organisms physical characteristic environment concentration chemical might investigate interaction two populations different organisms symbiotic competitive relationship example interdisciplinary analysis ecological system impacted one stressors might include several related environmental science fields estuarine setting proposed industrial development could impact certain species water air pollution biologists would describe flora fauna chemists would analyze transport water pollutants marsh physicists would calculate air pollution emissions


geologists would assist understanding marsh soils bay muds environmental chemistry environmental chemistry study chemical alterations environment principal areas study include soil contamination water pollution topics analysis include chemical degradation environment multi phase transport chemicals example evaporation solvent containing lake yield solvent air pollutant chemical effects upon biota example study consider case leaking solvent tank entered habitat soil endangered species amphibian method resolve

Natural science
Earth science
Environmental science


understand extent soil contamination subsurface transport solvent computer model would implemented chemists would characterize molecular bonding solvent specific soil type biologists would study impacts upon soil arthropods plants ultimately pond dwelling organisms food endangered amphibian geosciences geosciences include environmental geology environmental soil science volcanic phenomena evolution earth 's crust classification systems also include hydrology including oceanography example study soils erosion calculations would made surface runoff soil


scientists fluvial geomorphologists would assist examining sediment transport overland flow physicists would contribute assessing changes light transmission receiving waters biologists would analyze subsequent impacts aquatic flora fauna increases water turbidity regulations driving studies environmental science examines effects humans nature glen canyon dam united states united states national environmental policy act nepa set forth requirements analysis federal government actions highway construction projects land management decisions terms specific environmental criteria


numerous state laws echoed mandates applying principles local scale actions upshot explosion documentation study environmental consequences fact development actions one examine specifics environmental science reading examples environmental impact statements prepared nepa ''wastewater treatment expansion options discharging san diego tijuana estuary'' ''expansion san francisco international airport'' ''development houston metro transportation system'' ''expansion metropolitan boston mbta transit system'' ''construction interstate arlington virginia'' england wales environment agency


ea formed public body protecting improving environment enforces regulations listed communities local government site formerly office deputy prime minister agency set environment act independent body works closely uk government enforce regulations see also environmental monitoring environmental planning environmental statistics environmental informatics glossary environmental science list environmental studies topics references external links http wwwgdrcorg uem ait termshtml glossary environmental terms global development research center earth sciences academic disciplines


western roman empire ad traditionally marks start middle ages beginning th century renaissance knowledge challenged traditional doctrines science theology simultaneously protestant reformation set protestant churches primarily germany scandinavia england industrial revolution brought prosperity britain western europe main european powers set colonies americas africa parts asia th century world war world war ii resulted massive numbers deaths cold war dominated european geo politics


fall iron curtain european countries grew closer together overview neolithic era starting c bc time indo european migrations starting c bc europe saw massive migrations east southeast also brought agriculture new technologies indo european languages primarily areas balkan peninsula black sea region best known civilizations late prehistoric europe minoan mycenaean flourished bronze age collapsed short period time around bc


period known classical antiquity began emergence city states ancient greece ultimately checking persian advance europe greco persian wars th century bc greek influence reached zenith expansive empire alexander great spreading throughout asia africa parts europe thracians powerful odrysian kingdom distinct culture architecture long present southeast europe roman empire came dominate entire mediterranean basin ad roman empire divided western eastern empires th th


centuries germanic peoples northern europe pressed huns grew strength led repeated attacks resulted fall western roman empire western empire 's collapse ad traditionally marks end classical period start middle ages western europe germanic peoples became powerful remnants former western roman empire established kingdoms empires germanic peoples franks would rise position hegemony western europe frankish empire reaching peak


charlemagne around empire later divided several parts west francia would evolve kingdom france east francia would evolve holy roman empire precursor modern germany italy british isles site several large scale migrations byzantine empire eastern part roman empire capital constantinople survived next years existence empire dominant empire also powerful economic cultural military force europe powerful long lived bulgarian empire main


series religiously motivated military expeditions originally intended bring levant back christian rule crusaders opened trade routes enabled merchant republics genoa venice become major economic powers reconquista related movement worked reconquer iberia christendom harrow sowing winter grain ''the rich hours duke berry'' c left eastern europe high middle ages dominated rise fall mongol empire led genghis khan mongols group steppe nomads established decentralized


empire height extended china east black baltic seas europe mongol power waned towards late middle ages grand duchy moscow rose become strongest numerous russian principalities republics would grow tsardom russia late middle ages represented period upheaval europe epidemic known black death associated famine caused demographic catastrophe europe population plummeted dynastic struggles wars conquest kept many states europe


war much period scandinavia kalmar union dominated political landscape england fought scotland wars scottish independence france hundred years' war central europe polish lithuanian commonwealth became large territorial empire holy roman empire elective monarchy came dominated centuries house habsburg russia continued expand southward eastward former mongol lands balkans ottoman empire overran byzantine lands culminating fall constantinople historians mark end


middle ages beginning th century florence later spreading europe renaissance knowledge challenged traditional doctrines science theology rediscovery classical greek roman knowledge enormous liberating effect intellectuals simultaneously protestant reformation german martin luther questioned papal authority henry viii seized control english church lands european religious wars fought german spanish rulers reconquista ended muslim rule iberia series oceanic explorations marked age discovery establishing direct links africa


crimean war outbreak first world war precipitated rise nationalism southeastern europe great powers took sides october revolution led russian empire become world 's first communist state soviet union allies led britain france united states defeated central powers led german empire austria hungary paris peace conference big four imposed terms series treaties especially treaty versailles war 's human material devastation unprecedented


germany lost overseas empire several provinces pay large reparations humiliated victors turn large debts united states prosperous great depression broke led collapse democracy many european states nazi regime adolf hitler came power rearmed germany along mussolini 's italy sought assert continent nations taken attractions fascism sought avoid conflict set boundaries appeasement hitler continually


ignored second world war began war ended defeat axis powers threat conflict recognised war 's end many us suspicious ussr would treat peace ussr paranoia us forces europe eastern front western front meetings among leaders yalta proved inconclusive closing months war race finish territories liberated nazis troops ussr found exchanged fascism socialism ussr however


counter revolutions brought end soviet hegemony socialism eastern europe resulting capitalist restoration engendering economic social devastation people germany reunited europe 's integration deepened nato eu expanded east eu came increasing pressure worldwide recession prehistory europe map depicting earliest human migration prehistoric europe ''homo erectus'' migrated africa europe emergence modern humans ''homo erectus georgicus'' lived roughly nbsp million years ago georgia earliest hominid


discovered europe l zignan la c france orce spain monte poggiolo ref name nationalgeographicit http wwwnationalgeographicit scienza news erano padani iprimi abitanti ditalia national geographic italia erano padani primi abitanti italia ref italy kozarnika bulgaria among oldest palaeolithic sites europe earliest appearance anatomically modern people europe dated bc usually referred cro magnon earliest sites europe riparo mochi italy geissenkl sterle germany isturitz france locally developed transitional cultures uluzzian italy greece altm hlian germany szeletian central europe ch telperronian southwest use clearly upper palaeolithic technologies


early dates nevertheless definitive advance technologies made aurignacian culture origins culture located levant ahmarian hungary first full aurignacian bc aurignacian culture technology extended europe last neanderthals seem forced retreat process southern half iberian peninsula around bc new technology culture appeared western region europe gravettian technology culture theorised come migrations people balkans see


c bc quickly evolved two ''microlithist'' cultures azilian federmesser spain southern france sauveterrian southern france tardenoisian central europe northern europe lyngby complex succeeded hamburg culture influence federmesser group well evidence permanent settlement dates th millennium bc balkans indo european migrations started around c bc areas black sea balkan peninsula east southeast europe next years indo european languages expanded europe varna necropolis


burial site bc one important archaeological sites world prehistory found oldest gold treasure elaborated golden objects world ref name la niece ref recently discovered golden artifacts another site bulgaria near durankulak appear years old several prehistoric bulgarian finds considered less old golden treasures hotnitsa artifacts kurgan settlement yunatsite near pazardzhik golden treasure sakar well beads gold jewelry found kurgan settlement provadia solnitsata salt pit however varna gold


often called oldest since treasure largest diverse neolithic reached central europe th millennium bc parts northern europe th th millenniums bc ancient europe minoans mycenae bc treasury atreus tomb agamemnon mycenae bc first well known literate civilization europe minoans minoan civilization bronze age civilization arose island crete flourished approximately th century bc th century bc rediscovered


eastern shores mediterranean sea collapse commonly attributed dorian invasion although theories describing natural disasters climate change advanced well whatever causes mycenaean civilization definitely disappeared lh iii c sites mycenae tirynth destroyed lost importance end last years th century bc occurred slow decline mycenaean civilization lasted many years dying beginning th century bc opened new context protogeometric


notable classical philosophers socrates plato aristotle last taught alexander great military campaigns king kingdom macedon alexander spread hellenistic culture learning banks river indus meanwhile roman republic strengthened victory carthage punic wars greek wisdom passed roman institutions athens absorbed banner senate people rome spqr left romans expanded domains anatolia east britannia west bc


approached height dictator julius caesar murdered senators attempt restore republic ensuing turmoil octavian ruled augustus ' 'divi filius'' son god julius adopted heir usurped reins power fought roman senate proclaiming rebirth republic ushered transfer roman state republic empire roman empire lasted nearly centuries fall eastern roman empire ancient greece hellenic civilisation


collection city states poleis different governments cultures achieved notable developments government philosophy science mathematics politics sports theatre music powerful city states athens sparta thebes corinth syracuse athens powerful hellenic city state governed early form direct democracy invented cleisthenes citizens athens voted legislation executive bills athens home socrates plato platonic academy hellenic city states established colonies shores black sea mediterranean asian minor sicily southern italy magna graecia


battle artemisium almost greece north isthmus corinth overrun persians ref name warfare ancient world brian todd carey joshua allfree john cairns https booksgooglecom booksid osfbwaaqbaj pg pt ''warfare ancient world'' pen sword ref greek city states reached decisive victory battle plataea end greco persian wars persians eventually decisively forced withdraw territories europe greco persian wars victory greek city states directly influenced entire course european history


would set tonemosaic showing alexander great battling darius iii greek city states formed delian league continue fighting persia athens' position leader league led sparta form rival peloponnesian league peloponnesian wars ensued peloponnesian league victorious subsequently discontent spartan hegemony led corinthian war defeat sparta battle leuctra time north ruled thracian odrysian kingdom th century bc st century ad hellenic infighting left greek city states vulnerable philip


three major kingdoms remained ptolemaic egypt seleucid empire macedonia kingdoms spread greek culture regions far away bactria roman republic neighbours bc ancient rome rise rome cicero addresses roman senate denounce catiline 's conspiracy overthrow republic cesare maccari much greek learning assimilated nascent roman state expanded outward italy taking advantage enemies' inability unite challenge roman ascent came phoenician colony carthage defeats three


italia gallia dalmatia aquitania britannia baetica hispania thrace macedonia greece moesia dacia pannonia egypt asia minor cappadocia armenia caucasus north africa levant parts mesopotamia pax romana period peace civilisation efficient centralised government subject territories ended rd century series civil wars undermined rome 's economic social strength th century emperors diocletian constantine able slow process decline splitting empire western part capital rome eastern part capital byzantium


rome finally fell romulus augustus last emperor western roman empire surrendered germanic king odoacer british historian edward gibbon argued ''the history decline fall roman empire'' romans become decadent lost civic virtue gibbon said adoption christianity meant belief better life death therefore made people lazy indifferent present eighteenth century onward glen w bowersock remarked obsessed fall valued archetype every


perceived decline hence symbol fears remains one greatest historical questions tradition rich scholarly interest notable dates battle adrianople death theodosius last time roman empire politically unified crossing rhine germanic tribes withdrawal legions defend italy alaric death stilicho followed disintegration western legions death justinian last roman emperor


tried reconquer west coming islam many scholars maintain rather fall changes accurately described complex transformation time many theories proposed empire fell whether indeed fell late antiquity migration period map world ad emperor constantine reconquered rome banner cross soon afterwards issued edict milan preceded edict serdica declaring legality


christianity roman empire addition constantine officially shifted capital roman empire rome greek town byzantium renamed nova roma later named constantinople city constantine theodosius made christianity official religion roman empire would last emperor preside united roman empire death empire split two halves western roman empire centred ravenna eastern roman empire later referred byzantine empire centred constantinople roman


empire repeatedly attacked hunnic germanic slavic barbarian tribes see migration period finally western part fell heruli chieftain odoacer map showing europe ad three dominating powers west roman authority western part empire collapsed power vacuum left wake collapse central organization institutions laws power rome broken resulting many areas open invasion migrating tribes time feudalism manorialism arose two interlocking institutions provided division


land labour well broad uneven hierarchy law protection localised hierarchies based bond common people land worked lord would provide administer local law settle disputes among peasants well protection outside invaders unlike roman rule standard laws military across empire great bureaucracy administer collect taxes lord although obligations higher lord largely sovereign domain peasant 's lot


could vary greatly depending leadership skills attitudes justice lord toward people tithes rents paid lord turn owed resources armed men times war lord perhaps regional prince however levels hierarchy varied time place western provinces soon dominated three great powers first franks merovingian dynasty francia ad covered much present france germany second visigothic kingdom ad iberian peninsula modern spain third


ostrogothic kingdom ad italy parts western balkans ostrogoths later replaced kingdom lombards ad new powers west built upon roman traditions evolved synthesis roman germanic cultures although powers covered large territories great resources bureaucracy roman empire control regions localities ongoing invasions boundary disputes usually meant risky varying life empire meant general power responsibilities


left local lords hand also meant freedom particularly remote areas italy theodoric great began cultural romanisation new world constructed made ravenna centre romano greek culture art court fostered flowering literature philosophy latin iberia king chindasuinth created visigothic code ref name google ref eastern part dominant state remaining eastern roman empire feudal system new princes kings arose powerful arguably frankish ruler charlemagne


charlemagne reinforced massive territorial conquests crowned emperor romans imperator romanorum pope leo iii effectively solidifying power western europe charlemagne 's reign marked beginning new germanic roman empire west holy roman empire outside borders new forces gathering kievan rus' marking territory great moravia growing angles saxons securing borders duration th century eastern roman empire embroiled series deadly conflicts first persian sassanid empire


see roman persian wars followed onslaught arising islamic caliphate rashidun umayyad provinces egypt palestine syria lost muslim forces followed hispania southern italy th th centuries see muslim conquests arab invasion east stopped intervention bulgarian empire see han tervel post classical europe middle ages commonly dated fall western roman empire scholars th century beginning early modern period th


century marked rise nation states division western christianity reformation rise humanism italian renaissance beginnings european overseas expansion allowed columbian exchange byzantium constantine justinian offering fealty virgin mary inside hagia sophia many consider emperor constantine reigned first byzantine emperor moved imperial capital nicomedia byzantium founded constantinople nova roma new rome city rome served


capital since reign diocletian date beginnings empire reign theodosius christianity 's official supplanting pagan roman religion following death empire split two parts capitals rome constantinople others place yet later romulus augustulus traditionally considered last western emperor deposed thus leaving sole imperial authority emperor greek east others point reorganisation empire time heraclius c latin titles usages


officially replaced greek versions case changeover gradual constantine inaugurated new capital process hellenization increasing christianisation already way empire generally considered ended fall constantinople ottoman turks plague justinian pandemic afflicted byzantine empire including capital constantinople years estimated plague justinian killed many million people across world caused europe 's population drop around


roman territory ab bakr first caliph rashidun caliphate entered roman syria roman mesopotamia byzantines neighboring sasanids severely weakened time amongst important reason protracted centuries lasting frequent byzantine sasanian wars included climactic byzantine sasanian war umar second caliph muslims entirely toppled sasanid persian empire decisively conquered syria mesopotamia well roman palestine roman egypt parts asia minor roman north africa mid th century ad following muslim conquest persia islam penetrated


caucasus region parts would later permanently become part russia trend included conquests invading muslim forces spread islam well continued umar 's successors umayyad caliphate conquered rest mediterranean north africa iberian peninsula next centuries muslim forces able take european territory including cyprus malta crete sicily parts southern italy muslim conquest hispania began moors berbers arabs invaded christian visigothic kingdom hispania


year berber general tariq ibn ziyad landed gibraltar april worked way northward tariq 's forces joined next year arab superior musa ibn nusair eight year campaign iberian peninsula brought muslim rule save small areas northwest asturias largely basque regions pyrenees visigothic hispania weakened immersed serious internal crisis caused war succession throne involving two visigoth suitors muslims


took advantage crisis within hispano visigothic society carry conquests territory arab name al andalus became part expanding umayyad empire second siege constantinople ended unsuccessfully intervention tervel bulgaria weakened umayyad dynasty reduced prestige pelayo nobleman visigothic origin formed army astur soldiers confront munuza 's muslim troops battle covadonga astures defeated arab moors decided retire christian victory marked beginning reconquista establishment


kingdom asturias whose first sovereign pelayo conquerors intended continue expansion europe move northeast across pyrenees defeated frankish leader charles martel battle poitiers umayyads overthrown 'abb sids umayyads established independent emirate iberian peninsula feudal christendom europe european states already formed europe holy roman empire emerged around charlemagne king franks part carolingian dynasty crowned


pope emperor empire based modern france low countries germany expanded modern hungary italy bohemia lower saxony spain father received substantial help alliance pope wanted help lombards death marked beginning end dynasty collapsed entirely fragmentation power led semi autonomy region defined critical starting point formation states europe east bulgaria established became first slavic country


powerful bulgarian empire main rival byzantium control balkans centuries th century became cultural centre slavic europe empire created cyrillic script th century ad preslav literary school experienced golden age bulgarian cultural prosperity reign emperor simeon great two states great moravia kievan rus' emerged among slavic peoples respectively th century late th th centuries northern western europe felt burgeoning power influence vikings


raided traded conquered settled swiftly efficiently advanced seagoing vessels longships vikings left cultural influence anglo saxons franks well scots hungarians pillaged mainland europe pechenegs raided bulgaria rus states arab states th century independent kingdoms established central europe including poland newly settled kingdom hungary kingdom croatia also appeared balkans subsequent period ending around saw growth feudalism weakened holy roman empire eastern europe


volga bulgaria became islamic state alm converted islam missionary efforts ahmad ibn fadlan slavery early medieval period mostly died western europe year ad replaced serfdom lingered longer england peripheral areas linked muslim world slavery continued flourish church rules suppressed slavery christians historians argue transition quite abrupt around see gradual transition high middle ages europe first crusade


holy land commences slumber dark ages shaken renewed crisis church east west schism insoluble split occurred two remaining christian seats rome constantinople modern istanbul high middle ages th th th centuries show rapidly increasing population europe caused great social political change preceding era robust population increase greatly benefited economy reaching levels would see areas th century year onwards


western europe saw last barbarian invasions became politically organized vikings settled britain ireland france elsewhere whilst norse christian kingdoms developing scandinavian homelands magyars ceased expansion th century year roman catholic apostolic kingdom hungary recognised central europe brief exception mongol invasions major barbarian incursions ceased bulgarian sovereignty established anti byzantine uprising bulgarians vlachs crusaders invaded byzantine empire captured constantinople established


latin empire kaloyan bulgaria defeated baldwin latin emperor constantinople battle adrianople april reign ivan asen ii bulgaria led maximum territorial expansion ivan alexander bulgaria second golden age bulgarian culture byzantine empire fully established th century populations north alps began settle new lands reverted wilderness end roman empire known great clearances vast forests marshes europe


cleared cultivated time settlements moved beyond traditional boundaries frankish empire new frontiers europe beyond elbe river tripling size germany process crusaders founded european colonies levant majority iberian peninsula conquered muslims normans colonised southern italy part major population increase resettlement pattern high middle ages produced many different forms intellectual spiritual artistic works famous great cathedrals expressions gothic architecture evolved romanesque architecture


pentarchy antioch jerusalem alexandria since mid th century byzantine empire 's borders shrinking face islamic expansion antioch wrested back byzantine control resurgent power roman successors west claimed right duty lost seats asia africa pope leo sparked dispute defending filioque clause nicene creed west adopted customarily orthodox today state xxviiith canon council chalcedon explicitly proclaimed equality


bishops rome constantinople orthodox also state bishop rome authority diocese authority outside diocese less significant catalysts schism however including variance liturgy schism roman catholic orthodox followed centuries estrangement latin greek worlds holy wars siege antioch medieval miniature painting first crusade east west schism western christianity adopted newly created kingdoms central europe poland hungary bohemia roman catholic church


developed major power leading conflicts pope emperor geographic reach roman catholic church expanded enormously due conversions pagan kings scandinavia lithuania poland hungary christian reconquista al andalus crusades europe roman catholic th century early signs rebirth civilization western europe began appear th century trade started italy leading economic cultural growth independent city states venice florence time nation states began take form


places france england spain portugal although process formation usually marked rivalry monarchy aristocratic feudal lords church actually took several centuries new nation states began writing cultural vernaculars instead traditional latin notable figures movement would include dante alighieri christine de pizan born christina da pizzano former writing italian latter although italian venice relocated france writing french see reconquista latter two countries elsewhere holy roman empire essentially based germany italy


fragmented myriad feudal principalities small city states whose subjection emperor formal th century mongol empire came power often called ''age mongols'' mongol armies expanded westward command batu khan western conquests included almost russia save novgorod became vassal kipchak cuman confederation bulgaria hungary poland managed remain sovereign states mongolian records indicate batu khan planning complete conquest remaining european powers beginning winter attack austria italy


germany recalled mongolia upon death great khan gedei historians believe death prevented complete conquest europe areas eastern europe central asia direct mongol rule became known golden horde uzbeg khan islam became official religion region early th century invading mongols together mostly turkic subjects known tatars russia tatars ruled various states rus' vassalage years christianization lithuania oil


canvas jan matejko royal castle warsaw northern europe konrad masovia gave chelmno teutonic knights base crusade old prussians grand duchy lithuania livonian brothers sword defeated lithuanians gregory ix merged remainder order teutonic order livonian order middle century teutonic knights completed conquest prussians conquering converting lithuanians subsequent decades order also came


conflict eastern orthodox church pskov novgorod republics orthodox novgorod army defeated catholic swedes battle neva two years later defeated livonian order battle ice union krewo bringing two major changes history grand duchy lithuania conversion catholicism establishment dynastic union grand duchy lithuania crown kingdom poland marked greatest territorial expansion grand duchy defeat


teutonic knights battle grunwald late middle ages spread black death europe late middle ages spanned th early th centuries around centuries european prosperity growth came halt series famines plagues great famine black death killed people matter days reducing population areas half many survivors fled kishlansky reports black death touched every aspect life hastening process social economic


cultural transformation already underway fields abandoned workplaces stood idle international trade suspended traditional bonds kinship village even religion broken amid horrors death flight failed expectations people cared dead men care dead goats wrote one survivor depopulation caused labor become scarcer survivors better paid peasants could drop burdens feudalism also social unrest france england experienced serious peasant risings including jacquerie peasants' revolt time unity catholic church


shattered great schism collectively events called crisis late middle ages beginning th century baltic sea became one important trade routes hanseatic league alliance trading cities facilitated absorption vast areas poland lithuania livonia trade european countries fed growth powerful states part europe including poland lithuania hungary bohemia muscovy later conventional end middle ages usually associated fall city constantinople


byzantine empire ottoman turks turks made city capital ottoman empire lasted included egypt syria balkans ottoman wars europe also sometimes referred turkish wars marked essential part history continent whole key th century development advent movable type printing press circa mainz ref name body building upon impetus provided prior introduction paper china via arabs high middle ages ref name books ref


paper already readily available europe late th century ref name books forms moveable type printing press already used china korea technique singularly successful europe given small number characters latin alphabet massively reducing costs book production adoption technology across continent dazzling speed remaining part th century would usher revolution cities europe presses printed nbsp million books ref name body ref homicide rates plunge years


regional differences small except italy 's decline later slower approximately ad ad homicide rates violent local episodes declined factor ten approximately deaths per people per th century homicide rate fell per police forces seldom existed outside cities prisons became common harsh penalties imposed homicide severe whipping execution proved ineffective controlling reducing insults honor precipitated violence


decline correlate economics historians attribute trend homicides steady increase self control sort promoted protestantism necessitated schools factories historian manuel eisner summarized patterns historical studies class wikitable homicide rates br europe deaths per year br per population th centuries th century th century th century th century th century


th century early modern europe genoese red venetian green maritime trade routes mediterranean black sea early modern period spans centuries middle ages industrial revolution roughly discovery new world french revolution period characterised rise importance science increasingly rapid technological progress secularised civic politics nation state capitalist economies began rise early modern period also saw rise dominance economic theory


renaissance cultural movement profoundly affected european intellectual life early modern period beginning italy spreading north west middle europe cultural lag two half centuries influence affected literature philosophy art politics science history religion aspects intellectual inquiry italian petrarch francesco petrarca deemed first full blooded humanist wrote alive yet would rather born another time enthusiastic greek roman antiquity th th centuries continuing


enthusiasm ancients reinforced feeling inherited culture dissolving storehouse ideas attitudes rebuild matteo palmieri wrote indeed may every thoughtful spirit thank god permitted born new age renaissance born new age learning important renaissance inspired growth study latin greek texts admiration greco roman era golden age prompted many artists writers


begin drawing roman greek examples works also much innovation period especially multi faceted artists leonardo da vinci humanists saw repossession great past renaissance rebirth civilization important political precedents also set period niccol machiavelli 's political writing ''the prince'' influenced later absolutism realpolitik also important many patrons ruled states used artistry renaissance sign power renaissance could viewed attempt


intellectuals study improve secular worldly revival ideas antiquity novel approaches thought immediate past gothic language thought sensibility exploration trade cantino planisphere earliest chart showing explorations vasco da gama columbus cabral toward end period era discovery began growth ottoman empire culminating fall constantinople cut trading possibilities east western europe forced discover new trading routes happened columbus' travel


americas vasco da gama 's circumnavigation india africa numerous wars prevent european states exploring conquering wide portions world africa asia newly discovered americas th century portugal led way geographical exploration along coast africa search maritime route india followed spain near close th century dividing exploration world according treaty tordesillas first states set colonies america


european trading posts factories along shores africa asia establishing first direct european diplomatic contacts southeast asian states china japan russian tsar ivan terrible conquered two major tatar khanates khanate kazan astrakhan khanate yermak 's voyage led annexation tatar siberian khanate russia russians would soon conquer rest siberia steadily expanding east south next centuries oceanic explorations soon followed france england netherlands


explored portuguese spanish trade routes pacific ocean reaching australia new zealand reformation ninety five theses german monk martin luther criticized catholic church map europe development printing press new ideas spread throughout europe challenged traditional doctrines science theology simultaneously protestant reformation german martin luther questioned papal authority common dating reformation begins luther published ''the ninety five theses'' concludes treaty westphalia ended years


european religious wars period corruption catholic church led sharp backlash protestant reformation gained many followers especially among princes kings seeking stronger state ending influence catholic church figures martin luther began emerge well like john calvin whose calvinism influence many countries king henry viii england broke away catholic church england set anglican church daughter queen elizabeth finished organization church religious divisions brought wave


wars inspired driven religion also ambitious monarchs western europe becoming centralized powerful protestant reformation also led strong reform movement catholic church called counter reformation aimed reduce corruption well improve strengthen catholic dogma two important groups catholic church emerged movement jesuits helped keep spain portugal poland european countries within catholic fold oratorians saint philip neri ministered faithful rome restoring confidence


church jesus christ subsisted substantially church rome still catholic church somewhat weakened reformation portions europe longer sway kings remaining catholic countries began take control church institutions within kingdoms unlike many european countries polish lithuanian commonwealth hungary tolerant still enforcing predominance catholicism continued allow large religious minorities maintain faiths traditions customs polish lithuanian commonwealth became divided among catholics protestants orthodox jews small muslim population europa


regina print sebastian nster basel another development idea 'european superiority' ideal civilization taken ancient greeks romans discipline education living city required make people civilized europeans non europeans judged civility europe regarded superior continents movement montaigne regarded non europeans better natural primitive people post services founded europe allowed humanistic interconnected network intellectuals across europe despite religious divisions


power contested parliaments countries especially england new kinds states emerged co operation agreements among territorial rulers cities farmer republics knights alberico gentili father international law mercantilism colonial expansion animated map showing evolution colonial empires present iberian states spain portugal able dominate colonial activity th century portuguese forged first global empire th th century whilst th century first half th century spanish crown castile


became powerful global empire world dominance increasingly challenged british french short lived dutch swedish colonial efforts th th centuries new forms trade expanding horizons made new forms government law economics necessary colonial expansion continued following centuries setbacks successful wars independence british american colonies later haiti mexico argentina brazil others amid european turmoil napoleonic wars spain control large part north america central america


owning trade flourished minor stability empires late th century american silver accounted one fifth spain 's total budget french colony saint domingue one richest european colonies th century operating plantation economy fueled slave labor period french rule cash crops produced saint domingue comprised thirty percent total french trade sugar exports represented forty percent atlantic market ref name ref crisis th century contemporary woodcut depicting second defenestration prague marked beginning


bohemian revolt began first part thirty years' war th century era crisis ref name geoffrey parker lesley smith eds ref ref name trevor aston trevor aston ed ''crisis europe essays past present'' ref many historians rejected idea others promote invaluable insight warfare politics economics even art thirty years' war focused attention massive horrors wars could bring entire populations particular saw state breakdowns around world previous subsequent period ref


name geoffrey parker lesley smith eds ref name trevor aston polish lithuanian commonwealth largest state europe temporarily disappeared addition secessions upheavals several parts spanish empire world 's first global empire britain entire stuart monarchy england scotland ireland north american colonies rebelled political insurgency spate popular revolts seldom equalled shook foundations states europe asia wars took place around world mid th century almost period recorded history crises spread far beyond


europe example ming china populous state world collapsed across northern hemisphere mid th century experienced almost unprecedented death rates geoffrey parker british historian suggests environmental factors may part blame especially global cooling age absolutism st martin 's cathedral pressburg bratislava absolute rule powerful monarchs louis xiv ruled france peter great ruled russia maria theresa ruled habsburg lands frederick great ruled prussia produced powerful centralized states strong armies powerful bureaucracies control


king throughout early part period capitalism mercantilism replacing feudalism principal form economic organisation least western half europe expanding colonial frontiers resulted commercial revolution period noted rise modern science application findings technological improvements animated industrial revolution reformation profound effects unity europe nations divided one another religious orientation states torn apart internally religious strife avidly fostered


external enemies france suffered fate th century series conflicts known french wars religion ended triumph bourbon dynasty england avoided fate settled elizabeth moderate anglicanism much modern day germany made numerous small sovereign states theoretical framework holy roman empire divided along internally drawn sectarian lines polish lithuanian commonwealth notable time religious indifference general immunity horrors european


religious strife thirty years' war thirty years' war fought across germany neighbouring areas involved major european powers except england russia beginning religious conflict protestants catholics bohemia quickly developed general war involving catholics versus protestants part major impact war mercenary armies extensively used devastation entire regions scavenged bare foraging armies episodes widespread famine disease breakup family life devastated population


german states lesser extent low countries crown bohemia northern parts italy bankrupting many regional powers involved one fourth one third german population perished direct military causes disease starvation well postponed births peace westphalia europe 's borders still stable peace westphalia ended war favour nations deciding religious allegiance absolutism became norm continent parts europe experimented constitutions foreshadowed english civil


continent sweden polish lithuanian commonwealth involved series wars like khmelnytsky uprising russo polish war deluge etc ottoman empire period saw gradual decline three powers eventually replaced new enlightened absolutist monarchies russia prussia austria habsburg monarchy turn th century become new powers divided poland sweden turkey experienced substantial territorial losses russia austria respectively well pauperisation war spanish succession war spanish succession


prussia frederick rationale based enlightenment thought fought total wars limited objectives goal convince rival kings better negotiate make peace fight expansion russia russia russia fought numerous wars achieve rapid expansion toward east ie siberia far east south black sea south east central asia russia boasted large powerful army large complex internal bureaucracy splendid court rivaled paris london however government living far beyond


means seized church lands leaving organized religion weak condition throughout th century russia remained poor backward overwhelmingly agricultural illiterate country enlightenment ''enlightenment'' powerful widespread cultural movement intellectuals beginning late th century europe emphasizing power reason rather tradition especially favourable science especially isaac newton 's physics hostile religious orthodoxy especially catholic church sought analyze reform society using reason challenge ideas grounded tradition faith advance knowledge scientific method promoted scientific thought skepticism


intellectual interchange ref name alan charles kors alan charles kors ''encyclopedia enlightenment'' oxford ref enlightenment revolution human thought new way thinking rational thought begins clearly stated principles uses correct logic arrive conclusions tests conclusions evidence revises principles light evidence ref name alan charles kors enlightenment thinkers opposed superstition enlightenment thinkers collaborated enlightened despots absolutist rulers attempted forcibly impose new ideas government practice ideas enlightenment exerted significant influence


point enlightenment emphasis reason gave way romanticism placed new emphasis emotion counter enlightenment began increase prominence romantics argued enlightenment reductionistic insofar largely ignored forces imagination mystery sentiment ref name casey ref france enlightenment based salons culminated great ''encyclop die'' edited denis diderot jean le rond d'alembert contributions hundreds leading intellectuals called ''philosophes'' notably voltaire rousseau montesquieu copies


volume encyclopedia sold half outside france new intellectual strains would spread urban centres across europe notably england scotland german states netherlands poland russia italy austria spain well britain 's american colonies political ideals enlightenment influenced american declaration independence united states bill rights french declaration rights man citizen polish lithuanian constitution may taking long term historical perspective norman davies argued freemasonry powerful force behalf liberalism


enlightenment ideas europe th century expanded rapidly age enlightenment reaching practically every country europe prominent members included montesquieu voltaire sir robert walpole wolfgang amadeus mozart johann wolfgang von goethe benjamin franklin george washington steven c bullock notes late th century english lodges headed prince wales prussian lodges king frederick great french lodges royal princes emperor napoleon selected grand master france brother great enemy freemasonry roman catholic church


countries large catholic element france italy austria spain mexico much ferocity political battles involve confrontation supporters church versus active masons th century totalitarian revolutionary movements especially fascists communists crushed freemasons revolution imperialism boundaries set congress vienna long th century saw drastic social political economic changes initiated industrial revolution french revolution napoleonic wars following reorganisation political map europe


congress vienna europe experienced rise nationalism rise russian empire peak british empire well decline ottoman empire finally rise german empire austro hungarian empire initiated course events culminated outbreak first world war industrial revolution london 's chimney sky gustave dor industrial revolution period late th century early th century major changes agriculture manufacturing transport impacted britain subsequently spread


french revolution product democratic forces atlantic world even greater impact french historian fran ois aulard says social point view revolution consisted suppression called feudal system emancipation individual greater division landed property abolition privileges noble birth establishment equality simplification life french revolution differed revolutions merely national aimed benefiting humanity storming bastille


french revolution french intervention american revolutionary war nearly bankrupted state repeated failed attempts financial reform king louis xvi convene estates general representative body country made three estates clergy nobility commoners third estate joined members two declared national assembly swore oath dissolve france constitution created july national constituent assembly time people paris revolted famously storming bastille prison


july time assembly wanted create constitutional monarchy following two years passed various laws including declaration rights man citizen abolition feudalism fundamental change relationship france rome first king agreed changes enjoyed reasonable popularity people anti royalism increased along threat foreign invasion king tried flee join france 's enemies captured january convicted treason guillotined


september national convention abolished monarchy declared france republic due emergency war national convention created committee public safety controlled maximilien de robespierre jacobin club act country 's executive robespierre committee initiated reign terror people executed paris mainly nobles convicted revolutionary tribunal often flimsiest evidence internal tensions paris drove committee towards increasing assertions radicalism increasing suspicions fueling new terror months


phase prominent revolutionaries sent guillotine robespierre faction example madame roland georges danton elsewhere country counter revolutionary insurrections brutally suppressed regime overthrown coup thermidor july robespierre executed regime followed ended terror relaxed robespierre 's extreme policies napoleon napoleon bonaparte one world 's famous soldiers statesmen leading france great victories numerous european enemies despite modest origins became emperor restructured much european diplomacy politics


law forced abdicate day comeback failed battle waterloo died exile remote island remembered great hero many frenchmen great villain british enemies napoleon despite youth france 's successful general revolutionary wars conquered large parts italy forced austrians sue peace brumaire november overthrew feeble government replacing consulate dominated gained popularity france


restoring church keeping taxes low centralizing power paris winning glory battlefield crowned emperor napoleon planned invade britain renewed british alliance russia austria third coalition forced turn attention towards continent time french fleet demolished british battle trafalgar ending plan invade britain december napoleon defeated numerically superior austro russian army austerlitz forcing austria 's withdrawal coalition see treaty pressburg dissolving


british prussian force battle waterloo june exiled small british island south atlantic impact french revolution roberts finds revolutionary napoleonic wars caused million deaths nbsp million civilians nbsp million french deaths outside france revolution major impact ideas became widespread roberts argues napoleon responsible key ideas modern world meritocracy equality law property rights religious toleration modern secular education sound finances protected


consolidated codified geographically extended napoleon years power furthermore french armies directly overthrew feudal remains much western europe liberalised property laws ended seigneurial dues abolished guild merchants craftsmen facilitate entrepreneurship legalised divorce closed jewish ghettos made jews equal everyone else inquisition ended holy roman empire power church courts religious authority sharply reduced equality law proclaimed men foreign affairs french army


led britain funded inexhaustible british treasury formed second coalition britain joined russia ottoman empire austria scored series victories rolled back french successes trapped french army egypt napoleon slipped british blockade october returning paris overthrew government made ruler napoleon conquered italy name french revolution consolidated old units split austria 's holdings set series new republics complete


wars political administrative systems modernized metric system introduced trade barriers reduced jewish ghettos abolished belgium piedmont became integral parts france new nations abolished returned prewar owners however artz emphasizes benefits italians gained french revolution nearly two decades italians excellent codes law fair system taxation better economic situation religious intellectual toleration known centuries everywhere old physical economic intellectual barriers thrown italians


begun aware common nationality likewise switzerland long term impact french revolution assessed martin proclaimed equality citizens law equality languages freedom thought faith created swiss citizenship basis modern nationality separation powers old regime conception suppressed internal tariffs economic restraints unified weights measures reformed civil penal law authorized mixed marriages catholics protestants suppressed torture improved justice developed education public works


greatest impact came course france addition effects similar italy switzerland france saw introduction principle legal equality downgrading powerful rich catholic church bureau controlled government power became centralized paris strong bureaucracy army supplied conscripting young men french politics permanently polarized new names given left right supporters opponents principles revolution british historian max hastings says question


upper houses secular laws increasingly regulated marriage divorce maintaining birth death registers became duty local officials although numerous religious denominations united states founded many colleges universities almost exclusively state function across europe imperial powers protected christian missionaries african asian colonies france largely catholic nations anti clerical political movements tried reduce role catholic church likewise briefly germany fierce kulturkampf culture war catholics catholics successfully fought back catholic church concentrated


power papacy fought secularism socialism sponsored devotional reforms gained wide support among churchgoers protestantism historian kenneth scott latourette argues outlook protestantism start th century discouraging regional religion based northwestern europe outpost sparsely settled united states closely allied government scandinavia netherlands prussia especially great britain alliance came expense independence government made basic policy decisions details salaries


ministers location new churches dominant intellectual currents enlightenment promoted rationalism protestant leaders preached sort deism intellectually new methods historical anthropological study undermine automatic acceptance biblical stories sciences geology biology industrialization strongly negative factor workers moved city seldom joined churches gap church unchurched grew rapidly secular forces based socialism liberalism undermine prestige religion despite negative forces protestantism demonstrated striking vitality shrugging


enlightenment rationalism protestants embraced romanticism stress personal invisible entirely fresh ideas expressed friedrich schleiermacher soren kierkegaard albrecht ritschl adolf von harnack restored intellectual power theology attention historic creeds augsburg heidelberg westminster confessions england anglicans emphasize historically catholic components heritage high church element reintroduced vestments incense rituals stirrings pietism continent evangelicalism britain expanded enormously leading devout away emphasis formality ritual


toward inner sensibility toward personal relationship christ social activities education opposition social vices slavery alcoholism poverty provided new opportunities social service worldwide missionary activity became highly prized goal proving quite successful close cooperation european colonialists particularly new imperialism period nations rising cheering revolutions berlin emerging nationalism political development nationalism push popular sovereignty culminated ethnic national revolutions europe th century nationalism became one significant political social


forces history typically listed among top causes world war napoleon 's conquests german italian states around played major role stimulating nationalism demands national unity germany german states east prussia napoleon abolished many old medieval relics dissolving holy roman empire imposed rational legal systems demonstrated dramatic changes possible example organization confederation rhine promoted feeling nationalism nationalists sought encompass masculinity


quest strength unity prussian chancellor otto von bismarck achieved german unification many smaller states followed prussia 's leadership wars denmark austria france italy italian nationalism emerged th century driving force italian unification risorgimento meaning resurgence revival political intellectual movement consolidated different states italian peninsula single state kingdom italy memory risorgimento central italian nationalism italian historiography


austro hungarian empire austria german backing tried crush serbia russia intervened thus igniting first world war austria dissolved nation states region vojvodina proclaimed secession austria hungary unite pan slavic state slovenes croats serbs kingdom serbia joined union december country named kingdom serbs croats slovenes renamed yugoslavia never able tame multiple nationalities religions flew apart civil war greece


greek drive independence ottoman empire inspired supporters across christian europe especially britain france russia britain intervened make nationalist dream become reality greek war independence bulgaria bulgarian modern nationalism emerged ottoman rule late th early th century influence western ideas liberalism nationalism trickled country french revolution mostly via greece although stirrings th century russia world great power fellow orthodox slavs could appeal bulgarians way


poland large scale nationalist revolts erupted harshly crushed russia tried russify polish language culture religion collapse russian empire first world war enabled major powers reestablish independent poland survived meanwhile poles areas controlled germany moved heavy industry religion came attack bismarck kulturkampf poles joined german catholics well organized new centre party defeated bismarck politically responded stopping harassment cooperating centre


party education important component nationalism study nation 's heritage emphasizing national language literary culture stimulated turn strongly supported emergence national educational systems reaching general population latin gave way national language compulsory education strong support modernizers media became standard germany eventually west european nations voting reforms extended franchise previously excluded elements strong sentiment among elites necessity compulsory public education new electorate could understand


handle duties every country developed sense national origins historical accuracy less important motivation toward patriotism universal compulsory education extended well girls least elementary level strong movements emerged countries including france germany united states extend compulsory education secondary level ideological coalitions mikhail bakunin speaking members international workingmen 's association basel congress defeat revolutionary france great powers tried restore situation existed


base socialist communist anarchistic ideas widely influential pamphlet karl marx friedrich engels ''the communist manifesto'' middle classes businessmen promoted liberalism free trade capitalism aristocratic elements concentrated government service military established churches nationalist movements germany italy poland hungary elsewhere called upon racial unity usually meant common language imagined common ethnicity seek national unification liberation foreign rule result period saw large number revolutionary attempts independence wars


greece successfully revolted ottoman rule european diplomats intellectuals saw greek struggle independence accounts turkish atrocities romantic light france napoleon iii paris commune napoleon iii nephew napoleon parlayed famous name widespread popularity across france returned exile promising stabilize chaotic political situation elected president maneuvered successfully name emperor move approved later large majority french electorate first part imperial term brought many important reforms


facilitated napoleon 's control lawmaking body government army hundreds old republican leaders arrested deported napoleon controlled media censored news compensation loss freedom napoleon gave people new hospitals asylums beautified modernized paris built modern railroad transportation system dramatically improved commerce helped many small farmers well economy grew industrialization rapid britain france depended largely small family oriented firms opposed large companies emerging united


states germany france winning side crimean war napoleon 's foreign policy less less successful antagonized great britain failed appreciate danger war prussia foreign policy blunders finally destroyed reign gained worldwide attention aggressive foreign policy europe mexico worldwide helped unification italy fighting austrian empire joined crimean war side great britain defend ottoman empire russia empire collapsed defeated franco prussian war


france became republic strong popular demand return monarchy never happened blunders made available monarchs hostility catholic church became major issue france battle secular religious forces well th century secular elements usually successful french third republic emerged winning side first world war finally overthrown defeated world war ii giuseppe garibaldi 's redshirts battle calatafimi part


italian unification major powers class wikitable country population millions year russia germany austria hungary france great britain italy source ''appleton annual cyclopedia '' p european states become constitutional rather absolute monarchies germany italy merged many small city states become united nation states germany particular increasingly dominated continent terms economics


political power meanwhile global scale great britain far flung british empire unmatched royal navy powerful bankers became world 's first global power sun never set territories informal empire operated british financiers entrepreneurs traders engineers established operations many countries largely dominated latin america british especially famous financing constructing railways around world otto von bismarck chancellor germany bismarck 's germany base prussia otto von bismarck engineered series short decisive wars unified


german states excluding austria powerful german empire prussian leadership humiliated france process kept good terms austria hungary accomplished skillfully used balance power diplomacy preserve germany 's new role keep europe peace new german empire industrialized rapidly challenged britain economic leadership bismarck disliked colonies public elite opinion forced build overseas empire removed office aggressive young kaiser wilhelm ii pursued disruptive foreign policy polarized europe rival


camps rival camps went war austrian russian empires power nationalism create new states irresistible th century process could lead collapse absence strong nationalism austria hungary advantage size multiple disadvantages rivals four sides finances unstable population fragmented multiple ethnicities languages served bases separatist nationalisms large army good forts industrial base thin naval resources minimal


attempt build overseas empire advantage good diplomats typified metternich foreign minister prime minister employed grand strategy survival balanced different forces set buffer zones kept habsburg empire going despite wars ottomans frederick great napoleon bismarck final disaster first world war empire overnight disintegrated multiple states based ethnic nationalism principle self determination russian empire likewise brought together multitude languages cultures


military defeat first world war led multiple splits created independent finland latvia lithuania estonia poland brief spell independent ukraine armenia georgia azerbaijan growth european armies table european armies active duty class wikitable width country width pt armies width pt armies germany france austria hungary russia italy


imperialism berlin conference headed otto von bismarck regulated european colonization africa new imperialism period colonial empires product european age discovery th century initial impulse behind dispersed maritime empires followed trade driven new ideas capitalism grew renaissance portuguese empire spanish empire quickly grew first global political economic systems territories spread around world subsequent major european colonial empires included french


dutch british empires latter consolidated period british maritime hegemony th century became largest empire history improved ocean transportation technologies time well electronic communication telegraph cable radio height british empire covered quarter earth 's land area comprised quarter population european countries belgium germany italy pursued colonial empires well mostly africa smaller ignoring oceans russia built russian empire conquest


land eastern europe asia mid th century ottoman empire declined enough become target global powers see history balkans instigated crimean war began tenser period minor clashes among globe spanning empires europe eventually set stage first world war second half th century kingdom sardinia kingdom prussia carried series wars resulted creation italy germany nation states significantly changing balance power


quite unexpected fashion result europeans generally live free prosperous healthy lives ever short twentieth century included first world war second world war cold war first world war used modern technology kill millions soldiers victory britain france united states allies drastically changed map europe ending four major land empires russian german austro hungarian ottoman empires leading creation nation states across central eastern europe october revolution russia led


creation soviet union rise international communist movement widespread economic prosperity typical period onset great depression however democracy collapsed europe fascists took control italy even aggressive nazi movement led adolf hitler took control germany second world war fought even larger scale first war killing many people using even advanced technology ended division europe east west


east control soviet union west dominated nato two sides engaged cold war actual conflict taking place europe asia korean war vietnam war imperial system collapsed remaining colonial empires ended decolonisation european rule africa asia fall soviet communism left west dominant enabled reunification germany accelerated process european integration include eastern europe european union continues today german economic dominance since


worldwide great recession european growth slow financial crises hit greece countries modern day russia weaker military might compared superpower part soviet union retained historical status great power regional power confronting ukraine post soviet states world war trenches sand bags defences machine guns artillery western front relative peace th century rivalry european powers compounded rising


single battles like verdun somme killed hundreds thousands men leaving stalemate unchanged heavy artillery machine guns caused casualties supplemented poison gas czarist russia collapsed february revolution germany claimed victory eastern front eight months liberal rule october revolution brought vladimir lenin bolsheviks power leading creation soviet union place disintegrated russian empire american entry war allied side failure germany 's spring


offensive germany run manpower average american troops arriving france every day summer germany 's allies austria hungary ottoman empire surrendered dissolved followed germany november victors forced germany assume responsibility conflict pay war reparations one factor determining outcome war allies significantly economic resources could spend war one estimate using us dollars allies spent billion war central powers


billion among allies britain spent billion us billion among central powers germany spent billion paris peace conference detail william orpen 's painting ''the signing peace hall mirrors versailles june '' showing signing peace treaty minor german official opposite representatives winning powers world war settled victors paris peace conference two dozen nations sent delegations many nongovernmental groups defeated powers invited big four


president woodrow wilson united states prime minister david lloyd george great britain georges clemenceau france least importance italian prime minister vittorio orlando large staff experts met together informally times made major decisions turn ratified others major decisions creation league nations six peace treaties defeated enemies notable treaty versailles germany awarding german ottoman overseas possessions mandates chiefly britain france


drawing new national boundaries sometimes plebiscites better reflect forces nationalism big four implemented sweeping changes political geography world famously treaty versailles weakened germany 's military power placed full blame war costly reparations shoulders humiliation resentment germany probably one causes nazi success indirectly cause world war ii insistence president wilson big four required poland sign treaty june guaranteed minority rights


new nation poland signed protest made little effort enforce specified rights germans jews ukrainians minorities similar treaties signed czechoslovakia romania yugoslavia greece austria hungary bulgaria later latvia estonia lithuania finland germany asked sign minority rights treaty interwar interwar europe people gathered sport event sweden europeans various countries relaxing wave pool hungary second world war visible inscriptions numerous languages treaty versailles winners recognised


new states poland czechoslovakia hungary austria yugoslavia finland estonia latvia lithuania created central europe defunct german austro hungarian russian empires based national ethnic self determination peaceful era small wars ukrainian soviet war polish soviet war prosperity widespread major cities sponsored youth culture called roaring twenties jazz age often featured cinema attracted large audiences allied victory first world war seemed mark triumph liberalism


allied countries also germany new states eastern europe well japan authoritarian militarism typified germany defeated discredited historian martin blinkhorn argues liberal themes ascendant terms cultural pluralism religious ethnic toleration national self determination free market economics representative responsible government free trade unionism peaceful settlement international disputes new body league nations however early emerging liberal order challenged new communist movement taking inspiration russian revolution communist revolts


beaten back everywhere else succeed russia fascism authoritarianism italy adopted authoritarian dictatorship known fascism became model hitler germany right wing elements countries historian stanley g payne says fascism italy primarily political dictatorshipthe fascist party become almost completely bureaucratized subservient dominant state big business industry finance retained extensive autonomy particularly early years armed forces also enjoyed considerable autonomythe fascist militia placed military controlthe judicial system


left largely intact relatively autonomous well police continued directed state officials taken party leadersnor major new police elite createdthere never question bringing church overall subservience sizable sectors italian cultural life retained extensive autonomy major state propaganda culture ministry existedthe mussolini regime neither especially sanguinary particularly repressive authoritarian regimes replaced democracy nazi germany portugal austria poland greece baltic countries francoist spain four liberal democracies left european


continent france finland switzerland sweden great depression wall street crash nearly whole world sank great depression money stopped flowing new york europe prices fell profits fell unemployment soared worst hit sectors included heavy industry export oriented agriculture mining lumbering construction world trade fell two thirds liberalism democracy discredited europe well japan latin america nation nation turned dictators authoritarian regimes momentous change government came hitler nazis


took power germany main institution meant bring stability league nations created however league failed resolve major crises longer major player league undermined bellicosity nazi germany imperial japan soviet union mussolini 's italy non participation united states largely ignored major civil war took place spain nationalists winning league nations helpless italy conquered ethiopia japan seized manchuria


took china starting fai milicia spanish social revolution spanish civil war marked numerous small battles sieges many atrocities rebels nationalists led francisco franco military intervention italy sent land forces germany sent smaller elite air force armoured units nationalists soviet union sold armaments leftist republicans side communist parties numerous countries sent soldiers international brigades civil war escalate


larger conflict become worldwide ideological battleground pitted left communist movement many liberals catholics conservatives fascists britain france us remained neutral refused sell military supplies either side worldwide decline pacifism growing sense another world war imminent would worth fighting world war ii munich agreement britain france adopted policy appeasement gave hitler wanted czechoslovakia hope would bring


peace germany took rest czechoslovakia appeasement policies gave way hurried rearmament hitler next turned attention poland starving jewish children warsaw ghetto fight german nazis warsaw uprising meet april east elbe river allying japan anti comintern pact also benito mussolini 's italy pact steel finally signing non aggression treaty soviet union august hitler launched second world war september


attacking poland surprise britain france declared war germany little fighting phoney war period war began earnest spring successful blitzkrieg conquests denmark norway low countries france britain remained alone refused negotiate defeated germany 's air attacks battle britain hitler 's goal control eastern europe failure defeat britain italian failures north africa balkans great attack soviet union delayed june despite initial successes


german army stopped close moscow december next year tide turned germans started suffer series defeats example siege stalingrad kursk meanwhile japan allied germany italy since september attacked britain united states december germany completed extension declaring war united states war raged axis powers germany italy japan allied forces british empire soviet union united states allied forces north africa invaded


italy recaptured france spring germany invaded east soviet union west allies red army conquered reichstag berlin hitler committed suicide germany surrendered early may world war ii deadliest conflict human history causing million deaths majority civilians approximately million period also marked systematic genocide separately war related deaths nazis killed additional number


million civilians identified ibm enabled censuses including majority jews gypsies europe millions polish soviet slavs also homosexuals jehovah 's witnesses misfits disabled political enemies meanwhile soviet system forced labour expulsions allegedly engineered famine similar death toll war millions civilians affected forced population transfers western european colonial empires asia africa disintegrated world war ii mostly dominated british france cold war era span class anchor id postwar europe span east german construction workers building berlin


wall november remains iron curtain dev nska nov ves bratislava slovakia world wars ended pre eminent position britain france germany europe world yalta conference europe divided spheres influence victors world war ii soon became principal zone contention cold war two power blocs western countries communist bloc united states majority european liberal democracies time united kingdom france italy netherlands west germany etc established nato military alliance


later soviet union satellites bulgaria czechoslovakia east germany hungary poland romania established warsaw pact counterpoint nato warsaw pact much larger ground force american french british nuclear umbrellas protected nato communist states imposed red army east parliamentary democracy became dominant form government west historians point success product exhaustion war dictatorship promise continued economic prosperity martin conway also adds important impetus came anti nazi wartime


political coalitions economic recovery united states gave away nbsp billion marshall plan grants grants low interest long term loans western europe historian michael j hogan argues american aid critical stabilizing economy politics western europe brought modern management dramatically increased productivity encouraged cooperation labor management among member states local communist parties opposed lost prestige influence role government strategic terms says hogan marshall plan strengthened west possibility


communist invasion political takeover however marshall plan 's role rapid recovery debated reject idea miraculously revived europe since evidence shows general recovery already way thanks aid programs united states economic historians bradford de long barry eichengreen conclude history 's successful structural adjustment program state large enough significantly accelerated recovery financing investment aiding reconstruction damaged infrastructure easing commodity bottlenecks argue however marshall plan play


major role setting stage post world war ii western europe 's rapid growth conditions attached marshall plan aid pushed european political economy direction left post world war ii mixed economies market less controls mix marshall plan dollar amounts soviet union concentrated recovery seized transferred germany 's industrial plants exacted war reparations east germany hungary romania bulgaria using soviet dominated joint enterprises used trading arrangements deliberately designed favor soviet union moscow controlled communist parties


ruled satellite states followed orders kremlin historian mark kramer concludes net outflow resources eastern europe soviet union approximately billion billion first decade world war ii amount roughly equal total aid provided united states western europe marshall plan western europe began economic political integration aim unite region defend process included organisations european coal steel community grew evolved european


union council europe solidarno movement weakened communist government poland time soviet leader mikhail gorbachev initiated perestroika glasnost weakened soviet influence europe particularly ussr pan european picnic iron curtain berlin wall came communist governments outside soviet union deposed federal republic germany absorbed east germany making large cash payments ussr communist party moscow collapsed ending ussr split fifteen independent states


european elites aimed create democratic societies wanted reduce extremes wealth poverty provide essential social services way prewar generations quite enough unrest conflict decades many continental societies less achieved aims every reason proud progress europe quiet civilized europe 's success based recent painful experience horrors two world wars lessons dictatorship experiences fascism communism based feeling


european identity common values appeared time post war period also witnessed significant rise standard living western european working class noted one historical text within single generation working classes western europe came enjoy multiple pleasures consumer society ref name google ref western europe 's industrial nations hit global economic crisis obsolescent heavy industry suddenly pay high energy prices caused sharp inflation also inefficient nationalized railways


britain led militant coal miners thatcher eventually defeated opponents radically changed british economy controversy never went away shown hostile demonstrations time death recent history germans standing top berlin wall brandenburg gate november would begin torn apart following days changes national boundaries end cold war end cold war came series events mainly eastern europe end


self superpower rivalry rapidly wound cascading effects various areas world following end cold war european economic community pushed closer integration co operation foreign home affairs started increase membership neutral former communist countries maastricht treaty established european union succeeding eec furthering political co operation neutral countries austria finland sweden acceded eu n't join tied eu 's economic market via european economic area countries also entered


schengen agreement lifted border controls member states ref name europa history ref maastricht treaty created single currency eu members ''euro'' created replaced previous currencies participating states notable exception currency union ''eurozone'' united kingdom also sign schengen agreement eu participate yugoslav wars divided supporting united states iraq war nato part war afghanistan much lower level involvement


supported united states european countries kosovo 's government unilaterally declared independence serbia february public opinion eu turned enlargement partially due seen eager expansion including turkey gaining candidate status european constitution rejected france netherlands treaty lisbon ireland although second vote passed ireland financial crisis affected europe government responded austerity measures limited ability smaller eu nations notably greece handle debts led


social unrest government liquidation financial insolvency may german parliament agreed loan nbsp billion euros greece three years stipulation greece follow strict austerity measures see european sovereign debt crisis beginning ukraine state revolution unrest two breakaway regions donetsk lugansk attempting join russia full federal subjects ''see war donbass'' march referendum held crimea leading ' 'de facto'' secession crimea largely internationally unrecognized annexation russian federation republic


wake weakened europe region whose aspirations act third superpower come seem ever unrealistic became chancellor eu high point adopted euro meant rival dollar global currency expanded absorbing former members soviet bloc today eu contrast geographically economically diminished lost uk brexit faces deep political cultural divisions lags behind global race innovation technology increasingly squeezed


mounting us china strategic rivalry europe endured thanks part ms merkel pragmatic stewardship battered crises entire time office blockquote chronology bc homer composes ''the iliad'' epic poem represents first extended work european literature bc herodotus defends athenian political freedom ''histories'' bc alexander great dies macedonian empire reaching far asia fragments bc julius caesar murdered roman republic enters terminal crisis bc establishment roman empire octavian '''ad''' ad


jesus popular religious leader crucified ca first christian congregations mainland greece rome diocletian reorganizes empire creating tetrarchy constantine makes constantinople capital new rome following death theodosius empire permanently split eastern roman empire later byzantium western roman empire odoacer captures ravenna deposes last roman emperor west traditionally seen end date western roman empire justinian crowned emperor byzantium orders editing ''corpus juris civilis''


digest roman law beginning roman catholic christianization anglo saxon england missions churches existence well date contacts rome loose nonexistent saint columbanus uses term europe letter jus patronatus khan asparukh leads bulgars union numerous local slavs invades byzantine empire battle ongal creating bulgaria tervel bulgaria helps byzantine empire stop arabic invasion europe breaks siege constantinople battle covadonga iberian peninsula


pelayo noble visigoth defeats muslim army tried conquer cantabrian coast helps establish christian kingdom asturias marks beginning reconquista battle tours franks stop advance arabs europe coronation charlemagne holy roman emperor third council tours priests ordered preach native language population treaty verdun saints cyril methodius arrive great moravia initiating christian mission among slav peoples boris bulgaria officially baptises whole


bulgaria proclaimed emperor thus bulgaria becomes empire otto east francia crowned emperor pope beginning holy roman empire kievan rus adopts christianity often seen origin russian orthodox church start east west schism divides christian church centuries successful norman invasion england william conqueror pope urban ii calls first crusade th century th century literature saw increase number texts renaissance th century occurs


first printing press books starting printing revolution fall constantinople ottoman turks reconquista ends iberian peninsula spanish expeditionary group commanded christopher columbus lands new world vasco da gama departs india starting direct trade asia leonardo da vinci paints ''the last supper'' milan renaissance flourishes maximilian last ruling king romans first elected emperor romans martin luther nails theses indulgences door church wittenberg


triggering discussions would soon lead reformation ferdinand magellan juan sebasti n elcano begin first global circumnavigation expedition returns hern n cort begins conquest mexico spain francisco pizarro begins conquest peru inca empire spain nicolaus copernicus publishes ''de revolutionibus orbium coelestium revolutions celestial spheres '' grand duchy moscow becomes tsardom russia introduction gregorian calendar russia refuses adopt galileo galilei uses telescope discover moons jupiter


thirty years' war brings massive devastation central europe peace westphalia ends thirty years' war introduces principle integrity nation state isaac newton publishes ''principia mathematica'' profound impact enlightenment treaty karlowitz concludes austro ottoman war marks end ottoman control central europe beginning ottoman stagnation establishing habsburg monarchy dominant power central southeastern europe outbreak war spanish succession great northern war first would check


aspirations louis xiv king france dominate european affairs second would lead russia 's emergence great power recognizably european state th century age enlightenment spurs intellectual renaissance across europe kingdom great britain formed union kingdom england kingdom scotland thomas newcomen invents first practical steam engine begins industrial revolution britain foundation russian empire james watt invents new efficient steam engine accelerating industrial revolution britain adam smith publishes wealth


nations immanuel kant publishes ''answering question enlightenment'' beginning french revolution end absolute monarchy france french revolutionary wars napoleon comes power eventually consolidating position emperor french napoleonic wars end defeat napoleon napoleon abolishes holy roman empire congress vienna treaty vienna france reduced boundaries reactionary forces dominate across europe george stephenson opens stockton darlington railway first steam train railway passenger traffic world louis daguerre


invents first practical photographic method effect first camera first steamship built regularly scheduled transatlantic crossings enters service revolutions publication ''the communist manifesto'' start crimean war ends defeat russia charles darwin publishes ''on origin species'' unification italy victories giuseppe garibaldi first commercially successful transatlantic telegraph cable completed russia emancipates serfs karl marx completes first volume ''das kapital'' franco prussian war fall second french


empire unification germany direction otto von bismarck panic occurs long depression begins establishment bulgaria independence serbia montenegro romania karl benz invents benz patent motorwagen world 's first automobile first permanent citywide electrical tram system europe sarajevo auguste louis lumi begin exhibitions projected films paying public cinematograph portable camera printer projector guglielmo marconi sends first transatlantic radio transmission archduke franz ferdinand austria assassinated world war begins vladimir lenin bolsheviks


seize power russian revolution ensuing russian civil war lasts world war ends defeat germany central powers ten million soldiers killed collapse russian german austrian ottoman empires collapse german empire monarchic system founding weimar republic worldwide spanish flu epidemic kills millions europe austro hungarian empire dissolves versailles treaty strips germany colonies several provinces navy air force limits army allies occupy western areas reparations ordered league nations begins operations largely ineffective defunct


ireland divided irish free state becomes independent civil war erupts benito mussolini fascists take power italy worldwide great depression begins stock market crash new york city adolf hitler nazis take power germany italy conquers ethiopia league sanctions ineffective start spanish civil war ends victory nationalists aided germany italy germany escalates persecution jews kristallnacht appeasement germany britain france munich agreement splits czechoslovakia germany seized remainder


britain france hurriedly rearm failed arrange treaty ussr adolf hitler joseph stalin agree partition eastern europe molotov ribbentrop pact nazi germany invades poland starting second world war great britain winston churchill becomes last nation hold nazis winning battle britain us begins large scale lend lease aid britain free france ussr allies canada also provides financial aid germany invades soviet union operation barbarossa fails capture moscow leningrad adolf hitler nazi


germany commence holocaust final solution murder million jews stalingrad kursk soviet forces begin recapturing nazi occupied territory east us british canadian armed forces invade nazi occupied france normandy hitler commits suicide mussolini murdered world war ii ends europe ruins germany defeated united nations formed british empire begins process voluntarily dismantling granting independence india pakistan cold war begins europe polarized east versus west us provides large sums rebuild


western europe marshall plan stimulates large scale modernization european industries reduction trade restrictions nato alliance established ussr creates rival military coalition warsaw pact schuman declaration begins process european integration french empire begins dismantled withdraws vietnam suez crisis signals end effective power british empire hungarian uprising defeated soviet military forces treaties rome establish european economic community may events france lead france brink


revolution prague spring defeated warsaw pact military forces club rome founded solidarno movement lech wa sa begins open overground opposition communist rule poland mikhail gorbachev becomes leader soviet union begins reforms inadvertently leads fall communism soviet union chernobyl disaster occurs worst nuclear disaster history communism overthrown warsaw pact countries except soviet union fall berlin wall opening unrestrained border crossings east west effectively deprived


wall relevance reunification germany breakup yugoslavia beginning yugoslav wars dissolution soviet union creation commonwealth independent states maastricht treaty establishes european union end european colonial empires asia handover hong kong macau china slovenia hungary czech republic slovakia poland lithuania latvia estonia cyprus malta join european union romania bulgaria join european union great recession begins unemployment rises parts europe croatia joins


european union revolution dignity ukraine serious tensions russia ukraine european union european migrant crisis starts united kingdom leaves european union ongoing covid pandemic europe countries cases russia united kingdom france spain italy see also prehistoric europe hellenistic period roman empire byzantine empire middle ages renaissance age discovery major explorations age discovery colonialism age enlightenment atlantic revolutions rise nationalism europe industrial revolution house european history museum scheduled open


brussels list historians inclusive major historians list history journals europe list largest european cities history list predecessors sovereign states europe list sovereign states date formation europe timeline sovereign states europe list empires list medieval great powers list modern great powers atlantic world history mediterranean region history western civilization history balkans timeline european union history genetic history europe history romani people references bibliography surveys blum jerome et al ''the european world'' vol nd ed


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