ballistic analysis computational forensics concerns development algorithms software assist forensic examination criminalistics application various sciences answer questions relating examination comparison biological evidence trace evidence impression evidence fingerprints footwear impressions tire tracks controlled substances ballistics firearm toolmark examination evidence criminal investigations typical circumstances evidence processed crime lab digital forensics application proven scientific methods techniques order recover data electronic digital media digital forensic specialists work field well


lab ear print analysis used means forensic identification intended identification tool similar fingerprinting earprint two dimensional reproduction parts outer ear touched specific surface commonly helix antihelix tragus antitragus election forensics use statistics determine election results normal abnormal also look detect cases concerning gerrymandering forensic accounting study interpretation accounting evidence financial statement namely balance sheet income statement cash flow statement forensic aerial photography

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study interpretation aerial photographic evidence forensic anthropology application physical anthropology legal setting usually recovery identification skeletonized human remains forensic archaeology application combination archaeological techniques forensic science typically law enforcement forensic astronomy uses methods astronomy determine past celestial constellations forensic purposes forensic botany study plant life order gain information regarding possible crimes forensic chemistry study detection identification illicit drugs accelerants used arson cases explosive gunshot residue forensic dactyloscopy


study fingerprints forensic document examination questioned document examination answers questions disputed document using variety scientific processes methods many examinations involve comparison questioned document components document set known standards common type examination involves handwriting whereby examiner tries address concerns potential authorship forensic dna analysis takes advantage uniqueness individual 's dna answer forensic questions paternity maternity testing placing suspect crime scene eg rape investigation forensic engineering


scientific examination analysis structures products relating failure cause damage forensic entomology deals examination insects around human remains assist determination time location death also possible determine body moved death using entomology forensic geology deals trace evidence form soils minerals petroleum forensic geomorphology study ground surface look potential location buried object forensic geophysics application geophysical techniques radar detecting


sources examination biological organisms particular diatoms useful connecting suspects victims forensic linguistics deals issues legal system requires linguistic expertise forensic meteorology site specific analysis past weather conditions point loss forensic microbiology study necrobiome forensic nursing application nursing sciences abusive crimes like child abuse sexual abuse categorization wounds traumas collection bodily fluids emotional support duties forensic nurses forensic odontology study uniqueness dentition better


known study teeth forensic optometry study glasses eyewear relating crime scenes criminal investigations forensic pathology field principles medicine pathology applied determine cause death injury context legal inquiry forensic podiatry application study feet footprint footwear traces analyze scene crime establish personal identity forensic examinations forensic psychiatry specialized branch psychiatry applied based scientific criminology forensic psychology


study mind individual using forensic methods usually determines circumstances behind criminal 's behavior forensic seismology study techniques distinguish seismic signals generated underground nuclear explosions generated earthquakes forensic serology study body fluids forensic social work specialist study social work theories applications clinical criminal justice psychiatric setting practitioners forensic social work connected criminal justice system often termed social supervisors whilst remaining use interchangeable titles forensic social worker


approved mental health professional forensic practitioner conduct specialist assessments risk care planning act officer court forensic toxicology study effect drugs poisons human body forensic video analysis scientific examination comparison evaluation video legal matters mobile device forensics scientific examination evaluation evidence found mobile phones eg call history deleted sms includes sim card forensics trace evidence analysis analysis comparison trace evidence including glass paint fibres hair eg using


bullet could traced back particular batch even specific box internal studies outside study national academy sciences found technique unreliable due improper interpretation fbi abandoned test forensic dentistry come fire least three cases bite mark evidence used convict people murder later freed dna evidence study member american board forensic odontology found percent rate false identifications commonly


referenced within online news stories conspiracy websites study based informal workshop abfo meeting many members consider valid scientific setting late scientists able show possible fabricate dna evidence thus undermining credibility considered gold standard proof criminal cases ref name pollack polloack andrew august https wwwnytimescom science dnahtml dna evidence fabricated scientists show ''the new york times'' ref litigation science '''litigation science''' describes analysis data developed produced ''expressly'' use


trial versus produced course independent research distinction made us th circuit court appeals evaluating admissibility experts uses demonstrative evidence evidence created preparation trial attorneys paralegals demographics united states forensic science technicians media impact real life crime scene investigators forensic scientists warn popular television shows give realistic picture work often wildly distorting nature exaggerating ease speed effectiveness drama glamour influence comfort level


forensic science tv accurate november eberly college science penn state univ retrieved may ref claim modern tv shows changed individuals' expectations forensic science sometimes unrealistically influence termed csi effect ref name csi effect juror decisions alldredge alldredge john http scholarworkssjsuedu themis vol iss 'csi effect' potential impact juror decisions ''themis research journal justice studies forensic science'' vol iss article retrieved may ref research suggested public misperceptions criminal forensics create mind juror unrealistic expectations forensic evidence


expect see convicting implicitly biasing juror towards defendant citing csi effect least one researcher suggested screening jurors level influence tv programs ref name csi effect juror decisions alldredge controversies questions certain areas forensic science fingerprint evidence assumptions behind disciplines brought light publications including ''new york post'' ref name forensicchallenge ref article stated one proved even basic assumption everyone 's fingerprint unique ref name forensicchallenge article also stated assumptions questioned may come


radical change forensic science used police departments prosecutors ref name forensicchallenge law professor jessica gabel said nova forensic science lacks rigors standards quality controls procedures find usually science us june supreme court issued decision ''melendez diaz v massachusetts'' stating crime laboratory reports may used criminal defendants trial unless analysts responsible creating give testimony subject cross examination supreme court cited national academies sciences report ''strengthening


forensic science united states'' ref name ref decision writing majority justice antonin scalia referred national research council report assertion forensic evidence uniquely immune risk manipulation us another area forensic science come question recent years lack laws requiring accreditation forensic labs states require accreditation states many labs caught performing poor work resulting false convictions acquittals example


discovered audit houston police department lab fabricated evidence led george rodriguez convicted raping fourteen year old girl ref name nytimescom ref former director lab asked said total number cases could contaminated improper work could range ref name nytimescom could avoided lab accredited organizations ascld lab require crime labs undergo rigorous assessments show able perform multiple tests accurately


become accredited periodically evaluated ensure lab still functioning best periodic evaluations lab 's performance independent organization help prevent scandals occurring forensic science laboratories although forensic science greatly enhanced investigator 's ability solve crimes limitations must scrutinized courtroom avoid occurrence wrongful convictions https innocenceprojectorg innocence project data base dna exonerations shows many wrongful convictions contained forensic science errors indicated national academy sciences report


cited ''strengthening forensic sciences united states'' ref name part problem many traditional forensic sciences never empirically validated part problem examiners subject forensic confirmation biases shielded contextual information relevant judgment make many studies discovered difference rape related injuries reporting based race white victims reporting higher frequency injuries black victims ref name referencea baker rb fargo jd shambley ebron sommers ms source healthcare disparity race skin color injuries rape among


adolescents young adults journal forensic nursing ref however since current forensic examination techniques may sensitive injuries across range skin colors research needs conducted understand trend due skin confounding healthcare providers examining injuries darker skin extends protective element ref name referencea clinical practice patients darker skin one study recommends attention must paid thighs labia majora posterior fourchette fossa navicularis rape related injuries missed upon close examination ref name referencea forensic science


humanitarian work international committee red cross icrc uses forensic science humanitarian purposes clarify fate missing persons armed conflict disasters migration one services related restoring family links missing persons knowing happened missing relative often make easier proceed grieving process move life families missing persons forensic science used various organizations clarify fate whereabouts persons gone missing examples include ngo argentine forensic


anthropology team working clarify fate people disappeared period military dictatorship international commission missing persons icmp uses forensic science find missing persons example conflicts balkans recognising role forensic science humanitarian purposes well importance forensic investigations fulfilling state 's responsibilities investigate human rights violations group experts late devised un manual prevention investigation extra legal arbitrary summary executions became known minnesota protocol document


forensic anthropology forensic biology forensic chemistry forensic economics forensic engineering forensic entomology forensic facial reconstruction forensic genetics forensic identification forensic linguistics forensic materials engineering forensic photography forensic polymer engineering forensic profiling forensic psychiatry forensic psychology forensic seismology forensic social work forensic video analysis glove prints history forensic photography international association identification marine forensics minnesota protocol offender profiling outline forensic science questioned document examination retrospective diagnosis rsid scenes crime officer sherlock holmes skid mark trace evidence profiling information science university florida forensic science distance education program wildlife forensic science wilfrid derome founder first forensic


laboratory north america references bibliography http wwwanilaggrawalcom ij indexpapershtml anil aggrawal 's internet journal forensic medicine toxicology forensic magazine http wwwforensicmagcom forensicmagcom https webarchiveorg web http www fbigov hq lab fsc current indexhtm forensic science communications open access journal fbi http wwwelseviercom wps find journaldescriptioncws home description description forensic sciences international international journal dedicated applications medicine science administration justice elsevier http wwwigi globalcom journals detailsaspid v callforpapers international journal digital crime forensics https wwwpbsorg wgbh pages frontline real csi real csi pbs frontline documentary april baden michael roach marion ''dead reckoning new science catching killers'' simon schuster bartos leah https wwwpropublicaorg article forensic background problem forensic


background problem ''propublica'' april guatelli steinberg debbie mitchell john c http wwwstruerscom defaultaspdoc id structure magazine repliset high resolution impressions teeth human ancestors holt cynthia https webarchiveorg web https lucom showbookcfmisbn ''guide information sources forensic sciences'' libraries unlimited jamieson allan moenssens andre eds http cawileycom wileycda wileytitle productcd desccd descriptionhtml ''wiley encyclopedia forensic science'' john wiley sons ltd http mrwintersciencewileycom emrw home online version kind stuart overman michael ''science crime'' doubleday lewis peter rhys gagg colin reynolds ken ''forensic materials engineering case studies'' crc press nickell joe fischer john f ''crime science methods


forensic detection'' university press kentucky owen ''hidden evidence story forensic science helped solve world 's toughest crimes'' quintet publishing london quinche nicolas margot pierre coulier paul jean precursor history fingermark detection potential use identifying source ''journal forensic identification'' californie march april pp nbsp silverman mike thompson tony ''written blood history forensic science'' external links http wwwcrime scene investigatornet forensic educational resources applied sciences criminology heuristics medical aspects death chromatography


'''social capital''' networks relationships among people live work particular society enabling society function effectively involves effective functioning social groups interpersonal relationships shared sense identity shared understanding shared norms shared values trust cooperation reciprocity social capital measure value resources tangible eg public spaces private property intangible eg actors human capital people impact relationships resources involved relationship larger groups generally seen form


capital produces public goods common purpose social capital used explain improved performance diverse groups growth entrepreneurial firms superior managerial performance enhanced supply chain relations value derived strategic alliances evolution communities history term ' 'social capital'' intermittent use becoming widely used late debate community versus modernization society individualism discussed topic among founders sociology theorists nnies ref name tonnies f ''community


association'' london routledge kegan paul ref durkheim simmel weber ref name weber protestant sects spirit capitalism hans h gert mills c wright eds ''from max weber'' new york oxford university press ref convinced industrialisation urbanization transforming social relationships irreversible way observed breakdown traditional bonds progressive development anomie alienation society ref name wilmott p ''social networks informal care public policy'' london policy studies institute ref th th century power ''community governance'' stressed many philosophers


antiquity th century aristotle thomas aquinas edmund burke vision strongly criticised end th century development idea ''homo economicus'' subsequently ''rational choice theory'' set theories became dominant last centuries many thinkers questioned complicated relationship ''modern society'' importance ''old institutions'' particular family traditional communities ref name concept underlies social capital much longer history thinkers exploring relation associational life democracy using similar concepts


many gatherings possible discuss possible issues state economics world could witnessed high levels transparency caused greater participation people thus allowed democracy work better th century l j hanifan 's article regarding local support rural schools one first occurrences term ' 'social capital'' reference social cohesion personal investment community ref name hanifan l j rural school community center ''annals american academy political social science'' ref defining


concept hanifan contrasts social capital material goods defining ref name blockquote refer real estate personal property cold cash rather life tends make tangible substances count daily lives people namely goodwill fellowship mutual sympathy social intercourse among group individuals families make social unit may come contact neighbour neighbours accumulation social capital may immediately satisfy social needs


may bear social potentiality sufficient substantial improvement living conditions whole community community whole benefit cooperation parts individual find associations advantages help sympathy fellowship neighbours blockquote following works nnies ref name weber ref name reflection social links modern society continued interesting contributions particular ''mass society theory'' developed daniel bell robert nisbet maurice r


stein william h whyte proposed themes similar founders pessimistic emphasis development society words stein price maintaining society encourages cultural differentiation experimentation unquestionably acceptance certain amount disorganization individual social level jane jacobs used term early although explicitly define term ' 'social capital'' usage referred value networks political scientist robert salisbury advanced term critical component interest group formation


article exchange theory interest groups ''midwest journal political science'' sociologist pierre bourdieu used term ''outline theory practice'' ref name bourdieu bourdieu pierre ''outline theory practice'' ref clarified term years later contrast cultural economic administrative capital physical capital political capital social capital symbolic capital sociologists james coleman ref name auto well barry wellman scot wortley adopted glenn loury 's definition developing popularising concept late concept gained popularity serving


definitions social capital used various times explain superior managerial performance growth entrepreneurial firms improved performance functionally diverse groups value derived strategic alliances enhanced supply chain relations resource actors derive specific social structures use pursue interests created changes relationship among actors baker p nbsp early attempts define social capital focused degree social capital resource used public good benefit individuals robert putnam suggested


social capital would facilitate co operation mutually supportive relations communities nations would therefore valuable means combating many social disorders inherent modern societies example crime contrast focusing individual benefit derived web social relationships ties individual actors find attribute social capital increased personal access information skill sets enhanced power according view individuals could use social capital career prospects rather good organisations nan lin 's concept social capital


capital portes example notes term become widely used including mainstream media point approaching social capital comes applied many events many different contexts lose distinct meaning ref name lesser ref term ''capital'' used analogy forms economic capital social capital argued similar although less measurable benefits however analogy capital misleading extent unlike traditional forms capital social capital depleted use fact


depleted non use ''use lose it'' respect similar well established economic concept human capital robison schmid siles reviewed various definitions social capital concluded many satisfy formal requirement definition ref name ref noted definitions must form b many definition social capital described used achieve resides created transform addition argue many proposed definition social capital fail satisfy


requirements capital propose social capital defined ' 'sympathy'' object another 's sympathy social capital sympathy others provide social capital ref name one main advantages social capital provides access resources preferential terms definition sympathy follows used adam smith title first chapter ''theory moral sentiments'' ''social capital'' also distinguished economic theory social capitalism social capitalism theory challenges idea socialism capitalism mutually exclusive social capitalism


posits strong social support network poor enhances capital output decreasing poverty capital market participation enlarged forms capital bourdieu ''the forms capital'' pierre bourdieu distinguishes three forms capital economic capital cultural capital social capital defines ' 'social capital'' aggregate actual potential resources linked possession durable network less institutionalized relationships mutual acquaintance recognition ref name bourdieu bourdieu pierre konomisches kapital kulturelles kapital soziales kapital soziale ungleichheiten soziale welt sonderheft edited reinhard


kreckel goettingen otto schartz co pp ref treatment concept instrumental focusing advantages possessors social capital '' deliberate construction sociability purpose creating resource'' ref name portes ref quite contrary putnam 's positive view social capital bourdieu employs concept demonstrate mechanism generational reproduction inequality bourdieu thus points wealthy powerful use old boys network social capital maintain advantages social class children norms trust reciprocity sander putnam coleman


thomas sander defines collective value social networks people know inclinations arise networks things norms reciprocity ref name ref social capital view emphasizes specific benefits flow trust reciprocity information cooperation associated social networks creates value people connected bystanders well ref name meanwhile negative norms reciprocity serve disincentives detrimental violent behaviors james coleman defined social capital functionally variety entities two elements common


consist aspect social structure facilitate certain actions actorswithin structure ref name auto ref social capital anything facilitates individual collective action generated networks relationships reciprocity trust social norms ref name portes coleman 's conception social capital neutral resource facilitates manner action whether society better result depends entirely individual uses put ref name edwards foley w edwards b ''escape politics'' ref according robert putnam ' 'social capital'' refers connections among


individuals putnam also suggests root cause decline social capital women 's entry workforce could correlate time restraints inhibit civic organizational involvement like parent teacher associations technological transformation leisure eg television another cause declining social capital stated putnam offered reference point several studies assessed social capital measurements media engaged strategically build social capital civic association fukuyama social capital civil society development political economist francis fukuyama defines social capital generally understood rules enable people


welfare enhancing activity social ties carlos garc tim n describes structural dimensions social capital relate individual ability make weak strong ties others within system dimension focuses advantages derived configuration actor 's either individual collective network differences ''weak'' ' 'strong'' ties explained granovetter ref name granovetter ref relational dimension focuses character connection individuals best characterized trust others cooperation identification individual within network hazleton


kennan added third angle communication communication needed access use social capital exchanging information identifying problems solutions managing conflict according boisot boland tenkasi meaningful communication requires least sharing context parties exchange cognitive dimension focuses shared meaning representations interpretations individuals groups one another ref name nahapiet ref negative social capital whereas scholarship prominently robert putnam posits social capital positive ends sizable body literature


finds social capital adverse effects research sheri berman dylan riley well economists shanker satyanath nico voigtl nder hans joachim voth linked civic associations rise fascist movements pierre bourdieu 's work tends show social capital used practically produce reproduce inequality demonstrating instance people gain access powerful positions direct indirect employment social connections example complexities effects negative social capital violence criminal gang activity encouraged strengthening intra group relationships


bonding social capital negative consequences social capital often associated ''bonding'' vis vis ''bridging'' without bridging social capital bonding groups become isolated disenfranchised rest society importantly groups bridging must occur order denote increase social capital bonding social capital necessary antecedent development powerful form bridging social capital bonding bridging social capital work together productively balance may work social capital bonds stronger homogeneous groups form


places build bridging social capital accessibility edwards foley editors special edition ''american behavioral scientist'' social capital civil society contemporary democracy raised two key issues study social capital first social capital equally available much way forms capital differently available geographic social isolation limit access resource second social capital created equally value specific source social capital depends small part socio economic position


source society top portes identified four negative consequences social capital ref name portes exclusion outsiders excess claims group members restrictions individual freedom downward levelling norms political institutions social capital institutional robert putnam sense may also lead bad outcomes political institution democracy specific country strong enough therefore overpowered social capital groups civil society collapse weimar republic suggests weak political institutionalization rather


weak civil society germany 's main problem wihelmine weimar eras political institutions weak people looked outlets germans threw clubs voluntary associations professional organizations frustration failures national government political parties thereby helping undermine weimar republic facilitate hitler 's rise power article fall weimar republic author makes claim hitler rose power quickly able mobilize groups towards one common goal even though


german society time joining society groups fragmented members use skills learned club associations better society introverted weimar republic hitler able capitalize uniting highly bonded groups common cause bringing germany top world politics former world order destroyed world war hitler believed germany right become dominant global power additionally essay criticism


putnam 's theory social capital michael shindler expands upon berman 's argument weimar social clubs similar associations countries develop democracy organized way fostered instead mentality among members arguing groups possess cultures stress solidarity individuality even ones horizontally structured also common pre soviet eastern europe engender democracy politically aligned non democratic ideologies race ethnicity using network based conception characterizing social capital collectivities


organizations business clusters lester maheshwari mclain note negative social capital may cause disadvantageous differences among minority firms versus majority firms studying norms among african american family firms euro american family firms lester et al noted negative social capital created owner company pressured engage social behavior conducive firm profits ref name ref robert putnam later work also suggests social capital associated growth public trust inhibited immigration rising racial diversity communities putnam 's study regarding


issue argued american areas lack homogeneity individuals neither participated bonding bridging social capital societies immigration high usa ethnic heterogeneity high eastern europe found citizens lacked kinds social capital overall far less trusting others members homogenous communities found lack homogeneity led people withdrawing even closest groups relationships creating atomized society opposed cohesive community findings challenge previous beliefs exposure diversity


strengthens social capital either bridging social gaps ethnicities strengthening group bonds important policy makers monitor level perceived socio economic threat immigrants negative attitudes towards immigrants make integration difficult affect social capital varshney studied correlation presence interethnic networks ''bridging'' versus intra ethnic ones ''bonding'' ethnic violence india ref name varshney ref argues interethnic networks agents peace build bridges manage tensions noting communities organized along intra ethnic lines interconnections communities


weak even nonexistent ethnic violence quite likely three main implications intercommunal ties explain worth ref name varshney facilitate communication community across ethnic lines squelch false rumors help administration carry job particular peace security justice useful distinction nevertheless implication social capital accepted one espouses functionalist understanding latter concept indeed argued interethnic well intra ethnic networks serve various purposes either increasing diminishing social capital fact varshney


notes intra ethnic policing equivalent self policing mechanism proposed fearon laitin ref name fearon ref may lead result interethnic engagement social inequality james coleman indicated social capital eventually led creation human capital future generation ref name auto '''human capital''' private resource could accessed previous generation accumulated social capital john field suggested process could lead inequality social capital attempts resolve coleman viewed social capital relatively neutral resource


deny class reproduction could result accessing capital given individuals worked toward benefit even though coleman never truly addresses pierre bourdieu discussion coincides bourdieu 's argument set forth ''reproduction education society culture'' bourdieu coleman fundamentally different theoretical level bourdieu believed actions individuals rarely ever conscious result ''habitus'' enacted within particular field realization seems undeniably connect understanding latent aspects social capital according


allowing later access resources eg social relationships gained time case education uses resources better educational outcomes thereby enabling become socially mobile effectively worked reiterate reproduce stratification society social capital done little alleviate system whole may one negative aspect social capital seems inevitable one forms capital positive consequences social capital compared bourdieu robert putnam


used concept much positive light though first careful argue social capital neutral term stating whether shared praiseworthy course entirely another matter ref name edwards work american society tends frame social capital producer civic engagement also broad societal measure communal health ref name alessandrini alessandrini ''is civil society adequate theory'' ref also transforms social capital resource possessed individuals attribute collectives focusing norms trust producers


social capital exclusion networks mahyar arefi identifies consensus building direct positive indicator social capital consensus implies shared interest agreement among various actors stakeholders induce collective action ''collective action'' thus indicator increased social capital subtypes bonding bridging linking ''bowling alone collapse revival american community'' harvard political scientist robert putnam writes ref name putnam blockquote henry ward beecher 's advice century ago 'multiply picnics' entirely ridiculous today ironically good


america though good us blockquote putnam speaks two main components concept creation putnam credits ross gittell avis vidal '''bonding social capital''' value assigned social networks homogeneous groups people '''bridging social capital''' value assigned social networks socially heterogeneous groups typical examples criminal gangs create bonding social capital choirs bowling clubs hence title putnam lamented decline create bridging social capital ref name kaidholtz bacha ref distinction useful highlighting social


form social capital '''bridging capital''' relationship friends friends making strength secondary bonding capital '''linking capital''' relationship person government official elected leader aldrich also applies ideas social capital fundamental principles disaster recovery discusses factors either aid impede recovery extent damage population density quality government aid book ''building resilience social capital post disaster recovery'' primarily examines japanese recovery following fukushima nuclear meltdown social capital development internet via


social networking websites facebook myspace tends bridging capital according one study though virtual social capital new area research consummatory instrumental two sub sources social capital ref name portes p portes p ref '''consummatory capital''' behavior made actions fulfill basis inherent examples include value interjection solidarity '''instrumental capital''' behavior taught ones surroundings time consummatory capital consummatory capital behavior made actions fulfill


basis inherent two examples consummatory social capital value interjection solidarity ref name portes p '''value interjection''' pertains person community fulfills obligations paying bills time philanthropy following rules society people live life way feel norms society able live lives free worry credit children receive charity needed coleman goes say people live way benefit type social capital individuals


society able rest assured belongings family safe understanding '' 'solidarity''' may traced th century socialist thinkers whose main focus urban working class industrial revolution analyzed reasons workers supported benefit group held support adaptation immediate social environment opposed trait taught workers youth ref name portes p another example coleman states possessing type social capital individuals


stand believe even die face adversity ref name portes p portes p ref notion ' 'solidarity social capital'' sometimes attributed karl marx particular term ' 'social capital'' quite different meaning marx forms capital marx possessed capitalists emphasized basis labour capitalist society class constituted individuals obliged sell labour power lacked sufficient capital sense word otherwise marx saw social capital


theoretical total amount capital purely sense accumulated wealth property existed within particular society thereby contrasted specific discrete individual capital instrumental capital instrumental capital behavior taught one 's surroundings time individual donates resources seeking direct repayment recipient motivated membership social structure donation individual might see direct repayment commonly held society greater honor ref


name portes p portes mentions donation scholarship member ethnic group example donor giving resources directly repaid recipient stated honor community mind recipient might know benefactor personally prospers sole factor member social group social capital also linked religious communities religion represents important aspect social capital religious social capital


groups argue metaphor capital may misleading unlike financial capital resource held individual benefits forms social organization held actors results participation actors advantageously organized groups name generators one type quantitative social capital measure uses name generators construct social networks measure level social capital ref name networks constructed asking participants name people interact name people 've discussed important matters


within past six months ref name ref name generators often useful construct core discussion networks close ties rather weaker ties social capital scales many studies measure social capital asking question trust others researches analyse participation voluntary associations civic activities expand upon methodological potential measuring online offline social bonding relates social capital offers matrix social capital measures distinguishes social bridging form less emotionally tethered relationships compared bonding bonding bridging sub scales proposed


adopted scholarly articles lin peng kim kim larose offer noteworthy application scale measuring international residents originating locations outside united states study found social media platforms like facebook provide opportunity increased social capital mostly extroverts however less introverted social media users could engage social media build social capital connecting americans arriving maintaining old relationships home upon arriving states ultimate outcome study indicates social capital measurable


concept may operationalized understand strategies coping cross cultural immersion online engagement cohesion measures level cohesion group also affects social capital vice versa however one quantitative way determining level cohesiveness rather collection social network models researchers used decades operationalize social capital one dominant methods ronald burt 's constraint measure taps role tie strength group cohesion another network based model network transitivity economic measures knack


created collective benefits different routes example agricultural practices better families without participation information agrochemicals fertilizers seeds information market prepared take risks part social network made feel protected influence improvement public services showing bigger level participation schools cooperated municipality level group membership based measuring political social capital common take sum


society 's membership groups groups higher membership political parties contribute amount capital groups lower membership although many groups low membership communities still add significant may seem limited population need case people join multiple groups study done yankee city community people found different groups group relates rest society also affects social capital different manner


strong internal ties cases weaken group 's perceived capital eyes general public cases group geared towards crime distrust intolerance violence hatred towards others ku klux klan example kind organizations social behaviour based foschi lauriola presented measure sociability proxy social capital authors demonstrated facets sociability mediate general personality traits measures civic involvement political participation predictors social capital holistic model political behavior


world social capital monitor instrument measuring social goods social capital created united nations sustainable development group partnership civil society actors project identifies social values trust solidarity helpfulness friendliness hospitality willingness finance public goods help anonymous surveys surveys started integrating history socio economic analysis beyond putnam influential identified areas concern improvement within work robert putnam includes lack awareness structural socio economic conditions society


example level income inequality excessive determinism historical analysis putnam 's social capital index consider racial diversity links worse outcomes putnam consider ethnic diversity often creates barriers cooperation democratization conflation social capital civil society lack empirical evidence connecting social capital 's promotion economic growth substantiating decline social capital united states last years assumption social networks produce win win relationships ref name ref social capital motives robison colleagues measured relative


importance selfishness four social capital motives using resource allocation data collected hypothetical surveys non hypothetical experiments ref name ref '' 'selfishness motive''' assumes agent 's allocation scarce resource independent relationships others motive sometimes referred ' 'selfishness preference assumption'' neoclassical economics '''social capital motives''' assume agents' allocation scarce resource may influenced social capital sympathetic relationships others may produce socio emotional goods satisfy socio emotional needs validation belonging ref name first social capital motive seeks


validation acting consistently values one 's ideal self second social capital motive seeks validated others winning approval third social capital motive seeks belong recognizing one may able influence sympathy others persons seeking belong may act increase sympathy others organizations institutions represent fourth social capital motive recognizes sympathy social capital another person motivate us act interest satisfy


needs validation belonging empirical results reject hypothesis often implied economics selfish relation civil society various authors give definitions ''civil society'' refer voluntary associations organisations outside market state ref name alessandrini definition close ''third sector'' consists private organisations formed sustained groups people acting voluntarily without seeking personal profit provide benefits others according authors walzer alessandrini ref name alessandrini newtown


social capital appear guise either factors enable stimulate growth third sector likewise onyx describes social capital depends already functioning community idea creating social capital ie creating networks strengthen civil society underlies current australian social policy aimed bridging deepening social divisions goal reintegrate marginalised rewards economic system community however according onyx explicit aim policy inclusion effects exclusionary foley edwards


believe political systemsare important determinants character civil society uses whatever social capital exists might put ref name edwards alessandrini agrees saying australia particular neo liberalism recast economic rationalism identified several theorists commentators danger society large use putting social capital work ref name alessandrini resurgence interest social capital remedy cause today 's social problems draws directly assumption problems lie


almost necessary condition modern liberal democracy low level social capital leads excessively rigid unresponsive political system high levels corruption political system region whole formal public institutions require social capital order function properly possible much social capital resulting rapid changes excessive regulation decidedly worse little sample societies '''post communist''' kathleen dowley brian silver published article entitled social capital ethnicity support democracy post communist


states find post communist states higher levels social capital equate higher levels democracy however higher levels social capital led higher support democracy '''third world''' number intellectuals developing countries argued idea social capital particularly connected certain ideas civil society deeply implicated contemporary modes donor ngo driven imperialism functions primarily blame poor condition '''chinese''' concept social capital chinese social context closely linked concept


''guanxi'' '''american''' one attempt measure social capital involving quantity quality strength individual social capital spearheaded corporate alliance english speaking market segment usa xentrum latin american chamber commerce utah spanish speaking population country assistance software applications web based relationship oriented systems linkedin kinds organizations expected provide members way keep track ''number'' relationships meetings designed boost ' 'strength'' relationship using group dynamics executive


retreats networking events well training reach higher circles ''influential'' people effects women 's engagement politics many factors drive volume towards ballot box including education employment civil skills time careful evaluation fundamental factors often suggests women vote similar levels men however gap women men voter turnout diminishing cases women becoming prevalent ballot box male counterparts recent research social capital serving


explanation change ref name harell harell ''equal participation separate paths women 's social capital turnout'' ref social capital offers wealth resources networks facilitate political engagement since social capital readily available matter type community able override traditional queues political engagement eg education employment civil skills etc unique ways women organize differences men make social capital personable impressionable women audiences thus creating stronger presence regards political engagement examples characteristics


activity low public profile differences hard recognize within discourse political engagement may explain social capital considered tool female political engagement late ref name harell effects health growing body research found presence social capital social networks communities protective quality health social capital affects health risk behavior sense individuals embedded network community rich support social trust information norms


resources help achieve health goals ref name lin lin n building network theory social capital pp ''social capital theory research'' edited n lin k cook r burt new york aldine de gruyter ref example person sick cancer may receive information money moral support needs endure treatment recover social capital also encourages social trust membership factors discourage individuals engaging risky health behaviors smoking binge drinking ref name bolin bolin k b lindgren lindstrom p nystedt


''investments social capital implications social interactions production health'' ref furthermore neighbourhood social capital may also aid buffering health inequities amongst children adolescents social capital indicators neighbourhood cohesion social support ties providing bond members religion found associated better health despite financial socioeconomic hardship ref name uphoff ref function social capital health buffer circumstances social disadvantage also received attention research health minority ethnic populations relationships networks maintained


ethnic minority population geographical area high percentage residents belong ethnic group may lead better health outcomes would expected based individual neighbourhood characteristics effects investigated england new zealand united states inversely lack social capital impair health example results survey given year old students sweden showed low social capital low social trust associated higher rates psychosomatic symptoms musculoskeletal pain depression ref name aslund ref additionally negative social capital


detract health although studies assess social capital criminalized populations information suggests social capital negative effect broken communities deviant behavior encouraged deviant peers via favorable definitions learning opportunities provided network based norms ref name sutherland cressey sutherland edwin h donald r cressey ''criminology'' philadelphia j b lippincott co ref however communities adjustment norms ie deviant peers replaced positive role models pose positive effect researchers also investigated hypothesis health


benefits social capital depend socioeconomic resources individual community available example social capital may boost health higher levels education higher rather lower income ref name uphoff research based bourdieu 's notion social economic cultural capital dependent ref name bourdieu influence internet similar watching news keeping abreast current events use internet relate individual 's level social capital


one study informational uses internet correlated positively individual 's production social capital social recreational uses negatively correlated higher levels uses correlated lower levels social capital ref name shah kwak holbert ref example supporting former argument contribution peter maranci 's blog ''charlie commuter line'' address train problems massachusetts created incident lady passed train ride due congestion train help delayed congestion train


inefficiency train conductor blog exposed poor conditions train stations overcrowding train rides inefficiency train conductor eventually influenced changes within transit system ref name rainie wellman rainie lee barry wellman networked creators ch ''networked new social operating system'' massachusetts mit press ref another perspective holds rapid growth social networking sites facebook myspace suggests individuals creating virtual network consisting bonding bridging social capital unlike face face interaction people instantly connect others targeted fashion


placing specific parameters internet use means individuals selectively connect others based ascertained interests backgrounds facebook currently popular social networking site touts many advantages users including serving ' 'social lubricant'' individuals otherwise difficulties forming maintaining strong weak ties others ref name steinfield et al steinfield c j dimicco n b ellison c lampe bowling online social networking social capital within organization ''proceedings fourth communities technologies conference'' ref ref name ref argument continues although preponderance


evidence shows positive association social capital internet critics virtual communities believe internet replaces strong bonds online weak ties ref name cummings butler kraut ref socially empty interactions technology ref name nie ref others fear internet create world narcissism similarity sociability reduced interactions similar terms ideology race gender ref name fernback fernback j individual within collective virtual ideology realization collective principles pp ''virtual culture'' edited jones


access internet irregularly considering family work contacts internet users actually tend contact higher number friends relatives supported another study shows internet users non internet users feel equally close number people also internet users maintain relationships people feel somewhat close ref name research shows younger people use internet supplemental medium communication rather letting internet communication replace face face contact supports view


internet communication hinder development social capital make people feel lonelier ellison steinfield lampe suggest social capital exercised online result relationships formed offline whereby bridging capital enabled maintenance relationships among respondents study social capital built exclusively online creates weaker ties distinction social bonding offered ellison et al suggesting bonds strong ties possible social media less likely effects educational achievement catholic schools coleman hoffer coleman hoffer


collected quantitative data students total public catholic private high schools america years' period ref name coleman hoffer high school beyond ref found longitudinal research social capital students' families communities attributed much lower dropout rates catholic schools compared higher rates public teachman et al develop family structure indicator suggested coleman criticise coleman used number parents present family neglected unseen effect


discrete dimensions stepparents' different types single parent families take account detailed counting family structure two biological parents stepparent families also types single parent families mother father never married also contribute literature measuring parent child interaction indicators often parents children discuss school related activities morgan sorensen directly challenge coleman lacking explicit mechanism explain catholic schools students perform better public school students standardised tests achievement researching


students catholic schools public schools propose two comparable models social capital effect mathematic learning one catholic schools norm enforcing schools whereas another public schools horizon expanding schools found social capital bring positive effect maintaining encompassing functional community norm enforcing schools also brings negative consequence excessive monitoring creativity exceptional achievement would repressed result whereas horizon expanding school social closure found negative student 's mathematic achievement schools explore different


type social capital information opportunities extended social networks parents adults consequence learning fostered norm enforcing catholic school students sum morgan sorensen study implies social capital contextualised one kind social capital may positive setting necessarily still positive another setting ref name morgan morgan sorensen ref community development setting education kilpatrick johns mulford state social capital useful lens analysing lifelong learning relationship


parents less opportunity participation student 's life tedin weiher state one important factors promoting student success active involvement parents child 's education parents also involved activities meetings school conducts involved parents parents staff members thus parent involvement contributes social capital becoming involved school community participating makes school sustainable easy run community sampson et al stress normative goal directed dimension social capital claiming


resources networks alone eg voluntary associations friendship ties organisational density neutral may may effective mechanism achieving intended effect difference male female marjoribanks kwok conducted survey hong kong secondary schools fourteen year old students aim analyse female male adolescents differential educational achievement using social capital main analytic tool research social capital approved different effects upon different genders adaption ethnic values thesis new arrival students hong kong adaptation school


social capital contributes positively academic achievement stanton salazar dornbusch found bilingual students likely obtain necessary forms institutional support advance school performance life chances fields study geography order understand social capital subject geography one must look sense space place territory relationship tenets geography relate ideas social capital family community use social networks biggest advocate seeing social capital


geographical subject american economist political scientist robert putnam main argument classifying social capital geographical concept relationships people shaped molded areas live many areas social capital defined theories practices anthony giddens developed theory relates social structures actions produce studies look individual participants structures structures social connections stem


analysis participation volunteerism support different governments one area look participate social organizations people participate different races ages economic status ref name mohan p mohan p ref mind variances space different demographics may vary causing difference involvement among areas secondly different social programs different areas based economic situation ref name mohan p governmental organization would place welfare center wealthier neighborhood would limited


support community needed thirdly social capital affected participation individuals certain area based type institutions placed ref name mohan p mohan supports argument j fox paper decentralization rural development mexico states structures local governance turn influence capacity grassroots communities influence social investments theory involvement government specific areas raises involvement individuals social organizations communities turn


raise social capital area since every area different government takes consideration provide different areas different institutions fit needs thus different changes social capital different areas leisure studies context leisure studies social capital seen consequence investment cultivation social relationships allowing individual access resources would otherwise unavailable concept social capital relation leisure grounded perspective emphasizes interconnectedness


rather separateness human activity human goals significant connection leisure democratic social capital ref name hemingway ref specific forms leisure activity contribute development social capital central democracy democratic citizenship individual participates social activities autonomy individual experiences help individual abilities skills develop greater accumulation social capital person experiences may transfer leisure activities well personal social roles relationships roles within social structure ref name hemingway


social capital marriage romantic relationships kislev shows following vast changes status marriage modern society singles present higher social capital also derive greater happiness equal levels social capital compared married people later study kislev shows relation romantic relationships desire singleness shows lower degree relationship desire significant effect relative importance friends furthermore higher levels relative importance friends social satisfaction negatively correlated relationship desire effects informal


economies social capital associated reduction access informal credit informal economies especially developing countries mwangi ouma ran bivariate probit model financial access national survey data impact social capital financial inclusion kenya determined membership groups increased one 's probability getting informal loan also group memberships one held likely access informal loan similar results revealed cross sectional study run sarker bangladesh authors also note


beyond putnam'' everingham c ''reconstituting community'' lin nan http wwwanalytictechcom mb papers lin socialcapitalhtm building network theory social capital ''connections'' reprint lin nan building network theory social capital pp nbsp ''social capital'' edited n lin k cook r burt lin jih hsuan wei peng mijung kim sung yeun kim robert larose https webarchiveorg web https pdfssemanticscholarorg f b ca e ccb fdfaec e e bd pdf social networking adjustments among international students ''new media society'' putnam robert http revistasucmes indexphp rgid article view bowling alone americas 's declining social capital ''journal democracy'' ''e pluribus unum diversity community


twenty first century'' nordic political science association durlauf steven n lawrence e blume eds ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' nd ed dasgupta partha http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde q abstract social capital iannaccone laurence r eli berman http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde e q abstract religion economics young h peyton http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde q abstract social norms moody james martina morris http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde q abstract social networks economic relevance mohan giles john mohan placing social capital ''progress human geography'' portes social capital origins applications modern sociology ''annual review sociology'' silverman r https waybackarchive itorg http wwwwsupresswayneedu community ''community based organizations intersection social


capital local context contemporary urban society'' detroit wayne state university press williams 'net scales social capital online era ''journal computer mediated communication'' zhou min carl l bankston ''growing american vietnamese children adapt life united states'' new york russell sage foundation external links https trustyourplacecom world social capital monitor survey languages within united nations sustainable development goals http blogsworldbankorg voices forgotten dimension sdg indicators social capital social capital social dimension un sdg jos verbeek worldbank august


capital economics comparative politics community building community development cultural economics economic sociology social economy social networks sociological terminology socioeconomics


eiffel tower paris historical achievement structural engineering '''structural engineering''' sub discipline civil engineering structural engineers trained design 'bones muscles' create form shape man made structures structural engineers also must understand calculate stability strength rigidity earthquake susceptibility built structures buildings nonbuilding structures structural designs integrated designers architects building services engineer often supervise construction projects contractors site ref name istructe also involved

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Structural engineering


design machinery medical equipment vehicles structural integrity affects functioning safety see glossary structural engineering structural engineering theory based upon applied physical laws empirical knowledge structural performance different materials geometries structural engineering design uses number relatively simple structural concepts build complex structural systems structural engineers responsible making creative efficient use funds structural elements materials achieve goals ref name istructe ref history pont du gard france roman era aqueduct circa bc structural engineering dates back bce


stone ref name fonte cv ref limestone blocks often taken quarry near building site compressive strength mpa mpa pa sup sup therefore structural strength pyramid stems material properties stones built rather pyramid 's geometry throughout ancient medieval history architectural design construction carried artisans stonemasons carpenters rising role master builder theory structures existed understanding structures stood extremely limited


based almost entirely empirical evidence 'what worked before' intuition knowledge retained guilds seldom supplanted advances structures repetitive increases scale incremental ref name saouma ref record exists first calculations strength structural members behavior structural material profession structural engineer really took shape industrial revolution invention concrete see history concrete physical sciences underlying structural engineering began understood renaissance since developed computer based applications pioneered


euler developed theory buckling columns claude louis navier published treatise elastic behaviors structures carlo alberto castigliano presented dissertation intorno ai sistemi elastici contains theorem computing displacement partial derivative strain energy theorem includes method least work special case otto mohr formalized idea statically indeterminate structure timoshenko corrects euler bernoulli beam equation hardy cross' publication moment distribution method important innovation design continuous frames alexander hrennikoff solved discretization


plane elasticity problems using lattice framework richard courant divided domain finite subregions j turner r w clough h c martin l j topp 's paper stiffness deflection complex structures introduces name finite element method widely recognized first comprehensive treatment method known today structural failure history structural engineering contains many collapses failures sometimes due obvious negligence case p tion ville school collapse rev fortin augustin '' constructed building


saying n't need engineer good knowledge construction '' following partial collapse three story schoolhouse sent neighbors fleeing final collapse killed people mostly children cases structural failures require careful study results inquiries resulted improved practices greater understanding science structural engineering studies result forensic engineering investigations original engineer seems done everything accordance state profession acceptable practice yet failure still eventuated


famous case structural knowledge practice advanced manner found series failures involving box girders collapsed australia theory bolt shear stress top figure illustrates single shear bottom figure illustrates double shear structural engineering depends upon detailed knowledge applied mechanics materials science applied mathematics understand predict structures support resist self weight imposed loads apply knowledge successfully structural engineer generally requires detailed knowledge relevant empirical theoretical design codes techniques structural analysis


well knowledge corrosion resistance materials structures especially structures exposed external environment since specialist software become available aid design structures functionality assist drawing analyzing designing structures maximum precision examples include autocad staadpro etabs prokon revit structure inducta rcb etc software may also take consideration environmental loads earthquakes winds profession structural engineers responsible engineering design structural analysis entry level structural engineers may design individual structural elements


structure beams columns building experienced engineers may responsible structural design integrity entire system building structural engineers often specialize particular types structures buildings bridges pipelines industrial tunnels vehicles ships aircraft spacecraft structural engineers specialize buildings often specialize particular construction materials concrete steel wood masonry alloys composites may focus particular types buildings offices schools hospitals residential forth structural engineering existed since humans first started


construct structures became defined formalized profession emergence architecture distinct profession engineering industrial revolution late th century architect structural engineer usually one thing master builder development specialized knowledge structural theories emerged th early th centuries professional structural engineers come existence role structural engineer today involves significant understanding static dynamic loading structures available


resist complexity modern structures often requires great deal creativity engineer order ensure structures support resist loads subjected structural engineer typically four five year undergraduate degree followed minimum three years professional practice considered fully qualified structural engineers licensed accredited different learned societies regulatory bodies around world example institution structural engineers uk depending degree course studied jurisdiction seeking


licensure may accredited licensed structural engineers civil engineers civil structural engineers another international organisation iabse international association bridge structural engineering aim association exchange knowledge advance practice structural engineering worldwide service profession society specializations building structures sydney opera house designed architect j rn utzon structural design ove arup partners millennium dome london uk richard rogers buro happold burj khalifa dubai world 's tallest building shown


construction since completed structural building engineering includes structural engineering related design buildings branch structural engineering closely affiliated architecture structural building engineering primarily driven creative manipulation materials forms underlying mathematical scientific ideas achieve end fulfills functional requirements structurally safe subjected loads could reasonably expected experience subtly different architectural design driven creative manipulation materials forms mass space volume texture light


achieve end aesthetic functional often artistic architect usually lead designer buildings structural engineer employed sub consultant degree discipline leads design depends heavily type structure many structures structurally simple led architecture multi story office buildings housing structures tensile structures shells gridshells heavily dependent form strength engineer may significant influence form hence much aesthetic architect


structural design building must ensure building stand safely able function without excessive deflections movements may cause fatigue structural elements cracking failure fixtures fittings partitions discomfort occupants must account movements forces due temperature creep cracking imposed loads must also ensure design practically buildable within acceptable manufacturing tolerances materials must allow architecture work building services fit within building function air conditioning ventilation smoke extract electrics lighting etc


structural design modern building extremely complex often requires large team complete structural engineering specialties buildings include earthquake engineering fa ade engineering fire engineering roof engineering tower engineering wind engineering earthquake engineering structures '''earthquake engineering structures''' engineered withstand earthquakesearthquake proof pyramid el castillo chichen itza main objectives earthquake engineering understand interaction structures shaking ground foresee consequences possible earthquakes design construct structures perform earthquake earthquake proof structures necessarily extremely strong like el castillo pyramid


chichen itza shown one important tool earthquake engineering base isolation allows base structure move freely ground civil engineering structures civil structural engineering includes structural engineering related built environment includes structural engineer lead designer structures often sole designer design structures structural safety paramount importance uk designs dams nuclear power stations bridges must signed chartered engineer civil engineering structures often subjected


extreme forces large variations temperature dynamic loads waves traffic high pressures water compressed gases also often constructed corrosive environments sea industrial facilities ground mechanical structures principles structural engineering apply variety mechanical moveable structures design static structures assumes always geometry fact called static structures move significantly structural engineering design must take account necessary design moveable moving structures must account fatigue variation


differentiate number dimensions nanoscale nanotextured surfaces one dimension nanoscale ie thickness surface object nbsp nm nanotubes two dimensions nanoscale ie diameter tube nbsp nm length could much greater finally spherical nanoparticles three dimensions nanoscale ie particle nbsp nm spatial dimension terms nanoparticles ultrafine particles ufp often used synonymously although ufp reach micrometer range term 'nanostructure'


often used referring magnetic technology structural engineering medical science designing medical equipment needs depth understanding structural engineering medical equipment also known armamentarium designed aid diagnosis monitoring treatment medical conditions several basic types diagnostic equipment includes medical imaging machines used aid diagnosis equipment includes infusion pumps medical lasers lasik surgical machines medical monitors allow medical staff measure patient 's medical state monitors may measure patient vital signs parameters including ecg eeg blood pressure dissolved gases blood diagnostic medical equipment


may also used home certain purposes eg control diabetes mellitus biomedical equipment technician bmet vital component healthcare delivery system employed primarily hospitals bmets people responsible maintaining facility 's medical equipment structural elements statically determinate simply supported beam bending evenly distributed load structure essentially made small number different types elements columns beams plates arches shells catenaries many elements classified according form straight plane curve dimensionality one dimensional


two dimensional class wikitable style border collapse collapse style background eeeeee style background eeeeee colspan align center one dimensional style background eeeeee colspan align center two dimensional style background eeeeee style background eeeeee straight style background eeeeee curve style background eeeeee plane style background eeeeee curve predominantly bending align center beam align center continuous arch align center plate concrete slab align center lamina dome predominant tensile stress align center rope tie align center catenary colspan align center shell predominant compression colspan align center pier column colspan align center load bearing wall columns columns elements carry axial force compression axial force bending


technically called beam column practically column design column must check axial capacity element buckling capacity buckling capacity capacity element withstand propensity buckle capacity depends upon geometry material effective length column depends upon restraint conditions top bottom column effective length math kl math math l math real length column k factor dependent restraint conditions capacity column carry


axial load depends degree bending subjected vice versa represented interaction chart complex non linear relationship beams ''little belt'' truss bridge denmark beam may defined element one dimension much greater two applied loads usually normal main axis element beams columns called line elements often represented simple lines structural modeling cantilevered supported one end fixed connection simply supported fixed


vertical translation end horizontal translation one end able rotate supports fixed supported directions translation rotation end continuous supported three supports combination ex supported one end middle beams elements carry pure bending bending causes one part section beam divided along length go compression part tension compression part must designed resist buckling crushing tension part


must able adequately resist tension trusses mcdonnell planetarium gyo obata st louis missouri usa concrete shell structure gateway arch st louis missouri truss structure comprising members connection points nodes members connected nodes forces applied nodes members act tension compression members acting compression referred compression members struts members acting tension referred tension members ties trusses use gusset plates connect intersecting elements gusset plates relatively


flexible unable transfer bending moments connection usually arranged lines force members coincident joint thus allowing truss members act pure tension compression trusses usually used large span structures would uneconomical use solid beams plates plates carry bending two directions concrete flat slab example plate plates understood using continuum mechanics due complexity involved often designed using codified empirical approach computer analysis also


designed yield line theory assumed collapse mechanism analyzed give upper bound collapse load technique used practice method provides upper bound ie unsafe prediction collapse load poorly conceived collapse mechanisms great care needed ensure assumed collapse mechanism realistic shells shells derive strength form carry forces compression two directions dome example shell designed making hanging chain model act catenary


pure tension inverting form achieve pure compression arches arches carry forces compression one direction appropriate build arches masonry designed ensuring line thrust force remains within depth arch mainly used increase bountifulness structure catenaries catenaries derive strength form carry transverse forces pure tension deflecting tightrope sag someone walks almost always cable fabric structures


fabric structure acts catenary two directions materials structural engineering depends knowledge materials properties order understand different materials support resist loads also involves knowledge corrosion engineering avoid example galvanic coupling dissimilar materials common structural materials iron wrought iron cast iron concrete reinforced concrete prestressed concrete alloy steel stainless steel masonry timber hardwood softwood aluminium composite materials plywood structural materials adobe bamboo carbon fibre fiber reinforced plastic mudbrick roofing materials see also glossary structural engineering aircraft structures architects architectural engineering


building officials building services engineering civil engineering construction engineering corrosion engineering earthquake engineering forensic engineering index structural engineering articles list bridge disasters list structural engineers mechanical engineering nanostructure prestressed structure structurae structural engineer structural engineering software structural fracture mechanics structural failure structural robustness structural steel structural testing notes references hibbeler r c ''structural analysis'' prentice hall blank alan mcevoy michael plank roger ''architecture construction steel'' taylor francis hewson nigel r ''prestressed concrete bridges design construction'' thomas telford heyman jacques ''the science structural engineering'' imperial college press


hosford william f ''mechanical behavior materials'' cambridge university press reading blockley david ''a short introduction structural engineering'' oxford university press bradley robert e sandifer charles edward ''leonhard euler life work legacy'' elsevier chapman allan ''england 's leornardo robert hooke seventeenth century 's scientific revolution'' crc press dugas ren ''a history mechanics'' courier dover publications feld jacob carper kenneth l ''construction failure'' john wiley sons galilei galileo translators crew henry de salvio alfonso ''dialogues concerning two new sciences'' courier dover publications


kirby richard shelton ''engineering history'' courier dover publications heyman jacques ''structural analysis historical approach'' cambridge university press labrum ea ''civil engineering heritage'' thomas telford lewis peter r ''beautiful bridge silvery tay'' tempus mir ali ''art skyscraper genius fazlur khan'' rizzoli international publications rozhanskaya mariam levinova statics morelon r gis rashed roshdi ''encyclopedia history arabic science'' '''vol ''' routledge whitbeck caroline ''ethics engineering practice research'' cambridge university press hoogenboom pcj discrete


buildings civil engineering works construction products civil engineering engineering disciplines


jean jacques rousseau ''discours sur l'oeconomie politique'' '''political economy''' study production trade relations law custom government distribution national income wealth discipline political economy originated moral philosophy th century explore administration states' wealth political signifying greek word ''polity'' economy signifying greek word household management earliest works political economy usually attributed british scholars adam smith thomas malthus david ricardo although preceded work

Social science
Economics
Political economy


french physiocrats fran ois quesnay anne robert jacques turgot ref name steiner p steiner pp ref also tradition almost long critique political economy late th century term economics gradually began replace term political economy rise mathematical modelling coinciding publication influential textbook alfred marshall earlier william stanley jevons proponent mathematical methods applied subject advocated economics brevity hope term becoming recognised name science ref name groenwegen groenwegen peter


'political economy' 'economics' ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' v pp pp nbsp ref citation measurement metrics google ngram viewer indicate use term economics began overshadow political economy around roughly becoming preferred term discipline today term economics usually refers narrow study economy absent political social considerations term political economy represents distinct competing approach common parlance political economy may simply refer advice given economists government public general


economic policy specific economic proposals developed political scientists ref name groenwegen rapidly growing mainstream literature expanded beyond model economic policy planners maximize utility representative individual toward examining political forces affect choice economic policies especially distributional conflicts political institutions ref name alesina alesina alberto f political economy ''nber reporter'' http wwwnberorg reporter number number pdf pp abstract linked footnotes http wwwnberorg reporter number version ref available stand alone area study offered economics political science institutions including harvard university princeton university london school economics stanford university


university chicago among others etymology originally political economy meant study conditions production consumption within limited parameters organized nation states way political economy expanded emphasis economics comes greek ''oikos'' meaning home ''nomos'' meaning law order political economy thus meant express laws production wealth state level quite like economics concerns putting home order phrase '' conomie politique'' translated english political economy first appeared france well known book antoine


de montchr tien ''trait de l economie politique'' contemporary scholars attribute roots study th century tunisian arab historian sociologist ibn khaldun work making distinction profit sustenance modern political economy terms surplus required reproduction classes respectively also calls creation science explain society goes outline ideas major work ''muqaddimah'' al muqaddimah khaldun states civilization well well business prosperity depend productivity people efforts directions


interest profit seen modern precursor classical economic thought leading french physiocrats first major exponents political economy although intellectual responses adam smith john stuart mill david ricardo henry george karl marx physiocrats generally receive much greater attention world 's first professorship political economy established university naples federico ii southern italy neapolitan philosopher antonio genovesi first tenured professor joseph von sonnenfels appointed political economy chair university


vienna austria thomas malthus became england 's first professor political economy east india company college haileybury hertfordshire present political economy refers different yet related approaches studying economic related behaviours ranging combination economics fields use different fundamental assumptions challenging earlier economic assumptions current approaches robert keohane international relations theorist political economy commonly refers interdisciplinary studies drawing upon economics sociology political science explaining political institutions political environment economic system capitalist socialist communist mixed influence ''journal


economic literature'' classification codes associate political economy three sub areas role government class power relationships resource allocation type economic system international political economy studies economic impacts international relations economic models political exploitative class processes much political economy approach derived public choice theory one hand radical political economics hand dating public choice theory microfoundations theory closely intertwined political economy approaches model voters politicians bureaucrats


behaving mainly self interested ways contrast view ascribed earlier mainstream economists government officials trying maximize individual utilities kind social welfare function economists political scientists often associate political economy approaches using rational choice assumptions especially game theory examining phenomena beyond economics' standard remit government failure complex decision making context term positive political economy common traditional topics include analysis public policy issues economic regulation monopoly rent seeking market protection institutional corruption distributional politics empirical analysis


includes influence elections choice economic policy determinants forecasting models electoral outcomes political business cycles central bank independence politics excessive deficits susan strange international relations scholar rather recent focus put modeling economic policy political institutions concerning interactions agents economic political institutions including seeming discrepancy economic policy economist 's recommendations lens transaction costs mid field expanded part aided new cross national data sets allowing tests hypotheses comparative economic systems institutions topics


included breakup nations origins rate change political institutions relation economic growth development financial markets regulation importance institutions backwardness reform transition economies role culture ethnicity gender explaining economic outcomes ref name alesina macroeconomic policy environment fairness relation constitutions economic policy theoretical empirical important landmarks development political economy include new political economy may treat economic ideologies phenomenon explain per traditions marxian political economy thus charles maier suggests political


economy approach interrogates economic doctrines disclose sociological political premises sum regards economic ideas behavior frameworks analysis beliefs actions must explained approach informs andrew gamble 's ''the free economy strong state'' palgrave macmillan colin hay 's ''the political economy new labour'' manchester university press also informs much work published ''new political economy'' international journal founded sheffield university scholars international political economy ipe interdisciplinary field comprising approaches actions various actors according


w cox use political economy approach anthropologists sociologists geographers used reference regimes politics economic values emerge primarily level states regional governance also within smaller social groups social networks regimes influence influenced organization social economic capital analysis dimensions lacking standard economic value eg political economy language gender religion often draws concepts used marxian critiques capital approaches expand neo marxian scholarship related development


underdevelopment postulated andr gunder frank immanuel wallerstein historians employed political economy explore ways past persons groups common economic interests used politics effect changes beneficial interests political economy law recent attempt within legal scholarship engage explicitly political economy literature legal realists eg robert hale intellectuals eg john commons engaged themes related political economy second half th century lawyers associated chicago school incorporated certain intellectual traditions economics however


since crisis legal scholars especially related international law turned explicitly engage debates methodology various themes within political economy texts thomas piketty 's approach call action advocated introduction political consideration political science knowledge generally discipline economics way improving robustness discipline remedying shortcomings become clear following financial crisis department political economy united kingdom formally established king 's college london rationale


academic unit disciplines politics economics inextricably linked possible properly understand political processes without exploring economic context politics operates political economy uk group abbreviated poleconuk established research consortium field political economy hosts annual conference counts among member institutions oxford cambridge king 's college london warwick university london school economics related disciplines political economy unified discipline studies using term overlap subject matter


radically different perspectives politics studies power relations relationship achieving desired ends philosophy rigorously assesses studies set beliefs applicability reality economics studies distribution resources material wants society satisfied enhance societal well sociology studies effects persons' involvement society members groups changes ability function many sociologists start perspective production determining relation karl marx marx 's theories subject political economy contained book ''das kapital'' anthropology studies political


economy investigating regimes political economic value condition tacit aspects sociocultural practices eg pejorative use pseudo spanish expressions us entertainment media means broader historical political sociological processes analyses structural features transnational processes focus interactions world capitalist system local cultures archaeology attempts reconstruct past political economies examining material evidence administrative strategies control mobilize resources evidence may include architecture animal remains evidence craft workshops evidence feasting ritual evidence import export prestige


goods evidence food storage psychology fulcrum political economy exerts force studying decision making prices field study whose assumptions model political economy geography studies political economy within wider geographical studies human environment interactions wherein economic actions humans transform natural environment apart attempts made develop geographical political economy prioritises commodity production spatialities capitalism history documents change often using argue political economy historical works take political economy narrative 's frame ecology deals


political economy human activity greatest effect upon environment central concern environment 's suitability human activity ecological effects economic activity spur research upon changing market economy incentives additionally recently ecological theory used examine economic systems similar systems interacting species eg firms cultural studies examines social class production labor race gender sex communications examines institutional aspects media telecommunication systems area study focusing aspects human communication pays particular attention relationships owners labor consumers


advertisers structures production state power relationships embedded relationships journals ''constitutional political economy'' ''economics politics'' ''european journal political economy'' ''latin american perspectives'' ''international journal political economy'' ''journal australian political economy'' ''new political economy'' ''public choice'' ''studies political economy'' see also economic sociology economic study collective action constitutional economics european association evolutionary political economy eaepe economic ideology institutional economics land value tax law rent important publications political economy perspectives capitalism school thought political economy anthropology political economy climate change social model


social capital socioeconomics notes references baran paul ''the political economy growth'' monthly review press new york review http heinonlineorg hol landingpagecollection journals handle heinjournals guild div id page extrract commons john r ''institutional economics place political economy'' macmillan http wwwtransactionpubcom title institutional economics html description https booksgooglecom bookshl en lr id wfhlgu zac oi fnd pg pr ots ejmq ggxf sig cjpmldgk uq rloijcbimfpjqu v onepage q f false preview contributions samir amin christopher chase dunn andre gunder frank immanuel wallerstein pre publication download chapter european union global challenge global governance world system hypotheses two scenarios future union pages arno tausch http edocvifapolde opus volltexte pdf pdf leroux robert ''political economy liberalism france


contributions fr ric bastiat'' london routledge maggi giovanni andr rodr guez clare political economy theory trade agreements ''american economic review'' pp https wwwjstororg pss o'hara phillip anthony ed ''encyclopedia political economy'' v routledge review https webarchiveorg web http findarticlescom p articles mi qa ai n links pressman steven ''interactions political economy malvern ten years'' routledge rausser gordon swinnen johan zusman pinhas ''political power economic policy'' cambridge cambridge winch donald ''riches poverty intellectual history political economy britain '' cambridge cambridge winch donald emergence economics science


''the fontana economic history europe vol '' london collins fontana quadagno jill aging life course introduction social gerontology edition barnes noble wwwbarnesandnoblecom w aging life course jill quadagno f david utopia critique political economy ''journal australian political economy australian political economy movement'' jan wwwquestiacom library journal g utopia critique political economy external links nber us political economy working paper abstract http wwwnberorg papersbyprog polhtml links voxeuorg europe http wwwvoxeuorg indexphpq node politics economics article links list friedrich http socserv socscimcmasterca econ ugcm list nationalhtml national system political economy carey henry c http wwwhtiumichedu cgi text pageviewer idxc moa cc moa q american system rgn full text idno ajb didno ajb view image seq harmony interests compares american british systems political economy https webarchiveorg web http wwwjacobs universityde ipe international political


economy jacobs university bremen https webarchiveorg web http wwwcityacuk study courses social global political ecohtml global political economy city university london http wwwsussexacuk cgpe centre global political economy university sussex uk http wwwcoxsmuedu web oneil center neil center global markets freedom o'neil center global markets freedom smu cox school business dallas tx usa https archivetoday http wwwiuctorinoit content institute study political economy law ipel institute study political economy law ipel international university college turin iuc italy http wwwecipeorg european centre international political economy http wwwipeadnet institute political economy development ipead schools economic thought economic systems critique political economy


'''human resources''' set people make workforce organization business sector industry economy narrower concept human capital knowledge skills individuals command similar terms include manpower labor personnel associates simply people human resources department hr department organization performs human resource management overseeing various aspects employment compliance labor law employment standards interviewing administration employee benefits organizing employee files required documents future reference aspects recruitment also known talent acquisition employee offboarding

Applied science
Business
Industrial and labor relations
Human resources


regular maintenance job makes sure current hr files databases date maintaining employee benefits employment status performing payroll benefit related reconciliations ref name activities human resources manager various functions company determine needs staff personnel determine whether use temporary staff hire employees fill needs determine 's n'ts recruit best employees train employees upgrade learning knowledge supervise work evaluate work establish 'discipline work culture' organization avoid politics office apply 'hr software' ease work


organization manage employee relations unions perform collective bargaining prepare employee records personal policies manage employee payroll benefits compensation ensure equal opportunities deal discrimination deal performance issues ensure human resources practices conform various regulations motivate employees mediate disputes disseminate information organization benefit growth managers need develop interpersonal skills effective organizational behavior focuses improve factors make organizations effective history human resource management used referred personnel administration personnel administration focused


mostly aspects hiring evaluating compensating employees however focus employment relationships organizational performance level systematic relationships parties led lacked unifying paradigm field period according hr magazine article first personnel management department started national cash register co owner john henry patterson organized personnel department deal grievances discharges safety information supervisors new laws practices several strikes employee lockouts action followed


companies example ford high turnover ratios percent one year later line workers company doubled daily salaries even though fair wage time ref name ref example clearly shows importance effective management leads greater outcome employee satisfaction well encouraging employees work together order achieve better business objectives american businesses began experiencing challenges due substantial increase competitive pressures companies experienced globalization deregulation


rapid technological change caused major companies enhance strategic planning process predicting future changes particular environment focus ways promote organizational effectiveness resulted developing jobs opportunities people show skills directed effectively applying employees toward fulfillment individual group organizational goals many years later major minor human resource management created universities colleges also known business administration consists activities companies used ensure effective use employees ref name ref


human resources focus people side management ref name two real definitions hrm human resource management one process managing people organizations structured thorough manner ref name means covers hiring firing pay perks performance management ref name first definition modern traditional version like personnel manager would done back ref name second definition hrm circles ideas management people organizations macromanagement


perspective like customers competitors marketplace ref name involves focus making employment relationship fulfilling management employees ref name research showed employees perform much higher rate productivity supervisors managers paid attention ref name father human relations elton mayo first person reinforce importance employee communications cooperation involvement ref name studies concluded sometimes human factors important physical factors quality lighting physical workplace conditions


result individuals often place value feel ref name example rewarding system human resource management applied effectively encourage employees achieve best performance origins terminology pioneering economist john r commons mentioned human resource book ''the distribution wealth'' elaborate expression used promote idea human beings worth human dignity early meant people means end employers among scholars first use