homogeneous spatially explicit landscape units used stratify landscapes ecologically distinct features useful measurement mapping landscape structure function change time examine effects disturbance fragmentation disturbance fragmentation ''disturbance'' event significantly alters pattern variation structure function system ''fragmentation'' breaking habitat ecosystem land use type smaller parcels ref name forman disturbance generally considered natural process fragmentation causes land transformation


stability principle emphasizes importance landscape structural heterogeneity developing resistance disturbances recovery disturbances promoting total system stability ref name forman principle major contribution general ecological theories highlight importance relationships among various components landscape integrity landscape components helps maintain resistance external threats including development land transformation human activity ref name turner analysis land use change included strongly geographical approach led acceptance idea multifunctional properties landscapes ref name ryszkowski still calls


unified theory landscape ecology due differences professional opinion among ecologists interdisciplinary approach bastian important related theory hierarchy theory refers systems discrete functional elements operate linked two scales example forested landscape might hierarchically composed drainage basins turn composed local ecosystems turn composed individual trees gaps ref name forman recent theoretical developments landscape ecology emphasized relationship pattern process well effect changes spatial


scale potential extrapolate information across scales ref name turner several studies suggest landscape critical thresholds ecological processes show dramatic changes complete transformation landscape invasive species due small changes temperature characteristics favor invasive 's habitat requirements ref name turner application research directions developments landscape ecology illustrate important relationships spatial patterns ecological processes developments incorporate quantitative methods link spatial patterns ecological processes broad spatial temporal scales linkage time space environmental


change assist managers applying plans solve environmental problems ref name turner increased attention recent years spatial dynamics highlighted need new quantitative methods analyze patterns determine importance spatially explicit processes develop reliable models ref name turner multivariate analysis techniques frequently used examine landscape level vegetation patterns studies use statistical techniques cluster analysis canonical correspondence analysis cca detrended correspondence analysis dca classifying vegetation gradient analysis another way determine vegetation structure across landscape help delineate critical wetland habitat


conservation mitigation purposes choesin boerner climate change another major component structuring current research landscape ecology ref name raul ref ecotones basic unit landscape studies may significance management climate change scenarios since change effects likely seen ecotones first unstable nature fringe habitat ref name walker research northern regions examined landscape ecological processes accumulation snow melting freeze thaw action percolation soil moisture variation temperature regimes long term measurements norway study analyzes gradients across space


time ecosystems central high mountains determine relationships distribution patterns animals environment looking animals live vegetation shifts time may provide insight changes snow ice long periods time across landscape whole landscape scale studies maintain human impact likely main determinant landscape pattern much globe landscapes may become substitutes biodiversity measures plant animal composition differs samples taken sites within different landscape categories taxa different species


marine coastal application landscape ecology addition landscape ecology important links application oriented disciplines agriculture forestry agriculture landscape ecology introduced new options management environmental threats brought intensification agricultural practices agriculture always strong human impact ecosystems ref name ryszkowski forestry structuring stands fuelwood timber ordering stands across landscapes enhance aesthetics consumer needs affected conservation use forested landscapes landscape forestry provides methods concepts analytic procedures landscape forestry landscape ecology


cited contributor development fisheries biology distinct biological science discipline frequently incorporated study design wetland delineation hydrology ref name attrill helped shape integrated landscape management ref name sayer ref lastly landscape ecology influential progressing sustainability science sustainable development planning example recent study assessed sustainable urbanization across europe using evaluation indices country landscapes landscape ecology tools methods landscape ecology also combined population genetics form field landscape genetics addresses landscape features influence population structure


gene flow plant animal populations across space time quality intervening landscape known matrix influences spatial variation term coined field landscape genetics expanded studies continues grow today genetic data become readily accessible increasingly used ecologists answer novel evolutionary ecological questions many regard landscapes effect evolutionary processes especially human modified landscapes experiencing biodiversity loss see also agroecology biogeography conservation communities ecology


ecotope european landscape convention historical ecology integrated landscape management land change modeling landscape epidemiology landscape limnology landscape planning landscape connectivity patch dynamics total human ecosystem sustainable landscaping landscape architecture land development references external links http wwwcomplexificationnet gallery machines substrate indexphp computer sumulation substrate launch applet creates fractal iterations resemble urban streetscape algorithm written jared tarbell http wwwnapolisoundscapecom napolisoundscape urban space research systems ecology biogeography ecological restoration environmental soil science environmental design habitat landscape applications geographic information systems


'''heterosexism''' system attitudes bias discrimination favor female male sexuality relationships ref name jungsmith ref include presumption people heterosexual female male attractions relationships norm ref name cramer ref therefore superior although heterosexism defined online editions ''american heritage dictionary english language'' ''merriam webster collegiate dictionary'' anti gay discrimination prejudice heterosexual people heterosexuals respectively people sexual orientation hold attitudes bias form part internalised hatred one 's sexual orientation

Social science
Sociology
Sexology
Heterosexism


heterosexism discrimination ranks gay men lesbians bisexuals sexual minorities second class citizens regard various legal civil rights economic opportunities social equality many world 's jurisdictions societies often related homophobia background ''merriam webster collegiate dictionary'' notes first use term heterosexism occurred term first published gay rights activist craig rodwell etymology usage similar terms include heterocentrism heterosexualism although well established term ''heterosexism'' often explained coinage modeled ' 'sexism''


descriptors synonymous ''heterosexism'' contrast homophobia ''homophobia'' form heterosexism refers unreasoning fear antipathy towards homosexuals homosexuality ref name dictionarycom ref behavior based feeling ''heterosexism'' however broadly denotes system ideological thought makes heterosexuality sole norm follow sexual practices ref name granddictionnairecom ref bias favoring heterosexuals heterosexuality heterosexism described encoded characteristic major social cultural economic institutions society stems essentialist cultural notion maleness masculinity femaleness femininity complementary researcher author


psychology professor gregory herek states heterosexism operates dual process invisibility attack homosexuality usually remains culturally invisible people engage homosexual behavior identified homosexual become visible subject attack society ref name psychologyucdavisedu ref furthermore interviews perpetrators anti gay violence forensic psychologist karen franklin points heterosexism personal value system rather tool maintenance gender dichotomy ref name franklin franklin karen inside minds people hate gays retrieved may https wwwpbsorg wgbh pages frontline shows assault roots franklinhtml ref continues saying


assaults homosexuals individuals deviate sex role norms viewed learned form social control deviance rather defensive response personal threat ref name franklin parallels intersections argued concept heterosexism similar concept racism ideas promote privilege dominant groups within given society example borrowing racial concept white privilege concept heterosexual privilege ref name genderknot ref applied benefits presumed heterosexuality within society heterosexuals take granted analogy


racism non white people places white people superior people color heterosexism places heterosexual people relationships superior non heterosexual ones trying rebut premise commentators point differences categories race sexual orientation claiming complex support generalizations example trainer diversity consultant jamie washington commented although heterosexism racism woven fabric thing american conservative leaders rev irene monroe comment suggest state gay


new black cover story ''the advocate'' magazine exploit black people 's suffering experiences legitimize nonetheless study presented british psychological society 's division occupational psychology conference shows heterosexist prejudice pervasive racism heterosexism also intersect racism emphasizing differences among arbitrary groups people ref name tatum ref example heterosexism compound effects racism promoting injustices towards person already facing injustices race establishing social hierarchies allow one group privilege groups likewise racism allow


beliefs attitudes relies core tenet according homosexuality bisexuality normally exist constitute mental illnesses deviant behaviors ref name genderknot ref within heterosexist ideology mindset concept sexual orientation rejected deemed irrelevant set nuanced heterosexist views may consider faith dogma universal truths natural law appeals authority popular beliefs others consider conventional wisdom sociobiological knowledge include among others following non heterosexual people keep sexual orientations private ie remain closeted ref name jungsmith sup p nbsp sup


attitude gay men real men lesbians real women socially pervasive view heterosexual attractions activities norm therefore superior ref name genderknot god created adam eve adam steve madame eve similar essentialist cultural notions maleness masculinity femaleness femininity complementary homosexuality wrong ungodly nature therefore sin evil subhuman ref name jungsmith sup p nbsp sup idea words anita bryant save children campaign homosexuals cannot biologically reproduce children therefore must recruit


children lifestyle homosexuals families children undermine survival human race natalism homosexuality affectional mental disorder simply social ill therefore cured stamped eradicated lead social disintegration societal collapse homosexuals converted heterosexuality ref name jungsmith sup p nbsp sup attempt bring awareness people exhibit heterosexist views possibly aware mark rochlin constructed set questions questions non heterosexual people


often exposed heterosexuals ''what think caused sexuality'' heterosexuality questionnaire often distributed around college campuses bring awareness heterosexist sexual prejudice lgbt persons institutional level well comprising attitudes held individual social group heterosexism also exist expression attitudes within institution result schools hospitals correctional facilities act showcase heterosexist attitudes various ways first schools may implement attitudes ideas unequal inconsistent disciplinary actions one example meting


harsher punishment sex couple violating school ground rules allowing heterosexual couple pass lenient disciplinary action equal identical violation also hospitals may limit patient visiting immediate family ie relatives exclude sex partners heterosexism affects family several ways example many countries around world sex marriage allowed non heterosexual persons must remain unmarried enter heterosexual marriage ref name tfdasj many countries also deny rights benefits sex couples including custodial adoption rights children social security benefits


automatic durable power attorney hospital spousal rights ref name tfdasj ref research measurements measurements psychologists aimed measure heterosexism using various methods one particular method involves use likert scale however since heterosexism perceived something unseen difficult determine someone heterosexist based self report method researchers thus constructed implicit measurements heterosexism example would implicit association test popular implicit association test measuring heterosexism open public virtual laboratory called https implicitharvardedu implicit project implicit


however heterosexual males greater tendency heterosexual females exhibit negative attitudes towards non heterosexual individuals includes gay men lesbians bisexuals another notable finding herek 's study heterosexual males showed greater tendency demonstrate hostility towards gay men rather lesbians ref name herek g factors herek acknowledges contribute heterosexism include individual differences religiosity conforming social norms right wing authoritarianism customs beliefs regarding cultural tradition personal experience non heterosexual individuals ref name herek g research also recognized effects level education views heterosexism ref


health care housing employment institution female male marriage reserving right marry strictly female male couples via explicit definitions bans sex marriage marriage protection acts doma united states ref name jungsmith sup pp nbsp sup also restriction even sex couples access civil unions either analogous par marriage barring gay men lesbians bisexuals serving armed forces working education field include policies american military 's n't ask


n't tell policy lech kaczy ski conservative polish politicians' stance exclude gay men lesbians entering teaching profession ''see also lgbt rights poland'' organized opposition gay rights labeling rights privileges special rights gay agenda referring suspected criminal 's homosexuality bisexuality analogous situations mention suspect 's heterosexuality implicit hidden form heterosexism operates invisibility representation erasure includes lack representation homosexual bisexual people advertising general public censorship homosexual bisexual


filter information websites focus homosexuality bisexuality postal censorship border control customs seizure publications deemed obscene solely basis containing material related homosexuality even contain erotic pornographic material ' 'see also little sister 's book art emporium'' work environments tacitly require gay men lesbians bisexuals reveal sexual orientation via discussion relationship status heterosexuals discuss relationships marital status freely public libraries bookstores rejection removal destruction books eg ''jenny lives eric


main effects heterosexism marginalization anti lgbt violence abuse marginalization main effect heterosexism marginalization gay men lesbians bisexuals within society heterosexism led stigmatization persecution people also sexual diversity transgender transsexual people along homophobia lesbophobia internalized homophobia heterosexism continues significant social reality compels people conceal homosexual bisexual orientation metaphorically remain closet effort pass heterosexual marginalization also occurs marriage


rights heterosexist specifically marriage rights exclusive female male couples sex couples gay lesbian straight mixed prevented enjoying marriage 's corresponding legal privileges especially regarding property rights health benefits child custody moreover limitation prevents sex couples receiving inherent social respect marriage cultural symbolism anti lgbt violence abuse yolanda dreyer professor practical theology university pretoria stated heterosexism leads prejudice discrimination harassment violence driven fear hatred dreyer along lines


society 's hierarchical gender structure blockquote another form heterosexist violence social control often targets lesbian women corrective rape gang rape lesbian cure sex attractions notorious example south africa corrective rape murder eudy simelane lgbt rights activist member women 's national football team ref name guardian ref according frontline article titled inside mind people hate gays bias related violence homosexuals believed widespread united states perpetrators typically described victims young men groups


non binary gender people discrimination people hiv aids harassment categories types heteropatriarchy identity politics intolerance lgbt stereotypes liberal homophobia minority rights transphobia straightwashing straight pride references anti lgbt sentiment heterosexuality lgbt society sexism queer theory


typical classified document page us national security agency report uss ''liberty'' incident partially declassified released public july original overall classification page top secret special intelligence code word umbra shown top bottom classification individual paragraphs reference titles shown parentheses six different levels page alone notations leader lines top bottom cite statutory authority declassifying certain sections '''classified information''' material government body deems sensitive information

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Classification
Security classification


must protected access restricted law regulation particular groups people necessary security clearance need know mishandling material incur criminal penalties formal security clearance required view handle classified documents access classified data clearance process requires satisfactory background investigation documents information must properly marked author one several hierarchical levels sensitivity eg restricted confidential secret top secret choice level based impact assessment governments criteria including


determine classification information asset rules protect information classified level process often includes security clearances personnel handling information corporations non government organizations also assign levels protection private information either desire protect trade secrets laws regulations governing various matters personal privacy sealed legal proceedings timing financial information releases passage time much classified information become less sensitive may declassified made public since late twentieth century


freedom information legislation countries whereby public deemed right information considered damaging released sometimes documents released information still considered confidential obscured redacted adjacent example question exists among political science legal experts whether definition classified ought information would cause injury cause justice human rights etc rather information would cause injury national interest distinguish classifying information collective best interest


society merely best interest society acting unjustly protect people government administrative officials legitimate recourses consistent fair social contract government classification purpose classification protect information higher classifications protect information might endanger national security classification formalises constitutes state secret accords different levels protection based expected damage information might cause wrong hands however classified information frequently leaked reporters officials political purposes several us presidents leaked sensitive information get


point across public typical classification levels although classification systems vary country country levels corresponding following british definitions highest level lowest traitors motherland agents foreign intelligence wanted state criminals'' seen museum genocide victims vilnius originally marked ''top secret'' ''top secret'' highest level classified information information compartmented specific access using code word ''top secret'' legal way hide collective important information material would cause exceptionally grave damage


national security made publicly available prior united kingdom members british empire used ''most secret'' later changed match united states' category name ''top secret'' order simplify allied interoperability ''the washington post'' reported investigation entitled ''top secret america'' estimated people hold top secret security clearances united states secret presented evidence achre hearings ref executive order bans classification documents simply conceal violations law inefficiency administrative error


prevent embarrassment person organization agency width ''secret'' material would cause serious damage national security publicly available united states operational secret information marked additional limdis limit distribution confidential ''confidential'' material would cause damage prejudicial national security publicly available ref name gwu army regulation ref restricted ''restricted'' material would cause undesirable effects publicly available countries classification public sectors commercial industries level also known ''private'' information official ''official''


equivalent us dod classification fouo official use material forms generality government business public service delivery commercial activity includes diverse range information varying sensitivities differing consequences resulting compromise loss official information must secured threat model broadly similar faced large private company official sensitive classification replaced restricted classification april uk official indicates previously used unclassified marking ref name uk classifications ref unclassified ''unclassified'' technically classification level feature


classification schemes used government documents merit particular classification declassified information low impact therefore require special protection vetting personnel plethora pseudo classifications exist category clearance ''clearance'' general classification comprises variety rules controlling level permission required view classified information must stored transmitted destroyed additionally access restricted need know basis simply possessing clearance automatically authorize individual


view material classified level level individual must present legitimate need know addition proper level clearance compartmented information addition general risk based classification levels additional compartmented constraints access exist us special intelligence si protects intelligence sources methods foreign dissemination noforn restricts dissemination us nationals originator controlled dissemination orcon ensures originator track possessors information information compartments usually marked specific keywords addition classification level


secret ue eu top secret''' information material unauthorised disclosure could cause exceptionally grave prejudice essential interests european union one member states '''secret ue eu secret''' information material unauthorised disclosure could seriously harm essential interests european union one member states '''confidentiel ue eu confidential''' information material unauthorised disclosure could harm essential interests european union one member states '''restreint ue eu restricted''' information material


unauthorised disclosure could disadvantageous interests european union one member states organisation joint armament cooperation european defence organisation three levels classification occar secret occar confidential occar restricted ecips european centre information policy security levels security information cosmic top secret ec secret ec confidential ec committees country east german operation manual fialka cipher machine underlined classification markings translated cryptologic material secret restricted material de verschlusssache countries employ sort classification system


certain government information example canada information us would classify sbu sensitive unclassified called protected subcategorised levels b c australia july national security ns classification marking scheme non national security nns classification marking scheme australia unified one structure australian government security classification system comprises top secret secret confidential protected new dissemination limiting markers dlms scheme also introduced information disclosure may limited prohibited legislation may otherwise require special handling


dlm marking scheme comprises official use fouo sensitive sensitive personal sensitive legal sensitive cabinet documents marked sensitive cabinet relating discussions federal cabinet treated protected minimum due higher sensitivity brazil three levels document classification brazilian http wwwplanaltogovbr ccivil ato lei l htm information access law ''ultrassecreto'' top secret ' 'secreto'' secret ' 'reservado'' restricted top secret ''ultrassecreto'' government issued document may classified period years may extended another years thus document remains classified years mandated


information access law ''lei de acesso informa o'' change previous rule documents could classification time length renewed indefinitely effectively shuttering state secrets public law applies retroactively existing documents canada background hierarchy government canada employs two main types sensitive information designation ''classified'' ''protected'' access protection types information governed ''security information act'' effective december replacing ''official secrets act '' access information person must appropriate security clearance


need know addition caveat canadian eyes used restrict access classified protected information canadian citizens appropriate security clearance need know special operational information soi classification data ''per se'' defined ''security information act'' unauthorised release information constitutes higher breach trust penalty life imprisonment sois include military operations respect potential imminent present armed conflict identity confidential source information intelligence assistance government


canada tools used information gathering intelligence object covert investigation covert collection information intelligence identity person covert surveillance encryption cryptographic systems information intelligence received foreign entity terrorist group classified information classified information designated ''top secret'' ''secret'' ''confidential'' classifications used matters national interest top secret applies compromise might reasonably cause exceptionally grave injury national interest possible impact must great immediate irreparable secret applies compromise might


reasonably cause serious injury national interest confidential disclosure might reasonably cause injury national interest protected information protected information classified pertains sensitive information relate national security cannot disclosed access privacy legislation potential injury particular public private interests protected c extremely sensitive protected information designates extremely sensitive information compromised could reasonably expected cause extremely grave injury outside national interest examples include bankruptcy identities informants criminal investigations etc protected b particularly sensitive protected


information designates information could cause severe injury damage people group involved released examples include medical records annual personnel performance reviews income tax returns etc protected low sensitive protected information designates low sensitivity information disclosed public without authorization could reasonably expected cause injury embarrassment outside national interest example protected information include employee identification number pay deposit banking information etc federal cabinet queen 's privy council canada papers either protected eg overhead slides prepared make presentations cabinet


''confidentiel personnels officiers'' confidential officers ''confidentiel personnels sous officiers'' confidential non commissioned officers ''diffusion restreinte'' restricted information ''diffusion restreinte administrateur'' administrative restricted information ''non prot g '' unprotected caveat ' 'sp cial france'' reserved france restricts document french citizens entirety extracts classification level declassification documents done ''commission consultative du secret de la fense nationale'' ccsdn independent authority transfer classified information done double envelopes outer layer plastified numbered inner strong paper reception document involves examination


physical integrity container registration document foreign countries document must transferred specialised military mail diplomatic bag transport done authorised convoyer habilitated person mail nbsp kg letter must bear seal mentioning ''par valise accompagnee sacoche'' year ministers inventory classified information supports competent authorities usage period expired documents transferred archives either destroyed incineration crushing overvoltage stored case unauthorized release classified information competent authorities ministry


interior ''haut fonctionnaire de fense et de curit '' high civil servant defence security relevant ministry general secretary national defence violation secrets offence punishable years imprisonment euro fine offence committed imprudence negligence penalties years imprisonment euro fine hong kong security bureau responsible developing policies regards protection handling confidential government information general system used hong kong similar


uk system developed colonial hong kong era four classifications exists hong kong highest lowest sensitivity top secret secret confidential temporary confidential restricted restricted staff restricted tender restricted administration restricted documents classified ''per se'' need know access information accordance ''personal data privacy ordinance'' new zealand new zealand uses restricted classification lower confidential people may given access restricted information strength


authorisation head department without subjected background vetting associated confidential secret top secret clearances new zealand 's security classifications national harm requirements associated use roughly similar united states addition national security classifications two additional security classifications confidence sensitive used protect information policy privacy nature also number information markings used within ministries departments government indicate example information released outside originating


ministry strict privacy requirements around personal information personnel files controlled parts public private sectors information relating security vetting individual usually classified confidence level romania romania classified information referred state secrets ' 'secrete de stat'' defined penal code documents data manifestly appear status declared qualified decision government three levels classification secret top secret top secret particular importance levels


documents kept secret single frame around text indicates ''hemlig'' equal either secret confidential restricted double frames means ''kvalificerat hemlig'' top secret swedish classification updated due increased nato pfp cooperation classified defence documents swedish classification ''kvalificerat hemlig'' ''hemlig'' ''konfidentiell'' ''begr nsat hemlig'' english classification top secret secret confidential restricted term ' 'skyddad identitet'' protected identity used case protection threatened person basically implying secret identity accessible certain members


police force explicitly authorised officials switzerland federal level classified information switzerland assigned one three levels lowest highest internal confidential secret ref name ref respectively german intern vertraulich geheim french interne confidentiel secret italian ad uso interno confidenziale segreto countries choice classification depends potential impact unauthorised release classified document would switzerland federal authorities authorities foreign government according ordinance protection federal information information


classified internal disclosure unauthorised persons may disadvantageous national interests ref name information classified confidential could disclosed compromise free formation opinions decision making federal assembly federal council jeopardise national monetary economic policy put population risk adversely affect operations swiss armed forces finally unauthorised release secret information could seriously compromise ability either federal assembly federal council function impede ability federal government armed forces act turkey


secrets acts although act applies regardless signature protect security protective marking level restricted greater used indicate information disclosed instance document contains tax national insurance personal information government documents without classification may marked unclassified protectively marked system replaced government security classifications policy simpler model top secret secret official april ref name uk classifications official sensitive security marking may followed


one three authorised descriptors commercial locsen location sensitive personal secret top secret may include caveat uk eyes also useful scientific discoveries may classified via notice system deemed applications relevant national security may later emerge technology improves example specialised processors routing engines used graphics cards loosely based top secret military chips designed code breaking image processing may may safeguards built generate errors specific tasks attempted


invariably independent card 's operating system united states us classification system currently established executive order three levels classification confidential secret top secret us restricted level world war ii longer us regulations state information received countries restricted level handled confidential variety markings used material classified whose distribution limited administratively laws eg official use fouo sensitive unclassified sbu atomic


energy act provides protection information related design nuclear weapons term restricted data used denote certain nuclear technology information storage use handling nuclear material weapons marked formerly restricted data designations used addition level markings confidential secret top secret information protected atomic energy act protected law information classified executive order protected executive privilege us government insists appropriate court question whether document legally


classified ref name judrev ref trial daniel ellsberg releasing pentagon papers judge allow testimony ellsberg claiming irrelevant assigned classification could challenged charges ellsberg ultimately dismissed revealed government broken law secretly breaking office ellsberg 's psychiatrist tapping telephone without warrant ellsberg insists legal situation us today worse edward snowden could get fair trial state secrets


protection act might given judges authority review questions camera bill passed ref name judrev government agency acquires classified information covert means designates program classified agency asserts ownership information considers public availability violation ownership even information acquired independently parallel reporting press others example although cia drone program widely discussed public since early reporters personally observed reported


table equivalent classification markings various countries class wikitable state top secret secret confidential restricted albania teper sekret sekret konfidencial kufizuar argentina estrictamente secreto confidencial secreto confidencial reservado australia top secret secret confidential protected austria streng geheim geheim vertraulich eingeschr nkt belgium zeer geheim tr secret geheim secret vertrouwelijk confidentiel beperkte verspreiding diffusion restreinte bolivia


supersecreto br muy secreto secreto confidencial reservado bosnia herzegovina vrlo tajno tajno povjerljivo interno brazil ultrassecreto secreto reservado bulgaria ''str go kretno'' ''s kretno'' ''poverit lno'' ''za slu ebno polzv ne'' cambodia sam ngat bamphot sam ngat roeung art kambang ham kom psay canada top secret tr secret secret secret confidential confidentiel protected b c prot g b ou c chile secreto


secreto reservado reservado china ju j n ib colombia ultrasecreto secreto confidencial reserva del sumario costa rica alto secreto secreto confidencial nbsp croatia vrlo tajno tajno povjerljivo ograni eno czech republic p sn tajn tajn v rn vyhrazen denmark yderst hemmeligt yhm hemmeligt hem fortroligt ftr til tjenestebrug ttj br foreign service fortroligt br thin black border ecuador secretisimo


secreto confidencial reservado egypt br br br br el salvador ultra secreto secreto confidencial reservado estonia iesti salajane salajane konfidentsiaalne piiratud ethiopia european union eu tres secret ue eu top secret secret ue eu secret confidentiel ue eu confidential restreint ue eu restricted european union western weu focal top secret


weu secret weu confidential weu restricted euratom eura top secret eura secret eura confidential eura restricted finland eritt salainen st salainen st ii luottamuksellinen st iii k ytt rajoitettu st iv france tr secret fense secret fense confidentiel fense diffusion restreinte germany streng geheim geheim vs vertraulich vs nur f r den dienstgebrauch greece br guatemala alto secreto secreto confidencial reservado


haiti top secret secret confidential reserve honduras super secreto secreto confidencial reservado hong kong top secret secret confidential restricted hungary szigor titkos titkos bizalmas korl tozott terjeszt india hindi param gupt gupt gopniya pratibandhit seemit india english top secret secret confidential restricted indonesia sangat rahasia rahasia rahasia dinas terbatas


iran bekoli serri serri kheili mahramaneh mahramaneh iraq br br br br iceland algert leyndarm l leyndarm l tr na arm l j nustuskjal ireland irish language sicreideach sicreideach runda srianta israel sodi beyoter br sodi br shamur br mugbal br italy segretissimo segreto riservatissimo riservato japan jordan br br br


br south korea il geup bimil geup bimil sam geup bimil daeoebi laos lup sood gnod kuam lup kuam lap chum kut kon arn latvia sevi slepeni slepeni konfidenci li dienesta vajadz b lebanon tres secret secret confidentiel nbsp lithuania visi kai slaptai slaptai konfidencialiai riboto naudojimo malaysia rahsia besar rahsia sulit terhad mexico ultra secreto secreto confidencial restringido montenegro


strogo tajno tajno povjerljivo interno netherlands stg zeer geheim stg geheim stg confidentieel departementaal vertrouwelijk new zealand top secret secret confidential restricted nicaragua alto secreto secreto confidencial reservado norway strengt hemmelig hemmelig konfidensielt begrenset pakistan urdu intahai khufia br khufia br sigh e raz br barai mahdud taqsim br pakistan english top secret secret confidential restricted paraguay secreto secreto


confidencial reservado peru estrictamente secreto secreto confidencial reservado philippines english philippines tagalog top secret matinding lihim secret mahigpit na lihim confidential lihim restricted ipinagbabawal poland ci le tajne tajne poufne zastrze one portugal muito secreto secreto confidencial reservado romania strict secret de importan deosebit strict secret secret secret de serviciu russia br ''sovershenno sekretno'' br ''sekretno'' br


br ''ne podlezhit oglasheniyu konfidentsial'no '' br ''dlya sluzhebnogo pol'zovaniya'' saudi arabia saudi top secret saudi secret saudi secret saudi restricted serbia cyrillic br latin dr avna tajna cyrillic br latin strogo poverljivo cyrillic br latin poverljivo cyrillic br latin interno singapore top secret secret confidential restricted somalia sir muhiim ah sir gooniya xog qarsoon qarsoon slovak republic pr sne tajn tajn vern


vyhraden slovenia strogo tajno tajno zaupno interno spain secreto reservado confidencial difusi n limitada sri lanka sweden kvalificerat hemlig kh hemlig top secret h ts hemlig h hemlig secret h konfidentiell hemlig confidential h c begr nsat hemlig hemlig restricted h r switzerland geheim secret vertraulich confidentiel intern interne taiwan republic china top secret secret confidential tanzania swahili


siri kuu siri stiri imezuiliwa thailand lap thi sut lap mak lap pok pit turkey ok gizli gizli zel hizmete zel south africa english top secret secret confidential restricted south africa afrikaans uiters geheim geheim vertroulik beperk ukraine united kingdom top secret secret official sensitive formerly confidential official formerly restricted


eight countries enable sharing sensitive information government agencies corporations protocol accepted model trusted information exchange countries protocol provides four information sharing levels handling sensitive information see also economic espionage act us espionage espionage act us eyes government security classifications policy uk illegal number information security official secrets act uk india ireland malaysia new zealand security information act canada state secrets privilege us wassenaar arrangement wikileaks ukusa agreement five eyes golden shield project references


external links http wwwmoduk defenceinternet aboutdefence whatwedo securityandintelligence dva defencevettingagencyhtm defence vetting agency carries national security checks uk peter galison http wwwfasharvardedu hsdept bios docs removing knowledgepdf removing knowledge ''critical inquiry'' n autumn goldman jan susan maret ''intelligence information policy national security key terms concepts'' rowman littlefield lerner brenda wilmoth k lee lerner eds ''terrorism essential primary sources'' thomson gale https webarchiveorg web http badgelanlgov uk usa classificationshtml los alamos table equivalent us uk classifications maret susan ''on terms lexicon emphasis information related terms produced us federal government'' https fasorg sgp library maretpdf fas th ed https wwwarchivesgov isoo training marking bookletpdf marking classified national security


information isoo booklet http wwwgwuedu nsarchiv national security archive collection declassified documents acquired foia http wwwskupstiname indexphpstrana zakoni id parliament montenegro law confidentiality data http wwwparlamentgovrs upload archive files lat pdf zakoni latzip parliament serbia law confidentiality data https webarchiveorg web http wwwdssmil isp odaa nispom html us department defense ''national industrial security program operating manual dod '' explaining rules policies handling classified information information sensitivity


'''collective bargaining''' process negotiation employers group employees aimed agreements regulate working salaries working conditions benefits aspects workers' compensation rights workers interests employees commonly presented representatives trade union employees belong collective agreements reached negotiations usually set wage scales working hours training health safety overtime grievance mechanisms rights participate workplace company affairs ref name uslabor ref union may negotiate single employer typically representing company 's shareholders

Applied science
Business
Industrial and labor relations
Collective bargaining


unionizing government employees public sector trade union much controversial president john f kennedy issued executive order granting federal employees right unionize issue jurisdiction surfaced ''national labor relations board v catholic bishop chicago '' supreme court held national labor relations board nlrb could assert jurisdiction church operated school jurisdiction would violate first amendment establishment freedom religion separation church state international protection ref source ronald reagan labor day speech liberty state


park right collectively bargain recognized international human rights conventions article universal declaration human rights identifies ability organize trade unions fundamental human right item international labour organization 's ''declaration fundamental principles rights work'' defines freedom association effective recognition right collective bargaining essential right workers freedom association protection right organise convention c several conventions specifically protect collective bargaining creation international


labour standards discourage countries violating workers' rights associate collectively bargain june supreme court canada extensively reviewed rationale regarding collective bargaining human right case ''facilities subsector bargaining association v british columbia'' court made following observations blockquote right bargain collectively employer enhances human dignity liberty autonomy workers giving opportunity influence establishment workplace rules thereby gain control major aspect lives namely work collective bargaining simply


instrument pursuing external ends rather intrinsically valuable experience self government collective bargaining permits workers achieve form workplace democracy ensure rule law workplace workers gain voice influence establishment rules control major aspect lives blockquote empirical findings union members workers covered collective agreements get average wage markup nonunionized uncovered counterparts markup typically percent industrial countries ref name aidt ref unions tend equalize income distribution especially skilled


unskilled workers ref name aidt welfare loss associated unions percent gdp similar monopolies product markets ref name aidt empirical model empirical analysis computer assisted collective bargaining developed hans b ckler foundation ref ref ref ref ref ref sweden sweden coverage collective agreements high despite absence legal mechanisms extend agreements whole industries private sector employees covered collective agreements public sector employees referring whole labor market


require employee join union condition employment unions also able secure safe work conditions equitable pay labor workplace majority workers voted union representation committee employees union representatives negotiate contract management regarding wages hours benefits terms conditions employment protection termination employment without cause individual negotiation prohibited workers' committee management agreed contract put vote workers


shop may required contribute towards cost representation disciplinary hearings fellow employees negotiated union security clause contract management dues generally pay however union members workers covered collective agreements get average wage markup nonunionized uncovered counterparts ref name aidt states especially south central south eastern regions us outlawed union security clauses cause controversy allows net beneficiaries union contract avoid paying portion


workers excluding involving railroads airlines provide public access collections http wwwdolgov olms regs compliance cba indexhtm website oecd one three oecd employees wages agreed collective bargaining organization economic co operation development members become outspoken proponent collective bargaining way ensure falling unemployment also leads higher wages see also usc rejection collective bargaining agreements united states public employee protests wisconsin protests related attempts reduce eliminate collective bargaining


rights public employee unions wisconsin boulwarism canadian labour law civic openness negotiations enterprise bargaining agreement freedom association labour economics labour law project labor agreement right organise collective bargaining convention right work law social corporatism solidarity economy surface bargaining uk labour law us labor law notes references buidens wayne others collective gaining bargaining alternative ''phi delta kappan'' degennaro william kay michelfeld joint committees take rancor bargaining teachers ''the american school board journal'' herman jerry j collaborative bargaining work


union ''the american school board journal'' huber joe jay hennies fix five guiding lights emerge bargaining fog ''the american school board journal'' kjellberg anders https webarchiveorg web https portalresearchluse portal sv publications sweden collective bargaining industry norm c b b caa html sweden collective bargaining industry norm torsten ller kurt vandaele jeremy waddington eds ''collective bargaining europe towards endgame'' european trade union institute etui brussels vol iii pp liontos demetri collaborative bargaining case studies recommendations eugene oregon school study council university oregon september ''ossc bulletin series''


pages ed number yet assigned mcmahon dennis getting yes paper presented annual conference american association school administrators new orleans la february ed namit chuck larry swift prescription labor pains combine bargaining problem solving ''the american school board journal'' nyland larry win win bargaining takes perseverance ''the executive educator'' smith patricia russell baker alternative form collective bargaining ''phi delta kappan'' alberta human rights act rsa c canadian charter rights freedoms donnelly


jack cultural universal human right human right quarterly dunmore v ontario attorney general scr scc health services support facilities subcontractor bargaining assn v british columbia scc scr mathiesen kay labor laws unionization collective bargaining comparative study journal information ethics print sitati ezekiel examining development sin labor laws melbournes journal politic print ontario attorney general v fraser scc reference public service employee relations act alberta scr external links http wwwlawharvardedu programs lwp labor worklife program


harvard law school http wwwilrcornelledu library research subjectguides collectivebargaininghtml collective bargaining subject guide ilr school cornell university http digitalcommonsilrcornelledu cb collective bargaining labor law labor history digitalcommons ilr http digitalcommonsilrcornelledu cba collective bargaining agreements digitalcommons ilr http wwwgvsuedu arbitrations gvsu links actual arbitration awards collective bargaining resources austerity collective agreements labor relations labor rights industrial agreements bargaining theory


'''ergodic theory''' greek '''' work '''' way branch mathematics studies statistical properties deterministic dynamical systems study ergodicity context statistical properties means properties expressed behavior time averages various functions along trajectories dynamical systems notion deterministic dynamical systems assumes equations determining dynamics contain random perturbations noise etc thus statistics concerned properties dynamics ergodic theory like probability theory based general notions measure theory

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Probability theory
Ergodic theory


initial development motivated problems statistical physics central concern ergodic theory behavior dynamical system allowed run long time first result direction poincar recurrence theorem claims almost points subset phase space eventually revisit set systems poincar recurrence theorem holds conservative systems thus ergodic systems conservative precise information provided various '''ergodic theorems''' assert certain conditions time average function


along trajectories exists almost everywhere related space average two important theorems birkhoff von neumann assert existence time average along trajectory special class '''ergodic systems''' time average almost initial points statistically speaking system evolves long time forgets initial state stronger properties mixing equidistribution also extensively studied problem metric classification systems another important part abstract ergodic theory outstanding


role ergodic theory applications stochastic processes played various notions entropy dynamical systems concepts ergodicity ergodic hypothesis central applications ergodic theory underlying idea certain systems time average properties equal average entire space applications ergodic theory parts mathematics usually involve establishing ergodicity properties systems special kind geometry methods ergodic theory used study geodesic flow riemannian manifolds starting results


dropped bowl iterations inverse ergodic transformation oatmeal allow syrup remain local subregion oatmeal distribute syrup evenly throughout time iterations compress dilate portion oatmeal preserve measure density formal definition let measure preserving transformation measure space '''ergodic''' every ''e'' either


examples evolution ensemble classical systems phase space top systems massive particles one dimensional potential well red curve lower figure initially compact ensemble becomes swirled time spread around phase space however ''not'' ergodic behaviour since systems visit left hand potential well irrational rotation circle '''r''' '''z''' ''t'' ''x'' ''x'' irrational ergodic transformation even stronger properties unique ergodicity minimality equidistribution contrast ''p'' ''q'' rational lowest terms


consisting continuous characters ''g'' ''t'' corresponding adjoint automorphism ''g'' automorphism ''t'' ergodic equality ''t'' sup ''n'' sup '' '' nbsp nbsp '' '' possible ''n'' nbsp nbsp '' '' trivial character ''g'' particular ''g'' ''n'' dimensional torus automorphism ''t'' represented unimodular matrix ''a'' ''t'' ergodic eigenvalue ''a'' root unity bernoulli shift ergodic generally ergodicity shift transformation associated sequence iid random variables


general stationary processes follows kolmogorov 's zero one law ergodicity continuous dynamical system means trajectories spread around phase space system compact phase space non constant first integral cannot ergodic applies particular hamiltonian systems first integral ''i'' functionally independent hamilton function ''h'' compact level set ''x'' ''p''''q'' ''h'' ''p''''q'' e constant energy liouville 's theorem implies existence finite invariant measure ''x'' dynamics system constrained level sets ''i'' ''x''


hence system possesses invariant sets positive less full measure property continuous dynamical systems opposite ergodicity complete integrability ergodic theorems let ''t'' ''x'' ''x'' measure preserving transformation measure space ''x'' '' '' suppose '' '' integrable function ie ''l'' sup sup '' '' define following ''averages'' blockquote '''time average ''' defined average exists iterations ''t'' starting initial point ''x'' math hat f x lim n rightarrow infty frac n sum k n f k x math blockquote blockquote '''space average '''


'' '' ''x'' finite nonzero consider ' 'space'' ''phase'' average math bar f frac mu x int f mu quad text probability space mu x math blockquote general time average space average may different transformation ergodic measure invariant time average equal space average almost everywhere celebrated ergodic theorem abstract form due george david birkhoff actually birkhoff 's paper considers abstract general case case dynamical systems arising differential equations


smooth manifold equidistribution theorem special case ergodic theorem dealing specifically distribution probabilities unit interval precisely '''pointwise''' '' 'strong ergodic theorem''' states limit definition time average exists almost every ''x'' almost everywhere defined limit function integrable math hat f l mu math furthermore math hat f math ''t'' invariant say math hat f circ hat f math holds almost everywhere '' '' ''x'' finite normalization math int


hat f mu int f mu math particular ''t'' ergodic must constant almost everywhere one math bar f hat f math almost everywhere joining first last claim assuming '' '' ''x'' finite nonzero one math lim n rightarrow infty frac n sum k n f k x frac mu x int f mu math almost ''x'' ie ''x'' except set measure zero ergodic transformation time average equals space average almost surely example assume measure


space ''x'' '' '' models particles gas let ''x'' denote velocity particle position ''x'' pointwise ergodic theorems says average velocity particles given time equal average velocity one particle time generalization birkhoff 's theorem kingman 's subadditive ergodic theorem probabilistic formulation birkhoff khinchin theorem '''birkhoff khinchin theorem''' let measurable ''e'' ''t'' measure preserving map probability math lim n rightarrow infty frac n sum k n f k x e f mid mathcal c x math math e f mathcal c math conditional expectation given


algebra math mathcal c math invariant sets ''t'' '''corollary''' '''pointwise ergodic theorem''' particular ''t'' also ergodic math mathcal c math trivial algebra thus probability math lim n rightarrow infty frac n sum k n f k x e f math mean ergodic theorem '''von neumann 's mean ergodic theorem''' holds hilbert spaces let ''u'' unitary operator hilbert space ''h'' generally isometric linear operator necessarily surjective linear operator satisfying ''ux'' ''x'' ''x'' ''h'' equivalently satisfying ''u''''u'' necessarily ''uu'' let ''p'' orthogonal projection onto


would math lim n infty n sum n n u n u lim n infty n u n math theorem specializes case hilbert space ''h'' consists ''l'' sup sup functions measure space ''u'' operator form math uf x f tx math ''t'' measure preserving endomorphism ''x'' thought applications representing time step discrete dynamical system ergodic theorem asserts average behavior function sufficiently large time scales approximated orthogonal component time invariant


another form mean ergodic theorem let ''u sub sub '' strongly continuous one parameter group unitary operators ''h'' operator math frac int u dt math converges strong operator topology ''t'' fact result also extends case strongly continuous one parameter semigroup contractive operators reflexive space remark intuition mean ergodic theorem developed considering case complex numbers unit length regarded unitary transformations complex plane left multiplication pick single complex number unit


length think ''u'' intuitive powers fill circle since circle symmetric around makes sense averages powers ''u'' converge also fixed point ''u'' projection onto space fixed points must zero operator agrees limit described convergence ergodic means ''l sup p sup '' norms let ''x'' '' '' probability space measure preserving transformation ''t'' let


operator topology ''p'' true ''p'' wiener yoshida kakutani ergodic dominated convergence theorem states ergodic means ''l sup p sup '' dominated ''l sup p sup '' however ''l'' sup sup ergodic means may fail equidominated ''l sup p sup '' finally assumed zygmund class log sup sup integrable ergodic means even dominated ''l'' sup sup sojourn time let ''x'' '' '' measure space '' '' ''x'' finite nonzero time spent measurable set


''r sub sub '' ''k sub sub '' minus ''k'' sub ''i'' minus sub called '' 'recurrence times''' ''a'' another consequence ergodic theorem average recurrence time ''a'' inversely proportional measure ''a'' assuming initial point ''x'' ''a'' ''k'' sub sub math frac r cdots r n n rightarrow frac mu x mu quad text almost surely math see almost surely smaller ''a'' longer takes return ergodic flows manifolds ergodicity geodesic flow compact riemann surfaces variable negative curvature compact manifolds constant negative


curvature dimension proved eberhard hopf although special cases studied earlier see example hadamard 's billiards artin billiard relation geodesic flows riemann surfaces one parameter subgroups sl '''r''' described v fomin gelfand article anosov flows provides example ergodic flows sl '''r''' riemann surfaces negative curvature much development described generalizes hyperbolic manifolds since viewed quotients hyperbolic space action


lattice semisimple lie group n ergodicity geodesic flow riemannian symmetric spaces demonstrated f mautner v anosov ya g sinai proved ergodicity geodesic flow compact manifolds variable negative sectional curvature simple criterion ergodicity homogeneous flow homogeneous space semisimple lie group given calvin c moore many theorems results area study typical rigidity theory g hedlund proved


horocycle flow compact hyperbolic surface minimal ergodic unique ergodicity flow established hillel furstenberg ratner 's theorems provide major generalization ergodicity unipotent flows homogeneous spaces form nbsp nbsp ''g'' ''g'' lie group lattice nbsp ''g'' last years many works trying find measure classification theorem similar ratner 's theorems diagonalizable actions motivated conjectures furstenberg margulis important partial result solving conjectures extra assumption positive


entropy proved elon lindenstrauss awarded fields medal result see also chaos theory ergodic hypothesis ergodic process lyapunov time time limit predictability system maximal ergodic theorem ornstein isomorphism theorem statistical mechanics symbolic dynamics lindy effect references historical references modern references vladimir igorevich arnol 'd andr avez ''ergodic problems classical mechanics'' new york wa benjamin leo breiman ''probability'' original edition published addison wesley reprinted society industrial applied mathematics '' see chapter


'' '' survey topics ergodic theory exercises '' karl petersen ergodic theory cambridge studies advanced mathematics cambridge cambridge university press joseph rosenblatt weirdl ''pointwise ergodic theorems via harmonic analysis'' appearing ''ergodic theory connections harmonic analysis proceedings alexandria conference'' karl e petersen ibrahim salama ''eds'' cambridge university press cambridge '' extensive survey ergodic properties generalizations equidistribution theorem shift maps unit interval focuses methods developed bourgain '' n shiryaev ''probability'' nd ed springer


sec v '' detailed discussion priority discovery publication ergodic theorems birkhoff von neumann based letter latter friend howard percy robertson '' andrzej lasota michael c mackey ''chaos fractals noise stochastic aspects dynamics'' second edition springer jane hawkins ''ergodic dynamics basic theory applications'' springer external links http bactraorg notebooks ergodic theoryhtml ergodic theory june notes cosma rohilla shalizi https physicsworldcom ergodic theorem passes test ergodic theorem passes test physics world


legislation road vehicles types terms definitions history slavic dugout boat th century automobiles among commonly used engine powered vehicles oldest boats found archaeological excavation logboats oldest logboat found pesse canoe found bog netherlands carbon dated bc making years old ref name courant ref ref name beukerniekus ref ref name mcgrail ref ref name italy ref year old seagoing boat made reeds tar found kuwait ref name lawler ref boats used bc sumer ref name denemark page ref


ancient egypt ref name mcgrail ref indian ocean ref name evidence camel pulled wheeled vehicles bc earliest evidence wagonway predecessor railway found far long ''diolkos'' wagonway transported boats across isthmus corinth greece since around bc ref name wagonway verdelis nikolaos le diolkos de l'isthme ''bulletin de correspondance hell nique'' vol pp cook r archaic greek trade three conjectures diolkos ''the journal hellenic studies'' vol pp drijvers jw strabo viii c


porthmeia diolkos ''mnemosyne'' vol pp raepsaet g tolley le diolkos de l'isthme corinthe son trac son fonctionnement ''bulletin de correspondance hell nique'' vol pp ref ref name lewis j wheeled vehicles pulled men animals ran grooves limestone provided track element preventing wagons leaving intended route ref name lewis j ref ce jun built south pointing chariot vehicle early form guidance system railways began reappearing europe dark ages


earliest known record railway europe period stained glass window minster freiburg im breisgau dating around ref name grandexperiment ref cardinal matth us lang wrote description reisszug funicular railway hohensalzburg fortress austria line originally used wooden rails hemp haulage rope operated human animal power treadwheel ref name fm ref nicolas joseph cugnot often credited building first self propelled mechanical vehicle automobile russia ivan kulibin developed human pedalled three wheeled carriage


modern features flywheel brake gear box bearings however developed montgolfier brothers first balloon vehicle richard trevithick built demonstrated ''puffing devil'' road locomotive many believe first demonstration steam powered road vehicle though could maintain sufficient steam pressure long periods little practical use push bikes draisines hobby horses first human means transport make use two wheeler principle draisienne ''laufmaschine'' running machine invented german baron karl von drais


soviet mil mi produced helicopter top commercial jet airliner boeing ref name fg kingsley jones max https webarchiveorg web http wwwflightglobalcom articles pictures counting boeings popular little twinjethtml counting boeing popular little twinjet ''flight international'' reed business information april retrieved april ref ref name flight march ref around produced trams ktm tatra common trolleybus ziu locomotion locomotion consists means allows displacement little opposition power source provide required kinetic energy means control motion


brake steering system far vehicles use wheels employ principle rolling enable displacement little rolling friction energy source electric bike china essential vehicle source energy drive energy extracted external sources cases sailboat solar powered car electric streetcar uses overhead lines energy also stored provided converted demand storing medium 's energy density power density sufficient meet


vehicle 's needs human power simple source energy requires nothing humans despite fact humans cannot exceed meaningful amounts time land speed record human powered vehicles unpaced recumbent bicycle ref name speed ref common type energy source fuel external combustion engines use almost anything burns fuel whilst internal combustion engines rocket engines designed burn specific fuel typically gasoline diesel ethanol another common medium storing energy batteries advantages


responsive useful wide range power levels environmentally friendly efficient simple install easy maintain batteries also facilitate use electric motors advantages hand batteries low energy densities short service life poor performance extreme temperatures long charging times difficulties disposal although usually recycled like fuel batteries store chemical energy cause burns poisoning event accident batteries also lose effectiveness time issue charge time resolved swapping discharged batteries charged ones


however incurs additional hardware costs may impractical larger batteries moreover must standard batteries battery swapping work gas station fuel cells similar batteries convert chemical electrical energy advantages disadvantages electrified rails overhead cables common source electrical energy subways railways trams trolleybuses solar energy modern development several solar vehicles successfully built tested including helios solar powered aircraft nuclear power exclusive form energy storage


currently limited large ships submarines mostly military nuclear energy released nuclear reactor nuclear battery repeatedly detonating nuclear bombs two experiments nuclear powered aircraft tupolev tu convair x mechanical strain another method storing energy whereby elastic band metal spring deformed releases energy allowed return ground state systems employing elastic materials suffer hysteresis metal springs dense useful many cases flywheels store energy spinning mass light


fast rotor energetically favorable flywheels pose significant safety hazard moreover flywheels leak energy fairly quickly affect vehicle 's steering gyroscopic effect used experimentally gyrobuses wind energy used sailboats land yachts primary source energy cheap fairly easy use main issues dependence weather upwind performance balloons also rely wind move horizontally aircraft flying jet stream may get boost high altitude winds compressed gas currently experimental method storing


energy case compressed gas simply stored tank released necessary like elastics hysteresis losses gas heats compression gravitational potential energy form energy used gliders skis bobsleds numerous vehicles go hill regenerative braking example capturing kinetic energy brakes vehicle augmented generator means extracting energy ref name regenerative ref motors engines needed energy taken source consumed one motors engines sometimes


intermediate medium batteries diesel submarine motor vehicles internal combustion engines fairly cheap easy maintain reliable safe small since engines burn fuel long ranges pollute environment related engine external combustion engine example steam engine aside fuel steam engines also need water making impractical purposes steam engines also need time warm whereas ic engines usually run right started although may recommended cold


superbike millennium pulse jet engines similar many ways turbojets almost moving parts reason appealing vehicle designers past however noise heat inefficiency led abandonment historical example use pulse jet v flying bomb pulse jets still occasionally used amateur experiments advent modern technology pulse detonation engine become practical successfully tested rutan varieze pulse detonation engine much efficient


anything fact new york times denied error rocket engines particularly simple sometimes consisting nothing catalyst case hydrogen peroxide rocket makes attractive option vehicles jet packs despite simplicity rocket engines often dangerous susceptible explosions fuel run may flammable poisonous corrosive cryogenic also suffer poor efficiency reasons rocket engines used absolutely necessary electric motors used electric vehicles electric bicycles electric


scooters small boats subways trains trolleybuses trams experimental aircraft electric motors efficient efficiency common electric motors also built powerful reliable low maintenance size electric motors deliver range speeds torques without necessarily using gearbox although may economical use one electric motors limited use chiefly difficulty supplying electricity compressed gas motors used vehicles experimentally simple efficient safe cheap reliable operate variety conditions one


difficulties met using gas motors cooling effect expanding gas engines limited quickly absorb heat surroundings cooling effect however double air conditioning compressed gas motors also lose effectiveness falling gas pressure ion thrusters used satellites spacecraft effective vacuum limits use spaceborne vehicles ion thrusters run primarily electricity also need propellant caesium recently xenon ion thrusters achieve extremely high speeds use little propellant however


power hungry converting energy work mechanical energy motors engines produce must converted work wheels propellers nozzles similar means aside converting mechanical energy motion wheels allow vehicle roll along surface exception railed vehicles steered ref name steering ref wheels ancient technology specimens discovered years ago wheels used plethora vehicles including motor vehicles armoured personnel carriers amphibious vehicles airplanes trains skateboards wheelbarrows nozzles used conjunction almost reaction engines ref


name nozzle ref vehicles using nozzles include jet aircraft rockets personal watercraft nozzles take shape cone bell ref name nozzle unorthodox designs created aerospike nozzles intangible electromagnetic field nozzle vectored ion thruster continuous track sometimes used instead wheels power land vehicles continuous track advantages larger contact area easy repairs small damage high maneuverability examples vehicles using continuous track tanks snowmobiles excavators two continuous tracks used together allow steering largest


vehicle world bagger propelled continuous tracks propellers well screws fans rotors used move fluid propellers used toys since ancient times however leonardo da vinci devised one earliest propeller driven vehicles aerial screw toogood hays adopted screw use ship propeller since propeller tested many terrestrial vehicles including schienenzeppelin train numerous cars modern times propellers prevalent watercraft aircraft well


amphibious vehicles hovercraft ground effect vehicles intuitively propellers cannot work space working fluid however sources suggested since space never empty propeller could made work space similarly propeller vehicles vehicles use wings propulsion sailboats sailplanes propelled forward component lift generated sails wings ornithopters also produce thrust aerodynamically ornithopters large rounded leading edges produce lift leading edge suction forces paddle wheels used older watercraft reconstructions ships known


paddle steamers paddle wheels simply push water design construction simple oldest ship scheduled service skibladner many pedalo boats also use paddle wheels propulsion screw propelled vehicles propelled auger like cylinders fitted helical flanges produce thrust land water commonly used terrain vehicles zil soviet designed screw propelled vehicle designed retrieve cosmonauts siberian wilderness friction almost useful energy produced engine usually dissipated friction


minimising frictional losses important many vehicles main sources friction rolling friction fluid drag air drag water drag wheels low bearing friction pneumatic tyres give low rolling friction steel wheels steel tracks lower still aerodynamic drag reduced streamlined design features friction desirable important supplying traction facilitate motion land land vehicles rely friction accelerating decelerating changing direction sudden reductions traction cause loss control accidents control steering vehicles


notable exception railed vehicles least one steering mechanism wheeled vehicles steer angling front ref name steering rear ref name rear steering ref wheels b stratofortress special arrangement four main wheels angled skids also used steer angling case snowmobile ships boats submarines dirigibles aeroplanes usually rudder steering airplane ailerons used bank airplane directional control sometimes assisted rudder stopping power applied vehicles come stop due


friction often required stop vehicle faster friction alone almost vehicles equipped braking system wheeled vehicles typically equipped friction brakes use friction brake pads stators brake rotors slow vehicle ref name regenerative many airplanes high performance versions system landing gear use ground boeing brake example stators rotors space shuttle also uses frictional brakes wheels well frictional brakes hybrid electric cars trolleybuses


electric bicycles also use regenerative brakes recycle vehicle 's potential energy ref name regenerative high speed trains sometimes use frictionless eddy current brakes however widespread application technology limited overheating interference issues aside landing gear brakes large aircraft ways decelerating aircraft air brakes aerodynamic surfaces create friction air flow causing vehicle slow usually implemented flaps oppose air flow extended flush aircraft retracted reverse thrust also used many aeroplane engines propeller aircraft achieve


reverse thrust reversing pitch propellers jet aircraft redirecting engine exhaust forwards aircraft carriers arresting gears used stop aircraft pilots may even apply full forward throttle touchdown case arresting gear catch go around needed parachutes used slow vehicles travelling fast parachutes used land air space vehicles thrustssc eurofighter typhoon apollo command module older soviet passenger jets braking parachutes emergency landings boats use similar devices called


sea anchors maintain stability rough seas increase rate deceleration brakes failed several mechanisms used stop vehicle cars rolling stock usually hand brakes designed secure already parked vehicle provide limited braking primary brakes fail secondary procedure called forward slip sometimes used slow airplanes flying angle causing drag legislation motor vehicle trailer categories defined according following international classification category passenger vehicles category n motor vehicles


carriage goods category trailers semi trailers european union european union classifications vehicle types defined commission directive ec december adapting technical progress council directive eec approximation laws member states relating type approval motor vehicles trailers directive ec european parliament council march relating type approval two three wheeled motor vehicles repealing council directive eec european community based community 's wvta whole vehicle type approval


system system manufacturers obtain certification vehicle type one member state meets ec technical requirements market eu wide need tests total technical harmonization already achieved three vehicle categories passenger cars motorcycles tractors soon extend vehicle categories coaches utility vehicles essential european car manufacturers ensured access large market possible community type approval system allows manufacturers benefit fully internal market opportunities worldwide technical harmonization context


united nations economic commission europe unece offers market beyond european borders licensing many cases unlawful operate vehicle without license certification least strict form regulation usually limits passengers driver may carry prohibits completely eg canadian ultra light license without endorsements next level licensing may allow passengers without form compensation payment private driver 's license usually conditions commercial licenses allow transport passengers cargo tightly regulated strict form


licensing generally reserved school buses hazardous materials transports emergency vehicles driver motor vehicle typically required hold valid driver 's license driving public lands whereas pilot aircraft must license times regardless jurisdiction aircraft flying registration vehicles often required registered registration may purely legal reasons insurance reasons help law enforcement recover stolen vehicles toronto police service example offers free optional bicycle registration online motor vehicles registration


often takes form vehicle registration plate makes easy identify vehicle russia trucks buses licence plate numbers repeated large black letters back aircraft similar system used tail number painted various surfaces like motor vehicles aircraft watercraft also registration numbers jurisdictions however vessel name still primary means identification case since ancient times reason duplicate registration names generally rejected canada boats engine power


greater require registration leading ubiquitous engine registration may conditional vehicle approved use public highways case uk ontario many us states also requirements vehicles operating public highways aircraft stringent requirements pose high risk damage people property event accident us faa requires aircraft airworthiness certificate us aircraft must flown time certified ref name cert limits ref provision


experimental airworthiness certificate faa experimental aircraft restricted operation including overflights populated areas busy airspace unessential passengers ref name cert limits materials parts used faa certified aircraft must meet criteria set forth ''technical standard orders'' mandatory safety equipment many jurisdictions operator vehicle legally obligated carry safety equipment common examples include seat belts cars helmets motorcycles bicycles fire extinguishers boats buses airplanes life jackets boats commercial aircraft passenger aircraft carry great


deal safety equipment including inflatable slides rafts oxygen masks oxygen tanks life jackets satellite beacons first aid kits equipment life jackets led debate regarding usefulness case ethiopian airlines flight life jackets saved many people also led many deaths passengers inflated vests prematurely right way specific real estate arrangements made allow vehicles travel one place another common arrangements public highways appropriately licensed vehicles navigate without hindrance highways public


land maintained government similarly toll routes open public paying toll routes land rest may government privately owned combination routes privately owned grant access public routes often warning sign stating government maintain way example byways england wales scotland land open un motorised vehicles land meets certain criteria public land sometimes open use road vehicles


us public land bureau land management blm decides vehicles may used railways often pass land owned railway company right land granted railway company mechanisms easement watercraft generally allowed navigate public waters without restriction long cause disturbance passing lock however may require paying toll despite common law tradition ''cuius est solum eius est usque ad coelum et ad inferos'' owning air one 's property us supreme court ruled


aircraft us right use air someone else 's property without consent rule generally applies jurisdictions countries cuba russia taken advantage air rights national level earn money areas aircraft barred overflying called prohibited airspace prohibited airspace usually strictly enforced due potential damage espionage attack case korean air lines flight airliner entered prohibited airspace soviet territory shot


leaving safety comparison transportation fatality rates see air safety statistics several different metrics used compare evaluate safety different vehicles main three ' 'deaths per billion passenger journeys'' ' 'deaths per billion passenger hours'' ' 'deaths per billion passenger kilometers'' see also automotive acronyms abbreviations isiri narrow track vehicle outline vehicles propulsion single track vehicle vehicular dynamics vehicular metrics references transport manufactured goods


key concepts virtue vice virtue ethics virtue morally good disposition think feel act well domain life similarly vice morally bad disposition involving thinking feeling acting badly virtues everyday habits character traits sense central someone personality like person virtue trait makes possessor good person vice one makes possessor bad person ancient greek modern eudaimonistic virtue

Humanities
Philosophy
Ethics
Virtue ethics


ethics virtues vices complex dispositions involve affective intellectual components dispositions involve able reason well right thing see ''phronesis'' also engage emotions feelings correctly example generous person reason well help people also helps people pleasure without conflict virtuous people contrasted vicious people reason poorly emotionally attached wrong things incontinent


tempted feelings wrong thing even though know right also continent whose emotions tempt toward wrong thing whose strength lets know right ''phronesis'' ''eudaimonia'' phronesis prudence practical virtue practical wisdom acquired trait enables possessor identify thing given situation unlike theoretical wisdom practical reason results action decision john mcdowell puts practical wisdom involves perceptual sensitivity situation requires ''eudaimonia''


state variously translated greek 'well being' 'happiness' 'blessedness' context virtue ethics 'human flourishing' ''eudaimonia'' sense subjective objective state characterizes well lived life according aristotle prominent exponent ''eudaimonia'' western philosophical tradition ''eudaimonia'' proper goal human life consists exercising characteristic human quality reason soul 's proper nourishing activity ''nicomachean ethics'' aristotle like plato argued pursuit ''eudaimonia'' activity soul accordance perfect virtue


could properly exercised characteristic human community ''polis'' city state although ''eudaimonia'' first popularized aristotle belongs tradition virtue theories generally virtue theorist ''eudaimonia'' describes state achieved person lives proper human life outcome reached practicing virtues virtue habit quality allows bearer succeed purpose virtue knife example sharpness among virtues racehorse speed thus identify


virtues human beings one must account human purpose history virtue like much western tradition virtue theory seems originated ancient greek philosophy virtue ethics began socrates subsequently developed plato aristotle stoics virtue ethics refers collection normative ethical philosophies place emphasis rather another way say virtue ethics morality stems identity character individual rather reflection actions


consequences thereof individual today debate among various adherents virtue ethics concerning specific virtues morally praiseworthy however theorists agree morality comes result intrinsic virtues intrinsic virtues common link unites disparate normative philosophies field known virtue ethics plato aristotle 's treatment virtues plato believes virtue effectively end sought friend might useful means aristotle states virtues function means safeguard human relations particularly authentic


perspective provided st thomas aquinas ''summa theologiae'' ''commentaries nicomachean ethics'' reformation aristotle 's nicomachean ethics continued main authority discipline ethics protestant universities late seventeenth century fifty protestant commentaries published nicomachean ethics though tradition receded background european philosophical thought past centuries term virtue remained current period fact appears prominently tradition classical republicanism classical liberalism tradition prominent intellectual


life th century italy well th th century britain america indeed term virtue appears frequently work niccol machiavelli david hume republicans english civil war period th century english whigs prominent figures among scottish enlightenment american founding fathers contemporary aretaic turn although enlightenment philosophers eg hume continued emphasise virtues ascendancy utilitarianism deontology virtue theory moved margins western philosophy contemporary revival virtue theory frequently traced philosopher elizabeth anscombe 's essay modern moral


philosophy following paper schizophrenia modern ethical theories michael stocker summarises main aretaic criticisms deontological consequentialist ethics philosopher psychologist encyclopedist mortimer adler appealed aristotelian ethics virtue theory happiness eudaimonia throughout published work philippa foot published collection essays entitled ''virtues vices'' alasdair macintyre made effort reconstruct virtue based theory dialogue problems modern postmodern thought works include ''after virtue'' ''three rival versions moral enquiry'' paul ricoeur accorded


important place aristotelian teleological ethics hermeneutical phenomenology subject notably book ''oneself another'' theologian stanley hauerwas also found language virtue quite helpful project rosalind hursthouse published ''on virtue ethics'' roger crisp michael slote edited collection important essays titled ''virtue ethics'' martha nussbaum amartya sen employed virtue theory theorising capability approach international development julia annas wrote ''the morality happiness'' lawrence c becker identified current virtue theory greek stoicism ''a new stoicism'' ref name becker ref


psychologist martin seligman drew classical virtue ethics conceptualizing positive psychology psychologist daniel goleman opens book emotional intelligence challenge aristotle 's nicomachean ethics '''aretaic turn''' moral philosophy paralleled analogous developments philosophical disciplines one epistemology distinctive virtue epistemology developed linda zagzebski others political theory discussion virtue politics legal theory small growing body literature virtue jurisprudence aretaic turn also exists american constitutional theory proponents argue


emphasis virtue vice constitutional adjudicators aretaic approaches morality epistemology jurisprudence subject intense debates one criticism frequently made focuses problem guidance opponents robert louden article vices virtue ethics question whether idea virtuous moral actor believer judge provide guidance necessary action belief formation decision legal disputes lists virtues several lists particular virtues socrates argued virtue knowledge suggests really


one virtue stoics concurred claiming four cardinal virtues aspects true virtue john mcdowell recent defender conception argues virtue perceptual capacity identify one ought act particular virtues merely specialized sensitivities range reasons acting aristotle 's list aristotle identifies approximately eighteen virtues enable person perform human function well distinguished virtues pertaining emotion desire relating mind first calls moral virtues second intellectual virtues though


moral modern sense word moral virtue mean see golden mean two corresponding vices one excess one deficiency intellectual virtue mental skill habit mind arrives truth affirming denying ''nicomachean ethics'' discusses moral virtues moral virtues '''courage''' face fear '''temperance''' face pleasure pain '''liberality''' wealth possessions '''magnificence''' great wealth possessions '''magnanimity''' great


honors '''proper ambition''' normal honors '''truthfulness''' self expression '''wittiness''' conversation '''friendliness''' social conduct '''modesty''' face shame shamelessness '''righteous indignation''' face injury class wikitable width border cellspacing width bgcolor e eaff '''sphere action feeling''' width bgcolor e eaff '''excess''' width bgcolor e eaff '''mean''' width bgcolor e eaff '''deficiency''' align center fear confidence align center rashness align center courage align center cowardice align center pleasure pain align center licentiousness self indulgence align center temperance align center insensibility align center getting spending minor align center


prodigality align center liberality align center illiberality meanness align center getting spending major align center vulgarity tastelessness align center magnificence align center pettiness stinginess align center honour dishonour major align center vanity align center magnanimity align center pusillanimity align center honour dishonour minor align center ambition empty vanity align center proper ambition pride align center unambitiousness undue humility align center anger align center irascibility align center patience good temper align center lack spirit unirascibility align center self expression align center boastfulness align center truthfulness align center understatement mock modesty align center conversation align center buffoonery align center wittiness align center boorishness


align center social conduct align center obsequiousness align center friendliness align center cantankerousness align center shame align center shyness align center modesty align center shamelessness align center indignation align center envy align center righteous indignation align center malicious enjoyment spitefulness intellectual virtues nous intelligence apprehends fundamental truths definitions self evident principles episteme science skill inferential reasoning proofs syllogisms demonstrations sophia theoretical wisdom combines fundamental truths valid necessary inferences reason well unchanging truths aristotle also mentions several traits gnome good sense passing judgment sympathetic


understanding synesis understanding comprehending others say issue commands phronesis practical wisdom knowledge knowledge changing truths issues commands techne art craftsmanship aristotle 's list list however alasdair macintyre observed ''after virtue'' thinkers diverse homer authors new testament thomas aquinas benjamin franklin proposed lists character strengths virtues '''csv''' book christopher peterson martin seligman listing virtues modern empirical rigorously scientific manner introduction csv suggests six


following nine wisdom prudence justice fortitude courage liberality magnificence magnanimity temperance contrast philosopher walter kaufmann proposed four cardinal virtues ambition humility love courage honesty another example regarding virtues supposedly applicable women many would considered virtuous woman quiet servile industrious conception female virtue longer holds true many modern societies proponents virtue theory sometimes respond objection arguing central feature virtue ''universal applicability'' words character trait defined


virtue must reasonably universally regarded virtue sentient beings according view inconsistent claim example servility female virtue time proposing male one proponents virtue theory notably alasdair macintyre respond objection arguing account virtues must indeed generated community virtues practiced word ''ethics'' implies ethos say virtues necessarily must grounded particular


time place counts virtue th century athens would ludicrous guide proper behaviour st century toronto vice versa take view necessarily commit one argument accounts virtues must therefore static moral activity attempts contemplate practice virtues provide cultural resources allow people change albeit slowly ethos societies macintyre appears take position seminal work virtue ethics ''after virtue'' one might cite though macintyre rapid emergence abolitionist


thought slave holding societies th century atlantic world example sort change relatively short period time perhaps britain france british america slave holding previously thought morally neutral even virtuous rapidly became seen vicious among wide swathes society emergence abolitionist thought derived many sources work david brion davis among others established one source rapid internal evolution moral theory among certain sectors societies notably quakers another objection virtue theory


school focus ' 'sorts actions'' morally permitted ones rather sort qualities someone ought foster order become good person words virtue theorists may condemn example murder inherently immoral impermissible sort action may argue someone commits murder severely lacking several important virtues compassion fairness still antagonists theory often object particular feature theory makes virtue ethics useless


acts aim virtue stray virtue would constitute conception bad behavior although virtue ethicists agree notion one way virtue ethicist introduce concept morally impermissible one could raise objection foot committing argument ignorance postulating virtuous unvirtuous words action person 'lacks evidence' virtue else constant imply said action person unvirtuous subsumed deontology


utilitarianism martha nussbaum suggested virtue ethics often considered anti enlightenment suspicious theory respectful wisdom embodied local practices ref name nussbaum actually neither fundamentally distinct qualify rival approach deontology utilitarianism argues philosophers two enlightenment traditions often include theories virtue pointed kant 's doctrine virtue ''the metaphysics morals'' covers topics classical greek theories offers general account virtue terms strength