knowledge devise new applications another definition research given john w creswell states research process steps used collect analyze information increase understanding topic issue consists three steps pose question collect data answer question present answer question merriam webster online dictionary defines research detail studious inquiry examination ''especially'' investigation experimentation aimed discovery interpretation facts revision accepted theories laws light new


facts practical application new revised theories laws ref name merriam webster forms research original research '''original research''' also called '''primary research''' research exclusively based summary review synthesis earlier publications subject research material primary source character purpose original research produce new knowledge rather present existing knowledge new form eg summarized classified original research various forms depending discipline pertains experimental work

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Research methods


charitable organizations private groups including many companies scientific research subdivided different classifications according academic application disciplines scientific research widely used criterion judging standing academic institution argue inaccurate assessment institution quality research tell quality teaching necessarily correlate generally research understood follow certain structural process though step order may vary depending subject matter researcher following steps usually part


formal research basic applied observations formation topic consists subject area one 's interest following subject area conduct subject related research subject area randomly chosen since requires reading vast amount literature topic determine gap literature researcher intends narrow keen interest chosen subject area advisable research justified linking importance already existing knowledge topic hypothesis testable prediction designates relationship


two variables conceptual definition description concept relating concepts operational definition details regards defining variables measured assessed study gathering data consists identifying population selecting samples gathering information samples using specific research instruments instruments used data collection must valid reliable analysis data involves breaking individual pieces data draw conclusions data interpretation represented tables figures pictures


sense hypothesis never proven rather supported surviving rounds scientific testing eventually becoming widely thought true useful hypothesis allows prediction within accuracy observation time prediction verified accuracy observation improves time hypothesis may longer provide accurate prediction case new hypothesis arise challenge old extent new hypothesis makes accurate predictions old new supplant researchers also use null hypothesis


states relationship difference independent dependent variables research humanities '''research humanities''' involves different methods example hermeneutics semiotics humanities scholars usually search ultimate correct answer question instead explore issues details surround context always important context social historical political cultural ethnic example research humanities historical research embodied historical method historians use primary sources evidence systematically investigate topic


methods research search knowledge truth controversial trend artistic teaching becoming academics oriented leading artistic research accepted primary mode enquiry art case disciplines one characteristics artistic research must accept subjectivity opposed classical scientific methods similar social sciences using qualitative research intersubjectivity tools apply measurement critical analysis artistic research defined school dance circus dans och cirkush gskolan doch


stockholm following manner artistic research investigate test purpose gaining knowledge within artistic disciplines based artistic practices methods criticality presented documentation insights gained shall placed context ref name doch ref artistic research aims enhance knowledge understanding presentation arts simpler understanding julian klein defines artistic research kind research employing artistic mode perception survey central problematics today 's artistic research see giaco schiesser according artist hakan topal


runs ''research catalogue'' rc searchable documentary database artistic research anyone contribute patricia leavy addresses eight arts based research abr genres narrative inquiry fiction based research poetry music dance theatre film visual art european league institutes arts launched ''the florence principles' doctorate arts'' florence principles relating salzburg principles salzburg recommendations european university association name seven points attention specify doctorate phd arts compared scientific doctorate phd florence principles


endorsed supported also aec cilect cumulus sar historical research german historian leopold von ranke considered one founders modern source based history historical method comprises techniques guidelines historians use historical sources evidence research write history various history guidelines commonly used historians work headings external criticism internal criticism synthesis includes lower criticism sensual criticism though items may vary depending subject matter researcher


identifies flaws holes previous research provides justification study often literature review conducted given subject area research question identified gap current literature identified researcher engenders research question research question may parallel hypothesis hypothesis supposition tested researcher collects data test hypothesis researcher analyzes interprets data via variety statistical methods engaging known empirical research results data analysis


rejecting failing reject null hypothesis reported evaluated end researcher may discuss avenues research however researchers advocate reverse approach starting articulating findings discussion moving identification research problem emerges findings literature review reverse approach justified transactional nature research endeavor research inquiry research questions research method relevant research literature fully known findings fully emerged interpreted rudolph rummel says


researcher accept one two tests definitive range tests consistent many kinds data researchers methods one confidence results plato meno talks inherent difficulty paradox research paraphrased following way know 're searching search ie already found n't know 're searching searching research methods research room new


york public library example secondary research progress maurice hilleman preeminent vaccinologist th century credited saving lives scientist time goal research process produce new knowledge deepen understanding topic issue process takes three main forms although previously discussed boundaries may obscure exploratory research helps identify define problem question constructive research tests theories proposes solutions problem question empirical research tests feasibility


solution using empirical evidence two major types empirical research design qualitative research quantitative research researchers choose qualitative quantitative methods according nature research topic want investigate research questions aim answer qualitative research involves understanding human behavior reasons govern behavior asking broad question collecting data form words images video etc analyzed searching themes type research aims investigate question without attempting quantifiably measure variables look potential


relationships variables viewed restrictive testing hypotheses expensive time consuming typically limited single set research subjects qualitative research often used method exploratory research basis later quantitative research hypotheses qualitative research linked philosophical theoretical stance social constructionism social media posts used qualitative research quantitative research involves systematic empirical investigation quantitative properties phenomena relationships asking narrow question collecting numerical data analyze utilizing statistical methods


quantitative research designs experimental correlational survey descriptive statistics derived quantitative research used establish existence associative causal relationships variables quantitative research linked philosophical theoretical stance positivism quantitative data collection methods rely random sampling structured data collection instruments fit diverse experiences predetermined response categories methods produce results summarized compared generalized larger populations data collected using proper sampling data collection strategies ref name ref quantitative research concerned testing hypotheses derived theory


researcher may collect primary secondary data ref name primary data data collected specifically research interviews questionnaires secondary data data already exists census data used research good ethical research practice use secondary data wherever possible mixed method research ie research includes qualitative quantitative elements using primary secondary data becoming common method benefits using one method alone cannot offer example researcher may choose conduct qualitative study follow


experimentation non empirical research seeks solutions problems using existing knowledge source however mean new ideas innovations cannot found within pool existing established knowledge non empirical research absolute alternative empirical research may used together strengthen research approach neither one less effective since particular purpose science typically empirical research produces observations need explained theoretical research tries explain generates empirically testable hypotheses hypotheses


tested empirically giving observations may need explanation see scientific method simple example non empirical task prototyping new drug using differentiated application existing knowledge another development business process form flow chart texts ingredients established knowledge much cosmological research theoretical nature mathematics research rely externally available data rather seeks prove theorems mathematical objects research ethics '''research ethics''' concerned


moral issues arise result research activities well ethical conduct researchers historically revelation scandals nazi human experimentation tuskegee syphilis experiment led realisation clear measures needed ethical governance research ensure people animals environments unduly harmed research management research ethics inconsistent across countries universally accepted approach addressed ref name israel g thomson c november ''the rise much sought demise


adversarial culture australian research ethics'' paper presented australasian ethics network conference perth australia ref ref name israel ''research ethics integrity social scientists beyond regulatory compliance'' second ed los angeles ca sage ref informed consent key concept research ethics making ethical decisions may guided different things philosophers commonly distinguish approaches like deontology consequentialism virtue ethics value ethics regardless approach application ethical theory specific controversial topics known applied ethics research ethics viewed form applied


ethics ethical theory applied real world research scenarios ethical issues may arise design implementation research involving human experimentation animal experimentation may also consequences environment society future generations need considered research ethics developed concept medical research notable code declaration helsinki research fields social sciences information technology biotechnology engineering may generate different types ethical concerns medical research ref name ref name countries


canada mandatory research ethics training required students professors others work research nowadays research ethics commonly distinguished matters research integrity includes issues scientific misconduct eg fraud fabrication data plagiarism problems research meta research meta research study research use research methods also known research research aims reduce waste increase quality research fields meta research concerns detection bias methodological flaws errors inefficiencies among finding


psychological evaluation ori populations based dimensions mental health important ori people taha wairua spiritual dimension taha hinengaro mental dimension taha tinana physical dimension taha whanau family dimension bias research often biased languages preferred linguicism geographic locations research occurs periphery scholars face challenges exclusion linguicism research academic publication great majority mainstream academic journals written english multilingual periphery scholars often must translate work accepted


elite western dominated journals multilingual scholars' influences native communicative styles assumed incompetence instead difference ref name canagarajah ref comparative politics western countries represented single country studies heavy emphasis western europe canada australia new zealand since latin american countries become popular single country studies contrast countries oceania caribbean focus studies patterns geographic bias also show relationship linguicism countries whose official languages french arabic far less likely focus single country studies countries


different official languages within africa english speaking countries represented countries ref name pepinsky generalizability generalization process broadly applying valid results one study studies narrow scope result lack generalizability meaning results may applicable populations regions comparative politics result using single country study rather study design uses data multiple countries despite issue generalizability single country studies risen prevalence since late ref name pepinsky ref publication peer review peer review


free however brought many pitfalls also indicative peer reviewers decline many invitations review observed publications periphery countries rarely rise elite status north america europe limitations availability resources including high quality paper sophisticated image rendering software printing tools render publications less able satisfy standards currently carrying formal informal authority publishing industry ref name canagarajah limitations turn result representation scholars periphery nations among set publications holding prestige status


relative quantity quality scholars' research efforts representation turn results disproportionately reduced acceptance results efforts contributions body knowledge available worldwide influence open access movement open access movement assumes information generally deemed useful free belongs public domain humanity ref name christen ref idea gained prevalence result western colonial history ignores alternative conceptions knowledge circulation instance indigenous communities consider access certain information proper group


even though western dominance seems prominent research scholars simon marginson argue need plural university world ref name marginson ref marginson argues east asian confucian model could take western model could due changes funding research east west focussed emphasizing educational achievement east asian cultures mainly china south korea encouraged increase funding research expansion ref name marginson contrast western academic world notably united kingdom well state


sciences soviet universities research oriented establishments following ranks known junior researcher junior research associate researcher research associate senior researcher senior research associate leading researcher leading research associate chief researcher chief research associate publishing nature'' november academic publishing system necessary academic scholars peer review work make available wider audience system varies widely field also always changing often slowly academic work published journal article book form also large body


research exists either thesis dissertation form forms research found databases explicitly theses dissertations publishing stm publishing abbreviation academic publications science technology medicine established academic fields scientific journals outlets publication though many academic journals somewhat interdisciplinary publish work several distinct fields subfields kinds publications accepted contributions knowledge research vary greatly fields print electronic format study suggests researchers


give great consideration findings replicated frequently also suggested published studies subjected measure assessing validity reliability procedures prevent publication unproven findings business models different electronic environment since early licensing electronic resources particularly journals common presently major trend particularly respect scholarly journals open access two main forms open access open access publishing articles whole journal freely available


time publication self archiving author makes copy work freely available web research funding funding scientific research comes three major sources corporate research development departments private foundations example bill melinda gates foundation government research councils national institutes health usa medical research council uk managed primarily universities cases military contractors many senior researchers group leaders spend significant amount time applying


research timeline history scientific method undergraduate research references reading soeters joseph shields patricia rietjens sebastiaan https booksgooglecom bookshl en lr id endpawaaqbaj oi fnd pg pt ots trfdlv qzh sig dp oqinne qzslwdw pbp chm v onepage q f falseroutledge handbook research methods military studies new york routledge talja sanna pamela j mckenzie editor 's introduction special issue discursive approaches information seeking context university chicago press external links methodology scientific method


'''optical engineering''' field science engineering encompassing physical phenomena technologies associated generation transmission manipulation detection utilization light optical engineers make use optics solve problems design build devices make light something useful design operate optical equipment utilises properties light using physics chemistry lenses microscopes telescopes lasers detectors fiber optic communication systems optical disc systems eg cd dvd optical engineering metrology uses optical methods measure either micro vibrations instruments like laser speckle interferometer properties

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Optical engineering


masses instruments measure refraction nano measuring nan positioning machines devices designed optical engineers machines nanometer precision consequently used fabrication goods scaleelt showing location mirrors see also optical lens design optical physics optician references ''walker bruce'' ''h'' ''optical engineering fundamentals'' spie press p nbsp ''walker bruce h optical engineering fundamentals spie press'' p nbsp manske e nanopositioning nanomeasuring machines gao w eds metrology precision manufacturing springer singapore ''eso awards elt sensor contract teledyne


e v'' wwwesoorg ''retrieved may '' reading driggers ronald g ed ''encyclopedia optical engineering'' new york marcel dekker vols bruce h walker historical reviewspie press bellingham wa fts yu xiangyang yang ''introduction optical engineering'' cambridge university press http spieorg x xmlwtsvl mddp optical engineering issn http wwwworldcatorg searchq qt results page engineering engineering disciplines


sage agastya chairman first tamil sangam madurai pandiya kingdom statue tamil thai temple karaikudi tamil nadu '''tamil literature''' rich long literary tradition spanning two thousand years oldest extant works show signs maturity indicating even longer period evolution contributors tamil literature mainly tamil people south india including land comprising tamil nadu kerala sri lankan tamils sri lanka well tamil diaspora history tamil literature follows history tamil nadu closely following social economical

Humanities
Languages and literature
Tamil Literature


th th century ce tamil devotional poems written nayanmars sages shaivism alvars sages vaishnavism heralded great bhakti movement later engulfed entire indian subcontinent era grandest tamil literary classics like kambaramayanam periya puranam authored many poets patronized imperial chola pandya empires later medieval period saw many assorted minor literary works also contributions muslim european authors revival tamil literature took place late th century


works religious philosophical nature written style made easier common people enjoy modern tamil literary movement started subramania bharathi multifaceted indian nationalist poet author quickly followed many began utilize power literature influencing masses growth literacy tamil prose began blossom mature short stories novels began appear modern tamil literary criticism also evolved popularity tamil cinema also interacted tamil literature mutually enriching ways sangam age ilango


adigal c ce wrote silappathikaaram five great epics thiruvalluvar wrote thirukkural c bce taught schools today sangam literature comprises oldest extant tamil literature deals love traditions war governance trade bereavement unfortunately much tamil literature belonging sangam period lost ref name majumdar see majumdar p ref literature currently available period perhaps fraction wealth material produced golden age tamil civilization available literature period broadly divided antiquity three categories based roughly


chronology eighteen greater text series ''pathinenmaelkanakku'' comprising eight anthologies ''ettuthokai'' ten idylls ''pattupattu'' five great epics ''tolkaappiyam'' commentary grammar phonetics rhetoric poetics dated period ref name majumdar tamil legends hold composed three successive poetic assemblies ''sangam'' held ancient times vanished continent far south india significant amount literature could preceded ''tolkappiyam'' grammar books usually written existence literature long periods tamil tradition holds earliest ''sangam''


imagined later times could chide perceived wander straight narrow greatness sangam age poetry may ascribed much antiquity due fact ancestors indulging literary pursuits logical classification habitats society systematic manner little draw precedents domestically elsewhere fact classifications documented early date grammatical treatise ''tolkappiyam'' demonstrates organized manner tamil language evolved


''tolkappiyam'' merely textbook tamil grammar giving inflection syntax words sentences also includes classification habitats animals plants human beings discussion human emotions interactions particularly significant tolkappiyam divided three chapters orthography etymology subject matter ''porul'' first two chapters tolkappiyam help codify language last part ''porul'' refers people behavior grammar helps convey literary message human behavior conduct uniquely merges language people literature classified


broad categories 'subjective' ''akam'' 'objective' ''puram'' topics enable poetic minds discuss topic sun grammar love within framework well prescribed socially accepted conventions subjective topics refer personal human aspect emotions cannot verbalized adequately explained fully experienced individuals includes love sexual relationship recognizing human activities cannot take place vacuum constantly influenced environmental factors human experiences general subjective topics particular assigned specific habitats accordingly land


classified five genres ''thinai'' ''kurinji'' mountainous regions ''mullai'' forests ''marutham'' agricultural lands ''neithal'' seashore ''paalai'' wasteland images associated landscapes birds beasts flowers gods music people weather seasons used subtly convey mood associated aspect life ''kuruntokai'' collection poems belonging ''ettuthokai'' anthology demonstrates early treatment sangam landscape treatments found much refined later works ''akananuru'' ''paripaatal'' ''paripaatal'' takes name musical ''paripaatal meter'' utilised poems first instance


work set music ''akaval'' ''kalippa'' popular meters used poets sangam age post sangam period didactic age three centuries sangam age invaders replaced number words concepts relating ethics philosophy religion tamil around nbsp ce tamil land influence group people known kalabhras kalabhras buddhist number buddhist authors flourished period jainism buddhism saw rapid growth authors perhaps reflecting austere nature faiths created works mainly morality


ethics number jain buddhist poets contributed creation didactic works well grammar lexicography collection eighteen lesser text series ''pathinenkilkanakku'' period style float right width px border px aaa solid border collapse collapse background f f f margin em em font size small br small br mark wisdom discern truth br whatever source heard br '' tirukkural '' ref name 'kur al ' ref best known works ethics ''tirukkural'' thiruvalluvar book comprehensive


manual ethics polity love containing distichs ''kural'' divided chapters ten distichs first thirty eight ethics next seventy polity remainder love ref name majumdar see majumdar p ref famous works period ''ka ava n patu'' ''nalatiyar'' ''inna narpathu'' ''iniyavai narpathu'' jain texts ''nalatiyar'' ''pazhamozhi nanuru'' consist four hundred poems cites proverb illustrates story devotional period fall kalabhras around nbsp ce saw reaction thus far suppressed hindus kalabhras replaced


pandyas south pallavas north even exit kalabhras jain buddhist influence still remained tamil nadu early pandya pallava kings followers faiths hindu reaction apparent decline religion growing reached peak later part th century widespread hindu revival huge body saiva vaishnava literature created many saiva nayanmars vaishnava alvars provided great stimulus growth popular devotional


literature karaikkal ammaiyar lived th century ce earliest nayanmars celebrated saiva hymnists sundaramoorthy thirugnana sambanthar thirunavukkarasar also known ''appar'' period appar 's verses survived sambandar sang verses together form first six books saiva canon collected nambi andar nambi th century sundarar wrote ''tiruttondartokai'' gives list sixty two nayanmars later elaborated sekkilar ''periyapuranam'' verses manikkavasagar lived around th century ce minister pandya court


''tiruvasakam'' consisting verses noted passionate devotion saivite hymns collectively called thirumurai described sixth veda next bhagavath geetha hindu tradition along saiva nayanmars vaishnava alvars also producing devotional hymns songs collected later four thousand sacred hymns ''naalayira divyap prabhandham'' three earliest alvars poygai pudam pey wrote one hundred ''venpas'' tirumalisai alwar contemporary pallava mahendravarman wrote works ''naanmugantiruvadiandadi'' tirumangai alvar lived th century ce


prolific writer works constitute third diyaprabhandam periyalvar adopted daughter andal contributed nearly hymns vaishnava canon andal symbolised purity love god wrote hymns addressing vishnu lover hymn andal starts ''vaaranam aayiram'' one thousand elephants tells dream wedding vishnu sung even today tamil vaishnava weddings nammalvar lived th century wrote ''tiruvaimoli'' comprises stanzas held great esteem elucidation upanishads corpus


collected nathamuni around ce formed classical vernacular basis sri vaishnavism hymns ''naalayira divya prabhandham'' respected par vedas sri vaishnavites sanctity holiness hence referred 'dravida vedam' narrative epics ''cilappatikaram'' one outstanding works general literature period authorship exact date classic ''cilappatikaram'' definitely known ilango adigal credited work reputed brother sangam age chera king senguttuvan however information brother


numerous poems sung chera king ''cilappatikaram'' unique vivid portrayal ancient tamil land unknown works period ''cilappatikaram'' companion epic ''manimekalai'' jain philosophy ''manimekalai'' written sattanar contemporary ilango adigal manimekalai contains long exposition fallacies logic kongu velir jain author wrote ''perunkathai'' ''valayapathi'' ''kundalakesi'' names two narrative poems period written jain buddhist author respectively works lost


poems ''valayapathi'' found far medieval literature avvaiyaar c ce wrote aathichoodi taught schools today kambar c ce wrote tamil 'raamaayanam' medieval period period imperial cholas entire south india single administration period th th centuries chola power peak relatively foreign incursions life tamil people one peace prosperity also provided opportunity people interact cultures beyond


cholas ruled south india sri lanka traded kingdoms southeast asia cholas built numerous temples mainly favourite god siva celebrated numerous hymns ''prabhanda'' became dominant form poetry religious canons saiva vaishnava sects beginning systematically collected categorised nambi andar nambi contemporary rajaraja chola collected arranged books saivism eleven books called ''tirumurais'' hagiology saivism standardised ''periyapuranam'' also known ''tiruttondar puranam''


mere translation even adaptation sanskrit epic kamban imports narration colour landscape time contemporary kamban famous poet auvaiyar found great happiness writing young children works ''athichoodi'' ''konraiventhan'' even generally read taught schools tamil nadu two works ''mooturai'' ''nalvali'' written slightly older children four works didactic character explain basic wisdom govern mundane life books buddhist


jain faiths noteworthy ''jivaka chintamani'' jain ascetic thirutakkadevar composed th century ''viruttam'' style poetry used first time verses book five tamil epics ''jivaka chintamani'' ''cilappatikaram'' ''manimekalai'' ''kundalakesi'' ''valayapathi'' collectively known five great epics tamil literature number books written tamil grammar ''yapperungalam'' ''yapperungalakkarigai'' two works prosody jain ascetic amirtasagara buddamitra wrote ''virasoliyam'' another work tamil grammar reign virarajendra chola ''virasoliyam'' attempts


find synthesis sanskrit tamil grammar grammatical works period ''nannul'' pavanandi ''vaccanandi malai'' neminatha annotations puram theme ''purapporul venpamalai'' aiyanaridanar biographical political works jayamkondar 's kalingattuparani semi historical account two invasion kalinga kulothunga chola jayamkondar poet laureate chola court work fine example balance fact fiction poets tread ottakuttan close contemporary kambar wrote three ''ulas'' vikrama chola kulothunga chola ii rajaraja


chola ii tamil muslim literature eight centuries old earliest literary works coterie could traced th century form ''palsanthmalai'' small work eight stanzas seyku issaku better known vanna parimala pulavar published ''aayira masala venru vazhankum adisaya puranam'' detailing islamic principles beliefs faq format aali pulavar wrote ''mikurasu malai'' vijayanagar nayak period period ce period constant change political situation tamil nadu tamil country invaded


armies delhi sultanate raided pandya kingdom overstretched delhi sultanate extent collapsed soon triggered rise bahmani sultans deccan vijayanagar empire rose ashes kingdoms hoysalas chalukyas eventually conquered entire south india vijayanagar kings appointed regional governors rule various territories kingdom tamil nadu ruled madurai nayaks thanjavur nayaks gingee nayaks period saw large output philosophical works commentaries epics devotional poems number monasteries ''mathas''


age took form ''puranas'' narrative epics number written various deities temples tamil nadu known sthala puranas based legend folklore one important epics mahabharatam villiputturar translated vyasa 's epic tamil named ''villibharatam'' ''kanthapuranam'' god murugan written kacchiappa sivachariyar lived th century work based broadly sanskrit ''skandapurana'' varatungarama pandya pandya king period litt rateur


merit wrote ''paditrruppattanthathi'' also translated tamil erotic book known ''kokkoha'' sanskrit period also age many commentaries ancient tamil works adiyarkunallar wrote annotation cilappatikaram senavaraiyar wrote commentary tolkappiyam came famous parimelalagar whose commentary tirukkural still considered one best available famous annotators perasiriyar naccinarikiniyar wrote commentaries various work sangam literature first tamil dictionary attempted mandalapurusha compiled lexicon ''nigandu cudamani'' thayumanavar lived early th century


famous number short poems philosophical nature th century altruist syed khader known colloquially seethakaathi great patron tamil poets commissioned umaruppulavar pen first biography nabi collection poems called ''seerapuranam'' th century also saw first time literary works christian authors costanzo giuseppe beschi better known veeramamunivar compiled first dictionary tamil ''chathurakarathi'' first list tamil words alphabetical order modern era subramanya bharathi tamil writer poet indian freedom fighter thani tamil iyakkam 's'' bharathidasan


freedom fighter tamil writer poet th th century tamil nadu witnessed profound changes political scene traditional tamil ruling clans superseded european colonists sympathisers tamil society underwent deep cultural shock imposition western cultural influences hindu religious establishments attempted stem tide change safeguard tamil cultural values notable among saiva monasteries tiruvavaduthurai dharmapuram thiruppananthal kundrakudi meenakshi sundaram pillai tamil scholar taught tamil one monasteries


wrote eighty books consisting poems famous however encouraging uvswaminatha iyer go search tamil books lost centuries gopalakrishna bharathi lived early th century wrote numerous poems lyrics set tune carnatic music famous work ''nandan charitam'' life nandanar born sociologically lower caste faces overcomes social obstacles achieving dream visiting chidambaram temple work revolutionary social commentary considering period


written although gopalakrishna bharati expanded story ''periyapuranam'' ramalinga adigal vallalar wrote devotional poem ''tiruvarutpa'' considered work great beauty simplicity maraimalai adigal advocated purity tamil wanted clean words sanskrit influences one great tamil poets period subramanya bharathi works stimulating progressive themes like freedom feminism bharathy introduced new poetic style somewhat rigid style tamil poetry writing followed rules set


''tolkaappiyam'' ''puthukkavithai'' lit new poetry broke rules gave poets freedom express also wrote tamil prose form commentaries editorials short stories novels published tamil daily ''swadesamitran'' tamil weekly ''india'' inspired bharathi many poets resorted poetry means reform bharathidasan one poet uvswaminatha iyer instrumental revival interest sangam age literature tamil nadu travelled tamil country collecting deciphering publishing ancient books ''cilappatikaram''


older men '''d jayakanthan''' enriched high traditions literary traditions tamil language contributed towards shaping indian literature literature presents deep sensitive understanding complex human nature authentic vivid index indian reality one famous novel '''sila nerangalil sila manithargal''' since post modernist writers emerged major figures including jeyamohan sramakrishnan charu nivedita critically acclaimed works include vishnupuram venmurasu novel series jeymohan ubapandavam sramakrishnan zero degree charu niveditha yumaa vasuki ratha vurvu blood


relation lakshmi manivannan appavin thottathil neer payum idangal ellam nakulan ninivu p padhai konangi mixes classical tamil inflections experimental sound poets less appreciated works involving translated languages often unrecognized tamil pundits works include urumaatram translation franz kafka 's ''the metamorphosis'' ''siluvayil thongum saathaan'' translation devil cross ng g wa thiong'o ''thoongum azhagigalin illam'' translation house sleeping beauties yasunari kawabata writers like amarantha latha ramakrishnan responsible works popular fiction crime detective fiction enjoyed wide popularity


hearts many tamil readers story covers family subject romance reality humor added readers enjoy leisure modern romance novels represented current bestselling author tamil language ramanichandran though sales tamil pulp fiction declined since hey day mid many writers turned lucrative television serial market remains thriving scene periodicals increasing demand literate public caused number journals periodicals published turn provided platform authors publish


work ''rajavritti bodhini'' ''dina varthamani'' salem pagadala narasimhalu naidu 's fortnightlies salem ''desabhimini'' ''coimbatore kalanidhi'' earliest tamil journals g subramaniya iyer started newspaper ''swadesamitran'' became first tamil daily start many journals follow many novelists began serialise stories journal humour magazine ''ananda vikatan'' started ss vasan help create greatest tamil novelists kalki krishnamurthy serialised short stories novels ''ananda vikatan''


eventually started weekly ''kalki'' wrote enduringly popular novels ''parthiban kanavu'' ''sivagamiyin sabadham'' ''ponniyin selvan'' pudhumaipithan great writer short stories provided inspiration number authors followed 'new poetry ''pudukkavithai'' pioneered bharathi prose poetry developed literary periodicals ''manikkodi'' ''ezhuttu'' edited si su chellappa poets mu metha contributed periodicals tamil muslim poets like kavikko abdul rahman pavalar inqulab manushyaputhiran rajathi salma made significant contributions social reforms pioneering


fortnightly journal ''samarasam'' established highlight cater ethnic tamil muslim community 's issues another remarkable work done tamil novel field muvaratharasanar agal vilakku karithundu last least akilan unique tamil novelist short story writer social activist famous works like 'chithirapavai' 'vengayinmaindan' 'pavaivilaku' tamil journalism first tamil periodical published christian religious tract society ''the tamil magazine'' increasing demand literate public caused number journals periodicals published turn provided


platform authors publish work rajavritti bodhini dina varthamani salem pagadala narasimhalu naidu 's fortnightlies salem desabhimini coimbatore kalanidhi earliest tamil journals first regular newspaper tamil swadesamitran started gsubramaniya iyer editor sponsor hindu founding member indian national congress created whole new tamil political vocabulary conscious knowledge english small number knowledge indian languages vast majority felt unless


people told objectives british rule merits defects indian languages political knowledge would never develop subramania aiyer quit hindu made swadesamitran full time business first tamil daily enjoy status years subramania aiyer 's pugnacious style never qualifying words soften sharp tenor sentence use words dipped paste extra pungent green chillies made swadesamitran sought tamils wherever lived world daily became even popular


subramania bharati joined next year lala lajpat rai arrested agitation followed punjab subramania aiyer 's attitude british changed became trenchant political critic raj whole political mantra summed words `peaceful tireless unceasing effort' let us sweat swaraj would seem say swadesamitran credited coining new tamil words deal science politics administration comprehensive budget news among regional language papers time


name forceful colloquial style gained wide readership paper failed take sides civil disobedience movement congress party decided bring new tamil daily india edited renowned poet subramania bharati india showed great promise could establish financially folded soon bharati exiled pondicherry papers published madras first tamil tabloid page jayabharati began price anna closed price could


also gave impetus tamil journalism newspapers like ''bharat devi'' strong supporters movement many magazines began tamil nadu ' humour magazine ananda vikatan started ss vasan help create greatest tamil novelists still running successfully years vikatan group today also publishes chutti vikatan junior vikatan motor vikatan special interest magazines r krishnamurthy serialised short stories novels ananda vikatan eventually started weekly kalki name kalki denotes impending


tenth avatar lord vishnu hindu religion said bring end kali yuga reinstate dharma righteousness among worldly beings used name wanted bring liberation india dina thanthi ''daily telegraph'' started madurai simultaneous editions madras salem tiruchirappalli founded sp adithanar lawyer trained britain modeled thanthi style english tabloid daily mirror aimed bring newspaper ordinary people would read


would encourage reading habit even among newly literate past daily newspaper printed madras reached southern tamil region least one day thanthi used public bus system distribute paper throughout south tamil region capitalized hunger war news arose singapore fell japanese due financial constraints salem tiruchirappalli editions closed thanthi emphasized local news especially crime courts used photographs extensively brought banner headlines tamil journalism


could fit one story entire broadsheet page mainly filled large easy read headlines one biggest scoops murder editor scandalous film magazine two actors thanthi covered trial madras detail reporters phoned daily account printing centre madurai thanthi first tamil paper understand people fascination crime film stars paper popular said tamils learned read order read newspaper dina thanthi became one largest tamil language dailies


specialist portals catering political social issues tamil literature even available form e books see also list tamil poets sri lankan tamil literature tamil heritage foundation digitalization ancient tamil literature tamil historical novels tamil mythology reading neild http wwwjstororg stable select bibliography books articles tamil literature english ''mahfil'' '' '' pp notes references external links http ilakkiyamcom repository tamil literature http wwwvalaitamilcom literature largest collections tamil literature articles http thamizhilakkiyamcom tamil literature collection https tamilnationorg literature indexhtm tamil language literature https bookdiggerscom ramanichandran novels free download pdf tamil novels


'''language policy''' interdisciplinary academic field scholars joshua fishman ofelia garc consider part sociolinguistics hand scholars http englishbiuacil faculty spolsky bernard bernard spolsky https emeritiuscedu robert b kaplan robert b kaplan joseph lo bianco argue language policy branch applied linguistics field language policy used known language planning related fields language ideology language revitalization language education among others definitions language policy defined number ways according kaplan baldauf

Applied science
Public administration
Language policy


language policy body ideas laws regulations rules practices intended achieve planned language change societies group system p xi lo bianco defines field situated activity whose specific history local circumstances influence regarded language problem whose political dynamics determine language problems given policy treatment p mccarty defines language policy complex sociocultural process modes human interaction negotiation production mediated relations power policy processes resides language regulating power


ways express normative claims legitimate illegitimate language forms uses thereby governing language statuses uses p overview language policy broad categorized three components spolsky argues useful first step distinguish three components language policy speech community language practices habitual pattern selecting among varieties make linguistic repertoire language beliefs ideology beliefs language language use specific efforts modify


influence practice kind language intervention planning management p traditional scope language policy concerns language regulation refers government either officially legislation court decisions policy determine languages used cultivate language skills needed meet national priorities establish rights individuals groups use maintain languages implementation implementation language policy varies one state another may explained fact language policy often based contingent historical reasons likewise states


also differ degree explicitness implement given language policy french toubon law good example explicit language policy may said charter french language quebec scholars https englishwashingtonedu people james tollefson tollefson argue language policy create inequality language planning policy means institutionalization language basis distinctions among social groups classes language policy one mechanism locating language within social structure language determines access political power economic resources language policy one


minorities may long term interest means gaining citizens' trust central government preservation cultural linguistic diversity today 's world major concern many scientists artists writers politicians leaders linguistic communities defenders linguistic human rights half languages currently spoken world estimated danger disappearing st century many factors affect existence usage given human language including size native speaking population use formal communication


geographical dispersion socio economic weight speakers national language policies either mitigate exacerbate effects factors example according ghil'ad zuckermann native tongue title language rights promoted government ought define aboriginal torres strait islander vernaculars official languages australia must change linguistic landscape whyalla elsewhere signs english local indigenous language ought acknowledge intellectual property indigenous knowledge including language music dance many ways language policies


categorized elaborated universit laval sociolinguist jacques leclerc french language web site ''l'am nagement linguistique dans le monde'' put line ciral collecting translating classifying language policies started culminated publishing ''recueil des l gislations linguistiques dans le monde'' vol vi presses de l'universit laval work containing language laws research leading publication subsidised office qu b cois de la langue fran aise april web site presented linguistic portrait language policies


states autonomous territories recognised countries language regulators list language regulators acad mie fran aise academy hebrew language accademia della crusca akademio de esperanto association spanish language academies board standardization serbian language serbia montenegro republika srpska b rd na g idhlig gaelic scotland commission filipino language philippines dewan bahasa dan pustaka malaysia dutch language union foras na gaeilge irish institut d'estudis catalans badan pengembangan bahasa dan perbukuan indonesia norwegian language council office qu b cois de la langue fran aise ofis publik ar brezhoneg breton brittany pan south african language board


real academia espa ola swedish language council welsh language commissioner see also linguistic diversity linguistic rights cultural hegemony economics language grimm 's law language change language movement language planning language politics language reform language revitalization language tax language death cross border language national language native tongue title official language official script regional language street name controversy international mother language day international year languages languages censuses '''directions language policies''' linguistic imperialism linguistic purism language secessionism '''some case studies''' europe european charter regional minority languages belgium language legislation belgium croatia croatian linguistic purism finland finland 's


language strife france language policy france germany germanization hungary magyarization italy italianization latvia language policy latvia poland polonization slovakia language law slovakia slovakization spain language policies francoist spain former soviet union russification ukrainianization education soviet union wales welsh canada official bilingualism canada official languages act canada pakistan urdu movement arab world arabization india anti hindi agitations tamil nadu bangladesh bengali language movement united states english movement references references literature tollefson j w https booksgooglecomau books planning language planning inequalityhtmlid tvanaqaamaaj source kp book description redir esc planning language planning inequality language policy community london longman spolsky b


https wwwcambridgeorg core books language policy ecec b bf af language policy cambridge cambridge university press spolsky b https wwwcambridgeorg core books language management c ed c aafb dc eced language management cambridge cambridge university press johnson c https wwwpalgravecom gp book language policy london palgrave macmillan cooper r l https wwwcambridgeorg core books language planning social change b b e bd b db e ae f language planning social change cambridge cambridge university press zein https wwwroutledgecom language policy superdiverse indonesia zein p book language policy superdiverse indonesia new york london routledge ginsburgh v weber eds https wwwpalgravecom us book palgrave handbook economics language london palgrave macmillan michele gazzolatorsten templin bengt arne wickstr http wwwbookmetrixcom detail book e b b b ac e aa ''language policy linguistic justice'' springer shohamy elana ''language policy hidden agendas new approaches'' london routledge hult fm


johnson dc eds ''research methods language policy planning practical guide'' malden wiley blackwell crawford james http wwwlanguagepolicynet ''language policy website'' bastardas boada albert '' http wwwubedu cusc llenguesmitjanes wp content uploads iea bastardas englishpdf language identity policies 'glocal' age '' barcelona institut d'estudis auton mics bastardas boada albert language policy planning interdisciplinary field towards complexity approach https wwwtandfonlinecom doi full ''current issues language planning'' volume issue bastardas boada albert http wwwpublicacionsubedu fichaaspxcod ''from language shift language revitalization sustainability complexity approach linguistic ecology'' barcelona edicions de la universitat de barcelona kadochnikov languages


wood common examples include brass silver cane well metals gold platinum saxophone example though made brass considered woodwind requires reed produce sound occasionally woodwinds made earthen materials especially ocarinas flutes flutes produce sound directing focused stream air edge hole cylindrical tube flute family divided two sub families open flutes closed flutes produce sound open flute player required blow stream

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Woodwinds


divided two types single reed double reed single reed woodwinds produce sound fixing reed onto opening mouthpiece using ligature air forced reed mouthpiece reed causes air column instrument vibrate produce unique sound single reed instruments include clarinet saxophone others chalumeau double reed instruments use two precisely cut small pieces cane bound together base form sound production estimated originated middle late neolithic period


discovery attributed observation wind blowing split rush finished bound reed inserted instrument vibrates air forced two pieces causing air within instrument vibrate well family reed pipes subdivided another two sub families exposed double reed capped double reed instruments exposed double reed instruments played double reed directly player 's lips family includes instruments oboe cor anglais also called english horn bassoon


many types shawms throughout world hand capped double reed instruments double reed covered cap player blows hole cap directs air reeds family includes crumhorn piper playing bagpipes newport rhode island bagpipes unique reed pipe instruments since use two double single reeds however bagpipes functionally capped double reed instruments since reeds never direct contact player 's lips free reed aerophone instruments


typically much larger diverse orchestra 's concert band 's woodwind section typically includes piccolos flutes oboes flat clarinets bass clarinets bassoons alto saxophones tenor saxophones baritone saxophones alto flute cor anglais flat clarinet alto clarinet contra alto clarinet contrabass clarinet contrabassoon soprano saxophone also used frequently woodwinds see also brass instrument musical instrument percussion instrument wind instrument references external links http wwwphysunsweduau jw woodwindhtml woodwind instruments work http wwwwfgwoodwindorg finghtml woodwind fingering chart http wwwclassicalmusichomepagecom reference woodwind reference woodwind reference ndash classicalmusichomepagecom


'''sinology''' '''chinese studies''' academic discipline focuses study china primarily chinese philosophy language literature culture history often refers western scholarship origin may traced examination chinese scholars made civilization field sinology historically seen equivalent application philology china th century generally seen meaning chinese philology language literature sinology broadened modern times include chinese history epigraphy subjects terminology terms sinology sinologist

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Sinology


coined around use sino derived late latin ''sinae'' greek ''sinae'' arabic ''sin'' turn may derive ''qin'' qin dynasty context area studies european american usages may differ europe sinology usually known ''chinese studies'' whereas united states sinology subfield chinese studies china watcher person monitors current events power struggles people 's republic china eastern sinology east asia studies china related subjects began early japan sinology


chinese one mixture classical chinese vernacular hokkien dominican accomplishments among chinese diaspora pale comparison success jesuits mainland china led renowned pioneer matteo ricci ricci arrived canton modern guangzhou spent rest life china unlike predecessors contemporaries ricci view chinese idolatrous pagans viewed like minded literati approachable level learning studied chinese confucian classics like educated chinese scholars order present


catholic doctrine european learning chinese literati language th century age enlightenment sinologists started introduce chinese philosophy ethics legal system aesthetics west though often unscientific incomplete works inspired development chinoiserie series debates comparing chinese western cultures time sinologists often described china enlightened kingdom comparing europe emerged dark ages among european literati interested china voltaire wrote play ''l'orphelin de la chine'' inspired ''the orphan


zhao'' leibniz penned famous ''novissima sinica'' news china giambattista vico france study china chinese language began patronage louis xiv appointed young chinese arcadio huang catalog royal collection chinese texts huang assisted tienne fourmont published grammar chinese missionary priest sacred congregation de propaganda fide kingdom naples matteo ripa created naples first sinology school european continent chinese institute first nucleus


would become today 's universit degli studi di napoli l'orientale naples eastern university ripa worked painter copper engraver imperial court kangxi emperor ripa returned naples china four young chinese christians teachers native language formed institute sanctioned pope clement xii teach chinese missionaries thus advance propagation christianity china th century study assyriology egyptology developed serious study china connections bible study


indology represented breakthrough development linguistics chinese texts perhaps connections last studied european universities around except france chair chinese manchu founded coll ge de france jean pierre abel r musat taught chinese filled position becoming first professor chinese europe first russian sinologist nikita bichurin living beijing ten years abel r musat 's counterparts england germany samuel kidd ndash wilhelm schott respectively though first


important secular sinologists two countries james legge hans georg conon von der gabelentz professorship far eastern languages first kind german speaking world created university leipzig von der gabelentz taking position scholars like legge often relied work ethnic chinese scholars wang tao stanislas julien served chair chinese coll ge de france years starting studies r musat succeeding notable translations


classical texts also works vernacular literature knowledge manchu douard chavannes succeeded position death marquis d'hervey saint denys chavannes pursued broad interests history well language image china essentially confucian society conveyed jesuit scholars dominated western thought times europe learned speak chinese studied written classical chinese scholars called commentarial tradition critical annotated translation emphasis translating classical texts inhibited use social science methodology comparing


texts traditions one scholar described type sinology philological hairsplitting preoccupied marginal curious aspects secular scholars gradually came outnumber missionaries th century sinology slowly gained substantial presence western universities th century paris based type sinology dominated learning china second world war even outside france paul pelliot henri maspero marcel granet published basic studies trained students pelliot 's knowledge relevant languages especially central asia control bibliography languages gave power


write range topics criticize damning detail mistakes scholars maspero expanded scope sinology confucianism include daoism buddhism popular religion well art mythology history science contribution granet apply concepts emile durkheim pioneer sociologist society ancient china especially family ritual russian school sinology focused mainly learning classical chinese texts example contribution russian sinologist julian shchutsky especially valuable best full translation


sinology scholars john king fairbank promoted study china within discipline approach downplayed role philological sinology focused issues history social sciences one earliest american scholars cold war china sino american relations chinese american dr tang tsou university chicago tsou emphasized importance academic objectivity general sinology particular stressing intellectual academic exchange china west way parties come greater understanding one another ref name ' heqliu ' ref


exchange pages journal asian studies debated continued relevance sinology anthropologist g william skinner called social sciences make use china wrote recent years cry gone sinology dead long live chinese studies concluded sinology discipline unto replaced chinese studies multidisciplinary endeavor specific research objectives joseph levenson historian went doubted sinology tool social scientists would still find useful another historian benjamin schwartz


hand replied disciplines often treated ends sinology backers frederick w mote specialist traditional china replying skinner spoke sinology saw field discipline another specialist traditional china denis twitchett reply back forth debate issued called lone cheer sinology accept assumption implicit hostility 'sinology disciplines history social sciences sinology continued used wide


range meanings confined one extreme used characterize rather ridiculous caricature compounded pedantry preoccupation peripheral precious subjects little general significance extreme definition used prof mote broad inclusive mean little humanistic studies chinese field cold war china watchers centered hong kong especially american government officials journalists mutual distrust united states china prohibition travel countries meant access


press briefings interviews therefore adopted techniques kremlinology close parsing official announcements hidden meanings movements officials reported newspapers analysis photographs public appearances years since opening china china watchers live china take advantage normal sources information towards end century many studying china professionally called end split sinology disciplines australian scholar geremie barm instance suggests new sinology one emphasizes strong scholastic underpinnings


de paulo'' see also sinophile references sources barrett timothy hugh ''singular listlessness short history chinese books british scholars'' london wellsweep pages published original form f wood ed british library occasional papers chinese studies p cayley john ming wilson ed ''europe studies china papers international conference history european sinology'' london han tang books see also eg pulleyblank 's https wwwjstororg stable review work ''journal american oriental society'' vol jul sep


pp nbsp available jstor mungello david e '' https booksgooglecom booksid wb ypw zgzqc printsec frontcover v onepage q f false curious land jesuit accommodation origins sinology '' stuttgart f steiner verlag wiesbaden rpr honolulu university hawai'i press yang liansheng ''excursions sinology'' cambridge harvard university press zurndorfer harriet https booksgooglecom booksid uu zn imjoc printsec frontcover v onepage q sinology f false brief history chinese studies sinology external links http wwwsinologyinstitutecom sinology institute http wwwthechinastoryorg new sinology new sinology http wwwthechinastoryorg china story http wwwthechinastoryorg australian centre china world australian center china world http wwwguoxuecom guoxue http ctextorg chinese text project http wwwenglishccivcityueduhk chinese civilisation centre city university hong kong http wwwumassedu wsp resources profiles sinology project university massachusetts amherst


http rspasanueduau pah chinaheritageproject china heritage project australian national university torbj rn lod n https webarchiveorg web http wwwcityueduhk ccs newsletter newsletter swedishsinologyhtml swedish sinology historical perspective archived library research guides http wwwmoyakcom papers east asian librarieshtml electronic resources chinese studies east asian libraries includes china chinese culture


'''string''' long flexible structure made fibers twisted together single strand multiple strands turn twisted together string used tie bind hang objects also used material make things textiles arts crafts string simple tool use humans known developed tens thousands years ago ref name evans webster susan toby evans david l webster ''archaeology ancient mexico central america encyclopedia'' p ref mesoamerica

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Strings


example string invented years ago made twisting plant fibers together ref name evans webster string may also component tools devices diverse weapons musical instruments toys two pieces string light microscope history string used prehistoric times make fire part drilling tool called bow drill makes fire friction well fishing lines nets clothing shelter making materials bow string sutures traps cordage countless uses ref name hodge ref bow drills


appeared carvings babylonians assyrians fringe like plaiting braiding adorned costumes time captured stone statuary types many types string adapted many uses examples twine twine light string strong thread composed two smaller strands yarns twisted twisted together generally term applied cord natural fibres used making twine include cotton sisal jute hemp henequen coir variety synthetic fibres


also used yarn yarn long continuous length interlocked fibres suitable use production textiles sewing crocheting knitting weaving embroidery ropemaking ref name definition ref thread type yarn intended sewing hand machine modern manufactured sewing threads may finished wax lubricants withstand stresses involved sewing embroidery threads yarns specifically designed hand machine embroidery thread thread type yarn used sewing thread made wide variety materials following table lists common materials


general description supposed good machine sew thread thread used purpose useful someone trying learn sewing however remembered thread stronger material used join seams placed strain material may tear thread breaks garments usually sewn threads lesser strength fabric stressed seam break garment heavy


goods must withstand considerable stresses upholstery car seating tarpaulins tents saddlery require strong threads attempting repairs light weight thread usually result rapid failure though using thread stronger material sewn end causing rips material thread gives way bowstring bowstring joins two ends bow stave launches arrow desirable properties include light weight strength resistance abrasion resistance water mass effect center string


extra mass middle string slows arrow much ends traditional materials include linen hemp vegetable fibers sinew silk rawhide almost fiber may used emergency drawstring hoodie drawstring drawstring draw string draw string string cord lace rope used draw gather shorten fabric material ends drawstring may tied hold place simultaneously close opening alternately drawstring may kept drawn using cordlock typically drawstring loose


used tightened needed use pullstring pullstring pull string pull string pullcord pull cord pull cord pullchain pull chain pull chain string cord chain wound spring loaded spindle engages mechanism pulled commonly used toys motorized equipment generally commonly pullstring type string cord rope chain cable attached object way used pull mechanically manipulate part shoestrings shoelaces also called shoestrings us english '''bootlaces'''


uk english system commonly used secure shoes boots footwear typically consist pair strings cords one shoe finished ends stiff sections known aglets shoelace typically passes series holes eyelets loops hooks either side shoe loosening lacing allows shoe open wide enough foot inserted removed tightening lacing tying ends secures foot within shoe strings musical instruments music string


piano builders use shorter thicker strings produce lowest pitched bass notes enabling building smaller upright pianos designed small rooms practice rooms tennis strings tennis strings part tennis racquet make contact ball strings form woven network inside head hoop racquet strings made variety materials possess varying properties measured dynamic stiffness tension retention thickness gauge string texture shape string rebound efficiency ref name racquetsportsindustrycom http wwwracquetsportsindustrycom articles string selector html string selector


racquet sports industry magazine ref uses applications chalk line chalk line chalk box tool marking long straight lines relatively flat surfaces much farther practical hand straightedge important tool construction carpentry working timber rough unplaned state require timber straight squared edge formed onto beforehand chalk line draws straight lines action taut nylon similar string


previously coated loose dye usually chalk string laid across surface marked pulled tight next string plucked snapped sharply causing string strike surface transfers chalk surface along straight line struck cloth textile cloth flexible material consisting network natural artificial fibres yarn thread yarn produced spinning raw fibres wool flax cotton material produce long strands textiles formed weaving knitting


crocheting knotting felting clothes line clothes line washing line type rope cord twine stretched two points eg two sticks outside indoors level ground clothing recently washed hung along line dry using clothes pegs clothespins washing lines attached either post wall frequently located back gardens balconies longer washing lines often props holding sections middle due weight usually wet


clothing bead stringing bead stringing putting beads string range simply sliding single bead onto thread like medium string silk thread leather thong thin wire multi stranded beading wire soft flexible wire complex creations multiple strands interwoven levels choice stringing medium important point overall design since string type mediums might subject unwanted stretching weight beads considerable similarly certain bead types sharp edges hollow metal beads varieties


stone glass might abrade string cause strand eventually break knot tying knot method fastening securing linear material string tying interweaving may consist length one several segments string twine cord strap rope even chain interwoven line bind object load macram macram macrame form textile making using knotting rather weaving knitting primary knots square knot variant


reef knot forms hitching full hitch double half hitches long crafted sailors especially elaborate ornamental knotting forms decorate anything knife handles bottles parts ships plumb bob plumb bob plummet weight usually pointed tip bottom suspended string used vertical reference line plumb line essentially vertical equivalent water level string art '''string art''' '''pin thread art''' characterized arrangement colored


include spirelli used cardmaking scrapbooking curve stitching string stitched holes string figures string figure design formed manipulating string around using one 's fingers sometimes fingers multiple people string figures may also involve use mouth wrist feet may consist singular images created altered game known string game part story involving various figures made sequence string story string toys astrojax


astrojax toy consisting three balls string one ball fixed end string center ball free slide along string two end balls inside ball metal weight metal weight lowers moment inertia center ball rotate rapidly response torques applied string prevents string snagging tangling around center ball yo yo yo yo also spelled '''yoyo''' toy simplest form object


consisting axle connected two disks length string looped around axle similar slender spool played holding free end string known handle usually inserting one finger slip knot allowing gravity force throw spin yo yo unwind string similar pullstring works allowing yo yo wind back one 's hand exploiting spin associated rotational energy often called yo yoing first made popular yo yoing remains


popular pastime many generations cultures first invented ancient greece weaving weaving method textile production two distinct sets yarns threads interlaced right angles form fabric cloth methods knitting felting braiding plaiting longitudinal threads called warp lateral threads weft filling ''weft'' ''woof'' old english word meaning woven method threads inter woven affects characteristics cloth ref name collier ref


references external links '' http wwwcabinetmagazineorg issues gschwandtnerphp brief history string '' fall ''cabinet'' magazine fasteners fibers


'''forensic anthropology''' application anatomical science anthropology various subfields including forensic archaeology forensic taphonomy ref name nawrocki subfield legal setting forensic anthropologist assist identification deceased individuals whose remains decomposed burned mutilated otherwise unrecognizable might happen plane crash forensic anthropologists also instrumental investigation documentation genocide mass graves along forensic pathologists forensic dentists homicide investigators forensic anthropologists commonly testify court expert witnesses using physical markers present skeleton forensic anthropologist

Social science
Archaeology
Forensic anthropology


potentially determine person 's age sex stature race useful identifying living individuals legal purposes illegal immigrants extremely important legal cases court needs decide judge individual adult minor addition identifying physical characteristics individual forensic anthropologists use skeletal abnormalities potentially determine cause death past trauma broken bones medical procedures well diseases bone cancer methods used identify person skeleton relies


past contributions various anthropologists study human skeletal differences collection thousands specimens analysis differences within population estimations made based physical characteristics set remains potentially identified field forensic anthropology grew twentieth century fully recognized forensic specialty involving trained anthropologists well numerous research institutions gathering data decomposition effects skeleton modern uses exhumed bodies victims srebrenica genocide


person input missing person databases national crime information center us ref name ncic interpol 's yellow notice database ref name interpol addition duties forensic anthropologists often assist investigation war crimes mass fatality investigations anthropologists tasked helping identify victims terrorist attacks ref name mcshane well plane crashes arrow air flight disaster ref name hinkes usair flight disaster flesh vaporized badly mangled normal identification


hooton 's students created first doctoral programs physical anthropology early th century ref name spencer addition physical anthropology hooton proponent criminal anthropology ref name snow considered pseudoscience criminal anthropologists believed phrenology physiognomy could link person 's behavior specific physical characteristics use criminal anthropology try explain certain criminal behaviors arose eugenics movement popular time ref name cobb ideas skeletal differences measured earnest eventually leading development anthropometry bertillon


teeth eruption mandible todd also developed age estimates based physical characteristics pubic symphysis though standards updated estimates still used forensic anthropologists narrow age range skeletonized remains ref name buikstra early pioneers legitimized field anthropology help todd 's student wilton krogman forensic anthropology gained recognition legitimate subdiscipline growth forensic anthropology krogman first anthropologist actively publicize anthropologists' potential forensic value going far


placing advertisements fbi law enforcement bulletin informing agencies ability anthropologists assist identification skeletal remains period saw first official use anthropologists federal agencies including fbi us army quartermaster corps employed forensic anthropologists identification war casualties korean war ref name snow time forensic anthropology officially began sudden influx available skeletons anthropologists study whose identities eventually confirmed allowed creation accurate formulas identification sex


age ref name mckern stature ref name trotter based solely skeletal characteristics formulas developed refined war still use modern forensic anthropologists professionalization field began soon move coincided replacement coroners medical examiners many locations around country ref name snow time field forensic anthropology gained recognition separate field within american academy forensic sciences first forensic anthropology research facility body farm opened william


bass ref name buikstra public attention interest forensic anthropology began increase around time forensic anthropologists started working high profile cases one major cases era involved anthropologist charles merbs helped identify victims murdered ed gein ref name golda methods one main tools forensic anthropologists use identification remains knowledge osteology differences occur within human skeleton investigation anthropologists often tasked helping determinate individual 's sex stature age ancestry anthropologists must


aware human skeleton differ individuals determination sex depending bones present sex determined looking distinctive sexual dimorphisms available pelvis extremely useful determination sex properly examined achieve sex determination great level accuracy ref name ident skel remains examination pubic arch location sacrum help determine sex however pelvis always present forensic anthropologists must aware areas skeleton distinct characteristics


sexes skull also contains multiple markers used determine sex specific markers skull include temporal line eye sockets supraorbital ridge ref name fosci outreach well nuchal lines mastoid process ref name hawks general male skulls tend larger thicker female skulls pronounced ridges ref name juniordentist forensic anthropologists need take account available markers determination sex due differences occur individuals sex example female may


slightly narrow normal pubic arch reason anthropologists usually classify sex one five possibilities male maybe male indeterminate maybe female female ref name fonsfaw addition forensic anthropologists generally unable make sex determination unless individual adult time death sexual dimorphisms present skeleton begin occur puberty fully pronounced sexual maturation ref name smithsonian consequently currently reliable method sex determination juvenile remains cranial post cranial skeletal elements since


dimorphic traits become apparent puberty represents fundamental problem archaeological forensic investigations however teeth may assist estimating sex since sets teeth formed well puberty sexual dimorphism observed deciduous permanent dentition although much less deciduous teeth average male teeth slightly larger female teeth greatest difference observed canine teeth examination internal dental tissues also shown male teeth consist absolutely proportionately greater quantities dentine females differences dental tissue


proportions could also useful sex determination determination stature estimation stature anthropologists based series formulas developed time examination multiple different skeletons multitude different regions backgrounds stature given range possible values centimeters typically computed measuring bones leg three bones used femur tibia fibula ref name sfu addition leg bones bones arm humerus ulna radius


determining stature due shrinkage skeleton naturally occurs person ages age person loses approximately one centimeter height every decade ref name sfu determination age determination individual 's age anthropologists depends whether individual adult child determination age children age usually performed examining teeth ref name teeth age teeth available children aged based growth plates sealed tibia plate seals


estimate age adult skeleton look bone osteons microscope new osteons constantly formed bone marrow even bones stop growing younger adults fewer larger osteons older adults smaller osteon fragments ref name young old another potential method determining age adult skeleton look arthritis indicators bones arthritis cause noticeable rounding bones ref name skel evid degree rounding arthritis coupled size number osteons help anthropologist


narrow potential age range individual age estimation living individuals age estimation living individuals carried estimating biological age chronological age individual unknown uncertain lack valid identity documents used confirm individual reached specific age threshold cases criminal liability asylum seekers unaccompanied children human trafficking adoption competitive sports ref name practitioner guide ref guidelines study group forensic age diagnostics arbeitsgemeinschaft f r forensische altersdiagnostik agfad propose three step procedure


followed age estimation first step physical examination second step include assessment hand wrist development using plain radiographs third step dental assessment ref name criteria ref one used methodologies estimation age development hand wrist greulich pyle atlas whilst assess dental development common method used far teeth technique developed demirjian ''et al'' estimated age individual might years age possible


use classifications becoming much harder rate interancestrial marriages increases markers become less defined ref name nlm typically maxilla used help anthropologists determine individual 's ancestry due three basic shapes hyperbolic parabolic rounded belonging three historical ancestries negroid caucasoid mongoloid respectively ref name westport addition maxilla zygomatic arch nasal opening used narrow possible ancestry ref name activity ancestry measuring distances landmarks skull well size shape specific bones anthropologists


use series equations estimate ancestry program called fordisc created calculate likely ancestry using complex mathematical formulas ref name observation program continually updated new information known individuals maintain database current populations respective measurements study found even favourable circumstances fordisc classifications confidence level research presented annual meeting american association physical anthropologists concluded fordisc ancestry determination always consistent program used caution


determination ancestry incredibly controversial often needed police investigations narrow subject pool markers anthropologists also able see markers present bones past fractures evident presence bone remodeling certain amount time around seven years bone remodelling make presence fracture impossible see examination fractures bones potentially help determine type trauma may experienced cause death determined forensic anthropologist


healing process peri mortem fractures usually appear clean rounded margins equal discolouration death post mortem breaks appear brittle ref name smith ashley post mortem breaks often different colour surrounding bone ie whiter exposed taphonomic processes different amount time however depending long post mortem break removal may obvious ie interment killer diseases bone cancer might present bone marrow samples help narrow list possible


identifications subfields forensic archaeology term forensic archaeology defined uniformly around world therefore practiced variety ways forensic archaeologists employ knowledge proper excavation techniques ensure remains recovered controlled forensically acceptable manner ref name chicora remains found partially completely buried proper excavation remains ensure evidence present bones remain intact difference forensic archaeologists forensic anthropologists forensic anthropologists trained specifically human osteology recovery human remains forensic


archaeologists specialize broadly processes search discovery ref name ref addition remains archaeologists trained look objects contained around excavation area objects include anything wedding rings potentially probative evidence cigarette butts shoe prints ref name nawrocki arch training extends observing context association significance objects crime scene drawing conclusions may useful locating victim suspect forensic archaeologist must also able utilize degree creativity adaptability times


crime scenes excavated using traditional archaeological techniques example one particular case study conducted search recovery remains missing girl found septic tank underground instance required unique methods unlike typical archeological excavation order exhume preserve contents tank ref name forensic archaeologists involved within three main areas assisting crime scene research investigation recovery evidence skeletal remains one aspect processing scenes mass fatality incidents terrorism ie homicide mass


graves war crimes violations human rights branch work forensic archaeologists involved well ref name forensic archaeologists help determine potential grave sites might overlooked differences soil help forensic archaeologists locate sites burial body small mound soil form filling grave loose soil increasing nutrients decomposing body encourages different kinds plant growth surrounding areas typically grave sites looser darker organic soil areas around


ref name sfu arch search additional grave sites useful investigation genocide mass graves search additional burial locations one implement career forensic archaeologist teaching research educating law enforcement crime scene technicians investigators well undergraduate graduate students critical part forensic archaeologist 's career order spread knowledge proper excavation techniques forensic personnel increase awareness field general crime scene evidence past compromised due improper excavation


recovery untrained personnel forensic anthropologists unable provide meaningful analyses retrieved skeletal remains due damage contamination research conducted improve archaeological field methods particularly advance nondestructive methods search recovery also important advancement recognition field ethical component must considered capability uncover information victims war crimes homicide may present conflict cases involve competing interests forensic archaeologists often contracted assist processing mass graves larger organisations


motives related exposure prosecution rather providing peace mind families communities projects times opposed smaller human rights groups wish avoid overshadowing memories individuals violent manner death cases like forensic archaeologists must practice caution recognize implications behind work information uncover forensic taphonomy examination remains help build peri post mortem profile individualthe examination skeletal remains often takes account environmental factors affect decomposition forensic taphonomy study


postmortem changes human remains caused soil water interaction plants insects animals ref name tap manual order study effects body farms set multiple universities students faculty study various environmental effects decomposition donated cadavers locations cadavers placed various situations rate decomposition along factors related decomposition process studied potential research projects include whether black plastic causes decomposition occur faster clear plastic effects freezing dumped


body ref name forbes forensic taphonomy divided two separate sections biotaphonomy geotaphonomy biotaphonomy study environment affects decomposition body specifically examination biological remains order ascertain decomposition destruction occurred ref name csi include factors animal scavenging climate well size age individual time death biotaphonomy must also take account common mortuary services embalming effects decomposition ref name nawrocki geotaphonomy examination decomposition


name nawrocki education forensic anthropology lab national museum natural history smithsonian institution washington dc usaindividuals looking become forensic anthropologists first obtain bachelor 's degree anthropology accredited university studies focus physical anthropology well osteology addition recommended individuals take courses wide range sciences biology chemistry anatomy genetics ref name hall edu undergraduate education completed individual proceed graduate level courses typically forensic anthropologists obtain doctorates physical anthropology completed coursework osteology forensics


individuals work field full time usually federal international agencies forensic anthropologists usually employed academia either university research facility ref name abfa ethics like forensic fields forensic anthropologists held high level ethical standards due work legal system individuals purposefully misrepresent piece evidence sanctioned fined imprisoned appropriate authorities depending severity violation individuals fail disclose conflict interests fail report findings


regardless may face disciplinary actions ref name swganth important forensic anthropologists remain impartial course investigation perceived bias investigation could hamper efforts court bring responsible parties justice ref name abfa ethics addition evidentiary guidelines forensic anthropologists always keep mind remains working person possible local customs regarding dealing dead observed remains treated respect dignity notable forensic anthropologists class wikitable name


notable ref sue black founding member british association human identification director centre anatomy human identification leverhulme centre forensic science university dundee ref name sue black karen ramey burns worked investigation genocides well identification victims terrorist attacks hurricane katrina ref name karen burns michael finnegan worked identification jesse james ref name finnegan richard jantz


co developer fordisc ref name jantz ellis r kerley worked identification josef mengele well victims jonestown mass suicide ref name kerley william r maples worked identification czar nicholas ii members romanov family well examination president zachary taylor 's remains arsenic poisoning ref name maples fredy peccerelli founder director guatemalan forensic anthropology foundation ref name peccerelli kathy reichs inspiration temperance bones brennan


india ref name krishan william bass created first body farm investigate decomposition various conditions partially buried buried particular times year left open animal scavengers burning https forensicanthropologywixsitecom forensicanthropology forensic anthropologist athina eskioglou first expert witness forensic anthropology district attorney office greece advancement forensic anthropology greece small https wwwqualityinhealthgr arthra katigories arthrwn item diaxeirisi tis krisis kata kai meta tin periodo logo mazikon katastrofon ston elladiko xoro apo tin sygxroni iatrodikastiko anthropologiki epistimihtml small br see also references ref ref name stewart ref ref name shapiro ref ref name spencer ref ref name snow ref ref name cobb ref ref name buikstra ref ref name mckern ref ref name trotter ref ref name buikstra ref ref name golda ref ref name mcshane ref ref name hinkes ref


ref name jantz ref ref name kerley ref ref name maples ref ref name peccerelli ref ref name britannica ref ref name clyde snow ref ref name mildred ref ref name krishan ref external links https wwwbournemouthacuk search forensic anthropology university bournemouth https webarchiveorg web http wwwshcedacuk archaeology postgraduate msc forensic anthhtm university edinburgh http wwwdundeeacuk undergraduate courses forensic anthropologyhtm university dundee http wwwtheabfaorg american board forensic anthropology http wwwaafsorg american academy forensic sciences http physanthorg american association physical anthropologists http maples centerufledu maples center forensic medicine university florida http wwwfafgorg guatemalan forensic anthropology foundation http forensicanthcom forensicanthcom forensic anthropological news stories across globe http whyfilesorg forensic anthro files bodies bones http wwwstruerscom repliset struers replica technique forensic investigation https webarchiveorg web http wwwforensicanthroforumcom forensic anthropology forum forensic anthropology news


continuing education http wwwitsgovcom forensic anthropologyhtml forensic anthropology theoretical practical information https webarchiveorg web http wwwappalachianbioanthorg camp indexhtml forensic anthropology summer camp experience https webarchiveorg web http facultylawutahedu craigle osteointeractive forensic anthropology blog biological anthropology anthropology


'''comparative psychology''' refers scientific study behavior mental processes non human animals especially relate phylogenetic history adaptive significance development behavior research area addresses many different issues uses many different methods explores behavior many different species insects primates ref name dewsbury comparative psychology sometimes assumed emphasize cross species comparisons including humans animals however researchers feel direct comparisons sole focus comparative psychology intense focus single organism understand

Social science
Psychology
Comparative psychology


behavior desirable donald dewsbury reviewed works several psychologists definitions concluded object comparative psychology establish principles generality focusing proximate ultimate causation ref name dewsbury dewsbury ''comparative psychology twentieth century'' hutchinson ross publishing company stroudsburg pa ref using comparative approach behavior allows one evaluate target behavior four different complementary perspectives developed niko tinbergen first one may ask pervasive behavior across species ie common behavior animal species


second one may ask behavior contributes lifetime reproductive success individuals demonstrating behavior ie behavior result animals producing offspring animals displaying behavior theories addressing ultimate causes behavior based answers two questions third mechanisms involved behavior ie physiological behavioral environmental components necessary sufficient generation behavior fourth researcher may ask development behavior within individual ie maturational learning social experiences must individual undergo


order demonstrate behavior theories addressing proximate causes behavior based answers two questions details see tinbergen 's four questions history th century scholar al jahiz wrote works social organization communication methods animals like ants ref name amber ref th century arabic writer ibn al haytham alhazen wrote ''treatise influence melodies souls animals'' early treatise dealing effects music animals treatise demonstrates camel 's pace could hastened retarded use music


shows examples music affect animal behavior experimenting horses birds reptiles th century majority scholars western world continued believe music distinctly human phenomenon experiments since vindicated ibn al haytham 's view music indeed effect animals charles darwin central development comparative psychology thought psychology spoken terms pre post darwin contributions influential darwin 's theory led several hypotheses one factors


set humans apart higher mental moral spiritual faculties could accounted evolutionary principles response vehement opposition darwinism anecdotal movement led george romanes set demonstrate animals possessed rudimentary human mind ref name dewsbury romanes famous two major flaws work focus anecdotal observations entrenched anthropomorphism ref name dewsbury dewsbury ''comparative animal behavior'' mcgraw hill book company new york ny ref near end th century several scientists existed whose work also influential douglas alexander


spalding called first experimental biologist ref name dewsbury worked mostly birds studying instinct imprinting visual auditory development jacques loeb emphasized importance objectively studying behavior sir john lubbock credited first using mazes puzzle devices study learning conwy lloyd morgan thought first ethologist sense presently use word ref name dewsbury although field initially attempted include variety species early focused primarily white lab rat pigeon


comparative psychology culminating nobel prize given ethologists combined flood informative books television programs ethological studies came widely seen read united states present comparative psychology united states moribund throughout long history comparative psychology repeated attempts made enforce disciplined approach similar studies carried animals different species results interpreted terms different phylogenetic ecological backgrounds behavioral ecology gave solid base


seen sufficiently sophisticated either analysis demands different tasks choice species compare ref name dewsbury however definition intelligence comparative psychology deeply affected anthropomorphism experiments focused simple tasks complex problems reversal learning learning sets delayed alternation plagued practical theoretical problems ref name dewsbury literature intelligence defined whatever closest human performance neglects behaviors humans usually incapable eg echolocation ref name wynne c l wynne c l ''animal


cognition mental lives animals'' palgrave new york ny ref specifically comparative researchers encounter problems associated individual differences differences motivation differences reinforcement differences sensory function differences motor capacities species typical preparedness ie species evolved acquire behaviors quicker behaviors ref name dewsbury species studied wide variety species studied comparative psychologists however small number dominated scene ivan pavlov 's early work used dogs although subject occasional studies since figured prominently increasing interest study


abnormal animal behavior led return study kinds domestic animal thorndike began studies cats american comparative psychologists quickly shifted economical rat remained almost invariable subject first half th century continues used skinner introduced use pigeons continue important fields always interest studying various species primate important contributions social developmental psychology made harry f harlow 's studies maternal deprivation rhesus monkeys


cross fostering studies shown similarities human infants infant chimpanzees kellogg kellogg aimed look heredity environmental effects young primates found cross fostered chimpanzee named gua better recognizing human smells clothing kelloggs' infant donald recognised humans better faces study ended nine months begun infant began imitate noises gua nonhuman primates also used show development language comparison human development example gardner successfully taught female chimpanzee washoe


words american sign language washoe subsequently passed teaching adopted offspring loulis criticism washoe 's acquisition sign language focused extent actually understood signing signs may based association get reward food toy studies concluded apes understand linguistic input may form intended meaning communicated great apes reported capacity allospecific symbolic production interest primate studies


increased rise studies animal cognition animals thought intelligent also increasingly studied examples include various species corvid parrots especially grey parrot dolphins alex avian learning experiment well known case study developed pepperberg found african gray parrot alex mimic vocalisations understood concepts different objects study non human mammals also included study dogs due domestic nature personalities dogs lived closely humans parallels communication


cognitive behaviours therefore recognised researched joly mascheroni colleagues demonstrated dogs may able catch human yawns suggested level empathy dogs point strongly debated pilley reid found border collie named chaser able successfully identify retrieve distinct objects toys animal cognition researchers study animal cognition interested understanding mental processes control complex behavior much work parallels cognitive psychologists working humans example extensive research animals attention categorization


understood optimized common causes disordered behavior captive pet animals lack stimulation inappropriate stimulation overstimulation conditions lead disorders unpredictable unwanted behavior sometimes even physical symptoms diseases example rats exposed loud music long period ultimately develop unwanted behaviors compared human psychosis like biting owners way dogs behave understimulated widely believed depend breed well individual animal 's character example huskies known ruin gardens houses