negligence defamation defamation tarnishing reputation someone two varieties ' 'slander'' ''libel'' slander spoken defamation libel printed broadcast defamation two otherwise share features making factual assertion evidence exist defamation affect hinder voicing opinions occupy fields rights free speech first amendment constitution united states article european convention human rights related defamation us actions misappropriation


publicity invasion privacy disclosure abuse process malicious prosecution often classified dignitary torts well business torts business torts ie economic torts typically involve commercial transactions include tortious interference trade contract fraud injurious falsehood negligent misrepresentation negligent misrepresentation torts distinct contractual cases involving misrepresentation privity contract torts likely involve pure economic loss less commonly recoverable tort one criterion determining whether economic loss recoverable foreseeability doctrine economic loss rule highly


confusing inconsistently applied began california case involving strict liability product defects us supreme court adopted doctrine ''east river ss corp v transamerica deleval inc'' ref name ref supreme court us state washington replaced economic loss doctrine independent duty doctrine economic antitrust torts somewhat submerged modern competition law however united states private parties permitted certain circumstances sue anticompetitive practices including federal state statutes basis common law tortious


accountants architects attorneys surveyors ref name ballam us jurisdictions follow either ''ultramares'' approach restatement approach ref name ballam ballam de http digitalcommonslmuedu cgi viewcontentcgiarticle context llr expanding scope tort negligent misrepresentation ''loyola los angeles law review'' ref tort deceit inducement contract tort english law practice replaced actions misrepresentation act united states similar torts existed become superseded degree contract law pure economic loss rule ref name lens historically degree today fraudulent


negligent ref name lens misrepresentation involving damages economic loss may awarded benefit bargain rule damages identical expectation damages contracts ref name lens awards plaintiff difference value represented actual value ref name lens beginning ''stiles v white'' massachusetts rule spread across country majority rule pocket damages rule minority rule ref name lens lens jw http wwwlawkuedu sites lawdrupalkuedu files docs law review v lens finalpdf honest confusion purpose compensatory damages tort fraudulent misrepresentation ''kansas law review'' ref although damages benefit bargain described compensatory plaintiff left


better transaction ref name lens since economic loss rule would eliminate benefits applied strictly exception allow misrepresentation tort related contract ref name lens liability defenses remedies indirect liability may arise due involvement notably joint several liability doctrines well forms secondary liability liability may arise enterprise liability concepts include market share liability vicarious liability certain cases person might liable employee child law agency doctrine


mistakes nowiki '' nowiki '' ref name defenses successful defense absolves defendant full partial liability damages apart proof breach duty three principal defenses tortious liability consent warning typically victim cannot hold another liable victim implicitly explicitly consented engage risky activity frequently summarized maxim volenti non fit injuria latin willing person injury done injury done person consents many cases engaging risky activities


asked sign waiver releasing another party liability example spectators certain sports assumed accept risk injury hockey puck baseball striking member audience warnings defendant may also provide defense depending upon jurisdiction circumstances issue arises example duty care landowners guests trespasses known occupiers' liability comparative contributory negligence victim contributed causing harm negligent irresponsible actions damages may


reduced eliminated entirely english case butterfield v forrester established defense england contributory negligence became partial defense united states fault victim completely eliminated damages ref name little little wbl http lawcampbelledu lawreview articles pdf much easier find fault others faultless contributory negligence bar claim breach implied warranty merchantability ''campbell law review'' ref meant plaintiff fault victim would lose entire lawsuit ref name little viewed unnecessarily harsh


responsible illegality claimant involved wrongdoing time alleged negligence occurred may extinguish reduce defendant 's liability legal maxim ''ex turpi causa non oritur actio'' latin right action arises despicable cause thus burglar verbally challenged property owner sustains injury jumping second story window escape apprehension cause action property owner even though injury would sustained property owner 's intervention defenses immunities


historically immunity granted governments sovereign immunity charitable organizations charitable immunity although eroded united states ref name top various laws limit liability giving aid person need liability arise failure help due duty rescue remedies main remedy tortious loss compensation damages money limited range cases tort law tolerate self help reasonable force expel trespasser defense tort battery case


continuing tort even harm merely threatened courts sometimes grant injunction english case ''miller v jackson'' means command something money court restraining continuance threat harm usually injunctions impose positive obligations tortfeasors australian jurisdictions make order specific performance ensure defendant carries legal obligations especially relation nuisance matters theory reform scholars lawyers identified conflicting aims law


tort extent reflected different types damages awarded courts compensatory aggravated punitive british scholar glanville williams notes four possible bases different torts rested appeasement justice deterrence compensation late group legally oriented economists economically oriented lawyers known law economics scholars emphasized incentives deterrence identified aim tort efficient distribution risk ronald coase principal proponent argued ''the problem social cost'' aim tort law transaction costs high


reflect closely possible allocation risk liability private parties arrive transaction costs low since mid late th century calls reform tort law come various perspectives calls reform stress difficulties encountered potential claimants example people accidents find solvent defendants recover damages courts p atiyah called situation damages lottery consequently new zealand government established fault system state compensation accidents similar


proposals subject command papers uk much academic debate us reform typically limited scope tort law damages available limiting joint several liability collateral source rule capping noneconomic damages emotional distress punitive damages reform statutes sometimes rejected unconstitutional state constitutions state supreme courts seventh amendment united states constitution possibly also relevant theoretical policy considerations central fixing liability pure economic loss public bodies relationship contract


law tort sometimes viewed causes action defined areas contract fiduciary law ref name harpwood harpwood v http wwwroutledgelawcom textbooks downloads samplepdf modern tort law th edition routledge http wwwroutledgelawcom textbooks downloads samplepdf ch available sample ref however tort contract law similar involve breach duties modern law duties blurred ref name harpwood may clear whether action sounds tort contract apply different standards apply statute limitations courts determine gravamen


applicable circumstances involving professional negligence ref name harpwood may involve torts contracts choice may affect time limits damages particularly given damages typically relatively limited contract cases tort cases noneconomic damages pain suffering may awarded ref name harpwood punitive damages relatively uncommon contractual cases versus tort cases however compensation defective unsafe products typically available contractual actions ref name harpwood law warranty united kingdom plaintiffs professional negligence cases degree choice law


commercial transactions contract law applies unusual cases intangible losses awarded contract law cases ref name harpwood english case ''hadley v baxendale'' adopted united states split contract tort damages foreseeability damages contract made ref name forum construction industry website wwwamericanbarorg archive url https webarchiveorg web http wwwamericanbarorg publications construction winter economic loss rulehtml archive date may url status dead access date march ref united states pure economic loss rule adopted prevent negligence lawsuits breach contract cases ref name economic loss rule adopted supreme court united states ''east river steamship corp


purposes example payment damages person injured car accident obtaining injunctive relief stop person interfering business criminal actions hand pursued obtain remedies assist personalthough often criminal courts power grant remediesbut remove liberty state 's behalf explains incarceration usually available penalty serious crimes usually torts early common law distinction crime tort distinct severe penalties


available criminal law also means requires higher burden proof discharged related tort example j simpson murder trial jury convinced beyond reasonable doubt j simpson committed crime murder later civil trial jury case decided sufficient evidence meet standard preponderance evidence required prove tort wrongful death many jurisdictions especially us retain punitive elements tort damages example anti trust consumer related torts


making tort blur line criminal acts also situations particularly defendant ignores orders court plaintiff obtain punitive remedy defendant including imprisonment torts may public elementfor example public nuisanceand sometimes actions tort brought public body also criminal law primarily punitive many jurisdictions developed forms monetary compensation restitution criminal courts directly order defendant pay victim law economics william landes richard posner steven shavell


initiated line research law economics literature focused identifying effects tort law people 's behavior studies often make use concepts developed field game theory see also outline tort law causation english law index tort articles ''journal tort law'' notes references citations sources reading external links


together '''legal psychology''' forensic psychology form field generally recognized psychology law following earlier efforts psychologists address legal issues psychology law became field study part effort enhance justice though originating concern lessened time multidisciplinary american psychological association 's division american psychology law society active goal promoting contributions psychology understanding law legal systems research well providing education psychologists legal issues providing education

Social science
Psychology
Legal psychology


legal personnel psychological issues mandate inform psychological legal communities public large current research educational service area psychology law similar societies britain europe areas research generally speaking research combines psychological principles legal applications contexts could considered legal psychology although research involving clinical psychology eg mental illness competency insanity defense offender profiling etc typically categorized forensic psychology legal psychology time legal psychology researchers primarily focused issues


related eyewitness testimony jury decision making much editor ''law human behavior'' premier legal psychology journal implored researchers expand scope research move areas several legal psychology journals including ''law human behavior'' ''psychology public policy law'' ''psychology crime law'' ''journal psychiatry psychology law'' focus general topics criminology criminal justice system addition research legal psychologists regularly published general journals cover basic applied research areas march


j mckeen cattell posted questions fifty six students columbia university questions asked students comparable asked court justice found reasonable conclude eyewitness accounts events unreliable students sure mostly correct even n't hesitant fact correct could figure specifically student inaccurate testimonies cattell suggested unscrupulous attorney could discredit witness truthful asking cunningly selected


questions although jury judge know normal errors eyewitness testimonies given different conditions however even cattell shocked level incorrectness displayed students cattell 's research depicted foundation forensic psychology united states research still widely considered prevailing research interest legal psychology thought america psychologists used expert witnesses court testimonies since early consultation within civil courts common time criminal courts rarely consulted psychologists psychologists


knowledge field law although formal legal training jd master legal studies degree beneficial legal psychologists hold phd fact argue specialized legal training dilutes psychological empiricism researcher instance understand eyewitness memory works psychologist concerned memory processes whole instead aspects relevant law eg lineups accuracy testimony understand false confessions psychologist familiar research decision making compliance obedience persuasion forms


social influence growing number universities offer specialized training legal psychology either standalone phd program joint jd phd program list american universities offer graduate training legal psychology found http ap lsorg education graduateprogramsphp website http wwwap lsorg american psychology law society roles legal psychologist academics research many legal psychologists work professors university psychology departments criminal justice departments law schools like professors legal psychologists generally conduct publish empirical research teach various classes mentor graduate undergraduate students many legal psychologists also conduct research


general area psychology eg social clinical cognitive tangential legal focus legal psychologists work law schools almost always hold jd addition phd expert witnesses psychologists specifically trained legal issues well formal training often called legal parties testify expert witnesses criminal trials expert witness may called testify eyewitness memory mistaken identity competence stand trial propensity death qualified jury also pro guilt etc psychologists focus clinical issues often


testify specifically defendant 's competence intelligence etc general testimony perceptual issues eg adequacy police sirens may also come trial experts particularly psychology experts often accused hired guns stating obvious eyewitness memory experts elizabeth loftus often discounted judges lawyers empirical training research utilizes undergraduate students unrealistic scenarios sides psychological witnesses jurors may daunting task assessing difficult scientific information policy making legislative guidance psychologists employed public policy centers may attempt influence legislative


policy may called upon state national lawmakers address policy issue empirical research psychologist working public policy might suggest laws help evaluate new legal practice eg eyewitness lineups advisory roles legal psychologists may hold advisory roles court systems may advise legal decision makers particularly judges psychological findings pertaining issues case psychologist acts court adviser provides similar input one acting expert witness acts domain adversarial system amicus briefs psychologists provide


amicus brief court american psychological association provided briefs concerning mental illness retardation factors amicus brief usually contains opinion backed scientific citations statistics impact amicus brief psychological association questionable instance justice powell called reliance statistics numerology discounted results several empirical studies judges formal scientific training also may critique experimental methods feel judges cite amicus brief brief supports judge 's personal beliefs trial consulting legal psychologists work


usually also used firms practicing attorneys trial consultants perform variety services lawyers picking jurors usually relying house published statistical studies performing mock trials focus groups trial consultants work stages case helping organize testimony preparing witnesses testify picking juries even arranging shadow jurors watch trial unfold provide input trial debate whether work trial consultant protected attorney client privilege especially consultant hired


party case attorney see also applied psychology empirical legal studies forensic psychology investigative psychology police psychology list united states supreme court cases involving mental health therapeutic jurisprudence references external links http wwwap lsorg american psychology law society applied psychology science law


internal structure surface structure nanoscale ''nanoscale'' defined length range approximately nm nm includes ''nano objects'' discrete pieces material ''nanostructured materials'' internal surface structure nanoscale nanomaterial may member categories october european commission adopted following definition nanomaterial natural incidental manufactured material containing particles unbound state aggregate agglomerate particles

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Materials Science and Engineering
Nanomaterials


number size distribution one external dimensions size range nbsp nm nbsp nm specific cases warranted concerns environment health safety competitiveness number size distribution threshold may replaced threshold sources engineered engineered nanomaterials deliberately engineered manufactured humans certain required properties ref name portelavidyasagar ref name current strategies engineering ref legacy nanomaterials commercial production prior development nanotechnology incremental advancements colloidal particulate materials include


carbon black titanium dioxide nanoparticles incidental nanomaterials may unintentionally produced byproduct mechanical industrial processes combustion vaporization sources incidental nanoparticles include vehicle engine exhausts smelting welding fumes combustion processes domestic solid fuel heating cooking instance class nanomaterials called fullerenes generated burning gas biomass candle also byproduct wear corrosion products incidental atmospheric nanoparticles often referred ultrafine particles unintentionally produced intentional operation could contribute air pollution ref name ref natural


biological systems often feature natural functional nanomaterials structure foraminifera mainly chalk viruses protein capsid wax crystals covering lotus nasturtium leaf spider spider mite silk blue hue tarantulas spatulae bottom gecko feet butterfly wing scales natural colloids milk blood horny materials skin claws beaks feathers horns hair paper cotton nacre corals even bone matrix natural ''organic'' nanomaterials natural ''inorganic'' nanomaterials occur crystal growth diverse chemical conditions earth 's crust example clays display complex nanostructures due anisotropy


underlying crystal structure volcanic activity give rise opals instance naturally occurring photonic crystals due nanoscale structure fires represent particularly complex reactions produce pigments cement fumed silica etc natural sources nanoparticles include combustion products forest fires volcanic ash ocean spray radioactive decay radon gas natural nanomaterials also formed weathering processes metal anion containing rocks well acid mine drainage sites ref name gallery natural nanomaterials gallery file kapsid schema png viral capsid file lotoseffektjpg lotus effect hydrophobic effect self cleaning ability


file gecko foot glassjpg close underside gecko 's foot walks glass wall spatula nbsp nm file sem image peacock wing slant view jpg sem micrograph butterfly wing scale nbsp file trevarno pavo cristatus jpg peacock feather detail file cts brazilian crystal opaljpg brazilian crystal opal play color caused interference diffraction light silica spheres nbsp nm diameter file lasiodora parahybana clawsjpg blue hue species tarantula nbsp nm nbsp nbsp nm gallery types nano objects often categorized many dimensions fall nanoscale


''nanoparticle'' defined nano object three external dimensions nanoscale whose longest shortest axes differ significantly ''nanofiber'' two external dimensions nanoscale ''nanotubes'' hollow nanofibers ''nanorods'' solid nanofibers ''nanoplate nanosheet'' one external dimension nanoscale two larger dimensions significantly different called ''nanoribbon'' nanofibers nanoplates dimensions may may nanoscale must significantly larger cases significant difference noted


sources nanoporous materials nanofoam sometimes considered nanostructures nanomaterials voids materials nanoscale ref name although iso definition considers round nano objects nanoparticles sources use term nanoparticle shapes nanoparticles nanoparticles three dimensions nanoscale nanoparticles also embedded bulk solid form nanocomposite ref name ref fullerenes fullerenes class allotropes carbon conceptually graphene sheets rolled tubes spheres include carbon nanotubes silicon nanotubes


particles surface plasmon resonance metal particles superparamagnetism magnetic materials nanoparticles exhibit number special properties relative bulk material example bending bulk copper wire ribbon etc occurs movement copper atoms clusters nbsp nm scale copper nanoparticles smaller nbsp nm considered super hard materials exhibit malleability ductility bulk copper change properties always desirable ferroelectric materials smaller nbsp nm switch polarization direction using room temperature thermal energy thus making useless memory storage suspensions nanoparticles


possible interaction particle surface solvent strong enough overcome differences density usually result material either sinking floating liquid nanoparticles often unexpected visual properties small enough confine electrons produce quantum effects example gold nanoparticles appear deep red black solution often high surface area volume ratio nanoparticles provides tremendous driving force diffusion especially elevated temperatures sintering possible lower temperatures shorter durations larger particles


theoretically affect density final product though flow difficulties tendency nanoparticles agglomerate complicate matters surface effects nanoparticles also reduces incipient melting temperature one dimensional nanostructures smallest possible crystalline wires cross section small single atom engineered cylindrical confinement ref name referencea ref ref name referenceb ref carbon nanotubes natural semi nanostructure used template synthesis confinement provides mechanical stabilization prevents linear atomic chains disintegration structures nanowires predicted mechanically stable even upon isolation


nanostructure multilayer system parallel hollow nanochannels located along surface quadrangular cross section thickness channel walls approximately equal nbsp nm typical width channel facets makes nbsp nm applications nano materials used variety manufacturing processes products healthcare including paints filters insulation lubricant additives healthcare nanozymes nanomaterials enzyme like characteristics emerging type artificial enzyme used wide applications biosensing bioimaging tumor diagnosis antibiofouling high quality filters may produced using nanostructures


parts also repaired self assembling anisotropic nanoparticles called tribotex ref name nanovate nanomaterials also applied range industries consumer products mineral nanoparticles titanium oxide used improve uv protection sunscreen sports industry lighter bats produced carbon nanotubes improve performance another application military mobile pigment nanoparticles used create effective camouflage nanomaterials also used three way catalyst twc applications twc converters advantage controlling emission nitrogen oxides nox precursors acid


rain smog core shell structure nanomaterials form shell catalyst support protect noble metals palladium rhodium primary function supports used carrying catalysts active components making highly dispersed reducing use noble metals enhancing catalysts activity improving mechanical strength synthesis goal synthetic method nanomaterials yield material exhibits properties result characteristic length scale nanometer range nbsp nm accordingly synthetic method exhibit control size


state suddenly changing conditions make state unstable clever manipulation number parameters products form largely result insuring kinetics collapse chaotic state difficult impossible control ensemble statistics often govern resulting size distribution average size accordingly nanoparticle formation controlled manipulation end state products examples chaotic processes laser ablation ref name elsevier ref exploding wire arc flame pyrolysis combustion precipitation synthesis techniques controlled processes involve controlled


delivery constituent atoms molecules site nanoparticle formation nanoparticle grow prescribed sizes controlled manner generally state constituent atoms molecules never far needed nanoparticle formation accordingly nanoparticle formation controlled control state reactants examples controlled processes self limiting growth solution self limited chemical vapor deposition shaped pulse femtosecond laser techniques molecular beam epitaxy top methods top methods adopt 'force' e g mechanical force laser


break bulk materials nanoparticles popular method involves mechanical break apart bulk materials nanomaterials 'ball milling' besides nanoparticles also made laser ablation apply short pulse lasers e g femtosecond laser ablate target solid ref name elsevier characterization novel effects occur materials structures formed sizes comparable one many possible length scales de broglie wavelength electrons optical wavelengths high energy photons cases quantum mechanical effects dominate material properties one example quantum confinement


electronic properties solids altered great reductions particle size optical properties nanoparticles eg fluorescence also become function particle diameter effect come play going macrosocopic micrometer dimensions becomes pronounced nanometer scale reached addition optical electronic properties novel mechanical properties many nanomaterials subject nanomechanics research added bulk material nanoparticles strongly influence mechanical properties material stiffness elasticity example traditional polymers reinforced


nanoparticles carbon nanotubes resulting novel materials used lightweight replacements metals composite materials may enable weight reduction accompanied increase stability improved functionality finally nanostructured materials small particle size zeolites asbestos used catalysts wide range critical industrial chemical reactions development catalysts form basis efficient environmentally friendly chemical processes first observations size measurements nano particles made first decade th century zsigmondy made detailed


studies gold sols nanomaterials sizes nbsp nm less published book used ultramicroscope employs ' 'dark field'' method seeing particles sizes much less light wavelength traditional techniques developed th century interface colloid science characterizing nanomaterials widely used ''first generation'' passive nanomaterials specified next section methods include several different techniques characterizing particle size distribution characterization imperative many materials expected nano sized actually aggregated solutions


methods based light scattering others apply ultrasound ultrasound attenuation spectroscopy testing concentrated nano dispersions microemulsions also group traditional techniques characterizing surface charge zeta potential nano particles solutions information required proper system stabilization preventing aggregation flocculation methods include microelectrophoresis electrophoretic light scattering electroacoustics last one instance colloid vibration current method suitable characterizing concentrated systems uniformity chemical processing synthesis high performance technological components private industrial military sectors requires use


plastic brittle transition consolidated bodies yield crack propagation unfired body relieved addition fluctuations packing density compact prepared kiln often amplified sintering process yielding inhomogeneous densification pores structural defects associated density variations shown play detrimental role sintering process growing thus limiting end point densities differential stresses arising inhomogeneous densification also shown result propagation internal cracks thus becoming strength controlling flaws would


therefore appear desirable process material way physically uniform regard distribution components porosity rather using particle size distributions maximize green density containment uniformly dispersed assembly strongly interacting particles suspension requires total control particle particle interactions number dispersants ammonium citrate aqueous imidazoline oleyl alcohol nonaqueous promising solutions possible additives enhanced dispersion deagglomeration monodisperse nanoparticles colloids provide potential monodisperse powders colloidal silica example may therefore stabilized


materials nanocomposites graphene mentioned isi indexed articles respectively sep far patents concerned nanoparticles nanotubes nanocomposites graphene nanowires played role patents respectively monitoring approximately commercial nano based products available global markets revealed properties around products enabled enhanced aided nanoparticles liposomes nanofibers nanocolloids aerogels also common nanomaterials consumer products ref name ref https euonechaeuropaeu european union observatory nanomaterials euon produced database


https nanodataechaeuropaeu nanodata provides information specific patents products research publications nanomaterials health safety world health organization guidelines world health organization published guideline protecting workers potential risk manufactured nanomaterials end used precautionary approach one guiding principles means exposure reduced despite uncertainty adverse health effects reasonable indications highlighted recent scientific studies demonstrate capability nanoparticles cross cell barriers interact cellular


structures addition hierarchy controls important guiding principle means choice control measures measures closer root problem always preferred measures put greater burden workers use personal protective equipment ppe commissioned systematic reviews important issues assess current state science inform recommendations according process set handbook guideline development recommendations rated strong conditional depending


quality scientific evidence values preferences costs related recommendation guidelines contain following recommendations safe handling manufactured nanomaterials mnms '''a assess health hazards mnms''' recommends assigning hazard classes mnms according globally harmonized system ghs classification labelling chemicals use safety data sheets limited number mnms information made available guidelines strong recommendation moderate quality evidence recommends updating safety data sheets mnm specific hazard information indicating toxicological end points


adequate testing available strong recommendation moderate quality evidence respirable fibres granular biopersistent particles' groups gdg suggests using available classification mnms provisional classification nanomaterials group conditional recommendation low quality evidence '''b assess exposure mnms''' suggests assessing workers' exposure workplaces methods similar used proposed specific occupational exposure limit oel value mnm conditional recommendation low quality evidence specific regulatory oel values mnms workplaces suggests assessing whether workplace exposure exceeds proposed oel value


mnm list proposed oel values provided annex guidelines chosen oel least protective legally mandated oel bulk form material conditional recommendation low quality evidence specific oels mnms available workplaces suggests step wise approach inhalation exposure first assessment potential exposure second conducting basic exposure assessment third conducting comprehensive exposure assessment proposed organisation economic cooperation development oecd comit europ en de normalisation european


committee standardization cen conditional recommendation moderate quality evidence dermal exposure assessment found insufficient evidence recommend one method dermal exposure assessment another '''c control exposure mnms''' based precautionary approach recommends focusing control exposure preventing inhalation exposure aim reducing much possible strong recommendation moderate quality evidence recommends reduction exposures range mnms consistently measured workplaces especially cleaning maintenance collecting material reaction vessels feeding mnms production


process absence toxicological information recommends implementing highest level controls prevent workers exposure information available recommends taking tailored approach strong recommendation moderate quality evidence recommends taking control measures based principle hierarchy controls meaning first control measure eliminate source exposure implementing control measures dependent worker involvement ppe used last resort according principle engineering controls used high level


inhalation exposure little toxicological information available absence appropriate engineering controls ppe used especially respiratory protection part respiratory protection programme includes fit testing strong recommendation moderate quality evidence suggests preventing dermal exposure occupational hygiene measures surface cleaning use appropriate gloves conditional recommendation low quality evidence assessment measurement workplace safety expert available suggests using control banding nanomaterials select exposure control measures workplace owing lack


studies cannot recommend one method control banding another conditional recommendation low quality evidence health surveillance could make recommendation targeted mnm specific health surveillance programmes existing health surveillance programmes already use owing lack evidence considers training workers worker involvement health safety issues best practice could recommend one form training workers another one form worker involvement another owing lack studies available expected considerable progress


validated measurement methods risk assessment expects update guidelines five years' time guidance nanotechnology recent development health safety effects exposures nanomaterials levels exposure may acceptable subjects ongoing research ref name current strategies engineering possible hazards inhalation exposure appears present concern animal studies indicate carbon nanotubes carbon nanofibers cause pulmonary effects including inflammation granulomas pulmonary fibrosis similar greater potency compared known


fibrogenic materials silica asbestos ultrafine carbon black acute inhalation exposure healthy animals biodegradable inorganic nanomaterials demonstrated significant toxicity effects although extent animal data may predict clinically significant lung effects workers known toxicity seen short term animal studies indicate need protective action workers exposed nanomaterials although reports actual adverse health effects workers using producing nanomaterials known ref name current intelligence bulletin carbon nanotubes ref additional concerns include skin contact ingestion exposure ref


slurry suspension liquid solvent instead dry powder reduce dust exposure ref name current strategies engineering engineering controls physical changes workplace isolate workers hazards mainly ventilation systems fume hoods gloveboxes biosafety cabinets vented balance enclosures ref name general safe practices working ref administrative controls changes workers' behavior mitigate hazard including training best practices safe handling storage disposal nanomaterials proper awareness hazards labeling warning signage encouraging general safety culture personal protective equipment must worn


worker 's body least desirable option controlling hazards ref name current strategies engineering personal protective equipment normally used typical chemicals also appropriate nanomaterials including long pants long sleeve shirts closed toed shoes use safety gloves goggles impervious laboratory coats ref name general safe practices working circumstances respirators may used ref name building safety program exposure assessment set methods used monitor contaminant release exposures workers methods include personal sampling samplers located personal breathing zone worker


often attached shirt collar close nose mouth possible area background sampling placed static locations assessment use particle counters monitor real time quantity nanomaterials background particles filter based samples used identify nanomaterial usually using electron microscopy elemental analysis ref name building safety program ref name refinement joeh ref quantitative occupational exposure limits determined nanomaterials us national institute occupational safety health determined non regulatory recommended exposure


limits carbon nanotubes carbon nanofibers ref name current intelligence bulletin carbon nanotubes ultrafine titanium dioxide ref name current intelligence bulletin tio ref agencies organizations countries including british standards institute institute occupational safety health germany established oels nanomaterials companies supplied oels products ref name current strategies engineering ''' big nanoscale diagnostics big ''' nanotechnology making headlines medical field responsible biomedical imaging unique optical magnetic chemical properties materials nano scale allowed development imaging


probes multi functionality better contrast enhancement better spatial information controlled bio distribution multi modal imaging across various scanning devices developments advantages able detect location tumors inflammations accurate assessment disease progression personalized medicine '''silica nanoparticles ''' silica nanoparticles classified solid non porous mesoporous large surface hydrophilic surface chemical physical stabilities silica nanoparticles made use st ber process hydrolysis silyl ethers tetraethyl silicate silanols si oh using ammonia


mixture water alcohol followed condensation silanols nbsp nm silica particles size particle controlled varying concentration silyl ether alcohol micro emulsion method mesoporous silica nanoparticles synthesized sol gel process pores range diameter nbsp nm nbsp nm synthesized water based solution presence base catalyst pore forming agent known surfactant surfactants molecules present particularity hydrophobic tail alkyl chain hydrophilic head charged group


quaternary amine example surfactants added water based solution coordinate form micelles increasing concentration order stabilize hydrophobic tails varying ph solution composition solvents addition certain swelling agents control pore size hydrophilic surface makes silica nanoparticles important allows carry functions drug gene delivery bio imaging therapy order application successful assorted surface functional groups necessary added


either co condensation process preparation post surface modification high surface area silica nanoparticles allows carry much larger amounts desired drug conventional methods like polymers liposomes allows site specific targeting especially treatment cancer particles reached destination act reporter release compound remotely heated damage biological structures close proximity nbsp targeting typically accomplished modifying surface nanoparticle chemical biological compound accumulate tumor sites


enhanced permeability retention epr tumor vessels accelerate delivery nanoparticles directly tumor porous shell silica allows control rate drug diffuses nanoparticle shell modified affinity drug even triggered ph heat light salts signaling molecules silica nanoparticles also used bio imaging accommodate fluorescent mri pet spect contrast agents drug dna molecules adaptable surface pores made possible using silica nanoparticle


vector expression fluorescent proteins several different types fluorescent probes like cyanine dyes methyl violegen semiconductor quantum dots conjugated silica nanoparticles delivered specific cells injected vivo carrier molecule rgd peptide useful targeted vivo imaging '''topically applied surface enhanced resonance raman ratiometric spectroscopy tas rs '''''' ''' tas rs another technique starting make advancement medical field imaging technique uses folate receptors fr detect tumor lesions small micrometers folate receptors membrane bound surface proteins


bind folates folate conjugates high affinity fr frequently overexpressed number human malignancies including cancer ovary lung kidney breast bladder brain endometrium raman imaging type spectroscopy used chemistry provide structural fingerprint molecules identified relies upon inelastic scattering photons result ultra high sensitivity study done two different surface enhanced resonance raman scattering synthesized serrs one serrs targeted nanoprobe functionalized anti folate receptor antibody fr ab via


peg maleimide succinimide using infrared dye ir raman reporter henceforth referred fr np nontargeted probe nt np coated peg maleimide featuring ir infrared dye raman reporter two different mixtures injected tumor bearing mice healthy controlled mice mice imaged bioluminescence bli signal produces light energy within organism 's body also scanned raman microscope order able see correlation tas rs bli map tas rs show anything healthy mice


dots nanowires nanotubes online presentation dr sands https webarchiveorg web http wwwnedogojp english event html lecture videos second international symposium risk assessment manufactured nanomaterials nedo http spieorg newsroom engheta video nader engheta wave interaction metamaterials spie newsroom https oshaeuropaeu en emerging risks nanomaterials managing nanomaterials workplace european agency safety health work emerging technologies


domestication wheat barley rapidly followed goats sheep cattle ref name wright p bce settled life spread widely ref name wright p began gradually evolve indus valley civilization early civilization old world contemporaneous ancient egypt mesopotamia civilisation flourished bce bce today pakistan north western india noted urban planning baked brick houses elaborate drainage water supply ref name wright p ref early second millennium bce persistent drought caused population indus valley

Humanities
History
Asian history
Indian history


scatter large urban centres villages around time indo aryan tribes moved punjab central asia several waves migration vedic period bce marked composition vedas large collections hymns tribes varna system evolved caste system consisted hierarchy priests warriors free peasants excluded indigenous peoples labeling occupations impure pastoral nomadic indo aryans spread punjab gangetic plain large swaths deforested agriculture usage composition vedic texts


ended around bce new interregional culture arose small chieftaincies janapadas consolidated larger states mahajanapadas second urbanisation took place urbanisation accompanied rise new ascetic movements greater magadha including jainism buddhism opposed growing influence brahmanism primacy rituals presided brahmin priests come associated vedic religion ref name flood gave rise new religious concepts response success movements vedic brahmanism synthesised preexisting religious cultures subcontinent


numerous dynasties next years among gupta empire stands period witnessing hindu religious intellectual resurgence known classical golden age india period aspects indian civilisation administration culture religion hinduism buddhism spread much asia kingdoms southern india maritime business links middle east mediterranean indian cultural influence spread many parts southeast asia led establishment indianised kingdoms southeast asia greater india ref name flood gavin pg flood gavin olivelle patrick


''the blackwell companion hinduism'' malden blackwell pp ref significant event th th century tripartite struggle centred kannauj lasted two centuries pala empire rashtrakuta empire gurjara pratihara empire southern india saw rise multiple imperial powers middle fifth century notably chalukya chola pallava chera pandyan western chalukya empires chola dynasty conquered southern india successfully invaded parts southeast asia sri lanka maldives bengal th century early medieval period indian mathematics


including hindu numerals influenced development mathematics astronomy arab world islamic conquests made limited inroads modern afghanistan sindh early th century followed invasions mahmud ghazni delhi sultanate founded nbsp ce central asian turks ruled major part northern indian subcontinent early th century declined late th century saw advent deccan sultanates ref name sohoni ref wealthy bengal sultanate also emerged major power lasting three centuries ref name eaton ref period also saw emergence


several powerful hindu states notably vijayanagara rajput states mewar th century saw advent sikhism early modern period began th century mughal empire conquered indian subcontinent ref name exeter signalling proto industrialization becoming biggest global economy manufacturing power ref name parthasarathi ref nominal gdp valued quarter world gdp superior combination europe 's gdp ref name harrison ref mughals suffered gradual decline early th century provided opportunities marathas sikhs mysoreans nizams nawabs bengal exercise control


large regions indian subcontinent mid th century mid th century large regions india gradually annexed east india company chartered company acting sovereign power behalf british government dissatisfaction company rule india led indian rebellion rocked parts north central india led dissolution company india afterwards ruled directly british crown british raj world war nationwide struggle independence launched indian national congress led


mahatma gandhi noted nonviolence later india muslim league would advocate separate muslim majority nation state british indian empire partitioned august dominion india dominion pakistan gaining independence prehistoric era c bce ref argued circumstantial grounds many paintings completed bce ref name mithen ref slightly earlier ref name pathak dubey ref image marayoordolmenjpg caption dolmen erected neolithic people marayur kerala india image edakkalcavecarvingjpg caption stone age nbsp bce writings edakkal


caves kerala india paleolithic hominin expansion africa estimated reached indian subcontinent approximately two million years ago possibly early million years present dating based known presence ''homo erectus'' indonesia million years present east asia million years present well discovery stone tools made proto humans soan river valley riwat pabbi hills present day pakistan ref name murray ref although older discoveries claimed


suggested dates based dating fluvial sediments independently verified oldest hominin fossil remains indian subcontinent ''homo erectus'' ''homo heidelbergensis'' narmada valley central india dated approximately half million years ago older fossil finds claimed considered unreliable reviews archaeological evidence suggested occupation indian subcontinent hominins sporadic approximately years ago geographically widespread approximately years present point onward archaeological evidence proto human presence


widely mentioned according historical demographer south asia tim dyson ref name dyson ref blockquote modern human beings homo sapiens originated africa intermittently sometime years ago tiny groups began enter north west indian subcontinent seems likely initially came way coast virtually certain homo sapiens subcontinent years ago even though earliest fossils found date years present ref name dyson blockquote according michael petraglia bridget allchin ref name petragliaallchin ref


blockquote chromosome mt dna data support colonization south asia modern humans originating africa coalescence dates non european populations average ka ref name petragliaallchin blockquote according environmental historian south asia michael fisher ref name fisher ref blockquote scholars estimate first successful expansion homo sapiens range beyond africa across arabian peninsula occurred early years ago late years ago although may prior unsuccessful emigrations descendants extended human range ever generation spreading


name dyson ref according tim dyson blockquote genetic research contributed knowledge prehistory subcontinent 's people respects particular level genetic diversity region extremely high indeed africa 's population genetically diverse related strong evidence founder events subcontinent meant circumstances subgroup tribe derives tiny number original individuals compared world regions subcontinent 's people relatively distinct practised comparatively high levels endogamy ref name dyson blockquote neolithic settled life emerged


subcontinent western margins indus river alluvium approximately years ago evolving gradually indus valley civilisation third millennium bce ref name wright p ref ref name dyson ref according tim dyson years ago agriculture firmly established baluchistan next years practice farming slowly spread eastwards indus valley according michael fisher ref name fisher ref blockquote earliest discovered instance well established settled agricultural society mehrgarh hills bolan pass indus plain today pakistan see map


lothal bronze age indian subcontinent began around nbsp bce along ancient egypt mesopotamia indus valley region one three early cradles civilization old world three indus valley civilization expansive peak may population five million civilization primarily centered modern day pakistan indus river basin secondarily ghaggar hakra river basin eastern pakistan northwestern india mature indus civilization flourished nbsp bce marking beginning urban civilization


indian subcontinent civilization included cities harappa ganeriwala mohenjo daro modern day pakistan dholavira kalibangan rakhigarhi lothal modern day india inhabitants ancient indus river valley harappans developed new techniques metallurgy handicraft carneol products seal carving produced copper bronze lead tin civilization noted cities built brick roadside drainage system multi storeyed houses thought kind municipal organisation collapse indus valley civilization inhabitants indus valley civilization migrated river valleys indus


ghaggar hakra towards himalayan foothills ganga yamuna basin ochre coloured pottery culture sinauli ''chariot '' photograph archaeological survey india nd millennium bce ochre coloured pottery culture ganga yamuna doab region rural settlement agriculture hunting using copper tools axes spears arrows swords people domesticated cattle goats sheep horses pigs dogs site gained attention bronze age solid disk wheel carts found interpreted horse pulled chariots name chariot group note iron age bce vedic period c


bce vedic period period vedas composed liturgical hymns indo aryan people vedic culture located part north west india parts india distinct cultural identity period vedic culture described texts vedas still sacred hindus orally composed transmitted vedic sanskrit vedas oldest extant texts india vedic period lasting nbsp bce contributed foundations several cultural aspects indian subcontinent terms


culture many regions indian subcontinent transitioned chalcolithic iron age period vedic society early th century manuscript devanagari script rigveda originally transmitted orally fidelity historians analysed vedas posit vedic culture punjab region upper gangetic plain historians also consider period encompassed several waves indo aryan migration indian subcontinent north west peepal tree cow sanctified time atharva veda many concepts indian philosophy espoused later


like dharma trace roots vedic antecedents early vedic society described rigveda oldest vedic text believed compiled nd millennium bce northwestern region indian subcontinent time aryan society consisted largely tribal pastoral groups distinct harappan urbanization abandoned early indo aryan presence probably corresponds part ochre coloured pottery culture archaeological contexts ref name witzel michael witzel ''tracing vedic dialects'' ''dialectes dans les litteratures indo aryennes'' ed caillat paris ref end rigvedic period


aryan society began expand northwestern region indian subcontinent western ganges plain became increasingly agricultural socially organised around hierarchy four ''varnas'' social classes social structure characterized syncretising native cultures northern india also eventually excluding indigenous peoples labeling occupations impure period many previous small tribal units chiefdoms began coalesce janapadas monarchical state level polities janapadas late vedic era map showing boundaries ry varta janapadas northern


kuru state organised vedic hymns collections developed orthodox srauta ritual uphold social order ref name witzel two key figures kuru state king parikshit successor janamejaya transforming realm dominant political social cultural power northern iron age india ref name witzel kuru kingdom declined centre vedic culture shifted eastern neighbours panchala kingdom ref name witzel archaeological pgw painted grey ware culture flourished haryana western uttar pradesh regions northern india nbsp bce


believed correspond kuru panchala kingdoms ref name witzel late vedic period kingdom videha emerged new centre vedic culture situated even farther east today nepal bihar state india ref name witzel reaching prominence king janaka whose court provided patronage brahmin sages philosophers yajnavalkya aruni gargi vachaknavi later part period corresponds consolidation increasingly large states kingdoms called ''mahajanapadas'' across northern india second urbanisation bce city kushinagar th


century bce according st century bce frieze sanchi stupa southern gate time nbsp bce '' rama a'' movement formed originated jainism buddhism period first upanishads written nbsp bce called second urbanisation started new urban settlements arising ganges plain especially central ganges plain foundations second urbanisation laid prior bce painted grey ware culture ghaggar hakra upper ganges plain although pgw sites small farming villages several dozen pgw sites eventually emerged


scholars believe parshvanatha c c nbsp bce accorded status rd ''tirthankara'' historical figure vedas believed documented ''tirthankaras'' ascetic order similar '' rama a'' movement sanskrit epics manuscript illustration battle kurukshetra sanskrit epics ''ramayana'' ''mahabharata'' composed period ''mahabharata'' remains today longest single poem world historians formerly postulated epic age milieu two epic poems recognize texts familiar went multiple stages


development centuries instance ''mahabharata'' may based small scale conflict possibly nbsp bce eventually transformed gigantic epic war bards poets conclusive proof archaeology whether specific events mahabharata historical basis existing texts epics believed belong post vedic age c nbsp bce nbsp ce mahajanapadas mahajanapadas sixteen powerful vast kingdoms republics era located mainly across indo gangetic plains period c bce


c bce witnessed rise mahajanapadas sixteen powerful vast kingdoms oligarchic republics mahajanapadas evolved flourished belt stretching gandhara northwest bengal eastern part indian subcontinent included parts trans vindhyan region ancient buddhist texts like ''anguttara nikaya'' make frequent reference sixteen great kingdoms republics anga assaka avanti chedi gandhara kashi kamboja kosala kuru magadha malla matsya machcha panchala surasena vriji vatsa period saw second major rise urbanism india indus valley civilisation early


republics ga sangha ref name thapar ref shakyas koliyas mallas licchavis republican governments ga sanghas ref name thapar mallas centered city kusinagara vajjian confederacy vajji centered city vaishali existed early th century bce persisted areas th century ce famous clan amongst ruling confederate clans vajji mahajanapada licchavis period corresponds archaeological context northern black polished ware culture especially focused central ganges plain also spreading across vast areas


northern central indian subcontinent culture characterized emergence large cities massive fortifications significant population growth increased social stratification wide ranging trade networks construction public architecture water channels specialized craft industries eg ivory carnelian carving system weights punch marked coins introduction writing form brahmi kharosthi scripts language gentry time sanskrit languages general population northern india referred prakrits many sixteen kingdoms coalesced four major ones nbsp bce


time gautama buddha four vatsa avanti kosala magadha life gautama buddha mainly associated four kingdoms early magadha dynasties magadha formed one sixteen mah janapadas sanskrit great realms kingdoms ancient india core kingdom area bihar south ganges first capital rajagriha modern rajgir pataliputra modern patna magadha expanded include bihar bengal conquest licchavi anga respectively ref name ramesh chandra majumdar ref followed much eastern uttar pradesh orissa


ancient kingdom magadha heavily mentioned jain buddhist texts also mentioned ramayana mahabharata puranas earliest reference magadha people occurs atharva veda found listed along angas gandharis mujavats magadha played important role development jainism buddhism magadha kingdom included republican communities community rajakumara villages assemblies local chiefs called gramakas administrations divided executive judicial military functions early sources buddhist p li canon jain agamas


dynasty overthrown shishunaga dynasty last shishunaga ruler kalasoka assassinated mahapadma nanda nbsp bce first called nine nandas mahapadma eight sons nanda empire alexander 's campaign nanda empire greatest extent extended bengal east punjab region west far south vindhya range nanda dynasty famed great wealth nanda dynasty built foundations laid haryanka shishunaga predecessors create first great empire north india achieve


objective built vast army consisting infantry cavalry war chariots war elephants lowest estimates ref name sastri p ref according greek historian plutarch size nanda army even larger numbering infantry cavalry war chariots war elephants ref name sastri p however nanda empire opportunity see army face alexander great invaded north western india time dhana nanda since alexander forced confine campaign plains punjab sindh forces mutinied


river beas refused go upon encountering nanda gangaridai forces ref name sastri p maurya empire maurya empire nbsp bce unified indian subcontinent one state largest empire ever exist indian subcontinent ref name peter ref greatest extent mauryan empire stretched north natural boundaries himalayas east assam west reached beyond modern pakistan hindu kush mountains afghanistan empire established chandragupta maurya assisted


chanakya kautilya magadha modern bihar overthrew nanda dynasty chandragupta rapidly expanded power westwards across central western india nbsp bce empire fully occupied northwestern india mauryan empire defeated seleucus diadochus founder seleucid empire seleucid mauryan war thus gained additional territory west indus river chandragupta 's son bindusara succeeded throne around nbsp bce time died c nbsp bce large part indian subcontinent mauryan suzerainty however region kalinga around modern day


odisha remained outside mauryan control perhaps interfering trade south lomas rishi one barabar caves c bce bindusara succeeded ashoka whose reign lasted around years death nbsp bce campaign kalingans nbsp bce though successful led immense loss life misery filled ashoka remorse led shun violence subsequently embrace buddhism empire began decline death last mauryan ruler brihadratha assassinated pushyamitra shunga establish shunga empire


chandragupta maurya successors internal external trade agriculture economic activities thrived expanded across india thanks creation single efficient system finance administration security mauryans built grand trunk road one asia 's oldest longest major roads connecting indian subcontinent central asia kalinga war empire experienced nearly half century peace security ashoka mauryan india also enjoyed era social harmony religious transformation expansion sciences knowledge chandragupta maurya 's embrace jainism increased social religious


renewal reform across society ashoka 's embrace buddhism said foundation reign social political peace non violence across india ashoka sponsored spreading buddhist missionaries sri lanka southeast asia west asia north africa mediterranean europe ''arthashastra'' edicts ashoka primary written records mauryan times archaeologically period falls era northern black polished ware mauryan empire based modern efficient economy society however sale merchandise closely


regulated government although banking mauryan society usury customary significant amount written records slavery found suggesting prevalence thereof period high quality steel called wootz steel developed south india later exported china arabia ref name menon rvg p sangam period ref sangam period tamil literature flourished rd century bce th century ce period three tamil dynasties collectively known three crowned kings tamilakam chera dynasty chola dynasty pandyan dynasty


ruled parts southern india sangam literature deals history politics wars culture tamil people period scholars sangam period rose among common people sought patronage tamil kings mainly wrote common people concerns ref name first spring p ''the first spring golden age india'' abraham eraly p ref unlike sanskrit writers mostly brahmins sangam writers came diverse classes social backgrounds mostly non brahmins belonged different faiths professions farmers


artisans merchants monks priests including also royalty women ref name first spring p around c bce c ce pathupattu anthology ten mid length books collection considered part sangam literature composed composition eight anthologies poetic works ettuthogai well composition eighteen minor poetic works pati e k ka akku tolk ppiyam earliest grammarian work tamil language developed also sangam period two five great epics tamil literature composed ilango adigal composed ''silappatikaram'' non religious work revolves around kannagi lost


husband miscarriage justice court pandyan dynasty wreaks revenge kingdom ''manimekalai'' composed thalai ttan r sequel ''silappatikaram'' tells story daughter kovalan madhavi became buddhist bikkuni ref name muk mukherjee p ref classical early medieval periods c bce c ce ref time maurya empire rd century bce end gupta empire th century ce referred classical period india ref name stein ref


divided various sub periods depending chosen periodisation classical period begins decline maurya empire corresponding rise shunga dynasty satavahana dynasty gupta empire th th century regarded golden age hinduism although host kingdoms ruled india centuries also sangam literature flourished rd century bce rd century ce southern india ref name referenceb period india 's economy estimated largest world one third one quarter world 's wealth


inscriptions coins indicate much northern central india consisted small kingdoms city states independent shunga hegemony empire noted numerous wars foreign indigenous powers fought battles mahameghavahana dynasty kalinga satavahana dynasty deccan indo greeks possibly panchalas mitras mathura art education philosophy forms learning flowered period including small terracotta images larger stone sculptures architectural monuments stupa bharhut renowned great stupa sanchi shunga rulers helped


bce onward tav hanas started feudatories mauryan dynasty declared independence decline tav hanas known patronage hinduism buddhism resulted buddhist monuments ellora unesco world heritage site amaravati one first indian states issue coins struck rulers embossed formed cultural bridge played vital role trade well transfer ideas culture indo gangetic plain southern tip india compete shunga empire


kanva dynasty magadha establish rule later played crucial role protect large part india foreign invaders like sakas yavanas pahlavas particular struggles western kshatrapas went long time notable rulers satavahana dynasty gautamiputra satakarni sri yajna takarni able defeat foreign invaders like western kshatrapas stop expansion rd century ce empire split smaller states trade travels india silk road spice trade ancient trade routes


linked india old world carried goods ideas ancient civilisations old world india land routes red water routes blue spice trade kerala attracted traders old world india early writings stone age carvings neolithic age obtained indicates india 's southwest coastal port muziris kerala established major spice trade centre early nbsp bce according sumerian records jewish traders judea arrived kochi kerala india early bce ref name theshengold ref thomas


apostle sailed india around st century ce landed muziris kerala india established ''yezh seven ara half palligal churches '' ''seven half churches'' buddhism entered china silk road transmission buddhism st nd century ce interaction cultures resulted several chinese travellers monks enter india notable faxian yijing song yun xuanzang travellers wrote detailed accounts indian subcontinent includes political social aspects region hindu buddhist religious establishments southeast asia came


associated economic activity commerce patrons entrust large funds would later used benefit local economy estate management craftsmanship promotion trading activities buddhism particular travelled alongside maritime trade promoting coinage art literacy indian merchants involved spice trade took indian cuisine southeast asia spice mixtures curries became popular native inhabitants greco roman world followed trading along incense route roman india routes nd century bce greek indian ships met trade arabian ports aden


parts indian subcontinent least far saketa sarnath near varanasi banaras emperor kanishka great patron buddhism however kushans expanded southward deities later coinage came reflect new hindu majority played important role establishment buddhism india spread central asia china historian vincent smith said kanishka empire linked indian ocean maritime trade commerce silk road indus valley encouraging long distance trade particularly china rome kushans brought new trends


budding blossoming gandhara art mathura art reached peak kushan rule ref name artpal ref hg rowlinson commented rd century empire india disintegrating last known great emperor vasudeva ref name kushan ref classical period gupta empire c ce gupta period noted cultural creativity especially literature architecture sculpture painting gupta period produced scholars kalidasa aryabhata varahamihira vishnu sharma vatsyayana made great advancements many academic fields gupta period marked watershed indian culture guptas performed vedic


sacrifices legitimise rule also patronised buddhism continued provide alternative brahmanical orthodoxy military exploits first three rulers chandragupta samudragupta chandragupta ii brought much india leadership science political administration reached new heights gupta era strong trade ties also made region important cultural centre established base would influence nearby kingdoms regions burma sri lanka maritime southeast asia indochina latter guptas successfully resisted northwestern kingdoms arrival alchon


huns established afghanistan first half th century ce capital bamiyan however much deccan southern india largely unaffected events north vakataka empire v k aka empire originated deccan mid third century ce state believed extended southern edges malwa gujarat north tungabhadra river south well arabian sea western edges chhattisgarh east important successors


satavahanas deccan contemporaneous guptas northern india succeeded vishnukundina dynasty vakatakas noted patrons arts architecture literature led public works monuments visible legacy rock cut buddhist viharas chaityas ajanta caves unesco world heritage site built patronage vakataka emperor harishena ref name madan ref kamarupa kingdom copper plate seal kamarupa kings madan kamdev ruins alt samudragupta 's th century allahabad pillar inscription mentions kamarupa western assam davaka central assam frontier kingdoms gupta empire


davaka later absorbed kamarupa grew large kingdom spanned karatoya river near present sadiya covered entire brahmaputra valley north bengal parts bangladesh times purnea parts west bengal ruled three dynasties varmanas c nbsp ce mlechchha dynasty c nbsp ce kamarupa palas c nbsp ce capitals present day guwahati pragjyotishpura tezpur haruppeswara north gauhati durjaya respectively three dynasties claimed descent narakasura immigrant aryavarta reign varman king bhaskar varman c nbsp ce chinese traveller xuanzang visited region


recorded travels later weakening disintegration kamarupa palas kamarupa tradition somewhat extended c nbsp ce lunar c nbsp ce lunar ii c nbsp ce dynasties kamarupa kingdom came end middle th century khen dynasty sandhya kamarupanagara north guwahati moved capital kamatapur north bengal invasion muslim turks established kamata kingdom pallava empire shore temple unesco world heritage site mahabalipuram built narasimhavarman ii alt x pxthe pallavas th th centuries alongside


mahendravarman ce narasimhavarman ce dominated telugu northern parts tamil region six hundred years end th century ref name histoworldwhitney ref kadamba empire kadamba ' 'shikara'' tower ''kalasa'' pinnacle top doddagaddavalli alt kadambas originated karnataka founded mayurasharma nbsp ce later times showed potential developing imperial proportions indication provided titles epithets assumed rulers king mayurasharma defeated armies pallavas kanchi possibly help native tribes kadamba fame


reached peak rule kakusthavarma notable ruler even kings gupta dynasty northern india cultivated marital alliances kadambas contemporaries western ganga dynasty together formed earliest native kingdoms rule land absolute autonomy dynasty later continued rule feudatory larger kannada empires chalukya rashtrakuta empires five hundred years time branched minor dynasties known kadambas goa kadambas halasi kadambas hangal empire harsha harsha ruled northern


india ce son prabhakarvardhana younger brother rajyavardhana members vardhana dynasty ruled thanesar present day haryana emperor harsha c ce alt downfall prior gupta empire middle th century north india reverted smaller republics monarchical states power vacuum resulted rise vardhanas thanesar began uniting republics monarchies punjab central india death harsha 's father brother representatives empire crowned harsha emperor


assembly april ce giving title maharaja merely years old ref name rn kundra ss bawa rn kundra ss bawa history ancient medieval india ref height power empire covered much north northwestern india extended east kamarupa south narmada river eventually made kannauj present uttar pradesh state capital ruled ce ref name historic places p international dictionary historic places asia oceania trudy ring robert salkin sharon la boda p ref peace


prosperity prevailed made court centre cosmopolitanism attracting scholars artists religious visitors far wide ref name historic places p time harsha converted buddhism surya worship chinese traveller xuanzang visited court harsha wrote favourable account praising justice generosity ref name historic places p biography ''harshacharita'' deeds harsha written sanskrit poet banabhatta describes association thanesar besides mentioning defence wall moat palace two storied ''dhavalagriha'' white mansion ref name encystan ref early medieval period mid th c ce early


medieval india began end gupta empire th century ce ref name stein period also covers late classical age hinduism began end gupta empire collapse empire harsha th century ce beginning imperial kannauj leading tripartite struggle ended th century rise delhi sultanate northern india end later cholas death rajendra chola iii southern india however aspects classical period


continued fall vijayanagara empire south around th century fifth century thirteenth rauta sacrifices declined initiatory traditions buddhism jainism commonly shaivism vaishnavism shaktism expanded royal courts ref name sanderson alexis pages ref period produced india 's finest art considered epitome classical development development main spiritual philosophical systems continued hinduism buddhism jainism th century ce kum rila bha formulated school mimamsa philosophy defended position vedic rituals


buddhist attacks scholars note bha 's contribution decline buddhism india th century adi shankara travelled across indian subcontinent propagate spread doctrine advaita vedanta consolidated credited unifying main characteristics current thoughts hinduism critic buddhism minamsa school hinduism ref name skchattopadhyaya https booksgooglecom booksid ipasbjw pwc shyama kumar chattopadhyaya ''the philosophy sankar 's advaita vedanta'' sarup sons new delhi ref ref name eroer edward roer translator ''brihad aranyaka upanishad'' pp quote lokayatikas bauddhas assert


soul exist four sects among followers buddha madhyamicas maintain void yogacharas assert except sensation intelligence else void sautranticas affirm actual existence external objects less internal sensations vaibhashikas agree later sautranticas except contend immediate apprehension exterior objects images forms represented intellect ref ref name eroer edward roer translator ''brihad aranyaka upanishad'' p ref founded mathas monasteries four corners indian subcontinent spread


development advaita vedanta ref name deepakchoprabooklink https booksgooglecom booksid lsjbviceotcc pg pa dq adi shankara v onepage q adi shankara seven spiritual laws yoga deepak chopra john wiley sons ref muhammad bin qasim 's invasion sindh modern pakistan nbsp ce witnessed decline buddhism chach nama records many instances conversion stupas mosques nerun th th century three dynasties contested control northern india gurjara pratiharas malwa palas bengal rashtrakutas deccan sena dynasty would later assume control pala empire gurjara pratiharas fragmented various states


notably paramaras malwa chandelas bundelkhand kalachuris mahakoshal tomaras haryana chauhans rajputana states earliest rajput kingdoms rashtrakutas annexed western chalukyas period chaulukya dynasty emerged chaulukyas constructed dilwara temples modhera sun temple rani ki vav style ru gurjara architecture capital anhilwara modern patan gujarat one largest cities indian subcontinent population estimated nbsp ce chola empire emerged major power


reign raja raja chola rajendra chola successfully invaded parts southeast asia sri lanka th century ref name dancing girl p ''the dancing girl history early india'' balaji sadasivan p ref lalitaditya muktapida r nbsp ce emperor kashmiri karko dynasty exercised influence northwestern india nbsp ce followed lohara dynasty kalhana rajatarangini credits king lalitaditya leading aggressive military campaign northern india central asia hindu shahi dynasty ruled portions eastern afghanistan northern pakistan kashmir


mid th century early th century odisha eastern ganga empire rose power noted advancement hindu architecture notable jagannath temple konark sun temple well patrons art literature chalukya empire chalukya empire ruled large parts southern central india th th centuries period ruled three related yet individual dynasties earliest dynasty known badami chalukyas ruled vatapi modern badami middle th century badami chalukyas began


development new style architecture called chalukyan architecture chalukya dynasty ruled parts southern central india badami karnataka kalyani rashtrakuta empire founded dantidurga around rashtrakuta empire ruled capital manyakheta almost two centuries ref name chandra ref peak rashtrakutas ruled ganges river yamuna river doab north cape comorin south fruitful time political expansion architectural achievements famous literary contributions early rulers dynasty hindu


later rulers strongly influenced jainism govinda iii amoghavarsha famous long line able administrators produced dynasty amoghavarsha ruled years also author wrote kavirajamarga earliest known kannada work poetics ref name chandra architecture reached milestone dravidian style finest example seen kailasanath temple ellora important contributions kashivishvanatha temple jain narayana temple pattadakal karnataka arab traveller suleiman described rashtrakuta empire one four great


empires world rashtrakuta period marked beginning golden age southern indian mathematics great south indian mathematician mah v ra lived rashtrakuta empire text huge impact medieval south indian mathematicians lived rashtrakuta rulers also patronised men letters wrote variety languages sanskrit apabhra ref name chandra gurjara pratihara empire gurjara pratiharas instrumental containing arab armies moving east indus river nagabhata defeated arab army junaid tamin caliphate campaigns india


rashtrakuta pala empires control indian subcontinent period imperial pratihara took title ''maharajadhiraja ry varta'' ''great king kings india'' th century several feudatories empire took advantage temporary weakness gurjara pratiharas declare independence notably paramaras malwa chandelas bundelkhand kalachuris mahakoshal tomaras haryana chauhans rajputana ref file sculptures near teli mandir gwalior fortjpg sculptures near teli ka mandir gwalior fort file jain statues gwaliorjpg jainism related cave monuments statues carved rock face inside siddhachal


dharmapala devapala dharmapala believed conquered kanauj extended sway farthest limits india northwest ref name chandrapala pala empire considered golden era bengal many ways dharmapala founded vikramashila revived nalanda ref name chandrapala considered one first great universities recorded history nalanda reached height patronage pala empire ref name pnchopra ref palas also built many viharas maintained close cultural commercial ties countries southeast asia tibet sea trade added greatly prosperity pala


cultural power south asia south east asia ref name keay cholas fact successful dynasty since guptas classic expansion chola power began anew accession rajaraja ref rajendra chola 's navies went even occupying sea coasts burma vietnam andaman nicobar islands lakshadweep laccadive islands sumatra malay peninsula southeast asia pegu islands power new empire proclaimed eastern world expedition ganges rajendra chola undertook


cholas south india reached new heights excellence art religion literature spheres chola period marked culmination movements begun earlier age pallavas monumental architecture form majestic temples sculpture stone bronze reached finesse never achieved india western chalukya empire western chalukya empire ruled western deccan south india th th centuries ref name medieval india p comprehensive history medieval india farooqui salma ahmed salma ahmed farooqui p ref vast


areas narmada river north kaveri river south came chalukya control ref name medieval india p period major ruling families deccan hoysalas seuna yadavas devagiri kakatiya dynasty southern kalachuris subordinates western chalukyas gained independence power chalukya waned latter half th century western chalukyas developed architectural style known today transitional style architectural link style early chalukya dynasty


later hoysala empire monuments districts bordering tungabhadra river central karnataka well known examples kasivisvesvara temple lakkundi mallikarjuna temple kuruvatti kallesvara temple bagali siddhesvara temple haveri mahadeva temple itagi important period development fine arts southern india especially literature western chalukya kings encouraged writers native language kannada sanskrit like philosopher statesman basava great mathematician bh skara ii late medieval period c ce late medieval


clothing surmised language urdu born delhi sultanate period result intermingling local speakers sanskritic prakrits immigrants speaking persian turkic arabic muslim rulers delhi sultanate indo islamic empire enthrone one female rulers india razia sultana delhi sultanate synthesis indian civilization islamic civilization latter cosmopolitan civilization multicultural pluralistic society wide ranging international networks including social economic networks spanning large parts


afro eurasia leading escalating circulation goods peoples technologies ideas initially disruptive due passing power native indian elites turkic muslim elites delhi sultanate responsible integrating indian subcontinent growing world system drawing india wider international network significant impact indian culture society however delhi sultanate also caused large scale destruction desecration temples indian subcontinent ref name richard eaton https webarchiveorg web http jisoxfordjournalsorg content extract temple desecration indo muslim states journal islamic studies pp ref mongol invasions india successfully repelled


delhi sultanate rule alauddin khalji major factor success turkic mamluk slave army highly skilled style nomadic cavalry warfare mongols result similar nomadic central asian roots possible mongol empire may expanded india delhi sultanate 's role repelling repeatedly repulsing mongol raiders sultanate saved india devastation visited west central asia setting scene centuries migration fleeing soldiers learned


men mystics traders artists artisans region subcontinent thereby creating syncretic indo islamic culture north turco mongol conqueror central asia timur tamerlane attacked reigning sultan nasir u din mehmud tughlaq dynasty north indian city delhi sultan 's army defeated december timur entered delhi city sacked destroyed left ruins timur 's army killed plundered three days nights ordered whole city sacked except sayyids scholars muslims artists


war prisoners put death one day sultanate suffered significantly sacking delhi though revived briefly lodi dynasty shadow former file ghiyath aldin tughluq tomb tughluqabadjpg mausoleum ghiyasuddin tughluq tughluqabad file lodhi gardens sunny dayjpg lodhi gardens delhi vijayanagara empire vijayanagara empire established harihara brother bukka raya sangama dynasty originated political heir hoysala empire kakatiya empire pandyan empire empire rose prominence culmination


attempts south indian powers ward islamic invasions end th century lasted although power declined major military defeat combined armies deccan sultanates empire named capital city vijayanagara whose ruins surround present day hampi world heritage site karnataka india first two decades founding empire harihara gained control area south tungabhadra river earned title ''purvapaschima samudradhishavara'' master


eastern western seas bukka raya successor harihara defeated chiefdom arcot reddys kondavidu sultan madurai gained control goa west tungabhadra krishna river doab north vijayanagara kingdom imperial stature harihara ii second son bukka raya consolidated kingdom beyond krishna river brought whole south india vijayanagara umbrella ref name umbrella success probably also due peaceful nature muhammad ii bahmani according ref next


ruler deva raya emerged successful gajapatis odisha undertook important works fortification irrigation ref name aqueduct notes portuguese nuniz robert sewell notes big dam across built tungabhadra aqueduct long cut rock ref italian traveler niccolo de conti wrote powerful ruler india deva raya ii called ''gajabetekara'' ref name hunter also deciphered ''gajaventekara'' metaphor great hunter enemies hunter elephants ref succeeded throne possibly capable sangama


dynasty rulers quelled rebelling feudal lords well zamorin calicut quilon south invaded island sri lanka became overlord kings burma pegu tanasserim vijayanagara emperors tolerant religions sects writings foreign visitors show ref name democracy notes duarte barbosa ref kings used titles ''gobrahamana pratipalanacharya'' ''literally'' protector cows brahmins ''hindurayasuratrana'' ''lit'' upholder hindu faith testified intention protecting hinduism yet time staunchly islamicate


court ceremonials dress empire 's founders harihara bukka raya devout shaivas worshippers shiva made grants vaishnava order sringeri vidyaranya patron saint designated ''varaha'' boar avatar vishnu emblem one fourth archaeological dig found islamic quarter far royal quarter nobles central asia 's timurid kingdoms also came vijayanagara later saluva tuluva kings vaishnava faith worshipped feet lord virupaksha shiva hampi well lord venkateshwara vishnu


tirupati sanskrit work ''jambavati kalyanam'' king krishnadevaraya called lord virupaksha ''karnata rajya raksha mani'' protective jewel karnata empire kings patronised saints dvaita order philosophy dualism madhvacharya udupi ref file krishna pushkarani hampi ruinsjpg vijayanagara marketplace hampi along sacred tank located side krishna temple file stone chariothampijpg stone temple car vitthala temple hampi empire 's legacy includes many monuments spread south india best known group hampi previous temple building traditions south india came together


vijayanagara architecture style mingling faiths vernaculars inspired architectural innovation hindu temple construction first deccan later dravidian idioms using local granite south indian mathematics flourished protection vijayanagara empire kerala south indian mathematician madhava sangamagrama founded famous kerala school astronomy mathematics th century produced lot great south indian mathematicians like parameshvara nilakantha somayaji jye hadeva medieval south india efficient administration vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies water management systems


death aravidu dynasty successors ruled region empire collapsed final remains ended continued wars bijapur sultanate others period kingdoms south india became independent separate vijayanagara include mysore kingdom keladi nayaka nayaks madurai nayaks tanjore nayakas chitradurga nayak kingdom gingee nbsp declared independence went significant impact history south india coming centuries mewar dynasty two half


centuries mid th century politics northern india dominated delhi sultanate southern india vijayanagar empire however regional powers present well fall pala empire chero dynasty ruled much eastern uttar pradesh bihar jharkhand th ce th ce ref name gopal ref ref name singhgaur ref reddy dynasty successfully defeated delhi sultanate extended rule cuttack north kanchi south eventually absorbed expanding vijayanagara empire ref name mackenzie ref north rajput kingdoms remained dominant force


western central india mewar dynasty maharana hammir defeated captured muhammad tughlaq bargujars main allies tughlaq pay huge ransom relinquish mewar 's lands event delhi sultanate attack chittor hundred years rajputs established independence rajput states established far east bengal north punjab tomaras established gwalior man singh tomar reconstructed gwalior fort still stands ref name sen ref period mewar emerged leading rajput state


rana kumbha expanded kingdom expense sultanates malwa gujarat ref name sen next great rajput ruler rana sanga mewar became principal player northern india objectives grew scope planned conquer much sought prize muslim rulers time delhi defeat battle khanwa consolidated new mughal dynasty india ref name sen mewar dynasty maharana udai singh ii faced defeat mughal emperor akbar capital chittor captured due event udai singh


ii founded udaipur became new capital mewar kingdom son maharana pratap mewar firmly resisted mughals akbar sent many missions survived ultimately gain control mewar excluding chittor fort ref name ap john merci kim smith james leuck muslim conquest rajputs medieval history india pg ref south bahmani sultanate established either brahman convert patronised brahman source given name ''bahmani'' chief rival vijayanagara frequently created


growth regional culture architecture kapilendradeva gajapatis became empire stretching lower ganga north kaveri south northeast india ahom kingdom major power six centuries ref name sen ref ref name saikia ref led lachit borphukan ahoms decisively defeated mughal army battle saraighat ahom mughal conflicts east northeastern india kingdom manipur ruled seat power kangla fort developed sophisticated hindu gaudiya vaishnavite culture '''sultanate bengal''' dominant power


nation one asia 's strongest statesthe bengal sultanate described contemporary european chinese visitors relatively prosperous kingdom due abundance goods bengal region described richest country trade bengal sultanate left strong architectural legacy buildings period show foreign influences merged distinct bengali style bengal sultanate also largest prestigious authority among independent medieval muslim ruled states history bengal decline began interregnum suri empire followed mughal conquest disintegration


inspired many poet saints championed wide range philosophical positions ranging theistic dualism dvaita absolute monism advaita vedanta ref name novetzke ref sikhism based spiritual teachings guru nanak first guru ten successive sikh gurus death tenth guru guru gobind singh sikh scripture guru granth sahib became literal embodiment eternal impersonal guru scripture 's word serves spiritual guide sikhs ref name granthfinalguru ref buddhism india flourished himalayan kingdoms namgyal kingdom ladakh sikkim kingdom sikkim chutiya


kingdom arunachal pradesh late medieval period early modern period c ce early modern period indian history dated ce ce corresponding rise fall mughal empire inherited timurid renaissance age india 's economy expanded relative peace maintained arts patronized period witnessed development indo islamic architecture growth maratha sikhs able rule significant regions india waning days mughal empire formally came end british


raj founded ref name exeter ref mughal empire ref babur timurid descendant timur genghis khan fergana valley modern day uzbekistan swept across khyber pass established mughal empire zenith covered much south asia however son humayun defeated afghan warrior sher shah suri year humayun forced retreat kabul sher shah 's death son islam shah suri hindu general hemu vikramaditya established secular rule north india delhi akbar great defeated hemu


second battle panipat november winning battle delhi famous emperor akbar great grandson babar tried establish good relationship hindus akbar declared amari non killing animals holy days jainism rolled back ''jizya'' tax non muslims mughal emperors married local royalty allied local ''maharajas'' attempted fuse turko persian culture ancient indian styles creating unique indo persian culture indo saracenic architecture akbar married rajput princess mariam uz zamani son jahangir


part mughal part rajput future mughal emperors jahangir less followed father 's policy mughal dynasty ruled indian subcontinent reign shah jahan golden age mughal architecture erected several large monuments famous taj mahal agra well moti masjid agra red fort jama masjid delhi lahore fort one largest empires existed indian subcontinent ref name turchin ref surpassed china become world 's largest economic power controlling


aurangzeb whose reign proto industrialisation waved india surpassed qing china becoming world 's largest economy aurangzeb less tolerant predecessors reintroducing ''jizya'' tax destroying several historical temples time building hindu temples destroyed ref name copland ref employing significantly hindus imperial bureaucracy predecessors advancing administrators based ability rather religion ref name truschkept ref however often blamed erosion tolerant syncretic tradition predecessors well increasing religious controversy centralisation english east india


company suffered defeat anglo mughal war empire went decline thereafter mughals suffered several blows due invasions marathas jats afghans maratha general bajirao maratha empire invaded plundered delhi general amir khan umrao al udat mughal emperor sent troops drive away maratha cavalry soldiers baji rao however easily routed novice mughal general rest imperial mughal army fled final defeat mughal empire commander chief mughal army nizam ul mulk routed


bhopal maratha army essentially brought end mughal empire bharatpur state jat ruler suraj mal overran mughal garrison agra plundered city taking two great silver doors entrance famous taj mahal melted suraj mal ref name grewal ref nader shah emperor iran defeated mughal army battle karnal victory nader captured sacked delhi carrying away many treasures including peacock throne mughal rule weakened constant native indian


resistance banda singh bahadur led sikh khalsa mughal religious oppression hindu rajas bengal pratapaditya raja sitaram ray revolted maharaja chhatrasal bundela rajputs fought mughals established panna state ref name ashertalbot ref mughal dynasty reduced puppet rulers vadda ghalughara took place muslim provincial government based lahore wipe sikhs sikhs killed offensive begun mughals chhota ghallughara lasted several decades muslim successor states marathas sikhs maratha empire early th century


modern day khyber pakhtunkhwa pakistan ref name xwiacewpr c p ref north bengal east northwestern expansion marathas stopped third battle panipat however maratha authority north established within decade peshwa madhavrao madhavrao strongest knights granted semi autonomy creating confederacy maratha states gaekwads baroda holkars indore malwa scindias gwalior ujjain bhonsales nagpur puars dhar dewas east india company intervened peshwa family


succession struggle pune led first anglo maratha war resulting maratha victory ref name naravane ref marathas remained major power india defeat second third anglo maratha wars resulted east india company controlling india sikh empire ref sikh empire ruled members sikh religion political entity governed northwestern regions indian subcontinent empire based around punjab region existed forged foundations khalsa leadership maharaja


ranjit singh array autonomous punjabi misls sikh confederacy maharaja ranjit singh consolidated many parts northern india empire primarily used sikh khalsa army trained european military techniques equipped modern military technologies ranjit singh proved master strategist selected well qualified generals army continuously defeated afghan armies successfully ended afghan sikh wars stages added central punjab provinces multan kashmir peshawar valley empire ref name grewal ref peak th


century empire extended khyber pass west kashmir north sindh south running along sutlej river himachal east death ranjit singh empire weakened leading conflict british east india company hard fought first anglo sikh war second anglo sikh war marked downfall sikh empire making among last areas indian subcontinent conquered british kingdoms kingdom mysore southern india expanded greatest extent hyder ali son


later vassels british hyderabad state became princely state british india nawabs bengal become de facto rulers bengal following decline mughal empire however rule interrupted marathas carried six expeditions bengal result bengal became tributary state marathas june siraj ud daulah last independent nawab bengal betrayed battle plassey mir jafar lost british took charge bengal


installed mir jafar ''masnad'' throne established political power bengal ref name sirajbanglaped ref system dual government established nawabs ruled behalf british mere puppets british system abolished bengal brought direct control british ''nizamat'' governorship nawab also taken away remained mere pensioners british east india company ref name british ref ref name dualgovernment ref th century whole rajputana virtually


subdued marathas second anglo maratha war distracted marathas afterward maratha domination rajputana resumed british went war pindaris raiders based maratha territory quickly became third anglo maratha war british government offered protection rajput rulers pindaris marathas end similar treaties executed rajput states britain maratha sindhia ruler gwalior gave district ajmer merwara british maratha influence rajasthan


came end rajput princes remained loyal britain revolt political changes made rajputana indian independence rajputana agency contained princely states notable udaipur state jaipur state bikaner state jodhpur state fall maratha empire many maratha dynasties states became vassals subsidiary alliance british form largest bloc princely states british raj terms territory population decline sikh empire


defeated british east india company forces around th century kingdom nepal formed rajput rulers ref name schmidt ref european exploration route followed vasco da gama 's first voyage portuguese fleet vasco da gama successfully discovered new sea route europe india paved way direct indo european commerce portuguese soon set trading posts goa daman diu bombay conquest goa portuguese instituted goa inquisition new indian converts non christians punished suspected heresy christianity


condemned burnt ref name elbl p ref goa became main portuguese base annexed india next arrive dutch main base ceylon established ports malabar however expansion india halted defeat battle colachel kingdom travancore travancore dutch war dutch never recovered defeat longer posed large colonial threat india internal conflicts among indian kingdoms gave opportunities european traders gradually establish political influence appropriate lands following


dutch british set west coast port surat french established trading outposts india although continental european powers controlled various coastal regions southern eastern india ensuing century eventually lost territories india british exception french outposts pondich ry chandernagore portuguese colonies goa daman diu east india company rule india english east india company founded ''the company merchants london trading east indies''


gained foothold india establishment factory masulipatnam eastern coast india grant rights mughal emperor jahangir establish factory surat receiving similar permission vijayanagara ruler farther south second factory established madras southeastern coast bombay island far surat former portuguese outpost gifted england dowry marriage catherine braganza charles ii leased company two decades later company established