sin viewed terms effects relationships among people people god sin seen refusal follow god 's plan desire like god thus direct opposition see account adam eve book genesis sin want control one 's destiny opposition god rigid beliefs russian variant eastern orthodox christianity sin sometimes regarded mistake made people life point


view every person sinful every person makes mistakes life person accuses others sins always must remember also sinner must mercy others remembering god also merciful humanity fall man fall man simply fall refers christian doctrine transition first humans state innocent obedience god state guilty disobedience god book genesis chapter adam eve live first


god paradise deceived tempted serpent eat fruit tree knowledge good evil forbidden god become ashamed nakedness god consequently expelled paradise fall mentioned name bible story disobedience expulsion recounted testaments different ways fall refer wider theological inferences humankind consequence eve adam 's original sin examples include teachings


paul christian denominations believe fall corrupted entire natural world including human nature causing people born original sin state cannot attain eternal life without gracious intervention god protestants hold jesus' death ransom humanity offered freedom sin acquired fall religions judaism islam gnosticism term fall recognized varying interpretations eden narrative presented christianity interprets fall number ways traditional christian theology


accepts teaching st paul letter romans sinned fall short glory god st john 's gospel god loved world sent son jesus christ whoever believes perish everlasting life doctrine original sin articulated augustine hippo 's interpretation paul tarsus provides fall caused fundamental change human nature descendants adam born sin redeemed divine grace


sacrifice means humanity could redeemed fall jesus without sin died cross ultimate redemption sin humankind original sin thus moment adam eve ate fruit tree god commanded sinful death born ''it act disobedience thinking could become like gods sin'' since adam head human race held responsible evil took place reason fall man referred


christ alone unrestricted access god prayer presence original sin eastern christians usually refer ancestral sin according doctrine proposed christian theology humanity 's state sin resulting fall man ref name odcc os ref condition characterized many ways ranging something insignificant slight deficiency tendency toward sin yet without collective guilt referred sin nature something drastic total depravity automatic guilt humans collective guilt uphold doctrine look


since adam human beings born fallen world held fast belief man though fallen free ref name odcc doctrine west precise definition doctrine arose ref name odcc doctrine augustine hippo taught original sin act foolishness ''insipientia'' pride disobedience god adam eve thought subtle job discern came first self centeredness failure seeing truth sin would taken place satan n't sown senses '' root evil ''


''radix mali'' sin adam eve wounded nature affecting human intelligence well affections desires including sexual desire consequences fall transmitted descendants form ''concupiscence'' metaphysical term psychological one thomas aquinas explained augustine 's doctrine pointing ''libido'' ''concupiscence'' makes original sin pass parents children ''libido actualis'' ie sexual lust ''libido habitualis'' ie wound whole human nature augustine insisted concupiscence ''a being''


''bad quality'' privation good wound bishop hippo admitted sexual concupiscence ''libido'' might present perfect human nature paradise later become disobedient human result first couple 's disobedience god 's original sin original sin made humanity ''massa damnata'' ref name odcc doctrine mass perdition condemned crowd augustine 's view termed realism humanity really present adam sinned therefore sinned original sin according augustine consists


guilt adam humans inherit sinners humans utterly depraved nature lack freedom good cannot respond god without divine grace grace irresistible results conversion leads perseverance ref name gonzalez ref augustine 's formulation original sin popular among protestant reformers martin luther john calvin also within roman catholicism jansenist movement movement declared heretical catholic church wide ranging disagreements among christian groups exact understanding doctrine state sinfulness


adam 's fall since federal head representative human race represented inherit guilt sin imputation new testament scriptural basis doctrine found two new testament books paul apostle http wwwbiblegatewaycom passage search romans version niv romans http wwwbiblegatewaycom passage search corinthians version niv corinthians identifies adam one man death came world ref name odcc doctrine total depravity total depravity also called absolute inability total corruption theological doctrine derives augustinian concept original sin teaching


consequence fall man every person born world enslaved service sin apart efficacious prevenient grace god utterly unable choose follow god choose accept salvation freely offered also advocated various degrees many protestant confessions faith catechisms including lutheranism arminianism calvinism total depravity fallen state man result original sin doctrine total depravity asserts people nature inclined


even able love god wholly heart mind strength rather inclined nature serve desires reject rule god even religion philanthropy wicked god extent originate human imagination passion done glory god therefore reformed theology god save anyone must predestine call elect individuals salvation since fallen man want indeed incapable choosing god total depravity mean however


people evil possible rather means even good person may intend faulty premise false motive weak implementation mere refinement natural capacities correct condition thus even acts generosity altruism fact egoist acts disguise good consequently derived god alone way man comparison among protestants table summarizes three protestant beliefs depravity class wikitable '''topic''' '''calvinism''' '''lutheranism''' '''arminianism''' '''depravity


human will''' calvin total depravity humanity possesses free ref name referencea john calvin ''institutes christian religion'' trans henry beveridge iii ref bondage sin ref name referenceb john calvin ''institutes christian religion'' trans henry beveridge ii ref transformed ref name referencec john calvin ''institutes christian religion'' trans henry beveridge iii ref luther total depravity ref name wels compare humanity possesses free free choice regard goods possessions regarding salvation damnation people bondage either god satan ref name henry cole henry cole trans ''martin luther bondage will''


' 's r'' savior preserver english logy atonement doctrine describes human beings reconciled god christian theology atonement refers forgiving pardoning one 's sin death jesus christ crucifixion made possible reconciliation god creation within christianity three main theories atonement might work ransom theory satisfaction theory moral influence theory christian soteriology unlike confused collective salvation traditional focus christian soteriology traditionally focuses god ends separation


''incarnation'' god took human nature humans could partake divine nature peter st athanasius put god became human might become divine st athanasius de inc pg b grace christ http wwwbiblegatewaycom passage book id chapter verse version context verse cor received gift god cannot merited works done prior one 's conversion christianity http wwwbiblegatewaycom passage search ephesians version eph brought hearing god 's word http wwwbiblegatewaycom passage book id chapter verse version context verse rom harkening involves accepting jesus christ personal


come salvation reconciled god christ united divine essence via theosis beatific vision godhead graces christ 's passion death resurrection found seven sacraments catholic church comparison among protestants ecclesiology church ecclesiology greek ''ekkl si '' congregation church '' logia'' study theological understanding christian church including institutional structure sacraments practices especially worship god thereof specific areas concern include church 's role salvation origin relationship


historical christ discipline destiny leadership ecclesiology therefore study church thing different ecclesiologies give shape different institutions thus addition describing broad discipline theology ecclesiology may used specific sense particular church denomination 's character self described otherwise sense word phrases ''roman catholic ecclesiology'' ''lutheran ecclesiology'' ''ecumenical ecclesiology'' issues addressed ecclesiology ecclesiology asks questions '''who church''' visible earthly corporation


unified visible society church sense specific denomination institution instance body believing christians see invisible church regardless denominational differences disunity relationship living christians departed christians cloud witnesses earth heaven constitute together church '''must one join church''' role corporate worship spiritual lives believers fact necessary salvation found outside formal membership given faith community


constitutes membership baptism formal acceptance creed regular participation '''what authority ''the'' church''' gets interpret doctrines church organizational structure either single corporate body generally within range formal church structures ''independent vehicle'' revelation god 's grace church 's authority instead dependent derivative ' 'separate prior divine revelation external organization'' individual institutions church extent teach message example bible written


part wider revelation entrusted church faith community therefore interpreted within context bible revelation church defined group people claim adherence '''what church do''' sacraments divine ordinances liturgies context church part church 's mission preach gospel comparative emphasis relationship worship service spiritual formation mission church 's role create disciples christ


function eucharist defining element rest sacramental system church secondary act preaching church understood vehicle salvation salvific presence world community already saved '''how church governed''' mission authority apostles handed sacraments today proper methods choosing clergy bishops priests role within context


church ordained clergy necessary leaders church must policy making board leaders within church qualifications position process members become official ordained leaders must leaders clergy ordained possible ordained others ecclesiastical polity ecclesiastical polity operational governance structure church christian denomination also denotes ministerial structure church authority relationships churches polity closely related


ecclesiology study doctrine theology relating church organization issues church governance appear first chapters acts apostles first act recorded ascension election matthias replace judas iscariot years system episcopal polity developed protestant reformation arguments made new testament prescribed structures quite different catholic church day different protestant bodies used different types polity period richard hooker wrote ''of laws ecclesiastical polity''


title bishop comes greek word ''episkopos'' literally translates ''overseer'' regard catholicism bishops authority diocese sacramental political well performing ordinations confirmations consecrations bishop supervises clergy diocese represents diocese secularly hierarchy church governance bishops system may subject higher ranking bishops variously called archbishops metropolitans patriarchs depending upon tradition ' 'see also bishop explanation varieties bishops'' also meet councils synods synods subject


presidency higher ranking bishops may govern dioceses represented council though synod may also purely advisory note presence office bishop within church proof episcopal polity example mormonism bishop occupies office anglican church would occupied priest also episcopal polity usually simple chain command instead authority may held synods colleges bishops lay clerical councils patterns authority subject


wide variety historical rights honors may cut across simple lines authority episcopal polity predominant pattern catholic eastern orthodox oriental orthodox anglican churches also common methodist lutheran churches among churches episcopal polity different theories autonomy expressed roman catholicism church viewed single polity headed pope eastern orthodoxy various churches retain formal autonomy held unified shared doctrine conciliarity authority councils ecumenical councils holy synods


former standing council endemusa synod presbyterian polity many reformed churches notably presbyterian continental reformed traditions governed hierarchy councils lowest level council governs single local church called ' 'session'' ''consistory'' members called ''elders'' minister church sometimes referred ''teaching elder'' member presides session lay representatives ''ruling elders'' informally elders elected congregation session sends representatives next level higher council called ''presbytery'' ''classis''


presbyterian churches higher level councils synods general assemblies council authority constituents representatives level expected use judgment hence higher level councils act courts appeal church trials disputes uncommon see rulings decisions overturned presbyterian polity course characteristic governance presbyterian churches also churches continental reformed tradition elements presbyterian polity also found churches example episcopal church united states america governance


bishops paralleled system deputies lay clerical representatives elected parishes national level dioceses legislation general convention requires separate consent bishops deputies note episcopal polity presbyter refers priest congregational polity congregationalist polity dispenses titled positions bishop requirement church structure local congregation rules though local leaders councils may appointed members may sent congregation associations sometimes identified church bodies formed


polity characteristic polity baptist churches priesthood laity priesthood believers clergy bishop priest pastor elder church discipline missiology sacrament sacrament defined hexam 's ''concise dictionary religion'' roman catholics believe rite god uniquely active augustine hippo defined christian sacrament visible sign invisible reality anglican book common prayer speaks outward visible sign inward invisible grace examples sacraments would baptism eucharist therefore sacrament


religious symbol often rite conveys divine grace blessing sanctity upon believer participates tangible symbol represents intangible reality defined example would baptism water representing conveying grace gift holy spirit forgiveness sins membership church anointing holy anointing oil another example often synonymous receiving holy spirit salvation another way looking sacraments external physical sign conferral sanctifying grace


throughout christian faith views concerning rites sacramental conferring sanctifying grace means external act sacramental vary widely religious traditions also might called sacraments sense though necessarily according christian meaning term general definitions terms majority western christianity generally accepted definition sacrament outward sign conveys spiritual grace christ christian churches denominations sects divided regarding number operation sacraments sacraments generally


held instituted jesus christ although cases point debated usually administered clergy recipient recipients generally understood involve visible invisible components invisible component manifested inwardly understood brought action holy spirit god 's grace working sacrament 's participants visible outward component entails use things water oil bread wine blessed consecrated laying hands particularly significant covenant marked public


benediction marriage absolution sin reconciliation penitent defined roman catholic church recognised eastern orthodox churches oriental orthodox though two categorically define number independent catholic old catholic church orthodox churches eastern oriental typically limit number sacraments viewing encounters reality life sacramental sense acknowledgement number sacraments seven innovation convenience found church fathers came use although infrequently later


later encounters west sacramental theology denominations traditions eastern western christianity may affirm baptism eucharist sacraments include many protestant denominations old believers orthodox communion reject sacraments except baptism since post reformation denominations regard clergy classically sacerdotal priestly function avoid term sacrament preferring terms sacerdotal function ordinance tradition belief invests efficacy ''ordinance'' obedience participation believer


witness presiding minister congregation view stems highly developed concept priesthood believers sense believer performs sacerdotal role eucharist transsubstantiation roman catholicism anglican eucharistic theology sacramental union lutheran eucharist also called communion lord 's supper names christian sacrament ordinance generally considered enactment last supper final meal jesus christ shared disciples arrest eventual crucifixion consecration bread cup within rite recalls


moment last supper jesus gave disciples bread saying body wine saying blood ref name eb purgatory different interpretations significance eucharist consensus among christians meaning eucharist would appear confessional debates sacramental presence effects eucharist proper auspices may celebrated ref name eb eucharist ref phrase eucharist may refer rite also consecrated bread leavened unleavened wine


said body remembrance blockquote '''the lord 's supper''' derives corinthians blockquote come together lord 's supper eat eat goes ahead without waiting anybody else one remains hungry another gets drunk blockquote '''communion''' translation translations participation sharing fellowship greek ''koin n a'' king james version blockquote cup blessing bless ''communion'' blood


christ bread break ''communion'' body christ blockquote ''christ eucharist'' vicente juan masip th century last supper appears three synoptic gospels matthew mark luke first epistle corinthians ref name eb purgatory last named also indicates something early christians celebrated paul apostle called lord 's supper well eucharistic dialogue john chapter first epistle corinthians c paul apostle gives earliest recorded description jesus' last supper


lord jesus night betrayed took bread given thanks broke said 'this body remembrance me' way also cup supper saying 'this cup new covenant blood often drink remembrance me' synoptic gospels first mark matthew luke depict jesus presiding last supper references jesus' body blood foreshadow crucifixion identifies


new covenant ref name harris harris stephen l understanding bible palo alto mayfield ref gospel john account last supper mention jesus taking bread wine speaking body blood instead recounts humble act washing disciples' feet prophecy betrayal set motion events would lead cross long discourse response questions posed followers went speak importance unity disciples


separate eucharistic traditions earlier tradition chapter later one preceding chapter eucharist mentioned chapter ignatius antioch one apostolic fathers direct disciple apostle john mentions eucharist flesh saviour jesus christ justin martyr speaks meal food prayer thanksgiving word received christ said flesh blood jesus became flesh deacons carry


absent eucharistic theology many christian denominations classify eucharist sacrament protestants prefer call ''ordinance'' viewing specific channel divine grace expression faith obedience christ christians even deny real change elements used recognize special presence christ rite though differ exactly christ present roman catholicism eastern orthodoxy teach consecrated elements truly become body blood jesus christ transubstantiation


metaphysical explanation given roman catholics transformation occurs lutherans believe body blood jesus present forms bread wine concept known sacramental union reformed churches following teachings john calvin believe spiritual pneumatic real presence christ power holy spirit received faith anglicans adhere range views although anglican church officially teaches real presence christians reject concept real presence believing


real presence invocation spirit communion faithful meal kingdom baptism infant baptism believer 's baptism eschatology detail last judgement michelangelo eschatology derived greek roots last discourse study study end things whether end individual life end age end world broadly speaking study destiny man revealed bible eschatology concerned afterlife beginning death personal judgment follows death


individual followed destination heaven hell catholic theology heaven sometimes preceded purgatory eschatology also concerns events said happen end age return jesus resurrection dead rapture tribulation following things millennium thousand years peace interpreted literally symbolically finally eschatology concerns end world associated events last judgment banishment death hades satan followers


roman north africa tertullian c given fuller reflection speculation soon east master theologian origen c martin luther john calvin th century reformers wrote long tracts end times interest eschatology dwindled reformation late th century became popular reformed pentecostal evangelical sects increasingly recognized formal division theological study th century second coming christ central event christian eschatology christians believe death suffering continue


exist christ 's return others believe suffering gradually eliminated prior coming elimination injustice part preparing event needless say variety viewpoints concerning order significance eschatological events approaches interpretation ''preterist'' approach latin ''praeteritus'' gone seeks parallels ''revelation'' events st century herod 's attempt kill infant christ struggle christianity survive persecutions judaism roman empire fall jerusalem


ad desecration temple year growth christianity sect within judaism independent religion ''historicist'' method takes broader historical approach seeks parallels ''revelation'' major people events history especially direct effect israel church ''futurist'' method approaches ''revelation'' chiefly referring events yet come pass take place end age end world main focus return christ


'''behavioral medicine''' concerned integration knowledge biological behavioral psychological social sciences relevant health illness sciences include epidemiology anthropology sociology psychology physiology pharmacology nutrition neuroanatomy endocrinology immunology ref name miller ref term often used interchangeably incorrectly health psychology practice behavioral medicine encompasses health psychology also includes applied psychophysiological therapies biofeedback hypnosis bio behavioral therapy physical disorders aspects occupational therapy rehabilitation medicine physiatry well preventive medicine contrast health psychology represents stronger emphasis specifically psychology 's role

Applied science
Medicine and health
Behavioral Medicine


behavioral medicine behavioral health ref name matarazzo matarazzo j behavioral health behavioral medicine frontiers new health psychology ''american psychologist '' ref behavioral medicine especially relevant recent days many health problems primarily viewed behavioral nature opposed medical example smoking leading sedentary lifestyle alcohol use disorder substance use disorder factors leading causes death modern society practitioners behavioral medicine include appropriately qualified nurses social workers psychologists physicians including medical students residents professionals


psychosomatic medicine among academic forebears albeit obsolete academic discipline form generally understood today field dates back earliest uses term title book lee birk ''biofeedback behavioral medicine'' published names two clinical research units center behavioral medicine founded ovide f pomerleau john paul brady university pennsylvania laboratory study behavioral medicine founded william stewart agras stanford


university subsequently field burgeoned inquiry behavioral physiological biochemical interactions health illness gained prominence rubric behavioral medicine recognition trend national institutes health created behavioral medicine study section encourage facilitate collaborative research across disciplines yale conference behavioral medicine meeting national academy sciences explicitly aimed defining delineating field hopes helping guide future research ref name matarazzo based deliberations yale conference schwartz


weiss proposed biopsychosocial model emphasizing new field 's interdisciplinary roots calling integration knowledge techniques broadly derived behavioral biomedical science shortly pomerleau brady published book entitled ''behavioral medicine theory practice'' offered alternative definition focusing closely particular contribution experimental analysis behavior shaping field additional developments period growth ferment included establishment learned societies society behavioral medicine academy behavioral medicine research journals


''journal behavioral medicine'' ''annals behavioral medicine'' international congress behavioral medicine sweden international society behavioral medicine founded provide many daughter societies peer reviewed journal ''international journal behavioral medicine'' international focus professional academic development ref name keefe keefe f j behavioral medicine voyage future ''annals behavioral medicine '' ref areas study behavior related illnesses many chronic diseases behavioral component following illnesses significantly directly modified


behavior opposed using pharmacological treatment alone substance use many studies demonstrate medication effective combined behavioral intervention ref name feldman feldman role behavioral medicine primary care ''current opinion psychiatry '' ref obesity structured lifestyle interventions effective widely suitable drugs bariatric surgery ref name matarazzo hypertension deliberate attempts reduce stress also reduce high blood pressure insomnia cognitive behavioural interventions recommended first line treatment insomnia treatment adherence compliance medications work best controlling chronic illness


patients use prescribed deviate physician 's instructions true physiological mental illnesses however order patient adhere treatment regimen physician must provide accurate information regimen adequate explanation patient must also offer frequent reinforcement appropriate compliance ref name miller patients strong social support systems particularly marriages families typically exhibit better compliance treatment regimen ref name wedding wedding danny behavior medicine rd ed seattle hogrefe huber print ref


effective communication include power dynamics vulnerability feelings helplessness fear doctors healthcare providers also struggle interviewing difficult uncooperative patients well giving undesirable medical news patients families field placed increasing emphasis working towards sharing power relationship well training doctor empower patient make behavioral changes recently behavioral medicine expanded area practice interventions providers medical services recognition fact behavior providers determinative effect


patient outcomes objectives include maintaining professional conduct productivity altruism addition preventing burnout depression job dissatisfaction among practitioners ref name feldman learning principles models theories behavioral medicine includes understanding clinical applications learning principles reinforcement avoidance generalisation discrimination ''cognitive social learning models'' well ''cognitive social learning model'' relapse prevention marlatt learning theory learning defined relatively permanent change behavioral tendency occurring result reinforced practice ref name wedding behavior significantly likely occur


future result learning making learning important acquiring maladaptive physiological responses lead psychosomatic disease ref name wedding also implies patients change unhealthy behaviors order improve diagnoses health especially treating addictions phobias three primary theories learning classical conditioning operant conditioning modeling areas include correcting perceptual bias diagnostic behavior remediating clinicians' attitudes impinge negatively upon patient treatment addressing clinicians' behaviors promote disease development illness maintenance patients whether within malpractice framework


modern day culture involves many acute microstressors add large amount chronic stress time leading disease illness according hans selye body 's stress response designed heal involves three phases general adaptation syndrome alarm resistance exhaustion ref name wedding applications example apply biopsychosocial model behavioral medicine utilizes chronic pain management model adopted physicians unable explain certain patients experience pain despite experiencing significant tissue damage led see


purely biomedical model disease inadequate ref name keefe however increasing damage body parts tissues generally associated increasing levels pain doctors started including cognitive component pain leading gate control theory discovery placebo effect psychological factors affect pain include self efficacy anxiety fear abuse life stressors pain catastrophizing particularly responsive behavioral interventions ref name keefe addition one 's genetic predisposition psychological distress pain sensitivity affect pain management finally social factors socioeconomic status race ethnicity


also play role experience pain behavioral medicine involves examining many factors associated illness instead biomedical aspect heals disease including component behavioral change part patient review published fisher et al ref name ref illustrates behavior medical approach applied number common diseases risk factors cardiovascular disease diabetes cancer hiv aids tobacco use poor diet physical inactivity excessive alcohol consumption evidence indicates behavioral interventions cost effectiveness add terms


quality life importantly behavioral interventions broad effects benef ts prevention disease management well across life span ref name see also health psychology organizational psychology medical psychology occupational health psychology journals annals behavioral medicine international journal behavioral medicine journal behavior analysis sports health fitness behavioral medicine http wwwbaojournalcom behavior analyst online journal behavioral health medicine http wwwbaojournalcom behavior analyst online journal behavioral medicine organizations association behavior analysis international 's behavioral medicine special interest group https wwwabainternationalorg constituents special interests sig detailsaspx society behavioral medicine http wwwsbmorg international society behavioral https wwwisbminfo medicine references interdisciplinary


'''invertebrate zoology''' subdiscipline zoology consists study invertebrates animals without backbone structure found fish amphibians reptiles birds mammals invertebrates vast diverse group animals includes sponges echinoderms tunicates numerous different phyla worms molluscs arthropods many additional phyla single celled organisms protists usually included within group invertebrates subdivisions invertebrates represent named animal species fact subdivision zoology many subdivisions including limited arthropodology

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Invertebrate zoology


study arthropods includes arachnology study spiders arachnids entomology study insects carcinology study crustaceans myriapodology study centipedes millipedes myriapods cnidariology study cnidaria helminthology study parasitic worms malacology study mollusks includes conchology study mollusk shells limacology study slugs teuthology study cephalopods invertebrate paleontology study fossil invertebrates divisions sometimes divided specific specialties example within arachnology


acarology study mites ticks within entomology lepidoptery study butterflies moths myrmecology study ants marine invertebrates invertebrates exist marine habitats history early modern era early modern period starting late th century invertebrate zoology saw growth number publications made improvement experimental practices associated field one major works published area zoology conrad gessner 's historia animalium published numerous


editions though work generally addressing zoology large sense contain information insect life much information came older works gessner restated work pliny elder aristotle mixing old knowledge natural history insects observations invention microscope came new way observing small creatures fall umbrella invertebrate robert hooke worked royal society england conducted observation insects including


larval forms invertebrates ticks micrographia published included illustrations written descriptions things saw microscope others also worked microscope following acceptance scientific tool francesco redi italian physician naturalist used microscope observation invertebrates known work disproving theory spontaneous generation redi managed prove flies spontaneously arise rotting meat conducted controlled experiments detailed observation fly life cycle order


redi also worked description illustration parasites plants animals ref name ref men also conducting research pests parasites time felix plater swiss physician worked differentiate two types tape worm also wrote descriptions worms observed effects worms hosts ref name following publication francis bacon 's ideas value experimentation sciences came shift toward true experimental efforts biological sciences including invertebrate zoology jan swammerdam dutch


microscopist supported effort work 'modern' science blind belief work ancient philosophers worked like redi disprove spontaneous generation using experimental techniques swammerdam also made number advancements study anatomy physiology field entomology conducted number dissections insects made detailed observations internal structures specimens swammerdam also worked classification insects based life histories managed contribute literature proving egg larva pupa adult indeed


individual th th centuries th century study invertebrates focused naming species relevant economic pursuits agricultural pests entomology changing big ways quickly many naturalists zoologists working hexapods ref name ref work also done realm parasitology study worms french physician named nicolas andry de bois regard determined worms cause diseases also declared worms spontaneously form within animal human gut


de bois regard stated must kind 'seed' enters body contains worm form ref name antonio vallisneri also worked parasitic worms specifically members genera ''ascaris'' ''neoascaris'' found worms came eggs addition vallisneri worked elucidate reproduction insects specifically sawfly ref name first edition carl linnaeus' ''systema naturae'' published work included information insects intestinal worms ref name however tenth edition considered true starting point


modern classification scheme living things today ref name ref linnaeus' universal system classification made system based binomial nomenclature included higher levels classification simply genus species names ref name ref ''systema naturae'' investigation biodiversity earth ref name however based characters system developed linnaeus artificial one book also included descriptions organisms named inside ref name charles darwin 's origin species published book described


theory evolution natural selection work darwin contemporary alfred russel wallace also working theory evolution informed careful study insects addition darwin collected many species invertebrate time aboard many specimens collected insects using collections able study sexual dimorphism geographic distribution species mimicry concepts influenced darwin 's theory evolution unfortunately firm popular belief immutability species major hurdle acceptance


aware practice considered important today 's systematic research notable invertebrates japanese spider crab arthropoda ''macrocheira kaempferi'' one world 's largest arthropods japanese spider crab largest known species crab may live years leg span reach four feet longest span arthropod typically found pacific waters near japan bottom continental shelf lion 's mane jellyfish cnidaria ''cyanea capillata'' largest known type jellyfish tentacles reach


feet long may bell diameter almost feet animals usually found cold northern arctic waters northern portions atlantic pacific oceans giant squid mollusca ''architeuthis dux'' comes family architeuthidae squid largest known cephalopod largest known mollusc grow length feet long developed large eyes largest animal able detect small amounts bioluminescence dark deep ocean live references references


external links ''a study guide invertebrate zoology'' ''wikibooks'' '' http digitalcommonsunledu onlinedictinvertzoology online dictionary invertebrate zoology '' zoology subfields zoology


chemistry study '' 'sonochemistry''' concerned understanding effect ultrasound forming acoustic cavitation liquids resulting initiation enhancement chemical activity solution therefore chemical effects ultrasound come direct interaction ultrasonic sound wave molecules solution history influence sonic waves travelling liquids first reported robert williams wood alfred lee loomis experiment frequency energy took sonic waves penetrate


barrier water came conclusion sound travel faster water water 's density compared earth 's atmosphere incredibly hard get sonic waves couple energy water due sudden density change much energy lost similar shining flashlight towards piece glass light transmitted glass much lost reflection outwards similarly air water interface almost sound reflected water instead


transmitted much research decided best way disperse sound water make loud noises water creating bubbles made time sound one easier ways put sound water simply yelled another issue ratio amount time took lower frequency waves penetrate bubbles walls access water around bubble compared time point point end


body water despite revolutionary ideas article left mostly unnoticed sonochemistry experienced renaissance advent inexpensive reliable generators high intensity ultrasound based around piezoelectric elements ref name suslick physical principles sound waves propagating liquid ultrasonic frequencies wavelengths many times longer molecular dimensions bond length atoms molecule therefore sound wave cannot directly affect vibrational energy bond therefore directly increase internal energy molecule ref name annual reviews ref instead sonochemistry


arises acoustic cavitation formation growth implosive collapse bubbles liquid ref name suslick ref collapse bubbles almost adiabatic process thereby resulting massive build energy inside bubble resulting extremely high temperatures pressures microscopic region sonicated liquid high temperatures pressures result chemical excitation matter within near bubble rapidly implodes broad variety outcomes result acoustic cavitation including sonoluminescence increased chemical activity solution due formation primary


occur exposure ultrasound cavitation occurs near extended solid surface cavity collapse nonspherical drives high speed jets liquid surface ref name leighton tg acoustic bubble pp jets associated shock waves damage highly heated surface liquid powder suspensions produce high velocity interparticle collisions collisions change surface morphology composition reactivity sonochemical reactions three classes sonochemical reactions exist homogeneous sonochemistry liquids heterogeneous sonochemistry liquid liquid solid liquid systems overlapping aforementioned sonocatalysis catalysis increasing rate


chemical reaction ultrasound sonoluminescence consequence cavitation phenomena responsible homogeneous sonochemistry ref name annual reviews chemical enhancement reactions ultrasound explored beneficial applications mixed phase synthesis materials chemistry biomedical uses cavitation occur liquids chemical reactions seen ultrasonic irradiation solids solid gas systems example chemical kinetics observed ultrasound greatly enhance chemical reactivity number systems much million fold effectively acting


activate heterogeneous catalysts addition reactions liquid solid interfaces ultrasound breaks solid pieces exposes active clean surfaces microjet pitting cavitation near surfaces fragmentation solids cavitation collapse nearby gives solid reactant larger surface area active surfaces reaction proceed increasing observed rate reaction application ultrasound often generates mixtures products paper published journal ''nature'' described use ultrasound selectively affect certain cyclobutane ring opening reaction atul kumar reported multicomponent reaction


counting holes holes formed result microjet pitting resulting cavitation near surface mentioned previously due aluminium foil 's thinness weakness cavitation quickly results fragmentation destruction foil see also ultrasound sonication ultrasonics ultrasonic homogenizer homogenizer homogenization chemistry sonoelectrochemistry kenneth suslick references references external links http wwwscsuiucedu suslick sonochemistryhtml chemical physical effects ultrasound prof k suslick https wwworganic chemistryorg topics sonochemistryshtm sonochemistry short review recent literature http wwwworldscientificcom worldscibooks q sonochemistry new opportunities green chemistry gregory chatel universit savoie mont blanc france physical phenomena chemistry quantum chemistry


various aspects korean culture '' 'sociology culture''' related cultural sociology concerns systematic analysis culture usually understood ensemble symbolic codes used member society manifested society georg simmel culture referred cultivation individuals agency external forms objectified course history culture sociological field analyzed ways thinking describing acting material objects together shape group people 's way life contemporary sociologists' approach

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of culture


culture often divided sociology culture cultural sociology terms similar though interchangeable ref name wordpress ref ' 'sociology culture'' older concept considers topics objects less cultural others way contrast jeffrey c alexander introduced term ''cultural sociology'' approach sees social phenomena inherently cultural level ref name umn ref instance leading proponent strong program cultural sociology alexander argues believe possibility cultural sociology subscribe idea every action


matter instrumental reflexive coerced compared external environment embedded extent horizon affect meaning terms analysis sociology culture often attempts explain discretely cultural phenomena product social processes cultural sociology sees culture component explanations social phenomena ref name google ref opposed field cultural studies cultural sociology reduce human matters problem cultural encoding decoding instance pierre bourdieu 's cultural sociology clear recognition social economic


categories interlinked reducible cultural development cultural sociology first emerged weimar germany sociologists alfred weber used term ''kultursoziologie'' cultural sociology cultural sociology reinvented english speaking world product cultural turn ushered structuralist postmodern approaches social science type cultural sociology may loosely regarded approach incorporating cultural analysis critical theory beginning cultural turn sociologists tended use qualitative methods hermeneutic approaches research focusing meanings words


artifacts symbols culture since become important concept across many branches sociology including historically quantitative model based subfields social stratification social network analysis early researchers sociology culture grew intersection sociology shaped early theorists like marx durkheim weber anthropology researchers pioneered ethnographic strategies describing analyzing variety cultures around world part legacy early development field still felt methods much cultural sociological research qualitative theories variety critical


approaches sociology central current research communities substantive focus field instance relationships popular culture political control social class early lasting concerns field karl marx major contributor conflict theory marx argued culture served justify inequality ruling class bourgeoisie produce culture promotes interests repressing interests proletariat famous line effect religion opium people marx believed engine history struggle groups


people diverging economic interests thus economy determined cultural superstructure values ideologies reason marx considered ''materialist'' believes economic material produces cultural ideal stands hegel head argued ideal produced material mile durkheim durkheim held belief culture many relationships society include ''logical'' power individuals belongs certain cultural categories beliefs god ''functional '' certain rites myths create build social order people create strong beliefs


greater number people believe strongly myths social order strengthened ''historical '' culture origins society experiences came evolution things classification systems max weber weber innovated idea status group certain type subculture status groups based things race ethnicity religion region occupation gender sexual preference etc groups live certain lifestyle based different values norms culture within culture hence label subculture weber also purported idea


culture two cultures exactly alike common characteristics culture contains ''' social organization ''' structured organizing members smaller numbers meet cultures specific requirements social classes ranked order importance status based cultures core values example money job education family etc ''' customs traditions ''' rules behavior enforced cultures ideas right wrong customs traditions rules written laws ''' symbols ''' thing carries particular meaning recognized people share culture ref name gerber ref ''' norms '''


rules expectations society guides behavior members two types norms mores folkways '''mores''' norms widely observed great moral significance '''folkways''' norms routine casual interaction ref name gerber ''' religion ''' answers basic meanings life values ''' language ''' system symbols allows people communicate one another ref name gerber ''' arts literature ''' products human imagination made art music literature stories dance ''' forms government ''' culture distributes power keeps


order within society protects danger provides needs fall terms democracy republic dictatorship ''' economic systems ''' produce produce people use limited resources satisfy wants needs fall terms traditional economy market economy command economy mixed economy ''' artifacts ''' distinct material objects architecture technologies artistic creations ''' social institutions ''' patterns organization relationships regarding governance production socializing education knowledge creation arts relating cultures anthropology


anthropological sense culture society based values ideas without influence material world culture like shell lobster human nature organism living inside shell shell culture identifies organism human nature culture sets human nature apart helps direct life human nature anthropologists lay claim establishment modern uses culture concept defined edward burnett tylor mid th century bronis aw malinowski malinowski collected data trobriand islands descent groups across island claim parts


developed concept total social fact argued reciprocity universal logic cultural interaction claude l vi strauss l vi strauss based time sociological anthropological positivism durkheim mauss malinowski radcliffe brown economic sociological marxism freudian gestalt psychology structural linguistics saussure jakobson realized great studies areas myth kinship religion ritual symbolism magic ideology souvage pens e knowledge art aesthetics applying methodological structuralism investigations searched universal principals human thought form explaining social behaviors


cultures although bounded change cultures predisposed change resistant resistance come habit religion integration interdependence cultural traits cultural change many causes including environment inventions contact cultures several understandings cultures change come anthropology instance diffusion theory form something moves one culture another meaning example ankh symbol originated egyptian culture diffused numerous cultures original meaning may lost used


outlined another sociological approach cultural change griswold points may seem though culture comes individuals certain elements cultural change true also larger collective long lasting culture cannot creation single individuals predates post dates individual humans contributors culture author presents sociological perspective address conflict sociology suggests alternative view always unsatisfying way one extreme sociological individual genius view


alternative posits culture cultural works collective individual creations best understand specific cultural objects seeing unique creators fruits collective production fundamentally social genesis p nbsp short griswold argues culture changes contextually dependent socially situated actions individuals macro level culture influences individual turn influence culture logic bit circular illustrates culture change time yet remain somewhat constant course important recognize griswold


meanings tied relations eg brother lover friend culture super phenomenon real beginning except sense humans homo sapiens beginning makes question origins culture moot existed long likely exist long cultural change hand matter questioned researched griswold culture theory culture theory developed sees audiences playing active rather passive role relation mass media


one strand research focuses audiences interact media strand research focuses produce media particularly news frankfurt school walter benjamin theodor w adorno herbert marcuse erich fromm current research computer mediated communication culture computer mediated communication cmc process sending messages primarily limited text messages direct use participants computers communication networks restricting definition direct use computers communication process get rid communication technologies rely upon computers switching


technology telephony compressed video require users interact directly computer system via keyboard similar computer interface mediated computers sense project communication must done participants fully aware interaction computer technology process creating delivering messages given current state computer communications networks limits cmc primarily text based messaging leaving possibility incorporating sound graphics video images technology becomes sophisticated cultural institutions cultural activities


ann swidler diane vaughan viviana zelizer see also communication studies cultural anthropology ''cultural sociology journal '' cultural studies culture sociology sociology literature sociomusicology taste sociology references citations sources groh arnold theories culture london england routledge stark rodney sociology tenth edition belmont ca thomson learning inc walker gavin http hhssagepubcom cgi content abstract society culture sociological anthropological tradition thousand oaks ca sage publications lawley elizabeth http wwwitcscom elawley bourdieuhtml sociology culture computer mediated communication initial exploration swartz david https booksgooglecom booksid wtv upysjjgc dq substantive area sociology culture power sociology pierre bourdieu


chicago il university chicago press griswold wendy cultures societies changing world thousand oaks ca pine forge press https booksgooglecom booksid u sag esoc pg pp dq habermas corchia v onepage q f false ''la logica dei processi culturali j rgen habermas tra filosofia e sociologia'' genova edizioni ecig culture public action reading welcome culture public action web feb http wwwcultureandpublicactionorg conference sociologyanddevelopmenthtm external links


sled dog racing alaska '''anthrozoology''' also known '''human nonhuman animal studies''' '''has''' subset ethnobiology deals interactions humans animals interdisciplinary field overlaps disciplines including anthropology ethnology medicine psychology social work veterinary medicine zoology major focus anthrozoologic research quantifying positive effects human animal relationships either party study interactions includes scholars fields anthropology sociology biology history philosophy anthrozoology scholars pauleen bennett recognize lack scholarly attention given

Natural science
Biology
Ethnobiology
Anthrozoology


non human animals past relationships human non human animals especially light magnitude animal representations symbols stories actual physical presence human societies rather unified approach field currently consists several methods adapted several participating disciplines encompass human nonhuman animal relationships occasional efforts develop ' 'sui generis'' methods areas study interaction enhancement within captive animal interactions affective emotional relational bonds humans animals human perceptions beliefs respect animals animals fit human


societies vary cultures change times study animal domestication domestic animals evolved wild species paleoanthrozoology captive zoo animal bonds keepers social construction animals means animal human animal bond parallels human animal interactions human technology interactions symbolism animals literature art history animal domestication intersections speciesism racism sexism place animals human occupied spaces religious significance animals throughout human history exploring cross cultural ethical treatment animals critical evaluation animal


abuse exploitation mind self personhood nonhuman animals potential human health benefits companion animal ownership growth field currently college programs related field united states canada great britain germany israel netherlands well additional eight veterinary school programs north america thirty organizations us canada great britain australia france germany new zealand israel sweden switzerland uk university exeter runs anthrozoology explores human animal interactions anthropological cross cultural


hopkins purdue columbia reaktion palgrave macmillan university minnesota university illinois oxford offer either series large number books addition animals society institute asi began hosting human animal studies fellowship six week program pre post doctoral scholars work research project university guidance host scholars distance peer scholars beginning asi partnered wesleyan animal studies hosting fellowship conjunction asi also handful conferences per year including


organized isaz nilas minding animals conference held australia finally courses taught ever asi website lists courses primarily north america also including great britain new zealand australia germany poland twenty nine disciplines colleges universities including law school courses see also animal behavior abmap animal rights animal studies anthropomorphism birds culture cognitive ethology companion animal critical animal studies domestication horse ethnozoology human animal bonding human canine bond intersectionality insects culture origin


domestic dog pauleen bennett service animal social grooming trans species psychology zooarchaeology references external links http wwwanimalsandsocietyorg animals society institute https webarchiveorg web http wwwanthrozoologyresearchgroupcom anthrozoology research group http wwwh netorg animal h animal https webarchiveorg web http content indexphppid human animal studies listserve '' http wwwdepauwedu humanimalia indexhtml humanimalia journal human animal interface studies '' http wwwh netorg nilas nilas animal rights animal welfare anthropology ethology interdisciplinary subfields sociology environmental humanities environmental social science zoology


counter offensive considered clausewitz efficient means forcing attacker abandon offensive plans counter offensives executed land also naval forces air forces strategic counter offensives recorded military historians many wars throughout military history although always known usually described historians conjunction defensive phase battle moscow counterattack tactical sometimes smaller operational equivalent counter offensive notes references briggs clarence e ed translated oliver l spaulding

Applied science
Military sciences
Strategy
Counter-offensive


''roots strategy military classics von leeb 's ''defense'' von freytag loringhoven 's ''the power personality war'' erfurth 's ''surprise'' stackpole books '' department defense us '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwdticmil doctrine jel new pubs jp pdf dictionary military associated terms published united states government printing office washington dc retrieved october military strategy military tactics military terminology military theory


'''east asian studies''' distinct multidisciplinary field scholarly enquiry education promotes broad humanistic understanding east asia past present field includes study region 's culture written language history political institutions east asian studies located within broader field asian studies also interdisciplinary character incorporating elements social sciences anthropology economics sociology politics etc humanities literature history art film music etc among others field encourages scholars diverse disciplines exchanges ideas scholarship relates east asian experience

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
East Asian studies


experience east asia world addition field encourages scholars educate others deeper understanding appreciation respect east asia therefore promote peaceful human integration worldwide universities throughout north america western world study east asian humanities traditionally housed ealc ''east asian languages civilizations'' ''cultures'' departments run majors chinese japanese language literature sometimes korean language literature east asian studies programs hand typically interdisciplinary centers bring


together literary scholars historians anthropologists sociologists political scientists etc various departments schools promote instructional programs conferences lecture series common interest east asian studies centers also often run interdisciplinary undergraduate master 's degree programs east asian studies subfields sinology sub field dedicated china chinese history chinese culture chinese literature chinese language context republic china also specified taiwan studies academia sinica japanology sub field dedicated japan japanese culture japanese history japanese literature japanese language foundation asiatic society japan


charged japan held model non revolutionary modernization field focused modernization theory order fend revolution following decades many critics inspired edward said 's book ''orientalism'' others writing point view quantitative theoretical social sciences saw area studies general east asian studies particular amorphous lacking rigor critiques also mounted points political spectrum ramon h myers thomas metzger two scholars based generally conservative hoover institution charged


'revolution' paradigm increasingly overshadowed 'modernization' paradigm fallacy become integral much writing modern chinese history discrediting ignoring factors history modern china europe notable scholars east asian studies long occupied professorships prominent universities united kingdom germany netherlands france italy recent publications also suggest nordic countries offer unique contributions field east asian studies journals ''asian culture'' ''asian survey'' ''bulletin school oriental african studies'' ''early china'' ''east asian history'' ''harvard


journal asiatic studies'' ''journal asiatique'' ''journal asian studies'' ''journal chinese religions'' ''journal chinese studies'' ''journal contemporary china'' ''journal east asian studies'' ''late imperial china'' ''modern asian studies'' ''modern china journal '' ''new zealand journal asian studies'' ''pacific affairs'' ''the china quarterly'' ''t'oung pao'' see also list academic disciplines list korea related topics notes references external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwnajaksorg nordic association japanese korean studies library guides east asian studies


list libertarian political parties '''libertarianism''' libertarian freedom political philosophy upholds liberty core principle ref name boaz ref libertarians seek maximize autonomy political freedom emphasizing free association freedom choice individualism voluntary association libertarians share skepticism authority state power libertarians diverge scope opposition existing economic political systems various schools libertarian thought offer range views regarding legitimate functions state private power often calling restriction dissolution coercive social institutions different categorizations

Humanities
Philosophy
Social philosophy
Libertarianism


used distinguish various forms libertarianism ref name long long joseph w toward libertarian theory class ''social philosophy policy'' ''' ''' speak 'libertarianism' mean three different movements might protested libcap libertarian capitalism libsoc libertarian socialism libpop libertarian populism different one another treated aspects single point view share common least overlapping intellectual ancestry ref ref name carlson carlson jennifer libertarianism miller wilburn r ed ''the social history crime


means production else restrict purview effects usufruct property norms favor common cooperative ownership management viewing private property barrier freedom liberty ref ref name otero ref ref name chomsky ref ref name carlson p carlson jennifer libertarianism miller wilbur r ''the social history crime punishment america encyclopedia'' sage publications https booksgoogleit booksid tyme z nyac pg pa dq right libertarianism hl sa x ved ahukewjvont uvlahwn aqkhwz auuq aeinjab p ocialist libertarians view concentration power hands whether politically economically antithetical freedom thus advocate simultaneous abolition government capitalism ref left libertarian ideologies include


anarchist schools thought alongside many anti paternalist new left schools thought centered around economic egalitarianism well geolibertarianism green politics market oriented left libertarianism steiner vallentyne school mid th century right libertarian proponents anarcho capitalism minarchism co opted ref name rothbardbetrayal ref name cubananarchism fernandez frank ''cuban anarchism history movement'' sharp press https booksgooglecom booksid jkdztbiahegc p thus united states exceedingly useful term 'libertarian' hijacked egotists fact enemies liberty full sense word ref term ''libertarian'' advocate ''laissez faire'' capitalism strong private property rights


land infrastructure natural resources latter dominant form libertarianism united states ref name carlson advocates civil liberties ref name rothbard rothbard murray march https misesorg library left right within libertarianism left right within libertarianism ''win peace freedom nonviolent action'' ''' ''' retrieved january ref natural law free market capitalism major reversal modern welfare state ref name baradat ref overview etymology august edition ''le libertaire journal du mouvement social'' libertarian communist publication new york city first recorded use term ''libertarian''


traced french cognate ''libertaire'' coined letter french libertarian communist joseph jacque wrote mutualist pierre joseph proudhon ref name graham ref jacque also used term anarchist publication ''le libertaire journal du mouvement social'' ''libertarian journal social movement'' printed june february new york city bastien faure another french libertarian communist began publishing new ''le libertaire'' mid france 's third republic enacted called villainous laws ''lois sc l rates'' banned anarchist publications france ''libertarianism'' frequently used refer


anarchism libertarian socialism since time ref name nettlau ref ref name ward ward colin https booksgooglecom booksid kksrwshoikyc ''anarchism short introduction'' oxford oxford university press p century anarchists used word 'libertarian' synonym 'anarchist' noun adjective celebrated anarchist journal ''le libertaire'' founded however much recently word appropriated various american free market philosophers ref ref name chomsky ref united states ''libertarian'' popularized individualist anarchist benjamin tucker around late early ''libertarianism'' synonym ''liberalism'' popularized


may writer dean russell colleague leonard read classical liberal russell justified choice term follows ref ref name whoisalibertarian russel dean may https feeorg articles libertarian libertarian foundation economic education retrieved november ref ref name fee tucker jeffrey september https feeorg articles term libertarian come anyway term libertarian come anyway foundation economic education retrieved november ref subsequently growing number americans classical liberal beliefs began describe ''libertarians'' one person responsible popularizing term ''libertarian'' sense murray rothbard started publishing libertarian works


rothbard described modern use words overtly capture enemies writing first time memory 'our side' captured crucial word enemy 'libertarians' long simply polite word left wing anarchists anti private property anarchists either communist syndicalist variety taken ref name cubananarchism ref name rothbardbetrayal robert nozick responsible popularizing usage term academic philosophical circles outside united states ref name carlson ref name lester especially publication


''anarchy state utopia'' response social liberal john rawls 's ''a theory justice'' book nozick proposed minimal state grounds inevitable phenomenon could arise without violating individual rights ref name schaefer schaefer david lewis april http wwwnysuncom sports reconsiderations robert nozick coast utopia robert nozick coast utopia ''the new york sun'' retrieved june ref according common meanings ''conservative'' ''liberal'' libertarianism united states described ''conservative'' economic issues economic liberalism fiscal conservatism ''liberal'' personal freedom civil libertarianism cultural liberalism ref


name libertarian vote boaz david kirby david october https wwwcatoorg publications policy analysis libertarian vote libertarian vote cato institute retrieved february ref also often associated foreign policy non interventionism ref name pp ref ref name p edward olsen ''us national defense twenty first century grand exit strategy'' taylor francis https booksgooglecom booksid ui gpne c pg pa dq libertarianism foreign non interventionism sa x v onepage q libertarianism foreign non interventionism p ref definition although libertarianism originated form left wing politics ref name carson ref name routledge anarchism development mid th century modern libertarianism united states led several authors political scientists use two categorizations ref name long ref name carlson distinguish libertarian views


nature property capital usually along left right socialist capitalist lines ref name francis unlike right libertarians reject label due association conservatism right wing politics calling simply ''libertarians'' proponents free market anti capitalism united states consciously label ''left libertarians'' see part broad libertarian left ref name carson ref name routledge anarchism term ''libertarian'' largely synonymous anarchism part left ref name marshall marshall peter ''demanding impossible history anarchism'' https booksgooglecom booksid qdwiol ktgyc printsec frontcover dq demanding impossible history anarchism hl sa x ved ahukewjjm sm nmahuodewkhuy uq aeikdaa v onepage q long time c libertarian interchangable france anarchism recent years c meaning become ambivalente anarchists like daniel gu c rin call 'libertarian socialists' c partly avoid negative overtones still associated anarchism c partly stress place anarchism within socialist tradition even marxists new left like e p thompson call 'libertarian' distinguish authoritarian socialists communists believe revolutionary dictatorship vanguard parties f false p long time libertarian interchangeable france anarchism


recent years meaning become ambivalent anarchists like daniel gu rin call 'libertarian socialists' partly avoid negative overtones still associated anarchism partly stress place anarchism within socialist tradition even marxists new left like e p thompson call 'libertarian' distinguish authoritarian socialists communists believe revolutionary dictatorship vanguard parties ref continuing today part libertarian left opposition moderate left social democracy authoritarian statist socialism meaning recently diluted


wider adoption ideologically disparate groups ref name marshall including right ref name goodway ref name marshall p term ''libertarian'' include new left marxists associate vanguard party extreme liberals primarily concerned civil liberties civil libertarians additionally libertarians use term ''libertarian socialist'' avoid anarchism 's negative connotations emphasize connections socialism ref name marshall ref name gu rin gu rin daniel ''anarchism theory practice'' new york city monthly review press p narchism really synonym socialism anarchist primarily socialist whose aim abolish exploitation


seek economic social liberty would known ''liberals'' term developed associations opposite limited government low taxation minimal state advocated movement name variants free market revival movement include ''classical liberalism'' ''economic liberalism'' ''free market liberalism'' ''neoliberalism'' ref name gamble p term ''libertarian'' ''economic libertarian'' colloquial acceptance describe member movement latter term based ideology 's primacy economics distinction libertarians new left ref name gamble p historical libertarianism contemporary economic


libertarianism share general antipathy towards power government authority latter exempts power wielded free market capitalism historically libertarians including herbert spencer max stirner supported protection individual 's freedom powers government private ownership contrast condemning governmental encroachment personal liberties modern american libertarians support freedoms basis agreement private property rights abolishment public amenities common theme modern american libertarian writings according modern american libertarian walter block left libertarians right libertarians agree certain libertarian premises differ terms


enemy state'' chapter beyond left right prometheus books p ref ref name machan machan tibor r http wwwhooverorg publications books neither left right selected columns ''' ''' hoover institution press ref several strands libertarianism united states right libertarianism described right wing ref name robin ref new right radical right reactionary ref name baradat american libertarians walter block ref name block harry browne ref name browne tibor machan ref name machan justin raimondo ref name raimondo leonard read ref name read murray rothbard ref name rothbard deny association either left right american libertarians kevin carson ref name carson karl hess


roderick long written libertarianism 's left wing opposition authoritarian rule argued libertarianism fundamentally left wing position rothbard previously made point philosophy libertarians begin conception personal autonomy argue favor civil liberties reduction elimination state ref name boaz people described left libertarian right libertarian generally tend call simply libertarians refer philosophy libertarianism result political scientists writers classify forms libertarianism two groups ref name long ref


name carlson distinguish libertarian views nature property capital ref name francis ref name carlson p united states proponents free market anti capitalism consciously label left libertarians see part broad libertarian left ref name carson ref name routledge anarchism anarchism gaus gerald f d'agostino fred eds ''the routledge companion social political philosophy'' p ref left libertarianism ref name goodway goodway david ''anarchist seeds beneath snow left libertarian thought british writers william morris colin ward'' liverpool liverpool university press https booksgooglecom booksid fgya u c pg pa dq anarcho capitalism right libertarian sa x ct result resnum v onepage q anarcho capitalism right libertarian p 'libertarian' 'libertarianism' frequently employed anarchists synonyms


'anarchist' 'anarchism' largely attempt distance negative connotations 'anarchy' derivatives situation vastly complicated recent decades rise anarcho capitalism 'minimal statism' extreme right wing ''laissez faire'' philosophy advocated theorists murray rothbard robert nozick adoption words 'libertarian' 'libertarianism' therefore become necessary distinguish right libertarianism left libertarianism anarchist tradition ref ref name marshall p marshall peter ''demanding impossible history anarchism'' london harper perennial https booksgoogleit booksid qdwiol ktgyc printsec frontcover dq demanding impossible history anarchism hl sa x ved ahukewiit gi ellahxp qqkhrvyd q aeikdaa v onepage q left libertarianism f false p left libertarianism


therefore range decentralist wishes limit devolve state power syndicalist wants abolish altogether even encompass fabians social democrats wish socialize economy still see limited role state ref ref name newman newman saul ''the politics postanarchism'' edinburgh university press https booksgooglecom booksid siqbiviusokc pg pa dq anarcho capitalism right libertarian sa x ct result resnum v onepage q anarcho capitalism right libertarian p important distinguish anarchism certain strands right wing libertarianism times go name example murray rothbard 's anarcho capitalism complex debate within tradition


like robert nozick advocate 'minimal state' like rothbard want away state altogether allow transactions governed market alone anarchist perspective however positions minimal state minarchist state 'anarchist' positions neglect problem economic domination words neglect hierarchies oppressions forms exploitation would inevitably arise ''laissez faire'' 'free' market anarchism therefore truck right wing libertarianism neglects economic inequality domination also practice theory


highly inconsistent contradictory individual freedom invoked right wing libertarians narrow economic freedom within constraints capitalist market anarchists show freedom ref encompasses libertarian beliefs claim earth 's natural resources belong everyone egalitarian manner either unowned owned collectively ref name kymlicka kymlicka libertarianism left honderich ted ''the oxford companion philosophy'' new york city oxford university press p 'left libertarianism' new term old conception justice dating back grotius combines libertarian assumption


person possesses natural right self ownership person egalitarian premiss natural resources shared equally right wing libertarians argue right self ownership entails right appropriate unequal parts external world unequal amounts land according left libertarians however world 's natural resources initially unowned belonged equally illegitimate anyone claim exclusive private ownership resources detriment others private appropriation legitimate everyone appropriate equal amount appropriate


taxed compensate thereby excluded common property historic proponents view include thomas paine herbert spencer henry george recent exponents include philippe van parijs hillel steiner ref ref name spitz ref ref name routledge p ref name vallentyne ref name carlson contemporary left libertarians hillel steiner peter vallentyne philippe van parijs michael otsuka david ellerman believe appropriation land must leave enough good others taxed society compensate exclusionary effects private property ref name kymlicka ref name vallentyne ref socialist libertarians ref name kropotkin ref name otero ref name chomsky ref name carlson p social


individualist anarchists libertarian marxists council communists luxemburgists de leonists promote usufruct socialist economic theories including communism collectivism syndicalism mutualism ref name routledge p ref name carson criticize state defender private property believe capitalism entails wage slavery ref name kropotkin ref name otero ref name chomsky right libertarianism ref name goodway ref name newman ref name marshall p marshall peter ''demanding impossible history anarchism'' london harper perennial p problem term 'libertarian' also used right moderate form right libertarianism embraces ''laissez faire'' liberals like robert nozick call


minimal state extreme form anarcho capitalists like murray rothbard david friedman entirely repudiate role state look market means ensuring social order ref ref name carlson carlson jennifer libertarianism miller wilburn r ed ''the social history crime punishment america'' london sage publications https booksgoogleit booksid tyme z nyac pg pa dq right libertarianism hl sa x ved ahukewjvont uvlahwn aqkhwz auuq aeinjab p ref developed united states mid th century works european writers like john locke friedrich hayek ludwig von mises popular conception libertarianism united states today ref name carlson ref name lester lester


j c october https philpapersorg rec indnla new paradigm libertarianism brief explanation philpapers retrieved june ref commonly referred continuation radicalization classical liberalism important early right libertarian philosophers robert nozick ref name carlson ref name lester ref name schaefer sharing left libertarians' advocacy social freedom right libertarians value social institutions enforce conditions capitalism rejecting institutions function opposition grounds interventions represent unnecessary coercion individuals abrogation economic freedom anarcho capitalists ref name newman ref name marshall p seek elimination state favor privately


funded security services minarchists defend night watchman states maintain functions government necessary safeguard natural rights understood terms self ownership autonomy libertarian paternalism position advocated international bestseller ''nudge'' two american scholars namely economist richard thaler jurist cass sunstein book ''thinking fast slow'' daniel kahneman provides brief summary thaler sunstein advocate position libertarian paternalism state institutions allowed ''nudge'' people make decisions serve long term interests designation joining


pension plan default option example nudge difficult argue anyone 's freedom diminished automatically enrolled plan merely check box opt ref name kahneman ref ''nudge'' considered important piece literature behavioral economics ref name kahneman neo libertarianism combines libertarian 's moral commitment negative liberty procedure selects principles restricting liberty basis unanimous agreement everyone 's particular interests receive fair hearing neo libertarianism roots least far back


first described american philosopher james sterba university notre dame sterba observed libertarianism advocates government protection force fraud theft enforcement contracts negative liberties contrasted positive liberties isaiah berlin sterba contrasted older libertarian ideal night watchman state minarchism sterba held obviously impossible everyone society guaranteed complete liberty defined ideal people 's actual wants well conceivable wants come serious conflict


also impossible everyone society completely free interference persons sterna wrote shall show moral commitment ideal 'negative' liberty lead night watchman state instead requires sufficient government provide person society relatively high minimum liberty persons using rawls' decision procedure would select political program actually justified ideal negative liberty shall call ''neo libertarianism'' non aggression principle first rule libertarian non aggression principle


concept person organization ca n't use force coercion individual someone else 's property achieve objectives principle defend using force initiate force upon someone else force initiated someone state get involved protect life liberty property government therefor monopoly force violence protect society criminals violate non aggression principle typology political spectrum br libertarian br democrat br centrist br republican br totalitarian


united states ''libertarian'' typology used describe political position advocates small government culturally liberal fiscally conservative two dimensional political spectrum libertarian inspired nolan chart major typologies ''conservative'' ''liberal'' ''populist'' ref name libertarian vote ref name anes arbor ann ''the anes guide public opinion electoral behavior '' american national election studies ref ''libertarians'' support legalization victimless crimes use marijuana opposing high levels taxation government spending health welfare education ref name libertarian vote ''libertarian'' adopted united states


total total ref ref name reuters becker amanda april https wwwreuterscom article us usa election libertarians americans dont like big government like many programs poll iduskbn nl b americans n't like big government like many programs poll retrieved october ref ref name gallup boaz david february https wwwcatoorg blog gallup finds libertarians electorate gallup finds libertarians electorate retrieved october ref group typically ideologically driven term ''libertarian'' commonly used describe form libertarianism widely practiced united states common meaning word ''libertarianism'' united states ref name carlson form often named ''liberalism'' elsewhere


europe ''liberalism'' different common meaning united states ref name fee academic circles form called ''right libertarianism'' complement ''left libertarianism'' acceptance capitalism private ownership land distinguishing feature ref name kymlicka ref name goodway ref name newman history liberalism john locke regarded father liberalism although elements libertarianism traced far back ancient chinese philosopher lao tzu higher law concepts greeks israelites ref name britannicacom ref ref name catoorg boaz david november https wwwcatoorg publications commentary preface japanese edition libertarianism primer preface japanese edition libertarianism


primer cato institute retrieved december ref th century england libertarian ideas began take modern form writings levellers john locke middle century opponents royal power began called whigs sometimes simply opposition country opposed court writers ref name libertarianismorg boaz david march http wwwlibertarianismorg ex html note labels 'libertarian' ''libertarianismorg'' cato institute retrieved july ref th century age enlightenment liberal ideas flourished europe north america libertarians various schools influenced liberal


ideas philosopher roderick long libertarians share common least overlapping intellectual ancestry libertarians claim seventeenth century english levellers eighteenth century french encyclopedists among ideological forebears usually share admiration thomas jefferson thomas paine thomas paine whose theory property showed libertarian concern redistribution resources john locke greatly influenced libertarianism modern world writings published english revolution especially ''a letter concerning toleration'' ''two treatises government'' ''an essay concerning human understanding''


people alter abolish ref name rothbard rothbard murray http archivelewrockwellcom rothbard rothbard html libertarian heritage american revolution classical liberalism ''for new liberty libertarian manifesto'' lewrockwellcom retrieved december ref nevertheless scholar ellen meiksins wood says doctrines individualism opposed lockean individualism non lockean individualism may encompass socialism according murray rothbard libertarian creed emerged liberal challenges absolute central state king ruling divine right top older restrictive web feudal land monopolies urban guild controls


restrictions well mercantilism bureaucratic warfaring state allied privileged merchants object liberals individual liberty economy personal freedoms civil liberty separation state religion peace alternative imperial aggrandizement cites locke 's contemporaries levellers held similar views also influential english ''cato 's letters'' early reprinted eagerly american colonists already free european aristocracy feudal land monopolies ref name rothbard january two years coming america england thomas paine published pamphlet


''common sense'' calling independence colonies ref name sprading sprading charles ''liberty great libertarians'' mises institute https booksgooglecom booksid stqj djquw c pg pa dq thomas paine libertarian sa x v onepage q thomas paine libertarian p ref paine promoted liberal ideas clear concise language allowed general public understand debates among political elites ''common sense'' immensely popular disseminating ideas selling hundreds thousands copies paine would later write ''rights man'' ''the age reason'' participate french revolution ref name sprading paine 's theory property showed libertarian concern redistribution resources william godwin wrote


libertarian philosophical treatise titled ''enquiry concerning political justice influence morals happiness'' criticized ideas human rights society contract based vague promises took liberalism logical anarchic conclusion rejecting political institutions law government apparatus coercion well political protest insurrection instead institutionalized justice godwin proposed people influence one another moral goodness informal reasoned persuasion including associations joined would facilitate happiness anarchism pierre joseph proudhon first proclaim ''anarchist''


modern anarchism sprang secular religious thought enlightenment particularly jean jacques rousseau 's arguments moral centrality freedom ref name encarta anarchism ''encarta online encyclopedia'' uk version ref part political turmoil wake french revolution william godwin developed first expression modern anarchist thought ref name godwinsep according peter kropotkin godwin first formulate political economical conceptions anarchism even though give name ideas developed work ref name eb peter kropotkin http dwardmacpitzeredu anarchist archives kropotkin britanniaanarchyhtml anarchism ''encyclop dia britannica'' ref godwin attached anarchist


ideas early edmund burke godwin generally regarded founder school thought known philosophical anarchism argued ''political justice'' ref name godwinsep government inherently malevolent influence society perpetuates dependency ignorance thought spread use reason masses would eventually cause government wither away unnecessary force although accord state moral legitimacy use revolutionary tactics removing government power rather godwin advocated replacement


process peaceful evolution ref name godwinsep ref aversion imposition rules based society led denounce manifestation people 's mental enslavement foundations law property rights even institution marriage godwin considered basic foundations society constraining natural development individuals use powers reasoning arrive mutually beneficial method social organization case government institutions shown constrain development capacity live wholly accordance full free exercise private judgment ref name godwinsep


france various anarchist currents present revolutionary period revolutionaries using term ''anarchiste'' positive light early september ''enrag s'' opposed revolutionary government contradiction terms denouncing jacobin dictatorship jean varlet wrote government revolution incompatible unless people wishes set constituted authorities permanent insurrection ref name graham manifesto equals sylvain mar chal looked forward disappearance revolting distinction rich poor great small masters valets


may nature ref name graham robert graham ''anarchism documentary history libertarian ideas volume one anarchy anarchism ce '' black rose books ref according anarchist historian max nettlau first use term ''libertarian communism'' november french anarchist congress employed clearly identify doctrines french anarchist journalist bastien faure started weekly paper ''le libertaire'' ''the libertarian'' individualist anarchism represents several traditions thought within anarchist movement emphasize individual kinds external determinants


p goodway david anarchist seeds beneath snow liverpool university press p ref egoist anarchism expounded one earliest best known proponents individualist anarchism german max stirner ref name sep stirner ref stirner 's ''the ego own'' published founding text philosophy ref name sep stirner according stirner limitation rights individual power obtain desire without regard god state morality stirner advocated self assertion foresaw unions egoists non systematic associations continually renewed parties' support act ref


minette schuster apparent proudhonian anarchism found united states least early conscious affinity individualist anarchism josiah warren stephen pearl andrews william b greene presented proudhonian mutualism purest systematic form ref name againstallauthorityorg ref later benjamin tucker fused stirner 's egoism economics warren proudhon eclectic influential publication ''liberty'' early influences individualist anarchism different countries attracted small yet diverse following bohemian artists intellectuals ref name bohemian individualism ref


free love birth control advocates anarchism issues related love sex ref name autogenerated ref individualist naturists anarcho naturism ref name acraciaorg proliferar n diversos grupos que practicar n el excursionismo el naturismo el nudismo la emancipaci n sexual el esperantismo alrededor de asociaciones informales vinculadas de una manera de otra al anarquismo precisamente las limitaciones las asociaciones obreras impuestas desde la legislaci n especial de la dictadura potenciar n indirectamente esta especie de asociacionismo informal en que confluir el movimiento anarquista con esta heterogeneidad de pr cticas tendencias uno de los grupos destacados que ser el impulsor de la revista individualista tica ser


el ateneo naturista ecl ctico con sede en barcelona con sus diferentes secciones la destacada de las cuales ser el grupo excursionista sol vida http wwwacraciaorg lainsumisionpdf la insumisi n voluntaria el anarquismo individualista espa ol durante la dictadura la segunda rep blica xavier ez ref ref name aujourdhui les anarchistes individualistes du du si cle l'avaient bien compris et int graient le naturisme dans leurs pr occupations il est vraiment dommage que ce discours se soit peu peu effac d'antan plus que nous assistons en ce moment un retour en force du puritanisme conservateur par essence http ytakclubfr natytakhtml anarchisme et naturisme aujourd'hui cathy ytak ref


proudhon catalan francesc pi margall became president spain program wanted establish decentralized cantonalist political system proudhonian lines according rudolf rocker political ideas much common richard price joseph priestly ' 'sic'' thomas paine jefferson representatives anglo american liberalism first period wanted limit power state minimum gradually replace socialist economic order hand ferm n salvochea mayor city c diz president


october revolutions however bolsheviks central russia quickly began imprison drive underground libertarian anarchists many fled ukraine fought defend free territory russian civil war white movement monarchists opponents revolution bolsheviks part revolutionary insurrectionary army ukraine led nestor makhno established anarchist society region number months expelled american anarchists emma goldman alexander berkman protested bolshevik policy left russia victory bolsheviks damaged anarchist movements


internationally workers activists joined communist parties france united states example members major syndicalist movements cgt iww joined communist international paris dielo truda group russian anarchist exiles included nestor makhno issued manifesto ''organizational platform general union anarchists draft '' calling new anarchist organizing structures ref name platformtext ref germany bavarian soviet republic libertarian socialist characteristics italy anarcho syndicalist trade union unione sindacale italiana grew members called biennio rosso


rise fascism europe anarchists began fight fascists italy france february riots spain cnt confederaci n nacional del trabajo boycott elections led right wing victory later participation voting helped bring popular front back power led ruling class attempted coup spanish civil war gruppo comunista anarchico di firenze held early twentieth century terms libertarian communism anarchist communism became synonymous within international anarchist


movement result close connection spain anarchism spain ''libertarian communism'' becoming prevalent term murray bookchin wrote spanish libertarian movement mid unique workers' control collectives came three generation massive libertarian movement divided republican camp challenged marxists urban anarchists created libertarian communist forms organization evolved cnt syndicalist union providing infrastructure libertarian society also formed local bodies administer social economic life decentralized libertarian basis much infrastructure


destroyed spanish civil war authoritarian fascist forces iberian federation libertarian youth fijl spanish ''federaci n ib rica de juventudes libertarias'' sometimes abbreviated ''libertarian youth'' ''juventudes libertarias'' libertarian socialist organization created madrid second congress february fijl organized plenum regional organizations october th th barcelona fijl participated national plenum libertarian movement also attended members cnt iberian anarchist federation fai fijl exists today republican


forces lost spanish civil war city madrid turned francoist forces last non francoist mayor city anarchist melchor rodr guez garc autumn manifesto published militants anarchist trade union cnt among signed cnt general secretary joan peiro ngel pesta cnt general secretary juan lopez sanchez called ''treintismo'' calling libertarian possibilism advocated achieving libertarian socialist ends participation inside structures contemporary


parliamentary democracy establish syndicalist party participates spanish general elections proceed part leftist coalition parties known popular front obtaining two congressmen pesta benito pabon horacio prieto general secretary cnt proposes iberian anarchist federation transforms libertarian socialist party participates national elections ref name renof renof isra l renof may http archivesautonomiesorg img pdf anarchismes apres noiretrouge nr n pdf ''possibilisme libertaire'' pdf ''noir et rouge'' ''' ''' ref murray bookchin american libertarian socialist theorist proponent libertarian municipalism ''manifesto libertarian


communism'' written georges fontenis ''federation communiste libertaire'' france one key texts anarchist communist current known platformism international anarchist federations founded international anarchist conference carrara italy advance libertarian solidarity wanted form strong organized workers movement agreeing libertarian ideas ref name short history iaf ifa https webarchiveorg web http flagblackenednet liberty ifa hist shorthtml short history iaf ifa infos news project accessed january ref united states libertarian league founded new york city left libertarian


political organization building libertarian book club members included sam dolgoff russell blackwell dave van ronk enrico arrigoni murray bookchin australia sydney push predominantly left wing intellectual subculture sydney late early became associated label sydney libertarianism well known associates push include jim baker john flaus harry hooton margaret fink sasha soldatow lex banning eva cox richard appleton paddy mcguinness david makinson germaine greer clive james robert hughes frank moorhouse lillian roxon amongst key intellectual figures push debates philosophers david


j ivison george molnar roelof smilde darcy waters jim baker recorded baker 's memoir ''sydney libertarians push'' published libertarian ''broadsheet'' understanding libertarian values social theory obtained publications available online french platformist anarcho communist daniel gu rin published essay called libertarian marxism dealt debate karl marx mikhail bakunin first international afterwards suggested libertarian marxism rejects determinism fatalism giving greater place individual intuition imagination


reflex speeds deep instincts masses far seeing hours crisis reasonings 'elites' libertarian marxism thinks effects surprise provocation boldness refuses cluttered paralyzed heavy 'scientific' apparatus n't equivocate bluff guards adventurism much fear unknown libertarian marxist currents often draw marx engels' later works specifically ''grundrisse'' ''the civil war france'' emphasize marxist belief ability working class forge destiny


without need revolutionary party state libertarian marxism includes currents autonomism council communism left communism lettrism new left situationism socialisme ou barbarie operaismo among others united states existed publication ''root branch'' subtitle ''a libertarian marxist journal'' ''libertarian communism'' journal started united kingdom group inside socialist party great britain anarcho syndicalist sam dolgoff started led publication ''libertarian labor review'' united states decided rename


''anarcho syndicalist review'' order avoid confusion right libertarian views individualist anarchism united states josiah warren regarded first american anarchist indigenous anarchist tradition united states largely individualist josiah warren became aware social system utopian socialist robert owen began talk others cincinnati founding communist colony group failed come agreement form goals proposed community warren sold factory two years operation packed young


family took place one owenites decided become part founding population new harmony indiana ref name mises ref warren termed phrase cost limit price proposed system pay people certificates indicating many hours work could exchange notes local time stores goods took amount time produce ref name slate put theories test establishing experimental labor labor store called cincinnati time store trade facilitated labor notes