discriminatory actions resulting majority policies including assimilation exclusion oppression expulsion extermination overt racism usually feeds directly stratification system effect social status example members associated particular race may assigned slave status form oppression majority refuses grant basic rights minority granted members society covert racism many scholars posit practiced contemporary societies socially hidden less easily detectable covert racism often feeds stratification systems


intervening variable affecting income educational opportunities housing overt covert racism take form structural inequality society racism become institutionalized ethnicity ethnic prejudice discrimination operate much racial prejudice discrimination society fact recently scholars begun differentiate race ethnicity historically two considered identical closely related scientific development genetics human genome fields study scholars recognize race socially defined basis

Social science
Sociology
Social stratification


biologically determined characteristics observed within society ethnicity defined basis culturally learned behavior ethnic identification include shared cultural heritage language dialect symbolic systems religion mythology cuisine race ethnic categories persons may socially defined minority categories whose members represented positions social power ethnic categories persons subject types majority policies whether ethnicity feeds stratification system direct causal factor intervening variable may depend


level ethnographic entrism within various ethnic populations society amount conflict scarce resources relative social power held within ethnic category global stratification world pace social change today different time karl marx max weber even c wright mills globalizing forces lead rapid international integration arising interchange world views products ideas aspects culture ref name gcsp al rodhan rf nayef g rard stoudmann http wwwsustainablehistorycom articles definitions globalizationpdf definitions globalization comprehensive overview proposed definition ref ref name albrow albrow


martin elizabeth king eds ''globalization knowledge society ''london sage p ref advances transportation telecommunications infrastructure including rise telegraph modern representation internet major factors globalization generating interdependence economic cultural activities ref name stever ref like stratified class system within nation looking world economy one see class positions unequal distribution capital resources nations rather separate national economies nations considered participating world economy world economy manifests global division


labor three overarching classes core countries semi periphery countries periphery countries according world systems dependency theories core nations primarily control major means production world perform higher level production tasks provide international financial services periphery nations little world 's means production even factories located periphery nations provide low non skilled labor semiperipheral nations midway core periphery tend countries moving towards industrialization diversified economies ref name ph paul halsall http wwwfordhamedu halsall mod wallersteinhtml modern history sourcebook summary wallerstein world


system theory august ref core nations receive greatest share surplus production periphery nations receive least furthermore core nations usually able purchase raw materials goods noncore nations low prices demanding higher prices exports noncore nations global workforce employed system global labor arbitrage ensures companies core countries utilize cheapest semi non skilled labor production today means gather analyze data economies across globe although many societies worldwide made great strides toward


equality differing geographic regions terms standard living life chances afforded peoples still find large gaps wealthiest poorest within nation wealthiest poorest nations world january oxfam report indicates wealthiest individuals world combined wealth equal bottom world 's population billion people contrast world bank reports percent people worldwide around billion live extreme poverty


day zygmunt bauman provocatively observed rise rich linked capacity lead highly mobile lives mobility climbs rank uppermost among coveted values freedom move perpetually scarce unequally distributed commodity fast becomes main stratifying factor late modern postmodern time see also age stratification caste system class stratification cultural hegemony dominance hierarchy egalitarianism elite theory elitism gini coefficient globalization intersectionality marxism microinequity rankism religious stratification social class social inequality socioeconomic status social justice systems social stratification


''the power elite'' references reading external links anthropological categories peoples social classes social inequality social status conflict theory economic problems urban anthropology


inglehart weltzel values map '''political culture''' describes culture impacts politics every political system embedded particular political culture ref name ref origins concept go back least alexis de tocqueville current use political science generally follows gabriel almond ref name definition gabriel almond defines particular pattern orientations toward political actions every political system embedded ref name lucian pye 's definition political culture set attitudes beliefs sentiments give order meaning political process

Social science
Political science
Political culture


provide underlying assumptions rules govern behavior political system ref name mar eugenia v zquez semadeni defines political culture set discourses symbolic practices means individuals groups articulate relationship power elaborate political demands put stake analysis limits particular political culture based subjective identity ref name common form identity today national identity hence nation states set typical limits political cultures ref name socio cultural system turn


gives meaning political culture shared symbols rituals national independence day reflect common values ref name may develop civil religion values hierarchical egalitarian set limits political participation thereby creating basis legitimacy ref name transmitted socialization shaped shared historical experiences form collective national memory ref name intellectuals continue interpret political culture political discourse public sphere ref name indeed elite political culture consequential


mass level ref name elements trust major factor political culture level determines capacity state function ref name postmaterialism degree political culture concerned issues immediate physical material concern human rights environmentalism ref name religion also impact political culture ref name classifications different typologies political culture proposed almond verba gabriel almond sidney verba ''the civic culture'' outlined three pure types political culture based


institutions affectively oriented towards politics yet downward flow side politics general congruent centralized authoritarian structure participant citizens able influence government various ways affected individual oriented toward system whole political administrative structures processes input output aspects general congruent democratic political structure almond verba wrote types political culture combine create civic culture mixes best elements


elazar daniel j elazar identified three kinds political culture ref name individualistic culture politics marketplace individuals seeking maximize self interest minimal community involvement opposition government well high degree patronage see also neopatrimonialism moralistic culture whereby government seen important way improve peoples' lives traditionalistic culture one seeks preserve status quo elites power citizen participation expected huntington samuel p huntington classified


political cultures according civilizations basis geography history ref name western civilization japanese civilization islamic civilization hindu civilization slavic orthodox civilization latin american civilization chinese civilization african civilization national political cultures russia russia low trust society even highest trusted institutions church military distrustful trusting citizens low participation civil society ref name ref means russia weak civic political culture furthermore authoritarian traditions russia mean little support democratic norms tolerance dissent


pluralism russia history authoritarian rulers ivan terrible joseph stalin engaged massive repression potential political competitors oprichnina great purge resulting political systems tsarist autocracy soviet communism space independent institutions united states political culture united states heavily influenced background early immigrants settler society samuel p huntington identified american politics tudor character elements english political culture period common law


political culture germany political culture united kingdom references reading almond gabriel verba sidney ''the civic culture'' boston little brown company aronoff myron j political culture international encyclopedia social behavioral sciences neil j smelser paul b baltes eds oxford elsevier axelrod robert dissemination culture model local convergence global polarization journal conflict resolution barzilai gad ''communities law politics cultures legal identities'' ann arbor university michigan press bednar jenna scott page game


theory explain culture emergence cultural behavior within multiple games rationality society clark william matt golder sona golder principles comparative government cq press ch diamond larry ed ''political culture democracy developing countries'' greif avner cultural beliefs organization society historical theoretical reflection collectivist individualist societies journal political economy kertzer david ''politics symbols'' new ct yale university press kertzer david ''ritual politics power'' new ct yale university press kubik jan ''the power


symbols symbols power'' university park pa pennsylvania state university press inglehart ronald christian welzel ''modernization cultural change democracy'' new york cambridge university press ch laitin david ''hegemony culture'' chicago il university chicago press igor luk ''politi na kultura'' ljubljana university ljubljana wilson richard many voices political culture assessing different approaches ''world politics'' january gielen pascal ed 'no culture europe foundation politics' valiz amsterdam comparative politics culture


'''decision analysis''' '''da''' discipline comprising philosophy methodology professional practice necessary address important decisions formal manner decision analysis includes many procedures methods tools identifying clearly representing formally assessing important aspects decision prescribing recommended course action applying maximum expected utility axiom well formed representation decision translating formal representation decision corresponding recommendation insight decision maker corporate non corporate stakeholders history mathematical philosopher frank ramsey pioneered idea subjective probability

Applied science
Transportation
Operations research
Decision analysis


methods decision analysis codified popularized becoming widely taught eg business schools departments industrial engineering brief highly accessible introductory text published decision theorist howard raiffa harvard business school subsequently ralph keeney howard raiffa extended basics utility theory provide comprehensive methodology handling decisions involving trade offs multiple objectives engineering professor ron howard stanford university decision analyst jim matheson published set readings decision analysis expanded two volume


academic developments decision analysis also evolved mature professional discipline method used support business public policy decision making since late applications reviewed inaugural issue decision analysis decision analysis especially widely adopted pharmaceutical industry oil gas industry since industries regularly need make large high risk decisions eg investing development new drug making major acquisition ref name sb hbr ref methodology framing front end decision analysis focuses developing opportunity statement


boundary conditions success measures decision hierarchy strategy table action items sometimes believed application decision analysis always requires use quantitative methods reality however many decisions made using qualitative tools part decision analysis toolbox value focused thinking ref name ref without need quantitative methods framing process may lead development influence diagram decision tree commonly used graphical representations decision analysis problems graphical tools used represent alternatives available


decision maker uncertainties involve well decision maker 's objectives would achieved various final outcomes also form basis quantitative model needed example quantitative methods conducting bayesian inference identifying optimal decisions using influence diagrams developed incorporated software quantitative decision analysis model uncertainties represented probabilities specifically subjective probabilities decision maker 's attitude risk represented utility functions attitude trade offs conflicting objectives expressed using multi attribute value functions


reliance intuition gut feelings moreover decisions must made significant time pressure surprising formal methods decision analysis little use intuition expertise becoming important however time permits studies demonstrated quantitative algorithms decision making yield results superior unaided intuition addition despite known biases types human judgments required decision analysis research shown least modest benefit training feedback reducing bias critics cite phenomenon paralysis analysis


one possible consequence reliance decision analysis organizations expense decision analysis factor analysis however strategies available reduce risk ref name kane ref currently great deal interest quantitative methods decision making however many methods depart axioms decision analysis therefore generate misleading recommendations circumstances truly prescriptive methods popular non decision analytic methods include fuzzy set theory representation uncertainties analytic hierarchy process representation


preferences value judgments may occasionally justification methods applications eg based ease use decision analysts would argue multi attribute utility theory gold standard methods compared based rigorous axiomatic basis although decision analysis frequently used support government decision making important note basic theory applies individual decision makers unfortunately axiomatic prescriptive theory comparable decision analysis specifically designed group public policy decisions


today used major corporations make multibillion dollar capital investments example chevron decision analysis society practice award use decision analysis major decisions video detailing chevron 's use decision analysis chevron vice chairman george kirkland notes decision analysis part chevron business simple powerful reason works also used make complex personal decisions planning retirement deciding child planning major vacation choosing among several possible medical treatments u energy u


decision analysis used structure energy objectives germany u entrepreneurship u concept certainty equivalents decision analysis used design novel highly efficient mechanisms funding new businesses desirable backers entrepreneurs u health care u decision analysis applied medical decision making regarding breast cancer diagnosis therapy treatment thyroid cancer lung cancer u insurance u decision analysts explored use insurance mechanism encourage adoption beneficial health behaviors method also applied determine optimal strategies purchase long term


care insurance function age wealth risk tolerance u litigation u attorneys used decision analysis identify strategies likely lead beneficial outcomes litigation u portfolio management u decision analysis recommended method improving resource allocations portfolio management ref name sb hbr u military planning u decision analysis applied problem base closure u radioactive waste u decision analysis used evaluate alternatives radioactive waste repositories united states united kingdom smaller scale also used evaluate options dealing surplus weapons grade


analysis mcda optimal decision stochastic dominance references reading https wwwgwernnet docs statistics decision howard readingsondecisionanalysis v pdf volume https wwwgwernnet docs statistics decision howard readingsondecisionanalysis v pdf volume keeney r l raiffa h ''decisions multiple objectives preferences value tradeoffs'' wiley new york reprinted cambridge univ press new york nowiki isbn nowiki external links http wwwdecisionprofessionalscom society decision professionals professional society supporting decision professionals advisors choice facing important complex decisions http dapubsinformsorg decision analysis journal institute operations research management sciences http connectinformsorg das home decision analysis society subdivision institute operations research management sciences specializing decision analysis


https webarchiveorg web http gunstongmuedu healthscience defaultasp decision analysis health care online course george mason university providing free lectures tools decision analysis modeling health care settings http wwwdaagnet decision analysis affinity group daag merged become annual conference society decision professionals formed informal group da practitioners daag started tom spradlin john palmer david skinner https webarchiveorg web http grahamjefferycom glossary decision analysis glossary analysis


science designing erecting buildings interiors along related physical features licensed architect practice interior architect architecture means offer render professional services connection design construction building 's interior principal purpose relating interiors' design human occupancy use general term describe building interiors related physical features style method design construction building 's interiors related physical features evolution adaptive reuse real estate opportunities granted redevelop battersea power

Humanities
Visual arts
Applied arts
Interior architecture


station england november work archi ninjacom ref one successful residential reuse projects gasometer city vienna austria four immense disused gasometers successfully revamped late since become famous world adaptive reuse unique redevelopment since become sought place live close knit inner community looked upon successful example adaptive reuse ref name archi ninjacom world food prize hall laureates formerly des moines public library western bank des moines river downtown des moines iowa


although original spatial hierarchy building always established first architect subsequent iterations interior may obvious reasons older structures often modified designers different generation according society changing needs cities evolve process often semanticizes building consequence predicated notion buildings never really complete unalterable altered building may look exterior interior may completely different spatially interior architect must therefore sensitive


generally held desirable possibility new building site although clearly economic forces apply also possible speculate might well new interiors structures future years alteration technical technological expertise era determine extent building modified building life cycle certain structure 's interiors remain unaltered time due historic preservation unchanged use financial limitations nevertheless buildings three possible long range internal futures first designated significantly important


building new retro fitting existing structures little impact environment eco friendly movement became important issue around major energy crisis struck making individuals aware contributions done help lighten impacts bstone sustainability interior architecture really taken last decades help advancements technology discovering new materials efficient concepts still lend aesthetically pleasing aspect design past years came eco design stale lack


lowest percent earned less highest percent earned starting internships expect earn considerably less earnings partners established architectural firms may fluctuate changing business conditions architects may difficulty establishing practices may go period expenses greater income requiring substantial financial resources many firms pay tuition fees toward continuing education requirements employees education purpose education interior architecture include study historic architectural design styles building codes


safety preserving restoring old buildings drawing plans original designs building physical virtual computer based models field interior architecture lot common interior design decorating however typically focuses architecture construction students fields learn design comfortable safe useful indoor spaces downtown penthouses high school classrooms student interior architecture learn much artistic concerns choosing style furnishings works well open loft like apartment study also include information technical issues


occupational safety standards structural systems design heating cooling systems design interior design specific end use applications professional responsibilities standards addition earning degree interior architecture general licensure required work within united states states licensing requirements many european countries australia use title interior architect legally regulated means practicing professional cannot use title interior architect unless complete requirements becoming registered licensed architect well completing degree program example programs degree


programs interior architecture include rhode island school design interior architecture adaptive reuse bfa mdes degree programs woodbury university bfa mia degree programs george washington university school interior architecture design bfa mfa programs boston architectural college school interior architecture bachelor interior architecture master interior architecture german jordanian university school architecture built environment department architecture interior architecture bachelor science architecture interior architecture university houston gerald hines college architecture interior architecture program sligo institute technology school engineering department


civil engineering construction university nevada las vegas school architecture interior architecture design school art institute chicago department architecture interior architecture designed objects cornish college arts interior architecture department bfa program auburn university school architecture planning landscape architecture interior architecture program university new south wales faculty built environment interior architecture program university oregon interior architecture department university sint lucas ghent brussels interior architecture department drexel university university indonesia ucsi university monash university interior architecture department architecture university bergen interior architecture


furniture design department design university memphis department architecture interior architecture program university idaho interior architecture school arts architecture marywood university interior architecture bia mia programs school architecture konstfack university arts crafts design ba interior architecture furniture design interior architecture spatial design department design see also ecovation fuzzy architectural spatial analysis interior design references


'''convention''' set agreed stipulated generally accepted standards norms social norms criteria often taking form custom social context convention may retain character unwritten law custom example manner people greet shaking 's hands certain types rules customs may become law sometimes may codified formalize enforce convention example laws define side road vehicles must driven physical sciences numerical values

Applied science
Military sciences
Military weapons
Unconventional


constants quantities scales measurement called conventional represent measured property nature originate convention example average many measurements agreed scientists working values general convention selection among two alternatives rule alternative agreed upon among participants often word refers unwritten customs shared throughout community instance conventional many societies strangers introduced shake hands conventions explicitly legislated example conventional


''on social facts'' alternative account offered another view convention comes ruth millikan 's ''language biological model'' lewis according david kalupahana buddha described conventions whether linguistic social political moral ethical even religious arising dependent specific conditions according paradigm conventions considered absolute realities contribute dogmatism turn leads conflict mean conventions absolutely ignored unreal therefore useless instead according buddhist thought wise person adopts middle way without holding conventions


society focus active interaction highlights fluid shifting character social rules specific social context context varies time place means social rule changes time within society acceptable past may longer case similarly rules differ across space acceptable one society may another social rules reflect ''acceptable'' ''normal'' behaviour situation michel foucault 's concept discourse closely related social rules offers possible


explanation rules shaped change social rules tell people ''normal'' behaviour specific category thus social rules tell woman behave womanly manner man manly rules follows strangers introduced shake hands western societies bow toward korea japan china ''wai'' thailand ''do not'' bow jewish tradition united states eye contact nod head toward


smile bowing palm hand faces sideways neither upward downward business handshake present business cards business meetings handed japan click heels together saluting military contexts places always polite ask kissing hugging called public display affection property norm place things back found property norm used identify commodities accepted money sexual norm refer personal social norm cultures social


norms regarding sexuality define normal sexuality consist certain sex acts individuals meet specific criteria age consanguinity race ethnicity social role socioeconomic status west outside traditional norm consenting adults considered normal falls regarded paraphilia sexual perversion form marriage polygyny polyandry right wrong given society homosexual marriage considered wrong many societies religious example woman man must cohabitate live together


romantically involved gotten married adultery considered wrong violating sexual fidelity union couple marriage men 's women 's dress code avoid using rude hand gestures like pointing people swear words offensive language etc woman 's curtsey societies middle east never displaying sole foot toward another would seen grave insult many schools though seats students assigned still claimed certain students sitting someone else 's seat considered


insult reciprocate something done us etiquette norms like asking excused gathering 's table ready pay bill particularly case asked people dinner faux pas refuse offer food guest contraception norms limit access women require cultures limit contraception recreational drug use restrictions access popularly accepted culture used example alcohol nicotine cannabis hashish 's disincentive prohibition controlled


divulge privacy others treat friends family non violently faithful honest couple treat respect beliefs activities aims parents show respect beliefs religious cultural symbols others tolerate respect people functional diversity particularly wish integrate game sports equipment also tolerate different points view even contrary n't try change beliefs force give seat people children pregnant elderly public private transportation face front n't go


elevator surfing n't push extra buttons elevator stand close someone people library 's polite talk noise volume classroom cinema 's correct talk movie people watch film also 's correct phones light sound distract patrons going punctual notify friends acquitances late cannot show restaurant theater


cinema etc outing proper give reason phone address sometime prior 's norm speak one time religious vow special promise made religious sense ceremonies marriages 's couple promised marriage called marriage vows also promising one another faithful take care children military oath called oath enlistment us convention commit oneself taking oath commit


oneself something external external standard one 's actions judged helping somebody need may social responsibility prevent harm like parable good samaritan n't go non fast food restaurant bar unless enough make good tip depending place examples us social norms customs turned laws following people cannot buy alcohol must drive firearms legal relatively accessible anyone wants one city cannot cross


street wherever like must use zebra crossing fined police catch breaking rule social norm provide tips us waitresses waiters numerous gender specific norms influence society girls wear pink boys wear blue men strong show emotion women caring nurturing men repairs house one work make money women expected take care housework children man


pay woman 's meal going dinner men open doors women bars clubs workplace clear way exit government government convention set unwritten rules participants government must follow rules ignored justification clear provided otherwise consequences follow consequences may include ignoring convention followed according traditional doctrine dicey conventions cannot enforced courts non legal sets rules convention particularly important


known perhaps several geneva conventions see also de facto standard standard disambiguation trope literature references external links rescorla michael http platostanfordedu entries convention convention stanford encyclopedia philosophy http law reforg law reforg index important international conventions consensus reality social concepts normative ethics social agreement


social media sites providing instructions something regardless technical task overview technical writing performed technical writer technical author process writing sharing technical information professional setting ref name mike markel ref technical writer 's primary task communicate technical information another person party clearest effective manner possible ref name mike markel information technical writers communicate often complex strong writing communication skills essential technical writers convey information text

Journalism, media studies and communication


must proficient computers well technical writers use wide range programs create edit illustrations diagramming programs create visual aids document processors design create format documents technical writing commonly associated online help user manuals term technical documentation cover wider range genres technologies press releases memos reports business proposals datasheets product descriptions specifications white papers r sum job applications examples writing considered technical documentation types technical documentation typically


handled technical writers example press release usually written public relations writer though technical writer might input technical information included press release history technical writing recognized profession since world war ii ref name msubillingsedu ref roots traced classical antiquity ref name doody ref critics cite works writers like aristotle earliest forms technical writing ref name doody geoffrey chaucer 's work treatise astrolabe early example technical document earliest examples technical writing date back


old english period invention mechanical printing press onset renaissance rise age reason documenting findings became necessity inventors scientists like isaac newton leonardo da vinci prepared documents chronicled inventions findings ref name msubillingsedu never called technical documents period publication documents played crucial role developing modern forms technical communication writing ref name msubillingsedu field technical communication grew industrial revolution ref name eprintsportacuk ref increasing need provide people instructions using


complex machines invented ref name eprintsportacuk however unlike past skills handed oral traditions one besides inventors knew use new devices writing thus became fastest effective way disseminate information writers could document devices desired ref name eprintsportacuk th century need technical writing skyrocketed profession became officially recognized events world war world war ii led advances medicine military hardware computer technology aerospace technologies ref name msubillingsedu rapid growth coupled urgency


using computers notably joseph chapline authored first computational technical document instruction manual binac computer invention transistor allowed computers produced cheaply within purchasing range individuals small businesses ref name msubillingsedu market personal computers grew need writers could explain provide user documentation devices ref name msubillingsedu profession technical writing saw expansion consumer electronics found way homes people ref name msubillingsedu


recent years prominence computers society led many advances field digital communications leading changes tools technical writers use ref name msubillingsedu hypertext word processors graphics editing programs page layout software made creation technical documents faster easier technical writers today must proficient programs ref name mike markel techniques good technical writing concise focused easy understand free errors audience based ref name tebeaux ref technical writers focus making documents clear possible avoiding overly technical phrases stylistic choices like passive voice


nominalizations ref name mike markel technical documents used real world situations always explicitly clear subject matter technical document use presented information would disastrous example technical writer 's instructions use high powered x ray machine difficult decipher technical writing requires writer extensively examine audience ref name mike markel technical writer needs aware audience 's existing knowledge material discussing knowledge base writer 's audience determines


accurate ethical manner physical environmental financial repercussions could result writer incorrectly knowing audience essential accuracy language tailored according already understand subject hand example instructions correctly safely assemble bookshelf included purchase instructions constructed anyone follow along including accurate details fastener goes instructions inaccurate bookshelf could unstable fail document design layout also vital components technical writing ref name mike


markel technical writers spend large amounts time ensuring documents readable poorly designed document hampers reader 's comprehension technical document design stresses proper usage document design choices like bullet points font size bold text images diagrams videos also commonly employed technical writers media often convey complex information like company 's annual earnings product 's design features far efficiently text ref name mike markel technical documents technical writing covers many genres writing styles depending information audience ref name mike markel technical documents


finally cost project ref name tebeaux proposals cover wide range subjects example technical writer may author proposal outlines much cost install new computer system marketing professional may write proposal product offerings teacher may write proposal outlines new biology class structured '''emails letters memoranda''' frequently written documents business ref name tebeaux letters emails constructed variety goals usually aimed simply communicating information others


designed persuade recipient accomplish certain task letters usually written people outside company memoranda memos documents written employees within business ref name tebeaux '''press releases''' company wants publicly reveal new product service writer author press release document describes product 's functions value public '''specifications''' design outlines describe structure parts packaging delivery object process enough detail another party reconstruct example


technical writer might diagram write specifications smartphone bicycle manufacturer produce object '''descriptions''' shorter explanations procedures processes help readers understand something works ref name mike markel example technical writer might author document shows effects greenhouse gases demonstrates braking system bike functions '''r sum job applications''' another example technical documents ref name tebeaux documents used professional setting inform readers author 's credentials '''technical reports''' written provide readers


information instructions analysis tasks ref name tebeaux reports come many forms example technical writer might evaluate building sale produce trip report highlights findings whether believes building purchased another writer works non profit company may publish evaluation report shows findings company 's research air pollution '''case study''' published report person group situation studied time ''also'' situation real life


looked studied learn something example individual 's challenging situation workplace resolved case study '''white papers''' documents written experts field typically describe solution technological business challenge problem ref name tebeaux examples white papers include piece details make business stand market piece explaining prevent cyber attacks businesses '''websites''' advent hypertext changed way documents read organized accessed


viewed browser content may created help center software zendesk help authoring tools component content management systems create help center html output tools following tools used technical writers author present documents '''desktop publishing tools word processors''' technical writers use word processors scrivener microsoft word apple pages libreoffice writer author edit design print documents since technical writing much page layout written language enhanced desktop publishing tools


adobe indesign lyx also used programs function similarly word processors provide users options features document 's design automate much formatting '''help authoring tools''' used technical writers create help systems packaged software products delivered web browsers provided files users view computers writing instructional procedures describe mechanical electrical software programs technical writers use tools assist simplifying assembly operation installation processes '''component content management systems''' also


used technical writers create help systems documents component content management systems ccms allow writers create similar outputs help authoring tools also provide content management features version management built workflows '''image editing software''' often images visual elements communicate information better paragraphs text ref name mike markel instances image editing software like adobe photoshop gimp used technical writers create edit visual aspects documents like photos icons diagrams '''collaborative software programs''' technical writing often involves communication multiple


individuals work different companies collaborative affair ref name mike markel technical writers use wiki systems shared document work spaces work writers parties construct technical documents ref name mike markel '''web development tools''' technical writer jobs longer limited producing documents sometimes also produce content company 's corporate professional web sites ref name anderson technical writers might therefore expected proficient web development tools like adobe dreamweaver '''text editors''' programs microsoft notepad textedit wordstar allow technical writers edit plain


text text editors used change content configuration files documentation files programming language source code text editors widely used technical writers working online content '''graphing software''' communicate statistical information number visits restaurant amount money university spends sporting programs technical writers use graphs flowcharts ref name mike markel programs like microsoft excel word create basic graphs charts sometimes technical writers must produce complex detailed graphs require functions available programs


may need turn graphing diagramming tools eg microsoft visio '''screen capture tools''' technical writers frequently use screen capture tools like camtasia snagit creating instructions computer software may easier technical writer simply record short video desktops complete task would write lengthy series instructions describe task must performed screen capture tools also used take screenshots programs software running user 's computers create accompanying diagrams list associations association


business communication https attworg association teachers technical writing czech society technical communication european association technical communication ieee professional communication society institute scientific technical communicators international association business communicators sigdoc society technical communication references external links https lastcorg resources educational programs technical writing education programs los angeles chapter society technical communication lastc http pcsieeeorg q node ieee transactions professional communication technical writing courses wikiversity technical communication


demolition former penn station concourse raised public awareness preservation '''historic preservation''' us '''heritage preservation''' '''heritage conservation''' uk endeavor seeks preserve conserve protect buildings objects landscapes artifacts historical significance philosophical concept became popular twentieth century maintains cities products centuries development obligated protect patrimonial legacy term refers specifically preservation built environment preservation example primeval forests wilderness history england england antiquarian interests

Applied science
Architecture and design
Historic preservation


familiar gentleman 's pursuit since mid th century developing tandem rise scientific curiosity fellows royal society often also fellows society antiquaries ruins berkhamsted castle viewed norman motte berkhamsted common location two successful early preservation events nineteenth century enlarged train passes berkhamsted castle embankment part castle 's outer defences many historic sites damaged railways began spread across uk sites included trinity hospital church edinburgh


sir robert hunter later co founder national trust commons preservation society succeed legal action ensured protection berkhamsted common open spaces threatened enclosure common acquired national trust ref name commons ref john lubbock mp moving force behind implementation ancient monuments protection act mid th century much britain 's unprotected cultural heritage slowly destroyed even well meaning archaeologists like william greenwell excavated sites virtually attempt preservation stonehenge came increasing threat tourists


chipping parts stones carving initials rock private owners monument decided sell land london south western railway stated monument slightest use anyone ref name bryson ref john lubbock mp botanist emerged champion country 's national heritage personally bought private land housed ancient monuments avebury silbury hill elsewhere owners threatening cleared away make room housing soon began campaigning parliament legislation


protect monuments destruction finally led legislative milestone liberal government william gladstone ancient monuments protection act first government appointed inspector job archaeologist augustus pitt rivers legislation regarded conservative political elements grave assault individual rights property owner consequently inspector power identify endangered landmarks offer purchase owner consent act covered ancient monuments explicitly cover historic buildings structures


society protection ancient buildings founded arts crafts designer william morris prevent destruction historic buildings followed national trust bought estates owners preservation ancient monuments protection act given legal protection prehistoric sites ancient tumuli ancient monuments protection act took empowering government 's commissioners work local county councils protect wider range properties updates made tattershall castle preserved personal expense lord curzon


catalyst broader heritage protection laws tattershall castle lincolnshire medieval manor house put sale greatest treasures huge medieval fireplaces still intact however american bought house ripped packaged shipping former viceroy india george curzon st marquess curzon kedleston outraged cultural destruction stepped buy back castle reinstall fireplaces nationwide hunt finally found london returned restored castle ref name adrian ref left


national trust death experience tattershall influenced lord curzon push tougher heritage protection laws britain saw passage ancient monuments consolidation amendment act new structure involved creation ancient monuments board oversee protection monuments powers given board parliamentary approval issue preservation orders protect monuments extended public right access term monument extended include lands around allowing protection wider landscape


national trust national trust founded octavia hill sir robert hunter hardwicke canon rawnsley first organisation type world formal purpose blockquote preservation benefit nation lands tenements including buildings beauty historic interest regards lands preservation natural aspect features animal plant life also preservation furniture pictures chattels description national historic artistic interest blockquote early days trust concerned primarily protecting open spaces


public body british government officially titled historic buildings monuments commission england ran national system heritage protection managed range historic properties ref name eh history ref created combine roles existing bodies emerged long period state involvement heritage protection organisation merged royal commission historical monuments england national monuments record england bringing together resources identification survey england 's historic environment april english heritage divided two parts


historic england inherited statutory protection functions old organisation new english heritage trust charity would operate historic properties took english heritage operating name logo ref name new era eh ref name eh history ref name telegraph eht ref british government gave new charity nbsp million grant help establish independent trust although historic properties remained ownership state national parks united states center mount vernon plantation near alexandria virginia center united states one first historic preservation efforts washington 's headquarters state


historic site newburgh new york property distinction first ever property designated operated historic site us state since another early historic preservation undertaking george washington 's mount vernon founded richmond virginia based preservation virginia formerly known association preservation virginia antiquities united states' first statewide historic preservation group american scenic historic preservation society formed first american organization kind united states


simons lapham albert simons samuel lapham influential supporter nation 's first historic preservation ordinance charleston south carolina affording city regulatory means prevent destruction historic building stock efforts preserve historic buildings french quarter new orleans led creation vieux carr commission later adoption historic preservation ordinance access date october ref us national trust historic preservation another privately funded non profit organization began handful structures


buildings decades old international level new york based world monuments fund founded preserve historic sites world direction james marston fitch first advanced degree historic preservation program began columbia university became model graduate historic preservation programs created many programs follow preservation planning cornell ms historic preservation university vermont ms historic preservation studies boston university ms historic preservation eastern


williams university called roger williams college followed mary washington college fifty historic preservation programs offering certificates associate bachelor 's master 's degrees united states direction jorge otero pailos first phd historic preservation united states founded columbia graduate school architecture planning preservation national register historic places national register historic places plaque national historic landmark historic districts historic district united states group buildings properties sites designated one


several entities different levels historically architecturally significant buildings structures objects sites within historic district normally divided two categories contributing non contributing districts greatly vary size hundreds structures others us federal government designates historic districts us department interior auspices national park service federally designated historic districts listed national register historic places ref name nps http wwwcrnpsgov hps workingonthepast toolbox htm federal state local historic districts toolbox faq national park service retrieved february ref historic districts allows rural


areas preserve characters historic preservation programs include main street programs used redevelop rural downtowns using historic preservation programs economic development tool local governments rural areas enabled areas take advantage history develop tourism market turn provides funds maintaining economic stability areas would seen otherwise ref name rdp ref ref name hpr http wwwnalusdagov ric ricpubs preservehtml john patricia lacaille july historic preservation resources rural information center publication series national agricultural library rural information center retrieved december ref


similar concept exists united kingdom conservation area designated accordance planning listed buildings conservation areas act order protect zone buildings architectural cultural heritage interest national parks department interior designated several areas morristown new jersey first historic park united states national park system became designated morristown national historical park community permanent settlements date termed military capital american revolution contains many designations


sites locations park includes three major sites morristown united kingdom james bryce ambassador us praised system national parks campaigned introduced great britain little came mounting public pressure early th century ramblers' association groups led national parks access countryside act australia apa building constructed queen anne style demolished australia 's major cities historic heritage preservation establishments legislation place


since mid late though destruction outright demolition historic buildings continues australian cities day subject council planning approval particularly outside city centres historic neighbourhoods melbourne founded grew enormously wealth prosperity following gold rush resulted construction boom large edifices erected serve public buildings libraries court houses schools churches offices led period melbourne became known marvellous melbourne boasting largest collection victorian architecture outside england


however years followed thousands australian soldiers arrived back battlefields following end world war emerged sense renewed pride willingness forget dark days war distance australian victorian origins considered unfashionable outdated council city melbourne doubt buoyed new nationalistic pride put place schemes modernize city included increasing building height limit removing victorian era cast ironwork years leading


world war ii whelan wrecker firm already pulled thousands structures city surrounding suburbs melbourne became particularly conscious international modernism james paul whelan 's obituary suggests company task demolishing buildings marked removal city alone rise international modernism saw new approach valued replacing older elaborate inefficient buildings new ones early example city melbourne law mandated demolition posted cast iron


verandas thought dangerous well old fashioned order 'clean up' city summer olympics sydney australia 's oldest city also affected international modernism period also suffered extensive loss victorian architecture something subsisted well onwards many sydney 's handsome sandstone masonry buildings wiped away architects developers built brown concrete monstrosities place saw uncomfortable pastiches facades coherence little artistic merit green bans australian cities sydney


melbourne came effect australian heritage commission ahs established federal government ''australian heritage commission act '' first body manage natural cultural heritage australia demise responsible register national estate australian national heritage list established controversy arose melbourne historic corkman irish pub illegally demolished overnight resulting state planning minister pursuing order via victorian administrative appeals tribunal two story


pub rebuilt site owners fined aud nbsp million pleading guilty process city adelaide large public protests erupted regarding campaign save aurora hotel hindmarsh square recommended listing city heritage register refused site redeveloped protest led emergence aurora heritage action inc aha became vocal heritage lobby group adelaide decade often working cooperation residents' associations later national trust governments


urged protect traditional character adelaide capital became widely available development large increase property development increased opposition demolition adelaide 's historic buildings local councils lobbyists alike aimed expand horizon heritage protect historic precincts across city even buildings within precincts warrant heritage listing bannon government slowly responded public demand introduced historic conservation zones revision planning act regulated planning act city adelaide endeavoured create


similar scheme became known townscape initiative facilitating one destructive political debates council 's history canada canada phrase heritage preservation sometimes seen specific approach treatment historic places sites rather general concept conservation conservation taken general term referring actions processes aimed safeguarding character defining elements cultural resource retain heritage value extend physical life historic objects canada may granted special designation


three levels government central government provincial governments municipal government heritage canada foundation acts canada 's lead advocacy organisation heritage buildings landscapes netherlands victor de stuers widely considered man started historic preservation netherlands first national department conservation established de stuers appointed first legal secretary ministry home affairs chief brand new department arts sciences driving force behind ''monumentenzorg'' foundation historic preservation helped found


''rijksmuseum'' national museum ''rijksarchief'' national archives however th century national legislation historic preservation ''monumentenwet'' monuments act passed defined physical building space least fifty years old general interest beauty meaning science social value must thus preserved act replaced ''monumentenwet '' monuments act ''erfgoedwet'' heritage law ngo ''monumentenwacht'' monument watch


founded purpose providing preventative measures maintenance historic buildings majority historic preservation programs netherlands program decentralized managed provincial level owners heritage buildings subscribe services monumentenwacht receive regular visits inspection costs covered combination national provincial subsidies special kind preservation takes place netherlands preservation maritime heritage maritime trade dutch specialty shaped much culture country sea


according law protection cultural heritage according law macedonian parliament approved march three types cultural heritage immovable movable intangible historical preservation represented protection monuments monumental entireties immovable cultural heritage historical items movable cultural heritage although law first nationwide establishment regulations historic preservation since north macedonia gained independence yugoslavia september several organizations throughout th century encompassed efforts historic preservation central office


protection cultural monuments natural rarities socialist republic macedonia existed since central office renamed national office protection cultural monuments granted status independent cultural institution authority execute activities historic preservation establishment law protection cultural heritage ministry culture renamed office national center conservation narrowed responsibilities dealing solely preservation immovable cultural heritage organizations contributed efforts


historic preservation macedonian national committee icomos ni institute protection monuments culture museum ohrid international council monuments sites icomos established branch north macedonia initiative conservationists macedonia guiding principles macedonian national committee icomos raising national consciousness importance historic cultural heritage decentralization discourse heritage effective monitoring status cultural historic heritage country ni institute protection monuments culture museum


ohrid second oldest institutions historical preservation established institute granted authority protect movable immovable cultural historic heritage ohrid region institute since executed numerous efforts historic preservation notably aiding recognition city ohrid unesco site cultural heritage today main authority historic preservation cultural heritage protection office office independent governmental organization ministry culture divided three departments identification protection use


cultural heritage prevention supervision documentation international cooperation administrative affairs lsrael israel currently two laws concerning historic preservation antiquities law state israel planning building law laws adapted british law implemented british mandate palestine however laws comprehensive limited scope antiquities law applies buildings artifacts dated bc efforts discovering protecting anything older bc well protected anything later historical periods


protection law planning building law discusses overall management regulation land use israel several changes amendments specifically regarding preservation years n't enforced many historical sites destroyed state prioritizing developmental economic interests issue preservation gaining public awareness response destruction herzliya hebrew gymnasium one first educational institutions israel wave shock anger led extensive public debate


provide comprehensive effective framework preservation israel different separate effort preservation comes israeli defense force idf idf surveyed military bases found include sites worth preserving bases preservation plan idf working towards maintaining building well communicating value soldiers bases buildings include knights templar sites old military bases used british german buildings ottoman period unesco fortress suomenlinna


th century helsinki finland one significant unesco 's world heritage sites since according unesco 's world heritage convention landscapes sites outstanding universal value designated world heritage sites world heritage convention encompasses historic preservation category cultural heritage according article convention monuments groups buildings sites outstanding universal value point view history art science designated cultural heritage requirement designation designating nation appropriate legal scientific


technical administrative financial measures place identify protect conserve present rehabilitate world heritage sites however according article convention sovereignty state site located compromised state acknowledges protection heritage sites duty entire international community world heritage convention 's counterpart world heritage committee body responsible practical implementation convention well managing deciding use world heritage fund committee also gets final say determining


whether property included world heritage list committee meets year includes representatives states part states parties yearly reports available public world heritage website include outlines decisions made outcomes working documents various reports international partner unesco blue shield international national international perspective many cooperations blue shield organizations united nations peacekeeping ensure sustainable existence cultural assets women historic preservation historic experience females


overlooked majority human history since effort put forth improve presentation women 's history guidebooks women 's landmarks sometimes failed distinguish presence historic resources subsequent construction sites significance women 's history making actual visit site somewhat disappointing experience visitors ref name dubrow potential challenges although preservation efforts benefits owners historical buildings tax cuts subsidies also drawbacks one drawback neighborhood


preservation society slowing process severely exact policies country dependent influential people eug ne viollet le duc french architect restored gothic buildings believed restoration could improve past ann pamela cunningham influential saving mount vernon plantation demolition founding mount vernon ladies' association one first preservation organizations united states est john ruskin english art critic established basic theory preservation retention status quo augustus pitt rivers britain 's first inspector ancient monuments john lubbock campaigned legal protection ancient


monuments saved avebury destruction hand private owners william morris english designer writer founded society protection ancient buildings camillo boito italian architect tried reconcile conflicting views viollet le duc ruskin inspiring modern legislation restoration several countries victor de stuers dutch art historian lawyer civil servant politician first legal secretary ministry home affairs chief brand new department arts sciences george curzon british viceroy india preserved tattershall castle lincolnshire


influential sponsor ancient monuments consolidation amendment act william sumner appleton founder society preservation new england antiquities historic new england widely considered us 's first professional preservationist charles e peterson considered founding father historic preservation united states james marston fitch educator author critic design practitioner made major contribution philosophical basis modern preservation movement trained inspired generations preservationists william j murtagh first keeper national register


historic places united states significant contributor literature discipline lee h nelson worked charles e peterson national park service 's historic american buildings survey helped formulate national policies historic preservation walter muir whitehill chairman whitehill report late established first guidelines higher education historic preservation programs richard nickel american preservationist saved architectural elements louis sullivan buildings harriet tubman purchased acres erect home elderly site would eventually serve memorial legacy ref


name dubrow ref mary mcleod bethune involved many efforts preserve afro american historic sites established archive afro american women 's history provided funds key organizations similar goals ref name dubrow madam cj walker gave single largest contribution preservation frederick douglas home ref name dubrow maggie lena walker professional organisations american institute conservation american institute architects american planning association international council monuments sites state historic preservation office society architectural historians national trust english heritage society protection ancient buildings landmark trust see


also adaptive reuse architectural conservation athens charter doctrinal text barcelona charter doctrinal text building restoration cadw cultural heritage management cultural resources management historic garden conservation historic scotland list historic houses principles intelligent urbanism ship theseus philosophical problem regarding identity preservation replacement space archaeology sustainable preservation venice charter doctrinal text demolished buildings structures heritage organizations historic preservation organizations references bibliography fitch james marston ''historic preservation curatorial management built world'' charlottesville va university press virginia munoz vinas salvador ''contemporary theory conservation'' amsterdam elsevier butterworth heinemann page max randall mason


eds ''giving preservation history'' new york routledge price nicholas stanley et al eds ''historical philosophical issues conservation cultural heritage'' los angeles getty conservation institute ruskin john ''the seven lamps architecture'' new york dover publications originally published important preservation theory introduced section lamp memory stipe robert e ed ''a richer heritage historic preservation twenty first century'' chapel hill nc university north carolina press carughi ugo visone massimo '' https wwwacademiaedu time frames conservation policies twentieth century architectural heritage time frames conservation policies twentieth century architectural heritage '' new york london routledge


distribution corresponding authors scholarly articles sars cov covid january march '''bibliometrics''' use statistical methods analyse books articles publications bibliometric methods frequently used field library information science sub field bibliometrics concerns analysis scientific publications called scientometrics citation analysis commonly used bibliometric method based constructing citation graph network graph representation citations documents many research fields use bibliometric methods explore impact field impact

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Bibliometrics


set researchers impact particular paper identify particularly impactful papers within specific field research bibliometrics also wide range applications descriptive linguistics development thesauri evaluation reader usage usage historically bibliometric methods used trace relationships amongst academic journal citations citation analysis involves examining item 's referring documents used searching materials analyzing merit citation indices institute scientific information 's web science allow users search forward time


known article recent publications cite known item data citation indexes analyzed determine popularity impact specific articles authors publications using citation analysis gauge importance one 's work example significant part tenure review process information scientists also use citation analysis quantitatively assess core journal titles watershed publications particular disciplines interrelationships authors different institutions schools thought related data sociology academia pragmatic applications information includes planning retrospective


bibliographies giving indication age material used discipline extent recent publications supersede older ones indicating high frequency citation documents archived comparing coverage secondary services help publishers gauge achievements competition aid librarians evaluating effectiveness stock also limitations value citation data often incomplete biased data largely collected hand expensive though citation indexes also used incorrect


citing sources occurs continually thus investigation required truly understand rationale behind citing allow confidently applied bibliometrics used quantitative research assessment exercises academic output starting threaten practice based research uk government considered using bibliometrics possible auxiliary tool research excellence framework process assess quality research output uk universities basis assessment results allocate research funding met significant scepticism pilot study looks unlikely


replace current peer review process furthermore excessive usage bibliometrics assessment value academic research encourages gaming system various ways including publishing large quantity works low new content see least publishable unit publishing premature research satisfy numbers focusing popularity topic rather scientific value author 's interest often detrimental role research phenomena addressed number recent initiatives including san francisco declaration research assessment guidelines written using bibliometrics academic research disciplines


management education information science bibliometrics applications include creating thesauri measuring term frequencies metrics scientometric analysis exploring grammatical syntactical structures texts measuring usage readers quantifying value online media communication measuring jaccard distance cluster analysis text mining based binary logistic regression ref name aristovnik et al ref context big deal cancellations several library systems world data analysis tools like unpaywall journals used libraries assist big deal cancellations libraries avoid subscriptions materials already served instant open access via open


archives like pubmed central history term ''bibliom trie'' first used paul otlet ref name otlet ref defined measurement aspects related publication reading books documents ref name rousseau ref anglicised version ''bibliometrics'' first used alan pritchard paper published titled statistical bibliography bibliometrics ref name pritchard ref defined term application mathematics statistical methods books media communication citation analysis long history science citation index began publication derek j de solla price discussed citation


graph describing network citations article networks scientific papers however done initially manually large scale electronic databases associated computer algorithms able cope vast numbers documents bibliometric collections first algorithm automated citation extraction indexing citeseer google 's pagerank based principle citation analysis patent citation maps also based upon citation analysis case citation one patent another however one keep mind humans publishing citing


since early history individual works containing citations date back far antiquity see also altmetrics author level metrics bibliomining citation impact citation graph hirsch number ''h'' index impact factor informetrics journalology rankings academic publishers webometrics references external links https wwwthe research huborg research hub published full length freely accessible https wwwyoutubecom playlistlist plq kjkygpbmhyo dixe ur evfrqa u disable polymer true bibliometric analysis video tutorial playlist


'''limited war''' one belligerents expend resources disposal whether human industrial agricultural military natural technological otherwise specific conflict may preserve resources purposes might difficult participants use area 's resources rather part limited war opposite concept total war examples american indians many american indians practiced limited warfare similar behaviors eastern groups time contact europeans often would

Applied science
Military sciences
Grand strategy
Limited war


kill enemies would capture many adoption replenish populations related mourning wars aztec flower wars keep subordinate nations symbolically defeated capture sacrificial victims symbolically adopted wars left noncombatants materials without risk physical harm crimean war british prime minister lord palmerston decided fight limited war russia since waging total war would required massive reform armed forces korean war beginning korean war us president harry truman general douglas


us feared hated allies allies agree us course following believe take initiative widen conflict far east united states widen conflict might well go alone go alone asia may destroy unity free nations aggression european allies nearer russia far greater danger going alone brought world disaster world war ii


propose strip country allies face soviet danger path collected security sure defense dangers threaten us blockquote vietnam war concept limited war also used vietnam war united states presidents john f kennedy lyndon b johnson part strategy contain spread communism without provoking wider confrontation soviet union richard barnet quit state department disagreed kennedy 's incremental vietnam escalation described


misgivings president rejected major military intervention conscious policy set force bureaucratic momentum would make certainty war attrition war attrition fought israel egypt mostly consisted artillery shelling aerial warfare small scale raids falklands war often seen textbook example limited war limited time location objectives means falklands war fought course weeks ended casualties sides


nato bombing yugoslavia nato bombing yugoslavia part kosovo war limited war nato ref name bieberdaskalovski ref predominantly used large scale air campaign destroy yugoslav military infrastructure high altitudes second sino indian war second sino indian war fought china india sikkim sector line actual control also known nathu la cho la clashes references wars type


'''anarchist economics''' set theories practices economic activity within political philosophy anarchism many anarchists anti authoritarian anti capitalists anarchism usually referred form libertarian socialism ie stateless system socialism ref name infoshoporg ref name meltzer ref name ellerman anarchists support personal property defined terms possession use ie mutualist usufruct oppose capital concentration interest monopoly private ownership productive property means production capital land means labor profit rent usury wage slavery viewed inherent capitalism anarchism often considered

Social science
Economics
Anarchist economics


radical left wing far left movement ref name brooks ref much economics well legal philosophy reflect anti authoritarian anti statist libertarian interpretations left wing socialist politics communism collectivism free market individualism mutualism participism syndicalism among libertarian socialist economics majority anarchist theorists consider anarcho capitalism part anarchist movement due fact anarchism historically anti capitalist movement seen incompatible capitalism ref name meltzer meltzer albert https archiveorg details anarchism albe ''anarchism arguments against'' ak press p philosophy anarcho capitalism dreamed libertarian


new right nothing anarchism known anarchist movement proper ref unlike anarcho capitalists free market individualist anarchists retain labor theory value socialist doctrines anarchists argue characteristic capitalist institutions promote reproduce various forms economic activity consider oppressive including private property productive property rather personal property hierarchical production relations collecting rents private property taking profit exchanges collecting interest loans ref name infoshoporg ref name ellerman ref name igualada anarchists see ruling class including capitalists landlords forms involuntary coercive hierarchy socio economic rulership


social stratification primary rulers society workers' self management democratic education cooperative housing seen removing authority unlike right libertarians anarchists endorse possession based ownership rather propertarianism ref name proudhon ref name whatisanarchism historical overview early views early english anarchist william godwin 's views economics could summarized follows h e envisages possibility specialization various crafts would lead man 's following task greatest aptitude distributing surplus products whoever may need receiving needs things


surplus produced neighbours always basis free distribution exchange evident despite speculations future machinery godwin 's ideal society based economics handcrafts cultivation ref name autogenerated george woodcock ''anarchism history libertarian ideas movements'' ref influential german individualist anarchist philosopher max stirner private property spook lives grace law becomes 'mine' effect law words private property exists purely protection state state 's grace


recognising need state protection stirner also aware need make difference 'good citizens' protects principles whether absolute king constitutional one republic protected principle whose protector always 'love' labour rather interest bearing possession labouring capital therefore labour certainly yet little none one 's labour capital subject labourers ref name lorenzo kom'boa ervin ref pierre joseph proudhon pierre joseph proudhon involved lyons mutualists


later adopted name describe teachings ref name woodcock george p woodcock george anarchism history libertarian ideas movements broadview press p ref ''what mutualism'' clarence lee swartz gives account origin term claiming word mutualism seems first used john gray english writer ref name referenceb swartz clarence lee mutualism ref proudhon opposed government privilege protects capitalist banking land interests well accumulation acquisition property form coercion led


believed hampers competition keeps wealth hands proudhon favoured right individuals retain product labour property believed property beyond individual produced could possess illegitimate thus saw private property essential liberty road tyranny former resulted labour required labour latter resulted exploitation profit interest rent tax generally called former possession latter property large scale industry supported


workers associations replace wage labour opposed ownership land josiah warren josiah warren widely regarded first american anarchist ref name slate palmer brian http wwwslatecom id anarchists want us ''slatecom'' ref four page weekly paper edited ''the peaceful revolutionist'' first anarchist periodical published ref name bailie william bailie http libertarian labyrinthorg warren stamanarchpdf ''josiah warren first american anarchist sociological study'' boston small maynard co p ref warren termed phrase cost limit price cost referring monetary price paid labor one exerted produce


item ref name referencec watch ''cost'' ''value'' cost consists amount labor bestowed mineral natural wealth converting metals warren josiah ''equitable commerce'' ref therefore h e proposed system pay people certificates indicating many hours work could exchange notes local time stores goods took amount time produce ref name slate warren put theories test establishing experimental labor labor store called cincinnati time store trade facilitated notes backed


promise perform labor store proved successful operated three years closed warren could pursue establishing colonies based mutualism included utopia modern times warren said stephen pearl andrews' ''the science society'' published lucid complete exposition warren 's theories ref name charles madison p charles madison anarchism united states ''journal history ideas'' vol january p ref europe early anarcho communist joseph jacque first person describe


problem exchange value polemic proudhon women 's emancipation jacque urged proudhon push 'as far abolition contract abolition sword capital property authority forms' refuted commercial wages logic demand 'fair reward' 'labour' labour power jacque asked 'am thus right want system contracts measure according accidental capacity produce entitled to' answer given


significant organization karl marx became leading figure international member general council proudhon 's followers mutualists opposed marx 's state socialism advocating political abstentionism small property holdings following unsuccessful participation league peace freedom lpf russian revolutionary mikhail bakunin collectivist anarchist associates joined first international decided get involved lpf allied federalist socialist sections international advocated revolutionary overthrow state collectivization property similar position adopted


workers' federation spanish region articulated anarchist veteran first international josep llunas pujals essay collectivism ref name blackrosebooksnet collectivist anarchists advocated remuneration type amount labor adhering principle according deeds peter kropotkin anarcho communism coherent modern economic political philosophy first formulated italian section first international carlo cafiero emilio covelli errico malatesta andrea costa ex mazzinian republicans ref name nunzio pernicone pp respect mikhail bakunin make differences


collectivist anarchism explicit bakunin 's death ref name marxistsorg james guillaume http wwwmarxistsorg reference archive guillaume works bakuninhtm michael bakunin biographical sketch ref collectivist anarchists sought collectivize ownership means production retaining payment proportional amount kind labor individual anarcho communists sought extend concept collective ownership products labor well groups argued capitalism anarcho communists departed proudhon bakunin maintained individuals right product individual labor remunerated particular contribution production errico malatesta


put instead running risk making confusion trying distinguish let us work put everything common way give society strength permits enough produced every one take needs limiting needs things yet plenty every one ref name dwardmacpitzeredu malatesta errico talk anarchist communism two workers also available http dwardmacpitzeredu anarchist archives malatesta malatestaatachtml ref early european anarchist movement


adopted anarcho communist position advocating abolition wage labour distribution according need ironically collectivist label became commonly associated marxist state socialists advocated retention sort wage system transition full communism anarcho communist peter kropotkin attacked position essay collectivist wages system reprinted book ''the conquest bread'' cafiero explains ''anarchy communism'' private property product labor lead unequal accumulation capital therefore reappearance social classes


antagonisms thus resurrection state preserve individual appropriation products labour would forced preserve money leaving less accumulation wealth according less merit rather need individuals ref name graham robert graham ''anarchism documentary history libertarian ideas volume one anarchy anarchism ce '' black rose books ref florence conference italian federation international held forest outside florence due police activity declared principles anarcho communism anarchism economics


practice spanish revolution strong anarchist movement spain debate collectivism anarcho communism revived double base industrial rural turned libertarian communism spanish anarcho syndicalism somewhat divergent directions one communalist syndicalist communalism expressed local rural spirit one might almost say southern one principal bastions andalusia syndicalism hand urban unitarian spirit northerly since main center catalonia ref name libcom http libcomorg library anarchism daniel guerin c ''anarchism theory practice''


daniel gu rin monthly review press ref spanish anarchist theoreticians somewhat divided subject section given hearts peter kropotkin erudite yet simplistic idealization communes middle ages identified spanish tradition primitive peasant community favorite slogan free commune mikhail bakunin founder spanish collectivist syndicalist internationalist workers' movement anarchists tended follow disciple ricardo mella ref name libcom concerned economic unification believed long transitional period would


necessary would wiser reward labor according hours worked according need envisaged economic structure future combination local trade union groupings federations branches industry ref name libcom spanish anarchist theoretician isaac puente published outline anarcho communism ideas taken saragossa congress confederaci n nacional del trabajo may ref name libcom spanish anarchist economist diego abad de santillan published influential treatise economics ''el organismo economico de la revolucion'' ''the economic organization


revolution'' ref name libcom saw following blockquote ideal commune associated federated integrated total economy country countries state revolution replace single owner hydra headed owner collectivism self management land factories mines means transport product work must service nowadays economy neither local even national world wide characteristic feature modern life cohesion productive distributive forces


socialized economy directed planned imperative necessity corresponds trend development modern economic world ref name libcom blockquote santillan play important part spanish revolution became member central committee anti fascist militia member catalan economic council economics minister catalan government ref name libcom anarchist historian george woodcock reports following blockquote several months armed forces regions mostly anarchist controlled militia units factories largely taken workers run cnt committees hundreds


villages either shared collectivized land many attempted set libertarian communes kind advocated kropotkin beginnings collectivization seem similar villages factories landlords villages fled civil guards killed chased away village syndicate would transform popular assembly every villager could participate directly affairs community administrative committee would elected would operate constant supervision population meeting least week


writings pierre joseph proudhon envisioned society person might possess means production either individually collectively trade representing equivalent amounts labor free market integral scheme establishment mutual credit bank would lend producers minimal interest rate high enough cover costs administration mutualism based labor theory value holds labor product sold exchange ought receive goods services embodying amount labor necessary produce


article exactly similar equal utility mutualists believe state intervene result increased competition marketplace individuals would receive income proportion amount labor exert mutualists oppose idea individuals receiving income loans investments rent believe individuals laboring argue state intervention ceased types incomes would disappear due increased competition capital although proudhon opposed type income expressed never meant


necessary form association among workers without would remain related subordinates superiors would ensue two castes masters wage workers repugnant free democratic society becomes necessary workers form democratic societies equal conditions members pain relapse feudalism capital goods man made non land means production mutualist opinion differs whether commonly managed public assets private property evolution ''what property'' influential anarchist


origin term claiming word mutualism seems first used john gray english writer ref name referenceb john gray 's ''lecture human happiness'' first published united states publishers appended ''preamble constitution friendly association mutual interests'' located valley forge also saw publication ''constitution friendly association mutual interests'' kendal ohio proudhon speaking ''mutualit '' writings used term ''mutuellisme'' least early


programme r volutionnaire william batchelder greene used term mutualism describe mutual credit system similar proudhon also american newspaper ''the spirit age'' edited william henry channing published proposals mutualist township joshua king ingalls albert brisbane together works proudhon greene pierre leroux others american anarchist historian eunice minette schuster apparentthat proudhonian anarchism found united states least early conscious affinity


individualist anarchism josiah warren stephen pearl andrewswilliam b greene presented proudhonian mutualism purest systematic form ref name againstallauthorityorg http wwwagainstallauthorityorg nativeamericananarchismhtml ''native american anarchism study left wing american individualism'' eunice minette schuster ref later benjamin tucker fused max stirner 's egoism economics warren proudhon eclectic influential publication ''liberty'' mutualism associated two types currency reform labor notes first discussed owenite circles received first practical test time store former new harmony member individualist anarchist josiah warren mutual banking aimed


superior master wage slave operation performed individual without help specialized workers require association proudhon argued peasants require societal form feigned association purposes solidarity abolishing rents buying clubs etc mutualists argue free banking taken back people establish systems free credit contend banks monopoly credit capitalists monopoly land kevin carson contemporary mutualist author ''studies mutualist political economy'' carson holds


capitalism founded act robbery massive feudalism argues capitalism could exist absence state says state intervention distinguishes capitalism free market robert graham notes proudhon 's market socialism indissolubly linked notions industry democracy workers' self management k steven vincent notes depth analysis aspect proudhon 's ideas proudhon consistently advanced program industrial democracy would return control direction economy workers proudhon strong workers' associations


would enable workers determine jointly election enterprise directed operated day day basis collectivist anarchism collectivist anarchism revolutionary ref name patsouras louis p patsouras louis marx context iuniverse p ref doctrine advocates abolition state private ownership means production instead envisions means production owned collectively controlled managed producers collectivization means production originally envisaged workers revolt forcibly collectivize means


early spanish anarchist movement criticism marxism relationship anarchist classical currents mikhail bakunin fellow members international workingmen 's association basel collectivist anarchists first used term collectivism distinguish mutualism followers pierre joseph proudhon state socialists associated karl marx mikhail bakunin wrote shall always protest anything may way resemble communism state socialism bakunin regarded fundamentally authoritarian federalism socialism anti theologism dispute bakunin marx highlighted differences anarchism


marxism bakunin argued certain ideas number marxists revolutions need violent also strongly rejected marx 's concept dictatorship proletariat concept vanguardist socialism including marxism leninism would use justify one party rule party claiming represent proletariat ref name gw woodcock george ''anarchism'' harmondsworth england penguin books ref bakunin insisted revolutions must led people directly enlightened elite must exert influence remaining invisiblenot imposed anyone deprived official rights significance held state


immediately abolished forms government eventually lead oppression ref name gw bakunin sometimes called first theorist new class meaning class intellectuals bureaucrats running state name people proletariat reality interests alone bakunin argued tate always patrimony privileged class priestly class aristocratic class bourgeois class finally classes exhausted state becomes patrimony bureaucratic class falls


rises position machine ref name referencea bakunin also different view compared marx 's revolutionary potential lumpenproletariat proletariat b oth agreed proletariat would play key role marx proletariat exclusive leading revolutionary agent bakunin entertained possibility peasants even lumpenproletariat unemployed common criminals etc could rise occasion bakunin considers workers' integration capital destructive primary revolutionary forces bakunin revolutionary archetype found peasant


milieu presented longstanding insurrectionary traditions well communist archetype current social form peasant commune amongst educated unemployed youth assorted marginals classes brigands robbers impoverished masses margins society escaped excluded yet subsumed discipline emerging industrial workin short marx sought include category lumpenproletariat anti authoritarian sections first international proclaimed st imier congress aspirations proletariat


articulated anarchist veteran first international jose llunas pujols essay collectivism ref name blackrosebooksnet difference collectivist anarchism anarcho communism collectivist anarchism stresses collective ownership productive subsistence distributary property anarcho communism negates concept ownership favor usage possession productive means possession owned individual particular group ref name proudhon proudhon ''what property'' pp ref anarcho communists believe subsistence productive distributive property common social possessions personal property private possessions ref name whatisanarchism anarchism p ref collectivist anarchists


collectivist anarchism communist anarchism way anarcho communism anarcho communism also known anarchist communism occasionally free communism libertarian communism theory anarchism advocates abolition state markets money capitalism private property retaining respect personal property favor common ownership means production ref name mayne ref direct democracy horizontal network voluntary associations workers' councils production consumption based guiding principle according ability according needs forms anarcho communism insurrectionary


anarchism strongly influenced egoism radical individualism believing anarcho communism best social system realization individual freedom ref name creativenothing http wwwtheanarchistlibraryorg html renzo novatore toward creative nothinghtml towards creative nothing renzo novatore ref ref name bobblack post left anarcho communist bob black analysing insurrectionary anarcho communist luigi galleani 's view anarcho communism went far saying communism final fulfillment individualismthe apparent contradiction individualism communism rests misunderstanding bothsubjectivity also objective individual really subjective nonsense speak emphatically prioritizing social individual may well speak prioritizing chicken egg


anarchy method individualization aims combine greatest individual development greatest communal unity http wwwtheanarchistlibraryorg html bob black nightmares reasonhtml toc bob black ''nightmares reason'' ref anarcho communists view anarcho communism way reconciling opposition individual society ref name brownpolitics l susan brown 'the politics individualism' black rose books ref ref name brownwork l susan brown http wwwspunkorg texts writers brown sp html work really work ref abolition wage labor central anarchist communism distribution wealth based self determined needs people would free engage whatever activities found fulfilling would longer


engage work neither temperament aptitude ref name brownwork anarcho communists argue valid way measuring value one person 's economic contributions wealth collective product current preceding generations anarcho communists argue economic system based wage labor private property requires coercive state apparatus enforce property rights maintain unequal economic relationships inevitably arise differences wages amount property argue markets systems currency divide labor classes assign arbitrary numerical


values individual 's work attempt regulate production consumption distribution argue money restricts individual 's ability consume products labor limiting intake prices wages anarcho communists recognize money fundamentally quantitative nature rather qualitative believe production qualitative matter consumption distribution self determined individual without arbitrary value assigned labor goods services others place market anarcho communists support currency less gift economy goods services produced workers distributed


community stores everyone including workers produced essentially entitled consume whatever want need payment production goods services gift economy necessarily involve immediate return remuneration compensation comes form whatever person decides equal value products labor commonly called bartering limits production distribution would determined individuals within groups involved rather capitalist owners corporations investors banks artificial market pressures crucially abstract


pernicone pp nunzio pernicone italian anarchism pp ak press ref early anarcho communist joseph jacque first person describe libertarian ref name dejacque unlike proudhon argued product labor worker right satisfaction needs whatever may nature ref name graham ref name josephdejacquefreefr anarcho communism coherent modern economic political philosophy first formulated italian section first international carlo cafiero emilio covelli errico malatesta andrea costa ex mazzinian republicans ref name nunzio pernicone


pp respect mikhail bakunin make differences collectivist anarchism explicit bakunin 's death ref name marxistsorg collectivist anarchists sought collectivize ownership means production retaining payment proportional amount kind labor individual anarcho communists sought extend concept collective ownership products labor well groups argued capitalism anarchist communists departed proudhon bakunin maintained individuals right product individual labor remunerated


particular contribution production malatesta put instead running risk making confusion trying distinguish let us work put everything common way give society strength permits enough produced every one take needs limiting needs things yet plenty every one ref name dwardmacpitzeredu theoretical work peter kropotkin took importance later expanded developed pro organizationalist insurrectionary


anarchist society committed resisting state authority whether capitalist bolshevik ref name oihmw ref successfully repelling austro hungarian white ukrainian nationalist forces makhnovists militia forces anarcho communist territories ukraine eventually crushed bolshevik military forces mexican revolution mexican liberal party established early led series military offensives leading conquest occupation certain towns districts baja california leadership anarcho communist ricardo flores mag n ref name sandiegohistoryorg ref kropotkin 's ''the conquest bread'' flores mag n considered kind anarchist bible served basis