cognitive related variables including brand awareness brand personality brand identity hedonic related variables including hedonic attitude entertainment aesthetic appeal significant impacts quality value perceptions towards brand including perceived quality reputation brand image perceived value commitment trust addition variables significant predictors brand loyalty third meta analysis elaborates concept brand personality bp first key drivers bp communication hedonic benefit claims branding activities brand country origin consumer personalities second study finds effects bp stronger


mature brands brands early life cycle stages third sincerity competence strongest influence brand success variables eg brand attitude image commitment purchase intention excitement ruggedness weakest influence brand attitude brand commitment advertising emotion play important role advertising advertising common identify advertising two different approaches persuasion ''thinking ads'' require cognitive processing also known ''central route persuasion'' b ''feeling ads'' processed emotional level also known

Social science
Psychology
Consumer psychology


''peripheral route'' advertisers bypass cognitive rational processing lead counter arguing simply appealing emotions neuro imaging studies suggest evaluating brands consumers primarily use emotions personal feelings experiences rather information brand attributes features facts relatively widely accepted emotional responses require fewer processing resources ie easier also result enduring associations brand advertised ref name ref feelings elicited advertising message shape attitudes towards brand advertisement customer loyalty customer loyalty defined relationship individual 's relative


repeat purchasing due situational factors access convenience shelf placement spurious loyalty also occur genuine alternatives consumer locked purchasing given brand due quasi contractual arrangement membership status creates difficulties switching words switching costs relatively high high patronage behaviour may observed despite absence favourable attitude towards brand example would consumer always purchases petrol outlet way work outlets vicinity


latent loyalty characterised high relative attitude low repeat patronage latent loyalty occurs situational factors ride strong favourable attitudes example person may preferred restaurant may patronize due preferences dining companions loyalty ie true loyalty characterised favourable attitude favourable patronage behaviour marketers true loyalty ideal situation frequent flyer schemes among well known reward programs rewards card programs explained loyalty marketing programs built insight costs times acquire new customer


retain existing customer marketers use variety loyalty programs strengthen customer attitudes towards brand service provider retailer order retain customers minimise customer defections strengthen loyalty bonds existing customers broadly two types program reward recognition programs '''reward program''' customer accumulates points purchase points subsequently exchanged goods services '''recognition programs''' operate quasi membership basis consumer issued card upon presentation leads various entitlements free upgrades special


encourage types positive customer behaviour provision referrals providing positive word mouth wom recommendations loyalty marketing involve use databases sophisticated software analyse profile customer loyalty segments view identifying desirable segments setting goals segment ultimately attempting increase size loyal customer base customer citizenship behaviour customer citizenship behaviour refers actions part customer 's normal behaviour voluntary discretionary nature thoughtful considerate helpful citizenship


behaviour often requires type sacrifice part customers service marketers particularly interested citizenship behaviour harnesses consumer 's labour power therefore increases organisational efficiency also potential improve service quality services marketing literature identifies number distinct types citizenship behaviour voice customers direct complaint service provider order rectify maintain relationship display affiliation customers communicate others relationship organization eg provide word mouth referrals policing observation customers ensure appropriate behaviour


requires new theories models research identified two types consumer value purchasing namely product value shopping value product value likely similar online offline shoppers however shopping experience substantially different online shoppers offline shopping environment consumers derive satisfaction within physical store environment retail landscape hedonic motivations case online purchasing shoppers derive satisfaction ability navigate website convenience online searching allows compare prices 'shop around' minimal time commitment


may converted online buyers undirected information seekers newcomers product service likely interact online prompts click web pages linked advertising directed buyers predetermined mindset wish purchase specific product service online bargain hunters price sensitive users like discover products sales promotions users discounts major attraction online sales conversion entertainment seekers online consumers attracted marketing delivered fun activity interactive online games could useful


attracting kind customer typology online consumer behaviour wendy moe argues offline environment consumers shopping stores easily classified experienced sales employees watching shopping behaviours sales approach initiatively knew look like kind consumers really seeking something purchase hanging around shoppers generally ignored experienced sales classification may appear online moe fader argued feasible predict practical buying surfing


searching action online investigating click patterns repetition visit within online behaviour addition report e consultancy benchmarking user experience outlined three kinds online consuming behaviour valuable classification research design web pages better serve different kinds consuming behaviour three categories trackers hunters explorers trackers online consumers exactly looking product definitely wish buy use internet information price delivery methods post purchase service found


proper information little effort needed let business hunters know categories product need instance novel leisure time however n't made specific decision whose novel buy use internet find list product needed categories make comparison kind online consumer needs advice help business explorers n't even categories product minds fact want buy something online uncertainty


daily internet tool n't know anything buy new one business change fast today search google find answer result page finds promotional ads mainly come jdcom taobao ringtoredcom two main chinese competitors online retailer field always used prefer jdcom provides comparison detail brands price place ways payment delivery careful selection makes order payment wechat placed inside jdcom jdcom


one fastest distribution channels within china support excellent post purchase service maintain position market role aesthetics visual fluency relation consumer choice consumers decide whether like product within seconds viewing first time ref name ref therefore aesthetically pleasing product essential marketplace studies processing fluency consumer behaviour revealed people prefer visual displays easier process understand ref name ref product matches user associations


perceived attractive ref name visually fluent products draw upon consumer 's pre existing associations design elements leading sense familiarity understanding product hand visual cues colour composition typography imagery associated phenomenon fluency colour x pxno name brand associated economy affordability yellow 's associations cheapness brand 's logo processed fluently easily consumers research colour psychology shown consumer product assessment based colour alone ref name indeed colours


shown linked consumer 's perceptions product 's quality reliability value colours blue black viewed reliable valuable expensive yellow orange brown associated cheapness low quality therefore product intended perceived high quality predominately orange brown palette would lack visual fluency would likely fail elicit positive response consumers however advantageous consumer already market item known inexpensive case use


yellow orange brown would appropriate composition composition another visual tool ability affect information processing influence consumer perceptions studies shown consumers western countries associate products right aligned placed right side display higher quality ref name ref humans also center bias makes products centered symmetrical composition display seem intrinsically pleasing ref name products centered composition centered elements perceived attractive popular important


products left aligned right aligned object centered compositionally easier viewer interpret understand becomes fluent therefore viewed aesthetically pleasing ref name ref imagery evidence shown pictorial imagery correlates higher instances consumer recall recognition pictorial imagery also easier process gains consumer 's attention faster ref name ref significant evidence consumers presented multiple choices view objects positively aesthetically pleasing surrounded congruent imagery ref name repeated


direct correlation emotional attributes assigned product one study shown larger type size weight perceived intimidating authoritative although imagery reigns supreme product design important note type processed easily pictorial information consumer already familiar product environmental impact consumer behavior certain ways affects much material used produce goods much material recycled composted much ends pollution much ends landfills goods


produced far travel carbon footprint manufacturing transportation disposal green marketing targets consumers take environmental impact purchases account one study found impact green marketing consumer behavior bangladesh ref name ref study suggests policies made decrease cost eco friendly products also encourages implementation programs raise consumer awareness regarding issue green consumption psychological factors contribute consumer 's perception surrounding personal contributions climate change inducing actions one well studied biases


referred better average self enhancing bias ref name ref bias depicts individual 's tendency perceive actions superior especially compared peers demographically similar consumers found cognitive bias indeed present considering consumers perceive pro environmental efforts ref name may result information climate change leading feelings guilt concern activates unconscious thought process denial better average effect cognitive reactions leads reduced perception threat climate change mental


defense mechanism ultimately leads reduction perceived individual responsibility take part green behaviors one planet living ref name research methods used gain insights consumer behaviour researchers uses standard battery market research methods surveys depth interviews focus groups increasingly researchers turning newer methodologies technologies effort seek deeper understandings consumers behave certain ways newer methods include ''ethnographic research'' also known participant observation ''neuroscience'' well experimental lab designs addition researchers often turn separate disciplines


insights potential inform study consumer behaviour instance behavioural economics adding fresh new insights certain aspects consumer behaviour ethnographic research product usage studies used improve packaging design ethnographic research ethnography origins anthropology however marketers use ethnographic research study consumer terms cultural trends lifestyle factors attitudes way social context influences product selection consumption usage ethnographic research also called ''participant observation'' attempts study consumer behaviour natural settings rather artificial environment labs


different types ethnographic research used marketing including observed product usage observing regular product usage home work gain insights products opened prepared consumed stored disposed etc gain insights usefulness packaging labelling general usage day life studies extended visits product usage situations gain insights norms consumer expectations accompanied purchase shop alongs researcher accompanies shopper purchase expedition gain insights consumer responses merchandising sales tactics cultural studies similar traditional ethnography extended stays group tribe


view uncovering fundamental rules conventions govern behaviour guerilla ethnography random observations public settings help establish research questions gain quick insights specific behaviours mystery shopping observations retail context view gaining insights customer 's service experience multiple methodologies combining ethnographic research methods conventional research techniques view triangulating results trendspotters faith popcorn 's brainreserve make extensive use ethnographic research spot emergent trends consumer neuroscience neuromarketing uses sophisticated biometric sensors eeg study consumer responses specific


stimuli consumer neuroscience also known neuromarketing refers commercial use neuroscience applied investigation marketing problems consumer research researchers argued term ''consumer neuroscience'' preferred neuromarketing alternatives consumer neuroscience employs sophisticated bio metric sensors electroencephalography eeg functional magnetic resonance imaging fmri eye tracking study ways consumers respond specific stimuli product displays brands packaging information marketing signals tests reveal stimuli trigger brain 's pleasure centre consumer neuroscience become mainstream component consumer


research methods international market research company nielsen research recently added neuromarketing services acquiring innerscope company specialising neuromarketing research thus enabling nielsen add neuromarketing research suite services available clients consumer neuroscience research led surprising findings framing price value example one study reported magazine subscription potential subscribers offered two options online subscription combined online print year people chose online option however third option introduced print


fewer brands jams likely make purchase going buy something similar results observed categories findings suggest consumers appreciate given choice process making selection painful lead choice fatigue issue marketers retailers determine sweet spot consumers given sufficient choice satisfy desire variety become overwhelmed decision paralysis one study examined wording used solicit philanthropic donations consumers exposed variants


advertising copy execution would willing help giving donation would willing help giving donation every penny help given second option almost twice likely donate researchers concluded people likely take action given parameters clarifying even penny could make difference second line provides guidance makes request achievable marketers implication asking consumers take action specifying small step helps break action paralysis


finding also suggests even small differences advertising copy lead improved outcomes action instructions make advertisement purposeful see also advertising management explains consumer behaviours concepts used develop advertising strategies advertising research provides background consumer behaviour concepts inform research methods used understanding advertising effectiveness attitude toward ad models brand awareness detailed explanation brand awareness brand management explains consumer behaviour concepts used manage brand awareness brand growth product life cycle buying decision process offers alternative explanation


consumer buying decision process consumer socialization consumer confusion food brand lab marketing research provides background consumer behaviour concepts inform research methods used marketing consumer behaviour brand awareness advertising management predictive buying product life cycle management marketing detailed explanation consumer awareness changes product 's life cycle calls different strategies stage superstition consumer behavior window shopping references reading blackwell miniard engel ''consumer behaviour'' th ed thomson learning deaton angus muellbauer john https booksgooglecom booksid b ryqsx l c printsec frontcover ''economics consumer behavior'' cambridge new york cambridge


university press deutsch deutsch j ''short term memory'' new york academic press ferber r ''a synthesis selected aspects consumer behaviour'' chicago ill guilford j p ''the nature human intelligence'' new york mcgraw hill howard j sheth jn ''theory buyer behavior'' j wiley sons new york ny kardes frank r cronley maria l cline thomas w https booksgooglecom booksid nwew nj c printsec frontcover ''consumer behavior'' mason oh south western cengage learning kaplan f schwartz ''human judgment decision processes'' new york academic press klapper j ''the effects mass


media'' new york columbia university bureau applied social research laermer richard simmons mark ''punk marketing'' new york harper collins review book marilyn scrizzi ''journal consumer marketing'' loudon dl ''consumer behavior concepts applications'' mcgraw hill london mcguire w j psychological factors influencing consumer choice r ferber ed ''a synthesis selected aspects consumer behavior'' washington dc national science foundation mcnair b ''retail development'' harper row new york ny packard vance ''the hidden persuaders'' new york mckay co pollio h r


''the psychology symbolic activity'' reading addison wesley schiffman l g ''consumer behavior'' prentice hall international london schiffman l g kanuk l th edition schiffman l g wisenblit j l th edition schwartz barry ''the paradox choice less'' ecco new york shell ellen ruppel https archiveorg details cheaphighcostof shel ''cheap high cost discount culture'' new york penguin press solomon mr ''consumer behavior'' allyn bacon london stefflre v ''market structure studies new products old markets new markets foreign old products'' new york wiley tversky


ref ref name slee ref physician type specialty activity sector medicine competencies formation doctor medicine md doctor osteopathic medicine bachelor medicine bachelor surgery mbbs bachelor medicine bachelor surgery mbchb employment field hospitals clinics related occupation '''addiction medicine''' medical subspecialty deals diagnosis prevention evaluation treatment recovery persons addiction substance related addictive disorders people show unhealthy use substances including alcohol nicotine prescription medicine illicit licit drugs ref name theabpm ref medical subspecialty often crosses

Applied science
Medicine and health
Addiction Medicine


areas since various aspects addiction fall within fields public health psychology social work mental health counseling psychiatry internal medicine among others incorporated within specialty processes detoxification rehabilitation harm reduction abstinence based treatment individual group therapies oversight halfway houses treatment withdrawal related symptoms acute intervention long term therapies designed reduce likelihood relapse specialists primarily also expertise family medicine internal medicine also provide treatment disease states commonly associated substance use hepatitis hiv infection physicians specializing field


specialization addiction field one via psychiatric pathway one via fields medicine american society addiction medicine notes approximately members psychiatrists md remainder received primary medical training fields accreditation united states march american board medical specialties abms announced recognition field addiction medicine new medical subspecialty ref name abms ref several countries around world specialist bodies set ensure high quality practice addiction medicine example within united states


complete aoa approved addiction medicine fellowship successful completion board examination administered via aoa grant certificate added qualification caq addiction medicine accreditation internationally within australia addiction medicine specialists certified via chapter addiction medicine part royal australasian college physicians may alternatively member section addiction psychiatry royal australian new zealand college psychiatrists international society addiction medicine also provide certification expertise medical societies american society addiction medicine asam medical journals


gas chamber located san quentin state prison san quentin california us chamber dismantled governor gavin newsom issued moratorium capital punishment california ordered execution sites dismantled '' 'sociology punishment''' seeks understand punish ''general justifying aim punishment'' ''principle distribution'' punishment involves intentional infliction pain deprivation rights liberties sociologists punishment usually examine state sanctioned acts relation law breaking instance citizens give consent legitimation

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of punishment


acts violence two common political ethical motivations formal punishment utilitarianism retributivism concepts articulated law makers law enforcers may seen descriptive rather explanative sociologists note although attempts justification made terms principles fully explain violent punitive acts occur social psychology symbolic interactionism often inform theory method area retributivism retributivism covers theories justify punishment offender deserves interpreted two ways either person must punished


deserve deserving sufficient reason punishment person must punished unless deserve deserving necessary sufficient condition punishment retributive theories usually put forward deserving sufficient reason punishment main strands retributivism '''intrinsic retribution ''' offender deserves punishment intrinsic good guilty suffering '''''lex talionis ''''' restore balance offender victim '''unfair advantage principle ''' restore balance imposition extra burdens usurped fair share benefits


note focus lex talionis others lost focus unfair advantage principle offender gained '''hegelian retribution ''' punishment annuls wrong done '''liability ''' offender knowledge would punished committed acts therefore deserves punishment '''social contract theory ''' make contract give certain rights order rights protected break contract deserve rights taken away '''grievance theory ''' offender caused grievance victim


punishment offender satisfy victim make grievance although proposed form retribution questionable whether really retributivist principle nature desert means offender must blameworthy offender deserves punishment simply offended punishment must relate wrongdoing therefore said backward looking theory retributivism propose number purposes punishment restore balance whether according lex talionis unfair advantage principle


openly emphatically denounce crime provide satisfaction principles distribution derived purposes main methods deciding punishment first accordance lex talionis punishment equal equivalent crime second culpability principle punishment proportion harmfulness blameworthiness offender 's actions third accordance grievance principle punishment give satisfaction equal grievances caused critique retributivism explanations deciding punishment raise


issues idea equal equivalent punishment however proves impractical equivalent sexual assault found current punishment decide punishment terms satisfaction accordance grievances caused also questionable honderich says punishment wholly justified liberalized terms offence provides contention man punishment must provide satisfactions however punishment wholly dependent offence part satisfaction part consequentialist therefore retributive culpability principle


often used deciding punishment offenders however large numbers punishments handed obey principle particularly case harmfulness blameworthiness offender 's actions proportionate punishment example australia punishment speeding nbsp km legal speed limit demerit points punishment passenger vehicle wearing seatbelt demerit points according retributivist explanation punishment two offences punishment fairly similar terms


harmfulness blameworthiness however example seen case therefore seen retributivist theories adequate explain punish retributivism justification punishment seen fall category theory right rather theory good utilitarianism utilitarianism name suggests tells covers theories justify evil punishment punishment utility therefore forward looking consequentialist nature baker


holds belief ultimately morally significant features act good bad consequences produced word utility used justify punishment two different ways utilitarian writing '''use ''' punishment justified use preventing crime lessnoff '''value ''' punishment justified conducive welfare society ten value society gains punishment disadvantages incurred offender however utilitarians agree


aimed public general '''specific prevention''' wright discussion utilitarianism describes three main goals individual prevention firstly begins imprisonment deters individual committing crime p nbsp one reason sending offender prison crime make less likely commit crimes fear imprisonment secondly continues prison isto protect public certain offenders p nbsp second reason send offenders prison render incapable committing crimes thirdly concludes prisons rehabilitate send offenders


stead secondly utilitarian justification punishment investment uphold claim punishment something moberly burdens quarantine war imposed state moberly argues cannot claim upheld essential attribute punishment relates transgression law therefore crime committed utilitarianism justification punishment seen fall category theory good rather theory right critique utilitarianism utilitarian


justifications punishment sound one would expect find certain conditions met punished looking specifically imprisonment one would conclude people prisons dangerous long criminal record therefore need capacitation amount recidivism low offenders deterred committing future crimes programs rehabilitation opportunities reform place however nsw prison report found inmates intellectual disability p nbsp point sentencing indigenous persons


sentenced imprisonment times rate expected given relative population size p nbsp crimes fell theft driving offences justice p nbsp offences resulting imprisonment non violent crimes p nbsp total persons spent time full custody june june prison least almost half least twice p nbsp majority prisoners pass system serve sentences less


months minimum security serving periodic detention p statistics researchers including wright sutherland cressey melossi rusche duff carlen mann suggested utilitarian justifications cannot overwhelming assumed studied data one conclusion often drawn prison statistics however ''whatever regional national differences might opinions offences deserve custody poor disturbed migrant disadvantaged ethnic minorities consistently penalised imprisoned'' hudson reason


imprison people utilitarianists answer marxist theories punishment theories offer explanations imprison offenders claims crime preventions done goal controlling groups whose socially disadvantaged position makes volatile disaffected thus threatening duff criminal conduct lower class monopoly distributed throughout various classes shown true distribution punishment falls overwhelmingly systematically poor disadvantaged discriminatory decision making throughout whole


criminal justice system ensures socially advantaged routinely filtered given benefit doubt defined good risks simply access best legal advice serious deep end punishments imprisonment predominantly reserved unemployed poor homeless mentally ill addicted lack social support personal assets increasingly class bias taken racial complexion disadvantaged minority groups come massively represented prison population duff benefits using marxist framework answer


question allows us understand offenders working class imprisoned offenders middle upper classes marxist theory based upon idea class struggle ideology important understanding imprisonment two concepts hegemony relative autonomy hegemony simple terms leadership consent led leadership considered led legitimate exercise leadership marxist theories tells us reason imprison offenders control threat


dominant values see also theory criminal justice punishment criminology sociology deviance sociology law sociology military references baker j utilitarianism secondary principles ''philosophical quarterly'' vol p bedau h retribution theory punishment ''journal philosophy'' vol p nbsp clark moral gradation punishment ''philosophical quarterly'' vol p nbsp davis harm retribution ''philosophy public affairs'' honderich ''punishment supposed justifications'' polity press cambridge lessnoff two justifications punishment ''philosophical quarterly'' vol


p nbsp mendes mcdonald putting severity punishment back deterrence package ''policy studies journal'' vol p nbsp sadurski w theory punishment social justice liberal neutrality ''law philosophy'' vol p nbsp ten c l ''crime guilt punishment philosophical introduction'' clarendon press oxford reading punishment


hope square dedicated children kindertransport found hope safety britain gateway liverpool street station association jewish refugees central british fund world jewish relief '' 'sociology immigration''' involves sociological analysis immigration particularly respect race ethnicity social structure political policy important concepts include assimilation enculturation marginalization multiculturalism postcolonialism transnationalism social cohesion history pre twentieth century nativism long history many societies twentieth century global migration twentieth century grew particularly first half

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of immigration


century due world war world war ii european immigrants came united states example vast quantities particularly following end world war americans labeled european immigrants dangerous american culture ref name fleegler ref united states congress passed immigration act placed strict quotas immigrants entering united states ref name fleegler women 's citizenship dependent father husband rules many women used marriage way immigrate means many women


tied becoming either wife mother stigma labeling immigrants job takers criminals subsided instead americans began consider immigrants benefactors american economy culture political system although negative labels immigrants given first half twentieth century influenced actions society self perceptions known labeling theory sociology immigrants began assimilate easily society form strong social networks contributed acquisition social capital information knowledge people things


connections help individuals enter gain power otherwise leverage social networks twenty first century sociologists studied immigration closely twenty first century united states compared majority european immigrants early twentieth century twenty first century witnessed arrival immigrants predominately asia middle east latin america sociologists paid particular attention costs benefits new diversified immigration population american institutions culture economic functions national security ref name fleegler attacks world trade center pentagon


september sociologists closely analyzed symbolism increased anti immigration rhetoric directed middle eastern immigrants stemming americans structural functionalist theorists also studied effects mass migration resulting wars economic insecurity terrorism social institutions host nations international law assimilation rates additionally sociologists using social conflict theory analyzed particular labor market conflicts allegedly resulting increased marketplace competition due rise competition immigrants native workers jobs social mobility rates global immigration continue increase field sociology particular interest


monitoring twenty first century immigration relates foundational theories symbolic interactionism social conflict structural functionalism generational change immigration studies social scientists assign distinct definitions various immigrant generations sociology word generation used measure distance 'old country' means sociologists define people move case immigrants migrating united states united states another society adults first generation immigrants american born children second generation immigrants children turn third generation immigrants mid twentieth century


assimilate twentieth century predecessors notably transition using english among immigrants move united states primary language communication contemporary immigrant generations share common ethnic backgrounds cultures differences level social mobility economic achievement educational attainment familial relations among members generations three sociological perspectives symbolic interactionism symbolic interactionism micro level theory shared meanings orientations assumptions form basic motivations behind people 's actions ref name conley ref theory opposed macrosociology focused face face interactions create social world


moreover immigration legislation personal responsibility work opportunity reconciliation act increased anti immigration sentiment nativist rhetoric social movements united states ref name sobczak perceived group threat also proven maintain important role explaining americans' attitude toward immigrants fear foreigners altering aspects established culture native language results nativist sentiment polarization together instances illustrate significance immigrants' master status shaping others perceive perceive example racial stigma mexican immigrants encounter


united states reinforces low status self perceptions mexican americans mexican americans internalize perception race begin act accordingly indirectly reinforce perception rise islamophobia united states attacks world trade center example symbolic interactionism practice attacks world trade center september arabs muslims well latinos south asians individuals mistakenly perceived arab muslim based skin color dress organizational affiliations suffered


unprecedented outbreak backlash violence assumptions others terrorists intended harm americans days months following attacks muslims arabs subject hate crimes based personal characteristics clothing accent facial hair skin tone symbolic interactionist perspective violent attacks arabs muslims resulted shared assumptions meanings americans attributed arab muslim people culture social conflict social conflict theory sociological perspective views society constant struggle power


resources theory holds competition competing interests central function society social conflict theorists believe competition power resources results social change since early nineteenth century advocates opponents immigration analyzed economic effects immigration national economies workforces opponents national increases immigration rates argued restricting immigration improves economic well native workers immigration opponents argue causes unemployment native workers reasoning behind argument immigrant peoples compete native peoples jobs resources increased competition results


jobs going immigrant workers since costs less employers hire highly skilled immigrant came us n't really know english low skilled native worker however advocates immigration argue immigration improves nations economy since people enter workforce thus resulting higher productivity increased competition labor market additionally proponents argue native population benefits immigration since immigrants increase demand goods services produced native workers firms social conflict theorists suggest competition native workers


immigrant workers economic achievement social mobility crux immigration debate relates economics common fear immigration alter native culture nation discipline sociology culture defined set beliefs traditions practices structural functionalism structural functionalism sociological perspective claiming every society certain structures exist fulfill set necessary functions drawing ideas sociologist mile durkheim society sociological lens thought living organism similar nineteenth century theory


''organicism'' regarding economy society immigrants play prominent role maintaining disrupting contributing social cohesion example since american economy favored workers valuable skills offer immigrants united states example valuable skills offer may increase chances economic success united states language culture american workplace human capital physical resources immigrants may offer complement already exist american economy structural functionalists


believe whether effects positive negative immigration significantly impacts level social cohesion workplace analysis social cohesion closely related work sociologist mile durkheim sociologists utilizing structural functionalism would explain immigration serves function unifier immigrant population foreign society especially nineteenth century early twentieth century immigrants united states tended socialize people similar ethnic backgrounds order experience group solidarity time intense resocialization feeling group solidarity led increased


relationships maintained members migrate another country theorist zlatko skrbis argues within transnational network families patterns migration intertwined notions 'emotion' 'belonging' sociology peace war social conflict refugees weapons analyzed forced experience mass exodus refugees state hostile state weapon see also black feminism dalton conley mile durkheim human migration immigration united states sociology race ethnic relations new americans economic demographic fiscal effects immigration migration studies references external


links http cmdprincetonedu princeton migration development center http wwwgseharvardedu hfrp abouthtml harvard family research project http wwwcriuciedu uc irvine populations public policy center http webmitedu cis www migration mit migration http wwwgeoguclacuk mru migration research unit university college london uk http wwwuunl uupublish onderzoek onderzoekcentra ercomer mainhtml ercomer european research centre migration ethnic relations univ utrecht majority minority relations immigration


'''community practice''' also known '''macro practice''' '''community work''' branch social work united states focuses larger social systems social change tied historical roots united states social work ref name gibelman gibelman search identity defining social work past present future ''social work '' ref field community practice social work encompasses community organizing community organization community building social planning human service management community development policy analysis policy advocacy mediation electronic advocacy larger systems interventions uk term often

Social science
Social work
Community practice


used community work health visitors although community practice overlap many applied social science disciplines urban planning economic development public affairs rural sociology nonprofit management roots go back far community practice social workers typically master social work degree msw several msw programs united states offer community practice concentrations others offer specializations one several types community practice social services administration policy analysis professional group community practitioners us association


eight theoretical models community practice ref name columbia university press ref neighborhood community organizing organizing functional communities social economic sustainable development inclusive program development social planning coalitions political social action movements progressive change models theoretical outcomes goals follows ref name columbia university press class wikitable neighborhood community organizing organizing functional communities social economic sustainable development inclusive program development social planning coalitions political social action movements progressive change direct


capacity people organize direct moderate impacts outside development action social justice focus providing service simultaneously changing attitudes promote grassroots plans incorporate economic growth without harming resources open new opportunities expansion redirection programs improve service become participatory actions proposals action neighborhoods planning councils elected bodies grassroots effort amongst populace influence program directions made partnerships action social change focused toward changing policies action provides new paradigms healthy development individuals earth


community practice versus micro practice historically social work practice divided two different categories micro practice macro practice ref name gibelman although often overlap skills two areas micro practitioners generally focus working individuals whereas macro practitioners generally work creating change larger social political community systems ref name israel segal engelchin kaufman r micro macro orientation israeli students' career interests antisocial era ''journal social work education '' ref macro social work professions typically engage community practice methods include community organizers political organizers fundraisers program managers


spaces must rooted cultural heritage community ref name delgado spaces also unique community already heavily utilized gathering primary role nontraditional spaces provide social work services though utilized services ref name delgado spaces venues outreach social work services use existing gathering spaces bring services community provide additional resources individuals ref name weatherill weatherill sh buston ja daly pc immunization programs non traditional settings canadian journal public health pp ref


important honor build upon existing leadership ref name delgado nontraditional settings provide cultural access well access multiple generations spaces often seen bridge point multiple generations gather cultural values traditions learned passed many instances spaces inclusive non english speaking members community ref name delgado limitations macro social workers engaging community practice methods may encounter number limitations make work community challenging since macro community practice ongoing relatively time intensive process


consequences felt throughout community organizer projects efforts perceived fail community may reject distrust individuals organizations involved leading organizing efforts creating obstacles future involvement community ref name freund freund teaching successful community practice social work ''journal community practice'' pp ref likewise community organizers organizations may burnout due distress chronic exposure clients micro social work ref name newell newell jm macneil ga professional burnout vicarious trauma secondary traumatic stress compassion fatigue review


theoretical terms risk factors prevention methods clinicians researchers ''best practices mental health'' pp ref however macro social workers may specifically burnout community practice due unsuccessful efforts unique constraints community shifting macro micro based work ref name freund currently social workers engaging community practice work comprise minority within larger social work profession less students master social work programs united states macro practice related concentration concentrations include community organizing community planning social policy program evaluation


compares students concentrate direct practice clinical social work ref name stats macro social work pursued less within field macro social workers feel prepared education unrepresented supported ref name fergusan fergusan hill k erickson c sustaining strengthening macro identity association macro practice social work taylor francis group journal community practice pp ref us master social work students' concentration areas breakdown concentration areas master social work students ref name stats council


social work education '' statistics social work education united states summary'' pp ref class wikitable concentration area rounded percentages direct practice clinical advanced generalist combination direct practice clinical community planning management administration combination community planning management administration community planning organization management administration combination direct practice clinical social policy program evaluation social policy program evaluation


'''applied economics''' application economic theory econometrics specific settings one two sets fields economics set ''core'' typically characterized application ''core'' ie economic theory econometrics address practical issues range fields including demographic economics labour economics business economics industrial organization agricultural economics development economics education economics engineering economics financial economics health economics monetary economics public economics economic history perspective economic development purpose applied economics enhance quality

Social science
Economics
Applied economics


business practices national policy making process often involves reduction level abstraction core theory variety approaches including empirical estimation using econometrics input output analysis simulations also case studies historical analogy called common sense vernacular ref name swann swann g p ''putting econometrics place new direction applied economics'' published edward elgar ref range approaches indicative roger backhouse jeff biddle argue ambiguous nature concept applied economics


concept multiple meanings ref name backhouse backhouse r jeff biddle https readdukeupressedu hope article pdf suppl biddlebackhousepdf concept applied economics history ambiguity multiple meanings ''history applied economics '' annual supplement ref among broad methodological distinctions one source places neither positive normative economics ''art economics'' glossed economists origins term origin meanings applied economics long history going back writing say mill say wrote applying general principles political economy ascertain rule action combination


abstract reasoning nbsp relying wide knowledge economic facts point view applying theory involved making allowances factors ignored building abstract theories keynes wrote applying political economies hypothetical laws interpreting explaining concrete industrial facts issue conceptual distinction political economy science involving formulating laws govern production distribution wealth political economy art using laws tackle practical problems ref name keynes keynes john neville scope method political economy london


macmillan ref whilst noting rival view historical economists believed goals pursued policy makers means pursue integral part science economics jn keynes believed desirability english school 's distinction discovery principles application ref name keynes indeed proposed using phrase applied economics instead art political economy keynes discussed uses phrases applied political economy applied economics noting three different uses ref name keynes


sense suggested text association art political economy designate application economic theory interpretation explanation particular economic phenomena without necessary reference however solution practical questions mark concrete specialized portions economic doctrine abstract doctrines held pervade economic reasoning applying theories economy reality get healthy enterprise business prosperity th early th century economists use term l


walras example planned organize main work volumes pure applied social economics jaff describes walras 's plan involving making distinction true useful using term true walras referred propositions necessarily followed nature things pure economics involves pure logic applied economics involves examining ways achieve practical goals requires making judgments whether logic pure economics relevant real world social economics also presumed pure economics dealt


different range questions applied economics vilfredo pareto follows similar usage suggesting economics might begin eliminating inessential examine problems reduced principal essentials distinguishes pure economics applied economics pure economics containing principal lines argument applied economics involving supplying details joseph schumpeter referred applied fields economics repetition might help highlight issues involved defining applied economics involves discussed following fields


economic theory core applied economics involves practitioner lowering elements abstraction examine particular issues lowering level abstraction may involve ref name backhouse relabeling variables specific concrete concepts providing structure allow drawing detailed conclusions producing numerical estimates parameters using analysis interpret real world phenomena interpreted examples general class events core theory might used examine economics science


pesaran harcourt describe stone 's attempt face challenge making economics science combining theory measurement within cohesive framework report stone 's proposal establishment famous department applied economics cambridge ref name pesaran pesaran h g c harcourt life work john richard nicholas stone economic journal ref stone argued '' ultimate aim applied economics increase human welfare investigation analysis economic problems real world view department best


achieved synthesis three types study tend pursued isolation department concentrate simultaneously work observations ie discovery preparation data theoretical appraisal problems ie framing hypotheses form suitable quantitative testing development statistical methods appropriate special problems economic information special character department approach problems real world lie attempt systematic synthesis '' stone pesaran harcourt pp ref name pesaran views basis


rival approaches tends denial sound theory made without concrete linking area application th century historical school th century institutionalists argue way mitchell noted working specialized fields little use kind qualitative theory postulated marshall jevons mitchell suggested knowledge real markets would cause complexion content economic theory mitchell friedman shared view theoretical concepts might rather arise analysis real world data


mitchell friedman economics involve interaction examining data formulating hypotheses another issue related mccloskey critique economists necessarily practice preach context claim applied economist shorthand saying looking real economy applied need economic theory conventionally defined rather something basic eli devons made distinction three different kinds things might applied theoretical models commonsense axioms theoretical concepts journals ''the


journal applied economics'' journal applied economics publishes original contributions applied issues micro macroeconomics primary criteria selecting papers quality importance field papers based well motivated research problem make concrete contribution empirical economics applied theory especially encouraged ''applied economics'' ''applied economics'' journal interprets subject area application economic analysis specific problems public private sectors seeks publish quantitative studies results use practical field


thus may help bring economic theory nearer reality ''applied economics'' leading peer reviewed journal economics practical applications ''american economic journal applied economics'' quarterly journal began publication american economic association publishes papers range topics applied economics particularly empirical microeconomic issues labor economics development microeconomics health education demography empirical corporate finance empirical studies trade empirical behavioral economics ''american journal agricultural economics'' journals published agricultural applied economics association ''american journal


macroeconomics part core subject macroeconomics sufficiently important part economist 's training also embodied set concepts principles found microeconomic theory however replacement keynesian approach macroeconomics new classical macroeconomics successors macroeconomics might regarded mainstream merely application microeconomic theory ref name backhouse examples problems applied economics development economics another example situation within development economics throughout development economist regarded


work carried department applied economics dae cambridge university emphasizes divergences concerning economists understanding proper use economic theory divergences might ultimately reveal influence distinct practices far applied economics concerned role institutional environments examples problems applied economics minimum wage controversy leonard notes one area disagreement amongst applied economists became famous us minimum wage controversy notes fierceness controversy odd likely effects small several seemingly


important policy issues entitlement reform health insurance cpi calculation generated nothing like storm explanation controversy especially important economy important economics economics policy science explanation minimum wage research came seen test usefulness applying neoclassical price theory wages employment words technical quarrel things sign size wage elasticity rather installment long running


applied physics applied statistics applied theology notes references begg g b henry ''applied economics public policy'' cambridge university press https archivetoday http wwwcambridgeorg uk catalogue catalogueaspisbn description campbell sources controversy applied economics ''controversy applied economics'' edited campbell hardy n healey new york wheatsheaf department applied economics first report activities years cambridge university cambridge dow scottish political economy tradition scottish journal political economy'' pp harcourt g c kitson fifty years measurement cambridge view ''review


income wealth'' ser december ''history political economy'' ''toward history applied economics'' annual supplement volume durham nc london duke university press http musejhuedu journals history political economy toc hpe html table contents robinson j history versus equilibrium vol ''collected economic papers'' oxford basil blackwell schabas economics history sect applied economics ''international encyclopedia social behavioral sciences'' pp nbsp https dxdoiorg b abstract swann g p ''putting econometrics place new direction applied economics'' edward elgar http librarywurnl webquery catalog lang description interdisciplinary subfields


economics economic methodology economics


'''organizational studies''' examination individuals construct organizational structures processes practices turn shape social relations create institutions ultimately influence people organizational studies comprise different areas deal different aspects organizations many approaches functionalist critical research also provide alternative frame understanding field fundamental study management organizational change recent historical turn growing interest historical organization studies promising closer union organizational historical research whose validity derives historical veracity

Social science
Sociology
Organizational studies


conceptual rigor enhancing understanding historical contemporary future directed social realities subfields references interdisciplinary subfields sociology


'''media psychology''' branch specialty field psychology focuses interaction human behavior media technology media psychology limited mass media media content includes forms mediated communication media technology related behaviors use design impact sharing behaviors branch relatively new field study advancement technology uses various methods critical analysis investigation develop working model user 's perception media experience methods used society whole

Social science
Psychology
Media psychology


academic applied marketing advertising public relations professionals began conducting research consumer behavior motivation commercial applications use mass media world war ii created surge academic interest mass media messaging resulted creation new field communication science lazarsfeld merton nbsp field media psychology gained prominence television becoming popular american households psychologists responded widespread social concerns children television viewing example researchers began study impact television viewing children 's


reading skills later began study impact violent television viewing children 's behavior example likely exhibit anti social behavior copy violent behaviors seeing events led creation new division american psychological association division media psychology division apa society media psychology technology one fastest growing american psychological association nbsp today 's media psychologists study legacy new media forms risen recent years cellular phone


technology internet new genres television media psychologists also involved people impacted benefit design technologies augmented reality ar virtual reality vr mobile technologies using vr help trauma victims theories media psychology 's theories include user 's perception cognition humanistic components regards experience surroundings media psychologists also draw upon developmental narrative psychologies emerging findings neuroscience theories research psychology used backbone media psychology guide discipline


theories psychology applied media include multiple dimensions ie text pictures symbols video sound sensory psychology semiotics semantics visual language communication social cognition neuroscience among areas addressed study area media psychology theories employed media psychology include affective disposition theory adt concept affective disposition theory used differentiate users' perspectives different forms media content differences within attentional focus theory consists four components revolve around emotion media based


individual 's emotions opinions towards characters media content driven enjoyment appreciation individuals individuals form feelings characters either positive negative media relies conflicts characters individuals react conflict simulation theory st simulation theory ref name ref argues mental simulations fully exclude external information surrounds user rather mediated stimuli reshaped imagery memories user order run simulation explains user able form experiences without


playing frequently repeated psychological theory play based upon explanations given eminent people stephenson freud piaget vygotsky theory based individual uses media satisfaction media changes within person 's life according contents play used pleasure self contained people influenced media negatively positively able relate see within environment looking depth different forms playing becomes apparent


early versions make believe play demonstrate child 's need control desire influence current environment major contributors major contributors media psychology include marshall mcluhan dolf zillmann katz blumler gurevitch bernard luskin david giles marshall mcluhan canadian communication philosopher active realm media analysis technology appointed president university toronto create new centre culture technology study psychological social consequences technologies


media mcluhan 's famous statement pertaining media psychology medium message ref name ref mcluhan 's famous statement suggestive towards notion media inherently dangerous ref name mcluhan 's theory media called technological determinism would pave way people study media ref name dolf zillmann advanced two factor model emotion two factor emotion proposed emotion involves psychological cognitive components ref name zillmann advanced theory '' excitation transfer '' establishing explanation effects violent media ref name zillmann 's theory proposed notion viewer 's physiologically


aroused watch aggressive scenes ref name watching aggressive scene individual become aggressive due arousal scene katz blumler gurevitch used uses gratifications theory explain media psychology katz blumler gurevitch discovered five components theory media competes sources satisfaction goals mass media discovered data research media lies within audience audience conceived active judgment mass media expressed audience time


process media content david giles publishing area media psychology since wrote book media psychology book ''media psychology'' gives overview media psychology field subcategories theories developmental issues within media psychology bernard luskin launched first phd program edd program media psychology university fielding graduate university writing extensively producing media also launched program media psychology social change ucla extension program


media communications psychology touro university worldwide luskin pioneer media literature program development conducted apa task force study redefined media psychology past chair society media psychology technology american psychological association fellow pamela rutledge director http wwwmprcenterorg media psychology research center newport beach california faculty member media psychology program http wwwfieldingedu fielding graduate university well known application media psychology marketing brand strategy transmedia storytelling audience


engagement according rutledge specific consensus career path media psychology many opportunities rutledge argues media psychology increasingly important ubiquity technology rapid adoption particularly young combined global political economic impact mobile technologies suggest technology continue disrupt systems potential generate solutions problems challenge imagination rutledge believes media psychologists uniquely positioned examine questions arise establish best practices standards positive ethical media


technology use inform development media technology benefit individuals society emerging areas include media literacy digital citizenship transmedia storytelling use artificial intelligence ai making sense vast quantities data analysis increasingly available emerging field data science data visualization see also cyberpsychology media effects mediatization references external links http mprcenterorg media psychology research center http wwwapadivisionsorg division indexaspx media psychology division american psychological association branches psychology media studies


'''history argentina''' divided four main parts pre columbian time early history sixteenth century colonial period period nation building history modern argentina around prehistory present territory argentina began first human settlements southern tip patagonia around years ago written history began arrival spanish chroniclers expedition juan az de sol r de la plata marks beginning spanish occupation


region spanish crown established viceroyalty r de la plata umbrella territories revolution may began process gradual formation several independent states including one called united provinces r de la plata declaration independence july military defeat spanish empire federal state formed known today argentine republic pre columbian era area known argentina relatively sparsely populated period european colonization


earliest traces human life dated paleolithic period signs mesolithic neolithic however large areas interior piedmont apparently depopulated extensive dry period bc uruguayan archaeologist ra l camp soler divided indigenous peoples argentina three main groups basic hunters food gatherers without development pottery advanced gatherers hunters basic farmers pottery first group could found pampas patagonia second one included charr minuane guaran


charr people bringing first news people mountains inca empire obtained local natives also traveled far south gulf san matias northern shores patagonia ref name spate https booksgooglecom bookshl pt pt id jh siognd sc q san matias v snippet q san matias f false ref spanish led juan az de sol visited territory argentina pedro de mendoza established small settlement modern location buenos aires abandoned ref name mitre pp mitre pp ref second one established juan de garay c rdoba


cities asunci n buenos aires montevideo spanish raised status region establishing viceroyalty r de la plata viceroyalty consisted today 's argentina uruguay paraguay well much present day bolivia buenos aires holding customs new political subdivision became flourishing port revenues potos increasing maritime activity terms goods rather precious metals production cattle export leather products political reasons made gradually become one


ferdinand vii created great concern around viceroyalty thought without king people america rule idea led multiple attempts remove local authorities chuquisaca la paz montevideo buenos aires short lived new successful attempt may revolution took place reported spain exception c diz le n conquered war independence portrait jos de san mart n may revolution ousted viceroy forms government constitutional monarchy


regency briefly considered viceroyalty also renamed nominally became united provinces r de la plata however status different territories belonged viceroyalty changed many times course war regions would remain loyal previous governors others captured recaptured later would split several countries first military campaigns royalists waged manuel belgrano juan jos castelli primera junta expanding become junta grande replaced first triumvirate


second triumvirate would replace years later calling assembly year xiii meant declare independence write constitution however either replaced triumvirates single head state office supreme director time jos de san mart n arrived buenos aires generals peninsular war gave new strength revolutionary war marked defeat belgrano castelli royalist resistance banda oriental alvear took montevideo san mart n started military campaign


would span important part spanish territories america created army andes mendoza help bernardo o'higgins chileans made crossing andes liberated chile chilean navy disposal moved peru liberating country well san mart n met sim n bol var guayaquil retired action new assembly congress tucum n called san mart n preparing crossing andes finally declared independence spain foreign power bolivia declared


independent uruguay created result cisplatine war french argentine hippolyte bouchard brought fleet wage war spain overseas attacked spanish california spanish chile spanish peru spanish philippines secured allegiance escaped filipinos san blas defected spanish join argentine navy due common argentine philippine grievances spanish colonization later date argentine sun may adopted symbol filipinos philippine revolution spain bouchard also secured diplomatic recognition


argentina king kamehameha kingdom hawaii historian pacho o'donnell affirms hawaii first state recognized argentina 's independence united kingdom officially recognized argentine independence signing ''treaty friendship commerce navigation'' february british charg d'affaires buenos aires woodbine parish signed behalf country spanish recognition argentine independence come several decades historical map map based wide range antique maps periods shown intended give


broad idea changes state argentina nineteenth century periods broad plus minus decade around date hatched areas disputed subject change period text article explain changes minor changes territory shown map changing state argentina light green area allocated indigenous peoples light pink area liga federal hatched areas subject change period argentine civil


figure period federalist juan manuel de rosas portrayed different angles diverse historiographic flows argentina liberal history usually considers dictator revisionists support grounds defense national sovereignty ruled province buenos aires facing military threats secession attempts neighboring countries even european nations although rosas federalist kept customs receipts buenos aires exclusive control city whereas provinces expected part revenue rosas


considered fair measure buenos aires paying external debt generated baring brothers loan rivadavia war independence war brazil developed paramilitary force popular restorer society commonly known ''mazorca'' corncob rosas' reluctance call new assembly write constitution led general justo jos de urquiza entre r os turn urquiza defeated rosas battle caseros called assembly argentine constitution amendments still force


day constitution immediately accepted buenos aires seceded confederation rejoined years later bartolom mitre became first president unified country liberal governments president domingo faustino sarmiento presidency bartolom mitre saw economic improvement argentina agricultural modernization foreign investment new railroads ports wave immigration europe mitre also stabilized political system commanding federal interventions defeated personal armies caudillos chacho pe aloza juan argentina joined uruguay brazil paraguay war


allowed government use city buenos aires center government without federalizing city reserving right province buenos aires secede nation conflict arose mitre succeeded domingo faustino sarmiento promoted public education culture telegraphs well modernization army navy sarmiento managed defeat last known caudillos also dealt fallout triple alliance war included decrease national production due death thousands soldiers


outbreak diseases cholera yellow fever brought returning soldiers nicol avellaneda became president ran trouble deal economic depression left panic economic issues solved new land opened development expansion national territory conquest desert led war minister julio argentino roca military campaign took territories control natives reduced population trade conflict caused turmoil buenos aires


led governor carlos tejedor declare secession republic avellaneda denied right breaking law compromise proceeded send army troops led roca take province tejedor 's secession efforts defeated buenos aires joined republic definitively federalizing city buenos aires handing government nation 's capital city national autonomist hegemony president julio argentino roca central political figure pan hegemony years surge popularity due successful desert campaign julio roca elected president


candidate national autonomist party partido autonomista nacional pan party would remain power presidency roca created net political alliances installed several measures helped retain almost absolute control argentine political scene throughout keen ability political strategy earned nickname ''the fox'' country 's economy benefited change extensive farming industrial agriculture huge european immigration n't yet strong move towards industrialization time argentina received highest


levels foreign investment latin america midst economic expansion law common education guaranteed universal free non religious education children government policies strongly opposed roman catholic church argentina causing holy see break diplomatic relations country several years setting stage decades continued church state strain late th early th century argentina temporarily resolved border disputes chile puna de atacama dispute boundary treaty


chile argentina general treaty arbitration roca 's government followed aligned argentine oligarchy especially great land owners general roca conquest desert extended argentine power patagonia miguel ju rez celman became president roca constitutionally disqualified election celman attempted reduce roca 's control political scene earned predecessor 's opposition roca led great opposition movement celman coupled devastating effects long depression argentine economy allowed civic opposition party start


coup d' tat would later known revolution park revolution led three main leaders civic union leandro alem former president bartolom mitre moderate socialist juan b justo though failed main goals revolution forced ju rez celman 's resignation marked decline generation ' roca proposed civic union elect someone vice president presidency next time elections came around one group led mitre decided take deal another intransigent group led


alem opposed eventually led split civic union national civic union argentina led mitre radical civic union led alem division occurred roca withdrew offer completed plan divide civic union decrease power alem would eventually commit suicide control radical civic union went nephew prot g hip lito yrigoyen celman 's downfall vice president carlos pellegrini took proceeded resolve economic crisis afflicted country earning moniker ''the storm


sailor'' fearing another wave opposition roca like one imposed celman pellegrini remained moderate presidency ending predecessor 's efforts distance ''the fox'' political control following governments took similar measures sided roca avoid politically chastised roca became president politically unstable situation large number social conflicts included massive strikes anarchist subversion attempts roca handled conflicts police army crack protestors rebels suspected rebels end


second presidency roca fell ill role political affairs began decrease gradually death late alfredo palacios member juan b justo 's socialist party founded became first socialist deputy argentina representative working class neighborhood la boca buenos aires helped create many laws including ley palacios sexual exploitation others regulating child woman labor working hours sunday rest uni n c vica radical 's revolts led hip lito yrigoyen inflicted fear among oligarchy increased


social instability possible revolution progressive member pan roque enz pe recognized need satisfy demand public maintain existing regime elected president passed enz pe law made political vote mandatory secret universal among males aged eighteen intention allow transition power uni n c vica radical increase public support pan enabling universal electoral suffrage however consequence opposite intended accomplish


following election chose hip lito yrigoyen president ended hegemony pan radical governments president hip lito yrigoyen conservative forces dominated argentine politics radicals led hip lito yrigoyen control government first national elections universal male suffrage citizens allowed vote total population million immigrants represented much population allowed vote abstained yrigoyen however obtained votes allow majority parliament


conservatives remained leading force thus draft laws proposed executive voted conservative majority ref name felipe pigna p felipe pigna p ref moderate agricultural reform proposal rejected parliament income tax interest creation bank republic missions current central bank ref name felipe pigna p meanwhile radicals continued argentina 's neutrality policy world war despite united states urging declare war central powers neutrality enabled


argentina export goods europe particular great britain well issue credit belligerent powers germany sank two argentine civilian ships ''monte protegido'' april ''toro'' diplomatic incident ended expulsion german ambassador karl von luxburg yrigoyen organized conference neutral powers buenos aires oppose united states' attempt bring american states european war also supported sandino 's resistance nicaragua despite conservative opposition radical civic union ucr emphasis fair elections democratic institutions


ucr marcelo torcuato de alvear aristocrat defeated norberto pi ero 's ''concentraci n nacional'' conservatives votes alvear brought cabinet personalities belonging traditional ruling classes jos nicol matienzo interior ministry ngel gallardo foreign relations agust n p justo war ministry manuel domecq garc marine rafael herrera vegas haciendas alvear 's supporters founded ''uni n c vica radical antipersonalista'' opposed yrigoyen 's party early rise anarchist movement fueled arrival recent migr deportees europe spawned


new generation left wing activism argentina new left mostly anarchists anarcho communists rejected incremental progressivism old radical socialist elements argentina favor immediate action extremists severino di giovanni openly espoused violence 'propaganda deed' wave bombings shootouts police culminated attempt assassinate us president herbert hoover visit argentina nearly successful attempt assassinate yrigoyen elected presidency counter revolutionary ''logia general san


mart n'' founded diffused nationalist ideas military dissolution three years later ''liga republicana'' republican league founded roberto de laferr model benito mussolini 's blackshirts italy argentine right found major influences th century spanish writer marcelino men ndez pelayo french royalist charles maurras also poet leopoldo lugones turned towards fascism made famous speech lima known time sword presence war minister future dictator agust n p justo


called military coup establishment military dictatorship yrigoyen elected president began series reforms increase workers' rights intensified conservative opposition yrigoyen grew even stronger argentina devastated beginning great depression wall street crash september military coup led pro fascist general jos f lix uriburu overthrew yrigoyen 's government began period argentine history known infamous decade great depression exports frozen beef especially great britain provided


much needed foreign currency trade fell sharply infamous decade sarmiento'' ministry defense buenos aires argentina wealthy world standards prosperity ended worldwide great depression military coup supported argentine patriotic league forced hip lito yrigoyen power replaced jos f lix uriburu support coup bolstered sagging argentine economy well string bomb attacks shootings involving radical anarchists alienated moderate elements argentine society angered conservative right


late january executed first february year becoming president coup uriburu attempted create constitutional reform would include corporatism argentine constitution move toward fascism viewed negatively conservative backers coup turned support moderate conservative general agust n p justo presidency election heavily fraudulent justo began policy liberal economic moves primarily benefitted nation 's upper classes permitted great political industrial corruption


expense national growth one infamous decisions justo 's government creation roca runciman treaty argentina united kingdom benefitted british economy rich beef producers argentina progressive democrat senator lisandro de la torre began investigation several corruption allegations within argentine beef production industry attempted charge justo 's minister agriculture luis duhau minister finance federico pinedo political corruption fraud charges exposition investigation national congress duhau started fight among


senators bodyguard ram n valdez cora tried kill de la torre accidentally ended shooting de la torre 's friend political partner enzo bordabehere meat investigation dropped soon afterward de la torre managed achieve incarceration head ''anglo'' meat company corruption charges de la torre would later commit suicide collapse international trade led industrial growth focused import substitution leading stronger economic independence political conflict increased marked confrontation right wing fascists leftist radicals military oriented conservatives


war government also questioned domestic policy reasons namely electoral fraud poor labour rights selection patr n costas run presidency june united officers' group gou secret alliance military leaders led pedro pablo ram rez arturo rawson edelmiro farrell farrell 's prot g juan per n marched casa rosada demanded resignation president castillo hours threats goal achieved president resigned event considered historians official end infamous decade


coup ram rez took power although declare war broke relations axis powers argentina 's largest neighbor brazil already entered war allied side ramirez replaced farrell army officer irish argentine origin spent two years attached mussolini 's army twenties initially government continued maintain neutral policy towards end war farrell decided interests argentina attached winning side like several latin american states argentina made late declaration


war germany intention providing military forces juan per n managed relations labourers unions became highly popular deposed detained mart n garc island massive demonstration october forced government free per n restore office per n would win elections shortly afterward landslide us ambassador spruille braden took direct action argentine politics supporting antiperonist parties peronist years president juan per n general juan per n became president populist ideology became known peronism popular wife


eva per n played leading political role death per n established censorship closing publications juan per n 's rule number unionized workers government programs increased government followed isolationist foreign policy attempted reduce political economic influence nations per n expanded government spending policies led ruinous inflation peso lost value early early inflation reached ref name precios http wwwindecmeconar nuevaweb cuadros ipc var dde xls indec precios ref opposition members imprisoned tortured dismissed


many important capable advisers promoting officials largely basis personal loyalty coup ''revoluci n libertadora'' led eduardo lonardi supported catholic church deposed went exile eventually settling francoist spain ''revoluci n libertadora'' argentina marked frequent coups d' tat low economic growth high growth rates argentina faced problems continued social labor demands argentine painter antonio berni 's works reflected social tragedies times painting particular life ''villas miseria''


shanty towns following ''revoluci n libertadora'' military coup eduardo lonardi held power briefly succeeded pedro aramburu president november may june two peronist generals juan jos valle raul tanco attempted coup aramburu criticizing important purge army abrogation social reforms persecution trade union leaders also demanded liberation political labor activists return constitutional order uprising quickly crushed general valle members military executed twenty civilians arrested


blank protest banned peronist party also support peronism left wing radical party led arturo frondizi left constitutional assembly assembly severely damaged defection able restore constitution sole addition article ''bis'' enumerated social rights fragile radical administrations president arturo frondizi ban peronist expression representation continued fragile civilian governments period frondizi ucri 's candidate presidential elections obtaining approximately votes


ricardo balb n neutral votes caracas per n supported frondizi called upon supporters vote means toward end prohibition peronist movement establishment workers' social legislation voted per n 's leadership one hand frondizi appointed lvaro alsogaray minister economy placate powerful agrarian interests conservatives member powerful military dynasty alsogaray lvaro already minister industry aramburu 's military rule devalued peso imposed credit control hand frondizi followed laicist program


deeply regretted argentine population however frondizi 's government ended intervention yet military series local elections peronist candidates jos mar guido chairman senate claimed presidency constitutional grounds deeply divided armed forces able agree name right wing elements argentine armed forces favor direct military rule suppression former peronist politicians subsequently attempted wrest control government argentine navy revolt april failure


revolt 's plotters win loyalty army units near capital permitted guido 's government swiftly put revolt cost lives new elections neither peronists communists allowed participate arturo illia radical people 's party elections regional elections elections next years favored peronists hand tacuara outlawed illia members ultimately turning peronist left joe baxter others remained far right positions alberto ezcurra uriburu


state argentine economy particular agricultural sector favoring foreign capital vasena suspended collective labour conventions reformed hydrocarbon law established partial monopoly ''yacimientos petrol feros fiscales'' ypf state enterprise well passing law facilitating expulsions case failure pay rent finally right strike suspended law several laws reversed progress made concerning labor laws throughout preceding years workers' movement divided vandoristas supported peronism without peron line vandor declared save per n one per n


advocated negotiation junta peronists divided july ongan ordered forcible clearing five facilities university buenos aires uba july federal police event known ''la noche de los bastones largos'' night long batons facilities occupied students professors graduates members autonomous government university opposed military government 's intervention universities revocation university reform university repression led exile university professors including manuel sadosky


castro died natural causes hand small group men one woman aimed establishing ''foco'' tucum n province order head resistance junta captured ref name anzorena oscar r anzorena ''tiempo de violencia utop '' editorial contrapunto p ref among envar el kadre leader peronist youth ref name anzorena ''general confederation labour argentines'' cgta headed graphist raimundo ongaro headed social movements particular cordobazo well movements tucum n santa fe


per n managed reconciliation augusto vandor head cgt azopardo followed particular voice delegate jorge paladino cautious line opposition military junta criticizing moderation neoliberal policies junta waiting discontent inside government ''hay que desencillar hasta que aclare'' said per n advocating patience thus ongan interview cgt delegates among vandor agreed cooperate military junta thus uniting ''nueva corriente de opini n'' headed jos alonso rogelio coria december


priests members ''movement priests third world'' mstm marched ''casa rosada'' present ongan petition pleading abandon planned eradication ''villas miserias'' shanty towns ref name anzorena oscar anzorena p ref meanwhile ongan implemented corporatism policies experimenting particular c rdoba underneath carlos caballero 's governance year movement priests third world issued declaration supporting socialist revolutionary movements led catholic hierarchy voice juan carlos aramburu coadjutor archbishop buenos aires proscribe priests making political social


occurred april leading several arrests among fal members first left wing urban guerrilla actions argentina beside isolated actions cordobazo uprising year called forth cgt de los argentinos cordobese leader agust n tosco prompted demonstrations entire country year people 's revolutionary army erp formed military branch trotskyist workers' revolutionary party kidnapping high profile rich argentines demanding ransom ref name nancy scheper hughes ref ref name paul h lewis ref last de facto military presidents alejandro lanusse appointed attempted


establish democracy amidst atmosphere continuing peronist workers' protests c mpora 's tenure march argentina held general elections first time ten years per n prevented running voters elected stand dr hector c mpora president c mpora defeated radical civic union opponent c mpora percent votes presidential election following campaign based platform national reconstruction ref name miguel bonasso miguel bonasso ''el presidente que fue los archivos occultos del peronismo'' president n't hidden archives peronism planeta buenos aires ref riding


wave mass support c mpora inaugurated period may acceded functions may saluted massive popular gathering peronist youth movement montoneros far fap fuerzas armadas peronistas plaza de mayo c mpora assumed strong stance right wing peronists declaring first speech la sangre derramada ser negociada spilled blood negotiated ref name miguel bonasso cuban president osvaldo dortic chilean president salvador allende present inauguration william p rogers us secretary state uruguayan president juan bordaberry could


attend blocked respective cars demonstrators political prisoners liberated day pressure demonstrators c mpora 's government included progressive figures interior minister esteban righi education minister jorge taiana also included members labor political right wing peronist factions jos l pez rega per n 's personal secretary minister social welfare member p masonic lodge ref name miguel bonasso per n 's followers also commanded strong majorities houses congress hector c mpora 's government followed traditional peronist economic policy supporting national market


redistributing wealth one jos ber gelbard 's first measures minister economics augment workers' wages however oil crisis seriously affected argentina 's oil dependent economy almost social conflicts strikes occupations occurred c mpora 's first month military conceded campora 's victory strikes well government backed violence continued unabated slogan campora government per n power expressed real source popular joy however return per n amidst escalating terror right left alike per n decided return assume presidency june two million people waited


pueblo erp people 's revolutionary army declared dissolved terrorist organization september per n elections votes third wife isabel mart nez de per n vice president administration inaugurated october peronist right wing factions decisive victory per n assumed presidency october month pinochet 's coup chile violent acts including triple continued threaten public order september jos ignacio rucci cgt trade union 's secretary general per n 's friend assassinated montoneros government resorted number


emergency decrees including implementation special executive authority deal violence allowed government imprison individuals indefinitely without charge second period office per n committed achieving political peace new alliance business labor promote national reconstruction peron 's charisma past record respect labor helped maintain working class support ref name myeducationresearchorg de lima dantas elizabeth ref isabel 's government per n died july wife succeeded office administration undermined economic collapse inflation skyrocketing gdp contracted peronist intra party


struggles growing acts terrorism insurgents erp paramilitary movements isabel de per n inexperienced politics carried per n 's name lopez rega described man numerous occult interests including astrology supporter dissident catholic groups economic policies directed restructuring wages currency devaluations order attract foreign investment capital argentina l pez rega ousted isabel de per n 's adviser june general numa laplane commander chief army supported administration lopez rega period replaced


general jorge rafael videla august ref name myeducationresearchorg montoneros led mario firmenich cautiously decided go underground peron 's death isabel per n removed office military coup march gave way last arguably violent de facto government argentina national reorganization process national reorganization process argentine junta leader jorge rafael videla meeting us president jimmy carter september following coup isabel per n armed forces formally exercised power junta led consecutively videla viola galtieri bignone december


' 'de facto'' dictators termed government program national reorganization process '''dirty war''' name used military junta '''civic military dictatorship argentina''' period state terrorism argentina part operation condor military security forces right wing death squads form argentine anticommunist alliance triple hunted kind suspected political dissidents anyone believed associated socialism contrary plan neoliberal economic policies dictated operation condor


people disappeared many could formally reported missing due nature state terrorism targets students militants trade unionists writers journalists artists anyone suspected left wing activist included peronist guerrillas disappeared victims kidnapped tortured murdered whose bodies disappeared military government included thought politically ideologically threat military junta even vaguely killed attempt junta silence social political opposition ref name robben ref monument falklands war fallen rosario serious economic problems


chile argentina signed agreement formally submitting beagle channel issue binding beagle channel arbitration may court ruled islands adjacent formations belonged chile see http legalunorg riaa cases vol xxi pdf report decision court arbitration january argentina military junta led general jorge videla declared award fundamentally null intensified claim islands december argentina started operation soberan disputed islands invasion halted due '' newspaper clar n explained years later


caution based part military concerns order achieve victory certain objectives reached seventh day attack military leaders considered enough time due difficulty involved transportation passes andean mountains'' cite ''according clar n two consequences feared first dubious feared possible regionalization conflict second consequence conflict could acquire great power proportions first case decision makers speculated peru bolivia ecuador brazil might


intervene great powers could take sides case resolution conflict would depend combatants countries supplied weapons'' december year moments videla signed declaration war chile pope john paul ii agreed mediate two nations pope 's envoy cardinal antonio samor successfully averted war proposed new definitive boundary three disputed islands would remain chilean argentina chile agreed samor 's proposal signed treaty peace friendship chile


argentina ending dispute new democracy present ra l alfons n 's presidential inauguration october argentines went polls choose president vice president national provincial local officials elections found international observers fair honest country returned constitutional rule ra l alfons n candidate radical civic union ''uni n c vica radical'' ucr received popular vote president began year term office december alfons n era five days later created national commission disappearance persons conadep led


argentine writer ernesto sabato however also alfons n 's presidency december full stop law voted granting amnesty acts committed december amid pressure military would june 's supreme court decision overturn amnesty laws investigations could started alfons n administration treaty peace friendship chile argentina chile signed roots mercosur trade bloc established large turnouts mid term elections demonstrated continued public support


strong vigorous democratic system ucr led government took steps resolve nation 's pressing problems including accounting disappeared military rule establishing civilian control armed forces consolidating democratic institutions one biggest achievements alfons n administration reduction corruption public offices reduced half administration however constant friction military failure resolve several economic problems inherited military dictatorship great opposition labor unions undermined effectiveness alfons n government left office


six months early peronist candidate carlos menem presidential elections menemist decade carlos menem served president argentina president carlos menem launched major overhaul argentine domestic policy large scale structural reforms dramatically reversed role state argentine economic life ironically peronist menem oversaw privatization many industries per n nationalized decisive leader pressing controversial agenda menem reluctant use presidency 's powers issue emergency decrees formally ''necessity urgency decrees'' congress unable reach


consensus proposed reforms powers curtailed somewhat constitution reformed result called pact olivos opposition radical party arrangement opened way menem seek win reelection vote three way presidential race piquetero movement rose election saw emergence moderate left frepaso political alliance alternative two traditional political parties argentina particularly strong buenos aires lacked national infrastructure peronists radicals important development


argentina 's political life three major parties race espoused free market economic policies new millennium crisis de la r presidency october ucr ndash frepaso ''alianza'' 's presidential candidate fernando de la r defeated peronist candidate eduardo duhalde taken office december de la r followed imf sponsored program government spending cuts revenue increases provincial revenue sharing reforms get federal fiscal deficit control pursued labor market flexibilization business promotion measures aimed stimulating foreign investment avoid defaulting public debt towards end argentina


faced grave economic problems imf pressed argentina service external debt effectively forcing argentina devalue argentine peso pegged us dollar alternatively fully dollarize economy deep budget cuts including reduction pay nation 's million public sector employees failed curb rapidly increasing country risk almost u billion argentine bonds increasing debt service costs limiting access international credit despite moderately successful debt swap arranged minister cavallo bondholders voters reacted rapidly worsening economy


october midterm elections depriving alliance majority lower house casting record spoiled ballots ref name bbc ref corralito police intervention riots november people 's fears peso would devalued caused massive withdrawal bank deposits capital flight de la r 's minister economy domingo cavallo passed regulations severely limiting withdrawals effectively freezing peso denominated assets argentine middle class dollar denominated foreign accounts nature shielded devaluation freezing bank accounts informally named


''corralito'' overall economy declined drastically december resulting riots led dozens deaths minister economy domingo cavallo resigned prevent collapse de la r 's administration december de la r also resigned political crisis extremely serious result previous resignation vice president carlos chacho lvarez president senate became interim president national congress elected two days later adolfo rodr guez sa finish de la r 's term rodr guez sa resigned week later december


leaving power president chamber deputies senate undergoing annual renovation president interim finally january national congress elected peronist eduardo duhalde losing candidate recent presidential election president peso first devalued dollar peg abandoned july national currency depreciated one quarter former value recovery president duhalde faced country turmoil administration deal wave protests middle class cacerolazos unemployed