drugged kidnapped held captive members iskcon scholars religion often critiqued anti cult groups un critically believing anecdotal stories provided ex members new religions encouraging ex members think victims manipulation abuse irresponsibly scare mongering nrms well thousand groups might called cults listed files inform says eileen barker vast majority engaged criminal activities popular culture news media new religious movements cults appeared themes subjects


us print media published ''the association sociology religion'' formerly american ''catholic sociological society'' criticizes print media failing recognize social scientific efforts area new religious movements tendency use popular anti cultist definitions rather social scientific insight asserts failure print media recognize social scientific efforts area religious movement organizations impels us add yet another failing mark media report card weiss constructed assess media 's reporting social sciences see also chinese

Humanities
Theology
New Religious Movements


location oxford publisher oxford university press isbn title new new religions revisiting concept journal nova religio journal alternative emergent religions volume number year pages doi nr jstor nr reading encyclopedias barrett david b george kurian todd johnson ''world christian encyclopedia comparative survey churches religions modern world'' vols nd ed oxford new york oxford university press mead frank hill samuel ''handbook denominations united states'' abingdon press melton j gordon ''encyclopedia american religions'' th ed gale research melton j gordon


house p ''nb'' written confessional lutheran perspective beckford james ed ''new religious movements rapid social change'' paris unesco london beverly hills new delhi sage publications clarke peter b japanese new religions global perspective richmond curzon ferm vergilius ture anselm '' https archiveorg details religionintwenti ferm religion twentieth century '' new york philosophical library hexham irving karla poewe ''new religions global cultures'' boulder colorado westview press hexham irving stephen rost john w morehead eds ''encountering new religious movements holistic evangelical approach'' grand rapids kregel publications kranenborg reender dutch


language ''een nieuw licht op de kerk bijdragen van nieuwe religieuze bewegingen voor de kerk van vandaag new perspective church contributions nrms today 's church'' published https webarchiveorg web http wwwboekencentrumnl info englishtplcart het boekencentrum christian publishing house hague stark rodney ed ''religious movements genesis exodus numbers'' new york paragon house chryssides george ''exploring new religions'' london new york cassell davis derek h barry hankins eds ''new religious movements religious liberty america'' waco j dawson institute church state studies baylor university press enroth ronald j gordon


melton ''why cults succeed church fails'' elgin ill brethren press v p jenkins philip ''mystics messiahs cults new religions american history'' new york oxford university press kephart william zellner w w '' https archiveorg details extraordinarygro keph extraordinary groups examination unconventional life styles '' new york st martin 's press kohn rachael ''the new believers imagining god'' sydney harper collins loeliger carl garry trompf eds ''new religious movements melanesia'' suva fiji university south pacific university papua new guinea meldgaard helle johannes aagaard eds ''new religious movements


europe'' aarhus denmark aarhus university press needleman jacob george baker eds ''understanding new religions'' new york seabury press possamai adam ''religion popular culture hyper real testament'' brussels pie peter lang saliba john ''understanding new religious movements'' nd edition walnut creek lanham alta mira press staemmler birgit dehn ulrich ed establishing revolutionary introduction new religions japan lit nster thursby gene siddha yoga swami muktanada seat power prophets die postcharismatic fate new religious movements albany state university new york press


pp nbsp toch hans ''the social psychology social movements'' indianapolis bobbs merrill company towler robert ed ''new religions new europe'' aarhus denmark aarhus university press trompf gw ed ''cargo cults millenarian movements transoceanic comparisons new religious movements'' berlin new york mouton de gruyter wilson bryan jamie cresswell eds ''new religious movements challenge response'' london new york routledge external links http hirrhartsemedu denom new religious movementshtml hartford institute religious research new religious movements http wwwskepsisnl onlinetextshtml skepsis online texts nrms cults


'''australian literature''' written literary work produced area people commonwealth australia preceding colonies early western history australia collection british colonies therefore recognised literary tradition begins linked broader tradition english literature however narrative art australian writers since introduced character new continent literature exploring themes aboriginality ''mateship'' egalitarianism democracy national identity migration australia 's unique location geography complexities urban living beauty terror

Humanities
Languages and literature
Australian Literature


life australian bush overview patrick white became first australian awarded nobel prize literature australian writers obtained international renown include nobel winning author patrick white well authors christina stead david malouf peter carey bradley trevor greive thomas keneally colleen mccullough nevil shute morris west notable contemporary expatriate authors include feminist germaine greer art historian robert hughes humorists barry humphries clive james among important authors classic australian works poets henry lawson banjo paterson c j dennis dorothea mackellar dennis


wrote australian vernacular mackellar wrote iconic patriotic poem'' country'' lawson paterson clashed famous bulletin debate nature life australia lawson considered harder edged view bush paterson romantic ref name cultureandrecreationgovau ref lawson widely regarded one australia 's greatest writers short stories paterson 's poems remain amongst popular australian bush poems significant poets th century included dame mary gilmore kenneth slessor hope judith wright among best known contemporary poets les murray bruce


dawe whose poems often studied australian high schools novelists classic australian works include marcus clarke ''for term natural life'' miles franklin ''my brilliant career'' henry handel richardson ''the fortunes richard mahony'' joseph furphy ''such life'' rolf boldrewood ''robbery arms'' ruth park ''the harp south'' terms children 's literature norman lindsay ''the magic pudding'' mem fox ''possum magic'' may gibbs ''snugglepot cuddlepie'' among australian classics melina marchetta ''looking alibrandi'' modern ya classic eminent australian playwrights included steele rudd


david williamson alan seymour nick enright although historically small proportion australia 's population lived outside major cities many australia 's distinctive stories legends originate outback drovers squatters people barren dusty plains ref name seal ref david unaipon known first aboriginal author oodgeroo noonuccal first aboriginal australian publish book verse ground breaking memoir experiences stolen generations found sally morgan 's ''my place'' charles bean geoffrey blainey robert hughes manning clark claire wright


verse ''we going'' sally morgan 's novel ''my place'' considered breakthrough memoir terms bringing indigenous stories wider notice leading aboriginal activists marcia langton first australians noel pearson ''up mission'' active contemporary contributors australian literature voices indigenous australians increasingly noticed include playwright jack davis kevin gilbert writers coming prominence st century include kim scott alexis wright kate howarth tara june winch yvette holt anita heiss indigenous authors australia 's high prestige miles franklin award include


project provides comprehensive listing aboriginal torres strait islander writers storytellers '''writing aboriginal torres strait islander peoples''' point first colonization indigenous australians developed system writing first literary accounts aboriginal people come journals early european explorers contain descriptions first contact violent friendly early accounts dutch explorers english buccaneer william dampier wrote natives new holland barbarous savages time captain james cook first fleet marine watkin


tench era jean jacques rousseau accounts aborigines sympathetic romantic people may truly said pure state nature may appear wretched upon earth reality far happier europeans wrote cook journal august noel pearson aboriginal lawyer rights activist essayist many notable works written non indigenous australians aboriginal themes examples include poems judith wright ''the chant jimmie blacksmith'' thomas keneally ''ilbarana'' donald


stuart short story david malouf speaker tongue histories covering indigenous themes include watkin tench narrative expedition botany bay et complete account settlement port jackson roderick j flanagan ''the aborigines australia'' ''the native tribes central australia'' spencer gillen diaries donald thompson subject yolngu people arnhem land c alan moorehead ''the fatal impact'' geoffrey blainey ''triumph nomads'' henry reynolds ''the side frontier'' marcia langton first australians


differing interpretations aboriginal history also subject contemporary debate australia notably essayists robert manne keith windschuttle early classic works watkin tench officer marines first fleet author joseph furphy henry lawson right jf archibald co founder ''the bulletin'' henry handel richardson ethel florence lindesay richardson number notable women authors used male pseudonyms centuries british settlement australia european writers wrote fictional accounts imaginings ''great southern land'' abel janszoon tasman landed


tasmania examining notches cut considerable distances tree trunks speculated newly discovered country must peopled giants later british satirist jonathan swift set land houyhnhnms gulliver 's travels west tasmania british romantic poet robert southey young jacobin included section collection poems selection poems heading botany bay eclogues portrayed plight stories transported convicts new south wales among first true works literature produced australia accounts


jury settlement australia free emigrants rather convicts first novel published australia crime novel ''quintus servinton tale founded upon incidents real occurrence'' henry savery published hobart ref name franks ref early popular works tended 'ripping yarn' variety telling tales derring new frontier australian outback writers rolf boldrewood ''robbery arms'' marcus clarke ''for term natural life'' henry handel richardson ''the fortunes richard mahony'' joseph furphy ''such life'' embodied stirring ideals


tales particularly latter tried accurately record vernacular language common australian novelists also gave valuable insights penal colonies helped form country also early rural settlements ''the guardian tale'' anna maria bunn published sydney first australian novel printed published mainland australia first australian novel written woman gothic romance ref name turcotte ref miles franklin ''my brilliant career'' jeannie gunn ''we never never'' wrote lives european pioneers


journals charles darwin contain famous naturalist 's first impressions australia gained tour aboard beagle inspired writing origin species ''the wayward tourist mark twain 's adventures australia'' contains acclaimed american humourist 's musings australia lecture tour ''the age'' reported text publishing releasing australian classics series address neglect australian literature universities british dominated publishing houses citing print miles franklin award winners david ireland 's ''the glass canoe'' sumner locke elliott 's


''careful might hear you'' key examples children 's literature ''seven little australians'' ethel turner first book australian author continuously print years ''the magic pudding'' norman lindsay ethel turner 's ''seven little australians'' relates adventures seven mischievous children sydney print since longer australian children 's novel ''the getting wisdom'' henry handel richardson unconventional schoolgirl melbourne enjoyed similar success praised h g wells germaine greer


perennial favourites australian children 's literature include dorothy wall 's ''blinky bill'' ethel pedley 's ''dot kangaroo'' may gibbs' ''snugglepot cuddlepie'' norman lindsay 's ''the magic pudding'' ruth park 's ''the muddleheaded wombat'' mem fox 's ''possum magic'' classic works employ anthropomorphism bring alive creatures australian bush thus bunyip bluegum ''the magic pudding'' koala leaves tree search adventure ''dot kangaroo'' little girl lost bush befriended group marsupials may gibbs crafted story protagonists modelled


appearance young eucalyptus gum tree nuts pitted ''gumnut babies'' snugglepot cuddlepie antagonist banksia men gibbs' influence lasted generations contemporary children 's author ursula dubosarsky cited ''snugglepot cuddlepie'' one favourite books middle twentieth century children 's literature languished popular british authors dominating australian market oxford university press published several australian children 's authors angus robertson appointed first specialist children 's editor best known writers emerge period hesba brinsmead ivan southall colin thiele patricia


wrightson nan chauncy joan phipson eleanor spence works primarily set australian landscape southall carnegie medal ''josh'' patricia wrightson received international hans christian andersen award children 's book council australia presented annual awards books literary merit since awards outstanding contributions australian children 's literature notable winners shortlisted works inspired several well known australian films original novels including silver brumby series collection elyne mitchell recount life adventures thowra snowy mountains brumby


stallion ''storm boy'' colin thiele boy pelican relationships father pelican outcast aboriginal man called fingerbone sydney based victorian era time travel adventure ''playing beatie bow'' ruth park older children mature readers melina marchetta 's novel sydney high school girl ''looking alibrandi'' robin klein 's ''came back show could fly'' story beautiful relationship eleven year old boy older drug addicted girl jackie french widely described australia 's popular children 's author


contemporary australian fiction young people whose career began collections short stories ''unreal '' ''unbelievable '' many stories adapted episodes award winning television show ''round twist'' world 's richest prize children 's literature received two australians sonya hartnett astrid lindgren memorial award shaun tan hartnett long distinguished career publishing first novel known dark often controversial themes several awards including


adaption book ''the lost thing'' also oscar best animated short film awards tan include world fantasy award best artist hugo award best professional artist expatriate authors barry humphries generation leading contemporary international writers left australia britain united states remained regular passionate contributors australian themed literary works throughout careers including clive james robert hughes barry humphries geoffrey robertson germaine greer several writers links sydney push intellectual


institution british television later attaining popularity usa humphries' outlandish australian caricatures including dame edna everage barry mckenzie les patterson starred books stage screen great acclaim five decades biographer anne pender described significant comedian since charles chaplin literary works include dame edna biographies ''my gorgeous life'' ''handling edna'' autobiography ''my life memoir'' geoffrey robertson qc leading international human rights lawyer academic author broadcaster whose books include ''the justice


game'' ''crimes humanity'' leading feminist germaine greer author ''the female eunuch'' spent much career england continues study critique condemn adore homeland recent work includes ''whitefella jump shortest way nationhood'' contemporary works authors martin boyd distinguished memoirist novelist poet whose works included social comedies serious reflections pacifist faced time war among langton series novels ''the cardboard crown'' ''a difficult young man'' ''outbreak love'' earned high praise


britain united states though despite australian themes largely ignored australia patrick white became first australian awarded nobel prize literature epic psychological narrative art introduced new continent literature white 's first novel ''happy valley'' inspired landscape work jackaroo land adaminaby snowy mountains became international success australian literary society 's gold medal ref name adbanueduau ref born conservative wealthy anglo australian family later wrote conviction


left wing causes lived homosexual never destined life land enrolled cambridge became published poet white developed novelist also major theatrical success including ''the season sarsaparilla'' white followed ''the tree man'' ''voss'' became first winner miles franklin award subsequent novel ''riders chariot'' also received miles franklin award white later refused permit novels entered literary prizes turned knighthood various literary awards accepted nobel prize david


marr wrote biography white ref name adbanueduau j coetzee born south africa resident awarded nobel prize literature lives adelaide south australia australian citizen colleen mccullough 's ''the thorn birds'' australia 's highest selling novel one biggest selling novels time around million copies sold thomas keneally wrote ''the chant jimmie blacksmith'' ''schindler 's ark'' latter work inspiration film ''schindler 's list'' notable australian novels converted


celluloid include paul brickhill 's ''the great escape'' pamela lyndon travers' ''mary poppins'' morris west 's ''the shoes fisherman'' bryce courtenay 's ''the power one'' ''careful might hear you'' sumner locke elliott miles franklin award subject australian film author david ireland miles franklin award three times including ''the glass canoe'' peter carey also miles franklin award three times ''jack maggs'' ''oscar lucinda'' ''bliss'' twice man booker prize fiction


's ''oscar lucinda'' 's ''true history kelly gang'' dbc pierre 's vernon god little booker prize notable writers emerged since include kate grenville david malouf helen garner janette turner hospital marion halligan susan johnson christopher koch alex miller shirley hazzard richard flanagan gerald murnane brenda walker rod jones tim winton james clavell ''the asian saga'' discusses important feature australian literature portrayal far eastern culture admittedly even east nevertheless western cultural viewpoint nevil shute clavell also


successful screenwriter along writers thomas keneally see expanded topics australian literature far beyond one country novelists use international themes david malouf beverley farmer rod jones ''the secret river'' historical fiction kate grenville imagining encounters aboriginal colonial australia shortlisted man booker prize ''the slap'' internationally successful novel christos tsiolkas adapted television abc described review gerard windsor something


anatomy rising australian middle class grunge lit justine ettler 's novel ''the river ophelia'' details lives group attractive yuppie twenty year olds surface got made underneath living shallow self destructive lives city hop one sexual partner regularly consume hard drugs escape boredom theme domestic violence addressed grunge lit abbreviation grunge literature australian literary genre usually applied fictional semi autobiographical writing concerned dissatisfied disenfranchised young people living suburban


inner city surroundings typically written new young authors ref name 'leishman' leishman kirsty 'australian grunge literature conflict literary generations' ''journal australian studies'' pp ref examined gritty dirty real existences ref name leishman lower income young people whose lives revolve around nihilistic pursuit casual sex recreational drug use alcohol used escape boredom general flightiness romantic love seldom instant gratification become norm described sub set dirty realism offshoot generation x literature ref name 'vernay' vernay jean fran ois ' http wwwlitencyccom php stopicsphprec true uid grunge fiction '


''the literary encyclopedia'' november accessed september ref term grunge era music genre grunge genre first coined following success andrew mcgahan 's first novel ''praise'' released became popular sub year old readers previously investigated demographic ref name 'leishman' authors considered grunge lit include linda jaivin fiona mcgregor justine ettler since invention term grunge lit retrospectively applied novels written early namely helen garner 's ''monkey grip'' ref name 'vernay' grunge lit often raw explicit


called post grunge lit denote genre appeared australian literary genre known grunge lit michael robert christie 's phd dissertation unbecoming age australian grunge fiction bildungsroman long labor decade states genre called post grunge lit follows grunge lit period christie names three examples australian post grunge lit elliot perlman 's ''three dollars'' andrew mccann 's ''subtopia'' anthony macris' ''capital'' christie 's dissertation interprets explains three post grunge lit works responses embedding neoliberalism australian global political


culture kalinda ashton born called post grunge writer part due influences grunge lit author christos tsiolkas ashton author novel ''the danger game'' samantha dagg 's thesis grunge lit post grunge lit states luke carman post grunge writer carman 's first work collection interlinked semi autobiographical short stories explores authentic experiences working class australians suburbs including issues drug addiction sense disillusionment australian writing languages english australia migrant groups many countries members


writing attracting academic interest older works languages english translated received critical historical attention long first publication example first chinese language novel published australia possibly west ''the poison polygamy'' wong shee ping published english first time bilingual parallel edition histories portrait charles bean official world war historian history important discipline development australian writing watkin tench british officer arrived


first fleet later published two books subject foundations new south wales ''narrative expedition botany bay'' ''complete account settlement port jackson'' written spirit humanity accounts considered writers including robert hughes thomas keneally essential reading early history australia charles bean official war historian first world war influential establishing importance anzac australian history mythology prose anzac stood still stands


reckless valor good cause enterprise resourcefulness fidelity comradeship endurance never defeat see works including ''the story anzac outbreak war end first phase gallipoli campaign may '' ''australia war '' volume official history dedicated australia 's second world war efforts series published australian war memorial main editor gavin long significant milestone historian manning clark 's six volume ''history australia'' regarded


definitive account nation clark talent narrative prose work published remains popular influential work clark 's one time student geoffrey blainey stands another deeply influenced australian historiography important works include ''the tyranny distance'' ''triumph nomads history ancient australia'' robert hughes' much debated history '' fatal shore epic australia 's founding'' popular influential work early australian history marcia langton one principal contemporary indigenous australian academics


collaboration rachel perkins chronicles australian history indigenous perspective ''first australians illustrated history'' writing identity barbara baynton complicated multi faceted relationship australia displayed much australian writing often writing landscape barbara baynton 's short stories late th century early th century convey people living bush landscape alive also threatening alienating kenneth cook 's ''wake fright'' portrayed outback nightmare blazing sun escape colin thiele 's novels reflected life times


''praise'' christos tsiolkas 's ''loaded'' justine ettler 's ''the river ophelia'' brendan cowell 's ''how feels'' introduced grunge lit type 'gritty realism' take questions australian identity though important precursor work came years earlier helen garner 's ''monkey grip'' single mother living male heroin addict melbourne share housing australian literature several scandals surrounding identity writers misunderstanding printer caused maude hepplestone 's bush poetry collection songs kookaburra


mistakenly lauded internationally modernist masterpiece ern malley affair led obscenity trial often blamed lack modernist poetry australia mark th anniversary ern malley affair another australian writer leon carmen set make point prejudice australian publishers white australians unable find publication white australian instant success using false aboriginal identity wanda koolmatrie ''my sweet time'' streten bozik also managed become published assuming


aboriginal identity b wongar helen darville used pen name helen demidenko major literary prizes ''hand signed paper'' discovered sparking controversy content novel fictionalised highly tendentious account nazi occupation ukraine mudrooroo previously known colin johnson acclaimed aboriginal writer aboriginality came question mother irish english father irish african american however strong connections aboriginal tribes avoids adopting specific ethnic identity works deconstruct notions


clancy overflow remain amongst popular australian bush poems romanticised views outback rugged characters inhabited played important part shaping australian nation 's psyche cowboys american old west gauchos argentine pampa became part self image nations bush balladeer banjo paterson poets reflected sense australian identity include c j dennis dorothea mckellar dennis wrote australian vernacular sentimental bloke mckellar wrote iconic patriotic poem country prominent australian


interesting innovative contributions australian poetry emerged artist run galleries recent years textbase beginnings part st floor gallery fitzroy addition red room company major exponent innovative projects bankstown poetry slam become notable venue spoken word poetry community intersection poetry art form shared roots western sydney strong following first second generation australians often giving platform voices marginalised mainstream


recruiting officer'' george farquhar ref name oliowebmeuk http wwwoliowebmeuk plays recruiting officer country 's good stantonbury campus theatre company ref two centuries later extraordinary circumstances foundations australian theatre recounted ''our country 's good'' timberlake wertenbaker participants prisoners watched sadistic guards leading lady threat death penalty play based thomas keneally 's novel ''the playmaker'' ref name oliowebmeuk australian federation plays evidenced new sense national identity ''on selection'' steele rudd told adventures pioneer farming family


became immensely popular ''summer seventeenth doll'' ray lawler portrayed resolutely australian characters went international acclaim new wave australian theatre debuted works writers including david williamson barry oakley jack hibberd belvoir st theatre presented works nick enright david williamson williamson australia 's best known playwright major works including ''the club emerald city'' ''brilliant lies'' ''the one day year'' alan seymour studied paradoxical nature anzac day commemoration australians defeat


combine playwright biographies script information scripts also available science fiction fantasy australia unlike europe long history genre science fiction nevil shute 's ''on beach'' published filmed perhaps first notable international success though born australia shute spent latter years book set australia might worse imports american pulp magazines restricted wwii forcing local writers field various compilation magazines began appearing


field continued expand significance today australia thriving sf fantasy genre names recognised around world trilogy sydney born ben peek sold auction uk publisher six figure deal crime crime fiction genre currently thriving australia notably books written kerry greenwood shane maloney peter temple barry maitland arthur upfield peter corris among others high profile highly publicised court cases murders seen significant amount non fiction crime literature perhaps recognisable writer


field helen garner garner 's published accounts three court cases ''the first stone'' sexual harassment scandal university melbourne ''joe cinque 's consolation'' young man murdered girlfriend canberra ''this house grief'' victorian child killer robert farquharson garner 's works incorporates style reminiscent fictional narrative novel stylistic device known non fiction novel chloe hooper published ''the tall man death life palm island'' response death aboriginal man cameron doomadgee police custody palm island


queensland literary journals first periodical could called literary journal australia ''the australian magazine'' june may featured poetry two part story articles theology general topics others followed th century based either sydney melbourne lasted long due difficulties included lack capital small local market competition literary journals britain recent australian literary journals originated universities specifically english communications departments include ''meanjin'' ''overland'' ''heat'' ''southerly''


''westerly'' journals include ''quadrant'' ''australian book review'' ''island'' ''voiceworks'' ''wet ink'' closed ''the lifted brow'' ''red leaves '' ''kill darlings'' number newspapers also carry literary review supplements ''australian literary review'' awards current literary awards australia include anne elder award australian vogel literary award children 's book council australia ditmar award science fiction includes fantasy horror kenneth slessor prize poetry mary gilmore prize first book poetry miles franklin award new south wales premier 's literary awards patrick white award peter blazey fellowship prime minister 's literary awards queensland premier 's literary awards


stella prize victorian premier 's literary award western australian premier 's book awards australian authors also eligible number literary awards commonwealth writers' prize man booker prize orange prize fiction see also austlit australian literature resource australian film australian outback literature th century australian performance poetry list australian novelists list australian poets list years australian literature tasmanian literature tasmanian gothic indigenous australian literature references external links http gutenbergnetau pgaushtml library australiana page http gutenbergnetau project gutenberg australia https webarchiveorg web http freereadcomau bibliography australian


literature http freereadcomau freeread http wwwaustliteduau austlit australian literature resource https englishnotesgurucom list australian writers english list australian writers english english language literature


astronauts participating tropical survival training air force base near panama canal left right unidentified trainer neil armstrong john h glenn jr l gordon cooper pete conrad survival training important astronauts launch abort misguided reentry could potentially land remote wilderness area '''survival skills''' techniques person may use order sustain life type natural environment built environment techniques meant provide basic necessities human life include water food shelter

Human physical performance and recreation


kit possessing required knowledge naturally occurring medicinal plants immobilize injured limbs even transport incapacitated comrades shelter shelter built tarp sticks pictured displaced persons sri lankan civil war many people forced survival situations often risk danger direct exposure elements people survival situations die hypo hyperthermia animal attacks shelter range natural shelter cave overhanging rock outcrop fallen tree intermediate form man made shelter debris hut


fire without lighter matches eg using natural flint rock metal tinder frequent subject books survival survival courses often due lack said materials individual stranded emphasis placed practicing fire making skills venturing wilderness ref name ref producing fire adverse conditions made much easier introduction tools solar spark lighter fire piston fires either started concentration heat case solar


boost sense safety protection gives wild fire provide sensation home focal point addition essential energy source ref name fire may deter wild animals interfering individual however wild animals may attracted light heat fire water hydration pack manufactured camelbak human survive average three five days without intake water issues presented need water dictate unnecessary water loss perspiration avoided


lethargy headaches dizziness confusion eventually death even mild dehydration reduces endurance impairs concentration dangerous survival situation clear thinking essential dark yellow brown urine diagnostic indicator dehydration avoid dehydration high priority typically assigned locating supply drinking water making provisions render water safe possible recent thinking boiling commercial filters significantly safer use chemicals exception chlorine dioxide food culinary root tubers fruit edible mushrooms edible nuts edible beans


edible cereals edible leaves edible cacti algae gathered needed prepared mostly boiling exception leaves foods relatively high calories providing energy body plants easiest food sources find jungle forest desert stationary thus without exerting much effort skills equipment bows snares nets necessary gather animal food wild include animal trapping hunting fishing focusing survival rescued presumed searchers boy


scouts america bsa especially discourages foraging wild foods grounds knowledge skills needed unlikely possessed finding wilderness survival situation making risks including use energy outweigh benefits navigation celestial navigation using southern cross navigate south without compass going trips hikes advised search rescue services notify trusted contact planned return time notify return tell contact police search rescue


returned specific time frame eg hours scheduled return time survival situations often resolved finding way safety suitable location wait rescue types navigation include celestial navigation using sun night sky locate cardinal directions maintain course travel using map compass gps receiver dead reckoning natural navigation using condition surrounding natural objects ie moss tree snow hill direction running water etc mind preparedness


tasks plan b available recognizing denial urban survival earthquake governments united states new zealand advise earthquake one drop cover hold new zealand civil defense explains way drop hands knees protects falling lets move need cover head neck entire body possible sturdy table desk within steps shelter nearby cover head neck


arms hands hold shelter position protect head neck shaking stops shaking shifts shelter around move united states federal emergency management agency fema adds event building collapse advised seek protection structure like table cover mouth shirt filter dust n't move confident something wo n't topple use phone light signal help call important survival items


foods cause physical discomfort illness death many mainstream survival experts recommended act drinking urine times dehydration malnutrition however us army survival field manual fm instructs technique myth never applied several reasons drinking urine include high salt content urine potential contaminants sometimes bacteria growth despite urine 's generally sterile many classic cowboy movies classic survival books even school textbooks suggest sucking venom snake bite mouth appropriate treatment also


bitten person drink urine poisonous animal bite poisonous insect bite mean body provide natural anti venom however venom sucked may dangerous rescuer attempt modern snakebite treatment involves pressure bandages prompt medical treatment ref name lawson ref see also alone tv show bicycle touring bushcraft distress signal mini survival kit survivalism ten essentials woodcraft references reading ''mountaineering freedom hills'' th ed mountaineers books pages ''the knowledge rebuild


world scratch'' penguin books pages external links media foraging


mathematics '''approximation theory''' concerned functions best approximated simpler functions quantitatively characterizing errors introduced thereby note meant ''best'' ' 'simpler'' depend application closely related topic approximation functions generalized fourier series approximations based upon summation series terms based upon orthogonal polynomials one problem particular interest approximating function computer mathematical library using operations performed computer calculator eg addition multiplication

Formal science
Mathematics
Applied mathematics
Approximation theory


result close actual function possible typically done polynomial rational ratio polynomials approximations objective make approximation close possible actual function typically accuracy close underlying computer 's floating point arithmetic accomplished using polynomial high degree narrowing domain polynomial approximate function narrowing domain often done use various addition scaling formulas function approximated modern


mathematical libraries often reduce domain many tiny segments use low degree polynomial segment style float right error optimal polynomial log x red chebyshev approximation log x blue interval vertical divisions sup sup maximum error optimal polynomial sup sup error optimal polynomial exp x red chebyshev approximation exp x blue interval vertical divisions sup sup maximum error optimal polynomial sup sup optimal polynomials domain typically interval


right edges graphs error ''p'' ''x'' nbsp minus nbsp ''f'' ''x'' level polynomial red purported better polynomial blue prove true general suppose ''p'' polynomial degree ''n'' property described gives rise error function ''n'' nbsp nbsp extrema alternating signs equal magnitudes red graph right shows error function might look like ''n'' nbsp nbsp suppose ''q'' ''x'' whose error function shown blue right another ''n'' degree polynomial better approximation ''f'' ''p'' particular ''q''


closer ''f'' ''p'' value ''x sub sub '' extreme ''p'' ''f'' occurs math q x f x p x f x math maximum ''p'' ''f'' occurs ''x sub sub '' math q x f x le q x f x p x f x p x f x math minimum ''p'' ''f'' occurs ''x sub sub '' math f x q x le q x f x p x f x f x p x math seen graph ''p'' ''x'' nbsp nbsp ''f'' ''x'' nbsp nbsp ''q'' ''x'' nbsp nbsp ''f'' ''x'' must alternate sign ''n'' nbsp nbsp values ''x sub sub '' ''p'' ''x'' nbsp nbsp ''f'' ''x'' nbsp nbsp ''q'' ''x'' nbsp nbsp ''f'' ''x'' reduces ''p'' ''x'' nbsp nbsp ''q'' ''x'' polynomial degree ''n'' function changes sign least ''n'' times intermediate value theorem ''n'' zeroes impossible polynomial degree ''n'' chebyshev approximation one


series cut term total error arising cutoff close first term cutoff first term cutoff dominates later terms true expansion terms bucking polynomials chebyshev expansion cut math n math error take form close multiple math n math chebyshev polynomials property level oscillate interval math n math


''n'' level extrema means error ''f'' ''x'' chebyshev expansion math n math close level function ''n'' extrema close optimal ''n'' span style padding left em th span degree polynomial graphs note blue error function sometimes better inside red function sometimes worse meaning quite optimal polynomial discrepancy less serious exp function extremely rapidly converging power series log function chebyshev approximation basis clenshaw curtis quadrature numerical


integration technique remez 's algorithm remez algorithm sometimes spelled remes used produce optimal polynomial ''p'' ''x'' approximating given function ''f'' ''x'' given interval iterative algorithm converges polynomial error function ''n'' level extrema theorem polynomial optimal remez 's algorithm uses fact one construct ''n'' span style padding left em th span degree polynomial leads level alternating error values given ''n'' test points given ''n'' test points math x math math x math math x n math math x math math x n math presumably end points


interval approximation equations need solved math begin align p x f x varepsilon p x f x varepsilon p x f x varepsilon vdots p x n f x n pm varepsilon end align math right hand sides alternate sign math begin align p p x p x p x dots p n x n f x varepsilon p p x p x p x dots p n x n f x varepsilon vdots end align math since math x math math x n math given


powers known math f x math math f x n math also known means equations ''n'' linear equations ''n'' variables math p math math p math math p n math math varepsilon math given test points math x math math x n math one solve system get polynomial ''p'' number math varepsilon math graph shows example producing fourth degree polynomial approximating math e x math test points set values shown green resultant value math varepsilon math


functions real variable'' c hastings jr ''approximations digital computers'' princeton university press j f hart e w cheney c l lawson h j maehly c k mesztenyi j r rice h c thacher jr c witzgall ''computer approximations'' wiley lib cong l fox b parker chebyshev polynomials numerical analysis oxford university press london w j cody jr w waite ''software manual elementary functions'' prentice hall e remes remez sur le calcul effectif des polynomes d'approximation de tschebyscheff ''c r acad sci'' paris ''' ''' k g


partiz nske slovakia example typical planned european industrial city founded together shoemaking factory practically adult inhabitants city employed '''urban planning''' also known '' 'regional planning''' '''town planning''' '''city planning''' '''rural planning''' technical political process focused development design land use built environment including air water infrastructure passing urban areas transportation communications distribution networks accessibility ref name wiup ref traditionally urban planning followed top approach

Applied science
Architecture and design
Urban planning


master planning physical layout human settlements ref name taylor ref primary concern public welfare ref name wiup ref name taylor included considerations efficiency sanitation protection use environment ref name wiup well effects master plans social economic activities ref name midgley ref time urban planning adopted focus social environmental bottom lines focus planning tool improve health well people maintaining sustainability standards sustainable development added one main goals planning endeavors late th


century detrimental economic environmental impacts previous models planning become apparent similarly early st century jane jacob 's writings legal political perspectives emphasize interests residents businesses communities effectively influenced urban planners take broader consideration resident experiences needs planning urban planning answers questions people live work play given area thus guides orderly development urban suburban rural areas although predominantly concerned planning settlements communities urban planners also responsible


highly technical political social economical environmental field urban planning interdisciplinary field includes civil engineering architecture human geography politics social science design sciences practitioners urban planning concerned research analysis strategic thinking engineering architecture urban design public consultation policy recommendations implementation management ref name taylor closely related field urban design urban planners provide designs streets parks buildings urban areas urban planners work cognate fields civil engineering landscape architecture architecture public administration achieve strategic policy sustainability goals early


l'enfant washington dc daniel burnham chicago georges eugene haussmann paris planned cities scratch robert moses le corbusier refurbished transformed cities neighbourhoods meet ideas urban planning history city plan pori gt von chiewitz city planning germany official government policy dating back nazi rule evidence urban planning designed communities dating back mesopotamian indus valley minoan egyptian civilizations third millennium bce archaeologists studying ruins cities areas find paved streets laid


right angles grid pattern ref name davreu davreu robert cities mystery lost empire indus valley ''the world last mysteries'' second edition sydney readers digest pp ref idea planned urban area evolved different civilizations adopted beginning th century bce greek city states primarily centered orthogonal grid like plans ancient romans inspired greeks also used orthogonal plans cities city planning roman world developed military defense public convenience spread roman empire subsequently spread


ideas urban planning roman empire declined ideas slowly disappeared however many cities europe still held onto planned roman city center cities europe th th centuries often grew organically sometimes chaotically following centuries coming renaissance many new cities enlarged newly planned extensions th century much recorded urban design people involved period theoretical treatises architecture urban planning start appear theoretical questions around planning main


working poor becoming increasingly evident matter public concern laissez faire style government management economy fashion victorian era starting give way new liberalism championed intervention part poor disadvantaged around theorists began developing urban planning models mitigate consequences industrial age providing citizens especially factory workers healthier environments following century would therefore globally dominated central planning approach urban planning necessarily representing increment overall quality


urban realm beginning th century urban planning began recognized separate profession town country planning association founded first academic course great britain urban planning offered university liverpool ideas modernism uniformity began surface urban planning lasted le corbusier presented radiant city city grows form towers solution problem pollution crowding


many planners started believe ideas modernism urban planning led higher crime rates social problems ref name midgley ref name morris ref second half th century urban planners gradually shifted focus individualism diversity urban centers st century practices urban planners studying effects increasing congestion urban areas began address externalities negative impacts caused induced demand larger highway systems western countries united states united nations department economic social affairs predicted


around billion people occupy urban areas according population elements global migration new planning theories adopted non traditional concepts blue zones innovation districts incorporate geographic areas within city allow novel business development prioritization infrastructure would assist improving quality life citizens extending potential lifespan planning practices incorporated policy changes help address anthropocentric global climate change london began charge congestion charge cars trying access already crowded places city cities also prioritising


public transit cycling adopting policies theories street hierarchy accessibility planning theory body scientific concepts definitions behavioral relationships assumptions define body knowledge urban planning eight procedural theories planning remain principal theories planning procedure today rational comprehensive approach incremental approach transactive approach communicative approach advocacy approach equity approach radical approach humanist phenomenological approach conceptual planning theories include ebenezer howard 's three magnets theory envisioned future british settlement also


garden cities concentric model zone also called burgess model sociologist ernest burgess radburn superblock encourages pedestrian movement sector model multiple nuclei model among others technical aspects technical aspects urban planning involve application scientific technical processes considerations features involved planning land use urban design natural resources transportation infrastructure urban planning includes techniques predicting population growth zoning geographic mapping analysis analyzing park space surveying water supply identifying transportation patterns recognizing food supply demands allocating healthcare social services analyzing


impact land use order predict cities develop estimate effects interventions planners use various models models used indicate relationships patterns demographic geographic economic data might deal short term issues people move cities long term issues land use growth one model geographic information system gis used create model existing planning project future impacts society economy environment building codes regulations dovetail


urban planning governing cities constructed used individual level enforcement methodologies include governmental zoning planning permissions building codes ref name wiup well private easements restrictive covenants urban planners urban planner professional works field urban planning purpose optimizing effectiveness community 's land use infrastructure formulate plans development management urban suburban areas typically analyzing land use compatibility well economic environmental social trends developing plan community whether commercial


residential agricultural natural recreational urban planners must consider wide array issues including sustainability existing potential pollution transport including potential congestion crime land values economic development social equity zoning codes legislation importance urban planner increasing st century modern society begins face issues increased population growth climate change unsustainable development urban planner could considered green collar professional researchers suggest urban planners around world work different planning cultures adapted local cities cultures however professionals identified skills


abilities basic knowledge sets common urban planners across national regional boundaries criticisms debates urban planning school neoclassical economics argues planning unnecessary even harmful market efficiency allows effective land use ref name ref pluralist strain political thinking argues similar vein government intrude political competition different interest groups decides land used ref name traditional justification urban planning response planner city engineer


architect home make amenable needs preferences inhabitants ref name widely adopted consensus building model planning seeks accommodate different preferences within community criticized based upon rather challenging power structures community ref name ref instead agonism proposed framework urban planning decision making ref name see also air pollution bicycle friendly circulation planning cycling infrastructure development studies domestic travel restrictions elbow roomers epidemiology index urban planning articles land recycling list planned cities list planning journals


list urban planners list urban theorists low emission zone noise pollution planning cultures regional planning road traffic safety rural development smart city universal design urban density urban economics urban green space urban history urban informatics urban planning communist countries urban studies urban theory walkability walking audit stroad references reading knox p l better design architecture urban planning good city blacksburg virginia tech publishing doi https doiorg better design external links https wwwplanningorg american planning association library guides urban planning


kind well coastal offshore structures history archimedes traditionally regarded first marine engineer developed number marine engineering systems antiquity modern marine engineering dates back beginning industrial revolution early thomas newcomen blacksmith created steam powered engine pump water mines robert fulton successfully used steam engine propel vessel water fulton 's ship used engine power small wooden paddle wheel marine propulsion system integration steam engine

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Marine engineering


watercraft create marine steam engine start marine engineering profession twelve years fulton ''clermont'' first voyage ''savannah'' marked first sea voyage america europe around years later steam powered paddle wheels peak creation ''great eastern'' big one cargo ships today feet length weighing tons paddle steamers would become frontrunners steamship industry next thirty years till next type propulsion came around relevance scope


regulate global climate things make ocean integral part everyday life mind marine engineering aims discover new methods harnessing ocean benefit humanity despite humans close relationship ocean much remains unknown ocean estimated percent ocean floor remains unexplored percent ocean species remain undiscovered science furthermore performing engineering projects ocean presents many unique challenges saltwater corrosion hydrodynamic hydromechanical forces remoteness project locations extreme temperatures


engineers must overcome successfully designing ocean systems related fields naval architecture engineering seagoing vessels naval architecture concerned overall design ship propulsion water marine engineering ensures ship systems function per design although distinctive disciplines naval architects marine engineers often work side side ocean engineering combination marine engineering ocean engineering concerned structures systems adjacent ocean including offshore platforms coastal structures piers harbors ocean systems


ocean wave energy conversion underwater life support systems fact makes ocean engineering distinctive field marine engineering concerned design application shipboard systems specifically however account similar nomenclature multiple overlapping core disciplines eg hydrodynamics hydromechanics materials science ocean engineering sometimes operates umbrella term marine engineering especially industry academia outside us combination applied rest article oceanography oceanography scientific field concerned acquisition analysis data characterize


ocean although separate disciplines marine engineering oceanography closely intertwined marine engineers often use data gathered oceanographers inform design research oceanographers use tools designed marine engineers specifically oceanographic engineers advance understanding exploration ocean mechanical engineering marine engineering incorporates many aspects mechanical engineering one manifestation relationship lies design shipboard propulsion systems mechanical engineers design main propulsion plant powering mechanization aspects ship functions steering anchoring cargo handling heating ventilation air conditioning interior exterior communication


related requirements electrical power generation electrical power distribution systems typically designed suppliers design responsibility marine engineering installation furthermore understanding mechanical engineering topics fluid dynamics fluid mechanics linear wave theory strength materials structural mechanics structural dynamics essential marine engineer 's repertoire skills mechanical engineering subjects serve integral component marine engineering curriculum civil engineering civil engineering concepts play important role many marine engineering projects design construction ocean


structures ocean bridges tunnels port harbor design electronics robotics marine engineering often deals fields electrical engineering robotics especially applications related employing deep sea cables uuvs deep sea cables series transoceanic fiber optic cables responsible connecting much world communication via internet carrying much percent total global internet signal traffic cables must engineered withstand deep sea environments remote often unforgiving extreme pressures temperatures well potential interference fishing trawling sea life uuv autonomy


networks use unmanned underwater vehicles uuvs stands benefit use autonomous algorithms networking marine engineers aim learn advancements autonomy networking used enhance existing uuv technologies facilitate development capable underwater vehicles petroleum engineering knowledge marine engineering proves useful field petroleum engineering hydrodynamics seabed integration serve key elements design maintenance offshore oil platforms challenges specific marine engineering hydrodynamic loading way civil engineers design accommodate wind loads


building bridges marine engineers design accommodate ship submarine struck waves millions times course vessel 's life stability seagoing vessel constant need hydrostatic stability naval architect like airplane designer concerned stability makes naval architect job unique ship operates two fluids simultaneously water air even ship designed put sea marine engineers face challenge balancing cargo stacking containers vertically increases mass ship shifts center


gravity higher weight fuel also presents problem pitch ship may cause liquid shift resulting imbalance vessels offset counteracted storing water inside larger ballast tanks marine engineers responsible task balancing tracking fuel ballast water ship corrosion saltwater environment faced seagoing vessels makes highly susceptible corrosion every project marine engineers concerned surface protection preventing galvanic corrosion corrosion inhibited cathodic protection introducing pieces


metal eg zinc serve sacrificial anode corrosion reaction causes metal corrode instead ship hull another way prevent corrosion sending controlled amount low dc current ship hull thereby changing hull electrical charge delaying onset electro chemical corrosion anti fouling anti fouling process eliminating obstructive organisms essential components seawater systems depending nature location marine growth process performed number different ways marine organisms may grow attach surfaces


outboard suction inlets used obtain water cooling systems electro chlorination involves running high electrical current sea water altering water chemical composition create sodium hypochlorite purging bio matter electrolytic method anti fouling involves running electrical current two anodes scardino anodes typically consist copper aluminum alternatively iron first metal copper anode releases ion water creating environment toxic bio matter second metal aluminum coats inside pipes prevent corrosion forms marine growth mussels algae


dioxide emissions potential raise atmospheric ocean acidity causing harm marine life however heavy fuel oil may burned international waters due pollution created commercially advantageous due cost effectiveness compared marine fuels prospected heavy fuel oil phased commercial use year smith oil water discharge water oil substances collect bottom ship known bilge bilge water pumped overboard must pass pollution threshold


test ppm parts per million oil discharged water tested either discharged clean recirculated holding tank separated tested tank sent back oily water separator utilizes gravity separate fluids due viscosity ships gross tons required carry equipment separate oil bilge water enforced marpol ships gross tons oil tankers gross tons required log oil transfers


oil record book epa cavitation cavitation process forming air bubble liquid due vaporization liquid cause area low pressure area low pressure lowers boiling point liquid allowing vaporize gas cavitation take place pumps cause damage impeller moves fluids system cavitation also seen propulsion low pressure pockets form surface propeller blades revolutions per minute increase iims cavitation propeller


causes small violent implosion could warp propeller blade remedy issue blades allow amount propulsion force lower rate revolutions crucial submarines propeller needs keep vessel relatively quiet stay hidden propeller blades vessel able achieve amount propulsion force lower shaft revolutions applications following categories provide number focus areas marine engineers direct efforts arctic engineering designing systems operate arctic especially scientific equipment


meteorological instrumentation oceanographic buoys marine engineers must overcome array design challenges equipment must able operate extreme temperatures prolonged periods time often little maintenance creates need exceptionally temperature resistant materials durable precision electronic components coastal design restoration coastal engineering applies mixture civil engineering disciplines create coastal solutions areas along near ocean protecting coastlines wave forces erosion sea level rise marine engineers must consider whether use gray infrastructure solution


breakwater culvert sea wall made rocks concrete green infrastructure solution incorporates aquatic plants mangroves marsh ecosystems found gray infrastructure costs build maintain may provide better protection ocean forces high energy wave environments green solution generally less expensive well integrated local vegetation may susceptible erosion damage executed improperly many cases engineers select hybrid approach combines elements gray green solutions deep sea systems life support


design underwater life support systems underwater hyperbaric dive chambers presents unique set challenges requiring detailed knowledge pressure vessels dive physiology thermodynamics among recent developments underwater life support systems ocean space habitat designed winslow burleson michael lombardi prototype resembles underwater tent said satisfy full life support functions divers unmanned underwater vehicles marine engineers may design make frequent use unmanned underwater vehicles operate underwater without human aboard uuvs often perform work locations would otherwise impossible


difficult access humans due number environmental factors eg depth remoteness temperature uuvs remotely operated humans semi autonomous autonomous environmental engineering every coastal offshore project environmental sustainability important consideration preservation ocean ecosystems natural resources instances marine engineers benefit knowledge environmental engineering include creation fisheries clean oil spills creation coastal solutions offshore systems number systems designed fully part marine engineers used offshore far away coastlines offshore oil platforms


public ' 'see nimby'' ocean wave energy marine engineers continue investigate possibility ocean wave energy viable source power distributed grid applications many designs proposed numerous prototypes built problem harnessing wave energy cost effective manner remains largely unresolved port harbor design marine engineer may also deal planning creation expansion modification port harbor designs harbors natural artificial protect anchored ships wind waves currents ports defined city town place


ships moored loaded unloaded ports typically reside within harbor made one individual terminals handle particular cargo including passengers bulk cargo containerized cargo marine engineers plan design various types marine terminals structures found ports must understand loads imposed structures course lifetime salvage recovery underwater salvage recovery techniques continuously modified improved find recover shipwrecks valuable articles lost ocean marine engineers use skills assist


every stage process planning searches documentation wreck sites physical recovery entire vessels artifacts parts thereof numerous famous examples shipwrecks exist recoveries include squalus subsequently rechristened uss sailfish ss project azorian clandestine recovery portion soviet submarine k us navy cia aboard glomar explorer career industry diverse engineering background marine engineers work variety industry jobs across every field math science technology engineering companies oceaneering international


van oord specialize marine engineering companies consult marine engineers specific projects consulting commonly occurs oil industry companies exxon mobil british petroleum hiring marine engineers manage aspects offshore drilling projects military marine engineering lends number military applications mostly related navy us navy seabees civil engineer corps engineering duty officers often perform work related marine engineering military contractors especially naval shipyards army corps engineers play role certain marine engineering projects


well expected growth average annual earnings marine engineers us average hourly earnings field marine engineering predicted grow approximately currently naval architects marine engineers employed however number expected increase bls due least part critical role shipping industry global market supply chain world 's trade volume done overseas close ships


require marine engineers aboard shoreside ics additionally offshore energy continues grow greater need exists coastal solutions due sea level rise education training ship golden bear docked california maritime academy maritime universities dedicated teaching training students maritime professions marine engineers generally bachelor 's degree marine engineering marine engineering technology marine systems engineering practical training valued employers alongside bachelor 's degree professional institutions imarest society underwater technology ieee oceanic engineering society marine engineering research institute royal institution naval architects rina society


naval architects marine engineers sname worldwide society focused advancement maritime industry sname founded american society naval engineers asne kunjali marakkar school marine engineering degrees ocean engineering number institutions including mit uc berkeley us naval academy texas university offer four year bachelor science degree specifically ocean engineering accredited programs consist basic undergraduate math science subjects calculus statistics chemistry physics fundamental engineering subjects statics dynamics electrical engineering thermodynamics


specialized subjects ocean structural analysis hydromechanics coastal management graduate students ocean engineering take classes advanced depth subjects conducting research complete graduate level thesis massachusetts institute technology offers master phd degrees specifically ocean engineering additionally mit co hosts joint program woods hole oceanographic institution students studying ocean engineering ocean related topics graduate level journals conferences journals ocean engineering include ''ocean engineering'' ieee journal oceanic engineering journal waterway port coastal ocean engineering conferences


field marine engineering include ieee oceanic engineering society oceans conference exposition european wave tidal energy conference ewtec marine engineering achievements delta works series projects designed protect netherlands flooding north sea american society civil engineers named one seven wonders modern world april twenty two people descended challenger deep lowest point earth ocean located mariana trench recovery soviet submarine k joint team us navy cia


engineers aboard glomar explorer notable marine engineers industry pieter van oord ceo royal van oord academia michael e mccormick professor emeritus department naval architecture ocean engineering us naval academy pioneer wave energy research media popular culture marine engineers performed important role clean oil spills exxon valdez british petroleum james cameron documentary deepsea challenge follows story team built submersible cameron made first solo descent challenger deep lowest point earth


ocean see also references references engineering disciplines


alt customers denny 's restaurant watch may day demonstration protests mexico city mexico may thumb x px customers denny 's restaurant watch may day demonstration protests mexico city mexico may '''deviance''' '' 'sociology deviance''' explores actions behaviors violate social norms across formally enacted rules eg crime ref name macionis j ref well informal violations social norms eg rejecting folkways mores although deviance may negative connotation violation social norms always negative action positive deviation exists situations although norm violated behavior still

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of deviance


classified positive acceptable social norms differ throughout society cultures certain act behaviour may viewed deviant receive sanctions punishments within one society seen normal behaviour another society additionally society 's understanding social norms changes time collective perception deviance ref name ref deviance relative place committed time act took place killing another human generally considered wrong example except governments permit warfare self defense


two types major deviant actions ''mala se'' ''mala prohibita'' types violation norms categorized two forms formal deviance informal deviance formal deviance described crime violates laws society informal deviance minor violations break unwritten rules social life norms great moral significance mores informal deviance opposes societal taboos taboo strong social form behavior considered deviant majority speak publicly condemned therefore almost entirely avoided term


taboo comes tongan word tapu meaning prohibition allowed forbidden forms taboo prohibited law transgressions may lead severe penalties forms taboo result shame disrespect humiliation taboo universal occur majority societies examples include murder rape incest child molestation howard becker labeling theorist identified four different types deviant behavior labels given falsely accusing individual others perceive individual obtaining obedient deviant behaviors pure deviance others


perceive individual participating deviant rule breaking behavior conforming others perceive individual participating social norms distributed within societies secret deviance individual perceived deviant participating rule breaking behaviors theories deviant acts assertions individuality identity thus rebellion https platostanfordedu entries social norms group norms dominant culture favor sub culture society behavior individual group determines deviant creates norms three broad sociological classes exist


describe deviant behavior namely structural functionalism symbolic interaction conflict theory structural functionalist understanding deviance structural functionalism structural functionalists concerned various factors society come together interact form whole notable work mile durkheim robert merton contributed functionalist ideals ref name ref durkheim 's normative theory suicide mile durkheim would claim deviance fact normal necessary part social organization ref name macionis j would state four important functions deviance deviance affirms cultural values norms definition


name without collective conscience would absolute morals followed institutions groups social integration attachment groups institutions social regulation adherence norms values society durkheim 's theory attributes social deviance extremes social integration social regulation stated four different types suicide relationship social integration social regulation ref name '''altruistic''' suicide occurs one socially integrated '''egoistic''' suicide occurs one socially integrated '''anomic''' suicide occurs little social regulation


deviance specifically viewed collective action motivated strain stress frustration body individuals arises disconnection society 's ''goals'' popularly used ''means'' achieve goals often non routine collective behavior rioting rebellion etc said map onto economic explanations causes way strain two dimensions determine adaptation society according cultural goals society 's perceptions ideal life institutionalized means legitimate means individual may aspire cultural goals merton described


types deviance terms acceptance rejection social goals institutionalized means achieving ref name macionis j '''innovation''' response due strain generated culture 's emphasis wealth lack opportunities get rich causes people innovators engaging stealing selling drugs innovators accept society 's goals reject socially acceptable means achieving eg monetary success gained crime merton claims innovators mostly socialised similar world views conformists


denied opportunities need able legitimately achieve society 's goals '''conformists''' accept society 's goals socially acceptable means achieving eg monetary success gained hard work merton claims conformists mostly middle class people middle class jobs able access opportunities society better education achieve monetary success hard work '''ritualism''' refers inability reach cultural goal thus embracing rules point people question lose sight larger goals


retreatism people question also reject cultural goals means go one step counterculture supports social orders already exist rule breaking rebels reject society 's goals legitimate means achieve instead creates new goals means replace society creating new goals achieve also new ways achieve goals rebels find acceptable symbolic interaction symbolic interaction refers patterns communication interpretation adjustment individuals verbal nonverbal responses


respond reality directly rather social understanding reality humans therefore exist three realities physical objective reality social reality unique unique described third reality created social reality private interpretation reality shown person others individuals society cannot separated far two reasons one created social interaction two one cannot understood terms without behavior defined forces


environment drives instincts rather reflective socially understood meaning internal external incentives currently presented herbert blumer set three basic premises perspective ref name humans act toward things basis meanings ascribe things meaning things derived arises social interaction one others society meanings handled modified interpretative process used person dealing


things encounters sutherland 's differential association differential association theory edwin sutherland posited criminals learn criminal deviant behaviors deviance inherently part particular individual 's nature individual 's significant others engage deviant criminal behavior criminal behavior learned result exposure ref name botterweck michael c p botterweck michael c et al eds ''everyday sociology'' elmhurst il starpoint press p ref argues criminal behavior learned way behaviors learned meaning acquisition


criminal knowledge unique compared learning behaviors sutherland outlined basic points theory including idea learning comes interactions individuals groups using communication symbols ideas symbols ideas deviation much favorable unfavorable individual tends take favorable view upon deviance resort behaviors criminal behavior motivations technical knowledge sort behavior learned one example would gang activity inner city communities


sutherland would feel certain individual 's primary influential peers gang environment interaction one may become involved crime ref name botterweck michael c p neutralization theory gresham sykes david matza 's neutralization theory explains deviants justify deviant behaviors providing alternative definitions actions providing explanations others lack guilt actions particular situations five types neutralization '''denial responsibility''' deviant believes helplessly propelled deviance


'''appeal higher loyalties''' deviant believes loyalties values go beyond confines law morality friendships income traditions may important deviant legal boundaries labeling theory frank tannenbaum howard becker created developed labeling theory core facet symbolic interactionism often referred tannenbaum 's dramatization evil becker believed social groups create deviance making rules whose infraction constitutes deviance labeling process social reaction social audience wherein people stereotype


audience power label power stop deviance ever occurs labeling individual societal preoccupation label words leads deviant individual follow self fulfilling prophecy abidance ascribed label ref name macionis j theory much symbolically interactionist also elements conflict theory dominant group power decide deviant acceptable enjoys power behind labeling process example prison system


labels people convicted theft start view definition thieves incapable changing point view howard becker writes blockquote deviance ''not'' quality act person commits rather consequence application others rules sanctions offender deviant one label successfully applied deviant behavior behavior people label blockquote words behavior becomes deviant criminal defined interfered specific people specific situation


important note salient fact society always correct labeling often falsely identifying misrepresenting people deviants attributing characteristics legal terms people often wrongly accused yet many must live ensuant stigma conviction rest lives similar note society often employs double standards sectors society enjoying favouritism certain behaviors one group seen perfectly acceptable easily overlooked another seen


audiences abominable medicalization deviance ''the transformation moral legal deviance medical condition'' important shift transformed way society views deviance ref name macionis j labelling theory helps explain shift behaviour used judged morally transformed objective clinical diagnosis example people drug addictions considered sick instead bad ref name macionis j primary secondary deviation edwin lemert developed idea primary secondary deviation way explain process


labeling primary deviance general deviance deviant labeled particular way secondary deviance action takes place primary deviance reaction institutional identification person deviant ref name macionis j actor commits crime primary deviance however mild institution bring social penalties actor however punishment necessarily stop crime actor might commit primary deviance bringing even harsher reactions institutions point actor start resent


institution institution brings harsher harsher repression eventually whole community stigmatize actor deviant actor able tolerate ultimately accept role criminal commit criminal acts fit role criminal primary secondary deviation causes people become harder criminals primary deviance time person labeled deviant confession reporting secondary deviance deviance primary deviance retrospective labeling happens deviant recognizes acts


deviant prior primary deviance prospective labeling deviant recognizes future acts deviant steps becoming criminal primary deviation social penalties secondary deviation stronger penalties deviation resentment hostility towards punishers community stigmatizes deviant criminal tolerance threshold passed strengthening deviant conduct stigmatizing penalties finally acceptance role deviant criminal actor broken windows theory broken windows theory states increase minor crimes graffiti would eventually lead


contrast strong bonds make deviance costly theory asks people refrain deviant criminal behavior instead people commit deviant criminal behavior according travis hirschi control theory developed norms emerge deter deviant behavior without control deviant behavior would happen often leads conformity groups people conform group believe gain conformity deviance strong bond achieved less chance deviance weak bond occurred hirschi argued


person follows norms bond society bond consists four positively correlated factors opportunity attachment belief involvement ref name macionis j bonds weakened broken one likely act defiance michael gottfredson travis hirschi founded self control theory stated acts force fraud undertaken pursuit self interest self control deviant act based criminals self control containment theory considered researchers walter c reckless part


control theory also revolves around thoughts stop individuals engaging crime reckless studied unfinished approaches meant explain reasoning behind delinquency crime recognized societal disorganization included study delinquency crime social deviance leading claim majority live unstable areas tend criminal tendencies comparison live middle class areas claim opens possible approaches social disorganization proves already implemented theories need deeper connection


explore ideas crime delinquency observations brought reckless ask questions persons break tottering social controls others rare cases well integrated society break lines strong controls reckless asserted intercommunication self control social controls partly responsible development delinquent thoughts social disorganization related particular environment instead involved deterioration individuals social controls containment theory idea everyone possesses mental social safeguards protect


individual committing acts deviancy containment depends individuals ability separate inner outer controls normative behavior contemporary control theorists robert crutchfield take theory new light suggesting labor market experiences affect attitudes stakes individual workers also affect development children 's views toward conformity cause involvement delinquency ongoing study found significant relationship parental labor market involvement children 's delinquency empirically demonstrated mediating role parents'


children 's attitude study conducted tim wadsworth relationship parent 's employment children 's delinquency previously suggested crutchfield shown empirically first time findings study supported idea relationship socioeconomic status delinquency might better understood quality employment role informal social control closely examined conflict theory sociology conflict theory states society organization functions individual participant groups struggle maximize benefits inevitably contributes social


change political changes revolutions deviant behaviors actions go along social institutions cause deviance institution 's ability change norms wealth status comes conflict individual legal rights poor folks might ignored middle class also accept side elites rather poor thinking might rise top supporting status quo conflict theory based upon view fundamental causes crime social economic forces operating within society however explains white collar


crime less well theory also states powerful define crime raises question theory functional theory laws instruments oppression tough powerless less tough powerful karl marx marx write deviant behavior wrote alienation amongst proletariat well proletariat finished product causes conflict thus deviant behavior many marxist theorists employed theory capitalist state arguments example steven spitzer utilized theory bourgeois control social


junk social dynamite george rusche known present analysis different punishments correlated social capacity infrastructure labor theorized throughout history labor needed severity punishments decreases tolerance deviant behavior increases jock young another marxist writer presented idea modern world approve diversity afraid social conflict late modern world however tolerant diversity ref name macionis j however extremely afraid social conflicts explanation given political


modern prison specifically panopticon template institutions controls inmates perfect use discipline foucault theorizes sense postmodern society characterized lack free part individuals institutions knowledge norms values simply place categorize control humans biological theories deviance praveen attri claims genetic reasons largely responsible social deviance italian school criminology contends biological factors may contribute crime deviance cesare lombroso among first


foreheads protruding jaws characteristics resembled primitive beings ''homo neanderthalensis'' stated little could done cure born criminals characteristics biologically inherited time research disproved research refuted pearson charles goring discovered lombroso researched enough skeletons make research thorough enough pearson goring researched skeletons tested many found bone structure relevance deviant behavior statistical study charles goring published research


called english convict theories classical school criminology comes works cesare beccaria jeremy bentham beccaria assumed utilitarian view society along social contract theory state argued role state maximize greatest possible utility maximum number people minimize actions harm society argued deviants commit deviant acts harmful society utility gives private individual state match pain


punishments utility various deviant behaviors deviant would longer incentive commit deviant acts note beccaria argued ''just'' punishment raising severity punishments without regard logical measurement utility would cause increasing degrees social harm reached certain point criminal justice system three sections criminal justice system function enforce formal deviance ref name '''police''' police maintain public order enforcing law police use personal discretion deciding whether handle situation


programs lower cost supervising people convicted crimes reduce prison overcrowding shown reduce recidivism ref name macionis j four jurisdictions punishment retribution deterrence rehabilitation societal protection ref name macionis j fall one two forms justice offender face ref name '''punitive justice''' retribution deterrence form justice defines boundaries acceptable behaviors whereby individual suffers consequences committing crime pain suffering inflicted individual hidden public '''rehabilitative justice''' rehabilitation


societal protection form justice focuses specific circumstances whereby individuals meant fixed see also notes reading clinard b r f meier ''sociology deviant behavior'' dinitz simon russell r dynes alfred c clarke ''deviance studies definition management treatment'' douglas j f c waksler ''the sociology deviance introduction'' boston little brown co macnamara donal e j andrew karmen ''deviants victims victimizers'' beverly hills calif sage pratt travis nd reconsidering gottfredson hirschi general theory


ed external links http journalsplosorg plosone articleid journalpone social monitoring matters deterring social deviance stable mobile socio ecological contexts https wwwncbinlmnihgov pmc articles pmc impact social structures deviant behaviors study high risk street drug users iran normalization deviance case study process underlying adoption deviant behavior criminology sociological theories


assumptions ethnophilosophy specific culture philosophy applicable accessible peoples cultures world ''a discourse african philosophy new perspective ubuntu transitional justice south africa'' christian b n gade argues ethnophilosophical approach africana philosophy static group property highly problematic research ubuntu presents alternative collective discourse africana philosophy takes differences historical developments social contexts seriously according edwin etieyibo jonathon chimakonam article african philosophy past present

Humanities
Philosophy
Philosophical traditions and schools
African philosophy


future historical context plays important role africana philosophy history provides framework inspect philosophical problems terms africana philosophy one must look whole picture lens african history nbsp facts without history nigerian philosopher joseph omoregbe broadly defines philosopher one attempts understand world 's phenomena purpose human existence nature world place human beings world form natural philosophy identifiable africa even individual african philosophers distinguished


sources like western philosophy african philosophy contemplates perceptions time personhood space subjects africana philosophy formally defined critical thinking africans people african descent experiences reality nigerian born philosopher kc anyanwu defined african philosophy concerns way african people past present make sense destiny world live africana philosophy includes philosophical ideas arguments theories particular concern people african descent topics explored


africana philosophy include modern day debates discussing early history western philosophy post colonial writing africa americas black resistance oppression black existentialism united states meaning blackness modern world ref name gyekye many topics relating african diaspora lucius outlaw ref name outlaw ref writes according two conflicting components deemed integral work considered african philosophy first piece must racial focus facet valued traditionalist groups posit africana philosophy expression world experienced


common expression ubuntu person person person leonhard praeg mogobe ramose fainos mangera implement communitarian method ref name ref complementary method complementary method focuses prospect missing link variables important consideration histories identities variable overlooked considered additionally variables affect one another relationship affects variables scrutinized mesembe edet implements complementary method ref name conversational method conversational method creates thought assessing


relationship oppositional works defender proponent named nwa swa nwa swa questioned doubted disagreeing party known nwa nju conversational method emphasizes interconnectedness networks within reality accurate thought specific location method endorsed conventional school psychology used victor nweke msembe edet ref name history pre modern rich written history ancient african philosophy example ethiopia mali timbuktutu djenne ref name companion african philosophy


comes modern era th century new beginning linked african individuals studied united states europe western locations returned africa reflected racial discrimination experienced abroad arrival back africa instigated feeling ''onuma'' interpretation frustration onuma felt response legacies colonialism global scale renaissance african philosophy th century important onuma inspired traveled returned formulate systematic beginning


philosophizing african identity space african people history african contribution humanity west africa prominent west africa 's pre modern philosophical traditions identified yoruba philosophical tradition distinctive worldview emerged thousands years development philosophical concepts omoluabi ash emi omo eso integral system totality elements contained known amongst yoruba itan cosmologies philosophies akan dogon serer dahomey also significant


pre colonial senegambia modern gambia senegal th century philosopher kocc barma fall b stood one renowned philosophers senegambian history proverbs still recited senegalese gambians alike including senegambian popular culture example ousmane sembene 's films ''guelwaar'' notable philosophical thinkers include gambian historian alieu ebrima cham joof malian ethnologist amadou hamp b one foremost scholars timbuktu ahmed baba argued called racial slavery one leading women philosophers writers sokoto


southeast africa development distinctive bantu philosophy addressing nature existence cosmos humankind 's relation world following bantu migration significant impact philosophical developments said regions development philosophy ubuntu one notable example emerging worldview central africa many central african philosophical traditions bantu migration southern central africa identified uniting characteristic many nilotic sudanic peoples ultimately giving rise distinctive worldviews identified conceptions time creation


world human nature proper relationship mankind nature prevalent dinka mythology maasai mythology similar traditions african diaspora pre modern african diasporic philosophical traditions also identified mostly produced descendants africans europe americas one notable pre modern diasporic african philosopher anthony william amo taken slave awukenu ghana brought educated europe gained doctorates medicine philosophy subsequently became professor philosophy universities halle jena germany


modern kenyan philosopher henry odera oruka distinguished calls four trends modern african philosophy ethnophilosophy philosophical sagacity nationalistic ndash ideological philosophy professional philosophy ref name samuel oluoch imbo introduction african philosophy samuel oluoch imbo https booksgooglecom booksisbn ''an introduction african philosophy'' pp ref fact would realistic call candidates position african philosophy understanding one might fit bill oruka later added two additional categories literary artistic philosophy work literary figures ng g wa thiong'o wole soyinka chinua achebe okot


p'bitek taban lo liyong hermeneutic philosophy analysis african languages order find philosophical content african diaspora american philosopher maulana karenga also notable presenting varied definitions understanding modern african philosophy especially relates earliest sources achille mbembe modern african philosopher one notable contributor professional philosophy achille mbembe interacts multitude modern subjects including thoughts statehood death capital racism colonialism invokes attention moral political arguments tone morality works many recent pieces


mbembe including ''critique black reason'' suggest understanding europe force center universe point philosophy society view world mbembe asserts positions multiple worlds existence one time method creates empathetic point world viewed ethnophilosophy philosophical sagacity henry odera oruka kenya came sage philosophy philosophic sagacity attributed ethnophilosophy used record beliefs found african cultures approach treats african philosophy consisting


set shared beliefs values categories assumptions implicit language practices beliefs african cultures short uniquely african worldview seen item communal property rather activity individual one proponent form placide tempels argued ''bantu philosophy'' metaphysical categories bantu people reflected linguistic categories according view african philosophy best understood springing fundamental assumptions reality reflected languages africa another example sort


approach work ebiegberi joe alagoa university port harcourt nigeria argues existence african philosophy history stemming traditional proverbs niger delta paper african philosophy history oral tradition alagoa argues african philosophy age seen important factor gaining wisdom interpreting past support view cites proverbs days wisdom old man sees seated youth see standing truth seen eternal


important one ignorant origin nonhuman historians known sons soil highly revered son soil python 's keen eyes however arguments must taken grain cultural relativism span culture africa incredibly vast patriarchies matriarchies monotheists traditional religionists among population attitudes groups niger delta cannot applied whole africa another controversial application approach embodied concept negritude leopold senghor proponent negritude


argued distinctly african approach reality based emotion rather logic works participation rather analysis manifests arts rather sciences cheikh anta diop mubabinge bilolo hand agreeing african culture unique challenged view africans essentially emotional artistic arguing egypt african culture whose achievements science mathematics architecture philosophy pre eminent philosophy may also maligned overly reductionist due obvious scientific scholarly triumphs ancient egypt


also nubia meroe well great library timbuktu extensive trade networks kingdoms north africa west africa central africa horn africa great zimbabwe major empires southern southeast central africa critics approach argue actual philosophical work producing coherent philosophical position done academic philosopher alagoa sayings culture selected organised many different ways order produce different often contradictory systems thought philosophical sagacity


philosophy defined purely terms philosophic sagacity thoughts sages could african philosophy record sages also view difference non african anthropology ethnology african philosophy seems nationality researcher critics argue problem ethnophilosophy philosophical sagacity surely important distinction philosophy history ideas although philosophers consider two topics remarkably similar argument matter interesting


beliefs people akan yoruba may philosopher remain beliefs philosophy call philosophy use secondary sense term philosophy live let live professional philosophy professional philosophy usually identified produced african philosophers trained western philosophical tradition embraces universal view methods concerns philosophy ref name samuel oluoch imbo introduction african philosophy philosophers identified category often explicitly reject assumptions ethnophilosophy adopt


universalist worldview philosophy requires philosophy accessible applicable peoples cultures world ref name samuel oluoch imbo introduction african philosophy even specific philosophical questions prioritized individual national regional philosophies may differ ref name samuel oluoch imbo introduction african philosophy african philosophers classified category odera orukapaulin hountondji peter bodunrin kwasi wiredu tsenay serequeberhan marcien towa lansana keita ref name samuel oluoch imbo introduction african philosophy nationalist ideological philosophy nationalist ideological philosophy might considered


special case philosophic sagacity sages ideologues subjects alternatively considered subcategory professional political philosophy either case sort problem arises retaining distinction ideology philosophy also sets ideas special way reasoning examples include african socialism nkrumaism harambee authenticit african ethics although africa extremely diverse appear shared moral ideas across many ethnic groups ref name gyekye number african cultures ethics centered person 's character saying


morals translates something like character ref name gyekye person 's character reflects accumulation deeds habits conduct hence changed person 's life ref name gyekye african cultures personhood refers adult human exhibits moral virtues one behaves badly considered person even considered human ref name gyekye ref many traditional african societies highly religious religions revealed hence ethics center around divine commands ref name gyekye instead ethics humanistic utilitarian