scoring judging artistic quality creativity execution difficulty routines sport aerobics state national international competitions olympic sport see also th century women 's fitness culture jazzercise water aerobics zumba references external links fads trends physical exercise


exploring themes landscape isolation emerging new zealand national identity ref name nz history ref ref name brit ck ref ori writers became prominent latter half th century ori language culture become increasingly important part new zealand literature ref name brit ck new zealand literature developed major part modern new zealand culture growing readership financial support publicity writers literary awards fellowships development literary journals magazines many new zealand writers obtained local international renown years including short story writers

Humanities
Languages and literature
New Zealand Literature


katherine mansfield frank sargeson jacquie sturm novelists janet frame patricia grace witi ihimaera maurice gee keri hulme eleanor catton poets james k baxter fleur adcock selina tusitala marsh hone tuwhare children 's authors margaret mahy joy cowley historians michael king judith binney playwright roger hall history early works pre illustrations morepork left extinct laughing owl right john gerrard keulemans walter buller 's ''a history birds new zealand'' nd edition published left upright polynesian settlers began arriving new zealand late th early th century


became known ori developing distinct culture including oral myths legends poetry songs waiata prayers public speaking marae communal sacred gathering place remains particularly important part ori culture performance key part oral tradition example maori women perform karanga ceremonial call part p whiri welcoming ceremony ref name brit ck ori written language early th century chief hongi hika nephew waikato worked linguist samuel lee develop systematic written form language


european settlers arrived collected many ori oral stories poems translated english published ''polynesian mythology'' george grey ''maori fairy tales'' johannes andersen stories god ui became widely known among non ori population new zealand well ori people ref name brit ck foundation also laid future ori literature ori newspapers ori histories literature associated ori religions r tana pai rire movements ref name roots ref th century p keh new zealanders saw


british publications written british authors british audience took time distinctly new zealand literature develop ref name brit ck ref name th ref first printing press arrived new zealand first book printed ori translation catechism william yate ''ko te katikihama iii'' early new zealand books generally narratives visits travel new zealand ''a narrative nine months' residence new zealand '' augustus earle ''station life new zealand''


mary anne barker scientific works ''the new zealanders illustrated'' rare book natural history artist george french angas ''a history birds new zealand'' ornithologist walter buller early expressions new zealand identity literature included notably ''old new zealand'' pakeha maori frederick edward maning ''erewhon'' samuel butler drew author 's experiences living canterbury five years ref name th oriland movement late th early th centuries new zealand nationalism began emerge p keh writers adopting ori


stories mythology term oriland proposed often used alternative name new zealand around time became centre literary movement colonialist writers inspired adopted ori traditions legends ref name cultural ref ref name ray ref encouraged widespread belief among settlers ori dying race would survive contact europeans ref name ray example thomas bracken 's book ''musings maoriland'' included poem new zealand hymn later became new zealand national anthem title god defend new zealand ref name ray bracken poets


jessie mackay arthur henry adams published poems ori rangatira chief te rauparaha alfred grace jessie weston others wrote fictional short stories novels ori themes ref name cultural new zealand 's fourth premier alfred domett wrote epic poem ''ranolf amohia south sea day dream'' words long described romance shipwrecked european man ori woman ref name ray william satchell launched magazine called ''the maorilander'' leftwing labour journal ''the maoriland worker'' ran new zealand wars


popular subject fiction typified ''the rebel chief romance new zealand'' hume nisbet colonial romances works louisa baker ellen ellis edith searle grossmann others ref name romance ref oriland culture artificial grounded romance rather reality academics jane stafford mark williams said maoriland signifies effort deny real presence maori new zealand favour mythologised decorative presence reason term seen archaic colonial time first world war apart


individuals james cowan rudall hayward movement largely ended ref name cultural term adopted current times oriland film festival organisation taki promotes indigenous storytelling screen early th century katherine mansfield left upright new zealand literature continued develop early th century notable writers including poet blanche edith baughan novelist jane mander new zealand 's famous influential writer years short story writer katherine mansfield left new zealand became one founders literary modernism


published three collections stories lifetime ''in german pension'' ''bliss stories'' ''the garden party stories'' died words ck stead laid foundations reputation gone grow influence development new zealand literature ever since ref name brit ck another notable early writer ursula bethell whose first poetry collection published poetry ascribed ''oxford companion twentieth century literature english'' plainness spareness well freshness


publishers ref name nz history notable works included ''man alone'' john mulgan influential classic describing isolated alienated new zealand man become cultural stereotype influenced great depression ''show down'' margaret escott frank sargeson 's short story collection ''a man wife'' common time writers like mansfield leave new zealand establish careers overseas including mulgan dan davin joined oxford university press journalist geoffrey cox ngaio marsh divided time new zealand england wrote detective fiction


known one queens crime ref name new ref depression foreign theatre companies stopped touring new zealand led establishment thriving amateur dramatic scene playwrights isobel andrews achieving success competitions held new zealand branch british drama league ref name nz history writing still largely p keh endeavour time many ori living rural areas recovering loss land language depopulation educational challenges te rangi h roa apirana ngata wrote non fiction collected ori songs


chants publication limited opportunities ori written literature ref name roots second world war subsequent years new zealand writing gained international audience john lehmann 's periodical ''penguin new writing'' local version produced ref name nz history frank sargeson edited anthology short stories new zealand writers called ''speaking ourselves'' published caxton press new zealand reed harris melbourne australia received favourable reviews writer janet frame later remembered stories collection overwhelmed


fact belonging ref name ocnzl sfo ref allen curnow published anthology ''a book new zealand verse '' marked beginning new zealand literature 's post colonial nationalist phase ref name brit ck charles brasch compared hard frost killed weeds promoted sound growth said set standard poetry alone arts curnow brasch two generation poets began careers caxton press major influence new zealand poetry others


group r fairburn r k mason denis glover ref name caxton ref poems contrasted work south african born robin hyde excluded nationalist group whose novel ''the godwits fly'' considered new zealand classic continuously print ref name caxton new zealand literary fund established provide subsidies scholarships local publishing writing historian poet keith sinclair said new zealand intellect imagination came alive ref name nz history


wide range outlets local literature influential journal ''landfall'' established bilingual quarterly ''te ao hou new world'' vehicle ori writers ref name nz history janet frame 's first novel ''owls cry'' published became acclaimed well known new zealand novelist th century work often drew experiences psychiatric hospitals featured stylistic experimentation exploration social conditions ref name ocnzl frame ref new generation young new zealand poets eventually emerged


members wellington group included alastair campbell fleur adcock scholars c k stead vincent o'sullivan also became well known poetry around time ref name james modern literature ori pasifika writing witi ihimaera premiere play ''all sons'' circa theatre wellington november left upright second world war ori began move urban areas educational opportunities available led emergence ori writing english ref name roots hone tuwhare first ori poet distinguished english poetry published


first book ''no ordinary sun'' jacquie sturm became first ori writer appear major anthology new zealand short stories ref name brit ck authors like sturm arapera blank rowley habib patricia grace published first time ''te ao hou'' became widely known respected ref name development ref witi ihimaera first ori writer publish collection short stories ''pounamu pounamu '' first publish novel ''tangi '' novel ''whale rider'' adapted internationally successful film ref name development notable


zealand writer elizabeth knox public art wellington notable writers post second world war period include janet frame owen marshall ronald hugh morrieson bill pearson sylvia ashton warner essie summers ref name new two young novelists maurice shadbolt maurice gee became well known traditional socially realistic novels featuring new zealand politics history ref name brit ck gee 's ''plumb'' trilogy continues widely read first novel ''plumb'' voted literary experts best new zealand novel last fifty years ref name best ref feminist movement


context many women writers emerged period including fiona kidman marilyn duckworth barbara anderson wrote works exploring challenging gender roles ref name new ref new zealand fiction grown exponentially since mid due growing readership locally internationally creative writing courses international institute modern letters victoria university wellington financial support literary awards scholarships ref name contemporary ref internationally successful new zealand writers include elizabeth knox known ''the vintner 's luck'' diverse fiction emily perkins fiona farrell damien


wilkins nigel cox crime novelist paul cleave ref name contemporary keri hulme gained prominence novel ''the bone people'' booker prize first new zealander first debut novelist win prestigious award writer lloyd jones shortlisted novel ''mister pip'' ref name new eleanor catton became second new zealand winner well youngest winner award novel ''the luminaries'' non fiction new zealand significant non fiction tradition natural history colonisation ori p keh relations childhood identity recurring themes ref name nf summary ref


important autobiographical works new zealand writers include trilogies frank sargeson ''once enough'' ''more enough'' ''never enough '' janet frame ''to land'' ''an angel table'' ''the envoy mirror city'' ck stead 's two part series ''south west eden'' ''you lot lose'' ref name becoming ref much new zealand 's significant non fiction historical nature james belich known writing new zealand wars judith binney known biography te kooti ''redemption songs'' history


significant contribution new zealand children 's literature ref name fantasy ref mahy carnegie medal twice hans christian andersen award world 's prestigious children 's literature award cowley internationally known children 's educational books children learning read well picture books children 's fiction young adult novels well known authors young children include lynley dodd known picture books featuring small dog hairy maclary patricia grace k terina mataira leading ori language author gavin bishop known particularly illustration ref name fantasy new zealand


strong tradition fantasy social realism novels children young adults maurice gee became well known science fiction fantasy books notably ''under mountain'' ''the halfmen o'' ref name fantasy internationally well known fantasy writers children young adults include sherryl jordan gaelyn gordon elizabeth knox barbara else david hair young adult literature emerged new zealand authors like gee jack lasenby paula boock kate de goldi fleur beale david hill tackling serious controversial topics teenage readers tessa duder 's ''alex'' quartet


explored issues sexism racism personal trauma new zealand bernard beckett mandy hager became well known socially realistic dystopian young adult fiction ref name fantasy poetry james k baxter alastair campbell fleur adcock c k stead vincent o'sullivan became well known poetry baxter particular dominating new zealand poetry ref name brit ck adcock one two new zealanders received prestigious queen 's gold medal poetry allen curnow received


award saw shift away new zealand nationalism rise confident young poets often influenced american writing counterculture writing personal relationships poets included ian wedde bill manhire cilla mcqueen elizabeth smither sam hunt murray edmond cilla mcqueen hunt well known performance poetry ian wedde harvey mcqueen edited published new edition ''the penguin book new zealand verse'' included poetry ori first new zealand poetry anthology since new zealand poetry


become diverse difficult characterise theme ref name diversity ref national library new zealand appoints new zealand poet laureate every two years pasifika poet selina tusitala marsh poet laureate david eggleton poet laureate notable contemporary poets include robert sullivan known first collection ''jazz waiata'' recent work including collection ''shout ha sky'' hera lindsay bird known popular autobiographical provocative work karlo mila whose work addresses personal political issues


concerns identity migration community included collections ''dream fish floating'' ''goddess muscle'' playwriting saw significant developments new zealand playwriting country 's first professional theatre downstage theatre opened wellington ref name explosion ref playmarket also founded represent market new zealand playwrights work ref name social ref bruce mason country 's first professional playwright ref name years ref one man show ''the end golden weather'' boy 's loss innocence depression era new zealand performed widely throughout new


small town rugby culture new zealand likewise achieved iconic status ref name social ref name brit ck drama developed new playwrights finding success including ren e stuart hoar hone kouka briar grace smith ref name brit ck ref name social jean betts 's feminist play ''ophelia thinks harder'' still widely performed new zealand overseas may widely performed new zealand play ref name social collective pacific underground developed groundbreaking play ''fresh boat'' written oscar kightley simon small praised portrayal samoan life


new zealand new zealand also tradition independent theatre companies creating original plays collective works including red mole theatre group barbarian productions wellington led jo randerson christchurch free theatre work poet murray edmond living theatre troupe early work paul maunder amamus theatre ref name explosion ref name theatre ref literary awards early th century literary competitions new zealand hosted newspapers magazines university colleges hosted literary prizes macmillan brown prize


government run new zealand literary fund began offer state sponsored literary prizes wide range genres ref name hamilton ref first private literary award biennial katherine mansfield memorial award short story competition organised new zealand women writers' society funded bank new zealand became available ref name hamilton ref name page ref award ran annual ockham new zealand book awards offer five principal prizes fiction currently known jann medlicott acorn prize fiction general non fiction sponsored royal society te ap rangi illustrated non fiction poetry currently known


mary peter biggs award poetry te rau te tuhi ori language award books written entirely te reo maori language ref name ref annual awards changed names several times due different sponsors years created amalgamation montana book awards previously goodman fielder wattie awards running government run new zealand book awards running ref name hamilton ref name page new zealand book awards children young adults also presented annually recognise excellence literature


children young adults awards began several name changes due different sponsors years ref name page number literary fellowships available new zealand fellowships give writers opportunity stay particular place accommodation costs funded first fellowship robert burns fellowship set anonymously although widely attributed charles brasch university otago another prestigious fellowship katherine mansfield menton fellowship founded trust enables writers spend least three


months menton france katherine mansfield lived wrote ref name hamilton ref name page prime minister 's awards literary achievement established awarded annually writers made significant contribution new zealand literature ref name page literary festivals hannah parry elizabeth knox dunedin writers readers festival number regular literary festivals held different locations across new zealand stand alone part arts festivals ref name ref stand alone festivals include going west established word christchurch established ref name


auckland writers festival established ref name dunedin writers readers festival established verb writers festival litcrawl established ref name ref hokianga book festival whanganui literary festival ref name small town featherston one recognised book towns world holds featherston booktown event annually may former literary festivals include new zealand book month ran verb festival wellington held ground breaking panel event probably first time three five


july readers writers' week taranaki arts festival held every two years july august ref name readers writers programme tauranga arts festival held every two years october ref name hawke bay readers writers festival held annually conjunction hawke bay arts festival usually mid late october nelson arts festival readers writers week held annually october ref name many festivals disrupted cancelled due covid pandemic ref name ref ref name ref ref name ref literary journals


periodicals cover ''the new zealand illustrated magazine'' may short lived periodical early new zealand literary journals included ''the triad'' founded charles nalder baeyertz closed ''the new zealand illustrated magazine'' founded auckland closed ''art new zealand'' founded charles allan marris closed ref name schrader ref short lived magazine ''phoenix'' published students university auckland edited james munro bertram r k mason early outlet new zealand nationalist writers


brasch curnow ref name schrader ref left wing artist kennaway henderson founded fortnightly magazine ''tomorrow'' influential shaping new zealand nationalist literature literary criticisms shut government subversive ref name schrader early journals magazines included ''new zealand mercury'' poetry magazine established helen langford ''oriflamme'' ''sirocco'' published students canterbury university college including denis glover ''book'' featuring caxton press writers edited anton vogt ref name schrader ''new zealand railways magazine'' published


railway department ref name popular ref caxton press began publishing quarterly journal ''landfall'' edited charles brasch still published today twice yearly basis ref name schrader journal described peter simpson important long lasting journal new zealand 's literature ref name ocnzl landfall ref brasch 's successor editor robin dudding left ''landfall'' set competing journal called ''islands'' ''landfall'' 's key contributors switched allegiance new journal ''landfall'' recover status leading literary journal new zealand


editorship david dowling early ref name ocnzl landfall important literary journals new zealand include ''sport'' founded fergus barrowman ''takah '' christchurch journal founded focussing short stories poetry art ''poetry new zealand'' published local overseas work since ref name internet ref magazine ''new zealand listener'' founded government publish radio listings extended brief cover current affairs opinion literary works among writers featured magazine years maurice duggan noel hilliard keith sinclair


bibliography external links http wwwnzetcorg new zealand electronic text centre http wwwnzetcorg tm scholarly subject html new zealand literature new zealand electronic text centre http wwwnzepcaucklandacnz new zealand electronic poetry centre https wwwread nzorg read nz te pou muramura english language literature


united states criminal justice system flowchart '''criminal justice''' delivery justice committed crimes '''criminal justice system''' series government agencies institutions goals include rehabilitation offenders preventing crimes moral support victims primary institutions criminal justice system police prosecution defense lawyers courts prisons law law old english ''lagu'' something laid fixed ''legal'' comes latin ''legalis'' ''lex'' law statute system rules usually enforced set institutions

Applied science
Public administration
Criminal justice


purpose law provide objective set rules governing conduct maintaining order society oldest known codified law code hammurabi dating back bc preface directly credits laws code hammurabi ur different parts world law could established philosophers religion modern world laws typically created enforced governments codified laws may coexist contradict forms social control religious proscriptions professional rules ethics


valid unless includes factors subject criminal justice primarily concerned enforcement criminal law criminal justice system definition criminal justice system consists three main parts law enforcement agencies usually police courts accompanying prosecution defence lawyers agencies detaining supervising offenders prisons probation agencies criminal justice system distinct agencies operate together principal means maintaining rule law within society image shows procedure criminal justice system law enforcement first contact defendant


criminal justice system usually police ''law enforcement'' investigates suspected wrongdoing makes arrest suspect dangerous whole nation national level law enforcement agency called warranted law enforcement agencies police officers empowered use force forms legal coercion means effect public social order term commonly associated police departments state authorized exercise police power state within defined legal territorial area responsibility


word comes latin ''politia'' civil administration derives ancient greek ''polis'' city first police force comparable present day police established king louis xiv france although modern police usually trace origins establishment thames river police london glasgow police napoleonic police paris police primarily concerned keeping peace enforcing criminal law based particular mission jurisdiction formed federal bureau investigation began entity could investigate


enforce specific federal laws investigative law enforcement agency united states however constituted small portion overall policing activity policing included array activities different contexts predominant ones concerned order maintenance provision services modern times endeavors contribute toward fulfilling shared mission among law enforcement organizations respect traditional policing mission deterring crime maintaining societal order courts trial old bailey london c courts serve venue disputes


settled justice administered regard criminal justice number critical people court setting critical people referred courtroom work group include professional non professional individuals include judge prosecutor defense attorney judge magistrate person elected appointed knowledgeable law whose function objectively administer legal proceedings offer final decision dispose case us growing number nations guilt innocence


entity prosecutor 's duty explain court crime committed detail evidence found incriminates accused prosecutor confused plaintiff plaintiff 's counsel although serve function bringing complaint court prosecutor servant state makes accusations behalf state criminal proceedings plaintiff complaining party civil proceedings defense attorney counsels accused legal process likely outcomes accused suggests strategies accused


accusations us accused person entitled government paid defense attorney jeopardy losing life liberty cannot afford private attorney may provided one state historically however right defense attorney always universal example tudor england criminals accused treason permitted offer arguments defense many jurisdictions right appointed attorney accused jeopardy losing liberty final


reduced sentence sometimes reward sparing state expense formal trial many nations permit use plea bargaining believing coerces innocent people plead guilty attempt avoid harsh punishment courts nowadays seeking alternative measures opposed throwing someone prison right away entire trial process whatever country fraught problems subject criticism bias discrimination form ever present threat objective decision prejudice part lawyers judge jury members threatens


subject bias subject things ordinary length time since last break manipulations court system defense prosecution attorneys law enforcement well defendants occurred cases justice denied corrections rehabilitation huntsville unit texas department criminal justice huntsville texas prison component corrections system offenders turned correctional authorities court system accused found guilty like aspects criminal justice


administration punishment taken many different forms throughout history early civilizations lacked resources necessary construct maintain prisons exile execution primary forms punishment historically shame punishments exile also used forms censure publicly visible form punishment modern era prison prisons may serve detention centers prisoners trial containment accused jails used early prisons used primarily sequester criminals little thought given living conditions within walls america


quaker movement commonly credited establishing idea prisons used reform criminals also seen critical moment debate regarding purpose punishment qur'anic education offenders central jail faisalabad faisalabad pakistan punishment form prison time may serve variety purposes first obviously incarceration criminals removes general population inhibits ability perpetrate crimes new goal prison punishments offer criminals chance rehabilitated many modern prisons


prison terms monetary fines one oldest forms punishment still used today fines may paid state victims form reparation probation house arrest also sanctions seek limit person 's mobility opportunities commit crimes without actually placing prison setting furthermore many jurisdictions may require form public community service form reparations lesser offenses corrections department ensures court ordered pre sentence chemical dependency assessments related drug offender sentencing alternative specific examinations


treatment occur offenders sentenced drug offender sentencing alternative compliance rcw execution capital punishment still used around world use one heavily debated aspects criminal justice system societies willing use executions form political control relatively minor misdeeds societies reserve execution sinister brutal offenses others still discontinued practice entirely accepting use execution excessively cruel irreversible case erroneous conviction academic discipline functional


name savelsberg ref criminal justice students estimated number less primary focus criminal justice united states policing police science throughout crime rates soared social issues took center stage public eye number new laws studies focused federal resources researching new approaches crime control warren court supreme court chief justice earl warren issued series rulings redefined citizen 's rights substantially altered powers responsibilities police courts


civil rights era offered significant legal ethical challenges ' 'status quo'' late establishment law enforcement assistance administration leaa associated policy changes resulted omnibus crime control safe streets act leaa provided grants criminology research focusing social aspects crime academic programs criminology criminal justice united states ref name savelsberg largely thanks https webarchiveorg web http leepusacom law enforcement education program criminal justice students numbered time scholars criminal justice began


include criminology sociology psychology among others provide comprehensive view criminal justice system root causes crime criminal justice studies combine practical technical policing skills study social deviance whole criminal justice degree programs four year institutions typically include coursework statistics methods research criminal justice policing us court systems criminal courts corrections community corrections criminal procedure criminal law victimology juvenile justice variety special topics number universities offer bachelor criminal justice history whipping post


branding flogging well execution though prison le stinche existed early th century florence incarceration widely used th century correctional reform united states first initiated william penn towards end th century time pennsylvania 's criminal code revised forbid torture forms cruel punishment jails prisons replacing corporal punishment reforms reverted upon penn 's death pressure group quakers reforms revived pennsylvania toward end


th century led marked drop pennsylvania 's crime rate patrick colquhoun henry fielding others led significant reforms late eighteenth early nineteenth centuries development modern criminal justice system contemporary formation concept nation state later defined german sociologist max weber establishing monopoly legitimate use physical force exercised criminal justice case police modern police first modern police force commonly said metropolitan police london established sir robert


peel based peelian principles promoted preventive role police deterrent urban crime disorder ref name ukp ref united states police departments first established boston new york city early police respected community corruption rampant led berkeley california police chief august vollmer ow wilson police began professionalize adopt new technologies place emphasis training professional qualifications new hires despite reforms police agencies led highly autocratic leaders remained


see also outline criminal justice ndash structured list topics related criminal justice organized subject area criminal justice ethics criminal justice reform academy criminal justice sciences criminal responsibility french law american society criminology public criminology references reading dale elizabeth ''criminal justice united states '' cambridge university press pp fuller john randolph ''criminal justice mainstream crosscurrents'' prentice hall upper saddle river nj serge guinchard jacques buisson ''criminal procedural law france'' lexinexis editor th edition september pages hanes richard c sharon hanes


crime punishment america volume thomas gale farmington hills mi friedman lawrence crime punishment american history basic books new york ny sunga lyal ''the emerging system international criminal law developments codification implementation'' kluwer law international hague netherlands walker samuel popular justice history american criminal justice oxford university press inc new york external links http wwwacjsorg academy criminal justice sciences http ictjorg work transitional justice issues criminal justice international center transitional justice 's ictj criminal justice page http wwwsccjracuk scottish centre crime justice research well respected academic research centre


visualization car deforms asymmetrical crash using finite element analysis '''finite element method''' '''fem''' widely used method numerically solving differential equations arising engineering mathematical modeling typical problem areas interest include traditional fields structural analysis heat transfer fluid flow mass transport electromagnetic potential fem general numerical method solving partial differential equations two three space variables ie boundary value problems solve problem fem subdivides large system smaller simpler parts called '''finite elements'''

Formal science
Mathematics
Finite element analysis


achieved particular space discretization space dimensions implemented construction mesh object numerical domain solution finite number points finite element method formulation boundary value problem finally results system algebraic equations method approximates unknown function domain simple equations model finite elements assembled larger system equations models entire problem fem approximates solution minimizing associated error function via


calculus variations studying analyzing phenomenon fem often referred '''finite element analysis''' '''fea''' basic concepts subdivision whole domain simpler parts several advantages accurate representation complex geometry inclusion dissimilar material properties easy representation total solution capture local effects typical work method involves dividing domain problem collection subdomains subdomain represented set element equations original problem systematically recombining sets element equations global system equations


final calculation global system equations known solution techniques calculated initial values original problem obtain numerical answer first step element equations simple equations locally approximate original complex equations studied original equations often partial differential equations pde explain approximation process finite element method commonly introduced special case galerkin method process mathematical language construct integral inner product residual


weight functions set integral zero simple terms procedure minimizes error approximation fitting trial functions pde residual error caused trial functions weight functions polynomial approximation functions project residual process eliminates spatial derivatives pde thus approximating pde locally set algebraic equations steady state problems set ordinary differential equations transient problems equation sets element equations linear underlying pde


linear vice versa algebraic equation sets arise steady state problems solved using numerical linear algebra methods ordinary differential equation sets arise transient problems solved numerical integration using standard techniques euler 's method runge kutta method step global system equations generated element equations transformation coordinates subdomains' local nodes domain 's global nodes spatial transformation includes appropriate orientation adjustments applied relation reference coordinate system process often carried


fem software using coordinate data generated subdomains practical application fem known ''finite element analysis'' fea fea applied engineering computational tool performing engineering analysis includes use mesh generation techniques dividing complex problem small elements well use software coded fem algorithm applying fea complex problem usually physical system underlying physics euler bernoulli beam equation heat equation navier stokes equations expressed either pde integral equations


divided small elements complex problem represent different areas physical system fea may used analyzing problems complicated domains like cars oil pipelines domain changes solid state reaction moving boundary desired precision varies entire domain solution lacks smoothness fea simulations provide valuable resource remove multiple instances creation testing hard prototypes various high fidelity situations instance frontal crash simulation possible increase prediction accuracy important areas like front


car reduce rear thus reducing cost simulation another example would numerical weather prediction important accurate predictions developing highly nonlinear phenomena tropical cyclones atmosphere eddies ocean rather relatively calm areas history difficult quote date invention finite element method method originated need solve complex elasticity structural analysis problems civil aeronautical engineering development traced back work


hrennikoff r courant early another pioneer ioannis argyris ussr introduction practical application method usually connected name leonard oganesyan also independently rediscovered china feng kang later early based computations dam constructions called ''finite difference method based variation principle'' although approaches used pioneers different share one essential characteristic mesh discretization continuous domain set discrete sub domains usually called elements


hrennikoff 's work discretizes domain using lattice analogy courant 's approach divides domain finite triangular subregions solve second order elliptic partial differential equations arise problem torsion cylinder courant 's contribution evolutionary drawing large body earlier results pdes developed rayleigh ritz galerkin finite element method obtained real impetus developments j h argyris co workers university stuttgart r w clough co workers uc berkeley c zienkiewicz co workers ernest hinton


bruce irons others swansea university philippe g ciarlet university paris richard gallagher co workers cornell university impetus provided years available open source finite element programs nasa sponsored original version nastran uc berkeley made finite element program sap iv widely available norway ship classification society det norske veritas dnv gl developed sesam use analysis ships rigorous mathematical basis finite element method provided publication strang fix


method since generalized numerical modeling physical systems wide variety engineering disciplines eg electromagnetism heat transfer fluid dynamics ref name zienkiewicztaylor ref technical discussion structure finite element methods finite element method characterized variational formulation discretization strategy one solution algorithms post processing procedures examples variational formulation galerkin method discontinuous galerkin method mixed methods etc discretization strategy understood mean clearly defined set procedures cover creation finite element meshes b definition basis function


reference elements also called shape functions c mapping reference elements onto elements mesh examples discretization strategies h version p version hp version x fem isogeometric analysis etc discretization strategy certain advantages disadvantages reasonable criterion selecting discretization strategy realize nearly optimal performance broadest set mathematical models particular model class various numerical solution algorithms classified two broad categories direct iterative solvers algorithms designed exploit sparsity matrices depend


choices variational formulation discretization strategy postprocessing procedures designed extraction data interest finite element solution order meet requirements solution verification postprocessors need provide ''a posteriori'' error estimation terms quantities interest errors approximation larger considered acceptable discretization changed either automated adaptive process action analyst efficient postprocessors provide realization superconvergence illustrative problems p p


following two problems demonstrate finite element method p one dimensional problem math mbox p begin cases u'' x f x mbox u u end cases math math f math given math u math unknown function math x math math u'' math second derivative math u math respect math x math p two dimensional problem dirichlet problem math mbox p begin cases u xx xy u yy xy f xy mbox omega u mbox partial omega end cases math math omega math connected open region math xy math plane whose boundary math partial omega math nice eg smooth manifold polygon math u xx math math u yy math


denote second derivatives respect math x math math math respectively problem p solved directly computing antiderivatives however method solving boundary value problem bvp works one spatial dimension generalize higher dimensional problems problems like math u u'' f math reason develop finite element method p outline generalization p explanation proceed two steps mirror two essential steps one must take solve boundary value problem bvp using fem first step one rephrases


original bvp weak form little computation usually required step transformation done hand paper second step discretization weak form discretized finite dimensional space second step concrete formulae large finite dimensional linear problem whose solution approximately solve original bvp finite dimensional problem implemented computer weak formulation first step convert p p equivalent weak formulations weak form p math u math solves p


smooth function math v math satisfies displacement boundary conditions ie math v math math x math math x math math int f x v x dx int u'' x v x dx math conversely math u math math u u math satisfies every smooth function math v x math one may show math u math solve p proof easier twice continuously differentiable math u math mean value theorem may proved distributional sense well define new operator map math phi uv math using integration parts right hand side math begin align int f x v x dx int


inner product suitable space math h omega math differentiable functions math omega math zero math partial omega math also assumed math v h omega math see sobolev spaces existence uniqueness solution also shown proof outline existence uniqueness solution loosely think math h math absolutely continuous functions math math math math math x math math x math see sobolev spaces functions weakly differentiable turns symmetric bilinear map math phi math defines inner product turns math h math


set functions math omega math figure right illustrated triangulation sided polygonal region math omega math plane piecewise linear function color polygon linear triangle triangulation space math v math would consist functions linear triangle chosen triangulation one hopes underlying triangular mesh becomes finer finer solution discrete problem sense converge solution original boundary value problem p measure


mesh fineness triangulation indexed real valued parameter math h math one takes small parameter related size largest average triangle triangulation refine triangulation space piecewise linear functions math v math must also change math h math reason one often reads math v h math instead math v math literature since perform analysis use notation choosing basis complete discretization must select basis math v math one dimensional case


control point math x k math choose piecewise linear function math v k math math v math whose value math math math x k math zero every math x j j neq k math ie math v k x begin cases x x k x k x k mbox x x k x k x k x x k x k mbox x x kx k mbox otherwise end cases math math k dotsn math basis shifted scaled tent function two dimensional case choose one basis function math v k math per vertex math x k math triangulation planar region math omega math function math v k math unique function math v math whose value


math math math x k math zero every math x j j neq k math depending author word element finite element method refers either triangles domain piecewise linear basis function instance author interested curved domains might replace triangles curved primitives might describe elements curvilinear hand authors replace piecewise linear piecewise quadratic even piecewise polynomial author might say higher order element instead higher degree polynomial finite element method restricted


triangles tetrahedra higher order simplexes multidimensional spaces defined quadrilateral subdomains hexahedra prisms pyramids higher order shapes curvilinear elements defined polynomial even non polynomial shapes eg ellipse circle examples methods use higher degree piecewise polynomial basis functions hp fem spectral fem advanced implementations adaptive finite element methods utilize method assess quality results based error estimation theory modify mesh solution aiming achieve approximate solution within bounds


exact solution continuum problem mesh adaptivity may utilize various techniques popular moving nodes r adaptivity refining unrefined elements h adaptivity changing order base functions p adaptivity combinations hp adaptivity small support basis solving two dimensional problem math u xx u yy math disk centered origin radius zero boundary conditions br triangulation b sparse matrix ''l'' discretized linear system c computed solution math u x x math primary advantage choice basis inner products math langle v jv k rangle int v j v k dx math


math phi v jv k int v j' v k' dx math zero almost math jk math matrix containing math langle v jv k rangle math math jk math location known gramian matrix one dimensional case support math v k math interval math x k x k math hence integrands math langle v jv k rangle math '' math phi v jv k math '' identically zero whenever math j k math similarly planar case math x j math math x k math share edge triangulation integrals math int omega v j v k ds math math int omega nabla v j cdot nabla v k ds math zero matrix form problem write math u x sum k n u k v k x math math f x sum k n f k


v k x math problem taking math v x v j x math math j dotsn math becomes math sum k n u k phi v kv j sum k n f k int v k v j dx math math j dotsn math denote math mathbf u math math mathbf f math column vectors math u dotsu n math math f dotsf n math let math l l ij math math ij math matrices whose entries math l ij phi v iv j math math ij int v v j dx math may rephrase math l mathbf u mathbf f math necessary assume math f x sum k n f k v k x math general function math f x math problem math v x v j x math math j dotsn math becomes actually simpler since matrix math math used


consisted triangles one also use squares curvilinear polygons one chooses basis functions discussion used piecewise linear basis functions also common use piecewise polynomial basis functions separate consideration smoothness basis functions second order elliptic boundary value problems piecewise polynomial basis function merely continuous suffice ie derivatives discontinuous higher order partial differential equations one must use smoother basis functions instance fourth order problem math u xxxx u yyyy f math one may use piecewise quadratic basis functions math c math another consideration


relation finite dimensional space math v math infinite dimensional counterpart examples math h math conforming element method one space math v math subspace element space continuous problem example method condition satisfied obtain nonconforming element method example space piecewise linear functions mesh continuous edge midpoint since functions general discontinuous along edges finite dimensional space subspace original math h math typically one


algorithm taking given mesh subdividing main method increasing precision subdivide mesh one ''h'' method ''h'' customarily diameter largest element mesh manner one shows error grid math h math bounded math ch p math math c infty math math p math one order ''p'' method certain hypotheses instance domain convex piecewise polynomial order math math method error order math p math instead making ''h'' smaller one increases


degree polynomials used basis function one ''p'' method one combines two refinement types one obtains ''hp'' method hp fem hp fem polynomial degrees vary element element high order methods large uniform ''p'' called spectral finite element methods sfem confused spectral methods vector partial differential equations basis functions may take values math mathbb r n math various types finite element methods aem applied element method aem combines features fem discrete element method dem fem


augmented finite element method introduced yang lui whos goal model weak strong discontinuities without need extra dofs pum stated generalized finite element method generalized finite element method gfem uses local spaces consisting functions necessarily polynomials reflect available information unknown solution thus ensure good local approximation partition unity used bond spaces together form approximating subspace effectiveness gfem shown applied problems domains complicated boundaries problems micro scales


problems boundary layers mixed finite element method mixed finite element method type finite element method extra independent variables introduced nodal variables discretization partial differential equation problem variable polynomial hp fem combines adaptively elements variable size ''h'' polynomial degree ''p'' order achieve exceptionally fast exponential convergence rates hpk fem hpk fem combines adaptively elements variable size ''h'' polynomial degree local approximations ''p'' global differentiability local approximations '' k '' achieve best convergence rates xfem extended finite element method


xfem numerical technique based generalized finite element method gfem partition unity method pum extends classical finite element method enriching solution space solutions differential equations discontinuous functions extended finite element methods enrich approximation space naturally reproduce challenging feature associated problem interest discontinuity singularity boundary layer etc shown problems embedding problem 's feature approximation space significantly improve convergence rates accuracy moreover treating problems discontinuities


xfems suppresses need mesh mesh discontinuity surfaces thus alleviating computational costs projection errors associated conventional finite element methods cost restricting discontinuities mesh edges several research codes implement technique various degrees getfem xfem openxfem xfem also implemented codes like altair radios aster morfeo abaqus increasingly adopted commercial finite element software plugins actual core implementations available ansys samcef oofelie etc scaled boundary finite element method sbfem introduction scaled boundary


finite element method sbfem came song wolf sbfem one profitable contributions area numerical analysis fracture mechanics problems semi analytical fundamental solutionless method combines advantages finite element formulations procedures boundary element discretization however unlike boundary element method fundamental differential solution required fem fem smoothed finite element methods particular class numerical simulation algorithms simulation physical phenomena developed combining meshfree methods finite element method spectral element


method spectral element methods combine geometric flexibility finite elements acute accuracy spectral methods spectral methods approximate solution weak form partial equations based high order lagrangian interpolants used certain quadrature rules meshfree methods discontinuous galerkin methods finite element limit analysis stretched grid method loubignac iteration loubignac iteration iterative method finite element methods crystal plasticity finite element method cpfem crystal plasticity finite element method cpfem advanced numerical tool developed franz roters metals regarded crystal aggregates behave anisotropy


deformation example abnormal stress strain localization cpfem based slip shear strain rate calculate dislocation crystal orientation texture information consider crystal anisotropy routine applied numerical study material deformation surface roughness fractures virtual element method vem virtual element method vem introduced beir da veiga et al extension mimetic finite difference mfd methods generalisation standard finite element method arbitrary element geometries allows admission general polygons polyhedra


finite difference method fdm alternative way approximating solutions pdes differences fem fdm attractive feature fem ability handle complicated geometries boundaries relative ease fdm basic form restricted handle rectangular shapes simple alterations thereof handling geometries fem theoretically straightforward fdm usually used irregular cad geometries often rectangular block shaped models attractive feature finite differences easy implement several ways


one could consider fdm special case fem approach eg first order fem identical fdm poisson 's equation problem discretized regular rectangular mesh rectangle divided two triangles reasons consider mathematical foundation finite element approximation sound instance quality approximation grid points poor fdm quality fem approximation often higher corresponding fdm approach extremely problem dependent several examples contrary provided generally fem


method choice types analysis structural mechanics ie solving deformation stresses solid bodies dynamics structures computational fluid dynamics cfd tend use fdm methods like finite volume method fvm cfd problems usually require discretization problem large number cells gridpoints millions therefore cost solution favors simpler lower order approximation within cell especially true 'external flow' problems like airflow around car airplane weather simulation application alt alt variety specializations


umbrella mechanical engineering discipline aeronautical biomechanical automotive industries commonly use integrated fem design development products several modern fem packages include specific components thermal electromagnetic fluid structural working environments structural simulation fem helps tremendously producing stiffness strength visualizations also minimizing weight materials costs ref name engineering asset management ref fem allows detailed visualization structures bend twist indicates distribution stresses displacements fem software provides wide range simulation options controlling complexity modeling


analysis system similarly desired level accuracy required associated computational time requirements managed simultaneously address engineering applications fem allows entire designs constructed refined optimized design manufactured mesh integral part model must controlled carefully give best results generally higher number elements mesh accurate solution discretized problem however value results converge mesh refinement increase accuracy url https risutwentenl ws files cmbbe hamid submittedpdf ref powerful


design tool significantly improved standard engineering designs methodology design process many industrial applications ref name hastings hastings j k juds brauer j r ''accuracy economy finite element magnetic analysis'' rd annual national relay conference april ref introduction fem substantially decreased time take products concept production line ref name hastings primarily improved initial prototype designs using fem testing development accelerated ref name mclaren mercedes ref summary benefits fem include increased accuracy enhanced design better insight critical design parameters


virtual prototyping fewer hardware prototypes faster less expensive design cycle increased productivity increased revenue ref name hastings fea proposed use stochastic modelling numerically solving probability models later reliability assessment see also applied element method boundary element method c 's lemma computer experiment direct stiffness method discontinuity layout optimization discrete element method finite difference method finite element machine finite element method structural mechanics finite volume method finite volume method unsteady flow infinite element method interval finite element isogeometric analysis lattice boltzmann methods list finite element software packages meshfree methods


movable cellular automaton multidisciplinary design optimization multiphysics patch test rayleigh ritz method space mapping tessellation computer graphics weakened weak form references reading g allaire craig '' https booksgooglecom booksid hiwsdaaaqbaj printsec frontcover v onepage q finite element f false numerical analysis optimization introduction mathematical modelling numerical simulation '' k j bathe ''numerical methods finite element analysis'' prentice hall thomas jr hughes ''the finite element method linear static dynamic finite element analysis'' prentice hall j chaskalovic ''finite elements methods engineering sciences'' springer verlag endre li http peoplemathsoxacuk suli fempdf ''finite element methods partial differential equations'' c zienkiewicz r l taylor j z zhu '' https booksgooglecom booksid yocoah lnx c printsec frontcover v onepage q f false


finite element method basis fundamentals '' butterworth heinemann continuum mechanics numerical differential equations partial differential equations structural analysis computational electromagnetics


'''intuitionistic logic''' sometimes generally called '''constructive logic''' refers systems symbolic logic differ systems used classical logic closely mirroring notion constructive proof particular systems intuitionistic logic include law excluded middle double negation elimination fundamental inference rules classical logic formalized intuitionistic logic originally developed arend heyting provide formal basis brouwer 's programme intuitionism proof theoretic perspective heyting calculus restriction classical logic law excluded middle double

Humanities
Philosophy
Logic
Mathematical logic
Intuitionistic logic


negation elimination removed excluded middle double negation elimination still proved propositions case case basis however hold universally classical logic several systems semantics intuitionistic logic studied one semantics mirrors classical boolean valued semantics uses heyting algebras place boolean algebras another semantics uses kripke models however technical means studying heyting deductive system rather formalizations brouwer original informal semantic intuitions semantical systems claiming capture intuitions due offering meaningful concepts


constructive truth rather merely validity provability g del dialectica interpretation kleene realizability yurii medvedev logic finite problems japaridze computability logic yet semantics persistently induce logics properly stronger heyting logic authors argued might indication inadequacy heyting calculus deeming latter incomplete constructive logic mathematical constructivism semantics classical logic propositional formulae assigned truth values two element set math top bot math true false respectively regardless whether direct evidence either case referred


'law excluded middle' excludes possibility truth value besides 'true' 'false' contrast propositional formulae intuitionistic logic ''not'' assigned definite truth value ''only'' considered true direct evidence hence ''proof'' also say instead propositional formula true due direct evidence inhabited proof curry howard sense operations intuitionistic logic therefore preserve justification respect evidence provability rather truth valuation intuitionistic logic commonly used tool developing approaches constructivism


mathematics use constructivist logics general controversial topic among mathematicians philosophers see example brouwer hilbert controversy common objection use cited lack two central rules classical logic law excluded middle double negation elimination considered important practice mathematics david hilbert wrote taking principle excluded middle mathematician would say proscribing telescope astronomer boxer use fists prohibit existence


statements principle excluded middle tantamount relinquishing science mathematics altogether despite serious challenges presented inability utilize valuable rules excluded middle double negation elimination intuitionistic logic practical use one reason restrictions produce proofs existence property making also suitable forms mathematical constructivism informally means constructive proof object exists constructive proof may used algorithm generating example object principle known


solely hand one example proof impossible satisfactorily verify without formal verification famous proof four color theorem theorem stumped mathematicians hundred years proof developed ruled large classes possible counterexamples yet still left open enough possibilities computer program needed finish proof proof controversial time later verified using coq syntax rieger nishimura lattice nodes propositional formulas one variable intuitionistic logical equivalence ordered intuitionistic


logical implication syntax formulas intuitionistic logic similar propositional logic first order logic however intuitionistic connectives definable terms way classical logic hence choice matters intuitionistic propositional logic ipl customary use basic connectives treating ''a'' abbreviation intuitionistic first order logic quantifiers needed weaker classical logic intuitionistic logic understood weakening classical logic meaning conservative


necessarily true law upheld context counterexample given counterexample would inference inferring negation law certain proposition disallowed classical logic thus allowed strict weakening like intuitionistic logic indeed double negation law retained tautology system theorem math neg neg p vee neg p math regardless proposition math p math sequent calculus gerhard gentzen discovered simple restriction system lk


sequent calculus classical logic results system sound complete respect intuitionistic logic called system lj lk number formulas allowed appear conclusion side sequent contrast lj allows one formula position derivatives lk limited intuitionistic derivations still allow multiple conclusions sequent lj' one example hilbert style calculus intuitionistic logic defined using following hilbert style calculus similar way axiomatizing classical


psi math false math bot phi math make system first order predicate logic generalization rules math forall math gen math psi phi math infer math psi forall x phi math math x math free math psi math math exists math gen math phi psi math infer math exists x phi psi math math x math free math psi math added along axioms pred math forall x phi x phi math term math math free substitution variable math x math math phi math ie occurrence


axioms false ' ' two axioms math phi chi phi lnot chi lnot phi math math phi lnot phi chi math alternatives math phi lnot chi chi lnot phi math math phi lnot phi lnot phi math equivalence connective math leftrightarrow math equivalence may treated abbreviation math phi leftrightarrow chi math standing math phi chi land chi phi math alternatively one may add axioms iff math phi leftrightarrow


lnot phi chi chi math math lnot lnot phi phi math double negation elimination math phi chi phi phi math peirce 's law math lnot phi lnot chi chi phi math law contraposition general one may take extra axiom classical tautology valid two element kripke frame math circ longrightarrow circ math words included smetanich 's logic another relationship given g del gentzen negative translation provides embedding classical first order logic intuitionistic logic first order formula


provable classical logic g del gentzen translation provable intuitionistically therefore intuitionistic logic instead seen means extending classical logic constructive semantics kurt g del defined system logics intermediate classical intuitionistic logic g del logics concomitantly known intermediate logics non interdefinability operators classical propositional logic possible take one conjunction disjunction implication primitive define two terms together negation ukasiewicz 's three axioms propositional logic even possible


define four terms sole sufficient operator peirce arrow sheffer stroke nand similarly classical first order logic one quantifiers defined terms negation fundamentally consequences law bivalence makes connectives merely boolean functions law bivalence required hold intuitionistic logic law non contradiction result none basic connectives dispensed axioms necessary classical identities


theorems intuitionistic logic one direction although theorems directions follows conjunction versus disjunction math phi wedge psi neg neg phi vee neg psi math math phi vee psi neg neg phi wedge neg psi math math neg phi vee neg psi neg phi wedge psi math math neg phi wedge neg psi leftrightarrow neg phi vee psi math conjunction versus implication math phi wedge psi neg phi neg psi math math phi psi neg phi wedge neg psi math math phi wedge neg psi neg phi psi math math phi neg psi leftrightarrow neg phi wedge psi


math disjunction versus implication math phi vee psi neg phi psi math math neg phi vee psi phi psi math universal versus existential quantification math forall x phi x neg exists x neg phi x math math exists x phi x neg forall x neg phi x math math exists x neg phi x neg forall x phi x math math forall x neg phi x leftrightarrow neg exists x phi x math example b stronger propositional formula b whereas classically interchangeable hand b equivalent


propositional logic thus forming analog sheffer stroke classical propositional logic math p lor q land neg r lor neg p land q leftrightarrow r math math p q land neg r land lor math semantics semantics rather complicated classical case model theory given heyting algebras equivalently kripke semantics recently tarski like model theory proved complete bob constable different notion completeness classically unproved statements intuitionistic logic given intermediate truth value sometimes mistakenly asserted one prove statements third truth value result dating back


often discuss truth values formula take values usually chosen members boolean algebra meet join operations boolean algebra identified logical connectives value formula form ''a'' ''b'' meet value ''a'' value ''b'' boolean algebra useful theorem formula valid proposition classical logic value every valuation


assignment values variables corresponding theorem true intuitionistic logic instead assigning formula value boolean algebra one uses values heyting algebra boolean algebras special case formula valid intuitionistic logic receives value top element valuation heyting algebra shown recognize valid formulas sufficient consider single heyting algebra whose elements open subsets real line '''r''' ref


name u ref algebra math begin align text value bot emptyset text value top mathbf r text value land b text value cap text value b text value lor b text value cup text value b text value b text int left text value complement cup text value b right end align math int ''x'' interior ''x'' ''x'' sup sup complement last identity concerning ''a'' ''b'' allows us calculate value ''a'' math begin align text value neg text value bot text int left text value complement cup text value bot right text int left text value complement cup emptyset right


text int left text value complement right end align math assignments intuitionistically valid formulas precisely assigned value entire line ref name u example formula ''a'' ''a'' valid matter set ''x'' chosen value formula ''a'' value ''a'' ''a'' shown entire line math begin align text value neg land neg text int left text value land neg complement right text value neg b text int left text value b complement right text int left left text value


value set positive real numbers ''a'' math begin align text value lor neg text value cup text value neg text value cup text int left text value complement right text value neg b text int left text value b complement right x cup text int left x complement right x cup text int left x leqslant right x cup x x neq neq mathbf r end align math interpretation intuitionistically


semantics ref name mosch intlog http platostanfordedu entries logic intuitionistic intuitionistic logic written https wwwmathuclaedu joan joan moschovakis published ''stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' ref tarski like semantics discovered tarski like semantics intuitionistic logic possible prove complete however robert constable shown weaker notion completeness still holds intuitionistic logic tarski like model notion completeness concerned statements true every model statements true ''in way'' every model single proof model judges formula true


intuitionistic logic relation intermediate logics finite heyting algebra equivalent boolean algebra defines semantically intermediate logic hand validity formulae pure intuitionistic logic tied individual heyting algebra relates heyting algebras time relation modal logic formula intuitionistic propositional logic ipc may translated normal modal logic follows math begin align bot bot box text text prime positive


literal wedge b wedge b vee b vee b b box left b right neg box neg neg bot end align math demonstrated translated formula valid propositional modal logic original formula valid ipc set formulae called g del mckinsey tarski translation also intuitionistic version modal logic called constructive modal logic cs ref name categorical natasha alechina michael mendler valeria


de paiva eike ritter http wwwcsnottacuk nza papers alechina apdf ''categorical kripke semantics constructive modal logic'' ref lambda calculus extended curry howard isomorphism ipc simply typed lambda calculus ref name categorical see also bhk interpretation computability logic constructive proof curry howard correspondence game semantics inhabited set intermediate logics intuitionistic type theory kripke semantics linear logic paraconsistent logic relevance theory smooth infinitesimal analysis notes references van dalen dirk intuitionistic logic goble lou ed ''the blackwell guide philosophical logic'' blackwell morten h rensen pawe urzyczyn ''lectures curry howard isomorphism'' chapter intuitionistic logic studies logic


foundations mathematics vol elsevier w carnielli b brunner https dxdoiorg jjal anti intuitionism paraconsistency ''journal applied logic volume'' issue mar pp nbsp arend heyting die formalen regeln der intuitionistischen logik three parts ''sitzungsberichte der preussischen akademie der wissenschaften'' external links ''stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' http platostanfordedu entries logic intuitionistic intuitionistic logic joan moschovakis http wwwcsleacuk people nb publications esslli' pdf intuitionistic logic nick bezhanishvili dick de jongh institute logic language computation university amsterdam https wwwprincetonedu hhalvors restricted kripke intuitionismpdf semantical analysis intuitionistic logic saul kripke ''harvard university cambridge


mass usa'' https webarchiveorg web http wwwphiluunl dvdalen articles blackwell dalen pdf intuitionistic logic ''dirk van dalen'' http wwwillcuvanl j contribs troelstra troelstrapdf discovery e w beth 's semantics intuitionistic logic troelstra p van ulsen http ftpcstorontoedu pub bonner papers hypotheticals naclp ps expressing database queries intuitionistic logic anthony j bonner l thorne mccarty kumar vadaparty rutgers university department computer science http teachinglogicliglabfr int indexphp tableaux'method intuitionistic logic translation tests intuitionistic validity propositional formulae provided laboratoire d'informatique de grenoble '' https wwwoxfordhandbookscom view oxfordhb oxfordhb oxford handbook philosophy mathematics logic '' https wwwoxfordhandbookscom view oxfordhb oxfordhb e intuitionism mathematics david charles mccarty logic computer science non classical logic constructivism mathematics systems formal


football fan blowing trumphet uganda vs cape verde game '''sociology sport''' alternately referred sports sociology sub discipline sociology focuses sports social phenomena area study concerned relationship sociology sports also various socio cultural structures patterns organizations groups involved sport area study discusses positive impact sports individual people society whole economically financially socially sociology sport attempts view actions behavior sports teams players

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of sport


eyes sociologist sport regulated regulations rules behavior spatial time constraints governing bodies oriented towards goal makes known winner loser competitive ludic sports culturally situated intertwined value systems power relations within host society emergence sociology sport though name dates end th century first social psychological experiments dealing group effects competition pace making took place besides cultural anthropology interest


games human culture one first efforts think sports general way johan huizinga 's homo ludens thorstein veblen 's theory leisure class homo ludens discusses importance element play culture society huizinga suggests play specifically sport primary necessary condition generation culture written works contributed rise study sociology sport sports sociology gained significant attention organized legitimate field study north american society sociology


sport formed objective studying field research outlet sociology sport journal formed race sports historical racist theories sport always characterized racial social relationships first scientific look race came end th century count arthur de gobineau attempted prove physical intellectual superiority white race darwin 's theory natural selection used service racism well athletic ability black sportspeople proven theory shifted toward physical ability


expense intellect arthur de gobineau several racist theories advanced black people athletically able animals ate slow ones myth middle passage posited athletically able black people able survive slave trade plantation work matriarchal theory suggested absent fathers made black people channel anger sports coaches becoming father figures mandigo theory assumed physically potent black men bred physically potent black women psychological theory claimed black athletes n't intellectual capacity


assume leadership positions sports dumb jock theory saw black people enrolling sport scholarships unable find success academia lastly genetic theory suggested black sportspeople certain muscle fibers current sociology young african americans see sports means upward social mobility denied conventional employment race often interplays class gender ethnicity determine accessible certain sports athlete perceived example golf inaccessible african americans less race high economic


social capital needed race often connected gender women less opportunities access succeed sports woman succeed race downplayed sexuality accentuated certain cultures especially muslim ones women denied access sports together team sports white players often placed central positions demand intelligence decisiveness leadership calmness reliability black players turn place positions demand athletic ability physical strength speed explosiveness example white players role central midfielders black players wingers gender


attractive women allen guttman argues erotic component sports cannot rooted remains one key components attractive male female athletes always sought erotic component sports researched instead outright rejected jennifer hargreaves sees three political strategies women sports co option strategy rejects conservative claims biological differences traditional gender values liberal feminists believe women gradually take roles within sport created controlled men separatism position held radical feminists advocates self realization organization


sport events governing bodies independent men would increase number women competing various sports cooperation advocated socialist feminists believe cooperation men women would help establish new sporting models would negate gender differences recognize diversity struggles within modern capitalist societies aims liberation unlike separatism engages men extensive co option co operation posits men n't inherently oppressive socialized reproducing oppressive roles theories sociology sport functionalism structural functionalist theories see


society complex system whose parts work together promote solidarity stability sport developed religious ceremonies served promote social moral solidarity community bromberger saw similarities religious ceremonies football matches matches held particular spatial configuration pitches sacred may polluted pitch invaders lead intense emotional states fans religious ceremonies spectators spatially distributed according social distribution power football seasons fixed calendar group roles match day ceremonial specially robed people performing intense


ritual acts church football organizational network local global levels matches sequential order guides actions participants pre match post match actions lastly football rituals create sense communitas songs choreography seen immanent ceremony spectators transfer strength team accounting fact actions support existing societal structure robert k merton saw five ways person could react existing structure applied sports well conformism innovation ritualism withdrawal rebellion erving


goffman drew durkheim 's conception positive rituals emphasizing sacred status individual 's face positive compliments greetings etc negative avoiding confrontation apologies etc rituals serve protect one 's face sport journalists example utilize positive negative rituals protect face athlete wish maintain good relations birrell furthermore posits sport events ritual competitions athletes show character mix bravery good play integrity good showing serves reinforce good face athlete interpretative sociology interpretative sociology explores interrelations


social action status subjectivity meaning motives identities social change avoids explaining human groups general laws generalizations preferring max weber called ' 'verstehen'' understanding explaining individual motivations allows complete understanding diverse social meanings symbols roles within sport sport allows creation various social identities within framework single game match may change throughout course multiple matches ones role sportsperson affects act outside game match ie acting


role student athlete weber introduced notion rationalization modern society relationship organized efficient possible based technical knowledge instead moral political principles creates bureaucracies efficient impersonal homogeneous allen guttmann identified several key aspects rationalization likewise applied sports secularization modern sports become independent religious institutions 've evolved pre modern societies sport religious festivities interconnected religion hold importance sports seen pre match rituals superstitions prayer meritocracy


sports promote fair competition pre modern sports exclusive example ancient olympics excluded women non citizens contrast modern sports offer opportunities disadvantaged fair judging refereeing offer level playing field social status still plays role sport access success richer countries numerous successful athletes higher class access better training preparation specialization modern sports like industry complex division labor athletes specialized role inside team must learn perform ie kicker american


football apply sports value ability cover number roles necessary rationalization modern sports identify efficient way achieve desired goal hand giulianotti points sports dominated irrational actions bureaucratization sports controlled organizations committees supervisory boards local continental global levels leading positions supposed given based qualifications experience instead charisma nepotism n't always case powerful charismatic personage often put charge said organizations


committees quantification statistics measure compare modern sport events often throughout multiple generations reducing complex events understandable information easily grasped mass public statistics n't dominant factor sport culture socio psychological aesthetically pleasing factors still important neo marxism karl marx saw sports rooted economic context subject commodification alienation neo marxism sees sport ideological tool bourgeoisie used deceive masses order maintain control laborers athletes give labour power suffer fate


alienated worker aside supporting industrial capitalism sport propagates heavy physical exertion overworking something positive specialized division labor force athletes constantly perform movements instead playing creatively experimentally freely athlete often illusion free unaware losing control labor power spectators support alienation athletes' labor support participation marxist theories used research commodification sport example players become goods promote hyper commercialization sports th century clubs become


like traditional firms sport organizations become brands approach criticized tendency toward raw economism supposing current social structures function maintain existing capitalist order supporting sport teams n't necessarily contradict development class consciousness participating class struggle sport events number examples political protest neo marxist analysis sports often underestimate aesthetic side sport well cultural studies hegemony research describes relations power well methods techniques used dominant groups achieve ideological consent without resorting


physical coercion ideological consent aims make exploratory social order seem natural guaranteeing subordinate groups live subordination hegemony always open contestation thus counter hegemonic movements may emerge dominant groups may use sports steer use subordinate classes desired direction towards consumerism however history sport shows colonized n't necessarily manipulated sport sport professionalization popular culture helped working class avoid mass subordination bourgeois values resistance key concept cultural studies describes


subordinate groups engage particular cultural practices resist domination resistance overt deliberate latent unconscious always counters norms conventions dominant groups john fiske differentiated confrontational semiotics avoidance body sports body became subject research work michel foucault power exercise two different ways biopower disciplinary power biopower centers political control key biological aspects human body whole populations birth reproduction death etc disciplinary power exercised


means everyday disciplining bodies particularly controlling time space eichberg sees three different types bodies highlighting difference disciplined undisciplined bodies sport dialogic body different shapes sizes given freeing oneself control main type pre modern festivals carnivals streamlined improved body sports accomplishment competition healthy straight body shaped disciplined regimes fitness grotesque body could seen pre modern festivals carnivals ie folk wrestling three legged race modern sport pedagogy fluctuates


strictness freedom discipline control hierarchical relations power knowledge coach athlete remain segel claimed cultural raise sports reflected wider turn modern society toward physical expression revived militarism war fascism representatives frakfurt school saw sport cult fascistic idea body nnsj claimed overly complimenting sport prowess reflects fascistic elements society normalizes ridicule weak defeated sports injury prizefighting allows research violent body prizefighters transform bodily


capital prizefighting capital purpose winning fame status wealth bodies exploited managers aware describing alternatively prostitutes slaves stallions prizefighters accept routine damage bodies sustain time fearing effects damage frequent response attempting turn heroic personalities contact sports violence part strategy certain extent sports violence n't individual product socialization finn see footballers socializing culture quasi violence accentuates different


values regular life accepts violence central game physical injury sportspeople seen beck 's theory risk society risk society characterized reflexive modernity members society well informed critical participate shaping social structures unlike routine risk traditional society modern societies identify minimize risks reflexive modernity sports evinced isolation minimizing removal causes physical injury time keeping techniques strategies particular sports lower classes lower


affect athletes spectators theorists sociologists study impact emotions sports try classify emotions categories controversial debated discussed intensely classifications definitive set stone emotion important sports athletes use convey specific significant information teammates coaches use emotion send false signals confuse opponents addition athletes using emotion advantage emotion also negative impact athletes performances example stage fright nervousness


apprehension impact performance sport positive negative way depending level sports level emotion differs professional sports emotions extremely intense many people many distinct roles involved professional athletes coaching staff referees television crew commentators last least fans spectators much public press pressure self pressure extremely difficult get emotionally invested sports sports good bringing


worst qualities people violent brawls one team beats another intense game loud fighting yelling intense verbal arguments well emotion also highly contagious especially many emotional people one space binary divisions within sports many perspectives sport viewed therefore often binary divisions stressed many sports sociologists shown divisions create constructs within ideologies gender affect relationships genders well advocate challenge social racial class structures


binary divisions include professional vs amateur mass vs top level active vs passive spectator men vs women sports vs play antithesis organized institutionalized activity binary divisions seen within sports also seen research sports field research mainly dominated men many believe women 's input research inauthentic compared men 's research women researchers also feel though earn place within sports research field whereas men part


women researchers field deal gender related issues comes research prevent able gather understand data collecting sports sociologists believe women unique perspective gathering research sports since able closely look understand female fan side sporting events following feminist reflexive tradition breaking paradigms sports sometimes studied contested activities ie activities center various people groups interests connection sports gender mass media


state politics perspectives provide people different ways think sports figure differences binary divisions sports always tremendous impact world whole well individual societies people within many positive aspects world sport specifically organized sport sports involve community values attempting establish exercise good morals ethics spectator sports provide watchers enlivenment key societal values displayed game becoming fan teaches large variety skills well


'''interlibrary loan''' abbreviated '''ill''' sometimes called '''interloan''' '''interlending''' '' 'document delivery''' '' 'document supply''' '''interlibrary services''' abbreviated '''ils''' service whereby patron one library borrow books dvds music etc receive photocopies documents owned another library user makes request home library acting intermediary identifies libraries desired item places request receives item makes available user well arranges return lending library usually sets due date overdue fees material borrowed although books

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journal articles frequently requested items libraries lend audio recordings video recordings maps sheet music microforms kinds cases nominal fees accompany interlibrary loan services term ' 'document delivery'' may also used related service namely supply journal articles copies personalized basis whether come libraries direct publishers end user usually responsible fees costs postage photocopying commercial document delivery services borrow behalf customer willing


workflows often based scale service regional networks library systems processes automated computer systems vdx based iso ill standards two major systems used heavily illiad developed atlas systems worldshare management system oclc oclc announced new interlibrary loan management system called tipasa built oclc worldshare technology platform first entirely cloud based interlibrary loan management system loan requests branch libraries local library system usually filled promptly loan requests library systems may


journals library collection subscribed united states libraries follow guidelines established commission new technological uses copyrighted works contu established libraries pay publishers' fees ill requests filled within past years specific publication guideline referred united states libraries rule five addition many journal database licenses specify whether library cannot supply journal articles via ill many libraries taking


approach negotiate ill allowed licenses licensed send articles via interlibrary loan examined need pay copyright fees articles article processing become highly automated interlibrary loan early research library group rlg created released ariel software made communicating photocopies native digital articles efficient early atlas systems creators illiad software system created odyssey allowed direct communication articles libraries ultimately direct sending articles library patrons


although odyssey usage features increased quickly oclc realized important need among member libraries created article exchange cloud based secure article sharing platform automatically deletes articles specified number downloads number days many libraries shifted journal subscriptions digital citation information became much available tools google scholar interlibrary loan articles effectively become large part interlibrary loan services context big deal cancellations several library systems world data analysis tools like unpaywall journals


used libraries assist big deal cancellations calculate whether alternative access methods like ill green open access end effective less expensive potential subscription history inter library loan extensive history king franks charlemagne completed conquering western europe began campaign intellectual resurgence specifically clerics charlemagne command became teachers topics like grammar music coincidentally change led need copied materials provide students studies history witnesses another era books collected


individuals public areas alike book demand comes aspect inter library loan monastic libraries began loan materials long something equal value left guarantee title timely return quoted ''the library illustrated history'' borrowers time usually higher class individuals practice still used today many library systems world difference anyone submit inter library loan request united states joseph c rowell joseph c rowell librarian


university california berkeley sought permission begin interlibrary loan request granted years rowell initiated uc berkeley 's first program interlibrary lending california state library partner later year rowell expanded invitation group libraries nucmc librarians filled standardized form ie ala interlibrary loan request form sent postal mail library owned copy procedure still used libraries members electronic interlibrary loan network


reference user services association rusa ala america library association formed ala interlibrary loan code united states sought establish resource sharing core service provide guidelines libraries rusa section resource sharing also engaged initiatives expand resource sharing including rethinking resource sharing initiative committee since mid searching books located libraries become easier many libraries enabled users search online catalogs library internet today everyone


freely use worldcatorg identify needed items owned local libraries medical libraries primarily use docline developed national library medicine comprises libraries national network libraries medicine ohio state university others ohio began integrating campus library systems early date state funds supported development ohio college library center online computer library center oclc since grown international organization database million entries representing materials held


libraries link interlibrary loan scheme california nevada ohiolink system used ohio catalogs databases state 's libraries joined electronically resource sharing networks libraries established voluntary associations often regional basis provide online union catalog items held member libraries whenever library adds new title catalog copy record also added union list allows librarians quickly determine libraries hold item software facilitates request


supply tasks us online computer library center oclc used public academic libraries formerly another network rlin research libraries information network used primarily academic libraries merged oclc october australia new zealand use libraries australia new zealand libraries' catalogue respectively national bibliographic networks countries online requests usually submitted via oclc 's worldcat firstsearch united states libraries without access either participate interlibrary loan submitting requests postal mail fax email telephone call referred


''manual requests'' manual requests submitted united states american library association libraries establish reciprocal arrangements furnish loans copies free national regional libraries interested sharing lvis amigos mid america association law libraries maall bibliographical center research greater western library alliance formerly big plus library consortium also local libraries administrative organization common washington county cooperative library services whatcom county library system


minuteman library network individual libraries may also agree bespoke arrangements one another outside particular organization organizations facilitate reciprocal borrowing may provision services courier network materials trans amigos express union catalog use patrons member libraries especially case local level arrangements see also electronic funds transfer fair use doctrine references reading boucher virginia ''interlibrary loan practices handbook'' nd edition american library association chicago london newcombe luxmoore ''library co operation british isles'' series ''practical library handbooks''


london g allen unwin http wwwoutsellinccom store products document delivery best practices vendor scorecard outsell inc ''journal library administration'' volume numbers leading journals field interlibrary loan ''interlending document supply'' ''journal access services'' ''journal interlibrary loan document delivery electronic reserve'' haworth press earlier title ''journal interlibrary loan document delivery information supply'' department education science ''inter library co operation england wales report working party appointed minister education march '' chairman e b h baker london h


external links http wwwalaorg rusa sites alaorgrusa files content sections stars resources ala ill request formpdf ala interlibrary loan form https www auto graphicscom products shareit inter library loan illasp shareit auto graphics http librarymedutahedu docsupp commercial document delivery vendors http wwwlac bacgcca iso ill mainhtm interlibrary loan application standards maintenance agency http wwwoclcorg resource sharingenhtml oclc resource sharing library circulation library cooperation


'''investment policy''' government regulation law encourages discourages foreign investment local economy eg currency exchange limits explanation globalization integrates economies neighboring trading states typically forced trade rules part common tax tariff trade regime eg defined free trade pact investment policy favoring local investors global ones typically discouraged pacts idea separate investment policy rapidly becomes fiction fantasy real decisions reflect

Applied science
Public administration
Economic policy
Investment policy


real need nations compete investment even local investors strong central criticism new global rules made many anti globalization movement guarantees often available foreign investors available local small investors capital flight encouraged free trade pacts policy drivers investment policy many nations tied immigration policy either due desire prevent human capital flight forcing investors keep local assets local investments desire attract immigrants


offering passports safe nation eg canada exchange substantial investment business create jobs frequent criticism joint immigration investment policy encourage organized crime providing incentive money laundering safe places bosses move heat rises home country see also http investmentpolicyhubunctadorg ipfsd investment policy framework sustainable investment foreign direct investment globalization immigration policy tax tariff trade references economic integration foreign direct investment investment political economy economic policy


'''industrial policy''' '''ip''' '''industrial strategy''' country official strategic effort encourage development growth part economy often focused part manufacturing sector government takes measures aimed improving competitiveness capabilities domestic firms promoting structural transformation country 's infrastructure including transportation telecommunications energy industry major enabler wider economy often key role ip industrial policies interventionist measures typical mixed economy countries many types industrial policies contain

Applied science
Public administration
Economic policy
Industrial policy


common elements types interventionist practices trade policy industrial policy usually seen separate broader macroeconomic policies tightening credit taxing capital gains traditional examples industrial policy include subsidizing export industries import substitution industrialization isi trade barriers temporarily imposed key sectors manufacturing selectively protecting certain industries industries given time learn learning upgrade competitive enough restrictions lifted expose selected industries international market contemporary industrial policies include measures support linkages


grant perfect freedom trade artificers manufacturers merchants nations arguments list others subsequently picked scholars early development economics albert hirschman alexander gerschenkron called selective promotion ''key sectors'' overcoming economic backwardness relationship government industry united states never simple one labels used categorizing relationships different times often misleading false early nineteenth century example