psychoanalysis'' looks evidence physical mechanisms human brain nervous system suggests direct link unconscious desire pain punishment impulse commit crime deviant acts ref name ref symbolic interactionism symbolic interactionism draws phenomenology edmund husserl george herbert mead well subcultural theory conflict theory school thought focused relationship state media conservative ruling elite less powerful groups powerful groups ability become significant less powerful


groups' processes generating meaning former could extent impose meanings latter therefore able label minor delinquent youngsters criminal youngsters would often take label board indulge crime readily become actors self fulfilling prophecy powerful groups later developments set theories howard becker edwin lemert mid th century stanley cohen developed concept moral panic describing societal reaction spectacular alarming social phenomena eg post world war youth cultures like mods rockers


deviancy thought stigmatization lead deviancy amplification malcolm klein conducted test showed labeling theory affected youth offenders others traitor theory side spectrum criminologist lonnie athens developed theory process brutalization parents peers usually occurs childhood results violent crimes adulthood richard rhodes' ''why kill'' describes athens' observations domestic societal violence criminals' backgrounds athens rhodes reject genetic inheritance theories rational choice theory cesare beccaria rational


choice theory based utilitarian classical school philosophies cesare beccaria popularized jeremy bentham argued punishment certain swift proportionate crime deterrent crime risks outweighing possible benefits offender ''dei delitti e delle pene'' crimes punishments beccaria advocated rational penology beccaria conceived punishment necessary application law crime thus judge simply confirm sentence law beccaria also distinguished crime sin advocated


death penalty well torture inhumane treatments consider rational deterrents philosophy replaced positivist chicago schools revived writings james q wilson gary becker 's article ''crime punishment'' george stigler 's article ''the optimum enforcement laws'' rational choice theory argues criminals like people weigh costs risks benefits deciding whether commit crime think economic terms ref name cornish ref also try minimize risks crime considering time place


supermarket 's products stolen would easy reduce rate quite easy reduce difficult reduce nearly impossible reduce zero feat measures required would cost supermarket much would outweigh benefits reveals goals utilitarianism classical liberalism tempered reduced modest proposals practically applicable rational choice theories linked neoliberalism basics crime prevention environmental design underpin market


reduction approach theft mike sutton systematic toolkit seeking focus attention crime facilitators tackling markets stolen goods provide motivation thieves supply theft routine activity theory routine activity theory developed marcus felson lawrence cohen draws upon control theories explains crime terms crime opportunities occur everyday life crime opportunity requires elements converge time place including motivated offender suitable target victim lack capable guardian ref name cohen ref guardian place


street could include security guards even ordinary pedestrians would witness criminal act possibly intervene report law enforcement ref name cohen routine activity theory expanded john eck added fourth element place manager rental property managers take nuisance abatement measures biosocial theory biosocial criminology interdisciplinary field aims explain crime antisocial behavior exploring biological factors environmental factors contemporary criminology dominated sociological theories biosocial criminology also recognizes potential contributions fields


marxist perspective crime defiance normal sense men consciously involved assuring human diversity thus marxists criminologists argued support society facts human diversity social personal would criminalized attributed processes crime creation genetic psychological facts rather material basis given society state crime distinct field crimes studied marxist criminology crimes known costly society


terms overall harm injury supplying us causalities genocides environmental degradation war crimes occur contempt fellow man crimes power continue systems control hegemony allow state crime state corporate crime along state corporate non profit criminals continue governing people convict convict criminology school thought realm criminology convict criminologists directly affected criminal justice system oftentimes spent years inside prison system researchers field convict criminology john irwin


lacks wide berth research available hand could argued subject highly valuable highlighting lgbt individuals affected criminal justice system research also opportunity queer curriculum criminology educational institutions shifting focus controlling monitoring lgbt communities liberating protecting cultural cultural criminology views crime control within context culture ref name ref ref name ref ferrell believes criminologists examine actions criminals control agents media producers others construct meaning


crime ref name discusses actions means show dominant role culture ref name kane adds cultural criminology three tropes village city street media males geographically influenced society 's views broadcast accepted right wrong ref name ref village one engages available social activities linking history individual location help determine social dynamics ref name city street involves positioning oneself cultural area full affected poverty poor health


crime large buildings impact city neighborhoods ref name mass media gives around account environment possible subcultures could exist beyond specific geographical area ref name later naegler salman introduced feminist theory cultural criminology discussed masculinity femininity sexual attraction sexuality intersectional themes ref name ref naegler salman believed ferrell 's mold limited could add understanding cultural criminology studying women fit ferrell 's mold ref name hayward would later


add feminist theory green theory well played role cultural criminology theory lens adrenaline soft city transgressive subject attentive gaze ref name adrenaline lens deals rational choice causes person terms availability opportunity low levels social control ref name soft city lens deals reality outside city imaginary sense reality world transgression occurs rigidity slanted rules bent ref name transgressive subject


refers person attracted rule breaking attempting world everyone ref name attentive gaze someone mainly ethnographer immersed culture interested lifestyle symbolic aesthetic visual aspects examined left knowledge come settlement living together space ref name sociological perspective cultural criminology theory attempts understand environment individual determines


criminal behavior ref name relative deprivation relative deprivation involves process individual measures well materialistic worth people perceive worse comparison humans fail obtain believe owed experience anger jealousy notion wrongly disadvantaged relative deprivation originally utilized field sociology samuel stouffer pioneer theory stouffer revealed soldiers fighting world war ii measured personal success experience


units rather standards set military relative deprivation made societal political economic personal factors create sense injustice based absolute poverty condition one cannot meet necessary level maintain basic living standards rather relative deprivation enforces idea even person financially stable still feel relatively deprived perception relatively deprived result criminal behavior morally problematic decisions relative deprivation theory increasingly used partially explain crime


rising living standards result rising crime levels criminology theory relative deprivation explains people feel jealous discontent others might turn crime acquire things afford rural rural criminology study crime trends outside metropolitan suburban areas rural criminologists used social disorganization routine activity theories fbi uniform crime report shows rural communities significantly different crime trends opposed metropolitan suburban areas crime rural communities consists predominantly narcotic related crimes


production use trafficking narcotics social disorganization theory used examine trends involving narcotics social disorganization leads narcotic use rural areas low educational opportunities high unemployment rates routine activity theory used examine low level street crimes theft ref name stallwitz stallwitz community mindedness protection crime context illicit drug cultures international journal rural criminology ref much crime rural areas explained routine activity theory often lack capable guardians rural areas


public public criminology strand within criminology closely tied ideas associated public sociology focused disseminating criminological insights broader audience academia advocates public criminology argue criminologists conducting disseminating research crime law deviance dialogue affected communities goal academics researchers criminology provide research public order inform public decisions policymaking allows criminologists avoid constraints traditional criminological research public criminology takes many forms including media policy advising


statutes enacted legislatures reflect current cultural mores albeit laws may controversial eg laws prohibit cannabis use gambling marxist criminology conflict criminology critical criminology claim relationships state citizen non consensual criminal law necessarily representative public beliefs wishes exercised interests ruling dominant class right wing criminologies tend posit consensual social contract state citizen therefore definitions crimes vary place place accordance


behavior criminal careers desistance domestic violence deviant behavior evaluation criminal justice agencies fear crime international crime victims survey juvenile delinquency penology sociology law victimology see also anthropological criminology crime science forensic psychology forensic science list criminologists social cohesion ''the mask sanity'' taboo public criminology qualitative research criminology quantitative methods criminology references notes bibliography agnew robert ''why criminals offend general theory crime delinquency'' new york oxford university press barak gregg ed ''integrative criminology'' international library criminology criminal justice penology aldershot


ashgate dartmouth beccaria cesare ''dei delitti e delle pene'' blatier catherine specialized jurisdiction better chance minors ''international journal law policy family'' pp nbsp bouchard jean pierre criminology considered discipline right ''l'evolution psychiatrique '' briar piliavin delinquency situational inducements commitment conformity ''social problems'' clear r ''imprisoning communities mass incarceration makes disadvantaged neighborhoods worse'' oxford oxford university press cohen k sociology deviant act anomie theory beyond ''american sociological review''


horning et al https wwwresearchgatenet publication risky business harlem pimps work decisions economic returns risky business harlem pimps' work decisions economic returns ''deviant behavior '' jaishankar k ronel n https wwwroutledgecom global criminology crime victimization globalized era jaishankar ronel p book ''global criminology crime victimization globalized era'' boca raton florida crc press taylor francis group katz j ''seductions crime moral sensual attractions evil'' new york basic books pettit philip braithwaite john ''not deserts republican theory criminal justice'' new york oxford university press see https wwwjstororg stable republican criminology victim advocacy comment article concerning book ''law society


review'' vol pp nbsp pontell henry black w k geis g big fail powerful jail absence criminal prosecutions financial meltdown ''crime law social change '' sampson robert j ''great american city chicago enduring neighborhood effect'' chicago university chicago press wikibooks introduction sociology wolff kevin baglivio https journalssagepubcom doi full adverse childhood experiences negative emotionality pathways juvenile recidivism ''crime delinquency '' external links behavioural sciences forensic psychology interdisciplinary subfields sociology neologisms


'''human services''' interdisciplinary field study objective meeting human needs applied knowledge base focusing prevention well remediation problems maintaining commitment improving overall quality life service populations process involves study social technologies practice methods models theories service technologies programs organizations systems scientific innovations designed ameliorate problems enhance quality life individuals families communities improve delivery service better coordination accessibility accountability ref name herzberg ref mission human services

Applied science
Social work 2
Human Services


promote practice involves simultaneously working levels society whole person approach process promoting autonomy individuals groups making informal formal human services systems efficient effective advocating positive social change within society human services practitioners strive advance autonomy service users civic engagement education health promotion social change levels society practitioners also engage advocating human systems remain accessible integrated efficient effective human services academic programs readily found colleges universities award degrees


associate baccalaureate graduate levels human services programs exist countries around world history united states human services roots charitable activities religious civic organizations date back colonial period however academic discipline human services start time group college academics started new human services movement began promote adoption new ideology human service delivery professionalism among traditional helping disciplines ref name chenault burnford ref movement 's major goal make service delivery efficient


effective humane goals dealt reeducation traditional helping professionals greater appreciation individual whole person humanistic psychology accountable communities serve postmodernism furthermore professionals would learn take responsibility levels government use systems approaches consider human problems improvements involved progressive social change traditional academic programs education nursing social work law medicine resistant new human services movement 's ideology appeared challenge professional status changing traditional concept professionalism


involved rethinking consumer control distribution power new movement also called human service professionals work social change proposed reduction monopolistic control professionals could result individual knowledge would lead professionals advocating behalf clients communities professional establishments movement also hoped human service delivery systems would become integrated comprehensive accessible would make humane service users ref name baker ref ultimately resistance traditional helping professions served impetus group educators higher education


start new academic discipline human services maintain human services discipline concrete identity profession supplements complements traditional professions yet professionals scholars agreed upon authoritative definition human services academic programs united states development chenault burnford argued human services programs must educate train students graduate postgraduate level human services hoped considered proper professional discipline ref name chenault burnford progressive graduate human services program established audrey cohen considered


innovative educator time audrey cohen college human services called metropolitan college new york offered one first graduate programs ref name grant ref time period springfield college massachusetts became major force preserving human services academic discipline currently springfield college one oldest largest human services program united states manpower studies shown would shortage helping professionals array service delivery areas ref name cohen cohen ref ref name kadish kadish ref ref name mcpheeters ref turn


educators proposed training nonprofessionals eg mental health technicians could bridge looming personnel shortage ref name mcpheeters ref name true ref one earliest educational initiatives develop undergraduate curricula undertaken southern regional education board sreb funded national institute health professionals sreb undergraduate social welfare manpower project helped colleges develop new social welfare programs later became known human services ref name mcpheetersryan ref believed community college human services programs expedient way train paraprofessionals direct service jobs areas mental health ref name true currently


name true limitations upward mobility within social service agencies lacked graduate professional degree ref name grant current programs currently academic programs human services associate baccalaureate graduate levels approximately human services programs throughout united states online directory human services programs lists many programs state state conjunction accreditation status council standards human services education cshse cshse offers accreditation human services programs higher education accreditation process voluntary


labor intensive designed assure quality consistency relevance human service education research based standards peer review process according cshse 's webpage accredited human services programs united states standards level degree accredited cshse obtained clicking following links http wwwcshseorg pdfs standards associatepdf national standards associate degree human services http wwwcshseorg pdfs standards baccalaureatepdf national standards baccalaureate degree human services http wwwcshseorg pdfs standards masterspdf national standards masters degree human services human services curricula based interdisciplinary knowledge


topics deal direct service issues case management ref name herzberg organizational change management human service organizations ref name kettner ref advocacy ref name martin ref community organizing community development social welfare policy service integration multiculturalism integration technology poverty issues social justice development ref name dustin ref social change strategies certification continuing education united states center credentialing education cce conceptualized human services board certified practitioner hs bcp credential assistance national organization human services nohs council standards human service education cshse credential created human services practitioners seeking advance careers acquiring


independent verification practical knowledge educational background ref name examhsbcp ref graduates human services programs obtain human services board certified practitioner hs bcp credential offered center credentialing education cce hs bcp certification ensures human services practitioners offer quality services competent service providers committed high standards adhere nohs ''ethical standards human service professionals'' well help solidify professional identity human services practitioners hs bcpe experience requirements certification hs bcp applicants must meet post graduation experience requirements eligible take examination however graduates


cshse accredited degree program may sit hs bcp exam without verifying human services work experience otherwise experience requirements candidates cshse accredited program follows associate degree post degree experience requires three years including minimum hours bachelor 's degree post degree experience requires two years including minimum hours master 's doctorate post degree experience requires one year including minimum hours ref name examhsbcp hs bcp exam designed verify candidate 's human services knowledge exam created collaborative effort


human services subject matter experts normed population professionals field hs bcp exam covers following areas assessment treatment planning outcome evaluation theoretical orientation interventions case management professional practice ethics administration program development evaluation supervision employment outlook united states currently three major employment roles played human services graduates include providing direct service performing administrative work working community according occupational outlook handbook published us department labor employment human service assistants anticipated grow


faster average occupations also excellent job opportunities individuals post secondary degrees salaries remain low might reflect employers' lack understanding human services profession professional organizations north america several different professional human services organizations professionals educators students join across north america united states national organization human services nohs professional organization open educators professionals students interested current issues field human services nohs sponsors annual conference different parts united states addition


four independent human services regional organizations mid atlantic consortium human services b midwest organization human services c new england organization human service northwest human services association regional organizations also open educators professionals students regional organization annual conference different locations throughout region universities institutions human services special interest groups also exist within american society public administration aspa american educational research association aera aspa subsection named section health human services administration


purpose foster development knowledge understanding practice fields health human services administration foster professional growth communication among academics practitioners fields fields health human services administration share common unique focus improving quality life client centered policies service transactions aera special interest group named education health human service linkages purpose create community researchers practitioners interested developing knowledge comprehensive school health school linked services initiatives support


advocacy education action research organization advancement health equity progressive education social innovation institute collaborates researchers field practitioners community organizations socially conscious companies along various levels government educational institutions ensure canadian health human services sector remains accountable greater good canadian civil society rather short term professional business economic gains see also references reading brager g holloway ''changing human services organizations political practice'' new york ny free press bronfenbrenner u ''making human beings human biological perspectives human development'' thousand oaks


ca sage publications cimbala pa miller rm ''the freedman 's bureau reconstruction'' new york ny fordham university press colman p ''breaking chains crusade dorothea lynde dix'' new york ny asja press de tocqueville ''democracy america'' g lawrence trans new york ny harper perennial modern classic original work published friedman l j giving caring early america lj friedman md mcgarvie ''charity philanthropy civility american history'' pp nbsp cambridge uk cambridge university press hasenfeld ''the nature human service organizations'' hasenfeld


male military commander archibald maclaren opened gymnasium university oxford england instituted training regimen non commissioned officers officer major frederick hammersley university regimen assimilated training british army formed army gymnastic staff made sport important part military life united states first inter service sports council issc meeting held today armed forces sports us run department defense since foundation

Applied science
Military sciences
Organization
Military sports


purpose international military sports council imsc ''conseil international du sport militarie'' cism organize structure body would adapt serve physical training different branches armed forces sports disciplines recognized cism exclusively military sports pxaeronautical pentathlon sup sup pxbasketball pxboxing pxcross country running pxcycling cyclo cross mountain biking road pxequestrian dressage endurance eventing jumping pxfencing pxfootball pxgolf pxhandball pxjudo pxmarathon pxmilitary pentathlon sup sup pxmodern pentathlon pxnaval pentathlon sup sup pxorienteering pxparachuting accuracy landing formation skydiving pxsailing pxshooting pxskiing alpine biathlon cross country mountaineering orienteering patrol pxswimming


includes pxlifesaving pxtaekwondo pxtrack field pxtriathlon pxvolleyball indoor pxbeach pxwrestling pxshort track speed skating pxsport climbing also contested cism world winter games small notes sup sup mdash purely military sport small see also history physical training fitness international military sports council invictus games military world games tank biathlon warrior games world military championships references external links sports type


sectional view igniter model grenade '''military technology''' application technology use warfare comprises kinds technology distinctly military nature civilian application usually lack useful legal civilian applications dangerous use without appropriate military training line porous military inventions brought civilian use throughout history sometimes minor modification civilian innovations similarly put military use military technology often researched developed scientists engineers specifically

Applied science
Military sciences
Military weapons


use battle armed forces many new technologies came result military funding science '''armament engineering''' design development testing lifecycle management military weapons systems draws knowledge several traditional engineering disciplines including mechanical engineering electrical engineering mechatronics electro optics aerospace engineering materials engineering chemical engineering history section divided broad cultural developments affected military technology ancient technology first use stone tools may begun paleolithic period earliest stone tools site lomekwi turkana dating


million years ago stone tools diversified pleistocene period ended years ago ref name primitive ref earliest evidence warfare two groups recorded site nataruk turkana kenya human skeletons major traumatic injuries head neck ribs knees hands including embedded obsidian bladelet skull evidence inter group conflict groups nomadic hunter gatherers years ago humans entered bronze age learned smelt copper alloy tin make weapons asia copper tin ores rare development


delayed trading bronze began third millennium bce middle east southern european regions bronze age follows neolithic period parts world copper age transition neolithic bronze age although iron age generally follows bronze age areas iron age intrudes directly neolithic outside region exception sub saharan africa developed independently first large scale use iron weapons began asia minor around th century bce central


europe around th century bce followed middle east bce india china ref name tucker ref assyrians credited introduction horse cavalry warfare extensive use iron weapons bce assyrians also first use iron tipped arrows ref name tucker post classical technology illustration trebuchet catapult described ''wujing zongyao'' ''wujing zongyao'' ''essentials military arts'' written zeng gongliang ding du others order emperor renzong around song dynasty illustrate eras focus


advancing intellectual issues military technology due significance warfare song liao jin yuan north book covers topics military strategy training production employment advanced weaponry ref name teacher ref chinese flamethrower ''wujing zongyao'' manuscript ce song dynasty advances military technology aided song dynasty defense hostile neighbors north flamethrower found origins byzantine era greece employing greek fire chemically complex highly flammable petrol fluid device siphon hose


th century ref name pingyu ref earliest reference greek fire china made written wu renchen ''spring autumn annals ten kingdoms'' ref name pingyu siphon projector pump used spread 'fierce fire oil' could doused water recorded lin yu hence first credible chinese reference flamethrower employing chemical solution greek fire see also pen huo qi ref name pingyu lin yu mentioned also 'fierce fire oil' derived ultimately one china 's maritime contacts


'southern seas' arabia ref name pingyu battle langshan jiang naval fleet wenmu king wuyue defeated huainan army wu state wenmu 's success facilitated use 'fire oil' 'huoyou' burn fleet signifying first chinese use gunpowder battle ref name pingyu chinese applied use double piston bellows pump petrol single cylinder upstroke downstroke lit end slow burning gunpowder match fire continuous stream flame ref name pingyu device featured


description illustration ''wujing zongyao'' military manuscript ref name pingyu suppression southern tang state early song naval forces confronted yangtze river southern tang forces attempted use flamethrowers song navy accidentally consumed fire violent winds swept direction ref name pingyu although destructive effects gunpowder described earlier tang dynasty daoist alchemist earliest developments gun barrel projectile fire cannon found late song china first art depiction


chinese 'fire lance' combination temporary fire flamethrower gun buddhist mural painting dunhuang dated circa ref name needham volume part needham volume part ref 'fire lances' widespread use early th century featuring hollowed bamboo poles tubes fire sand particles blind choke lead pellets bits sharp metal pottery shards finally large gunpowder propelled arrows rocket weaponry ref name pingyu eventually perishable bamboo replaced hollow tubes cast iron terminology new


chinese heilongjiang excavation dated ref name pingyu chinese also discovered explosive potential packing hollowed cannonball shells gunpowder written later jiao yu ''huolongjing'' mid th century manuscript recorded earlier song era cast iron cannon known 'flying cloud thunderclap eruptor' fei yun pi li pao manuscript stated noted change terminology new weapons song period gradual early song cannons first termed way chinese trebuchet catapult later ming dynasty scholar known mao yuanyi would explain use


terminology true origins cannon text ''wubei zhi'' written th century ''huolongjing'' also one first chinese texts carefully describe use explosive land mines used late song chinese mongols employed yuan dynasty afterwards innovation detonated land mine accredited one luo qianxia campaign defense mongol invasion kublai khan ref name pingyu later chinese texts revealed chinese land mine employed either rip cord


motion booby trap pin releasing falling weights rotated steel flint wheel turn created sparks ignited train fuses land mines ref name pingyu furthermore song employed earliest known gunpowder propelled rockets warfare late th century ref name pingyu earliest form archaic fire arrow northern song capital kaifeng fell jurchens written xia shaozeng fire arrows handed jurchens conquest even earlier chinese text ''wujing


zongyao'' collection important military techniques written song scholars zeng kongliang yang weide described use three spring triple bow arcuballista fired arrow bolts holding gunpowder packets near head arrow ref name pingyu going back yet even farther second edition fang yizhi stated fire arrows presented emperor taizu song r ref name partington ref modern technology armies bronze dardanelles gun display fort nelson hampshire similar cannons used ottoman turks


siege constantinople work times india date april ref islamic gunpowder empires introduced numerous developed firearms cannon small arms period proto industrialization newly invented weapons seen used mughal india rapid development military technology dramatic impact armies navies industrialized world land warfare cavalry faded importance infantry became transformed use highly accurate rapidly loading rifles use smokeless powder machine guns developed europe rocket artillery mysorean rockets


pioneered indian muslim tipu sultan became powerful new high explosives based nitroglycerin arrived anglo mysore wars french introduced much accurate rapid fire field artillery logistics communications support land warfare dramatically improved use railways telegraphs industrialization provided base factories could converted produce munitions well uniforms tents wagons essential supplies medical facilities enlarged reorganized based improved hospitals creation modern nursing typified florence nightingale britain crimean war naval


naval warfare transformed many innovations notably coal based steam engine highly accurate long range naval guns heavy steel armour battleships mines introduction torpedo followed torpedo boat destroyer coal eventually displaced efficient oil meanwhile navies international scope depend network coaling stations refuel british empire provided abundance french empire lesser extent war colleges developed military theory became specialty cadets senior commanders taught theories


jomini clausewitz mahan engaged tabletop war games around entirely new innovations submarines airplanes appeared quickly adapted warfare british hms ''dreadnought'' incorporated much latest technology weapons propulsion armour stroke made battleships obsolescent organization finance new financial tools developed fund rapidly increasing costs warfare popular bond sales income taxes funding permanent research centers many th century innovations largely invented promoted lone


orbit stimulated space research started space race ussr launched first artificial satellite ''sputnik '' end countries regularly deployed satellites spy satellites used militaries take accurate pictures rivals' military installations time passed resolution accuracy orbital reconnaissance alarmed sides iron curtain united states soviet union began develop anti satellite weapons blind destroy 's satellites laser weapons kamikaze style satellites well orbital nuclear explosion researched


days order cover large distances ballistic missiles usually launched sub orbital spaceflight test lg peacekeeper missile one could carry independently targeted nuclear warheads along trajectories outside earth 's atmosphere soon intercontinental missiles developed military planners began programmes strategies counter effectiveness mobilization significant portion military technology transportation allowing troops weaponry moved origins front land transport historically mainly foot land vehicles usually used well chariots


tanks conducting battle body water ships used historically two main categories ships transporting troops attacking ships soon invention aeroplanes military aviation became significant component warfare though usually supplementary role two main types military aircraft bombers attack land sea based targets fighters attack aircraft '''military vehicles''' land combat transportation vehicles excluding rail based designed significant use military forces list military vehicles list armoured


size age great wall china sangar list fortifications list forts sensors communication sensors communication systems used detect enemies coordinate movements armed forces guide weaponry early systems included flag signaling telegraph heliographs laser guidance missile guidance norden bombsight proximity fuse radar satellite guidance guidance weapons future technology high resolution computer drawing atlas robot designed boston dynamics darpa seen behind defense advanced research projects agency agency united states department defense responsible


development new technologies use military darpa leads development military technology united states today dozens ongoing projects everything humanoid robots bullets able change path reaching target china similar agency emerging territory current militaries continue invest new technologies future technologies include cognitive radar g cellular networks microchips semiconductors large scale analytic engines additionally many militaries seek improve current laser technology example israeli defense forces utilize laser technology disable small enemy machinery


seek move large scale capabilities coming years militaries across world continue perform research autonomous technologies allow increased troop mobility replacement live soldiers ref name ref autonomous vehicles robots expected play role future conflicts ref name potential decrease loss life future warfare observers transhumanism note high rates technological terms military literature low rates explicitly transhuman related terms today 's hybrid style warfare also calls investments information technologies increased reliance computer systems


incentivized nations push increased efforts managing large scale networks access large scale data new strategies cyber hybrid warfare includes network attacks media analysis media grass roots campaigns medias blog posts cyberspace us defense department declared cyberspace new domain warfare since darpa begun research project known project x goal creating new technologies enable government better understand map cyber territory ultimately giving department defense ability plan manage


large scale cyber missions across dynamic network environments ref name pellerin ref see also list military inventions list emerging military technologies ''bellifortis'' late medieval treatise military technology materiel references reading andrade tonio ''the gunpowder age china military innovation rise west world history'' princeton black jeremy ''tools war '' covers major inventions https wwwamazoncom tools war jeremy black dp excerpt boot max ''war made new technology warfare course history today'' penguin dupuy trevor n ''the evolution weapons warfare'' pp cover bc late th century ellis john


storing retrieving manipulating communicating information since sumerians mesopotamia developed writing nbsp bc ref name butler ref however term ''information technology'' modern sense first appeared article published ''harvard business review'' authors harold j leavitt thomas l whisler commented new technology yet single established name shall call information technology definition consists three categories techniques processing application statistical mathematical methods decision making simulation higher order thinking computer programs ref name leavittwhisler ref term commonly used

Applied science
Business
Information technology


synonym computers computer networks also encompasses information distribution technologies television telephones several products services within economy associated information technology including computer hardware software electronics semiconductors internet telecom equipment e commerce ref name dmc ref based storage processing technologies employed possible distinguish four distinct phases development pre mechanical bc ad mechanical electromechanical electronic present ref name butler article focuses recent period electronic history computer technology zuse z replica display deutsches


first mechanical calculator capable performing four basic arithmetical operations developed electronic computers using either relays valves began appear early electromechanical zuse z completed world 's first programmable computer modern standards one first machines could considered complete computing machine second world war colossus developed first electronic digital computer decrypt german messages although programmable general purpose designed perform single task also lacked ability store program


memory programming carried using plugs switches alter internal wiring first recognizably modern electronic digital stored program computer manchester baby ran first program june ref name enticknap ref development transistors late bell laboratories allowed new generation computers designed greatly reduced power consumption first commercially available stored program computer ferranti mark contained valves power consumption kilowatts comparison first transistorized computer developed university manchester operational november


tube ref name resurrection ref information stored delay line memory volatile continuously refreshed thus lost power removed earliest form non volatile computer storage magnetic drum invented ref name magdrum ref used ferranti mark world 's first commercially available general purpose electronic computer ref name digital mm ref ibm introduced first hard disk drive component ramac computer system digital data today still stored magnetically hard disks optically media cd roms information


stored analog devices year digital storage capacity exceeded analog first time almost data stored worldwide held digitally ref name uscnews ref hard disks optical devices digital magnetic tape estimated worldwide capacity store information electronic devices grew less nbsp exabytes nbsp exabytes ref name hilbertlopez ref doubling roughly every nbsp years ref name hilbertvideo ref databases database management systems dms emerged address problem storing retrieving large amounts data accurately quickly


early system ibm 's information management system ims still widely deployed years later ref name ims ref ims stores data hierarchically ted codd proposed alternative relational storage model based set theory predicate logic familiar concepts tables rows columns first commercially available relational database management system rdbms released oracle dms consist components allow data store accessed simultaneously many users maintaining integrity databases common one point structure


located alexandria virginia government kept storage punched cards data transmission three aspects transmission propagation reception broadly categorized broadcasting information transmitted unidirectionally downstream telecommunications bidirectional upstream downstream channels xml increasingly employed means data interchange since early particularly machine oriented interactions involved web oriented protocols soap describing data transit rather data rest data manipulation hilbert lopez identify exponential pace technological change kind moore 's law machines' application specific


capacity compute information per capita roughly doubled every nbsp months per capita capacity world 's general purpose computers doubled every nbsp months two decades global telecommunication capacity per capita doubled every months world 's storage capacity per capita required roughly months double every years per capita broadcast information doubled every nbsp years massive amounts data stored worldwide every day unless analyzed presented effectively essentially resides called data tombs data archives seldom visited


address issue field data mining nbsp process discovering interesting patterns knowledge large amounts data nbsp emerged late perspectives academic perspective academic context association computing machinery defines undergraduate degree programs prepare students meet computer technology needs business government healthcare schools kinds organizations nbsp specialists assume responsibility selecting hardware software products appropriate organization integrating products organizational needs infrastructure installing customizing maintaining applications organization computer users ref name curricula joint task


force computing curricula http wwwacmorg education curric vols cc march finalpdf computing curricula overview report ref undergraduate degrees bs similar computer science degrees fact often times foundational level courses computer science cs programs tend focus theory design whereas information technology programs structured equip graduate expertise practical application technology solutions support modern business user needs commercial employment perspective companies information technology field often discussed group tech sector tech industry


usually seen cost business departments allocated funds senior leadership must attempt achieve desired deliverables staying within budget government private sector might different funding mechanisms principles less often overlooked reason rapid interest automation artificial intelligence constant pressure less opening door automation take control least minor operations large companies many companies departments managing


computers networks technical areas businesses companies also sought integrate business outcomes decision making bizops business operations department business context information technology association america defined information technology study design development application implementation support management computer based information systems responsibilities working field include network administration software development installation planning management organization 's technology life cycle hardware software maintained upgraded replaced information services information services term


perspectives field information ethics established mathematician norbert wiener ethical issues associated use information technology include breaches copyright downloading files stored without permission copyright holders employers monitoring employees' emails internet usage unsolicited emails hackers accessing online databases web sites installing cookies spyware monitor user 's online activities may used data brokers see also center minorities people disabilities information technology computing computer science data processing health information technology information communications


technology ict information management ''journal cases information technology'' knowledge society list largest technology companies revenue operational technology outline information technology world information technology services alliance references notes citations bibliography reading gitta cosmas south david '' https booksgooglecom booksid q yse bgc southern innovator magazine issue mobile phones information technology '' united nations office south south cooperation issn gleick james ''the information history theory flood'' new york pantheon books shelly gary cashman thomas vermaat misty walker tim ''discovering computers concepts connected world'' cambridge massachusetts


records significant elements library portal normally include metasearching tools browsable interfaces online reference help aid discovery process ref name maloneybracke links full text articles openurl interlibrary loan ill document delivery material library citation management software user preferences services knowledge management tools recently focus discovery goal led even difficulties defining library portal terms discovery tools discovery services next generation discovery tool next generation opac often used interchangeably current market focus discovery tools led

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Library portal


increased competitors discovery services market competitors existed library portal market also shifted focus particular function list competitors current library portal market recently awarded contracts various libraries entire portal include axiell arena contract university g vle axiell calm contract denmark 's roskilde libraries archive management bibis library portal contract roc mondriaan hague well library central bank netherlands library


provincie zuid holland south holland dutch law firm ploum lodder princen exlibris primo contract hesburgh libraries notre dame ''library technology'' refers discovery delivery solution library portal metalib library portal exlibris contract nasa 's johnson space center contrast following list highlights contracts signed libraries specific discovery service tools mostly recent dates eosweb opac discovery eos international unclear eos services purchased clients benefits eosweb opac discovery grew significantly recently eos international signed


ill agreement new york law institute allow eos clients easily request nyli union catalog items eosweb opac eos international 's press releases specify service purchased mention names new clients summon serials solutions contract university texas austin libraries university connecticut libraries university illinois chicago library california state university system syracuse university library university north carolina chapel hill library lund university libraries helmut schmidt university peking university university free state cornell university library brown university library kyushu


university library ex libris primo sfx openurl contract online dakota information network library technology march silesian university technology poland ebsco discovery service contract seton hall university massey university library new zealand warsaw university poland bielefeld university germany biblioth que nationale de france challenges building portal library one challenges discussed morgan communication building portal requires consensus regards included ref name morgan ref another challenge ensuring user centered design portal involves conducting surveys focus group interviews usability studies


seen time consuming ref name morgan additionally compatibility hosting institution critical ref name morgan finally question whether library go open source software commercial products always point contention standards accepted standards library portals standards literature general search retrieval standards including z zing z international next generation open archives initiative protocol metadata harvesting openurl ref name maloneybracke result lack standards since customization


required library portal individual institutions decide expect portal look like services provide example harvard university currently conducting library portal project begin implementation summer identified list criteria naturally differs substantially needs institutions various general areas committee looked include content user experience features capabilities infrastructure security search discovery uncertain areas selected part phase


implementation portal relationship opacs library portals online public access catalog opac basic module part library 's integrated library system earlier opac limited searching physical texts sometimes digital copies limited special features caplan argues process replacement newer discovery tools allowing customization yang hofmann suggest vendors see money building either separate discovery tools next generation opacs purchased add feature ref name yanghofmann ref problem vocabulary arises yang wagner


yang hofmann refer discovery tools many names including stand alone opac discovery layer next generation catalog sic ref name yanghofmann contrasts bair boston garrison differentiate next generation catalogues web scale discovery services despite confusion clear opac currently stands outdated replaced modern user friendly tools next generation opac described yang hofmann ideally following features although features currently available single discovery product ref name yanghofmann single point entry library resources


'''pharmacocybernetics''' also known '''pharma cybernetics''' '''cybernetic pharmacy''' '''cyberpharmacy''' upcoming field describes science supporting drugs medications use application evaluation informatics internet technologies improve pharmaceutical care patients ref name yap pharmaco cybernetics interactive component pharma culture ref interdisciplinary field integrates domains medicine pharmacy computer sciences informatics cybernetics interactive digital media human computer environment interactions psychological sciences design develop apply evaluate technological innovations improve drugs medications management well prevent solve drug related problems terminology pharmaco

Applied science
Medicine and health
Pharmaceutical sciences
Pharmacocybernetics


originates greek word pharmakon means drugs poisons ref name stedmans medical dictionary stedman tl stedman 's medical dictionary th ed baltimore maryland lippincott williams wilkins ref cybernetics originates greek word kubernetes means art steering ref name pangago getting started guide cybernetics pangaro p getting started guide cybernetics available http pangarocom published cyber macmillanhtml ref norbert wiener first defined cybernetics science study control communication animal machine ref name pangago getting started guide cybernetics ref name asc foundations subject cybernetics american society cybernetics foundations subject cybernetics defining 'cybernetics' available


http wwwasc cyberneticsorg foundations definitionshtm ref since american society cybernetics described field design discovery application principles regulation communication ref name asc foundations subject cybernetics cybernetics applied many fields anthropology sociology systems theory psychology biology computer science engineering defining characteristic cybernetic system relationship endogenous goals external environment ref name corning synergy cybernetics evolution politics ref cybernetics applied healthcare means setting positive outcome goals patients satisfied


plastic surgeries ref name psycho cybernetics author 'psycho cybernetics' author https pqasbpqarchivercom latimes access htmldids fmt abs fmts abs ai type historic date nov c author pub los angeles times current file edition startpage b desc psycho cybernetics author plastic surgeon tries heal 'inner scars' los angeles times november sect part b ref emergence new cybernetics second order cybernetics expanded concept include interactions cybernetic systems people interacting well society whole ref name geyer challenge sociocybernetics ref cybernetics also includes concept cyberspace described science fiction author william gibson virtual representation information varying states accessibility linked various people organizations book neuromancer ref


anything associated computers informatics internet technologies also user experiences interactions technologies context increased popularity informatics internet technologies healthcare led development various software tools applications healthcare professionals patients improve pharmaceutical care health related outcomes pharmacoinformatics pharmacy informatics field within e health targets drug related problems use informatics internet technologies ref name yap improving pharmaceutical care oncology pharmacoinformatics ref pharmacocybernetics goes one step merging science technology human computer environment interactions technological innovations


designed developed applied evaluated relation supporting medicines drugs use well reduce prevent drug related problems pharmacocybernetic approaches target patient care safety take account flow information knowledge users cybernetic systems environment actions taken users achieve goals user interactivity well feedback ref name yap pharmaco cybernetics interactive component pharma culture field requires clinical knowledge experience well advanced skills expertise deal technologies human computer environment interactions relation management


medicines drug therapies ref name yap pharmaco cybernetics interactive component pharma culture relation pharmaceutical care drug related problems pharmaceutical care involves identification solving prevention medication drug related problems regards patients' drug therapies ref name ashp statement pharmaceutical care ref problems classified various categories differ slightly american european systems american society health system pharmacists classifies drug related problems eight major categories ref name ashp statement pharmaceutical care untreated indications medication use without indication failure receive medications improper drug selections underdose overdose adverse drug reactions drug interactions pharmaceutical


care network europe classifies problems causes ref name pcne classification drps v pharmaceutical care network europe pcne classification drug related problems v available http wwwpcneorg sig drp documents pcne classification v pdf ref ''classification problems'' treatment effectiveness adverse reactions treatment costs types problems ''classification causes'' drug selection drug form dose selection treatment duration drug use administration process logistics related patient related causes rapid adoption cybermedicine led several associated medication drug related problems ref name yap improving pharmaceutical care oncology pharmacoinformatics include digital dehumanization patient practitioner relationship virtual conflicts recommendation phenomenon online self prescribing pharmacocybernetics approaches target whole


digital healthcare innovation cycle identifying healthcare problem designing developing applying evaluating technological innovations aim address drug related problems technological innovations tend based user centered experience centered activity centered designs types environments types environments relevant pharmacocybernetics approaches follow urie bronfenbrenner ecological systems theory ref name yap pharmaco cybernetics interactive component pharma culture ref name paquette bronfenbrenners ecological systems theory paquette ryan j bronfenbrenner ecological systems theory available ref environments applied healthcare example patient chronic disease searches internet information


regarding drug therapy follows ''microsystem'' patient immediate environment physical characteristics desktop laptop mouse sensitivity hardware software faults patient experiences performing task ''mesosystem'' relation patient immediate environments whether patient carries task alone company others affect experiences psychological state behavior ''exosystem'' external settings indirectly affect include patient family also understands medical condition drug therapy provide encouragement support prompt sense


closeness experienced patient turn may lead improved medication compliance ''macrosystem'' cultural context patient sharing experiences similar patients social networking channels may alleviate stigma felt positively influence enhance experiences patient ''chronosystem'' time space dimension patient course life patient gains moral support time others similar experiences better adapt life may motivated improve lifestyle keep healthy pharmacocybernetic maxims four pharmacocybernetic maxims defined designers


developers pharmaco informatics tools applications provide information medications drug therapies ref name yap pharmaco cybernetics interactive component pharma culture ref name yap merging old new ref ref name chan detection management oncology drug interactions ref design principles relation ''quality drug information'' quality drug information provided tool application accurate evidence based content follow appropriate sources research articles established drug databases drug package information ''quantity drug information'' tool application provide adequate content regarding medication


drug therapy users enough knowledge minimize likelihood drug related problems ''relation target audiences'' medication drug related content provided tool application relevant target audience clarify doubts ''manner data presentation'' information provided tool application presented clear manner avoids ambiguity misinterpretation references pharmacy cybernetics


optimal results especially problem domains well defined correct optimal result effective method algorithm expressed within finite amount space time well defined formal language calculating function starting initial state initial input perhaps empty instructions describe computation executed proceeds finite number well defined successive states eventually producing output terminating final ending state transition one state next necessarily deterministic algorithms known randomized algorithms incorporate random

Formal science
Computer science
Algorithms


input history concept algorithm existed since antiquity arithmetic algorithms division algorithm used ancient babylonian mathematicians c bc egyptian mathematicians c bc ref name springer science business media greek mathematicians later used algorithms bc sieve eratosthenes finding prime numbers euclidean algorithm finding greatest common divisor two numbers ref name cooke ref arabic mathematicians al kindi th century used cryptographic algorithms code breaking based frequency analysis ref name dooley word ''algorithm'' derived name


translator 's latinization al khwarizmi 's name al khwarizmi widely read mathematician europe late middle ages primarily another books algebra late medieval latin ''algorismus'' english 'algorism' corruption name simply meant decimal number system th century influence greek word ''arithmos'' 'number' ''cf'' 'arithmetic' latin word altered ''algorithmus'' corresponding english term 'algorithm' first attested th century modern sense introduced th century english first used


chaucer english adopted french term late th century algorithm took meaning modern english another early use word manual titled ''carmen de algorismo'' composed alexandre de villedieu begins translates poem hundred lines long summarizes art calculating new styled indian dice ''tali indorum'' hindu numerals partial formalization modern concept algorithm began attempts solve ''entscheidungsproblem


'' decision problem posed david hilbert later formalizations framed attempts define effective calculability effective method formalizations included g del herbrand kleene recursive functions alonzo church 's lambda calculus emil post 's formulation alan turing 's turing machines informal definition informal definition could set rules precisely defines sequence operations would include computer programs including programs perform numeric calculations example prescribed bureaucratic procedure cook book recipe general


program algorithm stops eventually even though infinite loops may sometimes prove desirable prototypical example algorithm euclidean algorithm used determine maximum common divisor two integers example others described flowchart example later section offer informal meaning word algorithm following quotation blockquote human write fast enough long enough small enough smaller smaller without limit 'd trying write molecules atoms electrons


list members enumerably infinite set writing names one another notation humans something equally useful case certain enumerably infinite sets give ''explicit instructions determining '''n'''th member set'' arbitrary finite ''n'' instructions given quite explicitly form ''they could followed computing machine'' ''human capable carrying elementary operations symbols'' blockquote enumerably infinite set one whose elements put


computer fast efficient good process specifies moves computer machine human equipped necessary internally contained information capabilities find decode process arbitrary input integers symbols ''m'' ''n'' symbols '' '' '' '' effectively produce reasonable time output integer ''y'' specified place specified format concept ''algorithm'' also used define notion decidability notion central explaining formal systems come starting small set axioms rules logic time


algorithm requires complete cannot measured apparently related customary physical dimension uncertainties characterize ongoing work stems unavailability definition ''algorithm'' suits concrete sense abstract usage term algorithms intended implemented computer programs however algorithms also implemented means biological neural network example human brain implementing arithmetic insect looking food electrical circuit mechanical device formalization algorithms essential


way computers process data many computer programs contain algorithms detail specific instructions computer perform specific order carry specified task calculating employees' paychecks printing students' report cards thus algorithm considered sequence operations simulated turing complete system authors assert thesis include minsky savage gurevich blockquote minsky also maintain turing procedure could naturally called effective fact realized simple machine although


theory known halting problem typically algorithm associated processing information data read input source written output device stored processing stored data regarded part internal state entity performing algorithm practice state stored one data structures computational processes algorithm must rigorously defined specified way applies possible circumstances could arise means conditional steps must systematically dealt case case criteria


formalized algorithms assignment operation sets value variable derives intuition memory scratchpad example assignment found alternate conceptions constitutes algorithm see functional programming logic programming expressing algorithms algorithms expressed many kinds notation including natural languages pseudocode flowcharts drakon charts programming languages control tables processed interpreters natural language expressions algorithms tend verbose ambiguous rarely used complex technical algorithms pseudocode flowcharts drakon charts control tables


structured ways express algorithms avoid many ambiguities common statements based natural language programming languages primarily intended expressing algorithms form executed computer also often used way define document algorithms wide variety representations possible one express given turing machine program sequence machine tables see finite state machine state transition table control table flowcharts drakon charts see state diagram form rudimentary


machine code assembly code called sets quadruples see turing machine representations algorithms classed three accepted levels turing machine description follows high level description prose describe algorithm ignoring implementation details level need mention machine manages tape head implementation description prose used define way turing machine uses head way stores data tape level give details states transition


primitive conditional goto shown diamond unconditional goto rectangle various assignment operators rectangle halt rectangle nesting structures inside assignment blocks result complex diagrams cf tausworthe computer systems algorithm basically instance logic written software software developers effective intended target computer produce ''output'' given perhaps null ''input'' optimal algorithm even running old hardware would produce faster results non optimal higher time complexity algorithm purpose running efficient hardware algorithms like computer


hardware considered technology '' elegant compact programs good fast programs '' notion simplicity elegance appears informally knuth precisely chaitin knuth want ''good'' algorithms loosely defined aesthetic sense one criterion length time taken perform algorithm criteria adaptability algorithm computers simplicity elegance etc chaitin program 'elegant' mean 's smallest possible program producing output chaitin prefaces definition 'll show ca n't prove


computation one less elegant example uses euclid 's algorithm appears ''computers computors models computation'' computer human computor restricted type machine discrete deterministic mechanical device blindly follows instructions melzak 's lambek 's primitive models reduced notion four elements discrete distinguishable ''locations'' ii discrete indistinguishable ''counters'' iii agent iv list instructions ''effective'' relative capability agent minsky describes congenial variation lambek 's abacus model simple bases computability minsky 's machine proceeds sequentially


five six depending one counts instructions unless either conditional goto unconditional goto changes program flow sequence besides halt minsky 's machine includes three ''assignment'' replacement substitution operations zero eg contents location replaced l successor eg l l decrement eg l l rarely must programmer write code limited instruction set minsky shows melzak lambek machine turing complete four general ''types'' instructions conditional goto unconditional goto assignment replacement substitution


halt however different assignment instructions eg decrement increment zero clear empty minsky machine also required turing completeness exact specification somewhat designer unconditional goto convenience constructed initializing dedicated location zero eg instruction z thereafter instruction z goto xxx unconditional ''simulation algorithm computer computor language'' knuth advises reader best way learn algorithm try immediately take pen paper work


example simulation execution real thing programmer must translate algorithm language simulator computer computor ''effectively'' execute stone gives example computing roots quadratic equation computor must know take square root n't algorithm effective must provide set rules extracting square root means programmer must know language effective relative target computing agent computer computor model used simulation


van emde boas observes even base complexity theory abstract instead concrete machines arbitrariness choice model remains point notion ' 'simulation'' enters speed measured instruction set matters example subprogram euclid 's algorithm compute remainder would execute much faster programmer modulus instruction available rather subtraction worse minsky 's decrement ''structured programming canonical structures'' per church turing thesis algorithm computed model known turing complete per minsky 's


demonstrations turing completeness requires four instruction types conditional goto unconditional goto assignment halt kemeny kurtz observe undisciplined use unconditional gotos conditional gotos result spaghetti code programmer write structured programs using instructions hand also possible hard write badly structured programs structured language tausworthe augments three b hm jacopini canonical structures sequence else two case additional benefit structured program lends proofs correctness using mathematical induction


''canonical flowchart symbols'' graphical aide called flowchart offers way describe document algorithm computer program one like program flow minsky machine flowchart always starts top page proceeds primary symbols four directed arrow showing program flow rectangle sequence goto diamond else dot tie b hm jacopini canonical structures made primitive shapes sub structures nest rectangles single exit occurs superstructure symbols use build


canonical structures shown diagram examples algorithm example one simplest algorithms find largest number list numbers random order finding solution requires looking every number list follows simple algorithm stated high level description english prose ''high level description '' numbers set highest number assume first number set largest number set remaining number set


number larger current largest number consider number largest number set numbers left set iterate consider current largest number largest number set '' quasi formal description '' written prose much closer high level language computer program following formal coding algorithm pseudocode pidgin code input list numbers ''l'' output largest number list ''l'' '''if''' ''lsize'' '' 'return''' null ''largest'' ''l''


'''for each''' ''item'' '''in''' ''l'' '' 'do''' '''if''' ''item'' ''largest'' '''then''' ''largest'' ''item'' '' 'return''' ''largest'' euclid 's algorithm mathematics '''euclidean algorithm''' '''euclid 's algorithm''' efficient method computing greatest common divisor gcd two integers numbers largest number divides without remainder named ancient greek mathematician euclid first described ''elements'' c bc one oldest algorithms common use used reduce fractions simplest form part many number theoretic


quotient remainder ''r'' modulus integer fractional part left division euclid 's method succeed starting lengths must satisfy two requirements lengths must zero ii subtraction must proper ie test must guarantee smaller two numbers subtracted larger two equal subtraction yields zero euclid 's original proof adds third requirement two lengths must prime one another euclid stipulated could construct reductio ad absurdum


proof two numbers' common measure fact ''greatest'' nicomachus' algorithm euclid 's numbers prime one another yields number common measure precise following really nicomachus' algorithm graphical expression euclid 's algorithm find greatest common divisor syntaxhighlight lang text highlight syntaxhighlight computer language euclid 's algorithm instruction


''types'' required execute euclid 's algorithm logical tests conditional goto unconditional goto assignment replacement subtraction ''location'' symbolized upper case letter eg etc varying quantity number location written lower case letter usually associated location 's name example location l start might contain number ''l'' inelegant program euclid 's algorithm inelegant translation knuth 's version algorithm subtraction based remainder loop replacing use division modulus instruction derived knuth depending two


numbers inelegant may compute gcd fewer steps elegant following algorithm framed knuth 's four step version euclid 's nicomachus' rather using division find remainder uses successive subtractions shorter length ' 's'' remaining length ''r'' ''r'' less ' 's'' high level description shown boldface adapted knuth '''input''' two locations l put numbers ''l'' ' 's'' represent two lengths input l initialize r make remaining length ''r'' equal starting initial input length ''l'' r


l '''e ensure ''r'' ' 's'' ''' ensure smaller two numbers larger r r contents l larger number skip exchange steps goto step else swap contents r l r first step redundant useful later discussion r l '''e find remainder ''' remaining length ''r'' r less shorter length ' 's'' repeatedly subtract measuring number ' 's''


remaining length ''r'' r r done measuring goto else measure r r remainder loop goto '''e remainder zero ''' either last measure exact remainder r zero program halt ii algorithm must continue last measure left remainder r less measuring number r done goto step else continue step '''e interchange ' 's'' ''r'' ''' nut euclid 's algorithm use remainder ''r''


measure previously smaller number ' 's'' l serves temporary location l r r l repeat measuring process goto '''output''' done contains greatest common divisor print '''done''' halt end stop elegant program euclid 's algorithm flowchart elegant found top article unstructured basic language steps numbered instruction syntaxhighlight lang cbmbas inline let syntaxhighlight assignment instruction symbolized syntaxhighlight lang cbmbas rem euclid 's algorithm greatest common divisor print type


two integers greater input ab b goto b goto let b b goto let b goto print end syntaxhighlight ''how elegant works'' place outer euclid loop elegant shifts back forth two co loops b loop computes b b loop computes b b works last minuend less equal subtrahend


difference minuend subtrahend minuend become ' 's'' new measuring length subtrahend become new ''r'' length measured words sense subtraction reverses following version used programming languages c family syntaxhighlight lang java euclid 's algorithm greatest common divisor int euclidalgorithm int int b abs b abs b b b b b b return syntaxhighlight testing euclid algorithms algorithm author wants test cases usually give confidence


core functionality tests enough test cases one source uses knuth suggested another interesting case two relatively prime numbers exceptional cases must identified tested inelegant perform properly r r r ditto elegant b b b yes happens one number zero numbers zero inelegant computes forever cases elegant computes forever happens ''negative'' numbers


entered fractional numbers input numbers ie domain function computed algorithm program include positive integers including zero failures zero indicate algorithm program instantiates partial function rather total function notable failure due exceptions ariane flight rocket failure june ''proof program correctness use mathematical induction'' knuth demonstrates application mathematical induction extended version euclid 's algorithm proposes general method applicable proving


validity algorithm tausworthe proposes measure complexity program length correctness proof measuring improving euclid algorithms ''elegance compactness versus goodness speed '' six core instructions elegant clear winner compared inelegant thirteen instructions however inelegant ''faster'' arrives halt fewer steps algorithm analysis indicates case elegant ''two'' conditional tests every subtraction loop whereas inelegant one algorithm usually requires many loop throughs ''on average'' much time wasted b


test needed remainder computed ''can algorithms improved'' programmer judges program fit effective computes function intended author question becomes improved compactness inelegant improved elimination five steps chaitin proved compacting algorithm cannot automated generalized algorithm rather done heuristically ie exhaustive search examples found busy beaver trial error cleverness insight application inductive reasoning etc observe steps


repeated steps comparison elegant provides hint steps together steps eliminated reduces number core instructions thirteen eight makes elegant elegant nine steps speed elegant improved moving b test outside two subtraction loops change calls addition three instructions b goto elegant computes example numbers faster whether always case given b


r would require detailed analysis algorithmic analysis frequently important know much particular resource time storage theoretically required given algorithm methods developed analysis algorithms obtain quantitative answers estimates example algorithm adds elements list ''n'' numbers would time requirement ''o n '' using big notation times algorithm needs remember two values sum elements far current position


input list therefore said space requirement ''o '' space required store input numbers counted ''o n '' counted different algorithms may complete task different set instructions less time space 'effort' others example binary search algorithm cost ''o log n '' outperforms sequential search cost ''o n '' used table lookups sorted lists arrays formal versus empirical analysis study algorithms discipline computer science often practiced


abstractly without use specific programming language implementation sense algorithm analysis resembles mathematical disciplines focuses underlying properties algorithm specifics particular implementation usually pseudocode used analysis simplest general representation however ultimately algorithms usually implemented particular hardware software platforms algorithmic efficiency eventually put test using real code solution one problem efficiency particular algorithm may significant consequences unless n


fft algorithms used heavily field image processing decrease processing time times applications like medical imaging general speed improvements depend special properties problem common practical applications ref name hassanieh haitham hassanieh piotr indyk dina katabi eric price http siamomnibooksonlinecom soda data papers pdf acm siam symposium discrete algorithms soda kyoto january see also http groupscsailmitedu netmit sfft sfft web page ref speedups magnitude enable computing devices make extensive use image processing like digital cameras medical equipment consume less power classification various


ways classify algorithms merits implementation one way classify algorithms implementation means style float right width pt syntaxhighlight lang c int gcd int int b b return else b return gcd bb else return gcd ab syntaxhighlight recursive c implementation euclid 's algorithm flowchart recursion recursive algorithm one invokes makes reference repeatedly certain condition also known termination condition matches method common functional programming iterative


parallel algorithms called inherently serial problems deterministic non deterministic deterministic algorithms solve problem exact decision every step algorithm whereas non deterministic algorithms solve problems via guessing although typical guesses made accurate use heuristics exact approximate many algorithms reach exact solution approximation algorithms seek approximation closer true solution approximation reached either using deterministic random strategy algorithms practical value many hard problems one examples


approximate algorithm knapsack problem set given items goal pack knapsack get maximum total value item weight value total weight carried fixed number x solution must consider weights items well value quantum algorithm run realistic model quantum computation term usually used algorithms seem inherently quantum use essential feature quantum computing quantum superposition


quantum entanglement design paradigm another way classifying algorithms design methodology paradigm certain number paradigms different furthermore categories includes many different types algorithms common paradigms brute force exhaustive search naive method trying every possible solution see best divide conquer divide conquer algorithm repeatedly reduces instance problem one smaller instances problem usually recursively instances


small enough solve easily one example divide conquer merge sorting sorting done segment data dividing data segments sorting entire data obtained conquer phase merging segments simpler variant divide conquer called ' 'decrease conquer algorithm'' solves identical subproblem uses solution subproblem solve bigger problem divide conquer divides problem multiple subproblems conquer stage complex decrease conquer algorithms


better known problem hopefully asymptotically optimal algorithms goal find reducing algorithm whose complexity dominated resulting reduced algorithm 's example one selection algorithm finding median unsorted list involves first sorting list expensive portion pulling middle element sorted list cheap portion technique also known ''transform conquer'' back tracking approach multiple solutions built incrementally abandoned determined cannot lead valid full solution


optimization problems optimization problems specific classification algorithms algorithm problems may fall one general categories described well one following linear programming searching optimal solutions linear function bound linear equality inequality constraints constraints problem used directly producing optimal solutions algorithms solve problem category popular simplex algorithm problems solved linear programming include


maximum flow problem directed graphs problem additionally requires one unknowns must integer classified integer programming linear programming algorithm solve problem proved restrictions integer values superficial ie solutions satisfy restrictions anyway general case specialized algorithm algorithm finds approximate solutions used depending difficulty problem dynamic programming problem shows optimal substructures meaning optimal solution problem constructed


difference dynamic programming straightforward recursion caching memoization recursive calls subproblems independent repetition memoization help hence dynamic programming solution complex problems using memoization maintaining table subproblems already solved dynamic programming reduces exponential nature many problems polynomial complexity greedy method greedy algorithm similar dynamic programming algorithm works examining substructures case problem given solution algorithms start


used find solution close optimal solution cases finding optimal solution impractical algorithms work getting closer closer optimal solution progress principle run infinite amount time find optimal solution merit find solution close optimal solution relatively short time algorithms include local search tabu search simulated annealing genetic algorithms like simulated annealing non deterministic algorithms others like tabu search deterministic


bound error non optimal solution known algorithm categorized approximation algorithm field study every field science problems needs efficient algorithms related problems one field often studied together example classes search algorithms sorting algorithms merge algorithms numerical algorithms graph algorithms string algorithms computational geometric algorithms combinatorial algorithms medical algorithms machine learning cryptography data compression algorithms parsing techniques fields tend overlap algorithm advances one field may improve sometimes completely unrelated fields


example dynamic programming invented optimization resource consumption industry used solving broad range problems many fields complexity algorithms classified amount time need complete compared input size constant time time needed algorithm regardless input size eg access array element logarithmic time time logarithmic function input size eg binary search algorithm linear time time proportional input


size eg traverse list polynomial time time power input size eg bubble sort algorithm quadratic time complexity exponential time time exponential function input size eg brute force search problems may multiple algorithms differing complexity problems might algorithms known efficient algorithms also mappings problems problems owing found suitable classify problems instead algorithms equivalence classes based


complexity best possible algorithms continuous algorithms adjective continuous applied word algorithm mean algorithm operating data represents continuous quantities even though data represented discrete approximations algorithms studied numerical analysis algorithm form differential equation operates continuously data running analog computer legal issues algorithms usually patentable united states claim consisting solely simple manipulations abstract concepts numbers signals constitute processes


uspto hence algorithms patentable gottschalk v benson however practical applications algorithms sometimes patentable example diamond v diehr application simple feedback algorithm aid curing synthetic rubber deemed patentable patenting software highly controversial highly criticized patents involving algorithms especially data compression algorithms unisys' lzw patent additionally cryptographic algorithms export restrictions see export cryptography history development notion algorithm ancient near east earliest evidence algorithms


media algorithms later used ancient hellenistic mathematics two examples sieve eratosthenes described ''introduction arithmetic'' nicomachus ref name cooke euclidean algorithm first described ''euclid 's elements'' c bc ref name cooke discrete distinguishable symbols tally marks keep track flocks sacks grain money ancients used tallying accumulating stones marks scratched sticks making discrete symbols clay babylonian egyptian use marks symbols eventually roman numerals abacus evolved dilson p nbsp tally marks


appear prominently unary numeral system arithmetic used turing machine post turing machine computations manipulation symbols place holders numbers algebra muhammad ibn al khw rizm persian mathematician wrote ''al jabr'' th century terms algorism algorithm derived name al khw rizm term algebra derived book ''al jabr'' europe word algorithm originally used refer sets rules techniques used al khwarizmi solve algebraic equations later generalized refer set rules techniques eventually


reduce boolean equations presented form similar known karnaugh maps jevons describes first simple abacus slips wood furnished pins contrived part class logical combinations picked mechanically recently however reduced system completely mechanical form thus embodied whole indirect process inference may called ''logical machine'' machine came equipped certain moveable wooden rods foot keys like


piano etc machine could analyze syllogism simple logical argument machine displayed fellows royal society another logician john venn however ''symbolic logic'' turned jaundiced eye effort high estimate interest importance sometimes called logical machines seem contrivances present known likely discovered really deserve name logical machines see algorithm characterizations


outdone presented plan somewhat analogous apprehend prof jevon 's ''abacus'' gain corresponding prof jevons 's logical machine following contrivance may described prefer call merely logical diagram machine suppose could completely rationally expected logical machine ''jacquard loom hollerith punch cards telegraphy telephony electromechanical relay'' bell newell indicate jacquard loom precursor hollerith cards punch cards telephone switching technologies roots tree leading


development first computers mid th century telegraph precursor telephone use throughout world discrete distinguishable encoding letters dots dashes common sound late th century ticker tape ca use use hollerith cards us census came teleprinter ca punched paper use baudot code tape ''telephone switching networks'' electromechanical relays invented behind work george stibitz inventor digital adding device


worked bell laboratories observed burdensome' use mechanical calculators gears went home one evening intending test idea tinkering stibitz constructed binary adding device davis observes particular importance electromechanical relay two binary states ''open'' ''closed'' development beginning electromechanical calculators using electrical relays machines built scope babbage envisioned mathematics th century mid th century ''symbols rules''


either mark erase paper observe paper make yes decision next instruction alan turing 's proof entscheidungsproblem unsolvable use automatic machine effect almost identical post 's formulation j barkley rosser 's definition effective method terms machine kleene 's proposal precursor church thesis called thesis years later kleene 's renaming thesis church 's thesis proposing turing 's thesis emil post alan turing emil post described actions


computer human follows two concepts involved ' 'symbol space'' work leading problem answer carried fixed unalterable ' 'set directions'' symbol space would two way infinite sequence spaces boxes problem solver worker move work symbol space capable operating one box time box admit two possible conditions ie empty unmarked single mark say


vertical stroke one box singled called starting point specific problem given symbolic form finite number boxes ie input marked stroke likewise answer ie output given symbolic form configuration marked boxes set directions applicable general problem sets deterministic process applied specific problem process terminates comes direction type c ie stop see post turing machine alan turing 's


post analysis human computer whittles simple set basic motions states mind continues step creates machine model computation numbers computing normally done writing certain symbols paper may suppose paper divided squares like child 's arithmetic booki assume computation carried one dimensional paper ie tape divided squares shall also suppose number symbols may printed finite behavior


computer moment determined symbols observing state mind moment may suppose bound b number symbols squares computer observe one moment wishes observe must use successive observations also suppose number states mind need taken account finite let us imagine operations performed computer split 'simple operations' elementary


easy imagine divided ref name turing davis turing davis ref turing 's reduction yields following simple operations must therefore include changes symbol one observed squares b changes one squares observed another square within l squares one previously observed squares may change necessarily invoke change state mind general single operation must therefore taken one following possible change symbol together


possible change state mind b possible change b observed squares together possible change state mind may construct machine work computer ref name turing davis years later turing expanded analysis thesis definition forceful expression function said effectively calculable values found purely mechanical process though fairly easy get intuitive grasp idea nevertheless desirable definite mathematical


mean function calculable machine let effectively calculable refer intuitive idea without particular identification one definitions jb rosser sc kleene j barkley rosser defined 'effective mathematical method' following manner italicization added 'effective method' used rather special sense method step precisely determined certain produce answer finite number steps special meaning three different precise definitions given date footnote


see discussion immediately simplest state due post turing says essentially ''an effective method solving certain sets problems exists one build machine solve problem set human intervention beyond inserting question later reading answer'' three definitions equivalent n't matter one used moreover fact three equivalent strong argument correctness one rosser rosser 's footnote references work church


kleene definition definability particular church 's use ''an unsolvable problem elementary number theory'' herbrand g del use recursion particular g del 's use famous paper ''on formally undecidable propositions principia mathematica related systems i'' post turing mechanism models computation stephen c kleene defined famous thesis known church turing thesis following context boldface original ''algorithmic theories'' setting complete algorithmic theory


describe procedure performable set values independent variables procedure necessarily terminates manner outcome read definite answer yes question predicate value true kleene history number efforts directed toward refinement definition algorithm activity going issues surrounding particular foundations mathematics especially church turing thesis philosophy mind especially arguments artificial intelligence see algorithm characterizations


see also abstract machine algorithm engineering algorithm characterizations algorithmic bias algorithmic composition algorithmic entities algorithmic synthesis algorithmic technique algorithmic topology garbage garbage ''introduction algorithms'' textbook list algorithms list algorithm general topics list important publications theoretical computer science algorithms regulation algorithms theory computation computability theory computational complexity theory notes bibliography bell c gordon newell allen ''computer structures readings examples'' mcgraw hill book company new york includes excellent bibliography references cf chapter ''turing machines'' discuss certain enumerable sets effectively


mechanically enumerable campagnolo ml moore c costa jf analog characterization subrecursive functions ''proc th conference real numbers computers'' odense university pp nbsp reprinted ''the undecidable'' p nbsp ff first expression church 's thesis see particular page ''the undecidable'' defines notion effective calculability terms algorithm uses word terminates etc reprinted ''the undecidable'' p nbsp ff church shows entscheidungsproblem unsolvable pages text pages footnotes davis gives commentary article papers


g del alonzo church turing rosser kleene emil post included cited article listed author 's name davis offers concise biographies leibniz boole frege cantor hilbert g del turing von neumann show stealing villain brief bios joseph marie jacquard babbage ada lovelace claude shannon howard aiken etc yuri gurevich http citeseerxistpsuedu viewdoc downloaddoi rep rep type pdf ''sequential abstract state machines capture sequential algorithms'' acm transactions computational logic vol july pp nbsp includes bibliography sources rd edition pbk cf chapter spirit truth


services number ots minsky expands idea algorithm effective procedure chapter ''computability effective procedures algorithms infinite machines'' reprinted ''the undecidable'' pp nbsp ff post defines simple algorithmic like process man writing marks erasing marks going box box eventually halting follows list simple instructions cited kleene one source thesis called church turing thesis reprinted ''the undecidable'' p nbsp ff herein rosser 's famous definition effective method method step precisely predetermined


certain produce answer finite number steps machine solve problem set human intervention beyond inserting question later reading answer p nbsp ''the undecidable'' cf particular first chapter titled ''algorithms turing machines programs'' succinct informal definition sequence instructions obeyed robot called ''algorithm'' p nbsp corrections ibid vol pp nbsp reprinted ''the undecidable'' p nbsp ff turing 's famous paper completed master 's dissertation king 's college cambridge uk reprinted ''the


undecidable'' pp nbsp ff turing 's paper defined oracle phd thesis princeton united states patent trademark office http wwwusptogov web offices pac mpep documents htm '' mathematical algorithms patentability'' manual patent examining procedure mpep latest revision august reading knuth donald e '' http www cs facultystanfordedu uno aahtml selected papers analysis algorithms '' stanford california center study language information knuth donald e '' http www cs facultystanfordedu uno dahtml selected papers design algorithms '' stanford california center study language information external links https wwwnistgov dads dictionary algorithms data structures national institute standards technology algorithm


'''cultural studies''' interdisciplinary field examines political dynamics contemporary culture historical foundations cultural studies researchers generally investigate cultural practices relate wider systems power associated operating social phenomena include ideology class structures national formations ethnicity sexual orientation gender generation employing cultural analysis cultural studies views cultures fixed bounded stable discrete entities rather constantly interacting changing sets practices processes field cultural studies encompasses range theoretical methodological perspectives practices although distinct discipline cultural

Social science
Sociology
Cultural studies


anthropology interdisciplinary field ethnic studies cultural studies draws upon contributed fields cultural studies initially developed british marxist academics late subsequently taken transformed scholars many different disciplines around world cultural studies avowedly even radically interdisciplinary sometimes seen anti disciplinary key concern cultural studies practitioners examination forces within socially organized people conduct participate construction everyday lives cultural studies


explain analyze cultural forces related processes globalization rise neoliberalism britain us cultural studies became global movement attracted attention many conservative opponents within beyond universities variety reasons left wing critics associated particularly marxist forms political economy also attacked cultural studies contending overstates importance cultural phenomena worldwide movement students practitioners raft scholarly associations programs annual international conferences publications carry work field today distinct approaches