models used high growth market target customers markets untapped missed others industry growing industry high technology impact industry high capital intensity small average incumbent firm size team large gender diverse racially diverse team range talents rather individual entrepreneur graduate degrees management experience prior start work experience start industry employed full time prior new venture opposed unemployed prior entrepreneurial experience full time involvement new venture motivated range goals profit number diversity team


members' social ties breadth business networks company written business plan focus unified connected product line service line competition based dimension price eg quality service early frequent intense well targeted marketing tight financial controls sufficient start growth capital corporation model sole proprietorship status wealth enable entrepreneur cover start costs deal cash flow challenges dominant race ethnicity gender socially stratified culture see also references bibliography reading bruder jessica september

Applied science
Business
Entrepreneurship


https wwwinccom magazine jessica bruder psychological price entrepreneurshiphtml psychological price entrepreneurship ''inc'' winner annual awards contest nbsp deadline club folsom jr burton w ''the myth robber barons'' th ed whaples robert economic history entrepreneurship ''the routledge handbook modern economic history'' routledge external links business occupations business models business terms management occupations small business


tactic '''tactic''' conceptual action short series actions aim achieving short term goal action implemented one specific tasks term commonly used business protest military contexts well chess sports competitive activities word originated ancient greek ''taktike'' meaning ''art arrangement'' distinction strategy strategy set guidelines used achieve overall objective whereas tactics specific actions aimed adhering guidelines military usage military usage

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics


cover nora archibald smith 's book ''boys girls bookland'' illustrated jessie willcox smith '' 'sociology human consciousness''' '' 'sociology consciousness''' uses theories methodology sociology explore examine consciousness overview foundations work may traced philosopher sociologist george herbert mead whose work provided major insights formation mind concepts self internalization society individual social beings viewing emerging human interaction communication recent work brings

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of human consciousness


sociological social psychological perspective bear several key aspects consciousness inverts explanation starting collective phenomena one ends analyzing individual consciousness making inversion totally reject reductionist approaches deny value identifying hardware collective social psychological processes operate however would reject idea complete explanation formulated basis either purely sociological mechanisms underlying physical chemical neurological hormonal psychological factors processes critique reductionism perspective modern physics


biology see morowitz biological bio physical bases human life recognized however approaches cannot relied entirely part level analysis misdirected comes classes consciousness phenomena natural science approaches focus wrong levels wrong factors explain mysterious paradoxical features human consciousness theory sociological approach emphasizes importance language collective representations self conceptions self reflectivity theoretical approach argues shape feel human consciousness heavily


social less true experiences collective consciousness experiences individual consciousness theory suggests problem consciousness approached fruitfully beginning human group collective phenomena community language language based communication institutional cultural arrangements collective group population individuals possesses develops communication collective representations models opposed group community organization nation contrasted values goals structure modes operating relation


discuss also conversations selves individuals defining justifying stigmatizing human consciousness reflective activity human consciousness least one major sense type reflective activity entails capacity observe monitor judge decide collective self basis maintaining particular collective understood represented basis orienting organizing collective self response performance failings profound crisis economic political cultural collective reflectivity emerges function


group organization producing making use collective representations self discussions critical reflections planning actions individual consciousness individual consciousness normal outcome processes collective naming classifying monitoring judging reflecting individual members group organization individual collective context learns participate discussions discourses themself group reflections themself appearance orientations attitudes strategies conduct thus individual learns line george herbert mead 's earlier formulations naming classification themself self description


identity characterization judgments actions predispositions acquiring language conceptual framework mode activity along experience skills reflective discussion develop capability inner reflection inner dialog themself characteristic features particular type individual consciousness conception points socially constructed character key properties human mind realized processes social interaction social construction sum individual self representation self reference self reflectivity experiences consciousness derive collective experience construction selves reflectivity self reflectivity


type consciousness often facilitates critical examination construction selves collective well individual plays essential role human communities well individual beings face systematic highly risky performance failures new types problems self reflection agents may manage course directed problem solving develop effective institutional arrangements instance large scale means social coordination administration democratic association markets relationship social organization language based collective representations past well future enable agents escape present


enter future well past imagined worlds reflect together worlds moreover relation past present future agents may generate alternative representations alternative constructions imagined discussed struggled tested make generation variety major input evolutionary processes discussed elsewhere variety may also lead social conflicts agents disagree representations oppose implications remedies problems proposed particular agents opens way political struggles alternative conceptions solutions democratic politics entails times collective self reflectivity


par excellence general processes enhance collective capacity deal new challenges crises thus collective potentially rich basis talking discussing agreeing disagreeing variety objects including collective self well particular individual selves also means conceptualize develop alternative types social relationships effective forms leadership coordination control general new normative orders institutional arrangements collectives even develop potentialities collective representation self reflectivity instance innovations information accounting systems


discussed elsewhere instance case failures accounting systems recognize take account important social environmental conditions developments reflective problem solving powers may distorted generation alternatives varieties narrow largely ineffective social innovation transformation misdirected possibly self destructive thus presumed evolutionary advantages human reflectivity must qualified viewed conditional outlooks sum recent research building work george herbert mead suggests sociological social psychological perspective point departure define


analyze certain forms human consciousness precisely one class consciousness phenomena namely verbalized reflectivity monitoring discussing judging orienting organizing self representing analyzing characterizes self self perceives judges could hard problem consciousness approached fruitfully beginning human group collective phenomena community language language based communication institutional cultural arrangements collective representations self conceptions self referentiality collective reflectivity emerges function organization group producing making use collective representations self


group community organization nation discussions critical reflections decision making collective monitors discusses activities achievements failures reflects defined acting developing collective reflectivity encoded language developed conversations collective well individual selves individual consciousness seen deriving processes collective naming classifying monitoring judging reflecting conducting discussions discourses individual themself acquiring language conceptual framework mode activity along skills experiences reflective discussion develop capability inner


reflection inner discourse self characteristic features individual consciousness one also distinguish multiple modes individual awareness consciousness distinguishing awareness consciousness proper also identifying pre sub conscious levels points complexity human mind part elaboration processes social interaction construction bibliography walter f buckley mind mead mental behaviorism appears km kwan ed ''individuality social control essays honor tamotsu shibutani'' greenwich conn jai press tom r burns baumgartner dietz nora machado theory


actor system dynamics human agency rule systems cultural evolution ''encyclopedia life support systems'' paris unesco tom r burns engdahl erik social construction consciousness collective consciousness socio cultural foundations ''journal consciousness studies'' pp nbsp tom r burns engdahl erik b social construction consciousness individual selves self awareness reflectivity ''journal consciousness studies'' pp nbsp chalmers dj facing problem consciousness ''journal consciousness studies'' pp nbsp morowitz hj rediscovering mind dr hofstadter dc dennet eds ''the mind 's


surgically removed patient usually performed combination gross ie macroscopic histologic ie microscopic examination tissue may involve evaluations molecular properties tissue immunohistochemistry laboratory tests specimens two major types specimens submitted surgical pathology analysis ''biopsies'' ' 'surgical resections'' ''biopsy'' small piece tissue removed primarily purposes surgical pathology analysis often order render definitive diagnosis types biopsies include ''core biopsies'' obtained use large bore needles sometimes

Natural science
Biology
Pathology
Surgical pathology


guidance radiological techniques ultrasound ct scan magnetic resonance imaging core biopsies preserve tissue architecture confused fine needle aspiration specimens analyzed using cytopathology techniques ''incisional biopsies'' obtained diagnostic surgical procedures remove part suspicious lesion whereas ''excisional biopsies'' remove entire lesion similar therapeutic ' 'surgical resections'' excisional biopsies skin lesions gastrointestinal polyps common pathologist 's interpretation biopsy critical establishing diagnosis benign malignant tumor differentiate different types grades


cancer well determining activity specific molecular pathways tumor information important estimating patient 's prognosis choosing best treatment administer biopsies also used diagnose diseases cancer including inflammatory infectious idiopathic diseases skin gastrointestinal tract name ''surgical resection'' specimens obtained therapeutic surgical removal entire diseased area organ occasionally multiple organs procedures often intended definitive surgical treatment disease diagnosis already known


strongly suspected however pathological analysis specimens critically important confirming previous diagnosis staging extent malignant disease establishing whether entire diseased area removed process called determination surgical margin often using frozen section identifying presence unsuspected concurrent diseases providing information postoperative treatment adjuvant chemotherapy case cancer determination surgical margin surgical resection one use bread loafing technique ccpdma special type ccpdma named general surgeon mohs surgery


method workflow gross examination frozen section fixation embedding histopathologic examination ancillary testing surgical pathology report direct consultation subspecialties histologic slide demonstrating viral myocarditis infection heart muscle many pathologists seek fellowship level training otherwise pursue expertise focused area surgical pathology subspecialization particularly prevalent academic setting pathologists may specialise area diagnostic surgical pathology relevant research becoming increasingly prevalent private practice well subspecialization number benefits allowing increased experience skill interpreting challenging cases


well development closer working relationship pathologist clinicians within subspecialty area commonly recognized subspecialties surgical pathology include following bone pathology cardiac pathology cytopathology board certifiable subspecialty us dermatopathology board certifiable subspecialty us endocrine pathology gastrointestinal pathology genitourinary pathology gynecologic pathology hematopathology board certifiable subspecialty us neuropathology board certifiable subspecialty us recognised specialty uk ophthalmic pathology pediatric pathology board certifiable subspecialty us recognised specialty uk pulmonary pathology renal pathology soft tissue pathology breast pathology


see also anatomical pathology digital pathology telepathology list pathologists history pathology united states canadian academy pathology notes references bibliography external links http appspathologyjhuedu sp johns hopkins surgical pathology weekly unknown case conference anatomical pathology


'''molecular pathology''' emerging discipline within pathology focused study diagnosis disease examination molecules within organs tissues bodily fluids molecular pathology shares aspects practice anatomic pathology clinical pathology molecular biology biochemistry proteomics genetics sometimes considered crossover discipline multi disciplinary nature focuses mainly sub microscopic aspects disease key consideration accurate diagnosis possible diagnosis based morphologic changes tissues traditional anatomic pathology molecular

Natural science
Biology
Pathology
Molecular pathology


resistance ref name cai ref integration molecular pathology epidemiology led interdisciplinary field termed molecular pathological epidemiology mpe represents integrative molecular biologic population health science see also molecular diagnostics molecular medicine molecular pathological epidemiology pathology precision medicine references anatomical pathology


'''''journal clinical pathology jcp ''''' peer reviewed medical journal covering aspects pathology published bmj group co owned association clinical pathologists diagnostic research areas covered include histopathology virology haematology microbiology cytopathology chemical pathology molecular pathology forensic pathology dermatopathology neuropathology immunopathology issue contains reviews original articles short reports case reports correspondence book reviews ref name jcp https jcpbmjcom site indexxhtml ''journal clinical pathology'' ref ''journal clinical pathology'' incorporated ''molecular pathology'' published indexing impact journal abstracted indexed


science citation index index medicus medline scopus google scholar embase excerpta medica ref name jcp according ''journal citation reports'' impact factor ranking rd journals category pathology journal cited often following journals ''journal clinical pathology'' ''histopathology archives pathology laboratory medicine human pathology'' ''world journal gastroenterology'' journals cited often ''journal clinical pathology'' ''journal clinical pathology'' ''american journal surgical pathology cancer cancer research'' ''modern pathology'' references external links


pathology journals monthly journals english language journals publications established bmj group academic journals


statue peace cheonan south korea '' 'sociological study peace war social conflict''' uses sociological theory methods analyze group conflicts especially collective violence alternative constructive nonviolent forms conflict transformation laws section peace war social conflict american sociological association specify blockquote purpose section peace war social conflict foster development application sociological theories methods understanding study dynamics collective conflict prevention conduct resolution included study military

Sociology of peace, war, and social conflict


institutions conflict collectivities countries ethnic groups political movements religious groups also included roles military organizations governmental organizations non governmental organizations social movements blockquote see also amity enmity complex bandwagon effect failed state groupthink ideocracy peace conflict studies political midlife crisis power politics power politics wight book military sociology sociology terrorism societal collapse state collapse true believer anatomy revolution notes references reading sinisa malesevic sociology war violence cambridge cambridge university press john macdougall morten g ender ''teaching sociology peace war social


conflict curriculum guide'' american sociological association conflict process majority minority relations


two dogs showing threat display playful mock combat '''mock combat''' involves execution combative actions without intent harm participants engage sparring ritual training recreational performance reasons nature mock combat vary realistic symbolic mock combat classified choreographed unchoreographed forms unchoreographed display behaviour tournament species threat display ritual battle tinku battle reenactment military simulation war games sparring choreographed stage combat theatrical fencing cinematic fencing arranged performance fighting war dance capoeira juego de man kailao kata japanese martial arts hyung

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Mock combat


poomsae korean martial arts professional wrestling references


children play '''childhood studies''' '''children 's studies''' '''cs''' multidisciplinary field seeks understand experience childhood historically contemporary world childhood studies view childhood complex social phenomenon ref name ref emphasis children 's agency social actors children 's studies acknowledge childhood socially constructed thing childhood means universal ref name cs draws scholarship social sciences specifically anthropology economics history sociology humanities especially literature religion philosophy fine arts

Social science
Sociology
Cultural studies
Childhood Studies


institution initiated establishment sociology children new field section within american sociological association time european colleagues sociology established sociology childhood subsequent years started field childhood studies developments united states europe help account conceptual confusion appears exist children 's studies childhood studies founding interdisciplinary field children 's studies colleagues different disciplines fall gertrud lenzer set establish sociology children


end wrote article august titled sufficient interest establish sociology children asa journal ''footnotes'' james coleman asa president elect writes addendum article believe call increased attention sociology children well placed may new section asa best way help many colleagues across united states new section officially established academic growth interdisciplinary subfields northumbria university joint honours degree one


first offer degree childhood studies uk begun united states dozens children childhood modules minors concentrations within degree programs academic disciplines well ba master 's programs across globe york university canada quotes lenzer proposal new degree program children studies writing special issue lion unicorn gertrud lenzer co founder director children 's studies program children 's studies center brooklyn college provides brief history


humanities social sciences international law limited efficacy studies children childhood intellectual division labor children related scholarship across disciplines largely adding new subspecialties within disciplines contrast lenzer emphasizes need holistic interdisciplinary indeed humanities based approaches children 's studies fully characterized psychological developmental processes nbsp single perspective nbsp also exist nbsp individuals social cultural class historical generation york 's children 's studies program adopts many goals lenzer proposes emerging area genuinely


interdisciplinary multidisciplinary new field study bringing carefully chosen knowledge children different studies bear upon class category children students liberal arts course learning hope holistic understanding children childhood emerge end represent simply sum parts nbsp children 's studies nbsp makes ontological claim children must viewed fullness human beings importance field study underscored march see wizard quests memory


children 's literature conference roni natov author poetics childhood suggested interdisciplinary childhood studies would transform future understandings children children 's literature rutgers university camden developed first childhood studies department united states award degrees ba phd multi disciplinary department phd students study range methodologies explore cultural constructions childhood rutgers university camden also operates center children 's childhood studies rutgers university press book series childhood studies exploring childhood studies listserve online community academics


practitioners studying children childhood every discipline around world major international journal field ''childhood'' established ''palgrave handbook childhood studies'' edited jens qvortrup william corsaro michael sebastian honig published international childhood studies new developments field childhood studies include founding international childhood studies interested global international structures processes shape children 's lives cultures childhood birkbeck college offers msc phd study international childhood studies department geography environment development studies http wwwbbkacuk study pg childhoodstudies tmsintchhtml


reflecting strong interest field intersections childhood international development karen wells writes childhood global perspective polity 'global processes structures especially increasing influence international law international ngos reshaping childhood' developments area include launch new journal global studies childhood two year esrc seminar series violence childhood international perspectives wwwinternationalchildhoodstudiesorg important developments establishment research section sociology children youth american sociological association thematic group


sociology childhood international sociological association william corsaro jeylan mortimer first recipients distinguished career awards viviana zelizer jens qvortrup first recipients distinguished career service awards sociology children youth section us national children 's study us national children 's study formulated politicians realized importance disciplines study simple subjects compared british birth cohort studies us lacks strong tradition surveys children however still plenty surveys focusing


health certain theories claim adults mature reasonable children hand said contrast still developing ref name ref also said childhood studies retains modernist agenda ref name due children 's position society multiple opportunities ways children exercise social agency ref name theoretical advances made psychology emphasize need contextualize development children ref name see also otherness childhood references reading '''books''' ''the palgrave handbook childhood studies'' ed jens qvortrup


beginnings purposes ''the lion unicorn'' johns hopkins university press lenzer gertrud sufficient interest establish sociology children ''footnotes'' p nbsp lesnik oberstein karin ed ''children culture approaches childhood'' london palgrave lesnik oberstein karin ed ''children culture revisited approaches childhood'' london palgrave mayall berry towards sociology childhood thinking children 's lives open university press mills jean richard mills ''childhood studies reader perspectives childhood'' london routledge rothstein edward childhood changed adults ''the new york times''


'''philosophy engineering''' emerging discipline considers engineering engineers work affects society thus includes aspects ethics aesthetics well ontology epistemology etc might studied example philosophy science philosophy technology history engineering profession aimed modifying natural environment design manufacture maintenance artifacts technological systems might contrasted science aim ''understand'' nature engineering core causing change

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of engineering


therefore management change central engineering practice philosophy engineering consideration philosophical issues apply engineering issues might include objectivity experiments ethics engineering activity workplace society aesthetics engineered artifacts etc engineering seems historically meant ' 'devising'' distinction art craft technology n't clearcut latin root ''ars'' germanic root ''kraft'' greek root ''techne'' originally meant skill ability produce something opposed say athletic ability something might


tangible like sculpture building less tangible like work literature nowadays ''art'' commonly applied visual performing literary fields especially called fine arts 'the art writing' ''craft'' usually applies manual skill involved manufacture object whether embroidery aircraft 'the craft typesetting' ''technology'' tends mean products processes currently used industry 'the technology printing' contrast ''engineering'' activity effecting change design manufacture artifacts 'the engineering print technology' ethics


distinguishes engineering design artistic design requirement engineer make quantitative predictions behavior effect artifact prior manufacture predictions may less accurate usually includes effects individuals society sense engineering considered social well technological discipline judged whether artifacts work narrow sense also influence serve social values engineers subject moral evaluation ref name ra http wwwraengorguk events pdf systems engineeringpdf nd philosophy engineering seminar information ref modeling socio technical


systems transport utilities related infrastructures comprise human elements well artifacts traditional mathematical physical modeling techniques may take adequate account effects engineering people culture ref name ra civil engineering discipline makes elaborate attempts ensure structure meets specifications requirements prior actual construction methods employed well known analysis design systems modelling description ref name sm ref makes effort extract generic unstated principles behind engineering approach product life cycle traditional engineering disciplines seem discrete engineering


artifacts implications extend beyond disciplines areas might include psychology finance sociology design artifact take account conditions manufactured conditions used conditions disposed engineers consider life cycle issues without losing precision rigor necessary design functional systems ref name ra see also carl mitcham henry petroski philosophy technology philosophy science ethics science engineering ethics publications books p gunn ''engineering ethics


environment'' cambridge university press new york addis w ''structural engineering nature theory design'' ellis horwood chichester uk addis w ''theory design civil structural engineering study history philosophy engineering'' phd thesis university reading bucciarelli ''engineering philosophy'' delft university press delft bush v ''sciencethe endless frontier'' national science foundation press washington dc beale n peyton jones sl et al ''cybernauts awake'' ethical spiritual implications computers information technology internet church house publishing isbn cutcliffe sh ''ideas machines values


introduction science technology social studies'' rowman littlefield lanham md davis ''thinking like engineer studies ethics profession'' oxford university press new york florman samuel c ''blaming technology irrational search scapegoats'' st martin 's press new york florman samuel c ''the civilized engineer'' st martin 's press new york florman samuel c ''engineering liberal arts technologist 's guide history literature'' florman samuel c ''the existential pleasures engineering'' nd ed st martin 's press new york florman samuel c ''the introspective engineer'' st martin 's


press new york goldman sl social captivity engineering ''critical perspectives non academic science engineering'' ed durbin pt lehigh university press bethlehem pa goldman sl philosophy engineering western culture ''broad narrow interpretations philosophy technology'' ed durbin pt kluweramsterdam harris ec pritchard ms rabins mj ''engineering ethics concepts cases'' wadsworth belmont ca johnston gostelow p jones e ''engineering society australian perspective'' nd ed longman lewis arthur jr ed ''of men machines'' ep dutton martin mw schinzinger r ''ethics


engineering'' rd ed mcgraw hill new york mitcham c ''thinking technology path engineering philosophy'' university chicago press chicago pp nbsp mumford l ''the myth machine'' harcourt brace javonovich new york http bridgesmyengineeringsystemscouk pages structural design safety professor david blockleypdf blockley david nature structural design safety ellis howood chichester uk free download http bridgesmyengineeringsystemscouk pages engineering safety david blockleypdf blockley david editor engineering safety mcgraw hill free download https globaloupcom academic product engineering short introduction cc gb lang en blockley david ''a short introduction engineering'' oxford university press petroski henry ''to engineer human role failure successful design'' petroski henry ''the essential engineer


science alone solve global problems '' simon h ''the sciences artificial'' rd ed mit press cambridge unger sh ''controlling technology ethics responsible engineer'' nd ed john wiley new york vincenti wg ''what engineers know know analytical studies aeronautical history'' johns hopkins university press baltimore md jeroen van den hoven seumas miller thomas pogge designing ethics cambridge university press cambridge priyan dias ''philosophy engineering practice context ethics models failure'' springer singapore carl mitcham ''steps toward


philosophy engineering historico philosophical critical essays'' articles https wwwingeniaorguk getattachment ingenia issue philosophy making mccarthypdf philosophy making natasha mccarthy ''ingenia'' march creed mj introducing structures modern curriculum proceedings conference innovation change civil engineering education queen 's university belfast davis ''the professional approach engineering ethics five research questions'' ''science engineering ethics'' july lewin engineering philosophy third culture paper royal society uk mitcham c engineering design research social responsibility ''ethics scientific research'' pp nbsp hess jl fore


g systematic literature review us engineering ethics interventions ''science engineering ethics'' '' '' pp mitcham c englehardt ee ethics across curriculum prospects broader deeper teaching learning research engineering ethics ''science engineering ethics'' '' '' pp notes references external links https wwwingeniaorguk getattachment ingenia issue philosophy making mccarthypdf philosophy making natasha mccarthy ''ingenia'' march https wwwraengorguk policy engineering ethics philosophy royal academy engineering 'philosophy' ethics philosophy


several approaches defining substance scope '''technology policy''' according american scientist policy advisor lewis branscomb technology policy concerns public means nurturing capabilities optimizing applications service national goals interests ref name branscomb branscomb l confessions technophile springer science business media ref branscomb defines technology context aggregation capabilities facilities skills knowledge organization required successfully create useful service product ref name branscomb scholars differentiate technology policy science policy suggesting former

Applied science
Public administration
Science policy
Technology policy


support enhancement development technology latter focuses development science training scientists rigas arvanitis institut de recherche pour le veloppement france suggests science technology policy covers public sector measures designed creation funding support mobilisation scientific technological resources ref name arvanitis arvanitis rigas ''science technology policy'' eolss publishers company limited ref technology policy form active industrial policy effectively argues based empirical facts technological development observed across various societies industries time


periods markets rarely decide industrial fortunes state intervention support required overcome standard cases market failure may include example funding research development highly competitive complex markets ref name borris stowsky borris stowsky j technology policy economic growth uc berkeley berkeley roundtable international economy ref technology policy may broadly defined https wwwjbscamacuk faculty research faculty z michael pollitt michael g pollitt offers multidisciplinary approach social science humanities perspective good policy technology management technology management policy organisational level viewed lens complexity


involves management inherently complex system systems complex distinct properties arise relationships nonlinearity emergence spontaneous order adaptation feedback loops among others according richard cook cognitive technologies laboratory university chicago complex systems intrinsically hazardous systems interesting systems eg transportation healthcare power generation inherently unavoidably hazardous nature frequency hazard exposure sometimes changed processes involved system intrinsically irreducibly hazardous presence hazards


drives creation defenses hazard characterize systems success failure organisations firms depends effective management innovation technology policy programmes technological determinism technological determinism presumes society 's technology drives development social structure cultural values ref name determinism term believed coined thorstein veblen american sociologist economist radical technological determinist united states th century likely clarence ayres follower thorstein veblen john dewey william ogburn also


known radical technological determinism viewed lens science policy public policy directly affect funding capital equipment intellectual infrastructure industrial research providing tax incentives direct funding indirect support organizations fund conduct research vannevar bush director office scientific research development us government july wrote science proper concern government vannevar bush directed forerunner national science foundation writings directly inspired researchers invent hyperlink computer mouse darpa initiative


support computing impetus internet protocol stack way scientific consortiums like cern high energy physics commitment public knowledge access public knowledge physics led directly cern 's sponsorship development world wide web standard internet access first major elaboration technological determinist view socioeconomic development came german philosopher economist karl marx whose theoretical framework grounded perspective changes technology specifically productive technology primary influence human social relations


organizational structure social relations cultural practices ultimately revolve around technological economic base given society marx 's position become embedded contemporary society idea fast changing technologies alter human lives pervasive ref name determinism ref although many authors attribute technologically determined view human history marx 's insights marxists technological determinists authors question extent marx determinist furthermore multiple forms technological determinism ref name karl marx three faces technological determinism ref subject technology means


liberation enslavement david cooper wrote people myopically impressed world object beauty worship die myopically impressed source energy even prosper ref name cooper ref although technological determinists believe continuous innovation technology many scientists believe innovation slowed example artificial intelligence gaining prominence throughout society scientists fear potential developing cognitive skills humans could force many individuals jobs even put lives innocent people danger famously


scientist entrepreneur elon musk public current progression computing ai believes fast rate artificial intelligence become smarter place man vulnerable position newly created ai algorithms identify humans expendable ref name ref although extreme musk many remain cautious around progression artificial intelligence technological advances may render power man opposite technological determinism destroying societies ref name technology policy economics technology policy takes evolutionary approach technical change


hereby relates evolutionary growth theory developed luigi pasinetti js metcalfe pier paolo saviotti koen frenken others building early work david ricardo js metcalfe noted much traditional economic theory technology policy concerned called 'market failures' prevent attainment pareto equilibria violating one die conditions perfect competition contrast evolutionary paradigm classic political science teaches technology static black box similarly neoclassical economics treats technology residual exogenous factor explain otherwise inexplicable growth


example shocks supply boost production affecting equilibrium price level economy united states creation us office science technology policy responded need policy approaches wherein technologies treated identical based social economic variables technology policy distinct science studies influenced thomas samuel kuhn research technology policy domain recognizes importance amongst others vannevar bush moses abramovitz william j abernathy james utterback technology policy approaches science pursuit verifiable


falsifiable hypotheses science studies post modern view whereby science thought get objective reality technology policy rarely post modern goal improvement policy organizations based evolutionary view understanding underlying scientific technological constraints involved economic development also potential example clean coal technologies via carbon sequestration allocating electromagnetic spectrum auction ideas emerged technology policy schools dominant design paradigm developed william j abernathy james utterback idea significant implications


innovation market structure competitive dynamics within nations emerged empirical research technology management domain technology policy regulating internet united states net neutrality greatly discussed politics idea corporations governments internet providers discriminate content internet came early internet providers comcast restricting customers like accessing virtual private network vpns using wi fi routers term net neutrality created


tim wu columbia university law professor called net neutrality laws due concern restricting certain internet access would greatly inhibit long term innovation ref name ref shortly federal communications commission fcc bush administration issued policy statement restricted providers disallowing users access legal content internet allowing american citizens freely connect devices whichever internet connections desire ref name shortly creation fcc began enforcing new rules found north carolina internet provider madison river guilty interrupting


internet phone calls fcc dealt company fines demanded madison river halt unlawful actions ref name ref n't long policy statement 's authority came question comcast sued fcc federal court found fcc legal power enforce policy statement attempted restrict comcast slowing customers' connection bittorrent due greatly contributing piracy ref name ref greatly impact fcc 's power however forced apple discontinue restricting customers


making skype calls ref name comcast case looming fcc desired restructure rules make stronger court obama administration however new legislation verizon filed another lawsuit fcc federal court found title ii communications act fcc jurisdiction regulate corporations common carriers ref name ref address issue former fcc chair tom wheeler decided deem broadband carriers like verizon title ii carriers enabling


agency regulate sparked passing new net neutrality order still receiving lawsuits many corporations new order finally held strong federal court court declared agency 's new rules fact authority fcc ref name trump administration president donald trump appointed ajit pai new fcc chairman january lead voting policy order december new regulation rules order dropped entirely


regulation stated broadband carriers required publicly reveal managing networks ref name ref supporters new regulation claim reversing former net neutrality policy networks internet providers incentive innovate improve networks charging large companies internet usage introducing competition october federal appeals court ruled fcc 's reversal policy order imposed regulations fact lawful surveillance censorship one way governments use technology policy benefit mass surveillance


citizens ref name ref nations around globe use technologies certain polices listen people 's phone calls read emails text messages track citizens' gps many actions claiming improving national safety country ref name however nations abuse power mass surveillance inhibit freedom citizens ref name examples nations currently employing mass surveillance class wikitable name country examples surveillance china '''internet surveillance''' chinese government requires major companies alibaba baidu bytedance tencent track


information citizens' activity blog posts chat rooms short video platforms webcasts china prompts citizens delete dangerous content devices grants access approved applications content chinese companies required hand data government moments notice '''video surveillance''' legislation china monitors people using thousands cameras use ai facial recognition track actions people chinese law enforcement wears facial recognition glasses capable scanning identifying civilians seconds india '''telecommunications surveillance''' legislation


sites regional slowdowns order discourage civilian communication north korea '''internet information restrictions''' north korea 's leader kim jong un controls public information serving harsh punishments individuals attempt access content outside restrictions regime owning news outlets north korea regulates limits kinds information citizens access looser restrictions applied elites university students ref name canadian journalists free expression access date ref government gives people radio television sets access government stations radio


devices needing regular registrations police ref name united states '''telecommunications internet surveillance''' fisa amendment act passed president bush nsa 's power monitor citizens' electronic communications largely expanded allows monitor individuals contact foreigners also permitting government conduct surveillance people without probable cause call technology policy politics prevalence technology throughout power politics raised concerns speed technological change difficulty regulating


us presidential election neil jenkins director office cybersecurity communications department homeland security revealed russian government actors hacked democratic national committee 's servers steal information republican candidate donald trump ref name ref russian infiltrators stop new information showed someone attempted breach election system viewing state 's voter registration database stealing information registered voters ref name ref additionally arizona received cyber attacks ip addresses used previous illinois attacks


install malware long jenkins found many states received attacks ip address ref name reports senate intelligence committee concluded russia targeted every us state given breaches many different election systems throughout election political figures nationwide taken firm stance using electronic voting machines avoid future interference one organization leads push toward us paper voting verified voting foundation foundation members believe order protect safety us elections


future government officials must connected experts field technology ensure unsecured unreliable voting machines used electoral process one board directors barbra simons gone far proclaiming voting machines forbidden us elections many colleagues agree data available online subject attack also election data firm cambridge analytica became heavily involved enacting donald trump th president united states trump campaign hired


firm guide data collecting process cambridge analytica managed scrape data million users detailed users' personal information ref name ref data originated aleksandr kogan former psychology professor university cambridge gave cambridge analytica using data extracting technique utilized university users filled personality survey download app ref name data company created personality profiles users mapped trends likes friends direct certain ads toward user ref name ref considering


adults receive news social networks like facebook cambridge analytica influenced result election leaves many wondering role big data electoral process due influence big data election call limit access usage sparked movement toward creating policy restrict companies access data called great privacy awakening june california enacted california consumer privacy act states companies must declassify sort data collect grant users option


delete data leaves rest us watching see effectiveness california law hopes protect us citizens becoming victim unethical data practices everyday life many technological interventions everyday lives citizens raising concern future regulation self driving cars self driving cars grabbed attention many including rideshare company uber march company tested ai driven vehicle tempe arizona test vehicle struck killed year old woman ref name ref x pxin test


self driving vehicle monitored uber employee deemed watchdog ref name ref later revealed reasoning accident due issue programming vehicle 's ai company failed create code capable detecting jaywalkers rather classifying jaywalking pedestrian human code defined woman code protocol perform n't seconds impact code detected bicycle alerted vehicle brake car began slow


late avoid accident ref name later determined investigation conducted national transportation safety board ntsb uber watchdog distracted mobile device ref name ref news called us government create policy protect citizens incidents result ntsb released new regulation required companies testing autonomous vehicles public roads safety procedures thoroughly inspected hand recorded would subject regulatory confirmation ref name drones x px another emerging technology captivated individuals worldwide


civil use drones drones aerial vehicles controlled secondary device like remote control cell phone commonly equipped camera uploading video user 's device real time raised concerns safety privacy many believe flying drones intrude individuals fourth amendment right protects individuals privacy others believe drones pose threat collisions aircraft ref name ref response concerns december federal aviation administration faa created rules stated


electronic privacy information center ref name ref concerns mind june faa released federal policy made using drones much easier companies would able fly drones pounds operated person years old flown feet miles away airport ref name although companies could use drones faa failed allow drones used commercial package delivery due restriction drone must stay sight operator ref name policy schools study technology policy


technology management '''engineering policy''' taught multiple universities engineering http wwwjbscamacuk programmes mphil techpol indexhtml mphil technology policy university cambridge judge business school department engineering university cambridge united kingdom born cambridge mit institute http tppmitedu msc technology policy http esdmitedu engineering systems division mit http wwweppcmuedu engineering public policy carnegie mellon university https sitestuftsedu cybersecurityandpublicpolicy ms program ms cybersecurity public policy fletcher school tufts university http wwwstanfordedu dept msande department engineering economic systems operations research stanford http demistutlpt centre innovation policy technology research ist lisbon portugal http wwwtbmtudelftnl en


technology policy management tu delft netherlands https webarchiveorg web http wwwstonybrookedu est indexhtml department technology society stony brook university http wwwritedu cla publicpolicy academics bsms overview bs ms engineering science technology public policy rochester institute technology rochester ny information technology http heinzcmuedu heinz college information systems public policy carnegie mellon university https citpprincetonedu center information technology policy princeton university http wwwischoolberkeleyedu school information university california berkeley http wwwinformaticsindianaedu informatics indiana university bloomington http wwwsiumichedu school information university michigan http istpsuedu penn state college information sciences technology science technology spru science technology


policy research http stpsmetuedutr metu science technology policy studies http wwwritedu cla publicpolicy academics science technology public policy ms ms science technology public policy rochester institute technology rochester ny http wwwsppgatechedu school public policy georgia tech school future innovation society arizona state university see also artificial intelligence law industrial policy net neutrality president 's council advisors science technology president 's science advisory committee regulation unmanned aerial vehicles technology management telecommunications policy united states references new economics technology policy auth dominique foray ed edward elgar mastering new role shaping technology policy


national economic performance ed nap technology global industry companies nations world economy ed nap external links http wwwlinkedincom groupsmostpopular gid technology policy group linkedin innovation economics technology society science policy


soldiers britain 's royal artillery train virtual world exercise steel sabre '''military simulations''' also known informally '''war games''' simulations theories warfare tested refined without need actual hostilities military simulations seen useful way develop tactical strategical doctrinal solutions critics argue conclusions drawn models inherently flawed due approximate nature models used many professional analysts object term ''wargames'' generally taken referring civilian hobby thus

Applied science
Military sciences
Organization
Military simulation


preference term ' 'simulation'' simulations exist many different forms varying degrees realism recent times scope simulations widened include military also political social factors seen inextricably entwined realistic warfare model whilst many governments make use simulation individually collaboratively little known outside professional circles yet modelling often means governments test refine military political policies simulation spectrum military simulations range field exercises computer simulations analytical models


realism live manoeuvres countered economy abstract simulations term ''military simulation'' cover wide spectrum activities ranging full scale field exercises abstract computerized models proceed little human involvement rand strategy assessment center rsac general scientific principle reliable data comes actual observation reliable theories depend also holds true military analysis analysts look towards live field exercises trials providing data likely realistic depending realism exercise verifiable


existing ones full scale military exercises even smaller scale ones always feasible even desirable availability resources including money significant factor costs lot release troops materiel standing commitments transport suitable location cover additional expenses petroleum oil lubricants pol usage equipment maintenance supplies consumables replenishment items addition certain warfare models lend verification using realistic method might example prove counter productive accurately test attrition scenario killing one 's troops


moving away field exercise often convenient test theory reducing level personnel involvement map exercises conducted involving senior officers planners without need physically move around troops retain human input thus still reflect extent human imponderables make warfare challenging model advantage reduced costs increased accessibility map exercise also conducted far less forward planning full scale deployment making attractive option minor simulations


prussian army promoted use training aid manual simulations probably use form since mankind first went war chess regarded form military simulation although precise origins debated recent times forerunner modern simulations prussian game ''kriegsspiel'' appeared around sometimes credited prussian victory franco prussian war distributed prussian regiment ordered play regularly prompting visiting german officer declare 's game


's training war eventually many rules sprang regiment improvised variations two versions came use one known rigid ''kriegsspiel'' played strict adherence lengthy rule book free ''kriegsspiel'' governed decisions human umpires ref name matute edgardo b matute birth evolution war games ''military review'' p ref version advantages disadvantages rigid ''kriegsspiel'' contained rules covering situations rules derived historical battles situations occurred making simulation verifiable


rooted observable data later american models discarded however prescriptive nature acted impulse participants towards free creative thinking conversely free ''kriegsspiel'' could encourage type thinking rules open interpretation umpires could adapted operation interpretation though tended negate verifiable nature simulation different umpires might well adjudge situation different ways especially lack historical precedent addition allowed umpires weight outcome consciously otherwise arguments


still cogent modern computer heavy military simulation environment remains recognised place umpires arbiters simulation hence persistence manual simulations war colleges throughout world computer assisted entirely computerised simulations common well used required circumstances rand corporation one best known designers military simulations us government air force one pioneers political military simulation ''safe'' strategic force evaluation simulation example manual simulation one teams


ten participants sequestered separate rooms moves overseen independent director staff simulations may conducted days thus requiring commitment participants initial scenario example conflict breaking persian gulf presented players appropriate historical political military background information set amount time discuss formulate strategy input directors umpires often called ''control'' required one team participating teams may divided partisan lines traditionally


''blue'' ''red'' used designations ''blue'' representing 'home' nation ''red'' opposition case teams work moves counter moves relayed opponents control also adjudicate results moves set intervals control declare change scenario usually period days weeks present evolving situation teams based reading might develop result moves made example blue team might decide respond


gulf conflict moving carrier battle group area whilst simultaneously using diplomatic channels avert hostilities red team hand might decide offer military aid one side another perhaps seeing opportunity gain influence region counter blue 's initiatives point control could declare week passed present updated scenario players possibly situation deteriorated blue must decide wish pursue military option alternatively tensions might eased onus lies


red whether escalate providing direct aid clients ''computer assisted'' simulations really development manual simulation different variants theme sometimes computer assistance nothing database help umpires keep track information manual simulation times one teams might replaced computer simulated opponent known ''agent'' ''automaton'' reduce umpires' role interpreter data produced agent remove need


umpire altogether commercial wargames designed run computers ''blitzkrieg'' ''total war'' series ''civilization'' games even ''arma '' fall category agents replace human teams simulation become fully computerised minimal supervision run main advantage ready accessibility simulation beyond time required program update computer models special requirements necessary fully computerised simulation run virtually time almost location equipment needed laptop computer


need juggle schedules suit busy participants acquire suitable facilities arrange use obtain security clearances additional important advantage ability perform many hundreds even thousands iterations time would take manual simulation run means statistical information gleaned model outcomes quoted terms probabilities plans developed accordingly removing human element entirely means results simulation good model validation thus becomes extremely significant data must correct


lanchester law often known ''attrition model'' applied show balance opposing forces one side loses numerical strength heuristic stochastic another method categorising military simulations divide two broad areas heuristic simulations run intention stimulating research problem solving necessarily expected provide empirical solutions stochastic simulations involve least extent element chance military simulations fall somewhere two definitions although manual


sort randomised element run many times provide outcomes terms probabilities situations sometimes happens unusual results interest expected ones example simulation modelling invasion nation nation b put one hundred iterations determine likely depth penetration 's territory b 's forces four weeks average result could calculated examining results might found average penetration around fifty kilometres however would also outlying results


ends probability curve one end could feba found hardly moved penetration could hundreds kilometres instead tens analyst would examine outliers determine case first instance might found computer model 's random number generator delivered results 's divisional artillery much effective normal second might model generated spell particularly bad weather kept 's air force


grounded analysis used make recommendations perhaps look ways artillery made effective invest weather fighter ground attack aircraft political military simulations since carl von clausewitz' famous declaration war merely continuation politics means military planners attempted integrate political goals military goals planning varying degrees commitment post world war ii political military simulation west initially almost exclusively concerned rise soviet union superpower recently focused


global 'war terror' became apparent order model ideologically motivated enemy general asymmetric warfare particular political factors taken account realistic grand strategic simulation differed markedly traditional approach military simulations ''kriegsspiel'' concerned movement engagement military forces subsequent simulations similarly focused approach following prussian success austria sadowa austrians french british italians japanese russians began make use wargaming training tool united states


enable selection decision favorable outcome produced regardless opponent 's decision first modern political military simulation appeared although germans modeled polish invasion germany could fairly labeled political military united states would elevate simulation tool statecraft impetus us concern burgeoning nuclear arms race soviet union exploded first nuclear weapon developed first true 'h' bomb permanent gaming facility created


pentagon various professional analysts brought run including social scientist herbert goldhamer economist andrew marshall mit professor lincoln p bloomfield notable us political military simulations run since world war ii include aforementioned ''safe'' ''straw'' ''str''ategic ''a''ir ''w''ar ''cow'' ''co''ld ''w''ar typical political military simulation manual computer assisted heuristic type model many research organizations think tanks throughout world involved providing service governments cold war rand corporation massachusetts institute technology amongst others ran simulations pentagon included modeling vietnam


war fall shah iran rise pro communist regimes south america tensions india pakistan china various potential flashpoints africa southeast asia ref name allen war games allen ''war games'' ref mit rand remain heavily involved us military simulation along institutions harvard stanford national defense university nations equivalent organizations cranfield institute 's defense academy formerly royal military college science united kingdom participants pentagon simulations sometimes high rank including members congress white house


insiders well senior military officers identity many participants remains secret even today tradition us simulations run many nations participants guaranteed anonymity main reason occasionally may take role express opinion odds professional public stance example portraying fundamentalist terrorist advocating hawkish military action thus could harm reputation career game persona became widely known also traditional game roles played


within simulation environment well former us president ronald reagan keen visitor simulations conducted observer official explained president ever disclose hand even war game political military simulations remain widespread use today modern simulations concerned potential war superpowers international cooperation rise global terrorism smaller brushfire conflicts kosovo bosnia sierra leone sudan example ''mne'' ''m''ulti''n''ational ''e''xperiment series simulations


run atat rk wargaming simulation culture center istanbul recent years latest mne took place early mne includes participants australia finland sweden north atlantic treaty organization nato including canada france germany united kingdom united states designed explore use diplomatic economic military power global arena simulation reality ideally military simulations realistic possible designed way provide measurable repeatable results confirmed observation real world events


especially true simulations stochastic nature used manner intended produce useful predictive outcomes user simulations must always bear mind however ''approximation'' reality hence accurate model validation context simulation validation process testing model supplying historical data comparing output known historical result model reliably reproduce known results considered validated assumed capable


providing predictive outputs within reasonable degree uncertainty battle river plate predicted pratt 's naval warfare model despite taking heavy damage lighter british cruisers able defeat much larger opponent german battleship ''admiral graf spee'' developing realistic models proven somewhat easier naval simulations land one pioneers naval simulations fletcher pratt designed naval war game late able validate model almost immediately applying encounter german pocket


airing often controversial views said many analysts planners convinced neither history data past wars relevance ''numbers predictions war'' implies model cannot even reproduce known outcome little whimsy basis reality historically even rare occasions simulation validated carried one notable occurrence famous ardennes offensive world war ii germans attacked allied forces period bad weather


front game moves next hours simulation reality ran hand hand officers game table decided situation warranted commitment reserves commander th ''panzer'' division able turn table issue operational orders moves gaming division mobilised shortest possible time american attack repulsed validation particular issue political military simulations since much data produced subjective one controversial doctrine arose early post wwii simulations signalling idea


carry limited bombing campaign selected industrial targets north vietnam intention signal north vietnamese high command whilst united states clearly capable destroying much greater proportion infrastructure nature warning scale involvement south 'or else' unfortunately anonymous analyst said offensive failed political aims either n't understand understand n't care ref name allen war games pointed critics since red blue teams


sigma played americans common language training thought processes background relatively easy signals sent one team understood signals however seem translate well across cultural divide problems simulation many criticisms directed towards military simulations derive incorrect application predictive analytical tool outcome supplied model relies greater lesser extent human interpretation therefore regarded providing 'gospel' truth however whilst generally understood game


model event revealed text fact three sets results simulation best intermediate worst case outcome advocate war chose present best case outcome thus distorting results support case mock battleship row pearl harbor image recreated later japanese propaganda film although fictional scenario may however based fact japanese extensively wargamed planned expansion world war ii map exercises conducted pacific war


frequently stopped short conclusion japan defeated one often cited example prior midway umpires magically resurrecting japanese carrier sunk map exercise although professor robert rubel argues ''naval war college review'' decision justified case given improbable rolls dice given historical outcome evident dice rolls improbable however equally illustrative fundamental problems areas simulation mainly relating japanese unwillingness consider position element surprise


operation depended lost tweaking simulations make results conform current political military thinking recurring problem us naval exercises informally understood high value units aircraft carriers allowed sunk naval policy time concentrated tactical interest units outcome one largest ever nato exercises ''ocean venture '' around naval vessels including two carrier battle groups adjudged successfully traversed atlantic reached norwegian sea despite existence real strong soviet


submarine fleet well simulated red team opposition publicly questioned ''proceedings'' professional journal us naval institute us navy managed get article classified remains secret day article 's author chief analyst ocean venture lieutenant commander dean l knuth since claimed two blue aircraft carriers successfully attacked sunk red forces many charges years computerised models unrealistic slanted towards particular outcome critics point case military contractors seeking sell


weapons system obvious reasons cost weapons systems air air missile system use fighter aircraft extensively modelled computer without testing potential buyer must rely large extent manufacturer 's model might well indicate effective system high kill probability ''pk'' however may model configured show weapons system ideal conditions actual operational effectiveness somewhat less stated us air force quoted aim sidewinder missile pk


successfully destroy targets fired operational use falklands war british recorded actual pk another factor render model invalid human error one notorious example us air force 's ''advanced penetration model'' due programming error made us bombers invulnerable enemy air defences inadvertently altering latitude longitude checking location missile impact effect 'teleporting' bomber instant impact hundreds even thousands miles away


causing missile miss furthermore error went unnoticed number years ref name allen allen ''war games'' p ref unrealistic models battleships consistently steaming seventy knots twice top speed entire tank army halted border police detachment attrition levels higher numbers force began ref name allen issues enemy technical capability military philosophy also affect model used whilst modeller sufficiently high security clearance access relevant data expect create reasonably accurate picture nation 's military


capacity creating similarly detailed picture potential adversary may extremely difficult military information technical specifications weapons systems tactical doctrine high list nation 's closely guarded secrets however difficulty discovering ''unknown'' least known exists seems trivial compared discovering ''unguessed'' len deighton famously pointed ''spy story'' enemy unanticipated capability almost always may render tactical strategic assumptions much nonsense nature possible


predict direction every new advance technology take previously undreamt weapons systems come nasty shock unprepared british introduction tank world war caused panic amongst german soldiers cambrai elsewhere advent hitler 's vengeance weapons v flying bomb caused deep concern amongst allied high command human factors constant thorn side designers military simulations whereas political military simulations often required nature grapple referred modellers squishy


problems purely military models often seem prefer concentrate hard numbers whilst warship regarded perspective model single entity known parameters speed armour gun power like land warfare often depends actions small groups individual soldiers training morale intelligence personalities leadership come play reason taxing model many variables difficult formulate commercial wargames tabletop computer variety often attempt take factors account ''rome total war''


example units generally rout field rather stay fight last man one valid criticism military simulations nebulous human factors often ignored partly hard model accurately partly commander likes acknowledge men command may disobey recognition shortcoming military analysts past turned civilian wargames rigorous least realistic approach warfare united states james f dunnigan prominent student warfare founder


commercial tabletop wargames publisher simulations publications incorporated spi defunct brought pentagon 's wargaming circle work rand science applications incorporated sai development realistic model result known ''sas'' ''s''trategic ''a''nalysis ''s''imulation still used human factors problem essential element development jeremiah lawrence livermore national laboratory research lulejian associates indicated individual soldier 's assessment probability survival key metric understanding combat units became ineffective


small computer reasons cited military mostly lower ranks like idea orders obeyed however generals witnessed jeremiah algorithm action usually favourable recognized validity approach khe sanh vietnam war means models warfare taken non prescriptive attempt inform decision making process dangers treating military simulation gospel illustrated anecdote circulated end vietnam war


intensively gamed even president lyndon johnson photographed standing wargaming sand table time khe sanh series simulations codenamed ''sigma'' period one great belief value military simulations riding back proven success operations research ''or'' world war ii growing power computers handling large amounts data story concerned fictional aide richard nixon 's administration nixon took government fed data held


us pertaining nations computer model population gross national product relative military strength manufacturing capacity numbers tanks aircraft like aide asked question model win apparently computer replied see also military exercise modeling simulation military operations research society mors network simulator titanim wargaming virtual military command modern air naval operations notes references reading thomas b allen ''war games inside secret world men play annihilation'' new york mcgraw hill http wwwstanfordedu class sts library lenoir lowood theatersofwarpdf military entertainment complex


war simulation arthur filippidis et al ''simulation activities using gateway tactical digital information links'' http wwwdticmil cgi bin gettrdocad ada modeling simulation


'''pharmaceutical policy''' branch health policy deals development provision use medications within health care system embraces drugs brand name generic biologics products derived living sources opposed chemical compositions vaccines natural health products pharmaceutical policy includes funding research life sciences many countries agency national government us nih uk mrc india dst funds university researchers study causes disease cases leads development discoveries

Applied science
Public administration
Health policy
Pharmaceutical policy


transferred pharmaceutical companies biotechnology companies basis drug development setting budget research priorities making decisions researchers fund significant impact rate new drug development disease areas new drugs developed example major investment nih research hiv certainly could viewed important foundation many antiviral drugs subsequently developed patent law patent laws written apply


drug evaluation research cder uk medicines healthcare products regulatory agency health canada ukrainian drug registration agency responsible reviewing product approving sale regulatory process typically focuses quality safety efficacy approved sale product must demonstrate generally safe favourable risk benefit profile relative condition intended treat manufacturer claims produced high standards internal staff expert advisory committees review products approved product


given approval letter issued notice compliance indicating may sold jurisdiction cases approvals may conditions attached requiring example additional 'post marketing' trials clarify issue efficacy certain patient populations interactions products criteria limiting product certain uses pricing many jurisdictions drug prices regulated example uk pharmaceutical price regulation scheme intended ensure national health service able purchase drugs reasonable prices canada


patented medicine prices review board examines drug pricing compares proposed canadian price seven countries determines price excessive circumstances drug manufacturers must submit proposed price appropriate regulatory agency reimbursement regulatory agency determined clinical benefit safety product pricing confirmed necessary drug manufacturer typically submit evaluation payer sort payers may private insurance plans governments provision benefits plans insured populations specialized


entities like cancer care ontario funds hospital oncology drugs health care organizations hospitals point critical issue cost effectiveness discipline pharmaco economics often applied specialized field health economics looks cost benefit product terms quality life alternative treatments drug non drug cost reduction avoidance parts health care system example drug may reduce need surgical intervention thereby saving money structures like uk 's national institute health clinical


excellence canada 's common drug review evaluate products way jurisdictions however evaluate products cost effectiveness instances individual drug benefit plans administrators may also evaluate products additionally hospitals may review committees often called pharmacy therapeutics p committee make decisions drugs fund hospital budget drug plan administrators may also apply pricing rules outside set national pricing agencies example british columbia uses pricing model called reference based pricing set price drugs certain classes


many us pharmacy benefit managers pbms use strategies like tiered formularies preferred listings encourage competition downward pricing pressure resulting lower prices benefits plans competitive procurement sort common among large purchasers us veteran 's health administration typically manufacturer provide estimate projected use drug well expected fiscal impact drug plan 's budget necessary drug plan may negotiate risk sharing agreement mitigate potential unexpectedly large budget impact due incorrect assumptions projections clinical


trials used generate information support drug licensing limited scope duration drug plans may request ongoing post market trials often called phase iv pragmatic clinical trials demonstrate product 's 'real world safety effectiveness' may take form patient registry means data collection analysis product deemed cost effective price negotiated applied case pricing model risk sharing agreement negotiated drug placed drug list formulary prescribers may choose drugs list patients subject


conditions patient criteria formulary management core reimbursement regimes drug list formulary managing list involve many different approaches negative lists products reimbursed circumstances used jurisdictions cf germany dynamic formularies may graduated listings ontario 's recent conditional listing model mentioned formularies may used drive choice lower cost drugs structuring sliding scale co payments favouring cheaper products preferential agreement manufacturer


principle underlying preferred drug lists used many us state medicaid programs jurisdictions plans italy may also categorize drugs according 'essentialness' determine level reimbursement plan provide portion patient expected pay formularies may also segment drugs categories prior authorization needed usually done limit use high cost drug one potential inappropriate use sometimes called 'off label' involves using product treat conditions


license granted circumstance health care provider would seek permission prescribe product pharmacist would obtain permission prior dispensing eligibility depending structure health care system drugs may purchased patients health care organization behalf patients insurance plan public private hospitals typically limit eligibility patients private plans may employer sponsored blue cross mandated legislation quebec consist outsourcing arrangement public plan


drug costs covered 'plans last resort' typically government sponsored one plan ontario 's trillium drug program pharmaceutical policy may also used respond health crises example argentina launched remediar financial crisis government sponsored program provides specified list essential drugs primary care clinics low income neighbourhoods similarly brazil provides drugs hiv aids free citizens deliberate public health policy choice eligibility policy also focuses cost sharing plan beneficiary insured person co payments may used drive certain prescribing choices


example favouring generic brand drugs preferred non preferred products deductibles may used part geared income plans prescribing pharmaceutical policy may also attempt shape inform prescribing prescribing may limited physicians include certain classes health care providers nurse practitioners pharmacists may limitations placed class provider may take form prescribing criteria drug limiting prescribing particular type specialist physician example hiv aids drugs physicians advanced training


consulting services settings hospitals long term care pharmacists often collaborate closely physicians ensure optimal prescribing choices made jurisdictions australia pharmacists compensated providing medication reviews patients outside acute long term care settings pharmacist collaboration family physicians order improve prescribing may also funded pharmacy services pharmaceutical policy may also encompass drugs provided beneficiaries includes mechanics drug distribution dispensing well funding services example hmos us use


'central fill' approach prescriptions packaged shipped central location instead community pharmacy jurisdictions retail pharmacies compensated dispensing drugs eligible beneficiaries state operated approach may also taken sweden 's apoteket monopoly retail pharmacy profit pharmaceutical policy may also subsidize smaller marginal pharmacies using rationale needed health care providers uk 's essential small pharmacies scheme works way see also international conference harmonisation technical requirements registration pharmaceuticals


human use medical cannabis national pharmaceuticals policy vaccination policy references external links


'''foot ankle surgery''' sub specialty orthopedics podiatry deals treatment diagnosis prevention disorders foot ankle orthopaedic surgeons medically qualified four years college followed years medical school obtain md followed specialist training resident orthopaedics sub specialise foot ankle surgery training podiatric foot ankle surgeon consists four years college four years podiatric medical school dpm years surgical

Applied science
Medicine and health
Foot And Ankle Surgery


residency optional year fellowship distinction podiatric orthopedic foot ankle surgeon important orthopedic surgeon doctor medicine doctor osteopathic medicine medical degree training encompasses orthopedic residency optional month one year fellowship training specific techniques foot ankle surgery training doctor podiatric medicine consist podiatric medical degree three four year residency training specific foot ankle medicine surgery optional additional year fellowship foot ankle trauma


reconstruction diabetic limb salvage uk much controversy exists scope podiatrists practicing surgery british orthopaedic association british orthopaedic foot ankle society produced https wwwboaacuk wp content uploads joint response hcpcs consultation standards podiatric surgerypdf position statement importance training ongoing regulation podiatrists practising podiatric forefoot surgery certification recommended standard medically qualified trauma orthopaedic surgeons operating foot ankle clinical scope foot ankle surgeons trained treat disorders foot ankle surgical non surgical


additionally surgeons also trained understand complex connections disorders deformities foot ankle knee hip spine therefore surgeon typically see cases vary trauma malleolar fractures tibial pilon fractures calcaneus fractures navicular midfoot injuries metatarsal phalangeal fractures arthritis care primarily surgical ankle joint joints hindfoot tarsals midfoot metatarsals forefoot phalanges also plays rather significant role congenital acquired deformities include adult acquired flatfoot non neuromuscular foot deformity diabetic foot disorders hallux valgus several common pediatric foot


ankle conditions clubfoot flat feet tarsal coalitions etc patients may also referred foot ankle surgeon proper diagnosis treatment heel pain consequence plantar heel fasciitis nerve disorders tarsal tunnel syndrome tumors foot ankle amputation ankle arthroscopy use laparoscope foot ankle surgical procedures emerged prominent tools foot ankle care addition applications laser surgery found treatment foot ankle disorders including treatment bunions


soft tissue lesions patient may also referred foot ankle surgeon surgical care nail problems phalangeal deformities bunions bunionettes non surgical treatments vast majority foot ankle conditions require surgical intervention example several phalangeal conditions may traced type foot box used shoe change shoe shoe box may sufficient treat condition inflammatory processes rheumatoid arthritis non steroidal anti inflammatory drugs nsaids disease modifying antirheumatic drugs dmards


may used manage slow process orthotics externally applied device used modify structural functional characteristics neuromusculoskeletal system specifically foot ankle may used inserts shoes displace regions foot balanced comfortable therapeutic placements foot physical therapy may also used alleviate symptoms strengthening muscles gastrocnemius muscle turn pull heel pull plantar fascia thus changing structure shape foot surgical


publications last years shown high quality research etiology management foot ankle deformities several publications made act forums research ''journal american podiatric medical association'' peer reviewed indexed medical journal ''the journal foot ankle surgery'' surgical journal operated american college foot ankle surgeons ''foot ankle international'' surgical journal operated american orthopaedic foot ankle society aofas ''techniques foot ankle surgery'' ''the foot ankle journal''


'''dravidian studies''' also '''dravidology''' academic field devoted dravidian languages literature culture superset tamil studies subset south asian studies early missionaries th th century missionaries wrote tamil grammars lexica include henrique henriques bartholomaeus ziegenbalg constantino giuseppe beschi class wikitable sortable dravidologist photo period work henrique henriques portuguese jesuit priest missionary initial days goa moved tuticorin missionary strongly believed books religious

Humanities
Theology
Hindu theology
Dravidian Studies


doctrines local languages considered first european tamil scholar set first tamil press got books printed tamil script first book printed tamil script ''thambiran vanakkam'' page translation portuguese ''doctrina christam'' thereby tamil became first non european language printed printing press constantine beschi also called v ram munivar tamil px italian jesuit priest renowned poet tamil language authored several tamil dictionaries including ''chaturakarati'' tamil latin


content dravidian language hypothesis recognition dravidian languages phylogenetic unit separate indo european dates presented f w ellis collector madras college fort st george nineteenth century experts th century contributors field dravidology class wikitable sortable dravidologist photo period work francis whyte ellis civil servant first propose dravidian family languages charles phillip brown collected hand written books south indian


languages chennai library provided three services telugu language produced works telugu recovered discovered old telugu works printed books telugu authored numerous translations telugu works english robert caldwell px research languages history dravidian region hermann gundert px authored malayalam grammar book ''malayalabhaasha vyakaranam '' malayalam english dictionary published thirteen malayalam books including bible translations ferdinand kittel px


kannada language first kannada english dictionary words benjamin lewis rice renowned work epigraphia carnatica contains study inscriptions found old mysore area published twelve volumes ten years authored ''the history mysore coorg'' inscriptions included epigraphia carnatica u v swaminatha iyer books related classical tamil literature collected paper palm leaf manuscripts r


south indian indian history korada ramakrishnaiah authored works fundamental importance extended borders research telugu v r ramachandra dikshitar known authoring numerous works tamil indian history twentieth century experts noted dravidologists twentieth century class wikitable sortable dravidologist photo period work murray barnson emeneau renowned work ''dravidian etymological dictionary'' written thomas burrow emeneau studies


eminent dravidianist one respected indian linguists generation work ''the dravidian languages'' considered landmark volume study dravidian linguistics work ''telugu verbal bases'' first comprehensive account comparative dravidian phonology also author numerous works telugu english subject iravatham mahadevan renowned work decipherment tamil brahmi script also published corpus indus script stood dravidian hypothesis contemporary programs dravidian university kuppam andhra


'''policy studies''' subdisicipline political science includes analysis process policymaking policy process contents policy policy analysis policy analysis includes substantive area research health education policy program evaluation impact studies policy design involves systematically studying nature causes effects alternative public policies particular emphasis determining policies achieve given goals emerged united states policy studies also examines conflicts conflict resolution arise making policies

Social science
Political science
Policy studies


civil society private sector commonly public sector eg government policy studies frequently focus public sector applicable organizations eg profit sector policy study experts graduate public policy schools public policy degrees alternatively experts may backgrounds policy analysis program evaluation sociology psychology philosophy economics anthropology geography law political science social work environmental planning public administration traditionally field policy studies focused domestic notable exceptions foreign defense policies however wave economic globalization ensued


late twentieth early twenty first centuries created need subset policy studies focuses global governance especially relates issues transcend national borders climate change terrorism nuclear proliferation economic development subset policy studies often referred international policy studies typically requires mastery second language attention cross cultural issues order address national cultural biases see also association public policy analysis management public policy public policy schools public administration public policy united states references


external links general http wwwipsonetorg policy studies organization journals ''policy studies organization'' http onlinelibrarywileycom journal issn asian politics policy http onlinelibrarywileycom journal issn digest middle east studies http onlinelibrarywileycom journal issn latin american policy https wwwtandfonlinecom action journalinformationshow aimsscope journalcode cpos policy studies http onlinelibrarywileycom journal issn policy studies journal http onlinelibrarywileycom journal issn politics policy http onlinelibrarywileycom journal issn review policy research http onlinelibrarywileycom journal issn policy internet http onlinelibrarywileycom journal issn poverty public policy http onlinelibrarywileycom journal issn risk hazards crisis public policy http onlinelibrarywileycom journal issn world medical health policy https webarchiveorg web http wwwinffabch policy cycle visualization policy cycle https webarchiveorg web http wwwnaspaaorg national association schools public affairs administration http wwwdecisiontheaterorg decision theater helping policy makers decision making process


use visualization simulation collaboration tools http wwwaarporg research ppi aarp public policy institute united states https webarchiveorg web http wwwhooverdigestorg past issueshtml hoover digest http wwwgppinet global public policy institute policy politics issue public policy research political science public administration


tongass national forest alaska managed united states forest service '''natural resource management''' '''nrm''' management natural resources land water soil plants animals particular focus management affects quality life present future generations stewardship natural resource management deals managing way people natural landscapes interact brings together natural heritage management land use planning water management bio diversity conservation future sustainability industries like agriculture mining tourism fisheries forestry recognises people livelihoods

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Environmental management
Natural resource management


landmass country emphasis sustainability traced back early attempts understand ecological nature north american rangelands late th century resource conservation movement time type analysis coalesced th century recognition preservationist conservation strategies effective halting decline natural resources integrated approach implemented recognising intertwined social cultural economic political aspects resource management ref name thakadu ref holistic national even global form evolved brundtland commission


according kind right stakeholders natural resources state property ownership control use resources hands state individuals groups may able make use resources permission state national forest national parks military reservations us examples private property property owned defined individual corporate entity benefit duties resources fall owner private land common example common property private property group group


may vary size nature internal structure eg indigenous neighbours village examples common property community forests non property open access definite owner properties potential user equal ability use wish areas exploited said nobody 's property everybody 's property example lake fishery common land may exist without ownership case uk vested local authority hybrid many ownership regimes governing natural resources contain parts one


regimes described natural resource managers need consider impact hybrid regimes example hybrid native vegetation management nsw australia legislation recognises public interest preservation native vegetation native vegetation exists private land stakeholder analysis stakeholder analysis originated business management practices incorporated natural resource management ever growing popularity stakeholder analysis context natural resource management identifies distinctive interest groups affected utilisation conservation natural resources ref name dandy dandy n et al 's


typology stakeholder analysis methods natural resource management journal environmental management vol pp ref definitive definition stakeholder illustrated table especially natural resource management difficult determine stake differ according potential stakeholder ref name billgrena billgrena c holme h approaching reality comparing stakeholder analysis cultural theory context natural resource management land use policy vol pp ref '''different approaches stakeholder ''' ref name billgrena class wikitable source


pp ref group people organized unorganized share common interest stake particular issue system natural resource management gass et al individual group institution would potentially affected whether positively negatively specified event process change natural resource management buanes et al group individual may directly indirectly affect affected planning least potential stakeholders natural resource management brugha varvasovszky stakeholders individuals groups organizations


interest stake potential influence actions aims organization project policy direction health policy oda persons groups institutions interests project programme development therefore dependent upon circumstances stakeholders involved natural resource definition subsequent theory utilised billgrena holme ref name billgrena identified aims stakeholder analysis natural resource management identify categorise stakeholders may influence develop understanding changes occur establish


make changes happen best manage natural resources gives transparency clarity policy making allowing stakeholders recognise conflicts interest facilitate resolutions ref name billgrena ref name grimble ref numerous stakeholder theories mitchell et al however grimble ref name grimble created framework stages stakeholder analysis natural resource management grimble ref name grimble designed framework ensure analysis specific essential aspects natural resource management '''stages stakeholder analysis ''' ref name grimble clarify objectives analysis


place issues systems context identify decision makers stakeholders investigate stakeholder interests agendas investigate patterns inter action dependence eg conflicts compatibilities trade offs synergies '''application ''' grimble wellard ref name grimblewellard established stakeholder analysis natural resource management relevant issued characterised cross cutting systems stakeholder interests multiple uses users resource market failure subtractability temporal


trade offs unclear open access property rights untraded products services poverty representation ref name grimblewellard ref name grimble '''case studies ''' case bwindi impenetrable national park comprehensive stakeholder analysis would relevant batwa people would potentially acknowledged stakeholders preventing loss people 's livelihoods loss life ref name grimblewellard ref name grimble short video natural resource management wales welsh government wales natural resources wales welsh government sponsored body pursues sustainable management natural resources applies principles sustainable management natural resources


stated environment wales act ref name environmentactsection ref nrw responsible different types regulatory regime across wide range activities nepal indonesia koreas' community forestry successful examples stakeholder analysis incorporated management natural resources allowed stakeholders identify needs level involvement forests '''criticisms ''' natural resource management stakeholder analysis tends include many stakeholders create problems self suggested clarkson stakeholder theory used weave basket big enough


hold world 's misery starik proposed nature needs represented stakeholder however rejected many scholars would difficult find appropriate representation representation could also disputed stakeholders causing issues ref name billgrena stakeholder analysis used exploited abused order marginalise stakeholders ref name dandy identifying relevant stakeholders participatory processes complex certain stakeholder groups may excluded previous decisions ref name prell prell c et al stakeholder analysis social network analysis natural resource management leeds sustainability research


institute university leeds pp ref going conflicts lack trust stakeholders prevent compromise resolutions ref name prell '''alternatives complementary forms analysis ''' social network analysis common pool resource management resources natural resource management issues inherently complex contentious first involve ecological cycles hydrological cycles climate animals plants geography etc dynamic inter related change one may far reaching long term impacts may even irreversible second addition complexity natural systems managers also consider various