'''applied ethics''' refers practical application moral considerations ethics respect real world actions moral considerations areas private public life professions health technology law leadership example bioethics community concerned identifying correct approach moral issues life sciences euthanasia allocation scarce health resources use human embryos research environmental ethics concerned ecological issues responsibility government corporations clean pollution business ethics includes questions regarding duties

Humanities
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Ethics
Applied ethics


duty 'whistleblowers' general public loyalty employers applied ethics expanded study ethics beyond realms academic philosophical discourse field applied ethics appears today emerged debate surrounding rapid medical technological advances early established subdiscipline moral philosophy however applied ethics nature multi professional subject requires specialist understanding potential ethical issues fields like medicine business information technology nowadays ethical codes conduct exist almost every profession


applied ethics approach examination moral dilemmas take many different forms one influential widely utilised approaches bioethics health care ethics four principle approach developed tom beauchamp james childress four principle approach commonly termed principlism entails consideration application four prima facie ethical principles autonomy non maleficence beneficence justice underpinning theory applied ethics distinguished normative ethics concerns standards right wrong behavior meta ethics concerns nature ethical properties statements attitudes judgments whilst three areas


ethics appear distinct also interrelated use applied ethics approach often draws upon certain normative ethical theories like following consequentialist ethics theories holding normative properties acts depend consequences paradigm consequentialist family theories utilitarianism holds whether act morally right depends whether act maximizes sort net good theory 's main developments came jeremy bentham john stuart mill distinguished act rule utilitarianist morality later developments also adjusted theory notably henry


sidgwick introduced idea motive intent morality peter singer introduced idea preference moral decision making deontological ethics notions based 'rules' ie obligation perform 'right' action regardless actual consequences approach epitomized immanuel kant 's notion categorical imperative centre kant 's ethical theory based duty another key deontological theory natural law heavily developed thomas aquinas important part catholic church 's teaching morals threshold deontology holds rules


also known casuistry casuistry begin theory rather starts immediate facts real concrete case casuistry makes use ethical theory view ethical theory important feature moral reasoning casuists like albert jonsen stephen toulmin ''the abuse casuistry'' challenge traditional paradigm applied ethics instead starting theory applying theory particular case casuists start particular case ask morally significant features including theory practical considerations ought considered


adriaen van ostade analysis '''analysis''' process breaking complex topic substance smaller parts order gain better understanding technique applied study mathematics logic since aristotle bc though ''analysis'' formal concept relatively recent development word comes ancient greek ''analysis'' breaking untying ''ana '' throughout ''lysis'' loosening also comes word 's plural ''analyses'' formal concept method variously ascribed alhazen ren

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Analysis


descartes ''discourse method'' galileo galilei also ascribed isaac newton form practical method physical discovery name applications science clinical chemistry analyzer field chemistry uses analysis three ways identify components particular chemical compound qualitative analysis identify proportions components mixture quantitative analysis break chemical processes examine chemical reactions elements matter example use analysis concentration elements important managing nuclear


reactor nuclear scientists analyze neutron activation develop discrete measurements within vast samples matrix considerable effect way chemical analysis conducted quality results analysis done manually device ''' big types analysis big ''' u qualitative analysis u concerned components given sample compound example precipitation reaction u b quantitative analysis u determine quantity individual component present given sample compound example find concentration uv spectrophotometer isotopes chemists use isotope analysis assist


analysts issues anthropology archeology food chemistry forensics geology host questions physical science analysts discern origins natural man made isotopes study environmental radioactivity business financial statement analysis nbsp analysis accounts economic prospects firm fundamental analysis nbsp stock valuation method uses financial analysis gap analysis involves comparison actual performance potential desired performance organization business analysis involves identifying needs determining solutions business problems price analysis involves breakdown


price unit figure market analysis consists suppliers customers price determined interaction supply demand technical analysis study price action securities markets order forecast future prices opportunity analysis consists customers trends within industry customer demand experience determine purchasing behavior computer science requirements analysis encompasses tasks go determining needs conditions meet new altered product taking account possibly conflicting requirements various stakeholders beneficiaries users competitive analysis


online algorithm shows online algorithms perform demonstrates power randomization algorithms lexical analysis process processing input sequence characters producing output sequence symbols object oriented analysis design nbsp la booch program analysis computer science nbsp process automatically analysing behavior computer programs semantic analysis computer science nbsp pass compiler adds semantical information parse tree performs certain checks static code analysis nbsp analysis computer software performed without actually executing programs built structured systems analysis


design methodology nbsp la yourdon syntax analysis nbsp process compilers recognizes structure programming languages also known parsing worst case execution time nbsp determines longest time piece software take run economics agroecosystem analysis input output model applied region called regional impact multiplier system engineering analysts field engineering look requirements structures mechanisms systems dimensions electrical engineers analyse systems electronics life cycles system failures broken studied engineers also looking different factors incorporated within design intelligence


field intelligence employs analysts break understand wide array questions intelligence agencies may use heuristics inductive deductive reasoning social network analysis dynamic network analysis link analysis brainstorming sort problems face military intelligence may explore issues use game theory red teaming wargaming signals intelligence applies cryptanalysis frequency analysis break codes ciphers business intelligence applies theories competitive intelligence analysis competitor analysis resolve questions marketplace law enforcement intelligence applies number theories crime analysis linguistics linguistics explores individual languages


language general breaks language analyses component parts theory sounds meaning utterance usage word origins history words meaning words word combinations sentence construction basic construction beyond sentence level stylistics conversation examines using statistics modeling semantics analyses language context anthropology biology evolution geography history neurology psychology sociology also takes applied approach looking individual language development clinical issues literature literary criticism analysis literature focus diverse analysis


homer freud literary critical methods primarily analytical nature main approach teaching literature west since mid twentieth century literary formal analysis close reading method rooted academic movement labelled new criticism approaches texts chiefly short poems sonnets virtue small size significant complexity lend well type analysis units discourse understood without reference biographical historical frameworks method analysis breaks text


linguistically study prosody formal analysis meter phonic effects alliteration rhyme cognitively examination interplay syntactic structures figurative language elements poem work produce larger effects mathematics modern mathematical analysis study infinite processes branch mathematics includes calculus applied study classical concepts mathematics real numbers complex variables trigonometric functions algorithms non classical concepts like constructivism harmonics infinity vectors florian cajori explains


''a history mathematics'' difference modern ancient mathematical analysis distinct logical analysis follows blockquote terms ' 'synthesis'' ''analysis'' used mathematics special sense logic ancient mathematics different meaning oldest definition mathematical analysis opposed synthesis given appended euclid xiii probability framed eudoxus analysis obtaining thing sought assuming reasoning admitted truth synthesis


obtaining thing sought reasoning inference proof blockquote blockquote analytic method conclusive unless operations involved known reversible remove doubt greeks rule added analytic process synthetic one consisting reversion operations occurring analysis thus aim analysis aid discovery synthetic proofs solutions blockquote james gow uses similar argument cajori following clarification https booksgooglecom booksid kse zemhaxec ''a short history greek mathematics''


blockquote synthetic proof proceeds shewing proposed new truth involves certain admitted truths analytic proof begins assumption upon synthetic reasoning founded greeks distinguished ''theoretic'' ''problematic'' analysis theoretic analysis following kind ''prove'' b ''assume'' first b since b c c e therefore e known falsity b known truth intermediate propositions


music work musical analysis study composers use notes together compose music studying music find differences composer 's musical analysis differs depending culture history music studied analysis music meant simplify music ref name ref schenkerian analysis schenkerian analysis collection music analysis focuses production graphic representation includes analytical procedure well notational style simply put analyzes tonal music includes chords tones within composition ref name


philosophy philosophical analysis nbsp general term techniques used philosophers philosophical analysis refers clarification composition words put together entailed meaning behind ref name philosophical analysis dives deeper meaning words seeks clarify meaning contrasting various definitions study reality justification claims analysis various concepts branches philosophy include logic justification metaphysics values ethics questions answered empirically meaning answered using senses considered philosophical


effective option address current situation qualitative analysis use anecdotal evidence predict effects policy decisions generally influence policy decisions signal processing finite element analysis nbsp computer simulation technique used engineering analysis independent component analysis link quality analysis nbsp analysis signal quality path quality analysis fourier analysis statistics statistics term ''analysis'' may refer method used data analysis among many methods analysis variance anova nbsp collection statistical models associated procedures compare means splitting overall observed


analysis nbsp transformation sample correlated variables uncorrelated variables called principal components mostly used exploratory data analysis regression analysis nbsp techniques analysing relationships several predictive variables one outcomes data scale analysis statistics nbsp methods analyse survey data scoring responses numeric scale sensitivity analysis nbsp study variation output model depends variations inputs sequential analysis nbsp evaluation sampled data collected criterion stopping rule met spatial analysis nbsp study entities using


performing task see also formal analysis methodology scientific method references external links abstraction critical thinking skills emergence empiricism epistemological theories intelligence mathematical modeling metaphysics mind methodology ontology philosophy logic rationalism reasoning research methods scientific method theory mind


'''artificial intelligence''' '''ai''' intelligence demonstrated machines opposed '''natural intelligence''' displayed animals including humans leading ai textbooks define field study intelligent agents system perceives environment takes actions maximize chance achieving goals provides version used article authors use term computational intelligence synonym artificial intelligence prefer term rational agent write whole agent view widely accepted field popular accounts use term artificial intelligence describe

Formal science
Computer science
Artificial intelligence


machines mimic cognitive functions humans associate human mind learning problem solving however definition rejected major ai researchers ai applications include advanced web search engines eg google recommendation systems used youtube amazon netflix understanding human speech siri alexa self driving cars eg tesla automated decision making competing highest level strategic game systems chess go machines become increasingly capable tasks considered require intelligence often removed definition ai phenomenon known ai effect


instance optical character recognition frequently excluded things considered ai become routine technology artificial intelligence founded academic discipline years since experienced several waves optimism ref name ai followed disappointment loss funding known ai winter ref name first ai winter ref name second ai winter followed new approaches success renewed funding ref name ai ai research tried discarded many different approaches since founding including simulating brain modeling human problem solving formal logic


large databases knowledge imitating animal behavior first decades st century highly mathematical statistical machine learning dominated field technique proved highly successful helping solve many challenging problems throughout industry academia ref name ai widely used various sub fields ai research centered around particular goals use particular tools traditional goals ai research include reasoning knowledge representation planning learning natural language processing perception ability move manipulate objects general intelligence ability solve arbitrary problem among


pitts' formal design turing complete artificial neurons access digital computers became possible mid ai research began explore possibility human intelligence could reduced step step symbol manipulation known symbolic ai gofai approaches based cybernetics artificial neural networks abandoned pushed background field ai research born workshop dartmouth college russell norvifg call conference birth artificial intelligence attendees became founders leaders ai research students produced programs


press described astonishing computers learning checkers strategies solving word problems algebra proving logical theorems speaking english middle research us heavily funded department defense laboratories established around world researchers convinced symbolic approaches would eventually succeed creating machine artificial general intelligence considered goal field herbert simon predicted machines capable within twenty years work man marvin minsky agreed


writing within generation nbsp problem creating 'artificial intelligence' substantially solved failed recognize difficulty remaining tasks progress slowed response criticism sir james lighthill ongoing pressure us congress fund productive projects us british governments cut exploratory research ai next years would later called ai winter period obtaining funding ai projects difficult ref name first ai winter first ai winter lighthill report mansfield amendment ref early


ai research revived commercial success expert systems form ai program simulated knowledge analytical skills human experts market ai reached billion dollars time japan 's fifth generation computer project inspired us british governments restore funding academic research ref name ai funding initiatives early fifth generation project japan alvey uk microelectronics computer technology corporation us strategic computing initiative us ref however beginning collapse lisp machine market ai


fell disrepute second longer lasting winter began ref name second ai winter second ai winter ref many researchers began doubt symbolic approach would able imitate processes human cognition especially perception robotics learning pattern recognition number researchers began look sub symbolic approaches specific ai problems robotics researchers rodney brooks rejected symbolic ai focused basic engineering problems would allow robots move survive learn environment championed hans moravec rodney brooks went many names nouvelle


ai developmental robotics ref name developmental robotics developmental robotics ref situated ai behavior based ai well others similar movement cognitive science embodied mind thesis interest neural networks connectionism revived geoffrey hinton david rumelhart others middle soft computing tools developed neural networks fuzzy systems grey system theory evolutionary computation many tools drawn statistics mathematical optimization ai gradually restored reputation late early st century finding specific solutions specific problems


narrow focus allowed researchers produce verifiable results exploit mathematical methods collaborate fields statistics economics mathematics ref name ai formal narrow methods adopted ref solutions developed ai researchers widely used although rarely described artificial intelligence ref name ai widely used ai widely used late ref faster computers algorithmic improvements access large amounts data enabled advances machine learning perception data hungry deep learning methods started dominate accuracy benchmarks around according bloomberg 's


jack clark landmark year artificial intelligence number software projects use ai within google increased sporadic usage projects attributes increase affordable neural networks due rise cloud computing infrastructure increase research tools datasets survey one five companies reported incorporated ai offerings processes amount research ai measured total publications increased years ndash numerous academic researchers became


concerned ai longer pursuing original goal creating versatile fully intelligent machines much current research involves statistical ai overwhelmingly used solve specific problems even highly successful techniques deep learning concern led subfield artificial general intelligence agi several well funded institutions ref name artificial general intelligence ref goals general problem simulating creating intelligence broken sub problems consist particular traits capabilities researchers expect intelligent system display traits described


received attention reasoning problem solving early researchers developed algorithms imitated step step reasoning humans use solve puzzles make logical deductions late ai research developed methods dealing uncertain incomplete information employing concepts probability economics many algorithms proved insufficient solving large reasoning problems experienced combinatorial explosion became exponentially slower problems grew larger ref name intractability intractability efficiency combinatorial explosion ref even humans rarely use step step


deduction early ai research could model solve problems using fast intuitive judgments ref name psychological evidence sub symbolic reasoning psychological evidence prevalence sub symbolic reasoning knowledge ref ontology represents knowledge set concepts within domain relationships concepts knowledge representation knowledge representation knowledge engineering allow ai programs answer questions intelligently make deductions real world facts representation exists ontology set objects relations concepts properties formally described software agents interpret


general ontologies called upper ontologies attempt provide foundation knowledge act mediators domain ontologies cover specific knowledge particular knowledge domain field interest area concern truly intelligent program would also need access commonsense knowledge set facts average person knows semantics ontology typically represented description logic web ontology language ref name representing categories relations ai research developed tools represent specific domains objects properties categories relations objects ref name representing


categories relations situations events states time ref name representing time causes effects ref name representing causation knowledge knowledge know people know ref name representing knowledge knowledge default reasoning things humans assume true told differently remain true even facts changing ref name default reasoning non monotonic logic well domains among difficult problems ai breadth commonsense knowledge number atomic facts average person knows enormous ref name breadth commonsense knowledge breadth commonsense knowledge


classical planning problems agent assume system acting world allowing agent certain consequences actions however agent actor requires agent reason uncertainty continuously assess environment adapt multi agent planning uses cooperation competition many agents achieve given goal emergent behavior used evolutionary algorithms swarm intelligence learning machine learning ml fundamental concept ai research since field 's inception


original dartmouth ai summer conference ray solomonoff wrote report unsupervised probabilistic machine learning inductive inference machine study computer algorithms improve automatically experience unsupervised learning finds patterns stream input supervised learning requires human label input data first comes two main varieties classification numerical regression classification used determine category something belongs program sees number examples things several categories learn classify new inputs regression attempt produce function


describes relationship inputs outputs predicts outputs change inputs change classifiers regression learners viewed function approximators trying learn unknown possibly implicit function example spam classifier viewed learning function maps text email one two categories spam spam reinforcement learning agent rewarded good responses punished bad ones agent classifies responses form strategy operating problem space transfer learning


knowledge gained one problem applied new problem computational learning theory assess learners computational complexity sample complexity much data required notions optimization parse tree represents syntactic structure sentence according formal grammar left natural language processing natural language processing nlp allows machines read understand human language sufficiently powerful natural language processing system would enable natural language user interfaces acquisition knowledge directly human written sources newswire texts straightforward applications nlp include information retrieval question


answering machine translation symbolic ai used formal syntax translate deep structure sentences logic failed produce useful applications due intractability logic ref name intractability breadth commonsense knowledge ref name breadth commonsense knowledge modern statistical techniques include co occurrence frequencies often one word appears near another keyword spotting searching particular word retrieve information transformer based deep learning finds patterns text others achieved acceptable accuracy page paragraph level could generate coherent textfeature detection pictured edge detection helps ai compose


informative abstract structures raw data perception machine perception ability use input sensors cameras microphones wireless signals active lidar sonar radar tactile sensors deduce aspects world applications include speech recognition facial recognition object recognition computer vision ability analyze visual input motion manipulation ai heavily used robotics localization robot knows location map environment given small static visible environment easy however dynamic environments endoscopy


interior patient 's breathing body pose greater challenge motion planning process breaking movement task primitives individual joint movements movement often involves compliant motion process movement requires maintaining physical contact object robots learn experience move efficiently despite presence friction gear slippage kismet robot rudimentary social skills left social intelligence affective computing interdisciplinary umbrella comprises systems recognize interpret process simulate human feeling emotion mood example virtual assistants programmed


speak conversationally even banter humorously makes appear sensitive emotional dynamics human interaction otherwise facilitate human computer interaction however tends give na users unrealistic conception intelligent existing computer agents actually moderate successes related affective computing include textual sentiment analysis recently multimodal sentiment analysis wherein ai classifies affects displayed videotaped subject general intelligence machine general intelligence solve wide variety problems breadth versatility similar human intelligence several competing


ideas develop artificial general intelligence hans moravec marvin minsky argue work different individual domains incorporated advanced multi agent system cognitive architecture general intelligence pedro domingos hopes conceptually straightforward mathematically difficult master algorithm could lead agi others believe anthropomorphic features like artificial brain simulated child development developmental robotics modern version idea ref name developmental robotics someday reach critical point general intelligence emerges tools search optimization many problems ai


solved theoretically intelligently searching many possible solutions reasoning reduced performing search example logical proof viewed searching path leads premises conclusions step application inference rule ref name logic search forward chaining backward chaining horn clauses logical deduction search ref planning algorithms search trees goals subgoals attempting find path target goal process called means ends analysis ref name planning search state space search planning ref robotics algorithms moving limbs


grasping objects use local searches configuration space ref name configuration space moving configuration space ref simple exhaustive searches ref name uninformed search uninformed searches breadth first search depth first search general state space search ref rarely sufficient real world problems search space number places search quickly grows astronomical numbers result search slow never completes solution many problems use heuristics rules thumb prioritize choices favor likely reach goal shorter number


fittest survive generation refining guesses classic evolutionary algorithms include genetic algorithms gene expression programming genetic programming ref name genetic programming genetic programming genetic algorithms ref alternatively distributed search processes coordinate via swarm intelligence algorithms two popular swarm algorithms used search particle swarm optimization inspired bird flocking ant colony optimization inspired ant trails ref name society based learning artificial life society based learning ref logic logic ref name logic logic ref used knowledge representation problem solving applied problems well


example satplan algorithm uses logic planning ref name satplan satplan ref inductive logic programming method learning ref name symbolic learning techniques explanation based learning relevance based learning inductive logic programming case based reasoning ref several different forms logic used ai research propositional logic ref name propositional logic propositional logic ref involves truth functions first order logic ref name first order logic first order logic features equality ref adds quantifiers predicates express facts objects properties relations fuzzy


logic assigns degree truth vague statements alice old rich tall hungry linguistically imprecise completely true false ref name fuzzy logic fuzzy logic ref default logics non monotonic logics circumscription forms logic designed help default reasoning qualification problem ref name default reasoning non monotonic logic default reasoning frame problem default logic non monotonic logics circumscription closed world assumption abduction poole ''et al'' places abduction default reasoning luger ''et al'' places uncertain reasoning ref several extensions logic


designed handle specific domains knowledge description logics ref name representing categories relations representing categories relations semantic networks description logics inheritance including frames scripts ref situation calculus event calculus fluent calculus representing events time ref name representing time representing events time situation calculus event calculus fluent calculus including solving frame problem ref causal calculus ref name representing causation causal calculus ref belief calculus belief revision modal logics ref name representing knowledge knowledge representing knowledge knowledge belief calculus modal logics ref logics model contradictory inconsistent statements arising


multi agent systems also designed paraconsistent logics probabilistic methods uncertain reasoning expectation maximization clustering old faithful eruption data starts random guess successfully converges accurate clustering two physically distinct modes eruption many problems ai reasoning planning learning perception robotics require agent operate incomplete uncertain information ai researchers devised number powerful tools solve problems using methods probability theory economics bayesian networks ref name bayesian networks bayesian networks ref general


tool used various problems reasoning using bayesian inference algorithm ref name bayesian inference bayesian inference algorithm ref learning using expectation maximization algorithm ref name bayesian learning bayesian learning expectation maximization algorithm ref planning using decision networks ref name bayesian decision networks bayesian decision theory bayesian decision networks ref perception using dynamic bayesian networks ref name stochastic temporal models stochastic temporal models dynamic bayesian networks hidden markov model kalman filters ref probabilistic algorithms also used filtering prediction smoothing finding explanations streams data helping perception systems analyze processes occur


time eg hidden markov models kalman filters ref name stochastic temporal models key concept science economics utility measure valuable something intelligent agent precise mathematical tools developed analyze agent make choices plan using decision theory decision analysis ref name decisions theory analysis decision theory decision analysis ref information value theory ref name information value theory information value theory ref tools include models markov decision processes ref name markov decision process markov decision processes dynamic decision networks ref dynamic decision networks ref name stochastic temporal


models game theory mechanism design ref name game theory mechanism design game theory mechanism design ref classifiers statistical learning methods simplest ai applications divided two types classifiers shiny diamond controllers diamond pick controllers however also classify conditions inferring actions therefore classification forms central part many ai systems classifiers functions use pattern matching determine closest match tuned according examples making attractive use ai examples known observations


patterns supervised learning pattern belongs certain predefined class class decision made observations combined class labels known data set new observation received observation classified based previous experience classifier trained various ways many statistical machine learning approaches decision tree simplest widely used symbolic machine learning algorithm k nearest neighbor algorithm widely used analogical ai mid kernel methods support vector


machine svm displaced k nearest neighbor naive bayes classifier reportedly widely used learner google due part scalability neural networks also used classification ref name neural networks classifier performance depends greatly characteristics data classified dataset size distribution samples across classes dimensionality level noise model based classifiers perform well assumed model extremely good fit actual data otherwise matching model available accuracy rather speed scalability


sole concern conventional wisdom discriminative classifiers especially svm tend accurate model based classifiers naive bayes practical data sets artificial neural networks neural network interconnected group nodes akin vast network neurons human brain neural networks ref name neural networks neural networks ref inspired architecture neurons human brain simple neuron ''n'' accepts input neurons activated fired casts weighted vote whether neuron ''n''


networks allow feedback short term memories previous input events among popular feedforward networks perceptrons multi layer perceptrons radial basis networks ref name feedforward neural networks feedforward neural networks perceptrons radial basis networks ref deep learning deep learning uses several layers neurons network 's inputs outputs multiple layers progressively extract higher level features raw input example image processing lower layers may identify edges higher layers may identify concepts relevant human digits letters faces deep learning drastically improved


example deep learning rnns trained gradient descent however long term gradients back propagated vanish tend zero explode tend infinity known vanishing gradient problem long short term memory lstm technique prevent cases specialized languages hardware specialized languages artificial intelligence developed lisp prolog tensorflow many others hardware developed ai includes ai accelerators neuromorphic computing applications project ai learn typical patterns


colors brushstrokes renaissance painter raphael portrait shows face actress ornella muti painted ai style raphael ai relevant intellectual task modern artificial intelligence techniques pervasive numerous list frequently technique reaches mainstream use longer considered artificial intelligence phenomenon described ai effect ai applications heart commercially successful areas computing become ubiquitous feature daily life ai used search


test ai 's strength since deep blue became first computer chess playing system beat reigning world chess champion garry kasparov may ''jeopardy '' quiz show exhibition match ibm 's question answering system watson defeated two greatest ''jeopardy '' champions brad rutter ken jennings significant margin march alphago games go match go champion lee sedol becoming first computer go playing system beat professional go player without handicaps programs handle imperfect information games


poker superhuman level pluribus cepheus deepmind developed generalized artificial intelligence could learn many diverse atari games natural language processing systems enormous gpt far largest artificial neural network matching human performance pre existing benchmarks albeit without system attaining commonsense understanding contents benchmarks deepmind 's alphafold demonstrated ability approximate hours rather months structure protein applications predict result judicial decisions create art poetry


painting prove mathematical theorems philosophy defining artificial intelligence thinking vs acting turing test alan turing wrote propose consider question 'can machines think' advised changing question whether machine thinks whether possible machinery show intelligent behaviour thing visible behavior machine matter machine conscious mind whether intelligence merely simulation real thing noted


also n't know things people extend polite convention actually thinking idea forms basis turing test ref name turing test turing 's original publication turing test computing machinery intelligence historical influence philosophical implications ref acting humanly vs acting intelligently intelligent agents ai founder john mccarthy said artificial intelligence definition simulation human intelligence russell norvig agree criticize turing test wrote aeronautical engineering texts define goal field 'making


machines fly exactly like pigeons fool pigeons researchers analysts disagree argued ai simulate natural intelligence studying psychology neurobiology pamela mccorduck wrote two major branches artificial intelligence one aimed producing intelligent behavior regardless accomplished aimed modeling intelligent processes found nature particularly human ones intelligent agent paradigm ref name intelligent agents intelligent agent paradigm definition used article terms goals actions perception environment due


definitions also include knowledge learning autonomy additional criteria ref defines intelligent behavior general without reference human beings intelligent agent system perceives environment takes actions maximize chances success system goal directed behavior analyzed intelligent agent something simple thermostat complex human well large systems firms biomes nations intelligent agent paradigm became widely accepted currently serves definition field paradigm


advantages ai provides reliable scientific way test programs researchers directly compare even combine different approaches isolated problems asking agent best maximizing given goal function also gives common language communicate fields mathematical optimization defined terms goals economics uses definition rational agent evaluating approaches ai established unifying theory paradigm guided ai research history unprecedented success statistical machine


newell simon proposed physical symbol systems hypothesis physical symbol system necessary sufficient means general intelligent action ref name physical symbol system hypothesis physical symbol system hypothesis historical significance ref however symbolic approach failed dismally many tasks humans solve easily learning recognizing object commonsense reasoning moravec 's paradox discovery high level intelligent tasks easy ai low level instinctive tasks extremely difficult philosopher hubert dreyfus argued since human expertise depends unconscious instinct rather conscious symbol manipulation


explainable ai difficult impossible understand modern statistical ai program made particular decision neat vs scruffy neats hope intelligent behavior described using simple elegant principles logic optimization neural networks scruffies expect necessarily requires solving large number unrelated problems issue actively discussed ref name neats vs scruffies neats vs scruffies historic debate classic example scruffy approach intelligence modern example neat ai aspirations ref mathematical


methods solid scientific standards became norm transition russell norvig termed victory neats soft vs hard computing finding provably correct optimal solution intractable many important problems ref name intractability soft computing set techniques including genetic algorithms fuzzy logic neural networks tolerant imprecision uncertainty partial truth approximation soft computing introduced late successful ai programs st century examples soft computing neural networks narrow vs general ai ai researchers divided


states sense human beings issue considers internal experiences machine rather external behavior mainstream ai research considers issue irrelevant effect goals field stuart russell peter norvig observe ai researchers n't care philosophy ai mdash long program works n't care whether call simulation intelligence real intelligence however question become central philosophy mind also typically central question issue artificial


intelligence fiction consciousness david chalmers identified two problems understanding mind named hard easy problems consciousness easy problem understanding brain processes signals makes plans controls behavior hard problem explaining ''feels'' feel like anything human information processing easy explain however human subjective experience difficult explain example easy imagine color blind person learned identify objects field view red


fodor hilary putnam philosopher john searle characterized position strong ai appropriately programmed computer right inputs outputs would thereby mind exactly sense human beings minds searle 's original formulation appropriately programmed computer really mind sense computers given right programs literally said understand cognitive states strong ai defined similarly russell norvig assertion machines could possibly act intelligently perhaps better act ''as if'' intelligent called 'weak ai'


hypothesis philosophers assertion machines actually thinking opposed simulating thinking called 'strong ai' hypothesis searle counters assertion chinese room argument attempts show even machine perfectly simulates human behavior still reason suppose also mind ref name chinese room searle 's chinese room argument searle 's original presentation thought experiment discussion ref robot rights machine mind subjective experience may also sentience ability feel


intelligence possessed agent research artificial general intelligence produced sufficiently intelligent software might able reprogram improve improved software would even better improving leading recursive self improvement intelligence would increase exponentially intelligence explosion could dramatically surpass humans science fiction writer vernor vinge named scenario singularity difficult impossible know limits intelligence capabilities superintelligent machines technological singularity occurrence beyond events unpredictable even unfathomable robot designer hans moravec


cyberneticist kevin warwick inventor ray kurzweil predicted humans machines merge future cyborgs capable powerful either idea called transhumanism roots aldous huxley robert ettinger edward fredkin argues artificial intelligence next stage evolution idea first proposed samuel butler 's darwin among machines far back expanded upon george dyson book name risks lecture fillipo santoni de sio delft university technology risks


artificial intelligence keep artificial intelligence control technological unemployment past technology tended increase rather reduce total employment economists acknowledge 're uncharted territory ai survey economists showed disagreement whether increasing use robots ai cause substantial increase long term unemployment generally agree could net benefit productivity gains redistributed subjective estimates risk vary widely example michael osborne carl benedikt frey estimate us jobs


high risk potential automation oecd report classifies us jobs high risk unlike previous waves automation many middle class jobs may eliminated artificial intelligence ''the economist'' states worry ai could white collar jobs steam power blue collar ones industrial revolution worth taking seriously jobs extreme risk range paralegals fast food cooks job demand likely increase care related professions ranging personal healthcare clergy bad actors weaponized ai ai provides number


tools particularly useful authoritarian governments smart spyware face recognition voice recognition allow widespread surveillance surveillance allows machine learning classify potential enemies state prevent hiding recommendation systems precisely target propaganda misinformation maximum effect deepfakes aid producing misinformation advanced ai make centralized decision making competitive liberal decentralized systems markets terrorists criminals rogue states may use forms weaponized ai advanced digital warfare lethal autonomous weapons fifty countries reported researching


battlefield robots algorithmic bias ai programs become biased learning real world data typically introduced system designers learned program thus programmers often unaware bias exists bias inadvertently introduced way training data selected also emerge correlations ai used classify individuals groups make predictions assuming individual resemble members group cases assumption may unfair example compas commercial


program widely used us courts assess likelihood defendant becoming recidivist propublica claims compas assigned recidivism risk level black defendants far likely overestimate white defendants despite fact program told races defendants examples algorithmic bias lead unfair outcomes ai used credit rating hiring existential risk superintelligent ai may able improve point humans could control could physicist stephen


hawking puts spell end human race philosopher nick bostrom argues sufficiently intelligent ai chooses actions based achieving goal exhibit convergent behavior acquiring resources protecting shut ai 's goals fully reflect humanity 's might need harm humanity acquire resources prevent shut ultimately better achieve goal concludes ai poses risk mankind however humble friendly stated goals might political scientist charles rubin argues


sufficiently advanced benevolence may indistinguishable malevolence humans assume machines robots would treat us favorably ''a priori'' reason believe would share system morality opinion experts industry insiders mixed sizable fractions concerned unconcerned risk eventual superhumanly capable ai stephen hawking microsoft founder bill gates history professor yuval noah harari spacex founder elon musk expressed serious misgivings future ai prominent tech titans including peter thiel amazon web services musk committed nbsp billion


nonprofit companies champion responsible ai development openai future life institute mark zuckerberg ceo facebook said artificial intelligence helpful current form continue assist humans experts argue risks far enough future worth researching humans valuable perspective superintelligent machine rodney brooks particular said malevolent ai still centuries away ethical machines friendly ai machines designed beginning minimize risks


make choices benefit humans eliezer yudkowsky coined term argues developing friendly ai higher research priority may require large investment must completed ai becomes existential risk machines intelligence potential use intelligence make ethical decisions field machine ethics provides machines ethical principles procedures resolving ethical dilemmas machine ethics also called machine morality computational ethics computational morality founded aaai symposium others approaches include wendell wallach 's artificial moral agents


stuart j russell 's three principles developing provably beneficial machines regulation regulation artificial intelligence development public sector policies laws promoting regulating artificial intelligence ai therefore related broader regulation algorithms regulatory policy landscape ai emerging issue jurisdictions globally countries adopted dedicated strategies ai eu member states released national ai strategies canada china india japan mauritius russian federation saudi arabia united arab emirates usa viet


nam others process elaborating ai strategy including bangladesh malaysia tunisia global partnership artificial intelligence launched june stating need ai developed accordance human rights democratic values ensure public confidence trust technology henry kissinger eric schmidt daniel huttenlocher published joint statement november calling government commission regulate ai fiction word robot coined karel apek play ''rur'' title standing rossum 's universal robots


thought capable artificial beings appeared storytelling devices since antiquity ref name ai myth persistent theme science fiction common trope works began mary shelley 's ''frankenstein'' human creation becomes threat masters includes works arthur c clarke 's stanley kubrick 's '' space odyssey'' hal murderous computer charge ''discovery one'' spaceship well ''the terminator'' ''the matrix'' contrast rare loyal robots gort ''the day earth stood still''


bishop ''aliens'' less prominent popular culture isaac asimov introduced three laws robotics many books stories notably multivac series super intelligent computer name asimov 's laws often brought lay discussions machine ethics almost artificial intelligence researchers familiar asimov 's laws popular culture generally consider laws useless many reasons one ambiguity transhumanism merging humans machines explored manga ''ghost shell'' science fiction series ''dune''


several works use ai force us confront fundamental question makes us human showing us artificial beings ability feel thus suffer appears karel apek 's ''rur'' films ''ai artificial intelligence'' ''ex machina'' well novel ''do androids dream electric sheep'' philip k dick dick considers idea understanding human subjectivity altered technology created artificial intelligence see also ''ai rising'' ai control problem artificial intelligence arms race artificial general intelligence behavior selection algorithm business process automation


case based reasoning citizen science emergent algorithm female gendering ai technologies glossary artificial intelligence robotic process automation synthetic intelligence universal basic income weak ai explanatory notes citations references ai textbooks four widely used ai textbooks later editions two widely used textbooks https opensyllabusorg result fieldid computer science history ai sources ref introduced kunihiko fukushima title working neural networking newspaper economist date url https wwweconomistcom news special report artificial intelligence boom based old idea modern twist access date april url status live archive date december archive url https webarchiveorg web https wwweconomistcom news special report artificial intelligence boom based old idea modern twist title artificial intelligence google 's alphago


beats go master lee se dol url https wwwbbccom news technology access date october work bbc news date march url status live archive url https webarchiveorg web http wwwbbccom news technology archive date august ref last goertzel first ben last lian first ruiting last arel first itamar last de garis first hugo last chen first shuo title world survey artificial brain projects part ii biologically inspired cognitive architectures journal neurocomputing date december volume issue pages doi jneucom last hinton first g last deng first l last yu first last dahl first g last mohamed first last jaitly first n last senior first last vanhoucke first v last nguyen first p last sainath first last kingsbury first b year title deep neural networks acoustic modeling speech recognition shared views four research groups journal ieee signal processing magazine volume issue pages bibcode ispm h doi msp cid title 'fuzzy logic' computers inherently fuzzy apply usual binary logic date


october language en work scientific american url https wwwscientificamericancom article fuzzy logic access date may author law library congress us global legal research directorate issuing body title regulation artificial intelligence selected jurisdictions year lccn oclc title unesco science report race time smarter development date june publisher unesco location paris isbn url https unesdocunescoorg ark pf pdf engpdfmulti title economist explains firms piling artificial intelligence newspaper economist date march url https wwweconomistcom blogs economist explains economist explains access date may url status live archive url https webarchiveorg web http wwweconomistcom blogs economist explains economist explains archive date may first n last aletras first last tsarapatsanis first last preotiuc pietro first v last lampos title predicting judicial decisions european court human rights natural language processing perspective year journal peerj


's driving today 's progress ai url https wwwmckinseycom business functions mckinsey analytics insights ask ai experts whats driving todays progress ai website mckinsey company access date april archive date april archive url https webarchiveorg web https wwwmckinseycom business functions mckinsey analytics insights ask ai experts whats driving todays progress ai url status live title reshaping business artificial intelligence website mit sloan management review url https sloanreviewmitedu projects reshaping business artificial intelligence access date may archive date may archive url https webarchiveorg web https sloanreviewmitedu projects reshaping business artificial intelligence url status live title alphago google deepmind url https wildoftechcom alphago google deepmind url status live archive url https webarchiveorg web https wildoftechcom alphago google deepmind archive date october author nrc united states national research council author link united states national research council year chapter developments artificial intelligence title funding revolution government support computing research publisher national academy press presidential address association advancement artificial intelligence


later published br reading dh author still many jobs history future workplace automation ''journal economic perspectives'' boden margaret ''mind machine'' oxford university press cukier kenneth ready robots think future ai ''foreign affairs'' vol july august pp nbsp george dyson historian computing writes might called dyson 's law system simple enough understandable complicated enough behave intelligently system complicated enough


review kate crawford ''atlas ai power politics planetary costs artificial intelligence'' yale university press pp simon chesterman ''we robots regulating artificial intelligence limits law'' cambridge university press pp keven roose ''futureproof rules humans age automation'' random house pp erik j larson ''the myth artificial intelligence computers ca n't think way do'' belknap press harvard university press pp ''the new york review books'' vol lxviii october pp nbsp ai training models


replicate entrenched social cultural biases machines know know data given p rtificial general intelligence machine based intelligence matches beyond capacity algorithmic machine learning 'your brain one piece broader system includes body environment humans culture whole' e ven machines master tasks trained perform ca n't jump domains aiva example ca n't drive car even though write music would n't even able without bach beethoven


composers aiva trained p nbsp johnston john ''the allure machinic life cybernetics artificial life new ai'' mit press koch christof proust among machines ''scientific american'' vol december pp nbsp christof koch doubts possibility intelligent machines attaining consciousness e ven sophisticated brain simulations unlikely produce conscious feelings p nbsp according koch whether machines become sentient important ethical reasons computers experience life senses cease purely means end determined usefulness humans


per gnw global neuronal workspace theory turn mere objects subjects point view computers' cognitive abilities rival humanity impulse push legal political rights become irresistible right deleted memories wiped clean suffer pain degradation alternative embodied iit integrated information theory computers remain supersophisticated machinery ghostlike empty shells devoid value feeling life p nbsp marcus gary human researchers need new ways distinguish artificial


intelligence natural kind ''scientific american'' vol march pp nbsp stumbling block ai incapacity reliable disambiguation example pronoun disambiguation problem machine way determining pronoun sentence refers p nbsp e mcgaughey 'will robots automate job away full employment basic income economic democracy' https papersssrncom sol paperscfmabstract id ssrn part george musser artificial imagination machines could learn creativity common sense among human qualities ''scientific american'' vol may


pp nbsp myers courtney boyd ed https wwwforbescom singularity robots computers opinions contributors artificial intelligence landhtml ai report ''forbes'' june scharre paul killer apps real dangers ai arms race ''foreign affairs'' vol may june pp nbsp today 's ai technologies powerful unreliable rules based systems cannot deal circumstances programmers anticipate learning systems limited data trained ai failures already led tragedy advanced autopilot features cars although perform well circumstances driven cars without warning trucks concrete barriers


dana mackenzie ''the book new science cause effect'' penguin pp ''london review books'' vol january pp nbsp paul taylor writes p nbsp perhaps limit computer without knowing manipulating imperfect representations external reality tooze adam democracy discontents ''the new york review books'' vol lxvi june pp nbsp democracy clear answer mindless operation bureaucratic technological power may indeed witnessing


extension form artificial intelligence robotics likewise decades dire warning environmental problem remains fundamentally unaddressed bureaucratic overreach environmental catastrophe precisely kinds slow moving existential challenges democracies deal badly finally threat du jour corporations technologies promote pp nbsp external links https wwwbbccouk programmes p k fc artificial intelligence bbc radio discussion john agar alison adam igor aleksander ''in time'' dec sources cybernetics formal sciences computational neuroscience emerging technologies unsolved problems computer science computational fields


page lists links '''ancient philosophy''' namely philosophical thought extending far early post classical history c ce overview genuine philosophical thought depending upon original individual insights arose many cultures roughly contemporaneously karl jaspers termed intense period philosophical development beginning around th century concluding around rd century bce axial age human thought western philosophy spread christianity roman empire marked ending hellenistic philosophy ushered beginnings medieval philosophy whereas eastern philosophy spread islam

Humanities
History
Philosophical history
Ancient philosophy


warring states period latter part fraught chaos bloody battles also known golden age chinese philosophy broad range thoughts ideas developed discussed freely thoughts ideas discussed refined period profoundly influenced lifestyles social consciousness present day east asian countries intellectual society era characterized itinerant scholars often employed various state rulers advisers methods government war diplomacy period ended


legalists examined administrative methods emphasizing realistic consolidation wealth power autocrat state taoism also called daoism philosophy emphasizes three jewels tao compassion moderation humility taoist thought generally focuses nature relationship humanity cosmos health longevity wu wei action inaction harmony universe source thereof tao intended result many taoist rules practices mohism advocated idea universal love mozi believed everyone equal heaven people seek


school agrarianism school agrarianism advocated peasant utopian communalism egalitarianism ref name wp ref agrarians believed chinese society modeled around early sage king shen nong folk hero portrayed chinese literature working fields along everyone else consulting everyone else decision reached ref name wp logicians school names focused definition logic said parallels ancient greek sophists dialecticians notable logician gongsun longzi


school diplomacy school vertical horizontal alliances focused practical matters instead moral principle stressed political diplomatic tactics debate lobbying skill scholars school good orators debaters tacticians miscellaneous school integrated teachings different schools instance l buwei found scholars different schools write book called l shi chunqiu cooperatively school tried integrate merits various schools avoid perceived flaws school minor talks unique school thought philosophy constructed


thoughts discussed originated normal people street another group school military studied strategy philosophy war sunzi sun bin influential leaders however school one ten schools defined hanshu early imperial china founder qin dynasty implemented legalism official philosophy quashed mohist confucianist schools legalism remained influential emperors han dynasty adopted daoism later confucianism official doctrine latter two became determining forces chinese


thought introduction buddhism confucianism particularly strong han dynasty whose greatest thinker dong zhongshu integrated confucianism thoughts zhongshu school theory five elements also promoter new text school considered confucius divine figure spiritual ruler china foresaw started evolution world towards universal peace contrast old text school advocated use confucian works written ancient language comes denomination ''old text''


much reliable particular refuted assumption confucius godlike figure considered greatest sage simply human mortal rd th centuries saw rise ''xuanxue'' mysterious learning also called ''neo taoism'' important philosophers movement wang bi xiang xiu guo xiang main question school whether came chinese ''ming'' ''wuming'' peculiar feature taoist thinkers like seven sages bamboo grove concept ''feng liu'' lit


wind flow sort romantic spirit encouraged following natural instinctive impulse buddhism arrived china around st century ad northern southern sui tang dynasties gained considerable influence acknowledgement beginning considered sort taoist sect even theory laozi founder taoism went india taught philosophy buddha mahayana buddhism far successful china rival hinayana indian schools local chinese sects arose


th century two chiefly important monk philosophers sengzhao daosheng probably influential original schools chan sect even stronger impact japan zen sect philosophers taoism laozi th th century bce zhuangzi th century bce zhang daoling zhang jue died ce ge hong ce confucianism confucius mencius xun zi c bce legalism li si li kui han fei mi su yu shang yang shen buhai shen dao mohism mozi song xing logicians deng xi hui shi bce gongsun long c


c bce anaximander bce anaximenes miletus c c bce pythagoreans pythagoras bce philolaus bce alcmaeon croton archytas bce heraclitus bce eleatic school xenophanes bce parmenides bce zeno elea bce melissus samos c bce pluralists empedocles bce anaxagoras bce atomists leucippus first half th century bce democritus bce metrodorus chios th century bce pherecydes


syros th century bce sophists protagoras bce gorgias bce antiphon bce prodicus bce hippias middle th century bce thrasymachus bce callicles critias lycophron diogenes apollonia c bce classical greek philosophers socrates bce euclid megara bce antisthenes bce aristippus bce plato bce speusippus bce diogenes sinope bce xenocrates bce aristotle


bce antiochus ascalon bce aenesidemus st century bce agrippa st century ce hellenistic schools thought academic skepticism cynicism cyrenaicism eclecticism epicureanism middle platonism neo platonism neopythagoreanism peripatetic school pyrrhonism stoicism sophism early roman christian philosophy see also ''christian philosophy'' school sextii philosophers roman times plotinus cicero bce lucretius bce seneca bce ce musonius rufus ce plutarch ce epictetus ce favorinus c c ce marcus aurelius ce clement


alexandria ce alcinous philosopher nd century ce sextus empiricus rd century ce alexander aphrodisias rd century ce ammonius saccas rd century ce plotinus ce porphyry ce iamblichus ce themistius ce ambrose ce augustine hippo ce proclus ce damascius ce boethius ce simplicius cilicia ce john philoponus ce ancient indian philosophy '''ancient indian philosophy''' fusion two ancient


traditions vedic tradition sramana tradition vedic philosophy indian philosophy begins ''vedas'' wherein questions pertaining laws nature origin universe place man asked famous rigvedic ''hymn creation'' nasadiya sukta poet asks vyasa middle picture whence creation origin whether fashioned whether surveys highest heaven knows maybe even know vedic view creation ascribed


self consciousness primeval ''purusha'' leads inquiry ''the one being'' underlies diversity empirical phenomena origin things cosmic order termed ''rta'' causal law ''karma'' nature ''prakriti'' taken three qualities ' 'sattva'' ''rajas'' ''tamas'' vedas upanishads hindu philosophy sramana philosophy jainism buddhism continuation sramana school thought sramanas cultivated pessimistic worldview samsara full suffering advocated renunciation austerities laid stress philosophical concepts like ahimsa karma jnana samsara moksa c rv ka


sanskrit atheist philosophy also known lok yata system hindu philosophy assumes various forms philosophical skepticism religious indifference named founder c rv ka author b rhaspatya tras classical indian philosophy classical times inquiries systematized six schools philosophy questions asked ontological nature consciousness cognition experienced mind ''chit'' intentional cognition structure six schools indian philosophy nyaya vaisheshika samkhya yoga mimamsa purva mimamsa vedanta uttara mimamsa ancient indian


seers atharva veda author mundaka upanishad uddalaka aruni upanishadic sage authored major portions ch ndogya upani ad ashvapati king later vedic age authored vaishvanara vidya ch ndogya upani ad ashtavakra upanishadic sage mentioned mahabharata authored ashtavakra gita philosophers axial age bce gotama c bce logician author nyaya sutra kanada c bce founded philosophical school vaisheshika gave theory atomism mahavira ndash bce heavily influenced jainism th tirthankara jainism purana kassapa ajita kesakambali payasi


''makkhali go la'' ''sa jaya bela hiputta'' mahavira dandamis nagasena lakulisha buddha pakudha kaccayana p ini bce grammarian author ashtadhyayi kapila c bce proponent samkhya system philosophy badarayana lived bce bce author brahma sutras jaimini c bce author purva mimamsa sutras pingala c bce author ''chandas shastra'' gautama buddha c c bce founder buddhist school thought riputra chanakya c c bce author arthashastra professor acharya political science takshashila university pata jali c bce developed


philosophy raja yoga yoga sutras shvetashvatara author earliest textual exposition systematic philosophy shaivism philosophers golden age bce ce valluvar c bce wrote kural text treatise secular ethics vagho believed first sanskrit dramatist considered greatest indian poet prior k lid sa vatsyanafamous kama sutra samantabhadrahe proponent jaina doctrine anekantavada isvarakrsna aryadevaaryadeva student nagarjuna contributed significantly madhyamaka dharmakirti haribhadra pujyapada buddhaghosa kamandaka maticandra prashastapada bh viveka dharmapala


udyotakara gaudapada siddhasena dign ga c one founders buddhist school indian logic asanga c exponent yogacara bhartrihari c ce early figure indic linguistic theory bodhidharma c ce founder zen school buddhism siddhasena div kara th century ce jain logician author important works sanskrit prakrit ny vat ra logic sanmatis tra dealing seven jaina standpoints knowledge objects knowledge vasubandhu c ce one main founders indian yogacara school kundakunda nd century ce exponent jain


mysticism jain nayas dealing nature soul contamination matter author pa c stik yas ra essence five existents pravacanas ra essence scripture samayas ra essence doctrine nagarjuna c ce founder madhyamaka middle path school mah na buddhism um sv ti umasvami nd century ce author first jain work sanskrit tattv rthas tra expounding jain philosophy systematized form acceptable sects jainism adi shankara philosopher theologian renowned exponent advaita vedanta school philosophy ancient


iranian philosophy zarathustra depicted raphael 's school athens beside raphael appears ancient painter apelles kos see also ''dualism dualism philosophy mind '' ancient relations indian vedas iranian avesta two main families indo iranian philosophical traditions characterized fundamental differences implications human 's position society view man 's role universe first charter human rights cyrus great understood cyrus cylinder often seen reflection questions


thoughts expressed zarathustra developed zoroastrian schools thought achaemenid era iranian history schools thought ideas tenets zoroastrian schools early persian philosophy part many works written middle persian extant scriptures zoroastrian religion avestan language among treatises shikand gumanic vichar mardan farrux ohrmazddadan selections denkard wizidag h z tspram selections z tspram well older passages book avesta gathas attributed zarathustra regarded direct teachings zoroastrianism zarathustra jamasp ostanes


mardan farrux ohrmazddadan adurfarnbag farroxzadan ref name tafozzoli khromov sasanian iran intellectual life tafazzoli l khromov history civilizations central asia crossroads civilization b litvinsky zhang guand da r shabani samghabadi unesco ref adurbad emedan ref name tafozzoli khromov ''avesta'' ''gathas'' anacharsis pre manichaean thought bardesanes manichaeism mani c ce ammo mazdakism mazdak elder mazdak died c ce zurvanism aesthetic zurvanism materialist zurvanism fatalistic zurvanism philosophy empire political philosophy tansar university gundishapur borzouye bakhtshooa gondishapuri emperor khosrau 's philosophical discourses paul persian literature pahlavi literature ancient


jewish philosophy see also ''jewish philosophy'' first temple c bce joel th th century bce amos th century bce hosea th century bce micah th century bce proto isaiah th century bce ezekiel th century bce habbakuk th century bce jeremiah th century bce nahum th century bce zephaniah th century bce assyrian exile bce deutero isaiah th century bce haggai th century bce obadiah th century bce trito isaiah th century bce zechariah th century bce second temple bce ce malachi th century bce koheleth th nd century bce shimon ben yeshua


ben eliezer ben sira nd century bce hillel elder c bce ce philo alexandria bce ce jesus nazareth c bce ce early roman exile c ce rabbi akiva c c ce see also index ancient philosophy articles references reading luchte james ''early greek thought dawn'' series ''bloomsbury studies ancient philosophy'' bloomsbury publishing london external links


lindsay 's wheel acoustics shows fields within acoustics '''acoustics''' branch physics deals study mechanical waves gases liquids solids including topics vibration sound ultrasound infrasound scientist works field acoustics '''acoustician''' someone working field acoustics technology may called acoustical engineer application acoustics present almost aspects modern society obvious audio noise control industries hearing one crucial means survival


word acoustic derived greek word ''akoustikos'' meaning hearing ready hear ''akoustos'' heard audible turn derives verb ''akouo'' hear latin synonym sonic term '' 'sonics''' used synonym acoustics ref name ref later branch acoustics ref name frequencies audible range called ultrasonic infrasonic respectively early research acoustics fundamental first overtones vibrating string earliest records study


phenomenon attributed philosopher pythagoras th century bc th century bc ancient greek philosopher pythagoras wanted know combinations musical sounds seemed beautiful others found answers terms numerical ratios representing harmonic overtone series string reputed observed lengths vibrating strings expressible ratios integers eg tones produced harmonious smaller integers harmonious sounds example


string certain length would sound particularly harmonious string twice length factors equal modern parlance string sounds note c plucked string twice long sound c octave lower one system musical tuning tones given e f g b ascending order aristotle bc understood sound consisted compressions rarefactions air falls upon strikes


air next good expression nature wave motion ''on things heard'' generally ascribed strato lampsacus states pitch related frequency vibrations air speed sound bc roman architect engineer vitruvius wrote treatise acoustic properties theaters including discussion interference echoes reverberation beginnings architectural acoustics book v ''de architectura'' ''the ten books architecture'' vitruvius describes sound wave comparable water wave extended


three dimensions interrupted obstructions would flow back break following waves described ascending seats ancient theaters designed prevent deterioration sound also recommended bronze vessels appropriate sizes placed theaters resonate fourth fifth double octave order resonate desirable harmonious notes islamic golden age ab rayh n al b r n believed postulated speed sound much slower speed light roman theatre city


amman physical understanding acoustical processes advanced rapidly scientific revolution mainly galileo galilei also marin mersenne independently discovered complete laws vibrating strings completing pythagoras pythagoreans started years earlier galileo wrote waves produced vibrations sonorous body spread air bringing tympanum ear stimulus mind interprets sound remarkable statement points beginnings physiological psychological acoustics experimental measurements speed sound air carried


successfully number investigators prominently mersenne meanwhile newton derived relationship wave velocity solids cornerstone physical acoustics principia age enlightenment onward substantial progress acoustics resting firmer mathematical physical concepts made eighteenth century euler lagrange d'alembert era continuum physics field theory began receive definite mathematical structure wave equation emerged number contexts including propagation sound air nineteenth century


major figures mathematical acoustics helmholtz germany consolidated field physiological acoustics lord rayleigh england combined previous knowledge copious contributions field monumental work ''the theory sound'' also th century wheatstone ohm henry developed analogy electricity acoustics twentieth century saw burgeoning technological applications large body scientific knowledge place first application sabine 's groundbreaking work architectural acoustics many others followed underwater acoustics


used detecting submarines first world war sound recording telephone played important roles global transformation society sound measurement analysis reached new levels accuracy sophistication use electronics computing ultrasonic frequency range enabled wholly new kinds application medicine industry new kinds transducers generators receivers acoustic energy invented put use fundamental concepts acoustics definition acoustics defined ansi asa science sound including production transmission


effects including biological psychological effects b qualities room together determine character respect auditory effects study acoustics revolves around generation propagation reception mechanical waves vibrations '''the fundamental acoustical process''' steps shown diagram found acoustical event process many kinds cause natural volitional many kinds transduction process convert energy form sonic energy producing sound wave one fundamental equation describes sound wave propagation


acoustic wave equation phenomena emerge varied often complex wave carries energy throughout propagating medium eventually energy transduced forms ways may natural volitionally contrived final effect may purely physical may reach far biological volitional domains five basic steps found equally well whether talking earthquake submarine using sonar locate foe band playing rock concert central stage acoustical process wave


falls hz nbsp hz range important frequencies detected human ear range number applications including speech communication music ultrasonic range refers high frequencies nbsp hz higher range shorter wavelengths allow better resolution imaging technologies medical applications ultrasonography elastography rely ultrasonic frequency range end spectrum lowest frequencies known infrasonic range frequencies used study geological


mechanical vibrations electrical fields interlinked property material acoustician acoustician expert science sound education many types acoustician usually bachelor 's degree higher qualification possess degree acoustics others enter discipline via studies fields physics engineering much work acoustics requires good grounding mathematics science many acoustic scientists work research development conduct basic research advance knowledge perception eg hearing psychoacoustics neurophysiology


new archaeological subject acoustic sound still tested prehistoric sites today aeroacoustics aeroacoustics study noise generated air movement instance via turbulence movement sound fluid air knowledge applied acoustical engineering study quieten aircraft aeroacoustics important understanding wind musical instruments work acoustic signal processing acoustic signal processing electronic manipulation acoustic signals applications include active noise control design hearing aids cochlear implants echo cancellation music information retrieval perceptual coding eg mp opus architectural acoustics


symphony hall boston auditorium acoustics began architectural acoustics also known building acoustics involves scientific understanding achieve good sound within building typically involves study speech intelligibility speech privacy music quality vibration reduction built environment commonly studied environments hospitals classrooms dwellings performance venues recording broadcasting studios focus considerations include room acoustics airborne impact transmission building structures airborne structure borne noise control noise control building systems electroacoustic systemshttps asastudentsorg tcs bioacoustics bioacoustics scientific study hearing calls animal calls well


animals affected acoustic sounds habitat electroacoustics subdiscipline concerned recording manipulation reproduction audio using electronics might include products mobile phones large scale public address systems virtual reality systems research laboratories environmental noise soundscapes environmental acoustics concerned noise vibration caused railways road traffic aircraft industrial equipment recreational activities main aim studies reduce levels environmental noise vibration research work also focus positive use sound


urban environments soundscapes tranquility musical acoustics primary auditory cortex one main areas associated superior pitch resolution musical acoustics study physics acoustic instruments audio signal processing used electronic music computer analysis music composition perception cognitive neuroscience music noise goal acoustics sub discipline reduce impact unwanted sound scope noise studies includes generation propagation impact structures objects people innovative model development measurement techniques mitigation strategies inupt establishment standards regulations


noise research investigates impact noise humans animals include work definitions abatement transportation noise hearing protection jet rocket noise building system noise vibration atmospheric sound propagation soundscapes low frequency sound psychoacoustics many studies conducted identify relationship acoustics cognition commonly known psychoacoustics one hears combination perception biological aspects information intercepted passage sound waves ear understood interpreted brain emphasizing connection mind acoustics psychological changes


seen brain waves slow speed result varying auditory stimulus turn affect way one thinks feels even behaves correlation viewed normal everyday situations listening upbeat uptempo song cause one 's foot start tapping slower song leave one feeling calm serene deeper biological look phenomenon psychoacoustics discovered central nervous system activated basic acoustical characteristics music ref name ref observing central nervous system


includes brain spine influenced acoustics pathway acoustic affects mind essentially body evident ref name speech acousticians study production processing perception speech speech recognition speech synthesis two important areas speech processing using computers subject also overlaps disciplines physics physiology psychology linguistics structural vibration dynamics structural acoustics study motions interactions mechanical systems environments methods measurement analysis control https tcsaasaorg several sub disciplines found within regime modal


scientific study natural man made sounds underwater applications include sonar locate submarines underwater communication whales climate change monitoring measuring sea temperatures acoustically sonic weapons marine bioacoustics professional societies acoustical society america asa australian acoustical society aas european acoustics association eaa institute electrical electronics engineers ieee institute acoustics ioa uk audio engineering society aes american society mechanical engineers noise control acoustics division asme ncad international commission acoustics ica american institute aeronautics astronautics aeroacoustics aiaa international computer music association icma academic journals acta acustica


united acustica applied acoustics journal acoustical society america jasa journal acoustical society america express letters jasa el journal audio engineering society journal sound vibration jsv journal vibration acoustics american society mechanical engineers ultrasonics journal see also outline acoustics acoustic attenuation acoustic emission acoustic engineering acoustic impedance acoustic levitation acoustic location acoustic phonetics acoustic streaming acoustic tags acoustic thermometry acoustic wave audiology auditory illusion diffraction doppler effect fisheries acoustics friction acoustics helioseismology lamb wave linear elasticity ''the little red book acoustics'' uk


longitudinal wave musicology music therapy noise pollution one way wave equation phonon picosecond ultrasonics rayleigh wave shock wave seismology sonification sonochemistry soundproofing soundscape sonic boom sonoluminescence surface acoustic wave thermoacoustics transverse wave wave equation references reading https archiveorg details encyclopediaofac unse l l page n mode volume available internet archive mason wp thurston rn https webarchiveorg web http librarumorg book ''physical acoustics'' philip morse k uno ingard ''theoretical acoustics'' princeton university press allan pierce ''acoustics introduction physical principles applications'' acoustical society america r raichel ''the science applications


acoustics'' second edition springer e skudrzyk ''the foundations acoustics basic mathematics basic acoustics'' springer external links http wwwicacommissionorg international commission acoustics https euracousticsorg european acoustics association http acousticalsocietyorg acoustical society america http wwwinceusaorg institute noise control engineers http wwwncaccom national council acoustical consultants http wwwioaorguk institute acoustic uk https wwwacousticsorgau australian acoustical society aas sound


aquaculture production region '''aquaculture''' less commonly spelled '''aquiculture''' ref name garner ref also known '''aquafarming''' controlled cultivation farming aquatic organisms fish crustaceans mollusks algae organisms value aquatic plants eg lotus aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater saltwater populations controlled semi natural conditions contrasted commercial fishing harvesting wild fish ref name americanheritagedef ref mariculture commonly known '''marine farming''' refers specifically aquaculture practiced seawater habitats opposed freshwater aquaculture aquaculture conducted completely artificial facilities built land '''onshore aquaculture'''


case fish tank ponds raceways living conditions rely human control well sheltered shallow waters nearshore body water '''inshore aquaculture''' cultivated species subjected relatively naturalistic environments fenced enclosed sections open water away shore '''offshore aquaculture''' species exposed diverse natural conditions ocean currents diel vertical migration nutrient cycles according food agriculture organization fao aquaculture understood mean farming aquatic organisms including fish molluscs crustaceans aquatic plants


farming implies form intervention rearing process enhance production regular stocking feeding protection predators etc farming also implies individual corporate ownership stock cultivated reported ref total width output global aquaculture operations supplied one half fish shellfish directly consumed humans however issues reliability reported figures ref name overreporting current aquaculture practice products several pounds wild fish used produce one pound piscivorous fish like


salmon ref name alliance particular kinds aquaculture include fish farming shrimp farming oyster farming mariculture algaculture seaweed farming cultivation ornamental fish particular methods include aquaponics integrated multi trophic aquaculture integrate fish farming aquatic plant farming food agriculture organization describes aquaculture one industries directly affected climate change impacts forms aquaculture negative impacts environment nutrient pollution disease transfer wild populations overview global capture fisheries aquaculture production reported fao world aquaculture production


food fish aquatic plants harvest stagnation wild fisheries overexploitation popular marine species combined growing demand high quality protein encouraged aquaculturists domesticate marine species ref name uscnewsuscedu http uscnewsuscedu science technology fish oyster farminghtml case fish oyster farming carl marziali university southern california trojan family magazine may ref outset modern aquaculture many optimistic blue revolution could take place aquaculture green revolution th century revolutionized agriculture although land animals long domesticated seafood species still caught wild


concerned impact growing demand seafood world 's oceans prominent ocean explorer jacques cousteau wrote earth 's burgeoning human populations feed must turn sea new understanding new technology species cultured domesticated th st centuries estimated came decade given long term importance agriculture date known land plant species known land animal species domesticated compared known marine plant


farming models used help spatial planning siting fish farms order minimize impact cid ref decline wild fish stocks increased demand farmed fish however finding alternative sources protein oil fish feed necessary aquaculture industry grow sustainably otherwise represents great risk exploitation forage fish another recent issue following banning organotins international maritime organization need find environmentally friendly still effective compounds antifouling effects many new natural compounds


species groups center fao 's statistical yearbook ref name auto ref aquatic plants alt aquatic plants floating containers microalgae also referred phytoplankton microphytes planktonic algae constitute majority cultivated algae macroalgae commonly known seaweed also many commercial industrial uses due size specific requirements easily cultivated large scale often taken wild aquaculture source percent volume total million tonnes wild collected cultivated aquatic plants combined global production farmed aquatic plants overwhelmingly dominated


used aid maturation example stated important fish species industry salmon grown using cage system done netted cages preferably open water strong flow feeding salmon special food mixture aids growth process allows year round growth fish thus higher harvest correct seasons additional method known sometimes sea ranching also used within industry sea ranching involves raising fish hatchery


brief time releasing marine waters development whereupon fish recaptured matured crustaceans commercial shrimp farming began production grew steeply thereafter global production reached million tonnes worth us billion farmed shrimp produced asia particular china thailand produced mainly latin america brazil largest producer thailand largest exporter shrimp farming changed traditional small scale form southeast asia global industry technological


advances led ever higher densities per unit area broodstock shipped worldwide virtually farmed shrimp penaeids ie shrimp family penaeidae two species shrimp pacific white shrimp giant tiger prawn account farmed shrimp industrial monocultures susceptible disease decimated shrimp populations across entire regions increasing ecological problems repeated disease outbreaks pressure criticism nongovernmental organizations consumer countries led changes industry late generally stronger regulations governments


industry representatives environmental organizations initiated program aimed developing promoting sustainable farming practices seafood watch program freshwater prawn farming shares many characteristics including many problems marine shrimp farming unique problems introduced developmental lifecycle main species giant river prawn ref name freshwater new b '' http libraryenacaorg shrimp publications fao macrobrachium manual pdf farming freshwater prawns '' fao fisheries technical paper ref global annual production freshwater prawns excluding crayfish crabs tonnes exceeding billion dollars additionally china produced tonnes chinese river crab ref name figis fresh data extracted


http wwwfaoorg figis servlet staticdom collection xml global aquaculture productionxml fao fisheries global aquaculture production database freshwater crustaceans recent data sometimes contain estimates retrieved june ref addition astaciculture freshwater farming crayfish mostly us australia europe molluscs alt abalone farm alt sturgeon farm aquacultured shellfish include various oyster mussel clam species bivalves filter deposit feeders rely ambient primary production rather inputs fish feed shellfish aquaculture generally perceived benign even beneficial depending species local conditions bivalve molluscs either


grown beach longlines suspended rafts harvested hand dredging may belgian consortium installed first two trial mussel farms wind farm north sea ref name offshorewindbiz belgians ref abalone farming began late early japan china since mid industry become increasingly successful overfishing poaching reduced wild populations extent farmed abalone supplies abalone meat sustainably farmed molluscs certified seafood watch organizations including world wildlife fund wwf wwf


abalone feed seaweed grown naturally habitats ecosystem enrichment bay also resulting growing numbers dhufish pink snapper wrasse samson fish among species brad adams company emphasised similarity wild abalone difference shore based aquaculture 're aquaculture 're ranching 're water look ref name abcnetau ref ref name abcnetau ref groups groups include aquatic reptiles amphibians miscellaneous invertebrates echinoderms jellyfish separately graphed top right section since


contribute enough volume show clearly main graph commercially harvested echinoderms include sea cucumbers sea urchins china sea cucumbers farmed artificial ponds large ref name nf ref global fish production global fish production peaked million tonnes aquaculture representing percent total percent non food uses including reduction fishmeal fish oil excluded capture fishery production relatively static since late aquaculture responsible continuing growth supply fish human consumption ref name global aquaculture


contributed million tonnes ref name sofia fao http wwwfaoorg eaa e c f f de epdf state world fisheries aquaculture sofia ref growth rate worldwide aquaculture sustained rapid averaging per year years take wild fisheries essentially flat last decade aquaculture market reached billion aquaculture especially important economic activity china chinese bureau fisheries reports aquaculture harvests grew annual rate jumping million tonnes nearly million tonnes


percent people directly engaged fisheries aquaculture primary sector ref name class wikitable data sheets value quot quot quot quot quot category quot '''category''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot quot production quot '''production''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot quot capture quot capture data sheets value quot quot quot quot quot inland quot inland data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot quot marine quot marine data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot


data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot quot total world fisheries aquaculture quot '''total world fisheries aquaculture''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot ''' ''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot quot utilization quot '''utilization''' data sheets value quot quot quot quot quot human consumption quot human consumption data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot quot non food uses quot non food uses data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot quot population billions quot population billions


data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot quot per capita apparent consumption kg quot per capita apparent consumption kg data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot data sheets value quot quot quot quot ref name reporting china china overwhelmingly dominates world reported aquaculture output ref name chinastats ref reporting total output double rest world put together however historical issues accuracy china 's returns scientists reg watson daniel pauly


expressed concerns china reporting catch wild fisheries ref name overreporting ref said made appear global catch since increasing annually tonnes whereas really shrinking annually tonnes watson pauly suggested may related chinese policies state entities monitored economy also tasked increasing output also recently promotion chinese officials based production increases areas china disputed claim official xinhua news agency quoted yang jian director


general agriculture ministry 's bureau fisheries saying china 's figures basically correct however fao accepted issues reliability china 's statistical returns period treated data china including aquaculture data apart rest world aquacultural methods mariculture high island hong kong alt mariculture ref center image fresh tilapiajpg alt caption center adaptable tilapia another commonly farmed fish center footer background footer align footer mariculture refers cultivation marine organisms seawater usually sheltered coastal


offshore waters farming marine fish example mariculture also farming marine crustaceans shrimp mollusks oysters seaweed channel catfish ''ictalurus punctatus'' hard clams ''mercenaria mercenaria'' atlantic salmon ''salmo salar'' prominent us mariculture mariculture may consist raising organisms artificial enclosures floating netted enclosures salmon racks oysters case enclosed salmon fed operators oysters racks filter feed naturally available food abalone farmed


artificial reef consuming seaweed grows naturally reef units ref name abcnetau integrated integrated multi trophic aquaculture imta practice byproducts wastes one species recycled become inputs fertilizers food another fed aquaculture example fish shrimp combined inorganic extractive organic extractive example shellfish aquaculture create balanced systems environmental sustainability biomitigation economic stability product diversification risk reduction social acceptability better management practices ref name chopin et al ref multi trophic refers incorporation species different trophic nutritional levels system ref


name chopin chopin integrated multi trophic aquaculture care nbsp n't confuse polyculture northern aquaculture vol july august pg ref one potential distinction age old practice aquatic polyculture could simply co culture different fish species trophic level case organisms may share biological chemical processes synergistic benefits could potentially lead significant shifts ecosystem traditional polyculture systems may fact incorporate greater diversity species occupying


integrated agriculture aquaculture systems integrated peri urban aquaculture systems integrated fisheries aquaculture systems variations imta concept netting materials various materials including nylon polyester polypropylene polyethylene plastic coated welded wire rubber patented rope products spectra thorn dyneema galvanized steel copper used netting aquaculture fish enclosures around world ref name braithwaite ref materials selected variety reasons including design feasibility material strength cost corrosion resistance recently copper alloys become important netting materials aquaculture antimicrobial ie destroy bacteria viruses fungi algae microbes therefore prevent