hindu temples share certain common architectural principles core ideas symbolism themes ref name stellakvol many temples feature one idols murtis idol grabhgriya brahma pada center temple main spire serves focal point ' 'darsana'' sight hindu temple larger temples central space typically surrounded ambulatory devotee walk around ritually circumambulate purusa brahman universal essence ref name stellakvol ashrama kauai hindu monastery kauai island hawaii hindu monastery north american


continent traditionally life hindu divided four ramas phases life stages another meaning includes monastery four ashramas brahmacharya student grihastha householder vanaprastha retired sannyasa renunciation ref name rks ref brahmacharya represents bachelor student stage life grihastha refers individual 's married life duties maintaining household raising family educating one 's children leading family centred dharmic social life ref name rks grihastha stage starts hindu wedding considered important stages sociological context hindus stage pursued


virtuous life produced food wealth sustained people stages life well offsprings continued mankind vanaprastha retirement stage person hands household responsibilities next generation took advisory role gradually withdrew world ref name alnu ref sannyasa stage marks renunciation state disinterest detachment material life generally without meaningful property home ascetic state focused moksha peace simple spiritual life ref name dp bhawuk pages ref ashramas system one facet dharma concept


hinduism combined four proper goals human life purusartha ashramas system traditionally aimed providing hindu fulfilling life spiritual liberation stages typically sequential person enter sannyasa ascetic stage become ascetic time brahmacharya stage sannyasa religiously mandatory hinduism elderly people free live families monasticism sadhu madurai india hindus choose live monastic life sanny sa pursuit liberation moksha another form spiritual perfection ref name ellinger monastics commit


built narasimhavarman ii hinduism 's varied history overlaps coincides development religion indian subcontinent since iron age traditions tracing back prehistoric religions bronze age indus valley civilization thus called oldest religion world scholars regard hinduism synthesis various indian cultures traditions diverse roots single founder late vedic period emphasis status brahmans also religions indus valley civilisation sramana renouncer traditions


east india popular local traditions history hinduism often divided periods development first period pre vedic period includes indus valley civilization local pre historic religions ending bce period followed northern india vedic period saw introduction historical vedic religion indo aryan migrations starting somewhere bce bce flood mentions bce subsequent period bce bce turning point vedic religion hindu religions formative


hinduism hindu islamic rulers saw increasing prominence bhakti movement remains influential today colonial period saw emergence various hindu reform movements partly inspired western movements unitarianism theosophy kingdom nepal unification nepal rana dynasty accompanied hinduization state continued till shah dynasty also focused basic hinduization ref name vir https booksgooglecom booksid yehodcdk kc pg pa ref indians hired plantation labourers british colonies fiji mauritius trinidad tobago


partition india along religious lines republic india emerging hindu majority th century due indian diaspora hindu minorities formed continents largest communities absolute numbers united states united kingdom th st century many missionary organizations iskcon sathya sai organization vedanta society influential spreading core culture hinduism outside india also increase hindu identity politics mostly india nepal bangladesh form


hindutva revivalist movement mainly started encouraged many organisations like rss bjp organisations sangh parivar india also many hindu nationalist parties organisations shivsena nepal rpp nepal hindraf malaysia etc ref name vir https booksgooglecom booksid yehodcdk kc pg pa september state new jersey aligned world hindu council declare october hindu heritage month demographics hinduism major religion india hinduism followed around country 's population nbsp billion census nbsp million adherents significant populations


ref name ciagov ref ref name census full report ref demographically hinduism world 's third largest religion christianity islam class wikitable sortable style text align center style margin em auto demographics major traditions within hinduism world religion database data cyrus col tradition scope col followers scope col hindu population scope col world population scope col follower dynamics scope col world dynamics align center


vaishnavism align center align center align center align center growing align center declining align center shaivism align center align center align center align center growing align center growing align center shaktism align center align center align center align center stable align center declining align center neo hinduism align center align center align center align center growing align center


growing align center reform hinduism align center align center align center align center growing align center growing cumulative growing growing criticism persecution debates criticism hinduism many times criticised brahmanism attorney upper class brahmins varna system accompanied discrimination dalits shudra considered lowest rung society often associated practice untouchability


christian missionaries mughal period hindus forced pay jizya goa inquisition portuguese colonists also considered one brutal persecutions hindus one million people including muslims hindus killed partition india modern times hindus face discrimination many parts world also face persecution forced conversion many countries especially pakistan bangladesh fiji others conversion debate modern era religious conversion hinduism controversial subject state


many kingdoms asia called greater india afghanistan kabul west including almost southeast asia east cambodia vietnam indonesia ref name gonda philippines th century nearly everywhere supplanted buddhism islam ref name spread therefore looks quite natural modern hindu preaching world within india archeological textual evidence nd century bce heliodorus pillar suggest greeks foreigners converted hinduism debate proselytization religious conversion christianity islam hinduism recent started


th century ref name rafiuddinahmed ref ref name ayeshajalal ref ref muslim leaders responded publishing muslim owned newspapers bengal rural campaign polemics christians hindus launching purification reform movements within islam ref name rafiuddinahmed ref name ayeshajalal hindu leaders joined proselytization debate criticized christianity islam asserted hinduism universal secular religion ref name rafiuddinahmed ref name csadcock religious leaders hindu reform movements arya samaj launched ''shuddhi'' movement proselytize reconvert muslims christians back hinduism ref name csadcock ref brahmo samaj suggested hinduism non missionary religion ref name arvindmr sects


hinduism welcomed new members group leaders hinduism 's diverse schools stated given intensive proselytization activities missionary islam christianity thing proselytism hinduism view must examined ref name arvindmr ref name csadcock appropriateness conversion major religions hinduism vice versa remains actively debated topic india nepal indonesia see also hinduism anti hindu sentiment atheism hinduism criticism hinduism gautama buddha hinduism hinduphobia hindus hindu architecture hindu calendar hindu deities hindu denominations hindu eschatology


hindu mythology hindu philosophy hinduism country hinduism armenia history hinduism indomania jagran list hindus persecution hindus puranic chronology encyclopedia hinduism related systems religions adivasi religion ayyavazhi bathouism buddhism donyi polo dravidian folk religion eastern religions eastern philosophy folk hinduism gurung shamanism hinduism religions hinduism judaism hinduism sikhism buddhism hinduism ayyavazhi hinduism hinduism theosophy hinduism zoroastrianism indian religions jainism kalash religion kiratism sarna sthal manichaeism peterburgian vedism proto indo european religion proto indo iranian religion hinduism science sanamahism sarnaism sikhism tribal religions india zoroastrianism hindu atheism ancient iranian


religion notes brahmanical pattern tradition brahmanical orthopraxy played role 'master narrative' brahmanical synthesis according brahmanism developed historical vedic religion loosely known brahmanism religious legal importance places br hma priestly class society according development started around bce kuru kingdom brahmins providing elaborate rituals enhance status kuru kings etc discussion topic see establishing boundaries br oxford


dictionary world religions http wwwencyclopediacom topic dharmaaspx ''dharma'' defines dharma follows order custom make life universe possible thus behaviours appropriate maintenance order see dharma righteousness ethics dr j h hutton commissioner census considers modern hinduism result amalgam pre aryan indian beliefs mediterranean inspiration religion rigveda 'the tribal religions present surplus material yet built temple hinduism' quote hindu synthesis less


dialectical reduction orthodoxy heterodoxy resurgence ancient aboriginal indus civilization process rude barbaric aryan tribes gradually civilised eventually merged autochthonous dravidians although elements domestic cult ritualism jealously preserved brahman priests body culture survived fragmentary tales allegories embedded vast syncretistic compendia whole aryan contribution indian culture insignificant essential pattern indian culture already established third millennium bc form indian civilization perdured eventually reasserted


contemporary hinduism cannot traced common origin many traditions feed contemporary hinduism subsumed three broad headings tradition brahmanical orthopraxy renouncer traditions popular local traditions tradition brahmanical orthopraxy played role 'master narrative' transmitting body knowledge behaviour time defining conditions orthopraxy adherence ''varnasramadharma'' religion aryans brought mingled religion native people culture developed


became classical hinduism states arabic texts al hind term used people modern day india 'hindu' 'hindoo' used towards end eighteenth century british refer people 'hindustan' people northwest india eventually 'hindu' became virtually equivalent 'indian' muslim sikh jain christian thereby encompassing range religious beliefs practices ' ism' added hindu around denote culture religion high caste brahmans contrast religions


term soon appropriated indians context building national identity opposed colonialism though term 'hindu' used sanskrit bengali hagiographic texts contrast 'yavana' muslim early sixteenth century scholars state th century chinese scholar xuanzang whose year travel india interactions people religions recorded preserved chinese language uses transliterated term ''in tu'' whose connotation overflows religious xuanzang describes hindu deva temples early th century ce worship sun deity shiva


debates scholars samkhya vaisheshika schools hindu philosophies monks monasteries hindus jains buddhists mahayana theravada study vedas along buddhist texts nalanda see also also mentions use word ''hindu'' islamic texts relating th century arab invasion sindh muhammad ibn qasim al biruni 's th century text ''tarikh al hind'' delhi sultanate period term ''hindu'' retains ambiguities including non islamic people buddhists region


religion states citing richard eaton one earliest occurrences word 'hindu' islamic literature appears 'abd al malik isami 's persian work ''futuhu 's salatin'' composed deccan text 'isami uses word 'hindi' mean indian ethno geographical sense word 'hindu' mean 'hindu' sense follower hindu religion also mentions non persian texts ''prithv r j r so'' th century canda baradai epigraphical inscription evidence andhra pradesh kingdoms battled military expansion muslim dynasties th century


word 'hindu' partly implies religious identity contrast 'turks' islamic religious identity nowiki states one earliest uses word 'hindu' religious context european language spanish publication sebastiao manrique nowiki many describe hinduism ' 'sanatana dharma'' eternal tradition religion refers idea origins lie beyond human history encounters resulted aryan migration brought together several different peoples cultures reconfiguring indian society many centuries fusion aryan dravidian occurred complex process historians


labeled indo aryan synthesis br hinduism seen historically synthesis aryan beliefs harappan dravidian traditions developed many centuries probably oldest religion world oldest living major religion world almost billion hindus living earth practice world 's oldest religion hinduism oldest religion hinduism world 's oldest surviving religion continues provide framework daily life much south asia hand calls also one youngest


religions hinduism could seen much recent though various ancient roots sense formed late th century early th century br animism also called oldest religion animism far oldest religion world antiquity seems go back least far period neanderthals years ago br australian linguist r w dixon discovered aboriginal myths regarding origin crater lakes might dated accurate back years ago br see also urreligion


shamanism animism ancestor worship oldest forms religion sarnaism sanamahism indian tribal religions connected earliest migrations india emphasis status brahmans also religions indus valley civilisation sramana renouncer traditions north east india possible roots non vedic indo aryan culture popular local traditions prehistoric cultures thrived south asia long creation textual evidence decipher confidence identifies several areas


central philosophy hindus according niranjan dhar 's theory vedanta favored british feared french influence especially impact french revolution ronald inden 's theory advaita vedanta portrayed 'illusionist pantheism' reinforcing colonial stereotypical construction hinduism indifferent ethics life negating amenability vedantic thought christian hindu critics 'idolatry' forms hinduism colonial constructions caste part hinduism according nicholas dirks' theory caste refigured religious system organising society context politics


religion never distinct domains social action sweetman cites construction hinduism image christianity anti colonial hindus looking toward systematisation disparate practices means recovering pre colonial national identity sweetman cites references notes citations sources printed sources title origins development classical hinduism publisher oxford university press year isbn author link arthur llewellyn basham place albany ny publisher suny press year isbn editor ferdinando sardella editor lucian wong year place london new york publisher routledge pages isbn series routledge hindu studies series title religions india concise


guide nine major faiths place delhi publisher penguin books india year isbn archive date april archive url https webarchiveorg web https booksgooglecom booksid pnmfdakfpkqc url status live place princeton nj publisher princeton university press isbn year place new york publisher facts file isbn series encyclopedia world religions j gordon melton series editor archive url https webarchiveorg web https booksgooglecom booksid ogmmceadq gc pg pr archive date url status live isbn archive url https webarchiveorg web https booksgooglecom booksid v yiylloj c archive date url status live place delhi publisher centre studies civilizations isbn publisher nus press isbn web sources ref ref name pewforum hinduism group web publisher pew research foundation ref reading encyclopedias place new delhi publisher penguin books india isbn vol ''regions pilgrimage deities'' vol ''sacred languages ritual traditions arts concepts'' vol


''society religious professionals religious communities philosophies'' vol ''historical perspectives poets teachers saints relation religions traditions hinduism contemporary issues'' vol ''symbolism diaspora modern groups teachers'' vol ''indices'' year place new york publisher facts file isbn series encyclopedia world religions j gordon melton series editor archive url https webarchiveorg web https booksgooglecom booksid ogmmceadq gc pg pr archive date url status live ref none introductory ref none history philosophy theology texts external links main resources https wwwlearnreligionscom hinduism many articles hinduism ''dotdash'' formerly ''aboutcom'' hindu views http wwwieputmedu hindu ph hindu philosophy hinduism iep shyam ranganathan york university http wwwpeoplefasharvardedu witzel vedicapdf vedic hinduism sw


https halarchives ouvertesfr halshs 's name agama hindu bali making hinduism bali indonesia michel picard le cnrs paris france audio hinduism audio version http wwwparliamentofreligionsorg includes fckcontent file vivekanandapdf text indian religions asian ethnic religion stika moksha aligned dharmas monotheism polytheism gu


histologic specimen placed stage optical microscope human lung tissue stained hematoxylin eosin seen microscope '''histology''' new latin using combining forms ''histo '' '' logy'' yielding tissue study greek words tissue study also known '''microscopic anatomy''' '''microanatomy''' ref name collins branch biology studies microscopic anatomy biological tissues ref name britannica histology ref name defined terms histology ref name maximow bloom ref name leeson leeson histology microscopic counterpart gross anatomy looks


larger structures visible without microscope ref name leeson leeson ref name stedman 's medical dictionary although one may divide microscopic anatomy ''organology'' study organs ''histology'' study tissues ''cytology'' study cells modern usage places topics field histology ref name leeson leeson medicine histopathology branch histology includes microscopic identification study diseased tissue ref name leeson leeson ref name stedman 's medical dictionary field paleontology term paleohistology refers histology fossil organisms ref name padian


field plant anatomy following four main types dermal tissue vascular tissue ground tissue meristematic tissue medical histology histopathology branch histology includes microscopic identification study diseased tissue ref name leeson leeson ref name stedman 's medical dictionary important part anatomical pathology surgical pathology accurate diagnosis cancer diseases often requires histopathological examination tissue samples ref name rosai trained physicians frequently licensed pathologists perform histopathological examination provide diagnostic information based observations occupations field histology includes preparation


thin sections tissue needed observation microscope ref name leeson leeson ref name bancroft stevens fixatives generally preserve tissues cells irreversibly cross linking proteins ref name bancroft stevens widely used fixative light microscopy neutral buffered formalin nbf formaldehyde phosphate buffered saline ref name wick ref name bancroft stevens ref name ross pawlina electron microscopy commonly used fixative glutaraldehyde usually solution phosphate buffered saline ref name ross pawlina fixatives used electron microscopy


possible using appropriate protocols ref name weiss et al ref name bennike et al selection trimming items used submitting specimens biopsy wrap biopsy sponge tissue processing cassette biopsy bag ''selection'' choice relevant tissue cases necessary put entire original tissue mass processing remainder may remain fixated case needs examined later time ''trimming'' cutting tissue samples order expose relevant surfaces later sectioning also creates tissue samples appropriate size fit


cassettes ref name slaouifiette ref embedding tissues embedded harder medium support allow cutting thin tissue slices ref name ross pawlina ref name leeson leeson general water must first removed tissues dehydration replaced medium either solidifies directly intermediary fluid clearing miscible embedding media ref name bancroft stevens paraffin wax histologic sample embedded paraffin wax tissue held bottom metal mold molten paraffin poured


fill light microscopy paraffin wax frequently used embedding material ref name bancroft stevens ref name wick paraffin immiscible water main constituent biological tissue must first removed series dehydration steps ref name bancroft stevens samples transferred series progressively concentrated ethanol baths ethanol remove remaining traces water ref name ross pawlina ref name bancroft stevens dehydration followed ''clearing agent'' typically xylene ref name wick although environmental safe substitutes


use ref name wick removes alcohol miscible wax finally melted paraffin wax added replace xylene infiltrate tissue ref name ross pawlina histology histopathology laboratories dehydration clearing wax infiltration carried ''tissue processors'' automate process ref name wick infiltrated paraffin tissues oriented molds filled wax positioned wax cooled solidifying block tissue ref name wick ref name bancroft stevens materials paraffin wax


always provide sufficiently hard matrix cutting thin sections especially important electron microscopy ref name bancroft stevens paraffin wax may also soft relation tissue heat melted wax may alter tissue undesirable ways dehydrating clearing chemicals may harm tissue ref name bancroft stevens alternatives paraffin wax include epoxy acrylic agar gelatin celloidin types waxes ref name bancroft stevens ref name drury wallington electron microscopy epoxy resins commonly employed embedding media ref


name ross pawlina acrylic resins also used particularly immunohistochemistry required tissues cut frozen state tissues placed water based embedding medium pre frozen tissues placed molds liquid embedding material usually water based glycol oct tbs cryogel resin frozen form hardened blocks sectioning histologic sample cut microtome light microscopy knife mounted microtome used cut tissue sections typically micrometers thick mounted glass microscope slide ref name ross pawlina


transmission electron microscopy tem diamond glass knife mounted ultramicrotome used cut nanometer thick tissue sections ref name ross pawlina staining biological tissue little inherent contrast either light electron microscope ref name drury wallington staining employed give contrast tissue well highlighting particular features interest stain used target specific chemical component tissue general structure term histochemistry used ref name ross pawlina light microscopy masson 's


trichrome staining rat trachea hematoxylin eosin h e stain one commonly used stains histology show general structure tissue ref name ross pawlina ref name dapson horobin hematoxylin stains cell nuclei blue eosin acidic dye stains cytoplasm tissues different stains pink ref name ross pawlina ref name bancroft stevens contrast h e used general stain many techniques selectively stain cells cellular components specific substances ref name bancroft stevens


tritiated thymidine sites radiolabeled nucleic acid probes bind situ hybridization autoradiography microscopic level slide typically dipped liquid nuclear tract emulsion dries form exposure film individual silver grains film visualized dark field microscopy immunohistochemistry recently antibodies used specifically visualize proteins carbohydrates lipids process called immunohistochemistry stain fluorescent molecule immunofluorescence technique greatly increased ability identify categories cells microscope advanced techniques nonradioactive ''in


situ'' hybridization combined immunochemistry identify specific dna rna molecules fluorescent probes tags used immunofluorescence enzyme linked fluorescence amplification especially alkaline phosphatase tyramide signal amplification fluorescence microscopy confocal microscopy used detect fluorescent signals good intracellular detail electron microscopy electron microscopy heavy metals typically used stain tissue sections ref name ross pawlina uranyl acetate lead citrate commonly used impart contrast tissue electron microscope ref name ross pawlina specialized techniques cryosectioning similar frozen section


procedure employed medicine '''cryosectioning''' method rapidly freeze cut mount sections tissue histology tissue usually sectioned cryostat freezing microtome ref name bancroft stevens frozen sections mounted glass slide may stained enhance contrast different tissues unfixed frozen sections used studies requiring enzyme localization tissues cells tissue fixation required certain procedures antibody linked immunofluorescence staining frozen sections often prepared surgical removal tumors allow rapid identification tumor margins


mohs surgery determination tumor malignancy tumor discovered incidentally surgery ultramicrotomy green algae transmission electron microscope ultramicrotomy method preparing extremely thin sections transmission electron microscope tem analysis tissues commonly embedded epoxy plastic resin ref name ross pawlina thin sections less micrometer thickness cut using diamond glass knives ultramicrotome ref name bancroft stevens artifacts artifacts structures features tissue interfere normal histological examination artifacts interfere histology changing tissues


appearance hiding structures tissue processing artifacts include pigments formed fixatives ref name bancroft stevens shrinkage washing cellular components color changes different tissues types alterations structures tissue example mercury pigment left behind using zenker 's fixative fix section ref name bancroft stevens formalin fixation also leave brown black pigment acidic conditions ref name bancroft stevens history santiago ram n cajal laboratory th century italian marcello malpighi used microscopes study tiny biological entities


regard founder fields histology microscopic pathology ref name bracegirdle ref name motta malpighi analyzed several parts organs bats frogs animals microscope studying structure lung malpighi noticed membranous alveoli hair like connections veins arteries named capillaries discovery established oxygen breathed enters blood stream serves body ref name adelmann malpighi th century histology academic discipline right french anatomist xavier bichat introduced


concept tissue anatomy ref name bichat term histology coined denote study tissues first appeared book karl meyer ref name mayer ref name bock ref name bracegirdle bichat described twenty one human tissues subsumed four categories currently accepted histologists ref name rather usage illustrations histology deemed useless bichat promoted jean cruveilhier early purkyn invented microtome high precision ref name bock th century many fixation techniques developed adolph


hannover solutions chromates chromic acid franz schulze max schultze osmic acid alexander butlerov formaldehyde benedikt stilling freezing ref name bock mounting techniques developed rudolf heidenhain introduced gum arabic salomon stricker advocated mixture wax oil andrew pritchard used gum isinglass mixture year canada balsam appeared scene edwin klebs reported years embedded specimens paraffin nobel prize physiology medicine awarded histologists camillo golgi santiago


name bancroft stevens ref ref name bennike et al ref ref name bock ref ref name bracegirdle ref ref name canoville chinsamy ref ref name dapson horobin ref ref name drury wallington ref ref name leeson leeson ref ref name mayer ref ref name collins ref ref name bichat ref ref name weiss et al ref ref name maximow bloom ref ref name motta ref ref name padian lamm ref ref name rather ref ref name rosai ref ref name ross pawlina ref ref name stedman 's medical dictionary ref ref name titford bowman ref ref name defined terms histology ref ref name britannica histology physiology encyclopedia encyclopedia britannica access date language en ref ref name wick ref ref name nobelprize ref references histotechnology staining histochemistry anatomy


nasa researcher checking hydroponic onions center bibb lettuces left radishes right alt '''hydroponics''' type horticulture subset hydroculture involves growing plants usually crops without soil using mineral nutrient solutions aqueous solvent terrestrial aquatic plants may grow roots exposed nutritious liquid addition roots may physically supported inert medium perlite gravel substrates despite inert media roots cause changes rhizosphere ph root exudates affect rhizosphere biology physiological balance nutrient solution ref


name taylorfranciscom ref nutrients used hydroponic systems come many different sources including fish excrement duck manure purchased chemical fertilizers artificial nutrient solutions ref name ref plants commonly grown hydroponically inert media include tomatoes peppers cucumbers strawberries lettuces cannabis ''arabidopsis thaliana'' serves model organism plant science hydroponics offers many advantages notably decrease water usage agriculture grow tomatoes using intensive farming methods requires water using hydroponics using aeroponics since hydroponics takes much less water grow produce could possible


future people harsh environments little accessible water grow food history earliest published work growing terrestrial plants without soil book ''sylva sylvarum'' 'a natural history' francis bacon printed year death water culture became popular research technique john woodward published water culture experiments spearmint found plants less pure water sources grew better plants distilled water list nine elements believed essential plant growth compiled discoveries


eg green algae nitella playing increasingly important role modern plant physiology ref name nas ref william frederick gericke university california berkeley began publicly promoting solution culture used agricultural crop production first termed cultivation method aquaculture later found aquaculture already applied culture aquatic organisms gericke created sensation growing tomato vines high back yard mineral nutrient solutions rather soil introduced term ''hydroponics'' water culture proposed w setchell phycologist


extensive education classics hydroponics derived neologism derived greek water cultivate constructed analogy derived greek earth cultivate geoponica concerns agriculture replacing earth water ref name gericke however underestimated time yet ripe general technical application commercial use hydroponics producing crops system employed time sensitive required much monitoring used commercial applications reports gericke 's work claims hydroponics would revolutionize plant agriculture prompted


huge number requests information gericke denied use university 's greenhouses experiments due administration 's skepticism university tried compel release preliminary nutrient recipes developed home requested greenhouse space time improve using appropriate research facilities eventually provided greenhouse space university assigned hoagland arnon evaluate gericke 's claims show formula held benefit soil grown plant yields view held hoagland gericke whose work considered basis


forms hydroponic growing published book ''complete guide soilless gardening'' leaving academic position climate politically unfavorable therein first time published basic formula involving macro micronutrient salts hydroponically grown plants ref name gericke result research gericke 's claims order director ''california agricultural experiment station'' university california claude b hutchison dennis robert hoagland daniel israel arnon wrote classic agricultural bulletin ''the water culture method growing plants without soil'' made


claim hydroponic crop yields better crop yields obtained good quality soils ultimately crop yields would limited factors mineral nutrients especially light however study adequately appreciate hydroponics key benefits including fact roots plant constant access oxygen plants access much little water need important one common errors cultivating plants overwatering underwatering hydroponics prevents occurring large amounts


water may drown root systems soil made available plant hydroponics water used drained away recirculated actively aerated thus eliminating anoxic conditions root area soil grower needs experienced know exactly much water feed plant much plant unable access oxygen air soil pores displaced little plant lose ability absorb nutrients typically moved roots dissolved leading


nutrient deficiency symptoms chlorosis hoagland 's views helpful support university prompted two researchers develop several new formulas mineral nutrient solutions universally known hoagland solution one earliest successes hydroponics occurred wake island rocky atoll pacific ocean used refueling stop pan american airlines hydroponics used grow vegetables passengers hydroponics necessity wake island soil prohibitively expensive airlift fresh vegetables daniel


recent decades nasa done extensive hydroponic research controlled ecological life support system celss hydroponics research mimicking martian environment uses led lighting grow different color spectrum much less heat ray wheeler plant physiologist kennedy space center 's space life science lab believes hydroponics create advances within space travel bioregenerative life support system eurofresh farms willcox arizona sold million pounds hydroponically grown tomatoes eurofresh glass represents third commercial hydroponic greenhouse area us


eurofresh tomatoes pesticide free grown rockwool top irrigation eurofresh declared bankruptcy greenhouses acquired naturesweet ltd canada hundreds acres large scale commercial hydroponic greenhouses producing tomatoes peppers cucumbers ref name marketplace ref due technological advancements within industry numerous economic factors global hydroponics market forecast grow us million us million techniques two main variations medium sub irrigation top irrigation techniques hydroponic reservoirs built plastic materials


used including concrete glass metal vegetable solids wood containers exclude light prevent algae fungal growth nutrient solution static solution culture deep water raft tank crop diversification centre cdc south aquaponics greenhouse brooks alberta static solution culture plants grown containers nutrient solution glass mason jars typically home applications pots buckets tubs tanks solution usually gently aerated may un aerated un aerated solution level kept low enough enough roots solution get adequate oxygen


material exclude light thus helping eliminate formation algae nutrient solution changed either schedule per week concentration drops certain level determined electrical conductivity meter whenever solution depleted certain level either water fresh nutrient solution added mariotte 's bottle float valve used automatically maintain solution level raft solution culture plants placed sheet buoyant plastic floated surface nutrient solution


recirculated thin layer past bare root mat plants watertight channel upper surface exposed air consequence abundant supply oxygen provided roots plants properly designed nft system based using right channel slope right flow rate right channel length main advantage nft system forms hydroponics plant roots exposed adequate supplies water oxygen nutrients forms production conflict


probably one productive techniques design characteristics apply conventional nft systems slopes along channels recommended practice difficult build base channels sufficiently true enable nutrient films flow without ponding locally depressed areas consequence recommended slopes used allows minor irregularities surface even slopes ponding water logging may occur slope may provided floor benches racks may hold


depleted length gully consequence channel length exceed meters situations possible reductions growth eliminated placing another nutrient feed halfway along gully halving flow rates outlet ref name taylorfranciscom aeroponics aeroponics system wherein roots continuously discontinuously kept environment saturated fine drops mist aerosol nutrient solution method requires substrate entails growing plants roots suspended deep air growth chamber roots periodically wetted


fine mist atomized nutrients excellent aeration main advantage aeroponics aeroponic technique aeroponic techniques proven commercially successful propagation seed germination seed potato production tomato production leaf crops micro greens since inventor richard stoner commercialized aeroponic technology aeroponics implemented alternative water intensive hydroponic systems worldwide limitation hydroponics fact water hold air matter whether aerators utilized another distinct advantage aeroponics hydroponics species plants


grown true aeroponic system microenvironment aeroponic finely controlled limitation hydroponics certain species plants survive long water become waterlogged advantage aeroponics suspended aeroponic plants receive available oxygen carbon dioxide roots zone stems leaves thus accelerating biomass growth reducing rooting times nasa research shown aeroponically grown plants increase dry weight biomass essential minerals compared hydroponically grown plants aeroponics used less water


hydroponics nasa also concluded aeroponically grown plants require nutrient input compared hydroponics ref name ref unlike hydroponically grown plants aeroponically grown plants suffer transplant shock transplanted soil offers growers ability reduce spread disease pathogens aeroponics also widely used laboratory studies plant physiology plant pathology aeroponic techniques given special attention nasa since mist easier handle liquid zero gravity environment ref name ref name taylorfranciscom fogponics fogponics derivation aeroponics wherein nutrient solution aerosolized


diaphragm vibrating ultrasonic frequencies solution droplets produced method tend nbsp diameter smaller produced forcing nutrient solution pressurized nozzles aeroponics smaller size droplets allows diffuse air easily deliver nutrients roots without limiting access oxygen passive sub irrigation water plant cultivated crocus passive sub irrigation also known passive hydroponics semi hydroponics ''hydroculture'' method wherein plants grown inert porous medium transports water fertilizer roots capillary action


separate reservoir necessary reducing labor providing constant supply water roots simplest method pot sits shallow solution fertilizer water capillary mat saturated nutrient solution various hydroponic media available expanded clay coconut husk contain air space traditional potting mixes delivering increased oxygen roots important epiphytic plants orchids bromeliads whose roots exposed air nature additional advantages passive hydroponics reduction root rot


additional ambient humidity provided evaporations hydroculture compared traditional farming terms crops yield per area controlled environment roughly times efficient traditional farming uses times less water one crop cycle traditional farming average uses times kilojoules per kilogram energy traditional farming ebb flow flood drain sub irrigation ''ebb flow'' ''flood drain'' hydroponics system simplest form tray reservoir nutrient solution either tray filled growing medium clay granules


medium surface method invented bengal reason sometimes referred bengal system ''run waste'' hydroponics system referred bengal system region eastern india invented circa method set various configurations simplest form nutrient water solution manually applied one times per day container inert growing media rockwool perlite vermiculite coco fibre sand slightly complex system automated delivery pump


substrates typically consisting akadama grit diatomaceous earth inorganic components water nutrients provided run waste form deep water culture ' 'deep water culture'' technique used grow hungarian wax peppers hydroponic method plant production means suspending plant roots solution nutrient rich oxygenated water traditional methods favor use plastic buckets large containers plant contained net pot suspended centre lid roots suspended nutrient solution solution oxygen saturated air


pump combined porous stones method plants grow much faster high amount oxygen roots receive ref name growell ref kratky method similar deep water culture uses non circulating water reservoir top fed deep water culture ''top fed'' deep water culture technique involving delivering highly oxygenated nutrient solution direct root zone plants deep water culture involves plant roots hanging reservoir nutrient solution top fed deep water culture solution pumped reservoir roots top feeding water


water yet top fed deep water culture roots get easy access water beginning grow reservoir much quickly deep water culture system roots reached reservoir huge advantage top fed deep water culture standard deep water culture however due quicker growth beginning grow time reduced weeks rotary rotary hydroponic cultivation demonstration belgian pavilion expo rotary hydroponic garden style commercial hydroponics created


within circular frame rotates continuously entire growth cycle whatever plant grown system specifics vary systems typically rotate per hour giving plant full turns within circle hour period within center rotary hydroponic garden high intensity grow light designed simulate sunlight often assistance mechanized timer day plants rotate periodically watered hydroponic growth solution provide nutrients necessary robust growth due plants continuous fight gravity plants typically


mature much quickly grown soil traditional hydroponic growing systems rotary hydroponic systems small size allows plant material grown per area floor space traditional hydroponic systems rotary hydroponic systems avoided circumstances mainly experimental nature high costs finding buying operating maintaining substrates growing support materials one obvious decisions hydroponic farmers make medium use different media appropriate different growing techniques rock wool rock


irregular uniform depending brand manufacturing process manufacturers consider expanded clay ecologically sustainable usable growing medium ability cleaned sterilized typically washing solutions white vinegar chlorine bleach hydrogen peroxide rinsing completely another view clay pebbles best used even cleaned due root growth may enter medium breaking open clay pebble crop shown reveal growth growstones growstones made glass waste air water


retention space perlite peat aggregate holds water parboiled rice hulls ref name ref growstones volume consist calcium carbonate ref name ref standard nbsp kg bag growstones corresponds grams calcium carbonate remainder soda lime glass ref name coconut coir regardless hydroponic demand coconut coir natural byproduct derived coconut processes outer husk coconut consists fibers commonly used make myriad items ranging floor mats brushes long fibers used


applications dust short fibers merged create coir coconuts absorb high levels nutrients throughout life cycle coir must undergo maturation process becomes viable growth medium process removes salt tannins phenolic compounds substantial water washing contaminated water byproduct process three hundred six hundred liters water per one cubic meter coir needed additionally maturation take six months one study concluded working conditions maturation process dangerous would


illegal north america europe despite requiring attention posing health risks environmental impacts coconut coir impressive material properties exposed water brown dry chunky fibrous material expands nearly three four times original size characteristic combined coconut coir 's water retention capacity resistance pests diseases make effective growth medium used alternative rock wool coconut coir also known coir peat offers optimized growing conditions rice husks rice husks parboiled rice husks pbh agricultural byproduct would otherwise little use decay time


allow drainage ref name woodfibre pgr even retain less water growstones ref name study showed rice husks affect effects plant growth regulators ref name woodfibre pgr perlite perlite perlite volcanic rock superheated lightweight expanded glass pebbles used loose plastic sleeves immersed water also used potting soil mixes decrease soil density perlite similar properties uses vermiculite general holds air less water buoyant vermiculite vermiculite like perlite vermiculite


mineral superheated expanded light pebbles vermiculite holds water perlite natural wicking property draw water nutrients passive hydroponic system much water enough air surrounds plants roots possible gradually lower medium 's water retention capability mixing increasing quantities perlite pumice pumice stone like perlite pumice lightweight mined volcanic rock finds application hydroponics sand sand cheap easily available however heavy hold water well


must sterilized uses due sand easily available high demand sand shortages horizon running gravel type used aquariums though small gravel used provided washed first indeed plants growing typical traditional gravel filter bed water circulated using electric powerhead pumps effect grown using gravel hydroponics also termed nutriculture gravel inexpensive easy keep clean drains well become waterlogged however also heavy system


provide continuous water plant roots may dry wood fiber excelsior wood wool wood fibre produced steam friction wood efficient organic substrate hydroponics advantage keeps structure long time wood wool ie wood slivers used since earliest days hydroponics research ref name gericke however recent research suggests wood fibre may detrimental effects plant growth regulators ref name woodfibre pgr ref sheep wool wool shearing sheep little used yet promising renewable growing medium study comparing


wool peat slabs coconut fibre slabs perlite rockwool slabs grow cucumber plants sheep wool greater air capacity decreased use comparable water capacity increased use ref name ref using sheep wool resulted greatest yield tested substrates application biostimulator consisting humic acid lactic acid bacillus subtilis improved yields substrates ref name brick shards brick shards similar properties gravel added disadvantages possibly altering ph requiring extra


cleaning reuse ref name auto ref polystyrene packing peanuts polystyrene foam peanuts polystyrene packing peanuts inexpensive readily available excellent drainage however lightweight uses used mainly closed tube systems note non biodegradable polystyrene peanuts must used biodegradable packing peanuts decompose sludge plants may absorb styrene pass consumers possible health risk ref name auto nutrient solutions inorganic hydroponic solutions formulation hydroponic solutions application plant nutrition nutrient deficiency symptoms mirroring found traditional soil based agriculture however


underlying chemistry hydroponic solutions differ soil chemistry many significant ways important differences include unlike soil hydroponic nutrient solutions cation exchange capacity cec clay particles organic matter absence cec soil pores means ph oxygen saturation nutrient concentrations change much rapidly hydroponic setups possible soil selective absorption nutrients plants often imbalances amount counterions solution ref name gericke ref name adv ref name jones imbalance rapidly affect solution ph ability plants absorb nutrients similar ionic


charge see article membrane potential instance nitrate anions often consumed rapidly plants form proteins leaving excess cations solution ref name gericke ref cation imbalance lead deficiency symptoms cation based nutrients eg mg sup sup even ideal quantity nutrients dissolved solution ref name adv ref ref name jones ref depending ph presence water contaminants nutrients iron precipitate solution become unavailable plants routine adjustments ph buffering solution use chelating agents often necessary unlike soil types


vary greatly composition hydroponic solutions often standardized require routine maintenance plant cultivation hydroponic solutions periodically ph adjusted near neutral ph aerated oxygen also water levels must refilled account transpiration losses nutrient solutions require fortification correct nutrient imbalances occur plants grow deplete nutrient reserves sometimes regular measurement nitrate ions used parameter estimate remaining proportions concentrations nutrient ions solution conventional agriculture nutrients adjusted


exceed ca sup sup concentration due competitive uptake ref name jones sulfur essential macronutrient p ref name jones ref name adv mgso sub sub k sub sub sub sub caso sub sub h sub sub sub sub nh sub sub sub sub sub sub znso sub sub cuso sub sub feso sub sub mnso sub sub unlike nutrients plants tolerate high concentration selectively absorbing nutrient needed ref name gericke ref name adv ref name jones undesirable counterion effects still apply however iron essential micronutrient fe sup sup fe sup sup ref name jones ref name adv fedtpa feedta iron citrate iron tartrate fecl sub sub ferric edta feso sub sub


ph values greatly decreases iron solubility chelating agents eg dtpa citric acid edta often added increase iron solubility greater ph range ref name jones zinc essential micronutrient zn sup sup ref name jones ref name adv znso sub sub excess zinc highly toxic plants essential plants low concentrations copper essential micronutrient cu sup sup ref name jones ref name adv cuso sub sub plant sensitivity copper highly variable ppm toxic plants ref name jones


concentration ppm many plants often considered ideal ref name adv manganese essential micronutrient mn sup sup ref name adv ref name jones ref name adv mnso sub sub mncl sub sub uptake enhanced high p concentrations ref name jones boron essential micronutrient p ref name jones ref name adv h sub sub bo sub sub na sub sub b sub sub sub sub essential nutrient however plants highly sensitive boron eg toxic effects apparent citrus trees ppm ref name adv molybdenum essential micronutrient p


plant disease resistance exists ref name adv titanium variable micronutrient ti sup sup ref name adv h sub sub tio sub sub might essential trace ti sup sup ubiquitous addition rarely warranted ref name jones ppm favorable growth effects crops notable eg pineapple peas ref name adv cobalt non essential micronutrient co sup sup ref name adv coso sub sub required rhizobia important legume root nodulation ref name jones sodium non essential micronutrient na sup sup highly variable na sub sub sio sub sub na sub sub sub sub


hydroponic solutions ref name adv ref name jones however using organic fertilizers introduces number challenges easily resolved examples include organic fertilizers highly variable nutritional compositions terms minerals different chemical species even similar materials differ significantly based source eg quality manure varies based animal 's diet organic fertilizers often sourced animal byproducts making disease transmission serious concern plants grown human consumption animal forage organic fertilizers often particulate clog substrates growing equipment sieving milling


organic materials fine dusts often necessary organic materials ie particularly manures offal degrade emit foul odors anaerobic conditions many organic molecules ie sugars demand additional oxygen aerobic degradation essential cellular respiration plant roots organic compounds necessary normal plant nutrition nevertheless precautions taken organic fertilizers used successfully hydroponics ref name adv ref name jones organically sourced macronutrients examples suitable materials average nutritional contents tabulated terms percent dried mass listed following table ref name adv


class wikitable organic material n p sub sub sub sub k sub sub cao mgo sub sub comment bloodmeal bone ashes bonemeal hoof horn meal fishmeal


wool waste wood ashes cottonseed ashes cottonseed meal dried locust grasshopper leather waste


milled fine dust ref name jones kelp meal liquid seaweed commercial products available poultry manure liquid compost sieved remove solids checked pathogens ref name adv sheep manure poultry manure goat manure


poultry manure horse manure poultry manure cow manure poultry manure bat guano trace trace trace high micronutrients ref name jones commercially available bird guano trace trace trace


high micronutrients commercially available organically sourced micronutrients micronutrients sourced organic fertilizers well example composted pine bark high manganese sometimes used fulfill mineral requirement hydroponic solutions ref name jones satisfy requirements national organic programs pulverized unrefined minerals eg gypsum calcite glauconite also added satisfy plant 's nutritional needs additives compounds added organic conventional hydroponic systems improve nutrition acquisition uptake plant'''' chelating agents humic acid shown increase nutrient uptake ref


name jones additionally plant growth promoting rhizobacteria pgpr regularly utilized field greenhouse agriculture shown benefit hydroponic plant growth development nutrient acquisition pgpr known increase nitrogen fixation nitrogen generally abundant hydroponic systems properly maintained fertilizer regimens ''azospirillum'' ''azotobacter'' genera help maintain mobilized forms nitrogen systems higher microbial growth rhizosphere ref name ref traditional fertilizer methods often lead high accumulated concentrations nitrate within plant tissue harvest ''rhodopseudo monas palustris'' shown increase nitrogen use efficiency increase yield


decrease nitrate concentration harvest compared traditional hydroponic fertilizer methods leafy greens many ''bacillus'' spp ''pseudomonas'' spp ''streptomyces'' spp convert forms phosphorus soil unavailable plant soluble anions decreasing soil ph releasing phosphorus bound chelated form available wider ph range mineralizing organic phosphorus ref name studies found ''bacillus'' inoculants allow hydroponic leaf lettuce overcome high salt stress would otherwise reduce growth especially beneficial regions high electrical conductivity salt content


strips determine hydrogen ion concentrations color changing chemical reaction graduated cylinders measuring spoons measure premixed commercial hydroponic solutions equipment chemical equipment also used perform accurate chemical analyses nutrient solutions examples include ref name adv balances accurately measuring materials laboratory glassware burettes pipettes performing titrations colorimeters solution tests apply beer lambert law spectrophotometer measure concentrations lead parameter nitrate nutrients phosphate sulfate iron using chemical equipment hydroponic solutions beneficial growers background


nutrient solutions often reusable ref name reuse nutrient solutions virtually never completely depleted never due unacceptably low osmotic pressure would result fortification old solutions new nutrients save growers money control point source pollution common source eutrophication nearby lakes streams ref name reuse ref software although pre mixed concentrated nutrient solutions generally purchased commercial nutrient manufacturers hydroponic hobbyists small commercial growers several tools exist help anyone prepare solutions without extensive knowledge chemistry free open source tools hydrobuddy


hydrocal created professional chemists help hydroponics grower prepare nutrient solutions first program available windows mac linux second one used simple javascript interface programs allow basic nutrient solution preparation although hydrobuddy provides added functionality use save custom substances save formulations predict electrical conductivity values mixing solutions often mixing hydroponic solutions using individual salts impractical hobbyists small scale commercial growers commercial products available reasonable prices however even buying commercial products multi component fertilizers


popular often products bought three part formulas emphasize certain nutritional roles example solutions vegetative growth ie high nitrogen flowering ie high potassium phosphorus micronutrient solutions ie trace minerals popular timing application multi part fertilizers coincide plant 's growth stage example end annual plant 's life cycle plant restricted high nitrogen fertilizers plants nitrogen restriction inhibits vegetative growth helps induce flowering ref name jones additional improvements growrooms pest problems reduced


nutrients constantly fed roots productivity hydroponics high however growers increase yield manipulating plant 's environment constructing sophisticated growrooms ref name air ref co sub sub enrichment increase yield sealed greenhouses inject co sub sub environment help improve growth plant fertility see also aeroponics anthroponics aquaponics fogponics folkewall grow box growroom organoponics passive hydroponics plant factory plant nutrition plant pathology regrowing vegetable root rot vertical farming xeriscaping references hydroculture aeroponics de hydrokultur


'''harmonic analysis''' branch mathematics concerned representation functions signals superposition basic waves study generalization notions fourier series fourier transforms ie extended form fourier analysis past two centuries become vast subject applications areas diverse number theory representation theory signal processing quantum mechanics tidal analysis neuroscience term harmonics originated ancient greek word ''harmonikos'' meaning skilled music physical eigenvalue problems began mean waves whose frequencies

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Analysis
Harmonic analysis


include functions compact support fourier transform never compactly supported ie signal limited one domain unlimited elementary form uncertainty principle harmonic analysis setting fourier series conveniently studied context hilbert spaces provides connection harmonic analysis functional analysis four versions fourier transform dependent spaces mapped transformation discrete periodic discrete periodic digital fourier transform continuous periodic discrete aperiodic fourier analysis discrete aperiodic continuous periodic fourier synthesis continuous aperiodic continuous aperiodic continuous fourier transform harmonics color


harmonic analysis chart shows different wavelengths interact red light difference half wavelength red perfectly sync second harmonic ultraviolet wavelengths visual spectrum less difference forming harmonic oscillations combined waves oscillations cycle every th wave cycle every th lower section shows harmonic interacts visible light green red photographed optical flat abstract harmonic analysis one modern branches


peter weyl theorem explains one may get harmonics choosing one irreducible representation equivalence class representations choice harmonics enjoys useful properties classical fourier transform terms carrying convolutions pointwise products otherwise showing certain understanding underlying group structure see also non commutative harmonic analysis group neither abelian compact general satisfactory theory currently known satisfactory means least strong plancherel theorem however many specific cases analyzed example sl sub ''n'' sub case representations


infinite dimensions play crucial role branches study eigenvalues eigenvectors laplacian domains manifolds lesser extent graphs also considered branch harmonic analysis see eg hearing shape drum harmonic analysis euclidean spaces deals properties fourier transform '''r''' sup ''n'' sup analog general groups example fact fourier transform rotation invariant decomposing fourier transform radial spherical components leads topics bessel functions spherical harmonics harmonic analysis tube domains concerned


generalizing properties hardy spaces higher dimensions applied harmonic analysis bass guitar time signal open string note nbsp hz fourier transform bass guitar time signal open string note nbsp hz many applications harmonic analysis science engineering begin idea hypothesis phenomenon signal composed sum individual oscillatory components ocean tides vibrating strings common simple examples theoretical approach often try describe system differential equation system equations predict essential features including amplitude frequency


phases oscillatory components specific equations depend field theories generally try select equations represent major principles applicable experimental approach usually acquire data accurately quantifies phenomenon example study tides experimentalist would acquire samples water depth function time closely enough spaced intervals see oscillation long enough duration multiple oscillatory periods likely included study vibrating strings common experimentalist acquire


sound waveform sampled rate least twice highest frequency expected duration many times period lowest frequency expected example top signal right sound waveform bass guitar playing open string corresponding note fundamental frequency nbsp hz waveform appears oscillatory complex simple sine wave indicating presence additional waves different wave components contributing sound revealed applying mathematical analysis technique known


fourier transform result shown lower figure note prominent peak nbsp hz peaks nbsp hz nbsp hz frequencies corresponding integer multiples nbsp hz case nbsp hz identified fundamental frequency string vibration integer multiples known harmonics see also convergence fourier series harmonic mathematics spectral density estimation tate 's thesis references bibliography elias stein guido weiss ''introduction fourier analysis euclidean spaces'' princeton university press elias stein timothy


murphy ''harmonic analysis real variable methods orthogonality oscillatory integrals'' princeton university press elias stein ''topics harmonic analysis related littlewood paley theory'' princeton university press yitzhak katznelson ''an introduction harmonic analysis'' third edition cambridge university press terence tao https wwwmathuclaedu tao preprints fourierpdf fourier transform introduces decomposition functions odd even parts harmonic decomposition yurii lyubich ''introduction theory banach representations groups'' translated russian language edition kharkov ukraine birkh user verlag george w mackey https doiorg harmonic analysis exploitation symmetry historical


survey ''bull amer math soc'' external links acoustics musical terminology


post secondary graduate receives diploma graduation ceremony '''higher education''' tertiary education leading award academic degree higher education also called '''post secondary education''' third level tertiary education optional final stage formal learning occurs completion secondary education represents levels version international standard classification education structure tertiary education non degree level sometimes referred education continuing education distinct higher education right access higher education right access

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Higher education


higher education mentioned number international human rights instruments un international covenant economic social cultural rights declares article higher education shall made equally accessible basis capacity every appropriate means particular progressive introduction free education europe article first protocol european convention human rights adopted obliges signatory parties guarantee right education definition higher education also call post secondary education third level tertiary education optional final


stage formal learning occurs completion secondary educationthis consists universities colleges polytechnics offer formal degrees beyond high school secondary school education international standard classification education initially classified tertiary education together version schema referred level doctoral studies level refined expanded version structure higher education undergraduate level masters doctoral level became levels non degree level tertiary education sometimes referred education continuing


education reordered isced level level higher courses days pupils progressed beyond primary education basic education term higher education often used refer secondary education create confusion origin term ''high school'' various schools children ages united states uk australia providers deakin university one australia 's universities us higher education provided universities academies colleges seminaries conservatories institutes technology


certain college level institutions including vocational schools universities applied sciences trade schools career based colleges award degrees tertiary education non degree level sometimes referred education continuing education distinct higher education higher education includes teaching research exacting applied work eg medical schools dental schools social services activities universities within realm teaching includes ''undergraduate'' level beyond ''graduate level'' ''postgraduate'' level latter level education often referred graduate school especially north america addition skills


specific particular degree potential employers profession looking evidence critical thinking analytical reasoning skills teamworking skills information literacy ethical judgment decision making skills fluency speaking writing problem solving skills wide knowledge liberal arts sciences history oldest institutions higher education appeared th nd centuries bc several major cultural areas eurasia greek world plato 's academy aristotle 's lycaeum philosophical mathematical schools became models establishments particularly alexandria egypt ptolemies


india city tak il later great buddhist monastery n land attracted students professors even distant regions china han dynasty established chairs teach five confucean classics grand school taixue train cadres imperial administration higher learning institutions became models schools within sphere cultural influence byzantine emperor theodosius ii innovated established pandidakterion faculty professors train public servants th th centuries cathedral schools created western europe


meanwhile first medresahs founded moslem empire nbsp initially mere primary schools premises major mosques gradually evolved toward secondary later higher education however high intellectual level schools could would anachronistic call universities organization purposes markedly different corporations students teachers independent church state established th century western europe ''universitas studiorum'' according unesco guinness world records university al qarawiyyin fez morocco oldest existing continually


operating higher educational institution world occasionally referred oldest university scholars undoubtedly older institutions higher education example university ez zitouna montfleury tunis first established oldest university world university bologna founded ref name hunt janin hunt janin university medieval life mcfarland p f ref ref name ridder symoens de ridder symoens hilde https booksgooglecom booksid z vbebf hac printsec frontcover ''a history university europe volume universities middle ages'' cambridge university press pp ref th century since world war


ii developed many developing countries increased participation age group mostly studies higher education elite rate per cent mass rate per cent many developed countries participation higher education continued increase towards universal trow later called open access half relevant age group participate higher education higher education important national economies industry right source trained educated personnel rest


economy college educated workers commanded measurable wage premium much less likely become unemployed less educated workers ref name simkovic ref ref name oecd oecd education glance ref st century recent years universities criticized permitting actively encouraging grade inflation also supply graduates many fields study exceeding demand skills aggravating graduate unemployment underemployment overqualification credentialism educational inflation commentators suggested impact covid pandemic education rapidly making certain aspects traditional higher education system obsolete types provider


united states general general higher education training takes place university college institute technology usually includes significant theoretical abstract elements well applied aspects although limited offerings internships surf programs attempt provide practical applications contrast vocational higher education training takes place vocational universities schools usually concentrates practical applications little theory addition professional level education always included within higher education usually graduate schools since many postgraduate academic disciplines vocationally professionally theoretically research oriented


law medicine pharmacy dentistry veterinary medicine basic requirement entry graduate level programs almost always bachelor 's degree although alternative means obtaining entry programs may available universities requirements admission high level graduate programs extremely competitive admitted students expected perform well mean financial wealth us families education head household mean income us families education head household employers profession consider hiring college graduate looking


evidence critical thinking analytical reasoning skills teamworking skills information literacy ethical judgment decision making skills communication skills using text speech problem solving skills wide knowledge liberal arts sciences however employers consider average graduate less deficient areas united states large differences wages employment associated different degrees medical doctors lawyers generally highest paid workers among lowest unemployment rates among undergraduate fields study science technology engineering math business generally offer highest


wages best chances employment education communication liberal arts degrees generally offer lower wages lower likelihood employment ref name simkovic liberal arts academic areas included within liberal arts include great books history languages including english linguistics literature mathematics music philosophy political science psychology religious studies science environmental science sociology theater engineering teaching engineering teaching application scientific economic social practical knowledge order design build maintain improve structures machines devices systems materials processes may encompass using insights conceive model


scale appropriate solution problem objective discipline engineering extremely broad encompasses range specialized fields engineering specific emphasis particular areas technology types application engineering disciplines include aerospace biological civil chemical computer electrical industrial mechanical performing arts performing arts differ plastic arts visual arts insofar former uses artist 's body face presence medium latter uses materials clay metal paint molded transformed create


work art performing arts institutions include circus schools dance schools drama schools music schools plastic visual arts plastic arts visual arts class art forms involve use materials moulded modulated way often three dimensions examples painting sculpture drawing higher educational institutions arts include film schools art schools vocational higher vocational education training takes place non university tertiary level education combines teaching practical skills theoretical expertise higher education differs forms


post secondary education offered institutions vocational education colloquially known trade schools higher vocational education might contrasted education usually broader scientific field might concentrate theory abstract conceptual knowledge professional higher education describes distinct form higher education offers particularly intense integration world work aspects including teaching learning research governance levels overarching qualifications framework european higher education area function diversify learning opportunities enhance employability offer


report organisation economic co operation development states percent young people completing upper secondary education lifetimes high income countries tertiary educated individuals earning twice much median workers contrast historical trends education young women likely complete upper secondary education young men additionally access education expanding growth number people receiving university education rising sharply close percent people aged around percent aged


educated university ref name reportoecd ref recognition studies lisbon recognition convention stipulates degrees periods study must recognised signatory parties convention see also higher education country list higher education associations alliances college university rankings governance higher education graduation higher education accreditation higher education bubble higher education policy higher education price index institute uncollege ''hochschule'' league european research universities technical education tafe notes references reading external links http wwwashews association study higher education


'''intelligence''' one capacities mind '''intelligence''' may also refer information intelligence information useful form business intelligence data transformed meaningful useful information business analysis purposes espionage intelligence clandestine acquisition confidential information intelligence assessment evaluation sensitive commercial military scientific state information intelligence cycle stages intelligence information processing military intelligence gathering assessment policy strategic tactical information strategic intelligence stratint collection processing analysis dissemination intelligence required forming policy military plans national

Applied science
Military sciences
Organization
Intelligence


'''intelligence''' defined many ways capacity abstraction logic understanding self awareness learning emotional knowledge reasoning planning creativity critical thinking problem solving generally described ability perceive infer information retain knowledge applied towards adaptive behaviors within environment context intelligence often studied humans also observed non human animals plants despite controversy whether forms life exhibit intelligence ref name ref name intelligence computers machines called


artificial intelligence etymology word ''intelligence'' derives latin nouns ''intelligentia'' ''intell ctus'' turn stem verb ''intelligere'' comprehend perceive middle ages word ''intellectus'' became scholarly technical term understanding translation greek philosophical term ''nous'' term however strongly linked metaphysical cosmological theories teleological scholasticism including theories immortality soul concept active intellect also known active intelligence approach study nature strongly rejected early


modern philosophers francis bacon thomas hobbes john locke david hume preferred understanding place ''intellectus'' intelligence english philosophical works hobbes example latin ''de corpore'' used ''intellectus intelligit'' translated english version understanding understandeth typical example logical absurdity intelligence therefore become less common english language philosophy later taken scholastic theories implies contemporary psychology definitions definition intelligence controversial varying abilities


called good sense practical sense initiative faculty adapting one 's self circumstances auto critique ref name binet ref david wechsler aggregate global capacity individual act purposefully think rationally deal effectively environment lloyd humphreys resultant process acquiring storing memory retrieving combining comparing using new contexts information conceptual skills howard gardner mind human intellectual competence must entail set skills problem solving enabling individual resolve genuine problems difficulties


hutter synthesis definitions psychology philosophy ai researchers intelligence measures agent 's ability achieve goals wide range environments ref name legghutter mathematically formalized ref name legghutter b ref alexander wissner gross f math tau math intelligence force f acts maximize future freedom action acts maximize future freedom action keep options open strength diversity possible accessible futures future time horizon short intelligence n't like get trapped human


intelligence human intelligence intellectual power humans marked complex cognitive feats high levels motivation self awareness intelligence enables humans remember descriptions things use descriptions future behaviors cognitive process gives humans cognitive abilities learn form concepts understand reason including capacities recognize patterns innovate plan solve problems employ language communicate intelligence enables humans experience think intelligence different learning learning refers act retaining facts information abilities able


recall future use intelligence cognitive ability someone perform processes various attempts quantify intelligence via testing intelligence quotient iq test however many people disagree validity iq tests stating cannot accurately measure intelligence ref name ref debate human intelligence based hereditary factors based environmental factors hereditary intelligence theory intelligence fixed upon birth able grow environmental intelligence theory intelligence developed throughout


life depending environment around person environment cultivates intelligence one challenges person cognitive abilities ref name much definition applies also intelligence non human animals emotional intelligence emotional intelligence thought ability convey emotion others understandable way well read emotions others accurately ref name ref theories imply heightened emotional intelligence could also lead faster generating processing emotions addition accuracy addition higher emotional intelligence thought help


us manage emotions beneficial problem solving skills emotional intelligence important mental health ties social intelligence ref name social intelligence social intelligence ability understand social cues motivations others oneself social situations thought distinct types intelligence relations emotional intelligence social intelligence coincided studies focus make judgements others accuracy people would viewed positive negative


social character debate whether studies social intelligence come theories distinction generally thought two different schools thought ref name ref book smart street smart concepts book smarts street smart contrasting views based premise people knowledge gained academic study may lack experience sensibly apply knowledge others knowledge gained practical experience may lack accurate information usually gained study


meaning across species eg comparing intelligence literate humans illiterate animals also operationalizing measure accurately compares mental ability across different species contexts wolfgang k hler 's research intelligence apes example research area stanley coren 's book ''the intelligence dogs'' notable book topic dog intelligence see also dog intelligence non human animals particularly noted studied intelligence include chimpanzees bonobos notably language using kanzi great apes dolphins elephants extent parrots rats ravens cephalopod intelligence


also provides important comparative study cephalopods appear exhibit characteristics significant intelligence yet nervous systems differ radically backboned animals vertebrates mammals birds reptiles fish shown fairly high degree intellect varies according species true arthropods ''g'' factor non humans evidence general factor intelligence observed non human animals general factor intelligence ''g'' factor psychometric construct summarizes correlations observed individual 's scores wide range cognitive abilities


cognitive ability measures primates ref name reader variance mice locurto locurto values similar accepted variance iq explained ''g'' humans plant intelligence argued plants also classified intelligent based ability sense model external internal environments adjust morphology physiology phenotype accordingly ensure self preservation reproduction counter argument intelligence commonly understood involve creation use persistent memories opposed computation


involve learning accepted definitive intelligence includes artificial intelligence robots capable machine learning excludes purely autonomic sense reaction responses observed many plants plants limited automated sensory motor responses however capable discriminating positive negative experiences learning registering memories past experiences also capable communication accurately computing circumstances using sophisticated cost benefit analysis taking tightly controlled actions mitigate control diverse environmental stressors ref name ref ref name ref artificial intelligence scholars studying artificial


intelligence proposed definitions intelligence include intelligence demonstrated machines definitions meant general enough encompass human animal intelligence well intelligent agent defined system perceives environment takes actions maximize chances success ref name russell ref kaplan haenlein define artificial intelligence system 's ability correctly interpret external data learn data use learnings achieve specific goals tasks flexible adaptation progress artificial intelligence demonstrated benchmarks ranging


games practical tasks protein folding existing ai lags humans terms general intelligence sometimes defined capacity learn carry huge range tasks singularitarian eliezer yudkowsky provides loose qualitative definition intelligence sort smartish stuff coming brains play chess price bonds persuade people buy bonds invent guns figure gravity looking wandering lights sky machine intelligence large quantities might let invent molecular nanotechnology


mathematician olle h ggstr defines intelligence terms optimization power agent 's capacity efficient cross domain optimization world according agent 's preferences simply ability steer future regions possibility ranked high preference ordering optimization framework deep blue power steer chessboard 's future subspace possibility labels 'winning' despite attempts garry kasparov steer future elsewhere hutter legg surveying literature define intelligence agent 's ability achieve goals wide range


guilford david herman john l horn lloyd g humphreys george w hynd randy w kamphaus robert kaplan alan kaufman nadeen l kaufman deirdre kramer roger lennon michael lewis joseph matarazzo damian mcshane mary n meeker kazuo nihira thomas oakland ronald parmelee cecil r reynolds nancy l segal robert j sternberg margaret wolan sullivan steven g vandenberg george p vogler w grant willis benjamin b wolman james w soo sam irla lee zimmerman ''cambridge handbook'' includes chapters n j mackintosh susana urbina john willis ron dumont alan kaufman janet e davidson


iris kemp samuel mandelman elena l grigorenko raymond nickerson joseph f fagan l todd rose kurt fischer christopher hertzog robert hodapp megan griffin meghan burke marisa h fisher david henry feldman martha j morelock sally reis joseph renzulli diane f halpern anna beninger carli straight lisa suzuki ellen l short christina lee christine e daley anthony j onwuegbuzie thomas r zentall liane gabora anne russon richard j haier ted nettelbeck andrew r conway sarah getz brooke macnamara pascale j engel de abreu david f lohman joni


lakin keith e stanovich richard f west maggie e toplak scott barry kaufman ashok k goel jim davies katie davis joanna christodoulou scott seider howard gardner robert j sternberg john mayer peter salovey david caruso lillia cherkasskiy richard k wagner john f kihlstrom nancy cantor soon ang linn van dyne mei ling tan glenn geher weihua niu jillian brass james r flynn susan barnett heiner rindermann wendy williams stephen j ceci ian j deary g david batty colin deyoung richard e mayer priyanka b carr carol dweck james c kaufman jonathan plucker ursula


staudinger judith gl ck phillip l ackerman earl hunt external links http wwwindianaedu eintell mapshtml history influences development intelligence theory testing developed jonathan plucker indiana university http wwwscientificamericancom articlecfmid limits intelligence limits intelligence laws physics may well prevent human brain evolving ever powerful thinking machine douglas fox ''scientific american'' june https arxivorg abs collection definitions intelligence '''scholarly journals societies''' ''intelligence'' http wwwelseviercom locate intell journal homepage international society intelligence research http wwwisironlineorg homepage educational psychology developmental psychology psychological testing


'''internet''' '''internet''' global system interconnected computer networks uses internet protocol suite tcp ip communicate networks devices ''network networks'' consists private public academic business government networks local global scope linked broad array electronic wireless optical networking technologies internet carries vast range information resources services inter linked hypertext documents applications world wide web www electronic mail telephony file sharing origins internet date back development

Formal science
Computer science
Computer communications (networks)
Internet


packet switching research commissioned united states department defense enable time sharing computers ref name ref primary precursor network arpanet initially served backbone interconnection regional academic military networks funding national science foundation network new backbone well private funding commercial extensions led worldwide participation development new networking technologies merger many networks linking commercial networks enterprises early marked beginning


transition modern internet generated sustained exponential growth generations institutional personal mobile computers connected network although internet widely used academia commercialization incorporated services technologies virtually every aspect modern life traditional communication media including telephony radio television paper mail newspapers reshaped redefined even bypassed internet giving birth new services email internet telephony internet television online music digital newspapers video streaming websites newspaper book print publishing adapting website


network sets policies overreaching definitions two principal name spaces internet internet protocol address ip address space domain name system dns directed maintainer organization internet corporation assigned names numbers icann technical underpinning standardization core protocols activity internet engineering task force ietf non profit organization loosely affiliated international participants anyone may associate contributing technical expertise november internet included ''usa today' 's list new seven wonders terminology ''the


internet messenger'' buky schwartz located holon israel word ''internetted'' used early meaning ''interconnected'' ''interwoven'' word ''internet'' used shorthand form internetwork ref name rfc today term ''internet'' commonly refers global system interconnected computer networks though may also refer group smaller networks ref name came common use publications treated word ''internet'' capitalized proper noun become less common ref name reflects tendency english capitalize new terms move


lowercase become familiar ref name ref name word sometimes still capitalized distinguish global internet smaller networks though many publications including ''ap stylebook'' since recommend lowercase form every case ref name ref ref name ref ''oxford english dictionary'' found based study around billion printed online sources internet capitalized cases terms ''internet'' ''world wide web'' often used interchangeably common speak going internet using web browser view web pages however


world wide web ''the web'' one large number internet services collection documents web pages web resources linked hyperlinks urls history advanced research projects agency arpa united states department defense funded research time sharing computers ref name ref research packet switching one fundamental internet technologies started work paul baran early independently donald davies ref name ref name nihf ref symposium operating systems principles packet switching


proposed npl network incorporated design arpanet resource sharing networks merit network cyclades developed late early arpanet development began two network nodes interconnected network measurement center university california los angeles ucla henry samueli school engineering applied science directed leonard kleinrock nls system sri international sri douglas engelbart menlo park california october ref name netvalley ref third site culler fried interactive mathematics center


university california santa barbara followed university utah graphics department sign future growth sites connected young arpanet end early years documented film ''computer networks heralds resource sharing'' early international collaborations arpanet rare connections made norwegian seismic array norsar via satellite station tanum sweden peter kirstein 's research group university college london provided gateway british academic networks arpa projects international working groups led


development various protocols standards multiple separate networks could become single network network networks vint cerf bob kahn used term ''internet'' shorthand ''internetwork'' '''' ref name rfc ref later rfcs repeated use cerf kahn credit louis pouzin important influences tcp ip design commercial ptt providers concerned developing x public data networks access arpanet expanded national science foundation nsf funded computer science network csnet internet protocol suite tcp ip standardized


permitted worldwide proliferation interconnected networks tcp ip network access expanded national science foundation network nsfnet provided access supercomputer sites united states researchers first speeds kbit later mbit mbit nsfnet expanded academic research organizations europe australia new zealand japan although network protocols uucp global reach well time marked beginning internet intercontinental network commercial internet service providers isps emerged united states


australia arpanet decommissioned nsfnet backbone c steady advances semiconductor technology optical networking created new economic opportunities commercial involvement expansion network core delivering services public mid mci mail compuserve established connections internet delivering email public access products half million users internet months later january psinet launched alternate internet backbone commercial use one networks added core commercial internet later


years march first high speed mbit link nsfnet europe installed cornell university cern allowing much robust communications capable satellites six months later tim berners lee would begin writing worldwideweb first web browser two years lobbying cern management christmas berners lee built tools necessary working web hypertext transfer protocol http hypertext markup language html first web browser also html editor could access usenet newsgroups ftp files first http server


software later known cern httpd first web server first web pages described project commercial internet exchange founded allowing psinet communicate commercial networks cerfnet alternet stanford federal credit union first financial institution offer online internet banking services members october op financial group also cooperative bank became second online bank world first europe internet fully commercialized us nsfnet decommissioned


removing last restrictions use internet carry commercial traffic ref name connexions april ref technology advanced commercial opportunities fueled reciprocal growth volume internet traffic started experiencing similar characteristics scaling mos transistors exemplified moore 's law doubling every months growth formalized edholm 's law catalyzed advances mos technology laser light wave systems noise performance ref name jindal ref since internet tremendously impacted culture commerce including rise near instant communication email instant messaging telephony voice internet protocol voip two way interactive video


calls world wide web discussion forums blogs social networking services online shopping sites increasing amounts data transmitted higher higher speeds fiber optic networks operating gbit gbit internet continues grow driven ever greater amounts online information knowledge commerce entertainment social networking services late estimated traffic public internet grew percent per year mean annual growth number internet users thought


growth often attributed lack central administration allows organic growth network well non proprietary nature internet protocols encourages vendor interoperability prevents one company exerting much control network estimated total number internet users nbsp billion world population ref name stats ref estimated internet carried information flowing two way telecommunication figure grown telecommunicated information carried


board directors drawn across internet technical business academic non commercial communities icann coordinates assignment unique identifiers use internet including domain names ip addresses application port numbers transport protocols many parameters globally unified name spaces essential maintaining global reach internet role icann distinguishes perhaps central coordinating body global internet regional internet registries rirs established five regions world african network information center afrinic africa american registry internet numbers


arin north america asia pacific network information centre apnic asia pacific region latin american caribbean internet addresses registry lacnic latin america caribbean region r seaux ip europ ens network coordination centre ripe ncc europe middle east central asia delegated assign ip address blocks internet parameters local registries internet service providers designated pool addresses set aside region national telecommunications information administration agency united states department commerce final approval


task force irtf internet research steering group irsg november united nations sponsored world summit information society tunis established internet governance forum igf discuss internet related issues infrastructure map showing submarine fiberoptic telecommunication cables around world communications infrastructure internet consists hardware components system software layers control various aspects architecture computer network internet physically consists routers media cabling radio links repeaters modems etc however example internetworking many


network nodes necessarily internet equipment per se internet packets carried full fledged networking protocols internet acting homogeneous networking standard running across heterogeneous hardware packets guided destinations ip routers service tiers packet routing across internet involves several tiers internet service providers internet service providers isps establish worldwide connectivity individual networks various levels scope end users access internet needed perform function obtain information represent bottom routing hierarchy top


routing hierarchy tier networks large telecommunication companies exchange traffic directly via high speed fibre optic cables governed peering agreements tier lower level networks buy internet transit providers reach least parties global internet though may also engage peering isp may use single upstream provider connectivity implement multihoming achieve redundancy load balancing internet exchange points major traffic exchanges physical connections multiple isps large organizations academic institutions large enterprises


installed app stores internet usage mobile tablet devices exceeded desktop worldwide first time october mobile communication number mobile cellular subscriptions http unesdocunescoorg images epdf ''world trends freedom expression media development global report '' international telecommunication union itu estimated end individual users regularly connect internet mobile internet connectivity played important role expanding access recent years especially asia pacific africa ref name ref number unique mobile cellular subscriptions increased


nbsp billion nbsp billion two thirds world 's population half subscriptions located asia pacific number subscriptions predicted rise nbsp billion users ref name ref almost world 's population access g broadband cellular network almost ref name limits users face accessing information via mobile applications coincide broader process fragmentation internet fragmentation restricts access media content tends affect poorest users


ref name zero rating practice internet service providers allowing users free connectivity access specific content applications without cost offered opportunities surmount economic hurdles also accused critics creating two tiered internet address issues zero rating alternative model emerged concept 'equal rating' tested experiments mozilla orange africa equal rating prevents prioritization one type content zero rates content specified data cap study published chatham house


countries researched latin america kind hybrid zero rated product offered countries region handful plans choose across mobile network operators others colombia offered many pre paid post paid plans study eight countries global south found zero rated data plans exist every country although great range frequency offered actually used study looked top three five carriers market share bangladesh colombia


ghana india kenya nigeria peru philippines across plans examined per cent offering zero rated services another study covering ghana kenya nigeria south africa found facebook 's free basics wikipedia zero commonly zero rated content internet protocol suite internet standards describe framework known internet protocol suite also called tcp ip based first two components suite protocols ordered set four conceptional layers scope operation originally documented top


application layer communication described terms objects data structures appropriate application example web browser operates client server application model exchanges information hypertext transfer protocol http application germane data structure hypertext markup language html top layer transport layer connects applications different hosts logical channel network provides service variety possible characteristics ordered reliable delivery tcp unreliable datagram service udp underlying layers networking technologies


interconnect networks borders exchange traffic across internet layer implements internet protocol ip enables computers identify locate ip address route traffic via intermediate transit networks ref name rfc updated ref internet protocol layer code independent type network physically running bottom architecture link layer connects nodes physical link contains protocols require routers traversal links protocol suite explicitly specify hardware