conversation references reading intellectual history surveys byrd b rise african american intellectual history ''modern intellectual history'' isaac joel et al eds ''the worlds american intellectual history'' oxford university press pp historical specificity modern social political thought programa de apoyo proyectos para innovar mejorar la educaci n papime creaci n de infograf animadas para la ense anza de la materia introducci n al pensamiento social pol tico moderno pe de la facultad de ciencias pol ticas sociales de la universidad nacional aut noma de xico unam samuel moyn andrew sartori editors ''global intellectual


history'' ''dictionary history ideas studies selected pivotal ideas'' edited philip p wiener new york charles scribner 's sons online http xtflibvirginiaedu xtf viewdocid dichist uvabook tei dichist xml volume http xtflibvirginiaedu xtf viewdocid dichist uvagentext tei dichist xml http xtflibvirginiaedu xtf viewdocid dichist uvabook tei dichist xml http xtflibvirginiaedu xtf viewdocid dichist uvagentext tei dichist xml grafton anthony history ideas precept practice beyond ''journal history ideas'' http sydneyeduau intellectual history documents grafton history ideaspdf online higham john rise american intellectual history ''american historical review'' pp nbsp https wwwjstororg stable jstor rahman ed ''encyclopaedia historiography'' https booksgooglecom booksid bhthvhgnwac excerpt text search schneider axel daniel woolf eds ''the oxford history historical


writing volume historical writing since '' https wwwamazoncom oxford history historical writing since dp excerpt woolf r ''a global encyclopedia historical writing'' garland reference library humanities vol https wwwamazoncom encyclopedia historical writing reference humanities dp excerpt text search monographs noam chomsky et al ''the cold war university toward intellectual history postwar years'' new press jacques le goff ''intellectuals middle ages'' translated teresa lavender fagan oxford blackwell bertrand russell ''a history western philosophy connection political social circumstances earliest times present day'' new york simon schuster


toews john e intellectual history linguistic turn autonomy meaning irreducibility experience ''the american historical review'' turner frank ''european intellectual history rousseau nietzsche'' riccardo bavaj ''intellectual history'' ''docupedia zeitgeschichte'' url http docupediade zg intellectual history primary sources george b de huszar ed ''the intellectuals controversial portrait'' glencoe illinois free press anthology many contributors external links ''dictionary history ideas studies selected pivotal ideas'' edited philip p wiener new york charles scribner 's sons http xtflibvirginiaedu xtf viewdocid dichist uvabook tei dichist xml volume abstraction


formation concepts design argument http xtflibvirginiaedu xtf viewdocid dichist uvagentext tei dichist xml volume despotism law http xtflibvirginiaedu xtf viewdocid dichist uvabook tei dichist xml volume law concept protest movements http xtflibvirginiaedu xtf viewdocid dichist uvagentext tei dichist xml volume psychological ideas antiquity zeitgeist courtesy university virginia historical specificity modern social political thought programa de apoyo proyectos para innovar mejorar la educaci n papime creaci n de infograf animadas para la ense anza de la materia introducci n al pensamiento social pol tico moderno pe de la facultad de ciencias pol ticas sociales de la universidad nacional aut noma de xico unam https webarchiveorg web http wwwidihorg wiki idih project international dictionary intellectual historians project launched


''journal history ideas'' http peoplevirginiaedu adm e grad gradhtm guide applying graduate work intellectual history http musejhuedu journals journal history ideas v graftonhtml history ideas precept practice beyond anthony grafton ''journal history ideas'' intellectual history history ideas se n farrell moran ''the encyclopedia historians historical writing'' vol intellectual history brett http wwwpalgraveconnectcom pc doifinder ''what history now'' http projectsiqharvardedu files history files intell history pgordon mar pdf intellectual history frankly partisan introduction frequently misunderstood field peter gordon cultural history fields history history philosophy humanities


'''ancient history''' aggregate past events ref name wordnet http wordnetprincetonedu perl webwn wordnet search history ref beginning writing recorded human history extending far post classical history phrase may used either refer period time academic discipline span recorded history roughly years beginning sumerian cuneiform script oldest coherent texts bc ancient history covers continents inhabited humans period bcad broad term ancient history confused classical antiquity


due neolithic revolution full progress according hyde estimates netherlands world population increased exponentially period bc prehistory world population stood million rising million bc rise iron age bc population risen million end period ad world population thought stood million years world population increased times ref name mnpnl http journalssagepubcom doi pdf data http themasitespblnl tridion en themasites hyde indexhtml history database


global environment k klein goldewijk beusen p janssen hyde long term dynamic modeling global population built area spatially explicit way table p netherlands environmental assessment agency mnp bilthoven netherlands ref study historians two major ways understanding ancient world archaeology study source texts primary sources sources closest origin information idea study primary sources distinguished secondary sources often cite comment build upon primary sources archaeology archaeology excavation


study artifacts effort interpret reconstruct past human behavior archaeologists excavate ruins ancient cities looking clues people time period lived important discoveries archaeologists studying ancient history include egyptian pyramids giant tombs built ancient egyptians beginning bc final resting places royalty study ancient cities harappa pakistan mohenjo daro pakistan lothal india south asia city pompeii italy ancient roman city preserved eruption mount vesuvius ad


state preservation great valuable window roman culture provided insight cultures etruscans samnites terracotta army mausoleum first qin emperor ancient china discovery knossos minos kalokairinos sir arthur evans discovery troy heinrich schliemann source text known ancient world comes accounts antiquity 's historians although important take account bias ancient author accounts basis


understanding ancient past notable ancient writers include herodotus thucydides arrian plutarch polybius sima qian sallust livy josephus suetonius tacitus fundamental difficulty studying ancient history recorded histories cannot document entirety human events fraction documents survived present day ref name gardnerp gardner p new chapters greek history historical results recent excavations greece asia minor new york gp putnam 's sons pp ref furthermore reliability information obtained surviving records must considered ref name gardnerp people


capable writing histories literacy widespread almost culture long end ancient history earliest known systematic historical thought emerged ancient greece beginning herodotus halicarnassus c bc thucydides largely eliminated divine causality account war athens sparta ref name cochrane charles norris p cochrane charles norris ''thucydides science history'' oxford university press p ref establishing rationalistic element set precedent subsequent western historical writings also first distinguish cause immediate origins


event ref name cochrane charles norris p roman empire ancient culture relatively high literacy rate many works widely read historians lost example livy roman historian lived st century bc wrote history rome called ''ab urbe condita'' ''from founding city'' volumes volumes still exist although short summaries rest exist indeed minority work major roman historian survived timeline ancient history


near east europe first reached modern humans years ago humans migrated americas years ago upper paleolithic th millennium bc earliest given date invention agriculture beginning ancient era g bekli tepe erected hunter gatherers th millennium bc c years ago advent sedentism together neval ori revolutionized understanding eurasian neolithic th millennium bc jiahu culture began china th millennium bc late neolithic civilisations saw


invention wheel spread proto writing th millennium bc cucuteni trypillia culture ukraine moldova romania region develops bc proto literate cuneiform spread middle east th century bc referred early bronze age ii saw beginning literate period mesopotamia ancient egypt around th century bc old kingdom egypt first dynasty uruk founded according earliest reliable regnal eras middle late bronze age class mw collapsible toccolours style margin em auto style background f eaba original civilisations


gallery mode packed heights file sumer satellite mapjpg mesopotamia sumer file indus valley civilization mature phase bce png india indus valley civilisation file erlitouxiapng china erlitou file peru site locationspng andean norte chico file olmec heartland overview svg mesoamerica olmec gallery gallery mode packed ebih ii en prierejpg ''statue ebih il'' sumer unicorn mold seal indus valley civilizationjpg seal indus valley civilisation xia dynasty pottery juejpg pottery ''jue'' erlitou perucaral jpg andean foundation pyramid norte chico cabeza colosal n del museo xalapajpg olmec head olmec gallery bronze age forms part three age system follows neolithic age areas


government religion division labour writing among city states ur among significant th century bc akkadian empire founded mesopotamia sumer civilisation bronze smelting spread westward egypt minoans hittites first intermediate period egypt nd century bc followed middle kingdom egypt st th centuries bc around th century bc second intermediate period egypt began egypt superpower time bc mycenaean greece developed invaded remains minoan


civilisation beginning hittite dominance eastern mediterranean region also seen th century bc time th th centuries bc around nile called new kingdom egypt bc bc amarna period developed egypt east iranian world indus valley civilisation organized cities neatly grid patterns civilisation diminished bc later replaced indo aryan peoples established vedic culture beginning shang dynasty emerged china period


evidence fully developed chinese writing system shang dynasty first chinese regime recognized western scholars though chinese historians insist xia dynasty preceded shang dynasty practiced forced labour complete public projects evidence massive ritual burial across ocean earliest known civilisation americas appeared river valleys desert coast central modern day peru norte chico civilisation 's first city flourished around bc olmecs supposed appear later mesoamerica th th centuries early iron age


iron age last principal period three age system preceded bronze age date context vary depending country geographical region iron age overall characterized prevalent smelting iron ferrous metallurgy use carbon steel smelted iron proved durable earlier metals copper bronze allowed productive societies iron age took place different times different parts world comes end society began maintain historical records map late bronze


age collapse center th th centuries bc ramesside period occurred egypt around nbsp bc trojan war thought taken place around nbsp bc disintegration hittite empire way collapse hittites part larger scale bronze age collapse took place ancient near east around nbsp bc greece mycenae minoans disintegrated wave sea peoples attacked many countries egypt survived intact afterwards entirely new successor civilisations arose eastern mediterranean bc zhou force led


king wu zhou overthrew last king shang dynasty zhou dynasty established china shortly thereafter zhou era china embraced feudal society decentralized power iron age china dissolved warring states period possibly millions soldiers fought feudal struggles pirak early iron age site balochistan pakistan going back nbsp bc period believed beginning iron age india subcontinent around time came vedas oldest sacred texts hindu


religion nbsp bc mannaean kingdom began western asia around th th centuries bc neo assyrian empire developed mesopotamia nbsp bc rise greek city states began nbsp bc first recorded olympic games held contrast neighboring cultures greek city states become single militaristic empire competed separate ''polis'' axial age preceding iron age often thought ended middle east around bc due rise historiography historical record axial age used describe


history bc eurasia including ancient greece iran india china widespread trade communication distinct regions period including rise silk road period saw rise philosophy proselytizing religions philosophy religion science diverse hundred schools thought producing thinkers confucius lao tzu mozi th century nbsp bc similar trends emerged throughout eurasia india rise buddhism near east zoroastrianism judaism west ancient greek philosophy developments religious


philosophical figures searching human meaning ref name neville ref axial age aftermath saw large wars formation large empires stretched beyond limits earlier iron age societies significant time persian achaemenid empire empire 's vast territory extended modern day egypt xinjiang empire 's legacy include rise commerce land routes eurasia well spreading persian culture middle east royal road allowed efficient trade taxation though macedonian alexander great conquered achaemenid empire


entirety unity conquests survive greek culture technology spread west south asia often synthesizing local cultures formation empires fragmentation separate greek kingdoms egypt asia encouraged trade communication like earlier persian administrations combined expansion han dynasty westward silk road series routes made possible exchange goods mediterranean basin south asia east asia south asia mauryan empire briefly annexed much indian subcontinent though short lived reign legacies spreading


buddhism providing inspiration later indian states supplanting warring greek kingdoms western world came growing roman republic iranian parthian empire result empires urbanization literacy spread locations previously periphery civilisation known large empires upon turn millennium independence tribal peoples smaller kingdoms threatened advanced states empires remarkable territorial size administration dissemination culture trade way influence


empires often extended far beyond national boundaries trade routes expanded land sea allowed flow goods distant regions even absence communication distant nations imperial rome chinese han dynasty rarely communicated trade goods occur evidenced archaeological discoveries roman coins vietnam time world 's population inhabited small part earth 's surface outside civilisation large geographic areas siberia sub saharan africa australia remained sparsely populated new world hosted variety


eurasian nations safer sea routes began gain preference early centuries ad proselytizing religions began replace polytheism folk religions many areas christianity gained wide following roman empire zoroastrianism became state enforced religion iran buddhism spread east asia south asia social change political transformation well ecological events contributed end ancient times beginning post classical era eurasia roughly around year developments religion philosophy roman cast terracotta ram horned ''jupiter ammon'' form zeus st


century ad gods sometimes borrowed civilisations adapted local conditions rise civilisation corresponded institutional sponsorship belief gods supernatural forces afterlife bronze age many civilisations adopted form polytheism usually polytheistic gods manifested human personalities strengths failings early religion often based location cities entire countries selecting deity would grant preferences advantages competitors worship involved construction representation deities granting sacrifices sacrifices could material goods food extreme cases


human sacrifice please deity new philosophies religions arose east west particularly th century bc time great variety religions developed around world earliest major ones hinduism around bc buddhism th century bc jainism th century bc india zoroastrianism persia abrahamic religions trace origin judaism around bc ancient indian philosophy fusion two ancient traditions sramana tradition vedic tradition indian philosophy begins ''vedas'' questions related laws nature


origin universe place man asked jainism buddhism continuation sramana school thought sramanas cultivated pessimistic world view samsara full suffering advocated renunciation austerities laid stress philosophical concepts like ahimsa karma jnana samsara moksa ancient relations indian vedas iranian avesta two main families indo iranian philosophical traditions characterized fundamental differences implications human 's position society view role


man universe east three schools thought dominate chinese thinking modern day taoism legalism confucianism confucian tradition would attain dominance looked political morality force law power example tradition confucianism would later spread korean peninsula goguryeo toward japan west greek philosophical tradition represented socrates plato aristotle diffused throughout europe middle east th century bc conquests alexander great


bronze iron age religions formed rise spread christianity roman world marked end hellenistic philosophy ushered beginnings medieval philosophy science technology pont du gard roman aqueduct france history technology ancient science growth ancient civilisations ancient technological advances produced engineering advances stimulated societies adopt new ways living governance sometimes technological development sponsored state characteristics ancient egyptian technology indicated set artifacts customs


lasted thousands years egyptians invented used many basic machines ramp lever aid construction processes egyptians also played important role developing mediterranean maritime technology including ships lighthouses water managing qanats likely emerged iranian plateau possibly also arabian peninsula sometime early st millennium bc spread slowly west eastward history science technology india dates back ancient times indus valley civilisation yields evidence hydrography sewage collection disposal


turbulent eras late antiquity early middle ages roman technological feats many different areas like civil engineering construction materials transport technology inventions mechanical reaper went unmatched th century maritime activity history ancient navigation began earnest men took sea planked boats ships propelled sails hung masts like ancient egyptian khufu ship mid rd millennium bc according greek historian herodotus necho ii sent expedition phoenicians three years sailed red sea


around africa mouth nile many current historians tend believe herodotus point even though herodotus disbelief phoenicians accomplished act hannu ancient egyptian explorer around bc first explorer knowledge made first recorded exploring expedition writing account exploration stone hannu travelled along red sea punt sailed part eastern ethiopia somalia returned egypt great treasures including precious myrrh metal wood warfare


technical drawing roman ballista mechanism ancient warfare war conducted beginnings recorded history end ancient period europe end antiquity often equated fall rome china also seen ending th century growing role mounted warriors needed counter ever growing threat north difference prehistoric warfare ancient warfare less one technology organization development first city states empires allowed warfare change dramatically


egypt china followed similar pattern using massed infantry armed bows spears artwork music ancient music developed literate cultures replacing prehistoric music 'ancient music' refers various musical systems developed across various geographical regions persia india china greece rome egypt mesopotamia ancient music designated characterization basic audible tones scales may transmitted oral written systems arts ancient world refers many types art cultures ancient societies


bar kush text kush bar aksumite text aksumite bar carthage text carthage bar nok text nok bar blank bar asia text south asia bar indusvalley bar blank bar e asia text east asia bar china bar blank bar americas text americas bar namericas text namericas bar camericas text camericas bar samericas text samericas bar blank bar eur text europe bar europe plotdata align center textcolor black fontsize mark lineblack width shift bar ages color skyblue start till end text historical ages bar time color period till text bronze age till text iron age till text middle ages bar blank bar sw asia color skyblue start till end text southwest asia near east bar mes color era till text mesopotamia bar elam color era till shift text proto elamite


till text old elamite till text middle elamite till text neo elamite bar ach color era till text achaemenid empire bar blank bar africa color skyblue start till end text africa bar egypt color age till text ancient egypt bar kush color era till text kerma till text ancient egypt till text napata till text meroe bar aksumite color age till text aksumite empire bar carthage color eon till text ancient carthage bar nok color era till text nok bar blank bar asia color skyblue start till


end text south asia bar indusvalley color era till text indus valley civilisation till text iron age india till text indo greeks till text middle kingdoms india bar blank bar e asia color skyblue start till end text east asia bar china color era till text three sovereigns five emperors till text ancient china till text imperial china bar blank bar americas color skyblue start till end text americas bar namericas color age till text archaic till text classic till text pre columbian bar camericas color era till text archaic


bc sumer babylonia assyric highlands dairy farming metal working potter 's wheel sexagesimal system textiles cuneiform polytheistic andean civilizations bc norte chico bc chavin ad nazca culture peru ecuador colombia maritime origins nazca lines quipu unique system government none polytheistic ancient india bc south asia agriculture astrology astronomy city planning dams literature martial arts mathematics medicine potter 's wheel temple builders pictographic brahmi script hinduism egyptian bc north eastern africa along river nile


decimal system egyptian pyramids mummification solar calendar hieroglyphic ancient egyptian religion nubian bc north eastern africa along nile mud brick temple nubian pyramids pottery solar calendar hieroglyphic ancient egyptian religion greek bc cycladic minoan civilisation bc mycenaean greece bc ancient greece greece peloponnese epirus central greece macedon later alexandria agriculture architecture astronomy chemistry drama history mathematics medicine philosophy physics poetry political science rhetoric warfare winemaking greek ancient greek religion chinese bc ancient china


bc ad early imperial china china chinaware great wall china metals paper pottery silk chinese chinese folk religion confucianism mesoamerica bc olmecs ad maya southern mexico guatemala agriculture bloodletting mesoamerican calendars olmec colossal heads popcorn textiles cascajal block maya mesoamerican religion iranian bc ad greater iran agriculture architecture landscaping postal service cuneiform pahlavi zoroastrianism roman bc ad italy spread across europe north africa agriculture


roman calendar concrete latin religion ancient rome historical ages timeline imagesize width height plotarea width height left bottom alignbars justify colors id time value rgb id period value rgb id age value rgb id era value rgb id eon value rgb id filler value gray background bar id black value black period till timeaxis orientation horizontal scalemajor unit year increment start scaleminor unit year increment start plotdata align center textcolor black fontsize mark lineblack width shift bar time color period till text bronze age till text iron age till


text post classical timeline history region southwest asia near east timeline imagesize width height plotarea width height left bottom alignbars justify colors id time value rgb id period value rgb id age value rgb id era value rgb id eon value rgb id filler value gray background bar id black value black period till timeaxis orientation horizontal scalemajor unit year increment start scaleminor unit year increment start plotdata align center textcolor black fontsize mark lineblack width shift bar mes color era till text mesopotamia bar elam color era till shift text proto elamite till text old


nd millennium nbsp bc surplus storable foodstuffs created economy allowed population settle one place instead migrating crops herds also allowed much greater population density turn required extensive labour force division labour organization led necessity record keeping development writing babylonia amorite state lower mesopotamia modern southern iraq babylon capital babylonia emerged hammurabi r c bc created empire territories former kingdoms sumer


akkad amorites ancient semitic speaking peoples babylonia adopted written akkadian language official use retained sumerian language religious use time longer spoken language akkadian sumerian cultures played major role later babylonian culture region would remain important cultural center even outside rule earliest mention city babylon found tablet reign sargon akkad dating back rd century bc neo babylonian empire chaldea babylonia rule


th chaldean dynasty revolt nabopolassar bc invasion cyrus great bc notably included reign nebuchadnezzar ii conquered kingdom judah jerusalem akkad city surrounding region central mesopotamia akkad also became capital akkadian empire ref name websterninthnewcollege mish frederick c editor chief akkad ''webster ninth new collegiate dictionary'' th ed springfield merriam webster inc indexed deluxe ref city probably situated west bank euphrates sippar kish present day iraq


southwest center baghdad despite extensive search precise site never found akkad reached height power th nd centuries bc following conquests king sargon akkad policies akkadian empire toward linguistic assimilation akkad also gave name predominant semitic dialect akkadian language reflecting use ''akkad '' language akkad old babylonian period denote semitic version sumerian text assyria originally middle bronze age region


upper tigris named original capital ancient city assur later nation empire came control fertile crescent egypt much anatolia term assyria proper referred roughly northern half mesopotamia southern half babylonia nineveh capital assyrian kings controlled large kingdom three different times history called ''old'' th th centuries bc ''middle'' th th centuries bc ''neo assyrian'' bc kingdoms periods last well known


best documented assyrians invented excavation undermine city walls battering rams knock gates well concept corps engineers bridged rivers pontoons provided soldiers inflatable skins swimming mitanni indo iranian empire northern mesopotamia c bc height mitanni power th century bc encompassed today southeastern turkey northern syria northern iraq centered around capital washukanni whose precise location determined archaeologists iranian people elam name ancient civilisation located


southwest iran archaeological evidence associated elam dated bc according available written records known existed around nbsp bcmaking among world 's oldest historical civilisationsand endured nbsp bc culture played crucial role gutian empire especially achaemenid dynasty succeeded elamite language remained among official use elamite period considered starting point history iran medes ancient iranian people established empire th


century nbsp bc defeated neo assyrian empire chaldeans overthrew urartu later well medes credited foundation first iranian empire largest day cyrus great established unified iranian empire medes persians often referred achaemenid empire defeating grandfather overlord astyages king media persian achaemenid empire greatest extent center achaemenid empire largest significant persian empires followed median empire second great empire iranians


noted western history foe greek city states greco persian wars freeing israelites babylonian captivity successful model centralized bureaucratic administration mausoleum halicarnassus one seven wonders ancient world instituting aramaic empire 's official language empire 's vast extent long endurance persian influence upon language religion architecture philosophy law government nations around world lasts day height power achaemenid dynasty encompassed approximately nbsp million square kilometers held


greatest percentage world population date stretched three continents europe asia africa territorially largest empire classical antiquity extent iranian influence circa bc parthian empire mostly speaking western iranian languages red areas dominated scythia mostly eastern iranian orange center frame parthia iranian civilisation situated northeastern part modern iran power based combination guerrilla warfare mounted nomadic tribe organizational skills build administer vast empireeven though never matched power extent


tigranes great early history hittite empire known tablets may first written th century bc survived copies made th th centuries bc tablets known collectively anitta text begin telling pithana king kussara small city state yet identified archaeologists conquered neighbouring city ne kanesh main subject tablets pithana 's son anitta conquered several neighbouring cities including hattusa zalpuwa zalpa assyrian inscriptions shalmaneser c bc


first mention ''uruartri'' one states nairi loose confederation small kingdoms tribal states armenian highland th th centuries bc uruartri region around lake van nairi states repeatedly subjected attacks assyrians especially tukulti ninurta c bc tiglath pileser c bc ashur bel kala c bc adad nirari ii c tukulti ninurta ii c ashurnasirpal ii bc kingdom armenia independent kingdom bc ad client state


roman persian empires bc rule king tigranes great kingdom armenia became large powerful empire stretching caspian mediterranean sea short time considered powerful state roman east israel iron age kingdom israel blue kingdom judah yellow israel judah related iron age kingdoms ancient levant existed iron ages neo babylonian persian hellenistic periods name israel first appears


stele egyptian pharaoh merneptah c nbsp bc israel laid waste seed israel cultural probably political entity central highlands well enough established perceived egyptians possible challenge hegemony ethnic group rather organised state archaeologist paula mcnutt says probably iron age population began identify 'israelite' differentiating neighbours via prohibitions intermarriage emphasis family history genealogy religion israel emerged


middle th century bc assyrian king shalmaneser iii names ahab israelite among enemies battle qarqar judah emerged somewhat later israel probably th century bc subject one considerable controversy israel came increasing conflict expanding neo assyrian empire first split territory several smaller units destroyed capital samaria series campaigns neo babylonian empire led destruction judah followed fall babylon persian empire cyrus


great allowed jews return judea hasmonean kingdom followed maccabean revolt existed hellenistic period herodian kingdom roman period others history pre islamic arabia rise islam known great detail archaeological exploration arabian peninsula sparse indigenous written sources limited many inscriptions coins southern arabia existing material consists primarily written sources traditions egyptians greeks persians romans etc oral traditions later recorded islamic scholars many


small kingdoms prospered red sea indian ocean trade major kingdoms included sabaeans awsan lahkimid himyar nabateans arab kingdoms occasionally mentioned hebrew old testament name edom though ugaritic site thought inhabited earlier neolithic ugarit already important enough fortified wall early first written evidence mentioning city comes nearby city ebla c bc ugarit passed sphere influence egypt deeply influenced art mediterranean coast modern day israel palestine


lebanon canaanite peoples became wealth trade inspiring phoenicians phoenicia ancient civilisation centered north ancient canaan heartland along coastal regions modern day lebanon syria israel phoenician civilisation enterprising maritime trading culture spread across mediterranean period bc one phoenician colony carthage became powerful nation right afro asiatic africa timeline imagesize width height plotarea width height left bottom alignbars justify colors id time value rgb id period value rgb id age value rgb id era value rgb id eon value rgb


final punic war carthage destroyed occupied roman forces nearly territory held carthage fell roman hands egypt khafre 's pyramid th dynasty great sphinx giza c bc perhaps earlier left ancient egypt long lived civilisation geographically located north eastern africa concentrated along middle lower reaches nile river reaching greatest extension nd millennium nbsp bc referred new kingdom period reached broadly nile delta north far south jebel barkal


fourth cataract nile extensions geographical range ancient egyptian civilisation included different times areas southern levant eastern desert red sea coastline sinai peninsula western desert focused several oases ancient egypt developed least three half millennia began incipient unification nile valley polities around bc conventionally thought ended bc early roman empire conquered absorbed ptolemaic egypt province though last represent first period


foreign domination roman period witness marked gradual transformation political religious life nile valley effectively marking termination independent civilisational development civilisation ancient egypt based finely balanced control natural human resources characterised primarily controlled irrigation fertile nile valley mineral exploitation valley surrounding desert regions early development independent writing system literature organisation collective projects trade surrounding regions east central africa eastern mediterranean finally military ventures


exhibited strong characteristics imperial hegemony territorial domination neighbouring cultures different periods motivating organizing activities socio political economic elite achieved social consensus means elaborate system religious belief figure semi divine ruler usually male succession ruling dynasties related larger world means polytheistic beliefs nubia pharaohs nubia kushite civilisation also known nubia formed period egyptian incursion area first cultures arose


sudan time unified egypt widespread culture known kerma civilisation egyptians referred nubia ta seti land bow since nubians known expert archers two civilisations shared abundance peaceful cultural interchange cooperation including mixed marriages even gods new kingdom nubians became indistinguishable archaeological record egyptians kingdom kush survived longer egypt greatest extent nubia ruled egypt leadership king piye


controlled egypt th century bc th dynasty also referred ethiopia ancient greek roman records according josephus classical writers kushite empire covered africa parts asia europe one time another contrast egyptians nubians unusually high number ruling queens also known kandake especially golden age meroitic kingdom unlike rest world time women nubia exercised significant control society kushites also famous


buried monarchs along courtiers mass graves kushites also built burial mounds pyramids shared gods worshipped egypt especially amon isisegyptian soldiers hatshepsut 's expedition land punt depicted temple deir el bahri alt left land punt land punt also called pwenet pwene ref name shaw nicholson p ian shaw paul nicholson dictionary ancient egypt british museum press london p ref ancient egyptians trading partner known producing exporting gold


aromatic resins african blackwood ebony ivory slaves wild animals ref name shaw nicholson p information punt found ancient egyptian records trade missions region exact location punt remains mystery mainstream view punt located south east egypt likely coast horn africa archaeologist richard pankhurst states blockquote punt identified territory arabian horn africa coasts consideration articles egyptians obtained punt notably gold ivory suggests however


twelfth dynasty egypt trade punt celebrated popular literature tale shipwrecked sailor axum ancient ethiopia ezana stone records negus ezana 's conversion christianity conquests neighbors axumite empire important trading nation northeastern africa centered present day eritrea northern ethiopia existed approximately ad growing iron age proto aksumite period c th century bc achieve prominence st century ad according book aksum aksum 's first capital mazaber built itiyopis son cush


capital later moved axum northern ethiopia kingdom used name ethiopia early th century ref name munro hay ref name paul b henze henze paul b ''layers time history ethiopia'' ref empire aksum height climax early th century extended much modern ethiopia across red sea arabia capital city empire aksum northern ethiopia ancient capital found northern ethiopia kingdom used name ethiopia early th century ref name munro hay stuart


munro hay aksum african civilization late antiquity edinburgh university press pp ref aksum mentioned st century ad ''periplus erythraean sea'' important market place ivory exported throughout ancient world states ruler aksum st century ad zoscales besides ruling aksum also controlled two harbours red sea adulis near massawa avalites assab also said familiar greek literature also alleged resting place ark covenant home


queen sheba aksum also one first major empires convert christianity macrobia barbaroi city states reconstruction oikumene inhabited world described herodotus th century bc macrobia ancient kingdom situated horn africa present day somalia mentioned th century bc according herodotus' account persian emperor cambyses ii upon conquest egypt bc sent ambassadors macrobia bringing luxury gifts macrobian king entice submission macrobian ruler


prisoners golden chains ref name kitto collapse macrobia several wealthy ancient city states opone essina sarapion nikon malao damo mosylon near cape guardafui would emerge st millennium bc ad compete sabaeans parthians axumites wealthy indo greco roman trade flourished along somali coast developed lucrative trading network region collectively known peripilus erythraean sea barbaria niger congo africa nok culture nok sculpture seated person nok culture appeared nigeria around bc mysteriously vanished around ad


civilisation 's social system thought highly advanced nok civilisation considered earliest sub saharan producer life sized terracotta discovered archaeologists nok also used iron smelting may independently developed ref name archaeology ''shaw thurstan nigeria archaeology early history retrieved february '' ref nok sculpture resident minneapolis institute arts portrays sitting dignitary wearing shepherds crook right arm hinged flail left symbols authority associated ancient egyptian pharaohs god osiris suggests


ancient egyptian style social structure perhaps religion existed area modern nigeria late pharonic period informational excerpt copied nigeria nok culture articles sahel djenn djenno civilisation djenn djenno located niger river valley country mali considered among oldest urbanized centers best known archaeology site sub saharan africa archaeological site located kilometers nbsp mi away modern town believed involved long distance trade possibly domestication african rice


site believed exceed hectares acres however yet confirmed extensive survey work help archaeological excavations mainly susan roderick mcintosh site known occupied bc ad city believed abandoned moved current city located due spread islam building great mosque djenn previously assumed advanced trade networks complex societies exist region arrival traders


southwest asia however sites djenn djenno disprove traditions west africa flourished long towns similar djenne jeno also developed site dia also mali along niger river around nbsp bc dhar tichitt oulata dhar tichitt oualata prominent among early urban centres dated bc present day mauritania stone settlements littered region former savannah sahara inhabitants fished grew millet found soninke mand peoples responsible constructing settlements around


id age value rgb id era value rgb id eon value rgb id filler value gray background bar id black value black period till timeaxis orientation horizontal scalemajor unit year increment start scaleminor unit year increment start plotdata align center textcolor black fontsize mark lineblack width shift bar indusvalley color era till text indus valley civilisation till text iron age india till text indo greeks till text middle kingdoms india timeline one earliest neolithic sites indian subcontinent bhirrana along ancient ghaggar hakra saraswati riverine system present day


state haryana india dating around bc ref name oldest ref early sites include lahuradewa middle ganges region jhusi near confluence ganges yamuna rivers dating around bc aceramic neolithic mehrgarh lasts bc ceramic neolithic mehrgarh lasting bc blending early bronze age mehrgarh one earliest sites evidence farming herding indian subcontinent early mehrgarh residents lived mud brick houses stored grain granaries fashioned tools local copper


ore lined large basket containers bitumen cultivated six row barley einkorn emmer wheat jujubes dates herded sheep goats cattle residents later period bc bc put much effort crafts including flint knapping tanning bead production metal working site occupied continuously bc political map mauryan empire including notable cities capital pataliputra site buddha 's enlightenment alt center x px possible representation yogi proto shiva bc indus valley civilisation c bc flourished bc


abbreviated ivc ancient civilisation flourished indus ghaggar hakra river valleys found eastern afghanistan pakistan western india minor scattered sites found far away turkmenistan another name civilisation harappan civilisation first cities excavated harappa pakistani province punjab ivc known sumerians meluhha trade contacts may included egypt africa however modern world discovered result archaeological excavations rail road building


chariots persian army also mentions indus people clad armaments made cotton carried bows arrows cane covered iron herodotus states bc darius sent expedition scylax explore indus persian rule much irrigation commerce flourished within vast territory empire persian empire followed invasion greeks alexander 's army since alexander determined reach easternmost limits persian empire could resist temptation conquer india ie punjab region


time parcelled small chieftain ships feudatories persian empire alexander amalgamated region expanding hellenic empire ''rigveda'' sanskrit goes back bc indian literary tradition oral history reaching vedic period later nd millennium bcgreek buddha gandhara st century ad''ancient india'' usually taken refer golden age classical indian culture reflected sanskrit literature beginning around bc sixteen monarchies 'republics' known mahajanapadas stretched across indo gangetic plains modern day afghanistan


bangladesh largest nations magadha kosala kuru gandhara notably great epics ramayana mahabharata rooted classical period amongst sixteen mahajanapadas kingdom magadha rose prominence number dynasties peaked power reign ashoka maurya one india 's legendary famous emperors reign ashoka four dynasties chola chera pandya ruling south king devanampiya tissa bc controlling anuradhapura kingdom sri lanka kingdoms part


period relative peace law order extensive achievements religion education mathematics arts sanskrit literature drama grammar composition logic metaphysics mathematics medicine astronomy became increasingly specialized reached advanced level gupta empire weakened ultimately ruined raids hunas branch hephthalites emanating central asia harsha r north india reunited briefly educated speech time sanskrit dialects general population northern india referred prakrits south indian malabar coast tamil people


width height plotarea width height left bottom alignbars justify colors id time value rgb id period value rgb id age value rgb id era value rgb id eon value rgb id filler value gray background bar id black value black period till timeaxis orientation horizontal scalemajor unit year increment start scaleminor unit year increment start plotdata align center textcolor black fontsize mark lineblack width shift bar china color era till text three sovereigns five emperors till text ancient china till text imperial china timeline china oracle bone script shang dynasty chinese


civilisation emerged within yellow river valley one five original civilisations world prior formation civilisation neolithic cultures longshan yangshao dating bc lived wall cities likely social organizations complex chiefdoms practice rice cultivation vital settled life china early part shang dynasty described traditional histories c nbsp bc commonly identified archaeological finds erligang zhengzhou yanshi south yellow river modern day henan province last capital shang c


bc anyang also henan directly confirmed discovery earliest chinese texts inscriptions divination records bones shells animals nbsp called oracle bones towards end nd millennium bc shang overrun zhou dynasty wei river valley west death king wu zhou soon conquest triggered succession crisis civil war suppressed wu 's brother duke zhou acting regent zhou rulers time invoked concept


mandate heaven legitimize rule concept would influential almost every successive dynasty zhou initially established capital west near modern xi'an near yellow river would preside series expansions yangtze river valley would first many population migrations north south chinese history terracotta warriors time qin shi huang th century bc power became decentralized spring autumn period named influential ''spring autumn annals'' period local military


leaders used zhou began assert power vie hegemony situation aggravated invasion peoples northwest quanrong forcing zhou move capital east luoyang marks second large phase zhou dynasty eastern zhou hundreds states eventually arose local strongmen held political power continued subservience zhou kings name local leaders instance started using royal titles hundred schools thought chinese


philosophy blossomed period influential intellectual movements confucianism taoism legalism mohism founded partly response changing political world spring autumn period marked falling apart central zhou power china consisted hundreds states large village fort political consolidation seven prominent states remained end th century bc years states battled known warring states period though remained nominal zhou king


bc largely figurehead held little power neighboring territories warring states including areas modern sichuan liaoning annexed governed new local administrative system commandery prefecture system use since spring autumn period parts still seen modern system sheng xian province county final expansion period began reign ying zheng king qin unification six powers annexations modern


regions zhejiang fujian guangdong guangxi bc enabled proclaim first emperor qin shi huangdi chinese han dynasty dominated east asia region beginning first millennium ad qin shi huangdi ruled unified china directly absolute power contrast decentralized feudal rule earlier dynasties qin set number 'commandries' around country answered directly emperor nationwide philosophy legalism enforced publications promoting rival ideas confucianism prohibited reign unified china created


rise aristocrats disobeyed central government public frustration provoked yellow turban rebellion though failure nonetheless accelerated empire 's downfall ad han dynasty broke rival kingdoms china would remain divided sui dynasty era division buddhism would introduced china first time neighbors china pazyryk unearthed nalinggaotu shenmu county near xi'an china ref name jr ref possibly huns northern chinese prairie th rd centuries bc ref name jr han dynasty period ref name shm shaanxi history museum ref name shm ref east asian nations


chinese rulers often gave important hostages arranged marriages bc xiongnu emperor modu chanyu first major military campaign defeated donghu split new tribes xianbei wuhuan xiongnu largest nomadic enemies han dynasty fighting wars three centuries han dynasty dissolving afterwards xianbei returned rule steppe north great wall titles khangan khan come xianbei according ''records grand historian'' wiman joseon korea founded general wiman china


originally served usurped throne gojoseon name ancient korea bc bc han dynasty china destroyed wiman joseon established four commanderies northern korean peninsula three commanderies shortly lost lelang commandery remained northwestern korean peninsula years three kingdoms korea baekje goguryeo silla emerged fall gojoseon eventually expelled chinese three kingdoms competed economically militarily goguryeo baekje main players much


three kingdoms era controlled korean peninsula times powerful neighboring chinese dynasties goguryeo name korea comes regional power defeated massive invasions sui dynasty multiple times ref name autogenerated ref goguryeo baekje eventually destroyed tang dynasty silla alliance silla drove tang dynasty control korean peninsula undisputed vietnam archaeologists pointed ph ng nguy n culture beginning vietnamese identity around bc engaged early bronze smelting eight hundred


years later ng n culture arose prehistoric bronze age culture centered red river valley northern vietnam large scale rice cultivation began around bc onward pottery bamboo working became common time period well widespread trade navigation inland rivers time vietnam allegedly ruled semi mythical hong bang dynasty last hong king deposed chinese qin invasion chinese general declared independence founded country nanyue combining chinese vietnamese traditions bronze mirror yayoi period


champa kingdom became closer indian kingdoms trade embraced hinduism japan first appeared written records ad following mention china 's ''book later han'' across ocean luoyang people wa formed one hundred tribes come pay tribute frequently ''book wei'' written rd century noted country unification small tribes states ruled shaman queen named himiko yamataikoku han wei dynasty chinese travelers ky sh


recorded inhabitants claimed descendants grand count ib wu inhabitants also show traits pre sinicized wu people tattooing teeth pulling baby carrying ''book wei'' records physical descriptions similar ones ''haniwa'' statues men braided hair tattooing women wearing large single piece clothing power often decentralized creation first constitution ad americas timeline imagesize width height plotarea width height left bottom alignbars justify colors id time value rgb id period value rgb id age


value rgb id era value rgb id eon value rgb id filler value gray background bar id black value black period till timeaxis orientation horizontal scalemajor unit year increment start scaleminor unit year increment start plotdata align center textcolor black fontsize mark lineblack width shift bar namericas color age till text archaic till text classic till text pre columbian bar camericas color era till text archaic till text formative till text classic till text postclassic bar samericas color age till text archaic till text preclassic


till text classic timeline pre columbian times several large centralized ancient civilisations developed western hemisphere mesoamerica western south america beyond areas use agriculture expanded east andes mountains south america particularly marajoara culture continental united states hopewell culture andean civilisations central andes south america one original areas civilisation spanning years norte chico bc inca empire entire continent transformed th century columbian exchange


late th century details norte chico unclear often confused later cultures chavin ancient andean civilisation began rise organized fishing communities bc onwards along sophisticated maritime society came construction large monuments likely existed community centers large ceremonial structures predated measoamerican olmecs years making norte chico first civilisation western hemisphere mesoamerica ruins mesoamerican city teotihuacan mesoamerican ancient civilisations included olmecs mayans bc complex cultures began form


many matured advanced mesoamerican civilisations olmec izapa teotihuacan maya zapotec mixtec huastec flourished nearly years first contact europeans progress civilisations included pyramid temples mathematics astronomy medicine theology zapotec emerged around years bc left behind great city monte alb n writing system thought influenced olmecs recent evidence olmec may first civilisation area develop true writing system independently present time debate whether


olmec symbols dated bc actually form writing preceding oldest zapotec writing dated bc olmec symbols found date bc bc respectively preceding oldest zapotec writing olmec symbols found dating bc known cascajal block earliest mayan inscriptions found identifiably maya date rd century bc san bartolo guatemala mayan invention writing makes mesoamerica one three regions world developed writing completely independently northern


america organized societies ancient united states canada often mound builder civilisations one significant poverty point culture existed us state louisiana responsible creation mound sites mississippi river core area development long distance trade culture following poverty point successive complex cultures hopewell emerged southeastern united states early woodland period ad many mound builder societies retained hunter gatherer form subsistence europe


timeline imagesize width height plotarea width height left bottom alignbars justify colors id time value rgb id period value rgb id age value rgb id era value rgb id eon value rgb id filler value gray background bar id black value black period till timeaxis orientation horizontal scalemajor unit year increment start scaleminor unit year increment start plotdata align center textcolor black fontsize mark lineblack width shift bar europe color era till text archaic till text phoenicia till text ancient greece till text ancient rome timeline etruria greece rome


history etruscans traced relatively accurately based examination burial sites artifacts writing etruscan culture developed italy earnest bc approximately iron age villanovan culture regarded oldest phase etruscan civilisation ref name bartolonivillanoviana ref ref name torellicolonna ref ref name torellibriquel ref ref name torellibartoloni ref latter gave way th century increasingly orientalizing culture influenced greek traders greek neighbors magna graecia hellenic civilisation southern italy evidenced around inscriptions alphabet similar euboean greek pre indo european etruscan language burial


tombs fabulously decorated promotes idea aristocratic city state centralized power structures maintaining order constructing public works irrigation networks roads town defenses parthenon temple dedicated athena located acropolis athens ancient greece period greek history lasting close millennium rise christianity considered historians foundational culture western civilisation greek culture powerful influence roman empire carried version many parts europe


earliest known human settlements greece island crete years ago though evidence tool use island going back years earliest evidence civilisation ancient greece minoans crete dating far back bc mainland mycenaean civilisation rose prominence around bc superseded minoan civilisation crete lasted bc leading period known greek dark ages archaic period greece generally considered


lasted around th century bc invasion xerxes bc period saw expansion greek world around mediterranean founding greek city states far afield sicily west black sea east politically archaic period greece saw collapse power old aristocracies ref name referencea ref democratic reforms athens development sparta 's unique constitution end archaic period also saw rise athens would come dominant power classical


period reforms solon tyranny pisistratus ref name referencea classical greek world dominated throughout th century bc major powers athens sparta delian league athens able convert pan hellenist sentiment fear persian threat powerful empire along conflict sparta athens culminating peloponnesian war major political development first part classical period period greek history death alexander great rise roman empire


conquest egypt bc known hellenistic period name derives greek word ''hellenistes'' greek speaking ones describes spread greek culture non greek world following conquests alexander rise successors following battle corinth bc greece came roman rule ruled province macedonia bc augustus organised greek peninsula province achaea greece remained roman control break roman empire remained part eastern


byzantine empire much greece remained byzantine control end empire ad roman empire ad senatorial provinces acquired first roman republic roman senate 's control imperial provinces controlled directly roman emperor ancient rome civilisation grew city state rome originating small agricultural community founded italian peninsula th century bc twelve centuries existence roman civilisation shifted monarchy oligarchic republic increasingly autocratic empire roman


civilisation often grouped classical antiquity ancient greece civilisation inspired much culture ancient rome ancient rome contributed greatly development law war art literature architecture language western world history continues major influence world today roman civilisation came dominate europe mediterranean region conquest assimilation throughout territory control ancient rome residential architecture ranged modest houses country villas number roman founded cities monumental structures many contained fountains


fresh drinking water supplied hundreds kilometres aqueducts theatres gymnasiums bath complexes sometimes included libraries shops marketplaces occasionally functional sewers number factors led eventual decline roman empire western half empire including hispania gaul italy eventually broke independent kingdoms th century eastern roman empire governed constantinople referred byzantine empire ad traditional date fall rome subsequent onset middle ages late antiquity age migrations europe deeply detrimental


late roman empire roman empire underwent considerable social cultural organizational change starting reign diocletian began custom splitting empire eastern western halves ruled multiple emperors constantine great christianised empire established new capital constantinople migrations germanic tribes disrupted roman rule late th century onwards culminating eventual collapse empire west replaced called barbarian kingdoms resultant cultural fusion greco roman germanic christian traditions formed cultural foundations europe nomads iron


often disputed also completely discredited historians estimated origins huns came somewhere 's within kazakhstan approaching danube river huns would repeatedly invaded europe wreaked havoc roman empire late antiquity later dissolved became part native population celts diverse group tribal societies iron age europe proto celtic culture formed early iron age central europe hallstatt period named site present day austria later iron age la ne period celts expanded


age forms major part scandinavian history minor yet significant part european history times also known area called kvenland located around scandinavia norway sweden fennoscandia finland end period murong xianbei archer late antiquity nomads across eurasia began use stirrups mounted archers able shoot standing could devastating combat term 'late antiquity' transitional centuries classical antiquity middle ages mainland europe mediterranean world generally end


roman empire 's crisis rd century c islamic conquests organization byzantine empire heraclius occurred th century beginning post classical age known middle ages europe follows fall western roman empire spanning roughly attempt scholars connect european late antiquity areas eurasia extent centralized kingdoms within proximity steppe grasslands faced major challenges cases complete destruction th th centuries


case nomadic invasions political fragmentation western roman empire europe gupta empire india jin north china overwhelmed tribal invasions nomadic invasions along worldwide natural climate change plague justinian rise proselytizing religions changed face old world still disconnected new world also built complex societies separate different pace world era post classical history begun despite placed different eras history academic view world history ancient


post classical eras linked case old world land coastal trade routes often went similar directions many inventions religions birthed prior christianity judaism hinduism buddhism grew even important maps see also antiquities classics list ancient dishes foods list historians inclusive major historians list history journals classical outline ancient history outline ancient china outline ancient india outline classical studies outline ancient greece outline


ancient rome references sources reading web edition constantly updated eight volumes external links websites https wwwworldhistoryorg world history encyclopedia http wwwancientcivilizationscouk home sethtml ancient civilizations nbsp british museum 's website various topics ancient civilisation http wwwfordhamedu halsall ancient asbookhtml ancient history sourcebook https wwwperseustuftsedu perseus digital library http wwwuncedu depts cl atlas barrington atlas greek roman world https wwwyoutubecom watchv nhdwvqyqdn authentic music sumerians egyptians greeks directories http wwwacademicinfonet histanchtml ancient history academic info directory online resources study ancient history https webarchiveorg web http wwwhistoresearchcom ancienthtml ancient history resources ancient history research links high school college students historical eras articles contain


'''geostatistics''' branch statistics focusing spatial spatiotemporal datasets developed originally predict probability distributions ore grades mining operations currently applied diverse disciplines including petroleum geology hydrogeology hydrology meteorology oceanography geochemistry geometallurgy geography forestry environmental control landscape ecology soil science agriculture esp precision farming geostatistics applied varied branches geography particularly involving spread diseases epidemiology practice commerce military planning logistics development efficient spatial networks geostatistical algorithms incorporated many places including geographic information systems gis

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Geostatistics


r statistical environment background geostatistics intimately related interpolation methods extends far beyond simple interpolation problems geostatistical techniques rely statistical models based random function random variable theory model uncertainty associated spatial estimation simulation number simpler interpolation methods algorithms inverse distance weighting bilinear interpolation nearest neighbor interpolation already well known geostatistics ref name iands isaaks e h srivastava r ''an introduction applied geostatistics'' oxford university press new york usa ref geostatistics goes beyond interpolation problem considering studied phenomenon unknown locations


set correlated random variables let value variable interest certain location value unknown eg temperature rainfall piezometric level geological facies etc although exists value location could measured geostatistics considers value random since measured measured yet however randomness complete defined cumulative distribution function cdf depends certain information known value math f mathit z mathbf x operatorname prob lbrace z mathbf x leqslant mathit z mid text information


rbrace math typically value known locations close neighborhood one constrain cdf neighborhood high spatial continuity assumed values similar ones found neighborhood conversely absence spatial continuity take value spatial continuity random variables described model spatial continuity either parametric function case variogram based geostatistics non parametric form using


methods multiple point simulation pseudo genetic techniques applying single spatial model entire domain one makes assumption stationary process means statistical properties applicable entire domain several geostatistical methods provide ways relaxing stationarity assumption framework one distinguish two modeling goals estimating value typically expectation median mode cdf usually denoted estimation problem sampling entire probability density function actually considering


possible outcome location generally done creating several alternative maps called realizations consider domain discretized grid nodes pixels realization sample complete dimensional joint distribution function math f mathbf z mathbf x operatorname prob lbrace z mathbf x leqslant z z mathbf x leqslant z z mathbf x n leqslant z n rbrace math approach presence multiple solutions interpolation problem acknowledged realization considered possible scenario real variable could associated workflows considering ensemble realizations


consequently ensemble predictions allow probabilistic forecasting therefore geostatistics often used generate update spatial models solving inverse problems number methods exist geostatistical estimation multiple realizations approaches several reference books provide comprehensive overview discipline ref name iands methods estimation kriging kriging group geostatistical techniques interpolate value random field eg elevation z landscape function geographic location unobserved location observations value nearby locations bayesian estimation bayesian


inference method statistical inference bayes' theorem used update probability model evidence information becomes available bayesian inference playing increasingly important role geostatistics bayesian estimation implements kriging spatial process commonly gaussian process updates process using bayes' theorem calculate posterior high dimensional bayesian geostatistics simulation aggregation dissagregation turning bands cholesky decomposition truncated gaussian plurigaussian annealing spectral simulation sequential indicator sequential gaussian dead leave transition probabilities markov chain geostatistics https doiorg fs markov mesh models support vector machine boolean simulation genetic models pseudo genetic models cellular


automata multiple point geostatistics definitions tools regionalized variable theory covariance function semi variance variogram kriging range geostatistics sill geostatistics nugget effect training image main scientific journals related geostatistics http wwwaguorg journals wr water resources research http wwwelseviercom wps find journaldescriptioncws home description description advances water resources http wwwwileycom bw journalaspref x site ground water mathematical geosciences http wwwelseviercom wps find journaldescriptioncws home description description computers geosciences https wwwspringercom mathematics journal computational geosciences https wwwsoilsorg publications sssaj j soil science society america https archivetoday http www intersciencewileycom journal home environmetrics http wwwelseviercom wps find journaldescriptioncws home description description remote sensing environment stochastic environmental research risk assessment scientific organisations related geostatistics http wwwefgsinfo european forum geography statistics efgs formerly ''european forum geostatistics'' http wwwgeoenviaorg geoenvia promotes use geostatistical methods


theory engineering applications john wiley sons new york best paper award iamg iso dis statistical aspects sampling bulk materials part general principles lipschutz theory problems probability mccraw hill book company new york matheron g trait de g ostatistique appliqu e tome editions technip paris pp matheron g estimating choosing springer verlag berlin mcgrew j chapman monroe charles b introduction statistical problem solving geography second edition mcgraw hill new york merks j w https webarchiveorg web http geostatscamcom adobe tnm pdf geostatistics voodoo science


northern miner may cite id merks merks j w https webarchiveorg web http wwwgeostatscamcom adobe abuse statspdf abuse statistics cim bulletin january vol cite myers donald e http wwwuarizonaedu donaldm homepage whatishtml geostatistics cite id philip philip g watson f matheronian geostatistics quo vadis mathematical geology vol cite pyrcz mj deutsch cv geostatistical reservoir modeling nd edition oxford university press new york p nbsp sharov quantitative population ecology https webarchiveorg web http wwwentovtedu sharov popecol popecolhtml shine ja wakefield gi comparison supervised imagery classification using analyst chosen geostatistically chosen training sets https webarchiveorg web http wwwgeovistapsuedu sites geocomp gc gc htm strahler h


strahler introducing physical geography th ed wiley tahmasebi p hezarkhani sahimi https doiorg fs multiple point geostatistical modeling based cross correlation functions computational geosciences volk w applied statistics engineers krieger publishing company huntington new york external links http geoenviaorg geoenvia promotes use geostatistical methods environmental applications organizes bi annual conferences https wiki northorg ai geostats webhome resource internet geostatistics spatial statistics http wwwcgensmpfr bibliotheque line library chronicles matheron 's journey classical statistics new science geostatistics http wwwuarizonaedu donaldm homepage whatishtml https webarchiveorg web http geostatscamcom https webarchiveorg web http geostatscamcom site jan w merks claims


geostatistics voodoo science scientific fraud http wwwlinkedincom groupsgid trk hb side g group exchanging ideas discussion multiple point geostatistics mps


maximum ''x z'' indicated blue dot simionescu 's function simplex vertices ordered values lowest best value alt '''mathematical optimization''' alternatively spelled ''optimisation'' '''mathematical programming''' selection best element regard criterion set available alternatives optimization problems sorts arise quantitative disciplines computer science engineering ref name edo ref operations research economics development solution methods interest mathematics centuries simplest case optimization problem

Applied science
Transportation
Operations research
Mathematical optimization


consists maximizing minimizing real function systematically choosing input values within allowed set computing value function generalization optimization theory techniques formulations constitutes large area applied mathematics generally optimization includes finding best available values objective function given defined domain input including variety different types objective functions different types domains optimization problems optimization problem represented following way ''given '' function set real numbers


''sought '' element minimization maximization formulation called '''optimization problem''' '''mathematical programming problem''' term directly related computer programming still use example linear programming see history many real world theoretical problems may modeled general framework since following valid math f left mathbf x right geq f left mathbf x right leftrightarrow tilde f left mathbf x right leq tilde f left mathbf x right math math tilde f left mathbf x right f left mathbf x right tilde f rightarrow mathbb r math convenient solve minimization problems however opposite perspective would valid


problems formulated using technique fields physics may refer technique ''energy minimization'' speaking value function representing energy system modeled machine learning always necessary continuously evaluate quality data model using cost function minimum implies set possibly optimal parameters optimal lowest error typically subset euclidean space often specified set ''constraints'' equalities inequalities members satisfy


domain called ' 'search space'' ''choice set'' elements called ''candidate solutions'' ''feasible solutions'' function called variously ''objective function'' ''loss function'' ''cost function'' minimization ''utility function'' ''fitness function'' maximization certain fields ''energy function'' ''energy functional'' feasible solution minimizes maximizes goal objective function called ''optimal solution'' mathematics conventional optimization problems usually stated terms minimization ''local minimum'' defined


element exists math forall mathbf x text left vert mathbf x mathbf x ast right vert leq delta math expression holds say region around function values greater equal value element local maxima defined similarly local minimum least good nearby elements global minimum least good every feasible element generally unless objective function convex minimization problem may several local minima convex problem local


minimum interior edge set feasible elements also global minimum nonconvex problem may one local minimum need global minima large number algorithms proposed solving nonconvex problems including majority commercially available solvers capable making distinction locally optimal solutions globally optimal solutions treat former actual solutions original problem global optimization branch applied mathematics numerical analysis


concerned development deterministic algorithms capable guaranteeing convergence finite time actual optimal solution nonconvex problem notation optimization problems often expressed special notation examples minimum maximum value function consider following notation math min x mathbb r left x right math denotes minimum value objective function choosing set real numbers minimum value case occurring similarly notation math max x mathbb r x math asks maximum


integers operators sometimes also written stand ''argument minimum'' ''argument maximum'' history fermat lagrange found calculus based formulae identifying optima newton gauss proposed iterative methods moving towards optimum term linear programming certain optimization cases due george nbsp b dantzig although much theory introduced leonid kantorovich ''programming'' context refer computer programming comes use ''program'' united states military


constraint set convex viewed particular case nonlinear programming generalization linear convex quadratic programming linear programming lp type convex programming studies case objective function ''f'' linear constraints specified using linear equalities inequalities constraint set called polyhedron polytope bounded second order cone programming socp convex program includes certain types quadratic programs semidefinite programming sdp subfield convex optimization underlying variables semidefinite


stochastic programming studies case constraints parameters depend random variables robust optimization like stochastic programming attempt capture uncertainty data underlying optimization problem robust optimization aims find solutions valid possible realizations uncertainties defined uncertainty set combinatorial optimization concerned problems set feasible solutions discrete reduced discrete one stochastic optimization used random noisy function measurements random inputs search process infinite dimensional optimization studies case


set feasible solutions subset infinite dimensional space space functions heuristics metaheuristics make assumptions problem optimized usually heuristics guarantee optimal solution need found hand heuristics used find approximate solutions many complicated optimization problems constraint satisfaction studies case objective function ''f'' constant used artificial intelligence particularly automated reasoning constraint programming programming paradigm wherein relations variables stated form constraints disjunctive


programming used least one constraint must satisfied particular use scheduling space mapping concept modeling optimization engineering system high fidelity fine model accuracy exploiting suitable physically meaningful coarse surrogate model number subfields techniques designed primarily optimization dynamic contexts decision making time calculus variations seeks optimize action integral space extremum varying function coordinates optimal control theory generalization calculus


variations introduces control policies dynamic programming approach solve stochastic optimization problem stochastic randomness unknown model parameters studies case optimization strategy based splitting problem smaller subproblems equation describes relationship subproblems called bellman equation mathematical programming equilibrium constraints constraints include variational inequalities complementarities multi objective optimization adding one objective optimization problem adds complexity example optimize structural design one would desire design


light rigid two objectives conflict trade must created may one lightest design one stiffest design infinite number designs compromise weight rigidity set trade designs improve upon one criterion expense another known pareto set curve created plotting weight stiffness best designs known pareto frontier design judged pareto optimal equivalently pareto efficient pareto set dominated design


worse another design respects better respect dominated pareto optimal choice among pareto optimal solutions determine favorite solution delegated decision maker words defining problem multi objective optimization signals information missing desirable objectives given combinations rated relative cases missing information derived interactive sessions decision maker multi objective optimization problems generalized vector optimization problems


partial ordering longer given pareto ordering multi modal global optimization optimization problems often multi modal possess multiple good solutions could globally good cost function value could mix globally good locally good solutions obtaining least multiple solutions goal multi modal optimizer classical optimization techniques due iterative approach perform satisfactorily used obtain multiple solutions since guaranteed different solutions obtained even


different starting points multiple runs algorithm common approaches global optimization problems multiple local extrema may present include evolutionary algorithms bayesian optimization simulated annealing classification critical points extrema feasibility problem ' 'satisfiability problem'' also called ''feasibility problem'' problem finding feasible solution without regard objective value regarded special case mathematical optimization objective value every solution thus solution optimal many optimization algorithms need start


feasible point one way obtain point relax feasibility conditions using slack variable enough slack starting point feasible minimize slack variable slack null negative existence extreme value theorem karl weierstrass states continuous real valued function compact set attains maximum minimum value generally lower semi continuous function compact set attains minimum upper semi continuous function compact set attains maximum point view necessary conditions optimality


one fermat 's theorems states optima unconstrained problems found stationary points first derivative gradient objective function zero see first derivative test generally may found critical points first derivative gradient objective function zero undefined boundary choice set equation set equations stating first derivative equal zero interior optimum called 'first order condition' set first order conditions optima equality constrained problems found


lagrange multiplier method optima problems equality inequality constraints found using 'karush kuhn tucker conditions' sufficient conditions optimality first derivative test identifies points might extrema test distinguish point minimum one maximum one neither objective function twice differentiable cases distinguished checking second derivative matrix second derivatives called hessian matrix unconstrained problems matrix second derivatives objective function


constraints called bordered hessian constrained problems conditions distinguish maxima minima stationary points called 'second order conditions' see 'second derivative test' candidate solution satisfies first order conditions satisfaction second order conditions well sufficient establish least local optimality sensitivity continuity optima envelope theorem describes value optimal solution changes underlying parameter changes process computing change called comparative statics maximum theorem claude berge describes continuity optimal


solution function underlying parameters calculus optimization unconstrained problems twice differentiable functions critical points found finding points gradient objective function zero stationary points generally zero subgradient certifies local minimum found minimization problems convex functions locally lipschitz functions critical points classified using definiteness hessian matrix hessian ''positive'' definite critical point point local minimum hessian matrix negative


converge solution specified class problems heuristics may provide approximate solutions problems although iterates need converge optimization algorithms simplex algorithm george dantzig designed linear programming extensions simplex algorithm designed quadratic programming linear fractional programming variants simplex algorithm especially suited network optimization combinatorial algorithms quantum optimization algorithms iterative methods iterative methods used solve problems nonlinear programming differ according whether evaluate hessians gradients function values evaluating hessians h gradients g improves


rate convergence functions quantities exist vary sufficiently smoothly evaluations increase computational complexity computational cost iteration cases computational complexity may excessively high one major criterion optimizers number required function evaluations often already large computational effort usually much effort within optimizer mainly operate n variables derivatives provide detailed information optimizers even harder calculate eg approximating gradient takes least n function


evaluations approximations nd derivatives collected hessian matrix number function evaluations order n newton 's method requires nd order derivatives iteration number function calls order n simpler pure gradient optimizer n however gradient optimizers need usually iterations newton 's algorithm one best respect number function calls depends problem methods evaluate hessians approximate hessians using finite differences newton 's method sequential quadratic programming newton based method


gradient descent alternatively steepest descent steepest ascent slow method historical theoretical interest renewed interest finding approximate solutions enormous problems subgradient methods iterative method large locally lipschitz functions using generalized gradients following boris polyak subgradient projection methods similar conjugate gradient methods bundle method descent iterative method small medium sized problems locally lipschitz functions particularly convex minimization problems similar conjugate gradient methods ellipsoid method iterative method small problems quasiconvex objective functions great theoretical interest particularly establishing polynomial time complexity


used interpolation methods pattern search methods better convergence properties nelder mead heuristic simplices listed global convergence generally objective function quadratic function many optimization methods use methods ensure subsequence iterations converges optimal solution first still popular method ensuring convergence relies line searches optimize function along one dimension second increasingly popular method ensuring convergence uses trust regions line searches trust regions used modern methods non differentiable optimization usually


global optimizer much slower advanced local optimizers bfgs often efficient global optimizer constructed starting local optimizer different starting points heuristics besides finitely terminating algorithms convergent iterative methods heuristics heuristic algorithm guaranteed mathematically find solution nevertheless useful certain practical situations list well known heuristics mayfly optimization algorithm memetic algorithm differential evolution evolutionary algorithms dynamic relaxation genetic algorithms hill climbing random restart nelder mead simplicial heuristic popular heuristic approximate minimization without calling


gradients particle swarm optimization gravitational search algorithm simulated annealing stochastic tunneling tabu search reactive search optimization rso implemented lionsolver forest optimization algorithm applications mechanics problems rigid body dynamics particular articulated rigid body dynamics often require mathematical programming techniques since view rigid body dynamics attempting solve ordinary differential equation constraint manifold constraints various nonlinear geometric constraints two points must always coincide surface must penetrate point must always lie somewhere curve also problem computing contact


forces done solving linear complementarity problem also viewed qp quadratic programming problem many design problems also expressed optimization programs application called design optimization one subset engineering optimization another recent growing subset field multidisciplinary design optimization useful many problems particular applied aerospace engineering problems approach may applied cosmology astrophysics economics finance economics closely enough linked optimization agents influential definition relatedly describes economics ''qua''


science study human behavior relationship ends scarce means alternative uses modern optimization theory includes traditional optimization theory also overlaps game theory study economic equilibria ''journal economic literature'' codes classify mathematical programming optimization techniques related topics jel c c microeconomics utility maximization problem dual problem expenditure minimization problem economic optimization problems insofar behave consistently consumers assumed maximize utility firms usually assumed maximize profit also agents often modeled


risk averse thereby preferring avoid risk asset prices also modeled using optimization theory though underlying mathematics relies optimizing stochastic processes rather static optimization international trade theory also uses optimization explain trade patterns nations optimization portfolios example multi objective optimization economics since economists modeled dynamic decisions time using control theory example dynamic search models used study labor market behavior crucial distinction deterministic stochastic models macroeconomists build dynamic stochastic general equilibrium dsge models describe dynamics


whole economy result interdependent optimizing decisions workers consumers investors governments electrical engineering common applications optimization techniques electrical engineering include active filter design stray field reduction superconducting magnetic energy storage systems space mapping design microwave structures handset antennas electromagnetics based design electromagnetically validated design optimization microwave components antennas made extensive use appropriate physics based empirical surrogate model space mapping methodologies since discovery space mapping civil engineering optimization widely used civil engineering construction management transportation engineering among


main branches civil engineering heavily rely optimization common civil engineering problems solved optimization cut fill roads life cycle analysis structures infrastructures resource leveling ref name ref water resource allocation traffic management schedule optimization operations research another field uses optimization techniques extensively operations research operations research also uses stochastic modeling simulation support improved decision making increasingly operations research uses stochastic programming model dynamic decisions adapt events problems solved large scale optimization stochastic optimization methods control engineering mathematical optimization


used much modern controller design high level controllers model predictive control mpc real time optimization rto employ mathematical optimization algorithms run online repeatedly determine values decision variables choke openings process plant iteratively solving mathematical optimization problem including constraints model system controlled geophysics optimization techniques regularly used geophysical parameter estimation problems given set geophysical measurements eg seismic recordings common solve physical properties geometrical shapes underlying rocks fluids majority


problems geophysics nonlinear deterministic stochastic methods widely used molecular modeling nonlinear optimization methods widely used conformational analysis computational systems biology optimization techniques used many facets computational systems biology model building optimal experimental design metabolic engineering synthetic biology ref name papoutsakis ref linear programming applied calculate maximal possible yields fermentation products ref name papoutsakis infer gene regulatory networks multiple microarray datasets well transcriptional regulatory networks high throughput data nonlinear programming used analyze energy metabolism


applied metabolic engineering parameter estimation biochemical pathways machine learning solvers see also brachistochrone curve fitting deterministic global optimization goal programming important publications optimization least squares mathematical optimization society formerly mathematical programming society mathematical optimization algorithms mathematical optimization software process optimization simulation based optimization test functions optimization variational calculus vehicle routing problem notes reading external links links optimization source codes operations research optimization


''dreadnought'' hoaxers abyssinian regalia bearded figure far left fact writer virginia woolf '''hoax''' falsehood deliberately fabricated masquerade truth distinguishable errors observation judgment ref name macdougall ref rumors urban legends pseudosciences april fools' day events passed along good faith believers jokes ref name brunvand ref history zhang yingyu 's ''the book swindles'' published late ming dynasty said china 's first collection stories fraud swindles hoaxes forms deception although practical

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also spread via chain letters became easier cost mailing letter dropped invention printing press th century brought cost mass produced books pamphlets rotary printing press th century reduced price even see yellow journalism th century hoax found mass market form supermarket tabloids st century fake news websites spread hoaxes via social networking websites addition use email modern type


thomas ady 's book ''a candle dark treatise nature witches witchcraft'' ref name ahd term ''hoax'' occasionally used reference urban legends rumors folklorist jan harold brunvand argues lack evidence deliberate creations falsehood passed along good faith believers jokes term used probable conscious attempt deceive ref name brunvand closely related terms ''practical joke'' ''prank'' brunvand states although instances


overlap ''hoax'' tends indicate relatively complex large scale fabrications includes deceptions go beyond merely playful cause material loss harm victim according professor lynda walsh university nevada reno hoaxessuch great stock exchange fraud labeled hoax contemporary commentatorsare financial nature successful hoaxerssuch p barnum whose fiji mermaid contributed wealthoften acquire monetary gain fame fabrications distinction ''hoax'' ''fraud'' necessarily clear ref name walsh ref alex boese creator museum


hoaxes states distinction reaction public fraud classified hoax method acquiring financial gain creates broad public impact captures imagination masses one earliest recorded media hoaxes fake almanac published jonathan swift pseudonym isaac bickerstaff ref name walsh ref swift predicted death john partridge one leading astrologers england time almanac later issued elegy day partridge supposed


died partridge 's reputation damaged result astrological almanac published next six years ref name walsh possible perpetrate hoax making true statements using unfamiliar wording context dihydrogen monoxide hoax political hoaxes sometimes motivated desire ridicule besmirch opposing politicians political institutions often elections hoax differs magic trick fiction books film theatre radio television etc audience unaware deceived whereas watching magician perform illusion audience


expects tricked hoax often intended practical joke cause embarrassment provoke social political change raising people 's awareness something also emerge marketing advertising purpose example market romantic comedy film director staged phony incident supposed wedding showed bride preacher getting knocked pool clumsy fall best man ref name twsmare resulting video clip ''chloe keith 's wedding'' uploaded youtube viewed million people


couple interviewed numerous talk shows ref name twsmare viewers deluded thinking authentic clip real accident real wedding story ''usa today'' revealed hoax ref name twsmare ref great moon hoax governments sometimes spread false information facilitate objectives going war often come heading black propaganda often mixture outright hoax suppression management information give desired impression wartime times international tension rumors abound may


involved staging convincing public exhibition paintings imaginary reclusive artist bruno hat perpetrators well educated intend fraud newspapers informed next day involved included brian howard evelyn waugh bryan guinness john banting tom mitford ''nat tate american artist '' art world hoax william boyd disumbrationism modern art hoax pierre brassau exposing art critics modern paintings made chimpanzee ''spectra book poetic experiments'' modernist poetry hoax ern malley popular fictitious australian poet apocryphal claims


originate hoax gain widespread belief among members culture organization become entrenched persons believe repeat good faith others continue command belief hoax 's originators died departed computer virus hoaxes became widespread viruses began spread typical hoax email message warning recipients non existent threat usually forging quotes supposedly authorities microsoft ibm cases payload exhortation distribute message everyone recipient 's address book thus e mail


warning virus sometimes hoax harmful eg telling recipient seek particular file usually microsoft windows operating system file found computer deemed infected unless deleted reality file one required operating system correct functioning computer criminal hoaxing case john samuel humble aka wearside jack criminal hoaxing diverts time money police investigations communications purporting come actual criminal caught hoaxers charged criminal codes


perverting course justice factoids hoaxes formed making minor gradually increasing changes warning claim widely circulated legitimate purposes hoax exposure semi comical private sting operation usually encourages people act foolishly credulously falling patent nonsense hoaxer deliberately presents reality related activity culture jamming hoax news hoaxes perpetrated scare tactics appealing audience 's subjectively rational belief expected cost believing hoax cost assertions true times likelihood truth


outweighs expected cost believing hoax cost false times likelihood falsity claims non malicious unfamiliar program one 's computer malware hoaxes perpetrated occasions initiation considered socially appropriate april fools' day humbugs internet hoaxes became common start social media websites used hoax millions people web paleoanthropological hoaxes anthropologists taken piltdown man discovery widely believed religious hoaxes ufo hoaxes urban legends rumors probable


conscious attempt deceive ref name brunvand hoax news hoax news also referred fake news news containing facts either inaccurate false presented genuine hoax news conveys half truth used deliberately mislead public hoax may serve goal propaganda disinformation using social media drive web traffic amplify effect ref name russiadominates ref ref name snopesfieldguide ref ref name divideeurope ref unlike news satire fake news websites seek mislead rather entertain readers financial political gain ref name snopesfieldguide hoax news usually released intention misleading


injure organization individual person benefit financially politically sometimes utilizing sensationalist deceptive simply invented headlines maximize readership likewise clickbait reports articles operation gain advertisement revenue see also list hoaxes references '''notes''' reading macdougall curtis ''hoaxes'' revised ed new york dover external links https webarchiveorg web http snigglenet indexphp culture jammer encyclopedia http wwwsnopescom snopes urban legends reference pages http wwwlifecom gallery greatest hoaxes time index greatest hoaxes time slideshow ''life magazine'' http electronicdesigncom articles indexcfmarticleid 's hoax stuff anyhow bob pease article ''electronic design'' website https booksgooglecom booksid qmyuweusqsec dq extraordinary popular delusions madness crowds printsec frontcover source bl ots q dsqothkz sig c h htrtzto nfhp u zzutek hl en ei udbasqcpmmiakqxey jubq sa x oi book result ct result resnum book ''extraordinary popular delusions


madness crowds'' charles mackay http contentusatodaycom communities entertainment post chloe keith 's wedding hoax link video commentary ''usa today'' http wwwleyendasurbanasorg leyendas urbanas urban legends hoaxes spanish deception fraud


afp quad screen done typically second trimester weeks newer integrated screen formerly called faster first second trimester early results done plus weeks plus weeks ultrasound fetal neck thicker nuchal skin correlates higher risk syndrome present two chemicals analytes pregnancy associated plasma protein human chorionic gonadotropin pregnancy hormone level gives accurate risk profile early second blood screen weeks refines risk accurately cost higher afp quad

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