processes adiabatic process occurs without loss gain energy heat isenthalpic process occurs constant enthalpy isentropic process reversible adiabatic process occurs constant entropy isobaric process occurs constant pressure isochoric process occurs constant volume also called isometric isovolumetric isothermal process occurs constant temperature steady state process occurs without change internal energy instrumentation two types thermodynamic instruments '''meter''' '' 'reservoir''' thermodynamic meter device measures parameter thermodynamic system cases thermodynamic parameter


actually defined terms idealized measuring instrument example zeroth law states two bodies thermal equilibrium third body also thermal equilibrium principle noted james maxwell asserts possible measure temperature idealized thermometer sample ideal gas constant pressure ideal gas law ''pv nrt'' volume sample used indicator temperature manner defines temperature although pressure defined mechanically pressure measuring device


pressure upon system mechanically connected earth 's atmosphere often used pressure reservoir ocean act temperature reservoir used cool power plants conjugate variables central concept thermodynamics energy ability work first law total energy system surroundings conserved energy may transferred system heating compression addition matter extracted system cooling expansion extraction matter mechanics example energy transfer equals


initial state final state potential used depends constraints system constant temperature pressure example helmholtz gibbs energies energies available system useful work temperature volume pressure temperature fixed respectively five well known potentials math math temperature math math entropy math p math pressure math v math volume math mu math chemical potential math n math number particles system math math count particles types system thermodynamic potentials


derived energy balance equation applied thermodynamic system thermodynamic potentials also obtained legendre transformation applied fields see also thermodynamic process path lists timelines list important publications thermodynamics list textbooks thermodynamics statistical mechanics list thermal conductivities list thermodynamic properties table thermodynamic equations timeline thermodynamics notes references reading nontechnical introduction good historical interpretive matters vol pp nbsp th ed russian following titles technical external links http tiggeruicedu mansoori thermodynamicdataandproperty html thermodynamics data


property calculation websites http tiggeruicedu mansoori thermodynamicseducationalsites html thermodynamics educational websites http wwwwileycom legacy college boyer reviews thermo thermo introhtm biochemistry thermodynamics http farsidephutexasedu teaching sm lectures lectureshtml thermodynamics statistical mechanics https webarchiveorg web http wwwentohiouedu thermo engineering thermodynamics graphical approach http farsidephutexasedu teaching sm statmechpdf thermodynamics statistical mechanics richard fitzpatrick energy chemical engineering


warsaw 's napoleon square aftermath world war ii '''total war''' warfare includes civilian associated resources infrastructure legitimate military targets mobilizes resources society fight war gives priority warfare non combatant needs term defined war unrestricted terms weapons used territory combatants involved objectives pursued especially one laws war disregarded mid th century scholars identified total war separate class warfare total

Applied science
Military sciences
Grand strategy
Total war


war differentiation combatants non combatants diminishes due capacity opposing sides consider nearly every human including non combatants resources used war effort characteristics actions may characterize post th century concept total war include strategic bombing world war ii korean war vietnam war operations rolling thunder linebacker ii blockade sieging population centers allied blockade germany siege leningrad first second world wars scorched earth policy march sea


american civil war japanese three alls policy second sino japanese war commerce raiding tonnage war unrestricted submarine warfare privateering german u boat campaigns first second world wars united states submarine campaign japan world war ii collective punishment pacification operations reprisals populations deemed hostile execution deportation suspected communards following fall paris commune german reprisal policy targeting resistance movements insurgents untermenschen france eg maill massacre poland world war ii


industrial warfare belligerents respective home fronts world war world war ii use civilians prisoners war forced labor military operations japan germany 's massive use forced laborers nations world war ii see slavery japan forced labor german rule world war ii giving quarter ie take prisoners hitler 's commando order world war ii background phrase total war traced back publication german general erich ludendorff 's world war


memoir ''der totale krieg'' total war authors extend concept back far classic work carl von clausewitz ''on war'' absoluter krieg absolute war even though use term others interpret clausewitz differently ref name strachanherberg rothe ref total war also describes french guerre outrance franco prussian war ref name chickeringf rster ref ref name taithe ref ref name f rster ref december letter chief staff american civil war union general william tecumseh sherman wrote union fighting hostile armies hostile people must make old young rich


poor feel hard hand war well organized armies defending sherman 's march sea operation inflicted widespread destruction infrastructure georgia united states air force general curtis lemay updated concept nuclear age first proposed total war nuclear age would consist delivering entire nuclear arsenal single overwhelming blow going far killing nation history middle ages written academics eastern michigan university ''cengage advantage books world history'' textbook claims total war


traditionally associated two global wars twentieth century would seem instances total war predate twentieth century write ref th th centuries north america span class anchor id hard war span sullivan expedition example total warfare native american loyalist forces massacred american farmers killed livestock burned buildings remote frontier areas general george washington sent general john sullivan troops seek total destruction devastation settlements upstate new york one small battle expedition devastated towns


flourishing crops corn native americans escaped canada british fed remained war sherman 's march sea american civil war ndash november december ndash considered example total war sherman used term '''''hard war''''' europe book ''the first total war napoleon 's europe birth warfare know it'' david bell french history professor princeton university argues french revolutionary wars introduced mainland europe


first concepts total war mass conscription claims new republic found threatened powerful coalition european nations used entire nation 's resources unprecedented war effort included lev e en masse mass conscription august french front line forces grew total nbsp million services first time army excess million mobilized western history savenay war vend e napoleon 's retreat russia napoleon 's ''grande arm e''


lost half million men russian campaign russians retreated destroying infrastructure agriculture order effectively hamper french strip adequate supplies campaign allied forces german theater alone amounted nearly one million whilst two years later hundred days french decree called total mobilization nbsp million men though fifth managed time french defeat waterloo prolonged peninsular war french


troops kept permanently occupied addition several hundred thousand spanish portuguese british regulars enormous sustained guerrilla insurgency ultimately french deaths would amount peninsular war alone th century world war damage destruction civilian buildings belgium propaganda one features total war britain use government propaganda posters divert attention war home front posters used influence public opinion eat occupations take change attitude support towards


war effort even music hall used propaganda propaganda songs aimed recruitment failure battle neuve chapelle large british offensive march british commander chief field marshal john french blamed lack progress insufficient poor quality artillery shells led shell crisis brought liberal government premiership h h asquith formed new coalition government dominated liberals appointed david lloyd george minister munitions recognition whole economy would


geared war allies prevail western front carl schmitt supporter nazi germany wrote total war meant total politics authoritarian domestic policies imposed direct control press economy schmitt 's view total state directs fully mobilization social economic resources war antecedent total war scholars consider seeds total state concept already existed german state world war exercised full control press aspects economic social life espoused


statement state ideology known ideas ref name demm ref rationing young men left farms front domestic food production britain germany fell britain response import food done despite german introduction unrestricted submarine warfare introduce rationing royal navy 's blockade german ports prevented germany importing food hastened german capitulation creating food crisis germany almost whole europe european colonial empires mobilized soldiers rationing occurred home fronts bulgaria went


far mobilize quarter population people greater share population country war world war ii second world war quintessential total war modernity level national mobilization resources sides conflict battlespace contested scale armies navies air forces raised conscription active targeting non combatants non combatant property general disregard collateral damage unrestricted aims belligerents marked total war unprecedented unsurpassed multicontinental scale


sh wa japan founding ceremony ''hakk ichiu'' monument promoting unification corners world one roof first part sh wa era government imperial japan launched string policies promote total war effort china occidental powers increase industrial production among national spiritual mobilization movement imperial rule assistance association national mobilization law fifty clauses provided government controls civilian organizations including labor unions nationalization strategic industries price controls rationing nationalized news media


laws gave government authority use unlimited budgets subsidize war production compensate manufacturers losses caused war time mobilization eighteen fifty articles outlined penalties violators improve production sh wa japan used millions slave laborers pressed million people east asia forced labor united kingdom onset second world war great britain drew first world war experience prepare legislation would allow immediate mobilization economy war future hostilities break rationing goods


services introduced consumers also manufacturers meant factories manufacturing products irrelevant war effort appropriate tasks imposed artificial light subject legal blackouts men conscripted armed forces beginning war something happened middle world war women also conscripted land girls aid farmers bevin boys conscripted work coal mines enormous casualties expected bombing raids children evacuated london


cities en masse countryside compulsory billeting households long term one profound longer lasting social consequences whole war britain mixed children adults classes middle upper classes become familiar urban squalor suffered working class children slums children got chance see animals countryside often first time experience rural life use statistical analysis branch science


become known operational research influence military tactics departure anything previously attempted powerful tool dehumanised war particularly suggested strategies counter intuitive examples statistical analysis directly influenced tactics include work done patrick blackett 's team optimum size speed convoys introduction bomber streams royal air force counter night fighter defences kammhuber line germany contrast germany started war concept blitzkrieg officially accept


total war joseph goebbels' sportpalast speech february ndash crowd told ''totaler krieg k rzester krieg'' total war shortest war nazi rally february berlin sportpalast sign says total war shortest war goebbels hitler spoken march goebbels' idea put entire home front war footing hitler appeared accept concept took action goebbels support minister armaments albert speer economics minister walther funk robert ley head


steering committee consisting bormann lammers general wilhelm keitel oversee effort goebbels speer advisors goebbels expected one triumvirate hitler remained aloof project goebbels hermann g ring gave total war radio address sportspalast next month th anniversary nazi 's seizure power commitment doctrine short war continuing handicap germans neither plans state mind adjusted idea long war failure


operation barbarossa major strategic defeat battle moscow forced speer armaments minister nationalize german war production eliminate worst inefficiencies speer 's direction threefold increase armament production occurred reach peak late damage caused growing strategic allied bomber offensive indication degree industrial mobilization earlier years german economy war substantially mobilized resilient air attack civilian consumption high


union ussr command economy already economic legal system allowing economy society redirected fighting total war transportation factories whole labour forces east urals germans advanced across ussr impressive feat planning factories useful war production moved total war commitment soviet government eastern front european theatre world war ii encompassed conflict central eastern europe june may


largest theatre war history terms numbers soldiers equipment casualties notorious unprecedented ferocity destruction immense loss life see world war ii casualties fighting involved millions german hungarian romanian soviet troops along broad front hundreds kilometres long far deadliest single theatre world war ii scholars believe nbsp million soviet citizens died war including least nbsp million soldiers fell battle hitler 's armies died pow camps millions


civilians died starvation exposure atrocities massacres axis lost nbsp million soldiers east well many thousands civilians battle stalingrad newly built tanks driven unpainted paint shortage factory floor straight front came symbolise ussr 's commitment world war ii demonstrated government 's total war policy united states united states underwent unprecedented mobilization national resources second world war united states danger major attack national sense


pearl harbor use nation 's resources defeat germany japan non essential activities rationed prohibited restrained fit unmarried young men drafted little urgency collapse france ended phoney war revealed urgent needs nevertheless president franklin roosevelt moved first solidify public opinion acting first peacetime draft instituted along lend lease programs aid british covert aid passed chinese well american public opinion still opposed involvement


problems europe asia however soviet union became latest nation invaded us gave aid well american ships began defending aid convoys allied nations submarine attacks total trade embargo empire japan instituted deny military raw materials factories military forces required continue offensive actions china late japan 's army dominated government decided seize military force strategic resources south east asia indonesia since western powers would give japan


goods trade planning action included surprise attacks american british forces hong kong philippines malaya us naval base warships pearl harbor response attacks uk us declared war next day nazi germany declared war us days later along fascist italy us found fully involved second world war united states began gear major war information propaganda efforts set motion civilians including children encouraged take part


fat grease scrap metal collection drives many factories making non essential goods retooled war production levels industrial productivity previously unheard attained war multi thousand ton convoy ships routinely built month half tanks poured former automobile factories within years us entry second world war nearly every man without children fit service conscripted military duration conflict unprecedented numbers women took jobs previously held strict systems rationing consumer


staples introduced redirect productive capacity war needs previously untouched sections nation mobilized war effort academics became technocrats home makers became bomb makers massive numbers women worked industry war union leaders businessmen became commanders massive armies production great scientific communities united states mobilized never mathematicians doctors engineers chemists turned minds problems ahead war 's end multitude advances made medicine physics engineering sciences even theoretical physicists


worked los alamos national laboratory manhattan project culminated trinity nuclear test changed course history war united states lost military personnel managed avoid extensive level damage civilian industrial infrastructure participants suffered us emerged one two superpowers war unconditional surrender p ref united states entered world war ii franklin roosevelt declared casablanca conference allies press unconditional surrender objective war


defeated power 's legal system happened minor axis powers example post world war ii romanian people 's tribunals circumvent allies argued major war criminals captured end war prisoners war geneva conventions cover collapse axis regimes created legal condition total defeat ' 'debellatio'' provisions hague convention military occupation applicable present day since end world war ii industrial nation


side situation came known mutually assured destruction mad considering nuclear attack one superpower would result nuclear counter strike ref name bbcmad ref would result hundreds millions deaths world words widely attributed nikita khrushchev living envy dead cold war two superpowers sought avoid open conflict respective forces sides recognized clash could easily escalate quickly involve nuclear weapons instead superpowers fought involvement proxy wars


reading barnhart michael ''japan prepares total war search economic security '' cornell black jeremy ''the age total war '' rowman littlefield publishers broers michael concept total war revolutionary napoleonic period ''war history'' craig campbell ''glimmer new leviathan total war realism niebuhr morgenthau waltz'' columbia university press intellectual history f rster stig jorg nagler ''on road total war american civil war german wars unification '' cambridge university press hewitson


mark princes wars wars people total war mass armies question military revolution germany ''war history'' marwick arthur clive emsley wendy simpson ''total war historical change europe '' open university press walters john bennett ''merchant terror general sherman total war'' external links https wwwjstororg discover sid uid uid israel 's war independence total war https archiveorg details cu collection papers relating sullivan expedition daniel marc segesser https encyclopedia onlinenet article controversy total war controversy total war https encyclopedia onlinenet homehtml online international encyclopedia first world war wars type


military doctrines warfare type economic warfare military economics military science


'''total war''' refers military conflict unlimited scope '''total war''' may also refer ''total war'' video game series video game series developed creative assembly published sega ''total war '' book simon pearson ''mars patrol total war'' comic book series initially published ''total war'' total war speech speech joseph goebbels ''total war'' novel novel ''the survivalist'' series jerry ahern see also ''spartan total warrior'' videogame


'''taoism''' '''daoism''' philosophical spiritual tradition chinese origin emphasizes living harmony ''tao'' p l way ''dao'' taoism ''tao'' source pattern substance everything exists ref name pollardrosenberg ref taoism teaches various disciplines achieving perfection becoming one unplanned rhythms called way tao ref name pollardrosenberg taoist ethics vary depending particular school general tend emphasize ''wu wei'' action without intention naturalness simplicity spontaneity three treasures compassion frugality


together later writings zhuangzi widely considered keystone works taoism taoism profound influence chinese culture course centuries taoists masters tao title traditionally attributed clergy lay followers usually take care note distinction ritual tradition practices chinese folk religion non taoist vernacular ritual orders often mistakenly identified pertaining taoism chinese alchemy especially neidan chinese astrology chan zen buddhism several martial arts traditional chinese medicine feng


shui many styles qigong intertwined taoism throughout history today taoist tradition one five religious doctrines officially recognized people 's republic china also major religion taiwan claims adherents number societies particular hong kong macau southeast asia definition birth places notable chinese philosophers hundred schools thought zhou dynasty philosophers taoism marked triangles dark green spelling pronunciation since introduction pinyin system romanizing mandarin chinese


felt taoism would appropriately spelled daoism mandarin chinese pronunciation word way path spelled ''tao sup sup '' older wade giles romanization system spelling 'taoism' derived spelled ' 'd o'' newer pinyin romanization system spelling daoism derived wade giles ''tao sup sup '' pinyin ' 'd o'' intended pronounced identically mandarin chinese like unaspirated 't' 'stop' despite fact taoism daoism pronounced differently english vernacular categorization word ''taoism''


used translate different chinese terms refer different aspects tradition semantic field taoist religion p lit teachings tao liturgical aspect family organized religious movements sharing concepts terminology taoist philosophy first recognized celestial masters school taoist philosophy p lit school family tao taology lit learning tao mystical aspect philosophical doctrines based texts ''yi jing'' ''tao te ching'' ''zhuangzi''


texts linked together taoist philosophy early han dynasty notably ref name stanford taoism ref unlikely zhuangzi familiar text tao te ching ref name stanford taoism ref name graham p ref zhuangzi would identified taoist classification arise well death ref name graham p however discussed distinction rejected majority western japanese scholars contested hermeneutic interpretive difficulties categorization different taoist schools sects movements taoism


fall umbrella definition single organized religion like abrahamic traditions studied mere variant chinese folk religion although two share similar concepts much chinese folk religion separate tenets core teachings taoism ref name robinet p ref sinologists isabelle robinet livia kohn agree taoism never unified religion constantly consisted combination teachings based variety original revelations philosopher chung ying cheng views taoism religion


embedded chinese history tradition whether confucianism taoism later chinese buddhism fall pattern thinking organizing sense remain religious even though individually intellectually also assume forms philosophy practical wisdom ref name routledge ref chung ying cheng also noted taoist view heaven flows mainly observation meditation though teaching way ''tao'' also include way heaven independently human nature ref name routledge chinese history three religions buddhism taoism confucianism stand independent views yet


involved process attempting find harmonization convergence among speak 'unity three religious teachings' ref name routledge term taoist taoism liturgical framework traditionally chinese language terms defining lay people adhering doctrines practices taoism fall instead within field folk religion taoist western sinology traditionally used translate ' 'daoshi'' master tao thus strictly defining priests taoism ordained clergymen taoist institution represent taoist culture professional


basis experts taoist liturgy therefore employ knowledge ritual skills benefit community role taoist priests reflects definition taoism liturgical framework development local cults words scheme structure chinese religion proposed first scholar taoist initiate kristofer schipper ''the taoist body'' ''daoshi'' comparable non taoist ''fashi'' ritual masters vernacular traditions called faism within chinese religion term meaning taoist lay member believer


taoism modern invention goes back introduction western category organized religion china th century significance chinese society taoism continues order larger body chinese religion history zhang lu lao tzu traditionally regarded one founders taoism closely associated context original primordial taoism whether actually existed disputed however work attributed ''tao te ching'' dated late th century bce taoism draws


cosmological foundations school naturalists form main elements yin yang five phases developed warring states period th rd centuries bce ref name robinet p ref robinet identifies four components emergence taoism philosophical taoism ie ''tao te ching'' ''zhuangzi'' techniques achieving ecstasy practices achieving longevity immortality exorcism elements taoism may traced prehistoric folk religions china later coalesced taoist tradition particular many taoist practices drew warring states era phenomena


astrological calendrical speculations divinatory activities wudangshan one taoist sacred places part taoist manuscript ink silk nd century bce han dynasty unearthed mawangdui tomb rd first organized form taoism way celestial masters 's school later known zhengyi school developed five pecks rice movement end nd century ce latter founded zhang taoling said lao tzu appeared year way celestial masters school officially recognized


ruler cao cao legitimizing cao cao 's rise power return lao tzu received imperial recognition divinity mid nd century bce han dynasty bce ce various sources taoism coalesced coherent tradition religious organizations orders ritualists state shu modern sichuan earlier ancient china taoists thought hermits recluses participate political life zhuangzi best known significant lived south part local


chinese shamanic traditions female shamans played important role tradition particularly strong southern state chu early taoist movements developed institution contrast shamanism absorbed basic shamanic elements shamans revealed basic texts taoism early times least th century institutional orders taoism evolved various strains recent times conventionally grouped two main branches quanzhen taoism zhengyi taoism lao tzu zhuangzi literature taoism grew steadily compiled form canon tao


tsang published behest emperor throughout chinese history taoism nominated several times state religion th century however fell favor taoism form shangqing school gained official status china tang dynasty whose emperors claimed lao tzu relative shangqing movement however developed much earlier th century basis series revelations gods spirits certain yang xi years ge chaofu compiled


series scriptures later served foundation lingbao school unfolded greatest influence song dynasty several song emperors notably huizong active promoting taoism collecting taoist texts publishing editions ''taotsang'' ''qiu chuji'' guo xu th century quanzhen school founded shandong flourished th th centuries yuan dynasty became largest important taoist school northern china school 's revered master qiu chuji met genghis khan successful


influencing khan towards exerting restraint brutal conquests khan 's decree school also exempt taxation aspects confucianism taoism buddhism consciously synthesized neo confucian school eventually became imperial orthodoxy state bureaucratic purposes ming qing dynasty however due discouragements government many people favored confucian buddhist classics taoist works th century imperial library constituted excluded virtually taoist books beginning th century taoism went many catastrophic events


important wu wei however concepts keystone texts cannot equated taoism whole tao te taoguan'' weihai shandong china ''tao'' literally means way also interpreted road channel path doctrine line taoism one natural spontaneous eternal nameless indescribable beginning things way things pursue course variously denoted flow universe conceptually necessary ontological ground demonstration nature


natural universe thus potentially harmful interference may avoided way goals achieved effortlessly wu wei sage seeks come harmony great tao accomplishes nonaction ref name voorst ziran ziran lit self self organization ref name zai regarded central value taoism describes primordial state things well basic character tao usually associated spontaneity creativity attain naturalness one identify tao involves freeing oneself selfishness desire


appreciating simplicity often cited metaphor naturalness ''pu'' p p p w p'u c lit uncut wood uncarved block represents original nature prior imprint culture individual usually referred state one ' 'returns'' three treasures taoist ''three treasures'' ''three jewels'' comprise basic virtues ''ci'' usually translated ''compassion'' ''jian'' usually translated ''moderation'' ''bugan wei tianxia xian'' literally daring act first heavens usually translated ''humility'' practical political side taoist philosophy arthur


waley translated abstention aggressive war capital punishment absolute simplicity living refusal assert active authority three treasures also refer jing qi shen jing usually translated ''essence'' qi ''life force'' shen ' 'spirit'' terms elements traditional chinese concept human body shares cosmological foundation yinyangism naturalists taoism within framework play important role neidan taoist inner alchemy ref name blofeld john ''taoism'' shambhala ref cosmology taoist cosmology cyclic universe seen constant


process creating ref name harvp robinet p ref evolution 'extremes meet' main characters ref name zai dr zai j https booksgooglecom booksid wzmcqaaqbaj printsec frontcover ''taoism science cosmology evolution morality health more'' ultravisum ref taoist cosmology shares similar views school naturalists yinyang ref name robinet p headed zou yan bce school 's tenets harmonized concepts wu xing five elements yin yang spirit universe seen constant process creating everything exists mere aspect qi condensed becomes life diluted


indefinite potential ref name harvp robinet p qi perpetual transformation condensed diluted state ref name robinet p ref two different states qi hand embodiments abstract entities yin yang ref name robinet p two complementary extremes constantly play one cannot exist without human beings seen microcosm universe ref name robinet p example comprise wu xing form zang fu organs consequence believed deeper understanding


universe achieved understanding oneself theology taoist theology defined apophatic given philosophical emphasis formlessness unknowable nature tao primacy way rather anthropomorphic concepts god one core beliefs nearly sects share taoist orders usually present three pure ones top pantheon deities visualizing hierarchy emanating tao lao tzu considered incarnation one three purities worshiped ancestor philosophical doctrine different branches


taoism often differing pantheons lesser deities deities reflect different notions cosmology lesser deities also may promoted demoted activity varieties popular chinese religion incorporate jade emperor derived main three purities representation high god persons history taoism people considered become immortals ''xian'' venerated well clergy laypeople despite hierarchies deities traditional conceptions tao confused western theism one


tao necessarily indicate union eternal spirit example hindu sense texts ''tao te ching'' ''wang bi'' edition ''tao te ching'' ''tao te ching'' ''taodejing'' widely considered influential taoist text according legend written lao tzu often book simply referred lao tzu however authorship precise date origin even unity text still subject debate probably never known certainty earliest texts ''tao te ching''


excavated written bamboo tablets date back late th century bce ref name stanford ref throughout history religious taoism ''tao te ching'' used ritual text famous opening lines ''tao te ching'' blockquote br tao told eternal tao br br name named eternal name ref name lao tzu ref blockquote significant times acrimonious debate regarding english translation tao te ching preferable particular translation methodology best ''tao


te ching'' thematically ordered however main themes text repeatedly expressed using variant formulations often slight difference leading themes revolve around nature tao attain tao said ineffable accomplishing great things small means ancient commentaries ''tao te ching'' important texts right perhaps oldest one ''heshang gong'' commentary likely written nd century ce important commentaries include one wang bi xiang'er ''zhuangzi'' ''zhuangzi'' named


traditional author zhuangzi composite writings various sources generally considered important taoist writings commentator guo xiang c ce helped establish text important source taoist thought traditional view zhuangzi wrote first seven chapters inner chapters students related thinkers responsible parts outer miscellaneous chapters work uses anecdotes parables dialogues express one main themes aligning oneself laws natural world


way elements ''i ching'' eight trigrams ''i ching'' known pa kua ching originally divination system origins around bce although predates first mentions tao organized system philosophy religious practice text later became philosophical importance taoism confucianism ''i ching'' shorn commentaries consists combinations trigrams called hexagrams traditionally chosen throwing coins yarrow sticks give diviner idea situation hand reading


changing lines idea developing original notations hexagrams ''iching'' also read meditation change occurs assists taoists managing yin yang cycles laozi advocated ''tao te ching'' oldest known version text dated bce recently recorded th century taoist master liu yiming continued advocate usage ref name clearytic eg cleary thomas tr https booksgooglecom booksid w nfeyukfqkc pg pt ''the taoist ching'' shambhala p ref ''the taoist canon'' taoist canon ''treasury


versions taotsang individually choose inherit texts included taotsang texts passed generations teacher student shangqing school tradition approaching taoism scriptural study believed reciting certain texts often enough one rewarded immortality texts tao te ching famous many important texts traditional taoism ''taishang ganying pian'' treatise exalted one response retribution discusses sin ethics become popular morality tract last


centuries asserts harmony tao live long fruitful lives wicked descendants suffer shortened lives symbols images basic depiction ''taijitu'' symbol without trigrams ' 'spider web ceiling'' depicting ''taijitu'' surrounded ''pa kua'' ''taijitu'' commonly known yin yang symbol simply yin yang ''ba gua'' eight trigrams importance taoist symbolism cosmology universe creates primary chaos material energy organized cycles yin yang formed


tiger dragon symbolized yin yang ref name little p taoist temples may fly square triangular flags typically feature mystical writing diagrams intended fulfill various functions including providing guidance spirits dead bringing good fortune increasing life span etc flags banners may gods immortals zigzag seven stars sometimes displayed representing big dipper bushel chinese equivalent shang dynasty nd millennium bce chinese thought regarded big dipper deity


han dynasty considered ''qi'' path circumpolar god ''taiyi'' taoist temples southern china taiwan may often identified roofs feature dragons phoenixes made multicolored ceramic tiles also stand harmony yin yang phoenix representing yin related symbol flaming pearl may seen roofs two dragons well hairpin celestial master general though chinese taoist architecture lacks universal features distinguish structures practices rituals


hall worship erwang temple taoist temple dujiangyan sichuan elements ''jingxiang'' religious practice incense candle offerings ancient times taoism religion founded food would sometimes set sacrifice spirits deceased gods could include slaughtered animals pigs ducks fruit taoist celestial master zhang taoling rejected food animal sacrifices gods tore apart temples demanded animal sacrifice drove away priests rejection sacrifices continued modern


day taoism temples allowed use animal sacrifices exception folk temples local tradition another form sacrifice involves burning joss paper hell money assumption images thus consumed fire reappear mere image actual item spirit world making available revered ancestors departed loved ones joss paper mostly used memorializing ancestors done qingming festival also particular holidays street parades take place lively affairs invariably involve firecrackers


flower covered floats broadcasting traditional music also variously include lion dances dragon dances human occupied puppets often seventh lord eighth lord kungfu practicing palanquins carrying god images various participants considered performers rather possessed gods spirits question fortune telling including astrology ching forms divination long considered traditional taoist pursuit mediumship also widely encountered sects academic social distinction martial forms mediumship ''tongji'' spirit writing typically practiced planchette writing physical cultivation recurrent


quan embody taoist principles significant extent practitioners consider art means practicing taoism society adherents white cloud temple beijing number taoists difficult estimate due variety factors including defining taoism according survey religion china year number people practicing form chinese folk religion near million chinese ref name csls chinese spiritual life survey purdue university 's center religion chinese society data reported ref among million claim


hong kong singapore show respectively people cities identify taoists followers taoism also present chinese migr communities outside asia addition attracted followers chinese heritage example brazil taoist temples paulo rio de janeiro affiliated taoist society china membership temples entirely non chinese ancestry art poetry six persimmons taoist influenced th century chinese painting monk mu qi throughout chinese history many examples


indeed shared taoism confucianism zhuangzi explicitly criticized confucian mohist tenets work general taoism rejects confucian emphasis rituals hierarchical social order conventional morality favors naturalness spontaneity individualism instead entry buddhism china marked significant interaction syncretism taoism originally seen kind foreign taoism buddhism 's scriptures translated chinese using taoist vocabulary representatives early chinese buddhism like sengzhao tao sheng knew deeply influenced taoist keystone texts taoism especially shaped development chan zen


buddhism introducing elements like concept ''naturalness'' distrust scripture text emphasis embracing life living every moment hanging monastery monastery combination three philosophies taoism buddhism confucianism hand taoism also incorporated buddhist elements tang dynasty examples influence include monasteries vegetarianism prohibition alcohol doctrine emptiness collecting scripture tripartite organization certain sects ideological political rivals centuries taoism confucianism buddhism deeply influenced one another example wang bi one influential philosophical commentators


lao tzu ''i ching'' confucian three rivals also share similar values three embracing humanist philosophy emphasizing moral behavior human perfection time chinese people identified extent three traditions simultaneously ref name window http wwwasiamsuedu eastasia china religionhtml windows asia asian studies center michigan state university ref became institutionalized aspects three schools synthesized neo confucian school authors undertaken comparative studies taoism christianity interest students history religion j j de groot among others


many works taoist translator thomas cleary pinyin transcription interlinear literary translation contains complete dictionary book zhuangzi concordance lao tzu popular non academic interpretations taoism tao steve film directed jenniphr goodman starring donal logue external links http wwwbbccouk religion religions taoism bbc religions taoism http ctextorg taoism early taoist texts chinese text project http entaoinfoorg fysk taoist culture centre database http wwwpatheoscom library taoismhtml patheos library taoism http wwwtaodirectorycouk tao directory http wwwsacred textscom tao indexhtm taoist texts internet sacred text archive http entaoinfoorg wiki wikipedia taoism https exchangeummaumichedu resources collection daoism taoism university michigan museum


art chinese astrology chinese folk religion classical chinese philosophy dualism cosmology


release heat thermochemistry coalesces concepts thermodynamics concept energy form chemical bonds subject commonly includes calculations quantities heat capacity heat combustion heat formation enthalpy entropy free energy world 's first '''ice calorimeter''' used winter antoine lavoisier pierre simon laplace determine heat evolved various chemical changes calculations based joseph black 's prior discovery latent heat experiments mark foundation '''thermochemistry''' thermochemistry one part broader field chemical thermodynamics

Natural science
Chemistry
Thermochemistry


deals exchange forms energy system surroundings including heat also various forms work well exchange matter forms energy considered concepts exothermic endothermic reactions genetalized exergonic reactions endergonic reactions history thermochemistry rests two generalizations stated modern terms follows lavoisier laplace 's law energy change accompanying transformation equal opposite energy change accompanying reverse process hess' law energy change accompanying transformation


whether process occurs one step many statements preceded first law thermodynamics helped formulation lavoisier laplace hess also investigated specific heat latent heat although joseph black made important contributions development latent energy changes gustav kirchhoff showed variation heat reaction given difference heat capacity products reactants h dt c sub p sub integration equation permits evaluation heat reaction one temperature measurements


matter energy surroundings pot boiling water processes system undergoes process one properties changes process relates change state isothermal temperature process occurs temperature system remains constant isobaric pressure process occurs pressure system remains constant process adiabatic heat exchange occurs see also differential scanning calorimetry important publications thermochemistry isodesmic reaction principle maximum work reaction calorimeter thomsen berthelot principle julius thomsen thermodynamic databases pure substances calorimetry photoelectron photoion coincidence spectroscopy


thermodynamics cryochemistry chemical kinetics references references external links physical chemistry branches thermodynamics


artistic representation turing machine turing machines frequently used theoretical models computing theoretical computer science mathematics '''theory computation''' branch deals problems solved model computation using algorithm efficiently solved degree eg approximate solutions versus precise ones field divided three major branches automata theory formal languages computability theory computational complexity theory linked question '' fundamental capabilities limitations computers '' ref name sipser rd ref

Formal science
Computer science
Theory of computation


always require finite amount memory principle problem solved decided turing machine solved computer finite amount memory history theory computation considered creation models kinds field computer science therefore mathematics logic used last century became independent academic discipline separated mathematics pioneers theory computation ramon llull alonzo church kurt g del alan turing stephen kleene r zsa p ter john


von neumann claude shannon branches automata theory class wikitable grammar languages automaton production rules constraints type recursively enumerable turing machine math alpha rightarrow beta math restrictions type context sensitive linear bounded non deterministic turing machine math alpha beta rightarrow alpha gamma beta math type context free non deterministic pushdown automaton math rightarrow gamma math type regular finite state automaton math rightarrow math br br math rightarrow ab math automata theory study abstract machines


appropriately abstract 'mathematical' machines systems computational problems solved using machines abstract machines called automata automata comes greek word means something something automata theory also closely related formal language theory ref name hopcroft ullman ref automata often classified class formal languages able recognize automaton finite representation formal language may infinite set automata used theoretical models computing machines used proofs computability


formal language theory set inclusions described chomsky hierarchy language theory branch mathematics concerned describing languages set operations alphabet closely linked automata theory automata used generate recognize formal languages several classes formal languages allowing complex language specification one ie chomsky hierarchy corresponding class automata recognizes automata used models computation formal languages preferred mode specification problem


partial functions undecidable whether turing machine computes partial function property computability theory closely related branch mathematical logic called recursion theory removes restriction studying models computation reducible turing model ref name davis ref many mathematicians computational theorists study recursion theory refer computability theory computational complexity theory representation relation among complexity classes complexity theory considers whether problem solved computer also efficiently problem


''n'' numbers list list sorted indexed way may look every number order find number 're seeking thus say order solve problem computer needs perform number steps grows linearly size problem simplify problem computer scientists adopted big notation allows functions compared way ensures particular aspects machine 's construction need considered rather


computation aside turing machine equivalent see church turing thesis models computation use lambda calculus computation consists initial lambda expression two want separate function input plus finite sequence lambda terms deduced preceding term one application beta reduction combinatory logic concept many similarities math lambda math calculus also important differences exist eg fixed point combinator '''y''' normal form combinatory logic math lambda math calculus combinatory logic developed great ambitions understanding nature


decrementation combined conditional jump incrementation exist halting lack infinite dynamically growing external store seen turing machines understood replacing role g del numbering techniques fact register holds natural number allows possibility representing complicated thing eg sequence matrix etc appropriate huge natural number unambiguity representation interpretation established number theoretical foundations techniques addition general computational models simpler computational models useful special restricted


model generate way chomsky hierarchy languages obtained references reading textbooks aimed computer scientists many textbooks area list necessity incomplete hopcroft john e jeffrey ullman ''introduction automata theory languages computation rd ed'' reading addison wesley one standard references field hein james l ''theory computation'' sudbury jones bartlett gentle introduction field appropriate second year undergraduate computer science students taylor r gregory


''models computation formal languages'' new york oxford university press unusually readable textbook appropriate upper level undergraduates beginning graduate students lewis f '' http cseucdenveredu cscialtman foundation essentials theoretical computer sciencepdf essentials theoretical computer science '' textbook covering topics formal languages automata grammars emphasis appears presenting overview results applications rather providing proofs results martin davis ron sigal elaine j weyuker ''computability complexity languages fundamentals theoretical computer science'' nd ed academic press covers wider range topics


introductory books including program semantics quantification theory aimed graduate students books computability theory wider mathematical perspective hartley rogers jr ''theory recursive functions effective computability'' mit press carl h smith ''a recursive introduction theory computation'' springer shorter textbook suitable graduate students computer science historical perspective external links http toccsailmitedu theory computation mit http tocseasharvardedu theory computation harvard http wwwcisupennedu giorgi clhtml computability logic theory interactive computation main web source subject


'''theology''' systematic study nature divine broadly religious belief taught academic discipline typically universities seminaries occupies unique content analyzing supernatural also deals religious epistemology asks seeks answer question revelation revelation pertains acceptance god gods deities transcendent natural world also willing able interact natural world particular reveal humankind theology turned


secular field religious adherents still consider theology discipline helps live understand concepts life love helps lead lives obedience deities follow worship theologians use various forms analysis argument experiential philosophical ethnographic historical others help understand explain test critique defend promote myriad religious topics philosophy ethics case law arguments often assume existence previously resolved questions develop making analogies draw new inferences new situations study


theology may help theologian deeply understand religious tradition another religious tradition may enable explore nature divinity without reference specific tradition theology may used propagate reform justify religious tradition may used compare challenge eg biblical criticism oppose eg irreligion religious tradition worldview theology might also help theologian address present situation need religious tradition explore possible ways interpreting world etymology term derives greek ''theologia''


fresco ''the school athens'' classical philosophy greek ''theologia'' used meaning 'discourse god' around bc plato ''the republic'' aristotle divided theoretical philosophy ''mathematike'' ''physike'' ''theologike'' latter corresponding roughly metaphysics aristotle included discourse nature divine drawing greek stoic sources latin writer varro distinguished three forms discourse ref name augustine http wwwnewadventorg fathers htm ''city god'' vi ch ref mythical concerning myths greek gods rational philosophical analysis gods cosmology civil


concerning rites duties public religious observance later usage latin christian authors tertullian augustine followed varro 's threefold usage ref name however augustine also defined ''theologia'' reasoning discussion concerning deity ref name cityof augustine hippo ''city god'' http logicmuseumgooglepagescom civitate htm book viii de divinitate rationem sive sermonem ref latin author boethius writing early th century used ''theologia'' denote subdivision philosophy subject academic study dealing motionless incorporeal reality opposed ''physica'' deals corporeal moving realities boethius' definition influenced medieval latin


usage patristic greek christian sources ''theologia'' could refer narrowly devout inspired knowledge teaching essential nature god scholastic latin sources term came denote rational study doctrines christian religion precisely academic discipline investigated coherence implications language claims bible theological tradition latter often represented peter lombard 's ''sentences'' book extracts church fathers renaissance especially florentine platonist apologists dante 's poetics distinction 'poetic


theology' ''theologia poetica'' 'revealed' biblical theology serves stepping stone revival philosophy independent theological authority last sense theology academic discipline involving rational study christian teaching term passed english th century although could also used narrower sense found boethius greek patristic authors mean rational study essential nature god discourse sometimes called theology proper th century onwards term ''theology'' began used refer study


religious ideas teachings specifically christian correlated christianity eg term ''natural theology'' denoted theology based reasoning natural facts independent specifically christian revelation specific another religion ''theology'' also used derived sense mean system theoretical principles impractical rigid ideology religion term ''theology'' deemed appropriate study religions worship supposed deity ''theos'' ie widely monotheism presuppose belief


ability speak reason deity ''logia'' suggest term less appropriate religious contexts organized differently ie religions without single deity deny subjects studied logically ''hierology'' proposed people eug ne goblet d'alviella alternative generic term abrahamic religions christianity thomas aquinas influential roman catholic theologian upright defined thomas aquinas theology constituted triple aspect taught god teaches god leads god indicates three


propagation christianity draw resources christian tradition address present situation need variety reasons islam islamic theological discussion parallels christian theological discussion called ''kalam'' islamic analogue christian theological discussion would properly investigation elaboration ''sharia'' ''fiqh'' judaism sculpture jewish theologian maimonides upright jewish theology historical absence political authority meant theological reflection happened within context jewish community synagogue including rabbinical discussion jewish law midrash


rabbinic biblical commentaries jewish theology linked ethics therefore implications one behaves indian religions buddhism academic inquiries within buddhism dedicated investigation buddhist understanding world prefer designation buddhist philosophy term ''buddhist theology'' since buddhism lacks conception ''theos'' jose ignacio cabezon argues use ''theology'' fact appropriate says take theology restricted discourse god take 'theology' restricted etymological meaning


latter sense buddhism course ''a''theological rejecting notion god hinduism within hindu philosophy tradition philosophical speculation nature universe god termed brahman paramatma bhagavan schools hindu thought '' tman'' soul sanskrit word various schools hindu philosophy ' 'dar ana'' 'view viewpoint' vaishnava theology subject study many devotees philosophers scholars india centuries large part study lies classifying organizing manifestations thousands gods


applied sectors across contemporary pagan communities including wicca heathenry druidry kemetism religions given precedence orthopraxy theological views often vary among adherents term used christine kraemer book ''seeking mystery introduction pagan theologies'' michael york ''pagan theology paganism world religion'' topics richard hooker defines ''theology'' science things divine term however used variety disciplines fields study theology considers whether divine exists form physical supernatural mental


social realities evidence may found via personal spiritual experiences historical records experiences documented others study assumptions part theology proper found philosophy religion increasingly psychology religion neurotheology theology aims structure understand experiences concepts use derive normative prescriptions live lives history academic discipline history study theology institutions higher education old


history institutions instance taxila early centre vedic learning possible th century bc earlier ref name scharfe hartmut ''education ancient india'' leiden brill ref platonic academy founded athens th century bc seems included theological themes subject matter chinese taixue delivered confucian teaching nd century bc school nisibis centre christian learning th century ad nalanda india site buddhist higher learning least th th century ad ref name


moroccan university al karaouine centre islamic learning th century al azhar university cairo earliest universities developed aegis latin church papal bull ' 'studia generalia'' perhaps cathedral schools possible however development cathedral schools universities quite rare university paris exception later also founded kings university naples federico ii charles university prague jagiellonian university krak w municipal administrations university cologne university erfurt early medieval


period new universities founded pre existing schools usually schools deemed become primarily sites higher education many historians state universities cathedral schools continuation interest learning promoted monasteries christian theological learning therefore component institutions study church canon law universities played important role training people ecclesiastical offices helping church pursue clarification defence teaching supporting legal rights church secular rulers universities


theological study initially closely tied life faith church fed fed practices preaching prayer celebration mass high middle ages theology ultimate subject universities named queen sciences served capstone trivium quadrivium young men expected study meant subjects including philosophy existed primarily help theological thought christian theology 's preeminent place university began challenged european enlightenment especially germany ref name howard


thomas albert '' https globaloupcom academic product protestant theology making modern german university cc us lang en protestant theology making modern german university '' oxford oxford university press ref subjects gained independence prestige questions raised place discipline seemed involve commitment authority particular religious traditions institutions increasingly understood devoted independent reason since early th century various different approaches emerged west theology academic discipline much debate concerning theology 's place university within general higher education curriculum centres whether theology 's


methods appropriately theoretical broadly speaking scientific hand whether theology requires pre commitment faith practitioners whether commitment conflicts academic freedom ref name ministerial training contexts theology held belong institutions higher education primarily form professional training christian ministry basis friedrich schleiermacher liberal theologian argued inclusion theology new university berlin ref name instance germany theological faculties state universities typically tied


academic study theology training christian ministry instance numerous prominent examples united states including phoenix seminary catholic theological union chicago graduate theological union berkeley criswell college dallas southern baptist theological seminary louisville trinity evangelical divinity school deerfield illinois dallas theological seminary north texas collegiate institute farmers branch texas assemblies god theological seminary springfield missouri academic discipline right contexts scholars pursue theology academic discipline without formal affiliation particular church


though members staff may well affiliations churches without focussing ministerial training applies instance department theological studies concordia university canada many university departments united kingdom including faculty divinity university cambridge department theology religion university exeter department theology religious studies university leeds traditional academic prizes university aberdeen 's lumsden sachs fellowship tend acknowledge performance theology divinity known


neutral secular contexts 'religious studies' sense focus primary forms study likely include anthropology religion comparative religion history religions philosophy religion psychology religion sociology religion sometimes theology religious studies seen tension times held coexist without serious tension occasionally denied clear boundary criticism pre th century whether reasoned discussion divine possible long point contention protagoras


human reason ''le bon sens'' ref name loughlin lord bolingbroke english politician political philosopher wrote section iv ''essays human knowledge'' theology fault religion theology science may justly compared box pandora many good things lie uppermost many evil lie scatter plagues desolation throughout world thomas paine deistic american political theorist pamphleteer wrote three part work ''the age reason'' blockquote study theology stands christian churches study


nothing founded nothing rests principles proceeds authorities data demonstrate nothing admits conclusion anything studied science without possession principles upon founded case christian theology therefore study nothing blockquote german atheist philosopher ludwig feuerbach sought dissolve theology work ''principles philosophy future'' task modern era realization humanization god


transformation dissolution theology anthropology mirrored earlier work ''the essence christianity'' banned teaching germany said theology web contradictions delusions american satirist mark twain remarked essay lowest animal originally written around published twain 's death ref name twain ref blockquote man animal loves neighbor cuts throat theology n't straight made graveyard globe trying honest


best smooth brother 's path happiness heaven higher animals religion told going left hereafter wonder seems questionable taste blockquote th st centuries j ayer british former logical positivist sought show essay critique ethics theology statements divine nonsensical divine attribute unprovable wrote generally admitted rate philosophers existence attributes define god


religion ref name english atheist charles bradlaugh believed theology prevented human beings achieving liberty although also noted many theologians time held modern scientific research sometimes contradicts sacred scriptures scriptures must therefore wrong robert g ingersoll american agnostic lawyer stated theologians power majority people lived hovels privileged palaces cathedrals ingersoll 's opinion science improved people 's lives theology ingersoll maintained trained theologians reason better person assumes devil must exist


pictures resemble devil exactly british evolutionary biologist richard dawkins outspoken critic theology ref name loughlin ref name dawkins article published ''the independent'' severely criticizes theology entirely useless ref name dawkins ref declaring completely repeatedly failed answer questions nature reality human condition ref name dawkins states never heard ie theologians ever say anything smallest use anything either platitudinously obvious downright false ref name dawkins states theology


completely eradicated earth one would notice even care concludes ref name dawkins blockquote achievements theologians n't anything n't affect anything n't achieve anything n't even mean anything makes think 'theology' subject blockquote see also thealogy references external links http wwwbritannicacom ebchecked topic theology theology ''encyclop dia britannica'' chattopadhyay subhasis http philpapersorg rec charoh reflections hindu theology prabuddha bharata awakened india issn edited swami narasimhananda


toxicologist working lab united states '''toxicology''' scientific discipline overlapping biology chemistry pharmacology medicine involves study adverse effects chemical substances living organisms practice diagnosing treating exposures toxins toxicants relationship dose effects exposed organism high significance toxicology factors influence chemical toxicity include dosage duration exposure whether acute chronic route exposure species age sex environment '''toxicologists''' experts poisons poisoning

Applied science
Environmental studies and forestry
Toxicology


movement evidence based toxicology part larger movement towards evidence based practices toxicology currently contributing field cancer research since toxins used drugs killing tumor cells one prime example ribosome inactivating proteins tested treatment leukemia ref name mercatellibortolotti ref word ''toxicology'' neoclassical compound new latin first attested circa ref name mwu ref combining forms ''toxico '' '' logy'' turn come ancient greek words ''toxikos'' poisonous ''logos'' subject matter history lithograph mathieu orfila dioscorides


greek physician court roman emperor nero made first attempt classify plants according toxic therapeutic effect ibn wahshiyya wrote ''book poisons'' th th century followed khagendra mani darpana theophrastus phillipus auroleus bombastus von hohenheim also referred paracelsus belief studies beyond work celsus nbsp roman physician first century considered father toxicology credited classic toxicology maxim ''alle dinge sind gift


und nichts ist ohne gift allein die dosis macht dass ein ding kein gift ist'' translates things poisonous nothing without poison dose makes thing poisonous often condensed dose makes poison latin sola dosis facit venenum ref name ottoboni ref mathieu orfila also considered modern father toxicology given subject first formal treatment ''trait des poisons'' also called ''toxicologie g n rale'' jean stas became first person successfully isolate plant poisons human tissue allowed


identify use nicotine poison bocarm murder case providing evidence needed convict belgian count hippolyte visart de bocarm killing brother law basic principles goal toxicity assessment identify adverse effects substance adverse effects depend two main factors routes exposure oral inhalation dermal ii dose duration concentration exposure explore dose substances tested acute chronic models ref name ref generally different sets experiments conducted determine whether substance


causes cancer examine forms toxicity ref name factors influence chemical toxicity ref name ottoboni dosage large single exposures acute continuous small exposures chronic studied route exposure ingestion inhalation skin absorption factors species age sex health environment individual characteristics discipline evidence based toxicology strives transparently consistently objectively assess available scientific evidence order answer questions toxicology ref name hoff ref study adverse effects chemical physical biological agents living organisms environment including prevention amelioration effects ref name sot ref evidence based toxicology


potential address concerns toxicological community limitations current approaches assessing state science ref name stephens ref ref name mandrioli ref include concerns related transparency decision making synthesis different types evidence assessment bias credibility ref name adami ref ref name conrad ref evidence based toxicology roots larger movement towards evidence based practices testing methods toxicity experiments may conducted ''in vivo'' using whole animal ''in vitro'' testing isolated cells tissues ''in silico'' computer simulation ref name ref non human animals classic experimental tool


toxicology testing non human animals ref name ottoboni example model organisms ''galleria mellonella'' replace small mammals zebrafish allow study toxicology lower order vertebrate vivo animal testing provides information available means substances function living organism ref name soctox ref use non human animals toxicology testing opposed organisations reasons animal welfare restricted banned circumstances certain regions testing cosmetics european


union alternative testing methods testing animal models remains method estimating human effects ethical technical concerns animal testing since late field toxicology sought reduce eliminate animal testing rubric three rs reduce number experiments animals minimum necessary refine experiments cause less suffering replace ''in vivo'' experiments types use simple forms life possible ref name b ref computer modeling example alternative testing methods using computer models


chemicals proteins structure activity relationships determined chemical structures likely bind interfere proteins essential functions identified ref name c ref work requires expert knowledge molecular modeling statistics together expert judgment chemistry biology toxicology ref name c american ngo national academy sciences published report called toxicity testing st century vision strategy opened statement change often involves pivotal event builds previous history opens door new era pivotal events


science include discovery penicillin elucidation dna double helix development computers toxicity testing approaching scientific pivot point poised take advantage revolutions biology biotechnology advances toxicogenomics bioinformatics systems biology epigenetics computational toxicology could transform toxicity testing system based whole animal testing one founded primarily vitro methods evaluate changes biologic processes using cells cell lines cellular components preferably human origin vision still unrealized ref name soctox united states environmental


effect observed ref name ottoboni show phenomenon known sufficient challenge nbsp small exposure produces animals grow rapidly better general appearance coat quality fewer tumors live longer control animals chemicals well defined safe level exposure treated special care chemicals subject bioaccumulation stored rather excreted body ref name ottoboni also receive special consideration several measures commonly used describe toxic dosages according degree effect organism


population specifically defined various laws organizational usage include ld median lethal dose dose kill exposed population noel observed effect level highest dose known show effect noael observed adverse effect level highest dose known show adverse effects pel permissible exposure limit highest concentration permitted us osha regulations stel short term exposure limit highest concentration permitted short periods time general minutes twa time weighted average average amount agent 's concentration specified period


time usually hours ttc threshold toxicological concern established constituents tobacco smoke ref name talhoutschulz ref types medical toxicology discipline requires physician status md degree plus specialty education experience clinical toxicology discipline practiced physicians also health professionals master 's degree clinical toxicology physician extenders physician assistants nurse practitioners nurses pharmacists allied health professionals forensic toxicology discipline makes use toxicology disciplines analytical chemistry pharmacology clinical chemistry aid


medical legal investigation death poisoning drug use primary concern forensic toxicology legal outcome toxicological investigation technology utilized rather obtainment interpretation results computational toxicology discipline develops mathematical computer based models better understand predict adverse health effects caused chemicals environmental pollutants pharmaceuticals ref name reisfeld ref within ''toxicology st century'' project ref name hartung ref ref name hartung ref best predictive models identified deep neural networks random forest support vector machines reach performance


vitro experiments ref name tox ref ref name tox data ref ref name unterthiner unterthiner mayr klambauer g steijaert ceulemans h wegner j k hochreiter http wwwbioinfjkuat publications nips apdf deep learning opportunity virtual screening workshop deep learning representation learning nips ref ref name unterthiner unterthiner mayr klambauer g hochreiter https arxivorg abs toxicity prediction using deep learning arxiv ref occupational toxicology application toxicology chemical hazards workplace ref name ref toxicology profession '''toxicologist''' scientist medical personnel specializes study symptoms mechanisms treatments detection venoms toxins especially


poisoning people requirements work toxicologist one obtain degree toxicology related degree like biology chemistry pharmacology biochemistry bachelor 's degree programs toxicology cover chemical makeup toxins effects biochemistry physiology ecology introductory life science courses complete students typically enroll labs apply toxicology principles research studies advanced students delve specific sectors like pharmaceutical industry law enforcement apply methods toxicology work society toxicology sot recommends undergraduates


postsecondary schools n't offer bachelor 's degree toxicology consider attaining degree biology chemistry additionally sot advises aspiring toxicologists take statistics mathematics courses well gain laboratory experience lab courses student research projects internships duties toxicologists perform many different duties including research academic nonprofit industrial fields product safety evaluation consulting public service legal regulation order research assess effects chemicals toxicologists perform carefully designed studies experiments experiments help identify specific amount chemical may


cause harm potential risks near using products contain certain chemicals research projects may range assessing effects toxic pollutants environment evaluating human immune system responds chemical compounds within pharmaceutical drugs basic duties toxicologists determine effects chemicals organisms surroundings specific job duties may vary based industry employment example forensic toxicologists may look toxic substances crime scene whereas aquatic toxicologists may analyze toxicity level water bodies compensation salary


jobs toxicology dependent several factors including level schooling specialization experience us bureau labor statistics bls notes jobs biological scientists generally include toxicologists expected increase bls notes increase could due research development growth biotechnology well budget increases basic medical research biological science see also aquatic toxicology automatism toxicology certain safety factor children 's environmental exposure research study cheers us ecotoxicology entomotoxicology environmental health environmental toxicology enzyme inhibition food


toxicology forensic toxicology history poison vitro toxicology indicative limit value medical toxicology modes toxic action occupational toxicology overdose risk information exchange pollution toxicity exposure science exposome toxicogenomics ''toxicology mechanisms methods'' journal toxinology ''unacceptable levels'' documentary film references reading external links http wwwtoxicologyorg indexasp society toxicology


internal revenue code primary statutory basis federal tax law united states code federal regulations treasury department 's regulatory interpretation federal tax laws passed congress carry weight law interpretation reasonable tax treaties case law us tax court federal courts constitute remainder tax law united states '''tax law''' '' 'revenue law''' area legal study public sanctioned authorities federal state municipal governments case


us use body rules procedures laws assess collect taxes legal context rates merits various taxes imposed authorities attained via political process inherent bodies power directly attributable actual domain tax law ref name ref tax law part public law covers application existing tax laws individuals entities corporations areas tax revenue derived levied eg income tax estate tax business tax employment payroll tax property tax gift tax exports imports


tax ref name arguments consumer law better way engage large scale redistribution tax law necessitate legislation efficient given complexities tax law major issues primary taxation issues differ among various countries although similarities might exist developed countries taxes fail raise sufficient revenue cover government spending ref name ref taxes generally complex viewed benefitting high income earners lower income earners payment relatively less tax ref name ref name ref


tax evasion avoidance occur leading reduced government revenue taxes produce poor desired outcomes lower productivity provide less incentive businesses grow ref name taxes curb economic growth inefficiency eg corporate taxes hurdles could impede smaller entities grow ref name taxation viewed disproportionate case taxation capital gains versus labor income investors generally pay less tax investment income vs workers proportionally pay wages ref name taxes remain questionable achieving desired goals ecotax


primarily intended promote environmentally friendly activities via economic incentives developing countries taxes developing economies hard standardize since workers work small often unregulated enterprises ref name ref tax systems without sound establishments competent administration run manage burdensome inefficient ref name ref name ref tax systems without reliable data hard regulate change ref name ref name tax systems tend rich bear heavier burden taxation ref name education pertaining us pre requisites completion bachelor 's degree


students contemplating tax law might consider majoring economics accounting finance ref name ref sitting law school admission test lsat law school law school students take foundational courses constitutional law civil procedures ref name level law students take specialized courses taxation limited partnerships income taxes business liquidations acquisitions ref name upon completion law students graduate juris doctor jd degree sufficient admission llm taxation ref name post law school jd graduates may


enroll master laws taxation llm one year program concentrations available students include estate planning business taxation ref name bar exam pertaining countries post law school jd graduates enroll master laws llm program seen canada united kingdom australia netherlands general requirements bachelor 's degree required entry law school law school admission test lsat required law school admission united states canada growing number countries jd juris doctor first degree


law u juris doctor jd u program offered number countries include united states australia canada hong kong china japan philippines singapore united kingdom courses vary duration years curriculum whether training required depending country program africa african countries use british legal education curriculum law educational system train lawyers ref name ref overall legal education across african countries starts university level undergraduate course although universities promulgated law degree


graduate program akin united states canada india ref name african countries law degree necessarily qualify one practice lawyer post graduate practical training required ref name graduates earn undergraduate law degree viz bachelor laws llb via four year program malawi kenya zambia south african law universities subsequently graduates bachelor laws seek earn master laws greater order become practitioners law law institutions offer tracks


master philosophy mphil doctor philosophy degree phd doctor laws degree lld emphasis tax law ref name list tax faculty ranked publication downloads maintained paul caron taxprof blog taxation jurisdiction africa taxation south africa taxation tanzania americas taxation argentina taxation canada taxation colombia taxation british virgin islands taxation peru taxation united states asia taxation china taxation people 's republic china taxation india taxation iran taxation palestinian territories europe taxation


european union taxation azerbaijan taxation bulgaria taxation france taxation germany taxation republic ireland taxation netherlands taxation poland taxation portugal taxation russia taxes spain taxation united kingdom oceania taxation australia taxation new zealand see also corporate law corporate tax references references public law taxation related lists


god father depicted julius schnorr von carolsfeld '''theism''' broadly defined belief existence supreme deities common parlance contrasted ' 'deism'' term often describes classical conception god found monotheism also referred classical theism gods found polytheistic religions belief god gods without rejection revelation characteristic deism atheism commonly understood non acceptance rejection theism broadest sense theism ie non acceptance rejection

Humanities Philosophy Metaphysics Theism


belief god gods claim existence deity unknown unknowable agnosticism ref name hepburn page edition ref ref name roweroutledge ref etymology term ''theism'' derives greek ''theos'' ''theoi'' meaning god gods term ''theism'' first used ralph cudworth cudworth 's definition strictly properly called theists affirm perfectly conscious understanding mind existing eternity cause things types theism monotheism monotheism greek belief theology


subsumed greater whole forms hinduism smartism dvaita vedanta serve examples soft polytheism polytheism also divided according individual deities regarded henotheism viewpoint belief may one deity one worshiped zoroastrianism example kathenotheism viewpoint belief one deity one deity worshiped time ever another may worthy worship another time place worshiped one time supreme


turn monolatrism belief may one deity one worthy worshiped modern monotheistic religions may begun monolatric ones although disputed pantheism panentheism pantheism belief universe equivalent god division creator substance creation advaita vedanta school hindu philosophy example panentheism like pantheism belief physical universe joined god gods however also believes


divine pervades interpenetrates every part universe also extends beyond time space examples include forms vaishnavism philosophy baruch spinoza distinction two beliefs may ambiguous unhelpful significant point division pantheism may understood type nontheism physical universe takes roles theistic god roles god viewed unnecessary deism classical deism belief one god exists created world creator alter original plan


universe presides form providence however classical deists believe divine intervention deism typically rejects supernatural events prophecies miracles divine revelations prominent organized religion instead deism holds religious beliefs must founded human reason observed features natural world sources reveal existence supreme creator pandeism belief god preceded universe created equivalent polydeism belief multiple gods exist intervene universe autotheism


autotheism viewpoint divinity whether also external inherently within 'oneself' one ability become godlike indian religions like buddhism jainism autotheistic selfless way way following implications statements attributed ethical philosophical religious leaders mahavira autotheism also refer belief one 's self deity within context subjectivism hindus use term ''aham brahm smi'' means brahman value judgment theisms eutheism belief deity wholly benevolent dystheism


belief deity wholly good possibly evil maltheism belief deity exists wholly malicious misotheism active hatred god gods non theism non theism belief gods god atheism atheism belief higher powers deities gods goddesses messiahs exist ever existed see also antitheism apeirotheism stika n stika theistic evolution notes


act theft '''theft''' taking another person 's property services without person 's permission consent intent deprive rightful owner ref name mwdictionary ref ref name weal ref ref name commperc ref word ''theft'' also used synonym informal shorthand term crimes property larceny robbery ref name mwdictionary embezzlement extortion blackmail receiving stolen property ref name weal jurisdictions ''theft'' considered synonymous ''larceny'' others ''theft'' defined narrowly ref name collins ref someone carries act theft may described '''''thief''''' ref

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Theft


mistake takes 's scarf instead physically deprived use property ''actus reus'' mistake prevents x forming ''mens rea'' ie believes owner dishonest intend deprive owner crime committed point realizes mistake gets home could return scarf steal scarf dishonestly keeps see theft finding note


may civil liability torts trespass chattels conversion either eventuality jurisdiction following countries cases theft according united nations class wikitable sortable style text align right country align left align left align left align left align left australia actus reus robbers stone west lavington wiltshire memorial warns thieving recording fate several attempted highway robbery spot '''south australia''' theft


defined section ''criminal consolidation act'' sa person deals property dishonestly without owner 's consent intending deprive owner property make serious encroachment proprietary rights owner ref name criminal law sa law encroachment proprietary rights means property dealt way creates substantial risk property returned owner value property greatly diminished owner get back


also property treated defendant 's property dispose disregarding actual property owner 's rights basic offence person found guilty offence liable imprisonment years aggravated offence person found guilty offence liable imprisonment years '''victoria''' theft defined ''crimes act'' vic person dishonestly appropriates property belonging another intention permanently depriving ref name crimes act vic basic definition theft ref actus reus


mens rea defined follows appropriation defined section ''crimes act'' vic assumption owner 's rights ref name crimes act vic explanation theft ref owner 's rights long least one right assumed ref name stein v henshall ref owner gave consent appropriation cannot appropriation ref name baruday v r ref however consent obtained deception consent vitiated property defined section ''crimes act'' vic


determined jury based knowledge experience definition victoria contains definitions dishonesty including belief legal claim right belief owner could found ref name criminal law sa dishonesty ref '''victoria''' intention permanently deprive defined treating property belongs accused rather owner dishonestly section ''crimes act'' vic creates negative definition term 'dishonestly' section deems three circumstances accused deemed


obtain telecommunication facility service theft person special property interest theft person required account theft person holding power attorney misappropriation money held direction exception ore taken exploration scientific research general definition supreme court canada construed anything broadly stating restricted tangibles includes intangibles subject theft must however property


sort property capable taken therefore intangibles excluded converted may intangible taken converted way deprives owner proprietary interest way ref name stewart ''r v stewart'' scr ref confidential information cannot subject theft capable taken tangibles taken cannot converted intangible save exceptional far fetched circumstances owner would never deprived ref name stewart


however theft trade secrets certain circumstances constitute part offence economic espionage prosecuted ''security information act'' purposes punishment section divides theft two separate offences according value nature goods stolen thing stolen worth testamentary instrument offence commonly referred '''theft ''' indictable offence maximum punishment years imprisonment stolen item testamentary


instrument worth known '''theft ''' hybrid offence meaning treated either indictable offense less serious summary conviction offence depending choice prosecutor dealt indictable offence punishable imprisonment years treated summary conviction offence punishable months imprisonment fine motor vehicle stolen section provides maximum punishment


years indictable offence minimum sentence six months third subsequent conviction maximum sentence months summary conviction hong kong section theft ordinance provides general definition theft hong kong elements offence hong kong almost england wales theft ordinance hong kong drafted based theft act theft act uk however ghosh test dishonest hong kong replaced ivey


test england wales supreme court main difference offence theft two jurisdictions india theft criminal activity india punishments may lead jail term excerpts laws indian penal code state definitions punishments theft section theft whoever intending take dishonestly movable property possession person without person consent moves property order taking said commit theftexplanation thing long attached


earth movable property subject theft becomes capable subject theft soon severed earth explanation moving effected act effects severance may theft explanation person said cause thing move removing obstacle prevented moving separating thing well actually moving explanation person means causes animal move said move


animal move everything consequence motion caused moved animal explanation consent mentioned definition may express implied may given either person possession person purpose authority either express implied section punishment theft whoever commits theft shall punished imprisonment either description term may extend three years fine section theft dwelling house etc whoever commits theft


building tent vessel building tent vessel used human dwelling used custody property shall punished imprisonment either description term may extend seven years shall also liable fine section theft clerk servant property possession master whoever clerk servant employed capacity clerk servant commits theft respect property possession master employer shall punished imprisonment either


description term may extend seven years shall also liable fine section theft preparation made causing death hurt restraint order committing theft whoever commits theft made preparation causing death hurt restraint fear death hurt restraint person order committing theft order effecting escape committing theft order retaining property taken theft


shall punished rigorous imprisonment term may extend ten years shall also liable fine netherlands theft crime related articles wetboek van strafrecht article prohibits theft dutch ' 'diefstal'' defined taking away object partly belongs someone else intention appropriate illegally maximum imprisonment years fine fifth category ref name c ref article consists following part punishable maximum imprisonment years fine fourth category ref name c


part prohibits robbery dutch ''beroving'' defined taking away object violence threat violence maximum imprisonment years fine fifth category ref name c part allows maximum imprisonment years fine fifth category ref name c robbery committed night residence public road moving train robbery committed people robbery committed violence climbing false key disguise robbery caused severe injury robbery terroristic


poaching done vehicles draft animals maximum imprisonment years fine fourth category ref name c republic ireland theft statutory offence created section criminal justice theft fraud offences act romania according romanian penal code person committing theft ''furt'' face penalty ranging years degrees theft article theft years person steals object uses vehicle without permission aggravating circumstances apply article qualified theft


years aggravating circumstances years two persons together b person possession gun narcotic substance c masked disguised person person cannot defend e public place f public transportation vehicle g nighttime h natural disaster burglary using original copied key j stealing national treasures k stealing official identity papers intention make use l stealing official identity badges intention


make use aggravating circumstances years stealing petrol based products directly transportation pipes vehicles deposits b stealing components national electrification telecommunication irrigation networks type navigational system c stealing siren stealing public intervention vehicle device e stealing something jeopardizes safety public transportation aggravating circumstances years consequences extremely grave affect public institutions material stolen worth ron approximately us united kingdom two young waifs steal fine pair boots england


wales england wales theft statutory offence created section theft act offence replaces former offences larceny embezzlement fraudulent conversion marginal note section theft act describes basic definition theft sections provide person guilty theft dishonestly appropriates property belonging another intention permanently depriving thief steal shall construed accordingly immaterial whether appropriation made view


following stolen certain circumstances land things forming part land severed mushrooms growing wild land flowers fruit foliage plants growing wild land wild creatures carcases wild creatures '''intangible property''' confidential information trade secrets property within meaning section words intangible property include export quotas transferable value temporary permanent basis '''electricity''' electricity cannot stolen property within meaning


section appropriated switching current ''cf'' offence abstracting electricity section belonging another section belonging another requires distinction made ownership possession control ownership person legally accountable anyone else use property possession person accountable owner use property control person accountable two people use property buys car


car physically removed two issues decided car belong another garage lien ie proprietary right interest car security unpaid bill gave garage better right owner possess car relevant time relevance turner 's belief could steal property defence mistake law applies defendant honestly believes right law act


regarded stolen words steal theft thief construed accordingly sections theft act contain references stolen goods '''handling stolen goods''' offence handling stolen goods contrary section theft act committed otherwise course stealing '''similar associated offences''' according title theft act revises law theft similar associated offences see also theft act northern ireland northern ireland theft statutory offence created


section theft act northern ireland united states bicycles occasionally stolen even locked removing wheel cutting lock holds united states crimes must prosecuted jurisdiction occurred although federal state jurisdiction may overlap even criminal act violates state federal law cases serious offenses prosecuted federal level federal government criminalized certain narrow categories theft directly affect federal agencies interstate commerce model penal


code promulgated american law institute help state legislatures update standardize laws includes categories theft unlawful taking unlawfully disposing property theft deception fraud theft extortion theft failure take measures return lost mislaid mistakenly delivered property theft receipt stolen property theft failing make agreed disposition received funds theft services ref name cl ref although many us states retained larceny primary offense adopted theft provisions '''''grand theft''''' also called ''grand larceny'' term used throughout


united states designating theft large magnitude serious potential penological consequences grand theft contrasted '''''petty theft''''' also called '''''petit theft''''' smaller magnitude lesser seriousness theft laws including distinction grand theft petty theft cases falling within jurisdiction vary state distinction established statute penological consequences commonly statutes establishing distinction grand theft petty theft basis value money property taken thief lost


victim dollar threshold grand theft varying state state commonly penological consequences distinction include significant one grand theft treated felony petty theft generally treated misdemeanor states grand theft vehicle may charged grand theft auto see motor vehicle theft information repeat offenders continue steal may become subject life imprisonment certain states sometimes federal anti theft government property law used prosecute cases espionage act would otherwise


involved theory retaining sensitive information defendant taken 'thing value' government examples see amerasia case ''united states v manning'' alabama stolen property exceeds amount felony offense property less class misdemeanor unlike states shoplifting defined separate statute falls state 's general theft statute alaska alaska state code use terms ''grand theft'' ''grand larceny'' however specifies


theft property valued felony whereas thefts lesser amounts misdemeanors felony categories class class theft also include theft firearms property taken person another vessel aircraft safety survival equipment access devices arizona felony theft committed value stolen property exceeds regardless value item firearm animal taken purpose animal fighting theft class felony california theft act


consolidated variety common law crimes theft state distinguishes two types theft grand theft petty theft older crimes embezzlement larceny stealing preexisting references fall theft statute number criminal statutes california penal code defining grand theft different amounts grand theft generally consists theft something value including money labor property lower respect various specified property theft also considered grand theft


crops marine life forms stolen property taken person another property stolen automobile farm animal firearm petty theft default category thefts grand theft punishable year jail prison may charged depending upon circumstances misdemeanor felony petty theft misdemeanor punishable fine imprisonment exceeding six months jail florida general property taken carries value


considered grand theft certain circumstances georgia georgia theft offense involves property valued less crime punishable misdemeanor theft property determined exceeding may treated grand theft charged felony hawaii theft first second degree felony theft first degree means theft firearm explosive theft declared emergency theft second degree means theft theft person another agricultural


products aquacultural products enclosed property illinois theft felony value property exceeds property stolen person another thresholds determine severe punishment location property stolen also factor sentencing kentucky krs states theft unlawful taking disposition generally class misdemeanor unless items stolen firearm anhydrous ammonia controlled substance valued less item combination