dead termed ' 'shokonsha'' linked mountains deemed inhabited kami ''yama miya'' jinja typically consist complexes multiple buildings architectural styles shrines largely developed heian period inner sanctuary kami lives ''honden'' inside honden may stored material belonging kami known ' 'shinpo'' include artworks clothing weapons musical instruments bells mirrors typically worshippers carry acts outside honden near honden sometimes found subsidiary shrine ''bekk '' another kami


kami inhabiting shrine necessarily perceived inferior honden places halls worship erected termed ''haiden'' lower level found hall offerings known ''heiden'' together building housing honden haiden heiden called ''hong '' shrines separate building conduct additional ceremonies weddings known ''gishikiden'' specific building ''kagura'' dance performed known ''kagura den'' collectively central buildings shrine known


' 'shaden'' precincts known ''keidaichi'' ' 'shin'en'' precinct surrounded ''tamagaki'' fence entry via ' 'shinmon'' gate closed night depictions torii fushimi inari taisha shrine kyoto shrine entrances marked two post gateway either one two crossbeams atop known ''torii'' exact details torii varies least twenty different styles regarded demarcating area kami resides passing often viewed form purification


broadly torii internationally recognised symbols japan architectural form distinctly japanese although decision paint vermillion reflects chinese influence dating nara period also set entrances many shrines ''komainu'' statues lion dog like animals perceived scare malevolent spirits typically come pair one mouth open mouth closed shrines often set within gardens wooded groves called ''chinju mori'' forest tutelary kami vary size


trees sizeable areas woodland large lanterns known ''t r '' often found within precincts shrines often office known ' 'shamusho'' ' 'saikan'' priests undergo forms abstinence purification prior conducting rituals buildings priests' quarters storehouse various kiosks often sell amulets visitors since late shrines financially self sufficient relying donations worshippers visitors funds used pay wages priests finance upkeep buildings cover shrine 's membership


many kannushi take role line hereditary succession traced specific families contemporary japan two main training universities wishing become kokugakuin university tokyo kogakkan university mie prefecture priests rise ranks course careers number priests particular shrine vary shrines dozens others none instead administered local lay volunteers priests administer multiple small shrines sometimes ten priestly costume largely based


clothes worn imperial court heian period includes tall rounded hat known black lacquered wooden clogs known outer garment worn priest usually colored black red light blue white silk version used formal occasions known another priestly robe modelled heian style hunting garments also part standard priestly attire fan rituals priests carry flat piece wood known


costume generally ornate sombre garments worn japanese buddhist monks miko performing shinto ceremony near kamo river chief priest shrine larger shrines may also assistant head priest teachers instructors buddhist clergy shinto priests often referred lay practitioners historically female priests although largely pushed positions second world war women allowed become priests fill void caused large numbers


men enlisted military late around priests male female priests free marry children smaller shrines priests often full time jobs serve priests special occasions certain major festivals priests may undergo period abstinence sexual relations involved festivals also abstain range things consuming tea coffee alcohol immediately prior events priests assisted sometimes referred shrine maidens english


typically unmarried although necessarily virgins many cases daughters priest practitioner subordinate priests shrine hierarchy important role dance known receive small salary gain respect members local community learn skills cooking calligraphy painting etiquette benefit later searching employment marriage partner generally live shrines sometimes fill roles secretaries shrine


offices clerks information desks waitresses feasts also assist ceremonial rites visits shrines visits shrine termed individuals visit shrines daily often morning route work typically take minutes usually worshipper approach honden placing monetary offering box ringing bell call 's attention bow clap stand silently offering prayer clapping known prayers


priest offer behalf prayers known ''kit '' many individuals approach asking pragmatic requests requests rain known rain soliciting found across japan inari popular choice requests prayers reflect contemporary concerns instance people may ask priest approaches purify car hope prevent involved accident similarly transport companies often request purification rites new buses airplanes go service building


constructed common either private individuals construction company employ shinto priest come land developed perform earth sanctification ritual purifies site asks bless people often ask help offset inauspicious events may affect instance japanese culture age seen unlucky women age men thus people ask offset ill fortune associated age certain directions also


seen inauspicious certain people certain times thus people approach asking offset problem travel one unlucky directions pilgrimage long important japanese religion pilgrimages shinto shrines called round pilgrimages whereby individuals visit series shrines sacred sites part established circuit known individual leading pilgrims sometimes termed many centuries people also visited shrines primarily cultural recreational


reasons opposed spiritual ones many shrines recognised sites historical importance classified unesco world heritage sites shrines shimogamo jinja fushimi inari taisha kyoto meiji jing tokyo atsuta jing nagoya among japan 's popular tourist sites many shrines unique rubber stamp seal visitors get printed stamp book demonstrating different shrines visited ''harae'' ''h bei'' temizu basin example itsukushima jinja shinto rituals begin process purification


using fresh water salt water known shrines entails sprinkling water onto face hands procedure known using font known another form purification start shinto rite entails waving white paper streamer wand known use usually kept stand priest waves horizontally person object purified movement known left right left sometimes instead purification carried


act known offerings historically offerings given included food cloth swords horses contemporary period lay worshippers usually give gifts money priests generally offer food drink sprigs sacred tree animal sacrifices considered appropriate offerings shedding blood seen polluting act necessitates purification offerings presented sometimes simple sometimes elaborate grand shrine ise instance styles food laid


offerings choice offerings often tailored specific occasion offerings food drink specifically termed sake rice wine common offering offerings given people often sip rice wine known drinking wine seen form communion important occasions feast held known inside banquet hall attached shrine complex believed enjoy music one style music performed shrines


period time may periodically move legs flex heels home shrines shimenawa seen popularity increase meiji era many shinto practitioners also family shrine kami shelf home usually consist shelves placed elevated position living room also found workplaces restaurants shops ocean going ships public shrines sell entire along many japanese households also buddhist altars enshrining ancestors family ancestral reverence remains important aspect japanese


religious tradition rare instances japanese individuals given shinto funeral rather buddhist one shrine may erected home place typically placed include symbols resident ancestral spirit instance mirror scroll often enshrine kami nearby public shrine well tutelary kami associated house 's occupants profession decorated miniature torii include amulets obtained public shrines often


extended family known addition temple shrines household shrines shinto also features small wayside shrines known open spaces used worship kami area surrounded sacred rocks engimono ema divination amulets ema hanging shinto shrine common feature shinto shrines provision small wooden plaques onto practitioners write wish desire would like see fulfilled practitioner 's message written one side plaque


usually printed picture pattern related shrine provided shinto shrines buddhist temples japan unlike amulets taken away shrine typically left message resident administering shrine often burn collected new year divination focus many shinto rituals various forms divination used practitioners introduced china among ancient forms divination found japan


several forms divination entailing archery also practiced shint known kitagawa stated could doubt various types shamanic diviners played role early japanese religion form divination previously common japan often used tortoise shells still used places form divination popular shinto shrines small slips paper obtained shrine donation read reveal prediction


future receive bad prediction often tie nearby tree frame set purpose act seen rejecting prediction process called thus avoiding misfortune predicted frame shrine omikuji tied use amulets widely sanctioned popular japan may made paper wood cloth metal plastic act amulets keep misfortune also serve talismans bring benefits good luck typically comprise tapering piece wood


onto name shrine enshrined written printed wrapped inside white paper tied colored thread provided shinto shrines buddhist temples another type amulet provided shrines temples traditionally small brightly colored drawstring bags name shrine written sometimes placed within charm bag known typically worn small children new year many shrines sell evil destroying arrows people


purchase keep home coming year bring good luck round paper doll indian monk bodhidharma recipient makes wish paints one eye goal accomplished recipient paints eye buddhist practice darumas found shrines well dolls common ref name referencea ref protective items include earthenware bells used pray good fortune bells usually shapes zodiacal animals ref name referencea paper


dogs used induce bless good births ref name referencea collectively talismans home manipulate events influence spirits well related mantras rites purpose known ''kagura'' kagura traditional dance performed yamanashi oka shrine describes music dance performed term may originally derived seat throughout japanese history dance played important culture role shinto regarded capacity pacify mythological


tale dance came existence according ''kojiki'' ''nihon shoki'' ame uzume performed dance entice amaterasu cave hidden two broad types kagura one imperial kagura also known style developed imperial court still performed imperial grounds every december also performed imperial harvest festival major shrines ise kamo iwashimizu hachiman g performed singers musicians using wooden clappers


flute six stringed zither main type descended performed shrines across japan depending style performed actors wearing masks portray various mythological figures actors accompanied band using flutes drums also regional types kagura music plays important role performance everything setup instruments subtle sounds arrangement music crucial encouraging come dance songs


used magical devices summon prayers blessings rhythm patterns five seven common possibly relating shinto belief twelve generations heavenly earthly deities also vocal accompaniment called drummer sings sacred songs often vocal accompaniment overshadowed drumming instruments reinforcing vocal aspect music incantation rather aesthetics festivals participants procession aoi matsuri kyoto public festivals commonly termed although


term varied meanings festival worship celebration rite prayer direct translation english picken suggested festival central act shinto worship shinto community family based religion mark seasons agricultural year involve offerings directed thanks according traditional lunar calendar shinto shrines hold festival celebrations clear days days new full half moons days known generally avoided festivities however since late th century many shrines held


festival celebrations saturday sunday closest date fewer individuals working able attend town village often festival centred local shrine instance aoi matsuri festival held may pray abundant grain harvest takes place shrines kyoto chichibu yo matsuri takes place december chichibu spring festivals called often incorporate prayers good harvest sometimes involve ceremonies rice ritually planted summer festivals termed


winter festivals specific new year festivals kami part fukagawa matsuri festival tokyo season new year called last day year december practitioners usually clean household shrines preparation new year 's day january many people visit public shrines celebrate new year first visit year known buy amulets talismans bring good fortune coming year celebrate festival many japanese put rope known


drunk breen teeuwen characterised carnivalesque atmosphere often understood regenerative effect participants community processions travel portable shrines known various cases undergo going beach process carried sea shore sometimes sea either bearers boat instance okunchi festival held southwestern city nagasaki suwa shrine paraded ohato


placed shrine several days paraded back suwa sort celebrations often organized largely members local community rather priests rites passage formal recognition events given great importance japanese culture common ritual entails child 's first visit shinto shrine tradition holds boy brought shrine thirty second day birth girl brought thirty third day historically


child commonly brought shrine mother considered impure birth another female relative since late th century common mother another rite passage coming age ritual marking transition adulthood occurs individual around twenty wedding ceremonies often carried shinto shrines called wedding popularised meiji period prior weddings commonly performed home


japan funerals tend take place buddhist temples involve cremation shinto funerals rare bocking noted japanese people still 'born shinto' yet 'die buddhist' shinto thought contact death seen imparting impurity period following contact known associated various taboos cases dead humans enshrined physical remains dead stored shrine although common examples funerals conducted shinto rites earliest examples known mid th


century occurred certain areas japan support local authorities following meiji restoration government recognised specifically shinto funerals shinto priests five years later extended cover entire japanese population despite meiji promotion shinto funerals majority population continued buddhist funeral rites recent decades shinto funerals usually reserved shinto priests members certain shinto sects cremation normal funerary process japan ashes priest may interred near shrine


inside precincts ancestral reverence remains important part japanese religious custom invocation dead especially war dead known various rites reference instance largely buddhist festival bon souls ancestors believed visit living sent away ritual called lanterns inserted small boats often made paper placed river float downstream spirit mediumship healing itako autumn inako taisai festival mount osore aomori


prefecture japan shinto practitioners believe ''kami'' possess human speak process known several new religious movements drawing upon shinto tenrikyo oomoto founded individuals claiming guided possessing kami oracle passed via medium blind women train become spiritual mediums traditionally japan 's northern tohoku region train childhood memorialising sacred texts prayers fasting undertaking acts severe asceticism


believed cultivate supernatural powers initiation ceremony kami believed possess young woman two ritually married kami becomes tutelary spirit henceforth able call upon range spirits future contacting spirits able convey messages living usually carry rituals independent shrine system japanese culture also includes spiritual healers known whose work involves invoking kami buddhas history


early development p earhart commented shinto ultimately emerged beliefs practices prehistoric japan although kitagawa noted questionable whether prehistoric japanese religions could accurately termed early shinto yayoi period japanese prehistory first left traces material iconography prefiguring later included shinto worshipped various landscape features period point worship consisted largely beseeching placating little evidence viewed compassionate entities archaeological evidence suggests bronze bells bronze weapons metal


century legal code called adopted establish chinese style centralised government part jingikan council created conduct rites state coordinate provincial ritual capital done according code law called ''jingiry '' modelled chinese ''book rites'' jingikan located palace precincts maintained register shrines priests annual calendar state rites introduced help unify japan worship legally mandated rites outlined r


example probably composed mononobe clan ''kogoshui'' probably put together imibe clan cases designed highlight divine origins respective lineages government order called region produce ''fudoki'' records local geography products stories latter revealing traditions present time th century worship buddhism thoroughly intertwined japanese society emperor court performed buddhist rites also performed others honor


tenmu example appointed virginal imperial princess serve form priestess ise shrine behalf tradition continued subsequent emperors th century onward meiji era incorporated buddhist cosmology various ways one view realised like life forms trapped cycle samsara rebirth escape follow buddhist teachings alternative approaches viewed benevolent entities protected buddhism


due death impurity abolished taih code rise buddhist influence ref name japanesereligion ref establishment imperial city partnership taih code important shinto office shinto rites becomes powerful assimilating local clan shrines imperial fold new shrines built assimilated time city moved grand shrines regulated taih required account incomes priests practices due national contributions ref name japanesereligion meiji era empire japan ch sen


jing seoul korea established japanese occupation peninsula breen teeuwen characterise period meiji era formative years modern shinto period various scholars argued shinto essentially invented fridell argues scholars call period state shinto period decades shinto elements came great deal overt state influence control japanese government systematically utilized shrine worship major force mobilizing imperial loyalties behalf


modern nation building however government already treating shrines extension government meiji see example tenp reforms moreover according scholar jason nanda josephson inaccurate describe shrines constituting state religion theocracy period since neither organization doctrine uninterested conversion meiji restoration fuelled renewal confucian ethics imperial patriotism among japan 's ruling class among reformers buddhism seen corrupting influence undermined envisioned japan 's original purity


greatness wanted place renewed emphasis worship indigenous form ritual attitude also fuelled anxieties western expansionism fear christianity would take hold japan shrine priests placed authority new jingikan council kami affairs project forcible separating worship buddhism implemented buddhist monks deities buildings rituals banned shrines buddhist imagery scriptures ritual equipment burnt covered excrement otherwise destroyed new hierarchy shrines


held shinto effectively became state cult one promoted growing zeal build second world war meiji government designated religious movements neither buddhist christian forms sect shinto number name sects given formal designation varied often merged ideas shinto buddhism christian confucian daoist western esoteric traditions meiji period many local traditions died replaced nationally standardised practices encouraged tokyo although government sponsorship shrines declined japanese nationalism remained closely linked


legends foundation emperors developed scholars imperial rescript education issued students required ritually recite oath offer courageously state well protect imperial family processes continued deepen throughout early sh wa era coming abrupt end august japan lost war pacific january emperor sh wa issued ningen sengen quoted five charter oath emperor meiji declared


renewed freedom organise affairs many shrines formed voluntary organisation association shinto shrines association issued creedal statement general characteristics life lived reverence summarise regarded shinto 's principles late around japan 's shinto shrines part association post war decades many japanese blamed shinto encouraging militarism led defeat occupation others remained nostalgic state shinto concerns repeatedly expressed sectors japanese society


conspiring restore various legal debates revolved around involvement public officials shinto instance city tsu mie prefecture paid four shinto priests purify site municipal athletic hall built critics brought case court claiming contravened constitutional separation religion state high court ruled city administration 's act unconstitutional although overturned supreme court post war period shinto themes often blended japanese new religious movements sect


shinto groups tenrikyo probably successful post war decades although repudiated shinto identity shinto perspectives also influenced japanese popular culture film director hayao miyazaki studio ghibli instance acknowledged shinto influences films ''spirited away'' shinto also spread abroad japanese migrants conversion non japanese tsubaki grand shrine suzuka mie prefecture first establish branch abroad tsubaki grand shrine america initially located california moved granite falls washington th century academic research


shinto conducted shinto theologians often priests bringing accusations often blurred theology historical analysis onward renewed academic interest shinto japan abroad demographics shinto rite carried jinja san marino western europe japanese participate several religious traditions breen teeuwen noting exceptions possible differentiate shintoists buddhists japan main exceptions members minority religious groups including christianity promote exclusivist worldviews determining proportions country 's


population engage shinto activity hindered fact asked japanese people often say religion many japanese avoid term religion part dislike connotations word closely matches japanese language latter term derives sect doctrine official statistics show shinto japan 's largest religion percent country 's population identified engaging shinto activities ref name ref conversely questionnaires small minority japanese describe shintoists indicates


far larger number people engage shinto activities cite shinto religious identity formal rituals become practitioner folk shinto thus shinto membership often estimated counting join organised shinto sects shinto shrines priests country ref name according surveys carried ref name dentsu dentsu communication institute japan research center '' http www ttcnnejp honkawa html sixty countries' values databook '' ref ref name nhk ref less population japan identifies organised religion around buddhists


members shinto sects derived religions participants reported often visiting shinto shrines expressed belief existence general ref name nhk outside japan fox statue guarding inari shrine tsurugaoka hachiman g kamakura shinto primarily found japan although period empire introduced various japanese colonies present also practiced members japanese diaspora jinja outside japan termed overseas shrines term coined ogasawara sh z established territories


conquered japanese areas japanese migrants settled japanese empire collapsed public shrines smaller shrines within japan 's conquered territories many disbanded shinto attracted interest outside japan part lacks doctrinal focus major religions found parts world shinto introduced united states largely interested european americans rather japanese migrants japanese migrants established several shrines brazil see also sojin hari kuyo iwakura shinto rock formation


kami invited descend kodama spirit list japanese deities raijin ryukyuan religion ryukyu shinto shide shinto shinto popular culture shinto architecture shinto taiwan shinto music twenty two shrines women shinto sei references citations sources reading victoria bestor theodore c bestor akiko yamagata ''routledge handbook japanese culture society'' routledge external links http wwwjinjahonchoorjp en jinja honcho english official japanese organization shinto shrines http eoskokugakuinacjp modules xwords kokugakuin university encyclopedia shinto japanese http coekokugakuinacjp db jinja shinto jinja database http wwwtsubakishrineorg tsubaki grand


shrine america tsubaki grand shrine america jinja shinto north america branch tsubaki grand shrine mie japan https webarchiveorg web http heianjinguorjp index ehtml heian jingu shrine heian shrine kyoto city built commemoration th anniversary move japanese capital nara kyoto http wwwmeijijinguorjp english indexhtml meiji jingu meiji jingu shrine yoyogi tokyo commemorates emperor taisho wife empress shoken http wwwyasukuniorjp english indexhtml yasukuni jinja shrine honoring japanese war dead english https webarchiveorg web http wwwshoinjinjaorg english shoin jinja shoin shrine tokyo enshrines yoshida shoin spiritual leader


meiji restoration http wwwyushimatenjinorjp pc eng page englishhtm yushima tenjin tokyo shrine english site shrine ameno tajikaraono mikoto sugawara michizane animism east asian religions history religion japan panentheism pantheism polytheism religion japan spirituality japanese folk religion


physics '' 'string theory''' theoretical framework point like particles particle physics replaced one dimensional objects called strings string theory describes strings propagate space interact distance scales larger string scale string looks like ordinary particle mass charge properties determined vibrational state string string theory one many vibrational states string corresponds graviton quantum mechanical particle carries gravitational force thus string theory theory

Natural science
Physics
Mathematical physics
String theory


quantum gravity string theory broad varied subject attempts address number deep questions fundamental physics string theory contributed number advances mathematical physics applied variety problems black hole physics early universe cosmology nuclear physics condensed matter physics stimulated number major developments pure mathematics string theory potentially provides unified description gravity particle physics candidate theory everything self contained mathematical model describes fundamental forces forms


matter despite much work problems known extent string theory describes real world much freedom theory allows choice details string theory first studied late theory strong nuclear force abandoned favor quantum chromodynamics subsequently realized properties made string theory unsuitable theory nuclear physics made promising candidate quantum theory gravity earliest version string theory bosonic string theory incorporated


class particles known bosons later developed superstring theory posits connection called supersymmetry bosons class particles called fermions five consistent versions superstring theory developed conjectured mid different limiting cases single theory dimensions known theory late theorists discovered important relationship called anti de sitter conformal field theory correspondence ads cft correspondence relates string theory another type physical theory called quantum field theory one challenges string theory


full theory satisfactory definition circumstances another issue theory thought describe enormous landscape possible universes complicated efforts develop theories particle physics based string theory issues led community criticize approaches physics question value continued research string theory unification fundamentals strings th century two theoretical frameworks emerged formulating laws physics first albert einstein 's general theory relativity theory explains


force gravity structure spacetime macro level quantum mechanics completely different formulation uses known probability principles describe physical phenomena micro level late two frameworks proven sufficient explain observed features universe elementary particles atoms evolution stars universe whole ref name becker becker p becker becker schwarz p ref spite successes still many problems remain solved one deepest problems


modern physics problem quantum gravity ref name becker becker p general theory relativity formulated within framework classical physics whereas fundamental forces described within framework quantum mechanics quantum theory gravity needed order reconcile general relativity principles quantum mechanics difficulties arise one attempts apply usual prescriptions quantum theory force gravity addition problem developing consistent theory quantum gravity many fundamental problems physics


atomic nuclei black holes early universe string theory theoretical framework attempts address questions many others starting point string theory idea point like particles particle physics also modeled one dimensional objects called strings string theory describes strings propagate space interact given version string theory one kind string may look like small loop segment ordinary string vibrate different ways distance scales larger


discovery certain 'dualities' mathematical transformations identify one physical theory another physicists studying string theory discovered number dualities different versions string theory led conjecture consistent versions string theory subsumed single framework known theory studies string theory also yielded number results nature black holes gravitational interaction certain paradoxes arise one attempts understand quantum aspects black holes work string theory attempted clarify


issues late line work culminated discovery anti de sitter conformal field theory correspondence ads cft theoretical result relates string theory physical theories better understood theoretically ads cft correspondence implications study black holes quantum gravity applied subjects including nuclear ref name klebanov maldacena condensed matter physics ref name merali ref name sachdev since string theory incorporates fundamental interactions including gravity many physicists hope eventually developed point


fully describes universe making theory everything one goals current research string theory find solution theory reproduces observed spectrum elementary particles small cosmological constant containing dark matter plausible mechanism cosmic inflation progress toward goals known extent string theory describes real world much freedom theory allows choice details one challenges string theory full theory


satisfactory definition circumstances scattering strings straightforwardly defined using techniques perturbation theory known general define string theory nonperturbatively also clear whether principle string theory selects vacuum state physical state determines properties universe problems led community criticize approaches unification physics question value continued research problems ref name woit woit ref strings interaction quantum world worldlines point like particles


worldsheet swept closed strings string theory application quantum mechanics physical objects electromagnetic field extended space time known quantum field theory particle physics quantum field theories form basis understanding elementary particles modeled excitations fundamental fields ref name zee quantum field theory one typically computes probabilities various physical events using techniques perturbation theory developed richard feynman others first half twentieth century perturbative quantum field theory uses


special diagrams called feynman diagrams organize computations one imagines diagrams depict paths point like particles interactions ref name zee starting point string theory idea point like particles quantum field theory also modeled one dimensional objects called strings interaction strings straightforwardly defined generalizing perturbation theory used ordinary quantum field theory level feynman diagrams means replacing one dimensional diagram representing path point particle two dimensional surface representing motion string ref name becker


becker p becker becker schwarz p ref unlike quantum field theory string theory full non perturbative definition many theoretical questions physicists would like answer remain reach theories particle physics based string theory characteristic length scale strings assumed order planck length meters scale effects quantum gravity believed become significant ref name becker becker p much larger length scales scales visible physics laboratories


objects would indistinguishable zero dimensional point particles vibrational state string would determine type particle one vibrational states string corresponds graviton quantum mechanical particle carries gravitational force ref name becker becker pp original version string theory bosonic string theory version described bosons class particles transmit forces matter particles fermions bosonic string theory eventually superseded theories called superstring theories theories describe bosons fermions incorporate theoretical


idea called supersymmetry theories supersymmetry boson counterpart fermion vice versa several versions superstring theory type type iia type iib two flavors heterotic string theory different theories allow different types strings particles arise low energies exhibit different symmetries example type theory includes open strings segments endpoints closed strings form closed loops types iia iib heterotic include closed strings extra dimensions compactification large distances


two dimensional surface one circular dimension looks one dimensional everyday life three familiar dimensions space height width length einstein 's general theory relativity treats time dimension par three spatial dimensions general relativity space time modeled separate entities instead unified four dimensional spacetime framework phenomenon gravity viewed consequence geometry spacetime spite fact universe well described spacetime several reasons physicists consider


theories dimensions cases modeling spacetime different number dimensions theory becomes mathematically tractable one perform calculations gain general insights easily also situations theories two three spacetime dimensions useful describing phenomena condensed matter physics ref name zee finally exist scenarios could actually spacetime nonetheless managed escape detection string theories require extra dimensions spacetime mathematical consistency bosonic string theory spacetime dimensional superstring theory


dimensional theory dimensional order describe real physical phenomena using string theory one must therefore imagine scenarios extra dimensions would observed experiments cross section quintic calabi yau manifold compactification one way modifying number dimensions physical theory compactification extra dimensions assumed close form circles ref name yau nadis ch yau nadis ch ref limit curled dimensions become small one obtains theory


spacetime effectively lower number dimensions standard analogy consider multidimensional object garden hose hose viewed sufficient distance appears one dimension length however one approaches hose one discovers contains second dimension circumference thus ant crawling surface hose would move two dimensions compactification used construct models spacetime effectively four dimensional however every way compactifying extra dimensions produces model


open strings endpoints attached four dimensional subspace gravity arises closed strings propagating larger ambient space idea plays important role attempts develop models real world physics based string theory provides natural explanation weakness gravity compared fundamental forces ref name randall dualities diagram string theory dualities blue edges indicate duality red edges indicate duality notable fact string theory different versions theory turn related highly nontrivial ways one


relationships exist different string theories called duality relationship says collection strongly interacting particles one theory cases viewed collection weakly interacting particles completely different theory roughly speaking collection particles said strongly interacting combine decay often weakly interacting infrequently type string theory turns equivalent duality heterotic string theory similarly type iib string theory related nontrivial


way duality ref name becker becker becker schwarz ref another relationship different string theories duality one considers strings propagating around circular extra dimension duality states string propagating around circle radius equivalent string propagating around circle radius sense observable quantities one description identified quantities dual description example string momentum propagates around circle also wind around circle one times number times string winds around


circle called winding number string momentum winding number one description momentum winding number dual description example type iia string theory equivalent type iib string theory via duality two versions heterotic string theory also related duality ref name becker general term ' 'duality'' refers situation two seemingly different physical systems turn equivalent nontrivial way two theories related duality need string theories example montonen olive duality


attributes charge ''p'' brane sweeps ''p'' dimensional volume spacetime called ''worldvolume'' physicists often study fields analogous electromagnetic field live worldvolume brane ref name moore p string theory branes important class branes arise one considers open strings open string propagates spacetime endpoints required lie brane letter brane refers certain mathematical condition system known dirichlet boundary condition study branes string


theory led important results ads cft correspondence shed light many problems quantum field theory ref name moore p branes frequently studied purely mathematical point view described objects certain categories derived category coherent sheaves complex algebraic variety fukaya category symplectic manifold ref name aspinwall et al connection physical notion brane mathematical notion category led important mathematical insights fields algebraic symplectic


geometry ref name kontsevich representation theory ref name kapustin theory prior theorists believed five consistent versions superstring theory type type iia type iib two versions heterotic string theory understanding changed edward witten suggested five theories special limiting cases eleven dimensional theory called theory witten 's conjecture based work number physicists including ashoke sen chris hull paul townsend michael duff announcement led flurry research activity known second superstring revolution ref name duff duff ref


unification superstring theories schematic illustration relationship theory five superstring theories eleven dimensional supergravity shaded region represents family different physical scenarios possible theory certain limiting cases corresponding cusps natural describe physics using one six theories labeled many physicists became interested supergravity theories combine general relativity supersymmetry whereas general relativity makes sense number dimensions supergravity places upper limit number dimensions work werner nahm showed


maximum spacetime dimension one formulate consistent supersymmetric theory eleven ref name nahm year eugene cremmer bernard julia jo l scherk cole normale sup rieure showed supergravity permits eleven dimensions fact elegant maximal number dimensions ref name cremmer ref name duff p duff p ref initially many physicists hoped compactifying eleven dimensional supergravity might possible construct realistic models four dimensional world hope models would provide unified description four fundamental forces


nature electromagnetism strong weak nuclear forces gravity interest eleven dimensional supergravity soon waned various flaws scheme discovered one problems laws physics appear distinguish clockwise counterclockwise phenomenon known chirality edward witten others observed chirality property cannot readily derived compactifying eleven dimensions ref name duff p first superstring revolution many physicists turned string theory unified theory particle physics quantum gravity unlike supergravity theory string theory able accommodate


consistent superstring theories remained mystery one consistent formulation ref name duff p however physicists began examine string theory closely realized theories related intricate nontrivial ways found system strongly interacting strings cases viewed system weakly interacting strings phenomenon known duality studied ashoke sen context heterotic strings four dimensions ref name sen ref name sen b chris hull paul townsend context type iib


theory ref name hull theorists also found different string theories may related duality duality implies strings propagating completely different spacetime geometries may physically equivalent around time many physicists studying properties strings small group physicists examining possible applications higher dimensional objects eric bergshoeff ergin sezgin paul townsend showed eleven dimensional supergravity includes two dimensional branes ref name bergshoeff intuitively objects look like sheets membranes propagating eleven dimensional spacetime shortly discovery michael duff paul howe takeo inami kellogg stelle


considered particular compactification eleven dimensional supergravity one dimensions curled circle ref name duff setting one imagine membrane wrapping around circular dimension radius circle sufficiently small membrane looks like string ten dimensional spacetime duff collaborators showed construction reproduces exactly strings appearing type iia superstring theory speaking string theory conference edward witten made surprising suggestion five superstring theories fact different limiting cases single theory


eleven spacetime dimensions witten 's announcement drew together previous results duality appearance higher dimensional branes string theory ref name witten months following witten 's announcement hundreds new papers appeared internet confirming different parts proposal today flurry work known second superstring revolution initially physicists suggested new theory fundamental theory membranes witten skeptical role membranes theory paper ho ava witten wrote proposed


eleven dimensional theory supermembrane theory reasons doubt interpretation non committally call theory leaving future relation membranes ref name horava absence understanding true meaning structure theory witten suggested ''m'' stand magic mystery membrane according taste true meaning title decided fundamental formulation theory known ref name duff matrix theory mathematics matrix rectangular array numbers data


eleven dimensional supergravity calculations led propose bfss matrix model exactly equivalent theory bfss matrix model therefore used prototype correct formulation theory tool investigating properties theory relatively simple setting ref name banks development matrix model formulation theory led physicists consider various connections string theory branch mathematics called noncommutative geometry subject generalization ordinary geometry mathematicians define new geometric notions using tools noncommutative algebra ref name connes


paper alain connes michael r douglas albert schwarz showed aspects matrix models theory described noncommutative quantum field theory special kind physical theory spacetime described mathematically using noncommutative geometry ref name cds established link matrix models theory one hand noncommutative geometry hand quickly led discovery important links noncommutative geometry various physical theories ref name nekrasov ref name sw black holes general relativity black hole defined region spacetime


gravitational field strong particle radiation escape currently accepted models stellar evolution black holes thought arise massive stars undergo gravitational collapse many galaxies thought contain supermassive black holes centers black holes also important theoretical reasons present profound challenges theorists attempting understand quantum aspects gravity string theory proved important tool investigating theoretical properties black holes provides framework theorists study thermodynamics ref name de


haro et al p bekenstein hawking formula branch physics called statistical mechanics entropy measure randomness disorder physical system concept studied austrian physicist ludwig boltzmann showed thermodynamic properties gas could derived combined properties many constituent molecules boltzmann argued averaging behaviors different molecules gas one understand macroscopic properties volume temperature pressure addition perspective led give precise definition


physicists still lacked derivation formula counting microstates theory quantum gravity finding derivation formula considered important test viability theory quantum gravity string theory derivation within string theory paper andrew strominger cumrun vafa showed derive beckenstein hawking formula certain black holes string theory ref name strominger vafa calculation based observation branes look like fluctuating membranes weakly interacting become dense massive objects event horizons


interactions strong words system strongly interacting branes string theory indistinguishable black hole strominger vafa analyzed brane systems calculated number different ways placing branes spacetime combined mass charge equal given mass charge resulting black hole calculation reproduced bekenstein hawking formula exactly including factor subsequent work strominger vafa others refined original calculations gave precise values quantum corrections needed describe small black holes ref


name msw ref name ost black holes strominger vafa considered original work quite different real astrophysical black holes one difference strominger vafa considered extremal black holes order make calculation tractable defined black holes lowest possible mass compatible given charge strominger vafa also restricted attention black holes five dimensional spacetime unphysical supersymmetry although originally developed particular physically unrealistic context string theory entropy calculation strominger vafa led qualitative


understanding black hole entropy accounted theory quantum gravity indeed strominger argued original result could generalized arbitrary consistent theory quantum gravity without relying strings supersymmetry ref name strominger collaboration several authors showed results black hole entropy could extended non extremal astrophysical black holes ref name guica ref name cms ads cft correspondence one approach formulating string theory studying properties provided anti de sitter conformal field theory ads cft correspondence theoretical result implies


string theory cases equivalent quantum field theory addition providing insights mathematical structure string theory ads cft correspondence shed light many aspects quantum field theory regimes traditional calculational techniques ineffective ref name klebanov maldacena ads cft correspondence first proposed juan maldacena late ref name maldacena important aspects correspondence elaborated articles steven gubser igor klebanov alexander markovich polyakov ref name gubser edward witten ref name witten maldacena 's article citations becoming highly cited article


field high energy physics overview correspondence tessellation hyperbolic plane triangles squares ads cft correspondence geometry spacetime described terms certain vacuum solution einstein 's equation called anti de sitter space ref name klebanov maldacena elementary terms anti de sitter space mathematical model spacetime notion distance points metric different notion distance ordinary euclidean geometry closely related hyperbolic space viewed disk illustrated


left ref name maldacena p maldacena p ref image shows tessellation disk triangles squares one define distance points disk way triangles squares size circular outer boundary infinitely far point interior ref name maldacena p maldacena p ref one imagine stack hyperbolic disks disk represents state universe given time resulting geometric object three dimensional anti de sitter space ref name maldacena p


solid cylinder construction describes hypothetical universe two space dimensions one time dimension generalized number dimensions indeed hyperbolic space two dimensions one stack copies hyperbolic space get higher dimensional models anti de sitter space ref name maldacena p important feature anti de sitter space boundary looks like cylinder case three dimensional anti de sitter space one property boundary within small region surface around given point


calculation seemed conflict one basic postulates quantum mechanics states physical systems evolve time according schr dinger equation property usually referred unitarity time evolution apparent contradiction hawking 's calculation unitarity postulate quantum mechanics came known black hole information paradox ref name susskind ads cft correspondence resolves black hole information paradox least extent shows black hole evolve manner consistent quantum mechanics contexts indeed one consider black holes


high temperature superconductor today physicists working understand high temperature superconductivity using ads cft correspondence ref name merali addition applications theoretical problems quantum gravity ads cft correspondence applied variety problems quantum field theory one physical system studied using ads cft correspondence quark gluon plasma exotic state matter produced particle accelerators state matter arises brief instants heavy ions gold lead nuclei collided high energies collisions cause quarks make atomic nuclei


deconfine temperatures approximately two trillion kelvin conditions similar present around seconds big bang physics quark gluon plasma governed theory called quantum chromodynamics theory mathematically intractable problems involving quark gluon plasma article appearing thanh n collaborators showed ads cft correspondence could used understand aspects quark gluon plasma describing language string theory ref name kovtun son starinets applying ads cft correspondence n collaborators


able describe quark gluon plasma terms black holes five dimensional spacetime calculation showed ratio two quantities associated quark gluon plasma shear viscosity volume density entropy approximately equal certain universal constant predicted value ratio quark gluon plasma confirmed relativistic heavy ion collider brookhaven national laboratory ref name merali ref name luzum applications condensed matter physics ads cft correspondence also used study aspects condensed matter physics decades experimental condensed matter physicists discovered


flows without friction systems often produced laboratory using liquid helium recently experimentalists developed new ways producing artificial superfluids pouring trillions cold atoms lattice criss crossing lasers atoms initially behave superfluid experimentalists increase intensity lasers become less mobile suddenly transition insulating state transition atoms behave unusual way example atoms slow halt rate depends temperature planck 's constant fundamental parameter


quantum mechanics enter description phases behavior recently understood considering dual description properties fluid described terms higher dimensional black hole ref name sachdev phenomenology addition idea considerable theoretical interest string theory provides framework constructing models real world physics combine general relativity particle physics phenomenology branch theoretical physics physicists construct realistic models nature abstract theoretical ideas string phenomenology part string theory attempts


construct realistic semi realistic models based string theory partly theoretical mathematical difficulties partly extremely high energies needed test theories experimentally far experimental evidence would unambiguously point models correct fundamental description nature led community criticize approaches unification question value continued research problems ref name woit particle physics currently accepted theory describing elementary particles interactions known standard model particle physics


theory provides unified description three fundamental forces nature electromagnetism strong weak nuclear forces despite remarkable success explaining wide range physical phenomena standard model cannot complete description reality standard model fails incorporate force gravity problems hierarchy problem inability explain structure fermion masses dark matter string theory used construct variety models particle physics going beyond standard model typically models


based idea compactification starting ten eleven dimensional spacetime string theory physicists postulate shape extra dimensions choosing shape appropriately construct models roughly similar standard model particle physics together additional undiscovered particles ref name candelas one popular way deriving realistic physics string theory start heterotic theory ten dimensions assume six extra dimensions spacetime shaped like six dimensional calabi yau manifold compactifications offer many ways extracting realistic physics string theory similar


methods used construct realistic semi realistic models four dimensional world based theory cosmology map cosmic microwave background produced wilkinson microwave anisotropy probe big bang theory prevailing cosmological model universe earliest known periods subsequent large scale evolution despite success explaining many observed features universe including galactic redshifts relative abundance light elements hydrogen helium existence cosmic microwave background several questions remain unanswered example standard big bang


model explain universe appears directions appears flat large distance scales certain hypothesized particles magnetic monopoles observed experiments currently leading candidate theory going beyond big bang theory cosmic inflation developed alan guth others inflation postulates period extremely rapid accelerated expansion universe prior expansion described standard big bang theory theory cosmic inflation preserves successes big bang


providing natural explanation mysterious features universe theory also received striking support observations cosmic microwave background radiation filled sky since around years big bang theory inflation rapid initial expansion universe caused hypothetical particle called inflaton exact properties particle fixed theory ultimately derived fundamental theory string theory indeed number attempts identify


inflaton within spectrum particles described string theory study inflation using string theory approaches might eventually find support observational data measurements cosmic microwave background application string theory cosmology still early stages connections mathematics addition influencing research theoretical physics string theory stimulated number major developments pure mathematics like many developing ideas theoretical physics string theory present mathematically rigorous formulation concepts defined precisely


physics way compactify extra dimensions string theory many physicists began studying manifolds late several physicists noticed given compactification string theory possible reconstruct uniquely corresponding calabi yau manifold instead two different versions string theory type iia type iib compactified completely different calabi yau manifolds giving rise physics situation manifolds called mirror manifolds relationship two physical theories called mirror symmetry ref name aspinwall et al regardless whether calabi yau compactifications


string theory provide correct description nature existence mirror duality different string theories significant mathematical consequences calabi yau manifolds used string theory interest pure mathematics mirror symmetry allows mathematicians solve problems enumerative geometry branch mathematics concerned counting numbers solutions geometric questions ref name aspinwall et al enumerative geometry studies class geometric objects called algebraic varieties defined vanishing polynomials example clebsch cubic illustrated right algebraic variety defined using certain


polynomial degree three four variables celebrated result nineteenth century mathematicians arthur cayley george salmon states exactly straight lines lie entirely surface generalizing problem one ask many lines drawn quintic calabi yau manifold one illustrated defined polynomial degree five problem solved nineteenth century german mathematician hermann schubert found exactly lines geometer sheldon katz proved number curves circles


defined polynomials degree two lie entirely quintic year classical problems enumerative geometry solved interest enumerative geometry begun diminish ref name yau nadis p yau nadis p ref field reinvigorated may physicists philip candelas xenia de la ossa paul green linda parks showed mirror symmetry could used translate difficult mathematical questions one calabi yau manifold easier questions mirror ref name candelas particular used mirror symmetry show


six dimensional calabi yau manifold contain exactly curves degree three ref name yau nadis p addition counting degree three curves candelas collaborators obtained number general results counting rational curves went far beyond results obtained mathematicians originally results candelas justified physical grounds however mathematicians generally prefer rigorous proofs require appeal physical intuition inspired physicists' work mirror symmetry mathematicians therefore constructed arguments proving enumerative predictions mirror symmetry today mirror symmetry


active area research mathematics mathematicians working develop complete mathematical understanding mirror symmetry based physicists' intuition major approaches mirror symmetry include homological mirror symmetry program maxim kontsevich ref name kontsevich syz conjecture andrew strominger shing tung yau eric zaslow ref name syz monstrous moonshine equilateral triangle rotated reflected three lines pictured without changing shape group theory branch mathematics studies concept symmetry example one consider geometric shape


equilateral triangle various operations one perform triangle without changing shape one rotate one reflect lines labeled picture operations called ' 'symmetry'' collection symmetries satisfies certain technical properties making mathematicians call group particular example group known dihedral group order six elements general group may describe finitely many


infinitely many symmetries finitely many symmetries called finite group ref name dummit mathematicians often strive classification list mathematical objects given type generally believed finite groups diverse admit useful classification modest still challenging problem classify finite ' 'simple'' groups finite groups may used building blocks constructing arbitrary finite groups way prime numbers used construct arbitrary whole numbers taking products one major


achievements contemporary group theory classification finite simple groups mathematical theorem provides list possible finite simple groups ref name dummit classification theorem identifies several infinite families groups well additional groups fit family latter groups called sporadic groups one owes existence remarkable combination circumstances largest sporadic group called monster group elements thousand times number atoms earth ref name klarreich ''j'' function complex plane


seemingly unrelated construction ''j'' function number theory object belongs special class functions called modular functions whose graphs form certain kind repeating pattern although function appears branch mathematics seems different theory finite groups two subjects turn intimately related late mathematicians john mckay john thompson noticed certain numbers arising analysis monster group namely dimensions irreducible representations related numbers appear formula function namely


coefficients fourier series relationship developed john horton conway simon norton ref name conway called monstrous moonshine seemed far fetched richard borcherds constructed bridge theory modular functions finite groups process explained observations mckay thompson ref name borcherds borcherds' work used ideas string theory essential way extending earlier results igor frenkel james lepowsky arne meurman realized monster group symmetries particular version string theory ref name flm borcherds


awarded fields medal work since connection string theory moonshine led results mathematics physics ref name klarreich physicists tohru eguchi hirosi ooguri yuji tachikawa discovered connections different sporadic group ''m'' sub sub certain version string theory ref name eot miranda cheng john duncan jeffrey harvey proposed generalization moonshine phenomenon called umbral moonshine ref name cdh conjecture proved mathematically duncan michael griffin ken ono ref name dgo witten also speculated version string theory appearing


monstrous moonshine might related certain simplified model gravity three spacetime dimensions ref name witten history early results structures reintroduced string theory arose first time much earlier part program classical unification started albert einstein first person add fifth dimension theory gravity gunnar nordstr noted gravity five dimensions describes gravity electromagnetism four nordstr attempted unify electromagnetism theory gravitation however superseded einstein 's general relativity


thereafter german mathematician theodor kaluza combined fifth dimension general relativity kaluza usually credited idea swedish physicist oskar klein gave physical interpretation unobservable extra dimension wrapped small circle einstein introduced non symmetric metric tensor much later brans dicke added scalar component gravity ideas would revived within string theory demanded consistency conditions leonard susskind string theory originally developed late early never completely successful theory hadrons subatomic


particles like proton neutron feel strong interaction geoffrey chew steven frautschi discovered mesons make families called regge trajectories masses related spins way later understood yoichiro nambu holger bech nielsen leonard susskind relationship expected rotating strings chew advocated making theory interactions trajectories presume composed fundamental particles would construct interactions self consistency conditions matrix matrix approach started werner heisenberg


way constructing theory rely local notions space time heisenberg believed break nuclear scale scale many orders magnitude approach advocated ideally suited theory quantum gravity working experimental data r dolen horn c schmid developed sum rules hadron exchange particle antiparticle scatter virtual particles exchanged two qualitatively different ways channel two particles annihilate make temporary intermediate states


fall apart final state particles channel particles exchange intermediate states emission absorption field theory two contributions add together one giving continuous background contribution giving peaks certain energies data clear peaks stealing background authors interpreted saying channel contribution dual channel one meaning described whole amplitude included gabriele veneziano result widely advertised murray gell mann leading gabriele veneziano construct scattering amplitude


property dolen horn schmid duality later renamed world sheet duality amplitude needed poles particles appear straight line trajectories special mathematical function whose poles evenly spaced half real line gamma function widely used regge theory manipulating combinations gamma functions veneziano able find consistent scattering amplitude poles straight lines mostly positive residues obeyed duality appropriate regge scaling high energy amplitude could fit near beam scattering data well regge type fits suggestive integral


representation could used generalization next years hundreds physicists worked complete bootstrap program model many surprises veneziano discovered scattering amplitude describe scattering particle appears theory obvious self consistency condition lightest particle must tachyon miguel virasoro joel shapiro found different amplitude understood closed strings ziro koba holger nielsen generalized veneziano 's integral representation multiparticle scattering veneziano sergio fubini introduced operator formalism computing scattering amplitudes


scattering amplitudes derived systematically action principle peter goddard jeffrey goldstone claudio rebbi charles thorn giving space time picture vertex operators introduced veneziano fubini geometrical interpretation virasoro conditions pierre ramond added fermions model led formulate two dimensional supersymmetry cancel wrong sign states john schwarz andr neveu added another sector fermi theory short time later fermion theories critical dimension stanley mandelstam formulated world sheet conformal theory bose


fermi case giving two dimensional field theoretic path integral generate operator formalism michio kaku keiji kikkawa gave different formulation bosonic string string field theory infinitely many particle types fields taking values points loops curves tamiaki yoneya discovered known string theories included massless spin two particle obeyed correct ward identities graviton john schwarz jo l scherk came conclusion made bold leap suggest string theory theory gravity


theory hadrons reintroduced kaluza klein theory way making sense extra dimensions time quantum chromodynamics recognized correct theory hadrons shifting attention physicists apparently leaving bootstrap program dustbin history string theory eventually made dustbin following decade work theory completely ignored still theory continued develop steady pace thanks work handful devotees ferdinando gliozzi jo l scherk david olive realized


constructed two superstring theories iia iib related duality type theories open strings consistency conditions strong entire theory nearly uniquely determined discrete choices first superstring revolution edward witten early edward witten discovered theories quantum gravity could accommodate chiral fermions like neutrino led collaboration luis lvarez gaum study violations conservation laws gravity theories anomalies concluding type string theories inconsistent green schwarz discovered contribution anomaly


witten alvarez gaum missed restricted gauge group type string theory coming understand calculation edward witten became convinced string theory truly consistent theory gravity became high profile advocate following witten 's lead hundreds physicists started work field sometimes called first superstring revolution period david gross jeffrey harvey emil martinec ryan rohm discovered heterotic strings gauge group closed strings two copies e either


copy could easily naturally include standard model philip candelas gary horowitz andrew strominger edward witten found calabi yau manifolds compactifications preserve realistic amount supersymmetry lance dixon others worked physical properties orbifolds distinctive geometrical singularities allowed string theory cumrun vafa generalized duality circles arbitrary manifolds creating mathematical field mirror symmetry daniel friedan emil martinec stephen shenker developed covariant quantization superstring using conformal field theory techniques david gross vipul periwal discovered string perturbation theory divergent


type black hole leonard susskind incorporated holographic principle gerardus 't hooft string theory identifying long highly excited string states ordinary thermal black hole states suggested 't hooft fluctuations black hole horizon world sheet world volume theory describes degrees freedom black hole nearby objects second superstring revolution annual conference string theorists university southern california usc edward witten gave speech string theory essence united five string theories


existed time giving birth new dimensional theory called theory theory also foreshadowed work paul townsend approximately time flurry activity began time sometimes called second superstring revolution ref name duff juan maldacena period tom banks willy fischler stephen shenker leonard susskind formulated matrix theory full holographic description theory using iia branes ref name banks first definition string theory fully non perturbative concrete mathematical realization holographic principle example


gauge gravity duality understood special case ads cft correspondence andrew strominger cumrun vafa calculated entropy certain configurations branes found agreement semi classical answer extreme charged black holes ref name strominger vafa petr ho ava witten found eleven dimensional formulation heterotic string theories showing orbifolds solve chirality problem witten noted effective description physics branes low energies supersymmetric gauge theory found geometrical interpretations mathematical structures gauge theory nathan


seiberg earlier discovered terms location branes juan maldacena noted low energy excitations theory near black hole consist objects close horizon extreme charged black holes looks like anti de sitter space ref name maldacena noted limit gauge theory describes string excitations near branes hypothesized string theory near horizon extreme charged black hole geometry anti de sitter space times sphere flux equally well described low energy limiting gauge theory n


supersymmetric yang mills theory hypothesis called ads cft correspondence developed steven gubser igor klebanov alexander polyakov ref name gubser edward witten ref name witten well accepted concrete realization holographic principle far reaching implications black holes locality information physics well nature gravitational interaction ref name de haro et al p relationship string theory shown related gauge theories like quantum chromodynamics led quantitative understanding behavior hadrons


bringing string theory back roots criticism number solutions construct models particle physics based string theory physicists typically begin specifying shape extra dimensions spacetime different shapes corresponds different possible universe vacuum state different collection particles forces string theory currently understood enormous number vacuum states typically estimated around might sufficiently diverse accommodate almost phenomenon might observed low energies many critics string theory


expressed concerns large number possible universes described string theory book ''not even wrong'' peter woit lecturer mathematics department columbia university argued large number different physical scenarios renders string theory vacuous framework constructing models particle physics according woit consistent different vacuum states superstring theory probably destroys hope using theory predict anything one picks among large set states whose properties agree present experimental observations likely still


large number one get whatever value one wants results new observation ref name woit p woit p ref physicists believe large number solutions actually virtue may allow natural anthropic explanation observed values physical constants particular small value cosmological constant ref name woit p anthropic principle idea numbers appearing laws physics fixed fundamental principle must compatible evolution intelligent


life steven weinberg published article argued cosmological constant could large else galaxies intelligent life would able develop ref name weinberg weinberg suggested might huge number possible consistent universes different value cosmological constant observations indicate small value cosmological constant humans happen live universe allowed intelligent life hence observers exist string theorist leonard susskind argued string theory provides natural anthropic


explanation small value cosmological constant ref name susskind according susskind different vacuum states string theory might realized different universes within larger multiverse fact observed universe small cosmological constant tautological consequence fact small value required life exist many prominent theorists critics disagreed susskind 's conclusions according woit case anthropic reasoning nothing excuse failure speculative scientific ideas fail make incorrect predictions also


turn vacuous incapable predicting anything compatibility dark energy vacuum string theory landscape known support metastable positive cosmological constant except possibly one unconfirmed model described kachru ''et al'' group four physicists advanced controversial conjecture would imply universe exists contrary popular models dark energy cdm requires positive vacuum energy however string theory likely compatible certain types quintessence dark energy caused new field


claims principal weakness string theory theory quantum gravity saying string theory failed incorporate important insight general relativity others disagreed smolin 's characterization string theory review smolin 's book string theorist joseph polchinski writes polchinski notes important open problem quantum gravity develop holographic descriptions gravity require gravitational field asymptotically anti de sitter ref name polchinski smolin responded saying ads cft correspondence currently understood may strong enough


resolve concerns background independence sociology science since superstring revolutions string theory become dominant paradigm high energy theoretical physics string theorists expressed view exist equally successful alternative theory addressing deep questions fundamental physics interview nobel laureate david gross made following controversial comments reasons popularity string theory several high profile theorists commentators expressed similar views suggesting viable alternatives string theory many critics


string theory commented state affairs book criticizing string theory peter woit views status string theory research unhealthy detrimental future fundamental physics argues extreme popularity string theory among theoretical physicists partly consequence financial structure academia fierce competition scarce resources book ''the road reality'' mathematical physicist roger penrose expresses similar views stating often frantic competitiveness ease communication engenders leads bandwagon effects researchers fear left behind


join penrose also claims technical difficulty modern physics forces young scientists rely preferences established researchers rather forging new paths lee smolin expresses slightly different position critique claiming string theory grew tradition particle physics discourages speculation foundations physics preferred approach loop quantum gravity encourages radical thinking according smolin smolin goes offer number prescriptions scientists might encourage greater diversity approaches quantum


gravity research notes references ref ref name banks ref ref name bekenstein ref ref name bergshoeff ref ref name borcherds ref ref name candelas ref ref name candelas ref ref name cdh ref ref name connes ref ref name cds ref ref name cms ref ref name conway ref ref name cremmer ref ref name deligne ref ref name dgo ref ref name duff supermembranes journal nuclear physics b volume issue pages doi bibcode phlb url http cdscernch record files pdf access date archive date archive url https webarchiveorg web http cdscernch record files pdf url status live ref ref name duff ref ref name dummit ref ref name eot doi year journal experimental mathematics volume issue pages arxiv cid ref ref name flm ref ref name givental ref ref name givental ref ref name gubser ref ref name guica ref ref name de haro et al p ref ref name hawking ref ref name hawking ref ref name horava ref ref name hull ref ref name kapustin ref ref name klarreich ref


ref name klebanov maldacena ref ref name kontsevich ref ref name kovtun son starinets ref ref name lian ref ref name lian br ref ref name lian ref ref name luzum gev journal physical review c volume issue pages year arxiv doi physrevc bibcode phrvc c l ref ref name moore p ref ref name ost ref ref name maldacena limit superconformal field theories supergravity journal advances theoretical mathematical physics volume date pages arxiv hep th bibcode adtmp doi atmp v n ref ref name merali ref ref name msw ref ref name nahm ref ref name nekrasov superconformal six dimensional theory


journal communications mathematical physics volume issue pages doi bibcode cmaph n arxiv hep th cid ref ref name polchinski ref ref name randall ref ref name sachdev ref ref name sen ref ref name sen b invariance string theory journal physics letters b volume issue pages doi arxiv hep th bibcode phlb cid ref ref name strominger ref ref name strominger vafa ref ref name syz ref ref name susskind ref ref name susskind ref ref name sw ref ref name weinberg ref ref name witten ref ref name witten ref ref name witten ref ref name zee ref bibliography reading popular science textbooks external links '''websites''' http wwwmathcolumbiaedu woit blog even wrong blog critical string theory http superstringtheorycom official string theory web site http whystringtheorycom string theory introduction


string theory '''video''' http wwwbbccouk science horizon parallelunishtml bbc horizon parallel uni feature documentary bbc horizon episode parallel universes focus history emergence theory scientists involved https wwwpbsorg wgbh nova physics elegant universehtml pbsorg nova elegant uni emmy award winning three hour miniseries nova brian greene adapted elegant universe original pbs broadcast dates october pm november pm mathematical physics concepts physics dimension multi dimensional geometry particle physics physical cosmology physics beyond standard model theoretical physics


'''social geography''' branch human geography interested relationships society space closely related social theory general sociology particular dealing relation social phenomena spatial components though term tradition years ref name term dunbar gary early occurrences term social geography ''scottish geographical journal'' ref consensus explicit content anne buttimer noted w ith notable exceptions social geography considered field

Social science
Geography
Human geography
Social geography


created cultivated number individual scholars rather academic tradition built within particular schools since despite calls convergence centred structure agency debate methodological theoretical topical diversity spread even leading numerous definitions social geography therefore contemporary scholars discipline identifying great variety different ' 'social geographies'' however benno werlen remarked different perceptions nothing else different answers two sets questions refer spatial constitution society one hand


spatial expression social processes ref group note outline questions basically dialectical purpose original context n't used subject 's definition cf jackson peter introduction social question anderson kay et al eds handbook cultural geography london et al sage also note werlen 's original two questions social geography answer slightly differ two buttimer provides another two questions ref different conceptions social geography also overlapping sub fields geography


lesser extent sociology term emerged within anglo american tradition basically applied synonym search patterns distribution social groups thus closely connected urban geography urban sociology focus debate within american human geography lay political economic processes though also considerable number accounts phenomenological perspective social geography geographical thought heavily influenced cultural turn times neil smith noted approaches claimed authority


'social' american tradition concept cultural geography much distinguished history social geography encompasses research areas would conceptualized social elsewhere contrast within continental european traditions social geography still considered approach human geography rather sub discipline ref group note detailed account german language geography see bobek hans ber den einbau der sozialgeographischen betrachtungsweise die kulturgeographie ''verhandlungen des deutschen geographentages'' ref even identical human geography general history second world


war term social geography rather g ographie sociale originates france used geographer lis e reclus sociologists le play school perhaps independently fact first proven occurrence term derives review reclus' ''nouvelle g ographie universelle'' written paul de rousiers member le play school reclus used expression several letters first one dating last work ''l'homme et la terre'' first person employ term


part publication 's title edmond demolins another member le play school whose article ''g ographie sociale de la france'' published death reclus well main proponents le play 's ideas mile durkheim turning away early concept social morphology ref name term paul vidal de la blache noted geography science places science men remained influential figure french geography one students camille vallaux wrote two volume book ''g ographie sociale'' published


ref name term jean brunhes one vidal 's influential disciples included level spatial interactions among groups fourfold structure human geography second world war theoretical framework social geography developed though leading concentration rather descriptive rural regional geography ref group note paul claval puts mid century french geography open social problems schools nothing like recognised social geographical field p ref however vidal 's works influential historical annales school also shared rural


bias contemporary geographers durkheim 's concept social morphology later developed set connection social geography sociologists marcel mauss maurice halbwachs first person anglo american tradition use term social geography george wilson hoke whose paper ''the study social geography'' published yet indication academic impact le play 's work however taken britain patrick geddes andrew john herbertson ref name term percy roxby former student herbertson identified social geography one


human geography 's four main branches contrast american academic geography time dominated berkeley school cultural geography led carl sauer spatial distribution social groups already studied chicago school sociology harlan h barrows geographer university chicago nevertheless regarded social geography one three major divisions geography another pre war concept combined elements sociology geography one established dutch sociologist sebald rudolf steinmetz amsterdam school sociography however lacked definitive subject


geography came richard busch zantner zur ordnung der anthropogenen faktoren ''petermanns geographische mitteilungen'' cited werlen benno however died second world war ref bobek groups ''lebensformen'' patterns life influenced social factors formed landscape center social geographical analysis similar approach hartke considered landscape source indices traces certain social groups' behaviour best known example perspective concept ''sozialbrache'' social fallow ie abandoning tillage indicator occupational shifts away agriculture


though french ''g ographie sociale'' great influence especially hartke 's ideas distinct school thought formed within french human geography nonetheless albert demangeon paved way number systematic conceptualizations field posthumously published notion social groups ought within center human geographical analysis task carried pierre george maximilien sorre among others marxist george 's stance dominated socio economic rationale without structuralist interpretations found works french sociologists


time however another french marxist sociologist henri lefebvre introduced concept social production space written related topics since fully expounded ''la production de l'espace'' late sorre developed schema society related ecological idea habitat applied urban context sociologist paul henry chombart de lauwe dutch geographer christiaan van paassen world consisted socio spatial entities different scales formed referred syn ecological complex idea


organization searching integrated order prague faculty science charles university prague p werlen benno society action space alternative human geography london new york routledge p external links http wwwsocial geographynet social geography open access journal http wwwtandfcouk journals titles asp social cultural geography peer reviewed journal http wwwenvplancom contentscgijournal environment planning society space peer reviewed journal http wwwwileycom bw journalaspref x tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie journal economic social geography peer reviewed journal human geography interdisciplinary subfields sociology


'''semantics''' ' 's mantik s'' significant ' 'semantikos'' related meaning significant ' 'semaino'' signify indicate ' 'sema'' sign mark token plural used analogy words similar ''physics'' neuter plural ancient greek meant things relating nature study reference meaning truth term used refer subfields several distinct disciplines including philosophy linguistics computer science linguistics linguistics semantics subfield studies meaning ref name partee partee b '' http peopleumassedu partee docs partee mitecs semanticspdf semantics '' r wilson f

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Semantics


c keil eds '' http webmitedu morrishalle pubworks papers halle mit encyclopedia cognitive sciences paperpdf mit encyclopedia cognitive sciences '' cambridge mit press ref semantics address meaning levels words phrases sentences larger units discourse two fundamental issues field semantics compositional semantics pertains smaller parts like words combine interact form meaning larger expressions sentences lexical semantics nature meaning words ref name partee prominent issues context role interpretation opaque contexts ambiguity vagueness entailment presuppositions ref name partee


crucial interfaces considered syntax syntax semantics interface pragmatics phonology regarding prosody intonation ref name partee disciplines paradigms linguistic semantics formal semantics formal semantics seeks identify domain specific mental operations speakers perform compute sentence 's meaning basis syntactic structure theories formal semantics typically floated top theories syntax generative syntax combinatory categorial grammar provide model theory based mathematical tools typed lambda calculi field 's central ideas rooted early twentieth century philosophical logic well


later ideas linguistic syntax emerged subfield pioneering work richard montague barbara partee continues active area research conceptual semantics theory effort explain properties argument structure assumption behind theory syntactic properties phrases reflect meanings words head ref name levin beth levin beth pinker steven ''lexical conceptual semantics'' blackwell cambridge massachusetts ref theory linguists better deal fact subtle differences word meaning correlate


differences syntactic structure word appears ref name levin beth way gone looking internal structure words ref name jackendoff ray jackendoff ray '' https booksgooglecom booksid wbylhis oec printsec frontcover v onepage q f false semantic structures '' mit press cambridge massachusetts ref small parts make internal structure words termed ' 'semantic primitives'' ref name jackendoff ray cognitive semantics cognitive semantics approaches meaning perspective cognitive linguistics framework language explained via general human cognitive abilities rather domain specific language module techniques native cognitive semantics typically used lexical


order accomplish distinction part sentence bears meaning combines meanings constituents labeled semantic constituent semantic constituents cannot broken elementary constituents labeled minimal semantic constituents ref name cruse cross cultural semantics various fields disciplines long contributing cross cultural semantics words like ''love'' ''truth'' ''hate'' universals even word ' 'sense'' central semantics universal concept entrenched long standing culture specific tradition kind


crucial questions discussed cross cultural semantics translation theory ethnolinguistics linguistic anthropology cultural linguistics specialize field comparing contrasting translating words terms meanings one language another see herder w von humboldt boas sapir whorf philosophy sociology anthropology long established traditions contrasting different nuances terms concepts use online encyclopaedias https platostanfordedu stanford encyclopedia philosophy wikipedia greatly facilitated possibilities comparing background usages key cultural terms recent years


question whether key terms translatable untranslatable increasingly come fore global discussions especially since publication barbara cassin 's ''dictionary untranslatables philosophical lexicon'' computational semantics computational semantics focused processing linguistic meaning order concrete algorithms architectures described within framework algorithms architectures also analyzed terms decidability time space complexity data structures require communication protocols philosophy many formal approaches semantics mathematical logic computer science originated early twentieth century philosophy


language philosophical logic initially influential semantic theory stemmed gottlob frege bertrand russell frege russell seen originators tradition analytic philosophy explain meaning compositionally via syntax mathematical functionality ludwig wittgenstein former student russell also seen one seminal figures analytic tradition three early philosophers language concerned sentences expressed information form propositions also dealt truth values truth conditions given sentence virtue proposition


expresses present day philosophy term semantics often used refer linguistic formal semantics bridges linguistics philosophy also active tradition metasemantics studies foundations natural language semantics computer science computer science term ' 'semantics'' refers meaning language constructs opposed form syntax according euzenat semantics provides rules interpreting syntax provide meaning directly constrains possible interpretations declared programming languages semantics programming languages languages


important issue area study computer science like syntax language semantics defined exactly instance following statements use different syntaxes cause instructions executed namely perform arithmetical addition 'y' 'x' store result variable called 'x' class wikitable sortable statement programming languages code x code c c c java javascript python ruby etc code x code perl php code x x code ada algol algol bcpl


dylan eiffel j modula oberon ocaml object pascal delphi pascal setl simula smalltalk standard ml vhdl etc code mov eax code br code add x eax code assembly languages intel code ldr r code br code ldr r x code br code add r r r code br code str r x code br assembly languages arm code let x x code basic early code x x code basic dialects fortran matlab lua code set x x code cach objectscript code add


' 'semantic data model'' used describe particular types data model characterized use directed graphs vertices denote concepts entities world properties arcs denote relationships formally described description logic concepts roles correspond owl classes properties ref name sikos ref psychology semantic memory psychology ' 'semantic memory'' memory meaning nbsp words aspect memory preserves ''gist'' general significance remembered experience nbsp episodic memory memory ephemeral details nbsp individual


network created people analyzing understanding word wordnet links decomposition structures network number kind include ''part of'' ''kind of'' similar links automated ontologies links computed vectors without explicit meaning various automated technologies developed compute meaning words latent semantic indexing support vector machines well natural language processing artificial neural networks predicate calculus techniques ideasthesia ideasthesia psychological phenomenon activation concepts evokes sensory experiences example synesthesia activation


concept letter eg letter ''a'' evokes sensory like experiences eg red color psychosemantics psychosemantic studies became popular charles e osgood 's massive cross cultural studies using semantic differential sd method used thousands nouns adjective bipolar scales specific form sd projective semantics method uses common neutral nouns correspond groups factors adjective scales consistently found cross cultural studies evaluation potency activity found osgood reality organization complexity limitation found studies method


seven groups bipolar adjective scales corresponded seven types nouns method thought object scale symmetry oss scales nouns evaluation using scales example nouns corresponding listed factors would beauty power motion life work chaos law beauty expected assessed unequivocally good adjectives evaluation related scales life real reality related scales etc however deviations symmetric basic matrix might show underlying biases two types scales related bias objects related bias oss design meant


culture leads another debate see sapir whorf hypothesis eskimo words snow see also semantic technology notes references external links http wwwsemanticsarchivenet semanticsarchivenet http wwwuniversalteacherorguk lang semanticshtm teaching page gce advanced level semantics https webarchiveorg web http wwwrevelinfbr site pdf entrevistas revel interview jerry fodorpdf semantics interview jerry fodor concepts logic grammar meaning philosophy language social philosophy


'''social dynamics''' '' 'sociodynamics''' study behavior groups results interactions individual group members well study relationship individual interactions group level behaviors ref name durlauf ref overview field social dynamics brings together ideas economics sociology social psychology disciplines sub field complex adaptive systems complexity science fundamental assumption field individuals influenced one another 's behavior field closely related system dynamics like system dynamics social dynamics concerned

Applied science
Business
Systems science
System dynamics
Social dynamics


changes time emphasizes role feedbacks however social dynamics individual choices interactions typically viewed source aggregate level behavior system dynamics posits structure feedbacks accumulations responsible system level dynamics research field typically takes behavioral approach assuming individuals boundedly rational act local information mathematical computational modeling important tools studying social dynamics field grew work done game theorists duncan luce even earlier


works mathematician armand borel social dynamics focuses individual level behavior recognizes importance heterogeneity across individuals strict analytic results often impossible instead approximation techniques mean field approximations statistical physics computer simulations used understand behaviors system contrast traditional approaches economics scholars social dynamics often interested non equilibrium dynamic behavior ref name durlauf behavior changes time topics social networks diffusion technologies information cooperation social norms see also complex


adaptive system complexity science collective intelligence dynamical systems jay wright forrester group dynamics operations research population dynamics system dynamics social psychology societal collapse sociobiology sociocultural evolution notes references weidlich w sociodynamics applied evolution urban regional structures ''discrete dynamics nature society'' vol pp nbsp available online http wwwhindawicom getarticleaspxdoi reading external links https wwwacademiaedu introduction social macrodynamics compact macromodels world system growth moscow komkniga introduction social macrodynamics https webarchiveorg web http wwwclubofromeorg docs limitsrtf club rome report quote must also keep mind presence social delays delays necessary allow society absorb prepare


change delays physical social reduce stability world system increase likelihood overshoot mode http wwwnorthwesternedu nico northwestern institute complex systems institute research focusing complexity social dynamics http wwwcscsumichedu center study complex systems university michigan center research focusing complexity social dynamics http wwwkelloggnorthwesternedu faculty lamberson teaching socialdynamics social dynamics course kellogg school management http social dynamicsorg social dynamicsorg blog social dynamics kellogg school management social dynamics scholar https archivetoday http pub www journal vol iss art http arquivopt wayback http www rcfuscedu read connectionism preface html https webarchiveorg web http wwwoeawacat byzanz historicaldynamicshtm historical dynamics time crisis late byzantium discussion social dynamics point view


historical studies systems theory social systems


'''systems theory''' interdisciplinary study systems ie cohesive groups interrelated interdependent parts natural human made every system bounded space time influenced environment defined structure purpose expressed functioning system may sum parts expresses synergy emergent behavior changing one part system may affect parts whole system may possible predict changes patterns behavior systems learn adapt growth degree

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems theory


adaptation depend upon well system engaged environment systems support systems maintaining system prevent failure goals systems theory model system 's dynamics constraints conditions elucidate principles purpose measure methods tools discerned applied systems every level nesting wide range fields achieving optimized equifinality general systems theory developing broadly applicable concepts principles opposed concepts principles specific one domain knowledge distinguishes dynamic


active systems static passive systems active systems activity structures components interact behaviours processes passive systems structures components processed example program passive disc file active runs memory field related systems thinking machine logic systems engineering key concepts '''system''' group interacting interdependent parts form complex whole ref name montuori systems approach pp ''encyclopedia creativity'' nd ed academic press ref '''boundaries''' barriers define system