ilkhanids th th century encyclopedic knowledge wide range cultures mongolia china steppes central eurasia persia arabic speaking lands europe provide direct access information late mongol era descriptions also highlight manner mongol empire emphasis trade resulted atmosphere cultural religious exchange intellectual ferment resulting transmission host ideas east west vice versa one muslim scholar ibn khaldun broke traditionalism offered model


historical change ''muqaddimah'' exposition methodology scientific history ibn khaldun focused reasons rise fall civilization arguing causes change sought economic social structure society work largely ignored muslim world early modern renaissance europe history written states nations study history changed enlightenment romanticism voltaire described history certain ages considered important rather describing events chronological order history became independent discipline


called ''philosophia historiae'' anymore merely history ''historia'' voltaire th century attempted revolutionize study world history first voltaire concluded traditional study history flawed christian church one powerful entities time presented framework studying history voltaire writing ''history charles xii'' ''the age louis xiv'' instead choose focus economics politics culture aspects history mostly unexplored contemporaries would develop sections world history


else voltaire regarded truth essential part recording world history nationalism religion subtracted objective truth voltaire freed influence recorded history giambattista vico italy wrote ''scienza nuova seconda'' new science argued history expression human deeds thought men historical entities human nature changes time epoch seen whole aspects culture art religion philosophy politics economics interrelated point developed later oswald spengler vico


showed myth poetry art entry points discovering true spirit culture vico outlined conception historical development great cultures like rome undergo cycles growth decline ideas fashion enlightenment influenced romantic historians major theoretical foundation world history given german philosopher g w f hegel saw modern prussian state latest though often confused highest stage world development gwf hegel developed three lenses believed world history could


viewed documents produced historical period journal entries contractual agreements considered hegel part original history documents produced person enveloped within culture making conduits vital information also limited contextual knowledge documents pertain hegel 's original history classified modern historians primary sources reflective history hegel 's second lens documents written temporal distance separating event discussed academic writing limited lens according hegel imposition writers


cultural biases takes analytical approach history world history broad topic focusing extracting valuable information certain periods may beneficial approach third lens hegel 's definitions two affected study history early modern period contemporary period another early modern historian adam ferguson ferguson 's main contribution study world history ''an essay history civil society'' according ferguson world history combination two forms history one


natural history aspects world god created revolutionary social history social history progress humans made towards fulfilling god 's plan humanity believed progress could achieved individuals pursuing commercial success would bring us closer perfect society would never reach one however also theorized complete dedication commercial success could lead societal collapse like happened rome people would lose morality lens ferguson viewed world history humanities struggle reach ideal


society henry home lord kames philosopher enlightenment contributed study world history major historical work ''sketches history man'' home 's outlined four stages human history observed first primitive stage small hunter gatherer groups order form larger groups humans transitioned second stage began domesticate animals third stage development agriculture new technology established trade higher levels cooperation amongst sizable groups people gathering people agricultural


villages laws social obligations needed developed form order could maintained fourth final stage involved humans moving market towns seaports agriculture focus instead commerce forms labor arouse society defining stages human history homes influenced successors also contributed development studies sociology anthropology marxist theory historical materialism claims history world fundamentally determined ''material conditions'' given time nbsp words relationships


people order fulfil basic needs feeding clothing housing families overall marx engels claimed identified five successive stages development material conditions western europe theory divides history world following periods ref name charles taylor p charles taylor critical notice ''canadian journal philosophy'' p ref ref name civilwar https webarchiveorg web http wwwmarxorg archive marx works civil war france indexhtm marx engels ''the civil war france'' ref primitive communism slave society feudalism capitalism socialism regna darnell frederic gleach argue soviet union


marxian theory history accepted orthodoxy stifled research schools thought history however adherents marx 's theories argue stalin distorted marxism contemporary world history became popular genre th century universal history several best sellers dealt history world including surveys ''the story mankind'' hendrik willem van loon ''the outline history'' h g wells influential writers reached wide audiences include h g wells oswald spengler arnold j toynbee pitirim sorokin carroll quigley christopher dawson


lewis mumford scholars working field include eric voegelin william hardy mcneill michael mann evolving technologies dating methods surveying laser technology called lidar contemporary historians access new information changes past civilizations studied spengler 's ''decline west'' vol compared nine organic cultures egyptian bc bc indian bc bc chinese bc ad classical bc bc byzantine ad aztec ad arabian ad mayan ad western ad book smashing success among intellectuals worldwide predicted


organisms typical life span years like sima qian toynbee explained decline due moral failure many readers rejoiced implication vols return form catholicism could halt breakdown western civilization began reformation volumes published abandoned religious message popular audience slipped away scholars picked apart mistakes mcneill wrote ''the rise west'' improve upon toynbee showing separate civilizations eurasia interacted beginning


civilization unique european experience global one great culture systems interacted produce present day world attempted include elements history social economic political religious aesthetic legal technological first world war strongly encouraged american historians expand study europe courses western civilization second world war enhance global perspectives especially regarding asia africa louis gottschalk william h mcneill leften stavrianos became leaders integration world history american


college curriculum gottschalk began work unesco 'history mankind cultural scientific development' mcneill influenced toynbee broadened work th century new topics since world history association several regional associations began program help history professors broaden coverage freshman courses world history became popular replacement courses western civilization professors patrick manning university pittsburgh 's world history center ross e dunn san diego state leaders promoting innovative teaching methods related disciplines art history architectural


history global perspectives promoted well schools architecture us national architectural accrediting board requires schools teach history includes non west global perspective reflects decade long effort move past standard euro centric approach dominated field recent themes recent years relationship african world history shifted rapidly one antipathy one engagement synthesis reynolds surveys relationship african world histories emphasis tension area studies paradigm growing world history


emphasis connections exchange across regional boundaries closer examination recent exchanges debates merits exchange also featured reynolds sees relationship african world history measure changing nature historical inquiry past century authors books world history peter kropotkin ''the state historic role'' london friedrich engels ''the origin family private property state'' zurich christopher bayly ''the birth modern world global connections comparisons '' london jerry bentley founder


editor ''journal world history'' jacques bertin ''atlas historique universel panorama de l'histoire du monde'' geneva minerva fernand braudel ''civilisation mat rielle conomie et capitalisme'' paris vols english translation ''civilization capitalism th th centuries'' translated si n reynolds vols philip curtin ''the world west european challenge overseas response age empire'' pp nbsp http wwwh netorg reviews showrevcgipath online review christopher dawson ''religion rise western culture '' https wwwamazoncom dp excerpt text search durant ariel durant ''the story civilization''


felipe fernandez armesto b millennium civilizations world francis fukuyama ''the end history last man'' georg wilhelm friedrich hegel philosopher world history patrick manning ''navigating world history historians create global past'' william hardy mcneill born see especially ''the rise west history human community'' robert mcneill william h mcneill ''the human web bird 's eye view world history'' https wwwamazoncom dp excerpt text search jawaharlal nehru ''glimpses world history'' j rgen osterhammel ''the transformation world


global history nineteenth century'' https wwwamazoncom transformation world history nineteenth century dp excerpt carroll quigley ''the evolution civilizations'' ''tragedy hope history world time'' ''weapons systems political stability history'' pitirim sorokin russian american macrosociology ''social cultural dynamics'' vol oswald spengler german ''the decline west'' https archiveorg details declineofwest spenuoft vol online https archiveorg details declineofwest spenuoft vol online https wwwamazoncom dp excerpt text search abridged edition peter stearns usa ''world history brief major patterns change continuity'' th ed ''encyclopedia world history'' th ed pp luc normand


textbook duiker william j duiker jackson j spielvogel ''world history'' vol university textbook dupuy r ernest trevor n dupuy ''the encyclopedia military history bc present'' pp comprehensive discussion focused wars battles gombrich ernst little history world grenville jas ''a history world th st century'' lee wayne e ''waging war conflict culture innovation world history'' https wwwamazoncom waging war conflict culture innovation dp excerpt mckay john p bennett hill ''a history world societies'' vol


university textbook mcneill william h ''a world history'' university textbook mcneill william h jerry h bentley david christian eds ''berkshire encyclopedia world history'' vol osterhammel j rgen ''the transformation world global history nineteenth century'' princeton university press pp paine lincoln ''the sea civilization maritime history world'' knopf pp xxxv illustrations maps https wwwamazoncom sea civilization maritime history world dp excerpt roberts j westad ''the history world'' rosenberg emily et al eds ''a world connecting '' stearns peter n ed


''oxford encyclopedia modern world present'' vol stearns peter n ''the industrial revolution world history'' https wwwquestiacom read title industrial revolution world history online edition szulc tad ''then world changed since ww ii'' p popular history tignor robert et al ''worlds together worlds apart history world'' th ed vol university textbook watt c frank spencer neville brown ''a history world twentieth century'' transnational histories adam thomas ''intercultural transfers making modern world sources contexts''


boon marten business enterprise globalization towards transnational business history ''business history review'' davies thomas richard ''ngos new history transnational civil society'' ember carol r melvin ember ian skoggard eds ''encyclopedia diasporas immigrant refugee cultures around world'' iriye akira ''global transnational history past present future'' pp iriye akira pierre yves saunier eds ''the palgrave dictionary transnational history mid th century present day'' pp entries scholars osterhammel j rgen niels p petersson ''globalization short


history '' pieke frank n ny ri p l thun mette ceddagno antonella ''transnational chinese fujianese migrants europe'' saunier pierre yves ''transnational history'' atlases barraclough geoffrey ed ''the times atlas world history'' catchpole brian '' map history modern world'' darby h c h fullard eds ''the new cambridge modern history vol atlas'' haywood john ''atlas world history'' https archiveorg searchphpquery atlas world history haywood online free kinder hermann werner hilgemann ''anchor atlas world history'' vol advanced analytical maps mostly europe o'brian patrick ''atlas world history'' https wwwamazoncom atlas world history origins humanity dp


excerpt rand mcnally ''historical atlas world'' https archiveorg details historicalatlaso rand online free santon kate liz mckay eds ''atlas world history'' historiography adas michael ''essays twentieth century history'' historiographic essays world history conceptualizing long th century early allardyce gilbert toward world history american historians coming world history course ''journal world history'' bentley jerry h ed ''the oxford handbook world history'' oxford university press costello paul ''world historians goals twentieth century answers modernism'' curtin philip


depth span relevance ''the american historical review'' vol feb pp nbsp https wwwjstororg stable jstor dunn ross e ed ''the new world history teacher 's companion'' pp http wwwh netorg reviews showrevcgipath online review frye northrop spengler revisited ''northrop frye modern culture'' pp first published https booksgooglecom booksid wzgzrml tq c pg pa dq electron dinosaur source gbs toc r cad sig c q uno z dbrg hmf plfy online hare j laurence jack wells promising world surveys curricula challenge global history ''history teacher'' feb pp http wwwsocietyforhistoryeducationorg pdfs f hare wellspdf online hughes warrington marnie ''palgrave advances world histories'' pp articles scholars lang michael globalization global history toynbee


''journal world history'' dec pp nbsp http musejhuedu journals journal world history v langhtml project muse mcinnes neil great doomsayer oswald spengler reconsidered ''national interest'' fulltext ebsco mcneill william h changing shape world history ''history theory'' https wwwjstororg stable jstor manning patrick ''navigating world history historians create global past'' important guide entire field https wwwamazoncom dp excerpt text search http wwwh netorg reviews showrevphpid online review mazlish bruce comparing global history world history ''journal interdisciplinary history'' vol winter pp nbsp https wwwjstororg pss jstor moore robert world


history michael bentley ed ''companion historiography'' national center history schools ucla ''world history big eras compact history humankind'' pp neiberg michael ''warfare world history'' https wwwquestiacom read title warfare world history online edition patel klaus kiran http nbn resolvingde urn nbn de ''transnational history'' european history online mainz institute european history retrieved november richards michael ''revolutions world history'' https wwwquestiacom read title revolutions world history online edition roupp heidi ed ''teaching world history resource book'' pp https wwwquestiacom read title teaching world history resource book online edition sachsenmaier dominic global perspectives global history cambridge smil vaclav ''energy world


history'' https wwwquestiacom read title energy world history online edition tellier luc normand ''urban world history'' puq pages http wwwpuqca catalogue themes urban world history html online edition watts sheldon ''disease medicine world history'' https wwwquestiacom read title disease medicine world history online edition external links professional groups http wwwthewhaorg world history association http wwwh netorg world h world h world discussion list http wwwcliohworldnet clioh world clioh world european erasmus network researching teaching learning world history resources http wwwlearnerorg courses worldhistory abouthtml bridging world history texts projects advanced secondary course http wwwlearnerorg courses worldhistory archivehtml free database photos documents maps images ready classroom use http wwwstudenthandoutscom worldhistoryhtm student handouts inc free world history lesson plans handouts worksheets http wwwourworldindataorg world


open textbook project cambridge open book forthcoming http edsitementnehgov feature world history edsitement edsitement 's world history vetted websites lesson plans http edsitementnehgov edsitement best humanities web https globalhistoryorguk scottish centre global history public history blog shares ongoing world history research projects around world introductions fields history historiography


'''zoology''' ref group note pronunciation zoology usually regarded nonstandard though uncommon ref branch biology studies animal kingdom including structure embryology evolution classification habits distribution animals living extinct interact ecosystems term derived ancient greek 'animal' 'knowledge' 'study' ref name onlineetdict ref although humans always interested natural history animals saw around made use knowledge domesticate certain species formal study zoology


said originated aristotle viewed animals living organisms studied structure development considered adaptations surroundings function parts greek physician galen studied human anatomy one greatest surgeons ancient world fall western roman empire onset early middle ages greek tradition medicine scientific study went decline western europe although continued medieval islamic world modern zoology origins renaissance early modern


period carl linnaeus antonie van leeuwenhoek robert hooke charles darwin gregor mendel many others study animals largely moved deal form function adaptations relationships groups behaviour ecology zoology increasingly subdivided disciplines classification physiology biochemistry evolution discovery structure dna francis crick james watson realm molecular biology opened leading advances cell biology developmental biology molecular genetics history conrad gessner ''historiae animalium'' considered beginning modern zoology


history zoology traces study animal kingdom ancient modern times prehistoric man needed study animals plants environment order exploit survive cave paintings engravings sculptures france dating back years showing bison horses deer carefully rendered detail similar images parts world illustrated mostly animals hunted food also savage animals ref name fellowes ref neolithic revolution characterized domestication animals continued period antiquity ancient knowledge wildlife


illustrated realistic depictions wild domestic animals near east mesopotamia egypt including husbandry practices techniques hunting fishing invention writing reflected zoology presence animals egyptian hieroglyphics although concept ''zoology'' single coherent field arose much later zoological sciences emerged natural history reaching back biological works aristotle galen ancient greco roman world aristotle fourth century bc looked animals living organisms studying structure development vital phenomena divided two


groups animals blood equivalent concept vertebrates animals without blood invertebrates spent two years lesbos observing describing animals plants considering adaptations different organisms function parts four hundred years later roman physician galen dissected animals study anatomy function different parts dissection human cadavers prohibited time resulted conclusions false many centuries considered heretical challenge views study anatomy stultified


post classical era middle eastern science medicine advanced world integrating concepts ancient greece rome mesopotamia persia well ancient indian tradition ayurveda making numerous advances innovations th century albertus magnus produced commentaries paraphrases aristotle 's works books topics like botany zoology minerals included information ancient sources also results investigations general approach surprisingly modern wrote task natural science simply accept


told inquire causes natural things early pioneer conrad gessner whose monumental page encyclopedia animals ''historia animalium'' published four volumes europe galen 's work anatomy remained largely unsurpassed unchallenged th century renaissance early modern period zoological thought revolutionized europe renewed interest empiricism discovery many novel organisms prominent movement andreas vesalius william harvey used experimentation careful observation physiology naturalists carl linnaeus jean baptiste


lamarck buffon began classify diversity life fossil record well studying development behavior organisms antonie van leeuwenhoek pioneering work microscopy revealed previously unknown world microorganisms laying groundwork cell theory van leeuwenhoek 's observations endorsed robert hooke living organisms composed one cells could generate spontaneously cell theory provided new perspective fundamental basis life previously realm gentlemen naturalists th th th centuries zoology became


increasingly professional scientific discipline explorer naturalists alexander von humboldt investigated interaction organisms environment ways relationship depends geography laying foundations biogeography ecology ethology naturalists began reject essentialism consider importance extinction mutability species developments well results embryology paleontology synthesized publication charles darwin 's theory evolution natural selection darwin placed theory organic evolution new footing explaining processes occur providing


observational evidence done darwin 's theory rapidly accepted scientific community soon became central axiom rapidly developing science biology basis modern genetics began work gregor mendel peas although significance work realized time darwin gave new direction morphology physiology uniting common biological theory theory organic evolution result reconstruction classification animals upon genealogical basis fresh investigation development animals


crick james watson realm molecular biology opened leading advances cell biology developmental biology molecular genetics study systematics transformed dna sequencing elucidated degrees affinity different organisms scope zoology branch science dealing animals species defined largest group organisms two individuals appropriate sex produce fertile offspring million species animal described estimated many million animal species may exist


study animals would historically described zoologist term come refer deal individual animals others describing specifically physiologists ethologists evolutionary biologists ecologists pharmacologists endocrinologists parasitologists ref name campbell ref branches zoology although study animal life ancient scientific incarnation relatively modern mirrors transition natural history biology start th century since hunter cuvier comparative anatomical study associated morphography shaping modern areas zoological investigation anatomy physiology histology embryology teratology


ethology modern zoology first arose german british universities britain thomas henry huxley prominent figure ideas centered morphology animals many consider greatest comparative anatomist latter half th century similar hunter courses composed lectures laboratory practical classes contrast previous format lectures classification scientific classification zoology method zoologists group categorize organisms biological type genus species biological classification form scientific taxonomy modern biological classification


root work carl linnaeus grouped species according shared physical characteristics groupings since revised improve consistency darwinian principle common descent molecular phylogenetics uses nucleic acid sequence data driven many recent revisions likely continue biological classification belongs science zoological systematics linnaeus 's table animal kingdom first edition ''systema naturae'' many scientists consider five kingdom system outdated modern alternative classification systems generally start three domain system archaea originally archaebacteria bacteria originally


eubacteria eukaryota including protists fungi plants animals ref name domain ref domains reflect whether cells nuclei well differences chemical composition cell exteriors ref name domain kingdom broken recursively species separately classified order domain kingdom phylum class order family genus species scientific name organism generated genus species example humans listed ''homo sapiens'' ''homo'' genus ' 'sapiens'' specific epithet combined make species name writing scientific


name organism proper capitalize first letter genus put specific epithet lowercase additionally entire term may italicized underlined dominant classification system called linnaean taxonomy includes ranks binomial nomenclature classification taxonomy nomenclature zoological organisms administered international code zoological nomenclature merging draft biocode published attempt standardize nomenclature yet formally adopted vertebrate invertebrate zoology vertebrate zoology biological discipline consists


study vertebrate animals animals backbone fish amphibians reptiles birds mammals various taxonomically oriented disciplines mammalogy biological anthropology herpetology ornithology ichthyology seek identify classify species study structures mechanisms specific groups rest animal kingdom dealt invertebrate zoology vast diverse group animals includes sponges echinoderms tunicates worms molluscs arthropods many phyla single celled organisms protists usually included structural zoology cell biology studies structural physiological properties


independently anatomy cell biology two studies closely related categorized structural studies comparative anatomy study similarities differences anatomy different groups closely related evolutionary biology phylogeny evolution species physiology animal anatomical engraving ''handbuch der anatomie der tiere f r k nstler'' physiology studies mechanical physical biochemical processes living organisms attempting understand structures function whole theme structure function central biology physiological studies traditionally divided


plant physiology animal physiology principles physiology universal matter particular organism studied example learned physiology yeast cells also apply human cells field animal physiology extends tools methods human physiology non human species physiology studies example nervous immune endocrine respiratory circulatory systems function interact developmental biology developmental biology study processes animals plants reproduce grow discipline includes study embryonic development cellular differentiation regeneration asexual sexual


reproduction metamorphosis growth differentiation stem cells adult organism development animals plants considered articles evolution population genetics heredity genetic variability mendelian inheritance reproduction evolutionary biology evolutionary biology subfield biology studies evolutionary processes natural selection common descent speciation produced diversity life earth evolutionary research concerned origin descent species well change time includes scientists many taxonomically oriented disciplines example generally involves scientists special training


modern synthesis study evolutionary developmental biology related fields often considered part evolutionary biology phylogenetics systematics taxonomy ethology kelp gull chicks peck red spot mother 's beak stimulate regurgitating reflex ethology scientific objective study animal behavior natural conditions opposed behaviorism focuses behavioral response studies laboratory setting ethologists particularly concerned evolution behavior understanding behavior terms theory natural selection one sense first modern ethologist charles darwin


dispersal migration cladistics integrative field study uniting concepts information evolutionary biology taxonomy ecology physical geography geology paleontology climatology ref name cox et al ref origin field study widely accredited alfred russel wallace british biologist work jointly published charles darwin ref name browne ref molecular biology molecular biology studies common genetic developmental mechanisms animals plants attempting answer questions regarding mechanisms genetic inheritance structure gene james watson francis crick described structure


dna interactions within molecule publication jump started research molecular biology increased interest subject researchers practice techniques specific molecular biology common combine methods genetics biochemistry much molecular biology quantitative recently significant amount work done using computer science techniques bioinformatics computational biology molecular genetics study gene structure function among prominent sub fields molecular biology since early branches biology informed molecular biology


gutenberg '' http digitalcommonsunledu onlinedictinvertzoology online dictionary invertebrate zoology '' branches biology


heaven hell free may influenced religious philosophical systems including gnosticism greek philosophy islam bah faith possible roots dating back nd millennium bce zoroastrianism enters recorded history th century bce served state religion ancient iranian empires millennium around bce ce declined th century ce onwards direct result muslim conquest persia ce led large scale persecution zoroastrian people recent estimates place


worthy worship zoroaster proclaimed ahura mazda supreme creator creative sustaining force universe ''asha'' ref name human beings given choice supporting ahura mazda making ultimately responsible choices though ahura mazda equal contesting force ''angra mainyu'' destructive spirit mentality whose forces born ''aka manah'' evil thought considered main adversarial force religion standing ''spenta mainyu'' creative spirit mentality ref name ref middle persian literature developed angra mainyu ''ahriman'' advancing direct adversary


individual local beliefs practices values vocabulary sometimes merging tradition cases displacing ref name nyt ref ultimate purpose life practicing zoroastrian become ''ashavan'' master asha bring happiness world contributes cosmic battle evil core teachings zoroastrianism include following threefold path asha ''humata'' ''h xta'' ''huvarshta'' ref name ref practicing charity keep one 's soul aligned asha thus spreading happiness ref name ref spiritual equality duty men women alike ref name ref good


sake goodness without hope reward see ''ashem vohu'' terminology name ''zoroaster'' '' '' greek rendering avestan name ''zarathustra'' known ''zartosht'' ''zardosht'' persian ''zaratosht'' gujarati zoroastrian name religion ''mazdayasna'' combines ''mazda '' avestan word ''yasna'' meaning worship devotion ref name english adherent faith commonly called zoroastrian zarathustrian older expression still used today ''behdin'' meaning best religion '''''beh''''' middle persian '''''weh''''' good '''' 'din''''' middle persian '''' 'd n''''' avestan '''' 'da n '''''


zoroastrian liturgy term used title lay individual formally inducted religion ''navjote'' ceremony contrast priestly titles ''osta osti ervad hirbod mobed dastur'' first surviving reference zoroaster english scholarship attributed thomas browne briefly refers zoroaster ''religio medici'' term ''mazdaism'' alternative form english used well faith taking ''mazda '' name ahura mazda adding suffix '' ism'' suggest belief system overview


theology zoroastrians believe one universal transcendent good uncreated supreme creator deity ahura mazda wise lord ''ahura'' meaning lord ''mazda'' meaning wisdom avestan ref name britannica ref zoroaster keeps two attributes separate two different concepts gathas yet sometimes combines one form zoroaster also claims ahura mazda omniscient omnipotent ref name gathas ahura mazda noted working emanations known amesha spenta ref name help ahuras ref name sraosha one explicitly named


latter category scholars theologians long debated nature zoroastrianism dualism monotheism polytheism main terms applied religion ref name display authors author last crosby author first donald ref ref name ref name ref scholars assert zoroastrianism 's concept divinity covers mind immanent entities describing zoroastrianism belief immanent self creating universe consciousness special attribute thereby putting zoroastrianism pantheistic fold sharing origin indian hinduism case asha main spiritual force comes ahura mazda ref name cosmic order antithesis


chaos evident ' 'druj'' falsehood disorder ref name resulting cosmic conflict involves creation mental spiritual material including humanity core active role play conflict ref name iranicacom ref zoroastrian tradition druj comes angra mainyu also referred later texts ahriman destructive spirit mentality main representative asha conflict spenta mainyu creative spirit mentality ref name ahura mazda immanent humankind interacts creation emanations known amesha spenta bounteous holy immortals representative guardians different


aspects creation ideal personality ref name ahura mazda amesha spenta assisted league countless divinities called yazatas meaning worthy worship generally hypostasis moral physical aspect creation according zoroastrian cosmology articulating ahuna vairya formula ahura mazda made ultimate triumph good angra mainyu evident ref name ref ahura mazda ultimately prevail evil angra mainyu point reality undergo cosmic renovation called frashokereti limited time end final renovation creation even souls


dead initially banished chose descend darkness reunited ahura mazda kshatra vairya meaning best dominion resurrected immortality middle persian literature prominent belief end time savior figure known saoshyant would bring frashokereti gathic texts term saoshyant meaning one brings benefit referred believers mazdayasna changed messianic concept later writings zoroastrian theology includes foremost importance following threefold path asha revolving around good thoughts


ethical participation life good deeds formed good thoughts good words necessary ensure happiness keep chaos bay active participation central element zoroaster 's concept free zoroastrianism rejects extreme forms asceticism monasticism historically allowed moderate expressions concepts ref name ref zoroastrian tradition life temporary state mortal expected actively participate continuing battle asha druj prior incarnation birth child ''urvan'' soul


individual still united ''fravashi'' personal higher spirit existed since ahura mazda created universe prior splitting ''urvan'' fravashi participates maintenance creation led ahura mazda life given individual fravashi acts source inspiration perform good actions spiritual protector fravashis ancestors cultural spiritual heroic associated illustrious bloodlines venerated called upon aid living fourth day death urvan reunited fravashi whereupon


experiences life material world collected use continuing battle good spiritual world part zoroastrianism notion reincarnation least frashokereti followers ilm e kshnoom india believe reincarnation practice vegetarianism among currently non traditional opinions although various theological statements supporting vegetarianism zoroastrianism 's history claims zoroaster vegetarian zoroastrianism water ''aban'' fire ''atar'' agents ritual purity associated purification ceremonies considered basis ritual life zoroastrian cosmogony


water fire respectively second last primordial elements created scripture considers fire origin waters conception see apam napat water fire considered life sustaining water fire represented within precinct fire temple zoroastrians usually pray presence form fire considered evident source light culminating rite principal act worship constitutes strengthening waters fire considered medium spiritual insight


wisdom gained water considered source wisdom fire water also hypostasized yazatas atar anahita worship hymns litanies dedicated corpse considered host decay ie ' 'druj'' consequently scripture enjoins safe disposal dead manner corpse pollute good creation injunctions doctrinal basis fast fading traditional practice ritual exposure commonly identified called towers silence standard technical term either scripture


tradition ritual exposure currently mainly practiced zoroastrian communities indian subcontinent locations illegal diclofenac poisoning led virtual extinction scavenger birds zoroastrian communities either cremate dead bury graves cased lime mortar though zoroastrians keen dispose dead environmentally harmless way possible variety social political factors zoroastrians indian subcontinent namely parsis iranis engaged conversion since least th century zoroastrian


high priests historically opined reason allow conversion also supported revayats scripture though later priests condemned judgements ref name ref within iran many beleaguered zoroastrians also historically opposed practically concerned matter conversion currently though council tehran mobeds highest ecclesiastical authority within iran endorses conversion conversion islam zoroastrianism illegal laws islamic republic iran ref name history painted clay alabaster head zoroastrian priest wearing distinctive bactrian style headdress


centuries later zoroastrianism enters recorded history mid th century bce herodotus' ''the histories'' completed c nbsp bce includes description greater iranian society may recognizably zoroastrian features including exposure dead ''the histories'' primary source information early period achaemenid era nbsp bce particular respect role magi according herodotus magi sixth tribe medes unification persian empire cyrus great iranians referred mede mada peoples


ancient world wielded considerable influence courts median emperors ref name perseustuftsedu ref following unification median persian empires bce cyrus great later son cambyses ii curtailed powers magi attempted sow dissent following loss influence bce magi revolted set rival claimant throne usurper pretending cyrus' younger son smerdis took power shortly thereafter owing despotic rule cambyses long absence egypt whole people persians medes


texts lost alexander great 's troops invaded persepolis subsequently destroyed royal library diodorus siculus 's ''bibliotheca historica'' completed circa bce appears substantiate zoroastrian legend according one archaeological examination ruins palace xerxes bear traces burned whether vast collection semi religious texts written parchment gold ink suggested ''denkard'' actually existed remains matter speculation unlikely alexander 's conquests largely displaced zoroastrianism hellenistic beliefs ref name atlas though religion continued practiced many centuries following


demise achaemenids mainland persia core regions former achaemenid empire notably anatolia mesopotamia caucasus cappadocian kingdom whose territory formerly achaemenid possession persian colonists cut co religionists iran proper continued practice faith zoroastrianism forefathers strabo observing first century bc records xv fire kindlers possessed many holy places persian gods well fire temples ref name booksgooglenl mary boyce https booksgooglenl booksid gbxvfjtuec pg pa dq armenians zoroastrianism christianity hl nl sa x ved ccgq aewawovchmii zf sxgivgbmsch xbqb v onepage q armenians zoroastrianism christianity f false ''zoroastrians religious beliefs practices'' psychology press p ref strabo states


noteworthy enclosures midst altar large quantity ashes magi keep fire ever burning ref name booksgooglenl end parthian period zoroastrianism would receive renewed interest ref name atlas late antiquity late parthian period form zoroastrianism without doubt dominant religion armenian lands sassanids aggressively promoted zurvanite form zoroastrianism often building fire temples captured territories promote religion period centuries long


suzerainty caucasus sassanids made attempts promote zoroastrianism considerable successes prominent pre christian caucasus especially modern day azerbaijan due ties christian roman empire persia 's arch rival since parthian times sassanids suspicious roman christianity reign constantine great sometimes persecuted sassanid authority clashed armenian subjects battle avarayr making officially break roman church sassanids tolerated even sometimes favored christianity church east acceptance


christianity georgia caucasian iberia saw zoroastrian religion slowly surely decline late th century still widely practised something like second established religion decline middle ages scene hamzanama hamza ibn abd al muttalib burns zarthust 's chest shatters urn ashes sassanid empire overthrown arabs course years th century although administration state rapidly islamicized subsumed umayyad caliphate beginning little serious


pressure exerted newly subjected people adopt islam ref name boyce ref sheer numbers conquered zoroastrians treated ' 'dhimmis'' despite doubts validity identification persisted centuries ref name boyce made eligible protection islamic jurists took stance muslims could perfectly moral unbelievers might well left iniquities long vex overlords ref name boyce ref main conquest local terms agreed arab governors protected local populations exchange


tribute ref name boyce arabs adopted sassanid tax system land tax levied land owners poll tax levied individuals ref name boyce called ''jizya'' tax levied non muslims ie ' 'dhimmi' 's time poll tax came used means humble non muslims number laws restrictions evolved emphasize inferior status early orthodox caliphs long non muslims paid taxes adhered ' 'dhimmi'' laws administrators enjoined leave non muslims religion land caliph abu bakr qtd abbasid rule


pretext annex building ref name boyce ref ultimately muslim scholars like al biruni found records left belief instance khawarizmians figures like qutayba ibn muslim extinguished ruined every possible way knew write read khawarizmi writing knew history country studied sciences result things involved much obscurity impossible obtain accurate knowledge history country since time islam conversion though subject new leadership


harassment zoroastrians able continue former ways although slow steady social economic pressure convert ref name buillet ref ref name boyce ref nobility city dwellers first islam accepted slowly among peasantry landed gentry ref name buillet ref power worldly advantage lay followers islam although official policy one aloof contempt individual muslims eager proselytize ready use sorts means ref name boyce time tradition evolved islam made


thus according scholar mary boyce longer zoroastrians alone stood patriotism loyalty past ref name boyce damning indictment becoming muslim un iranian remained idiom zoroastrian texts ref name boyce iranian support abbasids overthrew umayyads subsequent caliphate government nominally lasted muslim iranians received marked favor new government iran capital baghdad mitigated antagonism arabs iranians sharpened distinction muslims non muslims abbasids zealously persecuted heretics although


directed mainly muslim sectarians also created harsher climate non muslims ref name boyce ref survival fire temple baku c despite economic social incentives convert zoroastrianism remained strong regions particularly furthest away caliphate capital baghdad bukhara present day uzbekistan resistance islam required th century arab commander qutaiba convert province four times first three times citizens reverted old religion finally governor made religion difficult every way turned local fire temple mosque encouraged


local population attend friday prayers paying attendee two dirhams ref name boyce cities arab governors resided particularly vulnerable pressures cases zoroastrians left choice either conform migrate regions amicable administration ref name boyce th century came define great number zoroastrian texts composed written th th centuries excluding copying lesser amendments continued time thereafter works middle persian dialect period free


fire temple yazd museum zoroastrians kerman khorasan northeastern iran th century iranian nobleman brought together four zoroastrian priests transcribe sassanid era middle persian work titled ''book lord'' ''khwaday namag'' pahlavi script arabic script transcription remained middle persian prose arabic version al muqaffa also exists completed subsequently became basis firdausi 's ''book kings'' became enormously popular among zoroastrians muslims also served propagate sassanid justification overthrowing arsacids ie sassanids


india descendants group today known ''parsis'' gujaratis long tradition called anyone iran ref name boyce today represent larger two groups zoroastrians indiaa special container carrying holy fire aden lonavala agiary india struggle zoroastrianism islam declined th th centuries local iranian dynasties vigorously muslim ref name boyce emerged largely independent vassals caliphs th century one early letters iranian zoroastrians co religionists india priests yazd lamented


period human history even alexander grievous troublesome faithful 'this millennium demon wrath' ref name boyce ref modern modern zoroastrian fire temple western india sadeh tehran zoroastrianism survived modern period particularly india parsis thought present since th century today zoroastrianism divided two main schools thought reformists traditionalists traditionalists mostly parsis accept beside gathas avesta also middle persian literature like reformists mostly


developed modern form th century developments generally allow conversion faith someone zoroastrian must born zoroastrian parents traditionalists recognize children mixed marriages zoroastrians though usually father born zoroastrian reformists tend advocate return gathas universal nature faith decrease ritualization emphasis faith philosophy rather religion zoroastrians identify either school notable examples getting traction including neo zoroastrians revivalists


usually reinterpretations zoroastrianism appealing towards western concerns centering idea zoroastrianism living religion advocate revival maintenance old rituals prayers supporting ethical social progressive reforms latter schools tend center gathas without outright rejecting texts except vendidad ilm e khshnoom pundol group zoroastrian mystical schools thought popular among small minority parsi community inspired mostly th century theosophy typified spiritual ethnocentric mentality th century onward parsis gained reputation


education widespread influence aspects society played instrumental role economic development region many decades several best known business conglomerates india run parsi zoroastrians including tata godrej wadia families others though armenians share rich history affiliated zoroastrianism eventually declined advent christianity reports indicate zoroastrian armenians armenia comparatively minor population persisted central asia caucasus persia growing large expatriate community formed united states mostly


india iran lesser extent united kingdom canada australia request government tajikistan unesco declared year celebrate th anniversary zoroastrian culture special events throughout world tehran mobeds anjuman announced first time history modern iran modern zoroastrian communities worldwide women ordained iran north america mobedyars meaning women assistant mobeds zoroastrian clergy ref name parsikhabarnet ref women hold official certificates perform lower rung religious functions initiate


people religion relation religions cultures achaemenid empire th century bce largest empire history percentage world population ref name cook estimates achaemenid empire range million prefer million prevas p estimates million https booksgooglecom booksid q jdz ac pg pa dq persian empire million square miles lr v onepage q persian empire million square miles f false langer p estimates around million https booksgooglecom booksid mzird ddzz c pg pa dq persian empire million people lr v onepage q persian empire million people f false mcevedy jones p estimates million https wwwcensusgov ipc www worldhishtml strauss p estimates million https booksgooglecom booksid nqftmcd dosc printsec frontcover dq battle salamis strauss lr ward p estimates million https booksgooglecom booksid eutlaavooqc pg pa dq persian empire million square miles lr v onepage q persian empire million square miles f false aperghis p estimates million


https booksgooglecom booksid uug vvjrxvyc pg ra pt dq million persian empire scheidel p estimates million https booksgooglecom booksid vnkts rojuc pg pa dq scheidel million lr zeinert p estimates million https booksgooglecom booksid jgnlg ai bkc pg pa dq persian empire million people lr v onepage q persian empire million people f false rawlinson schauffler p estimates possibly million https booksgooglecom booksid npjaaaamaaj pg pa dq persian empire million people lr v onepage q f false astor p estimates almost million https booksgooglecom booksid dnwaaaaayaaj pg pa dq persian empire million square miles lr v onepage q persian empire million square miles f false lissner p estimates probably million https archiveorg details livingpast liss milns p estimates million https booksgooglecom bookslr id aeobaaaayaaj dq persian empire million people q fifty million people hershlag p estimates nearly million https booksgooglecom booksid awovaaaaiaaj pg pa dq persian empire million people lr v onepage q persian empire million people f false yarshater p estimates million https booksgooglecom bookslr id kkkuaqaaiaaj dq persian empire million people q million people daniel p estimates million https booksgooglecom booksid azqbyf q uc pg pa dq persian empire million people lr v onepage q persian empire million people f false meyer andreades p estimates


possible sun god theonyms related hvare khshaeta indo iranian origins religion zoroastrianism closest vedic religion varying degrees historians believe zoroastrianism along similar philosophical revolutions south asia interconnected strings reformation common indo aryan thread many traits zoroastrianism traced back culture beliefs prehistorical indo iranian period time migrations led indo aryans iranics becoming distinct peoples zoroastrianism consequently shares elements historical vedic religion also origins era examples


mazdaism zoroastrianism less like christianity judaism ref name henning contrast henning 's observations henning wb ''the book giants'' bsoas vol xi part pp ref quite different manichaeism equated evil matter good spirit therefore particularly suitable doctrinal basis every form asceticism many forms mysticism zoroastrianism hand rejects every form asceticism dualism matter spirit good evil sees spiritual world different natural


one word paradise ''pairidaeza'' applies equally manichaeism 's basic doctrine world corporeal bodies constructed substance satan idea fundamentally odds zoroastrian notion world created god good corruption effect bad present day iran many aspects zoroastrianism present culture mythologies peoples greater iran least zoroastrianism dominant influence people cultural continent thousand


avesta speculated upon many pahlavi texts varying degrees authority current version avesta dating oldest times sasanian empire ref name ref according middle persian tradition ahura mazda created twenty one nasks original avesta zoroaster brought vishtaspa two copies created one put house archives put imperial treasury alexander 's conquest persia avesta written ox hides burned scientific sections greeks could use dispersed among


however strong evidence historically towards claims remain contested despite affirmations zoroastrian tradition whether ''denkart'' ''tansar n ard wir z n mag bundahsin zand wahman yasn ''or transmitted oral tradition ref name tradition continues reign king valax identified vologases arsacid dynasty attempt made restore considered avesta sassanid empire ardeshir ordered tansar high priest finish work king valax started shapur sent priests locate scientific text portions


latter 's inclusion disputed within faith along texts individual communal ceremonial prayer book called khordeh avesta contains yashts important hymns prayers rituals rest materials avesta called avestan fragments written avestan incomplete generally unknown provenance middle persian pahlavi middle persian pahlavi works created th th century contain many religious zoroastrian books writers copyists part zoroastrian clergy significant important


books era include denkard bundahishn menog khrad selections zadspram jamasp namag epistles manucher rivayats dadestan denig arda viraf namag middle persian texts written zoroastrianism time period considered secondary works religion scripture nonetheless texts strong influence religion zoroaster zoroastrianism founded zoroaster zarathushtra ancient iran precise date founding religion uncertain estimates vary wildly bce years alexander zoroaster born either northeast iran southwest


afghanistan culture polytheistic religion featured excessive animal sacrifice excessive ritual use intoxicants life influenced profoundly attempts people find peace stability face constant threats raiding conflict zoroaster 's birth early life little documented speculated upon heavily later texts known recorded gathas forming core avesta contain hymns thought composed zoroaster born spitama clan refers poet priest


prophet wife three sons three daughters numbers gathered various texts zoroaster rejected many gods bronze age iranians oppressive class structure kavis karapans princes priests controlled ordinary people also opposed cruel animal sacrifices excessive use possibly hallucinogenic haoma plant conjectured species ephedra ''peganum harmala'' condemn either practice outright providing moderation observed ref name iranicaonlineorg ref zoroaster legend according later zoroastrian tradition zoroaster


years old went daiti river draw water haoma ceremony emerged received vision vohu manah vohu manah took six amesha spentas received completion vision vision radically transformed view world tried teach view others zoroaster believed one supreme creator deity acknowledged creator 's emanations amesha spenta divinities called ahuras yazata deities old religion ''daevas'' ''devas'' sanskrit appeared


delight war strife condemned evil workers angra mainyu zoroaster zoroaster 's ideas taken quickly originally one convert cousin maidhyoimanha local religious authorities opposed ideas considering faith power particularly rituals threatened zoroaster 's teaching bad overly complicated ritualization religious ceremonies many like zoroaster 's downgrading daevas evil ones worthy worship twelve years little success zoroaster left home country king vishtaspa king queen heard


zoroaster debating religious leaders land decided accept zoroaster 's ideas official religion kingdom zoroaster prove healing king 's favorite horse zoroaster believed died late either murder turanian old age little known time zoroaster achaemenian period except zoroastrianism spread western iran regions time founding achaemenid empire zoroastrianism believed already well established religion cypress kashmar cypress


kashmar mythical cypress tree legendary beauty gargantuan dimensions said sprung branch brought zoroaster paradise stood today 's kashmar northeastern iran planted zoroaster honor conversion king vishtaspa zoroastrianism according iranian physicist historian zakariya al qazwini king vishtaspa patron zoroaster planted tree '' aj 'ib al makhl q wa ghar 'ib al mawj t'' describes al mutawakkil ah ad caused mighty cypress


felled transported across iran used beams new palace samarra wanted tree reconstructed eyes done spite protests iranians offered great sum money save tree al mutawakkil never saw cypress murdered turkish soldier possibly employ son night arrived banks tigris ref name climate dataorg ref ref name climate dataorg ref reconstruction sassanid model fire temple kashmar located near historical


complex atashgah castle fire temple kashmar kashmar fire temple first zoroastrian fire temple built vishtaspa request zoroaster kashmar part ferdowsi 's shahnameh story finding zarathustra accepting vishtaspa 's religion regulated accepting zoroastrian religion vishtaspa sends priests universe azar enters fire temples domes first adur burzen mihr founded kashmar planted cypress tree front fire temple made symbol accepting bahi religion sent priests


world commanded famous men women come place worship ref name ref according paikuli inscription sasanian empire kashmar part greater khorasan sasanians worked hard revive ancient religion still remains kilometers ancient city kashmar castle complex atashgah ref name ref principal beliefs humata huxta huvarshta good thoughts good words good deeds threefold path asha considered core maxim zoroastrianism especially modern practitioners zoroastrianism good transpires righteous


deeds sake search reward evil said attacked confused druj responsible aligning back asha following path ref name faravahar ferohar one primary symbols zoroastrianism believed depiction ''fravashi'' ''khvarenah'' zoroastrianism ahura mazda beginning end creator everything cannot seen eternal uncreated good source asha ref name gathas sacred texts zoroastrianism


thought composed zoroaster zoroaster acknowledged highest devotion ahura mazda worship adoration also given ahura mazda 's manifestations amesha spenta ahuras yazata support ahura mazda ''daena'' ' 'din'' modern persian meaning seen representative sum one 's spiritual conscience attributes one 's choice asha either strengthened weakened daena traditionally ''manthras'' spiritual prayer formulas believed immense power vehicles asha creation used maintain good fight evil ref name ref


''daena'' confused fundamental principle ''asha'' believed cosmic order governs permeates existence concept governed life ancient indo iranians ''asha'' course everything observable motion planets astral bodies progression seasons pattern daily nomadic herdsman life governed regular metronomic events sunrise sunset strengthened truth telling following threefold path ref name physical creation ''geti''g thus determined run according master plan inherent


ahura mazda violations order ' 'druj'' violations creation thus violations ahura mazda ref name concept ''asha'' versus ' 'druj'' confused western especially abrahamic notions good versus evil although forms opposition express moral conflict ''asha'' versus ' 'druj'' concept systemic less personal representing instance chaos opposes order uncreation evident natural decay opposes creation simply lie opposes truth goodness ref name moreover role one uncreated creator ahura mazda


creator ' 'druj'' nothing anti creation thus likewise uncreated developed antithesis existence choice ref name parsi'' wedding schema ''asha'' versus ' 'druj'' mortal beings humans animals play critical role created lives active participants conflict spiritual duty defend asha constant assault would decay strength without counter''action'' ref name throughout gathas zoroaster emphasizes deeds actions within society accordingly extreme asceticism frowned upon zoroastrianism


moderate forms allowed within ref name explained fleeing experiences joys life purpose ''urvan'' commonly translated soul sent mortal world collect avoidance aspect life bring harm another engage activities support druj includes avoidance pleasures life shirking responsibility duty oneself one 's ''urvan'' one 's family social obligations ref name central zoroastrianism emphasis moral choice


choose responsibility duty one mortal world give duty facilitate work ' 'druj'' similarly predestination rejected zoroastrian teaching absolute free conscious beings core even divine beings ability choose humans bear responsibility situations way act toward one another reward punishment happiness grief depend individuals live lives ref name cavendish th century contact western academics missionaries zoroastrianism experienced


massive theological change still affects today rev john wilson led various missionary campaigns india parsi community disparaging parsis dualism polytheism unnecessary rituals declaring avesta divinely inspired caused mass dismay relatively uneducated parsi community blamed priests led conversions towards christianity arrival german orientalist philologist martin haug led rallied defense faith haug 's reinterpretation avesta christianized european orientalist lens haug postulated zoroastrianism


solely monotheistic divinities reduced status angels ahura mazda became omnipotent source evil well good haug 's thinking subsequently disseminated parsi interpretation thus corroborating haug 's theory idea became popular almost universally accepted doctrine though reevaluated modern zoroastrianism academia ref name argued dr almut hintze designation monotheism wholly perfect zoroastrianism instead form monotheism combines elements dualism polytheism


enclosed covered fire temples tend focus community worship fires varying grades maintained clergy assigned temples cosmology creation universe according zoroastrian creation myth ahura mazda existed light goodness angra mainyu existed darkness ignorance existed independently time manifest contrary substances ahura mazda first manifested seven divine beings called ''amesha spentas'' support represent beneficent aspects personality creation along numerous ''yazatas'' divinities worthy worship ahura mazda


created material visible world order ensnare evil ahura mazda created floating egg shaped universe two parts first spiritual ''menog'' years later physical ''getig'' ahura mazda created gayomard archetypical perfect man gavaevodata primordial bovine ref name cavendish ref ahura mazda created universe humankind angra mainyu whose nature destroy miscreated demons evil ' 'daevas'' noxious creatures ''khrafstar'' snakes ants flies angra mainyu created opposite evil good except humans found could match


angra mainyu invaded universe base sky inflicting gayomard bull suffering death however evil forces trapped universe could retreat dying primordial man bovine emitted seeds protect mah moon bull 's seed grew beneficial plants animals world man 's seed grew plant whose leaves became first human couple humans thus struggle two fold universe material spiritual trapped long combat evil evils physical


world products inherent weakness fault angra mainyu 's assault creation assault turned perfectly flat peaceful ever day lit world mountainous violent place half night ref name cavendish eschatology renovation judgment zoroastrianism also includes beliefs renovation world frashokereti individual judgment cf general particular judgment including resurrection dead alluded gathas developed later avestan middle persian writings individual judgment death chinvat bridge bridge judgement bridge choice


human must cross facing spiritual judgment though modern belief split whether representative mental decision life choose good evil afterworld location humans' actions free choice determine outcome according tradition soul judged yazatas mithra sraosha rashnu depending verdict one either greeted bridge beautiful sweet smelling maiden ugly foul smelling old hag representing daena affected actions life maiden leads dead safely


across bridge widens becomes pleasant righteous towards house song hag leads dead bridge narrows razor 's edge full stench departed falls abyss towards house lies ref name cavendish balance good evil go hamistagan neutral place waiting according dadestan denig middle persian work th century souls departed relive lives conduct good deeds raise towards house song


await final judgement mercy ahura mazda house lies considered temporary reformative punishments fit crimes souls rest eternal damnation hell contains foul smells evil food smothering darkness souls packed tightly together although believe total isolation ref name cavendish ancient zoroastrian eschatology year struggle good evil fought punctuated evil 's final assault final assault sun moon darken humankind lose reverence religion family elders world


good ultimately triumph evil rendering forever impotent destroyed saoshyant ahura mazda offer bull final sacrifice time humans become immortal mountains flatten valleys rise house song descend moon earth rise meet ref name cavendish humanity require two judgments many aspects spiritual ''menog'' physical ''getig'' ref name cavendish thus zoroastrianism said universalist religion respect salvation


souls redeemed final judgement ritual prayer central ritual zoroastrianism yasna recitation eponymous book avesta sacrificial ritual ceremony involving haoma ref name ref extensions yasna ritual possible use visperad vendidad extended ritual rare modern zoroastrianism yasna descended indo iranian sacrificial ceremonies animal sacrifice varying degrees mentioned avesta still practiced zoroastrianism albeit reduced forms sacrifice fat meals ref name iranicaonlineorg high rituals


iran demographics chak chak yazd iran zoroastrian communities internationally tend comprise mostly two main groups people indian parsis iranian zoroastrians according study federation zoroastrian associations north america number zoroastrians worldwide estimated number imprecise diverging counts iran ref name roshan ref estimated zoroastrians worldwide around parsis india pakistan ref name historycom ref small zoroastrian communities may found world


parsis year arrival subcontinent cannot precisely established parsi legend tradition assigns various dates event indian census parsis numbered representing total population india concentration around city mumbai due low birth rate high rate emigration demographic trends project parsis number total population india birth death ratio births per year deaths ref


name doomed ref india 's census recorded parsi zoroastrians ref name pti ref pakistan pakistan zoroastrian population estimated number people ref name roshan mostly living sindh especially karachi followed khyber pakhtunkhwa national database registration authority nadra pakistan claimed parsi voters elections pakistan iran iraq central asia iran 's figures zoroastrians ranged widely last census revolution revealed zoroastrians ref name hins ref adherents remain central asian regions considered


traditional stronghold zoroastrianism ie bactria see also balkh northern afghanistan sogdiana margiana areas close zoroaster 's homeland iran emigration marriage low birth rates likewise leading decline zoroastrian population zoroastrian groups iran say number approximately according iranian census data number zoroastrians iran communities exist tehran well yazd kerman kermanshah many still speak iranian language distinct usual persian call language dari confused


dari afghanistan language also called ''gavri'' ''behdini'' literally good religion sometimes language named cities spoken ''yazdi'' ''kermani'' iranian zoroastrians historically called ''gabr' 's originally without pejorative connotation present day derogatorily applied non muslims number kurdish zoroastrians along non ethnic converts estimated differently ref name ref zoroastrian representative kurdistan regional government iraq claimed many people iraqi kurdistan converted zoroastrianism recently community


world india iran claimed kurds converted zoroastrianism sweden historic england published ''a survey zoroastrianism buildings england'' aim providing information buildings zoroastrians use england work communities enhance protect buildings future scoping survey identified four buildings england see also dualism cosmology iranian religions mandaean cosmology muslim conquest persia persecution zoroastrians proto indo european mythology zoroastrian calendar references bibliography note catalogue searchers spine


'''concurrent computing''' form computing several computations executed ''concurrently'' overlapping time periods instead ' 'sequentially ''with one completing next starts property system whether program computer network separate execution point thread control process ''concurrent system'' one computation advance without waiting computations complete concurrent computing form modular programming paradigm overall computation factored subcomputations may executed concurrently pioneers field concurrent

Formal science
Computer science
Programming languages
Concurrent programming


slices one process runs time complete time slice ''paused'' another process begins resumes later original process resumed way multiple processes part way execution single instant one process executed instant concurrent computations ''may'' executed parallel ref name waza ref name benari ref example assigning process separate processor processor core distributing computation across network general however languages tools techniques parallel programming might


suitable concurrent programming vice versa exact timing tasks concurrent system executed depend scheduling tasks need always executed concurrently example given two tasks may executed finished ''vice versa'' serial ''and'' sequential may executed alternately serial ''and'' concurrent may executed simultaneously instant time parallel ''and'' concurrent word sequential used antonym concurrent parallel explicitly distinguished ''concurrent sequential'' ''parallel serial''


used opposing pairs schedule tasks execute one time serially parallelism without interleaving sequentially concurrency task begins prior task ends called ' 'serial schedule'' set tasks scheduled serially ' 'serializable'' simplifies concurrency control coordinating access shared resources main challenge designing concurrent programs concurrency control ensuring correct sequencing interactions communications different computational executions coordinating access resources shared among executions ref name benari potential problems include race conditions deadlocks resource starvation


example consider following algorithm make withdrawals checking account represented shared resource code balance code syntaxhighlight lang cpp line highlight bool withdraw int withdrawal balance withdrawal balance withdrawal return true return false syntaxhighlight suppose code balance code two concurrent ''threads'' make calls code withdraw code code withdraw code line operations executes line operations find code balance withdrawal code evaluates code true code execution proceed subtracting withdrawal amount however since processes perform withdrawals total amount withdrawn end


representation concurrent tasks processes models introduced petri nets early attempt codify rules concurrent execution dataflow theory later built upon dataflow architectures created physically implement ideas dataflow theory beginning late process calculi calculus communicating systems ccs communicating sequential processes csp developed permit algebraic reasoning systems composed interacting components calculus added capability reasoning dynamic topologies input output automata introduced logics lamport 's tla mathematical models traces


actor event diagrams also developed describe behavior concurrent systems software transactional memory borrows database theory concept atomic transactions applies memory accesses consistency models concurrent programming languages multiprocessor programs must consistency model also known memory model consistency model defines rules operations computer memory occur results produced one first consistency models leslie lamport 's sequential consistency model sequential consistency property program execution produces results sequential program


specifically program sequentially consistent results execution operations processors executed sequential order operations individual processor appear sequence order specified program implementation number different methods used implement concurrent programs implementing computational execution operating system process implementing computational processes set threads within single operating system process interaction communication concurrent computing systems communication concurrent components


messages may carried asynchronously may use synchronous rendezvous style sender blocks message received asynchronous message passing may reliable unreliable sometimes referred send pray message passing concurrency tends far easier reason shared memory concurrency typically considered robust form concurrent programming wide variety mathematical theories understand analyze message passing systems available including actor model various process calculi message passing efficiently implemented via symmetric multiprocessing without shared memory cache coherence


shared memory message passing concurrency different performance characteristics typically although always per process memory overhead task switching overhead lower message passing system overhead message passing greater procedure call differences often overwhelmed performance factors history concurrent computing developed earlier work railroads telegraphy th early th century terms date period semaphores arose address question handle multiple trains railroad system avoiding collisions


maximizing efficiency handle multiple transmissions given set wires improving efficiency via time division multiplexing academic study concurrent algorithms started credited first paper field identifying solving mutual exclusion prevalence concurrency pervasive computing occurring low level hardware single chip worldwide networks examples follow programming language level channel coroutine futures promises operating system level computer multitasking including cooperative multitasking preemptive multitasking time sharing replaced sequential batch processing jobs


concurrent use system process thread network level networked systems generally concurrent nature consist separate devices languages supporting concurrent programming concurrent programming languages programming languages use language constructs concurrency constructs may involve multi threading support distributed computing message passing shared resources including shared memory futures promises languages sometimes described ''concurrency oriented languages'' ''concurrency oriented programming languages'' copl ref name armstrong ref today commonly used programming languages specific constructs concurrency java c languages fundamentally use shared memory


concurrency model locking provided monitors although message passing models implemented top underlying shared memory model languages use message passing concurrency model erlang probably widely used industry present many concurrent programming languages developed research languages eg pict rather languages production use however languages erlang limbo occam seen industrial use various times last years non exhaustive list languages use provide concurrent programming facilities ada general purpose native support


message passing monitor based concurrency alef concurrent threads message passing system programming early versions plan bell labs alice extension standard ml adds support concurrency via futures ateji px extension java parallel primitives inspired calculus axum domain specific concurrent based actor model net common language runtime using c like syntax bmdfm binary modular dataflow machine c std thread c c omega research extends c uses asynchronous communication c supports concurrent computing using lock yield also since version async await keywords introduced clojure modern functional dialect lisp java platform concurrent clean functional


programming similar haskell concurrent collections cnc achieves implicit parallelism independent memory model explicitly defining flow data control concurrent haskell lazy pure functional language operating concurrent processes shared memory concurrent ml concurrent extension standard ml concurrent pascal per brinch hansen curry multi paradigm system programming language explicit support concurrent programming actor model e uses promises preclude deadlocks ecmascript uses promises asynchronous operations eiffel scoop mechanism based concepts design contract elixir dynamic functional meta programming aware language running erlang vm erlang uses asynchronous message passing nothing shared faust real time functional signal


processing compiler provides automatic parallelization via openmp specific work stealing scheduler fortran coarrays ' 'do concurrent'' part fortran standard go system programming concurrent programming model based csp haskell concurrent parallel functional programming language hume functional concurrent bounded space time environments automata processes described synchronous channels patterns message passing io actor based concurrency janus features distinct ''askers'' ''tellers'' logical variables bag channels purely declarative java thread class runnable interface julia concurrent programming primitives tasks async wait channels javascript via web workers browser environment promises callbacks jocaml concurrent distributed channel based


extension ocaml implements join calculus processes join java concurrent based java language joule dataflow based communicates message passing joyce concurrent teaching built concurrent pascal features csp per brinch hansen labview graphical dataflow functions nodes graph data wires nodes includes object oriented language limbo relative alef system programming inferno operating system multilisp scheme variant extended support parallelism modula system programming n wirth successor pascal native support coroutines modula modern member algol family extensive support threads mutexes condition variables newsqueak research channels


first class values predecessor alef occam influenced heavily communicating sequential processes csp occam modern variant occam incorporates ideas milner 's calculus orc heavily concurrent nondeterministic based kleene algebra oz mozart multiparadigm supports shared state message passing concurrency futures parasail object oriented parallel free pointers race conditions pict essentially executable implementation milner 's calculus raku includes classes threads promises channels default python uses thread based parallelism process based parallelism reia uses asynchronous message passing shared nothing objects red system system programming based rebol rust system programming using message passing move semantics shared immutable memory shared mutable memory ref name bblum ref scala general


purpose designed express common programming patterns concise elegant type safe way sequencel general purpose functional main design objectives ease programming code clarity readability automatic parallelization performance multicore hardware provably free race conditions sr research superpascal concurrent teaching built concurrent pascal joyce per brinch hansen unicon research tnsdl developing telecommunication exchanges uses asynchronous message passing vhsic hardware description language vhdl ieee std xc concurrency extended subset c language developed xmos based communicating sequential processes built constructs programmable many languages provide support concurrency form


libraries levels roughly comparable list see also asynchronous chu space flow based programming java concurrentmap list important publications concurrent parallel distributed computing ptolemy project sheaf mathematics transaction processing notes references sources reading external links https webarchiveorg web http vlfmnetinfo concurrent concurrent systems virtual library operating system technology edsger w dijkstra dutch inventions


'''nuclear engineering''' branch engineering concerned application breaking atomic nuclei fission combining atomic nuclei fusion application sub atomic processes based principles nuclear physics sub field nuclear fission particularly includes design interaction maintenance systems components like reactors power plants weaponry field also includes study medical applications radiation particularly ionizing radiation nuclear safety heat thermodynamics transport nuclear fuel related technology eg nbsp radioactive waste disposal problems nuclear

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proliferation field also includes chemical engineering electrical engineering professional areas united states currently generates electricity nuclear power plants nuclear engineers field generally work directly indirectly nuclear power industry national laboratories current research industry directed producing economical proliferation resistant reactor designs passive safety features government national labs provide research areas private industry areas nuclear fuels nuclear fuel cycles advanced reactor designs nuclear weapon design maintenance principal pipeline source


trained personnel military civilian us reactor facilities us navy nuclear power program including nuclear power school south carolina employment nuclear engineering predicted grow nine percent year needed replace retiring nuclear engineers provide maintenance updating safety systems power plants advance applications nuclear medicine gallery file nuclear power plant cattenomjpg '''nuclear powerplant ''' file b bomb doe jpg '''b thermonuclear weapon''' gallery nuclear medicine medical physics medical physics important field nuclear medicine sub fields include nuclear medicine radiation therapy


many purposes including studying structural changes reactor components studying nano modification metals using ion beams particle accelerators gallery file uranium ore squarejpg '''uranium ore principal raw material nuclear fuel''' file nuclear fuel pelletsjpeg '''nuclear fuel pellets''' file fibjpg '''a focused ion beam''' gallery radiation protection measurement radiation measurement fundamental science practice radiation protection sometimes known radiological protection protection people environment harmful effects uncontrolled radiation nuclear engineers radiological scientists interested developing advanced ionizing radiation measurement detection systems using advances


improve imaging technologies areas include detector design fabrication analysis measurements fundamental atomic nuclear parameters radiation imaging systems among others gallery file geiger counterjpg '''a modern geiger counter''' file crocus p jpg '''a neutron detector''' file crocus p jpg '''scintillation detector next uraninite file us navy n electronics technician nd class shea thompson tests alpha particle dection probejpg hand held large area alpha scintillation probe calibration file rtg radiation measurementjpg hand held integral ion chamber survey meter use gallery nuclear engineering organizations american nuclear society international atomic energy agency nuclear institute uk see also atomic engineering atomic physics ''black swan theory'' ''brittle power'' chernobyl nuclear disaster earthquake


engineering fukushima nuclear disaster'' international nuclear event scale list books nuclear issues lists nuclear disasters radioactive incidents list nuclear reactors ''megaprojects risk'' normal accidents northeast blackout nuclear fuel nuclear criticality safety nuclear material nuclear physics nuclear power nuclear reactor technology nuclear renaissance project gnome safety engineering thermal hydraulics ''three mile island nuclear crisis historical perspective'' waste isolation pilot plant references reading ash milton nuclear reactor kinetics mcgraw hill gowing margaret ''britain atomic energy '' gowing margaret lorna arnold ''independence deterrence britain atomic energy vol


policy making '' ''vol ii policy execution '' london johnston sean f creating canadian profession nuclear engineer canadian journal history'' winter vol issue pp johnston sean f implanting discipline academic trajectory nuclear engineering usa uk ''minerva'' pp nbsp external links http wwweiadoegov cneaf nuclear page nuc generation gensumhtml electric generation commercial nuclear power http wwwnukehacettepeedutr hacettepe university department nuclear engineering http wwwneimagazinecom nuclear engineering international magazine http nuclearsafetyinfo resources nuclear safety info resources http wwwansorg pubs journals nse nuclear science engineering technical journal http wwwhindawicom journals stni science technology nuclear installation open access journal engineering disciplines nuclear


'''criminal procedure''' adjudication process criminal law criminal procedure differs dramatically jurisdiction process generally begins formal criminal charge person trial either free bail incarcerated results conviction acquittal defendant criminal procedure either form inquisitorial adversarial criminal procedure basic rights currently many countries democratic system rule law criminal procedure puts burden proof prosecution ndash prosecution prove

Humanities
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Criminal procedure


defendant guilty beyond reasonable doubt opposed defense prove innocent doubt resolved favor defendant provision known presumption innocence required example countries members council europe article european convention human rights included human rights documents however practice operates somewhat differently different countries basic rights also include right defendant know offence


arrested charged right appear judicial official within certain time arrested many jurisdictions also allow defendant right legal counsel provide defendant cannot afford lawyer lawyer paid public expense difference criminal civil procedures countries make rather clear distinction civil criminal procedures example english criminal court may force defendant pay fine punishment crime may sometimes pay legal costs


plaintiff civil action required prove case balance probabilities ref name law beyond reasonable doubt defined jury decides verdict said appeal courts proving guilt beyond reasonable doubt requires prosecution exclude reasonable hypothesis consistent innocence ''plomp v r'' civil case however court simply weighs evidence decides probable criminal civil procedure different although systems including english allow private citizen bring criminal prosecution


another citizen criminal actions nearly always started state civil actions hand usually started individuals anglo american law party bringing criminal action cases state called '''prosecution''' party bringing civil action '''plaintiff''' kinds action party known '' 'defendant''' criminal case united states person named ms sanchez would entitled ''united states v'' short ' 'versus'' ''sanchez'' initiated federal government brought


state case would typically called ''state v sanchez'' ''people v sanchez'' united kingdom criminal case would styled ''r'' short rex regina king queen ''v sanchez'' united states united kingdom civil action ms sanchez mr smith would ''sanchez v smith'' started sanchez ''smith v sanchez'' begun smith evidence given criminal trial necessarily admissible civil action matter evidence given civil cause


necessarily admissible criminal trial example victim road accident directly benefit driver injured found guilty crime careless driving still prove case civil action ref name law fact may able prove civil case even driver found guilty criminal trial accused given evidence trial may cross examined statements subsequent civil action regardless criminal verdict


plaintiff shown defendant liable main argument civil court amount money '' 'damages''' defendant pay plaintiff ref name law ref differences civil law common law systems majority civil law jurisdictions 'civil law' type law system opposed criminal law follow inquisitorial system adjudication judges undertake active investigation claims examining evidence trial judges contribute likewise preparing reports common law systems trial judge presides


proceedings grounded adversarial system dispute resolution prosecution defence prepare arguments presented court civil law systems adopted adversarial procedures proponents either system tend consider system defends best rights innocent tendency common law countries believe civil law inquisitorial systems called presumption innocence provide defence adequate rights conversely tendency countries inquisitorial system believe accusatorial proceedings unduly favour


rich defendants afford large legal teams harsh poorer defendants see also offence law trial law code criminal procedure india court appointed special advocates criminal procedure act criminal procedure united states italian criminal procedure code criminal procedure japan criminal procedure code malaysia criminal procedure code ukraine references reading


school children primary education chile access date march ref '''primary education''' typically first stage formal education coming preschool kindergarten secondary school primary education takes place primary school elementary school first middle school depending location international standard classification education considers primary education single phase programmes typically designed provide fundamental reading writing mathematics skills establish solid foundation learning isced level primary education first stage basic education ref name en http wwwuisunescoorg education documents isced enpdf annex iii isced

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Elementary education


englishpdf navigate international standard classification education isced ref definition isced definition posited '''primary education''' normally started ages designed give sound basic education reading writing mathematics along elementary understanding subjects philosophy changed ''elementary understanding subjects'' dropped favour ''to establish solid foundation learning'' ref name en united nations children 's fund unicef believes providing children primary education many positive effects decreases poverty decreases child mortality


rates encourages gender equality increases environmental understanding ref name powell ref ages cited cover rapidly developing phase child development studied discipline developmental psychology attempts describe children learn united kingdom reception first year primary school part early years foundation stage philosophy education teaching learning millennia occupied many great minds attempts say children taught history pre agrarian cultures children learnt following instinct play need enforced education ref name pt agrarian cultures agriculture


husbandry bartering building skills passed adults children master apprentice societies agree need children learn absorb cultural traditions beliefs attempt informally family gathering children together employing tutor handle task worked well landowners children landless would employed age seven servants one source turn th century french count advised nobles' huntsmen choose boy


servant young seven eight boy beaten proper dread failing carry masters orders document listed chores boy would perform daily boy would sleep loft kennels attend hounds' needs ref name pt ref name orme ref religious communities became providers education defined curriculum learning recite passages holy text priority society advance oral tradition must superseded written texts students must write passages


monasteries students needed read written religious language vernacular led formal education madrassas schools martin luther declared salvation depends person 's reading scriptures ref name pt ref trading management create demand accountancy basic skills thus included literacy numeracy core elementary education formal primary education mid th century america massachusetts became first colony mandate schooling purpose beginning children adjacent colonies learned read new england primer


quite often older pupils elementary school teachers paid based students' results pupils expected achieve precise standards reading writing arithmetic reading short paragraph newspaper writing dictation working sums fractions ref name gillard gillard http wwweducationenglandorguk history chapter html towards state system education ''education england'' http wwweducationenglandorguk accessed november ref achieve dual education system initiated consisting voluntary denominational schools non denominational state schools board schools supplement rather replace schools


already run churches guilds private individuals organisations ref name shaw around percent school population attended elementary schools remainder transferred either secondary school junior technical school age school system changed education act education restructured three progressive stages known primary education secondary education education timeline th century english education maria montessori publishes montessori method john evelyn dewey publish school tomorrow education act ends


fees elementary education raises school leaving age burnham committee introduces national pay scales elementary teachers piaget publishes language thought child neill opens summerhill elementary education split age primary secondary tripartite system eleven plus last gas lamps removed london schools britain 's first school tv broadcast associated rediffusion may bbc schools tv broadcasting


neill 's summerhill published london manchester end plus plowden report advocates expansion nursery schooling newsom report public schools calls integration state schools ref name tes ref child development primary education phase jean piaget responsible establishing framework describes intellectual moral emotional development children received doctorate post doctoral research z rich paris thoughts developed four phases sociological model development children moved


position egocentrism sociocentrism noticed gradual progression intuitive scientific socially acceptable responses biological model intellectual development could regarded extension biological process adaptation species showing two ongoing processes assimilation accommodation elaboration logical model intellectual development argued intelligence develops series stages related age progressive one stage must accomplished next occur stage development child forms age related


view reality study figurative thought included memory perception piaget 's theory based upon biological maturation stages notion readiness important information concepts taught students reached appropriate stage cognitive development using framework child 's staged development examined lev vygotsky 's theory ref name biobook yasnitsky https wwwroutledgecom vygotsky intellectual biography yasnitsky p book vygotsky intellectual biography london new york routledge http individualutorontoca yasnitsky texts yasnitsky vygotsky bookpreviewpdf book preview ref based social learning mko knowledgeable helps progress within zpd zone proximal development


within zpd skills child could needs shown move yearning independent proficiency ref name biobook assistance instruction becomes form instructional scaffolding term idea developed jerome bruner david wood gail ross ref name scaffolding ''zone proximal development'' ''cultural tools scaffolding guided participation'' ''key concepts developmental psychology'' retrieved credo reference database ref realms ref name nih ref intellectual physical learning skills language emotional international interpretations millennium development goals poster united nations headquarters new york


city new york united states showing millennium development goals united nations millennium development goal achieve universal primary education year time aimed ensure children everywhere regardless race gender could complete primary schooling united nations specifically focused sub saharan africa south asia home vast majority children school hypothesized might able reach goal according september fact sheet


still million school age children school almost half demographic sub saharan africa quarter southern asia order achieve goal united nations estimated children official entry age primary school would attending classes would depend upon duration primary level well schools retain students end cycle important children enrolled education countries would


experienced similar outcome country doubled enrollment ratio period moreover regions latin america guatemala nicaragua zambia southern africa broke percent towards greater access primary education ref name autogenerated promoting rule law primary education global citizenship education rule law learning outcomes primary level schools play important role children 's socialization developing appreciation sharing fairness mutual respect cooperation schools form foundational values competencies building blocks towards


understanding concepts justice democracy human rights ref name ref education systems promote education justice respect rule law rol together international human rights fundamental freedoms strengthen relationship learners public institutions empower young people become champions peace justice teachers often front line work along families play formative role shaping children 's attitudes behaviours ref name global citizenship education provides overall framework approach rol aims empower learners


engage assume active roles locally globally proactive contributors peaceful tolerant inclusive secure sustainable world ref name see also secondary education education index list education articles country list schools country ''the new england primer'' explanatory notes references references group responsive references source attribution general bibliography ''india reference annual'' rd edition new delhi additional director general adg publications division ministry information broadcasting government india external links https webarchiveorg web https wwwnapeorguk national association primary education uk https webarchiveorg web http wwwteacherstv video browser teachers tv free resources


downloads primary school teachers http wwwbbccouk schools websites indexshtml bbc schools website https teachcom become teach grade levels elementary teachcom information elementary school teachers us view united states


state adopted christianity byzantine empire beginning synthesis byzantine slavic cultures defined russian culture next millennium kievan rus' ultimately disintegrated state due mongol invasions along resulting deaths significant numbers population th century moscow became political cultural center moscow become center unification russian lands end th century moscow united northeastern northwestern russian principalities finally overthrew mongol yoke territories grand duchy