save telephone operating companies large amounts money plant facilities delivered via underground facilities either direct buried conduit cases laid water via aerial facilities telephone power poles via microwave radio signals long distances either two methods costly sub roles engineer osp climbing telephone pole structural engineers osp engineers responsible structural design placement cellular towers telephone poles well calculating pole capabilities existing telephone power poles onto new plant


added structural calculations required boring heavy traffic areas highways attaching structures bridges shoring also taken consideration larger trenches pits conduit structures often include encasements slurry needs designed support structure withstand environment around soil type high traffic areas etc electrical engineers osp engineers responsible resistance capacitance inductance rcl design new plant ensure telephone service clear crisp data service clean

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Electrical Engineering
Telecommunications engineering


drafting plans either hand using computer aided design cad software telecom plant facilities placed often working municipalities trenching boring permits required drawings must made often drawings include detailed information required pave road add turn lane existing street structural calculations required boring heavy traffic areas highways attaching structures bridges civil engineers telecom engineers provide modern communications backbone


technological communications distributed throughout civilizations today unique telecom engineering use air core cable requires extensive network air handling equipment compressors manifolds regulators hundreds miles air pipe per system connects pressurized splice cases designed pressurize special form copper cable keep moisture provide clean signal customer political social ambassador osp engineer telephone operating company 's face voice local authorities utilities osp engineers often meet municipalities construction companies


utility companies address concerns educate telephone utility works operates additionally osp engineer secure real estate place outside facilities easement place cross connect box see also computer engineering computer networking electronic design automation electronic engineering electronic media fiber optic communication history telecommunication information theory list electrical engineering topics alphabetical list electrical engineering topics thematic professional engineer radio receiver radio telecommunication telephone television transmission medium transmitter two way radio wired communication wireless references reading external links engineering engineering disciplines


republican guard national gendarmerie '''public security''' function governments ensures protection citizens persons territory organizations institutions threats well prosperity communities meet increasing challenges public security area responsible public institutions organisations tap intelligence successfully address possible threats advance optimise internal structures use synergies carefully balance costs benefits measures '''public safety organizations''' include law enforcement fire emergency medical services public safety

Applied science
Public administration
Public safety


issues municipality county state federal jurisdiction might grapple include narcotic use trespassing burglary harassment juvenile delinquency unauthorized living noise littering inappropriate social behavior inebriation quality life issues generally organizations involved prevention protection events could endanger safety general public significant danger injury property damage crimes disasters natural human made framework organized crime international terrorism hardly deterred geographical linguistic financial barriers competence administrative hurdles play hands latter largely


warrant security country fundamental prerequisite domestic political ability act quality scope potential threats changed significantly tasks general framework police federal police border authorities changed accordingly national federal agency technical relief federal criminal investigation department federal customs border administration us customs border protection federal emergency management agency fema federal ministry interior justice public safety federal police royal canadian mounted police rcmp regional city town police eg bryan police department


texas us county police eg fairfax county police department virginia us sheriff 's department state police provincial police eg massachusetts state police massachusetts us local fire brigade local police authority department mayor 's office local government municipal public affairs office sub sectors five sub sectors within public security law enforcement police services national federal police regional local police intelligence information sharing intelligence investigative services secret services emergency management emergency services include emergency medical service fire service police search rescue justice judicial services


include courts judges juries lawyers advocates forensic justice ministry prisons interior services include border port authorities coast guard customer services organizations nation australia australian institute public safety australian federal police brazil national secretariat public safety canada public safety canada france committee public safety japan national public safety commission japan south korea ministry interior safety south korea united kingdom department health social services public safety northern ireland united states department public safety mongolia state emergency commission mongolia association


public safety communications officials international civil defense civil defense sirens coast guard common alerting protocol consumer product safety commission emergency management emergency telephone number firefighting neighborhood watch food safety guardian angels good safety practice national highway traffic safety administration natural disaster go area occupational safety health office emergency management personal protective equipment police public health public safety network public security risk road traffic safety safety engineering safetylit see also homeland security justice law enforcement public safety societal security references external links murray n rothbard ''the public sector iii '' https wwwmisesorg rothbard newliberty asp ''police law courts'' aus https wwwmisesorg rothbard newlibertyasp


''for new liberty libertarian manifesto'' emergency services crime law enforcement justice security public safety communications


'''psychology women''' approach focuses social economic political issues confronting women throughout lives emerged reaction male dominated developmental theories sigmund freud 's view female sexuality original work karen horney argued male realities cannot describe female psychology define gender informed girls' women 's experiences theorists claimed new feminist approach required women 's social existence crucial understanding psychology suggested dr carol gilligan 's research characteristics female psychology

Social science
Psychology
Feminine psychology


emerge comply given social order defined men necessarily nature gender psychology horney 's theory feminine psychology approach often attributed pioneering work karen danielsen horney psychologist late th century contradicted sigmund freud 's psychoanalytic theory arguing male dominated therefore harbored biases phallocentric views ref name ref horney claimed reason freud 's theory cannot describe femininity informed male reality actual female experience ref name example


freud 's proposition female personality tends exhibit penis envy whereby girl interprets failure possess penis punishment wrongdoing later blames mother freud stated seen knows without wants horney argued penis envy basic anxiety hostility anger towards opposite sex parent views competition affection sex parent thus views direct threat safety security believed part


feminine psychology theory aspect resolved based interpersonal dynamics eg differences social power rather sexual dynamics horney countered freudian concept deconstructed penis envy described nothing women wanting express natural needs success security characteristic sexes analogy describes horney 's feminine psychology optimistic world life affirmation comparison freud 's pessimism oriented towards world life negation fourteen papers wrote feminine psychology horney offered new way


thinking women underscoring gain value husbands children family ref name ref motherhood vs career one dynamic outlined feminine psychologists http wwwasanetorg sites default files savvy documents research docs mothers ideal acad careers pdf balancing act traditional role motherhood modern role career woman roles necessarily contradict additional income helps provide family working mothers may feel though making contribution society beyond family mothers fathers feel pressure balancing work family life fathers spend time


home engage child care housework century ago study conducted pew research center indicates respondents believe mother works part time ideal scenario think working full time ideal mothers rest think mothers stay home fathers also reported felt spending enough time children fathers responded pew research survey spending half much time providing child care mothers


working fathers state difficult balance work take care children ref name ref study found working fathers say least somewhat difficult balance work child care responsibilities however fathers able assist child care report like often even mothers pew research center also asked parents rate good job parents found mothers women rated excellent good job


working mothers rated lot higher non working mothers despite fact parents felt spent little time children less likely rate excellent job ref name according study conducted dr jennifer stuart sometimes history woman affects chooses balance two roles balance specifically stuart asserts primary determinant woman 's quality relationship mother women whose mothers fostered feelings warm attachment confident


autonomy may find ways enjoy children work often modifying work family environments ways favor working women sometimes make compromises careers balance paid work motherhood responsibilities compromises include cutting back hours accepting lower pay lower job status prevent women becoming top performers workplace according dr ramon resa mothers remember children fairly resilient adapt whatever changes required also astute sensing unhappiness disappointment apathy see


also analytical psychology feminization sociology feminist psychology references sources brinjikji hiam property rights women nineteenth century england unpublished manuscript department english university maryland college park md retrieved http wwwumdumichedu casl hum eng classes geweb propertyhtmhttp webspaceshipedu cgboer horneyhtml engler barbara personality theories th ed houghton mifflin harcourt print horney humanistic psychoanalysis major concepts international karen horney society np jun web october retrieved https webarchiveorg web http plazaufledu bjparis horney fadiman majorhtml perron roger inferiority feeling encyclopediacom np web october retrieved http wwwencyclopediacom doc g html lambert tim nd th century women retrieved http wwwlocalhistoriesorg womenhtml lowe maggie early college women determined


educated unpublished manuscript department history state university new york potsdam ny retrieved https webarchiveorg web http wwwnorthnetorg stlawrenceaauw collegehtm woman suffrage timeline retrieved http wwwthelizlibraryorg suffrage women senate nd retrieved https wwwsenategov artandhistory history common briefing women senatorshtm horney k flight womanhood masculinity complex women viewed men women h kelman ed feminine psychology new york norton schultz schultz theories personality th ed new york wadsworth cengage learning hansen r hansen j pollycove r mother nurture mother guide health body mind intimate relationships new york viking penguin kapur


august balancing motherhood career cnncom international retrieved http editioncnncom business maternityleave indexhtml resa r december give career give motherhood huffington post retrieved http wwwhuffingtonpostcom ramon resa md give career give b html parker kim modern parenthood pew research center 's social demographic trends project rss social demographic trends march web february retrieved http wwwpewsocialtrendsorg modern parenthood roles moms dads converge balance work family livingston gretchen highly educated women motherhood start pew research center social demographic trends project rss social demographic trends january web february retrieved http wwwpewresearchorg fact tank highly educated women motherhood doesnt start jorge ag ero mindy marks


motherhood female labor force participation evidence infertility shocks american economic review external links http wwwunizares proactividad articulos articulo pdf family career path characteristics predictors women objective subjective career success integrating traditional protean career explanations https webarchiveorg web http wwwyadvashemorg yv en exhibitions spots light indexaspwtmc id wiki spots light women holocaust online exhibition yad vashem psychology gender psychology


icd unlinked meshid loinc codes medlineplus emedicine '''shoulder surgery''' means treating injured shoulders many surgeries developed repair muscles connective tissue damaged joints arise traumatic overuse injuries shoulder dislocated shoulder dislocated shoulder u treated u arthroscopic repairs repair glenoid labrum anterior posterior cases arthroscopic surgery

Applied science
Medicine and health
Shoulder Surgery


enough fix injured shoulder shoulder dislocates many times worn ball socket lined correctly socket worn ball never sit many dislocations shoulder bones begin wear chip away occurs another operation must done br coracoid left scapula operation called latarjet surgery procedure involves transfer coracoid attached muscles deficient area front glenoid replaces


missing bone transferred muscle also acts additional muscular strut preventing dislocations open surgery requires overnight hospital stay usually month recovery u rehabilitation u recovery depends upon many factors tear located severe good surgical repair believed takes least four six weeks labrum attach scapula bone shoulder blade probably another four six weeks get strong labrum ring cartilage rim shallow


difficult predict soon someone return activities sports repair type sport also important since contact sports greater chance injuring labrum repair however vast majority patients full function shoulder labrum repair patients return previous level sports restrictions repair capsular ligaments bankart repair repair biceps long head anchor slap lesion tightening shoulder capsule capsulorrhaphy capsular shift open repairs


dislocations fractures etc biceps tenodesis surgery surgical treatment shoulder due potential biceps tendonitis tear labrum otherwise known slap tear long head biceps passes shoulder joint attaches labrum biceps tenodesis procedure surgeon cuts attachment biceps tendon labrum reattaches humerus bone tacks pressure relieved labrum significantly reducing pain surgery performed alleviate biceps inflammation implemented correspondence


slap lesion surgery recovery approximately months depending individual requires physical therapy separated shoulder separated shoulder treated weaver dunn procedure weaver dunn various additional fixations sutures suture anchors tendon autograft replace coracoclavicular ligaments note various methods utilized anchor clavicle place surgery heals includes dacron graft loop bosworth screw kirschner wires hook plate anatomic repair repair using tendon allograft without sacrificing coracoacromial ligament arthroscopic weaver dunn transfer conjoined tendon distal end coracoid


arthritis shoulder treated total shoulder replacement hemiarthroplasty half replacement reverse shoulder implant arthritis large rotator cuff tear arthritis osteolysis acromioclavicular joint arthritis osteolysis acromioclavicular joint treated mumford procedure open arthroscopic scapular winging scapular winging due serratus anterior muscle long thoracic nerve palsy treated pectoralis major transfer scapular winging due trapezius muscle spinal accessory nerve palsy treated eden lange procedure scapular winging due facioscapulohumeral muscular


dystrophy treated scapulopexy scapulothoracic fusion see also shoulder problems separated shoulder clavicle fracture arthroscopy arthritis articular capsule humerus shoulder joint glenoid cavity glenoid labrum snapping scapula syndrome references http wwwrothmaninstitutecom specialties treatments biceps tenodesis http wwwdrgartsmancom biceps tenodesis external links http orthoinfoaaosorg topiccfmtopic american academy orthopaedic surgeons shoulder surgery surgical specialties orthopedic surgical procedures


isbn ref click image expand system analysis among fields study '''linear time invariant system''' '''lti system''' system produces output signal input signal subject constraints linearity time invariance terms briefly defined properties apply exactly approximately many important physical systems case response '''''y'' ''t'' ''' system arbitrary input '''''x'' ''t'' ''' found directly using convolution '''''y'' ''t'' ''x'' ''t'' ''h'' ''t'' ''' '''''h'' ''t'' ''' called system 's impulse response represents convolution

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems theory
LTI system theory


confused multiplication frequently employed symbol computer languages 's systematic methods solving system determining ''h'' ''t'' whereas systems meeting properties generally difficult impossible solve analytically good example lti system electrical circuit consisting resistors capacitors inductors linear amplifiers linear time invariant system theory also used image processing systems spatial dimensions instead addition temporal dimension systems may referred ''linear translation invariant'' give terminology


general reach case generic discrete time ie sampled systems ''linear shift invariant'' corresponding term lti system theory area applied mathematics direct applications electrical circuit analysis design signal processing filter design control theory mechanical engineering image processing design measuring instruments many sorts nmr spectroscopy many technical areas systems ordinary differential equations present overview defining properties lti system ''linearity'' ''time invariance'' ''linearity'' means relationship input math x math output math math regarded


functions linear mapping math math constant system output math ax math math ay math math x' math input system output math y' math output system math x x' math math y' math applying choices math math '''' '' math x math '' math x' math latter condition often referred superposition principle ''time invariance'' means whether apply input system ''t'' seconds output identical except time delay ''t'' seconds output due input math x math math math


discrete time math x h math ''y'' ''x'' ''h'' sequences convolution discrete time uses discrete summation rather integral px lti systems also characterized ''frequency domain'' system 's transfer function laplace transform system 's impulse response z transform case discrete time systems result properties transforms output system frequency domain product transfer function transform input words


convolution time domain equivalent multiplication frequency domain lti systems eigenfunctions basis functions transforms complex exponentials input system complex waveform math e st math complex amplitude math math complex frequency math math output complex constant times input say math b e st math new complex amplitude math b math ratio math b math transfer function frequency math math since sinusoids sum complex exponentials complex conjugate frequencies input system


systems impulse response convolution behavior linear continuous time time invariant system input signal ''x'' ''t'' output signal ''y'' ''t'' described convolution integral math x h math math mathrel stackrel mathrm def int limits infty infty x tau cdot h tau mathrm tau math math int limits infty infty x tau cdot h tau mathrm tau math using commutativity math display inline h math system 's response impulse math display inline x tau delta tau math math display inline math therefore proportional weighted average input function math display inline x tau math weighting function math display inline h tau math simply shifted


amount math display inline math math display inline math changes weighting function emphasizes different parts input function math display inline h tau math zero negative math display inline tau math math display inline math depends values math display inline x math prior time math display inline math system said causal understand convolution produces output lti system let notation math display inline x u tau u math represent function math display inline x u tau math variable math display inline u math constant math display inline tau math let shorter notation math display inline x math


represent math display inline x u u math continuous time system transforms input function math display inline x math output function math display inline math general every value output depend every value input concept represented math display block mathrel stackrel text def x math math display inline math transformation operator time math display inline math typical system math display inline math depends heavily values math display inline x math occurred near time math display inline math unless transform changes math display inline math output function constant


system uninteresting linear system math display inline math must satisfy numblk math left int limits infty infty c tau x tau u mathrm tau u right int limits infty infty c tau underbrace tau x tau mathrm tau math time invariance requirement numblk math begin align x u tau u mathrel stackrel quad tau mathrel stackrel text def tau x end align math notation write '''impulse response''' math display inline h mathrel stackrel text def delta u u math similarly math h tau math math mathrel stackrel text def tau delta u u math math delta u tau u math using substituting result convolution integral math display block begin align x


h int infty infty x tau cdot h tau mathrm tau pt int infty infty x tau cdot delta u tau u mathrm tau end align math form right side case math display inline c tau x tau math math display inline x tau u delta u tau math allows continuation math display block begin align x h left int infty infty x tau cdot delta u tau mathrm tau u right pt left x u u right mathrel stackrel text def end align math summary input function math display inline x math represented continuum time shifted impulse functions combined linearly shown system 's linearity property allows system 's


response represented corresponding continuum impulse u responses u combined way time invariance property allows combination represented convolution integral mathematical operations simple graphical simulation exponentials eigenfunctions eigenfunction function output operator scaled version function math display block mathcal h f lambda f math ''f'' eigenfunction math lambda math eigenvalue constant exponential functions math e math math mathbb c math eigenfunctions linear time invariant


operator simple proof illustrates concept suppose input math x e math output system impulse response math h math math display block int infty infty h tau e tau mathrm tau math commutative property convolution equivalent math display block begin align overbrace int infty infty h tau e tau mathrm tau mathcal h f int infty infty h tau e e tau mathrm tau pt e int infty infty h tau e tau mathrm tau pt overbrace underbrace e text input f overbrace underbrace h text scalar lambda end align math scalar math display block h mathrel stackrel text def


time shifted version math h v e omega h v math linearity respect constant math e omega math math h v h v math time invariance math h math math h v e omega h v math setting math math renaming get math display block h v tau e omega tau h v math ie complex exponential math e omega tau math input give complex exponential frequency output fourier laplace transforms eigenfunction property exponentials useful analysis insight lti systems one sided laplace transform math display block h mathrel stackrel text def mathcal l h mathrel stackrel text def


int infty h e mathrm math exactly way get eigenvalues impulse response particular interest pure sinusoids ie exponential functions form math e j omega math math omega mathbb r math math j mathrel stackrel text def sqrt math fourier transform math h j omega mathcal f h math gives eigenvalues pure complex sinusoids math h math math h j omega math called ' 'system function'' ' 'system response'' ''transfer function'' laplace transform usually used context one sided signals ie signals zero values ''t'' less value usually


handled system laplace transform evaluate system response laplace transform impulse response complex frequency ''j '' '' f'' obtain ''h'' ' 's'' system gain frequency ''f'' relative phase shift output input frequency component likewise given arg ''h'' ' 's'' examples mathrm left c x c x right c x' c x' math nbsp ie linear math frac mathrm mathrm x tau x' tau math nbsp ie time invariant laplace transform derivative


end align math linear additionally math display block begin align mathcal left x tau right int x lambda tau mathrm lambda int tau tau x xi mathrm xi mathcal x tau end align math time invariant fact math mathcal math written convolution boxcar function math pi math math display block mathcal left x right int infty infty pi left frac lambda right x lambda mathrm lambda math boxcar function math display block pi mathrel stackrel text def begin cases text frac text frac end cases math important system properties important properties system causality stability causality necessity


physical system whose independent variable time however restriction present cases image processing causality system causal output depends present past future inputs necessary sufficient condition causality math display block h quad forall math math h math impulse response possible general determine causality two sided laplace transform however working time domain one normally uses one sided laplace transform requires causality stability


imaginary axis math j omega math example ideal low pass filter impulse response equal sinc function bibo stable sinc function finite l sup sup norm thus bounded input output ideal low pass filter unbounded particular input zero math math equal sinusoid cut frequency math math output unbounded times zero crossings discrete time systems almost everything continuous time systems


counterpart discrete time systems discrete time systems continuous time systems many contexts discrete time dt system really part larger continuous time ct system example digital recording system takes analog sound digitizes possibly processes digital signals plays back analog sound people listen practical systems dt signals obtained usually uniformly sampled versions ct signals math x math ct signal sampling circuit used analog digital converter transform dt signal math display block x n mathrel stackrel text def x nt qquad


forall n mathbb z math ''t'' sampling period sampling input signal normally run called nyquist filter removes frequencies folding frequency guarantees information filtered signal lost without filtering frequency component ''above'' folding frequency nyquist frequency aliased different frequency thus distorting original signal since dt signal support frequency components lower folding frequency impulse response convolution let math x k math represent sequence math x k text


integer values math let shorter notation math x math represent math x math discrete system transforms input sequence math x math output sequence math math general every element output depend every element input representing transformation operator math math write math display block n mathrel stackrel text def n x math note unless transform changes ''n'' output sequence constant system uninteresting thus subscript ''n'' typical system ''y'' ''n'' depends heavily elements ''x'' whose indices near ''n''


special case kronecker delta function math x delta math output sequence '''impulse response''' math display block h n mathrel stackrel text def n delta math linear system math math must satisfy numblk math n left sum k infty infty c k cdot x k right sum k infty infty c k cdot n x k math time invariance requirement numblk math begin align n x k mathrel stackrel quad n k mathrel stackrel text def n k x end align math system impulse response math h math characterizes system completely input sequence output sequence calculated terms input impulse response see done consider identity math display block x equiv sum k infty infty


x k cdot delta k math expresses math x math terms sum weighted delta functions therefore math display block begin align n n x n left sum k infty infty x k cdot delta k right sum k infty infty x k cdot n delta k end align math invoked case math c k x k math math x k delta k math may write math display block begin align n delta k mathrel stackrel quad n k delta mathrel stackrel text def h n k end align math therefore math n math math sum k infty infty x k cdot h n k math math sum k infty infty x n k cdot h k math commutativity familiar discrete convolution formula


symbols math display block mathcal h f lambda f math ''f'' eigenfunction math lambda math eigenvalue constant exponential functions math z n e st n math math n mathbb z math eigenfunctions linear time invariant operator math mathbb r math sampling interval math z e st zs mathbb c math simple proof illustrates concept suppose input math x n z n math output system impulse response math h n math math display block sum infty infty h n z math equivalent following commutative property convolution math display block sum infty infty h


z n z n sum infty infty h z z n h z math math display block h z mathrel stackrel text def sum infty infty h z math dependent parameter ''z'' math z n math eigenfunction lti system system response input times constant math h z math z discrete time fourier transforms eigenfunction property exponentials useful analysis insight lti systems z transform math display block h z mathcal z h n sum n infty infty h n z n math exactly way get eigenvalues impulse response particular interest


property transforms convolution gives output system transformed multiplication transform domain math display block n hx n sum infty infty h n x mathcal z h z x z math laplace transform transfer function continuous time system analysis z transform makes easier analyze systems gain insight behavior examples bulleted list simple example lti operator delay operator math x n mathrel stackrel text def x n math math left c cdot x n c cdot x n right c cdot x n


c cdot x n c cdot dx n c cdot dx n math nbsp ie linear math x n x n x n x n math nbsp ie time invariant z transform delay operator simple multiplication ''z'' sup sup math display block mathcal z left dx n right z x z math another simple lti operator averaging operator math display block mathcal left x n right mathrel stackrel text def sum k n n x k math linearity sums math display block begin align mathcal left c x n c x n right sum k n n left c x k


c x k right c sum k n n x k c sum k n n x k c mathcal left x n right c mathcal left x n right end align math linear math display block begin align mathcal left x n right sum k n n x k sum k' n n x k' mathcal left x right n end align math also time invariant important system properties input output characteristics discrete time lti system completely described impulse response math h n math two important properties system causality stability non causal time systems defined analyzed cannot realized real time unstable systems also


analyzed built useful part larger system whose overall transfer function ''is'' stable causality discrete time lti system causal current value output depends current value past values input necessary sufficient condition causality math display block h n forall n math math h n math impulse response possible general determine causality z transform inverse transform unique region convergence


unit circle ie locus satisfying math z math complex ''z'' notes see also circulant matrix frequency response impulse response system analysis green function signal flow graph references reading external links http wwwtedpavliccom teaching osu ece support circuits sys reviewpdf ece review circuits lti systems nbsp short primer mathematical analysis electrical lti systems http wwwtedpavliccom teaching osu ece lab opamp fo lab opamp fo phase shiftpdf ece sources phase shift nbsp gives intuitive explanation source phase shift two common electrical lti systems http wwwecejhuedu cooper courses signalsandsystemsnotespdf jhu signals systems course notes encapsulated course lti system theory adequate self teaching


http wwwettiunibwde labalive tutorial lti lti system example rc low pass filter amplitude phase response digital signal processing electrical engineering classical control theory signal processing frequency domain analysis time domain analysis


one example institutions created governments part country 's cultural policy creation ongoing funding national galleries museums pictured interior display area national gallery canada '''cultural policy''' government actions laws programs regulate protect encourage financially otherwise support activities related arts creative sectors painting sculpture music dance literature filmmaking among others culture may involve activities related language heritage diversity idea cultural policy developed unesco generally

Applied science
Public administration
Cultural policy


involves governments setting place processes legal classifications regulations legislation institutions eg galleries museums libraries opera houses etc promote facilitate cultural diversity creative expressions range art forms creative activities cultural policies vary one country another generally aim improve accessibility arts creative activities citizens promote artistic musical ethnic sociolinguistic literary expressions people country countries especially since emphasis supporting culture indigenous peoples marginalized communities


us internal revenue service c tax designation profit enterprises creating political institutions various ministries culture departments culture national endowment humanities national endowment arts united states arts granting councils cultural institutions galleries museums similar significant organisations united kingdom include department culture media sport dcms arts council england throughout much twentieth century many activities compose cultural policy governed title arts policy arts


policy includes direct funding artists creators art institutions indirect funding artists arts institutions tax system eg making donations arts charities tax deductible however kevin mulcahy observed cultural policy encompasses much broader array activities addressed arts policy whereas arts policy effectively limited addressing aesthetic concerns eg funding art galleries opera houses significance transformation cultural policy observed demonstrable emphases cultural identity valorization indigineity indigenous people 's culture analyses historical dynamics hegemony


colonialism general trend western industrialized nations shift since away solely supporting small number relatively elite professionalized art forms institutions eg classical music painting sculpture art galleries also supporting amateur community cultural creative activities eg community theatre cultural forms considered part western canon previous generations eg traditional music blues world music history prior twentieth century arts typically supported patronage church aristocrats kings


queens wealthy merchants nineteenth century artists increased use private marketplace earn revenue example composer beethoven put public concerts th century admission charged twentieth century governments began take arts patronage roles governments' first efforts support culture typically establishment archives museums libraries twentieth century governments established range institutions arts councils departments culture first departments culture typically supported major arts part


western canon painting sculpture major performing arts classical music theatre arts policy due opera productions' huge stage sets use many costumed singers requirement orchestra opera one expensive arts produce result opera companies st century require government funding operate twentieth century western governments uk canada australia new zealand many european nations developed arts policy measures promote support protect arts artists arts institutions governments' arts policy initiatives


generally two aims supporting excellence arts broadening access arts citizens example arts policy initiative supports excellence would government grant program provides funding highest achieving artists country concrete example would literary prize best fiction authors country selected panel top experts example arts policy initiative aims increasing access arts would music schools program funded government concrete example would


program funded orchestra jazz quartet paid play free concerts elementary schools would enable children lower middle income families hear live music two goals supporting excellence broadening access often trade offs increase emphasis one policy objective typically adverse effect goal give example hypothetical country million per year grant program orchestras country government focuses goal supporting musical excellence may decide provide


organizations engaged creation production presentation distribution preservation education aesthetic heritage entertainment activities products artifacts cultural policy necessarily encompasses broad array activities typically involves public support heritage battlefield historic preservation sites zoos botanical gardens arboretums aquariums parks libraries museums fine arts scientific historical visual arts film painting sculpture pottery architecture performing arts symphonic chamber choral music jazz hip hop folk music ballet ballroom modern dance opera musical theatre circus performances rodeos marching bands public humanities programs public broadcasting creative writing poetry


public words high culture exclusive preserve particular social class metropolitan location rather benefits highest reaches cultural excellence made egalitarian manner national cultural treasures accessible without regard impediments class circumstances educational attainment place habitation democratic state cannot seen simply indulging aesthetic preferences however enlightened overtly infusing art political values consequently democratic cultural policy must articulate purposes ways demonstrate


public interest served purposes often expressed involving either creation cultural democracy democratization culture objective cultural democratization aesthetic enlightenment enhanced dignity educational development general citizenry dissemination key concept aim establishing equal opportunity citizens participate publicly organized financed cultural activities goal performances exhibitions low cost public art education promotes equality aesthetic opportunity national institutions tour perform work places retirement homes housing complexes indicated


earlier democratization culture top approach promulgates certain forms cultural programming deemed public good clearly objective open criticism termed cultural elitism assumption aesthetic expressions inherently superior least determined cognoscenti concerned acquisition cultural capital problem policy fundamentally intend create larger audiences performances whose content based experience society privileged groups sum taken granted


cultural needs society members alike objective cultural democracy hand provide participatory populist approach definition provision cultural opportunities coupling concept democratization culture cultural democracy pragmatic well philosophical component cultural patronage democratic governments markedly different patronage wealthy individuals corporations private politically paramount patrons responsible free indulge tastes preferences democratic governments hand responsible


electorate held accountable policy decisions two objectives discussed dissemination high culture participation broader range cultural activities evoke related debate content public culture elitist populist elitism proponents elitist position argue cultural policy emphasize aesthetic quality determining criterion public subvention view typically supported major cultural organizations creative artists traditionally defined field fine arts cultural critics well educated well audiences art forms ronald dworkin terms


lofty approach insists art culture must reach certain degree sophistication richness excellence order human nature flourish state must provide excellence people cannot provide advocates elitist position generally focus supporting creation preservation performance works western canon group artworks viewed best artistic cultural products western society populism contrast populist position advocates defining culture broadly inclusively making culture broadly available


populist approach emphasizes less traditional pluralist notion artistic merit consciously seeks create policy cultural diversity focus personal enhancement populist position posits limited boundaries amateur professional arts activities indeed goal provide opportunities outside professional mainstream give example whereas elite approach advocates support professional musicians particularly classical music populist approach would advocate support amateur community singers musicians proponents populism frequently advocates minority arts folk arts ethnic arts


counter cultural activities kevin v mulcahy said cultural elitists hand argue support excellence amateurism favor emphasis aesthetic discipline culture everything two key tensions national cultural policy goals excellence versus access government roles facilitator versus architect kevin v mulcahy argued effect elitism cultural democracy populism democratization culture unfortunately tendency see positions mutually exclusive rather complementary elitists denounced high brow snobs advocating


heritage entailing unique artefacts intellectual property new developments field become acknowledged important forms social ''innovation'' however caution policy makers glocalization rise big data offers unprecedentedly powerful tools also inevitably entails many risks kinds artists musicians collaborators arts well sustainability traditional cultural practices viewpoints public cultural policy would remain faithful highest standards excellence broad range aesthetic expressions providing widest possible access people different geographic locales socio economic strata


excellence attitudes public cultural responsibility stand marked contrast much rest world culture question historic patrimony national identities peoples whether independent states regions within powerful states inevitably sensitive issues involved discussion culture public policy however given demands democratic system public policies show return taxpayer cultural policy frequently argued support basis utility argued parity state


responsibility citi social economic physical needs access culture opportunities artistic self expression however aesthetic dimension public policy never widely perceived intuitively obvious politically imperative accordingly cultural sector often argued case secondary ancillary benefits result public support programs seemingly aesthetic nature cultural policy typically justified solely grounds good rather yields good results future cultural policy would seem predict increasingly inexorable demand


arts carry weight rather rely public subsidy pursue art art sake kevin v mulcahy dubbed cultural darwinism pronounced united states public subsidy limited publicly supported aesthetic activities expected demonstrate direct public benefit non american cultural institutions less constrained need maintain diversified revenue streams demand high levels earned income individual corporate donations compensate limited government appropriations hand cultural institutions everywhere increasingly market driven need supplementary funds


public commitment realizing fundamental preconditions one available yet underappreciated tools cultural policy national level reduction vat rates cultural goods services economic theory used explain reduced fiscal rates expected decrease prices increase quantities consumed cultural goods services fiscal policy important part cultural policy particular vat rate discounts cultural consumption yet receives less attention deserved scope international level unesco charge cultural policy contact information ministries


culture national arts councils countries available website international federation arts councils culture agencies ifacca local scale subnational eg state provincial governments city local governments offer citizens local authorities opportunity develop arts culture agenda culture research cultural policy research field academic inquiry grew cultural studies grew idea cultural studies critical also try useful since


''pour une histoire des politiques culturelles dans le monde '' la documentation fran aise paris dave o'brien ''cultural policy management value modernity creative industries'' routledge abingdon tony bennett ''culture reformer 's science'' sage london jim mcguigan ''rethinking cultural policy'' open university press milton keynes external links http wwwifaccaorg international federation arts councils culture agencies http portalunescoorg united nations educational scientific cultural organization https webarchiveorg web http wwwlesrencontreseu indexphpoption com content task view id itemid les rencontres association european cities regions culture http wwwculturalpoliciesnet web indexphp compendium cultural policies trends europe social policy culture art culture law cultural concepts


'''biology''' scientific study life ref name urry ref ref name hillis ref ref name freeman ref natural science broad scope several unifying themes tie together single coherent field ref name urry ref name hillis ref name freeman instance organisms made cells process hereditary information encoded genes transmitted future generations another major theme evolution explains unity diversity life ref name urry ref name hillis ref name freeman energy processing also important


life allows organisms move grow reproduce ref name urry ref name hillis ref name freeman finally organisms able regulate internal environments ref name urry ref name hillis ref name freeman ref name modell ref ref name davies ref biologists able study life multiple levels organization ref name urry molecular biology cell anatomy physiology plants animals evolution populations ref name urry ref name aquarenagloss based definition ref hence multiple subdisciplines within biology defined nature


research questions tools use ref name ab ref like scientists biologists use scientific method make observations pose questions generate hypotheses perform experiments form conclusions world around ref name urry life earth emerged billion years ago ref name pearce ref immensely diverse biologists sought study classify various forms life prokaryotic organisms archaea bacteria eukaryotic organisms protists fungi plants animals various organisms contribute biodiversity ecosystem play specialized roles


cycling nutrients energy biophysical environment etymology ''biology'' derives ancient greek words romanized meaning 'life' romanized meaning 'branch study' 'to speak' ref name onlineetdict biology ref combined make greek word romanized meaning 'biology' despite term whole n't exist ancient greek first borrow english french historically another term ''biology'' english lifelore rarely used today latin language form term first appeared swedish scientist carl


linnaeus used used work entitled michael christoph hanov disciple christian wolff first german use translation linnaeus' work theodor georg august roose used term preface book karl friedrich burdach used term restricted sense study human beings morphological physiological psychological perspective term came modern usage six volume treatise gottfried reinhold treviranus


announced ref name richards ref objects research different forms manifestations life conditions laws phenomena occur causes affected science concerns objects indicate name biology doctrine life many terms used biology describe plants animals diseases drugs derived greek latin due historical contributions ancient greek roman civilizations well continued use two languages


basic unit organisms cell individual cells characteristics life although opposed idea cells come division cells however robert remak rudolf virchow able reify third tenet biologists accepted three tenets consolidated cell theory meanwhile taxonomy classification became focus natural historians carl linnaeus published basic taxonomy natural world variations use ever since introduced scientific names


species georges louis leclerc comte de buffon treated species artificial categories living forms malleable even suggesting possibility common descent although opposed evolution buffon key figure history evolutionary thought work influenced evolutionary theories lamarck darwin charles darwin penned first sketch ''on origin species'' serious evolutionary thinking originated works jean baptiste lamarck first present coherent theory evolution ref name gould gould stephen jay ''the structure evolutionary theory'' belknap


press harvard university press cambridge p ref posited evolution result environmental stress properties animals meaning frequently rigorously organ used complex efficient would become thus adapting animal environment lamarck believed acquired traits could passed animal 's offspring would develop perfect ref name lam lamarck ref however british naturalist charles darwin combining biogeographical approach humboldt uniformitarian geology lyell malthus 's writings population growth


morphological expertise extensive natural observations forged successful evolutionary theory based natural selection similar reasoning evidence led alfred russel wallace independently reach conclusions darwin 's theory evolution natural selection quickly spread scientific community soon became central axiom rapidly developing science biology basis modern genetics began work gregor mendel presented paper ''versuche ber pflanzenhybriden'' experiments plant hybridization outlined principles biological inheritance serving basis modern genetics ref name miko ref


however significance work realized early th century evolution became unified theory modern synthesis reconciled darwinian evolution classical genetics ref name futuyma ref early series experiments alfred hershey martha chase pointed dna component chromosomes held trait carrying units become known genes focus new kinds model organisms viruses bacteria along discovery double helical structure dna james watson francis crick marked transition


bodies organisms fundamentals chemical basis atoms molecules bohr model atom electrons blue dot orbit around atomic nucleus red filled circle specific atomic orbitals grey empty circles organisms made matter matter made elements ref name urry b ref oxygen carbon hydrogen nitrogen four elements account organisms calcium phosphorus sulfur sodium chlorine magnesium constituting remaining ref name urry b different elements combine form compounds water fundamental life ref


name urry b life earth began water remained three billions years prior migrating onto land ref name urry c ref matter exist different states solid liquid gas smallest unit element atom composed atomic nucleus one electrons moving around nucleus described bohr model ref name hillisetal b ref nucleus made one protons number neutrons protons positive electric charge neutrons electrically neutral electrons negative electric charge ref


name freeman b ref atoms equal numbers protons electrons electrically neutral atom specific element contains unique number protons known atomic number sum protons neutrons atom 's mass number masses individual protons neutrons electrons measured grams daltons da mass proton neutron rounded da ref name freeman b although atoms specific element number protons may differ number neutrons thereby existing


isotopes ref name urry b carbon example exist stable isotope carbon carbon radioactive isotope carbon latter used radiometric dating specifically radiocarbon dating determine age organic materials ref name urry b individual atoms held together chemical bonds form molecules ionic compounds ref name urry b common types chemical bonds include ionic bonds covalent bonds hydrogen bonds ionic bonding involves electrostatic attraction oppositely charged ions two atoms sharply different electronegativities primary interaction


oxygen ubiquitous example hydrogen bond found water molecules discrete water molecule two hydrogen atoms one oxygen atom two molecules water form hydrogen bond molecules present case liquid water bonds possible oxygen one water molecule two lone pairs electrons form hydrogen bond hydrogen another water molecule water water life arose earth 's first ocean formed approximately billion years ago ref name


freeman b since water continues abundant molecule every organism water important life effective solvent capable dissolving solutes sodium chloride ions small molecules form aqueous solution dissolved water solutes likely come contact one another therefore take part chemical reactions sustain life ref name freeman b terms molecular structure water small polar molecule bent shape formed polar covalent bonds two hydrogen h


atoms one oxygen atom h sub sub ref name freeman b h bonds polar oxygen atom slight negative charge two hydrogen atoms slight positive charge ref name freeman b polar property water allows attract water molecules via hydrogen bonds makes water cohesive ref name freeman b surface tension results cohesive force due attraction molecules surface liquid ref name freeman b water also adhesive able adhere surface polar charged non water


liquid water allows water molecules occupy amount volume ref name freeman b water also capacity absorb energy giving higher specific heat capacity solvents ethanol ref name freeman b thus large amount energy needed break hydrogen bonds water molecules convert liquid water gas water vapor ref name freeman b molecule water completely stable water molecule continuously dissociates hydrogen hydroxyl ions reforming water molecule ref name freeman b pure


form long chains interconnecting carbon carbon bonds octane ring like structures glucose simplest form organic molecule hydrocarbon large family organic compounds composed hydrogen atoms bonded chain carbon atoms hydrocarbon backbone substituted elements oxygen hydrogen h phosphorus p sulfur change chemical behavior compound ref name freeman b groups atoms contain elements h p bonded central carbon atom


skeleton called functional groups ref name freeman b six prominent functional groups found organisms amino group carboxyl group carbonyl group hydroxyl group phosphate group sulfhydryl group ref name freeman b stanley miller harold urey conducted classic experiment otherwise known miller urey experiment showed organic compounds could synthesized abiotically within closed system mimicked conditions early earth leading conclude complex organic molecules could arisen spontaneously early earth likely near volcanoes could part early


stages abiogenesis origin life ref name hillisetal ref ref name freeman b macromolecules phospholipid bilayer consists two adjacent sheets phospholipids hydrophilic tails facing inwards hydrophobic heads facing outwards macromolecules large molecules made smaller molecular subunits joined together ref name freeman c ref small molecules sugars amino acids nucleotides act single repeating units called monomers form chain like molecules called polymers via chemical process called condensation ref name urry e ref example amino acids form polypeptides whereas nucleotides form strands nucleic acid polymers make


three four macromolecules polysaccharides lipids proteins nucleic acids found organisms macromolecules plays specialized role within given cell carbohydrates sugar molecules molecular formula ''n'' number carbon hydrate groups ref name freeman e ref include monosaccharides monomer oligosaccharides small polymers polysaccharides large polymers monosaccharides linked together glyosidic linkages type covalent bond ref name freeman e two monosaccharides glucose fructose linked together form disaccharide sucrose ref name freeman e


many monosaccharides linked together form oligosaccharide polysaccharide depending number monosaccharides polysaccharides vary function monosaccharides glucose source energy polysaccharides serve storage material hydrolyzed provide cells sugar lipids class macromolecules made polymers biologically important lipids steroids phospholipids fats ref name urry e lipids organic compounds largely nonpolar hydrophobic ref name freeman f ref steroids organic compounds consist


primary b secondary c tertiary quaternary structures hemoglobin protein proteins diverse macromolecules include enzymes transport proteins large signaling molecules antibodies structural proteins basic unit monomer protein amino acid central carbon atom covalently bonded hydrogen atom amino group carboxyl group side chain r group r residue ref name freeman c twenty amino acids make building blocks proteins amino acid unique


side chain ref name freeman c polarity charge side chains affect solubility amino acids amino acid side chain polar electrically charged soluble hydrophilic whereas amino acid side chain lacks charged electronegative atom hydrophobic therefore tends coalesce rather dissolve water ref name freeman c proteins four distinct levels organization primary secondary tertiary quartenary primary structure consists unique sequence amino acids covalently linked together peptide bonds ref


used dna taken together different sugar bases take consideration eight distinct nucleotides form two types nucleic acids dna g c rna g c u ref name freeman cells cell theory states cells fundamental units life living things composed one cells cells arise preexisting cells cell division ref name mazzarello ref cells small diameters ranging nbsp micrometers therefore visible


light electron microscope generally two types cells eukaryotic cells contain nucleus prokaryotic cells prokaryotes single celled organisms bacteria whereas eukaryotes single celled multicellular multicellular organisms every cell organism 's body derived ultimately single cell fertilized egg cell structure cell depicting various organelles every cell enclosed within cell membrane separates cytoplasm extracellular space ref name urry g ref cell membrane consists lipid bilayer including cholesterols sit phospholipids maintain fluidity


various temperatures cell membranes semipermeable allowing small molecules oxygen carbon dioxide water pass restricting movement larger molecules charged particles ions ref name mboc ref cell membranes also contains membrane proteins including integral membrane proteins go across membrane serving membrane transporters peripheral proteins loosely attach outer side cell membrane acting enzymes shaping cell ref name tom herrmann ref cell membranes involved various cellular processes cell adhesion storing electrical energy cell signalling serve attachment surface


several extracellular structures cell wall glycocalyx cytoskeleton structure plant cell within cytoplasm cell many biomolecules proteins nucleic acids ref name alberts https wwwncbinlmnihgov books nbk cell movements shaping vertebrate body chapter '' https wwwncbinlmnihgov books nbk molecular biology cell '' fourth edition edited bruce alberts published garland science br alberts text discusses cellular building blocks move shape developing embryos also common describe small molecules amino acids https wwwncbinlmnihgov entrez queryfcgicmd search db books doptcmdl genbookhl term cells mboc bbook buid rid mboc section molecular building blocks ref addition biomolecules


eukaryotic cells specialized structures called organelles lipid bilayers spatially units ref name hillisetal f ref organelles include cell nucleus contains cell 's dna mitochondria generates adenosine triphosphate atp power cellular processes organelles endoplasmic reticulum golgi apparatus play role synthesis packaging proteins respectively biomolecules proteins engulfed lysosomes another specialized organelle plant cells additional organelles distinguish animal cells cell wall provides support plant cell chloroplasts harvest


sunlight energy produce sugar vacuoles provide storage structural support well involved reproduction breakdown plant seeds ref name hillisetal f eukaryotic cells also cytoskeleton made microtubules intermediate filaments microfilaments provide support cell involved movement cell organelles ref name hillisetal f terms structural composition microtubules made tubulin eg tubulin tubulin whereas intermediate filaments made fibrous proteins ref name hillisetal f microfilaments made actin molecules interact


strands proteins ref name hillisetal f metabolism exothermic reaction cells require energy sustain cellular processes energy capacity work thermodynamics calculated using gibbs free energy according first law thermodynamics energy conserved ie cannot created destroyed hence chemical reactions cell create new energy involved instead transformation transfer energy ref name freeman h ref nevertheless energy transfers lead loss usable energy increases entropy state disorder stated second law thermodynamics


result organism requires continuous input energy maintain low state entropy cells energy transferred electrons redox reduction oxidation reactions stored covalent bonds generated movement ions eg hydrogen sodium potassium across membrane metabolism set life sustaining chemical reactions organisms three main purposes metabolism conversion food energy run cellular processes conversion food fuel building blocks proteins lipids nucleic acids carbohydrates elimination metabolic wastes enzyme catalyzed reactions allow organisms


grow reproduce maintain structures respond environments metabolic reactions may categorized catabolic breaking compounds example breaking glucose pyruvate cellular respiration anabolic building synthesis compounds proteins carbohydrates lipids nucleic acids usually catabolism releases energy anabolism consumes energy chemical reactions metabolism organized metabolic pathways one chemical transformed series steps another chemical step facilitated specific enzyme enzymes crucial metabolism


allow organisms drive desirable reactions require energy occur coupling spontaneous reactions release energy enzymes act catalysts allow reaction proceed rapidly without consumed reducing amount activation energy needed convert reactants products enzymes also allow regulation rate metabolic reaction example response changes cell 's environment signals cells cellular respiration eukaryotic cell cellular respiration set metabolic reactions processes


take place cells organisms convert chemical energy nutrients adenosine triphosphate atp release waste products reactions involved respiration catabolic reactions break large molecules smaller ones releasing energy weak high energy bonds particular molecular oxygen ref name schmidt rohr schmidt rohr k combustions always exothermic yielding kj per mole sub sub ''j chem educ'' ''' ''' http dxdoiorg acsjchemed b ref replaced stronger bonds products respiration one key ways cell releases chemical energy fuel cellular activity overall reaction occurs


series biochemical steps redox reactions although cellular respiration technically combustion reaction clearly resemble one occurs cell slow controlled release energy series reactions sugar form glucose main nutrient used animal plant cells respiration cellular respiration involving oxygen called aerobic respiration four stages glycolysis citric acid cycle krebs cycle electron transport chain oxidative phosphorylation ref name lodish l ref glycolysis metabolic process occurs


cytoplasm whereby glucose converted two pyruvates two net molecules atp produced time ref name lodish l pyruvate oxidized acetyl coa pyruvate dehydrogenase complex also generates nadh carbon dioxide acetyl coa enters citric acid cycle takes places inside mitochondrial matrix end cycle total yield glucose pyruvates nadh fadh sub sub atp molecules finally next stage oxidative phosphorylation eukaryotes occurs mitochondrial cristae oxidative phosphorylation comprises electron transport


chain series four protein complexes transfer electrons one complex another thereby releasing energy nadh fadh sub sub coupled pumping protons hydrogen ions across inner mitochondrial membrane chemiosmosis generates proton motive force ref name lodish l energy proton motive force drives enzyme atp synthase synthesize atps phosphorylating adps transfer electrons terminates molecular oxygen final electron acceptor oxygen present pyruvate would metabolized cellular respiration undergoes process fermentation


pyruvate transported mitochondrion remains cytoplasm converted waste products may removed cell serves purpose oxidizing electron carriers perform glycolysis removing excess pyruvate fermentation oxidizes nadh nad sup sup used glycolysis absence oxygen fermentation prevents buildup nadh cytoplasm provides nad sup sup glycolysis waste product varies depending organism skeletal muscles waste product lactic acid type


ethanol fermentation atp generated process made substrate level phosphorylation require oxygen photosynthesis photosynthesis changes sunlight chemical energy splits water liberate sub sub fixes co sub sub sugar photosynthesis process used plants organisms convert light energy chemical energy later released fuel organism 's metabolic activities via cellular respiration chemical energy stored carbohydrate molecules sugars synthesized carbon dioxide water ref name onlineetdict photosynthesis ref ref name lsj ref ref ref name lsj ref cases oxygen also released waste product


plants algae cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis largely responsible producing maintaining oxygen content earth 's atmosphere supplies energy necessary life earth ref name bryantfrigaard ref photosynthesis four stages light absorption electron transport atp synthesis carbon fixation ref name lodish l light absorption initial step photosynthesis whereby light energy absorbed chlorophyll pigments attached proteins thylakoid membranes absorbed light energy used remove electrons donor water primary electron acceptor quinone designated q second stage electrons


move quinone primary electron acceptor series electron carriers reach final electron acceptor usually oxidized form nadp sup sup reduced nadph process takes place protein complex called photosystem psi transport electrons coupled movement protons hydrogen stroma thylakoid membrane forms ph gradient across membrane hydrogen becomes concentrated lumen stroma analogous proton motive force generated across inner mitochondrial membrane


aerobic respiration ref name lodish l third stage photosynthesis movement protons concentration gradients thylakoid lumen stroma atp synthase coupled synthesis atp atp synthase ref name lodish l nadph atps generated light dependent reactions second third stages respectively provide energy electrons drive synthesis glucose fixing atmospheric carbon dioxide existing organic carbon compounds ribulose bisphosphate rubp sequence light independent dark reactions called calvin cycle ref name isbn ref


cell signaling cell communication signaling ability cells receive process transmit signals environment ref name neitzelrasband ref ref name cellsignalling ref signals non chemical light electrical impulses heat chemical signals ligands interact receptors found embedded cell membrane another cell located deep inside cell ref name hillisetal e ref ref name cellsignalling generally four types chemical signals autocrine paracrine juxtacrine hormones ref name hillisetal e autocrine signaling ligand affects cell releases tumor cells


example reproduce uncontrollably release signals initiate self division paracrine signaling ligand diffuses nearby cells affect example brain cells called neurons release ligands called neurotransmitters diffuse across synaptic cleft bind receptor adjacent cell another neuron muscle cell juxtacrine signaling direct contact signaling responding cells finally hormones ligands travel circulatory systems animals vascular systems plants reach target cells ligand binds receptor


influence behavior another cell depending type receptor instance neurotransmitters bind inotropic receptor alter excitability target cell types receptors include protein kinase receptors eg receptor hormone insulin g protein coupled receptors activation g protein coupled receptors initiate second messenger cascades process chemical physical signal transmitted cell series molecular events called signal transduction cell cycle meiosis chromosomes duplicate homologous chromosomes exchange genetic information meiosis


daughter cells divide meiosis ii form haploid gametes cell cycle series events take place cell cause divide two daughter cells events include duplication dna organelles subsequent partitioning cytoplasm two daughter cells process called cell division eukaryotes ie animal plant fungal protist cells two distinct types cell division mitosis meiosis ref name ref mitosis part cell cycle replicated chromosomes separated


two new nuclei cell division gives rise genetically identical cells total number chromosomes maintained general mitosis division nucleus preceded stage interphase dna replicated often followed telophase cytokinesis divides cytoplasm organelles cell membrane one cell two new cells containing roughly equal shares cellular components different stages mitosis together define mitotic phase animal cell cycle division mother cell two genetically identical daughter cells


cell cycle vital process single celled fertilized egg develops mature organism well process hair skin blood cells internal organs renewed cell division daughter cells begin interphase new cycle contrast mitosis meiosis results four haploid daughter cells undergoing one round dna replication followed two divisions ref name freeman ref homologous chromosomes separated first division meiosis sister chromatids separated second division meiosis ii cell


division cycles used process sexual reproduction point life cycle believed present last eukaryotic common ancestor prokaryotes ie archaea bacteria also undergo cell division binary fission unlike processes mitosis meiosis eukaryotes binary fission takes prokaryotes takes place without formation spindle apparatus cell binary fission dna bacterium tightly coiled uncoiled duplicated pulled separate poles bacterium increases size


prepare splitting growth new cell wall begins separate bacterium triggered ftsz polymerization z ring formation ref name ref new cell wall septum fully develops resulting complete split bacterium new daughter cells tightly coiled dna rods ribosomes plasmids genetics inheritance punnett square depicting cross two pea plants heterozygous purple b white b blossoms genetics scientific study inheritance ref name griffithsetal l ref ref name griffiths sect ref ref name hartl jones ref mendelian inheritance specifically process genes traits passed parents offspring ref name miko


formulated gregor mendel based work pea plants mid nineteenth century mendel established several principles inheritance first genetic characteristics called alleles discrete alternate forms eg purple vs white tall vs dwarf inherited one two parents based law dominance uniformity states alleles dominant others recessive organism least one dominant allele display phenotype dominant allele ref name mendelian principles rutgers http lifescidlsrutgersedu mcguire toolbox demo basic genetics mendelian principleshtm mendelian principles ref exceptions rule include penetrance


expressivity ref name miko mendel noted gamete formation alleles gene segregate gamete carries one allele gene stated law segregation heterozygotic individuals produce gametes equal frequency two alleles finally mendel formulated law independent assortment states genes different traits segregate independently formation gametes ie genes unlinked exception rule would include traits sex linked test crosses performed experimentally determine underlying genotype


organism dominant phenotype ref name miko b ref punnett square used predict results test cross chromosome theory inheritance states genes found chromosomes supported thomas morgans 's experiments fruit flies established sex linkage eye color sex insects ref name miko c ref humans mammals eg dogs feasible practical conduct test cross experiments instead pedigrees genetic representations family trees ref name genome ref used instead trace inheritance


specific trait disease multiple generations ref name urry n ref dna bases lie two spiraling dna strands gene unit heredity corresponds region deoxyribonucleic acid dna carries genetic information influences form function organism specific ways dna molecule composed two polynucleotide chains coil around form double helix first described james watson francis crick ref name hillisetal ref found linear chromosomes eukaryotes circular chromosomes prokaryotes chromosome organized


grooves differ size major groove larger therefore accessible binding proteins minor groove ref name hillisetal outer edges bases exposed grooves therefore accessible additional hydrogen bonding ref name hillisetal groove two possible base pair configurations g c four possible base pair configurations within entire double helix chemically distinct another ref name hillisetal result protein molecules able recognize bind specific base pair sequences basis specific dna protein interactions dna


replication semiconservative process whereby strand serves template new strand dna ref name hillisetal process begins unwounding double helix origin replication separates two strands thereby making available two templates followed binding enzyme primase template synthesize starter rna dna viruses strand called primer location ref name hillisetal primer completed primase released template followed binding enzyme


dna polymerase template synthesize new dna dna replication perfect dna polymerase sometimes insert bases complementary template eg putting strand opposite g template strand ref name hillisetal eukaryotes initial error mutation rate ref name hillisetal proofreading mismatch repair two mechanisms repair errors reduces mutation rate sup sup particularly cell cycle ref name hillisetal mutations heritable changes dna ref name hillisetal arise spontaneously result


mutation appear organism fertilization ref name hillisetal mutations lead several types phenotypic effects silent loss function gain function conditional mutations ref name hillisetal mutations beneficial source genetic variation evolution ref name hillisetal others harmful result loss function genes needed survival ref name hillisetal mutagens carcinogens typically avoided matter public health policy goals ref name hillisetal one example banning chlorofluorocarbons cfc montreal protocol cfcs tend deplete ozone layer resulting


ultraviolet radiation sun passing earth 's upper atmosphere thereby causing somatic mutations lead skin cancer ref name hillisetal similarly smoking bans enforced throughout world effort reduce incidence lung cancer ref name hillisetal gene expression extended central dogma molecular biology includes processes involved flow genetic information gene expression molecular process genotype gives rise phenotype ie observable trait genetic information stored dna represents genotype whereas phenotype results synthesis proteins


control organism 's structure development act enzymes catalyzing specific metabolic pathways process summarized central dogma molecular biology formulated francis crick according central dogma genetic information flows dna rna protein hence two gene expression processes transcription dna rna translation rna protein ref name linelowitz ref processes used life eukaryotes including multicellular organisms prokaryotes bacteria archaea exploited viruses generate macromolecular machinery life transcription messenger rna mrna strands


created using dna strands template initiated rna polymerase binds dna sequence called promoter instructs rna begin transcription one two dna strands ref name hillisetal j ref dna bases exchanged corresponding bases except case thymine rna substitutes uracil u eukaryotes large part dna eg humans contain non coding called introns serve patterns protein sequences coding regions exons interspersed along introns primary transcript pre mrna ref name hillisetal j


translation pre mrna undergoes processing whereby introns removed spliced leaving spliced exons mature mrna strand ref name hillisetal j translation mrna protein occurs ribosomes whereby transcribed mrna strand specifies sequence amino acids within proteins using genetic code gene products often proteins non protein coding genes transfer rna trna small nuclear rna snrna product functional non coding rna gene regulation regulation various stages gene expression regulation gene expression gene regulation environmental factors


different stages development occur step process transcription rna splicing translation post translational modification protein ref name hillisetal k ref ability gene transcription regulated allows conservation energy cells make proteins needed ref name hillisetal k gene expression influenced positive negative regulation depending two types regulatory proteins called transcription factors bind dna sequence close promoter ref name hillisetal k cluster genes share promoter called operon found mainly prokaryotes


lower eukaryotes eg ''caenorhabditis elegans'' ref name hillisetal k ref name keeneandtenenbaum ref first identified ''escherichia coli'' prokaryotic cell found intestines humans animals fran ois jacob jacques monod ref name hillisetal k studied prokaryotic cell 's ''lac'' operon part three genes ''lacz'' ''lacy'' ''laca'' encode three lactose metabolizing enzymes galactosidase galactoside permease galactoside transacetylase ref name hillisetal k positive regulation gene expression activator transcription factor stimulates transcription binds sequence near promoter contrast negative regulation occurs


another transcription factor called repressor binds dna sequence called operator part operon prevent transcription repressor binds repressible operon eg ''trp'' operon presence corepressor repressors inhibited compounds called inducers eg allolactose exert effects binding repressor prevent binding operator thereby allowing transcription occur ref name hillisetal k specific genes activated inducers called inducible genes eg ''lacz'' ''laca'' ''e coli'' contrast


constitutive genes almost always active ref name hillisetal k contrast structural genes encode proteins involved gene regulation ref name hillisetal k prokaryotic cells transcription regulated proteins called sigma factors bind rna polymerase direct specific promoters ref name hillisetal k similarly transcription factors eukaryotic cells also coordinate expression group genes even genes located different chromosomes ref name hillisetal k coordination genes occur long share regulatory dna sequence bind transcription factors ref name hillisetal k promoters


bind repressors called silencers ref name hillisetal k transcription factors nuclear factor activated cells nfat able identify specific nucleotide sequence based base sequence eg cgaggaaaattg nfat binding site determines arrangement chemical groups within sequence allows specific dna protein interactions ref name hillisetal k expression transcription factors underlies cellular differentiation developing embryo ref name hillisetal k addition regulatory events involving promoter gene expression also regulated epigenetic changes chromatin complex dna protein found eukaryotic


inhibits translation causes degrade ref name hillisetal k translation also inhibited modification cap substituting modified guanosine triphosphate gtp end mrna unmodified gtp molecule ref name hillisetal k finally translational repressor proteins bind mrnas prevent attaching ribosome thereby blocking translation ref name hillisetal k translated stability proteins regulated targeted degradation ref name hillisetal k common example enzyme attaches regulatory protein called ubiquitin lysine residue targeted protein ref name hillisetal k ubiquitins


attached primary ubiquitin form polyubiquitinated protein enters much larger protein complex called proteasome ref name hillisetal k polyubiquitinated protein enters proteasome polyubiquitin detaches target protein unfolded proteasome atp dependent manner allowing hydrolyzed three proteases ref name hillisetal k genomes composition human genome genome organism 's complete set dna including genes sequencing analysis genomes done using high throughput dna sequencing bioinformatics assemble analyze function structure entire


genomes ref name klug ref ref name culver ref ref name kadakkuzha ref genomes prokaryotes small compact diverse contrast genomes eukaryotes larger complex regulatory sequences much genome made non coding dna sequences functional rna rrna trna mrna regulatory sequences genomes various model organisms arabidopsis fruit fly mice nematodes yeast sequenced human genome project major undertaking international scientific community sequence entire human genome completed ref name hillisetal l sequencing


human genome yielded practical applications dna fingerprinting used paternity testing forensics medicine sequencing entire human genome allowed identification mutations cause tumors well genes cause specific genetic disorder ref name hillisetal l sequencing genomes various organisms led emergence comparative genomics aims draw comparisons genes genomes different organisms ref name hillisetal l many genes encode one protein posttranslational modifications increasing diversity proteins within cell


organism 's proteome entire set proteins expressed genome proteomics seeks study complete set proteins produced organism ref name hillisetal l ref many proteins enzymes activities tend affects concentrations substrates products thus proteome changes amount small molecules metabolites ref name hillisetal l complete set small molecules cell organism called metabolome metabolomics study metabolome relation physiological activity cell organism ref name hillisetal l biotechnology construction recombinant dna


foreign dna fragment inserted plasmid vector biotechnology use cells organisms develop products humans ref name hillisetal ref one commonly used technology wide applications creation recombinant dna dna molecule assembled two sources laboratory advent polymerase chain reaction biologists would manipulate dna cutting smaller fragments using restriction enzymes would purify analyze fragments using gel electrophoresis later recombine fragments novel dna sequence using dna ligase ref name hillisetal recombinant


dna cloned inserting host cell process known transformation host cells bacteria ''e coli'' transfection host cells eukaryotic cells like yeast plant animal cells host cell organism received integrated recombinant dna described transgenic ref name hillisetal recombinant dna inserted one two ways common method simply insert dna host chromosome site insertion random ref name hillisetal another approach would insert


genomic library due ability search retrieve specific dna fragments study analogous process retrieving book regular library ref name hillisetal dna fragments obtained using restriction enzymes processes mechanical shearing obtained fragment inserted vector taken bacterial host cell host cell allowed proliferate selective medium eg antibiotic resistance produces colony recombinant cells contains many copies dna fragment ref


name hillisetal colonies grown spreading solid medium petri dishes incubated suitable temperature one dish alone hold thousands bacterial colonies easily screened specific dna sequence ref name hillisetal sequence identified first duplicating petri dish bacterial colonies exposing dna duplicated colonies hybridization involves labeling complementary radioactive fluorescent nucleotides ref name hillisetal smaller dna libraries contain genes specific tissue created using complementary dna cdna ref name hillisetal


cells proliferate indefinitely produce stem cell ref name ref cellular differentiation dramatically changes cell 's size shape membrane potential metabolic activity responsiveness signals largely due highly controlled modifications gene expression epigenetics exceptions cellular differentiation almost never involves change dna sequence thus different cells different physical characteristics despite genome morphogenesis development body form result spatial differences gene expression ref name hillisetal n specially organization differentiated tissues specific structures


arms wings known pattern formation governed morphogens signaling molecules move one group cells surrounding cells creating morphogen gradient described french flag model apoptosis programmed cell death also occurs morphogenesis death cells digits human embryonic development frees individual fingers toes expression transcription factor genes determine organ placement plant cascade transcription factors establish body segmentation fruit fly ref name hillisetal n small fraction


genes organism 's genome called developmental genetic toolkit control development organism toolkit genes highly conserved among phyla meaning ancient similar widely separated groups animals differences deployment toolkit genes affect body plan number identity pattern body parts among important toolkit genes ''hox'' genes hox genes determine repeating parts many vertebrae snakes grow developing embryo larva ref name carrollnathist ref variations toolkit may produced large part


morphological evolution animals toolkit drive evolution two ways toolkit gene expressed different pattern beak darwin 's large ground finch enlarged ''bmp'' gene snakes lost legs ''distal less dlx '' genes became expressed expressed places reptiles continued form limbs toolkit gene acquire new function seen many functions gene ' 'distal less'' controls diverse structures mandible vertebrates ref name beverdam ref ref name depew ref legs antennae


fruit fly eyespot pattern butterfly wings given small changes toolbox genes cause significant changes body structures often enabled convergent parallel evolution evolution evolutionary processes natural selection darker traits central organizing concept biology life changes develops evolution change heritable characteristics populations successive generations evolution used explain great variations life earth term ''evolution'' introduced scientific lexicon jean baptiste de lamarck ref name hillisetal ref ref name p ref proposed evolution occurred


result inheritance acquired characteristics unconvincing alternative explanations time ref name hillisetal charles darwin english naturalist returned england five year travels hms beagle studied rocks collected plants animals various parts world gal pagos islands ref name hillisetal also read ''principles geology'' charles lyell ''an essay principle population'' thomas malthus influenced ref name urry v ref based observations readings darwin began formulate


theory evolution natural selection explain diversity plants animals different parts world ref name hillisetal ref name urry v alfred russel wallace another english naturalist studied plants animals malay archipelago also came idea later independently darwin ref name hillisetal darwin wallace jointly presented essay manuscript respectively linnaean society london giving credit discovery evolution natural selection ref name hillisetal darwin would later publish book ''on origin species''


explained detail process evolution natural selection works ref name hillisetal explain natural selection darwin drew analogy humans modifying animals artificial selection whereby animals selectively bred specific traits given rise individuals longer resemble wild ancestors ref name urry v darwin argued natural world nature played role humans selecting specific traits came conclusion based two observations two inferences ref name urry v first members population tend vary respect


heritable traits second species tend produce offspring supported respective environments resulting many individuals surviving reproducing ref name urry v based observations darwin inferred individuals possessed heritable traits better adapted environments likely survive produce offspring individuals ref name urry v inferred unequal differential survival reproduction certain individuals others lead accumulation favorable traits successive generations thereby increasing match organisms


environment ref name urry v ref name lewontin ref thus taken together natural selection differential survival reproduction individuals subsequent generations due differences heritable traits ref name futuyma ref ref name urry v ref name hillisetal darwin aware mendel 's work inheritance exact mechanism inheritance underlie natural selection well understood ref name charlesworth ref early th century modern synthesis reconciled darwinian evolution classical genetics established neo darwinian perspective evolution natural selection ref name futuyma perspective holds evolution occurs changes allele


frequencies within population interbreeding organisms absence evolutionary process acting large random mating population allele frequencies remain constant across generations described hardy weinberg principle ref name futuyma ref another process drives evolution genetic drift random fluctuations allele frequencies within population one generation next ref name ggs ref selective forces absent relatively weak allele frequencies equally likely ' 'drift'' upward downward successive generation alleles subject sampling error ref name masel ref drift halts allele


eventually becomes fixed either disappearing population replacing alleles entirely genetic drift may therefore eliminate alleles population due chance alone speciation allopatric peripatric parapatric sympatric speciation species group organisms mate one another speciation process one lineage splits two lineages result evolved independently ref name hillisetal q ref speciation occur reproductive isolation ref name hillisetal q reproductive isolation result incompatibilities genes described bateson dobzhansky muller model reproductive isolation also


tends increase genetic divergence speciation occur physical barriers divide ancestral species process known allopatric speciation ref name hillisetal q contrast sympatric speciation occurs absence physical barriers pre zygotic isolation mechanical temporal behavioral habitat gametic isolations prevent different species hybridizing ref name hillisetal q similarly post zygotic isolations result hybridization selected due lower viability hybrids hybrid infertility eg mule hybrid zones emerge incomplete reproductive isolation two closely related species phylogeny phylogeny


evolutionary history specific group organisms genes ref name hillisetal p ref represented using phylogenetic tree diagram showing lines descent among organisms genes line drawn time axis tree represents lineage descendants particular species population lineage divides two represented node split phylogenetic tree splits time branches tree common ancestor organisms tree


represented root tree phylogenetic trees may portray evolutionary history life forms major evolutionary group eg insects even smaller group closely related species within tree group species designated name taxon eg humans primates mammals vertebrates taxon consists evolutionary descendants clade otherwise known monophyletic taxon ref name hillisetal p closely related species referred sister species closely related clades sister clades contrast monophyletic group polyphyletic group


include common ancestor whereas paraphyletic group include descendants common ancestor ref name hillisetal p phylogenetic trees basis comparing grouping different species ref name hillisetal p different species share feature inherited common ancestor described homologous features synapomorphy ref name kitchingetal ref ref name futuyma p ref ref name hillisetal p homologous features may heritable traits dna sequence protein structures anatomical features behavior patterns vertebral column example homologous feature shared vertebrate animals traits similar form


favored one fewest evolutionary changes needed assumed traits groups computational algorithms used determine tree might evolved given evidence ref name hillisetal p phylogeny provides basis biological classification based linnaean taxonomy developed carl linnaeus th century ref name hillisetal p classification system rank based highest rank domain followed kingdom phylum class order family genus species ref name hillisetal p organisms classified belonging one three domains


archaea originally archaebacteria bacteria originally eubacteria eukarya includes protist fungi plant animal kingdoms ref name domain ref binomial nomenclature used classify different species based system species given two names one genus another species ref name hillisetal p example humans ''homo sapiens'' ''homo'' genus ' 'sapiens'' species convention scientific names organisms italicized first letter genus capitalized history life history life earth traces processes organisms evolved


earliest emergence life present day earth formed billion years ago life earth living extinct descended last universal common ancestor lived billion years ago ref name deduve ref dating earth 's history done using several geological methods stratigraphy radiometric dating paleomagnetic dating ref name hillisetal r ref based methods geologists developed geologic time scale divides history earth major divisions starting four eons hadean archean proterozoic phanerozoic first three collectively known


precambrian lasted approximately billion years ref name hillisetal r eon divided eras phanerozoic eon began million years ago subdivided paleozoic mesozoic cenozoic eras ref name hillisetal r three eras together comprise eleven periods cambrian ordovician silurian devonian carboniferous permian triassic jurassic cretaceous tertiary quaternary period epochs ref name hillisetal r similarities among known present day species indicate diverged process evolution common ancestor biologists regard ubiquity genetic code evidence universal common descent bacteria archaea


mammals dominated land group became extinct permian triassic extinction event million years ago recovery catastrophe archosaurs became abundant land vertebrates ref name tannerlucas ref one archosaur group dinosaurs dominated jurassic cretaceous periods cretaceous paleogene extinction event million years ago killed non avian dinosaurs mammals increased rapidly size diversity mass extinctions may accelerated evolution providing opportunities new groups organisms diversify ref name van valkenburgh ref diversity bacteria archaea bacteria ''gemmatimonas aurantiaca'' micrometer bacteria


laboratory ref name dudek ref archaea halobacteria archaea constitute domain prokaryotic cells initially classified bacteria receiving name archaebacteria archaebacteria kingdom term fallen use archaeal cells unique properties separating two domains bacteria eukaryota archaea divided multiple recognized phyla archaea bacteria generally similar size shape although archaea different shapes flat square cells ''haloquadratum walsbyi'' despite morphological similarity bacteria archaea possess genes several metabolic pathways


closely related eukaryotes notably enzymes involved transcription translation aspects archaeal biochemistry unique reliance ether lipids cell membranes including archaeols archaea use energy sources eukaryotes range organic compounds sugars ammonia metal ions even hydrogen gas salt tolerant archaea haloarchaea use sunlight energy source species archaea fix carbon unlike plants cyanobacteria known species archaea archaea reproduce asexually binary fission fragmentation budding unlike


bacteria known species archaea form endospores first observed archaea extremophiles living extreme environments hot springs salt lakes organisms improved molecular detection tools led discovery archaea almost every habitat including soil oceans marshlands archaea particularly numerous oceans archaea plankton may one abundant groups organisms planet archaea major part earth 's life part microbiota organisms human microbiome important gut


mouth skin ref name bang ref morphological metabolic geographical diversity permits play multiple ecological roles carbon fixation nitrogen cycling organic compound turnover maintaining microbial symbiotic syntrophic communities example protists diversity protists eukaryotes hypothesized split archaea followed endosymbioses bacteria symbiogenesis gave rise mitochondria chloroplasts part modern day eukaryotic cells ref name hillisetal major lineages eukaryotes diversified precambrian billion years ago classified eight major clades alveolates excavates


stramenopiles plants rhizarians amoebozoans fungi animals ref name hillisetal five clades collectively known protists mostly microscopic eukaryotic organisms plants fungi animals ref name hillisetal ref likely protists share common ancestor last eukaryotic common ancestor ref name malley leger wideman ruiz trillo pp ref protists constitute separate clade protists may closely related plants fungi animals protists like groupings algae invertebrates protozoans protist grouping formal taxonomic group used


convenience ref name hillisetal ref name taylor pp ref protists unicellular also known microbial eukaryotes ref name hillisetal alveolates mostly photosynthetic unicellular protists possess sacs called alveoli hence name alveolates located beneath cell membrane providing support cell surface ref name hillisetal alveolates comprise several groups dinoflagellates apicomplexans ciliates dinoflagellates photosynthetic found ocean play role primary producers organic matter ref name hillisetal apicomplexans parasitic alveolates possess apical complex group organelles located apical