environmental nature tend remain stable throughout human experience history individual human deities change time endure centuries others remain localised cults vanish short time immortal beings conceived constellations qi vibrant certain historical individuals upon person 's death ''qi'' nexus dissipate persists reinforced living people 's worship ref name barnett raymond barnett ''relax 're already home everyday taoist habits richer life'' j p tarcher ref energetic power god thought reverberate worshipers


influencing fortune ref name barnett deities immortals main altar statue doumu inside temple doumu butterworth penang malaysia statue ceremonial complex yellow red gods han chinese said descendants zhengzhou henan gods immortals collectively ' 'sh nxi n'' chinese cultural tradition reflect hierarchical multiperspective experience divinity ref name lu gong p chinese language terminological distinction ' 'sh n'' ' 'd '' ''xi n'' although usage former two sometimes blurred corresponds distinction

Humanities
Theology
Chinese Folk Religion


western cultures god deity latin ''genius'' meaning generative principle spirit ' 'deus'' ' 'divus'' ' 'd '' sometimes translated thearch implies manifested incarnate godly power ' 'd '' together emperor god term indicates emperor also ancestral thearch god etymologically figuratively analogous concept ' 'di'' base fruit falls produces fruits analogy attested ''shuowen jiezi'' explaining deity faces base melon fruit latter term ''xi n'' unambiguously means


man reached immortality similarly western idea hero many classical books lists hierarchies gods immortals among completed record deities immortals ''sh nxi n ngji n'' ming dynasty biographies deities immortals ''sh nxi n zhu n'' ge hong 's also older ''liexian zhuan'' collected biographies immortals great cosmic gods representing first principle unmanifested state creative order yudi jade deity doumu mother meaning great chariot pangu macranthropic


metaphor cosmos xiwangmu queen mother west dongwanggong king duke east personificate respectively yin yang well dimensional three patrons five deities sky weather gods scenery gods vegetal animal gods gods human virtues crafts ref name lu gong p interpreted different ways taoism folk sects former conferring long kataphatic names ref name lu gong p great deities unquantifiable number


gods nature every phenomena gods three patrons ''s nhu ng'' fuxi n wa shennong vertical manifestation primordial god corresponding three realms ''s nji '' representing yin yang medium human five deities ''w '' five forms highest deity ''w f ng sh ngd '' yellow green blue black red white deities five horizontal manifestations primordial god according three realms celestial terrestrial chthonic form altar chinese concept equivalent


''hu ngsh n'' yellow god northern dipper ''hu ngsh n b id u'' ' 'd u'' chinese entire semantic field meaning shape dipper big dipper ''b id u'' cup signifying whirl also martial connotations meaning fight struggle battle peculiar importance form universal god tian shangdi symbolising ''axis mundi'' kunlun intersection three patrons five deities center cosmos therefore described ''shizi'' yellow emperor four faces


''hu ngd mi n'' human incarnation yellow emperor deity mysterious origin ''xu nyu n hu ngd '' said creator ''huaxia'' civility marriage morality language lineage patriarch chinese together red deity xuanyuan fruit virginal birth mother fubao conceived aroused walking country lightning big dipper mother goddess worship shrine bixia mount tai shandong worship mother goddesses cultivation offspring present china


predominantly northern provinces nine main goddesses tend considered manifestations attendant forces singular goddess identified variously bixia blue dawn daughter female consort green god mount tai houtu queen earth ref name jones pp jones pp ref bixia identified taoists ancient goddess xiwangmu goddesses commonly entitled ''m '' mother ''l om '' old mother ' 'sh ngm '' holy mother ''ni ngni ng'' lady ''n inai'' granny altars goddess worship usually


chaoyang shantou guangdong adam yuet chau identifies five styles modalities chinese religion discursive scriptural involving composition preaching recitation texts classics taoist scriptures morality books personal cultivation mode involving long term cultivation transformation oneself goal becoming ''xian'' immortal ''zhenren'' true person ' 'shengren'' wise practice different technologies self ''qigong'' taoist inner outer alchemy charitable acts merit memorisation recitation texts liturgical involving elaborate ritual procedures conducted specialists rites taoist rites confucian rites nuo rites ''fengshui''


immediate practical aiming quick efficacious ''ling'' results simple ritual magical techniques divination talismans divine medicine consulting media shamans relational emphasising devotional relationship men deities among men organising elaborate sacrifices making vows organising temple festivals pilgrimages processions religious communities social comings goings ''laiwang'' interconnectedness ''guanxi'' generally speaking chinese believe spiritual material well ensues harmony humanity gods participation cosmic power also believe taking right path practice anybody


often intermingled political educational economic concerns gathering event may encompassed aspects general commitment belief process rite practice together form internal external dimensions chinese religious life village communities religious services often organised led local people leaders usually selected among male heads families lineages village heads simple form individual practice show respect gods ''jing shen'' ''jingxiang'' incense offering exchange vows ''huan yuan'' ref name zavidovskaya


p ref involvement affairs communal intra village temples perceived believers ways accumulating merit ''gongde'' ref name zavidovskaya p virtue believed accumulate one 's heart seen energetic centre human body ''zai jun xin zuo tian fu'' practices communication gods comprehend different forms chinese shamanism ''wu'' shamanism ''tongji'' mediumship ''fuji'' practice sacrifices tray offering sacrifices display kaiping classical chinese characters different types sacrifice probably oldest way communicate divine


present sacrifices assigned religious political purposes gods considered carnivorous example river god ''h sh n'' dragon gods offering requires animal sacrifice ref name zavidovskaya p zavidovskaya p ref thanksgiving redeeming aims rituals sacrifices may thanksgiving redeeming usually involving various sacrifices intended express gratitude toward gods hope spiritual blessing protection continue ''ji o'' elaborate taoist sacrifice rite universal salvation intended cosmic community


rites passage ''guan li'' confucian coming age ceremony variety practices concerned personal well spiritual growth rites passage intended narrate holy significance crucial change throughout life course changes physical social time spiritual marked elaborate customs religious rituals holistic view nature human body life macro microcosmos life process human equated rhythm seasons cosmic changes hence birth likened spring


youth summer maturity autumn old age winter ritual passages belong religious order priests monks rituals stages life main four birth adulthood marriage death places worship ''y hu ngmi o'' image temple highest goddess fuding ningde fujian china jpg width caption ''t im sh ngdi n'' chinese language variety words defining temples chinese religion


terms precise functional use although time confusion arisen used interchangeably contexts collective names defining temples places worship ' 's mi o'' ''mi oy '' however ' 's '' originally meant type residence imperial officials introduction buddhism china became associated buddhist monasteries many officials donated residences monks today ' 's '' ' 's yu n'' monastery used almost exclusively buddhist monasteries sporadic exceptions ' 's '' component character names chinese mosques another


term mostly associated buddhism '' n'' thatched hut originally form dwelling monks later extended mean monasteries temples public private ' 's mi o'' household temples ji mi ''jing'' broader territory god geographic region village city surroundings marked multiple temples complexes temples delineated processions pertaining chinese religion common term ''mi o'' graphically meaning shrine sacred enclosure general chinese term translated general western


temple used temples deities polytheism terms include ' 'di n'' indicates house god enshrining one specific god usually chapel within larger temple sacred enclosure ''t n'' means altar refers indoor outdoor altars majestic outdoor altars worship heaven earth gods environment ''g ng'' originally referring imperial palaces became associated temples representations universal god highest gods consorts queen heaven


another group words used temples ancestral religion ''c '' either temple shrine meaning sacred enclosure ''z ngc '' ancestor shrine terms also used temples dedicated immortal beings ''z mi o'' original temple instead refers temple believed original temple deity legitimate powerful ''t ng'' meaning hall church hall originally referred central hall secular buildings entered religious usage place worship folk religious sects christianity china borrowed term


terms ''f '' house originally imperial officials rarely used term ''t ng'' pavilion refers areas temple laypeople stay also ' 'sh nc '' shrine god ancestral shrines sacred places lineages related families identified shared surnames worship common progenitors temples collective representation group function centers religious social economic activities intersect chinese temples traditionally built according styles materials wood bricks chinese architecture continues


rule new temples however early th century especially mainland religious revival early st century proliferation new styles temple construction include use new materials stones concrete stainless steel glass combination chinese traditional shapes styles west transnational modernity examples found large ceremonial complexes mainland china temple networks gatherings gathering temple city god guangzhou guangdong ''f nxi ng'' meaning incense division


term defines hierarchical networks temples dedicated god ritual process networks form temple networks economic social bodies certain moments history even taken military functions also represent routes pilgrimage communities devotees affiliated temples going hierarchy senior temple ''zumiao'' new temple dedicated god founded enters network ritual division incense consists filling incense burner new temple


ashes brought incense burner existing temple new temple therefore spiritually affiliated older temple ashes taken directly hierarchy temples ''mi ohu '' literally gatherings temple collective rituals greet gods ''y ngsh n ihu '' held temples various occasions chinese new year birthday holiday god enshrined temple ref name davis pp ref north chine also called ' 's ihu '' communal ritual gatherings ''xi nghu '' incense gatherings


adult population china million people absolute numbers believe practise folk religions including practice ancestor religion communal worship deities rest practise yang hu define individual folk religions like devotion specific gods caishen members folk religious sects taken account around year kenneth dean estimates million people involved folk religion total population citing dean kenneth ''local ritual traditions southeast china challenge definitions religion theories ritual''


''social scientific study religion china methodology theories findings'' eds fenggang yang graeme lang leiden brill p ref time self identified folk religion believers taiwan adult population million people absolute numbers although devotion ancestors gods found even among religions' believers population according census taiwan taoism statistical religion population chinese spiritual life survey conducted center religion chinese society purdue


university published found million people practise ancestor religion million people believe existence ancestor survey says million practise chinese folk religion taoist framework ref name csls chinese spiritual life survey anna sun purdue university 's center religion chinese society statistics published katharina wenzel teuber david strait http wwwchina zentrumde fileadmin redaktion rctc wenzel teuber statistical overview pdf people 's republic china religions churches statistical overview ''religions christianity today 's china'' ii pp ref china family panel studies' survey ref name cfps cgss b china family panel studies 's survey


published ''the world religious cultures'' issue http iwrcasscn zjwh w pdf ref published based chinese general social surveys held robust samples tens thousands people found population china belongs five state sanctioned religious groups among rest population atheists remaining billion people pray worship gods ancestors manner traditional popular religion survey found million total population declares


affiliated one another many folk religious sects time reports chinese government claim sects number followers five state sanctioned religions counted together million ref name phoenix weekly ''management change situation mainland folk religion'' ''phoenix weekly'' july n pu shi institute social science http wwwpacilutioncom showarticleasparticleid full text article ref economy temples rituals folk temple rooftop commercial building city wenzhou scholars studied economic dimension chinese folk religion


whose rituals temples interweave form grassroots socio economic capital well local communities fostering circulation wealth investment sacred capital temples gods ancestors religious economy already played role periods imperial china plays significant role modern taiwan seen driving force rapid economic development parts rural china especially southern eastern coasts according law study relationship revival folk religion recostruction patriarchal civilisation mayfair


yang defines embedded capitalism preserves local identity autonomy ethical capitalism drive individual accumulation money tempered religious kinship ethics generosity foster sharing investment wealth construction civil society overseas chinese temple mazu yokohama serving chinese japan overseas chinese populations maintained chinese folk religions often adapting new environment developing new cults incorporating elements local traditions southeast asia chinese deities subject territorialisation


maintain relation ethnic associations ie hainanese association fujianese association patron deity manages one temples deity ref name tan tan chee beng ''tianhou chinese diaspora'' chapter ''routledge handbook chinese diaspora'' routledge pp ref important deity among southeast asian chinese mazu queen heaven goddess sea related fact chinese populations southeastern provinces china goddess popular ref name tan folk


religious sects spread successfully among southeast asian chinese include especially church virtue deism zhenkongdao yiguandao see also chinese gods immortals chinese ritual mastery traditions chinese religions fasting xiantiandao chinese salvationist religions chinese shamanism chinese spiritual world concepts confucianism confucian church taoism quanzhen taoism zhengyi taoism buddhism chinese buddhism mazu worship list mazu temples chinese theology place chinese folk religion southeast asia northeast china folk religion four great mountains taiwan temples taichung taiwan tin hau temples hong kong kwan tai temples hong kong hip tin temples


hong kong confucian religion indonesia list city god temples china baishatun mazu pilgrimage qing king sacrificial ceremony chinese temples kolkata similar national traditions hinduism japanese shintoism korean shamanism vietnamese folk religion tai folk religion sino tibetan ethnic religions benzhuism bimoism bon dongbaism nuo folk religion qiang folk religion non sino tibetan ethnic religions present china manchu shamanism mongolian shamanism miao folk religion tengrism yao folk religion zhuang folk religion articles religion china wang ye worship nine emperor gods festival birthday monkey god monkey king festival dajiao kau chim


volume ancient eurasian world celestial pivot '' '' http sino platonicorg complete spp vol pdf volume ii representations identities high powers neolithic bronze china '' '' http sino platonicorg complete spp vol pdf volume iii terrestrial celestial transformations zhou early imperial china '' preprint ''the oxford handbook religious conversion'' doi oxfordhb original preserved british library digitalised two volumes l l z extracts '' http afeeasiacolumbiaedu cosmos bgov cosmoshtm chinese cosmos basic concepts '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwreligionucsbedu faculty yangm files culturalpoliticspdf available online articles fenggang yang '' http blogsssrcorg tif stand still watch stand still watch '' '' https webarchiveorg web http blogsssrcorg tif state religion china state religion china '' immanent frame prasenjit duara '' http blogsssrcorg tif chinese religions comparative historical perspective


chinese religions comparative historical perspective '' '' https webarchiveorg web http blogsssrcorg tif state religion china state religion china '' immanent frame richard madsen '' http blogsssrcorg tif secular belief religious belonging secular belief religious belonging '' '' https webarchiveorg web http blogsssrcorg tif state religion china state religion china '' immanent frame nathan schneider '' http blogsssrcorg tif future chinas past future china 's past interview mayfair yang '' immanent frame external links https archivetoday http zumiaojguocn china ancestral temples network '' http wwwboredinheavencom bored heaven '' documentary reinvention chinese religion taoism kenneth dean minutes east asian religions folk religion animism


rough approximation pangaea proxima potential supercontinent may exist million years according early model paleomap project website moore 's law example futurology statistical collection past present trends goal accurately extrapolating future trends '''futures studies''' '''futures research''' '''futurology''' systematic interdisciplinary holistic study social technological advancement environmental trends often purpose exploring people live work future predictive techniques forecasting applied contemporary

Social science
Sociology
Futures studies


futures studies scholars emphasize importance systematically exploring alternatives general considered branch social sciences parallel field history futures studies colloquially called '''futures''' many field 's practitioners seeks understand likely continue could plausibly change part discipline thus seeks systematic pattern based understanding past present explore possibility future events trends ref name wordnet ref unlike physical sciences narrower specified system studied futurology concerns much bigger complex


compose possible futures includes analyzing sources patterns causes change stability attempt develop foresight around world field variously referred '''futures studies''' '''futures research''' '' 'strategic foresight''' '''futuristics''' '''futures thinking''' '''futuring''' '''futurology''' futures studies strategic foresight academic field 's commonly used terms english speaking world ref name sardar z pp sardar z namesake futures futures studies futurology futuristic foresight name futures pp ref '''foresight''' original term first used sense hg


wells ref name wells hg p wells hg wanted professors foresight ''futures research quarterly'' v n spring p ref futurology term common encyclopedias though used almost exclusively nonpractitioners today least english speaking world futurology defined study future term coined german professor ossip k flechtheim mid proposed new branch knowledge would include new science probability term fallen favor recent decades modern practitioners stress importance alternative


plausible preferable plural futures rather one monolithic future limitations prediction probability versus creation possible preferable futures three factors usually distinguish futures studies research conducted disciplines although disciplines overlap differing degrees first futures studies often examines trends compose possible probable preferable futures along role wild cards play future scenarios second futures studies typically attempts gain holistic systemic view based insights range different disciplines generally focusing steep categories social


technological economic environmental political third futures studies challenges unpacks assumptions behind dominant contending views future future thus empty fraught hidden assumptions example many people expect collapse earth 's ecosystem near future others believe current ecosystem survive indefinitely foresight approach would seek analyze highlight assumptions underpinning views field futures studies expands research component emphasizing communication strategy actionable steps needed implement plan plans leading


preferable future regard futures studies evolves academic exercise traditional business like practice looking better prepare organizations future futures studies generally focus short term predictions interest rates next business cycle managers investors short term time horizons strategic planning develops goals objectives time horizons one three years also considered futures plans strategies longer time horizons specifically attempt anticipate possible future events definitely part


field learning medium long term developments may times observed early signs rule futures studies generally concerned changes transformative impact rather incremental narrow scope futures field also excludes make future predictions professed supernatural means complete futures study domain selected examination domain main idea project outcome project seeks determine domains strategic exploratory focus must narrow scope research


examines importantly discussed research futures practitioners study trends focusing steep social technological economic environments political baselines baseline exploration examine current steep environments determine normal trends called baselines next practitioners use scenarios explore different futures outcomes scenarios examine future different collapse scenarios seek answer happens steep baselines fall ruin longer exist impact steep categories transformation scenarios explore futures baseline society transiting new state


steep categories effected society whole new structure new equilibrium examines entire change structure domain happens baseline changes new baseline within structure society history origins sir thomas originator 'utopian' ideal johan galtung sohail inayatullah argue ''macrohistory macrohistorians'' search grand patterns social change goes way back sima qian bc theory cycles virtue although work ibn khaldun ''the muqaddimah''


would example perhaps intelligible modern sociology early western examples include sir thomas utopia published based upon plato republic future society overcome poverty misery create perfect model living work powerful utopias originally meaning nowhere come represent positive fulfilling futures everyone 's needs met ref name ref intellectual foundations futures studies appeared mid th century isadore comte considered father scientific philosophy heavily influenced work utopian socialist henri saint simon


discussion metapatterns social change presages futures studies scholarly dialogue ref name bell ref first works attempt make systematic predictions future written th century ''memoirs twentieth century'' written samuel madden takes form series diplomatic letters written british representatives foreign cities constantinople rome paris moscow however technology th century identical madden 's era focus instead political religious state


world future madden went write ''the reign george vi '' context boom canal construction time envisioned large network waterways would radically transform patterns living villages grew towns towns became cities actual george vi would ascend throne scientific american oldest continuously published magazine us began publishing articles scientific technological research focus upon future implications research would followed


magazine popular science aimed general readership ref name genre science fiction became established towards end th century notable writers including jules verne h g wells setting stories imagined future world early th century h g wells first advocated 'future studies' lecture delivered according w warren wagar founder future studies h g wells ''anticipations reaction mechanical scientific progress upon human life thought experiment prophecy''


first serially published ''the fortnightly review'' ref name wagar ref anticipating world would like year book interesting hits trains cars resulting dispersion population cities suburbs moral restrictions declining men women seek greater sexual freedom defeat german militarism existence european union world order maintained english speaking peoples based urban core chicago new york misses expect successful aircraft averred imagination refuses


future would grounded scientific methodology rather speculation argued scientifically ordered vision future certain strictly science perhaps detailed picture built within last hundred years make geological past although conscious difficulty arriving entirely accurate predictions thought would still possible arrive working knowledge things future ref name wagar fictional works wells predicted invention use atomic


throughout europe russian revolution led establishment soviet union 's gosplan state planning committee active dissolution soviet union gosplan responsible economic planning created plans five year increments govern economy one first soviet dissidents yevgeny zamyatin published first dystopian novel ''we'' science fiction political satire featured future police state first work censored soviet censorship board leading zamyatin 's political exile ref name united states president hoover created research


committee social trends produced report head committee william f ogburn analyzed past chart trends project trends future focus technology similar technique used great depression addition alternative futures set likely outcomes resulted creation social security tennessee valley development project ref name wwii era emphasized growing need foresight nazis used strategic plans unify mobilize society focus creating fascist utopia


planning subsequent war forced global leaders create strategic plans response post war era saw creation numerous nation states complex political alliances complicated introduction nuclear power project rand created joint project united states army air forces douglas aircraft company later incorporated non profit rand corporation objective future weapons long range planning meet future threats work formed basis us strategy policy regard nuclear weapons


view future'' ref name bell future studies parallel origin birth systems science academia idea national economic political planning notably france soviet union ref name bell ref name masini ref people france continuing reconstruct war torn country process french scholars philosophers writers artists searched could constitute positive future humanity soviet union similarly participated postwar rebuilding context established national economic planning process


also required long term systemic statement social goals future studies therefore primarily engaged national planning construction national symbols rachel carson author ''the silent spring'' helped launch environmental movement new direction futures research contrast united states futures studies discipline emerged successful application tools perspectives systems analysis especially regard quartermastering war effort society general systems research founded sought understand cybernetics practical application systems sciences greatly influencing us foresight


community ref name differing origins account initial schism futures studies america futurology europe us practitioners focused applied projects quantitative tools systems analysis whereas europeans preferred investigate long range future humanity earth might constitute future symbols semantics might express might articulate ref name sardar sardar ziauddin ed ''rescuing futures'' praeger studies st century westport connecticut usa ref academics philosophers writers artists across globe begun explore enough future scenarios


fashion common dialogue several notable writers emerge era include sociologist fred l polak whose work ''images future'' discusses importance images society 's creation future marshall mcluhan whose ''the gutenberg galaxy'' ''understanding media extensions man'' put forth theories technologies change cognitive understanding rachel carson ''the silent spring'' hugely influential future studies also creation environmental movement ref name inventors buckminster fuller also began highlighting effect


technology might global trends time progressed obvious shift use development futures studies focus longer exclusive governments militaries instead embraced wide array technologies social issues concerns discussion intersection population growth resource availability use economic growth quality life environmental sustainability nbsp ndash referred global problematique nbsp ndash came wide public attention publication ''limits growth'' donella meadows study sponsored club rome detailed results


computer simulation future based economic population growth sup sup public investment future enhanced publication alvin heidi toffler bestseller ''future shock'' exploration great amounts change overwhelm people create social paralysis due information overload ref name development international dialogue became institutionalized form world futures studies federation wfsf founded noted sociologist johan galtung serving first president united states publisher edward cornish concerned issues started


world future society organization focused interested laypeople http apforg association professional futurists founded spans countries members mission promote professional excellence demonstrating value strategic foresight futures studies first doctoral program study future founded university massachusetts christopher dede billy rojas next graduate program master 's degree also founded christopher dede university houston clear lake ref name markley markley oliver visionary futures guided imagery


teaching learning future ''american behavioral scientist'' sage publications new york ref oliver markley sri sri international hired move program applied professional direction program moved university houston renamed degree foresight program remained focused preparing professional futurists providing high quality foresight training individuals organizations business government education non profits program public policy alternative futures university hawaii manoa established ref name jones ref


hawaii program locates futures studies within pedagogical space defined neo marxism critical political economic theory literary criticism years following foundation two programs single courses futures studies levels education proliferated complete programs occur rarely free university berlin initiated master 's degree programme futures studies first one germany finland futures research centre started master 's degree programme futures studies turku school economics business school part university turku


turku finland ref name ref foresight futures work cover domain company considers important therefore futurist must able cross domains industries work continued discussion people profession advance preferring keep field open anyone interested future others arguing make credentialing rigorous approximately https rossdawsoncom futurist university foresight programs graduate phd programs foresight globally many certification courses field currently faces challenge creating coherent conceptual framework codified well documented curriculum


curricula featuring widely accepted consistent concepts theoretical paradigms linked quantitative qualitative methods exemplars research methods guidelines ethical appropriate application within society indication previously disparate intellectual dialogues fact started converging recognizable discipline least seven solidly researched well accepted attempts synthesize coherent framework field appeared 's ''why futures studies'' james dator 's ''advancing futures studies'' ziauddin sardar 's ''rescuing futures'' sohail inayatullah 's ''questioning future'' richard slaughter 's ''the knowledge base futures studies'' collection essays


senior practitioners wendell bell 's two volume work ''the foundations futures studies'' andy hines peter bishop ''thinking future'' ref name ref probability predictability understanding difference concepts probability predictability important understanding future field futures studies generally focused long term futures concept plausibility becomes greater concern usefulness probability predictability field lies analyzing quantifiable trends drivers influence future change predicting future events aspects future


future essentially unpredictable best way predict future create others believe flechtheim advances science probability modeling statistics allow us continue improve understanding probable futures area presently remains less well developed methods exploring possible preferable futures example consider process electing president united states one level observe us citizen may run president process may appear unconstrained useful prediction yet investigation


demonstrates certain public individuals current former presidents vice presidents senators state governors popular military commanders mayors large cities celebrities etc receive appropriate social credentials historical prerequisites election thus minimum effort formulating problem statistical prediction much reduced pool candidates described improving probabilistic foresight applying statistical intelligence problem observe certain election prediction markets iowa electronic markets reliable forecasts generated long spans time conditions results superior


individual experts polls markets may operated publicly internal market one several promising frontiers predictive futures research improvements predictability individual events though complexity theory viewpoint address unpredictability inherent dealing entire systems emerge interaction multiple individual events futurology sometimes described scientists pseudoscience ref name oxford ref name williams science exists realm certain builds knowledge attempting falsify predictions futures studies however exists realm uncertain also builds


astronomy biology mathematics including statistics game theory econometrics applied disciplines engineering computer sciences business management particularly strategy largest internationally peer reviewed collection futures research methods pages http wwwmillennium projectorg publications futures research methodology version futures research methodology methods groups methods contains executive overview method 's history description method primary alternative usages strengths weaknesses uses combination methods speculation future evolution method also contain appendixes applications links software sources information recent method books


https wwwamazoncouk explore futures research dp explore futures also published given unique objectives material practice futures studies rarely features employment scientific method sense controlled repeatable verifiable experiments highly standardized methodologies however many futurists informed scientific techniques work primarily within scientific domains borrowing history futurist might project patterns observed past civilizations upon present day society model might happen future borrowing technology futurist may model possible social cultural responses emerging technology based established


principles diffusion innovation short futures practitioner enjoys synergies interdisciplinary laboratory plural term futures suggests one fundamental assumptions futures studies future plural singular http wwwfutureshawaiiedu publications futures studies datorfuturesstudiespdf nowiki nowiki future consists one inevitable future predicted rather multiple alternative futures varying likelihood may derived described impossible say certainty one occur primary effort futures studies identify describe alternative futures


order better understand driving forces present structural dynamics particular subject subjects exercise identifying alternative futures includes collecting quantitative qualitative data possibility probability desirability change plural term futures futures studies denotes rich variety alternative futures including subset preferable futures normative futures studied well tenet future many present general futures studies model summarized concerned three ps w possible probable


preferable futures plus wildcards unexpected seemingly low probability high impact events positive negative many futurists use wild card approach rather use methodology called emerging issues analysis searches drivers change issues likely move unknown known low impact high impact terms technique futures practitioners originally concentrated extrapolating present technological economic social trends attempting predict future trends time discipline come put focus examination social systems


assist individuals organizations model preferred futures amid shifting social changes instance despite many wicked global challenges today 's world climate change extreme poverty aspect preferability happen times overlooked practitioners use varying proportions collaboration creativity research derive define alternative futures degree preferred future might sought especially organizational context techniques may also deployed develop plans strategies directed future shaping implementation preferred future futurists concerned


qualitative though significant progress statistical quantitative methods technology information growth curves cliometrics predictive psychology prediction markets crowd voting forecasts sup ''better source needed'' sup etc made recent decades futures techniques futures techniques methodologies may viewed frameworks making sense data generated structured processes think future single set methods appropriate futures research different futures researchers intentionally unintentionally promote use favored techniques structured approach selection methods use futures research projects far


dominated intuition insight practitioners better identify balanced selection techniques via acknowledgement foresight process together familiarity fundamental attributes commonly used methods scenarios central technique futures studies often confused techniques flowchart right provides process classifying phenomenon scenario intuitive logics traditionprocess classifying phenomenon scenario intuitive logics tradition futurists use diverse range forecasting foresight methods including framework foresight prediction markets causal


layered analysis cla environmental scanning horizon scanning scenario method education learning delphi method including real time delphi future history monitoring backcasting eco history cross impact analysis futures workshops failure mode effects analysis futures wheel technology roadmapping social network analysis systems engineering trend analysis morphological analysis technology forecasting theory u shaping alternative futures futurists use scenarios nbsp ndash alternative possible futures nbsp ndash important tool extent people determine consider probable desirable using qualitative quantitative methods looking variety possibilities one comes closer shaping future rather merely predicting shaping alternative futures


ecological catastrophes utopian future poorest human lives present day observers would regard wealth comfort transformation humanity posthuman life form destruction life earth say nanotechnological disaster reasons convenience futurists often extrapolated present technical societal trends assumed develop rate future technical progress social upheavals reality take place fits starts different areas different rates therefore degree field aimed move


away prediction current futurists often present multiple scenarios help audience envision may occur instead merely predicting future claim understanding potential scenarios helps individuals organizations prepare flexibility many corporations use futurists part risk management strategy horizon scanning emerging issues analysis identify wild cards ndash low probability potentially high impact risks understanding range possibilities enhance recognition opportunities threats every successful unsuccessful business engages futuring degree ndash example research development innovation market research


anticipating competitor behavior ref name rohrbeck rohrbeck rene ''corporate foresight towards maturity model future orientation firm'' springer series contributions management science heidelberg new york ref ref name rohrbeck gemuenden rohrbeck r hg gemuenden http ssrncom abstract corporate foresight three roles enhancing innovation capacity firm ''technological forecasting social change'' forthcoming ref weak signals future sign wild cards futures research weak signals may understood advanced noisy socially situated indicators change trends systems constitute raw informational material enabling anticipatory action confusion


definition weak signal various researchers consultants sometimes referred future oriented information sometimes like emerging issues confusion partly clarified concept 'the future sign' separating signal issue interpretation future sign weak signal early indicator coming change example might also help clarify confusion may hundreds people gathered take flour back demonstration rothamsted research harpenden uk oppose publicly funded trial genetically modified wheat


weak signal broader shift consumer sentiment genetically modified foods whole foods mandated labeling gmos non gmo idea already become trend topic mainstream awareness wild cards refer low probability high impact events happen quickly huge sweeping consequences materialize quickly social systems effectively respond elina hultunen notes wild cards new though become prevalent one reason may increasingly fast pace change oliver markley proposed four types


wild cards ref name ref type wild card low probability high impact high credibility type ii wild card high probability high impact low credibility type iii wild card high probability high impact disputed credibility type iv wild card high probability high impact high credibility posits important track emergence type ii wild cards high probability occurring low credibility happen focus especially important note often difficult persuade people accept something n't believe happening see


embedded standard foresight projects introduced anticipatory decision making activity order increase ability social groups adapt surprises arising turbulent business environments sudden unique incidents might constitute turning points evolution certain trend system wild cards may may announced weak signals incomplete fragmented data relevant foresight information might inferred sometimes mistakenly wild cards weak signals considered synonyms one often cited examples wild card event recent


history nothing happened past could point possibility yet huge impact everyday life united states simple tasks like travel via airplane deeper cultural values wild card events might also natural disasters hurricane katrina force relocation huge populations wipe entire crops completely disrupt supply chain many businesses although wild card events ca n't predicted occur often easy reflect back convincingly explain happened


portents may explain failure prediction marketers increasingly started embrace futures studies effort benefit increasingly competitive marketplace fast production cycles using techniques trendspotting popularized faith popcorn trend analysis forecasting megatrends trends come different sizes megatrend extends many generations cases climate megatrends cover periods prior human existence describe complex interactions many factors increase population palaeolithic period present provides example megatrends likely produce greater


change previous one technology causing trends unfold accelerating pace concept popularized book megatrends futurist john naisbitt potential trends possible new trends grow innovations projects beliefs actions activism potential grow eventually go mainstream future branching trends often trends relate one another way tree trunk relates branches twigs example well documented movement toward equality men women might represent branch trend trend toward reducing


differences salaries men women western world could form twig branch life cycle trend understanding technology adoption cycle helps futurists monitor trend development trends start weak signals small mentions fringe media outlets discussion conversations blog posts often innovators ideas projects beliefs technologies gain acceptance move phase early adopters beginning trend 's development difficult tell become significant trend creates changes merely trendy fad


fades forgotten history trends emerge initially unconnected dots eventually coalesce persistent change trends emerge enough confirmation occurs various media surveys questionnaires show increasingly accepted value behavior technology becomes accepted bona fide trend trends also gain confirmation existence trends perceived springing branch commentators claim given population integrates innovation project belief action daily life trend becomes mainstream general hype


cycle used visualize technological life stages maturity adoption social application life cycle technologies gartner created hype cycle illustrate phases technology moves grows research development mainstream adoption unrealistic expectations subsequent disillusionment virtual reality experienced early example middle phases encountered technology begin integrated society education education field futures studies taken place time beginning united states


since developed many different countries futures education encourages use concepts tools processes allow students think long term consequentially imaginatively generally helps students conceptualize sustainable human planetary futures develop knowledge skills methods tools used help people understand map influence future exploring probable preferred futures understand dynamics influence human social ecological systems alternative futures conscientize responsibility action part students toward creating better futures thorough documentation


history futures education exists example work richard slaughter ref name slaughter ref david hicks ivana milojevi name futures studies remains relatively new academic tradition numerous tertiary institutions around world teach vary small programs universities one two classes programs offer certificates incorporate futures studies degrees example planning business environmental studies economics development studies science technology studies various formal masters level programs exist six continents finally doctoral dissertations around world incorporated futures studies


see eg rohrbeck von der gracht hines recent survey documented approximately cases futures studies tertiary level futures studies program offered tamkang university taiwan futures studies required course undergraduate level three five thousand students taking classes annual basis housed graduate institute futures studies program ten students accepted annually program associated program ''journal futures studies'' ref name jfs ref longest running future studies program north america established


university houston clear lake moved university houston renamed degree foresight program established belief history studied taught academic setting future mission prepare professional futurists curriculum incorporates blend essential theory framework methods work focus application clients business government nonprofits society general tertiary education establishments around world delivering one


courses futures studies world futures studies federation comprehensive survey global futures programs courses acceleration studies foundation maintains annotated list primary secondary graduate futures studies programs program futures studies offered free university berlin since msocsc phd program futures studies offered university turku finland ref name university stellenbosch business school south africa offers pgdip future studies well mphil future studies degree applications foresight specific


fields general applicability use foresight products several corporations government agencies utilize foresight products better understand potential risks prepare potential opportunities anticipatory approach several government agencies publish material internal stakeholders well make material available broader public examples include us congressional budget office long term budget projections national intelligence center united kingdom government office science much material used policy makers inform policy decisions government agencies develop long term plan several corporations particularly


long product development lifecycles utilize foresight future studies products practitioners development business strategies shell corporation one entity foresight professionals tools increasingly used private public areas help leaders deal increasingly complex interconnected world imperial cycles world order imperial cycles represent expanding pulsation mathematically describable macro historic trend chinese philosopher k'ang yu wei french demographer georges vacher de lapouge stressed late th century trend cannot proceed indefinitely finite surface globe


trend bound culminate world empire k'ang yu wei predicted matter decided contest washington berlin vacher de lapouge foresaw contest united states russia wagered odds united states' favour published futures studies h g wells introduced science future ''anticipations'' four later anthropologists hornell hart raoul naroll louis morano robert carneiro researched expanding imperial cycles reached conclusion world empire pre determined close hand


st nd plans transform learning environments equip students compete knowledge economy world future society founded largest longest running community futurists world wfs established built futurism ground publications global summits advisory roles world leaders business government ref name early educators began independently institute futures studies sometimes referred futures thinking lessons k classroom environments meet need non profit futures organizations designed curriculum plans supply educators materials


topic many curriculum plans developed meet common core standards futures studies education methods youth typically include age appropriate collaborative activities games systems thinking scenario building exercises several organizations devoted furthering advancement foresight future studies worldwide https wwwteachthefutureorg teach future emphasizes foresight educational practices appropriate k schools https wwwhoustonforesightorg university houston master 's ms level graduate program college technology well certificate program interested advanced studies department political science university hawaii manoa


images future wendell bell clarifying fred polak 's concept images future applies futures studies ref name polak fred polak fred boulding elise image future print ref similar futures studies scenarios thinking empirically supported visions future window future could however unlike futures studies science fiction works present single alternative unless narrative deals multiple timelines alternative realities works phillip k dick multitude small big screen works pamela


sargent states science fiction reflects attitudes typical century gives brief history impactful sci fi publications like foundation trilogy isaac asimov starship troopers robert heinlein ref name sargent pamela pp women science fiction sargent pamela futures pp ref alternate perspectives validate sci fi part fuzzy images future ref name polak fred brian david johnson futurist author uses science fiction help build future futurist intel resident futurist arizona state university


work called future casting using ethnographic field studies technology research trend data even science fiction create pragmatic vision consumers computing brian david johnson developed practical guide utilizing science fiction tool futures studies science fiction prototyping combines past present including interviews notable science fiction authors provide tools needed design future science fiction science fiction prototyping five parts ref name ref pick science concept build imaginative world scientific inflection point


consequences better worse science technology people world human inflection point reflection learn full science fiction prototyping sfp pages long popular structure introduction background work fictional story bulk sfp short summary summary reflection often science fiction prototypes extrapolate current science forward therefore include set references end ref name ian miles reviews new encyclopedia science fiction identifying ways


strengths genre form futurist thinking discussed tom lombardo argues select science fiction combines highly detailed concrete level realism theoretical speculation future addresses main dimensions future synthesizes dimensions integrative visions future reflects contemporary futurist thinking therefore viewed mythology future notable although hard limits horizons future studies foresight efforts typical future horizons explored within realm


practical span decades nevertheless hard science fiction works applicable visioning exercises span longer periods time topic significant time scale case kim stanley robinson 's mars trilogy deals terraforming mars extends two centuries forward early rd century fact overlap science fiction writers professional futurists case david brin arguably work science fiction authors seeded many


ideas later developed technological social nature early works jules verne hg wells later arthur c clarke william gibson beyond literary works futures studies futurists influenced film tv works movie adaptation phillip k dick 's short stort minority report group consultants build realistic vision future including futurist peter schwartz tv shows hbo 's westworld channel netflix' black mirror follow many rules futures studies build world scenery


united arab emirates governments strategic foresight agencies include canada 's http wwwhorizonsgcca en policy horizons canada malaysia 's malaysian foresight institute singapore government 's centre strategic futures csf part strategy group within prime minister 's office mission position singapore government navigate emerging strategic challenges harness potential opportunities singapore 's early formal efforts strategic foresight began establishment risk detection scenario planning office ministry defence ref name kuosa ref addition csf singapore government established strategic futures network brings


finland futures academy established coordination foresight units various government agencies ref name boston united arab emirates sheikh mohammed bin rashid vice president ruler dubai announced september government ministries appoint directors future planning sheikh mohammed described uae strategy future integrated strategy forecast nation future aiming anticipate challenges seize opportunities https wwwmocafgovae en area focus future foresight ministry cabinet affairs future mocaf mandated crafting uae strategy future responsible portfolio


future uae united states general accountability office gao created center strategic foresight enhance ability serve agency principal hub identifying monitoring analyzing emerging issues facing policymakers center composed non resident fellows considered leading experts foresight planning future thinking september hosted conference space policy deep fake synthetic media manipulate online real world interactions risk analysis management foresight framework lens could used risk analysis management medium


long term time range typical formal foresight project would identify key drivers uncertainties relevant scope analysis would also analyze drivers uncertainties could interact create probable scenarios interest risks might contain additional step would identifying actions avoid minimize risks one classic example work foresight work royal dutch shell international oil company led envision turbulent oil prices possibility better embed company planning yet practice


risks may arise development adoption emerging technologies social change special interest lies hypothetical future events potential damage human well global scale global catastrophic risks events may cripple destroy modern civilization case existential risks even cause human extinction ref name types ref potential global catastrophic risks include limited climate change hostile artificial intelligence nanotechnology weapons nuclear warfare total war pandemics aim professional futurist would identify conditions could lead events order


analyzing data extrapolations one number highly structured methods futurists organize information use create multiple future scenarios topic also known domain value preparing many different versions future rather singular prediction provide client ability prepare long range plans weather optimize variety contexts books apf 's list significant futures works association professional futurists recognizes significant futures works purpose identifying rewarding work


foresight professionals others whose work illuminates aspects future class wikitable author title bertrand de jouvenel ''l art de la conjecture art conjecture '' donella meadows '' limits growth '' peter schwartz '' art long view '' ray kurzweil '' age spiritual machines computers exceed human intelligence '' jerome c glenn theodore j gordon '' futures research methodology version '' jerome c glenn theodore j gordon


'' state future '' jared diamond '' collapse societies choose fail succeed '' richard slaughter '' biggest wake call history '' richard slaughter '' knowledge base futures studies '' worldwatch institute '' state world book series '' nassim nicholas taleb '' black swan impact highly improbable '' tim jackson economist '' prosperity without growth '' j rgen randers


dougal dixon '' man zoology future '' notable foresight books four futures life capitalism peter frase ''teaching future'' peter c bishop andy hines ''deep time reckoning future thinking help earth now'' vincent ialenti fourth industrial revolution klaus schwab futuring exploration future edward cornish foresight infused strategy maree conway ''physics future science shape human destiny daily lives year '' michio kaku learning


long view peter schwartz ''the future mind scientific quest understand enhance empower mind'' michio kaku ''the age intelligent machines'' ray kurzweil ''the singularity near humans transcend biology'' ray kurzweil ''abundance future better think'' peter diamandis ''brave new world'' aldous huxley ''the next years forecast st century'' george friedman ''future shock'' alvin heidi toffler ''thinking future'' andy hines peter c bishop ''the third wave'' alvin heidi toffler ''futurewise six faces global change'' patrick dixon ''our final hour''


martin rees ''the revenge gaia'' james lovelock ''the skeptical environmentalist'' bj rn lomborg ''surviving centuries it'' roger maurice bonnet lodewijk woltjer ''paris twentieth century'' jules verne ''the communist manifesto'' karl marx friedrich engels ''an anarchist faq'' iain mckay ''homo deus brief history tomorrow'' yuval noah harari ''warnings finding cassandras stop catastrophes'' richard clarke r p eddy ''future agenda'' tim jones ''future frequencies'' derek woodgate wayne pethrick ''social theory social change'' trevor nobel ''scenario based strategy'' paul de ruijter ''scenario planning link future


strategy'' mats lindgren hans banhold ''creating better futures'' jay ogilvy ''questioning future methods tools organisational societal transformation'' sohail inayatullah ''strategic foresight learning future'' patricia lustig ''history future using historical thinking imagine future'' david stanley suggestions please visit https wfsforg resources leala pedagogical resources bibliographies bishop futures bibliography file resource bibliography dr peter bishop periodicals journals futures journal foresight futures foresight science journal futures studies world futures review technological forecasting social change international journal forecasting futurist magazine world future society european journal futures research organizations foresight professional networks


world future society world futures studies federation world future council association professional futurists millennium project public sector foresight organizations national intelligence council nasa institute advanced concepts government office science united kingdom might malaysian industry government group high technology non governmental foresight organizations future studies program rand corporation hudson institute club rome institute future copenhagen institute futures studies tellus institute global business network arlington institute global scenario group millennium project venus project long foundation techcast project machine intelligence research institute strategic foresight group future


humanity institute world future council germany see also deficit spending forethought sea level rise future earth references external links systems thinking


bread factory germany '''food engineering''' scientific academic professional field interprets applies principles engineering science mathematics food manufacturing operations including processing production handling storage conservation control packaging distribution food products ref name ref ref name ref given reliance food science broader engineering disciplines electrical mechanical civil chemical industrial agricultural engineering food engineering considered multidisciplinary narrow field ref name due complex nature food materials food engineering also combines study specific chemical physical concepts biochemistry microbiology

Applied science
Agriculture
Agricultural engineering
Food engineering


food chemistry thermodynamics transport phenomena rheology heat transfer ref name food engineers apply knowledge cost effective design production commercialization sustainable safe nutritious healthy appealing affordable high quality ingredients foods well development food systems machinery instrumentation ref name ref history although food engineering relatively recent evolving field study based long established concepts activities ref name traditional focus food engineering preservation involved stabilizing sterilizing foods preventing spoilage preserving nutrients food prolonged periods time ref name ref


specific traditional activities include food dehydration concentration protective packaging canning freeze drying development food technologies greatly influenced urged wars long voyages including space missions long lasting nutritious foods essential survival ref name ancient activities include milling storage fermentation processes ref name although several traditional activities remain concern form basis today technologies innovations focus food engineering recently shifted food quality safety taste health sustainability ref name ref name application practices following


applications practices used food engineering produce safe healthy tasty sustainable food refrigeration freezing food distribution center refrigeration technologies main objective food refrigeration freezing preserve quality safety food materials refrigeration freezing contribute preservation perishable foods conservation food quality factors visual appearance texture taste flavor nutritional contents addition freezing food slows growth bacteria could potentially harm consumers ref name evaporation evaporation used pre concentrate increase


solid content change color reduce water content food liquid products process mostly seen processing milk starch derivatives coffee fruit juices vegetable pastes concentrates seasonings sauces sugar edible oil addition evaporation used food dehydration processes purpose dehydration prevent growth molds food build moisture present ref name process applied vegetables fruits meats fish example ref name packaging food packaging technologies used extend shelf life products


stabilize food preserve taste appearance quality maintain food clean protected appealing consumer achieved example packaging food cans jars ref name food production creates large amounts waste many companies transitioning eco friendly packaging preserve environment attract attention environmentally conscious consumers types environmentally friendly packaging include plastics made corn potato bio compostable plastic paper products disintegrate recycled content even though transitioning eco friendly packaging positive effects environment many companies finding


benefits reducing excess packaging material helping attract retain customers showing companies care environment energy food processing increase sustainability food processing need energy efficiency waste heat recovery replacement conventional energy intensive food processes new technologies like thermodynamic cycles non thermal heating processes provide another potential reduce energy consumption reduce production costs improve sustainability food production heat transfer food processing heat transfer important processing almost every commercialized food product


three dimensional printing food three dimensional printing also known additive manufacturing process using digital files create three dimensional objects food industry printing food used processing food layers using computer equipment process printing slow improving time goal reducing costs processing times successful food items printed technology chocolate cheese cake frosting turkey pizza celery among others technology continuously improving potential providing


cost effective energy efficient food meets nutritional stability safety variety ref name ref biosensors biosensors used quality control laboratories different stages food processing biosensor technology one way farmers food processors adapted worldwide increase demand food maintaining food production quality high furthermore since millions people affected food borne diseases caused bacteria viruses biosensors becoming important tool ensure safety food help track analyze food quality several parts supply


microwaved milk studied developed prevent oxidation compared traditional pasteurized milk methods concluded milk better quality microwaved milk pasteurization ref name education training students work food science laboratory food engineering emerged academic discipline ref name several us universities included food science food technology curricula important works food engineering appeared ref name today educational institutions throughout world offer bachelors masters doctoral degrees food engineering however due


unique character food engineering training often offered branch broader programs food science food technology biotechnology agricultural chemical engineering ref name ref cases institutions offer food engineering education concentrations specializations minors food engineering candidates receive multidisciplinary training areas like mathematics chemistry biochemistry physics microbiology nutrition law food engineering still growing developing field study academic curricula continue evolve future food engineering programs subject change due current challenges food industry including bio economics food security population growth


food safety changing eating behavior globalization climate change energy cost change value chain fossil fuel prices sustainability ref name address challenges require development new products services processes academic programs incorporating innovative practical forms training ref name example innovation laboratories research programs projects food companies equipment manufacturers adopted universities ref name ref name addition food engineering competitions competitions scientific disciplines appearing ref name growing demand safe sustainable healthy food environmentally


friendly processes packaging large job market food engineering prospective employees food engineers typically employed food industry academia government agencies research centers consulting firms pharmaceutical companies healthcare firms entrepreneurial projects ref name ref name job descriptions include limited food engineer food microbiologist bioengineering biotechnology nutrition traceability food safety quality management ref name challenges sustainability food engineering negative impacts environment emission large quantities waste pollution water air must addressed food


engineers future development food production processing operations scientists engineers experimenting different ways create improved processes reduce pollution must continue improved order achieve sustainable food supply chain food engineers must reevaluate current practices technologies focus increasing productivity efficiency reducing consumption water energy decreasing amount waste produced ref name population growth even though food supply expands yearly also increase number hungry people world population


expected reach billion people problem malnutrition remains priority ref name achieve food security food engineers required address land water scarcity provide enough growth food undernourished people ref name addition food production depends land water supply stress population size increases growing pressure land resources driven expanding populations leading expansions croplands usually involves destruction forests exploitation arable land food engineers face challenge finding sustainable ways


produce adapt growing population human health food engineers must adapt food technologies operations recent consumer trend toward consumption healthy nutritious food supply foods qualities benefit human health food engineers must work collaboratively professionals domains medicine biochemistry chemistry consumerism ref name new technologies practices must developed increase production foods positive impact human health see also pharmaceuticals food science food technology aseptic processing dietary supplement food biological


process engineering food fortification food preservation food rheology food supplements future food technology nutraceutical nutrification ''food bioprocess technology'' food safety food chemistry food physical chemistry pasteurization food dehydration biosensors biochemistry microbiology food quality stabiliser references references engineering disciplines food science food industry


emperor trajan asking advice prosecute christians bithynia describing practice gathering sunrise repeating antiphonally hymn christ god antiphonal psalmody singing musical playing psalms alternating groups performers peculiar mirror structure hebrew psalms makes likely antiphonal method originated services ancient israelites according historian socrates constantinople introduction christian worship due ignatius antioch died vision seen

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Church music


angels singing alternate choirs first two three centuries christian communities incorporated observances features greek music music cultures bordering eastern mediterranean sea ref name ref early church spread jerusalem asia minor north africa europe absorbed musical influences example monasteries churches syria important development psalm singing use strophic devotional song hymns ref name use instruments early christian music seems frowned upon late th


early th century st jerome wrote christian maiden ought even know lyre flute like use put evidence musical roles th th centuries particularly sparse cycle invasions germanic tribes west doctrinal political conflict east well consequent instability christian institutions former roman empire introduction church organ music traditionally believed date time papacy pope vitalian th


soloists sang chants long history gregorian chant subjected many gradual changes reforms organized codified notated mainly frankish lands western central europe th th centuries later additions redactions texts many melodies antecedents going back several centuries earlier although th century legend credits pope gregory great personally invented gregorian chant receiving chant melodies divine intervention holy spirit scholars believe chant bearing name


arose later carolingian synthesis roman gallican chant following centuries chant tradition still heart church music changed acquired various accretions even polyphonic music arose venerable old chants organa l onin p rotin paris ended monophonic chant later traditions new composition styles practiced juxtaposition co habitation monophonic chant practice continued lifetime fran ois couperin whose organ masses meant performed alternating homophonic chant although mostly fallen


disuse baroque period chant experienced revival th century catholic church anglo catholic wing anglican communion mass mass form music sets parts eucharistic liturgy chiefly belonging catholic church churches anglican communion also lutheran church music masses settings liturgy latin traditional language catholic church significant number written languages non catholic countries vernacular worship long


norm example many masses often called communion services written english church england time christianity competing prominence religions music chants often beautiful elaborate attract new members church music integral part mass accompanies various rituals acts contributes totality worship service music mass activity participants share others celebration jesus christ masses ''a cappella'' human voice alone accompanied


instrumental ''obbligatos'' including full orchestra many masses especially later ones never intended performed celebration actual mass generally composition full mass must contain following invariable five sections together constitute ordinary mass kyrie lord mercy gloria glory god high credo believe one god nicene creed sanctus holy holy holy second part beginning word benedictus blessed often sung separately


consecration setting long see benedictus chants beginning word agnus dei lamb god setting ordinary mass spawned tradition mass composition many famous composers standard concert repertory made contributions including bach haydn mozart beethoven requiem mass mass dead modified version ordinary mass musical settings requiem mass long tradition western music many notable works tradition including ockeghem pierre de la


rue brumel jean richafort pedro de escobar antoine de f vin morales palestrina tom luis de victoria mozart gossec cherubini berlioz brahms bruckner dvo k frederick delius maurice durufl faur liszt verdi herbert howells stravinsky britten gy rgy ligeti penderecki henze andrew lloyd webber liturgical mass variable sections may sung often gregorian chant sections proper mass change day season according church calendar according special circumstances mass proper mass usually set music mass


except case requiem mass may subject motets musical compositions sections proper mass include introit gradual alleluia tract depending time year offertory communion carols carol singers carol festive song generally religious necessarily connected church worship often popular character today carol represented almost exclusively christmas carol advent carol lesser extent easter carol tradition christmas carols goes back


far th century although carols originally communal songs sung celebrations like harvest tide well christmas late th th centuries carols began sung church specifically associated christmas traditionally carols often based medieval chord progressions gives characteristic sound carols like '' personent hodie '' angels realms glory traced directly back middle ages among oldest musical compositions still regularly sung carols


suffered decline popularity reformation countries protestant churches gained prominence although well known reformers like martin luther authored carols encouraged use worship survived rural communities revival interest carols th century first appearance print god rest ye merry gentlemen first noel saw three ships hark herald angels sing ''christmas carols ancient modern'' william sandys composers like arthur sullivan helped repopularize carol period gave rise


favorites good king wenceslas came upon midnight clear new england carol written edmund h sears richard willis christian hymnody thomas aquinas introduction commentary psalms defined christian hymn thus ''hymnus est laus dei cum cantico canticum autem exultatio mentis de aeternis habita prorumpens vocem'' hymn praise god song song exultation mind dwelling eternal things bursting forth voice earliest christian hymns mentioned round year saint


paul letters greek hymn ''hail gladdening light'' mentioned saint basil around latin hymns appear around time influenced saint ambrose milan early christian hymns known canticles often based biblical passages psalms still used catholic lutheran anglican methodist liturgy examples te deum benedicite prudentius spanish poet late th century one prolific hymn writers time early celtic hymns associated saint patrick saint columba including still extant


category hymns banned along form instrumental musical accompaniment organs ripped churches instead hymns biblical psalms chanted often without accompaniment known exclusive psalmody examples may still found various places including free churches western scotland early printing martin luther 's hymn ein feste burg ist unser gott reformation approach favored martin luther produced burst hymn writing congregational singing luther followers often used hymns chorales teach tenets


faith worshipers earlier english writers tended paraphrase biblical text particularly psalms isaac watts followed tradition also credited written first english hymn direct paraphrase scripture later writers took even freedom even including allegory metaphor texts charles wesley 's hymns spread methodist theology within methodism protestant churches developed new focus expressing one 's personal feelings relationship god well simple worship seen older hymns methodist revival th century created


explosion hymn writing welsh continued first half th century african americans developed rich hymnody spirituals sung times slavery second great awakening united states led emergence new popular style fanny crosby ira sankey others produced testimonial music evangelistic crusades often designated gospel songs distinct hymns since generally include refrain chorus usually though always faster tempo hymns examples distinction amazing


many churches today use contemporary worship music includes range styles often influenced popular music style began late became popular distinctive form modern lively black gospel style see also christian music church music scotland contemporary worship music evensong liturgical music lutheran hymn religious music references sources ac zenos ed ecclesiastical history socrates scholasticus ''a select library nicene post nicene fathers christian church'' second series ed philip schaff henry wace grand rapids


accurate give either true false account subject question however authors accounts genuinely believe claim truthful time composition least pose convinced audience historically empirically factual reporting beliefs others nonfiction format necessarily endorsement veracity beliefs rather exercise representing topic works nonfiction need necessarily written text since statements expressed pictures film also purport present factual

Humanities
Languages and literature
Creative writing
Non-fiction


account subject distinctions numerous literary creative devices used within fiction generally thought inappropriate use nonfiction still present particularly older works often muted overshadow information within work simplicity clarity directness important considerations producing nonfiction audience important artistic descriptive endeavor perhaps important nonfiction fiction writer believes readers make effort follow interpret indirectly abstractly presented progression theme whereas


production nonfiction direct provision information understanding potential readers' use work existing knowledge subject fundamental effective nonfiction despite claim truth nonfiction often necessary persuade reader agree ideas balanced coherent informed argument vital however boundaries fiction nonfiction continually blurred argued upon especially field biography ref name art life ref virginia woolf said think truth


something granite like solidity personality something rainbow like intangibility reflect aim biography weld two one seamless whole shall admit problem stiff one need wonder biographers part failed solve semi fiction fiction implementing great deal nonfiction eg fictional description based true story major types common literary examples nonfiction include expository argumentative functional opinion pieces essays art literature biographies memoirs journalism historical scientific technical economic


writings including electronic ones journals photographs textbooks travel books blueprints diagrams also often considered nonfictional including information author knows untrue within works usually regarded dishonest works legitimately either fiction nonfiction journals self expression letters magazine articles expressions imagination though works mostly either blend also possible fiction may include nonfictional elements nonfiction may include elements unverified supposition deduction imagination purpose smoothing narrative


inclusion open falsehoods would discredit work nonfiction publishing bookselling business sometimes uses phrase literary nonfiction distinguish works literary intellectual bent opposed greater collection nonfiction subjects specific types academic paper academic publishing almanac autobiography biography blueprint book report creative nonfiction design document diagram diary dictionary factual television eg television documentaries encyclopedia essay guides manuals handbook history journal journalism letter letter collection literary criticism memoir natural history nonfiction films eg documentaries philosophy photograph popular science self help science book scientific paper statute technical writing


textbook thesaurus theology travelogue see also documentary practice list writing genres references external links https wwwcreativenonfictionorg creative nonfiction creative nonfiction genres


david playing harp unknown artist c book psalms included jewish christian scriptures said written largely david one earliest collections sacred music still plays role liturgies two religions '''religious music''' also '' 'sacred music''' type music performed composed religious use religious influence may overlap ritual music music sacred performed composed ritual buddhist music buddhist music music created

Applied science
Divinity
Field ministry
Sacred music


inspired buddhism part buddhist art buddhist chanting buddhist chanting form musical verse incantation similar religious recitations faiths buddhist chanting traditional means preparing mind meditation especially part formal practice either lay monastic context buddhist traditions also use chanting form devotional practices apart chanting certain buddhist traditions offerings music given honor triple gem consisting traditional music performed specialists ritual music accompanies


centuries old roots well contemporary musical styles thousands traditionally styled songs praise worship called hymns greek word ''hymnos'' meaning song praise written hundreds years eventually songs compiled books called hymnals pastors congregants would read christian services practice continues many churches today prior eighteenth century christian hymnals published standalone texts without accompanying musical scores first american hymnal text song published europe church england


officially allow hymns sung originally hymns sung lining lyrics meaning pastor would sing line congregation would repeat done time books expensive economical provide pastor church one copy everyone could sing christian music modern era modern methods publication made hymnals much accessible public today previously practice lining lyrics hymns therefore largely fallen away although continues


practiced traditional churches twentieth century christian music developed reflect emergence diverse array musical genres including rock metal pop jazz contemporary rap spiritual country blues gospel use specific genres styles music church services today varies across denominations according personal preference pastors church members late twentieth century widespread preference less traditional churches towards using contemporary music particularly praise worship songs attempt preserve religious intent hymns use


contemporary lyrics modern musical sound instead well gospel spiritual music hindu music hindu music music created influenced hinduism includes indian classical music kirtan bhajan musical genres raagas common form hindu music classical india vedas also hindu music '''''raga''''' '''''raag''''' iast r ga also '''''raaga''''' '''''ragam''''' literally coloring tingeing dyeing melodic framework improvisation akin melodic mode indian classical music islamic music chapter recited imam mishary rashid alafasy format ogg


islamic music comes form prayers arabic prayer ''salah '' occur five times day prayers conducted facing mecca knees ground bowing reciting prayers usually recitations islamic holy word quran ref name ref prayers occur day connect muslim people series melodic prayers often become amplified city islam implication prayer case ''salah'' ritual since believed direct word


god shall performed collective well individually ref name form islamic music naat word naat arabic origins translates ''praise'' poem praises islamic prophet muhammad referred naat urdu first naat dates back era muhammad written arabic later spread throughout world reached various literatures including urdu punjabi sindhi pashtu turkish seraiki history islamic prayer shall say prayer pray concentration


devotion astonished able see personally observe eyes riccold de monte year ref name origin art prayer abrahamic religions glorify god goes islam ''al salat'' widely used word mean institutionalized prayer one oldest forms prayer islam islamic prayer traditions ideals influence abrahamic religions time origination salah came muhammad cave


began worship allah god believed act worship mohammad interacted abrahamic prophet moses ref name prayers come form recitations quran poems written prophets faith spread islamic prayer besides spread islam arabia prophets spread trade routes like silk road conflicts war silk road traders members early muslim faith able go countries china create mosques around c e ref


shamanic music shamanic music music played either actual shamans part rituals people whilst shamans wish evoke cultural background shamanism way shint music shint music ceremonial music shinto native religion japan sikh music sikh music shabad kirtan kirtan style singing hymns shabad guru granth sahib central text sikhism development dates back late th century musical expression mystical poetry accompanied musical


ceremonial music taoism importance music taoist ceremony demonstrated revealing central beliefs reflected elements music instrumentation rhythm zoroastrian music zoroastrian music genre music accompanies zoroastrian traditions rites see also choir music cantor gospel music liturgical music music politics secular music spiritual music world sacred music festival references reference conomos dimitri http wwwasbmgoarchorg articles early christian byzantine music history performance early christian byzantine music history performance monachosnet february reprinted archdiocesan school byzantine music greek orthodox archdioces america november accessed october


reading external links http wwwmusique liturgiquecom gregorian chant liturgical music cd scores learning http abbayesprovencalesfreefr gregorian chant abbeys provence france fr translator http wwwamericanmusicpreservationcom nemahtm new england religious music https webarchiveorg web http hibbaorg en allmusics hibba 's web anthology traditional jewish music http soundcloudcom emerald city records ealo poli constantinople istanbul religious music greek religion arts music genres


reconciliation'' josefina de vasconcellos initially presented bradford university department peace studies located front chapel reconciliation former site berlin wall '''peace conflict studies''' social science field identifies analyzes violent nonviolent behaviours well structural mechanisms attending conflicts including social conflicts view towards understanding processes lead desirable human condition variation peace studies '''irenology''' interdisciplinary effort aiming prevention de escalation solution conflicts peaceful means thereby seeking

Social science
Political science
Peace and conflict studies


victory parties involved conflict social science contrast military studies aim efficient attainment victory conflicts primarily violent means satisfaction one parties involved disciplines involved may include philosophy political science geography economics psychology sociology international relations history anthropology religious studies gender studies well variety others relevant sub disciplines fields peace economics may regarded belonging peace conflict studies also historical background peace conflict studies


years immediately following american civil war similar movements appeared sweden last years th century elsewhere soon student originated discussion groups formal courses included college curricula first known peace studies course higher education offered swarthmore college first world war turning point western attitudes war peace paris leaders france britain united states led georges clemenceau david lloyd george woodrow wilson respectively met decide future europe wilson


proposed famous fourteen points peacemaking included breaking european empires nation states establishment league nations moves intended ensure peaceful future background number developments emergence peace conflict studies academic discipline also keynes presciently pointed laid seeds future conflict founding first chair international relations aberystwyth university wales whose remit partly cause peace occurred manchester college one first institutions


offer major peace studies world war ii founding un system provided stimulus rigorous approaches peace conflict studies emerge many university courses schools higher learning around world began develop touched upon questions peace often relation war period first undergraduate academic program peace studies united states developed gladdys muir manchester university liberal arts college located north manchester indiana ref name jg ref late


united states student concerns vietnam war forced ever universities offer courses peace whether designated peace studies course course within traditional major work academics johan galtung john burton debates fora ''journal peace research'' reflected growing interest academic stature field growth number peace studies programs around world accelerate students became concerned prospects nuclear war cold


war ended peace conflict studies courses shifted focus international conflict ref name harris fisk rank harris fisk rank ref towards complex issues related political violence human security democratisation human rights social justice welfare development producing sustainable forms peace proliferation international organisations agencies international ngos un organization security co operation europe european union world bank international crisis group international alert others began draw research ref name miall ramsbotham woodhouse miall ramsbotham woodhouse ref agendas relating positive peace european


academic contexts already widely debated mid peace studies curricula united states shifted research teaching negative peace cessation violence positive peace conditions eliminate causes violence ref name harris fisk rank result topics broadened enormously review course offerings peace studies included topics north south relations development debt global poverty environment population growth resource scarcity feminist perspectives peace militarism political violence ref name harris fisk rank


general consensus importance peace conflict studies among scholars range disciplines around social sciences well many influential policymakers around world peace conflict studies today widely researched taught large growing number institutions locations number universities offering peace conflict studies courses hard estimate mostly courses may taught different departments different names international peace research association website gives one authoritative listings available


report ''international herald tribune'' mentions programs teaching research peace conflict studies noting particular united world colleges peace research institute oslo universitat jaume castell n de la plana spain malm university sweden american university university bradford un mandated peace university upeace ciudad col n costa rica george mason university lund michigan notre dame queensland uppsala innsbruck school peace studies austria virginia wisconsin rotary foundation un university supports several international academic teaching research programs survey found united states


colleges peace studies programs forty six percent church related schools another large public universities non church related private colleges community colleges fifty five percent church related schools peace studies programs roman catholic denominations one college university peace studies program quakers mennonites church brethren united church christ one hundred fifteen programs undergraduate level graduate level fifteen colleges universities undergraduate


graduate programs ref name harris fisk rank notable programs found university manitoba lancaster university hiroshima university university innsbruck universitat jaume university sydney university queensland king 's college london sault college london metropolitan sabanci marburg sciences po universit paris dauphine university amsterdam otago st andrews https hellerbrandeisedu coexistence brandeis university 's heller school york perhaps importantly programs research agendas become common institutions located conflict post conflict developing countries regions eg national peace council centre human rights university sarajevo chulalongkorn university


national university east timor university kabul september university peshawar provincial capital khyber pakhtunkhwa province pakistan established institute prime objective offering peace education youth suffered since afghan war called institute peace conflict studies ipcs research activity norwegian academic johan galtung widely regarded founder peace conflict studies although individual thinkers immanuel kant long recognised centrality peace see perpetual peace peace


studies began emerge academic discipline research tools specialized set concepts forums discussion journals conferences beginning founding peace research institute oslo prio associated johan galtung number research institutes began appear ref name harris fisk rank walter isard principal founder regional science assembled group scholars malm sweden purpose establishing peace research society group initial members included kenneth boulding anatol rapoport group


became https webarchiveorg web http psslapsuedu peace science society peace science viewed interdisciplinary international effort develop special set concepts techniques data better understand mitigate conflict peace science attempts use quantitative techniques developed economics political science especially game theory econometrics techniques otherwise seldom used researchers peace studies peace science society website hosts second edition correlates war one well known collections data international conflict society holds annual conference attended scholars throughout world publishes


two scholarly journals ''journal conflict resolution'' ''conflict management peace science'' international peace research association formed conference organized quakers clarens switzerland among original executive committee johan galtung ipra holds biennial conference research presented conferences publications typically focuses institutional historical approaches seldom employing quantitative techniques peace justice studies association pjsa formed result merger two precursor organisations pjsa north american affiliate ipra includes members around


world predominance united states canada pjsa publishes regular newsletter ''the peace chronicle'' holds annual conferences themes related organization 's mission create peaceful world research scholarship pedagogy activism strategic foresight group presented report innovative mechanism find sustainable solution conflicts middle east also developed new water cooperation quotient measure active cooperation riparian countries management water resources using parameters including legal political technical environmental economic


better bad theoretical applied ref name miall ramsbotham woodhouse long standing vibrant debate disarmament issues well attempts investigate catalogue analyse issues relating arms production trade political impacts also attempt map economic costs war relapses violence opposed peace peace conflict studies well established within social sciences comprises many scholarly journals college university departments peace research institutes conferences well outside recognition utility peace


conflict studies method peace studies allows one examine causes prevention war well nature violence including social oppression discrimination marginalization peace studies one also learn peace making strategies overcome persecution transform society attain equitable international community feminist scholars developed speciality within conflict studies specifically examining role gender interlocking systems inequality armed conflicts ref name owen ref importance considering role gender post conflict work recognised united nations security


council resolution examples feminist scholarship include work carol cohn claire duncanson ideas conceptions peace delegates korean armistice agreement achieved negative peace ending war wider conflict negative positive peace framework widely used today negative peace refers absence direct violence positive peace refers absence indirect structural violence concept peace conflict researchers adopt often credited galtung ref name galtung jacobsen galtung jacobsen ref terms previously used