transmitters wi fi modems limited radiated power nbsp mw nbsp watt depending country maximum indoor range nbsp ghz nbsp ghzneighborhood wireless wan router telephone pole wireless wan wireless wide area network wwan variety technologies provide wireless internet access wider area wi fi networks office building campus neighborhood entire city common technologies used cellular modems exchange computer data radio cell towers satellite


internet access lower frequencies uhf band longer range wi fi frequencies since wwan networks much expensive complicated administer wi fi networks use far generally limited private networks operated large corporations bluetooth short range wireless interface portable wireless device used substitute wire cable connection mainly exchange files portable devices connect cellphones music players wireless headphones widely used mode transmission power limited nbsp milliwatt giving

Journalism, media studies and communication


bluetooth modem retransmits data packet another frequency packet radio long distance peer peer wireless ad hoc network data packets exchanged computer controlled radio modems transmitter receivers called nodes may separated miles maybe mobile node communicates neighboring nodes packets data passed node node reach destination uses x network protocol packet radio systems used limited degree commercial telecommunications companies amateur radio community text messaging texting service cell


phones allowing user type short alphanumeric message send another phone number text displayed recipient 's phone screen based short message service sms transmits using spare bandwidth control radio channel used cell phones handle background functions like dialing cell handoffs due technical limitations channel text messages limited alphanumeric characters parabolic antennas microwave relay links tower australia microwave relay long distance high bandwidth point point digital data transmission link consisting


sending scientific data back earth interplanetary spacecraft communicating electronic biomedical sensors implanted human body well logging multiple channels data often transmitted using frequency division multiplexing time division multiplexing telemetry starting used consumer applications automated meter reading electric power meters water meters gas meters triggered interrogation signal transmit readings radio utility reader vehicle curb eliminate need employee go customer 's property manually read meter electronic toll


collection toll roads alternative manual collection tolls toll booth transponder vehicle triggered roadside transmitter transmits signal roadside receiver register vehicle 's use road enabling owner billed toll rfid tag dvd radio frequency identification rfid identification tags containing tiny radio transponder receiver transmitter attached merchandise receives interrogation pulse radio waves nearby reader unit tag transmits back id number


bands short range active tags powered battery larger transmit stronger signal giving range hundreds meters submarine communication submerged submarines cut ordinary radio communication military command authorities conductive seawater however radio waves low enough frequencies vlf nbsp khz elf nbsp khz bands able penetrate seawater navies operate large shore transmitting stations power output megawatt range transmit encrypted messages submarines


world 's oceans due small bandwidth systems cannot transmit voice text messages slow data rate communication channel one way since long antennas needed transmit vlf elf waves cannot fit submarine vlf transmitters use miles long wire antennas like umbrella antennas nations use elf transmitters operating around nbsp hz communicate submarines lower depths use even larger antennas called ground dipoles consisting two ground earth connections apart linked overhead transmission lines power


plant transmitter space communication satellite communications center dubna russia radio communication spacecraft earth based ground station another spacecraft communication spacecraft involves longest transmission distances radio links billions kilometers interplanetary spacecraft order receive weak signals distant spacecraft satellite ground stations use large parabolic dish antennas diameter extremely sensitive receivers high frequencies microwave band used since microwaves pass ionosphere without refraction microwave frequencies high gain antennas needed focus


radio energy narrow beam pointed receiver small take minimum space satellite portions uhf l c k sub u sub k sub sub band allocated space communication radio link transmits data earth 's surface spacecraft called uplink link transmits data spacecraft ground called downlink communications satellite belonging azerbaijan communication satellite artificial satellite used telecommunications relay transmit data widely separated points earth


used microwaves used telecommunications travel line sight cannot propagate around curve earth communications satellites earth orbit ref name ucsdatabase ref geostationary orbit equator satellite appears stationary point sky satellite dish antennas ground stations aimed permanently spot move track satellite ground station microwave transmitter large satellite dish antenna transmit microwave uplink beam


satellite uplink signal carries many channels telecommunications traffic long distance telephone calls television programs internet signals using technique called frequency division multiplexing fdm satellite transponder receives signal translates different downlink frequency avoid interfering uplink signal retransmits another ground station may widely separated first downlink signal demodulated telecommunications traffic carries sent local destinations landlines communication satellites typically several dozen transponders different


speed light measuring brief time delay outgoing pulse received echo range target calculated targets often displayed graphically map display called ''radar screen'' doppler radar measure moving object 's velocity measuring change frequency return radio waves due doppler effect radar sets mainly use high frequencies microwave bands frequencies create strong reflections objects size vehicles focused narrow beams compact antennas parabolic


dish antennas widely used radars transmitting antenna also serves receiving antenna called ''monostatic radar'' radar uses separate transmitting receiving antennas called ''bistatic radar'' asr airport surveillance radar antenna rotates every seconds rectangular antenna top secondary radar airport surveillance radar aviation radar main tool air traffic control rotating dish antenna sweeps vertical fan shaped beam microwaves around airspace radar set shows location aircraft


radar triggers transponder receives return beam usually mounted top primary radar dish called secondary surveillance radar since radar cannot measure aircraft 's altitude accuracy transponder also transmits back aircraft 's altitude measured altimeter id number identifying aircraft displayed radar screen electronic countermeasures ecm military defensive electronic systems designed degrade enemy radar effectiveness deceive false information prevent enemies locating local forces often consists powerful microwave transmitters


mimic enemy radar signals create false target indications enemy radar screens radar altimeter specialized radar aircraft measures altitude aircraft terrain bouncing radio beam ground surface measuring time echo return rotating marine radar antenna ship marine radar x band radar ships used detect nearby ships obstructions like bridges rotating antenna sweeps vertical fan shaped beam microwaves around water surface surrounding craft horizon weather radar


doppler radar maps weather systems measures wind speeds reflection microwaves raindrops phased array radar radar set uses phased array computer controlled antenna steer radar beam quickly point different directions without moving antenna phased array radars developed military track fast moving missiles aircraft widely used military equipment spreading civilian applications synthetic aperture radar sar specialized airborne radar set produces high resolution map ground terrain radar mounted


aircraft spacecraft radar antenna radiates beam radio waves sideways right angles direction motion toward ground processing return radar signal motion vehicle used simulate large antenna giving radar higher resolution ground penetrating radar specialized radar instrument rolled along ground surface cart transmits beam radio waves ground producing image subsurface objects frequencies nbsp mhz ghz used since radio waves cannot penetrate


far earth depth gpr limited feet collision avoidance system short range radar lidar system automobile vehicle detects vehicle collide object applies brakes prevent collision radar fuze detonator aerial bomb uses radar altimeter measure height bomb ground falls detonates certain altitude radar speed gun handheld doppler radar used traffic police measure speed


vehicles determine obeying local speed limit officer points gun vehicle presses trigger speed appears numeric display speed guns use x band k sub u sub band radiolocation radiolocation generic term covering variety techniques use radio waves find location objects navigation personal navigation assistant gps receiver car give driving directions destination global navigation satellite system gnss ' 'satnav system'' system satellites allows geographical location


satellites distributed time least four satellites horizon point earth satellite onboard atomic clock transmits continuous radio signal containing precise time signal well current position two frequencies used nbsp ghz since velocity radio waves virtually constant delay radio signal satellite proportional distance receiver satellite receiving signals least four satellites gps receiver calculate position


earth comparing arrival time radio signals since satellite 's position known precisely given time delay position receiver calculated microprocessor receiver position displayed latitude longitude marker electronic map gps receivers incorporated almost cellphones vehicles automobiles aircraft ships used guide drones missiles cruise missiles even artillery shells target handheld gps receivers produced


hikers military radio beacon fixed location terrestrial radio transmitter transmits continuous radio signal used aircraft ships navigation locations beacons plotted navigational maps used aircraft shipsvor dme aircraft radio navigation beacon high frequency omnidirectional range vor worldwide aircraft radio navigation system consisting fixed ground radio beacons transmitting nbsp mhz vhf band automated navigational instrument aircraft displays bearing nearby vor transmitter vor beacon transmits two signals simultaneously different frequencies


directional antenna transmits beam radio waves rotates like lighthouse fixed rate times per second directional beam facing north omnidirectional antenna transmits pulse measuring difference phase two signals aircraft determine bearing radial station accurately taking bearing two vor beacons aircraft determine position called fix accuracy vor beacons also distance measuring capability called distance measuring equipment dme called vor dme 's


aircraft transmits radio signal vor dme beacon transponder transmits return signal propagation delay transmitted received signal aircraft calculate distance beacon allows aircraft determine location fix one vor beacon since line sight vhf frequencies used vor beacons range miles aircraft cruising altitude tacan similar military radio beacon system transmits nbsp mhz combined vor tacan beacon called vortac


vor beacons worldwide number declining aviation switches rnav system relies global positioning system satellite navigation non directional beacon ndb legacy fixed radio beacons used vor system transmit simple signal directions aircraft ships use radio direction finding aircraft use automatic direction finder adf receivers use directional antenna determine bearing beacon taking bearings two beacons determine position ndbs use frequencies nbsp khz


lf mf bands propagate beyond horizon ground waves skywaves much farther vor beacons transmit callsign consisting one morse code letters identifier epirb emergency locator beacon ship emergency locator beacon portable battery powered radio transmitter used emergencies locate airplanes vessels persons distress need immediate rescue various types emergency locator beacons carried aircraft ships vehicles hikers cross country skiers event emergency aircraft crashing ship


sinking hiker becoming lost transmitter deployed begins transmit continuous radio signal used search rescue teams quickly find emergency render aid latest generation emergency position indicating rescue beacons epirbs contain gps receiver broadcast rescue teams exact location within meters cospas sarsat international humanitarian consortium governmental private agencies acts dispatcher search rescue operations operates network satellites carrying radio receivers detect distress signals emergency locator beacons


anywhere earth transmitting international cospas distress frequency nbsp mhz satellites calculate geographic location beacon within nbsp km measuring doppler frequency shift radio waves due relative motion transmitter satellite quickly transmit information appropriate local first responder organizations perform search rescue wildlife officer tracking radio tagged mountain lion radio direction finding rdf general technique used since early using specialized radio receivers directional antennas rdf receivers determine exact bearing


radio signal determine location transmitter location terrestrial transmitter determined simple triangulation bearings taken two rdf stations separated geographically point two bearing lines cross called fix military forces use rdf locate enemy forces tactical radio transmissions counterintelligence services use locate clandestine transmitters used espionage agents governments use locate unlicensed transmitters interference sources older rdf receivers used rotatable loop antennas antenna rotated radio signal


strength weakest indicating transmitter one antenna 's two nulls nulls used since sharper antenna 's lobes maxima modern receivers use phased array antennas much greater angular resolution animal migration tracking widely used technique wildlife biology conservation biology wildlife management small battery powered radio transmitters attached wild animals movements tracked directional rdf receiver sometimes transmitter implanted animal vhf band typically used since antennas


band fairly compact receiver directional antenna typically small yagi rotated received signal strongest point antenna pointing direction animal sophisticated systems used recent years use satellites track animal geolocation tags gps receivers record transmit log animal 's location remote control us air force mq predator drone flown remotely pilot ground radio remote control use electronic control signals sent radio waves transmitter


control actions device remote location remote control systems may also include telemetry channels direction used transmit real time information state device back control station unmanned spacecraft example remote controlled machines controlled commands transmitted satellite ground stations handheld remote controls used control consumer electronics products like televisions dvd players actually operate infrared light rather radio waves examples radio remote control security concern remote control systems


spoofing unauthorized person transmits imitation control signal take control device examples radio remote control unmanned aerial vehicle uav drone drone aircraft without onboard pilot flown remote control pilot another location usually piloting station ground used military reconnaissance ground attack recently civilian world news reporting aerial photography pilot uses aircraft controls like joystick steering wheel create control signals


transmitted drone radio control flight surfaces engine telemetry system transmits back video image camera drone allow pilot see aircraft going data gps receiver giving real time position aircraft uavs sophisticated onboard automatic pilot systems maintain stable flight require manual control change directions remote keyless entry fob car keyless entry system short range handheld battery powered key fob transmitter included modern cars


lock unlock doors vehicle outside eliminating need use key button pressed transmitter sends coded radio signal receiver vehicle operating locks fob must close vehicle typically within meters north america japan use frequency nbsp mhz europe uses nbsp mhz models also remotely start engine warm car security concern keyless entry systems replay attack


thief uses special receiver code grabber record radio signal opening later replayed open door prevent keyless systems use rolling code system pseudorandom number generator remote control generates different random key time used prevent thieves simulating pseudorandom generator calculate next key radio signal also encrypted garage door opener short range handheld transmitter open close building 's electrically operated garage door outside owner open


recent transmitters use nbsp ghz ism band multiple control channels modulated pwm pcm fsk wireless doorbell residential doorbell uses wireless technology eliminate need run wires building walls consists doorbell button beside door containing small battery powered transmitter doorbell pressed sends signal receiver inside house speaker sounds chimes indicate someone door usually use nbsp ghz ism band frequency channel used usually


frequency target transmitter us federal law prohibits nonmilitary operation sale type jamming devices including ones interfere gps cellular wi fi police radars scientific research radio astronomy scientific study radio waves emitted astronomical objects radio astronomers use radio telescopes large radio antennas receivers receive study radio waves astronomical radio sources since astronomical radio sources far away radio waves extremely weak requiring extremely sensitive receivers radio telescopes sensitive radio


receivers existence use large parabolic dish antennas diameter collect enough radio wave energy study rf front end electronics receiver often cooled liquid nitrogen reduce thermal noise multiple antennas often linked together arrays function single antenna increase collecting power long baseline interferometry vlbi radio telescopes different continents linked achieve resolution antenna thousands miles diameter remote sensing radio remote sensing reception


electromagnetic waves radiated natural objects atmosphere scientific research warm objects emit microwaves spectrum emitted used determine temperature microwave radiometers used meteorology earth sciences determine temperature atmosphere earth surface well chemical reactions atmosphere etymology word radio derived latin word radius meaning spoke wheel beam light ray first applied communications suggestion french scientist ernest mercadier alexander graham bell adopted radiophone meaning radiated


sound alternate name photophone optical transmission system however invention would widely adopted following heinrich hertz 's discovery existence radio waves variety terms initially used radiation including hertzian waves electric waves ether waves first practical radio communications systems developed guglielmo marconi transmitted telegraph signals radio waves radio communication first called wireless telegraphy term wireless telegraphy also included variety experimental systems transmitting telegraph signals without wires including


electrostatic induction electromagnetic induction aquatic earth conduction need precise term referring exclusively electromagnetic radiation first use ''radio '' conjunction electromagnetic radiation appears french physicist douard branly developed coherer detector called french ''radio conducteur'' radio prefix later used form additional descriptive compound hyphenated words especially europe example early british publication ''the practical engineer'' included reference radiotelegraph radiotelegraphy french text


berlin radiotelegraphic conventions includes phrases radiot l graphique radiot l grammes use radio standalone word dates back least december instructions issued british post office transmitting telegrams specified word 'radio' sent service instructions practice universally adopted word radio introduced internationally berlin radiotelegraphic convention included service regulation specifying radiotelegrams shall show preamble service 'radio' switch radio place wireless took place slowly unevenly english speaking


world lee de forest helped popularize new word united states early founded deforest radio telephone company letter june ''electrical world'' need legal restrictions warned radio chaos certainly result stringent regulation enforced united states navy would also play role although translation berlin convention used terms wireless telegraph wireless telegram began promote use radio instead term started become preferred general public


introduction broadcasting word ''broadcasting'' originated agricultural term meaning roughly scattering seeds widely british commonwealth countries continued commonly use term wireless mid th century though magazine british broadcasting corporation uk called ''radio times'' since founding early recent years wireless gained renewed popularity general term devices communicating using electromagnetic radiation either radio waves light due rapid growth short range computer networking eg wireless local area networks wi fi bluetooth well


cell phones distinguish uses traditional radio communication broadcasting history ''see'' history radio invention radio timeline radio history broadcasting see also outline radio electromagnetic radiation health radio quiet zone references external links advertising medium british inventions italian inventions media formats promotion marketing communications infrastructure communication


'''latin american studies''' '''las''' academic research field associated study latin america interdisciplinary study subfield area studies composed numerous disciplines economics sociology history international relations political science geography gender studies literature definition latin american studies critically examines history culture international relations politics latin america confused latino studies academic discipline studies experience people latin american ancestry united states latin americanists consider variety perspectives employ diverse

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Latin American studies


research tools work interdisciplinary disciplines study varies depending school association academic program example latin american centre school interdisciplinary area studies sias university oxford heavily focuses social sciences economics politics development region https lasarizonaedu center latin american studies university arizona also focuses social sciences faculty anthropology geography political science sociology history places emphasis issues related anti racism human rights security environment health


hand schools like teresa lozano long institute latin american studies llilas university texas austin focus humanities language culture history latin america central component others include study environment ecology region latin american studies usually quite open often includes closely associated instance development studies geography anthropology caribbean studies transatlantic studies history latin america studied one way another ever since columbus 's voyage eighteenth nineteenth centuries scientist explorers


creation formal ongoing scholarly organizations focusing latin america product twentieth century us historians interest latin american history within american historical association created group focusing latin america founded ''the hispanic american historical review'' published quarterly since time built reputation one premier scholarly journals latin americanists within aha created conference latin american history separately incorporated since continues coordinate annual meetings


american historical association us latin americanists also founded ''handbook latin american studies'' editorial offices hispanic division library congress pre digital era compilation annotated bibliographic references humanities social science organized subject country vital tool scholars field founded paris institute latin american studies iheal geographer pierre monbeig cuban revolution us government began seriously focusing latin america cuba hemisphere seen


integral element cold war politics latin american historian wrote early history founding latin american studies association wryly suggested future date latin americanists erect statue fidel castro remote godfather field instigated renewed us interest region interest latin american studies increased starting us latin american studies like area studies boosted passing title vi national defense education act ndea provided


resources centers area international studies http wwwedgov offices list ope iegps historyhtml uk parry report provided similar impetus establishment institutes centres latin american studies oxford london cambridge liverpool canada york university toronto established first latin american center part thanks inflow exiled intellectuals south america germany 's ibero amerikanisches institut berlin founded experience expansion associations brazilian studies association conference latin american history clah canadian association latin american caribbean studies founded


http wwwclaspprogramsorg consortium latin american studies programs clasp latin american studies association us founded mid atlantic council latin american studies us founded pacific coast council latin american studies pcclas us rocky mountain council latin american studies rmclas us founded seminar acquisition latin american library materials salalm established society irish latin american studies ireland founded society latin american studies uk established southeast council latin american studies us founded bibliographic resources ''handbook latin american studies'' established hispanic american periodicals index hapi reference works ''encyclopedia


latin american history culture'' journals ''the americas'' established ''bulletin latin american research'' established ''canadian journal latin american caribbean studies'' established ''colonial latin american historical review'' established ''colonial latin american review'' established ''european review latin american caribbean studies'' ''the hispanic american historical review'' established published conference latin american history ''historia mexicana'' established ''journal interamerican studies world affairs'' ''journal latin american cultural studies'' established ''journal latin american studies'' established ''journal politics latin america'' ''latin american perspectives'' established


''latin american politics society'' established ''latin american research review'' published latin american studies association ''the latin americanist published wiley blackwell southeast council latin american studies ''mexican studies estudios mexicanos'' established ''nacla report americas'' '' awpa pacha journal andean archaeology'' established ''problems latin america'' '' http wwwrevistasunammx indexphp rmspys revista mexicana de ciencias pol ticas sociales mexican journal political social sciences '' established programs https classtanfordedu center latin american studies clas stanford university georgetown university school foreign service https clasgeorgetownedu academics requirements center latin american studies university texas


austin https liberalartsutexasedu llilas indexphp teresa lozmeano long institute latin american studies llilas austin texas https asnyuedu content nyu research centers clacshtml center latin american caribbean studies clacs new york university http ilascolumbiaedu institute latin american studies ilas columbia university http wwwlatin americancamacuk centre latin american studies university cambridge http wwwlacoxacuk centre latin american studies university oxford https drclasharvardeduthe david rockefeller center latin american studies drclas harvard university https jsiswashingtonedu latinam latin america caribbean studies henry jackson school international studies university washington http wwwindianaedu clacs center latin american caribbean studies clacs indiana university center latin american studies


university pittsburgh https lasarizonaedu center latin american studies university arizona university michigan center latin american caribbean studies centro de estudios latinoamericanos mexico latin america caribbean us latino studies university albany state university new york albany new york http wwwihealuniv paris fr en apropos institute latin american studies iheal university sorbonne nouvelle paris ibero american institute berlin institute latin american studies london university florida center latin american studies university california los angeles latin american center https clasuchicagoedu page center latin american studies university chicago university


california santa barbara latin american iberian studies program http laiiunmedu university new mexico latin american iberian institute latin american studies division ccus las school international studies jawaharlal nehru university new delhi india https webarchiveorg web http wwwjnuacin sis ccuslas latinamericanprogrammeasp centre latin american studies faculty social sciences goa university panaji goa india http unigoaacin departmentphpadepid mdepid http stonecentertulaneedu roger thayer stone center latin american studies tulane university research libraries archives outside latin america bancroft library university california berkeley benson latin american collection university texas library austin texas bibliotheque nationale de france paris john carter brown library providence rhode island center research libraries


dumbarton oaks washington dc hispanic society america new york city huntington library san marino california library congress washington dc newberry library chicago oliveira lima library catholic university washington dc tulane university library new orleans louisiana university florida library gainesville florida santa barbara mission archive library santa barbara ca british libraries notable latin americanists see also latin americanists jeremy adelman historian ida altman historian nettie lee benson historian carmen bernand historian anthropologist leslie bethell historian john beverley elizabeth hill boone anthropologist woodrow borah historian david brading historian victor bulmer thomas historian louise burkhart anthropologist robert n burr historian


albert hirschman economist robin humphreys historian daniel james historian friedrich katz historian herbert klein historian stanford university alan knight historian enrique krauze historian george kubler historian jacques lafaye historian kris lane historian neil larsen asunci n lavrin historian miguel le n portilla historian irving leonard historian oscar lewis anthropologist edwin lieuwen historian james lockhart historian claudio lomnitz anthropologist john lynch historian murdo j macleod historian florencia mallon historian sylvia molloy alberto moreiras richard mcgee morse historian june nash anthropologist zelia nuttall anthropologist guillermo o'donnell jh parry historian gustavo p rez firmat james petras stafford poole historian philip wayne powell


historian mary louise pratt historian ngel ramawriter literary critic robert redfield anthropologist andr res ndez historian darcy ribeiro brazilian anthropologist nelly richard cultural theorist antonius robben anthropologist david rock historian riordan roett political scientist john howland rowe anthropologist beatriz sarlo literary cultural critic carl sauer historical geographer linda schele anthropologist france vinton scholes historian stuart b schwartz historian rebecca j scott historian patricia seed historian donald shaw writer literary critic kalman h silvert first president latin american studies association thomas skidmore political scientist peter h smith historian political scientist alfred stepan political scientist william b taylor


historian michael taussig anthropologist j eric thompson anthropologist alain touraine ann twinam historian victor l urquidi arturo valenzuela political scientist eric van young historian evon vogt anthropologist charles wagley historian robert wauchope archaeologist david j weber historian barbara weinstein historian henry wells political scientist nathan whetten sociologist eric wolf anthropologist john womack historian peter winn leopoldo zea philosopher mexican see also latino studies chicano studies caribbeanist conference latin american history historiography latin america history latin america criticism term latino latinobar metro references reading alvarez sonia arturo arias charles r hale visioning latin american studies ''cultural


anthropology'' bergermark r ''under northern eyes latin american studies us hegemony americas '' bloomington indiana university press bulmer thomas victor ed ''thirty years latin american studies united kingdom '' london institute latin american studies cline howard f ed ''latin american history essays study teaching '' vols published conference latin american history university texas press cline howard f latin american studies association summary survey appendix latin american research review vol autumn


pp crahan margaret e lest forget women 's contribution making lasa organization members one first women serve executive council ''lasa forum'' spring delpar helen ''looking south evolution latin americanist scholarship united states '' tuscaloosa university alabama press https wwwh netorg reviews showrevphpid online review dent david w ed ''handbook political science research latin america trends s'' westport ct greenwood press di gues j nior manuel bryce wood eds ''social science latin america'' new


york columbia university press eakin marshall c latin american history united states gentleman scholars academic specialists ''history teacher'' august hanke lewis development latin american studies united states ''the americas'' hilbink lisa paul drake joint committee latin american studies pp en paul drake et al ''international scholarly collaboration lessons past'' report social science research council inter regional working group international scholarly collaboration nueva york ny ssrc working paper series building intellectual capacity st


'''time geography''' '''time space geography''' evolving transdisciplinary perspective spatial temporal processes events social interaction ecological interaction social environmental change biographies individuals time geography subject area per se rather integrative ontological framework visual language space time basic dimensions analysis dynamic processes time geography originally developed human geographers today applied multiple fields related transportation regional planning geography anthropology time use research ecology environmental science public health according swedish geographer bo lenntorp

Social science
Geography
Human geography
Time geography


described key ontological features time space individual describes ''path'' within situational context life paths become captured within net constraints imposed physiological physical necessities imposed private common decisions would impossible offer comprehensive taxonomy constraints seen time space phenomena h gerstrand said tentatively described three important classes constraints ''capability constraints'' limitations activity individuals biological structure tools command ''coupling constraints'' limitations define


long individual join individuals tools materials order produce consume transact closely related critical path analysis ''authority constraints'' limitations domain time space entity within things events control given individual given group examples visual language time geography space time cube path prism bundle concepts h gerstrand illustrated concepts novel forms graphical notation inspired part musical notation ' 'space time aquarium'' '' 'space time cube''' displays individual paths axonometric graphical projection


space time coordinates ' 'space time prism'' shows individuals' possible behavior time space given capability constraints coupling constraints ''bundles'' paths conjunction individual paths due part capability constraints coupling constraints help create pockets local order ''concentric tubes rings accessibility'' indicate certain capability constraints given individual limited spatial size limited manual oral auditive visual range ''nested hierarchies domains'' show authority constraints given individual given group innovative visual


language essential feature time geography h gerstrand 's colleague bo lenntorp emphasized product underlying ontology way around notation system useful tool rather poor reflection rich world view many cases notational apparatus hallmark time geography however underlying ontology important feature time geography time geographic diagrams music musical notation h gerstrand later explained briefly alluded dimensional world


forms cannot completely graphically depicted hand one ought able imagine sufficient clarity guidance empirical theoretical research geographers nigel thrift allan pred already defending time geography would see merely rigid descriptive model spatial temporal organization lends accessibility constraint analysis related exercises social engineering argued time geography model constraints flexible evolving way thinking reality


complement wide variety theories research methods decades since h gerstrand others made efforts expand original set concepts end life h gerstrand ceased using phrase time geography refer way thinking instead used words like ''topoecology'' later developments schematic example ' 'space time prism'' using transit network data right schematic diagram space time prism left map potential path area two different time budgets since time


geography used researchers social sciences biological sciences interdisciplinary fields british geographer gillian rose noted time geography shares feminist interest quotidian paths traced people like feminism links paths thinking constraints larger structures society however noted time geography applied issues important feminists called form social science masculinity following decades feminist geographers revisited time geography begun use tool address


feminist issues gis software developed compute analyze time geographic problems variety spatial scales analyses used different types network datasets walking networks highway networks public transit schedules well variety visualization strategies specialized software geotime developed facilitate time geographic visualization visual analytics time geography also used form therapeutic assessment mental health benjamin bach colleagues generalized ' 'space time cube'' framework temporal data visualization applies data


represented two dimensions plus time covid pandemic time geography approaches applied identify close contacts pandemic also imposes restrictions physical mobility humans turn requires new methods time geography increasingly virtualized post covid era see also activity space agent based modeling gis public health historical ecology historical geographic information system material flow analysis musiasem sankey diagram spatiotemporal database time distance diagram footnotes references reading historical geography visualization graphic


study within applied mechanics investigates behavior structures mechanical loads bending beam buckling column torsion shaft deflection thin shell vibration bridge three approaches analysis energy methods flexibility method direct stiffness method later developed finite element method plastic analysis approach energy method energy principles structural mechanics flexibility method flexibility method stiffness methods direct stiffness method finite element method structural mechanics plastic analysis approach plastic analysis major topics beam theory buckling earthquake

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Civil Engineering
Structural mechanics


engineering finite element method structural mechanics plates shells torsion trusses stiffening structural dynamics structural instability building engineering structural engineering solid mechanics mechanics earthquake engineering


'''battlespace''' '''battle space''' term used signify unified military strategy integrate combine armed forces military theatre operations including air information land sea cyber outer space achieve military goals includes environment factors conditions must understood successfully apply combat power protect force complete mission includes enemy friendly armed forces infrastructure weather terrain electromagnetic spectrum within operational areas areas interest concept battlefield battle space last years understanding

Applied science
Military sciences
Battlespace


military operational environment transformed primarily time space driven linear understanding battlefield multi dimensional system systems understanding battle space system systems understanding implies managing battle space become complex primarily increased importance cognitive domain direct result information age today militaries expected understand effects actions operational environment whole military domain operational environment battle space agility battle space agility refers speed war fighting organization develops


become driving force behind renaissance interest quality military intelligence heavily linked ability intelligence analysts operational planners understand battle space targets networks order facilitate faster accurate shared situational understanding turn increases targeting efficacy helps retain overall initiative battle space agility roots solidly generic command control c research field c agility conducted nato works specifically agility concept within context war fighting


system another methodical concept used gain information operational area environment factors conditions including status friendly adversary forces neutrals noncombatants weather terrain enables timely relevant comprehensive accurate assessments become effective concept conventional unconventional operations successfully projecting protecting military force completing mission battle space digitization battle space digitization designed improve military operational effectiveness integrating weapons platforms sensor networks ubiquitous command control uc intelligence network centric warfare military doctrine reflects future military operations


merged joint operations rather take place separate battle spaces domain individual armed services battlespace intelligence preparation intelligence preparation intelligence preparation battlespace ipb analytical methodology employed reduce uncertainties concerning enemy environment terrain types operations intelligence preparation battle space builds extensive database potential area unit may required operate database analyzed detail determine impact enemy environment terrain operations presents graphic form intelligence preparation


jpib products used joint force component command staffs preparing estimates also applied analysis selection friendly courses action battle space measures maneuver control maneuver control measures basic preliminary step effective clearance fire support eg artillery naval gunfire support close air support marked imaginary boundary lines used commanders designate geographical area particular unit tactically responsible usually established identifiable terrain help aid hasty referencing better lateral advantage


science fire support normally orchestrated higher echelon general staff mainly operations staff sections normally designated along terrain features easily recognizable ground important point maneuver control graphics staffs must knowledgeable regarding different maneuver control measures impact clearance fires instance boundaries restrictive permissive corridors restrictive routes axis directions attack neither reminded effect clearance fires subordinate maneuver units given zones sectors ie


boundaries established since boundaries serve permissive restrictive measures decision employ profound effects upon timely clearance fires lowest possible level higher echelon may coordinate clearance fires short coordinated fire line cfl time intensive process allows unit maneuver successfully swiftly efficiently engage targets requires coordination clearance within organization affect fire support two ways '''restrictive''' restrictive control established conjunction host nation preclude damage destruction


national asset population center religious structure key role protection element tactical importance fuel storage area restrictive fire area rfa area specific restrictions fires exceed restrictions delivered without coordination establishing headquarters higher echelon occasionally may established operate independently fire area nfa designated area fire support may delivered fires effects establishing headquarters allows fires mission mission basis friendly force


engaged enemy located within nfa commander returns fire defend forces amount return fire exceed sufficient protect force continue mission '''permissive''' permissive control gives maneuver commander liberty announce engage fire support unless otherwise restricted higher echelon cases commander deny use fire support coordinating measures fscm free fire areas ffa fire support commence without additional coordination establishing headquarters normally established


house mitchell w ''battle space intelligence'' royal danish defense college publishing house mitchell w ''battle space agility helmand'' royal danish defense college publishing house mitchell w ''comprehensive approach capacity building''royal danish defense college publishing house blackmore ''war x human extensions battle space'' university toronto press owens w ''dominant battle space knowledge'' university press pacific external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwdticmil doctrine jel service pubs mcdp pdf ''marine corps doctrinal publication mcdp marine corps operations''' http wwwauafmil au awc awcgate dod ganslerhtm ''achieving dominant battlespace awareness'' http wwwdodccrporg events th iccrts pdf pdf ''joint synthetic battlespace cornerstone predictive battlespace awareness'' http wwwdodccrporg events ccrts pdf files track beautpdf ''battlespace digitization coping uncertainty command process'' https webarchiveorg web http ftprtanatoint public pubfulltext rto mp rto mp mp pdf ''challenges


'''''battlespace''''' science fiction wargame published fasa corporation set battletech universe simulates naval warfare space description fasa launched battletech franchise game released designed chris hartford additional material l ross babcock iii sam lewis jordan weisman clare hess cover art peter scanlon mike neilsen ref name dragon gameplay components boxed set includes ref name dragon page rulebook page record sheet book two x mapsheets four sheets counters plastic bases two sided dice movement players


deploy counters representing space ships map movement done spending thrust points guidelines determining heading velocity ref name dragon combat attack another ship active player readies weapon autocannon pulse laser ot point defense weapon determines distance target success failure determined roll two dice sum exceeds target 's hit number varies range attack succeeds damage absorbed ship armor distributed among target ship 's systems ref name dragon reception march


economics study consumer behaviour formally investigates individual qualities demographics personality lifestyles behavioural variables usage rates usage occasion loyalty brand advocacy willingness provide referrals attempt understand people 's wants consumption patterns consumer behaviour also investigates influences consumer social groups family friends sports reference groups society general brand influencers opinion leaders research shown consumer behaviour difficult predict even experts field however new research methods ethnography consumer neuroscience machine learning shedding

Social science
Psychology
Consumer psychology


new light consumers make decisions addition customer relationship management crm databases become asset analysis customer behaviour extensive data produced databases enables detailed examination behavioural factors contribute customer purchase intentions consumer retention loyalty behavioural intentions willingness provide positive referrals become brand advocates engage customer citizenship activities databases also assist market segmentation especially behavioural segmentation developing loyalty segments used develop tightly targeted customized marketing strategies one one basis also see relationship marketing


sciences including sociology anthropology clinical psychology resulted new emphasis customer unit analysis result new substantive knowledge added marketing discipline including ideas opinion leadership reference groups brand loyalty market segmentation especially demographic segmentation based socioeconomic status ses index household life cycle also became fashionable addition consumer behaviour marketing discipline exhibited increasing scientific sophistication respect theory development testing procedures early years consumer behaviour heavily influenced motivation research increased understanding


customers used extensively consultants advertising industry also within discipline psychology ' ' marketing began adopt techniques used motivation researchers including depth interviews projective techniques thematic apperception tests range qualitative quantitative research methods recently scholars added new set tools including ethnography photo elicitation techniques phenomenological interviewing today consumer behaviour ''cb'' affectionately known regarded important sub discipline within marketing included unit study


almost undergraduate marketing programs definition explanation consumer behaviour entails activities associated purchase use disposal goods services including consumer 's emotional mental behavioural responses precede follow activities term consumer refer individual consumers well organisational consumers specifically end user necessarily purchaser distribution chain good service consumer behaviour concerned ''purchase activities'' purchase goods services consumers acquire products services activities leading


''behavioural conative responses '' refer consumer 's observable responses relation purchase disposal goods services definition consumer behaviour according american marketing association consumer behaviour defined dynamic interaction affect cognition behaviour environmental events human beings conduct exchange aspects lives field study consumer behaviour applied social science consumer behaviour analysis use behaviour principles usually gained experimentally interpret human economic consumption discipline consumer behaviour stands


intersection economic psychology marketing science purchase decision context shoppers inspect quality fresh produce market jerusalem understanding purchase consumption behaviour key challenge marketers consumer behaviour broadest sense concerned understanding purchase decisions made products services consumed experienced consumers active decision makers decide purchase often based disposable income budget may change preferences related budget range factors purchase decisions involve


long detailed processes include extensive information search select competing alternatives ref name belch g p belch g belch kerr g powell ''advertising promotion management integrated marketing communication perspective'' mcgraw hill sydney australia p ref purchase decisions impulse buys habitual purchases made almost instantaneously little investment time effort information search purchase decisions made groups families households businesses others made individuals purchase decision made small group household different members


group may become involved different stages decision process may perform different roles example one person may suggest purchase category another may search product related information yet another may physically go store buy product transport home customary think types decision roles family unit adult female often makes brand choices behalf entire household children important influencers initiator person proposes brand product consideration something return


influencer someone recommends given brand decider person makes ultimate purchase decision purchaser one orders physically buys user person uses consumes product purchase decisions decision roles must performed always individual example case family making decision dining venue father mother may initiate process intimating tired cook children important influencers overall purchase decision


black box model considers buyer 's response result conscious rational decision process assumed buyer recognized problem seeks solve commercial purchase practice purchase decisions made routinely habitually driven strong sense problem solving decisions termed ''low involvement'' characterized relatively low levels information search evaluation activities contrast ''high involvement'' decisions require serious investment time effort search evaluation process low involvement products


typically carry low levels economic psycho social risk high involvement products carry higher levels risk often expensive infrequent purchases regardless whether consumer faces high low involvement purchase needs work number distinct stages decision process consumer 's purchase decision process overview consumer buying process usually depicted consisting distinct stages ref name khosla ref purchase decision begins problem recognition stage occurs consumer identifies need typically


defined difference consumer 's current state desired state strength need drives entire decision process information search phase consumers scan internal memory external sources information products brands potentially satisfy need aim information search identify list options represent realistic purchase options throughout entire process consumer engages series mental evaluations alternatives searching best value towards end evaluation stage consumers form purchase intention


may may translate actual product purchase ref name khosla even consumers decide proceed actual purchase decision process complete consumer purchases experiences product engages final post purchase evaluation stage purchaser 's actual experience product compared expectations formed information search evaluation stages stages decision process normally occur fixed sequence however information search evaluation occur throughout entire decision process including post purchase problem recognition


first stage purchase decision process begins ''problem recognition'' also known category need need arousal consumer identifies need typically defined difference consumer 's current state desired ideal state simpler way thinking problem recognition consumer decides 'in market' product service satisfy need want strength underlying need drives entire decision process theorists identify three broad classes problem solving situation relevant


purchase decision extensive problem solving purchases warrant greater deliberation extensive information search evaluation alternatives typically expensive purchases purchases high social visibility eg fashion cars limited problem solving known familiar purchases regular purchases straight buys typically low priced items routinized problem solving repeat purchases habitual purchases consumers become aware problem variety ways including purchase mobile phone may trigger desire accessories phone mount use car stock natural depletion consumer needs replenish stocks consumable item


purchase digital camera leads need memory cards marketer induced problem recognition marketing activity persuades consumers problem usually problem consumer realise consciously subconsciously consumed content traditional well social media greatly plays role stimulus consumer 's recognition new need new products categories consumers become aware new innovative products offer superior means fulfilling need disruptive technologies advent wireless free communications devices trigger need plethora


products new mouse printer information search customer purchase decision illustrating different communications touchpoints stage information search evaluation stages consumer works processes designed arrive number brands products represent viable purchase alternatives typically consumers first carry internal search scan memory suitable brands '''evoked set''' set brands consumer elicit memory typically small set alternatives consumers may choose supplement


number brands evoked set carrying ''external search'' using sources internet manufacturer brand websites shopping around product reviews referrals peers like readiness information availability raised informedness consumers degree know available marketplace precisely attributes precisely price fact consumer aware brand necessarily mean considered potential purchase instance consumer may aware certain brands favourably


disposed towards known ''inept set'' brands typically excluded evaluation purchase options brands consumer may indifferent feelings ''inert set'' consumer approaches actual purchase distills mental list brands set alternatives represent realistic purchase options known ''consideration set'' definition consideration set refers small set brands consumer pays close attention making purchase decision ultimately leads ''choice set'' includes alternatives


advent internet means consumers obtain brand product information multiplicity different platforms practice '''consideration set''' assumed greater importance purchase decision process consumers longer totally reliant memory marketing could defined marketing process companies create value customers build strong customer relationships order capture value customers return definition strongly implies relationship built upon exchange creation value means need built consumer


product presented advertised analytical study user 's patterns consumption behaviors habits implication marketers relevant brand information disseminated widely possible included forum consumers likely search product brand information whether traditional media digital media channels thus marketers require rich understanding typical consumer 's touchpoints evaluation alternatives consumers shopping london 's burlington arcade engage variety recreational functional purchasing activities window shopping


transporting purchases homewards consumer evaluation viewed distinct stage alternatively evaluation may occur continuously throughout entire decision process consumers evaluate alternatives terms '''functional''' also called ''utilitarian'' '''psycho social''' also called ''value expressive'' ' 'symbolic'' benefits offered ''functional benefits'' tangible outcomes experienced consumer taste physical appearance ''psycho social benefits'' abstract outcomes personality related attributes brand social currency might accrue wearing expensive suit designer label driving 'hot' car brand image


part stage think regular media one way street read newspaper listen report television limited ability give thoughts matter social media hand two way street gives ability communicate consumer beliefs brand product category may vary depending range factors including consumer 's prior experience effects selective perception distortion retention consumers less knowledgeble category tend evaluate


brand based functional characteristics however consumers become knowledgeable functional attributes diminish consumers process abstract information brand notably self related aspects marketing organization needs deep understanding benefits valued consumers therefore attributes important terms consumer 's purchase decision also needs monitor brands customer 's consideration set optimise planning brand evaluation alternatives consumer ranks assesses relative merits different options available universal evaluation process used consumers


across buying situations instead consumers generate different evaluation criteria depending unique buying situation social media enables consumers share views peers product looking purchase way consumers gauge positive negative sides alternative decide even conveniently best product buy thus relevant evaluation attributes vary according across different types consumers purchase contexts example attributes important evaluating restaurant would include food quality price location atmosphere quality service menu selection consumers depending


geographic demographic psychographic behavioural characteristics decide attributes important potential patrons seeking hedonic dining experience may willing travel distances patronise fine dining venue compared wanting quick meal utilitarian eatery evaluating different product attributes consumer ranks attribute benefit highly important least important priorities directly related consumer 's needs wants thus consumer arrives weighted score product brand representing consumer 's subjective assessment individual attribute scores weighted


wish buy new product may unaware retail outlets stock purchasing cannot proceed extent purchase intentions result actual sales known ' 'sales conversion'' rate happy hour two drinks purchased price one strong call action encourages consumers buy rather defer purchasing later time organizations use variety techniques improve conversion rates provision easy credit payment terms may encourage purchase sales promotions opportunity receive


premium enter competition may provide incentive buy rather defer purchases later date advertising messages strong ''call action'' yet another device used convert customers call action device designed encourage immediate sale typically call action includes specific wording advertisement selling pitch employs imperative verbs buy n't wait types calls action might provide consumers strong reasons purchasing immediately offer available limited time eg 'offer must expire soon' 'limited stocks available'


special deal usually accompanied time constraint eg 'order midnight receive free gift order' 'two price one first callers only' additionally service convenience saving effort way minimizes activities customers may bear buy goods services key powerful call action provide consumers compelling reasons purchase promptly rather defer purchase decisions consumers approach actual purchase decision likely rely personal sources information reason


personal sales representatives must well versed giving sales pitches tactics used close sale methods used might include social evidence salesperson refers previous success satisfaction customers buying product scarcity attraction another technique salesperson mentions offer limited forces consumer make quicker decision therefore less time evaluating alternatives ref name post purchase evaluation following purchase experiencing product service consumer enters final stage namely post purchase evaluation consumer 's purchase post purchase activities


potential provide important feedback marketers foxall suggested post purchase evaluation provides key feedback influences future purchase patterns consumption activities post purchase stage consumer examines compares product features price functionality quality expectations post purchase evaluation viewed steps taken consumers correlate expectations perceived value thus influences consumer 's next purchase decision good service example consumer buys new phone post purchase evaluation positive encouraged


purchase brand company future also known post purchase intention contrary consumer dissatisfied new phone may take actions resolve dissatisfaction consumer actions instance could involve requesting refund making complaint deciding purchase brand company future even spreading negative product reviews friends acquaintances possibly via social media acquisition consumption disposition consumers may feel uncertainty regards decision made


generating cases regret post decision dissonance also known cognitive dissonance feeling anxiety occurs post purchase stage well uneasy feelings concerns whether correct decision made purchase ref name ref consumers instance may regret purchase one brands considering type anxiety affect consumers' subsequent behaviour may implications repeat patronage customer loyalty consumers use number strategies reduce post purchase dissonance typical strategy look


peers significant others validation purchase choice customers always led opinions friends family nowadays corroborated social media likes reviews testimonials marketing communications also used remind consumers made wise choice purchasing brand x ref name ref consumers make unfavorable comparisons chosen option options forgone may feel post decision regret buyer 's remorse consumers also feel short term regret avoid making purchase decision however regret dissipate time experiences consumers


learn also engage process 's called ''hypothesis testing'' refers formation hypotheses products service prior experience word mouth communications four stages consumers go hypothesis testing hypothesis generation exposure evidence encoding evidence integration evidence influences purchase decision purchasing influenced wide range internal external factors consumer awareness ''consumer awareness'' refers awareness consumption goods formed consumers long term shopping environment purchasing activities


brand become fashion faced severe competition situation companies began realize importance implementing brand strategy began focus market research basis deeply grasp consumer 's psychological pulse improve market share brand loyalty ref name ref change people 's life concept consumers' rational consumption psychology become increasingly prominent social marketing customized marketing brand name shopping consumer 's perception price commodity directly expressed consumer 's sensitivity price main factors understanding consumer attitudes help explain reaction


market demand price changes internal influences purchase decision internal influences refer personal interpersonal factors social theory suggests individuals ''personal identity'' ' 'social identity'' personal identity consists unique personal characteristics skills capabilities interests hobbies social identity consists individual 's perception central groups individual belongs may refer age group lifestyle group religious group educational group reference group social psychologists established need belong one fundamental human


needs purchasing behaviour therefore influenced broad range internal factors psychological socio economic demographic personality factors demographic factors include income level psychographics lifestyles age occupation socio economic status personality factors include knowledge attitudes personal values beliefs emotions feelings psychological factors include individual 's motivation attitudes personal values beliefs social identity factors include culture sub culture reference groups factors may affect purchase decision include environment consumer 's prior experience category brand motivations emotions maslow 's hierarchy suggests people seek satisfy basic needs


consumer research pp online http acrwebsiteorg volumes volumes v na ref one approach understanding motivations developed abraham maslow maslow 's hierarchy needs based five levels needs organized accordingly level importance maslow 's five needs ref name physiological basic levels needs food water sleep safety need physical safety shelter security belonging need love friendship also desire group acceptance esteem need status recognition self respect self actualization desire self fulfillment eg personal growth artistic expression physiological needs safety needs


called lower order needs consumers typically use resources time energy finances attempting satisfy lower order needs higher order needs belonging esteem self actualization become meaningful part marketing program requires understanding motives drive given product choices marketing communications illustrate product brand fulfills needs ref name ref maslow 's approach generalised model understanding human motivations wide variety contexts specific purchasing decisions decision purchase analgesic preparation motivated desire avoid


pain negative motivation decision buy ice cream sundae motivated desire sensory gratification positive motivation another approach proposes eight ''purchase'' motivations five negative motives three positive motives energise purchase decisions illustrated table ref name acrwebsiteorg motivations believed provide positive reinforcement negative reinforcement class wikitable style text align left rossiter percy 's purchase motivations emotions motivation emotional sequence '''negative''' problem removal annoyance relief problem avoidance fear relaxation incomplete satisfaction disappointment


optimism mixed approach avoidance conflict peace mind normal depletion mild annoyance convenience '''positive''' sensory gratification dull neutral sensory anticipation intellectual simulation bored neutral excited social approval conformity apprehensive ashamed flattered proud marketing literature consumer 's motivation search information engage purchase decision process sometimes known ''involvement'' consumer involvement defined personal relevance importance message decision purchase decisions


classified '''low involvement''' consumers suffer small psycho social loss event make poor decision hand purchase decision classified '''high involvement''' psycho social risks perceived relatively high consumer 's level involvement dependent number factors including perceived risk negative consequences event poor decision product category especially social visibility product consumer 's prior experience category perception part marketing strategy ascertain consumers gain knowledge


use information external sources perception process individuals receive organize interpret information order attribute meaning perception involves three distinct processes sensing information selecting information interpreting information sensation also part perception process linked direct responses senses creating reaction towards brand name advertising packaging process perception uniquely individual may depend combination internal external factors experiences expectations needs momentary set exposed stimulus consumers may respond entirely different


ways due individual perceptual processes ref name number processes potentially support interfere perception ''selective exposure'' occurs consumers decide whether exposed information inputs ''selective attention'' occurs consumers focus messages exclusion others ''selective comprehension'' consumer interprets information manner consistent beliefs ''selective retention'' occurs consumers remember information rapidly forgetting information collectively processes selective exposure attention comprehension retention lead individual consumers favor certain messages others way consumers


combine information inputs arrive purchase decision known ''integration'' marketers interested consumer perceptions brands packaging product formulations labeling pricing special interest ''threshold perception'' also known ''just noticeable difference'' stimulus example much marketer lower price consumers recognize bargain addition marketers planning enter global markets need aware cultural differences perception example westerners associate color white purity cleanliness hygiene eastern countries white often associated


mourning death accordingly white packaging would inappropriate color choice food labels products marketed asia prior experience consumer 's prior experience category product brand major bearing purchase decision making experienced consumers also called experts sophisticated consumers tend skillful information searchers canvass broader range information sources use complex heuristics evaluate purchase options novice consumers hand less efficient information searchers tend perceive higher levels purchase risk account


unfamiliarity brand category consumers prior experience less motivation search information spend less effort information search process new information efficiently one study example found consumer experience increases consumers consider wider range purchase alternatives generate larger consideration set product category level external influences purchase decision purchasing behaviour also affected external influences culture sub culture social class reference groups family situational determinants culture people shared interests skaters


bladers tend form informal groups known subcultures culture broadest abstract external factors culture refers complexity learning meanings values norms customs shared members society cultural norms relatively stable time therefore culture major effect consumer behaviour research studies consistently shown culture influences almost every aspect purchasing affects basic psychological domains self identity motivation also affects way information processed way advertising messages interpreted marketers interested global expansion


especially interested understanding cross cultural differences purchasing consumption instance ferrari one world 's top brands found chinese consumers different western counterparts whereas consumers us uk australia expect wait months custom made ferrari prospective chinese buyers want drive vehicle showroom floor china instant gratification market buyers see friends riding around luxury car want quickly possible meet growing demand luxury goods ferrari luxury car makers


forced modify production processes asian markets subcultures harley davidson enthusiasts example consumption subculture subcultures may based age geographic religious racial ethnic differences often however subculture occurs people shared interests form loose knit group distinctive identity sometimes called ''consumer tribes'' members subcultures self selected signal membership status adopting symbols rituals behaviours widely understood members tribe eg dress code hairstyle even unique way speaking example within youth culture


possible identify number sub groups common interests skaters bladers surfers ravers punks skin heads goths homies others generally known communities create sense belonging something important different type subculture ''consumption subculture'' based shared commitment common brand product words consumption subcultures cut across demographic geographic social boundaries well known example consumption subculture harley davidson motorcycle owners ethnographic researchers studied harley riders believe two types


tribes effort spot new trends go mainstream social class social class refers relatively homogenous divisions society typically based socio economic variables educational attainment income occupation social class difficult define measure however marketers around world tend use conventional classification divides given population five socio economic quintiles eg australia groups ab c e fg ab top socio economic quintile much asia quintiles labelled ii iii iv v


top quintile australia example ab socio economic group account population control discretionary spending top quintiles ie ab socio economic segments particular interest marketers luxury goods services travel dining entertainment luxury cars investment wealth management services market consumer electronics designer labels eg louis vuitton however middle class consumers tend consume carefully comparison collect information compare different producers line lower class consumers tend buy impulse comparison


wealthy class purchases goods maintain social status reference groups reference group defined group whose presumed perspectives values used individual basis judgment opinions actions reference groups important used guide individual 's attitudes beliefs values ref name insights consumers acquire given value system obtained understanding group influence group socialisation processes family primary reference group exerts strong influence attitudes behaviours literature identifies five broad


types reference group primary secondary aspirational dissociative formal ''primary groups'' groups family exert strong influence attitudes behaviours ''secondary groups'' groups clubs societies sports teams political parties religions align person 's ideas values exert less fundamental influence formation attitudes behaviours ''aspirational groups'' groups individual currently belong possibly aspires become member group possesses characteristics admired ''disassociative reference groups'' group negative image


individuals may disapprove disassociative group 's values attitudes behaviours may seek distance groups ref name ''opinion leaders'' act like reference groups exert considerable social influence product knowledge expertise credibility marketing literature opinion leaders also known influencers mavens even hubs opinion leaders specific product category opinion leader computers likely opinion leader fashion typically opinion leaders high levels involvement product category heavy users


category tend early adopters new technologies within category journalists celebrities bloggers good examples opinion leader due broad social networks increased ability influence people 's decisions ref name indeed recent evidence suggests bloggers may emerging important group opinion leaders celebrities order leverage value opinion leaders marketing strategies important able identify unique opinion leaders category situation challenging techniques


used key informants socio metric techniques self questionnaires often however marketers use gut instinct identify opinion leaders example marketers athletic shoes known provide gym aerobic instructors free shoes hope class members adopt brand instructor marketers cosmetics skincare preparations regularly provide fashion editors free samples hope products mentioned fashion magazines case study internal external influences consumer purchasing behaviours covid pandemic evidence shows certain consumer purchasing behaviours rose


prominence covid pandemic result external internal factors namely behaviours compulsive buying impulsive buying panic buying revenge buying panic buying revenge buying noticeable proved coping strategy alleviating consumers negative responses pandemic ref name samuel lins samuel lins sibele aquino ana raquel costa march 'from panic revenge compensatory buying behaviours pandemic' international journal psychiatry ref panic buying occurs consumers purchase things usual consequence adverse feelings fear anxiety uncertainty surrounding crisis


disruptive event purchases tend excessive relation perceived threat ref name steven taylor steven taylor march 'understanding managing pandemic related panic buying' journal anxiety disorders ref pandemic panic buying necessities food hygiene products increased across globe ref name samuel lins consider particular australia faced unprecedented spike toilet paper sales prompting comments prime minister panic buying response irrational fear scarcity products heightened urgency procure coveted items provided sense control consumers pandemic


notwithstanding loss control social professional health environments around ref name steven taylor addition panic buying throughout pandemic revenge buying apparent periods non essential stores reopened covid related lockdowns ref name samuel lins revenge buying specifically observed physical luxury retail stores ref name samuel lins example reported hermes store guangzhou china made us million first day opened lockdown consumers' purchases ranged leather goods scarves homewares diamond studded birkin bag among things purchase luxury products


luxury defined high quality expensive non necessary associated positive emotions often compensate negative feelings namely revenge buying luxury products provided emotional release sense belonging esteem self actualisation covid pandemic people frustrated psychologically discomforted purchases said achieved sensory gratification consumers well problem avoidance ref name samuel lins clear consumers sought obtain internal happiness consumption response external health crises social distancing measures panic buying


eight factors price sensitivity quality consciousness brand consciousness novelty seeking fashion consciousness habit based factors authors developed typology eight distinct decision making styles '''quality conscious perfectionist''' quality consciousness characterised consumer 's search best quality products quality conscious consumers tend shop systematically making comparisons shopping around compare quality value '''brand conscious''' brand consciousness characterised tendency buy expensive well known brands designer labels score high brand consciousness tend believe higher prices indicator quality exhibit preference department stores


top tier retail outletsthe concept brand conscious defined awareness brand product offerings quite distinctive brands market competitive advantage consumers concerned brand company thinks name products '''recreation conscious hedonistic''' recreational shopping characterised consumer 's engagement purchase process score high recreation consciousness regard shopping form enjoyment '''price conscious''' consumer exhibits price value consciousness price conscious shoppers carefully shop around seeking lower prices sales discounts


motivated obtaining best value money '''novelty fashion conscious''' characterised consumer 's tendency seek new products new experiences sake excitement gain excitement seeking new things like keep date fashions trends variety seeking associated dimension '''impulsive''' impulsive consumers somewhat careless making purchase decisions buy spur moment overly concerned expenditure levels obtaining value score high impulsive dimensions tend engaged object either cognitive emotional level


'''confused choice ''' characterised consumer 's confusion caused many product choices many stores overload product information tend experience information overload '''habitual brand loyal''' characterised consumer 's tendency follow routine purchase pattern purchase occasion consumers favourite brands stores formed habits choosing purchase decision involve much evaluation shopping around consumer styles inventory csi extensively tested retested wide variety countries purchasing contexts many empirical studies observed cross cultural variations decisions


styles leading numerous adaptations modifications csi scale use specific countries consumer decision styles important marketers describe behaviours relatively stable time reason useful market segmentation topics consumer behaviour purchase market sports car carries financial risk social risk expensive purchase makes highly visible statement driver addition understanding purchasing decision marketers interested number different aspects consumer behaviour


occur making purchase choice areas particular interest include risk perception risk reduction activities brand switching channel switching brand loyalty customer citizenship behaviours post purchase behavioural intentions behaviours including brand advocacy referrals word mouth activity etc risk perception risk reduction activities consumer 's perceptions risk major consideration pre purchase stage purchasing decision perceived risk defined consumer 's perceptions uncertainty adverse consequences engaging activity risk consists two dimensions ''consequences'' degree


importance severity outcome ''uncertainty'' consumer 's subjective assessment likelihood occurrence example many tourists fearful air travel although probability involved airline accident low consequences potentially dire marketing literature identifies many different types risk five frequently cited facilitating trial product may help alleviate risk perceptions '''financial risk''' potential financial loss event poor decision '''performance risk''' also known ''functional risk'' idea product


service perform intended '''physical risk''' potential physical harm something goes wrong purchase '''social risk''' potential loss social status associated purchase '''psychological risk''' potential purchase result loss self esteem consumer perceives purchase risky engage strategies reduce perceived risk within tolerance levels unable withdraw purchase thus consumer 's perceptions risk drive information search activities services marketers


argued risk perception higher services lack search attributes products ie tangible properties inspected prior consumption terms risk perception marketers economists identify three broad classes purchase search goods experience goods credence goods implications consumer evaluation processes search goods include tangible products possess tangible characteristics allow consumers evaluate quality prior purchase consumption experience goods restaurants clubs evaluated certainty purchase consumption case credence goods


many professional services consumer finds difficult fully appreciate quality goods even purchase consumption occurred difficulties evaluating quality consumption may arise cost obtaining information prohibitive consumer lacks requisite skills knowledge undertake evaluations goods called credence products consumer 's quality evaluations depend entirely trust given product manufacturer service provider typical risk reduction strategies used include prospective purchasers carefully inspect merchandise purchasing expensive gold jewellery '''advertising promotional messages''' pay closer attention


product brand related promotion including advertising messages '''shopping around''' comparing offers prices inspecting merchandise '''buy known brand''' using known reputable brand indicator quality merchandise '''buy reputable store''' relying reputable retail outlet indicator quality '''product reviews''' reading independent reviews main media eg newspapers magazines written independent experts '''online product reviews consumer generated testimonials''' reading experiences consumers eg tripadvisor amazon customer reviews '''sampling limited scale trial''' practical obtaining samples free trial 'test drive' prior purchase '''manufacturer specifications''' reading information provided


marketers speed new product adoption process fine tune marketing program different stages diffusion process addition diffusion models provide benchmarks new product introductions tracked sizeable body literature devoted diffusion innovation research studies tend fall two broad categories general diffusion research approach seeks understand general process diffusion applied diffusion research studies describe diffusion specific products particular moments time within given social communities collectively studies suggest


certain regularity adoption process initially members adopt innovation time successive overlapping waves people begin adopt innovation pattern contributes generalised shaped curve shown figure right however exact shape timing curves varies different product markets innovations diffused relatively quickly others take many years achieve broad market acceptance diffusion model developed everett rogers widely used consumer marketing segments consumers five groups based rate new product adoption


rogers defines diffusion innovation process innovation communicated certain channels time among members social system thus diffusion process number elements innovation communication channels time social system innovation new idea object process perceived new members social system communication channels means information innovation transmitted members social system may include mass media digital media personal communications members


social system time refers rate innovation picked members social system table adopter categories class wikitable adopter group proportion adopters psycho social demographic characteristics innovators adopt new products concepts well ahead social community venturesome like new ideas willing accept uncertainty risk purchase decision making active information seekers cosmopolitan move broad social circles access financial resources helps absorb potential losses innovations fail tend heavy


users category enthusiasts eg tech heads first adopt new communications technologies tend younger well educated affluent early adopters second group adopt new products concepts far ahead community terms innovativeness respect social communities potential adopters look early adopters role models important opinion leaders higher social status well educated early majority third group adopt new products concepts adopt innovations marginally ahead community average tend


deliberate purchase decision making average social status education levels late majority adopt new products concepts slightly later average skeptical purchase decision making adoption often response social community pressures laggards last group adopt new products concepts highly cautious need confident innovation fail purchasing risk averse adopter segments dislike change traditionalists resistant change look past somewhat isolated within social community often adopt innovations becoming obsolete tend


older less well educated less affluent number factors contribute rate innovations diffused social community facilitating 'test drive' encourage consumers speed adoption rates '''relative advantage''' degree innovation perceived superior alternatives '''compatibility''' extent innovation fits individual 's values lifestyles past experiences '''complexity''' degree innovation perceived easy difficult understand use '''trialability''' extent individual experiment innovation


limited scale prior adoption '''observability''' degree results innovation visible members social community innovations factors likely adopted quickly accordingly marketing communications may stress innovation 's relative benefits solutions consumer 's problem marketing messages may also focus compatibility observability marketers also facilitate adoption offering limited scale trial eg samples test drives sale approval enabling consumers develop understanding innovation used prior purchase


studies shown diffusion rate many new technologies speeding figure ''household penetration selected communications technologies'' left illustrates us household penetration rates selected communications technologies measured percentage households slope curve becomes steeper successive innovation indicating rapid diffusion rate example took decades telephone achieve percent penetration rates beginning around took less five years cellphones achieve penetration rates order explain increasing pace adoption


great deal marketing activity targeted brand switchers rossiter bellman proposed classification consumers based brand loyalty switching behaviour brand loyals purchase preferred brand almost every purchase occasion favourable brand switchers exhibit moderate preference brand brands buy readily enticed purchase competing brands brand switchers normally purchase competing brand possibly unaware brand due negative experience brand new category users unaware category potential become new users


asia pacific middle east africa roughly one third respondents regions reporting price quality major incentives switching concept ' 'switching costs'' also known switching barriers pertinent understanding brand switching switching costs refer costs incurred consumer switches one supplier another one brand another although switching costs often monetary concept also refer psychological costs time effort inconvenience incurred result switching switching costs


relatively low case many fast moving consumer goods fmcg incidence brand switching tends higher example switching includes monetary psychological costs android apple users wish switch different platform would need sacrifice data including purchased music tracks apps media may also need learn new routines become efficient user channel switching advent category killers australia 's officeworks contributed increase channel switching behaviour channel switching confused


zapping channel surfing tv action consumers switching different purchasing environment distribution channel purchase goods switching brick mortar stores online catalogues internet ref name ref major reason channel switching behaviour convenience online shopping provides consumers consumers shop online hour day without drive travel walk physical store browse little much time please additional lure online deals discounts helps enforce consumer 's preference


shop online factors shift globalization markets advent category killers officeworks kids 'r us well changes legal regulatory environment instance australia new zealand following relaxation laws prohibiting supermarkets selling therapeutic goods consumers gradually switching away pharmacies towards supermarkets purchase minor analgesics cough cold preparations complementary medicines vitamins herbal remedies consumer channel switching offers diverse shopping experience however marketers need alert channel


switching potential erode market share evidence channel switching suggest disruptive forces play consumer behaviour undergoing fundamental changes consumer may prompted switch channels product service found cheaper superior models become available wider range offered simply convenient shop different channel eg online one stop shopping hedge market share losses due switching behaviour retailers engage multi channel retailing impulse buying impulse purchases unplanned


purchases impulse buying defined sudden powerful urge buy immediately occurs consumer purchases item intention purchasing prior entering store impulse buying influenced external stimuli store characteristics sale promotions internal stimuli enjoyment self identity situational product related factors time money available demographic socio cultural factors gender age education ref name ref stern introduced four broad classifications impulse buying including pure impulse buying reminded impulse buying suggestion impulse buying


planned impulse buying large family sized cakes likely planned purchase individual portions much likely unplanned purchase pure impulse buying occurs outside normal purchase behaviour consumer experiences strong emotion desire towards product initially plan buy ref name ref online shopping largely contributes towards enabling spontaneous buying consistent email alerts subscribed websites special offers limited time discounts flash sales level stealthily create sense urgency consumer purchase product reminded impulse buying


occurs consumer remembers need product seeing store triggered various techniques store advertising sensory marketing ref name example consumer may reminded buy ingredients barbecue drives past butcher store suggestion impulse buying occurs consumer sees product prior knowledge envisions use decides need example suggestion impulse buying consumer encouraged purchase electric hand mixer picked


brochure baking department home ware store brochure convinces consumer hand mixer 's superiority wooden spoon using marketing techniques also trigger suggestion impulse buying include long term warranties free trial period ref name planned impulse buying involves partially planned intention buying however specific product categories yet determined ref name case consumer 's purchasing decision encouraged retailing staff even peers persuade consumer purchase substitute provide reassurance alternative brand


choice recent research carried nielsen international suggests percent fmcg purchases planned percent supermarket purchases unplanned impulse purchases top unplanned purchases food category candy lollies chocolate cookies biscuits frozen desserts snacks top unplanned purchases non food category cosmetics air fresheners toothbrushes hand soaps hand body lotions explains supermarkets place types products front store near checkout consumer spends time likely notice therefore


plays important role underlying attitudes well shaping evaluation decision making consumer researchers noted difficulties separating concepts affect emotions feelings mood line emotions mood difficult draw consumer researchers often use concepts interchangeably yet researchers note detailed understanding relationship affect consumer behaviour hampered lack research area indeed within consumer behaviour literature widespread agreement role emotions area currently researched need


greater attention theoretically empirically information search studies found people positive mood efficient information search activities efficient processing information able integrate information identifying useful relationships arrive creative solutions problems due efficiency processing information positive mood generally quicker make decisions easier please research consistently shows people positive mood likely evaluate information positively online environments become important consumer search


tool may prudent web designers consider site design issues ease navigation lest poor design contribute customer frustration thereby engendering bad mood ultimately leading unfavourable product brand evaluations choice immediate hedonic pleasure eating candy often outweighs longer term benefit healthier food choice affect may play important role impulse buying decisions research suggests consumers place higher weightings immediate affective rewards punishments delayed rewards receive less weighting instance immediate hedonic pleasure eating sweet treat often outweighs longer term benefits


eating healthy alternative fruit occurs immediate emotional gain strong driver one consumers readily visualise whereas distant goal lacks sufficient strength drive choice customer experience customers bad mood difficult please slower process information consequently take longer make decisions tend argumentative likely complain customer satisfaction relationship affect customer satisfaction area received considerable academic attention especially services marketing literature


proposition positive relationship affect satisfaction well supported literature meta analysis empirical evidence carried szymanski et al suggest affect may antecedent outcome satisfaction emotions elicited consumption proposed leave affective traces memory traces available consumers access integrate satisfaction assessments meta analysis illustrates repurchase intent loyalty enjoy strong positive relationship customer satisfaction another meta analysis finds results indicate