different individuals ref name robbins lionel robbins nd ed ''an essay nature significance economic science'' london macmillan links https booksgooglecom booksid nysoikogwq c printsec find pg pr v onepage q f false html https wwwscribdcom doc essay nature signicance economic science lionel robbins facsimile ref whether type ''interpersonal utility comparison'' possible significantly alters available mathematical structures social welfare functions social choice theory one perspective following jeremy bentham utilitarians argued preferences utility functions individuals interpersonally comparable may therefore added together arrive measure aggregate utility utilitarian ethics call maximizing aggregate contrast many twentieth


century economists following lionel robbins questioned whether mental states utilities reflect measured ''a fortiori'' interpersonal ''comparisons'' utility well social choice theory based consider instance law diminishing marginal utility according utility added quantity good decreases amount good already possession individual used defend transfers wealth rich poor premise former derive much utility

Social science
Economics
Social choice theory


possible say emperor nero 's gain burning rome outweighed loss incurred rest romans harsanyi sen thus argue least partial comparability utility possible social choice theory proceeds assumption sen proposes however comparability interpersonal utility need partial sen 's theory informational broadening even complete interpersonal comparison utility would lead socially suboptimal choices mental states malleable starving peasant may particularly sunny disposition thereby derive high utility small


income fact nullify however claim compensation equality realm social choice social decisions accordingly based immalleable factors sen proposes interpersonal utility comparisons based wide range data theory concerned access advantage viewed individual 's access goods satisfy basic needs eg food freedoms labor market instance capabilities proceed make social choices based real variables thereby address actual position access advantage sen 's method informational broadening allows social choice theory


escape objections robbins looked though would permanently harm social choice theory additionally since seminal results arrow 's impossibility theorem gibbard satterthwaite theorem many positive results focusing restriction domain preferences individuals elucidated topics optimal voting initial results emphasized impossibility satisfactorily providing social choice function free dictatorship inefficiency general settings later results found natural restrictions accommodate many desirable properties empirical social choice studies since arrow social choice analysis primarily


characterized extremely theoretical formal character however since ca attention began paid empirical applications social choice theoretical insights first foremost american political scientist william h riker vast majority studies focused finding empirical examples condorcet paradox ref name ref summary individual studies covering total real world elections large small found instances condorcet paradox total likelihood ref name may high estimate since cases paradox


likely reported cases without hand empirical identification condorcet paradox presupposes extensive data decision makers' preferences alternatives something rarely available examples paradox seem occur occasionally small settings eg parliaments examples found larger groups eg electorates although identified social choice rules let math x math set possible 'states world' 'alternatives' society wishes choose single state math x math example single winner election


math x math may represent set candidates resource allocation setting math x math may represent possible allocations let math math finite set representing collection individuals math math let math u x longrightarrow mathbb r math ''utility function'' describing amount happiness individual ''i'' derives possible state ' 'social choice rule'' mechanism uses data math u math select element math x math 'best' society question 'best' means basic question social choice theory following rules common


''utilitarian rule'' also called ''max sum rule'' aims maximize sum utilities thus maximizing efficiency ''egalitarian rule'' also called ''max min rule'' aims maximize smallest utility thus maximizing fairness ''proportional fair rule'' sometimes called ''max product rule'' aims balance previous two rules attaining balance efficiency fairness social choice functions social choice function voting rule takes individuals' complete transitive preferences set candidates also called alternatives returns subset possible singular


candidates think subset winners election different social welfare function returns linear order set alternatives opposed simply selecting subset compare different social choice functions based axioms mathematical properties fulfill ref name example instant runoff voting satisfies independence clones criterion whereas borda count theorems concerning social choice functions arrow 's impossibility theorem often comes mind one thinks impossibility theorems voting however arrow concerned


resolute neutral anonymous non manipulable voting rule ref name may 's theorem states two candidates simple majority vote unique neutral anonymous positively responsive voting rule see also compensation principle computational social choice condorcet paradox emotional choice theory extended sympathy game theory group decision making justice economics liberal paradox mechanism design nakamura number rational choice theory rule according higher law voting system notes references arrow kenneth j nd ed ''social choice individual values'' new york wiley general economic equilibrium purpose analytic techniques collective choice nobel prize


lecture http nobelprizeorg economics laureates arrow lecturehtml link text section theory background ''collected papers'' v ''social choice justice'' oxford blackwell arrow kenneth j amartya k sen kotaro suzumura eds ''social choice examined'' vol london palgrave macmillan eds ''handbook social choice welfare'' v chapter preview http wwwsciencedirectcom science handbooks links ed ''handbook social choice welfare'' v amsterdam elsevier chapter preview http wwwsciencedirectcom science handbooks links bossert walter john weymark social choice new developments ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' nd edition london palgrave macmillan http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde q social choice topicid result number abstract


dryzek john christian list social choice theory deliberative democracy reconciliation ''british journal political science'' pp https wwwjstororg discover uid uid uid uid sid pdf http personallseacuk list pdf files sctbjpspdf link feldman allan roberto serrano ''welfare economics social choice theory'' nd ed new york springer https booksgooglecom booksid pzv n wwc dq arrow 's theorem source gbs summary cad arrow searchable chapter previews fleurbaey marc th ories conomiques de la justice paris economica harsanyi john c interpersonal utility comparisons ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' v london palgrave pp nbsp robbins lionel ''an essay nature significance economic science'' nd ed london macmillan ch vi


external links http facultymaxwellsyredu jskelly bibliohohtm social choice bibliography j kelly https electowikiorg wiki main page electowiki wiki covering many subjects social choice voting theory ethics political science public economics applied mathematics collective intelligence social epistemology mathematical economics law economics


'''technology education''' study technology students learn processes knowledge related technology field study covers human 's ability shape change physical world meet needs manipulating materials tools techniques addresses disconnect wide usage lack knowledge technical components technologies used fix emergent discipline seeks contribute learners' overall scientific technological literacy ref name ref technacy see https enwiktionaryorg wiki technacy technology education confused educational technology educational technology focuses

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Technology education


narrow subset technology use revolves around use technology education opposed technology education 's focus technology 's use general history technology education offshoot industrial arts tradition united states craft teaching vocational education countries ref name called futuring project name industrial arts education changed technology education new york state goal movement increase students' technological literacy since nature


technology education significantly different predecessor industrial arts teachers underwent inservice education mid technology training network also established new york state education department nysed ref name sweden technology new subject emerged tradition crafts subjects countries like taiwan australia elements discernible historical vocational programs st century mars suit design utilized topic technology education ref name nasa ref technical education entirely different general education current state technology education teachthought private entity described


technology education status childhood bold experimentation survey teachers across united states independent market research company found percent teacher respondents agree technology must used classroom percent say promotes engagement students agree technology improves student outcomes technology present many education systems july american public schools provide one desktop computer every five students spend billion annually digital content school year government conducted state standardized testing elementary


middle levels digital platforms instead traditional pen paper method digital revolution offers fresh learning prospects students learn online even inside classroom advancement technology entails new approaches combining present future technological improvements incorporating innovations public education system technology incorporated everyday learning creates new environment new personalized blended learning students able complete work based needs well versatility individualized study evolves overall learning experience technology


staff working document details strategy implementing digital education plan includes three priorities formulating measures assist european union member states tackle related concerns whole framework support european qualifications framework lifelong learning european classification skills competences qualifications occupations east asia world bank co sponsored yearly two day international symposium october south korea 's ministry education science technology world bank support education ict concerns industry practitioners senior policymakers participants plan discuss issues use new technologies


'''nigerian literature''' may roughly defined literary writing citizens nation nigeria nigerian readers addressing nigerian issues encompasses writers number languages including english igbo urhobo yoruba northern part county hausa nupe ref name britishcouncil broadly includes british nigerians nigerian americans members african diaspora ''things fall apart'' chinua achebe one milestones african literature post colonial authors numerous accolades including nobel prize literature awarded wole soyinka

Humanities
Languages and literature
Nigerian Literature


booker prize awarded ben okri ''the famished road'' nigerians also well represented among recipients caine prize wole soyinka prize literature africa northern nigerian written literature northern nigerian written literature divided main periods first kingdoms period th th century second sokoto period th th century rd colonial period th century th post independence period th century present fourteen kingdoms period many authors produced books dealt


theology history biography mathematics language writing documentaries geography astronomy diplomacy poetry known authors works ibn furtu chronicler mai idris alooma produced two historical works ''the book bornu wars'' ''the book kanem wars'' detail wars transformed bornu independent sultanate empire works produced respectively muhammad abd al razzaq al fallati th century fulbe scholar hausaland wrote ''kfi'l tawhid'' uthman ibn idris borno sent letter mamluk sultan egypt


letter one diplomatic nature also contained poetry erudite understanding islamic law letter contains earliest extant indigenous written poem produced nigeria muhammad al maghili wrote ''on obligations princes kano'' muhammad rumfa th century al maghili berber north africa born area algeria muhammad ibn al sabbagh th century scholar author katsina northern nigeria celebrated well time wrote praise poetry sultan borno 's conquest


noted free muslim people taken parts hausaland sold european christians also wrote jurist yorubaland explaining determine time sunset prayer work hausa poem heard woman katsina called ''wakar yakin badara'' far known authored ten books abdullahi suka th century kano scholar fulbe ancestry said written oldest extant literature hausa work ''riwayar annabi musa'' also authored ''al atiya li'l muti'' translated ''the


man booker international prize recognition entire career novelist author finalists prize included ian mcewan salman rushdie ref name bbcfather ref awarding prize nadine gordimer referred achebe father modern african literature ref name bbcfather nigeria produced number important writers accolades work including daniel fagunwa femi osofisan ken saro wiwa cyprian ekwensi buchi emecheta elechi amadi tanure ojaide wole soyinka yoruba native speaker writing mainly english received nobel prize literature becoming first


black african win nobel prize literature ref name nobel ref soyinka awarded prize writing wide cultural perspective poetic overtones fashions drama existence ref name nobel ben okri booker prize ''the famished road'' important writers include daniel fagunwa femi osofisan ken saro wiwa cyprian ekwensi buchi emecheta elechi amadi tanure ojaide among writers younger generation chris abani ayobami adebayo chimamanda ngozi adichie nuzo onoh yemisi aribisala sefi atta igoni barrett helon habila bm dzukogi chigozie obioma helen oyeyemi nnedi okorafor uju obuekwe


nigerian writers notes references external links http digitallibrarynorthwesternedu arbmss collectionshtml nigerian medieval manuscripts http wwwvqronlineorg dispatch bures things come together things come together journey literary lagos https wwwbritishcouncilorg voices magazine changing face nigerian literature changing face nigerian literature voice magazine


figure riparian forest white mountains new hampshire usa '''ecosystem ecology''' integrated study living biotic non living abiotic components ecosystems interactions within ecosystem framework science examines ecosystems work relates components chemicals bedrock soil plants animals ecosystem ecology examines physical biological structures examines ecosystem characteristics interact ultimately helps us understand maintain high quality water economically viable commodity production major focus ecosystem ecology functional processes ecological mechanisms

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems ecology
Ecosystem ecology


maintain structure services produced ecosystems include primary productivity production biomass decomposition trophic interactions studies ecosystem function greatly improved human understanding sustainable production forage fiber fuel provision water functional processes mediated regional local level climate disturbance management thus ecosystem ecology provides powerful framework identifying ecological mechanisms interact global environmental problems especially global warming degradation surface water example demonstrates several important aspects ecosystems ecosystem boundaries often nebulous may fluctuate time organisms within ecosystems


dependent ecosystem level biological physical processes adjacent ecosystems closely interact often interdependent maintenance community structure functional processes maintain productivity biodiversity characteristics also introduce practical problems natural resource management manage ecosystem timber cutting forest degrade recreational fishing stream questions difficult land managers address boundary ecosystems remains unclear even though decisions one ecosystem affect need better understanding interactions interdependencies ecosystems processes maintain


begin address questions ecosystem ecology inherently interdisciplinary field study individual ecosystem composed populations organisms interacting within communities contributing cycling nutrients flow energy ecosystem principal unit study ecosystem ecology population community physiological ecology provide many underlying biological mechanisms influencing ecosystems processes maintain flowing energy cycling matter ecosystem level often examined ecosystem ecology whole science defined subject


matter scale ecosystem ecology approaches organisms abiotic pools energy nutrients integrated system distinguishes associated sciences biogeochemistry ref name ch chapman sk hart sc cobb ns whitham tg koch gw insect herbivory increases litter quality decomposition extension acceleration hypothesis ''ecology'' ref biogeochemistry hydrology focus several fundamental ecosystem processes biologically mediated chemical cycling nutrients physical biological cycling water ecosystem ecology forms mechanistic basis regional global processes encompassed landscape regional hydrology global biogeochemistry


flows ecosystem adapted silver springs model h herbivores c carnivores tc top carnivores decomposers squares represent biotic pools ovals fluxes energy nutrients system later work eugene odum howard odum quantified flows energy matter ecosystem level thus documenting general ideas proposed clements contemporary charles elton model energy flows whole system dependent biotic abiotic interactions individual component species inorganic pools nutrients etc later work demonstrated


interactions flows applied nutrient cycles changed course succession held powerful controls ecosystem productivity ref name l likens g e f h bormann n johnson w fisher r pierce effects forest cutting herbicide treatment nutrient budgets hubbard brook watershed ecosystem ''ecological monographs'' ref transfers energy nutrients innate ecological systems regardless whether aquatic terrestrial thus ecosystem ecology emerged important biological studies plants animals terrestrial aquatic marine ecosystems ecosystem services ecosystem services ecologically


mediated functional processes essential sustaining healthy human societies water provision filtration production biomass forestry agriculture fisheries removal greenhouse gases carbon dioxide co sub sub atmosphere examples ecosystem services essential public health economic opportunity nutrient cycling process fundamental agricultural forest production however like ecosystem processes nutrient cycling ecosystem characteristic dialed desirable level maximizing production degraded systems overly simplistic solution complex problems hunger economic security instance intensive


fertilizer use midwestern united states resulted degraded fisheries gulf mexico regrettably green revolution intensive chemical fertilization recommended agriculture developed developing countries strategies risk alteration ecosystem processes may difficult restore especially applied broad scales without adequate assessment impacts ecosystem processes may take many years recover significant disturbance ref name l instance large scale forest clearance northeastern united states th th centuries altered soil texture dominant vegetation nutrient cycling ways


impact forest productivity present day appreciation importance ecosystem function maintenance productivity whether agriculture forestry needed conjunction plans restoration essential processes improved knowledge ecosystem function help achieve long term sustainability stability poorest parts world operation biomass productivity one apparent economically important ecosystem functions biomass accumulation begins cellular level via photosynthesis photosynthesis requires water consequently global patterns annual biomass production correlated annual precipitation amounts productivity also dependent


periods high low npp overall annual increase atmospheric co sub sub data approximates reported keeling whorf barford ref name b gpp gross primary productivity r sub producer sub photosynthate carbon lost via cellular respiration npp difficult measure new technique known eddy co variance shed light natural ecosystems influence atmosphere figure shows seasonal annual changes co sub sub concentration measured mauna loa hawaii co sub sub concentration steadily increased within year variation greater annual increase


harvest schedules many parts world decomposition nutrient cycling decomposition nutrient cycling fundamental ecosystem biomass production natural ecosystems nitrogen n limited biomass production closely correlated n turnover typically external input nutrients low efficient recycling nutrients maintains productivity ref name l decomposition plant litter accounts majority nutrients recycled ecosystems figure rates plant litter decomposition highly dependent litter quality high concentration phenolic compounds especially lignin plant litter retarding effect litter decomposition ref name


melillo jm aber jd muratore jf nitrogen lignin control hardwood leaf litter decomposition dynamics ''ecology'' ref complex c compounds decomposed slowly may take many years completely breakdown decomposition typically described exponential decay related mineral concentrations especially manganese leaf litter figure dynamics decomposing plant litter described exponential model b combined exponential linear model c globally rates decomposition mediated litter quality climate ecosystems dominated plants low lignin concentration often rapid


decay inaccurately predicted simplistic models simple alternative model presented figure c shows significantly rapid decomposition standard model figure b better understanding decomposition models important research area ecosystem ecology process closely tied nutrient supply overall capacity ecosystems sequester co sub sub atmosphere trophic dynamics trophic dynamics refers process energy nutrient transfer organisms trophic dynamics important part structure function ecosystems figure shows energy transferred ecosystem silver springs florida


energy gained primary producers plants p consumed herbivores h consumed carnivores c consumed top carnivores tc one obvious patterns figure one moves higher trophic levels ie plants top carnivores total amount energy decreases plants exert bottom control energy structure ecosystems determining total amount energy enters system however predators also influence structure lower trophic levels top influences dramatically shift dominant species terrestrial


marine systems ref name frank et al frank et al ref interplay relative strength top vs bottom controls ecosystem structure function important area research greater field ecology trophic dynamics strongly influence rates decomposition nutrient cycling time space example herbivory increase litter decomposition nutrient cycling via direct changes litter quality altered dominant vegetation insect herbivory shown increase rates decomposition nutrient turnover due changes litter quality increased frass inputs ref name ch however


insect outbreak always increase nutrient cycling stadler showed c rich honeydew produced aphid outbreak result increased n immobilization soil microbes thus slowing nutrient cycling potentially limiting biomass production north atlantic marine ecosystems greatly altered overfishing cod cod stocks crashed resulted increases prey shrimp snow crab ref name frank et al human intervention ecosystems resulted dramatic changes ecosystem structure function changes occurring rapidly unknown consequences economic security human


well applications importance lessons two central american cities biosphere greatly altered demands human societies ecosystem ecology plays important role understanding adapting pressing current environmental problems restoration ecology ecosystem management closely associated ecosystem ecology restoring highly degraded resources depends integration functional mechanisms ecosystems ref name e ehrenfeld jg toth la restoration ecology ecosystem perspective ''restoration ecology'' ref without functions intact economic value ecosystems greatly reduced potentially dangerous conditions may develop field


example areas within mountainous western highlands guatemala susceptible catastrophic landslides crippling seasonal water shortages due loss forest resources contrast cities totonicap n preserved forests strong social institutions greater local economic stability overall greater human well situation striking considering areas close majority inhabitants mayan descent topography overall resources similar case two groups people managing resources fundamentally different ways ecosystem ecology provides basic


'''military campaign''' large scale long duration significant military strategy plan incorporating series interrelated military operations battles forming distinct part larger conflict often called war term derives plain campania place annual wartime operations armies roman republic definition military campaign denotes time given military force conducts combat operations given area often referred ao area operation military campaign may executed either single armed service combined services campaign

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Military campaign


conducted land naval air cyber space forces purpose military campaign achieve particular desired resolution military conflict strategic goal constrained resources geography season campaign measured relative technology used belligerents achieve goals pre industrial europe understood planting late spring harvest times late autumn shortened post industrial period weeks however due nature campaign goals usually campaigns last


several months year defined trevor n dupuy blockquote campaign phase war involving series operations related time space aimed towards single specific strategic objective result war campaign may include single battle often comprises number battles protracted period time considerable distance within single theatre operations delimited area campaign may last weeks usually lasts several months even year blockquote conduct


planning general staff defining objectives time scope cost campaign executing coordination forces resources logistic combat operations controlling monitoring progress campaign compared baseline plan concluding acceptance rejection campaign outcomes directing command structure many historical campaigns named misnomers increase reduce perception operations military reasons winter season premodern times campaigns usually interrupted winter season soldiers retreated


often disastrous consequences due high mortality amongst soldiers notorious example french invasion russia napoleon june december therefore army commanders sought take account need return troops winter quarters establish new winter quarters secure location well winter set leave soldiers vulnerable enemy elements evaluation success military campaign evaluated based degree achievement planned goals objectives combat


military strategy collective name planning conduct warfare war cycles theory wars happen cycles military decorations campaign medal military decoration awarded member military serves designated military operation performs duty geographical theater campaign clasp attachment military award consisting metal bar pinned upper cloth portion award medal campaign streamer long streamer attached headpiece military flag denoting participation military service


particular campaign lists examples list wars contains military campaigns list battles part larger military campaigns list sieges part larger military campaigns references sources dupuy tn ''understanding war history theory combat'' leo cooper london campaign


landing egypt '''military geography''' sub field geography used military well academics politicians understand geopolitical sphere military lens accomplish ends military geographers consider topics geopolitics physical locations influences military operations cultural economic impacts military presence tactical level military geographer might put together terrain drainage system surface unit disadvantage enemy uses drainage system ambush especially

Social science
Geography
Human geography
Military geography


urban warfare strategic level emerging field strategic military geography seeks understand changing human biophysical environments alter security military domains climate change example adding multiplying complexity military strategy planning training emerging responsibilities military involved protection civilian populations responsibility protect women ethnic groups provision humanitarian aid disaster response hadr new technology domains training operations cybergeography make military geography dynamic frontier baron de jomini history


development military geography military geography long practical history example ''imperial military geography'' shows colonial empire approach military geography could describe geographical setting empire responsibilities resources could mobilised national imperial needs environmental determinism regional geography geographic information systems geography generally evolved entwined hundreds years canadian south african australian military geography pearson et al inconspicuous compared united states british traditions important links peace studies particularly


warfare terrain complex filled many structures transformations land inhabitants restrict visibility air create obstacles ground units spaces may narrow convoys may restricted certain routes buildings face roadside bombs ambushes units must work work around local people may cooperate others may oppose others neutral caught two factions guerilla fighters may count enemy 's unwillingness bomb fire heavily populated areas types


east us military redesigned uniforms different branches service uniforms digital camouflage pattern effective desert environment boots changed standard polished black boots light brown colored suede leather boots boots cooler intense heat desert sun jungle forest warfare conditions regions basically opposite found desert regions thousands flora fauna always moisture present presents difficulties


moisture speeds rotting processes well causing wounds become infected much easier bacteria live water proper filtration systems army problem keeping hydrated densely packed trees underbrush provide concealment air well ground ambushes easily conducted environment like urban environment jungle also contain mountains mountains organized differently exist desert jungle mountains far plant life


usually much difficult ascend helicopters proven useful means transportation jungle forested areas vietnam course testing ground tanks vehicles difficulty maneuvering around densely packed trees military aircraft fly fast accurately observe ground trees winter warfare type warfare based geographical design based drastic differences particular climate war much harder remain warm remain


cool even forested areas many experience winter weather conditions specific type combat soldiers specifically trained fight conditions individual winter season conditions call drastically thicker thus warmer uniform weapons even need refitted proper devices ensure operate cold mountain warfare two mountains alike less oxygen higher altitude fighting mountain treacherous avalanches rockslides cliffs ambushes higher


slopes almost guaranteed caves somewhere mountain afghanistan mud mud universal menace armies hamper use air power slow sometimes stops ground movements together common season mud across globe spring following thawing winter 's snow addition rains season brings ground becomes soft almost military vehicle would get bogged properly equipped mud always dependent


spring rather parts world determined monsoons ocean fronts harbors beaches sea cliffs pirates even today still problem piracy world 's oceans one commonly thought areas criminal activity coast somalia always constant threat small fast attack craft coming greet vessel passes waters africa middle east another region piracy occurs much larger scale


around indonesian islands coasts asian mainland pirates able capture much larger prizes pose much larger threat security economic interests many countries pirates operate bases concealed must waterfront country either ignorant activity worse paid overlook deal pirates american vessel attacked us navy multiple assets deal situation pirates know


attack imminent may logical bomb base aircraft one carriers however often us navy would opt secrecy send smaller force us navy seals eliminate threat harbors concerns seaport especially goal either capture defend difficulties defending city land harbor also threat sea addition land air harbor


always key objective army capture invasion commenced sooner harbor captured sooner used bring massive amounts reinforcements material trouble capture harbor enemy sabotage blocking entrance wreckage deploying mines throughout harbor defending harbor treacherous task odds enemy observe position air sea harbor periphery defense network


high risk place land prior warning beach landing effective route enemy territory sea cliffs rules apply category preceding one exception mines almost need anti vehicle mines defenses could planned without much concern armored attack resources future flashpoints middle east course obvious place comes mind think valuable resources major nations may compete supplies


begin fall around world first gulf war example united states willingness go war protect access rich oilfields persian gulf strong military presence influenced leaders aid united states cheap oil time forces began viewed threat muslim world attacks september brought new hostilities region invasions afghanistan iraq hotspots around globe centering oil


areas around venezuela caspian sea region possibly offshore oil deposits around vietnam china today 's age especially people living developed countries hard believe resources potentially cause war precious needed resource water parts world expensive resource obtain obvious areas conflict may arise disputes water supplies would desert moment oil valuable


liquid middle east however oil always people going survive must water several times countries upriver threatened build dams across rivers order cut country river starving particular country water supply case nile river jordan results cases countries river threatened retaliation event occur global


warming trend continues weather patterns continue shift means places fall severe drought people may become desperate resources obtain water disaster occur water resource planet found necessity forests well densely wooded regions world constantly shrinking oil runs people need keep warm winter odds return using


wood primary fuel source keeping warm forests shrink neighboring countries turn resource order appease populations forests latin america pacific islands key hotspots resource part due already tense situations around regions growing tensions global oil supplies 's die another day term conflict diamonds heart film 's plot film diamonds currency used


fund illegal weapons deals used fund construction icarus space weapon portrayal use diamonds come africa holds true many cases term conflict diamonds applied diamonds sold internationally recognized company conflict diamonds warlords africa fight diamonds order sell acquire larger wealth new weapons continued fighting true gold fields southern africa many warlords


installation 's facilities fallen disrepair case smaller reserve national guard facilities dot every state personnel committees responsible determining closures also observe economic impact decisions communities surrounding installations people employed installation either directly indirectly likely facility remain open nowhere people would lose jobs people could end welfare thus becoming


much draw revenue employees outside united states countries strongly vying inclusion strategic treaties nato countries many eastern europe want join nato mutual advantages defense possibility foreign bases constructed soil bases built would bring fiscal resources nations would get without bases sometimes foreign bases viewed good thing regions strong


political stance may taken construction foreign military bases often sovereignty issues decline popularity evolution critical military geography due subfield military geography 's perceived connection traditional classical geopolitics field since end cold war largely rejected research focus proponents popular schools critical geography marxist radical geography military geography experienced decline popularity academic circles true particularly institutions unaffiliated unconnected military governmental organizations result


although exist popular nonfiction writers geography without academic credentials field touch military strategy tactics presently practicing military geographers students military geography academia similarly major texts military geography published specifically civilian academic audience since early recently article published journal ''critical military studies'' authors rech et al suggest revival field line critical geography critical geopolitics one earlier example school thought


geographic aspects military strategy strategic military geography revival revival geography military geography sub discipline remarkable trend since number key geopolitical international relations historical geography geographical approaches developed american association geographers institute australian geographers interest groups continue develop sub discipline military geography american association geographers meeting committee gathered evidence militarism military geography ''australian contributions strategic military geography'' outlined new


australian approach included chapters themes specific regions see also military crest loss strength gradient geostrategy natural lines drift strategic depth defence depth military geology references sources baron de jomini antoine henri art war plain label books original french translation https booksgooglecom booksid efzazecuklac printsec frontcover client firefox ppa bibliography bayles william j terrain intelligence battlefield success historical perspective engineer cole dh ''imperial military geography geographical background defense problems british commonwealth'' london praed collins john ''military geography professionals public'' washington


dc national defense university press dibb paul strategic trends naval war college review dupuy r ernest ''world arms study military geography'' harrisburg pa military service publishing company flint colin ''the geography war peace death camps diplomats'' oxford oxford university press galgano francis eugene j palka eds ''modern military geography'' london routledge johnson douglas wilson ''topography strategy war'' ny henry holt johnson douglas wilson ''battlefields world western southern fronts study military geography'' oxford oxford university press


kirby robert f study military geography engineer kirsch scott colin flint eds ''reconstructing conflict integrating war post war geographies'' burlington vt ashgate klare michael new geography conflict foreign affairs olesik nikolai military geography urbanistics military thought maguire miller ''outlines military geography'' cambridge cambridge university press o'sullivan patrick ''the geography war post cold war world'' lewiston edwin mellen press palka eugene j francis galgano jr ''military geography peace war'' boston mcgraw hill


peltier louis c ''bibliography military geography'' military geography committee association american geographers peltier louis c g etzel pearcy ''military geography'' princeton nj van nostrand rech bos jenkings k n williams woodward r geography military geography critical military studies critical military studies rosenburgh bob training warfare soldiers rottman gordon l ''world war ii pacific island guide geo military study'' westport greenwood press woodward rachel ''military geographies'' malden blackwell zakharenko military geography past present military thought


united states air war college http wwwauafmil au awc awcgate awcgatehtm powerpoint flashpoints http wwwsvrtorg mtg txt summary jacobsonppt human geography political geography


mathematics '' 'differential rings''' '' 'differential fields''' '' 'differential algebras''' rings fields algebras equipped finitely many derivations unary functions linear satisfy leibniz product rule natural example differential field field rational functions one variable complex numbers math mathbb c math derivation differentiation respect nbsp ''t'' '''differential algebra''' refers also area mathematics consisting study algebraic objects use algebraic study differential equations differential algebra introduced joseph ritt

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Differential algebra


circ partial times operatorname id circ operatorname id times partial math math f times g math means function maps pair math xy math pair math f x g math note differential ring necessarily graded math z math differential algebra differential field differential field commutative field ''k'' equipped derivations well known formula differentiating fractions math partial left frac u v right frac partial u v u partial v v math follows product rule indeed must math partial left frac u v times v right partial u math product rule math partial left frac u v right v frac u v partial v


times operatorname id circ eta times partial math derivation must obey leibniz rule algebra multiplication must linear addition thus math ab k math math xy math one math partial xy partial x x partial math math partial ax partial x b partial math derivation lie algebra derivation lie algebra math mathfrak g math linear map math colon mathfrak g mathfrak g math satisfying leibniz rule math ab ad b b math math mathfrak g math ad ''a'' derivation math mathfrak g math


follows jacobi identity derivation called '''inner derivation''' derivation extends universal enveloping algebra lie algebra examples ''a'' unital since nbsp nbsp nbsp times nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp example differential field characteristic zero math k math rationals always subfield field constants math k math ring differential ring respect trivial derivation maps ring element zero field '''q''' ''t'' unique structure differential field determined setting


''t'' nbsp nbsp field axioms along axioms derivations ensure derivation differentiation respect ''t'' example commutativity multiplication leibniz law one ''u'' sup sup nbsp ''u'' ''u'' nbsp nbsp ''u'' ''u'' nbsp nbsp ''u'' ''u'' differential field '''q''' ''t'' fails solution differential equation math partial u u math expands larger differential field including function ''e'' sup ''t'' sup solution equation differential field solutions systems differential equations called differentially closed field fields exist although


rings differential algebras often studied means ring pseudo differential operators set formal infinite sums math left sum n infty r n xi n mid r n r right math math n infty math means sum runs integers greater fixed finite value set made ring multiplication defined linearly extending following formula monomials math r xi xi n sum k infty r partial k choose k xi n k math math textstyle choose k frac dots k k math binomial coefficient math math sum finite terms


math k math equal zero particular one math xi sum k infty k partial k xi k math using identity math textstyle choose k k math see also differential galois theory k hler differential differentially closed field module algebraic structure several differential operators acting differential graded algebra differential algebra additional grading arithmetic derivative differential calculus commutative algebras difference algebra differential algebraic geometry picard vessiot theory hardy field references https wwwresearchgatenet profile anand pillay publication model theory fields links e ee cabd model theory fieldspdf pdf external links http wwwmathuicedu marker david marker 's home page several online surveys discussing


city machu picchu constructed c ad height inca empire commanding views two valleys nearly impassable mountain back ample supply spring water enough land plentiful food supply hillsides leading terraced provide farmland crops reduce soil erosion protect landslides create steep slopes discourage potential invaders '''environmental history''' study human interaction natural world time emphasising active role nature plays influencing human

Humanities
History
Environmental history


affairs vice versa environmental history first emerged united states environmental movement much impetus still stems present day global environmental concerns field founded conservation issues broadened scope include general social scientific history may deal cities population sustainable development history occurs natural world environmental history tends focus particular time scales geographic regions key themes also strongly multidisciplinary subject draws widely humanities natural


science subject matter environmental history divided three main components first nature change time includes physical impact humans earth 's land water atmosphere biosphere second category humans use nature includes environmental consequences increasing population effective technology changing patterns production consumption key themes transition nomadic hunter gatherer communities settled agriculture neolithic revolution effects colonial expansion settlements environmental human consequences industrial technological revolutions ref name grove see ref finally


environmental historians study people think nature way attitudes beliefs values influence interaction nature especially form myths religion science origin name early works roderick nash published ''wilderness american mind'' work become classic text early environmental history address ''organization american historians'' published nash used expression environmental history although generally taken date term first coined book samuel p hays ''conservation


gospel efficiency progressive conservation movement '' major contribution american political history also regarded founding document field environmental history hays professor emeritus history university pittsburgh alfred w crosby 's book ''the columbian exchange'' another key early work environmental history historiography brief overviews historiography environmental history published j r mcneill ref name mcneill richard white j donald hughes oxford university press published volume essays ''the oxford handbook


explain processes change affect relationship ref name hughes ref history seeks understanding human beings lived worked thought relationship rest nature changes brought time method environmental history use ecological analysis means understanding human historyan account changes human societies relate changes natural environment ref name hughes environmental historians also interested people think nature expressed ideas folk religions popular culture literature


art ref name hughes j r mcneill defined history mutual relations humankind rest nature ref name mcneill ref subject matter traditional historical analysis time extended range study activities influence significant people much broader social political economic cultural analysis environmental history broadens subject matter conventional history donald worster stated environmental history attempts make history inclusive narratives ref name worster ref examining ''role place nature human life''


environmental history explores ways biophysical world influenced course human history ways people thought tried transform surroundings'' interdependency human environmental factors creation landscapes expressed notion cultural landscape worster also questioned scope discipline asking ''we study humans nature therefore anything human natural outside enquiry'' ref name worster ref environmental history generally treated subfield history environmental historians challenge assumption arguing


traditional history human history story people institutions humans cannot place outside principles nature ref name hughes ref sense argue environmental history version human history within larger context one less dependent anthropocentrism even though anthropogenic change center narrative dimensions general view funkville oil creek pennsylvania usa j donald hughes responded view environmental history ''light theory'' lacking theoretical structure viewing subject lens three dimensions nature culture history


literature consists case studies targeted global national local levels scale although environmental history cover billions years history whole earth equally concern local scales brief time periods many environmental historians occupied local regional national histories historians link subject exclusively span human history ''every time period human history'' ref name hughes others include period human presence earth legitimate part discipline ian simmons 's ''environmental history great britain'' covers period


years tendency difference time scales natural social phenomena causes environmental change stretch back time may dealt socially comparatively brief period although times environmental influences extended beyond particular geographic regions cultures th early st centuries anthropogenic environmental change assumed global proportions prominently climate change also result settlement spread disease globalization world trade history nature preservationist john muir us president theodore roosevelt left


glacier point yosemite national park questions environmental history date back antiquity including hippocrates father medicine asserted different cultures human temperaments could related surroundings peoples lived ''airs waters places'' scholars varied ibn khaldun montesquieu found climate key determinant human behavior ref name eolss ref enlightenment rising awareness environment scientists addressed themes sustainability via natural history medicine however origins subject present form generally traced


th century group french historians founded journal ''annales'' many ways forerunner modern environmental history since took subject matter reciprocal global influences environment human society idea impact physical environment civilizations espoused annales school describe long term developments shape human history ref name worster focusing away political intellectual history toward agriculture demography geography emmanuel le roy ladurie pupil annales school first really embrace


environmental history contemporary form one influential members annales school lucien febvre whose book ''a geographical introduction history'' classic field influential empirical theoretical work subject done united states teaching programs first emerged generation trained environmental historians active ref name warde united states environmental history independent field study emerged general cultural reassessment reform along environmentalism conservation


history gathering awareness global scale environmental issues large part reaction way nature represented history time portrayed advance culture technology releasing humans dependence natural world providing means manage celebrated human mastery forms life natural environment expected technological improvement economic growth accelerate environmental historians intended develop post colonial historiography ''more inclusive narratives'' ref name worster moral political inspiration


alfred crosby samuel p hays donald worster william cronon richard white carolyn merchant j r mcneill donald hughes chad montrie united states paul warde sverker sorlin robert lambert tc smout peter coates europe british empire although environmental history growing rapidly field united states reached historians british empire gregory barton argues concept environmentalism emerged forestry studies emphasizes british imperial role research argues imperial forestry movement india


around included government reservations new methods fire protection attention revenue producing forest management result eased fight romantic preservationists laissez faire businessmen thus giving compromise modern environmentalism emerged recent years numerous scholars cited james beattie examined environmental impact empire beinart hughes argue discovery commercial scientific use new plants important concern th th centuries efficient use rivers dams irrigation projects expensive important method raising agricultural productivity


searching efficient ways using natural resources british moved flora fauna commodities around world sometimes resulting ecological disruption radical environmental change imperialism also stimulated modern attitudes toward nature subsidized botany agricultural research scholars used british empire examine utility new concept eco cultural networks lens examining interconnected wide ranging social environmental processes current practice frontier historian br frederick jackson turner united states american society environmental history founded first institute devoted specifically


environmental history europe established based university st andrews scotland dutch foundation history environment hygiene ''net werk'' founded publishes four newsletters per year uk white horse press cambridge since published journal ''environment history'' aims bring scholars humanities biological sciences closer together constructing long well founded perspectives present day environmental problems similar publication ''tijdschrift voor ecologische geschiedenis'' ''journal environmental history'' combined flemish dutch initiative mainly dealing


european universities offering introductory courses environmental history postgraduate courses environmental history established universities nottingham stirling dundee recently graduierten kolleg created university g ttingen germany rachel carson center environment society rcc international interdisciplinary center research education environmental humanities social sciences founded joint initiative munich 's ludwig maximilians universit deutsches museum generous support german federal ministry education research environment society portal environmentandsocietyorg


rachel carson center 's open access digital archive publication platform related disciplines environmental history prides bridging gap arts natural sciences although date scales weigh side science definitive list related subjects would lengthy indeed singling special mention difficult task however frequently quoted include historical geography history philosophy science history technology climate science biological side ecology historical ecology also forestry especially forest history archaeology anthropology


lack human agency texts suggest written act information environmental scientists incorporation notion risk closer analysis mean environment confronting way environmental history odds humanities emphasises division materialist cultural constructivist explanations human behaviour global sustainability blue marble nasa composite images left right many themes environmental history inevitably examine circumstances produced environmental problems present day litany themes


challenge global sustainability including population consumerism materialism climate change waste disposal deforestation loss wilderness industrial agriculture species extinction depletion natural resources invasive organisms urban development simple message sustainable use renewable resources frequently repeated early george perkins marsh pointing changes make environment may later reduce environments usefulness humans changes made great care would nowadays call enlightened self interest richard grove pointed ''states act prevent environmental degradation


economic interests threatened'' advocacy clear whether environmental history promote moral political agenda strong emotions raised environmentalism conservation sustainability interfere historical objectivity polemical tracts strong advocacy compromise objectivity professionalism engagement political process certainly academic perils although accuracy commitment historical method necessarily threatened environmental involvement environmental historians reasonable expectation work inform policy makers recent historiographical shift placed increased emphasis inequality element environmental history imbalances


power resources industry politics resulted burden industrial pollution shifted less powerful populations geographic social spheres critical examination traditional environmentalist movement historical perspective notes ways early advocates environmentalism sought aesthetic preservation middle class spaces sheltered communities worst effects air water pollution neglecting plight less privileged communities less economic sociopolitical power often lack resources get involved environmental advocacy environmental history increasingly highlights ways


middle class environmental movement fallen short left behind entire communities interdisciplinary research understands historic inequality lens predict future social developments environmental sphere particularly regard climate change united nations department economic social affairs cautions warming planet exacerbate environmental inequalities particularly regard increase exposure disadvantaged groups adverse effects climate change b increase susceptibility damage caused climate change c decrease ability cope


recover damage suffered interdisciplinary field encompasses new understanding social justice dynamics rapidly changing global climate environmental history inherently advocative declensionist narratives narratives environmental history tend scholars call declensionist accounts increasing decline human activity presentism culpability accusation presentism sometimes claimed genesis late th century environmentalism conservation issues environmental history simply reaction contemporary problems attempt read late twentieth century developments concerns back past historical periods


operative certainly conscious human participants times strongly related idea culpability environmental debate blame always apportioned constructive future understand values imperatives period discussion causes determined context explained environmental determinism ploughing farmer ancient egypt mural burial chamber artisan sennedjem c bce environmental historians general conditions environment scale arrangement land sea availability


resources presence absence animals available domestication associated organisms disease vectors makes development human cultures possible even predispose direction development history inevitably guided forces human origin subject human choice approach attributed american environmental historians webb turner recently jared diamond book ''guns germs steel'' presence absence disease vectors resources plants animals amenable domestication may


history given donald worster carolyn merchant william cronon ian simmons worster 's three core subject areas environment human impacts environment human thought environment generally taken starting point student encompass many different skills required tools history science requirement fluency language natural science especially ecology fact methodologies insights range physical social sciences required seeming universal agreement environmental history


indeed multidisciplinary subject key works chakrabarti ranjan ed ''does environmental history matter shikar subsistence sustenance sciences'' kolkata readers service chakrabarti ranjan ed ''situating environmental history'' new delhi manohar cronon william ed ''uncommon ground toward reinventing nature'' new york ww norton company dunlap thomas r ''nature english diaspora environment history united states canada australia new zealand '' new york cambridge cambridge university press glacken clarence ''traces rhodian shore nature culture western thought ancient times end nineteenth century'' berkeley


university california press griffiths tom libby robin eds ''ecology empire environmental history settler societies'' keele keele university press grove richard ''green imperialism colonial expansion tropical island edens origins environmentalism '' cambridge university press headrick daniel ''humans versus nature global environmental history'' new york oxford university press hughes jd ''an environmental history world humankind 's changing role community life'' oxford routledge hughes jd global environmental history long view ''globalizations'' vol lafreniere gilbert f ''the decline


richard ''the organic machine remaking columbia river'' hill wang worster donald ''nature 's economy study ecological ideals'' cambridge university press zeilinga de boer jelle donald theodore sanders ''volcanoes human history far reaching effects major eruptions'' princeton princeton university press germinal works region theme issue ''environment history '' provided overview environmental history practiced africa americas australia new zealand china europe well global scope j donald hughes also provided global conspectus


major contributions environmental history literature george perkins marsh ''man nature physical geography modified human action'' ed david lowenthal cambridge belknap press harvard university press africa african landscape lesotho adams jonathan thomas mcshane myth wild africa conservation without illusion berkeley university california press p covers anderson david grove richard ''conservation africa people policies practice'' pp bolaane maitseo chiefs hunters adventurers foundation okavango moremi national park botswana ''journal historical geography'' april


carruthers jane africa histories ecologies societies ''environment history'' pp nbsp cock jacklyn eddie koch eds ''going green people politics environment south africa'' cape town oxford university press dovers stephen ruth edgecombe bill guest eds ''south africa 's environmental history cases comparisons'' athens ohio university press green musselman elizabeth plant knowledge cape study african european collaboration ''international journal african historical studies'' vol jacobs nancy j ''environment power injustice south african history'' cambridge cambridge university press maathai wangari


''green belt movement sharing approach experience'' new york lantern books mccann james ''green land brown land black land environmental history africa '' portsmouth heinemann showers kate b ''imperial gullies soil erosion conservation lesotho'' pp steyn phia lingering environmental impact repressive governance environmental legacy apartheid era new south africa ''globalizations'' antarctica pyne sj ice journey antarctica university iowa press canada dorsey kurkpatrick ''the dawn conservation diplomacy us canadian wildlife protection treaties progressive era'' washington university


washington press loo tina ''states nature conserving canada 's wildlife twentieth century'' vancouver ubc press wynn graeme ''canada arctic north america environmental history'' santa barbara abc clio parr joy ''sensing changes technologies environments everyday '' vancouver ubc press united states allitt patrick ''a climate crisis america age environmentalism'' wide ranging scholarly history since https wwwamazoncom climate crisis america environmentalism american dp excerpt andrews richard nl ''managing environment managing history american environmental policy'' yale university press bates j leonard fulfilling american democracy conservation movement


''the mississippi valley historical review'' pp nbsp https wwwjstororg pss jstor browning judkin timothy silver ''an environmental history civil war'' http wwwh netorg reviews showrevphpid online review brinkley douglas g ''the wilderness warrior theodore roosevelt crusade america'' https wwwamazoncom dp excerpt text search carson rachel ''silent spring'' cambridge mass riverside press cawley r mcgreggor ''federal land western anger sagebrush rebellion environmental politics'' conservatives cronon william ''changes land indians colonists ecology new england'' new york hill wang cronon william ''nature 's metropolis chicago


great west'' new york ww norton company flippen j brooks ''nixon environment'' gottlieb robert '' https islandpressorg book forcing spring forcing spring transformation american environmental movement '' washington island press hays samuel p ''conservation gospel efficiency'' progressive era hays samuel p ''beauty health permanence environmental politics united states '' standard scholarly history hays samuel conservation gospel efficiency progressive conservation movement cambridge harvard university press hays samuel p ''a history environmental politics since '' shorter standard history


age jefferson'' sale kirkpatrick ''the green revolution american environmental movement '' new york hill wang scheffer victor b ''the shaping environmentalism america'' stradling david ed conservation progressive era classic texts washington university washington press primary sources strong douglas h ''dreamers defenders american conservationists'' https wwwquestiacom pmqsta online edition good biographical studies major leaders turner james morton specter environmentalism wilderness environmental politics evolution new right ''the journal american history'' https webarchiveorg web http wwwhistorycooperativeorg journals jah turnerhtml online history cooperative unger


nancy c ''beyond nature 's housekeepers american women environmental history'' new york oxford university press worster donald western skies nature history american west oxford university press melosi martin v coping abundance energy environment industrial america temple university press steinberg ted earth nature 's role american history oxford university press latin america caribbean boyer christopher r ''political landscapes forests conservation community mexico'' durham duke university press dean warren ''with broadax firebrand destruction brazilian atlantic forest'' berkeley university california


traditional landraces grown thousands years boomgaard peter ed ''paper landscapes explorations environment indonesia'' leiden kitlv press david guha r eds ''nature culture imperialism essays environmental history south asia'' delhi india oxford university press fisher michael ''an environmental history india earliest times twenty first century'' cambridge gadgil r guha ''this fissured land ecological history india'' university california press grove richard vinita damodaran satpal sangwan eds ''nature orient environmental history south


southeast asia'' oxford university press hill christopher v ''south asia environmental history'' santa barbara abc clio shiva vandana ''stolen harvest hijacking global food supply'' cambridge south end press yok shiu lee alvin asia 's environmental movements comparative perspectives armonk sharpe iqbal iftekhar bengal delta ecology state social change london palgrave macmillan east asia elvin mark ts'ui jung liu eds ''sediments time environment society chinese history'' cambridge university press totman conrad ''the green archipelago forestry preindustrial japan'' berkeley university california


environmental histories middle east north africa mikhail alan ed water sand environmental histories middle east north africa oxford university press dursun sel uk call environmental history ottoman empire turkey reflections fourth eseh conference new perspectives turkey dursun sel uk forest state history forestry forest administration ottoman empire unpublished phd sabanci university mikhail alan nature empire ottoman egypt environmental history cambridge university press white sam rethinking disease ottoman history


press christensen peter decline iranshahr irrigation environments history middle east bc ad austin university texas press ditt karl 'nature conservation england germany forerunner environmental protection' contemporary european history hughes j donald pan 's travail environmental problems ancient greeks romans baltimore johns hopkins hughes j donald mediterranean environmental history santa barbara abc clio mart escayol maria ant nia ''la construcci del concepte de natura la catalunya moderna'' barcelona universitat autonoma de barcelona ref name tesisenxarxanet ref netting robert balancing


alp ecological change continuity swiss mountain community cambridge university press parmentier isabelle dir ledent carole coll la recherche en histoire de l'environnement belgique congo rwanda burundi namur coll autres futurs stephen j pyne vestal fire environmental history told fire europe europe 's encounter world seattle university washington press richards john f unending frontier environmental history early modern world berkeley university california press whited tamara l ed northern europe environmental history santa barbara abc clio australia new zealand oceania polynesian outrigger


canoe beattie james empire environmental anxiety health science art conservation south asia australasia basingstoke palgrave macmillan beattie james emily o'gorman matt henry eds climate science colonization histories australia new zealand new york palgrave macmillan bennett judith ann natives exotics world war ii environment southern pacific honolulu university hawai'i press bennett judith ann pacific forest history resource control contest solomon islands c cambridge leiden white horse press brill bridgman h could climate change


influence polynesian migrations palaeogeography palaeoclimatology palaeoecology brooking tom eric pawson environmental histories new zealand oxford oxford university press carron lt history forestry australia canberra cassels r role prehistoric man faunal extinctions new zealand pacific islands martin p klein r g eds quaternary extinctions prehistoric revolution tucson university arizona press d'arcy paul people sea environment identity history oceania honolulu university hawai'i press dargavel john ed australia new


tahiti hawaii new zealand polynesian impacts island ecosystems environmental history world humankind changing role community life london new york routledge james beattie environmental anxiety new zealand climate change soil erosion sand drift flooding forest conservation environment history knight catherine new zealand 's rivers environmental history christchurch canterbury university press mcneill john r rats men synoptic environmental history island pacific journal world history vol pyne stephen burning bush fire history australia new


york henry holt robin libby defending little desert rise ecological consciousness australia melbourne mup robin libby continent created nation sydney university new south wales press robin libby flight emu hundred years australian ornithology melbourne melbourne university press smith mike hesse paul eds degrees archaeology environmental history southern deserts canberra national museum australia press star paul new zealand environmental history question attitudes environment history young ann rm environmental change australia


since oxford university press young david islands selves history conservation new zealand dunedin otago university press united kingdom beinart william lotte hughes environment empire oxford clapp brian w environmental history britain since industrial revolution london https wwwamazoncom dp excerpt grove richard green imperialism colonial expansion tropical island edens origins environmentalism cambridge lambert robert contested mountains cambridge mosley stephen chimney world history smoke pollution victorian edwardian manchester white horse porter dale thames


embankment environment technology society victorian london university akron simmonds ian g environmental history great britain years ago present edinburgh sheail john environmental history twentieth century britain basingstoke thorsheim peter inventing pollution coal smoke culture britain since ohio university future old new human uses atmosphere environmental history like historical studies shares hope examination past events may possible forge considered future particular greater depth historical knowledge inform environmental


invasions environmental consequences technology especially biotechnology reduced supply resources notably energy materials water hughes comments environmental historians ''will find increasingly challenged need explain background world market economy effects global environment supranational instrumentalities threaten overpower conservation drive called sustainable development fact envisions limits economic growth'' hughes also notes ''environmental history notably absent nations adamantly reject us western influences'' michael bess sees world increasingly permeated


potent technologies process calls artificialization accelerating since greatly accelerated rate next fifty years transformative process stands good chance turning physical world society upside environmental historians ''play vital role helping humankind understand gale force artifice unleashed planet ourselves'' background ''environmental history give essential perspective offering knowledge historical process led present situation give examples past problems solutions


analysis historical forces must dealt with'' expressed william cronon ''the viability success new human modes existing within constraints environment resources requires understanding past articulation new ethic future'' related journals key journals field include ''environment history'' ''environmental history'' co published american society environmental history forest history society ''global environment journal history natural social sciences'' ''international review environmental history'' see also environmental


history american society environmental history aseh conservation movement conservation united states ecosemiotics environmental history latin america http wwwenvironmentandsocietyorg environment society portal list environmental history topics network canadian history environment rachel carson center environment society bibliography global barton gregory ''empire forestry origins environmentalism'' covers british empire beattie james edward melillo emily o'gorman eds ''eco cultural networks british empire new views environmental history'' new york london bloomsbury bolton geoffrey ''spoils spoilers australians make environment '' pp clover charles


''the end line overfishing changing world eat'' ebury press london guha ramachandra ''environmentalism global history'' headrick daniel r ''humans versus nature global environmental history'' new york oxford university press jones eric l history natural resource exploitation western world ''research economic history'' supplement pp richards jf ''the unending frontier environmental history early modern world'' university california press simmons ig ''environmental history concise introduction'' blackwell simmons ig ''changing face earth


culture environment history nd edition'' blackwell tak cs nta major transitions history human transformation biosphere ''human ecology review'' williams ''deforesting earth prehistory global crisis'' university chicago press asia middle east biggs david ''quagmire nation building nature mekong delta'' economy elizabeth ''the river runs black environmental challenge china 's future'' elvin mark ''the retreat elephants environmental history china'' http jspui bitstream elvin mark retreat elephantspdf online gadgil madhav ramachandra guha ''this fissured land ecological history india'' grove


richard h damodaran vinita sangwan satpal ''nature orient environmental history south southeast asia'' pp johnson erik w saito yoshitaka nishikido makoto organizational demography japanese environmentalism shapiro judith mao 's war nature cambridge university press ''sociological inquiry'' nov vol issue pp mikhail alan ed ''water sand environmental histories middle east north africa'' oxford university press pages scholarly essays plague environment late ottoman egypt rise fall environmentalism lebanon politics water making


saudi arabia etc peloso nancy lee ''rich forests poor people resource control resistance java'' berkeley los angeles university california press thapar valmik ''land tiger natural history indian subcontinent'' pp europe russia bonhomme brian ''forests peasants revolutionaries forest conservation organization soviet russia '' pp campopiano evolution landscape social political organisation water management po valley middle ages fifth fourteenth centuries borger de kraker soens thoen tys landscapes seascapes corn


https wwwacademiaedu evolution landscape social political organisation water management po valley middle ages fifth fourteenth centuries borger de kraker soens thoen tys landscapes seascapes corn cioc mark ''the rhine eco biography '' clapp brian william ''an environmental history britain since industrial revolution'' routledge dryzek john et al ''green states social movements environmentalism united states united kingdom germany norway'' oxford hoffmann richard ''an environmental history medieval europe'' luckin bill peter thorsheim eds ''a mighty capital threat environmental history london '' u pittsburgh press https wwwh netorg reviews showpdfphpid online review smout christopher ''nature contested environmental history scotland northern england since '' thorsheim peter ''inventing pollution coal


smoke culture britain since '' uekotter frank ''the greenest nation new history german environmentalism'' mit press warren charles r ''managing scotland 's environment'' weiner douglas r ''models nature ecology conservation cultural revolution soviet russia'' pp covers historiography arndt melanie http docupediade zg arndt environmental history v en ''environmental history'' version docupedia zeitgeschichte august beattie james recent themes environmental history british empire ''history compass'' feb pp bess michael mark cioc james sievert environmental history writing southern europe ''environmental history'' pp nbsp


cioc mark bj rn ola linn r matt osborn environmental history writing northern europe ''environmental history'' pp nbsp coates peter emerging wilderness redwoods bananas recent environmental history united states rest americas ''environment history'' pp nbsp conway richard environmental history colonial mexico ''history compass'' doi hic haq gary alistair paul ''environmentalism since '' routledge hay peter ''main currents western environmental thought'' standard scholarly history https wwwamazoncom dp excerpt text search mancall peter c pigs historians changes


land beyond ''william mary quarterly'' pp nbsp https wwwjstororg stable willmaryquar jstor mosley stephen common ground integrating social environmental history ''journal social history'' volume number spring pp nbsp relation social history robin libby tom griffiths environmental history australasia ''environment history'' pp nbsp sedrez lise environmental history modern latin america ''a companion latin american history'' ed thomas h holloway wiley blackwell wakild emily environment environmentalism ''a companion mexican history culture'' william h beezley ed wiley blackwell references reading biasillo


roberta claudio de majo eds http wwwenvironmentandsocietyorg perspectives storytelling environmental history experiences germany italy storytelling environmental history experiences germany italy '' http wwwenvironmentandsocietyorg perspectives rcc perspectives transformations environment society '' doiorg rcc hall marcus patrick kupper eds http wwwenvironmentandsocietyorg perspectives crossing mountains challenges environmental history crossing mountains challenges environmental history '' http wwwenvironmentandsocietyorg perspectives rcc perspectives '' doiorg rcc mauch christof http wwwenvironmentandsocietyorg perspectives notes greenhouse making case environmental history notes greenhouse making case environmental history '' http wwwenvironmentandsocietyorg perspectives rcc perspectives '' doiorg rcc external links podcasts http wwweh resourcesorg podcast podcasthtml jan woosthoek podcasts many aspects subject including interviews eminent environmental historians http niche canadaorg naturespast nature 's past canadian environmental history podcast features monthly discussions


environmental history research community canada https webarchiveorg web http envirohistorynzwordpresscom podcasts envirohistnz podcast podcast looks environmental history new zealand institutions resources http esehorg iceho international consortium environmental history organizations ice ho http wwweh resourcesorg environmental historyhtml oosthoek kjw environmental history https webarchiveorg web http www h netmsuedu environ historiography historiographyhtml historiographies different countries https webarchiveorg web http www h netmsuedu environ indexhtml h environment web resource students environmental history http wwwasehnet american society environmental history http esehorg european society environmental history https envhistnowcom environmental history http wwweh resourcesorg environmental history resources http wwwenvironmentalhistoryorg environmental history timeline http wwwcnrberkeleyedu departments espm env hist eh internethtml environmental history internet http wwwcarsoncenteruni muenchende rachel carson center environment society http wwwenvironmentandsocietyorg environment society portal http wwwforesthistoryorg


forest history society http environmentalhistory au nzorg australian new zealand environmental history network https webarchiveorg web http wwwhistoriaambientalorg brazilian environmental history network http cehenvironmentalhistory au nzorg centre environmental history australian national university http niche canadaorg network canadian history environment http wwwsussexacuk cweh centre world environmental history university sussex http hrcaksrcehr ekonomska ekohistorijalang en croatian journal environmental history croatian english german slovenian http vlibiueit history topical environmentalhtml environmental history virtual library http wwwenvhistcom environmental history top news http niche canadaorg envhist environmental history mobile application project http wwwhistoricalclimatologycom historicalclimatologycom explores climate history form environmental history http wwwclimatehistorynetworkcom climate history network network climate historians http cevretarihiorg turkish society environmental history journals https wwwjstororg action showpublicationjournalcode envihist jstor volumes


issues browse environmental history volumes https wwwjstororg action showpublicationjournalcode foreconshist jstor volumes issues browse forest conservation history volumes https wwwjstororg action showpublicationjournalcode envirevier jstor volumes issues browse environmental review er volumes https wwwjstororg action showpublicationjournalcode envihistrevi jstor volumes issues browse environmental history review volumes https wwwjstororg action showpublicationjournalcode jforesthistory jstor volumes issues browse journal forest history volumes https wwwjstororg action showpublicationjournalcode forehistnews jstor volumes issues browse forest history volumes http wwwericademoncouk ehhtml ''environment history'' published white horse press british based editorial collective


http environmentalhistory au nzorg environmental history ''environmental history'' co published quarterly ''american society environmental history'' us ''forest history society'' http environmentalhistory au nzorg ''global environment journal history natural social sciences'' published new zealand special regard modern contemporary ages '' http wwwfafichufmgbr halac indexphp periodico historia ambiental latinoamericana caribe halac '' http wwweaglehillus programs journals jona journal north atlanticshtml ''journal north atlantic'' http hrcaksrcehr ekonomska ekohistorijalang en ''economic ecohistory research journal economic environmental history croatia '' http ucpressjournalscom journalsocaspjissn ''pacific historical review'' '' http wwwenvironmentandsocietyorg arcadia arcadia explorations environmental history '' published rachel carson center environment society eseh videos https webarchiveorg web http wwwnotesfromthefieldtvcom notes field public television episodes


us environmental history subjects environmental social science landscape design history


fredericksburg virginia usa '' 'sociology health illness''' '' 'sociology health wellness''' '''health sociology''' examines interaction society health field study interested aspects life including comtemporary well historical influences impact alter health wellbeing ref name white ref establishes births deaths social processes interweave influence health wellbeing influences could brought illness understood framed immediate community members impact technology health

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of health and illness


improved alternative models include biopsychosocial model aims incorporate elements alongside psychological aspect mind field research acts broad school overlapping areas like sociology medicine sociology body sociology disease wider sociologies like family education contribute insights dinstinct focuses life course health wellness historical background wall painting found tomb egyptian official known physicians tomb humans long sought advice knowledge skill


healing paleopathology historical records allow examination ancient societies dealt illness outbreak rulers ancient egypt sponsored physicians specialists specific diseases ref name porter imhotep first medical doctor known name egyptian lived around nbsp bc adviser king zoser time egyptians making progress medicine among contributions medicine textbook treatment wounds broken bones even tumors stopping spread infectious disease utmost importance maintaining healthy society ref name porter ref outbreak


disease peloponnesian war recorded thucydides survived epidemic account shown factors outside disease affect society athenians siege concentrated within city major city centers hardest hit ref name littman ref made outbreak even deadly probable food shortages fate athens inevitable ref name littman approximately population died disease ref name littman thucydides stated epidemic carried away alike disease attacked people different ages sexes nationalities ref name littman physician ancient greece treating


patient bc ancient medical systems stressed importance reducing illness divination ritual ref name porter codes behavior dietary protocols widespread ancient world ref name porter zhou dynasty china doctors suggested exercise meditation temperance preserve one 's health ref name porter chinese closely link health spiritual well health regimes ancient india focused oral health best method healthy life ref name porter talmudic code created rules health stressed ritual cleanliness connected disease certain animals created diets ref name porter examples include


mosaic code roman baths aqueducts ref name porter concerned health sanitation illness ancient world elite class ref name porter good health thought reduce risk spiritual defilement therefore enhanced social status ruling class saw beacon civilization ref name porter late roman period sanitation lower classes concern leisured class ref name porter means would donate charities focused health non elites ref name porter decline roman


epidemics supervising sewer systems ref name lindemann private corporations also played role public health funding research institutions work funded governments private firms ref name lindemann epidemics cause government interventions early goal public health reactionary whereas modern goal prevent disease becomes problem ref name lindemann despite overall improvement world health still decrease health gap affluent impoverished ref name taylor ref today society likely blame health issues


individual rather society whole prevailing view late th century ref name taylor black report published united kingdom went view argued true root problem material deprivation ref name taylor report proposed comprehensive anti poverty strategy address issues ref name taylor since parallel views conservative government go action immediately ref name taylor conservative government criticized labour party implementing suggestions black report listed ref name taylor criticism gave


black report exposure needed arguments considered valid explanation health inequality ref name taylor also debate whether poverty causes ill health ill health causes poverty ref name taylor arguments national health service gave considerable emphasis poverty lack access health care also found heredity bearing health social environment research also proved indeed positive correlation socioeconomic inequalities illness ref name taylor methodology sociology health illness looks three areas


conceptualization study measurement social distribution justification patterns health illness looking things researchers look different diseases sociological lens prevalence response different diseases varies culture ref name marshall looking bad health researchers see health affects different social regulations controls measuring distribution health illness useful look official statistics community surveys official statistics make possible look people treated shows willing


able use health services also sheds light infected person 's view illness hand community surveys look people 's rating health looking relation clinically defined illness self reports find often discrepancy great deal time mortality statistics take place morbidity statistics many developed societies people typically die degenerative conditions age die sheds light life time health produces many limitations looking pattern


sickness sociologists try look various data analyze distribution better normally developing societies lower life expectancies comparison developed countries also found correlations mortality sex age young old people susceptible sickness death average women typically live longer men although women likely bad health ref name marshall free online encyclopedia website wwwencyclopediacom access date ref life expectancy region disparities health also found people different social classes ethnicities within society even though medical


profession put importance health related behaviors alcohol consumption smoking diet exercise great deal data supporting conclusion behaviors affect health significantly factors ref name marshall sociologists think helpful look health illness broad lens sociologists agree alcohol consumption smoking diet exercise important issues also see importance analyzing cultural factors affect patterns sociologists also look effects productive process health illness also


looking things industrial pollution environmental pollution accidents work stress related diseases ref name marshall social factors play significant role developing health illness studies epidemiology show autonomy control workplace vital factors etiology heart disease one cause effort reward imbalance decreasing career advancement opportunities major imbalances control work coupled various negative health costs various studies shown pension rights may shed light mortality differences retired men women different socioeconomic statuses studies show


outside factors influence health illness ref name marshall international perspective africa estimation number adults africa infected hiv aids note levels infection much higher sub saharan africa hiv aids leading epidemic affects social welfare africa ref name fredrickson ref human immunodeficiency virus hiv cause aids acronym acquired immunodeficiency syndrome aids condition humans immune system begins fail leading life threatening infections two thirds world 's hiv population located sub saharan africa since epidemic started


million africans died complications hiv aids ref name fredrickson people apart religious sub groups sub saharan africa actively frequently participate religious activities likely lower risk contracting hiv aids opposite end many beliefs infected male cured infection sex virgin beliefs increase number people virus also increase number rapes women ref name babb da babb da use traditional medicine hiv infected individuals psycho health med ref


herbal treatment one primary medicines used treat hiv africa used standard treatment affordable ref name fredrickson herbal treatment affordable researched poorly regulated lack research whether herbal medicines work medicines consist major flaw healing cycle hiv africa ref name babb da economically hiv significant negative effect labor force africa slowly diminishing due hiv related deaths illness response government income declines


tax revenue government spend money making order care affected hiv aids ref name fredrickson aids orphans malawi major social problem africa regards hiv orphan epidemic orphan epidemic africa regional problem cases parents affected hiv due children usually raised grandmothers extreme cases raised order care sick parents children take responsibility working


produce income children lose parents also lose childhood well provide care parents children also miss education increases risk teen pregnancy people affected hiv efficient way diminish orphan epidemic prevention preventing children acquiring hiv mothers birth well educating disease grow older also educating adults hiv caring infected people adequately lower orphan population hiv aids epidemic


reducing average life expectancy people africa twenty years age range highest death rates due hiv ages years fact age range adults acquire income cannot afford send children school due high medication costs also removes people could help aid responding epidemic ref name fredrickson asia asian countries wide variations population wealth technology health care causing attitudes towards health illness differ japan


example third highest life expectancy years old afghanistan th worst years old key issues asian health include childbirth maternal health hiv aids mental health aging elderly problems influenced sociological factors religion belief systems attempts reconcile traditional medicinal practices modern professionalism economic status inhabitants asia people living hiv aids like rest world asia threatened possible pandemic hiv aids vietnam good example society


shaping asian hiv aids awareness attitudes towards disease vietnam country feudal traditional roots due invasion wars technology travel becoming increasingly globalized globalization altered traditional viewpoints values also responsible spread hiv aids vietnam even early globalization added problem chinese influence made vietnam confucian society women less importance men men superiority need sexually responsible women generally well educated often unaware risk perpetuating


spread hiv aids well stis ref name micollier ref confucianism strong influence belief system asia centuries particularly china japan korea influence seen way people chose seek seek medical care important issue asia societal effect ability disabled individuals adjust disability cultural beliefs shape attitudes towards physical mental disabilities china exemplifies problem according chinese confucian tradition also applicable countries confucianism spread people


always pursue good health lives emphasis health promotion disease prevention ref name yang chinese disability signifies one led proper lifestyle therefore lack opportunities disabled individuals explore better ways accept adapt disability ref name yang indigenous healing practices extremely diverse throughout asia often follow certain patterns still prevalent today many traditional healing practices include shamanism herbal medicines may passed orally small groups even institutionalized professionalized many developing


countries health care available decades ago based traditional medicine spiritual healing governments must careful create health policies strike balance modernity tradition organizations like world health organization try create policies respect tradition without trying replace modern science instead regulating ensure safety keeping accessible ref name packer ref india particular tries make traditional medicines safe still available many people possible adapting tradition match modernization still considering economic positions culture


citizens ref name packer flag world health organization mental health issues gaining increasing amount attention asian countries many countries preoccupation modernizing developing economies resulting cultural changes order reconcile modern techniques traditional practices social psychologists india process indigenizing psychology indigenous psychology derived laws theories principals ideas culture unique society ref name yang ref many asian countries childbirth still treated traditional means thought regional


attitudes example pakistan decisions concerning pregnancy antenatal care anc usually made older women often pregnant woman 's mother law mother father distanced process may may receive professional anc depending education class financial situation generally asia childbirth still woman 's area male obstetricians rare female midwives healers still norm places western methods overtaking traditional attempt improve maternal health increase number live births ref name rozario ref asian countries


mostly developing nations aging rapidly even attempting build economies even wealthy asian nations japan singapore taiwan also elderly populations thus try sustain economies society small younger generations caring elderly citizens elderly traditionally well respected well cared asian cultures experts predict younger generations future less likely concerned involved health care older relatives due various factors women joining


workforce separation families urbanization migration proliferation western ideals individualism australia health patterns found continent australia includes pacific islands much influenced european colonization indigenous medicinal beliefs significantly prevalent australia traditional ideas still influential health care problems many islands pacific ref name lewis ref rapid urbanization australia led epidemics typhoid fever bubonic plague public health professionalized beginning late


effort control diseases since australia 's health system evolved similarly western countries main cultural influence affecting health care political ideologies parties control government ref name lewis old heroin bottle australia treatment facilities 'problem drinkers' since recognized australia several hundred thousand alcoholics prevention became priority cures societal consensus treatments generally ineffective ref name lewis government began passing laws attempting curb alcohol consumption