degrees including mlpm hons accredited landscape institute royal town planning institute '' history orangery palace versailles outside paris period history landscape gardening later called landscape architecture largely master planning garden design manor houses palaces royal properties religious complexes centers government example extensive work andr le n tre king louis xiv france palace versailles first person write ''making'' landscape joseph addison


early american landscape designer editor ''the horticulturist'' magazine first book ''a treatise theory practice landscape gardening adapted north america'' published great success first book kind published united states latter th century term landscape architect began used professional landscapes designers firmly established frederick law olmsted jr beatrix jones later farrand others founded american society landscape architects asla ifla founded cambridge england

Applied science
Architecture and design
Landscape architecture


sir geoffrey jellicoe first president representing countries europe north america later ifla 's headquarters established versailles ref name iflabook ifla past present future publication history ifla ref fields activity royal botanic gardens kew london established br palm house built richard turner decimus burton 's designs urban design city squares water feature london tadao ando also works landscapes gardens variety professional tasks landscape architects collaborate broad examples project types include parks


general design public infrastructure sustainable development stormwater management including rain gardens green roofs groundwater recharge green infrastructure constructed wetlands landscape design educational function site design public institutions government facilities parks botanical gardens arboretums greenways nature preserves recreation facilities playgrounds golf courses theme parks sports facilities housing areas industrial parks commercial developments estate residence landscape planning design landscaping accents highways transportation structures bridges transit corridors contributions urban design town city squares waterfronts pedestrian schemes natural park tourist destination recreating historical landscapes


historic garden appraisal conservation studies reservoirs dams power stations reclamation extractive industry applications major industrial projects mitigation environmental assessment landscape assessment planning advice land management proposals coastal offshore developments mitigation ecological design aspect design minimizes environmentally destructive impacts integrating natural processes sustainability landscape managers use knowledge landscape processes advise long term care development landscape often work forestry nature conservation agriculture landscape scientists specialist skills soil science hydrology geomorphology botany


may also apply additional specialism landscape archaeology law process landscape planning green roof specifically vegetative roof designers design extensive intensive roof gardens storm water management evapo transpirative cooling sustainable architecture aesthetics habitat creation therapeutic healing gardens also part rooftop gardens types gardens proven help reduce stress anxiety even help hospital patients recover faster plants always center landscape design types gardens proof nature vital part


well humans recent years need interest therapeutic gardens increasingly rising topic vastly unknown main reason nothing written topic recently lot research done published topic result increase interest therapeutic gardens spiked relation urban planning combination traditional landscape gardening emerging city planning combined gave landscape architecture unique focus frederick law olmsted used term 'landscape architecture' using word


profession first time designing central park th century urban planning became focal point central issue cities combination tradition landscape gardening emerging field urban planning offered landscape architecture opportunity serve needs second half century frederick law olmsted completed series parks continue significant influence practices landscape architecture today among central park new york city prospect park brooklyn new york boston 's emerald necklace park system


jens jensen designed sophisticated naturalistic urban regional parks chicago illinois private estates ford family including fair lane gaukler point one original eleven founding members american society landscape architects asla woman beatrix farrand design consultant dozen universities including princeton princeton new jersey yale new connecticut arnold arboretum harvard boston massachusetts numerous private estate projects include landmark dumbarton oaks georgetown neighborhood washington dc since time architects


notably ruth havey alden hopkins changed certain elements farrand design since period urban planning developed separate independent profession incorporated important contributions fields civil engineering architecture public administration urban planners qualified perform tasks independent landscape architects general curriculum landscape architecture programs prepare students become urban planners landscape architecture continues develop design discipline respond various movements architecture design throughout th st centuries thomas church


mid century landscape architect significant profession roberto burle marx brazil combined international style native brazilian plants culture new aesthetic innovation continues today solving challenging problems contemporary design solutions master planning landscapes gardens ian mcharg known introducing environmental concerns landscape architecture ref name corbett ref ref name ozio ref popularized system analyzing layers site order compile complete understanding qualitative attributes place system became foundation today 's geographic information systems gis mcharg would give every qualitative aspect


site layer history hydrology topography vegetation etc gis software ubiquitously used landscape architecture profession today analyze materials earth 's surface similarly used urban planners geographers forestry natural resources professionals etc profession many countries professional institute comprising members professional community exists order protect standing profession promote interests sometimes also regulate practice landscape architecture standard strength legal regulations governing landscape architecture practice varies nation nation


requiring licensure order practice little regulation europe north america parts south america australia india new zealand landscape architecture regulated profession argentina since arrival french architect urbanist landscaper carlos thays recommended recreate national capital 's parks public gardens consolidated apprentice training program landscaping eventually became regulated profession currently leading academic institution uba university buenos aires'' uba facultad de arquitectura dise urbanismo '' faculty architecture design urbanism offering bacherlor 's


degree urban landscaping design planning profession regulated national ministry urban planning argentina institute buenos aires botanical garden australia australian institute landscape architects aila provides accreditation university degrees non statutory professional registration landscape architects recognized aila landscape architects use title 'registered landscape architect' across six states territories within australia aila 's system professional recognition national system overseen aila national office canberra apply aila registration applicant usually needs satisfy number


pre requisites including university qualification minimum number years practice record professional experience landscape architecture within australia covers broad spectrum planning design management research specialist design services government private sector developments specialist professional advice expert witness canada canada landscape architecture like law medicine self regulating profession pursuant provincial statute example ontario 's profession governed ontario association landscape architects pursuant ''ontario association landscape architects act'' landscape architects ontario british columbia alberta must


complete specified components lare landscape architecture registration examination prerequisite full professional standing provincial regulatory bodies members national organization canadian society landscape architects l'association des architectes paysagistes du canada csla aapc individual membership csla aapc obtained joining one provincial territorial components indonesia isla indonesia society landscape architects indonesian society professional landscape architects formed february member ifla apr ifla world main aim increase dignity professional members


landscape architects increasing activity role community service national international development management iali consists national administrators supported regional administrators provincial level branch managers city level throughout indonesia landscape architecture education indonesia held universities graduated bachelor magister graduates landscape architecture education incorporate association indonesian landscape architecture education italy aiapp associazione italiana architettura del paesaggio italian association professional landscape architects formed member ifla ifla europe formerly known efla


aiapp process contesting new law given architects' association new title architects landscape architects planners conservationists whether training experience fields architecture italy several different professions involved landscape architecture architects landscape designers doctor landscape agronomists doctor landscape foresters often called landscape agronomists agrarian experts graduated agrarian experts new zealand new zealand institute landscape architects nzila professional body landscape architects nz april nzila jointly


aila hosted th international federation landscape architects ifla world congress auckland new zealand world congress international conference landscape architects around globe meet share ideas around particular topic within nz members nzila achieve professional standing use title registered landscape architect nzila nzila provides education policy accreditation process review education programme providers currently three accredited undergraduate landscape architecture programmes new zealand lincoln university also accredited masters programme landscape architecture norway landscape


architecture norway established norwegian university life sciences nmbu norwegian school landscape architecture faculty landscape society responsible europe 's oldest landscape architecture education academic level departments areas include design design cities places garden art history landscape engineering greenery zone planning site development place making place keeping south africa may joane pim ann sutton peter leutscher roelf botha considered forefathers profession south africa established institute landscape architects


known institute landscape architecture south africa ilasa ilasa voluntary organisation registered south african council landscape architectural profession saclap consists three regional bodies namely gauteng kwazula natal western cape ilasa 's mission advance profession landscape architecture uphold high standards professional service members represent profession landscape architecture matter may affect interests members institute ilasa holds country 's membership international federation landscape architects ifla south africa


welfare community completion accredited graduate post graduate qualification landscape architecture either university cape town university pretoria landscape technology cape peninsula university technology professional registration attained via mandatory mentored candidacy period minimum two years sitting professional registration exam successfully completing exam individual entitled status professional landscape architect professional landscape technologist united kingdom uk 's professional body landscape institute li chartered body accredits landscape professionals


university courses present fifteen accredited programmes uk membership li available students academics professionals professionally qualified members institute provides services assist members including support promotion work landscape architects information guidance public industry specific expertise offered profession training educational advice students professionals looking build upon experience li launched major recruitment drive entitled want landscape architect


encourage study landscape architecture campaign aimed raise profile landscape architecture highlight valuable role building sustainable communities fighting climate change july want landscape architect initiative replaced brand new careers campaign entitled '' chooselandscape'' aims raise awareness landscape profession improve increase access landscape education inspire young people choose landscape career new campaign includes landscape related professions landscape management landscape planning landscape science urban design united states


united states landscape architecture regulated individual state governments landscape architect obtaining licensure requires advanced education work experience plus passage national examination called landscape architect registration examination lare several states require passage state exam well united states licensing overseen state level nationally council landscape architectural registration boards clarb landscape architecture identified average growth profession us bureau labor statistics listed ''us news world report'' 's list best jobs


national trade association united states landscape architects american society landscape architects frederic law olmsted designed central park new york city known father american landscape architecture examples gallery widths heights perrow file moli res sautet potager jpg potager dordogne france file kloster bebenhausen alte bew sserungsgr benjpg monastery garden bebenhausen abbey baden w rttemberg germany file arch entrance walled kitchen garden geographorguk jpg entrance walled kitchen garden norfolk united kingdom file coulommiers vue jardin medievaljpg medieval garden reconstruction le de france france file saihouji kokedera jpg woodland


'''digital image processing''' use digital computer process digital images algorithm ref name gonzalez p ref subcategory field digital signal processing digital image processing many advantages analog image processing allows much wider range algorithms applied input data avoid problems build noise distortion processing since images defined two dimensions perhaps digital image processing may modeled form multidimensional systems generation development digital image processing

Formal science
Computer science
Computer graphics
Image processing


mainly affected three factors first development computers second development mathematics especially creation improvement discrete mathematics theory third demand wide range applications environment agriculture military industry medical science increased history many techniques digital image processing digital picture processing often called developed bell laboratories jet propulsion laboratory massachusetts institute technology university maryland research facilities application satellite imagery wire photo standards conversion medical imaging videophone character recognition


photograph enhancement purpose early image processing improve quality image aimed human beings improve visual effect people image processing input low quality image output image improved quality common image processing include image enhancement restoration encoding compression first successful application american jet propulsion laboratory jpl used image processing techniques geometric correction gradation transformation noise removal etc thousands lunar photos sent back space detector ranger taking


account position sun environment moon impact successful mapping moon 's surface map computer huge success later complex image processing performed nearly photos sent back spacecraft topographic map color map panoramic mosaic moon obtained achieved extraordinary results laid solid foundation human landing moon ref name ref cost processing fairly high however computing equipment era changed


digital image processing proliferated cheaper computers dedicated hardware became available led images processed real time dedicated problems television standards conversion general purpose computers became faster started take role dedicated hardware specialized computer intensive operations fast computers signal processors available digital image processing become common form image processing generally used versatile method also cheapest image sensors basis modern image


sensors metal oxide semiconductor mos technology ref name williams ref originates invention mosfet mos field effect transistor mohamed atalla dawon kahng bell labs ref name computerhistory ref led development digital semiconductor image sensors including charge coupled device ccd later cmos sensor ref name williams charge coupled device invented willard boyle george e smith bell labs researching mos technology realized electric charge analogy magnetic bubble could stored tiny mos capacitor


fairly straightforward fabricate series mos capacitors row connected suitable voltage charge could stepped along one next ref name williams ccd semiconductor circuit later used first digital video cameras television broadcasting nmos active pixel sensor aps invented olympus japan mid enabled advances mos semiconductor device fabrication mosfet scaling reaching smaller micron sub micron levels ref name fossum ref nmos aps fabricated tsutomu nakamura 's team olympus


cmos active pixel sensor cmos sensor later developed eric fossum 's team nasa jet propulsion laboratory ref name fossum ref sales cmos sensors surpassed ccd sensors image compression important development digital image compression technology discrete cosine transform dct lossy compression technique first proposed nasir ahmed ref name ahmed ref dct compression became basis jpeg introduced joint photographic experts group ref name ref jpeg compresses images much smaller file sizes become widely used image file format


internet highly efficient dct compression algorithm largely responsible wide proliferation digital images digital photos ref name atlantic ref several billion jpeg images produced every day digital signal processor dsp electronic signal processing revolutionized wide adoption mos technology ref name grant ref mos integrated circuit technology basis first single chip microprocessors microcontrollers early ref name ieee ref first single chip digital signal processor dsp chips late ref name computerhistory ref ref name taranovich ref dsp chips since widely used digital image processing ref name computerhistory


discrete cosine transform dct image compression algorithm widely implemented dsp chips many companies developing dsp chips based dct technology dcts widely used encoding decoding video coding audio coding multiplexing control signals signaling analog digital conversion formatting luminance color differences color formats yuv yuv dcts also used encoding operations motion estimation motion compensation inter frame prediction quantization perceptual weighting entropy encoding variable encoding motion vectors decoding operations inverse operation different color formats yiq yuv rgb display purposes dcts


also commonly used high definition television hdtv encoder decoder chips ref name stankovic ref medical imaging engineer british company emi housfield invented x ray computed tomography device head diagnosis usually called ct computer tomography ct nucleus method based projection human head section processed computer reconstruct cross sectional image called image reconstruction emi successfully developed ct device whole body obtained clear tomographic image various parts human body diagnostic technique


nobel prize ref name digital image processing technology medical applications inducted space foundation space technology hall fame ref name sf ref tasks digital image processing allows use much complex algorithms hence offer sophisticated performance simple tasks implementation methods would impossible analogue means particular digital image processing concrete application practical technology based classification feature extraction multi scale signal analysis pattern recognition projection techniques used digital image processing include anisotropic diffusion hidden markov models


end bmatrix math file affine transformation original checkerboardjpg '''spatial lowpass''' align center math frac times begin bmatrix end bmatrix math file spatial mean filter checkerboardpng '''spatial highpass''' align center math begin bmatrix end bmatrix math file spatial laplacian filter checkerboardpng '''fourier representation''' pseudo code image checkerboard f fourier


transform image show image log absolute value f align center file fourier space checkerboardpng '''fourier lowpass''' align center file lowpass butterworth checkerboardpng align center file lowpass fft filtered checkerboardpng '''fourier highpass''' align center file highpass butterworth checkerboardpng align center file highpass fft filtered checkerboardpng image padding fourier domain filtering images typically padded transformed fourier space highpass filtered images illustrate consequences different padding techniques class wikitable zero padded repeated edge padded file highpass fft filtered checkerboardpng file highpass fft replicatepng notice


highpass filter shows extra edges zero padded compared repeated edge padding filtering code examples matlab example spatial domain highpass filtering syntaxhighlight lang matlab img checkerboard generate checkerboard spatial domain klaplace laplacian filter kernel x conv imgklaplace


align center math begin bmatrix cos theta sin theta sin theta cos theta end bmatrix math file checkerboard rotatesvg '''shear''' align center math begin bmatrix c x c end bmatrix math file checkerboard shearsvg apply affine matrix image image converted matrix entry corresponds pixel intensity location pixel 's location represented vector indicating


matrix enabling translation shifts third dimension constant allows translation matrix multiplication associative multiple affine transformations combined single affine transformation multiplying matrix individual transformation order transformations done results single matrix applied point vector gives result individual transformations performed vector x sequence thus sequence affine transformation matrices reduced single affine transformation matrix example dimensional coordinates


allow rotation origin dimensional homogeneous coordinates used first translate point perform rotation lastly translate origin back original point opposite first translation affine transformations combined single matrix thus allowing rotation around point image image denoising morphology mathematical morphology suitable denoising images structuring element important mathematical morphology following examples structuring elements denoise function image


structuring element b shown table eg math i' begin bmatrix end bmatrix b begin bmatrix end bmatrix math define dilation b ij math max j n b mn math let dilation ib ib i' b math max math define erosion b ij math min j n b mn math let erosion ib e ib e i' b math min math dilation math i' begin bmatrix


end bmatrix math erosion math i' begin bmatrix end bmatrix math opening method simply erosion first dilation closing method vice versa reality ib e ib implemented convolution class wikitable structuring element mask code example '''original image''' none use matlab read original image syntaxhighlight lang matlab original imread 'scenejpg' image rgb gray original r c


channel size image se logical p q size se halfh floor p halfw floor q time denoising times method syntaxhighlight original lotus '''dilation''' align center math begin bmatrix end bmatrix math use matlab dilation syntaxhighlight lang matlab imwrite image scene diljpg extractmax zeros size image class image time dil image imread 'scene diljpg'


time dil image imread 'scene openingjpg' col halfw c halfw row halfh r halfh dpointd row halfh dpointu row halfh dpointl col halfw dpointr col halfw dneighbor dil image dpointd dpointu dpointl dpointr filter dneighbor se extractopen row col max filter end end imwrite extractopen scene openingjpg end syntaxhighlight '''closing''' align center math begin bmatrix end bmatrix math use matlab closing syntaxhighlight lang matlab imwrite extractmax scene closingjpg extractclose


zeros size image class image time ero image imread 'scene closingjpg' col halfw c halfw row halfh r halfh dpointd row halfh dpointu row halfh dpointl col halfw dpointr col halfw dneighbor ero image dpointd dpointu dpointl dpointr filter dneighbor se extractclose row col min filter end end imwrite extractclose scene closingjpg end syntaxhighlight denoising picture closing method order apply denoising method image image converted grayscale mask denoising method logical matrix


math math denoising methods start center picture half height half width end image boundary row number column number neighbor block original image boundary point center point point left center point right center convolution neighbor structuring element replace center minimum neighbor take closing method example dilation first read image convert


grayscale matlab get size image return value row numbers column numbers boundaries going use later structuring elements depend dilation erosion function minimum neighbor pixel leads erosion method maximum neighbor leads dilation method set time dilation erosion closing create zero matrix size original image dilation first structuring window structuring window matrix convolution loop


extract maximum window row range image height column range image width fill maximum value zero matrix save new image boundary still improved since method boundary ignored padding elements applied deal boundaries results table shown applications digital camera images digital cameras generally include specialized digital image processing hardware either dedicated chips added circuitry chips convert raw data


image sensor color corrected image standard image file format additional post processing techniques increase edge sharpness color saturation create naturally looking images film ''westworld'' first feature film use digital image processing pixellate photography simulate android 's point view image processing also vastly used produce chroma key effect replaces background actors natural artistic scenery face detection face detection process face detection implemented mathematical morphology discrete cosine transform usually called dct horizontal projection mathematics


normally hsv rgb color spaces suitable skin filter eg hsv mode skin tone range filtering images skin tone get face edge morphology dct used remove noise fill missing skin areas opening method closing method used achieve filling missing skin dct avoid object tone like skin since human faces always higher texture sobel operator operators applied detect face edge position human features


like eyes using projection find peak histogram projection help get detail feature like mouse hair lip projection projecting image see high frequency usually feature position improvement image quality method image quality influenced camera vibration exposure gray level distribution centralized noise etc example noise problem solved smoothing method gray level distribution problem improved histogram equalization '''smoothing method''' drawing dissatisfied color taking color around


dissatisfied color averaging easy way think smoothing method smoothing method implemented mask convolution take small image mask instance image math begin bmatrix end bmatrix math mask math begin bmatrix end bmatrix math convolution smoothing image math


begin bmatrix end bmatrix math oberseving image image image image original image pixel smoothing mask pixel becomes respectively new image math tfrac math image image image image image image image image image new image floor math tfrac math new image floor math tfrac math new image floor math tfrac math new image


equation math displaystyle int q q tfrac n q k q ds displaystyle int p p h ds math moreover based definition function gray level histogram method like finding function math f math satisfies f p q class wikitable improvement method issue improvement process improvement smoothing method noise matlab salt pepper parameter added br original image order create noisy image read image convert image grayscale convolution graysale image mask math begin bmatrix


end bmatrix math denoisy image result step histogram equalization gray level distribution centralized refer histogram equalization fatigue detection monitoring technologies significant advancements fatigue monitoring technology past decade innovative technology solutions commercially available offer real safety benefits drivers operators shift workers across industries software developers engineers scientists develop fatigue detection software using various physiological


cues determine state fatigue drowsiness measurement brain activity electroencephalogram widely accepted standard fatigue monitoring technology used determine fatigue related impairment include behavioural symptom measurements eye behaviour gaze direction micro corrections steering throttle use well heart rate variability see also digital imaging computer graphics computer vision cviptools digitizing free boundary condition gpgpu homomorphic filtering image analysis ieee intelligent transportation systems society multidimensional systems remote sensing software standard test image superresolution total variation denoising machine vision bounded variation radiomics references reading rafael c gonzalez


''digital image processing prentice hall '' external links https archiveorg details lectures image processing lectures image processing alan peters vanderbilt university updated january http wwwmathworkscom discovery digital image processinghtml processing digital images computer algorithms computer related introductions computer vision image processing digital imaging


'''civil procedure''' body law sets rules standards courts follow adjudicating civil lawsuits opposed procedures criminal law matters rules govern lawsuit case may commenced kind service process required types pleadings statements case motions applications orders allowed civil cases timing manner depositions discovery disclosure conduct trials process judgment process post trial procedures various available remedies courts

Humanities
Law
Civil law
Civil procedure


clerks must function differences civil criminal procedure systems including english french allow governmental persons bring criminal prosecution another person prosecutions nearly always started state order punish accused civil actions hand started private individuals companies organizations benefit addition governments subdivisions agencies may also parties civil actions cases usually different courts however distinguished civil penal actions jurisdictions based english common law systems party


bringing criminal charge cases state called prosecution party bringing forms civil action plaintiff claimant kinds action party known defendant criminal case person called ms sanchez would described people v nbsp versus sanchez state commonwealth v sanchez name state v sanchez united states r ''regina'' latin queen spoken crown v sanchez england wales amongst


civil criminal action ref name law france england however victim crime may incidentally awarded compensation criminal court judge evidence criminal trial generally admissible evidence civil action matter example victim road accident directly benefit driver injured found guilty crime careless driving still prove case civil action unless doctrine collateral estoppel applies american


jurisdictions ref name law fact may able prove civil case even driver found guilty criminal trial standard determine guilt higher standard determine fault however driver found civil jury negligent prosecutor may estopped charging criminally plaintiff shown defendant liable main remedy civil court amount money damages defendant pay plaintiff ref name law ref alternative


civil remedies include restitution transfer property injunction restrain order certain actions standards proof higher criminal case civil one since state wish risk punishing innocent person english law prosecution must prove guilt criminal beyond reasonable doubt plaintiff civil action required prove case balance probabilities ref name law thus criminal case crime cannot proven person persons judging doubt


wales https wwwlawcornelledu rules frcp complete text federal rules civil procedure cornell univ https webarchiveorg web http highconstablecom resources ri district court rules rhode island civil court rules procedure optimized constable law library th district court rhode island legal procedure


'''participatory economics''' often abbreviated '''parecon''' economic system based participatory decision making primary economic mechanism allocation society system say decision making proportional impact person group people participatory economics form socialist decentralized planned economy involving common ownership many means production proposed alternative contemporary capitalism centralized planning economic model primarily associated political theorist michael albert economist robin hahnel describes participatory economics anarchist economic vision underlying

Social science
Economics
Participatory economics


values parecon seeks implement equity solidarity diversity workers' self management efficiency defined accomplishing goals without wasting valued assets sustainability institutions parecon include workers' consumers' councils utilising self managerial methods decision making balanced job complexes remuneration based individual effort wide participatory planning decision making principle parecon constitutes replacement mainstream economic conception economic freedom albert hahnel argue vagueness allowed abused capitalist ideologues work distribution balanced job complexes main goal socialism


compensation effort sacrifice principle distribution albert hahnel argue inequitable ineffective compensate people basis luck eg skills talents owe birth heredity virtue workers' productivity measured ''value'' goods produce therefore primary principle participatory economics reward workers effort sacrifice ref name albert michael parecon p albert michael parecon life capitalism part ii chapter remuneration pp ref example mining work dangerous uncomfortable would highly paid


office work amount time thus allowing miner work fewer hours pay burden highly dangerous strenuous jobs shared among populace additionally participatory economics would provide exemptions compensation effort principle ref name albert michael parecon p people disabilities unable work children elderly infirm workers legitimately transitional circumstances remunerated according need however every ''able'' adult obligation perform socially useful work requirement receiving reward however


everyone would entitled free health care education skills training freedom choose various democratically structured workplaces balanced jobs balanced desirability empowerment starting point income workers participatory economy equal share social product point incomes personal expenditures consumption rights public goods expected diverge small degrees reflecting choices individuals make work leisure time level danger difficulty job judged immediate workplace peers ref


name albert michael parecon p scale many types production consumption may become localized participatory economics model exclude economies scale allocation resource participatory planning allocation mechanism participatory economy meant provide workable alternative market competition centralized planning planning procedure conceived iterative process production proposals made workers councils consumption proposals made individuals neighborhood councils submitted revised multiple rounds pricing updates process converges


deliberate democratically arrive plan consumption public goods eg obtaining resources build public playground workers individuals also meet workplaces determine outputs produce inputs consume production process well much would like work thus workers consumers well federations workers consumers submit initial requests facilitation board aggregates information conclusion first round process almost certainly workable plan


facilitation board proceeds update list indicative prices good proportion excess demand supply updated prices reflect accurate estimate social opportunity costs item announcement updated indicative prices initiates second round planning process consumers workers revise resubmit proposals light new information particular consumption proposals individual 's proposed effort rating warrant proposed level consumption need adjusted


individual either reduce consumption requests shift less costly products increase projected work hours coming year consumers may discover initial proposals modest revise consumption upwards choose revise projected effort rating downwards proposing work fewer hours increasing leisure time production proposals also summarized evaluated quantitative basis case ratio social benefits social costs social benefit part ratio calculated multiplying


rounds revision resubmission process result convergence feasible plan workers consumers able accomplish activities detailed final submissions even feasible plan achieved flexible mid year revisions consumer worker proposals also incorporated planning process academic work albert hahnel prove participatory planning arrives pareto optimum less restrictive assumptions markets participatory planning pareto optimal even though incorporates public goods externalities whereas markets achieve


economy key information relevant converging economic plan would made available iteration facilitation boards ifbs based proposals worker consumer councils economic data present indicative prices economic projections round planning process ifb decision making authority theory ifb 's activity consist mainly computers performing agreed upon algorithms adjusting prices forecasts little human involvement motivations opposition central planning capitalism robin hahnel argued participatory planning central planning stating procedures completely different


simply asserts two ways coordinating economic activities millions central direction involving use coercion voluntary cooperation technique marketplace participatory economy permit partake economic decision making proportion degree affected outcomes since participatory system uses system participatory planning instead markets coordinate economic activities friedman would us believe participatory planning must fall category central direction involving use coercion blockquote albert hahnel voiced detailed critiques centrally planned economies


theory practice also highly critical capitalism hahnel claims truth capitalism aggravates prejudice inequitable economy ever devised grossly inefficient even highly energetic incompatible economic political democracy present era free market triumphalism useful organize sober evaluation capitalism responding friedman 's claims one one critique markets mainstream economists largely acknowledge problem externalities believe addressed either coasian bargaining use pigovian taxes extra taxes goods externalities according economic


theory pigovian taxes set tax cost goods equal social cost goods direct cost production plus cost externalities quantities produced tend toward socially optimal level hahnel observes economists outside mainstream challenging assumption growing number skeptics dare suggest externalities prevalent often substantial ek hunt put externalities rule rather exception therefore markets often work guided malevolent invisible


foot keeps kicking us produce things less others socially efficient long market economy place albert hahnel favour pigovian taxes solutions environmental problems command control issuance marketable permits however hahnel teaches ecological economics american university argues market economy businesses try avoid polluter pays principle shifting burden costs polluting activities consumers terms incentives argues might considered positive development


would penalize consumers dirty consumption however also regressive implications since tax incidence studies show ultimately would poor people would bear great deal burden many pollution taxes words many pollution taxes would highly regressive therefore aggravate economic injustice therefore recommends pollution taxes linked cuts regressive taxes social security taxes hahnel argues pigovian taxes along associated corrective measures advanced market economists ultimately fall far short adequately fairly addressing externalities argues methods


libertarian socialist political tradition stephen shalom produced political system meant complement parecon called parpolity although parecon falls left wing political tradition designed avoid creation powerful intellectual elites rule bureaucracy perceived major problem economies communist states th century book ''looking forward'' albert hanhel termed situation 'coordinatorism' parecon advocates recognize monopolization empowering labor addition private ownership source class division thus three class view economy


capitalists coordinators workers stressed contrast traditional two class view marxism coordinator class emphasized parecon refers monopoly empowering skills knowledge corresponds doctors lawyers managers engineers professionals present economies parecon advocates argue historically marxism ignored ability coordinators become new ruling class post capitalist society ref name marx http wwwzcommunicationsorg parecon marxism michael albert ref innovation hahnel also written detailed discussion parecon 's desirability compared capitalism respect incentives innovate capitalism patent laws intellectual property rights barriers market


intended provide general political system practical implementation would depend accompanying political system according albert hahnel parecon addresses alternative economic theory must accompanied equally important alternatives fields politics culture kinship authors also discussed elements anarchism field politics polyculturalism field culture feminism field family gender relations possible foundations future alternative visions spheres society stephen r shalom begun work participatory political


vision calls parpolity systems together make political philosophy participism criticism david schweickart suggests participatory economics would undesirable even possible blockquote system obsessed comparison job complex empowering mine monitoring working average intensity mate get program details consumption many rolls toilet paper need next year neighbors still using kind made recycled paper ref name schweickart ref blockquote criticism raised schweickart include difficulty creating balanced


job complexes ensuring suffer inefficiency system based peer evaluation may work workers could slack would little incentive colleagues damage relationships giving bad reviews alternatively may cause workers become suspicious one another undermining solidarity compensation system based effort would difficult measure would need based average rating system effort parecon 's compensation system would overly egalitarian likely cause resentment among workers work harder also discouraging putting


extra effort since gain greater compensation parecon would likely produce onerous tiresome requirement list things people want produced would likely suffer uncertainty given people always know desire well issues much information required supply complexities negotiations required worker consumer councils planning participatory economics would create large amount administrative work individual workers would plan consumption advance new bureaucratic class proponents parecon


argue capitalist economies hardly free bureaucracy meetings parecon would eliminate banks advertising stock market tax returns long term financial planning albert hahnel claim probable similar number workers involved parecon bureaucracy capitalist bureaucracy much voting achieved computer rather meeting interested collective consumption proposals required attend ref name zcommunicationsorg ref critics suggest proposals require consideration unfeasibly large set policy choices ref name schweickart lessons planned


planning alone however democratic decentralized secure real self management freedom choice ref name fotopoulos takis fotopoulos inclusive democracy participatory economics ''democracy nature'' volume issue november pp ref loss efficiency parecon might reduce efficiency workplace one expert exceptional workers eg exceptional surgeons scientists would performing tasks full time participatory economics would expect share disempowering work would offer opportunities seek additional compensation high ability finding solutions problems lecture willamette university


oregon hahnel responded criticism explaining jobs could filled machines underutilized capitalist economic systems due lowered rates profit also division labor would n't exist participatory economic system much capitalism people would always jobs theodore burczak argues impossible workers give unbiased assessments largely unobservable characteristics effort proposed basis salary levels absence market exchange mechanisms likewise makes calculating social costs


production consumption impossible influence international organization participatory society founded advocating participatory society including participatory economics also referred participism see also analytical marxism anarchism anarchist economics anarcho syndicalism collective bargaining complementary holism co operative direct democracy decentralized planning economics ecological economics economic democracy horizontalidad inclusive democracy mutualism post autistic economics post capitalism participatory budgeting participatory democracy participatory justice participatory politics public participation socialism socialist economics surplus economics syndicalism workers' council workers' self management workplace democracy z communications references ref ref name looking ref reading '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwzmagorg books quiethtm quiet revolution welfare economics '' albert


hahnel princeton university press '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwpareconorg lookingforward tochtm looking forward participatory economics twenty first century '' albert hahnel south end press '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwzmagorg books polparhtm political economy participatory economics '' albert hahnel princeton university press '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwakpresscom items movingforward moving forward program participatory economy '' albert ak press '' http wwwzcommunicationsorg zparecon pareconlachtm parecon life capitalism '' albert verso books '' http wwwroutledge nycom shopping cart products product detailaspsku isbn economic justice democracy competition cooperation '' hahnel routledge '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwzmagorg realizinghopehtml realizing hope life beyond capitalism '' albert zed press '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwakpressorg items realutopiaakpress real utopia participatory society st century '' chris spannos ed ak press takis fotopoulos http wwwdemocracynatureorg vol takis pareconhtm inclusive


democracy participatory economics ''democracy nature'' volume issue november pp nbsp comparison inclusive democracy rameez rahman michel meulpolder david hales johan pouwelse henk sips https webarchiveorg web http pdstwitudelftnl reports pds pdf revisiting social welfare p p delft university technology report applying participatory economics principles analysis peer peer computing systems anarchist economic schools socialism social anarchism economic ideologies economic planning economic systems economics economic democracy


maintenance launching dry docking main activities involved ship design calculations also required ships modified means conversion rebuilding modernization repair naval architecture also involves formulation safety regulations damage control rules approval certification ship designs meet statutory non statutory requirements hull racing yacht lifted water maintenance main subjects word vessel includes every description watercraft including non displacement craft wig craft seaplanes used capable used means transportation water principal elements naval

Applied science
Military sciences
Naval science
Naval architecture


rudder thruster tunnels resistance resistance towards motion water primarily caused due flow water around hull powering calculation done based propulsion move vessel water using propellers thrusters water jets sails etc engine types mainly internal combustion vessels electrically powered using nuclear solar energy ship motions involves motions vessel seaway responses waves wind controllability maneuvering involves controlling maintaining position direction vessel flotation stability atop liquid surface


distance set equally apart aft forward section ship body floats liquid surface still encounters force gravity pushing order stay afloat avoid sinking opposed force acting body known hydrostatic pressures forces acting body must magnitude line motion order maintain body equilibrium description equilibrium present freely floating body still water


conditions present magnitude forces shifts drastically creating swaying motion body ref name ref buoyancy force equal weight body words mass body equal mass water displaced body adds upward force body amount surface area times area displaced order create equilibrium surface body surface water stability ship conditions able overcome form


restriction resistance encountered rough seas however ships undesirable roll characteristics balance oscillations roll two times oscillations heave thus causing ship capsize deck oil tanker looking aft structures structures involves selection material construction structural analysis global local strength vessel vibration structural components structural responses vessel motions seaway depending type ship structure design vary material use well much


ships made glass reinforced plastics vast majority steel possibly aluminium superstructure ref name complete structure ship designed panels shaped rectangular form consisting steel plating supported four edges combined large surface area grillages create hull ship'''''' deck bulkheads still providing mutual support frames though structure ship sturdy enough hold together main force overcome longitudinal bending creating strain hull


structure must designed material disposed much forward aft possible ref name principal longitudinal elements deck shell plating inner bottom form grillages additional longitudinal stretching dimensions ship order create enough spacing stiffeners prevention buckling warships used longitudinal system stiffening many modern commercial vessels adopted system widely used early merchant ships ss great eastern later shifted transversely framed


structure another concept ship hull design proved practical system later implemented modern vessels tankers popularity named isherwood system ref name arrangement isherwood system consists stiffening decks side bottom longitudinal members separated enough distance frames beams system works spacing transverse members support longitudinal meters wide spacing causes traverse strength needed displacing


factor considered presents new option materials consider well ship orientation strength structure considered acts ship collision considered way ships structure altered therefore properties materials considered carefully applied material struck ship elastic properties energy absorbed ship struck deflected opposite direction ships go process rebounding prevent damage uss ''kitty hawk'' cv naval station pearl harbor science craft traditionally naval


architecture craft science suitability vessel 's shape judged looking half model vessel prototype ungainly shapes abrupt transitions frowned flawed included rigging deck arrangements even fixtures subjective descriptors ''ungainly'' ''full'' ''fine'' used substitute precise terms used today vessel still described fair shape term fair meant denote smooth transition fore aft


also shape right determining right particular situation absence definitive supporting analysis encompasses art naval architecture day modern low cost digital computers dedicated software combined extensive research correlate full scale towing tank computational data enabled naval architects accurately predict performance marine vehicle tools used static stability intact damaged dynamic stability resistance powering hull development structural analysis green water modelling slamming analysis data regularly shared international conferences sponsored rina society


naval architects marine engineers sname others computational fluid dynamics applied predict response floating body random sea naval architect naval architect work due complexity associated operating marine environment naval architecture co operative effort groups technically skilled individuals specialists particular fields often coordinated lead naval architect inherent complexity also means analytical tools available much less evolved designing aircraft cars even spacecraft due primarily paucity


data environment marine vehicle required work complexity interaction waves wind marine structure naval architect engineer responsible design classification survey construction repair ships boats marine vessels offshore structures commercial military including merchant ships oil tankers gas tankers cargo ships bulk carriers container ships passenger vehicle ferries cruise ships warships frigates destroyers aircraft carriers amphibious ships submarines underwater vehicles icebreakers high speed craft hovercraft multi hull


respective fields disciplines naval architects integrate activities demanding leadership role requires managerial qualities ability bring together often conflicting demands various design constraints produce product fit purpose addition leadership role naval architect also specialist function ensuring safe economic environmentally sound seaworthy design produced undertake tasks naval architect must understanding many branches engineering must forefront high technology areas must


able effectively utilize services provided scientists lawyers accountants business people many kinds naval architects typically work shipyards ship owners design firms consultancies equipment manufacturers classification societies regulatory bodies admiralty law navies governments see also references reading paasch h ''dictionary naval terms keel truck'' london g philip son engineering disciplines marine occupations shipbuilding


'''admiralty law''' '''maritime law''' body law governs nautical issues private maritime disputes admiralty law consists domestic law maritime activities private international law governing relationships private parties operating using ocean going ships legal jurisdiction usually legislation governing maritime matters international nature topic need uniformity since led considerable international maritime law developments including numerous multilateral treaties admiralty law may distinguished law sea body public international law


alluded legal texts roman byzantine legal codes later customs consulate sea hanseatic league southern italy ''ordinamenta et consuetudo maris'' trani amalfian laws effect early date bracton noted admiralty law also used alternative common law norman england previously required voluntary submission entering plea seeking judgment court leading sponsor admiralty law europe french queen eleanor aquitaine


eleanor sometimes known eleanor guyenne learned admiralty law whilst crusade eastern mediterranean first husband king louis vii france eleanor established admiralty law island ol ron published rolls ol ron time later london acting regent son king richard lionheart eleanor instituted admiralty law england well england special admiralty court handles admiralty cases despite early reliance upon civil law concepts derived corpus juris civilis justinian


english admiralty court common law albeit ' 'sui generis'' court initially somewhat distanced english courts around industrial revolution took hold english maritime commerce burgeoned admiralty court became proactive source innovative legal ideas provisions meet new situation judicature acts abolished admiralty court became conflated new probate divorce admiralty division high court however pda abolished replaced new family division admiralty jurisdiction passed called admiralty


court effectively qbd sitting hear nautical cases senior courts act clarified admiralty jurisdiction high court england distinct admiralty court albeit longer based royal courts justice rolls building english admiralty courts prominent feature prelude american revolution example phrase declaration independence depriving us many cases benefits trial jury refers practice uk parliament giving admiralty courts jurisdiction


enforce stamp act american colonies power awarded stamp act unpopular america colonial jury would unlikely convict colonist violation however since english admiralty courts never trial jury colonist charged breaching stamp act could easily convicted crown admiralty law gradually became part american law admiralty cases arising adoption us constitution many american lawyers prominent american revolution admiralty maritime lawyers


included alexander hamilton new york john adams massachusetts thomas jefferson wrote james madison proposing us constitution consideration states amended include trial jury matters fact triable laws land laws nations result united states bill rights alexander hamilton john adams admiralty lawyers adams represented john hancock admiralty case colonial boston involving seizure one hancock 's ships violations


insurance mlc maintenance cure doctrine maintenance cure rooted article vi rolls ol ron promulgated ad obligation cure requires shipowner provide medical care free charge seaman injured service ship seaman reached maximum medical cure concept maximum medical cure extensive concept maximum medical improvement obligation cure seaman includes obligation provide medications medical devices improve ability function


even n't improve actual condition may include long term treatments permit continue function well common examples include prostheses wheelchairs pain medications obligation maintenance requires shipowner provide seaman basic living expenses convalescing seaman able work expected maintain consequently seaman lose right maintenance obligation provide cure ongoing seaman required sue shipowner recover maintenance cure may also


recover attorneys fees ''vaughan v atkinson'' us shipowner 's breach obligation provide maintenance cure willful wanton shipowner may subject punitive damages see ''atlantic sounding co v townsend'' us j thomas personal injuries passengers shipowners owe duty reasonable care passengers consequently passengers injured aboard ships may bring suit injured ashore negligence third party passenger bears burden proving shipowner negligent personal injury


unfair contract terms act made unlawful exclude liability death personal injury caused one 's negligence since however called himalaya clause become useful way contractor pass protection limitation clause employees agents third party contractors maritime liens mortgages banks loan money purchase ships vendors supply ships necessaries like fuel stores seamen due wages many others lien ship guarantee payment enforce lien ship must arrested


seized united states action enforce lien us ship must brought federal court cannot done state court except reverse ''erie'' doctrine whereby state courts apply federal law salvage treasure salvage property lost sea rescued another rescuer entitled claim salvage award salvaged property life salvage mariners duty save lives others peril without expectation reward consequently salvage law applies saving property


two types salvage contract salvage pure salvage sometimes referred merit salvage contract salvage owner property salvor enter salvage contract prior commencement salvage operations amount salvor paid determined contract common salvage contract called lloyd 's open form salvage contract pure salvage contract owner goods salvor relationship one implied law salvor property pure salvage must


bring claim salvage court award salvage based upon merit service value salvaged property pure salvage claims divided high order low order salvage high order salvage salvor exposes crew risk injury loss damage equipment salvage damaged ship examples high order salvage boarding sinking ship heavy weather boarding ship fire raising ship boat already sunk towing ship surf away


shore low order salvage occurs salvor exposed little personal risk examples low order salvage include towing another vessel calm seas supplying vessel fuel pulling vessel sand bar salvors performing high order salvage receive substantially greater salvage award performing low order salvage high order low order salvage amount salvage award based first upon value property saved nothing saved additional damage done award factors


considered skills salvor peril salvaged property exposed value property risked effecting salvage amount time money expended salvage operation etc pure merit salvage award seldom exceed percent value property salved exception rule case treasure salvage sunken treasure generally lost hundreds years original owner insurer vessel insured continues interest


salvor finder generally get majority value property sunken ships spanish main ''nuestra se ora de atocha'' florida keys commonly thought type treasure salvage types ships including german submarines world war ii hold valuable historical artifacts american civil war ships uss ''maple leaf'' st johns river css ''virginia'' chesapeake bay sunken merchant ships ss ''central america'' cape hatteras subject treasure salvage awards due


marpol international aeronautical maritime search rescue convention iamsar others united nations convention law sea unclos defined treaty regarding protection marine environment various maritime boundaries restrictions international fishing international convention regulation whaling also form part body conventions international waters commercial conventions include international convention relating limitation liability owners sea going ships brussels october international convention safe containers adopted international conventions enforced individual


law england wales northern ireland law us law contrast continental law civil law prevails scottish law continental europe trace back roman law although english admiralty court development continental civil law admiralty court england wales common law court albeit somewhat distanced mainstream king 's bench common law countries including pakistan singapore india many commonwealth nations countries follow english statute case law india still follows many victorian era british statutes


follow english statute case laws panama also established well known maritime courts decide international cases regular basis admiralty courts assume jurisdiction virtue presence vessel territorial jurisdiction irrespective whether vessel national whether registered wherever residence domicile owners may vessel usually arrested court retain jurisdiction state owned vessels usually immune arrest canada canadian jurisdiction area navigation shipping vested parliament


canada virtue constitution act canada adopted expansive definition maritime law goes beyond traditional admiralty law original english admiralty jurisdiction called wet concerned things done sea including collisions salvage work mariners contracts torts performed sea canadian law added dry jurisdiction field includes matters stevedoring marine insurance warehousing security services contracts agency contracts carriage list exhaustive subject matter canadian jurisdiction originally


consolidated subsequent expansions following passage statute westminster extension dry matters recent jurisprudence supreme court canada tended expand maritime law power thus overriding prior provincial laws based provinces' power property civil rights united states jurisdiction article iii section united states constitution grants original jurisdiction us federal courts admiralty maritime matters however jurisdiction exclusive maritime cases heard either state federal


courts saving suitors clause five types cases brought federal court limitation shipowner 's liability vessel arrests ''in rem'' property arrests ''quasi rem'' salvage cases petitory possession actions common element cases require court exercise jurisdiction maritime property example petitory possession action vessel whose title dispute usually co owners put possession court title dispute resolved limitation action shipowner


post bond reflecting value vessel pending freight sixth category prize relating claims vessels captured wartime rendered obsolete due changes laws practices warfare aside five types cases maritime cases claims personal injuries cargo damage collisions maritime products liability recreational boating accidents may brought either federal state court tactical standpoint important consider federal courts united states generally right


trial jury admiralty cases although jones act grants jury trial seamen suing employers maritime law governed uniform three year statute limitations personal injury wrongful death cases cargo cases must brought within two years extended one year allowance hague visby rules pursuant adoption rotterdam rules major cruise ship passenger tickets one year statute limitations applicable law state court hearing admiralty maritime case required apply admiralty maritime law even conflicts


features shipowner liable cargo damaged hook hook meaning loading discharge unless exonerated one exceptions liability act god inherent nature goods errors navigation management ship basis liability shipowner bailment carrier liable common carrier must established goods placed carrier 's possession control immediate carriage personal injuries seamen seamen injured aboard ship


three possible sources compensation principle maintenance cure doctrine unseaworthiness jones act principle maintenance cure requires shipowner pay injured seaman 's medical treatment maximum medical recovery mmr obtained provide basic living expenses completion voyage even seaman longer aboard ship pakistan admiralty law pakistan also classified shipping law pakistan merchant shipping ordinance replaced merchant shipping act replacement done handle constantly upgrading modern shipping


industry purpose pakistan merchant shipping ordinance provide strategy rules government authorities function dealing stuff related shipping industry law also handles duties internationally required ilo international labour organization conventions pakistan active member ilo academic programs several universities offer maritime law programs follows partial list universities offering postgraduate maritime courses canada dalhousie law school llm marine environmental law france panth assas university llm international business private


law marine law courses university nice sophia antipolis llm marine environmental law university western brittany brest llm marine law university nantes nantes master laws safety maritime oceanic activities university le havre le havre master laws maritime ports activities law germany university hamburg max planck institute comparative international private law phd maritime law malaysia universiti teknologi mara llm legal aspects marine affairs malta international maritime law institute llm


international maritime law netherlands erasmus university rotterdam llm business corporate maritime law master science msc maritime economics logistics mel norway university oslo scandinavian institute maritime law llm maritime law university oslo master laws maritime law singapore national university singapore llm maritime law graduate diploma maritime law arbitration international maritime organization south africa university cape town masters maritime law spain comillas pontifical university master maritime business maritime law icade spanish maritime institute university deusto


master maritime enterprise management maritime law sweden lund university llm maritime law world maritime university master science maritime affairs maritime law policy thailand thammasat university llm international trade law united kingdom bangor university llm maritime law llm law sea cardiff university llm shipping law city university london llm maritime law liverpool john moores university bsc msc maritime transport logistics mtl embedded maritime law elements queen mary university london llm international shipping law


swansea university institute international shipping trade law llm international maritime law university college london llm maritime law university hertfordshire llm maritime law university nottingham llm maritime law university southampton school law institute maritime law llb maritime law llm maritime law united states florida coastal school law llm logistics transportation law st thomas university school law tulane university law school llm admiralty jd certificate specialization admiralty maritime law university


miami law school llm ocean coastal law william richardson school law university hawaii llm ocean law policy see also admiralty admiralty court amalfian laws barratry admiralty law consulate sea declaration london general average prize united nations convention law sea notes references external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwjonesactlawcom practice areas maritime law jones act law resource http wwwadmiraltylawguidecom admiralty maritime law guide https wwwlawcornelledu topics admiraltyhtml lii law admiralty https wwwunorg depts los convention agreements convention overview conventionhtm law sea un web https webarchiveorg web http lawrwuedu sites marineaffairs marine affairs institute roger williams university school law https webarchiveorg web http wwwmaritimelawes maritime law blog


law aspect commercial law pertaining specifically financing financial markets also understood regulate corporate contracts hiring practices manufacture sales consumer goods many countries adopted civil codes contain comprehensive statements commercial law united states commercial law province united states congress power regulate interstate commerce states police power efforts made create unified body commercial law united states successful attempts resulted

Humanities
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Legal management
Commercial law


general adoption uniform commercial code adopted states modification state legislatures district columbia us territories various regulatory schemes control commerce conducted particularly ''vis vis'' employees customers privacy laws safety laws eg occupational safety health act united states food drug laws examples history middle ages italy cradle many modern institutions basis commercial law around th century trade italian maritime republics promoter birth


commercial law jurist benvenuto stracca ancona published treatise ''de mercatura seu mercatore tractats'' one first first legal imprint dealing specifically commercial law treatise focused merchants merchant contracts practices maritime rights soon added extensive discussions bankruptcy factors commissions third party transfers insurance reason stracca often considered father commercial law author first italian treaty insurance contract beyond commerce legal work italian


jurists impact holland germany england france see also outline commercial law consulate sea notes external links http wwwquizlawcom business law hundreds answers basic business law questions http wwwlawcornelledu topics commercialhtml topical listing us commercial law cornell 's legal information institute


two traders th century germany san juan de dios market guadalajara jalisco liberty trade buttressed national law'' george howard earle jr '''trade''' involves transfer goods one person entity another often exchange money economists refer system network allows trade market early form trade gift economy saw exchange goods services without explicit agreement immediate future rewards gift economy involves trading things without use money modern traders generally


negotiate medium exchange money result '''buying''' separated '' 'selling''' earning invention money later credit paper money non physical money greatly simplified promoted trade trade two traders called bilateral trade trade involving two traders called multilateral trade one modern view trade exists due specialization division labor predominant form economic activity individuals groups concentrate small aspect production use output trades


products needs ref name dollarkraay ref trade exists regions different regions may comparative advantage perceived real production trade able commodity including production natural resources scarce limited elsewhere example different regions' sizes may encourage mass production circumstances trade market prices locations benefit locations retail trade consists sale goods merchandise fixed location department store boutique kiosk online mail small individual lots direct consumption use purchaser ref name fas ref wholesale trade


traffic goods sold merchandise retailers industrial commercial institutional professional business users wholesalers related subordinated services historically openness free trade substantially increased areas outbreak world war trade openness increased collapsed particular europe north america great depression trade openness increased substantially onwards albeit slowdown oil crisis economists economic historians contend current levels


trade openness highest ever etymology ''trade'' middle english ''trade'' path course conduct introduced english hanseatic merchants middle low german ''trade'' track course old saxon ''trada'' spoor track proto germanic ''trad '' track way cognate old english ''tredan'' tread ''commerce'' derived latin ''commercium'' ''cum'' together ''merx'' merchandise history prehistory trade originated human communication prehistoric times trading main facility prehistoric people exchanged goods services gift economy


innovation modern day currency peter watson dates history long distance commerce years ago ref name watson watson introduction ref mediterranean region earliest contact cultures involved members species ''homo sapiens'' principally using danube river time beginning bp ref name abulafia rackham suano ref trace origins commerce start transactions prehistoric times apart traditional self sufficiency trading became principal facility prehistoric people bartered goods services caduceus traditionally associated mercury roman patron god


merchants continues use symbol commerce ancient history ancient etruscan aryballoi terracota vessels unearthed bolshaya bliznitsa tumulus near phanagoria south russia formerly part bosporan kingdom cimmerian bosporus present day taman peninsula exhibit hermitage museum saint petersburg trade believed taken place throughout much recorded human history evidence exchange obsidian flint stone age trade obsidian believed taken place new guinea bce robert carr bosanquet investigated trade stone age


relative flint early traders traded obsidian distances kilometres within mediterranean region trade mediterranean neolithic europe greatest material ref name john robb ref networks existence around bce ref name andrea ref anatolia source primarily trade levant iran egypt according zarins study ref name pliny elder ref melos lipari sources produced among widespread trading mediterranean region known archaeology ref name e blake b knapp ref sari sang mine mountains afghanistan largest source


trade lapis lazuli material largely traded kassite period babylonia beginning bce later trade mediterranean near east ebla prominent trading centre third millennia network reaching anatolia north mesopotamia ref name e blake b knapp ref name laura etheredge ref ref name dumper stanley ref map silk road trade route europe asia materials used creating jewelry traded egypt since bce long range trade routes first appeared rd millennium bce sumerians mesopotamia traded harappan civilization


indus valley phoenicians noted sea traders traveling across mediterranean sea far north britain sources tin manufacture bronze purpose established trade colonies greeks called emporia ref name archa ref along coast mediterranean researchers found positive relationship well connected coastal location local prevalence archaeological sites iron age suggests location 's trade potential important determinant human settlements beginning greek civilization fall roman empire th century


festival celebrated traders th day fifth month concept free trade antithesis economic direction sovereigns ancient greek states free trade states stifled need strict internal controls via taxation maintain security within treasury sovereign nevertheless enabled maintenance ''modicum'' civility within structures functional community life fall roman empire succeeding dark ages brought instability western europe near collapse trade network


western world trade however continued flourish among kingdoms africa middle east india china southeast asia trade occur west instance radhanites medieval guild group precise meaning word lost history jewish merchants traded christians europe muslims near east indo pacific austronesian proto historic historic maritime trade network indian ocean ref name manguin ref first true maritime trade network indian ocean austronesian peoples island southeast asia ref name manguin built


maritime road one extensive sea based trade networks single geological material prehistoric world existence least years peak production bce ce older silk road mainland eurasia later maritime silk road maritime jade road began wane final centuries ce ce entire period network golden age diverse animist societies region sea faring southeast asians also established trade routes southern india


sri lanka early bc ushering exchange material culture like catamarans outrigger boats sewn plank boats paan cultigens like coconuts sandalwood bananas sugarcane well connecting material cultures india china indonesians particular trading spices mainly cinnamon cassia east africa using catamaran outrigger boats sailing help westerlies indian ocean trade network expanded reach far africa arabian peninsula resulting austronesian colonization madagascar first half first


millennium ad continued historic times later becoming maritime silk road ref name manguin ref name doran ref ref name mahdi ref ref name doran ref ref name blenchfruits ref mesoamerica axe money used currency mesoamerica fixed worth cacao seeds also used currency emergence exchange networks pre columbian societies near mexico known occurred within recent years bce trade networks reached north oasisamerica evidence established maritime trade cultures northwestern south america caribbean middle ages


middle ages commerce developed europe trading luxury goods trade fairs wealth became converted movable wealth capital banking systems developed money account transferred across national boundaries hand hand markets became feature town life regulated town authorities western europe established complex expansive trade network cargo ships main workhorse movement goods cogs hulks two examples cargo ships many ports would develop extensive trade networks english port city bristol traded peoples


modern day iceland along western coast france spaina map showing main trade routes goods within late medieval europe middle ages central asia economic center world ref name beckwith xxiv beckwith p nbsp xxiv ref sogdians dominated east west trade route known silk road th century ce th century ce suyab talas ranking among main centers north main caravan merchants central asia middle ages maritime republics particular venice


pisa genoa played key role trade along mediterranean th late th centuries venetian republic republic genoa major trade centers dominated trade mediterranean black sea monopoly europe near east centuries th th century vikings varangians traded sailed scandinavia vikings sailed western europe varangians russia hanseatic league alliance trading cities maintained trade monopoly


northern europe baltic th th centuries age sail industrial revolution portuguese explorer vasco da gama pioneered european spice trade reached calicut sailing around cape good hope southern tip african continent prior flow spice europe india controlled islamic powers especially egypt spice trade major economic importance helped spur age discovery europe spices brought europe eastern world valuable


commodities weight sometimes rivaling gold onward kingdoms west africa became significant members global trade ref name ref came initially movement gold resources sent muslim traders trans saharan trading network ref name beginning th century european merchants would purchase gold spices cloth timber slaves west african states part triangular trade ref name often exchange cloth iron cowrie shells used locally currency ref name founded bengal sultanate major trading


nation world often referred europeans wealthiest country trade th th centuries portuguese gained economic advantage kingdom kongo due different philosophies trade ref name whereas portuguese traders concentrated accumulation capital kongo spiritual meaning attached many objects trade according economic historian toby green kongo giving receiving symbol spiritual political power privilege ref name th century seventeen provinces center free trade imposing


exchange controls advocating free movement goods trade east indies dominated portugal th century dutch republic th century british th century spanish empire developed regular trade links across atlantic pacific oceans danzig th century port hanseatic league adam smith published paper ''an inquiry nature causes wealth nations'' criticized mercantilism argued economic specialization could benefit nations much firms


since division labour restricted size market said countries access larger markets would able divide labour efficiently thereby become productive smith said considered rationalizations import export controls dupery hurt trading nation whole benefit specific industries dutch east india company formerly world 's largest company became bankrupt partly due rise competitive free trade berber trade timbuktu th century david ricardo james mill


robert torrens showed free trade would benefit industrially weak well strong famous theory comparative advantage principles political economy taxation ricardo advanced doctrine still considered counterintuitive economics ''when inefficient producer sends merchandise produces best country able produce efficiently countries benefit'' ascendancy free trade primarily based national advantage mid th century calculation made whether particular country 's self interest open borders


imports john stuart mill proved country monopoly pricing power international market could manipulate terms trade maintaining tariffs response might reciprocity trade policy ricardo others suggested earlier taken evidence universal doctrine free trade believed economic surplus trade would accrue country following ' 'reciprocal'' rather completely free trade policies followed within years infant industry scenario developed mill promoting


theory government duty protect young industries although time necessary develop full capacity became policy many countries attempting industrialize compete english exporters milton friedman later continued vein thought showing circumstances tariffs might beneficial host country never world large th century great depression major economic recession ran late period great drop trade economic indicators


lack free trade considered many principal cause depression causing stagnation inflation world war ii recession end united states also war countries signed bretton woods agreement intended prevent national trade barriers avoid depressions set rules institutions regulate international political economy international monetary fund international bank reconstruction development later divided world bank bank international settlements organizations became operational


enough countries ratified agreement countries agreed general agreement tariffs trade promote free trade european union became world 's largest exporter manufactured goods services biggest export market around countries st century today trade merely subset within complex system companies try maximize profits offering products services market consists individuals companies lowest production cost system international trade helped develop world economy combination


bilateral multilateral agreements lower tariffs achieve free trade sometimes harmed third world markets local products free trade free trade advanced late th century early european union lifted barriers internal trade goods labour january north american free trade agreement nafta took effect gatt marrakech agreement specified formation wto january world trade organization created facilitate free trade mandating mutual favored nation trading status signatories ec transformed european union accomplished


economic monetary union emu introducing euro creating way real single market member states january ''int r ts des nations de l'europe v lop relativement au commerce'' central american free trade agreement signed includes united states dominican republic perspectives protectionism protectionism policy restraining discouraging trade states contrasts policy free trade policy often takes form tariffs restrictive quotas protectionist policies particularly prevalent


great depression onset world war ii religion islamic teachings encourage trading condemn usury interest judeao christian teachings problem trade prohibit fraud dishonest measures historically also forbade charging interest loans development money roman denarius first instances money objects intrinsic value called commodity money includes commonly available commodity intrinsic value historical examples include pigs rare seashells whale 's teeth often cattle medieval iraq bread used early form money aztec


empire rule montezuma cocoa beans became legitimate currency currency introduced standardised money facilitate wider exchange goods services first stage currency metals used represent stored value symbols represent commodities formed basis trade fertile crescent years numismatists examples coins earliest large scale societies although initially unmarked lumps precious metal ref name originsofmoney gold especially common form early money described davies ref trends doha rounds doha round world trade


organization negotiations aimed lower barriers trade around world focus making trade fairer developing countries talks hung divide rich developed countries represented g major developing countries agricultural subsidies significant issue upon agreement hardest negotiate contrast much agreement trade facilitation capacity building doha round began doha qatar negotiations continued canc n mexico geneva switzerland paris france hong kong china beginning around government


people 's republic china prc began experiment economic reform contrast previous soviet style centrally planned economy new measures progressively relaxed restrictions farming agricultural distribution several years later urban enterprises labor market oriented approach reduced inefficiencies stimulated private investment particularly farmers led increased productivity output one feature establishment four later five special economic zones located along south east coast reforms proved spectacularly successful terms increased output variety quality price demand real terms economy doubled size


doubled real per capita basis doubling base took place economy times size times previous per capita levels international trade progressed even rapidly doubling average every years total two way trade january exceeded first quarter trade exceeded full year level china 's two way trade totaled us trillion china joined asia pacific


export oriented industrialization india historically closed policy south korea done much better economic criteria india past fifty years though success also effective state institutions trade sanctions trade sanctions specific country sometimes imposed order punish country action embargo severe form externally imposed isolation blockade trade one country another example united states embargo cuba years embargoes usually


temporary basis example armenia put temporary embargo turkish products bans imports turkey december situation prompted food security concerns given turkey 's hostile attitude towards armenia fair trade fair trade movement also known trade justice movement promotes use labour environmental social standards production commodities particularly exported third second worlds first world ideas also sparked debate whether trade codified human right importing firms voluntarily adhere


online mainz http wwwieg mainzde likecms indexphp institute european history retrieved march https nbinfo pdf external links http agritradectaint agritrade resource material trade acp countries http witsworldbankorg world bank 's world integrated trade solution provides summary trade statistics custom query features http witsworldbankorg gptadhtml world bank 's preferential trade agreement database society az kommersiya


'''logistics''' generally detailed organization implementation complex operation general business sense logistics management flow things point origin point consumption meet requirements customers corporations resources managed logistics may include tangible goods materials equipment supplies well food consumable items military science logistics concerned maintaining army supply lines disrupting enemy since armed force without resources transportation defenseless military logistics already practiced

Applied science
Military sciences
Logistics


ancient world modern military significant need logistics solutions advanced implementations developed military logistics logistics officers manage move resources places needed logistics management part supply chain management supply chain engineering plans implements controls efficient effective forward reverse flow storage goods services related information point origin point consumption meet customers' requirements complexity logistics modeled analyzed visualized optimized dedicated simulation software


minimization use resources common motivation logistics fields professional working field logistics management called logistician warehouse implementing pallet rack storage system logistics specialist inventories supplies storeroom aboard aircraft carrier uss ''george hw bush'' nomenclature term '''' attested english either coined popularized military officer writer antoine henri jomini defined ''summary art war'' term appears edition


titled ''analytic table'' ''tableau analytique'' ref name jomini ref jomini explains derived lit lodgings cognate english terms formerly officers general staff named marshall lodgings major general lodgings came term logistics ''logistique'' employ designate charge functioning army term credited jomini term etymology criticized georges de chambray writing ''logistic'' word appears completely new yet


seen anywhere military literature appears derive word ''lodgings'' ''logis'' peculiar etymology chambray also notes term present '''' synonym algebra homonym existing mathematical term traditional division greek mathematics mathematical term presumably origin term ''logistic'' logistic growth related terms sources give instead source ''logistics'' either ignorant jomini 's statement derived dubious instead believing


fact greek origin influenced existing term greek origin definition jomini originally defined logistics ref name jomini ''oxford english dictionary'' defines logistics branch military science relating procuring maintaining transporting material personnel facilities however ''new oxford american dictionary'' defines logistics detailed coordination complex operation involving many people facilities supplies oxford dictionary line defines detailed organization implementation complex operation logistics commonly seen branch engineering creates people systems


rather machine systems according council supply chain management professionals previously council logistics management logistics process planning implementing controlling procedures efficient effective transportation storage goods including services related information point origin point consumption purpose conforming customer requirements includes inbound outbound internal external movements ref name cscmp glossary cscmp glossary ref academics practitioners traditionally refer terms operations production management referring physical transformations taking place single business location factory restaurant


even bank clerking reserve term logistics activities related distribution moving products territory managing distribution center seen therefore pertaining realm logistics since theory products made factory ready consumption still need moved along distribution network according logic distribution center aggregates processes orders coming different areas territory said modeling perspective similarities operations management logistics companies sometimes use hybrid professionals


process related storage movement final product related information flows end production line end user given services performed logisticians main fields logistics broken follows procurement logistics distribution logistics sales logistics disposal logistics reverse logistics green logistics global logistics domestics logistics concierge service reliability availability maintainability asset control logistics point sale material logistics emergency logistics production logistics construction logistics capital project logistics digital logistics humanitarian logistics thermal oxidizer point origin en route manufacturing plant


'''procurement logistics''' consists activities market research requirements planning make buy decisions supplier management ordering order controlling targets procurement logistics might contradictory maximizing efficiency concentrating core competences outsourcing maintaining autonomy company minimizing procurement costs maximizing security within supply process '''advance logistics''' consists activities required set establish plan logistics activities occur '''global logistics''' technically process managing flow goods called supply chain place production parts


world often requires intermodal transport system transport via ocean air rail truck effectiveness global logistics measured logistics performance index '''distribution logistics''' main tasks delivery finished products customer consists order processing warehousing transportation distribution logistics necessary time place quantity production differ time place quantity consumption '''disposal logistics''' main function reduce logistics cost enhance service related disposal waste produced operation business '''reverse


logistics''' denotes operations related reuse products materials reverse logistics process includes management sale surpluses well products returned vendors buyers reverse logistics stands operations related reuse products materials process planning implementing controlling efficient cost effective flow raw materials process inventory finished goods related information point consumption point origin purpose recapturing value proper disposal precisely reverse logistics process moving


goods typical final destination purpose capturing value proper disposal opposite reverse logistics '''forward logistics''' '''green logistics''' describes attempts measure minimize ecological impact logistics activities includes activities forward reverse flows achieved intermodal freight transport path optimization vehicle saturation city logistics '''ram logistics''' see also logistic engineering combines '''business logistics''' '''military logistics''' since concerned highly complicated technological systems reliability availability maintainability essential ex weapon systems military supercomputers '''asset


control logistics''' companies retail channels organized retailers suppliers often deploy assets required display preservation promotion products examples refrigerators stands display monitors seasonal equipment poster stands frames forklift truck loads pallet humanitarian aid pakistan board c aircraft following devastating floods country logistics centre finnish red cross tampere finland '''emergency logistics''' '''humanitarian logistics''' term used logistics supply chain manufacturing industries denote specific time critical modes transport used move goods


value adding system ex factory mine production logistics aims ensure machine workstation receives right product right quantity quality right time concern production testing transportation storage supply production logistics operate existing well new plants since manufacturing existing plant constantly changing process machines exchanged new ones added gives opportunity improve production logistics system accordingly production logistics provides means achieve customer response capital efficiency production logistics becomes important decreasing


batch sizes many industries eg mobile phones short term goal batch size one allowing even single customer 's demand fulfilled efficiently track tracing essential part production logistics due product safety reliability issues also gaining importance especially automotive medical industries '''construction logistics''' employed civilizations thousands years various human civilizations tried build best possible works construction living protection construction logistics emerged vital part construction past


years construction logistics emerged different field knowledge study within subject supply chain management logistics military logistics punjab regiment uses mules carrying cargo burma wwii animals used logistic purposes different people throughout history roman army particular preferred mules donkeys moving capacity military science maintaining one 's supply lines disrupting enemy crucial would say crucial element military strategy since armed force without resources transportation defenseless historical leaders hannibal