memory components register files caches clock circuitry clock drivers plls clock distribution networks pad transceiver circuitry logic gate cell library used implement logic coding cryptography information protection source code written c programming language computer engineers work coding cryptography information protection develop new methods protecting various information digital images music fragmentation copyright infringement forms tampering examples include work wireless communications multi antenna systems optical transmission digital watermarking ref name sccc ref communications wireless networks focusing communications wireless networks


work advancements telecommunications systems networks especially wireless networks modulation error control coding information theory high speed network design interference suppression modulation design analysis fault tolerant system storage transmission schemes part specialty ref name sccc compilers operating systems windows example operating system specialty focuses compilers operating systems design development engineers field develop new operating system architecture program analysis techniques new techniques assure quality examples work field include post link time code transformation algorithm development new

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Electrical Engineering
Computer engineering


operating system development ref name sccc computational science engineering computational science engineering relatively new discipline according sloan career cornerstone center individuals working area computational methods applied formulate solve complex mathematical problems engineering physical social sciences examples include aircraft design plasma processing nanometer features semiconductor wafers vlsi circuit design radar detection systems ion transport biological channels much ref name sccc computer networks mobile computing distributed systems specialty engineers build integrated environments computing communications information access examples


include shared channel wireless networks adaptive resource management various systems improving quality service mobile atm environments examples include work wireless network systems fast ethernet cluster wired systems ref name sccc computer systems architecture parallel processing dependability example computer cpu engineers working computer systems work research projects allow reliable secure high performance computer systems projects designing processors multi threading parallel processing included field examples work field include development new theories algorithms


tools add performance computer systems ref name sccc computer architecture includes cpu design cache hierarchy layout memory organization load balancing computer vision robotics example humanoid robot specialty computer engineers focus developing visual sensing technology sense environment representation environment manipulation environment gathered three dimensional information implemented perform variety tasks include improved human modeling image communication human computer interfaces well devices special purpose cameras versatile vision sensors ref name sccc embedded systems alt individuals working


area design technology enhancing speed reliability performance systems embedded systems found many devices small fm radio space shuttle according sloan cornerstone career center ongoing developments embedded systems include automated vehicles equipment conduct search rescue automated transportation systems human robot coordination repair equipment space ref name sccc computer embedded computer engineering specializations include system chip design architecture edge computing internet things integrated circuits vlsi design testing cad specialty computer engineering requires adequate knowledge electronics electrical


engineering roundabout bristol england attempts make traffic flow free moving '''transportation engineering''' '''transport engineering''' application technology scientific principles planning functional design operation management facilities mode transportation order provide safe efficient rapid comfortable convenient economical environmentally compatible movement people goods transport planning aspects transportation engineering relate elements urban planning involve technical forecasting decisions political factors technical forecasting passenger travel usually involves urban transportation planning model requiring estimation

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Transportation engineering


trip generation number purposeful trips trip distribution destination choice traveler going mode choice mode taken route assignment streets routes used sophisticated forecasting include aspects traveler decisions including auto ownership trip chaining decision link individual trips together tour choice residential business location known land use forecasting passenger trips focus transportation engineering often represent peak demand transportation system review descriptions scope


various committees indicates facility planning design continue core transportation engineering field areas operations planning logistics network analysis financing policy analysis also important particularly working highway urban transportation national council examiners engineering surveying ncees list online safety protocols geometric design requirements signal timing transportation engineering primarily involves planning design construction maintenance operation transportation facilities facilities support air highway railroad pipeline water even space transportation design aspects transportation engineering include sizing


transportation facilities many lanes much capacity facility determining materials thickness used pavement designing geometry vertical horizontal alignment roadway track planning occurs engineer must take known inventory area appropriate previous system place inventory database must include information population land use economic activity transportation facilities services travel patterns volumes laws ordinances regional financial resources community values expectations inventories help engineer create business models


complete accurate forecasts future conditions system operations management involve traffic engineering vehicles move smoothly road track older techniques include signs signals markings tolling newer technologies involve intelligent transportation systems including advanced traveler information systems variable message signs advanced traffic control systems ramp meters vehicle infrastructure integration human factors aspect transportation engineering particularly concerning driver vehicle interface user interface road signs signals markings highway engineering engineers specialization handle planning design construction operation highways


roads vehicular facilities well related bicycle pedestrian realms estimate transportation needs public secure funding projects analyze locations high traffic volumes high collisions safety capacity use engineering principles improve transportation system utilize three design controls drivers vehicles roadways railroad engineering railway engineers handle design construction operation railroads mass transit systems use fixed guideway light rail monorails typical tasks include determining horizontal vertical alignment


design station location design construction cost estimating railroad engineers also move specialized field train dispatching focuses train movement control railway engineers also work build cleaner safer transportation network reinvesting revitalizing rail system meet future demands united states railway engineers work elected officials washington dc rail transportation issues make sure rail system meets country 's transportation needs port harbor engineering port harbor engineers handle design construction operation ports harbors canals


standard transportation engineering transportation forecasting transportation planning utility cycling rail transport country energy efficiency transport public transport references external links http wwwiteorg institute transportation engineers professional society transportation engineers http wwwitsaorg america http wwwasceorg asce engineering disciplines civil engineering


hubble mosaic crab nebula supernova remnant milky way viewed la silla observatory '''astronomy''' literally meaning science studies laws stars natural science studies celestial objects phenomena uses mathematics physics chemistry order explain origin evolution objects interest include planets moons stars nebulae galaxies comets relevant phenomena include supernova explosions gamma ray bursts quasars blazars pulsars cosmic microwave background radiation generally astronomy studies everything originates beyond earth 's atmosphere cosmology branch astronomy


studies universe whole astronomy one oldest natural sciences early civilizations recorded history made methodical observations night sky include babylonians greeks indians egyptians chinese maya many ancient indigenous peoples americas past astronomy included disciplines diverse astrometry celestial navigation observational astronomy making calendars nowadays professional astronomy often said astrophysics professional astronomy split observational theoretical branches observational astronomy focused acquiring data observations astronomical objects data


analyzed using basic principles physics theoretical astronomy oriented toward development computer analytical models describe astronomical objects phenomena two fields complement theoretical astronomy seeks explain observational results observations used confirm theoretical results astronomy one sciences amateurs play active role especially true discovery observation transient events amateur astronomers helped many important discoveries finding new comets etymology astronomical observatory new south wales australia th century quito astronomical observatory located


study objects matter outside earth 's atmosphere physical chemical properties ref name mw astronomy ref astrophysics refers branch astronomy dealing behavior physical properties dynamic processes celestial objects phenomena ref name mw astrophysics ref cases introduction introductory textbook ''the physical universe'' frank shu astronomy may used describe qualitative study subject whereas astrophysics used describe physics oriented version subject ref name shu ref however since modern astronomical research deals subjects related physics modern astronomy could actually


called astrophysics ref name scharrinhausen fields astrometry purely astronomy rather also astrophysics various departments scientists carry research subject may use astronomy astrophysics partly depending whether department historically affiliated physics department ref name odenwald many professional astronomers physics rather astronomy degrees ref name pennstateerie titles leading scientific journals field include ''the astronomical journal'' ''the astrophysical journal'' ''astronomy astrophysics'' history celestial map th century dutch cartographer frederik de wit ancient times early historic times astronomy


consisted observation predictions motions objects visible naked eye locations early cultures assembled massive artifacts possibly astronomical purpose addition ceremonial uses observatories could employed determine seasons important factor knowing plant crops understanding length year ref name history forbes ref tools telescope invented early study stars conducted using naked eye civilizations developed notably mesopotamia greece persia india china egypt central america astronomical observatories


assembled ideas nature universe began develop early astronomy consisted mapping positions stars planets science referred astrometry observations early ideas motions planets formed nature sun moon earth universe explored philosophically earth believed center universe sun moon stars rotating around known geocentric model universe ptolemaic system named


ptolemy suryaprajnaptis tra th century bc astronomy text jains schoyen collection london manuscript ad particularly important early development beginning mathematical scientific astronomy began among babylonians laid foundations later astronomical traditions developed many civilizations babylonians discovered lunar eclipses recurred repeating cycle known saros greek equatorial sundial alexandria oxus present day afghanistan rd nd century bc following babylonians significant advances astronomy made ancient greece hellenistic world greek astronomy


greek astronomy antikythera mechanism c bc early analog computer designed calculate location sun moon planets given date technological artifacts similar complexity reappear th century mechanical astronomical clocks appeared europe ref name insearchoflosttime ref middle ages medieval europe housed number important astronomers richard wallingford made major contributions astronomy horology including invention first astronomical clock rectangulus allowed measurement angles planets astronomical bodies well equatorium called


led emergence first astronomical observatories muslim world early th century ref name kennedy ref ref name micheau ref andromeda galaxy largest galaxy local group described persian muslim astronomer abd al rahman al sufi ''book fixed stars'' ref name nsog ref sn supernova brightest apparent magnitude stellar event recorded history observed egyptian arabic astronomer ali ibn ridwan chinese astronomers prominent islamic mostly persian arab astronomers made significant contributions science include al battani thebit abd al rahman al sufi


biruni ab ish q ibr h al zarq l al birjandi astronomers maragheh samarkand observatories astronomers time introduced many arabic names used individual stars ref name short history ref ref name cambridge history ref also believed ruins great zimbabwe timbuktu may housed astronomical observatories post classical west africa astronomers studied movement stars relation seasons crafting charts heavens well precise diagrams orbits planets based complex mathematical calculations songhai historian mahmud kati documented meteor shower august europeans previously believed


astronomical observation sub saharan africa pre colonial middle ages modern discoveries show otherwise six centuries recovery ancient learning late middle ages enlightenment roman catholic church gave financial social support study astronomy probably institutions among church 's motives finding date easter scientific revolution galileo 's sketches observations moon revealed surface mountainous astronomical chart early scientific manuscript c renaissance nicolaus copernicus proposed heliocentric


model solar system work defended galileo galilei expanded upon johannes kepler kepler first devise system correctly described details motion planets around sun however kepler succeed formulating theory behind laws wrote isaac newton invention celestial dynamics law gravitation finally explained motions planets newton also developed reflecting telescope ref name f forbes pp ref improvements size quality telescope led


discoveries english astronomer john flamsteed catalogued stars extensive star catalogues produced nicolas louis de lacaille astronomer william herschel made detailed catalog nebulosity clusters discovered planet uranus first new planet found th centuries study three body problem leonhard euler alexis claude clairaut jean le rond d'alembert led accurate predictions motions moon planets work refined joseph louis lagrange pierre simon laplace allowing masses planets moons


estimated perturbations significant advances astronomy came introduction new technology including spectroscope photography joseph von fraunhofer discovered bands spectrum sun gustav kirchhoff ascribed presence different elements stars proven similar earth 's sun wide range temperatures masses sizes ref name short history existence earth 's galaxy milky way group stars proved th century along existence


external galaxies observed recession galaxies led discovery expansion universe ref name belkora ref theoretical astronomy led speculations existence objects black holes neutron stars used explain observed phenomena quasars pulsars blazars radio galaxies physical cosmology made huge advances th century early model big bang theory formulated heavily evidenced cosmic microwave background radiation hubble 's law cosmological abundances elements space telescopes enabled measurements parts electromagnetic spectrum


subfields given radio astronomy large array new mexico example radio telescope radio astronomy uses radiation wavelengths greater approximately one millimeter outside visible range ref name cox ref radio astronomy different forms observational astronomy observed radio waves treated waves rather discrete photons hence relatively easier measure amplitude phase radio waves whereas easily done shorter wavelengths ref name cox although radio waves emitted directly astronomical objects


product thermal emission radio emission observed result synchrotron radiation produced electrons orbit magnetic fields ref name cox additionally number spectral lines produced interstellar gas notably hydrogen spectral line nbsp cm observable radio wavelengths ref name shu ref name cox wide variety objects observable radio wavelengths including supernovae interstellar gas pulsars active galactic nuclei ref name shu ref name cox infrared astronomy alma observatory one highest observatory sites earth atacama chile infrared astronomy founded detection analysis infrared


radiation wavelengths longer red light outside range vision infrared spectrum useful studying objects cold radiate visible light planets circumstellar disks nebulae whose light blocked dust longer wavelengths infrared penetrate clouds dust block visible light allowing observation young stars embedded molecular clouds cores galaxies observations wide field infrared survey explorer wise particularly effective unveiling numerous galactic protostars host star clusters ref name wright ref ref name ref exception infrared


wavelengths close visible light radiation heavily absorbed atmosphere masked atmosphere produces significant infrared emission consequently infrared observatories located high dry places earth space molecules radiate strongly infrared allows study chemistry space specifically detect water comets optical astronomy subaru telescope left keck observatory center mauna kea examples observatory operates near infrared visible wavelengths nasa infrared telescope facility right example telescope


operates near infrared wavelengths historically optical astronomy also called visible light astronomy oldest form astronomy ref name moore ref images observations originally drawn hand late th century th century images made using photographic equipment modern images made using digital detectors particularly using charge coupled devices ccds recorded modern medium although visible light extends approximately nm nbsp nm ref name moore equipment used observe near ultraviolet near infrared radiation ultraviolet astronomy ultraviolet astronomy employs ultraviolet wavelengths


light easily absorbed interstellar dust adjustment ultraviolet measurements necessary ref name cox x ray astronomy x ray jet made supermassive black hole found nasa 's chandra x ray observatory made visible light early universe x ray astronomy uses x ray wavelengths typically x ray radiation produced synchrotron emission result electrons orbiting magnetic field lines thermal emission thin gases sup sup nbsp million kelvins thermal emission thick gases sup sup kelvin ref name cox since x rays absorbed earth 's atmosphere x ray observations must performed high altitude balloons rockets x ray astronomy


satellites notable x ray sources include x ray binaries pulsars supernova remnants elliptical galaxies clusters galaxies active galactic nuclei ref name cox gamma ray astronomy gamma ray astronomy observes astronomical objects shortest wavelengths electromagnetic spectrum gamma rays may observed directly satellites compton gamma ray observatory specialized telescopes called atmospheric cherenkov telescopes ref name cox cherenkov telescopes detect gamma rays directly instead detect flashes visible light produced gamma rays absorbed earth 's atmosphere ref name spectrum ref gamma ray emitting sources actually gamma ray bursts objects


sun neutrinos also detected supernova ref name cox cosmic rays consist high energy particles atomic nuclei decay absorbed enter earth 's atmosphere result cascade secondary particles detected current observatories future neutrino detectors may also sensitive particles produced cosmic rays hit earth 's atmosphere ref name cox gravitational wave astronomy emerging field astronomy employs gravitational wave detectors collect observational data distant massive objects observatories constructed ''laser interferometer gravitational


observatory'' ligo ligo made first detection september observing gravitational waves binary black hole ref name prl ref second gravitational wave detected december additional observations continue gravitational waves require extremely sensitive instruments combination observations made using electromagnetic radiation neutrinos gravitational waves complementary information known multi messenger astronomy astrometry celestial mechanics star cluster pismis nebula one oldest fields astronomy science measurement positions celestial objects historically accurate knowledge


positions sun moon planets stars essential celestial navigation use celestial objects guide navigation making calendars careful measurement positions planets led solid understanding gravitational perturbations ability determine past future positions planets great accuracy field known celestial mechanics recently tracking near earth objects allow predictions close encounters potential collisions earth objects measurement stellar parallax nearby stars provides fundamental


baseline cosmic distance ladder used measure scale universe parallax measurements nearby stars provide absolute baseline properties distant stars properties compared measurements radial velocity proper motion stars allow astronomers plot movement systems milky way galaxy astrometric results basis used calculate distribution speculated dark matter galaxy measurement stellar wobble nearby stars used detect large extrasolar planets orbiting


generate modify models take account new data case inconsistency data model 's results general tendency try make minimal modifications model produces results fit data cases large amount inconsistent data time may lead total abandonment model phenomena modeled theoretical astronomers include stellar dynamics evolution galaxy formation large scale distribution matter universe origin cosmic rays general relativity physical cosmology including string cosmology astroparticle physics


emergence star system nuclear fusion spectroscopy stellar evolution stars shine metals formed big bang hubble space telescope cobe expanding universe age universe quantum fluctuations cosmic inflation flatness problem gravitational collapse x ray astronomy general relativity black holes center andromeda galaxy cno cycle stars dominant


source energy massive star along cosmic inflation dark matter dark energy current leading topics astronomy discovery controversy originated study galaxies specific subfields astrophysics astrophysics applies physics chemistry understand measurements made astronomy representation observable universe includes images hubble telescopes astrophysics branch astronomy employs principles physics chemistry ascertain nature astronomical objects rather positions motions space among objects studied sun


stars galaxies extrasolar planets interstellar medium cosmic microwave background ref name nasagov ref emissions examined across parts electromagnetic spectrum properties examined include luminosity density temperature chemical composition astrophysics broad subject ''astrophysicists'' typically apply many disciplines physics including mechanics electromagnetism statistical mechanics thermodynamics quantum mechanics relativity nuclear particle physics atomic molecular physics practice modern astronomical research often involves substantial amount work realms theoretical observational physics areas study astrophysicists include attempts determine


system earth 's origin geology abiogenesis origin climate oceans astrobiology astrobiology interdisciplinary scientific field concerned origins early evolution distribution future life universe astrobiology considers question whether extraterrestrial life exists humans detect ref name ref term '''exobiology''' similar astrobiology makes use molecular biology biophysics biochemistry chemistry astronomy physical cosmology exoplanetology geology investigate possibility life worlds help recognize biospheres might different earth origin early evolution


life inseparable part discipline astrobiology astrobiology concerns interpretation existing scientific data although speculation entertained give context astrobiology concerns primarily hypotheses fit firmly existing scientific theories interdisciplinary field encompasses research origin planetary systems origins organic compounds space rock water carbon interactions abiogenesis earth planetary habitability research biosignatures life detection studies potential life adapt challenges earth outer space ref name goals ref ref name nyt jc ref physical cosmology cosmology greek ''kosmos'' world universe


''logos'' word study literally logic could considered study universe whole hubble extreme deep field observations large scale structure universe branch known physical cosmology provided deep understanding formation evolution cosmos fundamental modern cosmology well accepted theory big bang wherein universe began single point time thereafter expanded course billion years present condition ref name dodelson concept big bang traced back discovery


microwave background radiation ref name dodelson ref course expansion universe underwent several evolutionary stages early moments theorized universe experienced rapid cosmic inflation homogenized starting conditions thereafter nucleosynthesis produced elemental abundance early universe ref name dodelson see also nucleocosmochronology first neutral atoms formed sea primordial ions space became transparent radiation releasing energy viewed today microwave background radiation expanding universe underwent dark age due lack stellar energy sources ref name cosmology ref


hierarchical structure matter began form minute variations mass density space matter accumulated densest regions forming clouds gas earliest stars population iii stars massive stars triggered reionization process believed created many heavy elements early universe nuclear decay create lighter elements allowing cycle nucleosynthesis continue longer gravitational aggregations clustered filaments leaving voids gaps gradually organizations gas dust merged form first primitive galaxies time pulled


matter often organized groups clusters galaxies larger scale superclusters various fields physics crucial studying universe interdisciplinary studies involve fields quantum mechanics particle physics plasma physics condensed matter physics statistical mechanics optics nuclear physics fundamental structure universe existence dark matter dark energy thought dominant components forming mass universe reason much effort expended trying understand physics components extragalactic astronomy image


shows several blue loop shaped objects multiple images galaxy duplicated gravitational lens effect cluster yellow galaxies near middle photograph lens produced cluster 's gravitational field bends light magnify distort image distant object study objects outside galaxy branch astronomy concerned formation evolution galaxies morphology description classification observation active galaxies larger scale groups clusters galaxies finally latter important


rotating disk usually prominent bulge bar center trailing bright arms spiral outward arms dusty regions star formation within massive young stars produce blue tint spiral galaxies typically surrounded halo older stars milky way one nearest galaxy neighbors andromeda galaxy spiral galaxies irregular galaxies chaotic appearance neither spiral elliptical quarter galaxies irregular peculiar shapes galaxies may result gravitational interaction active


galaxy formation emits significant amount energy source stars dust gas powered compact region core thought supermassive black hole emitting radiation falling material radio galaxy active galaxy luminous radio portion spectrum emitting immense plumes lobes gas active galaxies emit shorter frequency high energy radiation include seyfert galaxies quasars blazars quasars believed consistently luminous objects known


universe large scale structure cosmos represented groups clusters galaxies structure organized hierarchy groupings largest superclusters collective matter formed filaments walls leaving large voids ref name evolving universe ref galactic astronomy observed structure milky way 's spiral arms solar system orbits within milky way barred spiral galaxy prominent member local group galaxies rotating mass gas dust stars objects held together mutual gravitational attraction earth


located within dusty outer arms large portions milky way obscured view center milky way core bar shaped bulge believed supermassive black hole center surrounded four primary arms spiral core region active star formation contains many younger population stars disk surrounded spheroid halo older population ii stars well relatively dense concentrations stars known globular clusters stars


lies interstellar medium region sparse matter densest regions molecular clouds molecular hydrogen elements create star forming regions begin compact pre stellar core dark nebulae concentrate collapse volumes determined jeans length form compact protostars ref name smith ref massive stars appear transform cloud h ii region ionized atomic hydrogen glowing gas plasma stellar wind supernova explosions stars eventually cause cloud disperse often leaving behind one young open clusters stars


clusters gradually disperse stars join population milky way kinematic studies matter milky way galaxies demonstrated mass accounted visible matter dark matter halo appears dominate mass although nature dark matter remains undetermined stellar astronomy mz often referred ant planetary nebula ejecting gas dying central star shows symmetrical patterns unlike chaotic patterns ordinary explosions study stars stellar evolution fundamental understanding


massive star greater luminosity rapidly fuses hydrogen fuel helium core time hydrogen fuel completely converted helium star begins evolve fusion helium requires higher core temperature star high enough core temperature push outer layers outward increasing core density resulting red giant formed expanding outer layers enjoys brief life span helium fuel core turn consumed massive stars also undergo series


follow complex evolutionary paths mass transfer onto white dwarf companion potentially cause supernova planetary nebulae supernovae distribute metals produced star fusion interstellar medium without new stars planetary systems would formed hydrogen helium alone solar astronomy ultraviolet image sun 's active photosphere viewed trace space telescope ''nasa photo'' solar observatory lomnick slovakia built distance eight light minutes frequently studied star sun typical main sequence


dwarf star stellar class g v billion years gyr old sun considered variable star undergo periodic changes activity known sunspot cycle year oscillation sunspot number sunspots regions lower average temperatures associated intense magnetic activity ref name solar faq ref sun steadily increased luminosity since first became main sequence star sun also undergone periodic changes luminosity significant impact earth ref name environmental issues essential primary sources ref


maunder minimum example believed caused little ice age phenomenon middle ages ref name future sun ref visible outer surface sun called photosphere layer thin region known chromosphere surrounded transition region rapidly increasing temperatures finally super heated corona center sun core region volume sufficient temperature pressure nuclear fusion occur core radiation zone plasma conveys energy flux means radiation


convection zone gas material transports energy primarily physical displacement gas known convection believed movement mass within convection zone creates magnetic activity generates sunspots ref name solar faq solar wind plasma particles constantly streams outward sun outermost limit solar system reaches heliopause solar wind passes earth interacts earth 's magnetic field magnetosphere deflects solar wind traps creating van allen radiation belts envelop earth


aurora created solar wind particles guided magnetic flux lines earth 's polar regions lines descend atmosphere planetary science black spot top dust devil climbing crater wall mars moving swirling column martian atmosphere comparable terrestrial tornado created long dark streak planetary science study assemblage planets moons dwarf planets comets asteroids bodies orbiting sun well extrasolar planets solar system relatively well studied initially telescopes


later spacecraft provided good overall understanding formation evolution sun 's planetary system although many new discoveries still made ref name geology ref solar system divided inner solar system subdivided inner planets asteroid belt outer solar system subdivided outer planets centaurs comets trans neptunian region subdivided kuiper belt scattered disc farthest regions eg boundaries heliosphere oort cloud may extend far light year inner terrestrial planets consist


mercury venus earth mars outer giant planets gas giants jupiter saturn ice giants uranus neptune ref name planets ref planets formed billion years ago protoplanetary disk surrounded early sun process included gravitational attraction collision accretion disk formed clumps matter time became protoplanets radiation pressure solar wind expelled unaccreted matter planets sufficient mass retained gaseous atmosphere planets continued sweep eject remaining matter


period intense bombardment evidenced many impact craters moon period protoplanets may collided one collision may formed moon ref name montmerle ref planet reaches sufficient mass materials different densities segregate within planetary differentiation process form stony metallic core surrounded mantle outer crust core may include solid liquid regions planetary cores generate magnetic field protect atmospheres solar wind stripping planet moon 's interior heat produced


collisions created body decay radioactive materials ''eg'' uranium thorium sup sup al tidal heating caused interactions bodies planets moons accumulate enough heat drive geologic processes volcanism tectonics accumulate retain atmosphere also undergo surface erosion wind water smaller bodies without tidal heating cool quickly geological activity ceases exception impact cratering ref name new solar system ref interdisciplinary studies astronomy astrophysics developed significant interdisciplinary links major scientific fields archaeoastronomy study


ancient traditional astronomies cultural context utilizing archaeological anthropological evidence astrobiology study advent evolution biological systems universe particular emphasis possibility non terrestrial life astrostatistics application statistics astrophysics analysis vast amount observational astrophysical data study chemicals found space including formation interaction destruction called astrochemistry substances usually found molecular clouds although may also appear low temperature stars brown dwarfs planets cosmochemistry study chemicals


types events interest amateurs work visible wavelengths small minority experiment wavelengths outside visible spectrum includes use infrared filters conventional telescopes also use radio telescopes pioneer amateur radio astronomy karl jansky started observing sky radio wavelengths number amateur astronomers use either homemade telescopes use radio telescopes originally built astronomy research available amateurs ''eg'' one mile telescope amateur astronomers continue make scientific contributions


field astronomy one scientific disciplines amateurs still make significant contributions amateurs make occultation measurements used refine orbits minor planets also discover comets perform regular observations variable stars improvements digital technology allowed amateurs make impressive advances field astrophotography unsolved problems astronomy although scientific discipline astronomy made tremendous strides understanding nature universe contents remain important unanswered questions answers may require construction


new ground space based instruments possibly new developments theoretical experimental physics origin stellar mass spectrum astronomers observe distribution stellar masses initial mass function apparently regardless initial conditions deeper understanding formation stars planets needed life universe especially intelligent life explanation fermi paradox existence life elsewhere important scientific philosophical implications solar system normal atypical


nature dark matter dark energy dominate evolution fate cosmos yet true nature remains unknown ref name physics questions ref ultimate fate universe first galaxies form supermassive black holes form creating ultra high energy cosmic rays abundance lithium cosmos four times lower predicted standard big bang model really happens beyond event horizon see also airmass astronomical acronyms astronomical instruments cosmogony international year astronomy list astronomy acronyms list russian astronomers


fred hoyle wickramasinghe chandra http lhldigitallindahallorg cdm search collection astro early astro atlas astronomy books history science collection linda hall library physical sciences


'''environmental engineering''' professional engineering discipline encompasses broad scientific topics like chemistry biology ecology geology hydraulics hydrology microbiology mathematics create solutions protect also improve health living organisms improve quality environment ref name ref ref name bureau labor statistics us department laborus department labor occupational outlook handbook edition environmental engineering sub discipline civil engineering chemical engineering environmental engineering application scientific engineering principles improve maintain environment protect human health protect nature 's beneficial ecosystems improve environmental related

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Environmental engineering


enhancement quality human life ref name environmental engineers devise solutions wastewater management water air pollution control recycling waste disposal public health ref name bureau labor statistics us department laborus department labor occupational outlook handbook edition ref name ref design municipal water supply industrial wastewater treatment systems design plans prevent waterborne diseases improve sanitation urban rural recreational areas evaluate hazardous waste management systems evaluate severity hazards advise treatment containment develop regulations prevent mishaps implement environmental engineering law


assessing environmental impact proposed construction projects environmental engineers study effect technological advances environment addressing local worldwide environmental issues acid rain global warming ozone depletion water pollution air pollution automobile exhausts industrial sources ref name bureau labor statistics us department laborus department labor occupational outlook handbook edition ref jurisdictions impose licensing registration requirements qualified environmental engineers etymology word environmental root late th century french word environ verb meaning encircle encompass word environment


used carlyle refer aggregate conditions person thing lives meaning shifted used ecological sense ecology branch science dealing relationship living things environment second part phrase environmental engineer originates latin roots used th century french engignour meaning constructor military engines trebuchets harquebuses longbows cannons catapults ballistas stirrups armour well deadly bellicose contraptions word engineer


used reference public works th century likely entered popular vernacular meaning contriver public works john smeaton 's time history ancient civilizations environmental engineering name work done since early civilizations people learned modify control environmental conditions meet needs ref name ref name ref people recognized health related quality environment built systems improve ref name ancient indus valley civilization bce bce advanced control


water resources ref name public work structures found various sites area include wells public baths water storage tanks drinking water system city wide sewage collection system ref name also early canal irrigation system enabling large scale agriculture bce many civilizations drainage systems sanitation facilities including mesopotamian empire mohenjo daro egypt crete orkney islands scotland ref name greeks also aqueducts sewer systems used rain wastewater irrigate fertilize fields ref name first aqueduct rome


constructed bce continued construct aqueducts irrigation safe urban water supply droughts ref name also built underground sewer system early th century bce fed tiber river draining marshes create farmland well removing sewage city ref name ref name modern era little change seen fall rome th century improvements saw increasing efforts focused public health ref name ref name national science foundation dec environmental engineering ref modern environmental engineering began


london mid th century joseph bazalgette designed first major sewerage system following great stink ref name city 's sewer system conveyed raw sewage river thames also supplied majority city 's drinking water leading outbreak cholera ref name introduction drinking water treatment sewage treatment industrialized countries reduced waterborne diseases leading causes death rarities ref name water industry oxford companion british history online ref field emerged separate academic discipline middle th century response


widespread public concern water air pollution environmental degradation society technology grew complex increasingly produced unintended effects natural environment one example widespread application pesticide ddt control agricultural pests years following world war ii story ddt vividly told rachel carson 's ''silent spring'' considered birth modern environmental movement led modern field environmental engineering education many universities offer environmental engineering programs either department civil engineering chemical engineering


also including electronic projects develop balance environmental conditions environmental engineers civil engineering program often focus hydrology water resources management bioremediation water wastewater treatment plant design environmental engineers chemical engineering program tend focus environmental chemistry advanced air water treatment technologies separation processes subdivisions environmental engineering include natural resources engineering agricultural engineering courses students fall broad classes ''mechanical engineering'' courses oriented towards designing machines mechanical systems environmental use water wastewater treatment facilities pumping stations garbage


segregation plants mechanical facilities ''environmental engineering'' ''environmental systems'' courses oriented towards civil engineering approach structures landscape constructed blend protect environment ''environmental chemistry'' ' 'sustainable chemistry'' ''environmental chemical engineering'' courses oriented towards understanding effects chemicals environment including mining processes pollutants also biochemical processes ''environmental technology'' courses oriented towards producing electronic electrical graduates capable developing devices artifacts able monitor measure model control environmental impact including monitoring managing energy generation renewable sources curriculum following


topics make typical curriculum environmental engineering ref name masters p ref mass energy transfer environmental chemistry inorganic chemistry organic chemistry nuclear chemistry growth models resource consumption population growth economic growth risk assessment hazard identification dose response assessment exposure assessment risk characterization comparative risk analysis water pollution water resources pollutants oxygen demand pollutant transport water waste water treatment air pollution industry transportation commercial residential emissions criteria toxic air pollutants pollution modelling eg atmospheric dispersion modeling pollution control air pollution meteorology global change greenhouse effect global temperature carbon


chemical matter math v dc dt sum bm dt b math meaning control volume change concentration versus change linear independent time equal sum whatever changes occurring control volume allowed different reasons conservation mass math display block totalmass mass mass b mass cmass n math representation ordinary differential equation math x x y' x y'' cdots n x n b x math solution exists although differential equations intimidating formula change concentration control volume per time versatile even without calculus take instance


watershed seasonal cycles water movement watershed develop systems store treat convey water various uses water treated achieve water quality objectives end uses case potable water supply water treated minimize risk infectious disease transmission risk non infectious illness create palatable water flavor water distribution systems ref name nap ref ref name kfupm ref designed built provide adequate water pressure flow rates meet various end user needs domestic use fire suppression irrigation wastewater treatment sewage


treatment plant australiathere numerous wastewater treatment technologies wastewater treatment train consist primary clarifier system remove solid floating materials secondary treatment system consisting aeration basin followed flocculation sedimentation activated sludge system secondary clarifier tertiary biological nitrogen removal system final disinfection process aeration basin activated sludge system removes organic material growing bacteria activated sludge secondary clarifier removes activated sludge water tertiary system although always included due costs becoming prevalent remove nitrogen


quality air quality habitat quality flora fauna agricultural capacity traffic ecology noise impacts expected develop mitigation measures limit prevent impacts example mitigation measure would creation wetlands nearby location mitigate filling wetlands necessary road development possible reroute road united states practice environmental assessment formally initiated january effective date national environmental policy act nepa since time developing


developed nations either planned specific analogous laws adopted procedure used elsewhere nepa applicable federal agencies united states ref name mcgraw hill inc ref regulatory agencies environmental protection agency us environmental protection agency epa one many agencies work environmental engineers solve key issues important component epa 's mission protect improve air water overall environmental quality order avoid mitigate consequences harmful effects see also associations references reading davis l cornwell ''introduction


environmental engineering'' th ed mcgraw hill chemical engineering civil engineering environmental science engineering disciplines environmental terminology


may competitive single trip final good consumer 's eyes may require bundling services provided several firms agencies modes although transport systems follow supply demand theory industries complications network effects choices dissimilar goods eg car bus travel make estimating demand transportation facilities difficult development models estimate likely choices goods involved transport decisions discrete choice models led development important branch econometrics well nobel prize daniel

Social science
Economics
Transport economics


mcfadden transport demand measured number journeys made total distance traveled across journeys eg passenger kilometers public transport vehicle kilometers travel vkt private transport supply considered measure capacity price good travel measured using generalised cost travel includes money time expenditure effect increases supply ie capacity particular interest transport economics see induced demand potential environmental consequences significant see ''externalities'' externalities addition providing benefits


users transport networks impose positive negative externalities non users consideration externalities particularly negative ones part transport economics positive externalities transport networks may include ability provide emergency services increases land value agglomeration benefits negative externalities wide ranging may include local air pollution noise pollution light pollution safety hazards community severance congestion contribution transport systems potentially hazardous climate change significant negative externality difficult evaluate quantitatively making difficult impossible include transport


economics based research analysis congestion considered negative externality economists externality occurs transaction causes costs benefits third party often although necessarily use public good example manufacturing transportation cause air pollution imposing costs others making use public air traffic congestion eastshore freeway berkeley california traffic congestion negative externality caused various factors american study stated seven root causes congestion gives following summary contributions bottlenecks traffic incidents


bad weather work zones poor signal timing special events within transport economics community congestion pricing considered appropriate mechanism deal problem ie internalise externality allocating scarce roadway capacity users capacity expansion also potential mechanism deal traffic congestion often undesirable particularly urban areas sometimes questionable benefits see induced demand william vickrey winner nobel prize work moral hazard considered one fathers congestion pricing first proposed


new york city subway road transportation arena theories extended maurice allais fellow nobel prize winner pioneering contributions theory markets efficient utilization resources gabriel roth instrumental first designs upon whose world bank recommendation first system put place singapore reuben smeed deputy director transport road research laboratory also pioneer field ideas presented british government known smeed report


congestion limited road networks negative externality imposed congestion also important busy public transport networks well crowded pedestrian areas eg london underground weekday urban train station peak times classical excess demand compared supply peak times large demand trains since people want go home ie derived demand however space platforms trains limited small compared demand result


crowds people outside train doors train station corridors increases delays commuters often cause rise stress problems congestion pricing electronic road pricing gantry north bridge road singapore congestion pricing efficiency pricing strategy requires users pay public good thus increasing welfare gain net benefit society congestion pricing one number alternative demand side opposed supply side strategies offered economists address congestion ref name prm winter ref congestion pricing first implemented


economics cadre vocal environmentalists people favor considerably higher charges peak period travel middle class motorists often complain already pay much gasoline taxes registration fees drive cars pay congested periods would add insult injury united states politicians willing champion cause congestion pricing fear reprisal constituents critics also argue charging drive elitist policy pricing poor roads wealthy move unencumbered


reasons peak period pricing remains pipe dream minds many road space rationing traffic congestion persists paulo brazil despite drive days based license numbers transport economists consider road space rationing alternative congestion pricing road space rationing considered equitable restrictions force drivers reduce auto travel congestion pricing restrains less afford paying congestion charge nevertheless high income users avoid restrictions owning second car moreover congestion pricing unlike rationing acts allocate scarce resource


valuable use evinced users' willingness pay resource opponents congestion pricing fear tolled roads used people high income preliminary evidence suggests new toll lanes california used people income groups ability get somewhere fast reliably valued variety circumstances everyone need want incur toll daily basis occasions getting somewhere quickly necessary option paying save time valuable


curb greenhouse emissions metropolitan area city residents taxpayers option use local government issued mobility rights congestion credits trade sell anyone willing continue traveling automobile beyond personal quota trading system allow direct benefits accrued users shifting public transportation reducing peak hour travel rather government funding financing corridor capacity infrastructure costs methods funding financing transport network maintenance improvement expansion debated extensively form


part transport economics field funding issues relate ways money raised supply transport capacity taxation user fees main methods fund raising taxation may general eg income tax local eg sales tax land value tax variable eg fuel tax user fees may tolls congestion charges fares method funding often attracts strong political public debate financing issues relate way funds used pay supply transport loans bonds public private partnerships concessions


methods financing transport investment regulation competition regulation supply transport capacity relates safety regulation economic regulation transport economics considers issues economic regulation supply transport particularly relation whether transport services networks provided public sector private sector mixture transport networks services take combination regulated deregulated public private provision example bus services uk outside london provided public private sectors deregulated economic environment


one specifies services provided provision services influenced market whereas bus services within london provided private sector regulated economic environment public sector specifies services provided private sector competes right supply services ie franchising regulation public transport often designed achieve social geographic temporal equity market forces might otherwise lead services limited popular travel times along densely settled corridors development


national regional municipal taxes often deployed provide network socially acceptable eg extending timetables daytime weekend holiday evening periods intensifying mesh routes beyond lightly regulated market would probably provide franchising may used create supply transport balances free market supply outcome socially desirable supply outcome project appraisal evaluation px sophisticated methods project appraisal evaluation developed applied transport sector terms ''appraisal'' ''evaluation'' often confused


relation assessment projects appraisal refers ''ex ante'' event assessment evaluation refers ''ex post'' event assessment appraisal appraisal changes transport network one important applications transport economics order make assessment whether given transport project carried transport economics used compare costs project benefits social financial assessment known cost benefit analysis usually fundamental piece information decision makers


places value net benefits disbenefits schemes generates ratio benefits costs may used prioritise projects funding constrained primary difficulty project appraisal valuation time travel time savings often cited key benefit transport projects people different occupations carrying different activities different social classes value time differently appraising projects basis supposed reductions travel times come scrutiny recent years recognition improvements capacity generate trips


would made induced demand partially eroding benefits reduced travel times therefore alternative method appraisal measure changes land value consumer benefits transport project rather measuring benefits accruing travellers however method analysis much difficult carry another problem many transport projects impacts cannot expressed monetary terms impacts example local air quality biodiversity community severance whilst impacts included detailed environmental impact assessment key


issue present assessments alongside estimates costs benefits expressed monetary terms recent developments transport appraisal practice european countries seen application multi criteria decision analysis based decision support tools build existing cost benefit analysis environmental impact assessment techniques help decision makers weigh monetary non monetary impacts transport projects uk one application new approach appraisal become cornerstone uk transport appraisal evaluation evaluation projects enables decision makers understand whether


benefits costs estimated appraisal materialised successful project evaluation requires necessary data carry evaluation specified advance carrying appraisal appraisal evaluation projects form stages within broader policy making cycle includes identifying rationale project specifying objectives appraisal monitoring implementation project evaluation feedback inform future projects social effects poverty us low income living cities face problem called poverty transportation problem arises many entry level jobs sought


little education typically located suburban areas jobs also accessible public transportation transportation often designed move people around cities becomes problem jobs longer located cities cannot afford cars inevitably suffer worst choice rely public transport problem illustrated estimation entry level jobs located suburbs jobs within quarter mile public transportation ref name sanchezthomas sanchez thomas


''poverty policy public transportation'' department city metropolitan planning university utah ref difficult expensive access jobs goods services act ghetto tax result transportation systems use adequately meeting needs rely tend generate low revenue minimal revenue funding transportation systems forced decrease service increase fares causes poverty face inequality live cities public transportation become even


inconveniences public transportation lack customers willing use public transport creates cycle ultimately never leads transportation systems making significant progress another reason low private vehicle ownership among welfare recipients established asset limitations us asset limit per vehicle forces welfare recipients purchase old sub standard vehicles order lose welfare funding ref name sanchezthomas number ways public transportation could improved become better enticing option


people necessarily depend include creating networks overlapping routes even among different operators give people choice want go somewhere system also function whole prevent drivers dangerously racing along routes increase profit providing incentives use public transportation also beneficial ridership increases transportation systems appropriately respond increasing frequency along transportation routes even creating bus lanes priority lanes intersections could improve service speed experiments done africa


uganda tanzania sri lanka hundreds households shown bicycle increase income poor family much transport analyzed cost benefit analysis rural poverty alleviation given one best returns regard example road investments india staggering times effective almost investments subsidies rural economy decade road macro level increase transport bicycle supports micro level bicycle sense


one best means eradicate poverty poor nations car taxation car taxation instrument influence purchase decisions consumers taxes differentiated support market introduction fuel efficient low carbon dioxide co sub sub emitting cars european union commission made proposal council directive passenger car taxation currently council parliament commission encourages member states adopt proposal soon possible adapt car taxation policies promote purchase fuel


efficient cars throughout eu help manufacturers respect upcoming fuel efficiency framework thus contributing share reducing co sub sub emissions cars taxes differentiated whole range cars market gradually induce switch towards less emitting cars would efficient way reduce compliance costs manufacturers tax rates acquisition brand new vw golf trendline ps g taxation rate inclusive ie vat registration tax taxes acquisition follows ref name eureport ref class wikitable sortable country tax


tax taxation rate denmark finland netherlands ireland sweden latvia austria lithuania romania poland italy spain hungary cyprus belgium czech rep bulgaria united kingdom slovenia france germany luxembourg greece n n n malta n n n portugal n n n slovakia n n n estonia n n n see also car costs infrastructure list important publications


economics outline economics road space rationing sustainable transport transport divide transport finance vignette road tax references external links http wwwcivilengineerbuddycom transportation economics introduction transportation engineering introduction transportation economics transportation engineering regional science


'''literary theory''' systematic study nature literature methods literary analysis ref name culler p culler p ref since th century literary scholarship includes literary theory considerations intellectual history moral philosophy social prophecy interdisciplinary themes relevant people interpret meaning ref name culler p humanities modern academia latter style literary scholarship offshoot post structuralism ref name searle searle john https wwwnybookscom articles storm university storm university ''the new york review books'' december ref consequently word ''theory'' became umbrella term scholarly approaches

Humanities
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reading texts informed strands sociology continental philosophy history practice literary theory became profession th century historical roots run far back ancient greece aristotle 's ''poetics'' often cited early example ancient india bharata muni 's ''natya shastra'' ancient rome longinus 's ''on sublime'' medieval iraq al jahiz 's ''al bayan wa 'l tabyin'' ''al hayawan'' ibn al mu'tazz 's ''kitab al badi'' aesthetic theories philosophers ancient philosophy th th centuries important influences current literary study theory criticism


literature tied history literature however modern sense literary theory dates approximately structuralist linguistics ferdinand de saussure began strongly influence english language literary criticism new critics various european influenced formalists particularly russian formalists described abstract efforts theoretical well broad impact structuralism began felt english speaking academic world literary theory thought unified domain academic world united kingdom united


satire novels period david lodge feature theory prominently scholars theoretical anti theoretical refer debates academic merits theory '''theory wars''' early popularity theory subject interest declining slightly along job openings pure theorists even texts literary theory incorporated study almost literature controversy use theory literary studies quieted discussions topic within literary


cultural studies tend considerably milder less lively however scholars like mark bauerlein continue argue less capable theorists abandoned proven methods epistemology resulting persistent lapses learning research evaluation scholars draw heavily theory work others mention passing acknowledged important part study literature overview one fundamental questions literary theory literature ndash although many contemporary theorists literary scholars believe either literature cannot


defined refer use language specific theories distinguished methods conclusions even create meaning text however theorists acknowledge texts singular fixed meaning deemed correct since theorists literature often draw heterogeneous tradition continental philosophy philosophy language classification approaches approximation many types literary theory take different approaches texts even among listed many scholars combine


methods one approaches instance deconstructive approach paul de man drew long tradition close reading pioneered new critics de man trained european hermeneutic tradition broad schools theory historically important include historical biographical criticism new criticism formalism russian formalism structuralism post structuralism marxism feminism french feminism post colonialism new historicism deconstruction reader response criticism psychoanalytic criticism differences among schools different interpretive epistemological perspectives different schools theory often arise give support


different moral political commitments instance work new critics often contained implicit moral dimension sometimes even religious one new critic might read poem eliot gerard manley hopkins degree honesty expressing torment contradiction serious search belief modern world meanwhile marxist critic might find judgments merely ideological rather critical marxist would say new critical reading keep enough critical distance poem 's religious stance able understand


evident forced deal novel genres fairly stabilized novel still developing another crucial distinction among various theories literary interpretation intentionality amount weight given author 's opinions intentions work pre th century approaches author 's intentions guiding factor important determiner correct interpretation texts new criticism first school disavow role author interpreting texts preferring focus text close reading


fact much contention formalism later schools share tenet author 's interpretation work inherently meaningful schools listed commonly identified schools literary theory along major authors many cases historian philosopher michel foucault anthropologist claude l vi strauss authors primarily literary critics work broadly influential literary theory aestheticism associated romanticism philosophy defining aesthetic value primary goal


understanding literature includes literary critics tried understand identify aesthetic values like oscar wilde stressed art art 's sake oscar wilde walter pater harold bloom african american literary theory american pragmatism american approaches harold bloom stanley fish richard rorty cognitive literary theory applies research cognitive neuroscience cognitive evolutionary psychology anthropology philosophy mind study literature culture frederick luis aldama mary thomas crane nancy easterlin william flesch david herman suzanne keen patrick colm hogan alan richardson ellen spolsky blakey vermeule lisa zunshine


cambridge criticism close examination literary text relation literature social issues ia richards fr leavis qd leavis william empson critical race theory cultural studies emphasizes role literature everyday life raymond williams dick hebdige stuart hall british cultural studies max horkheimer theodor adorno michel de certeau also paul gilroy john guillory dark side rainbow strategy analyzing works accompaniment music finding extrapolating thematic similarities two named popular practice came darwinian literary


literary theory mainly structural purposes particular text german hermeneutics philology friedrich schleiermacher wilhelm dilthey hans georg gadamer erich auerbach ren wellek marxism see marxist literary criticism emphasizes themes class conflict georg luk cs valentin voloshinov raymond williams terry eagleton fredric jameson theodor adorno walter benjamin narratology new criticism looks literary works basis written goals author biographical issues w k wimsatt f r leavis john crowe ransom cleanth brooks robert penn warren ts eliot new historicism examines


work historical context seeks understand cultural intellectual history literature stephen greenblatt louis montrose jonathan goldberg h aram veeser postcolonialism focuses influences colonialism literature especially regarding historical conflict resulting exploitation less developed countries indigenous peoples western nations edward said gayatri chakravorty spivak homi bhabha declan kiberd postmodernism criticism conditions present twentieth century often concern viewed social deviants michel foucault roland barthes gilles deleuze f lix guattari maurice blanchot post structuralism


catch term various theoretical approaches deconstruction criticize go beyond structuralism 's aspirations create rational science culture extrapolating model linguistics discursive aesthetic formations roland barthes michel foucault julia kristeva psychoanalysis see psychoanalytic literary criticism explores role consciousnesses unconscious literature including author reader characters text sigmund freud jacques lacan harold bloom slavoj ek viktor tausk queer theory examines questions criticizes role gender identity sexuality literature judith butler eve kosofsky sedgwick


michel foucault reader response criticism focuses upon active response reader text louise rosenblatt wolfgang iser norman holland hans robert jauss stuart hall realist james wood russian formalism victor shklovsky vladimir propp structuralism semiotics see semiotic literary criticism examines universal underlying structures text linguistic units text author conveys meaning structures ferdinand de saussure roman jakobson claude l vi strauss roland barthes mikhail bakhtin juri lotman umberto eco jacques ehrmann northrop frye morphology folklore theorists robert graves alamgir hashmi john sutherland leslie fiedler kenneth


nigel wood nd ed ''theory 's empire anthology dissent'' ed daphne patai h corral bakhtin '' https booksgooglecom booksid jkzztxqdipgc dialogic imagination four essays '' ed michael holquist trans caryl emerson michael holquist austin london university texas press ren wellek ''a history modern criticism '' yale university press volumes reading castle gregory ''blackwell guide literary theory'' malden blackwell publishing culler jonathan ''the literary theory'' stanford stanford university press terry eagleton ''literary theory'' minneapolis university minnesota press http wwwupressumnedu ''literary theory anthology'' edited


julie rivkin michael ryan malden blackwell publishing lisa zunshine ed https wwwamazoncom introduction cognitive cultural studies zunshine dp introduction cognitive cultural studies baltimore johns hopkins university press external links https webarchiveorg web http www cddcvtedu gutenberg etext poetc txt aristotle 's ''poetics'' bce https webarchiveorg web http classicpersuasionorg pw longinus longinus 's sublime st century ce https webarchiveorg web http darkwinguoregonedu rbear defencehtml sir philip sidney 's ''defence poesie'' https personalunizares garciala bibliographyhtml bibliography literary theory criticism philology jos ngel garc landa http www engcamacuk tpl texts quoteshtml literary criticism quotes tim love https webarchiveorg web http wwwgeocitiescom litcrittoolkit litcrit toolkit internet encyclopedia philosophy http wwwieputmedu l literaryhtm literary theory vince brewton http wwwliteraturtheorieuni goettingende annotated bibliography literary theory http publicwsuedu delahoyd litcrithtml critical literary theory


always uses terms together describe concept critics consider literary criticism practical application literary theory criticism always deals directly particular literary works theory may general abstract literary criticism often published essay book form academic literary critics teach literature departments publish academic journals popular critics publish reviews broadly circulating periodicals ''the times literary supplement'' ''the new york times book review'' ''the new york review books'' ''london review books'' ''dublin review books'' ''the

Humanities
Languages and literature
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Literary criticism


nation'' ''bookforum'' ''the new yorker'' history classical medieval criticism literary criticism thought existed far back classical period th century bc aristotle wrote ''poetics'' typology description literary forms many specific criticisms contemporary works art ''poetics'' developed first time concepts mimesis catharsis still crucial literary studies plato 's attacks poetry imitative secondary false formative well sanskrit ''natya shastra'' includes literary criticism ancient indian literature sanskrit drama


later classical medieval criticism often focused religious texts several long religious traditions hermeneutics textual exegesis profound influence study secular texts particularly case literary traditions three abrahamic religions jewish literature christian literature islamic literature literary criticism also employed forms medieval arabic literature arabic poetry th century notably al jahiz ''al bayan wa 'l tabyin'' ''al hayawan'' abdullah ibn al mu'tazz ''kitab al badi'' renaissance criticism literary criticism renaissance


developed classical ideas unity form content literary neoclassicism proclaiming literature central culture entrusting poet author preservation long literary tradition birth renaissance criticism recovery classic texts notably giorgio valla 's latin translation aristotle 's ''poetics'' work aristotle especially ''poetics'' important influence upon literary criticism late eighteenth century lodovico castelvetro one influential renaissance critics wrote commentaries aristotle 's ''poetics'' enlightenment criticism enlightenment period


many magazines newspapers journals commercialization literature mass production downside emergent literary market expected educate public keep away superstition prejudice increasingly diverged idealistic control enlightenment theoreticians business enlightenment became business enlightenment ref name ref development particularly emergence entertainment literature addressed intensification criticism ref name many works jonathan swift instance criticized including book ''gulliver 's travels'' one critic described detestable story


yahoos ref name regan th century romantic criticism british romantic movement early nineteenth century introduced new aesthetic ideas literary studies including idea object literature need always beautiful noble perfect literature could elevate common subject level sublime german romanticism followed closely late development german classicism emphasized aesthetic fragmentation appear startlingly modern reader english literature valued ''witz'' wit humor certain sort highly


serious anglophone romanticism late nineteenth century brought renown authors known literary criticism literary work matthew arnold new criticism however important aesthetic movements antecedents current ideas literary criticism derive almost entirely new direction taken early twentieth century early century school criticism known russian formalism slightly later new criticism britain united states came dominate study discussion literature english speaking world


schools emphasized close reading texts elevating far generalizing discussion speculation either authorial intention say nothing author 's psychology biography became almost taboo subjects reader response emphasis form precise attention words persisted decline critical doctrines theory northrop frye published influential ''anatomy criticism'' works frye noted critics tend embrace ideology judge literary pieces basis adherence ideology


highly influential viewpoint among modern conservative thinkers e michael jones example argues ''degenerate moderns'' stanley fish influenced adulterous affairs reject classic literature condemned adultery j rgen habermas ''erkenntnis und interesse'' ''knowledge human interests'' described literary critical theory literary studies form hermeneutics knowledge via interpretation understand meaning human texts symbolic expressionsincluding interpretation texts interpret texts british american literary establishment new criticism less dominant late around


time anglo american university literature departments began witness rise explicitly philosophical literary theory influenced structuralism post structuralism kinds continental philosophy continued mid interest theory peaked many later critics though undoubtedly still influenced theoretical work comfortable simply interpreting literature rather writing explicitly methodology philosophical presumptions history book related forms literary criticism history book field interdisciplinary inquiry drawing methods bibliography cultural history history literature


media theory principally concerned production circulation reception texts material forms book history seeks connect forms textuality material aspects among issues within history literature book history seen intersect development authorship profession formation reading audiences constraints censorship copyright economics literary form current state today approaches based literary theory continental philosophy largely coexist university literature departments conventional methods informed new critics also remain


active disagreements goals methods literary criticism characterized sides taken critics rise theory declined many critics feel great plurality methods approaches choose critics work largely theoretical texts others read traditional literature interest literary canon still great many critics also interested nontraditional texts women 's literature elaborated certain academic journals ''contemporary women 's writing'' critics influenced cultural studies read popular texts like comic books


good readers read books particularly considered literary masterpieces academic purpose indulging generalizations terry eagleton attributes unsung stature literary critics criticism academia believes critics well known praised disappointment literary criticism declining value manner general audience directing towards underappreciated state copenhagen conference james joyce scholars stephen j joyce modernist writer 's grandson said grandfather would died


laughing ''dubliners'' ''a portrait artist young man'' picked read enjoyed virtually anybody without scholarly guides theories intricate explanations ''ulysses'' forget hue cry later questioned whether anything added legacy joyce 's art books literary criticism stored library congress key texts classical medieval periods plato ''ion'' ''republic'' ''cratylus'' aristotle ''poetics'' ''rhetoric'' horace ''art poetry'' longinus ''on sublime'' plotinus ''on intellectual beauties'' st augustine ''on christian


''poetics'' aristotle translated explained'' philip sidney ''an apology poetry'' jacopo mazzoni ''on defense comedy dante'' torquato tasso ''discourses heroic poem'' francis bacon ''the advancement learning'' henry reynolds ''mythomystes'' john mandaville ''composed mid th centurymost probably french physician'' enlightenment period thomas hobbes ''answer davenant 's preface ''gondibert pierre corneille ''of three unities action time place'' john dryden ''an essay dramatic poesy'' nicolas boileau despr aux ''the art poetry'' john locke ''an essay concerning human understanding'' john dennis ''the advancement reformation modern


poetry'' alexander pope ''an essay criticism'' joseph addison ''on pleasures imagination'' ''spectator'' essays giambattista vico ''the new science'' edmund burke ''a philosophical inquiry origins ideas sublime beautiful'' david hume ''of standard taste'' samuel johnson ''on fiction'' ''rasselas'' ''preface ''shakespeare edward young ''conjectures original composition'' gotthold ephraim lessing ''laoco n'' joshua reynolds ''discourses art'' richard conversation sharp https archiveorg stream lettersandessay shargoog letters essays prose verse james usher ''clio discourse taste '' ref name google ref denis diderot ''the paradox acting'' immanuel kant ''critique


judgment'' mary wollstonecraft ''a vindication rights woman'' william blake ''the marriage heaven hell'' ''letter thomas butts'' ''annotations reynolds' discourses'' ''a descriptive catalogue'' ''a vision last judgment'' ''on homer 's poetry'' friedrich schiller ''letters aesthetic education man'' friedrich schlegel ''critical fragments'' ''athenaeum fragments'' ''on incomprehensibility'' th century william wordsworth ''preface second edition ''lyrical ballads anne louise germaine de sta l ''literature relation social institutions friedrich wilhelm joseph schelling ''on relation plastic arts nature'' samuel taylor coleridge ''shakespeare 's judgment equal


genius'' ''on principles genial criticism'' ''the statesman 's manual'' ''biographia literaria'' wilhelm von humboldt ''collected works'' john keats letters benjamin bailey george thomas keats john taylor richard woodhouse arthur schopenhauer ''the world idea'' thomas love peacock ''the four ages poetry'' percy bysshe shelley ''a defence poetry'' johann wolfgang von goethe ''conversations eckermann'' ''maxim '' georg wilhelm friedrich hegel ''the philosophy fine art'' giacomo leopardi ''zibaldone'' notebooks francesco de sanctis ''critical essays history italian literature'' thomas carlyle ''symbols'' john stuart mill ''what poetry'' ralph waldo


emerson ''the poet'' charles augustin sainte beuve ''what classic'' james russell lowell ''a fable critics'' edgar allan poe ''the poetic principle'' matthew arnold ''preface edition ''poems ''the function criticism present time'' ''the study poetry'' hippolyte taine ''history english literature language'' charles baudelaire ''the salon '' karl marx ''the german ideology'' ''contribution critique political economy'' ren kierkegaard ''two ages literary review'' ''the concept irony'' friedrich nietzsche ''the birth tragedy spirit music'' ''truth falsity ultramoral sense'' walter


pater ''studies history renaissance'' mile zola ''the experimental novel'' anatole france ''the adventures soul'' oscar wilde ''the decay lying'' st phane mallarm ''the evolution literature'' ''the book spiritual mystery'' ''mystery literature'' leo tolstoy ''what art'' th century benedetto croce ''aesthetic'' antonio gramsci ''prison notebooks'' umberto eco ''the aesthetics thomas aquinas open work'' c bradley ''poetry poetry 's sake'' sigmund freud ''creative writers daydreaming'' ferdinand de saussure ''course general linguistics'' claude l vi strauss ''the structural study myth'' e hulme ''romanticism classicism'' ''bergson 's


theory art'' walter benjamin ''on language language man'' viktor shklovsky ''art technique'' eliot ''tradition individual talent'' ''hamlet problems'' irving babbitt ''romantic melancholy'' carl jung ''on relation analytical psychology poetry'' leon trotsky ''the formalist school poetry marxism'' boris eikhenbaum ''the theory formal method '' virginia woolf ''a room one 's own'' richards ''practical criticism'' mikhail bakhtin ''epic novel toward methodology study novel'' georges bataille ''the notion expenditure'' john crowe ransom ''poetry


note ontology'' ''criticism pure speculation'' r p blackmur ''a critic 's job work'' jacques lacan ''the mirror stage formative function revealed psychoanalytic experience'' ''the agency letter unconscious reason since freud'' gy rgy luk cs ''the ideal harmonious man bourgeois aesthetics'' ''art objective truth'' paul val ry ''poetry abstract thought'' kenneth burke ''literature equipment living'' ernst cassirer ''art'' w k wimsatt monroe beardsley ''the intentional fallacy'' ''the affective fallacy'' cleanth brooks ''the heresy paraphrase'' ''irony principle structure''


jan muka ovsk ''standard language poetic language'' jean paul sartre ''why write'' simone de beauvoir ''the second sex'' ronald crane ''toward adequate criticism poetic structure'' philip wheelwright ''the burning fountain'' theodor adorno ''cultural criticism society'' ''aesthetic theory'' roman jakobson ''the metaphoric metonymic poles'' northrop frye ''anatomy criticism'' ''the critical path'' gaston bachelard ''the poetics space'' ernst gombrich ''art illusion'' martin heidegger ''the nature language'' ''language poem'' ''h lderlin essence poetry'' e hirsch jr ''objective interpretation'' noam chomsky ''aspects theory syntax'' jacques derrida ''structure sign


diego rivera ''manifesto towards free revolutionary art'' hu shih ''some modest proposals reform literature'' octavio paz ''the bow lire'' see also book review comparative literature genre studies history book literary critics literary translation philosophy literature poetic tradition social criticism translation criticism references external links https webarchiveorg web http etextlibvirginiaedu cgi local dhi dhicgiid dv ''dictionary history ideas'' literary criticism http wwwinfopleasecom ipa html truman capote award literary criticism award winners https webarchiveorg web http wwwiplorg div litcrit internet public library literary criticism collection critical biographical websites https webarchiveorg web http wwwunizares departamentos filologia inglesa garciala bibliographyhtml bibliography literary theory criticism philology university


zaragoza https wwwtweetspeakpoetrycom literary analysis conversation story reader literary analysis experimental reflection based yellow wall paper aesthetics new criticism interpretation philosophy


economics '''industrial organization''' field builds theory firm examining structure therefore boundaries firms markets industrial organization adds real world complications perfectly competitive model complications transaction costs limited information barriers entry new firms may associated imperfect competition analyzes determinants firm market organization behavior continuum competition monopoly including government actions different approaches subject one approach descriptive providing overview industrial organization

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measures competition size concentration firms industry second approach uses microeconomic models explain internal firm organization market strategy includes internal research development along issues internal reorganization renewal third aspect oriented public policy related economic regulation antitrust law generally economic governance law defining property rights enforcing contracts providing organizational infrastructure extensive use game theory industrial economics led export tool branches microeconomics behavioral economics corporate


tertiary categories secondary categories listed corresponding available article preview links new palgrave dictionary economics online footnotes respective jel tertiary categories associated new palgrave links http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid l jel l market structure firm strategy market performance http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid l jel l firm objectives organization behavior http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid l jel l non profit organizations public enterprise http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid l jel l antitrust issues policies http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid l jel l regulation industrial policy http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid l jel l industry studies manufacturing http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid l jel l industry studies primary products construction http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid l jel l industry studies


services http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid l jel l industry studies transportation utilities market structures common market structures studied field following perfect competition monopolistic competition duopoly oligopoly oligopsony monopoly monopsony areas study industrial organization investigates outcomes market structures environments price discrimination product differentiation durable goods experience goods secondary markets affect behaviour firms primary markets collusion signalling warranties advertising mergers acquisitions entry exit history field book ''pioneers industrial organization'' traces development field adam smith


also bertrand competition bertrand edgeworth model competition policy cournot competition input output model important publications industrial organization structure conduct performance paradigm notes references belleflamme paul martin peitz ''industrial organization markets strategies'' cambridge university press http wwwcambridgeorg gb knowledge isbn item site locale en gb summary http wwwcambridgeorg gb knowledge isbn item site locale en gb display genresources resources cabral lu b ''introduction industrial organization'' mit press links https webarchiveorg web http mitpressmitedu catalog item defaultaspttype tid description chapter preview https booksgooglecom booksid diomc fgc printsec find pg pr gbs atb v onepage q f false links shepherd william ''the economics industrial organization'' prentice hall shy oz ''industrial organization theory applications'' https webarchiveorg web http mitpressmitedu catalog item defaultaspttype tid description chapter preview https booksgooglecom booksid tr cjj llrcc printsec find pg pr gbs atb v onepage q f false links mit press vives xavier ''oligopoly pricing old ideas new tools'' mit press https webarchiveorg web http mitpressmitedu catalog item defaultaspttype tid description scroll


chapter preview https booksgooglecom books mitpressid le oe hmly c printsec frontcover cd source gbs viewapi v onepage q f false links jeffrey church roger ware industrial organization strategic approach aka http homepagesucalgaryca jrchurch page page html iosa free textbook nicolas boccard industrial organization contract based approach aka http iocbinfo iocb open source textbook journals http wwwtandfonlinecom action aboutthisjournaljournalcode cijb ''international journal economics business'' issue preview http wwwtandfonlinecom loi cijb links http wwwelseviercom wps find journaldescriptioncws home description description ''international journal industrial organization'' issue preview http wwwsciencedirectcom science journal links https webarchiveorg web http wwwwileycom bw journalaspref ''journal industrial economics'' https webarchiveorg web http wwwwileycom bw aimsaspref site aims scope issue preview http onlinelibrarywileycom journal issn issues links https webarchiveorg web http jleooxfordjournalsorg ''journal law economics organization'' issue preview https webarchiveorg web http jleooxfordjournalsorg content year links ''review industrial organization'' external links market economics


'''intellectual history''' also '''history ideas''' study history human thought intellectuals people conceptualize discuss write concern ideas investigative premise intellectual history ideas develop isolation thinkers conceptualize apply ideas thus intellectual historian studies ideas two contexts abstract propositions critical application ii concrete terms culture life history field intellectual enquiry history ideas emerged european disciplines ''kulturgeschichte'' cultural history


''geistesgeschichte'' intellectual history historians might develop global intellectual history shows parallels interrelations history critical thinking every society likewise history reading history book material aspects book production design manufacture distribution developed history ideas concerns intellectual history intelligentsia critical study ideas expressed texts produced intellectuals therein difference intellectual history forms cultural history study visual non verbal forms evidence production


discipline intellectual history developed history philosophy cultural history practiced since times voltaire jacob burckhardt scholarly efforts eighteenth century traced ''the advancement learning'' francis bacon call termed literary history economics john maynard keynes historian economic thought subject study historians economic thought significance keynesian revolution contemporary understanding intellectual history emerged immediate postwar period earlier incarnation


history ideas leadership arthur lovejoy founder ''journal history ideas'' since time lovejoy formulation unit ideas developed different divergent intellectual directions contextualism historically sensitive accounts intellectual activity corresponding historical period investigative shift reflected replacement term history ideas term intellectual history intellectual history multidisciplinary include history philosophy history economic thought continental europe pertinent example intellectual history ''begriffsgeschichte'' history concepts


reinhart koselleck britain history political thought particular focus since late especially associated historians cambridge john dunn quentin skinner studied european political thought historical context emphasizing emergence development concepts state freedom skinner known provocative methodological essays give prominence practice intellectual history united states intellectual history encompass different forms intellectual production history political ideas includes fields history historical


thought associated anthony grafton princeton university jga pocock johns hopkins university formally established doctorate history culture drew university one graduate programs specializing intellectual history american european contexts despite pre eminence early modern intellectual historians studying age renaissance age enlightenment intellectual history modern period also productive shores atlantic ocean eg ''the metaphysical club story ideas america'' louis menand ''the dialectical imagination


history frankfurt school institute social research '' martin jay methodology lovejoy approach historian arthur lovejoy coined phrase ''history ideas'' initiated systematic study ref name greatchain arthur lovejoy ''the great chain study history idea'' ref early decades th century johns hopkins university fertile cradle lovejoy 's history ideas ref name paulson ronald paulson https wwwjstororg pss ''english literary history johns hopkins university'' ''new literary history'' vol history fiction


spring pp ref worked professor history decades presided regular meetings ''history ideas club'' another outgrowth work ''journal history ideas'' aside students colleagues engaged related projects ren wellek leo spitzer lovejoy engaged extended debates scholars isaiah berlin michel foucault christopher hill j g pocock others continued work spirit close lovejoy pursued history


ideas first chapter lovejoy 's book ''the great chain being'' lays general overview intended programme scope study history ideas ref name greatchain unit idea history ideas lovejoy used ''unit idea'' concept basic unit historical analysis unit idea building block history ideas though relatively stable unit idea combines unit ideas new patterns meaning context different historical eras lovejoy said historian ideas


tasked identifying unit ideas describing historical emergence development new conceptual forms combinations methodology unit idea means extract basic idea work philosophy philosophical movement investigative principles methodology assumptions dialectical motives metaphysical pathos philosophical semantics principles methodology define overarching philosophical movement historian find unit idea studied throughout history particular idea ref name greatchain british historian quentin skinner criticized lovejoy unit idea methodology


reification doctrines negative consequences historian ideas must sensitive cultural context texts ideas analysis skinner historical method based upon theory speech acts proposed jl austin turn scholars criticized skinner historical method inclination reify social structures sociological constructs place historical actors period study philosopher andreas dorschel said skinner restrictive approach ideas verbal language notes ideas materialize non linguistic media genres music architecture


historian dag herbj rnsrud said skinner perspective danger shutting door comparative philosophy search common problems solutions across borders time historian peter gordon said unlike lovejoy practise history ideas praxis intellectual history studies deals ideas broad historical contexts ref name historyfasharvardedu gordon peter e http projectsiqharvardedu files history files intell history pgordon mar pdf intellectual history frankly partisan introduction frequently misunderstood field harvard university cambridge massachusetts ref unlike historians ideas philosophers history philosophy intellectual historians tend relaxed crossing


boundary philosophical texts non philosophical contexts intellectual historians regard distinction philosophy non philosophy something historically conditioned rather eternally fixed therefore intellectual history means reproducing historically valid interpretation philosophical argument implementation context study ideas philosophical movements ref name historyfasharvardedu foucault 's approach michel foucault rejected narrative historian traditional mode communication believed shallow treatment facts figures people long period rather deep research shows


interconnections among facts figures people specific period history foucault said historians reveal historical descriptions use different perspectives archaeology knowledge whose historical method writing history four ideas first archaeology knowledge defines period history philosophy way discourses among thought representation themes second notion discontinuity important role disciplines history third discourse seek grasp moment history wherein social persons study


inverted fourth truth purpose history discourse contained history global intellectual history st century field global intellectual history received increased attention samuel moyn andrew sartori published anthology ''global intellectual history'' routledge journal ''global intellectual history'' ed richard whatmore established j g pocock john dunn among recently argued global approach intellectual history contrast eurocentrism see also cambridge school intellectual history global intellectual history great