drawing constraints one wants draw square example worry drawing four lines perfectly form edges box one simply specify want draw box specify location size box software construct perfect box right dimensions right location another example sutherland 's software modeled objects picture objects words model car one could change size


tires without affecting rest car could stretch body car without deforming tires ''spacewar '' running computer history museum 's pdp phrase computer graphics coined william fetter graphic designer boeing ref name wc wayne carlson http accadosuedu waynec history lessonshtml critical history computer graphics animation ohio state university ref old quote many secondary sources comes complete following sentence ''fetter said terms actually given verne hudson wichita division boeing'' another student

Formal science
Computer science
Computer graphics


mit steve russell created another important title history video games ''spacewar '' written dec pdp ''spacewar'' instant success copies started flowing pdp owners eventually dec got copy engineers dec used diagnostic program every new pdp shipping sales force picked quickly enough installing new units would run world 's first video game new customers higginbotham 's ''tennis two'' beaten ''spacewar'' almost three years almost unknown outside


research academic setting around time university cambridge elizabeth waldram wrote code display radio astronomy maps cathode ray tube e e zajac scientist bell telephone laboratory btl created film called simulation two giro gravity attitude control system computer generated film zajac showed attitude satellite could altered orbits earth created animation ibm mainframe computer also btl ken knowlton frank sinden ruth weiss michael noll started working computer


graphics field sinden created film called http techchannelattcom play videocfm archives force mass motion ''force mass motion'' illustrating newton 's laws motion operation around time scientists creating computer graphics illustrate research lawrence radiation laboratory nelson max created films ''flow viscous fluid'' ''propagation shock waves solid form'' boeing aircraft created film called ''vibration aircraft'' also sometime early automobiles would also provide boost early work pierre b zier renault used paul de casteljau 's curves called b zier curves b zier 's


work field develop modeling techniques renault car bodies curves would form foundation much curve modeling work field curves unlike polygons mathematically complex entities draw model well ''pong'' arcade version long major corporations started taking interest computer graphics trw lockheed georgia general electric sperry rand among many companies getting started computer graphics mid ibm quick respond interest releasing ibm graphics terminal first commercially available


graphics computer ralph baer supervising engineer sanders associates came home video game later licensed magnavox called odyssey simplistic requiring fairly inexpensive electronic parts allowed player move points light around screen first consumer computer graphics product david c evans director engineering bendix corporation 's computer division worked next five years visiting professor berkeley continued interest computers


interfaced people university utah recruited evans form computer science program computer graphics quickly became primary interest new department would become world 's primary research center computer graphics also ivan sutherland continued innovate mit invented first computer controlled head mounted display hmd displayed two separate wireframe images one eye allowed viewer see computer scene stereoscopic heavy hardware required supporting display tracker called sword damocles


potential danger fall upon wearer receiving phd mit sutherland became director information processing arpa advanced research projects agency later became professor harvard sutherland recruited evans join computer science program university utah development would turn department one important research centers graphics nearly decade thereafter eventually producing important pioneers field sutherland perfected hmd twenty years later nasa would discover


techniques virtual reality research utah sutherland evans highly sought consultants large companies frustrated lack graphics hardware available time started formulating plan start company dave evans ivan sutherland founded first computer graphics hardware company evans sutherland sutherland originally wanted company located cambridge massachusetts salt lake city instead chosen due proximity professors' research group university utah also arthur appel described


first ray casting algorithm first class ray tracing based rendering algorithms since become fundamental achieving photorealism graphics modeling paths rays light take light source surfaces scene camera acm initiated special interest group graphics siggraph organizes conferences graphics standards publications within field computer graphics first annual siggraph conference held become one focuses organization siggraph grown size importance field


computer graphics expanded time important technological advance enabled practical computer graphics technology emergence metal oxide semiconductor mos large scale integration lsi technology early ref name parslow ref ref name cherry ref mos lsi technology made possible large amounts computational capability small mos integrated circuit chips led development tektronix computer graphics terminal ref name cherry well microprocessor ref name ieee ref mos memory particularly dynamic random access memory dram chip introduced ref name computerhistory ref also capable holding kilobits data single


high density memory chip ref name shoup superpaint ref making possible hold entire standard definition sd raster graphics image digital frame buffer used xerox parc develop superpaint first video compatible raster based computer graphics system ref name shoup superpaint utah teapot martin newell static renders became emblematic cgi development subsequently number breakthroughs field particularly important early breakthroughs transformation graphics utilitarian realistic occurred university utah hired ivan sutherland paired


david c evans teach advanced computer graphics class contributed great deal founding research field taught several students would grow found several industry 's important companies namely pixar silicon graphics adobe systems tom stockham led image processing group uu worked closely computer graphics lab one students edwin catmull catmull come boeing company working degree physics growing disney catmull loved animation yet quickly discovered


talent drawing catmull along many others saw computers natural progression animation wanted part revolution first computer animation catmull saw created animation hand opening closing also pioneered texture mapping paint textures three dimensional models considered one fundamental techniques modeling became one goals produce feature length motion picture using computer graphics goal would achieve two decades later founding role


pixar class fred parke created animation wife 's face two animations included feature film futureworld uu computer graphics laboratory attracting people john warnock another early pioneers later founded adobe systems create revolution publishing world postscript page description language adobe would go later create industry standard photo editing software adobe photoshop prominent movie industry special effects program adobe effects james clark also


later founded silicon graphics maker advanced rendering systems would dominate field high end graphics early major advance computer graphics created uu early pioneers hidden surface determination order draw representation object screen computer must determine surfaces behind object viewer 's perspective thus hidden computer creates renders image core graphics system '''core''' first graphical standard developed group


experts acm special interest group siggraph developed conceptual framework specifications published became foundation many future developments field also henri gouraud jim blinn bui tuong phong contributed foundations shading cgi via development gouraud shading blinn phong shading models allowing graphics move beyond flat look look accurately portraying depth jim blinn also innovated introducing bump mapping technique simulating uneven surfaces predecessor many advanced


kinds mapping used today modern videogame arcade known today birthed first arcade games using real time sprite graphics ''pong'' one first hit arcade cabinet games ''speed race'' featured sprites moving along vertically scrolling road ''gun fight'' featured human looking animated characters ''space invaders'' featured large number animated figures screen used specialized barrel shifter circuit made discrete chips help intel microprocessor animate framebuffer graphics donkey kong''


one video games helped popularize computer graphics mass audience began see modernization commercialization computer graphics home computer proliferated subject previously academics discipline adopted much larger audience number computer graphics developers increased significantly early metal oxide semiconductor mos large scale integration vlsi technology led availability bit central processing unit cpu microprocessors first graphics processing unit gpu chips began revolutionize computer graphics enabling high resolution graphics


computer graphics terminals well personal computer pc systems nec 's pd first gpu fabricated fully integrated nmos vlsi chip supported x resolution laid foundations emerging pc graphics market used number graphics cards licensed clones intel first intel 's graphics processing units mos memory also became cheaper early enabling development affordable framebuffer memory notably video ram vram introduced texas instruments ti mid ref name ti ref hitachi released


intelligent workstations computer aided engineering market orca workstations developed orcatech ottawa spin bell northern research led david pearson early workstation pioneer orca based bit motorola microprocessor amd bit slice processors unix operating system targeted squarely sophisticated end design engineering sector artists graphic designers began see personal computer particularly commodore amiga macintosh serious design tool one could save time draw accurately


methods macintosh remains highly popular tool computer graphics among graphic design studios businesses modern computers dating often use graphical user interfaces gui present data information symbols icons pictures rather text graphics one five key elements multimedia technology field realistic rendering japan 's osaka university developed links computer graphics system supercomputer used zilog z microprocessors purpose rendering realistic computer graphics according information processing society japan


core image rendering calculating luminance pixel making rendered surface given viewpoint light source object position links system developed realize image rendering methodology pixel could parallel processed independently using ray tracing developing new software methodology specifically high speed image rendering links able rapidly render highly realistic images used create world 's first planetarium like video entire heavens made completely computer graphics video presented fujitsu pavilion


chroma keying bluescreening etc made later films original trilogy two pieces video would also outlast era historically relevant dire straits' iconic near fully cgi video song money nothing popularized cgi among music fans era scene young sherlock holmes year featuring first fully cgi character feature movie animated stained glass knight first shaders small programs designed specifically shading separate algorithm developed pixar already spun


industrial light magic separate entity though public would see results technological progress next decade late silicon graphics sgi computers used create first fully computer generated short films pixar silicon graphics machines considered high water mark field decade also called golden era videogames millions selling systems atari nintendo sega among companies exposed computer graphics first time new young impressionable audience


decade also saw computer graphics applied many additional professional markets including location based entertainment education e digistar vehicle design vehicle simulation chemistry ''quarxs'' series poster maurice benayoun fran ois schuiten s' overwhelming note emergence modeling mass scale impressive rise quality cgi generally home computers became able take rendering tasks previously limited workstations costing thousands dollars modelers became available home systems popularity silicon graphics workstations declined powerful microsoft windows


apple macintosh machines running autodesk products like studio home rendering software ascended importance end decade gpu would begin rise prominence still enjoys today field began see first rendered graphics could truly pass photorealistic untrained eye though could yet trained cgi artist graphics became far popular gaming multimedia animation end beginning nineties created france first computer


graphics tv series ''la vie des b tes'' studio mac guff ligne ''les fables g om triques'' studio fant ''quarxs'' first hdtv computer graphics series maurice benayoun fran ois schuiten studio z production film pixar began serious commercial rise era edwin catmull first major film release toy story critical commercial success nine figure magnitude studio invent programmable shader would go many animated hits work prerendered video animation still considered industry leader


research trail breaker video games ''virtua racing'' running sega model arcade system board laid foundations fully racing games popularized real time polygonal graphics among wider audience video game industry sega model sega model subsequently pushed boundaries commercial real time graphics back pc ''wolfenstein d'' ''doom'' ''quake'' three first massively popular first person shooter games released id software critical popular acclaim decade using rendering engine


seminal geforce first home video card billed graphics processing unit gpu words contained integrated transform lighting triangle setup clipping rendering engines end decade computers adopted common frameworks graphics processing directx opengl since computer graphics become detailed realistic due powerful graphics hardware modeling software amd also became leading developer graphics boards decade creating duopoly field exists day screenshot


videogame ''killing floor'' built unreal engine personal computers console video games took great graphical leap forward becoming able display graphics real time computing previously possible pre rendered business level hardware cgi became ubiquitous earnest era video games cgi cinema spread reach computer graphics mainstream late continued accelerated pace cgi also adopted ''en masse'' television advertisements widely late


became familiar massive audience continued rise increasing sophistication graphics processing unit crucial decade rendering capabilities became standard feature graphics gpus became considered necessity desktop computer makers offer nvidia geforce line graphics cards dominated market early decade occasional significant competing presence ati decade progressed even low end machines usually contained capable gpu kind nvidia amd introduced low priced chipsets continued dominate market shaders introduced


perform specialized processing gpu would end decade become supported consumer hardware speeding graphics considerably allowing greatly improved texture shading computer graphics via widespread adoption normal mapping bump mapping variety techniques allowing simulation great amount detail computer graphics used films video games gradually began realistic point entering uncanny valley cgi movies proliferated traditional animated cartoon films like ice age madagascar well numerous pixar


offerings like finding nemo dominating box office field ''final fantasy spirits within'' released first fully computer generated feature film use photorealistic cgi characters fully made motion capture film box office success however commentators suggested may partly lead cgi characters facial features fell uncanny valley animated films like ''the polar express'' drew attention time well ''star wars'' also resurfaced prequel trilogy effects continued set bar


cgi film videogames sony playstation microsoft xbox line consoles offerings nintendo gamecube maintained large following windows pc marquee cgi heavy titles like series grand theft auto assassin 's creed final fantasy bioshock kingdom hearts mirror 's edge dozens others continued approach photorealism grow video game industry impress industry 's revenues became comparable movies microsoft made decision expose directx easily independent developer world xna program


field providing considerable complexity manipulating pixels vertices textures per element basis countless possible effects shader languages hlsl glsl active fields research development physically based rendering pbr implements many maps performs advanced calculation simulate real optic light flow active research area well along advanced areas like ambient occlusion subsurface scattering rayleigh scattering photon mapping many others experiments processing power required provide graphics real time ultra high resolution modes like k ultra hd beginning though beyond reach


highest end hardware cinema animated movies cgi great many animated cgi films made per year attempt photorealism due continuing fears uncanny valley cartoons videogames microsoft xbox one sony playstation nintendo switch currently dominate home space capable highly advanced graphics windows pc still one active gaming platforms well image types two dimensional raster graphic sprites left masks right computer graphics computer based


generation digital images mostly models digital image techniques specific computer graphics mainly used applications originally developed upon traditional printing drawing technologies typography applications two dimensional image representation real world object independent artifact added semantic value two dimensional models therefore preferred give direct control image computer graphics whose approach akin photography typography pixel art large form digital art pixel art


normal bitmap screen creating animated character moved screen without altering data defining overall screen sprites created either electronic circuitry software circuitry hardware sprite hardware construct employs custom dma channels integrate visual elements main screen super imposes two discrete video sources software simulate specialized rendering methods vector graphics example showing effect vector graphics versus raster bitmap graphics vector graphics formats complementary raster graphics raster graphics


tools three dimensional graphics compared graphics graphics use three dimensional representation geometric data purpose performance stored computer includes images may later display real time viewing despite differences computer graphics rely similar algorithms computer graphics frame raster graphics like final rendered display computer graphics software distinction occasionally blurred applications may use techniques achieve effects lighting primarily


computer generated imagery computer animation art creating moving images via use computers subfield computer graphics animation increasingly created means computer graphics though computer graphics still widely used stylistic low bandwidth faster real time rendering needs sometimes target animation computer sometimes target another medium film also referred cgi computer generated imagery computer generated imaging especially used films virtual entities may contain controlled assorted attributes


creating particle effects crowd simulations latter allows evaluated result returned user defined logical expression coupled mathematics automate animation predictable way convenient controlling bone behavior beyond hierarchy offers skeletal system set create illusion movement image displayed computer screen quickly replaced new image similar previous image shifted slightly technique identical illusion movement television motion pictures concepts principles images typically created devices


cameras mirrors lenses telescopes microscopes etc digital images include vector images raster images raster images commonly used pixel enlarged portion image individual pixels rendered squares easily seen digital imaging pixel picture element single point raster image pixels placed regular dimensional grid often represented using dots squares pixel sample original image samples typically provide accurate representation original intensity


pixel variable color systems pixel typically three components red green blue graphics visual presentations surface computer screen examples photographs drawing graphics designs maps engineering drawings images graphics often combine text illustration graphic design may consist deliberate selection creation arrangement typography alone brochure flier poster web site book without element clarity effective communication may objective association cultural elements may sought merely creation distinctive


dimensional points two dimensional plane current methods displaying graphical data based planar two dimensional media use type projection widespread method used real time applications typically uses rasterization produce final image ray tracing ray tracing technique family image order algorithms generating image tracing path light pixels image plane technique capable producing high degree photorealism usually higher typical scanline rendering


methods greater computational cost shading example shading shading refers depicting depth models illustrations varying levels darkness process used drawing depicting levels darkness paper applying media densely darker shade darker areas less densely lighter shade lighter areas various techniques shading including cross hatching perpendicular lines varying closeness drawn grid pattern shade area closer lines together darker


area appears likewise farther apart lines lighter area appears term recently generalized mean shaders applied texture mapping texture mapping method adding detail surface texture colour computer generated graphic model application graphics pioneered dr edwin catmull texture map applied mapped surface shape polygon process akin applying patterned paper plain white box multitexturing use one texture


time polygon procedural textures created adjusting parameters underlying algorithm produces output texture bitmap textures created image editing application imported digital camera generally speaking common methods implementing texture definition models computer graphics software intended placement textures onto model 's surface often requires technique known uv mapping arbitrary manual layout texture coordinates polygon surfaces non uniform rational b spline nurb surfaces intrinsic parameterization used texture coordinates texture mapping discipline also encompasses techniques


creating normal maps bump maps correspond texture simulate height specular maps help simulate shine light reflections well environment mapping simulate mirror like reflectivity also called gloss anti aliasing rendering resolution independent entities models viewing raster pixel based device liquid crystal display crt television inevitably causes aliasing artifacts mostly along geometric edges boundaries texture details artifacts informally called jaggies anti aliasing methods rectify problems resulting imagery pleasing viewer somewhat computationally expensive


various anti aliasing algorithms supersampling able employed customized efficient rendering performance versus quality resultant imagery graphics artist consider trade anti aliasing methods used pre anti aliased bitmap texture displayed screen screen location resolution different resolution texture textured model distance virtual camera exhibit aliasing artifacts procedurally defined texture always show aliasing artifacts resolution independent techniques mipmapping texture filtering help


solve texture related aliasing problems volume rendering ct scan forearm different colour schemes muscle fat bone blood volume rendering technique used display projection discretely sampled data set typical data set group slice images acquired ct mri scanner usually acquired regular pattern eg one slice every millimeter usually regular number image pixels regular pattern example regular volumetric grid volume element


voxel represented single value obtained sampling immediate area surrounding voxel modeling modeling process developing mathematical wireframe representation three dimensional object called model via specialized software models may created automatically manually manual modeling process preparing geometric data computer graphics similar plastic arts sculpting models may created using multiple approaches use nurbs generate accurate smooth surface patches polygonal mesh modeling manipulation faceted geometry polygonal mesh subdivision


advanced tessellation polygons resulting smooth surfaces similar nurb models model displayed two dimensional image process called '' rendering'' used computer simulation physical phenomena animated directly purposes model also physically created using printing devices pioneers computer graphics charles csuri charles csuri pioneer computer animation digital fine art created first computer art csuri recognized ''smithsonian'' father digital art computer animation


pioneer computer animation museum modern art moma association computing machinery siggraph donald p greenberg donald p greenberg leading innovator computer graphics greenberg authored hundreds articles served teacher mentor many prominent computer graphic artists animators researchers robert l cook marc levoy brian barsky wayne lytle many former students academy awards technical achievements several siggraph achievement award greenberg founding director nsf center computer graphics scientific


visualization michael noll noll one first researchers use digital computer create artistic patterns formalize use random processes creation visual arts began creating digital art making one earliest digital artists noll along frieder nake georg nees first publicly exhibit computer art april howard wise gallery exhibited noll 's computer art along random dot patterns bela julesz pioneers modern render utah teapot


iconic model computer graphics created martin newell pierre b zier jim blinn jack bresenham john carmack paul de casteljau ed catmull frank crow james foley william fetter henry fuchs henri gouraud charles loop nadia magnenat thalmann benoit mandelbrot martin newell fred parke bui tuong phong david pearson steve russell daniel j sandin alvy ray smith bob sproull ivan sutherland daniel thalmann andries van dam john warnock j turner whitted lance williams jim kajiya organizations siggraph gdc bell telephone laboratories united states armed forces particularly whirlwind computer sage project boeing ibm renault computer science


department university utah lucasfilm industrial light magic autodesk adobe systems pixar silicon graphics khronos group opengl directx division microsoft nvidia amd study computer graphics study computer graphics sub field computer science studies methods digitally synthesizing manipulating visual content although term often refers three dimensional computer graphics also encompasses two dimensional graphics image processing academic discipline computer graphics studies manipulation visual geometric information using computational techniques focuses ''mathematical'' ''computational'' foundations image


graphics java programmers'' second edition john wiley sons david rogers ''procedural elements computer graphics'' mcgraw hill james foley andries van dam steven k feiner john f hughes ''computer graphics principles practice'' addison wesley donald hearn pauline baker ''computer graphics'' prentice hall francis hill ''computer graphics'' prentice hall john lewell ''computer graphics survey current techniques applications'' van nostrand reinhold jeffrey j mcconnell ''computer graphics theory practice'' jones bartlett publishers r parslow r w prowse richard elliot green ''computer graphics techniques applications''


peter shirley others ''fundamentals computer graphics'' ak peters ltd slater steed chrysantho ''computer graphics virtual environments realism real time'' addison wesley wolfgang h hl interactive environments open source software springer wien new york external links https webarchiveorg web http accadosuedu waynec history lessonshtml critical history computer graphics animation https webarchiveorg web http hempassagense des hocg hocg htm ''history computer graphics'' series articles http graphicsberkeleyedu computer graphics research uc berkeley http iasluni muenchende links gca iv ehtml thomas dreher history computer art chap iv computer animation https zenyandexru id fe db c edf history computer graphics rus


kabul afghanistan restoration islamic emirate taliban female afghan national police officers working hand hand male counterparts learn finer points use non lethal force quell civil disturbances riot training conducted us forces x px '''sociology gender''' prominent subfield sociology social interaction directly correlated sociology regarding social structure one important social structures status determined based position individual possesses effects treated society one important statuses individual

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of gender


claims gender ref name ref public discourse academic literature generally use term ''gender'' perceived projected self identified masculinity femininity person introduction term ''gender role'' coined john money seminal paper defined things person says disclose status boy man girl woman ref name basic concepts ref according american gender theorist judith butler person 's gender complex encompassing countless characteristics appearance speech movement factors solely limited biological


sex societies tend binary gender systems everyone categorized male female societies include third gender role instance native american two spirit people hijras india debate extent gender social construct biological construct feminist theory women 's movement started momentum led formation feminist theory one publications caused movement betty friedan 's ''the feminine mystique''this book described women expected fulfilled


first wave th women 's suffrage foundation early feminist theory ref name consensus terms applied edition ''masculine feminine human'' author uses innate gender learned sex roles edition use ' 'sex'' ''gender'' reversed feminist writings agreed using ''gender'' sociocultural adapted traits feminist theory broad term variety theories emphasize women 's experiences belief society


subordinate women liberal feminism belief individuals free develop talents pursue interests individuals seek expand equality removing barriers society socialist feminism thinks capitalism strengthens patriarchy concentrating wealth power hands traditional family structure replaced collective revolution radical feminism believe patriarchy deeply rooted society even sociological revolution would end society must eliminate gender early feminist theory targeted sex gender injustices


bases gender categories however early feminist movement geared towards equality white middle class women excluded minority women especially black women minority women face different experiences struggles white middle class women largely overlooked early feminist theory however theory allowed birth feminism focuses women 's empowerment freedom enhancement woman 's sense self ref name ref time progresses feminism broken four distinct waves first wave th early th century second wave feminism


third fourth waves feminism ref name burkett elinor women 's rights movement ''encyclop dia britannica'' encyclop dia britannica inc feb wwwbritannicacom event womens movement nowiki https wwwbritannicacom event womens movement nowiki ref wave feminism goal focused importance equality among men women regards social political economic equality ref name conley dalton ''you may ask introduction thinking like sociologist'' th ed ww norton ref first wave feminists focused women 's suffrage giving women right vote movement pushed political equality women


could participate politics ref name rampton may four waves feminism retrieved october nowiki https wwwpacificuedu media four waves feminism nowiki ref movement mainly advocated right vote white women excluding minority women exclusion minority women first movement sparked acknowledgement minority groups second movement however main goal second movement dealt sexuality reproductive rights ref name movement 's efforts worked toward passing equal rights amendment designed guarantee equal rights everyone regardless sex ref name


end wave society began realize gender idea means woman society 's expectations woman socially constructed realization led rise third feminist movement focused debunking predominant idea society held women position society movement notion girly feminine broken redefine society 's definition woman boundaries gender reconstructed allow people experiment fluidity gender ref name however


wave feminism election president donald trump remarks women one day president trump 's inauguration million people took streets washington dc women 's march protest gender equality also movement gained popularity women came forward share experiences sexual assault became known harvey weinstein sexually assaulted women years film industry movement grew couple months condemn powerful men business politics news


entertainment assaults women languages english ' 'sex'' ''gender'' used contexts could substituted sexual intercourse anal sex safe sex sex worker sex slave languages like german use word ''geschlecht'' refer grammatical gender biological sex making distinction ' 'sex'' ''gender'' advocated anthropologists difficult contexts german adopted english loan word ''gender'' achieve distinction sometimes 'geschlechtsidentit t' used gender although literally means ''gender identity'' 'geschlecht' sex translation judith butler 's


''gender trouble'' common use modifiers ''biologisches geschlecht'' ' 'sex'' ''geschlechtsidentit t'' ''gender identity'' ''geschlechterrolle'' ''gender role'' etc us media media criticism reflection gender inequality society print advertisements television music media often criticized holding women unrealistic beauty standards perfect skin slim figure great hair argue media 's standards beauty led young girls lower self esteem blame media contributing eating disorders ref name us media also criticized displaying images


media attitudes mentalities found culture media generated passed communication ref name therefore communication often media teaches person society act male act female ref name media influences reinforces idea beauty myth discussed naomi wolf 's book ''the beauty myth images beauty used women'' refers unrealistic standards beauty women argue mainstream media perpetuates idea hetero masculinity portraying men dominant also


argue media objectifies oppresses women men n't fall heteronormative category oppression media men taught ultra masculine desensitized violent physically strong forms media often portray ultra masculine figure advertisements hollywood movie industry video games forms encourage men oppress men fit ideals hegemonic masculinity well develop self validation system men aim uphold trivialized ideals masculine male theorized amplifies


legitimates repression female relation male throughout history women excluded media agencies key issue highlighted early th century european north american suffragists movement ref name ref although stories published women often trivialized biased women patriarchy male news outlets suffragist movement adamant forming media outlet order knowledge women 's issues achievements due patriarchal systems pre existing news media outlets women forced form media


outlets seeing nearly impossible women 'climb ladder' terms corporate hierarchy looking newsrooms radio stations editors newspapers th century diaspora information regarding women feminist issues including likes women 's discrimination within work place voting rights published variety news media outlets shed light current issues women well extending equality protection women 's rights informing educating public ref name part united


media may significant repercussions society low self esteem eating disorders among women gender socialization socialization process individuals learn norms values rules society order become functioning member socialization theory offers straightforward account acquisition gendered identities infants seen blank slates waiting written environment interactions people close exposure values society infants learn sex attributed roles


daughters argued long term consequences may follow case head start boys development physical violence aggressiveness parents family influence way child develops view gender types influences include parental attitudes difference treatment regarding male female children researcher susan witt claims parents also expose children gender time born via specific toys colors names associated genders binary witt suggests parental attitudes gender differ


male female children attitudes develop quickly child 's birth ref name ref parents influence way children behave think home carried real world child exposed environment reinforces ideas beliefs author susan grieshaber constructing gendered infant suggests attitudes regarding pregnancy change parents find sex child subsequently changing parental attitudes towards unborn child according grieshaber 's theory parents determine sex unborn child assume gender planning


child 's arrival grieshaber claims infants born gendered world never know anything gender traits assumed due sex dr kara smith utilizes similar theory throughout analysis pregnancy journals kept throughout second pregnancy smith concluded attitude towards child changed learning child 's sex male smith 's claim reflected changes tone voice talking unborn child well differences physical touch stomach throughout rest pregnancy


another theory gender socialization discussed susan mchale gender roles attitudes older siblings impact gender roles adopted younger children throughout findings mchale 's study maintained parents still familial influence childhood socialization time children reach age three many acquired firm sense male female gender identity remains throughout life addition many pre schoolers develop firm awareness gender stereotypes insisting certain activities items clothing girls


others boys yet gender identity automatically follow biological sex adults respond differently communicative efforts boys girls study infants aged months found boys demand attention behaving aggressively crying whining screaming tended get contrast adults tended respond girls used language gestures gentle touches girls used attention seeking techniques likely ignored little difference communicative patterns start study age two girls


become talkative boys assertive communicative techniques norms taught throughout childhood influential individual 's life ideas gender typically taught parents early years reinforced outside home ref name study done dr mick cunningham states normative behaviors attitudes children observe influence way children grow structure households adulthood normative gender roles reinforced outside household adding power hegemonic ideas gender analysis


children 's books twenty first century janice mccabe suggests particular avenue children 's media symbolically annihilates females representing half often males underrepresentation affect children views gender children 's tv networks disney nickelodeon cartoon network demonstrated disproportional representation males females respective shows study done beth hentges kim case according hentges case less female characters across three children 's networks however propagation stereotypical gendered behavior


gender children raised heterosexual two parent households families studied jada tidwell children reported ideas endorsed challenged stereotypical gender roles times different study abbie goldberg observed toddlers various types households children engaged play goldberg 's findings suggest children whose parents gender tend play ways less adherent stereotypical gender roles children heterosexual households susan witt article parental influence children 's socialization gender roles advocates androgynous gender roles


parenting arguing environments open minded gender encouraging sons daughters ref name gender psychoanalysis one influential psychoanalytic theories gender identity perspective developed book reproduction mothering author nancy chodorow traces implications emotional development linking way mothers usually care infants formative years fathers emotionally distant development identity takes place infant gets separated mother infant


initially psychically merged process however operates differently boys girls girls separate gradually maintain continuous sense relationship mother experienced alike boys hand separating mother experienced different involves repressing feminine aspects rejecting tenderness central early relationship boys' sense maleness according chodorow achieved great emotional cost consequently men grow autonomous sense self independent instrumental


competitive dealings others also likely difficulty expressing emotions anxious intimacy women hand ability need sustain relationship others greater empathy others difficulty however maintaining boundaries independent autonomous self chodorow however believes patterns n't inevitable changes social arrangements care children dual parenting would involve fathers emotional intimacy children break cycle gender division labor


industrialization economic activity centered around agricultural work crafts organized households household members whether male female young old contributed family 's livelihood although women might types work men others depending region class distinction men breadwinners women housewives n't characterize pre industrial divisions labor industrialization shifted much productive activity factories shops offices separation work home signaled profound change gender relations gender discourse home came understood site


family enterprise refuge world work women defined keepers home seen nature create harmony virtue rather services goods preindustrial society relied gendered roles workforce create equilibrium men women men assigned hunter role women assigned domestic roles men expected supply food shelter family women caretakers children household centuries passed continued created divide gendered


roles labor women remained dependent men provide dependence led male roles valued society still remains st century ref name divisions labor ensures people specific skill sets end certain jobs order benefit society women fit workforce women benefit society impacted differences gender stereotypes men women based stereotypes males perceived suitable highest positions women women believed lack qualities needed


obtain male dominated occupations like management ceo positions ref name ref despite greater number women entering workforce recent years men continue dominate workforce women still viewed inferior ref name conley dalton ''you may ask introduction thinking like sociologist'' th ed ww norton ref constant negative perceptions women traditionally male occupations research shown women approach tasks assumed males low confidence self esteem ref name due belief n't competent enough complete tasks


one prominent forms gender inequality workplace gender conversation research found classroom settings male students tend talk longer female students determined particularly noticeable instructor male ref name krupnick ref similar results found previously hospitals erving goffman university discussion groups elizabeth aries corporate settings rosabeth kanter ref name krupnick gender workplace women men experience different types mobility within workplace example women tend


experience glass ceiling invisible barrier prevents moving corporate ladder example study sweden compared number females director jobs men director jobs study showed statistically men women holding jobs showed results also shown countries usa men jobs traditionally held women nursing elementary school teaching social work experience glass escalator effect able quickly ascend job hierarchy


become managers principals also tends gender pay gap men women women earning much men one cause gender pay gap may due occupational segregation pushes men women towards gender specific forms employment rather pay discrimination another possible cause double burden phenomenon women perform unpaid childcare household work despite otherwise employed pay third possible cause occupational sexism one part favors men promotions due traditional breadwinner


social interactions would caused cultural gender norms parallel social norms women stuck expectations placed upon based norms places identity follower onto women since norm dictated ref name gender status leadership china women experienced gender based discrimination based job requirements represent indirect discrimination example would job listing available everyone required individual able carry set amount weight certain height without need


requirement job requirements prevent set groups getting job labeled implicitly addition emergence transgender individuals workplace begun disrupt gender binary male female creating hybrid gender identity transgender community suggests notions movement toward postgenderism us workplace us common companies adopt policies allow women maternity leave pregnancy result many positive health benefits better overall maternal health improving mother 's mental health


promoting mother infant interaction ref name zagorsky j l divergent trends us maternity paternity leave ''american journal public health'' '' '' nowiki https doiorg ajph nowiki ref however us one countries allow women paid maternity leave giving birth ref name leads negative outcomes since many families live single income ref name hand us policies maternity policies lack focus males include paternity leave males average paternity leave compared women ref


existing perception society discourages male workers take paternity leave society 's norms traditional masculinity believes males prioritize work family life deemed job women ref name together lack policies encouraging paternity leave society 's notion men remain workplace aim discourage fathers' involvement young children enforce traditional gender roles intersectionality intersectionality neo marxist concept stemming critical theory social analysis class race gender theory intersectionality argues forms


highly limiting understanding whole experience identity individual example critique additive model whole never greater lesser sum parts analyzing identity marker individual characteristic ignore effect interconnection markers ref name sarah fenstermaker additional sociologists written intersectionality class race gender joan acker outlines four gendered processes intersectionality first includes procedures create hierarchies based gender race another process social images


ideas condone gendered institutions third process interaction individuals groups communication creates gender fourth internal labeling self others gendered personas evelyn nakano glenn critiques patriarchy model gender ignores racial differences among oppressed women internal colonialism model focuses minority populations general ignoring gender differences embodiment embodiment may defined ways cultural ideals gender given society create expectations influence form bodies bidirectional relationship


images beauty used women'' refers unattainable standard beauty women sustains consumer culture contrast men 's bodies also dictated cultural ideals gender evident consumer culture especially beer commercials men portrayed outdoorsy tough strong manly sexuality sexuality encompasses sexual behavior sexual desire however heteronormativity structures social life heterosexuality always assumed expected ordinary privileged pervasiveness makes difficult people imagine ways life mass media works glorify heterosexuality turn lends pervasiveness


power ref name martin ka ref ordinary exceptional constructions heterosexuality work normalize heterosexuality thus becomes difficult imagine anything form social relationship anyone outside bonds ref name martin ka common perception heterosexuality natural emotional sensual inclination human sexuality furthermore marital heterosexuality occupies largely invisible core normative desirable sexuality sexualities marginalized considered perverse unnatural alfred kinsey created heterosexual homosexual rating scale called kinsey scale challenges common perception human


sexuality strictly binary directly linked gender drag queens example troubling gender complicating understanding sexuality society causing people think outside binary male female friedrich engels argued hunter gatherer societies activities men women although different importance technological advances let productive surplus social equality communal sharing gave way private property ultimately class hierarchy rise agriculture men gained significant power women surplus wealth pass heirs upper class men wanted


ensure sons indeed led control sexuality women desire control property brought monogamous marriage family women taught remain virgins marriage remain faithful husbands thereafter build lives around bearing raising one man 's children masculinity masculinity performed gender identity contrary popular perception sex sexual orientation contents practices masculinity socially constructed reproduced daily interaction especially micro scale ref name gender https campusfsuedu bbcswebdav institution academic social sciences sociology reading lists social psych prelim readings iv structures inequalities west zimmerman genderpdf pdf ref theorists west


zimmerman emphasized gender maintained accountability men expected perform masculinity point naturalized thus man 's status depends performance important note however masculinity performed sex ref name gender ref name masculinity crime ref ref name guyland ref ref name difference ref dominant form masculinity society known hegemonic masculinity men constantly performing prove status men ref name hegemonic http xyonlinenet sites default files connell hegemonic masculinity pdf pdf ref really possible reach especially peers constant surveillance looking


flaws performance ref name hegemonic hegemonic masculinity constructed opposition femininity dominant gender identities including alternative masculinities men socialized birth perform especially behavior symbolism one prominent behaviors aggression order protect one 's reputation example symbols used would clothing ref name gender ref name undoing gender ref sociologist michael kimmel describes three cultures support masculinity especially young men book ''guyland'' culture entitlement men raised feel deserve something feel entitled power sex


women culture silence men talk outsiders embedded cultures masculinity drinking bullying rape performance masculinity peers may get trouble talk seen unmanly traitors culture protection communities hold men responsible questionable illegal actions many turn blind eye assuming boys would never others write dangerous acts boys boys ref name gender prominent attitudes behaviors western


hegemonic masculinity power sexual dominance activity wealth aggression independence lack emotion less extreme sexual harassment often seen normal behavior ref name gender exemplifying control theory norms masculinity rigidly ingrained men find little room escape end constantly reproducing hegemonic masculinity often reproduced reinforced media culture media representations men often glorify men 's use physical force daring demeanor virility emotional distance contemporary rap music striking example masculinity display rappers boast sexual conquests women emphasizing


heterosexuality well wealth power violence ref name rap music http wwwgwuedu soc docs kubrin misogyny rappdf pdf ref gender violence gender based violence physical sexual emotional harm suffering enacted upon individual contextualized societal gender norms violence affects lives millions worldwide socio economic educational classes cuts across cultural religious barriers impeding right many participate fully society violence power control domination systems inequality oppression interact positioning certain groups particularly vulnerable violence gendered violence takes place within socially constructed power dynamic one ideology


masculinity dominates another femininity means woman society influenced ascribed media acts powerful educational force media glamorizes violence women cultivating toxic cultural environment women institutionally positioned inferior worthy objects violence men disproportionally offenders women disproportionally victims commit violent crimes overwhelmingly male rape armed robbery drunk driving murder aggravated assault arson family violence according michael kimmel hegemonic masculinity creates culture entitlement silence protection


effectively normalizes violence women silences victims violence declaration elimination violence defines three social arenas violence commonly takes place family including domestic violence infanticide traditional practices female genital mutilation foot binding bride burning community including rape sexual assault sexual harassment commercialized violence sexual slavery labor exploitation female migrant workers state including violence women detention situations armed conflict systematic war rape order address end gendered violence solutions


must address root causes interpersonal manifestations gender roles power relations order ensure balance power levels society globalization gender globalization refers increasingly global relationships culture people economic activity globalization impacts female equality large international scale negatively positively continuous changes international relations perception feminism western nonwestern societies frequently revised important wary western bias sociological accounts global feminism modern western society always


beauty domesticity docility exaggerated exploited production goods gender traits frame behavior women beyond occupational realm despite increasing feminism lack economic social mobility prevents women many nations equal status society one solutions erasing gender inequalities globally provide resources funds impoverished women turn use education well business ventures global economy could benefit drastically incorporating educated women workforce would global


economy benefit shifts however women would able partake society involved please third gender throughout history around world idea third gender existed native american culture two spirit gender roles different men women specifically navajo society third gender known nadle ref name nadle gender tasks commonly men women also dresses according whatever task moment ref name muxe southern mexico


males identify neither male female samoa fa'afafine biological males identify females indian society hijra include eunuchs intersex people transgender people give sexual desires participating sexual practices sacrificial emasculation removal testicles penis ref name considered outsiders communities formed language united states concept third gender beginning gain traction jurisdictions california permit third non binary gender generally marked ids


five country multinational fleet ''operation enduring freedom'' oman sea five descending columns top left bottom right mm ''maestrale'' f fs ''de grasse'' uss ''john c stennis'' cvn fs ''charles de gaulle'' r fs ''surcouf'' f uss ''port royal'' cg hms ''ocean'' l uss ''john f kennedy'' cv hnlms ''van amstel'' f mm ''durand de la penne'' '''naval tactics doctrine''' collective name methods engaging defeating enemy ship fleet battle sea

Applied science
Military sciences
Naval science
Naval tactics


since world war ii apart indo pakistani naval war falklands war many doctrines reflect scenarios developed planning purposes critics argue collapse soviet union subsequent reduction size capabilities russian navy renders fleet fleet scenarios obsolete key concepts central concept western modern naval fleet warfare battlespace zone around naval force within commander confident detecting tracking engaging destroying threats pose danger forms warfare critical objective


detect enemy avoiding detection open sea provides favorable battlespace surface fleet presence land topography area compress battlespace limit opportunities maneuver make easier enemy predict location fleet make detection enemy forces difficult shallow waters detection submarines mines especially problematic one scenario focus american nato naval planning cold war conflict two modern well equipped fleets


high seas clash united states nato soviet union warsaw pact cold war ended without direct total war two sides outcome action remains hypothetical broadly understood include towards late cold war multiple salvoes anti ship missiles americans us attempts air strike soviet land bases fleets given eventual strategic surprise effectiveness anti ship missiles outcome clash far clear main consideration carrier battle groups cvbgs critics current naval doctrine argue


although fleet battle unlikely occur foreseeable future cold war thinking continues dominate naval practice however others point toward increased naval budgets russia south east asia possibility conventional naval combat future may become relevant naval tactics weapons systems categorized type opponents intended fight anti air warfare aaw involves action aircraft incoming missiles anti surface warfare asuw focuses attacking defending surface warships anti submarine warfare asw deals detection


destruction enemy submarines key threat modern naval combat airborne cruise missile delivered surface subsurface airborne platforms missile speeds ranging mach engagement time may seconds missiles designed skim sea mere metres sea surface key successful defence argued destroy launch platform ''before'' fires thus removing number missile threats always possible anti aircraft warfare aaw resources need balanced


outer inner air battles missile tactics mostly fire forget manner harpoon exocet utilize horizon targeting tomahawk silkworm close range missile defence modern age depends heavily close weapon systems ciws phalanx goalkeeper though traveling water lower speeds torpedoes present similar threat case missiles torpedoes self propelled launched surface subsurface air platforms modern versions weapon present wide selection homing technologies specially suited


particular target far fewer means destroying incoming torpedoes compared missiles submarines subsurface launching platforms present important threat conventional naval operations anechoic coatings ultra quiet pump jets provide modern submarines advantage stealth move towards shallow water operations greatly increased advantage mere suspicion submarine threat force fleet commit resources removing consequences undetected enemy submarine obviously lethal threat posed british submarines falklands war one reasons argentine navy


limited operations ref name swartz ref single submarine sea also impacted operations indo pakistani naval war conventional naval forces also seen providing capability power projection several naval operations aircraft carrier used support land forces rather supply air control sea carriers used way gulf war history naval tactics evolved time developments naval technology evolution warships evolution naval tactics best understood dividing naval history thematic topics


galley tactics naval tactics earliest times battle lepanto last major battle oar propelled galleys dominated sailing ship tactics tactics focused sailing warships especially late th century including development line battle naval tactics age steam development steam ironclad firing explosive shells lead new tactics developed big gun dreadnought battleships mine torpedo submarine aircraft posed new threats countered leading tactical developments anti submarine warfare use


dazzle camouflage end steam age aircraft carriers submarines replaced battleships principal units fleet modern period naval tactics began widespread replacement naval guns missiles long range combat aircraft world war ii basis tactical doctrine used today post world war ii conflicts indo pakistani naval war indo pakistani war significant conflict involving naval forces since world war ii two thousand sailors died multiple ships sunk significantly first


submarine sinking ship since world war ii occurred pakistani submarine pns ''hangor'' sank indian asw frigate passive active sonar homing torpedoes air strikes naval facilities fast missile craft utilized war western theatre war indian navy successfully attacked karachi 's port operation trident ref name globalsecurity ref night december ref name globalsecurity using missile boats sinking pakistani destroyer minesweeper pns shah jahan also badly damaged ref name globalsecurity response pakistani submarines sought major indian warships pakistani sailors killed


wounded pakistan lost reserve fuel many commercial ships thus crippling pakistan navy 's involvement conflict operation trident followed operation python ref name globalsecurity night december ref name globalsecurity indian missile boats attacked karachi port resulting destruction reserve fuel tanks sinking three pakistani merchant ships ref name globalsecurity since pakistan 's naval headquarters almost entire fleet operated port city karachi major strategic victory enabled indian navy attain complete naval superiority partially


blockade pakistan eastern theatre war indian eastern naval command completely isolated east pakistan naval blockade bay bengal trapping eastern pakistani navy eight foreign merchant ships ports december onwards aircraft carrier deployed sea hawk fighter bombers attacked many coastal towns east pakistan ref name olsen ref including chittagong cox 's bazar pakistan countered threat sending submarine sank en route mysterious circumstances visakhapatnam 's coast december indian navy suffered biggest wartime loss


captured indian forces dhaka ref name losses ref according one pakistan scholar tariq ali pakistan lost half navy war falklands war falklands war next significant conflict involving naval forces since world war ii primary combat argentine air force based mainland british naval force centered aircraft carriers argentine naval forces played minor role conflict war demonstrated importance naval airborne early warning aew vital british success protection two royal


conflict also led increased interest close defense capabilities naval ships including close weapon systems ciws last ditch defense incoming missiles attack us frigate uss ''stark'' patrol persian gulf also highlighted danger anti ship missiles case ''stark'' iraqi exocet missiles detected ''stark' 's ciws turned ship expecting attack falklands war also saw time warship sunk nuclear powered submarine hostile attack


british nuclear powered submarine hms ''conqueror'' attacked argentine cruiser ara ''general belgrano'' torpedoes nuclear propulsion plants submarines able remain station virtually undetected ref name swartz conflicts another large naval operation conducted major power took place us navy provided protection kuwaiti owned tankers persian gulf iran iraq war naval forces played supporting role land battles us battleships provided gunfire support vietnam war gulf war falklands war british destroyers frigates carried


shellings argentine positions croatian war subsequent war bosnia saw naval action initially yugoslav navy declared blockade ports dalmatia september december later nato naval forces part operation sharp guard deployed number units adriatic order enforce united nations arms embargo former yugoslavia later operations former yugoslavia deliberate force allied force involved use seaborne aircraft launch tomahawk cruise missiles serb targets british


australian warships provided gunfire support al faw operation invasion iraq us uk naval forces used tomahawk cruise missiles land targets course actions undertaken since end cold war opening international involvement libyan civil war british armed forces played decisive role uss ''cole'' bombing suicide waterborne mission us aegis destroyer yemen october resulted increased awareness terrorist risks whilst warships harbor near potentially


hostile coastlines war terrorism also seen increased awareness naval role terrorism us led invasion afghanistan reaffirmed role naval air power us carrier based aircraft provided sorties afghanistan taliban al qaeda forces munitions delivered us navy operation enduring freedom precision guided munitions several nations contributed vessels maritime patrol aircraft deny al qaeda access arabian sea indian ocean including us australia britain canada germany netherlands new zealand amongst others france italy also used


carrier based aircraft afghanistan special forces operated us british carriers particular uss ''kitty hawk'' aircraft traditionally used maritime patrol nimrod p orion also used overland surveillance role afghanistan well invasion iraq see also naval strategy military tactics references reading rodger nicholas image reality eighteenth century naval tactics ''mariner 's mirror'' pp nbsp tactics


'''hand surgery''' deals surgical non surgical treatment conditions problems may take place hand upper extremity commonly tip hand shoulder ref name assh hand surgery extremely difficult ranking last doctors would consider easy cause loss memory loss fingers loss hand hands loss leg average cases death http wwwasshorg public pages defaultaspx hand surgery american society surgery hand retrieved ref including injury infection hand surgery may practiced graduates general surgery

Applied science
Medicine and health
Hand Surgery


orthopedic surgery plastic surgery ref name assh '''chiroplasty''' '''cheiroplasty''' plastic surgery hands ref name freedictionary ref plastic surgeons orthopedic surgeons receive significant training hand surgery residency training also graduates additional one year hand fellowship board certified general plastic orthopedics surgeons completed approved fellowship training hand surgery met number practice requirements qualified take certificate added qualifications surgery hand examination formerly known caqsh known soth regardless original field training


candidates completed approved fellowship hand surgery hand surgeons received training treating injuries bones soft tissues hand upper extremity among without additional hand training plastic surgeons usually received training handle traumatic hand digit amputations require replant operation orthopedic surgeons trained reconstruct aspects salvage appendage tendons muscle bone well orthopedic surgeons trained handle complex fractures hand injuries carpal bones alter mechanics wrist history


historical context three qualifying fields plastic surgery orthopedic surgery recent branches general surgery main trunk modern hand surgery began world war ii military planning decision us army surgeon general major general norman kirk knew hand injuries world war poor outcomes part formal system deal kirk also knew civilian general surgical colleague dr sterling bunnell special interest experience hand reconstruction kirk tapped bunnell train military surgeons


management hand injuries treat war casualties time hand surgery became formal specialty orthopedic surgeons continued develop special techniques manage small bones found wrist hand pioneering plastic surgeons developed microsurgical techniques repairing small nerves arteries hand surgeons three specialties contributed development techniques repairing tendons managing broad range acute chronic hand injuries hand surgery incorporates techniques orthopaedics plastic surgery general surgery neurosurgery vascular microvascular surgery psychiatry recent advance


progression 'wide awake hand surgery' countries sweden finland singapore hand surgery recognized clinical specialty right formal four six years hand surgery resident training program hand surgeons going programs trained aspects hand surgery combining mastering skills traditionally associated orthopedic hand surgeons plastic hand surgeons become equally adept handling tendon ligament bone injuries well microsurgical reconstruction reattachment severed parts free tissue transfers transplants scope


field hand surgeons perform wide variety operations fracture repairs releases transfer repairs tendons reconstruction injuries rheumatoid deformities congenital defects also perform microsurgical reattachment amputated digits limbs microsurgical reconstruction soft tissues bone nerve reconstruction surgery improve function paralysed upper limbs two medical societies exist united states provide continuing medical education hand surgeons american society surgery hand american association hand surgery britain medical society hand surgeons


british society surgery hand bssh europe several societies brought together federation european societies surgery hand fessh indications following conditions indications hand surgery hand wrist injuries tendon conditions eg trigger finger nerve compression disorders eg carpal tunnel syndrome cubital tunnel syndrome carpometacarpal bossing rheumatoid arthritis dupuytren 's contracture congenital defects see also tetraplegic upper limb surgery references surgery plastic surgery orthopedic surgical procedures hand


hematology blood smears glass slide stained ready examined microscope bacteriology agar plate bacterial colonies bacteriology microscopic image mixture two types bacteria stained gram stain clinical chemistry automated blood chemistry analyser histopathology microscopic image invasive carcinoma overexpressed neu oncogene stained brown '''clinical pathology medical laboratory ''' medical specialty concerned diagnosis disease based laboratory analysis bodily fluids blood urine tissue homogenates extracts using tools chemistry microbiology hematology

Natural science
Biology
Pathology
Clinical pathology


molecular pathology specialty requires medical residency clinical pathology medical laboratory term used us uk ireland many commonwealth countries portugal brazil italy japan peru countries using equivalent home language laboratory medicine include austria germany romania poland eastern european countries terms clinical analysis spain clinical medical biology france belgium netherlands north west africa licensing subspecialities american board pathology certifies clinical pathologists recognizes following secondary specialties clinical pathology chemical pathology also called clinical chemistry hematopathology blood banking transfusion medicine clinical


microbiology cytogenetics molecular genetics pathology countries sub specialities fall certified clinical biologists responsibility reproductive biology including assisted reproductive technology sperm bank semen analysis immunopathology organization clinical pathologists often medical doctors countries south america europe africa asia specialty practiced non physicians phd pharmd variable number years residency united states america clinical pathologists work close collaboration clinical scientists clinical biochemists clinical microbiologists etc medical technologists hospital administrators referring physicians ensure accuracy


called medical biology biologie dicale practiced mds pharmds residency lasts four years specialists discipline called biologiste dical literally translates clinical biologist rather clinical pathologist place work see medical laboratory tools microscopes analyzers strips centrifuges macroscopic examination visual examination taken liquid first main indication pathologist physician aspect liquid addition conditions analytical assumption responsibility follow validity end results microscopical examination microscopic


last decades better reproducibility results proportionings particular medical biochemistry hematology companies vitro diagnosis henceforth try sell chains automats ie system allowing automatic transfer tubes towards various types automats mark systems include computer assisted management serum library analysers must undergo daily controls guarantee result possible one speaks quality control analysers must also undergo daily weekly monthly maintenances cultures big part examinations clinical pathology


primarily medical microbiology use culture media allow example description one several infectious agents responsible clinical signs values known normal reference values detailed article reference range see also pathology medical laboratory anatomic pathology medical technologist veterinary pathology clinical biologist notes references external links http wwwaaccorg american association clinical chemistry http wwwascporg american society clinical pathology http wwwabpathorg american board pathology http wwwcaporg college american pathologists http wwwefcclmeu european federation clinical chemistry laboratory medicine


one approach blockquote point departure sociology art question possible works art always originate products human activity ''within'' particular time society ''for'' particular time society function even though necessarily produced 'works art' live beyond time seem expressive meaningful completely different epochs societies hand age society produced recognized works ref name e ref blockquote approaches consider social economic background

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of art


creation works art great focus art history recent decades example research examined role gender nationality artists museum exhibition textbook inclusion role patrons consumers art well artist considered work role geographic location art collections collectors shown affect prestige recognition collectors art world also great interest history art collecting history older objects


change french painting world''' university chicago press chicago sociology art visual arts visual anthropology


world inferences may made etymology modern usage term ''formal sciences'' english language literature occurs least early posthumous publication lectures philosophy sir william hamilton wherein logic mathematics listed formal sciences going even back german language textbook logic published wilhelm esser elucidating significance designation ''formal science'' ''formalwissenschaft'' applied logic english language translation provided william hamilton 's lecture history formal sciences began formulation scientific method


ancient mathematical texts dating back nbsp bc babylonian mathematics nbsp bc egyptian mathematics nbsp bc indian mathematics different cultures greek arab persian made major contributions mathematics chinese japanese independently distant cultures developed mathematical tradition besides mathematics logic another example one oldest subjects field formal sciences explicit analysis methods reasoning logic received sustained development originally three places india china greece


formally sophisticated treatment modern logic descends greek tradition informed transmission aristotelian logic developed islamic logicians indian tradition also continued early modern period native chinese tradition survive beyond antiquity though indian logic later adopted medieval china number disciplines formal science rely heavily mathematics exist mathematics developed relatively advanced level pierre de fermat blaise pascal christiaan huygens started earliest study


probability theory early gauss laplace developed mathematical theory statistics also explained use statistics insurance governmental accounting mathematical statistics recognized mathematical discipline early th nbsp century mid th century mathematics broadened enriched rise new mathematical sciences engineering disciplines operations research systems engineering sciences benefited basic research electrical engineering development electrical computing also stimulated information theory numerical analysis scientific computing theoretical computer science theoretical computer science also benefits


discipline mathematical logic included theory computation branches branches formal science include computer science mathematics statistics information science systems science differences sciences reprinted dover ref opposed empirical sciences natural social formal sciences involve empirical procedures also presuppose knowledge contingent facts describe real world sense formal sciences logically methodologically ''a priori'' content validity independent empirical procedures therefore straightly speaking formal science empirical science


formal logical system content targeted components experiential reality information thoughts francis bacon pointed th century experimental verification propositions must carried rigorously cannot take logic way draw conclusions nature formal science method helpful empirical science cannot replace empirical science although formal sciences conceptual systems lacking empirical content mean relation real world relation formal


statements hold possible conceivable worlds whereas statements based empirical theories say general relativity evolutionary biology hold possible worlds may eventually turn hold world well formal sciences applicable domains useful empirical sciences non empirical nature formal sciences construed outlining set axioms definitions statements theorems deduced reason rudolf carnap 's logical positivist conception epistemology science theories belonging formal sciences


understood contain synthetic statements instead statements analytic see also philosophy science rationalism abstract structure abstraction mathematics abstraction computer science formalism philosophy mathematics formal grammar formal language formal method formal system form content mathematical model mathematics subject classification semiotics theory forms references reading mario bunge ''philosophy science technology'' springer mario bunge ''philosophy science'' rev ed ''scientific research'' berlin new york springer verlag c west churchman ''elements logic formal science'' jb lippincott co new york james franklin http wwwmathsunsweduau jim philosophersstonepdf


formal sciences discover philosophers' stone ''studies history philosophy science'' vol pp nbsp stephen leacock ''elements political science'' houghton mifflin co pp bernt p stigum ''toward formal science economics'' mit press marcus tomalin '' https booksgooglecom booksid xbjfag qcygc printsec frontcover v onepage q f false linguistics formal sciences '' cambridge university press william l twining ''law context enlarging discipline'' pp external links http wwwmathuni bonnde people fotfs interdisciplinary conferences ''foundations formal sciences'' branches science


ancient literature comprises religious scientific documents tales poetry plays royal edicts declarations forms writing recorded variety media including stone stone tablets papyri palm leaves metal spread writing oral literature always survive well though texts fragments persisted one conclude unknown number written works likely survived ravages time therefore lost august nitschke sees fairy tales literary survivals dating back ice age stone age narrators list

Humanities
Languages and literature
History of literature
Ancient literature


ancient texts bronze age '''early bronze age''' rd millennium bc approximate dates shown earliest written literature dates bc classical sumerian earliest literary author known name enheduanna sumerian priestess public figure dating ca th century bc certain literary texts difficult date ''egyptian book dead'' recorded ''papyrus ani'' around bc versions book probably date th century bc sumerian texts abu salabikh including ''instructions shuruppak'' ''kesh temple


hymn'' egyptian ''the life metjen'' saqqara ref name towi toby h wilkinson ''early dynastic egypt'' routledge london new york ref egyptian diary merer oldest papyrus egyptian ''pyramid texts'' including ''cannibal hymn'' sumerian ''code urukagina'' egyptian ''palermo stone'' egyptian ''the maxims ptahhotep'' sumerian ''enheduanna 's hymns'' egyptian ''autobiography weni'' earliest sumerian stories ''epic gilgamesh'' ref name oxford university press ref egyptian ''autobiography harkhuf'' sumerian ''curse agade'' sumerian ''debate bird fish'' sumerian ''code ur nammu'' egyptian ''coffin texts'' sumerian


''lament ur'' sumerian ''enmerkar lord aratta'' '''middle bronze age''' ca bc approximate dates shown egyptian ''tale shipwrecked sailor'' ref name allen ref akkadian ''laws eshnunna'' akkadian ''legend etana'' sumerian ''code lipit ishtar'' egyptian ''the eloquent peasant'' ref name allen egyptian ''story sinuhe'' hieratic ref name allen egyptian ''dispute man ba'' ref name allen egyptian ''loyalist teaching'' ref name allen akkadian ''kultepe texts'' akkadian ''en eli '' akkadian mari letters including ''epic zimri lim'' akkadian ''code hammurabi''


stele hittite ''anitta text'' akkadian ''atra hasis epic'' egyptian ''westcar papyrus'' akkadian ''epic gilgamesh'' egyptian ''ipuwer papyrus'' akkadian ''eridu genesis'' '''late bronze age''' ca bc approximate dates shown hittite ''code nesilim'' akkadian ''poor man nippur'' vedic sanskrit rigveda hittite military oath ugaritic ''legend keret'' ''egyptian book dead'' akkadian ''dynasty dunnum'' akkadian ''marriage nergal ereshkigal'' akkadian ''autobiography kurigalzu'' akkadian amarna letters egyptian ''great hymn aten'' egyptian ''papyrus


ani'' book dead akkadian version younger stories ''epic gilgamesh'' ref name oxford university press akkadian ''tukulti ninurta epic'' egyptian ''tale two brothers'' iron age '''iron age''' texts predating classical antiquity th th centuries bce bce approximate date vedic sanskrit yajurveda atharvaveda samaveda bce egyptian ''story wenamun'' bce akkadian ''sakikk '' sagig diagnostic omens esagil kin apli ref name lenzi ref bce ''babylonian theodicy'' aggil k nam ubbib ref name lenzi bce akkadian ''dialogue pessimism'' bce akkadian ''epic erra'' bce vedic sanskrit ''aranyaka'' classical antiquity th century


bce greek trojan war cycle including ''iliad'' ''odyssey'' bce vedic sanskrit brahmanas brihadaranyaka upanishad isha upanishad chandogya upanishad aitareya upanishad taittiriya upanishad oldest books hebrew bible book nahum book hosea book amos book isaiah th century bce vedic sanskrit shulba sutra containing geometry related fire altar construction manava sulbasutra baudhayana sutra shatapatha brahmana commentary vedas nirukta technical treatise etymology lexical category semantics sanskrit words kausitaka upanishad ''greek '' hesiod ''theogony'' ''works days'' archilochus alcman semonides amorgos solon mimnermus stesichorus


chinese ''classic poetry sh j ng '' ''classic documents sh j ng '' authentic portions ''classic changes ching '' th century bce ''persian '' ''cyrus cylinder'' ''hebrew bible '' psalms according late dating book ezekiel book daniel according conservative early dating sanskrit sushruta sushruta samhita book surgery medicine kapila samkhya sutra kapilanyayabhasa kapila gita antara yoga kanada vai e ika tra book atomism kashyapa samhhita book medicine pratishakhyas ''greek '' sappho ibycus alcaeus mytilene aesop 's fables th century bce sanskrit p ini ''a dhy '' kenopanishad apastamba'' apastamba dharmasutra'''' apastambha smriti'' ''avestan '' ''yasht'' ''chinese '' ''spring autumn annals ch nqi '' bce chronicles


state lu confucius ''analects l ny '' ''classic rites l j '' ''commentaries zuo zu zhu n '' mozi ''mozi book z '' sun tzu ''the art war nz b ngf '' ''greek '' pindar odes herodotus ''the histories herodotus'' thucydides ''history peloponnesian war'' aeschylus ''the suppliants'' ''the persians'' ''seven thebes'' ''oresteia'' sophocles ''oedipus rex'' ''oedipus colonus'' ''antigone'' ''electra'' plays euripides ''alcestis'' ''medea'' ''heracleidae'' ''hippolytus'' ''andromache'' ''hecuba'' ''the suppliants'' ''electra'' ''heracles'' ''trojan women'' ''iphigeneia tauris'' ''ion'' ''helen'' ''phoenician women'' ''orestes'' ''bacchae'' ''iphigeneia aulis'' ''cyclops'' ''rhesus'' aristophanes ''the acharnians'' ''the knights'' ''the clouds'' ''the wasps'' ''peace'' ''the birds''


''lysistrata'' ''thesmophoriazusae'' ''the frogs'' ''ecclesiazousae'' ''plutus'' ''hebrew'' date extant text torah th century bce sanskrit katha upanishad prashnopanishad mundaka upanishad kya upanishad bhadrabahu ''kalpa tra'' chankaya ''arthshastra'''' chanakya neeti'' salihotra ''shalihotra samhita'' treatise veterinary medicine vyasa'' mahabharata puranas brahma sutras'' jaimini ''mimamsa sutras jaimini sutras ashvamedhika parva'' valmiki ''ramayana'' bh sa ''svapnav savadattam'''' pancar tra pratijna yaugandharayaanam pratiman taka abhishekan taka b lacharita karnabh ram tagha otkaca ch rudatta madhyamavyayoga urubhanga'' ''pali'' tipitaka ''hebrew '' book job beginning hebrew wisdom literature hebrew ''torah'' also called ''pentateuch'' five books moses ref name n according ancient jewish christian tradition


modern scholars see inline citations ref final redaction bce ''chinese '' laozi lao tzu ''tao te ching'' zhuangzi ''zhuangzi book '' mencius ''mencius'' shang yang ''the book lord shang sh ng j n sh '' ''persian '' dna inscription ''greek '' xenophon ''anabasis'' ''cyropaedia oeconomicus memorabilia'' aristotle ''nicomachean ethics metaphysics organon physics historia animalium de partibus animalium de motu animalium de mundo de caelo poetics politics magna moralia'' plato ''euthyphro'' ''apology'' ''crito'' ''theaetetus'' ''parmenides'' ''symposium'' ''phaedrus'' ''protagoras'' ''gorgias'' ''meno'' ''republic'' ''timaeus critias laws menexenus phaedo lysis alcibiades alcibiades ii hippias minor epinomis minos hipparchus'' euclid ''elements'' menander ''dyskolos''


theophrastus ''enquiry plants'' rd century bce ''avestan'' ''avesta'' ''etruscan '' ''liber linteus zagrabiensis linen book zagreb '' ''sanskrit'' pingala ''chanda stra'' moggaliputta tissa ''kath vatthu'' k ty yana ''v rttikak ra ulbas tras'' vishnu sharma ''panchatantra'' vedanga jyotisha bharata muni natya shastra theoretical treatise classical indian dance drama ''sinhalese'' ''elu'' halattakath hela atuw ''pali'' commentaries buddhist teachings translated sinhalese introduction buddhism sri lanka ''tamil '' rd century bce rd century ce ''sangam poems'' ''tolk ppiyam'' grammar book korakkar rd century bce siddharphysicianphilosopher bogar rd century bce siddharphysicianyogi ''agattiyam'' ''hebrew'' ecclesiastes ''greek'' apollonius rhodes ''argonautica'' callimachus bc lyric poet manetho


''aegyptiaca'' theocritus lyric poet ''latin'' lucius livius andronicus c bce c bce translator founder roman drama gnaeus naevius ca bce dramatist epic poet titus maccius plautus c bce dramatist composer comedies ''poenulus'' ''miles gloriosus'' plays quintus fabius pictor rd century bce historian lucius cincius alimentus rd century bce military historian antiquarian nd century bce ''sanskrit'' patanjali founder yoga school philosophy ''mah bh ya treatise grammar linguistics patanjalatantra medical text yoga tras'' badrayana founder vedanta school philosophy ''brahma sutras'' manu ''manusmriti ''laws manu'' '' ''avestan '' ''vendidad'' ''chinese '' sima qian ''records grand


quintus lutatius catulus nd century bce public officer epigrammatist aulus furius antias nd century bce poet gaius julius caesar strabo vopiscus bce bce public officer tragic dramatist lucius pomponius bononiensis nd century bce comic dramatist satirist lucius cassius hemina nd century bce historian lucius calpurnius piso frugi nd century bce historian manius manilius nd century bce public officer jurist lucius coelius antipater nd century bce jurist historian publius sempronius asellio bce bce military officer historian gaius sempronius tuditanus nd century bce jurist lucius afranius nd st centuries bce comic dramatist titus albucius


nd st centuries bce orator publius rutilius rufus bce bce jurist quintus lutatius catulus nd st centuries bce public officer poet lucius aelius stilo praeconinus bce bce philologist quintus claudius quadrigarius nd st centuries bce historian valerius antias nd st centuries bce historian lucius cornelius sisenna bce bce soldier historian quintus cornificius nd st centuries bce rhetorician st century bc ''pali'' sri lanka '' p li tripi aka'' written patronage king vattagamani anuradhapura aluhihare matale ''latin '' cicero ''catiline orations'' ''pro caelio'' ''dream


scipio'' julius caesar ''gallic wars'' ''civil war'' virgil ''eclogues'' ''georgics'' ''aeneid'' lucretius ''on nature things'' livy ''history rome ab urbe condita '' st century ce ''sanskrit'' abara s'' bara bh yam'' gunadhara ''kasayapahuda'' vagho ''buddhacharita'' acts buddha ''saundaranandasutralankara'' ''chinese '' ban gu ''book han h nsh '' ''greek '' plutarch ''lives noble greeks romans'' josephus ''the jewish war'' ''antiquities jews'' ''against apion'' books new testament christian bible ''didache'' ''latin '' see classical latin tacitus ''germania'' ovid ''metamorphoses'' also ''tristia'' ''epistulae ex ponto'' written exile pliny elder ''natural history'' petronius ''satyricon''


seneca younger ''phaedra'' dialogues statius ''thebaid'' also ''silvae'' unfinished ''achilleid'' nd century ''sanskrit '' vagho ''buddhacharita acts buddha '' ''pahlavi '' ''yadegar e zariran memorial zar r '' ''visperad'' ''drakht asurig babylonian tree '' ''greek'' arrian ''anabasis alexandri'' marcus aurelius ''meditations'' epictetus arrian ''enchiridion'' ptolemy ''almagest'' athenaeus ''the banquet learned'' pausanias ''description greece'' longus ''daphnis chloe'' lucian ''true history'' ''the shepherd hermas'' ''latin '' see classical latin apuleius ''the golden ass'' lucius ampelius ''liber memorialis'' suetonius ''lives twelve caesars'' tertullian ''apologeticus'' rd century ''avestan'' ''khordeh avesta'' zoroastrian prayer book ''pahlavi '' mani ''shabuhragan'' manichaean


holy book ''chinese '' chen shou ''records three kingdoms ngu zh '' zhang hua ''bowuzhi'' ''greek '' plotinus ''enneads'' ''latin '' see late latin distichs cato ''hebrew '' mishnah ''pali'' sri lanka '' pava sa'' late antiquity th century ''latin '' see late latin augustine hippo ''confessions'' ''on christian doctrine'' faltonia betitia proba ''cento vergilianus de laudibus christi'' virgilian cento concerning glory christ ''apicius'' ''de coquinaria'' subject cooking ''pervigilium veneris'' vigil venus ''sanskrit'' ''asanga dharma dharmata vibhaga distinguishing phenomena pure mah nasa graha summary great vehicle '' vasubandhu ''verses treasury abhidharmapa caskandhaprakara explanation five aggregates pa caskandhaprakara explanation


five aggregates vy khy yukti proper mode exposition v davidhi rules debate dharmadharmat vibh gav tti commentary distinguishing elements reality madhy ntavibh gabh ya commentary distinguishing middle extremes mah nas tr la k rabh ya commentary ornament great vehicle discourses '' dign ga ''pram samuccaya'' ''compendium valid cognition'' ''hetucakra'' ''the wheel reason'' haribhadra ''anek ntajayapat k '' ''victory banner anekantavada relativism'' ''dh rt khy na'' ''the rogue 's stories'' ''yogad isamuccaya'' ''an array views yoga'' '' dar anasamuccaya ''compendium six philosophies'' '' ''syriac '' aphrahat ephrem syrian ''aramaic '' jerusalem talmud ''pali'' sri lanka '' mah va sa'' th century ''chinese '' bao zhao ''fu ruined city'' ''w ch ng f '' fan ye ''book later han'' ''h uh nsh '' ''sanskrit '' k lid sa speculated


first scholastics among doctors paradise see ''the divine comedy'' ref ''aramaic '' babylonian talmud sanskrit var hamihira ''pa casiddh ntik '' treatise five astronomical canons brihat samhita great compilation encylopedic work yativ abha tiloya panatti book cosmology mathematics virahanka prabh kara ''triputipratyaksavada'' doctrine triple perception dharmakirti ''sa bandhaparik h vrtti'' analysis relations ''pram avini caya'' ascertainment valid cognition ''ny yabinduprakara a'' drop logic ''hetubindun maprakara a'' drop reason ''sa n ntarasiddhin maprakara a'' proof others' mindstreams ''v dany yan maprakara a'' reasoning debate pra astap da ''pad rtha dharma sa graha'' collection properties matter bh viveka ''heart middlewisdom lamp'' udyotakara ''ny yav rttika'''' work logic '' gaudapada mandukya karika ''sinhalese'' wansaththppak sin ''sinhalese'' translation ''pali'' mah va sa sigiriya poems poems written visitors citadel sigiriya ''pali'' sri lanka


''c ava sa'' ''irish'' early irish literature dall n forgaill ''amra'' life st columba see also early medieval literature list languages first written accounts list years literature references


'''labour laws''' also known '''labor laws''' '''employment laws''' mediate relationship workers employing entities trade unions government collective labour law relates tripartite relationship employee employer union individual labour law concerns employees' rights work also contract work social norms cases also technical standards minimum socially acceptable conditions employees contractors allowed work government agencies former us employment standards administration enforce labour law legislature regulatory judicial history following unification


city states assyria sumer sargon akkad single empire ruled home city circa bc common mesopotamian standards length area volume weight time used artisan guilds city promulgated naram sin akkad c bc sargon 's grandson including shekels ref name powell p ref code hammurabi law c bc stipulated shekel prevailing wage gur bushel vessel constructed employment contract shipbuilder ship owner ref name sommer p ref ref name harper p ref ref name king ref law stipulated ferry


rate gerah per day charterparty ship charterer shipmaster law stipulated gerah per day freight rate contract affreightment charterer shipmaster law stipulated shekel per day freight rate gur vessel ref name sommer p ref ref name harper p ref ref name king archeological excavation minya egypt eyalet ottoman empire produced nerva antonine dynasty era tablet ruins temple antinous antino polis aegyptus prescribed rules membership dues burial


society ''collegium'' established lanuvium italia approximately ad reign hadrian roman empire ''collegium'' association ancient rome acted legal entity following passage ''lex julia'' reign julius caesar consul dictator roman republic bc reaffirmation reign caesar augustus ''princeps senatus'' imperator roman army bc ad ''collegia'' required approval roman senate emperor order authorized legal bodies ref name de ligt ref


ruins lambaesis date formation burial societies among roman army soldiers roman navy mariners reign septimius severus ad september archeological investigations done site artificial harbour portus rome revealed inscriptions shipyard constructed reign trajan indicating existence shipbuilders guild rome 's la ostia port home guildhall ''corpus naviculariorum'' ''collegium'' merchant mariners ''collegium'' also included fraternities roman priests overseeing ritual sacrifices practicing augury keeping scriptures arranging festivals maintaining specific religious


cults labour law arose parallel industrial revolution relationship worker employer changed small scale production studios large scale factories workers sought better conditions right join labour union employers sought predictable flexible less costly workforce state labour law one time therefore product component struggles various social forces england first country industrialize also first face often appalling consequences industrial revolution less regulated economic


public opinion steadily made aware terrible conditions children forced endure cotton mills factories act outcome efforts industrialist robert owen prohibited child labour nine years age limited working hours twelve great milestone labour law reached factories act limited employment children eighteen years age prohibited night work crucially provided inspectors enforce law pivotal campaigning securing legislation michael


sadler earl shaftesbury act important step forward mandated skilled inspection workplaces rigorous enforcement law independent governmental body lengthy campaign limit working day ten hours led shaftesbury included support anglican church many committees formed support cause previously established groups lent support well campaign finally led passage factory act restricted working hours women children british factories effectively


hours per day working conditions early efforts principally aimed limiting child labour mid th century attention first paid plight working conditions workforce general systematic reporting fatal accidents made compulsory basic safeguards health life limb mines put place regulations relating ventilation fencing disused shafts signalling standards proper gauges valves steam boilers related machinery also set series acts extended legal provisions


strengthened safety provisions steady development coal industry increasing association among miners increased scientific knowledge paved way coal mines act extended legislation similar industries act included first comprehensive code regulation govern legal safeguards health life limb presence certified competent management increased levels inspection also provided end century comprehensive set regulations place england affected industries similar system certain national differences


position reason long reason explicitly prohibited conversely employee may quit time reason reason required give notice major issue business understand relationship worker master two types workers independent contractors employees differentiated based level control master workers provided tools resources closely supervised paid regularly etc considered employees company employees must act


best interest employer one example employment terms many countries duty provide written particulars employment ''essentialia negotii'' latin essential terms employee aims allow employee know concretely expect expected covers items including compensation holiday illness rights notice event dismissal job description contract subject various legal provisions employer may legally offer contract pays worker less minimum wage employee may agree contract