objective transitive normative scenario esem cultural ethical context ref name allenby earth systems engineer expected explore ethical implications proposed solutions perspective environmental sustainability requires ask interaction natural environment affect judged children future ref name newton newton l h ethics sustainability sustainable development moral life upper saddle river nj prentice hall ref increasing awareness process development left cause


irreversible damage environment resultant net addition wealth human welfare may well negative catastrophic ref name newton notion mind new goal sustainable environment friendly development ref name newton sustainable development important part developing appropriate esem solutions complex environmental problems industrial ecology industrial ecology notion major manufacturing industrial processes need shift open loop systems closed loop systems essentially recycling waste make new products

Earth systems engineering and management


ridge slough formations make everglades unique ref name davis davis ref course past century mankind rising presence region currently eastern shore florida developed population increased million residents ref name everglades increased presence years resulted channeling redirecting water traditional path everglades gulf mexico atlantic ocean variety deleterious effects upon florida everglades descriptive


scenario everglades affected numerous human developments water flow quality affected construction canals levees series elevated highways running everglades expansive everglades agricultural area contaminated everglades high amounts nitrogen ref name everglades result reduced flow water dramatic reduction wading bird populations declining fish populations salt water intrusion ecosystem ref name davis florida everglades remain


engineering publications allenby b r earth systems engineering world human artifact ''bridge'' ''' ''' allenby b r reconstructing earth technology environment age humans washington dc island press https wwwlocgov catdir toc ecip html allenby b r winter earth systems engineering management ieee technology society magazine winter davis steven ''et al'' everglades ecosystem restoration boca raton st lucie press everglades comprehensive everglades restoration plan april https webarchiveorg web http wwwevergladesplanorg gibson j e systems analysis systems analyst decalog w scherer ed fall


ed pp nbsp department systems information engineering u virginia retrieved october gorman michael ''syllabus spring semester '' retrieved october https webarchiveorg web http repo nttccvirginiaedu classes esem syllabushtml hall jw o'connell pe earth systems engineering turning vision action civil engineering newton l h ethics sustainability sustainable development moral life upper saddle river nj prentice hall references external links https webarchiveorg web http repo nttccvirginiaedu classes esem syllabushtml class taught spring university virginia esem http wwwvirginiaedu insideuva allenbyhtml uva article spring course http barttccvirginiaedu classes esemjterm html class taught january university virginia esem


https webarchiveorg web http barttccvirginiaedu classes esem esem readings esemarticlepdf allenby article esem http wwwnclacuk ceser centre earth systems engineering research newcastle university environmental engineering industrial ecology systems ecology systems engineering engineering management


next stage mastery learning methods suggest focus instruction time required different students learn material achieve level mastery much contrast classic models teaching focus differences students' ability students given approximately amount time learn set instructions mastery learning shift responsibilities student 's failure due instruction necessarily lack ability part

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Mastery learning


therefore mastery learning environment challenge becomes providing enough time employing instructional strategies students achieve level learning ref name bloom ref name levine definition mastery learning set group based individualized teaching learning strategies based premise students achieve high level understanding given domain given enough time ref name anderson motivation motivation mastery learning comes trying reduce achievement gaps students average school classrooms john b carroll benjamin bloom pointed students


normally distributed respect aptitude subject provided uniform instruction terms quality learning time achievement level completion subject also expected normally distributed illustrated shown comparison normal curve aptitude normal curve achievement learning mastery learning approaches propose learner receive optimal quality instruction much learning time require majority students could expected attain mastery situation would represented follows


comparison normal curve aptitude normal curve achievement optimal learning many situations educators preemptively use normal curve grading students bloom critical usage condemning creates expectation teachers students naturally successful others bloom defended educators effective distribution achievement could different normal curve bloom proposed mastery learning way address believed using approach majority students percent would achieve


successful rewarding learning ref name bloom ref added advantage mastery learning also thought create positive interest attitude towards subject learned compared usual classroom methods ref name block related terms individualized instruction elements common mastery learning although dispenses group activities favor allowing capable motivated students progress ahead others maximizing teacher interaction students need assistance bloom 's sigma problem educational phenomenon observed average student tutored one one using mastery learning techniques


faded due primarily lack technologies could sustain successful implementation ref name block idea mastery learning resurfaced late early corollary programmed instruction technology invented bf skinner improve teaching ref name block underlying programmed instruction idea learning behavior matter complex rested upon learning sequence less complex component behaviors ref name skinner around time john b carroll working model school learning conceptual paradigm outlined major factors


influencing student success school learning indicating also factors interacted ref name carroll carroll 's model stemmed previous work foreign language learning found student 's aptitude language predicted level learned given time also amount time required learn given level carroll suggests aptitudes actually way measure amount time required learn task certain level ideal instructional conditions carroll 's model actually suggesting student


allowed time needed learn level could expected attain level ref name block later benjamin bloom graduate students researching individual differences school learning observed teachers displayed little variation instructional practices yet lot variation student 's achievements bloom used carroll 's conceptual model create working model mastery learning bloom realized aptitudes predictive rate student learn necessarily level


possible fix degree learning expected mastery level systematically manipulate variables carroll 's model almost students attained level also fred keller collaborating colleagues developing instructional methods mastery learning keller 's strategies based ideas reinforcement seen operant conditioning theories keller formally introduced teaching method personalized system instruction psi sometimes referred keller plan paper engineering personalized instruction classroom ref name keller late


early surge research keller 's bloom 's instruction methods ref name grant studies showed mastery learning positive effect achievement subjects levels also mastery learning brings positive affective outcomes students teachers studies also showed many variables either affected mastery learning influence somehow student entry variables curriculum type test pacing level mastery time ref name anderson despite mostly positive research results interest mastery learning strategies decreased throughout


reflected publication activity professional journals presentations conferences many explanations put forward justify decline like alleged recalcitrance educational establishment change ref name buskist ineffective implementations mastery learning methods ref name sherman extra time demanded setting maintaining mastery learning course ref name buskist even concerns behavioristic based models teaching would conflict generally humanistic oriented teachers surrounding culture ref name horton mastery learning strategies best represented bloom 's learning mastery lfm keller 's personalized system instruction psi bloom 's approach focused


schoolroom whereas keller developed system higher education applied many different contexts found powerful methods increasing student performance wide range activities despite sharing commonalities terms goals built different psychological principles learning mastery lfm variables lfm bloom first proposing mastery learning strategy convinced students attain high level learning capability following conditions available instruction approached sensitively systematically students helped


learning difficulties students given sufficient time achieve mastery clear criterion constitutes mastery ref name bloom many variables influence achievement levels learning outcomes aptitude aptitude measured standard aptitude tests context interpreted amount time required learner attain mastery learning task ref name carroll j ref several studies show majority students achieve mastery learning task time need spend different bloom argues percent


students special talent learning subject especially music foreign languages also around five percent students special disability learning subject students aptitude merely indicator rate learning additionally bloom argues aptitude learning task constant changed environmental conditions learning experience school home quality instruction quality instruction defined degree presentation explanation ordering elements task


learned approach optimum given learner ref name carroll j bloom insists quality instruction evaluated according effect individual students rather random groups students bloom shows traditional classrooms relationship students' aptitude test mathematics final grade algebra high relationship almost zero students receiving tutorial instruction home argues good tutor tries find quality learning best fit given students thus majority students would


able master subject access good tutor ref name bloom ability understand instruction according bloom ability understand instruction defined nature task learner learn procedure learner follow verbal ability reading comprehension two language abilities highly related student achievements since ability understand instruction varies significantly among students bloom recommends teachers modify instruction provide help teaching aids fit needs different students


teaching aids could provided according ability learner alternative textbooks group studies peer tutoring workbooks programmed instruction units audiovisual methods academic games laboratory experiences simple demonstrations puzzles ref name bloom perseverance perseverance context defined time learner willing spend learning according bloom student demonstrates low level perseverance one learning task might high level perseverance different learning task suggests students' perseverance enhanced increasing frequency reward providing evidence


success learning recommends teachers use frequent feedback accompanied specific help improve quality instruction thus reducing perseverance required learning ref name bloom time allowed learning according international study education countries top students omitted ratio time needed slower faster learners subject mathematics zero slightly negative relationship final grades amount time spent homework thus amount time spent


homework good indicator mastery subject bloom postulates time required learner achieve mastery specific subject affected various factors student 's aptitude subject student 's verbal ability quality instruction quality help provided ref name bloom lfm strategy lfm curricula generally consists discrete topics students begin together beginning unit students given meaningful formative assessment teacher conclude whether objective mastered


encouraged revise revisit assignment objective mastered preconditions preconditions process mastery learning first objectives content instruction specified clarified students teacher another precondition summative evaluation criteria developed teacher learner clear achievement criteria bloom suggests using absolute standards rather competitive criteria helps students collaborate facilitates mastery ref name bloom operating procedures operating procedures methods used


provide detailed feedback instructional help facilitate process mastery learning main operation procedures formative evaluation alternative learning resources ref name bloom formative evaluation formative evaluation context mastery learning diagnostic progress tests determine whether student mastered subject unit unit usually learning outcome could taught week two learning activity formative tests administered learning units bloom insists diagnostic process followed prescription result


formative assessment better express grade format since use grades repeated progress evaluations prepare students accepting level learning less mastery ref name bloom alternative learning resources progress tests followed detailed feedback specific suggestions students could work difficulties alternative learning resources small groups students two three meet work together tutorial help reviewing instructional material reading alternative textbooks using workbook programmed texts using selected audiovisual materials ref name bloom outcomes outcomes


mastery learning could summarized two groups cognitive outcomes affective outcomes ref name bloom cognitive outcomes cognitive outcomes mastery learning mainly related increase student excellence subject according one study applying strategies mastery learning class resulted increase students grade percent percent two standard deviation using formative evaluation records base quality control helped teacher improve strategies increase percent students grade


following year affective outcomes affective outcomes mastery mainly related sense self efficacy confidence learners bloom argues society education system recognizes learner 's mastery profound changes happen view self outer world learner would start believing able adequately cope problems would higher motivation learning subject higher level expertise would better mental state due less feeling frustration finally


argued modern society lifelong learning necessity mastery learning develop lifelong interest motivation learning ref name bloom personalized system instruction psi personalized system instruction also known keller plan developed mid fred keller colleagues developed based idea reinforcement teaching processes keller gives following description group psychology students enrolled course developed using mastery learning theory course may move start finish pace


held back students forced go ahead ready best may meet course requirements less one semester worst may complete job within time fast go keller pg ref name keller five elements psi five main elements psi described keller 's paper go pace feature permits student move course speed commensurate ability


demands upon time unit perfection requirement advance lets student go ahead new material demonstrating mastery preceded use lectures demonstrations vehicles motivation rather sources critical information related stress upon written word teacher student communication use proctors permits repeated testing immediate scoring almost unavoidable tutoring marked enhancement personal social aspect educational process ref name keller assessment mastery learning environment teacher directs variety group based instructional techniques frequent


best criticism time achievement equality dilemma goal mastery learning students reach prescribed level mastery ie test order achieve students require time others either practice instruction achieve success time achievement equality dilemma refers relationship time achievement context individual differences achievement held constant time need vary time held constant modern learning models achievement vary according critics mastery theory n't accurately address relationship ref name arlin


bloom 's original theory assumes practice slower learners become faster learners gap individual differences disappear bloom believes differences learning pace occur lack prerequisite knowledge children prerequisite knowledge learning progress rate bloom places blame teaching settings students n't given enough time reach mastery levels prerequisite knowledge moving new lesson also uses explain variance student learning smaller first grade compared


students th grade smart get smarter slower fall behind referred learning rate variance vanishing point ref name bloom four year longitudinal study arlin ref name arlin b found indication vanishing point students learned arithmetic mastery approach students required extra assistance learn material first year study required relatively amount additional instruction th year individual differences learning rates appear impacted method instruction contrary bloom 's opinions methodology errors


research experimental vs control groups studies investigating effectiveness mastery learning control experimental groups always valid experimental groups typically consisted courses developed adhere best principles mastery however control groups sometimes existing classes use comparison poses problem since way test effectiveness control group begin could poorly constructed course compared strictly designed mastery course measurement tools studies largest effect sizes found experimenter


made tests used test mastery levels students experiments using tests designed experiment mastery instruction intervention may able better tailor learning goals class align measurement tool ref name kuliketal conversely dramatic effect sizes essentially disappeared standardized tests used measure mastery levels control experimental groups study duration studies investigate long term effects mastery learning many studies included arbitrary week intervention period results based findings


time period 's important consider length time students immersed mastery learning program get greater understanding long term effects teaching strategy ref name arlin b general concerns opinions typical mastery programs involve providing class instruction testing using reliable tools ie multiple choice unit test format learning may beneficial learners interested surface rather deep processing information ref name laiandbiggs contradicts many today 's modern learning approaches focus less direct assessment knowledge creating meaningful applications


interpretations obtained knowledge see constructivism philosophy education chicago mastery learning reading program criticized focus testing concern children taught pass tests without focus enduring skills duration retention skills questioned love reading promoted students rarely read books stories student failure aspect program design required test pass resulted huge retention levels ultimately program practical implement value children


achieve mastery brings question general view success goal education became children become experts grades would become much less varied would theoretically high school graduating class grades universities would make selections pool applicants similar grades would admission requirements change account uniform ratings intelligence would time took reach mastery become new measure success questions wider implications mastery new standard raise discussion actual


value ref name arlin mastery learning today mastery learning one highly investigated teaching methods past years subject high criticism also found resounding success implemented correctly ref name guskey meta analysis guskey pigott ref name guskey looked studies implemented group based mastery learning classrooms results found consistently positive effects number variables including student achievement retention learned material involvement learning activities student affect ref name guskey however notable variation found within student achievement


believed due mainly subject taught courses science probability social studies yielded consistent positive results subjects varied ref name guskey another large scale meta analysis conducted kulik et al ref name kuliketal investigated studies mastery programs implemented elementary secondary post secondary level results revealed positive effects favour teaching strategies students also reporting positive attitudes toward style learning study also found mastery programs effective weaker students despite empirical


evidence many mastery programs schools replaced traditional forms instruction due level commitment required teacher difficulty managing classroom student following individual course learning ref name grittner however central tenets mastery learning still found today 's teaching strategies differentiated instruction ref name tomilson understanding design ref name wiggins researchers northwestern university led drs diane wayne jeff barsuk william mcgaghie pioneered use mastery learning health professions investigated


mastery learning vs traditional medical education advanced cardiac life support techniques showed internal medicine resident trainees significantly improved adherence american heart association protocols mastery training ref name jgim subsequent investigations showed improved patient care practices result rigorous education including reduced patient complications healthcare costs ref name archives effects patient care seen operating rooms cardiac catheterization lab intensive care units patient floors large urban teaching hospital chicago study also involved communication skills breaking bad news end life discussions


patient self management skills northwestern group published important textbook entitled mastery learning health professions education approach designed northwestern investigators currently use health care institutions medical schools throughout us world jonathan bergmann aaron sams published book flip classroom reach every student every class every day second half book dedicated implement called flipped mastery model merged mastery learning flipped learning saw significant results book spurred many


teachers across world adopt flipped mastery approach bergmann sams show logistical problems associated setting mastery learning program solved technology teachers deliver direct instruction time shifted either instructional video flipped reading assignment issue multiple assessments also solved programs allow testing much seamless less burdensome see also references ref ref name anderson ref ref name arlin ref ref name arlin b ref ref name block ref ref name bloom ref ref name bloom ref ref name bloom ref ref name buskist ref


ref name carroll ref ref name grant ref ref name guskey ref ref name guskey ref ref name horton ref ref name keller ref ref name keller ref ref name kuliketal ref ref name laiandbiggs ref ref name levine ref ref name sherman ref ref name skinner ref ref name tomilson ref ref name wiggins ref ref name grittner ref ref name guskey ref ref name jgim ref ref name archives ref education theory


headquarters world health organization geneva switzerland '''health policy''' defined decisions plans actions undertaken achieve specific healthcare goals within society ref name hp world health organization https wwwwhoint topics health policy en ''health policy'' accessed march ref according world health organization explicit health policy achieve several things defines vision future outlines priorities expected roles different groups builds consensus informs people ref name hp many categories health policies including global health policy public health policy mental health policy health

Applied science
Public administration
Health policy


care services policy insurance policy personal healthcare policy pharmaceutical policy policies related public health vaccination policy tobacco control policy breastfeeding promotion policy may cover topics financing delivery healthcare access care quality care health equity background health related policy implementation complex conceptual models help show flow health related policy development health related policy program implementation health systems health outcomes policy understood national law health policy supports program intervention operational


policies rules regulations guidelines administrative norms governments use translate national laws policies programs services policy process encompasses decisions made national decentralized level including funding decisions affect whether services delivered thus attention must paid policies multiple levels health system time ensure sustainable scale supportive policy environment facilitate scale health interventions many topics politics evidence influence decision government private sector business group


adopt specific policy evidence based policy relies use science rigorous studies randomized controlled trials identify programs practices capable improving policy relevant outcomes political debates surround personal health care policies especially seek reform healthcare delivery typically categorized either philosophical economic philosophical debates center around questions individual rights ethics government authority economic topics include maximize efficiency health care delivery minimize costs countries universal health care modern concept healthcare involves access


medical professionals various fields well medical technology medications surgical equipment also involves access latest information evidence research including medical research health services research many countries left individual gain access healthcare goods services paying directly pocket expenses private sector players medical pharmaceutical industries develop research planning production health human resources distributed among labour market participants countries explicit policy ensure support access


healthcare policy options philosophy right health many countries jurisdictions integrate human rights philosophy directing healthcare policies world health organization reports every country world party least one human rights treaty addresses health related rights including right health well rights relate conditions necessary good health united nations' universal declaration human rights udhr asserts medical care right people ''udhr article '' everyone right standard living adequate


health well family including food clothing housing medical care necessary social services right security event unemployment illness disability widowhood old age lack livelihood circumstances beyond control jurisdictions among different faith based organizations health policies influenced perceived obligation shaped religious beliefs care less favorable circumstances including sick jurisdictions non governmental organizations draw principles humanism defining health policies asserting perceived obligation enshrined right


health ref name nhchc national health care homeless council http wwwnhchcorg humanrighthtml human rights homelessness health care ref ref name cesr center economic social rights http cesrorg ushealthright right health united states america mean october ref recent years worldwide human rights organization amnesty international focused health human right addressing inadequate access hiv drugs women 's sexual reproductive rights including wide disparities maternal mortality within across countries increasing attention health basic human right welcomed leading medical journal ''the


lancet'' remains considerable controversy regarding policies would paying costs medical care people circumstances example government spending healthcare sometimes used global indicator government 's commitment health people ref name lancet ref hand one school thought emerging united states rejects notion health care financing taxpayer funding incompatible considered less important right physician 's professional judgment related concerns government involvement overseeing health citizens could


erode right privacy doctors patients argument furthers universal health insurance denies right individual patients dispose income per ref name sade reprinted http wwwaapsonlineorg brochures sademcrhtm political fallacy medical care right ref another issue rights debate governments' use legislation control competition among private medical insurance providers national social insurance systems case canada 's national health insurance program laissez faire supporters argue erodes cost effectiveness health system even afford pay


private healthcare services drain resources public system issue whether investor owned medical insurance companies health maintenance organizations better position act best interests customers compared government regulation oversight another claim united states perceives government regulation healthcare insurance industries effective end charitable home visits doctors among poor elderly ref name david e kelley david e kelley life one 's individual rights welfare state cato institute october ref economics healthcare financing public private


health expenditure country many types health policies exist focusing financing healthcare services spread economic risks ill health include publicly funded health care taxation insurance also known single payer systems mandatory voluntary private health insurance complete capitalization personal health care services private companies among others debate ongoing type health financing policy results better worse quality healthcare services provided ensure allocated funds used effectively efficiently equitably many arguments sides


issue public versus private health financing policies '''''claims publicly funded healthcare improves quality efficiency personal health care delivery ''''' government spending health essential accessibility sustainability healthcare services programmes ref name lancet people would otherwise go without care due lack financial means quality care improvement since people perceive universal healthcare ''free'' insurance premium co payment likely seek preventive care may reduce disease burden overall healthcare costs long run single payer


systems reduce wastefulness removing middle man ie private insurance companies thus reducing amount bureaucracy particular reducing amount paperwork medical professionals deal insurance claims processing allows concentrate treating patients '''''claims privately funded healthcare leads greater quality efficiencies personal health care ''''' perceptions publicly funded healthcare ''free'' lead overuse medical services hence raise overall costs compared private health financing ref name dr gratzer heritage foundation news release http wwwheritageorg research healthcare hl cfm cure capitalism save american health care december ref


privately funded medicine leads greater quality efficiencies increased access reduced waiting times specialized health care services technologies ref name sade ref name goodman goodman john http wwwcatoorg pubs catosletter catosletterv n pdf five myths socialized medicine cato institute ''cato 's letter'' winter ref ref name friedman friedmen david ''the machinery freedom'' arlington house publishers new york pp ref limiting allocation public funds personal healthcare curtail ability uninsured citizens pay healthcare pocket expenses public funds better rationalized provide emergency care services regardless insured status ability pay


emergency medical treatment active labor act united states privately funded operated healthcare reduces requirement governments increase taxes cover healthcare costs may compounded inefficiencies among government agencies due greater bureaucracy ref name goodman health policy options health policy options extend beyond financing delivery personal health care domains medical research health workforce planning domestically internationally medical research policy medical research basis defining evidence based health policy subject health


policy particularly terms sources funding favor government policies publicly funded medical research posit removing profit motive increase rate medical innovation opposed argue opposite removing incentive profit removes incentives innovate inhibits new technologies developed utilized ref name friedman existence sound medical research necessarily lead evidence based policymaking example south africa whose population sets record hiv infections previous government policy limiting funding access aids


quality health workers meet healthcare goals address physician nursing shortages elsewhere workforce planning distributed among labour market participants laissez faire approach health policy evidence based policies workforce development typically based findings health services research health foreign policy many governments agencies include health dimension foreign policy order achieve global health goals promoting health lower income countries seen instrumental achieve goals global agenda including promoting global security linked fears


global pandemics intentional spread pathogens potential increase humanitarian conflicts natural disasters emergencies promoting economic development including addressing economic effect poor health development pandemic outbreaks global market place also gain growing global market health goods services promoting social justice reinforcing health social value human right including supporting united nations' millennium development goals global health policy global health policy encompasses global governance structures create policies underlying public health throughout world addressing


global health global health policy implies consideration health needs people whole planet concerns particular nations distinguished international health policy agreements among sovereign states comparative health policy analysis health policy across states global health policy institutions consist actors norms frame global health response see also health care reform health economics health equity health law ''journal public health policy'' medical law national health insurance patient safety pharmaceutical policy public health law two tier health care references external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwwhoint alliance hpsr en alliance health policy


'''environmental policy''' commitment organization government laws regulations policy mechanisms concerning environmental issues issues generally include air water pollution waste management ecosystem management maintenance biodiversity management natural resources wildlife endangered species example concerning environmental policy implementation eco energy oriented policy global level address issues global warming climate changes could addressed policies concerning energy regulation toxic substances including pesticides many types industrial waste part topic environmental policy policy

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Environmental policy


deliberately taken influence human activities thereby prevent undesirable effects biophysical environment natural resources well make sure changes environment unacceptable effects humans definition one way describe environmental policy comprises two major terms environment policy environment refers physical ecosystems also take consideration social dimension quality life health economic dimension resource management biodiversity policy defined course action principle adopted proposed government party


management natural resources future generations relatively recently environmental policy also attended communication environmental issues contrast environmental policy ecological policy addresses issues focus achieving benefits monetary non monetary non human ecological world broadly included ecological policy natural resource management fisheries forestry wildlife range biodiversity risk species specialized area policy possesses distinctive features rationale rationale governmental involvement environment often attributed market failure form forces beyond control


one person including free rider problem tragedy commons example externality factory produces waste pollution may discharged river ultimately contaminating water cost action paid society large must clean water drinking external costs polluter free rider problem occurs private marginal cost taking action protect environment greater private marginal benefit social marginal cost less social marginal benefit


tragedy commons condition one person owns commons individual incentive utilize common resources much possible without governmental involvement commons overused examples tragedies commons overfishing overgrazing role non governmental organizations non governmental organizations greatest influence environmental policies days many countries facing huge environmental social economic impacts rapid population growth development natural resource constraints ngos try help countries tackle issues successfully lack understanding


role civil society public perception government alone responsible well citizens residents makes ngos tasks difficult achieve ngos greenpeace world wildlife fund help tackling issues conducting research facilitate policy development building institutional capacity facilitating independent dialogue civil society help people live sustainable lifestyles need legal framework recognize ngos enable access diverse funding sources high level support endorsement local figureheads engaging ngos policy development implementation


important environmental issues continue increase international organizations also made great impacts environmental policies creating programmes united nations environment programme hosting conferences united nations earth summit address environmental issues unep leading global environmental authority tasked policy guidance environmental programs unep monitors environmental aspects waste management energy use greenhouse gas inventory water use promote environmental sustainability address environmental issues instruments problems issues environmental policy instruments tools used governments organizations implement environmental policies


governments example may use number different types instruments example economic incentives market based instruments taxes tax exemptions tradable permits fees effective encourage compliance environmental policy assumption corporations organizations engage efficient environmental management transparent environmental data reporting presumably benefit improved business organizational performance bilateral agreements government private firms commitments made firms independent government requirement examples voluntary environmental measures another instrument implementation greener


policy goals oecd environment directorate example collects data efficiency consequences environmental policies implemented national governments website wwweconomicinstrumentscom https webarchiveorg web http economicinstrumentscom provides database detailing countries' experiences environmental policies united nations economic commission europe unece environmental performance reviews evaluates progress made member countries improving environmental policies current reliance market based framework supporters detractors among detractors example environmentalists contend radical overarching approach needed set specific initiatives deal climate


change example energy efficiency measures may actually increase energy consumption absence cap fossil fuel use people might drive fuel efficient cars combat result aubrey meyer calls 'framework based market' contraction convergence cap share sky trust proposals based idea environmental impact assessments eia conducted compare impacts various policy alternatives moreover although often assumed policymakers make rational decisions based merits project eccleston march argue although policymakers normally access reasonably


accurate environmental information political economic factors important often lead policy decisions rank environmental priorities secondary importance decision making theory casts doubt premise irrational decisions reached based unconscious biases illogical assumptions desire avoid ambiguity uncertainty eccleston identifies describes four critical environmental policy issues facing humanity water scarcity food scarcity climate change population paradox research innovation policy synergic environmental policy environmental research innovation policy example european environmental research innovation policy aims


marked beginning modern environmental policy making stage set change publication rachel carson 's new york times bestseller silent spring strengthened environmental movement earth day founder gaylord nelson us senator wisconsin witnessing ravages massive oil spill santa barbara california became famous environmental work administrator ruckelshaus confirmed senate december traditional date used birth united states environmental protection agency epa five months earlier july


president nixon signed reorganization plan calling establishment epa time environmental policy bipartisan issue efforts united states america helped spark countries around world create environmental policies period legislation passed regulate pollutants go air water tables solid waste disposal president nixon signed clean air act set us one world leaders environmental conservation world 's first minister environment british politician peter walker conservative


party german benzinbleigesetz reduced tetraethyllead since european union first environmental action programme adopted national government representatives july first meeting council environmental ministers since increasingly dense network legislation developed extends areas environmental protection including air pollution control water protection waste policy also nature conservation control chemicals biotechnology industrial risks eu environmental policy thus become core area european politics german umweltbundesamt founded berlin


energy agriculture transport rather leaving pursued solely purely environmental policy practices oftentimes particularly challenging need reconcile global objectives international rules domestic needs laws epi widely recognised one key elements sustainable development recently notion climate policy integration also denoted mainstreaming applied indicate integration climate considerations mitigation adaptation normal often economically focused activity government environmental policy studies given growing need trained environmental practitioners graduate schools


focus academic program notable institutions include balsillie school international affairs sipa columbia sciences po paris graduate institute geneva university oxford university warwick university british columbia among others see also chemical leasing climate policy environmental governance environmental politics environmental racism environmental racism united states ''environmental principles policies'' book earth system governance harris school public policy studies normative science tellus institute middlebury institute international studies monterey policy advocacy population growth references external links http greenwillorg greenwill global nonprofit initiative offering free environmental policies green policy worldwide http webarchivenationalarchivesgovuk envirowisegovuk


envirowise uk portal government funded site offering environmental policy advice https webarchiveorg web http wwwrtccorg html foreword html responding climate change climate change organization publishing annually since http wwwrfforg resources future nonprofit nonpartisan organization conducts independent research rooted primarily economics social sciences environmental energy natural resource issues https dataoecdorg eea oecd environmental policy natural resource management database http www epagov nepa us national environmental policy act http emccompk december pakistan environmental protection act pepa' signed promulgated president pakistan provides protection conservation rehabilitation improvement environment prevention control


'''scoutcraft''' term used cover variety woodcraft knowledge skills required people seeking venture wild country sustain independently term adopted scouting organizations reflect skills knowledge felt core part various programs alongside community spirituality skills commonly included camping cooking first aid wilderness survival orienteering pioneering origins europeans scoutcraft grew woodcraft skills necessary survive expanding frontiers new world eighteenth nineteenth centuries frontiersmen

Human physical performance and recreation


new book ''scouting boys'' published removed earlier martial works kept idea scoutcraft core part scouting program critics accused baden powell trying create pseudo military organisation quick distance scouting earlier military experiences instead pointed importance self reliance duty thoughtfulness new program promoted order test new member earned title scout baden powell devised number tests complete including


knot tying animal tracking first aid navigation fire lighting tests listed baden powell include sixpence bank knowing union flag significance nbsp latter tests generally included scoutcraft recent times ref name bp sfb ref similar books published america ernest thompson seton pioneer scouting movement united states scoutcraft still core part many organisations' programs scout association united kingdom lists following benefits scoutcraft ref name tsa scoutcraft ref encourages self reliance resourcefulness confidence ability develops skills


used outdoors provides training emergency situations skills example list scoutcraft skills taken 's ''boy scout handbook'' sixth edition includes camp cooking camp health camp preparation cleanup edible wild plants finding directions fire building first aid hiking knowing trees shrubs lashings map reading map sketching preparing firewood selecting campsite signaling swimming tent pitching use compass using axe camp wildlife see also batoning references scouting


'' 'sociological theory''' intends consider analyze explain objects social reality sociological perspective ref name macionis john linda gerber ''sociology'' th canadian ed upper saddle river nj pearson education ref drawing connections individual concepts order organize substantiate sociological knowledge hence knowledge composed complex theoretical frameworks methodology theories range scope concise yet thorough descriptions single social process broad inconclusive paradigms analysis interpretation sociological theories explain aspects social world enable prediction

Social science
Sociology
Sociological Theory


future events others function broad perspectives guide sociological analyses prominent sociological theorists include talcott parsons robert k merton randall collins james samuel coleman peter blau niklas luhmann marshal mcluhan immanuel wallerstein george homans harrison white theda skocpol gerhard lenski pierre van den berghe jonathan h turner ref name sanderson stephen k https wwwasanetorg sites default files savvy sectiontheory documents perspectives augpdf reforming theoretical work sociology modest proposal '' http wwwasatheoryorg current newsletter online perspectives '' newsletter asa theory section p ref sociological theory vs social theory kenneth allan distinguishes sociological theory social theory former consists abstract testable propositions society


heavily relying scientific method aims objectivity avoid passing value judgments contrast ' 'social theory'' according allan focuses less explanation commentary critique modern society social theory generally closer continental philosophy insofar less concerned objectivity derivation testable propositions thus likely propose normative judgments ref name sociologist robert k merton argued sociological theory deals social mechanisms essential exemplifying 'middle ground' social law description ref name merton robert k ''social


theory social structure'' enlarged ed new york free press via internet archive https archiveorg stream robert k merton social theory social structure robert k merton social theory social structure free press collier macmillan djvutxt full text ref merton believed social mechanisms social processes designated consequences designated parts social structure prominent social theorists include ref name j rgen habermas anthony giddens michel foucault dorothy smith roberto unger alfred sch tz jeffrey alexander jacques derrida also prominent scholars could seen social sociological theories ref name harold garfinkel herbert blumer claude l vi strauss pierre bourdieu erving goffman classical theoretical traditions field sociology


relatively new discipline extension field sociological theory date back th th centuries periods drastic social change societies would begin see example emergence industrialization urbanization democracy early capitalism provoking particularly western thinkers start becoming considerably aware society field sociology initially dealt broad historical processes relating changes well cited survey sociological theory randall collins retroactively labels various theorists belonging four theoretical traditions functionalism conflict symbolic interactionism utilitarianism


modern sociological theory descends predominately ''functionalist'' durkheim ''conflict'' oriented marx weber perspectives social structure also takes great influence ' 'symbolic interactionist'' tradition accounting theories pragmatism mead cooley micro level structure simmel likewise ''utilitarianism'' aka rational choice social exchange although often associated economics established tradition within sociological theory lastly argued raewyn connell tradition often forgotten ' 'social darwinism'' applies logic biological evolution social world tradition often aligns classical functionalism associated several founders


sociology primarily herbert spencer lester f ward william graham sumner contemporary sociological theory retains traces traditions means mutually exclusive structural functionalism broad historical paradigm sociology ' 'structural functionalism'' addresses social structures entirety terms necessary functions possessed constituent elements common parallel used functionalists known ''organic'' ''biological analogy'' popularized herbert spencer regard norms institutions 'organs' work toward proper functioning entire 'body' society perspective implicit original


sociological positivism auguste comte theorized full durkheim respect observable structural laws functionalism also anthropological basis work theorists marcel mauss bronis aw malinowski alfred radcliffe brown latter explicit usage introduced structural prefix concept classical functionalist theory generally united tendency towards biological analogy notions social evolutionism giddens states functionalist thought comte onwards looked particularly towards biology science providing closest compatible model social science biology


taken provide guide conceptualizing structure function social systems analyzing processes evolution via mechanisms adaptation functionalism strongly emphasizes pre eminence social world individual parts ie constituent actors human subjects conflict theory ''conflict theory'' method attempts scientific manner provide causal explanations existence conflict society thus conflict theorists look ways conflict arises resolved society well every conflict unique theories describe origins conflict


societies founded unequal distribution resources power though universal definition resources necessarily includes theorists follow max weber 's point view weber viewed conflict result ''class'' ' 'status'' ''power'' ways defining individuals given society sense power defines standards thus people abide societal rules expectation due inequality power karl marx believed father '' 'social conflict theory''' ' 'social conflict'' refers struggle segments society valued resources th


inequality generates conflict social change ref name important sociologists associated social conflict theory include harriet martineau jane addams w e b du bois rather observing ways social structures help societies operate sociological approach looks social patterns cause certain individuals become dominant society causing others oppressed ref name accordingly criticisms theory disregards shared values way people rely help unify society ref name symbolic interactionism symbolic interaction often associated


interactionism phenomenological sociology dramaturgy interpretivism sociological approach places emphasis subjective ''meanings'' usually analysis empirical unfolding social processes ref name processes believed rely individuals actions ultimately necessary society progress phenomena first theorized george herbert mead described ''outcome collaborative joint action'' approach focuses creating theoretical framework observes society product everyday interactions individuals words society basic form nothing


shared reality constructed individuals interact one another sense individuals interact within countless situations symbolic interpretations given reality whereby society complex ever changing mosaic subjective ''meanings'' ref name critics approach argue focuses ostensible characteristics social situations disregarding effects culture race gender ie social historical structures ref name important sociologists traditionally associated approach include george herbert mead erving goffman george homans peter blau new contributions perspective meanwhile include howard becker gary alan fine


david altheide robert prus peter hall david r maines well others ref name salvini doi doi access free ref also tradition radical empirical approach ''ethnomethodology'' emerged work harold garfinkel utilitarianism utilitarianism often referred exchange theory rational choice theory context sociology tradition tends privilege agency individual rational actors assuming within interactions individuals always seek maximize self interest argued josh whitford rational actors characterized possessing four basic elements knowledge alternatives


knowledge beliefs consequences various alternatives ordering preferences outcomes decision rule select amongst possible alternatives exchange theory specifically attributed work george c homans peter blau richard emerson organizational sociologists james g march herbert simon noted individual 's rationality bounded context organizational setting utilitarian perspective sociology notably revitalized late th century work former asa president james samuel coleman basic theory overall strong


consensus regarding central theoretical questions key problems emerge explicating questions sociology general sociological theory attempts answer following three questions action social order determines social change myriad attempts answer questions three predominantly theoretical ie empirical issues emerge largely inherited classical theoretical traditions consensus central theoretical problems ''link'' ''transcend'' ''cope with'' following big three dichotomies ref name ref '''subjectivity''' '''objectivity''' deals ''knowledge'' '''structure''' '''agency''' deals ''agency''


'''synchrony''' '' 'diachrony''' deals ''time'' lastly sociological theory often grapples subset three central problems problem integrating transcending divide micro meso macro level social phenomena problems altogether empirical rather epistemological arise conceptual imagery analytical analogies sociologists use describe complexity social processes ref name objectivity subjectivity issue ' 'subjectivity'' ''objectivity'' divided concern ''the general possibilities social actions'' b ''the specific problem social scientific knowledge'' regard


insofar subjectivity objectivity concerned b specific problem social scientific knowledge concern results fact sociologist part ' 'very object'' seek explain expressed bourdieu structure agency structure agency '' 'determinism and''' '''voluntarism''' form enduring ontological debate social theory social structures determine individual 's behaviour human agency context ''agency'' refers capacity individual act independently make free choices whereas ' 'structure'' relates factors limit affect choices actions


individual eg social class religion gender ethnicity etc discussions primacy either structure agency relate core sociological epistemology ie social world made cause social world effect perennial question within debate social reproduction structures specifically structures produce inequality reproduced choices individuals synchrony diachrony synchrony diachrony '' 'statics and''' '' 'dynamics''' within social theory terms refer distinction emerging work levi strauss inherited


linguistics ferdinand de saussure ref name lizardo omar lizardo omar beyond antinomies structure levi strauss giddens bourdieu sewell ''theory society'' ref former slices moments time analysis thus analysis static social reality diachrony hand attempts analyze dynamic sequences following saussure synchrony would refer social phenomena static concept like ''language'' diachrony would refer unfolding processes like actual ' 'speech'' anthony giddens' introduction ''central problems social theory'' states order show interdependence action


structurewe must grasp time space relations inherent constitution social interaction like structure agency time integral discussion social reproduction terms sociology historical sociology often better positioned analyze social life diachronic survey research takes snapshot social life thus better equipped understand social life synchronic argue synchrony social structure methodological perspective rather ontological claim ref name lizardo omar nonetheless problem theory integrate two manners recording


thinking social data contemporary theories contemporary discipline sociology theoretically multi paradigmatic encompassing greater range subjects including communities organizations relationships discipline first began strain theory anomie theory strain theory theoretical perspective identifies ''anomie'' ie normlessness result society provides little moral guidance individuals ref name emile durkheim first described anomie one results inequitable division labour within society observing social periods disruption resulted greater anomie higher rates suicide


crimes sense broadly speaking times great upheaval increasing numbers individuals cease accept moral legitimacy society noted sociologist anthony r mawson ref name mawson anthony r durkheim contemporary pathology british journal sociology ref robert k merton would go theorize anomie well forms deviant behavior derive largely disjunction culturally prescribed aspirations society socially structured avenues realizing aspirations dramaturgy developed erving goffman ref group lower roman ref dramaturgy aka '' 'dramaturgical perspective''' particularized paradigm


symbolic interactionism interprets life performance ie ' 'drama'' actors status ie part play given various roles ref name roles serve script supplying dialogue action characters ie people reality ref name roles also involve props certain settings example doctor role uses instruments like heart monitor prop using medical terms script doctor 's office setting ref name addition ''performance'' presentation self


people perceive us based ways portray ref name process known ''impression management'' begins idea personal performance mathematical theory mathematical theory aka '''formal theory''' refers use mathematics constructing social theories mathematical sociology aims sociological theory formal terms theories understood lack benefits approach include increased clarity also mathematics ability derive theoretical implications could arrived intuitively models typically used mathematical


sociology allow sociologists understand predictable local interactions often able elicit global patterns social structure positivism positivism philosophy developed middle th century auguste comte states authentic knowledge scientific knowledge knowledge come positive affirmation theories strict scientific method society operates according laws like physical world thus introspective intuitional attempts gain knowledge rejected positivist approach recurrent theme history western thought antiquity


macro level analyses ref name questions asked approach include understand societies interpersonal relations rejecting theories methods social sciences assumptions human nature power permeate social relations society change circumstances ref name one prominent postmodernists approach 's history french philosopher michel foucault ref group lower roman see michel foucault bibliography ref theories '''antipositivism''' '''interpretive sociology''' theoretical perspective based work max weber proposes social economic


historical research never fully empirical descriptive one must always approach conceptual apparatus ref name '''critical theory''' lineage sociological theory reference groups frankfurt school aims critique change society culture simply document understand ref name '''engaged theory''' approach seeks understand complexity social life synthesizing empirical research abstract layers analysis including analysis modes practice analysis basic categories existence time space embodiment knowledge


'''feminism''' collection movements aimed defining establishing defending equal political economic social rights women theory focuses gender inequality shapes social life approach shows sexuality reflects patterns social inequality helps perpetuate feminism social conflict perspective focuses gender inequality links sexuality domination women men ref name '''field theory''' examines social fields social environments competition takes place eg field electronics manufacturers concerned individuals construct fields


starts empirical phenomenon opposed broad abstract entity like social system abstracts create general statements verified data ref name '''network theory''' structural approach sociology closely associated work harrison white views norms behaviors embedded chains social relations ref name '''phenomenology''' approach within field sociology aims reveal role human awareness plays production social action social situations social worlds essence phenomenology belief


models social behavior interaction utility maximizing individuals rational implies cost effectiveness balanced cost accomplish utility maximizing interaction costs extrinsic meaning intrinsic values feelings guilt accounted cost commit crime '''social constructionism''' sociological theory knowledge considers social phenomena develop particular social contexts '''socialization''' refers lifelong social experience people develop human potential learn culture unlike living species humans need socialization within cultures survival ref name adopting concept theorists may


defined real real consequences ref name suggests reality people construct interaction real consequences future example teacher believes certain student intellectually gifted may well encourage exceptional academic performance ref name theories social movements mlk jr giving dream speech 's march washington jobs freedom us civil rights movement one famous social movements th century collective action collective behavior relative deprivation value added theory resource mobilization political opportunity framing


theorists theorists believe perform deviant acts enjoyment without care consequences likewise positivists view criminals actions result person instead nature person labeling theory essential notion ''labeling theory'' deviance conformity result much people others respond actions ref name also states society 's reaction specific behaviors major determinant person may come adopt deviant label ref name theory


stresses relativity deviance idea people may define behavior number ways thus labelling theory micro level analysis often classified social interactionist approach hate crimes hate crime defined criminal act person person 's property offender motivated racial ethnic religious bias hate crimes may refer race ancestry religion sexual orientation physical disabilities according statistics canada jewish community likely victim hate crimes canada


overall hate crimes motivated ethnicity race targeting mainly blacks asians target religion mainly judaism islam relatively small motivated sexual orientation targets gays lesbians ref name physical traits distinguish criminals non criminals genetic factors together environmental factors strong predictors adult crime violence ref name psychologists see deviance result unsuccessful socialization abnormality individual personality ref name psychopathy ''psychopath'' defined serious criminal


feel shame guilt actions little sympathy people harm fear punishment ref name individuals nature may also known antisocial personality disorder robert hare one world 's leading experts psychopathy developed important assessment device psychopathy known ''psychopathy checklist'' revised many measure single important advancement date toward hopefully become ultimate understanding psychopathy ref name halpern diane wayne weiten doug mccann ''psychology themes variations'' nd


canadian ed nelson education ref psychopaths exhibit variety maladaptive traits rarity experience genuine affection others moreover skilled faking affection irresponsible impulsive hardly tolerant frustration pursue immediate gratification ref name likewise '''containment theory''' suggests stronger conscience tolerable frustrations thus less likely involved criminal activities ref name white collar crime sutherland cressey define white collar crime crime committed persons high social position course occupation white collar crime involves people


making use occupational position enrich others illegally often causes public harm white collar crime public harm wreaked false advertising marketing unsafe products embezzlement bribery public officials extensive people think go unnoticed unpunished ref name likewise '''corporate crime''' refers illegal actions corporation people acting behalf corporate crime ranges knowingly selling faulty dangerous products purposely polluting environment like white collar crime cases corporate crime go unpunished many never even


known public ref name theories crime differential association developed edwin sutherland theory examines criminal acts perspective learned behaviours ref name control theory theory developed travis hirschi states weak bond individual society allows individual defy societal norms adopt behaviors deviant nature ref name rational choice theory states people commit crimes rational according analyses costs benefits crime


reduced minimizing benefits maximizing costs would criminal social disorganization theory states crime likely occur areas social institutions unable directly control groups individuals social learning theory states people adopt new behaviors observational learning environments strain theory states social structure within society may cause people commit crimes specifically extent type deviance people engage depend whether society provides means achieve cultural goals ref name subcultural theory states behavior influenced


factors class ethnicity family status theory 's primary focus juvenile delinquency organized crime ref name business supplies illegal goods services including sex drugs gambling type crime expanded among immigrants found society always willing share opportunities famous example organized crime italian mafia see also sociological imagination index sociology articles list sociologists bibliography sociology list sociology journals branches sociology timeline sociology history social sciences https dunialiterasicom dunialiterasi references notes


canadian ed toronto ontario pearson canada inc pp ref ref name macionis john j macionis john j linda gerber sociology toronto pearson canada print ref ref name macionisandgerber ref ref name psychology themes variations nd canadian ed ref ref name sociology th canadian ed john j macionis linda gerber ''sociology'' seventh canadian edition pearson canada ref ref name sociology th edition ref ref name sociology th canadian ed ref ref name sociology th canadian ed ref ref name sociology th canadian ed ref ref name sociology th canadian ed ref ref name sociology th canadian ed ref ref name sociology th canadian edition ref ref name sociology ref ref name sociology ref ref name aghababa ref ref name contemporary mawson r durkbeim contemporary social


pathology br j soc anomie deviant behavior connection theories durkheim merton srole ref ref name fsu template ref ref name interpretive swedberg richard max weber 's interpretive economic sociology american behavioral scientist issn ref ref name organizational patricia yancey martin barry turner grounded theory organizational research ''the journal applied behavioral science'' vol ref ref name psychology weiten w psychology themes variations th ed belmont calif wadsworth cengage learning pp ref ref name sanderson sanderson sk reforming theoretical work sociology modest proposal perspectives p ref ref name sociological billingham sociological perspectives


practices'' edited j allen tuggerah nsw social science press external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwasanetorg sections theorycfm american sociological association section theory http wwwsocial theoryeu european sociological association social theory research network rn http wwwisa sociologyorg rc htm international sociological association research committee sociological theory rc '' https webarchiveorg web http asanetorg journals st indexcfm sociological theory '' academic journal teng wang https socialphenomenasitewordpresscom social phenomena sociological terminology philosophy social science


'''data visualization''' often abbreviated '' 'data viz''' ref name biz comm ref interdisciplinary field deals graphic representation data particularly efficient way communicating data numerous example time series ref name nussbaumer knaflic academic point view representation considered mapping original data usually numerical graphic elements example lines points chart mapping determines attributes elements vary according data light bar chart mapping length

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Data visualization


types features visualizations understandable effective conveying information ref name mason ref ref name o'donoghue ref overview data visualization one steps analyzing data presenting users communicate information clearly efficiently data visualization uses statistical graphics plots information graphics tools numerical data may encoded using dots lines bars visually communicate quantitative message ref name referencea ref effective visualization helps users analyze reason data evidence makes complex data accessible understandable usable users may particular analytical tasks making comparisons understanding causality


design principle graphic ie showing comparisons showing causality follows task tables generally used users look specific measurement charts various types used show patterns relationships data one variables data visualization refers techniques used communicate data information encoding visual objects eg points lines bars contained graphics goal communicate information clearly efficiently users one steps data analysis data science according vitaly


fernanda viegas martin wattenberg suggested ideal visualization communicate clearly stimulate viewer engagement attention data visualization closely related information graphics information visualization scientific visualization exploratory data analysis statistical graphics new millennium data visualization become active area research teaching development according post et al united scientific information visualization ref name fhp frits h post gregory nielson georges pierre bonneau http visualisationtudelftnl publications post bpdf ''data visualization state art'' research paper tu delft ref commercial environment data visualization


often referred dashboards infographics another common form data visualization underpinnings characteristics effective graphical displays charles joseph minard 's diagram napoleonic france 's invasion russia early example information graphic ref professor edward tufte explained users information displays executing particular ''analytical tasks'' making comparisons ' 'design principle'' information graphic support analytical task william cleveland robert mcgill show different graphical elements accomplish less effectively example dot plots bar charts outperform pie charts


book ''the visual display quantitative information'' edward tufte defines 'graphical displays' principles effective graphical display following passage excellence statistical graphics consists complex ideas communicated clarity precision efficiency graphical displays show data induce viewer think substance rather methodology graphic design technology graphic production something else avoid distorting data say present many numbers small space make large data sets coherent encourage eye compare different pieces data reveal data several levels


detail broad overview fine structure serve reasonably clear purpose description exploration tabulation decoration closely integrated statistical verbal descriptions data set graphics ' 'reveal'' data indeed graphics precise revealing conventional statistical computations ref name tufte ref example minard diagram shows losses suffered napoleon 's army period six variables plotted size army location two dimensional surface x time direction movement temperature line width illustrates comparison size army


points time temperature axis suggests cause change army size multivariate display two dimensional surface tells story grasped immediately identifying source data build credibility tufte wrote may well best statistical graphic ever drawn ref name tufte applying principles may result misleading graphs distorting message supporting erroneous conclusion according tufte chartjunk refers extraneous interior decoration graphic enhance message gratuitous three dimensional perspective effects needlessly


separating explanatory key image requiring eye travel back forth image key form administrative debris ratio data ink maximized erasing non data ink feasible ref name tufte congressional budget office summarized several best practices graphical displays june presentation included knowing audience b designing graphics stand alone outside report 's context c designing graphics communicate key messages report quantitative messages time series illustrated line chart demonstrating


ranking sales performance ''measure'' sales persons ''category'' sales person ''categorical subdivision'' single period bar chart may used show comparison across sales persons part whole categorical subdivisions measured ratio whole ie percentage pie chart bar chart show comparison ratios market share represented competitors market deviation categorical subdivisions compared reference comparison actual vs budget expenses several departments


business given time period bar chart show comparison actual versus reference amount frequency distribution shows number observations particular variable given interval number years stock market return intervals etc histogram type bar chart may used analysis boxplot helps visualize key statistics distribution median quartiles outliers etc correlation comparison observations represented two variables xy determine tend move


opposite directions example plotting unemployment x inflation sample months scatter plot typically used message nominal comparison comparing categorical subdivisions particular order sales volume product code bar chart may used comparison geographic geospatial comparison variable across map layout unemployment rate state number persons various floors building cartogram typical graphic used ref name referencea analysts reviewing set data may consider whether


messages graphic types applicable task audience process trial error identify meaningful relationships messages data part exploratory data analysis visual perception data visualization human distinguish differences line length shape orientation distances color hue readily without significant processing effort referred pre attentive attributes example may require significant time effort attentive processing identify number times digit appears series numbers digit


different size orientation color instances digit noted quickly pre attentive processing ref name perceptualedgecom ref compelling graphics take advantage pre attentive processing attributes relative strength attributes example since humans easily process differences line length surface area may effective use bar chart takes advantage line length show comparison rather pie charts use surface area show comparison ref name perceptualedgecom human perception cognition data visualization almost data visualizations created human consumption knowledge human


non visualized quantitative data visualization become means data exploration studies shown individuals used average less cognitive resources better able recall details comparing data visualization text history selected milestones inventions comprehensive 'history' data visualization accounts span entire development visual thinking visual representation data collate contributions disparate disciplines ref name springer verlag ref michael friendly daniel j denis york university engaged project attempts provide comprehensive history visualization


egyptian surveyors laying towns earthly heavenly positions located something akin latitude longitude least bc map projection spherical earth latitude longitude claudius ptolemy c c alexandria would serve reference standards th century ref name friendly invention paper parchment allowed development visualizations throughout history figure shows graph th possibly th century intended illustration planetary movement used appendix textbook monastery schools ref name funkhouser ref


graph apparently meant represent plot inclinations planetary orbits function time purpose zone zodiac represented plane horizontal line divided thirty parts time longitudinal axis vertical axis designates width zodiac horizontal scale appears chosen planet individually periods cannot reconciled accompanying text refers amplitudes curves apparently related time planetary movements th century techniques


instruments precise observation measurement physical quantities geographic celestial position well developed example wall quadrant constructed tycho brahe covering entire wall observatory particularly important development triangulation methods determine mapping locations accurately ref name springer verlag early measure time led scholars develop innovative way visualizing data eg lorenz codomann johannes temporarius french philosopher mathematician ren descartes pierre de fermat developed analytic geometry two dimensional coordinate system heavily influenced practical methods displaying


calculating values fermat blaise pascal 's work statistics probability theory laid groundwork conceptualize data ref name springer verlag according interaction design foundation developments allowed helped william playfair saw potential graphical communication quantitative data generate develop graphical methods statistics ref name playfair timeseries second half th century jacques bertin used quantitative graphs represent information intuitively clearly accurately efficiently ref name john tukey edward tufte pushed bounds data visualization tukey new statistical approach exploratory data


private schools also developed programs meet demand learning data visualization associated programming libraries including free programs like data incubator paid programs like general assembly beginning symposium data discovery artcenter college design caltech jpl pasadena run annual program interactive data visualization program asks interactive data visualization help scientists engineers explore data effectively computing design design thinking help maximize research results methodologies effective leveraging knowledge fields encoding relational


information appropriate visual interactive characteristics help interrogate ultimately gain new insight data program develops new interdisciplinary approaches complex science problems combining design thinking latest methods computing user centered design interaction design graphics terminology data visualization involves specific terminology derived statistics example author stephen defines two types data used combination support meaningful analysis visualization categorical represent groups objects particular characteristic categorical variables either nominal ordinal nominal variables example gender


two types require different methods visualization two primary types information displays tables graphs ''table'' contains quantitative data organized rows columns categorical labels primarily used look specific values example table might categorical column labels representing name ''qualitative variable'' age ''quantitative variable'' row data representing one person sampled ''experimental unit'' ''category subdivision'' ''graph'' primarily used show relationships among data portrays values encoded ''visual objects'' eg lines bars points numerical values


displayed within area delineated one ''axes'' axes provide ' 'scales'' quantitative categorical used label assign values visual objects many graphs also referred ''charts'' eppler lengler developed periodic table visualization methods interactive chart displaying various data visualization methods includes six types data visualization methods data information concept strategy metaphor compound techniques cellpadding width width style text align left name width style text align left visual dimensions width style text align left description example usages bar chart


tips day week bar chart length count category color presents categorical data rectangular bars heights lengths proportional values represent bars plotted vertically horizontally bar graph shows comparisons among discrete categories one axis chart shows specific categories compared axis represents measured value bar graphs present bars clustered groups one showing values one measured variable clustered groups differentiated using color example comparison values


sales performance several persons businesses single time period variable width bar chart relating population per capita greenhouse gas emissions total greenhouse gas emissions variable width variwide bar chart category size count extent first dimension size count extent second dimension size count extent area bar color includes features basic bar chart area non uniform width bar explicitly conveys information third quantity implicitly related first second quantities horizontal vertical axes frequency intensity extreme weather


events connected pairs horizontal vertical bars respectively bars distinguished color coded primary category degree global warming additionally common horizontal axis may used secondary category type weather event orthogonal orthogonal composite bar chart numerical value first variable extent first dimension superimposed horizontal bars numerical value second variable extent second dimension conventional vertical bar chart primary category first second variables eg color coded secondary category pairs first second variables eg common axis includes features basic bar


chart pairs numeric variables usually color coded rendered coordination primary category optional secondary category variables need directly related way variwide charts histogram housing prices histogram bin limits count length color approximate representation distribution numerical data divide entire range values series intervals count many values fall interval called binning bins usually specified consecutive non overlapping intervals variable bins intervals must adjacent


plot associated x term determines location cartesian plane scatter plots often used highlight correlation variables x scatter plot scatter plot position x position position z color symbol size similar dimensional scatter plot dimensional scatter plot visualizes relationship typically variables set data point coded via color shape size display additional variables border network analysis network nodes size nodes color


ties thickness ties color spatialization finding clusters network eg grouping facebook friends different clusters discovering bridges information brokers boundary spanners clusters network determining influential nodes network eg company wants target small group people twitter marketing campaign finding outlier actors fit cluster periphery network pie chart pie chart color represents one categorical variable divided slices illustrate numerical proportion pie chart


arc length slice consequently central angle area proportional quantity represents example shown graph right proportion english native speakers worldwide line chart line chart x position position symbol glyph color size represents information series data points called 'markers' connected straight line segments similar scatter plot except measurement points ordered typically x axis value joined straight line segments often used visualize trend data


intervals time time series thus line often drawn chronologically streamgraph streamgraph width color time flow type stacked area graph displaced around central axis resulting flowing shape unlike traditional stacked area graph layers stacked top axis streamgraph layers positioned minimize wiggle streamgraphs display data positive values able represent negative positive values example right visual shows music listened


user start year treemap treemap size color method displaying hierarchical data using nested figures usually rectangles example disk space location file type gantt chart gantt chart color time flow type bar chart illustrates project schedule modern gantt charts also show dependency relationships activities current schedule status example used project planning heat map heat map color categorical variable represents magnitude phenomenon color


two dimensions two categories heat maps cluster heat map magnitudes laid matrix fixed cell size whose rows columns categorical data example graph right spatial heat map matrix fixed cell size example heat map example heat map showing population densities displayed geographical map stripe graphic stripe graphic x position color uses series colored stripes chronologically ordered visually portray long term temperature trends portrays single variable prototypically ''temperature time'' portray global


whisker plot x axis axis method graphically depicting groups numerical data quartiles box plots may also lines extending boxes ''whiskers'' indicating variability outside upper lower quartiles outliers may plotted individual points two boxes graphed top represent middle data line separating two boxes identifying median data value top bottom edges boxes represent th th percentile data points respectively box plots non parametric display variation


samples statistical population without making assumptions underlying statistical distribution thus useful getting initial understanding data set example comparing distribution ages group people eg male females flowchart flowchart workflow process represents workflow process step step approach solving task flowchart shows steps boxes various kinds order connecting boxes arrows example outlying actions undertake lamp working shown diagram


right radar chart radar chart attributes value assigned attributes displays multivariate data form two dimensional chart three quantitative variables represented axes starting point relative position angle axes typically uninformative various heuristics algorithms plot data maximal total area applied sort variables axes relative positions reveal distinct correlations trade offs multitude comparative measures example comparing attributes skills eg communication analytical skills learnt across


example set elements members sets ''s'' ''t'' denoted ''s'' ''t'' read intersection ''s'' ''t'' represented visually area overlap regions ''s'' ''t'' venn diagrams curves overlapped every possible way showing possible relations sets iconography correlations iconography correlations axis solid line dotted line color exploratory data analysis replace correlation matrix diagram remarkable correlations represented solid line positive correlation


dotted line negative correlation points coded via color interactivity '''interactive data visualization''' enables direct actions graphical plot change elements link multiple plots interactive data visualization pursuit statisticians since late examples developments found american statistical association video lending library common interactions include '''brushing''' works using mouse control paintbrush directly changing color glyph elements plot paintbrush sometimes pointer sometimes works drawing outline


sorts around points outline sometimes irregularly shaped like lasso brushing commonly used multiple plots visible linking mechanism exists plots several different conceptual models brushing number common linking mechanisms brushing scatterplots transient operation points active plot retain new characteristics time enclosed intersected brush persistent operation points retain new appearance brush moved away transient brushing


usually chosen linked brushing described '''painting''' persistent brushing useful want group points clusters proceed use operations tour compare groups becoming common terminology call persistent operation painting '''identification''' could also called labeling label brushing another plot manipulation linked bringing cursor near point edge scatterplot bar barchart causes label appear identifies plot element widely available


many interactive graphics sometimes called mouseover '''scaling''' maps data onto window changes area mapping function help us learn different things plot scaling commonly used zoom crowded regions scatterplot also used change aspect ratio plot reveal different features data '''linking''' connects elements selected one plot elements another plot simplest kind linking one one plots show different projections data


point one plot corresponds exactly one point using area plots brushing part area effect brushing equivalent selecting cases corresponding category even plot elements represent one case underlying linking rule still links one case one plot case plots linking also categorical variable subject id data values corresponding subject highlighted


visible plots perspectives different approaches scope data visualization one common focus information presentation friedman friendly presumes two main parts data visualization statistical graphics thematic cartography ref name mf michael friendly http wwwmathyorkuca scs gallery milestone milestonepdf milestones history thematic cartography statistical graphics data visualization ref line data visualization modern approaches article gives overview seven subjects data visualization articles resources displaying connections displaying data displaying news displaying websites mind maps tools services subjects closely


related graphic design information representation hand computer science perspective frits h post categorized field sub fields ref name fhp ref name fhp frits h post gregory nielson georges pierre bonneau https webarchiveorg web http visualisationtudelftnl publications post bpdf ''data visualization state art'' ref information visualization interaction techniques architectures modelling techniques multiresolution methods visualization algorithms techniques volume visualization within harvard business review scott berinato developed framework approach data visualisation ref name ref start thinking visually users must consider two questions first step


charts decision trees idea generation conceptual exploratory ref name used discover innovate solve problems example whiteboard brainstorming session visual discovery data driven exploratory ref name used spot trends make sense data type visual common large complex data dataset somewhat unknown task open ended everyday data visualisation data driven declarative ref name common simple type visualisation used affirming setting context example line graph gdp time data presentation architecture


one element dpa objectives dpa two main objectives use data provide knowledge efficient manner possible minimize noise complexity unnecessary data detail given audience 's needs roles use data provide knowledge effective manner possible provide relevant timely complete data audience member clear understandable manner conveys important meaning actionable affect understanding behavior decisions scope objectives mind actual work data presentation architecture consists creating


effective delivery mechanisms audience member depending role tasks locations access technology defining important meaning relevant knowledge needed audience member context determining required periodicity data updates currency data determining right timing data presentation often user needs see data finding right data subject area historical reach breadth level detail etc utilizing appropriate analysis grouping visualization presentation formats related fields dpa work shares commonalities several fields including business analysis


determining business goals collecting requirements mapping processes business process improvement goal improve streamline actions decisions furtherance business goals data visualization uses well established theories visualization add highlight meaning importance data presentation information architecture information architecture 's focus unstructured data therefore excludes analysis statistical data sense direct transformation actual content data dpa new entities combinations hci interaction design since many principles design interactive data visualisation developed


blender screenshot displaying test model suzanne '''computer graphics''' deals generating images aid computers today computer graphics core technology digital photography film video games cell phone computer displays many specialized applications great deal specialized hardware software developed displays devices driven computer graphics hardware vast recently developed area computer science phrase coined computer graphics researchers verne hudson william fetter boeing often abbreviated cg

Formal science
Computer science
Computer graphics


typically context film computer generated imagery cgi non artistic aspects computer graphics subject computer science research topics computer graphics include user interface design sprite graphics rendering ray tracing geometry processing computer animation vector graphics modeling shaders gpu design implicit surfaces visualization scientific computing image processing computational photography scientific visualization computational geometry computer vision among others overall methodology depends heavily underlying sciences geometry optics physics perception computer graphics responsible displaying art image data effectively meaningfully consumer


also used processing image data received physical world photo video content computer graphics development significant impact many types media revolutionized animation movies advertising video games general overview term computer graphics used broad sense describe almost everything computers text sound typically term ''computer graphics'' refers several different things representation manipulation image data computer various technologies used create manipulate images methods digitally synthesizing


manipulating visual content see study computer graphics today computer graphics widespread imagery found television newspapers weather reports variety medical investigations surgical procedures well constructed graph present complex statistics form easier understand interpret media graphs used illustrate papers reports theses presentation material many tools developed visualize data computer generated imagery categorized several different types two dimensional three dimensional animated graphics technology improved computer


graphics become common computer graphics still widely used computer graphics emerged sub field computer science studies methods digitally synthesizing manipulating visual content past decade specialized fields developed like information visualization scientific visualization concerned visualization three dimensional phenomena architectural meteorological medical biological etc emphasis realistic renderings volumes surfaces illumination sources forth perhaps dynamic time component ref name mf michael friendly http wwwmathyorkuca scs gallery milestone milestonepdf milestones history thematic cartography statistical graphics


data visualization ref history precursor sciences development modern computer graphics advances electrical engineering electronics television took place first half twentieth century screens could display art since lumiere brothers' use mattes create special effects earliest films dating displays limited interactive first cathode ray tube braun tube invented turn would permit oscilloscope military control panel direct precursors field


provided first two dimensional electronic displays responded programmatic user input nevertheless computer graphics remained relatively unknown discipline post world war ii period time discipline emerged combination pure university laboratory academic research advanced computers united states military 's development technologies like radar advanced aviation rocketry developed war new kinds displays needed process wealth information resulting projects leading development computer graphics discipline


sage sector control room early projects like whirlwind sage projects introduced crt viable display interaction interface introduced light pen input device douglas ross whirlwind sage system performed personal experiment wrote small program captured movement finger displayed vector traced name display scope one first interactive video games feature recognizable interactive graphics ''tennis two'' created oscilloscope william higinbotham entertain visitors


pulse whenever placed front computer screen screen 's electron gun fired directly simply timing electronic pulse current location electron gun easy pinpoint exactly pen screen given moment determined computer could draw cursor location sutherland seemed find perfect solution many graphics problems faced even today many standards computer graphics interfaces got start early sketchpad program one example