models based core set learning phases include activation prior experience demonstration skills application skills integration skills real world activities gagn 's main focus instructional design instruction learning could systematically connected design instruction emphasized design principles procedures need take place effective teaching learning initial ideas along ideas early instructional designers outlined ''psychological principles systematic development'' written roberts


b miller edited gagn gagn believed internal learning motivation paved way theorists like merrill li jones designed instructional transaction theory reigeluth stein 's elaboration theory notably keller 's arcs model motivation design prior robert gagn learning often thought single uniform process ref name internettimecom wiburg k web log message retrieved http wwwinternettimecom itimegroup time exchange skinner 's teaching machine dewey 'shtm ref little distinction made learning load rifle learning solve complex mathematical

Applied science
Education
Educational Technology
Instructional design


top instructional approach ref name internettimecom gagn defines curriculum sequence content units arranged way learning unit may accomplished single act provided capabilities described specified prior units sequence already mastered learner ref name richey r c richey r c legacy robert mgagn syracuse ny eric clearinghouse information technology ref definition curriculum basis many important initiatives schools educational environments ref name richey r c late


early gagn expressed established interest applying theory practice particular interest applications teaching training learning increasing effectiveness efficiency practice particular concern ref name richey r c ongoing attention practice developing theory continues influence education training ref name richey r c gagn 's work significant influence american education military industrial training ref name answerscom gagn rm nd biographies retrieved april answerscom web site ref gagn one early developers concept instructional


systems design suggests components lesson analyzed designed operate together integrated plan instruction ref name answerscom educational technology learning process educational researcher gagn defined instruction set planned external events influence process learning thus promote learning ref name answerscom learning design concept learning design arrived literature technology education late early idea designers instructors need choose best mixture behaviourist constructivist learning experiences


online courses concept learning design probably old concept teaching learning design might defined description teaching learning process takes place unit learning eg course lesson designed learning event summarized britain learning design may associated concept learning design implementation concept made learning design specifications like palo ims learning design ldl sld etc technical realisations around implementation concept like telos reload ld author etc


models addie process perhaps common model used creating instructional materials addie model acronym stands phases contained model analyze design develop implement evaluate '''brief history addie 's development''' addie model initially developed florida state university explain processes involved formulation instructional systems development isd program military interservice training adequately train individuals particular job also applied interservice curriculum development activity ref name addie branson r k rayner g cox j l


furman j p king f j hannum w h interservice procedures instructional systems development vols tradoc pam navedtra ft monroe va us army training doctrine command august ntis ada ada ref model originally contained several steps five original phases analyze design develop implement evaluation control ref name addie whose completion expected movement next phase could occur years steps revised eventually model became dynamic interactive original hierarchical rendition


popular version appeared mid understand today five phases listed explained ref name trendsissues reiser r dempsey j v trends issues instructional design technology boston pearson ref addie model '''analyze''' first phase content development analysis analysis refers gathering information one 's audience tasks completed learners view content project 's overall goals instructional designer classifies information make content applicable successful '''design''' second phase


design phase phase instructional designers begin create project information gathered analysis phase conjunction theories models instructional design meant explain learning acquired example design phase begins writing learning objective tasks identified broken manageable designer final step determines kind activities required audience order meet goals identified analyze phase '''develop''' third phase development involves creation activities


implemented stage blueprints design phase assembled '''implement''' content developed implemented stage allows instructional designer test materials determine functional appropriate intended audience '''evaluate''' final phase evaluate ensures materials achieved desired goals evaluation phase consists two parts formative summative assessment addie model iterative process instructional design means stage designer assess project 's elements revise


necessary process incorporates formative assessment summative assessments contain tests evaluations created content implemented final phase vital instructional design team provides data used alter enhance design connecting phases model external reciprocal revision opportunities internal evaluation phase revisions made throughout entire process current instructional design models variations addie model ref name piskurich gm piskurich gm rapid instructional design learning id fast right ref rapid


without creating evaluating type prototype regardless analysis rigor may applied front words front analysis rarely sufficient allow one confidently select instructional model reason many traditional methods instructional design beginning seen incomplete naive even counter productive however consider rapid prototyping somewhat simplistic type model argument goes heart instructional design analysis phase thoroughly conduct analysis choose model based findings


area people get snagged simply thorough enough analysis part article chris bressi linkedin dick carey another well known instructional design model dick carey systems approach model ref name dickcarey ref model originally published walter dick lou carey book entitled ''the systematic design instruction'' dick carey systems approach model dick carey made significant contribution instructional design field championing systems view instruction contrast defining instruction sum isolated parts model


must recall identify learner must able perform particular task analyze learners contexts identify general characteristics target audience including prior skills prior experience basic demographics identify characteristics directly related skill taught perform analysis performance learning settings write performance objectives objectives consists description behavior condition criteria component objective describes criteria used judge learner 's performance develop assessment instruments purpose entry behavior testing purpose pretesting purpose post testing purpose


j esseff phd mary sullivan esseff phd book entitled ''idls pro trainer design develop validate instructional materials'' peter mary esseff received doctorates educational technology catholic university america mentorship dr gabriel ofiesh founding father military model mentioned esseff esseff synthesized existing theories develop approach systematic design guaranteed learning aka instructional development learning system idls drs esseffs created elearning course enable participants take gl course online direction


dr esseff components guaranteed learning model following design task analysis develop criterion tests performance measures develop interactive instructional materials validate interactive instructional materials create simulations performance activities case studies role plays demonstrations useful instructional design models include smith ragan model morrison ross kemp model oar model instructional design higher education well wiggins' theory backward design learning theories also play important role design instructional materials theories behaviorism constructivism social learning cognitivism help shape define


outcome instructional materials also see managing learning high performance organizations ruth stiehl barbara bessey learning organization corvallis oregon motivational design motivation defined internal drive activates behavior gives direction term motivation theory concerned process describes human behavior activated directed motivation concepts ''intrinsic extrinsic motivation'' instrinsic defined activity inherent satisfactions rather separable consequence intrinsically motivated person moved act


fun challenge entailed rather external rewards intrinsic motivation reflects desire something enjoyable intrinsically motivated would worried external rewards praise ''examples '' writing short stories enjoy writing reading book curious topic playing chess enjoy effortful thinking extrinsic reflects desire something external rewards awards money praise people extrinsically motivated may enjoy certain activities may wish


engage certain activities wish receive external reward ''examples '' writer writes poems submitted poetry contests person dislikes sales accepts sales position desires earn average salary person selecting major college based salary prestige rather personal interest '''john keller''' devoted career researching understanding motivation instructional systems decades work constitute major contribution instructional design field first applying motivation theories systematically design theory second


developing unique problem solving process calls arcs motivation arcs model arcs model motivational design created john keller researching ways supplement learning process motivation model based tolman 's lewin 's expectancy value theory presumes people motivated learn value knowledge presented ie fulfills personal needs optimistic expectation success model consists four main areas attention relevance confidence satisfaction attention relevance according john keller 's arcs


motivational theory essential learning first key components motivating learners attention relevance considered backbone arcs theory latter components relying upon former components attention attention mentioned theory refers interest displayed learners taking concepts ideas taught component split three categories perceptual arousal using surprise uncertain situations inquiry arousal offering challenging questions problems answer solve variability using variety resources methods teaching within


categories john keller provided sub divisions types stimuli grab attention grabbing attention important part model initiates motivation learners learners interested topic willing invest time pay attention find relevance relevance according keller must established using language examples learners familiar three major strategies keller presents goal oriented motive matching familiarity like attention category keller divided three major strategies subcategories provide


examples make lesson plan relevant learner learners throw concepts wayside attention cannot grabbed sustained relevance conveyed confidence confidence aspect arcs model focuses establishing positive expectations achieving success among learners confidence level learners often correlated motivation amount effort put forth reaching performance objective reason 's important learning design provides students method estimating probability success achieved form


syllabus grading policy rubrics time estimate complete tasks additionally confidence built positive reinforcement personal achievements given timely relevant feedback satisfaction finally learners must obtain type satisfaction reward learning experience satisfaction sense achievement praise higher mere entertainment feedback reinforcement important elements learners appreciate results motivated learn satisfaction based upon motivation intrinsic extrinsic keep learners satisfied instruction designed allow


use newly learned skills soon possible authentic setting possible summary arcs model motivational design process along motivational components attention relevance confidence satisfaction arcs model provides process address motivational problems process phases analysis design development evaluation steps within phases class wikitable phase step rowspan analysis step obtain course information step obtain audience information step analyze audience step analyze existing materials step list objectives


assessments rowspan design step list potential tactics step select design tactics step integrate instruction development step select develop materials evaluation step evaluate revise ref name francom greg reeves thomas c https docswixstaticcom ugd b b c f cpdf john keller significant contributor field educational psychology pdf educational technology may june ref '''step obtain course information''' includes reviewing description course instructor way delivery information ref name '''step obtain audience information''' includes collecting current skill level attitudes towards


course attitudes towards teacher attitudes towards school ref name '''step analyze audience''' help identify motivational problem needs addressed ref name '''step analyze existing materials''' identifying positives current instructional material well problems ref name '''step list objectives assessments''' allows creation assessment tools align objectives ref name '''step list potential tactics''' brainstorming possible tactics could fill motivational gaps ref name '''step select design tactics''' integrates enhances sustains tactics list


fit situation ref name '''step integrate instruction''' integrate tactic chosen list instruction ref name '''step select develop materials''' select materials modify fit situation develop new materials ref name '''step evaluate revise''' obtain reactions learner determine satisfaction level ref name motivating opportunities although keller 's arcs model currently dominates instructional design respect learner motivation hardr miller proposed need new design model includes current research human motivation comprehensive treatment motivation


integrates various fields psychology provides designers flexibility applied myriad situations hardr ref name hardr ref proposes alternate model designers called motivating opportunities model mom hardr 's model incorporates cognitive needs affective theories well social elements learning address learner motivation mom seven key components spelling acronym 'success' situational utilization competence content emotional social systemic ref name hardr influential researchers theorists ''alphabetic last name'' bloom benjamin taxonomies cognitive affective psychomotor domains bonk curtis blended learning


bransford john people learn bridging research practice bruner jerome constructivism clark richard clark kozma media vs methods debate guidance debate gagn robert nine events instruction gagn merrill video seminar gibbons andrew developed theory model centered instruction theory rooted cognitive psychology hannum wallace h heinich robert instructional media new technologies instruction '' rd ed'' educational technology jonassen david problem solving strategies kemp jerold e created cognitive learning design model


langdon danny g instructional designs library instructional designs educational technology publications mager robert f abcd model instructional objectives criterion referenced instruction learning objectives marzano robert j dimensions learning formative assessment mayer richard e multimedia learning merrill david component display theory knowledge objects first principles instruction osguthorpe russell overview instructional design education heart rediscovering spiritual roots learning papert seymour constructionism logo piaget jean cognitive development


reigeluth charles elaboration theory green books ii iii schank roger constructivist simulations simonson michael instructional systems design via distance education skinner bf radical behaviorism programed instruction vygotsky lev learning social activity wiley david influential work open content open educational resources informal online learning communities see also references external links https www elementsoflearningcom instructional design instructional design overview instructional design http wwwnwlinkcom donclark hrd sathtml isd handbook http edutechwikiunigech en instructional design model edutech wiki instructional design model https wwwtdorg instructional design atd instructional design applied psychology educational


technology educational psychology learning pedagogy communication design curricula


types organisms vital us today early human ancestors adapt heterogeneous geographically predictable environments biogeography integrative field inquiry unites concepts information ecology evolutionary biology taxonomy geology physical geography palaeontology climatology ref name dansereau dansereau pierre biogeography ecological perspective new york ronald press co ref ref name cox et al ref modern biogeographic research combines information ideas many fields physiological ecological constraints organismal dispersal geological climatological phenomena operating global spatial scales evolutionary time frames short term interactions

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Biogeography


within habitat species organisms describe ecological application biogeography historical biogeography describes long term evolutionary periods time broader classifications organisms ref name cox cox c barry peter moore biogeography ecological evolutionary approach malden blackwell publications ref early scientists beginning carl linnaeus contributed development biogeography science scientific theory biogeography grows work alexander von humboldt francisco jose de caldas hewett cottrell watson alphonse de candolle alfred russel wallace philip lutley sclater biologists


explorers ref name browne ref introduction patterns species distribution across geographical areas usually explained combination historical factors speciation extinction continental drift glaciation observing geographic distribution species see associated variations sea level river routes habitat river capture additionally science considers geographic constraints landmass areas isolation well available ecosystem energy supplies periods ecological changes biogeography includes study plant animal species past present living ' 'refugium'' habitat interim living sites survival locales


mainland ref name mac macarthur rh wilson eo ''the theory island biogeography'' https booksgooglecom bookshl en lr id cdkywhvgc oi fnd pg pr dq biogeography ots rf vtctajc sig zrscvpc bn qsyg pztpvwucmka v onepage q f false ref islands also ideal locations allow scientists look habitats new invasive species recently colonized observe disperse throughout island change apply understanding similar complex mainland habitats islands diverse biomes ranging tropical arctic climates diversity habitat allows wide range species study different parts world one scientist recognized importance geographic locations


charles darwin remarked journal zoology archipelagoes well worth examination ref name mac two chapters ''on origin species'' devoted geographical distribution history th century first discoveries contributed development biogeography science began mid th century europeans explored world described biodiversity life th century views world shaped around religion many natural theologists bible carl linnaeus mid th century initiated ways classify organisms exploration undiscovered


animal closely related physical surroundings important george louis buffon 's rival theory distribution ref name browne edward wilson prominent biologist conservationist coauthored ''the theory island biogeography'' helped start much research done topic since work watson wallace almost century closely linnaeus georges louis leclerc comte de buffon observed shifts climate species spread across globe result first see different groups organisms different regions


world buffon saw similarities regions led believe one point continents connected water separated caused differences species hypotheses described work volume ''histoire naturelle g n rale et particuli re'' argued varying geographical regions would different forms life inspired observations comparing old new world determined distinct variations species two regions buffon believed single species creation event different regions world


homes varying species alternate view linnaeus buffon 's law eventually became principle biogeography explaining similar environments habitats comparable types organisms ref name browne buffon also studied fossils led believe earth tens thousands years old humans lived long comparison age earth ref name cox th century following period exploration came age enlightenment europe attempted explain patterns biodiversity observed buffon linnaeus


birth th century alexander von humboldt known founder plant geography ref name cox developed concept physique generale demonstrate unity science species fit together one first contribute empirical data science biogeography travel explorer observed differences climate vegetation earth divided regions defined tropical temperate arctic within regions similar forms vegetation ref name cox ultimately enabled create isotherm allowed scientists


see patterns life within different climates ref name cox contributed observations findings botanical geography previous scientists sketched description biotic abiotic features earth book ''cosmos'' ref name browne augustin de candolle contributed field biogeography observed species competition several differences influenced discovery diversity life swiss botanist created first laws botanical nomenclature work prodromus ref name nicolson ref discussed plant distribution theories eventually great impact


charles darwin inspired consider species adaptations evolution learning botanical geography de candolle first describe differences small scale large scale distribution patterns organisms around globe ref name browne several additional scientists contributed new theories develop concept biogeography charles lyell developed theory uniformitarianism studying fossils theory explained world created one sole catastrophic event instead numerous creation events locations ref name lyell lyell charles principles geology attempt explain former changes


world importantly galapagos islands darwin introduced idea natural selection theorized previously accepted ideas species static unchanging contributions biogeography theory evolution different explorers time developed mechanism describe ways species changed influential ideas include development theories regarding struggle existence natural selection darwin 's theories started biological segment biogeography empirical studies enabled future scientists develop ideas geographical distribution organisms


around globe ref name browne alfred russel wallace studied distribution flora fauna amazon basin malay archipelago mid th century research essential development biogeography later nicknamed father biogeography wallace conducted fieldwork researching habits breeding migration tendencies feeding behavior thousands species studied butterfly bird distributions comparison presence absence geographical barriers observations led conclude number organisms present community dependent amount


food resources particular habitat ref name browne wallace believed species dynamic responding biotic abiotic factors philip sclater saw biogeography source support theory evolution used darwin 's conclusion explain biogeography similar record species inheritance ref name browne key findings sharp difference fauna either side wallace line sharp difference existed north south america prior relatively recent faunal interchange understood light otherwise field


biogeography would seen purely descriptive one ref name cox schematic distribution fossils pangea according wegener th st century distribution four permian triassic fossil groups used biogeographic evidence continental drift land bridging moving th century alfred wegener introduced theory continental drift though widely accepted ref name cox theory revolutionary changed way everyone thought species distribution around globe theory explained continents formerly joined together


one large landmass pangea slowly drifted apart due movement plates earth 's surface evidence theory geological similarities varying locations around globe fossil comparisons different continents jigsaw puzzle shape landmasses earth though wegener know mechanism concept continental drift contribution study biogeography significant way shed light importance environmental geographic similarities differences result climate pressures planet


importantly late career wegener recognised testing theory required measurement continental movement rather inference fossils species distributions publication ''the theory island biogeography'' robert macarthur eo wilson showed species richness area could predicted terms factors habitat area immigration rate extinction rate added long standing interest island biogeography application island biogeography theory habitat fragments spurred development fields conservation biology landscape ecology classic biogeography expanded


development molecular systematics creating new discipline known phylogeography development allowed scientists test theories origin dispersal populations island endemics example classic biogeographers able speculate origins species hawaiian islands phylogeography allows test theories relatedness populations putative source populations asia north america ref name mac biogeography continues point study many life sciences geography students worldwide however may different broader titles within institutions ecology evolutionary biology


recent years one important consequential developments biogeography show multiple organisms including mammals like monkeys reptiles like lizards overcame barriers large oceans many biogeographers formerly believed impossible cross see also oceanic dispersal biogeographic regions europe modern applications biogeography incorporates many different fields including limited physical geography geology botany plant biology zoology general biology modelling biogeographer 's main focus environment humans affect distribution species well manifestations life


global production efficiency model glo pem geographic information systems gis glo pem uses satellite imaging gives repetitive spatially contiguous time specific observations vegetation observations global scale ref name prince stephen prince samuel n goward global primary production remote sensing approach ''journal biogeography'' vol terrestrial ecosystem interactions global change volume jul sep pp ref gis show certain processes earth 's surface like whale locations sea surface temperatures bathymetry ref name nasa remote sensing data information remote sensing data information accessed april ref current scientists also


use coral reefs delve history biogeography fossilized reefs paleobiogeography paleobiogeography goes one step include paleogeographic data considerations plate tectonics using molecular analyses corroborated fossils possible demonstrate perching birds evolved first region australia adjacent antarctic time lay somewhat north temperate climate spread gondwanan continents southeast asia nbsp part laurasia closest origin dispersal nbsp late paleogene achieving global


distribution early neogene knowing time dispersal indian ocean much narrower today south america closer antarctic one would hard pressed explain presence many ancient lineages perching birds africa well mainly south american distribution suboscines paleobiogeography also helps constrain hypotheses timing biogeographic events vicariance geodispersal provides unique information formation regional biotas example data species level phylogenetic biogeographic studies tell us


''amazonia landscape species evolution'' st edition hoorn c wesselingh fp eds london blackwell publishing ref freshwater organisms landscapes divided naturally discrete drainage basins watersheds episodically isolated reunited erosional processes regions like amazon basin generally greater amazonia amazon basin orinoco basin guianas exceptionally low flat topographic relief many waterways highly reticulated history geological time context stream capture important factor affecting evolution distribution freshwater organisms stream capture occurs upstream portion


one river drainage diverted downstream portion adjacent basin happen result tectonic uplift subsidence natural damming created landslide headward lateral erosion watershed adjacent basins ref name lovejoy n r pp concepts fields biogeography synthetic science related geography biology soil science geology climatology ecology evolution fundamental concepts biogeography include allopatric speciation nbsp splitting species evolution geographically isolated populations evolution nbsp change genetic composition population extinction nbsp disappearance species dispersal nbsp movement


populations away point origin related migration endemic areas geodispersal nbsp erosion barriers biotic dispersal gene flow permit range expansion merging previously isolated biotas range distribution vicariance nbsp formation barriers biotic dispersal gene flow tend subdivide species biotas leading speciation extinction vicariance biogeography field studies patterns comparative biogeography study comparative biogeography follow two main lines investigation systematic biogeography study biotic area relationships distribution hierarchical classification evolutionary biogeography


proposal evolutionary mechanisms responsible organismal distributions possible mechanisms include widespread taxa disrupted continental break individual episodes long distance movement biogeographic regionalisations many types biogeographic units used biogeographic regionalisation schemes many criteria species composition physiognomy ecological aspects hierarchization schemes biogeographic realms ecozones bioregions ' 'sensu stricto'' ecoregions zoogeographical regions floristic regions vegetation types biomes etc terms biogeographic unit biogeographic area bioregion ' 'sensu lato'' used categories regardless rank international code area nomenclature proposed biogeography see also allen 's rule


bergmann 's rule bibliography biology biogeography based optimization center origin distance decay ecological land classification geobiology macroecology marine ecoregions max carl wilhelm weber miklos udvardy phytochorion ''plant region'' sky island systematic evolutionary biogeography association notes references reading albert j r e reis '' http wwwucpressedu bookphpisbn historical biogeography neotropical freshwater fishes '' university california press berkeley pp cox c b biogeographic regions reconsidered ''journal biogeography'' https webarchiveorg web http desiguenzanet geobotanica tema cox kingdomsreconsideredpdf ebach mc ''origins biogeography role biological classification early plant animal geography'' dordrecht springer xiv pp


switzerland iucn https webarchiveorg web http cmsdataiucnorg downloads udvardypdf external links http wwwbiogeographyorg international biogeography society https webarchiveorg web http wwwsebauacpt systematic evolutionary biogeographical society http wwwwkuedu smithch biogeog early classics biogeography distribution diversity studies http wwwwkuedu smithch biogeog index htm early classics biogeography distribution diversity studies http wwwwkuedu esmithch chronob homelisthtm biogeographers evolutionists ecologists chrono biographical sketches major journals https webarchiveorg web http wwwblackwellpublishingcom journalaspref ''journal biogeography'' homepage http wwwblackwellpublishingcom journalaspref x site ''global ecology biogeography'' homepage http wwwblackwellpublishingcom eco ''ecography'' homepage landscape ecology physical oceanography physical geography biology terminology environmental terminology habitat


military engineer training ukraine '''military engineering''' loosely defined art science practice designing building military works maintaining lines military transport military communications military engineers also responsible logistics behind military tactics modern military engineering differs civil engineering th st centuries military engineering also includes engineering disciplines mechanical electrical engineering techniques ref name military engineering ref according nato military engineering engineer activity undertaken regardless component service shape physical operating environment military engineering incorporates support maneuver

Applied science
Military sciences
Military engineering


force whole including military engineering functions engineer support force protection counter improvised explosive devices environmental protection engineer intelligence military search military engineering encompass activities undertaken 'engineers' maintain repair operate vehicles vessels aircraft weapon systems equipment military engineering academic subject taught military academies schools military engineering construction demolition tasks related military engineering usually performed military engineers including soldiers trained sappers pioneers modern armies soldiers trained perform tasks well forward


battle fire often called combat engineers countries military engineers may also perform non military construction tasks peacetime flood control river navigation works activities fall within scope military engineering etymology word ''engineer'' initially used context warfare dating back ''engine er'' literally one operates engine referred constructor military engines context engine referred military machine e mechanical contraption used war example catapult design civilian structures


bridges buildings developed technical discipline term ''civil engineering'' ref name ecpd definition britannica http wwwbritannicacom eb article engineering engineers' council professional development definition encyclop dia britannica includes britannica article engineering ref entered lexicon way distinguish specializing construction non military projects involved older discipline prevalence civil engineering outstripped engineering military context number disciplines expanded original military meaning word engineering largely obsolete place term military engineering come used history


aerial view mulberry harbour b october first civilization dedicated force military engineering specialists romans whose army contained dedicated corps military engineers known ''architecti'' group pre eminent among contemporaries scale certain military engineering feats construction double wall fortifications long weeks completely encircle besieged city alesia bce example military engineering feats would completely new probably bewildering demoralizing gallic defenders vitruvius


much classic techniques practices roman military engineering lost period foot soldier pivotal much roman military engineering capability largely replaced mounted soldiers later middle ages military engineering saw revival focused siege warfare military engineers planned castles fortresses laying siege planned oversaw efforts penetrate castle defenses castles served military purpose one tasks sappers weaken bases walls enable breached


means thwarting activities devised broadly speaking sappers experts demolishing otherwise overcoming bypassing fortification systems royal military artificers gibraltar th century development gunpowder new siege engines form cannons appeared initially military engineers responsible maintaining operating new weapons case previous siege engines england challenge managing new technology resulted creation office ordnance around order administer cannons armaments castles kingdom military engineers


century regiments foot infantry british french prussian armies included pioneer detachments peacetime specialists constituted regimental tradesmen constructing repairing buildings transport wagons etc active service moved head marching columns axes shovels pickaxes clearing obstacles building bridges enable main body regiment move difficult terrain modern royal welch fusiliers french foreign legion still maintain pioneer sections march front ceremonial parades carrying chromium plated tools intended show historic distinctions include long work aprons


right wear beards west africa ashanti army accompanied war carpenters responsible constructing shelters blacksmiths repaired weapons peninsular war revealed deficiencies training knowledge officers men british army conduct siege operations bridging war low ranking royal engineers officers carried large scale operations command working parties two three battalions infantry two three thousand men knew nothing art siegeworks royal engineers officers demonstrate


simplest tasks soldiers often enemy fire several officers lost could replaced better system training siege operations required april establishment authorised royal warrant teach sapping mining military fieldworks junior officers corps royal engineers corps royal military artificers sappers miners first courses royal engineers establishment done ranks basis greatest regard economy reduce staff ncos officers responsible


instructing examining soldiers men could read write taught could read write taught draw interpret simple plans royal engineers establishment quickly became centre excellence fieldworks bridging captain charles pasley director establishment keen confirm teaching regular exercises held demonstrations experiments improve techniques teaching establishment bridging skills demonstrated annually building pontoon bridge across medway


tested infantry garrison cavalry maidstone demonstrations become popular spectacle local people came watch field day laid test method assaulting earthworks report inspector general fortifications title royal engineers establishment changed school military engineering sme evidence status font engineer doctrine training british army also leading scientific military school europe


bailey bridge deployed korean war replace bridge destroyed combat dawn internal combustion engine marked beginning significant change military engineering arrival automobile end th century heavier air flight start th century military engineers assumed major new role supporting movement deployment systems war military engineers gained vast knowledge experience explosives tasked planting bombs landmines dynamite end world war


standoff western front caused imperial german army gather experienced particularly skilled soldiers form assault teams would break allied trenches enhanced training special weapons flamethrowers squads achieved success late change outcome war early wwii however wehrmacht pioniere battalions proved efficiency attack defense somewhat inspiring armies develop combat engineers battalions notably attack fort eben emael belgium conducted luftwaffe glider deployed combat engineers need defeat


german defensive positions atlantic wall part amphibious landings normandy led development specialist combat engineer vehicles collectively known hobart 's funnies included specific vehicle carry combat engineers churchill avre dedicated assault vehicles organised specialised th armoured division deployed operation overlord 'd day' significant military engineering projects world war ii include mulberry harbour operation pluto modern military engineering still retains roman role building field fortifications road paving breaching terrain obstacles notable


military engineering task example breaching suez canal yom kippur war education military engineers come variety engineering programs may graduates mechanical electrical civil industrial engineering sub discipline modern military engineering divided three main tasks fields combat engineering strategic support ancillary support combat engineering associated engineering battlefield combat engineers responsible increasing mobility front lines war digging trenches building temporary facilities war zones strategic support associated providing service


communication zones construction airfields improvement upgrade ports roads railways communication ancillary support includes provision distribution maps well disposal unexploded warheads military engineers construct bases airfields roads bridges ports hospitals peacetime modern warfare military engineers took role civil engineers participating construction civil works projects nowadays military engineers almost entirely engaged war logistics preparedness ref name military engineering explosives engineering explosives defined system produces rapidly expanding gases given


volume short duration ref name explosive chemical product chemical product website encyclopedia britannica language en access date ref specific military engineering occupations also extend field explosives demolitions usage battlefield explosive devices used battlefield several centuries numerous operations combat area clearance earliest known development explosives traced back th century china chinese credited engineering world 's first known explosive black powder ref name explosive chemical product initially developed recreational purposes black powder later utilized military application bombs projectile propulsion


firearms engineers military specialize field formulate design many explosive devices use varying operating conditions explosive compounds range black powder modern plastic explosives particular commonly listed role combat engineers demolitions expertise also includes mine ied detection disposal information see bomb disposal institutions professional associations military engineering centre excellence engineer research development center military engineering country military engineers key armed forces world invariably found either closely integrated force structure


come centro de instru almirante wandenkolk ciaw '' admiral wandenkolk instruction center '' escola naval en '' naval school '' internal selection navy finish graduation universidade de paulo usp '' university paulo '' quadro de oficias engenheiros brazilian air force occupied engineers professionalized centro de instru e adapta da aeron utica '' ciaar air force instruction adaptation center '' trained specialized instituto tecnol gico de aeron utica ita '' aeronautics institute technology '' russia ndash pososhniye lyudi ndash assault engineering brigades ndash russian engineer troops united kingdom


royal school military engineering main training establishment british army 's royal engineers rsme also provides training royal navy royal air force arms services british army government departments foreign commonwealth countries required skills provide vital components army 's operational capability royal engineers currently deployed afghanistan iraq cyprus bosnia kosovo kenya brunei falklands belize germany northern ireland royal engineers also take part exercises saudi arabia kuwait italy egypt jordan canada poland united states united


states prevalence military engineering united states dates back american revolutionary war engineers would carry tasks us army war would map terrain build fortifications protect troops opposing forces first military engineering organization united states army corps engineers engineers responsible protecting military troops whether using fortifications designing new technology weaponry throughout united states' history warfare army originally claimed engineers exclusively us military branches expanded sea


royal australian air force airfield engineers corps engineers military engineer services mes bangladesh army canadian military engineers danish military engineering corps almost entirely organized one regiment simply named ingeni rregimentet engineering regiment engineering arm including paris fire brigade indian army corps engineers indonesian army corps engineers irish army engineer corps combat engineering corps israel defense forces engineer regiment namibia corps royal new zealand engineers engineer battalion rejimen askar jurutera diraja royal engineer regiment pakistan army corps engineers military engineering service th engineer brigade south african


army engineer formation sri lanka engineers engineer services regiment le quy technical university main training establishment vietnamese army 's corps engineers see also related topics bailey bridge fortification history warfare military bridges military engineering vehicles military technology equipment siege engine society american military engineers notable military engineers mozi gundulf rochester henri alexis brialmont john chard menno van coehoorn pierre charles l'enfant giovanni fontana leslie groves cyril gordon martin coulson norman mitchell john rosworm charles pasley vauban marc ren marquis de montalembert charles george gordon


personal trainer demonstrating use bosu ball '''personal trainer''' individual earned certification demonstrates achieved level competency creating delivering safe effective exercise programs apparently healthy individuals groups medical clearance exercise motivate clients collaborating set goals providing meaningful feedback reliable source accountability trainers also conduct variety assessments beginning preparticipation health screening may also include assessments posture movement flexibility balance core function cardiorespiratory fitness muscular fitness

Human physical performance and recreation


trainers certified personal trainers cpts recognize areas expertise trainer suspects one clients medical condition could prevent client safe participation exercise program must refer client proper health professional medical clearance purpose personal training personal trainer assessing client 's goals needs write fitness program scope practice personal trainer primary focus prevention involves enhancing components health fitness general healthy population


cleared exercise proper exercise prescription may result improved body composition physical performance heart condition health outcomes decision hire personal trainer may related perceived health threat lack knowledge personal belief one 's ability begin adhere exercise program sort psychological effect often clients seek guidance personal trainer factors related motivation adherence personal trainer pays close attention client 's exercise technique workout routine goals values nutrition personal training men women


personal trainers like enthusiastic tough depending client 's preference employment characteristics profession generally restricted venue personal trainers may work fitness facilities homes client homes live video also called virtual personal trainers outdoors almost exercise professionals work physical fitness facilities health clubs fitness centers located amusement recreation industry civic social organizations ref name blsgov ref personal training regulated jurisdiction united states except washington dc adopted registration requirements


personal fitness trainers february employers gyms require personal trainers certified however always case personal trainers find work without certification overall personal trainers must possess certain skills passion fitness helping others achieve goals industry knowledge leadership ability communicate effectively clients personal trainers may specialize certain training type training philosophy performance type exercise modality client population general personal trainers develop exercise plans aerobic exercise resistance exercise flexibility training aerobic


exercise prescription personal trainers determine type exercise duration exercise frequency exercise resistance exercise prescription type exercise total session volume rest period frequency intensity determined personal trainers may also involved prescription stretching routines approaches personal trainers help clients perform exercises correct techniques minimizing risk injury discuss nutrition ergogenic supplementation spiritual practices clients debate within industry whether fits within scope practice training qualifications mentioned personal trainers


may also work remotely clients improve fitness known online personal training online coaching become increasingly popular recent years done via live video trainer instructs individual group exercise however online personal trainer may also write training plan remote client allow complete exercise may involve video analysis client 's training session fact accreditation personal training outdoors personal trainer accreditation process provides certification competency


personal trainer qualification standards personal trainers vary countries personal trainer accreditation also viewed experience field many testimonials clients achievements working personal trainer international international confederation registers exercise professionals icreps international partnership registration bodies around world register exercise professionals member countries conform international standards set icreps personal training exercise education credentials transferable member countries current members icreps fitness australia nfla canada reps


academy working industry trainers members associations also required complete short courses obtain continuing education credit cec points need keep registration minimum cec points every two years required many personal trainers also additional qualifications weight loss strength training kid 's fitness nutrition part due cec program cec courses cover wide variety topics different training techniques nutrition exercise styles health conditions physiology lifestyle rehabilitation members obtain australian cert iii iv


fitness practice nationally done certification using global portability matrix global portability matrix designed icreps stands international confederation registers exercise professionals allows members practice countries members train belgium netherlands hungary united kingdom ireland lebanon poland united states caribbean south africa united arab emirates canada new zealand brazil brazil personal trainers must bachelor 's degree physical education degree combines knowledge fields exercise science healthcare


science registered conselho federal de educa f sica federal council physical education risk criminal charges operate without two requirements canada canada main certifying bodies canadian fitness education services cfes canadian fitness professionals canfit pro certified personal trainers network canadian society exercise physiology csep national fitness leadership association nfla csep requires diploma degree exercise field organizations require experience workshops qualify credential many personal trainers receive cfes canfit pro nfla ncca accredited certification


teachers working european health fitness physical activity sector pan european system based independent national registers culminate central european database new zealand new zealand one major registration body exercise professionals reps new zealand reps new zealand recognised exercise new zealand industry association icreps reps nz currently three major registration categories '' exercise prescription'' '' group exercise'' '' yoga teacher'' eligible register reps need one options ''a completed initial qualification


gcse level advanced specialized training professionals qualification become eligible endorsement reps must conform national occupational standards nos set governmental level sector skills council ssc skills active legal restriction title personal trainer formal body associated regulating personal training united states number certifications available us although number accredited require high school diploma cardiopulmonary resuscitation cpr automated external defibrillator aed certification type examination ref name blsgov


bachelor 's degree exercise science related field scored less average bachelor 's degree higher field holding one two specific certifications american college sports medicine acsm national strength conditioning association nsca certification scored questions correctly average holding certification acsm nsca answered questions correctly years experience found predictive personal trainer knowledge partnership fitness industry international health racquet sportsclub association ihrsa


automaton described state diagram starts state sub sub changes states following arrows marked according input symbols arrive double circle marks sub sub accepting state since paths sub sub contain even number arrows marked automaton accepts strings containing even numbers s'''automata theory''' study abstract machines automata well computational problems solved using theory theoretical computer science word ''automata'' plural ''automaton'' comes

Formal science
Computer science
Theory of computation
Automata theory


greek word means self acting self willed self moving automaton automata plural abstract self propelled computing device follows predetermined sequence operations automatically automaton finite number states called finite automaton fa finite state machine fsm figure right illustrates finite state machine belongs well known type automaton automaton consists states represented figure circles transitions represented arrows automaton sees symbol input makes transition jump another state according


transition function takes previous state current input symbol arguments automata theory closely related formal language theory context automata used finite representations formal languages may infinite automata often classified class formal languages recognize chomsky hierarchy describes nesting relationship major classes automata automata play major role theory computation compiler construction artificial intelligence parsing formal verification history theory abstract automata developed mid th century connection


finite automata automata theory initially considered branch mathematical systems theory studying behavior discrete parameter systems early work automata theory differed previous work systems using abstract algebra describe information systems rather differential calculus describe material systems theory finite state transducer developed different names different research communities earlier concept turing machines also included discipline along new forms infinite state automaton pushdown automata saw publication ''automata studies'' collected work scientists including claude shannon w


ross ashby john von neumann marvin minsky edward f moore stephen cole kleene publication volume automata theory emerged relatively autonomous discipline ref name arbib book included kleene 's description set regular events regular languages relatively stable measure complexity turing machine programs shannon year noam chomsky described chomsky hierarchy correspondence automata formal grammars ross ashby published ''an introduction cybernetics'' accessible textbook explaining automata information using basic set theory study linear automata led


finite automaton simulated using universal gate set requires simulating circuit contain loops arbitrary complexity structure theory deals loop free realizability machines ref name arbib theory computational complexity also took shape end decade automata theory came seen pure mathematics computer science ref name arbib ref automata follows general definition automaton restricts broader definition system one viewed acting discrete time steps state behavior outputs defined step


unchanging functions state input ref name arbib informal description automaton ''runs'' given sequence ''inputs'' discrete individual ''time steps'' steps automaton processes one input picked set ' 'symbols'' ''letters'' called ''input alphabet'' symbols received automaton input step sequence symbols called ''words'' automaton set ' 'states'' moment run automaton automaton ''in'' one states automaton receives new input moves


another state ''transitions'' based ''transition function'' takes previous state current input symbol parameters time another function called ''output function'' produces symbols ''output alphabet'' also according previous state current input symbol automaton reads symbols input word transitions states word read completely finite length point automaton ''halts'' state automaton halts called ''final state'' investigate possible state input output sequences automaton using


langle sigma gamma q delta lambda rangle math math sigma math finite set ' 'symbols'' called ''input alphabet'' automaton math gamma math another finite set symbols called ''output alphabet'' automaton math q math set ' 'states'' math delta math ''next state function'' ''transition function'' math delta q times sigma q math mapping state input pairs successor states math lambda math ''next output function'' math lambda q times sigma gamma math mapping state input pairs outputs math q math finite math math finite automaton ref name arbib input word


automaton reads finite string symbols math n math math sigma math called ''input word'' set words denoted math sigma math run sequence states math q q q n math math q q math math q delta q math math le n math ''run'' automaton input math n sigma math starting state math q math words first automaton start state math q math receives input math math math math every following math math input string automaton picks next state math q math according


delta overline delta qw math ref name structure theory output function math lambda math may extended similarly math overline lambda qw math gives complete output machine run word math w math state math q math acceptor order study automaton theory formal languages automaton may considered ''acceptor'' replacing output alphabet function math gamma math math lambda math math q q math designated ' 'start state'' math f math set states math q math ie math f subseteq q math called ''accept states'' allows following defined accepting word word math w n sigma math


automata automata defined study useful machines mathematical formalism definition automaton open variations according real world machine want model using automaton people studied many variations automata following popular variations definition different components automata input ''finite input'' automaton accepts finite sequence symbols introductory definition encompasses finite words ''infinite input'' automaton accepts infinite words words automata called '' automata'' ''tree word input'' input may ''tree


symbols'' instead sequence symbols case reading symbol automaton ' 'reads'' successor symbols input tree said automaton ''makes one copy'' successor copy starts running one successor symbols state according transition relation automaton automaton called tree automaton ''infinite tree input'' two extensions combined automaton reads tree structure finite branches automaton called infinite tree automaton states


''single state'' automaton one state also called ''combinational circuit'' performs transformation may implement combinational logic ref name structure theory ''finite states'' automaton contains finite number states ''infinite states'' automaton may finite number states even countable number states different kinds abstract memory may used give machines finite descriptions ''stack memory'' automaton may also contain extra memory form stack symbols pushed popped kind automaton called ''pushdown


automaton'' ''queue memory'' automaton may memory form queue machine called ''queue machine'' turing complete ''tape memory'' inputs outputs automata often described input output ''tapes'' machines additional ''working tapes'' including turing machine linear bounded automaton log space transducer transition function ''deterministic'' given current state input symbol automaton jump one one state ' 'deterministic automaton'' ''nondeterministic'' automaton reading input symbol may jump


number states licensed transition relation notice term transition function replaced transition relation automaton ''non deterministically'' decides jump one allowed choices automata called ''nondeterministic automata'' ''alternation'' idea quite similar tree automaton orthogonal automaton may run ''multiple copies'' ' 'same'' next read symbol automata called ''alternating automata'' acceptance condition must satisfy runs ''copies'' accept input acceptance condition ''acceptance finite words'' described informal definition ''acceptance infinite words''


''omega automaton'' cannot final states infinite words never terminate rather acceptance word decided looking infinite sequence visited states run ''probabilistic acceptance'' automaton need strictly accept reject input may accept input probability zero one example quantum finite automaton geometric automaton metric automaton probabilistic acceptance different combinations variations produce many classes automaton automata theory subject matter studies properties various types automata example following questions studied


given type automata class formal languages recognizable type automata recognizable languages certain automata ''closed'' union intersection complementation formal languages closure properties expressive type automata terms recognizing class formal languages relative expressive power language hierarchy automata theory also studies existence nonexistence effective algorithms solve problems similar following list automaton accept input word emptiness checking possible transform given non deterministic automaton deterministic automaton without changing


recognizable language determinization given formal language smallest automaton recognizes minimization classes automata following incomplete list types automata class wikitable automaton recognizable language nondeterministic deterministic finite state machine fsm regular languages deterministic pushdown automaton dpda deterministic context free languages pushdown automaton pda context free languages linear bounded automaton lba context sensitive languages turing machine recursively enumerable languages deterministic b chi automaton limit languages nondeterministic b chi automaton rowspan regular


languages rabin automaton streett automaton parity automaton muller automaton discrete continuous hybrid automata normally automata theory describes states abstract machines discrete automata analog automata continuous automata hybrid discrete continuous automata use digital data analog data continuous time digital analog data respectively hierarchy terms powers following incomplete hierarchy terms powers different types virtual machines hierarchy reflects nested categories languages machines able accept ref name aaniya b ref class wikitable style text align center automaton


deterministic finite automaton dfa lowest power br power nbsp nbsp math math nbsp nbsp power br nondeterministic finite automaton nfa br weaker nbsp nbsp math cap math nbsp nbsp stronger br deterministic push automaton dpda br push store br math cap math br nondeterministic push automaton npda br push store br math cap math br linear bounded automaton lba br math cap math br deterministic push automaton dpda ii br push stores br math math br nondeterministic push automaton npda ii br push stores br math math br deterministic turing machine dtm br math math br


nondeterministic turing machine ntm br math math br probabilistic turing machine ptm br math math br multitape turing machine mtm br math math br multidimensional turing machine applications model automata theory plays important roles several applied areas finite automata used text processing compilers hardware design context free grammar cfgs used programming languages artificial intelligence originally cfgs used study human languages cellular automata used field artificial life famous example john conway 's game life examples could explained


using automata theory biology include mollusk pine cones growth pigmentation patterns going theory suggesting whole universe computed sort discrete automaton advocated scientists idea originated work konrad zuse popularized america edward fredkin automata also appear theory finite fields set irreducible polynomials written composition degree two polynomials fact regular language another problem automata used induction regular languages automata simulators


automata simulators pedagogical tools used teach learn research automata theory automata simulator takes input description automaton simulates working arbitrary input string description automaton entered several ways automaton defined symbolic language specification may entered predesigned form transition diagram may drawn clicking dragging mouse well known automata simulators include turing 's world jflap vas tags simstudio connection category theory one define several distinct categories


setting automata monoidal categories categories variable automata one could also define ''variable automaton'' sense norbert wiener book ''the human use human beings'' ''via'' endomorphisms math math one show variable automata homomorphisms form mathematical group case non deterministic complex kinds automata latter set endomorphisms may become however ''variable automaton groupoid'' therefore general case categories variable automata kind categories groupoids groupoid categories moreover category reversible automata


category also subcategory category groupoids groupoid category see also boolean differential calculus references reading part one automata languages chapters pp nbsp section decidable languages pp nbsp section undecidable problems language theory pp nbsp john howie ''automata languages'' clarendon press external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwcsusfcaedu jbovet vashtml visual automata simulator tool simulating visualizing transforming finite state automata turing machines jean bovet http wwwjflaporg jflap http wwwbricsdk automaton dkbricsautomaton http wwwaugeasnet libfa indexhtml libfa


organizing org disambiguation structure united nations '''organization''' '''organisation''' commonwealth english see spelling differences entity company institution association comprising one people particular purpose word derived greek word ''organon'' means tool instrument musical instrument organ types variety legal types organizations including corporations governments non governmental organizations political organizations international organizations armed forces charities profit corporations partnerships cooperatives educational institutions etc hybrid organization body operates public sector

Applied science
Military sciences
Organization


private sector simultaneously fulfilling public duties developing commercial market activities voluntary association organization consisting volunteers organizations may able operate without legal formalities depending jurisdiction including informal clubs coordinating bodies goal mind may express form manifesto mission statement informal manner reflected remember every action done organization legal illegal reflects goal mind organizations may also operate secretly illegally case secret societies criminal organizations


resistance movements cases may obstacles organizations ex mlk 's organization makes organization organization paperwork makes official organization must four things goal mind leader committee making decision action involved communication members makes organization recognized government either filling incorporation business recognition form either societal pressure ex advocacy group causing concerns ex resistance movement considered spokesperson group


people subject negotiation ex polisario front recognized sole representative sahawri people forming partially recognized state compare concept social groups may include non organizations organizations institutions synonymous jack knight writes organizations narrow version institutions represent cluster institutions two distinct sense organizations ''contain'' internal institutions govern interactions members organizations structures diagram federal government american union study organizations includes focus optimising organizational


athletic contests book awards similar activities sometimes selection committee functions like jury middle ages juries continental europe used determine law according consensus among local notables committees often reliable way make decisions condorcet 's jury theorem proved average member votes better roll dice adding members increases number majorities come correct vote however correctness defined problem average member subsequently ''worse'' roll dice committee 's


decisions grow worse better therefore staffing crucial parliamentary procedure robert 's rules order helps prevent committees engaging lengthy discussions without reaching decisions ecologies organizational structure promotes internal competition inefficient components organization starve effective ones get work everybody paid actually runs tiny business show profit fired companies utilize organization type reflect rather one sided view goes ecology also case natural ecosystem


natural border ecoregions general compete one another way autonomous pharmaceutical company glaxosmithkline talks functioning type organization https wwwtheguardiancom business story html external article ''the guardian'' bastian batac de leon matrix organization organizational type assigns worker two bosses two different hierarchies one hierarchy functional assures type expert organization well trained measured boss super expert field direction executive tries get projects completed


using experts projects might organized products regions customer types schemes example company might individual overall responsibility products x another individual overall responsibility engineering quality control etc therefore subordinates responsible quality control project x two reporting lines united states aerospace industries first officially use organizational structure emerged early pyramids hierarchical hierarchy exemplifies arrangement leader leads individual members organization


number disciplines sociology economics ref name sytse douma ref political science psychology management organizational communication broader analysis organizations commonly referred organizational structure organizational studies organizational behaviour organization analysis number different perspectives exist compatible functional perspective focus entities like businesses state authorities used institutional perspective organization viewed purposeful structure within social context process related perspective organization viewed entity organized focus


organization set tasks actions sociology defined science institutions modernity specific institutions serve function akin individual organs coherent body social political sciences general organization may loosely understood planned coordinated purposeful action human beings working collective action reach common goal construct tangible product action usually framed formal membership form institutional rules sociology distinguishes term organization planned formal unplanned informal ie spontaneously


formed organizations sociology analyses organizations first line institutional perspective sense organization enduring arrangement elements elements actions determined rules certain task fulfilled system coordinated division labor economic approaches organizations also take division labor starting point division labor allows economies specialization increasing specialization necessitates coordination economic point view markets organizations alternative coordination mechanisms execution transactions ref name sytse douma organization


defined elements part belongs organization communication elements communicate communicate autonomy changes executed autonomously organization elements rules action compared outside events causes organization act collective actor coordinated planned cooperation elements organization able solve tasks lie beyond abilities single element price paid elements limitation degrees freedom


elements advantages organizations enhancement addition combination different features extension disadvantages inertness co ordination loss interaction among theories influential activity theory major theoretical influence acknowledged de clodomir santos de morais development organization workshop method actor network theory approach social theory research originating field science studies treats objects part social networks complexity theory organizations use complexity theory field strategic management organizational studies


contingency theory class behavioural theory claims best way organize corporation lead company make decisions critical management studies loose extensive grouping theoretically informed critiques management business organization grounded originally critical theory perspective economic sociology studies social effects social causes various economic phenomena enterprise architecture conceptual model defines coalescence organizational structure organizational behaviour garbage model describes model disconnects problems solutions decision makers principal agent problem concerns


book ''economy society'' leadership leader formal hierarchical organization appointed managerial position right command enforce obedience virtue authority position however must possess adequate personal attributes match authority authority potentially available absence sufficient personal competence manager may confronted emergent leader challenge role organization reduce figurehead however authority position backing formal sanctions follows


whoever wields personal influence power legitimize gaining formal position hierarchy commensurate authority ref name henry ref formal organizations organization established means achieving defined objectives referred formal organization design specifies goals subdivided reflected subdivisions organization divisions departments sections positions jobs tasks make work structure thus formal organization expected behave impersonally regard relationships clients members according weber 's definition entry subsequent advancement


merit seniority employee receives salary enjoys degree tenure safeguards arbitrary influence superiors powerful clients higher position hierarchy greater presumed expertise adjudicating problems may arise course work carried lower levels organization bureaucratic structure forms basis appointment heads chiefs administrative subdivisions organization endows authority attached position ref name cecil informal organizations contrast


appointed head chief administrative unit leader emerges within context '''informal organization''' underlies formal structure informal organization expresses personal objectives goals individual membership objectives goals may may coincide formal organization informal organization represents extension social structures generally characterize human life nbsp spontaneous emergence groups organizations ends ref name cecil ref prehistoric times man preoccupied personal security maintenance protection survival man spends major portion


waking hours working organizations need identify community provides security protection maintenance feeling belonging continues unchanged prehistoric times need met informal organization emergent unofficial leaders ref name henry leaders emerge within structure informal organization personal qualities demands situation combination factors attract followers accept leadership within one several overlay structures instead authority position held appointed head chief emergent leader wields influence


power influence ability person gain cooperation others means persuasion control rewards power stronger form influence reflects person 's ability enforce action control means punishment ref name henry interplay formal informal organizations organizations operate mix formal informal mechanisms organization science scholars paid attention type interplay formal informal organizationson one hand argued formal informal organizations operate substitutes one type


organization would decrease advantages using one instance parties trust use formal contract unnecessary even detrimental relationship hand scholars suggested formal informal organizations complement instance formal mechanisms control pave way development relational norms see also affinity group business organization coalition collective decentralized autonomous organization history organizations list designated terrorist organizations list environmental organizations list general fraternities list international professional associations list


trade unions maturity model multidimensional organization mutual organization organizational psychology organization workshop pacifist organization requisite organization service club size groups organizations communities umbrella organization voluntary association references general coase ronald nature firm ''economica'' pp nbsp hewlett roderic cognitive leader rowman littlefield pub inc marshak thomas organization theory ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' v pp nbsp mintzberg henry organization design fashion fit ''harvard business review'' january february morgenstern julie ''organizing inside out'' owl books peter laurence j


raymond hull ''the peter principle'' pan books samson daft r management second pacific rim edition melbourne victoria thomson external links https webarchiveorg web http otcavarrettacom research organizations bibliography database maps https webarchiveorg web http wwwthetransitionerorg thetransitionerorg site dedicated collective intelligence structure organizations


page one first works biomechanics ''de motu animalium'' giovanni alfonso borelli th century '''biomechanics''' study structure function motion mechanical aspects biological systems level whole organisms organs cells cell organelles using methods mechanics biomechanics branch biophysics etymology word biomechanics related biomechanical come ancient greek ''bios'' life ''m chanik '' mechanics refer study mechanical principles living organisms particularly movement


structure subfields biofluid mechanics red blood cells biological fluid mechanics biofluid mechanics study gas liquid fluid flows around biological organisms often studied liquid biofluid problem blood flow human cardiovascular system certain mathematical circumstances blood flow modeled navier stokes equations ''in vivo'' whole blood assumed incompressible newtonian fluid however assumption fails considering forward flow within arterioles microscopic scale effects individual red blood cells become significant whole blood


longer modeled continuum diameter blood vessel slightly larger diameter red blood cell fahraeus lindquist effect occurs decrease wall shear stress however diameter blood vessel decreases red blood cells squeeze vessel often pass single file case inverse fahraeus lindquist effect occurs wall shear stress increases example gaseous biofluids problem human respiration recently respiratory systems insects


studied bioinspiration designing improved microfluidic devices biotribology biotribology study friction wear lubrication biological systems especially human joints hips knees general processes studied context contact mechanics tribology effect rubbing either surface depend friction wear lubrication point contact example femoral tibial components knee implants routinely rub daily activity walking stair climbing performance tibial


adaptations organisms common areas investigation animal locomotion feeding strong connections organism 's fitness impose high mechanical demands animal locomotion many manifestations including running jumping flying locomotion requires energy overcome friction drag inertia gravity though factor predominates varies environment comparative biomechanics overlaps strongly many fields including ecology neurobiology developmental biology ethology paleontology extent commonly publishing papers journals fields comparative biomechanics often applied medicine regards common model organisms


mice rats well biomimetics looks nature solutions engineering problems computational biomechanics computational biomechanics application engineering computational tools finite element method study mechanics biological systems computational models simulations used predict relationship parameters otherwise challenging test experimentally used design relevant experiments reducing time costs experiments mechanical modeling using finite element analysis used interpret experimental observation plant cell growth understand differentiate


instance ref name bidhendi medicine past decade finite element method become established alternative vivo surgical assessment one main advantages computational biomechanics lies ability determine endo anatomical response anatomy without subject ethical restrictions led fe modeling point becoming ubiquitous several fields biomechanics several projects even adopted open source philosophy eg biospine experimental biomechanics experimental biomechanics application experiments measurements biomechanics continuum biomechanics mechanical analysis


biomaterials biofluids usually carried forth concepts continuum mechanics assumption breaks length scales interest approach order micro structural details material one remarkable characteristic biomaterials hierarchical structure words mechanical characteristics materials rely physical phenomena occurring multiple levels molecular way tissue organ levels biomaterials classified two groups hard soft tissues mechanical deformation hard tissues like wood shell bone may analysed


theory linear elasticity hand soft tissues like skin tendon muscle cartilage usually undergo large deformations thus analysis rely finite strain theory computer simulations interest continuum biomechanics spurred need realism development medical simulation ref name fung ref plant biomechanics application biomechanical principles plants plant organs cells developed subfield plant biomechanics ref name niklas ref application biomechanics plants ranges studying resilience crops environmental stress development morphogenesis cell


tissue scale overlapping mechanobiology ref name bidhendi ref sports biomechanics sports biomechanics laws mechanics applied human movement order gain greater understanding athletic performance reduce sport injuries well focuses application scientific principles mechanical physics understand movements action human bodies sports implements cricket bat hockey stick javelin etc elements mechanical engineering eg strain gauges electrical engineering eg digital filtering computer science eg numerical methods gait analysis eg force platforms clinical neurophysiology eg surface emg


common methods used sports biomechanics ref name bartlett ref biomechanics sports stated muscular joint skeletal actions body execution given task skill technique proper understanding biomechanics relating sports skill greatest implications sport 's performance rehabilitation injury prevention along sport mastery noted doctor michael yessis one could say best athlete one executes skill best applied subfields biomechanics include allometry animal locomotion gait analysis biotribology biofluid mechanics cardiovascular biomechanics comparative biomechanics


another work ''on parts animals'' provided accurate description ureter uses peristalsis carry urine kidneys bladder ref name fung rise roman empire technology became popular philosophy next bio mechanic arose galen ad ad physician marcus aurelius wrote famous work function parts human body would world 's standard medical book next years ref name asbweborg ref renaissance next major biomechanic would around


birth leonardo da vinci da vinci artist mechanic engineer contributed mechanics military civil engineering projects great understanding science mechanics studied anatomy mechanics context analyzed muscle forces movements studied joint functions studies could considered studies realm biomechanics leonardo da vinci studied anatomy context mechanics analyzed muscle forces acting along lines connecting origins insertions studied joint function da vinci tended mimic animal features machines


example studied flight birds find means humans could fly horses principal source mechanical power time studied muscular systems design machines would better benefit forces applied animal ref name mason ref galen 's work function parts challenged andreas vesalius age vesalius published work called structure human body work vesalius corrected many errors made galen would globally accepted many centuries


moved onto mathematics everything proven age went pisa taught mathematics good lecturer students would leave instructors hear speak forced resign became professor even prestigious school padua spirit teachings would lead world direction science years science galileo made lot biomechanical aspects known example discovered nbsp animals' masses increase disproportionately size


bones must consequently also disproportionately increase girth adapting loadbearing rather mere size bending strength tubular structure bone increased relative weight making hollow increasing diameter marine animals larger terrestrial animals water 's buoyancy relieves tissues weight ref name asbweborg galileo galilei interested strength bones suggested bones hollow affords maximum strength minimum weight noted animals' bone masses increased disproportionately size consequently bones must also increase disproportionately girth


philosophy studied walking running jumping flight birds swimming fish even piston action heart within mechanical framework could determine position human center gravity calculate measure inspired expired air volumes showed inspiration muscle driven expiration due tissue elasticity borelli first understand levers musculature system magnify motion rather force muscles must produce much larger forces resisting motion ref name asbweborg influenced work galileo


personally knew intuitive understanding static equilibrium various joints human body well newton published laws motion ref name humphrey ref work often considered important history bio mechanics made many new discoveries opened way future generations continue work studies many years borelli field bio mechanics made major leaps time scientists took learning human body functions many notable scientists


th th century bio mechanics field far vast attribute one thing one person however field continuing grow every year continues make advances discovering human body field became popular many institutions labs opened last century people continue research creation american society bio mechanics field continues grow make many new discoveries ref name asbweborg th century tienne jules marey used cinematography scientifically investigate locomotion opened


field modern 'motion analysis' first correlate ground reaction forces movement germany brothers ernst heinrich weber wilhelm eduard weber hypothesized great deal human gait christian wilhelm braune significantly advanced science using recent advances engineering mechanics period engineering mechanics materials began flourish france germany demands industrial revolution led rebirth bone biomechanics railroad engineer karl culmann anatomist hermann von meyer compared stress patterns


human femur similarly shaped crane inspired finding julius wolff proposed famous wolff 's law bone remodeling applications study biomechanics ranges inner workings cell movement development limbs mechanical properties soft tissue ref name whitney g bones simple examples biomechanics research include investigation forces act limbs aerodynamics bird insect flight hydrodynamics swimming fish locomotion general across forms life individual cells


whole organisms growing understanding physiological behavior living tissues researchers able advance field tissue engineering well develop improved treatments wide array pathologies including cancer biomechanics also applied studying human musculoskeletal systems research utilizes force platforms study human ground reaction forces infrared videography capture trajectories markers attached human body study human motion research also applies electromyography study muscle activation investigating muscle responses external forces perturbations biomechanics widely used orthopedic industry


design orthopedic implants human joints dental parts external fixations medical purposes biotribology important part study performance function biomaterials used orthopedic implants plays vital role improve design produce successful biomaterials medical clinical purposes one example tissue engineered cartilage ref name whitney g dynamic loading joints considered impact discussed detail emanuel willert also tied field engineering often uses traditional engineering sciences analyze


biological systems simple applications newtonian mechanics materials sciences supply correct approximations mechanics many biological systems applied mechanics notably mechanical engineering disciplines continuum mechanics mechanism analysis structural analysis kinematics dynamics play prominent roles study biomechanics ribosome biological machine utilizes protein dynamics usually biological systems much complex man built systems numerical methods hence applied almost every biomechanical study research done iterative process hypothesis verification including several steps modeling computer simulation experimental measurements


see also biomechatronics biomedical engineering cardiovascular system dynamics society evolutionary physiology forensic biomechanics international society biomechanics list biofluid mechanics research groups mechanics human sexuality opensim simulation toolkit physical oncology references reading external links http biomch lisbweborg biomechanics movement science listserver biomch l https webarchiveorg web http bonesamendedu linkshtml biomechanics links https webarchiveorg web http wwwasbweborg html biomechanics genealogy genealogyhtm genealogy biomechanics motor control


important poets novelists first great russian novelist nikolai gogol came ivan turgenev mastered short stories novels fyodor dostoevsky leo tolstoy soon became internationally renowned important figures russian realism ivan goncharov mikhail saltykov shchedrin nikolai leskov second half century anton chekhov excelled short stories became leading dramatist beginning th century ranks silver age russian poetry poets often associated silver age konstantin balmont valery bryusov alexander blok anna akhmatova nikolay gumilyov sergei yesenin

Humanities
Languages and literature
Russian Literature


vladimir mayakovsky marina tsvetaeva era produced first rate novelists short story writers aleksandr kuprin nobel prize winner ivan bunin leonid andreyev fyodor sologub yevgeny zamyatin alexander belyaev andrei bely maxim gorky revolution russian literature split soviet white migr parts soviet union assured universal literacy highly developed book printing industry also enforced ideological censorship socialist realism became predominant trend russia leading figures nikolay ostrovsky alexander fadeyev writers laid foundations style ostrovsky 's novel


''how steel tempered'' among popular works russian socrealist literature writers mikhail bulgakov andrei platonov daniil kharms criticized wrote little hope published various '' migr '' writers poets vladislav khodasevich georgy ivanov vyacheslav ivanov novelists gaito gazdanov vladimir nabokov bunin continued write exile writers dared oppose soviet ideology like nobel prize winning novelist aleksandr solzhenitsyn varlam shalamov wrote life gulag camps khrushchev thaw brought fresh wind literature


poetry became mass cultural phenomenon thaw last long prominent authors banned publishing prosecuted anti soviet sentiments end th century difficult period russian literature distinct voices among discussed authors period victor pelevin gained popularity short stories novels novelist playwright vladimir sorokin poet dmitri prigov st century new generation russian authors appeared differing greatly postmodernist russian prose late th century


lead critics speak new realism russian authors significantly contributed numerous literary genres russia five nobel prize literature laureates russia fourth largest book producer world terms published titles popular folk saying claims russians world 's reading nation early history old russian literature consists several masterpieces written old east slavic ie language kievan rus' confused contemporaneous church slavonic modern ukrainian russian belarusian main type old russian historical literature


chronicles anonymous anonymous works also include ''the tale igor 's campaign'' ''praying daniel immured'' hagiographies ''zhitiya svyatykh'' lives saints formed popular genre old russian literature ''life alexander nevsky'' offers well known example russian literary monuments include ''zadonschina'' ''physiologist'' ''synopsis'' ''a journey beyond three seas'' bylinas oral folk epics fused christian pagan traditions medieval russian literature overwhelmingly religious character used adapted form church slavonic language many south slavic elements first work colloquial


russian autobiography archpriest avvakum emerged mid th century th century taking throne end th century peter great 's influence russian culture would extend far th century peter 's reign beginning th century initiated series modernizing changes russian literature reforms implemented encouraged russian artists scientists make innovations crafts fields intention creating economy culture comparable peter 's example set precedent remainder th century russian


writers began form clear ideas proper use progression russian language debates regarding versification russian language tone russian literature writers first half th century able lay foundation poignant topical work late th century satirist antiokh dmitrievich kantemir one earliest russian writers praise ideals peter 's reforms ideals growing enlightenment movement europe kantemir 's works regularly expressed admiration peter notably


epic dedicated emperor entitled ''petrida'' often however kantemir indirectly praised peter 's influence satiric criticism russia 's superficiality obscurantism saw manifestations backwardness peter attempted correct reforms kantemir honored tradition reform support peter initiating decade long debate proper syllabic versification using russian language vasily kirillovich trediakovsky poet playwright essayist translator contemporary antiokh kantemir also found deeply entrenched enlightenment conventions work russian academy sciences


young writer scholarly rival trediakovsky alexander petrovich sumarokov dedicated styles french classicism sumarokov 's interest form french literature mirrored devotion westernizing spirit peter great 's age although often disagreed trediakovsky sumarokov also advocated use simple natural language order diversify audience make efficient use russian language like colleagues counterparts sumarokov extolled legacy peter writing manifesto ''epistle poetry'' great peter hurls thunder baltic shores


russian sword glitters corners universe peter great 's policies westernization displays military prowess naturally attracted sumarokov contemporaries mikhail vasilyevich lomonosov particular expressed gratitude dedication peter 's legacy unfinished ''peter great'' lomonosov 's works often focused themes awe inspiring grandeur nature therefore drawn peter magnitude military architectural cultural feats contrast sumarokov 's devotion simplicity lomonosov favored belief hierarchy literary styles divided high middle low style


facilitated lomonosov 's grandiose high minded writing use vernacular church slavonic influence peter debates function form literature related russian language first half th century set stylistic precedent writers reign catherine great second half century however themes scopes works writers produced often poignant political controversial alexander nikolayevich radishchev example shocked russian public depictions socio economic condition serfs


empress catherine ii condemned portrayal forcing radishchev exile siberia others however picked topics less offensive autocrat nikolay karamzin example known advocacy russian writers adopting traits poetry prose like heightened sense emotion physical vanity considered feminine time well supporting cause female russian writers karamzin 's call male writers write femininity accordance enlightenment ideals reason theory considered masculine attributes works thus universally well received however


reflect areas society growing respect least ambivalence toward female ruler catherine great concept heralded era regarding female characteristics writing abstract concept linked attributes frivolity vanity pathos writers hand direct praise catherine ii gavrila romanovich derzhavin famous odes often dedicated poems empress catherine ii contrast contemporaries derzhavin highly devoted state served military rising various


roles catherine ii 's government including secretary empress minister justice unlike took grand style mikhail lomonosov alexander sumarokov derzhavin concerned minute details subjects denis fonvizin author primarily comedy approached subject russian nobility angle critique fonvizin felt nobility held standards reign peter great quality devotion state rewarded works criticized current system rewarding nobility without holding


responsible duties performed using satire comedy fonvizin supported system nobility elite rewarded based upon personal merit rather hierarchal favoritism rampant catherine great 's reign gallery image sumarokov alosenkojpg alexander sumarokov image vladimir borovikovsky portrait gavrila derzhavin jpg gavrila derzhavin denisfonvizin jpg denis fonvizin image radishchev colorjpg alexander radishchev image ni novikovjpg nikolay novikov image tropinin karamzinjpg nikolay karamzin image ivan krylovjpg ivan krylov gallery golden age krylov pushkin zhukovsky gnedich summer garden grigory chernetsov th century traditionally referred golden era russian literature romanticism permitted


flowering especially poetic talent names vasily zhukovsky later prot g alexander pushkin came fore pushkin credited crystallizing literary russian language introducing new level artistry russian literature best known work novel verse ''eugene onegin'' entire new generation poets including mikhail lermontov also known novel ''a hero time'' yevgeny baratynsky konstantin batyushkov nikolay nekrasov aleksey konstantinovich tolstoy fyodor tyutchev afanasy fet followed pushkin 's steps prose flourishing well first great russian