conduct sikh rehat maryada hereditary priest sikhism priests abolished guru gobind singh th guru sikhism ref name autogenerated ref position left granthi look guru granth sahib sikh free become granthi read guru granth sahib ref name autogenerated adultery ref name autogenerated ref name autogenerated see also mai bhago five virtues hari singh nalwa indian religions bebe nanaki turban training centre women guru granth sahib notes references reading dilgeer harjinder singh ''the sikh reference book''


sikh university press singh brothers amritsar dilgeer harjinder singh ''dictionary sikh philosophy'' sikh university press singh brothers amritsar dilgeer harjinder singh ''sikh twareekh'' sikh university press singh brothers amritsar dilgeer harjinder singh ''sikh history'' volumes sikh university press singh brothers amritsar kaur surjit ''amongst sikhs reaching stars'' new delhi roli books khalsa guru fatha singh ''five paragons peace magic magnificence guru 's way'' toronto monkey minds press https webarchiveorg web http wwwgurufathasinghcom five paragons peacehtml gurufathasinghcom khalsa shanti kaur ''the history sikh dharma


western hemisphere'' espanola new mexico us sikh dharma takhar opinderjit kaur ''sikh identity exploration groups among sikhs'' burlington vermont ashgate external links https wwwbritannicacom topic sikhism sikhism ''encyclop dia britannica online'' https wwwdeutsches informationszentrum sikhreligionde german information center sikh religion https nitnemsahibcom sikh gurus infographic brief description sikh gurus infographic http wwwbbccouk religion religions sikhism religion ethics sikhism number introductory articles sikhism bbc nirguna worship traditions indian religions establishments asia religious organizations established th century th century establishments india punjab monotheism moksha aligned dharmas


'''star formation''' process dense regions within molecular clouds medium present soon interstellar space sometimes referred stellar nurseries star forming regions collapse form stars branch astronomy star formation includes study interstellar medium ism giant molecular clouds gmc precursors star formation process study protostars young stellar objects immediate products closely related planet formation another branch astronomy star formation theory well accounting formation single

Natural science
Space science
Numerical simulations
Star formation


sup sup sup sup particles per cm sup sup typically composed roughly hydrogen mass remaining gas consisting helium medium chemically enriched trace amounts heavier elements produced ejected stars via fusion helium passed beyond end main sequence lifetime higher density regions interstellar medium form clouds ' 'diffuse nebulae'' star formation takes place ref name prialnik ref contrast spirals elliptical galaxy loses cold component interstellar medium within roughly billion years hinders


galaxy forming diffuse nebulae except mergers galaxies dense nebulae stars produced much hydrogen molecular h sub sub form nebulae called molecular clouds ref name prialnik herschel space observatory revealed filaments truly ubiquitous molecular cloud dense molecular filaments central star formation process fragment gravitationally bound cores evolve stars continuous accretion gas geometrical bending magnetic fields may control detailed fragmentation manner filaments supercritical filaments observations


revealed quasi periodic chains dense cores spacing comparable filament inner width includes embedded protostars outflows observations indicate coldest clouds tend form low mass stars observed first infrared inside clouds visible light surface clouds dissipate giant molecular clouds generally warmer produce stars masses giant molecular clouds typical densities particles per cm sup sup diameters masses nbsp million solar masses average interior temperature nbsp k half total mass


galactic ism found molecular clouds milky way estimated molecular clouds nearest nebula sun massive stars formed orion nebula away however lower mass star formation occurring light years distant ophiuchi cloud complex compact site star formation opaque clouds dense gas dust known bok globules named astronomer bart bok form association collapsing molecular clouds possibly


independently bok globules typically light year across contain solar masses observed dark clouds silhouetted bright emission nebulae background stars half known bok globules found contain newly forming stars access date july ref cloud collapse interstellar cloud gas remain hydrostatic equilibrium long kinetic energy gas pressure balance potential energy internal gravitational force mathematically expressed using virial theorem states maintain equilibrium


gravitational potential energy must equal twice internal thermal energy cloud massive enough gas pressure insufficient support cloud undergo gravitational collapse mass cloud undergo collapse called jeans mass jeans mass depends temperature density cloud typically thousands tens thousands solar masses ref name prialnik cloud collapse dozens tens thousands stars form less simultaneously observable called embedded clusters end product core collapse


open cluster stars alma observations orion nebula complex provide insights explosions star birth ''triggered star formation'' one several events might occur compress molecular cloud initiate gravitational collapse molecular clouds may collide nearby supernova explosion trigger sending shocked matter cloud high speeds ref name prialnik resulting new stars may soon produce supernovae producing self propagating star formation alternatively galactic collisions trigger massive starbursts star formation gas clouds galaxy


likewise weaker jet may trigger star formation collides cloud dwarf galaxy eso one highest rates star formation galaxies nearest milky way collapses molecular cloud breaks smaller smaller pieces hierarchical manner fragments reach stellar mass fragments collapsing gas radiates away energy gained release gravitational potential energy density increases fragments become opaque thus less efficient radiating away energy


raises temperature cloud inhibits fragmentation fragments condense rotating spheres gas serve stellar embryos complicating picture collapsing cloud effects turbulence macroscopic flows rotation magnetic fields cloud geometry rotation magnetic fields hinder collapse cloud turbulence instrumental causing fragmentation cloud smallest scales promotes collapse protostar lh stellar nursery large magellanic cloud protostellar cloud continue collapse long gravitational binding energy eliminated


excess energy primarily lost radiation however collapsing cloud eventually become opaque radiation energy must removed means dust within cloud becomes heated temperatures particles radiate wavelengths far infrared cloud transparent thus dust mediates collapse cloud collapse density cloud increases towards center thus middle region becomes optically opaque first occurs density core region called


first hydrostatic core forms collapse essentially halted continues increase temperature determined virial theorem gas falling toward opaque region collides creates shock waves heat core ref name larson composite image showing young stars around molecular cloud cepheus b core temperature reaches thermal energy dissociates h sub sub molecules ref name larson ref followed ionization hydrogen helium atoms processes absorb energy contraction allowing continue timescales comparable period


collapse free fall velocities density infalling material reached sup sup g cm sup sup material sufficiently transparent allow energy radiated protostar escape combination convection within protostar radiation exterior allow star contract ref name larson continues gas hot enough internal pressure support protostar gravitational collapse state called hydrostatic equilibrium accretion phase nearly complete resulting object known protostar ref name prialnik n part complex network gas


clouds star clusters within neighbouring galaxy large magellanic cloud accretion material onto protostar continues partially newly formed circumstellar disc density temperature high enough deuterium fusion begins outward pressure resultant radiation slows stop collapse material comprising cloud continues rain onto protostar stage bipolar jets produced called herbig haro objects probably means excess angular momentum infalling material expelled allowing star continue form star formation region lupus


surrounding gas dust envelope disperses accretion process stops star considered pre main sequence star pms star energy source objects gravitational contraction opposed hydrogen burning main sequence stars pms star follows hayashi track hertzsprung russell h r diagram contraction proceed hayashi limit reached thereafter contraction continue kelvin helmholtz timescale temperature remaining stable stars less thereafter join main sequence massive pms stars end hayashi track slowly


collapse near hydrostatic equilibrium following henyey track finally hydrogen begins fuse core star rest enveloping material cleared away ends protostellar phase begins star 's main sequence phase h r diagram stages process well defined stars masses around less high mass stars length star formation process comparable timescales evolution much shorter process well defined later evolution stars studied


stellar evolution class wikitable style margin em auto width px protostar style font size px center protostar outburst hops center observations orion nebula archetypical example star formation massive young stars shaping nebula pillars dense gas may homes budding stars key elements star formation available observing wavelengths optical protostellar stage stellar existence almost invariably hidden away deep inside dense clouds gas dust left gmc often star forming cocoons


known bok globules seen silhouette bright emission surrounding gas early stages star 's life seen infrared light penetrates dust easily visible light observations wide field infrared survey explorer wise thus especially important unveiling numerous galactic protostars parent star clusters ref name wright ref ref name majaess http adsabsharvardedu abs ap ss ''discovering protostars host clusters via wise'' apss http vizieru strasbgfr viz bin vizier source j fother fapss f e ''vizier catalog'' ref examples embedded star clusters fsr fsr camargo camargo majaess majaess ref name ca camargo


et al http adsabsharvardedu cgi bin bib queryarxiv ''new galactic embedded clusters candidates wise survey'' new astronomy ref star forming region structure molecular cloud effects protostar observed near ir extinction maps number stars counted per unit area compared nearby zero extinction area sky continuum dust emission rotational transitions co molecules last two observed millimeter submillimeter range radiation protostar early star observed infrared astronomy wavelengths extinction


caused rest cloud star forming usually big allow us observe visual part spectrum presents considerable difficulties earth 's atmosphere almost entirely opaque narrow windows even outside range atmospheric subtraction techniques must used ngc star forming region ref name getman ref x ray observations proven useful studying young stars since x ray emission objects times stronger x ray emission main sequence stars ref name preibisch ref earliest detections


x rays tauri stars made einstein x ray observatory ref name feigelson ref ref name montmerle ref low mass stars x rays generated heating stellar corona magnetic reconnection high mass early b type stars x rays generated supersonic shocks stellar winds photons soft x ray energy range covered chandra x ray observatory xmm newton may penetrate interstellar medium moderate absorption due gas making x ray useful wavelength seeing stellar populations within molecular clouds x ray emission evidence stellar youth makes


band particularly useful performing censuses stars star forming regions given young stars infrared excesses ref name feigelson ref x ray observations provided near complete censuses stellar mass objects orion nebula cluster taurus molecular cloud ref name getman ref ref name gudel ref formation individual stars directly observed milky way galaxy distant galaxies star formation detected unique spectral signature initial research indicates star forming clumps start giant dense areas turbulent gas rich matter young galaxies live million years may migrate center


galaxy creating central bulge galaxy february nasa announced http wwwastrochemorg pahdb greatly upgraded database tracking polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons pahs universe according scientists carbon universe may associated pahs possible starting materials formation life pahs seem formed shortly big bang widespread throughout universe associated new stars exoplanets ref name nasa ref february astronomers reported first time signal reionization epoch indirect detection light


embedded protostar yet accrete majority mass found possibly younger years ref name andreward thompson ref l extremely faint embedded object representative new class sources detected newest telescopes status still undetermined could youngest low mass class protostars yet seen even low mass evolved objects like brown dwarfs even rogue planets gcirs youngest known main sequence star galactic center region discovered august estimated million


years old ref name geballenajarro ref low mass high mass star formation star forming region westerhout serpens aquila rift cloud filaments containing new stars fill region ref name kuhn ref ref name andre ref stars different masses thought form slightly different mechanisms theory low mass star formation well supported observation suggests low mass stars form gravitational collapse rotating density enhancements within molecular clouds described collapse rotating cloud gas dust leads formation accretion disk matter channeled onto central protostar


stars masses higher however mechanism star formation well understood massive stars emit copious quantities radiation pushes infalling material past thought radiation pressure might substantial enough halt accretion onto massive protostar prevent formation stars masses tens solar masses recent theoretical work shown production jet outflow clears cavity much radiation massive protostar escape without hindering accretion


disk onto protostar present thinking massive stars may therefore able form mechanism similar low mass stars form mounting evidence least massive protostars indeed surrounded accretion disks several theories massive star formation remain tested observationally perhaps prominent theory competitive accretion suggests massive protostars seeded low mass protostars compete protostars draw matter entire parent molecular cloud instead simply


small local region another theory massive star formation suggests massive stars may form coalescence two stars lower mass see also references stellar astronomy concepts astronomy


representative lifetimes stars function masses change size time sun like star artist 's depiction life cycle sun like star starting main sequence star lower left expanding subgiant giant phases outer envelope expelled form planetary nebula upper right chart stellar evolution '''stellar evolution''' process star changes course time depending mass star lifetime range million years massive

Natural science
Space science
Stellar astrophysics
Stellar evolution


trillions years least massive considerably longer age universe table shows lifetimes stars function masses stars formed collapsing clouds gas dust often called nebulae molecular clouds course millions years protostars settle state equilibrium becoming known main sequence star nuclear fusion powers star existence initially energy generated fusion hydrogen atoms core main sequence


dense white dwarf outer layers expelled planetary nebula stars around ten times mass sun explode supernova inert iron cores collapse extremely dense neutron star black hole although universe old enough smallest red dwarfs reached end existence stellar models suggest slowly become brighter hotter running hydrogen fuel becoming low mass white dwarfs ref name endms ref stellar evolution studied observing life


single star stellar changes occur slowly detected even many centuries instead astrophysicists come understand stars evolve observing numerous stars various points lifetime simulating stellar structure using computer models star formation simplistic representation stages stellar evolution protostar schematic stellar evolution stellar evolution starts gravitational collapse giant molecular cloud typical giant molecular clouds roughly across contain collapses giant molecular cloud breaks smaller smaller pieces


protostar continues grow accretion gas dust molecular cloud becoming pre main sequence star reaches final mass development determined mass mass typically compared mass sun means solar mass protostars encompassed dust thus readily visible infrared wavelengths observations wide field infrared survey explorer wise especially important unveiling numerous galactic protostars parent star clusters ref name wright ref ref name majaess http adsabsharvardedu abs ap ss ''discovering protostars host clusters via wise'' apss http vizieru strasbgfr viz bin vizier source j fother fapss f e ''vizier


catalog'' ref brown dwarfs sub stellar objects protostars masses less roughly never reach temperatures high enough nuclear fusion hydrogen begin known brown dwarfs international astronomical union defines brown dwarfs stars massive enough fuse deuterium point lives jupiter masses nbsp times nbsp sup sup nbsp kg objects smaller classified sub brown dwarfs orbit around another stellar object classified planets types deuterium burning shine dimly fade away slowly cooling gradually hundreds millions years stellar


mass objects less br yellow track shown sun become red giant main sequence phase ends expanding along asymptotic giant branch last phase sun undergoes fusion imagemap imagemap image zams trackspng px poly main sequence desc none imagemap annotations massive protostar core temperature eventually reach million kelvin initiating proton proton chain reaction allowing hydrogen fuse first deuterium helium stars slightly


carbon nitrogen oxygen fusion reaction cno cycle contributes large portion energy generation onset nuclear fusion leads relatively quickly hydrostatic equilibrium energy released core maintains high gas pressure balancing weight star 's matter preventing gravitational collapse star thus evolves rapidly stable state beginning main sequence phase evolution new star sit specific point main sequence hertzsprung russell diagram main sequence spectral type depending upon mass star small relatively cold low mass red dwarfs


'''massive''' blue white main sequence star eventually star 's core exhausts supply hydrogen star begins evolve main sequence without outward radiation pressure generated fusion hydrogen counteract force gravity core contracts either electron degeneracy pressure becomes sufficient oppose gravity core becomes hot enough around mk helium fusion begin happens first depends upon star 's mass low mass stars happens low mass star ceases produce energy fusion directly observed universe


around billion years old less time several orders magnitude cases takes fusion cease stars recent astrophysical models suggest red dwarfs may stay main sequence six twelve trillion years gradually increasing temperature luminosity take several hundred billion years collapse slowly white dwarf ref name ref stars become red giants whole star convection zone develop degenerate helium core shell


mid sized stars go stages evolution beyond red giant branch ref name lejeune cite journal last lejeune first last schaerer first year title database geneva stellar evolution tracks isochrones math ubv mathsf j ri mathsf c jhkll'm math hst wfpc geneva washington photometric systems journal astronomy astrophysics volume issue pages bibcode l doi arxiv astro ph cid ref mid sized stars evolutionary track solar mass solar metallicity star main sequence post agb stars roughly become red giants large non main sequence stars stellar classification k red giants lie along right edge hertzsprung russell diagram due red color large luminosity examples include aldebaran constellation taurus arcturus


constellation bo tes mid sized stars red giants two different phases post main sequence evolution red giant branch stars inert cores made helium hydrogen burning shells asymptotic giant branch stars inert cores made carbon helium burning shells inside hydrogen burning shells two phases stars spend period horizontal branch helium fusing core many helium fusing stars cluster towards cool end horizontal branch k type giants referred red clump giants subgiant phase star exhausts hydrogen core leaves


increase temperature luminosity star increase point star expands onto red giant branch ref name ryannorton ref red giant branch phase expanding outer layers star convective material mixed turbulence near fusing regions surface star lowest mass stars fused material remained deep stellar interior prior point convecting envelope makes fusion products visible star 's surface first time stage evolution results subtle


largest effects alterations isotopes hydrogen helium unobservable effects cno cycle appear surface first dredge lower sup sup c sup sup c ratios altered proportions carbon nitrogen detectable spectroscopy measured many evolved stars helium core continues grow red giant branch longer thermal equilibrium either degenerate sch nberg chandrasekhar limit increases temperature causes rate fusion hydrogen shell increase star increases luminosity towards


tip red giant branch red giant branch stars degenerate helium core reach tip similar core masses similar luminosities although massive red giants become hot enough ignite helium fusion point horizontal branch helium cores stars solar mass range largely supported electron degeneracy pressure helium fusion ignite timescale days helium flash nondegenerate cores massive stars ignition helium fusion occurs relatively slowly


higher temperatures becoming unstable pulsating stars yellow instability strip rr lyrae variables whereas become even hotter form blue tail blue hook horizontal branch morphology horizontal branch depends parameters metallicity age helium content exact details still modelled ref name parameters ref asymptotic giant branch phase star consumed helium core hydrogen helium fusion continues shells around hot core carbon oxygen star follows asymptotic giant branch hertzsprung russell diagram paralleling original


red giant evolution even faster energy generation lasts shorter time although helium burnt shell majority energy produced hydrogen burning shell core star helium hydrogen burning shells drops towards center star periodically energy output helium shell increases dramatically known thermal pulse occur towards end asymptotic giant branch phase sometimes even post asymptotic giant branch phase depending mass composition may


several hundreds thermal pulses phase ascent asymptotic giant branch deep convective zone forms bring carbon core surface known second dredge stars may even third dredge way carbon star formed cool strongly reddened stars showing strong carbon lines spectra process known hot bottom burning may convert carbon oxygen nitrogen dredged surface


interaction processes determines observed luminosities spectra carbon stars particular clusters ref name hbb ref another well known class asymptotic giant branch stars mira variables pulsate well defined periods tens hundreds days large amplitudes magnitudes visual total luminosity changes much smaller amount massive stars stars become luminous pulsation period longer leading enhanced mass loss stars become heavily obscured visual wavelengths stars observed oh ir stars pulsating infrared


showing oh maser activity stars clearly oxygen rich contrast carbon stars must produced dredge ups post agb cat 's eye nebula planetary nebula formed death star mass sun mid range stars ultimately reach tip asymptotic giant branch run fuel shell burning sufficiently massive start full scale carbon fusion contract going period post asymptotic giant branch superwind produce planetary nebula extremely hot central star central


variety unusual poorly understood stars known born asymptotic giant branch stars ref name bornagain ref may result extreme horizontal branch stars subdwarf b stars hydrogen deficient post asymptotic giant branch stars variable planetary nebula central stars r coronae borealis variables massive stars reconstructed image antares red supergiant massive stars core already large enough onset hydrogen burning shell helium ignition occur electron degeneracy pressure chance become prevalent thus stars expand cool brighten dramatically lower mass stars however luminous


main sequence evolve highly luminous supergiants cores become massive enough cannot support electron degeneracy eventually collapse produce neutron star black hole supergiant evolution extremely massive stars approximately luminous thus rapid stellar winds lose mass rapidly due radiation pressure tend strip envelopes expand become red supergiants thus retain extremely high surface temperatures blue white color main sequence time onwards largest stars


current generation outer layers would expelled extreme radiation although lower mass stars normally burn outer layers rapidly likewise avoid becoming red giants red supergiants binary systems close enough companion star strips envelope expands rotate rapidly enough convection extends way core surface resulting absence separate core envelope due thorough mixing onion like layers massive evolved


star core collapse scale core massive star defined region depleted hydrogen grows hotter denser accretes material fusion hydrogen outside core sufficiently massive stars core reaches temperatures densities high enough fuse carbon heavier elements via alpha process end helium fusion core star consists primarily carbon oxygen stars heavier carbon ignites fuses form neon sodium magnesium stars somewhat less


massive may partially ignite carbon unable fully fuse carbon electron degeneracy sets stars eventually leave oxygen neon magnesium white dwarf ref name jones ref ref name woosley ref exact mass limit full carbon burning depends several factors metallicity detailed mass lost asymptotic giant branch approximately ref name jones carbon burning complete core stars reaches becomes hot enough heavier elements fuse oxygen starts fuse neon begins capture electrons triggers neon burning


range stars approximately process unstable creates runaway fusion resulting electron capture supernova ref name nomoto stars toward electron capture supernovae ii collapse ne mg core journal astrophysical journal date volume pages bibcode apj n doi ref ref name woosley massive stars fusion neon proceeds without runaway deflagration followed turn complete oxygen burning silicon burning producing core consisting largely iron peak elements surrounding core shells lighter elements still undergoing fusion timescale complete fusion


carbon core iron core short hundred years outer layers star unable react appearance star largely unchanged iron core grows reaches ''effective chandrasekhar mass'' higher formal chandrasekhar mass due various corrections relativistic effects entropy charge surrounding envelope effective chandrasekhar mass iron core varies least massive red supergiants massive stars mass reached


electrons begin captured iron peak nuclei core becomes unable support core collapses star destroyed either supernova direct collapse black hole ref name woosley supernova crab nebula shattered remnants star exploded supernova visible ad core massive star collapses form neutron star case cores exceed tolman oppenheimer volkoff limit black hole process completely understood gravitational potential energy


released core collapse converted type ib type ic type ii supernova known core collapse produces massive surge neutrinos observed supernova sn extremely energetic neutrinos fragment nuclei energy consumed releasing nucleons including neutrons energy transformed heat kinetic energy thus augmenting shock wave started rebound infalling material collapse core electron capture dense parts infalling matter may produce additional neutrons


rebounding matter bombarded neutrons nuclei capture creating spectrum heavier iron material including radioactive elements likely beyond uranium although non exploding red giants produce significant quantities elements heavier iron using neutrons released side reactions earlier nuclear reactions abundance elements heavier iron particular certain isotopes elements multiple stable long lived isotopes produced reactions quite different produced supernova neither abundance alone matches found solar


produce observed ejection material however neutrino oscillations may play important role energy transfer problem affect energy available particular flavour neutrinos also general relativistic effects neutrinos evidence gained analysis mass orbital parameters binary neutron stars require two supernovae hints collapse oxygen neon magnesium core may produce supernova differs observably ways size supernova produced collapse iron core massive stars exist today


fuel left burn star radiates remaining heat space billions years white dwarf hot first forms k surface even hotter interior hot lot energy lost form neutrinos first million years existence lost energy billion years chemical composition white dwarf depends upon mass star solar masses ignite carbon fusion


form magnesium neon smaller amounts elements resulting white dwarf composed chiefly oxygen neon magnesium provided lose enough mass get chandrasekhar limit see provided ignition carbon violent blow star apart supernova star mass order magnitude sun unable ignite carbon fusion produce white dwarf composed chiefly carbon oxygen mass low collapse unless matter added


later see star less half mass sun unable ignite helium fusion noted earlier produce white dwarf composed chiefly helium end remains cold dark mass sometimes called black dwarf however universe old enough black dwarfs exist yet white dwarf 's mass increases chandrasekhar limit white dwarf composed chiefly carbon oxygen neon magnesium electron degeneracy pressure fails due electron capture


star collapses depending upon chemical composition pre collapse temperature center lead either collapse neutron star runaway ignition carbon oxygen heavier elements favor continued core collapse require higher temperature ignite electron capture onto elements fusion products easier higher core temperatures favor runaway nuclear reaction halts core collapse leads type ia supernova supernovae may many times brighter type ii supernova marking death massive star even though latter


greater total energy release instability collapse means white dwarf massive approximately exist possible minor exception rapidly spinning white dwarfs whose centrifugal force due rotation partially counteracts weight matter mass transfer binary system may cause initially stable white dwarf surpass chandrasekhar limit white dwarf forms close binary system another star hydrogen larger companion may accrete around onto white dwarf gets hot enough fuse runaway reaction


surface although white dwarf remains chandrasekhar limit explosion termed nova neutron stars bubble like shock wave still expanding supernova explosion years ago ordinarily atoms mostly electron clouds volume compact nuclei center proportionally atoms size football stadium nuclei would size dust mites stellar core collapses pressure causes electrons protons fuse electron capture without electrons keep nuclei apart neutrons collapse dense ball ways like giant


seconds rapidly rotating stars' magnetic poles aligned earth detect pulse radiation revolution neutron stars called pulsars first neutron stars discovered though electromagnetic radiation detected pulsars often form radio waves pulsars also detected visible x ray gamma ray wavelengths black holes mass stellar remnant high enough neutron degeneracy pressure insufficient prevent collapse schwarzschild radius stellar remnant thus becomes black hole mass


occurs known certainty currently estimated black holes predicted theory general relativity according classical general relativity matter information flow interior black hole outside observer although quantum effects may allow deviations strict rule existence black holes universe well supported theoretically astronomical observation core collapse mechanism supernova present partially understood still known whether possible


star collapse directly black hole without producing visible supernova whether supernovae initially form unstable neutron stars collapse black holes exact relation initial mass star final remnant also completely certain resolution uncertainties requires analysis supernovae supernova remnants models stellar evolutionary model mathematical model used compute evolutionary phases star formation becomes remnant mass chemical composition star used


track ref name ryan norton ref see also metallicity rotations slow stars age references reading http wwwastroumdedu miller teaching astr astronomy stellar structure evolution lecture notes cole miller department astronomy university maryland http wwwastronomyohio stateedu pogge ast unit astronomy unit structure evolution stars lecture notes richard w pogge department astronomy ohio state university external links http spiffritedu classes phys lectures star age evol hrswf stellar evolution simulator http astrodfunipiit stellar models pisa stellar models http mesasourceforgenet mesa stellar evolution codes modules experiments stellar astrophysics http wwwbbccouk programmes p w life stars bbc radio discussion paul murdin janna levin phil charles ''in time'' mar evolution concepts


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products services required end customers supply chain supply chain management defined design planning execution control monitoring supply chain activities objective creating net value building competitive infrastructure leveraging worldwide logistics synchronizing supply demand measuring performance globally scm practice draws heavily industrial engineering systems engineering operations management logistics procurement information technology marketing ref name kozlenkova ref strives integrated multidisciplinary multimethod approach marketing channels play important role supply chain management ref name kozlenkova current research supply chain management concerned topics related

Applied science
Military sciences
Logistics
Supply chain management


sustainability risk management among others important concept discussed scm supply chain resilience suggest people dimension scm ethical issues internal integration transparency visibility human capital talent management topics far underrepresented research agenda supply chain management scm broad range activities required plan control execute product 's flow materials production distribution economical way possible scm encompasses integrated planning execution processes required optimize flow materials information capital functions broadly include


demand planning sourcing production inventory management logistics storage transportation although goals supply chain engineering supply chain management focused traditional management business based approach whereas supply chain engineering focused mathematical model based one ref name ravi ref mission supply chain management techniques aim coordinating parts sc supplying raw materials delivering resumption products tries minimize total costs respect existing conflicts among chain partners example conflicts interrelation sale department desiring


higher inventory levels fulfill demands warehouse lower inventories desired reduce holding costs origin term definitions keith oliver consultant booz allen hamilton introduced term supply chain management public domain interview financial times ref name handfield nbsp wirtschaftswoche germany published first time results implemented called supply chain management project led wolfgang partsch mid decade later term supply chain management gained currency flurry


articles books came subject supply chains originally defined encompassing activities associated flow transformation goods raw materials end user well associated information flows supply chain management defined integration supply chain activities improved supply chain relationships achieve competitive advantage ref name handfield ref late supply chain management scm rose prominence operations managers began use titles increasing regularity commonly accepted definitions supply chain management include management upstream


downstream value added flows materials final goods related information among suppliers company resellers final consumers systematic strategic coordination traditional business functions tactics across business functions within particular company across businesses within supply chain purposes improving long term performance individual companies supply chain whole ref name mentzer jt pp ref customer focused definition given hines p supply chain strategies require total systems view links chain work together efficiently create customer satisfaction end point


delivery consumer consequence costs must lowered throughout chain driving unnecessary expenses movements handling main focus turned efficiency added value end user 's perception value efficiency must increased bottlenecks removed measurement performance focuses total system efficiency equitable monetary reward distribution within supply chain supply chain system must responsive customer requirements ref name hines ref integration key business processes across supply chain purpose creating value customers stakeholders ref name cooper cooper mc


lambert dm pagh j supply chain management new name logistics international journal logistics management vol iss pp ref according council supply chain management professionals cscmp supply chain management encompasses planning management activities involved sourcing procurement conversion logistics management also includes coordination collaboration channel partners may suppliers intermediaries third party service providers customers ref name kozlenkova supply chain management integrates supply demand management within across companies recently loosely coupled self organizing network businesses cooperate


provide product service offerings called ''extended enterprise'' supply chain opposed supply chain management set organizations directly linked one upstream downstream flows products services finances information source customer supply chain management management chain ref name mentzer jt pp supply chain management software includes tools modules used execute supply chain transactions manage supplier relationships control associated business processes ref name ref overall goal software improve supply chain performance monitoring company supply chain network


end end suppliers transporters returns warehousers retailers manufacturers customers ref name supply chain event management scem considers possible events factors disrupt supply chain scem possible scenarios created solutions devised cases supply chain includes collection goods consumer use recycling reverse logistics processes returning faulty unwanted products backwards producers early value chain functions supply chain management cross functional approach includes managing movement raw materials organization certain aspects internal processing materials


finished goods movement finished goods organization toward end consumer organizations strive focus core competencies become flexible reduce ownership raw materials sources distribution channels functions increasingly outsourced firms perform activities better cost effectively effect increase number organizations involved satisfying customer demand reducing managerial control daily logistics operations less control supply chain partners lead creation concept supply chain management purpose supply chain


management improve trust collaboration among supply chain partners thus improving inventory visibility velocity inventory movement section communicate vendors suppliers take comparisons place order importance organizations increasingly find must rely effective supply chains networks compete global market networked economy peter drucker 's new management paradigms concept business relationships extends beyond traditional enterprise boundaries seeks organize entire business processes throughout value chain


multiple companies recent decades globalization outsourcing information technology enabled many organizations dell hewlett packard successfully operate collaborative supply networks specialized business partner focuses key strategic activities inter organisational supply network acknowledged new form organisation however complicated interactions among players network structure fits neither market hierarchy categories clear kind performance impacts different supply network structures could firms little known coordination conditions trade offs may exist


among players systems perspective complex network structure decomposed individual component firms ref name referencea zhang dilts ref traditionally companies supply network concentrate inputs outputs processes little concern internal management working individual players therefore choice internal management control structure known impact local firm performance st century changes business environment contributed development supply chain networks first outcome globalization proliferation multinational companies joint ventures strategic alliances


business partnerships significant success factors identified complementing earlier time lean manufacturing agile manufacturing practices second technological changes particularly dramatic fall communication costs significant component transaction costs led changes coordination among members supply chain network many researchers recognized supply network structures new organisational form using terms keiretsu extended enterprise virtual corporation global production network next generation manufacturing system general structure defined group semi independent organisations capabilities collaborate ever changing constellations


serve one markets order achieve business goal specific collaboration importance supply chain management proved crucial fight coronavirus covid pandemic swept across world pandemic period governments countries place effective domestic supply chain management enough medical supplies support needs enough donate surplus front line health workers jurisdictions nbsp organizations able quickly develop foreign supply chains order import much needed medical supplies supply chain management also important organizational


learning firms geographically extensive supply chains connecting diverse trading cliques tend become innovative productive security management system supply chains described iso iec iso iec related standards published jointly iso iec supply chain management draws heavily areas operations management logistics procurement information technology strives integrated approach supply chain resilience important element scm supply chain resilience defined capacity supply chain persist adapt transform face change ref name wieldura ref


long time interpretation resilience sense engineering resilience robustness prevailed supply chain management leading notion ''persistence'' ref name wieldura popular implementation idea given measuring ''time survive'' ''time recover'' supply chain allowing identify weak points system recently interpretations resilience sense ecological resilience social ecological resilience led notions ''adaptation'' ''transformation'' respecitively ref name wieldura supply chain thus interpreted social ecological system similar ecosystem eg forest


able constantly adapt external environmental conditions presence social actors ability foresight also transform fundamentally new system ref name wiel ref leads panarchical interpretation supply chain embedding system systems allowing analyze interactions supply chain systems operate levels eg society political economy planet earth ref name wiel example three components resilience discussed suez canal obstruction ship blocked canal several days persistence


means bounce back example removing ship quickly possible allow normal operations adaptation means accept system reached new normal state act accordingly implemented redirecing ships around african cape use alternative modes transport finally transformation means question assumptions globalization outsourcing linear supply chains envision alternatives example could lead local circular supply chains need global transportation routes longer historical developments six


major movements observed evolution supply chain management studies creation integration globalization ref name movahedi movahedi b lavassani k kumar v transition b b e marketplace enabled supply chain readiness assessment success factors international journal technology knowledge society volume issue pp nbsp ref specialization phases one two scm creation era term supply chain management first coined keith oliver however concept supply chain management great importance long early th century especially creation assembly line


enterprise resource planning erp systems era continued develop st century expansion internet based collaborative systems era supply chain evolution characterized increasing value added reducing costs integration supply chain classified stage network stage type supply chain systems production storage distribution material control linked independent stage supply chain integrated one plan enterprise resource planning erp enabled stage supply


chain one achieves vertical integration upstream suppliers downstream customers example kind supply chain tesco globalization era third movement supply chain management development globalization era characterized attention given global systems supplier relationships expansion supply chains beyond national boundaries continents although use global sources organisations' supply chains traced back several decades eg oil industry late considerable number organizations started integrate global


sources core business era characterized globalization supply chain management organizations goal increasing competitive advantage adding value reducing costs global sourcing specialization era phase outsourced manufacturing distribution companies began focus core competencies specialization abandoned vertical integration sold non core operations outsourced functions companies changed management requirements supply chain extended beyond company walls management distributed across specialized supply chain partnerships transition also refocused fundamental perspectives organization original


equipment manufacturers oems became brand owners required visibility deep supply base control entire supply chain instead within contract manufacturers manage bills material different part numbering schemes multiple oems support customer requests work process visibility vendor managed inventory vmi specialization model creates manufacturing distribution networks composed several individual supply chains specific producers suppliers customers work together design manufacture distribute market sell service product set partners may change according given market region


channel resulting proliferation trading partner environments unique characteristics demands specialization era phase ii supply chain management service specialization within supply chain began inception transportation brokerages warehouse management storage inventory non asset based carriers matured beyond transportation logistics aspects supply planning collaboration execution performance management market forces sometimes demand rapid changes suppliers logistics providers locations customers role components supply chain networks variability significant effects supply chain infrastructure foundation layers


complex competency house leading reason supply chain specialization gaining popularity outsourced technology hosting supply chain solutions debuted late taken root primarily transportation collaboration categories progressed application service provider asp model roughly demand model approximately software service saas model currently focus today supply chain management scm building globalization specialization term scm coined describe changes within supply chains well


evolution processes methods tools manage new era growing popularity collaborative platforms highlighted rise tradecard 's supply chain collaboration platform connects multiple buyers suppliers financial institutions enabling conduct automated supply chain finance transactions web trend use world wide web meant increase creativity information sharing collaboration among users core common attribute web help navigate vast information available web order find bought


notion usable pathway scm replicates notion supply chain operations pathway scm results combination processes methodologies tools delivery options guide companies results quickly complexity speed supply chain increase due global competition rapid price fluctuations changing oil prices short product life cycles expanded specialization near far shoring talent scarcity business process integration successful scm requires change managing individual functions integrating activities key supply chain processes example scenario purchasing department places orders requirements


become known marketing department responding customer demand communicates several distributors retailers attempts determine ways satisfy demand information shared supply chain partners fully leveraged process integration supply chain business process integration involves collaborative work buyers suppliers joint product development common systems shared information according lambert cooper operating integrated supply chain requires continuous information flow however many companies management concluded optimizing product flows cannot accomplished without implementing process approach key supply chain processes stated lambert


customer relationship management customer service management demand management style order fulfillment manufacturing flow management supplier relationship management product development commercialization returns management much written demand management best class companies similar characteristics include following internal external collaboration initiatives reduce lead time tighter feedback customer market demand customer level forecasting one could suggest critical supply business processes combine processes stated lambert customer service management process customer relationship management concerns relationship organization customers customer service source customer information also provides customer


real time information scheduling product availability interfaces company 's production distribution operations successful organizations use following steps build customer relationships determine mutually satisfying goals organization customers establish maintain customer rapport induce positive feelings organization customers inventory management inventory management concerned ensuring right stock right levels right place right time right cost inventory management entails inventory planning forecasting forecasting helps planning inventory procurement process strategic plans drawn


suppliers support manufacturing flow management process development new products firms whose operations extend globally sourcing may managed global basis desired outcome relationship parties benefit reduction time required product 's design development purchasing function may also develop rapid communication systems electronic data interchange edi internet linkage convey possible requirements rapidly activities related obtaining products materials outside suppliers involve resource planning supply sourcing negotiation order placement inbound transportation storage handling quality


assurance many include responsibility coordinate suppliers matters scheduling supply continuity inventory hedging research new sources programs procurement recently recognized core source value driven largely increasing trends outsource products services changes global ecosystem requiring stronger relationships buyers sellers product development commercialization customers suppliers must integrated product development process order reduce time market product life cycles shorten appropriate products must developed


successfully launched ever shorter time schedules order firms remain competitive according lambert cooper managers product development commercialization process must coordinate customer relationship management identify customer articulated needs select materials suppliers conjunction procurement develop production technology manufacturing flow manufacture integrate best supply chain flow given combination product markets integration suppliers new product development process shown major impact product target cost quality delivery market share tapping


suppliers source innovation requires extensive process characterized development technology sharing also involves managing intellectual property issues manufacturing flow management process manufacturing process produces supplies products distribution channels based past forecasts manufacturing processes must flexible order respond market changes must accommodate mass customization orders processes operating time jit basis minimum lot sizes changes manufacturing flow process lead shorter cycle times meaning improved responsiveness efficiency meeting customer demand process manages activities related


subcontracted specialists logistics partners also managing controlling network partners suppliers requires blend central local involvement strategic decisions taken centrally monitoring control supplier performance day day liaison logistics partners best managed locally performance measurement experts found strong relationship largest arcs supplier customer integration market share profitability taking advantage supplier capabilities emphasizing long term supply chain perspective customer relationships correlated firm 's performance logistics competency becomes critical factor creating


proper area inventory management system etc workflow management integrating suppliers customers tightly workflow business process thereby achieving efficient effective supply chain key goal workflow management theories gaps literature supply chain management studies present theoretical support explaining existence boundaries supply chain management authors halldorsson et al ketchen hult lavassani et al tried provide theoretical foundations different areas related supply chain employing organizational theories


may include following resource based view rbv transaction cost analysis tca knowledge based view kbv strategic choice theory sct agency theory channel coordination institutional theory int systems theory st network perspective np materials logistics management mlm time jit material requirements planning mrp theory constraints toc total quality management tqm agile manufacturing time based competition tbc quick response manufacturing qrm customer relationship management crm requirements chain management rcm dynamic capabilities theory dynamic management theory available promise atp supply chain roadmap optimal positioning delivery window opdw however unit analysis theories


supply chain rather another system firm supplier buyer relationship among exceptions relational view outlines theory considering dyads networks firms key unit analysis explaining superior individual firm performance dyer singh organization governance management supply chains involve number specific challenges regarding organization relationships among different partners along value chain formal informal governance mechanisms central elements management supply chain particular combinations governance mechanisms may impact


relational dynamics within supply chain need interdisciplinarity scm research pointed academics field supply chain centroids study supply chain management concept centroids become useful economic consideration mathematics physics centroid arithmetic mean position points plane figure supply chain management centroid location high proportion country 's population high proportion manufacturing generally within us two major supply chain centroids defined one


near dayton ohio second near riverside california centroid near dayton particularly important closest population center us canada dayton within nbsp miles us population manufacturing capacity well canada 's population ref name daytondailynewscom doug page http wwwdaytondailynewscom business dayton region crucial hub supply chain managment html dayton region crucial hub supply chain management dayton daily news ref region includes interchange one busiest nation vehicles passing per day trucks hauling goods addition corridor


home busiest north south rail route east mississippi river ref name daytondailynewscom supply chain network individuals organizations resources activities technology involved creation sale product supply chain encompasses everything delivery source materials supplier manufacturer eventual delivery end user supply chain segment involved getting finished product manufacturer consumer known distribution channel wal mart strategic sourcing approaches wal mart announced big change sourcing


strategy initially wal mart relied intermediaries sourcing process bought stock directly rest bought intermediaries ref name referenceb cmuscm ref therefore company came realize presence many intermediaries product sourcing actually increasing costs supply chain cut costs wal mart decided away intermediaries supply chain started direct sourcing goods suppliers eduardo castro wright vice president wal mart set ambitious goal buying wal mart goods directly


suppliers ref name referencec lu ref walmart started purchasing fruits vegetables global scale interacted directly suppliers goods company later engaged suppliers goods cloth home electronics appliances directly eliminated importing agents purchaser case wal mart easily direct suppliers manufacture certain products acceptable consumers ref name referenced gilmorte ref thus wal mart direct sourcing manages get exact product quality expects since engages suppliers producing


products hence quality consistency ref name referencec using agents sourcing process cases lead inconsistency quality products since agent 's source products different manufacturers varying qualities wal mart managed source directly profit stock greatly eliminated intermediaries cut costs markups introduced middlemen supply chain cut saves approximately billion ref name referenceb strategy direct sourcing helped wal mart reducing costs supply chain also helped


improvement supply chain activities boosting efficiency throughout entire process words direct sourcing reduced time takes company source stocks products stock ref name referencec presence intermediaries elongated time process procurement sometimes led delays supply commodities stores thus customers finding empty shelves wal mart adopted strategy sourcing centralizing entire process procurement sourcing setting four global merchandising points general goods clothing company instructed


suppliers bring products central points located different markets ref name referenced procurement team assesses quality brought suppliers buys goods distributes various regional markets procurement sourcing centralized places helped company consolidate suppliers company established four centralized points including office mexico city canada mere piloting test combining purchase fresh apples across united states mexico canada led savings result company intended increase centralization


procurement north america fresh fruits vegetables ref name referenceb thus centralization procurement process various points suppliers would meeting procurement team latest strategy company implementing signs show strategy going cut costs also improve efficiency procumbent process strategic vendor partnerships another strategy company using sourcing process wal mart realized order ensure consistency quality products offers consumers also maintain


products stores hence maintaining competitive advantage competitors whose goods expensive comparison another sourcing strategy wal mart uses implementing efficient communication relationships vendor networks necessary improve material flow company contacts suppliers communicate regularly make dates goods would needed suppliers get ready deliver goods time efficient communication company 's procurement team inventory management team enables company source goods fill


shelves time without causing delays empty shelves words company realized ensuring steady flow goods store suppliers informed early enough act accordingly avoid delays delivery goods ref name referencec thus efficient communication another tool wal mart using make supply chain efficient cut costs cross docking another strategy wal mart using cut costs supply chain cross docking process transferring goods directly inbound


trucks outbound trucks ref name referenceb trucks suppliers arrive distribution centers trucks offloaded keep goods distribution centers warehouses transferred directly another truck designated deliver goods specific retail stores sale cross docking helps saving storage costs initially company incurring considerable costs storing suppliers suppliers warehouses distributions centers await distribution trucks retail stores various regions tax efficient supply chain management tax efficient supply chain management business


model considers effect tax design implementation supply chain management consequence globalization cross national businesses pay different tax rates different countries due differences may legally optimize supply chain increase profits based tax efficiency sustainability social responsibility supply chains supply chain networks veins economy health veins dependent well environment society supply chain sustainability business issue affecting organization 's supply chain logistics network frequently quantified comparison


sech ratings use triple bottom line incorporating economic social environmental aspects sech ratings defined social ethical cultural health' footprints commonly used esg moniker stands environment social governance consumers become aware environmental impact purchases companies' ratings along non governmental organizations ngos setting agenda beginning push transitions sustainable approaches organically grown foods anti sweatshop labor codes locally produced goods support independent small businesses supply chains may account


company 's carbon footprint many organizations exploring ways reduce thus improve profile example july wal mart announced intentions create global sustainability index would rate products according environmental social impacts manufacturing distribution index intended create environmental accountability wal mart 's supply chain provide motivation infrastructure retail companies reported companies increasingly taking environmental performance account selecting suppliers survey carbon trust found


direct relationships first tier suppliers also demonstrate visibility needs improved supply cannot directly controlled smart electronic technologies play key role improve visibility finally highlight collaboration local partners across industry universities crucial successfully managing social responsibility supply chains circular supply chain management circular supply chain management cscm configuration coordination organisational functions marketing sales r production logistics finance customer service within across business units organizations close slow intensify narrow dematerialise


management business process link function number level components added link consequently adding management components increasing level component increase level integration business process link literature business process reengineering buyer supplier relationships scm ref name cooper suggests various possible components receive managerial attention managing supply relationships lambert cooper identified following components planning control work structure organization structure product flow facility structure information flow facility structure management methods power leadership structure risk reward


structure culture attitude however careful examination existing literature ref name referencea leads comprehensive understanding key critical supply chain components branches previously identified supply chain business processes kind relationship components may related suppliers customers bowersox closs state emphasis cooperation represents synergism leading highest level joint achievement primary level channel participant business willing participate responsibility inventory ownership assume financial risks thus


including primary level components secondary level participant specialized business participates channel relationships performing essential services primary participants including secondary level components support primary participants third level channel participants components support primary level channel participants fundamental branches secondary level components may also included consequently lambert cooper 's framework supply chain components lead conclusion primary secondary level specialized supply chain components supply chain components viewed primary secondary components structured order


achieve comprehensive supply chain structure examine supply chain integrative one reverse supply chain reverse logistics process managing return goods may considered aspect aftermarket customer services time money taken company 's warranty reserve service logistics budget one speak reverse logistics operation reverse logistics also includes process managing return goods store returned goods sent back warehouse either warehouse scrap goods send


back supplier replacement depending warranty merchandise digitizing supply chains consultancies media expect performance efficacy digitizing supply chains high additive manufacturing blockchain technology emerged two technologies highest economic relevance potential additive manufacturing particularly high production spare parts since introduction reduce warehousing costs slowly rotating spare parts digitizing technology bears potential completely disrupt restructure supply chains enhance existing production routes comparison research influence blockchain


additional revenue costs building network co creating value sharing benefits appropriately encourage effective participation key challenge supply system tony hines defines value follows ultimately customer pays price service delivered confirms value producer simply adds cost point ref name hines global applications global supply chains pose challenges regarding quantity value supply value chain trends include globalization increased cross border sourcing collaboration parts value chain low cost providers shared service centers logistical


administrative functions increasingly global operations require increasingly global coordination planning achieve global optimums complex problems involve also midsized companies increasing degree trends many benefits manufacturers make possible larger lot sizes lower taxes better environments eg culture infrastructure special tax zones sophisticated oem products many additional challenges scope supply chains global supply chain larger scope lead time much longer issues involved multiple currencies policies


laws consequent problems include different currencies valuations different countries different tax laws different trading protocols vulnerability natural disasters cyber threats lack transparency cost profit roles responsibilities supply chain professionals play major roles design management supply chains design supply chains help determine whether product service provided firm insourcing another firm elsewhere outsourcing management supply chains supply chain professionals coordinate production among multiple providers ensuring production transport goods happen


minimal quality control inventory problems one goal well designed maintained supply chain product successfully build product minimal cost supply chain could considered competitive advantage firm ref name auto enver cesan competitive supply chains value based management perspective palgrave macmillan ref beyond design maintenance supply chain supply chain professionals participate aspects business bearing supply chains sales forecasting quality management strategy development customer service systems analysis production good may evolve time rendering


productivity supply chain ideally enhance productivity supply chain consulting involves transfer knowledge exploit existing assets improved coordination hence source competitive advantage role consultant help management adding value whole process various sectors ordering raw materials final product regard firms may either build internal teams consultants tackle issue engage external ones companies choose two approaches taking consideration various factors use


external consultants common practice among companies whole consulting process generally involves analysis entire supply chain process including countermeasures correctives take achieve better overall performance skills competencies supply chain professionals need knowledge managing supply chain functions transportation warehousing inventory management production planning past supply chain professionals emphasized logistics skills knowledge shipping routes familiarity warehousing equipment distribution center locations footprints solid grasp freight rates fuel costs recently supply chain management extends


logistical support across firms management global supply chains supply chain professionals need understanding business continuity basics strategies certification individuals working supply chain management attain professional certification passing exam developed third party certification organization purpose certification guarantee certain level expertise field knowledge needed pass certification exam may gained several sources knowledge may come college courses acquired mix job learning experiences attending industry events learning


best practices peers reading books articles field certification organizations may provide certification workshops tailored exams university rankings following north american universities rank high master 's education scm world university ranking published based opinions supply chain managers michigan state university penn state university university tennessee massachusetts institute technology arizona state university university texas austin western michigan university ranking following european universities rank high cranfield school


management vlerick business school insead cambridge university eindhoven university technology london business school copenhagen business school eduniversal best masters ranking supply chain logistics following universities rank high massachusetts institute technology kedge business school purdue university rotterdam school management pontificia universidad catolica del peru universidade nova de lisboa vienna university economics business copenhagen business school organizations number organizations provide certification supply chain management council supply chain management professionals cscmp iipmr international institute procurement market research apics association


operations management iscea international supply chain education alliance ioscm institute supply chain management apics' certification called ''certified supply chain professional'' cscp iscea 's certification called ''certified supply chain manager'' cscm ciscm chartered institute supply chain management awards certificate ''chartered supply chain management professional'' cscmp another institute supply management developing one called ''certified professional supply management'' cpsm ref name jacoby david jacoby guide supply chain management getting right boosts corporate performance economist books bloomberg press st edition chapter organising training developing


staff ref focused procurement sourcing areas supply chain management supply chain management association scma main certifying body canada designations global reciprocity designation supply chain management professional scmp title supply chain leadership designation topics addressed selected professional supply chain certification programmes following table compares topics addressed selected professional supply chain certification programmes ref name jacoby class wikitable sortable awarding body chartered institute procurement supply cips supply chain management association scma supply chain management professional scmp international institute


procurement market research iipmr certified supply chain specialist cscs certified procurement professional cpp institute supply management ism certified professional supply management cpsm association operations management apics certified supply chain professional cscp international supply chain education alliance iscea certified supply chain manager cscm american society transportation logistics ast l certification transportation logistics ctl association operations management apics certified production inventory management cpim international supply chain education alliance iscea certified supply chain analyst csca institute supply chain management ioscm institute supply


high high high low low low low low low low high production lot sizing low low low low low high high low high low high high quality high high high high low low high low high high high high lean six sigma low high low low high low low high low


low high low inventory management high high high high high high high high high high high high warehouse management low low low low low high low high high low low high network design low low low low high high high high low low low low transportation high high low


low high high high high high high low high demand management op low high high high high high high high high low high high integrated scm high high low high high high low high high high high high crm customer service high low low high high low low low high low


high high pricing high high low high high low low low low low yes high risk management high high high low low low high low high low high low project management low high high low high low high low high low high high leadership people management high high high low


see also barcode scanner beer distribution game bullwhip effect calculating demand forecast accuracy cold chain cost serve customer driven supply chain customer relationship management demand chain management distribution document automation ecodesk enterprise planning systems enterprise resource planning fair stone standard industrial engineering information technology management integrated business planning inventory inventory control inventory control system inventory management software larg scm liquid logistics logistic engineering logistics logistics management logistics officer management accounting supply chains management information system master science supply chain management military supply chain management netchain analysis offshoring research network operations management order fulfillment procurement procurement outsourcing product quality risk


supply chain radio frequency identification reverse logistics service management software configuration management scm stock management strategic information system supply chain engineering supply chain management software supply chain network supply chain security supply chain supply management trade finance value chain vendor managed inventory warehouse warehouse management system associations informs institute industrial engineers references reading ferenc szidarovszky ndor moln r ''introduction matrix theory applications business economics'' world scientific publishing http wwwworldscientificcom worldscibooks description http wwwworldscientificcom doi suppl suppl file chap pdf preview http wwwfaoorg ag ags publications docs agsf occassionalpapers agsfop pdf fao agro industrial supply chain management concepts applications agsf occasional paper rome haag cummings mccubbrey pinsonneault donovan r


management information systems information age rd canadian ed canada mcgraw hill ryerson halldorsson kotzab h mikkola j h skjoett larsen complementary theories supply chain management supply chain management volume issue houlihan jb international supply chain management international journal physical distribution materials management vol pp stadtler h supply chain management overview stadtler h kilger c eds supply chain management advanced planning springer berlin heidelberg tan kc supply chain management practices concerns performance issues journal supply chain management


choon tan k lyman sb wisner jd supply chain management strategic perspective international journal operations production management vol pp kuldeep kumar technology supporting supply chain management introduction commun acm june power supply chain management integration implementation literature review supply chain management vol pp douglas j thomas paul griffin coordinated supply chain management european journal operational research volume issue pages hines supply chain strategies customer driven customer


simchi levi e designing managing supply chain third edition mcgraw hill stanton ''supply chain management dummies'' second edition wiley new york morash edward supply chain strategies capabilities performance transportation journal vol penn state university press pp kleijnen j p c smits performance metrics supply chain management journal operational research society lewis james g supply chain security threats solutions center strategic international studies csis johnson eric supply chain management


technology globalization policy crossroads interfaces vol informs pp douglas lambert martha c cooper issues supply chain management industrial marketing management vol pp ellram lm supply chain management industrial organisation perspective international journal physical distribution logistics management vol pp keah choon tan framework supply chain management literature european journal purchasing supply management vol pp freight transport distribution marketing management type


data storage mechanism ref name rna ref recording may accomplished virtually form energy electronic data storage requires electrical power store retrieve data data storage digital machine readable medium sometimes called ' 'digital data'' computer data storage one core functions general purpose computer electronic documents stored much less space paper documents barcodes magnetic ink character recognition micr two ways recording machine readable data paper recording media recording medium physical material holds information newly created information distributed stored

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Data storage


four storage media print film magnetic optical seen heard four information flows telephone radio tv internet ref name berk ref well observed directly digital information stored electronic media many different recording formats electronic media data recording media sometimes referred software despite common use word describe computer software traditional art static media art materials crayons may considered equipment medium wax charcoal chalk material equipment becomes part surface


medium recording media may temporary either design nature volatile organic compounds may used preserve environment purposely make data expire time data smoke signals skywriting temporary nature depending volatility gas eg atmosphere smoke liquid surface lake would considered temporary recording medium global capacity digitization trends uc berkeley report estimated five exabytes new information produced data


stored hard disk drives twice data produced amount data transmitted telecommunication systems nearly exabytes three half times recorded non volatile storage telephone calls constituted telecommunicated information researchers' highest estimate growth rate newly stored information uncompressed per year science journal article estimated year beginning digital age information storage age information stored digital storage


devices analog storage devices ref name hilbertlopez free access article martinhilbertnet worldinfocapacityhtml ref approximately world 's capacity store information digital format grew figures correspond less three compressed exabytes compressed exabytes ref name hilbertlopez quantity digital storage doubled roughly every three years ref name hilbertvideo http ideaseconomistcom video giant sifting sound video animation world technological capacity store communicate compute information ref limited study international data


corporation estimated total amount digital data exabytes total amount digital data produced exceeded global storage capacity first time see also references reading http wwwcomputerhistoryorg storageengine timeline history computer data storage http wwwremosoftwarecom info history storage cave paintings electrons history storage cave paintings electrons https wwwsecuredatarecoverycom infographics evolution data storage evolution data storage data management film video technology mass media technology recording sound production technology


torii gateway itsukushima shrine hiroshima prefecture japan one famous examples torii country torii mark entrance shinto shrines recognizable symbols religion '''shinto''' religion originated japan classified east asian religion scholars religion practitioners often regard japan 's indigenous religion nature religion scholars sometimes call practitioners ''shintoists'' although adherents rarely use term central authority control shinto much diversity exists among practitioners shinto


polytheistic revolves around supernatural entities believed inhabit things link natural world led shinto considered animistic worshiped household shrines family shrines ''jinja'' public shrines latter staffed priests known oversee offerings food drink specific enshrined location done cultivate harmony humans solicit latter 's blessing common rituals include dances rites passage seasonal festivals public shrines also supply


religious paraphernalia amulets religion 's adherents facilitate forms divination shinto places major conceptual focus ensuring purity largely cleaning practices ritual washing bathing especially worship little emphasis placed specific moral codes particular afterlife beliefs although dead deemed capable becoming religion single creator specific doctrinal text exists diverse range local regional forms although historians debate point suitable refer shinto distinct religion veneration traced


back japan 's yayoi period bc ad buddhism entered japan end kofun period ad spread rapidly religious syncretization made worship buddhism functionally inseparable process called ' 'shinbutsu sh g '' came viewed part buddhist cosmology increasingly depicted anthropomorphically earliest written tradition regarding worship recorded th century ''kojiki'' ''nihon shoki'' ensuing centuries adopted japan 's imperial household meiji era japan 's nationalist leadership expelled buddhist influence worship formed


state shinto many historians regard origin shinto distinct religion shrines came growing government influence citizens encouraged worship emperor formation japanese empire early th century shinto exported areas east asia following japan 's defeat world war ii shinto formally separated state shinto primarily found japan around public shrines although practitioners also found abroad numerically japan 's largest religion second buddhism country 's


religion japanologist helen hardacre stated shinto encompasses doctrines institutions ritual communal life based worship scholar religion inoue nobutaka observed term often used reference worship related theologies rituals practices various scholars referred practitioners shinto ''shintoists'' although term direct translation japanese language scholars debated point history legitimate start talking shinto specific phenomenon scholar religion ninian smart instance suggested one could speak


religion japan lived symbiotically organized buddhism later institutionalized shinto various institutions practices associated shinto existed japan th century various scholars argued shinto distinct religion essentially invented th century japan 's meiji era scholar religion brian bocking stressed especially dealing periods meiji era term ''shinto'' approached caution inoue nobutaka stated shinto cannot considered single religious system existed ancient modern


period historian kuroda toshio noted modern times shinto exist independent religion categorization many scholars describe shinto religion however practitioners prefer view shinto way thus characterising custom tradition religion partly pretence attempting circumvent modern japanese separation religion state restore shinto 's historical links japanese state moreover religion concept arose europe many connotations term western culture readily apply shinto


unlike religions familiar western countries christianity islam shinto single founder single canonical text western religions tend stress exclusivity japan long considered acceptable practice different religious traditions simultaneously japanese religion therefore highly pluralistic shinto often cited alongside buddhism one japan 's two main religions two often differ focus buddhism emphasising idea transcending cosmos regards replete suffering shinto focuses adapting pragmatic requirements life shinto integrated elements


religious traditions imported japan mainland asia buddhism confucianism taoism chinese divination practices bears many similarities east asian religions particular belief many deities align left width em scholars religion debated classify shinto inoue considered part family east asian religions philosopher stuart b picken suggested shinto classed world religion historian h byron earhart called major religion early st century became increasingly common practitioners


call shinto nature religion also often described indigenous religion although generates debates various different definitions indigenous japanese context notion shinto japan 's indigenous religion stemmed growth modern nationalism edo period meiji era view promoted idea shinto 's origins prehistoric represented something like underlying japanese culture prominent shinto theologian sokyo ono instance said worship expression japanese native racial faith arose mystic


days remote antiquity indigenous people brought japanese nation existence many scholars regard classification inaccurate earhart noted shinto absorbed much chinese buddhist influence complex labelled simply indigenous religion substantial local variation shinto practiced anthropologist john k nelson noted unified monolithic entity single center system different types shinto identified shrine shinto refers practices centred around shrines


domestic shinto ways venerated home scholars used term folk shinto designate localised shinto practices practices outside institutionalised setting various eras past also state shinto shinto beliefs practices closely interlinked japanese state representing portmanteau term many varied traditions across japan term shinto similar term hinduism used describe varied traditions across south asia etymology torii gate takachiho gawara shrine near kirishima kagoshima prefecture


associated mythological tale ninigi mikoto 's descent earth term ''shinto'' often translated english way although meaning varied throughout japanese history terms sometimes used synonymously shinto include '''' way '''' also written way time immemorial '''' ancient way '''' great way '''' imperial way term ''shinto'' derives combination two chinese characters ' 'shen'' means spirit ' 'dao''


means way road path chinese term ''shendao'' originally adopted japanese ''jind '' possibly first used buddhist term refer non buddhist deities among earliest known appearances term ''shinto'' japan th century text ''nihon shoki'' may generic term popular belief alternatively reference taoism many taoist practices recently imported mainland asia early japanese uses word ''shinto'' apply distinct religious tradition anything uniquely japanese th century ''konjaku


monogatarishui'' instance refers woman china practicing ''shinto'' also people india worshipping indicating terms used describe religions outside japan medieval japan worship generally seen part japanese buddhism often interpreted buddhas point term ''shinto'' increasingly referred authority power activity short state attributes appears form texts '''' ''shint sh '' tales ''japanese portuguese dictionary''


''shinto'' defined referring matters pertaining term ''shinto'' became common th century late edo period scholars began using term ''shinto'' describe believed ancient enduring indigenous japanese tradition predated buddhism argued ''shinto'' used distinguish worship traditions like buddhism taoism confucianism use term ''shinto'' became increasingly popular th century term ''shinto'' commonly used since early th century superseded


term 'great religion' name japanese state religion beliefs kami inari appearing man shinto polytheistic involving veneration many deities known sometimes often case japanese distinction made singular plural hence term refers individual collective group although lacking direct english translation term sometimes rendered god spirit historian religion joseph kitagawa stated english translations


western ideas numinous sacred seen inhabit living dead organic inorganic matter natural disasters like earthquakes droughts plagues presence seen natural forces wind rain fire sunshine accordingly nelson commented shinto regards ''actual phenomena'' world divine shinto understanding also characterised animistic japan venerated since prehistory yayoi period regarded formless invisible


influence buddhism depicted anthropomorphically statues known usually associated specific place often one noted prominent feature landscape waterfall mountain large rock distinctive tree physical objects places believed presence termed objects inhabited placed shrine known objects commonly chosen purpose include mirrors swords stones beads inscribed tablets concealed view


relationship humans thus natural world localised may subject feelings intimacy familiarity members local community directed towards widespread like amaterasu particular community referred particular house deemed metaphysically different humanity possible humans become dead humans sometimes venerated kami regarded protector ancestral figures one prominent examples


emperor jin death enshrined hachiman believed protector japan war japanese culture ancestors viewed form western japan term used describe enshrined village founder cases living human beings also viewed called state shinto system meiji era emperor japan declared several shinto sects also viewed leaders


living year old sacred tree shintai takeo shrine although venerated single location others shrines devoted across many areas japan hachiman instance around shrines dedicated act establishing new shrine already one called dividing spirit part invited enter new place venerated instalment ceremony known new subsidiary shrine known individual


believed power diminished residence multiple locations limit number places enshrined periods fees charged right enshrine particular new place shrines necessarily always designed permanent structures many kami believed messengers known generally depicted taking animal forms messenger inari example depicted fox ''kitsune'' messenger hachiman dove shinto cosmology


also includes spirits cause malevolent acts include japanese folklore also incorporates belief unquiet vengeful spirits particularly died violently without appropriate funerary rites believed inflict suffering living meaning must pacified usually buddhist rites sometimes enshrining japanese supernatural figures include animal like creatures take human form cosmogony izanami mikoto izanagi mikoto kobayashi eitaku late th century origin


japan recounted two eighth century texts ''kojiki'' ''nihon shoki'' although accounts provide differ part drawing heavily chinese influence texts commissioned ruling elites legitimize consolidate rule although never great importance japanese religious life early th century government proclaimed accounts factual ''kojiki'' recounts universe started separation light pure elements heaven heavy elements earth three kami appeared amenominakanushi takamimusuhi mikoto kamimusuhi mikoto kami


entrance boulder izanagi bathed sea rid pollution brought witnessing izanami 's putrefaction act kami emerged body amaterasu sun born left eye tsukuyomi moon right eye susanoo storm nose susanoo behaved destructive manner escape amaterasu hid within cave plunging earth darkness eventually succeeded coaxing susanoo banished earth married children according


restless spirits died bad circumstances often seek revenge purity impurity key theme shinto avoidance ''kegare'' pollution impurity ensuring ''harae'' purity japanese thought humans seen fundamentally pure ''kegare'' therefore seen temporary condition corrected achieving ''harae'' rites purification conducted restore individual spiritual health render useful society shinto purification rite ceremonial children 's sumo tournament kamigamo jinja kyoto notion purity present


many facets japanese culture focus places bathing purification instance regarded important preparation planting season performers noh theatre undergo purification rite carry performances among things regarded particular pollutants shinto death disease witchcraft flaying alive animal incest bestiality excrement blood associated either menstruation childbirth avoid ''kegare'' priests practitioners may engage abstinence avoid various activities prior festival ritual various words termed ''imi kotoba'' also regarded


taboo people avoid speaking shrine include ' 'shi'' death ''by '' illness ' 'shishi'' meat purification ceremony known ''misogi'' involves use fresh water salt water salt remove ''kegare'' full immersion sea often regarded ancient efficacious form purification act links mythological tale izanagi immersed sea purify discovering deceased wife act kami sprang body alternative immersion beneath waterfall salt


often regarded purifying substance shinto practitioners instance sprinkle salt funeral running restaurants may put small pile salt outside business commences day fire also perceived source purification ''yaku barai'' form harae designed prevent misfortune ''oharae'' ceremony great purification often used end year purification rites conducted twice year many shrines meiji period rites purification generally performed onmy ji type diviner whose practices derived


chinese yin yang philosophy ''kannagara'' morality ethics shinto ''kannagara'' way kami describes law natural order ''wa'' benign harmony inherent things disrupting ''wa'' deemed bad contributing thought good subordination individual larger social unit long characteristic religion shinto incorporates morality tales myths overarching codified ethical doctrine offner noted shinto specified unified systematized code behaviour views ''kannagara'' influence certain ethical views focused sincerity ''makoto''


honesty ''tadashii'' ''makoto'' regarded cardinal virtue japanese religion broadly shinto sometimes includes reference four virtues known ''akaki kiyoki kokoro'' ' 'sei mei shin'' meaning purity cheerfulness heart linked state harae offner believed shinto ideas goodness linked possesses relates beauty brightness excellence good fortune nobility purity suitability harmony conformity productivity ''shojiki'' regarded virtue encompassing honesty uprightness veracity frankness shinto 's flexibility regarding morality ethics source frequent criticism especially


associations shinto still viewed suspiciously various civil liberties groups japan many japan 's neighbors actions priests yasukuni shrine tokyo generated controversy across east asia shinto priests may face various ethical conundrums instance priests suwa shrine nagasaki debated whether invite crew us navy vessel docked port city festival celebrations given sensitivities surrounding us use atomic bomb city cases priests opposed construction projects shrine owned


land sometimes putting odds interest groups kaminoseki early priest opposed sale shrine lands build nuclear power plant eventually pressured resign issue another issue considerable debate activities yasukuni shrine tokyo shrine devoted japan 's war dead enshrined men including hideki tojo declared class defendants tokyo war crimes trials generated domestic international condemnation particularly china korea st


century shinto increasingly portrayed nature centred spirituality environmentalist credentials shinto shrines increasingly emphasised preservation forests surrounding many several shrines collaborated local environmentalist campaigns international interreligious conference environmental sustainability held ise shrine attended united nations representatives around shinto priests critical commentators characterised presentation shinto environmentalist movement rhetorical ploy rather concerted effort shinto institutions become environmentally sustainable scholar aike p rots suggested repositioning shinto


nature religion may grown popularity means disassociating religion controversial issues related war memory imperial patronage practice shinto tends focus ritual behavior rather doctrine philosophers james w boyd ron g williams stated shinto first foremost ritual tradition picken observed shinto interested ''credenda'' ''agenda'' things believed things done scholar religion clark b offner stated shinto 's focus maintaining communal


ceremonial traditions purpose human communal well often difficult distinguish shinto practices japanese customs broadly picken observing worldview shinto provided principal source self understanding within japanese way life nelson stated shinto based orientations values lie core japanese culture society character shrines main gate fushimi inari taisha kyoto one oldest shrines japan public spaces kami worshipped often known generic term ''jinja'' kami place term applies location


rather specific building ''jinja'' usually translated shrine english although earlier literature sometimes translated temple term commonly reserved japan 's buddhist structures around public shrines japan affiliated association shinto shrines another unaffiliated found country isolated rural areas dense metropolitan ones specific terms sometimes used certain shrines depending function grand shrines imperial associations termed ''jing '' devoted war