later reign kingdom ref name whitton whitton society northern europe ''oxford illustrated history medieval europe'' p ref western frankish kingdom fragmented although kings remained nominally charge much political power devolved local lords ref name wickham wickham ''inheritance rome'' pp ref ottonian ivory plaque depicting christ receiving church thumb left upright missionary efforts scandinavia th th centuries helped strengthen growth kingdoms sweden denmark norway gained power territory kings converted christianity although scandinavians also expanded colonised


throughout europe besides settlements ireland england normandy settlement took place became russia iceland swedish traders raiders ranged rivers russian steppe even attempted seize constantinople ref name collins collins ''early medieval europe'' pp ref christian spain initially driven small section peninsula north expanded slowly south th th centuries establishing kingdoms asturias le n ref name wickham wickham ''inheritance rome'' pp ref eastern europe byzantium revived fortunes emperor basil r successors

Applied science
Military sciences
Military history
Medieval


leo vi r constantine vii r members macedonian dynasty commerce revived emperors oversaw extension uniform administration provinces military reorganised allowed emperors john r basil ii r expand frontiers empire fronts imperial court centre revival classical learning process known macedonian renaissance writers john geometres fl early th century composed new hymns poems works ref name davies davies ''europe'' pp ref missionary efforts


architecture page book kells illuminated manuscript created british isles late th early th century ref name nees nees ''early medieval art'' p ref large stone buildings constructed constantinian basilicas th century th century although many smaller ones built th th centuries beginning th century carolingian empire revived basilica form architecture ref name stalley stalley ''early medieval architecture'' pp ref one feature basilica use transept ref name stalley stalley ''early medieval architecture'' pp ref


arms cross shaped building perpendicular long nave ref name cosman cosman ''medieval wordbook'' p ref new features religious architecture include crossing tower monumental entrance church usually west end building ref name stalley stalley ''early medieval architecture'' pp ref carolingian art produced small group figures around court monasteries churches supported dominated efforts regain dignity classicism imperial roman byzantine art also influenced insular art british isles insular


art integrated energy irish celtic anglo saxon germanic styles ornament mediterranean forms book established many characteristics art rest medieval period surviving religious works early middle ages mostly illuminated manuscripts carved ivories originally made metalwork since melted ref name kitzinger kitzinger ''early medieval art'' pp ref ref name henderson henderson ''early medieval'' pp ref objects precious metals prestigious form art almost lost except crosses cross lothair several reliquaries


finds anglo saxon burial sutton hoo hoards gourdon merovingian france guarrazar visigothic spain nagyszentmikl near byzantine territory survivals large brooches fibula penannular form key piece personal adornment elites including irish tara brooch ref name henderson henderson ''early medieval'' pp ref highly decorated books mostly gospel books survived larger numbers including insular book kells book lindisfarne imperial codex aureus st emmeram one


retain treasure binding gold encrusted jewels ref name benton benton ''art middle ages'' pp ref charlemagne 's court seems responsible acceptance figurative monumental sculpture christian art ref name lasko lasko ''ars sacra'' pp ref end period near life sized figures gero cross common important churches ref name henderson henderson ''early medieval'' pp ref military technological developments later roman empire principal military developments attempts create effective cavalry force well continued development highly specialised types troops


creation heavily armoured cataphract type soldiers cavalry important feature th century roman military various invading tribes differing emphases types soldiers ranging primarily infantry anglo saxon invaders britain vandals visigoths high proportion cavalry armies ref name nicollewestern nicolle ''medieval warfare source book warfare western christendom'' pp ref early invasion period stirrup introduced warfare limited usefulness cavalry shock troops possible put full force horse rider behind


blows struck rider ref name nicollewestern nicolle ''medieval warfare source book warfare western christendom'' p ref greatest change military affairs invasion period adoption hunnic composite bow place earlier weaker scythian composite bow ref name nicollewestern nicolle ''medieval warfare source book warfare western christendom'' pp ref another development increasing use longswords ref name nicollewestern nicolle ''medieval warfare source book warfare western christendom'' p ref progressive replacement scale armour mail armour lamellar armour ref name nicollewestern nicolle ''medieval warfare source book warfare western christendom'' p ref importance


infantry light cavalry began decline early carolingian period growing dominance elite heavy cavalry use militia type levies free population declined carolingian period ref name nicollewestern nicolle ''medieval warfare source book warfare western christendom'' pp ref although much carolingian armies mounted large proportion early period appear mounted infantry rather true cavalry ref name nicollewestern nicolle ''medieval warfare source book warfare western christendom'' p ref one exception anglo saxon england armies still composed regional levies known ''fyrd''


led local elites ref name nicollewestern nicolle ''medieval warfare source book warfare western christendom'' p ref military technology one main changes return crossbow known roman times reappeared military weapon last part early middle ages ref name nicollewestern nicolle ''medieval warfare source book warfare western christendom'' p ref another change introduction stirrup increased effectiveness cavalry shock troops technological advance implications beyond military horseshoe allowed horses used


rocky terrain ref name nicollewestern nicolle ''medieval warfare source book warfare western christendom'' pp ref high middle ages society economic life manuscript illustration three classes medieval society prayed clergy fought knights worked peasantry ref name whitton whitton society northern europe ''oxford illustrated history medieval europe'' p ref relationship classes governed feudalism manorialism ref name gainty gainty ward ''sources world societies'' p ref ''li livres dou sante'' th century thumb left high middle ages period tremendous expansion population estimated population


europe grew nbsp million although exact causes remain unclear improved agricultural techniques decline slaveholding clement climate lack invasion suggested ref name jordan jordan ''europe high middle ages'' pp ref ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' p ref much nbsp per cent european population remained rural peasants many longer settled isolated farms gathered small communities usually known manors villages ref name backman peasants often subject noble overlords owed rents


communities three basic characteristics individual peasant holdings form strips land scattered among different fields belonging manor crops rotated year year preserve soil fertility common land used grazing livestock purposes regions used three field system crop rotation others retained older two field system ref name agri dawtry agriculture ''middle ages'' pp ref sections society included nobility clergy townsmen nobles titled nobility simple knights exploited manors peasants although lands outright


granted rights income manor lands overlord system feudalism th th centuries lands fiefs came considered hereditary areas longer divisible heirs case early medieval period instead fiefs lands went eldest son ref name barber barber ''two cities'' pp ref dominance nobility built upon control land military service heavy cavalry control castles various immunities taxes


impositions castles initially wood later stone began constructed th th centuries response disorder time provided protection invaders well allowing lords defence rivals control castles allowed nobles defy kings overlords ref name davies davies ''europe'' pp ref nobles stratified kings highest ranking nobility controlled large numbers commoners large tracts land well nobles beneath lesser nobles authority smaller areas land fewer people knights lowest level


nobility controlled land serve nobles ref name daily singman ''daily life'' p ref clergy divided two types secular clergy lived world regular clergy lived isolated religious rule usually consisted monks ref name hamilton hamilton ''religion medieval west'' p ref throughout period monks remained small proportion population usually less one percent ref name daily singman ''daily life'' p ref regular clergy drawn nobility social class served


p ref th century illustration jew pointed jewish hat christian petrus alphonsi debating jews also spread across europe period communities established germany england th th centuries spanish jews long settled spain muslims came christian rule increasing pressure convert christianity ref name jews jews confined cities allowed land peasants ref name epstein epstein ''economic social history'' p ref besides jews non christians edges europe pagan slavs eastern


europe muslims southern europe ref name daily singman ''daily life'' p ref women middle ages officially required subordinate male whether father husband kinsman widows often allowed much control lives still restricted legally women 's work generally consisted household domestically inclined tasks peasant women usually responsible taking care household child care well gardening animal husbandry near house could supplement household income spinning brewing home harvest time also expected help


rise towns degree self governing stimulated economic growth created environment new types trade associations commercial cities shores baltic entered agreements known hanseatic league italian maritime republics venice genoa pisa expanded trade throughout mediterranean great trading fairs established flourished northern france period allowing italian german merchants trade well local merchants ref name epstein epstein ''economic social history'' pp ref late th century new land sea


routes far east pioneered famously described ''the travels marco polo'' written one traders marco polo ref name barber barber ''two cities'' pp ref besides new trading opportunities agricultural technological improvements enabled increase crop yields turn allowed trade networks expand ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' p ref rising trade brought new methods dealing money gold coinage minted europe first italy later france countries new forms commercial contracts emerged allowing risk shared among merchants


accounting methods improved partly use double entry bookkeeping letters credit also appeared allowing easy transmission money ref name barber barber ''two cities'' pp ref rise state power upright high middle ages formative period history modern western state kings france england spain consolidated power set lasting governing institutions ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' pp ref new kingdoms hungary poland conversion christianity became central european powers ref name barber barber ''two cities'' pp ref magyars settled hungary around series invasions


th century ref name davies davies ''europe'' p ref papacy long attached ideology independence secular kings first asserted claim temporal authority entire christian world papal monarchy reached apogee early th century pontificate pope ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' pp ref northern crusades advance christian kingdoms military orders previously pagan regions baltic finnic north east brought forced assimilation numerous native peoples european culture ref name barber barber ''two cities'' pp ref early high middle ages


germany ruled ottonian dynasty struggled control powerful dukes ruling territorial duchies tracing back migration period replaced salian dynasty famously clashed papacy emperor r church appointments part investiture controversy ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' pp ref successors continued struggle papacy well german nobility period instability followed death emperor r died without heirs frederick barbarossa r took imperial throne ref


name jordan jordan ''europe high middle ages'' pp ref although ruled effectively basic problems remained successors continued struggle th century ref name jordan jordan ''europe high middle ages'' pp ref barbarossa 's grandson frederick ii r also heir throne sicily mother clashed repeatedly papacy court famous scholars often accused heresy ref name denley denley mediterranean ''oxford illustrated history medieval europe'' pp ref successors faced many difficulties including arrival mongols eastern border


name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' pp ref faced powerful rival dukes normandy william conqueror duke conquered england r created cross channel empire lasted various forms throughout rest middle ages ref name jordan jordan ''europe high middle ages'' pp ref ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' pp ref normans also settled sicily southern italy robert guiscard landed established duchy later became kingdom sicily ref name davies davies ''europe'' p ref angevin dynasty


r son richard r kings england ruled england large areas france ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' p ref brought family henry ii 's marriage eleanor aquitaine heiress much southern france ref name eleanor loyn eleanor aquitaine ''middle ages'' p ref richard 's younger brother john r lost normandy rest northern french possessions french king philip ii augustus r led dissension among english nobility john 's financial exactions pay


unsuccessful attempts regain normandy led ''magna carta'' charter confirmed rights privileges free men england r john 's son concessions made nobility royal power diminished ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' pp ref french monarchy continued make gains nobility late th th centuries bringing territories within kingdom king 's personal rule centralising royal administration ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' pp ref louis ix r royal prestige rose new heights


louis served mediator europe ref name davies davies ''europe'' pp ref iberia christian states confined north western part peninsula began push back islamic states south period known ''reconquista'' ref name davies davies ''europe'' p ref christian north coalesced five major kingdoms le n castile aragon navarre portugal ref name barber barber ''two cities'' p ref southern iberia remained control islamic states initially caliphate c rdoba broke shifting number


petty states known ''taifas'' ref name davies although almoravids almohads two dynasties maghreb established centralised rule southern iberia respectively empires quickly disintegrated christian forces advanced early th century culminating capture seville ref name barber barber ''two cities'' pp ref crusades krak des chevaliers built crusades knights hospitallers ref name fortress kaufmann kaufmann ''medieval fortress'' pp ref th century seljuk turks took much middle east occupying persia armenia jerusalem


turkish army defeated byzantine army battle manzikert captured byzantine emperor romanus iv r turks free invade asia minor dealt dangerous blow byzantine empire seizing large part population economic heartland although byzantines regrouped recovered somewhat never fully regained asia minor often defensive turks also difficulties losing control jerusalem fatimids egypt suffering series internal civil wars ref name davies davies ''europe'' pp


ref byzantines also faced revived bulgaria late th th centuries spread throughout balkans ref name davies davies ''europe'' pp nbsp ref crusades intended seize jerusalem muslim control first crusade proclaimed pope urban ii pope council clermont response request byzantine emperor alexios komnenos r aid muslim advances urban promised indulgence anyone took part tens thousands people levels society mobilised across europe captured jerusalem ref name macrusades one feature


crusades pogroms local jews often took place crusaders left countries east especially brutal first crusade ref name jews jewish communities cologne mainz worms destroyed well communities cities rivers seine rhine ref name comp lock ''routledge companion crusades'' pp ref another outgrowth crusades foundation new type monastic order military orders templars hospitallers fused monastic life military service ref name barber crusaders consolidated conquests


crusader states th th centuries series conflicts surrounding islamic states appeals crusader states papacy led crusades ref name macrusades riley smith crusades ''middle ages'' pp ref third crusade called try regain jerusalem captured saladin ref name payne payne ''dream tomb'' pp ref fourth crusade diverted holy land constantinople captured city setting latin empire constantinople ref name lock lock ''routledge companion crusades''


pp ref greatly weakening byzantine empire byzantines recaptured city never regained former strength ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' pp ref crusader states captured ref name lock lock ''routledge companion crusades'' p ref popes called crusades take place elsewhere besides holy land spain southern france along baltic ref name macrusades spanish crusades became fused ''reconquista'' spain muslims although templars hospitallers took part spanish crusades similar spanish military religious orders founded


become part two main orders calatrava santiago beginning th century ref name lock lock ''routledge companion crusades'' pp ref northern europe also remained outside christian influence th century later became crusading venue part northern crusades th th centuries crusades also spawned military order order sword brothers another order teutonic knights although founded crusader states focused much activity baltic moved headquarters marienburg


prussia ref name lock lock ''routledge companion crusades'' pp ref intellectual life th century developments philosophy theology led increased intellectual activity debate realists nominalists concept universals philosophical discourse stimulated rediscovery aristotle emphasis empiricism rationalism scholars peter abelard peter lombard introduced aristotelian logic theology late th early th centuries cathedral schools spread throughout western europe signalling shift learning monasteries cathedrals towns ref name backman backman ''worlds


illustration chivalry ethos courtly love developed royal noble courts culture expressed vernacular languages rather latin comprised poems stories legends popular songs spread troubadours wandering minstrels often stories written ''chansons de geste'' songs great deeds ''the song roland'' ''the song hildebrand'' ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' pp ref secular religious histories also produced ref name davies davies ''europe'' p ref geoffrey monmouth c composed ''historia regum britanniae'' collection stories


legends arthur ref name saulgeoffrey saul ''companion medieval england'' pp ref works clearly history otto von freising 's ''gesta friderici imperatoris'' detailing deeds emperor frederick barbarossa william malmesbury 's c ''gesta regum'' kings england ref name davies legal studies advanced th century secular law canon law ecclesiastical law studied high middle ages secular law roman law advanced greatly discovery ''corpus juris civilis'' th century roman law taught


bologna led recording standardisation legal codes throughout western europe canon law also studied around monk named gratian fl th century teacher bologna wrote became standard text canon law ''decretum'' ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' pp ref among results greek islamic influence period european history replacement roman numerals decimal positional number system invention algebra allowed advanced mathematics astronomy advanced following translation ptolemy 's ''almagest'' greek latin


unknown italian artisan probably working near pisa development three field rotation system planting crops ref name backman increased usage land one half use year old two field system two thirds new system consequent increase production ref name epstein development heavy plough allowed heavier soils farmed efficiently aided spread horse collar led use draught horses place oxen horses faster oxen require less pasture factors aided implementation


three field system ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' pp ref legumes peas beans lentils grown widely crops addition usual cereal crops wheat oats barley rye ref name barber barber ''two cities'' p ref construction cathedrals castles advanced building technology leading development large stone buildings ancillary structures included new town halls houses bridges tithe barns ref name barber barber ''two cities'' p ref shipbuilding improved use rib plank method rather old roman system mortise tenon improvements


ships included use lateen sails stern post rudder increased speed ships could sailed ref name barber barber ''two cities'' p ref military affairs use infantry specialised roles increased along still dominant heavy cavalry armies often included mounted infantry crossbowmen well sappers engineers ref name nicollewestern nicolle ''medieval warfare source book warfare western christendom'' p ref crossbows known late antiquity increased use partly increase siege warfare th th centuries ref name nicollewestern increasing use


crossbows th th centuries led use closed face helmets heavy body armour well horse armour ref name nicollewestern nicolle ''medieval warfare source book warfare western christendom'' p ref gunpowder known europe mid th century recorded use european warfare english scots although merely used explosive weapon cannon used sieges hand held guns use ref name nicolle architecture art music romanesque church maria laach germany


th century establishment churches monasteries led development stone architecture elaborated vernacular roman forms term romanesque derived available roman brick stone buildings recycled materials tentative beginnings known first romanesque style flourished spread across europe remarkably homogeneous form great wave building stone churches europe ref name benton benton ''art middle ages'' p ref romanesque buildings massive stone walls openings topped semi circular arches small windows particularly


france arched stone vaults ref name adams adams ''history western art'' pp ref large portal coloured sculpture high relief became central feature fa ades especially france capitals columns often carved narrative scenes imaginative monsters animals ref name benton benton ''art middle ages'' pp ref according art historian c r dodwell virtually churches west decorated wall paintings survive ref name dodwell dodwell ''pictorial arts west'' p ref simultaneous development church architecture distinctive european form castle


developed became crucial politics warfare ref name benton benton ''art middle ages'' pp ref romanesque art especially metalwork sophisticated mosan art distinct artistic personalities including nicholas verdun become apparent almost classical style seen works font li ge ref name lasko lasko ''ars sacra'' pp ref contrasting writhing animals exactly contemporary gloucester candlestick large illuminated bibles psalters typical forms luxury manuscripts wall painting flourished churches often following scheme ''last judgement''


west wall christ majesty east end narrative biblical scenes nave best surviving example saint savin sur gartempe barrel vaulted roof ref name benton benton ''art middle ages'' pp ref gothic interior laon cathedral france thumb left early th century french builders developed gothic style marked use rib vaults pointed arches flying buttresses large stained glass windows used mainly churches cathedrals continued use th century much europe classic examples gothic architecture include chartres cathedral reims


continued prestigious form art limoges enamel popular relatively affordable option objects reliquaries crosses ref name benton benton ''art middle ages'' pp ref italy innovations cimabue duccio followed trecento master giotto greatly increased sophistication status panel painting fresco ref name benton benton ''art middle ages'' pp ref increasing prosperity th century resulted greater production secular art many carved ivory objects gaming pieces combs small religious figures survived ref name benton benton ''art


middle ages'' pp ref church life francis assisi depicted bonaventura berlinghieri founded franciscan order ref name hamilton hamilton ''religion medieval west'' p ref monastic reform became important issue th century elites began worry monks adhering rules binding strictly religious life cluny abbey founded con region france established part cluniac reforms larger movement monastic reform response fear ref name rhino rosenwein ''rhinoceros bound'' pp ref cluny quickly established reputation austerity


rigour sought maintain high quality spiritual life placing protection papacy electing abbot without interference laymen thus maintaining economic political independence local lords ref name barber barber ''two cities'' pp ref monastic reform inspired change secular church ideals upon based brought papacy pope leo ix pope provided ideology clerical independence led investiture controversy late th century involved pope gregory vii pope emperor henry iv


initially clashed episcopal appointments dispute turned battle ideas investiture clerical marriage simony emperor saw protection church one responsibilities well wanting preserve right appoint choices bishops within lands papacy insisted church 's independence secular lords issues remained unresolved compromise known concordat worms dispute represents significant stage creation papal monarchy separate equal lay authorities also


permanent consequence empowering german princes expense german emperors ref name rhino nanque abbey gordes france thumb left high middle ages period great religious movements besides crusades monastic reforms people sought participate new forms religious life new monastic orders founded including carthusians cistercians latter particular expanded rapidly early years guidance bernard clairvaux new orders formed response feeling laity benedictine monasticism longer met needs


laymen along wishing enter religious life wanted return simpler hermetical monasticism early christianity live apostolic life ref name barber barber ''two cities'' pp ref religious pilgrimages also encouraged old pilgrimage sites rome jerusalem compostela received increasing numbers visitors new sites monte gargano bari rose prominence ref name morris morris northern europe ''oxford illustrated history medieval europe'' p ref th century mendicant orders franciscans dominicans swore vows poverty earned living begging approved papacy ref


name barber barber ''two cities'' pp ref religious groups waldensians humiliati also attempted return life early christianity middle th early th centuries another heretical movement condemned papacy others joined cathars another movement condemned heretical papacy crusade preached cathars albigensian crusade combination medieval inquisition eliminated ref name barber barber ''two cities'' pp ref late middle ages war famine plague first years th century marked famines culminating great famine


ref name mafamine loyn famine ''middle ages'' p ref causes great famine included slow transition medieval warm period little ice age left population vulnerable bad weather caused crop failures ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' pp ref years excessively rainy throughout europe resulting widespread crop failures ref name epstein epstein ''economic social history'' p ref climate change resulted declining average annual temperature europe th century accompanied economic downturn ref name backman backman ''worlds medieval europe'' p ref execution


ringleaders ''jacquerie'' th century manuscript ''chroniques de france ou de st denis'' troubles followed black death pandemic spread throughout europe following three years ref name maplague schove plague ''middle ages'' p ref death toll probably nbsp million people europe one third population towns especially hard hit crowded conditions large areas land left sparsely inhabited places fields left unworked wages rose landlords sought entice reduced number available workers


jews ref name davies davies ''europe'' pp ref conditions unsettled return plague throughout rest th century continued strike europe periodically rest middle ages ref name maplague society economy society throughout europe disturbed dislocations caused black death lands marginally productive abandoned survivors able acquire fertile areas ref name epstein epstein ''economic social history'' pp ref although serfdom declined western europe became common eastern europe landlords imposed tenants


previously free ref name epstein epstein ''economic social history'' pp ref peasants western europe managed change work previously owed landlords cash rents ref name keen percentage serfs amongst peasantry declined high closer percent end period ref name singman landlords also became conscious common interests landholders joined together extort privileges governments partly urging landlords governments attempted legislate return economic conditions existed black death ref


name keen keen ''pelican history medieval europe'' pp ref non clergy became increasingly literate urban populations began imitate nobility 's interest chivalry ref name vale vale civilization courts cities ''oxford illustrated history medieval europe'' pp ref jewish communities expelled england france although allowed back france many jews emigrated eastwards settling poland hungary ref name jews loyn jews ''middle ages'' p ref jews expelled spain dispersed turkey france italy holland ref name jews rise banking italy


th century continued throughout th century fuelled partly increasing warfare period needs papacy move money kingdoms many banking firms loaned money royalty great risk bankrupted kings defaulted loans ref name keen keen ''pelican history medieval europe'' pp ref state resurgence left strong royalty based nation states rose throughout europe late middle ages particularly england france christian kingdoms iberian peninsula aragon castile portugal long conflicts period strengthened royal control kingdoms


extremely hard peasantry kings profited warfare extended royal legislation increased lands directly controlled ref name watts watts ''making polities'' pp ref paying wars required methods taxation become effective efficient rate taxation often increased ref name watts watts ''making polities'' pp ref requirement obtain consent taxpayers allowed representative bodies english parliament french estates general gain power authority ref name watts watts ''making polities'' pp ref joan arc th century depiction throughout th century french kings sought


expand influence expense territorial holdings nobility ref name watts watts ''making polities'' p ref ran difficulties attempting confiscate holdings english kings southern france leading hundred years' war ref name watts watts ''making polities'' p ref waged ref name loyn hundred years' war ''middle ages'' p ref early war english edward iii r son edward black prince battles cr cy poitiers captured city calais control much


france resulting stresses almost caused disintegration french kingdom early years war ref name watts watts ''making polities'' pp ref early th century france came close dissolving late military successes joan arc led victory french capture last english possessions southern france ref name watts watts ''making polities'' pp ref price high population france end wars likely half


start conflict conversely wars positive effect english national identity much fuse various local identities national english ideal conflict france also helped create national culture england separate french culture previously dominant influence ref name davies davies ''europe'' p ref dominance english longbow began early stages hundred years' war ref name nicholle nicolle ''medieval warfare source book warfare western christendom'' p ref cannon appeared battlefield cr cy ref name nicolle nicolle ''medieval warfare source book warfare western christendom''


pp ref modern day germany holy roman empire continued rule elective nature imperial crown meant enduring dynasty around strong state could form ref name watts watts ''making polities'' pp ref east kingdoms poland hungary bohemia grew powerful ref name watts watts ''making polities'' pp ref iberia christian kingdoms continued gain land muslim kingdoms peninsula ref name watts watts ''making polities'' p ref portugal concentrated expanding overseas th century kingdoms riven difficulties royal succession


concerns ref name watts watts ''making polities'' pp ref ref name watts watts ''making polities'' p ref losing hundred years' war england went suffer long civil war known wars roses lasted ref name watts ended henry tudor r henry vii became king consolidated power victory richard iii r bosworth ref name davies davies ''europe'' pp ref scandinavia margaret denmark r denmark consolidated norway denmark sweden union kalmar continued major power


sea around aegean sea former byzantine lands balkans divided new kingdom serbia second bulgarian empire city state venice power byzantine emperors threatened new turkish tribe ottomans established anatolia th century steadily expanded throughout th century ottomans expanded europe reducing bulgaria vassal state taking serbia defeat battle kosovo western europeans rallied plight christians balkans


declared new crusade great army sent balkans defeated battle nicopolis ref name davies davies ''europe'' pp ref constantinople finally captured ottomans ref name davies davies ''europe'' p ref controversy within church guy boulogne crowning pope gregory xi th century miniature froissart 's ''chroniques'' tumultuous th century disputes within leadership church led avignon papacy ref name thomson thomson ''western church'' pp ref also called babylonian captivity papacy reference babylonian captivity jews ref


name maavignon loyn avignon ''middle ages'' p ref great schism lasting two later three rival popes supported several states ref name magreat loyn great schism ''middle ages'' p ref ecclesiastical officials convened council constance following year council deposed one rival popes leaving two claimants depositions followed november council elected martin v pope pope ref name thomson thomson ''western church'' pp ref besides schism western church riven theological controversies


turned heresies john wycliffe english theologian condemned heretic teaching laity access text bible well holding views eucharist contrary church doctrine ref name thomson thomson ''western church'' pp ref wycliffe 's teachings influenced two major heretical movements later middle ages lollardy england hussitism bohemia ref name thomson thomson ''western church'' p ref bohemian movement initiated teaching jan hus burned stake condemned


heretic council constance hussite church although target crusade survived beyond middle ages ref name thomson thomson ''western church'' pp ref heresies manufactured accusations knights templar resulted suppression division great wealth french king philip iv r hospitallers ref name templars loyn knights temple templars ''middle ages'' pp ref papacy refined practice mass late middle ages holding clergy alone allowed partake wine


eucharist distanced secular laity clergy laity continued practices pilgrimages veneration relics belief power devil mystics meister eckhart thomas kempis wrote works taught laity focus inner spiritual life laid groundwork protestant reformation besides mysticism belief witches witchcraft became widespread late th century church begun lend credence populist fears witchcraft condemnation witches publication


''malleus maleficarum'' popular handbook witch hunters ref name davies davies ''europe'' pp ref scholars intellectuals exploration later middle ages theologians john duns scotus william ockham c ref name maschol led reaction intellectualist scholasticism objecting application reason faith efforts undermined prevailing platonic idea universals ockham 's insistence reason operates independently faith allowed science separated theology philosophy ref name davies davies ''europe'' pp ref legal studies marked steady advance roman law areas jurisprudence


ref name davies davies ''europe'' p ref combined spanish monarchies castile aragon sponsored voyage exploration christopher columbus discovered americas ref name davies davies ''europe'' pp ref english crown henry vii sponsored voyage john cabot landed cape breton island ref name davies davies ''europe'' p ref technological military developments agricultural calendar c manuscript pietro de crescenzi one major developments military sphere late middle ages increased use infantry light cavalry ref name nicollewestern nicolle ''medieval warfare


source book warfare western christendom'' p ref english also employed longbowmen countries unable create similar forces success ref name nicollewestern nicolle ''medieval warfare source book warfare western christendom'' p ref armour continued advance spurred increasing power crossbows plate armour developed protect soldiers crossbows well hand held guns developed ref name nicollewestern nicolle ''medieval warfare source book warfare western christendom'' p ref pole arms reached new prominence development flemish swiss infantry armed pikes long spears ref name nicolle nicolle


''medieval warfare source book warfare western christendom'' p ref agriculture increased usage sheep long fibred wool allowed stronger thread spun addition spinning wheel replaced traditional distaff spinning wool tripling production ref name epstein epstein ''economic social history'' pp ref less technological refinement still greatly affected daily life use buttons closures garments allowed better fitting without lace clothing wearer ref name daily singman ''daily life'' p ref windmills refined creation tower mill allowing upper part


windmill spun around face direction wind blowing ref name epstein epstein ''economic social history'' pp ref blast furnace appeared around sweden increasing quantity iron produced improving quality ref name epstein epstein ''economic social history'' pp ref first patent law venice protected rights inventors inventions ref name epstein epstein ''economic social history'' p ref late medieval art architecture february scene th century illuminated manuscript tr riches heures du duc de berry late middle ages europe whole correspond


trecento early renaissance cultural periods italy northern europe spain continued use gothic styles became increasingly elaborate th century almost end period international gothic courtly style reached much europe decades around producing masterpieces tr riches heures du duc de berry ref name benton benton ''art middle ages'' pp ref europe secular art continued increase quantity quality th century mercantile classes italy flanders became important patrons commissioning small portraits


oils well growing range luxury items jewellery ivory caskets cassone chests maiolica pottery objects also included hispano moresque ware produced mostly mud jar potters spain although royalty owned huge collections plate little survives except royal gold cup italian silk manufacture developed western churches elites longer needed rely imports byzantium islamic world france flanders tapestry weaving sets like ''the lady unicorn'' became major luxury industry ref name benton benton ''art middle ages''


pp ref large external sculptural schemes early gothic churches gave way sculpture inside building tombs became elaborate features pulpits sometimes lavishly carved pulpit giovanni pisano sant'andrea painted carved wooden relief altarpieces became common especially churches created many side chapels early netherlandish painting artists jan van eyck rogier van der weyden rivalled italy northern illuminated manuscripts th century began collected large scale secular


elites also commissioned secular books especially histories printed books rapidly became popular though still expensive around different editions incunabula works printed ref name bl british library staff http wwwbluk catalogues istc indexhtml incunabula short title catalogue ''british library'' ref time illuminated manuscripts commissioned royalty others small woodcuts nearly religious affordable even peasants parts northern europe middle th century expensive engravings supplied wealthier market variety images ref name griffiths griffiths ''prints printmaking'' pp ref modern perceptions


medieval illustration spherical earth th century copy ''l'image du monde'' medieval period frequently caricatured time ignorance superstition placed word religious authorities personal experience rational activity legacy renaissance enlightenment scholars favourably contrasted intellectual cultures medieval period renaissance scholars saw middle ages period decline high culture civilisation classical world enlightenment scholars saw reason superior faith thus viewed middle ages


time ignorance superstition ref name davies davies ''europe'' pp ref others argue reason generally held high regard middle ages science historian edward grant writes revolutionary rational thoughts expressed th century made possible long medieval tradition established use reason one important human activities ref name grant grant ''god reason'' p ref also contrary common belief david lindberg writes late medieval scholar rarely experienced coercive power church would regarded free particularly


scarcely christian scholar middle ages acknowledge earth 's sphericity even know approximate circumference misconceptions church prohibited autopsies dissections middle ages rise christianity killed ancient science medieval christian church suppressed growth natural philosophy cited numbers examples widely popular myths still pass historical truth although supported historical research ref name numberslect numbers https webarchiveorg web https wwwfaradayst edmundscamacuk cis numbers numbers lecturepdf myths truths science religion historical perspective ''lecture archive'' archived october ref notes citations references


reading external links http wwwnetserforg netserf internet connection medieval resources http wwwderemilitariorg de militari society medieval military history http wwwmedievalmaporg medievalmaporg interactive maps medieval era flash plug required http wwwbluk learning histcitizen medieval medievalrealmshtml medieval realms learning resources british library including studies beautiful medieval manuscripts http wwwmedievalistsnet medievalistsnet news articles period http medieval historyorg medieval history database mhdb medieval worlds https medievalvlgoeawacat official website comparative interdisciplinary articles period http wwwthe orbnet orb online reference book medieval studies academic peer reviewed articles encyclopedia https blogscommonsgeorgetownedu labyrinth labyrinth resources medieval studies th century th century europe th


century europe th century europe th century europe th century europe th century europe th century europe th century europe th century europe th century europe christianization dark ages featured articles historical eras history europe period wikipedia pages semi protected vandalism


'''cyberwarfare''' use digital attacks enemy state causing comparable harm actual warfare disrupting vital computer systems significant debate among experts regarding definition cyberwarfare even thing exists one view term cyberwarfare misnomer since offensive cyber actions date could described war alternative view cyberwarfare suitable label cyber attacks cause physical damage people objects real world debate define use cyberwarfare

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Cyberwarfare


term many countries including united states united kingdom russia china israel iran north korea active cyber capabilities offensive defensive operations states explore use cyber operations combine capabilities likelihood physical confrontation violence playing result part cyber operation increased however meeting scale protracted nature war unlikely thus ambiguity remains ref name ref first instance kinetic military action used response cyber attack resulting loss human life observed may


follows blockquote 'cyberwarfare' used broad context denote interstate use technological force within computer networks information stored shared communicated online ref name blockquote parks duggan focused analyzing cyberwarfare terms computer networks pointed cyberwarfare combination computer network attack defense special technical operations according perspective notion cyberwarfare brings new paradigm military doctrine paulo shakarian colleagues put forward following definition drawing various works including clausewitz 's definition war war continuation politics


means ref name ref blockquote cyberwarfare extension policy actions taken cyberspace state actors non state actors significant state direction support constitute serious threat another state 's security action nature taken response serious threat state 's security actual perceived blockquote taddeo offers following definition blockquote warfare grounded certain uses icts within offensive defensive military strategy endorsed state aiming immediate disruption control enemys resources waged within informational environment


agents targets ranging physical non physical domains whose level violence may vary upon circumstances blockquote robinson et al propose intent attacker dictates whether attack warfare defining cyber warfare use cyber attacks warfare like intent ref name robinson former us national coordinator security infrastructure protection counter terrorism richard clarke defines cyberwarfare actions nation state penetrate another nation 's computers networks purposes causing damage disruption ref name clarke clarke richard ''cyber war'' harpercollins ref cyber physical


infrastructure may weaponized used adversary case cyber conflict thus turning infrastructure tactical weapons controversy term debate whether term cyberwarfare accurate eugene kaspersky founder kaspersky lab concludes cyberterrorism accurate term cyberwar states today 's attacks clueless strike 's cyber war cyberterrorism ref name kaspersky http wwwtimesofisraelcom experts lost cyber war era cyber terror latest viruses could mean 'end world know it' says man discovered flame ''the times israel'' june


ref howard schmidt former cyber security coordinator obama administration said cyberwar think terrible metaphor think terrible concept winners environment ref name wired experts take issue possible consequences linked warfare analogy ron deibert canada 's citizen lab warned militarization cyberspace militaristic responses may appropriate although date even serious cyber attacks disrupted large parts nations electrical grids customers ukraine affected access medical


care thus endangering life nhs wannacry led military action oxford academic lucas kello proposed new term unpeace denote highly damaging cyber actions whose non violent effects rise level traditional war actions neither warlike peace like although non violent thus acts war damaging effects economy society may greater even armed attacks term closely related concept grey zone come prominence recent years describing actions fall


traditional threshold war cyberwarfare vs cyber war term cyberwarfare distinct term cyber war cyberwarfare imply scale protraction violence typically associated term war ref name cyber warfare includes techniques tactics procedures may involved cyber war term war inherently refers large scale action typically protracted period time may include objectives seeking utilize violence aim kill ref name cyber war could accurately describe protracted period back forth cyber attacks


including combination traditional military action warring states date action known occurred instead tit tat military cyber actions commonplace example june united states launched cyber attack iranian weapons systems retaliation shooting us drone strait hormuz cyberwarfare cyber sanctions use digital attacks described concept cyberwarfare page retaliatory response cyber attacks addition countries use cyber sanctions reaction


targets cyber attacks sometimes easy detect attacker however might case suspicions focus certain country group countries cases unilateral multilateral economic sanctions used instead cyberwarfare example economic sanctions related cyber attacks frequently used united states government two executive orders eo eo issued obama administration specifically focused implementation cyber sanctions later executive orders


frequently used following us presidents furthermore congress important actor comes cyber sanctions example iran cyber sanctions act bill imposes sanctions specific individuals responsible cyber attacks types threat types warfare cyber warfare present multitude threats towards nation basic level cyber attacks used support traditional warfare example tampering operation air defenses via cyber means order facilitate air attack aside


hard threats cyber warfare also contribute towards soft threats espionage propaganda eugene kaspersky founder kaspersky lab equates large scale cyber weapons flame nettraveler company discovered biological weapons claiming interconnected world potential equally destructive ref name kaspersky ref name kaspersky http wwwtimesofisraelcom new cyber bug targeting middle east israel untouched far cyber espionage bug attacking middle east israel untouched far ''the times israel'' june ref espionage prism clandestine surveillance program nsa collects user data companies like facebook google traditional espionage act


war cyber espionage generally assumed ongoing major powers despite assumption incidents cause serious tensions nations often described attacks example massive spying us many countries revealed edward snowden nsa 's spying germany 's chancellor angela merkel revealed chancellor compared nsa stasi nsa recording nearly every cell phone conversation bahamas without bahamian government 's permission similar programs kenya philippines mexico afghanistan ref name data pirates ref titan rain probes american


defense contractors computer systems since ref name bodmer kilger bodmer kilger carpenter jones reverse deception organized cyber threat counter exploitation new york mcgraw hill osborne media ref office personnel management data breach us widely attributed china ref name npr ref security firm area published details breach compromised one european union 's diplomatic communication channels three years cyber attacks espionage based sabotage computers satellites coordinate activities vulnerable components system could lead disruption equipment


compromise military systems c istar components responsible orders communications could lead interception malicious replacement power water fuel communications transportation infrastructure may vulnerable disruption according clarke civilian realm also risk noting security breaches already gone beyond stolen credit card numbers potential targets also include electric power grid trains stock market ref name clark http wwwhometownannapoliscom news top clarke defense needed cyberspacehtml clarke defense needed cyberspace hometownannapoliscom september ref mid july security experts discovered malicious software program called stuxnet


infiltrated factory computers spread plants around world considered first attack critical industrial infrastructure sits foundation modern economies notes ''the new york times'' stuxnet extremely effective delaying iran 's nuclear program development nuclear weaponry came high cost first time became clear could cyber weapons defensive could offensive large decentralization scale cyberspace makes extremely difficult direct policy perspective non state actors play large part


cyberwar space state actors leads dangerous sometimes disastrous consequences small groups highly skilled malware developers able effectively impact global politics cyber warfare large governmental agencies major aspect ability lies willingness groups share exploits developments web form arms proliferation allows lesser hackers become proficient creating large scale attacks small handful skillful enough manage addition thriving black markets kinds cyber weapons


april reports surfaced china russia infiltrated us electrical grid left behind software programs could used disrupt system according current former national security officials north american electric reliability corporation nerc issued public notice warns electrical grid adequately protected cyber attack china denies intruding us electrical grid one countermeasure would disconnect power grid internet run net droop speed control massive power outages caused cyber attack could disrupt


economy distract simultaneous military attack create national trauma iranian hackers possibly iranian cyber army pushed massive power outage hours provinces turkey impacting million people istanbul ankara among places suffering blackout howard schmidt former cyber security coordinator us commented possibilities ref name wired https wwwwiredcom threatlevel schmidt cyberwar white house cyber czar 'there cyberwar' ''wired'' march ref blockquote 's possible hackers gotten administrative computer systems utility companies says n't linked equipment controlling grid least


developed countries schmidt never heard grid hacked blockquote june russia said electrical grid cyber attack united states ''new york times'' reported american hackers united states cyber command planted malware potentially capable disrupting russian electrical grid ref name wiredcom ref propaganda cyber propaganda effort control information whatever form takes influence public opinion form psychological warfare except uses social media fake news websites digital means sir nicholas carter chief


window evil terrorist organizations exploit may use medium brainwash people suggested restricted media coverage terrorist attacks would turn decrease number terrorist attacks occur afterwards economic disruption wannacry petya notpetya cyber attacks masquerading ransomware caused large scale disruptions ukraine well uk 's national health service pharmaceutical giant merck maersk shipping company organizations around world attacks also categorized cybercrimes specifically financial crime negatively affect company group surprise cyber


attack idea cyber pearl harbor debated scholars drawing analogy historical act war others used cyber draw attention nontraditional asymmetric irregular aspect cyber action state ref name arquilla https wwwsfgatecom opinion article click click hellip counting cyber php link ''sfgate'' ref motivations number reasons nations undertake offensive cyber operations cyber security expert adviser nato advocates states take cyber warfare seriously viewed attractive activity many nations times war peace offensive cyber operations offer


large variety cheap risk free options weaken countries strengthen positions considered long term geostrategic perspective cyber offensive operations cripple whole economies change political views agitate conflicts within among states reduce military efficiency equalize capacities high tech nations low tech nations use access critical infrastructures blackmail military emergence cyber substantial threat national global security cyber war warfare attacks also became domain interest purpose military


us general keith b alexander first head uscybercom told senate armed services committee computer network warfare evolving rapidly mismatch technical capabilities conduct operations governing laws policies cyber command newest global combatant sole mission cyberspace outside traditional battlefields land sea air space attempt find necessary neutralize cyberattacks defend military computer networks ref name nyt alexander sketched broad battlefield envisioned computer warfare command listing kind targets


new headquarters could ordered attack including traditional battlefield prizes command control systems military headquarters air defense networks weapons systems require computers operate ref name nyt https wwwnytimescom world militaryhtmlnl technology emc techupdateema cyber war nominee sees gaps law ''the new york times'' april ref one cyber warfare scenario cyber shockwave wargamed cabinet level former administration officials raised issues ranging national guard power grid limits statutory authority distributed nature internet based attacks means difficult determine motivation attacking party meaning unclear


united states military actively recruit cyber warfare positions military become entangled national global threat proposed utilization cyber domain new research field within military science field slowly emerged essence focus centered towards describing understanding explaining '''military cyber operations''' tackled ''handbook military sciences'' aaron brantly max smeets define military cyber operations cyber operations military entity nation state plans conducts achieve strategic operational


tactical gain ref name brantly p brantly smeets military operations cyberspace sookermany ed handbook military sciences p springer cham ref argue types military operations commonly divided three types operations ''defensive cyber operations'' encompassing actions taken use computer networks protect monitor analyze detect respond unauthorized activity within governments information systems computer networks ref name brantly p ''cyber espionage operations'' encompassing actions taken use computer networks gather data


information systems client server systems communication links network equipment desktops laptops businesses homes electrical grids financial networks telecommunication systems also deemed vulnerable especially due current trends computerization automation ref name ssrncom ref hacktivism politically motivated hacktivism involves subversive use computers computer networks promote agenda potentially extend attacks theft virtual sabotage could seen cyberwarfare mistaken hacktivists use knowledge software tools gain unauthorized access computer systems seek manipulate damage


use techniques generate significant sources income evade sanctions perhaps simultaneously harming adversaries depending targets tactic observed august revealed north korea generated billion fund weapons program avoiding blanket sanctions levied united states united nations european union private sector computer hacking represents modern threat ongoing global conflicts industrial espionage presumed widely occur ref name ssrncom typical type crime underreported extent


known according mcafee 's george kurtz corporations around world face millions cyberattacks day attacks n't gain media attention lead strong political statements victims ref name mcafee http siblogmcafeecom cto google attack tip iceberg google attack tip iceberg mcafee security insights january ref type crime usually financially motivated non profit research engage cyberwarfare financial ideological reasons institutes companies like university cincinnati kaspersky security lab engage cyberwarfare better understand field


actions like researching publishing new security threats preparedness number countries conduct exercise increase preparedness explore strategy tactics operations involved conducting defending cyber attacks hostile states typically done form war games cooperative cyber defence centre excellence ccdce part north atlantic treaty organization nato conducted yearly war game called locked shields since designed test readiness improve skills strategy tactics operational decision making participating national organizations ref name ref locked shields saw


participants countries compete red team vs blue team exercise war game involved fictional country berylia experiencing deteriorating security situation number hostile events coincide coordinated cyber attacks major civilian internet service provider maritime surveillance system attacks caused severe disruptions power generation distribution g communication systems maritime surveillance water purification plant critical infrastructure components ccdce describe aim exercise maintain operation various systems intense pressure strategic part addresses capability


understand impact decisions made strategic policy level ref name ultimately france winner locked shields european union conducts cyber war game scenarios member states foreign partner states improve readiness skills observe strategic tactical decisions may affect scenario well war games serve broader purpose explore options improve skills cyber war games targeted preparing specific threats sunday times reported uk government conducting cyber war games could blackout moscow types


war games move beyond defensive preparedness previously described onto preparing offensive capabilities used deterrence war cyber activities nation approximately countries developing ways use internet weapon target financial markets government computer systems utilities asia china ''foreign policy'' magazine puts size china 's hacker army anywhere individuals diplomatic cables highlight us concerns china using access microsoft source code 'harvesting talents private sector' boost


offensive defensive capabilities cyberattack marriott hotel chain collected personal details roughly million guests known part chinese intelligence gathering effort also hacked health insurers security clearance files millions americans hackers suspected working behalf ministry state security country 's communist controlled civilian spy agency information exactly chinese use root spies recruit intelligence agents build rich repository americans' personal data future targeting article


''culture mandala bulletin centre east west cultural economic studies'' jason fritz alleges chinese government involved number high profile cases espionage primarily use decentralized network students business people scientists diplomats engineers within chinese diaspora ref name epublicationsbondeduau defector belgium purportedly agent claimed hundreds spies industries throughout europe defection australia chinese diplomat chen yonglin said country russian


built virtual laboratories digital libraries digital campuses ref name http informatisation hope prepare forces engage different kind warfare technically capable adversaries many recent news reports link china 's technological capabilities beginning new cyber cold war operation shady rat ongoing series cyber attacks starting mid reported internet security company mcafee august china widely believed state actor behind attacks hit least organizations including governments defense contractors september database showing


personal details million people around world leaked published chinese company zhenhua data information technology co ltd compiled database according information national enterprise credit information publicity system run state administration market regulation china shareholders zhenhua data information technology co ltd two natural persons one general partnership enterprise whose partners natural persons wang xuefeng chief executive shareholder zhenhua data publicly boasted supports hybrid warfare manipulation public opinion psychological


warfare india department information technology created indian computer emergency response team cert thwart cyber attacks india ref name businesstodayintodayin ref year reported cyber security breaches year government created new subdivision national critical information infrastructure protection centre nciipc thwart attacks energy transport banking telecom defense space sensitive areas executive director nuclear power corporation india npcil stated february company alone forced block ten targeted attacks day


cert left protect less critical sectors high profile cyber attack july breached email accounts people including officials ministry external affairs ministry home affairs defense research development organizations drdo indo tibetan border police itbp ref name businesstodayintodayin government private sector plan overseen national security advisor nsa shivshankar menon began october intends boost india 's cyber security capabilities light group experts findings india faces shortfall experts despite country 's reputation


indian cyber army hacked websites belonging pakistan army others belong different ministries including ministry foreign affairs ministry education ministry finance pakistan computer bureau council islamic ideology etc attack done revenge mumbai terrorist attacks december group calling pakistan cyber army hacked website india 's top investigating agency central bureau investigation cbi national informatics center nic begun inquiry july cymmetria researchers discovered revealed cyber attack dubbed 'patchwork' compromised


estimated corporate government agencies using code stolen github dark web examples weapons used exploit sandworm vulnerability compiled autoit script uac bypass code dubbed uacme targets believed mainly military political assignments around southeast asia south china sea attackers believed indian origin gathering intelligence influential parties defence cyber agency indian military agency responsible cyberwarfare expected become operational november philippines chinese


blamed cybersecurity company f secure labs found malware nanhaishu targeted philippines department justice sent information infected machine server chinese ip address malware considered particularly sophisticated nature introduced phishing emails designed look like coming authentic sources information sent believed relating south china sea legal case south korea july series coordinated denial service attacks major government news media financial websites


south korea united states many thought attack directed north korea one researcher traced attacks united kingdom security researcher chris kubecka presented evidence multiple european union united kingdom companies unwittingly helped attack south korea due w dozer infections malware used part attack companies used attack partially owned several governments complicating attribution visualization cyber warfare attacks south korea july south korean company sk communications hacked resulting theft personal


details including names phone numbers home email addresses resident registration numbers million people trojaned software update used gain access sk communications network links exist hack malicious activity believed part broader concerted hacking effort ongoing tensions korean peninsula south korea 's defense ministry stated south korea going improve cyber defense strategies hopes preparing possible cyber attacks march south korea 's major banks shinhan bank woori bank nonghyup bank


united states north korea 's cyber warfare capabilities raise alarm south korea north korea increasing manpower military academies specializing hacking current figures state south korea units specialized personnel north korea highly trained hackers portrays huge gap cyber warfare capabilities sends message south korea step strengthen cyber warfare command forces therefore order prepared future attacks south korea united states discuss deterrence


plans security consultative meeting scm scm plan developing strategies focuses accelerating deployment ballistic missiles well fostering defense shield program known korean air missile defense sri lanka north korea africa egypt extension bilateral dispute ethiopia egypt grand ethiopian renaissance dam ethiopian government websites hacked egypt based hackers june europe cyprus new york times published expos revealing extensive three year


phishing campaign aimed diplomats based cyprus accessing state system hackers access european union 's entire exchange database login coreu hackers accessed communications linking eu states sensitive sensitive matters event exposed poor protection routine exchanges among european union officials coordinated effort foreign entity spy another country decade experience countering chinese cyberoperations extensive technical analysis doubt campaign connected chinese government said blake darche one area


security experts company revealing stolen documents chinese embassy us return calls comment another coordinated effort took place allowed hackers gain access government govcy emails cisco 's talos security department revealed sea turtle hackers carried broad piracy campaign dns countries hitting different organizations including cyprus estonia april estonia came cyber attack wake relocation bronze soldier tallinn largest part attacks coming russia official servers


authorities russia attack ministries banks media targeted attack estonia seemingly small baltic state effective estonian government services run online estonia implemented e government bank services political elections taxes done online attack really hurt estonia 's economy people estonia least people injured first day due riots streets france french minister defense mr jean yves le drian ordered creation cyber


army representing fourth national army corp along ground naval air forces french ministry defense protect french european interests soil abroad contract made french firm eads airbus identify secure main elements susceptible cyber threats france planned cyber soldiers million euros investment cybersecurity products new army corp additional reservists constitute heart army germany germany revealed existence person computer network operation unit


surveillance system german interior minister hans peter friedrich announced bnd would given additional budget million euros increase cyber surveillance capability total internet traffic germany total traffic maximum amount allowed german law greece greek hackers anonymous greece targeted azerbaijani governmental websites nagorno karabakh conflict armenia azerbaijan netherlands netherlands cyber defense nationally coordinated ncsc dutch ministry defense laid cyber strategy first focus


improve cyber defense handled joint branch jivc improve intel operations intel community netherlands including military intel organization mivd set joint sigint cyber unit jscu ministry defense furthermore setting offensive cyber force called defensie cyber command dcc operational end norway russia russian south ossetian georgian azerbaijani sites attacked hackers south ossetia war '''american led cyberattacks soviet union russia''' br russia still part


soviet union portion trans siberia pipeline within territory exploded allegedly due trojan horse computer malware implanted pirated canadian software central intelligence agency malware caused scada system running pipeline malfunction farewell dossier provided information attack wrote compromised computer chips would become part soviet military equipment flawed turbines would placed gas pipeline defective plans would disrupt output chemical plants tractor factory caused monumental nonnuclear explosion fire ever seen


space however soviet union blame united states attack june ''new york times'' reported american hackers united states cyber command planted malware potentially capable disrupting russian electrical grid ref name wiredcom '''russian led cyberattacks''' br claimed russian security services organized number denial service attacks part cyber warfare countries notably cyberattacks estonia cyberattacks russia south ossetia georgia azerbaijan one identified young russian hacker said paid russian


control targeting data howitzer artillery app used ukrainian officers loaded x agent spyware posted online military forums attack claimed crowd strike successful ukrainian howitzers destroyed highest percentage loss artillery pieces army percentage never previously reported would mean loss nearly entire arsenal biggest artillery piece ukrainian armed forces ref name crowdstrike ref according ukrainian army number incorrect losses artillery weapons


way reported losses nothing stated cause russians suspected use cyber weapon called snake ouroboros conduct cyber attack ukraine period political turmoil snake tool kit began spreading ukrainian computer systems performed computer network exploitation cne well highly sophisticated computer network attacks cna december black energy malware used cyberattack ukraine 's power grid left people temporarily without power mining company


large railway operator also victims attack united kingdom mi reportedly infiltrated al qaeda website replaced instructions making pipe bomb recipe making cupcakes october iain lobban director government communications headquarters gchq said uk faces real credible threat cyber attacks hostile states criminals government systems targeted times month attacks threatened uk 's economic future countries already using cyber assaults put pressure nations november financial


organizations london conducted cyber war games dubbed waking shark simulate massive internet based attacks bank financial organizations waking shark cyber war games followed similar exercise wall street middle east iran iran victim predator several cyberwarfare operations iran considered emerging military power field flag cyber police fata islamic republic iran september iran attacked stuxnet worm thought specifically target natanz nuclear enrichment facility kilobyte computer worm


infected least industrial sites iran including natanz uranium enrichment plant although official authors stuxnet n't officially identified stuxnet believed developed deployed united states israel worm said advanced piece malware ever discovered significantly increases profile cyberwarfare iranian cyber police department fata dismissed one year creation arrest death sattar behesti blogger custody fata since main responsible institution cyberwarfare iran


cyber defense command operating joint staff iranian armed forces israel war hezbollah israel alleges cyber warfare part conflict israel defense forces idf intelligence estimates several countries middle east used russian hackers scientists operate behalf result israel attached growing importance cyber tactics became along us france couple nations involved cyber war planning many international high tech companies locating research development operations israel local hires often veterans


idf 's elite computer units richard clarke adds israeli friends learned thing two programs working two decades ref name clarke september israel carried airstrike syria dubbed operation orchard us industry military sources speculated israelis may used cyberwarfare allow planes pass undetected radar syria following us president donald trump 's decision pull iran nuclear deal may cyber warfare units united states israel monitoring internet


traffic iran noted surge retaliatory cyber attacks iran security firms warned iranian hackers sending emails containing malware diplomats work foreign affairs offices us allies employees telecommunications companies trying infiltrate computer systems saudi arabia august local time shamoon virus began destroying computer systems rendering inoperable virus used target saudi government causing destruction state owned national oil company saudi aramco attackers posted pastie pastebincom hours


prior wiper logic bomb occurring citing oppression al saud regime reason behind attack pastie announcing attack saudi aramco group called cutting sword justice attack well staged according chris kubecka former security advisor saudi aramco attack group leader security aramco overseas unnamed saudi aramco employee information technology team opened malicious phishing email allowing initial entry computer network around mid ref name kubecka https archiveorg details youtube wymobr tdsi archive ref shamoon attack timeline saudi aramco kubecka also detailed


black hat usa talk saudi aramco placed majority security budget ics control network leaving business network risk major incident realize security budget spent ics gets pwnd ref name kubecka virus noted behavior differing malware attacks due destructive nature cost attack recovery us defense secretary leon panetta called attack cyber pearl harbor known years later biggest hack history intended cyber warfare ref name register ref


shamoon spread infected machine computers network system infected virus continues compile list files specific locations system upload attacker erase finally virus overwrites master boot record infected computer making unusable ref name symantec virus used cyber warfare national oil companies saudi aramco qatar 's rasgas ref name dj ref ref name symantec ref ref name bbc ref saudi aramco announced attack facebook page went offline company statement issued august


al falih attackers also referenced portion shamoon malware proof pastie according kubecka order restore operations saudi aramco used large private fleet aircraft available funds purchase much world 's hard drives driving price new hard drives required quickly possible oil prices affected speculation september gasoline resources dwindling public saudi arabia days august attack rasgas also affected different variant crippling


similar manner qatar march american republican fundraiser elliott broidy filed lawsuit qatar alleging qatar 's government stole leaked emails order discredit viewed impediment plan improve country 's standing washington may lawsuit named mohammed bin hamad bin khalifa al thani brother emir qatar associate ahmed al rumaihi allegedly orchestrating qatar 's cyber warfare campaign broidy litigation revealed cybercriminals targeted broidy targeted many individuals


also well known enemies qatar senior officials uae egypt saudi arabia bahrain hackers almost always obscured location activity traced telecommunication network qatar united arab emirates united arab emirates launched several cyber attacks past targeting dissidents ahmed mansoor emirati citizen jailed sharing thoughts facebook twitter given code name egret state led covert project called raven spied top political opponents dissidents journalists project raven deployed


secret hacking tool called karma spy without requiring target engage web links september three former american intelligence officers marc baier ryan adams daniel gericke admitted assisting uae hacking crimes providing advanced technology violating us laws three year deferred prosecution agreement justice department three defendants also agreed pay nearly million fines evade prison sentences court documents revealed emirates hacked computers mobile phones dissidents activists journalists also


us intelligence officials ref name lat dilanian ken https articleslatimescom mar world la fg worldwide threats cyber attacks bigger threat al qaeda officials say ''los angeles times'' march ref representative mike rogers chairman us house permanent select committee intelligence instance said cyber war country americans n't know necessarily winning got huge challenges comes cybersecurity us government security expert richard clarke book ''cyber war'' may defines cyberwarfare actions nation state penetrate another nation 's computers networks


purposes causing damage disruption ref name clarke ''the economist'' describes cyberspace fifth domain warfare ref name economist http wwweconomistcom node story id source features box cyberwar war fifth domain ''economist'' july ref william j lynn us deputy secretary defense states doctrinal matter pentagon formally recognized cyberspace new domain warfare become critical military operations land sea air space ref name lynn lynn william j iii http wwwforeignaffairscom articles william j lynn iii defending new domain defending new domain pentagon 's cyberstrategy ''foreign affairs'' sept oct pp ref president barack obama declared america 's digital


infrastructure strategic national asset may pentagon set new us cyber command uscybercom headed general keith b alexander director national security agency nsa defend american military networks attack countries' systems eu set enisa european union agency network information security headed prof udo helmbrecht plans significantly expand enisa 's capabilities united kingdom also set cyber security operations centre based government communications headquarters gchq british equivalent nsa


dependent computers daily operations ref name lipman http wwwguardsmarkcom library computer securityaspnav subnav lipman report october ref president obama stated cyber intruders probed electrical grids ''the economist'' writes china plans winning informationised wars mid st century note countries likewise organizing cyberwar among russia israel north korea iran boasts world 's second largest cyber army ref name economist james gosler government cybersecurity specialist worries us severe shortage computer security specialists estimating qualified people


country today needs force skilled experts july black hat computer security conference michael hayden former deputy director national intelligence challenged thousands attendees help devise ways reshape internet 's security architecture explaining guys made cyberworld look like north german plain june ''the new york times'' reported president obama ordered cyber attack iranian nuclear enrichment facilities august us first time warned publicly chinese military 's use civilian computer experts clandestine cyber attacks


aimed american companies government agencies pentagon also pointed alleged china based computer spying network dubbed ghostnet revealed research report last year pentagon stated blockquote people 's liberation army using information warfare units develop viruses attack enemy computer systems networks units include civilian computer professionals commander bob mehal monitor pla 's buildup cyberwarfare capabilities continue develop capabilities counter potential threat blockquote united states department defense seal united states department defense sees use computers


internet conduct warfare cyberspace threat national security united states joint forces command describes attributes blockquote cyberspace technology emerging instrument power societies becoming available country 's opponents may use attack degrade disrupt communications flow information low barriers entry coupled anonymous nature activities cyberspace list potential adversaries broad furthermore globe spanning range cyberspace disregard national borders challenge legal systems complicate nation 's


ability deter threats respond contingencies ref name joe blockquote seal joint force headquarters cyber air force february united states joint forces command released study included summary threats posed internet ref name joe http wwwjfcommil newslink storyarchive joe opdf joint operating environment joint forces command february pp ref blockquote little investment cloaked veil anonymity adversaries inevitably attempt harm national interests cyberspace become main front irregular traditional conflicts enemies cyberspace include states non states range


american population blockquote october announced creech afb 's drone predator fleet 's command control data stream keylogged resisting attempts reverse exploit past two weeks air force issued statement virus posed threat operational mission november widely reported us media hacker destroyed water pump curran gardner township public water district illinois however later turned information false inappropriately leaked


many four million people later fbi director james comey put number million ''washington post'' reported attack originated china citing unnamed government officials jeh johnson united states secretary homeland security james clapper us director national intelligence issued joint statement accusing russia interfering united states presidential election new york times reported obama administration formally accused russia stealing disclosing democratic national committee emails us law usctitle war national defense chapter


national security subchapter iii accountability intelligence activities must formal ''presidential finding'' prior authorizing covert attack us vice president joe biden said american news interview program ''meet press'' united states respond new york times noted biden 's comment seems suggest mr obama prepared order already ordered kind covert action december united states imposed extensive sanctions russia since cold war expelling russian diplomats united states ref name dwexpels ref economic sanctions


frequently used foreign policy instruments united states today thus surprising see economic sanctions also used counter policies cyberattacks according onder economic sanctions also information gathering mechanisms sanctioning states capabilities sanctioned states perspective expected see targeted smart economic sanctions part american cyberwarfare doctrine near future united states used cyberattacks tactical advantage afghanistan barack obama ordered intensification cyberwarfare north korea 's


missile program sabotaging test launches opening seconds president barack obama authorized planting cyber weapons russian infrastructure final weeks presidency response moscow 's interference presidential election march wikileaks published documents cia confidential documents codenamed vault dated include details cia 's software capabilities ability compromise cars smart tvs web browsers including google chrome microsoft edge mozilla firefox opera software asa operating systems


smartphones including apple 's ios google 's android well operating systems microsoft windows macos linux global perspective countries actors engaged cyber warfare see george washington university based national security archive 's cyberwar map ''' kill switch bill ''' br june united states senator joe lieberman ct introduced bill called protecting cyberspace national asset act co wrote senator susan collins r senator thomas carper de signed law controversial bill american media dubbed ''kill switch bill'' would grant


cyber traditional warfare cyber counterintelligence cyber counter intelligence measures identify penetrate neutralize foreign operations use cyber means primary tradecraft methodology well foreign intelligence service collection efforts use traditional methods gauge cyber capabilities intentions april pentagon announced spent nbsp million last six months responding repairing damage cyber attacks computer network problems april us lawmakers pushed appointment white house cyber security czar dramatically escalate us defenses cyber


attacks crafting proposals would empower government set enforce security standards private industry first time february white house announced conduct review country 's cyber security ensure federal government united states cyber security initiatives appropriately integrated resourced coordinated united states congress private sector wake cyberwar waged estonia nato established cooperative cyber defence centre excellence ccd coe tallinn estonia order enhance organization 's cyber defence


capability center formally established may received full accreditation nato attained status international military organization october since estonia led international efforts fight cybercrime united states federal bureau investigation says permanently base computer crime expert estonia help fight international threats computer systems department defense released updated cyber strategy memorandum detailing present future tactics deployed service defense cyberwarfare memorandum three cybermissions laid


first cybermission seeks arm maintain existing capabilities area cyberspace second cybermission focuses prevention cyberwarfare third cybermission includes strategies retaliation preemption distinguished prevention ref name bostonreviewnet lisa lucile owens justice warfare cyberspace boston review available http bostonreviewnet us lisa lucile owens cyber warfare national security ref one hardest issues cyber counterintelligence problem attribution unlike conventional warfare figuring behind attack difficult however defense secretary leon panetta claimed united states capability trace attacks back


sources hold attackers accountable doubts existence october ''journal strategic studies'' leading journal field published article thomas rid cyber war take place argued politically motivated cyber attacks merely sophisticated versions sabotage espionage subversion unlikely cyber war occur future ref name ref legal perspective various parties attempted come international legal frameworks clarify acceptable none yet widely accepted


tallinn manual published academic non binding study international law particular jus ad bellum international humanitarian law apply cyber conflicts cyber warfare written invitation tallinn based nato cooperative cyber defence centre excellence international group approximately twenty experts shanghai cooperation organisation members include china russia defines cyberwar include dissemination information harmful spiritual moral cultural spheres states september countries proposed un secretary general


document called international code conduct information security contrast united approach focuses physical economic damage injury putting political concerns freedom speech difference opinion led reluctance west pursue global cyber arms control agreements however american general keith b alexander endorse talks russia proposal limit military attacks cyberspace june barack obama vladimir putin agreed install secure ''cyberwar hotline'' providing direct secure voice communications line us cybersecurity coordinator russian deputy secretary


security council need directly manage crisis situation arising ict security incident white house quote ref name arshotline sean gallagher https arstechnicacom information technology us russia install cyber hotline prevent accidental cyberwar ''us russia install cyber hotline prevent accidental cyberwar'' arstechnica june ref ukrainian professor international law alexander merezhko developed project called international convention prohibition cyberwar internet according project cyberwar defined use internet related technological means one state political economic technological information sovereignty independence another state professor merezhko 's project suggests internet


ought remain free warfare tactics treated international landmark states internet cyberspace common heritage mankind february rsa conference microsoft president brad smith suggested global rules digital geneva convention cyber attacks ban nation state hacking civilian aspects economic political infrastructures also stated independent organization could investigate publicly disclose evidence attributes nation state attacks specific countries furthermore said technology sector collectively neutrally work together protect internet


users pledge remain neutral conflict aid governments offensive activity adopt coordinated disclosure process software hardware vulnerabilities fact binding body also proposed regulate cyber operations popular culture films ''independence day'' ''terminator rise machines'' ''terminator genisys'' ''terminator dark fate'' documentaries ''hacking infrastructure cyber warfare'' viceland ''cyber war threat'' ''darknet hacker cyberwar'' ''zero days'' television cancelled episode animated sitcom ''south park'' see


also automated teller machine computer security organizations cyber spying cyber arms industry cyber collection cyberterrorism cyberweapon duqu fifth dimension operations risk iwar list cyber attack threat trends list cyber warfare forces list cyberattacks penetration test proactive cyber defence signals intelligence united states cyber command air force cyber command fleet cyber command marine corps cyberspace command united states army cyber command virtual war references reading andress jason winterfeld steve ''cyber warfare techniques tactics tools security practitioners'' syngress bodmer kilger carpenter jones reverse deception organized cyber threat counter exploitation new york mcgraw hill


osborne media brenner ''cyber threats emerging fault lines nation state'' oxford university press carr jeffrey ''inside cyber warfare mapping cyber underworld'' o'reilly conti gregory raymond david ''on cyber towards operational art cyber conflict'' kopidion press fritsch lothar fischer h bner simone http urnkbse resolveurn urn nbn se kau diva implications privacy amp amp security research upcoming battlefield things journal information warfare gaycken sandro ''cyberwar das wettr sten hat l ngst begonnen'' goldmann randomhouse geers kenneth ''strategic cyber security'' nato cyber centre https webarchiveorg web http wwwccdcoeorg publications books strategic cyber security k geerspdf ''strategic cyber security'' pages halpern


november cbs news minutes '''articles''' http wwwabcnetau worldtoday content htm abc former white house security advisor warns cyber war https wwwwsjcom articles sb wall street journal fighting wars cyberspace http wwwpcworldcom article electronic pearl harborhtml electronic pearl harbor pc world ira winkler december https wwwwiredcom threatlevel cyber attacks preventable senate panel percent cyberattacks preventable wired november duncan gardham june https wwwtelegraphcouk technology news hackers recruited fight new cold warhtml hackers recruited fight 'new cold war' telegraph uk stefano mele jan https webarchiveorg web http stefanomeleit news dettaglioaspid cyber strategy policy brief volume january stefano mele jun https webarchiveorg web http stefanomeleit publications dettaglioaspid cyber weapons legal strategic aspects version stefano mele sep


https webarchiveorg web http wwwstefanomeleit publications dettaglioaspid cyberwarfare damaging effects citizens https webarchiveorg web http wwwisnethzch digital library publications detail lng en id cybersecurity authoritative reports resources us congressional research service https venturebeatcom losing cyberwar usa losing cyberwar china joseph steinberg venturebeat november michael riley ashlee vance july https wwwbloombergcom bw magazine cyber weapons new arms race html cyber weapons new arms race http wwwspiegelde international world new snowden docs indicate scope nsa preparations cyber battle html digital arms race nsa preps america future battle ''der spiegel'' january computer security procedures computing terminology cybercrime espionage hacking computer security information sensitivity mass intelligence gathering systems military intelligence collection military technology national security sabotage security engineering social engineering computer security spyware


centre earth systems engineering research ceser newcastle university united kingdom founders discipline braden allenby michael gorman introduction esem centuries mankind utilizing earth natural resources advance civilization develop technology principle result industrial revolutions associated changes human demographics technology systems cultures economic systems evolution earth dynamics major natural systems increasingly dominated human activity ref name gorman many ways esem views earth

Earth systems engineering and management


environment age humans washington dc island press https wwwlocgov catdir toc ecip html ref fact longer natural systems left world places left earth n't fall humanity 's shadow ref name allenby allenby b r winter earth systems engineering management ieee technology society magazine winter ref question might wish whether begin esem long time albeit unintentionally issue whether assume ethical responsibility esem rationally


responsibly ref name allenby unlike traditional engineering management process assume high degree knowledge certainty systems behavior defined endpoint process esem constant dialog systems cultures change coevolve together future ref name allenby esem new concept however number fields industrial ecology adaptive management systems engineering relied enable rapid progress developing esem discipline ref name allenby


premise esem science technology provide successful lasting solutions human created problems environmental pollution climate change assumption recently challenged ''techno fix technology wo n't save us environment'' topics adaptive management adaptive management key aspect esem adaptive management way approaching environmental management assumes great deal uncertainty environmental systems holds never final solution earth systems problem therefore action taken


earth systems engineer need constant dialogue system watching changes system evolves way monitoring managing ecosystems accepts nature 's inherent uncertainty embraces never concluding one certain cure problem earth systems engineering earth systems engineering essentially use systems analysis methods examination environmental problems analyzing complex environmental systems numerous data sets stakeholders variables therefore appropriate approach problems systems analysis method essentially six major


phases properly conducted system study ref name gibson gibson j e systems analysis systems analyst decalog w scherer ed fall ed pp department systems information engineering u virginia retrieved october ref six phases follows determine goals system establish criteria ranking alternative candidates develop alternatives solutions rank alternative candidates iterate act part systems analysis process includes determining goals system key components goal development include development descriptive scenario normative


scenario transitive scenario ref name gibson essentially descriptive scenario describe situation tell got way gibson another important part descriptive scenario point good features unacceptable elements status quo ref name gibson next normative scenario shows final outcome way system operate ideal conditions action taken ref name gibson earth systems approach normative scenario involve complicated analysis


normative scenario deal stakeholders creating common trading zone location free exchange ideas come solution system may restored exactly system modified finally transitive scenario comes actual process changing system descriptive state normative state often one final solution noted adaptive management typically iterative process ensues variables inputs change system coevolves analysis environmental science


examining complex ecosystems inherent need earth systems engineer strong understanding natural processes function training environmental science crucial fully understand possible unintended undesired effects proposed earth systems design fundamental topics carbon cycle water cycle pivotal processes need understood ethics sustainability heart esem social ethical moral responsibility earth systems engineer stakeholders natural system engineered come