metrical pattern involving varied numbers syllables fixed number strong stresses line marianne moore chief device ancient hebrew biblical poetry including many psalms ''parallelism'' rhetorical structure successive lines reflected grammatical structure sound structure notional content three parallelism lent antiphonal call response performance could also reinforced intonation thus biblical poetry relies much less metrical feet create rhythm instead creates rhythm based much larger sound units lines phrases sentences classical poetry forms


venpa tamil language rigid grammars point could expressed context free grammar ensured rhythm classical chinese poetics based tone system middle chinese recognized two kinds tones level ''p ng'' tone oblique ''z '' tones category consisting rising ' 'sh ng'' tone departing ''q '' tone entering ''r '' tone certain forms poetry placed constraints syllables required level oblique formal patterns meter used modern english verse

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create rhythm longer dominate contemporary english poetry case free verse rhythm often organized based looser units cadence rather regular meter robinson jeffers marianne moore william carlos williams three notable poets reject idea regular accentual meter critical english poetry jeffers experimented sprung rhythm alternative accentual rhythm meter attic red figure ''kathalos'' painting sappho c bce western poetic tradition meters customarily grouped according characteristic metrical foot number feet per


earliest extant examples works homer hesiod ref name greek ref iambic pentameter dactylic hexameter later used number poets including william shakespeare henry wadsworth longfellow respectively common metrical feet english homer roman bust based greek original iamb one unstressed syllable followed stressed syllable eg des '''cribe''' '''clude''' '''tract''' trocheeone stressed syllable followed unstressed syllable eg '''pic''' ture '''flow''' er dactyl one stressed syllable followed two unstressed syllables eg '''an''' tate '' 'sim''' lar anapaesttwo unstressed syllables followed one stressed syllable eg com pre '''hend''' spondeetwo stressed syllables


together eg '''heart''' '''beat''' '''four''' '''teen''' pyrrhictwo unstressed syllables together rare usually used end dactylic hexameter wide range names types feet right choriamb four syllable metric foot stressed syllable followed two unstressed syllables closing stressed syllable choriamb derived ancient greek latin poetry ref name greek languages utilize vowel length intonation rather addition syllabic accents determining meter ottoman turkish vedic often concepts similar iamb dactyl describe common


dactyls important classical verse english dactylic verse uses dactyls irregularly better described based patterns iambs anapests feet considers natural language actual rhythm significantly complex basic scanned meter described many scholars sought develop systems would scan complexity vladimir nabokov noted overlaid top regular pattern stressed unstressed syllables line verse separate pattern accents resulting natural pitch spoken words suggested


term scud used distinguish unaccented stress accented stress metrical patterns lewis carroll 's ''the hunting snark'' mainly anapestic tetrameter different traditions genres poetry tend use different meters ranging shakespearean iambic pentameter homeric dactylic hexameter anapestic tetrameter used many nursery rhymes however number variations established meter common provide emphasis attention given foot line avoid boring repetition example stress foot may inverted


caesura pause may added sometimes place foot stress final foot line may given feminine ending soften replaced spondee emphasize create hard stop patterns iambic pentameter tend fairly regular patterns dactylic hexameter tend highly irregular regularity vary language addition different patterns often develop distinctively different languages example iambic tetrameter russian generally reflect regularity use


natural rhythm finnish estonian jean racine ''ph dre'' rhyme alliteration assonance old english epic poem ''beowulf'' alliterative verse rhyme alliteration assonance consonance ways creating repetitive patterns sound may used independent structural element poem reinforce rhythmic patterns ornamental element also carry meaning separate repetitive sound patterns created example chaucer used heavy alliteration mock old english verse paint character archaic rhyme consists identical hard rhyme similar soft rhyme sounds placed


ends lines predictable locations within lines internal rhyme languages vary richness rhyming structures italian example rich rhyming structure permitting maintenance limited set rhymes throughout lengthy poem richness results word endings follow regular forms english irregular word endings adopted languages less rich rhyme degree richness language 's rhyming structures plays substantial role determining poetic forms commonly used language ref name kiparsky ref alliteration repetition letters letter sounds


beginning two words immediately succeeding short intervals recurrence letter accented parts words alliteration assonance played key role structuring early germanic norse old english forms poetry alliterative patterns early germanic poetry interweave meter alliteration key part structure metrical pattern determines listener expects instances alliteration occur compared ornamental use alliteration modern european poetry alliterative patterns formal


carried full stanzas alliteration particularly useful languages less rich rhyming structures assonance use similar vowel sounds within word rather similar sounds beginning end word widely used skaldic poetry goes back homeric epic verbs carry much pitch english language assonance loosely evoke tonal elements chinese poetry useful translating chinese poetry consonance occurs consonant sound repeated throughout sentence without putting sound front


high middle ages part influence arabic language al andalus modern spain arabic language poets used rhyme extensively first development literary arabic sixth century long rhyming qasidas rhyming schemes become associated specific language culture period rhyming schemes achieved use across languages cultures time periods forms poetry carry consistent well defined rhyming scheme chant royal rubaiyat poetic forms variable rhyme schemes rhyme schemes described


using letters correspond sets rhymes first second fourth lines quatrain rhyme third line rhyme quatrain said aa ba rhyme scheme rhyme scheme one used example rubaiyat form similarly bb quatrain known enclosed rhyme used forms petrarchan sonnet types complicated rhyming schemes developed names separate bc convention ottava rima terza rima types


use differing rhyming schemes discussed main article form poetry poetic form flexible modernist post modernist poetry continues less structured previous literary eras many modern poets eschew recognizable structures forms write free verse free verse however formless composed series subtle flexible prosodic elements thus poetry remains styles distinguished prose form regard basic formal structures poetry found varieties free verse however


much structures may appear ignored similarly best poetry written classic styles departures strict form emphasis effect among major structural elements used poetry line stanza verse paragraph larger combinations stanzas lines cantos also sometimes used broader visual presentations words calligraphy basic units poetic form often combined larger structures called ''poetic forms'' poetic modes see following section sonnet lines stanzas poetry often separated


lines page process known lineation lines may based number metrical feet may emphasize rhyming pattern ends lines lines may serve functions particularly poem written formal metrical pattern lines separate compare contrast thoughts expressed different units highlight change tone see article line breaks information division lines lines poems often organized stanzas denominated number lines included thus


collection two lines couplet distich three lines triplet tercet four lines quatrain lines may may relate rhyme rhythm example couplet may two lines identical meters rhyme two lines held together common meter alone blok 's russian poem ''noch ulitsa fonar apteka'' night street lamp drugstore wall leiden poems may organized verse paragraphs regular rhymes established rhythms used poetic tone instead established


collection rhythms alliterations rhymes established paragraph form many medieval poems written verse paragraphs even regular rhymes rhythms used many forms poetry stanzas interlocking rhyming scheme structural elements one stanza determine succeeding stanzas examples interlocking stanzas include example ghazal villanelle refrain case villanelle refrains established first stanza repeats subsequent stanzas related use interlocking stanzas use


separate thematic parts poem example strophe antistrophe epode ode form often separated one stanzas cases particularly lengthier formal poetry forms epic poetry stanzas constructed according strict rules combined skaldic poetry dr ttkv tt stanza eight lines three lifts produced alliteration assonance addition two three alliterations odd numbered lines partial rhyme consonants dissimilar vowels necessarily beginning word even lines contained internal rhyme


set syllables necessarily end word half line exactly six syllables line ended trochee arrangement dr ttkv tts followed far less rigid rules construction individual dr ttkv tts visual presentation even advent printing visual appearance poetry often added meaning depth acrostic poems conveyed meanings initial letters lines letters specific places poem arabic hebrew chinese poetry visual presentation finely calligraphed poems played important part


overall effect many poems advent printing poets gained greater control mass produced visual presentations work visual elements become important part poet 's toolbox many poets sought use visual presentation wide range purposes modernist poets made placement individual lines groups lines page integral part poem 's composition times complements poem 's rhythm visual caesuras various lengths creates juxtapositions accentuate meaning ambiguity irony simply create


aesthetically pleasing form extreme form lead concrete poetry asemic writing diction poetic diction treats manner language used refers sound also underlying meaning interaction sound form many languages poetic forms specific poetic dictions point distinct grammars dialects used specifically poetry registers poetry range strict employment ordinary speech patterns favoured much late th century prosody highly ornate uses language


medieval renaissance poetry poetic diction include rhetorical devices simile metaphor well tones voice irony aristotle wrote ''poetics'' greatest thing far master metaphor since rise modernism poets opted poetic diction de emphasizes rhetorical devices attempting instead direct presentation things experiences exploration tone hand surrealists pushed rhetorical devices limits making frequent use catachresis allegorical stories central poetic diction


statue runic singer petri shemeikka kolmikulmanpuisto park sortavala karelia specific poetic forms developed many cultures developed closed received poetic forms rhyming scheme meter elements poem based sets rules ranging relatively loose rules govern construction elegy highly formalized structure ghazal villanelle described common forms poetry widely used across number languages additional forms poetry may found discussions poetry particular cultures


periods glossary sonnet william shakespeare among common forms poetry popular late middle ages sonnet th century become standardized fourteen lines following set rhyme scheme logical structure th century italian renaissance form crystallized pen petrarch whose sonnets translated th century sir thomas wyatt credited introducing sonnet form english literature traditional italian petrarchan sonnet follows rhyme scheme ''abba abba cdecde''


though variation perhaps common cdcdcd especially within final six lines ' 'sestet'' common english shakespearean sonnet follows rhyme scheme ''abab cdcd efef gg'' introducing third quatrain grouping four lines final couplet greater amount variety regard rhyme usually found italian predecessors convention sonnets english typically use iambic pentameter romance languages hendecasyllable alexandrine widely used meters sonnets types often make use ''volta'' turn point


poem idea turned head question answered introduced subject matter complicated ''volta'' often take form statement contradicting complicating content earlier lines petrarchan sonnet turn tends fall around division first two quatrains sestet english sonnets usually place near beginning closing couplet carol ann duffy sonnets particularly associated high poetic diction vivid imagery romantic love largely due influence


petrarch well early english practitioners edmund spenser gave name spenserian sonnet michael drayton shakespeare whose sonnets among famous english poetry twenty included ''oxford book english verse'' however twists turns associated ''volta'' allow logical flexibility applicable many subjects poets earliest centuries sonnet present utilized form address topics related politics john milton percy bysshe shelley claude mckay theology john donne gerard manley hopkins war wilfred


owen ee cummings gender sexuality carol ann duffy postmodern authors ted berrigan john berryman challenged traditional definitions sonnet form rendering entire sequences sonnets often lack rhyme clear logical progression even consistent count fourteen lines shi du fu visiting temple laozi ''shi'' main type classical chinese poetry within form poetry important variations folk song styled verse ''yuefu'' old style verse ''gushi'' modern style verse ''jintishi'' cases rhyming obligatory


yuefu folk ballad poem written folk ballad style number lines length lines could irregular variations ' 'shi'' poetry generally either four line quatrain ''jueju'' else eight line poem normal either way even numbered lines rhyming line length scanned according number characters according convention one character equals one syllable predominantly either five seven characters long caesura final three syllables lines


generally end stopped considered series couplets exhibit verbal parallelism key poetic device old style verse ''gushi'' less formally strict ''jintishi'' regulated verse despite name new style verse actually theoretical basis laid far back shen yue ce although considered reached full development time chen zi'ang ce good example poet known ''gushi'' poems li bai ce among rules jintishi rules regulate tonal variations within poem


including use set patterns four tones middle chinese basic form jintishi sushi eight lines four couplets parallelism lines second third couplets couplets parallel lines contain contrasting content identical grammatical relationship words jintishi often rich poetic diction full allusion wide range subject including history politics one masters form du fu ce wrote tang dynasty th century villanelle w h auden


villanelle nineteen line poem made five triplets closing quatrain poem characterized two refrains initially used first third lines first stanza alternately used close subsequent stanza final quatrain concluded two refrains remaining lines poem b alternating rhyme villanelle used regularly english language since late th century poets dylan thomas w h auden elizabeth bishop limerick limerick


poem consists five lines often humorous rhythm important limericks first second fifth lines must seven ten syllables however third fourth lines need five seven lines must rhyme rhythm practitioners limerick included edward lear lord alfred tennyson rudyard kipling robert louis stevenson tanka kakinomoto hitomaro tanka form unrhymed japanese poetry five sections totalling ''on'' phonological units identical morae structured pattern


generally shift tone subject matter upper phrase lower phrase tanka written early asuka period poets kakinomoto hitomaro ''fl'' late th century time japan emerging period much poetry followed chinese form tanka originally shorter form japanese formal poetry generally referred waka used heavily explore personal rather public themes tenth century tanka become dominant form japanese poetry


haiku matsuo bash example writing fuji kaze ya oogi ni nosete edo miyage wind mt fuji 've brought fan gift edo khlong ''khlong'' among oldest thai poetic forms reflected requirements tone markings certain syllables must marked ''mai ek'' ''mai tho'' likely derived thai language three tones opposed today 's five split


occurred ayutthaya kingdom period two corresponded directly aforementioned marks usually regarded advanced sophisticated poetic form ref name hudak khloong reproduced form ref ''khlong'' stanza ''bot'' number lines ''bat'' pali sanskrit ''p da'' depending type ''bat'' subdivided two ''wak'' sanskrit ''varga'' first ''wak'' five syllables second variable number also depending type may optional type ''khlong'' named number ''bat''


stanza may also divided two main types ''khlong suphap'' ''khlong dan'' two differ number syllables second ''wak'' final ''bat'' inter stanza rhyming rules ref name hudak khloong khlong si suphap ''khlong si suphap'' common form still currently employed four ''bat'' per stanza ' 'si'' translates ''four'' first ''wak'' ''bat'' five syllables second ''wak'' two four syllables first third ''bat'' two syllables


second four syllables fourth ''mai ek'' required seven syllables ''mai tho'' required four shown dead word syllables allowed place syllables require ''mai ek'' changing spelling words satisfy criteria usually acceptable ode horace odes first developed poets writing ancient greek pindar latin horace forms odes appear many cultures influenced greeks latins ode generally three parts strophe antistrophe


together epode time differing forms odes developed considerable variations form structure generally showing original influence pindaric horatian ode one non western form resembles ode qasida persian poetry ghazal also form poetry common arabic bengali persian urdu classic form five fifteen rhyming couplets share refrain end second line refrain may one several syllables


preceded rhyme line identical meter often reflects theme unattainable love divinity forms long history many languages many variations developed including forms quasi musical poetic diction urdu ghazals classical affinity sufism number major sufi religious works written ghazal form relatively steady meter use refrain produce incantatory effect complements sufi mystical themes well among masters form rumi th century persian


poet one famous poet type poetry hafez whose poems often include theme exposing hypocrisy life poems subject much analysis commentary interpretation influencing post fourteenth century persian writing author west stlicher diwan johann wolfgang von goethe collection lyrical poems inspired persian poet hafez genres addition specific forms poems poetry often thought terms different genres subgenres poetic genre generally tradition classification poetry


based subject matter style broader literary characteristics commentators view genres natural forms literature others view study genres study different works relate refer works narrative poetry chaucer narrative poetry genre poetry tells story broadly subsumes epic poetry term narrative poetry often reserved smaller works generally appeal human interest narrative poetry may oldest type poetry many scholars homer concluded ''iliad'' ''odyssey'' composed


christine de pizan '' left '' lyric poetry genre unlike epic dramatic poetry attempt tell story instead personal nature poems genre tend shorter melodic contemplative rather depicting characters actions portrays poet 's feelings states mind perceptions notable poets genre include christine de pizan john donne charles baudelaire gerard manley hopkins antonio machado edna st vincent millay epic poetry cam es epic poetry genre poetry major form narrative


generally became less common west early th century notable epics continued written cantos ezra pound helen egypt hd paterson poem william carlos williams examples modern epics derek walcott nobel prize great extent basis epic ''omeros'' satirical poetry john wilmot poetry powerful vehicle satire romans strong tradition satirical poetry often written political purposes notable example roman poet juvenal 's satires


true english satirical tradition john dryden tory first poet laureate produced ''mac flecknoe'' subtitled satire true blue protestant poet ts reference thomas shadwell another master th century english satirical poetry john wilmot nd earl rochester satirical poets outside england include poland 's ignacy krasicki azerbaijan 's sabir portugal 's manuel maria barbosa du bocage korea 's kim kirim especially noted ''gisangdo'' elegy thomas gray elegy mournful melancholy plaintive poem especially lament dead funeral song term


machado juan ram n jim nez william butler yeats rainer maria rilke virginia woolf verse fable krasicki fable ancient literary genre often though invariably set verse succinct story features anthropomorphised animals legendary creatures plants inanimate objects forces nature illustrate moral lesson moral verse fables used variety meter rhyme patterns notable verse fabulists included aesop vishnu sarma phaedrus marie de france robert henryson biernat lublin jean de la fontaine ignacy krasicki f lix mar de samaniego tom de iriarte ivan krylov


ambrose bierce dramatic poetry goethe dramatic poetry drama written verse spoken sung appears varying sometimes related forms many cultures greek tragedy verse dates th century bc may influence development sanskrit drama indian drama turn appears influenced development ''bianwen'' verse dramas china forerunners chinese opera east asian verse dramas also include japanese noh examples dramatic poetry persian literature include nizami 's two famous dramatic works ''layla majnun''


''khosrow shirin'' ferdowsi 's tragedies ''rostam sohrab'' rumi 's ''masnavi'' gorgani 's tragedy ''vis ramin'' vahshi 's tragedy ''farhad'' american poets th century revive dramatic poetry including ezra pound ''sestina altaforte'' ts eliot love song j alfred prufrock speculative poetry poe speculative poetry also known fantastic poetry weird macabre poetry major sub classification poetic genre deals thematically subjects beyond reality whether via extrapolation science fiction via weird horrific themes horror fiction


poetry appears regularly modern science fiction horror fiction magazines edgar allan poe sometimes seen father speculative poetry poe 's remarkable achievement genre anticipation three quarters century big bang theory universe 's origin much derided essay due speculative nature termed prose poem ''eureka prose poem'' prose poetry prose poetry hybrid genre shows attributes prose poetry may indistinguishable micro story aka short short story


flash fiction examples earlier prose strike modern readers poetic prose poetry commonly regarded originated th century france practitioners included aloysius bertrand charles baudelaire arthur rimbaud st phane mallarm since late especially prose poetry gained increasing popularity entire journals ''the prose poem international journal'' ''contemporary haibun online'' ''haibun today'' devoted genre hybrids latin american poets th century wrote prose poems include octavio paz alejandra pizarnik light poetry lewis carroll light poetry light verse


poetry attempts humorous poems considered light usually brief frivolous serious subject often feature word play including puns adventurous rhyme heavy alliteration although free verse poets excelled light verse outside formal verse tradition light verse english usually obeys least formal conventions common forms include limerick clerihew double dactyl light poetry sometimes condemned doggerel thought poetry composed casually humor often makes serious point subtle subversive


way many renowned serious poets also excelled light verse notable writers light poetry include lewis carroll ogden nash x j kennedy willard r espy shel silverstein wendy cope slam poetry slam poetry genre originated chicago illinois marc kelly smith organized first slam ref name maryhutchingsreed ref ref name aap ref slam performers comment emotively aloud audience personal social matters slam focuses aesthetics word play intonation voice inflection slam poetry often competitive dedicated poetry slam contests ref name powerpoetry ref poetry


religion may differing views religious poetry nissim ezekiel observes ref see also digital poetry glossary poetry terms improvisation list poetry groups movements oral poetry outline poetry persona poetry poet laureate poetry reading rhapsode spoken word notes references citations sources books reading https wwwacademiaedu science art poetry music narrative science art anthologies literature aesthetics spoken word


''mona lisa'' leonardo da vinci one world 's recognizable paintings artistic depiction group rhinos made chauvet cave years ago '''painting''' practice applying paint pigment color medium solid surface called matrix support medium commonly applied base brush implements knives sponges airbrushes used art term ''painting ' 'describes act result action final work called

Humanities
Visual arts
Fine arts
Painting


painting support paintings includes surfaces walls paper canvas wood glass lacquer pottery leaf copper concrete painting may incorporate multiple materials including sand clay paper plaster gold leaf even whole objects painting important form visual arts bringing elements drawing composition gesture gestural painting narration narrative art abstraction abstract art paintings naturalistic representational still life landscape painting photographic abstract narrative symbolistic symbolist art emotive expressionism political


nature artivism portion history painting eastern western art dominated religious art examples kind painting range artwork depicting mythological figures pottery biblical scenes sistine chapel ceiling scenes life buddha images eastern religious origin history prehistoric cave painting aurochs lascaux france oldest known figurative painting depiction bull discovered lubang jeriji sal h cave indonesia painted years ago earlier


oldest known paintings approximately years old found franco cantabrian region western europe caves district maros sulawesi indonesia cave paintings found kalimantan indonesia lubang jeriji sal h cave believed years old recently cave art pig found indonesian island dated years reported ref name nyt ref however earliest evidence act painting discovered two rock shelters arnhem land northern australia lowest layer


material sites used pieces ochre estimated years old archaeologists also found fragment rock painting preserved limestone rock shelter kimberley region north western australia dated years old examples cave paintings world indonesia france spain portugal italy chinaindia australia mexico etc western cultures oil painting watercolor painting rich complex traditions style subject matter east ink color ink historically predominated choice media equally rich complex traditions


invention photography major impact painting decades first photograph produced photographic processes improved became widely practiced depriving painting much historic purpose provide accurate record observable world series art movements late th early th centuries notably impressionism post impressionism fauvism expressionism cubism dadaism challenged renaissance view world eastern african painting however continued long history stylization undergo equivalent transformation time modern contemporary art moved


away historic value craft documentation favour concept deterred majority living painters continuing practice painting either whole part work vitality versatility painting st century defy previous declarations demise epoch characterized idea pluralism consensus representative style age artists continue make important works art wide variety styles aesthetic temperaments merits left public marketplace


judge elements painting chen hongshou ''leaf album painting'' ming dynasty georges seurat ''circus sideshow '' alt shows pointillist painting trombone soloist color tone color made hue saturation value dispersed surface essence painting pitch rhythm essence music color highly subjective observable psychological effects although differ one culture next black associated mourning west east white painters theoreticians writers scientists including goethe kandinsky newton


written color theory moreover use language abstraction color equivalent word red example cover wide range variations pure red visible spectrum light formalized register different colors way agreement different notes music f c painter color simply divided basic primary derived complementary mixed colors like red blue green brown etc painters deal practically pigments blue painter


blues phthalocyanine blue prussian blue indigo cobalt blue ultramarine psychological symbolical meanings color strictly speaking means painting colors add potential derived context meanings perception painting highly subjective analogy music quite clear sound music like c note analogous light painting shades dynamics coloration painting specific timbre musical instruments music elements necessarily form melody music


rather add different contexts non traditional elements modern artists extended practice painting considerably include one example collage began cubism painting strict sense modern painters incorporate different materials metal plastic sand cement straw leaves wood texture examples works jean dubuffet anselm kiefer growing community artists use computers paint color onto digital canvas using programs adobe photoshop corel painter many others images


printed onto traditional canvas required rhythm jean metzinger ''la danse bacchante '' c oil canvas x nbsp cm kr ller ller museum jean metzinger 's mosaic like divisionist technique parallel literature characteristic alliance symbolist writers neo impressionist artists blockquote ask divided brushwork objective rendering light iridescences certain aspects color still foreign painting make kind chromatic versification syllables use strokes variable quantity cannot differ dimension without modifying rhythm pictorial phraseology destined translate diverse emotions


aroused nature jean metzinger circa blockquote piet mondrian ''composition en rouge jaune bleu et noir'' gemeentemuseum den haag rhythm artists piet mondrian ref name tosaki https booksgooglecom booksisbn eiichi tosaki ''mondrian 's philosophy visual rhythm phenomenology wittgenstein eastern thought'' volume sophia ''studies cross cultural philosophy traditions cultures'' springer nov pp ref important painting music one defines rhythm pause incorporated sequence rhythm paintings pauses allow creative force intervene add new creations form


melody coloration distribution form kind information crucial importance given work art directly affects aesthetic value work aesthetic value functionality dependent ie freedom movement perception perceived beauty free flow energy art well forms techne directly contributes aesthetic value ref name tosaki music important birth abstract art since music abstract nature try represent exterior world expresses


young kandinsky learned play piano cello kandinsky 's stage design performance mussorgsky 's ''pictures exhibition'' illustrates synaesthetic concept universal correspondence forms colors musical sounds music defines much modernist abstract painting jackson pollock underscores interest painting ''autumn rhythm number '' aesthetics theory female painter sitting campstool painting statue dionysus priapus onto panel held boy fresco pompeii st century nino pisano ''apelles art painting'' detail


relief giotto 's bell tower florence italy alt relief wall shows bearded man reaching hands clothes draped body aesthetics study art beauty important issue th th century philosophers kant hegel classical philosophers like plato aristotle also theorized art painting particular plato disregarded painters well sculptors philosophical system maintained painting cannot depict truth copy reality shadow world ideas


nothing craft similar shoemaking iron casting time leonardo painting become closer representation truth painting ancient greece leonardo da vinci contrary said kant distinguished beauty sublime terms clearly gave priority former although refer painting particular concept taken painters jmw turner caspar david friedrich hegel recognized failure attaining universal concept beauty aesthetic essay wrote painting


one three romantic arts along poetry music symbolic highly intellectual purpose painters written theoretical works painting include kandinsky paul klee ref name franciscono franciscono marcel ''paul klee work thought'' part 'the bauhaus sseldorf' chap 'klee 's theory courses' p 'notes pp ' p ref ref name barasch barasch moshe '' https booksgooglecom booksid r wiujish c theories art impressionism kandinsky '' part iv 'abstract art' chap 'color' pp ref essay kandinsky maintains painting spiritual value attaches primary colors essential feelings concepts something


goethe writers already tried iconography study content paintings rather style erwin panofsky art historians first seek understand things depicted looking meaning viewer time finally analyzing wider cultural religious social meaning parisian painter maurice denis famously asserted remember painting warhorse naked woman story essentially flat surface covered colors assembled certain order thus many th century developments painting


cubism reflections ''means'' painting rather external world nature previously core subject recent contributions thinking painting offered painter writer julian bell book ''what painting'' bell discusses development history notion paintings express feelings ideas ''mirror world'' bell writes blockquote ''work'' art seeks hold attention keep fixed ''history'' art urges onwards bulldozing highway homes imagination blockquote painting media different types


gloss oil paint eventually became principal medium used creating artworks advantages became widely known transition began early netherlandish painting northern europe height renaissance oil painting techniques almost completely replaced tempera paints majority europe pastel maurice quentin de la tour ''portrait louis xv france'' pastel pastel painting medium form stick consisting pure powdered pigment binder pigments used pastels used produce colored art media including


oil paints binder neutral hue low saturation color effect pastels closer natural dry pigments process surface pastel painting fragile easily smudged preservation requires protective measures framing glass may also sprayed fixative nonetheless made permanent pigments properly cared pastel painting may endure unchanged centuries pastels susceptible paintings made fluid medium cracking discoloration result changes


color opacity dimensions medium dries acrylic ray burggraf ''jungle arc'' acrylic paint wood acrylic paint fast drying paint containing pigment suspension acrylic polymer emulsion acrylic paints diluted water become water resistant dry depending much paint diluted water modified acrylic gels media pastes finished acrylic painting resemble watercolor oil painting unique characteristics attainable media main practical difference acrylics oil paints inherent


drying time oils allow time blend colors apply even glazes paintings slow drying aspect oil seen advantage certain techniques may also impede artist 's ability work quickly watercolor john martin ''manfred jungfrau'' watercolor watercolor painting method paints made pigments suspended water soluble vehicle traditional common support watercolor paintings paper supports include papyrus bark papers plastics vellum leather fabric wood canvas east asia watercolor painting


inks referred brush painting scroll painting chinese korean japanese painting dominant medium often monochrome black browns india ethiopia countries also long traditions finger painting watercolor paints originated china various types watercolors used artists examples pan watercolors liquid watercolors watercolor brush pens watercolor pencils ref name altenew altenew ref watercolor pencils water soluble color pencils may used either wet dry ink sessh ''landscapes four seasons'' ink light color paper ink paintings done


liquid contains pigments dyes used color surface produce image text design ink used drawing pen brush quill ink complex medium composed solvents pigments dyes resins lubricants solubilizers surfactants particulate matter fluorescers materials components inks serve many purposes ink 's carrier colorants additives control flow thickness ink appearance dry hot wax encaustic encaustic icon saint catherine 's monastery egypt th century encaustic painting also known hot wax painting


involves using heated beeswax colored pigments added liquid paste applied surface usually prepared wood though canvas materials often used simplest encaustic mixture made adding pigments beeswax several recipes used containing types waxes damar resin linseed oil ingredients pure powdered pigments purchased used though mixtures use oil paints forms pigment metal tools special brushes used shape paint cools heated metal tools


used manipulate wax cooled onto surface materials encased collaged surface layered using encaustic medium adhere surface technique normal one ancient greek roman panel paintings remained use eastern orthodox icon tradition fresco ''white angel'' fresco mile eva monastery serbia fresco several related mural painting types done plaster walls ceilings word fresco comes italian word ''affresco'' derives latin word ''fresh''


degrees celsius degrees fahrenheit result fused lamination glass metal unlike painted techniques surface handled wetted enamels traditionally used decoration precious objects also used purposes limoges enamel leading centre renaissance enamel painting small religious mythological scenes decorated surrounds plaques objects salts caskets th century enamel painting enjoyed vogue europe especially medium portrait miniatures late th century technique


porcelain enamel metal used durable medium outdoor murals spray paint aerosol paint also called spray paint type paint comes sealed pressurized container released fine spray mist depressing valve button form spray painting aerosol paint leaves smooth evenly coated surface standard sized cans portable inexpensive easy store aerosol primer applied directly bare metal many plastics speed portability permanence also make aerosol paint common graffiti medium late street


graffiti writers' signatures murals became elaborate unique style developed factor aerosol medium speed required illicit work many recognize graffiti street art unique art form specifically manufactured aerosol paints made graffiti artist stencil protects surface except specific shape painted stencils purchased movable letters ordered professionally cut logos hand cut artists tempera tempera also known egg tempera permanent fast drying painting medium consisting colored pigment mixed water soluble binder


medium usually glutinous material egg yolk size tempera also refers paintings done medium tempera paintings long lasting examples first centuries ce still exist egg tempera primary method painting superseded invention oil painting paint commonly called tempera though consisting pigment glue size commonly used referred manufacturers america poster paint water miscible oil paint water miscible oil paints also called water soluble


water mixable modern variety oil paint engineered thinned cleaned water rather use chemicals turpentine mixed applied using techniques traditional oil based paint still wet effectively removed brushes palettes rags ordinary soap water water solubility comes use oil medium one end molecule altered bind loosely water molecules solution digital painting digital painting method


computer give digital artwork different look feel artwork made traditional way furthermore digital painting 'computer generated' art computer automatically create images screen using mathematical calculations hand artist uses painting technique create particular piece work computer painting styles ''style'' used two senses refer distinctive visual elements techniques methods typify ''individual'' artist 's work also refer movement school


early th century modernism revolt conservative values realism ref name barth replenishment barth john ''the literature replenishment'' later republished ''the friday book' ' ref ref name graff graff gerald ''babbitt abyss social context postmodern american fiction'' triquarterly spring pp reprinted putz freese eds postmodernism american literature ref term encompasses activities output felt traditional forms art architecture literature religious faith social organization daily life becoming outdated new economic social political conditions emerging fully industrialized world


salient characteristic modernism self consciousness often led experiments form work draws attention processes materials used tendency abstraction impressionism claude monet 's ''impression sunrise'' inspired name movement first example modernism painting impressionism school painting initially focused work done studios outdoors ''en plein air'' impressionist paintings demonstrated human beings see objects instead see light school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among leading practitioners became increasingly influential


initially rejected important commercial show time government sponsored paris salon impressionists organized yearly group exhibitions commercial venues timing coincide official salon significant event salon des refus created emperor napoleon iii display paintings rejected paris salon abstract styles abstract painting uses visual language form colour line create composition may exist degree independence visual references world abstract expressionism american post world


early closely associated abstract expressionism critics used terms action painting abstract expressionism interchangeably modernist styles include color field lyrical abstraction hard edge painting pop art outsider art term outsider art coined art critic roger cardinal english synonym art brut raw art rough art label created french artist jean dubuffet describe art created outside boundaries official culture dubuffet focused particularly art insane asylum inmates outsider art emerged successful art marketing category


full fledged art movement photorealism evolved pop art ref name supperrealist pop art lindey christine ''superrealist painting sculpture'' william morrow company new york pp ref ref name chase linda pp chase linda photorealism millennium ''the innocent eye photorealism context'' harry n abrams inc new york pp ref counter abstract expressionism hyperrealism genre painting sculpture resembling high resolution photograph hyperrealism fully fledged school art considered advancement photorealism methods used create resulting paintings sculptures term primarily


applied independent art movement art style united states europe developed since early surrealism surrealism cultural movement began early best known artistic literary production affiliated surrealist movement surrealist artworks feature element surprise uncanny unconscious unexpected juxtapositions non sequitur however many surrealist artists writers regard work expression philosophical movement first foremost works artifact leader andr breton explicit assertion


surrealism revolutionary movement surrealism developed dada activities world war important center movement paris onward movement spread around globe eventually affecting visual arts literature film music many countries well political thought practice philosophy social theory east asian '''chinese''' tang dynasty ming dynasty shui ink wash painting hua niao southern school zhe school wu school contemporary '''japanese''' yamato e rimpa school emakimono kan school shij school superflat '''korean''' islamic arabic miniature mughal miniature ottoman


popular art forms odishapatachitras component ancient bengali narrative art originally serving visual device performance song khan bahadur khan men clan c fraser album company style '''company style''' term hybrid indo european style paintings made india indian artists many worked european patrons british east india company foreign companies th th centuriesthree distinct styles company painting emerged three british power centres delhi calcutta madras subject matter


company paintings made western patrons often documentary rather imaginative consequence indian artists required adopt naturalistic approach painting traditionally usual bengal school art movement style indian painting originated bengal primarily kolkata shantiniketan flourished throughout indian subcontinent british raj early th century bengal school arose avant garde nationalist movement reacting academic art styles previously promoted india indian artists raja ravi


varma british art schools school wanted establish distinct indian style celebrated indigenous cultural heritagein attempt reject colonial aesthetics abanindranath tagore also turned china japan intent promoting pan asian aesthetic incorporated elements far eastern art japanese wash technique kangra painting pictorial art kangra named kangra himachal pradesh former princely state patronized art became prevalent fading basohli school painting mid th centurythe focal theme kangra painting shringar erotic


sentiment subjects seen kangra painting exhibit taste traits lifestyle society period artists adopted themes love poetry jayadeva keshav das wrote ecstatically love radha krishna bhakti driving force th century mysore painting goddess saraswathi madhubani art style indian painting practiced mithila region india nepal style characterized complex geometrical patterns paintings famous representating ritual content used particular occasions like festivalsreligious rituals etc


mughal miniature dispersed imperial mughal court developed styles also drawing local traditions painting especially illustrating sanskrit epics ''mahabharata'' ''ramayana'' subjects varied portraits ruling family often engaged hunting daily activities generally popular narrative scenes epics hindu mythology well genre scenes landscapes humans mughal painting particular style south asian particularly north indian specifically modern day india pakistan painting confined miniatures either book illustrations single


works kept albums muraqqa emerged persian miniature painting partly chinese origin developed court mughal empire th th centuries mughal painting immediately took much greater interest realistic portraiture typical persian miniatures animals plants main subject many miniatures albums realistically depicted others samikshavad tanjore warli kerala mural painting deccan style african tingatinga contemporary art border cellpadding cellspacing style margin auto width border solid e ffec background e ffec style vertical align top width abstract expressionism


american figurative expressionism bay area figurative movement lyrical abstraction new york figurative expressionism new york school style vertical align top width abstract expressionism american figurative expressionism abstract imagists bay area figurative movement color field computer art conceptual art fluxus happenings hard edge painting lyrical abstraction minimalism neo figurative neo dada new york school nouveau r alisme op art performance art pop art postminimalism washington color school kinetic art style vertical align top width arte povera ascii art bad painting body art artist 's book feminist art installation art land art lowbrow art movement photorealism postminimalism process art video art funk art pattern decoration


style vertical align top width appropriation art culture jamming demoscene electronic art figuration libre graffiti art live art mail art postmodern art neo conceptual art neo expressionism neo pop sound art transgressive art video installation institutional critique neogeo style vertical align top width bio art cyberarts cynical realism digital art information art internet art massurrealism maximalism new media art software art new european painting young british artists style vertical align top width digital painting hyperrealism classical realism relational art street art stuckism superflat pseudorealism videogame art superstroke vj art virtual art indigenous art types painting allegory allegory figurative mode


museo del prado madrid spanish art bodeg n still life painting depicting pantry items victuals game drink often arranged simple stone slab also painting one figures significant still life elements typically set kitchen tavern starting baroque period paintings became popular spain second quarter th century tradition still life painting appears started far popular contemporary low countries today belgium netherlands flemish dutch artists


ever southern europe northern still lifes many subgenres ''breakfast piece'' augmented ''trompe l' il'' ''flower bouquet'' ''vanitas'' spain much fewer patrons sort thing type ''breakfast piece'' become popular featuring objects food tableware laid table figure painting figure painting work art painting media primary subject human figure whether clothed nude figure painting may also refer activity creating work


human figure one contrast subjects art since first stone age cave paintings reinterpreted various styles throughout history artists well known figure painting peter paul rubens edgar degas douard manet reza abbasi ''two lovers'' illustration painting illustration paintings used illustrations books magazines theater movie posters comic books today growing interest collecting admiring original artwork various museum exhibitions magazines art galleries devoted space illustrators past


visual art world illustrators sometimes considered less important comparison fine artists graphic designers result computer game comic industry growth illustrations becoming valued popular profitable artworks acquire wider market two especially korea japan hong kong united states landscape painting andreas achenbach ''clearing coast sicily'' walters art museum landscape painting term covers depiction natural scenery mountains valleys trees rivers lakes forests especially art main subject


wide view elements arranged coherent composition works landscape backgrounds figures still form important part work sky almost always included view weather often element composition detailed landscapes distinct subject found artistic traditions develop already sophisticated tradition representing subjects two main traditions spring western painting chinese art going back well thousand years cases portrait painting portrait paintings representations


person face expression predominant intent display likeness personality even mood person art portrait flourished ancient greek especially roman sculpture sitters demanded individualized realistic portraits even unflattering ones one best known portraits western world leonardo da vinci 's painting titled ''mona lisa'' thought portrait lisa gherardini wife francesco del giocondo still life otto marseus van schrieck ''a forest floor still life'' still life work


art depicting mostly inanimate subject matter typically commonplace objects may either natural food flowers plants rocks shells man made drinking glasses books vases jewelry coins pipes origins middle ages ancient greek roman art still life paintings give artist leeway arrangement design elements within composition paintings types subjects landscape portraiture still life paintings particularly often contained religious allegorical symbolism relating objects depicted modern still life breaks two dimensional barrier employs three dimensional mixed


media uses found objects photography computer graphics well video sound veduta veduta highly detailed usually large scale painting cityscape vista genre landscape originated flanders artists paul bril painted ' 'vedute'' early th century itinerary grand tour became somewhat standardized ' 'vedute'' familiar scenes like roman forum grand canal recalled early ventures continent aristocratic englishmen later th century personal impressions cityscapes replaced desire topographical accuracy


satisfied instead painted panoramas see also th century western painting cobweb painting drawing graphic arts index painting related articles list expensive paintings outline painting painting outsourcing china visual arts image notes reading daniel h ''encyclopedia themes subjects painting mythological biblical historical literary allegorical topical'' new york harry n abrams inc w stanley jr taft james w mayer ''the science paintings'' first edition springer painting techniques


'''philosophy religion''' philosophical examination central themes concepts involved religious traditions ref name sep ref philosophical discussions topics date ancient times appear earliest known texts concerning philosophy field related many branches philosophy including metaphysics epistemology ethics ref name auto stanford encyclopedia philosophy http platostanfordedu entries philosophy religion fiesig philosophy religion ref philosophy religion differs religious philosophy seeks discuss questions regarding nature religion whole rather examining problems brought forth particular belief system carried dispassionately

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of religion


western world early modern philosophers thomas hobbes john locke george berkeley discussed religious topics alongside secular philosophical issues well ref name auto philosophy religion distinguished theology pointing theology critical reflections based religious convictions also theology responsible authority initiates thinking speaking witnessing philosophy bases arguments ground timeless evidence aspects philosophy religion classically regarded part metaphysics aristotle 's ''metaphysics'' necessarily prior cause eternal motion


unmoved mover like object desire thought inspires motion without moved today however philosophers adopted term philosophy religion subject typically regarded separate field specialization although also still treated particularly catholic philosophers part metaphysics basic themes problems ultimate reality different religions different ideas ultimate reality source ground lack thereof also maximal greatness paul tillich 's concept 'ultimate concern' rudolf otto 's 'idea


holy' concepts point concerns ultimate highest truth religious philosophies deal way one main differences among religions whether ultimate reality personal god impersonal reality western religions various forms theism common conceptions eastern religions theistic also various non theistic conceptions ultimate theistic vs non theistic common way sorting different types religions also several philosophical positions regard existence god one might


take including various forms theism monotheism polytheism agnosticism different forms atheism monotheism aquinas considered five arguments existence god widely known ''quinque viae'' five ways keith yandell outlines roughly three kinds historical monotheisms greek semitic hindu greek monotheism holds world always existed believe creationism divine providence semitic monotheism believes world created god particular point time god acts world indian monotheism teaches world beginningless


god 's act creation sustains world attempt provide proofs arguments existence god one aspect known natural theology natural theistic project strand natural theology attempts justify belief god independent grounds perhaps philosophy religion predicated natural theology 's assumption existence god justified warranted rational grounds considerable philosophical theological debate kinds proofs justifications arguments appropriate discourse non theistic


conceptions buddhist vasubandhu argued hindu creator god views impersonal conception absolute reality described form idealism eastern religions included theistic alternative positions ultimate nature reality one view jainism holds dualistic view exists matter multiplicity souls ''jiva'' without depending supreme deity existence also different buddhist views theravada abhidharma view holds ultimately existing things transitory phenomenal events ' 'dharmas''


interdependent relations madhyamaka buddhists nagarjuna hold ultimate reality emptiness ' 'shunyata'' yogacara holds ''vij apti'' mental phenomena indian philosophical discourses monotheism defended hindu philosophers particularly nyaya school buddhist thinkers argued conception creator god sanskrit ishvara hindu view advaita vedanta defended adi shankara total non dualism although advaitins believe usual hindu gods view ultimate reality radically monistic oneness brahman without qualities anything appears like persons gods illusory ''maya''


various philosophical positions taoism also viewed non theistic ultimate reality tao taoist philosophers conceived different ways describing ultimate nature things example taoist xuanxue thinker wang bi argued everything rooted '' wu'' non nothingness guo xiang rejected ''wu'' ultimate source things instead arguing ultimate nature tao spontaneous self production ''zi sheng'' spontaneous self transformation ''zi hua'' traditionally jains buddhists rule existence limited deities divine beings rejected idea


single powerful creator god first cause posited monotheists knowledge belief blind men elephant parable widely used buddhism jainism illustrate dangers dogmatic religious belief religious traditions make knowledge claims argue central religious practice ultimate solution main problem human life include epistemic metaphysical ethical claims evidentialism position may characterized belief rationally justified sufficient evidence ref name auto rowe pp ref many theists


non theists evidentialists example aquinas bertrand russell agree belief god rational sufficient evidence disagree whether evidence exists ref name auto arguments often stipulate subjective religious experiences reasonable evidence thus religious truths must argued based non religious evidence one strongest positions evidentialism william kingdon clifford wrote wrong always everywhere anyone believe anything upon insufficient evidence ref name auto https platostanfordedu archives sum entries religion epistemology forrest peter epistemology religion ''the stanford encyclopedia philosophy '' summer edition edward n zalta


ed ref view evidentialism usually read tandem william james 's article ''a believe'' argues clifford 's principle recent supporters evidentialism include antony flew presumption atheism michael scriven primary philosophy rely ockhamist view absence evidence x belief x justified many modern thomists also evidentialists hold demonstrate evidence belief god another move argue bayesian way probability


religious truth like god total conclusive evidence ref name auto philosophers however argue religious belief warranted ''without evidence'' hence sometimes called ''non evidentialists'' include fideists reformed epistemologists alvin plantinga reformed epistemologists examples philosophers argue religious beliefs properly basic beliefs irrational hold even though supported evidence rationale beliefs hold must foundational based rational beliefs risk infinite regress


qualified proviso defended objections differentiates view fideism properly basic belief belief one reasonably hold without evidence memory basic sensation perception plantinga 's argument belief god type within every human mind natural awareness divinity william james essay believe argues pragmatic conception religious belief james religious belief justified one presented question rationally undecidable


one presented genuine live options relevant individual james religious belief defensible pragmatic value bring one 's life even rational evidence work recent epistemology religion goes beyond debates evidentialism fideism reformed epistemology consider contemporary issues deriving new ideas knowledge practical skill practical factors affect whether one could know whether theism true formal epistemology 's use probability theory social epistemology particularly epistemology testimony


nonbelief higher order discussions focus whether religious disagreement epistemic peers someone whose epistemic ability equal demands us adopt skeptical agnostic stance whether reduce change religious beliefs faith reason religions resort rational arguments attempt establish views also claim religious belief least partially accepted faith confidence trust one 's religious belief different conceptions models faith including affective model faith sees feeling trust psychological


state special knowledge model faith revealing specific religious truths defended reformed epistemology belief model faith theoretical conviction certain religious claim true faith trusting making fiducial commitment trusting god practical doxastic venture model faith seen commitment believe trustworthiness religious truth god words trust god presupposes belief thus faith must include elements belief trust non doxastic venture model faith practical commitment ''without actual belief'' defended


non realists like j l schellenberg cupitt view one need believe literal religious claims reality religious faith hope model faith hoping also different positions faith relates reason one example belief faith reason compatible work together view thomas aquinas orthodox view catholic natural theology according view reason establishes certain religious truths faith guided reason gives us access truths divine according aquinas exceed


ability human reason another position fideism view faith sense independent outright adversarial toward reason modern philosophers kierkegaard william james wittgenstein associated label kierkegaard particular argued necessity religious take non rational leap faith bridge gulf man god wittgensteinian fideism meanwhile sees religious language games incommensurate scientific metaphysical language games autonomous thus may judged standards obvious criticism


view termed neo orthodoxy similarly dz phillips argues god intelligible reason evidence god empirical object 'being among beings' brian davies points problem positions like barth 's help us deciding inconsistent competing revelations different religions science topic whether religious beliefs compatible science way also another important topic philosophy religion well theology field draws historical study interactions conflicts


debates united states teaching evolution creationism ref name auto https platostanfordedu archives spr entries religion science de cruz helen religion science ''the stanford encyclopedia philosophy '' spring edition edward n zalta ed ref different models interaction discussed philosophical literature including ref name auto conflict thesis sees constant conflict reception theory evolution current debate creationism independence model separate domains non overlapping magisteria dialogue model overlap fields remain separate share concepts


presuppositions integration unification model includes projects like natural theology process theology field also draws scientific study religion particularly psychologists sociologists well cognitive scientists various theories religion arisen various disciplines one example various evolutionary theories religion see phenomenon either adaptive product another seen various theories put forth cognitive science religion ref name auto van eyghen hans peels rik van den brink gijsbert new developments cognitive science religion rationality religious belief


springer ref argued evolutionary cognitive theories undermine religious belief ref name auto b wilkins john griffiths paul evolutionary debunking arguments three domains fact value religion ref religious experience william james wrote ''the varieties religious experience'' closely tied issues knowledge belief question interpret religious experiences vis vis potential providing knowledge ref name auto yandell p ref religious experiences recorded throughout cultures widely diverse personal experiences tend highly important individuals undergo discussions religious experiences said


informed part question sort information might religious experience provide could one tell ref name auto one could interpret experiences either veridically neutrally delusions monotheistic non monotheistic religious thinkers mystics appealed religious experiences evidence claims ultimate reality philosophers richard swinburne william alston compared religious experiences everyday perceptions noetic perceptual object thus religious experiences could logically veridical unless good reason disbelieve according


brian davies common objections veridical force religious experiences include fact experience frequently deceptive people claim experience god may mistakenly identifying object experience insane hallucinating ref name auto davies p ref however argues cannot deduce fact experiences ' 'sometimes'' mistaken hallucinations distorted conclusion religious experiences mistaken etc indeed drunken hallucinating person could still perceive things correctly therefore objections cannot said ''necessarily'' disprove religious experiences ref name auto


according c b martin tests agreed upon establish genuine experience god distinguish decisively ungenuine therefore religious experiences establish reality psychological states naturalistic explanations religious experiences often seen undermining epistemic value explanations fear death suggestion infantile regression sexual frustration neurological anomalies 's head well socio political power experiences might grant mystic put forward ref name auto spring edition edward n zalta ed url https platostanfordedu archives spr entries mysticism date ref


recently argued religious experiences caused cognitive misattributions ref name auto ref contrary position taken bertrand russell compared veridical value religious experiences hallucinations drunk person scientific point view make distinction man eats little sees heaven man drinks much sees snakes abnormal physical condition therefore abnormal perceptions however william l rowe notes blockquote hidden assumption russell 's argument bodily mental states interfere


individual experiences authoritative break authority rational mind according james mystic justified comes non mystic outside observer reason regard either veridical delusive study religious experiences perspective field phenomenology also feature philosophy religion key thinkers field include william brede kristensen gerard van der leeuw types depiction theophany scene bhagavadgita


also used argument veridical nature evidence purely subjective psychological phenomenon western thought religious experience mainly theistic one described likes friedrich schleiermacher rudolf otto william james according schleiermacher distinguishing feature religious experience one overcome feeling absolute dependence otto meanwhile argued important element basic feature religious experiences ''numinous'' described non rational non sensory experience feeling whose primary


immediate object outside self well qualities mystery terrifying fascinating rowe meanwhile defined religious experience experience one senses immediate presence divine according rowe religious experiences divided following manner religious experiences one senses presence divine distinct oneself mystical experiences one senses one 's union divine presence extrovertive way looks outward senses world around us finds divine reality introvertive


way turns inward finds divine reality deepest part self non monotheistic religions meanwhile also report different experiences theophany non dual experiences oneness deeply focused meditative states termed samadhi indian religion well experiences final enlightenment liberation moksha nirvana kevala hinduism buddhism jainism respectively another typology offered chad meister differentiates three major experiences regenerative experiences individual feels reborn transformed changed radically usually resulting religious conversion charismatic experiences special gifts abilities blessings manifested healing


visions etc mystical experiences described using william james qualifications ineffable noetic transient passive perennialism vs constructivism another debate topic whether religious cultures share common core mystical experiences perennialism whether experiences way socially culturally constructed constructivism contextualism according walter stace cultures share mystical experiences oneness external world well introverted pure conscious events empty concepts thoughts qualities etc except pure consciousness ref name auto similarly ninian smart argued monistic experiences universal perennialists tend


distinguish experience post experience interpretation make sense different views world religions ref name auto constructivists like steven katz meanwhile argued common core thesis either view every mystical experience contains least concepts soft constructivism strongly shaped determined one 's religious ideas culture hard constructivism ref name auto view conceptual scheme mystic strongly shapes experiences mystics different religions different schemas cannot universal mystical experiences ref name auto religion


ethics sacrifice isaac'' caravaggio religions argue certain values ideas moral good non monotheistic indian traditions like buddhism advaita vedanta find highest good nirvana moksha leads release suffering rounds rebirth morality means achieve monotheistic traditions god source ground morality heaven highest human good world religions also offer different conceptions source evil suffering world wrong human life


solve free dilemmas example christianity sin source human problems buddhism craving ignorance general question philosophy religion asks relationship morality religion brian davies outlines four possible theses morality somehow requires religion one example view kant 's idea morality lead us believe moral law thus believe upholder law god morality somehow included religion basic idea


moral part religious means morality pointless without religion one would reason moral without morality religion opposed view belief god would mean one would whatever god commands even goes morality view religion morality often opposed espoused atheists like lucretius bertrand russell well theologians like kierkegaard argued 'teleological suspension ethical' monotheistic religions seek explain morality


include perfect knowledge future leading theological determinism thus possibly contradicting human free different positions including libertarianism free true predestination miracles belief miracles supernatural events occurrences common among world religions miracle event cannot explained rational scientific means resurrection jesus miracles muhammad examples miracles claimed religions skepticism towards supernatural found early philosophical traditions like indian carvaka school greco roman philosophers like lucretius david hume


defined miracle violation laws nature famously argued miracles miracles section x ''an enquiry concerning human understanding'' hume probability miracle n't occurred always greater probability firm unalterable experience established laws nature proof miracle nature fact entire argument experience possibly imagined ''enquiry'' x p nbsp hume n't argue miracle impossible unreasonable believe


testimony miracle 's occurrence evidence regularity natural laws much stronger human testimony often error according rowe two weaknesses hume 's argument first could forms indirect evidence occurrence miracle include testimony someone 's direct experience secondly rowe argues hume overestimates weight given past experience support principle thought law nature common occurrence currently accepted ideas


natural laws revised due observed exception hume 's argument would lead one conclude exceptions occur rowe adds remains true however reasonable person require quite strong evidence believing law nature violated easy believe person claimed see water run downhill quite difficult believe someone saw water run uphill another definition miracle possible however termed epistemic theory miracles argued spinoza st augustine


view rejects miracle transgression natural laws simply transgression current ''understanding'' natural law ''tractatus theologico politicus'' spinoza writes miracles intelligible relation human opinions merely mean events natural cause cannot explained reference ordinary occurrence either us rate writer narrator miracle ''tractatus'' p nbsp similarly rf holland defined miracle naturalistic way widely cited paper holland miracle need extraordinary


beneficial coincidence interpreted religiously brian davies notes even establish miracle occurred hard see supposed prove possible arise due agencies unusual powerful divine afterlife world religions put forth various theories affirm life death different kinds postmortem existence often tied belief immortal individual soul self sanskrit atman separate body survives death defended plato descartes monotheistic religions like christianity many indian philosophers


view also position mind body problem mainly dualism view must show dualism true souls exist also souls survive death kant famously argued mere existence soul prove immortality one could conceive soul even totally simple could still fade away lose intensity ref name stanfordedu https platostanfordedu archives win entries afterlife hasker william taliaferro charles afterlife ''the stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' winter edition edward n zalta ed ref h h price one modern philosopher speculated


length would like disembodied soul death one major issue soul beliefs since personhood closely tied one 's physical body seems difficult make sense human existing apart body issue continuity personal identity easy account claim person exists bodily death ' 'same'' person existed bertrand russell put forth general scientific argument afterlife follows blockquote persons part everyday


world science concerned conditions determine existence discoverablewe know brain immortal organized energy living body becomes demobilized death therefore available collective action evidence goes show regard mental life bound brain structure organized bodily energy therefore rational suppose mental life ceases bodily life ceases argument one probability strong upon


denies existence individual souls instead affirms deflationary view personal identity termed ''not self'' anatta physicalism generally seen hostile notions afterlife need case abrahamic religions like christianity traditionally held life death include element bodily resurrection one objection view seems difficult account personal continuity best resurrected body replica resurrected person person ref name auto https platostanfordedu archives win entries afterlife hasker william taliaferro charles afterlife ''the stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' winter


edition edward n zalta ed forthcoming ref one response constitution view persons says persons constituted bodies first person perspective capacity think oneself ''as oneself'' view resurrected first person perspective person 's body perspective objection view seems difficult differentiate one person 's first person perspective another person 's without reference temporal spatial relations ref name auto peter van inwagen meanwhile offers following theory blockquote perhaps moment man 's death god removes


corpse replaces simulacrum burned rots perhaps god quite wholesale perhaps removes safekeeping core person brain central nervous system even special part details van inwagen ref name auto blockquote view shows positions nature afterlife closely tied sometimes completely depend upon theistic positions close connection two views made kant argued one infer afterlife belief


plurality religious views beliefs central concern philosophy religion various philosophical positions regarding one make sense religious diversity including exclusivism inclusivism pluralism relativism atheism antireligion agnosticism religious exclusivism claim one religion true others wrong say religion exclusivistic also mean salvation human freedom attainable followers one 's religion view tends orthodox view monotheistic religions christianity islam though liberal


modernist trends within might differ william l rowe outlines two problems view first problem easy see true large portion humanity excluded salvation hard see loving god would desire second problem become acquainted saintly figures virtuous people religions difficult see could say excluded salvation part religion different view


inclusivism idea one 's tradition alone whole truth truth nevertheless partially reflected traditions inclusivist might maintain religion privileged also hold religious adherents fundamental truths even saved liberated jain view anekantavada 'many sidedness' interpreted tolerant view inclusive acceptance partial truth value non jain religious ideas paul dundas notes jains ultimately held thesis jainism final truth


religions contain partial truths scholars kristin beise kiblinger also argued buddhist traditions include inclusivist ideas attitudes modern western study religion work ninian smart also instrumental representing diverse understanding religion religious pluralism smart 's view genuine differences religions ref name auto https platostanfordedu archives win entries philosophy religion taliaferro charles philosophy religion ''the stanford encyclopedia philosophy '' winter edition edward n zalta ed ref pluralism view religions equally valid responses divine


valid paths personal transformation approach taken john hick developed pluralistic view synthesizes components various religious traditions hick promotes idea noumenal sacred reality different religions provide us access ref name auto hick defines view great world faiths embody different perceptions conceptions correspondingly different responses real ultimate hick religions true allow us encounter divine reality even different deities conceptions rowe notes similar idea


proposed paul tillich 's concept ''being itself'' view perennialism single core truth experience shared religions even use different terms language express view espoused likes aldous huxley thinkers traditionalist school well neo vedanta yet another way responding conflicting truth claims religions relativism joseph runzo one prominent defenders argued ''henofideism'' states truth religious worldview relative community


adherents thus religions incompatible views one individually valid emerge individual experiences plurality phenomenal divine realities ref name auto meister p ref according runzo view reduce incompatible ideas experiences different religions mere interpretations real thus preserves individual dignity ref name auto another response diversity plurality religious beliefs deities throughout human history one skepticism towards even antireligion seeing illusions human creations serve human psychological needs sigmund freud


famous proponent view various publications ''the future illusion'' ''civilization discontents'' according freud religion illusion derives strength fact falls instinctual desires one skeptical towards claims religion one need hostile towards religion cupitt one example someone disbelieving metaphysical cosmological claims religion holds one practice non realist perspective sees religious claims human inventions


myths live religious language question religious language sense said meaningful central issue philosophy religion since work vienna circle group philosophers influenced wittgenstein put forth theory logical positivism view religious language talk god cannot verified empirically thus ultimately meaningless position also termed theological noncognitivism similar view seen david hume 's enquiry concerning human understanding


famously wrote work include either abstract reasoning quantity number reasoning concerning matter fact existence nothing sophistry illusion similar vein antony flew questioned validity religious statements seem falsifiable religious claims seem allow counter evidence count thus seem lacking content arguments popular verification principle falsifiability criterion meaning longer


widely held main problem verificationism seems self refuting claim seem supported criterion ref name auto noted brian davies talking god religious truths religious traditions tend resort metaphor negation analogy via negativa defended thinkers maimonides denied positive statements god helpful wrote come nearer knowledge comprehension god negative attributes similar approaches based negation seen


hindu doctrine neti neti buddhist philosophy madhyamaka wittgenstein 's theory language games also shows one use analogical religious language describe god religious truths even words one using case refer everyday sense ie say god wise mean wise sense person wise yet still make sense talk manner however patrick sherry notes fact sort language may make sense


mean one warranted ascribing terms god must connection relevant criteria use ascribing terms conventional objects subjects god chad meister notes though wittgenstein religion 's language game need reflect literal picture reality picture theory meaning would hold useful simply ability reflect practices forms life various religious adherents following wittgenstein philosophers religion like norman malcolm b r tilghman z phillips argued


handbook contemporary philosophy religion issn ref study ethics early analytic philosophy tended avoid study philosophy religion largely dismissing per logical positivists view subject part metaphysics therefore meaningless collapse logical positivism renewed interest philosophy religion prompting philosophers like william alston john mackie alvin plantinga robert merrihew adams richard swinburne antony flew introduce new problems open classical topics nature miracles theistic arguments problem evil rationality


belief god concepts nature god many plantinga mackie flew debated logical validity ''free defense'' way solve problem evil alston grappling consequences analytic philosophy language worked nature religious language adams worked relationship faith morality analytic epistemology metaphysics formed basis number philosophically sophisticated theistic arguments like reformed epistemologists like plantinga analytic philosophy religion also preoccupied ludwig wittgenstein well interpretation


ren kierkegaard 's philosophy religion using first hand remarks would later published ''philosophical investigations'' ''culture value'' works philosophers peter winch norman malcolm developed come known ''contemplative philosophy'' wittgensteinian school thought rooted swansea tradition includes wittgensteinians rush rhees peter winch z phillips among others name contemplative philosophy first coined z phillips ''philosophy 's cool place'' rests interpretation passage wittgenstein 's culture value interpretation first labeled wittgensteinian


fideism kai nielsen consider wittgensteinians swansea tradition relentlessly repeatedly rejected construal caricature wittgenstein 's considered position especially true z phillips responding interpretation kai nielsen dz phillips became two prominent philosophers wittgenstein 's philosophy religion see also list philosophers religion comparative theology conceptions god definition religion ''issues science religion'' ''lectures philosophy religion'' hegel nontheistic religion religious naturalism notes references ref ref name ref page


edition ref reading ''al nawawi forty hadiths commentary'' arabic virtual translation center philosophy religion islamic point view http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg london philosophy study guide offers many suggestions read depending student 's familiarity subject http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg religionhtm philosophy religion william l rowe william j wainwright ''philosophy religion selected readings'' third ed florida harcourt brace company http wwwjournalscambridgeorg res religious studies international journal philosophy religion available online print fully searchable online archive dating back


issue currently publishes four issues per year shults f leron computer modeling philosophy religion open philosophy special issue computer modeling philosophy doi opphil http wwwdegruytercom view j opth issue opth opth xmlformat int shokhin vladimir k pioneering appearances philosophy religion europe fran ois para du phanjas nature religion open theology yandell keith e philosophy religion contemporary introduction routledge external links http wwwgalilean libraryorg manuscriptphppostid introduction philosophy religion paul newall https webarchiveorg web http usersoxacuk worc phil topics religionhtml philosophy religion useful annotated index religious philosophy topics http wwwphilosophyofreligioninfo philosophy religion


info introductory articles philosophical arguments theism https webarchiveorg web http wwwcsueduau research apra australasian philosophy religion association https webarchiveorg web http philreligionndedu cpr resources introductory articles philosophy religion introductory articles philosophy religion university notre dame http wwwlivingphilosophyorguk philosophy david hume miracleshtm hume miracles commentary rev dr wally shaw r religion religion government religion politics religious studies


'''psychology''' scientific study mind behavior psychology includes study conscious unconscious phenomena including feelings thoughts academic discipline immense scope crossing boundaries natural social sciences psychologists seek understanding emergent properties brains linking discipline neuroscience social science psychologists aim understand behavior individuals groups ref name fernald fernald ld https booksgooglecom booksid q p j swuqc printsec frontcover v onepage q f false ''psychology six perspectives'' pp thousand oaks ca sage publications ref ref name psychology hockenbury hockenbury psychology worth publishers ref ''' ''' ''psi'' greek letter commonly associated


science psychology professional practitioner researcher involved discipline called psychologist psychologists also classified social behavioral cognitive scientists psychologists attempt understand role mental functions individual social behavior others explore physiological biological processes underlie cognitive functions behaviors psychologists involved research perception cognition attention emotion intelligence subjective experiences motivation brain functioning personality psychologists' interests extend interpersonal relationships psychological resilience family resilience areas within social psychology also consider unconscious mind ref name reference name psychoanalysis


october ref many psychologists involved kind therapeutic role practicing clinical counseling school settings psychologists conduct scientific research wide range topics related mental processes behavior typically latter group psychologists work academic settings eg universities medical schools hospitals another group psychologists employed industrial organizational settings yet others involved work human development aging sports health forensics media etymology definitions word ''psychology'' derives greek word ''psyche'' spirit soul latter part


word psychology derives '' logia'' refers study research ref name oed online etymology dictionary http wwwetymonlinecom indexphpterm psychology psychology ref latin word ''psychologia'' first used croatian humanist latinist marko maruli book ''psichiologia de ratione animae humanae'' ''psychology nature human soul'' late th century early th century earliest known reference word ''psychology'' english steven blankaart ''the physical dictionary'' dictionary refers anatomy treats body psychology treats soul ref name oed psychology steven blankaart p


rather supernatural causes bce plato suggested brain mental processes take place bce aristotle suggested heart china psychological understanding grew philosophical works laozi confucius later doctrines buddhism body knowledge involves insights drawn introspection observation well techniques focused thinking acting frames universe term division physical reality mental reality well interaction physical mental chinese philosophy also emphasized purifying


mind order increase virtue power ancient text known ''the yellow emperor 's classic internal medicine'' identifies brain nexus wisdom sensation includes theories personality based yin yang balance analyzes mental disorder terms physiological social disequilibria chinese scholarship focused brain advanced qing dynasty work western educated fang yizhi liu zhi wang qingren wang qingren emphasized importance brain center nervous system linked mental disorder brain diseases investigated


causes dreams insomnia advanced theory hemispheric lateralization brain function ref name hsuehguo yeh hsueh benyu guo china baker ed ''oxford handbook history psychology'' ref influenced hinduism indian philosophy explored distinctions types awareness central idea ''upanishads'' vedic texts formed foundations hinduism distinction person 's transient mundane self eternal unchanging soul divergent hindu doctrines buddhism challenged hierarchy selves emphasized importance reaching higher awareness yoga encompasses range techniques


used pursuit goal theosophy religion established russian american philosopher helena blavatsky drew inspiration doctrines time british india ref name paranjpe anand c paranjpe tradition colonialism globalization reflections history psychology india brock ed ''internationalizing history psychology'' ref ref name ptraju pt raju structural depths indian thought state university new york press pages ref psychology interest enlightenment thinkers europe germany gottfried wilhelm leibniz applied principles calculus mind arguing mental activity took place


thought cannot held separate recombined still less another thinking subject suffer experimented upon suit purpose even observation already changes displaces state observed object ferdinand ueberwasser designated ''professor empirical psychology logic'' gave lectures scientific psychology though developments soon overshadowed napoleonic wars ref name schwarz ref end napoleonic era prussian authorities discontinued old university nster ref name schwarz consulted philosophers hegel herbart however


prussian state established psychology mandatory discipline rapidly expanding highly influential educational system however discipline yet embrace experimentation ref name horst horst uk gundlach germany baker ed ''oxford handbook history psychology'' ref england early psychology involved phrenology response social problems including alcoholism violence country 's crowded lunatic asylums beginning experimental psychology wilhelm wundt seated colleagues psychological laboratory first kind gustav fechner began conducting psychophysics research leipzig articulated principle human


perception stimulus varies logarithmically according intensity principle became known weber fechner law fechner 's ''elements psychophysics'' challenged kant 's negative view regard conducting quantitative research mind ref name horst fechner 's achievement show mental processes could given numerical magnitudes also could measured experimental methods ref name horst heidelberg hermann von helmholtz conducted parallel research sensory perception trained physiologist wilhelm wundt wundt turn came leipzig university established psychological laboratory brought experimental psychology world


wundt focused breaking mental processes basic components motivated part analogy recent advances chemistry successful investigation elements structure materials ref name wundtstanford stanford encyclopedia philosophy http platostanfordedu entries wilhelm wundt wilhelm maximilian wundt ref paul flechsig emil kraepelin soon created another influential laboratory leipzig psychology related lab focused experimental psychiatry ref name horst german psychologist hermann ebbinghaus researcher university berlin another th century contributor field pioneered experimental study memory developed quantitative models learning forgetting


early twentieth century wolfgang kohler max wertheimer kurt koffka co founded school gestalt psychology confused gestalt therapy fritz perls approach gestalt psychology based upon idea individuals experience things unified wholes rather reducing thoughts behavior smaller component elements structuralism gestaltists maintained whole experience important differs sum parts psychologists germany denmark austria england united states soon followed wundt setting laboratories ref name benjaminbaker g stanley hall american


studied wundt founded psychology lab became internationally influential lab located johns hopkins university hall turn trained yujiro motora brought experimental psychology emphasizing psychophysics imperial university tokyo ref name takasuna miki takasuna japan baker ed ''oxford handbook history psychology'' ref wundt 's assistant hugo nsterberg taught psychology harvard students narendra nath sen gupta founded psychology department laboratory university calcutta ref name paranjpe wundt 's students walter dill scott lightner witmer james mckeen cattell worked developing tests mental


ability cattell also studied eugenicist francis galton went found psychological corporation witmer focused mental testing children scott employee selection another student wundt englishman edward titchener created psychology program cornell university advanced structuralist psychology idea behind structuralism analyze classify different aspects mind primarily method introspection ref name goodwin william james john dewey harvey carr advanced idea functionalism expansive approach psychology underlined darwinian idea behavior 's usefulness individual


de psychologie physiologique'' france lasted first meeting international congress psychology sponsored international union psychological science took place paris august amidst world 's fair celebrating centennial french revolution william james one three americans among attendees american psychological association apa founded soon international congress continued held different locations europe wide international participation sixth congress held geneva included presentations russian chinese japanese


well esperanto hiatus world war seventh congress met oxford substantially greater participation war victorious anglo americans congress took place yale university new connecticut attended hundreds members apa ref name benjaminbaker ludy benjamin jr david b baker internationalization psychology history baker ed ''oxford handbook history psychology'' ref tokyo imperial university led way bringing new psychology east new ideas psychology diffused japan china ref name hsuehguo ref name takasuna american psychology gained


influence carnegie funded eugenics record office draper funded pioneer fund institutions eugenics movement also influenced american psychology eugenics became standard topic psychology classes ref name guthriechapter guthrie ''even rat white'' chapter psychology race pp psychology courses often became vehicles eugenics propaganda one graduate record office training program wrote 'i hope serve cause infiltrating eugenics minds teachers may interest know student takes psychology works family history plots


family tree' harvard columbia brown cornell wisconsin northwestern among leading academic institutions teaching eugenics psychology courses ref contrast us uk psychology met antagonism scientific medical establishments six psychology chairs universities england world war ii cold war us military intelligence agencies established leading funders psychology way armed forces new office strategic services intelligence agency university michigan psychologist dorwin cartwright reported university


researchers began large scale propaganda research observed last months war saw social psychologist become chiefly responsible determining week week propaganda policy united states government cartwright also wrote psychologists significant roles managing domestic economy army rolled new general classification test assess ability millions soldiers army also engaged large scale psychological research troop morale mental health ref name schonfeld schonfeld chang c h ''occupational health psychology work stress health'' new york ny springer publishing company ref


rockefeller foundation ford foundation collaborated central intelligence agency cia fund research psychological warfare public controversy called attention army 's project camelot manhattan project social science effort enlisted psychologists anthropologists analyze plans policies foreign countries strategic purposes germany world war psychology held institutional power military subsequently expanded along rest military third reich ref name horst direction hermann g ring 's cousin matthias g ring berlin psychoanalytic institute


renamed g ring institute freudian psychoanalysts expelled persecuted anti jewish policies nazi party psychologists distance freud adler founders psychoanalysis also jewish g ring institute well financed throughout war mandate create new german psychotherapy psychotherapy aimed align suitable germans overall goals reich described one physician despite importance analysis spiritual guidance active cooperation patient represent best way overcome individual mental problems subordinate


requirements ''volk'' ''gemeinschaft'' psychologists provide ''seelenf hrung'' lit soul guidance leadership mind integrate people new vision german community harald schultz hencke melded psychology nazi theory biology racial origins criticizing psychoanalysis study weak deformed johannes heinrich schultz german psychologist recognized developing technique autogenic training prominently advocated sterilization euthanasia men considered genetically undesirable devised techniques facilitating process war new institutions created although psychologists nazi


affiliation discredited alexander mitscherlich founded prominent applied psychoanalysis journal called ''psyche'' funding rockefeller foundation mitscherlich established first clinical psychosomatic medicine division heidelberg university psychology integrated required studies medical students russian revolution bolsheviks promoted psychology way engineer new man socialism consequently university psychology departments trained large numbers students psychology completion training positions made available students schools workplaces cultural institutions military russian state emphasized pedology study