converted ideologist geopolitician kissinger retrospectively interpreted cold war geopolitical terms approach characteristic works cold war however focused beginning cold war objective moral opposition communism merged geopolitical task containing soviet expansion nixon added geopolitical rather ideological cold warrior three years kissinger 's ''diplomacy'' zbigniew brzezinski followed suit launching ''the grand chessboard american primacy geostrategic imperatives'' three years geostrategic triad living china europe


russia grand chessboard described american triumph cold war terms control eurasia first time ever non eurasian power emerged key arbiter eurasian power relations ref name ref book states purpose formulation comprehensive integrated eurasian geostrategy therefore purpose book ref name although power configuration underwent revolutionary change brzezinski confirmed three years later eurasia still mega continent like spykman brzezinski acknowledges cumulatively eurasia 's power vastly overshadows america 's ref name classical spykman terms brzezinski formulated geostrategic chessboard

Social science
Political science
Geopolitics


doctrine eurasia aims prevent unification mega continent blockquote europe asia politically economically powerful follows american foreign policy must employ influence eurasia manner creates stable continental equilibrium united states political arbiter eurasia thus chessboard struggle global primacy continues played struggle involves geo strategy strategic management geopolitical interests meantime imperative eurasian challenger emerges capable dominating eurasia thus also challenging america america


chief geopolitical prize eurasia america 's global primacy directly dependent long effectively preponderance eurasian continent sustained ref name blockquote united kingdom emil reich austro hungarian historian emil reich considered first coined term english ref name early later published england book ''foundations modern europe'' mackinder heartland theory sir halford mackinder 's heartland concept showing situation pivot area established theory heartland


england mackinder 's doctrine geopolitics involved concepts diametrically opposed notion alfred thayer mahan significance navies coined term ' 'sea power'' world conflict saw navy basis colombian era empire roughly th century predicted th century domain land power heartland theory hypothesized huge empire brought existence heartland would n't need use coastal transoceanic transport remain coherent basic notions mackinder 's doctrine involve considering geography earth


divided two sections world island core comprising eurasia africa peripheral islands including americas australia japan british isles oceania periphery noticeably smaller world island necessarily required much sea transport function technological level world island contained sufficient natural resources developed economy mackinder posited industrial centers periphery necessarily located widely separated locations world island could send navy destroy one turn could locate industries


region inland periphery would longer struggle reaching would face well stocked industrial bastion mackinder called region ''heartland'' essentially comprised central eastern europe ukraine western russia mitteleuropa heartland contained grain reserves ukraine many natural resources mackinder 's notion geopolitics summed said nicholas j spykman follower critic geostrategists alfred mahan halford mackinder work based assumptions similar mackinder 's ref name including unity world politics


world sea extends include unity air spykman adopts mackinder 's divisions world renaming heartland rimland analogous mackinder 's inner marginal crescent also intermediate region lying heartland marginal sea powers offshore islands continents mackinder 's outer insular crescent spykman 's theory rimland separates heartland ports usable throughout year frozen winter spykman suggested required attempts heartland nations particularly russia conquer ports rimland must prevented spykman


modified mackinder 's formula relationship heartland rimland inner crescent claiming controls rimland rules eurasia rules eurasia controls destinies world theory traced origins containment us policy preventing spread soviet influence world war ii see also truman doctrine another famous follower mackinder karl haushofer called mackinder 's geographical pivot history genius' scientific tractate ref name karl haushofer ''pan ideas geopolitics'' tr usachev g mysl' moscow p ref commented never


seen anything greater pages geopolitical masterwork mackinder located pivot words haushofer one first solid geopolitically geographically irreproachable maps presented one earliest scientific forums planet royal geographic society london ref name haushofer adopted mackinder 's heartland thesis view russian german alliance powers mackinder saw major contenders control eurasia twentieth century following mackinder suggested alliance soviet union advancing step beyond mackinder added japan


design ''eurasian bloc'' centenary geographical pivot history famous historian paul kennedy wrote right hundreds thousands us troops eurasian rimlands administration constantly explaining stay course looks washington taking seriously mackinder 's injunction ensure control geographical pivot history division world according haushofer 's pan regions doctrine germany friedrich ratzel friedrich ratzel influenced thinkers darwin zoologist ernst heinrich haeckel contributed 'geopolitik' expansion


biological conception geography without static conception borders positing states organic growing borders representing temporary stop movement held expanse state 's borders reflection health nation meaning static countries decline ratzel published several papers among essay lebensraum concerning biogeography ratzel created foundation german variant geopolitics ''geopolitik'' influenced american geostrategist alfred thayer mahan ratzel wrote aspirations german naval reach agreeing sea power self sustaining


founded ''zeitschrift f r geopolitik'' journal geopolitics later used propaganda nazi germany key concepts haushofer 's geopolitik lebensraum autarky pan regions organic borders states haushofer argued undeniable right seek natural borders would guarantee autarky haushofer 's influence within nazi party challenged given haushofer failed incorporate nazis' racial ideology work ref name popular views role geopolitics nazi third reich suggest fundamental significance part geo politicians ideological orientation nazi state


human qualities form hypothesized 'racial character' factor greatest significance constitution human society differences led friction ultimately open denunciation geopolitics nazi ideologues nevertheless german geopolitik discredited mis use nazi expansionist policy world war ii never achieved standing comparable pre war period resultant negative association particularly us academic circles classical geopolitics nazi imperialist ideology based loose justifications observed particular critics contemporary academic geography


proponents neo classical geopolitics particular include haverluk et al argue stigmatization geopolitics academia unhelpful geopolitics field positivist inquiry maintains potential researching resolving topical often politicized issues conflict resolution prevention mitigating climate change disciplinary differences perspectives negative associations term geopolitics practical application stemming association world war ii pre world war ii german scholars students geopolitics largely specific field academic geography especially sub disciplines human geography


political geography however negative association strong disciplines history political science make use geopolitical concepts classical geopolitics forms important element analysis military history well sub disciplines political science international relations security studies difference disciplinary perspectives addressed bert chapman ''geopolitics guide issues'' chapman makes note academic professional international relations journals amenable study analysis geopolitics particular classical geopolitics contemporary academic journals


field political geography disciplines outside geography geopolitics negatively viewed often among academic geographers carolyn gallaher klaus dodds tool imperialism associated nazism rather viewed valid consistent manner assessing major international geopolitical circumstances events necessarily related armed conflict military operations france french geopolitical doctrines broadly opposed german geopolitik reject idea fixed geography french geography focused evolution polymorphic territories result mankind 's actions also relies


consideration long time periods refusal take specific events account method theorized professor lacoste according three principles representation diachronie diatopie ''the spirit laws'' montesquieu outlined view man societies influenced climate believed hotter climates create hot tempered people colder climates aloof people whereas mild climate france ideal political systems considered one founders french geopolitics lis e reclus author book considered reference modern geography nouvelle g ographie universelle alike


ratzel considers geography global vision however complete opposition ratzel 's vision reclus considers geography unchanging supposed evolve commensurately development human society marginal political views resulted rejection academia french geographer geopolitician jacques ancel considered first theoretician geopolitics france gave notable series lectures european center carnegie endowment international peace paris published ''g opolitique'' like reclus ancel rejects german determinist views geopolitics including haushofer 's doctrines braudel 's broad


view used insights social sciences employed concept ''longue dur e'' downplayed importance specific events method inspired french geographer paul vidal de la blache turn influenced german thought particularly friedrich ratzel met germany braudel 's method analyse interdependence individuals environment vidalian geopolitics based varied forms cartography ''possibilism'' founded societal approach geography ie principle spaces polymorphic faces depending many factors among mankind culture


ideas opposed determinism due influence german ''geopolitik'' french geopolitics latter long time banished academic works mid yves lacoste french geographer directly inspired ancel braudel vidal de la blache wrote ''la g ographie sert d'abord faire la guerre'' geography first use war book famous france symbolizes birth new school geopolitics far first french school geopolitics ancel isolated initially linked communist party evolved


less liberal approach end founded institut fran ais de g opolitique french institute geopolitics publishes h rodote revue rejecting generalizations broad abstractions employed german anglo american traditions ''new geographers'' school focus spatial dimension geopolitics affairs different levels analysis approach emphasizes importance multi level multi scales analysis maps opposite critical geopolitics avoid tools lacoste proposed every conflict local global considered perspective grounded three


assumptions '''representation''' group individuals product education characterized specific representations world others groups individuals thus basic societal beliefs grounded ethnicity specific location study representation common point contemporary critical geopolitics connected work henri lefebvre la production de l'espace first published '''diachronie''' conducting historical analysis confronting long periods short periods prominent french historian fernand braudel suggested '''diatopie''' conducting cartographic survey multi scale mapping


connected stream former member h rodote editorial board french geographer michel foucher developed long term analysis international borders coined various neologism among ''horogenesis'' neologism describes concept studying ''birth borders'' ''dyade'' border shared two neighbouring states instance us territory two terrestrial dyades one canada one mexico main book searcher fronts et fronti res fronts borders first published without equivalent remains untranslated english michel foucher expert african union borders affairs


less connected school st phane rosi quoted editor chief online journal ''l'espace politique'' journal created became prominent french journal political geography geopolitics h rodote much conservative stream personified fran ois thual thual french expert geopolitics former official ministry civil defence thual taught geopolitics religions french war college written thirty books devoted mainly geopolitical method application various parts world particularly


interested orthodox shiite buddhist religions troubled regions like caucasus connected f thual aymeric chauprade former professor geopolitics french war college member extreme right party front national subscribes supposed new french school geopolitics advocates return ' 'realpolitik'' clash civilization huntington thought school expressed french review geopolitics headed chauprade international academy geopolitics chauprade supporter europe nations advocates european union excluding turkey


russia international order senior researcher institute philosophy russian academy sciences russian academy sciences coined term island russia developed great limitrophe concept colonel general leonid ivashov retired russian geopolitics specialist early st century headed academy geopolitical problems analyzes international domestic situations develops geopolitical doctrine earlier headed main directorate international military cooperation ministry defence russian federation vladimir karyakin leading researcher russian institute strategic studies


proposed term geopolitics third wave aleksandr dugin russian political analyst developed close relationship russia 's academy general staff wrote '' foundations geopolitics geopolitical future russia '' large influence within russian military police foreign policy elites ref name ref used textbook academy general staff russian military ref name hi ref ref name publication well received russia powerful russian political figures subsequently took interest dugin ref name liverant ref study


geopolitics notable institutions charles university prague sciences po paris balsillie school international affairs king 's college london hertie school harvard kennedy school government london school economics munk school global affairs paul h nitze school advanced international studies school international public affairs columbia university woodrow wilson school public international affairs university cambridge university oxford graduate institute international development studies geneva soas university london see also notes references munoz j mark ''handbook geopolitics business''


edward elgar publishing uk spang christian w karl haushofer und japan die rezeption seiner geopolitischen theorien der deutschen und japanischen politik munich iudicium venier pascal http espacepolitiquerevuesorg main theoretical currents geopolitical thought twentieth century l'espace politique vol cerreti claudio marconi matteo sellari paolo https wwwacademiaedu spazi e poteri geografia politica geografia economica geopolitica spazi e poteri geografia politica geografia economica geopolitica roma bari laterza international relations theory political geography


clockwise top left federal reserve bank england european central bank bank canada '''monetary policy''' policy adopted monetary authority nation control either interest rate payable short term borrowing borrowing banks meet short term needs money supply often attempt reduce inflation interest rate ensure price stability general trust value stability nation 's currency ref name fed ref ref name handbook development economics vol ref monetary policy modification supply

Applied science
Public administration
Economic policy
Monetary policy


money ie printing money decreasing money supply changing interest rates removing excess reserves contrast fiscal policy relies taxation government spending government borrowing ref name ben ref methods government manage business cycle phenomena recessions purposes monetary policy usually contribute stability gross domestic product achieve maintain low unemployment maintain predictable exchange rates currencies monetary economics provide insight crafting optimal monetary policy developed countries monetary policy generally formed separately


fiscal policy monetary policy referred either expansionary contractionary '''expansionary policy''' occurs monetary authority uses procedures stimulate economy expansionary policy maintains short term interest rates lower usual rate increases total supply money economy rapidly usual traditionally used try reduce unemployment recession decreasing interest rates hope less expensive credit entice businesses borrowing money thereby expanding would increase aggregate demand overall demand goods services


economy would increase short term growth measured increase gross domestic product gdp expansionary monetary policy increasing amount currency circulation usually diminishes value currency relative currencies exchange rate case foreign purchasers able purchase currency country devalued currency '''contractionary policy''' maintains short term interest rates greater usual slows rate growth money supply even decreases slow short term economic growth lessen inflation contractionary policy result increased unemployment


depressed borrowing spending consumers businesses eventually result economic recession implemented vigorously history monetary policy associated interest rates availability credit instruments monetary policy included short term interest rates bank reserves monetary base banknotes face value different currencies united states dollar central african cfa franc japanese yen italian lira french franc many centuries two forms monetary policy altering coinage printing paper money interest rates thought part


monetary authority generally coordinated forms monetary policy time monetary policy considered executive decision generally implemented authority seigniorage power coin advent larger trading networks came ability define currency value terms gold silver price local currency terms foreign currencies official price could enforced law even varied market price reproduction song dynasty note possibly jiaozi redeemable ''m ''


paper money originated promissory notes termed jiaozi th century china jiaozi replace metallic currency used alongside copper coins succeeding yuan dynasty first government use paper currency predominant circulating medium later course dynasty facing massive shortages specie fund war maintain rule began printing paper money without restrictions resulting hyperinflation creation bank england granted authority print notes backed gold idea monetary policy independent


executive action began established ref name bank england ref purpose monetary policy maintain value coinage print notes would trade par specie prevent coins leaving circulation establishment national banks industrializing nations associated desire maintain currency 's relationship gold standard trade narrow currency band gold backed currencies accomplish end national banks part gold standard began setting interest rates charged borrowers banks


required money liquidity maintenance gold standard required almost monthly adjustments interest rates gold standard system price national currency fixed vis vis value gold kept constant government 's promise buy sell gold fixed price terms base currency gold standard might regarded special case fixed exchange rate policy special type commodity price level targeting nowadays type monetary policy longer used country


period industrialized nations established central banking systems one last federal reserve ref name fedact ref time role central bank lender last resort established also increasingly understood interest rates effect entire economy small part appreciation marginal revolution economics demonstrated people would change decisions based changes economic trade offs monetarist economists long contended money supply growth could affect macroeconomy included milton friedman


early career advocated government budget deficits recessions financed equal amount money creation help stimulate aggregate demand production later advocated simply increasing monetary supply low constant rate best way maintaining low inflation stable production growth however us federal reserve chairman paul volcker tried policy starting october found impractical unstable relationship monetary aggregates macroeconomic variables even milton friedman later acknowledged direct money supplying less successful


mumbai file central bank braziljpg central bank brazil established bras lia file banco de espa madrid jpg bank spain established madrid gallery monetary policy instruments main monetary policy instruments available central banks open market operation bank reserve requirement interest rate policy lending discount including using term repurchase market credit policy often coordinated trade policy capital adequacy important defined regulated bank international settlements central banks practice generally apply stricter rules conventional instrument


central bank 's ability create much fiat money required mechanism move market towards 'target rate' whichever specific rate used generally lend money borrow money theoretically unlimited quantities targeted market rate sufficiently close target central banks may lending money borrowing money taking deposits limited number qualified banks purchasing selling bonds example functions bank canada sets target overnight rate band plus


minus qualified banks borrow within band never central bank always lend top band take deposits bottom band principle capacity borrow lend extremes band unlimited central banks use similar mechanismsyield curve becomes inverted short term rates exceed long term ratesthe target rates generally short term rates actual rate borrowers lenders receive market depend perceived credit risk maturity factors


chosen central bank rate makes financial headlines henry ck liu explains us central bank lending rate known fed funds rate fed sets target fed funds rate open market committee tries match lending borrowing money market fiat money system set command central bank fed head central bank us dollar key reserve currency international trade global money market usa dollar


market currencies markets revolve around us dollar market accordingly us situation typical central banks general typically central bank controls certain types short term interest rates influence stock bond markets well mortgage interest rates european central bank example announces interest rate meeting governing council case us federal reserve federal reserve board governors federal reserve ecb composed one central bodies responsible


main decisions interest rates size type open market operations several branches execute policies case federal reserve local federal reserve banks ecb national central banks typical central bank several interest rates monetary policy tools set influence markets marginal lending rate fixed rate institutions borrow money central bank usa called discount rate main refinancing rate publicly visible interest rate central bank announces


also known ''minimum bid rate'' serves bidding floor refinancing loans usa called federal funds rate deposit rate generally consisting interest reserves sometimes also interest excess reserves rates parties receive deposits central bank rates directly affect rates money market market short term loans central banks eg denmark sweden eurozone currently applying negative interest rates open market operations mechanics open market operations demand supply model reserves market


open market operations central bank influences money supply economy time buys securities government bond treasury bill effect creates money central bank exchanges money security increasing money supply lowering supply specific security conversely selling securities central bank reduces money supplyunited states treasury bondopen market operations usually take form buying selling securities direct operations achieve interest rate target interbank market temporary lending money collateral securities reverse operations


repurchase operations otherwise known repo market operations carried regular basis fixed maturity loans one week one month ecb auctioned foreign exchange operations foreign exchange swaps interventions also influence foreign exchange market thus exchange rate example people 's bank china bank japan occasion bought several hundred billions us treasuries presumably order stop decline us dollar versus renminbi yen reserve requirements run


last decades beginning reserve bank new zealand continuing federal reserve respective banking systems bank capital requirements provide check growth money supply people 's bank china retains uses powers reserves yuan manages non convertible currency loan activity banks plays fundamental role determining money supply central bank money aggregate settlement final money take one two forms physical cash rarely used


wholesale financial markets central bank money rarely used people currency component money supply far smaller deposit component currency bank reserves institutional loan agreements together make monetary base called federal reserve bank stopped publishing counting part money supply ref name fed ends publishing ref credit guidance central banks directly indirectly influence allocation bank lending certain sectors economy applying quotas limits differentiated interest rates allows central


bank control quantity lending allocation towards certain strategic sectors economy example support national industrial policy environmental investment housing renovation bank japan tokyo established bank japan used apply policy window guidance banque de france also widely used credit guidance post war period european central bank 's ongoing tltros operations also described form credit guidance insofar level interest rate ultimately


currency rate used purchase local currency may market based arbitrarily set bank tool generally used countries non convertible currencies partially convertible currencies recipient local currency may allowed freely dispose funds required hold funds central bank period time allowed use funds subject certain restrictions cases ability hold use foreign exchange may otherwise limited method money supply increased central bank


purchases foreign currency issuing selling local currency central bank may subsequently reduce money supply various means including selling bonds foreign exchange interventions collateral policy countries central banks may tools work indirectly limit lending practices otherwise restrict regulate capital markets example central bank may regulate margin lending whereby individuals companies may borrow pledged securities margin requirement establishes minimum ratio value securities amount borrowed central banks often requirements quality


assets may held financial institutions requirements may act limit amount risk leverage created financial system requirements may direct requiring certain assets bear certain minimum credit ratings indirect central bank lending counter parties security certain quality pledged collateral forward guidance forward guidance communication practice whereby central bank announces forecasts future intentions increase market expectations future levels interest rates unconventional monetary policy zero


bound forms monetary policy particularly used interest rates near concerns deflation deflation occurring referred '''unconventional monetary policy''' include credit easing quantitative easing forward guidance signalling credit easing central bank purchases private sector assets improve liquidity improve access credit signaling used lower market expectations lower interest rates future example credit crisis us federal reserve indicated rates would low extended period bank


canada made conditional commitment keep rates lower bound basis points end second quarter helicopter money heterodox monetary policy proposals include idea helicopter money whereby central banks would create money without assets counterpart balance sheet money created could distributed directly population citizen 's dividend virtues money shock include decrease household risk aversion increase demand boosting inflation output gap option increasingly discussed


policy option could particularly effective zero lower bound nominal anchors nominal anchor monetary policy single variable device central bank uses pin expectations private agents nominal price level path central bank might respect achieving path monetary regimes combine long run nominal anchoring flexibility short run nominal variables used anchors primarily include exchange rate targets money supply targets inflation targets interest rate policy ref name feenstra robert c feenstra robert c alan


taylor international macroeconomics new york worth ref types practice implement type monetary policy main tool used modifying amount base money circulation monetary authority buying selling financial assets usually government obligations open market operations change either amount money liquidity less liquid forms money bought sold multiplier effect fractional reserve banking amplifies effects actions money supply includes bank deposits well base money constant market transactions monetary


authority modify supply currency impacts market variables short term interest rates exchange rate distinction various types monetary policy lies primarily set instruments target variables used monetary authority achieve goals br class wikitable monetary policy target market variable long term objective width inflation targeting width interest rate overnight debt width given rate change cpi price level targeting interest rate overnight debt specific cpi


number monetary aggregates growth money supply given rate change cpi fixed exchange rate spot price currency spot price currency gold standard spot price gold low inflation measured gold price mixed policy usually interest rates usually unemployment cpi change different types policy also called '''monetary regimes''' parallel exchange rate regimes fixed exchange rate also exchange rate regime gold standard results relatively fixed regime towards currency countries


gold standard floating regime towards targeting inflation price level monetary aggregates implies floating exchange rate unless management relevant foreign currencies tracking exactly variables harmonized consumer price index inflation targeting policy approach target keep inflation particular definition consumer price index within desired range inflation target achieved periodic adjustments central bank interest rate target interest rate used generally overnight rate


banks lend overnight cash flow purposes depending country particular interest rate might called cash rate something similar fisher effect model explains equation linking inflation interest rates following ''i r'' inflation rate ''i'' home nominal interest rate set central bank ''r'' real interest rate using ''i'' anchor central banks influence central banks choose maintain fixed interest rate times


temporarily duration policy varies simplicity associated changing nominal interest rate interest rate target maintained specific duration using open market operations typically duration interest rate target kept constant vary months years interest rate target usually reviewed monthly quarterly basis policy committee ref name feenstra robert c changes interest rate target made response various market indicators attempt forecast economic trends keep market track


towards achieving defined inflation target example one simple method inflation targeting called taylor rule adjusts interest rate response changes inflation rate output gap rule proposed john b taylor stanford university inflation targeting approach monetary policy approach pioneered new zealand used australia brazil canada chile colombia czech republic hungary new zealand norway iceland india philippines poland sweden south africa turkey united kingdom price level targeting price level targeting monetary policy similar


inflation targeting except cpi growth one year long term price level target offset subsequent years targeted price level trend reached time eg five years giving certainty future price increases consumers inflation targeting happened immediate past years taken account adjusted current future years uncertainty price levels create uncertainty around price wage setting activity firms workers undermines information gained relative prices


difficult firms determine change price good service inflation factors increase efficiency factors production inflation high volatile increase inflation also leads decrease demand money reduces incentive hold money increases transaction costs shoe leather costs monetary aggregates money supply targeting several countries used approach based constant growth money supply approach refined include different


classes money credit etc us approach monetary policy discontinued selection alan greenspan fed chairman approach also sometimes called monetarism central banks might choose set money supply growth target nominal anchor keep prices stable long term quantity theory long run model links price levels money supply demand using equation rearrange see following g inflation rate money supply


growth rate g real output growth rate equation suggests controlling money supply 's growth rate ultimately lead price stability long run use nominal anchor central bank would need set equal constant commit maintaining target however targeting money supply growth rate considered weak policy stably related real output growth result higher output growth rate result low level inflation low output growth rate result


inflation would higher desired level ref name feenstra robert c monetary policy typically focuses price signal one form another approach focused monetary quantities quantities could role economy business cycles depending households' risk aversion level money sometimes explicitly added central bank 's reaction function however central banks shifted away policies focus money supply targeting uncertainty real output growth introduces central banks like ecb chosen


combine money supply anchor targets nominal income ngdp targeting related money targeting nominal income targeting also called nominal gdp ngdp targeting originally proposed james meade james tobin advocated scott sumner reinforced market monetarist school thought central banks implement monetary policy explicitly however numerous studies shown monetary policy targeting better matches central bank losses welfare optimizing monetary policy compared standard monetary policy targeting fixed exchange rate targeting policy based maintaining fixed exchange rate


foreign currency varying degrees fixed exchange rates ranked relation rigid fixed exchange rate anchor nation system fiat fixed rates local government monetary authority declares fixed exchange rate actively buy sell currency maintain rate instead rate enforced non convertibility measures eg capital controls import export licenses etc case black market exchange rate currency trades market unofficial rate system fixed convertibility currency bought


sold central bank monetary authority daily basis achieve target exchange rate target rate may fixed level fixed band within exchange rate may fluctuate monetary authority intervenes buy sell necessary maintain exchange rate within band case fixed exchange rate fixed level seen special case fixed exchange rate bands bands set zero system fixed exchange rates maintained currency


board every unit local currency must backed unit foreign currency correcting exchange rate ensures local monetary base inflate without backed hard currency eliminates worries run local currency wishing convert local currency hard anchor currency dollarization foreign currency usually us dollar hence term dollarization used freely medium exchange either exclusively parallel local currency outcome come local population lost


depreciation exchange rate home country currency relative strict fixed exchange rate peg rate depreciation exchange rate set equal zero case crawling peg rate depreciation set equal constant limited flexible band rate depreciation allowed fluctuate within given range fixing rate depreciation ppp theory concludes home country 's inflation rate must depend foreign country 's countries may decide use fixed exchange rate


monetary regime order take advantage price stability control inflation practice half nations monetary regimes use fixed exchange rate anchoring ref name feenstra robert c policies often abdicate monetary policy foreign monetary authority government monetary policy pegging nation must align monetary policy anchor nation maintain exchange rate degree local monetary policy becomes dependent anchor nation depends factors capital mobility openness credit channels economic factors practice nominal anchors possible various


exchange rate regimes class wikitable type nominal anchor compatible exchange rate regimes exchange rate target currency union countries without currency pegs bands crawls managed floating money supply target managed floating freely floating inflation target interest rate policy managed floating freely floating following collapse bretton woods nominal anchoring grown importance monetary policy makers inflation reduction particularly governments sought use anchoring order curtail rapid high inflation countries began explicitly


set credible nominal anchors addition many countries chose mix one target well implicit targets result global inflation rates average decreased gradually central banks gained credibility increasing independence global financial crisis sparked controversy use flexibility inflation nominal anchoring many economists argued inflation targets set low many monetary regimes crisis many inflation anchoring countries reached lower bound zero rates resulting inflation rates decreasing almost zero even deflation ref name feenstra robert c


implications anchors discussed article suggest keeping inflation desired level feasible setting target interest rate money supply growth rate price level rate depreciation however anchors valid central bank commits maintaining turn requires central bank abandon monetary policy autonomy long run central bank use one anchors maintain target inflation rate would forfeit using policies using anchors may prove complicated certain exchange rate regimes


freely floating managed floating regimes options affect inflation enjoy flexibility pegged currency country without currency latter regimes would implement exchange rate target influence inflation none instruments available credibility short term effects monetary policy influenced degree announcements new policy deemed credible particular anti inflation policy announced central bank absence credibility eyes public inflationary expectations


drop short run effect announcement subsequent sustained anti inflation policy likely combination somewhat lower inflation higher unemployment see phillips curve nairu rational expectations policy announcement deemed credible inflationary expectations drop commensurately announced policy intent inflation likely come quickly without much cost terms unemployment thus advantage central bank independent political authority shield prospect political


pressure reverse direction policy even seemingly independent central bank central bank whose hands tied anti inflation policy might deemed fully credible case advantage central bank way bound follow policy pronouncements lending credibility strong consensus among economists independent central bank run credible monetary policy making market expectations responsive signals central bank contexts international economics optimal monetary


policy international economics concerned question monetary policy conducted interdependent open economies classical view holds international macroeconomic interdependence relevant affects domestic output gaps inflation monetary policy prescriptions abstract openness without harm view rests two implicit assumptions high responsiveness import prices exchange rate ie producer currency pricing pcp frictionless international financial markets supporting efficiency flexible price allocation ref name corsetti g pp corsetti g pesenti p international dimensions optimal monetary policy ''journal


monetary economics'' pp ref violation distortion assumptions found empirical research subject substantial part international optimal monetary policy literature policy trade offs specific international perspective threefold ref name corsettidedolaleduc ref first research suggests weak reflection exchange rate movements import prices lending credibility opposed theory local currency pricing lcp consequence departure classical view form trade output gaps misalignments international relative prices shifting monetary policy cpi inflation control real exchange


real exchange rate absorbs shocks current expected fundamentals adjustment necessarily result desirable allocation may even exacerbate misallocation consumption employment domestic global level relative case complete markets phillips curve loss function include welfare relevant measure cross country imbalances consequently results domestic goals eg output gaps inflation traded stabilization external variables terms trade demand gap hence optimal monetary policy case


deep markets government debt matter complicated difficulties forecasting money demand fiscal pressure levy inflation tax expanding base rapidly general central banks many developing countries poor records managing monetary policy often monetary authorities developing countries mostly independent government good monetary policy takes backseat political desires government used pursue non monetary goals reasons developing countries want establish credible monetary policy may


institute currency board adopt dollarization avoid interference government may lead adoption monetary policy carried anchor nation recent attempts liberalizing reform financial markets particularly recapitalization banks financial institutions nigeria elsewhere gradually providing latitude required implement monetary policy frameworks relevant central banks trends transparency beginning new zealand central banks began adopting formal public inflation targets goal making outcomes process monetary policy transparent


producing innovative ways communicating information public especially inflation report emulated many central banks ref name nber ref european central bank adopted definition price stability within eurozone inflation hicp revised inflation close medium term since target become common major central banks including federal reserve since january bank japan since january effect business cycles continues debate


whether monetary policy smooth business cycles central conjecture keynesian economics central bank stimulate aggregate demand short run significant number prices economy fixed short run firms produce many goods services demanded long run however money neutral neoclassical model however economists new classical school contend central banks cannot affect business cycles behavioral monetary policy conventional macroeconomic models assume agents economy fully


world around ref name hommes make decisions rational way commonly envisioned standard macroeconomic models people time limitations cognitive biases care issues like fairness equity follow rules thumb heuristics ref name yellen implications conduct monetary policy monetary policy final outcome complex interaction monetary institutions central banker preferences policy rules hence human decision making plays important role ref name favaretto masciandaro recognized standard rational approach provide optimal foundation


monetary policy actions models fail address important human anomalies behavioral drivers explain monetary policy decisions ref name calabria ref ref name favaretto masciandaro ref name hommes example behavioral bias characterizes behavior central bankers loss aversion every monetary policy choice losses loom larger gains evaluated respect status quo ref name favaretto masciandaro one result loss aversion gains losses symmetric nearly risk aversion may set loss aversion found multiple contexts monetary policy


hard fought battle great inflation instance might cause bias policies risk greater inflation ref name calabria another common finding behavioral studies individuals regularly offer estimates ability competence judgments far exceed objective assessment overconfident central bank policymakers may fall victim overconfidence managing macroeconomy terms timing magnitude even qualitative impact interventions overconfidence result actions central bank either little much policymakers believe actions larger effects


masciandaro see also forward guidance interaction monetary fiscal policies interest excess reserves macroeconomic model monetary conditions index monetary system monetary reform monetary transmission mechanism negative interest excess reserves gold standard '''us specific ''' greenspan put free silver references external links mankiw n gregory ricardo reis friedman 's presidential address evolution macroeconomic thought ''journal economic perspectives'' http wwwbisorg bank international settlements macroeconomic policy public finance


'''atmospheric science''' study earth 's atmosphere various inner working physical processes meteorology includes atmospheric chemistry atmospheric physics major focus weather forecasting climatology study atmospheric changes long short term define average climates change time due natural anthropogenic climate variability aeronomy study upper layers atmosphere dissociation ionization important atmospheric science extended field planetary science study atmospheres planets natural satellites

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Atmospheric science


solar system experimental instruments used atmospheric science include satellites rocketsondes radiosondes weather balloons radars lasers term '''aerology''' greek ''a r'' air '' logia'' sometimes used alternative term study earth 's atmosphere definitions aerology restricted free atmosphere region planetary boundary layer early pioneers field include l teisserenc de bort richard assmann atmospheric chemistry composition diagram showing evolution cycles various elements earth 's atmosphere atmospheric chemistry branch atmospheric science chemistry


earth 's atmosphere planets studied multidisciplinary field research draws environmental chemistry physics meteorology computer modeling oceanography geology volcanology disciplines research increasingly connected areas study climatology composition chemistry atmosphere importance several reasons primarily interactions atmosphere living organisms composition earth 's atmosphere changed human activity changes harmful human health crops ecosystems examples problems


addressed atmospheric chemistry include acid rain photochemical smog global warming atmospheric chemistry seeks understand causes problems obtaining theoretical understanding allow possible solutions tested effects changes government policy evaluated atmospheric dynamics atmospheric dynamics study motion systems meteorological importance integrating observations multiple locations times theories common topics studied include diverse phenomena thunderstorms tornadoes gravity waves tropical cyclones extratropical cyclones jet streams global scale circulations goal dynamical studies explain observed


national astronomy ionosphere center also carries studies high atmosphere earth 's magnetic field solar wind interact atmosphere creating ionosphere van allen radiation belts telluric currents radiant energy climatology regional impacts warm enso episodes el ni contrast meteorology studies short term weather systems lasting weeks climatology studies frequency trends systems studies periodicity weather events years millennia well changes long term average weather patterns relation atmospheric conditions climatologists


scientific study upper atmosphere earth atmospheric layers stratopause corresponding regions atmospheres planets entire atmosphere may correspond earth 's upper atmosphere portion branch atmospheric chemistry atmospheric physics aeronomy contrasts meteorology focuses layers atmosphere stratopause atmospheric regions studied aeronomers chemical dissociation ionization important phenomena atmospheres celestial bodies earth 's atmosphere solar system 's planets atmospheres


gravity strong enough keep gaseous particles close surface larger gas giants massive enough keep large amounts light gases hydrogen helium close smaller planets lose gases space composition earth 's atmosphere different planets various life processes transpired planet introduced free molecular oxygen ref name zeilik ref much mercury 's atmosphere blasted away solar wind moon retained dense atmosphere titan thin atmosphere


triton trace atmosphere moon planetary atmospheres affected varying degrees energy received either sun interiors leading formation dynamic weather systems hurricanes earth planet wide dust storms mars earth sized anticyclone jupiter called great red spot holes atmosphere neptune ref name weather ref least one extrasolar planet hd b claimed possess weather system similar great red spot twice large ref name knutson related http wwwcfaharvardedu press pr html press release ref hot jupiters


early works '''japanese literature''' heavily influenced cultural contact china chinese literature often written classical chinese indian literature also influence spread buddhism japan heian period japan 's original culture lit national culture developed literature also established style following japan 's reopening ports western trading diplomacy th century western literature influenced development modern japanese writers turn recognized outside japan two nobel prizes far

Humanities
Languages and literature
Japanese Literature


history nara period literature introduction kanji china japan japan writing system believed chinese characters came japan beginning th century brought immigrants korea china early japanese texts first followed chinese model ref name history writing japan ref gradually transitioning hybrid chinese characters used japanese syntactical formats resulting sentences written chinese characters read phonetically japanese chinese characters also adapted creating known earliest form


japanese syllabic writing ref name linguistics encyclopedia ref earliest literary works japan created nara period ref name history writing japan include historical record also chronicles ancient japanese mythology folk songs chronicle written chinese significantly detailed poetry anthology one stories describe tale urashima tar heian literature murasaki shikibu author ''the tale genji'' heian period referred golden era


proto science fiction protagonist story princess moon sent earth safety celestial war found raised bamboo cutter later taken back extraterrestrial family illustrated depiction disc shaped flying object similar flying saucer ref name richardson cf ref kamakura muromachi period literature kamakura period japan experienced many civil wars led development warrior class subsequent war tales histories related stories ref name japan 's medieval age kamakura muromachi periods ref


work period notable somber tone compared works previous eras themes life death simple lifestyles redemption killing representative work ''the tale heike'' epic account struggle minamoto taira clans control japan end th century important tales period include kamo ch mei 's yoshida kenk 's despite decline importance imperial court aristocratic literature remained center japanese culture


beginning kamakura period many literary works marked nostalgia heian period ref name rethinking japan vol literature visual arts linguistics ref kamakura period also saw renewed vitality poetry number anthologies compiled ref name japan 's medieval age kamakura muromachi periods ref name princeton companion classical japanese literature ref compiled early however fewer notable works female authors period reflecting lowered status women ref name rethinking japan vol literature visual arts linguistics importance imperial


court continued decline major feature muromachi literature spread cultural activity levels society classical court literature focal point japanese literature point gradually disappeared ref name rethinking japan vol literature visual arts linguistics new genres linked verse noh theater developed among common people ref name traditional japanese literature anthology beginnings ref created buddhist priests preaching development roads along growing public interest travel pilgrimages


brought rise greater popularity travel literature early th th centuries notable examples travel diaries include edo period literature matsuo bash poet literature time written largely peaceful tokugawa shogunate commonly referred edo period due large part rise working middle classes new capital edo modern tokyo forms popular drama developed would later evolve kabuki kabuki dramatist chikamatsu monzaemon became popular end


th century also known japan 's shakespeare many different genres literature made debut edo period helped rising literacy rate among growing population townspeople well development lending libraries ihara saikaku might said given birth modern consciousness novel japan mixing vernacular dialogue humorous cautionary tales pleasure quarters called floating world genre ihara 's ''life amorous man'' considered first work genre although ihara 's works


regarded high literature time aimed towards popularized merchant classes became popular key development spread matsuo bash recognized greatest master haiku called poems influenced firsthand experience world around often encapsulating feeling scene simple elements made life 's work transformation literary genre bash involved combination comic playfulness spiritual depth ascetic practice


involvement human society particular bash wrote major work form travel diary considered one major texts classical japanese literature fukuda chiyo ni widely regarded one greatest haiku poets time haiku women often dismissed ignored dedication toward career paved way career also opened path women follow early poems influenced matsuo bash although later develop unique style independent figure


right still teenager already become popular japan poetry poems although mostly dealing nature work unity nature humanity life poets made lives world lived one living simple humble life able make connections observant carefully studying unique things around ordinary world writing intellectual movement situated edo centered study dutch


fiction proved greatest outside influence development early modern japanese fiction jippensha ikku known japan 's mark twain wrote mix travelogue comedy tsuga teisho takebe ayatari okajima kanzan instrumental developing historical romances almost entirely prose influenced chinese vernacular novels two masterpieces written ueda akinari kyokutei bakin wrote extremely popular fantasy historical romance period twenty eight years complete addition


sant ky den wrote mostly set red light districts kansei edicts banned works turned comedic genres included horror crime stories morality stories comedy pornography often accompanied colorful woodcut prints hokusai perhaps japan 's famous woodblock print artist also illustrated fiction well famous views mount fuji nevertheless tokugawa period earlier periods scholarly work continued published chinese language learned much latin europe meiji taish early sh wa period literature


meiji period marked opening japan west ending two centuries national seclusion marking beginning period rapid industrialization introduction european literature brought free verse poetic repertoire became widely used longer works embodying new intellectual themes young japanese prose writers dramatists faced suddenly broadened horizon new ideas artistic schools novelists amongst first assimilate concepts successfully writing natsume seki 's humorous novel ''i cat'' employed cat narrator


also wrote famous novels natsume mori gai shiga naoya called god novel prominent novel writer instrumental adopting adapting western literary conventions techniques ry nosuke akutagawa known especially historical short stories ozaki k ky ka izumi ichiyo higuchi represent strain writers whose style hearkens back early modern japanese literature early meiji period fukuzawa yukichi authored enlightenment literature pre modern popular books depicted quickly changing country realism brought tsubouchi sh


translated poems carried height son shimazaki alongside magazines early mori also wrote modern novels including ''the dancing girl'' ''the wild geese'' later wrote historical novels natsume seki often compared mori gai wrote ''i cat'' humor satire depicted fresh pure youth eventually pursued transcendence human emotions egoism later works including last unfinished novel ''light darkness''


shimazaki shifted romanticism naturalism established ''the broken commandment'' katai tayama 's ''futon'' naturalism hatched novel describes authors depicts mental states neo romanticism came anti naturalism led kaf nagai jun'ichir tanizaki k tar takamura hakush kitahara others early saneatsu mushanok ji naoya shiga others founded magazine shared common characteristic humanism shiga 's style autobiographical depicted states mind sometimes classified novel sense ry nosuke akutagawa


highly praised soseki wrote short stories including intellectual analytic attitude represented neo realism mid early proletarian literary movement comprising writers takiji kobayashi denji kuroshima yuriko miyamoto ineko sata produced politically radical literature depicting harsh lives workers peasants women downtrodden members society struggles change war time japan saw debut several authors best known beauty language tales love sensuality notably jun'ichir tanizaki japan 's first winner


nobel prize literature yasunari kawabata master psychological fiction ashihei hino wrote lyrical bestsellers glorifying war tatsuz ishikawa attempted publish disturbingly realistic account advance nanjing writers opposed war include denji kuroshima mitsuharu kaneko hideo oguma jun ishikawa postwar literature onwards world war ii japan 's defeat deeply influenced japanese literature many authors wrote stories disaffection loss purpose coping defeat haruo umezaki 's short story shows disillusioned skeptical navy officer stationed base located sakurajima volcanic island close


kagoshima southern tip kyushu osamu dazai 's novel ''the setting sun'' tells soldier returning manchukuo sh hei oka yomiuri prize novel ''fires plain'' japanese deserter going mad philippine jungle yukio mishima well known nihilistic writing controversial suicide began writing post war period nobuo kojima 's short story american school portrays group japanese teachers english immediate aftermath war deal american occupation varying ways prominent writers


identified intellectual moral issues attempts raise social political consciousness one kenzabur e published one best known works ''a personal matter'' became japan 's second winner nobel prize literature mitsuharu inoue long concerned atomic bomb continued write problems nuclear age sh saku end depicted religious dilemma roman catholics feudal japan springboard address spiritual problems yasushi inoue also turned past masterful


historical novels inner asia ancient japan order portray present human fate avant garde writers k b abe wrote novels ''the woman dunes'' wanted express japanese experience modern terms without using either international styles traditional conventions developed new inner visions yoshikichi furui related lives alienated urban dwellers coping minutiae daily life psychodramas within daily life crises explored rising number important women novelists naoki prize went ''ripening summer'' story


capturing complex psychology modern women award winning stories end decade dealt current issues elderly hospitals recent past pure hearted shopping district k enji tokyo life meiji period ukiyo e artist haruki murakami one popular controversial today 's japanese authors genre defying humorous surreal works sparked fierce debates japan whether true literature simple pop fiction kenzabur e one harshest critics murakami 's best known works include ''norwegian wood'' ''the wind bird


chronicle'' banana yoshimoto best selling contemporary author whose manga esque style writing sparked much controversy debuted late come recognized unique talented author intervening years writing style stresses dialogue description resembling script manga works focus love friendship loss breakout work 's ''kitchen'' although modern japanese writers covered wide variety subjects one particularly japanese approach stressed subjects' inner lives widening earlier novel 's preoccupation narrator 's consciousness japanese fiction plot development


action often secondary interest emotional issues keeping general trend toward reaffirming national characteristics many old themes emerged authors turned consciously past strikingly buddhist attitudes importance knowing oneself poignant impermanence things formed undercurrent sharp social criticism material age growing emphasis women 's roles japanese persona modern world malaise common people lost complexities urban culture popular fiction non fiction children 's literature flourished urban japan


many popular works fell pure literature pulp novels including sorts historical serials information packed docudramas science fiction mysteries detective fiction business stories war journals animal stories non fiction covered everything crime politics although factual journalism predominated many works interpretive reflecting high degree individualism children 's works emerged newer entrants field many younger women brought new vitality manga comics penetrated almost every sector popular market includes virtually every field human interest


print copies end cell phone novels comprised four top five fiction best sellers ref name goodyear ref female authors female writers japan enjoyed brief period success heian period undermined following decline power imperial court th century later meiji era earlier works written women murasaki shikibu sei shonagon championed amongst earliest examples japanese literary language even time authors experienced challenges due gender one meiji period


writer shimizu shikin sought encourage positive comparisons contemporaries feminine forebears hopes female authors would viewed respect society despite assuming public role outside traditional confines woman 's role home see good wife wise mother notable feminine authors meiji period included hiratsuka raicho higuchi ichiyo tamura toshiko nogami yaeko yosano akiko significant authors works nara period literature kakinomoto hitomaro authored numerous tomo yakamochi possible compiler heian period literature ariwara narihira ndash


ono komachi nbsp sugawara michizane ki tsurayuki lady ise nbsp minamoto shitag ndash michitsuna haha nbsp author akazome emon nbsp sei sh nagon nbsp ''the pillow book'' murasaki shikibu nbsp ''the tale genji'' izumi shikibu nbsp lady sarashina nbsp author saigy h shi ndash kamakura muromachi period literature ''the tale heike'' fujiwara teika ndash yoshida kenk edo period literature miyamoto musashi ''the book five rings'' ihara saikaku matsuo bash chikamatsu monzaemon yamamoto tsunetomo yokoi yay


fukuda chiyo ni yosa buson motoori norinaga sugita genpaku ueda akinari sant ky den kobayashi issa jippensha ikku kyokutei bakin travelogue work human geography meiji taisho period literature nakane k tei lafcadio hearn mori gai futabatei shimei sachio natsume seki k da rohan masaoka shiki ozaki k doppo kunikida ichiy higuchi son shimazaki ky ka izumi yonejiro noguchi takeo arishima akiko yosano kaf nagai naoya shiga takuboku ishikawa kan kikuchi ry nosuke


akutagawa kenji miyazawa denji kuroshima motojir kajii hideo oguma takiji kobayashi modern literature kansuke naka yaeko nogami jun'ichir tanizaki hyakken uchida edogawa ranpo eiji yoshikawa mitsuharu kaneko juza unno shigeji tsuboi chiyo uno masuji ibuse jun ishikawa yasunari kawabata yuriko miyamoto sakae tsuboi fumiko hayashi tamiki hara tatsuz ishikawa fumiko enchi ango sakaguchi osamu dazai sh hei oka sakunosuke oda haruo umezaki ayako miura sh saku end ry tar shiba


history japanese literature'' william heinemann birnbaum ed '' monkey brain sushi new tastes japanese fiction'' kodansha international jpn carol fairbanks ''japanese women fiction writers'' scarecrow press donald keene ''modern japanese literature'' grove press ''world within walls japanese literature pre modern era '' columbia university press reprinted ''dawn west japanese literature modern era poetry drama criticism'' columbia university press reprinted ''travellers hundred ages japanese revealed years diaries'' columbia university press reprinted ''seeds heart


japanese literature earliest times late sixteenth century'' columbia university press reprinted mccullough helen craig ''classical japanese prose anthology'' stanford calif stanford university press miner earl roy odagiri hiroko morrell robert e ''the princeton companion classical japanese literature'' princeton nj princeton university press ema tsutomu taniyama shigeru ino kenji '''' kyoto shob revised reprinted see also list japanese writers list japanese classical texts japanese poetry aozora bunko nbsp repository japanese literature japanese detective fiction japanese science fiction light novel references


reading aston william george ''a history japanese literature'' ny https booksgooglecom bookshl en lr id yoglaqaamaaj online karatani k jin ''origins modern japanese literature'' duke university press kat sh ichi ''a history japanese literature first thousand years vol '' tokyo new york kodansha international keene donald ''japanese literature introduction western readers'' konishi jin'ichi ''a history japanese literature volume high middle ages'' princeton university press primary sources keene donald ''anthology japanese literature earliest era mid nineteenth century'' grove atlantic inc online text libraries https webarchiveorg web http etextlibvirginiaedu japanese japanese text initiative university virginia


library electronic text center http wwwmeijigakuinacjp pmjs trans indexhtml premodern japanese texts translations michael watson meiji gakuin university resources http wwwjlppgojp en japanese literature publishing project agency cultural affairs japan https wwwjpfgojp e publish jbn indexhtml japanese book news website japan foundation http wwwcolumbiaedu hds bib e texts shimazakihtm electronic texts pre modern japanese literature satoko shimazaki https webarchiveorg web http jlitnet awards awards mhtml top list literary awards fiction nonfiction


calculator olivetti divisumma designed marcello nizzoli '''industrial design''' process design applied physical products manufactured mass production creative act determining defining product 's form features takes place advance manufacture production product contrast manufacture consists purely repeated often automated replication craft based design process approach form product determined product 's creator largely concurrent act production manufactured products

Applied science
Architecture and design
Industrial design


result design process nature process vary conducted individual team team could include people varied expertise eg designers engineers business experts etc emphasize intuitive creativity calculated scientific decision making often emphasizes mix influenced factors varied materials production processes business strategy prevailing social commercial aesthetic attitudes industrial design applied art often focuses combination aesthetics user focused considerations ref name auto usability body knowledge website usabilitybokorg ref


also often provides solutions problems form function physical ergonomics marketing brand development sustainability sales history precursors several millennia onset industrialization design technical expertise manufacturing often done individual craftsmen determined form product point creation according manual skill requirements clients experience accumulated experimentation knowledge passed training apprenticeship division labour underlies practice industrial design precedents pre industrial era growth


constructed later first developed architects shipwrights italian renaissance th century growth artistic patronage centralized monarchical states france led large government operated manufacturing operations epitomized gobelins manufactory opened paris louis xiv teams hundreds craftsmen including specialist artists decorators engravers produced sumptuously decorated products ranging tapestries furniture metalwork coaches creative supervision king 's leading artist charles le brun pattern large scale royal patronage repeated court


porcelain factories early th century meissen porcelain workshops established grand duke saxony patterns range sources including court goldsmiths sculptors engravers used models vessels figurines became famous long reproduction remained craft based however form artistic quality product remained hands individual craftsman tended decline scale production increased birth industrial design emergence industrial design specifically linked growth industrialization


considered among first independent industrial designers ref name dresser ref industrial design 's origins lie industrialization consumer products instance deutscher werkbund founded precursor bauhaus state sponsored effort integrate traditional crafts industrial mass production techniques put germany competitive footing great britain united states earliest published use term may ''the art union'' september ref ''the practical draughtsman 's book industrial design'' jacques eug ne armengaud printed ref name practical ref subtitle translated work explains


wants offer complete course mechanical engineering architectural drawing study types technical drawing according armengaud belongs field industrial design work paved way big expansion field drawing education france united kingdom united states robert lepper helped establish one country 's first industrial design degree programs carnegie institute technology ref name carnegie mellon magazine winter http wwwcmuedu magazine winter newsbriefshtml newsbriefs lepper show runs warhol carnegie mellon magazine winter retrieved january ref education product design


industrial design overlap fields user interface design information design interaction design various schools industrial design specialize one aspects ranging pure art colleges design schools product styling mixed programs engineering design related disciplines exhibit design interior design schools almost completely subordinated aesthetic design concerns usage ergonomics called ''functionalist'' school except certain functional areas overlap industrial design engineering design former considered applied art ref name auto latter applied science


educational programs us engineering require accreditation accreditation board engineering technology abet contrast programs industrial design accredited national association schools art design nasad course engineering education requires heavy training mathematics physical sciences typically required industrial design education institutions industrial designers complete design related program vocational school university relevant programs include graphic design interior design industrial design architectural technology drafting diplomas degrees industrial design offered vocational


industrial designers n't usually design motors electrical circuits gearing make machines move may affect technical aspects usability design form relationships usually work professionals engineers focus mechanical functional aspects product assuring functionality manufacturability marketers identify fulfill customer needs expectations ref design often difficult describe non designers meaning accepted design community made words instead definition created result acquiring critical framework


analysis creation artifacts one many accepted intentionally unspecific definitions design originates carnegie mellon 's school design design process taking something existing state moving preferred state simon herbert sciences artificial cambridge applies new artifacts whose existing state undefined previously created artifacts whose state stands improved industrial design overlap significantly engineering design different countries boundaries two concepts vary general engineering focuses principally


functionality utility products whereas industrial design focuses principally ''aesthetic user interface'' aspects products many jurisdictions distinction effectively defined credentials licensure required engage practice engineering ref name mcadc ref industrial design overlap much engineering sub discipline industrial engineering except latter 's sub specialty ergonomics th general assembly gwangju south korea professional practise committee unveiled renewed definition industrial design follows industrial design strategic problem solving process drives innovation builds business success leads


better quality life innovative products systems services experiences extended version definition follows industrial design strategic problem solving process drives innovation builds business success leads better quality life innovative products systems services experiences industrial design bridges gap 's possible trans disciplinary profession harnesses creativity resolve problems co create solutions intent making product system service experience business better heart industrial design provides optimistic way


looking future reframing problems opportunities links innovation technology research business customers provide new value competitive advantage across economic social environmental spheres industrial designers place human centre process acquire deep understanding user needs empathy apply pragmatic user centric problem solving process design products systems services experiences strategic stakeholders innovation process uniquely positioned bridge varied professional disciplines business interests value economic social environmental impact work


contribution towards co creating better quality life ref name icsid gwangju http wwwicsidorg articles htm icsid web definition industrial design ref design process fender stratocaster sunburst finish one widely recognized electric guitars world model volkswagen beetle although process design may considered 'creative' many analytical processes also take place fact many industrial designers often use various design methodologies creative process processes commonly used user research sketching comparative product research model making prototyping testing processes best defined industrial designers


team members industrial designers often utilize software computer aided industrial design cad programs move concept production may also build prototype first use industrial ct scanning test interior defects generate cad model manufacturing process may modified improve product product characteristics specified industrial designers may include overall form object location details respect one another colors texture form aspects concerning use product additionally may specify aspects concerning production process


choice materials way product presented consumer point sale inclusion industrial designers product development process may lead added value improving usability lowering production costs developing appealing products industrial design may also focus technical concepts products processes addition aesthetics usability ergonomics also encompass engineering usefulness market placement concerns psychology desire emotional attachment user values accompanying aspects form basis industrial design vary different schools


thought among practicing designers industrial design rights industrial design rights intellectual property rights make exclusive visual design objects purely utilitarian design patent would also considered category industrial design consists creation shape configuration composition pattern color combination pattern color three dimensional form containing aesthetic value industrial design two three dimensional pattern used produce product industrial commodity handicraft hague agreement concerning international deposit industrial designs wipo administered treaty


procedure international registration exists applicant file single international deposit wipo national office country party treaty design protected many member countries treaty desired examples industrial design lurelle guild vacuum cleaner c brooklyn museum chair charles eames russel wright coffee urn c brooklyn museum number industrial designers made significant impact culture daily life work documented historians social science alvar aalto renowned


architect also designed significant number household items chairs stools lamps tea cart vases raymond loewy prolific american designer responsible royal dutch shell corporate logo original bp logo use prr steam locomotive studebaker starlight including later bulletnose well schick electric razors electrolux refrigerators short wave radios le creuset french ovens complete line modern furniture among many items dick teague spent career american motors corporation originated concept using interchangeable


institute art 's school industrial design oskar barnack german optical engineer precision mechanic industrial designer father mm photography developed leica became hallmark photography years remains high water mark mechanical optical design charles ray eames famous pioneering furniture designs eames lounge chair wood eames lounge chair influential designers included henry dreyfuss eliot noyes john vassos russel wright dieter rams german industrial designer closely associated consumer products company braun


functionalist school industrial design many apple 's recent products designed sir jonathan ive see also automotive design designer creative engineering engineering design process engineering design product development product design rapid prototyping form follows function tu delft faculty industrial design engineering industrial designers society america hardware interface design sustainable design sensory design chief experience officer cxo communication design core emotional design donald norman environmental design experience design hague system interaction design transgenerational design virtual product development wikid notes ref references sources barnwell maurice ''design creativity culture'' black dog barnwell maurice ''design evolution


big bang big data''toronto forty adrian ''objects desire design society since '' thames hudson may heskett john ''industrial design'' thames hudson mayall wh ''industrial design engineers'' london iliffe books mayall wh ''machines perception industrial design'' london studio vista meikle jeffrey ''twentieth century limited industrial design engineering america '' philadelphia temple university press external links '' http wwwsilsiedu exhibitions doodles doodles drafts designs industrial drawings smithsonian '' smithsonian institution libraries product management design history design x


'''linguistic anthropology''' interdisciplinary study language influences social life branch anthropology originated endeavor document endangered languages grown past century encompass aspects language structure use ref name duranti duranti alessandro ed https booksgooglecom booksid jmmmqjssaec ''companion linguistic anthropology'' malden blackwell ref linguistic anthropology explores language shapes communication forms social identity group membership organizes large scale cultural beliefs ideologies develops common cultural representation natural social worlds ref name sla society linguistic anthropology nd http wwwlinguisticanthropologyorg society linguistic anthropology accessed

Social science
Anthropology
Linguistic anthropology


july ref historical development linguistic anthropology emerged development three distinct paradigms paradigms set ways approaching linguistic anthropology first known anthropological linguistics focuses documentation languages second known linguistic anthropology engages theoretical studies language use third developed past two three decades studies issues sub fields anthropology linguistic tactics though developed sequentially three paradigms still practiced today ref name duranti duranti alessandro language culture us anthropology three paradigms ''current anthropology'' ref first paradigm anthropological linguistics first


paradigm known anthropological linguistics field devoted themes unique sub discipline documentation languages seen doomed extinction special focus languages native north american tribes also paradigm focused linguistics ref name duranti themes include grammatical description typological classification linguistic relativity second paradigm linguistic anthropology second paradigm marked switch ''anthropological linguistics'' ''linguistic anthropology'' signalling anthropological focus study term preferred dell hymes also responsible john gumperz


idea ethnography communication term ''linguistic anthropology'' reflected hymes' vision future language would studied context situation relative community speaking ref name duranti new era would involve many new technological developments mechanical recording hymes many revolutionary contributions linguistic anthropology first new unit analysis unlike first paradigm focused linguistic tools like measuring phonemes morphemes second paradigm 's unit analysis speech event speech event event


defined speech occurring ex lecture debate different speech situation speech could possibly occur ex dinner hymes also pioneered linguistic anthropological approach ethnopoetics hymes hoped paradigm would link linguistic anthropology anthropology however hymes' ambition backfired second paradigm marked distancing sub discipline rest anthropology ref name bauman bauman richard verbal art performance ''american anthropologist'' ref ref name hymes hymes dell breakthrough performance ''in vain tried tell essays native american ethnopoetics'' hymes ed pp


philadelphia university pennsylvania press ref third paradigm anthropological issues studied via linguistic methods data third paradigm began late refocused anthropology providing linguistic approach anthropological issues rather focusing exploring language third paradigm anthropologists focus studying culture linguistic tools themes include investigations personal social identities shared ideologies construction narrative interactions among individuals furthermore like second paradigm made use new technology studies third paradigm heavily includes use video documentation support research ref name duranti areas


new mexico press ref speak taiap language associated one identity local backward also identity based display hed personal autonomy speak tok pisin index modern christian catholic identity based hed save identity linked skill cooperate later work kulick demonstrates certain loud speech performances brazil called um esc ndalo brazilian ''travesti'' roughly 'transvestite' sex workers shame clients travesti community argument goes ends least making powerful attempt transcend


shame larger brazilian public might try foist loud public discourse modes performance ref name kulick klein kulick charles h klein scandalous acts politics shame among brazilian travesti prostitutes ''recognition struggles social movements contested identities agency power'' b hobson ed pp cambridge cambridge university press ref addition scholars mile benveniste mary bucholtz kira hall benjamin lee paul kockelman stanton wortham among many others contributed understandings identity intersubjectivity examining ways discursively constructed socialization


ongoing situation speech around vice versa variable correlated example direction held vis vis caregiver 's body many societies caregivers hold child facing outward orient network kin must learn recognize early life ochs schieffelin demonstrated members societies socialize children ''to'' ''through'' use language ochs schieffelin uncovered naturally occurring stories told dinners white middle class households southern california mothers fathers participated replicating


male dominance father knows best syndrome distribution participant roles protagonist often child sometimes mother almost never father problematizer often father raised uncomfortable questions challenged competence protagonist mothers collaborated children get stories told unwittingly set subject process schieffelin 's recent research uncovered socializing role pastors fairly new bosavi converts southern highlands papua new guinea community studies ref name schieffelin schieffelin bambi b creating evidence making sense


written words bosavi ''pragmatics'' ref ref name schieffelin schieffelin bambi b marking time dichotomizing discourse multiple temporalities ''current anthropology'' supplement ref ref name schieffelin schieffelin bambi b plenary address found translating reflexive language across time texts bosavi png twelve annual conference language interaction culture university california los angeles ref pastors introduced new ways conveying knowledge new linguistic epistemic markers ref name schieffelin new ways speaking time ref name schieffelin struggled largely resisted parts bible speak able know inner states others eg


gospel mark chapter verses ref name schieffelin ideologies third example current third paradigm since roman jakobson 's student michael silverstein opened way increase work done linguistic anthropologists major anthropological theme ideologies ref name silverstein silverstein michael language structure linguistic ideology ''the elements parasession linguistic units levels'' r cline w hanks c hofbauer eds pp chicago chicago linguistic society ref case language ideologies sometimes defined shared bodies commonsense notions nature language world ref name rumsey rumsey


alan word meaning linguistic ideology ''american anthropologist'' ref silverstein demonstrated ideologies mere false consciousness actually influence evolution linguistic structures including dropping thee thou everyday english usage woolard overview code switching systematic practice alternating linguistic varieties within conversation even single utterance finds underlying question anthropologists ask practice reflects dominant linguistic ideology ideology people really monoglot efficiently targeted toward referential clarity rather diverting


messiness multiple varieties play single time much research linguistic ideologies probes subtler influences language pull exerted tewa kiowa tanoan language spoken certain new mexican pueblos hopi reservation arizona kiva speech discussed next section linguists carried research areas language contact language endangerment 'english global language' instance indian linguist braj kachru investigated local varieties english south asia ways english functions lingua franca among multicultural


groups india british linguist david crystal contributed investigations language death attention effects cultural assimilation resulting spread one dominant language situations colonialism heritage language ideologies recently new line ideology work beginning enter field linguistics relation heritage languages specifically applied linguist martin guardado posited heritage language ideologies somewhat fluid sets understandings justifications beliefs judgments linguistic minorities hold languages ref name guardado guardado martin https booksgoogleca booksid ezfddwaaqbaj printsec frontcover v onepage q f false discourse ideology heritage language socialization micro macro perspectives ''


done creative work idea social space duranti published groundbreaking article samoan greetings use transformation social space ref name duranti duranti alessandro language bodies social space samoan greetings ''american anthropologist'' ref indonesianist joseph errington making use earlier work indonesianists necessarily concerned language issues per se brought linguistic anthropological methods semiotic theory bear notion exemplary center center political ritual power emanated exemplary behavior errington demonstrated javanese priyayi whose ancestors served


fact exemplary center idea one linguistic anthropology 's three important findings generalizes notion thus arguing wider scale institutional 'orders interactionality' historically contingent yet structured within large scale macrosocial orders effect ritual centers semiosis come exert structuring value conferring influence particular event discursive interaction respect meanings significance verbal semiotic forms used ref name silverstein silverstein michael cultural' concepts language culture nexus ''current anthropology'' ref current approaches classic anthropological topics ritual linguistic anthropologists emphasize


static linguistic structures unfolding realtime hypertrophic' set parallel orders iconicity indexicality seem cause ritual create sacred space appears often magic textual nontextual metricalizations synchronized ref name silverstein race class gender addressing broad central concerns subfield drawing core theories many scholars focus intersections language particularly salient social constructs race ethnicity class gender sexuality works generally consider roles social structures eg ideologies institutions


related race class gender eg marriage labor pop culture education terms constructions terms individuals' lived experiences short list linguistic anthropological texts address topics follows race ethnicity alim h samy john r rickford arnetha f ball raciolinguistics language shapes ideas race oxford university press bucholtz mary whiteness nerds superstandard english racial markedness journal linguistic anthropology bucholtz mary white kids language race styles youth identity cambridge university press davis jenny l


rosa jonathan looking like language sounding like race raciolinguistic ideologies learning latinidad oxford university press smalls krystal fighting words antiblackness discursive violence american high school journal linguistic anthropology spears arthur kean race ideology language symbolism popular culture wayne state university press urciuoli bonnie exposing prejudice puerto rican experiences language race class waveland press wirtz kristina cuban performances blackness timeless past still among us journal linguistic anthropology e e class fox aaron real country music language


working class culture duke university press shankar shalini desi land teen culture class success silicon valley duke university press nakassis constantine v style youth mass mediation south india university chicago press gender sexuality bucholtz mary normal' language identity practices community nerd girls language society fader ayala mitzvah girls bringing next generation hasidic jews brooklyn princeton university press gaudio rudolf pell allah made us sexual outlaws islamic african city john wiley sons


hall kira mary bucholtz gender articulated language socially constructed self new york routledge jacobs huey lanita kitchen parlor language becoming african american women 's hair care oxford university press kulick gay lesbian language annual review anthropology kulick gender politics men masculinities kulick gender brazilian transgendered prostitutes american anthropologist livia anna kira hall queerly phrased language gender sexuality oxford university press manalansan martin f iv performing'


lore uses poetic lines verses stanzas instead prose paragraphs capture formal poetic performance elements would otherwise lost written texts goal ethnopoetic text show techniques unique oral performers enhance aesthetic value performances within specific cultural contexts major contributors ethnopoetic theory include jerome rothenberg dennis tedlock dell hymes ethnopoetics considered subfield ethnology anthropology folkloristics stylistics linguistics literature translation studies endangered languages language documentation revitalization endangered languages languages


passed children mother tongue declining numbers speakers variety reasons therefore couple generations languages may longer spoken anthropologists involved endangered language communities involvement language documentation revitalization projects language documentation project researchers work develop records language records could field notes audio video recordings follow best practices documentation records clearly annotated kept safe within archive kind franz boas one


culture language reclamation subset revitalization implies language taken away community addresses concern taking back agency revitalize language terms language reclamation addresses power dynamics associated language loss encouraging already know language use increasing domains usage increasing overall prestige language components reclamation one example miami language brought back 'extinct' status extensive archives field linguistics also


focused study linguistic structures endangered languages anthropologists also contribute field emphasize ethnographic understandings socio historical context language endangerment also language revitalization reclamation projects see also ethnolinguistics evolutionary psychology language identity social science ideology language contact linguistic insecurity list important publications anthropology miyako inoue semiotic anthropology sociocultural linguistics sociolinguistics sociology language world oral literature project feral child references reading ahearn laura ''living language introduction linguistic anthropology'' malden wiley blackwell blount ben


society linguistic anthropology downloadable publications authors cited article https webarchiveorg web http wwwsscnetuclaedu anthro faculty duranti publishhtm alessandro duranti 's publications https webarchiveorg web http homegwuedu kuipers joel kuipers' publications http wwwsscnetuclaedu anthro faculty ochs publishhtm elinor ochs' publications http homepagesnyuedu bs bambi schieffelin 's publications http januccnauedu jmw cv indexhtml james wilce 's publications jurgen trabant wilhelm von humboldt lectures hrs https webtvuniv rouenfr permalink c f e ecnge dp anthropology applied linguistics


step aerobics gym dance aerobics class '''aerobics''' form physical exercise combines rhythmic aerobic exercise stretching strength training routines goal improving elements fitness flexibility muscular strength cardio vascular fitness usually performed music may practiced group setting led instructor fitness professional although done solo without musical accompaniment goal preventing illness promoting physical fitness practitioners perform various routines comprising number different dance like exercises formal aerobics classes divided

Human physical performance and recreation


different levels intensity complexity five components warm minutes cardiovascular conditioning minutes muscular strength conditioning minutes cool minutes stretching flexibility minutes aerobics classes may allow participants select level participation according fitness level many gyms offer different types aerobic classes class designed certain level experience taught certified instructor specialty area related particular class history water aerobics class aquatic centre term specific exercise method


increased exercise due widespread weakness inactivity cooper published mass market version ''the new aerobics'' aerobic dancing invented jacki sorensen inspired cooper 's book sorensen began teaching method spreading throughout us hands hundreds instructors time judi missett 's jazzercise taking form dance studio franchises us ref name black ref aerobics gained greater popularity spreading worldwide release ''jane fonda 's workout'' video sparking industry boom ref name hendricks ref step aerobics step aerobics


often moves referred reebok step moves reference one first makers plastic step commonly used gyms basic step involves raising one foot onto step step stepping first foot back followed second right basic would involve stepping right foot left returning floor alternating right left instructors switch immediately different moves example right basic left basic without intervening moves effectively


tapping foot without shifting weight tap free smooth stepping alternates feet without taps step two risers common moves include basic step corner knee corner kick repeater knee aka triple knee step top lunges v step straddle l step split step step choreography many instructors prepare set moves executed together form choreography class usually choreography timed beats set ideally switching legs set repeated mirrored fashion set may consist many


different moves different moves may different durations example basic step described takes beats steps person takes similarly knee move also takes beats another common move repeater knee beat move classes vary level choreography basic level classes tend series relatively basic moves strung together sequence advanced classes incorporate dance elements turns mambos stomps elements put together routines class one learns


routines class performed end class regardless complexity choreography instructors offer various options different levels intensity dance ability teaching routines aerobic dancing aerobics class '''aerobic dancing''' aerobics style group instructor choreographs several short dance combinations teaches class usually achieved teaching class one two movements time repeating movements class able join whole choreography together aerobic music used throughout


class sometimes followed strength section uses body weight exercises strengthen muscles stretch routine cool improve flexibility classes usually minutes length may include use equipment barbell aerobic step small weights freestyle aerobics instructor choreographs routine adjusts needs wants class often difference base movements freestyle pre choreographed programs practiced improve aerobic fitness flexibility strength aerobic gymnastics sport aerobics team aerobic


gymnastics also known sport aerobics competitive aerobics may combine complicated choreography rhythmic acrobatic gymnastics elements aerobics performance divided categories age sex groups individual mixed pairs trios judged following elements dynamic static strength jumps leaps kicks balance flexibility ten exercises mandatory four consecutive high leg kicks patterns maximum ten elements following families allowed push ups supports balances kicks splits jumps leaps elements tumbling handsprings handstands back flips aerial somersaults prohibited