name nih sym ref types arrhythmia serious predispose person complications stroke heart failure ref name nih def ref name nih type others may result cardiac arrest ref name nih type four main types arrhythmia extra beats supraventricular tachycardias ventricular arrhythmias bradyarrhythmias extra beats include premature atrial contractions premature ventricular contractions premature junctional contractions supraventricular tachycardias include atrial fibrillation atrial flutter paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia ventricular arrhythmias include ventricular fibrillation ventricular tachycardia ref name nih type ref ref name martin ref arrhythmias due problems electrical conduction system heart ref name nih def arrhythmias may occur children however


normal range heart rate different depends age ref name nih type number tests help diagnosis including electrocardiogram ecg holter monitor arrhythmias effectively treated ref name nih def treatments may include medications medical procedures pacemaker surgery medications fast heart rate may include beta blockers agents attempt restore normal heart rhythm procainamide later group may significant side effects especially taken long period time pacemakers often used slow heart rates irregular

Applied science
Medicine and health
Internal medicine
Cardiology


deaths globally ref name meh ref sudden cardiac death result ventricular arrhythmias ref name meh arrhythmias may occur age common among older people ref name nih risk cardiac arrest cardiac arrest sudden stop effective blood flow due failure heart contract effectively ref name nih symptoms include loss consciousness abnormal absent breathing ref name fie ref ref name nih sign people may chest pain shortness breath nausea occurs ref name nih sign ref treated within minutes death usually occurs ref name nih ref common cause cardiac arrest coronary


artery disease less common causes include major blood loss lack oxygen low potassium heart failure intense physical exercise number inherited disorders may also increase risk including long qt syndrome initial heart rhythm often ventricular fibrillation ref name nih ca ref diagnosis confirmed finding pulse ref name fie cardiac arrest may caused heart attack heart failure ref name nih prevention includes smoking physical activity maintaining healthy weight ref name nih pre treatment cardiac arrest immediate cardiopulmonary resuscitation cpr shockable rhythm


present defibrillation ref name nih tx ref among survive targeted temperature management may improve outcomes implantable cardiac defibrillator may placed reduce chance death recurrence ref name nih pre ref united states cardiac arrest outside hospital occurs per people per year cases hospital cardiac arrest occurs additional ref name aha part ref cardiac arrest becomes common age affects males often females ref name nih risk ref percentage people survive treatment many survive significant disability many us television shows however portrayed unrealistically high


survival rates ref name adam ref hypertension hypertension also known high blood pressure long term medical condition blood pressure arteries persistently elevated ref name nai ref high blood pressure usually cause symptoms ref name cdc ref long term high blood pressure however major risk factor coronary artery disease stroke heart failure peripheral vascular disease vision loss chronic kidney disease ref name ref lifestyle factors increase risk hypertension include excess salt diet excess body weight smoking alcohol ref name cdc ref name lancet hypertension also caused


diseases side effect drugs blood pressure expressed two measurements systolic diastolic pressures maximum minimum pressures respectively ref name cdc normal blood pressure rest within range millimeters mercury mmhg systolic mmhg diastolic ref name eu ref high blood pressure present resting blood pressure persistently mmhg adults ref name lancet different numbers apply children ref name jnc ref ambulatory blood pressure monitoring hour period appears accurate office best blood pressure measurement ref name nai ref name lancet lifestyle changes medications lower


blood pressure decrease risk health complications ref name nih tx ref lifestyle changes include weight loss decreased salt intake physical exercise healthy diet ref name lancet lifestyle changes sufficient blood pressure medications used ref name nih tx three medications control blood pressure people ref name lancet ref treatment moderate severe high arterial blood pressure defined mmhg medications associated improved life expectancy reduced morbidity effect treatment blood pressure nbsp mmhg nbsp mmhg less clear reviews finding benefit others finding


lack evidence benefit ref name diao ref high blood pressure affects population globally ref name lancet hypertension believed factor million deaths essential vs secondary hypertension essential hypertension form hypertension definition identifiable cause common type hypertension affecting hypertensive patients ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref ref name isbn ref ref name urlhypertension emedicine nephrology ref tends familial likely consequence interaction environmental genetic factors prevalence essential hypertension increases age


individuals relatively high blood pressure younger ages increased risk subsequent development hypertension hypertension increase risk cerebral cardiac renal events ref name urlessential hypertension lancet ref secondary hypertension type hypertension caused identifiable underlying secondary cause much less common essential hypertension affecting hypertensive patients many different causes including endocrine diseases kidney diseases tumors also side effect many medications complications hypertension main complications persistent high blood pressure


complications hypertension clinical outcomes result persistent elevation blood pressure ref name pmid ref hypertension risk factor clinical manifestations atherosclerosis since risk factor atherosclerosis ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref independent predisposing factor heart failure ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref coronary artery disease ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref stroke ref name pmid renal disease ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref peripheral arterial disease ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref important risk factor cardiovascular morbidity mortality industrialized countries ref name pmid ref congenital heart defects congenital heart defect also known congenital heart


anomaly congenital heart disease problem structure heart present birth ref name nih ref signs symptoms depend specific type problem ref name symptoms vary none life threatening ref name nih present may include rapid breathing bluish skin poor weight gain feeling tired ref name nih sym b cause chest pain ref name nih sym b ref congenital heart problems occur diseases ref name ref complications result heart defects include heart failure ref name nih sym b cause congenital heart defect often unknown certain cases may due


infections pregnancy rubella use certain medications drugs alcohol tobacco parents closely related poor nutritional status obesity mother ref name ref name dean ref parent congenital heart defect also risk factor ref name mil number genetic conditions associated heart defects including syndrome turner syndrome marfan syndrome ref name congenital heart defects divided two main groups cyanotic heart defects non cyanotic heart defects depending whether child potential turn bluish color ref name problems may involve


interior walls heart heart valves large blood vessels lead heart ref name nih congenital heart defects partly preventable rubella vaccination adding iodine salt adding folic acid certain food products ref name defects need treatment ref name nih may effectively treated catheter based procedures heart surgery ref name nih tx occasionally number operations may needed ref name nih tx ref occasionally heart transplantation required ref name nih tx appropriate treatment outcomes even complex problems generally good ref name nih heart defects common


birth defect ref name ref name gbd present million people globally ref name gbd ref affect per live births depending upon diagnosed ref name ref name mil ref per cause moderate severe degree problems ref name mil congenital heart defects leading cause birth defect related deaths ref name resulted deaths deaths ref name gdb ref tetralogy fallot tetralogy fallot common congenital heart disease arising cases per births cause


defect ventricular septal defect vsd overriding aorta two defects combined causes deoxygenated blood bypass lungs going right back circulatory system modified blalock taussig shunt usually used fix circulation procedure done placing graft subclavian artery ipsilateral pulmonary artery restore correct blood flow pulmonary atresia pulmonary atresia happens per births characterized aorta branching right ventricle causes deoxygenated blood bypass lungs enter


circulatory system surgeries fix redirecting aorta fixing right ventricle pulmonary artery connection two types pulmonary atresia classified whether baby also ventricular septal defect ref name medscape ref ref name ref pulmonary atresia intact ventricular septum type pulmonary atresia associated complete intact septum ventricles ref name pulmonary atresia ventricular septal defect type pulmonary atresia happens ventricular septal defect allows blood flow right ventricle ref name double outlet right


ventricle double outlet right ventricle dorv great arteries pulmonary artery aorta connected right ventricle usually vsd different particular places depending variations dorv typically subaortic surgeries done fix defect vary due different physiology blood flow defected heart one way cured vsd closure placing conduits restart blood flow left ventricle aorta right ventricle


pulmonary artery another way systemic pulmonary artery shunt cases associated pulmonary stenosis also balloon atrial septostomy done fix dorv taussig bing anomaly transposition great arteries dextro transposition great arteries two different types transposition great arteries dextro transposition great arteries levo transposition great arteries depending chambers vessels connect dextro transposition happens newborns right ventricle pumps blood aorta deoxygenated blood enters bloodstream temporary procedure


produce problems beginning eventually due different pressures ventricle uses pump blood switching left ventricle systemic ventricle right ventricle pump blood pulmonary artery repair levo transposition persistent truncus arteriosus persistent truncus arteriosus truncus arteriosus fails split aorta pulmonary trunk occurs live births allows oxygenated deoxygenated blood body repair consists vsd closure rastelli procedure ebstein anomaly ebstein 's


anomaly characterized right atrium significantly enlarged heart shaped like box rare happens less congenital heart disease cases surgical repair varies depending severity disease pediatric cardiology sub specialty pediatrics become pediatric cardiologist united states one must complete three year residency pediatrics followed three year fellowship pediatric cardiology per doximity pediatric cardiologists make average united states ref name r diagnostic tests cardiology diagnostic


cardiology annals cardiac anaesthesia current research cardiology cardiology review circulation circulation research clinical experimental hypertension clinical cardiology ep europace european heart journal heart heart rhythm international journal cardiology journal american college cardiology pacing clinical electrophysiology indian heart journal cardiologists robert atkins known atkins diet eugene braunwald born editor ''braunwald 's heart disease'' publications wallace brigden identified cardiomyopathy willem einthoven physiologist built first practical ecg nobel prize physiology medicine discovery


mechanism electrocardiogram werner forssmann infamously performed first human catheterization led let go berliner charit hospital quitting cardiology speciality winning nobel prize physiology medicine discoveries concerning heart catheterization pathological changes circulatory system andreas gruentzig first developed balloon angioplasty william harvey wrote ''exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis et sanguinis animalibus'' first described closed circulatory system forssmann described founding cardiology nobel lecture murray hoffman born


type ii jacqueline noonan born discoverer noonan syndrome top syndromic cause congenital heart disease john parkinson known wolff parkinson white syndrome helen b taussig founder pediatric cardiology extensively worked blue baby syndrome paul dudley white known wolff parkinson white syndrome louis wolff known wolff parkinson white syndrome karel frederik wenckebach first described called type second degree atrioventricular block see also outline cardiology list cardiac pharmaceutical agents glossary medicine references sources external links https wwwheartorg american heart association


theory conspiracy instead refers hypothesized conspiracy specific characteristics opposition mainstream consensus among people scientists historians qualified evaluate accuracy ref name andrade ref ref name barkun ref name brotherton q conspiracy theories resist falsification reinforced circular reasoning evidence conspiracy absence evidence interpreted evidence truth ref name byford ref name keeley ref whereby conspiracy becomes matter faith rather something proven disproven ref name barkun ref ref name barkun ref researchers suggest '''conspiracist

Journalism, media studies and communication


ideation''' belief conspiracy theories may psychologically harmful pathological ref name freeman ref ref name barron ref correlated lower analytical thinking low intelligence psychological projection paranoia machiavellianism psychologists usually attribute belief conspiracy theories finding conspiracy none number psychopathological conditions paranoia schizotypy narcissism insecure attachment ref name andrade form cognitive bias called illusory pattern perception however current scientific consensus holds conspiracy theorists pathological precisely beliefs ultimately rely cognitive tendencies neurologically hardwired human species


probably deep evolutionary origins including natural inclinations towards anxiety agency detection ref name andrade historically conspiracy theories closely linked prejudice propaganda witch hunts wars genocides ref name douglasuscinski ref name goertzel ref name hr ref often strongly believed perpetrators terrorist attacks used justification timothy mcveigh anders breivik well governments nazi germany soviet union ref name douglasuscinski turkey aids denialism government south africa motivated conspiracy theories caused estimated deaths aids ref name thresher andrews ref name simelelaventer ref name burtongiddy qanon denialism united states


presidential election results led storming united states capitol ref name nature ref ref name crossley ref belief conspiracy theories genetically modified foods led government zambia reject food aid famine ref name goertzel time three million people country suffering hunger ref name brossardshanahan conspiracy theories significant obstacle improvements public health ref name goertzel ref name glickbooth encouraging opposition vaccination water fluoridation among others linked outbreaks vaccine preventable diseases ref name goertzel ref name thresher andrews ref name glickbooth ref name prematungecorace effects conspiracy theories include reduced trust scientific evidence ref


analytical thinking skills general public ref name van prooijendouglas ref name sunsteinvermeule etymology usage ''oxford english dictionary'' defines ''conspiracy theory'' theory event phenomenon occurs result conspiracy interested parties ' 'spec'' belief covert influential agency typically political motivation oppressive intent responsible unexplained event cites article ''the american historical review'' earliest usage example although also appeared print early april ref name joms ref word conspiracy derives latin ''con ''


together ' 'spirare'' breathe robert blaskiewicz comments examples term used early nineteenth century states usage always derogatory ref name csicop ref according study andrew mckenzie mcharg contrast nineteenth century term ''conspiracy theory'' simply suggests plausible postulate conspiracy stage carry connotations either negative positive though sometimes postulate labeled criticized term conspiracy theory subject conspiracy theory claims term popularized cia order


discredit conspiratorial believers particularly critics warren commission making target ridicule ref name brotherton ref book ''conspiracy theory america'' political scientist lance dehaven smith suggested term entered everyday language united states year warren commission published findings kennedy assassination ''the new york times'' running five stories year using term however dehaven smith 's suggestion criticized michael butter professor american literary cultural history university bingen grounds cia document dehaven smith


referenced ''concerning criticism warren report'' publicly released freedom information act request contain phrase conspiracy theory singular mentions conspiracy theories sentence conspiracy theories frequently thrown suspicion organisation example falsely alleging lee harvey oswald worked us difference conspiracy conspiracy theory simply conspiracy refers covert plan involving two people ref name barkun contrast term conspiracy theory refers ''hypothesized'' conspiracies specific characteristics


example conspiracist beliefs invariably oppose mainstream consensus among people qualified evaluate accuracy scientists historians ref name brotherton q ref conspiracy theorists see privileged access socially persecuted knowledge stigmatized mode thought separates masses believe official account ref name barkun ref michael barkun describes conspiracy theory template imposed upon world give appearance order events ref name barkun real conspiracies even simple ones difficult conceal routinely experience unexpected problems ref name brotherton contrast conspiracy theories suggest conspiracies


unrealistically successful groups conspirators bureaucracies act near perfect competence secrecy causes events situations simplified exclude complex interacting factors well role chance unintended consequences nearly observations explained deliberately planned alleged conspirators ref name brotherton ref conspiracy theories conspirators usually claimed acting extreme malice ref name brotherton described robert brotherton examples conspiracy theory may take matter subject certain subjects attract greater interest others favored subjects include famous deaths


assassinations morally dubious government activities suppressed technologies false flag terrorism among longest standing widely recognized conspiracy theories notions concerning assassination john f kennedy apollo moon landings terrorist attacks well numerous theories pertaining alleged plots world domination various groups real imaginary popularity conspiracy beliefs widespread around world ref name van prooijendouglas rural africa common targets conspiracy theorizing include societal elites enemy tribes western world conspirators often alleged enact plans via sorcery witchcraft one common


st centuries ref name camp ref ref name goldberg ref ref name fenster ref general predisposition believe conspiracy theories cuts across partisan ideological lines conspiratorial thinking correlated antigovernmental orientations low sense political efficacy conspiracy believers perceiving governmental threat individual rights displaying deep skepticism one votes really matters conspiracy theories often commonly believed even held majority population ref name van prooijendouglas ref name sunsteinvermeule ref name brotherton ref broad cross section americans today gives credence least conspiracy theories instance study conducted found


americans think chemtrail conspiracy theory completely true think somewhat true ref name gizearth puts equivalent million americans 'chemtrails real' camp ref name gizearth ref belief conspiracy theories therefore become topic interest sociologists psychologists experts folklore conspiracy theories widely present web form blogs youtube videos well social media whether web increased prevalence conspiracy theories open research question presence representation conspiracy theories


search engine results monitored studied showing significant variation across different topics general absence reputable high quality links results one conspiracy theory propagated former us president barack obama 's time office claimed born kenya instead hawaii born former governor arkansas political opponent obama mike huckabee made headlines among members republican leadership continued question obama 's citizenship status class wikitable colspan align center '''belief conspiracy theories united states december npr ipsos poll '''


conspiracy theory believe sure group satan worshipping elites run child sex ring trying control politics media qanon several mass shootings recent years staged hoaxes crisis actor theory barack obama born united states birtherism moon landing conspiracy theories conspiracy theories types conspiracy theory local international focused


people manipulating events gain enemy features lower classes working overturn social order benevolent conspiracies angelic forces work behind scenes improve world help people barkun 's three types michael barkun identified three classifications conspiracy theory ''event conspiracy theories'' refers limited well defined events examples may include conspiracies theories concerning kennedy assassination spread aids ''systemic conspiracy theories'' conspiracy believed broad goals usually conceived securing control country


region even entire world goals sweeping whilst conspiratorial machinery generally simple single evil organization implements plan infiltrate subvert existing institutions common scenario conspiracy theories focus alleged machinations jews freemasons communism catholic church ''superconspiracy theories'' barkun theories link multiple alleged conspiracies together hierarchically summit distant powerful evil force cited examples ideas david icke milton william cooper rothbard shallow vs deep murray rothbard argues


relationship legitimate illegitimate knowledge birchall claims closer common dismissals conspiracy theory contend theories involving multiple conspirators proven correct watergate scandal usually referred investigative journalism historical analysis rather conspiracy theory ref name knight ref contrast term watergate conspiracy theory used refer variety hypotheses convicted conspiracy fact victims deeper conspiracy also attempts analyze theory conspiracy theories conspiracy theory theory ensure term conspiracy


theory used refer narratives debunked experts rather generalized dismissal rhetoric conspiracy theory rhetoric exploits several important cognitive biases including proportionality bias attribution bias confirmation bias ref name thresher andrews ref arguments often take form asking reasonable questions without providing answer based strong evidence conspiracy theories successful proponents gather followers general public politics religion journalism proponents may necessarily believe conspiracy theory instead using attempt gain public approval conspiratorial claims


act successful rhetorical strategy convince portion public via appeal emotion ref name goertzel conspiracy theories typically justify focusing gaps ambiguities knowledge arguing true explanation must conspiracy ref name brotherton contrast evidence directly supports claims generally low quality example conspiracy theories often dependent eyewitness testimony despite unreliability disregarding objective analyses evidence ref name brotherton conspiracy theories able falsified reinforced fallacious arguments particular logical


fallacy circular reasoning used conspiracy theorists evidence conspiracy absence evidence interpreted evidence truth ref name byford ref name keeley whereby conspiracy becomes matter faith rather something proved disproved ref name barkun ref name barkun epistemic strategy conspiracy theories called cascade logic time new evidence becomes available conspiracy theory able dismiss claiming even people must part cover ref name goertzel ref name brotherton information contradicts conspiracy theory suggested disinformation


alleged conspiracy ref name douglas similarly continued lack evidence directly supporting conspiracist claims portrayed confirming existence conspiracy silence fact people found exposed conspiracy taken evidence people part plot rather considering may conspiracy exists ref name thresher andrews ref name brotherton strategy lets conspiracy theories insulate neutral analyses evidence makes resistant questioning correction called epistemic self insulation ref name thresher andrews ref name brotherton conspiracy theorists often take advantage false balance


media may claim presenting legitimate alternative viewpoint deserves equal time argue case example strategy used teach controversy campaign promote intelligent design often claims conspiracy scientists suppressing views successfully find platform present views debate format focus using rhetorical ''ad hominems'' attacking perceived flaws mainstream account avoiding discussion shortcomings position ref name goertzel typical approach conspiracy theories


challenge action statement authorities using even tenuous justifications responses assessed using double standard failing provide immediate response satisfaction conspiracy theorist claimed prove conspiracy minor errors response heavily emphasized deficiencies arguments proponents generally excused ref name goertzel science conspiracists may suggest scientific theory disproven single perceived deficiency even though events extremely rare addition disregarding claims attempting address


interpreted proof conspiracy ref name goertzel conspiracist arguments may scientific example response ipcc second assessment report much opposition centered promoting procedural objection report 's creation specifically claimed part procedure reflected conspiracy silence dissenters served motivation opponents report successfully redirected significant amount public discussion away science ref name goertzel consequences historically conspiracy theories closely linked prejudice witch hunts wars genocides ref name douglasuscinski ref name goertzel often strongly


important role reinforcing ideology psychology members well radicalizing beliefs ref name douglasuscinski ref name brotherton conspiracy theories often share common themes even among groups would otherwise fundamentally opposed antisemitic conspiracy theories found among political extremists far right far left ref name douglasuscinski generally belief conspiracy theories associated holding extreme uncompromising viewpoints may help people maintaining viewpoints ref name douglas conspiracy theories always present extremist groups always lead violence


make group extreme provide enemy direct hatred towards isolate members rest society conspiracy theories likely inspire violence call urgent action appeal prejudices demonize scapegoat enemies ref name brotherton ref conspiracy theorizing workplace also economic consequences example leads lower job satisfaction lower commitment resulting workers likely leave jobs ref name douglasuscinski comparisons also made effects workplace rumors share characteristics conspiracy theories result decreased productivity


increased stress subsequent effects managers include reduced profits reduced trust employees damage company 's image ref name douglasuscinski ref ref name difonzobordia ref conspiracy theories divert attention important social political scientific issues ref name jolley ref ref name sciam addition used discredit scientific evidence general public legal context conspiratorial strategies also share characteristics used lawyers attempting discredit expert testimony claiming experts ulterior motives testifying attempting find someone provide statements imply expert opinion divided


actually ref name goertzel possible conspiracy theories may also produce compensatory benefits society certain situations example may help people identify governmental deceptions particularly repressive societies encourage government transparency ref name sunsteinvermeule ref name jolley however real conspiracies normally revealed people working within system whistleblowers journalists effort spent conspiracy theorists inherently misdirected ref name brotherton dangerous conspiracy theories likely incite violence scapegoat disadvantaged groups spread misinformation important societal issues ref name brotherton e ref interventions primary defense


conspiracy theories maintain open society many sources reliable information available government sources known credible rather propaganda additionally independent nongovernmental organizations able correct misinformation without requiring people trust government ref name sunsteinvermeule approaches reduce appeal conspiracy theories general among public may based emotional social nature conspiratorial beliefs example interventions promote analytical thinking general public likely effective another approach intervene ways decrease negative emotions specifically


improve feelings personal hope empowerment ref name van prooijendouglas ref joseph pierre also noted mistrust authoritative institutions core component underlying many conspiracy theories mistrust creates epistemic vacuum makes individuals searching answers vulnerable misinformation therefore one possible solution offering consumers seat table mend mistrust institutions regarding challenges approach dr pierre said challenge acknowledging areas uncertainty within public sphere weaponized reinforce post truth view world


everything debatable counter position valid although like think middle road kind individual important keep mind truth always lie middle debate whether talking climate change vaccines antipsychotic medications suggested directly countering misinformation counterproductive example since conspiracy theories reinterpret disconfirming information part narrative refuting claim result accidentally reinforcing ref name brotherton ref name sciam addition publishing criticism conspiracy


theories result legitimizing ref name jolley context possible interventions include carefully selecting conspiracy theories refute requesting additional analyses independent observers introducing cognitive diversity conspiratorial communities undermining poor epistemology ref name jolley legitimization effect might also reduced responding conspiracy theories rather fewer ref name sunsteinvermeule ref however presenting people factual corrections highlighting logical contradictions conspiracy theories demonstrated positive effect many circumstances ref name van prooijendouglas ref name sciam example studied case informing believers conspiracy theories


statements actual experts witnesses ref name van prooijendouglas one possibility criticism likely backfire challenges someone 's worldview identity suggests effective approach may provide criticism avoiding challenges ref name sciam ref psychology widespread belief conspiracy theories become topic interest sociologists psychologists experts folklore since least number conspiracy theories arose regarding assassination us president john f kennedy sociologist rkay salim nefes underlines political nature conspiracy theories suggests one


believe conspiracy theories strongly associated mental health disorder schizotypy conspiracy theories limited fringe audiences become commonplace mass media emerging cultural phenomenon late th early st centuries ref name camp ref name goldberg ref name fenster exposure conspiracy theories news media popular entertainment increases receptiveness conspiratorial ideas also increased social acceptability fringe beliefs ref name douglasuscinski ref name stojanovhalberstadt ref conspiracy theories often make use complicated detailed arguments including ones appear analytical scientific however belief conspiracy


theories primarily driven emotion ref name van prooijendouglas one widely confirmed facts conspiracy theories belief single conspiracy theory tends promote belief unrelated conspiracy theories well ref name thresher andrews ref name suttondouglas ref even applies conspiracy theories directly contradict eg believing osama bin laden already dead compound pakistan attacked makes person likely believe still alive one conclusion finding content conspiracist belief less important idea


coverup authorities ref name thresher andrews ref name sciam ref ref name bilewiczcichocka ref analytical thinking aids reducing belief conspiracy theories part emphasizes rational critical cognition ref name douglas ref psychological scientists assert explanations related conspiracy theories often internally consistent strong beliefs previously held prior event sparked conspiracy ref name douglas people believe conspiracy theories tend believe unsubstantiated claims including pseudoscience paranormal phenomena attractions psychological motives believing conspiracy theories categorized epistemic existential social motives


promote negative distrustful view people groups allegedly acting based antisocial cynical motivations expected lead increased alienation anomie reduced social capital similarly depict public ignorant powerless alleged conspirators important aspects society determined malevolent forces viewpoint likely disempowering ref name douglas person may endorse conspiracy theories one many different reasons ref name goreisvoracek consistently demonstrated characteristics people find conspiracy theories appealing feeling alienation unhappiness dissatisfaction


institutional analysis cannot appear make sense world otherwise confusing second appealingly simple way dividing world sharply forces light forces darkness trace evil back single source conspirators agents third conspiracy theories often presented special secret knowledge unknown unappreciated others conspiracy theorists masses brainwashed herd conspiracy theorists know congratulate penetrating plotters' deceptions ref name new internationalist third


hope breaking power joining belief power cabal implicit assertion human dignity unconscious affirmation man responsible destiny ref name baigent leigh lincoln ref people formulate conspiracy theories explain example power relations social groups perceived existence evil forces ref name new internationalist ref ref name turkay nefes ref ref name nefes ref proposed psychological origins conspiracy theorising include projection personal need explain significant event significant cause product various kinds stages thought disorder


paranoid disposition ranging severity diagnosable mental illnesses people prefer socio political explanations insecurity encountering random unpredictable otherwise inexplicable events ref name businesstimecom justin fox http businesstimecom wall streeters like conspiracy theories always wall streeters like conspiracy theories always ''time'' october ref ref name goertzel ref ref name douglas ref ref name harpers ref name hodapp ref ref name cohen ref according berlet lyons conspiracism particular narrative form scapegoating frames demonized enemies part vast insidious plot common good valorizes scapegoater hero sounding alarm origins psychologists believe search meaning


common conspiracism cognized confirmation bias avoidance cognitive dissonance may reinforce belief context conspiracy theory become embedded within social group communal reinforcement may also play part inquiry possible motives behind accepting irrational conspiracy theories linked beliefs distress resulting event occurred events additionally research done manchester metropolitan university suggests delusional ideation likely condition would indicate elevated belief conspiracy theories studies ref name brothertonfrench also show increased attachment


irrational beliefs lead decrease desire civic engagement belief conspiracy theories correlated low intelligence lower analytical thinking anxiety disorders paranoia authoritarian beliefs professor quassim cassam argues conspiracy theorists hold beliefs due flaws thinking precisely intellectual character cites philosopher linda trinkaus zagzebski book ''virtues mind'' outlining intellectual virtues humility caution carefulness intellectual vices gullibility carelessness closed mindedness whereas intellectual virtues help reaching sound examination intellectual vices impede effective responsible inquiry meaning


prone believing conspiracy theories possess certain vices lacking necessary virtues researchers suggested conspiracy theories could partially caused psychological mechanisms human brain possesses detecting dangerous coalitions mechanism could useful small scale environment humanity evolved mismatched modern complex society thus misfire perceiving conspiracies none exist projection historians argued psychological projection prevalent amongst conspiracy theorists projection according argument manifested form attribution undesirable characteristics


self conspirators historian richard hofstadter stated hofstadter also noted sexual freedom vice frequently attributed conspiracist 's target group noting often fantasies true believers reveal strong sadomasochistic outlets vividly expressed example delight anti masons cruelty masonic punishments ref name harpers ref sociology addition psychological factors conspiracist ideation sociological factors also help account believes conspiracy theories theories tend get traction among election losers society example emphasis conspiracy theories elites leaders


tends increase belief among followers higher levels conspiracy thinking christopher hitchens described conspiracy theories exhaust fumes democracy ref name hodapp unavoidable result large amount information circulating among large number people conspiracy theories may emotionally satisfying assigning blame group theorist belong absolving theorist moral political responsibility society likewise roger cohen writing ''the new york times'' said captive minds resort conspiracy theory ultimate refuge


powerless cannot change life must greater force controls world ref name cohen sociological historian holger herwig found studying german explanations origins world war events important hardest understand attract greatest attention myth makers charlatans justin fox ''time'' magazine argues wall street traders among conspiracy minded group people ascribes reality financial market conspiracies ability conspiracy theories provide necessary orientation market 's day day


movements ref name businesstimecom influence critical theory french sociologist bruno latour suggests widespread popularity conspiracy theories mass culture may due part pervasive presence marxist inspired critical theory similar ideas academia since ref name critiquesteam ref latour notes contemporary social criticism academia displays one two approaches terms ''fact position'' ''fairy position'' fairy position anti fetishist arguing objects belief eg religion arts merely concepts onto power projected latour contends use approach show biases


towards confirming dogmatic suspicions scientifically supported complete facts situation correct methodology ostensibly important latour proposes scientific process instead laid patina one 's pet theories lend sort reputation high ground fact position argues external forces eg economics gender dominate individuals often covertly without awareness latour concludes two approaches academia led polarized inefficient atmosphere highlighted approaches causticness see feels


left right coined term fusion paranoia refer political convergence left wing right wing activists around anti war issues civil liberties said motivated shared belief conspiracism shared anti government views barkun adopted term refer synthesis paranoid conspiracy theories limited american fringe audiences given mass appeal enabled become commonplace mass media thereby inaugurating unrivaled period people actively preparing apocalyptic millenarian scenarios united states late th


early st centuries barkun notes occurrence lone wolf conflicts law enforcement acting proxy threatening established political powers viability evidence reality alleged conspiracy grows number alleged conspirators also grow minds conspiracy theorists alleged conspirators often competing interests example republican president george w bush allegedly responsible terrorist attacks democratic party pursue exposing alleged plot must mean democratic republican parties conspirators alleged


plot also assumes alleged conspirators competent fool entire world incompetent conspiracy theorists find alleged mistakes make prove fraud point number alleged conspirators combined contradictions within alleged conspirators' interests competence becomes great maintaining theory becomes obvious exercise absurdity physicist david robert grimes estimated time would take conspiracy exposed based number people involved ref name pbs plos one ref ref name grimes plos one ref calculations used data


prism surveillance program tuskegee syphilis experiment fbi forensic scandal grimes estimated moon landing hoax would require involvement people would exposed within years climate change fraud would require minimum people published climate scientists would exposed within years people case would exposed within years vaccination conspiracy would require minimum people without drug companies would exposed within least years years depending number involved


conspiracy suppress cure cancer would require people would exposed within years grimes 's study consider exposure sources outside alleged conspiracy considered exposure within alleged conspiracy whistleblowers incompetence politics philosopher karl popper described central problem conspiracy theories form fundamental attribution error every event generally perceived intentional planned greatly underestimating effects randomness unintended consequences ref name sciam book ''the open society enemies'' used term


conspiracy theory society denote idea social phenomena war unemployment poverty shortages result direct design powerful individuals groups popper argued totalitarianism founded conspiracy theories drew imaginary plots driven paranoid scenarios predicated tribalism chauvinism racism also noted conspirators rarely achieved goal ref name dohloo ref historically real conspiracies usually little effect history unforeseen consequences conspirators contrast conspiracy theories often posit grand sinister organizations world changing


events evidence erased obscured ref name cumings ref name sciamshermer ref described bruce cumings history instead moved broad forces large structures human collectivities ref name cumings ref middle east conspiracy theories prevalent feature arab culture politics ref name gray ref variants include conspiracies involving colonialism zionism superpowers oil war terrorism may referred war islam ref name gray example '' protocols elders zion'' infamous hoax document purporting jewish plan world domination commonly read promoted


muslim world roger cohen suggested popularity conspiracy theories arab world ultimate refuge powerless ref name cohen al mumin said noted danger theories keep us truth also confronting faults problems osama bin laden ayman al zawahiri used conspiracy theories united states gain support al qaeda arab world rhetoric distinguish similar groups although may believed conspiratorial claims ref name gray ref united states historian richard hofstadter


belief conspiracy theories west also compares theories hypernationalism religious fundamentalism theologian robert jewett philosopher john shelton lawrence attribute enduring popularity conspiracy theories us cold war mccarthyism counterculture rejection authority state among left wing right wing remains willingness use real events soviet plots inconsistencies warren report attacks support existence unverified ongoing large scale conspiracies watergate scandal also used bestow legitimacy conspiracy theories richard nixon


commenting served rorschach ink blot invited others fill underlying pattern ref name knight historian kathryn olmsted cites three reasons americans prone believing government conspiracies theories genuine government overreach secrecy cold war watergate tuskegee syphilis experiment project mkultra cia 's collaboration mobsters attempting assassinate fidel castro precedent set official government sanctioned conspiracy theories propaganda claims german infiltration us world war ii debunked claim saddam hussein played role


attacks distrust fostered government 's spying harassment dissenters sedition act cointelpro part various red scares alex jones referenced numerous conspiracy theories convincing supporters endorse ron paul mitt romney republican party presidential primaries donald trump hillary clinton united states presidential election recently qanon conspiracy theory originated us alleges trump fighting deep state cabal child sex abusing satan worshipping democrats ref name nature ref name crossley see also references


'''informational notes''' '''citations''' '''further reading''' burnett thom ''conspiracy encyclopedia encyclopedia conspiracy theories'' butter michael peter knight bridging great divide conspiracy theory research st century ''diogenes'' http hssfoundationorg wp content uploads kx abstractspdf online de graaf beatrice zwierlein cornel eds https wwwgesisorg en hsr full text archive security conspiracy ''security conspiracy history th st century'' historical social research special issue fleming chris emma jane ''modern conspiracy importance paranoid'' new york london bloomsbury goertzel ted belief conspiracy theories ''political psychology'' http wwwcrabrutgersedu goertzel conspiredoc online harris lee https webarchiveorg web http americancom archive january trouble conspiracy theories '' trouble


conspiracy theories '' american january hofstadter richard ''the paranoid style american politics'' https webarchiveorg web http wwwfuminyangcom michelle paranoid stylepdf online oliver j eric thomas j wood conspiracy theories paranoid style mass opinion ''american journal political science'' http hon pwptxstateedu files oliverwoodpdf online slosson w https archiveorg stream unpopularreview newy page mode '' 'conspiracy' superstition '' unpopular review vol vii n sunstein cass r adrian vermeule conspiracy theories causes cures ''journal political philosophy'' http wwwask forceorg web discourse sunstein conspiracy theories pdf online uscinski joseph e joseph parent ''american conspiracy theories'' https wwwamazoncom dp excerpt uscinski joseph e


dangerous conspiracy theories http wwwpoliticocom magazine story conspiracy theories donald trump hillary clinton ''politico magazine'' aug wood gordon conspiracy paranoid style causality deceit eighteenth century ''william mary quarterly'' https wwwjstororg stable jstor external links https ieputmedu conspira conspiracy theories ''internet encyclopedia philosophy'' barriers critical thinking fringe theory pejorative terms


'''computational linguistics''' interdisciplinary field concerned computational modelling natural language well study appropriate computational approaches linguistic questions general computational linguistics draws upon linguistics computer science artificial intelligence mathematics logic philosophy cognitive science cognitive psychology psycholinguistics anthropology neuroscience among others sub fields related areas traditionally computational linguistics emerged area artificial intelligence performed computer scientists specialized application computers processing natural language formation association computational linguistics acl establishment independent conference

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Computational linguistics


series field consolidated association computational linguistics defines computational linguistics ref term computational linguistics nowadays taken near synonym natural language processing nlp human language technology terms put stronger emphasis aspects practical applications rather theoretical inquiry since practice largely replaced term computational linguistics nlp acl community although specifically refer sub field applied computational linguistics computational linguistics theoretical applied components theoretical computational linguistics focuses issues


theoretical linguistics cognitive science ref name applied computational linguistics focuses practical outcome modeling human language use ref name ref '''theoretical computational linguistics''' includes development formal theories grammar parsing semantics often grounded formal logics symbolic knowledge based approaches areas research studied theoretical computational linguistics include computational complexity natural language largely modeled automata theory application context sensitive grammar linearly bounded turing machines computational semantics comprises defining suitable logics linguistic meaning representation automatically constructing reasoning '''applied computational linguistics''' dominated machine


performed eg whether analyzing language recognition synthesizing language generation parsing generation sub divisions computational linguistics dealing respectively taking language apart putting together traditionally applications computers address research problems branches linguistics described tasks within computational linguistics among aspects includes computer aided corpus linguistics used since way make detailed advances field discourse analysis ref name ref simulation study language evolution historical linguistics glottochronology ref name origins computational linguistics often grouped within field


artificial intelligence present development artificial intelligence computational linguistics originated efforts united states use computers automatically translate texts foreign languages particularly russian scientific journals english since computers make arithmetic systematic calculations much faster accurately humans thought short matter time could also begin process language computational quantitative methods also used historically attempted reconstruction earlier forms modern languages sub grouping modern languages language families earlier methods


lexicostatistics glottochronology proven premature inaccurate however recent interdisciplinary studies borrow concepts biological studies especially gene mapping proved produce sophisticated analytical tools reliable results machine translation also known mechanical translation failed yield accurate translations right away automated processing human languages recognized far complex originally assumed computational linguistics born name new field study devoted developing algorithms software intelligently processing language data term computational linguistics first coined


represent process natural languages using computers nowadays research within scope computational linguistics done computational linguistics departments computational linguistics laboratories computer science departments linguistics departments research field computational linguistics aims create working speech text processing systems others aim create system allowing human machine interaction programs meant human machine communication called conversational agents approaches computational linguistics performed experts variety fields wide assortment departments research fields broach diverse range topics


following sections discuss literature available across entire field broken four main area discourse developmental linguistics structural linguistics linguistic production linguistic comprehension developmental approaches language cognitive skill develops throughout life individual developmental process examined using several techniques computational approach one human language development provide constraints make harder apply computational method understanding instance language acquisition human children largely exposed positive evidence means linguistic


development individual evidence correct form provided evidence correct insufficient information simple hypothesis testing procedure information complex language ref name autogenerated braine mds two types models internalization grammars di slobin ed ontogenesis grammar theoretical perspective new york academic press ref provides certain boundaries computational approach modeling language development acquisition individual attempts made model developmental process language acquisition children


computational angle leading statistical grammars connectionist models ref name powers powers dmw turk ccr ''machine learning natural language'' springer verlag ref work realm also proposed method explain evolution language history using models shown languages learned combination simple input presented incrementally child develops better memory longer attention span ref name autogenerated ref simultaneously posed reason long developmental period human children ref name autogenerated conclusions drawn strength artificial


tested using computational approach understanding linguistic development individual within lifetime continually improved using neural networks learning robotic systems also important keep mind languages change develop time computational approaches understanding phenomenon unearthed interesting information using price equation p lya urn dynamics researchers created system predicts future linguistic evolution also gives insight evolutionary history modern day languages modeling effort achieved computational linguistics would otherwise impossible


structure availability large linguistic corpora samples grants computational linguists raw data necessary run models gain better understanding underlying structures present vast amount data contained single language one cited english linguistic corpora penn treebank derived widely different sources ibm computer manuals transcribed telephone conversations corpus contains million words american english corpus primarily annotated using part speech tagging syntactic bracketing yielded substantial empirical observations related


non normal grammar chomsky normal form without learning overgeneralized version getting stuck ref name autogenerated theoretical efforts like set direction research go early lifetime field study crucial growth field structural information languages allows discovery implementation similarity recognition pairs text utterances ref name autogenerated ref instance recently proven based structural information present patterns human discourse conceptual recurrence plots used model visualize trends data create reliable measures


similarity natural textual utterances ref name autogenerated technique strong tool probing structure human discourse without computational approach question vastly complex information present discourse data would remained inaccessible scientists information regarding structural data language available english well languages japanese ref name autogenerated ref using computational methods japanese sentence corpora analyzed pattern log normality found relation sentence length ref name autogenerated though exact cause lognormality remains unknown precisely sort information


computational linguistics designed uncover information could lead important discoveries regarding underlying structure japanese could number effects understanding japanese language computational linguistics allows exciting additions scientific knowledge base happen quickly little room doubt without computational approach structure linguistic data much information available would still hidden vastness data within single language computational linguistics allows scientists parse huge amounts data reliably


efficiently creating possibility discoveries unlike seen approaches production approaches production language equally complex information provides necessary skills fluent producer must say comprehension half problem communication half system produces language computational linguistics made interesting discoveries area alan turing computer scientist namesake developer turing test method measuring intelligence machine famous paper published alan turing


proposed possibility machines might one day ability think thought experiment might define concept thought machines proposed imitation test human subject two text conversations one fellow human another machine attempting respond like human turing proposes subject cannot tell difference human machine may concluded machine capable thought today test known turing test remains influential idea


area artificial intelligence joseph weizenbaum former mit professor computer scientist developed eliza primitive computer program utilizing natural language processing one earliest best known examples computer program designed converse naturally humans eliza program developed joseph weizenbaum mit program emulated rogerian psychotherapist responding written statements questions posed user appeared capable understanding said responding intelligently truth simply followed pattern matching routine relied understanding


keywords sentence responses generated recombining unknown parts sentence around properly translated versions known words example phrase seems hate eliza understands matches general pattern words allowing eliza update words replying makes think hate example eliza understanding word hate required logical response context type psychotherapy


algorithms models presented give scientists ability improve results type work specific computational linguistics applications could vastly improve understanding language produced comprehended computers work also done making computers produce language naturalistic manner using linguistic input humans algorithms constructed able modify system 's style production based factor linguistic input human abstract factors like politeness five


main dimensions personality work takes computational approach via parameter estimation models categorize vast array linguistic styles see across individuals simplify computer work way making human computer interaction much natural text based interactive approach many earliest simplest models human computer interaction eliza example involve text based input user generate response computer method words typed user trigger computer recognize specific patterns reply accordingly process known keyword


abundance easily accessible written human language ability create program capable understanding human language would many broad exciting possibilities including improved search engines automated customer service online education early work comprehension included applying bayesian statistics task optical character recognition illustrated bledsoe browing large dictionary possible letters generated learning example letters probability one learned examples matched new input combined make final decision attempts applying bayesian


environment designed task environment consisted different shaped colored blocks shrdlu capable interpreting commands find block taller one holding put box asking questions n't understand pyramid mean response user 's input impressive kind natural language processing proven much difficult outside limited scope toy environment similarly project developed nasa called lunar designed provide answers naturally written questions geological


analysis lunar rocks returned apollo missions kinds problems referred question answering initial attempts understanding spoken language based work done signal modeling unknown signal analyzed look patterns make predictions based history initial somewhat successful approach applying kind signal modeling language achieved use hidden markov models detailed rabiner approach attempts determine probabilities arbitrary number models could


used generating speech well modeling probabilities various words generated possible models similar approaches employed early speech recognition attempts starting late ibm using word part speech pair probabilities recently kinds statistical approaches applied difficult tasks topic identification using bayesian parameter estimation infer topic probabilities text documents applications applied computational linguistics largely equivalent natural language processing example applications end users include speech recognition software apple 's siri feature spellcheck tools speech synthesis


programs often used demonstrate pronunciation help disabled machine translation programs websites google translate ref name ref computational linguistics also helpful situations involving social media internet eg providing content filters chatrooms website searches ref name grouping organizing content social media mining document retrieval clustering instance person searches red large four wheeled vehicle find pictures red truck search engine still find information desired matching words four wheeled car computational approaches also


new approach linguistics communicate advanced alien race called heptapods see also artificial intelligence fiction collostructional analysis computational lexicology ''computational linguistics'' journal computational models language acquisition computational semantics computational semiotics computer assisted reviewing dialog systems glottochronology grammar induction human speechome project internet linguistics lexicostatistics natural language processing natural language user interface quantitative linguistics semantic relatedness semantometrics systemic functional linguistics translation memory universal networking language references reading steven bird ewan klein edward loper ''natural language processing python'' o'reilly media daniel jurafsky james h martin ''speech language processing'' nd edition pearson


prentice hall mohamed zakaria kurdi ''natural language processing computational linguistics speech morphology syntax'' volume iste wiley mohamed zakaria kurdi ''natural language processing computational linguistics semantics discourse applications'' volume iste wiley external links http wwwaclweborg association computational linguistics acl http wwwaclweborg anthology acl anthology research papers http aclweborg aclwiki acl wiki computational linguistics http wwwciclingorg cicling annual conferences computational linguistics https webarchiveorg web http wwwclaimcsitorg computational linguistics nbsp applications workshop https webarchiveorg web http wwwlt worldorg language technology world https webarchiveorg web http wwwcstechnionacil gabr resources resourceshtml resources text speech language processing http clgwlvacuk research group computational linguistics subfields computer science formal sciences cognitive science computational fields


figure illustrating fields contributed birth cognitive science including linguistics neuroscience artificial intelligence philosophy anthropology psychology '''cognitive science''' interdisciplinary scientific study mind processes input linguistics psychology neuroscience philosophy computer science artificial intelligence anthropology examines nature tasks functions cognition broad sense cognitive scientists study intelligence behavior focus nervous systems represent process transform information mental faculties concern cognitive scientists include language perception memory attention reasoning emotion understand faculties cognitive

Formal science
Computer science
Artificial intelligence
Cognitive science


scientists borrow fields linguistics psychology artificial intelligence philosophy neuroscience anthropology ref name stanford thagard paul http platostanfordedu archives fall entries cognitive science cognitive science ''the stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' fall edition edward n zalta ed ref typical analysis cognitive science spans many levels organization learning decision logic planning neural circuitry modular brain organization one fundamental concepts cognitive science thinking best understood terms representational structures mind computational procedures operate structures ref name stanford goal cognitive science understand principles


intelligence hope lead better comprehension mind learning develop intelligent devices cognitive sciences began intellectual movement often referred cognitive revolution history cognitive sciences began intellectual movement called cognitive revolution cognitive science prehistory traceable back ancient greek philosophical texts see plato 's ''meno'' aristotle 's ''de anima'' includes writers descartes david hume immanuel kant benedict de spinoza nicolas malebranche pierre cabanis leibniz john locke however although


early writers contributed greatly philosophical discovery mind would ultimately lead development psychology working entirely different set tools core concepts cognitive scientist modern culture cognitive science traced back early cyberneticists warren mcculloch walter pitts sought understand organizing principles mind mcculloch pitts developed first variants known artificial neural networks models computation inspired structure


biological neural networks another precursor early development theory computation digital computer kurt g del alonzo church alan turing john von neumann instrumental developments modern computer von neumann machine would play central role cognitive science metaphor mind tool investigation first instance cognitive science experiments done academic institution took place mit sloan school management established jcr licklider working within psychology department conducting experiments using


computer memory models human cognition noam chomsky published scathing review b f skinner 's book ''verbal behavior'' ref name chomsky ref time skinner 's behaviorist paradigm dominated field psychology within united states psychologists focused functional relations stimulus response without positing internal representations chomsky argued order explain language needed theory like generative grammar attributed internal representations characterized underlying order term ''cognitive science'' coined christopher longuet higgins commentary lighthill report concerned


current state artificial intelligence research decade journal ''cognitive science'' cognitive science society founded founding meeting cognitive science society held university california san diego resulted cognitive science becoming internationally visible enterprise ref name cogsciucsdedu ref hampshire college started first undergraduate education program cognitive science led neil stillings assistance professor stillings vassar college became first institution world grant undergraduate degree cognitive science first cognitive science department


world founded university california san diego ref name cogsciucsdedu early access computers increased artificial intelligence research expanded researchers marvin minsky would write computer programs languages lisp attempt formally characterize steps human beings went instance making decisions solving problems hope better understanding human thought also hope creating artificial minds approach known symbolic ai eventually limits symbolic ai research program became apparent instance


emerge dynamic interaction environmental input principles levels analysis functionalism central tenet cognitive science complete understanding mind brain cannot attained studying single level example would problem remembering phone number recalling later one approach understanding process would study behavior direct observation naturalistic observation person could presented phone number asked recall delay time accuracy response could measured another


approach measure cognitive ability would study firings individual neurons person trying remember phone number neither experiments would fully explain process remembering phone number works even technology map every neuron brain real time available known neuron fired would still impossible know particular firing neurons translates observed behavior thus understanding two levels relate imperative ''the


embodied mind cognitive science human experience'' says new sciences mind need enlarge horizon encompass lived human experience possibilities transformation inherent human experience provided functional level account process studying particular phenomenon multiple levels creates better understanding processes occur brain give rise particular behavior marr gave famous description three levels analysis ''computational theory'' specifying goals computation ''representation algorithms'' giving representation


inputs outputs algorithms transform one ''hardware implementation'' algorithm representation may physically realized interdisciplinary nature cognitive science interdisciplinary field contributors various fields including psychology neuroscience linguistics philosophy mind computer science anthropology biology cognitive scientists work collectively hope understanding mind interactions surrounding world much like sciences field regards compatible physical sciences uses scientific method well simulation modeling often comparing output


models aspects human cognition similarly field psychology doubt whether unified cognitive science led researchers prefer 'cognitive sciences' plural many consider cognitive scientists hold functionalist view mind view mental states processes explained function according multiple realizability account functionalism even non human systems robots computers ascribed cognition ''cognitive'' science term term cognitive cognitive science


used kind mental operation structure studied precise terms lakoff johnson conceptualization broad confused cognitive used traditions analytic philosophy cognitive formal rules truth conditional semantics earliest entries word ''cognitive'' oed take mean roughly '' pertaining action process knowing '' first entry shows word one time used context discussions platonic theories knowledge


affects emotions well awareness covert attention became approachable example situated embodied cognition theories take account current state environment well role body cognition newfound emphasis information processing observable behavior longer hallmark psychological theory modeling recording mental states main topics cognitive science concerned exhaustive list see list cognitive science topics list various aspects field artificial intelligence


artificial intelligence ai involves study cognitive phenomena machines one practical goals ai implement aspects human intelligence computers computers also widely used tool study cognitive phenomena computational modeling uses simulations study human intelligence may structured see debate field whether mind best viewed huge array small individually feeble elements ie neurons collection higher level structures symbols schemes plans rules former view uses


connectionism study mind whereas latter emphasizes symbolic artificial intelligence one way view issue whether possible accurately simulate human brain computer without accurately simulating neurons make human brain attention attention selection important information human mind bombarded millions stimuli must way deciding information process attention sometimes seen spotlight meaning one shine light particular set information experiments support


metaphor include dichotic listening task cherry studies inattentional blindness mack rock dichotic listening task subjects bombarded two different messages one ear told focus one messages end experiment asked content unattended message subjects cannot report knowledge processing language well known example phrase structure tree one way representing human language shows different components organized hierarchically ability learn understand


language extremely complex process language acquired within first years life humans normal circumstances able acquire language proficiently major driving force theoretical linguistic field discovering nature language must abstract order learned fashion driving research questions studying brain processes language include extent linguistic knowledge innate learned difficult adults acquire second language infants


acquire first language humans able understand novel sentences study language processing ranges investigation sound patterns speech meaning words whole sentences linguistics often divides language processing orthography phonetics phonology morphology syntax semantics pragmatics many aspects language studied components interaction study language processing ''cognitive science'' closely tied field linguistics linguistics traditionally studied part humanities including studies history art literature


last fifty years researchers studied knowledge use language cognitive phenomenon main problems knowledge language acquired used precisely consists linguists found humans form sentences ways apparently governed complex systems remarkably unaware rules govern speech thus linguists must resort indirect methods determine rules might indeed rules exist event speech indeed governed rules appear


opaque conscious consideration learning development learning development processes acquire knowledge information time infants born little knowledge depending knowledge defined yet rapidly acquire ability use language walk recognize people objects research learning development aims explain mechanisms processes might take place major question study cognitive development extent certain abilities innate learned often framed terms nature


nurture debate nativist view emphasizes certain features innate organism determined genetic endowment empiricist view hand emphasizes certain abilities learned environment although clearly genetic environmental input needed child develop normally considerable debate remains ''how'' genetic information might guide cognitive development area language acquisition example steven pinker argued specific information containing universal grammatical rules must contained genes whereas others jeffrey elman colleagues


rethinking innateness argued pinker 's claims biologically unrealistic argue genes determine architecture learning system specific facts grammar works learned result experience memory memory allows us store information later retrieval memory often thought consisting long term short term store long term memory allows us store information prolonged periods days weeks years yet know practical limit long term memory capacity short term memory allows us store information short time scales seconds


minutes memory also often grouped declarative procedural forms declarative memory grouped subsets semantic episodic forms memory refers memory facts specific knowledge specific meanings specific experiences eg apples food eat breakfast four days ago procedural memory allows us remember actions motor sequences eg ride bicycle often dubbed implicit knowledge memory cognitive scientists study memory psychologists tend focus memory bears cognitive processes interrelationship cognition


hearing two dominant senses allow us perceive environment questions study visual perception example include able recognize objects perceive continuous visual environment even though see small bits one time one tool studying visual perception looking people process optical illusions image right necker cube example bistable percept cube interpreted oriented two different directions study


haptic tactile olfactory gustatory stimuli also fall domain perception action taken refer output system humans accomplished motor responses spatial planning movement speech production complex motor movements aspects action consciousness consciousness awareness external objects experiences within oneself helps mind ability experience feel sense self research methods many different methodologies used study cognitive science field highly interdisciplinary research often cuts across multiple areas


study drawing research methods psychology neuroscience computer science systems theory behavioral experiments order description constitutes intelligent behavior one must study behavior type research closely tied cognitive psychology psychophysics measuring behavioral responses different stimuli one understand something stimuli processed lewandowski strohmetz reviewed collection innovative uses behavioral measurement psychology including behavioral traces behavioral observations behavioral choice behavioral traces pieces evidence indicate behavior occurred actor


present eg litter parking lot readings electric meter behavioral observations involve direct witnessing actor engaging behavior eg watching close person sits next another person behavioral choices person selects two options eg voting behavior choice punishment another participant ''reaction time'' time presentation stimulus appropriate response indicate differences two cognitive processes indicate things nature example search task reaction times vary proportionally


number elements evident cognitive process searching involves serial instead parallel processing ''psychophysical responses'' psychophysical experiments old psychological technique adopted cognitive psychology typically involve making judgments physical property eg loudness sound correlation subjective scales individuals show cognitive sensory biases compared actual physical measurements examples include sameness judgments colors tones textures etc threshold differences colors tones textures etc ''eye tracking'' methodology used study variety cognitive processes


notably visual perception language processing fixation point eyes linked individual 's focus attention thus monitoring eye movements study information processed given time eye tracking allows us study cognitive processes extremely short time scales eye movements reflect online decision making task provide us insight ways decisions may processed brain imaging image human head brain arrow indicates position hypothalamus brain imaging involves analyzing activity


within brain performing various tasks allows us link behavior brain function help understand information processed different types imaging techniques vary temporal time based spatial location based resolution brain imaging often used cognitive neuroscience ''single photon emission computed tomography'' ''positron emission tomography'' spect pet use radioactive isotopes injected subject 's bloodstream taken brain observing areas brain take radioactive isotope see areas brain active areas pet


particular functions within different brain regions fmri moderate spatial temporal resolution ''optical imaging'' technique uses infrared transmitters receivers measure amount light reflectance blood near different areas brain since oxygenated deoxygenated blood reflects light different amounts study areas active ie oxygenated blood optical imaging moderate temporal resolution poor spatial resolution also advantage extremely safe used study infants' brains ''magnetoencephalography'' meg measures magnetic fields resulting cortical activity


similar eeg except improved spatial resolution since magnetic fields measures blurred attenuated scalp meninges forth electrical activity measured eeg meg uses squid sensors detect tiny magnetic fields computational modeling artificial neural network two layers computational models require mathematically logically formal representation problem computer models used simulation experimental verification different specific general properties intelligence computational modeling help us understand functional organization particular cognitive


phenomenon approaches cognitive modeling categorized symbolic abstract mental functions intelligent mind means symbols subsymbolic neural associative properties human brain across symbolic subsymbolic border including hybrid ''symbolic modeling'' evolved computer science paradigms using technologies knowledge based systems well philosophical perspective eg good old fashioned artificial intelligence gofai developed first cognitive researchers later used information engineering expert systems since early generalized systemics investigation functional


human like intelligence models personoids parallel developed soar environment recently especially context cognitive decision making symbolic cognitive modeling extended socio cognitive approach including social organizational cognition interrelated sub symbolic non conscious layer ''subsymbolic modeling'' includes ''connectionist neural network models'' connectionism relies idea mind brain composed simple nodes problem solving capacity derives connections neural nets textbook implementations approach critics approach feel models approach biological reality representation system


works models lack explanatory powers even systems endowed simple connection rules emerging high complexity makes less interpretable connection level apparently macroscopic level approaches gaining popularity include dynamical systems theory mapping symbolic models onto connectionist models neural symbolic integration hybrid intelligent systems bayesian models often drawn machine learning approaches tend either generalized form integrated computational models synthetic abstract intelligence ie cognitive architecture order applied


explanation improvement individual social organizational decision making reasoning focus single simulative programs microtheories middle range theories modelling specific cognitive faculties eg vision language categorization etc neurobiological methods research methods borrowed directly neuroscience neuropsychology also help us understand aspects intelligence methods allow us understand intelligent behavior implemented physical system single unit recording direct brain stimulation animal models postmortem studies textbook encompasses areas gone editions key findings cognitive science given rise models human


cognitive bias risk perception influential development behavioral finance part economics also given rise new theory philosophy mathematics related denotational mathematics many theories artificial intelligence persuasion coercion made presence known philosophy language epistemology well constituting substantial wing modern linguistics fields cognitive science influential understanding brain 's particular functional systems functional deficits ranging speech production auditory processing visual perception made progress


understanding damage particular areas brain affect cognition helped uncover root causes results specific dysfunction dyslexia anopia hemispatial neglect criticism see criticism cognitive psychology notable researchers class wikitable sortable name year birth year contribution contribution david chalmers dualism hard problem consciousness daniel dennett offered computational systems perspective multiple drafts model john searle chinese room douglas hofstadter ''g del escher bach''


machine general problem solver allen newell epam elementary perceiver memorizer theory organizational decision making john mccarthy coined term ''artificial intelligence'' organized famous dartmouth conference summer started ai field mcculloch pitts developed early artificial neural networks j c r licklider established mit sloan school management lila r gleitman wide ranging contributions understanding cognition language acquisition including syntactic bootstrapping theory eleanor rosch development prototype theory categorisation philip n johnson laird


introduced idea mental models cognitive science dedre gentner development structure mapping theory analogical reasoning allen newell development field cognitive architecture cognitive modelling artificial intelligence annette karmiloff smith integrating neuroscience computational modelling theories cognitive development david marr neuroscientist proponent three level hypothesis levels analysis computational systems peter g rdenfors creator conceptual space framework used cognitive modelling artificial intelligence linda b smith together


esther thelen created dynamical systems approach understanding cognitive development recognized names cognitive science usually either controversial cited within philosophy familiar names include daniel dennett writes computational systems perspective john searle known controversial chinese room argument jerry fodor advocates functionalism others include david chalmers advocates dualism also known articulating hard problem consciousness douglas hofstadter famous writing ''g del escher bach'' questions nature words thought realm


linguistics noam chomsky george lakoff influential also become notable political commentators artificial intelligence marvin minsky herbert simon allen newell prominent popular names discipline psychology include george miller james mcclelland philip johnson laird lawrence barsalou vittorio guidano howard gardner steven pinker anthropologists dan sperber edwin hutchins bradd shore james wertsch scott atran involved collaborative projects cognitive social psychologists political scientists evolutionary biologists attempts develop general theories culture formation religion political association computational theories models


simulations also developed david rumelhart james mcclelland philip johnson laird epistemics '''epistemics''' term coined university edinburgh foundation school epistemics epistemics distinguished epistemology epistemology philosophical theory knowledge whereas epistemics signifies scientific study knowledge christopher longuet higgins defined construction formal models processes perceptual intellectual linguistic knowledge understanding achieved communicated essay epistemics regulative theory cognition alvin goldman claims


coined term epistemics describe reorientation epistemology goldman maintains epistemics continuous traditional epistemology new term avoid opposition epistemics goldman 's version differs slightly traditional epistemology alliance psychology cognition epistemics stresses detailed study mental processes information processing mechanisms lead knowledge beliefs mid school epistemics renamed centre cognitive science ccs ccs incorporated university edinburgh 's school informatics see also affective science cognitive


anthropology cognitive biology cognitive computing cognitive ethology cognitive linguistics cognitive neuropsychology cognitive neuroscience cognitive psychology cognitive science religion computational neuroscience computational representational understanding mind concept mining decision field theory decision theory dynamicism educational neuroscience educational psychology embodied cognition embodied cognitive science enactivism epistemology folk psychology heterophenomenology human cognome project human computer interaction indiana archives cognitive science informatics academic field list cognitive scientists list psychology awards malleable intelligence neural darwinism personal information management pim qualia quantum cognition simulated consciousness situated cognition society mind theory spatial cognition speech language pathology outlines outline human intelligence topic tree


presenting traits capacities models research fields human intelligence outline thought topic tree identifies many types thoughts types thinking aspects thought related fields references external links https platostanfordedu entries cognitive science cognitive science ''stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' http wwwcognitivesciencesocietyorg cognitive science society https wwwindianaedu cogfilms cognitive science movie index broad list movies showcasing themes cognitive sciences https webarchiveorg web http carbonucdenveredu emryder itc cogscihtml list leading thinkers cognitive science interdisciplinary subfields interdisciplinary branches psychology


compilation computing '''compiler''' computer program translates computer code written one programming language ' 'source'' language another language ''target'' language name compiler primarily used programs translate source code high level programming language lower level language eg assembly language object code machine code create executable program ref name dragon compilers principles techniques tools alfred v aho ravi sethi jeffrey ullman second edition ref many different types compilers produce output different useful forms ''cross compiler'' produces code

Formal science
Computer science
Programming languages
Compilers


compiler part one often generic reusable way able produce many differing compilers compiler likely perform following operations often called phases preprocessing lexical analysis parsing semantic analysis syntax directed translation conversion input programs intermediate representation code optimization code generation compilers generally implement phases modular components promoting efficient design correctness transformations source input target output program faults caused incorrect compiler behavior difficult track work around therefore compiler implementers


engineers formed basis digital modern computing development world war ii primitive binary languages evolved digital devices understand ones zeros circuit patterns underlying machine architecture late assembly languages created offer workable abstraction computer architectures limited memory capacity early computers led substantial technical challenges first compilers designed therefore compilation process needed divided several small programs front end programs produce analysis products used back end programs generate target code


computer technology provided resources compiler designs could align better compilation process usually productive programmer use high level language development high level languages followed naturally capabilities offered digital computers high level languages formal languages strictly defined syntax semantics form high level language architecture elements formal languages include ''alphabet'' finite set symbols ''string'' finite sequence symbols ''language'' set strings alphabet sentences language may defined set


rules called grammar backus naur form bnf describes syntax sentences language used syntax algol john backus ideas derive context free grammar concepts noam chomsky linguist bnf extensions become standard tools describing syntax programming notations many cases parts compilers generated automatically bnf description konrad zuse designed algorithmic programming language called plankalk l plan calculus actual implementation occurred presented concepts later seen apl designed


ken iverson late apl language mathematical computations high level language design formative years digital computing provided useful programming tools variety applications fortran formula translation engineering science applications considered first high level language cobol common business oriented language evolved flow matic become dominant high level language business applications lisp list processor symbolic computation compiler technology evolved need strictly defined transformation high level source program low level target program digital computer compiler


could viewed front end deal analysis source code back end synthesize analysis target code optimization front end back end could produce efficient target code early milestones development compiler technology ''' ''' autocode compiler developed alick glennie manchester mark computer university manchester considered first compiled programming language ''' ''' grace hopper 's team remington rand wrote compiler programming language coined term


''compiler'' describe although compiler functioned loader linker modern notion full compiler ''' ''' team led john backus ibm developed fortran usually considered first high level language completed fortran compiler generally credited introduced first unambiguously complete compiler ''' ''' conference data systems language codasyl initiated development cobol cobol design drew flow matic early cobol compiled multiple architectures ''' ''' john mccarthy mit designed lisp symbol


processing capabilities provided useful features artificial intelligence research lisp release noted tools interpreter written stephen russell daniel j edwards compiler assembler written tim hart mike levin early operating systems software written assembly language early use high level languages system programming still controversial due resource limitations however several research industry efforts began shift toward high level systems programming languages example bcpl bliss b c bcpl basic combined programming language designed martin


richards university cambridge originally developed compiler writing tool several compilers implemented richards' book provides insights language compiler bcpl influential systems programming language still used research also provided basis design b c languages bliss basic language implementation system software developed digital equipment corporation dec pdp computer wa wulf 's carnegie mellon university cmu research team cmu team went develop bliss compiler one year later multics multiplexed


information computing service time sharing operating system project involved mit bell labs general electric later honeywell led fernando corbat mit multics written pl language developed ibm ibm user group ibm 's goal satisfy business scientific systems programming requirements languages could considered pl offered complete solution even though implemented first years multics project subset language could compiled assembly language early pl epl compiler


doug mcilory bob morris bell labs epl supported project boot strapping compiler full pl could developed bell labs left multics project developed system programming language b based bcpl concepts written dennis ritchie ken thompson ritchie created boot strapping compiler b wrote unics uniplexed information computing service operating system pdp b unics eventually became spelled unix bell labs started development expansion c based b bcpl bcpl compiler transported multics bell


labs bcpl preferred language bell labs initially front end program bell labs' b compiler used c compiler developed new pdp provided resource define extensions b rewrite compiler design c language essentially complete unix kernel pdp rewritten c steve johnson started development portable c compiler pcc support retargeting c compilers new machines object oriented programming oop offered interesting possibilities application development maintenance oop concepts go back


part lisp simula language science bell labs development c became interested oop c first used systems programming initial design leveraged c language systems programming capabilities simula concepts object oriented facilities added cfront program implemented c front end c language compiler subsequent years several c compilers developed c popularity grew many application domains idea using higher level language quickly caught expanding functionality supported newer programming languages increasing complexity computer


bliss compiler provided initial structure phases included analyses front end intermediate translation virtual machine middle end translation target back end tcol developed pqcc research handle language specific constructs intermediate representation variations tcol supported various languages pqcc project investigated techniques automated compiler construction design concepts proved useful optimizing compilers compilers since object oriented programming language ada ada ''stoneman'' document formalized program support environment apse along kernel kapse minimal mapse ada interpreter nyu ed supported development


standardization efforts american national standards institute ansi international standards organization iso initial ada compiler development us military services included compilers complete integrated design environment along lines ''stoneman'' document army navy worked ada language system als project targeted dec vax architecture air force started ada integrated environment aie targeted ibm series projects provide desired results contribute overall effort ada development ada compiler efforts got underway britain


support multiple languages targets ada version gnat one widely used ada compilers gnat free also commercial support example adacore founded provide commercial software solutions ada gnat pro includes gnu gcc based gnat tool suite provide integrated development environment high level languages continued drive compiler research development focus areas included optimization automatic code generation trends programming languages development environments influenced compiler technology compilers became included language distributions perl java development kit


component ide vads eclipse ada pro interrelationship interdependence technologies grew advent web services promoted growth web languages scripting languages scripts trace back early days command line interfaces cli user could enter commands executed system user shell concepts developed languages write shell programs early windows designs offered simple batch programming capability conventional transformation language used interpreter widely used bash batch compilers written recently sophisticated interpreted languages became part


compiler construction compiler implements formal transformation high level source program low level target program compiler design define end end solution tackle defined subset interfaces compilation tools eg preprocessors assemblers linkers design requirements include rigorously defined interfaces internally compiler components externally supporting toolsets early days approach taken compiler design directly affected complexity computer language processed experience person designing resources available resource limitations led need pass


source code compiler relatively simple language written one person might single monolithic piece software however source language grows complexity design may split number interdependent phases separate phases provide design improvements focus development functions compilation process one pass versus multi pass compilers classifying compilers number passes background hardware resource limitations computers compiling involves performing much work early computers enough memory contain one program


work compilers split smaller programs made pass source representation performing required analysis translations ability compile single pass classically seen benefit simplifies job writing compiler one pass compilers generally perform compilations faster multi pass compilers thus partly driven resource limitations early systems many early languages specifically designed could compiled single pass eg pascal cases


count exactly many passes optimizing compiler makes instance different phases optimization may analyse one expression many times analyse another expression splitting compiler small programs technique used researchers interested producing provably correct compilers proving correctness set small programs often requires less effort proving correctness larger single equivalent program three stage compiler structure compiler design regardless exact number phases compiler design phases assigned one three stages stages include