illinois press ''the united states appalachia southern mountaineers brought independence culture enlightenment america'' jeff biggers emeryville ca shoemaker hoard detailed bibliographies refer https webarchiveorg web http wwwappalachianstudiesorg resources bibliographies indexphp bibliography section asa website teachers would like incorporate appalachian studies content classroom asa website includes list appalachian studies https webarchiveorg web http wwwappalachianstudiesorg syllabi syllabi college university teachers well list resources k teachers references appalachian studies association https webarchiveorg web http wwwappalachianstudiesorg resources centers appalachian libraries archives appalachian studies association website accessed may appalachian studies


association https webarchiveorg web http wwwappalachianstudiesorg syllabi appalachian studies syllabi appalachian studies association website accessed may appalachian studies association https webarchiveorg web http wwwappalachianstudiesorg resources bibliographies tedesco indexphp marie tedesco 's selected bibliography appalachian studies association website accessed april appalachian studies association https webarchiveorg web http wwwappalachianstudiesorg syllabi programsphp programs appalachian studies appalachian studies association website accessed may blaustein richard ''the thistle brier historical links cultural parallels scotland appalachia'' munn robert f research materials appalachian region ''mountain life work'' summer williams cratis ed david cratis williams patricia beaver ''tales sacred wind coming age

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Appalachian studies


appalachia'' reading berry chad phillip j obermiller shaunna l scott eds ''studying appalachian studies making path walking'' university illinois press xii pp newby tim bluegrass baltimore mcfarland pp external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwappalachiancenterorg university kentucky appalachian center website https webarchiveorg web http wwwsouthernspacesorg browse space place appalachia space place appalachia american studies appalachia appalachian culture appalachian society


field also uses various types research methods ref name conyers ii intensive academic efforts reconstruct african american history began late th century w e b du bois ''the suppression african slave trade united states america'' among pioneers first half th century carter g woodson ref name dagbovie ref herbert aptheker melville herskovits lorenzo dow turner ref name kelly ref ref name cotter ref programs departments black studies united states first created result inter ethnic student faculty activism many universities

Social science
Sociology
Cultural studies
Africana studies


sparked five month strike black studies san francisco state february san francisco state hired sociologist nathan hare coordinate first black studies program write proposal first department black studies department created september gained official status end five months strike spring creation programs departments black studies common demand protests sit ins minority students allies felt cultures interests underserved traditional academic structures


black studies departments programs courses also created united kingdom ref name andrews ref name andrews ii caribbean ref name teelucksingh brazil ref name nascimento canada ref name barnstead names academic discipline academic discipline known various names ref ref name reid merritt ref ref name reid merritt ii ref ref name karenga ii ref ref name reid merritt iii ref ref name karenga iii ref ref name christian ref ref name conyers ref ref name asante xx ref ref name dawkins ref mazama expounds blockquote appendix recently published handbook black studies asante karenga note naming discipline remains unsettled asante karenga p remark came result extensive survey existing


black studies programs led editors identifying multiplicity names discipline africana studies african african diaspora studies african black world studies pan african studies africology african new world studies african studies major black world studies latin american studies latin american caribbean studies black hispanic studies africana latin american studies african african american studies black hispanic studies african american studies afro american studies african american education program afro ethnic studies american ethnic studies american studies african american emphasis black studies comparative american cultures ethnic studies programs race ethnic studies ref name mazama x ref blockquote okafor clarifies blockquote appears


drive distinctive names combination factors composite expertise faculty faculty areas specialization worldviews faculty make unit worldview referring question whether constituent faculty given setting manifests combination following visions project domestic vision black studies sees focusing exclusively affairs united states african americans descended generation enslaved africans diasporic vision black studies inclusive


affairs african descendants new world americas north america south america caribbean globalistic vision black studies viewpoint thinks terms african world world encompassing african origin communities scattered across globe continent africa ref name okafor ref blockquote history united states carter g woodson united states specific aim objective interdisciplinary field study help students broaden knowledge worldwide human experience presenting aspect experience black experience traditionally neglected


united states rightfully known turbulent sixties time period nation experienced great social unrest residents challenged social order radical ways many movements took place united states time period including women 's rights movement labor rights movement civil rights movement students university california berkeley uc berkeley witnesses civil rights movement thrust activism ref name taylor ref october jack weinberg former graduate student sitting table congress racial


equality distributing literature encouraging students protest institutional racism police asked weinberg produce id confirm student refused therefore arrested support weinberg students surrounded police vehicle even used car podium spoke right engage political protest campus ref name autogenerated ref impromptu demonstration first many protests culminating institutionalization black studies two months later students uc berkeley organized sit sproul hall administration building


respective goals challenges leaders included stokely carmichael student nonviolent coordinating committee sncc james bevel southern christian leadership conference sclc educational conferences like sds forced university take measures correct obvious racial issue campus sparse black student population ref name autogenerated ref school held first official racial ethnic survey discovered american negro represented university population university instituted educational opportunity program eop facilitated increased minority student enrollment offered financial


aid minority students high potential ref name autogenerated eop students minority student population increased tension activists clubs minorities rose minorities wanted reigns movement affected directly one student asserted backward educate white people black power many black people still uneducated matter members afro american student union aasu proposed academic department called black studies april ref name taylor demand program 'black studies' program


black people demand educated realistically form education attempts lie us otherwise mis educate us accepted ref name dailycalifornian afro american studies proposal ''daily californian'' editorial march ref aasu members asserted young people america inheritors undoubtedly one challenging threatening set social circumstances ever fallen upon generation young people history ref name dailycalifornian everyone learns differently teaching one way cause students want learn eventually leads dropping


students specialties teachers n't use help learning community instead use broad way teaching get information aasu used claims gain ground proposal create black studies department nathan hare sociology professor san francisco state university created known conceptual proposal black studies aasu used hare 's framework create set criteria ref name ref black studies program implemented uc berkeley administration january st clair


drake named first chair degree granting ''program african afro american studies'' stanford university many black studies programs departments programs around nation created subsequent years university california santa barbara similarly student activism led establishment black studies department amidst great targeting discrimination student leaders color university california campuses autumn season black students ucsb joined national civil rights movement end racial segregation exclusion black history studies college campuses triggered


renewed debates race college campuses country inspired davis win civil rights movement nationwide student activism black white students led student african american society sas syracuse university marched front building newhouse demanded black studies taught syracuse existed independent underfunded non degree offering program ref name ruffin ii ref program became department african american studies offering degrees within college arts sciences ref name ruffin ii unlike stages black


studies grew mass rebellions black college students faculty search scholarship change fourth stage new name africana studies involved theoretical elaboration discipline black studies according african cultural reclamation disparate tenets historical cultural issues africanity within professorial interpretation interactions fields college administrations ref name harris thus africana studies reflected mellowing institutionalization black studies movement course integration mainstream academic curriculum black studies africana studies differ primarily


africana studies focuses africanity historical cultural issues africa descendants black studies designed deal uplift development black african american community relationship education relevance black community adaptation term africana studies appears derived encyclopedic work w e b du bois carter g woodson james turner recruited graduate school northwestern heels student rebellions first used term describe global approach black


studies name africana studies research center cornell acted founding director ref name fenderson ref ''studia africana'' subtitled international journal africana studies published department african american studies university cincinnati single issue unrelated journal called ''studia africana'' published centro de estudios africanos barcelona since ''international journal africana studies'' issn appearing since published national council black studies publications african american studies funded


ford foundation african american academics produced publications used traditional disciplinary orthodoxies outside african american studies analyze evaluate boundaries structure legitimacy african american studies ref name conyers iii ref detriment field abundance research african american studies developed academics within discipline african american studies ref name conyers iii rather academics scholarship produced african american studies characterized bearing aryan hegemonic worldview ref name conyers iii due staffing shortage field


african american studies academics field trained traditional fields carry presumptions primacy field training viewpoints tends result marginalization african phenomena subjects study even field african american studies large ref name conyers iii consequently matters development theory well development historical african consciousness frequently go overlooked ref name conyers iii focus african american studies study african diaspora africa including problems african


diaspora africa makes theory afrocentricity increasingly relevant ref name conyers iii national council black studies also recognized problem academics trained fields education economics history philosophy political science psychology sociology fields outside african american studies committed disciplinary training yet able recognize shortcomings training relates field african american studies entering ref name conyers iii furthermore academics would also recognize experts discipline


african american studies would also attempt assess legitimacy africology done analysis based critical rhetoric rather based pensive research ref name conyers iii following black studies movement africana studies movement molefi kete asante identifies africological movement subsequent movement ref name asante xxi ref asante authored book ''afrocentricity'' ref name asante xxi within book asante used term afrology name interdisciplinary field black studies defined afrocentric study african phenomena ref name asante xxi later winston van horne changed asante 's


use term afrology africology ref name asante xxi asante went use earlier definition afrology definition newly adopted term africology ref name asante xxi systematic africology ref name conyers iii ref name conyers ii research method field black studies developed molefi kete asante ref name conyers ii utilizes theory afrocentricity analyze evaluate african phenomena ref name conyers iii united kingdom kehinde andrews united kingdom following rise decline black british cultural studies early late black


studies united states reinvigorated black critical thought united kingdom ref name brar ref kehinde andrews initiated development black studies association united kingdom well development course black studies birmingham city university ref name brar continues advocate advancement presence black studies united kingdom ref name andrews ref ref name andrews ii ref caribbean among english speaking countries caribbean scholars educated united states britain added considerably development black studies ref name teelucksingh ref scholars fitzroy baptiste richard goodridge elsa goveia allister hinds


rupert lewis bernard marshall james millette alvin thompson added development black studies university west indies campuses barbados jamaica trinidad ref name teelucksingh brazil abdias nascimento brazil abdias nascimento gave presentation panama scholarship kilombismo nd congress black culture americas ref name nascimento ref scholarship kilombismo detailed economic political affairs africans throughout americas contributed socially organized ref name saunders ref afterward nascimento went back brazil began institutionalization africana studies ref name nascimento


psychological framework known african self consciousness analyzes states changes african mind ref name conyers ii ref africana womanism delores p aldridge developed research method analyzes viewpoint black women known africana womanism ref name conyers ii rather importance individual eg needs wants considered greater family unit importance family unit regarded greater individual ref name conyers ii afrocentricity molefi kete asante united states afrocentricity academic theory approach scholarship seeks center experiences peoples africa


african diaspora within historical cultural sociological contexts ref name monteiro ferreira ref ref name asante ref ref name alkebulan ref ref name pellerin ref first developed systematized methodology molefi kete asante drew inspiration number african african diaspora intellectuals including cheikh anta diop george james harold cruse ida b wells langston hughes malcolm x marcus garvey w e b du bois ref name monteiro ferreira temple circle ref name asante viii ref ref name karenga ref also known temple school thought ref name karenga temple circle afrocentricity ref name asante x ref temple school afrocentricity ref name myers ref early group africologists


late early helped develop afrocentricity based concepts agency centeredness location orientation ref name asante viii black male studies bms black studies scholars often explored unique experiences black boys men line research dates back analyses black male training done web du bois book ''the souls black folk'' though black studies discipline decline perpetuation sub discipline various social science fields eg education sociology cultural anthropology urban studies risen


rise coincided emergence men 's studies also referred masculinity studies since early increasing interest black males among scholars policy makers resulted marked rise sub discipline black male studies development numerous books research articles conferences foundations research centers institutes academic journals initiatives scholarly collectives emphasize focus entirely status black boys men society blues culture james b stewart developed research method methodological framework known blues culture examines


studies scholar james turner developed research method social scientific framework known four basic tasks black studies scholar investigates problems affect experiences africana peoples addresses four related criteria eg defend disseminate generate preserve new knowledge utilizing various means examination assortment disciplines eg conceptual history economics political science sociology ref name conyers ii interpretative analysis charles h wesley developed research method interpretative analysis utilizes structural cultural system gather analyze interpret data ref name conyers ii kawaida theory maulana karenga united states maulana


karenga drew concept nguzo saba develop research method known kawaida theory ref name conyers ii seven factors eg creative production ethos history religion economic organization political organization social organization utilized examine africana experience set within pan africanist context ref name conyers ii miseducation negro carter g woodson developed research method conceptual framework miseducation negro analyzes assesses history culture africana people notates notable loss due africana people decentered


historic cultural contexts ref name conyers ii nigrescence william e cross jr developed research method known nigrescence psychological framework framework analyzes africana culture behavioral dimensions psycho adaptive traits well analyzes timeline black culture composed five steps ref name conyers ii optimal worldview psychology linda meyers developed research method known optimal worldview psychology utilizes investigates african mind cultural framework eg surface level structure culture deep structure culture sub optimal viewpoint highlights demerits


ii methodological recognition information may captured prior publications able optimally acquired ref name conyers ii social legitimacy winston van horn developed research method methodological framework composed three steps known social legitimacy analyzes experiences africana peoples africana phenomena political sociological contexts ref name conyers ii two cradle theory cheikh anta diop senegal cheikh anta diop drew anthropology archaeology history sociology develop research method cultural metric known two cradle theory assess differences african


hinder institutionalization black studies major universities ref name bsccd case uc berkeley black studies programs across country instituted urging demanding black students create program many instances black students also called increased enrollment black students financial assistance students ref name bsccd also seen case uc berkeley constant demand program place power control hands black people idea black studies


could realistic taught someone accustomed black experience many campuses directors black studies little autonomy power hire grant tenure faculty many campuses overall lack respect discipline caused instability students program past thirty years steady decline black studies scholars ref name bsccd universities colleges black studies departments programs courses '''united states''' american university amherst college baruch college brandeis university


brown university california state university dominguez hills california state university fullerton california state university northridge carleton college cleveland state university college william mary columbia university dartmouth college davidson college dominican university duke university eastern kentucky university eastern michigan university emory university fordham university georgetown university georgia state university guilford college indiana university oberlin college ohio state university loyola marymount university luther college middle tennessee state university mount holyoke college nassau community college pennsylvania state university portland state university princeton university purdue university san jose state university syracuse university temple university college new jersey towson university tufts


university university albany university arizona university arkansas university buffalo university california berkeley university california davis university california irvine university california los angeles university california san diego university california santa barbara university florida university houston university kansas university louisville university massachusetts amherst university michigan university montana university nebraska omaha university north carolina chapel hill university north carolina charlotte university north carolina greensboro university north texas university oklahoma university oregon university pennsylvania university


brown university columbia university cornell university harvard university indiana university michigan state university northwestern university ohio state university pennsylvania state university temple university university california berkeley university louisville university massachusetts amherst university pennsylvania university texas austin university wisconsin milwaukee yale university '''united kingdom''' university nottingham prominent academics black studies '''united states''' shawn alexander molefi kete asante mk asante jr houston baker jr bill cole patricia hill collins edward w crosby allison davis angela davis st clair drake w e b du bois michael eric dyson gerald early john hope franklin


e franklin frazier henry louis gates jr farah griffin vincent harding nathan hare melissa harris perry saidiya hartman melville herskovits bell hooks charles johnson maulana karenga robin dg kelley glenn c loury manning marable janis mayes fred moten mark anthony neal adolph reed cedric robinson tricia rose milton sernett christina sharpe renate simson geneva smitherman robert b stepto akinyele umoja cornel west william julius wilson carter g woodson cynthia young '''united kingdom''' kehinde andrews kwame anthony appiah hazel carby paul gilroy '''caribbean''' horace campbell oliver cromwell cox elsa goveia clr james walter rodney kwame ture sylvia wynter '''brazil''' abdias


nascimento '''africa''' micere mugo scholarly academic journals ''african american review'' ''africana'' https africanajournalorg journal ideas africa diaspora ''africana online journal africana center cultural literacy research'' ''africology journal pan african studies'' http wwwjpanafricanorg since ''afro americans new york life history'' http wwwaanylhcom since ''the black scholar'' since ''callaloo'' ''electronic journal africana bibliography'' https journalslibrarycolumbiaedu indexphp ejab index coverage includes aspect africa peoples homes cities towns districts states countries regions including social economic sustainable development creative literature arts diaspora ''the griot journal


african american studies'' https scaasiinfo griot ''international journal africana studies'' https ncbsonlineorg publications international journal africana studies designed interrogate analyze lived experiences africana people ''the journal african civilizations'' since ''journal african american history'' ''journal african american males education'' jaame https jaamejournalscholasticahqcom ''journal black studies'' ''journal negro education'' ''journal negro history'' ''western journal black studies'' https educationwsuedu wjbs ''negro digest'' ''negro educational review'' https wwweducationpittedu faculty research affiliated journals organizations negro educational review journal ''negro history bulletin'' ''nka journal contemporary african art'' https readdukeupressedu nka focuses publishing critical work examines newly developing field contemporary african african diaspora art within modernist


nation 's commercial policy include take account policies adopted nation 's government negotiating international trade several factors impact nation 's commercial policy impact international trade policies theories international trade policy trade policy controversial since days mercantilism economics political economy developed major part effort make clear various effects trade policies see international trade theory hottest topic economic policy upgrading global value chains types aspects

Applied science
Public administration
Trade Policy


commercial policy regionalism regionalism regional trade agreements rta trade policies agreements crafted nations region purposes increasing international trade area rtas described supporters means increasing free trade goal eventually merging larger either bilateral multilateral trade deals relatively local area rtas useful resolving trade issues well without causing gridlock trade agreements critics rtas say hindrance negotiation trade


lopsided unfairly beneficial one side sides particularly participants nations still development china rising economic power prominence turned regionalism strategic method leveling playing field europe united states china signed bangkok agreement association southeast asian nations asean reduce tariffs region signing agreement also began push formal free trade agreement china asean however strained relations


china asian nations japan prevented level regional ftas put place northeast asia bilateral free trade agreements two countries enter bilateral trade agreement essentially giving one another special deals favorable treatment arrangements privileges include lowering tariffs 's goods services united states signed treaties north american free trade agreement well israel experts support free trade agreements argue deals


help increase competition offers larger markets businesses reach critics bilateral agreements claim larger nation united states use agreements unfairly push smaller states much harsher work loads world trade organization already requires relations european union south korea led parties signing several bilateral agreements regarding trade policy south korea eu signed eu korea free trade agreement signing agreement created fta second nafta size agreement


held benefits increased free trade participants fta well increased challenge united states preferential trade agreements preferential agreements trade deals involve nations making deals specific countries aid interests one another opposed nondiscriminatory deals pushed wto nations increasingly preferring deals since quicker show gains parties involved agreements common argument made allows businesses open markets


would otherwise considered closed therefore falls free trade idea countries push countries similar levels gdp higher scope economies well relative position one another rest world likely preferential trade agreements ptas also applied regional areas unions nafta european union asean examples regional ptas ref name opposer ptas argue deals increased importance product made


competition within country businesses foreign country wishes sell goods services instances country 's government use means protectionism interests modern history generally starting mid th century use tariffs largely diminished favor rise international trade beginning trump administration began impose tariffs several nations involved trade deals united states countries targeted trump tariffs retaliated tariffs


american goods import quotas import quotas limitations amount goods imported country foreign businesses generally import quota set specific period time one year common metric versions quotas limits quantity specific goods imported country versions place limit value goods objectives quotas include protections nations interests ensuring balance trade create deficits retaliation restrictive


'''industrial''' may refer industry industrial archaeology study history industry industrial engineering engineering dealing optimization complex industrial processes systems industrial city city dominated one industries industrial loan company financial institution united states lends money may owned non financial institutions industrial organization field builds theory firm examining structure boundaries firms markets industrial revolution development industry th th centuries industrial society society undergone

Applied science
Military sciences
Military history
Industrial


industrialization industrial technology broad field includes designing building optimizing managing operating industrial equipment predesignated acceptable industrial uses like factories industrial video video targets industry primary audience industrialization societal process period developing technology transforming societies arts entertainment music ''industrial'' album debut album pitchshifter industrial music genre music draws transgressive provocative themes industrial dance subgenre characterized electronic beats symphonic keyboard lines pile driver rhythms angst ridden sampled vocals cyberpunk imagery industrial metal fusion genre characterized


repeating metal guitar riffs sampling synthesizer sequencer lines distorted vocals industrial rock fusion genre characterized electric guitars drums bass paired white noise blasts electronic music gear synthesizers sequencers samplers drum machines industrial records record label established industrial music group performance artists throbbing gristle uses arts industrial architecture pre modern style building design industrial musical bespoke musical theatre performance company 's employees industrial style st century interior design aesthetic uses industrial piercing two pierced ear holes connected


single straight piece jewelry two functional constituencies elections legislative council hong kong industrial first industrial second industrial mexib line brt station ecatepec mexico industrial mexib line brt station ecatepec mexico see also industry disambiguation industrial group disambiguation industria disambiguation


topic chemistry '''chemical synthesis '''or '''combination ''' artificial execution chemical reactions obtain one several products ref name vogel occurs physical chemical manipulations usually involving one reactions modern laboratory uses process reproducible reliable chemical synthesis involves one compounds known ' 'reagents'' ' 'reactants'' experience transformation subjected certain conditions various reaction types applied formulate desired product requires mixing compounds reaction vessel chemical reactor simple round bottom

Natural science
Chemistry
Synthetic chemistry


flask many reactions require form processing work purification procedure isolate final product ref name vogel ref amount produced chemical synthesis known ' 'reaction yield'' typically yields expressed mass grams laboratory setting percentage total theoretical quantity could produced based limiting reagent ' 'side reaction'' unwanted chemical reaction occurring reduces desired yield word ' 'synthesis'' used first chemical context chemist hermann kolbe strategies many strategies exist chemical synthesis


complicated simply converting reactant reaction product b directly '''multistep synthesis''' chemical compound synthesized series individual chemical reactions work example laboratory synthesis paracetamol consist three sequential parts cascade reactions multiple chemical transformations occur within single reactant multi component reactions many different reactants form single reaction product telescopic synthesis one reactant experiences multiple transformations without isolation intermediates organic synthesis organic synthesis special type chemical synthesis dealing synthesis


organic compounds total synthesis complex product multiple procedures sequence may required synthesize product interest requiring large amount time skill organic synthesis prized among chemists synthesis exceptionally valuable difficult compounds chemists robert burns woodward nobel prize chemistry chemical synthesis starts basic laboratory compounds considered purely synthetic process starts product isolated plants animals proceeds new compounds synthesis described semisynthetic


process inorganic synthesis inorganic synthesis organometallic synthesis applied preparation compounds significant non organic content illustrative example preparation anti cancer drug cisplatin potassium tetrachloroplatinate ref name alderden ref px see also beilstein database chemical engineering electrosynthesis methods organic synthesis organic synthesis peptide synthesis total synthesis automated synthesis references external links https synarchivecom organic synthesis archive https organicchemistrydataorg hansreich resources syntheses natural product syntheses chemistry


'''doxastic logic''' type logic concerned reasoning beliefs term '''' derives ancient greek ' 'doxa'' opinion belief english term ' 'doxa'' popular opinion belief also borrowed typically doxastic logic uses notation math mathcal b x math mean believed math x math case set math mathbb b left b ldots b n right math denotes set beliefs doxastic logic belief treated modal operator complete parallelism person believes propositions formal system derives propositions using

Humanities
Philosophy
Logic
Doxastic Logic


doxastic logic one express epistemic counterpart g del 's incompleteness theorem metalogic well l b 's theorem metalogical results terms belief ref name logicians smullyan raymond http portalacmorg ft gatewaycfmid type pdf coll guide dl guide cfid cftoken ''logicians reason themselves'' proceedings conference theoretical aspects reasoning knowledge monterey ca morgan kaufmann publishers inc san francisco ca pp ref types reasoners demonstrate properties sets beliefs raymond smullyan defines following types reasoners '''accurate reasoner''' ref name logicians ref name belief https webarchiveorg web http cswwcedu ku logic book book node html belief knowledge self awareness ref ref name modal https webarchiveorg web http moonbasewwcedu aabyan logic modalhtml modal logics ref ref name forever smullyan raymond ''forever undecided''


alfred knopf inc ref accurate reasoner never believes false proposition modal axiom '''t''' math forall p mathcal b p p math '''inaccurate reasoner''' ref name logicians ref name belief ref name modal ref name forever inaccurate reasoner believes least one false proposition math exists p neg p wedge mathcal b p math '''conceited reasoner''' ref name logicians ref name forever conceited reasoner believes beliefs never inaccurate math mathcal b neg exists p neg p wedge mathcal b p quad text quad mathcal b forall p mathcal b p p math '''consistent reasoner''' ref name logicians ref name belief ref name modal ref name forever consistent reasoner never simultaneously believes proposition negation modal axiom '''d''' math neg exists p mathcal b p wedge mathcal b neg p


quad text quad forall p mathcal b p neg mathcal b neg p math '''normal reasoner''' ref name logicians ref name belief ref name modal ref name forever normal reasoner one believing math p math also ''believes'' believe p modal axiom ''' ''' math forall p mathcal b p mathcal bb p math '''peculiar reasoner''' ref name logicians ref name forever peculiar reasoner believes proposition p also believing believe math p math although peculiar reasoner may seem like strange psychological phenomenon see moore 's paradox peculiar reasoner necessarily inaccurate necessarily inconsistent math exists p mathcal b p wedge mathcal b neg b p math '''regular reasoner''' ref name logicians ref name belief ref name modal ref name forever regular reasoner one


reasoner''' ref name logicians ref name forever unstable reasoner one believes believe proposition fact believe strange psychological phenomenon peculiarity however unstable reasoner necessarily inconsistent math exists p mathcal b mathcal b p wedge neg mathcal b p math '''stable reasoner''' ref name logicians ref name forever stable reasoner unstable every math p math believe math mathcal b p math believe math p math note stability converse normality say reasoner believes stable every proposition math p math believe math mathcal b mathcal b p mathcal b p math believing


ever believe believe math p math really believe math p math math forall p mathcal bb p mathcal b p math '''modest reasoner''' ref name logicians ref name forever modest reasoner one every believed proposition math p math math mathcal b p p math believe math p math modest reasoner never believes math mathcal b p p math unless believe math p math reflexive reasoner type modest l b 's theorem math forall p mathcal b mathcal b p p mathcal b p math '''queer reasoner''' ref name forever queer reasoner type g believes inconsistent wrong belief '''timid reasoner''' ref name forever timid reasoner believe


math p math afraid believe math p math believe belief math p math leads contradictory belief math forall p mathcal b mathcal b p mathcal b bot neg mathcal b p math increasing levels rationality '''type reasoner''' ref name logicians ref name belief ref name modal ref name forever ref name possible rod girle ''possible worlds'' mcgill queen 's university press ref type reasoner complete knowledge propositional logic ie sooner later believe every tautology proposition provable truth tables also set beliefs past present future logically closed modus ponens ever believe math p math math p q math sooner


later believe math q math math vdash pc p rightarrow vdash mathcal b p math math forall p forall q mathcal b p wedge mathcal b p q mathcal b q math rule also thought stating belief distributes implication 's logically equivalent math forall p forall q mathcal b p q mathcal b p mathcal b q math '''type reasoner''' ref name logicians ref name belief ref name modal ref name forever type reasoner believes tautologies set beliefs past present future logically closed modus ponens propositions math p math math q math believe math p


math mathcal b p q mathcal b p mathcal b q math type reasoner knows beliefs closed modus ponens math forall p forall q mathcal b mathcal b p wedge mathcal b p q mathcal b q math '''type reasoner''' ref name logicians ref name belief ref name modal ref name forever reasoner type normal reasoner type math forall p mathcal b p mathcal b mathcal b p math '''type reasoner''' ref name logicians ref name belief ref name modal ref name forever ref name possible reasoner type type also believe normal math mathcal b forall p mathcal b p mathcal b


mathcal b p math '''type g reasoner''' ref name logicians ref name forever reasoner type believes modest math mathcal b forall p mathcal b mathcal b p p mathcal b p math self fulfilling beliefs systems define reflexivity mean math p math language system math q math math q equiv mathcal b q p math provable system l b 's theorem general form reflexive system type math mathcal b p p math provable system math p math ref name logicians ref name forever inconsistency belief one 's stability


galex image spiral galaxy messier ultraviolet light credit galex nasa jpl caltech '''ultraviolet astronomy''' observation electromagnetic radiation ultraviolet wavelengths approximately nanometres shorter wavelengths mdash higher energy photons mdash studied x ray astronomy gamma ray astronomy ref name cox ref ultraviolet light visible human eye light wavelengths absorbed earth 's atmosphere observations wavelengths must performed upper atmosphere space ref name cox overview ultraviolet line spectrum measurements spectroscopy used discern chemical composition densities temperatures

Natural science
Space science
Astronomy
UV astronomy


interstellar medium temperature composition hot young stars uv observations also provide essential information evolution galaxies used discern presence hot white dwarf main sequence companion orbit around cooler star ref name reimers ref name ortiz ultraviolet universe looks quite different familiar stars galaxies seen visible light stars actually relatively cool objects emitting much electromagnetic radiation visible near infrared part spectrum ultraviolet radiation signature hotter objects typically early


late stages evolution earth 's sky seen ultraviolet light stars would fade prominence young massive stars old stars galaxies growing hotter producing higher energy radiation near birth death would visible clouds gas dust would block vision many directions along milky way space based solar observatories sdo soho use ultraviolet telescopes called aia eit respectively view activity sun corona weather satellites goes r series also carry telescopes observing sun


ultraviolet hubble space telescope fuse recent major space telescopes view near far uv spectrum sky though uv instruments flown smaller observatories galex well sounding rockets space shuttle pioneers ultraviolet astronomy include george robert carruthers robert wilson charles stuart bowyer andromeda galaxy high energy x ray ultraviolet light released january ultraviolet space telescopes ultraviolet shown purple far ultraviolet camera spectrograph apollo april esro td nbsp nm


flew rosat xuv ev nbsp nm far ultraviolet spectroscopic explorer nm galaxy evolution explorer nbsp nm hisaki nbsp nm lunar based ultraviolet telescope lut chang'e lunar lander nbsp nm astrosat nbsp nm colorado ultraviolet transit experiment cute nm spectrograph public telescope pst nbsp nm proposed eu funded study viewpoint spacefabus nbsp nm launch planned see also list ultraviolet space telescopes ultraviolet instruments planetary spacecraft uvis ''cassini''


saturn mascs ''messenger'' mercury alice ''new horizons'' pluto flyby uvs ''juno'' jupiter since iuvs maven mars since see also references ref ref name ortiz ref external links astronomical imaging astronomical sub disciplines astronomy


laser guided observation milky way galaxy paranal observatory chile following outline provided overview topical guide space science '''space science''' collectively also known astroscience encompasses scientific disciplines involve space exploration study natural phenomena physical bodies occurring outer space space medicine astrobiology branches space sciences astronomy ''see outline astronomy'' diversity found different types scales astronomical objects make field study increasingly specialized


extraterrestrial objects interstitial spaces space plasma physics orbital mechanics astrodynamics also applications spacecraft stellar astronomy study stars solar astronomy study sun planetary science study planets especially earth planetary geology galactic astronomy study milky way galaxy extragalactic astronomy study larger universe beyond milky way physical cosmology study universe whole astronautics astronaut piers sellers third spacewalk sts demonstration orbiter heat shield


repair techniques astronautics science engineering spacefaring spaceflight subset aerospace engineering includes atmospheric flight outline aerospace aerospace engineering aeronautics astronautics spaceflight human spaceflight bioastronautics architecture space life support system space station space habitation module outline space exploration life space living organisms space humans space women space animals space cat space f licette dogs space soviet space dogs mice space fe fi fo fum phooey monkeys apes space tortoises space zond microorganisms tested outer space plants space space habitation


effect spaceflight human body food space medicine space neuroscience space religion space christmas international space station sex space writing space space related interdisciplinary fields astrobiology astrobotany astrochemistry cosmochemistry cosmology planetary science overlaps earth science micro g environment research forensic astronomy space archaeology study human artifacts outer space space medicine space architecture archaeoastronomy history human understanding universe astroanthropology see also references external links http wwwistedupk institute space technology pakistan http sciencehqnasagov space sciences nasa http wwwesaint export esasc indexhtml space sciences


esa https webarchiveorg web http wwwiistacin indian institute space science technology http wwwspacescienceorg space sciences institute https webarchiveorg web http wwwspacescienceir space science technology persian iranian nongovernmental group writes scientific articles space science technology space science space science space science space science


'''rajasthani literature''' written various genres starting ad generally agreed modern rajasthani literature began works suryamal misana ref name brittanica ref important works vansa bhaskara vir satsai vans bhaskar contains accounts rajput princes ruled rajputana present state rajasthan lifetime poet vir satsai collection hundreds couplets medieval rajasthani literature mostly poetry heroic poetry mentioning great kings

Humanities
Languages and literature
Rajasthani Literature


fighters rajasthan said rabindra nath tagore heroic sentiment essence every song couplet rajasthani peculiar emotion however whole country may proud early rajasthani literature created mostly charans earlier rajasthani known charani dingal close gujarati see also khyat dhola maru ''prithviraj raso'' bhavai braj literature rajasthani people list winners sahitya akademi awards writing rajasthani language list rajasthani poets bibliography '''primary sources''' padman bha bhatnagar v kanhadade


speech production visualized real time mri '''speech''' human vocal communication using language language uses phonetic combinations vowel consonant sounds form sound words english words sound different french words even word eg role hotel using words semantic character words lexicon language according syntactic constraints govern lexical words' function sentence speaking speakers perform many different intentional speech acts eg informing declaring asking persuading directing

Journalism, media studies and communication


use enunciation intonation degrees loudness tempo non representational paralinguistic aspects vocalization convey meaning speech speakers also unintentionally communicate many aspects social position sex age place origin accent physical states alertness sleepiness vigor weakness health illness psychological states emotions moods physico psychological states sobriety drunkenness normal consciousness trance states education experience like although people ordinarily use speech dealing persons animals people swear always mean communicate anything anyone sometimes


expressing urgent emotions desires use speech quasi magical cause encourage player game warn something also many situations people engage solitary speech people talk sometimes acts development psychologists eg lev vygotsky maintained use silent speech interior monologue vivify organize cognition sometimes momentary adoption dual persona self addressing self though addressing another person solo speech


used memorize test one 's memorization things prayer meditation eg use mantra researchers study many different aspects speech speech production speech perception sounds used language speech repetition speech errors ability map heard spoken words onto vocalizations needed recreate plays key role children 's enlargement vocabulary different areas human brain broca 's area wernicke 's area underlie speech speech subject study linguistics cognitive


science communication studies psychology computer science speech pathology otolaryngology acoustics speech compares written language may differ vocabulary syntax phonetics spoken language situation called diglossia evolutionary origins speech unknown subject much debate speculation animals also communicate using vocalizations trained apes washoe kanzi use simple sign language animals' vocalizations articulated phonemically syntactically constitute speech production speech production unconscious multi step process thoughts generated spoken utterances production involves


manner articulation refers manner speech organs interact closely air restricted form airstream used eg pulmonic implosive ejectives clicks whether vocal cords vibrating whether nasal cavity opened airstream concept primarily used production consonants used vowels qualities voicing nasalization place articulation may several manners articulation therefore several homorganic consonants normal human speech pulmonic produced pressure


lungs creates phonation glottis larynx modified vocal tract mouth different vowels consonants however humans pronounce words without use lungs glottis alaryngeal speech three types esophageal speech pharyngeal speech buccal speech better known donald duck talk errors speech production complex activity consequence errors common especially children speech errors come many forms used provide evidence support hypotheses nature speech


result speech errors often used construction models language production child language acquisition example fact children often make error regularizing ed past tense suffix english eg saying 'singed' instead 'sang' shows regular forms acquired earlier speech errors associated certain kinds aphasia used map certain components speech onto brain see relation different aspects production example difficulty expressive aphasia patients producing regular past tense verbs irregulars like 'sing sang'


used demonstrate regular inflected forms word individually stored lexicon produced affixation base form perception speech perception refers processes humans interpret understand sounds used language study speech perception closely linked fields phonetics phonology linguistics cognitive psychology perception psychology research speech perception seeks understand listeners recognize speech sounds use information understand spoken language research speech perception also applications building computer


systems recognize speech well improving speech recognition hearing language impaired listeners speech perception categorical people put sounds hear categories rather perceiving spectrum people likely able hear differences sounds across categorical boundaries within good example voice onset time vot example hebrew speakers distinguish voiced b voiceless p easily detect change vot perceived b perceived p


change vot despite equally large change vot spectrum repetition speech repetition speech heard quickly turned sensory input motor instructions needed immediate delayed vocal imitation phonological memory type mapping plays key role enabling children expand spoken vocabulary masur found often children repeat novel words versus already lexicon related size lexicon later young children repeat novel


words larger lexicon later development speech repetition could help facilitate acquisition larger lexicon problems several organic psychological factors affect speech among diseases disorders lungs vocal cords including paralysis respiratory infections bronchitis vocal fold nodules cancers lungs throat diseases disorders brain including alogia aphasias dysarthria dystonia speech processing disorders impaired motor planning nerve transmission phonological processing perception message opposed actual sound leads poor speech production


hearing problems otitis media effusion listening problems auditory processing disorders lead phonological problems articulatory problems slurred speech stuttering lisping cleft palate ataxia nerve damage leading problems articulation tourette syndrome tics also affect speech various congenital acquired tongue diseases affect speech motor neuron disease addition dysphasia anomia auditory processing disorder impede quality auditory perception therefore expression hard hearing deaf may considered fall category


psychiatric disorders shown change speech acoustic features instance fundamental frequency voice perceived pitch tends significantly lower major depressive disorder healthy controls ref name low ref therefore speech investigated potential biomarker mental health disorders brain physiology classical model broca 's wernicke 's areas classical wernicke geschwind model language system brain focuses broca 's area inferior prefrontal cortex wernicke 's area posterior superior temporal gyrus dominant hemisphere brain typically left hemisphere language


model linguistic auditory signal first sent auditory cortex wernicke 's area lexicon accessed wernicke 's area words sent via arcuate fasciculus broca 's area morphology syntax instructions articulation generated sent broca 's area motor cortex articulation paul broca identified approximate region brain damaged two patients caused severe deficits speech production patients unable speak beyond monosyllabic words deficit known broca 's


expressive aphasia characterized difficulty speech production speech slow labored function words absent syntax severely impaired telegraphic speech expressive aphasia speech comprehension generally less affected except comprehension grammatically complex sentences ref name hillis ae caramazza aphasia l nadel ''encyclopedia cognitive science'' hoboken nj wiley ref wernicke 's area named carl wernicke proposed connection damage posterior area left superior temporal gyrus aphasia noted aphasic patients suffered


damage prefrontal cortex damage wernicke 's area produces wernicke 's receptive aphasia characterized relatively normal syntax prosody severe impairment lexical access resulting poor comprehension nonsensical jargon speech ref name modern research modern models neurological systems behind linguistic comprehension production recognize importance broca 's wernicke 's areas limited solely left hemisphere ref name nakai ref instead multiple streams involved speech production comprehension damage left lateral sulcus connected difficulty processing


muse external links https wwwyoutubecom watchv xqlivlwqpo speaking captured real time mri youtube language articles containing video clips


shrinking aral sea example poor water resource management diverted irrigation '''environmental resource management''' management interaction impact human societies environment phrase might suggest management environment environmental resources management aims ensure ecosystem services protected maintained future human generations also maintain ecosystem integrity considering ethical economic scientific ecological variables ref name wostl ref environmental resource management tries identify factors affected conflicts rise meeting needs protecting resources ref name ref thus linked

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Environmental management


environmental protection sustainability integrated landscape management natural resource management fisheries management forest management wildlife management others significance environmental resource management issue increasing concern reflected prevalence several texts influencing global sociopolitical frameworks brundtland commission 's common future highlighted integrated nature environment international development worldwatch institute 's annual state world reports environment determines nature people animals plants places around earth affecting behaviour religion culture economic practices scope terraces northwest iowa serve preserve soil


improve water quality environmental resource management viewed variety perspectives involves management components biophysical environment living biotic non living abiotic relationships among living species habitats environment also involves relationships human environment social cultural economic environment biophysical environment essential aspects environmental resource management ethical economical social technological underlie principles help make decisions concept environmental determinism probabilism possibilism significant concept environmental resource


management environmental resource management covers many areas science including geography biology social sciences political sciences public policy ecology physics chemistry sociology psychology physiology environmental resource management practice discourse across areas also object study social sciences aspects ethical environmental resource management strategies intrinsically driven conceptions human nature relationships ref name colby ref ethical aspects involve cultural social issues relating environment dealing changes human activities take place context certain types relationships society bio physical world rest


nature ref name colby ref great significance understanding ethical values different groups around world broadly speaking two schools thought exist environmental ethics anthropocentrism ecocentrism influencing broad spectrum environmental resource management styles along continuum ref name colby styles perceive different evidence imperatives problems prescribe different solutions strategies technologies roles economic sectors culture governments ethics etc ref name colby anthropocentrism anthropocentrism inclination evaluate reality exclusively terms human values ethic reflected major interpretations western religions dominant


ecocentrists navigate fair use abuse ref name purser extreme ethical scale ecocentrism includes philosophies ecofeminism deep ecology evolved reaction dominant anthropocentric paradigms ref name colby current form attempt synthesize many old new philosophical attitudes relationship nature human activity particular emphasis ethical social spiritual aspects downplayed dominant economic worldview economics main article ''economics''a water harvesting system collects rainwater rock gibraltar pipes lead tanks excavated


inside rock economy functions within dependent upon goods services provided natural ecosystems ref name thampa ref role environment recognized classical economics neoclassical economics theories yet environment lower priority economic policies due emphasis policy makers economic growth ref name thampa prevalence environmental problems many economists embraced notion environmental sustainability must coexist economic sustainability overall system must permit identification equilibrium environment economy economic policy makers


began incorporate functions natural environment natural capital particularly sink wastes provision raw materials amenities debate continues among economists account natural capital specifically whether resources replaced knowledge technology whether environment closed system cannot replenished finite economic models influence environmental resource management management policies reflect beliefs natural capital scarcity someone believes natural capital infinite easily substituted environmental management irrelevant economy ref


called ecology typical one branch biology dealing relations interactions organisms environment including organisms pairing significant uncertainty behaviour response ecological systems urgent calls near term action constitutes difficult reality common lament many environmental resource managers scientific analysis environment deals several dimensions ecological uncertainty ref name arvai ref include ' 'structural uncertainty'' resulting misidentification lack information pertaining relationships ecological variables ''parameter uncertainty'' referring uncertainty associated parameter values


natural environment yet deepen human dependency biodiversity ecosystem services ecologically massive environmental degradation climate change ref name ipcc ref threaten stability ecological systems humanity depends ref name dunphy ref name unep unep united nations environmental program integrating environment development united nations ref socially increasing gap rich poor global north south divide denies many access basic human needs rights education leading environmental destruction ref name dunphy ref name unep planet 's unstable condition caused many anthropogenic sources ref name ipcc exceptionally powerful contributing factor social


environmental change modern organisation potential apply environmental resource management sustainability principals achieve highly effective outcomes ref name avery ref name dunphy achieve sustainable development environmental resource management organisation work within sustainability principles including social environmental accountability long term planning strong shared vision holistic focus devolved consensus decision making broad stakeholder engagement justice transparency measures trust flexibility ref name avery ref name dunphy ref name gp un global compact 'blueprint corporate sustainability leadership' un global compact un global compact office pp ref current paradigm shifts adjust today 's


environment quick social ecological changes organizations begun experiment new tools concepts ref name selin ref ref name daily ref traditional stick hierarchical decision making difficulty dealing demand lateral decision making supports effective participation ref name selin whether matter ethics strategic advantage organizations internalizing sustainability principles ref name daily ref name bgg ref world 's largest profitable corporations shifting sustainable environmental resource management ford toyota bmw honda shell du port sta toil swiss hewlett packard unilever among others ref name avery ref


name dunphy extensive study boston consulting group reaching business leaders diverse regions job positions expertise sustainability industries sizes organizations revealed many benefits sustainable practice well viability ref name bgg important note though sustainability environmental resource management improved ref name avery ref name dunphy corporate sustainability one yet reach majority global companies operating markets ref name gp three major barriers preventing organizations shift towards sustainable practice environmental resource management understanding sustainability


difficulty modeling economically viable case switch flawed execution plan lack thereof ref name bgg therefore important part shifting organization adopt sustainability environmental resource management would create shared vision understanding sustainability particular organization clarify business case ref name bgg stakeholders public sector conservation project north carolina involving search bog turtles conducted united states fish wildlife service north carolina wildlife resources commission volunteers public sector


resulted public sector working collaboratively sectors including governments private civil encourage sustainable natural resource management behaviours ref name derm private sector private sector comprises private corporations non profit institutions serving households private sector 's traditional role environmental resource management recovery natural resources ref name smith ref private sector recovery groups include mining minerals petroleum forestry fishery organisations ref name smith environmental resource management undertaken private sectors varies dependent upon resource type renewable non renewable private common resources also


see tragedy commons ref name smith environmental managers private sector also need skills manage collaboration within dynamic social political environment ref name selin civil society civil society comprises associations societies voluntarily organise represent wide range interests ties ref name oecd organisation economic co operation development oecd glossary statistical terms civil society organisations retrieved september ref include community based organisations indigenous peoples' organisations non government organisations ngos ref name oecd functioning strong public pressure civil society exercise legal rights implementation


companies move iso six manageable steps natural step focuses basic sustainability criteria helps focus engineering reducing use materials energy use unsustainable long term ''natural capitalism'' advises using accounting reform general biomimicry industrial ecology approach thing us environmental protection agency many terms standards defines appropriate large scale ems un world bank encouraged adopting natural capital measurement management framework strategies exist rely making simple distinctions rather building


top management systems using performance audits full cost accounting instance ecological intelligent design divides products consumables service products durables unsaleables toxic products one buy many cases realize buying eliminating unsaleables comprehensive outcome purchase better environmental resource management achieved without ' 'systems'' recent successful cases put forward notion ''integrated management'' shares wider approach stresses importance interdisciplinary assessment interesting notion might adaptable cases see


also citizen science cleanup projects people take part cleaner production environmental impact assessment environmental management scheme environmental manager integrated landscape management iso natural resource management planetary management political ecology resource justice stakeholder analysis sustainable management references reading external links https webarchiveorg web http wwweconomicsnoaagov goal ecosystems economic costs benefits environmental management noaa economics https webarchiveorg web http businessgov guides environment businessgov provides businesses environmental management tips well tips green business owners united states http wwwissuelaborg issues profile energy environment nonprofit research managing environment resource economics natural resource management systems ecology


'''management cybernetics''' application cybernetics management organizations management cybernetics first introduced stafford beer late ref name rosehead beer developed theory combination practical applications series influential books practical applications involved steel production publishing operations research large variety different industries consider full flowering management cybernetics represented beer 's books however learning continues see research operations practiced beer research operations involved multidisciplinary teams seeking practical assistance difficult managerial issues

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Cybernetics
Management cybernetics


often involved development models borrowed basic sciences put isomorphic relationships organizational situation beer initially called operations research along russell ackoff became increasingly disenchanted term field transitioned one predefined set mathematical tools applied well formulated problems beer 's critique traditional part became matter experts mathematics looking situations could conformed methods beer insisted needed effective research operations first understand


key dynamics within situation select theory methods would allow one understand situation detail beer 's decision control especially chapter six discusses methodology detail viable system model vsm viable means capable independent existence implies maintaining internal stability adaptation changing environment internal stability adaptation conflict particularly relevant environment changing rapidly viable system model vsm maintaining balance two system able survive


modern large organization many issues far complex even small groups critical knowledge often dispersed among substantial number people organizations often faced choosing costly time consuming meetings large groups making bad decisions based inadequate grasp relevant factors integration group method designed solve conundrum integration melds number cybernetic principles buckminster fuller 's ideas tensegrity initial team syntegrity format involved people divided overlapping teams deal broad


initially ill defined issues teams roles within teams arranged achieve mathematically optimum degree resonance information throughout entire group practice integration achieves remarkable degree shared understanding initial issue integrations intended develop plan action implementation phase usually quick effective probably shared understanding developed among participants learning development literature management cybernetics extensive cybernetics society supports learning journal archives journal http wwwemeraldinsightcom products journals journalshtmid k kybernetes kybernetes contain related


financial control relating also peter drucker whose management objectives influenced russell ackoff macy conferences angus jenkinson related cybernetics identity service dominant logic goethean science metamorphosis imparity ternary theory describing cybernetics organisation structure organizational cybernetics organizational cybernetics oc sometimes distinguished management cybernetics use many terms draw source said interpret according slightly different philosophies systems thinking organizational cybernetics studies organizational design regulation self regulation organizations


related field also growing general systems theory cybernetics via autopoiesis biological theory humberto maturana francisco varela influencing niklas luhmann research complexity systems theory scholars see also autonomous agency theory gregory bateson government algorithm institut f r unternehmenskybernetik new cybernetics viable system theory warren mcculloch references reading cwarel isaf institute methods models retrieved october https wwwkybernetikch en fs methmodhtml stafford beer ''cybernetics management'' english university press pp stafford beer ''decision control meaning operational research management cybernetics'' pages stafford beer


''brain firm development management cybernetics'' herder herder stafford beer ''the heart enterprise'' john wiley london new york stafford beer ''diagnosing system organizations'' john wiley richard f ericson ''organizational cybernetics human values'' program policy studies science technology monograph george washington university https filesericedgov fulltext ed pdf raul espejo systemic thinking ''system dynamics review'' vol issue pp michael c jackson ''systems methodology management sciences'' michael c jackson ''systems approaches management'' p richard f ericson https ntrsnasagov archive nasa casintrsnasagov pdf ''organizational


cybernetics human values'' program policy studies science technology monograph george washington university francis heylighen cybernetics second order cybernetics ra meyers ed encyclopedia physical science technology rd ed academic press new york george e lasker aleksander zgrzywa eds ''information systems research management cybernetics'' p leonard stafford beer father management cybernetics ''cybernetics human knowing'' volume numbers pp nbsp pn rastogi ''introduction social management cybernetics'' new delhi affiliated east west press lars skyttner multiple perspectives management cybernetics


''general systems theory ideas applications'' p nbsp stuart umpleby eric b dent http wwwgwuedu umpleby recent papers origins purposes several traditions systems theory cybernetic htm origins purposes several traditions systems theory cybernetics ''cybernetics systems'' taylor francis wolfgang winter manuela thurm second order cybernetics systemic management thinking ''kybernetes'' vol issue pp nbsp external links http wwwcybsocorg cybernetics society http wwwifsrorg international federation systems research https webarchiveorg web http pespmc vubacbe asc indexaschtml web dictionary cybernetics systems cybernetics management systems


'''organ''' may refer biology organ biology part organism musical instruments organ music family keyboard musical instruments characterized sustained tone electronic organ electronic keyboard instrument hammond organ electro mechanical keyboard instrument pipe organ musical instrument produces sound pressurized air driven series pipes street organ mobile automatic mechanical pneumatic organ played organ grinder theatre organ pipe organ originally designed specifically imitation orchestra films ''organ'' film japanese film organ thieves ''the organ'' film slovak film


''organ'' film directed tefan uher periodicals organ official periodical ie magazine newsletter similar publication organization ''organ'' magazine uk music magazine run organart ''the organ'' newspaper underground newspaper published san francisco ''the organ'' pipe organ magazine quarterly publication organ enthusiasts founded places organ hautes pyr n es commune france organ iran village chaharmahal bakhtiari province iran organ new mexico united states unincorporated community organ e kord village qazvin province iran organ e tork village qazvin province iran uses organ


french surgeon ambroise par ''c'' known father military medicine attending soldier 's amputated leg two french military surgeons treating wounded enemies battle inkermann november wwii era field hospital created operating tent using puppets diekirch military museum luxembourg us combat support hospital csh type mobile field hospital used war disasters successor mobile army surgical hospital mash norwegian normash personnel korean war usns ''mercy'' usns ''mercy'' marked red cross international protective sign us army medical personnel train

Applied science
Military sciences
Military medicine


local uzbek anesthesia providers fergana emergency center support operation provide hope german kosovo force armoured medical transport marked protective sign air ambulance royal australian air force marked protective sign term '''military medicine''' number potential connotations may mean medical specialty specifically branch occupational medicine attending medical risks needs preventive interventional soldiers sailors service members disparate arena historically involved prevention treatment infectious diseases especially tropical diseases


th century ergonomics health effects operating military specific machines equipment submarines tanks helicopters airplanes undersea aviation medicine understood subspecialties military medicine case originated countries certify recognize military medicine formal speciality subspeciality right planning practice surgical management mass battlefield casualties logistical administrative considerations establishing operating combat support hospitals involves military medical hierarchies especially organization structured medical command administrative systems interact


war crime likewise misusing protective signs mask military operations war crime perfidy military medical personnel may armed usually service pistols purpose self defense defense patients historical significance significance military medicine combat strength goes far beyond treatment battlefield injuries every major war fought late th century disease claimed soldier casualties enemy action american civil war example twice many soldiers died disease killed mortally wounded


canada united states assistant secretary defense health affairs military health system ''military medicine'' academic journal tricare united states unified medical command uniformed services university health sciences medical education training campus henry jackson foundation advancement military medicine defense health agency health professions scholarship program joint task force national capital region medical fort belvoir community hospital association military surgeons united states armed forces institute pathology defense health program budget activity group department defense medical examination review board national museum health medicine medicine american civil war


development command united states army medical research institute infectious diseases walter reed army medical center walter reed army institute research us army public health center united states army health services command army medical museum library army medical department regimental coat arms us navy surgeon general us navy bureau medicine surgery united states navy health care us navy medical corps us navy dental corps us navy nurse corps us navy medical service corps us navy hospital corpsman special amphibious reconnaissance corpsman naval hospital corps school naval medical center san diego naval medical center


portsmouth national naval medical center walter reed national military medical center naval hospital yokosuka japan naval health clinic new england naval health clinic cherry point naval medical research center naval health research center naval medical forces atlantic naval medical research unit dayton naval submarine medical research laboratory naval hospital charleston naval hospital historic district old naval observatory hospital ship sick bay loblolly boy diving medicine united states navy staff corps us air force surgeon general us air force us air force medical service including dental corps medical corps nursing corps corps united states air force nurse


corps united states air force pararescue united states air force school aerospace medicine museum aerospace medicine aeromedical evacuation aviation medicine europe france french defence health service cole du service de sant des arm es belgium belgian medical component germany bundeswehr joint medical service bundeswehr medical academy generaloberstabsarzt generalstabsarzt generalarzt oberstarzt luftwaffe institute aviation medicine naval medical institute italy corpo sanitario dell'esercito italiano corpo sanitario militare marittimo corpo sanitario aeronautico servizio sanitario dell'arma dei carabinieri russia main military medical directorate kirov military medical academy founded military academies russia kuybyshev military medical academy ''military medical business''


academic journal museum military medicine serbia military medical academy sweden surgeon general swedish armed forces medical corps swedish armed forces swedish armed forces centre defence medicine surgeon chief swedish army surgeon chief swedish navy surgeon chief swedish air force swedish army medical corps swedish naval medical officers' corps swedish armed forces diving naval medicine centre swedish army veterinary corps united kingdom royal navy medical service royal naval hospital queen alexandra 's royal naval nursing service medical assistant royal navy institute naval medicine naval surgeon surgeon 's mate loblolly boy journal


royal naval medical service army medical services royal army medical corps medical support officer combat medical technician royal army dental corps royal army veterinary corps queen alexandra 's royal army nursing corps territorial force nursing service royal army medical college raf medical services princess mary 's royal air force nursing service raf centre aviation medicine raf institute aviation medicine museum military medicine surgeon general united kingdom defence medical services defence medical academy ministry defence hospital units regions australia australian army medical units world war australian army nursing service royal australian army medical corps royal australian army nursing


corps royal australian army dental corps australian army veterinary corps australian army psychology corps royal australian navy school underwater medicine israel logistics medical centers directorate medical corps israel south africa south african medical service south african military health service vietnam vietnam military medical university ''h c vi n qu n y'' hanoi india director general armed forces medical services india army medical corps india armed forces medical college command hospital indian medical service thailand http wwwmcpcmcom phramongkutklao college medicine international international committee military medicine committee chiefs military medical services nato comeds see also battlefield medicine


casualty evacuation casevac combat medic combat stress reaction field hospital flight nurse flight medic flight surgeon history military nutrition united states list drugs used militaries medical corps medical evacuation medevac medical service corps military ambulance military medical ethics military hospital military nurse military psychiatrist military psychiatry military psychology triage references reading bowlby sir anthony colonel cuthbert wallace development british surgery front ''the british medical journal'' churchill edward healing first intention suppuration studies history wound healing ''journal history


medicine allied sciences'' churchill edward surgical management wounded time fall rome ''annals surgery'' cowdrey albert e ''fighting life american military medicine world war ii'' scholarly history pp cowdrey albert e ''united states army korean war medics war'' full scale scholarly official history https archiveorg details medicswar cowd online free fauntleroy surgical lessons european war ''annals surgery'' grissinger jay w development military medicine ''bulletin new


york academy medicine'' https wwwncbinlmnihgov pmc articles pmc pdf bullnyacadmed pdf online harrison mark ''medicine victory british military medicine second world war'' oxford whayne col tom f colonel joseph h mcninch fifty years medical progress medicine social instrument military medicine ''the new england journal medicine'' wintermute bobby ''public health us military history army medical department '' primary sources kendrick douglas b ''memoirs twentieth century army surgeon'' sunflower university press us army external links '''us military medicine''' http wwwauafmil au awc awcgate awc medihtm military medicine related links


usaf air university http wwwamsusorg association military surgeons united states amsus http wwwamsusorg journal ''military medicine'' international journal amsus http patriotmedicinecom ''patriot medicine'' vertical network military medical ecosystem https wwwpbsorg wgbh nova combatdocs medicinehtml military medicine time life death war zone nova pbs http wwwbordeninstitutearmymil indexhtml borden institute homepage https webarchiveorg web http wwwlrcusuhsmil local archiveshtml military medicine documents usu archive https webarchiveorg web http caseyfullercom snakehtm us army preventive medicine news archive th infantry division light panorama weekly newspaper http wwwvnhorg virtual naval hospital digital library military medicine humanitarian medicine http wwwipernitycom doc keyword self military medical exams '''australian military medicine'''


http wwwammaasnau australian military medicine association '''international magazine military medicine''' http wwwmci forumcom mcif medical corps international forum international magazine military medicine '''nato centre excellence military medicine''' http wwwcoemedorg nato centre excellence military medicine military supporting service occupations


also known study quaternary period ice age type theme cause motive

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Quaternary science


understand history earth last nbsp million years target first reporter budget patron organisers


filmed participants outcome ability predict upcoming future changes climate casualties casualties


convictions sentence publication bans litigation awards url


first studied nineteenth century french scientist georges cuvier aka name '''quaternary science''' study represents systematic study quaternary period commonly known ice age quaternary period time period started around nbsp million years ago today ref name formed two epochs pleistocene epoch holocene epoch aim quaternary science understand everything happened pleistocene epoch holocene epoch able acquire fundamental knowledge environment ecosystem climate changes


etc quaternary scientists studied history quaternary predict upcoming future changes climate quaternary science first studied nineteenth century georges cuvier french scientist one fields science quaternary science plays vital role field archaeology area quaternary science provided possible accurate human studies' framework would help archaeologists interpret archaeological records ref name moreover according several researches quaternary science influenced life ever known example changes climate caused many


species adapt survive ref name definition quaternary science systematic study quaternary period rapidly changing field thus always new researches coming prove eg new dating technique new way analyze smaller size radiocarbon etc quaternary science field study involve world 's geography biology chemistry physics ref name ref however focus quaternary period time period start around nbsp million years ago present day ref name ref planet current living


mostly shaped events occurred quaternary period time ice ages purpose quaternary science understand happened ice ages quaternary scientists connected common desire know understand history earth last nbsp million years wo n't able understand current ecosystem 's function without fundamental knowledge history able predict climate changes never forget presently living time climates


changing alarming rate way would able accurately predict effect global warming changes climate effect ecosystem look history comparably strong rapid changes occur past ref name history georges cuvier quaternary period geologic time period could separated two epochs pleistocene recent epoch often defined time period began around nbsp million years ago approximately around years ago holocene


wholly modern epoch began around years ago right pleistocene epoch study quaternary science actually began around late eighteenth century europe study truly started develop expand twentieth century many significant sub disciplines quaternary science palaeoecology palaeontology palaeoclimatology emerged approach reveal relationship changes environment planet 's history quaternary period initially term quaternary used italian engineer giovanni arduino describe four recent geologic eras


later became clear term quaternary described meadows finch phrase highly variable climates marked periods time global temperatures significantly lower today evidence interpreted louis agassiz indications geologically recent great ice age ref name study quaternary science first demonstrated early nineteenth century french scientist georges cuvier proposed extinctions animals lived pleistocene epoch due wiped


environmental revolution eg catastrophic flooding events revelation made famous era establishing extinction real ref name around nineteenth century theory regarding causation ice ages also fostered first theory come theory variation earth 's orbit affect global climate james croll scottish scientist james croll first person ever recognize significance positive feedbacks climate system including feedbacks ice albedo furthermore theory also first


theory predict cause glaciation twentieth century idea elaborated milutin milankovitch serbian mathematician geophysicist best known theory involved motion earth relationship long term climate changes one early calculations milankovitch offered information changes incident solar radiation function season millions years addition andr berger belgian professor climatologist also identified certain time period reconstructed insolation higher average lower average many


analyses show may august forwarded shift insolation maximum higher average late quaternary insolation variation feature known insolation signature may possible relationship changes climate contemplated berger latest developments many studies quaternary science researched present stated quaternary science rapidly changing field hence always new researches studied published providing evidences establishing new techniques one latest researches study late


pleistocene holocene environmental climatic history freshwater paramo ecosystem northern andes researchers study palaeoclimatic history northern south america based palaeolimnological reconstruction pond another recent study would study molecular fossils tool tracking holocene sea level change loch stenness orkney conti bates preece penkman keely study molecular fossils could used approach study past sea level change still many researches done right quaternary science


study history spanning last nbsp million years many things left discovered evidence human history archaeology museum quaternary science also played important role another area science archaeology archaeology field science uses material remains study human past many types archaeology field study diverse field archaeologists study remains human bioarchaeology study ancient plants paleoethnobotany even study stone tools furthermore every archaeologist specialized


area archaeologist specialized technologies help located map sites specialist studying human remains underwater quaternary science offered precise comprehensive framework human studies help global interpretation archaeological records field archaeology illustration commonly known frameworks contributed global interpretation records chronology palaeoenvironmental background site formation processes ref name ref one important focuses quaternary science archaeology study geochronology geochronology study science


concerning ages dates earth 's material eg rocks fossils etc events area research deemed significant archaeology indigenous australia due fact cultural markers used relative chronology relative chronology archaeology normally used places easily identified archaeological records strong differentiation cultural productions addition focusing geochronology key role quaternary science archaeology help archaeologists resolving major


problems relating impact surrounding environment colonization human past cultural productions mobility quaternary science offers archaeologist invaluable data assist understanding environment landscape involved evolution humans late quaternary period ref name socio economic impact quaternary science wide ranging effects studying things impact climate changes animals human adaptation living organisms human evolution species adapting new changes sign impacted something case


organisms respond climate changes able live develop continue reproduce every species relies upon ecological requirements including environmental factors climates geology etc however species respond ways changes happened adaptation allows species evolve able live place despite climate change adaptations even involve genetic modification impact climate shift caused species modify genome survive ref name ref aceraceae research done examine whether impacts pre quaternary period quaternary


period contemporary species richness species richness number various species exist certain locations landscape aim researchers analyze roles quaternary climatic oscillations pre quaternary legacies influencing worldwide distribution palm diversity pattern aceraceae ecological importance diverse group keystone species tropical ecosystem experiment researchers gathered lists almost every international species assembled related connected data possible climates quaternary period modern day environment drivers current climate habitat area


etc vital biogeographic land gauge extent global distribution patterns species richness palms reflect effect quaternary climatic movement pre quaternary legacies experiment discovered quaternary climates change significantly affected richness palm species moreover found global constraint distribution palm family influenced current climate whereas climate quaternary period caused slight constraint many researches climate changes quaternary period impacted life many species living


present day research silva antonelli lendel moraes manfrin southeastern united states suggests major impact early quaternary climate change spreading diversity cactus species south america additionally quaternary science impacted plant species animal species also caused ecological state shift ref name ref article researched barnosky lindsey villavicencio et al provides evidence support findings megafaunal extinction late quaternary period huge effect causing several ecological state shifts north


south america loss megafauna species caused ecological change period time purpose research examine whether loss megafauna species ice age could explain phenomenon ecological state shifts happened pleistocene epoch gave way holocene epoch findings learned large species went extinct like megafauna current ecosystem would risk disappearing reason megafauna case species must effective ecosystem engineer respond


'''public economics''' '''economics public sector''' study government policy lens economic efficiency equity public economics builds theory welfare economics ultimately used tool improve social welfare public economics provides framework thinking whether government participate economic markets extent microeconomic theory utilized assess whether private market likely provide efficient outcomes absence governmental interference study involves analysis government taxation

Social science
Economics
Public economics


expenditures subject encompasses host topics notably market failures public goods externalities imperfect competition creation implementation government policy broad methods topics include theory application public finance analysis design public policy distributional effects taxation government expenditures analysis market failure government failure emphasis analytical scientific methods normative ethical analysis distinguished ideology examples topics covered tax incidence optimal taxation theory public goods ref name publicgood agnar sandmo public goods ''the new palgrave dictionary


primary classifications categories listed jel code links corresponding available article preview links new palgrave dictionary economics online similar footnote links respective ' 'sub''category available http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid h jel h public economics http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid h jel h general http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid h jel h structure scope government http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid h jel h taxation subsidies revenue http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid h jel h fiscal policies behavior economic agents http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid h jel h publicly provided goods http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid h jel h national government expenditures related policies http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid h jel h national


budget deficit debt http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid h jel h state local government intergovernmental relations http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom search resultsq field content edition topicid h jel h miscellaneous issues market failures role government providing efficient equitable markets largely underpinned addressing market failures may arise public economics focuses degree government intervene economy address market failures ref name ref examples government intervention providing pure public goods defense regulating negative externalities pollution addressing imperfect market conditions asymmetric information public goods pure public goods


collective consumption goods exhibit two properties non rivalry non excludability something non rivaled one person 's consumption deprive another person point firework display non rivaled since one person watching firework display prevent another person something non excludable use cannot limited certain group people since one cannot prevent people viewing firework display non excludable ref name publicgood due constraints one examples pure public good national defense non rivalry


non excludable another example pure public good knowledge consider book book destroyed thus excludable however knowledge obtained book far difficult destroy non rivalrous non excludable reality public goods classed 'pure' display degree excludability rivalrous known impure public goods ref name ref visualize public good 's characteristic non excludability would inability build fence barrier wall would block good consumption


modern era digital replication allows several goods non rivalry since people world access access internet device due two unique properties public goods exhibit non rivalrous non excludable unlikely without intervention markets produce efficient amount therefore role government regulate production public goods create efficient market equilibrium ref name externalities externalities arise consumption individuals production firms affect utility production function individuals


firms positive externalities education public health others examples negative externalities air pollution noise pollution non vaccination pigou describes positive externalities examples resources invested private parks improve surrounding air scientific research discoveries high practical utility often grow alternatively describes negative externalities factory destroys great part amenities neighboring sites role government address negative external effects societal deadweight loss created inefficient markets ref name imperfect competition imperfect competition within markets


diamond mirrlees efficiency theorem peter diamond james mirrlees published seminal paper showed even lump sum taxation available production efficiency still desirable finding known diamond mirrlees efficiency theorem widely credited modernized ramsey 's analysis considering problem income distribution problem raising revenue joseph e stiglitz partha dasgupta criticized theorem robust grounds production efficiency necessarily desirable certain tax instruments cannot used pigouvian taxes ac pigou


parties pigou p blockquote particular pigou known advocacy known corrective taxes pigouvian taxes blockquote plain divergences private social net product kinds far considering cannot like divergences due tenancy laws mitigated modification contractual relation two contracting parties divergence arises service disservice persons contracting parties however possible state chooses remove divergence field extraordinary


property rights result known coase theorem cost benefit analysis jules dupuit origins cost benefit analysis traced back jules dupuit 's classic article measurement utility public works much subsequent scholarly development occurred united states arose challenges water resource development us federal interagency river basin committee 's subcommittee benefits costs published report entitled ''proposed practices economic analysis river basin projects'' also known ''green book'' became noteworthy bringing language


welfare economics otto eckstein published ''water resource development economics project evaluation'' roland mckean published ''efficiency government systems analysis emphasis water resources development'' latter book also considered classic field operations research subsequent years several important works appeared jack hirshleifer james dehaven jerome w milliman published volume entitled ''water supply economics technology policy'' group harvard scholars including robert dorfman stephen marglin others published ''design water resource systems new techniques relating economic objectives engineering analysis