war many americans began evaluate anti imperialistic views support imperialism grew changing historiographical trends placed racism american south emblematic rather exception us racism whole ref name addition geographical component southern literature certain themes appeared similar histories southern states regard american slavery civil war reconstruction era conservative culture american south also produced strong focus within southern literature significance family religion community one 's personal


social life use southern dialects ref name autogenerated strong sense place south 's troubled history racial issues also continually appears literature despite common themes debate makes literary work southern example mark twain missourian defined characteristics many people associate southern writing novel ''adventures huckleberry finn'' truman capote born raised deep south best known novel ''in cold blood'' piece none characteristics associated southern writing southern writers

Humanities
Languages and literature
Southern Literature


popular authors anne rice john grisham rarely write traditional southern literary issues john berendt wrote popular ''midnight garden good evil'' southerner addition famous southern writers moved northern us geography factor geographical location author ''the'' defining factor southern writing suggest southern authors write individual way due impact strict cultural decorum south need break away history early antebellum literature


earliest literature written would become american south dates back colonial era particular virginia explorer john smith wrote account founding colonial settlement jamestown early th century planter william byrd ii kept diary day day affairs early th century sets recollections critical documents early southern history american revolution early th century expansion southern plantations fueled slave labor began distinguish southern society culture clearly states


young nations antebellum period south carolina particularly city charleston rivaled perhaps surpassed virginia literary community writing charleston lawyer essayist hugh swinton legare poets paul hamilton hayne henry timrod novelist william gilmore simms composed important works antebellum southern literature simms particularly significant figure perhaps prominent southern author american civil war novels frontier life american revolution celebrated history south carolina like james fenimore cooper simms strongly influenced


scottish author walter scott works bore imprint scott 's romanticism ''the yemassee'' ''the kinsmen'' anti ''uncle tom 's cabin'' novel sword distaff simms presented idealized portraits slavery southern life popular well regarded south carolina highly praised critics edgar allan poe simms never gained large national audience virginia george tucker produced first fiction virginia colonial life ''the valley shenandoah'' followed one country 's first science fictions ''a voyage moon


account manners customs science philosophy people morosofia lunarians'' tucker first professor moral philosophy university virginia tucker published first comprehensive biography thomas jefferson ''the life thomas jefferson third president united states'' critics also regard poe southern author raised richmond attended university virginia edited ''southern literary messenger'' yet poetry fiction poe rarely took distinctly southern themes subjects status


lost cause confederacy nostalgic literature began appear almost immediately war ended ''the conquered banner'' published june writers idealized defeated south lost culture prominent writers point view included poets henry timrod daniel b lucas abram joseph ryan fiction writer thomas nelson page others like african american writer charles w chesnutt dismissed nostalgia pointing racism exploitation blacks happened time period south george tucker completed final multivolume work


''history united states colonization end th congress '' mark twain published arguably influential southern novel th century ''adventures huckleberry finn'' ernest hemingway said novel modern american literature comes one book mark twain called ''huckleberry finn'' statement applies even southern literature novel 's frank dealings issues race violence kate chopin another central figure post civil war southern literature focusing writing largely french creole


communities louisiana chopin established literary reputation short story collections ''bayou folk'' ''a night acadie'' stories offered sociological portrait specific southern culture also furthered legacy american short story uniquely vital complex narrative genre publication second final novel ''the awakening'' gained notoriety different sort novel shocked audiences frank unsentimental portrayal female sexuality psychology paved way southern novel


novels plays sermons non fiction pieces popular general public usa dixon 's greatest fame came trilogy novels reconstruction one entitled ''the clansman'' book wildly successful play would eventually become inspiration w griffith 's highly controversial film ''the birth nation'' overall dixon wrote novels numerous plays film scripts christian sermons non fiction works southern renaissance renaissance southern literature began appearance writers


mostly around vanderbilt called return south 's agrarian past bemoaned rise southern industrialism urbanization noted creativity industrialism compatible desired return lifestyle would afford southerner leisure quality agrarians felt conducive creativity writers like faulkner nobel prize literature also brought new techniques stream consciousness complex narrative techniques writings instance novel ''as lay dying'' told changing narrators ranging deceased addie


young son late also saw publication one best known southern novels ''gone wind'' margaret mitchell novel published quickly became bestseller pulitzer prize equally famous movie novel premiered eyes modern scholars mitchell 's novel consolidated white supremacist lost cause ideologies see lost cause confederacy construct bucolic plantation south slavery benign even benevolent institution view presents white southerners victims rapacious northern


industrial capitalism depicts black southerners either lazy stupid sexualized docile childlike resolutely loyal white masters southern literature always drawn audiences outside south outside united states ''gone wind'' continued popularize harmful stereotypes southern history culture audiences around world despite criticism ''gone wind'' enjoyed enduring legacy popular american novel ever written incredible achievement female writer since publication ''gone wind'' become staple many southern homes


post world war ii southern literature southern literature following second world war grew thematically embraced social cultural changes south resulting civil rights movement addition female african american writers began accepted part southern literature including african americans zora neale hurston sterling allen brown along women eudora welty flannery o'connor ellen glasgow carson mccullers katherine anne porter shirley ann grau among many others well known southern writers period include reynolds price james dickey william price fox davis grubb


walker percy william styron one highly praised southern novels th century ''to kill mockingbird'' harper lee pulitzer prize published new orleans native harper lee 's friend truman capote also found great success middle th century ''breakfast tiffany 's'' later ''in cold blood'' another famous novel ''a confederacy dunces'' written new orleans native john kennedy toole published pulitzer prize since become


cult classic southern poetry bloomed decades following second world war large part thanks writing efforts robert penn warren james dickey earlier work primarily championed white agrarian past efforts poets dave smith charles wright ellen bryant voigt yusef komunyakaa jim seay frank stanford kate daniels james applewhite betty adcock rodney jones former us poet laureate natasha trethewey opened subject matter form southern poetry contemporary southern literature today early twenty first century american south undergoing number


cultural social changes including rapid industrialization deindustrialization climate change influx immigrants result exact definition constitutes southern literature changing critics specify previous definitions southern literature still hold suggesting somewhat jest southern literature must still contain dead mule within pages scholars twenty first century south highlight proliferation depictions souths urban undead queer activist televisual cinematic particularly multiethnic particularly latinos native american african american critics argue


fabric south changed much old assumptions southern literature longer hold argue us south always construct selected journals ''black warrior review'' mdash published university alabama ''georgia review'' mdash published university georgia ''gulf coast journal literature fine arts'' mdash published university houston ''jabberwock review'' mdash published mississippi state university ''southern literary journal monthly magazine'' mdash ''sewanee review'' mdash america 's oldest continuously published literary quarterly published university south ''southern literary


study american south ''southern spaces'' mdash peer reviewed internet journal examining spaces places american south south today published lillian smith ceased notable works around 'james agee film project' conducted poll book editors publishers scholars reviewers asking thousands southern prose works published past century considered 'the remarkable works modern southern literature results poll yielded following titles class wikitable sortable title author year ''invisible man'' ralph ellison


''all king 's men'' robert penn warren ''collected stories'' eudora welty ''civil war narrative'' shelby foote ''moviegoer'' walker percy ''tobacco road'' erskine caldwell ''black boy'' richard wright ''cane'' jean toomer ''native son'' richard wright ''as lay dying'' william faulkner ''gone wind'' margaret mitchell


''up slavery'' booker washington ''last gentleman'' walker percy ''complete stories'' flannery o'connor ''collected stories'' katherine anne porter ''autobiography miss jane pittman'' ernest j gaines see also literature southern states alabama arkansas florida georgia kentucky louisiana maryland mississippi north carolina south carolina tennessee texas virginia west virginia american literary regionalism southern gothic fellowship southern writers african american literature references bibliography published th c volumes marion


montgomery sense violation notes toward definition 'southern' fiction georgia review flannery o'connor aspects grotesque southern fiction mystery manners ed sally robert fitzgerald farrar straus giroux michael o'brien ''the idea american south '' johns hopkins university press fulltext articles via university 's documenting american south website http docsouthuncedu southlit introhtml beginnings southern literature http docsouthuncedu southlit antebellumhtml antebellum era http docsouthuncedu southlit autobiohtml autobiography http docsouthuncedu southlit biographyhtml biography http docsouthuncedu southlit blacklithtml black literature http docsouthuncedu southlit civilwarhtml civil war literature http docsouthuncedu southlit folklorehtml folklore literature http docsouthuncedu southlit humorhtml humor literature http docsouthuncedu southlit localcolorhtml local color era http docsouthuncedu southlit regionalismhtml regionalism


local color http docsouthuncedu southlit travelhtml travel writing ''the history southern literature'' louis rubin louisiana state university press louis rubin jr combray ithaca 'southernness' southern literature mockingbird gum tree louisiana state university press explores overall issues surrounding makes southern literature explanation constitutes good southern writing patricia yeager '' https booksgooglecom booksid xafglprdjsqc lpg pr pg pr v onepage q f false dirt desire reconstructing southern women 's writing '' university chicago press published st c houston baker https archiveorg details turningsouthagai bake ''turning south thinking modernism reading booker t'' duke university


press http wwwstorysouthcom summer wheresouthhtml south today 's southern literature article exploring changes southern literature ''the new dictionary cultural literacy third edition every american needs know'' edited james trefil joseph f kett e hirsch houghton mifflin tara mcpherson '' https booksgooglecom booksid ef yjxkyyc lpg pp pg pp v onepage q f false reconstructing dixie race gender nostalgia imagined south '' duke university press http southernspacesorg genres southern literature genres southern literature lucinda mackethan southern spaces feb jon smith deborah cohn eds '' https wwwdukeupressedu look away look away us south new world studies '' duke university press leigh anne duck


'' https booksgooglecom booksid ccd woijf oc lpg pp pg pp v onepage q f false nation 's region southern modernism segregation us nationalism '' university georgia press rich richardson '' https booksgooglecom booksid ilcs xysc c lpg pp pg pp v onepage q f false black masculinity us south uncle tom gangsta '' university georgia press anderson eric gary http southernspacesorg native ground indigenous presences countercolonial strategies southern narratives captivity native ground indigenous presences countercolonial strategies southern narratives captivity removal repossession ''southern spaces'' august leigh anne duck july southern nonidentity ''safundi journal south african american studies'' harilaos stecopoulos '' http wwwcornellpresscornelledu book gcoi reconstructing world southern fictions us imperialisms '' cornell university press scott romine '' https lsupressorg books detail real south


real south southern narrative age cultural reproduction '' louisiana state university press jennifer rae greeson '' http wwwhupharvardedu catalogphpisbn south geographic fantasy rise national literature '' harvard university press thadious davis '' https archiveorg details southscapesgeogr davi southscapes geographies race region literature '' university north carolina press deborah barker kathryn mckee eds '' http wwwugapressorg indexphp books american cinema american cinema southern imaginary '' university georgia press melanie benson taylor '' http wwwugapressorg indexphp books reconstructing native south reconstructing native south american indian literature lost cause '' university georgia press jay watson '' http wwwugapressorg indexphp books reading body reading body


recalcitrant materiality southern fiction '' university georgia press keith cartwright '' http wwwugapressorg indexphp books sacral grooves limbo gateways sacral grooves limbo gateways travels deep southern time circum caribbean space afro creole authority '' university georgia press matthew pratt guterl '' http wwwhupharvardedu catalogphpisbn american mediterranean southern slaveholders age emancipation '' harvard university press claudia milian '' http wwwugapressorg indexphp books latining america latining america black brown passages coloring latino studies '' university georgia press jon smith '' http wwwugapressorg indexphp books finding purple america finding purple america south future american cultural studies '' university georgia press eric gary anderson taylor hagood daniel cross turner


eds https lsupressorg books detail undead souths ''undead souths gothic beyond southern literature culture'' louisiana state university press martyn bone brian ward william link eds ''creating consuming american south'' university press florida jennifer rae greeson scott romine eds '' https booksgooglecom booksid fla dwaaqbaj lpg pp pg pp v onepage q f false keywords southern studies '' university georgia press external links http docsouthuncedu southlit library southern literature university north carolina american southern literature pre https webarchiveorg web http wwwgwtworg cslhtml center southern literature checklist scholarship writers associated american south directory arranged period colonial contemporary etc sponsored mississippi


quarterly ceased publication http wwwdeadmulecom holmans house darrell grayson southern poetry holman prison death row inmate darrell grayson https webarchiveorg web http wwwsouthernspacesorg browse poets place poets place ''southern spaces'' http wwwdeadmulecom history southern literature online publishing since american south relied dead mule school southern literature quality fiction poetry culture southern united states american literary movements


'''anthroponics''' type hydroponics system uses human waste like urine source nutrients cultivated plants general human urine mixed waste collected stored period time applied either directly passed biofilter reaching plants form organic hydroponics anthroponics combines elements hydroponics aquaponics systems lettuce ''lactuca sativa'' grown three similar anthroponic systems history human waste historically used fertilizer use soilless systems recent field

Applied science
Agriculture
Anthroponics


research earliest published research topic researcher guterstam b treatment domestic wastewater aquaculture hydroponic mesocosm described since researchers explored human mixed waste human urine nutrient sources hydroponic cultivation studying potential waste comparisons traditional fertilizers ref name urine dumitrescu vlad http wwwdiva portalorg smash recordjsfpid diva dswid comparative analysis biogas slurry urine sustainable nutrient sources hydroponic vertical farming water environmental studies department thematic studies link ping university sweden isrn liu temav mpssd se ref context wastewater treatment agriculture


even space exploration urine fertilizer urine water urea constituting largest amount solids rest inorganic salts organic compounds including proteins hormones wide range metabolites urea urine naturally converts ammonia process known ammonia volatilization urea process take weeks months increases ph liquid thus sterilizing ref name lactuca nchez henrique http wwwhemmaodlatse research lactuca sativa production anthroponics systempdf lactuca sativa production anthroponics system hemmaodlat malm sweden ref time takes process


occur drastically reduced hours minutes addition urease enzyme synthesized found watermelon seeds sterilized volatilized liquid passed biofilter nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia nitrate plant available form nitrogen experimentally shown average ml human urine grow gram lettuce therefore given average adult human produces around litres urine one day estimated one human adult could produce almost nbsp kg


lettuce volume urine excreted one day ref name lactuca wood ash also used supplement urine cultivating cucumbers require nutrients found urine hydroponic subsystem biofilter water transported hydroponic component plants located absorb nutrients cleaning water returns biofilter almost techniques used hydroponics aquaponics also applicable anthroponics include deep water culture nutrient film technique media beds advantages image describing


inputs outputs mineral soiless cultivation hydroponics urine based soiless cultivation anthroponics urine based solutions hydroponics research seem developed sustainability concerns current mineral based hydroponic solutions mineral based commercial nutrient solutions resource intensive energy demanding also producing lot waste activities involved production include mining ore treatment chemical processing transportation result required nutrients final solution whole process requires fossil fuels electricity chemicals water producing nutrient solution also mining waste greenhouse


gases wastewater comparison using urine nutrient source requires collection urine electricity nutrient salts water producing waste limited greenhouse gases final nutrient solution ref name urine disadvantages disadvantages concerning use urine nutrient source hydroponics system include strict laws concerning use human waste food crops unpleasant handling odors produced human urine release persistent organic pollutants trace metals human urine references hydroponics sewerage


'''paedology''' '''paidology''' study children 's behavior development distinct pedagogy art science teaching pediatrics field medicine relating children pedology commonly recognized distinct field study therefore many people would described pedologists instead described pedagogues psychologists pediatricians etc another factor contributes paedology 's lack recognition distinct field study one could make contributions field pedology also making contributions fields example jean piaget made contributions study

Social science
Psychology
Pedology (children study)


end th century pedology comprehensive study child came prominence europe attempt create study children manner natural sciences professor kazimierz twardowski organized pedological society lviv austro hungary ukraine similar society organized krak w first world congress pedology took place brussels belgium attendants countries world war effectively put end development study western europe since pedology branch


science never reached maturity common established understanding scope instruments pedology bowie state university bowie maryland became first university united states offer bachelor 's degree pedology document university refers pedology major known child adolescent studies ref name assessment ref many universities united states pedological study generally classified major child development pedology soviet union imperial russia prominent developer field aleksandr nechayev st


petersburg created laboratory experimental pedagogical psychology soviet pedology traditionally thought founded efforts vladimir bekhterev particular founded institute pedology part psychological institutions united institute study brain psychical activity science intensively pursued soviet union journal ''pedologiya'' issued lev vygotsky one prominent supporters many works pedologists considerable value approach severely criticized enthusiastic poorly grounded approach testing


predicting child 's mental development addition estimating status officially banned special decree vkp b central committee pedological perversions system narkomproses july references depaepe science technology paedology concept science faculte internationale de pedologie brussels ''scientia paedogica experimentalis'' ''' ''' depaepe experimental research education historical processes behind development discipline western europe united states ''aspects education'' ''journal institute education'' university hull ''' ''' pp nbsp


depaepe zum wohl des kindes p dologie p dagogische psychologie und experimentelle p dagogik europa und den usa leuven universitaire pers weinheim deutscher studienverlag external links https webarchiveorg web http russcienceeuroru papers shk oshtm pyashvartsman ivkuznetsova ''pedology repressed science'' social sciences child development pedagogy


need salvation although understanding means achieving may differ times divine grace church kingdom god last things jesus christ return personally visibly glory earth dead raised christ judge everyone righteousness evangelism missions baptist beliefs seen belonging three parties general baptists uphold arminian theology particular baptists uphold reformed theology ref name benedict ref independent baptists hold modified form calvinism typically affirming points calvinism compatabilistic view freewill

Humanities
Theology
Christian theology
Baptist theology


obedience command christ given us instead sacraments activities god uses impart salvation means grace participant therefore historic baptist theology considers saving grace conveyed either ordinance original sin washed away baptism baptists traditionally believed symbols many baptists observe washing feet third ordinance communion foot washing service practiced regularly members separate baptists christ general association baptists free baptists primitive baptists union baptists old regular baptist


christian baptist church god varying views baptists hold services worship sunday however group known seventh day baptists whose origins derived anabaptism pre reformation seventh day baptists gather worship seventh day week saturday large portion seventh day baptists adopted teachings sabbath led formation seventh day adventist church ref name ref baptists also viewed descendants puritans shaped anabaptists thus baptist religion considered


outcome reformation ref name early th century individuals called baptists broke apart church england ref name notable puritan separatists included john smyth thomas helwys acknowledged key founders baptist denomination ref name furthermore baptists notably landmarkians hold belief perpetuity embraces notion baptist belief existed since time christ today church christ founded jerusalem baptist believe perpetuity view baptist belief critical aspect protestant


list academic journals published hindawi b c e g h j l n p q r u v w references external links https wwwhindawicom journals list journals published hindawi hindawi

Formal science
Computer science
VLSI design


'''very large scale integration''' '''vlsi''' process creating integrated circuit ic combining millions mos transistors onto single chip vlsi began mos integrated circuit chips widely adopted enabling complex semiconductor telecommunication technologies developed microprocessor memory chips vlsi devices introduction vlsi technology ics limited set functions could perform electronic circuit might consist cpu rom ram glue logic vlsi enables ic designers add one chip die history


background history transistor dates several inventors attempted devices intended control current solid state diodes convert triodes success came world war ii use silicon germanium crystals radar detectors led improvements fabrication theory scientists worked radar returned solid state device development invention first transistor bell labs field electronics shifted vacuum tubes solid state devices small transistor hands electrical engineers


saw possibilities constructing far advanced circuits however complexity circuits grew problems arose ref name history integrated circuit one problem size circuit complex circuit like computer dependent speed components large wires interconnecting must long electric signals took time go circuit thus slowing computer ref name history integrated circuit ref invention integrated circuit jack kilby robert noyce solved problem making components


chip block monolith semiconductor material circuits could made smaller manufacturing process could automated led idea integrating components single crystal silicon wafer led small scale integration ssi early medium scale integration msi late vlsi general microelectronics introduced first commercial mos integrated circuit early mos integrated circuit technology allowed integration transistors single chip paved way vlsi


tens thousands mos transistors single chip later hundreds thousands millions billions first semiconductor chips held two transistors subsequent advances added transistors consequence individual functions systems integrated time first integrated circuits held devices perhaps many ten diodes transistors resistors capacitors making possible fabricate one logic gates single device known retrospectively ' 'small scale integration'' ssi improvements technique led devices hundreds logic gates


obtained repetitive arrangement rectangular macro blocks interconnected using wiring abutment example partitioning layout adder row equal bit slices cells complex designs structuring may achieved hierarchical nesting ref name digital electronics modern approach b k jain ref structured vlsi design popular early lost popularity later advent placement routing tools wasting lot area routing tolerated progress moore 's law introducing hardware


description language karl mid' reiner hartenstein coined term structured vlsi design originally structured lsi design echoing edsger dijkstra 's structured programming approach procedure nesting avoid chaotic ' 'spaghetti structured'' programs difficulties microprocessors become complex due technology scaling microprocessor designers encountered several challenges force think beyond design plane look ahead post silicon '''process variation''' photolithography techniques get closer fundamental laws optics achieving high accuracy doping concentrations etched wires becoming difficult prone errors due variation


scale designers finding difficult distribute maintain low clock skew high frequency clocks across entire chip led rising interest multicore multiprocessor architectures since overall speedup obtained even lower clock frequency using computational power cores '''first pass success''' die sizes shrink due scaling wafer sizes go due lower manufacturing costs number dies per wafer increases complexity making suitable photomasks goes rapidly mask set


modern technology cost several million dollars non recurring expense deters old iterative philosophy involving several spin cycles find errors silicon encourages first pass silicon success several design philosophies developed aid new design flow including design manufacturing dfm design test dft design x '''electromigration''' see also application specific integrated circuit caltech cosmic cube list semiconductor fabrication plants mead conway revolution neuromorphic engineering polysilicon system chip soc references reading http cmoseducom http cmosvlsicom external links http scaleenginbrownedu classes en lectures design implementation


vlsi systems brown university https webarchiveorg web http lsiwwwepflch lsi teaching webcourse tochtml design vlsi systems telecommunications engineering integrated circuits mosfets


'''usage''' language ways written spoken variations routinely employed speakers refers collective habits language 's native speakers ref name cmos ref opposed idealized models language works work abstract instance fowler characterized usage way word phrase normally correctly used points grammar syntax style choice words descriptive tradition language analysis way contrast correct tends mean functionally

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Usage


adequate purposes speaker writer using usage also however concern prescriptive tradition correctness matter arbitrating style ref name jb ref modern dictionaries generally prescriptive often include usage notes may describe words formal informal slang despite occasional usage notes lexicographers generally disclaim intent guide writers editors thorny points english usage ref name cmos history according jeremy butterfield first person know made ''usage'' refer language daniel defoe


end seventeenth century defoe proposed creation language society individuals would set prescriptive language rules approximately six million english speakers ref name jb see also usus error linguistics english writing style common english usage misconceptions list english words disputed usage references applied linguistics grammar language varieties styles


'''rehabilitation psychology''' specialty area psychology aimed maximizing independence functional status health social participation individuals disabilities chronic health conditions overall specifically gaining advancing employment ref name ref assessment treatment may include following areas psychosocial cognitive behavioral functional status self esteem coping skills quality life ref name conditions experienced patients vary widely rehabilitation psychologists offer individualized treatment approaches discipline takes holistic approach considering individuals within broader social context assessing environmental demographic factors may enhance impede progress ref

Social science
Psychology
Rehabilitation psychology


name addition clinical practice rehabilitation psychologists engage consultation program development teaching training public policy advocacy ref name rehabilitation psychology shares technical competencies specialties clinical neuropsychology counseling psychology health psychology however rehabilitation psychology distinctive focus working individuals types disability chronic health conditions maintain gain advance vocation context interdisciplinary health care teams social change agents improve societal attitudes toward individuals living disabilities chronic health conditions ref name elliott r rath j f


name rath j f langer k g consultation l brenner reid arndt r elliott r g frank b caplan eds ''handbook rehabilitation psychology'' rd ed washington dc american psychological association ref nurse social worker prosthetist chaplain case manager also may included depending individual needs ref name johns hopkins medicine health library website wwwhopkinsmedicineorg access date ref members team work together create treatment plan set goals educate patient support network facilitate discharge planning ref name united states specialty rehabilitation psychology overseen


american board rehabilitation psychology ref name key principles models theoretical models important rehabilitation psychology understanding explaining impairments aiding treatment planning facilitating prediction outcomes ref name ref models help organize understand explain predict phenomena ref name reel k feaver models terminology usefulness davis ed ''rehabilitation use theories models practice'' pp new york elsevier ref models used integrate information number disciplines biology psychology sociology ref name wide array models needed diverse


problems concerns faced individuals disabilities chronic health conditions often one model must applied properly understand individual 's condition ref name ''biopsychosocial model'' biopsychosocial model examines interaction medical conditions psychological stressors environment personal factors understand individual 's adaptation disability ref name interdisciplinary model acknowledgement disability understood within larger context reflects longstanding belief rehabilitation psychologists cultural attitudes environmental barriers influence individual 's adaptation accentuate disability notably tenets model reflected


world health organization 's international classification functioning disability health icf framework holistic apply providers must learn disabled person 's home life broader social context ''psychoanalytic model'' context rehabilitation psychology freud 's concept castration anxiety applied severe losses loss limb concept reflected jerome siller 's stage theory adjustment designed increase understanding acceptance adjustment following sudden disability ref name ''social psychology'' pioneers rehabilitation psychology diverse group many came


field social psychology kurt lewin one example jew living germany early years nazi regime ref name lewin 's experiences shaped psychological work reflected conceptualization insider outsider distinction well understanding stigma ref name lewin known conceptualization ''b f pe '' behavior ''b'' function person ''p'' environment ''e'' ref name ref name ref tamara dembo beatrice wright two lewin 's students recognized pioneering figures history rehabilitation psychology wright authored two


field 's seminal texts ''physical disability psychological approach'' extensively revised second edition'' physical disability psychosocial approach'' ref name also proposed somatopsychological model advocates interpreting disability within social context ref name somatopsychological model derived lewin 's field theory holds environment either aid hinder individual 's adjustment ref name wright 's insights articulation beliefs principles underlying rehabilitation psychology practice come known foundational principles rehabilitation psychology work continues inform contemporary rehabilitation psychology research


theory practice ref name ''cognitive behavior theory'' cognitive behavioral therapy cbt approaches problem solving treatment shown promise promoting adjustment well overall health among individuals disabilities chronic health conditions ref name model holds thoughts coping strategies directly impact feelings behaviors emphasizing identifying changing maladaptive thoughts cbt works change individual 's subjective experience resulting behavior variety empirical studies demonstrated cbt 's effectiveness cases traumatic brain injury spinal cord injury variety conditions common individuals living disability chronic health


conditions clinical specialty areas clinical settings rehabilitation psychologists apply psychological expertise skills improve outcomes individuals living disabilities chronic health conditions ref name ref common populations treated include individuals ref name aids acquired brain injury cancer chronic pain concussion limb loss multiple sclerosis neuromuscular disorders spinal cord injury stroke traumatic brain injury addressing chronic health conditions disabilities rehabilitation psychologists offer variety services goal increasing individual 's functioning quality life ref name specific services may include ref name ref name assessment enhance rehabilitation process one


administered guidance trained clinician individualized setting contemporary rehabilitation psychology approaches cognitive rehabilitation incorporate subjective experience patient targeting meta cognition self regulation ultimate goal cognitive rehabilitation interventions improve everyday functioning people setting live work ethical legal considerations rehabilitation psychologists adhere general principles ethical codes conduct psychologists guidelines set forth american psychological association nowiki http wwwapaorg ethics code nowiki rehabilitation psychologists also must follow federal laws relevant individuals disability


rehabilitation psychologists often faced ethical legal considerations assisting patients concerns end life decision making ability return driving eg following acquired brain injury stroke medical conditions may impair driving ability role faith religion individual 's health care decision making ref name relevant federal legislation includes rehabilitation act act prohibits discrimination persons based disability status programs conducted federal agencies receiving federal financial assistance federal employment employment practices federal contractors americans disabilities act ada act


extension rehabilitation act ada 's five titles prohibit discrimination basis disability employment government public commercial facilities transportation telecommunications health insurance portability accountability act hipaa act initiated effort protect privacy patient information affects rehabilitation psychologists variety important ways occasionally contradicts aspects apa ethical code example act tests designed measure psychological neurocognitive function may released general public instead releasing tests rehabilitation


psychologists typically provide summaries data interpretation treatment recommendations education training united states rehabilitation psychologists complete doctoral degrees eg phd psyd fields clinical psychology counseling psychology neuropsychology school psychology plus pre doctoral post doctoral clinical training healthcare settings rehabilitation psychologists must licensed order provide services state practice receive reimbursement health insurance payers states obtaining license requires doctoral degree approved program minimum number hours supervised clinical experience passing score


examination professional practice psychology eppp standardized knowledge based examination states also require prescribed number continuing education credits per year renew license need standardized guidelines postdoctoral training rehabilitation psychology recognized speciality 's national conferences ref name ref apa division rehabilitation psychology division american congress rehabilitation medicine spent four years developing guidelines leading ann arbor conference postdoctoral training professional psychology ref name patterson hanson outlined entrance requirements training length curriculum requirements supervision evaluations ref


name ref name trainees accepted doctoral programs approved american psychological association minimum length training one year minimum two supervisors training curriculum includes supervised practice seminars coursework patient populations didactics related disabilities chronic health conditions minimum two hours supervision per week trainees funded written objectives training program formal trainee evaluations occur least twice year program evaluations occur annually ref name american board professional psychology approved


certification process recognizes certifies promotes competence specialty american board professional psychology specifies order meet standards speciality individual must complete recognized internship program three years experience within field supervised experience within specialty ref name notable rehabilitation psychologists roger barker tamara dembo beatrice wright see also neurorehabilitation rehabilitation psychology journal external links https abpporg applicant information specialty boards rehabilitation psychologyaspx american board rehabilitation psychology http wwwdiv org foundation rehab psych foundation rehabilitation psychology http wwwdiv org crpptp overview council rehabilitation psychology postdoctoral training programs https wwwcospporg rehabilitation psychology council specialities professional


psychology https luxuryinpatientrehabcom luxury inpatient rehab program references br branches psychology behavioural sciences health care occupations


student protest south africa university fee increases '''social movement theory''' interdisciplinary study within social sciences generally seeks explain social mobilization occurs forms manifests well potential social cultural political consequences creation functioning social movements classical approaches classical approaches emerged turn century approaches common rely causal mechanism sources social movements structural strains structural weaknesses society put individuals

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of social movements


largely rejected present day sociologists political scientists although many still make case importance although centrality emotions see work gustav lebon herbert blumer william kornhauser neil smelser ref name smelser neil j theory collective behavior london collier macmillan ref deindividuation model gustave le bon early social scientist studied social movements sociologists early middle thought movements random occurrences individuals trying emotionally react situations outside control important writer area research gustave lebon book ''the crowd''


dominated destructive instincts primitive beliefs theory picked developed theorists like herbert blumer neil smelser ref name mass society theory mass society theory emerged wake fascist communist movements seen attempt explain rise extremism abroad central claim mass society theory socially isolated people vulnerable extremism important underpinning theory mile durkheim 's analysis modern society rise individualism durkheim


networks decline left powerful elites massive bureaucracies isolated individuals society intermediate buffers elite non elite erode normal channels non elites influence elites become ineffective makes non elites feel alienated therefore susceptible extremism relative deprivation people driven movements sense deprivation inequality particularly relation others relation expectations first view participants see others power economic resources status thus try acquire


things second view people likely rebel consistently improving situation especially improving economy stops makes turn worse point people join movements expectations outgrown actual material situation also called j curve theory see work james davies ted gurr denton morrison contemporary approaches growth amount social movement activity europe united states increase also came change public


perception around social movements protests seen making politics better essential healthy democracy classical approaches able explain increase social movements core principle approaches protests held people suffering structural weaknesses society could explain growth social movement preceded ''growth'' welfare rather ' 'decline'' welfare therefore need new theoretical approaches ref name deprivation viable explanation anymore researchers needed search another


explanation explanations developed different united states europe american centered ' 'structural approaches'' examined characteristics social political context enable hinder protests european centered ' 'social constructivist approaches'' rejected notion class struggle central social movements emphasized indicators collective identity like gender ethnicity sexuality structural approaches political opportunity political process certain political contexts conducive representative potential social movement activity climates may dis favor specific social movements general social movement activity climate may signaled potential


activists structurally allowing possibility social movement activity matters legality political opportunities may realized political concessions social movement participation social movement organizational founding opportunities may include increased access political decision making power instability alignment ruling elites conflict elites access elite allies help movement struggle declining capacity propensity state repress dissent ref name ref resource mobilization social movements need organizations first foremost organizations acquire deploy resources achieve


well defined goals predict likelihood preferences certain group society turn protest theorists look pre existing organization group population related social movement already highly organized likely create organized forms protest higher organization makes easier mobilize necessary resources versions theory state movements operate similar capitalist enterprises make efficient use available resources scholars suggested typology five types resources '''material''' money physical capital '''morale'''


solidarity support movement 's goals '''social organizational''' organizational strategies social networks bloc recruitment '''human''' volunteers staff leaders '''cultural''' prior activist experience understanding issues collective action know social movement impact theory body work focuses assessing impact social movement society factors might led impacts effects social movement resonate individuals institutions cultures political systems political impacts studied effects levels least important impact theory many methodological issues


least studied major branches social movement theory nevertheless sparked debates efficacy violence importance elite political allies agency popular movements general social constructivist approaches new social movements european influenced group theories argue movements today categorically different ones past instead labor movements engaged class conflict present day movements anti war environmental civil rights feminist etc engaged social political conflict see alain touraine motivations movement participation form post material


politics newly created identities particularly new middle class also see work ronald inglehart j rgen habermas alberto melucci steve buechler line research stimulated enduring emphasis identity even among prominent american scholars like charles tilly social movement studies late two long books summarized cultural turn social movement studies alberto melucci 's ''challenging codes'' james jasper 's ''the art moral protest'' melucci focused creation collective identities purpose social movements especially new social movements whereas jasper argued movements provide


participants chance elaborate articulate moral intuitions principles recognized importance emotions social movements although jasper developed idea systematically along jeff goodwin francesca polletta jasper organized conference new york helped put emotions intellectual agenda many scholars protest movements continued write emotional dynamics protest years since goodwin jasper published critique dominant political opportunity paradigm using jasper cultural approach show political opportunity


emirbayer begun writing similar fashion emotions social movements explicitly deriving ideas history sociological thought france daniel cefa arrived similar conclusions ''pourquoi se mobilise on'' sweeping history synthesis thought collective action social movements postcolonial critique recent years seen rise postcolonial critique hails larger postcolonial debate within humanities social sciences diverse field epistemic core argument within postcolonial studies discursive dominance western


world global north continued end formal colonization global south perspective global knowledge production still dominated western forms intellectual inquiry exemplified emphasis supposed objectivity universalism scientific rationality buttresses western dominated hierarchy knowledge fails acknowledge situatedness contemporary scientific theories roots western enlightenment rational inquiry therefore inherently eurocentric postcolonialism problematizes eurocentricity contemporary scientific thought methodology arguing projects misleading theories based particular western facts global south


also systematically ignoring southern data theorizing result contemporary theories aim universally valid inherent western bias based western ideas thought western institutions makes incapable accurately presenting explaining events structures movements south misinterpret south particularities perspective social movement theory western bias led variety authors claiming mainstream theories incapable accurately explaining social movements global south originally developed explain movements


key concepts framing certain claims activists make behalf social movement resonate audiences including media elites sympathetic allies potential recruits successful frames draw upon shared cultural understandings eg rights morality perspective firmly rooted social constructivist ontology see work robert benford david snow last decade political opportunity theorists partially appropriated framing perspective called political theory social movement rational choice rational choice theory individuals rational actors strategically weigh costs benefits alternative courses


action choose course action likely maximize utility primary research problem perspective collective action problem rational individuals would choose join collective action benefit acquisition even participate see work mancur olson mark lichbach dennis chong ''theories political protest social movements'' karl dieter opp incorporates number cultural concepts version rational choice theory well showing several approaches surreptitiously rely rational choice assumptions without admitting


'''high energy astronomy''' study astronomical objects release electromagnetic radiation highly energetic wavelengths includes x ray astronomy gamma ray astronomy extreme uv astronomy well studies neutrinos cosmic rays physical study phenomena referred '''high energy astrophysics''' astronomical objects commonly studied field may include black holes neutron stars active galactic nuclei supernovae kilonovae supernova remnants gamma ray bursts missions space ground based telescopes studied high energy astronomy include following agile ams auger calet chandra fermi hawc hess icecube integral magic nustar

Natural science
Space science
Numerical simulations
High-energy astrophysics


swift ta xmm newton veritas references external links http heasarcgsfcnasagov nasa 's high energy astrophysics science archive research center http wwwcvnraoedu fits www yp high energyhtml great compendium links observational astronomy


'''motion picture content rating system''' organization designated classify films based suitability audiences due treatment issues sex violence substance abuse use profanity matters typically deemed unsuitable children adolescents countries form rating system issues determinations variously known ''certifications'' ''classifications'' ''certificates'' ''ratings'' age recommendations either advisory restrictive capacity often applied lieu censorship jurisdictions movie theaters may legal obligation enforce restrictive ratings countries

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Classification
Film classification


australia singapore official government body decides ratings countries united states done industry committees little official government status countries however films considered morally offensive censored restricted banned even film rating system legal consequences film explicitly restricted banned usually laws forbidding certain films forbidding minors view influence specific factors deciding rating varies country country countries united


states films strong sexual content tend restricted older viewers though films often considered suitable ages countries france germany contrast films violent content would rated leniently united states australia often subject high ratings sometimes even censorship countries germany finland factors may may influence classification process set within non fictional historical context whether film glorifies violence drug use whether said violence drug use


carried protagonist viewer empathize antagonist germany example films depicting explicit war violence real war context second world war handled leniently films purely fictional settings film may produced particular rating mind may edited desired rating obtained especially avoid higher rating intended film may also edited produce different version countries comparison table comparison current film rating systems showing age


horizontal axis note however specific ''criteria'' used assigning classification vary widely one country another thus color code age range cannot directly compared one country another key span style background white border solid black px color black nbsp '''white''' nbsp span ''no restrictions suitable ages aimed young audiences exempt rated applicable rating'' span style background yellow border solid black px color black nbsp '''yellow''' nbsp span ''no restrictions parental guidance suggested designated age range'' span style background purple border solid black px color white nbsp '''purple''' nbsp span ''no restrictions recommended younger audience


restricted'' span style background red border solid black px color white nbsp '''red''' nbsp span ''restricted parental accompaniment required younger audiences'' span style background black border solid black px color white nbsp '''black''' nbsp span ''prohibitive exclusively older audience restricted licensed premises purchase age restricted banned'' class wikitable style text align center country rowspan style text align left argentina rowspan colspan


style background white atp rowspan colspan style background red color white rowspan colspan style background black color white colspan style background black color white rowspan style background white n colspan style background black color white rowspan style text align left australia colspan style background white g colspan style background purple color white colspan style background black color white colspan style background black color white colspan style background yellow pg colspan style background red color white colspan style background black color white colspan style background white color black exempt style text align left austria colspan style background white color black colspan style background purple color white colspan style background purple


color white colspan style background purple color white colspan style background purple color white colspan style background black color white style background white color black n rowspan style text align left bahamas rowspan colspan style background white color black rowspan colspan style background black color white colspan style background red color white b rowspan style background black color white colspan style background black color white c rowspan style text align left barbados colspan style background white color black ga rowspan colspan style background purple color white pg colspan style background purple color white r rowspan style background white color black n colspan style background yellow color black


pg colspan style background black color white style text align left belgium colspan style background white al tous colspan style background purple color white colspan style background purple color white colspan style background purple color white colspan style background purple color white colspan style background purple color white colspan style background purple color white style background white color black n rowspan style text align left brazil rowspan colspan style background white rowspan colspan style background red color white rowspan colspan style background red color white rowspan colspan style background red color white colspan style background red color white rowspan style background white color black n


colspan style background black color white colspan style background red color white rowspan style text align left bulgaria colspan style background white b rowspan colspan style background red color white c rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan style background white color black n colspan style background white rowspan style text align left canada br '' '' rowspan colspan style background white g rowspan colspan style background red color white colspan style background black color white height em r rowspan style background white color black colspan style background black color white height em colspan style background yellow


pg colspan style background purple color white pg colspan style background black color white colspan style background red color white height em style background black color white prohibited rowspan style text align left '' '' rowspan colspan style background white g rowspan colspan style background purple color white line height g rowspan colspan style background red color white rowspan colspan style background black color white colspan style background black color white height em style background white color black exempt colspan style background black color white height em line height style background black color white refused classification rowspan style text align left chile rowspan colspan style background white te rowspan colspan style background purple


color white rowspan colspan style background purple color white colspan style background purple color white rowspan style background white color black educational colspan style background black color white colspan style background black color white style text align left china colspan style background white color black suitable ages style background black color white banned rowspan style text align left colombia rowspan colspan style background white rowspan colspan style background purple color white rowspan colspan style background purple color white rowspan colspan style background black color white colspan style background black color white rowspan style background black color white prohibited colspan


style background black color white rowspan style text align left denmark rowspan colspan style background white colspan style background purple color white rowspan style background white color black colspan style background black color white colspan style background red color white colspan style background red color white rowspan style text align left estonia colspan style background white l rowspan colspan style background purple color white ms colspan style background purple color white ms rowspan colspan style background red color white k rowspan colspan style background red color white k rowspan style background white color black n colspan style background white colspan style background red color white k


style text align left finland colspan style background white colspan style background black color white colspan style background red color white colspan style background black color white colspan style background red color white colspan style background black color white colspan style background red color white colspan style background black color white style background white color black n style text align left france colspan style background white tp colspan style background black color white colspan style background black color white colspan style background black color white style background black color white prohibited style text align left germany colspan style background white colspan style background black color white


colspan style background red color white colspan style background black color white colspan style background black color white unrated style background white educational style text align left greece colspan style background white unrestricted colspan style background purple color white colspan style background black color white colspan style background black color white style background white color black n rowspan style text align left hong kong colspan style background white rowspan colspan style background black color white iii rowspan style background white color black exempt colspan style background yellow ii ii rowspan style text align left hungary rowspan colspan style background white kn rowspan colspan


style background purple color white rowspan colspan style background purple color white rowspan colspan style background purple color white colspan style background purple color white rowspan style background white n colspan style background black color white x rowspan style text align left iceland rowspan colspan style background white l rowspan colspan style background purple color white rowspan colspan style background purple color white rowspan colspan style background purple color white colspan style background purple color white rowspan style background white n colspan style background black color white colspan style background red color white colspan style background red color white style text align left india


colspan style background white u colspan style background red color white ua colspan style background black color white style background black color white style text align left indonesia colspan style background white su colspan style background purple color white colspan style background purple color white colspan style background purple color white style background white color black n rowspan style text align left ireland rowspan colspan style background white n rowspan colspan style background white g rowspan colspan style background yellow pg colspan style background red color white colspan style background red color white rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan colspan style background black color white


rowspan style background white n colspan style background black color white colspan style background black color white style text align left italy colspan style background white colspan style background purple color white colspan style background black color white colspan style background red color white colspan style background black color white colspan style background red color white style background white color black n rowspan style text align left jamaica colspan style background white g rowspan colspan style background red color white pg rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan colspan style background red color white rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan style background white color black n


rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan style background white n colspan style background black color white style text align left latvia colspan style background white u colspan style background purple color white colspan style background purple color white colspan style background purple color white colspan style background black color white style background white n style text align left lithuania colspan style background white v colspan style background black color white n colspan style background red color white colspan style background black color white n colspan style background black color white n style background white n style text align left malaysia colspan style background white


u colspan style background red color white p colspan style background black color white style background black color white banned rowspan style text align left maldives colspan style background white g rowspan colspan style background purple color white rowspan colspan style background purple color white colspan style background purple color white rowspan style background black color white colspan style background yellow pg colspan style background black color white r rowspan style text align left malta colspan style background white u colspan style background red color white rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan style background black color white


color white colspan style background black color white style background white color black n rowspan style text align left new zealand rowspan colspan style background white height em g rowspan colspan style background black color white r rowspan colspan style background black color white r rowspan colspan style background black color white r rowspan colspan style background black color white r style background black color white style background black color white rowspan colspan style background yellow height em pg rowspan colspan style background red color white rp rowspan colspan style background red color white height em rp rowspan colspan style background red color white rowspan style background white color black exempt rowspan colspan style background purple


color white height em rowspan style text align left nigeria colspan style background white g colspan style background black color white rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan style background black color white colspan style background yellow pg colspan style background red color white rowspan style text align left norway rowspan colspan style background white colspan style background red color white colspan style background black color white height em colspan style background red color white rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan style background black color white colspan style background black color white height em


colspan style background red color white colspan style background black color white height em colspan style background red color white rowspan style text align left philippines rowspan colspan style background white g colspan style background black color white r rowspan colspan style background black color white r rowspan colspan style background black color white r rowspan style background black color white colspan style background red color white pg rowspan style text align left portugal rowspan colspan style background white colspan style background black color white colspan style background red color white colspan style background red color white colspan style background red color white colspan style background red color white colspan


style background red color white height em rowspan style background white color black n rowspan colspan style background purple color white rowspan colspan style background purple color white rowspan colspan style background purple color white rowspan colspan style background purple color white rowspan colspan style background purple color white colspan style background purple color white height em colspan style background black color white height em rowspan style text align left romania colspan style background white rowspan colspan style background purple color white colspan style background black color white rowspan style background black color white colspan style background yellow colspan style background white n colspan style background black color white style text align left


rowspan colspan style background black color white nc rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan style background black color white rowspan style background white color black colspan style background yellow pg rowspan style background black color white refused classification rowspan style text align left south africa colspan style background white color black rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan colspan style background red color white rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan colspan style background red color white rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan colspan style background black color white colspan style background black color white rowspan style background black color white


colspan style background yellow pg colspan style background black color white style text align left south korea colspan style background white color black colspan style background red color white colspan style background red color white colspan style background black color white colspan style background black color white style background white color black n rowspan style text align left spain rowspan colspan style background white rowspan colspan style background purple color white rowspan colspan style background purple color white rowspan colspan style background purple color white colspan style background purple color white rowspan style background white color black n colspan style background black color white


rowspan style text align left sweden rowspan colspan style background white color black btl colspan style background red color white height em colspan style background black color white colspan style background red color white rowspan style background white color black n colspan style background black color white colspan style background red color white height em rowspan style text align left switzerland rowspan colspan style background white color black rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan colspan style background red color white rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan colspan style background red color white colspan style background black color white colspan style background red color white colspan style background black color white


height em unrated rowspan style background white color black n colspan style background white color black n colspan style background black color white colspan style background red color white height em rowspan style text align left taiwan rowspan colspan style background white color black colspan style background black color white height em colspan style background red color white rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan style background white color black n colspan style background white color black height em n colspan style background black color white rowspan style text align left thailand colspan style background white color black g rowspan colspan style background purple color white


rowspan colspan style background purple color white rowspan colspan style background purple color white rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan style background black color white banned colspan style background white color black ''p'' rowspan style text align left turkey rowspan colspan style background white color black general audience colspan style background black color white colspan style background black color white colspan style background black color white rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan colspan style background black color white style background black color white colspan style background red color white colspan style background red color white colspan style background red color white


style background white color black educational purposes rowspan style text align left ukraine colspan style background white rowspan colspan style background red color white rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan style background black color white denied colspan style background white rowspan style text align left united arab emirates colspan style background white color black g rowspan colspan style background red color white pg colspan style background red color white pg rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan colspan style background black color white rowspan style background white color black n colspan style background yellow color black


pg colspan style background black color white rowspan style text align left united kingdom rowspan colspan style background white rowspan colspan style background white color black u rowspan colspan style background yellow color black pg colspan style background red color white rowspan colspan style background black color white colspan style background black color white style background black color white rejected colspan style background black color white colspan style background black color white style background white color black rowspan style text align left united states colspan style background white color black g rowspan colspan style background purple color white pg rowspan style background red color white r rowspan colspan style background black color white nc


rowspan style background white color black colspan style background yellow color black pg rowspan style text align left venezuela br '' '' colspan style background white rowspan colspan style background purple color white b rowspan colspan style background purple color white c rowspan colspan style background purple color white rowspan style background white color black n colspan style background white '''' style text align left '' '' colspan style background white n colspan style background black color white colspan style background black color white b colspan style background black color white c style text align left vietnam colspan style background white color black p


colspan style background black color white c colspan style background black color white c colspan style background black color white c style background white color black n country argentina advisory commission cinematographic exhibition ''comisi n asesora de exhibici n cinematogr fica'' national institute cinema audiovisual arts incaa issues ratings films based following categories


'''atp''' public ''' ''' suitable year olds children age admitted accompanied adult ''' ''' suitable year olds ''' ''' suitable year olds '''c''' suitable year olds restricted specially licensed venues australia classification board classification review board government funded organisations classify films released public exhibition advisory categories general '''g''' ''general'' content mild impact g classification suitable everyone parental guidance '''pg''' ''parental guidance recommended'' content mild impact


recommended viewing playing persons without guidance parents guardians mature '''m''' ''recommended mature audiences'' content moderate impact children may legally access material advisory category however classified films computer games may include classifiable elements violence nudity moderate impact recommended children years restricted categories mature accompanied '''ma ''' ''not suitable people must accompanied parent adult guardian'' content strong


impact restricted '''r ''' ''restricted years over'' content high impact despite category legally restricted queensland restriction applicable persons adult film categories restricted '''x ''' ''restricted years over'' classification special legally restricted category contains sexually explicit content material shows actual sexual intercourse sexual activity consenting adults x films available sale hire australian capital territory northern territory '''rc''' ''refused classification'' banned


legally binding nine sets state laws cinema sector different age provisions exception case rated films since austrian law legal age restriction certain types content ie discrimination sexual abuse glorification violence etc addition abmc 's age recommendations state vienna children age permitted attend public film performances accompanied ref name ec ref ambc issues age recommendation following categories '''unrestricted''' released age


groups ''' ''' released children age ''' ''' released children age ''' ''' released children age ''' ''' released age ''' ''' released age restricted classification bahamas bahamas plays films control board classifies films bahamas upon completion examination board classify film accordance following ratings '''a''' suitable ages '''b''' suitable adults persons age must accompanied parent responsible adult '''t''' suitable persons


age fifteen '''c''' suitable adults persons years admitted whether accompanied adult '''d''' unsuitable public viewing barbados barbados films classified film censorship board fcb '''ga''' general audience suitable ages '''pg''' parental guidance '''pg ''' parental guidance suitable years older '''r''' suitable years older '''a''' adult one admitted belgium january belgium adopted dutch kijkwijzer classification system belgium previously used


basic two tier system place since september january classifications films publicly exhibited belgium issued inter community commission film rating films prohibited minors age unless passed commission mandatory rating system video formats video distribution abides voluntary belgium video federation basically system theatrical exhibition also provided rating ref name ec ref kijkwijzer distributor fills questionnaire content film


age category automatically assigned new system fully advisory carries mandatory restrictions french german speaking communities system known ''cinecheck'' age categories follows '''al tous''' ages ''' ''' years ''' ''' years ''' ''' years ''' ''' years ''' ''' years ''' ''' years brazil films exhibited public released home video format brazil must submitted classification advisory rating ''classifica indicativa'' abbreviated classind run


de anos''' recommended minors ''' n recomendado para menores de anos''' recommended minors ''' n recomendado para menores de anos''' recommended minors ''' n recomendado para menores de anos''' recommended minors ''' n recomendado para menores de anos''' recommended minors also operational descriptions attenuating aggravating elements interfere final rating bulgaria bulgarian film rating system defined film industry act administered


national film rating committee '''a''' recommended children '''b''' age restrictions '''c''' recommended children persons shall admitted unless accompanied adult '''d''' prohibited persons '''x''' prohibited persons licensed venues canada film ratings canada provincial responsibility province legislation rules regulations regarding rating exhibition admission ratings required theatrical exhibition provinces require classification home video ref name chvrs past


quebec categories mostly identical chvrs minor variations provinces require classification video formats supply films restricted customers ages ref name chvrs ref case theatre exhibition children admitted accompanied adult british columbia ref name british columbia ref saskatchewan administered british columbia film classification office ref name canada classification boards alberta ontario children also admitted films accompanied ref name alberta ref ref name ontario ref children age admitted films manitoba


view adult rental purchase parents cautioned formerly adult accompaniment maritimes ref name nova scotia ref name maritimes ref '''not recommended children''' children would persons age films advisory may include scenes reflect mature situation drug use abuse ''' a''' suitable people years age older view adult additionally certain provinces mandatory age restriction years rental purchase parents


strongly cautioned '''r''' restricted years rental purchase content suitable minors '''a''' adult film suitable viewers years age formerly explicit material xxx maritimes ref name nova scotia ref name maritimes '''e''' exempt classifications used quebec rating labels used quebec quebec provincial ministry culture communications ''r gie du cin ma'' rates films videos purview devolves ''cinema act'' chapter c cases ministry may refuse provide


classification effectively banning film educational sports films exempt classification ref name quebec classifications ref '''g''' '''visa g n ral''' general rating may viewed rented purchased persons ages film carrying g rating might offend sensibilities child years age suitable young children appended classification ''' ''' ''' ans et plus''' years may viewed rented purchased persons years age children may admitted accompanied adult ''' '''


central agency ministry education ref name chile ref legislation enacted reversed ban films previously banned chile current age ratings enacted ref name chile '''te todo espectador ''' general audience '''te inconveniente para menores de os ''' suitable children younger years '''mayores de os''' years old '''mayores de os''' years old age ratings may also supplemented following content categories '''contenido educativo''' educational content '''contenido pornogr fico''' pornographic


content '''contenido excesivamente violento''' excessively violent content pornographic films may exhibited venues licensed purpose minors admitted films pornographic excessively violent content ref name chile china china rating system films passed suitable ages released although exhibitors introduced informal ratings march effective law film require non violations lawful rights interests minors chinese harming physical psychological health minors however interview china central television


submitted rating instances must labelled restricted people aged children aged may attend performance including restricted older audiences accompanied adult '''a''' suitable general audience ''' ''' recommended children ''' ''' ages ''' ''' ages '''f''' exempt classification estonia film classification estonia regulated child welfare act '''pere''' family film '''l''' allowed


culture minister decide certificate issue based recommendation classification centre national du cin et de l'image anim e cnc cases films may classified pornographic films containing incitement violence completely prohibited screening certificate granted following '''tp''' ''tous publics'' certificate authorising screening film members public ''' ''' certificate prohibiting screening film minors ''' ''' certificate prohibiting screening film minors


''' ''' certificate prohibiting screening film minors '''''interdiction''''' prohibition certificate totally prohibiting screening film germany freiwillige selbstkontrolle der filmwirtschaft voluntary self regulation film industry fsk film ratings system films classified ratings contain phrase gem juschg accordance youth protection law signifying legally binding minors cinemas may legally exhibit films without classification minors prohibited screenings '''ohne altersbeschr nkung fsk ''' age restriction white sign '''freigegeben ab


jahren fsk ''' released ages older nobody age admitted yellow sign '''freigegeben ab jahren fsk ''' released ages older children least age may admitted adult accompaniment green sign '''freigegeben ab jahren fsk ''' released ages older nobody age admitted blue sign '''keine jugendfreigabe fsk ''' ''no youth admitted'' adults red sign '''infoprogramm''' '''lehrprogramm''' educational programming rating issued fsk may self applied films seeking educate audience eg documentaries instructional


films etc films rating may sold without age restriction provided contain material evidently harmful development children youths fsk rating also limits time day movie may aired free air tv stations time frame fsk fsk stations permitted broadcast films approved audiences discretion greece publicly released films must submitted youth committee classification ref name ec four categories


'''unrestricted''' restrictions film contain violence drug abuse sexual content ''' ''' film may contain mild violence adult themes suitable people aged ''' ''' film may contain violence drug abuse softcore pornographic scenes id card certifying age required greek cinemas video rental shops order get cinema ticket rent video rated film permitted young people age ''' ''' permitted people age hong


kong films intended public exhibition submitted director film newspaper article administration film censorship authority fca ordinance approval films approved public exhibition either classified exempted classification '''i''' suitable ages circle sign '''ii''' suitable children square sign '''ii''' suitable young persons children '''iii''' persons aged triangle sign four levels categories ii ii unrestricted category iii restricted category regulated


government hungary hungarian ratings decided national media infocommunications authority nmhh '''kn''' '' korhat r n lk l '' audiences ''' ''' recommended age ''' ''' recommended age ''' ''' recommended age ''' ''' recommended age '''x''' restricted adults excessively violent scenes ratings advisory except x classification current one third motion picture rating system hungary first system existed administered ministry


national cultural heritage predecessors categories without age restriction recommended age age age second system introduced overhauled favour current system categories given national film office without age restriction parental guidance suggested age recommended age recommended age adults iceland since july '''fr sk''' short '''f lag r tthafa sj nvarps og kvikmyndai na i''' replaced '''kvikmyndasko un''' system


iceland october fr sk announced adopting new system similar netherlands' kijkwijzer least icelandic ratings system also provides rating addition kijkwijzer ratings icelandic law minors aged years old may admitted film carrying higher age rating accompanied adult ratings follows '''l''' ages ''' ''' suitable children years ''' ''' suitable children years ''' ''' suitable children years ''' ''' suitable children


years ''' ''' suitable children years ''' ''' suitable children years india indian ratings administered central board film certification india central board film certification cbfc responsible certifying films meant public exhibition '''u''' unrestricted public exhibition '''ua''' unrestricted public exhibition parental guidance children age years '''a''' restricted adults '''s''' restricted special class persons indonesia motion pictures shown indonesia must undergo reviewing indonesian film censorship board


issuing certificates lsf ifcb also reviews issues permits film related advertising movie trailers posters lsf authority cut scenes films films passed exhibition awarded one following classifications '''su''' ''semua umur'' ages ''' ''' suitable ages ''' ''' suitable ages ''' ''' suitable ages iraq iraqi film rating system declared ''ministry information culture'' law underage person enter restricted films cinemas even parents


parents ''' ''' persons years age admitted babies allowed ''' ''' persons years age admitted babies allowed ''' tc ''' rated confirmed national media council entry cinema must comply age restriction final confirmed rating booking prior confirmed rating customers discretion ireland films exhibited public released home video format must submitted classification irish film classification office ifco image general home videopng alt g


image pg home videopng alt pg image home videopng alt image home videopng alt image home videopng alt footer video ratings '''g general ''' suitable children school going age note children enrolled school age '''pg parental guidance ''' suitable children age parental guidance recommended children age ''' a''' ''' ''' suitable viewers


younger children may admitted film cinemas accompanied adult home video younger viewers permitted purchase rent video ''' a''' ''' ''' suitable viewers younger viewers may admitted film cinemas accompanied adult home video younger viewers permitted purchase rent video ''' ''' ''cinema only'' suitable viewers younger viewers admitted ''' ''' suitable adults viewers admitted cinemas permitted


purchase rent video italy italy rating system films currently disciplined law n november commercial release distributors requested classify films based age audience decision verified commission ministry culture composed members film industry experts education animal rights since commission longer allowed ban film demand edits films classified one following categories '''t''' '''' age restriction ''' ''' '''' suitable


children ''' ''' '''' released ages older children least may admitted adult accompaniment ''' ''' '''' released ages older children least may admitted adult accompaniment classification applies commercial releases theaters law require classification home media films aimed shown theatres classified ages forbidden children committee film review commission could also ask scenes


one four categories categories use since may ref name eirinpg ref '''g''' general suitable ages '''pg ''' parental guidance requested young people years '''r ''' one admitted '''r ''' one admitted kazakhstan kazakhstan films rated committee culture ministry culture information ''' ''' film allowed audience ''' ''' permitted children age ''' ''' supervision parents required children age ''' ''' supervision parents required children age


persons aged ref name kuwait moi rating ref circa two additional classifications introduced films rated need accompanied adults pg adults however may ministry information established new age classifications system films decision number year ref name kuwait moi rating ref therefore may films kuwait rated following '''e''' film content suitable everyone '''pg''' requires accompanying parent adult guardian '''t''' permitted ''' '''


permitted cinemas legally obligated refuse entry minor including infants required age film 's established age classification latvia latvia duty producer film distributor assign rating according pre determined set criteria publicly exhibited films visual recordings films broadcast television electronic networks must classified '''u''' universal audience suitable persons age groups ''' ''' suitable person reached least years age ''' ''' suitable


person reached least years age ''' ''' suitable person reached least years age ''' ''' suitable minor prohibited people lebanon films released lebanon rated ''lebanese censorship board'' '''g''' intended general audiences ages admitted '''pg''' parental guidance suggested '''pg ''' children years age admitted '''pg ''' persons years age admitted ''' ''' persons years age admitted lithuania lithuanian film centre


simplified ''' ''' late pg classification introduced changed p ref name malaysia ratings ref malaysian film classification logos used since january upon viewing board assign one three categories film ''lulus bersih'' passed clean ie without cuts ''lulus dengan pengubahan'' passed edits cuts ''tidak diluluskan untuk tayangan'' approved screening film approved board assigns film classification ratings ref name malaysia ratings '''u''' ''umum'' age limit '''p ''' ''penjaga'' parental guidance required audiences


age ''' ''' audiences aged years old maldives film maldives classified national bureau classification certificates issued based following categories maldive film classifications '''g''' suitable ages '''pg''' parental guidance ''' ''' ages ''' ''' suitable ages ''' ''' suitable ages ''' r''' suitable ages restricted '''pu''' professional use malta films malta classified film board


accordance malta council culture arts act part overhaul age classifications replaced pg rating redefined u retained existing form film deemed fit exhibition awarded one following classifications '''u''' universal suitable '''pg''' parental guidance general viewing scenes may unsuitable young children ''' a''' suitable persons years provided persons younger


age groups '''b''' information rating adolescents years older '''b ''' information rating recommended children '''c''' restrictive rating adults older '''d''' restrictive rating adult movies legally prohibited years age netherlands netherlands kijkwijzer system used executed netherlands institute classification audiovisual media nicam dutch law children admitted films carrying age rating accompanied adult except case rated films '''al''' ages ''' ''' potentially harmful


children years ''' ''' potentially harmful children years ''' ''' potentially harmful children years broadcasting allowed nbsp pm ''' ''' potentially harmful children years broadcasting allowed nbsp pm ''' ''' potentially harmful allowed children years broadcasting allowed nbsp pm ''' ''' potentially harmful allowed children years broadcasting allowed midnight also six descriptor icons used violence geweld fear angst sexual content seks discrimination discriminatie drug alcohol abuse


drugs en alcoholmisbruik bad language grof taalgebruik mostly icons used along symbols displaying film contains violence sexual content frightening scenes drug alcohol abuse discrimination coarse language symbols also used television channels broadcasting license issued netherlands independent country channel dedicated new zealand ''films videos publications classification act '' gives office film literature classification power classify publications three categories unrestricted restricted objectionable banned exceptions films videos dvds restricted computer games


must carry label offered supply exhibited public office film literature classification created special rp rating online content response netflix television series '' reasons why'' new classification reflects concerns raised year olds new zealand higher risk suicide ref name rwhy newsbeat ref current ratings '''g''' anyone shown sold '''pg''' films games pg label sold hired shown anyone pg label means guidance parent


years '''r ''' restricted persons years '''r''' restricted exclusively certain audience order film video game released new zealand must classified either australian classification board australia bbfc united kingdom given new zealand classification rating public release given classification rating unrestricted g pg australia equivalent one united kingdom cross rated however may easy


seems new zealand 's treatment violence stricter australia compared offensive language sex video games classified unrestricted g pg australia exempt classified new zealand restricted classification australia united kingdom 'll need classified new zealand classification rating releasing public nigeria national film video censors board classifies films videos dvds vcds classifications carrying age rating legally restricted although classifications


apply people years age categories '''g''' suitable viewing persons ages '''pg''' parental guidance advised ''' ''' suitable people age ''' a''' suitable people age child must accompanied adult view film ''' ''' suitable persons age ''' ''' suitable people age '''re''' films fall category exhibited distributed specially licensed premises norway norwegian media authority


''medietilsynet'' sets age limits films exhibited norway films submitted media authority classification carry mandatory age rating ref name medietilsynet ref following age limits apply films shown cinemas ref name medietilsynet '''a''' suitable ''' ''' years restriction children accompanied adult ''' ''' years children years accompanied adult ''' ''' years children years accompanied adult ''' ''' years young years accompanied adult


supervising adult '''r ''' restricted viewers years old admitted '''r ''' restricted viewers years old admitted '''r ''' restricted viewers years old admitted '''x''' public exhibition x rated films suitable public exhibition poland ratings poland set board advisory body prior applicable age ratings age limit set general


committee cinematography since official classification system age ratings self prescriptive set distributors case television supervisory body krajowa rada radiofonii telewizji krrit national council radio broadcasting television impose fines upon responsible improper rating broadcast lack portugal movies rated portugal comiss de classifica de espect culos ministry culture cinemas ratings mandatory subject parental guidance whereas video releases merely advisory except case


pornographic content children age previously prohibited public film performances special category introduced age group classification system overhauled category year olds also introduced lowest age rating dropped years age ref name portugal ref categories following ref name portugal '''para todos os p blicos''' public especially designed children years age '''m ''' passed viewers aged older '''m ''' passed viewers aged older '''m ''' passed


'''' prohibition communication russia since rating appears inside circles indicate age restrictions followed plus appears shows including tv internet shows russia russian rating system indication shown ''' ''' ages admitted ''' ''' '' '' children years unsuitable children ''' ''' '' '' children years unsuitable children ''' ''' '' '' children years unsuitable children ''' '''


'' '' prohibited children prohibited children '' '' refused classification banned saudi arabia film classification saudi arabia administered general commission audiovisual media gcam reintroduction film theatres country categories '''g''' general general public '''pg''' parental guidance adult supervision recommended children age '''pg ''' parental guidance adult supervision required children age '''r ''' audiences age prohibited '''r ''' audiences


titles documentaries children 's programmes sports programmes may exempt classification video titles must classified public theatrical exhibition revised singapore film rating system took effect july categories '''g''' general suitable ages '''pg''' parental guidance suitable parents guide young '''pg ''' parental guidance suitable persons aged parental guidance advised children '''nc ''' children suitable persons aged '''m ''' mature


suitable persons aged '''r ''' restricted suitable adults aged restricted licensed cinemas exceptional cases film may refused classification either exceeds permissible limits r classification contains material undermines likely undermine public order likely prejudicial national interest south africa south africa films classified film publication board distributors exhibitors legally compelled comply age ratings broadcasters cinemas distributors dvd video


licensed adult premises '''xx''' must distributed exhibited public also sub descriptors used ratings '''s''' sex '''l''' language '''v''' violence '''p''' prejudice '''n''' nudity '''h''' horror '''d''' substance abuse '''sv''' sexual violence south korea korea media rating board seoul divides licensed films following categories ref name stats ref '''all''' film suitable ages ''' ''' film intended audiences underage audiences accompanied parent guardian allowed ''' '''