alcohol drunken drivers redox reaction ethanol generation chemical energy photosynthesis inherently electrochemical process production metals like aluminum titanium ores certain diabetes blood sugar meters measure amount glucose blood redox potential well established electrochemical technologies like deep cycle lead acid batteries also wide range new emerging technologies fuel cells large format lithium ion batteries electrochemical reactors super capacitors becoming increasingly commercial electrochemistry also important applications food industry


like assessment food package interactions analysis milk composition characterization determination freezing end point ice cream mixes determination free acidity olive oil see also reactivity series bioelectromagnetism bioelectrochemistry corrosion corrosion engineering contact tension historical forerunner theory electrochemistry cyclic voltammetry electrochemical impedance spectroscopy electroanalytical methods electrocatalyst electrochemical potential electrochemiluminescence electrodeionization electropolishing electroplating electrochemical engineering electrochemical energy conversion electrosynthesis fuel cells frost diagram list electrochemists important publications electrochemistry magnetoelectrochemistry nanoelectrochemistry protein film voltammetry photoelectrochemistry pourbaix diagram redox titration standard electrode potential data page voltammetry ities bipolar

Natural science
Chemistry
Electrochemistry


practical demonstrations ergonomic principles '''human factors ergonomics''' commonly referred '''human factors''' application psychological physiological principles engineering design products processes systems goal human factors reduce human error increase productivity enhance safety comfort specific focus interaction human thing interest field combination numerous disciplines psychology sociology engineering biomechanics industrial design physiology anthropometry interaction design visual design user experience user interface design research human factors employs

Human physical performance and recreation


scientific method study human behavior resultant data may applied four primary goals essence study designing equipment devices processes fit human body cognitive abilities two terms human factors ergonomics essentially synonymous ref name iso iso defines ergonomics study human factors similarly scientific discipline concerned understanding interactions among humans elements system profession applies theory principles methods design optimize overall human performance ref ref name iehfdef ref ref name criop ref international ergonomics


association defines ergonomics human factors follows ref name ieadef international ergonomics association https ieacc ergonomics ''human factors ergonomics hf e '' website retrieved june ref human factors employed fulfill goals occupational health safety productivity relevant design things safe furniture easy use interfaces machines equipment proper ergonomic design necessary prevent repetitive strain injuries musculoskeletal disorders develop time lead long term disability human factors ergonomics concerned fit user equipment environment fitting job


person accounts user 's capabilities limitations seeking ensure tasks functions information environment suit user assess fit person used technology human factors specialists ergonomists consider job activity done demands user equipment used size shape appropriate task information used presented accessed changed ergonomics draws many disciplines study humans environments including anthropometry biomechanics mechanical engineering industrial engineering industrial design information design


specialization ergonomics comprise three main fields research physical cognitive organizational ergonomics many specializations within broad categories specializations field physical ergonomics may include visual ergonomics specializations within field cognitive ergonomics may include usability human computer interaction user experience engineering specializations may cut across domains ''environmental ergonomics'' concerned human interaction environment characterized climate temperature pressure vibration light emerging field human factors highway safety uses human factor principles understand actions capabilities road users car truck


drivers pedestrians cyclists etc use knowledge design roads streets reduce traffic collisions driver error listed contributing factor fatal collisions united states topic particular interest road users gather process information road environment assist make appropriate decision new terms generated time instance user trial engineer may refer human factors engineering professional specializes user trials although names change human factors professionals apply


understanding human factors design equipment systems working methods improve comfort health safety productivity according international ergonomics association within discipline ergonomics exist domains specialization physical ergonomics physical ergonomics science designing user interaction equipment workplaces fit user physical ergonomics concerned human anatomy anthropometric physiological bio mechanical characteristics relate physical activity ref name ieadef physical ergonomic principles widely used design consumer industrial products optimizing performance


preventing treating work related disorders reducing mechanisms behind mechanically induced acute chronic musculoskeletal injuries disorders risk factors localized mechanical pressures force posture sedentary office environment lead injuries attributed occupational environment physical ergonomics important diagnosed physiological ailments disorders arthritis chronic temporary carpal tunnel syndrome pressure insignificant imperceptible unaffected disorders may painful render device unusable many ergonomically designed products also used


recommended treat prevent disorders treat pressure related chronic pain one prevalent types work related injuries musculoskeletal disorder work related musculoskeletal disorders wrmds result persistent pain loss functional capacity work disability initial diagnosis difficult mainly based complaints pain symptoms every year nbsp million us workers experience wrmds nearly injuries serious enough cause workers miss work certain jobs work conditions cause higher rate worker complaints undue strain localized fatigue discomfort pain


palm well split keyboards recommended additionally resources within hr department allocated provide assessments employees ensure criteria met therefore important gather data identify jobs work conditions problematic using sources injury illness logs medical records job analyses ref name niosh ergonomically designed keyboard innovative workstations tested include sit stand desks height adjustable desk treadmill desks pedal devices cycle ergometers multiple studies new workstations resulted decreased waist circumference improved psychological well however


significant number additional studies seen marked improvement health outcomes ref name ref emergence collaborative robots smart systems manufacturing environments artificial agents used improve physical ergonomics human co workers example human robot collaboration robot use biomechanical models human co worker order adjust working configuration account various ergonomic metrics human posture joint torques arm manipulability muscle fatigue ref name robot fatigue ref ref name robot torque manip ref ergonomic suitability shared workspace respect metrics also displayed human


workspace maps visual interfaces ref name workspace maps ref cognitive ergonomics cognitive ergonomics concerned mental processes perception memory reasoning motor response affect interactions among humans elements system ref name ieadef relevant topics include mental workload decision making skilled performance human reliability work stress training may relate human system human computer interaction design epidemiological studies show correlation time one spends sedentary cognitive function lowered mood depression ref name organizational ergonomics organizational ergonomics concerned optimization socio technical systems including


organizational structures policies processes ref name ieadef relevant topics include communication crew resource management work design work systems design working times teamwork participatory design community ergonomics cooperative work new work programs virtual organizations telework quality management history ancient societies stated human ergonomics began ''australopithecus prometheus'' also known little foot primate created handheld tools different types stone clearly distinguishing tools based ability perform designated tasks foundations science ergonomics appear laid within context culture ancient


greece good deal evidence indicates greek civilization th century bc used ergonomic principles design tools jobs workplaces one outstanding example found description hippocrates gave surgeon 's workplace designed tools uses arranged archaeological record also shows early egyptian dynasties made tools household equipment illustrated ergonomic principles industrial societies bernardino ramazzini one first people systematically study illness resulted work earning nickname father


occupational medicine late early ramazzini visited many worksites documented movements laborers spoke ailments published de morbis artificum diatriba latin diseases workers detailed occupations common illnesses remedies th century frederick winslow taylor pioneered scientific management method proposed way find optimum method carrying given task taylor found could example triple amount coal workers shoveling incrementally reducing size weight coal shovels


fastest shoveling rate reached ref name meister http wwwquvladimir nikolayevich myasishchev estiacom library history human factors ergonomics history human factors ergonomics david meister ref frank lillian gilbreth expanded taylor 's methods early develop time motion study aimed improve efficiency eliminating unnecessary steps actions applying approach gilbreths reduced number motions bricklaying allowing bricklayers increase productivity bricks per hour ref name meister however approach rejected russian researchers focused well worker first conference


scientific organization labour vladimir bekhterev vladimir nikolayevich myasishchev criticised taylorism bekhterev argued ultimate ideal labour problem taylorism organisation labour process would yield maximum efficiency coupled minimum health hazards absence fatigue guarantee sound health round personal development working people ref name moray ref myasishchev rejected frederick taylor 's proposal turn man machine dull monotonous work temporary necessity corresponding machine developed also went


suggest new discipline ergology study work integral part organisation work concept taken myasishchev 's mentor bekhterev final report conference merely changing name ergonology ref name moray aviation prior world war nbsp focus aviation psychology aviator war shifted focus onto aircraft particular design controls displays effects altitude environmental factors pilot war saw emergence aeromedical research need testing


measurement methods studies driver behavior started gaining momentum period henry ford started providing millions americans automobiles another major development period performance aeromedical research end world war nbsp two aeronautical labs established one brooks air force base texas wright patterson air force base outside dayton ohio many tests conducted determine characteristic differentiated successful pilots unsuccessful ones early edwin link developed first flight simulator trend continued sophisticated simulators


test equipment developed another significant development civilian sector effects illumination worker productivity examined led identification hawthorne effect suggested motivational factors could significantly influence human performance ref name meister world war nbsp ii marked development new complex machines weaponry made new demands operators' cognition longer possible adopt tayloristic principle matching individuals preexisting jobs design equipment take account human limitations take advantage human capabilities decision making attention situational


operators use entry terms human factors ergonomics modern lexicon date period observed fully functional aircraft flown best trained pilots still crashed alphonse chapanis lieutenant us army showed called pilot error could greatly reduced logical differentiable controls replaced confusing designs airplane cockpits war army air force published volumes summarizing established research war ref name meister decades since world war nbsp ii human factors continued flourish


diversify work elias porter others within rand corporation wwii extended conception human factors thinking progressed new concept developed possible view organization air defense man machine system single organism possible study behavior organism climate breakthrough initial years world war ii activities done founding fathers alphonse chapanis paul fitts small cold war beginning cold war led


major expansion defense supported research laboratories also many labs established wwii started expanding research following war military sponsored large sums money granted universities conduct research scope research also broadened small equipments entire workstations systems concurrently lot opportunities started opening civilian industry focus shifted research participation advice engineers design equipment period saw maturation discipline field expanded development computer computer


suits jerseys shorts shoes even underwear organizations formed uk oldest professional body human factors specialists ergonomists chartered institute ergonomics human factors formally known ''institute ergonomics human factors'' ''the ergonomics society'' human factors ergonomics society hfes founded society 's mission promote discovery exchange knowledge concerning characteristics human beings applicable design systems devices kinds https ace ergocanadaca indexhtml association canadian ergonomists l'association canadienne


d'ergonomie ace founded originally named human factors association canada hfac ace french added consistent bilingual title adopted according mission statement ace unites advances knowledge skills ergonomics human factors practitioners optimise human organisational well international ergonomics association iea federation ergonomics human factors societies around world mission iea elaborate advance ergonomics science practice improve quality life expanding


scope application contribution society september international ergonomics association federated societies affiliated societies human factors transforming healthcare hfth international network hf practitioners embedded within hospitals health systems goal network provide resources human factors practitioners healthcare organizations looking successfully apply hf principles improve patient care provider performance network also serves collaborative platform human factors practitioners students faculty industry partners curious human factors healthcare related organizations


institute occupational medicine iom founded coal industry outset iom employed ergonomics staff apply ergonomics principles design mining machinery environments day iom continues ergonomics activities especially fields musculoskeletal disorders heat stress ergonomics personal protective equipment ppe like many occupational ergonomics demands requirements ageing uk workforce growing concern interest iom ergonomists international society automotive engineers sae professional organization mobility engineering professionals aerospace


automotive commercial vehicle industries society standards development organization engineering powered vehicles kinds including cars trucks boats aircraft others society automotive engineers established number standards used automotive industry elsewhere encourages design vehicles accordance established human factors principles one influential organizations respect ergonomics work automotive design society regularly holds conferences address topics spanning aspects human factors ergonomics practitioners human factors practitioners come variety


backgrounds though predominantly psychologists various subfields industrial organizational psychology engineering psychology cognitive psychology perceptual psychology applied psychology experimental psychology physiologists designers industrial interaction graphic anthropologists technical communication scholars computer scientists also contribute typically ergonomist undergraduate degree psychology engineering design health sciences usually master 's degree doctoral degree related discipline though practitioners enter field human factors disciplines ms phd degrees human factors engineering available several universities worldwide sedentary workplace contemporary offices


exist wojciech jastrz bowsk 's seminal book msdergonomics following first published study posture appearing american workforce began shift towards sedentary employment prevalence wmsd cognitive issues etc began rise us workforce employed agriculture dropped coincides increase growth desk based employment employment surveillance non fatal workplace injuries osha bureau labor statistics


occurs sitting reclining position adults older years report spending time sedentary adults older years often awake time multiple studies show dose response relationship sedentary time cause mortality increase mortality per additional sedentary hour day high quantities sedentary time without breaks correlated higher risk chronic disease obesity cardiovascular disease type diabetes cancer ref name currently large proportion overall workforce employed low physical activity occupations


sedentary behavior spending long periods time seated positions poses serious threat injuries additional health risks ref name ccohsca canadian centre occupational health march none retrieved february https wwwccohsca oshanswers ergonomics sitting sitting overviewhtml ref unfortunately even though workplaces make effort provide well designed environment sedentary employees employee performing large amounts sitting likely suffer discomfort ref name ccohsca existing conditions would predispose individuals populations increase prevalence living sedentary lifestyles including socioeconomic determinants education levels occupation living environment age mentioned


ref name konevic ref study published iranian journal public health examined socioeconomic factors sedentary lifestyle effects individuals working community study concluded individuals reported living low income environments inclined living sedentary behavior compared reported high socioeconomic status ref name konevic individuals achieve less education also considered high risk group partake sedentary lifestyles however community different different resources available may vary risk ref name konevic oftentimes larger worksites


associated increased occupational sitting work environments classified business office jobs typically exposed sitting sedentary behavior workplace additionally occupations full time schedule flexibility also included demographic likely sit often throughout workday policy implementation obstacles surrounding better ergonomic features sedentary employees include cost time effort companies employees evidence helps establish importance ergonomics sedentary workplace yet missing information problem enforcement policy implementation


modernized workplace becomes technology based jobs becoming primarily seated therefore leading need prevent chronic injuries pain becoming easier amount research around ergonomic tools saving money companies limiting number days missed work workers comp cases ref name ref way ensure corporations prioritize health outcomes employees policy implementation ref name nationwide policies currently place however handful big companies states taken cultural policies


process focuses observing uses technology practical environment qualitative observational method focuses real world experience pressures usage technology environments workplace process best used early design process ref name carrol ref '''focus groups''' another form qualitative research one individual facilitate discussion elicit opinions technology process investigation one one interview basis group session used gain large quantity deep qualitative data though due


small sample size subject higher degree individual bias ref name wickens wickens cd lee jd liu gorden becker se introduction human factors engineering nd edition prentice hall ref used point design process largely dependent exact questions pursued structure group extremely costly '''iterative design ''' also known prototyping iterative design process seeks involve users several stages design correct problems emerge prototypes emerge design process


subjected forms analysis outlined article results taken incorporated new design trends among users analyzed products redesigned become costly process needs done soon possible design process designs become concrete ref name carrol '''meta analysis ''' supplementary technique used examine wide body already existing data literature derive trends form hypotheses aid design decisions part literature survey meta analysis performed discern collective


trend individual variables ref name wickens '''subjects tandem ''' two subjects asked work concurrently series tasks vocalizing analytical observations technique also known co discovery participants tend feed 's comments generate richer set observations often possible participants separately observed researcher used discover usability difficulties process usually recorded '''surveys questionnaires ''' commonly used technique outside human factors well surveys questionnaires advantage administered


large group people relatively low cost enabling researcher gain large amount data validity data obtained however always question questions must written interpreted correctly definition subjective actually respond effect self selecting well widening gap sample population ref name wickens '''task analysis ''' process roots activity theory task analysis way systematically describing human interaction system process understand match demands


system process human capabilities complexity process generally proportional complexity task analyzed vary cost time involvement qualitative observational process best used early design process ref name wickens '''human performance modeling ''' method quantifying human behavior cognition processes tool used human factors researchers practitioners analysis human function development systems designed optimal user experience interaction '''think aloud protocol ''' also known concurrent verbal protocol


process asking user execute series tasks use technology continuously verbalizing thoughts researcher gain insights users' analytical process useful finding design flaws affect task performance may negative cognitive effect user also useful utilizing experts better understand procedural knowledge task question less expensive focus groups tends specific subjective '''user analysis ''' process based around designing attributes intended user operator


establishing characteristics define creating persona user best done outset design process user analysis attempt predict common users characteristics would assumed common problematic design concept match actual user identified vague make clear design decisions process however usually quite inexpensive commonly used ref name wickens ''' wizard oz ''' comparatively uncommon technique seen use mobile devices


based upon wizard oz experiment technique involves operator remotely controls operation device imitate response actual computer program advantage producing highly changeable set reactions quite costly difficult undertake '''methods analysis''' process studying tasks worker completes using step step investigation task broken smaller steps motion worker performs described enables see exactly repetitive straining tasks occur '''time studies''' determine time


required worker complete task time studies often used analyze cyclical jobs considered event based studies time measurements triggered occurrence predetermined events ref name thomas ref '''work sampling''' method job sampled random intervals determine proportion total time spent particular task ref name thomas provides insight often workers performing tasks might cause strain bodies '''predetermined time systems''' methods analyzing time spent workers particular task one widely


used predetermined time system called methods time measurement common work measurement systems include modapts industry specific applications based pts seweasy modapts gsd seen paper '''cognitive walkthrough ''' method usability inspection method evaluators apply user perspective task scenarios identify design problems applied macroergonomics evaluators able analyze usability work system designs identify well work system organized well workflow integrated ref name brookhuis brookhuis k hedge hendrick h salas e stanton n


handbook human factors ergonomics models florida crc press ref '''kansei method ''' method transforms consumer 's responses new products design specifications applied macroergonomics method translate employee 's responses changes work system design specifications ref name brookhuis '''high integration technology organization people ''' manual procedure done step step apply technological change workplace allows managers aware human organizational aspects technology plans allowing efficiently integrate technology contexts ref name brookhuis '''top modeler ''' model helps


manufacturing companies identify organizational changes needed new technologies considered process ref name brookhuis '''computer integrated manufacturing organization people system design ''' model allows evaluating computer integrated manufacturing organization people system design based knowledge system ref name brookhuis '''anthropotechnology ''' method considers analysis design modification systems efficient transfer technology one culture another ref name brookhuis '''systems analysis tool ''' method conduct systematic trade evaluations work system intervention alternatives ref name brookhuis '''macroergonomic analysis structure ''' method analyzes structure work systems according compatibility unique


sociotechnical aspects ref name brookhuis '''macroergonomic analysis design ''' method assesses work system processes using ten step process ref name brookhuis '''virtual manufacturing response surface methodology ''' method uses computerized tools statistical analysis workstation design weaknesses problems related measures usability include fact measures learning retention use interface rarely employed studies treat measures users interact interfaces synonymous quality use despite unclear relation although field methods extremely useful conducted users' natural environment major limitations


consider limitations include usually take time resources methods high effort planning recruiting executing compared methods much longer study periods therefore requires much goodwill among participants studies longitudinal nature therefore attrition become problem see also references reading '''books''' thomas j armstrong ''chapter allowances localized fatigue musculoskeletal disorders biomechanics'' yet published berlin c adams c ''production ergonomics designing work systems support optimal human performance'' london ubiquity press doi https doiorg bbe jan dul


bernard weedmaster ''ergonomics beginners'' classic introduction ergonomics original title ''vademecum ergonomie'' dutch published updated since valerie j gawron ''human performance measures handbook'' lawrence erlbaum associates useful summary human performance measures liu ioe course pack industrial operations engineering introduction ergonomics university michigan ann arbor mi winter donald norman ''the design everyday things'' entertaining user centered critique nearly every gadget time published peter opsvik thinking sitting interesting insights history chair


error among topics wilson corlett ''evaluation human work'' practical ergonomics methodology warning technical suitable 'intro' ergonomics zamprotta luigi ''la qualit comme philosophie de la productioninteraction avec l'ergonomie et perspectives futures'' th se de trise sciences appliqu es informatique institut d'etudes sup rieures l'avenir brussels ann e universitaire tiu http wwwtiuonlinecom press independence missouri usa '''peer reviewed journals numbers brackets isi impact factor followed date ''' ''behavior information technology'' ''ergonomics'' ''ergonomics design'' ''applied ergonomics'' ''human factors'' ''international journal


industrial ergonomics'' ''human factors ergonomics manufacturing'' ''travail humain'' ''theoretical issues ergonomics science'' ''international journal human factors ergonomics'' ''international journal occupational safety ergonomics'' external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwdticmil dticasd ddsm directory design support methods http wwwdticmil dtic tr fulltext u pdf directory design support methods http design stcom engineering data compedium human perception performancepdf engineering data compendium human perception performance https webarchiveorg web http hfetagdticmil docs index ngsdoc index non government standards human engineering https webarchiveorg web http hfetagdticmil docs index govt stddoc index government standards human engineering https wwwcdcgov niosh topics ergonomics niosh topic page ergonomics musculoskeletal disorders http oshaeuropaeu publications e facts efact office ergonomicspdf office ergonomics information european agency safety health work http wwwenreumdedu publications hfs hhtm


human factors standards handbooks university maryland department mechanical engineering http wwwnorccorg wiki human factors ergonomics human factors ergonomics resources http libarchstoruahedu repositories resources human factors engineering collection university alabama huntsville archives special collections ergonomics occupational safety health systems psychology industrial engineering posture


painting francesco francia '''early music''' generally comprises medieval music renaissance music also include baroque music originating europe early music broad musical era beginning western classical music terminology interpretations historical scope early music vary original academy ancient music formed defined ancient music works written composers lived end th century johannes brahms contemporaries would understood early music range high renaissance baroque scholars consider early music

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Early music


include music ancient greece rome ad period generally covered term ancient music music critic michael kennedy excludes baroque defining early music musical compositions earliest times including music renaissance period ref name kennedy ref musicologist thomas forrest kelly considers essence early music revival forgotten musical repertoire term intertwined rediscovery old performance practice according uk 's national centre early music term early music refers repertory european music


written embracing medieval renaissance baroque ndash historically informed approach performance music ref name ncem ref today understanding early music come include music historically appropriate style performance must reconstructed basis surviving scores treatises instruments contemporary evidence revival akademie f r alte musik berlin modern performers early music later th century resurgence interest performance music medieval renaissance eras number instrumental consorts


choral ensembles specialising early music repertoire formed groups tallis scholars early music consort taverner consort players influential bringing early music modern audiences performances popular recordings ref name wilson ref performance practice revival interest early music given rise scholarly approach performance music academic musicological research music treatises urtext editions musical scores historical evidence performers attempt faithful performance style musical era work originally conceived additionally


rise use original reproduction period instruments part performance early music revival harpsichord viol practice historically informed performance nevertheless dependent stylistic inference according margaret bent renaissance notation prescriptive modern scoring much left performer 's interpretation renaissance notation prescriptive standards translated modern form acquires prescriptive weight overspecifies distorts original openness accidentals may may notated


music essays honour timothy j mcgee'' farnham surrey uk burlington vt ashgate haynes bruce ''the end early music period performer 's history music twenty first century'' oxford new york oxford university press remnant use frets rebecs medieval fiddles ''galpin society journal'' p nbsp remnant marks r medieval 'gittern' thinsp british museum yearbook music civilisation remnant musical instruments west pp batsford london reprinted batsford digitized university michigan


relatively unknown instruments extinction http wwworlandogibbonscom celebrating early music master orlando gibbons https webarchiveorg web http earlymusichicagoorg early musichicago early music chicago beyond many links resources general interest traditional music


'''ecology''' house study study relationships living organisms including humans physical environment ecology considers organisms individual population community ecosystems biosphere level ecology overlaps closely related sciences biogeography evolutionary biology genetics ethology natural history ecology branch biology synonymous environmentalism among things ecology study life processes antifragility interactions adaptations movement materials energy living communities successional development ecosystems cooperation competition predation within


interacting systems organisms communities make non living components environment ecosystem processes primary production nutrient cycling niche construction regulate flux energy matter environment ecosystems biophysical feedback mechanisms moderate processes acting living biotic non living abiotic components planet ecosystems sustain life supporting functions provide ecosystem services like biomass production food fuel fiber medicine regulation climate global biogeochemical cycles water filtration soil formation erosion control flood protection many natural features scientific historical economic intrinsic value


levels scope scale organization scope ecology contains wide array interacting levels organization spanning micro level eg cells planetary scale eg biosphere phenomena ecosystems example contain abiotic resources interacting life forms ie individual organisms aggregate populations aggregate distinct ecological communities ecosystems dynamic always follow linear successional path always changing sometimes rapidly sometimes slowly take thousands years ecological processes bring certain successional stages forest ecosystem 's area


vary greatly tiny vast single tree little consequence classification forest ecosystem critically relevant organisms living ref name stadler several generations aphid population exist lifespan single leaf aphids turn support diverse bacterial communities ref name humphreys nature connections ecological communities cannot explained knowing details species isolation emergent pattern neither revealed predicted ecosystem studied integrated whole ref name liere ref ecological principles


however exhibit collective properties sum components explain properties whole birth rates population equal sum individual births designated time frame ref name odum main subdisciplines ecology population community ecology ecosystem ecology exhibit difference scale also two contrasting paradigms field former focuses organisms' distribution abundance latter focuses materials energy fluxes hierarchy width align right scale ecological dynamics


operate like closed system aphids migrating single tree time remain open regard broader scale influences atmosphere climate hence ecologists classify ecosystems hierarchically analyzing data collected finer scale units vegetation associations climate soil types integrate information identify emergent patterns uniform organization processes operate local regional landscape chronological scales structure study ecology conceptually manageable framework biological world organized nested hierarchy ranging scale genes


cells tissues organs organisms species populations communities ecosystems biomes level biosphere ref name nachtomy framework forms panarchy ref name holling exhibits non linear behaviors means effect cause disproportionate small changes critical variables number nitrogen fixers lead disproportionate perhaps irreversible changes system properties ref name levin biodiversity width align right biodiversity abbreviation biological diversity describes diversity life genes ecosystems spans every level


biological organization term several interpretations many ways index measure characterize represent complex organization ref name noss ref name scholes ref name cardinale ref biodiversity includes species diversity ecosystem diversity genetic diversity scientists interested way diversity affects complex ecological processes operating among respective levels ref name scholes ref name wilson b ref name purvis biodiversity plays important role ecosystem services definition maintain improve human quality life ref name cardinale ref name ostfeld ref name tierney conservation priorities management techniques require different approaches considerations address full ecological scope biodiversity natural


capital supports populations critical maintaining ecosystem services ref name ceballos ref name palumbi species migration eg riverine fish runs avian insect control implicated one mechanism service losses experienced ref name wilcove understanding biodiversity practical applications species ecosystem level conservation planners make management recommendations consulting firms governments industry ref name hammond habitat biodiversity coral reef corals adapt modify environment forming calcium carbonate skeletons provides growing conditions future generations forms habitat many species ref name kiessling long tailed


broadbill building nest habitat species describes environment species known occur type community formed result ref name whittaker specifically habitats defined regions environmental space composed multiple dimensions representing biotic abiotic environmental variable component characteristic environment related directly eg forage biomass quality indirectly eg elevation use location animal ref name beyer example habitat might aquatic terrestrial environment


categorized montane alpine ecosystem habitat shifts provide important evidence competition nature one population changes relative habitats individuals species occupy example one population species tropical lizard ''tropidurus hispidus'' flattened body relative main populations live open savanna population lives isolated rock outcrop hides crevasses flattened body offers selective advantage habitat shifts also occur developmental life history amphibians insects transition aquatic terrestrial


habitats biotope habitat sometimes used interchangeably former applies community 's environment whereas latter applies species' environment ref name whittaker ref name schoener ref name vitt niche termite mounds varied heights chimneys regulate gas exchange temperature environmental parameters needed sustain internal physiology entire colony ref name laland ref name hughes definitions niche date back ref name wiens g evelyn hutchinson made conceptual advances ref name hutchinson ref name hutchinson b introducing widely adopted definition set biotic abiotic conditions species able


may assume organism ''positive fitness'' ref name hardesty biogeographical patterns range distributions explained predicted knowledge species' traits niche requirements ref name pearman species functional traits uniquely adapted ecological niche trait measurable property phenotype characteristic organism may influence survival genes play important role interplay development environmental expression traits ref name levins resident species evolve traits fitted selection pressures local environment tends afford competitive advantage discourages


similarly adapted species overlapping geographic range competitive exclusion principle states two species cannot coexist indefinitely living limiting resource one always compete similarly adapted species overlap geographically closer inspection reveals subtle ecological differences habitat dietary requirements ref name hardin models empirical studies however suggest disturbances stabilize co evolution shared niche occupancy similar species inhabiting species rich communities ref name scheffer habitat plus niche called ecotope defined full range environmental biological variables affecting entire


species ref name whittaker niche construction organisms subject environmental pressures also modify habitats regulatory feedback organisms environment affect conditions local eg beaver pond global scales time even death decaying logs silica skeleton deposits marine organisms ref name hastings process concept ecosystem engineering related niche construction former relates physical modifications habitat whereas latter also considers evolutionary implications physical changes environment feedback causes


process natural selection ecosystem engineers defined organisms directly indirectly modulate availability resources species causing physical state changes biotic abiotic materials modify maintain create habitats ref name jones ecosystem engineering concept stimulated new appreciation influence organisms ecosystem evolutionary process term niche construction often used reference appreciated feedback mechanisms natural selection imparting forces abiotic niche ref name laland ref name write example natural selection ecosystem engineering occurs


nests social insects including ants bees wasps termites emergent homeostasis homeorhesis structure nest regulates maintains defends physiology entire colony termite mounds example maintain constant internal temperature design air conditioning chimneys structure nests subject forces natural selection moreover nest survive successive generations progeny inherit genetic material legacy niche constructed time ref name odum ref name laland ref name hughes biome biomes larger units


organization categorize regions earth 's ecosystems mainly according structure composition vegetation ref name palmer different methods define continental boundaries biomes dominated different functional types vegetative communities limited distribution climate precipitation weather environmental variables biomes include tropical rainforest temperate broadleaf mixed forest temperate deciduous forest taiga tundra hot desert polar desert ref name prentice researchers recently categorized biomes human oceanic microbiomes microbe human body habitat landscape ref name turnbaugh microbiomes discovered


largely advances molecular genetics revealed hidden richness microbial diversity planet oceanic microbiome plays significant role ecological biogeochemistry planet 's oceans ref name delong biosphere largest scale ecological organization biosphere total sum ecosystems planet ecological relationships regulate flux energy nutrients climate way planetary scale example dynamic history planetary atmosphere 's co sub sub sub sub composition affected biogenic flux gases coming respiration photosynthesis


levels fluctuating time relation ecology evolution plants animals ref name igamberdiev ecological theory also used explain self emergent regulatory phenomena planetary scale example gaia hypothesis example holism applied ecological theory ref name lovelock gaia hypothesis states emergent feedback loop generated metabolism living organisms maintains core temperature earth atmospheric conditions within narrow self regulating range tolerance ref name lovelock population ecology population ecology studies dynamics species populations populations interact


wider environment ref name odum population consists individuals species live interact migrate niche habitat ref name waples primary law population ecology malthusian growth model ref name turchin states population grow decline exponentially long environment experienced individuals population remains constant ref name turchin simplified population models usually start four variables death birth immigration emigration example introductory population model describes closed population island immigration emigration take


place hypotheses evaluated reference null hypothesis states random processes create observed data island models rate population change described math frac operatorname n operatorname bn dn b n rn math ''n'' total number individuals population ''b'' ' 'd'' per capita rates birth death respectively ''r'' per capita rate population change ref name turchin ref name vandermeer using modeling techniques malthus' population principle growth later transformed model known logistic equation


pierre verhulst math frac operatorname n operatorname rn alpha n rn left frac k n k right math ''n '' number individuals measured biomass density function time ''t'' ''r'' maximum per capita rate change commonly known intrinsic rate growth math alpha math crowding coefficient represents reduction population growth rate per individual added formula states rate change population size math mathrm n mathrm math grow approach equilibrium math mathrm n mathrm math rates increase crowding balanced math r alpha math common analogous model fixes


equilibrium math r alpha math ''k'' known carrying capacity population ecology builds upon introductory models understand demographic processes real study populations commonly used types data include life history fecundity survivorship analysed using mathematical techniques matrix algebra information used managing wildlife stocks setting harvest quotas ref name vandermeer ref name berryman cases basic models insufficient ecologists may adopt different kinds statistical methods akaike information criterion ref name anderson ref use models become mathematically complex several competing hypotheses


simultaneously confronted data ref name johnson metapopulations migration concept metapopulations defined ref name levins population populations go extinct locally recolonize ref name levins metapopulation ecology another statistical approach often used conservation research ref name smith metapopulation models simplify landscape patches varying levels quality ref name hanski metapopulations linked migratory behaviours organisms animal migration set apart kinds movement involves seasonal departure return individuals habitat ref name nebel migration also population level phenomenon


migration routes followed plants occupied northern post glacial environments plant ecologists use pollen records accumulate stratify wetlands reconstruct timing plant migration dispersal relative historic contemporary climates migration routes involved expansion range plant populations expanded one area another larger taxonomy movement commuting foraging territorial behaviour stasis ranging dispersal usually distinguished migration involves one way permanent movement individuals birth population another population ref name clark ref name dingle metapopulation terminology


migrating individuals classed emigrants leave region immigrants enter region sites classed either sources sinks site generic term refers places ecologists sample populations ponds defined sampling areas forest source patches productive sites generate seasonal supply juveniles migrate patch locations sink patches unproductive sites receive migrants population site disappear unless rescued adjacent source patch environmental conditions become favourable metapopulation models


examine patch dynamics time answer potential questions spatial demographic ecology ecology metapopulations dynamic process extinction colonization small patches lower quality ie sinks maintained rescued seasonal influx new immigrants dynamic metapopulation structure evolves year year patches sinks dry years sources conditions favourable ecologists use mixture computer models field studies explain metapopulation structure ref name hanski ref name mackenzie community ecology interspecific interactions predation key aspect community


ecology width align left community ecology study interactions among collection species inhabit geographic area community ecologists study determinants patterns processes two interacting species research community ecology might measure species diversity grasslands relation soil fertility might also include analysis predator prey dynamics competition among similar plant species mutualistic interactions crabs corals ecosystem ecology width align left riparian forest white mountains new hampshire


usa example ecosystem ecology ecosystems may habitats within biomes form integrated whole dynamically responsive system physical biological complexes ecosystem ecology science determining fluxes materials eg carbon phosphorus different pools eg tree biomass soil organic material ecosystem ecologists attempt determine underlying causes fluxes research ecosystem ecology might measure primary production g c wetland relation decomposition consumption rates g c requires understanding community connections plants ie primary producers


decomposers eg fungi bacteria ref name brinson ref underlying concept ecosystem traced back published work george perkins marsh man nature ref name marsh ref name o'neil within ecosystem organisms linked physical biological components environment adapted ref name tansley ecosystems complex adaptive systems interaction life processes form self organizing patterns across different scales time space ref name levin ecosystems broadly categorized terrestrial freshwater atmospheric marine differences stem nature unique physical environments shapes biodiversity within


recent addition ecosystem ecology technoecosystems affected primarily result human activity ref name odum food webs generalized food web waterbirds chesapeake bay food web archetypal ecological network plants capture solar energy use synthesize simple sugars photosynthesis plants grow accumulate nutrients eaten grazing herbivores energy transferred chain organisms consumption simplified linear feeding pathways move basal trophic species top consumer called food chain


larger interlocking pattern food chains ecological community creates complex food web food webs type concept map heuristic device used illustrate study pathways energy material flows ref name o'neill ref name pimm ref name pimm food webs often limited relative real world complete empirical measurements generally restricted specific habitat cave pond principles gleaned food web microcosm studies extrapolated larger systems ref name worm feeding relations require extensive investigations gut contents organisms difficult


decipher stable isotopes used trace flow nutrient diets energy food web ref name mccann despite limitations food webs remain valuable tool understanding community ecosystems ref name wilbur food webs exhibit principles ecological emergence nature trophic relationships species many weak feeding links eg omnivores specialized fewer stronger feeding links eg primary predators theoretical empirical studies identify non random emergent patterns strong many weak linkages explain ecological communities remain stable time ref name emmerson food webs composed


subgroups members community linked strong interactions weak interactions occur subgroups increases food web stability ref name kraus step step lines relations drawn web life illustrated ref name pimm ref name egerton b ref name shurin ref name edwards trophic levels trophic pyramid food web b illustrating ecological relationships among creatures typical northern boreal terrestrial ecosystem trophic pyramid roughly represents biomass usually measured total dry weight level plants generally greatest biomass names trophic categories shown


right pyramid ecosystems many wetlands organize strict pyramid aquatic plants productive long lived terrestrial plants trees ecological trophic pyramids typically one three kinds pyramid numbers pyramid biomass pyramid energy ref name odum trophic level greek ''troph'' troph meaning food feeding group organisms acquiring considerable majority energy lower adjacent level according ecological pyramids nearer abiotic source ref name hariston links food webs primarily connect feeding relations


greater respiration photosynthesis chemosynthesis heterotrophs organisms must feed others nourishment energy respiration exceeds production ref name odum heterotrophs sub divided different functional groups including primary consumers strict herbivores secondary consumers carnivorous predators feed exclusively herbivores tertiary consumers predators feed mix herbivores predators ref name david omnivores fit neatly functional category eat plant animal tissues suggested omnivores greater functional influence predators compared herbivores relatively inefficient


grazing ref name oksanen trophic levels part holistic complex systems view ecosystems ref name loehle ref name ulanowicz trophic level contains unrelated species grouped together share common ecological functions giving macroscopic view system ref name li notion trophic levels provides insight energy flow top control within food webs troubled prevalence omnivory real ecosystems led ecologists reiterate notion species clearly aggregate discrete homogeneous trophic levels fiction ref name polis nonetheless recent studies shown real trophic


levels exist herbivore trophic level food webs better characterized tangled web omnivores ref name thompson keystone species sea otters example keystone species keystone species species connected disproportionately large number species food web keystone species lower levels biomass trophic pyramid relative importance role many connections keystone species holds means maintains organization structure entire communities loss keystone species results range


biocomplexity stems interplay among ecological processes operate influence patterns different scales grade transitional areas ecotones spanning landscapes complexity stems interplay among levels biological organization energy matter integrated larger units superimpose onto smaller parts wholes one level become parts higher one ref name novikoff small scale patterns necessarily explain large scale phenomena otherwise captured expression coined aristotle 'the sum greater parts' ref name schneider ref name molnar complexity ecology


least six distinct types spatial temporal structural process behavioral geometric ref name loehle principles ecologists identified emergent self organizing phenomena operate different environmental scales influence ranging molecular planetary require different explanations integrative level ref name lovelock ref name odum ecological complexity relates dynamic resilience ecosystems transition multiple shifting steady states directed random fluctuations history ref name holling ref name carpenter long term ecological studies provide important track records better understand complexity resilience ecosystems longer temporal broader spatial scales studies managed international


long term ecological network lter ref name urlwelcome ilter ilter longest experiment existence park grass experiment initiated ref name siverton another example hubbard brook study operation since holism holism remains critical part theoretical foundation contemporary ecological studies holism addresses biological organization life self organizes layers emergent whole systems function according non reducible properties means higher order patterns whole functional system ecosystem cannot predicted understood simple summation


parts ref name liu new properties emerge components interact basic nature components changed ref name odum ecological studies necessarily holistic opposed reductionistic ref name levins ref name odum ref name mikkelson holism three scientific meanings uses identify ecology mechanistic complexity ecosystems practical description patterns quantitative reductionist terms correlations may identified nothing understood causal relations without reference whole system leads metaphysical hierarchy whereby causal relations larger systems understood without reference


ecological evolutionary theory morphological behavioural genetic traits example mapped onto evolutionary trees study historical development species relation functions roles different ecological circumstances framework analytical tools ecologists evolutionists overlap organize classify investigate life common systematic principles phylogenetics linnaean system taxonomy ref name miles two disciplines often appear together title journal ''trends ecology evolution'' ref name tree ref sharp boundary separating ecology evolution differ


areas applied focus disciplines discover explain emergent unique properties processes operating across different spatial temporal scales organization ref name levins ref name lovelock boundary ecology evolution always clear ecologists study abiotic biotic factors influence evolutionary processes ref name allee ref name ricklefs evolution rapid occurring ecological timescales short one generation behavioural ecology social display colour variation differently adapted species chameleons ''bradypodion'' spp chameleons change skin colour match background behavioural defence mechanism


also use colour communicate members species dominant left versus submissive right patterns shown three species c ref name stuart fox organisms exhibit behaviours even plants express complex behaviour including memory communication ref name karban behavioural ecology study organism 's behaviour environment ecological evolutionary implications ethology study observable movement behaviour animals could include investigations motile sperm plants mobile phytoplankton zooplankton swimming toward female egg cultivation fungi weevils mating dance


adaptive principles conservation optimization efficiency ref name begon ref name allee ref name krebs example threat sensitive predator avoidance hypothesis predicts prey assess degree threat posed different predators match behaviour according current levels risk ref name webb optimal flight initiation distance occurs expected postencounter fitness maximized depends prey 's initial fitness benefits obtainable fleeing energetic escape costs expected fitness loss due predation risk ref name cooper elaborate sexual displays posturing encountered behavioural ecology animals birds paradise example sing display elaborate


ornaments courtship displays serve dual purpose signalling healthy well adapted individuals desirable genes displays driven sexual selection advertisement quality traits among suitors ref name kodric brown cognitive ecology cognitive ecology integrates theory observations evolutionary ecology neurobiology primarily cognitive science order understand effect animal interaction habitat cognitive systems systems restrict behavior within ecological evolutionary framework ref name palacios ref recently however cognitive scientists paid sufficient attention fundamental fact cognitive traits


evolved particular natural settings consideration selection pressure cognition cognitive ecology contribute intellectual coherence multidisciplinary study cognition ref name dukas ref ref name dukas ref study involving 'coupling' interactions organism environment cognitive ecology closely related enactivism ref name palacios field based upon view must see organism environment bound together reciprocal specification selection ref name varela ref social ecology social ecological behaviours notable social insects slime moulds social spiders human society naked mole rats eusocialism evolved social behaviours include reciprocally beneficial


behaviours among kin nest mates ref name strassmann ref name wilson ref name sherman evolve kin group selection kin selection explains altruism genetic relationships whereby altruistic behaviour leading death rewarded survival genetic copies distributed among surviving relatives social insects including ants bees wasps famously studied type relationship male drones clones share genetic make every male colony ref name wilson contrast group selectionists find examples altruism among non genetic relatives explain selection acting


group whereby becomes selectively advantageous groups members express altruistic behaviours one another groups predominantly altruistic members survive better groups predominantly selfish members ref name wilson ref name wilson coevolution bumblebees flowers pollinate coevolved become dependent survival '''parasitism ''' harvestman arachnid parasitized mites harvestman consumed mites benefit traveling feeding host ecological interactions classified broadly host associate relationship host entity


harbours another called associate ref name page relationships within species mutually reciprocally beneficial called mutualisms examples mutualism include fungus growing ants employing agricultural symbiosis bacteria living guts insects organisms fig wasp yucca moth pollination complex lichens fungi photosynthetic algae corals photosynthetic algae ref name herre ref name gilbert physical connection host associate relationship called symbiosis approximately plants example symbiotic relationship arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi living roots forming exchange network


carbohydrates mineral nutrients ref name kiers indirect mutualisms occur organisms live apart example trees living equatorial regions planet supply oxygen atmosphere sustains species living distant polar regions planet relationship called commensalism many others receive benefits clean air cost harm trees supplying oxygen ref name odum associate benefits host suffers relationship called parasitism although parasites impose cost host eg via damage reproductive organs propagules denying services


beneficial partner net effect host fitness necessarily negative thus becomes difficult forecast ref name bronstein ref name irwin co evolution also driven competition among species among members species banner reciprocal antagonism grasses competing growth space red queen hypothesis example posits parasites track specialize locally common genetic defense systems host drives evolution sexual reproduction diversify genetic constituency populations responding antagonistic pressure ref name boucher ref name king ref biogeography biogeography amalgamation


''biology'' ''geography'' comparative study geographic distribution organisms corresponding evolution traits space time ref name parenti ''journal biogeography'' established ref name jbiog ref biogeography ecology share many disciplinary roots example theory island biogeography published robert macarthur edward wilson ref name macarthur considered one fundamentals ecological theory ref name wiens biogeography long history natural sciences concerning spatial distribution plants animals ecology evolution provide explanatory context biogeographical


studies ref name parenti biogeographical patterns result ecological processes influence range distributions migration dispersal ref name wiens historical processes split populations species different areas biogeographic processes result natural splitting species explain much modern distribution earth 's biota splitting lineages species called vicariance biogeography sub discipline biogeography ref name morrone also practical applications field biogeography concerning ecological systems processes example range distribution biodiversity invasive species responding


climate change serious concern active area research context global warming ref name svennin ref name landh usser r k selection theory population ecology concept r k selection theory one first predictive models ecology used explain life history evolution premise behind r k selection model natural selection pressures change according population density example island first colonized density individuals low initial increase population size limited competition leaving abundance available resources rapid population growth early phases


population growth experience ' 'density independent'' forces natural selection called ''r'' selection population becomes crowded approaches island 's carrying capacity thus forcing individuals compete heavily fewer available resources crowded conditions population experiences density dependent forces natural selection called ''k'' selection ref name reznick ''r k'' selection model first variable ''r'' intrinsic rate natural increase population size second variable ''k'' carrying capacity population ref name begon different species evolve different life history strategies spanning continuum two selective forces ''r'' selected species


one high birth rates low levels parental investment high rates mortality individuals reach maturity evolution favours high rates fecundity ''r'' selected species many kinds insects invasive species exhibit ''r'' selected characteristics contrast ''k'' selected species low rates fecundity high levels parental investment young low rates mortality individuals mature humans elephants examples species exhibiting ''k'' selected characteristics including longevity efficiency conversion resources fewer offspring ref name macarthur ref name pianka molecular ecology important relationship ecology


genetic inheritance predates modern techniques molecular analysis molecular ecological research became feasible development rapid accessible genetic technologies polymerase chain reaction pcr rise molecular technologies influx research questions new ecological field resulted publication ''molecular ecology'' ref name molecol ref molecular ecology uses various analytical techniques study genes evolutionary ecological context john avise also played leading role area science publication book ''molecular markers natural history evolution'' ref name avise newer technologies opened


phylogeography ref name avise human ecology ecology much biological science human science ref name odum human ecology interdisciplinary investigation ecology species human ecology may defined bioecological standpoint study man ecological dominant plant animal communities systems bioecological standpoint simply another animal affecting affected physical environment human somehow different animal life general interacting physical modified environments distinctive creative


way truly interdisciplinary human ecology likely address three ref name young term formally introduced many sociologists geographers psychologists disciplines interested human relations natural systems centuries prior especially late th century ref name young ref name gross ecological complexities human beings facing technological transformation planetary biome brought anthropocene unique set circumstances generated need new unifying science called coupled human natural systems builds upon moves beyond field human ecology ref name liu


ecosystems tie human societies critical encompassing life supporting functions sustain recognition functions incapability traditional economic valuation methods see value ecosystems surge interest social natural capital provides means put value stock use information materials stemming ecosystem goods services ecosystems produce regulate maintain supply services critical necessity beneficial human health cognitive physiological economies even provide information reference function living library giving


era restoration ecology ref name wilson ref ecological science boomed industrial investment restoring ecosystems processes abandoned sites disturbance natural resource managers forestry example employ ecologists develop adapt implement ecosystem based methods planning operation restoration phases land use ecological science used methods sustainable harvesting disease fire outbreak management fisheries stock management integrating land use protected areas communities conservation complex geo political landscapes ref name hammond ref name grumbine ref name slocombe ref ref name hobbs ref relation environment environment


ecosystems includes physical parameters biotic attributes dynamically interlinked contains resources organisms time throughout life cycle ref name odum ref name mason like ecology term environment different conceptual meanings overlaps concept nature environment includes physical world social world human relations built world human creation ref name kleese physical environment external level biological organization investigation including abiotic factors temperature radiation light chemistry climate geology biotic environment includes genes cells organisms members species


conspecifics species share habitat ref name campbell distinction external internal environments however abstraction parsing life environment units facts inseparable reality interpenetration cause effect environment life laws thermodynamics example apply ecology means physical state understanding metabolic thermodynamic principles complete accounting energy material flow traced ecosystem way environmental ecological relations studied reference conceptually manageable isolated


disturbance process removes biomass community fire flood drought predation ref name hughes disturbances occur vastly different ranges terms magnitudes well distances time periods ref name levin cause product natural fluctuations death rates species assemblages biomass densities within ecological community disturbances create places renewal new directions emerge patchwork natural experimentation opportunity ref name hughes ref name holling ref name folke ecological resilience cornerstone theory ecosystem management biodiversity fuels resilience ecosystems acting


kind regenerative insurance ref name folke metabolism early atmosphere width align right earth formed approximately nbsp billion years ago ref name gre cooled crust oceans formed atmosphere transformed dominated hydrogen one composed mostly methane ammonia next billion years metabolic activity life transformed atmosphere mixture carbon dioxide nitrogen water vapor gases changed way light sun hit earth 's surface greenhouse effects trapped heat untapped sources free energy


primary production temperature largely dependent incidence solar radiation latitudinal longitudinal spatial variation temperature greatly affects climates consequently distribution biodiversity levels primary production different ecosystems biomes across planet heat temperature relate importantly metabolic activity poikilotherms example body temperature largely regulated dependent temperature external environment contrast homeotherms regulate internal body temperature expending metabolic energy ref name allee ref name ricklefs ref name kormondy relationship light primary production ecological energy budgets sunlight


primary input energy planet 's ecosystems light composed electromagnetic energy different wavelengths radiant energy sun generates heat provides photons light measured active energy chemical reactions life also acts catalyst genetic mutation ref name allee ref name ricklefs ref name kormondy plants algae bacteria absorb light assimilate energy photosynthesis organisms capable assimilating energy photosynthesis inorganic fixation h sub sub autotrophs autotrophs responsible primary production assimilate light energy becomes metabolically stored potential energy form biochemical enthalpic bonds ref name allee ref name ricklefs ref


name kormondy physical environments water width align right diffusion carbon dioxide oxygen approximately times slower water air soils flooded quickly lose oxygen becoming hypoxic environment sub sub concentration nbsp mg liter eventually completely anoxic anaerobic bacteria thrive among roots water also influences intensity spectral composition light reflects water surface submerged particles ref name cronk aquatic plants exhibit wide variety morphological physiological adaptations allow survive compete diversify


environments example roots stems contain large air spaces aerenchyma regulate efficient transportation gases example co sub sub sub sub used respiration photosynthesis salt water plants halophytes additional specialized adaptations development special organs shedding salt osmoregulating internal salt nacl concentrations live estuarine brackish oceanic environments anaerobic soil microorganisms aquatic environments use nitrate manganese ions ferric ions sulfate carbon dioxide organic compounds microorganisms facultative anaerobes use oxygen respiration soil becomes drier activity


soil microorganisms chemistry water reduces oxidation reduction potentials water carbon dioxide example reduced methane ch sub sub methanogenic bacteria ref name cronk physiology fish also specially adapted compensate environmental salt levels osmoregulation gills form electrochemical gradients mediate salt excretion salt water uptake fresh water ref name evans gravity shape energy land significantly affected gravitational forces large scale distribution gravitational forces earth uneven influences shape movement


tectonic plates well influencing geomorphic processes orogeny erosion forces govern many geophysical properties distributions ecological biomes across earth organismal scale gravitational forces provide directional cues plant fungal growth gravitropism orientation cues animal migrations influence biomechanics size animals ref name allee ecological traits allocation biomass trees growth subject mechanical failure gravitational forces influence position structure branches leaves ref name swenson cardiovascular systems animals functionally adapted overcome pressure


gravitational forces change according features organisms eg height size shape behaviour eg diving running flying habitat occupied eg water hot deserts cold tundra ref name garnter pressure climatic osmotic pressure places physiological constraints organisms especially fly respire high altitudes dive deep ocean depths ref name neri constraints influence vertical limits ecosystems biosphere organisms physiologically sensitive adapted atmospheric osmotic water pressure differences ref name allee example oxygen levels decrease decreasing pressure limiting factor life


higher altitudes ref name jacobsen water transportation plants another important ecophysiological process affected osmotic pressure gradients ref name strook ref name pockman ref name zimmermann water pressure depths oceans requires organisms adapt conditions example diving animals whales dolphins seals specially adapted deal changes sound due water pressure differences ref name kastak differences hagfish species provide another example adaptation deep sea pressure specialized protein adaptations ref name nishiguchi wind turbulence architecture inflorescence grasses subject physical pressures wind shaped


forces natural selection facilitating wind pollination anemophily ref name friedman ref name harder turbulent forces air water affect environment ecosystem distribution form dynamics planetary scale ecosystems affected circulation patterns global trade winds wind power turbulent forces creates influence heat nutrient biochemical profiles ecosystems ref name allee example wind running surface lake creates turbulence mixing water column influencing environmental profile create thermally layered zones affecting fish algae parts aquatic ecosystem structured ref name shimeta ref name etemad wind


speed turbulence also influence evapotranspiration rates energy budgets plants animals ref name cronk ref name wolf wind speed temperature moisture content vary winds travel across different land features elevations example westerlies come contact coastal interior mountains western north america produce rain shadow leeward side mountain air expands moisture condenses winds increase elevation called orographic lift cause precipitation environmental process produces spatial divisions biodiversity species adapted wetter conditions range restricted


coastal mountain valleys unable migrate across xeric ecosystems eg columbia basin western north america intermix sister lineages segregated interior mountain systems ref name daubenmire ref name steele fire image lodgepole pine cone firejpg width plants convert carbon dioxide biomass emit oxygen atmosphere approximately million years ago end devonian period photosynthesis brought concentration atmospheric oxygen allowed combustion occur ref name lenton fire releases co sub sub converts fuel ash


tar fire significant ecological parameter raises many issues pertaining control suppression ref name lobert issue fire relation ecology plants recognized long time ref name garren charles cooper brought attention issue forest fires relation ecology forest fire suppression management ref name cooper ref name cooper native north americans among first influence fire regimes controlling spread near homes lighting fires stimulate production herbaceous foods basketry materials ref name wagtendonk fire creates


heterogeneous ecosystem age canopy structure altered soil nutrient supply cleared canopy structure opens new ecological niches seedling establishment ref name boerner ref name goubitz ecosystems adapted natural fire cycles plants example equipped variety adaptations deal forest fires species eg ''pinus halepensis'' cannot germinate seeds lived fire exposed certain compounds smoke environmentally triggered germination seeds called serotiny ref name neeman ref name flematti fire plays major role persistence resilience ecosystems ref name holling soils soil


feeding chain collectively organisms detritivores regulate soil formation ref name coleman ref name wilkinson tree roots fungi bacteria worms ants beetles centipedes spiders mammals birds reptiles amphibians less familiar creatures work create trophic web life soil ecosystems soils form composite phenotypes inorganic matter enveloped physiology whole community organisms feed migrate soils physically displace materials ecological process called bioturbation aerates soils stimulates heterotrophic growth production soil microorganisms influenced fed back trophic dynamics


ecosystem single axis causality discerned segregate biological geomorphological systems soils ref name phillips ref ref name reinhard ref paleoecological studies soils places origin bioturbation time cambrian period events evolution trees colonization land devonian period played significant role early development ecological trophism soils ref name wilkinson ref name davic ref name hasiotis biogeochemistry climate ecologists study measure nutrient budgets understand materials regulated flow recycled environment ref name allee ref name ricklefs ref name kormondy research


led understanding global feedback ecosystems physical parameters planet including minerals soil ph ions water atmospheric gases six major elements hydrogen carbon nitrogen oxygen sulfur phosphorus h c n p form constitution biological macromolecules feed earth 's geochemical processes smallest scale biology combined effect billions upon billions ecological processes amplify ultimately regulate biogeochemical cycles earth understanding relations cycles mediated elements ecological pathways significant


bearing toward understanding global biogeochemistry ref name falkowoski ecology global carbon budgets gives one example linkage biodiversity biogeochemistry estimated earth 's oceans hold gigatonnes gt carbon vegetation soil hold gt fossil fuel emissions gt carbon per year ref name grace major restructurings global carbon budgets earth 's history regulated large extent ecology land example early mid eocene volcanic outgassing oxidation methane stored wetlands seafloor gases increased atmospheric co sub sub


carbon dioxide concentrations levels high nbsp ppm ref name pearson oligocene twenty five thirty two million years ago another significant restructuring global carbon cycle grasses evolved new mechanism photosynthesis c sub sub photosynthesis expanded ranges new pathway evolved response drop atmospheric co sub sub concentrations ppm ref name pagani relative abundance distribution biodiversity alters dynamics organisms environment ecosystems cause effect relation climate change human driven modifications planet 's ecosystems eg disturbance biodiversity loss


soil decomposition activity raises methane ch sub sub emissions concern increases atmospheric methane context global carbon cycle methane greenhouse gas times effective absorbing long wave radiation co sub sub year time scale ref name zhuan hence relationship global warming decomposition respiration soils wetlands producing significant climate feedbacks globally altered biogeochemical cycles ref name liu ref name cox ref name erwin ref ref name bamber ref ref name heiman ref name davidson history early beginnings width align right ecology complex origin due


large part interdisciplinary nature ref name egerton ancient greek philosophers hippocrates aristotle among first record observations natural history however viewed life terms essentialism species conceptualized static unchanging things varieties seen aberrations idealized type contrasts modern understanding ecological theory varieties viewed real phenomena interest role origins adaptations means natural selection ref name odum ref name benson ref name sober ref early conceptions ecology balance regulation


class thumb tleft style background f f f padding px border px solid gray margin em em em em font size px px px div style border none width px div class thumbcaption ernst haeckel left eugenius warming right two founders ecology div div div ecological concepts food chains population regulation productivity first developed published works microscopist antoni van leeuwenhoek botanist richard bradley ref name odum biogeographer alexander von humboldt early pioneer ecological thinking among first recognize ecological gradients species replaced altered form along environmental gradients cline forming


along rise elevation humboldt drew inspiration isaac newton developed form terrestrial physics newtonian fashion brought scientific exactitude measurement natural history even alluded concepts foundation modern ecological law species area relationships ref name kingsland ref name rosenzweig ref name hawkins natural historians humboldt james hutton jean baptiste lamarck among others laid foundations modern ecological sciences ref name mcintosh ref term ecology coined ernst haeckel book ''generelle morphologie der organismen'' haeckel zoologist artist writer later


aristotle darwin natural world predominantly considered static unchanging prior ''the origin species'' little appreciation understanding dynamic reciprocal relations organisms adaptations environment ref name benson exception publication ''natural history selborne'' gilbert white considered one earliest texts ecology ref name may charles darwin mainly noted treatise evolution ref name darwin one founders soil ecology ref name meysman made note first ecological experiment ''the origin


species'' ref name hector evolutionary theory changed way researchers approached ecological sciences ref name acot since modern ecology young science first attracted substantial scientific attention toward end th century around time evolutionary studies gaining scientific interest scientist ellen swallow richards may first introduced term oekology eventually morphed home economics us early ref name hunt ref early th century ecology transitioned descriptive form natural history analytical form ' 'scientific natural history'' ref name kingsland ref name mcintosh


relates development community associations ref name gleason clementsian superorganism theory overextended application idealistic form holism ref name levins ref ref name wilson term holism coined jan christiaan smuts south african general polarizing historical figure inspired clements' superorganism concept ref name foster around time charles elton pioneered concept food chains classical book ''animal ecology'' ref name elton ref elton ref name elton defined ecological relations using concepts food chains food cycles food size described numerical relations among different functional groups relative


abundance elton 's 'food cycle' replaced 'food web' subsequent ecological text ref name allee alfred j lotka brought many theoretical concepts applying thermodynamic principles ecology raymond lindeman wrote landmark paper trophic dynamics ecology published posthumously initially rejected theoretical emphasis trophic dynamics became foundation much work follow energy material flow ecosystems robert macarthur advanced mathematical theory predictions tests ecology inspired resurgent school theoretical mathematical ecologists ref name mcintosh ref name cook ref ref name odum ref ecology


also developed contributions nations including russia 's vladimir vernadsky founding biosphere concept ref name ghilarov japan 's kinji imanishi concepts harmony nature habitat segregation ref name scientific recognition contributions ecology non english speaking cultures hampered language translation barriers ref name ghilarov ref width align right ecology surged popular scientific interest environmental movement strong historical scientific ties ecology environmental management protection ref name mcintosh historical emphasis poetic


naturalistic writings advocating protection wild places notable ecologists history conservation biology aldo leopold arthur tansley seen far removed urban centres claimed concentration pollution environmental degradation located ref name mcintosh ref name palamar ref palamar ref name palamar notes overshadowing mainstream environmentalism pioneering women early fought urban health ecology called euthenics ref name hunt brought changes environmental legislation women ellen swallow richards julia lathrop among others precursors


popularized environmental movements marine biologist ecologist rachel carson 's book ''silent spring'' helped mobilize environmental movement alerting public toxic pesticides ddt bioaccumulating environment carson used ecological science link release environmental toxins human ecosystem health since ecologists worked bridge understanding degradation planet 's ecosystems environmental politics law restoration natural resources management ref name hammond ref name mcintosh ref name palamar ref name krebs ref see also chemical ecology climate justice circles sustainability cultural ecology dialectical naturalism


ecological death ecological psychology ecology movement ecosophy ecopsychology industrial ecology information ecology landscape ecology natural resource normative science philosophy ecology political ecology theoretical ecology sensory ecology sexecology spiritual ecology sustainable development lists glossary ecology index biology articles list ecologists outline biology terminology ecology notes meaning dwelling place distributional area quoted stauffer references ref ref name aguirre ref ref name allee ref ref name allee ref ref name gre ref ref name anderson ref ref name anderson ref ref name avise ref ref name avise ref ref name begon ref ref name benson ref ref name berryman ref ref name beyer ref ref name boerner ref ref name boucher ref ref name bronstein ref ref name campbell ref ref


name carpenter ref ref name catling ref ref name ceballos ref ref name clark ref ref name coleman ref ref name cooper ref ref name cooper ref ref name cooper ref ref name cox ref ref name cronk ref ref name darwin ref ref name daubenmire ref ref name davic ref ref name david ref ref name davidson ref ref name de groot ref ref name delong ref ref name dingle ref ref name duffy ref ref name eastwood ref ref name edwards ref ref name egerton ref ref name egerton ref ref name egerton b ref ref name emmerson ref ref name ernest ref ref name etemad ref ref name evans ref ref name falkowoski ref ref name fisher ref ref name flematti ref ref name folke ref ref name forbes ref ref name foster ref ref name friederichs ref ref name friedman ref ref name garren ref ref name garnter ref ref name ghilarov ref ref name gilbert ref ref name gleason ref ref name goldblatt ref ref name goodland ref ref name goubitz ref ref name gould ref ref name grace ref ref name gross ref ref name hamner ref ref name hammond ref ref name hanski ref


ref name hanski ref ref name harder ref ref name hardesty ref ref name hardin ref ref name hariston ref ref name hasiotis ref ref name hastings ref ref name hawkins ref ref name hector ref ref name heiman ref ref name herre ref ref name hinchman ref ref name holling ref ref name holling ref ref name hughes ref ref name hughes ref ref name hughes ref ref name hughes ref ref name humphreys ref ref name hutchinson ref ref name hutchinson b ref ref name igamberdiev ref ref name irwin ref ref name ref ref name ives ref ref name jacobsen ref ref name johnson ref ref name johnson ref ref name jones ref ref name karban ref ref name kastak ref ref name kiers ref ref name kiessling ref ref name kingsland ref ref name kleese ref ref name kodric brown ref ref name kormandy ref ref name kormondy ref ref name kraus ref ref name krebs ref ref name laland ref ref name landh usser ref ref name lenton ref ref name levins ref ref name levins ref ref name levin ref ref name levin ref ref name levin ref ref name li ref ref name libralato ref


ref name young ref ref name zhuan ref ref name zimmermann ref ref name carson ref ref name neri ref external links http platostanfordedu entries ecology ecology stanford encyclopedia philosophy http wwwnaturecom scitable knowledge ecology nature education knowledge project ecology biogeochemistry emergence


'''evolutionary psychology''' theoretical approach social natural sciences examines psychological structure modern evolutionary perspective seeks identify human psychological traits evolved adaptations functional products natural selection sexual selection human evolution adaptationist thinking physiological mechanisms heart lungs immune system common evolutionary biology evolutionary psychologists apply thinking psychology arguing modularity mind similar body different modular adaptations serving different functions evolutionary psychologists argue

Social science
Psychology
Evolutionary psychology


findings made regarding human social behaviour related infanticide intelligence marriage patterns promiscuity perception beauty bride price parental investment theories findings evolutionary psychology applications many fields including economics environment health law management psychiatry politics literature ref name oxford oxford handbook evolutionary psychology edited robin dunbar louise barret oxford university press ref criticism evolutionary psychology involves questions testability cognitive evolutionary assumptions modular functioning brain large uncertainty ancestral environment importance non genetic non adaptive explanations well political


ethical issues due interpretations research results scope principles evolutionary psychology approach views human nature product universal set evolved psychological adaptations recurring problems ancestral environment proponents suggest seeks integrate psychology natural sciences rooting organizing theory biology evolutionary theory thus understanding psychology branch biology anthropologist john tooby psychologist leda cosmides note blockquote evolutionary psychology long forestalled scientific attempt assemble disjointed fragmentary mutually contradictory human disciplines single logically integrated


research framework psychological social behavioral sciences framework incorporates evolutionary sciences full equal basis systematically works revisions existing belief research practice synthesis requires ref name tooby cosmides editor last buss editor first david title handbook evolutionary psychology publisher john wiley sons year isbn oclc access date page ref blockquote human physiology evolutionary physiology worked identify physical adaptations body represent human physiological nature purpose evolutionary psychology identify evolved emotional cognitive adaptations


outputs appropriate reaction eg fear possibly dangerous animals view domain general learning impossible combinatorial explosion evolutionary psychology specifies domain problems survival reproduction philosophers generally considered human mind include broad faculties reason lust evolutionary psychologists describe evolved psychological mechanisms narrowly focused deal specific issues catching cheaters choosing mates discipline views human brain comprising many functional mechanisms called ''psychological adaptations'' evolved cognitive mechanisms ''cognitive modules'' designed process


relevance measures current fitness importance mismatch theory psychology rather behavior nikolaas tinbergen 's four categories questions help clarify distinctions several different complementary types explanations evolutionary psychology focuses primarily questions traditional psychology focuses questions ref name gaulin steven j c pp gaulin mcburney pp ref class wikitable colspan rowspan colspan ''sequential vs static perspective'' '''historical developmental''' br ''explanation current form terms historical sequence'' '''current form''' br ''explanation current form species'' rowspan ''how vs


produces behavior response external internal inputs ref name cosmides ref ref name buss ref brain 's adaptive mechanisms shaped natural sexual selection ref name cosmides ref name buss different neural mechanisms specialized solving problems humanity 's evolutionary past ref name cosmides ref name buss brain evolved specialized neural mechanisms designed solving problems recurred deep evolutionary time ref name buss giving modern humans stone age minds ref name cosmides ref name cognitionandculturenet contents processes brain unconscious mental problems seem easy solve actually extremely difficult problems solved unconsciously complicated neural mechanisms ref


name cosmides human psychology consists many specialized mechanisms sensitive different classes information inputs mechanisms combine produce manifest behavior ref name buss history nobel laureates nikolaas tinbergen left konrad lorenz right karl von frisch acknowledged work animal behavior ref name nobel ref evolutionary psychology historical roots charles darwin 's theory natural selection ref name psychology ''the origin species'' darwin predicted psychology would develop evolutionary basis two later books devoted study animal emotions psychology ''the descent man


synthesis study animal behavior ethology emerged work dutch biologist nikolaas tinbergen austrian biologists konrad lorenz karl von frisch wd hamilton 's papers inclusive fitness robert trivers 's ref name trivers ref theories reciprocity parental investment helped establish evolutionary thinking psychology social sciences edward wilson combined evolutionary theory studies animal social behavior building works lorenz tinbergen book ''sociobiology new synthesis'' two major


branches developed ethology firstly study animal ' 'social'' behavior including humans generated sociobiology defined pre eminent proponent edward wilson systematic study biological basis social behavior extension population biology evolutionary theory social organization secondly behavioral ecology placed less emphasis ' 'social'' behavior focused ecological evolutionary basis animal human behavior university departments began include term ''evolutionary biology'' titles modern era evolutionary psychology


ushered particular donald symons' book ''the evolution human sexuality'' leda cosmides john tooby 's book ''the adapted mind'' ref name psychology david buller observed term evolutionary psychology sometimes seen denoting research based specific methodological theoretical commitments certain researchers santa barbara school university california thus evolutionary psychologists prefer term work human ecology human behavioural ecology evolutionary anthropology instead psychology primary streams developmental social cognitive psychology establishing measure relative influence genetics


charles darwin 's work including speculations evolutionary origins social instincts humans modern evolutionary psychology however possible advances evolutionary theory th century evolutionary psychologists say natural selection provided humans many psychological adaptations much way generated humans' anatomical physiological adaptations ref name gaulin steven j c pp gaulin mcburney pp ref adaptations general psychological adaptations said specialized environment organism evolved environment evolutionary adaptedness ref name gaulin steven j c pp ref name economics see also environment evolutionary adaptation variation


term used economics eg ref sexual selection provides organisms adaptations related mating ref name gaulin steven j c pp male mammals relatively high maximal potential reproduction rate sexual selection leads adaptations help compete females ref name gaulin steven j c pp female mammals relatively low maximal potential reproduction rate sexual selection leads choosiness helps females select higher quality mates ref name gaulin steven j c pp charles darwin described natural selection sexual selection relied group selection explain evolution altruistic self sacrificing behavior group selection considered weak explanation


group less altruistic individuals likely survive group become less self sacrificing whole william hamilton proposed inclusive fitness theory emphasizing gene centered view evolution hamilton noted genes increase replication copies next generation influencing organism 's social traits way statistically results helping survival reproduction copies genes simply identical copies organism 's close relatives according hamilton 's rule self sacrificing behaviors genes influencing evolve


typically help organism 's close relatives much compensates individual animal 's sacrifice inclusive fitness theory resolved issue altruism evolve theories also help explain evolution altruistic behavior including evolutionary game theory tit tat reciprocity generalized reciprocity theories help explain development altruistic behavior account hostility toward cheaters individuals take advantage others' altruism ref name moralanimal several mid level evolutionary theories inform evolutionary psychology r k selection theory proposes species prosper many offspring others follow strategy


fewer offspring investing much one humans follow second strategy parental investment theory explains parents invest less individual offspring based successful offspring likely thus much might improve parents' inclusive fitness according trivers willard hypothesis parents good conditions tend invest sons best able take advantage good conditions parents poor conditions tend invest daughters best able successful offspring even poor conditions according life