kap herbart responsible creating mathematical models mind influential educational practices years come eh weber built upon herbart 's work tried prove existence psychological threshold saying minimum stimulus necessary activate sensory system weber gt fechner expanded upon knowledge gleaned herbart weber devise law strength sensation grows logarithm stimulus intensity follower weber fechner wilhelm wundt credited founding science psychology wundt 's


influence paved way others develop psychological testing ref name kap th century psychometrician l l thurstone founder first president psychometric society developed applied theoretical approach measurement referred law comparative judgment approach close connections psychophysical theory ernst heinrich weber gustav fechner addition spearman thurstone made important contributions theory application factor analysis statistical method developed used extensively psychometrics late leopold szondi made


historical epistemological assessment impact statistical thinking onto psychology previous decades last decades specifically psychological thinking almost completely suppressed removed replaced statistical thinking precisely see cancer testology testomania today recently psychometric theory applied measurement personality attitudes beliefs academic achievement latent constructs cannot truly measured much research science discipline developed attempt measure constructs close true score


possible figures made significant contributions psychometrics include karl pearson henry f kaiser carl brigham l l thurstone e l thorndike georg rasch eugene galanter johnson o'connor frederic lord ledyard r tucker louis guttman jane loevinger definition measurement social sciences definition measurement social sciences long history current widespread definition proposed stanley smith stevens measurement assignment numerals objects events according rule definition introduced ''science'' article stevens proposed four


chair members physicists committee also included several psychologists committee 's report highlighted importance definition measurement stevens 's response propose new definition considerable influence field means response report another notably different response accept classical definition reflected following statement measurement psychology physics sense different physicists measure find operations may meet necessary criteria psychologists


need worry mysterious differences meaning measurement two sciences reese p divergent responses reflected alternative approaches measurement example methods based covariance matrices typically employed premise numbers raw scores derived assessments measurements approaches implicitly entail stevens 's definition measurement requires numbers ''assigned'' according rule main research task generally considered discovery associations scores factors posited underlie associations


hand measurement models rasch model employed numbers assigned based rule instead keeping reese 's statement specific criteria measurement stated goal construct procedures operations provide data meet relevant criteria measurements estimated based models tests conducted ascertain whether relevant criteria met instruments procedures first psychometric instruments designed measure intelligence one historical approach involved stanford binet iq test developed originally alfred binet


developed number different measurement theories include classical test theory ctt item response theory irt approach seems mathematically similar irt also quite distinctive terms origins features represented rasch model measurement development rasch model broader class models belongs explicitly founded requirements measurement physical sciences psychometricians also developed methods working large matrices correlations covariances techniques general tradition include factor analysis method


determining underlying dimensions data one main challenges faced users factor analysis lack consensus appropriate procedures determining number latent factors ref name zwick ref usual procedure stop factoring eigenvalues drop one original sphere shrinks lack cutting points concerns multivariate methods also multidimensional scaling method finding simple representation data large number latent dimensions cluster analysis approach finding objects like factor analysis multidimensional scaling cluster analysis


multivariate descriptive methods used distill large amounts data simpler structures recently structural equation modeling path analysis represent sophisticated approaches working large covariance matrices methods allow statistically sophisticated models fitted data tested determine adequate fits granular level psychometric research concerned extent nature multidimensionality items interest relatively new procedure known bi factor analysis helpful bi factor analysis decompose item systematic variance terms ideally two


sources general factor one source additional systematic variance key concepts key concepts classical test theory reliability validity reliable measure one measures construct consistently across time individuals situations valid measure one measures intended measure reliability necessary sufficient validity reliability validity assessed statistically consistency repeated measures test assessed pearson correlation coefficient often called ''test retest reliability'' ref name gifteduconn ref similarly equivalence different versions


measure indexed pearson correlation called ''equivalent forms reliability'' similar term ref name gifteduconn internal consistency addresses homogeneity single test form may assessed correlating performance two halves test termed ' 'split half reliability'' value pearson product moment correlation coefficient two half tests adjusted spearman brown prediction formula correspond correlation two full length tests ref name gifteduconn perhaps commonly used index reliability cronbach 's equivalent mean possible split half coefficients approaches


include intra class correlation ratio variance measurements given target variance targets number different forms validity criterion related validity refers extent test scale predicts sample behavior ie criterion external measuring instrument external sample behavior many things including another test college grade point average high school sat used predict performance college even behavior occurred past example


based defined statement set statements knowledge skill ability characteristics obtained ''job analysis'' item response theory models relationship latent traits responses test items among advantages irt provides basis obtaining estimate location test taker given latent trait well standard error measurement location example university student 's knowledge history deduced score university test compared reliably high school student 's knowledge


deduced less difficult test scores derived classical test theory characteristic assessment actual ability rather ability relative test takers must assessed comparing scores norm group randomly selected population fact measures derived classical test theory dependent sample tested principle derived item response theory standards quality considerations validity reliability typically viewed essential elements determining quality test however professional practitioner


associations frequently placed concerns within broader contexts developing standards making overall judgments quality test whole within given context consideration concern many applied research settings whether metric given psychological inventory meaningful arbitrary testing standards american educational research association aera american psychological association apa national council measurement education ncme published revision ''standards educational psychological testing'' describes standards test development evaluation use ''standards'' cover


validity reliability considerations covered accuracy topic example student accuracy standards help ensure student evaluations provide sound accurate credible information student learning performance controversy criticism psychometrics based latent psychological processes measured correlations controversy psychometric measures critics including practitioners physical sciences argued definition quantification difficult measurements often misused laymen personality tests used employment procedures standards educational psychological measurement gives


following statement test validity validity refers degree evidence theory support interpretations test scores entailed proposed uses tests ref name standards american educational research association american psychological association national council measurement education ''standards educational psychological testing'' washington dc american educational research association ref simply put test valid unless used interpreted way intended currently widely accepted way measuring theoretical construct personality whole due fact personality complex idea


dimensions personality scales tests vary often poorly defined two main tools measure personality traits objective tests projective measures examples tests big five inventory bfi minnesota multiphasic personality inventory mmpi rorschach inkblot test neurotic personality questionnaire kon eysenck 's personality questionnaire epq r tests beneficial reliability validity two factors make test accurate myers briggs type indicator mbti psychometric instrument though widely known subject much criticism psychometric specialist robert hogan wrote measure


personality psychologists regard mbti little elaborate chinese fortune cookie lee cronbach noted ''american psychologist'' correlational psychology though fully old experimentation slower mature qualifies equally discipline however asks distinctive type question technical methods examining whether question properly put data properly interpreted would go say correlation method part study man learned control never hope control nbsp true federation


disciplines required kept independent give wrong answers answers regarding certain important problems non human animals machines psychometrics addresses ''human'' abilities attitudes traits educational evolution notably study behavior mental processes abilities non human ''animals'' usually addressed comparative psychology continuum non human animals rest animals evolutionary psychology nonetheless advocators gradual transition approach taken humans approach taken non human animals ref name humphreys ref ref name eysenck ref ref name locurto ref ref name king five ref evaluation abilities traits


psychometric society psychometrika homepage http wwwpsychometriclabcom london psychometric laboratory psychometrics applied psychology branches psychology educational assessment evaluation educational psychology educational research psychological testing metrics


'''philosophy education''' examines goals forms methods meaning education term used describe fundamental philosophical analysis themes description analysis particular pedagogical approaches considerations profession relates broader philosophical sociocultural contexts may included ref name noddingspoe ref ref name poee ref philosophy education thus overlaps field education applied philosophy example philosophers education study constitutes upbringing education values norms revealed upbringing educational practices limits legitimization education academic discipline

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of education


relation educational theory practice universities philosophy education usually forms part departments colleges education ref name noddingspoe philosophy education plato inscribed herma plato berlin altes museum '''date ''' bc bc plato 's educational philosophy grounded vision ideal ''republic'' wherein individual best served subordinated society due shift emphasis departed predecessors mind body considered separate entities dialogues phaedo written middle period bce


children suitable various castes highest receiving education could act guardians city care less able education would holistic including facts skills physical discipline music art considered highest form endeavor plato believed talent distributed non genetically thus must found children born social class built insisting suitably gifted trained state might qualified assume role ruling class


established essentially system selective public education premised assumption educated minority population virtue education inborn educability sufficient healthy governance plato 's writings contain following ideas elementary education would confined guardian class till age followed two years compulsory military training higher education qualified elementary education made soul responsive environment higher education helped soul search truth illuminated boys girls receive


kind education elementary education consisted music gymnastics designed train blend gentle fierce qualities individual create harmonious person age selection made best students would take advanced course mathematics geometry astronomy harmonics first course scheme higher education would last ten years would flair science age would another selection qualified would study dialectics metaphysics logic philosophy


greek bronze original lysippos bc '''date ''' bc bc fragments aristotle 's treatise ''on education'' still existence thus know philosophy education primarily brief passages works aristotle considered human nature habit reason equally important forces cultivated education http wwwinfedorg thinkers et aristhtm thus example considered repetition key tool develop good habits teacher lead student systematically differs example socrates' emphasis questioning listeners bring ideas though


comparison perhaps incongruous since socrates dealing adults aristotle placed great emphasis balancing theoretical practical aspects subjects taught subjects explicitly mentions important included reading writing mathematics music physical education literature history wide range sciences also mentioned importance play one education 's primary missions aristotle perhaps important produce good virtuous citizens polis ''all meditated art governing mankind convinced fate empires depends education


youth'' ibn sina '''date ''' ad ad medieval islamic world elementary school known ''maktab'' dates back least th century like madrasahs referred higher education maktab often attached mosque th century ibn sina known ''avicenna'' west wrote chapter dealing ''maktab'' entitled role teacher training upbringing children guide teachers working ''maktab'' schools wrote children learn better taught classes instead


individual tuition private tutors gave number reasons case citing value competition emulation among pupils well usefulness group discussions debates ibn sina described curriculum ''maktab'' school detail describing curricula two stages education ''maktab'' school ref name asimov ref ibn sina wrote children sent ''maktab'' school age taught primary education reach age time wrote


pursuing future career wrote transitional stage needs flexibility regarding age pupils graduate student 's emotional development chosen subjects need taken account empiricist theory 'tabula rasa' also developed ibn sina argued human intellect birth rather like ''tabula rasa'' pure potentiality actualized education comes know knowledge attained empirical familiarity objects world one abstracts universal concepts


developed syllogistic method reasoning observations lead prepositional statements compounded lead abstract concepts argued intellect possesses levels development material intellect ''al aql al hayulani'' potentiality acquire knowledge active intellect ''al aql al fa il'' state human intellect conjunction perfect source knowledge ibn tufail '''date ''' c th century andalusian arabian philosopher novelist ibn tufail known abubacer ebn tophail west demonstrated empiricist theory 'tabula rasa'


montaigne 's views education children opposed common educational practices day ref name hall found fault taught taught ref name hall much education montaigne 's time focused reading classics learning books ref name hall montaigne disagreed learning strictly books believed necessary educate children variety ways also disagreed way information presented students presented way encouraged students take information taught


absolute truth students denied chance question information therefore students could truly learn montaigne believed learn truly student take information make foundation montaigne believed selection good tutor important student become well educated ref name hall education tutor conducted pace student ref name hall believed tutor dialogue student letting student speak first tutor also allow discussions debates


dialogue intended create environment students would teach would able realize mistakes make corrections necessary individualized learning integral theory child education argued student combines information already known learned forms unique perspective newly learned information ref name worley worley virginia ''painting impasto metaphors mirrors reflective regression montagne 's 'of education children' '' ''educational theory'' june vol issue p ref montaigne also thought tutors


encourage natural curiosity students allow question things ref name hall postulated successful students encouraged question new information study rather simply accepting heard authorities given topic montaigne believed child 's curiosity could serve important teaching tool child allowed explore things child curious experience also key element learning montaigne tutors needed teach students experience rather mere memorization information often


practised book learning ref name hall argued students would become passive adults blindly obeying lacking ability think ref name worley nothing importance would retained abilities would learned ref name hall believed learning experience superior learning use books ref name ediger reason encouraged tutors educate students practice travel human interaction argued students would become active learners could claim knowledge montaigne 's views child education continue influence present variations


montaigne 's ideas education incorporated modern learning ways argued popular way teaching day encouraging individualized learning believed importance experience book learning memorization ultimately montaigne postulated point education teach student successful life practicing active socially interactive lifestyle ref name worley john locke '''date ''' ''some thoughts concerning education'' ''of conduct understanding'' locke composed outline educate mind order increase powers


wrote little almost insensible impressions tender infancies important lasting consequences argued associations ideas one makes young important made later foundation self put differently first mark ''tabula rasa'' ''essay'' introduced concepts locke warns example letting foolish maid convince child goblins sprites associated night darkness shall ever afterwards bring frightful ideas


shall joined bear one associationism theory would come called exerted powerful influence eighteenth century thought particularly educational theory nearly every educational writer warned parents allow children develop negative associations also led development psychology new disciplines david hartley 's attempt discover biological mechanism associationism ''observations man'' jean jacques rousseau jean jacques rousseau maurice quentin de la tour '''date ''' rousseau though paid respects plato 's philosophy


rejected impractical due decayed state society rousseau also different theory human development plato held people born skills appropriate different castes though regard skills inherited rousseau held one developmental process common humans intrinsic natural process primary behavioral manifestation curiosity differed locke 's 'tabula rasa' active process deriving child 's nature drove child learn adapt surroundings rousseau wrote


book ''emile'' children perfectly designed organisms ready learn surroundings grow virtuous adults due malign influence corrupt society often fail rousseau advocated educational method consisted removing child society mdash example country home mdash alternately conditioning changes environment setting traps puzzles solve overcome rousseau unusual recognized addressed potential problem legitimation teaching advocated adults always


truthful children particular never hide fact basis authority teaching purely one physical coercion i'm bigger children reached age reason would engaged free individuals ongoing process said child grow without adult interference child must guided suffer experience natural consequences acts behaviour experiences consequences acts advises


rousseau divides development five stages book devoted education first two stages seeks senses mile tutor begin work develop mind later book rousseau examines education sophie mile marry sets sees essential differences flow sex 'the man strong active woman weak passive' everyman edn difference comes contrasting education brought


education two major ideas main points philosophical outlook first truth second universal structures found humanity 's struggle education good life broudy also studied issues society 's demands school thought education would link unify diverse society urged society put trust commitment schools good education scholasticism thomas aquinas thomas aquinas carlo crivelli '''date ''' c see religious perennialism john milton '''date ''' objective


medieval education overtly religious one primarily concerned uncovering transcendental truths would lead person back god life moral religious choice kreeft vehicle truths uncovered dialectic blockquote medieval mind debate fine art '' 'serious''' science fascinating entertainment much modern mind medievals believed like socrates dialectic could uncover truth thus 'scholastic disputation' personal contest cleverness 'sharing opinions' shared journey


discovery kreeft blockquote pragmatism john dewey '''date ''' john dewey ''democracy education introduction philosophy education'' dewey stated education broadest sense means social continuity life given primary ineluctable facts birth death one constituent members social group education therefore necessity life group goes dewey proponent educational progressivism relentless campaigner reform education pointing authoritarian strict pre ordained knowledge approach


modern traditional education concerned delivering knowledge enough understanding students' actual experiences william james '''date ''' william heard kilpatrick '''date ''' william heard kilpatrick us american philosopher education colleague successor john dewey major figure progressive education movement early th century kilpatrick developed project method early childhood education form progressive education organized curriculum classroom activities around subject 's central theme believed role teacher


guide opposed authoritarian figure kilpatrick believed children direct learning according interests allowed explore environment experiencing learning natural senses ref name gutek ref proponents progressive education project method reject traditional schooling focuses memorization rote learning strictly organized classrooms desks rows students always seated typical forms assessment nel noddings '''date ''' noddings' first sole authored book ''caring feminine approach ethics moral education'' followed close publication carol gilligan ground breaking work ethics


care ''in different voice'' work ethics continued publication ''women evil'' later works moral education later publications philosophy education educational theory significant works areas ''educating intelligent belief unbelief'' ''philosophy education'' noddings' contribution education philosophy centers around ethic care belief caring teacher student relationship result teacher designing differentiated curriculum student curriculum would based around


students' particular interests needs teacher 's claim care must based one time virtuous decision ongoing interest students' welfare richard rorty '''date ''' analytic philosophy '''ge moore ''' '''bertrand russell ''' '''gottlob frege ''' richard stanley peters '''date ''' existentialist existentialist sees world one 's personal subjectivity goodness truth reality individually defined reality world existing truth subjectively chosen goodness matter freedom subject matter existentialist classrooms matter personal choice teachers view individual


philosopher educator committed cause educating impoverished peasants nation collaborating pursuit liberation regarded oppression freire best known attack called banking concept education student viewed empty account filled teacher freire also suggests deep reciprocity inserted notions teacher student comes close suggesting teacher student dichotomy completely abolished instead promoting roles participants


classroom teacher student teacher learns student teacher learner teaches early strong form kind classroom sometimes criticized grounds mask rather overcome teacher 's authority aspects freirian philosophy highly influential academic debates participatory development development generally freire 's emphasis describes emancipation interactive participation used rationale participatory focus development held 'participation' form lead empowerment poor marginalised


groups freire proponent critical pedagogy participated import european doctrines ideas brazil assimilated needs specific socio economic situation thus expanded refocused thought provoking way http wwwibeunescoorg fileadmin user upload archive publications thinkerspdf freireepdf continental thinkers martin heidegger '''date ''' heidegger 's philosophizing education primarily related higher education believed teaching research university unified aim towards testing interrogating ontological assumptions presuppositions implicitly guide research domain knowledge hans georg gadamer '''date ''' jean fran ois lyotard '''date ''' michel foucault '''date '''


michel foucault understood education inherently political act involving power relationships called upon readers transform modern education direction egalitarian relationships normative educational philosophies normative philosophies theories education may make use results philosophical thought factual inquiries human beings psychology learning case propound views education dispositions cultivate ought cultivate forms take full fledged philosophical normative theory


education besides analysis sorts described normally propositions following kinds basic normative premises good right basic factual premises humanity world conclusions based two kinds premises dispositions education foster factual premises things psychology learning methods teaching conclusions things methods education use ref name poee perennialism perennialists believe one teach things one deems everlasting importance


people everywhere believe important topics develop person since details fact change constantly cannot important therefore one teach principles facts since people human one teach first humans machines techniques since people people first workers second one teach liberal topics first vocational topics focus primarily teaching reasoning wisdom rather facts liberal arts rather vocational training allan bloom alexander sutherland neill '''date ''' bloom professor political science


university chicago argued traditional great books based liberal education lengthy essay ''the closing american mind'' classical education classical education movement advocates form education based traditions western culture particular focus education understood taught middle ages term classical education used english several centuries era modifying definition adding selection topics end th century addition trivium quadrivium middle ages


definition classical education embraced study literature poetry drama philosophy history art languages th st centuries used refer broad based study liberal arts sciences opposed practical pre professional program classical education described rigorous systematic separating children learning three rigid categories grammar dialectic rhetoric charlotte mason '''date ''' mason british educator invested life improving quality children 's education ideas led method used homeschoolers mason 's philosophy


education probably best summarized principles given beginning books two key mottos taken principles education atmosphere discipline life education science relations believed children born persons respected also taught way way reason motto students ought charlotte mason believed children introduced subjects living books use compendiums


abstracts selections used abridged books content deemed inappropriate children preferred parents teachers read aloud texts plutarch old testament making omissions necessary essentialism educational essentialism educational philosophy whose adherents believe children learn traditional basic subjects learned thoroughly rigorously based view essentials men know educated expected learn academic areas reading writing mathematics science geography technology ref name ref


movement thus stresses role played teacher authority classroom driving goal content mastery essentialist program normally teaches children progressively less complex skills complex back basics movement example essentialism ref name william chandler bagley '''date ''' william chandler bagley taught elementary schools becoming professor education university illinois served director school education professor education teachers college columbia


opponent pragmatism progressive education bagley insisted value knowledge sake merely instrument criticized colleagues failure emphasize systematic study academic subjects bagley proponent educational essentialism social reconstructionism critical pedagogy critical pedagogy educational movement guided passion principle help students develop consciousness freedom recognize authoritarian tendencies connect knowledge power ability take constructive action based marxist theory critical pedagogy draws radical democracy anarchism feminism movements social justice


george counts '''date ''' maria montessori maria montessori samuel sidney mcclure '''date ''' montessori method arose dr maria montessori 's discovery referred child 's true normal nature happened process experimental observation young children given freedom environment prepared materials designed self directed learning activity method aims duplicate experimental observation children bring sustain support true natural way rudolf steiner waldorf education '''date ''' rudolf steiner waldorf education also known steiner


people progressivists like proponents educational theories claim rely best available scientific theories learning progressive educators believe children learn scientists following process similar john dewey 's model learning known pattern inquiry become aware problem define problem propose hypotheses solve evaluate consequences hypotheses one 's past experience test likeliest solution https booksgooglecom bookshl es lr id vpsxv phc yc oi fnd pg pa dq educational progressivism ots ly jyz sig xtt g tsf rma xuxykbv w v onepage q educational progressivism f false john dewey '''date ''' dewey opened laboratory school university chicago institutional


effort pursue together rather apart utility culture absorption expression theory practice indispensable elements educational scheme unified head departments philosophy psychology pedagogy john dewey articulated desire organize educational experience children could creative best progressive models day transactionalism pragmatic philosophy grew work laboratory school two influential works stemmed research study ''the child curriculum'' ''democracy education''


dewey wrote dualisms plagued educational philosophy latter book instead seeing educative process steadily whole see conflicting terms get case child vs curriculum individual nature vs social culture dewey found preoccupation facts knowledge educative process led students memorize ill understood rules principles second hand knowledge learned mere words beginning study mere words never replace ability organize knowledge useful valuable experience jean piaget '''date '''


jean piaget swiss developmental psychologist known epistemological studies children theory cognitive development epistemological view together called genetic epistemology piaget placed great importance education children director international bureau education declared education capable saving societies possible collapse whether violent gradual piaget created international centre genetic epistemology geneva directed according ernst von glasersfeld jean piaget great pioneer constructivist theory knowing jean


piaget described epistemologist interested process qualitative development knowledge says introduction book genetic epistemology ''what genetic epistemology proposes discovering roots different varieties knowledge since elementary forms following next levels including also scientific knowledge'' jerome bruner '''date ''' another important contributor inquiry method education bruner books ''the process education'' ''toward theory instruction'' landmarks conceptualizing learning curriculum development argued subject taught


intellectually honest form child stage development notion underpinning concept spiral helical curriculum posited idea curriculum revisit basic ideas building student grasped full formal concept emphasized intuition neglected essential feature productive thinking felt interest material learned best stimulus learning rather external motivation grades bruner developed concept discovery learning promoted learning process constructing new ideas


based current past knowledge students encouraged discover facts relationships continually build already know unschooling unschooling range educational philosophies practices centered allowing children learn natural life experiences including child directed play game play household responsibilities work experience social interaction rather traditional school curriculum unschooling encourages exploration activities led children facilitated adults unschooling differs conventional schooling principally thesis standard curricula conventional grading methods well features


traditional schooling counterproductive goal maximizing education child john holt holt published first book ''how children fail'' asserting academic failure schoolchildren ' 'despite'' efforts schools actually ''because'' schools surprisingly ''how children fail'' ignited firestorm controversy holt catapulted american national consciousness extent made appearances major tv talk shows wrote book reviews ''life'' magazine guest ''to tell truth'' tv game show follow work


higher education contemplative methods may also used teachers preparation waldorf education one pioneers latter approach case inspiration enriching content format teaching methods may sought various practices consciously reviewing previous day 's activities actively holding students consciousness contemplating inspiring pedagogical texts zigler suggested focusing spiritual development could teachers positively impact spiritual development students professional organizations associations class wikitable sortable style width organisation nationality comment international


music education unknown international society philosophy music education ispme founded educational professional objectives devoted specific interests philosophy music education elementary secondary schools colleges universities private studios places worship places ways music taught learned spencer foundation usa spencer foundation provides funding investigations promise yield new knowledge education united states abroad foundation funds research grants range size


smaller grants completed within year larger multi year endeavours see also methodology pedagogy philosophy education references reading ''classic contemporary readings philosophy education'' steven cahn ''a companion philosophy education'' blackwell companions philosophy ed randall curren paperback edition ''the blackwell guide philosophy education'' ed nigel blake paul smeyers richard smith paul standish paperback edition ''philosophy education'' westview press dimension philosophy series nel noddings paperback edition quarterly review comparative education aristotle http wwwibeunescoorg fileadmin user upload archive publications thinkerspdf aristotepdf


andre kraak michael ''young education retrospect policy implementation since '' https booksgooglecom bookshl es lr id vpsxv phc yc oi fnd pg pa dq educational progressivism ots ly jyz sig xtt g tsf rma xuxykbv w v onepage q educational progressivism f false http wwwibeunescoorg fileadmin user upload archive publications thinkerspdf freireepdf freire unesco publication external links http platostanfordedu entries education philosophy philosophy education ''stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' http eepatnet dokuphpid featured entry ''encyclopedia philosophy education'' http wwwibeunescoorg en services online materials publications thinkers educationhtml thinkers education unesco international bureau education website http www sibafi ispme symposium indexphpid la fi international society philosophy music education http wwwucmes info inpe international network philosophers education http philosophyofeducationorg philosophy education society http wwwphilosophy educationorg defaultasp philosophy education society great britain http wwwpesaorgau philosophy education society australia http wwwphilosophyofeducationca canadian philosophy education society cpes https webarchiveorg web http wwwnfpfnet network philosophy education nordic society philosophy education http webscsuedu amakedon mpes mpes rightframe homepagehtml society philosophical study


'''personality psychology''' branch psychology examines personality variation among individuals aims show people individually different due psychological forces areas focus include construction coherent picture individual major psychological processes investigation individual psychological differences investigation human nature psychological similarities individuals personality dynamic organized set characteristics possessed individual uniquely influences environment cognition emotions motivations behaviors various situations word ''personality'' originates latin ''persona'' means mask personality also

Social science
Psychology
Personality psychology


pertains pattern thoughts feelings social adjustments behaviors persistently exhibited time strongly influences one 's expectations self perceptions values attitudes personality also predicts human reactions people problems stress ref name winnie winnie jf gittinger jw introduction personality assessment system ''journal clinical psychology monograph supplement '' ref gordon allport described two major ways study personality nomothetic idiographic ''nomothetic psychology'' seeks general laws applied many different people principle self actualization trait extraversion ''idiographic psychology''


substantial emphasis applied field personality testing psychological education training study nature personality psychological development usually reviewed prerequisite courses abnormal psychology clinical psychology philosophical assumptions many ideas conceptualized historical modern personality theorists stem basic philosophical assumptions hold study personality purely empirical discipline brings elements art science philosophy draw general conclusions following five categories fundamental philosophical assumptions theorists disagree ref


robert cloninger pioneered temperament character model ref name engler '''uniqueness versus universality''' question discusses extent human 's individuality uniqueness similarity nature universality gordon allport abraham maslow carl rogers advocates uniqueness individuals behaviorists cognitive theorists contrast emphasize importance universal principles reinforcement self efficacy ref name engler '''active versus reactive''' question explores whether humans primarily act individual initiative active outside stimuli traditional behavioral theorists typically believed humans passively shaped environments whereas humanistic cognitive


people different classes personality types distinguished personality traits come different degrees many theories personality one contains several sometimes many sub theories theory personality constructed given psychologist contain multiple relating theories sub theories often expanding psychologists explore theory example according type theories two types people introverts extroverts according trait theories introversion extroversion part continuous dimension many people middle idea psychological types originated


pti pro jti theories could also considered approach personality psychology generally referred model model older theoretical approach personality accepting extroversion introversion basic psychological orientations connection two pairs psychological functions ''perceiving functions '' sensing intuition trust concrete sensory oriented facts vs trust abstract concepts imagined possibilities ''judging functions '' thinking feeling basing decisions primarily logic vs deciding based emotion briggs myers also added another personality dimension type indicator measure whether person


prefers use judging perceiving function interacting external world therefore included questions designed indicate whether someone wishes come conclusions judgement keep options open perception ref name myers personality typology aspects trait theory explains people 's behavior terms opposite fixed characteristics traditional models sensing intuition preference considered basic dividing people n intuitive sensing personality types n assumed guided either thinking feeling divided nt scientist


engineer nf author humanitarian temperament contrast assumed guided judgment perception axis thus divided sj guardian traditionalist sp performer artisan temperament four considered basic two factors case including always extraversion introversion less important critics traditional view observed types quite strongly stereotyped professions although neither myers keirsey engaged stereotyping type descriptions ref name myers thus may arise need categorize people purposes guiding career choice ref


name pittenger ref among objections led emergence five factor view less concerned behavior work conditions concerned behavior personal emotional circumstances mbti designed measure work self rather myers mccaulley called shoes self ref name manual ref type type b personality theory meyer friedman co workers defined called type type b behavior patterns theorized intense hard driving type personalities higher risk coronary disease


stress junkies type b people hand tended relaxed less competitive lower risk also type ab mixed profile john l holland 's ''riasec'' vocational model commonly referred ''holland codes'' stipulates six personality types lead people choose career paths circumplex model six types represented hexagon adjacent types closely related distant model widely used vocational counseling eduard spranger 's personality model consisting six revisions basic types ''value attitudes'' described


practices used counter traits psychoanalytical theories psychoanalytic theories explain human behavior terms interaction various components personality sigmund freud founder school thought drew physics day thermodynamics coin term psychodynamics based idea converting heat mechanical energy freud proposed psychic energy could converted behavior theory places central importance dynamic unconscious psychological conflicts ref name kahn ref freud divides human personality three significant components id ego super ego '''id''' acts according ''pleasure principle''


demanding immediate gratification needs regardless external environment '''ego''' must emerge order realistically meet wishes demands id accordance outside world adhering ' 'reality principle'' finally '' 'superego''' conscience inculcates moral judgment societal rules upon ego thus forcing demands id met realistically morally superego last function personality develop embodiment parental social ideals established childhood according freud personality based dynamic interactions three


infantile stage contribute adult personality behavior one sigmund freud 's earlier associates alfred adler agreed freud early childhood experiences important development believed birth order may influence personality development adler believed oldest child individual would set high achievement goals order gain attention lost younger siblings born believed middle children competitive ambitious reasoned behavior motivated idea surpassing firstborn 's achievements added however middle children often concerned


glory attributed behavior also believed youngest would dependent sociable adler finished surmising child loves center attention matures quickly end fails become independent heinz kohut thought similarly freud 's idea transference used narcissism model people develop sense self narcissism exaggerated sense self one believed exist order protect one 's low self esteem sense worthlessness kohut significant impact field extending


freud 's theory narcissism introducing called 'self object transferences' mirroring idealization words children need idealize emotionally sink identify idealized competence admired figures parents older siblings also need self worth mirrored people experiences allow thereby learn self soothing skills necessary development healthy sense self another important figure world personality theory karen horney credited development feminist psychology disagrees


freud key points one women 's personalities function penis envy girl children separate different psychic lives unrelated feel fathers primary male role models talks three basic neurotic needs basic anxiety basic hostility basic evil posits anxiety individual experiences would one three approaches moving toward people moving away people moving people three give us varying personality types characteristics also places high


premium concepts like overvaluation love romantic partners behaviorist theories behaviorists explain personality terms effects external stimuli behavior approaches used evaluate behavioral aspect personality known behavioral theories learning conditioning theories approaches radical shift away freudian philosophy one major tenets concentration personality psychology strong emphasis scientific thinking experimentation school thought developed b f skinner put forth model emphasized mutual interaction person


model critical question circumstances antecedent 'stimuli' organism engage particular behavior 'response' turn produces particular 'consequence' ref name cheney ref richard herrnstein extended theory accounting attitudes traits attitude develops response strength tendency respond presences group stimuli become stable rather describing conditionable traits non behavioral language response strength given situation accounts environmental portion herrstein also saw traits large genetic biological component


modern behaviorists ref name cheney ivan pavlov another notable influence well known classical conditioning experiments involving dogs led discover foundation behaviorism ref name cheney social cognitive theories cognitive theory behavior explained guided cognitions eg expectations world especially people cognitive theories theories personality emphasize cognitive processes thinking judging albert bandura social learning theorist suggested forces memory emotions worked conjunction environmental influences bandura known mostly bobo doll experiment


experiments bandura video taped college student kicking verbally abusing bobo doll showed video class kindergarten children getting ready go play entered play room saw bobo dolls hammers people observing children play saw group children beating doll called study findings observational learning modeling early examples approaches cognitive style listed baron include witkin 's work field dependency gardner 's discovering people


attributional style locus control locus control scales include used rotter later duttweiler nowicki strickland locus control scale children various locus control scales specifically health domain famously kenneth wallston colleagues multidimensional health locus control scale attributional style assessed attributional style questionnaire expanded attributional style questionnaire attributions questionnaire real events attributional style questionnaire attributional style assessment test achievement style theory focuses upon identification individual 's locus control tendency


counseling learning assistance center chapter new directions sourcebook jossey bass inc ref counseling aimed toward encouraging individuals design ambitious goals work toward recognition external factors may impact often results incorporation positive achievement style students employees whatever setting include higher education workplace justice programming ref name lauridsenkurt walter mischel also defended cognitive approach personality work refers cognitive affective units considers factors encoding stimuli affect goal setting self regulatory beliefs term cognitive affective units shows


approach considers affect well cognition cognitive experiential self theory cest another cognitive personality theory developed seymour epstein cest argues humans operate way two independent information processing systems experiential system rational system experiential system fast emotion driven rational system slow logic driven two systems interact determine goals thoughts behavior personal construct psychology pcp theory personality developed american psychologist george kelly kelly 's fundamental view personality people like naive scientists see


world particular lens based uniquely organized systems construction use anticipate events people naive scientists sometimes employ systems construing world distorted idiosyncratic experiences applicable current social situation system construction chronically fails characterize predict events appropriately revised comprehend predict one 's changing social world considered underlie psychopathology mental illness theory kelly derived psychotherapy approach also technique called ''the repertory grid interview'' helped


patients uncover constructs minimal intervention interpretation therapist repertory grid later adapted various uses within organizations including decision making interpretation people 's world views ref name kelly ref humanistic theories humanistic psychology emphasizes people free plays active role determining behave accordingly humanistic psychology focuses subjective experiences persons opposed forced definitive factors determine behavior abraham maslow carl rogers proponents view based phenomenal field theory combs snygg rogers


maslow among group psychologists worked together decade produce ''journal humanistic psychology'' journal primarily focused viewing individuals whole rather focusing solely separate traits processes within individual robert w white wrote book ''the abnormal personality'' became standard text abnormal psychology also investigated human need strive positive goals like competence influence counterbalance emphasis freud pathological elements personality development ref name watt ref maslow spent much time studying called


self actualizing persons fulfilling best capable maslow believes interested growth move towards self actualizing growth happiness satisfaction views many people demonstrate trend dimensions personalities characteristics self actualizers according maslow include four key dimensions ref name maslow ref '''awareness''' maintaining constant enjoyment awe life individuals often experienced peak experience defined peak experience intensification experience degree loss transcendence self peak experience one


individual perceives expansion detects unity meaningfulness life intense concentration activity one involved running marathon may invoke peak experience '''reality problem centered''' tendency concerned problems surroundings '''acceptance spontaneity''' accepting surroundings cannot changed '''unhostile sense humor democratic''' take kindly joking others viewed offensive friends backgrounds religions hold close friendships maslow rogers emphasized view


person active creative experiencing human lives present subjectively responds current perceptions relationships encounters disagree dark pessimistic outlook freudian psychoanalysis ranks rather view humanistic theories positive optimistic proposals stress tendency human personality toward growth self actualization progressing self remain center constantly changing world world help mold self necessarily confine rather self opportunity maturation based encounters world


understanding attempts reduce acceptance hopeless redundancy humanistic therapy typically relies client information past effect present therefore client dictates type guidance therapist may initiate allows individualized approach therapy rogers found patients differ respond people rogers tried model particular approach therapy stressed reflective empathetic response response type takes client 's viewpoint reflects back feeling context example reflective response would


bases personality grew case phineas gage accident large iron rod driven gage 's head personality apparently changed result although descriptions ref name return phineas ref psychological changes usually exaggerated general patients brain damage difficult find study researchers began use electroencephalography eeg positron emission tomography pet recently functional magnetic resonance imaging fmri widely used imaging technique help localize personality traits brain genetic basis personality ever since


human genome project allowed much depth comprehension genetics ongoing controversy involving heritability personality traits environmental vs genetic influence personality human genome known play role development personality previously genetic personality studies focused specific genes correlating specific personality traits today 's view gene personality relationship focuses primarily activation expression genes related personality forms part referred behavioural genetics genes provide numerous options varying cells expressed however environment determines


activated many studies noted relationship varying ways bodies develop interaction genes shaping minds personality also relevant biological relationship dna environment interactions important development personality relationship determines part dna code actually made proteins become part individual different choices made available genome end environment ultimate determinant becomes activated small changes dna individuals


twins however higher correlations personality traits fraternal twins one study measuring genetic influence twins five different countries found correlations identical twins fraternal ref name loehlin suggested heredity environment interact determine one 's personality ref name jeronimus ref evolutionary theory charles darwin founder theory evolution species evolutionary approach personality psychology based theory ref name buss ref theory examines individual personality differences based natural selection natural selection organisms change time


sociability emotional stability dominance social aspects personality seen evolutionary perspective specific character traits develop selected play important complex role social hierarchy organisms characteristics social hierarchy include sharing important resources family mating interactions harm help organisms bestow upon one another ref name buss drive theories john dollard neal elgar miller met yale university began attempt integrate drives see drive theory theory personality basing


work clark hull began premise personality could equated habitual responses exhibited individual habits determined habitual responses built secondary acquired drives secondary drives internal needs directing behaviour individual results learning ref name dollard smith ref acquired drives learned large manner described classical conditioning certain environment experience strong response stimulus internalize cues said environment ref name dollard smith


functions original primary drive continue exist ref name dollard smith thus primary drives fear pain exist behind acquired drive anxiety secondary drives based multiple primary drives even secondary drives said give strength persistence ref name dollard smith examples include need money conceptualized arising multiple primary drives drive food warmth well secondary drives imitativeness drive others anxiety ref name dollard


smith secondary drives vary based social conditions learned culture dollard miller used example food stating primary drive hunger manifested behind learned secondary drive appetite specific type food dependent culture individual ref name dollard smith secondary drives also explicitly social representing manner convey primary drives others ref name friedman schustack ref indeed many primary drives actively repressed society sexual drive ref


name dollard smith dollard miller believed acquisition secondary drives essential childhood development ref name friedman schustack children develop learn act primary drives hunger acquire secondary drives reinforcement ref name dollard smith friedman schustack describe example developmental changes stating infant engaging active orientation towards others brings fulfillment primary drives fed diaper changed develop secondary drive pursue similar interactions others


perhaps leading individual gregarious ref name dollard smith ref name friedman schustack dollard miller 's belief importance acquired drives led reconceive sigmund freud 's theory psychosexual development ref name friedman schustack found agreement timing freud used believed periods corresponded successful learning certain secondary drives ref name friedman schustack dollard miller gave many examples secondary drives impact habitual responses extension personalities including anger social conformity imitativeness anxiety


name case anxiety dollard miller note people generalize situation experience anxiety drive experience anxiety far ref name dollard smith people often anxious time anxiety becomes part personality ref name dollard smith example shows drive theory ties theories personality many look trait neuroticism emotional stability people strongly linked anxiety personality tests two major types


personal interpretation therapist analyzes responses rules scoring test covered manuals cover wide variety characteristics content originality response location perceived images several factors using specific scoring methods therapist attempt relate test responses attributes individual 's personality unique characteristics idea unconscious needs come person 's response eg aggressive person may see images destruction thematic apperception test tat involves presenting individuals vague pictures scenes asking


tell story based see common examples scenes include images may suggest family relationships specific situations father son man woman bedroom responses analyzed common themes responses unique individual theoretically meant indicate underlying thoughts processes potentially conflicts present within individual responses believed directly linked unconscious motives little empirical evidence available support methods ''objective tests'' assume personality consciously accessible measured


self report questionnaires research psychological assessment generally found objective tests valid reliable projective tests critics pointed forer effect suggest appear accurate discriminating really issues tests include false reporting way tell individual answering question honestly accurately myers briggs type indicator also known mbti self reporting questionnaire based carl jung 's type theory ref name stein however mbti modified jung 's theory disregarding certain


processes held unconscious mind impact personality personality theory assessment criteria verifiability theory formulated way concepts suggestions hypotheses involved defined clearly unambiguously logically related heuristic value extent theory stimulates scientists conduct research internal consistency theory free internal contradictions economy fewer concepts assumptions required theory explain phenomenon better psychology traditionally defined personality behavioral


patterns recently neuroscientific studies brain recent years psychologists turned study inner experiences insight personality well individuality inner experiences thoughts feelings immediate phenomenon another term used define inner experiences qualia able understand inner experiences assists understanding humans behave act respond defining personality using inner experiences expanding due fact solely relying behavioral principles explain one 's character may seem incomplete behavioral methods allow subject observed


sensation perception learning memory motivation biological psychology experimental psychologist usually deals intact organisms although studies often conducted organisms modified surgery radiation drug treatment long standing deprivations various kinds organisms naturally present organic abnormalities emotional disorders economists psychologists developed variety experimental methodologies elicit assess individual attitudes emotion differs individual results gathered quantified conclude specific experiences common factors method used seek clarity experience remove


biases help understand meaning behind experience see generalized ref name price see also clinical psychology epigenetics psychology four temperaments holland codes individual differences industrial organizational assessment industrial organizational psychology ''journal individual differences'' lots data psychological typologies self concealment self concept self esteem team composition trait leadership trait theory type personality philosophy references reading allport g w ''personality psychological interpretation'' new york holt rinehart winston hall calvin gardner lindzey ''theories personality'' new york j wiley sons xi p ill


diagrams external links http wwwpersonality projectorg northwestern university led collaboration personality psychologists worldwide attempt bring information current personality theory research readers world wide web https webarchiveorg web http psychologyaohlcom category personality psychology art human life personality https webarchiveorg web http wwwpsychometricsppsiscamacuk page mypersonality databasehtm cambridge university based mypersonality project offering researchers access robust database millions detailed psycho demographic profiles https webspaceshipedu cgboer perscontentshtml personality theories http wwwpsychometriclabcom trait emotional intelligence ei personality https webarchiveorg web http wilderdomcom personality personalityhtml personality theory perspectives individual differences http wwwhopkinsmedicineorg fac development video pdf lisa heiser faculty development handoutpdf holland 's types http wwwpanarchyorg kluckhohn personality html henry murray clyde kluckhohn personality nature society culture https webarchiveorg web http wwwhoganassessmentscom hoganweb documents personality psychologypdf personality psychology personality branches


wave functions electron hydrogen atom different energy levels quantum mechanics cannot predict exact location particle space probability finding different locations ref name born ref brighter areas represent higher probability finding electron '''quantum mechanics''' fundamental theory physics provides description physical properties nature scale atoms subatomic particles ref name feynman ref foundation quantum physics including quantum chemistry quantum field theory quantum technology quantum information science classical physics collection theories

Natural science
Physics
Mathematical physics
Quantum mechanics


existed advent quantum mechanics describes many aspects nature ordinary macroscopic scale sufficient describing small atomic subatomic scales theories classical physics derived quantum mechanics approximation valid large macroscopic scale quantum mechanics differs classical physics energy momentum angular momentum quantities bound system restricted discrete values quantization objects characteristics particles waves wave particle duality limits accurately value physical quantity


predicted prior measurement given complete set initial conditions uncertainty principle quantum mechanics arose gradually theories explain observations could reconciled classical physics max planck 's solution black body radiation problem correspondence energy frequency albert einstein 's paper explained photoelectric effect early attempts understand microscopic phenomena known old quantum theory led full development quantum mechanics mid niels bohr erwin schr dinger werner heisenberg max born others modern theory


formulated various specially developed mathematical formalisms one mathematical entity called wave function provides information form probability amplitudes measurements particle 's energy momentum physical properties may yield overview fundamental concepts quantum mechanics allows calculation properties behaviour physical systems typically applied microscopic systems molecules atoms sub atomic particles demonstrated hold complex molecules thousands atoms application human beings raises philosophical problems wigner 's friend application


universe whole remains speculative predictions quantum mechanics verified experimentally extremely high degree accuracy fundamental feature theory usually cannot predict certainty happen give probabilities mathematically probability found taking square absolute value complex number known probability amplitude known born rule named physicist max born example quantum particle like electron described wave function associates point space probability


uncertainty principle says matter quantum particle prepared carefully experiments upon arranged impossible precise prediction measurement position also time measurement momentum another consequence mathematical rules quantum mechanics phenomenon quantum interference often illustrated double slit experiment basic version experiment coherent light source laser beam illuminates plate pierced two parallel slits light passing


detected photon passes one slit would classical particle slits would wave ref name lederman ref name ller kirsten ref ref name plotnitsky ref however experiments demonstrate particles form interference pattern one detects slit pass atomic scale entities electrons found exhibit behavior fired towards double slit ref name feynman behavior known wave particle duality another counter intuitive phenomenon predicted quantum mechanics quantum tunnelling particle goes potential barrier cross even kinetic energy


smaller maximum potential classical mechanics particle would trapped quantum tunnelling several important consequences enabling radioactive decay nuclear fusion stars applications scanning tunnelling microscopy tunnel diode ref name trixler ref quantum systems interact result creation quantum entanglement properties become intertwined description whole solely terms individual parts longer possible erwin schr dinger called entanglement ''the'' characteristic trait quantum mechanics one enforces entire departure classical lines thought quantum entanglement enables


counter intuitive properties quantum pseudo telepathy valuable resource communication protocols quantum key distribution superdense coding ref name caves ref contrary popular misconception entanglement allow sending signals faster light demonstrated communication theorem ref name caves another possibility opened entanglement testing hidden variables hypothetical properties fundamental quantities addressed quantum theory knowledge would allow exact predictions quantum theory provide collection results significantly bell 's theorem demonstrated broad classes hidden variable theories fact incompatible


advanced subjects ref carl sagan outlined mathematical underpinning quantum mechanics wrote physics students might occupy say third grade early graduate schoolroughly years job popularizer science trying get across idea quantum mechanics general audience gone initiation rites daunting indeed successful popularizations quantum mechanics opinionpartly reason accordingly article present mathematical formulation quantum mechanics survey application useful oft studied examples mathematical formulation


mathematically rigorous formulation quantum mechanics state quantum mechanical system vector math psi math belonging separable complex hilbert space math mathcal h math vector postulated normalized hilbert space inner product obeys math langle psi psi rangle math well defined complex number modulus global phase math psi math math e alpha psi math represent physical system words possible states points projective space hilbert space usually called complex projective space exact nature


hilbert space dependent system nbsp example describing position momentum hilbert space space complex square integrable functions math l mathbb c math hilbert space spin single proton simply space two dimensional complex vectors math mathbb c math usual inner product physical quantities interestposition momentum energy spinare represented observables hermitian precisely self adjoint linear operators acting hilbert space quantum state eigenvector observable case called eigenstate associated eigenvalue corresponds


functions directly comparable chladni 's figures acoustic modes vibration classical physics modes oscillation well possessing sharp energy thus definite frequency angular momentum energy quantized take '''only''' discrete values like shown case resonant frequencies acoustics wave functions produce probability distributions independent time eigenstates hamiltonian many systems treated dynamically classical mechanics described static wave functions example single electron unexcited atom pictured classically


particle moving circular trajectory around atomic nucleus whereas quantum mechanics described static wave function surrounding nucleus example electron wave function unexcited hydrogen atom spherically symmetric function known ' 's'' orbital fig analytic solutions schr dinger equation known relatively simple model hamiltonians including quantum harmonic oscillator particle box dihydrogen cation hydrogen atom even helium atom nbsp contains two electrons nbsp defied attempts fully analytic treatment


however techniques finding approximate solutions one method called perturbation theory uses analytic result simple quantum mechanical model create result related complicated model example addition weak potential energy another method called semi classical equation motion applies systems quantum mechanics produces small deviations classical behavior deviations computed based classical motion approach particularly important field quantum chaos uncertainty principle one consequence basic quantum formalism


standard deviations math sigma sigma b geq frac left langle ab rangle right math another consequence canonical commutation relation position momentum operators fourier transforms description object according momentum fourier transform description according position fact dependence momentum fourier transform dependence position means momentum operator equivalent math hbar math factor taking derivative according position since fourier analysis differentiation corresponds multiplication dual space


possible states system math b math math tfrac sqrt left psi otimes psi b phi otimes phi b right math valid joint state separable states separable called entangled ref name ref ref name ref state composite system entangled impossible describe either component system system state vector one instead define reduced density matrices describe statistics obtained making measurements either component system alone necessarily causes loss information though knowing reduced density matrices


individual systems enough reconstruct state composite system ref name ref name density matrices specify state subsystem larger system analogously positive operator valued measures povms describe effect subsystem measurement performed larger system povms extensively used quantum information theory ref name ref name wilde ref described entanglement key feature models measurement processes apparatus becomes entangled system measured systems interacting environment reside generally become entangled


environment phenomenon known quantum decoherence explain practice quantum effects difficult observe systems larger microscopic equivalence formulations many mathematically equivalent formulations quantum mechanics one oldest common transformation theory proposed paul dirac unifies generalizes two earliest formulations quantum mechanics nbsp matrix mechanics invented werner heisenberg wave mechanics invented erwin schr dinger alternative formulation quantum mechanics feynman 's path integral formulation quantum mechanical amplitude considered sum possible


classical non classical paths initial final states quantum mechanical counterpart action principle classical mechanics symmetries conservation laws hamiltonian math h math known ''generator'' time evolution since defines unitary time evolution operator math u e iht hbar math value math math relation math u math math h math follows observable math math commutes math h math ''conserved'' expectation value change time statement generalizes mathematically hermitian operator math math generate family unitary operators parameterized


free particle single spatial dimension free particle one subject external influences hamiltonian consists kinetic energy math h frac p frac hbar frac dx math general solution schr dinger equation given math psi xt frac sqrt pi int infty infty hat psi k e kx frac hbar k mathrm k math superposition possible plane waves math e kx frac hbar k math eigenstates momentum operator momentum math p hbar k math coefficients superposition math hat psi k math


fourier transform initial quantum state math psi x math possible solution single momentum eigenstate single position eigenstate normalizable quantum states instead consider gaussian wave packet math psi x frac sqrt pi e frac x math fourier transform therefore momentum distribution math hat psi k sqrt frac pi e frac k math see make math math smaller spread position gets smaller spread momentum gets larger conversely making math math larger make spread momentum smaller spread


position gets larger illustrates uncertainty principle let gaussian wave packet evolve time see center moves space constant velocity like classical particle forces acting however wave packet also spread time progresses means position becomes uncertain uncertainty momentum however stays constant particle box dimensional potential energy box infinite potential well particle one dimensional potential energy box mathematically simple example restraints lead quantization


would conflict postulate math psi math norm therefore since math sin kl math math kl math must integer multiple math pi math math k frac n pi l qquad qquad n ldots math constraint math k math implies constraint energy levels yielding math e n frac hbar pi n ml frac n h ml math finite potential well generalization infinite potential well problem potential wells finite depth finite potential well problem mathematically complicated infinite particle box problem wave function pinned zero walls well instead wave function must satisfy complicated


mathematical boundary conditions nonzero regions outside well another related problem rectangular potential barrier furnishes model quantum tunneling effect plays important role performance modern technologies flash memory scanning tunneling microscopy harmonic oscillator trajectories harmonic oscillator ie ball attached spring classical mechanics b quantum mechanics c h quantum mechanics position ball represented wave called wave function real part shown blue imaginary


part shown red trajectories c e f standing waves stationary states standing wave frequency proportional possible energy level oscillator energy quantization occur classical physics oscillator ''any'' energy classical case potential quantum harmonic oscillator given math v x frac omega x math problem either treated directly solving schr dinger equation trivial using elegant ladder method first proposed paul dirac eigenstates given


math psi n x sqrt frac n n cdot left frac omega pi hbar right cdot e frac omega x hbar cdot h n left sqrt frac omega hbar x right qquad math math n ldots math ''h sub n sub '' hermite polynomials math h n x n e x frac n dx n left e x right math corresponding energy levels math e n hbar omega left n right math another example illustrating discretization energy bound states mach zehnder interferometer schematic mach zehnder interferometer mach zehnder interferometer mzi illustrates concepts superposition interference linear algebra dimension rather differential equations seen simplified version double slit experiment


interest right example delayed choice quantum eraser elitzur vaidman bomb tester studies quantum entanglement ref name paris ref ref name haack ref model photon going interferometer considering point superposition two paths lower path starts left goes straight beam splitters ends top upper path starts bottom goes straight beam splitters ends right quantum state photon


therefore vector math psi mathbb c math superposition lower path math psi l begin pmatrix end pmatrix math upper path math psi u begin pmatrix end pmatrix math math psi alpha psi l beta psi u math complex math alpha beta math order respect postulate math langle psi psi rangle math require math alpha beta math beam splitters modelled unitary matrix math b frac sqrt begin pmatrix end pmatrix math means photon meets beam splitter either stay path


probability amplitude math sqrt math reflected path probability amplitude math sqrt math phase shifter upper arm modelled unitary matrix math p begin pmatrix e delta phi end pmatrix math means photon upper path gain relative phase math delta phi math stay unchanged lower path photon enters interferometer left acted upon beam splitter math b math phase shifter math p math another beam splitter


semiconductors microprocessor medical research imaging magnetic resonance imaging electron microscopy explanations many biological physical phenomena rooted nature chemical bond notably macro molecule dna relation scientific theories classical mechanics rules quantum mechanics assert state space system hilbert space observables system hermitian operators acting vectors space nbsp although tell us hilbert space operators chosen appropriately order obtain quantitative


description quantum system necessary step making physical predictions important guide making choices correspondence principle heuristic states predictions quantum mechanics reduce classical mechanics regime large quantum numbers ref name tipler ref one also start established classical model particular system try guess underlying quantum model would give rise classical model correspondence limit approach known quantization quantum mechanics originally formulated applied models whose correspondence


accurate physical theories ever devised full apparatus quantum field theory often unnecessary describing electrodynamic systems simpler approach one used since inception quantum mechanics treat charged particles quantum mechanical objects acted classical electromagnetic field example elementary quantum model hydrogen atom describes electric field hydrogen atom using classical math textstyle e pi epsilon r math coulomb potential semi classical approach fails quantum fluctuations electromagnetic field play important role emission photons


repeated empirical evidence abstract formalisms contradict proven extremely difficult incorporate one consistent cohesive model gravity negligible many areas particle physics unification general relativity quantum mechanics urgent issue particular applications however lack correct theory quantum gravity important issue physical cosmology search physicists elegant theory everything toe consequently resolving inconsistencies theories major goal th st century physics toe would combine


models subatomic physics also derive four fundamental forces nature single force phenomenon one proposal string theory posits point like particles particle physics replaced one dimensional objects called strings string theory describes strings propagate space interact distance scales larger string scale string looks like ordinary particle mass charge properties determined vibrational state string string theory one many vibrational states


string corresponds graviton quantum mechanical particle carries gravitational force another popular theory loop quantum gravity lqg describes quantum properties gravity thus theory quantum spacetime lqg attempt merge adapt standard quantum mechanics standard general relativity theory describes space extremely fine fabric woven finite loops called spin networks evolution spin network time called spin foam characteristic length scale spin foam planck length approximately sup sup lengths shorter


mechanics views niels bohr werner heisenberg physicists often grouped together copenhagen interpretation according views probabilistic nature quantum mechanics ''temporary'' feature eventually replaced deterministic theory instead ''final'' renunciation classical idea causality bohr particular emphasized well defined application quantum mechanical formalism must always make reference experimental arrangement due complementary nature evidence obtained different experimental situations copenhagen type interpretations remain popular st century ref name ref albert einstein


one founders quantum theory troubled apparent failure respect cherished metaphysical principles determinism locality einstein 's long running exchanges bohr meaning status quantum mechanics known bohr einstein debates einstein believed underlying quantum mechanics must theory explicitly forbids action distance argued quantum mechanics incomplete theory valid fundamental analogous thermodynamics valid fundamental theory behind statistical mechanics einstein collaborators boris podolsky


nathan rosen published argument principle locality implies incompleteness quantum mechanics thought experiment later termed einstein podolsky rosen paradox ref ref name howard ref john bell showed epr 's principle locality together determinism actually incompatible quantum mechanics implied constraints correlations produced distance systems known bell inequalities violated entangled particles since several experiments performed obtain correlations result fact violate bell inequalities thus falsify conjunction locality determinism ref name wiseman ref name wolchover bohmian


mechanics shows possible reformulate quantum mechanics make deterministic price making explicitly nonlocal attributes wave function physical system addition real position evolves deterministically nonlocal guiding equation evolution physical system given times schr dinger equation together guiding equation never collapse wave function solves measurement problem everett 's many worlds interpretation formulated holds ''all'' possibilities described quantum theory ' 'simultaneously'' occur


multiverse composed mostly independent parallel universes consequence removing axiom collapse wave packet possible states measured system measuring apparatus together observer present real physical quantum superposition multiverse deterministic perceive non deterministic behavior governed probabilities n't observe multiverse whole one parallel universe time exactly supposed work subject much debate several attempts made make sense derive


christiaan huygens leonhard euler proposed wave theory light based experimental observations ref name born wolf ref english polymath thomas young described famous double slit experiment experiment played major role general acceptance wave theory light early th century chemical research john dalton amedeo avogadro lent weight atomic theory matter idea james clerk maxwell ludwig boltzmann others built upon establish kinetic theory gases successes kinetic theory gave credence idea matter composed


atoms yet theory also shortcomings would resolved development quantum mechanics ref name feynman kinetic theory ref early conception atoms greek philosophy indivisible units word atom deriving greek uncuttable th century saw formulation hypotheses subatomic structure one important discovery regard michael faraday 's observation glow caused electrical discharge inside glass tube containing gas low pressure julius pl cker johann wilhelm hittorf eugen goldstein carried improved upon faraday 's work leading


identification cathode rays j j thomson found consist subatomic particles would called electrons black body radiation problem discovered gustav kirchhoff max planck proposed hypothesis energy radiated absorbed discrete quanta energy packets yielding calculation precisely matched observed patterns black body radiation word ''quantum'' derives latin meaning great much according planck quantities energy could thought divided elements whose size ''e'' would proportional frequency '' ''


math e h nu math ''h'' planck 's constant planck cautiously insisted aspect processes absorption emission radiation ''physical reality'' radiation fact considered quantum hypothesis mathematical trick get right answer rather sizable discovery ref name kragh ref however albert einstein interpreted planck 's quantum hypothesis realistically used explain photoelectric effect shining light certain materials eject electrons material niels bohr developed planck 's ideas radiation


model hydrogen atom successfully predicted spectral lines hydrogen einstein developed idea show electromagnetic wave light could also described particle later called photon discrete amount energy depends frequency paper quantum theory radiation einstein expanded interaction energy matter explain absorption emission energy atoms although overshadowed time general theory relativity paper articulated mechanism underlying stimulated emission radiation


diamagnetism arnold sommerfeld 's extension bohr model include special relativistic effects mid quantum mechanics developed become standard formulation atomic physics french physicist louis de broglie put forward theory matter waves stating particles exhibit wave characteristics vice versa building de broglie 's approach modern quantum mechanics born german physicists werner heisenberg max born pascual jordan ref name edwards david edwards mathematical foundations quantum mechanics ''synthese'' volume number september pp nbsp ref ref name edwards edwards mathematical foundations quantum field


theory fermions gauge fields super symmetry part lattice field theories ''international j theor phys'' vol ref developed matrix mechanics austrian physicist erwin schr dinger invented wave mechanics born introduced probabilistic interpretation schr dinger 's wave function july thus entire field quantum physics emerged leading wider acceptance fifth solvay conference ref name pais ref quantum mechanics unified formalized david hilbert paul dirac john von neumann greater emphasis measurement statistical nature knowledge reality philosophical


speculation 'observer' since permeated many disciplines including quantum chemistry quantum electronics quantum optics quantum information science also provides useful framework many features modern periodic table elements describes behaviors atoms chemical bonding flow electrons computer semiconductors therefore plays crucial role many modern technologies quantum mechanics constructed describe world small also needed explain macroscopic phenomena superconductors ref name feynman ref superfluids see also bra ket notation einstein 's thought experiments list


press technical works cited passages using algebra trigonometry bra ket notation passed first reading n david mermin spooky actions distance mysteries qt ''boojums way through'' cambridge university press victor stenger ''timeless reality symmetry simplicity multiple universes'' buffalo ny prometheus books chpts includes cosmological philosophical considerations technical bryce dewitt r neill graham eds ''the many worlds interpretation quantum mechanics'' princeton series physics princeton university press greenberger k hentschel f weinert eds


''compendium quantum physics concepts experiments history philosophy'' springer verlag berlin heidelberg standard undergraduate text max jammer ''the conceptual development quantum mechanics'' mcgraw hill hagen kleinert ''path integrals quantum mechanics statistics polymer physics financial markets'' rd ed singapore world scientific http wwwphysikfu berlinde kleinert b draft th edition https archiveorg details quantummechanics online copy gunther ludwig ''wave mechanics'' london pergamon press george mackey ''the mathematical foundations quantum mechanics'' dover publications albert messiah ''quantum mechanics'' vol english translation french gm temmer north holland john wiley sons cf chpt iv section iii https archiveorg details quantummechanicsvolumei


online scerri eric r ''the periodic table story significance'' oxford university press considers extent chemistry periodic system reduced quantum mechanics veltman martinus jg ''facts mysteries elementary particle physics'' '''on wikibooks''' https enwikibooksorg wiki quantum world quantum world external links j o'connor e f robertson http www historymcsst andrewsacuk history histtopics quantum age beginshtml history quantum mechanics https webarchiveorg web http wwwquantikiorg wiki indexphp introduction quantum theory introduction quantum theory quantiki http bethecornelledu quantum physics made relatively simple three video lectures hans bethe course material http oycyaleedu sites default files notes quantum cookbookpdf quantum cook book http oycyaleedu physics phys sessions phys fundamentals physics ii


'''quantum chemistry''' also called '''molecular quantum mechanics''' branch chemistry focused application quantum mechanics chemical systems understanding electronic structure molecular dynamics using schr dinger equations central topics quantum chemistry chemists rely heavily spectroscopy information regarding quantization energy molecular scale obtained common methods infra red ir spectroscopy nuclear magnetic resonance nmr spectroscopy scanning probe microscopy quantum chemistry studies ground state individual atoms molecules excited states transition states occur chemical reactions

Natural science
Chemistry
Quantum chemistry


calculations quantum chemical studies use also semi empirical methods based quantum mechanical principles deal time dependent problems many quantum chemical studies assume nuclei rest born oppenheimer approximation many calculations involve iterative methods include self consistent field methods major goals quantum chemistry include increasing accuracy results small molecular systems increasing size large molecules processed limited scaling considerations computation time increases power number atoms history view birth quantum chemistry starting


discovery schr dinger equation application hydrogen atom however article walter heitler fritz london often recognized first milestone history quantum chemistry first application quantum mechanics diatomic hydrogen molecule thus phenomenon chemical bond following years much progress accomplished robert mulliken max born j robert oppenheimer linus pauling erich h ckel douglas hartree vladimir fock cite history quantum chemistry also goes discovery


cathode rays michael faraday statement black body radiation problem gustav kirchhoff suggestion ludwig boltzmann energy states physical system could discrete quantum hypothesis max planck energy radiating atomic system theoretically divided number discrete energy elements '' '' energy elements proportional frequency '' '' individually radiate energy numerical value called planck 's constant explain photoelectric effect ie shining light


called determining electronic structure molecule said electronic structure molecule crystal implies essentially chemical properties exact solution schr dinger equation obtained hydrogen atom though exact solutions bound state energies hydrogen molecular ion identified terms generalized lambert w function since atomic molecular systems involve motions three particles schr dinger equations cannot solved exactly approximate solutions must sought valence bond although


mathematical basis quantum chemistry laid schr dinger generally accepted first true calculation quantum chemistry german physicists walter heitler fritz london hydrogen h sub sub molecule heitler london 's method extended american theoretical physicist john c slater american theoretical chemist linus pauling become valence bond vb heitler london slater pauling hlsp method method attention primarily devoted pairwise interactions atoms method therefore correlates closely classical chemists' drawings bonds focuses


atomic orbitals atom combine give individual chemical bonds molecule formed incorporating two key concepts orbital hybridization resonance molecular orbital anti bonding molecular orbital butadiene alternative approach developed friedrich hund robert mulliken electrons described mathematical functions delocalized entire molecule hund mulliken approach molecular orbital mo method less intuitive chemists turned capable predicting spectroscopic properties better vb method approach conceptional basis


hartree fock method post hartree fock methods density functional theory thomas fermi model developed independently thomas fermi first attempt describe many electron systems basis electronic density instead wave functions although successful treatment entire molecules method provide basis known density functional theory dft modern day dft uses kohn sham method density functional split four terms kohn sham kinetic energy external potential exchange correlation energies


large part focus developing dft improving exchange correlation terms though method less developed post hartree fock methods significantly lower computational requirements scaling typically worse ''n'' sup sup respect ''n'' basis functions pure functionals allow tackle larger polyatomic molecules even macromolecules computational affordability often comparable accuracy mp ccsd post hartree fock methods made one popular methods computational chemistry chemical dynamics step consist solving schr dinger equation total molecular


hamiltonian order study motion molecules direct solution schr dinger equation called ''quantum molecular dynamics'' within semiclassical approximation ' 'semiclassical molecular dynamics'' within classical mechanics framework ''molecular dynamics md '' statistical approaches using example monte carlo methods mixed quantum classical dynamics also possible adiabatic chemical dynamics adiabatic dynamics interatomic interactions represented single scalar potentials called potential energy surfaces born oppenheimer approximation introduced born oppenheimer pioneering applications chemistry performed rice ramsperger kassel


generalized rrkm theory marcus took transition state theory developed eyring account methods enable simple estimates unimolecular reaction rates characteristics potential surface non adiabatic chemical dynamics non adiabatic dynamics consists taking interaction several coupled potential energy surface corresponding different electronic quantum states molecule coupling terms called vibronic couplings pioneering work field done stueckelberg landau zener work known


landau zener transition formula allows transition probability two diabatic potential curves neighborhood avoided crossing calculated spin forbidden reactions one type non adiabatic reactions least one change spin state occurs progressing reactant product see also atomic physics computational chemistry condensed matter physics car parrinello molecular dynamics electron localization function international academy quantum molecular science molecular modelling physical chemistry list quantum chemistry solid state physics software qmc home ''quantum aspects life'' quantum electrochemistry relativistic quantum chemistry theoretical physics spin forbidden reactions references gavroglu kostas


ana sim es ''neither physics chemistry history quantum chemistry'' mit press karplus porter rn ''atoms molecules introduction students physical chemistry'' benjamin cummings publishing company considers extent chemistry especially periodic system reduced quantum mechanics external links http vergilchemistrygatechedu notes indexhtml sherrill group notes http wwwshodororg chemviz chemviz curriculum support resources http wwwquantum chemistry historycom early ideas history quantum chemistry theoretical chemistry


ibm q system one first circuit based commercial quantum computer '''quantum computing''' type computation harnesses collective properties quantum states superposition interference entanglement perform calculations devices perform quantum computations known '''quantum computers''' ref name report ref though current quantum computers small outperform usual classical computers practical applications believed capable solving certain computational problems integer factorization underlies rsa encryption substantially faster classical computers study quantum computing subfield quantum information science quantum

Formal science
Computer science
Quantum computing


computing began physicist paul benioff proposed quantum mechanical model turing machine ref name computer physical system ref richard feynman yuri manin later suggested quantum computer potential simulate things classical computer could feasibly ref name manin vychislimoe ref peter shor developed quantum algorithm factoring integers potential decrypt rsa encrypted communications isaac chuang neil gershenfeld mark kubinec created first two qubit quantum computer could perform computations despite ongoing experimental progress since late researchers believe fault tolerant quantum computing


still rather distant dream ref name preskill ref recent years investment quantum computing research increased public private sectors october google ai partnership us national aeronautics space administration nasa claimed performed quantum computation infeasible classical computer whether claim still valid topic active research several types quantum computers also known quantum computing systems including quantum circuit model quantum turing machine adiabatic quantum computer one way quantum computer various quantum cellular


automata widely used model quantum circuit based quantum bit qubit somewhat analogous bit classical computation qubit quantum state superposition states measured however always probability either outcome depends qubit 's quantum state immediately prior measurement efforts towards building physical quantum computer focus technologies transmons ion traps topological quantum computers aim create high quality qubits ref name report