associated clinically relevant significant shifts exposures impact therapeutic index dosage appropriately modified advantage population pharmacokinetic modelling ability analyse sparse data sets sometimes one concentration measurement per patient available clinical pharmacokinetics class wikitable floatright drugs pharmacokinetic monitoring recommended antiepileptic medication cardioactive medication immunosuppressor medication antibiotic medication phenytoin carbamazepine valproic acid lamotrigine ethosuximide phenobarbital primidone digoxin lidocaine ciclosporin tacrolimus sirolimus everolimus mycophenolate gentamicin tobramycin amikacin vancomycin bronchodilator medication cytostatic medication antiviral hiv medication coagulation factors


theophylline methotrexate fluorouracil irinotecan efavirenz tenofovir ritonavir factor viii factor ix factor viia factor xi clinical pharmacokinetics arising clinical use population pharmacokinetics direct application therapeutic situation knowledge regarding drug 's pharmacokinetics characteristics population patient belongs ascribed example relaunch use ciclosporin immunosuppressor facilitate organ transplant drug 's therapeutic properties initially demonstrated almost never used found cause nephrotoxicity

Applied science
Medicine and health
Pharmaceutical sciences
Pharmacokinetics


number patients however realized possible individualize patient 's dose ciclosporin analysing patients plasmatic concentrations pharmacokinetic monitoring practice allowed drug used facilitated great number organ transplants clinical monitoring usually carried determination plasma concentrations data usually easiest obtain reliable main reasons determining drug 's plasma concentration include narrow therapeutic range difference toxic therapeutic concentrations high toxicity high risk life ecotoxicology ecotoxicology branch


science deals nature effects interactions substances harmful environment ref name pmid ref ref name urltoxicokinetic toxicodynamic models ecotoxicology models ref see also valign top bateman equation blood alcohol concentration biological half life bioavailability enzyme kinetics pharmacodynamics valign top idiosyncratic drug reaction drug interaction patlak plot pharmacometrics pharmacy valign top bioequivalence generic drugs physiologically based pharmacokinetic modelling plateau principle toxicokinetics references external links software noncompartmental freeware http pkpdkmuedutw bear bear http cranatr projectorg web packages pk indexhtml pk r commercial mlab http wwwstatistical solutions softwarecom products page equivtest equivalence testing equivtest http wwwthermoscientificcom ecomm servlet productsdetailproductid kinetica http wwwmathworkscom products simbiology matlab simbiology http aplanalystcom pkmp https wwwcertaracom software phoenix winnonlin


phoenix winnonlin https webarchiveorg web http wwwsummitpkcom pksolutions pksolutionshtm pk solutions https webarchiveorg web http wwwmango solutionscom wp products services products rapidnca rapidnca compartment based freeware http bmsruscedu software adapt adapt http wwwboomerorg boomer http pkpdkmuedutw jguib gui http wwwsbpkpdorg sbpkpdorg systems biology driven pharmacokinetics pharmacodynamics https webarchiveorg web http wwwwinsaamcom winsaam http crancsientuedutw web packages pkfit indexhtml pkfit r http wwwbiopharmacyethzch pharmacalc pharmacalccl java applications commercial https precisepkcom precisepk http wwwimalyticsphilipscom products pharmacokinetic modeling pharmacokinetic modelingpage imalytics kinetica http wwwmathworkscom products simbiology matlab simbiology https wwwcertaracom software phoenix winnonlin phoenix winnonlin pk solutions potterswheel http wwwintegrativebioinformaticscom processdbhtml processdb http deptswashingtonedu saam saam ii physiologically based freeware https wwwgnuorg software mcsim mcsim commercial https webarchiveorg web http acslxcom acslx http wwwcloegatewaycom cloe pk http wwwsimulations pluscom productsaspxgrpid amp cid amp pid gastroplus http wwwmathworkscom products simbiology matlab simbiology http wwwsystems biologycom products pk simhtml pk sim http wwwintegrativebioinformaticscom processdbhtml processdb http wwwsimcypcom simcyp https webarchiveorg web http enteloscom entelos physiolab https wwwcertaracom software phoenix winnonlin phoenix winnonlin https webarchiveorg web http wwwadmewbcom adme workbench population pk freeware winbugs adapt adapt sadapt tran boomer https webarchiveorg web http wwwwinbugs developmentorguk pkbugs homehtml pkbugs http wwwlapkorg pmetricsphp pmetrics r


commercial https precisepkcom precisepk kinetica http wwwmathworkscom products simbiology matlab simbiology http lixoftcom products monolix monolix nonmem https wwwcertaracom software phoenix nlme phoenix nlme http deptswashingtonedu saam popkinetics indexhtml popkinetics saam ii http wwwlapkorg softwarephp uscpack https doseme rxcom doseme rx https webarchiveorg web http wwwmango solutionscom wp products services products navigator navigator workbench simulation model based software freeware copasi berkeley madonna http xnethslgovuk megen megen educational centres global centres highest profiles providing depth training include universities buffalo florida gothenburg leiden otago san francisco beijing tokyo uppsala washington manchester monash university university sheffield ref name pmid ref pharmacy life sciences industry


'''postmodern literature''' form literature characterized use metafiction unreliable narration self reflexivity intertextuality often thematizes historical political issues style experimental literature emerged strongly united states writings authors kurt vonnegut thomas pynchon william gaddis philip k dick kathy acker john barth postmodernists often challenge authorities seen symptom fact style literature first emerged context political tendencies ref name linda hutcheon ''a poetics

Humanities
Languages and literature
History of literature
Post-modern literature


postmodernism'' london routledge pp ref inspiration among things seen postmodern literature highly self reflexive political issues speaks precursors postmodern literature include miguel de cervantes ''don quixote'' laurence sterne ''tristram shandy'' jack kerouac 's ''on road'' postmodern literature particularly prominent st century american literature still features strong current postmodern writing like postironic dave eggers ''a heartbreaking work staggering genius'' jennifer egan ''a visit goon squad'' works however also


develop postmodern form sometimes term postmodernism used discuss many different things ranging architecture historical theory philosophy film fact several people distinguish several forms postmodernism thus suggest three forms postmodernism postmodernity understood historical period mid present different theoretical postmodernism encompasses theories developed thinkers roland barthes jacques derrida michel foucault others third category cultural postmodernism includes film literature visual arts


etc feature postmodern elements postmodern literature sense part cultural postmodernism background notable influences late th early th century playwrights whose work influenced aesthetics postmodernism include august strindberg ref name berg ref luigi pirandello ref name berg bertolt brecht another precursor postmodernism dadaism challenged authority artist highlighted elements chance whim parody irony tristan tzara claimed make dadaist poem create dadaist poem one put random words hat pull one


criticized surrealist ren magritte 's experiments signification used examples jacques derrida michel foucault foucault also uses examples jorge luis borges important direct influence many postmodernist fiction writers occasionally listed postmodernist although started writing influence experiments metafiction magic realism fully realized anglo american world postmodern period ultimately seen highest stratification criticism among scholars ref name autogenerated lewis barry ''postmodernism literature routledge companion postmodernism'' ny routledge ref early th century novels


raymond roussel 's '''' ''locus solus'' giorgio de chirico 's ''hebdomeros'' also identified important postmodern precursor comparisons modernist literature postmodern literature represents break th century realism character development modern postmodern literature explore subjectivism turning external reality examine inner states consciousness many cases drawing modernist examples stream consciousness styles james joyce virginia woolf explorative poems like ''the waste land'' eliot addition modern postmodern literature explore fragmentariness narrative


character construction ''the waste land'' often cited means distinguishing modern postmodern literature poem fragmentary employs pastiche like much postmodern literature speaker ''the waste land'' says fragments shored ruins modernist literature sees fragmentation extreme subjectivity existential crisis freudian internal conflict problem must solved artist often cited one solve postmodernists however often demonstrate chaos insurmountable artist impotent recourse ruin play within


chaos playfulness present many modernist works joyce 's ''finnegans wake'' woolf 's ''orlando'' example may seem similar postmodern works postmodernism playfulness becomes central actual achievement order meaning becomes unlikely ref name autogenerated gertrude stein 's playful experiment metafiction genre ''the autobiography alice b toklas'' interpreted postmodern shift postmodernism stylistic eras definite dates exist rise fall postmodernism 's popularity year irish novelist james joyce english novelist virginia woolf died


sometimes used rough boundary postmodernism 's start irish novelist flann o'brien completed ''the third policeman'' rejected publication remained supposedly lost published posthumously revised version called ''the dalkey archive'' published original two years o'brien died notwithstanding dilatory appearance literary theorist keith hopper regards ''the third policeman'' one first genre call postmodern novel prefix post however necessarily imply new era rather could also indicate reaction modernism


wake second world war disrespect human rights confirmed geneva convention rape nanking bataan death march atomic bombings hiroshima nagasaki holocaust bombing dresden katyn massacre fire bombing tokyo japanese american internment could also imply reaction significant post war events beginning cold war civil rights movement postcolonialism postcolonial literature rise personal computer cyberpunk hypertext fiction argue beginning postmodern literature could marked significant


publications literary events example mark beginning postmodernism first publication john hawkes' ''the cannibal'' first performance ''en attendant godot'' ''waiting godot'' first publication ''howl'' ''naked lunch'' others beginning marked moments critical theory jacques derrida 's structure sign play lecture late ihab hassan 's usage ''the dismemberment orpheus'' brian mchale details main thesis shift although many postmodern works developed


modernism modernism characterised epistemological dominant postmodern works primarily concerned questions ontology post war developments transition figures though postmodernist literature include everything written postmodern period several post war developments literature theatre absurd beat generation magic realism significant similarities developments occasionally collectively labeled postmodern commonly key figures samuel beckett william burroughs jorge luis borges julio cort zar gabriel garc rquez cited significant contributors postmodern aesthetic work alfred jarry surrealists antonin artaud


beckett often seen marking shift modernism postmodernism literature close ties modernism friendship james joyce however work helped shape development literature away modernism joyce one exemplars modernism celebrated possibility language beckett revelation order escape shadow joyce must focus poverty language man failure later work likewise featured characters stuck inescapable situations attempting impotently communicate whose recourse play


make best hans peter wagner says beat generation youth america materialistic jack kerouac coined term developed ideas automatism called spontaneous prose create maximalistic multi novel epic called duluoz legend mold marcel proust 's ''in search lost time'' broadly beat generation often includes several groups post war american writers black mountain poets new york school san francisco renaissance writers occasionally also referred postmoderns see


especially references charles olson grove anthologies edited donald allen though less common usage postmodern references writers postmodernists still appear many writers associated group john ashbery richard brautigan gilbert sorrentino appear often lists postmodern writers one writer associated beat generation appears often lists postmodern writers william burroughs burroughs published ''naked lunch'' paris america considered first truly postmodern novel


fragmentary central narrative arc employs pastiche fold elements popular genres detective fiction science fiction 's full parody paradox playfulness according accounts friends kerouac allen ginsberg edited book guided chance also noted along brion gysin creation cut technique technique similar tzara 's dadaist poem words phrases cut newspaper publication rearranged form new message technique used create novels ''nova


express'' ''the ticket exploded'' magic realism technique popular among latin american writers also considered genre supernatural elements treated mundane famous example practical minded ultimately dismissive treatment apparently angelic figure gabriel garc rquez 's old man enormous wings though technique roots traditional storytelling center piece latin american boom movement coterminous postmodernism major figures boom practitioners magic realism gabriel garc rquez julio cort zar


could considered modernist postmodernist novel later work specifically ''pale fire'' ''ada ardor family chronicle'' clearly postmodern scope american author publisher dave eggers one several contemporary authors represent latest movement post modern literature deemed post postmodernism post irony earliest examples postmodern literature william gaddis' ''the recognitions'' vladimir nabokov 's ''lolita'' william burroughs' ''naked lunch'' rose prominence publication joseph


heller 's ''catch '' john barth 's ''lost funhouse'' kurt vonnegut 's ''slaughterhouse five'' many others thomas pynchon 's novel ''gravity 's rainbow'' often considered postmodern novel redefining postmodernism novel general however also saw several key works postmodern literature delillo 's ''white noise'' paul auster 's ''new york trilogy'' also era literary critics wrote classic works literary history charting american postmodern literature works brian mchale linda hutcheon paul maltby argues


term postmodern caught label style writing new generation writers david foster wallace william vollmann dave eggers michael chabon zadie smith chuck palahniuk jennifer egan neil gaiman carole maso richard powers jonathan lethem publications ''mcsweeney 's'' ''the believer'' fiction pages ''the new yorker'' herald either new chapter postmodernism possibly post postmodernism ref name autogenerated many authors emphasize strong urge sincerity literature common themes techniques several themes techniques indicative writing postmodern era


themes techniques often used together example metafiction pastiche often used irony used postmodernists exclusive list features irony playfulness black humor linda hutcheon claimed postmodern fiction whole could characterized ironic quote marks much taken tongue cheek irony along black humor general concept play related derrida 's concept ideas advocated roland barthes ''the pleasure text'' among recognizable aspects postmodernism though


structured around long series similar ironies thomas pynchon 's ''the crying lot '' particular provides prime examples playfulness often including silly wordplay within serious context example contains characters named mike fallopian stanley koteks radio station called kcuf novel whole serious subject complex structure ref name autogenerated intertextuality since postmodernism represents decentred concept universe individual works isolated creations much focus study postmodern literature intertextuality relationship one text


novel example another one text within interwoven fabric literary history intertextuality postmodern literature reference parallel another literary work extended discussion work adoption style postmodern literature commonly manifests references fairy tales works margaret atwood donald barthelme many others references popular genres sci fi detective fiction often intertextuality complicated single reference another text robert coover 's ''pinocchio venice'' example links pinocchio thomas mann 's ''death


venice'' also umberto eco 's ''the name rose'' takes form detective novel makes references authors aristotle sir arthur conan doyle borges ref name referencea ''the penguin dictionary literary terms literary theory'' jacuddon ref early th century example intertextuality influenced later postmodernists pierre menard author quixote jorge luis borges story significant references ''don quixote'' also good example intertextuality references medieval romances ''don quixote'' common reference postmodernists example kathy acker 's novel ''don


quixote dream'' references ''don quixote'' also seen paul auster 's post modern detective story ''city glass'' another example intertextuality postmodernism john barth 's ''the sot weed factor'' deals ebenezer cooke 's poem name pastiche related postmodern intertextuality pastiche means combine paste together multiple elements postmodernist literature homage parody past styles seen representation chaotic pluralistic information drenched aspects postmodern society combination multiple genres create


unique narrative comment situations postmodernity example william burroughs uses science fiction detective fiction westerns margaret atwood uses science fiction fairy tales umberto eco uses detective fiction fairy tales science fiction though commonly involves mixing genres many elements also included metafiction temporal distortion common broader pastiche postmodern novel robert coover 's novel ''the public burning'' coover mixes historically inaccurate accounts richard nixon interacting historical figures fictional characters uncle sam betty crocker


idea parody metafiction often employed undermine authority author unexpected narrative shifts advance story unique way emotional distance comment act storytelling example italo calvino 's novel ''if winter 's night traveler'' reader attempting read novel name kurt vonnegut also commonly used technique first chapter novel ''slaughterhouse five'' process writing novel calls attention presence throughout novel though much


novel vonnegut 's experiences firebombing dresden vonnegut continually points artificiality central narrative arc contains obviously fictional elements aliens time travel similarly tim o'brien 's short story cycle ''the things carried'' one platoon 's experiences vietnam war features character named tim o'brien though o'brien vietnam veteran book work fiction o'brien calls question fictionality characters incidents throughout book one story book tell true war


story questions nature telling stories factual retellings war stories narrator says would unbelievable heroic moral war stories n't capture truth david foster wallace ''the pale king'' writes copyright page claims fiction legal purposes everything within novel non fiction employs character novel named david foster wallace giannina braschi also namesake character uses metafiction pastiche novels ''yo yo boing '' ''united states banana'' collapse american empire fabulation fabulation term


sometimes used interchangeably metafiction relates pastiche magic realism rejection realism embraces notion literature created work bound notions mimesis verisimilitude thus fabulation challenges traditional notions literature traditional structure novel role narrator example integrates traditional notions storytelling including fantastical elements magic myth elements popular genres science fiction accounts term coined robert scholes book ''the fabulators'' strong examples fabulation


contemporary literature found salman rushdie 's ''haroun sea stories'' poioumena poioumenon plural poioumena product term coined alastair fowler refer specific type metafiction story process creation according fowler poioumenon calculated offer opportunities explore boundaries fiction reality limits narrative truth ref name fowler many cases book process creating book includes central metaphor process common examples thomas carlyle 's ''sartor resartus''


laurence sterne 's ''tristram shandy'' narrator 's frustrated attempt tell story significant postmodern example vladimir nabokov 's ''pale fire'' narrator kinbote claims writing analysis john shade 's long poem pale fire narrative relationship shade kinbote presented ostensibly footnotes poem similarly self conscious narrator salman rushdie 's ''midnight 's children'' parallels creation book creation chutney creation independent india ''anagrams'' david r slavitt describes week


life poet creation poem last couple pages proves remarkably prophetic ''the comforters'' muriel spark 's protagonist hears sound typewriter voices later may transform novel jan k esadlo purports merely translator chrononaut 's handed homeric greek science fiction epic ''astronautilia'' postmodern examples poioumena include samuel beckett 's trilogy ''molloy'' ''malone dies'' ''the unnamable'' doris lessing 's ''the golden notebook'' john fowles 's ''mantissa'' william golding 's ''the paper men'' gilbert sorrentino 's ''mulligan stew'' chrostowska 's


''permission'' ref name referencea ref name fowler fowler alastair ''the history english literature'' p harvard university press cambridge ref historiographic metafiction linda hutcheon coined term historiographic metafiction refer works fictionalize actual historical events figures notable examples include ''the general labyrinth'' gabriel garc rquez sim n bol var ''flaubert 's parrot'' julian barnes gustave flaubert ''ragtime'' e l doctorow features historical figures harry houdini henry ford archduke franz ferdinand austria booker washington sigmund freud carl jung rabih alameddine 's ''koolaids art war'' makes references


lebanese civil war various real life political figures thomas pynchon 's ''mason dixon'' also employs concept example scene featuring george washington smoking marijuana included john fowles deals similarly victorian period ''the french lieutenant 's woman'' kurt vonnegut 's ''slaughterhouse five'' said feature metafictional janus headed outlook way novel seeks represent world war ii time notion exactly ref name jensen jensen mikkel http wwwtandfonlinecom doi full janus headed postmodernism opening lines ''slaughterhouse five'' ''the explicator'' ref temporal


distortion temporal distortion common technique modernist fiction fragmentation nonlinear narratives central features modern postmodern literature temporal distortion postmodern fiction used variety ways often sake irony historiographic metafiction example distortions time central features many kurt vonnegut 's nonlinear novels famous perhaps billy pilgrim ''slaughterhouse five'' becoming unstuck time ''flight canada'' ishmael reed deals playfully anachronisms abraham lincoln using telephone example time may also overlap repeat


bifurcate multiple possibilities example robert coover 's babysitter ''pricksongs descants'' author presents multiple possible events occurring simultaneously one section babysitter murdered another section nothing happens yet version story favored correct version ref name autogenerated magic realism magic realism may literary work marked use still sharply defined smoothly painted images figures objects depicted surrealistic manner themes subjects often imaginary somewhat outlandish fantastic certain dream like quality characteristic


features kind fiction mingling juxtaposition realistic fantastic bizarre skillful time shifts convoluted even labyrinthine narratives plots miscellaneous use dreams myths fairy stories expressionistic even surrealistic description arcane erudition element surprise abrupt shock horrific inexplicable applied instance work jorge luis borges author ''historia universal de la infamia'' considered bridge modernism postmodernism world literature colombian novelist gabriel garc rquez also regarded notable exponent


kind fiction especially novel ''one hundred years solitude'' cuban alejo carpentier ''the kingdom world'' another described magic realist postmodernists italo calvino ''the baron trees'' salman rushdie ''the ground beneath feet'' commonly use magic realism work ref name autogenerated ref name referencea fusion fabulism magic realism apparent early st century american short stories kevin brockmeier 's ceiling dan chaon 's big jacob appel 's exposure elizabeth graver 's mourning door technoculture hyperreality fredric jameson called


postmodernism cultural logic late capitalism late capitalism implies society moved past industrial age information age likewise jean baudrillard claimed postmodernity defined shift hyperreality simulations replaced real postmodernity people inundated information technology become central focus many lives one 's understanding real mediated simulations real many works fiction dealt aspect postmodernity characteristic irony pastiche example virtual reality empathy boxes philip k dick 's novel


''do androids dream electric sheep'' new technology based religion called mercerism arises another example delillo 's ''white noise'' presents characters bombarded white noise television product brand names clich cyberpunk fiction william gibson neal stephenson many others use science fiction techniques address postmodern hyperreal information bombardment paranoia perhaps demonstrated famously effectively heller 's ''catch '' sense paranoia belief 's ordering system behind chaos world another recurring postmodern theme postmodernist ordering extremely dependent


upon subject paranoia often straddles line delusion brilliant insight pynchon 's ''the crying lot '' long considered prototype postmodern literature presents situation may coincidence conspiracy cruel joke often coincides theme technoculture hyperreality example ''breakfast champions'' kurt vonnegut character dwayne hoover becomes violent 's convinced everyone else world robot human ref name autogenerated theme likewise present satirical dystopian science fiction tabletop role playing game ''paranoia'' maximalism


dubbed maximalism critics sprawling canvas fragmented narrative writers dave eggers david foster wallace generated controversy purpose novel narrative standards judged postmodern position style novel must appropriate depicts represents points back examples previous ages ''gargantua'' fran ois rabelais ''odyssey'' homer nancy felson hails exemplar polytropic audience engagement work many modernist critics notably


short stories slice life stories minimalism opposite maximalism representation basic necessary pieces specific economy words minimalist authors hesitate use adjectives adverbs meaningless details instead providing every minute detail author provides general context allows reader 's imagination shape story among categorized postmodernist literary minimalism commonly associated jon fosse especially samuel beckett fragmentation fragmentation another important aspect postmodern literature various elements concerning plot characters themes imagery factual references fragmented


distortion grammar sense alienation character world created language medium invented form kind intermittent syntax structure complements illustration main character 's subconscious fears paranoia course exploration seemingly chaotic world different perspectives john barth postmodernist novelist talks often label postmodern wrote influential essay called literature exhaustion published literature replenishment order clarify earlier essay literature exhaustion need new


essay e unibus pluram television us fiction makes connection rise postmodernism rise television tendency toward self reference ironic juxtaposition 's seen 's said claims explains preponderance pop culture references postmodern literature hans peter wagner offers approach defining postmodern literature ref see also postmodernism hysterical realism metafiction list postmodern critics list postmodern novels list postmodern writers references reading barthes roland ''the pleasure text'' new york hill wang barthes roland ''writing degree zero''


new york hill wang foucault michel ''this pipe'' berkeley university california press hoover paul ed ''postmodern american poetry norton anthology'' new york w w norton company jameson fredric ''postmodernism cultural logic late capitalism'' lyotard jean fran ois ''the postmodern condition report knowledge'' lyotard jean fran ois ''the postmodern explained correspondence '' ed julian pefanis morgan thomas magliola robert ''on deconstructing life worlds buddhism christianity culture'' lafayette purdue university press oxford oxford university press book 's long experimental first part


application derridean oto biography postmodern life writing th century literature literature literature literature literature literature literature literature


sleep diary layout example '''sleep medicine''' medical specialty subspecialty devoted diagnosis therapy sleep disturbances disorders middle th century research provided increasing knowledge answered many questions sleep wake functioning rapidly evolving field become recognized medical subspecialty countries dental sleep medicine also qualifies board certification countries properly organized minimum month postgraduate training programs still defined united states countries sleep researchers physicians treat patients may people

Applied science
Medicine and health
Sleep medicine


first sleep clinics united states established interested physicians technicians study diagnosis treatment obstructive sleep apnea first tasks late virtually american physician specific training sleep medicine could open sleep laboratory ref name collop disorders disturbances sleep widespread significant consequences affected individuals well economic consequences society us national transportation safety board according charles czeisler member institute medicine director harvard university medical school


present similar symptoms excessive daytime sleepiness absence volitional sleep deprivation almost inevitably caused identifiable treatable sleep disorder sleep apnea narcolepsy idiopathic hypersomnia kleine levin syndrome menstrual related hypersomnia idiopathic recurrent stupor circadian rhythm disturbances another common complaint insomnia set symptoms many causes physical mental management varying situations differs greatly cannot undertaken without correct diagnosis icsd ''the international classification sleep disorders'' restructured relation predecessor include one code


diagnostic entry classify disorders pathophysiologic mechanism far possible rather primary complaint training sleep medicine multidisciplinary present structure chosen encourage multidisciplinary approach diagnosis sleep disorders often fit neatly traditional classification differential diagnoses cross medical systems minor revisions updates icsd made following years present classification system fact follows groupings suggested nathaniel kleitman father sleep research seminal book ''sleep wakefulness'' revised icsd icsd r placed


primary sleep disorders subgroups dyssomnias include produce complaints insomnia excessive sleepiness parasomnias produce primary complaints intrude occur sleep subdivision dyssomnias preserves integrity circadian rhythm sleep disorders mandated doctors researchers world participated process last two subgroups medical psychiatric sleep disorder section proposed new disorders section authors found heading medical psychiatric


less ideal better alternative organic non organic seemed likely change future detailed reporting schemes aimed provide data research second edition called icsd published mesh ''medical subject headings'' service us national library medicine national institutes health uses similar broad categories dyssomnias including narcolepsy apnea circadian rhythm sleep disorders parasomnias include among others bruxism tooth grinding sleepwalking bedwetting sleep disorders caused medical psychiatric conditions system used produces trees approaching


common cause mood sleep disorders occurring patient review states humans single nucleotide polymorphisms ''clock'' clock genes associated depression evidence mood disorders associated disrupted least inappropriately timed circadian rhythms suggests treatment strategies drugs aimed restoring 'normal' circadian rhythmicity may clinically useful history th century physician wrote many laborers dozed exhausted start night sexual intercourse wives typically occurring ''watching period'' recuperative first sleep


anthropologists find isolated societies without electric light sleep variety patterns seldom resemble modern habit sleeping one single eight hour bout much written dream interpretation biblical times freud sleep historically seen passive state awake concept sleep medicine belongs second half th century due rapidly increasing knowledge sleep including growth research field chronobiology discoveries rem sleep sleep apnea first described medical


literature medical importance sleep recognized medical community began paying attention previously primary sleep disorders sleep apnea well role quality sleep conditions us many western nations within two following decades clinics laboratories devoted study sleep treatment disorders founded sleep doctors primarily concerned apnea experts narcolepsy yet nothing restrict use title sleep doctor


need standards arose basic medical training paid little attention sleep problems according benca review ''diagnosis treatment chronic insomnia'' doctors well trained respect sleep sleep disorders survey american medical schools showed sleep sleep disorders covered less two hours total teaching time average ref name psychservices ref benca 's review cites survey papp et al primary care physicians self reported knowledge sleep disorders follows excellent


good fair poor review studies indicates doctors patients appear reluctant discuss sleep complaints part perceptions treatments insomnia ineffective associated risks also editorial american college chest physicians' pulmonologists' journal ''chest'' quite concerned ''conundrums sleep medicine'' author chair organization 's sleep section asked required set sleep laboratory money building anyone open sleep laboratory


seems everyone ref name collop accreditation process sleep laboratories continues accreditation however currently required states importantly insurance carriers reimbursements also american board sleep medicine absm certifies individuals sleep specialists certification presumably makes individuals qualified run sleep laboratory however certification required run laboratory read sleep studies concern turn century ref uk knowledge sleep medicine possibilities


diagnosis treatment seem lag guardiancouk quotes director imperial college healthcare sleep centre one problem relatively little training sleep medicine country certainly structured training sleep physicians imperial college healthcare site shows attention obstructive sleep apnea syndrome osa disorders specifically including insomnia training certification worldwide world federation sleep research sleep medicine societies wfsrsms founded name implies members concerned basic clinical research well medicine


launched inaugural congress february society 's membership diverse includes general practitioners ent surgeons pulmonologists cardiologists endocrinologists psychiatrists asia wfsrsms members asia include australasian sleep association asa new zealand australia asian sleep research society asrs umbrella organization societies several asian nations europe european sleep research society esrs member wfsrsms assembly national sleep societies anss includes medical scientific organizations countries formal body esrs esrs


published ''european accreditation guidelines smcs'' sleep medicine centres first several proposed guidelines coordinate promote sleep science medicine europe united states polysomnography psg multi parametric test used diagnostic tool sleep medicine american academy sleep medicine aasm founded administered certification process sleep medicine examination doctors independent daughter entity american board sleep medicine absm incorporated took aforementioned responsibilities absm ceased administering examination conceded examination


process recognized american board medical specialties abms advantageous field candidates passed absm exam retain lifetime certification diplomates organization american board psychiatry neurology abpn corresponding boards internal medicine pediatrics otolaryngology ear nose throat ent administer collectively sleep medicine certification exam members board supervises required months formal training candidates exam administered time place first


neurology us certification sleep medicine several member boards abms shows specialist ref pulmonologists already subspecialists within internal medicine may accepted sit board certified sleep medicine six month fellowship building knowledge sleep related breathing problems rather usual twelve month fellowship required specialists sleep dentistry bruxism snoring sleep apnea recognized one nine dental specialties qualifies board certification american board dental sleep medicine abdsm resulting diplomate status recognized


hospital based university based freestanding required provide testing treatment ''all'' sleep disorders staff sleep specialist certified american board sleep medicine otherwise meet similar standards diagnostic methods pediatric polysomnography taking thorough medical history keeping mind alternative diagnoses possibility one ailment patient first step symptoms different sleep disorders may similar must determined whether psychiatric problems primary secondary patient history includes previous


attempts treatment coping careful medication review differentiation transient chronic disorders primary secondary ones influences direction evaluation treatment plans ref name cataletto ref epworth sleepiness scale ess designed give indication sleepiness correlated sleep apnea ref name johns ref questionnaires designed measure excessive daytime sleepiness diagnostic tools used repeatedly measure results treatment sleep diary also called sleep log sleep journal kept patient home least two weeks subjective may help determine extent nature


used verify sleep diary cost efficient full polysomnography required polysomnography performed sleep laboratory patient sleeps preferably usual sleeping time polysomnogram psg objectively records sleep stages respiratory events shows multiple channels electroencephalogram eeg electrooculogram eog electrocardiogram ecg nasal oral airflow abdominal chest leg movements blood oxygen levels single part polysomnogram sometimes measured home portable equipment example oximetry records blood oxygen levels throughout night polysomnography routinely used


second hour test measures number minutes takes start daytime nap period first signs sleep measure daytime sleepiness also shows whether rem sleep achieved short nap typical indication narcolepsy imaging studies may performed patient evaluated neurodegenerative disease determine obstruction obstructive sleep apnea ref name cataletto '''sleep questionnaires''' validated questionnaires sleep medicine ''tayside children 's sleep questionnaire'' ten item questionnaire sleep disorders children aged


one five years old ''children 's sleep habits questionnaire'' ''cleveland adolescent sleepiness questionnaire casq '' items measure extreme sleepiness day adolescents aged years old treatments cpap positive airway pressure machine normison temazepam benzodiazepine commonly prescribed insomnia sleep disorders sleep complaints secondary pain medical psychiatric diagnoses substance abuse may necessary treat underlying cause sleep problems underlying cause sleep problems immediately obvious behavioral treatments usually first suggested range patient education


sleep hygiene cognitive behavioral therapy cbt studies younger older adults compared cbt medication found cbt considered first line cost effective intervention chronic insomnia least gains may maintained long term follow sleep physicians psychologists least us agreement perform cbt whether sleep centers required psychologists staff uk number cbt trained therapists limited cbt widely available nhs behavioral therapies include progressive relaxation stimulus


control reassociate bed sleepiness limiting time bed increase sleep efficiency debunking misconceptions sleep ref name bonds pharmacotherapy necessary conditions medication may useful acute insomnia parasomnias almost always needed along scheduled short naps close follow treatment narcolepsy idiopathic hypersomnia chronic circadian rhythm disorders common delayed sleep phase disorder may managed specifically timed bright light therapy usually morning darkness therapy hours bedtime timed oral administration hormone melatonin


chronotherapy also prescribed circadian rhythm disorders though results generally short lived stimulants may also prescribed therapies unsuccessful counseling may indicated help person adapt live condition people disorders chosen lifestyle conformity sleeping schedules need treatment though may need diagnosis order avoid meet appointments meetings sleep time continuous positive airway pressure cpap bilevel continuous positive airway pressure bipap similar machines used nightly


home effectively manage sleep related breathing disorders apnea milder cases oral appliances may effective alternate treatments mild cases obese people weight reduction may sufficient usually recommended adjunct cpap treatment since sustaining weight loss difficult cases upper airway surgery generally performed otolaryngologist head neck surgeon occasionally oral maxillofacial surgeon indicated ref name cataletto treatments prevent airway collapse interrupts breathing sleep study published hans werner gessmann journal sleep medicine sleep psychology found


uncertainty fear patients difficulty sleeping directly due treatments others experience pain affects sleep quality factors include diet less optimum sleeping conditions cancer also shown cause increased sleep apnea adds potential issues see also american academy sleep medicine environmental noise health effects polysomnographic technician reversed vegetative symptoms sleep study sundowning dementia white noise machine references reading american academy sleep medicine ''the international classification sleep disorders diagnostic coding manual'' nd ed american academy sleep medicine national


academy sciences institute medicine us committee sleep medicine research colten hr altevogt bm editors sleep disorders sleep deprivation unmet public health problem washington dc national academies press us chapter full text https wwwncbinlmnihgov books nbk improving awareness diagnosis treatment sleep disorders external links https aasmorg american academy sleep medicine dream sleep physiology neurophysiology


''nyk aphrodite'' carrying containers maritime public passenger transport delfino verde trieste ms ''baltic princess'' car ferry v sterhamn harbour mariehamn land container ship belonging french shipping line cma cgm harbour cranes unload cargo container ship jawaharlal nehru port navi mumbai india '''maritime transport''' '''ocean transport''' '''hydrolyc effluvial transport''' generally '''waterborne transport''' transport people passengers goods cargo via waterways freight transport sea widely used throughout recorded history advent aviation diminished importance

Applied science
Transportation
Marine transportation


sea travel passengers though still popular short trips pleasure cruises transport water cheaper transport air despite fluctuating exchange rates fee placed top freighting charges carrier companies known currency adjustment factor maritime transport accounts roughly international trade according unctad maritime transport realized distance boat ship sailboat barge oceans lakes canals along rivers shipping may commerce recreation military purposes extensive inland shipping less


critical today major waterways world including many canals still important integral parts worldwide economies particularly especially material moved water however water transport becomes impractical material delivery time critical various types perishable produce still water transport highly cost effective regular schedulable cargoes trans oceanic shipping consumer products nbsp especially heavy loads bulk cargos coal coke ores grains arguably industrial revolution took place best cheap water transport canal navigations shipping


types watercraft natural waterways supported cost effective bulk transport containerization revolutionized maritime transport starting general cargo includes goods packaged boxes cases pallets barrels cargo carried one mode intermodal co modal description work ciagov ref nation 's shipping fleet merchant navy merchant marine merchant fleet consists ships operated civilian crews transport passengers cargo one place another merchant shipping also includes water transport river canal systems connecting inland destinations large small example early


modern era cities hanseatic league began taming northern europe 's rivers harbors similarly saint lawrence seaway connects port cities great lakes canada united states atlantic ocean shipping routes various illinois canals connect great lakes canada new orleans ores coal grains travel along rivers american midwest pittsburgh birmingham alabama professional mariners known merchant seamen merchant sailors merchant mariners simply seamen sailors mariners terms seaman sailor may also refer


member country 's navy according cia world factbook total number merchant ships least gross register tons world increase quarter merchant mariners born philippines statistics individual countries available list merchant navy capacity country liners tramps ship may also categorized operated '''liner''' regular run operate schedule scheduled operation requires


ships better equipped deal causes potential delay bad weather generally higher powered tramp ships better seakeeping qualities thus significantly expensive build liners typically built passenger container operation though past common uses also included mail general cargo '''tramp trader ''' fixed run go wherever suitable cargo takes thus ship crew may chartered ship owner fetch cargo grain canada latvia ship may required


carry cargo coal britain melanesia bulk carriers cruise ships examples ships built operate manner ships watercraft ships watercraft used maritime transport types distinguished propulsion size cargo type recreational educational craft still use wind power smaller craft use internal combustion engines drive one propellers case jet boats inboard water jet shallow draft areas everglades craft hovercraft


propelled large pusher prop fans modern merchant ships placed one categories class wikitable sortable colspan primary maritime transport types image description framelessthe sabrina '''bulk carriers''' cargo ships used transport bulk cargo items ore food staples rice grain etc similar cargo recognized large box like hatches deck designed slide outboard loading bulk carrier could either dry wet lakes small accommodate bulk ships


large fleet lake freighters plying great lakes st lawrence seaway north america century frameless '''container ships''' cargo ships carry entire load truck sized containers technique called containerization form common means commercial intermodal freight transport informally known box boats carry majority world 's dry cargo container ships propelled diesel engines crews people generally large accommodation block stern directly engine room


frameless '''cruise ships''' passenger ships used pleasure voyages voyage ship 's amenities considered essential part experience cruising become major part tourism industry millions passengers year industry 's rapid growth seen nine newly built ships catering north american clientele added every year since well others servicing european clientele smaller markets asia pacific region generally serviced older tonnage displaced new ships introduced high growth areas


baltic sea ports connected '''cruiseferries''' frameless '''multi purpose''' ship sometimes called general cargo ship used transport variety goods bulk commodities break bulk heavy cargoes provide maximum trading flexibility usually geared supplied cranes modern examples fitted carriage containers grains generally large open holds tweendecks facilitate carriage different cargoes voyage crew highly competent securing break bulk cargoes ship


equipped various lashings equipment sea fastening frameless '''ocean liner''' passenger ship designed transport people one seaport another along regular long distance maritime routes according schedule ocean liners may also carry cargo mail may sometimes used purposes ocean liners usually strongly built high freeboard withstand rough seas adverse conditions encountered open ocean large capacities fuel food consumables long voyages main stay passenger transport companies however due


growth air travel passenger ships saw steady decline cruise ships later filled void primarily used people still love sea offer amenities older passenger ships frameless '''refrigerated ships''' usually called reefers cargo ships typically used transport perishable commodities require temperature controlled transportation mostly fruits meat fish vegetables dairy products foodstuffs frameless '''roll roll ships''' ships designed transport wheeled cargo automobiles trailers railway carriages roro ro ro vessels built ramps allow


cargo efficiently rolled rolled vessel port smaller ferries operate across rivers short distances still often built ramps term roro generally reserved larger ocean going vessels including pure car truck carrier pctc ships frameless '''tankers''' cargo ships transport fluids crude oil petroleum products liquefied petroleum gas lpg liquefied natural gas lng chemicals also vegetable oils wine food tanker sector comprises one third world tonnage colspan secondary maritime transport types frameless


'''barge''' flat bottomed boat built mainly river canal transport heavy goods barges self propelled need moved tugboats towing towboats pushing barges canals towed draft animals adjacent towpath established conditions supporting early industrial revolution europe american northeast later made possible steam locomotive prime movers riding iron rails nbsp could grow mature become commonplace capable nbsp contended railways outcompeted carriage people light freight high value items


due higher speed falling costs route flexibility rail transport carriage bulk goods also gradually lost ground freight railways train capacity speeds continued climb even underpowered early rail networks could usually reach places outrageously expensive canal might built iron rails higher powered locomotives became possible far cheaper build railways unfettered independent upon water sources whilst mostly unplagued seasonal problems restricted icing temperate latitude canals suffered ice freshet flooding damages dreary regularity floods affect


railways restoration services usually comparatively rapid frameless '''cable layer''' deep sea vessel designed used lay underwater cables telecommunications electricity large superstructure one spools feed transom distinguish frameless '''coastal trading vessels''' also known '''coasters''' ships used trade locations island continent often small shallow draft sometimes set self dischargers frameless '' 'dredger''' sometimes also called dredge ship used excavate shallow seas


fresh water areas purpose gathering bottom sediments disposing different location frameless '''ferries''' form transport usually boat ship also forms carrying ''ferrying'' passengers sometimes vehicles ferries also used transport freight lorries sometimes unpowered freight containers even railroad cars ferries operate regular frequent return services foot passenger ferry many stops sometimes called waterbus water taxi ferries form part public transport systems many waterside cities


islands allowing direct transit points capital cost much lower bridges tunnels many ferries operating northern european waters roll roll ships frameless '''tugboat''' boat used manoeuvre primarily towing pushing vessels see shipping harbours open sea rivers canals also used tow barges disabled ships equipment like towboats frameless '''open hatch general cargo ships''' designed transport forest products bulk cargos unitized cargoes project cargoes containers frameless '''semi submersible


heavy lift ships''' often move particularly large heavy bulky goods ships cannot handle well size goods include ship hulls premade construction materials seagoing vessels power plant components cast steel objects variety large heavy goods typical transit times cargo ship sailing european port us one typically take days depending water currents factors order make container ship transport economical face declining demand intercontinental shipping ship operators sometimes reduce cruising speed thereby increasing


transit time reduce fuel consumption strategy referred slow steaming ref name inti ref history professional mariners map shipping routes illustrates relative density commercial shipping world 's oceans ship 's complement divided four categories deck department engine department steward 's department deck department able seaman stands iceberg lookout bow freighter usns ''southern cross'' supply mission mcmurdo station antarctica circa officer positions deck department include limited master chief second


operate maintain propulsion systems board vessel engine staff also deal hotel facilities board notably sewage lighting air conditioning water systems deal bulk fuel transfers require training firefighting first aid well dealing ship 's boats nautical tasks especially cargo loading discharging gear safety systems though specific cargo discharge function remains responsibility deck officers deck workers lpg lng tankers however cargo engineer works deck department cargo operations


well watchkeeping engineer common engine crew ship includes chief engineer second engineer first assistant engineer third engineer second assistant engineer fourth engineer third assistant engineer fifth engineer junior engineer oiler unlicensed qualified rating greaser unlicensed qualified rating entry level rating wiper occupation utilityman etc many american ships also carry motorman possible positions include machinist electrician refrigeration engineer tankerman engine cadets engineer trainees completing sea time necessary obtain watchkeeping license


steward 's department typical steward 's department cargo ship would composed chief steward chief cook steward 's assistant three positions typically filled unlicensed personnel chief steward directs instructs assigns personnel performing functions preparing serving meals cleaning maintaining officers' quarters steward department areas receiving issuing inventorying stores large passenger vessels catering department headed chief purser managed assistant pursers although enjoy benefits officer rank generally progress ranks become pursers


international law conventions agreements chief cooks sail internationally similarly documented respective countries departments staff officer positions ship including junior assistant purser senior assistant purser purser chief purser medical doctor professional nurse marine physician assistant hospital corpsman considered administrative positions therefore regulated certificates registry issued united states coast guard pilots also merchant marine officers licensed coast guard formerly also radio department headed chief radio officer supported number


radio officers since introduction gmdss satellite communications subsequent exemptions carrying radio officers vessel equipped department fallen away although many ships still carry specialist radio officers particularly passenger vessels many radio officers became 'electro technical officers' transferred engine department life sea mariners spend much life beyond reach land sometimes face dangerous conditions sea lakes nbsp fishing port gloucester massachusetts seaside memorial listing fishermen lost lives sea great


lakes seen lost vessels since yet men women still go sea attraction life unencumbered restraints life ashore seagoing adventure chance see world also appeal many seafarers whatever calling live work sea invariably confront social isolation findings seafarer 's international research center indicate leading cause mariners leaving industry almost invariably want families us merchant ships typically allow family members accompany seafarers


voyages industry experts increasingly recognize isolation stress fatigue occupational hazards advocacy groups international labour organization united nations agency nautical institute seeking improved international standards mariners satellite phones improved communication efficiency aboard sea faring ships technology contributed crew welfare although equipment fees expensive ocean voyages steeped routine maritime tradition dictates day divided six four hour periods three groups watch keepers engine deck departments work four hours eight hours watch keeping however


many overtime jobs done daily cycle repeats endlessly hours day ship sea members steward department typically day workers put least eight hour shifts operations sea including repairs safeguarding piracy securing cargo underway replenishment duties provide opportunities overtime work service aboard ships typically extends months time followed protracted shore leave however seamen secure jobs ships like stay aboard years quick turnaround many modern ships spending hours


periods sea mariners report extended periods sea living working shipmates part strangers takes getting used time opportunity meet people ethnic cultural backgrounds recreational opportunities improved aboard us ships may feature gyms day rooms watching movies swapping sea stories activities cases especially tankers possible mariner accompanied members family however mariner 's duty time largely solitary affair pursuing hobbies


reading writing letters sleeping modern ocean going vessels typically registered flag convenience life changed immensely last years large vessels include gym often swimming pool use crew since ''exxon valdez'' incident focus leisure time activity shifted officer crew bars simply lounge style areas officers crew sit watch movies many companies providing tvs dvd players cabins enforcing strict smoking policies surprising bar


much quieter place ships instances games consoles provided officers crew officers enjoy much higher standard living board ocean going vessels crews generally poorly paid poorly qualified complete contracts approximately months returning home leave often come countries average industrial wage still low philippines india officers however come world uncommon mix nationality officers board ships officers often recipients


university degrees completed vast amounts training order reach rank officers benefit eg larger comfortable cabins table service meals contracts average month mark officers generous leave ocean going vessels operate unmanned engine room system allowing engineers work days engine room computer controlled night although duty engineer make inspections unmanned operation engineers work hot humid noisy atmosphere communication engine room therefore hand signals lip reading good teamwork


often stands place communication environmental impact environmental impact shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions acoustic oil pollution ref name walker et al environmental effects marine transportation ref international maritime organization imo estimates carbon dioxide emissions shipping equal global human made emissions expects rise percent action taken infrastructure container port facilities newark bay seen bayonne new jersey united states port efficiently send receive cargo


requires infrastructure docks bollards pilings cranes bulk cargo handling equipment nbsp equipment organization supporting role facilities pier pier may differ one dock handling intermodal transport needs container ships linked rail cranes another bulk handling capabilities conveyors elevators tanks pumps loading unloading bulk cargoes like grain coal fuels others may outfitted passenger terminals mixed mode operations generally harbors seaports marinas host watercraft consist components piers wharfs docks roadsteads see also electric ship european union shipping


law glossary nautical terms list cargo types list maritime colleges list merchant marine capacity country list sailors list ship companies lloyd 's war medal bravery sea marine society maritime history maritime safety merchant vessel mv yara birkeland navigation navigability shipping line sigtto unctad review maritime transport waterway ship watching notes references unctad ''review maritime transport '' retrieved https unctadorg topic transport trade logistics review maritime transport external links https wwwmarinetrafficcom en marinetraffic global ship tracking intelligence merchant navy shipping


exchange therefore transport geography economic geography largely interrelated basic level humans move thus interact walking transportation geography typically studies complex regional global systems transportation include multiple interconnected modes like public transit personal cars bicycles freight railroads internet airplanes systems increasingly urban character thus transport urban geography closely intertwined cities much shaped indeed created types exchange interaction facilitated movement increasingly since th century transportation seen way

Social science
Geography
Human geography
Transport geography


cities countries firms compete variety spaces contexts transportation modes terms transport modes primary forms air road water rail form cost associated 'speed movement' affected friction place origin destination ships generally used moving large amounts goods maritime shipping able carry around world cheaper cost moving people prefer minimize travel time maximize comfort convenience road air


common modes use railroad often used transport goods areas away water railroads may also source transportation people well blockquote transportation modes essential component transport systems since means mobility supported geographers consider wide range modes may grouped three broad categories based medium exploit land water air mode requirements features adapted serve specific demands freight passenger traffic gives rise


marked differences ways modes deployed used different parts world recently trend towards integrating modes intermodality linking modes ever closely production distribution activities time however passenger freight activity becoming increasingly separated across modes blockquote beijing traffic jam road transportation road transportation networks connected movements constructed roads carrying people goods one place another means lorries cars etc transportation may categorized vehicle used purpose


transport maritime transportation water transportation slowest form transportation movement goods people strategic chokepoints around world continued play significant roles maritime industry although slowest form transportation compared road rail transport cost effective rail transportation image provided michael g bler artist work shared express rail transportation page rail transportation movement cargo goods passengers trains form transportation transportation rails established one safest


modes transportation time challenges transportation seattle traffic yesler way transportation availability existing streets highways rail facilities longer match transportation demands created subsequent population growth new location patterns economic activity besides increase population another problem vehicles overloading network highways arterial streets see traffic congestion transportation network population densities well poor people people live developing areas threatened systems transportation fail connect jobs medical assistance example areas


southern california transportation systems connect homeless necessities see environmental justice see also economics geographic mobility human geography ''journal transport geography'' transport references human geography economic geography urban geography


'''entrepreneurship''' creation extraction value definition entrepreneurship viewed change generally entailing risk beyond normally encountered starting business may include values simply economic ones '''entrepreneur''' individual creates new business bearing risks enjoying rewards process setting business known entrepreneurship entrepreneur commonly seen innovator source new ideas goods services business procedures narrow definitions described entrepreneurship process designing

Applied science
Business
Entrepreneurship


launching running new business often similar small business capacity willingness develop organize manage business venture along risks make profit ref name businessdictionarycom ref people create businesses often referred entrepreneurs ref name moves ref definitions entrepreneurship typically focus launching running businesses due high risks involved launching start significant proportion start businesses close due lack funding bad business decisions government policies economic crisis lack


entrepreneur see example text headings elements sometimes referred functionalistic approach entrepreneurship ref name auto ref others deviate individualistic perspective turn spotlight ''the entrepreneurial process'' immerse interplay agency context approach sometimes referred processual approach ref name auto contextual turn approach entrepreneurship elements entrepreneurship act entrepreneur owner manager business enterprise risk initiative attempts make profits entrepreneurs act managers


oversee launch growth enterprise entrepreneurship process either individual team identifies business opportunity acquires deploys necessary resources required exploitation early th century french economist jean baptiste say provided broad definition entrepreneurship saying shifts economic resources area lower area higher productivity greater yield entrepreneurs create something new something different change transmute values regardless firm size big small partake entrepreneurship opportunities opportunity become entrepreneur requires four


criteria first must opportunities situations recombine resources generate profit second entrepreneurship requires differences people preferential access certain individuals ability recognize information opportunities third taking risk necessity fourth entrepreneurial process requires organization people resources ref name shane shane ''a general theory entrepreneurship individual opportunity nexus'' northampton massachusetts e elgar ref entrepreneur uses time energy resources creating value others rewarded effort monetarily therefore consumer value created


israel kirzner suggests majority innovations may much incremental improvements replacement paper plastic making drinking straws exploitation entrepreneurial opportunities may include developing business plan hiring human resources acquiring financial material resources providing leadership responsible venture 's success failure risk aversion economist joseph schumpeter saw role entrepreneur economy creative destruction launching innovations simultaneously destroy old industries ushering new industries approaches schumpeter changes dynamic disequilibrium brought


innovating entrepreneur norm healthy economy entrepreneurship often associated new small profit start ups entrepreneurial behavior seen small medium large sized firms new established firms profit profit organizations including voluntary sector groups charitable organizations government entrepreneurship may operate within entrepreneurship ecosystem often includes government programs services promote entrepreneurship support entrepreneurs start ups non governmental organizations small business associations organizations offer advice mentoring entrepreneurs eg entrepreneurship centers websites small business advocacy organizations lobby governments increased


support entrepreneurship programs small business friendly laws regulations entrepreneurship resources facilities eg business incubators seed accelerators entrepreneurship education training programs offered schools colleges universities financing eg bank loans venture capital financing angel investing government private foundation grants ref name venturecapitalny ref usage term entrepreneurship expanded include individuals teams identify opportunities evaluate viable decide exploit term also used discuss people might use opportunities develop new products services launch new


firms industries create wealth entrepreneurial process uncertain opportunities identified exploited entrepreneurs exhibit positive biases towards finding new possibilities seeing unmet market needs tendency towards risk taking makes likely exploit business opportunities ref name onlinelibrarywileycom ref history historical usage walloon dutch swedish businessman louis de geer pioneering entrepreneur industrialist dawn modern capitalism emil jellinek mercedes steering wheel phoenix double phaeton european entrepreneur helped design first modern car entrepreneur


loanword french word first appeared french dictionary entitled ''dictionnaire universel de commerce'' compiled jacques des bruslons published especially britain term adventurer often used denote meaning study entrepreneurship reaches back work late th early th centuries irish french economist richard cantillon foundational classical economics cantillon defined term first ''essai sur la nature du commerce en g n ral'' ''essay nature trade general'' book william stanley jevons


considered cradle political economy cantillon defined term person pays certain price product resells uncertain price making decisions obtaining using resources consequently admitting risk enterprise cantillon considered entrepreneur risk taker deliberately allocates resources exploit opportunities maximize financial return ref name cantillon r ref cantillon emphasized willingness entrepreneur assume risk deal uncertainty thus drew attention function entrepreneur distinguished function


entrepreneur owner provided money ref name cantillon r ref name landstr h landstr h springerlink pioneers entrepreneurship small business research springer science business media new york ny ref jean baptiste say also identified entrepreneurs driver economic development emphasizing role one collecting factors production allocating resources less fields productive say cantillon belonged french school thought known physiocrats dating back time medieval guilds germany craftsperson required special permission operate entrepreneur


small proof competence ''kleiner bef higungsnachweis'' restricted training apprentices craftspeople held meister certificate institution introduced period called freedom trade ''gewerbefreiheit'' introduced german reich however proof competence required start business greater proof competence reintroduced ''gro er bef higungsnachweis kuhlenbeck'' required craftspeople obtain meister apprentice training certificate permitted set new business ashanti empire successful entrepreneurs accumulated large wealth men well distinguished


heroic deeds awarded social political recognition called abirempon means big men eighteenth nineteenth centuries ad appellation abirempon formalized politicized embrace conducted trade whole state benefited state rewarded entrepreneurs attained accomplishments mena elephant tail heraldic badge th century th century entrepreneurship studied joseph schumpeter austrian economists carl menger ludwig von mises friedrich von hayek loan


interpretation residual endogenous growth theory continues debated academic economics alternative description israel kirzner suggests majority innovations may incremental improvements replacement paper plastic construction drinking straw require special qualities schumpeter entrepreneurship resulted new industries new combinations currently existing inputs schumpeter 's initial example combination steam engine current wagon making technologies produce horseless carriage case innovation


ie car transformational require development dramatic new technology immediately replace horse drawn carriage time incremental improvements reduced cost improved technology leading modern auto industry despite schumpeter 's early th century contributions traditional microeconomic theory formally consider entrepreneur theoretical frameworks instead assuming resources would find price system treatment entrepreneur implied unspecified actor consistent concept entrepreneur agent x efficiency schumpeter entrepreneur


bear risk capitalist schumpeter believed equilibrium imperfect schumpeter demonstrated changing environment continuously provides new information optimum allocation resources enhance profitability individuals acquire new information others recombine resources gain entrepreneurial profit schumpeter opinion entrepreneurs shift production possibility curve higher level using innovations ref name schumpeter year publisher transaction publishers isbn ref initially economists made first attempt study entrepreneurship concept depth ref name landstrom date december publisher springer isbn ref alfred marshall viewed entrepreneur multi tasking capitalist


observed equilibrium completely competitive market spot entrepreneurs economic activity creators changes politics society russia china late th century saw flowering entrepreneurial activity producing russian oligarchs chinese millionaires st century ambassador large global women 's issues melanne verveer greets participants african women 's entrepreneurship program state department washington dc entrepreneurship extended origins profit businesses include social entrepreneurship business goals sought alongside social environmental humanitarian goals


even concept political entrepreneur entrepreneurship within existing firm large organization referred intrapreneurship may include corporate ventures large entities spin subsidiary organizations entrepreneurs leaders willing take risk exercise initiative taking advantage market opportunities planning organizing deploying resources often innovating create new improving existing products services term entrepreneurship extended include specific mindset resulting entrepreneurial initiatives eg form social entrepreneurship political entrepreneurship knowledge entrepreneurship according paul reynolds


founder global entrepreneurship monitor time reach retirement years half working men united states probably period self employment one years one four may engaged self employment six years participating new business creation common activity among us workers course careers recent years entrepreneurship claimed major driver economic growth united states western europe entrepreneurial activities differ substantially depending type organization creativity


event aimed exposing people benefits entrepreneurship getting participate entrepreneurial related activities launched relationship small business entrepreneurship term entrepreneur often conflated term small business used interchangeably term entrepreneurial ventures start small business small businesses entrepreneurial strict sense term many small businesses sole proprietor operations consisting solely owner small number employees many small businesses offer existing product process service


aim growth contrast entrepreneurial ventures offer innovative product process service entrepreneur typically aims scale company adding employees seeking international sales process financed venture capital angel investments way term entrepreneur may closely associated term startup successful entrepreneurs ability lead business positive direction proper planning adapt changing environments understand strengths weakness historians' ranking survey business history


professors gave top spots american business history henry ford followed bill gates john rockefeller andrew carnegie thomas edison followed sam walton j p morgan alfred p sloan walt disney ray kroc thomas j watson alexander graham bell eli whitney james j hill jack welch cyrus mccormick david packard bill hewlett cornelius vanderbilt george westinghouse survey management scholars reported top five pioneers management ideas frederick winslow taylor chester barnard frank bunker gilbreth sr elton mayo lillian moller gilbreth types


entrepreneurship cultural according christopher rea nicolai volland cultural entrepreneurship practices individual collective agency characterized mobility cultural professions modes cultural production refers creative industry activities sectors book '' https wwwubcpressca business culture business culture '' rea volland identify three types cultural entrepreneur cultural personalities defined individuals buil personal brand creativity cultural authority leverage create sustain various cultural enterprises tycoons defined entrepreneurs buil substantial clout cultural sphere forging synergies


industrial cultural political philanthropic interests collective enterprises organizations may engage cultural production profit profit purposes story telling emerged field study cultural entrepreneurship argued entrepreneurs considered skilled cultural operators use stories build legitimacy seize market opportunities new capital others concluded need speak narrative turn cultural entrepreneurship research ethnic term ethnic entrepreneurship refers self employed business owners belong racial ethnic minority groups united


states europe long tradition academic research explores experiences strategies ethnic entrepreneurs strive integrate economically mainstream us european society classic cases include jewish merchants tradespeople large us cities th early th centuries well chinese japanese small business owners restaurants farmers shop owners west coast ethnic entrepreneurship studied case cuban business owners miami indian motel owners us chinese business owners chinatowns across united states entrepreneurship offers


groups many opportunities economic advancement self employment business ownership united states remain unevenly distributed along racial ethnic lines ref name chaudhary ref despite numerous success stories asian entrepreneurs recent statistical analysis us census data shows whites likely asians african americans latinos self employed high prestige lucrative industries ref name chaudhary feminist feminist entrepreneur individual applies feminist values approaches entrepreneurship goal improving quality life well girls women many creating women


women enterprises feminist entrepreneurs motivated enter commercial markets desire create wealth social change based ethics cooperation equality mutual respect endeavours effect empowerment emancipation institutional american born british economist edith penrose highlighted collective nature entrepreneurship mentions modern organizations human resources need combined better capture create business opportunities sociologist paul dimaggio expanded view say new institutions arise organized actors sufficient resources institutional entrepreneurs see


millennial entrepreneurs mark zuckerberg created facebook despite expectation millennial success recent studies proven case comparison millennials self employed self employed shows latter higher reason grown different generation attitude elders barriers entry entrepreneurs economy debt schooling challenges regulatory compliance nascent nascent entrepreneur someone process establishing


business venture observation nascent entrepreneur seen pursuing opportunity ie possibility introduce new services products serve new markets develop efficient production methods profitable manner venture actually established opportunity venture idea words pursued opportunity perceptual nature propped nascent entrepreneur 's personal beliefs feasibility venturing outcomes nascent entrepreneur seeks achieve prescience value cannot confirmed ex ante gradually context actions


nascent entrepreneur undertakes towards establishing venture ultimately actions lead path nascent entrepreneur deems longer attractive feasible result emergence viable business sense time nascent venture move towards discontinued towards emerging successfully operating entity distinction novice serial portfolio entrepreneurs example behavior based categorization examples related studies start event sequences nascent entrepreneurship emphasizes series activities involved new venture emergence ref name delmar f ref ref


name lichtenstein b b ref rather solitary act exploiting opportunity research help separate entrepreneurial action basic sub activities elucidate inter relationships activities activity sequence activities individual 's motivation form opportunity belief activity sequence activities knowledge needed form opportunity belief research scholars able begin constructing theory micro foundations entrepreneurial action scholars interested nascent entrepreneurship tend focus less single act opportunity exploitation


singular objective goal get disbanded rapidly project ends industries project based enterprises widespread include sound recording film production software development television production new media construction ref name faulkner ref makes project entrepreneurs distinctive theoretical standpoint rewire temporary ventures modify suit needs new project opportunities emerge project entrepreneur used certain approach team one project may modify business model team subsequent project project entrepreneurs exposed repeatedly problems tasks typical


entrepreneurial process ref name defillippi ref indeed project based entrepreneurs face two critical challenges invariably characterize creation new venture locating right opportunity launch project venture assembling appropriate team exploit opportunity resolving first challenge requires project entrepreneurs access extensive range information needed seize new investment opportunities resolving second challenge requires assembling collaborative team fit well particular challenges project function almost immediately reduce risk performance might adversely affected another type project entrepreneurship


generating positive return society therefore must use different metrics social entrepreneurship typically attempts broad social cultural environmental goals often associated voluntary sector areas poverty alleviation health care community development times profit making social enterprises may established support social cultural goals organization end example organization aims provide housing employment homeless may operate restaurant raise money provide employment homeless people biosphere biosphere entrepreneurship


entrepreneurial activity generates value biosphere ecosystem services part larger trend business schools seeking incorporate environmental topics actively curricula entrepreneurial behaviors entrepreneur commonly seen innovator designer new ideas business processes management skills strong team building abilities often perceived essential leadership attributes successful entrepreneurs ref name forbes ref political economist robert reich considers leadership management ability team building essential qualities entrepreneur uncertainty perception risk taking theorists frank knight peter drucker defined


five white balls ambiguity hard measure statistically probability drawing red ball jar containing five red balls unknown number white balls true uncertainty knightian uncertainty impossible estimate predict statistically probability drawing red ball jar whose contents terms numbers coloured balls entirely unknown malala yousafzai pakistani activist social entrepreneur youngest ever nobel peace prize winner entrepreneurship often associated true uncertainty particularly involves creation novel


good service market previously exist rather venture creates incremental improvement existing product service study eth z rich found compared typical managers entrepreneurs showed higher decision making efficiency stronger activation regions frontopolar cortex fpc previously associated explorative choice coachability advice taking ability entrepreneurs work closely take advice early investors partners ie coachability long considered critical factor entrepreneurial success time economists


argued entrepreneurs simply act advice given even advice comes well informed sources entrepreneurs possess far deeper richer local knowledge firm outsider indeed measures coachability actually predictive entrepreneurial success eg measured success subsequent funding rounds acquisitions pivots firm survival research also shows older larger founding teams presumably subject expertise less coachable younger smaller founding teams strategies strategies entrepreneurs may use include innovation new products services processes ref


name ref listen customer feedback adapt ref name ref continuous process improvement cpi ref name exploration new business models finding solutions problems ref name use technology ref name use business intelligence use economical strategics development future products services ref name optimized talent management ref name entrepreneurial marketing strategies interactive innovative networking designing individual opportunity nexus according shane venkataraman entrepreneurship comprises enterprising individuals entrepreneurial opportunities researchers study nature individuals identify opportunities others opportunities nexus


individuals opportunities hand reynolds et al argue individuals motivated engage entrepreneurial endeavors driven mainly necessity opportunity individuals pursue entrepreneurship primarily owing survival needs identify business opportunities satisfy need achievement example higher economic inequality tends increase necessity based entrepreneurship rates individual level opportunity perception biases one study found certain genes affecting personality may influence income self employed people people may able use innate ability quasi statistical sense gauge public


opinion ref name miller ref market demand new products services entrepreneurs tend ability see unmet market needs underserved markets entrepreneurs assume sense figure others thinking mass media plays crucial role shaping views demand ramoglou argues entrepreneurs distinctive essentially poor conceptualizations non entrepreneurs maintain laudatory portraits entrepreneurs exceptional innovators leaders entrepreneurs often overconfident exhibit illusion control opening expanding business new products services ref name onlinelibrarywileycom styles


differences entrepreneurial organizations often partially reflect founders' heterogenous identities fauchart gruber classified entrepreneurs three main types darwinians communitarians missionaries types entrepreneurs diverge fundamental ways self views social motivations patterns new firm creation communication entrepreneurs must practice effective communication within firm external partners investors launch grow venture enable survive entrepreneur needs communication system links staff firm connects firm outside firms clients entrepreneurs charismatic leaders


communicate vision effectively team help create strong team communicating vision followers may important act transformational leader ref name hackmanjohnson ref compelling visions provide employees sense purpose encourage commitment according baum et al ref name baum et al ref kouzes posner ref name kouzes ref vision must communicated written statements person communication entrepreneurial leaders must speak listen articulate vision others ref name locke et al ref communication pivotal role entrepreneurship enables leaders convince potential


investors partners employees feasibility venture entrepreneurs need communicate effectively shareholders nonverbal elements speech tone voice look sender 's eyes body language hand gestures state emotions also important communication tools communication accommodation theory posits throughout communication people attempt accommodate adjust method speaking others face negotiation theory describes people different cultures manage conflict negotiation maintain face ref name ting toomey ref hugh rank 's intensify downplay communications model used entrepreneurs developing


new product service rank argues entrepreneurs need able intensify advantages new product service downplay disadvantages persuade others support venture links sea piracy research found links entrepreneurship historical sea piracy context claim made non moral approach looking history piracy source inspiration entrepreneurship education well research entrepreneurship business model generation psychological makeup ross levine economist university california


entrepreneurial success rises age apple co founder longtime leader steve jobs pictured led introduction many innovations computer smartphone digital music industries stanford university economist edward lazear found study variety education work experience important trait distinguished entrepreneurs non entrepreneurs study uschi backes gellner university zurich petra moog university siegen germany found diverse social network also important characteristic students would go become entrepreneurs studies show


psychological propensities male female entrepreneurs similar different empirical studies suggest female entrepreneurs possess strong negotiating skills consensus forming abilities ref name entrepreneurship publisher paul muljadi archive url https webarchiveorg web https booksgooglecom booksid eny ha rvouc archive date december ref sa hansson looked empirical evidence sweden found probability becoming self employed decreases age women increases age men ref name ref also found marriage increased probability person 's becoming entrepreneur ref name jesper rensen wrote significant influences decision become entrepreneur include workplace peers social


composition rensen discovered correlation working former entrepreneurs often individuals become entrepreneurs compared work entrepreneurs ref name sorensen ref social composition influence entrepreneurialism peers demonstrating possibility success stimulating ca n't attitude rensen stated meet others gone n't seem crazy ref name sorensen interview ref entrepreneurs may also driven entrepreneurship past experiences someone faced multiple work stoppages unemployed past probability becoming


entrepreneur increases ref name per cattell 's personality framework personality traits attitudes thoroughly investigated psychologists however case entrepreneurship research notions employed academics vaguely cattell states personality system related environment adds system seeks explanation complex transactions conducted traits attitudes bring change growth person personality informs individual faced given situation person 's response triggered


personality situation faced innovative entrepreneurs may likely experience psychologist mihaly csikszentmihalyi calls flow flow occurs individual forgets outside world due thoroughly engaged process activity csikszentmihalyi suggested breakthrough innovations tend occur hands individuals state research concluded strong internal motivation vital ingredient breakthrough innovation ref name christensenjohnson date may publisher mcgraw hill professional isbn ref flow compared maria montessori 's concept normalization state includes child 's capacity joyful


lengthy periods intense concentration csikszentmihalyi acknowledged montessori 's prepared environment offers children opportunities achieve flow thus quality type early education may influence entrepreneurial capability research high risk settings oil platforms investment banking medical surgery aircraft piloting nuclear power plants related distrust failure avoidance non routine strategies needed distrusting persons perform better routine strategies needed trusting persons perform better gudmundsson lechner extended research entrepreneurial firms argued entrepreneurial firms threat failure ever present resembling non routine situations high risk settings found


firms distrusting entrepreneurs likely survive firms optimistic overconfident entrepreneurs reasons distrusting entrepreneurs would emphasize failure avoidance sensible task selection analysis kets de vries pointed distrusting entrepreneurs alert external environment concluded distrusting entrepreneurs less likely discount negative events likely engage control mechanisms similarly gudmundsson lechner found distrust leads higher precaution therefore increases chances entrepreneurial firm survival researchers schoon duckworth completed study could


aid support others accomplishment common task one undertakes innovations finance business acumen effort transform innovations economic goods refers act entrepreneurship managing starting business one manages social processes leadership skills entrepreneurship defined somewhat circularly process individuals teams organizations identify pursue entrepreneurial opportunities without immediately constrained resources currently control ref name referencea hitt ireland r hoskisson r e


management identifying harnessing intellectual assets organizations build past experiences create new mechanisms exchanging creating knowledge belief draws upon leader 's past experiences may prove useful common mantra one learn past mistakes leaders take advantage failures benefit one may take experiences leader use core entrepreneurship decision making global leadership majority scholarly research done topics taken place north america words


subordinates would never informally approach managers bosses countries like authoritarian approach management leadership customary despite cultural differences successes failures entrepreneurs traced leaders adapt local conditions within increasingly global business environment successful leader must able adapt insight cultures respond environment corporate visions becoming transnational nature enable organization operate provide services goods cultures entrepreneurship training education michelacci schivardi pair researchers


findings also show self employed possess graduate degree remained consistent throughout time percent briefly mention famous entrepreneurs like steve jobs mark zuckerberg college dropouts call cases exceptional pattern many entrepreneurs view formal education costly mainly time needs spent century one young entrepreneur name danish maniyar becomes famous pushing bachelor pharmacy becomes famous young indian entrepreneur college drop like mark


zuckerberg danish maniyar said studying also become entrepreneur innovative ideas thinking ref name auto michelacci schivardi believe order individual reach full success need education beyond high school research shows higher education level greater success reason college gives people additional skills used within business operate higher level someone runs ref name michelacci schivardi ref resources financing entrepreneurial resources entrepreneurial resource


company owned asset economic value creating capabilities economic value creating tangible intangible sources considered entrepreneurial resources economic value generating activities services mobilization entrepreneurs entrepreneurial resources divided two fundamental categories tangible intangible resources tangible resources material sources equipment building furniture land vehicle machinery stock cash bond inventory physical form quantified contrary intangible resources nonphysical challenging identify evaluate possess value creating capacity human resources


including skills experience particular field organizational structure company brand name reputation entrepreneurial networks contribute promotion financial support know intellectual property including copyrights trademarks patents bootstrapping contextual background least early entrepreneurs often bootstrap finance start rather seeking external investors start one reasons entrepreneurs prefer bootstrap obtaining equity financing requires entrepreneur provide ownership shares investors start becomes successful later early equity financing deals could provide windfall


investors huge loss entrepreneur investors significant stake company may well able exert influence company strategy chief executive officer ceo choice important decisions often problematic since investor founder might different incentives regarding long term goal company investor generally aim profitable exit therefore promotes high valuation sale company ipo sell shares whereas entrepreneur might philanthropic intentions main driving force soft values like


might go well short term pressure yearly quarterly profits publicly traded companies often experience owners common definition one consensus definition bootstrapping sees collection methods used minimize amount outside debt equity financing needed banks investors majority businesses require less launch means personal savings often used start addition bootstrapping entrepreneurs often incur personal credit card debt also utilize wide variety methods bootstrapping involves increased personal financial


risk entrepreneurs absence stakeholder gives entrepreneur freedom develop company related methodologies bootstrapping methods include ref name narayanano'connor date march publisher john wiley sons isbn page ref owner financing including savings personal loans credit card debt working capital management minimizes accounts receivable joint utilization reducing overhead coworking using independent contractors increasing accounts payable delaying payment leasing rather buying equipment lean manufacturing strategies minimizing inventory lean startup reduce product development costs subsidy finance additional financing many businesses need capital


change entrepreneurial activity predictors success dell women 's entrepreneur network event new york city factors may predict entrepreneurial success include following methods establishing strategies firm including growth survival strategies maintaining human resources recruiting retaining talented employees executives ensuring availability required materials eg raw resources used manufacturing computer chips etc ensuring firm one unique competitive advantages ensuring good organizational design sound governance organizational coordination congruency culture society ref name shane ref market business business b b business consumer b c