moscow became tsardom russia tsar peter great renamed state russian empire hoping associate historical cultural achievements ancient rus' contrast policies oriented towards western europe state extended eastern borders polish lithuanian commonwealth pacific ocean russia great power dominated europe victory napoleon peasant revolts common fiercely suppressed emperor alexander ii abolished russian serfdom peasants fared poorly revolutionary pressures grew


new style soviet russia along soviet ukraine soviet belarus transcaucasian sfsr signed treaty creation ussr officially merging four republics form soviet union country history russia became essentially history soviet union effectively ideologically based state roughly conterminous russian empire treaty brest litovsk first years government soviet union based one party rule communists bolsheviks called beginning march approach


ussr 's permanent membership un security council later russia inherited soviet union 's entire nuclear arsenal signing budapest memorandum russia retained nuclear arsenal lost superpower status scrapping socialist central planning state ownership property socialist era new leaders led president vladimir putin first became president took political economic power engaged assertive foreign policy coupled economic growth russia since regained significant global status world power russia 's annexation crimean peninsula led


economic sanctions imposed united states european union putin 's leadership corruption russia rated worst europe russia 's human rights situation increasingly criticized international observers prehistory first human settlement territory russia dates back oldowan period early lower paleolithic million years ago representatives ''homo erectus'' migrated western asia north caucasus archaeological site taman peninsula archaeological site skull ''elasmotherium caucasicum'' lived million years ago stone tool


found million year old oldowan flint tools discovered dagestan akusha region north caucasus demonstrating presence early humans territory present day russian federation early time fossils denisova man date years ago dna bone fragment found denisova cave teenage girl died years ago shows hybrid neanderthal mother denisovan father russia also home last surviving neanderthals partial skeleton neanderthal infant


mezmaiskaya mezmaiskaya cave adygea showed carbon dated age years russian archaeologists institute archaeology ethnology novosibirsk working site denisova cave altai mountains siberia uncovered year old small bone fragment fifth finger juvenile hominin dna analysis revealed previously unknown species human named denisova hominin first trace ''homo sapiens'' large expanse russian territory dates back years central siberia ust' ishim man discovery


earliest evidence presence anatomically modern humans found anywhere europe reported deepest levels kostenki archaeological site near river russia dated least years ago sungir years ago humans reached arctic russia mamontovaya kurya years ago kurgan hypothesis south russia urheimat indo european peoples prehistoric eras vast steppes southern russia home tribes nomadic pastoralists classical antiquity pontic steppe known scythia ref name belinskij ref remnants long gone


steppe cultures discovered course th century places ipatovo ref name belinskij sintashta arkaim pazyryk antiquity hellenistic soldiers bosporan kingdom taman peninsula yubileynoe southern russia rd quarter th century bc marble pushkin museum later part th century bce greek merchants brought classical civilization trade emporiums tanais phanagoria gelonus described herodotus huge europe 's biggest earth wood fortified grad inhabited around bc heloni budini bosporan kingdom incorporated part roman province


moesia inferior ad emperor nero nd century ad goths migrated black sea rd th centuries ad semi legendary gothic kingdom oium existed southern russia overrun huns rd th centuries ad bosporan kingdom hellenistic polity succeeded greek colonies also overwhelmed successive waves nomadic invasions led warlike tribes would often move europe case huns turkish avars second millennium bc


territories kama irtysh rivers home proto uralic speaking population contacts proto indo european speakers south woodland population ancestor modern ugrian inhabitants trans uralia researchers say khanty people originated south ural steppe moved northwards current location ad turkic people khazars ruled lower volga basin steppes caspian black seas th century ref name christian david christian ''a history russia central asia mongolia'' blackwell publishing pp ref noted


laws tolerance cosmopolitanism khazars main commercial link baltic muslim abbasid empire centered baghdad important allies byzantine empire waged series successful wars arab caliphates ref name christian ref name frank daniel h frank oliver leaman ''history jewish philosophy'' routledge p ref th century khazars embraced judaism ref name frank early history early east slavs general map cultures european russia arrival varangians beginning slavic colonization ancestors


modern russians slavic tribes whose original home thought scholars wooded areas pripet marshes early east slavs gradually settled western russia two waves one moving kiev towards present day suzdal murom another polotsk towards novgorod rostov ref name christian david christian op cit pp ref th century onwards east slavs constituted bulk population western russia ref name christian slowly peacefully assimilated native finnic tribes merya muromians meshchera ref name mongait aleksandr l vovich monga ''archeology


ussr'' foreign languages publishing house p ref kievan rus' ''arrival varangians'' viktor vasnetsov scandinavian norsemen known vikings western europe varangians east combined piracy trade throughout northern europe mid th century began venture along waterways eastern baltic black caspian seas according earliest russian chronicle varangian named rurik elected ruler ''knyaz'' novgorod ref name curtis http wwwshsuedu ncp kievanhtml kievan rus' mongol periods excerpted glenn e curtis ed ''russia country study'' department army ref


successors moved south extended authority kiev previously dominated khazars oleg rurik 's son igor igor 's son sviatoslav subsequently subdued local east slavic tribes kievan rule destroyed khazar khaganate launched several military expeditions byzantium persia thus first east slavic state rus' emerged th century along dnieper river valley ref name curtis coordinated group princely states common interest maintaining trade along river routes kievan rus' controlled trade route furs wax slaves scandinavia


byzantine empire along volkhov dnieper rivers ref name curtis end th century minority norse military aristocracy merged native slavic population also absorbed greek christian influences course multiple campaigns loot tsargrad constantinople one campaign claimed life foremost slavic druzhina leader svyatoslav renowned crushed power khazars volga time byzantine empire experiencing major military cultural revival despite later decline culture would continuous influence


development russia formative centuries kievan rus' council liubech kievan rus' important introduction slavic variant eastern orthodox religion ref name curtis dramatically deepening synthesis byzantine slavic cultures defined russian culture next thousand years region adopted christianity official act public baptism kiev inhabitants prince vladimir followed private conversion grandmother years later first code laws russkaya pravda introduced yaroslav wise ref name smith gordon bob smith ''reforming


russian legal system'' cambridge university press pp ref onset kievan princes followed byzantine example kept church dependent even revenues russian church state always closely linked th century particularly reign yaroslav wise kievan rus' displayed economy achievements architecture literature superior existed western part continent compared languages european christendom russian language little influenced greek latin early christian


writings ref name curtis church slavonic used directly liturgy instead nomadic turkic people kipchaks also known cumans replaced earlier pechenegs dominant force south steppe regions neighbouring rus' end th century founded nomadic state steppes along black sea desht e kipchak repelling regular attacks especially kiev one day 's ride steppe heavy burden southern areas rus' nomadic incursions caused massive influx slavs safer heavily forested


regions north particularly area known zalesye kievan rus' ultimately disintegrated state fighting members princely family ruled collectively kiev 's dominance waned benefit vladimir suzdal north east novgorod north halych volhynia south west conquest mongol golden horde th century final blow kiev destroyed ref name hamm see michael franklin hamm ''kiev portrait '' princeton university press ref halych volhynia would eventually absorbed polish lithuanian commonwealth ref name curtis mongol dominated vladimir suzdal independent novgorod


republic two regions periphery kiev would establish basis modern russian nation ref name curtis mongol invasion vassalage vladimir batu khan february miniature th century russian chronicle gorodets invading mongols accelerated fragmentation rus' disunited southern princes faced mongol raiding party kalka river soundly defeated mongols burnt city vladimir february major cities northeast russia routed russians sit' river moved west poland


hungary conquered russian principalities novgorod republic escaped occupation continued flourish orbit hanseatic league impact mongol invasion territories kievan rus' uneven advanced city culture almost completely destroyed older centers kiev vladimir never recovered devastation initial attack ref name hamm new cities moscow ref name curtis http countrystudiesus russia htm muscovy excerpted glenn e curtis ed ''russia country study'' department army ref tver ref name curtis nizhny novgorod began compete


hegemony mongol dominated russia although russian army defeated golden horde kulikovo ref name kulikovo http wwwfanaticusorg dba battles kulikovo indexhtml battle kulikovo september retrieved july ref mongol domination russian inhabited territories along demands tribute russian princes continued ref name curtis mongols held russia volga bulgaria sway western capital sarai ref name history world ref one largest cities medieval world princes southern eastern russia pay tribute mongols golden horde commonly called tatars ref name history world


return received charters authorizing act deputies khans general princes allowed considerable freedom rule wished ref name history world russian orthodox church even experienced spiritual revival guidance metropolitan alexis sergius radonezh mongols left impact russians areas military tactics transportation mongol occupation russia also developed postal road network census fiscal system military organization ref name curtis time prince novgorod alexander nevsky managed repel offensive


soon absorbed parent state major factor ascendancy moscow cooperation rulers mongol overlords granted title grand prince moscow made agents collecting tatar tribute russian principalities principality 's prestige enhanced became center russian orthodox church head metropolitan fled kiev vladimir years later established permanent headquarters church moscow original title kiev metropolitan middle


th century power mongols declining grand princes felt able openly oppose mongol yoke battle kulikovo river mongols defeated ref name kulikovo although hard fought victory end tatar rule russia bring great fame grand prince dmitry donskoy moscow 's leadership russia firmly based middle th century territory greatly expanded purchase war marriage ivan iii great ivan iii russia millennium russia


feet defeated tatar lithuanian baltic german th century grand princes moscow continued consolidate russian land increase population wealth successful practitioner process ivan iii ref name curtis laid foundations russian national state ivan competed powerful northwestern rival grand duchy lithuania control semi independent upper principalities upper dnieper oka river basins ref name eb ivaniii http wwwbritannicacom eb article ivan iii ''encyclop dia britannica'' ref defections princes border skirmishes long war novgorod republic ivan iii


able annex novgorod tver result grand duchy moscow tripled size rule ref name curtis conflict pskov monk named filofei philotheus pskov composed letter ivan iii prophecy latter 's kingdom would third rome ref name eb r see eg http wwwbritannicacom ebc article eastern orthodoxy ''encyclop dia britannica'' ''encyclop dia britannica'' ref fall constantinople death last greek orthodox christian emperor contributed new idea moscow ''new rome'' seat orthodox christianity ivan 's marriage byzantine princess


sophia palaiologina ref name curtis ivan iii first central government bodies created russia prikaz sudebnik adopted first set laws since th century double headed eagle adopted coat arms russia symbol continuity power byzantium russia great stand ugra river ended tatar mongol rule russia contemporary tudors new monarchs western europe ivan proclaimed absolute sovereignty russian princes nobles refusing tribute tatars ivan initiated


moscow considered entire russian territory collective property various semi independent princes still claimed specific territories ref name eb ivaniii ivan iii forced lesser princes acknowledge grand prince moscow descendants unquestioned rulers control military judicial foreign affairs gradually russian ruler emerged powerful autocratic ruler tsar first russian ruler officially crown tsar ivan iv ref name curtis ivan iii tripled territory state ended dominance golden horde rus' renovated moscow kremlin laid foundations russian


state biographer fennell concludes reign militarily glorious economically sound especially points territorial annexations centralized control local rulers however fennell leading british specialist ivan iii argues reign also period cultural depression spiritual barrenness freedom stamped within russian lands bigoted anti catholicism ivan brought curtain russia west sake territorial aggrandizement deprived country fruits western learning civilization tsardom russia ivan iv terrible ivan iv


grand prince moscow tsar russias death development tsar 's autocratic powers reached peak reign ivan iv known ivan terrible strengthened position monarch unprecedented degree ruthlessly subordinated nobles exiling executing many slightest provocation ref name curtis nevertheless ivan often seen farsighted statesman reformed russia promulgated new code laws sudebnik established first russian feudal


representative body zemsky sobor curbed influence clergy introduced local self management rural regions tsar also created first regular army russia streltsy although long livonian war control baltic coast access sea trade ultimately proved costly failure ivan managed annex khanates kazan astrakhan siberia ref name jmartin janet martin ''medieval russia '' cambridge university press p ref conquests complicated migration aggressive nomadic hordes asia europe via volga urals conquests russia acquired significant muslim tatar


able sack central russian regions burn moscow despite next year russians defeated crimean tatar army battle molodi ivan abandoned ''oprichnina'' end ivan iv 's reign polish lithuanian swedish armies carried powerful intervention russia devastating northern northwest regions time troubles poles surrender moscow kremlin prince pozharsky death ivan 's childless son feodor followed period civil wars foreign intervention known time troubles ref


name curtis extremely cold summers wrecked crops led russian famine increased social disorganization boris godunov 's reign ended chaos civil war combined foreign intrusion devastation many cities depopulation rural regions country rocked internal chaos also attracted several waves interventions polish lithuanian commonwealth polish muscovite war polish lithuanian forces reached moscow installed impostor false dmitriy supported false dmitry ii decisive moment came combined russian swedish army routed polish forces


hetman stanis aw kiewski battle klushino result battle seven boyars group russian nobles deposed tsar vasily shuysky recognized polish prince w adys aw iv vasa tsar russia poles entered moscow moscow revolted riots brutally suppressed city set fire ref name vern george vernadsky history russia volume yale university press http wwwspslnscru history vernad vol vgv htm russian translation ref crisis provoked patriotic national uprising invasion finally


volunteer army led merchant kuzma minin prince dmitry pozharsky expelled foreign forces capital ref name dunning chester l dunning ''russia 's first civil war time troubles founding romanov dynasty'' https booksgooglecom booksvid isbn id nuytsjao cc pg pa lpg pa dq moscow minin patriot p penn state press ref ref name tot http wwwbritannicacom eb article troubles time encyclop dia britannica ref russian statehood survived time troubles rule weak corrupt tsars strength government 's central bureaucracy government functionaries continued serve regardless ruler 's legitimacy faction controlling throne ref name curtis however time


troubles provoked dynastic crisis resulted loss much territory polish lithuanian commonwealth russo polish war well swedish empire ingrian war accession romanovs early rule mikhail romanov first tsar romanov dynasty february chaos ended poles expelled moscow national assembly composed representatives fifty cities even peasants elected michael romanov young son patriarch filaret throne romanov dynasty ruled russia immediate task new


prolonged russo polish war ended treaty andrusovo poland accepted loss left bank ukraine kiev smolensk ref name curtis russian expansion eurasia russian conquest siberia begun end th century continued th century end russians reached pacific ocean russian explorer semyon dezhnev discovered strait asia america russian expansion far east faced resistance qing china war russia china treaty nerchinsk signed delimiting


peasants attached land become almost complete together state nobles placed overwhelming burden taxation peasants whose rate times greater mid th century century earlier addition middle class urban tradesmen craftsmen assessed taxes like serfs forbidden change residence segments population subject military levy special taxes riots amongst peasants citizens moscow time endemic included salt riot ref name kotilaine jarmo kotilaine marshall poe ''modernizing muscovy


reform social change seventeenth century russia'' routledge p ref copper riot ref name kotilaine moscow uprising far greatest peasant uprising th century europe erupted free settlers south russia cossacks reacted growing centralization state serfs escaped landlords joined rebels cossack leader stenka razin led followers volga river inciting peasant uprisings replacing local governments cossack rule ref name curtis tsar 's army finally crushed forces year later stenka captured beheaded yet


less half century later strains military expeditions produced another revolt astrakhan ultimately subdued russian empire population much russia 's expansion occurred th century culminating first russian colonisation pacific mid th century russo polish war incorporated left bank ukraine russian conquest siberia poland divided era much land population going russia th century growth came adding territory asia south siberia class wikitable width '''year''' width pt


'''population russia millions ''' width pt '''notes''' includes new baltic polish territories includes part poland includes finland includes congress poland bessarabia includes new asian territories peter great peter russia peter great brought centralized autocracy russia played major role bringing country european state system russia become largest country world


stretching baltic sea pacific ocean vast majority land unoccupied travel slow much expansion taken place th century culminating first russian settlement pacific mid th century reconquest kiev pacification siberian tribes however population million stretched across vast landscape short growing season grain yields trailed behind west potato farming yet widespread result great majority population workforce


occupied agriculture russia remained isolated sea trade internal trade communication manufacturing seasonally dependent map city saint petersburg new capital russia peter reformed russian army created russian navy peter 's first military efforts directed ottoman turks aim establish russian foothold black sea taking town azov attention turned north peter still lacked secure northern seaport except archangel white sea whose harbor frozen nine months year access


baltic blocked sweden whose territory enclosed three sides peter 's ambitions window sea led make secret alliance polish lithuanian commonwealth denmark sweden resulting great northern war war ended exhausted sweden sued peace russia peter acquired four provinces situated south east gulf finland thus securing coveted access sea already founded city become russia 's new capital saint petersburg


window opened upon europe replace moscow long russia 's cultural center russian intervention commonwealth marked silent sejm beginning year domination region russian empire celebration conquests peter assumed title emperor russian tsardom officially became russian empire russian victory battle poltava peter organized government based latest western models molding russia absolutist state replaced old ''boyar'' duma council nobles nine member senate effect supreme council state countryside


also divided new provinces districts peter told senate mission collect tax revenues turn tax revenues tripled course reign administrative collegia ministries established st petersburg replace old governmental departments peter promulgated famous table ranks part government reform orthodox church partially incorporated country 's administrative structure effect making tool state peter abolished patriarchate replaced collective body holy synod led lay government official


russia however twelve years later territories ceded back persia led charismatic military genius nader shah part treaty resht treaty ganja russo persian alliance ottoman empire common neighbouring rivalling enemy peter great died leaving unsettled succession russia become great power end reign peter succeeded second wife catherine merely figurehead powerful group high officials minor grandson


peter ii niece anna daughter tsar ivan v heir anna soon deposed coup elizabeth daughter peter ruled reign russia took part seven years' war catherine great catherine ii nearly forty years pass comparably ambitious ruler appeared russian throne catherine ii great r german princess married german heir russian crown took weak positions catherine overthrew coup becoming


control polish lithuanian commonwealth actions including support targowica confederation cost campaigns top oppressive social system required serfs spend almost time laboring land lords provoked major peasant uprising inspired cossack named pugachev emphatic cry hang landlords rebels threatened take moscow catherine crushed rebellion like enlightened despots europe catherine made certain power formed alliance nobility russian troops


invasion persian suzerains political aspirations catherine waged new war persia invaded georgia established rule year prior expelled newly established russian garrisons caucasus russian troops participated anti french coalition troops command alexander suvorov defeated french northern italy ruling empire mikhail lomonosov great russian polymath scientist writer russian emperors th century professed ideas enlightened absolutism innovative tsars peter great


catherine great brought western experts scientists philosophers engineers however westernization modernization affected upper classes russian society bulk population consisting peasants remained state serfdom powerful russians resented privileged positions alien ideas backlash especially severe napoleonic wars produced powerful anti western campaign led wholesale purge western specialists russian followers universities schools government service middle th century marked emergence higher education russia first two


expenses grew rapidly reaching million budget allocated percent military percent government economic activities percent administration nine percent imperial court st petersburg deficit required borrowing primarily amsterdam five percent budget allocated debt payments paper money issued pay expensive wars thus causing inflation spending russia obtained large glorious army large complex bureaucracy splendid court rivaled paris london however government living far beyond


ally napoleon winding napoleon 's enemy joined britain war third coalition napoleon massive defeat battle austerlitz switched formed alliance napoleon treaty tilsit joined napoleon 's continental system fought small scale naval war britain napoleon could never agree especially poland alliance collapsed russia 's economy hurt napoleon 's continental system cut trade britain esdaile notes implicit idea


russian poland course war napoleon schroeder says poland root cause conflict russia 's refusal support continental system also factor napoleon 's retreat moscow entry russian troops paris headed emperor alexander invasion russia catastrophe napoleon invasion troops one major battle fought borodino casualties high indecisive napoleon unable engage defeat russian armies attempted force tsar terms


capturing moscow onset winter even though french army already lost men expectation proved futile russians retreated burning crops food supplies scorched earth policy multiplied napoleon 's logistic problems unprepared winter warfare napoleon 's soldiers died disease cold starvation ambush peasant guerrilla fighters napoleon 's forces retreated russian troops pursued central western europe defeated napoleon 's army battle nations finally captured paris total population around million people russia lost


million year soldiers rest peasants serfs final defeat napoleon alexander became known 'savior europe' presided redrawing map europe congress vienna made king congress poland formed holy alliance austria prussia suppress revolutionary movements europe saw immoral threats legitimate christian monarchs helped austria 's klemens von metternich suppressing national liberal movements although


willing discuss constitutional reforms though introduced thoroughgoing changes attempted tsar succeeded younger brother nicholas onset reign confronted uprising background revolt lay napoleonic wars number well educated russian officers traveled europe course military campaigns exposure liberalism western europe encouraged seek change return autocratic russia result decembrist revolt december work small


circle liberal nobles army officers wanted install nicholas' brother constitutional monarch revolt easily crushed leading nicholas turn away liberal reforms champion reactionary doctrine orthodoxy autocracy nationality russia fought another war persia russia lost almost recently consolidated territories first year gained back war highly favourable terms treaty turkmenchay russia gained armenia nakhchivan nagorno karabakh azerbaijan r russo turkish war russia invaded northeastern anatolia occupied strategic


britain austria tried intervene crisis unable russian patriotic press used polish uprising unify russian nation claiming russia 's god given mission save poland world poland punished losing distinctive political judicial rights russianization imposed schools courts russian army monument nicholas st isaac 's square saint petersburg tsar nicholas reigned lavished attention army nation million people included million men outdated equipment tactics


criminals undesirables punished local officials enlisting life army village oligarchies controlled employment conscription army local patronage blocked reforms sent unpromising peasant youth army conscription system unpopular people practice forcing peasants house soldiers six months year siege russian naval base sevastopol crimean war finally crimean war end reign demonstrated world one previously realized russia militarily weak


technologically backward administratively incompetent despite ambitions toward south ottoman empire russia built railroad network direction communications poor bureaucracy riddled graft corruption inefficiency unprepared war navy weak technologically backward army although large good parades suffered colonels pocketed men 's pay poor morale even touch latest technology developed britain france nation 's leaders realized reforms urgently needed russian society


renounced west called return traditions past latter path championed slavophiles heaped scorn decadent west slavophiles opponents bureaucracy preferred collectivism medieval russian ''mir'' village community individualism west westernizers formed intellectual movement deplored backwardness russian culture looked western europe intellectual leadership opposed slavophiles denounced west materialistic instead promoted spiritual depth russian traditionalism forerunner movement pyotr


chaadayev exposed cultural isolation russia perspective western europe ''philosophical letters'' cast doubt greatness russian past ridiculed orthodoxy failing provide sound spiritual basis russian mind called russia emulate western europe especially rational logical thought progressive spirit leadership science indeed leadership path freedom vissarion belinsky alexander herzen prominent westernizers crimean war since war napoleon russia become deeply involved


affairs europe part holy alliance holy alliance formed serve policeman europe however maintain alliance required large armies prussia austria britain france members alliance lacked large armies needed russia supply required numbers fit philosophy nicholas revolutions swept europe however russia quiet tsar sent army hungary request austrian empire broke revolt preventing spread russian poland tsar


cracked signs internal unrest russia expected exchange supplying troops policeman europe free hand dealing decaying ottoman empire sick man europe russia invaded ottoman controlled areas leading crimean war britain france came rescue ottomans grueling war fought largely crimea high death rates disease allies historian orlando figes points long term damage russia suffered demilitarization black sea major blow


russia longer able protect vulnerable southern coastal frontier british fleet destruction russian black sea fleet sevastopol naval docks humiliation compulsory disarmament ever imposed great power previously allies really think dealing european power russia regarded russia semi asiatic statein russia crimean defeat discredited armed services highlighted need modernize countries defenses strictly military sense also


building railways industrialization sound finances onthe image many russians built country biggest richest powerful world suddenly shattered russia 's backwardness exposedthe crimean disaster exposed shortcomings every institution russia corruption incompetence military command technological backwardness army navy inadequate roads lack railways accounted chronic problems supply poor condition illiteracy serfs made armed forces


inability serf economy sustain state war industrial powers failures autocracy alexander ii abolition serfdom abolition serfdom read people alexander ii came throne demand reform widespread pressing problem confronting government serfdom million serfs total population nbsp million anticipation civil unrest could ultimately foment revolution alexander ii chose preemptively abolish serfdom emancipation reform emancipation brought


supply free labor cities stimulated industry middle class grew number influence freed peasants buy land allotted landowners state assistance government issued special bonds landowners land lost collected special tax peasants called redemption payments rate total cost allotted land yearly land turned peasants owned collectively ''mir'' village community divided land among peasants supervised


various holdings defence shipka pass turkish troops crucial independence bulgaria alexander responsible numerous reforms besides abolishing serfdom reorganized judicial system setting elected local judges abolishing capital punishment promoting local self government zemstvo system imposing universal military service ending privileges nobility promoting universities foreign policy sold alaska united states fearing remote colony would fall british hands another war modernized military command system sought peace moved away


ottoman empire clashed balkans russo turkish war popular among russian people supported independence fellow orthodox slavs serbs bulgarians russia 's victory war allowed number balkan states gain independence romania serbia montenegro addition bulgaria de facto also became independent years turkish rule however war increased tension austria hungary also ambitions region tsar disappointed results congress berlin abided agreement period russia


expanded empire central asia conquering khanates kokand bukhara khiva well trans caspian region russia 's advance asia led british fears russians planned aggression british india london worried napoleon would combine russsia one mighty campaign london feared russia alone would step step rudyard kipling called great game term caught however historians report russians never intention move india russian society second half th century russian


writers second half th century leo tolstoy dmitry grigorovich ivan goncharov ivan turgenev alexander druzhinin alexander ostrovsky movement known nihilism developed russia term originally coined ivan turgenev novel ''fathers sons'' nihilists favoured destruction human institutions laws based assumption institutions laws artificial corrupt core russian nihilism characterized belief world lacks comprehensible meaning objective truth value time many russian liberals dissatisfied


regarded empty discussions intelligentsia nihilists questioned old values shocked russian establishment moved beyond purely philosophical becoming major political forces becoming involved cause reform path facilitated previous actions decembrists revolted financial political hardship caused crimean war caused many russians lose faith political institutions russian nihilists created catechism revolutionary activities one leaders russian nihilists sergei nechaev became basis dostoevsky 's


novel ''demons'' nihilists first attempted convert aristocracy cause reform failing turned peasants campaign targeted people instead aristocracy landed gentry became known populist movement based upon belief common people possessed wisdom peaceful ability lead nation ref name curtist http countrystudiesus russia htm transformation russia nineteenth century excerpted glenn e curtis ed ''russia country study'' department army ref narodnik movement gaining momentum government quickly moved extirpate


response growing reaction government radical branch narodniks advocated practiced terrorism ref name curtist one another prominent officials shot killed bombs represented ascendancy anarchism russia powerful revolutionary force finally several attempts alexander ii assassinated anarchists day approved proposal call representative assembly consider new reforms addition abolition serfdom designed ameliorate revolutionary demands russian empire end th century beginning


th century known silver age russian culture silver age dominated artistic movements russian symbolism acmeism russian futurism many poetic schools flourished including mystical anarchism tendency within symbolist movement russian avant garde large influential wave modern art flourished russian empire soviet union approximately although placed beginning early end late term covers many separate art movements era painting literature music architecture autocracy


reaction alexander iii unlike father new tsar alexander iii throughout reign staunch reactionary revived maxim orthodoxy autocracy national character committed slavophile alexander iii believed russia could saved chaos shutting subversive influences western europe reign russia concluded union republican france contain growing power germany completed conquest central asia exacted important territorial commercial concessions china tsar 's influential adviser konstantin pobedonostsev tutor alexander iii


son nicholas procurator holy synod taught royal pupils fear freedom speech press hate democracy constitutions parliamentary system pobedonostsev revolutionaries hunted policy russification carried throughout empire nicholas ii new revolutionary movement ethnic religious map european russia end th century imperial era map shows russians great russians belarusians white russians ukrainians little russians single colour based russian census alexander succeeded son


nicholas ii industrial revolution began exert significant influence russia meanwhile creating forces would finally overthrow tsar politically opposition forces organized three competing parties liberal elements among industrial capitalists nobility believed peaceful social reform constitutional monarchy founded constitutional democratic party ''kadets'' followers narodnik tradition established socialist revolutionary party ''esers'' advocating distribution land among actually worked peasants third radical group founded russian social democratic labour party ''rsdlp''


bolsheviks advocated formation small elite professional revolutionists subject strong party discipline act vanguard proletariat order seize power force beginning th century russia continued expansion far east chinese manchuria zone russian interests russia took active part intervention great powers china suppress boxer rebellion war russia occupied manchuria caused clash interests japan russo japanese war began ended extremely unsuccessfully


russia revolution state duma disastrous performance russian armed forces russo japanese war major blow russian state increased potential unrest ref name curtisaut http countrystudiesus russia htm last years autocracy excerpted glenn e curtis ed ''russia country study'' department army ref january incident known bloody sunday occurred father gapon led enormous crowd winter palace saint petersburg present petition tsar procession reached palace cossacks opened fire crowd killing hundreds ref


tried organize new strikes end disunity among reformers tsar 's position strengthened time world war russian expeditionary force france october archduke franz ferdinand austro hungary assassinated gavrilo princip june ultimatum followed serbia considered russian client state austro hungary july russia treaty obligation serbia long term perspective russia militarily gaining germany austro hungary thus incentive wait russian leaders wanted


yet even declared state impending war germany responded mobilisation declaration war august opening hostilities russians took offensive germany austria hungary large poorly equipped russian army fought tenaciously desperately times despite lack organization weak logistics casualties enormous campaign russian forces defeated austro hungarian forces battle galicia success russian army forced german army withdraw troops western front russian front however


shell famine led defeat russian forces poland central powers campaign led major retreat russian army russians dealt powerful blow austrians brusilov offensive morale bad getting worse many recruits sent front unarmed told pick whatever weapons could battlefield nevertheless russian army fought tied large numbers germans austrians homefront showed occasional surge patriotism


tsar entourage failed exploit military benefit russian army neglected rally ethnic religious minorities hostile austria poles tsar refused cooperate national legislature duma listened less experts wife thrall chief advisor holy man grigori rasputin two million refugees fled repeated military failures bureaucratic ineptitude soon turned large segments population government ref name curtisaut german ottoman fleets prevented russia importing urgently needed supplies


baltic black seas ref name curtisaut middle impact war demoralizing food fuel short supply casualties kept occurring inflation mounting strikes increased among low paid factory workers peasants wanted land reforms restless meanwhile elite distrust regime deepened reports rasputin gaining influence assassination late ended scandal restore autocracy 's lost prestige ref name curtisaut russian civil war russian revolution late february march strike occurred factory capital


ii abdicated fill vacuum authority duma declared provisional government headed prince lvov collectively known russian republic ref name historyc https webarchiveorg web http wwwhistorycom encyclopediadoarticleid russian revolution history channel encyclopedia ref meanwhile socialists petrograd organized elections among workers soldiers form soviet council workers' soldiers' deputies organ popular power could pressure bourgeois provisional government ref name historyc constituent assembly january tauride palace locked guarded trotsky sverdlov zinoviev lashevich july following series crises undermined authority


public head provisional government resigned succeeded alexander kerensky progressive predecessor radical enough bolsheviks many russians discontented deepening economic crisis continuation war kerensky 's government marked time socialist led soviet petrograd joined soviets formed throughout country create national movement german government provided million gold marks subsidize bolshevik publications activities subversive tsarist government especially focusing disgruntled soldiers workers april germany provided


special sealed train carry vladimir lenin back russia exile switzerland many behind scenes maneuvers soviets seized control government november drove kerensky moderate provisional government exile events would become known october revolution national constituent assembly elected december refused become rubber stamp bolsheviks dissolved lenin 's troops vestiges democracy removed handicap moderate opposition removed lenin able free regime war


problem harsh treaty brest litovsk germany russia lost much western borderlands however germany defeated soviet government repudiated treaty ref name redvictory w bruce lincoln ''red victory history russian civil war '' ref russian civil war russian civil war european part russia bolshevik grip power means secure lengthy struggle broke new regime opponents included socialist revolutionaries anti bolshevik white movement large numbers peasants time allied powers sent several


expeditionary armies support anti communist forces attempt force russia rejoin world war bolsheviks fought forces national independence movements former russian empire defeated internal enemies brought newly independent states control exception finland baltic states moldavian democratic republic joined romania poland fought polish soviet war finland also annexed region pechenga russian kola peninsula soviet russia allied soviet republics conceded parts


territory estonia petseri county estonian ingria latvia pytalovo turkey kars poland incorporated contested territories western belarus western ukraine former parts russian empire except galicia east curzon line ref name redvictory sides regularly committed brutal atrocities civilians civil war era white terror russia example petlyura denikin 's forces massacred jews ukraine southern russia hundreds thousands jews left homeless tens thousands became victims serious illness estimates total number people killed red terror carried


bolsheviks vary widely one source asserts total number victims repression pacification campaigns could million whereas others give estimates ranging initial period repression ref name anatomy anatomy revolution revisited comparative analysis england france russia bailey stone cambridge university press november p ref ref name anatomy estimate executions per year december february reliable estimations total number killings put number whereas others suggest figure


russian famine killed estimated five million people russian economy devastated war factories bridges destroyed cattle raw materials pillaged mines flooded machines damaged droughts well famine worsened disaster still disease reached pandemic proportions dying typhus alone millions also died widespread starvation least street children russia result nearly ten years devastation great war civil


war another one two million people known white migr fled russia many evacuated crimea far east others west newly independent baltic countries migr included large percentage educated skilled population russia soviet union creation soviet union gorki history russia essentially history union soviet socialist republics soviet union ideologically based union established december leaders russian communist party roughly coterminous


moscow capital soviet union tsars peter great war communism new economic policy period consolidation bolshevik revolution known period war communism ref name richman ref land industry small businesses nationalized money economy restricted strong opposition soon developed ref name richman peasants wanted cash payments products resented surrender surplus grain government part civil war policies confronted peasant opposition lenin began


strategic retreat war communism known new economic policy nep ref name richman peasants freed wholesale levies grain allowed sell surplus produce open market commerce stimulated permitting private retail trading state continued responsible banking transportation heavy industry public utilities although left opposition among communists criticized rich peasants kulaks benefited nep program proved highly beneficial economy revived ref name richman nep would later come increasing opposition within party following lenin 's death


early ref name richman changes russian society babbittry household work russian empire included period region russia also today 's territories ukraine belarus poland lithuania estonia latvia moldavia caucasian central asian countries possible examine firm formation process regions one main determinants firm creation given regions russian empire might urban demand goods supply industrial organizational skill russian economy transformed social life people underwent equally


drastic changes family code granted women equal status men permitted couple take either husband wife 's name divorce longer required court procedure ref name pushkareva ref make women completely free responsibilities childbearing abortion made legal early side effect emancipation women increased labor market girls encouraged secure education pursue career factory office communal nurseries set care small children efforts made shift center


people 's social life home educational recreational groups soviet clubs soviet government pursued policy eliminating illiteracy likbez industrialization massive urbanization began ussr field national policy korenizatsiya carried however mid stalinist government returned tsarist policy russification outskirts particular languages nations ussr translated cyrillic alphabet cyrillization industrialization collectivization years comprised tumultuous decade soviet history period massive


first number plans aimed swift accumulation capital resources buildup heavy industry collectivization agriculture restricted manufacture consumer goods ref name richman first time history government controlled economic activity rapid growth production capacity volume production heavy industry times great importance ensuring economic independence western countries strengthening country 's defense capability time soviet union made transition agrarian country industrial one part


grain precipitated serious famine ref name conquest coll several million peasants died starvation mostly ukraine kazakhstan parts southwestern russia ref name conquest coll deteriorating conditions countryside drove millions desperate peasants rapidly growing cities fueling industrialization vastly increasing russia 's urban population space years plans received remarkable results areas aside agriculture russia many measures poorest nation europe time bolshevik revolution industrialized phenomenal rate far surpassing germany 's pace industrialization th century japan 's earlier


name conquest terror conquest robert ''the great terror reassessment'' new york oxford university press ref purges soviet republics also helped centralize control ussr stalin destroyed opposition party consisting old bolsheviks moscow trials nkvd leadership stalin 's commissar nikolai yezhov carried series massive repressive operations kulaks various national minorities ussr great purges people executed penalties introduced many citizens prosecuted fictitious crimes sabotage espionage labor provided


lebensraum ref name lebensraum see eg mein kampf ref soviets supported republicans spain struggled fascist german italian troops spanish civil war immediately prior wwii soviet union successfully fought imperial japan soviet japanese border conflicts russian far east led soviet japanese neutrality tense border peace lasted august germany annexed austria together major western european powers signed munich agreement following germany hungary poland divided parts czechoslovakia german plans eastward expansion


well lack resolve western powers oppose became apparent despite soviet union strongly opposing munich deal repeatedly reaffirming readiness militarily back commitments given earlier czechoslovakia western betrayal led end czechoslovakia increased fears soviet union coming german attack led soviet union rush modernization military industry carry diplomatic maneuvers soviet union signed molotov ribbentrop pact non aggression pact nazi germany dividing eastern europe two


separate spheres influence following pact ussr normalized relations nazi germany resumed soviet german trade world war ii wwii soviet poster proclaiming everything front everything victory september sixteen days start world war ii victorious germans advanced deep polish territory red army invaded eastern poland stating justification need protect ukrainians belarusians cessation existence polish state result belarusian ukrainian soviet republics' western borders moved westward new


soviet western border drawn close original curzon line meantime negotiations finland soviet proposed land swap would redraw soviet finnish border away leningrad failed december ussr invaded finland beginning campaign known winter war war took heavy death toll red army forced finland sign moscow peace treaty cede karelian isthmus ladoga karelia summer ussr issued ultimatum romania forcing cede territories bessarabia northern bukovina


time soviet union also occupied three formerly independent baltic states estonia latvia lithuania soviet soldiers battle stalingrad largest bloodiest battle history warfare turning point eastern front war axis entire wwii peace germany tense sides preparing military conflict ref name isaev ref abruptly ended axis forces led germany swept across soviet border june


autumn german army seized ukraine laid siege leningrad threatened capture capital moscow despite fact december red army threw german forces moscow successful counterattack germans retained strategic initiative approximately another year held deep offensive south eastern direction reaching volga caucasus however two major german defeats stalingrad kursk proved decisive reversed course entire world war germans never regained strength sustain offensive operations


soviet union recaptured initiative rest conflict end red army broken german siege leningrad liberated much ukraine much western russia moved belarus campaign red army defeated german forces series offensive campaigns known stalin 's ten blows end front moved beyond soviet frontiers eastern europe soviet forces drove eastern germany capturing berlin may war germany thus ended triumphantly soviet


union big three yalta formed uk prime minister winston churchill us president franklin roosevelt soviet leader joseph stalin led allies axis centered nazi germany agreed yalta conference three months victory day europe ussr launched soviet invasion manchuria defeating japanese troops neighboring manchuria last soviet battle world war ii ''raising flag reichstag'' symbol soviet victory wwii although soviet union victorious world war ii war resulted around nbsp million soviet deaths


estimates vary devastated soviet economy struggle towns settlements destroyed occupied territories suffered ravages german occupation deportations slave labor germany thirteen million soviet citizens became victims repressive policies germany allies occupied territories people died mass murders famine absence elementary medical aid slave labor ref name gumer http wwwgumerinfo bibliotek buks history article rubak velotechphp gumerinfo retrieved february ref nazi genocide jews carried german ''einsatzgruppen'' along local collaborators resulted


almost complete annihilation jewish population entire territory temporarily occupied germany allies occupation leningrad region lost around quarter population ref name gumer soviet belarus lost quarter third population nbsp million soviet prisoners war nbsp million died german camps cold war face soviet armor checkpoint charlie berlin october collaboration among major allies war supposed serve basis postwar reconstruction security ussr became one founders un


permanent member un security council however conflict soviet us national interests known cold war came dominate international stage postwar period cold war emerged conflict stalin us president harry truman future eastern europe potsdam conference summer russia suffered three devastating western onslaughts previous years napoleonic wars first world war second world war stalin 's goal establish buffer zone states germany


soviet union ref name gaddis ref truman charged stalin betrayed yalta agreement ref name theoharis orginsofcoldwar ref eastern europe red army occupation stalin also biding time atomic bomb project steadily secretly progressing april united states sponsored north atlantic treaty organization nato mutual defense pact western nations pledged treat armed attack one nation assault soviet union established eastern counterpart nato dubbed warsaw pact division europe western soviet blocks later


took global character especially us nuclear monopoly ended testing soviet bomb communist takeover china foremost objectives soviet foreign policy maintenance enhancement national security maintenance hegemony eastern europe soviet union maintained dominance warsaw pact crushing hungarian revolution suppressing prague spring czechoslovakia supporting suppression solidarity movement poland early soviet union opposed united states number


proxy conflicts world including korean war vietnam war soviet union continued maintain tight control sphere influence eastern europe cold war gave way ''d tente'' complicated pattern international relations world longer clearly split two clearly opposed blocs nuclear race continued number nuclear weapons hands ussr united states reached menacing scale giving ability destroy planet multiple times less powerful countries


world war de stalinization era stagnation nikita khrushchev solidified position speech twentieth congress communist party detailing stalin 's atrocities ref name cnn khrushchev ref president jimmy carter soviet general secretary leonid brezhnev sign strategic arms limitation talks salt ii treaty june khrushchev impeached communist party 's central committee charging host errors included soviet setbacks cuban missile crisis ref name cnn khrushchev period collective leadership led leonid brezhnev alexei kosygin nikolai podgorny veteran


bureaucrat brezhnev took khrushchev 's place soviet leader brezhnev emphasized heavy industry ref name history guide brezhnev ref instituted soviet economic reform ref name duke ref also attempted ease relationships united states ref name history guide brezhnev ussr became leading producer exporter petroleum natural gas soviet science industry peaked khrushchev brezhnev years world 's first nuclear power plant established obninsk baikal amur mainline built addition moscow hosted summer olympic games modernized economies rapidly moving


computerization ussr fell behind moscow 's decision copy ibm proved decisive mistake locked scientists antiquated system unable improve enormous difficulties manufacturing necessary chips reliably quantity programming workable efficient programs coordinating entirely separate operations providing support computer users one greatest strengths soviet economy vast supplies oil gas world oil prices quadrupled rose making energy sector


chief driver soviet economy used cover multiple weaknesses one point soviet premier alexei kosygin told head oil gas production things bad bread give million tons oil plan former prime minister yegor gaidar economist looking back three decades wrote ref soviet space program yuri gagarin first human travel space soviet space program founded sergey korolev especially successful october soviet union launched first satellite sputnik ref name nasa sputnik ref april yuri


gagarin became first human travel space soviet spaceship vostok achievements russian space program include first photo far side moon exploration venus first spacewalk alexei leonov first female spaceflight valentina tereshkova world 's first planetary rovers sent moon successfully worked lunokhod lunokhod recently soviet union produced world 's first space station salyut replaced mir first consistently inhabited long term space station served


perestroika breakup union ronald reagan mikhail gorbachev geneva november two developments dominated decade followed increasingly apparent crumbling soviet union 's economic political structures patchwork attempts reforms reverse process rapid succession former kgb chief yuri andropov konstantin chernenko transitional figures deep roots brezhnevite tradition mikhail gorbachev implemented perestroika attempt modernize soviet communism made significant changes party leadership however gorbachev 's social reforms led unintended consequences policy ''glasnost'' facilitated public


afghanistan outdated industry pervasive corruption soviet planned economy proved ineffective soviet government lost control economic conditions due price control shortages almost products reaching peak end people stand long lines lucky buy even essentials control constituent republics also relaxed began assert national sovereignty moscow leaders russia ukraine belarus signed belavezha accords dissolving soviet union december tension


soviet union russian sfsr authorities came personified bitter power struggle gorbachev boris yeltsin squeezed union politics gorbachev yeltsin represented committed democrat presented significant opposition gorbachev 's authority remarkable reversal fortunes gained election chairman russian republic 's new supreme soviet may following month secured legislation giving russian laws priority soviet laws withholding two thirds budget first russian presidential election yeltsin became president russian sfsr


last gorbachev attempted restructure soviet union less centralized state however august coup gorbachev conspired senior soviet officials attempted coup faced wide popular opposition collapsed three days disintegration union became imminent russian government took soviet union government institutions territory dominant position russians soviet union gave little thought distinction russia soviet union late soviet union russian sfsr lacked even


paltry instruments statehood republics possessed republic level communist party branch trade union councils academy sciences like communist party soviet union banned russia although lustration ever taken place many members became top russian officials however soviet government still opposed market reforms economic situation continued deteriorate december shortages resulted introduction food rationing moscow saint petersburg first time since world war ii russia received


humanitarian food aid abroad belavezha accords supreme soviet russia withdrew russia soviet union december soviet union officially ended december ref name bbc timeline ref russian federation formerly russian soviet federative socialist republic took power december ref name bbc timeline russian government lifted price control january prices rose dramatically shortages disappeared russian federation present liberal reforms although yeltsin came power wave optimism never recovered popularity endorsing yegor gaidar 's shock therapy ending soviet era


price controls drastic cuts state spending open foreign trade regime early ' 'see'' russian economic reform reforms immediately devastated living standards much population russia suffered economic downturn ways severe united states germany undergone six decades earlier great depression hyperinflation hit ruble due monetary overhang days planned economy boris yeltsin first president russian federation meanwhile profusion small parties aversion coherent alliances


left legislature chaotic yeltsin 's rift parliamentary leadership led september october constitutional crisis crisis climaxed october yeltsin chose radical solution settle dispute parliament called tanks shell russian white house blasting opponents yeltsin taking unconstitutional step dissolving legislature russia came close serious civil conflict yeltsin free impose current russian constitution strong presidential powers approved referendum december cohesion russian federation also


western investors corporate raiders andrei volgin engaged hostile takeovers corrupt corporations mid mid russia system multiparty electoral politics harder establish representative government two structural problems struggle president parliament anarchic party system meanwhile central government lost control localities bureaucracy economic fiefdoms tax revenues collapsed still deep depression russia 's economy hit financial crash crisis yeltsin end political career


hours first day yeltsin made surprise announcement resignation leaving government hands little known prime minister vladimir putin former kgb official head fsb kgb 's post soviet successor agency era putin new acting president defeated opponents presidential election march landslide four years later ref name bbc putin elections ref second chechen war ended victory russia time september terrorist attacks rapprochement russia


include shrinking workforce rampant corruption underinvestment infrastructure ref name cia nevertheless reversion socialist command economy seemed almost impossible economic problems aggravated massive capital outflows well extremely difficult conditions business due pressure security forces ''siloviki'' government agencies due high oil prices russia 's gdp ppp doubled although high oil prices relatively cheap ruble initially drove growth since consumer demand recently investment played significant role ref name cia cia world fact book russia ref russia well ahead


resource rich countries economic development long tradition education science industry economic recovery allowed russia obtain right host winter olympic games sochi vladimir putin pro russian crimea leaders sign treaty accession republic crimea russia following controversial referendum separation favored large majority voters russian leadership announced accession crimea russian federation following russia 's annexation crimea alleged russian interference war


eastern ukraine western sanctions imposed russia since russia conducting military intervention syria support bashar al assad regime isis syrian opposition fifa world cup held russia vladimir putin elected fourth presidential term historiography historians see also dissolution soviet union family tree russian monarchs general secretary communist party soviet union history central asia history siberia history administrative division russia history caucasus history jews russia


history soviet union list heads government russia list mongol tatar raids rus' list presidents russia list russian explorers list russian historians list russian rulers list wars involving russia military history russian empire military history soviet union politics russia russia russian armed forces russian colonization americas russian empire russian medical fund soviet union timeline moscow timeline russian history timeline russian innovation timeline saint petersburg references reading surveys auty robert dimitri obolensky eds ''companion


union'' freeze gregory l ed ''russia history'' nd ed oxford harcave sidney ed ''readings russian history'' excerpts scholars https archiveorg details readingsinrussia harc online hosking geoffrey ''russia russians history'' https archiveorg details russiarussianshi ndehosk online jelavich barbara '' st petersburg moscow tsarist soviet foreign policy '' kort michael ''a brief history russia'' https archiveorg details briefhistoryofru kort online mckenzie david michael w curran ''a history russia soviet union beyond'' th ed belmont ca wadsworth publishing millar james ed ''encyclopedia russian history'' vol https archiveorg details encyclopediaofru unse online pares


bernard ''a history russia'' leading historian https archiveorg details inernetdli page n online paxton john ''encyclopedia russian history'' https archiveorg details encyclopediaofru paxt online paxton john ''companion russian history'' https archiveorg details companiontorussi paxt online perrie maureen et al ''the cambridge history russia'' vol cambridge university press https wwwamazoncom cambridge history russia volume dp excerpt text search riasanovsky nicholas v mark steinberg ''a history russia'' th ed https archiveorg details historyofrussia rias th edition online service robert ''a history modern russia tsarism twenty first century'' harvard rd ed https wwwamazoncom history modern russia tsarism twenty first dp excerpt stone david ''a military history russia ivan


terrible war chechnya'' https wwwamazoncom military history russia terrible chechnya ebook dp b lgw excerpts ziegler charles e ''the history russia'' greenwood press russian empire baykov alexander economic development russia ''economic history review'' pp https wwwjstororg stable online billington james h ''the icon axe interpretive history russian culture'' https archiveorg details iconaxeinterpret bill online christian david ''a history russia central asia mongolia'' vol ''inner eurasia prehistory mongol empire'' malden blackwell publishers de madariaga isabel ''russia age catherine great'' comprehensive topical survey fuller william c ''strategy


imperial russia'' https archiveorg details greatreformsauto linc online manning roberta ''the crisis old order russia gentry government'' princeton university press markevich andrei ekaterina zhuravskaya economic effects abolition serfdom evidence russian empire ''american economic review'' mironov boris n ben eklof ''the social history imperial russia '' vol westview press moss walter g ''a history russia'' vol ''to '' ed anthem press oliva lawrence jay ed ''russia era peter great'' excerpts primary secondary sources https archiveorg details russiaineraofpet oliv


online pipes richard ''russia old regime'' nd ed seton watson hugh ''the russian empire '' oxford history modern europe https wwwamazoncom russian empire oxford history dp excerpt text search treasure geoffrey ''the making modern europe '' rd ed pp soviet era chamberlin william henry ''the russian revolution '' vol https archiveorg searchphpquery chamberlin c william henry russian revolution online free cohen stephen f ''rethinking soviet experience politics history since '' oxford university press davies r w ''soviet economic development lenin khrushchev'' https wwwamazoncom economic development khrushchev studies history dp dp excerpt davies rw mark harrison sg wheatcroft ''the economic transformation soviet union ''


figes orlando ''a people 's tragedy history russian revolution'' https archiveorg details peoplestragedyhi fige online fitzpatrick sheila ''the russian revolution'' oxford university press pages gregory paul r robert c stuart ''russian soviet economic performance structure'' th ed hosking geoffrey ''the first socialist society history soviet union within'' nd ed harvard pages kennan george f ''russia west lenin stalin'' https archiveorg details russiawestmentor geor online kort michael ''the soviet colossus history aftermath'' th ed pages kotkin stephen ''stalin paradoxes power ''


vol library congress ''russia country study'' edited glenn e curtis federal research division library congress http lcweb locgov frd cs rutochtml online lincoln w bruce ''passage armageddon russians war revolution '' lewin moshe ''russian peasants soviet power'' northwestern university press mccauley martin ''the rise fall soviet union '' pages moss walter g ''a history russia'' vol since ed anthem press nove alec ''an economic history ussr '' rd ed london penguin books ofer gur soviet economic growth


''journal economic literature'' https wwwjstororg stable online pipes richard ''a concise history russian revolution'' https archiveorg details concisehistoryof pipe online regelson lev ''tragedy russian church '' http wwwregelsorg russian churchhtm remington thomas ''building socialism bolshevik russia'' pittsburgh university pittsburgh press service robert ''a history twentieth century russia'' nd ed cambridge harvard university press service robert ''stalin biography'' along tucker kotkin standard biography steinberg mark ''the russian revolution '' oxford histories tucker robert c ''stalin revolutionary '' ''stalin power revolution ''


along kotkin service books standard biography https webarchiveorg web http wwwhistoryebookorg online acls e books post soviet era asmus ronald ''a little war shook world georgia russia future west'' nyu cohen stephen ''failed crusade america tragedy post communist russia'' new york ww norton pages gregory paul r robert c stuart ''russian soviet economic performance structure'' addison wesley seventh edition medvedev roy ''post soviet russia journey yeltsin era'' columbia university press pages moss walter g ''a history russia'' vol ''since ''


ed anthem press chapter smorodinskaya tatiana karen evans romaine eds ''encyclopedia contemporary russian culture'' https wwwamazoncom encyclopedia contemporary russian culture encyclopedias dp excerpt pp covering art literature music film media crime politics business economics stent angela ''the limits partnership us russian relations twenty first century'' atlases geography blinnikov mikhail ''a geography russia neighbors'' guilford press barnes ian ''restless empire historical atlas russia'' copies historic maps catchpole brian ''a map history russia'' heinemann educational publishers new topical maps channon john robert hudson ''the penguin historical atlas russia''


viking new topical maps chew allen f ''an atlas russian history eleven centuries changing borders'' yale new topical maps gilbert martin ''routledge atlas russian history'' th ed https wwwamazoncom routledge russian history historical atlases dp excerpt text search https archiveorg details atlasofrussianhi mart online henry laura ''red green environmental activism post soviet russia'' kaiser robert j ''the geography nationalism russia ussr'' medvedev andrei ''economic geography russian federation'' parker william henry ''an historical geography russia'' university london press shaw denis jb ''russia modern world new geography''


blackwell historiography baron samuel h nancy w heer soviet union historiography since stalin georg g iggers harold talbot parker eds ''international handbook historical studies contemporary research theory'' taylor francis pp david fox michael et al eds ''after fall essays russian soviet historiography'' bloomington slavica publishers firestone thomas four sovietologists primer ''national interest'' winter pp https wwwjstororg stable ideas zbigniew brzezinski stephen f cohen jerry f hough richard pipes fitzpatrick sheila revisionism soviet history ''history theory'' pp


http wwwjstororg stable online covers scholarship three major schools totalitarianism revisionism post revisionism sanders thomas ed ''historiography imperial russia profession writing history multinational state'' suny ronald grigor rehabilitating tsarism imperial russian state historians review article ''comparative studies society history'' pp https wwwjstororg stable online topolski jerzy soviet studies social history georg g iggers harold talbot parker eds ''international handbook historical studies contemporary research theory'' taylor francis pp primary sources kaiser daniel h gary marker eds


''reinterpreting russian history readings s'' pages https wwwamazoncom reinterpreting russian history readings dp excerpt text search primary documents excerpts historians vernadsky george et al eds ''source book russian history early times '' vol http soviethistorymsuedu seventeen moments soviet history line archive primary source materials soviet history external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwlibraryillinoisedu spx webct subjectresources subsourrus rushistbib html guides sources russian history historiography http eudocslibbyuedu indexphp history russia primary documents history russia primary documents http diaryrhru historic project supported ministry culture russian federation


sahara north african history became entwined middle east southern europe bantu expansion swept modern day cameroon central africa across much sub saharan continent waves around bc ad creating linguistic commonality across much central southern continent middle ages islam spread west arabia egypt crossing maghreb sahel notable pre colonial states societies africa include ajuran empire bachwezi empire d'mt adal sultanate alodia warsangali sultanate buganda kingdom kingdom nri nok culture mali empire bono


state songhai empire benin empire oyo empire kingdom lunda punu yaka ashanti empire ghana empire mossi kingdoms mutapa empire kingdom mapungubwe kingdom sine kingdom sennar kingdom saloum kingdom baol kingdom cayor kingdom zimbabwe kingdom kongo empire kaabu kingdom ile ife ancient carthage numidia mauretania aksumite empire peak prior european colonialism estimated africa different states autonomous groups distinct languages customs late th century europeans joined slave trade ref name auto ref includes triangular trade


portuguese initially acquiring slaves trade later force part atlantic slave trade transported enslaved west central southern africans overseas subsequently european colonization africa developed rapidly around scramble africa however following struggles independence many parts continent well weakened europe second world war decolonization took place across continent culminating year africa disciplines recording oral history historical linguistics archaeology genetics vital


rediscovering great african civilizations antiquity prehistory paleolithic first known hominids evolved africa according paleontology early hominids' skull anatomy similar gorilla chimpanzee great apes also evolved africa hominids adopted bipedal locomotion freed hands gave crucial advantage enabling live forested areas open savanna time africa drying savanna encroaching forested areas would occurred million years ago


claims controversial biologists genetics humans appearing around last thousand thousand years ref name shillington kevin ''history africa'' p rev nd ed new york palgrave macmillan ref million years ago several australopithecine hominid species developed throughout southern eastern central africa tool users makers tools scavenged meat omnivores ref name approximately million years ago primitive stone tools first used scavenge kills made predators harvest carrion marrow bones hunting ''homo


habilis'' probably capable competing large predators still prey hunter ''h habilis'' probably steal eggs nests may able catch small game weakened larger prey cubs older animals tools classed oldowan ref name shillington pp shillington pp ref around million years ago ''homo ergaster'' first appeared fossil record africa ''homo ergaster'' ''homo erectus'' evolved million years ago earlier representatives species still fairly small brained used primitive stone tools much like ''h


habilis'' brain later grew size ''h erectus'' eventually developed complex stone tool technology called acheulean possibly first hunters ''h erectus'' mastered art making fire first hominid leave africa colonizing afro eurasia perhaps later giving rise ''homo floresiensis'' although recent writers suggested ''homo georgicus'' first primary hominid ever live outside africa many scientists consider ''h georgicus'' early primitive member ''h erectus'' species african biface artifact spear point dated late stone age


behavioral modernity date african middle stone age associated early ''homo sapiens'' emergence abstract imagery widened subsistence strategies modern behaviors discovered period africa especially south north east africa blombos cave site south africa example famous rectangular slabs ochre engraved geometric designs using multiple dating techniques site confirmed around years old ref name henshilwood ref ref name henshilwood et al ref ostrich egg shell containers engraved geometric designs dating years ago found diepkloof south


africa ref name texier ref beads personal ornamentation found morocco might much years old well cave hearths south africa yielded number beads dating significantly prior years ago ref name mcbrearty brooks ref shell beads dating years ago found blombos cave south africa ref name henshilwood et al ref ref name d'errico et al ref ref name vanhaeren et al ref specialized projectile weapons well found various sites middle stone age africa including bone stone arrowheads south african


sites sibudu cave along early bone needle also found sibudu dating approximately years ago ref name backwell ref ref name lombard ref ref name lombard ref ref name backwell ref bone harpoons central african site katanda dating years ago evidence also exists systematic heat treating silcrete stone increased flake ability purpose toolmaking beginning approximately years ago south african site pinnacle point becoming common creation microlithic tools years ago early stone tipped projectile weapons characteristic tool ''homo sapiens''


stone tips javelins throwing spears discovered ethiopian site gademotta date around years ago ref name sahleplos ref ochre processing workshop likely production paints uncovered dating ca years ago blombos cave south africa analysis shows liquefied pigment rich mixture produced stored two abalone shells ochre bone charcoal grindstones hammer stones also formed composite part toolkits evidence complexity task includes procuring combining raw materials various sources implying


mental template process would follow possibly using pyrotechnology facilitate fat extraction bone using probable recipe produce compound use shell containers mixing storage later use ref name bbccom ref ref name washington post giqapyhrhl ref ref name henshilwood et al ref modern behaviors making shell beads bone tools arrows use ochre pigment evident kenyan site years ago expanding subsistence strategies beyond big game hunting consequential diversity tool types noted signs behavioral modernity number


south african sites shown early reliance aquatic resources fish shellfish pinnacle point particular shows exploitation marine resources early years ago perhaps response arid conditions inland ref name marean et al ref establishing reliance predictable shellfish deposits example could reduce mobility facilitate complex social systems symbolic behavior blombos cave site sudan show evidence fishing well taphonomic change fish skeletons blombos cave interpreted capture live fish clearly intentional human behavior ref name mcbrearty brooks


humans north africa nazlet sabaha egypt known dabbled chert mining early years ago construction stone tools ref name records ref evidence found dating years ago kenyan site olorgesailie early emergence modern behaviors including long distance trade networks involving goods obsidian use pigments possible making projectile points observed authors three studies site evidence behaviors approximately contemporary earliest known ''homo


sapiens'' fossil remains africa jebel irhoud florisbad suggest complex modern behaviors began africa around time emergence ''homo sapiens'' ref name npr ref ref name atlantic ref ref name brooks ref evidence early complex projectile weapons africa found https discoverafricanartcom tribes aduma people adouma adouma ethiopia dated years ago form points considered likely belong darts delivered spear throwers ref name sahle ref around years ago species' expansion africa launched colonization planet modern human beings ref name posth ref ref name vai ref ref name referencec ref bc ''homo


sapiens'' spread corners afro eurasia dispersals traced linguistic cultural genetic evidence ref name shillington pp earliest physical evidence astronomical activity may lunar calendar found ishango bone dated bc democratic republic congo however interpretation object 's purpose disputed scholars argued warfare absent throughout much humanity 's prehistoric past emerged complex political systems result sedentism agricultural farming etc however findings


asia domesticated wild grains wheat barley bc northeast africa cultivating wheat barley raising sheep cattle southwest asia wet climatic phase africa turned ethiopian highlands mountain forest omotic speakers domesticated enset around bc around bc settlers ethiopian highlands domesticated donkeys bc domesticated donkeys spread southwest asia cushitic speakers partially turning away cattle herding domesticated teff finger millet bc th millennium bp pottery independently invented


africa earliest pottery dating bc central mali ref name swissinfo http wwwswissinfoch eng home archive swiss archaeologist digs west africas pasthtmlcid simon bradley ''a swiss led team archaeologists discovered pieces oldest african pottery central mali dating back least bc'' swi swissinfoch international service swiss broadcasting corporation sbc january ref soon spread throughout southern sahara sahel ref name pottery ref steppes savannahs sahara sahel northern west africa nilo saharan speakers mand peoples started collect domesticate wild millet african rice sorghum


bc later gourds watermelons castor beans cotton also collected domesticated people started capturing wild cattle holding circular thorn hedges resulting domestication also started making pottery built stone settlements eg tichitt oualata fishing using bone tipped harpoons became major activity numerous streams lakes formed increased rains mande peoples credited independent development agriculture bc west africa wet phase ushered expanding rainforest wooded savanna senegal cameroon bc niger congo speakers domesticated


oil palm raffia palm two seed plants black eyed peas voandzeia african groundnuts domesticated followed okra kola nuts since plants grew forest niger congo speakers invented polished stone axes clearing forest southern africa occupied pygmy peoples khoisan engaged hunting gathering oldest rock art produced several hundred thousand years sahara alternated desert savanna grassland year cycle caused changes precession earth 's axis rotates around


sun change location north african monsoon ref name referencea orbit earth 's extraordinary journey documentary ref north african monsoon strongest annual precipitation subsequent vegetation sahara region increase resulting conditions commonly referred green sahara relatively weak north african monsoon opposite true decreased annual precipitation less vegetation resulting phase sahara climate cycle known desert sahara sahara desert several thousand years expected become green years time


ad ref name lakes ref prior saharan desertification communities developed south egypt sudan full participants neolithic revolution lived settled semi nomadic lifestyle domesticated plants animals suggested megaliths found nabta playa examples world 's first known archaeoastronomical devices predating stonehenge years sociocultural complexity observed nabta playa expressed different levels authority within society suggested forming basis structure neolithic society nabta


old kingdom egypt bc africa entered dry phase climate sahara region gradually became drier population trekked sahara region directions including towards nile valley second cataract made permanent semipermanent settlements major climatic recession occurred lessening heavy persistent rains central eastern africa central africa archaeological findings central africa discovered dating back years extensive walled sites settlements recently found zilum chad approximately southwest lake chad dating


first millennium bc trade improved agricultural techniques supported sophisticated societies leading early civilizations sao kanem bornu shilluk baguirmi wadai around bc bantu migrants reached great lakes region central africa halfway first millennium bc bantu also settled far south angola metallurgy igbo ukwu nigeria evidence early smelting metals lead copper bronze dates fourth millennium bc egyptians smelted copper predynastic period bronze came use bc latest egypt


nubia nubia became major source copper well gold use gold silver egypt dates back predynastic period ref name ehret pp ehret pp ref r mountains present day niger people smelted copper independently developments nile valley bc used process unique region suggesting technology brought outside became mature bc ref name ehret pp st millennium bc iron working reached northwestern africa egypt


nubia zangato holl document evidence iron smelting central african republic cameroon may date back bc assyrians using iron weapons pushed nubians egypt bc use iron became widespread nile valley ref name falola ref theory iron spread sub saharan africa via nubian city meroe longer widely accepted researchers believe sub saharan africans invented iron metallurgy independently metalworking west africa dated early bc egaro west termit niger


iron working practiced bc iron smelting dated bc southeast nigeria ref name eze uzomaka central africa provides possible evidence iron working early rd millennium bc iron smelting developed area lake chad african great lakes bc west africa around bc long technology reached egypt bc nok culture jos plateau already smelting iron ref name stuiver ref ref name eggert ref archaeological sites containing iron smelting furnaces slag excavated sites


kingdom aksum ruled modern day eritrea northern ethiopia coastal area western part arabian peninsula ancient egyptians established ties land punt bc punt trade partner ancient egypt believed located modern day somalia djibouti eritrea phoenician cities carthage part mediterranean iron age classical antiquity sub saharan africa developed less independently times ancient egypt map ancient egypt nomes desertification sahara settlement became concentrated


nile valley numerous sacral chiefdoms appeared regions largest population pressure nile delta region lower egypt upper egypt also along second third cataracts dongola reach nile nubia population pressure growth brought cultivation southwest asian crops including wheat barley raising sheep goats cattle population growth led competition farm land need regulate farming regulation established formation bureaucracies among sacral chiefdoms first powerful


chiefdoms ta seti founded around bc idea sacral chiefdom spread throughout upper lower egypt pyramids giza symbols civilization ancient egypt later consolidation chiefdoms broader political entities began occur upper lower egypt culminating unification egypt one political entity narmer menes bc instead viewed sacral chief became divine king henotheism worship single god within polytheistic system practiced sacral chiefdoms along upper lower egypt became


polytheistic ancient egyptian religion bureaucracies became centralized pharaohs run viziers governors tax collectors generals artists technicians engaged tax collecting organizing labor major public works building irrigation systems pyramids temples canals fourth dynasty bc long distance trade developed levant timber nubia gold skins punt frankincense also western libyan territories old kingdom egypt developed fundamental systems institutions culture always central bureaucracy divinity pharaoh


fourth millennium bc egypt started extend direct military political control southern western neighbors bc old kingdom 's stability undermined rivalry among governors nomes challenged power pharaohs invasions asiatics nile delta first intermediate period begun time political division uncertainty middle kingdom egypt arose mentuhotep ii eleventh dynasty unified egypt bc beginning conquering tenth dynasty bc pyramid building resumed long distance trade


emerged center power moved memphis thebes connections southern regions kush wawat irthet second cataract made stronger came second intermediate period invasion hyksos horse drawn chariots utilizing bronze weapons technology heretofore unseen egypt horse drawn chariots soon spread west inhabitable sahara north africa hyksos failed hold egyptian territories absorbed egyptian society eventually led one egypt 's powerful phases new kingdom bc


eighteenth dynasty egypt became superpower controlling nubia judea exerting political influence libyans west mediterranean new kingdom ended invasion west libyan princes leading third intermediate period beginning shoshenq twenty second dynasty established ruled two centuries south nubian independence strength reasserted reassertion led conquest egypt nubia begun kashta completed piye pianhky bc shabaka bc birth twenty fifth dynasty


egypt nubians tried establish egyptian traditions customs ruled egypt hundred years ended assyrian invasion taharqa experiencing full might assyrian iron weapons nubian pharaoh tantamani last twenty fifth dynasty assyrians nubians left new twenty sixth dynasty emerged sais lasted bc egypt invaded persians unlike assyrians persians stayed egypt conquered alexander great beginning ptolemaic dynasty ended roman conquest


bc pharaonic egypt come end nubia nubian empire greatest extent around bc one first sacral kingdoms arise nile ta seti located northern nubia ta seti powerful sacral kingdom nile valley st nd cataracts exerted influence nearby chiefdoms based pictorial representation ruling upper egypt ta seti traded far syro palestine well egypt ta seti exported gold copper ostrich feathers ebony ivory old kingdom nd century bc ta seti decline


unification egypt narmer bc ta seti invaded pharaoh hor aha first dynasty destroying final remnants kingdom ta seti affiliated group culture known archaeology nubian temple apedemak naqa small sacral kingdoms continued dot nubian portion nile centuries bc around latter part third millennium consolidation sacral kingdoms two kingdoms particular emerged sai kingdom immediately south egypt kingdom kerma third cataract sometime around


th century bc kingdom kerma conquered kingdom sai becoming serious rival egypt kerma occupied territory first cataract confluence blue nile white nile atbarah river bc latter part seventeenth dynasty kingdom kerma invaded egypt kingdom kerma allied hyksos invasion egypt egypt eventually energized eighteenth dynasty conquered kingdom kerma kush ruling almost years kushites egyptianized period bc


egyptians withdrawn kush region regained independence reasserted culture kush built new religion around amun made napata spiritual center bc kingdom kush invaded egypt taking thebes beginning nubian empire empire extended palestine confluence blue nile white nile river atbara bc kushites expelled egypt iron wielding assyrians later administrative capital moved napata mer e developing new nubian culture initially meroites highly egyptianized subsequently began take


people west nile ancestral berbers libyans libyans agriculturalists like mauri morocco numidians central eastern algeria tunis also nomadic horse occupied arid pastures desert like gaetuli berber desert nomads typically conflict berber coastal agriculturalists phoenicians mediterranean seamen constant search valuable metals copper gold tin lead began populate north african coast settlements trading mixing native berber population bc phoenicians


tyre established city carthage bc carthage become major trading entity power mediterranean largely trade tropical africa carthage 's prosperity fostered growth berber kingdoms numidia mauretania around bc carthage provided strong impetus trade sub saharan africa berber middlemen maintained contacts sub saharan africa since desert desiccated utilized pack animals transfer products oasis oasis danger lurked garamantes fez raided caravans salt metal goods traded gold slaves beads ivory ruins


carthage carthaginians rivals greeks romans carthage fought punic wars three wars rome first punic war bc sicily second punic war bc hannibal invaded europe third punic war bc carthage lost first two wars third destroyed becoming roman province africa berber kingdom numidia assisting rome roman province africa became major agricultural supplier wheat olives olive oil imperial rome via exorbitant taxation


two centuries later rome brought berber kingdoms numidia mauretania authority 's ad vandals invaded north africa rome lost territories subsequently berber kingdoms regained independence christianity gained foothold africa alexandria st century ad spread northwest africa ad edict milan roman north africa christian egyptians adopted monophysite christianity formed independent coptic church berbers adopted donatist christianity groups refused accept authority roman catholic church role berbers carthaginian


power grew impact indigenous population increased dramatically berber civilization already stage agriculture manufacturing trade political organization supported several states trade links carthage berbers interior grew territorial expansion also resulted enslavement military recruitment berbers extraction tribute others early th century bc berbers formed one largest element gauls carthaginian army mercenary war bc rebellion instigated mercenary soldiers carthage african allies berber soldiers


participated unpaid following defeat carthage first punic war berbers succeeded obtaining control much carthage 's north african territory minted coins bearing name libyan used greek describe natives north africa carthaginian state declined successive defeats romans punic wars bc city carthage destroyed carthaginian power waned influence berber leaders hinterland grew nd century bc several large loosely administered berber kingdoms emerged two established


numidia behind coastal areas controlled carthage west numidia lay mauretania extended across moulouya river morocco atlantic ocean high point berber civilization unequaled coming almohads almoravid dynasty millennium later reached reign masinissa nd century bc masinissa 's death bc berber kingdoms divided reunited several times masinissa 's line survived ad remaining berber territory annexed roman empire macrobia barbari city states reconstruction oikumene


unstrung bow persians could manage string would right invade country thank gods macrobians never decided invade empire ref name kitto john kitto james taylor ''the popular cyclop dia biblical literature condensed larger work'' gould lincoln p ref macrobians regional power reputed advanced architecture gold wealth plentiful shackled prisoners golden chains ref name kitto collapse macrobia several wealthy ancient city states opone essina sarapion nikon malao


damo mosylon near cape guardafui would emerge st millennium bc ad compete sabaeans parthians axumites wealthy indo greco roman trade flourished along somali coast developed lucrative trading network region collectively known peripilus erythraean sea barbaria roman north africa northern africa roman rule increases urbanization area cultivation roman rule caused wholesale dislocations berber society forcing nomad tribes settle move traditional rangelands sedentary tribes lost autonomy connection


land berber opposition roman presence nearly constant roman emperor trajan established frontier south encircling aur nemencha mountains building line forts vescera modern biskra ad majores henchir besseriani southeast biskra defensive line extended least far castellum dimmidi modern messa southwest biskra roman algeria 's southernmost fort romans settled developed area around sitifis modern tif nd century farther west influence rome extend beyond coast principal military roads much later


fayum mummy portrait demetrios citizen roman egypt brooklyn museum roman military presence north africa remained relatively small consisting troops auxiliaries numidia two mauretanian provinces starting nd century ad garrisons manned mostly local inhabitants aside carthage urbanization north africa came part establishment settlements veterans roman emperors claudius reigned nerva trajan algeria settlements included tipasa cuicul curculum modern djemila northeast tif thamugadi modern timgad southeast tif


sitifis modern tif prosperity towns depended agriculture called granary empire north africa became one largest exporters grain empire shipping provinces produce cereals like italy greece crops included fruit figs grapes beans nd century ad olive oil rivaled cereals export item beginnings roman imperial decline seemed less serious north africa elsewhere however uprisings take place ad landowners rebelled unsuccessfully imperial fiscal policies sporadic tribal revolts


numidia attended council carthage end th century settled areas become christianized berber tribes converted ''en masse'' division church came known donatist heresy began among christians north africa donatists stressed holiness church refused accept authority administer sacraments surrendered scriptures forbidden emperor diocletian reigned donatists also opposed involvement constantine great reigned


church affairs contrast majority christians welcomed official imperial recognition occasionally violent donatist controversy characterized struggle opponents supporters roman system articulate north african critic donatist position came called heresy augustine bishop hippo regius augustine maintained unworthiness minister affect validity sacraments true minister jesus christ sermons books augustine considered leading exponent christian dogma evolved theory


destroyed vandal kingdom local opposition delayed full byzantine control region twelve years however imperial control came shadow control exercised rome although impressive series fortifications built byzantine rule compromised official corruption incompetence military weakness lack concern constantinople african affairs made easy target arabs early muslim conquests result many rural areas reverted berber rule aksum aksumite empire aksum obelisk symbol aksumite civilization earliest state eritrea