spinach leaf extract shows various pigments present chloroplasts px div div style position absolute width px font size line height margin px plants make various photosynthetic pigments seen paper chromatography div div style position absolute width px left font size line height text align center top px span style color e c '''xanthophylls''' span div div style position absolute width px left font size line height text align center top px span style color bb '''chlorophyll ''a''''' span div div style position absolute width px left font size line height text align center top px span style color bb '''chlorophyll ''b''''' span div div plants various groups photosynthetic eukaryotes collectively known algae unique organelles known chloroplasts chloroplasts thought descended cyanobacteria formed endosymbiotic relationships ancient


plant algal ancestors chloroplasts cyanobacteria contain blue green pigment chlorophyll ''a'' chlorophyll ''a'' well plant green algal specific cousin chlorophyll ''b'' absorbs light blue violet orange red parts spectrum reflecting transmitting green light see characteristic colour organisms energy red blue light pigments absorb used chloroplasts make energy rich carbon compounds carbon dioxide water oxygenic photosynthesis process generates molecular oxygen sub sub product light energy captured chlorophyll ''a''


initially form electrons later proton gradient 's used make molecules atp nadph temporarily store transport energy energy used light independent reactions calvin cycle enzyme rubisco produce molecules carbon sugar glyceraldehyde phosphate g p glyceraldehyde phosphate first product photosynthesis raw material glucose almost organic molecules biological origin synthesised glucose converted starch stored chloroplast starch characteristic energy store


outer cell walls spores pollen land plants responsible survival early land plant spores pollen seed plants fossil record widely regarded marker start land plant evolution ordovician period concentration carbon dioxide atmosphere today much lower plants emerged onto land ordovician silurian periods many monocots like maize pineapple dicots like asteraceae since independently evolved pathways like crassulacean acid metabolism


carbon fixation pathway photosynthesis avoid losses resulting photorespiration common carbon fixation pathway biochemical strategies unique land plants medicine materials phytochemistry branch plant biochemistry primarily concerned chemical substances produced plants secondary metabolism compounds toxins alkaloid coniine hemlock others essential oils peppermint oil lemon oil useful aroma flavourings spices eg capsaicin medicine pharmaceuticals opium opium poppies many medicinal


sake grapes wine native americans used various plants ways treating illness disease thousands years knowledge native americans plants recorded enthnobotanists turn used pharmaceutical companies way drug discovery plants synthesise useful coloured dyes pigments anthocyanins responsible red colour red wine yellow weld blue woad used together produce lincoln green indoxyl source blue dye indigo traditionally used dye denim artist 's pigments gamboge rose madder


wallpaper paste biobutanol gun cotton sugarcane rapeseed soy plants highly fermentable sugar oil content used sources biofuels important alternatives fossil fuels biodiesel sweetgrass used native americans ward bugs like mosquitoes ref name ref bug repelling properties sweetgrass later found american chemical society molecules phytol coumarin ref name plant ecology nodules ''medicago italica'' contain nitrogen fixing bacterium ''sinorhizobium meliloti'' plant provides bacteria nutrients anaerobic environment


changed time ref name teachethnobotany goals plant ecology understand causes distribution patterns productivity environmental impact evolution responses environmental change plants depend certain edaphic soil climatic factors environment modify factors example change environment 's albedo increase runoff interception stabilise mineral soils develop organic content affect local temperature plants compete organisms ecosystem resources interact neighbours variety spatial scales groups populations communities collectively constitute vegetation


environmental change plant responses climate environmental changes inform understanding changes affect ecosystem function productivity example plant phenology useful proxy temperature historical climatology biological impact climate change global warming palynology analysis fossil pollen deposits sediments thousands millions years ago allows reconstruction past climates estimates atmospheric concentrations since palaeozoic obtained stomatal densities leaf shapes sizes ancient land plants ozone depletion expose plants


higher levels ultraviolet radiation b uv b resulting lower growth rates moreover information studies community ecology plant systematics taxonomy essential understanding vegetation change habitat destruction species extinction genetics inheritance plants follows fundamental principles genetics multicellular organisms gregor mendel discovered genetic laws inheritance studying inherited traits shape ''pisum sativum'' peas mendel learned studying plants far reaching benefits outside botany similarly jumping genes discovered barbara mcclintock studying maize nevertheless


allopolyploid plant may result hybridisation event two different species autopolyploid allopolyploid plants often reproduce normally may unable cross breed successfully parent population mismatch chromosome numbers plants reproductively isolated parent species live within geographical area may sufficiently successful form new species otherwise sterile plant polyploids still reproduce vegetatively seed apomixis forming clonal populations identical individuals durum wheat fertile tetraploid allopolyploid bread wheat fertile hexaploid


commercial banana example sterile seedless triploid hybrid common dandelion triploid produces viable seeds apomictic seed eukaryotes inheritance endosymbiotic organelles like mitochondria chloroplasts plants non mendelian chloroplasts inherited male parent gymnosperms often female parent flowering plants molecular genetics thale cress ''arabidopsis thaliana'' first plant genome sequenced remains important model organism considerable amount new knowledge plant function comes studies molecular genetics model plants


study plant cell biology ''agrobacterium tumefaciens'' soil rhizosphere bacterium attach plant cells infect callus inducing ti plasmid horizontal gene transfer causing callus infection called crown gall disease schell van montagu hypothesised ti plasmid could natural vector introducing nif gene responsible nitrogen fixation root nodules legumes plant species today genetic modification ti plasmid one main techniques introduction transgenes plants creation genetically modified crops epigenetics epigenetics


study heritable changes gene function cannot explained changes underlying dna sequence cause organism 's genes behave express differently one example epigenetic change marking genes dna methylation determines whether expressed gene expression also controlled repressor proteins attach silencer regions dna prevent region dna code expressed epigenetic marks may added removed dna programmed stages development plant


responsible example differences anthers petals normal leaves despite fact underlying genetic code epigenetic changes may temporary may remain successive cell divisions remainder cell 's life epigenetic changes shown heritable others reset germ cells epigenetic changes eukaryotic biology serve regulate process cellular differentiation morphogenesis totipotent stem cells become various pluripotent cell lines embryo turn become fully differentiated cells single fertilised egg


cell zygote gives rise many different plant cell types including parenchyma xylem vessel elements phloem sieve tubes guard cells epidermis etc continues divide process results epigenetic activation genes inhibition others unlike animals many plant cells particularly parenchyma terminally differentiate remaining totipotent ability give rise new individual plant exceptions include highly lignified cells sclerenchyma xylem dead maturity phloem sieve tubes lack nuclei plants use many


epigenetic mechanisms animals chromatin remodelling alternative hypothesis plants set gene expression patterns using positional information environment surrounding cells determine developmental fate epigenetic changes lead paramutations follow mendelian heritage rules epigenetic marks carried one generation next one allele inducing change plant evolution transverse section fossil stem devonian vascular plant ''rhynia gwynne vaughani'' chloroplasts plants number biochemical structural genetic similarities cyanobacteria


monophyletic group clade streptophytina nonvascular land plants embryophytes lack vascular tissues xylem phloem include mosses liverworts hornworts pteridophytic vascular plants true xylem phloem reproduced spores germinating free living gametophytes evolved silurian period diversified several lineages late silurian early devonian representatives lycopods survived present day end devonian period several groups including lycopods sphenophylls progymnosperms independently evolved megaspory spores two distinct sizes larger megaspores smaller microspores


reduced gametophytes developed megaspores retained within spore producing organs megasporangia sporophyte condition known endospory seeds consist endosporic megasporangium surrounded one two sheathing layers integuments young sporophyte develops within seed germination splits release earliest known seed plants date latest devonian famennian stage following evolution seed habit seed plants diversified giving rise number extinct groups including seed ferns well modern gymnosperms angiosperms gymnosperms produce naked seeds fully enclosed ovary modern representatives


include conifers cycads ''ginkgo'' gnetales angiosperms produce seeds enclosed structure carpel ovary ongoing research molecular phylogenetics living plants appears show angiosperms sister clade gymnosperms plant physiology five key areas study within plant physiology plant physiology encompasses internal chemical physical activities plants associated life chemicals obtained air soil water form basis plant metabolism energy sunlight captured oxygenic photosynthesis released cellular respiration


basis almost life photoautotrophs including green plants algae cyanobacteria gather energy directly sunlight photosynthesis heterotrophs including animals fungi completely parasitic plants non photosynthetic bacteria take organic molecules produced photoautotrophs respire use construction cells tissues respiration oxidation carbon compounds breaking simpler structures release energy contain essentially opposite photosynthesis molecules moved within plants transport processes operate variety spatial scales subcellular transport ions electrons


molecules water enzymes occurs across cell membranes minerals water transported roots parts plant transpiration stream diffusion osmosis active transport mass flow different ways transport occur examples elements plants need transport nitrogen phosphorus potassium calcium magnesium sulfur vascular plants elements extracted soil soluble ions roots transported throughout plant xylem elements required plant nutrition come chemical breakdown soil minerals


sucrose produced photosynthesis transported leaves parts plant phloem plant hormones transported variety processes plant hormones ''' ''' oat coleoptile sun overhead auxin pink evenly distributed tip br ''' ''' sun angle shining one side shoot auxin moves opposite side stimulates cell elongation br ''' ''' ''' ''' extra growth side causes shoot bend towards sun plants passive respond


external signals light touch injury moving growing towards away stimulus appropriate tangible evidence touch sensitivity almost instantaneous collapse leaflets ''mimosa pudica'' insect traps venus flytrap bladderworts pollinia orchids hypothesis plant growth development coordinated plant hormones plant growth regulators first emerged late th century darwin experimented movements plant shoots roots towards light gravity concluded hardly exaggeration say tip radicle


acts like brain one lower animals directing several movements time role auxins greek grow control plant growth first outlined dutch scientist frits went first known auxin indole acetic acid iaa promotes cell growth isolated plants years later compound mediates tropic responses shoots roots towards light gravity finding plant callus could maintained culture containing iaa followed observation


gibberelins gibberelic acid diterpenes synthesised acetyl coa via mevalonate pathway involved promotion germination dormancy breaking seeds regulation plant height controlling stem elongation control flowering abscisic acid aba occurs land plants except liverworts synthesised carotenoids chloroplasts plastids inhibits cell division promotes seed maturation dormancy promotes stomatal closure named originally thought control abscission ethylene gaseous hormone produced higher plant tissues


methionine known hormone stimulates regulates fruit ripening abscission synthetic growth regulator ethephon rapidly metabolised produce ethylene used industrial scale promote ripening cotton pineapples climacteric crops another class phytohormones jasmonates first isolated oil ''jasminum grandiflorum'' regulates wound responses plants unblocking expression genes required systemic acquired resistance response pathogen attack addition primary energy source plants light functions signalling


device providing information plant much sunlight plant receives day result adaptive changes process known photomorphogenesis phytochromes photoreceptors plant sensitive light plant anatomy morphology nineteenth century illustration showing morphology roots stems leaves flowers rice plant ''oryza sativa'' plant anatomy study structure plant cells tissues whereas plant morphology study external form plants multicellular eukaryotes dna stored nuclei characteristic


features plant cells distinguish animals fungi include primary cell wall composed polysaccharides cellulose hemicellulose pectin larger vacuoles animal cells presence plastids unique photosynthetic biosynthetic functions chloroplasts plastids contain storage products starch amyloplasts lipids elaioplasts uniquely streptophyte cells green algal order trentepohliales divide construction phragmoplast template building cell plate late cell division plant actually looks exactly like though px left bottom triangle bodies


plant single leaf case plants ''streptocarpus'' sect ''saintpaulia'' even single cell dedifferentiate callus mass unspecialised cells grow new plant vascular plants xylem phloem conductive tissues transport resources shoots roots roots often adapted store food sugars starch sugar beets carrots stems mainly provide support leaves reproductive structures store water succulent plants cacti food potato tubers


reproduce vegetatively stolons strawberry plants process layering leaves gather sunlight carry photosynthesis large flat flexible green leaves called foliage leaves gymnosperms conifers cycads ''ginkgo'' gnetophytes seed producing plants open seeds angiosperms seed producing plants produce flowers enclosed seeds woody plants azaleas oaks undergo secondary growth phase resulting two additional types tissues wood secondary xylem bark secondary phloem cork gymnosperms many angiosperms woody plants plants reproduce sexually asexually


via means although reference major morphological categories root stem leaf trichome useful one keep mind categories linked intermediate forms continuum categories results furthermore structures seen processes process combinations systematic botany botanist preparing plant specimen mounting herbarium systematic botany part systematic biology concerned range diversity organisms relationships particularly determined evolutionary history involves related


biological classification scientific taxonomy phylogenetics biological classification method botanists group organisms categories genera species biological classification form scientific taxonomy modern taxonomy rooted work carl linnaeus grouped species according shared physical characteristics groupings since revised align better darwinian principle common descent grouping organisms ancestry rather superficial characteristics scientists always agree classify organisms molecular phylogenetics uses dna sequences data driven many recent revisions along evolutionary


lines likely continue dominant classification system called linnaean taxonomy includes ranks binomial nomenclature nomenclature botanical organisms codified international code nomenclature algae fungi plants icn administered international botanical congress kingdom plantae belongs domain eukarya broken recursively species separately classified order kingdom phylum division class order family genus plural ''genera'' species scientific name plant represents genus species within genus resulting single worldwide


name organism example tiger lily ''lilium columbianum'' ''lilium'' genus ''columbianum'' specific epithet combination name species writing scientific name organism proper capitalise first letter genus put specific epithet lowercase additionally entire term ordinarily italicised underlined italics available evolutionary relationships heredity group organisms called phylogeny phylogenetic studies attempt discover phylogenies basic approach use similarities based


shared inheritance determine relationships example species ''pereskia'' trees bushes prominent leaves obviously resemble typical leafless cactus ''echinocactus'' however ''pereskia'' ''echinocactus'' spines produced areoles highly specialised pad like structures suggesting two genera indeed related judging relationships based shared characters requires care since plants may resemble one another convergent evolution characters arisen independently euphorbias leafless rounded bodies adapted water conservation similar globular cacti characters structure


flowers make clear two groups closely related cladistic method takes systematic approach characters distinguishing carry information shared evolutionary history evolved separately different groups homoplasies left ancestors plesiomorphies derived characters passed innovations shared ancestor apomorphies derived characters spine producing areoles cacti provide evidence descent common ancestor results cladistic analyses expressed cladograms tree like diagrams showing pattern evolutionary branching


descent onwards predominant approach constructing phylogenies living plants molecular phylogenetics uses molecular characters particularly dna sequences rather morphological characters like presence absence spines areoles difference genetic code used decide evolutionary relationships instead used indirectly via characters gives rise clive stace describes direct access genetic basis evolution simple example prior use genetic evidence fungi thought either plants


closely related plants animals genetic evidence suggests true evolutionary relationship multicelled organisms shown cladogram fungi closely related animals plants div style float left margin right px div angiosperm phylogeny group published phylogeny flowering plants based analysis dna sequences families flowering plants result work many questions families represent earliest branches angiosperms answered investigating plant species related


chapman first jasmin last horsfall first peter last o'brien first pat last murphy first jan last macdonald first averil title science web year publisher nelson thornes location cheltenham uk isbn title update angiosperm phylogeny group classification orders families flowering plants apg ii year last chase first mark w journal botanical journal


linnean society volume pages url http ktriopbiougedupl upload preview f c bdcb f defaa c dpdf last bremer first birgitta last bremer first k last reveal first james l last soltis first douglas e last soltis first pamela last stevens first peter doi j x issue doi access free http wwwpnasorg cgi content full dc supporting information last woese first cr last magrum first last fox


first lj last wolfe first ge last woese first rs title ancient divergence among bacteria journal journal molecular evolution volume pages issue date august pmid doi bf bibcode jmole b cid author arabidopsis genome initiative title analysis genome sequence flowering plant arabidopsis thaliana journal nature year volume doi pmid issue pages bibcode natur doi access free url http wwwplant hormonesinfo auxinshtm title


auxins publisher plant hormones long ashton research station biotechnology biological sciences research council access date july url https wwwncbinlmnihgov primer genetics cellhtml title basic introduction science underlying ncbi resources date march publisher national center biotechnology information access date march url http wwwetymonlinecom indexphpallowed frame search botany searchmode none title botany dictionary online etymology dictionary year access date february url http wwwmuseumwalesacuk en article id archive url https archivetoday http wwwmuseumwalesacuk en article id url status dead archive date june


title early herbals german fathers botany publisher national museum wales date july access date february url https wwwnsfgov od nms recip detailscfmrecip id title katherine esau publisher national science foundation year access date june url http wwwbotanyorg bsa millen mil chp html evolution title evolution diversity botany next millennium intellectual evolution development ecosystems publisher botanical society america access date june url http wwwummedu altmed articles herbal medicine htm title herbal medicine publisher university maryland medical center archive url


https webarchiveorg web http wwwummedu altmed articles herbal medicine htm access date march archive date url https wwwcmnhorg discover science paleobotany paleoecology title paleobotany publisher cleveland museum natural history access date july url http phymapucdavisedu brachypodium phymapintrojsp archive url https webarchiveorg web http phymapucdavisedu brachypodium phymapintrojsp url status dead archive date august title physical map ''brachypodium'' publisher university california davis access date february url http wwwmbgnetnet bioplants earthhtml title plants life earth publisher missouri botanical garden year access date march


sequence analysis information map human x chromosome national center biotechnology information website '''bioinformatics''' interdisciplinary field develops methods software tools understanding biological data particular data sets large complex interdisciplinary field science bioinformatics combines biology chemistry physics computer science information engineering mathematics statistics analyze interpret biological data bioinformatics used ''in silico'' analyses biological queries using mathematical statistical techniques bioinformatics includes biological studies use computer programming part methodology


well specific analysis pipelines repeatedly used particularly field genomics common uses bioinformatics include identification candidates genes single nucleotide polymorphisms snps often identification made aim better understand genetic basis disease unique adaptations desirable properties esp agricultural species differences populations less formal way bioinformatics also tries understand organizational principles within nucleic acid protein sequences called proteomics overview bioinformatics become important part many areas biology experimental molecular biology bioinformatics techniques


image signal processing allow extraction useful results large amounts raw data field genetics aids sequencing annotating genomes observed mutations plays role text mining biological literature development biological gene ontologies organize query biological data also plays role analysis gene protein expression regulation bioinformatics tools aid comparing analyzing interpreting genetic genomic data generally understanding evolutionary aspects molecular biology integrative


level helps analyze catalogue biological pathways networks important part systems biology structural biology aids simulation modeling dna ref name ref rna ref name proteins well biomolecular interactions history historically term ''bioinformatics'' mean means today paulien hogeweg ben hesper coined refer study information processes biotic systems ref name hogeweg ref definition placed bioinformatics field parallel biochemistry study chemical processes biological systems ref name hogeweg bioinformatics played one


important role covid playing crucial role production vaccine much advancement ngs technologies sequences sequences genetic material frequently used bioinformatics easier manage using computers manually tremendous advance speed cost reduction since completion human genome project labs able sequence billion bases year full genome sequenced thousand dollars computers became essential molecular biology protein sequences became available frederick


sanger determined sequence insulin early comparing multiple sequences manually turned impractical pioneer field margaret oakley dayhoff compiled one first protein sequence databases initially published books pioneered methods sequence alignment molecular evolution ref name pmid ref another early contributor bioinformatics elvin kabat pioneered biological sequence analysis comprehensive volumes antibody sequences released tai te wu new techniques sequencing dna applied bacteriophage ms x


extended nucleotide sequences parsed informational statistical algorithms studies illustrated well known features coding segments triplet code revealed straightforward statistical analyses thus proof concept bioinformatics would insightful goals study normal cellular activities altered different disease states biological data must combined form comprehensive picture activities therefore field bioinformatics evolved pressing task involves analysis interpretation various types data also includes


science field similar distinct biological computation often considered synonymous computational biology biological computation uses bioengineering biology build biological computers whereas bioinformatics uses computation better understand biology bioinformatics computational biology involve analysis biological data particularly dna rna protein sequences field bioinformatics experienced explosive growth starting mid driven largely human genome project rapid advances dna sequencing technology analyzing biological data produce meaningful information involves writing running software programs use algorithms graph theory artificial


intelligence soft computing data mining image processing computer simulation algorithms turn depend theoretical foundations discrete mathematics control theory system theory information theory statistics sequence analysis since phage x sequenced ref name pmid ref dna sequences thousands organisms decoded stored databases sequence information analyzed determine genes encode proteins rna genes regulatory sequences structural motifs repetitive sequences comparison genes within species different species show similarities protein functions relations species use molecular


systematics construct phylogenetic trees growing amount data long ago became impractical analyze dna sequences manually computer programs blast used routinely search sequences organisms containing billion nucleotides ref name pmid ref dna sequencing sequences analyzed obtained data storage bank example genbank dna sequencing still non trivial problem raw data may noisy afflicted weak signals algorithms developed base calling various experimental approaches dna sequencing sequence


assembly dna sequencing techniques produce short fragments sequence need assembled obtain complete gene genome sequences called shotgun sequencing technique used example institute genomic research tigr sequence first bacterial genome ''haemophilus influenzae'' ref name pmid ref generates sequences many thousands small dna fragments ranging nucleotides long depending sequencing technology ends fragments overlap aligned properly genome assembly program used reconstruct complete genome shotgun sequencing yields sequence data quickly


task assembling fragments quite complicated larger genomes genome large human genome may take many days cpu time large memory multiprocessor computers assemble fragments resulting assembly usually contains numerous gaps must filled later shotgun sequencing method choice virtually genomes sequenced today genome assembly algorithms critical area bioinformatics research genome annotation context genomics annotation process marking genes biological features dna sequence


free living organism bacterium ''haemophilus influenzae'' ref name pmid owen white designed built software system identify genes encoding proteins transfer rnas ribosomal rnas sites make initial functional assignments current genome annotation systems work similarly programs available analysis genomic dna genemark program trained used find protein coding genes ''haemophilus influenzae'' constantly changing improving following goals human genome project left achieve closure new project developed national human genome research institute


correspondence genes orthology analysis genomic features different organisms intergenomic maps make possible trace evolutionary processes responsible divergence two genomes multitude evolutionary events acting various organizational levels shape genome evolution lowest level point mutations affect individual nucleotides higher level large chromosomal segments undergo duplication lateral transfer inversion transposition deletion insertion ultimately whole genomes involved processes hybridization polyploidization endosymbiosis often leading rapid speciation complexity genome evolution poses many exciting challenges developers


mathematical models algorithms recourse spectrum algorithmic statistical mathematical techniques ranging exact heuristics fixed parameter approximation algorithms problems based parsimony models markov chain monte carlo algorithms bayesian analysis problems based probabilistic models many studies based detection sequence homology assign sequences protein families pan genomics pan genomics concept introduced tettelin medini eventually took root bioinformatics pan genome complete gene repertoire particular taxonomic group although initially applied


closely related strains species applied larger context like genus phylum etc divided two parts core genome set genes common genomes study often housekeeping genes vital survival dispensable flexible genome set genes present one genomes study bioinformatics tool bpga used characterize pan genome bacterial species genetics disease advent next generation sequencing obtaining enough sequence data map genes complex


diseases infertility ref name demerec ref breast cancer ref name v ron ref alzheimer 's disease ref name tosto ref genome wide association studies useful approach pinpoint mutations responsible complex diseases ref name londin ref studies thousands dna variants identified associated similar diseases traits furthermore possibility genes used prognosis diagnosis treatment one essential applications many studies discussing promising ways choose genes used problems pitfalls using genes predict disease presence prognosis analysis mutations cancer


cancer genomes affected cells rearranged complex even unpredictable ways massive sequencing efforts used identify previously unknown point mutations variety genes cancer bioinformaticians continue produce specialized automated systems manage sheer volume sequence data produced create new algorithms software compare sequencing results growing collection human genome sequences germline polymorphisms new physical detection technologies employed oligonucleotide microarrays identify chromosomal gains losses called comparative genomic hybridization single nucleotide polymorphism arrays detect known ''point mutations''


detection methods simultaneously measure several hundred thousand sites throughout genome used high throughput measure thousands samples generate terabytes data per experiment massive amounts new types data generate new opportunities bioinformaticians data often found contain considerable variability noise thus hidden markov model change point analysis methods developed infer real copy number changes two important principles used analysis cancer genomes bioinformatically pertaining identification mutations exome first cancer disease accumulated


separate signal noise high throughput gene expression studies studies often used determine genes implicated disorder one might compare microarray data cancerous epithelial cells data non cancerous cells determine transcripts regulated regulated particular population cancer cells analysis protein expression protein microarrays high throughput ht mass spectrometry ms provide snapshot proteins present biological sample bioinformatics much involved making sense protein microarray ht ms data former approach faces similar problems


microarrays targeted mrna latter involves problem matching large amounts mass data predicted masses protein sequence databases complicated statistical analysis samples multiple incomplete peptides protein detected cellular protein localization tissue context achieved affinity proteomics displayed spatial data based immunohistochemistry tissue microarrays analysis regulation gene regulation complex orchestration events signal potentially extracellular signal hormone eventually leads increase decrease activity one


proteins bioinformatics techniques applied explore various steps process example gene expression regulated nearby elements genome promoter analysis involves identification study sequence motifs dna surrounding coding region gene motifs influence extent region transcribed mrna enhancer elements far away promoter also regulate gene expression three dimensional looping interactions interactions determined bioinformatic analysis chromosome conformation capture experiments expression data used infer gene regulation one might


compare microarray data wide variety states organism form hypotheses genes involved state single cell organism one might compare stages cell cycle along various stress conditions heat shock starvation etc one apply clustering algorithms expression data determine genes co expressed example upstream regions promoters co expressed genes searched represented regulatory elements examples clustering algorithms applied gene clustering k means clustering self organizing maps soms hierarchical clustering consensus clustering methods analysis cellular organization several


approaches developed analyze location organelles genes proteins components within cells relevant location components affects events within cell thus helps us predict behavior biological systems gene ontology category ''cellular component'' devised capture subcellular localization many biological databases microscopy image analysis microscopic pictures allow us locate organelles well molecules may also help us distinguish normal abnormal cells eg cancer protein localization localization proteins helps us


evaluate role protein instance protein found nucleus may involved gene regulation splicing contrast protein found mitochondria may involved respiration metabolic processes protein localization thus important component protein function prediction well developed protein subcellular localization prediction resources available including protein subcellular location databases prediction tools nuclear organization chromatin data high throughput chromosome conformation capture experiments hi c experiment chia pet provide information spatial proximity dna loci


analysis experiments determine three dimensional structure nuclear organization chromatin bioinformatic challenges field include partitioning genome domains topologically associating domains tads organised together three dimensional space structural bioinformatics dimensional protein structures one common subjects bioinformatic analyses protein structure prediction another important application bioinformatics amino acid sequence protein called primary structure easily determined sequence gene codes vast majority cases primary structure uniquely determines structure


native environment course exceptions bovine spongiform encephalopathy mad cow disease prion knowledge structure vital understanding function protein structural information usually classified one ' 'secondary'' ''tertiary'' ''quaternary'' structure viable general solution predictions remains open problem efforts far directed towards heuristics work time one key ideas bioinformatics notion homology genomic branch bioinformatics homology used predict function gene


sequence gene ''a'' whose function known homologous sequence gene ''b'' whose function unknown one could infer b may share 's function structural branch bioinformatics homology used determine parts protein important structure formation interaction proteins technique called homology modeling information used predict structure protein structure homologous protein known currently remains way predict protein structures reliably one example hemoglobin


humans hemoglobin legumes leghemoglobin distant relatives protein superfamily serve purpose transporting oxygen organism although proteins completely different amino acid sequences protein structures virtually identical reflects near identical purposes shared ancestor techniques predicting protein structure include protein threading ' 'de novo'' scratch physics based modeling another aspect structural bioinformatics include use protein structures virtual screening models quantitative structure activity relationship models proteochemometric models pcm furthermore protein 's crystal structure


used simulation example ligand binding studies ''in silico'' mutagenesis studies network systems biology ''network analysis'' seeks understand relationships within biological networks metabolic protein protein interaction networks although biological networks constructed single type molecule entity genes network biology often attempts integrate many different data types proteins small molecules gene expression data others connected physically functionally ''systems biology'' involves use computer simulations cellular subsystems networks metabolites enzymes


comprise metabolism signal transduction pathways gene regulatory networks analyze visualize complex connections cellular processes artificial life virtual evolution attempts understand evolutionary processes via computer simulation simple artificial life forms molecular interaction networks interactions proteins frequently visualized analyzed using networks network made protein protein interactions ''treponema pallidum'' causative agent syphilis diseases tens thousands three dimensional protein structures determined x ray crystallography protein nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy protein nmr central question structural bioinformatics


whether practical predict possible protein protein interactions based shapes without performing protein protein interaction experiments variety methods developed tackle protein protein docking problem though seems still much work done field interactions encountered field include protein ligand including drug protein peptide molecular dynamic simulation movement atoms rotatable bonds fundamental principle behind computational algorithms termed docking algorithms studying molecular interactions others literature analysis growth number published literature makes virtually impossible


read every paper resulting disjointed sub fields research literature analysis aims employ computational statistical linguistics mine growing library text resources example abbreviation recognition identify long form abbreviation biological terms named entity recognition recognizing biological terms gene names protein protein interaction identify proteins interact proteins text area research draws statistics computational linguistics high throughput image analysis computational technologies used accelerate fully automate processing quantification analysis large amounts high information content biomedical imagery modern image analysis systems


augment observer 's ability make measurements large complex set images improving accuracy objectivity speed fully developed analysis system may completely replace observer although systems unique biomedical imagery biomedical imaging becoming important diagnostics research examples high throughput high fidelity quantification sub cellular localization high content screening cytohistopathology bioimage informatics morphometrics clinical image analysis visualization determining real time air flow patterns breathing lungs living animals quantifying occlusion size real time imagery development recovery arterial injury making behavioral


observations extended video recordings laboratory animals infrared measurements metabolic activity determination inferring clone overlaps dna mapping eg sulston score high throughput single cell data analysis computational techniques used analyse high throughput low measurement single cell data obtained flow cytometry methods typically involve finding populations cells relevant particular disease state experimental condition biodiversity informatics biodiversity informatics deals collection analysis biodiversity data taxonomic databases microbiome data examples analyses include phylogenetics niche modelling species richness mapping dna barcoding


new algorithms analysis emerging types biological readouts potential innovative ''in silico'' experiments freely available open code bases helped create opportunities research groups contribute bioinformatics range open source software available regardless funding arrangements open source tools often act incubators ideas community supported plug ins commercial applications may also provide ' 'de facto'' standards shared object models assisting challenge bioinformation integration range open source software packages includes titles bioconductor bioperl biopython biojava


one computer one part world use algorithms data computing resources servers parts world main advantages derive fact end users deal software database maintenance overheads basic bioinformatics services classified ebi three categories sss sequence search services msa multiple sequence alignment bsa biological sequence analysis availability service oriented bioinformatics resources demonstrate applicability web based bioinformatics solutions range collection standalone tools common data format single standalone


web based interface integrative distributed extensible bioinformatics workflow management systems bioinformatics workflow management systems bioinformatics workflow management system specialized form workflow management system designed specifically compose execute series computational data manipulation steps workflow bioinformatics application systems designed provide easy use environment individual application scientists create workflows provide interactive tools scientists enabling execute workflows view results real time simplify process sharing reusing workflows scientists


enable scientists track provenance workflow execution results workflow creation steps platforms giving service galaxy kepler taverna ugene anduril hive biocompute biocompute objects us food drug administration sponsored conference held national institutes health bethesda campus discuss reproducibility bioinformatics next three years consortium stakeholders met regularly discuss would become biocompute paradigm stakeholders included representatives government industry academic entities session leaders represented numerous branches fda nih institutes


accessible regulatory staff group reconvened nih bethesda discussed potential biocompute object instance biocompute paradigm work copied standard trial use document preprint paper uploaded biorxiv biocompute object allows json ized record shared among employees collaborators regulators education platforms software platforms designed teach bioinformatics concepts methods include rosalind online courses offered swiss institute bioinformatics training portal canadian bioinformatics workshops provides videos slides training workshops


sciences xseries harvard university southern california offers http dtguscedu site indexphp bioinformatics masters translational bioinformatics focusing biomedical applications conferences several large conferences concerned bioinformatics notable examples intelligent systems molecular biology ismb european conference computational biology eccb research computational molecular biology recomb see also references reading sehgal et al structural phylogenetic docking studies amino acid oxidase activator daoa candidate schizophrenia gene theoretical biology medical modelling raul isea http gjarorg publishpaper vol issue r pdf present day meaning


word bioinformatics global journal advanced research achuthsankar nair http printachuthgooglepagescom binftutorialv csi pdf computational biology bioinformatics gentle overview communications computer society india january aluru srinivas ed ''handbook computational molecular biology'' chapman hall crc chapman hall crc computer information science series baldi p brunak ''bioinformatics machine learning approach'' nd edition mit press barnes mr gray ic eds ''bioinformatics geneticists'' first edition wiley baxevanis ad ouellette bff eds ''bioinformatics practical guide analysis genes proteins'' third edition wiley


baxevanis ad petsko ga stein ld stormo gd eds ''current protocols bioinformatics'' wiley cristianini n hahn http wwwcomputational genomicsnet ''introduction computational genomics'' cambridge university press durbin r eddy krogh g mitchison ''biological sequence analysis'' cambridge university press keedwell e ''intelligent bioinformatics application artificial intelligence techniques bioinformatics problems'' wiley kohane et al ''microarrays integrative genomics'' mit press lund et al ''immunological bioinformatics'' mit press pachter lior sturmfels bernd algebraic statistics computational biology cambridge university press pevzner


pavel ''computational molecular biology algorithmic approach'' mit press soinov l http jprrorg indexphp jprr article view bioinformatics pattern recognition come together journal pattern recognition research http wwwjprrorg jprr vol p nbsp stevens hallam ''life sequence data driven history bioinformatics'' chicago university chicago press tisdall james beginning perl bioinformatics o'reilly http wwwnapedu catalog html catalyzing inquiry interface computing biology cstb report http wwwnapedu catalog html calculating secrets life contributions mathematical sciences computing molecular biology https webarchiveorg web http ocwmitedu ocwweb biology jspring lecturenotes indexhtm foundations computational systems biology mit course http compbiomitedu computational


biology genomes networks evolution free mit course external links http expasyorg bioinformatics resource portal sib


insulin crystals '''biotechnology''' broad area biology involving use living systems organisms develop make products depending tools applications often overlaps related scientific fields late th early st centuries biotechnology expanded include new diverse sciences genomics recombinant gene techniques applied immunology development pharmaceutical therapies diagnostic tests term ''biotechnology'' first used karl ereky meaning production products raw materials aid living organisms definition concept biotechnology encompasses


wide range procedures modifying living organisms according human purposes going back domestication animals cultivation plants improvements breeding programs employ artificial selection hybridization modern usage also includes genetic engineering well cell tissue culture technologies american chemical society defines biotechnology application biological organisms systems processes various industries learning science life improvement value materials organisms pharmaceuticals crops livestock per european federation biotechnology biotechnology


integration natural science organisms cells parts thereof molecular analogues products services biotechnology based basic biological sciences eg molecular biology biochemistry cell biology embryology genetics microbiology conversely provides methods support perform basic research biology biotechnology research development laboratory using bioinformatics exploration extraction exploitation production living organisms source biomass means biochemical engineering high value added products could planned reproduced biosynthesis example forecasted formulated developed manufactured marketed purpose sustainable operations


return bottomless initial investment r gaining durable patents rights exclusives rights sales prior receive national international approval results animal experiment human experiment especially pharmaceutical branch biotechnology prevent undetected side effects safety concerns using products utilization biological processes organisms systems produce products anticipated improve human lives termed biotechnology contrast bioengineering generally thought related field heavily emphasizes higher systems approaches necessarily


altering using biological materials ' 'directly'' interfacing utilizing living things bioengineering application principles engineering natural sciences tissues cells molecules considered use knowledge working manipulating biology achieve result improve functions plants animals relatedly biomedical engineering overlapping field often draws upon applies ''biotechnology'' various definitions especially certain sub fields biomedical chemical engineering tissue engineering biopharmaceutical engineering genetic engineering history brewing early application


biotechnology although normally first comes mind many forms human derived agriculture clearly fit broad definition 'utilizing biotechnological system make products indeed cultivation plants may viewed earliest biotechnological enterprise agriculture theorized become dominant way producing food since neolithic revolution early biotechnology earliest farmers selected bred best suited crops highest yields produce enough food support growing population crops fields became increasingly large difficult maintain discovered specific organisms


products could effectively fertilize restore nitrogen control pests throughout history agriculture farmers inadvertently altered genetics crops introducing new environments breeding plants one first forms biotechnology processes also included early fermentation beer processes introduced early mesopotamia egypt china india still use basic biological methods brewing malted grains containing enzymes convert starch grains sugar adding specific yeasts produce beer process carbohydrates


grains broke alcohols ethanol later cultures produced process lactic acid fermentation produced preserved foods soy sauce fermentation also used time period produce leavened bread although process fermentation fully understood louis pasteur 's work still first use biotechnology convert food source another form time charles darwin 's work life animal plant scientists already used selective breeding darwin added body work scientific observations


ability science change species accounts contributed darwin 's theory natural selection thousands years humans used selective breeding improve production crops livestock use food selective breeding organisms desirable characteristics mated produce offspring characteristics example technique used corn produce largest sweetest crops ref name thieman ref early twentieth century scientists gained greater understanding microbiology explored ways manufacturing specific products chaim weizmann first used pure microbiological culture


industrial process manufacturing corn starch using ''clostridium acetobutylicum'' produce acetone united kingdom desperately needed manufacture explosives world war ref name springham biotechnology ref biotechnology also led development antibiotics alexander fleming discovered mold ''penicillium'' work led purification antibiotic compound formed mold howard florey ernst boris chain norman heatley form today know penicillin penicillin became available medicinal use treat bacterial infections humans ref name thieman field modern biotechnology generally


thought born paul berg 's stanford experiments gene splicing early success herbert w boyer univ calif san francisco stanley n cohen stanford significantly advanced new technology transferring genetic material bacterium imported material would reproduced commercial viability biotechnology industry significantly expanded june united states supreme court ruled genetically modified microorganism could patented case ''diamond v chakrabarty'' ref name diamondvchakrabarty http caselawlpfindlawcom scripts getcaseplcourt us vol invol diamond v chakrabarty us


''united states supreme court'' june retrieved may ref indian born ananda chakrabarty working general electric modified bacterium genus ''pseudomonas'' capable breaking crude oil proposed use treating oil spills chakrabarty 's work involve gene manipulation rather transfer entire organelles strains ''pseudomonas'' bacterium mosfet metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor invented mohamed atalla dawon kahng ref name computerhistory ref two years later leland c clark champ lyons invented first biosensor ref name park type biosensors journal applied science convergence


technology volume issue pages doi asct issn doi access free ref biosensor mosfets later developed since widely used measure physical chemical biological environmental parameters ref name bergveld ref first biofet ion sensitive field effect transistor isfet invented piet bergveld ref name bergveld ref special type mosfet ref name bergveld metal gate replaced ion sensitive membrane electrolyte solution reference electrode ref name schoning ref isfet widely used biomedical applications detection dna hybridization biomarker detection blood antibody detection glucose measurement ph sensing genetic technology ref name schoning


news biotechnology sector department energy estimating ethanol usage could reduce us petroleum derived fuel consumption biotechnology sector allowed us farming industry rapidly increase supply corn soybeans main inputs biofuels developing genetically modified seeds resist pests drought increasing farm productivity biotechnology boosts biofuel production examples rose plant began cells grown tissue culture biotechnology applications four major industrial areas including health care medical crop production agriculture non food industrial uses crops


products eg biodegradable plastics vegetable oil biofuels environmental uses example one application biotechnology directed use microorganisms manufacture organic products examples include beer milk products another example using naturally present bacteria mining industry bioleaching biotechnology also used recycle treat waste clean sites contaminated industrial activities bioremediation also produce biological weapons series derived terms coined identify several branches biotechnology example bioinformatics also called gold biotechnology interdisciplinary field addresses biological problems using computational


techniques makes rapid organization well analysis biological data possible field may also referred ''computational biology'' defined conceptualizing biology terms molecules applying informatics techniques understand organize information associated molecules large scale ref name gerstein gerstein http wwwprimateorkr bioinformatics course yale intropdf bioinformatics introduction ''yale university'' retrieved may ref bioinformatics plays key role various areas functional genomics structural genomics proteomics forms key component biotechnology pharmaceutical sector ref name siam r biotechnology research


development academia providing foundation egypt 's biotechnology spectrum colors sixteenth annual american university cairo research conference american university cairo cairo egypt bmc proceedings ref blue biotechnology based exploitation sea resources create products industrial applications ref name branch biotechnology used industries refining combustion principally production bio oils photosynthetic micro algae ref name ref name biotech true colours tce chemical engineer ref green biotechnology biotechnology applied agricultural processes example would selection domestication


plants via micropropagation another example designing transgenic plants grow specific environments presence absence chemicals one hope green biotechnology might produce environmentally friendly solutions traditional industrial agriculture example engineering plant express pesticide thereby ending need external application pesticides example would bt corn whether green biotechnology products ultimately environmentally friendly topic considerable debate ref name kafarski p http wwwchemikinternationalcom pdf chemik pdf rainbow code biotechnology chemik


wroclaw university ref commonly considered next phase green revolution seen platform eradicate world hunger using technologies enable production fertile resistant towards biotic abiotic stress plants ensures application environmentally friendly fertilizers use biopesticides mainly focused development agriculture ref name hand uses green biotechnology involve microorganisms clean reduce waste ref name red biotechnology use biotechnology medical pharmaceutical industries health


industrial goods ref name frazzetto g http emborembopressorg content white biotechnology march de embopress sitio ref yellow biotechnology refers use biotechnology food production food industry example making wine winemaking cheese cheesemaking beer brewing fermentation ref name also used refer biotechnology applied insects includes biotechnology based approaches control harmful insects characterisation utilisation active ingredients genes insects research application agriculture medicine various approaches ref name https linkspringercom book f advances biochemical engineering biotechnology volume yellow biotechnology ref gray biotechnology


humans livestock crops ref name medicine medicine modern biotechnology many applications areas pharmaceutical drug discoveries production pharmacogenomics genetic testing genetic screening dna microarray chip many million blood tests pharmacogenomics combination pharmacology genomics technology analyses genetic makeup affects individual 's response drugs researchers field investigate influence genetic variation drug responses patients correlating gene expression single nucleotide polymorphisms drug 's efficacy toxicity ref name pmid ref purpose


pharmacogenomics develop rational means optimize drug therapy respect patients' genotype ensure maximum efficacy minimal adverse effects ref name pmid ref approaches promise advent personalized medicine drugs drug combinations optimized individual 's unique genetic makeup ref name pmid ref computer generated image insulin hexamers highlighting threefold symmetry zinc ions holding together histidine residues involved zinc binding biotechnology contributed discovery manufacturing traditional small molecule pharmaceutical drugs well drugs product biotechnology biopharmaceutics modern biotechnology


used manufacture existing medicines relatively easily cheaply first genetically engineered products medicines designed treat human diseases cite one example genentech developed synthetic humanized insulin joining gene plasmid vector inserted bacterium ''escherichia coli'' insulin widely used treatment diabetes previously extracted pancreas abattoir animals cattle pigs genetically engineered bacteria able produce large quantities synthetic human insulin relatively low cost ref name usis us department state international information programs frequently asked questions biotechnology usis online available


http usinfostategov ei economic issues biotechnology biotech faqhtml usinfostategov accessed september cf ref biotechnology also enabled emerging therapeutics like gene therapy application biotechnology basic science example human genome project also dramatically improved understanding biology scientific knowledge normal disease biology increased ability develop new medicines treat previously untreatable diseases increased well ref name usis genetic testing allows genetic diagnosis vulnerabilities inherited diseases also used determine child 's parentage genetic mother father general person 's ancestry


tests use since genetic testing may open ethical psychological problems genetic testing often accompanied genetic counseling agriculture genetically modified crops gm crops biotech crops plants used agriculture dna modified genetic engineering techniques cases main aim introduce new trait occur naturally species biotechnology firms contribute future food security improving nutrition viability urban agriculture furthermore protection intellectual property rights encourages private sector investment agrobiotechnology examples food


world 's crop lands planted gm crops ref name james ref different transgenic crops grown commercially million acres million hectares countries us brazil argentina india canada china paraguay pakistan south africa uruguay bolivia australia philippines myanmar burkina faso mexico spain ref name james genetically modified foods foods produced organisms specific changes introduced dna methods genetic engineering techniques allowed introduction new crop traits well far greater


fda approved first gm salmon commercial production consumption scientific consensus ref name nicolia ref name fao ref name ronald ref name also currently available food derived gm crops poses greater risk human health conventional food ref name aaas ref name ecom ref name ama ref name loc ref name nas gm food needs tested case case basis introduction ref name whofaq ref name haslberger ref name bma nonetheless members public much less likely scientists perceive gm foods safe ref name pew ref name marris ref name pabe ref name scott legal regulatory status gm foods


varies country nations banning restricting others permitting widely differing degrees regulation ref name locgov ref name bashshur ref name sifferlin ref name council foreign relations gm crops also provide number ecological benefits used excess ref name nytimescom ref however opponents objected gm crops per se several grounds including environmental concerns whether food produced gm crops safe whether gm crops needed address world 's food needs economic concerns raised fact organisms subject intellectual property law industrial biotechnology known mainly


gas emissions moving away petrochemical based economy synthetic biology considered one essential cornerstones industrial biotechnology due financial sustainable contribution manufacturing sector jointly biotechnology synthetic biology play crucial role generating cost effective products nature friendly features using bio based production instead fossil based synthetic biology used engineer model microorganisms ''escherichia coli'' genome editing tools enhance ability produce bio based products bioproduction medicines biofuels instance ''e coli'' ''saccharomyces cerevisiae'' consortium could used


industrial microbes produce precursors chemotherapeutic agent paclitaxel applying metabolic engineering co culture approach exploit benefits two microbes another example synthetic biology applications industrial biotechnology engineering metabolic pathways ''e coli'' crispr crispri systems toward production chemical known butanediol used fiber manufacturing order produce butanediol authors alter metabolic regulation ''escherichia coli'' crispr induce point mutation ''glt''a gene knockout ' 'sad'' gene knock six


genes ''cat'' ' 'suc''d '' hbd'' ''cat'' ''bld'' ''bdh'' whereas crispri system used knockdown three competing genes ''gab''d ''ybg''c ''tes''b affect biosynthesis pathway butanediol consequently yield butanediol significantly increased g l environmental environmental biotechnology includes various disciplines play essential role reducing environmental waste providing environmentally safe processes biofiltration biodegradation environment affected biotechnologies positively adversely vallero others argued difference beneficial biotechnology eg bioremediation clean oil spill hazard chemical


leak versus adverse effects stemming biotechnological enterprises eg flow genetic material transgenic organisms wild strains seen applications implications respectively cleaning environmental wastes example application environmental biotechnology whereas loss biodiversity loss containment harmful microbe examples environmental implications biotechnology regulation regulation genetic engineering concerns approaches taken governments assess manage risks associated use genetic engineering technology development release genetically modified organisms gmo including genetically modified crops


genetically modified fish differences regulation gmos countries marked differences occurring us europe regulation varies given country depending intended use products genetic engineering example crop intended food use generally reviewed authorities responsible food safety ref name potatopro ref european union differentiates approval cultivation within eu approval import processing gmos approved cultivation eu number gmos


btp accepted stipend tuition health insurance support provided two three years course phd thesis work nineteen institutions offer nigms supported btps biotechnology training also offered undergraduate level community colleges references notes ref ref name fao ref ref name ronald ref ref name also p see also p p p p p p contrast p p p p p ref ref name aaas br br ref ref name ecom ref ref name ama ref ref name loc ref ref name nas ref ref name whofaq ref ref name haslberger ref ref name bma medical organizations including british medical association advocate caution based upon precautionary principle br br ref ref name pew ref ref name marris ref ref name pabe ref ref name scott ref ref name locgov ref ref name bashshur ref ref name sifferlin ref


ref name council foreign relations ref external links http wwwfbaeorg foundation biotechnology awareness education http wwwfaoorg docrep e e htm report agricultural biotechnology focusing impacts green biotechnology special emphasis economic aspects faoorg https webarchiveorg web http wwweconomicsnoaagov goal ecosystems file users fbusiness fbiotech us economic benefits biotechnology business society noaa economics economicsnoaagov https webarchiveorg web http croplifeintraspincom biotech database safety benefits biotechnology database peer reviewed scientific papers safety benefits biotechnology http wwwwhatisbiotechnologyorg biotechnology curated collection resources people places technologies enabled biotechnology transform world live today https journalssbmuacir afb


applied food biotechnology focusing disseminate knowledge related areas biomass metabolites biological waste treatment biotransformation bioresource systems analysis technologies associated conversion production field food life sciences industry


'''business ethics''' also known '''corporate ethics''' form applied ethics professional ethics examines ethical principles moral ethical problems arise business environment applies aspects business conduct relevant conduct individuals entire organizations ethics originate individuals organizational statements legal system norms values ethical unethical practices principles guide business business ethics refers contemporary organizational standards principles sets values norms govern actions behavior individual

Applied science
Business
Business ethics


trade seldom meet together even merriment diversion conversation ends conspiracy public contrivance raise prices governments use laws regulations point business behavior perceive beneficial directions ethics implicitly regulates areas details behavior lie beyond governmental control emergence large corporations limited relationships sensitivity communities operate accelerated development formal ethics regimes maintaining ethical status responsibility manager business according


article ''journal business ethics'' managing ethical behavior one pervasive complex problems facing business organizations today history business ethics reflect norms historical period time passes norms evolve causing accepted behaviors become objectionable business ethics resulting behavior evolved well business involved slavery colonialism cold war term 'business ethics' came common use united states early mid least courses business ethics reached students using twenty textbooks least ten


casebooks supported professional societies centers journals business ethics society business ethics founded european business schools adopted business ethics commencing european business ethics network ref name http wwwscuedu ethics practicing focusareas business conference presentations business ethics historyhtmla history business ethics scuedu retrieved ref first single authored books field appeared firms began highlighting ethical stature late early possibly attempt distance business scandals day savings loan crisis concept business ethics caught attention academics


media business firms end cold war ref name however criticism business practices attacked infringing freedom entrepreneurs critics accused supporting communists scuttled discourse business ethics media academia defense industry initiative business ethics conduct dii created support corporate ethical conduct era began belief support self regulation free trade lifted tariffs barriers allowed businesses merge divest increasing global atmosphere religious philosophical origins one earliest


written treatments business ethics found ''tirukku '' tamil book dated variously bce th century ce attributed thiruvalluvar many verses discuss business ethics particular verse adapting changing environment verses learning intricacies different tasks verses overview business ethics reflects philosophy business one aim determine fundamental purposes company company 's purpose maximize shareholder returns sacrificing profits concerns violation fiduciary


responsibility corporate entities legal persons mean legally entitled rights liabilities natural persons ethics rules standards govern decisions daily basis many consider ethics conscience simplistic sense right wrong others would say ethics internal code governs individual 's conduct ingrained person family faith tradition community laws personal mores corporations professional organizations particularly licensing boards generally written code ethics governs standards professional conduct


expected field important note law ethics synonymous legal ethical courses action given situation necessarily statutes regulations passed legislative bodies administrative boards set forth law slavery legal us one certainly would n't say enslaving another ethical act economist milton friedman wrote corporate executives' responsibility nbsp generally make much money possible conforming basic rules society embodied law


embodied ethical custom ref name mf ref friedman also said entities responsibilities individuals nbsp business cannot responsibilities question corporate executives provided stay within law responsibilities business activities make much money stockholders possible answer ref name mf view known friedman doctrine multi country survey found support view among informed public ranging ronald duska jacques cory described friedman 's argument


consequentialist utilitarian rather pragmatic friedman 's argument implies unrestrained corporate freedom would benefit people long term duska argued friedman failed differentiate two different aspects business ''motive'' individuals generally motivated profit participate business socially sanctioned ''purpose'' business reason people allow businesses exist provide goods services people ref name duska ref friedman wrong making profit concern business duska argued ref name duska peter drucker said


neither separate ethics business one needed implying standards personal ethics cover business situations however drucker another instance said ultimate responsibility company directors harm ''primum non nocere'' another view business must exhibit corporate social responsibility csr umbrella term indicating ethical business must act responsible citizen communities operates even cost profits goals ref name program ref us nations corporate entities legally treated persons respects


example hold title property sue sued subject taxation although free speech rights limited interpreted imply independent ethical responsibilities duska argued stakeholders expect business ethical violating expectation must counterproductive business ref name duska ethical issues include rights duties company employees suppliers customers neighbors fiduciary responsibility shareholders issues concerning relations different companies include hostile take overs industrial espionage related issues include corporate governance corporate social


entrepreneurship political contributions legal issues ethical debate introducing crime corporate manslaughter marketing corporations' ethics policies according research published institute business ethics ipsos mori late three major areas public concern regarding business ethics britain executive pay corporate tax avoidance bribery corruption ethical standards entire organization damaged corporate psychopath charge affect company outcome employees work corporate psychopath way


corporate psychopath rise company manipulation scheming bullying way hide true character intentions within company functional business areas finance fundamentally finance social science discipline ref name dobson p xvii ref discipline borders behavioral economics sociology economics accounting management concerns technical issues mix debt equity dividend policy evaluation alternative investment projects options futures swaps derivatives portfolio diversification many others finance often mistaken people discipline free ethical


burdens ref name dobson p xvii financial crisis caused critics challenge ethics executives charge us european financial institutions financial regulatory bodies finance ethics overlooked another reason issues finance often addressed matters law rather ethics ref name boatright j r https booksgooglecom booksid pdxvnfykhbic pg pa finance ethics ref finance paradigm aristotle said end purpose polis good life adam smith characterized good life terms material goods intellectual moral excellences character smith ''the wealth nations'' commented


nothing people seems every age world vile maxim masters mankind however section economists influenced ideology neoliberalism interpreted objective economics maximization economic growth accelerated consumption production goods services neoliberal ideology promoted finance position component economics core proponents ideology hold unrestricted financial flows redeemed shackles financial repressions best help impoverished nations grow theory holds open financial systems accelerate economic


growth encouraging foreign capital inflows thereby enabling higher levels savings investment employment productivity welfare along containing corruption neoliberals recommended governments open financial systems global market minimal regulation capital flows recommendations however met criticisms various schools ethical philosophy pragmatic ethicists found claims unfalsifiable priori although neither makes recommendations false unethical per se raising economic growth highest value necessarily means welfare subordinate although advocates dispute saying economic growth provides welfare


known alternatives since history shows neither regulated unregulated firms always behave ethically neither regime offers ethical panacea ref name salinger salinger l ed encyclopedia white collar corporate crime california sage reference ref neoliberal recommendations developing countries unconditionally open economies transnational finance corporations fiercely contested ethicists claim deregulation opening economies would reduce corruption also contested dobson observes rational agent simply one pursues personal material advantage ad infinitum essence rational finance individualistic materialistic


competitive business game played individuals games object win winning measured terms solely material wealth within discipline rationality concept never questioned indeed become theory firm 's sine qua non financial ethics view mathematical function shareholder wealth simplifying assumptions necessary construction mathematically robust models however signalling theory agency theory extended paradigm greater realism issues fairness trading practices trading conditions financial contracting sales practices consultancy services tax payments internal audit


external audit executive compensation also fall umbrella finance accounting ref name particular corporate ethical legal abuses include creative accounting earnings management misleading financial analysis insider trading securities fraud bribery kickbacks facilitation payments outside corporations bucket shops forex scams criminal manipulations financial markets cases include accounting scandals enron worldcom satyam human resource management human resource management occupies sphere activity recruitment selection orientation performance appraisal training development industrial relations health safety issues ref name walsh j hrm ethics commodified work market economy ref business


ethicists differ orientation towards labor ethics assess human resource policies according whether support egalitarian workplace dignity labor issues including employment privacy compensation accord comparable worth collective bargaining opposite seen either inalienable rights ref name pin introduction ethical human resource management ref negotiable discrimination age preferring young old gender sexual harassment race religion disability weight attractiveness common approach remedying discrimination affirmative action hired employees right occasional cost living increases well


raises based merit promotions however right often fewer openings qualified applicants may seem unfair employee company longer passed promotion unethical unethical employer give employee proper consideration used improper criteria promotion employer know distinction unethical illegal action illegal breaking law action seems morally incorrect unethical


control theory z emphasizes philosophy culture consensus none ensure ethical behavior studies claim sustainable success requires humanely treated satisfied workforce sales marketing marketing ethics came age late marketing ethics approached ethical perspectives virtue virtue ethics deontology consequentialism pragmatism relativism ethics marketing deals principles values ideas marketers marketing institutions ought act marketing ethics also contested terrain beyond previously described issue potential conflicts profitability concerns ethical marketing issues


include marketing redundant dangerous products services transparency environmental risks transparency product ingredients genetically modified organisms possible health risks financial risks security risks etc respect consumer privacy autonomy advertising truthfulness fairness pricing distribution according borgerson schroeder marketing influence individuals' perceptions interactions people implying ethical responsibility avoid distorting perceptions interactions marketing ethics involves pricing practices including illegal actions price fixing legal actions including price discrimination price skimming certain promotional activities drawn fire including greenwashing bait


switch shilling viral marketing spam electronic pyramid schemes multi level marketing advertising raised objections attack ads subliminal messages sex advertising marketing schools inter organizational relationships scholars business management paid much attention ethical issues different forms relationships organizations buyer supplier relationships networks alliances joint ventures drawing particular transaction cost theory agency theory note risk opportunistic unethical practices partners instance shirking poaching deceitful behaviors turn research inter organizational relationships observed


role formal informal mechanisms prevent unethical practices mitigate consequences especially discusses importance formal contracts relational norms partners manage ethical issues emerging issues important element business stakeholders' main concern determine whether business behaving ethically unethically business' actions decisions primarily ethical happens become ethical even legal issue case government community society merely ethical issue become legal debate eventually


law ref name referencea business ethics ethical decision making cases e oc ferrell john fraedrich linda ferrell ref emerging ethical issues corporate environmental responsibility businesses impacts eco systemic environments longer neglected ecosystems' impacts business activities becoming imminent fairness three aspects motivate people fair equality optimization reciprocity fairness quality equitable impartial misuse company 's times resources particular topic may seem common one important costs company billions dollars


yearly basis misuse late arrivals leaving early long lunch breaks inappropriate sick days etc observed major form misconduct businesses today one greatest ways employees participate misuse company 's time resources using company computer personal use consumer fraud many different types fraud namely friendly fraud return fraud wardrobing price arbitrage returning stolen goods fraud major unethical practice within businesses paid special attention consumer fraud consumers attempt deceive businesses


benefit ref name referencea abusive behavior common ethical issue among employees abusive behavior consists inflicting intimidating acts employees acts include harassing using profanity threatening someone physically insulting annoying production area business ethics usually deals duties company ensure products production processes needlessly cause harm since goods services produced consumed zero risks determining ethical course problematic case consumers demand products harm tobacco products production may


environmental impacts including pollution habitat destruction urban sprawl downstream effects technologies nuclear power genetically modified food mobile phones may well understood precautionary principle may prohibit introducing new technology whose consequences fully understood principle would prohibited newest technology introduced since industrial revolution product testing protocols attacked violating rights humans animals sources provide information companies environmentally responsible test animals property etymological root property latin 'proprius' refers


'nature' 'quality' 'one 's own' 'special characteristic' 'proper' 'intrinsic' 'inherent' 'regular' 'normal' 'genuine' 'thorough complete perfect' etc word property value loaded associated personal qualities propriety respectability also implies questions relating ownership 'proper' person owns true thus genuine perfect pure modern history property rights modern discourse property emerged turn th century within theological discussions time instance john locke justified property rights saying god made earth inferior creatures common


men utilitarian jeremy bentham stated property law born together die together one argument property ownership enhances individual liberty extending line non interference state others around person seen perspective property right absolute property special distinctive character precedes legal protection blackstone conceptualized property sole despotic dominion one man claims exercises external things world total exclusion right individual universe slaves


property seventeenth eighteenth centuries slavery spread european colonies including america colonial legislatures defined legal status slaves form property time settlers began centuries long process dispossessing natives america millions acres land natives lost land louisiana territory leadership thomas jefferson championed property rights combined theological justification property taken essentially natural ordained god property later gained meaning ownership appeared natural locke jefferson


many th th century intellectuals land labor idea property right slaves theological essentialized justification even held property slaves sacred right wiecek noted slavery clearly explicitly established constitution articles accordingly us supreme court chief justice roger b taney judgment stated right property slave distinctly expressly affirmed constitution natural right vs social construct neoliberals hold private property rights non negotiable


natural right davies counters property different legal categories simply consequence significance attached law relationships legal persons ref name davies ref singer claims property form power distribution power political problem highest order rose finds 'property' effect construction relationships people meaning objective character contestable persons things 'constituted' 'fabricated' legal normative techniques singer observes private property regime


well rights michelman writes property regime thus depends great deal cooperation trustworthiness self restraint among people enjoy menon claims autonomous individual responsible existence cultural construct moulded western culture rather truth human condition penner views property illusion normative phantasm without substance neoliberal literature property part private side public private dichotomy acts counterweight state power davies counters space may subject plural meanings appropriations


necessarily come conflict private property never universal doctrine although since end cold war become nearly societies eg native american bands held land property common groups came conflict victor often appropriated loser 's property rights paradigm tended stabilize distribution property holdings presumption title lawfully acquired property exist isolation property rights bryan claimed property rights describe relations among people relations people


things singer holds idea owners legal obligations others wrongly supposes property rights hardly ever conflict legally protected interests singer continues implying legal realists take character structure social relations important independent factor choosing rules govern market life ethics property rights begins recognizing vacuous nature notion property intellectual property intellectual property ip encompasses expressions ideas thoughts codes information intellectual property rights ipr treat ip kind real property subject analogous


included power protect intellectual property empowering federal government promote progress science useful arts securing limited times authors inventors exclusive right respective writings discoveries ref name steel steelman intellectual property ref boldrin levine see value state enforced monopolies stating ordinarily think innovative monopoly oxymoron comment 'intellectual property' like ordinary property constitutes government grant costly dangerous private monopoly ideas show theory example intellectual monopoly necessary


innovation practical matter damaging growth prosperity liberty ref name steel steelman defends patent monopolies writing consider prescription drugs instance drugs benefited millions people improving extending lives patent protection enables drug companies recoup development costs specific period time sole right manufacture distribute products invented court cases pharmaceutical companies south africa 's medicines related substances control amendment act intended provide affordable hiv medicines cited harmful effect


patents one attack ipr moral rather utilitarian claiming inventions mostly collective cumulative path dependent social creation therefore one person firm able monopolize even limited period opposing argument benefits innovation arrive sooner patents encourage innovators investors increase commitments roderick long libertarian philosopher argued ref machlup concluded patents intended effect enhancing innovation self declared anarchist proudhon seminal work noted monopoly natural opposite competition


continued competition vital force animates collective destroy supposition possible would kill society mindeli pipiya argued knowledge economy economy abundance relies infinite potential knowledge ideas rather limited resources natural resources labor capital allison envisioned egalitarian distribution knowledge kinsella claimed ipr create artificial scarcity reduce equality bouckaert wrote natural scarcity follows relationship man nature scarcity natural


copyright misuse submarine patents biological patents patent copyright trademark trolling employee raiding monopolizing talent bioprospecting biopiracy industrial espionage digital rights management notable ip copyright cases include ''a records inc v napster inc'' ''eldred v ashcroft'' disney 's lawsuit air pirates international issues business ethics emerged field international business ethics emerge late looking back international developments decade many new practical issues arose international context business theoretical issues cultural relativity ethical values receive


emphasis field older issues grouped well issues subfields include search universal values basis international commercial behavior comparison business ethical traditions different countries basis respective gdp corruption rankings comparison business ethical traditions various religious perspectives ethical issues arising international business transactions eg bioprospecting biopiracy pharmaceutical industry fair trade movement transfer pricing issues globalization cultural imperialism varying global standards eg use child labor way multinationals take advantage


often arise business settings whether business transactions forming new business relationships ethical issue business atmosphere may refer situation requires business associates individuals group example department firm evaluate morality specific actions subsequently make decision amongst choices ethical issues particular concern today 's evolving business market include topics honesty integrity professional behaviors environmental issues harassment fraud name national business ethics survey found types employee observed ethical


misconduct included abusive behavior rate percent discrimination rate percent improper hiring practices rate percent company resource abuse rate percent ethical issues associated honesty widespread vary greatly business misuse company time resources lying malicious intent engaging bribery creating conflicts interest within organization honesty encompasses wholly truthful speech actions individual cultures belief systems even consider honesty essential pillar life


confucianism buddhism referred sacca part four noble truths many employees lie order reach goals avoid assignments negative issues however sacrificing honesty order gain status reap rewards poses potential problems overall ethical culture organization jeopardizes organizational goals long run using company time resources personal use also commonly viewed unethical boils stealing company misuse resources costs companies billions dollars year averaging hours per week stolen time alone employees'


abuse internet services another main concern ref name ref bribery hand considered unethical business practices also illegal accordance foreign corrupt practices act established deter international businesses giving receiving unwarranted payments gifts intended influence decisions executives political officials although small payments known facilitation payments considered unlawful foreign corrupt practices act used towards regular public governance activities permits licenses ref name influential factors


business ethics many aspects work environment influence individual 's decision making regarding ethics business world individual path growing company many outside influences pressure perform certain way core person 's performance workplace rooted personal code behavior person 's personal code ethics encompasses many different qualities integrity honesty communication respect compassion common goals addition ethical standards set forth person 's superior often translate code ethics company 's


influential factor ethics immediate access much information opinions millions highly influence people 's behaviors desire conform portrayed norm often manipulates idea morally ethically sound popular trends social media instant gratification received participating quickly distort people 's ideas decisions economic systems political economy political philosophy ethical implications particularly regarding distribution economic benefits john rawls robert nozick notable contributors example rawls interpreted offering


critique offshore outsourcing social contract grounds law regulation laws written statutes codes opinions government organizations citizens businesses persons present within jurisdiction expected govern face legal sanction sanctions violating law include civil penalties fines pecuniary damages loss licenses property rights privileges b criminal penalties fines probation imprisonment combination thereof c civil criminal penalties often held business bound ethics abiding


law milton friedman pioneer view held corporations obligation make profit within framework legal system nothing friedman made explicit duty business leaders make much money possible conforming basic rules society embodied law embodied ethical custom ref name f friedman http wwwoppaperscom essays social responsibility business social responsibility business increase profit ''the new york times magazine'' ref ethics friedman nothing abiding customs


laws reduction ethics abidance laws customs however drawn serious criticisms counter friedman 's logic observed legal procedures technocratic bureaucratic rigid obligatory whereas ethical act conscientious voluntary choice beyond normativity ref name ag agamben g https booksgooglecom booksid ekx dg nsgc pg pt coming community trans michael hardt minneapolis university minnesota press p ref law retroactive crime precedes law law crime passed crime must happened laws blind crimes undefined per law conduct criminal unless forbidden law gives


advance warning conduct criminal also law presumes accused innocent proven guilty state must establish guilt accused beyond reasonable doubt per liberal laws followed democracies government prosecutor proves firm guilty limited resources available accused considered innocent though liberal premises law necessary protect individuals persecuted government sufficient mechanism make firms morally accountable implementation corporate policies part comprehensive compliance


ethics programs many companies formulated internal policies pertaining ethical conduct employees policies simple exhortations broad highly generalized language typically called corporate ethics statement detailed policies containing specific behavioral requirements typically called corporate ethics codes generally meant identify company 's expectations workers offer guidance handling common ethical problems might arise course business hoped policy lead greater ethical awareness consistency application


avoidance ethical disasters increasing number companies also require employees attend seminars regarding business conduct often include discussion company 's policies specific case studies legal requirements companies even require employees sign agreements stating abide company 's rules conduct many companies assessing environmental factors lead employees engage unethical conduct competitive business environment may call unethical behavior lying become expected fields trading example issues surrounding unethical actions


salomon brothers everyone supports corporate policies govern ethical conduct claim ethical problems better dealt depending upon employees use judgment others believe corporate ethics policies primarily rooted utilitarian concerns mainly limit company 's legal liability curry public favor giving appearance good corporate citizen ideally company avoid lawsuit employees follow rules lawsuit occur company claim problem would arisen employee


followed code properly corporations tried burnish ethical image creating whistle blower protections anonymity case citi call ethics hotline though unclear whether firms citi take offences reported hotlines seriously sometimes disconnection company 's code ethics company 's actual practices thus whether conduct explicitly sanctioned management worst makes policy duplicitous best merely marketing tool jones parker wrote


read name business ethics either sentimental common sense set excuses unpleasant many manuals procedural form filling exercises unconcerned real ethical dilemmas instance us department commerce ethics program treats business ethics set instructions procedures followed 'ethics officers' ref name program others claim ethical sake ethical business ethicists may trivialize subject offering standard answers reflect situation 's complexity ref name ag richard degeorge wrote regard importance maintaining


corporate code ref ethics officers following series fraud corruption abuse scandals affected united states defense industry mid defense industry initiative dii created promote ethical business practices ethics management multiple industries subsequent scandals many organizations began appointing ethics officers also referred compliance officers ethics compliance officer association originally ethics officer association eoa founded center business ethics bentley university professional association ethics compliance officers passing federal sentencing guidelines


organizations another factor many companies appointing ethics compliance officers guidelines intended assist judges sentencing set standards organizations must follow obtain reduction sentence convicted federal offense following high profile corporate scandals companies like enron worldcom tyco following passage sarbanes oxley act many small mid sized companies also began appoint ethics officers often reporting chief executive officer ethics officers focus uncovering preventing unethical illegal actions accomplished assessing ethical


implications company 's activities making recommendations ethical policies disseminating information employees effectiveness ethics officers clear establishment ethics officer position likely insufficient driving ethical business practices without corporate culture values ethical behavior values behaviors consistently systemically supported top organization employees strong community involvement loyalty employers superiors owners smart work practices trust among team members inculcate corporate culture sustainability initiatives many corporate business strategies include sustainability