cultural studies emerged different national regional contexts overview sardar 's characteristics book ''introducing cultural studies'' orientalist scholar ziauddin sardar lists following five main characteristics cultural studies objective cultural studies understand culture complex forms analyzing social political context culture manifests cultural study site study analysis political criticism example would cultural studies scholar study object may also connect study larger political project cultural studies attempts


expose reconcile constructed divisions knowledge purport grounded nature cultural studies commitment ethical evaluation modern society one aim cultural studies could examine cultural practices relation power following critical theory example study subculture white working class youth london would consider social practices dominant culture example middle upper classes london control political financial sectors create policies affecting well white working class youth london british

Social science
Sociology
Cultural studies


cultural studies numerous published accounts history cultural studies ref name hall p ref dennis dworkin writes critical moment beginning cultural studies field richard hoggart used term founding centre contemporary cultural studies cccs university birmingham ref name dworkin dennis ''cultural marxism post war britain history new left origins cultural studies'' durham duke university press p ref centre would become home development intellectual orientation become known internationally '''birmingham school'''


cultural studies ref name thus becoming world 's first institutional home cultural studies hoggart appointed assistant stuart hall would effectively directing cccs hall formally assumed directorship cccs hoggart left birmingham become assistant director general unesco thereafter field cultural studies became closely associated hall 's work hall left birmingham accept prestigious chair sociology open university richard johnson took directorship centre late restructuring university birmingham led


elimination cccs creation new department cultural studies sociology css university 's senior administration abruptly announced disestablishment css provoking substantial international outcry immediate reason disestablishment new department unexpectedly low result uk 's research assessment exercise though dean university attributed decision inexperienced macho management rae holdover initiative margaret thatcher led british government determines research funding university programs trace development british cultural studies see


example work richard hoggart e p thompson raymond williams stuart hall paul willis angela mcrobbie paul gilroy david morley charlotte brunsdon richard dyer others stuart hall 's directorship cccs birmingham beginning initial appearance founding works british cultural studies late stuart hall 's pioneering work cccs along colleagues postgraduate students gave shape substance field cultural studies would include people paul willis dick hebdige david morley charlotte brunsdon john clarke richard dyer judith williamson richard


johnson iain chambers dorothy hobson chris weedon tony jefferson michael green angela mcrobbie many cultural studies scholars employed marxist methods analysis exploring relationships cultural forms ie ' 'superstructure'' political economy ie ''base'' work louis althusser radically rethought marxist account ''base'' ' 'superstructure'' ways significant influence birmingham school much work done cccs studied youth subcultural expressions antagonism toward respectable middle class british culture post wwii period also politically formidable british working classes


decline britain 's manufacturing industries continuing grow output value decreasing share gdp numbers employed union rolls shrinking millions working class britons backed rise margaret thatcher labour losses stuart hall colleagues shift loyalty labour party conservative party explained terms cultural politics tracking even thatcher 's first victory work presented cultural studies classic ''policing crisis'' later


texts hall 's ''the hard road renewal thatcherism crisis left'' ''new times changing face politics s'' late beyond late scholars associated birmingham school firmly placed questions gender race cultural studies agenda remained ever since also late cultural studies begun attract great deal international attention spread globally throughout encountered new conditions knowledge production engaged


major international intellectual currents poststructuralism postmodernism postcolonialism wide range cultural studies journals located throughout world shown one indication globalization field developments outside uk us prior emergence british cultural studies several versions cultural analysis emerged largely pragmatic liberal pluralist philosophical traditions however late british cultural studies began spread internationally engage feminism poststructuralism postmodernism race critical cultural studies ie marxist feminist poststructuralist etc expanded tremendously american universities


fields communication studies education sociology literature ''cultural studies'' flagship journal field based us since founding editor john fiske brought australia thriving cultural studies scene existed australia since late several key cs practitioners emigrated uk taking british cultural studies margaret thatcher became prime minister uk school cultural studies known '''cultural policy studies''' one distinctive australian contributions field though


one australia also gave birth world 's first professional cultural studies association known cultural studies association australasia cultural studies journals based australia include ''international journal cultural studies'' ''continuum journal media cultural studies'' ''cultural studies review'' canada cultural studies sometimes focused issues technology society continuing emphasis work marshall mcluhan harold innis others cultural studies journals based canada include ''topia canadian journal cultural studies'' africa human rights third world issues among central


topics treated thriving cultural media studies scholarship southern africa locus south africa zimbabwe cultural studies journals based africa include ''journal african cultural studies'' latin america cultural studies drawn thinkers jos mart ngel rama latin american figures addition western theoretical sources associated cultural studies parts world leading latin american cultural studies scholars include n stor garc canclini j sus mart n barbero beatriz sarlo among key issues addressed latin american cultural studies scholars decoloniality


including ''women take issue aspects women 's subordination'' ''the empire strikes back race racism britain'' gramsci hegemony understand changing political circumstances class politics culture united kingdom scholars birmingham school turned work antonio gramsci italian thinker writer communist party leader gramsci concerned similar issues would italian laborers peasants vote fascists strategic approach necessary mobilize popular support progressive directions gramsci modified classical marxism argued culture must understood


central importance development british cultural studies particularly birmingham school facilitated analysis ways subordinate groups actively resist respond political economic domination subordinate groups needed seen merely passive dupes dominant class ideology blockquote structure agency development ''hegemony'' ''theory'' cultural studies ways consonant work fields exploring agency theoretical concept insists active critical capacities subordinated people eg working classes colonized peoples women stuart hall famously argued


essay notes deconstructing 'the popular' ordinary people cultural dopes insistence accounting agency subordinated people run counter work traditional structuralists analysts however critical work cultural studies feel overstates significance even romanticizes forms popular cultural agency cultural studies often concerns agency level practices everyday life approaches research standpoint radical contextualism words cultural studies rejects universal accounts cultural practices meanings


identities judith butler american feminist theorist whose work often associated cultural studies wrote blockquote move structuralist account capital understood structure social relations relatively homologous ways view hegemony power relations subject repetition convergence rearticulation brought question temporality thinking structure marked shift form althusserian theory takes structural totalities theoretical objects one insights contingent possibility structure inaugurate renewed conception hegemony bound


contingent sites strategies rearticulation power blockquote globalization recent decades capitalism spread throughout world via contemporary forms globalization cultural studies generated important analyses local sites practices negotiation resistance western hegemony cultural consumption cultural studies criticizes traditional view passive consumer particularly underlining different ways people ' 'read'' receive interpret cultural texts appropriate kinds cultural products otherwise participate production circulation meanings view consumer appropriate actively rework challenge


meanings circulated cultural texts variants cultural studies shifted analytical focus traditional understandings production consumption viewed form production meanings identities etc right stuart hall john fiske others influential developments special issue field 's flagship journal ''cultural studies'' examined anti consumerism variety cultural studies angles jeremy gilbert noted issue cultural studies must grapple fact live era throughout capitalist world


overriding aim government economic policy maintain consumer spending levels era 'consumer confidence' treated key indicator cause economic effectiveness concept text cultural studies drawing upon developing semiotics uses concept ''text'' designate written language also television programs films photographs fashion hairstyles forth texts cultural studies comprise meaningful artifacts culture conception textuality derives especially work pioneering influential semiotician roland barthes also owes debts sources


juri lotman colleagues tartu moscow school similarly field widens concept ''culture'' cultural studies approach sites spaces everyday life pubs living rooms gardens beaches texts ''culture'' context includes high culture also everyday meanings practices central focus cultural studies jeff lewis summarized much work textuality textual analysis cultural studies textbook post monograph media terrorism according lewis ''textual studies'' use complex difficult heuristic methods require powerful interpretive


political relativism kind empty version postmodern analysis others hold core cultural studies provides significant conceptual methodological framework cultural social economic critique critique designed deconstruct meanings assumptions inscribed institutions texts practices work produce present culture thus scholars disciplines dismissed cultural studies methodological rejection disciplinarity core strategies critique analysis influenced areas social sciences humanities example cultural studies work forms


social differentiation control inequality identity community building media knowledge production substantial impact moreover influence cultural studies become increasingly evident areas diverse translation studies health studies international relations development studies computer studies economics archaeology neurobiology cultural studies also diversified interests methodologies incorporating range studies media policy democracy design leisure tourism warfare development certain key concepts ideology discourse class hegemony identity gender remain significant cultural studies long engaged integrated new concepts approaches


movement 's critical framework bloom stated position september episode c span 's ''booknotes'' discussing book ''how read why'' ref marxist literary critic terry eagleton wholly opposed cultural studies criticised aspects highlighted sees strengths weaknesses books ''after theory'' eagleton literary cultural theory potential say important things fundamental questions life theorists rarely realized potential english departments also host cultural rhetorics scholars academic field defines cultural


rhetorics study practice making meaning knowledge belief cultures rhetorical rhetorics cultural cultural rhetorics scholars interested investigating topics like climate change autism asian american rhetoric sociology cultural studies also substantial impact sociology example stuart hall left cccs birmingham accept prestigious professorship sociology open university britain subfield cultural sociology particular disciplinary home many cultural studies practitioners nevertheless differences sociology


discipline field cultural studies whole sociology founded upon various historic works purposefully distinguishing subject philosophy psychology cultural studies explicitly interrogated criticized traditional understandings practices disciplinarity cs practitioners think best cultural studies neither emulate disciplines aspire disciplinarity cultural studies rather promote kind radical interdisciplinarity basis cultural studies one sociologist whose work major influence cultural studies pierre bourdieu whose work makes innovative use statistics


stable research agenda privileges contemporary reading texts thus producing ahistorical theoretical focus ref name many however would argue following hall cultural studies always sought avoid establishment fixed research agenda follows critique disciplinarity moreover hall many others long argued misunderstanding textual analysis sole methodology cultural studies practiced numerous approaches noted rojek turner also level accusation sense moral superiority correctness political


views articulated cultural studies ref name rojek chris bryan turner decorative sociology towards critique cultural turn ''the sociological review'' ref physics alan sokal physicist alan sokal expressed opposition cultural studies submitting hoax article cultural studies journal ''social text'' article crafted parody sokal referred fashionable nonsense postmodernism accepted editors journal time practice peer review paper appeared print sokal published second article self described


academic gossip magazine ''lingua franca'' revealing hoax ''social text'' sokal stated motivation stemmed rejection contemporary critiques scientific rationalism response critique jacques derrida wrote founding works hall others identified core originating texts original curricula field cultural studies richard hoggart 's ''the uses literacy'' raymond williams' ''culture society'' ''the long revolution'' ref name hall p e p thompson 's ''the making english working class'' see also fields theories apocalyptic post apocalyptic fiction comparative cultural studies critical theory cross cultural


studies cultural analytics cultural anthropology cultural assimilation cultural consensus theory cultural critic cultural geography cultural hegemony cultural heritage cultural history cultural identity theory cultural imperialism cultural materialism cultural practice cultural psychology cultural rights cultureme culturology discourse analysis dystopia fan studies gender studies heritage studies literary criticism literary theory media culture media studies organizational culture physical cultural studies popular culture studies postcolonialism postcritique queer theory semiotics culture social criticism social semiotics social theory sociology culture translation studies utopian dystopian fiction visual culture organizations association cultural typhoon japan canadian association cultural studies cultural studies association


australasia cultural studies association taiwan cultural studies association turkey cultural studies association us ecrea european communication research education association norway ibacs iberian association cultural studies spain inter asia cultural studies society taiwan international center cultural studies taiwan international association translation intercultural studies iatis south korea international society cultural history uk https wwwmeccsaorguk media communication cultural studies association uk authors fredric jameson ackbar abbas theodor w adorno giorgio agamben sara ahmed ien ang arjun appadurai marc aug mikhail bakhtin mieke bal roland barthes jean baudrillard zygmunt bauman tony bennett lauren berlant michael b rub homi k


bhabha rustom bharucha pierre bourdieu danah boyd peter burke judith butler angie chabram dernersesian rey chow james clifford william e connolly tim cresswell douglas crimp jonathan culler antonia darder guy debord michel de certeau gilles deleuze jacques derrida richard dyer michael eric dyson terry eagleton john ellis arturo escobar frantz fanon john fiske hal foster michel foucault sarah franklin paulo freire john frow n stor garc canclini jk gibson graham paul gilroy henry giroux antonio gramsci lawrence grossberg elizabeth grosz felix guattari j rgen habermas catherine hall gary hall stuart hall donna haraway michael hardt john hartley dick hebdige bob hodge susan hogan richard


hoggart bell hooks max horkheimer eva illouz mizuko ito luce irigaray annamarie jagose rosi braidotti henry jenkins douglas kellner laura kipnis henry krips julia kristeva ernesto laclau scott lash gilles lipovetsky jean fran ois lyotard herbert marcuse hayden white j sus mart n barbero doreen massey alan mckee angela mcrobbie robert mcruer kobena mercer toby miller nicholas mirzoeff chandra talpade mohanty chantal mouffe meaghan morris hamid naficy antonio negri william nericcio griselda pollock elspeth probyn janice radway jacques ranciere eduardo restrepo nelly richard andrew ross edward said beatriz sarlo saskia sassen eve kosofsky sedgwick richard sennett beverley skeggs edward soja sonjah stanley niaah david harvey


gayatri chakravorty spivak sara suleri tiziana terranova e p thompson tzvetan todorov graeme turner valentin voloshinov catherine walsh michael warner cornel west raymond williams paul willis slavoj ek journals ''angelaki journal theoretical humanities'' ''camera obscura feminism culture media studies'' ''communication critical cultural studies'' ''continuum journal media cultural studies'' ''critical arts south north cultural media studies'' ''critical studies media communication'' ''cultura'' ''cultural critique'' ''cultural studies'' ''cultural studies critical methodologies'' ''cultural studies science education'' ''cultural studies review'' ''culture machine'' ' 'differences journal feminist cultural studies'' ''european journal cultural studies'' ''french cultural studies''


''identities global studies culture power'' ''inter asia cultural studies'' ''international journal cultural studies'' ''journal early modern cultural studies'' ''journal african cultural studies'' ''journal intercultural studies'' ''journal latin american cultural studies'' ''journal spanish cultural studies'' ''new formations'' '' https wwwdegruytercom journal key culture html open cultural studies '' ''parallax'' '' http scholarworksumassedu p portuguese cultural studies '' '' http wwwportstudiesumassdedu plcs portuguese literary cultural studies plcs '' ''public culture'' ''review education pedagogy cultural studies'' ''social text'' ''space culture'' ''theory culture society'' ''topia canadian journal cultural studies'' references sources du gay paul et al ''doing cultural studies story sony walkman


culture media identities'' london sage association open university simon ''the cultural studies reader'' rd ed london routledge edgar andrew peter sedgwick ''cultural theory key concepts'' nd ed new york routledge engel manfred cultural ''and'' literary studies ''canadian review comparative literature'' grossberg lawrence cary nelson paula treichler eds '''' new york routledge hall stuart ed '''' london routledge association centre contemporary cultural studies cultural studies two paradigms ''media culture society'' race culture


communications looking backward forward cultural studies ''rethinking marxism'' hoggart richard ''the uses literacy aspects working class life'' chatto windus johnson richard cultural studies anyway ''social text'' multiplying methods pluralism combination pp nbsp ''practice cultural studies'' london sage post hegemony n't think ''theory culture society'' lash scott power hegemony cultural studies mutation ''theory culture society'' lewis jeff ''cultural studies basics'' nd ed london sage lindlof r b c taylor


''qualitative communication research methods'' nd ed thousand oaks ca sage longhurst brian greg smith gaynor bagnall garry crawford michael ogborn ''introducing cultural studies'' nd ed london pearson miller toby ed ''a companion cultural studies'' malden blackwell publishers pollock griselda ed ''generations geographies critical theories critical practices feminism visual arts'' routledge ''psychoanalysis image'' boston blackwell smith paul course 'cultural studies' ''the journal midwest modern language association'' http wwwblackwellreferencecom subscriber uid tocnodeid g chunk g looking backwards forwards cultural studies pp nbsp


''a companion cultural studies'' edited miller malden blackwell publishers williams jeffrey interviewer http osf gmuedu psmith interview html questioning cultural studies interview paul smith hartford ct mlg institute culture society trinity college retrieved july williams raymond ''keywords vocabulary culture society'' revised ed new york oxford university press ''culture society '' new york harper row external links http wwwbirminghamacuk schools historycultures departments history research projects cccs publications indexaspx cccs publications annual reports stencilled papers university birmingham https dalspacelibrarydalca handle need cultural studies resisting intellectuals oppositional public spheres https docslibpurdueedu clcweb


''clcweb comparative literature culture'' purdue university social sciences


'''fault tolerance''' property enables system continue operating properly event failure one faults within components operating quality decreases decrease proportional severity failure compared naively designed system even small failure cause total breakdown fault tolerance particularly sought high availability life critical systems ability maintaining functionality portions system break referred '''graceful degradation''' '''fault tolerant design''' enables system

Formal science
Computer science
Computer security
Fault-tolerant computing


continue intended operation possibly reduced level rather failing completely part system fails term commonly used describe computer systems designed continue less fully operational perhaps reduction throughput increase response time event partial failure system whole stopped due problems either hardware software example another field motor vehicle designed continue drivable one tires


case consequence system failure catastrophic system must able use reversion fall back safe mode similar roll back recovery human action humans present loop history first known fault tolerant computer sapo built czechoslovakia anton n svoboda ref name computer structures ref basic design magnetic drums connected via relays voting method memory error detection triple modular redundancy several machines developed along line mostly military use eventually separated


three distinct categories machines would last long time without maintenance ones used nasa space probes satellites computers dependable required constant monitoring used monitor control nuclear power plants supercollider experiments finally computers high amount runtime would heavy use many supercomputers used insurance companies probability monitoring development called llnm long life maintenance computing done nasa preparation project


apollo research aspects nasa 's first machine went space observatory second attempt jstar computer used voyager computer backup memory arrays use memory recovery methods thus called jpl self testing repairing computer could detect errors fix bring redundant modules needed computer still working today hyper dependable computers pioneered mostly aircraft manufacturers ref name computer structures nuclear power companies railroad industry usa needed computers massive amounts uptime would fail gracefully enough


replace sapo instance method faulty memory drums would emit noise failure later efforts showed fully effective system self repairing diagnosing isolating fault implementing redundant backup alerting need repair known n model redundancy faults cause automatic fail safes warning operator still common form level one fault tolerant design use today voting another initial method discussed multiple redundant backups operating constantly checking


's results outcome example four components reported answer one component reported answer four would vote fifth component faulty taken service called n majority voting historically motion always move n model n due fact complexity systems difficulty ensuring transitive state fault negative fault positive disrupt operations tandem stratus among


first companies specializing design fault tolerant computer systems online transaction processing examples clients without javascript support incompatible browsers december hardware fault tolerance sometimes requires broken parts taken replaced new parts system still operational computing known ''hot swapping'' system implemented single backup known '' 'single point tolerant''' represents vast majority fault tolerant systems systems mean time failures long enough operators sufficient time fix


broken devices mean time repair backup also fails helpful time failures long possible specifically required fault tolerant system fault tolerance notably successful computer applications tandem computers built entire business machines used single point tolerance create nonstop systems uptimes measured years fail safe architectures may encompass also computer software example process replication data formats may also designed degrade gracefully html example designed forward compatible allowing web browsers


functions reduced level fails completely way protects people property data injury damage intrusion disclosure computers program might fail safe executing graceful exit opposed uncontrolled crash order prevent data corruption experiencing error similar distinction made failing well failing badly fail deadly opposite strategy used weapon systems designed kill injure targets even part system damaged destroyed system designed


example computing web pages available basic functional format older small screen limited capability web browsers enhanced version browsers capable handling additional technologies larger display available fault tolerant computer systems programs considered robust designed continue operation despite error exception invalid input instead crashing completely software brittleness opposite robustness resilient networks continue transmit data despite failure links nodes resilient buildings infrastructure likewise expected prevent complete failure situations


hazard defective single fault condition results unavoidably another single fault condition two failures considered one single fault condition source offers following example criteria providing fault tolerant design every component normally option associated redundancy brings number penalties increase weight size power consumption cost well time design verify test therefore number choices examined determine components fault tolerant '''how critical component''' car radio critical component


less need fault tolerance '''how likely component fail''' components like drive shaft car likely fail fault tolerance needed '''how expensive make component fault tolerant''' requiring redundant car engine example would likely expensive economically terms weight space considered example component passes tests car 's occupant restraint system normally think ''primary'' occupant restraint system gravity


vehicle rolls undergoes severe g forces primary method occupant restraint may fail restraining occupants accident absolutely critical safety pass first test accidents causing occupant ejection quite common seat belts pass second test cost redundant restraint method like seat belts quite low economically terms weight space pass third test therefore adding seat belts vehicles excellent idea supplemental restraint systems airbags expensive


pass test smaller margin another excellent long term example principle put practice braking system whilst actual brake mechanisms critical particularly prone sudden rather progressive failure case necessarily duplicated allow even balanced application brake force wheels would also prohibitively costly double main components would add considerable weight however similarly critical systems actuating brakes driver control inherently less robust generally using cable


rust stretch jam snap hydraulic fluid leak boil develop bubbles absorb water thus lose effectiveness thus modern cars footbrake hydraulic brake circuit diagonally divided give two smaller points failure loss either reducing brake power causing much dangerous brakeforce imbalance straight front back left right split hydraulic circuit fail completely relatively rare occurrence failsafe form cable actuated parking brake operates otherwise relatively weak rear brakes still bring


vehicle safe halt conjunction transmission engine braking long demands line normal traffic flow cumulatively unlikely combination total foot brake failure need harsh braking emergency likely result collision still one lower speed would otherwise case comparison foot pedal activated service brake parking brake less critical item unless used one time backup footbrake cause immediate danger


found nonfunctional moment application therefore redundancy built per se typically uses cheaper lighter less hardwearing cable actuation system suffice happens hill use footbrake momentarily hold vehicle still driving find flat piece road stop alternatively shallow gradients transmission shifted park reverse first gear transmission lock engine compression used hold stationary need


central rear tyre generally larger grippier rider lean back put weight therefore allowing brake force applied wheel locks cheaper slower utility class machines even front wheel use hydraulic disc extra brake force easier packaging rear usually primitive somewhat inefficient exceptionally robust rod actuated drum thanks ease connecting footpedal wheel way importantly near impossibility catastrophic failure even rest


fault condition requires classifying fault failing component national institute standards technology nist categorizes faults based locality cause duration effect fault containment prevent propagation failure failure mechanisms cause system fail propagating failure rest system example kind failure rogue transmitter swamp legitimate communication system cause overall system failure firewalls mechanisms isolate rogue transmitter failing component protect system required availability


reversion modes addition fault tolerant systems characterized terms planned service outages unplanned service outages usually measured application level hardware level figure merit called availability expressed percentage example five nines system would statistically provide availability fault tolerant systems typically based concept redundancy fault tolerance techniques research kinds tolerances needed critical systems involves large amount interdisciplinary work complex system carefully


parallel choosing correct result basis quorum redundancy providing multiple identical instances system switching one remaining instances case failure failover diversity providing multiple ' 'different'' implementations specification using like replicated systems cope errors specific implementation implementations raid redundant array independent disks except raid examples fault tolerant storage device uses data redundancy lockstep fault tolerant machine uses replicated elements operating parallel time replications


element state inputs provided replication outputs expected outputs replications compared using voting circuit machine two replications element termed dual modular redundant dmr voting circuit detect mismatch recovery relies methods machine three replications element termed triple modular redundant tmr voting circuit determine replication error two one vote observed case voting circuit output


correct result discard erroneous version internal state erroneous replication assumed different two voting circuit switch dmr mode model applied larger number replications lockstep fault tolerant machines easily made fully synchronous gate replication making state transition edge clock clocks replications exactly phase however possible build lockstep systems without requirement bringing replications


synchrony requires making internal stored states started fixed initial state reset state alternatively internal state one replica copied another replica one variant dmr '''pair spare''' two replicated elements operate lockstep pair voting circuit detects mismatch operations outputs signal indicating error another pair operates exactly way final circuit selects output pair proclaim error pair spare requires four


replicas rather three tmr used commercially failure oblivious computing ''failure oblivious computing'' technique enables computer programs continue executing despite errors technique applied different contexts first handle invalid memory reads returning manufactured value program turn makes use manufactured value ignores former memory value tried access great contrast typical memory checkers inform program error abort program second applied exceptions


need recompile program uses time binary instrumentation framework pin attaches application process error occurs repairs execution tracks repair effects execution continues contains repair effects within application process detaches process repair effects flushed process state interfere normal execution program therefore incurs negligible overhead ref name rcv systematically collected real world null dereference divide zero errors prototype implementation enables application continue execute


provide acceptable output service users error triggering inputs ref name rcv circuit breaker circuit breaker design pattern technique avoid catastrophic failures distributed systems redundancy redundancy provision functional capabilities would unnecessary fault free environment consist backup components automatically kick one component fails example large cargo trucks lose tire without major consequences many tires one tire critical exception front tires used steer generally carry


less load total four less likely fail idea incorporating redundancy order improve reliability system pioneered john von neumann two kinds redundancy possible space redundancy time redundancy space redundancy provides additional components functions data items unnecessary fault free operation space redundancy classified hardware software information redundancy depending type redundant resources added system time redundancy computation data transmission


repeated result compared stored copy previous result current terminology kind testing referred 'in service fault tolerance testing isftt short disadvantages fault tolerant design 's advantages obvious many disadvantages '''interference fault detection component''' continue passenger vehicle example either fault tolerant systems may obvious driver tire punctured usually handled separate automated fault detection system case


appear new component b problem system carefully scrutinized become clear root problem actually component '''reduction priority fault correction''' even operator aware fault fault tolerant system likely reduce importance repairing fault faults corrected eventually lead system failure fault tolerant component fails completely redundant components also failed '''test difficulty''' certain critical fault tolerant systems nuclear reactor


easy way verify backup components functional infamous example chernobyl operators tested emergency backup cooling disabling primary secondary cooling backup failed resulting core meltdown massive release radiation '''cost''' fault tolerant components redundant components tend increase cost purely economic cost include measures weight manned spaceships example many redundant fault tolerant components weight increased dramatically unmanned systems n't require level safety '''inferior


components''' fault tolerant design may allow use inferior components would otherwise made system inoperable practice potential mitigate cost increase use multiple inferior components may lower reliability system level equal even worse comparable non fault tolerant system related terms difference fault tolerance systems rarely problems instance western electric crossbar systems failure rates two hours per forty years therefore highly ''fault resistant'' fault


occur still stopped operating completely therefore ''fault tolerant'' see also byzantine fault tolerance control reconfiguration damage tolerance data redundancy defence depth elegant degradation error detection correction error tolerant design human error tolerant design failure semantics fall back forward graceful exit intrusion tolerance list system quality attributes resilience ecology progressive enhancement resilience network robustness computer science rollback data management safe life design self management computer science software diversity references reliability engineering computer systems control engineering systems engineering software quality raid


portrait eug ne fran ois vidocq pioneering criminologist founder one first undercover police units early th century go '''undercover''' go '''undercover operation''' avoid detection object one 's observation especially disguise one 's identity use assumed identity purposes gaining trust individual organization order learn confirm confidential information gain trust targeted individuals gather information evidence undercover operations traditionally employed law enforcement agencies

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Undercover


private investigators roles commonly referred undercover agents history law enforcement carried undercover work variety ways throughout course history eug ne fran ois vidocq developed first organized though informal undercover program france early th century late first empire bourbon restoration period end vidocq set informal plainclothes unit ''brigade de la ret '' security brigade later converted security police unit prefecture


police ret initially eight twelve twenty employees one year later expanded secret agents addition eight people worked secretly ret instead salary received licences gambling halls major portion vidocq 's subordinates comprised ex criminals like vidocq personally trained agents example selecting correct disguise based kind job went hunting criminals memoirs full stories outsmarted crooks pretending beggar


old cuckold one point even simulated death england first modern police force established sir robert peel metropolitan police london start force occasionally employed plainclothes undercover detectives much public anxiety powers used purpose political repression part due concerns official ''police orders'' required undercover operations specifically authorized superintendent police commissioner edmund henderson established formal plainclothes detective division


first maintenance identity second reintegration back normal duty living double life new environment presents many problems undercover work one stressful jobs special agent undertake largest cause stress identified separation agent friends family normal environment simple isolation lead depression anxiety data divorce rates agents strain relationships occur result need secrecy


inability share work problems unpredictable work schedule personality lifestyle changes length separation result problems relationships ref name marx g marx g undercover police surveillance america berkeley university california press ref stress also result apparent lack direction investigation knowing end amount elaborate planning risk expenditure pressure agent succeed cause considerable stress ref name referencea marx g undercover police surveillance america berkeley university california press ref stress


development addiction suffer greater stress police isolated drugs often accessible ref name referencea police general high alcoholism rates compared occupational groups stress cited likely factor ref name referencea environment agents work often involves liberal exposure consumption alcohol conjunction stress isolation could result alcoholism guilt associated going undercover due betraying come trust officer cause


anxiety even rare cases sympathy targeted especially true infiltration political groups often agent share similar characteristics infiltrating like class age ethnicity religion could even result conversion agents ref name marx g lifestyle led undercover agents different compared areas law enforcement quite difficult reintegrate back normal duties agents work hours removed direct supervisory monitoring


ignore dress etiquette rules resettling back normal police role requires shedding old habits language dress working free lifestyles agents may discipline problems exhibit neurotic responses may feel uncomfortable take cynical suspicious even paranoid world view feel continually guard ref name referencea risks include capture death torture plainclothes law enforcement undercover agents confused law enforcement officers wear '''plainclothes''' wear civilian clothing instead wearing uniform avoid detection


br information country approximate br time period details atf fictional sting operations usa government agents enticed targeted victims incited commit crimes type scale calculated procure specific sentences would prosecuted jailed typically around years uk undercover policing relationships scandal uk undercover officers infiltrating protest groups deceived protesters long term relationships cases fathered children false pretences vanish later without explanation


units disbanded unreserved apology given part settlement noting women deceived legal action continues public inquiry examining officer conduct undercover policing inquiry underway see also police fbi cia espionage vice squad ''america undercover'' television series covert operation covert policing united kingdom donnie brasco undercover federal agent paul manning undercover police officer bob lambert undercover police officer references reading documentaries documentary mark kennedy policeman documentary featuring work ex cop mike


russell whose undercover work new jersey state police led arrests members genovese crime family corrupt prison officials state senator print law enforcement terminology spies role passing sociology


seven sacraments'' altarpiece rogier van der weyden '' 'sacrament''' christian rite recognized particular importance significance various views existence meaning rites many christians consider sacraments visible symbol reality god well channel god 's grace many denominations including catholic lutheran anglican methodist reformed hold definition sacrament formulated augustine hippo outward sign inward grace instituted jesus christ ref name lydenmazur ref ref name ccc ref sacraments signify god 's grace

Humanities
Theology
Sacramental theology


way outwardly observable participant ref name ccc catholic church hussite church old catholic church recognise seven sacraments baptism penance reconciliation confession eucharist holy communion confirmation marriage matrimony holy orders anointing sick extreme unction ref name meltonbaumann ref eastern churches eastern orthodox church oriental orthodox church well eastern catholic churches also believe seven major sacraments apply words ' 'sacred mysteries'' corresponding greek word ''mysterion'' also rites western tradition called sacramentals


realities church ref name goarchorg ref many protestant denominations within reformed tradition identify two sacraments instituted christ eucharist holy communion baptism ref name haffner lutheran sacraments include two often adding confession absolution third sacrament ref name haffner ref ref name smith ref anglican methodist teaching two sacraments ordained christ lord gospel say baptism supper lord five commonly called sacraments say confirmation penance orders matrimony extreme unction


counted sacraments gospel traditions quakerism observe rites case anabaptists hold simply reminders commendable practices impart actual grace sacraments ordinances pertaining certain aspects christian faith etymology english word derived indirectly ecclesiastical latin ' 'sacr mentum'' latin ' 'sacr '' hallow consecrate ' 'sacer'' sacred holy turn derived greek new testament word mysterion ancient rome term meant soldier 's oath allegiance tertullian rd century christian


writer suggested soldier 's oath sign beginning new life initiation christian community baptism eucharist catholicism council trent defined seven sacraments alt roman catholic theology enumerates seven sacraments baptism confirmation chrismation eucharist communion penance reconciliation confession matrimony marriage holy orders ordination diaconate priesthood episcopate anointing sick second vatican council generally called extreme unction list seven sacraments already given second council lyon council florence reaffirmed


council trent stated ref sign source seven sacraments catholic church baptism confirmation matrimony eucharist penance holy orders anointing sick middle ages sacramental records latin even reformation many ecclesiastical leaders continued using practice th century occasion protestant ministers followed practice since w part latin alphabet scribes used dealing names places addition names modified fit latin mold instance name joseph would rendered iosephus


josephus catholic church indicates sacraments necessary salvation though every sacrament necessary every individual church applies teaching even sacrament baptism gateway sacraments states baptism necessary salvation gospel proclaimed possibility asking sacrament ref name ccc ref ref name vaticanva ref adds god bound salvation sacrament baptism bound sacraments ref name ccc accordingly since christ died salvation


saved without baptism die faith ''baptism blood'' catechumens even without knowing christ church still impulse grace sincerely seek god strive also saved without baptism ''baptism desire'' church liturgy entrusts children die without baptism mercy god ref name vaticanva teaching roman catholic church sacraments efficacious signs grace instituted christ entrusted church divine life dispensed


us visible rites sacraments celebrated signify make present graces proper sacrament bear fruit receive required dispositions sacraments catholic church regarded means divine grace catholic definition sacrament event christian life spiritual physical seven catholic sacraments separated three groups first three sacraments initiation baptism communion confirmation two healing sacraments anointing sick penance two sacraments


vocation matrimony holy orders church teaches effect sacraments comes ''ex opere operato'' fact administered regardless personal holiness minister administering however indicated definition sacraments given ''catechism catholic church'' recipient 's lack proper disposition receive grace conveyed block sacrament 's effectiveness person sacraments presuppose faith words ritual elements nourish strengthen give expression faith though every individual receive every sacrament


church affirms believers sacraments necessary salvation christ bestows sacrament 's particular healing transforming grace holy spirit making participants divine nature union christ eastern orthodoxy oriental orthodoxy eastern orthodox tradition limit number sacraments seven holding anything church church sense sacramental however recognizes seven major sacraments completed many blessings special services ref name goarchorg lists sacraments taken


church fathers include consecration church monastic tonsure burial dead specifically eastern orthodox term sacrament term seeks classify something may according orthodox thought impossible classify orthodox communion 's preferred term sacred mystery orthodox communion refrained attempting determine absolutely exact form number effect sacraments accepting simply elements unknowable except god broad level mysteries affirmation goodness created matter


emphatic declaration matter originally created baptism chrismation sacraments initiation eastern orthodox church despite broad view orthodox divines write seven principal mysteries specific level systematically limiting mysteries seven profound mystery eucharist synaxis partakers participation liturgy receiving consecrated bread wine understood become body blood christ directly communicate god claim made understand exactly happens eastern


orthodox merely state appears form bread wine god told body blood take says 'mystery' attempt rationalize limited mind emphasis mystery characteristic orthodox theology often called apophatic meaning positive statements god theological matters must balanced negative statements example correct appropriate say god exists even god truly


exists statements must understood also convey idea god transcends usually meant term exist seven sacraments also accepted oriental orthodoxy including coptic orthodox church ethiopian orthodox tewahedo church armenian orthodox church hussite church moravian church czechoslovak hussite church recognizes seven sacraments baptism eucharist penance confirmation holy matrimony holy orders anointing sick ref name roytov ref moravian church administers sacraments baptism eucharist well rites confirmation holy matrimony holy orders lutheranism church congregation


saints gospel rightly taught sacraments rightly administered augsburg confession lutherans hold sacraments sacred acts divine institution whenever properly administered use physical component commanded god along divine words institution god way specific sacrament present word physical component earnestly offers receive sacrament forgiveness sins eternal salvation also works recipients get accept blessings increase assurance


possession melanchthon 's ''apology augsburg confession'' defines sacraments according german text outward signs ceremonies god 's command attached divine promise graces latin text shorter rites command god added promise grace strict definition narrowed number sacraments three holy baptism eucharist holy absolution ref name haffner ref ref name smith lutherans dogmatically define exact number sacraments luther 's initial statement large catechism speaks two sacraments baptism eucharist addition


confession absolution third sacrament definition sacrament apology augsburg confession lists absolution one important note although lutherans consider four rites sacraments still retained used lutheran church exception extreme unction luther around time marriage afterwards became one greatest champions marriage holy matrimony two confirmation ordination kept lutheran church purposes good order within lutheranism sacraments


means grace together word god empower church mission anglicanism methodism anglican methodist sacramental theology reflects dual roots catholic tradition protestant reformation catholic heritage perhaps strongly asserted importance anglicanism methodism places sacraments means grace sanctification ref name jr ref reformed tradition contributed marked insistence lively faith worthy reception anglican roman catholic theologians participating anglican roman catholic joint preparatory commission declared reached substantial agreement doctrine


supper lord since ones ordained christ gospel article continues stating five commonly called sacraments counted sacraments gospel like nature sacraments baptism lord 's supper visible sign ceremony ordained god phrases led debate whether five called sacraments recent author writes anglican church gives sacramental value five recognized


roman catholic orthodox churches reveal essential aspects redemption baptism communion point anglicans maintain use commonly implies others legitimately called sacraments perhaps exactly sacraments church opposed sacraments gospel others object time articles written commonly meant inaccurately point prayer book refers creeds commonly called apostles' creed athanasian attributions historically incorrect anglicans also divided effects


sacraments ref name seddon philip ref hold views similar roman catholic ''ex opere operato'' theory http wwwchurchofenglandorg prayer worship worship book common prayer articles religionaspx xxvi article xxvi entitled ''of unworthiness ministers hinders effect sacrament'' states ministration word sacraments done name minister neither effect christ 's ordinance taken away wickedness since sacraments effect christ 's intention promise although ministered evil men roman catholic theology worthiness unworthiness recipient great


importance article xxv ''thirty nine articles'' anglicanism article xvi ''articles religion'' methodism states worthily receive sacraments wholesome effect operation receive unworthily purchase damnation article xxviii anglicanism 's ''thirty nine articles'' article xviii methodism 's ''articles religion'' lord 's supper affirms rightly worthily faith receive bread break partaking body christ exhortations prayer book rite worthy communicant


bidden prepare examination conscience repentance amendment life ensure love charity neighbours warned withdraw particular question fiercely debated th century arguments baptismal regeneration reformed continental reformed congregationalist presbyterian henry john dobson 's ''a scottish sacrament'' john calvin defined sacrament earthly sign associated promise god accepted two sacraments valid new covenant baptism lord 's supper reformed theologians


following completely rejected catholic doctrine transubstantiation treatment supper sacrifice also could accept lutheran doctrine sacramental union christ elements westminster confession faith also limits sacraments baptism lord 's supper sacraments denoted signs seals covenant grace ref name autogenerated ref westminster speaks sacramental relation sacramental union sign thing signified whence comes pass names effects one attributed


baptism infant children believers well believers reformed except baptists congregationalists baptism admits baptized visible church benefits christ offered baptized ref name autogenerated lord 's supper westminster takes position lutheran sacramental union zwinglian memorialism lord 's supper really indeed yet carnally corporally spiritually receive feed upon christ crucified benefits death body blood christ corporally carnally


bread wine yet really spiritually present faith believers ordinance elements outward senses irvingism irvingian denominations new apostolic church teach three sacraments baptism holy communion holy sealing ref name whalen ref ref name nomos ref latter day saints members latter day saint movement often use word ordinance place word sacrament actual theology sacramental nature ref name sacrament ref latter day saint ordinances understood conferring invisible form grace saving nature required salvation


exaltation latter day saints often use word sacrament refer specifically sacrament lord 's supper also known lord 's supper participants eat bread drink wine water since late tokens flesh blood christ latter day saint congregations sacrament normally provided every sunday part sacrament meeting like latter day saint ordinances baptism confirmation considered essential sacred rite ref name sacrament latter day saint ordinances considered saving include baptism confirmation sacrament lord 's supper eucharist ordination


catholic church america considered sacraments churches assyrian church east holds holy leaven sign cross sacraments since post reformation denominations regard clergy classically sacerdotal priestly function avoid term sacrament preferring terms sacerdotal function ordinance tradition belief invests efficacy ''ordinance'' obedience participation believer witness presiding minister congregation view stems highly developed concept priesthood believers


sense believer performs sacerdotal role baptists pentecostals among christian denominations use word ''ordinance'' rather ' 'sacrament'' certain sacerdotal ideas connected view word ' 'sacrament'' churches argue word ''ordinance'' points ordaining authority christ lies behind practice non sacramental churches denominations sacramental dimension equivalent salvation army practice formal sacraments variety reasons including belief better concentrate reality behind symbols however


forbid members receiving sacraments denominations quakers religious society friends also practice formal sacraments believing activities considered holy rather focused inward transformation one 's whole life quakers use words baptism communion describe experience christ 's presence ministry worship clancularii anabaptist group th century reasoned religion seated heart need outward expression sacraments ref name cbtel ref members chinese new


religious movement known church almighty god eastern lightning practice formal sacraments per church 's theology references external links http wwwewtncom library councils trent htm council trent sacraments catholic https webarchiveorg web http wwwreephambeneficeorguk ministryhtml exploring sacraments anglican ministry http wwwwcc coeorg wcc faith bem html baptism eucharist ministry ecumenical statement world council churches https webarchiveorg web http wwwlasvegasorthodoxcom library orthodox doctrine sacramenthtm sacraments orthodox church methodism sacraments catholic church anglican sacraments lutheran sacraments rites christian terminology


'''clinical physiology''' academic discipline within medical sciences clinical medical specialty physicians health care systems sweden ref name ref denmark finland clinical physiology characterized branch physiology uses functional approach understand pathophysiology disease specialty medical doctors clinical physiology diagnostic specialty patients referred undergo specialized tests functions heart blood vessels lungs kidneys gastrointestinal tract organs testing methods include evaluation electrical activity eg electrocardiogram heart blood pressure

Applied science
Medicine and health
Clinical physiology


eg ankle brachial pressure index air flow eg pulmonary function testing using spirometry addition clinical physiologists measure movements velocities metabolic processes imaging techniques ultrasound echocardiography magnetic resonance imaging mri x ray computed tomography ct nuclear medicine scanners eg single photon emission computed tomography spect positron emission tomography pet without ct mri history branch physiology founded professor torgny sj strand germany continues make way around world hospitals academic environments ref name ref sj strand first established new branch


radiology health care systems countries lack specialty tests performed clinical physiology often performed various organ specific specialties internal medicine cardiology pulmonology nephrology others australia united kingdom well many commonwealth european countries clinical physiology medical specialty physicians non medical health profession scientist physiologist technologist may practice cardiac scientist vascular scientist respiratory scientist sleep scientist ophthalmic vision science ophthalmic science practitioner uk ref


name clinicalphysiology http wwwgriffitheduau science aviation clinical science study clinical physiology clinical physiology griffith university retrieved december ref professionals also aid diagnosis disease manage patients emphasis understanding physiological pathophysiological pathways ref name clinicalphysiology disciplines within clinical physiology field include audiologists cardiac physiologists gastro intestinal physiologists neurophysiologists respiratory physiologists sleep physiologists references external links scandinavian society clinical physiology nuclear medicine sscpnm http wwwsscpnmcom official journal sscpnm clinical physiology functional imaging http onlinelibrarywileycom journal issn x physiology academic disciplines


'''love letter rival''' youth catches boyfriend love letter anothermiyagawa issh ca panel series ten homoerotic scenes shunga style painted hand scroll kakemono e sumi color gofun silk private collection '' 'sociology jealousy''' deals cultural social factors influence causes jealousy jealousy expressed attitudes toward jealousy change time anthropologists margaret mead shown jealousy varies across cultures cultural learning influence situations trigger jealousy manner jealousy expressed attitudes toward

Social science
Sociology
Jealousy sociology


name freeman freeman margaret mead samoa making unmaking anthropological myth new york viking penguin ref ref name freeman freeman fateful hoaxing margaret mead historical analysis samoan research new york westview press ref ref name buss buss dm dangerous passion jealousy necessary love sex new york free press ref ref name buss buss dm human nature culture evolutionary psychological perspective journal personality ref jealousy occurred far frequently mead suggested often resulted violence samoans word violence ''fua'' may


ought jealous sought banish deny jealous reactions partners' sexual involvement others many found unexpectedly difficult though others conscious blocking jealous reaction relatively easy start time reaction effectively extinguished studies suggest jealousy may reduced multilateral relationships clear hierarchy relationships expectations otherwise fixed see smith smith ''beyond monogamy'' contemporary practitioners called polyamory multiple intimate relationships part treat jealousy inevitable problem


'''accounting research''' examines accounting used individuals organizations government well consequences practices starting assumption accounting measures makes visible certain economic events accounting research studied roles accounting organizations society consequences practices individuals organizations governments capital markets ref name acca ref name burchell et al ref encompasses broad range topics including financial accounting research management accounting research auditing research capital market research accountability research social responsibility research taxation research ref name oos

Applied science
Business
Accounting
Accounting research


oler derek k mitchell j oler christopher j skousen characterizing accounting research ''accounting horizons'' ref academic accounting research addresses aspects accounting profession using scientific method research practicing accountants focuses solving problems client group clients ref name gp gordon teresa p jason c porter reading understanding academic research accounting guide students ''global perspectives accounting education'' ref academic accounting research make significant contribution accounting practice ref name gp ref name acca ref although changes accounting education


accounting academia recent decades led divide academia practice accounting ref name gbe overview class toccolours style float right margin left em margin bottom em font size background c dbf color black width em max width cellspacing style text align left accounting craft essence changed significantly across time adopting new forms methods roles likewise accounting research indeed role accounting research part make accounting knowledge different move forward understandings accounting


times practice accounting ref name acca style text align left anthony hopwood address american accounting association annual meeting accounting research carried academic researchers practicing accountants academic accounting research addresses areas accounting profession examines issues using scientific method uses evidence wide variety sources including financial information experiments computer simulations interviews surveys historical records ethnography ref name gp ref name covaleski dirsmith ref ref name j nsson macintosh ref research practicing accountants focuses solving immediate problems


significant changes past decades ref name oos accounting academia established adopted requirements social science academia phd qualifications research papers ref name gbe mid saw shift dominance normative research positive research uses methods finance economics ref name oos behavioral research drawing psychology ref name birnberg shields ref interdisciplinary research adapted methods wide variety social sciences ref name roslender dillard ref public interest accounting research examines public interest consequences


different accounting practices critical research using marxian critical theory perspectives ref name morales sponem ref academic research accounting practice contribution academic research practice contribution academic accounting research accounting practice includes assessment current accounting practices development new practices development university curricula academic research important role play assessing extent existing practices fit purpose developing new practices address changing business economic societal needs research also informs teaching curricula universities


thus affecting range issues future generations become aware consider important ref name acca example academic accounting research improve understanding stakeholders actually use information accountants provide prior academic studies contributed fraud risk assessment future direction profession impact changing accounting standards ref name gp gap academia practice several publications including recent accounting literature suggested divide gap academic professional communities accounting ref name gbe ref name laughlin


laughlin richard accounting research policy practice worlds together worlds apart bridging gap academic accounting research professional practice eds elaine evans roger burritt james guthrie new south wales institute chartered accountants australia ref aspects divide suggested include criticisms academics speaking jargon aiming publish research rather improve practice criticisms practicing accountants resistant changes status quo reluctant disclose data ref name gbe divide accounting academia practice originally


centered whether broader education technical training best way educate accountants accounting academia practice grew divided due accounting academic community adopting requirements social science academia practicing accountants maintained emphasis professional qualifications technical skills ref name gbe guthrie j roger burritt elaine evans relationship academic accounting research professional practice bridging gap academic accounting research professional practice eds elaine evans roger burritt james guthrie new south wales institute chartered accountants australia ref


academic accounting research addresses range broad ''topical areas'' within accounting using wide variety ''methodologies'' ''theories'' following classifications highlight several important types accounting research means exhaustive many academic accounting studies resist simple classification ref name baxter chua ref topical areas financial accounting research examines financial accounting financial markets ref name csww focuses relationship accounting information decision making external users accounting information capital markets ref name oos managerial accounting research focuses management accounting relationship


management accounting information internal users ref name oos example examining allocation resources decision making within enterprise ref name csww auditing research studies related audit function ref name oos including auditor decision making effects auditing financial reporting ref name csww taxation research examines taxation related issues market reactions tax disclosures taxpayer decision making ref name csww relationship accounting information tax authorities ref name oos ref name csww coyne joshua g scott l summers brady williams david wood accounting program research rankings topical area


methodology ''issues accounting education'' november ref governance research examines overall corporate management organizations ref name oos accounting information systems ais research examines issues related accounting information systems system security design science ref name csww '''accounting education research''' focuses development relevant curriculum decision making applied research undergraduate graduate levels methodologies archival research research examines objective data collected repositories including data collected researchers ref name csww experimental research research examines data researcher gathered administering treatments


subjects ref name csww analytical research research based act formally modeling theories substantiating ideas mathematical terms ref name csww interpretive research research emphasizes role language interpretation understanding accounting practice highlighting symbolic structures taken granted themes pattern world distinct ways ref name chua ref critical research research emphasizes role power conflict accounting practice ref name chua possible methodologies include use case studies computer simulations field research ref name csww theories agency


theory research seeks explain predict accounting practices related principal agent relationship shareholders managers including issues related information asymmetry moral hazard ref name jensen ref institutional theory research focuses socially generated rules structure accounting practices organizations society ref name baxter chua structuration theory research draws structuration theory anthony giddens seeks explain accounting practices interaction individual 's capability make choices social rules structures constrain individual choices reproduced individual behavior ref name baxter chua foucauldian


theory research influenced michael foucault sees accounting practices dependent historical circumstances tools disciplining individual behavior ref name baxter chua latourian theory research influenced bruno latour concerned understanding accounting technologies context networks human non human 'actants' ref name baxter chua linguistic theory research sees accounting discursive practice draws linguistic theory hermeneutics ref name arrington francis ref see also accounting scholarship positive accounting public interest accounting references


volunteer adjusts schedule board wikimania board indicates times locations events take place thus assisting participants deciding events attend train schedule informs travelers trains going various locations indicates times departure hours operation posted fema office following disaster inform public fema employees available assist weekly work schedule indicates employees business going work times ensure effective distribution labor resources

Applied science
Transportation
Operations research
Scheduling


timetable form ref person responsible making particular schedule may called '' 'scheduler''' making following schedules ancient human activity scenarios associate kind planning learning life skills schedules necessary least useful situations individuals need know time must specific location receive specific service people need accomplish set goals within set time period schedules usefully span short periods daily weekly schedule long term


planning respect periods several months years often made using calendar person making schedule note dates times various events planned occur schedules set forth specific times events occur may instead list algorithmically expected order events either must take place situations schedules uncertain conduct daily life relies environmental factors outside human control people vacationing otherwise seeking reduce stress achieve relaxation


may intentionally avoid schedule certain period time kinds schedules publicly available schedules certain kinds schedules reflect information generally made available public members public plan certain activities around may include things like hours operation businesses tourist attractions government offices allow consumers services know obtain transportation schedules airline timetables train schedules bus schedules various public transport timetables published allow commuters plan travels perspective


organization responsible making transportation available schedules must provide possibility schedule delay term transport modeling refers difference desired time arrival departure actual time despite use delay refer difference either early late direction broadcast programming minute planning content radio television broadcast channel result activity generation list shows broadcast regular times specific times distributed


public potential audience show know available concerts sporting events typically scheduled fans plan buy tickets attend events internal schedules internal schedule schedule importance people must directly abide noted groups often begin schedule imposed outside effective groups also develop internal schedule sets goals completion micro tasks unlike schedules public events publicly available amenities


need go time effort publicizing internal schedule contrary internal schedule may kept confidential matter security propriety example internal schedule workplace schedule lists hours specific employees expected workplace ensure sufficient staffing times instances avoiding overstaffing work schedule business open public must correspond hours operation business employees available times customers


able use services business one common method scheduling employees ensure availability appropriate resources gantt chart another example internal schedule class schedule individual student indicating days times classes held project management scheduling schedule may also involve completion project public interaction public prior completion project management formal schedule often created initial step carrying specific project construction


building development product launch program establishing project management schedule involves listing milestones activities deliverables intended start finish dates scheduling employees may element production process schedule used planning production operation resource schedule aids logistical planning sharing resources among several entities cases schedule obtained estimating duration task noting dependencies amongst tasks ref name zwikael dependencies turn tasks must completed


method computing scheduling important internal process computer science wherein schedule list actions set transactions databases scheduling way various processes assigned computer multitasking multiprocessing operating system design kind scheduling incorporated computer program user may completely unaware tasks carried scheduling operations issues computing may include operation network scheduler packet scheduler arbiter program manages movement certain pieces information


computer open shop scheduling job shop scheduling flow shop scheduling problem optimization problems computer science scheduling order requests submitted block device operating systems job scheduler enterprise software application charge unattended background executions wireless communications wireless networks flexible service architecture integrate different types services single air interface terminals different service requirements top flexible service architecture effective quality service qos management schemes also needed therefore wireless resources need shared among terminals


carefully desirable schedule usage wireless resources efficiently possible maximizing overall network performance ref name miao ref operations research scheduling resources usually subject constraints subject several problems area research known operations research usually terms finding optimal solution method solving example nurse scheduling problem concerned scheduling number employees typical constraints rotation shifts limits overtime etc travelling salesman problem concerned scheduling series


accurately defined strong possibility unexpected difficulties poor scoping scheduling may result serious budget problems delays cancellations transportation improvements sometimes even domino effect negatively impact entire area 's transportation planning education educational institution timetable must established refers students teachers classrooms hour challenge constructing schedule larger institutions addressed gunther schmidt thomas str hlein formalized timetable construction problem indicated iterative process using logical matrices hypergraphs obtain


solution see also automated planning scheduling calendaring software employee scheduling software notation theoretic scheduling problems timeblocking references time management scheduling computing


'''architectural analytics''' field study focuses discovery identification meaningful patterns architecture architecture represents snapshot time detailed fashion animate civilisation people created architectural analytics allow large amount information monument settlement civilisation discerned ability inform present previously unknown facts makes architectural analytics important piecing together larger understanding civilisations human story see also arid site analysis architecture tradeoff analysis method software architecture analysis method references references

Applied science
Architecture and design
Architectural analytics


academic disciplines architectural theory


'''conservation science''' may refer conservation science cultural heritage interdisciplinary study care protection art architecture cultural works conservation biology interdisciplinary study protection biodiversity environmental science interdisciplinary study protection environment natural resources see also conservation disambiguation

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Conservation science


infrared spectrometer used analysis cultural heritage materials respect cultural property '''conservation science''' interdisciplinary study conservation art architecture technical art history cultural works use scientific inquiry general areas research include technology structure artistic historic works words materials techniques cultural artistic historic objects made three broad categories conservation science respect cultural heritage understanding materials techniques used artists study causes


deterioration improving methods techniques materials examination treatment conservation science includes aspects chemistry physics biology engineering well art history anthropology ref name race ref institutions getty conservation institute specialize publishing disseminating information relating tools used outcomes conservation science research well recent discoveries field introduction prior thorough scientific analysis detailed visual assessment object heritage site artwork necessary addition gathering relevant historic current documentation ref name ref diagnosing current state


risk conservators example pigments used paintings contain highly toxic elements arsenic lead could hazardous working alternatively previous restoration efforts may involved chemicals known dangerous side effects prolonged exposure cases conservation science may reveal nature hazards well present solutions prevent current future exposure material properties research chemical physical properties intrinsic materials used create cultural heritage objects large part


study conservation science materials science conjunction broader field restoration preservation resulted recognized modern conservation ref name race ref using analytical techniques tools conservation scientists able determine makes particular object artwork turn knowledge informs deterioration likely occur due environmental effects inherent traits given material necessary environment maintain prolong current state material treatments least amount reaction impact materials


objects studied primary goals conservation research https wwwnedccorg preservation session conservation treatment conservation treatments fall four broad categories including cleaning desalination consolidation deinfestation ref name may jones may eric jones mark conservation science heritage materials royal society chemistry ref knowledge material properties cultural heritage deteriorate time helps conservators formulate actions preserve conserve cultural heritage ref name aic ref many countries including united kingdom italy conservation science considered part broader field called 'heritage science' also encompasses scientific aspects less directly related cultural heritage conservation


well management interpretation paper majority paper made cellulose fibers deterioration paper may result pests vermin insects microbes theft fire flood specifically paper deteriorates two mechanisms alter hue weaken fibers '''acid catalyzed hydrolysis''' '''oxidation''' ref name may jones treatment paper includes deacidification bleaching washing safe environments storage display paper artifacts include relative humidity rh ideal temperature nbsp c nbsp f ref


name may jones textiles textiles woven fabrics cloth represent culture material legacy international trade social history agricultural development artistic trends technological progress ref name may jones four main material sources '''animal''' '''plant''' '''mineral''' '' 'synthetic''' deterioration textiles caused exposure ultraviolet uv infrared light ir incorrect relative humidity temperature pests pollutants physical forces fire water textiles may treated number ways including vacuuming wet cleaning dry cleaning steaming ironing preserve integrity textiles storage display


journal conservation museum studies pp doi http doiorg jcms ref two primary methods leather conservation application dressings treatments prolong life leather improving means leather stored second method preventive approach first older method interventive approach ref name dirksen leather artifacts best stored relative humidity temperature nbsp c nbsp f ref name dirksen glass ceramics glass ceramics maintained much longer periods time two durable


materials biggest risk glass ceramics breakage however improper display storage lead stains discoloration ceramics become stained inappropriate cleaning repair porous cracked ceramics develop stains soaked water cleaning increased temperatures cause darkening already existing stains lead cracks glass become damaged 'weeping glass' wherein droplets moisture form glass surfaces lead leaching unstable components produce alkaline solution allowed remain glass extended period


found naturally environment metal objects made combination individual metals called alloys exhibit different strengths colors based composition metals alloys commonly found cultural objects include gold silver copper pewter tin iron common form deterioration metal corrosion corrosion occurs metals come contact water acids bases salts oils polishes pollutants chemicals mechanical damage breakage dents scratches occur mishandling metal objects result damage metal object polishing lead deterioration


potentially misidentification removing plating decoration makers' marks engravings mechanical electrical chemical interventions often used treatment metals appropriate storage metal objects helps increase longevity recommended metal objects stored closed systems well sealed doors drawers relative humidity plastics plastics experience degradation several factors including light ultraviolet radiation oxygen water heat pollutants international standards storage plastics common museums employ similar methods used preserve paper


organic materials wide range instruments techniques used treatment plastics including scanning printing technologies means reproducing broken missing parts recommended relative humidity plastics along temperature nbsp c nbsp f stone stone objects take many forms including sculpture architecture ornamental decoration functional pieces deterioration stone depends several factors type stone geographical physical location maintenance stone subject number decay mechanisms include '''environmental''' '''mechanical''' '''applied decay'''


erosion air water physical touch wear away surface texture carved stone regularly cleaned cleaning cause deterioration opening pores well removing surface features engravings artists' tools historical marks dirt moss lichen usually cause decay stone may add patina wood wood biodegradable organic material susceptible deterioration living organisms environmental factors ancient wood recognized archaeological value falls two categories dry waterlogged recommended temperature


storage display wooden artifacts nbsp c nbsp f winter months nbsp c nbsp f summer months recommended relative humidity storage display wooden artifacts winter months summer months effective cleaning wooden artifacts includes waxing polishing dusting buffingfor maintenance wooden structure architectural heritage fire resistant coatings used enhance fire resistant performance structure see also conservation restoration wooden artifacts paintings painting materials include acrylic paint oil paint egg tempera lacquer water


color gouache conservation techniques paintings include dirt varnish removal consolidation structural treatments painting filling retouching losses recommended paintings stored heritage art collections see also conservation restoration paintings mechanisms deterioration conservation science studies process various mechanisms deterioration cause changes material culture affect longevity future generations mechanisms may produce chemical physical biological changes differ based material properties subject hand ref name aic ref large portion conservation science research


study behavior different materials range environmental conditions ref name getty getty website getty conservation institute language en access date ref one method used scientists artificially age objects order study conditions cause mitigate deterioration ref name getty results investigations informs field major risk factors well strategies control monitor environmental conditions aid long term preservation scientific inquiry led development stable long term treatment methods techniques types damages occur fire fire caused


chemical reactions resulting combustion organic material paper textiles wood especially susceptible combustion ref name fire ref inorganic material less susceptible may still suffer damage exposed fire period time ref name fire materials used extinguish fires chemical retardants water also result damage material culture water water primarily causes physical changes warping stains discoloration weakening inorganic organic materials ref name water ref water come natural sources flooding mechanical technological failures human error ref name water water damage organic


material may lead growth pests mold addition physical effects water directly object artwork moisture air directly affects relative humidity turn exacerbate deterioration damage light light causes cumulative irreversible damage light sensitive objects ref name nps ref energy light interacts objects molecular level lead physical chemical damage fading darkening yellowing embrittlement stiffening ref name nps ultraviolet radiation infrared radiation addition visible light emitted light sources


also damaging material culture cultural institutions tasked finding balance needing light patrons guests exposure collection amount light damaging variety objects artworks effects cumulative irreversible conservation science helped establish lux benchmark level light intensity allows human eye operate within full range visible light spectrum ref name light ref baseline many museums adjustments often needed based specific situations conservation science informed


industry levels light sensitivity common materials used material culture length time permissible deterioration likely occur ref name light control strategies must considered item item basis light ultraviolet thermometers infrared radiation tools used detect levels fall outside acceptable range ref name light lightning lightning strikes primary natural cause damage architectural heritage ancient buildings generally use timber high oil content pine ref name ref lightning strikes cause timber


building catch fire heat lightning arc ref name lightning also split wood cause damage building structurethe lightning current generate heat passing timber generate gas inside impact force formed instantaneous expansion gas knock wood damage pits cracks ref name stone decorations ancient buildings may also suffer physical damage lightning incorrect relative humidity relative humidity rh measure humidity water vapor content relation atmosphere ranges damp


damaging properties research field determined various ranges fluctuations incorrect humidity sensitivity various objects one helped establish guidelines proper environmental conditions specific objects question ref name relative humidity incorrect temperature material properties directly determine appropriate temperature needed preserve item incorrect temperatures whether high low fluctuating two cause varying levels deterioration objects ref name incorrect temperature ref temperatures high lead chemical physical damage embrittlement cracking fading disintegration high


temperatures also promote biological reactions like mold growth temperatures low also result physical damages embrittlement cracking ref name incorrect temperature temperature fluctuations cause materials expand contract rapidly causes stress build within material eventual deterioration time ref name nps ref pests pests include microorganisms insects rodents able disfigure damage destroy material culture ref name pests ref organic material inorganic material highly susceptible damage occur pests consuming burrowing excreting material ref name pests presence pests


result deterioration mechanisms incorrect temperature incorrect relative humidity presence water fumigation pesticides may also damaging certain materials requires careful consideration conservation science aided development thermal control methods eradicate pests ref name pests pollutants pollutants consist wide range compounds detrimental chemical reactions objects ref name pollutants ref pollutants gases aerosols liquids solids able reach objects transference objects dissipation air intrinsically part object 's makeup


potential cause adverse reactions material culture ref name pollutants conservation science aids identifying material pollutant properties types reactions occur reactions range discoloration stains acidification structural weakening ref name pollutants dust one common airborne pollutants presence attract pests well alter object 's surface ref name pollutants research field informs conservators properly manage damage occurs well means monitor control pollutant levels physical forces physical forces interaction object


changes current state motion physical forces cause range damage small cracks fissures complete destruction disintegration material ref name physical forces ref level damage dependent brittleness hardness object 's material magnitude force inflicted impact shock vibration pressure abrasion examples physical forces adverse effects material culture ref name physical forces physical forces occur natural disasters like earthquakes working forces like handling cumulative forces like gravity low level forces like building vibrations ref name physical forces


object 's risk assessment material properties object inform necessary steps ie building housing handling need take place mitigate effects physical forces theft vandalism theft removal asset vandalism deliberate destruction disfigurement asset directly controlled limited security measures put place cultural institution ref name theft vandalism ref conservation science aid authentication identification stolen objects addition research field help inform decisions best course


action repair minimize mitigate damage vandalism dissociation dissociation loss object associated data value due outside influence ref name dissociation ref adherence proper policies procedures best defense dissociation meticulous record keeping basis good practice conservation science aids authentication identification misplaced objects detailed records past present future study necessary prevention dissociation methods optical microscope used visually study small paint fragments mounted epoxy means


identifying paints used artists variety methods used conservation scientists support work fields art conservation architectural conservation cultural heritage care cultural objects museums collections addition use specialized equipment visual inspections often first step order look obvious signs damage decay infilling etc prior type scientific analysis detailed documentation initial state object justification proposed examinations required avoid unnecessary potentially damaging study keep


amount handling minimum ref name ref name processes stereomicroscopy reveal surface features weave parchment paper whether print done relief intaglio even kind tools artist may used create works ref name many different specialized generic tools used conservation science studies common listed scientific equipment ref name ref ref name race scanning electron microscopy sem ref name race ref name ref name able take high resolution high magnification micrographs


study structural surface features also may involve using energy dispersive x ray spectroscopy eds identify specific elements compounds present object electron backscatter diffraction ebsd provide better contrast within microscope order better visualize different phases materials compounds present identify composition help determine paint composition specific type paint used art works compounds may aid provenance queries allows scientists analyze whether object 's appearance merits preservation products deterioration decay ought removed cleaned prior


preservation destructive invasive method requires obtaining sample object artwork exposing x ray radiation x ray fluorescence spectroscopy xrf wooden painted portrait roman portrait mummy portable tool hooked rig allows pan left right scan entire surface portrait height also manually adjusted ensure focus maintained technique provides information paints used aids provenance compositional studies x ray fluorescence spectroscopy xrf ref name ref name ref identify elements


reflectance transformation imaging rti method surface imaging whereby location light source changed image object artwork illuminated variety directions non invasive method yields surface topography texture analyze surface features fourier transform infrared spectroscopy ftir ref name ref name method identifying materials works art based fact compound element specific combination atoms unique peak resultant spectra non invasive non destructive method chemical analysis requires small quantities


sample inconspicuous locations artworks objects common ir technique used obtain spectral information constructive destructive interference electromagnetic waves using interferometer ref name ref known excellent speed sensitivity resolution better light gathering power dispersive instruments wavelength precision accuracy ref name type material present deciding factor method appropriate study example organic materials likely destroyed exposed much radiation concern x ray electron based imaging conservation scientists may specialize specific materials


work closely conservators curators order determine appropriate analysis treatment methods references external links http wwwconservation usorg science american institute conservation historic artistic works aic research technical studies group http wwwseaha cdtacuk centre doctoral training science engineering arts heritage archaeology ucl university oxford university brighton http wwwmatscinorthwesternedu research areas art conservationhtml aic nu art conservation science http wwwmellonorg internet grant programs programs museums andrew w mellon foundation https webarchiveorg web http wwwcci iccgcca main easpx canadian conservation institute http wwwgettyedu conservation institute getty conservation institute http wwwuclacuk sustainableheritage mreshtml heritage science masters ucl centre sustainable heritage https webarchiveorg web http wwwicrbeniculturaliit istituto superiore per la conservazione e il restauro rome https wwwhttp wwwopificiodellepietredureit https webarchiveorg web http wwwuninet aec riskmap italianhtm italian


risk map cultural heritage https webarchiveorg web http wwwarchivesgov preservation internal indexhtml national archives records administration preservation programs conservation science cultural heritage peer reviewed open access journal university bologna http wwwia csit italian association conservation scientists http wwwheritagesciencejournalcom heritage science http wwwinvestigacionenconservaciones observatorio para la investigaci n en conservaci n del patrimonio https webarchiveorg web http wwwmecdgobes planes nacionales planes investigacion conservacionhtml plan nacional de investigaci n en conservaci n espa https iconorguk groups heritage science icon heritage science group http wwwheritagescienceforumorguk national heritage science forum cultural heritage applied sciences conservation restoration cultural heritage


'''marxian economics''' '''marxian school economics''' heterodox school political economic thought foundations traced back karl marx 's critique political economy however unlike critics political economy marxian economists tend accept concept economy reasonable object inquiry contrast engaged marxian critique political economy marxian economics comprises several different theories includes multiple schools thought sometimes opposed many cases marxian analysis used complement supplement economic approaches

Social science
Economics
Marxian economics


one necessarily politically marxist economically marxian two adjectives coexist usage rather synonymous share semantic field also allowing connotative denotative differences marxian economics concerns variously analysis crisis capitalism role distribution surplus product surplus value various types economic systems nature origin economic value impact class class struggle economic political processes process economic evolution marxian economics particularly academia distinguished marxism


political ideology well normative aspects marxist thought view marx 's original approach understanding economics economic development intellectually independent marx 's advocacy revolutionary socialism marxian economists lean entirely upon works marx widely known marxists draw range marxist non marxist sources although marxian school considered heterodox ideas come marxian economics contributed mainstream understanding global economy certain concepts developed marxian economics especially related capital accumulation business cycle