determines geometry ''is'' ref name cantwell ref symmetry classical euclidean geometry represented congruences rigid motions whereas projective geometry analogous role played collineations geometric transformations take straight lines straight lines ref name rosenfeldwiebe ref however new geometries bolyai lobachevsky riemann clifford klein sophus lie klein 's idea 'define geometry via symmetry group' found inspiration ref name pesic discrete continuous symmetries play prominent roles geometry former topology geometric group theory ref name kaku ref ref name bestvinasageev ref latter lie theory riemannian geometry ref


name steeb ref ref name misner ref different type symmetry principle duality projective geometry among fields meta phenomenon roughly described follows theorem exchange ''point'' ''plane'' ''join'' ''meet'' ''lies in'' ''contains'' result equally true theorem ref name dowling ref similar closely related form duality exists vector space dual space ref name gierz ref contemporary geometry euclidean geometry euclidean geometry geometry classical sense ref name buttsbrown ref models space physical world used many scientific areas mechanics

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry


astronomy crystallography many technical fields engineering ref name abbot ref architecture ref name herseyhersey ref geodesy ref name van cekkrakiwsky ref aerodynamics ref name cummingsmorton ref navigation ref name williams ref mandatory educational curriculum majority nations includes study euclidean concepts points lines planes angles triangles congruence similarity solid figures circles analytic geometry ref name schmidt w schmidt w houang r cogan l coherent curriculum ''american educator'' ref differential geometry differential geometry uses tools calculus study problems involving curvature differential geometry uses techniques calculus linear algebra study problems geometry ref name walschap ref applications physics ref name flanders ref


econometrics ref name marriottsalmon ref bioinformatics ref name hepetoukhov ref among others particular differential geometry importance mathematical physics due albert einstein 's general relativity postulation universe curved ref name dirac ref differential geometry either ''intrinsic'' meaning spaces considers smooth manifolds whose geometric structure governed riemannian metric determines distances measured near point ''extrinsic'' object study part ambient flat euclidean space ref name ayjost ref non euclidean geometry euclidean geometry historical form geometry studied spherical geometry long used


astronomers astrologers navigators ref name rosenfeld ref immanuel kant argued one ''absolute'' geometry known true ''a priori'' inner faculty mind euclidean geometry synthetic priori view first somewhat challenged thinkers saccheri finally overturned revolutionary discovery non euclidean geometry works bolyai lobachevsky gauss never published theory ref name sommerville ref demonstrated ordinary euclidean space one possibility development geometry broad vision subject geometry expressed riemann


inauguration lecture '' ber die hypothesen welche der geometrie zu grunde liegen'' ''on hypotheses geometry based'' published death riemann 's new idea space proved crucial albert einstein 's general relativity theory riemannian geometry considers general spaces notion length defined mainstay modern geometry ref name pesic ref topology thickening trefoil knot topology field concerned properties continuous mappings ref name crossley ref considered generalization euclidean geometry ref name nashsen ref practice topology often means dealing large scale properties


algebraic varieties commutative algebra among topics ref name dieudonne ref late mid undergone major foundational development largely due work jean pierre serre alexander grothendieck ref name dieudonne led introduction schemes greater emphasis topological methods including various cohomology theories one seven millennium prize problems hodge conjecture question algebraic geometry ref name carlsoncarlson ref wiles' proof fermat 's last theorem uses advanced methods algebraic geometry solving long standing problem number theory general algebraic geometry studies geometry use concepts commutative


algebra multivariate polynomials ref name ahartshorne ref applications many areas including cryptography ref name howelauter ref string theory ref name marinothaddeus ref complex geometry complex geometry studies nature geometric structures modelled arising complex plane complex geometry lies intersection differential geometry algebraic geometry analysis several complex variables found applications string theory mirror symmetry complex geometry first appeared distinct area study work bernhard riemann study riemann surfaces work spirit riemann carried italian school


algebraic geometry early contemporary treatment complex geometry began work jean pierre serre introduced concept sheaves subject illuminated relations complex geometry algebraic geometry primary objects study complex geometry complex manifolds complex algebraic varieties complex analytic varieties holomorphic vector bundles coherent sheaves spaces special examples spaces studied complex geometry include riemann surfaces calabi yau manifolds spaces find uses string theory particular worldsheets strings modelled riemann surfaces superstring


often revolves around cayley graph geometric representation group important topics include quasi isometries gromov hyperbolic groups right angled artin groups ref name l h ref name wise ref convex geometry convex geometry investigates convex shapes euclidean space abstract analogues often using techniques real analysis discrete mathematics ref name meurant ref close connections convex analysis optimization functional analysis important applications number theory convex geometry dates back antiquity ref name meurant archimedes gave first known precise definition convexity isoperimetric problem recurring concept convex geometry studied


greeks well including zenodorus archimedes plato euclid later kepler coxeter studied convex polytopes properties th century mathematicians studied areas convex mathematics including higher dimensional polytopes volume surface area convex bodies gaussian curvature algorithms tilings lattices applications geometry found applications many fields described art bou inania madrasa fes morocco zellige mosaic tiles forming elaborate geometric tessellations mathematics art related variety ways instance theory perspective showed geometry


deliberately artists aware legend ref name livio ref tilings tessellations used art throughout history islamic art makes frequent use tessellations art c escher ref name emmerschattschneider ref escher 's work also made use hyperbolic geometry c zanne advanced theory images built sphere cone cylinder still used art theory today although exact list shapes varies author author ref name capitoloschwab ref ref name gelineau ref architecture geometry many applications architecture fact said geometry lies


core architectural design ref name ceccatohesselgren ref ref name pottmann ref applications geometry architecture include use projective geometry create forced perspective ref name moffettfazio ref use conic sections constructing domes similar objects ref name herseyhersey use tessellations ref name herseyhersey use symmetry ref name herseyhersey physics field astronomy especially relates mapping positions stars planets celestial sphere describing relationship movements celestial bodies served important source geometric problems throughout history ref name greengreen ref riemannian geometry pseudo riemannian geometry used general relativity ref name alekseevski ref string


theory makes use several variants geometry ref name yaunadis ref quantum information theory fields mathematics incommensurable lengths calculus strongly influenced geometry ref name boyer instance introduction coordinates ren descartes concurrent developments algebra marked new stage geometry since geometric figures plane curves could represented analytically form functions equations played key role emergence infinitesimal calculus th century analytic geometry continues mainstay pre calculus calculus curriculum ref name flandersprice ref ref name rogawskiadams ref another important area


application number theory ref name lozano robledo ref ancient greece pythagoreans considered role numbers geometry however discovery incommensurable lengths contradicted philosophical views ref name sangalli ref since th century geometry used solving problems number theory example geometry numbers recently scheme theory used wiles 's proof fermat 's last theorem ref name cornellsilverman ref see also lists list geometers algebraic geometers differential geometers geometers topologists list formulas elementary geometry list geometry topics list important publications geometry lists mathematics topics related topics descriptive


geometry finite geometry ''flatland'' book written edwin abbott abbott two three dimensional space understand concept four dimensions list interactive geometry software fields molecular geometry notes sources reading external links geometry course wikiversity http www foxescom ''unusual geometry problems'' http mathforumorg library topics geometry ''the math forum'' geometry http mathforumorg geometry k geometryhtml ''the math forum'' k geometry http mathforumorg geometry collgeometryhtml ''the math forum'' college geometry http mathforumorg advanced geomhtml ''the math forum'' advanced geometry http precedingsnaturecom documents version nature precedings ''pegs ropes geometry stonehenge'' https webarchiveorg web http wwwmathniuedu rusin known math index tour geohtml ''the mathematical atlas'' geometric areas mathematics https webarchiveorg web http wwwgreshamacuk eventasppageid eventid years geometry lecture


robin wilson given gresham college october available mp mp download well text file http platostanfordedu entries geometry finitism finitism geometry stanford encyclopedia philosophy http wwwicsuciedu eppstein junkyard topichtml geometry junkyard http wwwmathopenrefcom interactive geometry reference hundreds applets https webarchiveorg web http mathkennesawedu mdevilli javagsplinkshtm dynamic geometry sketches student explorations http wwwkhanacademyorg video ca geometry area pythagorean theorem california standards test geometry geometry classes khan academy


'''psychiatry''' medical specialty devoted diagnosis prevention treatment mental disorders include various maladaptations related mood behaviour cognition perceptions see glossary psychiatry initial psychiatric assessment person typically begins case history mental status examination physical examinations psychological tests may conducted occasion neuroimaging neurophysiological techniques used ref name nimhsite mental disorders often diagnosed accordance clinical concepts listed diagnostic manuals ''international classification diseases'' icd edited used world health organization widely used

Applied science
Medicine and health
Psychiatry


''diagnostic statistical manual mental disorders'' dsm published american psychiatric association apa fifth edition dsm dsm published may organized larger categories various diseases expanded upon previous edition include information insights consistent current research ref name kupfer ref combined treatment psychiatric medication psychotherapy become common mode psychiatric treatment current practice contemporary practice also includes wide variety modalities eg assertive community treatment community reinforcement supported employment treatment may delivered inpatient outpatient basis


soul' ''psych '' 'soul' ancient greek ''psykh '' 'soul' '' iatry'' 'medical treatment' gk ''i trikos'' 'medical' ''i sthai'' 'to heal' medical doctor specializing psychiatry psychiatrist historical overview see timeline psychiatry theory focus psychiatry refers field medicine focused specifically mind aiming study prevent treat mental disorders humans ref name guze ref ref name storrow ref described intermediary world social context world perspective mentally ill people specialize psychiatry often differ mental


become biological less conceptually isolated medical fields scope practice disability adjusted life year neuropsychiatric conditions per nbsp inhabitants though medical specialty psychiatry uses research field neuroscience psychology medicine biology biochemistry pharmacology ref name pietrini ref generally considered middle ground neurology psychology psychiatry neurology deeply intertwined medical specialties certification specialties subspecialties offered single board american board psychiatry neurology one member boards american board medical specialties unlike


physicians neurologists psychiatrists specialize doctor patient relationship trained varying extents use psychotherapy therapeutic communication techniques psychiatrists also differ psychologists physicians post graduate training called residency usually years psychiatry quality thoroughness graduate medical training identical physicians ref name hauser ref psychiatrists therefore counsel patients prescribe medication order laboratory tests order neuroimaging conduct physical examinations ref name nimhsite ref ethics world psychiatric association issues ethical code govern conduct psychiatrists like


ethical codes profession responded number controversies practice psychiatry example surrounding use lobotomy electroconvulsive therapy discredited psychiatrists operated outside norms medical ethics include harry bailey donald ewen cameron samuel cartwright henry cotton andrei snezhnevsky ref name kirk ref approaches psychiatric illnesses conceptualised number different ways biomedical approach examines signs symptoms compares diagnostic criteria mental illness assessed conversely narrative tries incorporate symptoms meaningful life history frame


independent realm disorder may occur ref name mclaren n discussion ref name mclaren madness ref name mclaren psychiatry biocognitive approach includes mentalist etiology provides natural dualist ie non spiritual revision biopsychosocial view reflecting efforts australian psychiatrist niall mclaren bring discipline scientific maturity accordance paradigmatic standards philosopher thomas kuhn ref name mclaren n discussion ref ref name mclaren madness ref name mclaren psychiatry medical professional diagnoses patient numerous ways could choose treat patient often psychiatrists develop treatment strategy incorporates different facets different approaches


one drug prescriptions commonly written regimented patients along therapy receive three major pillars psychotherapy treatment strategies regularly drawn humanistic psychology attempts put whole patient perspective also focuses self exploration ref name humanistic ref behaviorism therapeutic school thought elects focus solely real observable events rather mining unconscious ' 'subconscious'' psychoanalysis hand concentrates dealings early childhood irrational drives unconscious conflict conscious unconscious streams ref name psychoanalysis ref


practitioners physicians diagnose mental disorders prescribe treatments utilizing principles psychiatry psychiatrists trained physicians specialize psychiatry certified treat mental illness may treat outpatients inpatients may practice solo practitioners members groups may self employed members partnerships employees governmental academic nonprofit profit entities employees hospitals may treat military personnel civilians members military settings may function clinicians researchers teachers combination although


palliative medicine sleep medicine additional psychiatry subspecialties abpn provide formal certification include ref name ukreq ref biological psychiatry cognitive diseases various forms dementia community psychiatry cross cultural psychiatry emergency psychiatry evolutionary psychiatry global mental health learning disabilities military psychiatry neurodevelopmental disorders neuropsychiatry social psychiatry addiction psychiatry focuses evaluation treatment individuals alcohol drug substance related disorders individuals dual diagnosis substance related psychiatric disorders biological psychiatry approach psychiatry aims understand mental disorders terms biological function nervous system


child adolescent psychiatry branch psychiatry specializes work children teenagers families community psychiatry approach reflects inclusive public health perspective practiced community mental health services cross cultural psychiatry branch psychiatry concerned cultural ethnic context mental disorder psychiatric services emergency psychiatry clinical application psychiatry emergency settings forensic psychiatry utilizes medical science generally psychiatric knowledge assessment methods particular help answer legal questions geriatric psychiatry branch psychiatry dealing study


prevention treatment mental disorders elderly global mental health area study research practice places priority improving mental health achieving equity mental health people worldwide ref name patel ref although scholars consider neo colonial culturally insensitive project liaison psychiatry branch psychiatry specializes interface medical specialties psychiatry military psychiatry covers special aspects psychiatry mental disorders within military context neuropsychiatry branch medicine dealing mental disorders attributable diseases nervous system


social psychiatry branch psychiatry focuses interpersonal cultural context mental disorder mental well larger healthcare organizations psychiatrists often serve senior management roles responsible efficient effective delivery mental health services organization 's constituents example chief mental health services va medical centers usually psychiatrist although psychologists occasionally selected position well united states psychiatry one specialties qualify education board certification pain medicine palliative medicine


sleep medicine research psychiatric research nature interdisciplinary combining social biological psychological perspectives attempt understand nature treatment mental disorders ref name umanchester ref clinical research psychiatrists study basic clinical psychiatric topics research institutions publish articles journals ref name pietrini ref name nyspi ref ref name cprf ref ref name elsevier ref supervision institutional review boards psychiatric clinical researchers look topics neuroimaging genetics psychopharmacology order enhance diagnostic validity reliability discover new treatment methods classify new mental disorders ref name mitchell ref clinical application diagnostic systems psychiatric diagnoses take place


tell risk getting mental illness future clinicians beginning utilize genetics ref name krebs ref ref name benes ref ref name vonk ref speech ref name low ref diagnostic process whole remain research topics diagnostic manuals three main diagnostic manuals used classify mental health conditions use today icd produced published world health organization includes section psychiatric conditions used worldwide ref name icd ref diagnostic statistical manual mental disorders produced published american psychiatric association apa primarily focused mental health conditions


main classification tool united states ref name dsm ref currently fifth revised edition also used worldwide ref name dsm chinese society psychiatry also produced diagnostic manual chinese classification mental disorders ref name chen ref stated intention diagnostic manuals typically develop replicable clinically useful categories criteria facilitate consensus agreed upon standards whilst atheoretical regards etiology ref name dsm ref name essen ref however categories nevertheless based particular psychiatric theories data broad often specified numerous possible combinations symptoms


artificial dividing lines categories 'normality' possible cultural bias medicalization human distress financial conflicts interest including practice psychiatrists pharmaceutical industry political controversies inclusion exclusion diagnoses manual general regard specific issues experience directly affected manual diagnosed including consumer survivor movement ref name concept evolution ref publication dsm tightly guarded copyrights makes apa million year historically adding million treatment general


considerations nimh federal agency patient room psychiatric research maryland usa individuals mental health conditions commonly referred ''patients'' may also called ''clients'' ''consumers'' ' 'service recipients'' may come care psychiatric physician psychiatric practitioners various paths two common self referral referral primary care physician alternatively person may referred hospital medical staff court order involuntary commitment uk australia sectioning mental health law persons undergo psychiatric assessment evaluated


psychiatrist medical provider mental physical condition usually involves interviewing person often obtaining information sources health social care professionals relatives associates law enforcement personnel emergency medical personnel psychiatric rating scales mental status examination carried physical examination usually performed establish exclude illnesses may contributing alleged psychiatric problems physical examination may also serve identify signs self harm examination often performed someone psychiatrist especially blood tests


medical imaging performed like medications psychiatric medications cause adverse effects patients require ongoing therapeutic drug monitoring instance full blood counts serum drug levels renal function liver function thyroid function electroconvulsive therapy ect sometimes administered serious disabling conditions unresponsive medication efficacy adverse effects psychiatric drugs may vary patient patient many years controversy surrounded use involuntary treatment use term lack insight describing patients mental health laws vary significantly among jurisdictions


likely seen outpatients hospitalization required average hospital stay around one two weeks small number receiving long term hospitalization however japan psychiatric hospitals continue keep patients long periods sometimes even keeping physical restraints strapped beds periods weeks months psychiatric inpatients people admitted hospital clinic receive psychiatric care admitted involuntarily perhaps committed secure hospital jurisdictions facility within prison system many countries including united


states canada criteria involuntary admission vary local jurisdiction may broad mental health condition narrow immediate danger others bed availability often real determinant admission decisions hard pressed public facilities people may admitted voluntarily treating doctor considers safety compromised less restrictive option inpatient psychiatric wards may secure thought particular risk violence self harm unlocked open wards mixed sex whilst sex wards increasingly favored


protect women inpatients care hospital people assessed monitored often given medication care multidisciplinary team may include physicians pharmacists psychiatric nurse practitioners psychiatric nurses clinical psychologists psychotherapists psychiatric social workers occupational therapists social workers person receiving treatment psychiatric hospital assessed particular risk harming others may put constant intermittent one one supervision may put physical restraints medicated people inpatient wards may allowed leave periods time either accompanied


many developed countries massive reduction psychiatric beds since mid th century growth community care standards inpatient care remain challenge public private facilities due levels funding facilities developing countries typically grossly inadequate reason even developed countries programs public hospitals vary widely may offer structured activities therapies offered many perspectives others may funding medicating monitoring patients may problematic maximum amount


therapeutic work might actually take place hospital setting hospitals increasingly used limited situations moments crisis patients direct threat others alternatives psychiatric hospitals may actively offer therapeutic approaches include rehabilitation centers rehab popularly termed outpatient treatment outpatient treatment involves periodic visits psychiatrist consultation office community based outpatient clinic initial appointments psychiatrist conducts psychiatric assessment evaluation patient typically minutes


length follow appointments generally shorter duration ie minutes focus making medication adjustments reviewing potential medication interactions considering impact medical disorders patient 's mental emotional functioning counseling patients regarding changes might make facilitate healing remission symptoms eg exercise cognitive therapy techniques sleep hygiene name frequency psychiatrist sees people treatment varies widely week twice year depending type severity stability person 's condition depending


psychotherapy could delivered efficiently less time required appointment ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref example psychiatrists schedule three four follow appointments per hour opposed seeing one patient per hour traditional psychotherapy model shift practice patterns psychiatrists often refer patients think would benefit psychotherapy mental health professionals eg clinical social workers psychologists history earliest known texts mental disorders ancient india include ayurvedic text charaka samhita first hospitals curing mental illness established


india rd century bce greeks also created early manuscripts mental disorders th century bce hippocrates theorized physiological abnormalities may root mental disorders ref name elkes th th century bc greece hippocrates wrote visited democritus found garden cutting open animals democritus explained attempting discover cause madness melancholy hippocrates praised work democritus book madness melancholy th century bce mental disorders especially psychotic traits considered supernatural


origin ref name elkes ref view existed throughout ancient greece rome ref name elkes well egyptian regions religious leaders often turned versions exorcism treat mental disorders often utilizing methods many consider cruel barbaric methods trepanning one methods used throughout history ref name elkes islamic golden age fostered early studies islamic psychology psychiatry many scholars writing mental disorders persian physician muhammad ibn zakariya al razi also known rhazes wrote texts psychiatric conditions th century ref name waelmohamed ref chief physician hospital baghdad


also director one first psychiatric wards world two works particular ''el mansuri'' ''al hawi'' provide descriptions treatments mental illnesses ref name waelmohamed abu zayd al balkhi persian polymath th th centuries one first classify neurotic disorders pioneered cognitive therapy order treat classified neurotic disorders classified neurosis four emotional disorders fear anxiety anger aggression sadness depression obsession al balkhi classified three types depression normal depression sadness ''huzn'' endogenous depression originating


within body reactive clinical depression originating outside body ref name amber ref first bimaristan founded baghdad th century several others increasing complexity created throughout arab world following centuries bimaristans contained wards dedicated care mentally ill patients suffered debilitating illnesses exhibited violence specialist hospitals bethlem royal hospital london built medieval europe th century treat mental disorders used custodial institutions provide type


treatment ref name shorter ref beginning psychiatry medical specialty dated middle nineteenth century although germination traced late eighteenth century late th century privately run asylums insane began proliferate expand size bethel hospital norwich opened first purpose built asylum england louis xiv france created public system hospitals suffering mental disorders england real treatment applied enlightenment attitudes towards mentally ill began


change came viewed disorder required compassionate treatment english physician william battie wrote ''treatise madness'' management mental disorder critique aimed particularly bethlem royal hospital conservative regime continued use barbaric custodial treatment battie argued tailored management patients entailing cleanliness good food fresh air distraction friends family argued mental disorder originated dysfunction material brain body rather internal workings mind dr philippe pinel salp tri


tony robert fleury pinel ordering removal chains patients paris asylum insane women introduction moral treatment initiated independently french doctor philippe pinel english quaker william tuke ref name elkes pinel became chief physician bic tre hospital patients allowed move freely hospital grounds eventually dark dungeons replaced sunny well ventilated rooms pinel 's student successor jean esquirol went help establish new mental hospitals operated principles although tuke pinel others tried


away physical restraint remained widespread th century lincoln asylum england robert gardiner hill support edward parker charlesworth pioneered mode treatment suited types patients mechanical restraints coercion could dispensed situation finally achieved sergeant john adams dr john conolly impressed work hill introduced method hanwell asylum largest country ref name suzuki ref ref name taom ref modern era institutionalized provision care mentally


creation one new york passed utica state hospital opened around many state hospitals united states built kirkbride plan architectural style meant curative effect turn century england france combined hundred individuals asylums late early number risen hundreds thousands however idea mental illness could ameliorated institutionalization ran difficulties ref name shorter ref psychiatrists pressured ever increasing patient


population ref name shorter asylums became almost indistinguishable custodial institutions ref name rothman ref early psychiatry made advances diagnosis mental illness broadening category mental disease include mood disorders addition disease level delusion irrationality ref name wcfcd ref th century introduced new psychiatry world different perspectives looking mental disorders emil kraepelin initial ideas behind biological psychiatry stating different mental disorders biological nature evolved new concept nerves psychiatry became rough approximation neurology neuropsychiatry


following sigmund freud 's pioneering work ideas stemming psychoanalytic theory also began take root psychiatry ref name shorter ref psychoanalytic theory became popular among psychiatrists allowed patients treated private practices instead warehoused asylums ref name shorter otto loewi 's work led identification first neurotransmitter acetylcholine however psychoanalytic school thought became marginalized within field ref name shorter biological psychiatry reemerged time psychopharmacology neurochemistry became integral parts psychiatry starting otto loewi 's discovery neuromodulatory properties acetylcholine thus identifying


first known neurotransmitter subsequently shown different neurotransmitters different multiple functions regulation behaviour wide range studies neurochemistry using human animal samples individual differences neurotransmitters' production reuptake receptors' density locations linked differences dispositions specific psychiatric disorders example discovery chlorpromazine 's effectiveness treating schizophrenia revolutionized treatment disorder ref name turner ref lithium carbonate 's ability stabilize mood highs lows bipolar disorder psychotherapy still utilized treatment psychosocial issues proved


idea neurochemical nature many psychiatric disorders another approach look biomarkers psychiatric disorders neuroimaging first utilized tool psychiatry us president john f kennedy introduced legislation delegating national institute mental health administer community mental health centers discharged state psychiatric hospitals ref name shorter ref later though community mental health centers focus shifted providing psychotherapy suffering acute less serious mental disorders ref name shorter ultimately arrangements made actively following treating severely mentally ill


confuses disorders mind disorders brain treated drugs ref name crit psych ref critique psychiatry within field comes critical psychiatry group uk term ''anti psychiatry'' coined psychiatrist david cooper later made popular thomas szasz word ''antipsychiatrie'' already used germany basic premise anti psychiatry movement psychiatrists attempt classify normal people deviant psychiatric treatments ultimately damaging helpful patients psychiatry 's history involves may seen


dangerous treatments frontal lobectomy commonly called lobotomy ref name ref several former patient groups formed often referring survivors rosenhan experiment conducted determine validity psychiatric diagnosis volunteers feigned hallucinations enter psychiatric hospitals acted normally afterwards diagnosed psychiatric disorders given antipsychotic drugs study conducted psychologist david rosenhan stanford university professor published journal ''science'' title sane insane places ref name gaughwin ref however neutrality project nowadays often questioned


project seen many experts manipulated church scientology critical psychiatry whereas others questioned veracity information church scientology provides public see also medical psychology biopsychiatry controversy child adolescent psychiatry telepsychiatry psychiatry innovation lab notes references citations cited texts reading francis gavin changing psychiatry 's mind review anne harrington ''mind fixers psychiatry 's troubled search biology mental illness'' norton pp nathan filer ''this book change mind mental health journey heartland psychiatry'' london faber


faber pp ''the new york review books'' vol lxviii january pp nbsp mental disorders different illnesses addressed medical specialties treat purely physical misunderstand nature care needs based distress cognitive emotional physical need rather psychiatric diagnos often uncertain erratic unreplicable p nbsp related articles wikipedia mental disorders neuroscience branches psychology


'''information''' processed organised structured data provides context data enables decision making process example single customer sale restaurant data becomes information business able identify popular least popular dish technically '''information''' thought resolution uncertainty answers question entity thus defines essence nature characteristics concept ''information'' different meanings different contexts ref name floridi ref thus concept becomes synonymous notions constraint

Applied science
Military sciences
Battlespace
Information


information encoded various forms transmission interpretation example information may encoded sequence signs transmitted via signal also encrypted safe storage communication uncertainty event measured probability occurrence uncertainty inversely proportional probability occurrence information theory takes advantage fact concluding uncertain events require information resolve uncertainty bit typical unit information 'that reduces uncertainty half' units nat


may used example information encoded one fair coin flip log sub sub bit two fair coin flips log sub sub bits ''science'' article estimated technologically stored information already digital bits year beginning digital age information storage digital storage capacity bypassing analog first time ref name hilbertlopez free access article martinhilbertnet worldinfocapacityhtml ref etymology english word information comes middle french ''enformacion informacion information'' 'a criminal investigation' etymon latin ''informati n ''


'conception teaching creation' english information uncountable mass noun information theory information theory scientific study quantification storage communication information field fundamentally established works harry nyquist ralph hartley claude shannon field intersection probability theory statistics computer science statistical mechanics information engineering electrical engineering key measure information theory entropy entropy quantifies amount uncertainty involved value random variable outcome random process example


organism example food system energy book ''sensory ecology'' biophysicist david b dusenbery called causal inputs inputs information important associated causal inputs used predict occurrence causal input later time perhaps another place information important association information eventually must connection causal input practice information usually carried weak stimuli must detected specialized sensory systems amplified energy inputs


functional organism system example light mainly eg plants grow direction lightsource causal input plants animals provides information colored light reflected flower weak photosynthesis visual system bee detects bee 's nervous system uses information guide bee flower bee often finds nectar pollen causal inputs serving nutritional function representation complexity cognitive


scientist applied mathematician ronaldo vigo argues information concept requires least two related entities make quantitative sense dimensionally defined category objects subsets r r essence representation words conveys representational hence conceptual information vigo defines amount information r conveys rate change complexity whenever objects r removed vigo information pattern invariance complexity representation information five fundamental constructs


universal science unified novel mathematical framework among things framework aims overcome limitations shannon weaver information attempting characterize measure subjective information influence leads transformation information type pattern influences formation transformation patterns sense need conscious mind perceive much less appreciate pattern consider example dna sequence nucleotides pattern influences formation development organism without need conscious mind one


implies information perceived conscious mind also interpreted specific context associated interpretation may cause transformation information knowledge complex definitions information knowledge make semantic logical analysis difficult condition transformation important point study information relates knowledge especially business discipline knowledge management practice tools processes used assist knowledge worker performing research making decisions including steps review information effectively derive


mcluhan speaks media effects human cultures refers structure artifacts turn shape behaviors mindsets also pheromones often said information sense technologically mediated information sections using measurements data rather information information cannot directly measured estimated world 's technological capacity store information grew optimally compressed exabytes informational equivalent less one mb cd rom per person mb per person


optimally compressed exabytes ref name hilbertlopez informational equivalent almost cd rom per person ref name hilbertvideo world 's combined technological capacity receive information one way broadcast networks informational equivalent newspapers per person per day ref name hilbertlopez world 's combined effective capacity exchange information two way telecommunication networks informational equivalent newspapers per person per day ref name hilbertvideo estimated new information digital mostly stored hard drives total amount


long required international standard records management iso defines records information created received maintained evidence information organization person pursuance legal obligations transaction business international committee archives ica committee electronic records defined record recorded information produced received initiation conduct completion institutional individual activity comprises content context structure sufficient provide evidence activity ref name ica ref records may maintained retain corporate memory organization


meet legal fiscal accountability requirements imposed organization willis expressed view sound management business records information delivered six key requirements good corporate governancetransparency accountability due process compliance meeting statutory common law requirements security personal corporate information semiotics michael buckland classified information terms uses information process information knowledge information thing beynon davies explains multi faceted concept information terms signs signal sign systems signs considered terms four inter dependent levels layers branches


signs association signs behaviour semantics considered study link symbols referents concepts particularly way signs relate human behavior syntax concerned formalism used represent message syntax area studies form communication terms logic grammar sign systems syntax devoted study form rather content signs sign systems nielsen discusses relationship semiotics information relation dictionaries introduces concept


lexicographic information costs refers effort user dictionary must make first find understand data generate information communication normally exists within context social situation social situation sets context intentions conveyed pragmatics form communication communicative situation intentions expressed messages comprise collections inter related signs taken language mutually understood agents involved communication mutual understanding implies agents involved understand chosen language terms agreed syntax syntactics


semantics sender codes message language sends message signals along communication channel empirics chosen communication channel inherent properties determine outcomes speed communication take place distance application information study information cycle addressed whole distinct components great concern information technology information systems well information science fields deal processes techniques pertaining information capture sensors generation computation formulation composition processing


including encoding encryption compression packaging transmission including telecommunication methods presentation including visualization display methods storage magnetic optical including holographic methods etc information visualization shortened infovis depends computation digital representation data assists users pattern recognition anomaly detection gallery internet map jpg partial map internet nodes representing ip addresses structure universejpg galactic including dark matter distribution cubic section universe xd aoletjpg information embedded abstract mathematical object symmetry breaking nucleus attractor poisson saturnejpg visual representation strange attractor converted data


fractal structure gallery information security shortened infosec ongoing process exercising due diligence protect information information systems unauthorized access use disclosure destruction modification disruption distribution algorithms procedures focused monitoring detection well incident response repair information analysis process inspecting transforming modelling information converting raw data actionable knowledge support decision making process information quality shortened infoq potential dataset achieve specific scientific practical goal using given empirical analysis method information


communication represents convergence informatics telecommunication audio visual media content see also references reading external links http platostanfordedu entries information semantic semantic conceptions information review luciano floridi stanford encyclopedia philosophy http pespmc vubacbe asc negentropyhtml principia cybernetica entry negentropy https wpopticsarizonaedu rfrieden fisher information fisher information new paradigm science introduction uncertainty principles wave equations ideas escher kant plato wheeler essay continually revised light ongoing research http www simsberkeleyedu research projects much info indexhtm much information attempt estimate much new information created year study produced faculty students school


information management systems university california berkeley http wwwinformationsordbogendk informationsordbogendk danish dictionary information terms informationsordbogen concepts metaphysics information science main topic articles


'''military policy''' also called '' 'defence policy''' '' 'defense policy''' public policy dealing multinational security military comprises measures initiatives governments take relation decision making strategic goals commit national armed forces military policy used ensures retention independence national development alleviation hardships imposed hostile aggressive external actors defence ministry synonymous organisation minister primary decision maker national military policy purpose military policy identifies threats hostility

Applied science
Public administration
Military policy


aggression based intelligence analysis defines military scope national security defense alliances combat readiness military organisation national forces use military technology national military policy defines national defense strategy committing national armed forces national military policy also defines strategic posture towards possible threats national territory society environment economy defines options available deal threats options military policy provides government better considered formulation strategic posture turn defines military


doctrine armed forces doctrine may include confronting threats national interests located outside national territory shipping lanes defense strategy military doctrine developed strategic policy capability development processes development military policy created military policy process making important organisational decisions including identification priorities different alternatives defence personnel technology programs budget priorities choosing among basis impact overall national development defence policies understood political management financial


administrative executable mechanisms arranged reach explicit military goals objectives applications military policy addresses achievement military goals objectives making explicit statements desired capability combat readiness military organization political military relationships civilian control military role armed forces command control military intelligence counterintelligence defence diplomacy defence capability terms technology mobility materiel logistics block obsolescence professionalism training recruiting social change military standing forces military reserve forces conscriptions military policy differs rules engagement determine


military force used formations units see also capability management national security defence diplomacy small arms proliferation european union arms embargo people 's republic china list national defense industries private military company campaign arms trade canadian arms trade list countries military expenditures permanent arms economy military funding science military industrial complex military keynesianism peace dividend guns versus butter model gunboat diplomacy al yamamah arms deal arms control public policy national security defense policy


'''prospect research''' also known development research fundraising research technique fundraisers development teams nonprofits gather relevant information potential donors research methods include prospect screening companies prospect research consultants house researchers https booksgooglecom booksid v iu yb rcc pg pt prospect researchers usually employees universities charities profit organizations freelancers work private companies organizations generally employ prospect researchers find qualify potential major donors resources make large gift organization although definition large gift vary considerably prospect researcher

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Prospect research


assess individual 's company 's charitable trust foundation 's capacity propensity donate prospect researchers use variety resources including public records business financial publications internet databases prospect researchers also focus search individuals companies foundations specific giving interests philanthropic histories already exist prospect researchers adhere code ethics protect institutions represent prospects research prospect researchers conduct research evaluate prospect 's ability give also called capacity prospect financially contribute organization warmth toward


organization also called affinity close prospect feels organization propensity likely individual give prospect researchers may also analyze data donor constituent database identify new potential major donors predict groups constituents likely make major gifts wealth ratings usually refer prospect 's capacity donate one common sources used prospect researchers task rich lists sunday times rich list widely referred prospect researchers overall value


disputed large variety algorithms many scholars use create wealth score would agree america real estate main indicator research generally conducted via internet also done use subscribed databases like factiva lexisnexis fame researcher may also use government managed resources companies house charity commission hm land registry useful resources include debrett 's 's provide good general background prospect prospect research established component prospect development field pioneered bobbie


j strand also encompasses relationship pipeline management data analytics advancement references external links http wwwaprahomeorg apra association professional researchers advancement fundraising


understand resulting pattern wages employment income patterns exist individual market presumed make rational choices based information know regarding wage desire provide labour desire leisure labour markets normally geographically bounded rise internet brought 'planetary labour market' sectors labour measure work done human beings conventionally contrasted factors production land capital theories focus human capital entrepreneurship refers

Social science
Economics
Labor economics


skills workers possess necessarily actual work produce labour unique study special type good cannot separated owner ie work cannot separated person labour market also different markets workers suppliers firms demanders ref name macro micro analysis labour markets two sides labour economics labour economics generally seen application microeconomic macroeconomic techniques labour market microeconomic


techniques study role individuals individual firms labour market macroeconomic techniques look interrelations labour market goods market money market foreign trade market looks interactions influence macro variables employment levels participation rates aggregate income gross domestic product macroeconomics labour markets job advertisement board shenzhen '''labour market macroeconomic theory''' shows supply labour exceeds demand proven salary growth lags productivity growth labour supply exceeds demand salary faces downward pressure due


employer 's ability pick labour pool exceeds jobs pool however demand labour larger supply salary increases employee bargaining power employers compete scarce labour labour force lf defined number people working age either employed actively looking work unemployed '''labour force participation rate lfpr ''' number people labour force divided size adult civilian noninstitutional population population working age


institutionalized lfpr lf population ref name ref '''non labour force''' includes looking work institutionalized prisons psychiatric wards stay home spouses children working age serving military '''unemployment level''' defined labour force minus number people currently employed '''unemployment rate''' defined level unemployment divided labour force '''employment rate''' defined number people currently employed divided adult population population working age statistics self employed


people counted employed ref name skills required labour force vary individual individual well firm firm firms specific skills interested limiting labour force certain criteria firm requiring specific skills help determine size market ref name labour markets ref variables like employment level unemployment level labour force unfilled vacancies called '' 'stock variables''' measure quantity point time contrasted '''flow variables''' measure quantity duration time changes


labour force due flow variables natural population growth net immigration new entrants retirements changes unemployment depend inflows non employed people starting look jobs employed people lose jobs looking new ones outflows people find new employment people stop looking employment looking overall macroeconomy several types unemployment identified separated two categories natural unnatural unemployment ref name ''natural unemployment'' '''frictional unemployment''' reflects fact takes


time people find settle new jobs feel appropriate skill set ref name technological advancement often reduces frictional unemployment example internet search engines reduced cost time associated locating employment personnel selection '''structural unemployment''' number jobs available industry sufficient enough provide jobs persons interested working qualified work industry due changes industries prevalent country wages industry


high causing people want supply labour industry ref name '''natural rate unemployment''' also known '''full employment''' summation frictional structural unemployment excludes cyclical contributions unemployment eg recessions seasonal unemployment lowest rate unemployment stable economy expect achieve given frictional structural unemployment inevitable economists agree level natural rate estimates ranging meaning associate non accelerating inflation


estimated rate varies countries across time ref name ''unnatural unemployment'' '''demand deficient unemployment''' also known '''cyclical unemployment''' keynesian economics level unemployment beyond natural rate probably due insufficient goods demand overall economy recession aggregate expenditure deficient causing underutilisation inputs including labour aggregate expenditure ae increased according keynes increasing consumption spending c increasing investment spending increasing government spending g increasing net exports minus imports x since ae c g x '''seasonal unemployment'''


microeconomic theory people assumed rational seeking maximize utility function labour market model utility function expresses trade offs preference leisure time income time used labour however constrained hours available let ''w'' denote hourly wage ''k'' denote total hours available labour leisure ''l'' denote chosen number working hours denote income non labour sources ''a'' denote leisure hours chosen individual 's problem maximise utility ''u'' depends total income available spending


budget constraint wage rate point optimisation point reflects equivalency wage rate marginal rate substitution ref name frank frank robert h ''microeconomics behavior'' mcgraw hill irwin th edition ref leisure income absolute value slope indifference curve marginal rate substitution leisure income also ratio marginal utility leisure mu sup l sup marginal utility income mu sup sup one conclude math mu l mu dy dl math ''y'' total income right side wage rate div style float center text align center


effects wage increase br ''effects wage increase'' div wage rate increases individual 's constraint line pivots xy sub sub xy sub sub purchase goods services utility increase point ic sub sub point b ic sub sub understand effect might decision many hours work one must look income effect substitution effect wage increase shown previous diagram decomposed two separate effects pure income effect shown movement point


case less time allocated working intuition behind latter case individual decides higher earnings previous amount labour spent purchasing leisure div style float left text align center labour supply curve br ''the labour supply curve'' div substitution effect greater income effect individual 's supply labour services increase wage rate rises represented positive slope '''labour supply curve''' point e adjacent diagram exhibits positive wage elasticity positive relationship increasing


point f beyond income effect dominates substitution effect individual starts reduce number labour hours supplies point g wage increases words wage elasticity negative direction slope may change individuals labour supply curve different different individuals variables affect labour supply decision readily incorporated model include taxation welfare work environment income signal ability social contribution neoclassical microeconomic model demand firm 's labour


demand based marginal physical product labour mpp sub l sub defined additional output physical product results increase one unit labour infinitesimal increase labour see also production theory basics labour demand derived demand hiring labour desired sake rather aids producing output contributes employer 's revenue hence profits demand additional amount labour depends marginal revenue product mrp marginal cost mc worker


economic models greater availability capital firm increase mrp worker else equal education training counted human capital since amount physical capital affects mrp since financial capital flows affect amount physical capital available mrp thus wages affected financial capital flows within countries degree capital mobility within countries according neoclassical theory relevant range outputs marginal physical product labour declining law diminishing returns


units labour employed additional output begins decline additionally although mrp good way expressing employer 's demand factors social group formation demand well labour supply constantly restructures exactly labour market leads way cause problems theories inflation ref name labour markets neoclassical microeconomic model equilibrium div style float right text align center firm 's labour demand short run br ''a firm 's labour demand short run horizontal supply curve '' div marginal revenue product labour


various factors concerning phenomenon includes mrp worker doctor 's mrp far greater port cleaner addition barriers becoming doctor far greater becoming port cleaner become doctor takes lot education training costly excel academia succeed becoming doctors port cleaner however requires relatively less training supply doctors therefore significantly less elastic port cleaners demand also inelastic


high demand doctors medical care necessity nhs pay higher wage rates attract profession monopsony labour markets single employer thus satisfy perfect competition assumption neoclassical model model monopsonistic labour market gives lower quantity employment lower equilibrium wage rate competitive model asymmetric information advertisement labour sabah sarawak seen jalan petaling kuala lumpur many real life situations assumption perfect information unrealistic employer necessarily


know hard workers working productive provides incentive workers shirk providing full effort called moral hazard ref name ref since difficult employer identify hard working shirking employees incentive work hard productivity falls overall leading hiring workers lower unemployment rate one solution used avoid moral hazard stock options grant employees chance benefit directly firm 's success however solution attracted criticism executives


large stock option packages suspected acting inflate share values detriment long run welfare firm another solution foreshadowed rise temporary workers japan firing many workers response financial crisis flexible job contracts terms encourage employees work less full time partially compensating loss hours relying workers adapt working time response job requirements economic conditions instead employer trying determine much work needed


complete given task overestimating another aspect uncertainty results firm 's imperfect knowledge worker ability firm unsure worker 's ability pays wage assuming worker 's ability average similar workers wage compensates high ability workers may drive away labour market well time attracting low ability workers phenomenon called adverse selection sometimes lead market collapse ref name one way combat adverse selection firms try use signalling pioneered michael spence whereby


employers could use various characteristics applicants differentiate high ability low ability workers one common signal used education whereby employers assume high ability workers higher levels education ref name employers compensate high ability workers higher wages however signalling always work may appear external observer education raised marginal product labour without necessarily true search models one major research achievements period development framework dynamic search matching bargaining personnel economics hiring incentives


micro level one sub discipline eliciting increased attention recent decades analysis internal labour markets ''within'' firms organisations studied personnel economics perspective personnel management contrast external labour markets imply workers move somewhat fluidly firms wages determined aggregate process firms significant discretion wage setting focus firms establish maintain end employment relationships firms provide incentives employees including models empirical work incentive systems constrained economic efficiency


risk incentive tradeoffs relating personnel compensation discrimination inequality inequality discrimination workplace many effects workers context labour economics inequality usually referring unequal distribution earning households ref name inequality commonly measured economists using gini coefficient coefficient concrete meaning used way compare inequality across regions higher gini coefficient calculated larger inequality exists region time inequality average increasing due


numerous factors including labour supply demand shifts well institutional changes labour market shifts labour supply demand factors include demand skilled workers going supply skilled workers relative unskilled workers well technological changes increase productivity things cause wages go skilled labour unskilled worker wages stay decline institutional changes decrease union power declining real minimum wage reduce unskilled workers wages tax cuts


groups people decomposition aims calculate difference wages occurs differences skills versus returns skills ref name way modelling discrimination workplace dealing wages gary becker 's taste models using taste models employer discrimination thought employer hiring minority worker perceived cost hiring worker higher cost hiring non minority worker causes less hiring minority another taste model employee discrimination cause


models gary becker made explain discrimination causes differences hiring wages labour market criticisms many sociologists political economists heterodox economists claim labour economics tends lose sight complexity individual employment decisions decisions particularly supply side often loaded considerable emotional baggage purely numerical analysis miss important dimensions process social benefits high income wage rate regardless marginal utility increased consumption specific economic goals perspective mainstream


economics neoclassical models meant serve full description psychological subjective factors go given individual 's employment relations useful approximation human behaviour aggregate fleshed use concepts information asymmetry transaction costs contract theory etc also missing labour market analyses role unpaid labour unpaid internships workers little experience allowed work job without pay gain experience particular profession even


though type labour unpaid nevertheless play important part society abused employers dramatic example child raising however past years increasing literature usually designated economics family sought study within household decision making including joint labour supply fertility child raising well areas generally referred home production wage slavery labour market institutionalised today 's market economic systems criticised especially mainstream socialists anarcho syndicalists ref name english working class p ref ref


name english working class p ref ref name geoffrey ostergaard p ref ref name shop floor p ref utilise term wage slavery ref name merriam webstercom ref pejorative wage labour socialists draw parallels trade labour commodity slavery cicero also known suggested parallels according noam chomsky analysis psychological implications wage slavery goes back enlightenment era book ''on limits state action'' classical liberal thinker wilhelm von humboldt explained whatever spring man 's free choice result instruction


guidance enter nature perform truly human energies merely mechanical exactness labourer works external control may admire despise milgram stanford experiments found useful psychological study wage based workplace relations american philosopher john dewey posited industrial feudalism replaced industrial democracy politics shadow cast society big business thomas ferguson postulated investment theory party competition


undemocratic nature economic institutions capitalism causes elections become occasions blocs investors coalesce compete control state per anthropologist david graeber earliest wage labour contracts know fact contracts rental chattel slaves usually owner would receive share money slave another maintain living expenses arrangements according graeber quite common new world slavery well whether united states brazil c l r james argued


techniques human organisation employed factory workers industrial revolution first developed slave plantations additionally marxists posit labour commodity regard wage labour provides absolutely fundamental point attack capitalism persuasively argued noted one concerned philosopher conception worker 's labour commodity confirms marx 's stigmatisation wage system private capitalism 'wage slavery ' instrument capitalist 's reducing worker 's condition slave see also references reading richard blundell


thomas macurdy labour supply ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' nd edition http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde l q factors production demand supply topicid result number abstract freeman rb labour economics ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' v pp nbsp john r hicks nd ed ''the theory wages'' london macmillan ''handbook labor economics'' elsevier amsterdam north holland links one page chapter previews volume orley c ashenfelter richard layard ed v http wwwsciencedirectcom science handbooks http wwwsciencedirectcom science handbooks orley ashenfelter david card ed v http wwwsciencedirectcom science handbooks part pa http wwwsciencedirectcom science handbooks part pb b http wwwsciencedirectcom science handbooks part pc c orley ashenfelter david card ed v http wwwsciencedirectcom science handbooks part pa


http wwwsciencedirectcom science journal b mark r killingsworth ''labour supply'' cambridge cambridge surveys economic literature jacob mincer ''schooling experience earnings'' new york columbia university press anindya bakrie morendy octora ''schooling experience earnings'' new york singapore national university columbia university press simon head ''the new ruthless economy work power digital age'' oxford external links http oshaeuropaeu priority groups ageingworkers ageing workers eu osha https webarchiveorg web http labourcepslu labour economics gateway collection internet sites interest labour economists http wwwlawharvardedu programs lwp lwpclmphtml labour worklife program harvard law school changing labour markets project http wwwupjohnorg


upjohn institute employment research http wwwiloorg public english employment strat kilm ilo ''key indicators labour market kilm '' ed sept https webarchiveorg web http labourfaircom resourcesphp labourfair resources link fair labour practices https webarchiveorg web http wwwlabour researchnet indexphpid l labour research network labour research programme treating various fields http wwwlrdorguk labour research department independent labour economics research organisation factors production


removal adherent surface deposits physical chemical means cotton swab church sucevi monastery burial chamber suceava romania conservation horses saint mark venice '''conservation restoration cultural property''' focuses protection care cultural property tangible cultural heritage including artworks architecture archaeology museum collections conservation activities include preventive conservation examination documentation research treatment education field closely allied conservation science curators registrars definition revision conservation holy trinity column olomouc czech republic conservation cultural property involves protection


restoration using methods prove effective keeping property close original condition possible long possible conservation cultural heritage often associated art collections museums involves collection care management tracking examination documentation exhibition storage preventive conservation restoration ref name szczepanowska szczepanowska hanna conservation cultural heritage key principles approaches routledge ref scope widened art conservation involving protection care artwork architecture conservation cultural heritage also including protection care broad set


cultural historical works conservation cultural heritage described type ethical stewardship may broadly divided conservation restoration movable cultural property conservation restoration immovable cultural property conservation cultural property applies simple ethical guidelines minimal intervention appropriate materials reversible methods full documentation work undertaken often compromises preserving appearance maintaining original design material properties ability reverse changes reversibility emphasized reduce problems future treatment investigation use order conservators decide upon appropriate


conservation strategy apply professional expertise accordingly must take account views stakeholder values artist 's intent meaning work physical needs material cesare brandi ''theory restoration'' describes restoration methodological moment work art appreciated material form historical aesthetic duality view transmitting future history science key dates consider tradition conservation cultural heritage europe begun restoration sistine


chapel frescoes ancient examples include work cassiodorus brief history early video showing activities conservation laboratory rijksmuseum temporary windowed partition along restoration work area cloister church st trophime arles care cultural heritage long history one primarily aimed fixing mending objects continued use aesthetic enjoyment early th century artists normally ones called upon repair damaged artworks th century however fields science art became increasingly intertwined


scientists michael faraday began study damaging effects environment works art louis pasteur carried scientific analysis paint well however perhaps first organized attempt apply theoretical framework conservation cultural heritage came founding united kingdom society protection ancient buildings society founded william morris philip webb deeply influenced writings john ruskin period french movement similar aims developed


direction eug ne viollet le duc architect theorist famous restorations medieval buildings since harvard university wraps valuable statues campus chinese stele waterproof covers every winter order protect erosion caused acid rain conservation cultural heritage distinct field study initially developed germany friedrich rathgen became first chemist employed museum koniglichen museen berlin royal museums berlin developed scientific approach care objects


collections disseminated approach publishing handbook conservation early development conservation cultural heritage area world usually linked creation positions chemists within museums british archaeology key research technical experimentation conservation undertaken women ione gedye field archaeological collections particularly institute archaeology london united kingdom pioneering research painting materials conservation ceramics stone conservation conducted arthur pillans laurie academic chemist principal


heriot watt university laurie 's interests fostered william holman hunt chemist dr harold plenderleith began work british museum dr alexander scott recently created research laboratory although actually employed department scientific industrial research early years plenderleith 's appointment may said given birth conservation ''profession'' uk although craftsmen many museums commercial art world generations department created museum address deteriorating condition objects


collection damages result stored london underground tunnels first world war creation department moved focus development conservation theory practice germany britain made latter prime force fledgling field plenderleith wrote significant handbook called conservation antiquities works art supplanted rathgen 's earlier tome set new standards development art conservation science united states development conservation cultural heritage traced


fogg art museum edward waldo forbes director encouraged technical investigation chairman advisory committee first technical journal technical studies field fine arts published fogg importantly also brought onto museum staff chemists rutherford john gettens first us permanently employed art museum worked george l stout founder first editor technical studies gettens stout co authored painting materials short encyclopaedia


reprinted compendium still cited regularly dates descriptions gettens' stout 's book outdated ref name stoner joyce hill stoner joyce hill changing approaches art conservation present publication exists two editions earlier one scientific examination art modern techniques conservation analysis published national academy sciences later edition publication arthur sackler colloquia scientific examination art modern techniques conservation analysis published national academies press


ref george oliver oliver brothers art restoration art conservation boston est new york city invented vacuum hot table relining paintings filed patent table taylor 's prototype table designed constructed still operation oliver brothers believed first oldest continuously operating art restoration company united states focus conservation development accelerated britain america britain first international conservation organisations developed international institute conservation historic


artistic works iic incorporated british law permanent organization co ordinate improve knowledge methods working standards needed protect preserve precious materials kinds ref name stoner joyce hill rapid growth conservation professional organizations publications journals newsletters internationally localities spearheaded development conservation profession practically theoretically art historians theorists cesare brandi also played significant role developing conservation science theory recent years ethical concerns forefront developments conservation significantly


idea preventive conservation concept based part pioneering work garry thomson cbe book ''museum environment'' first published thomson associated national gallery london established set guidelines environmental controls best conditions objects could stored displayed within museum environment although exact guidelines longer rigidly followed inspire field conservation conservation laboratories lunder conservation center conservation staff smithsonian american art museum


keeping international contemporary scenario recent concerns sustainability conservation emerged common understanding care artifact come undue expense environment generally well accepted within community already contemplated guidelines diverse institutions related field ref name ref preserved historical quarter beirut central district practice preventive conservation many cultural works sensitive environmental conditions temperature humidity exposure visible light ultraviolet radiation works must protected controlled environments variables maintained within


range damage limiting levels example watercolour paintings usually require shielding sunlight prevent fading pigments collections care important element museum policy essential responsibility members museum profession create maintain protective environment collections care whether store display transit museum carefully monitor condition collections determine artifact requires conservation work services qualified conservator work preventive conservation rock wall prehistoric paintings serra da capivara national


park work consists filling cracks prevent fragmentation wall interventive conservation restoration furniture conservation glueing loose element solid nut marriage chest probably italy th century antique conservation painting frame museum employee teaching programme interventive conservation established uk institute archaeology ione gedye still teaching interventive conservators today principal aim cultural conservator reduce rate deterioration object non interventive interventive methodologies may employed pursuit goal


conservation effort would conservation work conducted sistine chapel example archaeological discovery restoration mural painting gallery perrow widths heights image st amant roche savine jpg center first archaeological search th century layer french archaeologist restorer yves morvan center image st amant roche savine jpg center painting th century cleared restoration center image st amant roche savine jpg center painting restoration center gallery example restoration oil painting gallery perrow widths heights file bacchus painting jpg center bacchus painting originating workshop leonardo da vinci seen restoration center file bacchus restorationjpg center bacchus restoration


colors closer original details better visible center gallery sustainable conservation understanding conservation practices harm cultural heritage well people environment led conservators consider discuss explore methods alternatives research projects working groups ref name https icommuseum wp content uploads wgs mandate pdf working group sustainability mandate pdf international council museums retrieved november ref initiatives associations organizations among others discussion around sustainable conservation practices applies institutional work ref name like museums research centres well business work like private studios ref name https wwwsustainabilityinconservationcom webinars


sic webinars ''siconserve'' ref broad range sustainable conservation practices promote sustainable running workplace regardless type include opting green energy alternatives reduce energy water consumption engage responsible approach acquisition transportation products materials objects use recycling materials whenever possible conduct proper waste disposal regulate levels climate control according collections also according local seasonal climate encourage personal enact according sustainable practices ref name ref name ref ref name conservation treatments may also follow sustainable


practices minimizing use products production use dangerous environment whenever possible replace green alternatives may include green solvents emulsions nanomaterials etc ref name conservation practices sustainability line current demands order preserve environment sustainable practices must strive establish management protocols conservation practices sustainability perspective daily work series actions implemented among prioritize use biodegradable products conservation interventions whenever possible support research make use whenever possible


products solvents aimed green chemistry among aqueous systems semi rigid gels nanogels adjusted water systems among others advocate contribute development research new techniques materials may use performance disposal less environmental impact laboratories prepare small amounts material avoid disposal never discard material sink implement strict disposal protocol chemical products recyclable materials compostable materials wear nitrile gloves strictly necessary choose resistant ones replace possible ones washed reused purchase excess materials


reduced expiration dates thus avoid waste disposal reuse materials laboratory giving uses blotting paper non woven polyester film among others give preference use silicone paper instead polyester films whenever possible install deionized distilled water filters laboratories avoid purchasing bottled products order avoid disposal give preference locally produced products whenever possible strengthening local economy reducing carbon footprint preventive conservation sustainability respecting principle sustainability nowadays must part preventive conservation


management protocols whether exhibition rooms museums storage rooms activities transport packaging objects works art use led lighting system use sensors lighting reducing luminosity exhibition spaces visitor present room encourage implementation green energy capture systems use photovoltaic plates wind energy systems heat pumps among others museums galleries technical reserves libraries archives ref name southwick ref improve insulation building keep indoor climate stable use less energy hvac systems roof


windows big factor ref name southwick microclimates specific objects materials groups may sustainable controlling environmental conditions whole collection ref name southwick reuse packaging materials encourage design standard packaging types objects use durable materials packing may washed used tyvek mylar ref name waste materials ref keep track materials avoid buying eventually waste country country look united states heritage preservation partnership institute museum library services us federal agency produced heritage health


collections members staff individuals levels government private sector must assume responsibility providing support allow collections survive united kingdom conservation progress note victoria albert museum october department culture media sport governmental department authored document understanding future priorities england 's museums document based several years consultation aimed lay government 's priorities museums st century document listed following priorities next decade


museums fulfil potential learning resources pp museums embedded delivery education every school country understanding effectiveness museum education improved best practice built education programmes value museums' collections research resource well understood better links built academic community museums museums embrace role fostering exploring celebrating questioning identities diverse communities pp sector needs work partners academia beyond


representative communities serve find varied ways broader range skills come museums improve continuing professional development museums work closely partners outside sector pp consistent evidence base contribution kinds museums full range public service agendas developed deeper longer lasting partnerships national museums broader range regional partners museums' international roles strengthened improve museum programmes


country britain 's image reputation relationships abroad conservation profession response report whole less favourable institute conservation icon published response title failure vision following say concluding icon website summary report lists following specific recommendations national survey find public want museums motivates visit makes rewarding visit review survey results prioritisation various intrinsic instrumental institutional values provide


clear basis year strategy hr consultants brought commercial sector review recruitment career development working practices national regional museums commitment examine potential using museum accreditation effective driver improving recruitment diversity career development across sector dcms take full account eventual findings current commons select committee enquiry care collections final version document adoption recommendations recent house lords inquiry science heritage might


affect future museums november uk based think tank demos published influential pamphlet entitled ''it 's material world caring public realm'' argue integrating public directly efforts conserve material culture particularly public argument stated page demonstrates belief society benefit conservation paradigm well profession training training conservation cultural heritage many years took form apprenticeship whereby apprentice slowly developed necessary skills undertake


job specializations within conservation still case however common field conservation today training required become practicing conservator comes recognized university course conservation cultural heritage ref name aic training http wwwconservation usorg training aic becoming conservator conservation usorg retrieved ref university rarely provide necessary training first hand experience apprenticeship therefore addition graduate level training profession also tends towards encouraging conservation students spend time intern conservation cultural heritage interdisciplinary


field conservators backgrounds fine arts sciences including chemistry biology materials science closely related disciplines art history archaeology anthropology also design fabrication artistic special skills necessary practical application knowledge within various schools teach conservation cultural heritage approach differs according educational vocational system within country focus school acknowledged american institute conservation advise specific admission requirements differ potential candidates encouraged contact programs directly


details prerequisites application procedures program curriculum ref name aic training france training heritage conservation taught four schools l cole sup rieure des beaux arts tours angers le mans l universit paris panth sorbonne institut national du patrimoine associations professional organizations societies devoted care cultural heritage existence around world many years one early example founding society protection ancient buildings britain protect built heritage society continues active today th dalai lama


tibetan people work preserve cultural heritage organizations including tibetan institute performing arts international network eight tibet houses built heritage forefront growth member based organizations united states preservation virginia founded richmond association preservation virginia antiquities united states' first statewide historic preservation group today professional conservators join take part activities numerous conservation associations professional organizations wider field within area specialization organizations exist


support conservation professionals preserve cultural heritage involves upholding professional standards promoting research publications providing educational opportunities fostering exchange knowledge among cultural conservators allied professionals public international cultural property documents class wikitable year document sponsor text english available athens charter international congress architects technicians historic monuments http wwwicomosorg en charters texts articles en francais ressources charters standards athens charter restoration historic monuments text carta di atene conferenza internazionale di atene http wwwtineit normativabbcc cartehtm atene text italian carta italiana del restauro consiglio superiore per le antichit e belle arti http wwwtineit normativabbcc cartehtm consiglio text italian charter


athens iv ciam http wwwgettyedu conservation research resources charters charter html text new delhi recommendation ix unesco https webarchiveorg web http wwwicomosorg unesco delhi html text https webarchiveorg web http wwwicomosorg unesco planning html text paris recommendation xii unesco https webarchiveorg web http wwwicomosorg unesco landscapes html text venice charter ii international congress architects technicians historic monuments https webarchiveorg web http wwwinternationalicomosorg charters venice ehtm text https webarchiveorg web http wwwinternationalicomosorg e venicehtm text paris recommendation xiii unesco https webarchiveorg web http wwwicomosorg unesco illicit html text norms quito oas http wwwinternationalicomosorg charters quitohtm text spanish https webarchiveorg web http wwwicomosorg docs quito html text paris recommendation xv unesco https webarchiveorg web http wwwicomosorg unesco works html text paris convention xvii unesco https whcunescoorg archive convention enpdf text paris recommendation xvii unesco https webarchiveorg web http wwwicomosorg unesco national html text carta italiana del restauro http wwwtineit normativabbcc cartehtm cartaitaliana text italian stockholm declaration


unep http webarchivelocgov http wwwuneporg documentsmultilingual defaultaspdocumentid articleid text santo domingo resolution dominican republic interamerican seminar conservation restoration architectural heritage colonial republican periods oas https webarchiveorg web http portaliphangovbr portal baixafcdanexodoid text portuguese http wwwuniscbr universidade estrutura administrativa nucleos npu npu patrimonio legislacao internacional patr cultural resolucoes sao domingos pdf text portuguese declaration amsterdam congress european architectural heritage https webarchiveorg web http wwwicomosorg docs amsterdamhtml text european charter architectural heritage council europe https webarchiveorg web http wwwicomosorg docs euroch ehtml text charter cultural tourism brussels international seminar contemporary tourism humanism http wwwinternationalicomosorg e tourishtm text nairobi recommendation xix unesco https webarchiveorg web http wwwicomosorg unesco areas html text machu picchu charter https webarchiveorg web http portaliphangovbr portal baixafcdanexodoid text portuguese http wwwuniscbr universidade estrutura administrativa nucleos npu npu patrimonio legislacao internacional patr cultural cartas machu picchu pdf text portuguese https webarchiveorg web http wwwcubaarqueologicaorg document carta pdf text spanish


https archivetoday http dc veraspxns ref spanish burra charter icomos https webarchiveorg web http wwwicomosorg australia burrahtml text florence charter icomos historic gardens http wwwinternationalicomosorg charters gardens ehtm text https webarchiveorg web http wwwinternationalicomosorg e florenhtm text nairobi declaration unep http wwwuneporg law pdf nairobideclaration pdf text tlaxcala declaration icomos https webarchiveorg web http wwwicomosorg docs tlaxcalahtml text xico declaration world conference cultural policies mondiacult http portalunescoorg culture en evphp url id url printpage url section html text https webarchiveorg web http portalunescoorg culture en files mexico enpdf mexico enpdf text declaration rome icomos https webarchiveorg web http wwwicomosorg docs romehtml text carta della conservazione e del restauro degli oggetti d'arte e di cultura https webarchiveorg web http wwwinforestauroorg carta del restauro html text italian washington charter icomos http wwwinternationalicomosorg charters towns ehtm text http wwwinternationalicomosorg e townshtm text paris recommendation xxv unesco http wwwun documentsnet folklorehtm text lausanne charter icomos icahm


http wwwinternationalicomosorg e archaehtm text http wwwinternationalicomosorg charters arch epdf text nara document unesco iccrom icomos http wwwinternationalicomosorg charters nara ehtm text http wwwinternationalicomosorg naradoc enghtm text european recommendation council europe committee ministers https wcdcoeint cominstranetinstraservletcommand cominstranetcmdblobget instranetimage secmode docid usage text rec e https wcdcoeint cominstranetinstraservletcommand cominstranetcmdblobget instranetimage secmode docid usage text rec e declaration san antonio icomos https webarchiveorg web http wwwicomosorg docs san antoniohtml text declaration sofia xi icomos xxix unesco https webarchiveorg web http portalunescoorg ci en evphp url id url ddo topic url section html text carta de mar del plata mercosur http portaliphangovbr vs portal baixafcdanexodoid text portuguese http wwwuniscbr universidade estrutura administrativa nucleos npu npu patrimonio legislacao internacional patr cultural documentos mercosulpdf text portuguese https webarchiveorg web http wwwipatrimoniocomar indexphpoption com content task view id itemid text spanish http puertoviejoparanacomar blog carta de mar del plata text spanish cracow charter https webarchiveorg web http wwwinforestauroorg carta di cracovia html text italian declaration cartagena de indias col mbia conselho andino oas http scmoasorg doc public english hist cidi e doc text paris recommendation xxxii


digital library clicking included link pergoli campanelli alessandro ''la nascita del restauro dall'antichit all'alto medioevo'' milan jaca book https wwwacademiaedu la nascita del restauro dallantichit c allalto medioevo sandis constantine ed http wwwopenbookpublisherscom product cultural heritage ethics theory practice 'cultural heritage ethics theory practice'' cambridge open book publishers staniforth sarah ed http shopgettyedu products historical perspectives preventive conservation ''historical perspectives preventive conservation'' los angeles getty publications h szczepanowska jha g mathia eds https dxdoiorg c ja c ''morphology characterization dematiaceous fungi cellulose paper substrate using synchrotron x ray microtomography scanning electron microscopy confocal laser scanning microscopy context cultural heritage'' journal analytical atomic spectrometry external


'' 'disseminate''' lat ' 'disseminare'' scattering seeds field communication means broadcast message public without direct feedback audience meaning dissemination takes theory traditional view communication involves sender receiver traditional communication view point broken sender sending information receiver collecting information processing sending information back like telephone line dissemination half communication model theory applied information sent received reply given

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Dissemination


message carrier sends information one individual many broadcasting system example transmission information fields advertising public announcements speeches another way look dissemination derives latin roots scattering seeds seeds metaphors voice words spread voice words opinion audience scientific context dissemination defined making projects results available scientific community policy makers industry using scientific language prioritizing accuracy terms


content covers results research project happens results available targets specialist audience order enable take use results dissemination research findings becoming important scientists since journals start encourage invest extra effort reaching wider audiences usage dissemination powerful adding rhetoric forms persuasiveness speech according john durham peters wrote ''communication dissemination'' making public offering perhaps basic communicative acts seeds cast


disseminating towards public depending circumstances surroundings environment listener receiving message also effect outcome meaning message received interference also known noise traditional model communication theory noise distort original meaning message furthermore john durham peters explains broadcasting information open ended destination feature speech metaphor dissemination directs attention vast continents signification directly interactive ref name communication dissemination dissemination basically


sends information audience without direct contact receiver without direct response clarification method conversation dialogue would dissemination plays crucial role especially public funded research society also representing tax payers funding research asking see results projects published shared scientific community therefore public authorities ask organizations executing research projects develop implement dissemination plan contributes publication research activities results thus funds invested research flows back society terms


knowledge publications openly accessible according grant agreement policy development mainstreaming seen going step dissemination tries embed change policy practice rather publishing information see also jacques derrida references references communication ar


toothpaste brushing last thing night least one occasion cleaning teeth called interdental cleaning important tooth brushing ref name claydon ref toothbrush cannot reach teeth therefore removes plaque surface teeth ref name lee many tools clean teeth including floss tape interdental brushes individual choose tool prefer use sometimes white straight teeth associated oral hygiene however hygienic mouth stained

Applied science
Medicine and health
Dentistry
Dental hygiene


teeth crooked teeth improve appearance teeth people may use tooth whitening treatments orthodontics healthy smile importance role oral microbiome dental health increasingly recognized ref name kilian oralmircobiome ref name mahasneh probiotics ref name hmpc healthyhmb data human oral microbiology research shows commensal microflora switch opportunistic pathogenic flora complex changes environment ref name bartold periodontitus changes driven host rather bacteria ref name marsh biofilmsandhost archeological evidence calcified dental plaque shows marked shifts oral


microbiome towards disease associated microbiome cariogenic bacteria becoming dominant industrial revolution ref name adler microbiotashifts ref name camenchumpalpth modern oral microbiota significantly less diverse historic populations ref name adler microbiotashifts caries cavities example become major endemic disease affecting schoolchildren industrialized countries ref name peterson contrast dental caries periodontal diseases rare pre neolithic early hominins ref name camenchumpalpth ref name grine earlyhominiddentalpathology tooth cleaning decay poster work projects administration promoting oral hygiene tooth decay common global disease cavities


occur inside fissures teeth brushing cannot reach food left trapped eating saliva fluoride access neutralize acid remineralize demineralized teeth unlike easy clean parts tooth fewer cavities occur teeth cleaning removal dental plaque tartar teeth prevent cavities gingivitis gum disease tooth decay severe gum disease causes least one third adult tooth loss since recorded history variety oral hygiene measures used teeth cleaning verified various excavations done throughout world chew