earlier infant frees mother invest additional offspring ref name moralanimal evolutionary psychology also recognizes role kin selection reciprocity evolving prosocial traits altruism ref name moralanimal like chimpanzees bonobos humans subtle flexible social instincts allowing form extended families lifelong friendships political alliances ref name moralanimal studies testing theoretical predictions evolutionary psychologists made modest findings topics infanticide intelligence marriage patterns promiscuity perception beauty bride price parental investment ref name social behavior despite difficulty many careful informative studies human social


research historian lynn hunt says historians complained researchers quote p ref hunt states attempts build subfield psychohistory collapsed weight presuppositions concludes 'iron curtain' historians psychologyremains standing products evolution adaptations exaptations byproducts random variation traits organisms evolutionary adaptations noted table traits may also exaptations byproducts adaptations sometimes called spandrels random variation individuals psychological adaptations hypothesized innate relatively easy learn

Social science
Psychology
Evolutionary psychology


manifest cultures worldwide example ability toddlers learn language virtually training likely psychological adaptation hand ancestral humans read write thus today learning read write requires extensive training presumably involves repurposing cognitive capacities evolved response selection pressures unrelated written language however variations manifest behavior result universal mechanisms interacting different local environments example caucasians move northern climate equator darker skin mechanisms


regulating pigmentation change rather input mechanisms change resulting different outputs class wikitable adaptation exaptation byproduct random variation definition organismic trait designed solve ancestral problem shows complexity special design functionality adaptation purposed solve different adaptive problem byproduct adaptive mechanism current ancestral function random variations adaptation byproduct physiological example bones umbilical cord small bones inner ear white color bones


belly button bumps skull convex concave belly button shape psychological example toddlers' ability learn talk minimal instruction voluntary attention ability learn read write variations verbal intelligence one tasks evolutionary psychology identify psychological traits likely adaptations byproducts random variation george c williams suggested adaptation special onerous concept used really necessary noted williams others adaptations identified


improbable complexity species universality adaptive functionality obligate facultative adaptations question may asked adaptation whether generally obligate relatively robust face typical environmental variation facultative sensitive typical environmental variation ref name buss buss evolutionary psychology ref sweet taste sugar pain hitting one 's knee concrete result fairly obligate psychological adaptations typical environmental variability development much affect operation contrast facultative adaptations somewhat like statements example adaptation skin tan


conditional exposure sunlight example another facultative adaptation psychological adaptation facultative evolutionary psychologists concern developmental environmental inputs influence expression adaptation cultural universals evolutionary psychologists hold behaviors traits occur universally cultures good candidates evolutionary adaptations ref name psychology cultural universals include behaviors related language cognition social roles gender roles technology evolved psychological adaptations ability learn language interact cultural inputs produce specific behaviors eg specific language learned basic gender differences


greater eagerness sex among men greater coyness among women explained sexually dimorphic psychological adaptations reflect different reproductive strategies males females ref name moralanimal ref name bs pinker ref evolutionary psychologists contrast approach term standard social science model according mind general purpose cognition device shaped almost entirely culture ref name instinct instinct encyclop dia britannica encyclop dia britannica online encyclop dia britannica web february http wwwbritannicacom ebchecked topic instinct ref environment evolutionary adaptedness evolutionary psychology argues properly understand functions brain one must understand properties environment


million years ago time roughly coincides start pleistocene million years ago pleistocene ended mere years ago human adaptations either newly evolved pleistocene maintained stabilizing selection pleistocene evolutionary psychology therefore proposes majority human psychological mechanisms adapted reproductive problems frequently encountered pleistocene environments ref name symons ref broad terms problems include growth development differentiation maintenance mating parenting social relationships environment evolutionary adaptedness significantly different modern society ref name ebo social


ancestors modern humans lived smaller groups cohesive cultures stable rich contexts identity meaning ref name ebo social social behaviour animal encyclop dia britannica encyclop dia britannica online encyclop dia britannica web january http wwwbritannicacom ebchecked topic animal social behaviour ref researchers look existing hunter gatherer societies clues hunter gatherers lived environment evolutionary adaptedness ref name moralanimal unfortunately surviving hunter gatherer societies different pushed best land harsh environments clear closely reflect ancestral culture ref name moralanimal however around


world small band hunter gatherers offer similar developmental system young hunter gatherer childhood model konner evolved developmental niche evolved nest narvaez et al characteristics niche largely social mammals evolved million years ago soothing perinatal experience several years request breastfeeding nearly constant affection physical proximity responsiveness need mitigating offspring distress self directed play humans multiple responsive caregivers initial studies show importance components early life positive child outcomes evolutionary psychologists sometimes look chimpanzees bonobos great apes


insight human ancestral behavior ref name moralanimal wright ref mismatches since organism 's adaptations suited ancestral environment new different environment create mismatch humans mostly adapted pleistocene environments psychological mechanisms sometimes exhibit mismatches modern environment one example fact although people killed guns us annually whereas spiders snakes kill handful people nonetheless learn fear spiders snakes easily pointed gun easily unpointed gun rabbits flowers ref name ohman ref


animals explained junk food exaggerated stimulus cravings salt sugar fats says television exaggeration social cues laughter smiling faces attention grabbing action magazine centerfolds double cheeseburgers pull instincts intended environment evolutionary adaptedness breast development sign health youth fertility prospective mate fat rare vital nutrient ref name abcde ref psychologist mark van vugt recently argued modern organizational leadership mismatch argument humans adapted work large anonymous bureaucratic


structures formal hierarchies human mind still responds personalized charismatic leadership primarily context informal egalitarian settings hence dissatisfaction alienation many employees experience salaries bonuses privileges exploit instincts relative status attract particularly males senior executive positions research methods evolutionary theory heuristic may generate hypotheses might developed theoretical approaches one major goals adaptationist research identify organismic traits likely adaptations byproducts random variations noted earlier adaptations


expected show evidence complexity functionality species universality byproducts random variation addition adaptations expected manifest proximate mechanisms interact environment either generally obligate facultative fashion see evolutionary psychologists also interested identifying proximate mechanisms sometimes termed mental mechanisms psychological adaptations type information take input process information outputs ref name buss evolutionary developmental psychology evo devo focuses adaptations may activated certain developmental times eg losing baby teeth adolescence etc


events development individual may alter life history trajectories evolutionary psychologists use several strategies develop test hypotheses whether psychological trait likely evolved adaptation buss notes methods include blockquote poem ''cross cultural consistency'' characteristics demonstrated cross cultural human universals smiling crying facial expressions presumed evolved psychological adaptations several evolutionary psychologists collected massive datasets cultures around world assess cross cultural universality ''function form problem solution '' fact males females risk potential misidentification


genetic offspring referred paternity insecurity led evolutionary psychologists hypothesize compared females male jealousy would focused sexual rather emotional infidelity ''form function reverse engineering solution problem '' morning sickness associated aversions certain types food pregnancy seemed characteristics evolved adaptation complexity universality margie profet hypothesized function avoid ingestion toxins early pregnancy could damage fetus otherwise likely harmless healthy non pregnant women ''corresponding neurological modules'' evolutionary psychology cognitive


neuropsychology mutually compatible evolutionary psychology helps identify psychological adaptations ultimate evolutionary functions neuropsychology helps identify proximate manifestations adaptations ''current evolutionary adaptiveness'' addition evolutionary models suggest evolution occurs across large spans time recent research demonstrated evolutionary shifts fast dramatic consequently evolutionary psychologists focused impact psychological traits current environment research used inform estimates prevalence traits time work informative studying evolutionary psychopathology poem blockquote evolutionary psychologists


also use various sources data testing including experiments archaeological records data hunter gatherer societies observational studies neuroscience data self reports surveys public records human products recently additional methods tools introduced based fictional scenarios ref name eldakar ref mathematical models ref name eldakar ref multi agent computer simulations ref name lima ref main areas research foundational areas research evolutionary psychology divided broad categories adaptive problems arise theory evolution survival mating parenting family kinship interactions non kin cultural evolution survival individual level psychological adaptations problems survival clear targets


evolution physical psychological adaptations major problems ancestors present day humans faced included food selection acquisition territory selection physical shelter avoiding predators environmental threats ref name buss b buss dm evolutionary psychology new science mind ref consciousness consciousness meets george williams' criteria species universality complexity functionality trait apparently increases fitness paper evolution consciousness john eccles argues special anatomical physical adaptations mammalian cerebral cortex gave rise consciousness contrast others argued recursive circuitry underwriting consciousness


much primitive evolved initially pre mammalian species improves capacity interaction social ''and'' natural environments providing energy saving neutral gear otherwise energy expensive motor output machine place recursive circuitry may well provided basis subsequent development many functions consciousness facilitates higher organisms outlined bernard j baars richard dawkins suggested humans evolved consciousness order make subjects thought ref name gaulin daniel povinelli suggests large tree climbing apes evolved consciousness take account one 's


mass moving safely among tree branches ref name gaulin consistent hypothesis gordon gallup found chimpanzees orangutans little monkeys terrestrial gorillas demonstrated self awareness mirror tests ref name gaulin concept consciousness refer voluntary action awareness wakefulness however even voluntary behavior involves unconscious mechanisms many cognitive processes take place cognitive unconscious unavailable conscious awareness behaviors conscious learned become unconscious seemingly automatic learning especially implicitly learning skill take place outside consciousness example plenty people know turn right


ride bike accurately explain actually evolutionary psychology approaches self deception adaptation improve one 's results social exchanges ref name gaulin sleep may evolved conserve energy activity would less fruitful dangerous night especially winter season ref name gaulin gaulin mcburney p ref sensation perception many experts jerry fodor write purpose perception knowledge evolutionary psychologists hold primary purpose guide action ref name gaulin example say depth perception seems


evolved help us know distances objects rather help us move around space ref name gaulin evolutionary psychologists say animals fiddler crabs humans use eyesight collision avoidance suggesting vision basically directing action providing knowledge ref name gaulin gaulin mcburney pp ref building maintaining sense organs metabolically expensive organs evolve improve organism 's fitness ref name gaulin half brain devoted processing sensory information brain consumes roughly one fourth one 's metabolic resources senses


includes useful information sources distances objects ref name gaulin larger animals naturally make lower pitched sounds consequence size ref name gaulin range animal hears hand determined adaptation homing pigeons example hear low pitched sound infrasound carries great distances even though smaller animals detect higher pitched sounds ref name gaulin taste smell respond chemicals environment thought significant fitness environment evolutionary adaptedness ref name gaulin example salt sugar apparently valuable


human pre human inhabitants environment evolutionary adaptedness present day humans intrinsic hunger salty sweet tastes ref name gaulin sense touch actually many senses including pressure heat cold tickle pain ref name gaulin pain unpleasant adaptive ref name gaulin important adaptation senses range shifting organism becomes temporarily less sensitive sensation ref name gaulin example one 's eyes automatically adjust dim bright ambient light ref name gaulin sensory abilities different organisms often coevolve case hearing echolocating bats


moths evolved respond sounds bats make ref name gaulin evolutionary psychologists contend perception demonstrates principle modularity specialized mechanisms handling particular perception tasks ref name gaulin example people damage particular part brain suffer specific defect able recognize faces prosopagnosia ref name gaulin evolutionary psychology suggests indicates called face reading module ref name gaulin learning facultative adaptations evolutionary psychology learning said accomplished evolved capacities specifically facultative adaptations ref name learningg gaulin mcburney chapter ref facultative adaptations express differently depending


input environment ref name learningg sometimes input comes development helps shape development ref name learningg example migrating birds learn orient stars critical period maturation ref name learningg evolutionary psychologists believe humans also learn language along evolved program also critical periods ref name learningg input also come daily tasks helping organism cope changing environmental conditions ref name learningg example animals evolved pavlovian conditioning order solve problems causal relationships ref name learningg animals accomplish learning tasks easily tasks resemble problems faced


evolutionary past rat learning find food water ref name learningg learning capacities sometimes demonstrate differences sexes ref name learningg many animal species example males solve spatial problems faster accurately females due effects male hormones development ref name learningg might true humans ref name learningg emotion motivation motivations direct energize behavior emotions provide affective component motivation positive negative ref name gaulin gaulin mcburney pp ref early paul ekman colleagues began line research suggests


brain recently suggested reward systems may evolve way may inherent unavoidable trade motivational system activities short versus long duration cognition cognition refers internal representations world internal information processing evolutionary psychology perspective cognition general purpose uses heuristics strategies generally increase likelihood solving problems ancestors present day humans routinely faced example present day humans far likely solve logic problems involve detecting cheating common problem given humans'


social nature logic problem put purely abstract terms ref name gaulin gaulin mcburney chapter ref since ancestors present day humans encounter truly random events present day humans may cognitively predisposed incorrectly identify patterns random sequences gamblers' fallacy one example gamblers may falsely believe hit lucky streak even outcome actually random independent previous trials people believe fair coin flipped times heads appears time tenth flip greater


chance getting tails ref name gaulin humans find far easier make diagnoses predictions using frequency data information presented probabilities percentages presumably ancestors present day humans lived relatively small tribes usually fewer people frequency information readily available ref name gaulin personality evolutionary psychology primarily interested finding commonalities people basic human psychological nature evolutionary perspective fact people fundamental differences personality traits initially presents something puzzle ref name gaulin gaulin mcburney chapter ref note


field behavioral genetics concerned statistically partitioning differences people genetic environmental sources variance however understanding concept heritability tricky heritability refers differences people never degree traits individual due environmental genetic factors since traits always complex interweaving personality traits conceptualized evolutionary psychologists due normal variation around optimum due frequency dependent selection behavioral polymorphisms facultative adaptations like variability height personality traits may simply reflect inter individual


see particular pinker 's ''the language instinct'' pinker bloom argue language mental faculty shares many likenesses complex organs body suggests like organs language evolved adaptation since known mechanism complex organs develop pinker follows chomsky arguing fact children learn human language explicit instruction suggests language including grammar basically innate needs activated interaction chomsky believe language


evolved adaptation suggests likely evolved byproduct adaptation called spandrel pinker bloom argue organic nature language strongly suggests adaptational origin evolutionary psychologists hold foxp gene may well associated evolution human language ref name wr workman lance reader evolutionary psychology introduction nd ed cambridge university press chapter ref psycholinguist myrna gopnik identified dominant gene causes language impairment ke family britain ref name wr gene turned


mutation foxp gene ref name wr humans unique allele gene otherwise closely conserved mammalian evolutionary history ref name wr unique allele seems first appeared thousand years ago universal humans ref name wr however popular idea foxp 'grammar gene' triggered emergence language ''homo sapiens'' widely discredited currently several competing theories evolutionary origin language coexist none achieved general consensus ref name w r workman


reader number hypotheses suggesting language evolved fulfill social function social grooming bind large groups together making social contracts enable monogamy male provisioning use language impress potential mates hypotheses merits still highly speculative requires evidence different areas research linguistics anthropology ref researchers language acquisition primates humans michael tomasello talmy giv n argue innatist framework understated role imitation


stephen j gould argues unwarranted assume every aspect language adaptation language whole adaptation criticizes strands evolutionary psychology suggesting pan adaptionist view evolution dismisses pinker bloom 's question whether language evolved adaptation misleading argues instead biological viewpoint evolutionary origins language best conceptualized probable result convergence many separate adaptations complex system similar argument made terrence deacon


''the symbolic species'' argues different features language co evolved evolution mind ability use symbolic communication integrated cognitive processes theory language could evolved single adaptation accepted question becomes many functions basis adaptation several evolutionary hypotheses posited language evolved purpose social grooming evolved way show mating potential evolved form social contracts evolutionary psychologists recognize theories


found domains sexual jealousy females generally react adversely emotional infidelity males react sexual infidelity particular pattern predicted costs involved mating sex distinct women average prefer mate offer resources eg financial commitment thus woman risks losing resources mate commits emotional infidelity men hand never certain genetic paternity children bear offspring paternity insecurity suggests men sexual infidelity


would generally aversive emotional infidelity investing resources another man 's offspring lead propagation genes another interesting line research examines women 's mate preferences across ovulatory cycle theoretical underpinning research ancestral women would evolved mechanisms select mates certain traits depending hormonal status known ovulatory shift hypothesis theory posits ovulatory phase woman 's cycle approximately days woman 's cycle woman mated male high


genetic quality would likely average produce bear healthy offspring woman mated male low genetic quality putative preferences predicted especially apparent short term mating domains potential male mate would offering genes potential offspring hypothesis allows researchers examine whether women select mates characteristics indicate high genetic quality high fertility phase ovulatory cycles indeed studies shown women 's preferences vary across ovulatory cycle particular haselton miller


showed highly fertile women prefer creative poor men short term mates creativity may proxy good genes research gangestad et al indicates highly fertile women prefer men display social presence intrasexual competition traits may act cues would help women predict men may would able acquire resources parenting reproduction always costly women also men individuals limited degree devote time resources producing raising young expenditure may


also detrimental future condition survival reproductive output parental investment parental expenditure time energy etc benefits one offspring cost parents' ability invest components fitness clutton brock trivers components fitness beatty include well existing offspring parents' future reproduction inclusive fitness aid kin hamilton parental investment theory branch life history theory robert trivers' theory parental investment predicts sex making largest investment lactation nurturing protecting offspring discriminating


mating sex invests less offspring compete access higher investing sex see bateman 's principle ref name doi hdy sex differences parental effort important determining strength sexual selection benefits parental investment offspring large associated effects condition growth survival ultimately reproductive success offspring however benefits come cost parent 's ability reproduce future eg increased risk injury defending offspring predators loss mating


opportunities whilst rearing offspring increase time next reproduction overall parents selected maximize difference benefits costs parental care likely evolve benefits exceed costs cinderella effect alleged high incidence stepchildren physically emotionally sexually abused neglected murdered otherwise mistreated hands stepparents significantly higher rates genetic counterparts takes name fairy tale character cinderella story cruelly mistreated stepmother stepsisters daly wilson


noted evolutionary thinking led discovery important risk factor child homicide presence stepparent parental efforts investments valuable resources selection favors parental psyches allocate effort effectively promote fitness adaptive problems challenge parental decision making include accurate identification one 's offspring allocation one 's resources among sensitivity needs abilities convert parental investment fitness increments stepchildren seldom never valuable one 's expected fitness one 's offspring would parental


psyches easily parasitized appealing youngster must always incurred selective disadvantage daly wilson pp nbsp however note stepparents want abuse partner 's children genetic parenthood insurance abuse see step parental care primarily mating effort towards genetic parent ref name daly wilson daly wilson ref family kin inclusive fitness sum organism 's classical fitness many offspring produces supports number equivalents offspring add population


supporting others first component called classical fitness hamilton gene 's point view evolutionary success ultimately depends leaving behind maximum number copies population generally believed genes achieved causing individual leave maximum number viable offspring however w hamilton proved mathematically close relatives organism share identical genes gene also increase evolutionary success promoting reproduction survival related otherwise similar individuals hamilton concluded


leads natural selection favor organisms would behave ways maximize inclusive fitness also true natural selection favors behavior maximizes personal fitness hamilton 's rule describes mathematically whether gene altruistic behavior spread population math rb c math math c math reproductive cost altruist math b math reproductive benefit recipient altruistic behavior math r math probability population average individuals sharing altruistic gene commonly viewed


must distinguished green beard effect although generally true humans tend altruistic toward kin toward non kin relevant proximate mechanisms mediate cooperation debated see kin recognition arguing kin status determined primarily via social cultural factors co residence maternal association sibs etc ref name w ref others argued kin recognition also mediated biological factors facial resemblance immunogenetic similarity major histocompatibility complex mhc discussion interaction social biological


kin recognition factors see lieberman tooby cosmides https webarchiveorg web http wwwpsychucsbedu research cep papers kinnature pdf pdf whatever proximate mechanisms kin recognition substantial evidence humans act generally altruistically close genetic kin compared genetic non kin ref name referencea buss dm evolutionary psychology monterey brooks cole ref ref name gaulin gaulin mcburney evolutionary psychology nd ed ny prentice hall ref interactions non kin reciprocity although interactions non kin generally less altruistic compared kin cooperation maintained non kin via mutually beneficial reciprocity proposed robert trivers ref name trivers repeated encounters two players


evolutionary game choose either cooperate defect strategy mutual cooperation may favored even pays player short term defect cooperates direct reciprocity lead evolution cooperation probability w another encounter two individuals exceeds cost benefit ratio altruistic act w c b reciprocity also indirect information previous interactions shared reputation allows evolution cooperation indirect reciprocity natural selection favors strategies base


known trivers argues friendship various social emotions evolved order manage reciprocity ref name gaulin steven j c pp gaulin steven j c donald h mcburney evolutionary psychology prentice hall chapter pp ref liking disliking says evolved help present day humans' ancestors form coalitions others reciprocated exclude reciprocate ref name gaulin steven j c pp moral indignation may evolved prevent one 's altruism exploited cheaters gratitude may motivated present day humans' ancestors reciprocate appropriately benefiting others' altruism ref name gaulin steven j c pp likewise present day humans feel guilty


fail reciprocate ref name gaulin steven j c pp social motivations match evolutionary psychologists expect see adaptations evolved maximize benefits minimize drawbacks reciprocity ref name gaulin steven j c pp evolutionary psychologists say humans psychological adaptations evolved specifically help us identify nonreciprocators commonly referred cheaters ref name gaulin steven j c pp robert frank associates found participants prisoner 's dilemma scenario often able predict whether partners would cheat based half hour unstructured social interaction ref name gaulin steven j c pp experiment example linda mealey colleagues found people


better remembering faces people faces associated stories individuals cheating embezzling money church ref name gaulin steven j c pp strong reciprocity tribal reciprocity humans may evolved set psychological adaptations predispose cooperative otherwise would expected members tribal group nasty members tribal groups adaptations may consequence tribal warfare humans may also predispositions altruistic punishment punish group members violate group rules even altruistic behavior cannot


justified terms helping related kin selection cooperating interact direct reciprocity cooperating better reputation others indirect reciprocity ref name gintis ref ref name henrich ref evolutionary psychology culture though evolutionary psychology traditionally focused individual level behaviors determined species typical psychological adaptations considerable work done adaptations shape ultimately govern culture tooby cosmides ref name referenceb ref tooby cosmides argued mind consists many domain specific psychological adaptations may constrain cultural material learned taught


opposed domain general cultural acquisition program individual passively receives culturally transmitted material group tooby cosmides among others argue psyche evolved generate adaptive rather repetitive behavior hence critically analyzes behavior surrounding highly structured patterned ways used rich means source information construct 'private culture' individually tailored adaptive system consequence system may may mirror behavior others given respect tooby cosmides ref


name referenceb psychology sub fields developmental psychology according paul baltes benefits granted evolutionary selection decrease age natural selection eliminated many harmful conditions nonadaptive characteristics appear among older adults alzheimer disease disease killed year olds instead year olds may disease natural selection could eliminated ages ago thus unaided evolutionary pressures nonadaptive conditions modern humans suffer aches pains infirmities aging benefits evolutionary selection decrease age need modern technological mediums non adaptive


conditions increases social psychology humans highly social species many adaptive problems associated navigating social world eg maintaining allies managing status hierarchies interacting outgroup members coordinating social activities collective decision making researchers emerging field evolutionary social psychology made many discoveries pertaining topics traditionally studied social psychologists including person perception social cognition attitudes altruism emotions group dynamics leadership motivation prejudice intergroup relations cross cultural differences endeavouring solve problem humans early age show determination chimpanzees comparable facial expression researchers suspect human


determined expression evolved human determinedly working problem people frequently help abnormal psychology adaptationist hypotheses regarding etiology psychological disorders often based analogies physiological psychological dysfunctions noted table prominent theorists evolutionary psychiatrists include michael mcguire anthony stevens randolph nesse others suggest mental disorders due interactive effects nature nurture often multiple contributing causes ref name gaulin steven j c pp class wikitable possible causes psychological 'abnormalities' adaptationist perspective br summary


based information textbooks titled evolutionary psychology buss ref name referencea gaulin mcburney ref name gaulin workman reader well cosmides tooby ''toward evolutionary taxonomy treatable conditions'' causal mechanism failure malfunction adaptation physiological example hypothesized psychological example '''functioning adaptation adaptive defense ''' fever vomiting br small functional responses infection ingestion toxins small mild depression anxiety small functional responses mild loss stress small ref name ncbinlmnihgov ref small reduction social interactions prevent infection contagious pathogens small '''by product adaptation '''


intestinal gas br small byproduct digestion fiber small sexual fetishes br small possible byproduct normal sexual arousal adaptations 'imprinted' unusual objects situations small '''adaptations multiple effects''' sickle cell disease small gene imparts malaria resistance homozygous form causes sickle cell anemia small schizophrenia bipolar disorder small may side effects adaptations high levels creativity perhaps dependent alternate developmental trajectories small '''malfunctioning adaptation''' allergies br small reactive immunological responses small autism br small possible malfunctioning theory mind module small '''frequency dependent morphs''' two sexes different blood immune system


types personality disorders br small may represent alternative behavioral strategies possibly dependent prevalence population small '''mismatch ancestral current environments''' type diabetes br small may related abundance sugary foods modern world small frequent modern interaction strangers compared family close friends may predispose greater incidence depression anxiety '''tails normal distribution bell curve ''' dwarfism gigantism extremities distribution cognitive personality traits br small eg extremely introversion extraversion intellectual giftedness intellectual disability small evolutionary psychologists suggested


schizophrenia bipolar disorder may reflect side effect genes fitness benefits increased creativity ref name gaulin gaulin mcburney pp ref individuals bipolar disorder especially creative manic phases close relatives people schizophrenia found likely creative professions ref name gaulin report american psychiatry association found people suffered schizophrenia roughly rate western non western cultures industrialized pastoral societies suggesting schizophrenia disease civilization arbitrary social invention ref


adaptive related adaptive behaviors males generally aggressive females selective partners far greater effort contribute pregnancy child rearing males aggressive hypothesized stem intense reproductive competition faced males low status may especially vulnerable childless may evolutionary advantageous engage highly risky violently aggressive behavior increase status therefore reproductive success may explain males generally involved crimes low


status unmarried associated criminality furthermore competition females argued particularly intensive late adolescence young adulthood theorized explain crime rates particularly high period ref name aep aurelio jos figueredo paul robert gladden zachary hohman evolutionary psychology criminal behaviour ref sociologists underlined differential exposure androgens cause behaviors notably lee ellis evolutionary neuroandrogenic ena theory many conflicts result harm death involve status reputation seemingly trivial insults ref name aep steven pinker book ''the


blank slate'' argues non state societies without police important credible deterrence aggression therefore important perceived credible reputation retaliation resulting humans developing instincts revenge well protecting reputation honor pinker argues development state police dramatically reduced level violence compared ancestral environment whenever state breaks locally poor areas city humans organize groups protection aggression


concepts violent revenge protecting honor become extremely important ref name aep rape theorized reproductive strategy facilitates propagation rapist 's progeny strategy may adopted men otherwise unlikely appealing women therefore cannot form legitimate relationships high status men socially vulnerable women unlikely retaliate increase reproductive success even sociobiological theories rape highly controversial traditional theories typically consider rape behavioral adaptation objections theory made


ethical religious political well scientific grounds psychology religion adaptationist perspectives religious belief suggest like behavior religious behaviors product human brain organ functions cognition 's functional structure argued genetic foundation therefore subject effects natural selection sexual selection like organs tissues functional structure universally shared amongst humans solved important problems survival reproduction ancestral environments however evolutionary psychologists remain divided whether religious belief likely


time case claim provider male could buy protection service family males bartering food hunted critics point fact valuable food food contained rarest essential nutrients would different different ecologies vegetable geographical areas animal others making impossible hunting styles relying physical strength risk taking universally similar value bartered food instead making inevitable parts africa


food gathered need major physical strength would valuable barter protection contradiction evolutionary psychology 's claim men needing sexually visual women fast speed assessing women 's fertility women needed able assess male 's genes claim male sexual jealousy guarding infidelity also pointed would pointless male fast assess female fertility needed assess risk jealous male mate case


name pinker critics argued evolutionary psychologists created false dichotomy view caricature sssm ref name richardson ref critics regard sssm rhetorical device straw man ref name levy ref ref name richardson suggest scientists evolutionary psychologists associate sssm believe mind blank state devoid natural predispositions ref name levy reductionism determinism critics view evolutionary psychology form genetic reductionism genetic determinism ref name plotkin henry p plotkin henry evolutionary thought psychology brief history blackwell p ref common critique


evolutionary psychology address complexity individual development experience fails explain influence genes behavior individual cases ref name instinct evolutionary psychologists respond working within nature nurture interactionist framework acknowledges many psychological adaptations facultative sensitive environmental variations individual development discipline generally focused proximate analyses behavior rather focus study distal ultimate causality evolution psychological adaptations field behavioral genetics focused study proximate influence genes behavior ref name amps testability


hypotheses frequent critique discipline hypotheses evolutionary psychology frequently arbitrary difficult impossible adequately test thus questioning status actual scientific discipline example many current traits probably evolved serve different functions ref name psychology thus potentially infinite number alternative explanations trait evolved critics contend impossible determine exact explanation ref name murphy dominic pp murphy dominic adaptationism psychological explanation evolutionary psychology pp springer boston ref evolutionary psychology hypotheses


difficult test evolutionary psychologists assert impossible ref name buss haselton pp testing ideas evolutionary origins psychological phenomena indeed challenging task impossible one buss et al pinker b ref part critique scientific base evolutionary psychology includes critique concept environment evolutionary adaptation eea critics argued researchers know little environment ''homo sapiens'' evolved explaining specific traits adaption environment becomes highly speculative ref name plotkin henry p plotkin henry evolutionary thought psychology brief


history blackwell p ref evolutionary psychologists respond know many things environment including facts present day humans' ancestors hunter gatherers generally lived small tribes etc edward hagen argues human past environments radically different sense carboniferous jurassic periods animal plant taxa era similar modern world geology ecology hagen argues would deny organs evolved eea example lungs evolving oxygen


rich atmosphere yet critics question whether brain 's eea truly knowable argues constitutes selective scepticism hagen also argues evolutionary psychology research based fact females get pregnant males cannot hagen observes also true eea john alcock describes time machine argument critics arguing since possible travel back time eea cannot determined going thus adaptive alcock argues present day evidence allows researchers


reasonably confident conditions eea fact many human behaviours adaptive ''current'' environment evidence ancestral environment humans much common present one behaviours would evolved ancestral environment thus alcock concludes researchers make predictions adaptive value traits similarly dominic murphy argues alternative explanations cannot forwarded instead need evidence predictions one explanation makes predictions others cannot reasonable confidence


explanation addition murphy argues historical sciences also make predictions modern phenomena come explanations past phenomena example cosmologists look evidence would expect see modern day big bang true geologists make predictions modern phenomena determine asteroid wiped dinosaurs murphy argues historical disciplines conduct tests without time machine onus critics show evolutionary psychology untestable historical disciplines methods


judged across board singled ridicule one context ref name murphy dominic pp modularity mind evolutionary psychologists generally presume like body mind made many evolved modular adaptations ref name kurzban r ref although disagreement within discipline regarding degree general plasticity generality modules ref name amps ref suggested modularity evolves compared non modular networks would conferred advantage terms fitness connection costs lower contrast academics argue unnecessary posit existence


name cognitionandculturenet ref fit research results posits instead humans cognitive gadgets special purpose organs thought built course development social interaction similar criticisms articulated subrena e smith university new hampshire response evolutionary psychologists evolutionary psychologists addressed many critics see example books segerstr le ''defenders truth battle science sociobiology debate beyond'' barkow ''missing revolution darwinism social scientists'' alcock ''the triumph sociobiology'' ref name alcock john alcock john triumph sociobiology oxford oxford university press ref


among rebuttals criticisms straw men based incorrect nature versus nurture dichotomy based misunderstandings discipline etc ref name amps ref name alcock john robert kurzban suggested critics field err slightly missing mark confusion deep profound 's like marksmen ca n't quite hit center target 're holding gun backwards see also affective neuroscience behavioural genetics biocultural evolution biosocial criminology collective unconscious cognitive neuroscience cultural neuroscience darwinian happiness darwinian literary studies deep social mind dunbar 's number evolution


brain list evolutionary psychologists evolutionary origin religions evolutionary psychiatry evolutionary psychology culture molecular evolution primate cognition hominid intelligence human ethology great ape language chimpanzee intelligence cooperative eye hypothesis id ego superego intersubjectivity mirror neuron noogenesis origin language origin speech ovulatory shift hypothesis primate empathy shadow psychology simulation theory empathy theory mind neuroethology paleolithic diet paleolithic lifestyle r k selection theory social neuroscience sociobiology universal darwinism notes references barkow j cosmides l tooby j adapted mind evolutionary psychology generation culture oxford oxford university press buss


evolutionary psychology'' buss ed ''the handbook evolutionary psychology'' pp nbsp hoboken nj wiley https webarchiveorg web https wwwpsychucsbedu research cep papers bussconceptual pdf full text reading heylighen f http pcpvubacbe papers evolutionarypsychology qolpdf evolutionary psychology michalos ed encyclopedia quality life research springer berlin https webarchiveorg web https wwwuibkacat psychologie humanethologie einfuehrung die humanethologie dateien medicus engl coverpdf gerhard medicus human bridging gap sciences body mind berlin vwb oikkonen venla ''gender sexuality reproduction evolutionary narratives'' london routledge external links http psychtableorg psychtableorg collaborative effort catalog human psychological adaptations http wwwsystemsthinkercom interests mind glabachep glabachwhatisepshtml evolutionary psychology clinical evolutionary psychologist dale glaebach http wwwpsychegamescom evolutionary psychologyhtm evolutionary psychology approaches psychology


academic societies http wwwhbescom human behavior evolution society international society dedicated using evolutionary theory study human nature https webarchiveorg web http evolutionanthrounivieacat ishe international society human ethology promotes ethological perspectives study humans worldwide http wwwehbeacom european human behaviour evolution association interdisciplinary society supports activities european researchers interest evolutionary accounts human cognition behavior society http wwwaplsnetorg association politics life sciences international interdisciplinary association scholars scientists policymakers concerned evolutionary genetic ecological knowledge bearing political behavior public policy ethics


continuously mutually interactive include evolutionary biological sociological processes interact human social behavior '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwkliacat publications ahtml biological theory integrating development evolution cognition '' devoted theoretical advances fields biology cognition emphasis conceptual integration afforded evolutionary developmental approaches '' https webarchiveorg web http www intersciencewileycom cgi bin jtocid evolutionary anthropology '' '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwbbsonlineorg behavioral brain sciences '' interdisciplinary articles psychology neuroscience behavioral biology cognitive science artificial intelligence linguistics philosophy articles focused evolutionary analyses behavior '' https archivetoday http www intersciencewileycom journal home evolution development '' research relevant interface evolutionary developmental


biology '' http wwwevolutionaryreviewcom edhtm evolutionary review art science culture '' videos https wwwyoutubecom watchv pemx rim hs brief video clip evolution pbs series http wwwtedcom indexphp talks steven pinker chalks blank slatehtml ted talk steven pinker book blank slate modern denial human nature https wwwyoutubecom watchv pwhlvfiv q rsa talk evolutionary psychologist robert kurzban modularity mind based book ''why everyone else hypocrite'' https wwwyoutubecom watchv bzjucg l richard dawkins' lecture natural selection evolutionary psychology https wwwyoutubecom watchv z x auke rg evolutionary psychology steven pinker frans de waal audio recording https wwwyoutubecom watchv nnw b ewgh stone age minds conversation evolutionary psychologists leda cosmides john tooby http videogooglecom videoplaydocid q margaret mead samoa total start num type search plindex margaret mead


samoa review nature versus nurture debate triggered mead 's book coming age samoa http wwwbbccouk programmes p xr evolutionary psychology ''in time'' bbc radio discussion janet radcliffe richards nicholas humphrey steven rose nov psychology


four horsemen apocalypse depicted ''apocalypse'' work albrecht rer '''eschatology''' part theology concerned final events history ultimate destiny humanity concept commonly referred end world end times word arises greek '' schatos'' meaning last '' logy'' meaning study first appeared english around ''oxford english dictionary'' defines eschatology part theology concerned death judgment final destiny soul humankind


views concerning order significance eschatological events book revelation stands core much christian eschatology study revelation usually divided four interpretative methodologies hermeneutics futurist approach treats book revelation mostly unfulfilled prophecy taking place yet undetermined future preterist approach interprets revelation chiefly prophetic fulfillment past principally events first century ce historicist approach places revelation within context history identifying figures passages revelation major historical people events


together makes one full day night brahma 's year lifespan lives trillion billion years cycle birth growth decay renewal individual level finds echo cosmic order yet affected vagaries divine intervention vaishnavite belief shaivites hold view shiva incessantly destroying creating world islam sayings prophet muhammad regarding signs day judgement document islamic eschatology sufi mystic philosopher ibn arabi ca shown 'arsh throne god pulpits


righteous al aminun seven rows angels gabriel al ruh a'raf barrier pond abundance al maqam al mahmud praiseworthy station prophet muhammad stand intercede faithful mizan scale sir bridge jahannam hell marj al jannat meadow paradise muhammad 's sayings subject traditionally divided major minor signs spoke several minor signs approach day judgment including abu hurairah reported muhammad said survive time would certainly see people would whips hands


judgment muhammad remarked one asked knows inquirer inquirer said tell indications muhammad said slave girl gives birth mistress master would find barefooted destitute shepherds goats vying one another construction magnificent buildings day judgment great liars beware wicked member tribe becomes ruler worthless member community becomes leader man


coming jesus emergence gog magog three sinkings cavings earth one east another west third arabian peninsula' judaism jewish eschatology discusses events happen end days according hebrew bible jewish thought includes ingathering exiled diaspora coming jewish messiah afterlife revival dead tzadikim judaism usually refers end times end days ''a arit ha yamim'' phrase appears several times


tanakh idea messianic age prominent place jewish thought incorporated part end days judaism addresses end times book daniel numerous prophetic passages hebrew scriptures also talmud particularly tractate avodah zarah old norse religion taoism zoroastrianism frashokereti zoroastrian doctrine final renovation universe evil destroyed everything else perfect unity god ahura mazda doctrinal premises


good eventually prevail evil creation initially perfectly good subsequently corrupted evil world ultimately restored perfection time creation salvation individual depended sum person 's thoughts words deeds could intervention whether compassionate capricious divine alter thus human bears responsibility fate soul simultaneously shares responsibility fate world ref name boyce ref analogies science


philosophy futures studies transhumanism researchers futures studies transhumanists investigate accelerating rate scientific progress may lead technological singularity future would profoundly unpredictably change course human history result ''homo sapiens'' longer dominant life form earth ref name agi conf sandberg anders http agi conforg wp content uploads agi singmodels pdf overview models technological singularity ref ref name hplusmagazine ref astronomy diagram showing life cycle sun occasionally term physical eschatology applied long term predictions astrophysics sun turn red


giant approximately billion years life earth become impossible due rise temperature long planet actually swallowed sun ref name zeilik ref even later sun become white dwarf see also references reading craig c hill ''in god 's time bible future'' grand rapids eerdmans dave hunt ''a cup trembling'' harvest house publishers eugene oregon jonathan menn ''biblical eschatology'' eugene oregon wipf stock joseph ratzinger ''eschatology death eternal life'' washington dc catholic


university america press robert sungenis scott temple david allen lewis ''shock wave '' subtitled ''the harold camping debacle'' new leaf press inc stephen travis ''christ come hope second coming jesus'' toronto clements publishing jerry l walls ed ''the oxford handbook eschatology'' new york oxford university press external links prophecy mythology


'''electronic''' may refer electronics science control electric energy semiconductor ''electronics'' magazine defunct american trade journal electronic storage storage data using electronic device electronic commerce e commerce trading products services using computer networks internet electronic publishing e publishing digital publication books magazines using computer networks internet electronic engineering electrical engineering discipline entertainment electronic band english alternative dance band ''electronic'' album self titled debut album british band electronic electronic music music genre electronic musical instrument

Applied science
Military sciences
Military weapons
Electronic


electronic game game employs electronics see also electronica electronic music genre consumer electronics devices including active amplifying electrical components


'''ethnology''' meaning 'nation' academic field compares analyzes characteristics different peoples relationships compare cultural social sociocultural anthropology ref name oxford ref scientific discipline compared ethnography study single groups direct contact culture ethnology takes research ethnographers compiled compares contrasts different cultures adam franti ek koll r term ''ethnologia'' ''ethnology'' credited adam franz koll r used defined ''historiae ivrisqve pvblici regni vngariae amoenitates'' published vienna science

Social science
Sociology
Cultural studies
Ethnology


nations peoples study learned men inquire origins languages customs institutions various nations finally fatherland ancient seats order able better judge nations peoples times koll r 's interest linguistic cultural diversity aroused situation native multi ethnic multilingual kingdom hungary roots among slovaks shifts began emerge gradual retreat ottoman empire distant balkans among goals


ethnology reconstruction human history formulation cultural invariants incest taboo culture change formulation generalizations human nature concept criticized since th century various philosophers hegel marx structuralism etc parts world ethnology developed along independent paths investigation pedagogical doctrine ''cultural anthropology'' becoming dominant especially united states ' 'social anthropology'' great britain distinction three terms increasingly blurry ethnology considered academic field since late


th century especially europe sometimes conceived comparative study human groups claude l vi strauss th century exploration america european explorers important role formulating new notions occident western world notion term used conjunction savages either seen brutal barbarian alternatively noble savage thus civilization opposed dualist manner barbary classic opposition constitutive even commonly shared ethnocentrism progress ethnology example claude


l vi strauss 's structural anthropology led criticism conceptions linear progress pseudo opposition societies histories societies without histories judged dependent limited view history constituted accumulative growth l vi strauss often referred montaigne 's essay cannibalism early example ethnology l vi strauss aimed structural method discovering universal invariants human society chief among believed incest taboo however claims cultural universalism criticized various th th century social thinkers including marx nietzsche foucault derrida althusser deleuze


french school ethnology particularly significant development discipline since early important figures movement included l vi strauss paul rivet marcel griaule germaine dieterlen jean rouch izmir ethnography museum zmir etnografya zesi seen courtyard scholars see list scholars ethnology see also anthropology cultural anthropology comparative cultural studies cross cultural studies ethnography folklore studies cultural survival culture ethnocentrism evolutionism indigenous peoples intangible cultural heritage marxism meta analysis critical theory modernism postmodernism postcolonial decoloniality primitive culture primitivism scientific racism secondary research society structural anthropology structural functionalism ethnobiology ethnopoetics ethnic


studies critical race studies cultural studies references bibliography forster johann georg adam ''voyage round world britannic majesty sloop resolution commanded capt james cook years '' vols london l vi strauss claude ''the elementary structures kinship'' ''structural anthropology'' mauss marcel originally published ''essai sur le forme et raison de l' change dans les soci archa ques'' classic text gift economy appears english edition '' gift form reason exchange archaic societies'' maybury lewis david


''akwe shavante society'' ''the politics ethnicity indigenous peoples latin american states'' clastres pierre ''society state'' pop mihai glauco sanga https wwwjstororg stable problemi generali dell'etnologia europea ''la ricerca folklorica'' ''la cultura popolare questioni teoriche'' april pp nbsp external links http wwwsiefhomeorg videos euro ethnoshtml european ethnology http wwwgermananthropologycom webpage history german anthropology ethnology http wwwethnologuecom languages describes languages ethnic groups found worldwide grouped host nation state http anthroamnhorg anthrohtml division anthropology american museum natural history objects pacific north american african asian ethnographic collections images detailed description linked


original catalogue pages field notebooks photographs available online http wwwminpakuacjp english national museum ethnology osaka japan ethnicity cultural anthropology sociological theories sociology culture


'''environmental law''' collective term encompassing aspects law provide protection environment related distinct set regulatory regimes strongly influenced environmental legal principles focus management specific natural resources forests minerals fisheries areas environmental impact assessment may fit neatly either category nonetheless important components environmental law section end scope history environment environmental sciences environmental policy early examples legal enactments designed consciously preserve environment sake human enjoyment found throughout

Humanities
Law
Civil law
Environmental law


history common law primary protection found law nuisance allowed private actions damages injunctions harm land thus smells emanating pigsties strict liability dumping rubbish damage exploding dams private enforcement however limited found woefully inadequate deal major environmental threats particularly threats common resources great stink dumping sewerage river thames began smell ghastly summer heat parliament evacuated ironically


metropolitan commission sewers act allowed metropolitan commission sewers close cesspits around city attempt clean simply led people pollute river days parliament passed act build london sewerage system london also suffered terrible air pollution culminated great smog turn triggered legislative response clean air act basic regulatory structure set limits emissions households business particularly burning coal inspectorate would enforce compliance


include banning specific chemical constituents consumer products eg bisphenol plastic bottles regulating pesticides resource sustainability impact assessment environmental impact assessment water resources water resources law water resources laws govern ownership use water resources including surface water ground water regulatory areas may include water conservation use restrictions ownership regimes mineral resources mineral resource laws cover forest resources timber operation regulated forestry law wildlife plants wildlife laws govern potential impact human activity wild animals whether directly individuals


populations indirectly via habitat degradation similar laws may operate protect plant species laws may enacted entirely protect biodiversity means protecting species deemed important reasons regulatory efforts may including creation special conservation statuses prohibitions killing harming disturbing protected species efforts induce support species recovery establishment wildlife refuges support conservation prohibitions trafficking species animal parts combat poaching fish game fish game laws regulate right pursue take kill certain kinds


fish wild animal game laws may restrict days harvest fish game number animals caught per person species harvested weapons fishing gear used laws may seek balance dueling needs preservation harvest manage environment populations fish game game laws provide legal structure collect license fees money used fund conservation efforts well obtain harvest information used wildlife management practice principles environmental law developed response emerging awareness


concern issues impacting entire world laws developed piecemeal variety reasons effort gone identifying key concepts guiding principles common environmental law whole principles discussed exhaustive list universally recognized accepted nonetheless represent important principles understanding environmental law around world sustainable development defined united nations environment programme development meets needs present without compromising ability future generations meet needs sustainable


development may considered together concepts integration development cannot considered isolation sustainability interdependence social economic development environmental protection interdependent laws mandating environmental impact assessment requiring encouraging development minimize environmental impacts may assessed principle modern concept sustainable development topic discussion united nations conference human environment stockholm conference driving force behind world commission environment development wced bruntland commission first un earth summit resulted


within current generation fair access current generation 's entitlement earth 's natural resources environmental equity considers present generation obligation account long term impacts activities act sustain global environment resource base future generations pollution control resource management laws may assessed principle transboundary responsibility defined international law context obligation protect one 's environment prevent damage neighboring environments unep considers transboundary responsibility international level potential limitation rights


sovereign state laws act limit externalities imposed upon human health environment may assessed principle public participation transparency identified essential conditions accountable governments industrial concerns organizations generally public participation transparency presented unep requiring effective protection human right hold express opinions seek receive impart ideas right access appropriate comprehensible timely information held governments industrial concerns economic social policies regarding sustainable use natural resources


product process standards use best available techniques similar techniques seen applications concept prevention polluter pays principle polluter pays principle stands idea environmental costs economic activities including cost preventing potential harm internalized rather imposed upon society large issues related responsibility cost environmental remediation compliance pollution control regulations involve principle theory environmental law continuing source controversy debates necessity fairness cost environmental regulation


ongoing well regarding appropriateness regulations vs market solutions achieve even agreed upon ends allegations scientific uncertainty fuel ongoing debate greenhouse gas regulation major factor debates whether ban particular pesticides cases science well settled unusual find corporations intentionally hide distort facts sow confusion common regulated industry argue environmental regulation basis cost difficulties arise performing cost benefit analysis environmental issues difficult quantify


value environmental value healthy ecosystem clean air species diversity many environmentalists' response pitting economy vs ecology summed former senator founder earth day gaylord nelson economy wholly owned subsidiary environment way around furthermore environmental issues seen many ethical moral dimension would transcend financial cost even efforts underway systemically recognize environmental costs assets account properly economic terms affected industries spark controversy fighting regulation


also many environmentalists public interest groups believe current regulations inadequate advocate stronger protection environmental law conferences annual public interest environmental law conference eugene oregon typically focus also connecting environmental law class race issues additional debate extent environmental laws fair regulated parties instance researchers preston teeter jorgen sandberg highlight smaller organizations often incur disproportionately larger costs result environmental regulations ultimately create additional barrier entry


new firms thus stifling competition innovation international environmental law global regional environmental issues increasingly subject international law debates environmental concerns implicate core principles international law subject numerous international agreements declarations customary international law important source international environmental law norms rules countries follow matter custom prevalent bind states world principle becomes customary law clear cut many arguments put forward


states wishing bound examples customary international law relevant environment include duty warn states promptly icons environmental nature environmental damages another state states may exposed principle stockholm declaration 'good neighbourliness' sic utere given customary international law static ever evolving continued increase air pollution carbon dioxide causing climate changes led discussions whether basic customary principles international law jus cogens peremptory norms erga omnes


principles could applicable enforcing international environmental law numerous legally binding international agreements encompass wide variety issue areas terrestrial marine atmospheric pollution wildlife biodiversity protection international environmental agreements generally multilateral sometimes bilateral treaties aka convention agreement protocol etc protocols subsidiary agreements built primary treaty exist many areas international law especially useful environmental field may used regularly incorporate recent scientific knowledge also permit countries reach agreement framework would contentious every detail


law sea itlos european court justice european court human rights regional treaty tribunals around world africa according international network environmental compliance enforcement inece major environmental issues africa drought flooding air pollution deforestation loss biodiversity freshwater availability degradation soil vegetation widespread poverty ref name inece ref us environmental protection agency epa focused growing urban industrial pollution water quality electronic waste indoor air cookstoves ref name epa ref hope provide enough aid


concerns regarding pollution impacts contaminate african environment well global environment intend protect human health particularly vulnerable populations children poor ref name epa order accomplish goals africa epa programs focused strengthening ability enforce environmental laws well public compliance programs work developing stronger environmental laws regulations standards ref name epa asia asian environmental compliance enforcement network aecen agreement asian countries dedicated improving cooperation environmental


laws asia countries include cambodia china indonesia india maldives japan korea malaysia nepal philippines pakistan singapore sri lanka thailand vietnam lao pdr european union european union issues secondary legislation environmental issues valid throughout eu called regulations many directives must implemented national legislation member states national states examples regulation ec implementation cites natura network centerpiece nature biodiversity policy encompassing bird directive eec changed ec habitats directive eec


made multiple sacs special areas conservation linked habitats directive spas special protected areas linked bird directive throughout europe eu legislation ruled article treaty functioning european union tfeu topics common eu legislation climate change air pollution water protection management waste management soil protection protection nature species biodiversity noise pollution cooperation environment third countries eu member states civil protection middle east us environmental protection agency working countries middle


vanuatu sprep established order provide assistance improving protecting environment well assure sustainable development future generations ref name sprep ref australia ''commonwealth v tasmania'' also known tasmanian dam case highly significant case australian environmental law ''environment protection biodiversity conservation act '' centrepiece environmental legislation australia sets legal framework protect manage nationally internationally important flora fauna ecological communities heritage places focuses protecting world heritage properties national heritage properties wetlands international importance


nationally threatened species ecological communities migratory species commonwealth marine areas great barrier reef marine park environment surrounding nuclear activities ref name australia ref however subject numerous reviews examining shortcomings latest taking place mid ref name reviewabout ref interim report review concluded laws created protect unique species habitats ineffective ref name interim ref brazil brazilian government created ministry environment order develop better strategies protecting environment use natural resources sustainably enforce public environmental policies ministry environment


implement enforce solid environmental law framework chinese officials face critical challenges effectively implementing laws clarifying roles national provincial governments strengthening operation legal system explosive economic industrial growth china led significant environmental degradation china currently process developing stringent legal controls harmonization chinese society natural environment billed rising policy priority ref name sustainable legitimacy ref congo rc republic congo inspired african models phenomenon constitutionalization


environmental law appeared completed historical development environmental law policy dating back years independence even long colonization ref name nzaou kongo ref gives constitutional basis environmental protection traditionally part legal framework ref name nzaou kongo ref two constitutions march january concretize paradigm ref name nzaou kongo ref stating legal obligation clean environment ref name nzaou kongo ref establishing principle compensation foundation criminal nature ref name nzaou kongo ref phenomenon congolese environmental law situated non regression search efficiency ref


communities website celdf language en us access date ref rights nature articles ecuador 's constitution part reaction combination political economic social phenomena ecuador 's abusive past oil industry famously class action litigation chevron failure extraction based economy neoliberal reforms bring economic prosperity region resulted election new leftist regime led president rafael correa sparked demand new approaches development conjunction need principle buen vivir good living focused social environmental spiritual wealth versus material wealth gained


popularity among citizens incorporated new constitution ref name gudynas gudynas eduardo buen vivir today 's tomorrow development ref influence indigenous groups concept buen vivir originates forming constitutional ideals also facilitated incorporation rights nature basic tenet culture conceptualization buen vivir ref name becker becker marc correa indigenous movements writing new constitution ecuador ''latin american perspectives'' ref egypt environmental protection law outlines responsibilities egyptian government preparation draft legislation decrees


pertinent environmental management collection data nationally internationally state environment preparation periodical reports studies state environment formulation national plan projects preparation environmental profiles new urban areas setting standards used planning development preparation annual report state environment prepared president ref name egypt ref india india environmental law governed environment protection act act enforced central pollution


national green tribunal established national green tribunal act jurisdiction environmental cases dealing substantial environmental question acts covered water prevention control pollution act water prevention control pollution cess rules ganga action plan forest conservation act wildlife protection act public liability insurance act biological diversity act acts covered indian wild life protection act fall within jurisdiction national green tribunal appeals filed hon'ble


supreme court india basel convention control transboundarymovements hazardous wastes disposal protocols hazardous wastes management handling amendment rules japan basic environmental law basic structure japan 's environmental policies replacing basic law environmental pollution control nature conservation law updated law aims address global environmental problems urban pollution everyday life loss accessible natural environment urban areas degrading environmental protection capacity forests farmlands ref name japan ref three basic environmental principles basic environmental law follows


blessings environment enjoyed present generation succeeded future generations sustainable society created environmental loads human activities minimized japan contribute actively global environmental conservation international cooperation ref name japan principles japanese government established policies environmental consideration policy formulation establishment basic environment plan describes directions long term environmental policy environmental impact assessment development projects economic measures encourage activities reducing environmental load improvement social infrastructure sewerage system transport facilities


environment including air water soil biodiversity coastal environment noise subdivision land use planning general ref name new zealand ref russia ministry natural resources environment russian federation makes regulation regarding conservation natural resources including subsoil water bodies forests located designated conservation areas fauna habitat field hunting hydrometeorology related areas environmental monitoring pollution control including radiation monitoring control functions public environmental policy making implementation statutory regulation ref name russia ref singapore singapore signatory convention biological diversity


cbd obligations overseen national biodiversity reference centre division national parks board nparks singapore also signatory convention international trade endangered animals obligations treaty also overseen nparks parliament singapore enacted numerous pieces legislation fulfil obligations treaties parks trees act endangered species import export act wildlife act new wildlife protected wildlife species rules marks first instance singapore 's history direct legal protection


offered specific named species listed parts rules' schedule south africa united kingdom united states vietnam vietnam currently working us environmental protection agency dioxin remediation technical assistance order lower methane emissions march us vietnam signed us vietnam memorandum understanding research human health environmental effects agent orange dioxin ref name epa vietnam ref see also uk enterprise law environmental health environmental racism environmental racism europe indigenous rights international law list environmental law journals


list international environmental agreements notes references akhatov aydar ''ecology international law'' moscow st press pp bimal n patel ed mcq environmental law farber carlson eds ''cases materials environmental law th'' west academic publishing pp faure michael niels philipsen eds ''environmental law european law'' hague eleven international publishing pp malik surender sudeep malik eds supreme court environment law martin paul amanda kennedy eds ''implementing environmental law'' edward elgar publishing reading https theconversationcom around world environmental laws attack sorts ways around world environmental laws attack


submission ranking washington lee university lexington va canada http wwwwcelorg west coast environmental law non profit law firm http wwwecojusticeca ecojustice http wwwcelaca canadian environmental law association http wwwelcabca environmental law centre alberta european union http europaeu youreurope business business responsibly keeping environmental rules index enhtm europa environmental rules european union http europaeu legislation summaries environment index enhtm europa summaries legislation environment environmental law schools environmental social science environmental protection


tree life represented kabbalah containing sephiroth '''western esotericism''' also known '''esotericism''' '''esoterism''' sometimes '''western mystery tradition''' term scholars use categorise wide range loosely related ideas movements developed within western society ideas currents united since largely distinct orthodox judeo christian religion enlightenment rationalism esotericism pervaded various forms western philosophy religion pseudoscience art literature music continues influence intellectual ideas popular culture idea grouping wide range western traditions philosophies together


term ''esotericism'' developed europe late seventeenth century various academics debated various definitions western esotericism one view adopts definition certain esotericist schools thought treating esotericism perennial hidden inner tradition second perspective sees esotericism category movements embrace enchanted world view face increasing disenchantment third views western esotericism encompassing western culture 's rejected knowledge accepted neither scientific establishment orthodox religious authorities earliest traditions later analysis labeled forms western esotericism


emerged eastern mediterranean late antiquity hermeticism gnosticism neoplatonism developed schools thought distinct became mainstream christianity ref name glenys ref renaissance europe saw increasing interest many older ideas various intellectuals combining pagan philosophies kabbalah christian philosophy resulting emergence esoteric movements like christian theosophy seventeenth century saw development initiatory societies professing esoteric knowledge rosicrucianism freemasonry age enlightenment eighteenth century led development new forms esoteric thought nineteenth century saw emergence


new trends esoteric thought known occultism prominent groups century included theosophical society hermetic order golden dawn also important connexion martinus spiritual science modern paganism developed within occultism includes religious movements wicca esoteric ideas permeated counterculture later cultural tendencies led new age phenomenon idea varying movements could categorised together rubric western esotericism developed late eighteenth century esoteric currents largely ignored


subject academic enquiry academic study western esotericism emerged late twentieth century pioneered scholars like frances yates antoine faivre esoteric ideas meanwhile also exerted influence popular culture appearing art literature film music etymology concept esoteric originated nd century coining ancient greek adjective ''es terik s'' belonging inner circle earliest known example word appeared satire authored lucian samosata noun esotericism french form sot risme first appeared


work protestant historian gnosticism ''histoire critique du gnosticisme'' vols term esotericism thus came use wake age enlightenment critique institutionalised religion alternative religious groups began disassociate dominant christianity western europe nineteenth twentieth centuries scholars increasingly saw term esotericism meaning something distinct christianity subculture odds christian mainstream least time renaissance french occultist ceremonial magician eliphas l vi


popularized term theosophist alfred percy sinnett introduced english language book ''esoteric buddhism'' l vi also introduced term ''l'occultisme'' notion developed background contemporary socialist catholic discourses esotericism occultism often employed synonyms later scholars distinguished concepts conceptual development concept western esotericism represents modern scholarly construct rather pre existing self defined tradition thought late seventeenth century several european christian thinkers presented argument one could categorise certain traditions


western philosophy thought together thus establishing category labelled western esotericism first german lutheran theologian wrote ''platonisch hermetisches christianity'' hostile critic various currents western thought emerged since renaissance among paracelsianism weigelianism christian theosophy book labelled traditions category platonic hermetic christianity portraying heretical saw true christianity despite hostile attitude toward traditions thought colberg became first connect disparate philosophies study one rubric also


recognising ideas linked back earlier philosophies late antiquity europe eighteenth century amid age enlightenment esoteric traditions came regularly categorised labels superstition magic occult terms often used interchangeably modern academy process developing consistently rejected ignored topics coming occult thus leaving research largely enthusiasts outside academia indeed according historian esotericism wouter j hanegraaff born rejection occult topics seen crucial identity marker intellectuals seeking


affiliate academy scholars established category late th century identifying structural similarities ideas world views wide variety thinkers movements previously analytical grouping according scholar esotericism wouter j hanegraaff term provided useful generic label large complicated group historical phenomena long perceived sharing ''air de famille'' various academics emphasised esotericism phenomenon unique western world faivre stated empirical perspective would


hold esotericism western notion scholars faivre hanegraaff pointed comparable category eastern oriental esotericism emphasis ''western'' esotericism nevertheless primarily devised distinguish field ''universal'' esotericism hanegraaff characterised recognisable world views approaches knowledge played important though always controversial role history western culture historian religion henrik bogdan asserted western esotericism constituted third pillar western culture alongside doctrinal faith rationality deemed heretical former irrational


latter scholars nevertheless recognise various non western traditions exerted profound influence western esotericism citing prominent example theosophical society 's incorporation hindu buddhist concepts like reincarnation doctrines given influences imprecise nature term western scholar esotericism kennet granholm argued academics cease referring ''western'' esotericism altogether instead simply favouring esotericism descriptor phenomenon egil asprem endorsed approach definition historian esotericism antoine faivre noted never precise term esotericism begun overflow


boundaries sides faivre karen claire voss stating western esotericism consists vast spectrum authors trends works philosophy religion art literature music scholars broadly agree currents thought fall within category ''esotericism'' ranging ancient gnosticism hermetism rosicrucianism kabbalah recent phenomenon new age movement nevertheless ''esotericism'' remains controversial term scholars specialising subject disagreeing best define esotericism universal secret inner tradition colored version flammarion


engraving scholars used ''western esotericism'' refer inner traditions concerned universal spiritual dimension reality opposed merely external 'exoteric' religious institutions dogmatic systems established religions approach views western esotericism one variant worldwide esotericism heart world religions cultures reflecting hidden esoteric reality use closest original meaning word late antiquity applied secret spiritual teachings reserved specific elite hidden masses definition popularised


published work nineteenth century esotericists like ae waite sought combine mystical beliefs historical interpretation esotericism subsequently became popular approach within several esoteric movements notably martinism traditionalism definition originally developed esotericists became popular among french academics exerting strong influence scholars mircea eliade henry corbin early work faivre within academic field religious studies study different religions search inner universal dimension termed religionists religionist ideas also exerted


influence recent scholars like nicholas goodrick clarke arthur versluis versluis instance defined western esotericism inner hidden spiritual knowledge transmitted western european historical currents turn feed north american non european settings added western esoteric currents shared core characteristic claim gnosis direct spiritual insight cosmology spiritual insight accordingly suggested currents could referred western gnostic much western esoteric various problems model understanding western esotericism significant


spiritual practices could discovered measured exoteric tools scientific scholarly enquiry hanegraaff pointed approach seeks common inner hidden core esoteric currents masks groups often differ greatly rooted historical social contexts expressing mutually exclusive ideas agendas third issue many currents widely recognised esoteric never concealed teachings twentieth century came permeate popular culture thus problematizing claim esotericism could defined hidden secretive nature


moreover hanegraaff noted scholars adopt definition shows subscribe religious doctrines espoused groups studying esotericism enchanted world view magician tarot card displaying hermetic concept faivre connected concept 'correspondences' first defining characteristic esotericism another approach western esotericism treats world view embraces enchantment contrast world views influenced post cartesian post newtonian positivist science sought dis enchant world approach understands esotericism comprising world views


eschew belief instrumental causality instead adopt belief parts universe interrelated without need causal chains stands radical alternative disenchanted world views dominated western culture since scientific revolution must therefore always odds secular culture early exponent definition historian renaissance thought frances yates discussions ''hermetic tradition'' saw enchanted alternative established religion rationalistic science however primary exponent view faivre published


series criteria define western esotericism faivre claimed esotericism identifiable presence six fundamental characteristics components four intrinsic thus vital defining something esoteric two secondary thus necessarily present every form esotericism listed characteristics follows correspondences idea real symbolic correspondences existing things within universe examples faivre pointed esoteric concept macrocosm microcosm often


presented dictum well astrological idea actions planets direct corresponding influence behaviour human beings living nature faivre argued esotericists envision natural universe imbued life force understand complex plural hierarchical imagination mediations faivre believed esotericists place great emphasis human imagination mediations rituals symbolic images mandalas intermediary spirits mantras tools provide access worlds levels


bring world 's different belief systems together unity transmission faivre 's second secondary characteristic emphasis transmission esoteric teachings secrets master disciple process initiation faivre 's form categorisation endorsed scholars like goodrick clarke bogdan could note faivre 's become standard definition western esotericism use among scholars however scholar kennet granholm stated faivre 's definition dominating paradigm long still exerts influence among scholars outside


thus based wider understanding esotericism existed throughout history ancient world contemporary period accordingly von stuckrad suggested good typology understanding christian esotericism early modern period lacked utility beyond esotericism claims higher knowledge alternative faivre 's framework kocku von stuckrad developed variant though argued represent definition rather framework analysis scholarly usage stated general level analysis esotericism represented claim


goodrick clarke critical approach believing relegated western esotericism position casualty positivist materialist perspectives nineteenth century thus reinforces idea western esoteric traditions little historical importance bogdan similarly expressed concern regarding hanegraaff 's definition believing made category western esotericism inclusive thus analytically useless history late antiquity later illustration hermes trismegistus origins western esotericism hellenistic eastern mediterranean part roman empire late antiquity milieu mixed religious intellectual


traditions greece egypt levant babylon persia globalisation urbanisation multiculturalism bringing socio cultural change one component hermetism egyptian hellenistic school thought takes name legendary egyptian wise man hermes trismegistus nd rd centuries number texts attributed hermes trismegistus appeared including ''corpus hermeticum'' ''asclepius'' ''the discourse eighth ninth'' still debate whether hermetism purely literary phenomenon communities practitioners acted ideas established texts discuss


escape world matter rejoin divine source third form esotericism late antiquity neoplatonism school thought influenced ideas philosopher plato advocated figures plotinus porphyry iamblichus proclus neoplatonism held human soul fallen divine origins material world could progress number hierarchical spheres return divine origins later neoplatonists performed theurgy ritual practice attested sources ''chaldean oracles'' scholars still unsure


precisely theurgy involved know involved practice designed make gods appear could raise theurgist 's mind reality divine middle ages fall rome alchemy philosophy aspects tradition largely preserved arab near eastern world reintroduced western europe jews cultural contact christians muslims sicily southern italy th century saw development kabbalah southern italy medieval spain medieval period also saw publication grimoires


offered often elaborate formulas theurgy thaumaturgy many grimoires seem kabbalistic influence figures alchemy period seem also authored used grimoires renaissance early modern period renaissance number european thinkers began synthesize pagan christian philosophies made available arabic translations christian thought jewish kabbalah earliest individuals byzantine philosopher plethon argued ''chaldean oracles'' represented example superior religion ancient humanity


passed platonists plethon 's ideas interested ruler florence cosimo de medici employed florentine thinker marsilio ficino translate plato 's works latin ficino went translate publish works various platonic figures arguing philosophies compatible christianity allowing emergence wider movement renaissance platonism platonic orientalism ficino also translated part ''corpus hermeticum'' though rest translated contemporary lodovico lazzarelli another core figure intellectual milieu giovanni pico della mirandola achieved notability


inviting scholars across europe come debate theses written pico della mirandola argued philosophies reflected grand universal wisdom however pope innocent viii condemned ideas criticising attempting mix pagan jewish ideas christianity pico della mirandola 's increased interest jewish kabbalah led development distinct form christian kabbalah work built german johannes reuchlin authored influential text subject ''de arte cabbalistica'' christian kabbalah expanded work


german heinrich cornelius agrippa used framework explore philosophical scientific traditions antiquity work ''de occulta philosophia libri tres'' work agrippa esoteric philosophers based pre copernican worldview following arguments copernicus accurate understanding cosmos established copernicus' theories adopted esoteric strains thought giordano bruno whose ideas deemed heresy roman catholic church eventually publicly executed masonic square compasses distinct strain esoteric thought developed


germany became known ''naturphilosophie'' though influenced traditions late antiquity medieval kabbalah acknowledged two main sources authority biblical scripture natural world primary exponent approach paracelsus took inspiration alchemy folk magic argue mainstream medical establishment time antiquity still based approach ideas second century physician philosopher galen greek roman empire instead paracelsus urged doctors learn medicine observation natural world though later work


also began focus overtly religious questions work gained significant support areas following centuries one influenced paracelsus german cobbler jacob b hme sparked christian theosophy movement attempts solve problem evil b hme argued god created unfathomable mystery ''ungrund'' god composed wrathful core surrounded forces light love though condemned germany 's lutheran authorities b hme 's ideas spread formed basis number small religious


communities johann georg gichtel 's angelic brethren amsterdam john pordage jane leade 's philadelphian society england three ''rosicrucian manifestos'' published germany texts purported represent secret initiatory brotherhood founded centuries german adept named christian rosenkreutz evidence rosenkreutz genuine historical figure rosicrucian order ever existed instead manifestos likely literary creations lutheran theologian johann valentin andreae however inspired much public interest various individuals coming describe


modern science rationality within intellectual circles turn modernist occult emerged reflected varied ways esoteric thinkers came terms developments one prominent esotericists period swedish naturalist emanuel swedenborg attempted reconcile science religion experiencing vision jesus christ writings focused visionary travels heaven hell communications angels claiming visible materialist world parallels invisible spiritual world correspondences two reflect causal relations following death followers founded swedenborgian


new church though writings influenced wider array esoteric philosophies another major figure within esoteric movement period german physician franz anton mesmer developed theory ''animal magnetism'' later became known commonly ''mesmerism'' mesmer claimed universal life force permeated everything including human body illnesses caused disturbance block force 's flow developed techniques claimed cleansed blockages restored patient full health one mesmer 's followers marquis de puys gur discovered mesmeric treatment could induce


state somnumbulic trance claimed enter visionary states communicate spirit beings somnambulic trance states heavily influenced esoteric religion spiritualism emerged united states spread throughout north america europe spiritualism based concept individuals could communicate spirits deceased ances forms spiritualism little theoretical depth largely practical affairs full theological worldviews based movement articulated andrew jackson davis allan kardec scientific interest claims spiritualism resulted


development field psychical research somnambulism also exerted strong influence early disciplines psychology psychiatry esoteric ideas pervade work many early figures field notably carl gustav jung though rise psychoanalysis behaviourism th century disciplines distanced esotericism also influenced artificial somnambulism religion new thought founded american mesmerist phineas p quimby revolved around concept mind matter believing illness negative conditions could cured power belief pentagram


eliphas levi europe movement usually termed ''occultism'' emerged various figures attempted find third way christianity positivist science building ancient medieval renaissance traditions esoteric thought france following social upheaval revolution various figures emerged occultist milieu heavily influenced traditional catholicism notable eliphas l vi papus also significant ren gu non whose concern tradition led develop occult viewpoint termed traditionalism espoused idea original universal


tradition thus rejection modernity traditionalist ideas strongly influenced later esotericists like julius evola frithjof schuon anglophone world burgeoning occult movement owed enlightenment libertines thus often anti christian bent saw wisdom emanating pre christian pagan religions europe various spiritualist mediums came disillusioned esoteric thought available sought inspiration pre swedenborgian currents prominent emma hardinge britten helena blavatsky latter called revival occult science