''columbia university studies english comparative literature'' '' http wwwgutenbergorg files h hhtm project gutenberg '' sharma sandeep ''translation translation studies'' india hp university ''https wwwacademiaedu translation translation studies'' wechsler robert ''performing without stage art literary translation'' catbird press wills garry wild indecent book review david bentley hart ''the new testament translation'' yale university press pp ''the new york review books'' vol lxv february pp nbsp discusses pitfalls interpreting translating new testament external links applied linguistics communication meaning philosophy language


'''behavioural genetics''' also referred '''behaviour genetics''' field scientific research uses genetic methods investigate nature origins individual differences behaviour name behavioural genetics connotes focus genetic influences field broadly investigates extent genetic environmental factors influence individual differences using research designs allow removal confounding genes environment behavioural genetics founded scientific discipline francis galton late th century discredited association eugenics movements world war

Natural science
Biology
Genetics
Behavioural genetics


impacted modern understanding role genetic environmental influences behaviour include evidence nearly researched behaviors significant degree genetic influence influence tends increase individuals develop adulthood researched human behaviours influenced large number genes individual effects genes small environmental influences also play strong role tend make family members different one another similar history farmers wheat cattle ancient egyptian art bce


displaying domesticated animals selective breeding domestication animals perhaps earliest evidence humans considered idea individual differences behaviour could due natural causes ref name loehlin ref plato aristotle speculated basis mechanisms inheritance behavioural characteristics ref name maxson ref plato example argued ''the republic'' selective breeding among citizenry encourage development traits discourage others today might called eugenics encouraged pursuit ideal society ref name maxson ref name mcguegottesman behavioural genetic concepts also existed english


darwin 's ''on origin species'' galton published results ''hereditary genius'' work galton found rate eminence highest among close relatives eminent individuals decreased degree relationship eminent individuals decreased galton could rule role environmental influences eminence fact acknowledged study served initiate important debate relative roles genes environment behavioural characteristics work galton also introduced multivariate analysis paved way towards modern bayesian statistics used throughout


sciences launching dubbed statistical enlightenment ref name stigler ref galton later years field behavioural genetics founded galton ultimately undermined another galton 's intellectual contributions founding eugenics movement th century society ref name mcguegottesman primary idea behind eugenics use selective breeding combined knowledge inheritance behaviour improve human species ref name mcguegottesman eugenics movement subsequently discredited scientific corruption genocidal actions nazi germany behavioural genetics thereby discredited association eugenics ref name mcguegottesman field


gained status distinct scientific discipline publication early texts behavioural genetics calvin hall 's book chapter behavioural genetics introduced term psychogenetics ref name hall ref enjoyed limited popularity ref name broadhurst ref however eventually disappeared usage favour behaviour genetics start behavior genetics well identified field marked publication book ''behavior genetics'' john l fuller william robert bob thompson ref name loehlin ref name fuller thompson ref widely accepted many


behaviours animals humans significant genetic influence although extent genetic influence particular trait differ widely ref name poldermanbenyamin ref name turkheimer ref decade later february first issue journal ''behavior genetics'' published behavior genetics association formed theodosius dobzhansky elected association 's first president field since grown diversified touching many scientific disciplines ref name mcguegottesman ref name ayorechselzam ref methods primary goal behavioural genetics investigate nature origins individual differences behaviour ref name mcguegottesman wide


variety different methodological approaches used behavioral genetic research ref name plomindefries ref outlined animal studies investigators animal behavior genetics carefully control environmental factors experimentally manipulate genetic variants allowing degree causal inference available studies human behavioral genetics animal research selection experiments often employed example laboratory house mice bred open field behaviour ref name defries et al ref nbsp thermoregulatory nesting ref name lynch ref voluntary wheel running behaviour ref name swallow et al ref range methods designs covered pages behavioural geneticists


genetic environmental basis behaviour research designs used behavioural genetic research variations family designs also known pedigree designs including twin studies adoption studies ref name plomindefries quantitative genetic modelling individuals known genetic relationships eg parent child sibling dizygotic monozygotic twins allows one estimate extent genes environment contribute phenotypic differences among individuals ref name falconer ref basic intuition twin study monozygotic twins share genome dizygotic twins share average segregating genome thus differences two members


monozygotic twin pair due differences environment whereas dizygotic twins differ one another due environment well genes simplistic model dizygotic twins differ monozygotic twins attributable genetic influences important assumption twin model equal environment assumption ref name eavesfoley ref monozygotic twins shared environmental experiences dizygotic twins example monozygotic twins tend similar experiences dizygotic twins experiences genetically mediated gene environment correlation mechanisms monozygotic twins


tend similar one another dizygotic twins reasons nothing genes ref name kendlerneale ref twin studies monozygotic dizygotic twins use biometrical formulation describe influences twin similarity infer heritability ref name falconer formulation rests basic observation variance phenotype due two sources genes environment formally math var p g g times epsilon epsilon math math p math phenotype math g math effect genes math epsilon math effect environment math g times epsilon math


gene environment interaction math g math term expanded include additive math math dominance math math epistatic math math genetic effects similarly environmental term math epsilon math expanded include shared environment math c math non shared environment math e math includes measurement error dropping gene environment interaction simplicity typical twin studies fully decomposing math g math math epsilon math terms math var p c e math twin research models similarity monozygotic twins dizogotic twins using simplified forms decomposition shown


table ref name falconer class wikitable style text align left decomposing genetic environmental contributions twin similarity ref name falconer type relationship full decomposition falconer 's decomposition perfect similarity siblings math c e math math c e math monozygotic twin correlation math r mz math math r mz c math math r mz c math dizygotic twin correlation math r dz math math r dz frac frac k c math math r dz frac c


estimate genetic environmental variance components measured genetic variants human genome project allowed scientists directly genotype sequence human dna nucleotides ref name lander ref genotyped genetic variants tested association behavioural phenotype mental disorder cognitive ability personality ref name mccarthyabecasis ref '''candidate genes''' one popular approach test association candidate genes behavioural phenotypes candidate gene selected based priori theory biological mechanisms involved manifestation behavioural trait phenotype ref name duncankeller general


lee ref ref name sullivan ref ref name genetics personality consortium '''snp heritability co heritability''' recently researchers begun use similarity classically unrelated people measured single nucleotide polymorphisms snps estimate genetic variation covariation tagged snps using mixed effects models implemented software genome wide complex trait analysis gcta ref name yangbenyamin ref ref name yanglee researchers find average genetic relatedness snps individuals typically large sample use haseman elston regression restricted maximum likelihood estimate genetic variation tagged predicted snps proportion


causal variants underlying trait variation ref name wraylee ref quasi experimental designs behavioural genetic designs useful understand genetic influences behaviour control genetic influences test environmentally mediated influences behaviour ref name mcgueosler ref behavioural genetic designs may considered subset natural experiments ref name rutter ref quasi experiments attempt take advantage naturally occurring situations mimic true experiments providing control independent variable natural experiments particularly useful experiments infeasible due practical ethical limitations ref name rutter general limitation observational studies relative influences genes


environment confounded simple demonstration fact measures 'environmental' influence heritable ref name kendlerbaker ref thus observing correlation environmental risk factor health outcome necessarily evidence environmental influence health outcome similarly observational studies parent child behavioural transmission example impossible know transmission due genetic environmental influences due problem passive gene environment correlation ref name rutter simple observation children parents use drugs likely use drugs adults indicate


behavioural genetic designs include discordant twin studies ref name mcgueosler children twins designs ref name d'onofrioturkheimer ref mendelian randomization ref name smith ref general findings many broad conclusions drawn behavioural genetic research nature origins behaviour ref name mcguegottesman ref name plomin defries knopik neiderheiser ref three major conclusions include ref name mcguegottesman behavioural traits disorders influenced genes environmental influences tend make members family different rather similar influence genes tends increase relative importance individuals age genetic influences behaviour pervasive


clear multiple lines evidence researched behavioural traits disorders influenced genes heritable single largest source evidence comes twin studies routinely observed monozygotic identical twins similar one another sex dizygotic fraternal twins ref name poldermanbenyamin ref name turkheimer conclusion genetic influences pervasive also observed research designs depend assumptions twin method adoption studies show adoptees routinely similar biological relatives adoptive


relatives wide variety traits disorders ref name mcguegottesman minnesota study twins reared apart monozygotic twins separated shortly birth reunited adulthood ref name bouchard ref adopted reared apart twins similar one another twins reared together wide range measures including general cognitive ability personality religious attitudes vocational interests among others ref name bouchard approaches using genome wide genotyping allowed researchers measure genetic relatedness individuals estimate heritability based millions genetic variants methods exist test whether extent genetic similarity aka relatedness nominally


disorder perfectly correlated behavioural traits indicates environment shapes human behaviour ref name plomin defries knopik neiderheiser nature environmental influence however tends make individuals family different one another similar one another ref name mcguegottesman estimates shared environmental effects math c math human studies small negligible zero vast majority behavioural traits psychiatric disorders whereas estimates non shared environmental effects math e math moderate large ref name poldermanbenyamin twin studies math c math typically estimated


correlation math r mz math monozygotic twins least twice correlation math r dz math dizygotic twins using falconer variance decomposition math c e math difference monozygotic dizygotic twin similarity results estimated math c math important note falconer decomposition simplistic ref name falconer removes possible influence dominance epistatic effects present tend make monozygotic twins similar dizygotic twins mask influence shared environmental effects ref name falconer limitation twin design estimating math c math


however general conclusion shared environmental effects negligible rest twin studies alone adoption research also fails find large math c math components adoptive parents adopted children tend show much less resemblance one another adopted child non rearing biological parent ref name mcguegottesman studies adoptive families least one biological child one adopted child sibling resemblance also tends nearly zero traits studied ref name poldermanbenyamin ref name plomindaniels ref similarity twins adoptees indicates small role shared


environment personality figure provides example personality research twin adoption studies converge conclusion zero small influences shared environment broad personality traits measured multidimensional personality questionnaire including positive emotionality negative emotionality constraint ref name mattesonmcgue ref given conclusion researched behavioural traits psychiatric disorders heritable biological siblings always tend similar one another adopted siblings however traits especially measured adolescence adopted siblings show significant similarity eg correlations one another traits


demonstrated significant shared environmental influences include internalizing externalizing psychopathology ref name burt ref substance use ref name buchananmcgue dependence ref name kendlersundquist intelligence ref name buchananmcgue ref nature genetic influence genetic effects human behavioural outcomes described multiple ways ref name falconer one way describe effect terms much variance behaviour accounted alleles genetic variant otherwise known coefficient determination math r math intuitive way think math r math describes extent genetic variant makes individuals


harbour different alleles different one another behavioural outcome complementary way describe effects individual genetic variants much change one expects behavioural outcome given change number risk alleles individual harbours often denoted greek letter math beta math denoting slope regression equation case binary disease outcomes odds ratio math math disease given allele status note difference math r math describes population level effect alleles within genetic variant math beta math math math describe effect


small handful replicated robustly studied exceptions rule including effect ''apoe'' alzheimer 's disease ref name cordersaunders ref ''chrna '' smoking behaviour ref name thorgeirssongudbjartsson ''aldh '' individuals east asian ancestry alcohol use ref name luczakglatt ref hand assessing effects according math beta math metric large number genetic variants large effects complex behavioural phenotypes risk alleles within variants exceedingly rare large behavioural effects impact small number individuals thus assessed population level using math r math


metric account small amount differences risk individuals population examples include variants within ''app'' result familial forms severe early onset alzheimer 's disease affect relatively individuals compare risk alleles within ''apoe'' pose much smaller risk compared ''app'' far common therefore affect much greater proportion population ref name guerreirogustafson ref finally classical behavioural disorders genetically simple etiology huntington 's disease huntington 's caused single autosomal dominant variant ''htt''


psychological traits show significant substantial genetic influence behavioral traits heritable heritability caused many genes small effect phenotypic correlations psychological traits show significant substantial genetic mediation heritability intelligence increases throughout development age age stability mainly due genetics measures 'environment' show significant genetic influence associations environmental measures psychological traits significantly mediated genetically environmental effects shared children growing family abnormal normal criticisms


controversies behavioural genetic research findings times controversial controversy arisen behavioural genetic findings challenge societal beliefs nature human behaviour abilities major areas controversy included genetic research topics racial differences intelligence violence human sexuality ref name check hayden ref controversies arisen due misunderstandings behavioural genetic research whether lay public researchers ref name mcguegottesman example notion heritability easily misunderstood imply causality behavior condition determined one 's genetic


endowment ref name charney behavioral genetics researchers say behavior x heritable mean genetics causes determines fixes x behavior instead heritability statement genetic differences correlated trait differences population level historically perhaps controversial subject race genetics ref name check hayden race scientifically exact term interpretation depend one 's culture country origin ref name yudellroberts ref instead geneticists use concepts ancestry rigorously defined ref name brycdurand ref example called black race


may include individuals relatively recent african descent recent humans descended african ancestors however genetic diversity africa rest world combined ref name genomes ref speaking black race without precise genetic meaning ref name brycdurand qualitative research fostered arguments behavioural genetics ungovernable field without scientific norms consensus fosters controversy argument continues state affairs led controversies including race intelligence instances variation within single gene found strongly influence controversial phenotype eg


gay gene controversy others argument states persistence controversy behavior genetics failure disputes resolved behavior genetics conform standards good science ref name panofsky ref scientific assumptions parts behavioral genetic research based also criticized flawed ref name charney ref genome wide association studies often implemented simplifying statistical assumptions additivity may statistically robust unrealistic behaviors critics contend humans behavior genetics represents misguided form genetic reductionism based


inaccurate interpretations statistical analyses studies comparing monozygotic mz dizygotic dz twins assume environmental influences types twins assumption may also unrealistic mz twins may treated alike dz twins ref name charney may example evocative gene environment correlation suggesting one 's genes influence treatment others also possible twin studies completely eliminate effects shared womb environment although studies comparing twins experience monochorionic dichorionic environments utero exist indicate limited impact ref name van


beijsterveldtoverbeek ref studies twins separated early life include children separated birth part way childhood ref name charney effect early rearing environment therefore evaluated extent study comparing twin similarity twins separated early separated later ref name bouchard see also adoption study ''behavior genetics'' behavior genetics association behavioural neurogenetics biocultural evolution evolutionary psychology ''genes brain behavior'' genome wide association study human behaviour genetics international behavioural neural genetics society international society psychiatric genetics ''journal neurogenetics'' molecular genetics nature versus nurture psychiatric


genetics ''psychiatric genetics'' quantitative genetics twin study references ref ref name genetics personality consortium ref ref name hibarstein ref ref name okbaybaselmans ref ref name schumanncoin ref ref name thorgeirssongudbjartsson ref reading external links


'''sociology''' social science focuses society human social behaviour patterns social relationships social interaction aspects culture associated everyday life uses various methods empirical investigation critical analysis ref name ref develop body knowledge social order social change ref name sociologists conduct research may applied directly social policy welfare others focus primarily refining theoretical understanding social processes subject matter range micro level analyses society ie individual interaction agency macro level analyses ie systems


social structure ref name giddens intro traditional focuses sociology include social stratification social class social mobility religion secularization law sexuality gender deviance spheres human activity affected interplay social structure individual agency sociology gradually expanded focus subjects institutions health institution medicine economy military punishment systems control internet education social capital role social activity development scientific knowledge range social scientific methods also expanded social researchers draw upon variety


qualitative quantitative techniques linguistic cultural turns mid th century especially led increasingly interpretative hermeneutic philosophical approaches towards analysis society conversely turn st century seen rise new analytically mathematically computationally rigorous techniques agent based modelling social network analysis ref name mw ref name computational social science social research influence throughout various industries sectors life among politicians policy makers legislators educators planners administrators developers business magnates managers social workers non governmental organizations non profit organizations well individuals interested


resolving social issues general often great deal crossover social research market research statistical fields origins ibn khaldun statue tunis tunisia sociological reasoning predates foundation discipline social analysis origins common stock western knowledge philosophy carried far back time old comic poetry features social political criticism ancient greek philosophers socrates plato aristotle earlier instance origin survey ie collection information


sample individuals traced back least domesday book ancient philosophers confucius wrote importance social roles evidence early sociology medieval arabic writings well sources consider ibn khaldun th century arab islamic scholar tunisia father sociology although reference work work major founders modern sociology khaldun 's ''muqaddimah'' perhaps first work advance social scientific reasoning social cohesion social conflict ref name akhtar ref name psychology islamic perspective


contributions early muslim scholars challenges contemporary muslim psychologists ref name enan ref name autonomous universal future sociology ref name gates ref name mowlana etymology word ' 'sociology'' '' sociologie '' derives part name latin word socius companion fellowship suffix '' logy'' study of' comes greek derived ''l gos'' word knowledge siey term sociology first coined french essayist emmanuel joseph siey unpublished manuscript comte sociology later defined independently french


would mark final era conjectural theological metaphysical phases progression human understanding ref name comte observing circular dependence theory observation science classified sciences comte may regarded first philosopher science modern sense term auguste comte karl marx marx comte karl marx set develop scientifically justified systems wake european industrialization secularization informed various key movements philosophies history science marx rejected comtean positivism attempting


develop science society nevertheless came recognized founder sociology word gained wider meaning isaiah berlin even though marx consider sociologist may regarded true father modern sociology far anyone claim title ref name berlin isaiah ''karl marx life environment'' rd ed new york time inc book division ref blockquote given clear unified answers familiar empirical terms theoretical questions occupied men 's minds time


deduced clear practical directives without creating obviously artificial links two principal achievement marx 's theory sociological treatment historical moral problems comte spencer taine discussed mapped became precise concrete study attack militant marxism made conclusions burning issue made search evidence zealous attention method intense ref name blockquote spencer herbert spencer herbert spencer one popular influential th century sociologists estimated


socialism well strong advocate laissez faire style government ideas closely observed conservative political circles especially united states england ref name commanger positivism antipositivism positivism overarching methodological principle positivism conduct sociology broadly manner natural science emphasis empiricism scientific method sought provide tested foundation sociological research based assumption authentic knowledge scientific knowledge knowledge arrive positive affirmation scientific methodology term


broadly understood scientific approach study society remains dominant contemporary sociology especially united states ref name wacquant lo c wacquant distinguishes three major strains positivism durkheimian logical instrumental ref name wacquant none set forth comte unique advocating rigid perhaps optimistic version ref name autogenerated ref name mile durkheim rejected much detail comte 's philosophy retained refined method durkheim maintained social sciences logical continuation natural ones realm


carries explicit philosophical commitment practitioners may belong particular school thought modern sociology type often credited paul lazarsfeld ref name wacquant pioneered large scale survey studies developed statistical techniques analysing approach lends robert k merton called middle range theory abstract statements generalize segregated hypotheses empirical regularities rather starting abstract idea social whole ref name boudon anti positivism reactions social empiricism began german philosopher hegel voiced opposition empiricism rejected uncritical determinism


viewed overly mechanistic ref name karl marx 's methodology borrowed hegelian dialecticism also rejection positivism favour critical analysis seeking supplement empirical acquisition facts elimination illusions ref name maintained appearances need critiqued rather simply documented early hermeneuticians wilhelm dilthey pioneered distinction natural social science 'geisteswissenschaft' various neo kantian philosophers phenomenologists human scientists theorized analysis social world differs natural world due irreducibly complex aspects human society


culture italian context development social sciences sociology particular oppositions first foundation discipline sustained speculative philosophy accordance antiscientific tendencies matured critique positivism evolutionism tradition progressist struggles establish turn th century first generation german sociologists formally introduced methodological anti positivism proposing research concentrate human cultural norms values symbols social processes viewed resolutely subjective perspective max weber argued sociology may loosely described


inductively applied sociology max weber weber georg simmel pioneered ''verstehen'' 'interpretative' method social science systematic process outside observer attempts relate particular cultural group indigenous people terms point view work simmel particular sociology acquired possible character beyond positivist data collection grand deterministic systems structural law relatively isolated sociological academy throughout lifetime simmel presented idiosyncratic analyses modernity reminiscent phenomenological existential writers comte durkheim


paying particular concern forms possibilities social individuality ref name autogenerated sociology engaged neo kantian inquiry limits perception asking 'what society' direct allusion kant 's question 'what nature' georg simmel foundations academic discipline mile durkheim first formal department sociology world established albion small invitation william rainey harper university chicago american journal sociology founded shortly thereafter small well institutionalization sociology academic discipline however


chiefly led mile durkheim developed positivism foundation practical social research durkheim rejected much detail comte 's philosophy retained refined method maintaining social sciences logical continuation natural ones realm human activity insisting may retain objectivity rationalism approach causality ref name wacquant durkheim set first european department sociology university bordeaux publishing ''rules sociological method'' ref name poggi durkheim sociology could described


notion objective ' 'sui generis'' social facts delineate unique empirical object science sociology study ref name wacquant studies posited sociology would able determine whether given society 'healthy' 'pathological' seek social reform negate organic breakdown social anomie sociology quickly evolved academic response perceived challenges modernity industrialization urbanization secularization process rationalization field predominated continental europe british anthropology statistics generally following separate trajectory turn th


century however many theorists active english speaking world early sociologists confined strictly subject interacting also economics jurisprudence psychology philosophy theories appropriated variety different fields since inception sociological epistemology methods frames inquiry significantly expanded diverged ref name giddens intro durkheim marx german theorist max weber typically cited three principal architects sociology ref name max weber nbsp stanford encyclopaedia philosophy herbert spencer william graham sumner lester f ward web du bois vilfredo pareto alexis de tocqueville werner sombart thorstein veblen ferdinand nnies


georg simmel jane addams karl mannheim often included academic curricula founding theorists curricula also may include charlotte perkins gilman marianne weber harriet martineau friedrich engels founders feminist tradition sociology key figure associated particular theoretical perspective orientation ref name transformation developments bust ferdinand nnies husum germany first college course entitled sociology taught united states yale william graham sumner lester f ward later became first president american sociological association asa published ''dynamic sociology


applied social science based upon statical sociology less complex sciences'' attacking laissez faire sociology herbert spencer sumner ref name commanger ward 's page book used core material many early american sociology courses oldest continuing american course modern tradition began university kansas lectured frank w blackmar ref name university kansas sociology department webpage department sociology university chicago established albion small also published first sociology textbook introduction study society ref name uchicago george herbert mead


charles cooley met university michigan along john dewey moved chicago influence gave rise social psychology symbolic interactionism modern chicago school ''american journal sociology'' founded followed asa ref name uchicago sociological canon classics durkheim max weber top owes part talcott parsons largely credited introducing american audiences ref name camic parsons consolidated sociological tradition set agenda american sociology point


fastest disciplinary growth sociology united states less historically influenced marxism european counterpart day broadly remains statistical approach first sociology department established united kingdom london school economics political science home ''british journal sociology'' ref name british journal sociology website leonard trelawny hobhouse edvard westermarck became lecturers discipline university london harriet martineau english translator comte cited first female sociologist


''deutsche gesellschaft f r soziologie'' german sociological association founded ferdinand nnies max weber among others weber established first department germany ludwig maximilian university munich presented influential new antipositivist sociology ref name bendix florian znaniecki set first department poland ''institute social research'' university frankfurt later become frankfurt school critical theory founded ref name britannica international co operation sociology began ren worms founded ''institut international de sociologie'' institution later eclipsed


much larger international sociological association isa founded theoretical traditions classical theory contemporary discipline sociology theoretically multi paradigmatic ref name abend ref line contentions classical social theory randall collins' well cited survey sociological theory retroactively labels various theorists belonging four theoretical traditions functionalism conflict symbolic interactionism utilitarianism accordingly modern sociological theory predominantly descends functionalist durkheim conflict marx weber approaches social structure well symbolic interactionist approaches social interaction micro level structural simmel pragmatist mead cooley perspectives utilitarianism aka rational choice social exchange although


often associated economics established tradition within sociological theory lastly argued raewyn connell tradition often forgotten social darwinism applies logic darwinian biological evolution people societies tradition often aligns classical functionalism dominant theoretical stance american sociology associated several founders sociology primarily herbert spencer lester f ward william graham sumner contemporary sociological theory retains traces traditions means mutually exclusive functionalism broad historical paradigm


structure function social systems analyzing processes evolution via mechanisms adaptation functionalism strongly emphasizes pre eminence social world individual parts ie constituent actors human subjects blockquote conflict theory functionalist theories emphasize cohesive systems often contrasted conflict theories critique overarching socio political system emphasize inequality particular groups following quotes durkheim marx epitomize political well theoretical disparities functionalist conflict thought respectively symbolic interactionism symbolic interaction often associated interactionism phenomenology dramaturgy interpretivism sociological approach places emphasis


subjective meanings empirical unfolding social processes generally accessed micro analysis tradition emerged chicago school prior world war ii ''the'' center sociological research graduate study ref name second chicago school fine gary alan ed https booksgooglecom id sizog cahec lpg pr dq second chicago school f pg pr v onepage q second chicago school f false ''a second chicago school development postwar american sociology'' chicago university chicago press ref approach focuses creating framework building theory sees society product everyday interactions individuals society nothing shared reality people


construct interact one another approach sees people interacting countless settings using symbolic communications accomplish tasks hand therefore society complex ever changing mosaic subjective meanings ref name macionis john linda gerber ''sociology'' th canadian ed toronto pearson canada ref critics approach argue looks happening particular social situation disregards effects culture race gender ie social historical structures may situation ref name important sociologists associated approach include max weber george herbert mead erving


goffman george homans peter blau also tradition radical empirical approach ethnomethodology emerges work harold garfinkel utilitarianism utilitarianism often referred exchange theory rational choice theory context sociology tradition tends privilege agency individual rational actors assumes within interactions individuals always seek maximize self interest argued josh whitford rational actors assumed four basic elements knowledge alternatives knowledge beliefs consequences various alternatives


ordering preferences outcomes decision rule select among possible alternatives exchange theory specifically attributed work george c homans peter blau richard emerson organizational sociologists james g march herbert simon noted individual 's rationality bounded context organizational setting utilitarian perspective sociology notably revitalized late th century work former asa president james coleman th century social theory following decline theories sociocultural evolution united states interactionist thought chicago


school dominated american sociology anselm strauss describes n't think symbolic interaction perspective sociology thought sociology ref name second chicago school moreover philosophical psychological pragmatism grounded tradition world war ii mainstream sociology shifted survey research paul lazarsfeld columbia university general theorizing pitirim sorokin followed talcott parsons harvard university ultimately failure chicago columbia wisconsin sociology departments produce significant number graduate students interested committed general theory years advantage


functionalism considered dead dodo ref name barnes according giddens blockquote orthodox consensus terminated late middle ground shared otherwise competing perspectives gave way replaced baffling variety competing perspectives third 'generation' social theory includes phenomenologically inspired approaches critical theory ethnomethodology symbolic interactionism structuralism post structuralism theories written tradition hermeneutics ordinary language philosophy blockquote pax wisconsana conflict approaches also gained popularity united states mainstream discipline instead shifted variety empirically oriented middle range theories


despite aversion grand theory latter half th century several new traditions emerged propose various syntheses structuralism post structuralism cultural sociology systems theoryanthony giddens alt structuralism structuralist movement originated primarily work durkheim interpreted two european scholars anthony giddens sociologist whose theory structuration draws linguistic theory ferdinand de saussure claude l vi strauss anthropologist context 'structure' refer 'social structure' semiotic understanding human culture system signs one may delineate four central tenets


structuralism structure determines structure whole structuralists believe every system structure structuralists interested 'structural' laws deal coexistence rather changes structures 'real things' beneath surface appearance meaning second tradition structuralist thought contemporaneous giddens emerges american school social network analysis spearheaded harvard department social relations led harrison white students tradition structuralist thought argues rather semiotics social structure networks


intellectuals highlights trend recent years certain schools sociology philosophy intersect anti humanist position associated postmodernism term used specific contexts describe ''era'' ''phenomena'' occasionally construed ''method'' central theoretical problems overall strong consensus regarding central problems sociological theory largely inherited classical theoretical traditions consensus link transcend cope following big three dichotomies subjectivity objectivity deal ''knowledge'' structure agency deal ''action''


synchrony diachrony deal ''time'' lastly sociological theory often grapples problem integrating transcending divide micro meso macro scale social phenomena subset three central problems subjectivity objectivity problem subjectivity objectivity divided two parts concern general possibilities social actions specific problem social scientific knowledge former subjective often equated though necessarily individual individual 's intentions interpretations objective objective often considered public


effect ref name constitution society perennial question within debate social reproduction structures specifically structures producing inequality reproduced choices individuals synchrony diachrony synchrony diachrony '' 'statics''' '' 'dynamics''' within social theory terms refer distinction emerged work levi strauss inherited linguistics ferdinand de saussure ref name lizardo omar synchrony slices moments time analysis thus analysis static social reality diachrony hand attempts analyse dynamic sequences following saussure


thus better equipped understand social life synchronized argue synchrony social structure methodological perspective rather ontological claim ref name lizardo omar nonetheless problem theory integrate two manners recording thinking social data research methodology many people divide sociological research methods two broad categories although many others see research methods continuum qualitative designs emphasize understanding social phenomena direct observation communication participants analysis texts may stress contextual subjective accuracy generality quantitative designs approach social


phenomena quantifiable evidence often rely statistical analysis many cases across intentionally designed treatments experiment establish valid reliable general claims sociologists often divided camps support particular research techniques disputes relate epistemological debates historical core social theory different many aspects qualitative quantitative approaches involve systematic interaction theory data ref name methods quantitative methodologies hold dominant position sociology especially united states ref name wacquant discipline 's two cited journals quantitative articles historically outnumbered


researcher intends investigate example researcher concerned drawing statistical generalization across entire population may administer survey questionnaire representative sample population contrast researcher seeks full contextual understanding individual 's social actions may choose ethnographic participant observation open ended interviews studies commonly combine 'triangulate' quantitative ''and'' qualitative methods part 'multi strategy' design instance quantitative study may performed obtain statistical patterns target sample combined qualitative interview determine play agency ref name methods sampling bean machine


designed early social research methodologist sir francis galton demonstrate normal distribution important much quantitative hypothesis testing quantitative methods often used ask questions population large making census complete enumeration members population infeasible 'sample' forms manageable subset population quantitative research statistics used draw inferences sample regarding population whole process selecting sample referred 'sampling' usually best sample randomly concern


differences specific subpopulations sometimes calls stratified sampling conversely impossibility random sampling sometimes necessitates nonprobability sampling convenience sampling snowball sampling ref name methods methods ''the following list research methods neither exclusive exhaustive '' archival research historical method draws upon secondary data located historical archives records biographies memoirs journals content analysis content interviews texts systematically analysed often data 'coded' part 'grounded theory' approach using qualitative data analysis qda software atlasti maxqda nvivo


qda miner experimental research researcher isolates single social process reproduces laboratory example creating situation unconscious sexist judgements possible seeking determine whether certain social variables cause depend upon variables instance seeing people 's feelings traditional gender roles manipulated activation contrasting gender stereotypes ref name jost participants randomly assigned different groups either serve controls acting reference points tested regard dependent variable albeit without exposed independent


variables interest receive one treatments randomization allows researcher sure resulting differences groups result treatment longitudinal study extensive examination specific person group long period time observation using data senses researcher records information social phenomenon behaviour observation techniques may may feature participation participant observation researcher goes field eg community place work participates activities field prolonged period time order


acquire deep understanding ref name data acquired techniques may analysed either quantitatively qualitatively observation research sociologist might study global warming part world less populated program evaluation systematic method collecting analyzing using information answer questions projects policies programs particularly effectiveness efficiency public private sectors stakeholders often want know whether programs funding implementing voting objecting producing intended effect program evaluation first


focuses definition important considerations often include much program costs per participant program could improved whether program worthwhile whether better alternatives unintended outcomes whether program goals appropriate useful survey research researcher gathers data using interviews questionnaires similar feedback set people sampled particular population interest survey items interview questionnaire may open ended closed ended ref name data surveys usually analysed statistically computer computational sociology social network diagram individuals


'nodes' connected relationships sociologists increasingly draw upon computationally intensive methods analyse model social phenomena ref name blackwell bainbridge william sims https onlinelibrarywileycom doi wbeosc pub computational sociology ''blackwell encyclopedia sociology'' edited g ritzer blackwell reference online ref using computer simulations artificial intelligence text mining complex statistical methods new analytic approaches like social network analysis social sequence analysis computational sociology develops tests theories complex social processes bottom modelling social interactions ref name mw although subject matter methodologies social science differ natural science computer science several


approaches used contemporary social simulation originated fields physics artificial intelligence ref name artificial societies ref name cooperation token approaches originated computational sociology imported natural sciences measures network centrality fields social network analysis network science relevant literature computational sociology often related study social complexity ref name computer laboratory toward theory complex adaptive systems social complexity concepts complex systems non linear interconnection among macro micro process emergence entered vocabulary


less cultural others conversely cultural sociology sees social phenomena inherently cultural ref name umn ref sociology culture often attempts explain certain cultural phenomena product social processes cultural sociology sees culture potential explanation social phenomena simmel culture referred cultivation individuals agency external forms objectified course history ref name autogenerated early theorists durkheim mauss influential cultural anthropology sociologists culture generally distinguished concern modern rather primitive ancient society cultural


sociology often involves hermeneutic analysis words artefacts symbols ethnographic interviews however sociologists employ historical comparative quantitative techniques analysis culture weber bourdieu instance subfield sometimes allied critical theory vein theodor w adorno walter benjamin members frankfurt school loosely distinct sociology culture field cultural studies birmingham school theorists richard hoggart stuart hall questioned division producers consumers evident earlier theory emphasizing reciprocity production texts cultural studies


aims examine subject matter terms cultural practices relation power example study subculture eg white working class youth london would consider social practices group relate dominant class cultural turn ultimately placed culture much higher sociological agenda art music literature sociology literature film art subset sociology culture field studies social production artistic objects social implications notable example pierre bourdieu 's ''les r gles de


l'art gen se et structure du champ litt raire'' none founding fathers sociology produced detailed study art develop ideas subsequently applied literature others marx 's theory ideology directed literature pierre macherey terry eagleton fredric jameson weber 's theory modernity cultural rationalization applied music later applied arts literature included frankfurt school writers theodor adorno j rgen habermas durkheim 's view sociology study externally defined social facts redirected towards literature robert


norms instance robert k merton produced typology deviance includes individual system level causal explanations deviance ref name robert k merton remembered sociology law study law played significant role formation classical sociology durkheim famously described law visible symbol social solidarity sociology law refers sub discipline sociology approach within field legal studies sociology law diverse field study examines interaction law aspects society development


legal institutions effect laws social change vice versa example influential recent work field relies statistical analyses argue increase incarceration us last years due changes law policing increase crime increase significantly contributed persistence racial stratification ref name western communications information technologies sociology communications information technologies includes social aspects computing internet new media computer networks communication information technologies ref name asanet ref


one notable text manuel castells' ''the internet galaxy'' title forms inter textual reference marshall mcluhan 's ''the gutenberg galaxy'' closely related sociology internet digital sociology expands scope study address internet also impact digital media devices emerged since first decade twenty first century media cultural studies media study distinct discipline owes convergence sociology social sciences humanities particular literary criticism critical theory though neither


production process critique aesthetic forms remit sociologists analyses socializing factors ideological effects audience reception stem sociological theory method thus 'sociology media' subdiscipline ''per se'' media common often indispensable topic economic sociology term economic sociology first used william stanley jevons later coined works durkheim weber simmel ref name princeton economic sociology arose new approach analysis economic phenomena emphasizing


class relations modernity philosophical concept relationship capitalism modernity salient issue perhaps best demonstrated weber 's ''the protestant ethic spirit capitalism'' simmel 's ''the philosophy money'' contemporary period economic sociology also known ''new economic sociology'' consolidated work mark granovetter titled economic action social structure problem embeddedness work elaborated concept embeddedness states economic relations individuals firms take place within existing social relations thus structured relations


well greater social structures relations part social network analysis primary methodology studying phenomenon granovetter 's theory strength weak ties ronald burt 's concept structural holes two best known theoretical contributions field work employment industry sociology work industrial sociology examines direction implications trends technological change globalization labour markets work organization managerial practices employment relations extent trends intimately related changing patterns inequality modern societies


changing experiences individuals families ways workers challenge resist make contributions patterning work shaping work institutions education sociology education study educational institutions determine social structures experiences outcomes particularly concerned schooling systems modern industrial societies ref name dictionary classic study field james coleman known coleman report analysed performance students found student background socioeconomic status much important determining educational


outcomes measured differences school resources ie per pupil spending ref name hanushek controversy school effects ignited study continued day study also found socially disadvantaged black students profited schooling racially mixed classrooms thus served catalyst desegregation busing american public schools environment environmental sociology study human interactions natural environment typically emphasizing human dimensions environmental problems social impacts problems efforts resolve sub fields sociology scholarship environmental sociology may one


environmental sociology field overlaps architectural sociology urban sociology extent visual sociology turn visual sociology concerned visual dimensions social life overlaps media studies uses photography film technologies media social pre wiring social pre wiring deals study fetal social behavior social interactions multi fetal environment specifically social pre wiring refers ontogeny social interaction also informally referred wired social theory questions whether propensity socially oriented action already present ''before'' birth research


theory concludes newborns born world unique genetic wiring social ref name castiello umberto cristina becchio stefania zoia cristian nelini et al https wwwncbinlmnihgov pmc articles pmc wired social ontogeny human interaction ''plos one'' via national center biotechnology information us national library medicine ref circumstantial evidence supporting social pre wiring hypothesis revealed examining newborns' behavior newborns even hours birth found display preparedness social interaction preparedness expressed ways imitation facial gestures


observed behavior cannot contributed current form socialization social construction rather newborns likely inherit extent social behavior identity genetics ref name principal evidence theory uncovered examining twin pregnancies main argument social behaviors inherited developed birth one expect twin foetuses engage form social interaction born thus ten foetuses analyzed period time using ultrasound techniques using kinematic analysis results experiment twin


foetuses would interact longer periods often pregnancies went researchers able conclude performance movements co twins accidental specifically aimed ref name social pre wiring hypothesis proved correct ref name blockquote central advance study demonstration 'social actions' already performed second trimester gestation starting th week gestation twin foetuses plan execute movements specifically aimed co twin findings force us predate emergence social behavior context


enables case twin foetuses directed actions possible predominant self directed actions blockquote family gender sexuality rosie riveter iconic symbol american homefront departure gender roles due wartime necessity family gender sexuality form broad area inquiry studied many sub fields sociology family group people related kinship ties relations blood marriage civil partnership adoption family unit one important social institutions found form


nearly known societies basic unit social organization plays key role socializing children culture society sociology family examines family institution unit socialization special concern comparatively modern historical emergence nuclear family distinct gender roles notion childhood also significant one basic institutions one may apply sociological perspectives sociology family common component introductory academic curricula feminist sociology hand


normative sub field observes critiques cultural categories gender sexuality particularly respect power inequality primary concern feminist theory patriarchy systematic oppression women apparent many societies level small scale interaction terms broader social structure feminist sociology also analyses gender interlocks race class produce perpetuate social inequalities account differences definitions femininity masculinity sex role across different societies historical periods also concern health


illness body sociology health illness focuses social effects public attitudes toward illnesses diseases mental health disabilities sub field also overlaps gerontology study ageing process medical sociology contrast focuses inner workings medical organizations clinical institutions britain sociology introduced medical curriculum following ''goodenough report'' ref name british sociological association medical sociology sociology body embodiment ref name asanet ref takes broad perspective idea body includes wide range embodied dynamics including human


non human bodies morphology human reproduction anatomy body fluids biotechnology genetics often intersects health illness also theories bodies political social cultural economic ideological productions isa maintains research committee devoted body social sciences death dying bereavement subfield sociology health illness overlaps cultural sociology study death dying bereavement sometimes referred broadly sociology death topic exemplified work douglas davies michael c kearl knowledge science sociology knowledge


study relationship human thought social context within arises effects prevailing ideas societies term first came widespread use number german speaking theorists notably max scheler karl mannheim wrote extensively dominance functionalism middle years th century sociology knowledge tended remain periphery mainstream sociological thought largely reinvented applied much closely everyday life particularly peter l berger


thomas luckmann ''the social construction reality'' still central methods dealing qualitative understanding human society compare ' 'socially constructed reality'' archaeological genealogical studies michel foucault considerable contemporary influence sociology science involves study science social activity especially dealing social conditions effects science social structures processes scientific activity ref name socofsci bendavid important theorists sociology science include robert k merton bruno latour branches sociology contributed formation science


technology studies asa bsa sections devoted subfield science knowledge technology ref name asanet ref isa maintains research committee science technology leisure sociology leisure study humans organize free time leisure includes broad array activities sport tourism playing games sociology leisure closely tied sociology work explores different side work leisure relationship recent studies field move away work leisure relationship focus relation


leisure culture area sociology began thorstein veblen 's ''theory leisure class'' peace war conflict subfield sociology studies broadly dynamics war conflict resolution peace movements war refugees conflict resolution military institutions ref name asanet ref subset subfield military sociology aims towards systematic study military social group rather organization highly specialized sub field examines issues related service personnel distinct group coerced collective action based shared interests linked survival vocation combat


purposes values defined narrow within civil society military sociology also concerns civilian military relations interactions groups governmental agencies topics include dominant assumptions held military changes military members' willingness fight military unionization military professionalism increased utilization women military industrial academic complex military 's dependence research institutional organizational structure military ref name core issues theory military sociology political sociology j rgen habermas historically political sociology concerned relations political organization society typical research question area


might american citizens choose vote respect questions political opinion formation brought pioneering uses statistical survey research paul lazarsfeld major subfield political sociology developed relation questions draws comparative history analyse socio political trends field developed work max weber moisey ostrogorsky contemporary political sociology includes areas research opened wider questions power politics today political sociologists likely concerned identities


social construct role stateless entities modern world society contemporary political sociologists also study inter state interactions human rights population demography demographers sociologists population study size composition change time given population demographers study characteristics impact impacted various social economic political systems study population also closely related human ecology environmental sociology studies populations relationship surrounding environment often overlaps urban rural sociology researchers field may study movement populations


transportation migrations diaspora etc falls subfield known mobilities studies closely related human geography demographers may also study spread disease within given population epidemiology public sociology public sociology refers approach discipline seeks transcend academy order engage wider audiences perhaps best understood style sociology rather particular method theory set political values approach primarily associated michael burawoy contrasted professional sociology form academic sociology concerned


political policy ethnic relations discussed terms either assimilationism multiculturalism anti racism forms another style policy particularly popular religion sociology religion concerns practices historical backgrounds developments universal themes roles religion society particular emphasis recurring role religion societies throughout recorded history sociology religion distinguished philosophy religion sociologists set assess validity religious truth claims instead assuming peter l berger described position


material circumstances society ultimately caused ideal cultural aspects society weber argued fact cultural mores protestantism ushered transformation material circumstances contrast durkheim argued societies moved simple complex process sociocultural evolution sociologists field also study processes globalization imperialism notably immanuel wallerstein extends marx 's theoretical frame include large spans time entire globe known world systems theory development sociology also heavily influenced post colonialism


recent years raewyn connell issued critique bias sociological research towards countries global north argues bias blinds sociologists lived experiences global south specifically called northern theory lacks adequate theory imperialism colonialism many organizations studying social change including fernand braudel center study economies historical systems civilizations global social change research project social networks harrison white social network social structure composed individuals organizations called nodes tied connected one


specific types interdependency friendship kinship financial exchange dislike sexual relationships relationships beliefs knowledge prestige social networks operate many levels families level nations play critical role determining way problems solved organizations run degree individuals succeed achieving goals underlying theoretical assumption social network analysis groups necessarily building blocks society approach open studying less bounded social systems non local communities networks exchange drawing theoretically relational


sociology social network analysis avoids treating individuals persons organizations states discrete units analysis focuses instead structure ties affects constitutes individuals relationships contrast analyses assume socialization norms determines behaviour network analysis looks see extent structure composition ties affect norms hand recent research omar lizardo also demonstrates network ties shaped created previously existing cultural tastes social network theory usually defined formal mathematics may include integration geographical data


sociomapping social psychology sociological social psychology focuses micro scale social actions area may described adhering sociological miniaturism examining whole societies study individual thoughts emotions well behaviour small groups ref name sociological miniaturism seeing big small social psychology one special concern psychological sociologists explain variety demographic social cultural facts terms human social interaction major topics field social inequality group dynamics prejudice aggression social perception group behaviour social change non verbal behaviour socialization conformity leadership


class may subdivided smaller classes eg occupational ref name social class stratification social stratification interpreted radically different ways within sociology proponents structural functionalism suggest since stratification classes castes evident societies hierarchy must beneficial stabilizing existence conflict theorists contrast critique inaccessibility resources lack social mobility stratified societies karl marx distinguished social classes connection means production capitalist system bourgeoisie means effectively includes proletariat workers


sell labour power forming material base cultural superstructure max weber critiqued marxist economic determinism arguing social stratification based purely economic inequalities status power differentials eg patriarchy according weber stratification may occur among least three complex variables '''property''' class person 's economic position society based birth individual achievement ref name weber differs marx see supreme factor stratification weber noted managers corporations industries control firms


marx would placed person proletariat '''prestige''' status person 's prestige popularity society could determined kind job person wealth '''power''' political party person 's ability get way despite resistance others example individuals state jobs employee federal bureau investigation member united states congress may hold little property status still hold immense power pierre bourdieu provides modern example concepts cultural


symbolic capital theorists ralf dahrendorf noted tendency towards enlarged middle class modern western societies particularly relation necessity educated work force technological service based economies perspectives concerning globalization dependency theory suggest effect owes shift workers developing countries urban rural sociology urban sociology involves analysis social life human interaction metropolitan areas discipline seeking provide advice planning policy making industrial revolution works georg simmel 's ''the metropolis mental


environmental sociologists community sociology often grouped urban rural sociology community sociology sociology community ref name asanet ref taking various communities including online communities unit analysis community sociologists study origin effects different associations people instance german sociologist ferdinand nnies distinguished two types human association ''gemeinschaft'' usually translated community ''gesellschaft'' society association work ''gemeinschaft und gesellschaft'' nnies argued ''gemeinschaft'' perceived tighter cohesive social entity due presence unity 'development'


'health' community also central concern community sociologists also engage development sociology exemplified literature surrounding concept social capital academic disciplines sociology overlaps variety disciplines study society particular anthropology political science economics social work social philosophy many comparatively new fields communication studies cultural studies demography literary theory draw upon methods originated sociology terms social science social research gained degree autonomy since origination classical sociology distinct field social anthropology anthroposociology


dominant constituent anthropology throughout united kingdom commonwealth much europe france particular distinguished cultural anthropology united states social anthropology commonly subsumed within cultural anthropology relatively new designation sociocultural anthropology sociology applied sociology connected professional academic discipline social work ref name web page disciplines study social interactions community effect various systems ie family school community laws political sphere individual ref name generalist practice organisations communities however social work generally focused


contemporary living human beings behave social groups practitioners social anthropology like sociologists investigate various facets social organization traditionally social anthropologists analysed non industrial non western societies whereas sociologists focused industrialized societies western world recent years however social anthropology expanded focus modern western societies meaning two disciplines increasingly converge ref name james trostle ref name web page sociocultural anthropology include linguistic anthropology concerned problem difference similarity within human populations discipline arose concomitantly expansion european colonial empires practices theories


decline due deeply ideological theory lack relevance policy making decomposition sociology began great tradition became subject ideological thinking inferior tradition surfaced wake totalitarian triumphs ref name autogenerated furthermore problem yet unmentioned sociology 's malaise left social sciences vulnerable pure positivism empiricism lacking theoretical basis talented individuals might earlier time gone sociology seeking intellectual stimulation business law natural sciences even creative writing drains sociology much needed potential ref


psychology seven top ten listed sociologists michel foucault pierre bourdieu anthony giddens erving goffman j rgen habermas max weber bruno latour ref name cited authors books humanities journals highly ranked general journals publish original research field sociology ''american journal sociology'' ''american sociological review'' ref name wos ''annual review sociology'' publishes original review essays also highly ranked ref name wos ref many generalist specialized journals exist see also bibliography sociology


critical juncture theory cultural theory engaged theory history social sciences list sociologists outline sociology political sociology post industrial society social theory sociological francoism notes references citations ref ref name akhtar ref ref name artificial societies ref ref name barnes barnes b ''the elements social theory'' london ucl press quoted jay j coakley eric dunning ''handbook sports studies'' ref ref name bendix ref ref name boudon ref ref name british journal sociology website ref ref name british sociological association medical sociology ref ref name coakley ref ref name computational social science ref ref name cooperation ref ref name core issues theory military sociology ref ref name dictionary gordon marshall ed


''a dictionary sociology'' article sociology education oxford university press ref ref name dinw durkheim mile ''the rules sociological method'' cited wacquant ref ref name direct social work practice ref ref name enan ref ref name gartell ref ref name gates ref ref name generalist practice organisations communities ref ref name generative ref ref name giddens intro giddens anthony duneier mitchell applebaum richard ''introduction sociology sixth edition'' new york ww norton company chapter ref ref name halfpenny halfpenny peter ''positivism sociology explaining social science'' london allen unwin ref ref name hanson ref ref name hanushek http newyorkfedorg research epr v n hanupdf hanushek eric conclusions controversies effectiveness school resources ''economic policy


review'' federal reserve bank new york pp accessed december ref ref name hunter ref ref name james trostle ref ref name mw ref ref name max weber nbsp stanford encyclopaedia philosophy ref ref name methodological implications complex systems approaches sociality simulation foundation knowledge ref ref name methods haralambos holborn ''sociology themes perspectives'' th ed collins educational chapter methods ref ref name mowlana h mowlana information arab world ''cooperation south journal'' ''' ''' ref ref name psychology islamic perspective contributions early muslim scholars challenges contemporary muslim psychologists ref ref name robert k merton remembered ref ref name sfss ref ref name slattery slattery martin


''key ideas sociology'' cheltenham nelson thornes ltd ref ref name social class stratification ref ref name sociological miniaturism seeing big small social psychology ref ref name sociology beyond societies mobilities twenty first century ref ref name autonomous universal future sociology ref ref name computer laboratory toward theory complex adaptive systems ref ref name constitution society ref ref name cited authors books humanities ref ref name university kansas sociology department webpage ref ref name wacquant wacquant loic positivism bottomore tom william outhwaite ed ''the blackwell dictionary twentieth century social thought'' ref ref name web page ref


ref name western western bruce ''punishment inequality america'' new york russel sage ref ref name ref ref name autogenerated levine donald ed 'simmel individuality social forms' chicago university press pxix ref ref name autogenerated horowitz irving ''the decomposition sociology'' oxford university press pp ref ref name poggi gianfranco poggi ''durkheim'' oxford oxford university press ref ref name autogenerated fish jonathan 'defending durkheimian tradition religion emotion morality' aldershot ashgate publishing ref ref name commanger ref ref name britannica http wwwbritannicacom ebchecked topic frankfurt school frankfurt school encyclop dia britannica online retrieved september ref ref name camic ref ref name comte ''dictionary social sciences'' article comte auguste ref ref name gm ref ref name princeton ref ref name socofsci bendavid ref ref


name transformation harriss john ''the second great transformation capitalism end twentieth century'' allen thomas alan eds ''poverty development st century' oxford university press oxford p ref ref name uchicago ref ref name mile durkheim 's division labor shadow herbert spencer ref sources aby stephen h ''sociology guide reference information sources'' rd ed littleton co libraries unlimited inc babbie earl r ''the practice social research'' th ed wadsworth thomson learning '' https webarchiveorg web http ddluwinnipegca res des files readings cwmills intel craftpdf c wright mills intellectual craftsmanship advices work young sociologist '' collins randall


douglas j goodman ''sociological theory'' th ed mcgraw hill scott john gordon marshall eds ''a dictionary sociology'' rd ed oxford university press wallace ruth alison wolf ''contemporary sociological theory continuing classical tradition'' th ed prentice hall white harrison c ''identity control social formations emerge'' nd ed princeton princeton university press willis evan ''the sociological quest introduction study social life'' new brunswick nj rutgers university press external links http wwwasanetorg american sociological association asa http wwwtasaorgau australian sociological association tasa http wwwbangladeshsociologyorg bangladesh sociological society bss http wwwbritsoccouk british sociological


association bsa http wwwacsalfca canadian association french speaking sociologists anthropologists https webarchiveorg web http wwwcsaaca canadian sociological association csa http wwweuropeansociologyorg european sociological association esa https afs sociofr french sociological association http wwwsoziologiede german sociological association dgs https wwwlibuchicagoedu e scrc findingaids viewphpeadid icuspclsociologyinterviews guide university chicago department sociology interviews https wwwlibuchicagoedu scrc university chicago special collections research center https wwwlibuchicagoedu e scrc findingaids viewphpeadid icuspclsociologydept guide university chicago department sociology records https wwwlibuchicagoedu scrc university chicago special collections research center http wwwinsosoorg indian sociological society iss http wwwiisocorg international institute sociology iis http wwwisa sociologyorg international sociological association isa https webarchiveorg web http wwwalasfsocubaar indexhtml latin american sociological association alas https ooirorg indexphpcategory sociology observatory international research


coastal sea waves paracas national reserve ica peru '' 'sea''' connected '''world ocean''' simply '''ocean''' body salty water covers approximately percent earth 's surface word ' 'sea'' also used denote second order sections sea mediterranean sea well certain large entirely landlocked saltwater lakes caspian sea sea moderates earth 's climate important roles water cycle carbon cycle nitrogen cycle humans harnessing studying sea recorded since ancient times evidenced

Applied science
Military sciences
Battlespace
Sea


well prehistory modern scientific study called oceanography abundant solid dissolved seawater sodium chloride water also contains salts magnesium calcium potassium mercury amongst many elements minute concentrations salinity varies widely lower near surface mouths large rivers higher depths ocean however relative proportions dissolved salts vary little across oceans winds blowing surface sea produce waves break enter shallow water winds also create surface currents friction setting


slow stable circulations water throughout oceans directions circulation governed factors including shapes continents earth 's rotation coriolis effect deep sea currents known global conveyor belt carry cold water near poles every ocean tides generally twice daily rise fall sea levels caused earth 's rotation gravitational effects orbiting moon lesser extent sun tides may high range bays estuaries submarine earthquakes arising tectonic plate movements


started sea provides substantial supplies food humans mainly fish also shellfish mammals seaweed whether caught fishermen farmed underwater human uses sea include trade travel mineral extraction power generation warfare leisure activities swimming sailing scuba diving many activities create marine pollution sea therefore humans integral element throughout history culture definition animated map exhibiting world 's oceanic waters continuous body water encircling earth world ocean divided number principal areas


relatively uninhibited interchange among five oceanic divisions usually defined pacific atlantic indian arctic southern last two listed sometimes consolidated first three marginal seas defined international maritime organization sea interconnected system earth 's oceanic waters including atlantic pacific indian southern arctic oceans ref name sea ''merriam webstercom dictionary'' merriam webster nowiki https wwwmerriam webstercom dictionary sea nowiki accessed mar ref however word sea also used many specific much smaller bodies seawater north sea red sea sharp distinction seas


oceans though generally seas smaller often partly marginal seas particularly mediterranean seas wholly inland seas bordered land ref name oceanservicenoaa ref however sargasso sea coastline lies within circular current north atlantic gyre ref name stow ref seas generally larger lakes contain salt water sea galilee freshwater lake ref ''introduction marine biology'' defines sea land locked body water adding term sea one convenience ''the glossary mapping sciences'' similarly states boundaries seas


bodies water arbitrary united nations convention law sea states ocean sea ref physical science composite images earth created nasa earth known planet seas liquid water surface ref name stow although mars possesses ice caps similar planets solar systems may oceans earth 's sea contain percent known water ref name noaacycle ref times much water world 's surface oceans combined experiments recreate


conditions lower mantle suggest may contain still water well much five times mass water present world 's oceans cover approximately percent surface ref name stow another earth 's water frozen found sea ice covering arctic ocean ice cap covering antarctica adjacent seas various glaciers surface deposits around world remainder whole form underground reservoirs various stages water cycle containing freshwater encountered used terrestrial life vapor


air clouds slowly forms rain falling lakes rivers spontaneously formed waters flow sea ref name noaacycle noaa http oceanexplorernoaagov edu learning player lesson html lesson water cycle ''ocean explorer'' ref scientific study water earth 's water cycle hydrology hydrodynamics studies physics water motion recent study sea particular oceanography began study shape ocean 's currents since expanded large multidisciplinary field ref name jenkins monkhouse fj ''principles physical geography'' pp


hodder stoughton ref examines properties seawater studies waves tides currents charts coastlines maps seabeds studies marine life subfield dealing sea 's motion forces forces acting upon known physical oceanography marine biology biological oceanography studies plants animals organisms inhabiting marine ecosystems informed chemical oceanography studies behavior elements molecules within oceans particularly moment ocean 's role carbon cycle carbon dioxide 's role increasing acidification seawater marine


maritime geography charts shape shaping sea marine geology geological oceanography provided evidence continental drift composition structure earth clarified process sedimentation assisted study volcanism earthquakes ref name jenkins seawater salinity map taken aquarius spacecraft rainbow colours represent salinity levels red purple salinity characteristic seawater salty salinity usually measured parts per thousand per mil open ocean solids


per litre salinity nbsp mediterranean sea slightly higher nbsp salinity northern red sea reach contrast landlocked hypersaline lakes much higher salinity example dead sea dissolved solids per litre nbsp constituents table salt sodium chloride make percent solids solution also metal ions magnesium calcium negative ions including sulphate carbonate bromide despite variations levels salinity different seas relative composition


bromide carbonate strontium borate fluoride solutes although amount salt ocean remains relatively constant within scale millions years various factors affect salinity body water ref name setalleyduauang evaporation product ice formation known brine rejection increase salinity whereas precipitation sea ice melt runoff land reduce ref name setalleyduauang ref


baltic sea example many rivers flowing thus sea could considered brackish meanwhile red sea salty due high evaporation rate ref name noaaaa noaa jan http oceanservicenoaagov facts drinkswhtml drinking seawater deadly humans ref temperature sea temperature depends amount solar radiation falling surface tropics sun nearly overhead temperature surface layers rise near poles temperature equilibrium sea ice continuous circulation


water oceans warm surface currents cool move away tropics water becomes denser sinks cold water moves back towards equator deep sea current driven changes temperature density water eventually welling towards surface deep seawater temperature parts globe seawater typical salinity nbsp freezing point nbsp c nbsp f temperature becomes low enough ice crystals form surface break small


pieces coalesce flat discs form thick suspension known frazil calm conditions freezes thin flat sheet known nilas thickens new ice forms underside turbulent seas frazil crystals join together flat discs known pancakes slide coalesce form floes process freezing salt water air trapped ice crystals nilas may salinity nbsp time sea ice one year old falls nbsp oxygen concentration


amount oxygen found seawater depends primarily plants growing mainly algae including phytoplankton vascular plants seagrasses daylight photosynthetic activity plants produces oxygen dissolves seawater used marine animals night photosynthesis stops amount dissolved oxygen declines deep sea insufficient light penetrates plants grow little dissolved oxygen absence organic material broken anaerobic bacteria producing hydrogen sulphide climate change likely reduce levels


oxygen surface waters since solubility oxygen water falls higher temperatures ocean deoxygenation projected increase hypoxia triple suboxic waters oxygen concentrations less mean surface concentrations nbsp c upper ocean warming ref name ref light amount light penetrates sea depends angle sun weather conditions turbidity water much light gets reflected surface red light gets absorbed top metres yellow green light reach greater depths blue


violet light may penetrate deep insufficient light photosynthesis plant growth beyond depth ref name russell ref sea level geologic time sea level higher today ref name stow main factor affecting sea level time result changes oceanic crust downward trend expected continue long term last glacial maximum years ago sea level lower present times ref name clevel https pubsusgsgov fs fs sea level climate


usgs richard z poore richard williams jr christopher tracey ref least last years sea level rising average rate per year rise attributed increase temperature sea due climate change resulting slight thermal expansion upper water additional contributions much one quarter total come water sources land melting snow glaciers extraction groundwater irrigation agricultural human needs


waves movement molecules waves pass wave enters shallow water slows amplitude height increases wind blowing surface body water forms waves perpendicular direction wind friction air water caused gentle breeze pond causes ripples form strong blow ocean causes larger waves moving air pushes raised ridges water waves reach maximum height rate travelling nearly matches speed


irregular seas ref name noaa constructive interference cause individual unexpected rogue waves much higher normal ref name mrgarrison garrison tom https booksgooglecom booksid dvgkaaaaqbaj pg pa ''essentials oceanography'' th ed pp ff brooks cole belmont ref waves less high ref name mrgarrison unusual strong storms double triple height offshore construction wind farms oil platforms use metocean statistics measurements computing wave forces due instance hundred year wave designed rogue waves however documented heights top wave


known crest lowest point waves trough distance crests wavelength wave pushed across surface sea wind represents transfer energy horizontal movement water waves approach land move shallow water change behavior approaching angle waves may bend refraction wrap rocks headlands diffraction wave reaches point deepest oscillations water contact seabed begin slow pulls


sea events temporarily lift lower surface sea affected area usually feet potential energy displaced seawater turned kinetic energy creating shallow wave tsunami radiating outwards velocity proportional square root depth water therefore travels much faster open ocean continental shelf ref name usgstsunami ref deep open sea tsunamis wavelengths around travel speeds miles per hour nbsp km hr ref name ntwc physics ref usually


height less three feet often pass unnoticed stage ref name uow ref contrast ocean surface waves caused winds wavelengths hundred feet travel high ref name uow tsunami moves shallower water speed decreases wavelength shortens amplitude increases enormously ref name uow behaving way wind generated wave shallow water vastly greater scale either trough crest tsunami arrive coast first ref name usgstsunami


former case sea draws back leaves subtidal areas close shore exposed provides useful warning people land crest arrives usually break rushes inland flooding path much destruction may caused flood water draining back sea tsunami struck dragging debris people often several tsunami caused single geological event arrive intervals eight minutes two hours first wave arrive shore may


biggest destructive ref name usgstsunami currents surface currents red warm blue cold wind blowing surface sea causes friction interface air sea cause waves form also makes surface seawater move direction wind although winds variable one place predominantly blow single direction thus surface current formed westerly winds frequent mid latitudes easterlies dominate tropics water moves way water flows


fill gap circular movement surface currents known gyre formed five main gyres world 's oceans two pacific two atlantic one indian ocean smaller gyres found lesser seas single gyre flows around antarctica gyres followed routes millennia guided topography land wind direction coriolis effect surface currents flow clockwise direction northern hemisphere anticlockwise southern hemisphere water moving away


equator warm flowing reverse direction lost heat currents tend moderate earth 's climate cooling equatorial region warming regions higher latitudes ref name noaacurrent ref global climate weather forecasts powerfully affected world ocean global climate modelling makes use ocean circulation models well models major components atmosphere land surfaces aerosols sea ice ocean models make use branch physics geophysical fluid dynamics describes large scale flow fluids seawater global


conveyor belt shown blue warmer surface currents red surface currents affect top hundred metres sea also large scale flows ocean depths caused movement deep water masses main deep ocean current flows world 's oceans known thermohaline circulation global conveyor belt movement slow driven differences density water caused variations salinity temperature high latitudes water chilled low atmospheric temperature becomes saltier


sea ice crystallizes factors make denser water sinks deep sea near greenland water flows southwards continental landmasses either side atlantic reaches antarctic joined masses cold sinking water flows eastwards splits two streams move northwards indian pacific oceans gradually warmed becomes less dense rises towards surface loops back takes thousand years circulation pattern completed ref name noaacurrent besides gyres


ref name noaacurrent rip current occur water piles near shore advancing waves funnelled sea channel seabed may occur gap sandbar near man made structure groyne strong currents velocity per second form different places different stages tide carry away unwary bathers temporary upwelling currents occur wind pushes water away land deeper water rises replace cold water


often rich nutrients creates blooms phytoplankton great increase productivity sea ref name noaacurrent tides high tides blue nearest furthest points earth moon tides regular rise fall water level experienced seas oceans response gravitational influences moon sun effects earth 's rotation tidal cycle given place water rises maximum height known high tide ebbing away minimum low


tide level water recedes uncovers foreshore also known intertidal zone difference height high tide low tide known tidal range tidal amplitude ref name oceanservice ref places experience two high tides day occurring intervals hours minutes half hours minute period takes earth make complete revolution return moon previous position relative observer moon 's mass nbsp million times smaller


sun times closer earth ref name noaatides ref tidal force tide raising force decreases rapidly distance moon twice great effect tides sun ref name noaatides bulge formed ocean place earth closest moon also effect moon 's gravity stronger opposite side earth lunar force weakest causes another bulge form moon rotates around earth


ocean bulges move around earth gravitational attraction sun also working seas effect tides less powerful moon sun moon earth aligned full moon new moon combined effect results high spring tides contrast sun moon viewed earth combined gravitational effect tides less causing lower neap tides ref name oceanservice storm surge occur high winds pile water


coast shallow area coupled low pressure system raise surface sea high tide dramatically ocean basins three types plate boundary earth composed magnetic central core mostly liquid mantle hard rigid outer shell lithosphere composed earth 's rocky crust deeper mostly solid outer layer mantle land crust known continental crust sea known oceanic crust latter composed relatively dense


basalt five ten kilometres three six miles thick relatively thin lithosphere floats weaker hotter mantle fractured number tectonic plates mid ocean magma constantly thrust seabed adjoining plates form mid oceanic ridges convection currents within mantle tend drive two plates apart parallel ridges nearer coasts one oceanic plate may slide beneath another oceanic plate process known subduction deep trenches formed process accompanied friction


mariana islands volcanic archipelago west pacific deepest point kilometres nearly miles surface sea ref name smmt ref coasts praia da marinha algarve portugal baltic sea archipelago turku finland zone land meets sea known coast part lowest spring tides upper limit reached splashing waves shore beach accumulation sand shingle shore ref name monkhouse headland point land jutting sea


larger promontory known cape indentation coastline especially two headlands bay small bay narrow inlet cove large bay may referred gulf coastlines influenced number factors including strength waves arriving shore gradient land margin composition hardness coastal rock inclination shore slope changes level land due local uplift submergence normally waves roll towards shore


origin sediment carried sea rivers settles seabed causing deltas form estuaries materials move back forth influence waves tides currents ref name monkhouse dredging removes material deepens channels may unexpected effects elsewhere coastline governments make efforts prevent flooding land building breakwaters seawalls dykes levees sea defences instance thames barrier designed protect london storm surge failure dykes levees around new orleans hurricane


katrina created humanitarian crisis united states water cycle sea plays part water hydrological cycle water evaporates ocean travels atmosphere vapour condenses falls rain snow thereby sustaining life land largely returns sea even atacama desert little rain ever falls dense clouds fog known camanchaca blow sea support plant life central asia large land masses endorheic basins outlet sea


greatest quantity actively cycled carbon world second lithosphere amount carbon store ref name globalcarboncycle oceans' surface layer holds large amounts dissolved organic carbon exchanged rapidly atmosphere deep layer 's concentration dissolved inorganic carbon percent higher surface layer ref name sarmiento gruber ref remains much longer periods time ref name prentice etal thermohaline circulation exchanges carbon two layers ref name globalcarboncycle ref carbon enters ocean atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolves surface layers


thermohaline circulation ref name prentice etal ref life sea coral reefs among biodiverse habitats world oceans home diverse collection life forms use habitat since sunlight illuminates upper layers major part ocean exists permanent darkness different depth temperature zones provide habitat unique set species marine environment whole encompasses immense diversity life marine habitats range surface water deepest oceanic trenches including coral reefs kelp forests seagrass meadows


tidepools muddy sandy rocky seabeds open pelagic zone organisms living sea range whales metres nbsp ft long microscopic phytoplankton zooplankton fungi bacteria marine life plays important part carbon cycle photosynthetic organisms convert dissolved carbon dioxide organic carbon economically important humans providing fish use food ref name jeffrey ref ref name dklife ref life may originated sea major groups animals represented scientists differ precisely sea life arose miller urey experiments suggested


dilute chemical soup open water recent suggestions include volcanic hot springs fine grained clay sediments deep sea black smoker vents would provided protection damaging ultraviolet radiation blocked early earth 's atmosphere ref name stow marine habitats marine habitats divided horizontally coastal open ocean habitats coastal habitats extend shoreline edge continental shelf marine life found coastal habitats even though shelf area occupies percent total ocean area open ocean habitats


found deep ocean beyond edge continental shelf alternatively marine habitats divided vertically pelagic open water demersal seabed benthic sea bottom habitats third division latitude polar seas ice shelves sea ice icebergs temperate tropical waters ref name stow coral reefs called rainforests sea occupy less percent world 's ocean surface yet ecosystems include percent marine species best known tropical coral reefs australia 's great barrier reef cold water reefs


harbour wide array species including corals six contribute reef formation ref name stow algae plants marine primary producers plants microscopic organisms plankton widespread essential ecosystem estimated half world 's oxygen produced phytoplankton ref name nalgeo ref percent sea 's primary production living material contributed diatoms much larger algae commonly known seaweeds important locally ''sargassum'' forms floating drifts kelp form seabed forests ref name dklife flowering plants form


seagrasses grow meadows sandy shallows mangroves line coast tropical subtropical regions salt tolerant plants thrive regularly inundated salt marshes habitats able sequester large quantities carbon support biodiverse range larger smaller animal life light able penetrate top part sea plants grow ref name russell surface layers often deficient biologically active nitrogen compounds marine nitrogen cycle consists complex microbial transformations include fixation nitrogen assimilation


vertebrates seabirds seals sea turtles return land breed fish cetaceans sea snakes completely aquatic lifestyle many invertebrate phyla entirely marine fact oceans teem life provide many varying microhabitats ref name thorne miller ref one surface film even though tossed movement waves provides rich environment home bacteria fungi microalgae protozoa fish eggs various larvae pelagic zone contains macro microfauna myriad zooplankton drift currents smallest organisms


larvae fish marine invertebrates liberate eggs vast numbers chance one embryo surviving maturity minute zooplankton feed phytoplankton form basic part complex food chain extends variously sized fish nektonic organisms large squid sharks porpoises dolphins whales marine creatures make large migrations either regions ocean seasonal basis vertical migrations daily often ascending feed night descending safety day ships introduce