around world found list library associations also associations dedicated supporting specialized libraries within specific fields include american association law libraries american theological library association http wwwiamslicorg international association aquatic marine science libraries information centers iamslic international association music libraries archives documentation centres http wwwabtaplorguk association british theological philosophical libraries medical library association music library association https fpkiorid indonesia special libraries forum types special libraries corporate libraries corporate library special library serving staff corporation


extensive collection beyond scope education requirement law librarians varied types law libraries academic law librarians provide reference would mostly likely master 's degree library science juris doctor degree law firm librarians contrast often library science degree dual degree requirement law librarianship widely debated recent years given librarians medical business libraries example required advanced degree subject disciplines legal reference services available general public typically extremely limited due legal restrictions non attorneys providing

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Special library


legal advice researching legal issues acceptable directly asking legal advice beyond legally allowed assistance law library librarian law library assist locating reference materials allowed provide legal advice based library materials currently largest law library world law library congress united states america opened became department main library congress first law librarian congress charles henry wharton meehan initially


library served members united states congress united states supreme court since expanded serve general public various government agencies well library 's collection currently approximately million items including materials united states law well legal resources jurisdictions world collection also includes materials history law going back beginning primitive legal systems areas common religious civil customary socialist laws federal libraries


united states federal libraries libraries federal government prominent example library congress loc libraries us federal government loc identified eleven types federal libraries engineering science military base post health medicine law archives museums presidential libraries prison national parks general agency academic training centers technical schools program regional office loc manages https wwwlocgov flicc federal library information network fedlink consortium us federal government libraries offering purchasing training


resource sharing fedlink 's mission achieve optimum use resources facilities federal libraries information centers promoting common services coordinating sharing available resources providing continuing professional education federal library information staff federal government libraries countries include national libraries functional libraries supporting specific components federal government nation state medical libraries medical libraries also known hospital libraries health libraries designed support needs physicians health professionals medical researchers medical students patients consumers interested


research education professional development libraries tend function similarly public libraries though collections may weighted towards medically related themed works physics libraries physics libraries include books physics helpful physicists military libraries military libraries designed support needs members nation 's armed forces personnel attached unit base library part primary responsibilities military libraries assisting military personnel access resources professional development personal education leisure military libraries attached military


bases often include collections services families personnel assigned base may also maintain information history base units assigned notable personnel military libraries tasked directly supporting military operations providing access pertinent resources organizing disseminating information directly related military unit organization 's activities depending specific responsibilities library military libraries may staffed civilian librarians military personnel library organizational training music libraries music libraries designed support needs musicians


musicologists well broadcasting authorities orchestral opera choral professionals music publishers suppliers music librarians primary responsibilities music libraries collect musical scores recordings performances critiques commentary scholarship development music art composition performance music libraries document music art diversity forms genres music libraries contain musical scores manuscripts papers recordings music libraries exist academic cultural institutions well companies business music transportation libraries transportation libraries


libraries also contain characteristics unlike public academic libraries museum libraries often associated public museum institution whose main purpose provide historical educational information general public unlike traditional libraries many museum libraries private hidden public eye due main purpose research library museum staff professional researchers users must often make appointments allowed special access library staff museum staff though say museum libraries unattainable


public users museum libraries ryerson burnham libraries art institute chicago nolen library metropolitan museum modern art new york museums victoria library melbourne australia provide access public opening hours another major difference type special library traditional libraries museum libraries usually focused one subject field study rather covering subject areas areas study museum libraries focus include art history science specific fields areas


look different organizations assistance american library association association specialized cooperative library agencies offer valuable resource prison librarians news libraries hemeroteca news libraries maintain collections news articles news related items archives newspapers magazines periodicals print consultation public libraries may called hemeroteca european countries term also refers archive collection newspapers magazines journalistic publications specific type document archives publishers term also used


theology better understand impact upon world within category theological libraries variety resources housed within institution varies depending upon needs researchers' needs theological libraries archival repositories historical collections religious group theological libraries specialize contemporary resources books videos journals etc support theological religious research rarity archival collections rare books housed within repositories lending use policies library varies greatly contingent type institution


library housed variety institutions considered theological libraries institutions include churches seminaries universities colleges synagogues well known theological libraries united states found east coast theological libraries mostly housed within university seminary expense maintaining collections drew university madison new jersey houses archives history center united methodist church along archives half volumes library 's collection dedicated theological


religious studies jewish theological seminary library new york collection volumes dedicated religious theological studies along archive preserve papers jewish communities famous people princeton theological seminary library another well known theological library united states library 's collection specializes areas theological study special collections hymnology puritanism early american pamphlets baptist controversy institution open public theological libraries available use students faculty staff institution


also open use researchers public archival collections housed within repositories assist genealogical searches understanding history religious community also opportunities obtain items interlibrary loan patron unable travel library person theological libraries supported american theological library association atla founded headquartered chicago illinois atla governed elected board directors members individual institutions affiliates atla publishes


four different journals monthly annually quarterly organization also provides theological libraries access electronic resources atla religion database atla serials atla catholic periodical literature index including open access online journal atla publishes print electronic resources subscribed thousands institutions across globe also well known theological libraries located internationally international theological institute library austria houses around volumes philosophy theology one famous international theological libraries vatican library founded contains collections


theology religion history law philosophy science well theological libraries available around world variety research purposes contain contemporary historical collections promote understanding religious communities see also guy st clair one person library association uk media librarians references cloonan michele v berger sidney e continuing development special collections librarianship ''library trends'' scammell alison ''handbook special librarianship information work'' london aslib external links https wwwslaorg special library association https helpebscocom interfaces ebsco guides general product faqs roi corporate libraries research solutions roi


corporate libraries research solutions libraries type types library


vaccine preventable diseases vpds vaccine preventable diseases remain common cause childhood mortality estimated three million deaths year ref name obasi chinedu ref year vaccination prevents two three million deaths worldwide across age groups diphtheria tetanus pertussis measles eradication diseases sms life vaccines goal vaccination policies eradicate diseasedisappear earth altogether world health organization coordinated effort eradicate smallpox globally vaccination last naturally occurring case smallpox somalia endemic measles mumps rubella eliminated

Applied science
Public administration
Health policy
Vaccination policy


vaccination finland october un food agriculture organization declared rinderpest eradicated currently working eradicate polio eliminated africa august remained pakistan afghanistan time individual versus group goals likely behavior individuals offered vaccines modeled economically using ideas game theory according models individuals attempt minimize risk illness may seek vaccination children perceive high threat disease low


risk vaccination however vaccination program successfully reduces disease threat may reduce perceived risk disease enough individual 's optimal strategy encourage everyone family vaccinated generally refuse vaccination vaccination rates reach certain level even level optimal community example study predicted bioterrorist attack using smallpox would result conditions voluntary vaccination would unlikely reach optimum level us whole study predicted


severe influenza epidemics cannot prevented voluntary vaccination without offering certain incentives governments often allow exemptions mandatory vaccinations religious philosophical reasons decreased rates vaccination may cause loss herd immunity substantially increasing risks even vaccinated individuals however mandatory vaccination policies raise ethical issues regarding parental rights informed consent fractional dose vaccination strategy trades societal benefit individual vaccine efficacy ref name hz ref proven effective randomized trials poverty diseases epidemiologic models holds significant potential shortening covid pandemic vaccine supply


limited ref name hz compulsory vaccination various times governments institutions established policies requiring vaccination aim reducing risk disease example law required universal vaccination smallpox england wales fines levied people comply ref name policies stirred resistance variety groups collectively called anti vaccinationists objected ethical political medical safety religious grounds ref name wolfe rm sharp lk ref united states supreme court ruled ''jacobson v massachusetts'' states authority require vaccination


common objections included argument governments infringe individuals' freedom make medical decisions children claims proposed vaccinations dangerous ref name wolfe rm sharp lk many modern vaccination policies allow exemptions people compromised immune systems allergies vaccination components strongly held objections ref name salmon ref also argued vaccination effectively prevent disease must available vaccines population willing immunize also sufficient ability decline vaccination grounds personal belief city rio de


nurses administer vaccines defined circumstances increase vaccination rates sufficient evidence requiring vaccinations attending child care schools also also evidence mandatory vaccination policies healthcare workers instance influenza shots increase uptake one argument among public health professionals compulsory vaccination necessary severe circumstances approached carefully order avoid polarizing population decreasing trust long term many countries including canada germany japan united states specific requirements reporting vaccine related adverse effects countries


including australia france united kingdom include vaccines general requirements reporting injuries associated medical treatments number countries compulsory vaccination national programs compensation injuries alleged caused vaccination november austria banned individuals leaving home apart work buy essential supplies exercise fourth wave covid pandemic austria low vaccination rate compared rest western europe austrian government made vaccination mandatory parents' versus children 's rights medical ethicist arthur caplan


schools doctors' surgeries prohibited unvaccinated children enrolled even required law doctors refuse treat unvaccinated children harm child public health may considered unethical parents unable find another provider opinion divided largest professional association american academy pediatrics saying exclusion unvaccinated children may option narrowly defined circumstances one historical example philadelphia measles outbreak occurred anti vaccination faith healing community causing nine children die court orders obtained


infected children given life saving medical treatment wishes parents also healthy children vaccinated without parental consent ref name nyt ref ref name npr ref planning vaccination policy vaccination committees vaccination policy typically proposed national supranational advisory committees immunization many cases regulated government seir model comparing different vaccination strategies interacting subpopulations ref name ref model predicts advantage personalized vaccination strategy covid pandemic vaccination strategy models predictive vaccination strategy models play important role predicting effectiveness vaccination strategies


population level may eg compare sequence age groups vaccinated study outcome terms case load deaths length pandemic ref name healthcare system load economic impact evaluating vaccination policy vaccines positive externality promotion high levels vaccination produces protective effect herd immunity well positive externalities society ref name ibuka ref large scale vaccination public good benefits obtained individual large scale vaccination non rivalrous non excludable given traits individuals may avoid costs


vaccination free riding ref name ibuka benefits others vaccinated ref name ibuka costs benefits individuals society studied critiqued stable changing population designs surveys indicated free riding incentives exist individual decisions separate study looked parental vaccination choice study found parents less likely vaccinate children children 's friends already vaccinated trust vaccination trust vaccines health system important element public health programs aim deliver lifesaving vaccines trust


big challenge accurately studying trust vaccines understanding factors affect reduction trust allows authorities build effective vaccine campaign communication strategies fight disease trust key parameter work undertaking vaccine campaigns state responsible provide smart communication inform population disease vaccines risks recommends states work long term build population resilience vaccine rumours scares build strong programme well prepared respond event may erode trust


respond immediately event may erode trust health authorities ref name vaccinationandtrust ref cost benefit united states since first economic analysis routine childhood immunizations united states reported cost savings lifetime children born analyses economic costs potential benefits individuals society since studied evaluated calculated ref name ref name h ref american academy pediatrics published decision analysis evaluated direct costs program costs vaccine cost administrative burden negative vaccine linked reactions transportation time lost parents


seek health providers vaccination ref name h study focused diphtheria tetanus pertussis haemophilus influenza type b conjugate poliovirus measles mumps rubella mmr hepatitis b varicella valent pneumococcal conjugate hepatitis rotavirus vaccines excluded influenza estimated costs benefits adjusted dollars projected time three percent interest ref name h theoretical group babies beginning regular immunizations childhood accordance advisory committee immunization practices guidelines prevent early deaths million cases disease net savings billion direct


costs billion total societal costs respectively ref name h united states nations economic incentive global value invest preventive vaccination programs especially children means prevent early infant childhood deaths cost benefit older adults furthermore economic incentive establish vaccination programs older adults general population aging due increasing life expectancy decreasing birth rates vaccinations used reduce issues linked polypharmacy antibiotic resistant bacteria older demographic comorbidities preventing


research development next generation vaccines technologies country table style margin auto colspan style margin auto colspan class wikitable sortable style table layout fixed max width em style vertical align bottom countries class unsortable style max width em required school class unsortable style max width em required


welfare class unsortable style max width em sources id section begin countries ar section end countries nowrap id section begin countries au section end countries nowrap ref name reuters covid


ref name id section begin countries br section end countries nowrap id section begin countries bg section end countries nowrap


ref name ref name reuters covid id section begin countries ca section end countries nowrap ref name cbc ref name reuters covid id section begin countries cr section end countries nowrap


ref name reuters covid id section begin countries hr section end countries nowrap ref name id section begin countries cy section end countries nowrap


ref name id section begin countries cz section end countries nowrap ref


name ref name reuters covid id section begin countries dk section end countries nowrap ref name ref name reuters covid id section begin countries ec section end countries nowrap id section begin countries eg section end countries


nowrap ref name reuters covid id section begin countries ee section end countries nowrap ref name id section begin countries fi section end countries nowrap


ref name id section begin countries fr section end countries nowrap ref


id section begin countries gh section end countries nowrap ref name reuters ghana covid ref id section begin countries gr section end countries nowrap ref name ref name reuters covid id section begin countries hu section end countries


nowrap ref name ref name reuters covid id section begin countries section end countries nowrap


ref name id section begin countries id section end countries nowrap id section begin countries ie section end countries nowrap


ref name japanact trans ref name egov orderart ref name jpeds ref name japan id section begin countries kz section end countries nowrap ref name reuters covid id section begin countries lv section end countries nowrap


ref name ref name reuters covid id section begin countries lb section end countries nowrap ref name reuters covid id section begin countries li section end countries nowrap


ref name id section begin countries lt section end countries nowrap ref name id section begin countries lu section end countries nowrap


ref name id section begin countries mt section end countries nowrap ref name id section begin countries section end countries


nowrap ref name reuters covid id section begin countries nl section end countries nowrap ref name ref name reuters covid id section begin countries nz section end countries nowrap


ref name reuters covid id section begin countries section end countries nowrap ref name id section begin countries pk section end countries nowrap


ref name statista id section begin countries ph section end countries nowrap ref name reuters covid id section begin countries pl section end countries nowrap


ref name id section begin countries pt section end countries nowrap ref name id section begin countries ro section end countries nowrap


ref name ref name reuters covid id section begin countries ru section end countries nowrap ref name reuters covid id section begin countries fm section end countries nowrap


ref name reuters covid id section begin countries sa section end countries nowrap ref name reuters covid id section begin countries rs section end countries nowrap


ref name id section begin countries se section end countries nowrap


ref name id section begin countries ch section end countries nowrap ref name reuters covid id section begin countries tj section end countries nowrap ref name statista ref id section begin countries tn section end countries nowrap


ref name reuters covid id section begin countries tr section end countries nowrap ref name reuters covid id section begin countries tm section end countries nowrap ref name statista ref name reuters covid id section begin countries ua section end countries nowrap


ref name reuters covid id section begin countries gb section end countries nowrap ref name id section begin countries us section end countries nowrap


ref name reuters covid id section begin countries va section end countries nowrap ref name statista valign top countries


required school required welfare sources argentina december argentina enacted new vaccine policy requiring persons medically able adults children vaccinated specified diseases proof vaccination required attend level school infancy adulthood obtain marriage license kind government id including passport driver 's license furthermore law requires government pay aspects vaccinations law deems vaccination national emergency therefore exempts vaccines internal


customs taxes australia effort boost vaccination rates australia australian government decided starting january certain benefits universal family allowance welfare payments parents children longer available conscientious objectors vaccination medical grounds vaccinating continue receive benefits policy supported majority australian parents well australian medical association ama early childhood australia percent children seven vaccinated though number conscientious objectors vaccination


increased past decade government began immunise australia program increase national immunisation rates fund number different vaccinations certain groups people intent encourage risk populations get vaccinated government maintains immunization schedule states territories children consent vaccinations judged gillick competent normally applies children aged older south australia consent medical treatment palliative care act allows children older consent medical treatment ref


fair work commission case kimber v sapphire coast community aged care ltd austria austrian vaccine recommendations developed national vaccination board part federal ministry social affairs health care consumer protection children aged older vaccinated without parental consent brazil vaccinating children mandatory brazil since federal government instituted national immunization program compulsory character written law statute children adolescents art para parents brazil n't take children


certain obligatory vaccines named category vaccines free children years age initially vaccines consisted bacillus calmette gu rin bcg vaccine oral polio vaccine opv measles vaccine mv diphtheria tetanus pertussis dpt vaccine vaccine list expanded include hepatitis hepatitis b japanese encephalitis c meningococcal polysaccharide mumps rubella hemorrhagic fever anthrax leptospirosis category vaccines rabies vaccine private sector non obligatory vaccines included neither epi government health insurance due privatized nature category vaccines vaccinations


diphtheria tetanus poliomyelitis began policies hepatitis b began recommended mandatory suggestions influenza pertussis varicella measles began respectively ref name cochinhospital group france according inpes peretti watel health barometer percentage french people years old favor vaccination dropped since france recommended meningococcus c vaccination infants years old catch dosage years later french insurance companies reimbursed vaccine since january


point coverage levels children years teenagers years old ref name menc ref french government institut de veille sanitaire launched year national program improve vaccination policy program simplified guidelines facilitated access vaccination invested vaccine research ref name decisionmaking ref fueled rare health related scandals mistrust vaccines became common topic french public debate health ref name rouillon ref according french radio station three five percent kids france given mandatory vaccines ref name rouillon


families may avoid requirements finding doctor willing forge vaccination certificate solution numerous french forums confirm however french state considers vaccine refusal form child abuse ref name rouillon instances parental vaccine refusals may result criminal trials france 's creation question prioritaire constitutionelle qpc allows lower courts refer constitutional questions highest court relevant hierarchy ref name reiss group france ref therefore criminal trials based vaccine refusals may referred cour de cassation certify whether case meets certain criteria ref name reiss group france


may france updated vaccination policies diphtheria tetanus acellular pertussis polio haemophilus influenzae b infections hepatitis b premature infants failure vaccinate necessarily illegal parent 's right refuse vaccinate child technically constitutional matter additionally children france cannot enter schools without proof vaccination diphtheria tetanus polio ref name greenhouse ref french health minister marisol touraine finds vaccinations absolutely fundamental avoid disease pushed trained pharmacists ''and'' doctors administer vaccinations ref name greenhouse recently prime minister 's roadmap


multi annual social inclusion anti poverty plan includes free vaccinations certain public facilities vaccinations within immunization schedule given free immunization services within public sector given private medical practices vaccinations reimbursed germany germany standing committee vaccination stiko federal commission responsible recommending immunization schedule robert koch institute berlin rki compiles data immunization status upon entry children school measures vaccine coverage germany national level ref name germany ref founded stiko composed volunteers


appointed members federal ministry health year terms members include experts many scientific disciplines public health fields professionals extensive experience vaccination ref name nitag policies journal independent advisory group meets biannually address issues pertaining preventable infectious diseases although stiko makes recommendations immunization germany voluntary official government recommendations german federal states typically follow standing vaccination committee 's recommendations minimally although state make recommendations geographic jurisdiction extends beyond recommended list ref name germany addition proposed immunization schedule children


adults stiko recommends vaccinations occupational groups police travelers risk groups ref name germany vaccinations recommendations issued must accordance protection infection act infektionsschutzgesetz regulates prevention infectious diseases humans vaccination recommended occupational risks must adhere occupational safety health act involving biological agents ref name stiko robert koch ref criteria recommendation include disease burden efficacy effectiveness safety feasibility program implementation cost effectiveness evaluation clinical trial results equity access vaccine ref name nitag policies journal


consent vaccinated even parents expressly object provided child gives impression mature informed capable understanding risks benefits decision beginning march germany made measels vaccine compulsory children attending school day care well persons employed schools day cares medical community facilities ghana ghana covid vaccination mandatory january staff students secondary tertiary education employees arms government health workers security personnel commercial drivers ref name reuters ghana covid greece greece


covid vaccination mandatory january people aged older monthly euro fine ignoring mandate india ireland republic ireland childhood vaccination age requires consent parents department health strongly recommend vaccinations italy aging populations italy bring rising burden age related disease italian vaccination system remains complex ref name lifecourse ref fact services decisions delivered separate regional authorities creates many variations italian vaccine policy ref name lifecourse national committee


immunizations updates national recommended immunization schedule input ministry health representatives regional health authorities national institute health scientific societies ref name ministerodellasalute ref regions may add scheduled vaccinations cannot exempt citizens nationally mandated recommended ones ref name ministerodellasalute instance nationwide plan eliminating measles rubella began ref name ministerodellasalute certain vaccinations italy based findings national centre epidemiology surveillance health promotion also used determine miscellaneous vaccination mandates childhood vaccinations included national schedules guaranteed free charge


italian children foreign children live country ref name ministerodellasalute estimated insurance coverage required three doses hbv hib ipv vaccines least child two years old later influenza nationally necessary vaccine adults administered general practitioners ref name ministerodellasalute mitigate public concerns italy currently national vaccine injury compensation program essentially ill damaged mandatory recommended vaccinations may receive funding government compensation one evaluation vaccine coverage covered birth cohort showed


vaccines faced positive public reception however infant vaccine coverage rates influenza immunization elderly decreasing ref name bonanni government plan italy aimed boost vaccination rates introduce series new vaccines triggering protests among public health professionals ref name margottini ref partially response statistic less italian children receive measles shot national vaccination plan pnpv increased vaccination requirements ref name margottini instance nationwide varicella shots would required newborns ref name margottini plan government spending vaccines would double million annually


five star movement pushed legislation italian senate abolishing pass chamber deputies parents provide schools doctor 's note show children vaccinated november government changed stance measles emergency decided uphold obligation children age teachers health professionals vaccinated midwife working hospital central italy sacked refusing vaccination japan japan three types vaccination practices routine scheduled


categorya diseases vaccination mandatory recommended prevent pandemic two categoryb even recommended personal care purpose ref name japanact trans ref name egov orderart compared global standard japanese vaccination policy sometimes described medical experts vaccine gap ref name igakushoin ref ref name phrma ref instance japan developed country list mumps vaccine schedule ref name igakushoin another fact government approval new combination vaccines usually takes longer time united states ref name igakushoin one reason behind vaccine gap government sued several times


negligence duty care malpractice liabilities throughout vaccination history ref name phrma ref name takagi ref ref name pmrj ref lawsuit risks particularly tokyo high court 's ruling mmr vaccine class action impacted law amendment ref name igakushoin vaccination longer mandatory ref name japan ref ref name igakushoin result vaccination rate declined japan rate flu vaccination example among schoolchildren dropped approximately rapidly aging society issue decline among schoolchildren hit elderly generation season deadly flu outbreak spread widely


nursing homes elderly well inpatients wards outbreak followed amendment immunization act add flu vaccination elderly ref name phrma february flu vaccination act categoryb personal care purpose elderly ref name japanact trans however historical data sets suggest flu vaccination schoolchildren also key take care elderly ref name sugaya ref addition legal social risk concerns issue decision making process underlies vaccine gap unlike advisory committee immunization practices acip


united states centralized permanent advisory committee vaccination policy organized japan time deadly flu outbreak struck japan since committee kick however vaccine gap gradually improved ref name ipss ref ref name phrma latvia according publication ''cmaj'' ref name walkinshaw ref notion mandatory latvia differs nations latvia appears unique compels health care providers obtain signatures decline vaccination individuals right refuse vaccination health providers duty explain


health consequences vaccines mandatory publicly funded cost must borne parents employers adds funded vaccinations include tuberculosis diphtheria measles hepatitis b human papillomavirus year old girls tick borne encephalitis age endemic areas orphans beginning age minors consent vaccination latvia without parental permission malaysia malaysia mass vaccination practised public schools vaccines may administered school nurse team medical staff outside school children


given school year vaccinated cohort example children may receive oral polio vaccine year one primary school six seven years age bcg year six mmr form three secondary school therefore people received core vaccines time finish secondary school mexico mexico multi year program immunisation children ref name whostatsmex world health title immunization country profile url https appswhoint immunization monitoring globalsummary countriescountrycriteria bcountry b mex commit ok website appswhoint access date april language en archive date september archive url https webarchiveorg web https appswhoint immunization monitoring globalsummary countriescountrycriteria bcountry b mex commit ok url status live ref immunisation children fully covered government


mexico ref name whostatsmex mexico adverse events committee monitor adverse effects vaccination well standing technical advisory group immunization ref name whostatsmex recommended vaccine schedule children mexico contains vaccinations sixteen vaccine preventable diseases ref name childmex ref vaccine doses administered mexico usually valid united states ref name childmex immunization schedule children mexico follows class wikitable vaccines ref name childmex name age administration diseases prevented bcg birth tuberculosis antihepatitis b birth months hepatitis


b rotarix months rotavirus pneumococcal vaccine months months pneumococcal pneumonia antihepatitis months hepatitis pentavalent vaccine months h influenzae type b pertussis diphtheria tetanus polio varicella vaccine months chicken pox triple viral srp months years measles mumps rubella influenza vaccine months months years high risk influenza human papillomavirus vaccine


approval nigeria nigeria expanded programme immunization epi introduced provide free immunization polio measles diphtheria whooping cough tuberculosis yellow fever nigerian children less two years old free immunization obtained primary health centre country vaccines usually administered government health care worker also conduct routine vaccination visits schools children given school vaccinated ref name obasi chinedu pakistan facing numerous minor polio epidemics pakistani government ruled polio vaccination mandatory indisputable


statement pakistani police commissioner riaz khan mehsud mercy decided deal refusal cases iron hands anyone refuses vaccine sent jail panama covid vaccination may become mandatory government employees unvaccinated employees may forced take unpaid leave completed vaccine schedule schoolchildren child 's age required access government 's main scholarship program russia immunization voluntary russia may russian president vladimir putin said mandating coronavirus vaccinations would impractical impossible


samoa wake declared measles epidemic samoan authorities made vaccination measles compulsory november slovenia according publication ''cmaj'' ref name walkinshaw slovenia one world 's aggressive comprehensive vaccination programs program mandatory nine designated diseases within first three months life infants must vaccinated tuberculosis tetanus polio pertussis haemophilus influenza type b within months vaccines required measles mumps rubella finally child starts school child must vaccinated hepatitis b medical exemption request


submitted committee application reasons religion conscience would acceptable failure comply results fine compliance rates top kraigher says adding nonmandatory vaccines one human papillomavirus coverage mandatory vaccination measles introduced since children receive two doses vaccine compliance rate tbe vaccination rate estimated general population comparison neighboring austria


national regional ministries health ref name delgado ref inter territorial council composed representatives region meets discuss health related issues spanning across spain institute health carlosiii isciiii public research institute manages biomedical research advancement health sciences disease preventions ref name functions ref isciii may suggest introduction new vaccines spain 's recommended health schedule direct control ministry health although ministry health responsible oversight health care services policy devolution divides responsibilities among local


agencies including health planning programing fiscal duties direct management health services decentralization proposes difficulties collecting information national level ref name nitag policies journal ref inter territorial council 's commission public health works establish health care policies according recommendations technical working groups via letters meetings conferences technical working group vaccines review data vaccine preventable diseases proposes recommendations policies ref name nitag policies journal additional groups outside government propose recommendations recommendations must approved commission public health inter territorial council point


threat epidemic ref name vaccination asp first systematic immunization schedule provinces spain established continuously updated autonomous community regard doses certain ages recommendation additional vaccine proposed schedule ref name vaccination asp schedule proposed newest change inclusion pneumococcal vaccine children months schedule plans propose vaccine varicella children months years furthermore general health law echoes article constitution


article establishes need proper clinical documentation informed consent patient although written informed consent mandated verbal request vaccine minor autonomous regions collect data either electronic registries written physician charts calculate immunization coverage ref name delgado switzerland swiss vaccination schedule recommendations developed federal vaccination commission federal office public health collaboration cantons minors aged older may consent immunization pfizer biontech covid vaccine without parental approval tanzania according world health


organization vaccination coverage tanzania ref name whoa ref electronic immunisation register established permits online access medical records mothers infants enabling vaccination teams remote areas operate effectively especially nomadic people also helps coordinate stock levels order new supplies united kingdom united kingdom purchase distribution vaccines managed centrally recommended vaccines provided free nhs ref name freed ref uk laws require vaccination schoolchildren ref name freed children aged consent


immunizations without parental consent gillick test children consent vaccination parental objections demonstrate mature understanding ramifications procedure united states united states advisory committee immunization practices makes scientific recommendations regarding vaccines vaccination schedules federal government state governments private health insurance companies generally follow see vaccination schedule schedule recommended united states fifty states us mandate immunizations children enroll public school various exemptions available depending state states


exemptions people medical contraindications vaccines states except california maine mississippi new york west virginia allow religious exemptions sixteen states allow parents cite personal conscientious philosophical objections ref name ncsl ref increasing number parents using religious philosophical exemptions researchers cited increased use exemptions contributing loss herd immunity within communities hence increasing number disease outbreaks american academy pediatrics aap advises physicians respect refusal parents vaccinate child adequate discussion unless


child put significant risk harm eg epidemic deep contaminated puncture wound circumstances aap states parental refusal immunization constitutes form medical neglect reported state child protective services agencies several states allow minors legally consent vaccination parental objections mature minor doctrine immunizations compulsory military enlistment us vaccines recommended us government citizens required green card applicants requirement stirred controversy applied hpv


vaccine july due cost vaccine addition thirteen required vaccines prevent highly contagious diseases communicable respiratory route hpv spread sexual contact november requirement canceled though federal guidelines require written consent receive vaccination require doctors give recipients legal representatives vaccine information statement vis specific informed consent laws made states ref name schools united states long history school vaccination requirements first school vaccination requirement enacted


students entering school influenced states implement similar statewide vaccination laws schools seen new york connecticut pennsylvania later midwest south western us twenty states school vaccination laws ref name hodge vaccination laws resulted political debates throughout united states opposed vaccination sought repeal local policies state laws example political controversy occurred chicago less ten percent children vaccinated despite twelve year old state law ref name hodge resistance


seen local level school district local school boards superintendents opposed state vaccination laws leading state board health inspectors examine vaccination policies schools resistance proceeded mid nationwide childhood immunization initiative developed goal increasing vaccination rates among children ninety percent two year period observation initiative reviewed immunization records million children vaccinated children received recommended vaccines ref name malone ref constitutionality childhood vaccination


examined supreme court case ''zucht v king'' court decided school could deny admission children failed provide certification vaccination protection public health ref name malone measles epidemic maricopa county arizona ''maricopa county health department vs harmon'' examined arguments individual 's right education state 's need protect spread disease court decided prudent take action combat spread disease denying un vaccinated children place school


risk spread measles passed ref name malone schools united states require updated immunization record incoming returning students states require immunization record mean students must get vaccinated exemptions determined state level united states exemptions take one three forms medical vaccine contraindicated due component ingredient allergy existing medical condition religious personal philosophical opposition states allow religious exemptions states requiring proof religious membership


mississippi west virginia california permit religious exemptions ref name calibill ref however measles outbreak led repeal religious exemptions state new york mmr vaccination state washington prior states allowed personal philosophical opposition vaccination measles outbreak also led repeal exemptions number states ref name ncsl research studies found correlation rise vaccine preventable diseases non medical exemptions school vaccination requirements mandatory vaccinations attending public schools received criticism parents


say vaccine mandates attend public schools prevent one 's right choose especially vaccinations could harmful ref name policy ref people believe forced get vaccination could cause trauma may lead seeking medical care attention ever constitutional law states liberty withdraw public health regulations includes mandatory vaccination laws threaten fines certain laws looked immunization requirements trying changed cannot succeed due legal challenges ref name auto ref california removed non medical exemptions school entrance lawsuits


filed arguing right children attend school regardless vaccination history suspend bill 's implementation altogether ref name auto however lawsuits ultimately failed see also world immunization week vaccination requirements international travel references policy vaccination pharmaceuticals policy


'''mesosociology''' study intermediate ''meso'' social forces stratification income age gender race ethnicity organizations geographically circumscribed communities mesosociology lies analysis large scale macro forces economy human societies domain macrosociology everyday human social interactions small scale domain microsociology social control meso level forces social control include organizations communities organizations middle level structures control one type total institution organization people confined adhere society 's norms including prisons


mental hospitals another type middle level organization reintegration structure structure rehabilitates conform include rehabilitation centers drugs alcohol final type organization safety valve organization provide outlets behavior considered deviant cannot eradicated society including prostitution communities also instruments social control things controlled local governments often visible signs social control community police force organization neighborhoods references turner jonathan h ''sociology'' pearson education upper saddle


music human speech sounds non human animals machines make ref name platostanfordedu many different ways denoting fundamental aspects music specific sound popular aspects include melody pitches occur consecutively harmony pitches regarded groups necessarily sounding time form chords rhythm meter timbre also known sound 's color however noise music may consist mainly noise musique concr te often consists sound samples non musical nature sometimes random juxtaposition ambient music may consist recordings wildlife nature arrival

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of music


ideas'' vol p ref idea absolute music developed end th century writings authors early german romanticism wilhelm heinrich wackenroder ludwig tieck e hoffmann ref name horowitz adherents program music perspective believed music could convey emotions images one example program music berlioz 's ''symphonie fantastique'' fourth movement composer 's depiction story artist poisons opium executed majority opposition absolute instrumental based music came composer richard


wagner notable operas philosophers friedrich nietzsche georg wilhelm friedrich hegel wagner 's works chiefly programmatic often used vocalization said music go comes word word stands higher tone nietzsche wrote many commentaries applauding music wagner also amateur composer romantic philosophers proponents absolute music johann von goethe saw music subjective human language absolute transcendent means peering higher realm order beauty


expressed spiritual connection music part iv chief work ''the world representation'' arthur schopenhauer said music answer mystery life profound arts expresses deepest thoughts life immediate stages erotic musical erotic chapter ''either or'' ren kierkegaard examines profundity music wolfgang amadeus mozart sensual nature ''don giovanni'' meaning purpose book ''how mind works'' steven pinker dubbed music auditory cheesecake phrase


years since served challenge musicologists psychologists believe otherwise among note stir philip ball book ''the music instinct'' noted music seems reach core means human cultures world say 'i'm musical' would meaningless ball writes akin saying 'i'm alive' ref name music instinct ref filmed debate ball suggests music might get emotive power ability mimic people perhaps ability


origin philosophic shift sometimes attributed baumgarten th century followed kant writing ancient term ''aesthetics'' meaning sensory perception received present day connotation recent decades philosophers tended emphasize issues besides beauty enjoyment example music 's capacity express emotion central issue aesthetics sub discipline philosophy th century important contributions made peter kivy jerrold levinson roger scruton stephen davies however many musicians music critics non philosophers contributed aesthetics music th century


significant debate arose eduard hanslick music critic musicologist composer richard wagner harry partch musicologists kyle gann studied tried popularize microtonal music usage alternate musical scales also many modern composers like la monte young rhys chatham glenn branca paid much attention system tuning called intonation strong tendency aesthetics music emphasize paramount importance compositional structure however issues concerning aesthetics music include lyricism harmony hypnotism emotiveness temporal dynamics resonance


playfulness color see also musical development often thought music ability affect emotions intellect psychology assuage loneliness incite passions philosopher plato suggests ''republic'' music direct effect soul therefore proposes ideal regime music would closely regulated state book vii see also music psychology sonic philosophy notes references pinker steven ''how mind works'' new york w w norton reading adorno theodor w ''introduction


pbk adorno theodor w ''the culture industry selected essays mass culture'' edited introduction j bernstein routledge classics london new york routledge cloth pbk adorno theodor w ''essays music'' selected introduction commentary notes richard leppert new translations susan h gillespie berkeley university california press adorno theodor w ''philosophy new music'' translated robert hullot kentor minneapolis university minnesota press adorno theodor w ''night music essays music '' edited rolf tiedemann translated wieland hoban london


new york seagull books arena leonardo v ''la durata infinita del non suono'' mimesis milan barzun jacques ''critical questions music letters culture biography '' selected edited introduced bea friedland chicago university chicago press beardsley monroe c ''aesthetics problems philosophy criticism'' new york harcourt brace beardsley monroe c herbert schueller eds ''aesthetic inquiry essays art criticism philosophy art'' belmont calif dickenson pub co bloch ernst ''essays philosophy music'' translated peter palmer introduction


david drew cambridge new york cambridge university press pbk bonds mark evan ''absolute music history idea'' oxford new york oxford university press budd malcolm ''music emotions philosophical theories'' international library philosophy london boston routledge kegan paul cloth pbk budd malcolm music expression emotion ''journal aesthetic education'' vol autumn pp nbsp chadwick henry ''boethius consolations music logic theology philosophy'' oxford clarendon press new york oxford university press cloth pbk


clifton thomas ''music heard study applied phenomenology'' new yale university press fronzi giacomo ''philosophical considerations contemporary music sounding constellations'' newcastle cambridge scholars publishing deleuze gilles ''a thousand plateaus'' london minneapolis university minnesota press goehr lydia 'the imaginary museum musical works essay philosophy music' oxford kivy p ''introduction philosophy music'' hackett publishing langer susanne k ''philosophy new key study symbolism reason rite art'' third edition cambridge harvard university press lippman edward


''a history western musical aesthetics'' lincoln university nebraska press cloth pbk nietzsche friedrich wilhelm ''the birth tragedy case wagner'' translated commentary walter kaufmann new york vintage books pbk rowell lewis eugene ''thinking music introduction philosophy music'' amherst university massachusetts press scruton roger ''the aesthetics music'' oxford university press external links matteo ravasio https ieputmedu music analytic perspectives philosophy musice ''internet encyclopedia philosophy'' music


milk emulsified colloid liquid butterfat globules dispersed within water based solution '''interface colloid science''' interdisciplinary intersection branches chemistry physics nanoscience fields dealing colloids heterogeneous systems consisting mechanical mixture particles nbsp nm nbsp nm dispersed continuous medium colloidal solution heterogeneous mixture particle size substance intermediate true solution suspension ie nm smoke fire example colloidal system tiny particles solid float

Natural science
Chemistry
Interface And Colloid Science


air like true solutions colloidal particles small cannot seen naked eye easily pass filter paper colloidal particles big enough blocked parchment paper animal membrane interface colloid science applications ramifications chemical industry pharmaceuticals biotechnology ceramics minerals nanotechnology microfluidics among others many books dedicated scientific discipline ref name dukhin dukhin goetz p j ''characterization liquids nano micro particulates porous bodies using ultrasound'' elsevier ref glossary terms ''nomenclature


principles overview beginning european christians catholics various protestant denominations sought convert native american tribes encountered christianity regardless pre existing beliefs tribes united states gained independence late government continued suppress indigenous practices promote forcible conversion government agencies religious organizations often cooperated forcible conversion efforts many cases violence used tool suppression government 's violent eradication ghost dance practitioners turn th century

Humanities
Theology
Native American Religions


american government began turn less violent means suppressing native american religious beliefs series federal laws passed banning traditional indigenous practices feasts sun dance ceremonies use sweat lodge among others government persecution prosecution officially continued passage american indian religious freedom act airfa although argued airfa little real effect protection native religious beliefs another significant system religious suppression removal native american children families system government funded


church operated american indian boarding schools also known residential schools schools native children taught european christian beliefs values mainstream white culture english language simultaneously forbidden speak languages practice cultural beliefs system forcible conversion suppression indigenous languages cultures continued non native anthropologists estimate membership traditional native american religions st century people since native americans practicing traditional ceremonies usually public organizations membership rolls members estimates


likely substantially lower actual numbers people participate traditional ceremonies native american spiritual leaders also note academic estimates substantially underestimate numbers participants century us federal government persecution prosecutions traditional ceremonies caused believers practice religions secrecy many adherents traditional spiritual ways also attend christian services least time also affect statistics since years prior legal persecutions ended airfa sacred sites united states protected areas law major native american


religions earth lodge religion earth lodge religion founded northern california southern oregon tribes wintun spread tribes achomawi shasta siletz name also known warm house dance among pomo predicted occurrences similar predicted ghost dance return ancestors world 's end earth lodge religion impacted later religious practice dream dance belonging klamath modoc ref name w ghost dance sioux ghost dance ghost dance movement influenced


many native american communities ghost dance movement late religious revitalization movement western united states initially founded local ceremony nevada paiute prophet wodziwob movement gain widespread popularity ghost dance religion founded wovoka jack wilson also northern paiute ghost dance created time genocide save lives native americans enabling survive current coming catastrophes calling dead fight behalf help


drive colonists lands ref name mooney mooney james ''the ghost dance religion wounded knee'' new york dover publications ref december wovoka thought son medicine man tavibo numu tibo'o fell sick fever eclipse sun occurred january upon recovery claimed visited spirit world supreme predicted world would soon end restored pure state presence messiah native americans would inherit world


including already dead order live eternally without suffering order reach reality wovoka stated native americans live honestly shun ways whites especially consumption alcohol called meditation prayer singing dancing alternative mourning dead would soon resurrect wovoka 's followers saw form messiah became known red man 's christ tavibo participated ghost dance similar vision great spirit earth removing


white men earthquake removing human beings tavibo 's vision concluded native americans would return live restored environment believers revelations would resurrected religion spread many tribes reservations west including shoshone arapaho cheyenne sioux dakota lakota nakota fact bands lakota dakota desperate hope period forced relocation genocide making pilgrimage nevada ghost dance became militant resistance white


religion also known tschida native shaker religion influenced waashat religion founded john slocum squaxin island member name comes shaking twitching motions used participants brush sins religion combines christianity traditional indian teachings religion still practiced today indian shaker church ref name w longhouse religion replica six nations haudenosaunee longhouse represents traditional practices take place longhouse religion popular name religious movement known code handsome lake gaihwi io good


mexican people ref name yolotl yolotl gonz lez torres ''the revival mexican religions impact nativism'' ''numen international review history religions'' vol jan published brill pp ref movement came light led mexico city intellectuals grown significantly grassroots level recent times also spreading chicanos north america ref name rostas susanna e rostas '' http bibliotecaclacsoeduar ar libros lasa rostaspdf mexicanidad resurgence indian popular mexican nationalism university cambridge ref rituals involve mitotiliztli ref name luna jennie marie luna ''danza azteca indigenous identity spirituality


activism performance'' san jose state university department mexican american studies ref followers called ''mexicatl'' singular ''mexicah'' plural simply ''mexica'' mostly urban suburban people ref name rostas mexicayotl movement started founding group ''nueva mexicanidad'' antonio velasco pi years rodolfo nieva l pez founded ''movimiento confederado restaurador de la cultura del huac'' co founder francisco jimenez sanchez later decades became spiritual leader mexicayotl movement endowed honorific ''tlacaelel'' deep influence shaping


properly known native american church also sometimes called peyote road peyote way religious tradition involving ceremonial sacred use ''lophophora williamsii'' peyote use peyote religious purposes thousands years old thought originated within one following tribes carrizo lipan apache mescalero apache tonkawa karankawa caddo plains cree carrizo lipan apache three likely sources mexico huichol tepehu n native mexicans use peyote since


despite several efforts make peyote ceremonies illegal ceremonial peyote use spread mexico area oklahoma western parts united states notable native american church nac members include quannah parker founder nac big moon kiowa tribe waashat religion waashat religion section date january waashat religion also called washani religion longhouse religion seven drum religion sunday dance religion prophet dance dreamer faith wanapam indian smohalla c used w ashat rituals build religion pacific northwest smohalla claimed visions came


dreams visited spirit world sent back teach people name waasan spoke religion meant dancing worship ref name dance led return original way life white influences established ceremonial music dancing smohalla 's speaking called yuyunipitqana shouting mountain ref name w dreamer faith elements dancing foreshadowed later ghost dances plains peoples ref name dance ref back ndash ndash ndash heritage religion ref name dance believers thought white people would disappear nature would return


way came ref name dance achieve natives must things required spirits like weyekin ref name dance spirits wanted throw violent ways cast white culture buy sell disrespect earth ref name dance must also dance '''prophet dance''' w ashat ref name dance religion combined elements christianity native beliefs rejected white american culture ref name dance made difficult assimilate control tribes united states ref name dance us trying convert plains tribes hunter gatherers


farmers european american tradition ref name dance wanted remake natives found problem followed dreamer cult model man indian aspire indian nothing else b odeneal ref name dance prophets movement included smohalla wanapam people kotiakan yakama nation homli walla walla ref name dance messages carried along columbia river communities ref name dance unclear exactly started christianity influenced earlier form thought something


arrival non indians epidemic prophet apocalyptic vision waashat dance involves seven drummers salmon feast use eagle swan feathers sacred song sung every seventh day ref name w waldman ref cruzo'ob maya cruzo'ob name group insurgent yucatec maya designated caste war took place yucatan peninsula term made word cross spanish language pluralizer o'ob mayan language caste war started


social movement three years later took religious turn appearance maya cross talking cross according legend cult cross attributed soldier jos mar barrera manuel nahuat juan de la cruz puc barrera deserted ranks yucatecan government join rebellious maya according white yucatecos vicinity cenote barrera formed three crosses tree help manuel nahuat maya ventriloquism skills managed convince companions discovery


holy cross maya legend version cross appeared close cenote inspire maya continue fighting october appears proclamation juan de la cruz puc maya leader interpreter cross holy maya cross supreme symbol rebellious yucatec maya juan seen prophet sermons prophecies juan de la cruz puc collected a'almaj t'aan considered bible among cruzo'ob faith rebellious maya believed cross god


communicated way town noh cah santa cruz balam nah kampocolch cah established cult holy cross talking cross place became capital maya state known chan santa cruz little holy cross march community attacked yucatecan army orders colonel novelo siege manuel nahuat died colonel took three crosses jos mar barrera survived attack established cult cross communicated maya


writing barrera died end cult preserved followers cross became known cruzo'ob rebels organized military theocracy similar pre hispanic models superior leader tata chikiuc political religious leader nohoch tata caretaker cross tata polin contrast whites known dzulob dzul singular cruzo'ob faith began syncretic religion christianity maya spirituality faith practiced mainly mexican state quintana roo lesser extent


say hoo come men call women forward calling turtles shake shells legs women come forward dance various dances throughout night snake dance friendship dance ribbon dance etc participants touch medicine throughout night intended give participants purification strength often participants eat traditional foods gathering foods hominy cornbread pashofa lye grape dumplings salt meat fry bread wild onions ramps three sisters vegetables usually eaten stomp dances


community important tribes preserves teachings practices could lost without stomp dance one ways tribes commune together ceremonies sun dance sun dance religious ceremony practiced number native american first nations peoples primarily plains nations tribe type sun dance ceremony distinct practices ceremonial protocols many cases ceremony held private open public details ceremony kept public


knowledge great respect desire protection traditional ways many ceremonies features common specific dances songs passed many generations use traditional drums sacred pipe praying fasting cases piercing skin canada plains cree call ceremony thirst dance saulteaux plains ojibwe call rain dance blackfoot ''siksika'' ''kainai'' ''piikani'' call medicine dance also practiced canadian dakota nakoda dene religious leaders


leaders native religions include pop led pueblo revolt quautlatas inspired tepehuan revolt spanish neolin tenskwatawa kenekuk smohalla john slocum wovoka black elk many others tenskwatawa george catlin time time important religious leaders organized revivals indiana tenskwatawa called shawnee prophet americans led religious revival following smallpox epidemic series witch hunts beliefs based earlier teachings lenape prophets scattamek neolin predicted coming apocalypse would destroy european american


sign native american church american indian religious freedom act american indian religious freedom act united states federal law joint resolution congress provides protection tribal culture traditional religious rights access sacred sites freedom worship traditional ceremony use possession sacred objects native americans inuit aleut native hawaiians passed august native american graves protection repatriation act native american graves protection repatriation act nagpra publ stat united states federal law


passed november requiring federal agencies institutions receive federal funding return native american cultural items human remains respective peoples cultural items include funerary objects sacred objects objects cultural patrimony religious freedom restoration act religious freedom restoration act also known rfra united states federal law aimed preventing laws substantially burden person 's free exercise religion held unconstitutional applied states ''city boerne v flores'' decision ruled rfra


assembly st session un headquarters new york city september article particular emphasizes indigenous peoples right cultural heritage including ceremonial knowledge protected intellectual property see also alaska native religion bah ' faith native americans crow religion declaration rights indigenous peoples falls creek baptist conference center great spirit green corn ceremony indigenous intellectual property inuit religion medicine man midewiwin mythologies indigenous peoples north america religious rights recognition native american sacred sites united states sacred bundle tengrism traditional


knowledge notes references brown brian edward religion law land native americans judicial interpretations sacred land greenwood press buff rachel tecumseh tenskwatawa myth historiography popular memory ''historical reflections r flexions historiques'' carpenter kristen property rights approach sacred sites asserting place indians nonowners ucla law review carpenter kristen individual religious freedoms american indian tribal constitutional law indian civil rights act forty ucla american indian studies publications getches david h wilkinson charles f williams robert jr cases


materials federal indian law fifth edition thomas west company united states stewart omer c peyote religion history university oklahoma press norman london waldman carl atlas north american indian checkmark books new york utter jack american indians answers today 's questions nd edition university oklahoma press external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwlibraryillinoisedu sshel anthropology nativeamer nativeamerreligionhtml guide research native american religions university illinois urbana champaign religion north america


traitors' gate gerkin background tower london london uk '''historical sociology''' interdisciplinary field research combines sociological historical perspectives methods understand past societies developed time impact present emphasising need mutual line inquiry past present understand discrete historical events fit wider societal progress ongoing dilemmas complementary comparative analysis ref name ref looking social structures changed reproduced '''historical sociology''' strives understand visible mechanisms hidden

Social science
Sociology
Historical sociology


natural science conceptions laws look apply various historical material gather resources order prove theory applied hand sociologists parallel investigation theory could apply theory certain cases investigation different modalities widely used process second theory sociologists mainly use applying contrasting certain events policies analysed specific makes unique quality composition certain events used sociologist comparative data contrasted


compared interpretive sociologists common use 'verstehen' tradition lastly third way sociologists typically relate taking look causalities macro point view mill 's method principle difference case effect cause present contrasted case effect cause absent b principle agreement cases effects compared terms ideally identical causes important debate usefulness mill 's method sociological research relates


fact historical research often based cases many sociological theories probabilistic deterministic today historical sociology measured conjunction questions rich detail scope human agency shared theme sociology history accounting paradox human agency problem agency problem finding way account human experience recognises simultaneously equal measure history society made constant less purposeful individual action individual action however


purposeful made history society ref name ref theme presented across authors marx spencer symbiotic relation enables action create structure whilst structure defines action ref name historical sociology outlines key understanding human agency track development time better enabling us see changes continuations actions structures shape human agency throughout societies comparative historical sociology contemporary historical sociology primarily concerned state developed since middle ages analysing relations states classes economic


political systems impact disciplines international relations see international relations historical sociology become increasingly used approach international relations draw upon reflective usefullness historical sociology exploring past present together challenging unhistorical viewpoints field stem realist neoliberalism paradigms often see wider structural makeup world static political economy see political economy work political economy aims reconcile development political economic systems insight policy historical sociology critiques political economy


viewing present natural structure focus history path dependent outcome shaping insights around prominent figures limited engagement wider processes regular people notable authors giovanni arrighi barrington moore randall collins emile durkheim norbert elias michel foucault john hall michael mann karl marx karl polanyi stein rokkan theda skocpol charles tilly immanuel wallerstein max weber reinhard bendix richard lachmann sinisa malesevic margaret somers julia adams george steinmetz journals journal historical sociology research organisations historical sociology american sociological association https wwwasanetorg asa communities sections comparative historical sociology comparative historical sociology


british sociological association https wwwbritsoccouk groups study groups historical comparative sociology study group historical comparative sociology study group international sociological association https wwwisa sociologyorg en research networks research committees rc historical sociology historical sociology research committee interdisciplinary harvard university https sociologyfasharvardedu pages political historical sociology political historical sociology research cluster see also comparative historical research comparative sociology critical juncture theory history sociology international relations theory sociocultural evolution world systems theory economic sociology cliodynamics historical materialism imprinting references reading robert leroux ''history sociology france scientific history durkheimian school'' london routledge charles tilly ''historical sociology'' scott g mcnall gary n howe eds current perspectives social theory vol greenwich connecticut jai


'the historical sociology historical sociology germany united states th century' ''sociologica'' italian journal sociology online february http wwwsociologicamulinoit journal article index article journal article online george steinmetz'the relations sociology history united states current state affairs' ''journal historical sociology'' john baylis steve smith ''globalization world politics introduction international relations'' oxford university press rd ed p nbsp david baronov dialectics inquiry across historical social sciences routledge press reading list introductory delanty g isin e f https wwwworldcatorg title handbook historical sociology oclc handbook historical


sociology london sage external links http cliodynamicsru indexphpoption com content task view id itemid scientific prediction historical sociology ibn khaldun meets al saud interdisciplinary subfields sociology historical sociology social history


hobby photographers taking pictures wildlife chobe river botswana '''wildlife observation''' practice noting occurrence abundance animal species specific location time either research purposes recreation common examples type activity bird watching whale watching process scientific wildlife observation includes reporting diagnosis species geographical location date time details observer reason observation explanations occurrence wildlife observation performed animals alive

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Wildlife observation


notable example face face observation live cameras dead primary example notifying roadkill occurred outlines basic information needed collect data wildlife observation also contribute scientific investigations distribution habitat relations trends movement wildlife species wildlife observation allows study organisms minimal disturbance ecosystem depending type method equipment used use equipment unmanned aerial vehicles uavs commonly known drones may disturb cause negative impacts


animals help identify potential issues become severe problems world additionally animal observation participate also actively participating conservation animal life oftentimes two subjects go hand hand one another observation animals individuals also discovering issues animals around world currently facing ways put fight observation fewer species animals become extinct research one get started observing wildlife helping environment important research


animal choosing observe one simply went observation process skipped crucial process obtaining knowledge animals would difficult determine anything ordinary ref name watch wildlife ref observing would wise find simple information animal animal eats animal carnivore herbivore omnivore animals prey animal animal live animal dangerous endangered animal travel packs alone


animal 's sleeping habits ref name watch wildlife projects programs devoted wildlife observation projects variety projects websites devoted wildlife observations one common projects bird observations example http ebirdorg e bird enjoy bird watching variety ways one contribute type wildlife observation national wildlife refuge system volunteer opportunities citizen science projects one limiting time could purchase federal duck stamp donates money wildlife refuge lands past


wildlife cameras around world similarly http wildlifeobservernet wildlife observer network hosts dozen wildlife camera projects around world providing tools database manage photographs camera networks monitoring programs monitoring programs wildlife utilize new easier ways monitor animal species citizen scientists research scientists alike one monitoring device automated recorder automated recorders reliable way monitor species bird bats amphibians provide ability save independently identify specific animal call ref name furnas ref automated recorder analyzes sounds


species identify species many ref name furnas found using automated recorders produced larger quantity even quality data compared traditional point count data recording ref name acevedo ref providing better quality also provides permanent record census continually reviewed potential bias ref name acevedo monitoring device improve wildlife observation potentially save animals using device allow continued tracking populations continued censusing individuals within species allow faster population size estimates ref name furnas live watching


observation birdwatching one popular forms wildlife observation birdwatching typically performed recreational pleasure looking birdwatch typically travel forest wooded area pair binoculars hand aid process birdwatching become important amount deforestation occurring world birds arguably important factor balance environmental systems pollinate plants disperse seeds scavenge carcasses recycle nutrients back earth decrease total number birds would cause


destruction much environmental system plants trees around world would die alarming rate would turn set chain reaction would cause many animals die due environment change habitat loss birdwatchers beach one ways birdwatching effect environment whole consistent birdwatching observer would able identify whether seeing less certain species bird happens typically reasons occurrence whether


increase pollution area possibly increase population predators ref name ref watcher take notice change typically see could notify city park allow investigate cause bit action birdwatchers preserving future animal human life subsequently taking children birdwatching allowing future generation understand importance animal observation children learn young age environmental system works


life intertwined world much better hands ref name children ones pioneer conservation movements attempt protect habit animals livestreams live streams animal exhibits various zoos aquariums across united states also become extremely popular tennessee aquarium webcam allows online viewers take look happening secret reef exhibit consists reef fish sharks rescued green sea turtle perhaps popular animals cams united states though come naturally


largest zoo united states san diego zoo san diego zoo features eight live cams website panda elephant ape penguin polar bear tiger condor koala purpose live streams help educate public behaviors several different animals entertain might able travel zoo notable zoos webcams national zoo woodland park zoo houston zoo atlanta zoo additionally smithsonian national museum natural history opened butterfly plant observation


pavilion visitors walk large tent experience one kind situation hundreds rare butterflies across world inches faces collecting data case majority subjects one best effective ways observe live animals data collection process done livestream wild useful data collected animals currently wild ref name studycom studycom newspaper studycom access date ref ways data collected endless really


depends purpose individual data would useful example someone interested deer interact animals certain location would beneficial take notes record animals native area deer located describe scenarios deer positive negative interaction species animals instance would really helpful observer collect data pertaining


types food deer eat study focusing interaction amongst animals another example collecting data wildlife would useful keeping track total number certain species exists within forest naturally impossible get definitive number accurate approximation made could beneficial determining random increase decrease population increase could due change species migration habits


prevent typically step taken posting wildlife crossing sign turn allows public know common animal crossings maine california states pioneers movement process become particularly important heavily traveled roads one would like endanger animals ref name wildlifecrossingnet title wildlifecrossingnet wildlife observation reporting website wwwwildlifecrossingnet access date ref currently app available iphone android devices made specifically purpose identifying road kill called https wwwherpmapperorg mobile mapper mobile mapper app partner


herpmapper website purpose website use user recorded observations research conservation purposes ref name wildlifecrossingnet title wildlifecrossingnet average cost repairing car damaged deer medium large sized animal even though way accidents involving animals completely prevented placing signs possible animal crossings zones would cause drivers drive carefully therefore fewer accidents economically means families saving money could used different way help contributed


society whole issues leading extinction animals climate change climate change one heavily discussed topics around world today politically scientifically climate earth currently experiencing steadily changing time due natural causes human exploitation ref name media web smart website wwwclimateandweathernet access date ref climate change potential detrimental wildlife across world whether rising sea levels changes temperatures years deforestation ref name media examples contributing factors climate change


climate change something citizens entirely prevent happening even wanted many natural causes volcanic activity earth 's orbit around sun strong contributing factors phenomena ref name canada ref however prevention measures taken prevent climate change happening quickly primary way prevent climate change society reduce amount greenhouse gases present atmosphere ref name canada done improving energy efficiency many buildings stoppage deforestation


bear hunting food increase sea level causes flooding coastal wetlands certain animals unable survive due http edenccecornelledu disasters documents pdfs saltwater innundation fact sheetpdf saltwater inundation ref name actforlibrariesorg increase total amount saltwater present wetlands could prove problematic many species may simply migrate areas smaller ecosystems within wetlands could destroyed influences animal food chain ref name actforlibrariesorg polar bears animals specifically affected process rising sea levels living near arctic region polar bears find food


ice caps sheets ice sheets continue become fewer quantity predicted polar bears difficult time sustaining life year could less earth ref name actforlibrariesorg coral reefs primary ecosystem would affected continuing increase sea level blockquote coral reef ecosystem adapted thrive within certain temperature sea level range corals live symbiotic relationship photosynthetic zooxanthellae zooxanthellae need sunlight order produce nutrients necessary coral


sea level rise may cause decrease solar radiation sea surface level affecting ability photosynthetic zooxanthellae produce nutrients coral whereas sudden exposure coral reef atmosphere due low tide event may induce coral bleaching ref name actforlibrariesorg blockquote coral reef fish loss coral would subsequent effect total number fish exist within ecosystems indo pacific coral reefs alone different species fish relationship species coral ref name eatlasorgau eatlas website eatlasorgau access date ref


possibility catastrophic coastal ecosystems pollution pollution another crucial threat animal life human life across world every form pollution effect wildlife whether air water ground sometimes origin form pollution visible easy determine times mystery exactly causing death animals constant consistent observation habitat analysis humans help prevent loss animal life recognizing early signs pollution


problem becomes large ocean water pollution map area fishing affected bp oil spill pollution enter bodies water many different ways toxic runoff pesticides fertilizers containers oil hazardous materials falling ships debris humans picked ref name pollution threats wwf threats wwf website world wildlife fund access date ref matter form pollution effects water pollution animal life drastic example bp oil spill


occurred impacted birds sea turtles approximately marine animals hundreds thousands fish ref name deadly toll ref observation animal life affected spill unique definitely larger scale still represents accurate depiction observation crucial animal lives example observing certain species sea turtle affected oil spill zoologists teams would able determine effects loss sea turtle would ref name deadly toll


another prominent example one day fisherman goes lake frequently visits notices two three dead fish surface knowing frequently happen fisherman tells local city officials park rangers occurrence find farmer using new pesticide runs lake simply observing common effects water pollution stopped becoming severe air pollution smoke coming factory air pollution


commonly associated image billowing clouds smoke rising sky large factory fumes smoke previously stated definitely prominent form air pollution one air pollution come emission cars smoking sources ref name pollution threats wwf air pollution affect birds though like one may thought air pollution affects mammals birds reptiles organism requires oxygen live ref name pollution threats wwf frequently highly dangerous air pollution


animal observation process rather simple abundance dead animals located near vicinity pollution primary concern air pollution widespread pollution become short period time acid rain one largest forms pollution today issue acid rain affects literally every living organism comes contact whether trees forest water ocean lake skin humans animals typically acid rain combination sulfur dioxide


nitrogen oxides emitted factories ref name pollution threats wwf controlled timely manner could lead loss life due dangerous nature composition rain deforestation deforestation become one prevalent issues environmentally continuously growing population space contain humans earth forests frequently first areas cleared make room ref name society ref according ''national geographic'' forests still cover approximately percent land earth year large


trees forests unlikely almost impossible happen another solution partial removal forests removing portions forest keeps environment entire forest intact allows animals adapt surroundings ref name society additionally recommended every tree cut another one planted elsewhere forest ref name society economic effects animal observation costs observation typically costs animal observation minuscule previously stated animal observation done small large scale depends


goal individual mind example animal observation performed backyard house local state park charge one would take notepad phone device write data observations larger scale animal observation could performed animal reserve associated costs would associated keeping animals happy inside reserve impossible pinpoint exactly much zoos across world spend live streaming estimated


range every camera set costs observation prevents referring back example deceased wildlife observation section becomes apparent animal observation save families government money average cost repairing car damage large sized animal families government could save money making public aware proceed caution areas animals hit ref name roadkill statistics ref water pollution maracaibo lake additionally approximately million billion spent


water purity spent year protecting aquatic species nutrient pollution ref name roadkill statistics encouraging government willing spend money help save animals' lives sometimes effects pollution take effect able stop entirely one million seabirds hundred thousand aquatic mammals fish killed result water pollution year economic effects directly indirectly directly loss aquatic mammals fish direct impact sales food epa


estimated recently effects pollution cost fishing industry tens millions dollars sales indirectly loss birds causes humans spend money pest control food chain order small rodents insects birds prey upon longer killed birds die means pests find ways homes causes people call exterminators therefore setting chain reaction exterminators must use insecticides kill animals harmful runoff


ground local water systems instead allowing done naturally animal food chain see also animal migration tracking human bycatch wildlife photography references birding birdwatching environmental science observation hobbies research methods


'''american counseling association''' '''aca''' membership organization representing licensed professional counselors lpcs counseling students counseling professionals united states world 's largest association exclusively representing professional counselors nonprofit organization serves members various practice settings including mental health counseling marriage family counseling addictions substance use disorder counseling school counseling rehabilitation counseling career employment counseling counseling professors students also represented stated mission enhance quality life society promoting development professional counselors advancing counseling

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Counselor education


profession using profession practice counseling promote respect human dignity diversity association headquarters located alexandria virginia history former headquarters american personnel guidance association washington dc group founded '''american personnel guidance association''' '''apga''' formed merger '''national vocational guidance association''' '''nvga''' '''national association guidance counselor trainers''' '''nagct''' '''student personnel association teacher education''' '''spate''' '''american college personnel association''' '''acpa''' american personnel guidance association changed name '''american association


counseling development''' '''aacd''' july association adopted current name aca presidents elected association membership one year term full list aca presidents present found https wwwcounselingorg us aca history aca presidents branches divisions chartered divisions within american counseling association divisions provide leadership resources information unique specialized areas principles counseling divisions chartered aca elect division officers govern activities independently carry voice national aca governance members enhance professional identity practice


joining one divisions aca chartered branches us europe latin america publications aca publishes books journals educational materials counseling topics organization 's flagship magazine ''counseling today'' published month sent aca members via us mail aca takes stand aca moved san francisco conference expo nashville tennessee san francisco california tennessee 's legislature passed discriminatory bill hb sb targeting members lgbtq community others bill allowed counselors tennessee turn


clients away based strongly held principles' legislation 'denies services need targets counseling profession' violates aca 's code ethics group said ref name biz ref tennessee 's governor republican bill haslam signed bill law april insisting meant discriminatory opponents said law permits therapists counselors deny treatment gay lesbian transgender patients haslam signed bill aca members debated issue decided hold meeting tennessee officials said association received bids cities


deciding nix nashville chose san francisco 'the best choice inclusive inviting city' members ref name biz references external links academic organizations based united states mental health organizations virginia establishments united states organizations established organizations based alexandria virginia


'''biomechanical engineering''' bioengineering subdiscipline applies principles mechanical engineering biological systems stems scientific discipline biomechanics topics interest field include biomedical engineering agricultural engineering '''biomechanics specifically''' study biological systems human body combined study mechanics mechanical applications using skills learned biology engineering physics research development health care organs made artificial materials new advances prosthetic limbs creation biomaterial fake material

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Biomedical engineering
Biomechanical engineering


integrated living tissue live sync biological material one biggest advances medicine day field might also hold job installing also adjusting maintaining repairing providing technical help biomaterial combination knowledge mechanical engineering biology used potentially improve quality life organism research groups https webarchiveorg web http mestanfordedu groups bme indexhtml stanford university mechanical engineering https webarchiveorg web http wwwbmechetudelftnl delft university technology https webarchiveorg web http wwwapgatechedu research biomechanicsphp georgia institute technology http wwwetbyuedu groups babel indexhtm brigham young university broken since december https webarchiveorg web http wwwmaencsuedu research berg north


carolina state university broken since december references engineering disciplines


stresses rigorous analysis requirements societal organizational process individual levels appropriate identify causes performance gaps provide appropriate interventions improve sustain performance finally evaluate results requirements history hpt field hpt also referred performance improvement emerged fields educational technology instructional technology post war period application instructional systems design isd model consistently returning desired improvements organizational performance led emergence hpt separate

Applied science
Education
Educational Technology
Human performance technology


homme joe harless gilbert rummler particular pioneers field serious investigation early later citations gilbert rummler 's work reveal subsequent academic professional leaders field major factor rise prominence would become hpt publication ''analyzing performance problems'' robert f mager peter pipe success book subtitled really oughta wanna served draw attention expand awareness many factors affecting human performance addition knowledge


skills performer reading section edition book also cites seminal paper karen brethower maintenance systems neglected half behavior change contains early version performance deficiency analysis algorithm developed geary rummler university michigan rummler along tom gilbert would go found praxis corporation firm focused improving performance later rummler would join forces alan brache two would author ''improving performance'' clear expanded focus process


organizational performance related vein joe harless work developing refining approach expanding refining way problems human performance approached year mager pipe published landmark book harless assistance associate another notable field claude lineberry published ''an ounce analysis'' worth pound objectives beginning became known front end analysis fea hpt professionals work many different performance settings corporate educational institutions military bolin


definitions field international society performance improvement defines hpt systematic approach improving productivity competence uses set methods procedures strategy solving problems realizing opportunities related performance people specific process selection analysis design development implementation evaluation programs cost effectively influence human behavior accomplishment systematic combination three fundamental processes performance analysis cause analysis intervention selection applied individuals small groups large organizations ispi simpler


definition hpt systematic approach improving individual organizational performance pershing common misunderstanding word technology regards hpt relates information technologies hpt technology refers specialized aspects field human performance technology application scientific knowledge practical purposes esp industry branch knowledge dealing engineering applied science international society performance improvement developed http communityispiorg wgalphabeticaltab glossary hpt related terms characteristics hpt hpt based assumption human performance lawful