marketing production concept specializes producing much possible given product service order achieve economies scale economies scope dominated marketing practice yet still found companies industries specifically kotler armstrong note production philosophy one oldest philosophies guides sellers still useful situations selling concept focuses selling promotion firm 's existing products rather developing new products satisfy unmet needs wants primarily promotion direct sales


techniques largely unsought goods industrial companies meta analyses found factors greatest impact sales performance salesperson 's sales related knowledge market segments presentation skills conflict resolution products degree adaptiveness role clarity cognitive aptitude motivation interest sales role marketing concept common concept used contemporary marketing customer centric approach based products suit new consumer tastes firm engage extensive market research use r research development utilize promotion techniques marketing orientation includes ''customer orientation''


firm market economy survive producing goods people willing able buy consequently ascertaining consumer demand vital firm 's future viability even existence going concern ''organizational orientation'' marketing department prime importance within functional level organization information marketing department used guide actions company 's departments marketing department could ascertain via marketing research consumers desired new type product new usage existing product mind marketing department would


marketing mix marketing mix foundational tool used guide decision making marketing marketing mix represents basic tools marketers use bring products services market foundation managerial marketing marketing plan typically devotes section marketing mix ps traditional marketing mix refers four broad levels marketing decision namely ''product'' ''price'' ''promotion'' ''place'' ref name ref one version marketing mix ps method outline product product aspects marketing deal


specifications actual goods services relates end user 's needs wants product element consists product design new product innovation branding packaging labeling scope product generally includes supporting elements warranties guarantees support branding key aspect product management refers various methods communicating brand identity product brand company ref name pricing refers process setting price product including discounts price need monetary simply exchanged


product services eg time energy attention sacrifices consumers make order acquire product service price cost consumer pays product monetary methods setting prices domain pricing science ref name place distribution refers product gets customer distribution channels intermediaries wholesalers retailers enable customers access products services convenient manner third p also sometimes called ''place'' ''placement'' referring channel


product service sold eg online vs retail geographic region industry segment young adults families business people etc also referring environment product sold affect sales ref name promotion includes aspects marketing communications advertising sales promotion including promotional education public relations personal selling product placement branded entertainment event marketing trade shows exhibitions fourth p focused providing message get response consumers message designed persuade tell story create awareness ref


outside external stakeholders ref name kerr f patti c ichul k inside approach integrated marketing communications international perspective ''international journal advertising'' vol pp ref contrast ''outside in'' approach first seeks understand needs wants consumer model building perspective ps attracted number criticisms well designed models exhibit clearly defined categories mutually exclusive overlap yet ps model extensive overlapping problems several authors stress hybrid nature fourth p mentioning presence two


important dimensions communication general informative communications public relations corporate communications promotion persuasive communications advertising direct selling certain marketing activities personal selling may classified either ''promotion'' part place ie distribution element pricing tactics promotional pricing classified price variables promotional variables therefore also exhibit overlap important criticisms include marketing mix lacks strategic framework therefore unfit planning instrument particularly uncontrollable external elements important aspect


marketing environment modifications extensions overcome deficiencies p model authors suggested extensions modifications original model extensions four p 's often included cases services marketing unique characteristics ie intangibility perishability heterogeneity inseparability production consumption warrant additional consideration factors extensions found necessary retail marketing industrial marketing internet marketing include people process physical evidence often applied case services marketing extensions found necessary retail marketing industrial marketing internet marketing


physical environment customers marketed people service personnel customers customers interact people form part overall service experience process way orders handled customers satisfied service delivered physical evidence tangible examples marketing customer encountered buying advertised product productivity ability provide consumers quality product using resources possible cs response environmental technological changes marketing well criticisms towards ps approach


cs emerged modern marketing mix model outline '''consumer client ''' consumer refers person group acquire product aspect model focuses fulfilling wants needs consumer ref name '''cost''' cost refers exchanged return product cost mainly consists monetary value product cost also refers anything else consumer must sacrifice attain product time money spent transportation acquire product ref name '''convenience''' like place


ps model convenience refers product sold however refers physical stores also whether product available person online convenience aspect emphasizes making easy possible consumer attain product thus making likely ref name '''communication''' like promotion ps model communication refers consumers find product unlike promotion communication refers one way communication advertising also two way communication available social media ref name ref environment term


marketing environment relates factors whether internal external direct indirect affect firm 's marketing decision making planning firm 's marketing environment consists three main areas macro environment macromarketing firm holds little control consists variety external factors manifest large macro scale include economic social political technological factors common method assessing firm 's macro environment via pestle political economic social technological legal ecological analysis within pestle analysis firm would analyze national political issues culture climate key macroeconomic conditions


health indicators economic growth inflation unemployment etc social trends attitudes nature technology 's impact society business processes within society ref name micro environment firm holds greater amount though necessarily total control typically includes customers consumers employees suppliers media contrast macro environment organization holds greater though complete degree control factors ref name internal environment includes factors inside company ref name ref firm 's internal environment consists labor inventory company policy logistics budget


capital assets ref name research marketing research systematic process analyzing data involves conducting research support marketing activities statistical interpretation data information information used managers plan marketing activities gauge nature firm 's marketing environment attain information suppliers distinction made '''''marketing''''' research '''''market''''' research market research involves gathering information particular target market example firm may conduct research target market selecting suitable market segment contrast marketing research relates


research conducted within marketing '''market research subset marketing research''' ref name markresub avoiding word consumer shows market research distribution marketing research encompasses distribution advertising effectiveness salesforce effectiveness marketing researchers use statistical methods quantitative research qualitative research hypothesis tests chi square tests linear regression correlation coefficients frequency distributions poisson binomial distributions etc interpret findings convert data information stages research include define problem plan research research interpret data implement findings ref name principles marketing website courseslumenlearningcom access date ref segmentation market segmentation consists taking total


heterogeneous market product dividing several sub markets segments tends homogeneous significant aspects ref name ref process conducted two main purposes better allocation firm 's finite resources better serve diversified tastes contemporary consumers firm possesses certain amount resources thus must make choices appreciate related costs servicing specific groups consumers moreover diversity tastes modern consumers firms noting benefit servicing multiplicity new markets market segmentation


defined terms stp acronym meaning segment target position '''segmentation''' involves initial splitting consumers persons like needs wants tastes commonly used criteria include '''geographic''' country region city town '''psychographic''' eg personality traits lifestyle traits influence consumer behaviour '''demographic''' eg age gender socio economic class education '''gender''' '''income''' '''life cycle''' eg baby boomer generation x millennial generation z '''lifestyle''' eg tech savvy active '''behavioural''' eg brand loyalty usage rate segment identified target firm must ascertain whether segment beneficial service


map firm would tailor marketing communications meld product 's perception among consumers position among competitors' offering promotional mix promotional mix outlines company market product consists five tools personal selling sales promotion public relations advertising social media personal selling involves presentation given salesperson individual group potential customers enables two way communication relationship building commonly seen business business marketing also found business consumer marketing eg selling cars dealership ref name


top management devising firm 's strategic direction mission intended marketing activities incorporated plan outline marketing plan within overall strategic marketing plan stages process listed thus executive summary current marketing situation threats opportunities analysis objectives issues marketing strategy action programs budgets control levels marketing objectives within organization stated previously senior management firm would formulate general business strategy firm however general business strategy would interpreted implemented different contexts throughout firm corporate level


marketing objectives typically broad based nature pertain general vision firm short medium long term example one pictures group companies conglomerate top management may state sales group increase ten year period '' 'strategic business unit''' sbu subsidiary within firm participates within given market industry sbu would embrace corporate strategy attune particular industry instance sbu may partake sports goods industry thus would ascertain


would attain additional sales sports goods order satisfy overall business strategy '''functional''' level relates departments within sbus marketing finance hr production etc functional level would adopt sbu 's strategy determine accomplish sbu 's objectives market use example sports goods industry marketing department would draw marketing plans strategies communications help sbu achieve marketing aims product life cycle product lifecycle product life cycle plc tool used marketing managers gauge


progress product especially relating sales revenue accrued time plc based key assumptions including given product would possess introduction growth maturity decline stage product lasts perpetually market firm must employ differing strategies according product plc '''introduction''' stage product launched onto market stimulate growth sales revenue use advertising may high order heighten awareness product question '''growth''' stage product 's sales revenue increasing


however product services niche market complementary another product may continue manufacture product despite low level sales revenue accrued ref name see also types marketing marketing orientations philosophies references bibliography bartels robert ''the history marketing thought'' columbus ohio grid http wwwhealthedpartnersorg ceu hm history marketing thought bartels hermanspdf online church roy godley andrew eds ''the emergence modern marketing'' london frank cass https wwwquestiacom read online edition hollander stanley c rassuli kathleen jones dg brian dix farlow l periodization marketing history ''journal macromarketing'' vol pp nbsp


http citeseerxistpsuedu viewdoc downloaddoi rep rep type pdf online tedlow richard jones geoffrey g eds ''the rise fall mass marketing'' routledge weitz barton robin wensley eds ''handbook marketing'' external links business process promotion marketing communications


soil profile chalk seven sisters country park england '''pedology''' greek ''pedon'' soil ''logos'' study discipline within soil science focuses understanding characterizing soil formation evolution theoretical frameworks modeling soil bodies often context natural environment pedology often seen one two main branches soil inquiry edaphology traditionally agronomically oriented focuses soil properties influence plant communities natural cultivated studying fundamental phenomenology soils eg soil formation aka pedogenesis pedologists


pay particular attention observing soil morphology geographic distributions soils placement soil bodies larger temporal spatial contexts pedologists develop systems soil classification soil maps theories characterizing temporal spatial interrelations among soils noteworthy sub disciplines pedology namely pedometrics soil geomorphology '''pedometrics''' focuses development techniques quantitative characterization soils especially purposes mapping soil properties whereas soil geomorphology studies interrelationships geomorphic processes soil formation overview soil support


vegetation also pedosphere locus numerous interactions climate water air temperature soil life micro organisms plants animals residues mineral material original added rock position landscape formation genesis soil profile slowly deepens develops characteristic layers called 'horizons' steady state balance approached soil users agronomists showed initially little concern dynamics soil saw medium whose chemical physical biological properties useful services agronomic productivity


hand pedologists geologists initially focus agronomic applications soil characteristics edaphic properties upon relation nature history landscapes today integration two disciplinary approaches part landscape environmental sciences pedologists also interested practical applications good understanding pedogenesis processes evolution functioning soils like interpreting environmental history predicting consequences changes land use agronomists understand cultivated soil complex medium often resulting several thousands


years evolution understand current balance fragile thorough knowledge history makes possible ensure sustainable use concepts important pedological concepts include complexity soil genesis common simplicity soils lie interface earth 's atmosphere biosphere hydrosphere lithosphere therefore thorough understanding soils requires knowledge meteorology climatology ecology biology hydrology geomorphology geology many earth sciences natural sciences contemporary soils carry imprints pedogenic processes active past although many cases imprints


difficult observe quantify thus knowledge paleoecology palaeogeography glacial geology paleoclimatology important recognition understanding soil genesis constitute basis predicting future soil changes five major external factors formation climate organisms relief parent material time several smaller less identifiable ones drive pedogenic processes create soil patterns characteristics soils soil landscapes eg number sizes shapes arrangements soil bodies characterized basis soil horizons degree internal homogeneity slope aspect landscape position age properties relationships


observed measured distinctive bioclimatic regimes combinations pedogenic processes produce distinctive soils thus distinctive observable morphological features eg illuvial clay accumulation b horizons produced certain combinations pedogenic processes operative varying periods time pedogenic soil forming processes act create destroy order anisotropy within soils processes proceed simultaneously resulting soil profile reflects balance processes present past geological principle uniformitarianism applies soils ie pedogenic processes active soils today operating long periods time back time


appearance organisms land surface processes however varying degrees expression intensity space time succession different soils may developed eroded regressed particular site soil genetic factors site factors eg vegetation sedimentation geomorphology change old soils geological sense destroyed buried geological events modified shifts climate virtue vulnerable position surface earth little soil continuum dates back beyond tertiary period


soils land surfaces older pleistocene epoch however preserved lithified soils paleosols almost ubiquitous feature terrestrial land based environments throughout geologic time since record evidence ancient climate change present immense utility understanding climate evolution throughout geologic history knowledge understanding genesis soil important classification mapping soil classification systems cannot based entirely perceptions genesis however genetic processes seldom observed pedogenic processes change time knowledge soil genesis imperative basic soil


use management human influence adjustment factors processes soil formation best controlled planned using knowledge soil genesis soils natural clay factories clay includes clay mineral structures particles less nbsp diameter shales worldwide considerable extent simply soil clays formed pedosphere eroded deposited ocean basins become lithified later date notable pedologists olivier de serres vasily v dokuchaev friedrich albert fallou konstantin glinka eugene w hilgard francis hole hans jenny curtis


f marbut bernard palissy see also agricultural sciences basic topics list soil topics pedogenesis references physical geography soil science


soil scientist examining horizons within soil profile ''' soil science''' study soil natural resource surface earth including soil formation classification mapping physical chemical biological fertility properties soils properties relation use management soils ref name jackson j glossary geology ed alexandria virginia american geological institute p ref sometimes terms refer branches soil science pedology formation chemistry morphology classification soil edaphology soils interact living things especially plants

Natural science
Earth science
Soil Science


used synonymous soil science diversity names associated discipline related various associations concerned indeed engineers agronomists chemists geologists physical geographers ecologists biologists microbiologists silviculturists sanitarians archaeologists specialists regional planning contribute knowledge soils advancement soil sciences ref name soil scientists raised concerns preserve soil arable land world growing population possible future water crisis increasing per capita food consumption land degradation fields study soil occupies pedosphere one earth 's


spheres geosciences use organize earth conceptually conceptual perspective pedology edaphology two main branches soil science pedology study soil natural setting edaphology study soil relation soil dependent uses branches apply combination soil physics soil chemistry soil biology due numerous interactions biosphere atmosphere hydrosphere hosted within pedosphere integrated less soil centric concepts also valuable many concepts essential understanding soil come individuals identifiable strictly soil scientists


highlights interdisciplinary nature soil concepts research dependence curiosity soil exploring diversity dynamics resource continues yield fresh discoveries insights new avenues soil research compelled need understand soil context climate change ref name raul greenhouse gases carbon sequestration ref name raul ref interest maintaining planet 's biodiversity exploring past cultures also stimulated renewed interest achieving refined understanding soil mapping classification map global soil regions usda world reference base


soil resources via land water development division pre eminent soil classification system replaces previous fao soil classification wrb borrows modern soil classification concepts including usda soil taxonomy classification based mainly soil morphology expression pedogenesis major difference usda soil taxonomy soil climate part system except insofar climate influences soil profile characteristics many classification schemes exist including vernacular systems structure vernacular systems either nominal giving unique names soils landscapes descriptive naming soils


characteristics red hot fat sandy soils distinguished obvious characteristics physical appearance eg color texture landscape position performance eg production capability flooding accompanying vegetation vernacular distinction familiar many classifying texture heavy light light soil content better structure take less effort turn cultivate contrary popular belief light soils weigh less heavy soils air dry basis porosity history earliest known soil classification system comes china appearing book yu gong th century bce


soil divided three categories nine classes depending color texture hydrology contemporaries friedrich albert fallou german founder modern soil science vasily dokuchaev russian founder modern soil science credited among first identify soil resource whose distinctness complexity deserved separated conceptually geology crop production treated whole founding father soil science fallou primacy time fallou working origins soil dokuchaev born however dokuchaev 's work


extensive considered significant modern soil theory fallou 's previously soil considered product chemical transformations rocks dead substrate plants derive nutritious elements soil bedrock fact equated dokuchaev considers soil natural body genesis history development body complex multiform processes taking place within soil considered different bedrock latter becomes soil influence series soil formation factors climate vegetation country relief age


according soil called daily outward horizons rocks regardless type changed naturally common effect water air various kinds living dead organisms encyclopedic definition different forms earth surface rocks formed breaking weathering rocks serves illustrate historic view soil persisted th century dokuchaev 's late th century soil concept developed th century one soil earthy material altered living processes ref


name buol ref corollary concept soil without living component simply part earth 's outer layer refinement soil concept occurring view appreciation energy transport transformation within soil term popularly applied material surface earth 's moon mars usage acceptable within portion scientific community accurate modern understanding soil nikiforoff 's definition soil excited skin sub aerial part earth 's crust areas practice academically soil scientists tend


drawn one five areas specialization microbiology pedology edaphology physics chemistry yet work specifics much dictated challenges facing civilization 's desire sustain land supports distinctions sub disciplines soil science often blur process soil science professionals commonly stay current soil chemistry soil physics soil microbiology pedology applied soil science related disciplines one interesting effort drawing soil scientists usa soil quality initiative central soil quality initiative developing indices soil health


monitoring way gives us long term decade decade feedback performance stewards planet effort includes understanding functions soil microbiotic crusts exploring potential sequester atmospheric carbon soil organic matter concept agriculture relation soil quality however without share controversy criticism including critiques nobel laureate norman borlaug world food prize winner pedro sanchez traditional role soil scientists map soils every area united states


archaeological sites geological phenomena landslides active faults '''altering soils achieve new uses''' vitrification contain radioactive wastes enhancing soil microbial capabilities degrading contaminants bioremediation carbon sequestration environmental soil science pedology soil genesis pedometrics soil morphology soil micromorphology soil classification usda soil taxonomy world reference base soil biology soil microbiology soil chemistry soil biochemistry soil mineralogy soil physics pedotransfer function soil mechanics engineering soil hydrology hydropedology fields application soil science climate change ref name raul ecosystem studies pedotransfer function soil fertility nutrient management soil management soil survey standard methods analysis watershed wetland studies related


disciplines agricultural sciences agricultural soil science agrophysics science irrigation management anthropology archaeological stratigraphy environmental science landscape ecology physical geography geomorphology geology biogeochemistry geomicrobiology hydrology hydrogeology waste management wetland science depression storage capacity depression storage capacity soil science ability particular area land retain water pits depressions thus preventing flowing depression storage capacity along infiltration capacity one main factors involved horton overland flow whereby water volume surpasses infiltration depression storage capacity begins flow horizontally across land possibly leading


'''gemology''' '''gemmology''' science dealing natural artificial gemstone materials geoscience branch mineralogy jewelers many non jewelers academically trained gemologists qualified identify evaluate gems ref name occupation ref examining pink sapphire gemmological microscope background rudimentary education gemology jewellers gemologists began nineteenth century first qualifications instigated national association goldsmiths great britain nag https gem acom history set gemmological committee purpose committee matured gemmological association great britain


also known gem educational charity accredited awarding body courses taught worldwide first us graduate gem 's diploma course robert shipley later established gemological institute america american gem society several professional schools associations gemologists certification programs around world first gemological laboratory serving jewelry trade established london prompted influx newly developed cultured pearl advances synthesis rubies sapphires numerous gem laboratories around


world requiring ever advanced equipment experience identify new challenges treatments gems new synthetics new materials often difficult obtain expert judgement neutral laboratory analysis estimation gemstone trade usually take place site professional gemologists gemstone buyers use mobile laboratories pool necessary instruments travel case called travel labs even current supply makes independent infrastructure also suitable gemological expeditions peridot mg fe sio rough form


understand atomic structure identify origin major factor valuing gemstone example ruby burma definite internal optical activity variance thai ruby gemstones rough state gemologist studies external structure host rock mineral association natural polished color initially stone identified color refractive index optical character specific gravity examination internal characteristics magnification gemological instruments gemologists use variety tools equipment allow accurate tests


performed order identify gemstone specific characteristics properties gemmological travel lab ka krs include corrected loupe microscope refractometer polarising filter magnifying eyepiece contact liquid ri refractive index polariscope optic figure sphere dichroscope spectroscope handheld desktop penlight tweezers stone cloth color filter immersion cell ultraviolet lamp general identification gems gem identification basically process elimination gemstones similar color undergo non destructive optical testing one possible identity single test indicative example specific gravity ruby glass


cubic zirconia one easily tell difference cubic zirconia two however overlap ruby glass naturally occurring materials two gems identical geological environment created influences overall process although basics identified presence chemical impurities substitutions along structural imperfections create individuals identification refractive index traditional handheld refractometer one test determine gem 's identity measure refraction light gem every material


critical angle point light reflected back internally measured thus used determine gem 's identity typically measured using refractometer although possible measure using microscope identification specific gravity specific gravity also known relative density varies depending upon chemical composition crystal structure type heavy liquids known specific gravity used test loose gemstones specific gravity measured comparing weight gem air weight gem suspended water identification spectroscopy


natural synthetic treated ie fracture filled heated three inclusion phases rock crystal quartz curvature observed synthetic color change sapphire due process known verneuil process flame fusion process fine crushed material heated extremely high temperatures crushed material melted drips furnace onto boule boule corundum cools crystallizes spins thus causes curved striations natural corundum form way lacks curved striations institutes laboratories schools publications institutes laboratories


american gem society ags asian institute gemological sciences aigs canadian gemmological association cga canadian institute gemmology cig european gemological laboratory egl gemological science international gsi gemmological association australia gaa gemmological association great britain gem gemological institute america gia g belin gem lab ggl hoge raad voor diamant hrd international gemological institute igi italian gemmological institute igi institute gem trading igt laboratoire fran ais de gemmologie lfg swiss gemmological institute ssef universal gemological laboratories gci gemmological institute


surveyor using total station student using theodolite field '''surveying''' '''land surveying''' technique profession art science determining terrestrial three dimensional positions points distances angles land surveying professional called '''land surveyor''' points usually surface earth often used establish maps boundaries ownership locations designed positions structural components construction surface location subsurface features purposes required government civil law

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Surveying


property sales surveyors work elements geodesy geometry trigonometry regression analysis physics engineering metrology programming languages law use equipment total stations robotic total stations theodolites gnss receivers retroreflectors scanners lidar sensors radios inclinometer handheld tablets optical digital levels subsurface locators drones gis surveying software surveying element development human environment since beginning recorded history planning execution forms construction require also used transport communications mapping definition legal boundaries land ownership


important tool research many scientific disciplines definition international federation surveyors defines function surveying follows blockquote surveyor professional person academic qualifications technical expertise conduct one following activities determine measure represent land three dimensional objects point fields trajectories assemble interpret land geographically related information use information planning efficient administration land sea structures thereon conduct research practices develop blockquote


history ancient history plumb rule book cassells' carpentry joinery surveying occurred since humans built first large structures ancient egypt rope stretcher would use simple geometry establish boundaries annual floods nile river almost perfect squareness north south orientation great pyramid giza built c bc affirm egyptians' command surveying ''groma'' instrument originated mesopotamia early st millennium bc prehistoric monument stonehenge c bc set prehistoric surveyors using peg rope geometry mathematician liu hui


described ways measuring distant objects work ''haidao suanjing'' ''the sea island mathematical manual'' published ad romans recognized land surveying profession established basic measurements roman empire divided tax register conquered lands ad ref name lewis ref roman surveyors known ''gromatici'' medieval europe beating bounds maintained boundaries village parish practice gathering group residents walking around parish village establish communal memory boundaries young boys


included ensure memory lasted long possible england william conqueror commissioned domesday book recorded names land owners area land owned quality land specific information area 's content inhabitants include maps showing exact locations modern era cyclopaedia'' abel foullon described plane table thought instrument use earlier description developed instrument gunter 's chain introduced english mathematician edmund gunter


enabled plots land accurately surveyed plotted legal commercial purposes leonard digges described theodolite measured horizontal angles book ''a geometric practice named pantometria'' joshua habermel erasmus habermehl created theodolite compass tripod johnathon sission first incorporate telescope theodolite ref name turner turner gerard l'e ''nineteenth century scientific instruments'' sotheby publications ref th century modern techniques instruments surveying began used jesse ramsden introduced first precision theodolite instrument


measuring angles horizontal vertical planes created great theodolite using accurate dividing engine design ramsden 's theodolite represented great step forward instrument 's accuracy william gascoigne invented instrument used telescope installed crosshair target device james watt developed optical meter measuring distance measured parallactic angle distance point could deduced dutch mathematician willebrord snellius aka snel van royen introduced modern systematic use triangulation surveyed


points inside primary network later jacques cassini son c sar undertook first triangulation france included surveying meridian arc leading publication first map france constructed rigorous principles time triangulation methods well established local map making map india showing great trigonometrical survey produced towards end th century detailed triangulation network surveys mapped whole countries team general william roy 's ordnance survey great britain


began principal triangulation britain first ramsden theodolite built survey survey finally completed great trigonometric survey india began indian survey enormous scientific impact responsible one first accurate measurements section arc longitude measurements geodesic anomaly named mapped mount everest himalayan peaks surveying became professional occupation high demand turn th century onset industrial revolution profession developed


accurate instruments aid work industrial infrastructure projects used surveyors lay canals roads rail us land ordinance created public land survey system formed basis dividing western territories sections allow sale land plss divided states township grids divided sections fractions sections napoleon bonaparte founded continental europe 's first cadastre gathered data number parcels land value land usage names system soon spread around europe railroad


surveying party russel 's tank arizona robert torrens introduced torrens system south australia torrens intended simplify land transactions provide reliable titles via centralized register land torrens system adopted several nations english speaking world surveying became increasingly important arrival railroads surveying necessary railroads could plan technologically financially viable routes th century german engineer surveying first world war beginning century surveyors improved older chains ropes


still faced problem accurate measurement long distances dr trevor lloyd wadley developed tellurometer measures long distances using two microwave transmitter receivers late geodimeter introduced electronic distance measurement edm equipment edm units use multi frequency phase shift light waves find distance instruments saved need days weeks chain measurement measuring points kilometers apart one go advances electronics allowed miniaturization edm first instruments combining angle distance measurement appeared becoming known total stations


manufacturers added equipment degrees bringing improvements accuracy speed measurement major advances include tilt compensators data recorders board calculation programs first satellite positioning system us navy transit system first successful launch took place system 's main purpose provide position information polaris missile submarines surveyors found could use field receivers determine location point sparse satellite cover large equipment made observations laborious inaccurate main use establishing benchmarks remote locations us air force launched first prototype satellites


global positioning system gps gps used larger constellation satellites improved signal transmission provide accuracy early gps observations required several hours observations static receiver reach survey accuracy requirements recent improvements satellites receivers allow real time kinematic rtk surveying rtk surveys get high accuracy measurements using fixed base station second roving antenna position roving antenna tracked st century theodolite total station rtk gps survey remain primary methods use remote sensing satellite imagery continue


improve become cheaper allowing commonplace use prominent new technologies include three dimensional scanning use lidar topographical surveys uav technology along photogrammetric image processing also appearing equipment hardware main surveying instruments use around world theodolite measuring tape total station scanners gps gnss level rod instruments screw onto tripod use tape measures often used measurement smaller distances scanners various forms aerial imagery also used theodolite instrument measurement angles


uses two separate ''circles'' ''protractors'' ''alidades'' measure angles horizontal vertical plane telescope mounted trunnions aligned vertically target object whole upper section rotates horizontal alignment vertical circle measures angle telescope makes vertical known zenith angle horizontal circle uses upper lower plate beginning survey surveyor points instrument known direction bearing clamps lower plate place instrument rotate measure bearing objects bearing


known direct angle measurement wanted instrument set zero initial sight read angle initial object theodolite item telescope aligns gyrotheodolite form theodolite uses gyroscope orient absence reference marks used underground applications total station development theodolite electronic distance measurement device edm total station used leveling set horizontal plane since introduction total


stations shifted optical mechanical fully electronic devices modern top line total stations longer need reflector prism return light pulses used distance measurements fully robotic even e mail point data remote computer connect satellite positioning systems global positioning system real time kinematic gps systems significantly increased speed surveying horizontally accurate within nbsp cm ppm real time vertically currently half within nbsp cm ppm gps surveying differs


gps uses equipment methods used static gps uses two receivers placed position considerable length time long span time lets receiver compare measurements satellites orbit changes satellites orbit also provide measurement network well conditioned geometry produces accurate baseline nbsp km long rtk surveying uses one static antenna one roving antenna static antenna tracks changes satellite positions atmospheric conditions surveyor uses roving antenna measure points needed survey two


antennas use radio link allows static antenna send corrections roving antenna roving antenna applies corrections gps signals receiving calculate position rtk surveying covers smaller distances static methods divergent conditions away base reduce accuracy surveying instruments characteristics make suitable certain uses theodolites levels often used constructors rather surveyors first world countries constructor perform simple survey tasks using relatively cheap instrument total stations workhorses many


professional surveyors versatile reliable conditions productivity improvements gps large scale surveys makes popular major infrastructure data gathering projects one person robotic guided total stations allow surveyors measure without extra workers aim telescope record data fast expensive way measure large areas helicopter using gps record location helicopter laser scanner measure ground increase precision surveyors place beacons ground apart method reaches precisions nbsp cm depending


flight height surveyors use ancillary equipment tripods instrument stands staves beacons used sighting purposes ppe vegetation clearing equipment digging implements finding survey markers buried time hammers placements markers various surfaces structures portable radios communication long lines sight software land surveyors construction professionals civil engineers using total station gps scanners collector data use land surveying software increase efficiency accuracy productivity land surveying software staple contemporary land surveying typically much drafting


designing plans plats surveyed property done surveyor nearly everyone working area drafting today utilizes cad software hardware pc newer generation data collectors field well computer platforms tools commonly used today surveyors offered online us federal government governments' survey agencies national geodetic survey cors network get automated corrections conversions collected gps data data coordinate systems techniques


standard brunton geo compass still used commonly today geographers geologists surveyors field based measurements surveyors determine position objects measuring angles distances factors affect accuracy observations also measured use data create vectors bearings coordinates elevations areas volumes plans maps measurements often split horizontal vertical components simplify calculation gps astronomic measurements also need measurement time component distance measurement example modern equipment surveying field map technology gps laser rangefinder field computer allows surveying well


increment less total length chain perambulators measuring wheels used measure longer distances high level accuracy tacheometry science measuring distances measuring angle two ends object known size sometimes used invention edm rough ground made chain measurement impractical angle measurement historically horizontal angles measured using compass provide magnetic bearing azimuth later precise scribed discs improved angular resolution mounting telescopes reticles atop disc allowed


precise sighting see theodolite levels calibrated circles allowed measurement vertical angles verniers allowed measurement fraction degree turn century transit plane table provided graphical method recording measuring angles reduced amount mathematics required francis ronalds invented reflecting instrument recording angles graphically modifying octant observing bearing every vertex figure surveyor measure around figure final observation two points first observed except difference called


''close'' first last bearings different shows error survey called ''angular misclose'' surveyor use information prove work meets expected standards levelling center operational oceanographic products services staff member conducts tide station leveling support us army corps engineers richmond maine simplest method measuring height altimeter nbsp using air pressure find height precise measurements needed means like precise levels also known differential leveling used precise leveling series


measurements two points taken using instrument measuring rod differences height measurements added subtracted series get net difference elevation two endpoints global positioning system gps elevation measured satellite receivers usually gps somewhat less accurate traditional precise leveling may similar long distances using optical level endpoint may effective range instrument may obstructions large changes elevation endpoints situations


extra setups needed ''turning'' term used referring moving level take elevation shot different location turn level one must first take reading record elevation point rod located rod kept exactly location level moved new location rod still visible reading taken new location level height difference used find new elevation level gun


positions nearby astronomic observations observations sun moon stars could made using navigational techniques instrument 's position bearing star determined bearing transferred reference point earth point used base observations survey accurate astronomic positions difficult observe calculate tended base many measurements made since advent gps system astronomic observations rare gps allows adequate positions determined


method determining accurate positions objects topographic maps large areas surveyor first needs know horizontal distance two objects known baseline heights distances angular position objects derived long visible one original objects high accuracy transits theodolites used angle measurements repeated increased accuracy see also triangulation three dimensions ''offsetting'' alternate method determining position objects often used measure imprecise features riverbanks surveyor would mark


measure two known positions ground roughly parallel feature mark baseline regular intervals distance measured right angles first line feature measurements could plotted plan map points ends offset lines could joined show feature ''traversing'' common method surveying smaller areas surveyor starts old reference mark known position places network reference marks covering survey area measure bearings


distances reference marks target features traverses form loop pattern link two prior reference marks surveyor check measurements datum coordinate systems many surveys calculate positions surface earth instead measure relative positions objects however often surveyed items need compared outside data boundary lines previous survey 's objects oldest way describing position via latitude longitude often height sea level surveying profession grew


created cartesian coordinate systems simplify mathematics surveys small parts earth simplest coordinate systems assume earth flat measure arbitrary point known 'datum' singular form data coordinate system allows easy calculation distances direction objects small areas large areas distort due earth 's curvature north often defined true north datum larger regions necessary model shape earth using ellipsoid geoid many countries created coordinate grids customized


lessen error area earth errors accuracy basic tenet surveying measurement perfect always small amount error three classes survey errors ''gross errors blunders '' errors made surveyor survey upsetting instrument misaiming target writing wrong measurement gross errors large gross error may reduce accuracy unacceptable level therefore surveyors use redundant measurements independent checks detect errors early survey ''systematic '' errors follow


consistent pattern examples include effects temperature chain edm measurement poorly adjusted spirit level causing tilted instrument target pole systematic errors known effects compensated corrected ''random '' random errors small unavoidable fluctuations caused imperfections measuring equipment eyesight conditions minimized redundancy measurement avoiding unstable conditions random errors tend cancel checks must made ensure propagating one measurement next surveyors avoid errors calibrating equipment


foot nbsp inch calculation mapping tolerances much smaller wherein achieving near perfect closures desired though tolerances vary project project field day day usage beyond th foot often impractical types local organisations regulatory bodies class specializations surveying different ways broad groups ''as built survey'' survey documents location recently constructed elements construction project built surveys done record completion evaluation payment purposes built survey also known 'works executed survey' built surveys


often presented red redline laid existing plans comparison design information ''cadastral boundary surveying'' survey establishes establishes boundaries parcel using legal description involves setting restoration monuments markers corners along lines parcel take form iron rods pipes concrete monuments ground nails set concrete asphalt ''alta acsm'' land title survey standard proposed american land title association american congress surveying mapping


survey conducted non level surface common oil gas industry replace old damaged pipes like like basis advantage dimensional control survey instrument used conduct survey need level useful shore industry platforms fixed thus subject movement ''engineering surveying'' topographic layout built surveys associated engineering design often need geodetic computations beyond normal civil engineering practice ''foundation survey'' survey done collect positional data foundation


survey precondition mortgage loan ''photographic control survey'' survey creates reference marks visible air allow aerial photographs rectified ''stakeout layout setout'' element many surveys calculated proposed position object marked ground temporary permanent important component engineering cadastral surveying ''structural survey'' detailed inspection report upon physical condition structural stability building structure highlights work needed maintain good repair ''subdivision''


geodetic surveying based considerations true shape earth surveying broadly classified two types ''plane surveying'' assumes earth flat curvature spheroidal shape earth neglected type surveying triangles formed joining survey lines considered plane triangles employed small survey works errors due earth 's shape small matter ''geodetic surveying'' curvature earth taken account calculating reduced levels angles bearings distances type surveying usually employed large


often needs surveyors surveyors help determine placement roads railways reservoirs dams pipelines retaining walls bridges buildings establish boundaries legal descriptions political divisions also provide advice data ''geographical information systems'' gis record land features boundaries surveyors must thorough knowledge algebra basic calculus geometry trigonometry must also know laws deal surveys real property contracts jurisdictions recognize three different levels qualification ''survey assistants'' ''chainmen'' usually unskilled workers help surveyor place target reflectors find old


reference marks mark points ground term 'chainman' derives past use measuring chains assistant would move far end chain surveyor 's direction ''survey technicians'' often operate survey instruments run surveys field survey calculations draft plans technician usually legal authority cannot certify work technicians qualified qualifications certificate diploma level available ''licensed registered chartered surveyors'' usually hold degree higher qualification often required pass exams


join professional association gain certifying status surveyors responsible planning management surveys ensure surveys surveys performed supervision meet legal standards many principals surveying firms hold status related professions include cartographers hydrographers geodesists photogrammetrists topographers well civil engineers geomatics engineers licensing licensing requirements vary jurisdiction commonly consistent within national borders prospective surveyors usually receive degree surveying followed detailed examination knowledge surveying law principles specific


surveying institutions surveying students professor helsinki university technology late th century countries' governments regulate least forms surveying survey agencies establish regulations standards standards control accuracy surveying credentials monumentation boundaries maintenance geodetic networks many nations devolve authority regional entities states provinces cadastral surveys tend regulated permanence work lot boundaries established cadastral surveys may stand hundreds years without modification jurisdictions also form professional institution representing local surveyors


institutes often endorse license potential surveyors well set enforce ethical standards largest institution international federation surveyors abbreviated fig represent survey industry worldwide building surveying english speaking countries consider building surveying distinct profession professional associations licensing requirements building surveyor provide technical building advice existing buildings new buildings design compliance regulations planning building control building surveyor normally acts behalf client ensuring vested interests remain protected royal institution


recorded title deed known extrinsic evidence noteworthy surveyors three four us presidents mount rushmore land surveyors george washington thomas jefferson abraham lincoln surveyed colonial frontier territories prior serving office david abercrombie practiced land surveying starting outfitter store excursion goods business would later turn abercrombie fitch lifestyle clothing store percy harrison fawcett british surveyor explored jungles south america attempting find lost city z biography expeditions recounted


book ''the lost city z'' later adapted film screen tadataka produced first map japan using modern surveying techniques starting age see also references reading keay j ''the great arc dramatic tale india mapped everest named'' harper collins pp pugh j c ''surveying field scientists'' methuen pp genovese ''definitions surveying associated terms'' acsm pp public land survey system foundation ''manual surveying instructions survey


public lands united states'' http wwwblmsurveymanualorg wwwblmsurveymanualorg external links http wwwgeometres sans frontieresorg g om tres sans fronti res association de g ometres pour aide au veloppement ngo surveyors without borders http nationalsurveyingmuseumorg national museum surveying home national museum surveying springfield illinois https landsurveyorsunitedcom land surveyors united support network global social support network featuring surveyor forums instructional videos industry news support groups based geolocation http wwwgeodnrcangcca edu geod survey index ephp natural resources canada surveying good overview surveying references construction surveys cadastral surveys photogrammetry surveys mining surveys hydrographic surveys route surveys control surveys topographic surveys http digicolllibrarywiscedu cgi bin histscitech histscitech idxtype turn id histscitechcyclopaedia entity histscitechcyclopaedia p isize xl table


surveying cyclopaedia http wwwsurvequipcom surveying triangulation surveying triangulation history surveying survey equipment http wwwnceesorg ncees national council examiners engineering surveying ncees http wwwnspsuscom nsps national society professional surveyors nsps http wwwusradarcom ground penetrating radar gpr faq ground penetrating radar faq using ground penetrating radar land surveying https landsurveyorsunitedcom hubs seiad survey earth global event professional land surveyors students remeasure planet single day summer solstice community land surveyors https wwwblsgov oes current oes htm surveyors occupational employment statistics ancient egyptian technology civil engineering egyptian inventions land use


western front urban exploration exploring parts towns etc normally limits ''infiltration'' zine popular urban exploration zine website created jeff chapman ninjalicious seon woo lee born professional electronic sports players specializing fighting games plays alias infiltration ''infiltration'' film canadian film see also infiltrator disambiguation

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics
Infiltration


'''forensic entomology''' scientific study invasion succession pattern arthropods developmental stages different species found decomposed cadavers legal investigations application study insect arthropod biology criminal matters also involves application study arthropods including insects arachnids centipedes millipedes crustaceans criminal legal cases primarily associated death investigations however may also used detect drugs poisons determine location incident find presence time

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Forensic entomology


entomology song ci song dynasty forensic science book ''collected cases injustice rectified'' published court judge physician medical scientist writer song ci contains oldest known case forensic entomology ref name haskell haskell ref murder case villager stabbed death authorities determined wounds inflicted sickle tool used cutting rice harvest time fact led suspect fellow peasant worker involved ref name haskell local magistrate villagers assemble


wrongs'' handbook coroners book song ci depicts several cases took notes person died elaborates probable causes explains detail examine corpse burial also explains process determine probable cause death main purpose book used guide investigators could assess scene crime effectively level detail explaining observed cases laid


fundamentals modern forensic entomologists first recorded account history someone using forensic entomology judicial means francesco redi italian physician francesco redi disproved theory spontaneous generation accepted theory redi 's day claimed maggots developed spontaneously rotting meat experiment used samples rotting meat either fully exposed air partially exposed air exposed air redi showed fully partially exposed rotting meat developed fly maggots whereas rotting meat exposed air


develop maggots discovery completely changed way people viewed decomposition organisms prompted investigations insect life cycles entomology general bergeret d'arbois dr louis fran ois etienne bergeret french hospital physician first apply forensic entomology case case report published stated general life cycle insects made many assumptions mating habits nevertheless assumptions led first application forensic entomology estimation post mortem interval pmi report used forensic entomology


tool prove hypothesis person died ref name benecke ref hermann reinhard first systematic study forensic entomology conducted hermann reinhard german medical doctor played vital role history forensic entomology exhumed many bodies demonstrated development many different types insect species could tied buried bodies reinhard conducted first study east germany collected many phorid flies initial study also concluded development insects living corpses


underground associated since year old beetles little direct contact reinhard 's works studies used extensively forensic entomology studies jean pierre gnin french veterinarian entomologist jean pierre gnin published many articles books various subjects including books ''faune des tombeaux'' ''la faune des cadavres'' considered among important forensic entomology books history second book revolutionary work theory predictable waves successions insects onto corpses counting numbers live dead


link arthropods deceased thereby helped establish scientific discipline forensic entomology forensic entomology subfields urban forensic entomology urban forensic entomology typically concerns pests infestations buildings gardens may basis litigation private parties service providers landlords exterminators ref name catts ref urban forensic entomology studies may also indicate appropriateness certain pesticide treatments may also used stored products cases help determine chain custody points possible infestation examined order determine fault


stored product forensic entomology stored product forensic entomology often used litigation insect infestation contamination commercially distributed foods ref name catts medico legal forensic entomology medicolegal forensic entomology covers evidence gathered arthropod studies scenes murder suicide rape physical abuse contraband trafficking ref name catts murder investigations deals insects eggs appear location body order appear helpful determining post mortem interval pmi location death question since many insects exhibit degree endemism occurring certain places


well defined phenology active certain season time day presence association evidence demonstrate potential links times locations events may occurred another area covered medicolegal forensic entomology relatively new field entomotoxicology particular branch involves utilization entomological specimens found scene order test different drugs may possibly played role death victim invertebrate types scorpionflies scorpionflies order mecoptera first insects arrive donated human cadaver observed


entomologist natalie lindgren southeast texas applied forensic science facility near huntsville texas remained corpse one half days outnumbering flies period presence scorpionflies thus indicates body must fresh flies flies order diptera often first scene prefer moist corpse offspring maggots feed significant types fly include blow flies family calliphoridae flies family often metallic appearance nbsp mm length addition name blow fly


members family known blue bottle fly cluster flies greenbottles black blowfly characteristic blow fly segmented antennae hatching egg first larval stage takes eight hours one day larvae three stages development called instars stage separated molting event worldwide known species blowflies species neotropics large number species africa southern europe common area find calliphoridae species countries india japan central america


species lay eggs open wounds mammals hence common name characteristics flesh fly segmented antennae holarctic sarcophagidae vary size nbsp mm length tropical species larger black gray longitudinal stripes thorax checkering abdomen flesh flies viviparous frequently give birth live young corpses human animals stage decomposition newly dead bloated decaying though latter common sarcophaga barbata specifically useful since deposit maggots directly onto


decomposing body larger visible size difference activity different stages main limitation however due lack information surrounding geographic distribution taxonomic features house fly family muscidae common flies found homes indeed one widely distributed insects often considered pest carry serious diseases adults nbsp mm long thorax gray four longitudinal dark lines back underside abdomen yellow whole body covered hair


female fly lay eggs several batches eggs genus ''hydrotaea'' particular forensic importance cheese flies family piophilidae scavengers animal products fungi best known member family ''piophila casei'' small fly four mm nbsp inch long found worldwide fly 's larva infests cured meats smoked fish cheeses decaying animals sometimes called cheese skipper leaping ability forensic entomology uses presence piophila casei larvae help estimate date death human


remains take residence corpse three six months death adult fly 's body black blue black bronze yellow head antennae legs wings faintly iridescent lie flat upon fly 's abdomen rest four mm nbsp inch long fly one third one half long common housefly coffin flies phoridae lesser corpse flies sphaeroceridae lesser house flies fanniidae black scavenger flies sepsidae sun flies heleomyzidae black soldier fly stratiomyidae potential use


forensic entomology larvae common scavengers compost heaps found association carrion destructive pests honey bee hives used manure management house fly control reduction manure volume larvae range size inch millimeters adult fly mimic close size color appearance organ pipe mud dauber wasp relatives phoridae humpbacked flies br larvae feed decaying bodies species burrow depth nbsp cm


days important buried bodies non biting midges chironomidae flies complex life cycle adults terrestrial phytophagous larvae aquatic detritivorous immature instars used forensic markers several cases submerged corpses found beetles beetles order coleoptera generally found corpse decomposed drier conditions beetles replaced moth flies psychodidae rove beetles family staphylinidae elongate beetles small elytra wing covers large jaws like beetles inhabiting carrion fast larval development


three larval stages creophilus species common predators carrion since large visible component fauna corpses adult staphylinidae early visitors corpse feeding larvae species fly including later predatory fly larvae lay eggs corpse emerging larvae also predators species long development time egg common later stages decomposition staphylinids also tear open pupal cases flies sustain corpse long


periods hister beetles family histeridae adult histerids usually shiny beetles black metallic green introverted head carrion feeding species become active night enter maggot infested part corpse capture devour maggot prey daylight hide corpse unless sufficiently decayed enable hide inside fast larval development two larval stages among first beetles arrive corpse histeridae genus ''saprinus'' ''saprinus'' adults feed larvae pupae blowflies although


preference fresh pupae adults lay eggs corpse inhabiting later stages decay carrion beetles family silphidae adult silphidae average size nbsp mm also referred burying beetles dig bury small carcasses underground ref name scott ref parents tend young exhibit communal breeding male carrion beetle 's job care provide protection breed carcass competitors ham beetles family cleridae carcass beetles family trogidae skin hide beetles family dermestidae hide beetles


important final stages decomposition carcass adults larvae feed dried skin tendons bone left fly larvae hide beetles beetle enzymes necessary breaking keratin protein component hair scarab beetles family scarabaeidae scarab beetles may one around beetle species worldwide compact heavy bodied oval shape flattened plates antenna terminates fitted together form club outer edges front legs may also toothed scalloped scarab beetles range


length species known one heaviest insect species sap beetles family nitidulidae mites many mites class acari insects feed corpses ''macrocheles'' mites common early stages decomposition tyroglyphidae oribatidae mites rostrozetes feed dry skin later stages decomposition ''nicrophorus'' beetles often carry bodies mite ''poecilochirus'' feed fly eggs arrive corpse fly eggs hatch maggots first eggs eaten maggot development delayed may lead


incorrect pmi estimates ''nicrophorus'' beetles find ammonia excretions blowfly maggots toxic ''poecilochirus'' mites keeping maggot population low allow ''nicrophorus'' occupy corpse moths moths order lepidoptera specifically clothes moths family tineidae closely related butterflies species moth nocturnal crepuscular diurnal species moths feed mammalian hair larval stages may forage hair remains body amongst final animals contributing decomposition corpse wasps ants bees wasps ants bees order


large amounts rain indirectly cause slower development due drop temperature light rain humid environment acting insulator permit greater core temperature within maggot mass resulting faster development submerged corpses lee goff noted well respected forensic entomologist assigned case involving discovery decomposing body found boat half mile shore upon collection maggot mass one insect ''chrysomya megacephala'' discovered concluded water barrier accounted scarcity flies


also noted flies attempt trek across large bodies water unless substantially influential attractant addition amount time maggot mass exposed salt water affect development cases goff observed found subjected minutes hour developmental delay many studies conducted thus specific amount delay time difficult estimate ref name goff l goff l fly prosecution cambridge massachusetts harvard university press ref sun exposure


insects cold blooded animals rate development less dependent ambient temperature bodies exposed large amounts sunlight heat giving insects warmer area develop reducing development time experiment conducted bernard greenberg john charles kunich use rabbit carcasses study accumulation degree days found temperature ranging mid high amount developmental time maggots significantly reduced contrast bodies found shaded areas cooler insects require longer growth periods


addition temperatures reach extreme levels cold insects instinctively know prolong development time order hatch accepting viable climate order increase chance survival reproduction air exposure hanged bodies expected show quantity variety flies also amount time flies stay hanged body vary comparison one found ground hanged body exposed air thus dry faster leaving less food source maggots body begins


decompose compilation fluids leak ground area expected fauna found also likely rove beetles non flying insects found instead directly body fly maggots initially deposited body may also found ref name goff l geography according jean pierre gnin 's book ''la faune des cadavres'' eight distinct faunal successions attracted corpse beetles flies forensic importance found worldwide portion limited


specific range habitats forensically important know geographical distribution insects order determine information post mortem interval whether body moved original place death calliphoridae arguably important family concerning forensic entomology given first arrive corpse family found worldwide ''chrysomya rufifaces'' hairy maggot blow fly forensically important member family calliphoridae widespread however prevalent southern california arizona new mexico louisiana florida


illinois regions flesh flies fall family sacrophagidae generally arrive corpse following calliphoridae unlike calliphoridae however members family able fly heavy rain key advantage enables occasionally reach body calliphoridae affecting maggot mass discovered flesh flies globally distributed including habitats united states europe asia middle east beetles representative order coleoptera accounts largest insect orders beetles adaptive found almost environments exception


antarctica high mountainous regions diverse beetle fauna found tropics addition beetles less submissive temperatures thus carcass found cold temperatures beetle prevalent calliphoridae weather various weather conditions given amount time cause certain pests invade human households insects search food water shelter damp weather causes reproduction growth enhancement many insect types especially coupled warm temperatures pests concerned time ants spiders crickets cockroaches


ladybugs yellowjackets hornets mice rats conditions dry deprivation moisture outside drives many pests inside searching water rainy weather increases numbers insects dry weather causes pest invasions increase pests commonly known dry conditions scorpions ants pillbugs millipedes crickets spiders extreme drought kill many populations insects also drives surviving insects invade often cold temperatures outside cause invasions beginning late summer months early fall box elder bugs cluster flies ladybugs silverfish noticed


common insects seek warm indoors ref name arabicking https wwwarabickingcom get rid dead rat dead rat smell dead rat tips ''terminixcom'' march ref modern techniques many new techniques developed used order accurately gather evidence reevaluate old information use newly developed techniques evaluations become relevant litigation appeals forensic entomology uses arthropod biology pulls sciences introducing fields like chemistry genetics exploiting inherent synergy use dna forensic entomology scanning electron microscopy fly larvae fly eggs used aid


determination pmi order data useful larvae eggs must identified species level get accurate estimate pmi many techniques currently developed differentiate various species forensically important insects study demonstrates technique use scanning electron microscopy sem identify key morphological features eggs maggots ref name pmid ref morphological differences help identify different species presence absence anastomosis presence absence holes shape length


median area sem method provides array morphological features use identifying fly eggs however method disadvantages main disadvantage requires expensive equipment take time identify species egg originated may useful field study quickly identify particular egg ref name sukontason ref sem method effective provided ample time proper equipment particular fly eggs plentiful ability use morphological differences gives forensic entomologists powerful tool


help estimating post mortem interval along relevant information whether body disturbed post mortem potassium permanganate staining scanning electron microscopy available faster lower cost technique potassium permanganate staining collected eggs rinsed normal saline solution placed glass petri dish eggs soaked potassium permanganate solution one minute dehydrated mounted onto slide observation ref name sukontason slides used light microscope calibrated eyepiece compare various morphological


features important useful features identifying eggs size length width plastron well morphology plastron area around micropyle ref name sukontason various measurements observations compared standards forensically important species used determine species egg mitochondrial dna method devised jeffrey wells felix sperling use mitochondrial dna differentiate different species subfamily chrysomyinae particularly useful working determine identity specimens distinctive


morphological characteristics certain life stages mock crime scenes valuable tool becoming common training forensic entomologists use mock crime scenes using pig carcasses pig carcass represents human body used illustrate various environmental effects arthropod succession estimate post mortem interval gene expression studies although physical characteristics sizes various instars used estimate fly age recent study conducted determine age egg based expression particular genes


particularly useful determining developmental stages evidenced change size egg pupa general time interval estimated based duration particular developmental stage done breaking stages smaller units separated predictable changed gene expression ref name tarone ref three genes measured experiment ''drosophila melanogaster'' bicoid bcd slalom sll chitin synthase cs three genes used likely varied levels different times egg development process


genes share linear relationship regards age egg older egg particular gene expressed ref name tarone however genes expressed varying amounts different genes different loci would need selected another fly species genes expressions mapped control sample formulate developmental chart gene expression certain time intervals chart compared measured values gene expression accurately predict age egg within two


genes expressed stages ref name tarone hope similar techniques accurate pmi obtained insect activity case study preliminary investigation insect colonization succession remains new zealand revealed following results decay insect colonization ref name eberhardt ref open field habitat environment daily average maximum temperature daily minimum temperature average rainfall first weeks environment nbsp mm day around days body began start active decay stage


insect successions started ''calliphora stygia'' lasted day larvae ''chrysomya rufifacies'' present day day ''hydrotaea rostrata'' larvae ''lucilia sericata'' family psychodidae ''sylvicola'' found present relatively late body 's decay coastal sand dune habitat environment average daily maximum temperature minimum daily average rainfall recorded nbsp mm day first weeks post decay time interval beginning day six death ending around day death greatly reduced average post decay


time due high average temperature environment insects obtained late post active stage include ''calliphora quadrimaculata'' adult sphaeroceridae psychodidae piophilidae larvae last family obtained recovery native bush habitat environment recorded daily average maximum minimum temperatures respectively average rainfall habitat recorded nbsp mm day bloat stage lasted day seven death post active decay began around day habitat ''h rostrata'' adult phoridae sylvicola larvae adult predominant species remaining


body pre skeletonization stages literature throughout history study forensic entomology remained esoteric science reserved entomologists forensic scientists early twentieth century popular scientific literature began pique broader interest entomology popular ten volume book series alfred brehem 's ''thierleben'' life animals expounded many zoological topics including arthropods accessible writing style french entomologist jean henri fabre also instrumental popularization entomology collection writings ''souvenirs entomologique'' written last half th century especially useful meticulous


attention detail observed insects' behaviors life cycles real impetus behind modern cultural fascination solving crime using entomological evidence traced back works ''faune des tombeaux'' fauna tombs ''les faunes des cadavres'' fauna corpses french veterinarian entomologist jean pierre gnin works made concept process insect ecological succession corpse understandable interesting ordinary reader way previous scientific work done publication gnin 's work


studies forensic science entomology became established part western popular culture turn inspired scientists continue expand upon research see also forensic entomologist forensic entomology law insect indicators abuse neglect notes reading spiralbound also aimed professional entomologists shorter popular style gennard dorothy e ''forensic entomology introduction'' https webarchiveorg web http xayimgcom kq groups name forensic bentomologypdf assumes prior knowledge technical hardback designed professional entomologists external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwforensic entomologycom wwwforensic entomologycom dr jason h byrd https webarchiveorg web http neweafeorg european association forensic entomology homepage http wiki beneckecom indexphptitle mark benecke publications forensic entomology collection original


articles forensic entomology many downloadable illustrated pdf 's cases including neglect cases https webarchiveorg web http wwwunivieacat forensic entomology daten fliegenhtm institute forensic entomology vienna click pictures enlargements graphs http wwwdeathonlinenet decomposition indexhtm happens body death http wwwhbocom autopsy forensic body farmhtml pastoral putrefaction body farm autopsy hbo documentaries https webarchiveorg web http wwwabcnetau science k moments gmis htm dating death great moments science http wwwncjrsorg pdffiles nij grants pdf dna techniques forensic entomology https webarchiveorg web http wwwjcueduau school sphtm antonbreinl centers vcrrc forensicpdf pdf forensic entomology deon canyon https webarchiveorg web http agspsrv agricwagovau ento forensichtm forensic entomology page australia ian dadour https wwwnlmnihgov visibleproofs galleries technologies blowflyhtml visible proofs https webarchiveorg web http wwwgrassbergerorg medical zoology madentherapiehtml medical zoology pages https webarchiveorg web http depositd nbde ep netpub data stat za bs v pdf ''survey carrion visiting beetles'' research fauna carrion visiting beetles erlangen bavaria carrion


ecosystem diverse species beetles belonging different guilds arrive depart carrion different times succession occurs arrival time growth rates beetles inhabiting corpses depending weather location type carrion studied http beneckecom pdf benecke brief survey history forensic entomology webversionpdf history forensic entomology many illustrations http wwwscielobr scielophpscript sci arttext pid lng en nrm iso tlng en diagnosis keys south american coleoptera forensic importance https webarchiveorg web http wwwcltuwaeduau data page fse forensic entomologypdf forensic entomology use insects help solve crime https wwwdoiorg j x forensic entomology case amazon rain forest brazil http wwwipmucdavisedu weather ddretrievehtml run models calculate degree days https webarchiveorg web http wwwoardcohio stateedu gdd glossaryhtm growing degree days http wwwgrounds magcom ''grounds


maintenance'' magazine https wwwncbinlmnihgov pmc articles pmc medical history annick opinel emergence french medical entomology influence universities institut pasteur military physicians c ''med hist'' july chinese inventions french inventions german inventions italian inventions subfields entomology


'''complex system''' system composed many components may interact examples complex systems earth 's global climate organisms human brain infrastructure power grid transportation communication systems social economic organizations like cities ecosystem living cell ultimately entire universe complex systems systems whose behavior intrinsically difficult model due dependencies competitions relationships types interactions parts given system environment systems complex distinct properties arise relationships

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Complex systems


nonlinearity emergence spontaneous order adaptation feedback loops among others systems appear wide variety fields commonalities among become topic independent area research many cases useful represent system network nodes represent components links interactions term ''complex systems'' often refers study complex systems approach science investigates relationships system 's parts give rise collective behaviors system interacts forms relationships


environment study complex systems regards collective system wide behaviors fundamental object study reason complex systems understood alternative paradigm reductionism attempts explain systems terms constituent parts individual interactions interdisciplinary domain complex systems draws contributions many different fields study self organization critical phenomena physics spontaneous order social sciences chaos mathematics adaptation biology many others ''complex systems'' therefore often used broad term


encompassing research approach problems many diverse disciplines including statistical physics information theory nonlinear dynamics anthropology computer science meteorology sociology economics psychology biology key concepts systems ''open systems'' input output flows representing exchanges matter energy information surroundings complex systems chiefly concerned behaviors properties ' 'systems'' system broadly defined set entities interactions relationships dependencies form unified whole always defined terms ''boundary'' determines entities


part system entities lying outside system become part system 's ''environment'' system exhibit ''properties'' produce ''behaviors'' distinct properties behaviors parts system wide ''global'' properties behaviors characteristics system interacts appears environment parts behave say response external stimuli virtue within system notion ''behavior'' implies study systems also concerned processes take place time mathematics phase


space parameterization broad interdisciplinary applicability systems concepts play central role complex systems field study complex system subset systems theory general systems theory focuses similarly collective behaviors interacting entities studies much broader class systems including non complex systems traditional reductionist approaches may remain viable indeed systems theory seeks explore describe ''all'' classes systems invention categories useful researchers across widely varying fields one systems theory 's main objectives relates


complex systems systems theory contributes emphasis way relationships dependencies system 's parts determine system wide properties also contributes interdisciplinary perspective study complex systems notion shared properties link systems across disciplines justifying pursuit modeling approaches applicable complex systems wherever appear specific concepts important complex systems emergence feedback loops adaptation also originate systems theory complexity system exhibit complexity means systems' behaviors cannot easily inferred properties modeling approach ignores


difficulties characterizes noise necessarily produce models neither accurate useful yet fully general theory complex systems emerged addressing problems researchers must solve domain specific contexts researchers complex systems address problems viewing chief task modeling capturing rather reducing complexity respective systems interest generally accepted exact definition complexity exists yet many archetypal examples complexity systems complex instance chaotic behavior behavior exhibits extreme


sensitivity initial conditions among properties emergent properties properties apparent components isolation result relationships dependencies form placed together system computationally intractable model depend number parameters grows rapidly respect size system networks interacting components complex system form network collection discrete objects relationships usually depicted graph vertices connected


edges networks describe relationships individuals within organization logic gates circuit genes gene regulatory networks set related entities networks often describe sources complexity complex systems studying complex systems networks therefore enables many useful applications graph theory network science many complex systems example also complex networks properties phase transitions power law degree distributions readily lend emergent chaotic behavior fact number edges complete graph grows quadratically


number vertices sheds additional light source complexity large networks network grows number relationships entities quickly dwarfs number entities network nonlinearity sample solution lorenz attractor complex systems often nonlinear behavior meaning may respond different ways input depending state context mathematics physics nonlinearity describes systems change size input produce proportional


change size output given change input systems may yield significantly greater less proportional changes output even output depending current state system parameter values particular interest complex systems nonlinear dynamical systems systems differential equations one nonlinear terms nonlinear dynamical systems lorenz system produce mathematical phenomenon known chaos chaos applies complex systems refers sensitive dependence initial conditions


butterfly effect complex system exhibit system small changes initial conditions lead dramatically different outcomes chaotic behavior therefore extremely hard model numerically small rounding errors intermediate stage computation cause model generate completely inaccurate output furthermore complex system returns state similar one held previously may behave completely differently response stimuli chaos also poses challenges extrapolating experience emergence gosper 's glider gun creating gliders cellular automaton


conway 's game life another common feature complex systems presence emergent behaviors properties traits system apparent components isolation result interactions dependencies relationships form placed together system emergence broadly describes appearance behaviors properties applications systems studied social physical sciences emergence often used refer appearance unplanned organized behavior complex system emergence also refer breakdown


organization describes phenomena difficult even impossible predict smaller entities make system one example complex system whose emergent properties studied extensively cellular automata cellular automaton grid cells one finitely many states evolves according simple set rules rules guide interactions cell neighbors although rules defined locally shown capable producing globally interesting behavior example conway 's game life spontaneous


order self organization emergence describes appearance unplanned order spontaneous order social sciences self organization physical sciences spontaneous order seen herd behavior whereby group individuals coordinates actions without centralized planning self organization seen global symmetry certain crystals instance apparent radial symmetry snowflakes arises purely local attractive repulsive forces water molecules surrounding environment adaptation complex adaptive systems special cases complex systems adaptive


return conditions transition occurred phenomenon called hysteresis history complex system may thus important complex systems dynamical systems change time prior states may influence present states ref name majdandzicpodobnik ref interacting systems may complex hysteresis many transitions ref name majdandzicbraunstein ref example hysteresis observed urban traffic complex systems may nested components complex system may complex systems example economy made organisations made people made


cells complex systems arrangement interactions within complex bipartite networks may nested well specifically bipartite ecological organisational networks mutually beneficial interactions found nested structure structure promotes indirect facilitation system 's capacity persist increasingly harsh circumstances well potential large scale systemic regime shifts dynamic network multiplicity well coupling rules dynamic network complex system important small world scale free networks ref name ref many local interactions smaller number inter area connections


often employed natural complex systems often exhibit topologies human cortex example see dense local connectivity long axon projections regions inside cortex brain regions may produce emergent phenomena complex systems may exhibit behaviors emergent say results may sufficiently determined activity systems' basic constituents may properties studied higher level example termites mound physiology biochemistry biological development


one level analysis social behavior mound building property emerges collection termites needs analyzed different level relationships non linear practical terms means small perturbation may cause large effect see butterfly effect proportional effect even effect linear systems effect ''always'' directly proportional cause see nonlinearity relationships contain feedback loops negative damping positive amplifying feedback always found complex systems effects element 's behavior fed back


way element altered history website wwwart sciencefactorycom ref although arguably humans studying complex systems thousands years modern scientific study complex systems relatively young comparison established fields science physics chemistry history scientific study systems follows several different research trends area mathematics arguably largest contribution study complex systems discovery chaos deterministic systems feature certain dynamical systems strongly related nonlinearity study


economics argues order market systems spontaneous emergent result human action execution human design upon austrian school developed th early th century economic calculation problem along concept dispersed knowledge fuel debates dominant keynesian economics debate would notably lead economists politicians parties explore question computational complexity pioneer field inspired karl popper 's warren weaver 's works nobel prize economist


philosopher friedrich hayek dedicated much work early late th century study complex phenomena constraining work human economies venturing fields psychology biology cybernetics cybernetician gregory bateson played key role establishing connection anthropology systems theory recognized interactive parts cultures function much like ecosystems explicit study complex systems dates least first research institute focused complex systems santa fe institute founded early santa fe institute


participants included physics nobel laureates murray gell mann philip anderson economics nobel laureate kenneth arrow manhattan project scientists george cowan herb anderson today institutes research centers focusing complex systems since late interest mathematical physicists researching economic phenomena rise proliferation cross disciplinary research application solutions originated physics epistemology entailed gradual paradigm shift theoretical articulations methodological approaches economics primarily financial economics development resulted emergence new branch


manage complexity governments challenged provide effective governance ensure flexibility resiliency complexity economics last decades within emerging field complexity economics new predictive tools developed explain economic growth case models built santa fe institute recent economic complexity index eci introduced mit physicist cesar hidalgo harvard economist ricardo hausmann based eci hausmann hidalgo team observatory economic complexity produced gdp forecasts year


recurrence quantification analysis employed detect characteristic business cycles economic development end orlando et al developed called recurrence quantification correlation index rqci test correlations rqa sample signal investigated application business time series said index proven detect hidden changes time series orlando et al extensive dataset shown recurrence quantification analysis may help anticipating transitions laminar ie regular turbulent ie chaotic phases usa gdp etc last least


demonstrated recurrence quantification analysis detect differences macroeconomic variables highlight hidden features economic dynamics complexity education focusing issues student persistence studies forsman moll linder explore viability using complexity science frame extend methodological applications physics education research finding framing social network analysis within complexity science perspective offers new powerful applicability across broad range per topics complexity modeling one friedrich hayek 's main contributions early complexity theory distinction


human capacity predict behavior simple systems capacity predict behavior complex systems modeling believed economics sciences complex phenomena general view included biology psychology could modeled sciences deal essentially simple phenomena like physics hayek would notably explain complex phenomena modeling allow pattern predictions compared precise predictions made non complex phenomena complexity chaos theory complexity theory rooted chaos theory turn


origins century ago work french mathematician henri poincar chaos sometimes viewed extremely complicated information rather absence order chaotic systems remain deterministic though long term behavior difficult predict accuracy perfect knowledge initial conditions relevant equations describing chaotic system 's behavior one theoretically make perfectly accurate predictions system though practice impossible arbitrary accuracy ilya prigogine argued complexity non deterministic gives way whatsoever precisely predict


future emergence complexity theory shows domain deterministic order randomness complex ref name pc cilliers p ''complexity postmodernism understanding complex systems'' routledge london ref referred edge chaos plot lorenz attractor one analyzes complex systems sensitivity initial conditions example issue important within chaos theory prevails stated colander study complexity opposite study chaos complexity huge number extremely complicated dynamic sets


relationships generate simple behavioral patterns whereas chaotic behavior sense deterministic chaos result relatively small number non linear interactions ref name pc therefore main difference chaotic systems complex systems history chaotic systems rely history complex ones chaotic behavior pushes system equilibrium chaotic order means words traditionally define 'order' hand complex systems evolve far equilibrium edge chaos evolve critical state built


history irreversible unexpected events physicist murray gell mann called accumulation frozen accidents sense chaotic systems regarded subset complex systems distinguished precisely absence historical dependence many real complex systems practice long finite periods robust however possess potential radical qualitative change kind whilst retaining systemic integrity metamorphosis serves perhaps metaphor transformations complexity network science complex system usually composed many components interactions system


represented network nodes represent components links represent interactions ref name ref name dorogovtsevmendes ref ref name fortunato ref ref name newman ref example internet represented network composed nodes computers links direct connections computers resilience internet failures studied using percolation theory form complex systems analysis ref name cohenerez ref failure recovery networks open area research ref name majdandzicpodobnik examples complex networks include social networks financial institution interdependencies traffic systems airline networks ref name barratbarthelemy ref biological networks climate networks ref name yamasakigozolchiani ref finally entire


earth systems notable scholars see also style vertical align top style padding right em biological organisation chaos theory cognitive modeling cognitive science complex disambiguation complex adaptive system complex networks complexity complexity disambiguation complexity economics complexity science hub vienna cybernetics style padding right em decision engineering dissipative system dual phase evolution dynamical system dynamical systems theory emergence enterprise systems engineering fractal generative sciences hierarchy theory style padding right em homeokinetics interdependent networks invisible hand mixed reality multi agent system network science nonlinearity pattern oriented modeling percolation percolation theory process architecture self organization sociology complexity science system accident system dynamics system equivalence systems theory anthropology tektology