simply put restoration began english scottish irish monarchies restored charles ii commonwealth england followed english civil war glorious revolution establishes modern parliamentary democracy england international balance power war spanish succession war fought several european powers combined stop possible unification kingdoms spain france single bourbon monarch upsetting european balance power fought mostly europe


included queen anne 's war north america war marked military leadership notable generals like duc de villars jacobite duke berwick duke marlborough prince eugene savoy peace utrecht established series individual peace treaties signed dutch city utrecht concluded various european states helped end war spanish succession representatives met louis xiv france philip v spain one hand representatives queen anne great britain duke savoy

Applied science
Military sciences
Military history
Early modern


united provinces treaty enregistered defeat french ambitions expressed wars louis xiv preserved european system based balance power treaty utrecht marked change spanish british naval supremacy sub saharan africa songhai empire took control trans saharan trade beginning modern era seized timbuktu jenne building regime trade revenues cooperation muslim merchants empire eventually made islam official religion built mosques brought muslim


scholars gao ref name multiple ira lapidus history islamic societies cambridge ref around beginning modern era benin kingdom independent trading power southeastern coastline west africa blocking access inland nations coastal ports benin may housed inhabitants height spreading twenty five square kilometres enclosed three concentric rings earthworks late th century benin contact portugal apogee th th centuries benin encompassed parts southeastern yorubaland western igbo axum adal


circa ethiopian highlands solomonic dynasty established th century claiming direct descent old axumite royal house solomonic ruled region well modern history th century shewa rest abyssinia conquered forces ahmed gurey adal sultanate northwest conquest area oromo ended contraction adal abyssinia changing regional dynamics centuries come ajuran empire one largest strongest empires horn africa began


decline th century several powerful successor states came prominence geledi sultanate established ibrahim adeer notable successor ajuran sultanate sultanate reached apex successive reigns sultan yusuf mahamud ibrahim reigned successfully consolidated geledi power bardera wars sultan ahmed yusuf forced regional powers omani empire pay tribute majeerteen sultanate somali sultanate horn africa ruled king osman mahamuud golden age controlled much northern central


somalia th early th centuries polity organs integrated modern state maintained robust trading network along sultanate hobyo ruled sultan yusuf ali kenadid majeerteen sultanate eventually annexed italian somaliland early th century following military campaign sultanates americas john trumbull 's ''declaration independence'' showing committee five charge drafting declaration presents work second continental congress philadelphia world colonization early modern world


age enlightenment industrial revolution european hegemony world war era world war ii era cold war era recent history term ''colonialism'' normally used reference discontiguous overseas empires rather contiguous land based empires european otherwise european colonisation th th centuries resulted spread christianity sub saharan africa americas australia philippines exploration conquest americas christopher columbus came americas subsequently major sea powers europe sent expeditions


new world build trade networks colonies convert native peoples christianity pope alexander vi divided newly discovered lands outside europe spain portugal along north south meridian leagues west cape verde islands west coast africa division never accepted rulers england france see also treaty tordesillas followed papal decree colonial latin america called latin america designation first used late th century claimed spain portugal western hemisphere


settlements economy grew size complexity spanish established viceroyalties eighteenth century administrative reforms rio de la plata southeastern south america new granada northern south america initially portuguese settlements brazil coastal northeast lesser importance larger portuguese overseas empire lucrative commerce small settlements devoted trade established coastal africa india china sparse indigenous populations could coerced work known deposits precious metals portugal sought high value low bulk export product found sugarcane black


african slave labour portugal 's west african possessions imported grueling agricultural work wealth ibero america increased western european powers dutch french british danish sought duplicate model areas iberians settled numbers seized caribbean islands spanish transferred model sugar production plantations slave labour settled northern areas north america eastern seaboard united states canada colonial north america north america outside zone spanish settlement


contested area th century spain founded small settlements florida georgia nowhere near size new spain caribbean islands france netherlands great britain held several colonies north america west indies th century years spanish portuguese established permanent colonies british colonies north america founded virginia georgia dutch explored east coast north america began founding settlements called new netherland new york state france colonized


eastern canada founding quebec city france 's loss seven years' war resulted transfer new france great britain thirteen colonies lower british north america rebelled british rule largely due taxation great britain imposing colonies british colonies canada remained loyal crown provisional government formed thirteen colonies proclaimed independence july subsequently became original united states america treaty paris ending american revolutionary


centuries various philosophies include indian philosophy note modern indian philosophy philosophers gave contemporary meaning traditional philosophy swami vivekananda chinese philosophy iranian philosophy japanese philosophy korean philosophy muslim world islamic golden age reached peak high middle ages stopped short mongol invasions th century establishment three major muslim empires th century aforementioned ottoman safavid mughal empires gave rise muslim cultural revival safavids established twelver shi'a islam iran 's official religion thus giving iran


separate identity sunni neighbors protestant reformation early modern period initiated protestant reformation collapse unity medieval western church theology calvinism particular argued instrumental rise capitalism ''the protestant ethic spirit capitalism'' counter reformation jesuits counter reformation period catholic revival response protestant reformation mid th mid th centuries counter reformation comprehensive effort involving ecclesiastical structural reforms well political dimension spiritual


movements reforms included foundation seminaries proper training priests spiritual life theological traditions church reform religious life returning orders spiritual foundations new spiritual movements focusing devotional life personal relationship christ including spanish mystics french school spirituality also involved political activities included roman inquisition new religious orders fundamental part trend orders capuchins ursulines theatines discalced carmelites barnabites especially jesuits strengthened rural parishes


improved popular piety helped curb corruption within church set examples would strong impetus catholic renewal scientific revolution model three superior planets venus georg von peuerbach ''theoricae novae planetarum'' great divergence scientific discovery technological innovation economic development began early modern period pace change western countries increased significantly compared rest world scientific revolution th century empiricism modern science replaced older methods studying nature european research methods


physics chemistry biology middle ages islamic scholars major changes scientific revolution th century included ancient geocentric model solar system planets circle earth replaced heliocentric model earth planets circle sun known copernican revolution publication nicolaus copernicus 's ''de revolutionibus orbium coelestium'' ''on revolutions heavenly spheres'' influenced mu'ayyad al din al urdi based detailed astronomical observations often used mark beginning scientific revolution heliocentrism resisted


catholic church contradicted bible catholic inquisition imprisoned galileo galilei sometimes called father modern science many empirical discoveries promoting theory armed detailed observations tycho brahe johannes kepler found idea planets moved ellipses rather perfect celestial spheres publishing kepler 's laws planetary motion commonly held idea fixed stars mounted large sphere replaced idea distant suns astrology astronomy began separate different disciplines astronomy using scientific methods telescope technology


improved tremendously study optics aristotle 's laws motion demonstrated incorrect replaced newton 's laws motion newton 's law universal gravitation publication isaac newton 's ''principia'' often used mark end scientific revolution revival atomism denied aristotle corpuscularianism began undermine classical elements th century islamic experimenter jabir ibn hayyan th century christian experimenter robert boyle described founders modern chemistry worked alchemists fields clearly separated boyle


argued corpuscularism book ''the sceptical chymist'' discovered boyle 's law gases phlogiston theory refuted empirical discovery conservation mass among discoveries bring chemical revolution discovery modern chemical elements would begin th century late modern period followed experimental confirmation atoms finally overcoming difficulties human corpses perform dissections anatomical descriptions nd century galen updated publication ''de humani corporis fabrica'' andreas vesalius considered foundational text modern medicine early modern anatomy


work ''de motu cordis'' william harvey major advance understanding circulatory system field microbiology began invention microscope first observations microorganisms famously anton van leeuwenhoek probably also athanasius kircher though microorganisms correctly proposed cause infectious diseases soon discovered theory generally dismissed though scientific investigation undermined humorism medicine miasma theory remained dominant throughout early modern period germ theory disease widely


accepted late modern period modern scientific dentistry founded pierre fauchard smallpox vaccine invented popularized edward jenner though unclear time worked carl linnaeus published first modern taxonomy replacing aristotle 's great chain binomial nomenclature used publications gaspard bauhin early linnaeus ancient theory spontaneous generation remained dominant throughout early modern period history evolutionary thought includes questioned


strictest form dogma idea partial common descent famously promoted georges louis leclerc comte de buffon evolution fully articulated accepted th century modern geology began take shape mainly th th centuries early nicolas steno proposed law superposition various writers history geology began question notion derived christian bible earth years old relatively unchanged time steno james hutton often considered founders modern field


study fossils rock types became systematic early developments history electromagnetism era include gradual teasing relationships electricity magnetism lightning development electrostatic generator leyden jar storage discoveries ferromagnetism electrics non electrics conductors insulators obsolete fluid theory electricity developed explain electrical phenomena terms vitreous resinous fluids later recognized positive negative electrical charges electrochemistry born discovery voltaic electricity would provide power source later experimentation pyroelectricity around


coulomb 's law mathematically described strength electrical attraction discovery electricity could cause muscles contracted termed galvanic electricity new social sciences historical linguistics emerged late th century field discovery common origin called indo european languages philologist william jones fields anthropology paleoanthropology emerged th century much early modern anthropology considered scientific racism multi book publication ''the wealth nations'' adam smith considered foundational text classical economics scientific discovery would accelerate


late modern period continues today technology inventions early modern period included floating dock lifting tower newspaper grenade musket lightning rod bifocals franklin stove early attempts building practical electrical telegraph hindered static electricity source available enlightenment reason something know communicate something n't know search engraving edition ''encyclop die'' truth center surrounded light unveiled figures right philosophy reason alt age


enlightenment also called age reason marked change medieval tradition scholasticism based christian dogma often occultist approach renaissance philosophy instead reason became central source knowledge beginning era modern philosophy especially western philosophy period typified europe great system builders philosophers presented unified systems epistemology metaphysics logic ethics often politics physical sciences well early th century philosophy often called age rationalism considered succeed renaissance philosophy precede age


separation church state exiled puritans massachusetts bay colony enlightenment began harvard first great advances towards modern science made mid th century notably theory gravity isaac newton newton spinoza john locke pierre bayle philosophers sparking ideas furthering enlightenment french salon culture culminated enlightenment 's influential publication great ''encyclop die'' edited denis diderot contributions hundreds leading philosophes intellectuals voltaire montesquieu


quarrel ancients moderns shook french academy elevating new discoveries greek roman wisdom french enlightenment received germany notably fostered frederick great king prussia gave rise flowering german philosophy represented foremost immanuel kant french german developments influential scottish russian spanish polish philosophy enlightenment flourished emphasis reason gave way romanticism 's emphasis emotion counter enlightenment gained force humanism adoption


large scale printing italian renaissance humanism spread northward france germany holland england became associated protestant reformation developing enlightenment era renaissance humanism intellectual movement spread across europe basic training humanist speak well write typically form letter term ''umanista'' comes latter part th century people associated ' 'studia humanitatis'' novel curriculum competing ''quadrivium'' scholastic logic france pre eminent humanist guillaume bud applied philological methods


mortality rates ref name ref european infant mortality rates infant mortality global concern early modern period many newborns would survive childhood bengsston provides comparative data infant mortality averages variety european towns cities regions countries starting mid ref name statistics measured infant deaths within first month every births given area ref name instance average infant mortality rate germany infant deaths every births bavaria


infant deaths reported every births ref name france beauvaisis reported infants dying per every babies born ref name italy venice averaged infant deaths per births ref name geneva infants died per every babies born sweden infants died per births link ping infants died per births sundsvall infants died per births vastanfors ref name causes infant mortality bengsston writes climate conditions important factor determining infant mortality rates


period birth fifth birthday climate clearly important determinant death ref name winters proved harsh families newborns especially seasons year warmer seasonal drop temperature lot infant 's body adapt instance italy home warm climate summer temperature drops immensely winter ref name lends context bengsston writing italian winter peak cruelest first days life newborn


four times likely die summer ref name according bengsston trend existed amongst cities different parts italy various parts europe even though cities operated different economic agricultural conditions ref name leads bengsston conclusion may caused mortality rates infants spike winter strong protective effect summer neonatal deaths leads us suppose many cases might due insufficient heating systems houses exposure newborn


cold baptism ceremony last hypothesis could explain effect strong italy ref name capital punishment early modern period many societies' views death changed greatly implementation new torture techniques increased public executions people began give value life body death along views death methods execution also changed new devices torture execute criminals invented ref name ref number criminals executed gibbeting increased ref name ref total rate executions


early modern period ref name end early modern period engraved world map including magnetic declination lines leonhard euler school atlas geographischer atlas bestehend land charten first published berlin end early modern period usually associated industrial revolution began britain around began make substantial changes many european countries around age revolutions starts end early modern period continues late modern period denoting decline absolutism europe near


louis xvi vast bloodshed repression reign terror french revolutionary wars involving every major european power subsequent events traced revolution include napoleonic wars two separate restorations monarchy two additional revolutions modern france took shape following century france would governed one point another republic constitutional monarchy two different empires see also '''economic concepts''' price revolution proto globalization '''general concepts''' renaissance early modern english early modern warfare periodization atlantic history timeline early modern history cuisine


early modern world '''political powers''' habsburg spain habsburg monarchy portuguese empire dutch republic early modern britain early modern france early modern italy ming dynasty russian empire polish lithuanian commonwealth ottoman empire mughal empire safavid empire references reading external links http wwwfordhamedu halsall pgcasppage mod modsbookhtml internet modern history sourcebook fordhamedu '''websites''' http wwwuni mannheimde mateo camenaref cmh cmhinthtml discussion medieval modern transition introduction pioneering ''cambridge modern history'' http wwwrensocorguk society renaissance studies https webarchiveorg web http emceserverorg early modern culture http earlymodernweborg early modern resources '''video films''' crash course world history crash course world history crash course


world history crash course world history crash course world history crash course world history crash course world history crash course world history historical eras history europe period articles contain graphical timelines world history


philosophy '''philosophy physics''' deals conceptual interpretational issues modern physics many overlap research done certain kinds theoretical physicists philosophy physics broadly lumped three areas interpretations quantum mechanics mainly concerning issues formulate adequate response measurement problem understand theory says reality nature space time space time substances purely relational simultaneity conventional relative temporal asymmetry purely reducible thermodynamic asymmetry inter theoretic relations relationship various physical theories

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of physics


emergent carlo rovelli one founders loop quantum gravity said fields spacetime fields fields time defined via measurement standard time interval currently standard time interval called conventional second simply second defined oscillations hyperfine transition caesium atom iso time works follows definition time combined mathematically fundamental quantities space mass define concepts velocity momentum energy fields newton galileo


well people th century thought time everyone everywhere modern conception time based einstein 's theory relativity minkowski 's spacetime rates time run differently different inertial frames reference space time merged spacetime time may quantized theoretical smallest time order planck time einstein 's general relativity well redshift light receding distant galaxies indicate entire universe possibly space time began billion years


ago big bang einstein 's theory special relativity mostly though universally made theories time something metaphysically special present seem much less plausible reference frame dependence time seems allow idea privileged present moment time travel theories notably special general relativity suggest suitable geometries spacetime certain types motion space may allow time travel past future concepts aid understanding include closed timelike curve albert einstein 's special theory relativity extension general


daily life second similar type time travel permitted general relativity type distant observer sees time passing slowly clock bottom deep gravity well clock lowered deep gravity well pulled back indicate less time passed compared stationary clock stayed distant observer many scientific community believe backward time travel highly unlikely violates causality ref name bolonkin https booksgooglecom booksid ifzwtf kwgc pg pa extract page ref ie logic cause effect example


happens attempt go back time kill earlier stage life grandfather leads grandfather paradox stephen hawking suggested absence tourists future constitutes strong argument existence time travel mdash variant fermi paradox time travelers instead alien visitors ref name bolonkin space space one fundamental quantities physics meaning cannot defined via quantities nothing fundamental known present thus similar definition


fundamental quantities like time mass space defined via measurement currently standard space interval called standard metre simply metre defined distance traveled light vacuum time interval second exact classical physics space three dimensional euclidean space position described using three coordinates parameterised time special general relativity use four dimensional spacetime rather three dimensional space currently many speculative theories use four spatial dimensions philosophy quantum mechanics quantum mechanics


physical world everett interpretation everett many worlds interpretation quantum mechanics claims wave function quantum system telling us claims reality physical system denies wavefunction collapse claims superposition states interpreted literally describing reality many worlds objects located simply indicating indeterminacy variables sometimes argued corollary scientific realism states scientific theories aim give us literally true descriptions world one issue everett interpretation role


probability plays account everettian account completely deterministic whereas probability seems play ineliminable role quantum mechanics contemporary everettians argued one get account probability follows born rule certain decision theoretic proofs physicist roland omn noted impossible experimentally differentiate everett 's view says wave function decoheres distinct worlds exists equally traditional view says decoherent wave function leaves one unique real result hence dispute two views represents great


chasm every characteristic reality reappeared reconstruction theoretical model every feature except one uniqueness facts uncertainty principle uncertainty principle mathematical relation asserting upper limit accuracy simultaneous measurement pair conjugate variables eg position momentum formalism operator notation limit evaluation commutator variables' corresponding operators uncertainty principle arose answer question one measure location electron around nucleus electron wave


quantum mechanics developed seen relation classical quantum descriptions system using wave mechanics march working niels bohr 's institute werner heisenberg formulated principle uncertainty thereby laying foundation became known copenhagen interpretation quantum mechanics heisenberg studying papers paul dirac pascual jordan discovered problem measurement basic variables equations analysis showed uncertainties imprecisions always turned one tried measure position momentum


particle time heisenberg concluded uncertainties imprecisions measurements fault experimenter fundamental nature inherent mathematical properties operators quantum mechanics arising definitions operators term copenhagen interpretation quantum mechanics often used interchangeably synonym heisenberg 's uncertainty principle detractors einstein physicist alfred land believed determinism saw common features bohr heisenberg theories threat within copenhagen interpretation quantum mechanics uncertainty principle


taken mean elementary level physical universe exist deterministic form rather collection probabilities possible outcomes example pattern probability distribution produced millions photons passing diffraction slit calculated using quantum mechanics exact path photon cannot predicted known method copenhagen interpretation holds cannot predicted method even theoretically infinitely precise measurements history philosophy physics aristotelian physics aristotelian physics viewed universe sphere


center matter composed classical elements earth water air fire sought go towards center universe center earth away things aether moon sun planets stars circled center universe ref name maudlinppst tim maudlin ''philosophy physics space time space time'' princeton foundations contemporary philosophy p princeton university press kindle edition sphere aristotle 's universe contains geometrically privileged center aristotle makes reference center characterizing


matter air well water stones even flame nothing natural inherent motion ref name maudlinppst tim maudlin ''philosophy physics space time space time'' princeton foundations contemporary philosophy pp princeton university press kindle edition ref absolute space three dimensional euclidean space infinite without center ref name maudlinppst rest means place absolute space time ref name maudlinppst tim maudlin ''philosophy physics space time space time'' princeton foundations contemporary philosophy pp princeton university press


kindle edition newton believed existence spatial arena geometrical structure e believed infinite three dimensional space exists every moment time also believed something much subtle controversial namely identically points space persist time ref topology affine structure space must permit movement straight line uniform velocity thus space time must definite stable dimensions ref name maudlin tim maudlin ''philosophy physics space time space time'' princeton foundations contemporary philosophy p


princeton university press kindle edition space must topology affine structure metric time must one dimensional topology metric importantly individual parts space must persist time ref leibniz gottfried wilhelm leibniz contemporary newton contributed fair amount statics dynamics emerging around often disagreeing descartes newton devised new theory motion dynamics based kinetic energy potential energy posited space relative whereas newton thoroughly convinced space absolute


important example leibniz 's mature physical thinking ''specimen dynamicum'' discovery subatomic particles quantum mechanics governing many leibniz 's speculative ideas aspects nature reducible statics dynamics made little sense anticipated albert einstein arguing newton space time motion relative absolute ref name ferraro ref opinion said hold space something merely relative time hold order coexistences time order


successions quotes einstein 's work importance philosophy physics einstein interested philosophical implications theory albert einstein extremely interested philosophical conclusions work writes blockquote fully agree significance educational value methodology well history philosophy science many people today even professional scientists seem like somebody seen thousands trees never seen forest knowledge historic philosophical background gives kind independence prejudices generation


scientists suffering independence created philosophical insight opinion mark distinction mere artisan specialist real seeker truth einstein letter robert thornton december ''ea'' blockquote elsewhere blockquote happen properly endowed natural scientist comes concern epistemology valuable work specialty hear many colleagues saying sense many feel way cannot share sentiment concepts proven useful ordering things easily


achieve authority us forget earthly origins accept unalterable givens thus come stamped 'necessities thought' 'a priori givens' etc blockquote blockquote path scientific advance often made impassable long time errors reason means idle game become practiced analyzing long commonplace concepts exhibiting revealing exposing ed circumstances upon justification usefulness depend grown individually givens experience means great authority


broken einstein memorial notice ernst mach ''physikalische zeitschrift'' blockquote see also anthropic principle arrow time causality physics causal closure constructor theory determinism digital philosophy digital physics mind body dualism field physics functional decomposition fundamental interaction holism instrumentalism laws thermodynamics macroscopic mesoscopic scale modal realism monism pluralism physical ontology naturalism metaphysical methodological operationalism phenomenology phenomenology particle physics philosophy classical physics space time thermodynamics statistical mechanics motion physical bodies law system physicalism physics aristotle physics envy quantum theory bohr einstein debates einstein 's thought experiments epr paradox interpretations metaphysics mysticism reductionism relativity general special


space absolute theory container space free space relational space relational theory spacetime supervenience symmetry physics theophysics time physics references reading david albert ''quantum mechanics experience'' harvard univ press john barrow frank j tipler ''the cosmological anthropic principle'' oxford univ press beisbart c hartmann eds probabilities physics oxford univ press john bell ''speakable unspeakable quantum mechanics'' cambridge univ press david bohm ''wholeness implicate order'' routledge nick bostrom '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwanthropic principlecom book anthropic bias observation selection effects science philosophy '' routledge


thomas brody ed luis de la pe peter e hodgson ''the philosophy behind physics'' springer harvey brown ''physical relativity space time structure dynamical perspective'' oxford univ press butterfield j john earman eds ''philosophy physics parts b'' elsevier craig callender nick huggett ''physics meets philosophy planck scale'' cambridge univ press david deutsch ''the fabric reality'' london penguin press bernard d'espagnat ''reality physicist'' cambridge univ press trans ''une incertaine r alit le monde quantique la connaissance et la dur e'' ''veiled


reality'' addison wesley ''on physics philosophy'' princeton univ press roland omnes ''the interpretation quantum mechanics'' princeton univ press ''quantum philosophy'' princeton univ press huw price ''time 's arrow archimedes 's point'' oxford univ press lawrence sklar ''philosophy physics'' westview press victor stenger ''timeless reality'' prometheus books carl friedrich von weizs cker ''the unity nature'' farrar straus giroux werner heisenberg ''physics beyond encounters conversations'' harper row ''world perspectives'' series william berkson ''fields force'' routledge kegan paul london http wwwbritannicacom topic philosophy physics encyclop dia britannica philosophy


physics david z albert external links http platostanfordedu stanford encyclopedia philosophy http platostanfordedu entries spacetime theories absolute relational theories space motion nick huggett carl hoefer http platostanfordedu entries spacetime bebecome becoming modern physics steven savitt http platostanfordedu entries statphys boltzmann boltzmann 's work statistical physics jos uffink http platostanfordedu entries spacetime convensimul conventionality simultaneity allen janis http platostanfordedu entries genrel early early philosophical interpretations general relativity thomas ryckman http platostanfordedu entries qm everett everett 's relative state formulation quantum mechanics jeffrey barrett http platostanfordedu entries physics experiment experiments physics allan franklin http platostanfordedu entries physics holism holism nonseparability physics richard healey http platostanfordedu entries physics interrelate intertheory relations physics robert batterman http platostanfordedu entries naturalism naturalism david papineau http platostanfordedu entries statphys statmech philosophy statistical mechanics lawrence sklar http platostanfordedu entries physicalism physicalism daniel sojkal http platostanfordedu entries qm quantum mechanics jenann ismael http platostanfordedu entries physics rpcc reichenbach 's common


cause principle frank artzenius http platostanfordedu entries structural realism structural realism james ladyman http platostanfordedu entries physics structuralism structuralism physics heinz juergen schmidt https platostanfordedu entries spacetime supertasks supertasks jb manchak bryan roberts http platostanfordedu entries symmetry breaking symmetry symmetry breaking katherine brading elena castellani http platostanfordedu entries time thermo thermodynamic asymmetry time craig callender http platostanfordedu entries time time ned markosian https platostanfordedu entries time machine time machines john earman chris w thrich jb manchak http platostanfordedu entries qt uncertainty uncertainty principle jan hilgevoord jos uffink http platostanfordedu entries scientific unity unity science jordi cat physics physics applied interdisciplinary physics


'''figure ''' finding shortest path graph using optimal substructure straight line indicates single edge wavy line indicates shortest path two vertices connects among paths shown sharing two vertices bold line overall shortest path start goal '''dynamic programming''' mathematical optimization method computer programming method method developed richard bellman found applications numerous fields aerospace engineering economics contexts refers simplifying complicated problem

Applied science
Transportation
Operations research
Dynamic programming


breaking simpler sub problems recursive manner decision problems cannot taken apart way decisions span several points time often break apart recursively likewise computer science problem solved optimally breaking sub problems recursively finding optimal solutions sub problems said optimal substructure sub problems nested recursively inside larger problems dynamic programming methods applicable relation value larger problem values


sub problems ref name cormen h leiserson c e rivest r l stein c introduction algorithms nd ed mit press mcgraw hill pp ref optimization literature relationship called bellman equation overview mathematical optimization terms mathematical optimization dynamic programming usually refers simplifying decision breaking sequence decision steps time done defining sequence '''value functions''' ''v'' sub sub ''v'' sub sub ''v'' sub ''n'' sub taking ''y'' argument representing '' 'state''' system times ''i''


finally ''v'' sub sub initial state system value optimal solution optimal values decision variables recovered one one tracking back calculations already performed control theory control theory typical problem find admissible control math mathbf u ast math causes system math dot mathbf x mathbf g left mathbf x mathbf u right math follow admissible trajectory math mathbf x ast math continuous time interval math leq leq math minimizes cost function math j b left mathbf x right int f left mathbf x mathbf u


right mathrm math solution problem optimal control law policy math mathbf u ast h mathbf x math produces optimal trajectory math mathbf x ast math cost go function math j ast math latter obeys fundamental equation dynamic programming math j ast min mathbf u left f left mathbf x mathbf u right j x ast mathsf mathbf g left mathbf x mathbf u right right math partial differential equation known hamilton jacobi bellman equation math j x ast frac partial j ast partial mathbf x left frac partial j ast partial x frac partial j ast partial x dots frac partial j ast partial x n right mathsf math math j ast frac partial j ast partial math one


finds minimizing math mathbf u math terms math math math mathbf x math unknown function math j x ast math substitutes result hamilton jacobi bellman equation get partial differential equation solved boundary condition math j left right b left mathbf x right math practice generally requires numerical techniques discrete approximation exact optimization relationship alternatively continuous process approximated discrete system leads following recurrence relation analog hamilton jacobi bellman equation math j k ast left mathbf x n k right min mathbf u n k left hat f left mathbf x n k mathbf u n k right j k ast left hat mathbf g


left mathbf x n k mathbf u n k right right right math math k math th stage math n math equally spaced discrete time intervals math hat f math math hat mathbf g math denote discrete approximations math f math math mathbf g math functional equation known bellman equation solved exact solution discrete approximation optimization equation example economics ramsey 's problem optimal saving economics objective generally maximize rather minimize dynamic social welfare function ramsey 's problem function relates amounts consumption levels utility loosely speaking planner faces trade


consumer impatient discounts future utility factor period math b math let math k math capital period assume initial capital given amount math k math suppose period 's capital consumption determine next period 's capital math k ak c math positive constant math math assume capital cannot negative consumer 's decision problem written follows math max sum b ln c math subject math k ak c geq math math ldotst math written way problem looks complicated involves solving


choice variables math c c c ldots c math capital math k math choice variable consumer 's initial capital taken given dynamic programming approach solve problem involves breaking apart sequence smaller decisions define sequence ''value functions'' math v k math math ldotstt math represent value amount capital time assumption utility capital death math v k math value quantity capital previous time calculated backward induction using


bellman equation problem math ldotst math bellman equation math v k max left ln c b v k right math subject math k ak c geq math problem much simpler one wrote involves two decision variables math c math math k math intuitively instead choosing whole lifetime plan birth consumer take things one step time time current capital math k math given needs choose current consumption math c math saving math k math actually solve problem


work backwards simplicity current level capital denoted math v k math already known using bellman equation calculate math v k math get math v k math ''value'' initial decision problem whole lifetime words know math v j k math calculate math v j k math maximum math ln c j b v j ak c j math math c j math choice variable math ak c j ge math working backwards shown value function time math j math math v j k sum j


ib ln k v j math math v j math constant optimal amount consume time math j math math c j k frac sum j ib ak math simplified math begin align c k ak c k frac ak ab c k frac ak ab b dots c k frac ak ab b ldots b c k frac ak ab b ldots b b c k frac ak ab b ldots b b tb end align math see optimal consume larger fraction current wealth one gets older finally consuming remaining wealth period last period life computer programming two


path ''p'' vertex ''u'' vertex ''v'' exhibits optimal substructure take intermediate vertex ''w'' shortest path ''p'' ''p'' truly shortest path split sub paths ''p sub sub '' ''u'' ''w'' ''p sub sub '' ''w'' ''v'' turn indeed shortest paths corresponding vertices simple cut paste argument described ''introduction algorithms'' hence one easily formulate solution finding shortest paths recursive manner bellman ford algorithm floyd warshall algorithm ''overlapping'' sub problems


means space sub problems must small recursive algorithm solving problem solve sub problems rather generating new sub problems example consider recursive formulation generating fibonacci series ''f'' sub ''i'' sub ''f'' sub ''i'' minus sub ''f'' sub ''i'' minus sub base case ''f'' sub sub nbsp nbsp ''f'' sub sub nbsp nbsp ''f'' sub sub nbsp ''f'' sub sub nbsp nbsp ''f'' sub sub ''f'' sub sub nbsp ''f'' sub sub nbsp nbsp ''f'' sub sub ''f'' sub sub solved recursive sub trees ''f'' sub sub well ''f'' sub sub even though total number sub problems actually small end solving problems adopt


naive recursive solution dynamic programming takes account fact solves sub problem tree indicates overlapping subproblems achieved either two ways ''top approach'' direct fall recursive formulation problem solution problem formulated recursively using solution sub problems sub problems overlapping one easily memoize store solutions sub problems table whenever attempt solve new sub problem first check table see


already solved solution recorded use directly otherwise solve sub problem add solution table ''bottom approach'' formulate solution problem recursively terms sub problems try reformulating problem bottom fashion try solving sub problems first use solutions build arrive solutions bigger sub problems also usually done tabular form iteratively generating solutions bigger bigger sub problems using solutions small sub problems example


already know values ''f'' sub sub ''f'' sub sub directly calculate value ''f'' sub sub programming languages automatically memoize result function call particular set arguments order speed call name evaluation mechanism referred ''call need'' languages make possible portably eg scheme common lisp perl languages automatic memoization built tabled prolog j supports memoization ''m'' adverb case possible referentially transparent function memoization also encountered


dynamic programming point view dijkstra 's algorithm shortest path problem successive approximation scheme solves dynamic programming functional equation shortest path problem '''reaching''' method ref name sniedovich http wwwiforsmsunimelbeduau tutorial dijkstra new indexhtml online version paper interactive computational modules ref ref name denardo ref ref name sniedovich ref fact dijkstra 's explanation logic behind algorithm namely paraphrasing bellman 's famous principle optimality context shortest path problem fibonacci sequence using dynamic programming calculation ''n''th member fibonacci sequence improves performance greatly


na implementation based directly mathematical definition '''function''' fib n '''if''' n '' 'return''' n '' 'return''' fib n fib n notice call say code fib code produce call tree calls function value many different times code fib code code fib fib code code fib fib fib fib code code fib fib fib fib fib fib fib code code fib fib fib fib fib fib fib fib code particular code fib code calculated three


technique saving values already calculated called ''memoization'' top approach since first break problem subproblems calculate store values '''bottom up''' approach calculate smaller values code fib code first build larger values method also uses ''n'' time since contains loop repeats n times takes constant space contrast top approach requires ''n'' space store map '''function''' fib n '''if''' n '' 'return''' '''else''' '''var''' previousfib


end bmatrix text begin bmatrix end bmatrix text begin bmatrix end bmatrix math least three possible approaches brute force backtracking


brute force approach visit every solution making impractical larger six since number solutions already nbsp nbsp shall see dynamic programming makes possible count number solutions without visiting imagine backtracking values first row information would require remaining rows order able accurately count solutions obtained first row value consider boards whose math k math rows contain math n math zeros math n math ones function ''f'' memoization


applied maps vectors ''n'' pairs integers number admissible boards solutions one pair column two components indicate respectively number zeros ones yet placed column seek value math f n n n n ldots n n math math n math arguments one vector math n math elements process subproblem creation involves iterating every one math tbinom n n math possible assignments top row board going every column subtracting one appropriate element


pair column depending whether assignment top row contained zero one position one results negative assignment invalid contribute set solutions recursion stops otherwise assignment top row board recursively compute number solutions remaining board adding numbers solutions every admissible assignment top row returning sum memoized base case trivial subproblem


occurs board number solutions board either zero one depending whether vector permutation math math math math pairs example first two boards shown sequences vectors would pre k


math ldots math links maple implementation dynamic programming approach may found among external links checkerboard consider checkerboard ''n'' ''n'' squares cost function code c j code returns cost associated square code ij code code ''i'' code row code ''j'' code column instance checkerboard class wikitable style text align center


checker could move diagonally left forward diagonally right forward straight forward checker code code move code code code code code code class wikitable style text align center x x x width style width px style width px style width px


style width px style width px problem exhibits '''optimal substructure''' solution entire problem relies solutions subproblems let us define function code q j code ''q'' ''i'' ''j'' minimum cost reach square ''i'' ''j'' starting rank code n code descending rank code code compute value function squares successive rank picking square holds minimum value rank gives us shortest path rank code n code rank code code function code q j code equal minimum cost get


math q min q b q c q c math let us define code q j code somewhat general terms math q ij begin cases infty j text j n c j min q j q j q j c ij text otherwise end cases math first line equation deals board modeled squares indexed code code lowest bound code n code highest bound second line specifies happens first rank providing base case third line recursion important part represents code abcd code terms


exhibits '''overlapping sub problems''' attribute recomputes path costs however compute much faster bottom fashion store path costs two dimensional array code q j code rather using function avoids recomputation values needed array code q j code computed ahead time precomputed values code ij code simply looked whenever needed also need know actual shortest path use another array code p j code ''predecessor array'' array records


path square code code predecessor code code modeled offset relative index code q j code precomputed path cost code code reconstruct complete path lookup predecessor code code predecessor square predecessor square recursively reach starting square consider following code '''function''' computeshortestpatharrays '''for''' x '''from''' '''to''' n q x c x '''for''' '''from''' '''to''' n q infinity q n infinity '''for'''


'''from''' '''to''' n '''for''' x '''from''' '''to''' n min q x q x q x q x c x '''if''' q x p x '''else if''' q x p x '''else''' p x rest simple matter finding minimum printing '''function''' computeshortestpath computeshortestpatharrays minindex min q n '''for''' '''from''' '''to''' n '''if''' q n lt min minindex min q n printpath n minindex '''function''' printpath x '''print''' x


'''print''' lt '''if''' '''print''' x p x '''else''' printpath x p x sequence alignment genetics sequence alignment important application dynamic programming essential ref name eddy typically problem consists transforming one sequence another using edit operations replace insert remove element operation associated cost goal find sequence edits lowest total cost problem stated naturally recursion sequence optimally edited sequence b either inserting


cost neighboring cells selecting optimum different variants exist see smith waterman algorithm needleman wunsch algorithm tower hanoi puzzle model set towers hanoi disks animated solution '''tower hanoi''' puzzle ''t '' '''tower hanoi''' '''towers hanoi''' mathematical game puzzle consists three rods number disks different sizes slide onto rod puzzle starts disks neat stack ascending order size one rod smallest


top thus making conical shape objective puzzle move entire stack another rod obeying following rules one disk may moved time move consists taking upper disk one rods sliding onto another rod top disks may already present rod disk may placed top smaller disk dynamic programming solution consists solving functional equation nht n h ht ht n ht n


without cycling dynamic programming functional equation slightly complicated sup ''n'' sup nbsp minus nbsp moves required egg dropping puzzle following description instance famous puzzle involving n eggs building h floors suppose wish know stories story building safe drop eggs cause eggs break landing using us english terminology first floor ground level make assumptions egg survives fall


used broken egg must discarded effect fall eggs egg breaks dropped would break dropped higher window egg survives fall would survive shorter fall ruled first floor windows break eggs ruled eggs survive th floor windows one egg available wish sure obtaining right result experiment carried


consecutive floors yet tested ''k'' ''h'' nbsp minus nbsp instance ' 's'' indicates two test eggs available consecutive floors yet tested initial state process ' 's'' ''n''''h'' ''n'' denotes number test eggs available commencement experiment process terminates either test eggs ''n'' ''k'' whichever occurs first termination occurs state ' 's'' ''k'' ''k'' nbsp nbsp test failed let ''w'' ''n''''k''


minimum number trials required identify value critical floor worst case scenario given process state ' 's'' ''n''''k'' shown ref name sniedovich ref ''w'' ''n''''k'' min max ''w'' ''n'' minus ''x'' minus ''w'' ''n''''k'' minus ''x'' ''x'' ''k'' ''w'' ''n'' ''n'' nbsp nbsp ''w'' ''k'' ''k'' nbsp ''k'' easy solve equation iteratively systematically increasing values ''n'' nbsp ''k'' faster dp solution using different parametrization notice solution takes


even faster solution involves different parametrization problem let math k math total number floors eggs break dropped math k math th floor example equivalent taking math k math let math math minimum floor egg must dropped broken let math f tn math maximum number values math math distinguishable using math math tries math n math eggs math f f n math math tn geq math let math math floor first egg dropped optimal strategy


first egg broke math math math math math math distinguishable using math math tries math n math eggs first egg break math math math math math k math distinguishable using math math tries math n math eggs therefore math f tn f n f n math problem equivalent finding minimum math x math math f xn geq k math could compute math f ti leq leq n math order increasing math math would take math n x math time thus separately handle case math n math


algorithm would take math n sqrt k math time recurrence relation fact solved giving math f tn sum n binom math computed math n math time using identity math binom binom frac math math geq math since math f tn leq f n math math geq math binary search math math find math x math giving math n log k math algorithm matrix chain multiplication matrix chain multiplication well known example demonstrates utility dynamic programming example engineering applications often multiply chain matrices


matrix b dimensions n q matrix c b dimensions q require mnq scalar multiplications using simplistic matrix multiplication algorithm purposes illustration example let us multiply matrices b c let us assume dimensions n n p p respectively matrix b c size calculated two ways shown ax b c order matrix multiplication require nps mns scalar multiplications b c order matrix multiplication require mnp mps scalar


problem overlapping problems calculate optimal arrangement parenthesis dynamic programming solution presented let 's call ij minimum number scalar multiplications needed multiply chain matrices matrix matrix j ie sub sub sub j sub ie j split chain matrix k k j try find combination produces minimum ij formula '''if''' j ij '''if''' j ij min possible values k nowrap ik k j math p p kp j math ''k'' ranges


''i'' ''j'' nbsp minus nbsp row dimension matrix column dimension matrix k column dimension matrix j formula coded shown input parameter chain chain matrices ie '''function''' optimalmatrixchainparenthesis chain n length chain '''for''' n ii '' since takes calculations multiply one matrix'' '''for''' len n '''for''' n len j len ij infinity ''


first calculation updates'' '''for''' k j nowrap q k k j math p p kp j math '''if''' q j '' new order parentheses better had'' j q '' update'' j k '' record k split ie place parenthesis'' far calculated values possible minimum number calculations multiply chain matrix ''i'' matrix ''j'' recorded


corresponding split point example multiplying chain turns means optimal placement parenthesis matrices multiply matrices require scalar calculation algorithm produce tables ''m'' ' 's'' entries possible values j final solution entire chain n corresponding split n unraveling solution recursive starting top continuing reach base case


n returns final matrix ie optimalmatrixchainparenthesis chain n produce tables optimalmatrixmultiplication chain n actually multiply function optimalmatrixmultiplication j returns result multiplying chain matrices ai aj optimal way j keep splitting chain multiplying matrices left right sides leftside optimalmatrixmultiplication j rightside optimalmatrixmultiplication j


j return matrixmultiply leftside rightside else j return ai matrix position else print error j must hold function matrixmultiply b function multiplies two matrices columns rows b rows j columns b c j k columns c j c j k b k j return c else print error incompatible dimensions syntaxhighlight history term ' 'dynamic programming'' originally used richard bellman describe process


solving problems one needs find best decisions one another refined modern meaning referring specifically nesting smaller decision problems inside larger decisions field thereafter recognized ieee systems analysis engineering topic bellman 's contribution remembered name bellman equation central result dynamic programming restates optimization problem recursive form bellman explains reasoning behind term ' 'dynamic programming'' autobiography ''eye hurricane autobiography'' word ' 'dynamic'' chosen


bellman capture time varying aspect problems sounded impressive ref name eddy ref word ''programming'' referred use method find optimal ''program'' sense military schedule training logistics usage phrases ''linear programming'' ''mathematical programming'' synonym mathematical optimization explanation origin term lacking russell norvig book written referring story cannot strictly true first paper using term


solve bellman equation infinite horizon discrete time discounted time invariant dynamic optimization problems many string algorithms including longest common subsequence longest increasing subsequence longest common substring levenshtein distance edit distance many algorithmic problems graphs solved efficiently graphs bounded treewidth bounded clique width using dynamic programming tree decomposition graph cocke younger kasami cyk algorithm determines whether given string generated given context free grammar knuth 's word wrapping algorithm minimizes raggedness word wrapping text use transposition tables refutation tables computer chess


graph approximate solution methods linear search problem kadane 's algorithm maximum subarray problem optimization electric generation expansion plans https www pubiaeaorg mtcd publications pdf cms pdf wein automatic system planning wasp package see also convexity economics greedy algorithm non convexity economics stochastic programming stochastic dynamic programming reinforcement learning references reading accessible introduction dynamic programming economics https sitesgooglecom site coopereconomics matlab programs matlab code book includes extensive bibliography literature area year dover paperback edition especially pp nbsp


external links http matgsiacmuedu classes dynamic dynamichtml tutorial dynamic programming https ocwmitedu courses electrical engineering computer science j introduction algorithms sma fall video lectures mit course algorithms includes video lecture dp along lecture notes see lecture http webmitedu www amphtm applied mathematical programming bradley hax magnanti http webmitedu www amp chapter pdf chapter http wwwcssemonasheduau lloyd tildealgds dynamic dp notes king ian http researchspaceaucklandacnz bitstream handle pdf simple introduction dynamic programming macroeconomic models introduction dynamic programming important tool economic theory http wwwtopcodercom tcmodule static tutorials dynprog dynamic programming novice advanced topcodercom article dumitru dynamic programming https bibiservcebitecuni bielefeldde adp welcomehtml algebraic dynamic programming formalized framework dynamic programming


including https bibiservcebitecuni bielefeldde cgi bin dpcourse entry level course dp university bielefeld dreyfus stuart http wwwcasmcmasterca se c journal papers dy birthpdf richard bellman birth dynamic programming https webarchiveorg web http wwwavatarse lectures molbioinfo dynprog dynamichtml dynamic programming tutorial http wwwcambridgeorg resources kaeslin dynpro newpdf gentle introduction dynamic programming viterbi algorithm tabled prolog http wwwprobpcom bprolog http xsbsourceforgenet xsb https wwwswi prologorg pldoc mansection tabling swi prolog https iforsmsunimelbeduau tutorial ifors online interactive dynamic programming modules including shortest path traveling salesman knapsack false coin egg dropping bridge torch replacement chained matrix products critical path problem optimization algorithms methods equations systems engineering optimal control


''self portrait two circles'' rembrandt c kenwood house london ''the art painting'' johannes vermeer oil canvas kunsthistorisches museum vienna austria tower babel'' pieter bruegel elder oil panel kunsthistorisches museum european academic traditions '''fine art''' developed primarily aesthetics beauty distinguishing decorative art applied art also serve practical function pottery metalwork aesthetic theories developed italian renaissance highest art


allowed full expression display artist 's imagination unrestricted practical considerations involved say making decorating teapot also considered important making artwork involve dividing work different individuals specialized skills might necessary piece furniture example even within fine arts hierarchy genres based amount creative imagination required history painting placed higher still life historically five main fine arts painting sculpture architecture music poetry performing


arts including theatre dance practice outside education concept typically applied visual arts old master print drawing included related forms painting prose forms literature poetry today range would considered fine arts far term remains use commonly includes additional modern forms film photography video production editing design conceptual art one definition ''fine art'' visual art considered created primarily aesthetic intellectual purposes judged


artwork question purity discipline according traditional western european canons except case architecture practical utility accepted definition originally excluded useful applied decorative arts products regarded crafts contemporary practice distinctions restrictions become essentially meaningless concept intention artist given primacy regardless means expressed term typically used western art renaissance onwards although similar genre distinctions apply


west eighteenth century traditional cultures still similar system system artist artisan skilled maker practitioner work art useful product skilled work appreciation arts integrally connected role rest life art words meant approximately thing greek word techne english skill sense survived phrases like art war art love art medicine similar ideas expressed


famous copied remembered centuries deaths cult individual artistic genius important part renaissance theoretical basis distinction fine art drew classical precedent especially recorded pliny elder types object particular ancient greek pottery often signed makers owner workshop probably partly advertise products ''apelles painting campaspe'' willem van haecht c mauritshuis decline concept fine art dated george kubler


others around fell fashion folk art also coming regarded significant ref name guerzoni p ref finally least circles interested art theory fine art driven use exponents industrial design opposed double standard judgment works art useful objects among theoreticians taken far longer art trade popular opinion catch however period late th


early th centuries movement prices art market opposite direction works fine arts drawing much ahead decorative arts art trade term retains currency objects roughly may used define scope auctions auction house departments like term also remains use tertiary education appearing names colleges faculties courses english speaking world mostly north america true


equivalent terms european languages ''beaux arts'' french ''bellas artes'' spanish cultural perspectives ''wang xizhi watching geese'' qian xuan handscroll ink color gold paper x metropolitan museum art conceptual separation arts decorative arts crafts often dominated europe us shared cultures traditional chinese art comparable distinctions distinguishing within chinese painting mostly landscape literati painting scholar gentlemen artisans schools court


painting sculpture although high status also given many things would seen craft objects west particular ceramics jade carving weaving embroidery means extended workers created objects typically remained even anonymous west similar distinctions made japanese korean art islamic art highest status generally given calligraphy architects painters persian miniatures related traditions still often court employees typically also supplied designs


best persian carpets architectural tiling decorative media consistently happened west latin american art dominated european colonialism th century indigenous art began reassert inspired constructivist movement reunited arts crafts based upon socialist principles africa yoruba art often political spiritual function art chinese art yoruba also often composed would ordinarily considered west craft production admired manifestations textiles fall


category visual arts two dimensional works painting drawing painting fine art means applying paint flat surface opposed example painting sculpture piece pottery typically using several colours prehistoric painting survived applied natural rock surfaces wall painting especially wet plaster fresco technique major form recently portable paintings wood panel canvas important western world several centuries mostly tempera oil painting asian painting


often used paper monochrome ink wash painting tradition dominant east asia paintings intended go book album called miniatures whether western illuminated manuscript persian miniature turkish equivalent indian paintings various types watercolour western version painting paper forms using gouache chalk similar mediums without brushes really forms drawing drawing one major forms visual arts painters need drawing skills well common instruments include graphite pencils pen


ink inked brushes wax color pencils crayons charcoals chalk pastels markers stylus various metals like silverpoint number subcategories drawing including cartooning creating comics gallery widths px heights px garden earthly delights bosch high resolutionjpg ''the garden earthly delights'' hieronymus bosch c oil panel museo del prado creaci n de ad njpg ''the creation adam'' michelangelo fresco sistine chapel miraj sultan muhammadjpg persian miniature mi'raj prophet sultan mohammed british library fragonard swingjpg ''the swing'' jean honor fragonard oil canvas wallace collection gallery


mosaics mosaics images formed small pieces stone glass called ''tesserae'' decorative functional artist designs makes mosaics called mosaic artist mosaicist ancient greeks romans created realistic mosaics mythological subjects scenes hunting pursuits wealthy popular centrepieces larger geometric design strongly emphasized borders early christian basilicas th century onwards decorated wall ceiling mosaics famous byzantine basilicas decorated mosaics basilica san


vitale ravenna italy hagia sophia istanbul turkey gallery widths px heights px mosaicepiphany dionysusjpg ''epiphany dionysus'' nd century ad villa dionysus archeological museum dion p louvre jugement de p ris rwkjpg ''judgment paris'' ad atrium house triclinium antioch orontes basilica di santa maria maggiore abside romajpg apse ''santa maria maggiore'' church rome decorated th century glamorous mosaic emilia ravenna tango jpg interior basilica san vitale ravenna italy decorated elaborate mosaics gallery printmaking ''melencolia i'' engraving albrecht rer printmaking covers


middle except case monotyping process capable producing multiples piece called print print considered original opposed copy reasoning behind print reproduction another work art different medium instance painting rather image designed inception print individual print also referred impression prints created single original surface known technically matrix common types matrices


include plates metal usually copper zinc engraving etching stone used lithography blocks wood woodcuts linoleum linocuts fabric case screen printing many kinds multiple nearly identical prints called edition modern times print often signed numbered forming limited edition prints may also published book form artist 's books single print could product one multiple techniques gallery widths px heights px giovanni benedetto castiglione creation adam google art projectjpg monotype


decorated incipit page google art projectjpg page armenian illuminated manuscript getty center los angeles usa gallery photography ''fine art photography'' refers photographs created fulfill creative vision artist fine art photography stands contrast photojournalism commercial photography photojournalism visually communicates stories ideas mainly print digital media fine art photography created primarily expression artist 's vision also important advancing certain causes depiction nudity one dominating themes fine art photography gallery


widths px heights px alfred stieglitz c jpg alfred stieglitz nude circa man ray lampshade n july jpg thumb upright man ray ''lampshade'' reproduced n july eug ne atget paris interior ca jpg interior paris taken eug ne atget circa adams tetons snake riverjpg ''the tetons snake river'' ansel adams gallery parallel development interface media largely separate time narrow understanding concept art painting photography became relevant art historical point view early


mid work photo artists pierre cordier chimigramme paolo monti chemigram josef h neumann chemogram closed within new art form josef h neumann chemogram closed separation painterly ground photographic layer presenting symbiosis unprecedented point time unmistakable unique item simultaneous painterly real photographic perspective within photographic layer colors forms united gallery perrow heights widths caption chemogram chimigram file josef h neumann gustav jpg josef h neumann chemogram''gustav i''


file paolo monti serie fotografica beic jpg paolo monti chimigram serie fotografica gallery three dimensional works architecture architecture frequently considered fine art especially aesthetic components spotlighted contrast structural engineering construction management components architectural works perceived cultural political symbols works art historical civilizations often known primarily architectural achievements buildings pyramids egypt roman colosseum cultural symbols important links public consciousness even scholars discovered much past civilizations means cities


regions cultures continue identify known architectural monuments gallery widths px heights px parthenon jpg parthenon acropolis athens dedicated goddess athena file colosseo jpg colosseum rome moscou la cath drale basile le bienheureuxjpg saint basil 's cathedral red square moscow stift wilhering kirche orgel jpg interior wilhering abbey wilhering austria example rococo architecture gallery pottery modern exceptions pottery considered fine art fine pottery remains valid technical term especially archaeology fine wares high quality pottery often painted moulded otherwise


cobalt blue decor glaze height nbsp cm british museum london oval basin dish subject amadis gaul met dp jpg renaissance oval basin dish subject amadis gaul circa maiolica overall nbsp cm metropolitan museum art new york city elements chelsea porcelain manufactory indianapolis museum art dsc jpg rococo personifications classical elements chelsea porcelain factory indianapolis museum art indianapolis usa gallery sculpture sculpture three dimensional artwork created shaping hard plastic material commonly stone either rock marble metal wood


sculptures created directly carving others assembled built fired welded molded cast sculpture involves use materials moulded modulated considered one plastic arts majority public art sculpture many sculptures together garden setting may referred sculpture garden sculpture stone survives far better works art perishable materials often represents majority surviving works pottery ancient cultures conversely traditions sculpture wood may vanished almost entirely


however ancient sculpture brightly painted lost ref name artmuseumsharvardedu http wwwartmuseumsharvardedu exhibitions sackler godsincolorhtml gods color painted sculpture classical antiquity september january arthur sackler museum ref gallery widths px heights px 'david' michelangelo fir jbu jpg ''david'' michelangelo marble nbsp cm nbsp cm galleria dell'accademia florence nofretete neues museumjpg ''nefertiti bust'' bc painted limestone height nbsp cm neues museum berlin germany front views venus de milojpg ''venus de milo'' bc marble height nbsp cm nbsp louvre louisxiv berninijpg ''bust louis xiv'' gian lorenzo bernini marble nbsp cm palace versailles


gallery conceptual art ''an oak tree'' michael craig martin conceptual art art concept idea involved work take precedence traditional aesthetic material concerns inception term referred strict focused practice ''idea based art'' often defied traditional visual criteria associated visual arts presentation text however association young british artists turner prize popular usage particularly uk developed synonym contemporary art


practice traditional skills painting sculpture ref name tateconceptual http wwwtateorguk learn online resources glossary c conceptual art''conceptual art'' tate online glossary tateorguk retrieved august ref performing arts music pyotr ilyich tchaikovsky famous composer music art form cultural activity whose medium sound organized time common elements music pitch governs melody harmony rhythm associated concepts tempo meter articulation dynamics loudness softness sonic qualities timbre texture sometimes termed color musical sound different styles types music may emphasize


performance setting dance also used describe methods nonverbal communication see body language humans animals bee dance patterns behaviour mating dance motion inanimate objects leaves danced wind certain musical genres sports gymnastics figure skating synchronized swimming dance disciplines ''kata'' martial arts often compared dances theatre royal opera house london modern western theatre dominated realism including drama comedy another popular western form musical theatre classical forms theatre including


greek roman drama classic english drama shakespeare marlowe included french theater moli included still performed today addition performances classic eastern forms noh kabuki found west although less frequency film satyajit ray indian bengali film director ''fine arts film'' term encompasses motion pictures field film fine art form ''fine arts movie theater'' venue usually building viewing movies films produced recording images world cameras creating


images using animation techniques special effects films cultural artifacts created specific cultures reflect cultures turn affect film considered important art form source popular entertainment powerful method educating indoctrinating citizens visual elements cinema give motion pictures universal power communication films become popular worldwide attractions using dubbing subtitles translate dialogue cinematography discipline making lighting camera choices recording photographic images cinema closely related


art still photography though many additional issues arise camera elements scene may motion independent filmmaking often takes place outside hollywood major studio systems independent film ''indie film '' film initially produced without financing distribution major movie studio creative business technological reasons contributed growth indie film scene late th early st century poetry vasily mate ''portrait poet alexander pushkin'' poetry term derives


variant greek term ''poiesis'' make form literature uses aesthetic rhythmic qualities language sound symbolism phonaesthetics metre evoke meanings addition place prosaic ostensible meaning avant garde music frequently considered performing art fine art electronic media perhaps newest medium fine art since utilizes modern technologies computers production presentation includes amongst others video digital photography digital printmaking interactive pieces textiles including quilt art wearable pre wearable creations frequently


reach category fine art objects sometimes like part art display western art classical music performing art frequently considered fine art origami last century witnessed renewed interest understanding behavior folding matter contributions artists scientists origami different arts painting requires addition matter sculpture involves subtraction origami add subtract transforms origami artists pushing limits art increasingly committed time bloodline ending technology spacecraft


computational aspect shareable quality empowered social networks parts puzzle making origami paradigmatic art st century academic study africa https webarchiveorg web http penrose presscom fine art africa schoolsidd fine art schools colleges universities africa http wwwartschoolcoza south africa asia http wwwkcuaacjp en arts en master kyoto city university arts japan offers graduate degrees painting printmaking concept media planning sculpture design visual environmental product crafts ceramics dying weaving urushi lacquering also science art conservation https archivetoday http wwwgeidaiacjp english art indexhtml tokyo university arts art school offers graduate degrees painting


japanese oil sculpture crafts design architecture intermedia art aesthetics art history music film schools separate https webarchiveorg web http engkartsackr karts main indexenglishjsp korean national university music drama dance film traditional arts korean music dance performing arts design architecture art theory visual arts dept fine arts painting sculpture photography laser holography video interactivity pottery glass guangzhou academy fine arts chinese national university based guangzhou provides fine arts design doctoral master bachelor 's degrees academy fine arts kolkata fine art college indian city kolkata west bengal


art bachelor fine arts master fine arts degree traditionally terminal degree field doctor fine arts degrees earned opposed honorary degrees begun emerge us academic institutions however major schools art us yale university new ct mfa ba rhode island school design providence ri mfa bfa school art institute chicago chicago illinois mfa studio mfa writing university california los angeles los angeles ca mfa california institute arts valencia


ca carnegie mellon university pittsburgh pa cranbrook academy art bloomfield hills mi maryland institute college art baltimore md fordham university bfa columbia university mfa joint jd mfa degree phd juilliard school new york ny performing arts conservatory established educates trains undergraduate graduate students dance drama music widely regarded one world 's leading music schools prestigious arts programs artcenter college design pasadena ca nonprofit private college founded artcenter offers undergraduate graduate programs wide variety


art design fields well public programs children high school students us news world report also ranks art center 's art industrial design media design practices programs among top graduate schools us see also arts performance art references blunt anthony ''artistic theory italy '' refs edn oup reading ballard https archiveorg details arrowsorteachin ballgoog arrows teaching fine art new york barnes company caffin charles henry https archiveorg details photographyasaf caffgoog photography fine art achievements possibilities


photographic art america new york doubleday page co crane l whiting c g https archiveorg details artandformation crangoog art formation taste six lectures boston chautauqua press https archiveorg details artandformation crangoog page n chapter fine arts hegel g w f bosanquet b https booksgooglecom booksid ymgraaaayaaj introduction hegel 's philosophy fine art london k paul trench hegel g w f https booksgooglecom booksid iw mavonxv c aesthetics lectures fine art oxford clarendon press neville h https archiveorg details stageitspastand nevigoog stage past present relation fine art london r bentley son rossetti w https archiveorg details fineartchieflyc rossgoog fine art


chiefly contemporary notices printed revisions london macmillan shiner larry invention art cultural history chicago university chicago press torrey j https archiveorg details atheoryfineart torrgoog theory fine art new york scribner armstrong co alba http wwwalbaedulb french alexis boutros fondateur alba aesthetics arts


apec leader setting tone apec ceo summit opening speech '''leadership''' research area practical skill encompasses ability individual group organization lead influence guide individuals teams entire organizations word leadership often gets viewed contested term specialist literature debates various viewpoints concept sometimes contrasting eastern western approaches leadership also within west north american versus european approaches us academic environments define leadership process social influence

Applied science
Military sciences
Leadership


person enlist aid support others accomplishment common ethical task ref name chin ref basically leadership defined influential power relationship power one party leader promotes movement change others followers challenged traditional managerial views leadership portray leadership something possessed owned one individual due role authority instead advocate complex nature leadership found levels institutions within formal roles studies leadership produced


theories involving example traits situational interaction function behavior power vision values charisma intelligence among others ref name chin historical views ''the prince'' written niccol machiavelli pictured argued better ruler feared loved cannot field political leadership chinese doctrine mandate heaven postulated need rulers govern justly right subordinates overthrow emperors appeared lack divine sanction pro aristocracy thinkers postulated leadership depends one 's blue blood genes monarchy takes


extreme view idea may prop assertions claims mere aristocrats invoking divine sanction see divine right kings hand democratically inclined theorists pointed examples meritocratic leaders napoleonic marshals profiting careers open talent autocratic paternalistic strain thought traditionalists recall role leadership roman ''pater familias'' feminist thinking hand may object models patriarchal posit emotionally attuned responsive consensual empathetic


guidance sometimes associated matriarchies comparable roman tradition views confucianism 'right living' relate much ideal male scholar leader benevolent rule buttressed tradition filial piety blockquote leadership matter intelligence trustworthiness humaneness courage discipline reliance intelligence alone results rebelliousness exercise humaneness alone results weakness fixation trust results folly dependence strength courage results violence excessive discipline sternness command result cruelty one five virtues together appropriate


function one leader jia lin commentary sun tzu ''art war'' blockquote machiavelli 's ''the prince'' written early th century provided manual rulers princes tyrants machiavelli 's terminology gain keep power prior th century concept leadership less relevance today society expected obtained traditional deference obedience lords kings master craftsmen slave masters note ''oxford english dictionary'' traces word leadership english far back historically industrialization opposition ''ancien regime''


phasing chattel slavery meant newly developing organizations nation state republics commercial corporations evolved need new paradigm characterize elected politicians job granting employers thus development theorizing idea leadership functional relationship leaders followers may remain acceptable perhaps euphemistic terminology changed th century elaboration anarchist thought called whole concept leadership question one response denial litism came leninism lenin demanded lite group disciplined cadres act


vanguard socialist revolution bringing existence dictatorship proletariat historical views leadership addressed seeming contrasts secular religious leadership doctrines caesaro papism recurred detractors several centuries christian thinking leadership often emphasized stewardship divinely provided resources human material deployment accordance divine plan compare servant leadership general view leadership politics compare concept statesperson theories early western history search characteristics traits leaders continued centuries philosophical writings


plato 's ''republic'' plutarch 's ''lives'' explored question qualities distinguish individual leader underlying search early recognition importance leadership assumption leadership rooted characteristics certain individuals possess idea leadership based individual attributes known trait theory leadership number works th century traditional authority monarchs lords bishops begun wane explored trait theory length note especially writings thomas carlyle francis


public spirited leadership could nurtured identifying young people moral force character instincts lead educating contexts collegiate environment university oxford developed characteristics international networks leaders could help promote international understanding help render war impossible vision leadership underlay creation rhodes scholarships helped shape notions leadership since creation rise alternative theories late early series qualitative reviews studies eg bird


stogdill mann prompted researchers take drastically different view driving forces behind leadership reviewing extant literature stogdill mann found traits common across number studies overall evidence suggested people leaders one situation may necessarily leaders situations subsequently leadership longer characterized enduring individual trait situational approaches see alternative leadership theories posited individuals effective certain situations others focus shifted away traits leaders


investigation leader behaviors effective approach dominated much leadership theory research next decades reemergence trait theory new methods measurements developed influential reviews would ultimately reestablish trait theory viable approach study leadership example improvements researchers' use round robin research design methodology allowed researchers see individuals emerge leaders across variety situations tasks ref name kenny da ref additionally statistical advances allowed researchers conduct meta analyses


could quantitatively analyze summarize findings wide array studies advent allowed trait theorists create comprehensive picture previous leadership research rather rely qualitative reviews past equipped new methods leadership researchers revealed following individuals emerge leaders across variety situations tasks ref name kenny da significant relationships exist leadership emergence individual traits intelligence ref name lord rg ref adjustment ref name lord rg extraversion ref name lord rg conscientiousness ref name judge ta ref openness experience ref name judge ta general self efficacy ref name foti


rj trait theory leadership certainly regained popularity reemergence accompanied corresponding increase sophisticated conceptual frameworks ref name zaccaro j ref specifically zaccaro ref name zaccaro j noted trait theories still focus small set individual attributes big five personality traits neglect cognitive abilities motives values social skills expertise problem solving skills fail consider patterns integrations multiple attributes distinguish leadership attributes generally malleable time shaped


bound situational influences consider stable leader attributes account behavioral diversity necessary effective leadership attribute pattern approach considering criticisms trait theory outlined several researchers begun adopt different perspective leader individual differences leader attribute pattern approach ref name foti rj ref ref name mumford ref contrast traditional approach leader attribute pattern approach based theorists' arguments influence individual characteristics outcomes best understood considering person integrated totality rather summation individual variables ref name mumford


words leader attribute pattern approach argues integrated constellations combinations individual differences may explain substantial variance leader emergence leader effectiveness beyond explained single attributes additive combinations multiple attributes behavioral style theories response early criticisms trait approach theorists began research leadership set behaviors evaluating behavior successful leaders determining behavior taxonomy identifying broad leadership styles david mcclelland example posited leadership takes strong personality well developed positive ego


lead self confidence high self esteem useful perhaps even essential graphical representation managerial grid model kurt lewin ronald lipitt ralph white developed seminal work influence leadership styles performance researchers evaluated performance groups eleven year old boys different types work climate leader exercised influence regarding type group decision making praise criticism feedback management group tasks project management according three styles authoritarian democratic laissez faire ohio state university conducted study investigated


observable behaviors portrayed effective leaders would identify particular behaviors reflective leadership effectiveness able narrow findings two identifiable distinctions first dimension identified initiating structure described leader clearly accurately communicates followers defines goals determines tasks performed considered task oriented behaviors second dimension consideration indicates leader 's ability build interpersonal relationship followers establish form mutual trust considered social oriented behaviors michigan state studies


leadership styles based leaders' concern people concern goal achievement positive reinforcement b f skinner father behavior modification developed concept positive reinforcement positive reinforcement occurs positive stimulus presented response behavior increasing likelihood behavior future following example positive reinforcement used business setting assume praise positive reinforcer particular employee employee show work time every day manager decides praise


plausible positive use positive reinforcement successful growing technique used leaders motivate attain desired behaviors subordinates organizations frito lay goodrich michigan bell emery air freight used reinforcement increase productivity empirical research covering last years suggests reinforcement theory percent increase performance additionally many reinforcement techniques use praise inexpensive providing higher performance lower costs situational contingency theories situational theory also appeared reaction trait theory


leadership social scientists argued history result intervention great men carlyle suggested herbert spencer karl marx said times produce person way around theory assumes different situations call different characteristics according group theories single optimal psychographic profile leader exists according theory individual actually acting leader large part dependent upon characteristics situation functions theorists started synthesize trait situational


approaches building upon research lewin et al academics began normalize descriptive models leadership climates defining three leadership styles identifying situations style works better authoritarian leadership style example approved periods crisis fails win hearts minds followers day day management democratic leadership style adequate situations require consensus building finally laissez faire leadership style appreciated degree freedom provides leaders take charge perceived failure


protracted thorny organizational problems thus theorists defined style leadership contingent situation sometimes classified contingency theory three contingency leadership theories appear prominently recent years fiedler contingency model vroom yetton decision model path goal theory fiedler contingency model bases leader 's effectiveness fred fiedler called ' 'situational contingency'' results interaction leadership style situational favorability later called ' 'situational control'' theory defined two types leader tend accomplish task developing good relationships group relationship oriented


prime concern carrying task task oriented according fiedler ideal leader task oriented relationship oriented leaders effective leadership orientation fits situation good leader member relation highly structured task high leader position power situation considered favorable situation fiedler found task oriented leaders effective extremely favorable unfavorable situations whereas relationship oriented leaders perform best situations intermediate favorability victor vroom collaboration phillip yetton later arthur jago developed taxonomy describing leadership


effective engage behaviors complement subordinates' environments abilities manner compensates deficiencies instrumental subordinate satisfaction individual work unit performance theory identifies four leader behaviors ''achievement oriented'' ' 'directive'' ''participative'' ' 'supportive'' contingent environment factors follower characteristics contrast fiedler contingency model path goal model states four leadership behaviors fluid leaders adopt four depending situation demands path goal model classified contingency theory depends


circumstances transactional leadership theory theory emphasizes reciprocity behavior leader followers functional theory general petraeus talks us soldiers serving afghanistan functional leadership theory hackman walton mcgrath adair kouzes posner particularly useful theory addressing specific leader behaviors expected contribute organizational unit effectiveness theory argues leader 's main job see whatever necessary group needs taken care thus leader said done job well


contributed group effectiveness cohesion fleishman et al hackman wageman hackman walton functional leadership theory often applied team leadership zaccaro rittman marks also effectively applied broader organizational leadership well zaccaro summarizing literature functional leadership see kozlowski et al zaccaro et al hackman walton hackman wageman morge klein zeigert knight xiao observed five broad functions leader performs promoting organization 's effectiveness functions include environmental monitoring organizing subordinate activities


teaching coaching subordinates motivating others intervening actively group 's work variety leadership behaviors expected facilitate functions initial work identifying leader behavior fleishman observed subordinates perceived supervisors' behavior terms two broad categories referred consideration initiating structure consideration includes behavior involved fostering effective relationships examples behavior would include showing concern subordinate acting supportive manner towards others initiating structure involves actions leader focused specifically task accomplishment could include role clarification setting performance standards


older theories offer limited assistance developing person 's ability lead effectively pointed example traits theories tend reinforce idea leaders born made might help us select leaders less useful developing leaders ideal style eg blake mouton 's team style would suit circumstances situational contingency functional theories assume leaders change behavior meet differing circumstances widen behavioral range practice many find hard


unconscious beliefs fears ingrained habits thus argued leaders need work inner psychology none old theories successfully address challenge developing leadership presence certain something leaders commands attention inspires people wins trust makes followers want work scouller proposed three levels leadership model later categorized integrated psychological theory businessballs education website essence model aims summarize leaders bring leadership group organization also develop


personal leadership inner level concerns person 's growth toward greater leadership presence knowhow skill working one 's personal leadership three aspects technical knowhow skill developing right attitude toward people basis servant leadership psychological self mastery foundation authentic leadership scouller argued self mastery key growing one 's leadership presence building trusting relationships followers dissolving one 's limiting beliefs habits thereby enabling behavioral flexibility circumstances change staying connected one 's core values remaining


authentic support leaders' development introduced new model human psyche outlined principles techniques self mastery include practice mindfulness meditation transactional transformational theories bernard bass colleagues developed idea two different types leadership transactional involves exchange labor rewards transformational based concern employees intellectual stimulation providing group vision transactional leader burns ref name burns ref given power perform certain tasks reward punish team 's performance gives opportunity manager lead


fair exchange whereby leader provides certain benefits task guidance advice support significant rewards followers reciprocate giving leader respect cooperation commitment task good performance however lmx recognizes leaders individual followers vary type exchange develops ref name howell jon p ref lmx theorizes type exchanges leader specific followers lead creation ''in groups'' ''out groups'' group members said ''high quality exchanges'' leader group members ''low quality exchanges'' leader ref name autogenerated ref


p group members also likely build stronger bonds leaders sharing social backgrounds interests group members group members often receive less time distant exchanges group counterparts group members leaders expect adequate job performance good attendance reasonable respect adherence job description exchange fair wage standard benefits leader spends less time group members fewer developmental experiences leader tends emphasize formal authority obtain compliance leader requests research shows group members


less satisfied job organization receive lower performance evaluations leader see leader less fair likely file grievances leave organization ref name howell jon p emotions leadership perceived particularly emotion laden process emotions entwined social influence process organization leader 's mood effects group effects described three levels ref name cote ref mood individual group members group members leaders positive mood experience positive mood group members leaders


leader improve performance group although sectors findings ref name george ref beyond leader 's mood behavior source employee positive negative emotions work leader creates situations events lead emotional response certain leader behaviors displayed interactions employees sources affective events leaders shape workplace affective events examples feedback giving allocating tasks resource distribution since employee behavior productivity directly affected emotional states imperative consider employee emotional responses organizational leaders emotional intelligence ability


understand manage moods emotions self others contributes effective leadership within organizations ref name george neo emergent theory neo emergent leadership theory oxford strategic leadership programme sees leadership impression formed communication information leader stakeholders true actions leader words reproduction information stories form basis perception leadership majority well known historians naval hero lord nelson often wrote versions battles involved


analysis effective governing skills constructivist analysis constructivists question whether leadership exists suggest example leadership myth equivalent belief ufos leadership emergence many personality characteristics found reliably associated leadership emergence ref name ref list includes limited following list organized alphabetical order assertiveness authenticity big five personality factors birth order character strengths dominance emotional intelligence gender identity intelligence narcissism self efficacy leadership self monitoring social motivation ref name leadership emergence idea people born specific characteristics become leaders