natural environment called coupled human environment systems focus wildlife refuge located oregon united states links human physical geography apparent today human experience world increasingly mediated technology relationships humans environment often become obscured thereby integrated geography represents critically important set analytical tools assessing impact human presence environment done measuring result human activity natural landforms cycles methods information gained include


remote sensing geographic information systems integrated geography helps us ponder environment terms relationship people integrated geography analyze different social science humanities perspectives use understanding people environment processes hence considered third branch geography branches physical human geography references environmental social science human geography physical geography

Social science
Geography
Integrated geography


'''categorization''' ability activity recognize shared features similarities elements experience world objects events ideas organizing classifying experience associating abstract group category class type ref name croft ch basis traits features similarities criteria categorization considered one fundamental cognitive abilities studied particularly psychology cognitive linguistics categorization sometimes considered synonymous classification cf classification synonyms categorization classification allow humans organize things objects

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Categorization


three hierarchical levels abstraction ref name referencea rosch e mervis cb gray wd johnson dm boyes bream p basic objects natural categories cognitive psychology ref example plant could identified high level abstraction simply labeling flower medium level abstraction specifying flower rose low level abstraction specifying particular rose dog rose categories taxonomy related one another via class inclusion highest level abstraction inclusive lowest level abstraction


high category ' 'dissimilarities'' furthermore basic level inclusive level category exemplars share generalized identifiable shape ref name referencea adults often use basic level object names children learn basic object names first ref name referencea '''subordinate level''' eg dog rose lowest level abstraction exhibits highest degree specificity high degree within category similarity ref name markman b theories categorization classical view '''classical theory categorization''' term used cognitive linguistics denote approach categorization appears plato aristotle


highly influential dominant western culture particularly philosophy linguistics psychology ref name taylor ch classical view categories summarized three assumptions category described list necessary sufficient features member must categories discrete clearly defined boundaries either element belongs one possibilities members category status ie better members category belong others ref name croft ch ref name embley embley dw oliv '' https booksgoogleit booksid xfdau zdy cc pg pa conceptual modeling er


th international conference conceptual modeling ref ref name taylor ch john r taylor ''linguistic categorization prototypes linguistic theory'' nd ed ch pp ref classical view categories need clearly defined mutually exclusive collectively exhaustive way entity given classification universe belongs unequivocally one one proposed categories classical view categories first appeared context western philosophy work plato statesman dialogue introduces approach grouping objects based similar properties approach explored systematized aristotle


categories treatise analyzes differences classes objects aristotle also applied intensively classical categorization scheme approach classification living beings uses technique applying successive narrowing questions animal vegetable many feet fur feathers fly establishing way basis natural taxonomy examples use classical view categories found western philosophical works descartes blaise pascal spinoza john locke th century


bertrand russell ge moore logical positivists cornerstone analytic philosophy conceptual analysis recent formulations proposed frank cameron jackson christopher peacocke ref name pashler raatikainen panu '' https booksgoogleit booksid icqaaqbaj pg pt classical theory concepts '' pashler harold ''encyclopedia mind'' ref classical model categorization used least since linguists structural semantics paradigm jerrold katz jerry fodor turn infuenced adoption also psychologists like allan collins ross quillian ref name croft ch croft


cruse ''cognitive linguistics'' ch pp ref modern versions classical categorization theory study brain learns represents categories detecting features distinguish members nonmembers prototype theory pioneering research psychologist eleanor rosch colleagues since introduced prototype theory according categorization also viewed process grouping things based prototypes approach highly influential particularly cognitive linguistics ref name croft ch part based previous insights particular formulation category model based family resemblance wittgenstein


roger brown 's ''how shall thing called'' ref name croft ch prototype theory adopted cognitive linguists like george lakoff prototype theory example similarity based approach categorization stored category representation used assess similarity candidate category members prototype theory stored representation consists summary representation category 's members prototype stimulus take various forms might central tendency represents category 's average member modal stimulus representing either frequent instance stimulus composed


prototypical beverage prototype theory claims members given category share family resemblance categories defined sets typical features opposed members possessing necessary sufficient features exemplar theory another instance similarity based approach categorization exemplar theory likewise compares similarity candidate category members stored memory representations exemplar theory known instances category stored memory exemplars evaluating unfamiliar entity 's category membership exemplars potentially relevant categories retrieved memory entity 's similarity


exemplars summed formulate categorization decision ref name kruschke j k medin schaffer 's context model employs nearest neighbor approach rather summing entity 's similarities relevant exemplars multiplies provide weighted similarities reflect entity 's proximity relevant exemplars ref name medin l medin l schaffer context theory classification learning psychological review ref effectively biases categorization decisions towards exemplars similar categorized entity ref name medin l conceptual clustering '''conceptual clustering''' machine learning paradigm unsupervised classification


defined ryszard michalski modern variation classical approach categorization derives attempts explain knowledge represented approach classes clusters entities generated first formulating conceptual descriptions classifying entities according descriptions conceptual clustering developed mainly machine paradigm unsupervised learning distinguished ordinary data clustering generating concept description generated category conceptual clustering closely related fuzzy set theory objects may belong one


groups varying degrees fitness cognitive approach accepts natural categories graded tend fuzzy boundaries inconsistent status constituent members idea necessary sufficient conditions almost never met categories naturally occurring things category learning ''while exhaustive discussion category learning beyond scope article brief overview category learning associated theories useful understanding formal models categorization'' categorization research investigates categories maintained used field category


learning seeks understand categories acquired first place accomplish researchers often employ novel categories arbitrary objects eg dot matrices ensure participants entirely unfamiliar stimuli ref name ashby f g ashby f g maddox w human category learning annu rev psychol ref category learning researchers generally focused two distinct forms category learning classification learning tasks participants predicting category labels stimulus based provided features classification learning centered around learning category information diagnostic features categories ref name higgins e


higgins e ross b comparisons category learning best compare proceedings annual meeting cognitive science society vol ref contrast inference learning tasks participants inferring presence value category feature based provided category label presence category features inference learning centered learning within category information category 's prototypical features ref name higgins e category learning tasks generally divided two categories supervised unsupervised learning supervised learning tasks provide learners category labels learners use information


use acquired rule ie stimulus large dimension x respond '''information integration tasks''' require learners synthesize perceptual information multiple stimulus dimensions prior making categorization decisions unlike rule based tasks information integration tasks afford rules easily articulable reading x ray trying determine tumor present thought real world instantiation information integration task '''prototype distortion tasks''' require learners generate prototype category candidate exemplars category produced randomly manipulating features prototype learners


must classify either belonging category category learning theories category learning researchers proposed various theories humans learn categories prevailing theories category learning include prototype theory exemplar theory decision bound theory ref name ashby f g prototype theory suggests learn category one must learn category 's prototype subsequent categorization novel stimuli accomplished selecting category similar prototype ref name ashby f g exemplar theory suggests learn category one must learn exemplars belong


category subsequent categorization novel stimulus accomplished computing similarity known exemplars potentially relevant categories selecting category contains similar exemplars ref name medin l decision bound theory suggests learn category one must either learn regions stimulus space associated particular responses boundaries decision bounds divide response regions categorization novel stimulus accomplished determining response region contained within formal models categorization computational models categorization


must make assumption response selected given available information ref name ashby f g though categorization models make three assumptions distinguish ways represent transform input response representation ref name kruschke j k internal knowledge structures various categorization models reflect specific representation use perform transformations typical representations employed models include exemplars prototypes rules ref name kruschke j k '''exemplar models''' store distinct instances stimuli corresponding category labels memory categorization subsequent stimuli


determined stimulus' collective similarity known exemplars '''prototype models''' store summary representation instances category categorization subsequent stimuli determined selecting category whose prototype similar stimulus '''rule based models''' define categories storing summary lists necessary sufficient features required category membership boundary models considered atypical rule models define categories based content rather boundary models define edges boundaries categories subsequently serve determinants stimulus gets categorized examples


categorization models prototype models '''weighted features prototype model ref name reed k reed k pattern recognition categorization cognitive psychology ref ''' early instantiation prototype model produced reed early 's reed conducted series experiments compare performance models explaining data categorization task required participants sort faces one two categories ref name reed k results suggested prevailing model weighted features prototype model belonged family average distance models unlike traditional average distance


model expanded upon nosofsky mid 's resulting production generalized context model gcm ref name nosofsky r gcm exemplar model stores exemplars stimuli exhaustive combinations features associated exemplar ref name kruschke j k storing combinations model establishes contexts features exemplar defined features feature co occurs gcm computes similarity exemplar stimulus two steps first gcm computes psychological distance exemplar


stimulus accomplished summing absolute values dimensional difference exemplar stimulus example suppose exemplar value dimension x stimulus value dimension x resulting dimensional difference would psychological distance evaluated exponential decay function determines similarity exemplar stimulus distance results similarity begins decrease exponentially distance increases categorical responses generated evaluating similarity


learn category structures exceptions rule also stored considered formalize proposal nosofsky colleagues designed rulex model rulex model attempts form decision tree composed sequential tests object 's attribute values categorization object determined outcome sequential tests rulex model searches rules following ways ref name navarro j navarro j analyzing rulex model category learning journal mathematical psychology ref '''exact''' search rule uses single attribute discriminate


acquired one search phases become permanently implemented rulex model begin search exceptions rule acquired model attempt search perform previous phase successful rulex permanently implement rule begin exception search none previous search methods successful rulex default searching exceptions despite lacking associated rule equates acquiring random rule hybrid models '''sustain supervised unsupervised stratified adaptive incremental network ref name love b c love b


c medin l gureckis sustain network model category learning psychological review ref ''' often case learned category representations vary depending learner 's goals well categories used learning ref name markman b thus categorization researchers suggest proper model categorization needs able account variability present learner 's goals tasks strategies ref name love b c proposal realized love colleagues creation sustain flexible clustering model capable


accommodating simple complex categorization problems incremental adaptation specifics problems practice sustain model first converts stimulus' perceptual information features organized along set dimensions representational space encompasses dimensions distorted eg stretched shrunk reflect importance feature based inputs attentional mechanism set clusters specific instances grouped similarity associated distinct categories compete respond stimulus stimulus subsequently assigned cluster whose representational space closest


stimulus' unknown stimulus dimension value eg category label predicted winning cluster turn informs categorization decision flexibility sustain model realized ability employ supervised unsupervised learning cluster level sustain incorrectly predicts stimulus belonging particular cluster corrective feedback ie supervised learning would signal sustain recruit additional cluster represents misclassified stimulus therefore subsequent exposures stimulus similar alternative would assigned correct cluster sustain also employ unsupervised learning recruit


additional cluster similarity stimulus closest cluster exceed threshold model recognizes weak predictive utility would result cluster assignment sustain also exhibits flexibility solves simple complex categorization problems outright internal representation sustain contains single cluster thus biasing model towards simple solutions problems become increasingly complex eg requiring solutions consisting multiple stimulus dimensions additional clusters incrementally recruited sustain handle rise complexity social categorization '''social categorization''' consists


putting human beings groups order identify based different criteria categorization process studied scholars cognitive science also studied social activity social categorization different categorization things implies people create categories others human beings ref name groups created based ethnicity country origin religion sexual identity social privileges economic privileges etc various ways sort people exist according one 's schemas people belong various social groups ethnicity religion age ref


name reicher n hopkins psychology end history critique proposal psychology social categorization political psychology vol pp ref social categories based age race gender used people encounter new person categories refer physical traits often used automatically people n't know ref name liberman zoe et al origins social categorization trends cognitive sciences vol pp ref categories objective depend people see


world around allow people identify similar people identify people different useful one 's identity formation people around one build identity identifying group rejecting another group ref name bodenhausen galen kang sk peery social categorization perception social groups n ref social categorization similar types categorization since aims simplifying understanding people however creating social categories implies people position relation groups


hierarchy group relations appear result social categorization ref name scholars argue categorization process starts young age children start learn world people around children learn know people according categories based similarities differences social categories made adults also impact understanding world learn social groups hearing generalities groups parents develop prejudices people result generalities ref name another aspect social categorization


mentioned stephen reicher nick hopkins related political domination argue political leaders use social categories influence political debates ref name negative aspects activity sorting people according subjective objective criteria seen negative process tendency lead violence group another ref name indeed similarities gather people share common traits differences groups lead tensions use violence groups creation social groups people responsible


hierarchization relations groups ref name tajfel h social psychology intergroup relations annual review psychology vol pp ref hierarchical relations participate promotion stereotypes people groups sometimes based subjective criteria social categories encourage people associate stereotypes groups people associating stereotypes group people belong group lead forms discrimination towards people group perception group stereotypes associated impact social relations activities social categories


weight others society instance history still today category race one first categories used sort people however categories race commonly used black white asian etc participates reduction multitude ethnicities categories based mostly people 's skin color process sorting people creates vision different leading dehumanization people scholars talk intergroup relations concept social identity theory developed h tajfel ref name


indeed history many examples social categorization led forms domination violence dominant group dominated group periods colonisation examples times people group chose dominate control people belonging groups considered inferior racism discrimination violence consequences social categorization occur people see others different tend develop hierarchical relation groups ref name miscategorization cannot categorization without possibility miscategorization


right thing right ''kind'' thing right wrong thing category everything member lead logically russell paradox member without possibility error way detect define distinguishes category members nonmembers example absence nonmembers problem poverty stimulus language learning child children learning language hear make errors


rules universal grammar ug hence never get corrected errors ug yet children 's speech obeys rules ug speakers immediately detect something wrong linguist generates deliberately utterance violates ug hence speakers categorize ug compliant ug noncompliant linguists concluded rules ug must somehow encoded innately human brain ordinary categories however dogs abundant examples nonmembers cats example possible learn trial error error correction detect


define distinguishes dogs non dogs hence correctly categorize kind learning called reinforcement learning behavioral literature supervised learning computational literature fundamentally dependent possibility error error correction miscategorization examples nonmembers category must always exist make category learnable category exist definable see also categorical perception classification general theory library classification multi label classification pattern recognition statistical classification symbol grounding problem characterization mathematics knolling references external links http eprintsecssotonacuk cognize categorize


'''knowledge management''' '''km''' collection methods relating creating sharing using managing knowledge information organization ref name davenport ref refers multidisciplinary approach achieve organisational objectives making best use knowledge ref name unc ref established discipline since ref name hbr km includes courses taught fields business administration information systems management library information science ref name hbr ref ref name nonaka ref fields may contribute km research including information media computer science public health public policy ref name mental ref several universities offer dedicated master 's degrees knowledge management many large companies public

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Knowledge management


km enabler organizational learning ref name sanchez ref complex scenario knowledge management may found context supply chain involves multiple companies without ownership relationship hierarchy called authors transorganizational interorganizational knowledge complexity additionally increased industry th industrial revolution digital transformation new challenges emerge volume speed information flows knowledge generation history knowledge management efforts long history including job discussions formal apprenticeship discussion forums corporate libraries professional training mentoring programs ref


name unc ref name sanchez increased use computers second half th century specific adaptations technologies knowledge bases expert systems information repositories group decision support systems intranets computer supported cooperative work introduced enhance efforts ref name unc term personal knowledge management introduced refers management knowledge individual level ref name wright ref enterprise early collections case studies recognised importance knowledge management dimensions strategy process measurement ref name booker ref ref name morey ref key lessons learned include people cultural norms


influence behaviors critical resources successful knowledge creation dissemination application cognitive social organisational learning processes essential success knowledge management strategy measurement benchmarking incentives essential accelerate learning process drive cultural change ref name morey short knowledge management programs yield impressive benefits individuals organisations purposeful concrete action orientated research km emerged scientific discipline early ref name jas ref initially supported individual practitioners skandia hired leif edvinsson sweden world 's


first chief knowledge officer cko ref name ku ref hubert saint onge formerly cibc canada started investigating km long ref name unc objective ckos manage maximise intangible assets organizations ref name unc gradually ckos became interested practical theoretical aspects km new research field formed ref name bray ref km idea taken academics ikujiro nonaka hitotsubashi university hirotaka takeuchi hitotsubashi university thomas h davenport babson college baruch lev new york university ref name hbr ref name davenport ref thomas stewart former editor ''fortune'' magazine subsequently


editor ''harvard business review'' published cover story highlighting importance intellectual capital organizations ref name stewart ref km discipline gradually moving towards academic maturity ref name unc first trend toward higher cooperation among academics single author publications less common second role practitioners changed ref name bray contribution academic research declined overall contributions ref name serenko ref third number academic knowledge management journals steadily growing currently reaching outlets ref name serenko ref multiple km disciplines exist approaches vary author


school ref name bray ref name pph ref discipline matured academic debates increased regarding theory practice including techno centric focus technology ideally enhance knowledge sharing creation ref name harv ref ref name springer ref organisational focus organisation designed facilitate knowledge processes best ref name addicot ecological focus interaction people identity knowledge environmental factors complex adaptive system akin natural ecosystem ref name bray ref ref name rst ref regardless school thought core components km roughly include people culture processes structure technology details depend perspective


km perspectives include community practice ref name teacher ref social network analysis ref name groth ref intellectual capital ref name bontis information theory ref name jas ref name ku complexity science ref name snowden ref constructivism ref name citeseer ref practical relevance academic research km questioned ref name ferg ref action research suggested relevance ref name tlo ref need translate findings presented academic journals practice ref name booker dimensions different frameworks distinguishing different 'types of' knowledge exist ref name sanchez one proposed framework categorising dimensions knowledge distinguishes tacit knowledge explicit knowledge ref name snowden tacit knowledge represents internalised knowledge


effort ref name addicot ref name rst ref subsequent research suggested distinction tacit knowledge explicit knowledge represented oversimplification notion explicit knowledge self contradictory ref name wright specifically knowledge made explicit must translated information ie symbols outside heads ref name wright recently together georg von krogh sven voelpel nonaka returned earlier work attempt move debate knowledge conversion forward ref name nonaka second proposed framework categorising knowledge dimensions distinguishes embedded knowledge system outside human individual eg


information system may knowledge embedded design embodied knowledge representing learned capability human body 's nervous endocrine systems ref name sensky ref third proposed framework distinguishes exploratory creation new knowledge ie innovation vs transfer exploitation established knowledge within group organisation community ref name hayes ref name bray ref collaborative environments communities practice use social computing tools used knowledge creation transfer ref name bray strategies knowledge may accessed three stages km related activities ref name bontis ref organisations tried knowledge


capture incentives including making content submission mandatory incorporating rewards performance measurement plans ref name mis ref considerable controversy exists whether incentives work consensus emerged ref name gupta one strategy km involves actively managing knowledge push strategy ref name gupta ref name rathau ref instance individuals strive explicitly encode knowledge shared knowledge repository database well retrieving knowledge need individuals provided codification ref name rathau another strategy involves individuals making knowledge requests experts associated particular subject ad hoc basis pull strategy ref name gupta


codified stored codification focuses collecting storing codified knowledge electronic databases make accessible ref name smith p smith p ref codification therefore refer tacit explicit knowledge contrast personalisation encourages individuals share knowledge directly ref name smith p information technology plays less important role facilitates communication knowledge sharing knowledge management strategies instruments companies include ref name gupta ref name bray ref name snowden knowledge sharing fostering culture encourages sharing information based concept knowledge irrevocable


shared updated remain relevant make knowledge sharing key role employees' job description inter project knowledge transfer intra organisational knowledge sharing inter organisational knowledge sharing knowledge retention also known knowledge continuation activities addressing challenge knowledge loss result people leaving ref name levy ref mapping knowledge competencies roles identifying current future predicted gaps defining chosen role main knowledge retained building rituals knowledge documented transferred day start job transfer knowledge information prior employee departure means


sharing documents shadowing mentoring proximity architecture physical situation employees either conducive obstructive knowledge sharing storytelling means transferring tacit knowledge cross project learning action reviews knowledge mapping map knowledge repositories within company accessible communities practice expert directories enable knowledge seeker reach experts expert systems knowledge seeker responds one specific questions reach knowledge repository best practice transfer knowledge fairs competency based management systematic evaluation planning knowledge related competences individual organisation members master apprentice


relationship mentor mentee relationship job shadowing collaborative software technologies wikis shared bookmarking blogs social software etc knowledge repositories databases bookmarking engines etc measuring reporting intellectual capital way making explicit knowledge companies knowledge brokers organisational members take responsibility specific field act first reference specific subject knowledge farming using note taking software cultivate knowledge graph part knowledge agriculture motivations multiple motivations lead organisations undertake km ref name alavi ref typical considerations include ref name snowden making available increased knowledge content development provision products services achieving shorter development


cycles facilitating managing innovation organisational learning leveraging expertises across organisation increasing network connectivity internal external individuals managing business environments allowing employees obtain relevant insights ideas appropriate work solving intractable wicked problems managing intellectual capital assets workforce expertise know possessed key individuals stored repositories km technologies knowledge management km technology categorised groupware software facilitates collaboration sharing organisational information applications provide tools threaded discussions document sharing organisation wide uniform email collaboration related features workflow systems systems


allow representation processes associated creation use maintenance organisational knowledge process create utilise forms documents content management document management systems software systems automate process creating web content documents roles editors graphic designers writers producers explicitly modeled along tasks process validation criteria commercial vendors started either support documents support web content internet grew functions merged vendors perform functions enterprise portals software aggregates information across


knowledge management'' https doiorg ref knowledge retention knowledge retention part knowledge management knowledge retention needed expert knowledge workers leave organization long career ref name ref retaining knowledge prevents losing intellectual capital knowledge retention projects usually introduced three stages decision making planning implementation differences among researchers terms stages example dalkir talks knowledge capture sharing acquisition doan et al introduces initiation implementation evaluation furthermore levy introduces three steps scope transfer integration also recognizes zero stage initiation


project ref name see also archives management customer knowledge dynamic knowledge repository ''electronic journal knowledge management'' ignorance management information governance information management ''journal knowledge management'' ''journal knowledge management practice'' knowledge cafe knowledge community knowledge ecosystem knowledge engineering knowledge management software knowledge modeling knowledge transfer knowledge translation legal case management personal knowledge management references external links information systems groupware business terms hypertext


leonardo da vinci 's ''profilo di capitano antico'' also known ''il condottiero'' ''condottiero'' meant leader mercenaries italy late middle ages renaissance '''mercenary''' sometimes known '' 'soldier fortune''' private individual particularly soldier takes part military conflict personal profit otherwise outsider conflict member official military mercenaries fight money forms payment rather political interests beginning th century mercenaries increasingly come seen less entitled

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Mercenary


protections rules war non mercenaries geneva conventions declare mercenaries recognized legitimate combatants granted legal protections captured service personnel regular army practice whether person mercenary may matter degree financial political interests may overlap laws war protocol additional gc apgc amendment protocol geneva conventions article protocol provides widely accepted international definition mercenary though endorsed


countries including united states ''protocol additional geneva conventions august relating protection victims international armed conflicts'' protocol june states criteria f must met according geneva convention combatant described mercenary according gc iii captured soldier must treated lawful combatant therefore protected person prisoner war status facing competent tribunal gc iii art tribunal using criteria apgc equivalent domestic law may


decide soldier mercenary juncture mercenary soldier becomes unlawful combatant still must treated humanity case trial shall deprived rights fair regular trial still covered gc iv art possible exception gc iv art national authority imprisoning case would mercenary soldier defined apgc art regular trial captured soldier found mercenary


june ref legal status civilian contractors depends upon nature work nationalities respect combatants fact taken direct part hostilities apgc art b mercenaries civilians non combat support roles entitled protection third geneva convention gciii december united nations passed resolution ''international convention recruitment use financing training mercenaries'' entered force october usually known un


mercenary convention article contains definition mercenary article similar article protocol however article broadens definition include non national recruited overthrow government otherwise undermining constitutional order state undermin e territorial integrity state motivated take part therein essentially desire significant private gain prompted promise payment material compensation article person take direct part hostilities planned ''coup d' tat''


mercenary critics argued convention ''apgc art '' designed cover activities mercenaries post colonial africa address adequately use private military companies pmcs sovereign states situation iraq war continuing occupation iraq united nations security council sanctioned hand power iraqi government shows difficulty defining mercenary soldier united states governed iraq us citizen working armed guard could classified mercenary ''a national party


conflict'' apgc art hand power iraqi government one consider coalition forces continuing parties conflict iraq soldiers sent state party conflict official duty member armed forces apgc art f unless us citizens working armed guards lawfully certified residents iraq ie resident territory controlled party conflict apgc art involved fire fight continuing


conflict mercenary soldiers however acknowledge united states coalition forces continuing parties conflict might insist us armed guards cannot called mercenaries apgc art national laws laws countries forbid citizens fight foreign wars unless control national armed forces austria person proven worked mercenary country retaining austrian citizenship austrian citizenship revoked france france


criminalized mercenary activities defined protocol geneva convention french citizens permanent residents legal entities penal code http wwwlegifrancegouvfr waspad unarticledecodecode cpenalllrcv art l http wwwlegifrancegouvfr waspad unarticledecodecode cpenalllrcv art l http wwwlegifrancegouvfr waspad unarticledecodecode cpenalllrcv art l http wwwlegifrancegouvfr waspad unarticledecodecode cpenalllrcv art l http wwwlegifrancegouvfr waspad unarticledecodecode cpenalllrcv art l law prevent french citizens serving volunteers foreign forces law applies military activities specifically mercenary motive mercenary level remuneration however due juridical loopholes several french companies provide mercenary services french state also owns fense conseil international founded pmc however supply fighters used


humanitarian operations unless government committee approved deployment legislation reviewed government south african citizens working security guards iraq american occupation iraq consequences mercenary soldier sponsorship case mark thatcher possible funding logistical assistance relation alleged attempted coup equatorial guinea organized simon mann united kingdom united kingdom foreign enlistment act foreign enlistment act make unlawful british subjects join armed forces


states anti pinkerton act forbade us government using pinkerton national detective agency employees similar private police companies united states court appeals fifth circuit interpreted statute forbidding us government employing companies offering mercenary quasi military forces hire united states ex rel ''weinberger v equifax'' f th cir cert denied us disagreement whether proscription limited use forces strikebreakers stated thus


june letter heads federal departments agencies comptroller general interpreted decision way carved exemption guard protective services us department defense interim rule effective june revises dod instruction authorize contractors private security contractors use deadly force enemy armed forces self defense fed reg per interim rule private security contractors authorized use deadly force protecting client 's assets persons consistent contract 's mission statement one interpretation


authorizes contractors engage combat behalf us government combatant commander 's responsibility ensure private security contract mission statements authorize performance inherently governmental military functions ie preemptive attacks assaults raids etc otherwise civilians us armed forces lose law war protection direct attack time directly participate hostilities august us comptroller general rejected bid protest arguments us army contracts violated anti pinkerton act requiring contractors provide armed convoy escort vehicles labor


weapons equipment internal security operations victory base complex iraq comptroller general reasoned act unviolated contracts require contractors provide quasi military forces strikebreakers us military temporarily barred awarding largest security contract iraq lawsuit filed us citizen alleging violation anti pinkerton act however case later dismissed ref name wp alec klein steve fainaru june https wwwwashingtonpostcom wp dyn content article ar html judge halts award iraq contract ''the washington post'' p ref foreign national servicemen better known combat units


foreign nationals serve another country 's armed forces gurkha regiments british army indian army french foreign legion recruits countries commonwealth nations british army swear allegiance british monarch liable operate unit gurkhas however operate dedicated gurkha units british army specifically units administered brigade gurkhas indian army although nationals nepal country part commonwealth still swear allegiance either crown


constitution india abide rules regulations british indian soldiers serve french foreign legionnaires serve french foreign legion deploys fights organized unit french army means members armed forces britain india france soldiers classed mercenary soldiers per apgc art e f private military companies private military company pmc contemporary strand mercenary trade providing logistics soldiers military training services thus pmc contractors civilians


governmental international civil organizations authorized accompany army field hence term ''civilian contractor'' nevertheless pmcs may use armed force hence defined legally established enterprises make profit either providing services involving potential exercise armed force systematic way military means transfer potential clients training practices logistics support equipment procurement intelligence gathering private military contractor badakhshan province afghanistan private paramilitary forces functionally mercenary armies though may serve security guards


military advisors however national governments reserve right control number nature armaments private armies arguing provided pro actively employed front line combat mercenaries said pmc civilian contractors poor repute among professional government soldiers ref name backup site jonathan finer '' https wwwwashingtonpostcom wp dyn content article ar html security contractors iraq scrutiny shootings '' washington post september http wwwglobalpolicyorg security issues iraq occupation contractorshtm backup site ref officers us military command ref name backup site questioned war zone behavior september brigadier general karl horst deputy commander third infantry division charged baghdad security


invasion said dyncorp pmcs iraq guys run loose country stupid stuff 's authority ca n't come hard escalate force shoot people someone else deal aftermath happens place ref name backup site speaking use american pmcs colombia former us ambassador colombia myles frechette said congress american people want servicemen killed overseas makes sense contractors want risk


lives get job ref name lynch ref afghanistan united states made extensive use pmcs since mostly defensive role ref name neville leigh p neville leigh ''special operations forces afghanistan'' london osprey p ref pmc teams used guard bases protect vips taliban assassins almost never offensive operations ref name neville leigh p one mercenary stated work afghanistan purely protect principals get 're get huge firefights bad guys ref name neville leigh p one


team dyncorp international provided bodyguards president hamid karzai ref name neville leigh p pmc employees participate pro active combat press calls ''mercenaries'' pmcs ''mercenary companies'' media identified four mercenary companies executive outcomes angola sierra leone locations worldwide closed december sandline international papua new guinea sierra leone closed april gurkha security guards ltd sierra leone dyncorp international bosnia somalia angola haiti colombia kosovo kuwait afghanistan active pmc business boosted us coalition governments hired


security iraq march four blackwater usa employees escorting food supplies equipment attacked killed fallujah videotaped attack killings subsequent dismemberments cause first battle fallujah afghan war operations also boosted business us congressional report listed number pmcs enterprises signed contracts carry anti narcotics operations related activities part plan colombia dyncorp among contracted state department others signed contracts defense department companies


different countries including israel also signed contracts colombian defense ministry carry security military activities disproportionate number mercenaries pmcs today colombian colombia 's long history civil war led surplus experienced soldiers colombians much cheaper soldiers first world ref name lynch united nations disapproves pmcs question whether pmc soldiers accountable war zone actions common argument using pmcs used pmcs pmcs may able help


report found use contractors blackwater new form mercenary activity illegal international law many countries including united states united kingdom signatories ''united nations mercenary convention'' banning use mercenaries spokesman us mission un denied blackwater security guards mercenaries saying accusations us government contracted security guards whatever nationality mercenaries inaccurate demeaning men women put lives line protect people facilities every day history


europe classical era greek mercenaries persian empire xerxes king persia invaded greece nbsp bc employed greek mercenaries anabasis xenophon recounts cyrus younger hired large army greek mercenaries ten thousand nbsp bc seize throne persia brother artaxerxes ii though cyrus' army victorious battle cunaxa cyrus killed battle expedition rendered moot stranded deep enemy territory spartan general clearchus greek generals subsequently killed treachery xenophon


great macedonia invaded persia nbsp bc battle granicus river alexander also employed greek mercenaries campaigns men fought directly fought city state units attached army greek mercenaries ancient india tamil poems described greek soldiers served mercenaries indian kings valiant eyed yavanas greeks whose bodies strong terrible aspect alfred charles auguste foucher said troops mara gandhara sculptures may represent greek mercenaries stephanus byzantium wrote


left greek mercenaries prisoners free without ransom made carthaginians suspicious greek mercenaries discharged service trick dionysius n't fight greek mercenaries carthage dangerous enemies byzantine empire late roman empire became increasingly difficult emperors generals raise military units citizenry various reasons lack manpower lack time available training lack materials inevitably political considerations therefore beginning late th century empire often contracted


whole bands barbarians either within legions autonomous foederati barbarians romanized surviving veterans established areas requiring population varangian guard byzantine empire best known formation made barbarian mercenaries see next section members independent thracian tribes bessi dii often joined ranks large organized armies mercenaries sons mars italian mercenaries used greek kings syracuse punic wars ref name livius https wwwliviusorg people mamertines lendering jona mamertines liviusorg ref figure oral legend milesius


king harold godwinson england time norman conquest flemings natives flanders formed substantial mercenary element forces william conqueror many remaining england settlers normans contingents mercenary flemish soldiers form significant forces england throughout time norman early plantagenet dynasties th th centuries prominent example flemings fought english civil wars known anarchy nineteen year winter ad command william ypres


king stephen 's chief lieutenant made earl kent stephen italy ''condottiero'' military chief offering troops ''condottieri'' italian city states ''condottieri'' extensively used italian city states wars one another times ''condottieri'' seized control state one ''condottiero'' francesco sforza made duke milan ages taifa kingdoms iberian peninsula christian knights like el cid could fight muslim ruler christian muslim enemies


almogavars originally fought counts barcelona kings aragon catalan company followed roger de flor service byzantine empire catalan great company defeated battle halmyros former employer walter v count brienne refused pay took duchy athens great company ruled much central southern greece rival mercenary company navarrese company hired oust catalan german mercenaries also prominent role serbian victory


bulgarians battle velbuzd later middle ages free companies ''free lances'' formed consisting companies mercenary troops nation states lacked funds needed maintain standing forces tended hire free companies serve armies wartime ref name lanning michael p lanning michael ''mercenaries soldiers fortune ancient greece today 's private military companies'' new york random house p ref companies typically formed ends periods conflict men arms longer needed respective governments ref name lanning michael p veteran soldiers thus looked


military economic strength put end activities rid france rampaging mercenaries overthrow pro english king pedro cruel castile marshal bertrand du guesclin directed king charles v france take free companies castile orders put pro french enrique de trast mara castilian throne guesclin 's mercanaries organized big companies french companies placed decisive role putting enrique castilian throne styled king enrique ii first castilian monarch house


trast mara white company commanded sir john hawkwood best known english free company th century th th century gallowglass fought within islands britain also mainland europe welshman owain lawgoch owain red hand formed free company fought french english hundred years' war assassinated scot named jon lamb orders english crown siege mortagne th th centuries landsknechte etching daniel hopfer


''c'' swiss mercenaries sought late th early th centuries effective fighting force somewhat rigid battle formations became vulnerable arquebuses artillery developed time ''see swiss guard'' german landsknechts colourful mercenaries redoubtable reputation took swiss forces' legacy became formidable force late th throughout th century hired powers europe often fighting opposite sides sir thomas utopia advocated use mercenaries


preference citizens barbarian mercenaries employed utopians thought inspired swiss mercenaries class mercenaries known gallowglass dominated warfare ireland scotland th th centuries heavily armed armored elite force often doubled chieftain 's bodyguard approximately period niccol machiavelli argued use mercenary armies book political advice ''the prince'' rationale since sole motivation mercenaries pay inclined take kind


risks turn tide battle may cost lives also noted mercenary failed obviously good one succeeded may even dangerous astutely pointed successful mercenary army longer needs employer militarily powerful supposed superior explained frequent violent betrayals characterized mercenary client relations italy neither side trusted believed citizens real attachment home country motivated defend thus


make much better soldiers stratioti stradioti italian stradioti stradiotti greek stratiotes mercenary units balkans recruited mainly states southern central europe th middle th century stradioti recruited albania greece dalmatia serbia later cyprus modern historians indicated stratioti mostly albanians according study greek author around listed names attributed stradioti albanian origin remaining ones especially officers greek origin


cavalry italian wars known cutting heads dead captured enemies according commines paid leaders one ducat per head italy inter family conflicts wars castro mercenaries widely used supplement much smaller forces loyal particular families often supplemented troops loyal particular ' 'duchies'' sided one belligerents th th centuries peasant begs mercenary mercy front burning farm thirty


years' war th th century extensive use made foreign recruits regimented highly drilled armies europe beginning systematized way thirty years' war historian geoffrey parker notes scotsmen fifteen percent adult male population served soldiers continental europe signing treaty limerick soldiers irish army left ireland france took part known ''flight wild geese'' subsequently many made living fighting


continental armies famous patrick sarsfield fallen mortally wounded battle landen fighting french said ireland brutality thirty years' war several parts germany ransacked mercenary troops left almost unpopulated led formation standing armies professional soldiers recruited locally abroad armies active also peacetime formation armies late th century led professionalization standardization clothing uniforms equipment drill weapons etc since smaller


states like dutch republic could afford large standing army could find enough recruits among citizens recruiting foreigners common prussia developed form conscription relied wartime also foreign recruits although regulations stated one third recruits foreign prussian recruiting methods often aggressive resulted conflicts neighbouring states term mercenary gained notoriety development since mercenaries often seen soldiers fight noble cause money


loyalty highest bidder opposed professional soldiers takes oath loyalty seen defender nation mercenary soldiers thus fell favour replaced professional soldier augment army major european powers like france britain dutch republic spain contracted regiments switzerland southern netherlands modern day belgium several smaller german states third infantry regiments french royal army prior french revolution recruited outside france


regiments comprised men rising time seven years' war reduced numbers thereafter dutch republic contracted several scots swiss german regiments early th century kept three scots one walloon six swiss regiments including guard regiment raised throughout th century scots regiments contracted great britain relations britain republic deteriorated regiments could longer recruit scotland leading regiments scots name nationalized


patrick gordon scottish mercenary fought various times poland sweden constantly changing loyalty based could pay best took russian service august coup d' tat attempt moscow co tsar peter great led sophia alekseyevna name co tsar intellectually disabled ivan v gordon played decisive role defeating coup ensuring peter 's triumph gordon remained one peter 's favorite advisers death spanish army also made use permanently established foreign regiments


three irish regiments irlanda hiberni ultonia one italian naples five swiss wimpssen reding betschart traxer preux addition one regiment royal guard including irishmen ''patten'' ''mcdonnell'' ''neiven'' recruited walloons last foreign regiments disbanded following recruiting difficulties napoleonic wars one complication arising use non national troops occurred battle bail n red swiss called uniforms invading french army clashed bloodily blue swiss spanish service american revolution


british government hired several regiments german principalities supplement army although german troops came number states majority came german state hesse kassel resulted american opponents referring german troops hessians whether germans actually hesse kassel especially th th centuries hessians increasingly dubbed mercenaries' done present struggle americans british free citizens fighting independence opposed armies 'tyrant' king george iii


crucial role helping end spanish rule first carlist war british government suspended foreign enlistment act allow recruitment quasi official british auxiliary legion george de lacy evans went spain fight queen isabel ii followers carlos pretender spanish throne atholl highlanders private scottish infantry regiment duke atholl formed purely ceremonial purposes granted official regimental status queen victoria remaining legal private army europe turkey


azerbaijan deployed syrian mercenaries nagorno karabakh war east asia warring states mercenaries regularly used kingdoms warring states period china military advisers generals trained works mozi sun tzu would regularly offer services kings dukes qin conquest warring states qin later han empires would also employ mercenaries ranging nomadic horse archers northern steppes soldiers yue kingdoms south th century tang dynasty also prominent


use mercenaries hired tibetan uyghur soldiers invasion g kt rks steppe civilizations th th centuries saika mercenary group kii province japan played significant role siege ishiyama hongan ji took place august august saikashuu famed support ikk buddhist sect movements greatly impeded advance oda nobunaga 's forces ninja peasant farmers learned art war combat ' 'daimy ' 's samurai hired many mercenaries


perform capture infiltration retrieval famously assassinations ninja possibly originated around th century widely known used till th century carried hired till mid th century th th centuries spanish philippines employed samurai mercenaries japan help control archipelago ref name lvarez ref abroad wreck one spanish galleon ''san diego'' sunk filipino waters december found numerous ''tsubas'' handguards ''katanas'' distinctive swords used samurai ref name lvarez dutch invaded ai


island japanese mercenaries th century taiping rebellion raged taiping heavenly peace army led hong xiuquan deranged self proclaimed younger brother jesus christ engaged bloody civil war forces loyal qing emperor hong followers numbered millions hostile western business interests group western merchants based shanghai created mercenary army known ever victorious army ref name smith ref taiping rebellion qing came close losing control china common financially


hard pressed qing emperors subcontract business raising armies fight taiping loyalist provincial gentry formed origins warlords dominate china overthrow qing rank file ever victorious army chinese senior officers westerners first commander american adventurer colonel frederick townsend ward ward killed action command assumed another american adventurer henry andres burgevine chinese disliked account racism alcoholism burgevine


replaced british army officer seconded chinese service colonel charles chinese gordon ref name faught ref mercenaries ever victorious army comprising worse social elements nations recruited notorious practice whenever marched new district stealing everything raping women led gordon impose harsh discipline soldiers accused looting rape arrested executed highly successful commander gordon thirty three battles succession taipings led ever victorious army


british mercenaries thrived homer lea philo norton mcgriffin morris two gun cohen francis arthur one armed sutton easily largest group mercenaries china russian emigres arrived hired various chinese warlords ref name fenby jonathan p fenby jonathan ''chiang kai shek china 's generalissimo nation lost'' new york carroll graf p ref unlike anglo american mercenaries russians home return foreign nations willing accept refugees causing grim


fatalistic outlook trapped regarded strange land far home imaginable one group russian mercenaries led general konstantin petrovich nechaev dressed uniform imperial russian army fought general zhang zongchang dogmeat general ruled shangdong province ref name fenby jonathan p nechaev men infamous ruthlessness one occasion rode three armored trains chinese countryside killing everybody met ref name fenby jonathan p chinese peasants tore rails stop


pilots served chinese air force famously th squadron light bombardment unit often called international squadron briefly active february march india th th centuries medieval period purbiya mercenaries bihar eastern uttar pradesh common feature kingdoms western northern india also later recruited marathas british ref name kolff ref mukkuvar clan malabar coast sri lankan coast role soldiers kalinga magha 's invasion sri lanka nair 's


battle dutch battle colachel th early th centuries imperial mughal power crumbling powers including sikh misls maratha chiefs emerging time number mercenaries arriving several countries found employment india mercenaries emerged become independent rulers sikh maharaja ranjit singh known lion punjab employed euro american mercenaries neapolitan paolo avitabile frenchmen claude auguste court jean fran ois allard americans josiah harlan alexander gardner sikh army ''dal khalsa''


trained singh 's french mercenaries fight alone lines used french napoleonic era following french practice ''dal khalsa'' excellent artillery singh low opinion euro american mercenaries saying german french english european bastards alike india proprietary colony belonged east india company british crown east india company became world 's influential corporation exclusive monopolies trade india china early th century east india company proprietary colony india


ruled nbsp million indians controlled nbsp million acres square kilometres land flag issued currency maintained civil service army men led officers trained officer school giving company army larger possessed european states th century east india company recruited indian mercenaries guard warehouses police cities rule however forces ad hoc disbanded quickly recruited starting company recruited indian mercenaries


army board directors company come accept necessary rule conquests maintain standing army voting maintain three presidency armies funded taxes indian land ref name bryant ref number indians working company 's armies outnumbered europeans recruiting east india company tended follow indian prejudices believing pale skinned men northern india made better soldiers dark skinned peoples southern india high caste hindus superior low caste hindus despite


equal european army latin america nicaragua civil war nicaragua conservatives liberals latter recruited american adventurer named william walker promised bring mercenaries fight liberals ref name axelrod alan p axelrod alan ''mercenaries guide private armies private military companies'' washington cq press p ref walker brought mercenaries joined another americans together belgian mercenary charles frederick henningsen already nicaragua able defeat conservatives battle


le virgen september october walker taken grenada conservative capital ref name axelrod alan p victories walker became ' 'de facto'' dictator nicaragua many inside outside country soon started call walkeragua ref name axelrod alan p axelrod alan ''mercenaries guide private armies private military companies'' washington cq press p ref time nicaragua extremely important transit point western eastern united states days panama canal transcontinental railroad ships eastern united states would sail


san juan river lake nicaragua passengers goods unloaded port rivas made short journey via stagecoach pacific coast loaded onto ships would take west coast united states ref name axelrod alan p one important companies nicaraguan stagecoach business accessory transit company owned commodore cornelius vanderbilt new york ref name axelrod alan p walker confiscated accessory transit company 's assets nicaragua handed morgan garrison company owned rivals


vanderbilt ref name axelrod alan p vanderbilt happened richest man united states launched lobbying campaign walker washington dc able pressure president franklin pierce withdrawing american recognition walker 's regime ref name axelrod alan p understood us government longer supporting walker costa rica invaded nicaragua aim deposing walker whose ambitions felt threat central america ref name axelrod alan p costa ricans defeated walker battle santa rosa second battle rivas ref


name axelrod alan p beleaguered walker sought appeal support native south restoring slavery nicaragua making english official language changing immigration law favor americans declaring ultimate intention bring nicaragua united states slave state ref name axelrod alan p point walker thoroughly alienated public opinion nicaragua besieged grenada coalition guatemalan salvadorian costa rican troops ref name axelrod alan p decision henningsen burn grenada enraged nicaraguan people march walker


dreams empire tatters fled nicaragua one reagan administration 's foreign policy overthrow left wing sandinista government arming guerrillas known contras congress passed three boland amendments limited extent american aid contra rebels late popularity magazines ''soldier fortune'' glorified mercenary subculture led opening numerous camps united states designed train men mercenaries also serve guerrillas case soviet


civilian military assistance cma group aid contras cma led white supremacist alabama named tom posey like members cma graduates mercenary training camps ref name auto john negroponte american ambassador honduras arranged permission given cma operate honduran territory ref name auto however operation collapsed later nicaraguans shot cma plane carrying arms contras killing two americanssam hall self proclaimed mercenary hero counter terrorist joined cma entered nicaragua


aim performing sabotage operations ref name auto ref hall captured sandinistas held four months releasing grounds mercenary rather mercenary imposer ref name auto john k singlaub worked alongside hall described suffering walter mitty type complex ref name auto colombia president c sar gaviria colombia signed decree allowed wealthy landowners recruit private armies liberalised law settling pmcs order fight communist farc ''fuerzas armadas revolucionarias de colombia'' revolutionary


used celtic mercenaries carthage unique relying primarily mercenaries fight wars particularly gaul spanish mercenaries th th centuries frederick russell burnham africa th century mercenaries conflicts continent africa several cases brought swift end bloody civil war comprehensively defeating rebel forces number unsavory incidents brushfire wars africa involving recruitment european american men looking adventure many adventurers africa described mercenaries


fact ideologically motivated support particular governments would fight highest bidder example british south africa police bsap paramilitary mounted infantry force formed british south africa company cecil rhodes evolved continued famous mercenaries africa include frederick russell burnham american scout british south africa company served first matabele war second matabele war effectively ended second matabele war assassinating ndebele religious leader mlimo burnham


best known war teaching american frontier scouting robert baden powell inspiring found boy scouts second boer war burnham served chief scouts british army presented cross distinguished service order heroism given commission major british army king edward vii personally even though declined renounce american citizenship burnham 's real life adventures also heavily influenced h rider haggard created fictional allan quatermain adventurer character later transformed george lucas


indiana jones ref name hough ref mike hoare british career soldier served distinction london irish rifles world war ii later emigrated south africa contracted state katanga early form '' commando force katangaise '' unit foreign military advisers local gendarmerie hoare 's recruits belgians south africans katanga 's integration hoare remained active congo affairs solicited general joseph desir mobutu form '' commando '' second mercenary force raised crush


brief inroad civilian life denard returned military service katangese gendarmerie refusing surrender secessionist forces collapsed january disappeared angola nucleus die hards sought work training north yemen royalists returning congo request prime minister moise tshombe ref name fig denard formed unit fight simba rebellion ''les affreux'' also instrumental suppressing attempted coup d' tat dismissed congolese president joseph kasa vubu french mercenary joined kisangani mutinies wounded


action later went serve military adviser several african governments including gabon rhodesia ref name hum https wwwhumanitefr international bob denard chien de guerre bob denard chien de guerre ''l'humanit '' may ref denard since carried five attempted coup d'etats benin comoros islands three successful neall ellis south african aviator achieved prominence extensive action sierra leone 's long running civil war ellis raised bulawayo rhodesia zimbabwe unsuccessful career rhodesian army emigrated join south african air force ref name shadow ref south african border


paramilitary company ''jesa air west africa'' ref name shadow continues fly helicopters iraq somalia simon mann found guilty zimbabwe attempting buy weapons '' bbc august '' allegedly coup equatorial guinea see congo crisis white mercenaries fighting alongside congolese troops congo crisis period turmoil first republic congo began national independence belgium ended seizing power joseph mobutu crisis mercenaries employed various factions also


times helped united nations peace keepers mike hoare worked mercenary commanding english speaking unit called commando supporting faction katanga province trying break away newly independent congo leadership mo se tshombe hoare chronicled exploits book ''road kalamata'' tshombe prime minister congo hired major hoare lead military unit called commando made men south africa unit 's mission fight rebel group


called simbas already captured almost two thirds country operation dragon rouge commando worked close cooperation belgian paratroopers cuban exile pilots cia hired mercenaries objective operation dragon rouge capture stanleyville save several hundred civilians mostly europeans missionaries hostages simba rebels operation saved many lives however operation damaged reputation mo se tshombe saw return white mercenaries congo soon independence factor tshombe 's loss support president congo joseph kasa vubu


dismissed position time bob denard commanded french speaking commando black jack schramme commanded commando william rip robertson commanded company anti castro cuban exiles later former tshombe mercenaries katangese gendarmes staged mercenaries' mutinies biafra mercenaries fought biafrans fourth commando brigade led rolf steiner nigerian civil war mercenaries flew aircraft biafrans october example royal air burundi dc argonaut flown mercenary heinrich wartski also known henry


wharton crash landed cameroon military supplies destined biafra hoped employing mercenaries nigeria would similar impact congo mercenaries proved largely ineffective ref name baxter philip p baxter philip ''biafra nigerian civil war '' london helion company p ref british historian philip baxter wrote principle difference congolese militias commanded leaders almost military experience match mercenaries contrast sandhurst trained nigerian army officers altogether higher caliber congolese militia leaders ref name baxter philip p much


leadership nigerian army killed two coups still enough sandhust graduates left hold nigerian army together provide enough modicum military professionalism defeat mercenaries ref name baxter philip p october mercenaries expecting easy victories like congo already left biafra complaining nigerians much tougher opponent defeating battle ref name baxter philip p asked impact white mercenaries general philip effiong chief


ordinary people biafra due high handed behavior tendency retreat appeared possible nigerians cut instead holding ground fondness looting noting european mercenaries seemed interested stealing much possible instead helping biafra ref name oyewole may count carl gustaf von rosen formed squadron five light aircraft known ''babies biafra'' attacked destroyed nigerian jet aircraft ground ref name gb gary brecher http oldexileru october war nerdhtml biafra killer cessnas crazy swedes october ref


delivered food aid count von rosen assisted ex rcaf fighter pilot lynn garrison angola john banks englishman recruited mercenaries fight national liberation front angola fnla ''popular movement liberation angola'' mpla civil war broke angola gained independence portugal united states david bufkin self proclaimed mercenary hero started recruiting campaign ''soldier fortune'' magazine calling anti communist volunteers especially vietnam veterans fight angola mercenaries claiming funded tune


self styled colonel callan described british journalist patrick brogan psychopathic killer personally executed fellow mercenaries cowardice extremely brutal black people ref name brogan patrick p brogan patrick ''the fighting never stopped'' new york vintage books p ref within hours arrival angola georgiou already led men disarming massacring group fnla fighters supposed allies killed fun ref name axelrod alan p axelrod alan ''mercenaries guide private armies private military companies'' washington cq


washington cq press p ref january group british mercenaries arrived angola within week dozen accidentally maimed trying use weapons falsely claimed proficient ref name axelrod alan p mlpa forces better organized led dispatch cuban army troops november decided war mlpa cuban accounts angolan war speak efforts mercenaries tone contempt cuban veterans contend mercenaries poor soldiers


trouble defeating ref name axelrod alan p captured john derek barker 's role leader mercenaries northern angola led judges send face firing squad nine others imprisoned three executed american daniel gearhart sentenced death advertising mercenary american newspaper andrew mckenzie costas georgiou served british army sentenced death murder ref name bbc june georgiou shot firing squad ref name brogan patrick p costas' cousin charlie christodoulou killed ambush executive outcomes employees


captains daniele zanata raif st clair also involved aborted seychelles coup fought behalf mpla national union total independence angola unita violation lusaka protocol comoros coup major aim french foreign policy still maintain french sphere influence called ''fran afrique'' ali soilih took power comoros via coup proved unwilling accept french viewpoint nation part ''fran afrique'' unhappy


soilih french secret service ''service de documentation ext rieure et de contre espionnage'' hired french mercenary bob denard invade comoros overthrow soilih ref name hebditch david p hebditch david connor ken ''how stage military coup planning execution'' new york skyhorse p ref making comoros tempting target denard small size consisting three islands indian ocean moreover soilih abolished comorian army replacing army militia known moissy made mostly teenage boys rudimentary


military training ref name hebditch david p hebditch david connor ken ''how stage military coup planning execution'' new york skyhorse p ref moissy modeled red guard china existed mainly terrorize soilih 's opponents commanded year old boy appointed solely blind devotion soilih ref name hebditch david p night may denard mercenaries landed grande comore island annihilated poorly trained badly commanded moissy none military experience morning comoros ref


name hebditch david p president soilih high marijuana naked bed together three nude teenage schoolgirls watching pornographic film denard kicked door room inform longer president ref name hebditch david p soilih later taken shot official excuse shot trying escape ref name hebditch david p new president comoros ahmed abdallah puppet leader real ruler comoros colonel denard brought comoros back ''fran afrique'' ref name hebditch david p


islamic rules polygamy maintain harem comorian women officially france committed united nations sanctions apartheid government south africa french south african businesses circumvented via comoros form sanctions busting tolerated denard long received cut profits ref name axelrod alan p ultimately denard 's antics great white conqueror comoros lavish lifestyle made embarrassment french government charges france engaged neo colonialism comoros


time alternatives denard form black comorian politicians wanted denard willing keep comoros ''fran afrique'' would allowed paris achieve aims without embarrassment white european exploiting country inhabited black africans abdallah tried dismiss denard commander presidential guard denard assassinated november ref name axelrod alan p point french government alternative leadership place intervened sending paratroopers remove denard mercenaries comoros installing


said mohamed djohar president ref name axelrod alan p september denard invaded comoros time paris invasion paratroops dispatched comoros usher denard mercenaries ref name axelrod alan p denard charged france murder president abdallah acquitted owing lack evidence ref name axelrod alan p found guilty conspiracy overthrow government comoros point denard suffering alzheimer 's disease serve day


prison instead dying paris hospital october seychelles invasion mad mike hoare hired government south africa lead invasion seychelles aim deposing left wing president france albert ren roundly criticized apartheid replacing apartheid friendly leader disguised drinking club ye ancient order froth blowers rugby players hoare led force men airport port larue november hoare 's men failed make past customs airport


alert customs officer noticed one rugby players ak assault rifle hidden luggage ref name axelrod alan p axelrod alan ''mercenaries guide private armies private military companies'' washington cq press p ref followed shoot airport hoare 's men seychellois customs officers ref name axelrod alan p realizing invasion doomed hoare men escaped hijacking air india jet flew back south africa ref name axelrod alan p fiasco seychelles invasion marked beginning decline traditional soldier


fortune centered around charismatic figure like hoare denard change corporatized private military company run men shunned limelight ref name axelrod alan p white mercenary archetype starting white mercenaries colonel mad mike hoare taffy williams bob denard siegfried kongo killer ller jean schramme rolf steiner roger faulques played prominent role various wars africa attracting much media attention west congo crisis poorly trained led congolese army almost disintegrated allowing situation relatively small


number mercenaries sized impact fighting widely misunderstood west proving innate superiority white soldiers black exploits men led glorification mercenary lifestyle magazines ''soldier fortune'' together countless pulp novels number films ref name auto ref american scholar kyle burke argued popularity books films featuring tough white mercenaries africa heroes due male backlash feminist movement noting noteworthy aspect works


celebration ultra macho militaristic masculinity refuses compromise way symbolically castrating feminism reduces men powerlessness ref name auto ref glorification machismo works suggests mercenaries best sort men women defer works also promote image black men savage brutes willing engage sexual violence burke also argued strong racial backlash celebration mercenaries africa message dozen white


soldiers could defeat thousands blacks battle ref name auto recurring theme books magazines films celebrating mercenary lifestyle africa barely veiled racism depicted post independence africa hell implication africa without european rule reverting natural state savagery alleged existed prior european conquests africa th century white mercenaries portrayed heroic adventurers almost effortlessly defeated vast hordes black africans force order saving africa africans ref name auto burke


noted works celebrating white mercenaries africa tended popular white working class men precisely social element threatened economic turmoil rise gay rights movement rise feminism rise civil rights movement ref name auto though number men actually went africa fight mercenaries small burke wrote popularity works celebrating white mercenaries reflected status anxieties many white men felt threatened social changes ref name auto publisher ''soldier


fortune'' robert brown admitted largest buyers magazine called walter mitty market men merely fantasized mercenaries judging sales great many ref name auto ref one year started publishing ''soldier fortune'' selling issues per month ref name auto ''soldier fortune'' highly supportive white supremacist government rhodesia portrayed paradise earth whites articles urged white american men go fight civilization rhodesia


black guerrillas popular image mercenaries fighting africa present macho adventurers defiantly living life terms together much drinking womanizing mixed hair raising adventures ref name auto eritrea ethiopia sides hired mercenaries eritrean ethiopian war russian mercenaries believed flying air forces sides sierra leone american robert c mackenzie killed malal hills february commanding gurkha security guards gsg sierra leone gsg


pulled soon afterwards replaced executive outcomes employed sierra leone government military advisers train government soldiers alleged firms provided soldiers took active part fighting revolutionary united front ruf australian broadcasting corporation 's abc tv international affairs program ''foreign correspondent'' broadcast special report sierra leone soldiers fortune focusing former bn recce members operated sierra leone serving sandf officers like de jesus antonio tt abreu capt ndume da costa


forefront combat language skills also exploits south african pilot neall ellis mi hind gunship report also investigated failures un peacekeeping force involvement mercenaries private military contractors providing vital support un operations british military special operations sierra leone equatorial guinea august plot later became known wonga coup overthrow government equatorial guinea malabo currently eight south african apartheid era soldiers organised neves matias


former recce major de jesus antonio former captain sai bn leader nick du toit five local men black beach prison island accused advanced guard coup place severo moto power six armenian aircrew also convicted involvement plot released receiving presidential pardon cnn reported august planned allegedly simon mann former sas officer august found guilty zimbabwe purchasing arms allegedly


use plot admitted trying procure dangerous weapons said guard diamond mine dr congo alleged paper trail implicates sir mark thatcher lord archer ely calil lebanese british oil trader bbc reported article entitled q equatorial guinea coup plot bbc reported september zimbabwe libya muammar gaddafi libya alleged using mercenary soldiers libyan civil war including tuaregs various nations africa


many part islamic legion created reports say around recruited niger mali algeria ghana burkina faso addition small numbers eastern european mercenaries also turned supporting gaddafi regime sources described troops professional serbian veterans yugoslavia conflict including snipers pilots helicopter experts certain observers however speculate may poland belarus latter denied claims outright former investigating although serbian government denied nationals


currently serving mercenary soldiers north africa five men captured anti gaddafi rebels tripoli several others also allegedly fought second battle benghazi recently number unidentified white south african mercenaries hired smuggle gaddafi sons exile niger attempts thwarted nato air activity shortly death libya 's ousted strongman numerous reports indicated team still protecting saif al islam gaddafi shortly recent apprehension amnesty international claimed allegations gaddafi libyan


state turned either false lacking evidence human rights watch indicated many foreign migrants erroneously accused fighting gaddafi also genuine mercenaries several nations participated conflict recently least several hundred mercenaries russian wagner group fighting side warlord general khalifa haftar government russia supports ref name spoiler ref wagner group mercenaries arrived libya late ref name mayhem ref wagner group excelled snipers one result arrival


rapid increase number sniper deaths opposing side holds tripoli ref name mayhem response government turkey hired syrian mercenaries fight opposing faction supporting libyan civil war ref name spoiler since turkey deployed syrian mercenaries libya see turkish military intervention second libyan civil war addition syrian observatory human rights reported turkey sent many tunisian mercenaries libya furthermore july al arabiyah reported turkey sent syrian tunisian egyptian sudanese mercenaries libya


november report human rights advocacy group human rights watch claimed approximately hundreds sudanese men hired emirati security firm black shield security services security guards malls hotels uae subsequently tricked fighting libyan civil war reportedly men recruited khartoum spoke hrw told made live alongside libyan fighters aligned uae backed general khalifa haftar recruits hired safeguard oil facilities controlled haftar forces middle east


egypt muhammad ali great albanian tobacco merchant turned ' 'de facto'' independent ottoman ''vali'' governor egypt imported french mercenaries train army ref name dunn ref end napoleonic wars muhammad ali recruited mercenaries europe united states train army french italian veterans napoleonic wars much preferred formed largest two groups mercenaries egypt famous muhammad ali 's mercenaries frenchman joseph anthelme set first staff school egypt served


ismail 's americans went egypt largely high pay offered several confederate veterans barred serving post united states army ref name auto ref fact americans egyptian service fought opposing sides civil war source recurring tension antagonism north south continued egypt ref name auto syrian civil war banner wall office mahdi army al diwaniyah iraq announcing killing one militia members syria


free syrian army claimed bashar al assad regime recruited mercenaries iran hezbollah militia iraqi mahdi army militia syrian civil war russian government approved deployment wagner group mercenaries fight syrian government ref name wagnersyria ref wagner group reported played important role helping turn tide syrian civil war favor government appeared close collapse ref name wagnersyria february wagner group mercenaries reported attacked american base


syria together pro assad militia known battle khasham turkey used syrian mercenaries kurds syria yemen civil war multiple mercenary groups called popular committees consists yemeni tribes loyal different factions formed hadi government well houthi supreme political council yemeni civil war saudi arabian led intervention yemen operation decisive storm multiple sources reported latin american military contractors academi headed erik prince hired uae armed forces assist fight houthis notable


mercenaries see also dutch blue guards filibuster military freelancer independent contractor international stability operations association law war mercenaries popular culture mercenary soldiers' revolt brazil mercenary war nbsp bc also called libyan war truceless war montreux document personal security detachment private defense agency private intelligence agency privateer r nin special forces special operations references sources bernales ballesteros enrique '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwunhchrch html menu b mercenaries documentshtm unhchr special rapporteur commission human rights use mercenaries '' bodin j ''les suisses au service de la france'' editions albion michael chartrand rene ''louis xv 's army foreign infantry''


osprey chartrand rene ''spanish army napoleonic wars '' osprey milliard todd http wwwdticmil cgi bin gettrdoclocation u doc gettrdocpdf ad ada overcoming post colonial myopia call recognize regulate private military companies pdf military law review vol june time publication major milliard judge advocate united states army judge advocate general 's corps anthony mockler ''storia dei mercenari da senofonte all'iraq'' odoya reading historical atwood rodney ''the hessians mercenaries hessen kassel american revolution'' cambridge university press avant deborah mercenary citizen armies explaining change practice


war ''international organization'' https wwwacademiaedu download avant foreign policypdf online fetter frank whitson foreign mercenaries declaration independence ''pennsylvania magazine history biography'' vol pp nbsp https wwwjstororg stable online ingrao charles barbarous strangers hessian state society american revolution ''american historical review'' https wwwjstororg stable online ingrao charles w ''the hessian mercenary state ideas institutions reform frederick ii '' cambridge university press niccol machiavelli ''the prince'' ch https webarchiveorg web http wwwdrizzlecom celyn jherek thmilscipdf military science western europe sixteenth century '' prologue nature armies


th century'' given army often included numerous nationalities languages normal landsknecht regiment included one interpreter per men interpreters commonly budgeted staffs field armies french german reiter regiments well fluency multiple languages valuable skill captain given uncommon armies consist majority foreign nationals mockler anthony ''the mercenaries men fight profit free companies feudal france white adventurers congo'' macmillan percy


sarah ''mercenaries history norm international relations'' oxford university press schmidt h hessian mercenaries career political clich ''history'' https wwwjstororg stable online thomson janice e ''mercenaries pirates sovereigns state building extraterritorial violence early modern europe'' princeton university press describes building modern state system states' monopolization extraterritorial violence underwood matthew jealousies standing army use mercenaries american revolution implications congress 's role regulating private military firms ''northwestern university law review'' https scholarlycommonslawnorthwesternedu cgi viewcontentcgiarticle context nulr


online since guy arnold ''mercenaries scourge third world'' palgrave macmillan https webarchiveorg web http wwwhumansecurityinfo vol brooks rathgeber doug brooks shawn lee rathgeber industry role regulating private security companies ''canadian consortium human security security privatization challenges opportunities'' vol university british columbia march anthony mockler ''hired guns coups d'etat mercenaries thirty years '' hunter mackay anthony mockler ''the new mercenaries history mercenary congo seychelles'' paragon house robert young pelton ''hunter hammer heaven journeys three world 's gone mad'' jeremy scahill ''blackwater rise


world 's powerful mercenary army'' nation books peter j woolley soldiers fortune ''the common review'' https webarchiveorg web http wwwthecommonrevieworg fileadmin template tcr pdf woolleyrev pdf v pp review essay status international law marina mancini '' http cadmuseuieu handle private military security company employees mercenaries twenty first century '' eui working paper ael european university institute san domenico di fiesole katherine fallah '' http wwwicrcorg web eng siteeng nsf html review p corporate actors legal status mercenaries armed conflict '' international review red cross eliav lieblich http wwwlaw journalde fileadmin user upload pdf ausgabe pdf status mercenaries international armed conflict case politicization


international humanitarian law ''bucerius law journal'' https webarchiveorg web http wwwpmcs monitorcom pmcs monitor international organization advocates tighter rules '' http www ohchrorg english issues mercenaries united nations working group use mercenaries means violating human rights impeding exercise rights peoples self determination '' private military companies pmcs robert young pelton '' https wwwamazoncom gp product licensed kill hired guns war terror '' crown http wwwglobalsecurityorg military world para mercenaryhtm mercenary private military companies pmcs links mercenary related articles https webarchiveorg web http wwwwaronwantorg corporatemercenaries corporate mercenaries war want 's report threat private military companies november jos alvear restrepo lawyers' collective '' http wwwcolectivodeabogadosorg articlephp id article


private security transnational enterprises colombia '' february https webarchiveorg web http securitycontractingnet network security contracting network resource community security contracting professionals irregular military private military contractors protective service occupations types military forces warfare middle ages


'''dermatology''' branch medicine dealing skin ref name randomhouse ''random house webster 's unabridged dictionary'' random house inc page ref ref name aadorg ref speciality medical surgical aspects ref name aocdorg ref dermatologist specialist medical doctor manages diseases related skin hair nails cosmetic problems ref name aadorg etymology attested english word dermatology derives greek ' 'dermatos'' genitive ' 'derma'' skin ' 'dero'' flay '' logia'' neo latin ' 'dermatologia'' coined anatomical term various french german

Applied science
Medicine and health
Dermatology


one competitive obtain ref name competitive ref ref name competitive ref ref name competitive ref united states experiencing national shortage dermatologists decade study published ''journal american medical association'' reported fewer dermatologists every people united kingdom uk dermatologist medically qualified practitioner gone specialize medicine subspecialize dermatology involves medical school five years obtain mbbs mbbch mb bchir degree two years foundation rotations various specialties


two three years training general medicine obtain higher degree medicine become member royal college physicians obtained mrcp examination applying become specialty registrar str dermatology training four years dermatology passing specialty certificate examination dermatology end training upon successful completion four year training period doctor becomes accredited dermatologist able apply consultant hospital post consultant dermatologist fields cosmetic dermatology cosmetic dermatology unit sm


surgery laser medicine dermatopathology dermatopathologist pathologist dermatologist specializes pathology skin field shared dermatologists pathologists usually dermatologist pathologist completes one year dermatopathology fellowship usually includes six months general pathology six months dermatopathology alumni specialties qualify dermatopathologists completion standard residency dermatology many dermatologists also competent dermatopathology dermatopathologists qualify sit examinations completing residency dermatology one


pathology trichology trichology specializes diseases manifest hair loss hair abnormalities hypertrichosis scalp changes trichoscopy medical diagnostic method used dermatologists special interest trichology immunodermatology field specializes treatment immune mediated skin diseases lupus bullous pemphigoid pemphigus vulgaris immune mediated skin disorders specialists field often run immunopathology labs immunodermatology testing essential correct diagnosis treatment many diseases affecting epithelial organs including skin mucous membranes gastrointestinal respiratory tracts various diseases often


board medical specialties abms establish board certification exam subspecialty micrographic dermatologic surgery mohs surgery exam first offered october us board certified dermatologist practices mohs surgery regardless whether received training dermatology residency part fellowship technique requires integration doctor two different capacities surgeon pathologist case either two responsibilities assigned another doctor qualified health care professional considered mohs surgery pediatric dermatology physicians


qualify specialization completing pediatric residency dermatology residency might elect complete post residency fellowship field encompasses complex diseases neonates hereditary skin diseases genodermatoses many difficulties working pediatric population teledermatology teledermatology form dermatological practice telecommunication technologies used exchange medical information treatment audio visual data communication including photos dermatologic conditions dermatologists nondermatologists evaluating patients along dermatologists directly patients via distance india


severe coronavirus situations dermatologists initiated online consultation patients using popular apps practo apollo pharmacy skin beauty pal lybrate etc subspecialty deals options view skin conditions large distance provide knowledge exchange establish second opinion services experts use follow individuals chronic skin conditions teledermatology reduce wait times allowing dermatologists treat minor conditions online serious conditions requiring immediate care given priority appointments dermatoepidemiology dermatoepidemiology study skin disease population level


one aspects determination global burden skin diseases skin disease constituted total global disease disability measured disability adjusted life years therapies facial cleansing pores meditec itesm ccm therapies provided dermatologists include excision treatment skin cancer cryosurgery treatment warts skin cancers dermatoses cosmetic filler injections intralesional treatment steroid drugs chemotherapy laser therapy management birth marks skin disorders like vitiligo tattoo removal cosmetic resurfacing rejuvenation chemical peels


treatment acne melasma sun damage photodynamic therapy treatment skin cancer precancerous growths phototherapy including use narrowband uvb broadband uvb psoralen uvb tumescent liposuction invented gynecologist dermatologist dr jeffrey klein adapted procedure local infusion dilute anesthetic called tumescent liposuction method widely practiced dermatologists plastic surgeons gynecologists radiation therapy although rarely practiced dermatologists continue provide offices vitiligo surgery includes procedures autologous melanocyte transplant suction blister grafting punch grafting allergy testing


stourhead wiltshire england designed henry hoare first landscape gardener showed single work genius highest order ref name hyams ref '''landscape architecture''' design outdoor areas landmarks structures achieve environmental social behavioural aesthetic outcomes involves systematic design general engineering various structures construction human use investigation existing social ecological soil conditions processes landscape design interventions produce desired outcomes scope profession broad subdivided several sub categories including professional

Applied science
Architecture and design
Landscape architecture


landfills landscape architects work structures external spaces landscape aspect design large small urban suburban rural hard built soft planted materials integrating ecological sustainability valuable contribution made first stage project generate ideas technical understanding creative flair design organization use spaces landscape architect conceive overall concept prepare master plan detailed design drawings technical specifications prepared also review proposals authorize


supervise contracts construction work skills include preparing design impact assessments conducting environmental assessments audits serving expert witness inquiries land use issues majority time likely spent inside office building designing preparing models clients education landscape architects required take four five years college get degree field mla learn create projects scratch residential commercial planting designing outdoor living spaces willing work others