capture english held fortress odruik artillery used take odruik used cannonballs measuring pounds ref name large artillery major contributing factor fall constantinople hands mehmed conqueror resigned position ruler due youth inexperience mehmed moved ottoman capital manisa uncle murad ii died mehmed became sultan turned attention claiming byzantine capital constantinople mehmed like philip started mass producing cannons enticing craftsmen


cause money freedom days constantinople bombarded artillery fire throwing cannonballs large lbs walls may constantinople fell ottoman control ref name early firearm tactics guns artillery became advanced prevalent tactics implemented according historian michael roberts military revolution began broad adoption firearms artillery late sixteenth century european armies ref name stavros ref infantry firearms replaced cavalry empires adapted strongholds withstand artillery fire

Applied science
Military sciences
Military history


eventually drilling strategies battlefield tactics adapted evolution firearms use japan time sixteenth century military evolution also taking hold changes included universal adoption firearms tactical developments effective use logistical restructuring within military emergence centralized political institutional relationships indicative early modern order ref name stavros tactically beginning oda nobunaga technique known volleying countermarch drills implemented ref name volley fire organized implementation firearms infantry structured


ranks ranks alternate loading firing positions allowing consistent rates fire preventing enemies taking position members reload historical evidence shows oda nobunaga implemented volley technique successfully twenty years evidence technique shown europe first indications countermarch technique europe lord william louis nassau mid ref name stavros ref name korea also seemed adapting volley technique earlier even japanese koreans seem employed


smaller groups separating strong weak qi 's ethos one synthesizing smaller groups trained various tactical formations larger companies battalions armies could operate eyes hands feet aiding overall unit cohesion ref name modern technologies start world wars various nations developed weapons surprise adversaries leading need learn alter combat flame throwers first used first world war french first introduce armored


first controlled powered heavier air flight went meters nbsp ft first helicopter flew n't practical usage aviation became important world war several aces gained fame aircraft took warship first time landings cruiser another matter led development aircraft carrier decent unobstructed flight deck chemical warfare exploded public consciousness world war may used earlier wars without much human attention germans used gas filled shells


battle bolimov january lethal however april germans developed chlorine gas highly lethal used moderate effect second battle ypres gas masks invented matter weeks poison gas proved ineffective winning battles made illegal nations world war ii gave rise even technology worth aircraft carrier proved battles united states japan like battle midway radar independently invented


missiles ballistic missiles cruise missiles nuclear submarine invented meant submarines longer surface often could run quietly evolved becoming underwater missile platforms periods military history ancient warfare much know ancient history history militaries conquests movements technological innovations many reasons kingdoms empires central units control ancient world could maintained military force due limited agricultural ability relatively areas could support large communities


boast military conquests victories writing used common man also tended record events major battles conquests constituted major events many would considered worthy recording either epic homeric writings pertaining trojan war even personal writings indeed earliest stories center warfare war common dramatic aspect life witnessing major battle involving many thousands soldiers would quite spectacle even today thus considered worthy recorded song


art also realistic histories well central element fictional work lastly nation states evolved empires grew increased need order efficiency lead increase number records writings officials armies would good reason keeping detailed records accounts involving things concerning matter warfare words sun tzu matter vital importance state reasons military history comprises large part ancient history notable militaries


arabs earliest recorded battle india battle ten kings indian epics ''mahabharata'' ''ramayana'' centered conflicts refer military formations theories warfare esoteric weaponry chanakya 's ''arthashastra'' contains detailed study ancient warfare including topics espionage war elephants alexander great invaded northwestern india defeated king porus battle hydaspes river region soon conquered chandragupta maurya defeating macedonians seleucids also went conquer nanda empire unify northern india


walls siege enemy city warring states first unified qin shi huang series military conquests creating first empire china empire succeeded han dynasty expanded central asia northern china manchuria southern china present day korea vietnam han came conflict settled people wiman joseon proto vietnamese nanyue also came conflict xiongnu huns yuezhi steppe civilizations han defeated drove xiongnus west securing city states along silk route continued


ruled parthian sassanid dynasties roman empire 's greatest rivals roman persian wars greece several city states rose power including athens sparta greeks successfully stopped two persian invasions first battle marathon persians led darius great second battle salamis naval battle greek ships deployed orders themistocles persians xerxes land engagement battle plataea peloponnesian war erupted two greek powers athens


sparta athens built long wall protect inhabitants wall helped facilitate spread plague killed athenians including pericles disastrous campaign syracuse athenian navy decisively defeated lysander battle aegospotami macedonians underneath philip ii macedon alexander great invaded persia several major victories establishing macedonia major power however following alexander 's death early age empire quickly fell apart rd century great ludovisi sarcophagus depicts battle romans goths meanwhile rome


gaining power following rebellion etruscans three punic wars romans defeated neighboring power carthage first punic war centered naval warfare second punic war started hannibal 's invasion italy crossing alps famously encirclement battle cannae however scipio invaded carthage hannibal forced follow defeated battle zama ending role carthage power defeating carthage romans went become mediterranean 's dominant power successfully campaigning greece aemilius paulus decisive victory


macedonia battle pydna middle east lucius licinius lucullus gnaeus pompeius magnus gaul gaius julius caesar defeating several germanic tribes gaius marius germanicus roman armies suffered several major losses large population ability replace battlefield casualties training organization tactical technical superiority enabled rome stay predominant military force several centuries utilizing well trained maneuverable armies routinely overcome much larger tribal armies foes see battles aquae sextiae vercellae tigranocerta alesia bc roman triumvir marcus licinius crassus


took offensive parthian empire east decisive battle carrhae romans defeated golden aquilae legionary battle standards taken trophies ctesiphon battle one worst defeats suffered roman republic entire history successfully dealing foreign opponents rome experienced numerous civil wars notably power struggles roman generals marius sulla end republic caesar also notable role civil war member triumvirate pompey


roman senate successors caesar nbsp octavian mark anthony also fought civil war caesar 's assassins senators brutus cassius etc octavian mark anthony eventually fought another civil war determine sole ruler rome octavian emerged victorious rome turned empire huge standing army professional soldiers time marcus aurelius romans expanded atlantic ocean west mesopotamia east controlled northern africa central europe black sea however aurelius marked end


character warfare antiquity changing military tactics role cavalry artillery similar patterns warfare existed parts world china around th century armies moved massed infantry cavalry based forces copying steppe nomads middle east north africa used similar often advanced technologies europe japan medieval warfare period considered many stretched th century africa along sahel sudan states like kingdom sennar fulani empire employed medieval tactics weapons well


supplanted europe medieval period feudalism firmly implanted existed many landlords europe landlords often owned castles protect territory islamic arab empire began rapidly expanding throughout middle east north africa central asia initially led rashidun caliphate later umayyads attempts invade europe way balkans defeated byzantium bulgaria arabs expanded iberian peninsula west indus valley east abassids took arab empire though


umayyads remained control islamic spain battle tours franks charles martel stopped short muslim invasion abassids defeated tang chinese army battle talas later defeated seljuk turks mongols centuries later arab empire eventually came end battle baghdad china sui dynasty risen conquered chen dynasty south invaded vietnam northern vietnam chinese control since han dynasty fighting troops champa cavalry


kublai khan conquered eurasia took china persia turkestan russia kublai khan took power created yuan dynasty divisions empire ceased cooperate mongol empire nominally united new zealand prior european discovery oral histories legends whakapapa include many stories battles wars ori warriors held high esteem one group polynesians migrated chatham islands developed largely pacifist moriori culture pacifism left moriori unable defend islands


first african commander use gunpowder continent ethiopian adal war lasted fourteen years period spanning peace westphalia french revolution also known ''kabinettskriege'' princes' warfare wars mainly carried imperial monarchics states decided cabinets limited scope aims also involved quickly shifting alliances mainly used mercenaries course th th centuries military arms services underwent significant developments included mobile field artillery transition use


battalion infantry drill close order open order formations transfer emphasis use bayonets rifle replaced musket virtual replacement types cavalry universal dragoons mounted infantry military revolution military revolution conceptual schema explaining transformation european military strategy tactics technology early modern period argument dramatic advances technology government finance public administration transformed modernized european armies tactics logistics since warfare central european state transformation


major impact modernizing government bureaucracies taxation national economy concept introduced michael roberts focused sweden roberts emphasized introduction muskets could aimed small targets could effective fired volleys three ranks infantry soldiers one firing two ranks reloaded three ranks march forward demolish enemy infantry firepower reserved artillery mobility could rapidly advance battlefield


artillery lacked infantry thereby surpassed artillery tactical maneuvering battlefield roberts linked advances larger historical consequences arguing innovations tactics drill doctrine dutch swedes led need better trained troops thus permanent forces standing armies armies grew much larger expensive changes turn major political consequences level administrative support supply money men provisions producing new financial demands creation new governmental institutions thus argued roberts


modern art war made possible necessary creation modern state concept modified extended geoffrey parker argued developments fortification siege warfare caused revolution concept military revolution based upon technology given way models based slow evolution technology plays minor role organization command control logistics general non material improvements revolutionary nature changes visible long evolution handed europe predominant place warfare place


technology played decisive role outcome conscription employed industrial warfare increase number military personnel available combat conscription notably used napoleon bonaparte major parties two world wars total war used industrial warfare objective prevent opposing nation engage war napoleon innovator william tecumseh sherman 's march sea philip sheridan 's burning shenandoah valley american civil war examples largest scale strategic bombing enemy cities


industrial factories world war ii total warfare modern warfare since preparation major war based technological arms races involving sorts new weapons systems nuclear biological well computerized control systems opening new venues seen space race involving united states soviet union recently china modern war also saw improvement armored tank technology tanks present first world war second world war armored warfare technology came head


start cold war many technologies commonly seen main battle tanks today composite armor high caliber cannons advanced targeting systems would developed time distinctive feature since absence wars major powers indeed near absence traditional wars established countries major exceptions indo pakistani war iran iraq war gulf war instead actual fighting largely matter civil wars insurgencies see also war studies ancient greek warfare military science list


military writers maritime history military globalization naval history roman warfare society military history military history ancient rome military history africa military history asia military history europe military history oceania military history north america military history south america military history country ''journal military history'' scholarly journal ''war history'' scholarly journal ''war society'' scholarly journal history physical training fitness notes references reading archer john r ferris holger h herwig timothy h e travers ''world history warfare'' nd ed pp black


jeremy ''warfare western world '' pp black jeremy ''warfare western world '' pp chambers john whiteclay ed ''the oxford companion american military history'' https archiveorg details oxfordcompaniont cham online cowley robert geoffrey parker eds ''the reader 's companion military history'' excellent coverage scholars https webarchiveorg web http collegehmcocom history readerscomp mil html mh entrieshtm complete text online free edition dear c b r foot eds ''oxford companion world war ii'' nd ed https archiveorg details oxfordcompaniont dear online doughty robert ira gruber roy k flint mark grimsley ''warfare western world'' vol


comprehensive textbook https archiveorg details warfareinwestern doug online vol dupuy r ernest trevor n dupuy ''the encyclopedia military history bc present'' pp comprehensive discussion focused wars battles https archiveorg details isbn online holmes richard ed ''the oxford companion military history'' pp online oup jones archer ''the art war western world'' kohn george c ''dictionary wars'' rd ed pp useful summary across world history karsten peter ed ''encyclopedia war american society'' vols keegan john ''the face battle''


https wwwamazoncom face battle john keegan dp excerpt keegan john ''the price admiralty evolution naval warfare'' lamphear john ed ''african military history'' routledge lee wayne e ''waging war conflict culture innovation world history'' https wwwamazoncom waging war conflict culture innovation dp excerpt lynn john ''battle cultural history combat culture'' muehlbauer matthew david j ulbrich eds ''the routledge history global war society'' routledge nolan cathal j ''the allure battle history wars lost'' nolan cathal j ''the age wars religion encyclopedia


global warfare civilization'' vol townshend charles ed ''the oxford history modern war'' nd ed historiography memory barnett correlli shelford bidwell brian bond john terraine ''old battles new defences learn military history'' https wwwquestiacom pmqsta online edition black jeremy determinisms issues ''journal military history'' oct project muse black jeremy ''rethinking military history'' https wwwquestiacom pmqsta online edition bucholz arden hans delbruck modern military history ''the historian'' vol pp nbsp chambers ii john whiteclay new military history myth reality ''journal military


history'' july chambers john whiteclay quiet western front antiwar film image first world war ''historical journal film radio television'' charters david marc milner j brent wilson eds ''military history military profession'' citino robert military histories old new reintroduction ''the american historical review'' vol october pp nbsp http wwwjournalsuchicagoedu cgi bin resolveahrahr pdf online version grimsley mark military history sucks nov war historianorg online https webarchiveorg web http wwwwarhistorianorg military history sucksphp higham john ed ''a guide sources british


military history'' pages https booksgooglecom booksid zogocgaaqbaj dq george clark later stuarts source gbs navlinks excerpt hughes matthew w philpott eds ''palgrave advances modern military history'' https wwwamazoncom palgrave advances modern military history dp x excerpt karsten peter 'new' american military history map territory explored unexplored ''american quarterly'' https wwwjstororg stable jstor kimball jeffrey influence ideology interpretive disagreement report survey diplomatic military peace historians causes th century u wars ''history teacher'' pp doi https wwwjstororg stable online kohn richard h social history american soldier review


prospectus research ''american historical review'' june https wwwjstororg stable jstor lee wayne e mind matter cultural analysis american military history look state field ''journal american history'' march fulltext history cooperative ebsco lynn john rally embattled future academic military history ''journal military history'' oct mearsheimer john j ''liddell hart weight history'' pp messenger charles ed ''reader 's guide military history'' routledge pp detailed guide historiography


topics https wwwamazoncom readers guide military history guiides dp excerpt text search morillo stephen ''what military history'' moyar mark current state military history ''the historical journal'' online cjo muehlbauer matthew david j ulbrich eds ''the routledge history global war society'' https wwwroutledgecom routledge history global war society muehlbauer ulbrich p book muehlbauer matthew david j ulbrich ''ways war american military history colonial era twenty first century'' https wwwroutledgecom ways war american military history colonial era twenty first muehlbauer ulbrich p book murray williamson richard hart sinnreich eds ''the past prologue importance history military profession'' noe kenneth w george c rable


carol reardon battle histories reflections civil war military studies ''civil war history'' pp nbsp https wwwquestiacom read title battle histories reflections civil war military studies online edition porch douglas writing history 'end history' era reflections historians gwot ''journal military history'' war terror present reardon carol ''soldiers scholars us army uses military history '' u press kansas pp nbsp reid brian holden american military history need comparative analysis ''journal american history'' reid brian holden joseph g dawson iii eds special issue


vistas american military history ''american nineteenth century history'' june riseman noah rise indigenous military history ''history compass'' pp nbsp cover th century doi hic rogers clifford j ed ''the military revolution debate readings military transformation early modern europe'' sharman jason c myths military revolution european expansion eurocentrism ''european journal international relations'' https journalssagepubcom doi pdf online schleh eugene p books film war ''film history interdisciplinary journal film television studies'' schleh eugene p quiet


western front history teacher 's reappraisal ''film history'' spector ronald h teetering brink respectability ''journal american history'' https wwwjstororg stable online spiller roger military history fictions ''journal military history'' online winter jay antoine prost ''the great war history debates controversies present'' cambridge https wwwamazoncom great war history controversies cultural dp excerpt wolters timothy harvey deweerd dawn academic military history united states ''journal military history'' jan pp external links http wwwbrillnl ibmh ''international bibliography military


history'' international commission military history brillnl https networksh netorg h war h war daily discussion group military historians michigan state university department history h net humanities social sciences online http americanhistoryprojectscom downloads mil html web sources military history americanhistoryprojectscom history history


'''sport psychology''' interdisciplinary science draws knowledge many related fields including biomechanics physiology kinesiology psychology involves study psychological factors affect performance participation sport exercise affect psychological physical factors ref name weinberg rs gould https booksgooglecom booksid cx md gq w c dq foundations sport exercise psychology source gbs navlinks ''foundations sport exercise psychology'' champaign il human kinetics ref sport psychologists teach cognitive behavioral strategies athletes order improve experience performance sports addition instruction training psychological skills performance improvement applied sport psychology may include work athletes

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Sport psychology


also highlighted formation deutsche hochschule f r leibes bungen college physical education berlin germany robert werner schulte lab measured physical abilities aptitude sport schulte published ''body mind sport'' russia sport psychology experiments began early institutes physical culture moscow leningrad formal sport psychology departments formed around however bit later cold war period numerous sport science programs formed due military competitiveness soviet union


united states result attempts increase olympic medal numbers americans felt sport performances inadequate disappointing compared ones soviets led invest methods could ameliorate athletes performance made greater interest subject advancement sport psychology deliberate soviet union eastern countries due creation sports institutes sport psychologists played important role north america early years sport psychology included


isolated studies motor behavior social facilitation habit formation e w scripture conducted range behavioral experiments including measuring reaction time runners thought time school children accuracy orchestra conductor 's baton despite scripture 's previous experiments first recognized sport psychology study carried american psychologist norman triplett work norman triplett demonstrated bicyclists likely cycle faster pacemaker competitor foundational literature social psychology social facilitation wrote


findings regarded first scientific paper sport psychology titled dynamogenic factors pacemaking competition published ''american journal psychology'' research ornithologists lashley watson learning curve novice archers provided robust template future habit formation research argued humans would higher levels motivation achieve task like archery compared mundane task researchers albert johanson joseph holmes tested baseball player babe ruth reported sportswriter hugh fullerton ruth 's swing speed


breathing right hitting baseball coordination rapidity wrist movement reaction time measured researchers concluding ruth 's talent could attributed part motor skills reflexes well average person coleman griffith america 's first sport psychologist coleman griffith worked american professor educational psychology university illinois first performed comprehensive research applied sport psychology performed causal studies vision attention basketball soccer players interested reaction times muscular tension


relaxation mental awareness griffith began work studying psychology sport university illinois funded research athletics laboratory ref name psycnet ref laboratory 's closing conducted research practiced sport psychology field laboratory used study sport psychology different factors influence athletic performance physiological psychological requirements sport competitions investigated transmitted findings coaches helped advance knowledge psychology physiology sports performance griffith also published two major works


time psychology coaching psychology athletics coleman griffith also first person describe job sport psychologists talk main tasks capable carrying mentioned work psychology relation athletic competition published ref name driska driska brief history sport psychology tough mind ref one tasks teach younger unskilled coaches psychological principles used successful experienced coaches task


adapt psychological knowledge sport last task use scientific method laboratory purpose discovering new facts principles aid professionals domain griffith returned sporting world serve sport psychologist consultant chicago cubs hired philip wrigley griffith examined range factors ability personality leadership skill learning social psychological factors related performance ref name psycnet griffith made rigorous analyses players also making suggestions improving practice effectiveness griffith also made


several recommendations mr wrigley including psychology clinic managers coaches senior players wrigley offered full time position sport psychologist griffith declined offer focus son 's high school education coleman griffith made numerous contributions field sport psychology notable belief field studies athlete coach interviews could provide thorough understanding psychological principles play competitive situations griffith devoted rigorous research also published applied academic audiences noting applicability


sport psychology research equally important generation knowledge finally griffith recognized sport psychology promoted performance enhancement personal growth griffith developed taught first sport psychology university courses psychology athletics university illinois came known father sport psychology united states result pioneering achievements area however also known prophet without disciples since none students continued sport psychology work started receive attention ref


name driska renewed growth emergence discipline franklin henry another researcher positive influence sport psychology began study different factors sport psychology affect athlete 's motor skills also investigated high altitudes effect exercise performance aeroembolism decompression sickness studies kinesthetic perception learning motor skills neuromuscular reaction carried laboratory wrote paper physical education academic discipline helped advance sport psychology began give


scholarly scientific shape additionally published articles board member various journals received many awards acclaims contributions given relatively free travel information amongst european practitioners sport psychology flourished first europe first world congress sport psychology met rome italy meeting attended professionals primarily europe australia americas gave rise international society sport psychology issp issp become prominent sport psychology organization third world congress sport psychology additionally


european federation sport psychology founded north america support sport psychology grew physical education north american society psychology sport physical activity naspspa grew interest group full fledged organization whose mission included promoting research teaching motor behavior psychology sport exercise canada canadian society psychomotor learning sport psychology scapps founded promote study exchange ideas fields motor behavior sport psychology rainer martens published


article entitled '' smocks jocks '' contended difficult apply specific laboratory research sporting situations instance pressure shooting foul shot front screaming fans duplicated lab martens contended grave doubts isolated psychological studies manipulate variables attempting uncover effects x cumulative form coherent picture human behavior sense elegant control achieved laboratory research meaning drained experimental


situation external validity laboratory studies best limited predicting behavior laboratories martens urged researchers get laboratory onto field meet athletes coaches turf martens' article spurred increased interest qualitative research methods sport psychology seminal article mental links excellence first journal ''the journal sport psychology'' came several applied sport psychology practitioners headed john silva believed organization needed focus professional issues sport psychology therefore


formed association advancement applied sport psychology aaasp done response naspspa voting address applied issues keep focus research ref name bgsuedu silva j one told run past present future sport psychology keynote presentation association applied sport psychology providence ri retrieved june http wwwbgsuedu downloads lib file pdf ref aaasp dropped advancement name become association applied sport psychology aasp currently known following stated goal promoting science practice


applied sport psychology aaasp quickly worked develop uniform standards practice highlighted development ethical code members development aaasp certified consultant cc aaasp program helped bring standardization training required practice applied sport psychology moreover aasp updated certification program launched certified mental performance consultant cmpc aasp aims provide leadership development theory research applied practice sport exercise health psychology ref name appliedsportpsychorg become certified consultant retrieved http appliedsportpsychorg ref also time period members


american psychological association apa signed petition create division focused exercise sport psychology sport psychology started become visible olympic games olympic teams began hire sport psychologists athletes us team employed first permanent sport psychologist summer olympics us already sport psychologists working athletes recently role sport psychologist called meet increasing demand anger management athletes increasingly


therapy athletes brought focus two key questions debate continues present day category discipline sport psychology fall governs accepted practices sport psychology sport psychology branch kinesiology sport exercise science like exercise physiology athletic training branch psychology counseling independent discipline danish hale contended many clinical psychologists using medical models psychology problematize sport problems signs mental illness instead drawing upon empirical knowledge


base generated sport psychology researchers many cases indicated sport problems signs mental illness danish hale proposed human development model used structure research applied practice heyman urged tolerance multiple models educative motivational developmental research practice dishman countered field needed develop unique sport psychology models instead borrowing educational clinical psychology practice sport psychology expanded throughout practitioners expressed concern field lacked uniformity needed consistency become


good profession ref name psycnetapaorg ref issues graduate program accreditation uniform training graduate students sport psychology considered necessary promote field sport psychology educate public sport psychologist ensure open job market practitioners however hale danish argued accreditation graduate programs necessary guarantee uniformity instead authors proposed special practicum applied sport psychology included greater contact hours clients closer supervision present status would misleading conflate status


practice ideas many aasp members believe organization meet needs effectively problems illustrated aasp founding president john silva 's address conference silva highlighted five points necessary aasp greater field applied sport psychology address near future orderly development advancement practice sport psychology embrace enhance interdisciplinary nature sport psychology advance development graduate education training sport psychology advance job opportunities practice collegiate olympic pro sports member driven service


membership silva suggested aasp advance legal standing term sport psychology consultant adopt one educative model collegiate post graduate training sport psychology consultants aasp certified consultant cc aasp certification provides legitimate pathway post graduate training legally bar individual without cc aasp credentials practicing sport psychology silva contended future sport psychology professionals degrees psychology sport sciences training ultimately conclude obtainment legal title argued increase likelihood clients


receiving competent service practitioners received training sport psychology pieces sport psychology silva concluded aasp apa work together create legal protection term sport psychology consultant results aasp strategic planning committee report published late continue discussion debate future field applied applied sport exercise psychology consists instructing athletes coaches teams exercisers parents fitness professionals groups performers psychological aspects sport activity goal applied practice


optimize performance enjoyment use psychological skills use psychometrics psychological assessment practice applied sport psychology legally restricted individuals possess one type certification licensure subject exactly constitutes applied sport psychology practice debated amongst sport psychology professionals day still lacks formal legal resolution united states question ability professionals possess sport science kinesiology training practice psychology clients others counter clinical counseling psychologists without


training sport science professional competency work athletes however debate overshadow reality many professionals express desire work together promote best practices among practitioners regardless training academic background different approaches sport psychologist use working clients example social psychological approach focuses social environment individual 's personality complex interactions two influence behavior psycho physiological approach focuses processes brain influence physical activity


need additional help regarding mental health ref name many clinical sport psychologists simply apply clinical expertise athletes limited abilities enhance performance common areas study listed broad areas research field complete list topics rather overview types issues concepts sport psychologists study recently criticism quality assumptions methods sport psychology stress research drawn increasing attention flourishing academic debate evolved regarding quality sport research limitations


future directions personality one common area study within sport psychology relationship personality performance research focuses specific personality characteristics related performance psychological variables various personality characteristics found consistent among elite athletes include limited mental toughness self efficacy arousal motivation commitment competitiveness control ''mental toughness'' psychological edge helps one perform high level consistently mentally tough athletes exhibit four characteristics strong self belief confidence ability perform well


internal motivation successful ability focus one 's thoughts feelings without distraction composure pressure ''self efficacy'' belief one successfully perform specific task sport self efficacy conceptualized sport confidence however efficacy beliefs specific certain task eg believe successfully make free throws whereas confidence general feeling eg believe good game today ''arousal'' refers one 's physiological cognitive activation many researchers explored relationship arousal performance one unifying theory


aim success ref name ''control'' ability separate focus different events occurring one 's life within outside athletics ref name ref additionally specific psychological skills ingrained personality possessed higher levels elite athletes typical person include arousal regulation goal setting imagery pre performance routines self talk ref name according hollander 's model thought personality made three dimensions role related behavior typical responses psychological core role related behaviors actions person exhibits


certain situation behaviors change frequently external dynamic typical responses way person usually acts result event person 's psychological core refers morals beliefs values hold changed various circumstances internal constant multiple approaches personality shaped ref name ''the psychodynamic approach'' theory explores subconscious interacts conscience individual proposes underlying thoughts feelings emotions influence think act subconscious closely


playing field might way field theory neglects individual traits consider differences among people ref name '''''' ''interactional approach'' theory combination trait situational approach suggests traits commonly attributed individual predispose behavior however traits influence behavior unless situation calls theory commonly used sport psychologists takes consideration components person situation hand method measuring personality involves assessing traits typical style


behavior versus state immediate emotion behavior moment ref name '''''' athletic performance one interesting domains research athletes' performance athletic performance measured self report objective data eg player team statistics currently preference many scholars toward use self reports combination subjective objective measurements due complex nature athletic performance example athlete 's subjective performance scale asps developed validated objective data player 's statistics found reliable tool assessing athletic performance team sports youth sport youth


sport refers organized sports programs children less years old researchers area focus benefits drawbacks youth sport participation parents impact children 's experiences sporting activities day age youth influenced see tv sport idols reason rare see seven year old play acting game soccer socially influenced seeing tv ''life skills'' refer mental emotional behavioral


social skills resources developed sport participation research area focuses life skills developed transferred sports areas life eg tennis school program development implementation ''burnout'' sport typically characterized three dimensions emotional exhaustion depersonalization reduced sense accomplishment athletes experience burnout may different contributing factors frequent reasons include perfectionism boredom injuries excessive pressure overtraining burnout studied many different athletic populations eg coaches major problem youth


sports contributes withdrawal sport ''parenting'' youth sport necessary critical young athletes research parenting explores behaviors contribute hinder children 's participation example research suggests children want parents provide support become involved give technical advice unless well versed sport excessive demands parents may also contribute burnout ''coach behavior'' major contributor youth athletes experience sports ref name research directed coding behavioral styles coaches found children accurate perceiving


coaching behaviors coach lack awareness contributes heavily negative athlete behaviors burnout ref name ref coaching sport psychologists primarily work athletes focus research improving athletic performance coaches another population intervention take place researchers area focus kinds things coaches say improve coaching technique athletes' performance ''motivational climate'' refers situational environmental factors influence individuals' goals two major types motivational climates coaches create task oriented ego oriented winning


overall goal sports competitions regardless motivational climate task orientation emphasizes building skill improvement giving complete effort mastering task hand ie self referenced goals ego orientation emphasizes demonstrating superior ability competition promote effort individual improvement ie referenced goals task oriented climate found develop greater intrinsic self determined motivation athletes compared ego oriented climate ref name ref additionally environment self improvement primary focus creates greater intrinsic motivation one winning focus ''effective coaching practices'' explore best ways coaches lead teach


athletes examples researchers may study effective methods giving feedback rewarding reinforcing behavior communicating avoiding self fulfilling prophecies athletes coaches influence motivation athletes mainly interactional behavior athletes coaches perceived athletes autonomy supporting controlling ref name autonomy supporting coaches provide structure well involved caring towards athletes coaches perceived controlling instill less intrinsic motivation athletes motivation maximized coach perceived autonomy supporting providing high level training instruction due


findings interventions sport psychologist implement focused increasing autonomy supportive behaviors coaches ref name ''coaching philosophy'' refers set beliefs intrinsic coach guide behavior experience ref name ref philosophy facilitate self awareness prioritize coaching objectives athlete centered philosophy central individual allow coach react efficiently fast paced decisions sports systematic thoughtful way coach must self aware values order monitor values align thoughts actions often getting


feedback trusted outside sources helpful developing self awareness coach must also determine prioritize coaching objectives winning athlete well time outside sport athlete centered philosophy emphasizes learning improvement winning puts athlete development first philosophy dynamic societal coaching experiences occur change ref name ''mental coaching'' used technic raise performance achievements enhancing mental toughness predominantly used elite athletes high achievers global performance index tool developed support approach holistic


philosophy mind body heart spirit assesses quickly mental health athletes measuring performance progresses ''communication'' style important concept sport psychologists develop coaches ref name communication constant role coaches directed towards athletes parents administrators coaches media supporters mainly comes forms speaking writing body language listening verbal communication occurs spoken word however nonverbal communication contributes hugely people perceive coaches communication non verbal communication comes actions facial expressions body position gestures coaches must aware words tone


behaviors use research found athletes respond best positive feedback specific technical instruction general encouragement sport psychologists focus developing coaching communication styles direct complete immediate clear also supportive specific athlete verbally non verbally congruent ref name coaches become open idea good professional athlete coach relationship relationship basis effective performance setting team processes sport psychologists may consulting work conduct research entire teams research focuses team tendencies issues beliefs


belief amongst team members merely sum individual self efficacy beliefs ''leadership'' thought behavioral process influences team members towards achieving common goal leadership sports pertinent always leaders team ie team captains coaches trainers research leadership studies characteristics effective leaders leadership development organizational sport psychology since early growing trend toward research practice better acknowledges importance creating sporting environments enable people thrive organizational sport psychology subfield


sport psychology dedicated better understanding individual behavior social processes sport organizations promote organizational functioning focus organizational sport psychology develop knowledge supports development optimally functioning sport organizations though enhancement day day experiences operate within sphere influence knowledge used variety ways interventions individual group organizational level thus organizational sport psychology reflects systems perspective academic study increasingly necessary aspect practitioner competency motivation sport motivation field


psychology loosely defined intensity direction effort applied direction motivation refers one seeks situations avoid things might challenging intensity refers much effort one puts challenge situation motivation tied closely personality categorized personality trait three general theories motivation participant trait theory situational theory interactional theory theories similar personality ref name ref '''''' ''participant trait theory'' says motivation consists personality traits desires goals athlete


example athletes might extremely competitive desire improve win constantly athletes would motivated competition others ref name '''''' theories state motivation depends situation environment example athletes might feel desire work hard motivated others watching motivation would dependent whether people around ref name '''''' ''the interactional theory'' combines ideas participant trait situational level motivation individual depends


traits situation hand example athlete might intrinsically competitive feels motivated participating match many people ref name depending traits situations easier individuals find motivation others said able find motivation easily guaranteed success athletes struggle adjust things improve drive motivation facilitated coaching leaders changing environment finding multiple reasons motives something realistic


theoretical framework theory well supported studies several continents variety sports commonly used techniques common techniques skills sport psychologists teach athletes improving performance arousal regulation arousal regulation refers entering maintaining optimal level cognitive physiological activation order maximize performance may include relaxation one becomes anxious stressed methods progressive muscle relaxation deep breathing exercises meditation use energizing techniques eg listening music energizing cues


one alert enough may also include cognitive strategies relaxation methods psychological preparation positive self talk progressive muscle relaxation pmr refers progressive tensing relaxing target muscle groups help lower blood pressure reduce state anxiety improve performance decrease stress hormones technique developed edmund jacobson found people stress typically displayed increased muscle tension ref name humphrey j yow bowden w stress college athletics causes consequences coping routledge ref technique requires athletes feel tension muscle group order


recognize subsequent relaxation successfully use technique athletes must allot twenty thirty minutes activity tense muscle group four eight seconds ensure controlled deep breathing also applied ref name important note technique increase feelings fatigue although technique well suited pre performance method arousal regulation found long term regular practice reduce state anxiety sports related pain often exacerbated anxiety deep breathing exercises involve awareness one rhythm


utilize diaphragmatic breathing simultaneously individual inhales nose allowing belly rise lungs fill momentary pause release breath slowly mouth nose along physiological use evidence deep breathing increase sense relaxation reduce anxiety ref name hunt g study competitive swimmers found regular practice deep breathing exercises improve lung functions increasing respiratory endurance use meditation specifically mindfulness growing practice field arousal recognition


mindfulness acceptance commitment mac theory common form mindfulness sport formed aim mac maximize human potential rich full meaningful life includes specific protocol involve meditation acceptance practices regular basis well competition protocol tested various times using ncaa men 's women 's basketball players study done frank l gardner ncaa women 's basketball player increased personal satisfaction performances


performing specific mac protocol several weeks also effect mental barriers game decreased time period result mac protocol another study mac protocol performed frank gardner zella moore adolescent competitive diver showed mac protocol tailored specific population potential provide performance enhancement case vocabulary examples protocol tailored practical year old performed


high low idea demonstrated graph physiological arousal plotted performance curve resembles inverted u performance highest value arousal half highest value ref name ''the zone optimal functioning theory'' looks type athlete level arousal need perform best suggests athlete requires level stress arousal feel motivated perform well theory specific difficult quantify ref name one proposed model optimal functioning


proposed yuri hanin model focuses interaction natural emotional experience repetition athletics combination concepts creates emotional pattern stable individual takes account positive negative optimal dysfunctional emotional experiences effect athletic performance peak performance athlete experiences zone optimal functioning stage described including dissociation intense concentration point unaware one 's surroundings lack fatigue pain perceptual time slowing feeling power control state cannot forced


happen although athletes develop control several psychological variables contribute achieving peak performance sport psychologists try give athletes tools control reaching peak performance level interventions targets controlling state anxiety arousal level individual task needs maximize performance abilities strategies used include cognitive reappraisal breathing relaxation hypnosis ref name ref practice specificity based model arousal practice specificity based model arousal movahedi holds best peak performances occur athletes need create arousal level similar


one experienced throughout training sessions peak performance athletes need high low arousal levels important create level arousal throughout training sessions competition words high levels arousal beneficial athletes experience heightened levels arousal consecutive training sessions similarly low levels arousal beneficial athletes experience low levels arousal consecutive training sessions ref name movahedi ref goal setting goal setting process systematically planning ways achieve specific accomplishments within


certain amount time research suggests goals specific measurable difficult attainable time based written combination short term long term goals meta analysis goal setting sport suggests compared setting goals best goals setting types goals effective method improving performance according dr eva v monsma short term goals used help achieve long term goals dr monsma also states important set goals positive terms focusing behaviors present rather


absent long term goal also series short term goals progress difficulty ref name weinberg robert weinberg robert daniel gould goal setting foundation sport exercise psychology myles schrag courier printing print ref instance short term goals progress easy achieve challenging ref name weinberg robert challenging short term goals remove repetitiveness easy goals give one edge striving long term goals three major types goals within sport


psychology outcome goals performance goals process goals ref name ref types goals ''outcome goals'' describe individual team aim compare competitors ref name type goal unique nature ingrained social comparison winning common outcome goal type goal least effective depends many factors extrinsic individual ref name ''performance goals'' subjective goals concerned personal achievement end result ref name products performance based


standard subjective individual usually based numeric measurements examples include finishing race certain time jumping certain height completing specific amount repetitions ref name ''process goals'' focused process performance ref name include execution behaviors used activity getting final product performance examples include breathing control maintaining body posture use imagery ref name imagery imagery motor imagery defined using multiple senses create recreate experiences one 's mind additionally


vivid images likely interpreted brain identical actual event increases effectiveness mental practice imagery good imagery therefore attempts create lifelike image possible use multiple senses eg sight smell kinesthetic proper timing perspective accurate portrayal task anecdotal evidence athletes research findings suggest imagery effective tool enhance performance psychological states relevant performance eg confidence concept commonly used coaches athletes day


event two perspectives one take using imagery first person one pictures skill self third person imagery one pictures watching skill done self another athlete athletes use whichever perspective comfortable multiple theories athletes use imagery ref name '''''' ''psychoneuromuscular theory'' proposes athletes activate muscles associated action picturing action activating neurons provide input muscles similar actually practicing motion ref name '''''' ''symbolic learning theory'' proposes


athletes recognize patterns activities performance patterns used create mental map model completes series actions ref name '''''' ''vividness theory'' suggests athletes use five senses take information completing action using memories stimuli make mental recreation event realistic possible ref name '''''' ''controllability theory'' focuses ability athletes manipulate images mind way able picture correcting mistake something properly


thought make goals seem attainable athletes type imagery also harmful athletes visualize making mistake repeatedly ref name strategies imagery functional athlete might find one effective others strategy utilized based individual needs goals athlete order effective practice imagery needs inculcated regular routines supplement physical training athletes must learn use imagery quiet non distracting place picturing realistic attainable images using


trigger words facilitate imagery bring athlete closer pictured goal ref name preperformance routines preperformance routines refer actions behaviors athletes use prepare game performance includes pregame routines warm routines actions athlete regularly mentally physically execute performance frequently incorporate commonly used techniques imagery self talk examples would visualizations done skiers dribbling basketball players foul line preshot routines golfers baseball players use prior shot pitch


name example softball player may think release point bat direct attention point pitcher releases ball golfer may say smooth stroke putting stay relaxed motivational self talk signifies cues might build confidence maximize effort reaffirm one abilities example one might tell give research suggests either positive negative self talk may improve performance suggesting effectiveness self talk phrases depends phrase interpreted individual however use


positive self talk considered efficacious consistent associative network theory gordon bower self efficacy tenet within broader social cognitive theory albert bandura use words sport widely utilized ability bombard unconscious mind one single positive phrase one effective easy use psychological skills available athlete biofeedback biofeedback uses external technology measure make individual aware internal physiological processes ref name evidence physiological measures heart


rate brain waves appear different elite athletes typical person field looked however could beneficial implications athletes able monitor control physiological measures maximize performance ref name modeling modeling form observational learning athlete observes another individual around level skill learning perform sport related movements receive feedback ref name shown help modify athletes' thoughts emotions behaviors beneficial ways order


change arousal levels aware effect tempo arousal levels instance athletes listen fast tempo music instead slow tempo music achieve higher arousal levels lastly music effective managing arousal shifting athlete attention inward preventing athlete giving outside distractions could lead higher arousal impact performance negatively sport specific differences personality characteristics beneficial sport psychologists understand athlete personalities systematically vary depending type sport played ref name research athlete personalities allows professionals


put maximum investment select specific sports due background understanding dynamic intervening personality characteristics differ team versus individual sports well different types sports ref name ref big personality traits research big five personality traits openness conscientiousness extraversion agreeableness neuroticism well characteristics differentiated personalities athletes individual sports compared team sports ref name athletes individual sports scored higher measures conscientiousness autonomy team sport athletes scored higher measures agreeableness sociotrophy


arousal ref name one area personalities different types sports differentiated high sensation seekers tend participate high thrill extreme sports sky diving car racing scuba diving whitewater sports skiing sensation seeking motive high risk sports mountaineering ocean rowing high thrill sports involve intense speed excitement well perception risk individuals moderate level sensation seeking tend participate common sports unpredictable also minimally risky examples basketball baseball volleyball golf


low sensation seekers participate sports require large amounts training consistency long distance running gymnastics swimming ref name ref one area personality type differs different sports psychopathology different categories sports display different mental health profiles ref name ref overall female athletes likely develop psychopathology anxiety depression eating disorders problem prevalent male athletes drug alcohol use consistent general public well anxiety depression sleep problems prevalent highly aesthetic sports


exercise psychology exercise psychology defined study psychological issues theories related exercise exercise psychology sub discipline within field psychology typically grouped sport psychology example division apa exercise sport psychology one organizations like aasp encompass exercise sport psychology link exercise psychology long recognized william james discussed importance exercise writing needed furnish background sanity serenityand make us


good humored easy approach researchers noted connection exercise depression concluding moderate amount exercise helpful exercise symptom improvement additionally meeting exercise requirements also aid alleviating symptoms avoidance disorders anxiety also providing higher quality life patient terms physical health sub discipline amount research exercise psychology increased leading several presentations second gathering international society sport psychology throughout william


morgan wrote several pieces relationship exercise various topics mood anxiety adherence exercise programs morgan also went found apa division interdisciplinary subject exercise psychology draws several different scientific fields ranging psychology physiology neuroscience major topics study relationship exercise mental health eg stress affect self esteem interventions promote physical activity exploring exercise patterns different populations eg elderly obese theories behavior change problems associated exercise eg injury eating disorders exercise addiction


sport physical activity naspspa http wwwfepsaccom european federation sport psychology fepsac http wwwissponlineorg international society sport psychology issp http wwwbasesorguk home british association sport exercises sciences bases http wwwscappsorg canadian society psychomotor learning sport psychology scapps http wwwaspasporg asian south pacific association sport psychology aspasp https wwwarticlesbazarcom sports psychologyhtml need importance sports psychology physical education


'''economic growth''' defined increase improvement inflation adjusted market value goods services produced economy time statisticians conventionally measure growth percent rate increase real gross domestic product real gdp growth usually calculated ' 'real'' terms ie inflation adjusted terms eliminate distorting effect inflation prices goods produced measurement economic growth uses national income accounting ref name bjork ref since economic growth measured annual percent change gross domestic product gdp

Social science
Economics
Growth economics


advantages drawbacks measure economic growth rates countries commonly compared using ratio gdp population per capita income ref name bjork ref rate economic growth refers geometric annual rate growth gdp first last year period time growth rate represents trend average level gdp period ignores fluctuations gdp around trend economists refer increase economic growth caused efficient use inputs increased productivity labor


physical capital energy materials ''intensive growth'' contrast gdp growth caused increases amount inputs available use increased population example new territory counts ''extensive growth'' development new goods services also generates economic growth happens us consumer spending went goods services exist measurement economic growth rate calculated data gdp estimated countries' statistical agencies rate growth gdp per capita calculated data


gdp people initial final periods included analysis analyst long term growth living standards vary widely country country furthermore change living standards time varies widely country country table shows gdp per person annualized per person gdp growth selection countries period years gdp per person data adjusted inflation hence real gdp per person commonly called per capita gdp gdp entire country divided


number people country gdp per person conceptually analogous average income class wikitable economic growth country country period real gdp per person beginning period real gdp per person end period annualized growth rate japan brazil mexico germany canada


china united states argentina united kingdom india indonesia bangladesh seemingly small differences yearly gdp growth lead large changes gdp compounded


time instance table gdp per person united kingdom year time united states gdp per person lower uk however positions reversed gdp per person united kingdom united states ie gdp per person us uk table shows means gdp per person grew average per year us


uk thus difference gdp growth tenths percent per year results large differences outcomes growth persistent generation observations led economists view gdp growth important part field macroeconomics ref growth innovation creative economics system economic growth developed regions observed gdp growth influenced size economy relation gdp growth gdp across countries particular


input labor productivity hours worked intensity percentage working age population actually working participation rate proportion working age population total population demographics rate change gdp population sum rates change four variables plus cross products economists distinguish long run economic growth short run economic changes production short run variation economic growth termed ''business cycle'' generally economists attribute ups downs business cycle fluctuations aggregate demand contrast economic growth concerned long run trend production


due structural causes technological growth factor accumulation productivity increases labor productivity ratio value output labor input historically important source real per capita economic growth ref name bjork pp ref name kendrick famous estimate mit professor robert solow concluded technological progress accounted percent long term rise us per capita income increased investment capital explaining remaining percent increases productivity lower real cost goods th century real price many goods fell


economic growth traditionally attributed accumulation human physical capital increase productivity creation new goods arising technological innovation ref name lucas ref division labour specialization also fundamental rising productivity industrialization technological progress resulted increase population kept check food supply resources acted limit per capita income condition known malthusian trap ref name galor ref rapid economic growth occurred industrial revolution remarkable excess population


growth providing escape malthusian trap countries industrialized eventually saw population growth slow phenomenon known demographic transition increases productivity major factor responsible per capita economic growth especially evident since mid th century economic growth th century due increased output per unit labor materials energy land less input per widget balance growth output come using inputs changes increase output increased output included goods


produced previously new goods services ref name nberorg kendrick j w https wwwnberorg books kend productivity trends united states princeton university press ref industrial revolution mechanization began replace hand methods manufacturing new processes streamlined production chemicals iron steel products ref name landes ref machine tools made economical production metal parts possible parts could interchangeable ref name houndshell ref see interchangeable parts second industrial revolution major factor productivity growth substitution inanimate power human animal labor also great increase power steam powered electricity


generation internal combustion supplanted limited wind water power ref name landes since replacement great expansion total power driven continuous improvements energy conversion efficiency ref name ayres warr ref major historical sources productivity automation transportation infrastructures canals railroads highways new materials steel power includes steam internal combustion engines electricity productivity improvements included mechanized agriculture scientific agriculture including chemical fertilizers livestock poultry management green revolution interchangeable parts made machine tools powered electric motors evolved mass production universally used today ref name houndshell


productivity lowered cost items terms work time required purchase real food prices fell due improvements transportation trade mechanized agriculture fertilizers scientific farming green revolution great sources productivity improvement late th century railroads steam ships horse pulled reapers combine harvesters steam powered factories ref name wells ref invention processes making cheap steel important many forms mechanization transportation late th century prices weekly work hours fell less labor materials energy required produce transport goods


however real wages rose allowing workers improve diet buy consumer goods afford better housing ref name wells mass production created overproduction arguably one several causes great depression following great depression economic growth resumed aided part increased demand existing goods services automobiles telephones radios electricity household appliances new goods services included television air conditioning commercial aviation creating enough new demand stabilize work week building highway infrastructures also contributed post world war ii


growth capital investments manufacturing chemical industries post world war ii economy also benefited discovery vast amounts oil around world particularly middle east john w kendrick 's estimate three quarters increase us per capita gdp due increased productivity ref name kendrick ref economic growth united states slowed contrast growth asia strong since starting japan spreading four asian tigers china southeast asia indian subcontinent asia pacific ref name marketwatch ref south


korea lower per capita gdp ghana times high ghana 's japanese economic growth slackened considerably since late productivity united states grew increasing rate throughout th century rapid early middle decades th century ref name gordon ref us productivity growth spiked towards end century due acceleration rate technological innovation known moore 's law ref name gordon ref ref name jorgenson ho ref us productivity growth returned low levels


ref name gordon factor accumulation capital economics ordinarily refers physical capital consists structures largest component physical capital equipment used business machinery factory equipment computers office equipment construction equipment business vehicles medical equipment etc ref name bjork point increases amount capital per worker important cause economic output growth capital subject diminishing returns amount effectively invested growing burden depreciation development economic theory distribution income


considered labor owners land capital recent decades several asian countries high rates economic growth driven capital investment work week declined considerably th century average work week us hours work week reduced hours overtime premium applied part national industrial recovery act demographic factors may influence growth changing employment population ratio labor force participation rate ref name bjork pp ref


industrialization creates demographic transition birth rates decline average age population increases women fewer children better access market employment tend join labor force higher percentages reduced demand child labor children spend years school increase percentage women labor force us contributed economic growth entrance baby boomers workforce ref name bjork pp see spending wave factors affecting growth human capital many theoretical empirical analyses economic


growth attribute major role country 's level human capital defined skills population work force human capital included neoclassical endogenous growth models country 's level human capital difficult measure since created home school job economists attempted measure human capital using numerous proxies including population 's level literacy level numeracy level book production capita average level formal schooling average test score international tests cumulative depreciated investment


developed formal schooling contrary extensive evidence families neighborhoods peers health also contribute development human capital despite potential limitations theodore breton shown measure represent human capital log linear growth models across countries gdp adult log linear relationship average years schooling consistent log linear relationship workers' personal incomes years schooling mincer model ref name theodore ref economic growth rates percent vertical v standardized tests student achievement different regions adjusted gdp per capita eric hanushek


dennis kimko introduced measures students' mathematics science skills international assessments growth analysis found measure human capital significantly related economic growth eric hanushek ludger w mann extended analysis theodore breton shows correlation economic growth students' average test scores hanushek w mann 's analyses actually due relationship countries less eight years schooling shows economic growth correlated average scores educated countries ref name theodore hanushek w mann investigate whether relationship


knowledge capital economic growth causal show level students' cognitive skills explain slow growth latin america rapid growth east asia joerg baten jan luiten van zanden employ book production per capita proxy sophisticated literacy capabilities find countries high levels human capital formation th century initiated participated industrialization process th century whereas countries low levels human capital formation unable among many today 's less developed countries


glorious revolution high fiscal capacity combined constraints power king generated respect rule law ref name acemoglu robinson however others questioned institutional formula easily replicable elsewhere change constitution type institutions created change necessarily create change political power economic powers society aligned new set rule law institutions england dramatic increase state 's fiscal capacity followed creation constraints


crown elsewhere europe increases state capacity happened major rule law reforms ref name ref many different ways states achieved state fiscal capacity different capacity accelerated hindered economic development thanks underlying homogeneity land people england able achieve unified legal fiscal system since middle ages enabled substantially increase taxes raised ref name hand french experience state building faced much stronger resistance local feudal powers keeping legally


fiscally fragmented french revolution despite significant increases state capacity seventeenth century furthermore prussia habsburg empire much heterogeneous states england able increase state capacity eighteenth century without constraining powers executive ref name nevertheless unlikely country generate institutions respect property rights rule law without first intermediate fiscal political institutions create incentives elites support many intermediate level institutions relied informal private order arrangements combined public order institutions associated


states lay foundations modern rule law states ref name many poor developing countries much land housing held outside formal legal property ownership registration system many urban areas poor invade private government land build houses hold title properties much unregistered property held informal form various property associations arrangements reasons extra legal ownership include excessive bureaucratic red tape buying property building countries take steps


years build government land causes extra legal property failures notarize transaction documents documents notarized failing recorded official agency ref name desoto ref clear legal title property limits potential used collateral secure loans depriving many poor countries one important potential sources capital unregistered businesses lack accepted accounting methods factors limit potential capital ref name desoto businesses individuals participating unreported business activity owners unregistered property face costs bribes


pay offs offset much taxes avoided ref name desoto democracy cause growth according acemoglu et al specifically democracy increases future gdp encouraging investment increasing schooling inducing economic reforms improving public goods provision reducing social unrest unesco united nations also consider cultural property protection high quality education cultural diversity social cohesion armed conflicts particularly necessary qualitative growth according daron acemoglu simon johnson james robinson positive correlation high income cold climate product history europeans adopted different colonization policies different colonies different


environmental conditions colonies explain institutions instance former colonies inherited corrupt governments geopolitical boundaries set colonizers properly placed regarding geographical locations different ethnic groups creating internal disputes conflicts hinder development another example societies emerged colonies without solid native populations established better property rights incentives long term investment native populations large ''why nations fail'' acemoglu robinson said english north america started trying repeat success spanish conquistadors


also drive entrepreneurship words empirical analysis impact entrepreneurship growth difficult joint determination entrepreneurship economic growth papers use quasi experimental designs found entrepreneurship density small businesses indeed causal impact regional growth another major cause economic growth introduction new products services improvement existing products new products create demand necessary offset decline employment occurs labor saving technology lesser extent employment declines due


savings energy materials ref name jorgenson ho us consumer spending goods services exist also creation new services important invention new goods structural change economic growth us developed countries went phases affected growth changes labor force participation rate relative sizes economic sectors transition agricultural economy manufacturing increased size sector high output per hour high productivity manufacturing sector


reducing size sector lower output per hour lower productivity agricultural sector eventually high productivity growth manufacturing reduced sector size prices fell employment shrank relative sectors service government sectors output per hour productivity growth low saw increases shares economy employment ref name bjork pp public sector since contracted service economy expanded structural change could also viewed another angle possible divide real economic growth two


components indicator extensive economic growth quantitative gdp indicator improvement quality goods services qualitative gdp growth theories adam smith adam smith pioneered modern economic growth performance theory book ''the wealth nations'' first published book examined contributions production labor land capital demonstrated economic importance large buoyant markets industrial specialization also documented influence non economic factors political legal environment national prosperity smith 's study combined basic


economic theory personal observation historical documentary references malthusian theory malthusian theory proposes human history technological progress caused larger population growth impact income per capita long run according theory technologically advanced economies epoch characterized higher population density level income per capita different among technologically regressed society conceptual foundations malthusian theory formed thomas malthus modern representation approach provided ashraf galor ref name ref


line predictions malthusian theory cross country analysis finds significant positive effect technological level population density insignificant effect income per capita significantly years ref name classical growth theory classical ricardian economics theory production theory growth based theory law variable proportions whereby increasing either factors production labor capital holding constant assuming technological change increase output diminishing rate eventually approach zero


concepts origins thomas malthus theorizing agriculture malthus 's examples included number seeds harvested relative number seeds planted capital plot land size harvest plot land versus number workers employed see also diminishing returns criticisms classical growth theory technology important factor economic growth held constant economies scale ignored one popular theory big push model suggested countries needed jump one stage development


another virtuous cycle large investments infrastructure education coupled private investments would move economy productive stage breaking free economic paradigms appropriate lower productivity stage idea revived formulated rigorously late kevin murphy andrei shleifer robert vishny solow swan model robert solow trevor swan developed eventually became main model used growth economics model assumes diminishing returns capital labor capital accumulates investment level stock continually decreases


due depreciation due diminishing returns capital increases capital worker absent technological progress economic output worker eventually reaches point capital per worker economic output worker remain constant annual investment capital equals annual depreciation condition called 'steady state' solow swan model productivity increases technological progress output worker increases even economy steady state productivity increases constant rate output worker also increases related steady state rate consequence growth model occur either increasing share


gdp invested technological progress whatever share gdp invested capital worker eventually converges steady state leaving growth rate output worker determined rate technological progress consequence world technology available progressing constant rate countries steady state rate growth country different level gdp worker determined share gdp invests countries rate economic growth implicitly model rich countries invested high share


gdp long time poor countries become rich increasing share gdp invest one important prediction model mostly borne data ''conditional convergence'' idea poor countries grow faster catch rich countries long similar investment saving rates access technology solow swan model considered exogenous growth model explain countries invest different shares gdp capital technology improves time instead rate investment


higher return investment due diminishing returns capital consequence capital worker output worker global financial capital market converge level countries since historically financial capital flowed countries less capital worker basic solow swan model conceptual flaw beginning flaw addressed adding additional variables model explain countries less productive others therefore attract flows global financial capital even though less physical capital worker practice convergence


rarely achieved solow applied model data us gross national product estimate contributions showed increase capital labor stock accounted half output population increase adjustments capital explained eighth remaining unaccounted growth output known solow residual technical progress reason increased output nevertheless model still flaws gave room policy influence growth rate attempts also made rand corporation non profit think


tank frequently visiting economist kenneth arrow work kinks model suggested new knowledge indivisible endogenous certain fixed cost arrow 's explained new knowledge obtained firms comes practice built model knowledge accumulated experience according harrod natural growth rate maximum rate growth allowed increase variables like population growth technological improvement growth natural resources fact natural growth rate highest attainable growth rate would bring fullest


possible employment resources existing economy endogenous growth theory unsatisfied assumption exogenous technological progress solow swan model economists worked endogenize ie explain within models productivity growth resulting endogenous growth theory notably advanced robert lucas jr student paul romer includes mathematical explanation technological advancement ref name lucas model also incorporated new concept human capital skills knowledge make workers productive unlike physical capital human capital increasing rates return research done area


focused increases human capital eg education technological change eg innovation ref name mystery ref memorial day weekend conference buffalo brought together great minds economics idea evaluate conflicting theories growth romer krugman barro becker attendance along many rising stars high profiled economists time amongst many papers day one stood romer 's micro foundations aggregate technological change micro foundation claimed endogenous technological change concept intellectual property imbedded knowledge input


output production romer argued outcomes national growth rates significantly affected public policy trade activity intellectual property stressed cumulative capital specialization key population growth increase capital knowledge human capital specifically trained harvesting new ideas intellectual property may important baker cites multiple sources claiming stronger patent protection seems associated slower growth 's particularly true patents ethical health care industry effect taxpayers pay twice new drugs


terms creation entrepreneurs introduce new products processes hope enjoy temporary monopoly like profits capture markets make old technologies products obsolete seen ''annulment'' previous technologies makes obsolete destroys rents generated previous innovations ref name aghion ref major model illustrates schumpeterian growth ref name aghion unified growth theory unified growth theory developed oded galor co authors address inability endogenous growth theory explain key empirical regularities growth processes


individual economies world economy whole ref name ref ref name galor stagnation growth unified growth theory ''handbook economic growth'' elsevier ref unlike endogenous growth theory focuses entirely modern growth regime therefore unable explain roots inequality across nations unified growth theory captures single framework fundamental phases process development course human history malthusian epoch prevalent human history ii escape malthusian trap iii emergence human capital central


element growth process iv onset fertility decline v origins modern era sustained economic growth vi roots divergence income per capita across nations past two centuries theory suggests human existence technological progress offset population growth living standards near subsistence across time space however reinforcing interaction rate technological progress size composition population gradually increased pace technological progress enhancing importance education ability


two centuries ref name ref name inequality growth theories prevailing views role inequality growth process radically shifted past century classical perspective expressed adam smith others suggests inequality fosters growth process ref name bergostryee ref ref name bergostrysd ref specifically since aggregate saving increases inequality due higher property save among wealthy classical viewpoint suggests inequality stimulates capital accumulation therefore economic growth neoclassical perspective based representative agent approach denies role inequality growth


process suggests growth process may affect inequality income distribution impact growth process modern perspective emerged late suggests contrast income distribution significant impact growth process modern perspective originated galor zeira ref name ref ref name ref highlights important role heterogeneity determination aggregate economic activity economic growth particular galor zeira argue since credit markets imperfect inequality enduring impact human capital formation level income per capita growth


process contrast classical paradigm underlined positive implications inequality capital formation economic growth galor zeira argue inequality adverse effect human capital formation development process poor economies later theoretical developments reinforced view inequality adverse effect growth process specifically alesina rodrik persson tabellini advance political economy mechanism argue inequality negative impact economic development since creates pressure distortionary redistributive policies adverse effect


incentive elite block redistributive policies institutional changes particular inequality distribution land ownership provides landed elite incentive limit mobility rural workers depriving education blocking development industrial sector unified theory inequality growth captures changing role inequality growth process offers reconciliation conflicting predictions classical viewpoint maintained inequality beneficial growth modern viewpoint suggests presence credit market imperfections inequality predominantly


results underinvestment human capital lower economic growth unified theory inequality growth developed oded galor omer moav suggests effect inequality growth process reversed human capital replaced physical capital main engine economic growth initial phases industrialization physical capital accumulation dominating source economic growth inequality boosted development process directing resources toward individuals higher propensity save however later phases human capital become main engine economic growth equal distribution


income presence credit constraints stimulated investment human capital economic growth french economist thomas piketty postulated periods average annual rate return investment capital ''r'' exceeds average annual growth economic output ''g'' rate inequality increase according piketty case wealth already held inherited expected grow rate ''r'' grow rate faster wealth accumulated labor closely tied ''g'' advocate reducing inequality


levels piketty suggests levying global wealth tax order reduce divergence wealth caused inequality evidence reduced form reduced form empirical relationship inequality growth studied alberto alesina dani rodrik torsten persson guido tabellini ref name ref name find inequality negatively associated economic growth cross country analysis robert barro reexamined reduced form relationship inequality economic growth panel countries argues little overall relation income inequality rates growth investment however


empirical strategy limits applicability understanding relationship inequality growth several reasons first regression analysis control education fertility investment therefore excludes construction important effect inequality growth via education fertility investment findings simply imply inequality direct effect growth beyond important indirect effects main channels proposed literature second study analyzes effect inequality average growth rate following years however existing theories suggest effect inequality


observed much later case human capital formation instance third empirical analysis account biases generated reverse causality omitted variables recent papers based superior data find negative relationship inequality growth andrew berg jonathan ostry international monetary fund find lower net inequality robustly correlated faster durable growth controlling level redistribution ref name ref likewise dierk herzer sebastian vollmer find increased income inequality reduces economic growth evidence mechanisms galor zeira 's model predicts


effect rising inequality gdp per capita negative relatively rich countries positive poor countries ref name ref name testable predictions examined confirmed empirically recent studies particular br ckner lederman test prediction model panel countries period considering impact interaction level income inequality initial level gdp per capita line predictions model find th percentile initial income world sample


credit market imperfection approach developed galor zeira inequality associated lower level human capital formation education experience apprenticeship higher level fertility lower level human capital associated lower levels economic growth ref name princeton economist roland benabou 's finds growth process korea philippines broadly consistent credit constrained human capital accumulation hypothesis addition andrew berg jonathan ostry ref name suggest inequality seems affect growth human capital accumulation fertility channels contrast perotti argues political economy mechanism


supported empirically inequality associated lower redistribution lower redistribution investment education infrastructure associated lower economic growth ref name importance long run growth long periods time even small rates growth annual increase large effects example united kingdom experienced average annual increase inflation adjusted gdp gdp million pounds grew million pounds growth rate averaged years resulted fold increase


result different standards living populations small difference continues many years quality life one theory relates economic growth quality life threshold hypothesis states economic growth point brings increase quality life point called threshold point economic growth bring deterioration quality life results upside u shaped curve vertex curve represents level growth targeted happiness


shown increase gdp per capita least level per person economic growth indirect potential alleviate poverty result simultaneous increase employment opportunities increased labor productivity ref name odi claire melamed renate hartwig ursula grant http wwwodiorguk resources detailsaspid title jobs growth poverty employment jobs growth poverty know n't know know london overseas development institute ref study researchers overseas development institute odi countries experienced growth found cases poverty alleviated ref name odi instances quality


society able participate economic growth ref name odi claire melamed kate higgins andy sumner http wwwodiorguk resources detailsaspid title millennium development goals equitable growth policy brief economic growth mdgs overseas development institute ref effect economic growth poverty reduction growth elasticity poverty depend existing level inequality instance low inequality country growth rate per head population living poverty halve poverty ten years country high inequality would take nearly years achieve reduction words secretary general


united nations ban ki moon economic growth necessary sufficient progress reducing poverty ref name odi critics club rome argue narrow view economic growth combined globalization creating scenario could see systemic collapse planet 's natural resources marginal costs growing economy may gradually exceed marginal benefits however measured concerns negative environmental effects growth prompted people advocate lower levels growth abandoning growth altogether academia concepts like uneconomic


growth steady state economy degrowth developed order achieve overcome possible growth imperatives politics green parties embrace global greens charter recognising dogma economic growth cost excessive wasteful use natural resources without considering earth 's carrying capacity causing extreme deterioration environment massive extinction species ''global assessment report biodiversity ecosystem services'' published united nations' intergovernmental science policy platform biodiversity ecosystem services warned given substantial loss biodiversity society


focus solely economic growth anthropologist eduardo brondizio one co chairs report said need change narratives individual narratives associate wasteful consumption quality life status narratives economic systems still consider environmental degradation social inequality inevitable outcomes economic growth economic growth means end need look quality life planet optimistic environmental impacts growth believe though localized environmental effects may occur large scale ecological


major transformative changes needed akin even greater marshall plan including abandoning gdp measure economic success societal progress warning climate change signed scientists nations said economic growth driving force behind excessive extraction materials overexploitation ecosystems must quickly curtailed maintain long term sustainability biosphere add goals need shift gdp growth pursuit affluence toward sustaining ecosystems improving human well


prioritizing basic needs reducing inequality paper authored top scientists ''frontiers conservation science'' posited given environmental crises including biodiversity loss climate change possible ghastly future facing humanity must fundamental changes global capitalism including abolition perpetual economic growth global warming present close correlation economic growth rate carbon dioxide emissions across nations although also considerable divergence carbon intensity carbon emissions per gdp present also direct relation global


economic wealth rate global emissions ref name garrett ref stern review notes prediction business usual global emissions sufficient propel greenhouse gas concentrations ppm ppm end century robust wide range changes model assumptions scientific consensus planetary ecosystem functioning without incurring dangerous risks requires stabilization ppm consequence growth oriented environmental economists propose government intervention switching sources energy production favouring wind solar hydroelectric nuclear would


largely confine use fossil fuels either domestic cooking needs kerosene burners carbon capture storage technology cost effective reliable stern review published united kingdom government concluded investment gdp later changed would sufficient avoid worst effects climate change failure could risk climate related costs equal gdp carbon capture storage yet widely unproven long term effectiveness containing carbon dioxide 'leaks' unknown


current costs alternative fuels policy responses largely rest faith technological change british conservative politician journalist nigel lawson deemed carbon emission trading 'inefficient system rationing' instead favours carbon taxes make full use efficiency market however order avoid migration energy intensive industries whole world impose tax britain lawson pointed point taking lead nobody follows suit resource constraint many earlier predictions resource depletion thomas malthus'


green revolution chemical fertilizers especially haber process ammonia synthesis ref name wells opening line preface ref resource quality composed variety factors including ore grades location altitude sea level proximity railroads highways water supply climate factors affect capital operating cost extracting resources case minerals lower grades mineral resources extracted requiring higher inputs capital energy extraction processing copper ore grades declined significantly last century another example natural gas shale low


turner graham comparison limits growth thirty years reality csiro working paper series available ref ''malthusians'' william r catton jr skeptical technological advances improve resource availability advances increases efficiency suggest merely accelerate drawing finite resources catton claims increasing rates resource extraction stealing ravenously future energy energy economic theories hold rates energy consumption energy efficiency linked causally economic growth garrett relation holds fixed relationship current


rates global energy consumption historical accumulation world gdp independent year considered follows economic growth represented gdp growth requires higher rates energy consumption growth seemingly paradoxically sustained increases energy efficiency ref name garrett ref increases energy efficiency portion increase total factor productivity ref name kendrick technologically important innovations history involved increases energy efficiency include great improvements efficiency conversion heat work reuse heat reduction friction transmission