write space efficient programs since single instruction encode higher level abstraction x loop instruction however longer complex instructions take longer processor decode costly implement effectively increased complexity large instruction set also creates room unreliability instructions interact unexpected ways implementation involves integrated circuit design packaging power cooling optimization design requires familiarity compilers operating systems logic design packaging instruction set architecture instruction set architecture isa interface


computer 's software hardware also viewed programmer 's view machine computers understand high level programming languages java c programming languages used processor understands instructions encoded numerical fashion usually binary numbers software tools compilers translate high level languages instructions processor understand besides instructions isa defines items computer available program mdash eg data types registers addressing modes memory instructions locate available items register indexes names memory addressing modes

Formal science
Computer science
Computer architecture


isa computer usually described small instruction manual describes instructions encoded also may define short vaguely mnemonic names instructions names recognized software development tool called assembler assembler computer program translates human readable form isa computer readable form disassemblers also widely available usually debuggers software programs isolate correct malfunctions binary computer programs isas vary quality completeness good isa compromises programmer convenience easy


code understand size code much code required specific action cost computer interpret instructions complexity means hardware needed decode execute instructions speed computer complex decoding hardware comes longer decode time memory organization defines instructions interact memory memory interacts design emulation emulators run programs written proposed instruction set modern emulators measure size cost speed determine whether particular isa meeting goals


computer organization computer organization helps optimize performance based products example software engineers need know processing power processors may need optimize software order gain performance lowest price require quite detailed analysis computer 's organization example sd card designers might need arrange card data processed fastest possible way computer organization also helps plan selection processor particular project multimedia projects may need rapid data access virtual


machines may need fast interrupts sometimes certain tasks need additional components well example computer capable running virtual machine needs virtual memory hardware memory different virtual computers kept separated computer organization features also affect power consumption processor cost implementation instruction set micro architecture designed practical machine must developed design process called ''implementation'' implementation usually considered architectural design rather hardware design engineering implementation broken several steps '''logic implementation''' designs circuits


required logic gate level '''circuit implementation''' transistor level designs basic elements eg gates multiplexers latches well larger blocks alus caches etc may implemented logic gate level even physical level design calls '''physical implementation''' draws physical circuits different circuit components placed chip floorplan board wires connecting created '''design validation''' tests computer whole see works situations timings design validation process starts


design logic level tested using logic emulators however usually slow run realistic test making corrections based first test prototypes constructed using field programmable gate arrays fpgas hobby projects stop stage final step test prototype integrated circuits may require several redesigns cpus entire implementation process organized differently often referred cpu design design goals exact form computer system depends constraints goals computer architectures usually trade standards power versus


performance cost memory capacity latency latency amount time takes information one node travel source throughput sometimes considerations features size weight reliability expandability also factors common scheme depth power analysis figures keep power consumption low maintaining adequate performance performance modern computer performance often described instructions per cycle ipc measures efficiency architecture clock frequency faster ipc rate means computer faster older computers ipc counts


low modern processors easily reach near superscalar processors may reach three five ipc executing several instructions per clock cycle counting machine language instructions would misleading varying amounts work different isas instruction standard measurements count isa 's machine language instructions unit measurement usually based speed vax computer architecture many people used measure computer 's speed clock rate usually mhz ghz refers cycles per second main clock


cpu however metric somewhat misleading machine higher clock rate may necessarily greater performance result manufacturers moved away clock speed measure performance factors influence speed mix functional units bus speeds available memory type order instructions programs two main types speed latency throughput latency time start process completion throughput amount work done per unit time interrupt latency


guaranteed maximum response time system electronic event like disk drive finishes moving data performance affected wide range design choices example pipelining processor usually makes latency worse makes throughput better computers control machinery usually need low interrupt latencies computers operate real time environment fail operation completed specified amount time example computer controlled anti lock brakes must begin braking within predictable limited time period brake pedal sensed else failure


brake occur benchmarking takes factors account measuring time computer takes run series test programs although benchmarking shows strengths n't choose computer often measured machines split different measures example one system might handle scientific applications quickly another might render video games smoothly furthermore designers may target add special features products hardware software permit specific benchmark execute quickly n't offer similar advantages general tasks power efficiency power efficiency


another important measurement modern computers higher power efficiency often traded lower speed higher cost typical measurement referring power consumption computer architecture mips w millions instructions per second per watt modern circuits less power required per transistor number transistors per chip grows transistor put new chip requires power supply requires new pathways built power however number transistors per chip starting increase slower rate therefore power


efficiency starting become important important fitting transistors single chip recent processor designs shown emphasis put focus power efficiency rather cramming many transistors single chip possible world embedded computers power efficiency long important goal next throughput latency shifts market demand increases clock frequency grown slowly past years compared power reduction improvements driven end moore 's law


demand longer battery life reductions size mobile technology change focus higher clock rates power consumption miniaturization shown significant reductions power consumption much reported intel release haswell microarchitecture dropped power consumption benchmark watts watts comparing processing speed increase nbsp ghz nbsp ghz seen focus research development shifting away clock frequency moving


towards consuming less power taking less space see also comparison cpu architectures computer hardware cpu design floating point harvard architecture modified dataflow architecture transport triggered architecture reconfigurable computing influence ibm pc personal computer market orthogonal instruction set software architecture von neumann architecture flynn 's taxonomy references sources barton robert functional design computers ''communications acm'' barton robert new approach functional design digital computer ''proceedings western joint computer conference'' may pp nbsp design burroughs b computer bell


c gordon newell allen http researchmicrosoftcom en us um people gbell computer structures readings examples contentshtml computer structures readings examples mcgraw hill blaauw ga brooks fp jr http dominoresearchibmcom tchjr journalindexnsf f ab b bc dc e fd bfa f opendocument structure system part outline logical structure ''ibm systems journal'' vol pp nbsp external links http portalacmorg toccfmid series type series coll guide dl guide cfid cftoken isca proceedings international symposium computer architecture http wwwmicroarchorg micro ieee acm international symposium microarchitecture https webarchiveorg web http wwwhpcaconforg hpca international symposium high performance computer architecture http portalacmorg toccfmid series type series coll guide dl guide cfid cftoken asplos international conference architectural support programming languages operating systems http wwwacmorg taco acm transactions architecture code optimization https wwwcomputerorg csdl journal tc ieee transactions computers http www scfuscedu inf downloads von neumann architecture computer systemspdf von neumann architecture computer


'''evolutionary biology''' subfield biology studies evolutionary processes natural selection common descent speciation produced diversity life earth simply also defined study history life forms earth evolution based theory species related gradually change time population genetic variations affect physical characteristics ie phenotypes organism changes phenotypes advantage organisms passed onto offspring peppered moth flightless birds

Natural science
Biology
Evolutionary biology


examples evolution species many generations discipline evolutionary biology emerged julian huxley called modern synthesis understanding previously unrelated fields biological research genetics ecology systematics paleontology person studies evolutionary biology called evolutionary biologist importance studying evolutionary biology mainly understand principles behind origin extinction species investigational range current research widened encompass genetic architecture adaptation molecular evolution different forces contribute evolution


sexual selection genetic drift biogeography moreover newer field evolutionary developmental biology evo devo investigates embryogenesis development embryo controlled thus yielding wider synthesis integrates developmental biology fields study covered earlier evolutionary synthesis subfields evolution central unifying concept biology biology divided various ways one way level biological organization molecular cell organism population earlier way perceived taxonomic group fields zoology botany microbiology reflecting seen


major divisions life third way approaches field biology theoretical biology experimental evolution paleontology alternative ways dividing subject combined evolutionary biology create subfields like evolutionary ecology evolutionary developmental biology recently merge biological science applied sciences gave birth new fields extensions evolutionary biology including evolutionary robotics engineering algorithms economics architecture basic mechanisms evolution applied directly indirectly come novel designs solve problems difficult solve otherwise


research generated applied fields turn contributes progress especially thanks work evolution computer science engineering fields mechanical engineering different types evolution convergent evolution convergent evolution defined process related distantly related organisms evolve independently type evolution creates analogous structures similar function structure form example sharks dolphins look alike related likewise birds flying insects bats ability fly related


co evolution influence two closely associated species known co evolution two species evolve company one species adapts changes species type evolution often happens species symbiotic relationships example predator prey coevolution common type co evolution predator must evolve become effective hunter selective pressure prey steer clear capture likewise relationship pollinating insects like bees flowering plants herbivores plants also common


examples adaptive evolution adaptive evolution relates evolutionary changes happen due changes environment makes organism suitable habitat change increases chances survival reproduction organism example darwin finches galapagos island developed different shaped beaks order survive long time mechanism process evolution mechanism evolution focus mainly mutation genetic drift gene flow non random mating natural selection '''mutation''' mutation change dna sequence inside gene chromosome


development going evolutionary tree one determine point specific structure came example three germ layers observed present cnidarians ctenophores instead present worms less developed depending kind worm structures like development hox genes sensory organs eyes also traced practice history idea evolution natural selection proposed charles darwin evolutionary biology academic discipline


right emerged period modern synthesis many universities departments evolutionary biology united states many universities created departments ''molecular cell biology'' ''ecology evolutionary biology'' place older departments botany zoology palaeontology often grouped earth science microbiology becoming evolutionary discipline microbial physiology genomics better understood quick generation time bacteria viruses bacteriophages makes possible explore evolutionary questions many


biologists contributed shaping modern discipline evolutionary biology theodosius dobzhansky e b ford established empirical research programme ronald fisher sewall wright j haldane created sound theoretical framework ernst mayr systematics george gaylord simpson paleontology g ledyard stebbins botany helped form modern synthesis james crow richard lewontin dan hartl marcus feldman brian charlesworth trained generation evolutionary biologists current research topics current research evolutionary biology covers diverse topics incorporates ideas diverse areas molecular genetics computer science first


fields evolutionary research try explain phenomena poorly accounted modern evolutionary synthesis include speciation evolution sexual reproduction evolution cooperation evolution ageing evolvability second biologists ask straightforward evolutionary question happened includes fields paleobiology well systematics phylogenetics third modern evolutionary synthesis devised time nobody understood molecular basis genes today evolutionary biologists try determine genetic architecture interesting evolutionary phenomena adaptation speciation seek answers


knowledge requires great deal mathematical development relate dna sequence data evolutionary theory part theory molecular evolution example biologists try infer genes strong selection detecting selective sweeps fourth modern evolutionary synthesis involved agreement forces contribute evolution relative importance current research seeks determine evolutionary forces include natural selection sexual selection genetic drift genetic draft developmental constraints mutation bias biogeography evolutionary approach key much current research organismal biology ecology


life history theory annotation genes function relies heavily comparative approaches field evolutionary developmental biology evo devo investigates developmental processes work compares different organisms determine evolved many physicians enough background evolutionary biology making difficult use modern medicine drug resistance today evolution plays role resistance drugs example hiv becomes resistant medications body 's immune system mutation resistance hiv due natural selection survivors


offspring one hiv survived immune system reproduced offspring also resistant immune system drug resistance also causes many problems patients worsening sickness sickness mutate something longer cured medication without proper medicine sickness death patient body resistance certain number drugs right medicine harder harder find completing prescribed full course antibiotic also example resistance


cause bacteria antibiotic taken evolve continue spread body full dosage medication enter body perform proper job bacteria survive initial dosage continue reproduce make another bout sickness later difficult cure bacteria involved resistant first medication used taking full course medicine prescribed vital step avoiding antibiotic resistance individuals chronic illnesses


journals ''systematic biology'' ''molecular biology evolution'' sister journal ''genome biology evolution'' ''cladistics'' journals combine aspects evolutionary biology related fields example ''molecular ecology'' ''proceedings royal society london series b'' ''the american naturalist'' ''theoretical population biology'' overlap ecology aspects organismal biology overlap ecology also prominent review journals ''trends ecology evolution'' ''annual review ecology evolution systematics'' journals ''genetics'' ''plos genetics'' overlap molecular genetics questions obviously evolutionary nature


see also artificial selection comparative anatomy computational phylogenetics evolutionary computation evolutionary dynamics evolutionary neuroscience evolutionary physiology ''on origin species'' macroevolution phylogenetic comparative methods quantitative genetics selective breeding taxonomy biology speculative evolution references external links https wwwbritannicacom plant plant evolution seed plants plant communities evolution paleobotany https wwwbritannicacom britannica philosophy biology


'''economic anthropology''' field attempts explain human economic behavior widest historic geographic cultural scope amalgamation economics anthropology practiced anthropologists complex relationship discipline economics highly critical origins sub field anthropology began work polish founder anthropology bronislaw malinowski french marcel mauss nature reciprocity alternative market exchange part studies economic anthropology focus exchange contrast marxian school

Social science
Anthropology
Economic Anthropology


known political economy focuses production post world war ii economic anthropology highly influenced work economic historian karl polanyi polanyi drew anthropological studies argue true market exchange limited restricted number western industrial societies applying formal economic theory formalism non industrial societies mistaken argued non industrial societies exchange embedded non market institutions kinship religion politics idea borrowed mauss labelled approach substantivism formalist substantivist debate highly influential defined era globalization became reality division


market non market economies nbsp west rest became untenable anthropologists began look relationship variety ''types'' exchange within market societies neo substantivists examine ways called pure market exchange market societies fails fit market ideology economic anthropologists abandoned primitivist niche relegated economists study operations corporations banks global financial system anthropological perspective reciprocity gift bronislaw malinowski anthropologist london school economics kula bracelet trobriand


islands malinowski mauss debate kula exchange bronislaw malinowski 's groundbreaking work ''argonauts western pacific'' posits question would men risk life limb travel across huge expanses dangerous ocean give away appear worthless trinkets carefully traced network exchanges bracelets necklaces across trobriand islands malinowski established part system exchange kula ring stated exchange system clearly linked political authority ref name parry ref later malinowski 's research became subject


crown jewels embodied reputation history identity corporate kin group given stakes mauss asked anyone would give away answer enigmatic concept ''hau'' spirit gift largely confusion resulting debate due bad translation mauss appeared arguing return gift given keep relationship givers alive failure return gift ends relationship promise future gifts based improved translation jonathan parry demonstrated mauss arguing concept


secondly weiner developed mauss' argument reciprocity spirit gift terms inalienable possessions paradox keeping giving weiner contrasted moveable goods exchanged immoveable goods serve draw gifts back context trobriand study male kula gifts moveable gifts compared women 's landed property argued specific goods given crown jewels identified particular groups even given truly alienated societies however kinds goods depend


upon existence particular kinds kinship groups french anthropologist maurice godelier pushed analysis ''the enigma gift'' ref name schrauwers albert schrauwers argued kinds societies used examples weiner godelier kula ring trobriands potlatch indigenous peoples pacific northwest coast toraja south sulawesi indonesia characterized ranked aristocratic kin groups fit claude l vi strauss' model house societies house refers noble lineage landed estate total prestations given


argues preserve landed estates identified particular kin groups maintain place ranked society ref name schrauwers ref three ''tongkonan'' noble houses torajan village gifts commodities misunderstanding mauss meant spirit gift led anthropologists contrast gift economies market economies presenting polar opposites implying non market exchange always altruistic marshall sahlins well known american cultural anthropologist identified three main types reciprocity book ''stone age economics'' gift ''generalized reciprocity'' exchange goods services without keeping


track exact value often expectation value balance time ''balanced symmetrical reciprocity'' occurs someone gives someone else expecting fair tangible return specified amount time place market ''negative reciprocity'' exchange goods services whereby party intends profit exchange often expense gift economies generalized reciprocity occur within closely knit kin groups distant exchange partner imbalanced negative exchange becomes opposition classically


expressed chris gregory book gifts commodities gregory argued blockquote commodity exchange exchange '''alienable''' objects people state reciprocal '''independence''' establishes '''quantitative''' relationship '''objects''' exchanged gift exchange exchange '''inalienable''' objects people state reciprocal '' 'dependence''' establishes '''qualitative''' relationship '''transactors''' emphasis added blockquote class wikitable style margin em auto em auto commodity exchange gift exchange immediate exchange delayed exchange alienable goods inalienable goods actors


independent actors dependent quantitative relationship qualitative relationship objects people anthropologists however refused see different exchange spheres polar opposites marilyn strathern writing similar area papua new guinea dismissed utility opposition ''the gender gift'' spheres exchange relationship new market exchange systems indigenous non market exchange remained perplexing question anthropologists paul bohannan see substantivism argued tiv nigeria three spheres exchange certain kinds goods


could exchanged sphere sphere different form money similarly clifford geertz 's model dual economy indonesia james c scott 's model moral economy hypothesized different exchange spheres emerging societies newly integrated market hypothesized continuing culturally ordered traditional exchange sphere resistant market geertz used sphere explain peasant complacency face exploitation scott explain peasant rebellion idea taken lastly jonathan parry maurice bloch argued ''money morality exchange''


transactional order long term social reproduction family takes place preserved separate short term market relations charity poison gift sharon temple sharon ontario circa classic summation gift exchange debate jonathan parry highlighted ideologies pure gift opposed total prestations likely arise highly differentiated societies advanced division labour significant commercial sector schrauwers illustrated points two different areas context transition capitalism debate see


''political economy'' documented transformations among pamona central sulawesi indonesia incorporated global market networks twentieth century everyday production consumption activities increasingly commodified developed oppositional gift ''posintuwu'' exchange system funded social reproductive activities thereby preserving larger kin political religious groups pure gift exchange network emerged earlier system total prestations pamona wedding similarly analyzing transition capitalist debate early th century north america schrauwers documented new oppositional moral economies grew parallel


emergence market economy market became increasingly institutionalized early utopian socialist experiments children peace sharon ontario canada built ornate temple dedicated sacralizing giving charity eventually institutionalized mutual credit organization land sharing co operative marketing cases schrauwers emphasizes alternate exchange spheres tightly integrated mutualistic markets commodities move circuit ref name schrauwers ref parry also underscored using example charitable giving alms india na pure


gift alms given expectation return could poisonous gift alms embodying sins giver given ritually pure priests saddled priests impurities could cleanse pure gifts given without return place recipients debt hence dependent status poison gift although children peace tried sacralize pure giving alms found charity created difficulties recipients highlighted near bankruptcy hence opened lawsuits indefinite imprisonment debt rather


accept charity free gift opted loans ref name schrauwers 'the social life things' singularization wedding rings commodity pure gift rather emphasize particular kinds objects either gifts commodities traded restricted spheres exchange arjun appadurai others began look objects flowed spheres exchange shifted attention away character human relationships formed exchange placed social life things instead examined strategies object could singularized


made unique special one kind withdrawn market marriage ceremony transforms purchased ring irreplaceable family heirloom one example heirloom turn makes perfect gift singularization reverse seemingly irresistible process commodification scholars show economies constant flow material objects enter leave specific exchange spheres similar approach taken nicholas thomas examines range cultures anthropologists write redirects attention entangled objects roles gifts


commodities emphasis things led new explorations consumption studies see cultural construction economic systems substantivist approach formalist vs substantivist debate non market subsistence farming new mexico household provisioning 'economic' activity opposition substantivist formalist economic models first proposed karl polanyi work ''the great transformation'' argued term 'economics' two meanings formal meaning refers economics logic rational action decision making rational choice alternative uses limited scarce means second substantive


meaning however presupposes neither rational decision making conditions scarcity simply refers study humans make living social natural environment society 's livelihood strategy seen adaptation environment material conditions process may may involve utility maximisation substantive meaning 'economics' seen broader sense 'economising' 'provisioning' economics simply way members society meet material needs anthropologists embraced substantivist position empirically oriented impose western cultural assumptions societies


might warranted formalist vs substantivist debate anthropologists economists however disciplinary debate largely confined journal ''research economic anthropology'' many ways reflects common debates etic emic explanations defined marvin harris cultural anthropology period principal proponents substantivist model george dalton paul bohannan formalists raymond firth harold k schneider asserted neoclassical model economics could applied society appropriate modifications made arguing principles


people 's conceptualizations mental maps economics various aspects description peasant community panama reveals locals engage exchange order make profit rather viewed exchange equivalents exchange value good defined expenses spent producing outside merchants made profits dealings community complete mystery locals managed gudeman also criticizes substantivist position imposing universal


ref name gudeman local models may differ radically western counterparts example iban use hand knives harvest rice although use sickles could speed harvesting process believe may cause spirit rice flee desire prevent outcome greater desire economize harvesting process gudeman brings post modern cultural relativism logical conclusion generally speaking however culturalism also seen extension substantivist view stronger emphasis cultural constructivism detailed account


local understandings metaphors economic concepts greater focus socio cultural dynamics latter cf hann ref name hann ref culturalists tend less taxonomic culturally relativistic descriptions critically reflecting power relationship ethnographer 'modeller' subjects research substantivists generally focus institutions unit analysis culturalists lean towards detailed comprehensive analyses particular local communities views agree rejecting formalist assumption human behaviour explained terms rational decision making utility maximisation


culturalism criticized various perspectives marxists argue culturalists idealistic notion social construction reality weak analysis external ie material constraints individuals affect livelihood choices gudeman argues local models cannot held universal standard cannot related hegemonic ideologies propagated powerful serve neutralise resistance complicated fact age globalization cultures integrated global capitalist system influenced conform


western ways thinking acting local global discourses mixing distinctions two beginning blur even though people retain aspects existing worldviews universal models used study dynamics integration rest world householding entrepreneurs imperfect markets inspired collection ''trade market early empires'' edited karl polanyi substantivists conducted wide comparative study market behavior traditional societies markets embedded kinship religion politics thus remained focused


social cultural processes shaped markets rather individual focused study economizing behavior found economic analysis george dalton paul bohannon example published collection markets sub saharan africa ''pedlars princes social development economic change two indonesian towns'' clifford geertz compared entrepreneurial cultures islamic java hinduized bali post colonial period java trade hands pious muslims whereas bali larger enterprises organized aristocrats time literature refocused informal economies market activities lying


periphery legal markets modernization theory development led economists expect traditional forms work production would disappear developing countries anthropologists found however sector persisted expanded new unexpected ways accepting forms productions stay scholars began using term informal sector credited british anthropologist keith hart study ghana literature focuses invisible work done fall outside formal production process


human behavior similarly argued substantivists socialized view economic actors refusing see ways rational choice could influence ways acted traditional embedded social roles neo substantivism overlaps 'old' especially new institutional economics ref granovetter applied concept embeddedness market societies demonstrating even rational economic exchanges influenced pre existing social ties ref name granovetter study ethnic chinese business networks indonesia granovetter found individual 's economic agency embedded networks strong personal relations processes clientelization cultivation personal relationships traders


struck number special purpose monies like wampum shell money encountered special purpose monies used facilitate trade universal money market based economies universal money served five functions medium exchange facilitated trade unit account abstract measure value worth store value allow wealth preserved time standard deferred payment measure debt means payment used non market situations pay debts like taxes special purpose monies contrast


frequently restricted use might limited specific exchange sphere brass rods used tiv nigeria early twentieth century see spheres exchange early work documented effects universal money special purpose monies universal money frequently weakened boundaries exchange spheres others pointed however alternative currencies ithaca hours new york state used create new community based spheres exchange western market economies fostering barter ref name maurer ref much work


updated retheorized edited collection ''money modernity state local currencies melanesia'' second collection ''money morality exchange'' examined general purpose money could transformed special purpose money money could socialized stripped moral danger abets domestic economies free market demands william reddy undertook kind analysis meanings monetary exchange terms growth liberalism early modern europe reddy critiques calls liberal illusion developed period money


universal equivalent principle liberation underscores different values meanings money different classes barter david graeber argues inefficiencies barter archaic society used economists since adam smith explain emergence money economy hence discipline economics ref name graeber p ref economists contemporary orthodoxy propose evolutionary development economies places barter 'natural' human characteristic primitive stage superseded monetary exchange soon people become aware latter 's greater


efficiency however extensive investigation since established example barter economy pure simple ever described let alone emergence money available ethnography suggests never thing economies today nevertheless ' 'dominated'' barter ref name humphrey p ref anthropologists argued something resembling barter ' 'does'' occur stateless societies almost always strangers people would otherwise enemies barter occurred strangers fellow villagers hence cannot used naturalistically explain origin money without


state since people engaged trade knew exchange fostered extension credit ref name humphrey p marcel mauss author 'the gift' argued first economic contracts ''not'' act one 's economic self interest money exchange fostered processes reciprocity redistribution barter everyday exchange relations societies characterized generalized reciprocity non calculative familial communism takes according needs gives anthropologists questioned whether barter typically total strangers form barter known


silent trade however benjamin orlove shown barter occurs silent trade strangers also commercial markets well barter difficult way conducting trade occur strong institutional constraints use money barter symbolically denotes special social relationship used well defined conditions sum multipurpose money markets like lubrication machines necessary efficient function necessary existence market barter may occur commercial economies usually


periods monetary crisis crisis currency may short supply highly devalued hyperinflation cases money ceases universal medium exchange standard value money may short supply becomes item barter rather means exchange barter may also occur people cannot afford keep money hyperinflation quickly devalues money commodity fetish metal money fetishism political poster shows gold coin basis prosperity ca anthropologists analyzed


cultural situations universal money introduced means revealing underlying cultural assumptions money market based societies internalized michael taussig example examined reactions peasant farmers colombia struggled understand money could make interest taussig highlights fetishized money view money active agent capable things growth viewing money active agent obscure social relationships actually give money power colombian peasants seeking explain money could bear interest turned folk beliefs


like baptism money explain money could grow dishonest individuals would money baptized would become active agent whenever used buy goods would escape till return owner schrauwers similarly examines situation paper money introduced first time early nineteenth century ontario canada paper money bank notes store wealth iou promisory note fetish debt banks era limited capital n't loan capital instead issued paper notes promising


pay amount note presented office since notes stayed circulation lengthy periods banks little fear would pay issued many notes could redeem charged interest utilizing bourdieu 's concept symbolic capital schrauwers examines way elite social status converted economic capital bank note bank note 's value depended entirely public 's perceptions could redeemed perception based entirely social status bank 's shareholders banking finance


stock market recent work focused finance capital stock markets anna tsing example analyzed bre x stock scandal canada indonesia terms economy appearances ellen hertz contrast looked development stock markets shanghai china particular ways free market embedded local political cultural realities markets operate manner countries similar study done karen ho wall street midst financial crisis book ''liquidated


ethnography wall street'' provides insiders view market rationality works embedded particular kinds social networks bill maurer examined islamic bankers seeking avoid religiously proscribed interest payments remade money finance indonesia book ''mutual life limited'' compares islamic attempts remake basis money local currency systems united states ithaca hours questions gives money value ref name maurer question gives money value


also addressed david graeber 's book ''towards anthropological theory value false coin dreams'' james carrier extended cultural economic neo substantivist position applying methods science economics cultural practice edited two collections examine free market ideologies comparing culturally embedded economic practices purport describe edited collection meanings market free market western culture examined use market models policy making united states second edited collection virtualism new political economy


examined cultural social effects western nations forced adhere abstract models free market economic models longer measured world seek describe instead world measured found wanting made conform consumption studies pierre bourdieu ''distinction'' anthropology corporate capitalism symbolic economic capital similar insights developed pierre bourdieu also rejected arguments new institutional economists economists attempted incorporate culture models arguing non market tradition product


rational maximizing action market ie show solution economic problem rather deep cultural roots bourdieu argued strongly called rat rational action theory theory arguing actor asked explanation behaviour provide rational post hoc answer excuse fact guide individual act driving car example individuals acquired instinct obeying rules road without actually focusing upon bourdieu utilized alternate model emphasized


economic capital could translated symbolic capital vice versa example traditional mexican villages wealth would called upon fulfill cargo offices church host feasts honour saints offices used economic capital translated status symbolic capital traditional role symbolic capital could turn used draw customers marketplace reputation honesty selflessness actor network theory michel callon spearheaded movement applying ant approaches study economic life notably


reading wirtschaftsanthropologie special issue journal ''historische anthropologie'' earle timothy economic anthropology ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' nd edition http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde e q economic anthropology topicid result number abstract halperin rhoda h https archivetoday http www intersciencewileycom journal abstract new old economic anthropology american anthropologist external links http econanthroorg society economic anthropology interdisciplinary subfields economics


'''applied science''' use scientific method knowledge obtained via conclusions method attain practical goals ref name mbunge ref includes broad range disciplines engineering medicine applied science often contrasted basic science focused advancing scientific theories laws explain predict events natural world applied science also apply formal science statistics probability theory epidemiology genetic epidemiology applied science applying biological statistical methods applied research applied research practical application science


impossible use random sample thus transparency methodology crucial implications interpretation results brought relaxing otherwise strict canon methodology also considered since applied research provisional close problem close data orientation may also use provisional conceptual framework working hypotheses pillar questions oecd 's frascati manual describes applied research one three forms research along basic research experimental development due practical focus applied research information found literature associated individual disciplines branches


engineering fields include thermodynamics heat transfer fluid mechanics statics dynamics mechanics materials kinematics electromagnetism materials science earth sciences engineering physics medical sciences instance medical microbiology pharmaceutical research development clinical virology applied sciences apply biology chemistry toward medical knowledge invention education canada netherlands places bachelor applied science basc sometimes equivalent bachelor engineering classified professional degree based age school applied science used include boiler making surveying engineering also


bachelor applied science degrees child studies basc tends focus application engineering sciences australia new zealand degree awarded various fields study considered highly specialized professional degree united kingdom 's educational system applied science refers suite vocational science qualifications run alongside traditional general certificate secondary education level sciences applied science courses generally contain coursework also known portfolio internally assessed work compared traditional counterparts evolution gnvq qualifications


offered courses regularly come scrutiny due review following wolf report however merits argued elsewhere united states college william mary offers undergraduate minor well master science doctor philosophy degrees applied science courses research cover varied fields including neuroscience optics materials science engineering nondestructive testing nuclear magnetic resonance university nebraska lincoln offers bachelor science applied science online completion bachelor science applied science master applied


science course work centered science agriculture natural resources wide range options including ecology food genetics entrepreneurship economics policy animal science plant science new york city bloomberg administration awarded consortium cornell technion million city capital construct universities' proposed applied sciences campus roosevelt island see also basic research exact sciences hard soft science invention secondary research references external links applied disciplines branches science


'''alternative education''' encompasses many pedagogical approaches differing mainstream pedagogy alternative learning environments may found within state charter independent schools well home based learning environments many educational alternatives emphasize small class sizes close relationships students teachers sense community legal framework education varies locality determines obligation conform mainstream standard tests grades alternative pedagogical approaches may include different structures open classroom different teacher student relationships quaker free schools differing curricula teaching methods

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Alternative education


waldorf montessori schools synonyms alternative context include non traditional non conventional non standardized alternative educators use terms authentic holistic progressive history th st century alternative education grew response establishment standardized compulsory education last two three centuries educators including jean jacques rousseau swiss humanitarian johann heinrich pestalozzi american transcendentalists amos bronson alcott ralph waldo emerson henry david thoreau founders progressive education john dewey francis parker educational pioneers friedrich fr bel maria montessori rudolf steiner believed education


cultivate developing child many levels intellectually also morally spiritually emotionally psychologically physically world war ii alternative reggio emilia approach early childhood education developed italy introduced loris malaguzzi cultural critics john caldwell holt paul goodman frederick mayer george dennison examined education individualist anarchist libertarian perspectives writers paulo freire american educators herbert kohl jonathan kozol criticized mainstream western education viewpoint liberal radical politics argument approach catering interests learning


provided public schools mountainview montessori school well independent schools toronto montessori schools vancouver waldorf school origins alternative education canada stems two philosophical educational points view progressive libertarian ref name alternative education ref according levin term alternative adopted partly distinguish schools independent parent student teacher run free schools preceded schools actually evolved emphasize boards' commitment options within public school system progressive educational tradition places emphasis need incorporate curriculum


corrupting influences modern society ref name alternative education school types saw shift special schools programs students excelled academia artistically talented programs linking schooling workplace co operative venture might considered natural evolution education offer options regimented one size fits approach alternative high schools falling public jurisdiction offered independent study programs basic skills programs mini high schools mixture conventional nonconventional courses schools arts focus also offered smaller


classes closer informal relations teachers greater flexibility course selection timetabling recent development within alternative education canada may follow united states charter school movement us specific states passed legislation permitting departments education local school boards issue charters directly individual schools wishing operate autonomously alberta first province already embraced model ref name alternative education india since early th century educators discussed implemented alternative forms education rabindranath tagore 's visva bharati


university sri aurobindo 's sri aurobindo international centre education jiddu krishnamurti schools traditional learning india involved students living gurukulas received free food shelter education guru teacher sanskrit progress based tests given gurus system aimed nurture students' creativity personality development although mainstream education india based system introduced lord macaulay projects aim rejuvenate earlier method students similar projects conduct research sanskrit studies vedic studies vedic science yoga ayurveda others completing


education gurukula enter mainstream higher education japan japanese education nationwide standardized system ministry education alternative options accredited private schools freedom curricula including textbook choice public schools limited government approved textbooks teaching methods hiring guidelines nearly private schools require competitive entrance examination charge tuition scholarships available interest alternative education sparked student violence bullying school refusal social anxiety disorder worst cases suicide desire enable young people keep


globalized economy additional impetus free school non profit group independent school specializes care education children refuse attend standard schools first democratic school founded shelter children avoiding school environment number schools established first seven waldorf schools japan founded alternatives include growing homeschooling movement dr shinichiro hori formerly professor education osaka city university founded first kinokuni children 's village


wakayama prefecture several alternative democratic schools created six schools fukui prefecture kitakyushu yamanashi prefecture friend japanese translator neill work inspired summerhill school ref name hori ref japan introduced special zones structural reform based china 's special economic zone policy enable opening government accredited schools providing alternative education two years later first school founded despite schools' high tuition parents send children international schools acquire fluency foreign language usually english although international schools


certified japanese government many approved native country us canada germany france korea china offer international baccalaureate program philippines taiwan founded lifting martial law taiwan first alternative education school taiwan seeks diverge traditional chinese education methodology requires parents students hit scold children term 'forest school' become generalized term used schools alternative education approaches also case caterpillar like


needs students local also foreign taipei american school provides instruction taiwanese students family united states occupations took including children abroad ref name united kingdom schools united kingdom offering education based philosophies differing mainstream pedagogy half steiner waldorf schools summerhill school established neill first democratic school since closed except summerhill sands school hebden bridge school


democratic schools children young people though alternative schools recently fee paying state funded free schools introduced two alternative education steiner academy frome somerset steiner academy hereford united kingdom also alternative provision schools centres designed prevent exclusions mainstream school improve behavioural problems students access mainstream education since centres referred pupil referral units pru units run local authority recent years addition pupil referral


units many privately funded units operated businesses charities set versions prus known private providers alternative provision influx private businesses entering sector led concerns raised ofsted department education relation called illegal schools operating illegal schools refer alternative provision centres providing students full time education without first registering properly school operating way means providers avoid inspection ofsted united states variety educational alternatives exist elementary secondary tertiary


level four categories school choice independent schools home based education us department education 's document ''state regulation private schools'' reports legal requirements apply k private schools states including curriculum requirements report states intended reference public nonpublic school officials state policy makers report confirms similar areas education approached variety ways school choice public school alternatives us include separate schools classes programs semi autonomous schools within schools public school choice options open


students although waiting lists among charter schools combining private initiatives state funding magnet schools attract students particular program performing arts independent schools independent private schools flexibility staff selection educational approach many montessori waldorf schools latter also known steiner schools founder rudolf steiner independent schools include democratic free schools clonlara school oldest continually operating k alternative school country sudbury schools open classroom schools based


experiential education schools using international curriculum international baccalaureate round square schools homeschooling families seeking alternatives educational philosophical religious reasons nearby educational alternative may opt home based education minor branch unschooling approach based interest rather curriculum others enroll umbrella schools provide curriculum homeschool courses give students depth personal attention subject struggle excel homeschool families form cooperative parents expertise subject may teach children


number families children taught parents great variation amongst families homeschool parents set home classrooms hold class set amount time day families focus experiential learning opportunities self education self directed inquiry recognized levels education unschooling children autodidacticism adults may occur separately traditional forms education ref name self university ref see also alternative schools alternative university anarchism education education education policy education reform alternatives public education european


convention human rights article experiential education freedom education free school movement homeschooling progressive education right education special education uncollege unschooling forms approaches alternative education anarchistic free school artful learning democratic education deschooling free school movement forest kindergarten jiddu krishnamurti schools sudbury school thomas jefferson education modern school movement montessori education vocational education educators john dewey c lestin freinet friedrich fr bel ivan illich joseph jacotot deborah meier maria montessori jean jacques rousseau rudolf steiner jiddu krishnamurti bill nye organizations european democratic education community eudec home school legal defense association hslda media forbidden education documentary film


'''cultural history''' combines approaches anthropology history look popular cultural traditions cultural interpretations historical experience examines records narrative descriptions past matter encompassing continuum events occurring succession leading past present even future culture cultural history records interprets past events involving human beings social cultural political milieu relating arts manners group favors jacob burckhardt helped found cultural history discipline cultural history studies interprets


society carnival festival public rituals performance traditions tale epic verbal forms cultural evolutions human relations ideas sciences arts techniques cultural expressions social movements nationalism also examines main historical concepts power ideology class culture cultural identity attitude race perception new historical methods narration body many studies consider adaptations traditional culture mass media television radio newspapers magazines posters etc print film internet culture capitalism modern approaches come art history annales marxist school microhistory new


cultural history common theoretical touchstones recent cultural history included j rgen habermas 's formulation public sphere ''the structural transformation bourgeois public sphere'' clifford geertz 's notion 'thick description' expounded example ''the interpretation cultures'' idea memory cultural historical category discussed paul connerton 's ''how societies remember'' historiography french revolution area new style cultural history often pointed almost paradigm 'revisionist' history french revolution dated somewhere since fran ois furet 's massively influential essay ''interpreting french revolution''


'revisionist interpretation' often characterized replacing allegedly dominant allegedly marxist 'social interpretation' locates causes revolution class dynamics revisionist approach tended put emphasis 'political culture' reading ideas political culture habermas' conception public sphere historians revolution past decades looked role position cultural themes gender ritual ideology context pre revolutionary french political culture historians might grouped umbrella roger chartier robert darnton patrice higonnet lynn hunt keith baker


joan landes mona ozouf sarah maza course scholars pursue fairly diverse interests perhaps much emphasis placed paradigmatic nature new history french revolution colin jones example stranger cultural history habermas marxism persistently argued marxist interpretation dead revivified habermas' logic heavily indebted marxist understanding meanwhile rebecca spang also recently argued emphasis difference newness 'revisionist' approach retains idea french


revolution watershed history called modernity problematic notion 'modernity attracted scant attention cultural studies ''cultural studies'' academic discipline popular among diverse group scholars combines political economy geography sociology social theory literary theory film video studies cultural anthropology philosophy art history criticism study cultural phenomena various societies cultural studies researchers often concentrate particular phenomenon relates matters ideology nationality ethnicity social class gender term coined richard hoggart founded birmingham


centre contemporary cultural studies since become strongly associated stuart hall succeeded hoggart director cultural history popular culture bbc produced broadcast number educational television programmes different aspects human cultural history ''civilisation'' ''the ascent man'' ''the triumph west'' ''andrew marr 's history world'' see also collective unconscious ethnohistory history mentalities human history references reading arcangeli alessandro ''cultural history concise introduction'' routledge burke peter ''what cultural


history'' cambridge polity press cook james w et al ''the cultural turn u history past present future'' https wwwamazoncom cultural turn u history dp excerpt topical essays scholars ginzburg challenges us retrieve cultural social world conventional history record back cover green anna ''cultural history'' theory history basingstoke new york palgrave macmillan h rubel jean pierre vm january observations emergent specialization contemporary french cultural history significance scholarship ''journal scholarly publishing'' pp nbsp kelly michael le regard de l tranger french cultural studies bring french cultural


history ''french cultural studies'' pp k rl cengiz economic history cultural history ottoman studies ''international journal middle east studies'' pp laqueur walter ed ''weimar cultural history'' routledge germany mccaffery peter gabriel ben marsden eds ''the cultural history reader'' routledge melching w velema w ''main trends cultural history ten essays'' amsterdam rodopi moore alison https wwwcosmosandhistoryorg indexphp journal article viewfile historicising historical theory 's history cultural historiography ''cosmos history journal natural social philosophy'' february moore alison became


international society cultural history http wwwculturahistoricaes welcomehtml web portal historical culture historiography history theories history fields history


united states information service poster distributed asia depicting juan dela cruz ready defend philippines threat communism '''containment''' geopolitical strategic foreign policy pursued united states loosely related term ''cordon sanitaire'' later used describe geopolitical containment soviet union strategy containment best known cold war foreign policy united states allies prevent spread communism end world war ii component cold war

Applied science
Military sciences
Grand strategy
Containment


policy caused response soviet union increase communist influence eastern europe asia africa latin america also regarded beginning cold war containment represented middle ground position detente relaxation relations rollback actively replacing regime basis doctrine articulated cable us diplomat george f kennan post wwii term us president harry truman description us foreign policy word originated report kennan submitted us defense secretary james forrestal


germany repeatedly intervened internal affairs france 's neighbors belgium spain italy bismarck exerted strong sustained political pressure support election appointment liberal anticlerical governments part integrated strategy promote republicanism france strategically ideologically isolating clerical monarchist regime president patrice de mac mahon hoped surrounding france number liberal states french republicans could defeat mac mahon reactionary supporters modern concept containment provides useful model understanding dynamics policy bolshevik revolution


russia calls western leaders isolate bolshevik government seemed intent promoting worldwide revolution march french premier georges clemenceau called ''cordon sanitaire'' ring non communist states isolate soviet russia translating phrase us president woodrow wilson called quarantine world war allies launched incursion russia ostensibly create eastern front germany reality policy anti bolshevik well economic warfare took major toll russia intervention entirely anti communist although unpopularity


assault led gradually withdrawn us simultaneously engaged covert action new soviet government campaigns officially pro democracy often supported white terror former tsarist generals like gm semenov alexander kolchak us initially refused recognize soviet union president franklin roosevelt reversed policy hope expand american export markets munich agreement failed attempt contain nazi expansion europe us tried contain japanese expansion asia japan


warsaw uprising well violations february yalta agreement concerning poland ref name larson larson p ref harriman would later significant influence forming truman 's views soviet union ref name larson larson p ref february us state department asked george f kennan us embassy moscow russians opposed creation world bank international monetary fund responded wide ranging analysis russian policy called ''long telegram'' ref name john lewis gaddis pp john lewis gaddis ''george f kennan american life'' pp ref


message would probably received state department raised eyebrows lips pursed disapproval six months later would probably sounded redundant ref name larson clark clifford george elsey produced report elaborating ''long telegram'' proposing concrete policy recommendations based analysis report recommended restraining confining soviet influence presented truman september ref name hechler ref january kennan drafted essay entitled sources soviet conduct ref name john lewis gaddis pp navy secretary james forrestal gave permission report published


power military means military threat political containment political threat second kennan admitted failure article specify geographical scope containment containment something believed united states could necessarily achieve everywhere successfully harry truman republicans gained control congress elections president truman democrat made dramatic speech often considered mark beginning cold war march requested congress appropriate million aid greek turkish governments


decisiveness feared aides would make unfavorable comparisons predecessor roosevelt ref name larson larson p ref make decisions whether prove right wrong going take said ref name larson larson pp ref drama surrounding announcement truman doctrine catered president 's self image strong decisive leader real decision making process complex gradual timing speech response particular soviet action fact republican party gained control


soviet penetration truman explicit challenge communism taking control greece wide support parties well experts foreign policy inside outside government strongly opposed left notably former vice president henry wallace ran truman presidential campaign truman guidance acheson followed speech series measures contain soviet influence europe including marshall plan european recovery program nato military alliance us western european nations


containment required detailed information communist moves government relied increasingly central intelligence agency cia established national security act cia conducted espionage foreign lands visible secret truman approved classified statement containment policy called nsc november first comprehensive statement security policy ever created united states soviet union 's first nuclear test prompted national security council formulate revised security doctrine completed april became known nsc concluded


massive military buildup necessary deal soviet threat according report drafted paul nitze others alternative strategies three alternative policies containment discussion late first return isolationism minimizing american involvement rest world policy supported conservative republicans especially midwest including former president herbert hoover senator robert taft however many republicans led senator arthur h vandenberg said policy helped cause world war ii dangerous


revive second policy continuation tente policies aimed friendly relationships soviet union especially trade roosevelt champion tente dead inner circle left government chief proponent tente henry wallace former vice president secretary commerce truman wallace 's position supported far left elements cio purged wallace ran truman progressive party ticket campaign increasingly dominated


communists helped discredit tente third policy rollback aggressive effort undercut destroy soviet union military rollback soviet union proposed james burnham conservative strategists late burnham like minded strategists became editors regular contributors william f buckley jr 's ''national review'' magazine truman adopted rollback strategy korean war success inchon landings september reverse chinese counterattack two months later revert containment general douglas macarthur called


congress continue rollback policy truman fired insubordination president dwight eisenhower rollback strategy considered communism eastern europe eisenhower agreed propaganda campaign roll back influence communism psychologically refused intervene hungarian uprising mainly fear would cause third world war since late soviets successfully tested atomic bomb known possess nuclear weapons korea nuclear explosion seen periscope us navy submarine


goal containment 'contain' communism without nuclear war us followed containment first entered korean war defend south korea communist invasion north korea initially directed action us push back north korea across th parallel restore south korea 's sovereignty thereby allowing north korea 's survival state however success inchon landing inspired us united nations adopt rollback strategy instead overthrow communist north korea thus allowing nationwide elections


un auspices general douglas macarthur advanced across th parallel north korea chinese fearful possible us presence border even invasion sent large army defeated un forces pushing back th parallel truman publicly hinted might use ace hole atomic bomb mao unmoved episode used support wisdom containment doctrine opposed rollback communists later pushed back roughly around original border minimal changes


truman criticized macarthur 's focus absolute victory adopted limited war policy focus shifted negotiating settlement finally reached part macarthur denounced truman 's win policy dulles many republicans including john foster dulles concerned truman timid dulles called rollback eventual liberation eastern europe ref name statedept https stategov r pa ho time cwr htm kennan containment ''diplomacy action'' us department state ref dulles named secretary state incoming president eisenhower eisenhower 's decision intervene hungarian uprising made containment bipartisan doctrine


eisenhower relied clandestine cia actions undermine hostile governments used economic military foreign aid strengthen governments supporting american position cold war cuba cuban missile crisis top officials washington debated using rollback get rid soviet nuclear missiles threatening united states fear nuclear war deal reached soviets would publicly remove nuclear weapons united states would secretly remove missiles turkey avoid invading cuba policy containing cuba


put effect president john f kennedy continued vietnam senator barry goldwater republican candidate president challenged containment asked victory president lyndon johnson democratic nominee answered rollback risked nuclear war johnson explained containment doctrine quoting bible hitherto shalt thou come ref name jensen jensen p quote job ref goldwater lost johnson election wide margin johnson adhered closely containment vietnam war rejecting proposals general william westmoreland us ground forces advance


based political realism thinking terms national interest opposed crusades communism democracy emphasis placed talks soviet union concerning nuclear weapons called strategic arms limitation talks nixon reduced us military presence vietnam minimum required contain communist advances policy called vietnamization war continued grew less popular democratic congress forced nixon republican abandon policy enacting case church amendment ended us military involvement vietnam led successful communist invasions south


vietnam laos cambodia afghanistan president jimmy carter came office committed foreign policy emphasized human rights however response soviet invasion afghanistan containment made priority wording carter doctrine intentionally echoed truman doctrine reagan doctrine following communist victory vietnam democrats began view communist advance inevitable republicans returned rollback doctrine ronald reagan long time advocate rollback elected us president took aggressive approach dealings


pershing ii missile europe promoted research strategic defense initiative called star wars critics shoot missiles fired united states reagan 's aim defeat soviets expensive arms buildup soviets could match however reagan continued follow containment several key areas pursued comprehensive nuclear disarmament initiative called start policy toward europe continued emphasize nato based defensive approach cold war end cold war marked official end containment policy us kept


external links http edsitementnehgov lesson plan strategy containment edsitement 's lesson strategy containment https astrotempleedu rimmerma x articlehtm cold war policies soviet union united states relations geopolitics presidency harry truman india pakistan relations


us air force special tactics commandos training jordan '''special operations''' '''so''' military activities conducted specially designated organized selected trained equipped forces using unconventional techniques modes employment according nato ref name nato doctrine ref ref name nato glossary ref special operations may include reconnaissance unconventional warfare counter terrorism actions typically conducted small groups highly trained personnel emphasizing sufficiency stealth speed tactical coordination commonly known special forces use efficiency united states decade saw us national security strategy rely special operations unprecedented degree identifying hunting killing terrorists

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Special operations


became central task global war terrorism gwot linda robinson adjunct senior fellow us national security foreign policy council foreign relations argued organizational structure became flatter cooperation intelligence community stronger allowing special operations move speed war ref name robinson specops ref special operations appropriations costly budget went billion billion ref name robinson specops experts argued investment worthwhile pointing raid may killed osama bin laden abbottabad pakistan indeed


raid organized overseen admiral william h mcraven student practitioner special operations published thesis mcraven 's theory special operations potential achieve significant operational political strategic effects potential required units organized commanded special operations professionals rather subsumed larger military units operations required relative superiority gained special operation question via characteristics simplicity security rehearsals surprise speed clearly


narrowly defined purpose others claimed special operations' emphasis precipitated misconception substitute prolonged conflict raids drone strikes rarely decisive tactics often incur significant political diplomatic costs united states although raids drone strikes necessary disrupt dire imminent threats special operations leaders readily admit central pillar us military strategy ref name robinson specops instead special operations commanders stated grand strategy include indirect approach meant working non us partners accomplish security objectives special operations forces forge


relationships last decades diverse collection groups training advising operating alongside countries' militaries police forces tribes militias information groups ref name robinson specops see also special forces special operations forces special operations capable covert operation foreign internal defense list military special forces units long range reconnaissance patrol references reading capt malcolm brailey '' http indianstrategicknowledgeonlinecom web wp pdf transformation special operations forces contemporary conflict strategy missions organisation tactics '' canberra act land warfare studies centre working paper colin gray part iii strategy special operations ''explorations strategy'' westport ct


greenwood press pp nbsp william h mcraven ''spec ops case studies special operations warfare theory practice'' novato ca presidio linda robinson ''one hundred victories special ops future american warfare'' new york public affairs external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwshadowspearcom united states special operations index html list us special operations forces military operations special forces


'''library binding''' divided two major categories original market original category says book originally bound idea would used library setting book would receive harder use usual trade editions sold public aftermarket library binding method binding serials binding paperback hardcover books use within libraries library binding increases durability books well making materials easier use purpose library binding way

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Library binding


increase life books periodicals used libraries done sewing pages place reinforcing spine volume goal library binding long term preservation however library bound books also benefit library patrons ensuring volume hand complete opened ease easy photocopy addition many libraries bind damaged books library bindings regardless whether originally paperback hardcover methods materials buckram used cover library bound books comes variety colors


library binders use method bookbinding called ''oversewing'' secure volumes oversewing involves cutting ''milling'' spines volumes creating block loose pages loose sheets combined small units ' 'signatures'' secured overlock stitching separate signatures get sewn together creating single book block often piece linen glued book block spine support spine volume sometimes ''rounded ''and ''backed'' keep spine caving paper


volume fragile book block thick spine left flat book block placed sturdy cover ''case'' special paper covering inside covers common cloth used library binders cover boards book buckram coated acrylic acrylic coatings generally resistant water mold insects ultra violet light buckram used cotton bulky fabric designed withstand wear tear smaller books may bound ''c cloth'' lighter weight cloth may may


acrylic coating information volume title call number hot stamped onto spine bound serials typically bound color buckram order indicate relationship volumes market library binders library bound volumes wooden bookcases library binding done commercial library binding company sending books library binder mass production process library gather set aside volumes want library bound box ship books


library binding company binding company handles volume one time places items shipment back boxes sends back library commercial library binding factories first established america england early twentieth century since emerged several prominent library binding companies including dague bookbindery ocker trapp wert bookbinders although commercial enterprises library binders act partners library world operations perform books serials help extend life materials making


accessible library users goal always little damage volume possible volume sent commercial library binder papers volume brittle volume appears value artifact item repaired treated house item needs preparatory conservation treatment library binders libraries agree conditions services provided prices charged sign contract confirming library binder insures loss


volumes corrects mistakes wrong color buckram cloth incorrect title stamped spine library binding institute main source information standards library binding conjunction national information standards organization library binding institute published standards library binding used binding companies include technical specifications different methods library binding material specifications materials used library binding see also bookbinding book rebinding prebound preservation library archival science references inline citations general references state


connecticut binding contract applied university connecticut libraries storrs effective september ''preservation planning program managing library binding program'' jan merrill oldham ed association research libraries washington dc external links https wwwnedccorg free resources preservation leaflets conservation procedures guidelines library binding conservation procedures guidelines library binding northeast document conservation center http wwwiobaorg pages resources library bindings library bindings international online booksellers association bookbinding library science


enlightenment particularly european countries high literacy rates continued grow nineteenth century universal primary education became norm western world recent years early childhood education become prevalent public policy issue funding preschool pre k debated municipal state federal lawmakers governing entities also debating central focus early childhood education debate developmental appropriate play versus strong academic preparation curriculum reading writing math ref name ref global priority placed early childhood education underscored targets

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Early childhood education


discovery jean jacques rousseau recommended teachers exploit individual children 's interests make sure child obtains information essential personal individual development five developmental domains childhood development include ref name dh year publisher addison wesley incorporated isbn ref meet developmental domains child set needs must met learning maslow 's hierarchy needs showcases different levels needs must met chart right showcases needs maslow 's hierarchy needs physical way child develops biological physical functions including eyesight motor skills social


way child interacts others children develop understanding responsibilities rights members families communities well ability relate work others emotional way child creates emotional connections develops self confidence emotional connections develop children relate people share feelings language way child communicates including present feelings emotions people months children employ different cries different needs months recognize


imitate basic sounds spoken language first years children need exposed communication others order pick language normal language development measured rate vocabulary acquisition cognitive skills way child organizes information cognitive skills include problem solving creativity imagination memory ref name neaum date may publisher sage publications isbn ref embody way children make sense world piaget believed children exhibit prominent differences thought patterns move stages cognitive development sensorimotor period pre operational period


operational period vygotsky socio cultural learning theory russian psychologist lev vygotsky proposed socio cultural learning theory emphasized impact social cultural experiences individual thinking development mental processes ref name cole ref vygotsky 's theory emerged still discussed today means improving reforming educational practices vygotsky 's theories learning also postulated theory zone proximal development theory ties children building prior knowledge gaining new knowledge related skills already theory describes


development build skills grow learning skills proximal development range build skills guided teachers parents must build zone proximal development vygotsky argued since cognition occurs within social context social experiences shape ways thinking interpreting world people parents grandparents teachers play roles vygotsky described knowledgeable competent adults although vygotsky predated social constructivists commonly classified one social constructivists believe


individual 's cognitive system resditional learning time vygotsky advocated teachers facilitate rather direct student learning teachers provide learning environment students explore develop learning without direct instruction approach calls teachers incorporate students needs interests important students' levels interest abilities vary needs differentiation however teachers enhance understandings learning students vygotsky states sharing meanings relevant children 's environment adults promote cognitive development well teachings influence thought


processes perspectives students new similar environments since vygotsky promotes facilitation children 's learning suggests knowledgeable people adults particular also enhance knowledges cooperative meaning making students learning vygotsky 's approach encourages guided participation student exploration support teachers help students achieve cognitive development levels consistent regular interactions collaborative knowledge making learning processes piaget constructivist theory jean piaget 's constructivist theory gained influence ' although piaget primarily interested descriptive psychology cognitive development


also laid groundwork constructivist theory learning piaget believed learning comes within children construct knowledge world experience subsequent reflection said logic created rather inborn follows first task education form reasoning within piaget 's framework teachers guide children acquiring knowledge rather simply transferring knowledge according piaget 's theory young children encounter new information attempt accommodate assimilate existing understanding world accommodation involves adapting mental


schemas representations make consistent reality assimilation involves fitting new information pre existing schemas two processes young children learn equilibrating mental representations reality also learn mistakes piagetian approach emphasizes experiential education school experiences become hands concrete students explore trial error thus crucial components early childhood education include exploration manipulating objects experiencing new environments subsequent reflection experiences equally important piaget 's concept reflective abstraction particularly influential mathematical education reflective abstraction children construct advanced cognitive


structures simpler ones already possess allows children develop mathematical constructs cannot learned equilibration making sense experiences assimilation accommodation alone according piagetian theory language symbolic representation preceded development corresponding mental representations research shows level reflective abstraction achieved young children found limit degree could represent physical quantities written numerals piaget held children invent procedures four arithmetical operations without taught conventional rules piaget 's theory


john dewey kurt lewin jean piaget argues children need experience things learn process whereby knowledge created transformation experience knowledge results combinations grasping transforming experience experimental learning theory distinctive children seen taught individuals child explores observes teachers ask child probing questions child adapt prior knowledge learning new information kolb breaks learning cycle four stages concrete experience reflective observation abstract conceptualization active experimentation children observe new situations think


live ending deeper areas morality religion science visual stimulus response time early months indicator verbal performance iq age years parents value ece importance children generally higher rate attendance allows children opportunity build nurture trusting relationships educators social relationships peers providing education child 's formative years ece also capacity pre emptively begin closing educational achievement gap low high income students


formal schooling begins children low socioeconomic status ses often begin school already behind higher ses peers average time three children high ses three times number words vocabularies children low ses participation ece however proven increase high school graduation rates improve performance standardized tests reduce grade repetition number children placed special education study conducted aga khan development network 's madrasa early childhood programme impact early childhood education


students performance grade school looking specifically students attended madrasa early childhood schools virtually came economically disadvantaged backgrounds study found consistently ranked top grade classes study also concluded formal early childhood education contributed higher levels cognitive development language mathematics non verbal reasoning skills especially since first wave results perry preschool project published widespread consensus quality early childhood education programs correlate gains low income children 's iqs


test scores decreased grade retention lower special education rates several studies reported children enrolled ece increase iq scores points age five milwaukee study reported point gain addition students enrolled abecedarian project often cited ece study scored significantly higher reading math tests age fifteen comparable students participated early childhood programs ref name campbell f campbell f ramey c pungello e sparling j miller johnson early childhood education young adult outcomes abecedarian


project applied developmental science ref addition students abecedarian preschool study treatment group would later enroll four year colleges compared control group ref name campbell f researchers reported children participate ece graduate high school significantly greater rates additionally participate ece require special education must repeat grade significantly lower rates peers receive ece nih asserts ece leads higher test scores students preschool


age improved grades math reading stronger odds students keep going school attend college nathaniel hendren ben sprung keyser two harvard economists found high marginal values public funds mvpfs investments programs supporting health early education children particularly reach children low income families average mvpf types initiatives mvpfs programs adults generally range beyond benefitting societal good ece also significantly impacts socioeconomic outcomes individuals example age students


enrolled chicago child parent centers less likely arrested abuse drugs receive food stamps likely high school diplomas health insurance full time employment studies also show ece heightens social engagement bolsters lifelong health reduces incidence teen pregnancy supports mental health decreases risk heart disease lengthens lifespans world bank 's world development report ''the changing nature work'' identifies early childhood development programs one effective ways governments equip children skills need succeed


future labor markets according study journal political economy clemson university economist jorge luis garc nobel laureate james j heckman university southern california economists duncan ermini leaf mar jos prados every dollar spent high quality early childhood programs led return long term perry preschool project perry preschool project conducted ypsilanti michigan oldest social experiment field early childhood education heavily influenced policy united states across globe


fifty years demonstrated long term economic benefits program even accounting small sample size experiment flaws randomization procedure sample attrition ref name ref substantial evidence large treatment effects criminal convictions male participants especially violent crime earnings middle adulthood research points improvements non cognitive skills executive functioning childhood home environment parental attachment potential sources observed long term impacts program intervention 's many benefits also include improvements late midlife health male female participants ref name


perry promoted educational attainment two avenues total years education attained rates progression given level education pattern particularly evident females treated females received less special education progressed quickly grades earned higher gpas attained higher levels education control group counterparts research also demonstrates spillover effects perry program children siblings original participants study concludes children treated participants fewer school suspensions higher levels education employment lower levels participation crime compared


children untreated participants impacts especially pronounced children male participants treatment effects associated improved childhood home environments study also documents beneficial impacts male siblings original participants evidence perry preschool project noteworthy advocates public spending early childhood programs economic investment society 's future rather interest social justice international agreements first world conference early childhood care education took place moscow september jointly organized unesco


city moscow overarching goals conference ref according unesco '''preschool curriculum''' one delivers educational content daily activities furthers child 's physical cognitive social development generally preschool curricula recognized governments based academic research reviewed peers ref name unesco ref preschool child rights pioneered preschool curricular areas contributing child rights preschool curriculum percentage children aged months developmentally track curricula early childhood care education


international labour organization 's convention concerning elimination worst forms child labour however many ratifications yet given full effect actual implementation concrete measures globally million children aged estimated engaged child labour ref name conflict affected poor countries children twice likely die fifth birthday compared poor countries industrialized countries per cent children physically abused year per cent neglected psychologically abused ref name ref name ref


developed developing countries children poor disadvantaged remain least served exclusion persists evidence added value early childhood care education services higher affluent counterparts even services modest quality problem intractable developing countries developed world still equitably provide quality early childhood care education services children many european countries children mostly low income immigrant families access good quality early childhood care


education ref name orphan education lack education early childhood years orphans worldwide concern orphans higher risk missing schooling living households less food security suffering anxiety depression ref name ref education years potential improve child 's food nutrition health care social welfare protection ref name crisis especially prevalent sub saharan africa heavily impacted aids epidemic unicef reports million children years worldwide lost one


parents aids nearly million children live sub saharan africa ref name government policies free basic education policy worked provide education orphan children area quality inclusiveness policy brought criticism notable early childhood educators fred rogers charles eugene beatty friedrich fr bel elizabeth harrison david p weikart juan nchez muliterno president world association early childhood educators maria montessori see also baby video bright start compensatory education head start program pretend play men early childhood education


montessori education playwork preschool curriculum primary education reading reggio emilia approach waldorf education references citations sources neaum child development early years students practitioners nd edition london sage publications montessori reggio emilia url https inspiremindscomau access date april archive date april archive url https webarchiveorg web https inspiremindscomau url status live external links http nieerorg national institute early education research http wwwneaorg home htm national education association educational stages


'''orthopedic surgery''' '''orthopedics''' branch surgery concerned conditions involving musculoskeletal system orthopedic surgeons use surgical nonsurgical means treat musculoskeletal trauma spine diseases sports injuries degenerative diseases infections tumors congenital disorders etymology nicholas andry coined word french '''' derived ancient greek words ''orthos'' correct straight ''paidion'' child published ''orthopedie'' translated ''orthop dia art correcting preventing deformities children'' word assimilated english ''orthop dics'' ligature '' '' common era ''ae''

Applied science
Medicine and health
Surgery
Orthopedic surgery


greek latin based words name implies discipline initially developed attention children correction spinal bone deformities stages life eventually became cornerstone orthopedic practice differences spelling many words derived ligature simplification either ae e common especially north america us majority college university residency programmes even american academy orthopedic surgeons still use spelling digraph ae though hospitals usually use shortened form elsewhere usage


uniform canada spellings acceptable orthopaedics normal spelling uk line fields retain ae history early orthopedics many developments orthopedic surgery resulted experiences wartime battlefields middle ages injured treated bandages soaked horses' blood dried form stiff unsanitary splint originally term orthopedics meant correcting musculoskeletal deformities children nicolas andry professor medicine university paris coined term first textbook written subject


advocated use exercise manipulation splinting treat deformities children book directed towards parents topics would familiar orthopedists today also included 'excessive sweating palms' freckles jean andr venel established first orthopedic institute first hospital dedicated treatment children 's skeletal deformities developed club foot shoe children born foot deformities various methods treat curvature spine advances made surgical technique th century john hunter 's research tendon healing


percival pott 's work spinal deformity steadily increased range new methods available effective treatment antonius mathijsen dutch military surgeon invented plaster paris cast though orthopedics still study limited correction deformity children one first surgical procedures developed percutaneous tenotomy involved cutting tendon originally achilles tendon help treat deformities alongside bracing exercises late first decades significant controversy arose whether orthopedics include surgical procedures modern orthopedics


hugh owen thomas pioneer modern orthopedic surgeryexamples people aided development modern orthopedic surgery hugh owen thomas surgeon wales nephew robert jones thomas became interested orthopedics bone setting young age establishing practice went expand field general treatment fracture musculoskeletal problems advocated enforced rest best remedy fractures tuberculosis created called thomas splint stabilize fractured femur prevent infection also responsible numerous medical innovations


carry name thomas 's collar treat tuberculosis cervical spine thomas 's manoeuvre orthopedic investigation fracture hip joint thomas test method detecting hip deformity patient lying flat bed thomas 's wrench reducing fractures well osteoclast break reset bones thomas 's work fully appreciated lifetime first world war techniques come used injured soldiers battlefield nephew sir robert jones already made great advances orthopedics


position surgeon superintendent construction manchester ship canal responsible injured among workers organized first comprehensive accident service world dividing mile site three sections establishing hospital string first aid posts section medical personnel trained fracture management personally managed cases performed operations hospital position enabled learn new techniques improve standard fracture management physicians around world came jones'


clinic learn techniques along alfred tubby jones founded british orthopedic society first world war jones served territorial army surgeon observed treatment fractures front hospitals home inadequate efforts led introduction military orthopedic hospitals appointed inspector military orthopedics responsibility beds hospital ducane road hammersmith became model british american military orthopedic hospitals advocacy use thomas splint initial treatment femoral


fractures reduced mortality compound fractures femur less period ref name welsh biography online ref use intramedullary rods treat fractures femur tibia pioneered gerhard k ntscher germany made noticeable difference speed recovery injured german soldiers world war ii led widespread adoption intramedullary fixation fractures rest world traction standard method treating thigh bone fractures late though harborview


systems world formed basis modern hip implants exeter hip replacement system slightly different stem geometry developed time since charnley improvements continuous design technique joint replacement arthroplasty many contributors including w h harris son r harris whose team harvard pioneered uncemented arthroplasty techniques bone bonding directly implant knee replacements using similar technology started mcintosh rheumatoid arthritis patients later gunston marmor osteoarthritis developed