data collected used estimate reliability unlike hardware performing exactly test exactly software configuration provide increased statistical confidence instead software reliability uses different metrics code coverage eventually software integrated hardware top level system software reliability subsumed system reliability software engineering institute 's capability maturity model common means assessing overall software development process reliability quality purposes structural reliability structural reliability reliability structures application reliability theory


behavior structures used design maintenance different types structures including concrete steel structures ref name ref structural reliability studies loads resistances modeled probabilistic variables using approach probability failure structure calculated comparison safety engineering reliability safety reliability availability often closely related lost availability engineering system cost money subway system unavailable subway operator lose money hour system subway operator lose money

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Reliability Theory


safety compromised definition reliability tied probability encountering failure failure cause loss safety loss availability undesirable lose safety availability critical system reliability engineering concerned overall minimisation failures could lead financial losses responsible entity whereas safety engineering focuses minimising specific set failure types general could lead loss life injury damage equipment reliability hazards could transform incidents leading loss revenue


company customer example due direct indirect costs associated loss production due system unavailability unexpected high low demands spares repair costs man hours designs interruptions normal production ref name verma ajit kumar reliability safety engineering verma ajit kumar ajit srividya karanki durga rao ref safety engineering often highly specific relating certain tightly regulated industries applications areas primarily focuses system safety hazards could lead severe accidents including loss life destruction equipment environmental damage related system functional


reliability requirements often extremely high although deals unwanted failures sense reliability engineering however less focus direct costs concerned post failure repair actions another difference level impact failures society leading tendency strict control governments regulatory bodies eg nuclear aerospace defense rail oil industries ref name verma ajit kumar fault tolerance safety increased using oo cross checked redundant system availability increased using oo redundancy


part system level redundant elements disagree permissive element maximize availability oo system never relied safety fault tolerant systems often rely additional redundancy eg oo voting logic multiple redundant elements must agree potentially unsafe action performed increases availability safety system level common practice aerospace systems need continued availability fail safe mode example aircraft may use triple modular redundancy flight computers control surfaces including occasionally different modes


operation eg electrical mechanical hydraulic need always operational due fact safe default positions control surfaces rudders ailerons aircraft flying basic reliability mission reliability example oo fault tolerant system increases mission reliability well safety however basic reliability system case still lower non redundant oo oo system basic reliability engineering covers failures including might result system failure result additional cost


failures using fault tolerant redundant systems systems equipped protection functions detectability failures avoidance common cause failures becomes paramount safe functioning mission reliability reliability versus quality six sigma quality often focuses manufacturing defects warranty phase reliability looks failure intensity whole life product engineering system commissioning decommissioning six sigma roots statistical control quality manufacturing reliability engineering specialty part systems engineering systems engineering process discovery process


often unlike manufacturing process manufacturing process often focused repetitive activities achieve high quality outputs minimum cost time everyday usage term quality product loosely taken mean inherent degree excellence industry precise definition quality conformance requirements specifications start use used assuming final product specification adequately captures original requirements customer system needs quality level measured fraction product units shipped meet specifications ref name itlnistgov ref manufactured goods quality often focuses


number warranty claims warranty period quality snapshot start life warranty period related control lower level product specifications includes time zero defects ie manufacturing mistakes escaped final quality control theory quality level might described single fraction defective products reliability part systems engineering acts ongoing assessment failure rates many years theoretically items fail infinite period time defects appear time referred reliability


fallout describe reliability fallout probability model describes fraction fallout time needed known life distribution model ref name itlnistgov reliability issues may due inherent design issues may exist even though product conforms specifications even items produced perfectly fail time due one failure mechanisms eg due human error mechanical electrical chemical factors reliability issues also influenced acceptable levels variation initial production quality reliability therefore related manufacturing reliability


targeted towards clients focused failures throughout whole life product military airlines railroads items conform product specification generally worse terms reliability lower mttf always case full mathematical quantification statistical models combined relation general difficult even practically impossible cases manufacturing variances effectively reduced six sigma tools shown useful find optimal process solutions increase


quality reliability six sigma may also help design products robust manufacturing induced failures infant mortality defects engineering systems manufactured product contrast six sigma reliability engineering solutions generally found focusing reliability testing system design solutions found different ways simplifying system allow mechanisms failure involved understood performing detailed calculations material stress levels allowing suitable safety factors determined finding possible abnormal system load conditions using increase robustness


design manufacturing variance related failure mechanisms furthermore reliability engineering uses system level solutions like designing redundant fault tolerant systems situations high availability needs see reliability engineering vs safety engineering note defect six sigma quality literature failure field failure eg fractured item reliability six sigma quality defect refers generally non conformance requirement eg basic functionality key dimension items however fail time even requirements fulfilled quality generally concerned asking crucial question requirements actually correct whereas reliability


changes system field upgrades recall repairs require additional reliability testing ensure reliability modification since possible anticipate failure modes given system especially ones human element failures occur reliability program also includes systematic root cause analysis identifies causal relationships involved failure effective corrective actions may implemented possible system failures corrective actions reported reliability engineering organization common methods apply reliability operational


adopt one easy use terms ease data entry field engineers repair shop engineers easy maintain integrated system likely result failure fracas program common outputs fracas system include field mtbf mttr spares consumption reliability growth failure incidents distribution type location part serial symptom use past data predict reliability new comparable systems items misleading reliability function context use affected small changes design manufacturing reliability organizations


systems significant complexity developed organizations people commercial company government agency reliability engineering organization must consistent company 's organizational structure small non critical systems reliability engineering may informal complexity grows need arises formal reliability function reliability important customer customer may even specify certain aspects reliability organization several common types reliability organizations project manager chief engineer may employ one reliability engineers directly larger organizations usually product


also references reading barlow r e proscan f statistical theory reliability life testing begin press silver springs md blanchard benjamin ''logistics engineering management'' fourth ed prentice hall inc englewood cliffs new jersey breitler alan l sloan c proceedings american institute aeronautics astronautics aiaa air force e days conference nashville tn december system reliability prediction towards general approach using neural network ebeling charles e ''an introduction reliability maintainability engineering'' mcgraw hill companies inc boston denney


richard succeeding use cases working smart deliver quality addison wesley professional publishing isbn discusses use software reliability engineering use case driven software development gano dean l apollo root cause analysis third edition apollonian publications llc richland washington holmes oliver wendell sr deacon 's masterpiece horsburgh peter habits extraordinary reliability engineer reliability web kapur kc lamberson lr ''reliability engineering design'' john wiley sons new york kececioglu dimitri reliability engineering handbook prentice hall englewood cliffs new jersey trevor kletz ''process plants handbook inherently safer design''


crc leemis lawrence ''reliability probabilistic models statistical methods'' prentice hall macdiarmid preston morris seymour et al ''reliability toolkit commercial practices edition'' reliability analysis center rome laboratory rome new york modarres mohammad kaminskiy mark krivtsov vasiliy ''reliability engineering risk analysis practical guide'' crc press musa john software reliability engineering reliable software faster cheaper nd edition authorhouse isbn neubeck ken practical reliability analysis prentice hall new jersey neufelder ann marie ''ensuring software reliability'' marcel dekker inc new york o'connor patrick ''practical reliability engineering'' fourth ed john


wiley sons new york samaniego francisco j system signatures applications engineering reliability springer international series operations research management science new york shooman martin ''software engineering design reliability management'' mcgraw hill new york tobias trindade ''applied reliability'' chapman hall crc https wwwspringercom series springer series reliability engineering nelson wayne b ''accelerated testing statistical models test plans data analysis'' john wiley sons new york bagdonavicius v nikulin accelerated life models modeling statistical analysis chapman hall crc boca raton todinov reliability risk models setting reliability requirements wiley


us standards specifications handbooks http wwweveryspeccom usaf tors tor aerospace report number tor ''reliability program requirements space systems'' aerospace corporation july http wwweveryspeccom dod dod publications dod x h dod h rd ed ''test evaluation system reliability availability maintainability primer '' us department defense march http wwweveryspeccom nasa nasa gsfc gsfc code series gsfc ref nasa gsfc ref ''flight assurance procedure performing failure mode effects analysis'' national aeronautics space administration goddard space flight center august https standardsieeeorg standard html ieee ''ieee standard reliability program development production electronic systems equipment'' institute electrical electronics engineers http wwweveryspeccom nasa nasa jpl jpl jul


jpl ''reliability analysis handbook'' national aeronautics space administration jet propulsion laboratory july http wwweveryspeccom mil std mil std mil std b mil std b ''reliability program systems equipment development production'' us department defense september obsolete superseded ansi geia std titled ''reliability program standard systems design development manufacturing'' nov http wwweveryspeccom mil hdbk mil hdbk mil hdbk f mil hdbk f ''reliability prediction electronic equipment'' us department defense december http wwweveryspeccom mil hdbk mil hdbk mil hdbk f notice mil hdbk f notice ''reliability prediction electronic equipment'' us department defense july http wwweveryspeccom mil hdbk mil hdbk mil hdbk f notice mil hdbk f notice ''reliability prediction electronic equipment'' us department defense february http wwweveryspeccom mil std mil std mil std mil std ''failure


rate sampling plans procedures'' us department defense june http wwweveryspeccom mil hdbk mil hdbk mil hdbk b mil hdbk b ''electronic reliability design handbook'' us department defense october http wwweveryspeccom mil hdbk mil hdbk mil hdbk mil hdbk ''reliability centered maintenance rcm requirements naval aircraft weapon systems support equipment'' us department defense january superseded http wwwbarringer com mil files navair pdf navair http wwweveryspeccom mil std mil std mil std b mil std b ''reliability program requirements space launch vehicles'' us department defense october http wwweveryspeccom mil std mil std mil std mil std ''procedures performing failure mode effects criticality analysis'' us department defense november http wwweveryspeccom mil hdbk mil hdbk mil hdbk mil hdbk ''reliability test methods plans environments engineering development qualification


production'' us department defense april http wwweveryspeccom usn nswc nswc reliab hdbk nswc part b ''handbook reliability prediction procedures mechanical equipment'' naval surface warfare center january https telecom infonjdepotericssonnet site cgi ido docscgiid search keywords title document sr date class count sr ''reliability prediction procedure electronic equipment'' telcordia technologies january https telecom infonjdepotericssonnet site cgi ido docscgiid search keywords title document fd arpp date class count fd arpp ''automated reliability prediction procedure'' telcordia technologies january https telecom infonjdepotericssonnet site cgi ido docscgidocument gr keywords title id search gr ''generic requirements assuring reliability components used telecommunications equipment'' telcordia technologies march http standardssaeorg ja sae ja reliability program standard implementation guide uk standards uk date standards maintained sponsorship uk mod


defence standards relevant standards include def stan reliability maintainability r part issue management responsibilities requirements programmes plans part armp issue guidance writing nato r requirements documents part issue service r part armp issue nato r terminology applicable armp 's def stan reliability maintainability assurance guides part issue one shot devices systems part issue software part issue r case part issue testability part issue service reliability demonstrations def stan reliability maintainability assurance activity


part issue service maintainability demonstrations def stan reliability maintainability data collection classification part issue maintenance data defect reporting royal navy army royal air force part issue data classification incident sentencing general part issue incident sentencing sea part issue incident sentencing land def stan issue reliability centered maintenance def stan issue reliability maintainability mod guide terminology definitions obtained https webarchiveorg web http wwwdstanmoduk dstan also many commercial standards produced many organisations including sae msg


arp iee french standards fides http fides reliabilityorg fides methodology ute c based physics failures supported analysis test data field returns existing modelling ute c rdf http wwwute frcom fr rdf methodology based french telecom experience international standards http tc iecch standards htm tc standards dependability external links http libarchstoruahedu repositories resources john p rankin collection university alabama huntsville archives special collections nasa reliability engineering research sneak circuits design x engineering failures software quality engineering statistics survival analysis materials science engineering disciplines


'''oenology''' also '''enology''' science study wine winemaking oenology distinct viticulture science growing cultivation harvesting grapes english word '''oenology''' derives greek word ''oinos'' wine suffix '' logia'' study '''oenologist''' expert science wine arts techniques making wine education training university programs oenology viticulture usually feature concentration science degree bachelor science bs bsc scb terminal


master 's degree either scientific research program degree master science ms scm eg master professional studies degree oenologists viticulturalists doctorates often background horticulture plant physiology microbiology related oenology professional titles ' 'sommelier'' master wine specific certifications restaurant business hospitality management occupationally oenologists usually work winemakers wine chemists commercial laboratories oenologic organisations australian wine research institute australia schools australia tend offer bachelor


viticulture master viticulture degree charles sturt university wagga wagga new south wales curtin university technology perth western australia melbourne polytechnic la trobe university melbourne australia queensland college wine tourism stanthorpe queensland university adelaide adelaide south australia brazil federal institute rio grande sul bento gon alves porto alegre feliz sert canoas porto alegre restinga caxias sul os rio erechim rio grande federal university pampa dom pedrito campus rio grande sul canada brock university st catharines ontario france official national diploma oenology institut national polytechnique


de toulouse toulouse jules guyot institute dijon university bordeaux bordeaux university montpellier montpellier university reims reims wine diplomas universit de bourgogne dijon universit du vin suze la rousse germany hochschule geisenheim university geisenheim israel hebrew university jerusalem rehovot italy universit cattolica del sacro cuore https offertaformativaunicattit master serptipologia master sede piacenza international vintage master piacenza https offertaformativaunicattit master viticoltura ed enologia europea ed internazionale university padua padua university palermo marsala university perugia perugia university salento lecce university trento edmund mach foundation trento san michele all'adige university


udine udine university verona verona new zealand eastern institute technology hawke 's bay lincoln university christchurch http wwwwinescienceaucklandacnz enhtml university auckland auckland peru universidad privada san juan bautista ingenier en enolog viticultura lima ica chincha portugal universidade porto porto university tr os montes alto douro vila real universidade de vora vora south africa university stellenbosch stellenbosch slovenia university nova gorica school viticulture enology vipava switzerland changins nyon spain universitat rovira virgili tarragona universidad de la rioja


la rioja universidad de c diz c diz andalusia ukraine national university life environmental sciences ukraine kyiv national university food technologies kyiv odessa national academy food technologies odessa united kingdom plumpton college east sussex ref name plumpton college ref united states allan hancock college santa maria california california polytechnic state university san luis obispo california colorado state university fort collins colorado cornell university ithaca geneva new york finger lakes community college canandaigua geneva new york fresno state university fresno california grayson college grayson texas kent state


kent ohio miami university oxford ohio napa valley college napa california oregon state university corvallis oregon patrick henry community college henry county virginia paul smith 's college paul smiths new york sonoma state university sonoma california surry community college dobson north carolina university california davis davis california university missouri columbia missouri virginia polytechnic institute state university virginia tech blacksburg virginia washington state university pullman washington yavapai college clarkdale arizona prominent oenologists alberto antonini miguel brasc cathy corison tullio de rosa peter gago hermann jaeger


max l glise zelma long justin meyer hermann ller thurgau ottavio ottavi jacques puisais michel rolland carol shelton p storel teodoreanu miguel torres keith wallace references external links http wineserverucdavisedu website nology viticulture department university california davis http wwwoenologistcom oenologistcom online resource wine professionals wine industry http vinoenologycom vinoenologycom online wine making calculators resource wine professionals wine industry http wwwccwinegroupcom library glossaryoftermspdf glossary terms enology viticulture winemaking ccwinegroupcom pdf


'''women 's studies''' academic field draws feminist interdisciplinary methods order place women 's lives experiences center study examining social cultural constructs gender systems privilege oppression relationships power gender intersect identities social locations race sexual orientation socio economic class disability popular concepts related field women 's studies include feminist theory standpoint theory intersectionality multiculturalism transnational feminism social justice affect studies agency bio politics materialism embodiment research practices methodologies associated

Social science
Sociology
Gender studies
Women's studies


women 's studies include ethnography autoethnography focus groups surveys community based research discourse analysis reading practices associated critical theory post structuralism queer theory ref name ref field researches critiques different societal norms gender race class sexuality social inequalities women 's studies related fields gender studies feminist studies sexuality studies broadly related fields cultural studies ethnic studies african american studies women 's studies programs nationwide number programs increased following decade growing programs women 's studies courses


offered seven hundred institutions united states globally forty countries history australian feminist madge dawson took lectureship department adult education sydney university began researching teaching status women dawson 's course women changing world focused socio economic political status women western europe becoming one first women 's studies courses first accredited women 's studies course us held cornell university year intense organizing


women 's consciousness raising groups rallies petition circulating operating unofficial experimental classes presentations seven committees assemblies first women 's studies program united states established san diego state college san diego state university conjunction national women 's liberation movement students community members created ad hoc committee women 's studies second women 's studies program united states established wichita state university wichita kansas mostly formed many efforts women english department administration within


community san diego state university faculty members began nationwide campaign integration department time actions field extremely political formalized departments programs many women 's studies courses advertised unofficially around campuses taught women faculty member without pay addition established teaching administrative responsibilities many cases today faculty teach women 's studies often hold faculty appointments departments campus first scholarly journal interdisciplinary women 's studies ''feminist studies'' began publishing ref name fsaboutus ref


national women 's studies association united states established around universities us saw growth development women 's studies courses programs across country field continued grapple backlash conservative groups concerns within women 's movement white existentialist heterosexual privilege academy political aims feminist movement compelled formation women 's studies found odds institutionalized academic feminism woman concept continued


expanded exploration social constructions gender led field 's expansion gender studies sexuality studies field women 's studies continued grow expansion universities offering majors minors certificates women 's studies gender studies feminist studies first official phd program women 's studies established emory university institutions offering phd women 's studies united states since uc santa cruz university kentucky lexington stony brook university


oregon state university also introduced phd field kabul university first master 's degree course gender women 's studies afghanistan began courses women 's studies united kingdom found universities colleges admissions service theoretical traditions research methods students women gender studies university haifa early women 's studies courses curricula often driven question women included women women became present higher education students


faculty questions arose male centric nature courses curricula women faculty traditional departments history english philosophy began offer courses focus women drawing women 's movement 's notion personal political courses also began develop around sexual politics women 's roles society ways women 's personal lives reflect larger power structures since scholars women 's studies taken post modern approaches understand gender intersections race class ethnicity sexuality religion age dis ability produce maintain power structures


within society turn focus language subjectivity social hegemony lives subjects however identify constituted core theories notion however one identifies gender sex sexuality intrinsic socially constructed major theories employed women 's studies courses include feminist theory intersectionality standpoint theory transnational feminism social justice research practices associated women 's studies place women experiences women center inquiry use quantitative qualitative mixed methods feminist researchers acknowledge


center'' hooks ''in search mothers' gardens'' walker ''black feminist thought knowledge consciousness politics empowerment'' collins alice walker coined term womanism situate black women 's experiences struggle social change liberation simultaneously celebrating strength black women culture beauty patricia hill collin 's contributed concept matrix domination feminist theory reconceptualizes race class gender interlocking systems oppression shape experiences privilege oppression woman women 's studies area library intersectionality intersectionality


historically ignored marginalized comes production knowledge emerging marxist thought standpoint theory argues analysis challenges authority political social truths standpoint theory assumes power lies solely within hands male gender process decision making society constructed exclusively men ref name example standpoint theory presents society processes political analysis field study almost entirely controlled men ref name furthermore marxist viewpoint karl marx


expressed notion believed power inability understand perspectives hold power ref name providing standpoint theory acknowledges male incapability understanding oppression women face society transnational feminist theory transnational feminism concerned flow social political economic equality women men across borders directly response globalization neoliberalism imperialism women 's studies began incorporating transnational feminist theory curricula way disrupt challenge ways knowledge regarding gender


prioritized transmitted circulated field academy transnational feminist theory continually challenging traditional divides society crucial ongoing politics cultural beliefs key recognition advanced transnational feminist perspective gender continue global effort ref name ref furthermore transnational feminist perspective perpetuates lack attention cultural economic injustices gender result globalization may aid reinforcing global gender inequalities though come one occupies globally privileged subject positions ref


name social justice since inception connection women 's movement activism foundation women 's studies increasingly social justice become key component women 's studies courses programs departments social justice theory concerned fight communities individual level whole society women 's studies students engage social justice projects although scholars critics concerned requiring students engage mandated activism social justice work women 's studies focus concepts domestic violence discrimination


workplace gender differences division labor home gives foundation understanding root cause concepts first step making better life women agency agency may defined capability make choices individually freely ref name ref individual 's agency may restricted due various social factors gender race religion social class ref name feminist standpoint agency may viewed attempt equalize one sided oppression characterized first wave feminism ref name ref feminists


use agency attempt create new forms autonomy dependence reshaping gender relations taking place global society ref name women 's studies acknowledges lack agency women historically possessed due hierarchical positions society feminists actively making effort increase gender equality may result expanding social agency women ref name materialism materialist theory derives 's 's social work feminism ref name ref materialism possesses significant ties marxist theories history agency ideology though may distinguished


incorporation language culture philosophy ref name materialism poses questions social analytics social relations may found material conditions given society ref name addition examining gender standpoint material conditions studied relation realistic aspects women 's lives ref name key aspect materialist feminists revealed relations feminist perspective claiming social conditions gender historically situated well subjected intervention change ref name materialist feminism specifically focuses social


arrangements accentuate role women notably aspects family domesticity motherhood ref name materialism analyzes gendering discourses promote women 's marginalization thus one influential aspects materialist feminism attentiveness questions ideology relate history agency ref name pedagogies institutions women 's studies courses employ feminist pedagogy triad model equal parts research theory praxis decentralization professor source knowledge often fundamental women 's studies classroom culture students encouraged take active


role claiming education taking responsibility learning process women 's studies programs courses designed explore intersectionality gender race sexuality class topics involved identity politics societal norms feminist lens women 's studies courses focus variety topics media literacy sexuality race ethnicity history involving women queer theory multiculturalism courses closely related faculty incorporate components classes across variety topics including popular culture women economy reproductive environmental justice women 's health across


lifespan women 's studies programs involved social justice work often design curricula embedded theory activism outside classroom setting women 's studies programs offer internships community based allowing students opportunity experience institutional structures privilege oppression directly affects women 's lives women 's studies curricula often encourage students participate service learning activities addition discussion reflection upon course materials however daphne patai university massachusetts amherst criticized aspect women 's studies programs arguing place politics education stating strategies


adrienne rich barbara ransby see also feminist economics ''feminist formations'' ''feminist review'' ''feminist studies'' feminist theory french feminism gender studies girl studies list women 's studies journals men 's studies misandry separatist feminism ''signs journal women culture society'' social criticism social justice warrior women artists women 's history world center women 's archives notes references borland k 's said interpretive conflict oral narrative research giuck patai eds women 's words feminist practice oral history pp nbsp ny routledge brooks feminist standpoint epistemology building knowledge


empowerment women 's lived experiences hesse biber sn leavy pl eds feminist research practice pp nbsp ca sage publications brooks hesse biber sn invitation feminist research hesse biber sn leavy pl eds feminist research practice pp nbsp ca sage publications buch ed staller km feminist practice ethnography hesse biber sn leavy pl eds feminist research practice pp nbsp ca sage publications dill tb zambrana r emerging intersections race class gender theory policy practice nj rutgers university press fausto sterling anne sexing body gender politics


construction sexuality new york basic books halse c honey unraveling ethics illuminating moral dilemmas research ethics journal women culture society harding introduction feminist method harding ed feminism methodology pp nbsp indiana university press hesse biber sn practice feminist depth interviewing hesse biber sn leavy pl eds feminist research practice pp nbsp ca sage publications hyam hearing girls' silences thoughts politics practices feminist method group discussion gender place


culture leavy pl feminist postmodernism poststructuralism hesse biber sn leavy pl eds feminist research practice pp nbsp ca sage publications leavy pl b practice feminist oral history focus group interviews hesse biber sn leavy pl eds feminist research practice pp nbsp ca sage publications leavy pl c feminist practice content analysis hesse biber sn leavy pl eds feminist research practice pp nbsp ca sage publications leckenby feminist empiricism challenging gender bias setting record straight hesse biber sn leavy pl eds feminist research practice pp nbsp ca


sage publications lykes mb coquillon e participatory action research feminisms towards transformative praxis sharlene hesse biber ed handbook feminist research theory praxis ca sage publications miner rubino k jayaratne te feminist survey research hesse biber sn leavy pl eds feminist research practice pp nbsp ca sage publications reading berkin carol r judith l pinch carole appel ''exploring women 's studies looking forward looking back'' davis angela prisons obsolete open media april fausto sterling anne ''myths gender biological theories women men'' new


women 's studies testimony thirty founding mothers'' paperback edition new york feminist press lederman muriel ingrid bartsch eds ''the gender science reader'' new york routledge print messer davidow ellen ''disciplining feminism social activism academic discourse'' durham nc etc duke university press schiebinger londa ''has feminism changed science'' cambridge harvard university press print ruth sheila ''issues feminism introduction women 's studies'' wiegman robyn editor ''women 's studies next wave reader institutional change'' duke university press orr catherine braithwaite ann lichtenstein diane ''rethinking


development network https discoverarchiveslibraryutorontoca indexphp kay armatage fonds archival papers kay armatage key founder institute women 's gender studies university toronto held https utarmslibraryutorontoca university toronto archives record management services


academic lori arp published paper asking information literacy instruction bibliographic instruction ref name arp last arp first lori title information literacy bibliographic instruction semantics philosophy journal rq volume issue year ref arp argued neither term particularly well defined theoreticians practitioners field studies needed lessen confusion continue articulate parameters question ref name arp alexandria proclamation defined term human rights issue information literacy empowers people walks life seek evaluate use create information effectively achieve

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Information literacy


personal social occupational educational goals basic human right digital world promotes social inclusion nations united states national forum information literacy defined information literacy ability know need information able identify locate evaluate effectively use information issue problem hand ref name nfil ref ref name ala ref number efforts made better define concept relationship skills forms literacy pedagogical outcomes related information literacy include traditional


widely cited since publication mr owens stated information literacy differs context context people created equal voters information resources position make intelligent decisions citizens information illiterates application information resources process decision making fulfill civic responsibilities vital necessity literature review published academic journal oral roberts university professor angela sample cited several conceptual waves il definitions since circa broad conceptual approaches included information literacy defined


time president software information industry association zurkowski used phrase describe techniques skills learned information literate utilizing wide range information tools well primary sources molding information solutions problems drew relatively firm line literates information illiterates american library association 's presidential committee information literacy released report january outlining importance information literacy opportunities develop information literacy information age school report 's final name presidential committee information literacy final


report ref name presidential committee information literacy final report ref recommendations committee led creation later year national forum information literacy coalition national international organizations ref name nfil american association school librarians association educational communications technology published ''information power building partnerships learning'' established specific goals information literacy education defining nine standards categories information literacy independent learning social responsibility ref name aasl standards ref also presidential committee information literacy updated final


number countries developed information literacy standards since national forum information literacy together unesco national commission libraries information science sponsored international conference prague representatives twenty three countries discuss importance information literacy within global context resulting prague declaration described information literacy key social cultural economic development nations communities institutions individuals st century declared acquisition part basic human right lifelong learning united states il


made priority president barack obama 's first term designated october national information literacy awareness month ref name obama ref presidential committee information literacy american library association 's presidential committee information literacy defined information literacy ability recognize information needed ability locate evaluate use effectively needed information highlighted information literacy skill essential lifelong learning production informed prosperous citizenry ref name presidential committee information literacy final report committee outlined six principal recommendations included recommendations like reconsider ways


organized information institutionally structured information access defined information 's role lives home community work place promote public awareness problems created information illiteracy develop national research agenda related information use ensure existence climate conducive students' becoming information literate include information literacy concerns teacher education democracy ref name acrl ref updated report committee ended invitation asking national forum regular citizens recognize result combined efforts citizenry


made effective lifelong learners always find information needed issue decision hand new generation information literate citizens truly america 's valuable resource continue working toward information literate world presidential committee information literacy resulted creation national forum information literacy national forum information literacy united states published nation risk imperative educational reform report declaring rising tide mediocrity eroding foundation american educational system


report regarded genesis current educational reform movement within united states report conjunction rapid emergence information society led american library association ala convene panel educators librarians forum unesco international federation library associations institutions ifla collaborated organize several experts meetings resulted prague declaration alexandria proclamation statements underscore importance information literacy basic fundamental human right consider il lifelong learning skill global international


federation library associations institutions ifla ifla established information literacy section section turn developed mounted information literacy resources directory called infolit global librarians educators information professionals may self register upload information literacy related materials ifla information literacy section nd according ifla website primary purpose information literacy section foster international cooperation development information literacy education types libraries information institutions international alliance information literacy iail alliance created recommendation prague conference information


literacy experts one goals allow sharing information literacy research knowledge nations iail also sees lifelong learning basic human right ultimate goal use information literacy way allow everyone participate information society way fulfilling right following organizations founding members iail australian new zealand institute information literacy anziil based australia new zealand european network information literacy enil based european union national forum information literacy


nfil based united states nordinfolit based scandinavia sconul society college national university libraries advisory committee information literacy based united kingdom unesco media information literacy according unesco website action provide people skills abilities critical reception assessment use information media professional personal lives goal create information literate societies creating maintaining educational policies information literacy work teachers around world training importance information literacy providing


new conceptualization entire educational curriculum terms information drawing upon enlightenment ideals like articulated enlightenment philosopher condorcet shapiro hughes argued information literacy education essential future democracy citizens intelligent shapers information society rather pawns humanistic culture information part meaningful existence rather routine production consumption end shapiro hughes outlined prototype curriculum encompassed concepts computer literacy library skills broader critical conception


humanistic sort suggesting seven important components holistic approach information literacy ''tool literacy'' ability understand use practical conceptual tools current information technology relevant education areas work professional life individual expects inhabit ''resource literacy'' ability understand form format location access methods information resources especially daily expanding networked information resources ''social structural literacy'' understanding information socially situated produced ''research literacy'' ability understand use based tools relevant work


limits benefits costs information technologies ira shor defines critical literacy habits thought reading writing speaking go beneath surface meaning first impressions dominant myths official pronouncements traditional clich received wisdom mere opinions understand deep meaning root causes social context ideology personal consequences action event object process organization experience text subject matter policy mass media discourse information literacy skills big skills big skills used variety settings help variety needs example library dubai women 's


college dubai united arab emirates english second language institution uses big model information literacy workshops according story huffman using big college transcended cultural physical boundaries provide knowledge base help students become information literate para primary grades big found work well variety cognitive language levels found classroom ref issues consider big approach highlighted philip doty eisenberg recognized number challenges effectively


applying big skills least information overload overwhelm students part eisenberg 's solution schools help students become discriminating users information another conception conception used primarily library information studies field rooted concepts library instruction bibliographic instruction ability recognize information needed ability locate evaluate use effectively needed information view information literacy basis lifelong learning also basis evaluating contemporary sources information


publication ''information power building partnerships learning'' aasl aect three categories nine standards twenty nine indicators used describe information literate student categories standards follows category information literacy standards student information literate accesses information efficiently effectively evaluates information critically competently uses information accurately creatively category independent learning standards student independent learner information literate pursues information related personal interests appreciates literature creative expressions information strives excellence


information seeking knowledge generation category social responsibility standards student contributes positively learning community society information literate recognizes importance information democratic society practices ethical behavior regard information information technology participates effectively groups pursue generate information since information may presented number formats term information applies printed word literacies visual media computer network basic literacies implicit information literacy many


need information literacy often amongst least able access information require presidential committee report points members disadvantaged groups often unaware libraries provide access training information need osborne many libraries around country finding numerous ways reach many disadvantaged groups discovering needs environments including prisons offering specific services libraries effects education rapidly evolving information landscape demonstrated need education methods


information evaluation process crucial life skill basis lifelong learning ref name evaluation ref according lankshear knobel needed education system new understanding literacy information literacy literacy teaching educators need learn account context culturally linguistically diverse increasingly globalized societies also need take account burgeoning variety text forms associated information multimedia technologies evaluation consists several component processes including metacognition goals personal disposition cognitive development deliberation decision making difficult


complex challenge underscores importance able think critically critical thinking important educational outcome students ref name evaluation education institutions experimented several strategies help foster critical thinking means enhance information evaluation information literacy among students evaluating evidence students encouraged practice formal argumentation debates formal presentations must also encouraged analyze critically evaluate information education professionals must underscore importance high information quality students must trained distinguish fact opinion must encouraged use cue


words think feel help distinguish factual information opinions information related skills complex difficult comprehend must broken smaller parts another approach would train students familiar contexts education professionals encourage students examine causes behaviors actions events research shows people evaluate effectively causes revealed available ref name skills information format produced convey message shared via selected delivery method iterative processes researching creating revising


disseminating information vary resulting product reflects differences association college p nbsp call increased critical analysis information literacy instruction smith identifies beneficial individuals particularly young people period formal education could equip skills need understand political system place within necessary challenge p nbsp education us standards national content standards state standards information literacy skills terminology may vary common components relating information literacy information literacy skills critical several


national education goals outlined goals educate america act particularly act 's aims increase school readiness student achievement citizenship adult literacy lifelong learning specific relevance focus lifelong learning ability think critically use new existing information problem solving important components information literacy american association school librarians association educational communications technology published information literacy standards student learning identified nine standards librarians teachers k


schools could use describe information literate students define relationship information literacy independent learning social responsibility standard one student information literate accesses information efficiently effectively standard two student information literate evaluates information critically competently standard three student information literate uses information accurately creatively standard four student independent learner information literate pursues information related personal interests standard five student independent learner information literate appreciates literature creative expressions information


standard six student independent learner information literate strives excellence information seeking knowledge generation standard seven student contributes positively learning community society information literate recognizes importance information democratic society standard eight student contributes positively learning community society information literate practices ethical behavior regard information information technology standard nine student contributes positively learning community society information literate participates effectively groups


pursue generate information ref name aasl standards aasl expanded restructured standards school librarians strive teaching published standards st century learner address several literacies information technology visual textual digital aspects literacy organized within four key goals learners use skills resources tools inquire think critically gain knowledge draw conclusions make informed decisions apply knowledge new situations create new knowledge share knowledge participate ethically productively members democratic society


pursue personal aesthetic growth association college research libraries acrl division american library association ala released information literacy competency standards higher education describing five standards numerous performance indicators considered best practices implementation assessment postsecondary information literacy programs five standards standard one information literate student determines nature extent information needed standard two information literate student accesses needed information effectively efficiently standard three information literate student evaluates information sources critically incorporates selected information


knowledge base value system standard four information literate student individually member group uses information effectively accomplish specific purpose standard five information literate student understands many economic legal social issues surrounding use information accesses uses information ethically legally standards meant span simple complicated terms bloom 's taxonomy educational objectives lower order higher order lower order skills would involve instance able use online catalog


find book relevant information need academic library higher order skills would involve critically evaluating synthesizing information multiple sources coherent interpretation argument association college research librarians acrl rescinded standards replaced framework information literacy higher education offers following set core ideas authority constructed contextual information creation process information value research inquiry scholarship conversation searching strategic exploration framework based cluster interconnected core concepts


curriculum development vital imparting information literacy skills students given already heavy load students efforts must made avoid curriculum overload ref name effective ref eisenberg strongly recommends adopting collaborative approach curriculum development among classroom teachers librarians technology teachers educators staff must encouraged work together analyze student curriculum needs develop broad instruction plan set information literacy goals design specific unit lesson plans integrate information skills classroom content educators also collaborate teaching assessment duties educators selecting various forms resource based learning


authentic learning problem based learning work based learning help students focus process help students learn content information literacy skills necessary components within school setting important students' specific needs well situational context kept mind selecting topics integrated information literacy skills instruction primary goal provide frequent opportunities students learn practice information problem solving ref name effective extent also vital facilitate repetition information seeking actions behavior importance


repetition information literacy lesson plans cannot underscored since tend learn repetition students' proficiency improve time afforded regular opportunities learn apply skills learnt process approach education requiring new forms student assessment students demonstrate skills assess learning evaluate processes learning achieved preparing portfolios learning research logs using rubrics efforts k education information literacy efforts underway individual local regional bases many states


either fully adopted aasl information literacy standards adapted suit needs ref name skills states oregon oslis increasing rely guidelines curriculum development setting information literacy goals virginia hand chose undertake comprehensive review involving relevant stakeholders formulate guidelines standards information literacy international level two framework documents jointly produced unesco ifla international federation library associations institutions developed two framework documents laid foundations helping define educational role played school


person would normally undertake faced information problem making decision based available resources efforts higher education information literacy instruction higher education take variety forms stand alone courses classes online tutorials workbooks course related instruction course integrated instruction one attempt area physics published six regional accreditation boards added information literacy standards ref name accreditation ref librarians often required teach concepts information literacy one shot classroom lectures also credit courses offered academic librarians prepare college


students become information literate association college research libraries acrl part american library association adopted new framework information literacy higher education replacing acrl 's information literacy standards higher education approved standards largely criticized proponents ''critical information literacy'' concept deriving critical pedagogy prescriptive 's termed framework consists interconnected core concepts designed interpreted implemented locally depending context needs audience framework draws recent research


information literacy overarching set abilities students consumers creators information participate successfully collaborative spaces association college p nbsp growing body scholarly research describing faculty librarian collaboration bring information literacy skills practice higher education curriculum moving beyond one shot lectures integrated model librarians help design assignments create guides useful course resources provide direct support students throughout courses recent literature review indicates still lack evidence concerning unique information literacy practices doctoral


blackboard library staff embedding information literacy training within academic programs within individual classes education singapore public education october national library singapore nlb created sure source understand research evaluate campaign objectives strategies sure campaign first presented ifla wlic summarised nlb simplifying information literacy four basic building blocks promote educate importance information literacy discernment informations searching public events furthering sure campaign organised called super


sure show involving speakers engage public anecdotes learning points example ability separate fact opinion higher education information literacy taught librarians institutes higher education components information literacy embedded undergraduate curriculum national university singapore assessment many academic libraries participating culture assessment attempt show value information literacy interventions students librarians use variety techniques assessment aim empower students librarians


resist adherence unquestioned norms oakleaf describes benefits dangers various assessment approaches fixed choice tests performance assessments rubrics see also references sources https archivetoday http portalunescoorg ci en evphp url id url topic url section html prague declaration towards information literate society https wwwwebcitationorg gh puqvurl http wwwiflaorgwwwiflaorg files information literacy publications high level colloquium pdf alexandria proclamation high level international colloquium information literacy lifelong learning https webarchiveorg web http wwwinfolitorg reportshtml information literacy summit american competitiveness internet age http wwwalaorg ala mgrps divs acrl publications whitepapers presidentialcfm presidential committee information literacy final report http wwwedgov pubs natatrisk indexhtml nation risk imperative educational reform https webarchiveorg web http wwwalaorg ala aasl aaslpubsandjournals kqweb kqarchives vol toc cfm gibson c information literacy develops globally role national forum information literacy knowledge quest breivik


ps gee eg higher education internet age libraries creating strategic edge westport ct greenwood publishing reading association college research libraries http wwwalaorg acrl standards ilframework framework information literacy higher education association college research libraries https webarchiveorg web http wwwalaorg ala acrlbucket publicationsacrl tmcfyebibcfm ''the first year experience academic libraries select annotated bibliography'' retrieved april barner r march april seven changes challenge managers workers ''the futurist'' breivik p senn j ''information literacy educating children st century'' nd ed washington dc national education association bruch c


wilkinson cw surveying terrain clearing pathways carpenter j p ''using new technologies create links schools throughout world colloquy computerized school links'' exeter devon united kingdom october doty p bibliographic instruction digital divide resistance users technologies retrieved july http wwwischoolutexasedu l dw website spring readings biblioinstructionhtml doyle cs ''outcome measures information literacy within national education goals final report national forum information literacy summary findings'' eisenberg information literacy whole enchilada powerpoint presentation retrieved july https webarchiveorg web http wwwbig com presentations sreb eisenberg


government printing office ed national hispanic council aging nd mission statement retrieved july national forum information literacy web site obama b presidential proclamation national information literacy awareness month washington dc us government printing office retrieved october https webarchiveorg web http wwwwhitehousegov assets documents literacy prc relpdf osborne r ed outreach equity innovative models library policy practice chicago american library association ryan j capra ''information literacy toolkit'' chicago american library association schwarzenegger executive order sacramento ca retrieved october https webarchiveorg web http govcagov newsphpid sconul seven pillars


information literacy model retrieved november https webarchiveorg web http wwwsconulacuk groups information literacy sp modelhtml http wdrdoletagov scans secretary 's commission achieving necessary skills tuominen et al ''information literacy sociotechnical practice'' university chicago press external links http eldwikilibucdavisedu indexphp information literacy eld information literacy wiki u cal davis information science digital divide literacy


theory usually done help statistical econometric methods normative descriptive normative decision theory concerned identification optimal decisions optimality often determined considering ideal decision maker able calculate perfect accuracy sense fully rational practical application prescriptive approach people ''ought to'' make decisions called decision analysis aimed finding tools methodologies software decision support systems help people make better decisions ref name ref ref name ref contrast positive descriptive decision theory concerned describing observed

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Decision Theory


behaviors often assumption decision making agents behaving consistent rules rules may instance procedural framework eg amos tversky 's elimination aspects model axiomatic framework eg stochastic transitivity axioms reconciling von neumann morgenstern axioms behavioral violations expected utility hypothesis may explicitly give functional form time inconsistent utility functions eg laibson 's quasi hyperbolic discounting ref name ref name prescriptions predictions behavior positive decision theory produces allow tests kind decision making occurs practice recent decades


also increasing interest behavioral decision theory contributing evaluation useful decision making requires types decisions choice uncertainty area choice uncertainty represents heart decision theory known th century blaise pascal invoked famous wager contained ''pens es'' published idea expected value faced number actions could give rise one possible outcome different probabilities rational procedure identify possible outcomes determine values positive


negative probabilities result course action multiply two give expected value average expectation outcome action chosen one gives rise highest total expected value daniel bernoulli published influential paper entitled ''exposition new theory measurement risk'' uses st petersburg paradox show expected value theory must normatively wrong gives example dutch merchant trying decide whether


insure cargo sent amsterdam st petersburg winter solution defines utility function computes expected utility rather expected financial value th century interest reignited abraham wald 's paper pointing two central procedures sampling distribution based statistical theory namely hypothesis testing parameter estimation special cases general decision problem wald 's paper renewed synthesized many concepts statistical theory including loss functions risk functions admissible decision rules antecedent distributions bayesian procedures minimax procedures phrase decision theory used


less emphasis rationality presuppositions describes way people make decisions outcomes carry risk kahneman tversky found three regularities actual human decision making losses loom larger gains persons focus ''changes'' utility states focus absolute utilities estimation subjective probabilities severely biased anchoring intertemporal choice intertemporal choice concerned kind choice different actions lead outcomes realised different stages time also described cost benefit decision making since involves


choices rewards vary according magnitude time arrival someone received windfall several thousand dollars could spend expensive holiday giving immediate pleasure could invest pension scheme giving income time future optimal thing answer depends partly factors expected rates interest inflation person 's life expectancy confidence pensions industry however even factors taken account human behavior


deviates greatly predictions prescriptive decision theory leading alternative models example objective interest rates replaced subjective discount rates interaction decision makers decisions difficult need take account people situation respond decision taken analysis social decisions often treated label game theory rather decision theory though involves mathematical methods standpoint game theory problems treated decision theory one player


decrease amount evaluative thinking perform making simple decisions making instead based unconscious rules focusing aspects decision ignoring others ref name ref one example common erroneous thought process arises heuristic thinking gambler 's fallacy believing isolated random event affected previous isolated random events example coin flipped tails couple turns still probability however seems likely intuitively roll heads soon ref name ref


happens due routine thinking one disregards probability concentrates ratio outcomes meaning one expects long run ratio flips half outcome ref name ref another example decision makers may biased towards preferring moderate alternatives extreme ones ''compromise effect'' operates mindset moderate option carries benefit incomplete information scenario daily decisions moderate option look appealing either extreme independent context based fact


characteristics found either extreme ref name ref alternatives highly controversial issue whether one replace use probability decision theory alternatives probability theory advocates use probability theory point work richard threlkeld cox justification probability axioms dutch book paradoxes bruno de finetti illustrative theoretical difficulties arise departures probability axioms complete class theorems show admissible decision rules equivalent bayesian decision rule utility function


prior distribution limit sequence prior distributions thus every decision rule either rule may reformulated bayesian procedure limit sequence rule sometimes better never worse alternatives probability theory proponents fuzzy logic possibility theory quantum cognition dempster shafer theory info gap decision theory maintain probability one many alternatives point many examples non standard alternatives implemented apparent success notably probabilistic decision theory sensitive assumptions


probabilities various events non probabilistic rules minimax robust make assumptions ludic fallacy general criticism decision theory based fixed universe possibilities considers known unknowns unknown unknowns focuses expected variations unforeseen events argue outsized impact must considered significant events may outside model line argument called ludic fallacy inevitable imperfections modeling real world particular models unquestioning reliance models


blinds one limits see also bayesian epistemology bayesian statistics causal decision theory choice modelling constraint satisfaction daniel kahneman decision making decision quality emotional choice theory evidential decision theory game theory multi criteria decision making newcomb 's paradox operations research optimal decision preference economics prospect theory quantum cognition rational choice theory rationality secretary problem signal detection theory small numbers game stochastic dominance totrep two envelopes problem references reading ''an overview philosophical foundations key mathematical axioms subjective expected utility theory mainly normative'' '' covers normative decision theory '' translation article de finetti


bruno foresight logical laws subjective sources translation http wwwnumdamorg itemid aihp article french h e kyburg h e smokler eds ''studies subjective probability'' new york wiley de finetti bruno ''theory probability'' translation afm smith book volumes new york wiley de groot morris ''optimal statistical decisions'' wiley classics library originally published '' covers normative descriptive theory '' khemani karan https papersssrncom sol paperscfmabstract id ignorance bliss study humans depend recognition heuristics social relationships equity markets brand market place


pump probe techniques '''femtochemistry''' area physical chemistry studies chemical reactions extremely short timescales approximately sup sup seconds one femtosecond hence name order study act atoms within molecules reactants rearranging form new molecules products issue journal ''science'' ahmed hassan zewail published article using term first time stating real time femtochemistry chemistry femtosecond timescale later zewail received nobel prize chemistry pioneering work field showing

Natural science
Chemistry
Femtochemistry


possible see atoms molecule move chemical reaction flashes laser light application femtochemistry biological studies also helped elucidate conformational dynamics stem loop rna structures many publications discussed possibility controlling chemical reactions method remains controversial ref name zewail http publicationsiupacorg pac pdf pdf x pdf femtochemistry past present future h zewail ''pure appl chem'' vol pp ref steps reactions occur femtosecond timescale sometimes attosecond timescales ref name klingvrakking ref sometimes form intermediate products reaction intermediates cannot always


deduced observing start end products pump probe spectroscopy simplest approach still one common techniques known pump probe spectroscopy method two optical pulses variable time delay used investigate processes happening chemical reaction first pulse pump initiates reaction breaking bond exciting one reactants second pulse probe used interrogate progress reaction certain period time initiation reaction progresses response


dynamics chemical bond ahmed h zewail world scientific external links http ufcatalogfclaedu permalinkjsp uf controlling probing atoms molecules ultrafast laser pulses phd thesis physical chemistry ultrafast spectroscopy articles containing video clips photochemistry


mapping correlation areas certain applications site investigations lithology described using standard terminology european geotechnical standard eurocode rock type basalt showing 'pillow' lava shape characteristic underwater eruptions italy naming lithology based rock type three major rock types sedimentary igneous metamorphic igneous rocks formed directly magma mixture molten rock dissolved gases solid crystals sedimentary rock formed mineral organic particles collect earth 's surface become lithified

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Lithology


metamorphic rock forms recrystallization existing solid rock conditions great heat pressure ref name levin ref igneous rocks broken three broad categories igneous rock composed broken rock fragments created directly volcanic processes tephra classified pyroclastic rock pyroclastic rocks classified average fragment clast size whether fragments mostly individual mineral crystals particles volcanic glass rock fragments ref name schmidt ref classifications chemical composition may also applied ref name fisher schmincke ref ref name schmincke ref igneous rocks visible mineral grains phaneritic rocks classified intrusive


glassy fine grained aphanitic classified extrusive igneous rock intrusive igneous rocks usually classified using qapf classification based relative content quartz alkali feldspar plagioclase feldspathoid special classifications exist igneous rock unusual compositions ultramafic rock carbonatites possible extrusive igneous rocks also classified mineral content using extrusive qapf classification determining mineral composition impractical may classified chemically using tas classification based total content silica alkali metal oxides chemical


criteria ref name iugs ref ref name bgs ref ref name philpotts ague ref sedimentary rocks classified whether siliciclastic carbonate siliciclastic sedimentary rocks subcategorized based grain size distribution relative proportions quartz feldspar lithic rock fragments ref name blatt tracy ss ref carbonate rocks classified dunham folk classification schemes according constituents carbonate rock ref name boggs ref metamorphic rock naming based texture protolith metamorphic facies locations found naming based texture pelite eg shale mudrock protolith used define slate phyllite texture based names


typically indicate intrusive igneous rock small crystals indicate rock extrusive metamorphism rock composed mostly single mineral quartzite marble may increase grain size grain growth metamorphism sheared rock may decrease grain size syntectonic recrystallization clastic sedimentary rocks grain size diameter grains clasts constitute rock used determine rock naming system use eg conglomerate sandstone mudstone case sandstones conglomerates cover wide range grain sizes word describing grain


size range added rock name examples pebble conglomerate fine quartz arenite mineralogy mantle xenolith olivine pyroxene altering brown iddingsite matrix mafic basalt scoria rocks mineral grains large enough identified using hand lens visible mineralogy included part description case sequences possibly including carbonates calcite cemented rocks possible calcite veins normal test presence calcite forms calcium carbonate using dilute hydrochloric acid looking effervescence ref


name acid test ref mineralogical composition rock one major ways classified igneous rocks classified mineral content whenever practical using qapf classification special ultramafic carbonatite classifications ref name iugs ref name bgs ref name philpotts ague likewise metamorphic facies show degree rock exposed heat pressure therefore important classifying metamorphic rocks determined observing mineral phases present sample colour colour rock component parts distinctive characteristic rocks


always recorded sometimes standard colour charts produced rock color chart committee geological society america based munsell color system fabric fabric rock describes spatial geometric configuration elements make sedimentary rocks main visible fabric normally bedding scale degree development bedding normally recorded part description metamorphic rocks apart created contact metamorphism characterised well developed planar linear fabrics igneous rocks may also fabrics


crystal shapes euhedral irregular crystals anhedral whether rock shows highly nonuniform crystal sizes porphyritic whether grains aligned described trachytic texture small scale structures ripple marks mongolia rocks often contain small scale structures smaller scale individual outcrop sedimentary rocks may include sole markings ripple marks mudcracks cross bedding recorded generally characteristic particular depositional environment may provide information paleocurrent directions metamorphic rocks associated deeper levels fault zones small scale structures asymmetric boudins ref name fossen ref


microfolds used determine sense displacement across zone ref name jordi ref igneous rocks small scale structures mostly observed lavas pahoehoe versus basaltic flows ref name kemp james furman kemp ''a handbook rocks use without microscope glossary names rocks lithological terms'' aufl new york van nostrand pp https booksgooglecom booksid thqnaaaayaaj pg pa v onepage https booksgooglecom booksid thqnaaaayaaj pg pa v onepage c e dutton '' th annual report us geological survey'' ''bulletin geological society america volume '' geological society america p https booksgooglecom booksid itapaaaamaaj pg pa ref pillows


'''reference management software''' '''citation management software''' '''bibliographic management software''' software scholars authors use recording utilising bibliographic citations references well managing project references either company individual ref name francese ref citation recorded used time generating bibliographies lists references scholarly books articles essays development reference management packages driven rapid expansion scientific literature software packages normally consist database full bibliographic references entered plus

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Reference management software


system generating selective lists articles different formats required publishers scholarly journals modern reference management packages usually integrated word processors reference list appropriate format produced automatically article written reducing risk cited source included reference list also facility importing details publications bibliographic databases reference management software job bibliographic database tries list articles published particular discipline


group disciplines bibliographic databases large housed major server installations reference management software collects much smaller database publications used likely used particular author group database easily housed individual 's personal computer apart managing references reference management software also enables users search references online libraries online libraries usually based z public protocol users need specify ip address database name keywords start z


run time output others store citation data later use reference management software among legal scholars comparison usage endnote refworks zotero among legal scholars oxford university law faculty performed survey survey participants used refworks used endnote used zotero mostly research students difficulty using refworks endnote zotero oxford legal scholars estimated author well comparison tools legal scholars made across several usage scenarios including installing setting oscola citation style building personal


legal bibliographic library using extracting metadata legal bibliographic databases generating footnotes bibliographies academic publications using modifying oscola citation style reference management wikipedia wikipedia runs mediawiki software built tools management references tools many ways function reference management software automatically number references generate reference list set links component citation text reference list wikidata stores various attributes scientific journals journal articles main item


namespace wikidata unlike traditional reference management tools mediawiki store references database constructed facilitate ease citation see also comparison reference management software coins method embed bibliographic metadata html code web pages z international standard client server application layer communications protocol searching retrieving information database tcp ip computer network widely used library environments reference software references external links


nonlinear static analysis structure subjected plastic deformations '''computer aided engineering''' '''cae''' broad usage computer software aid engineering analysis tasks includes durability optimization included computer aided design cad computer aided manufacturing cam collective abbreviation cax overview computer aided engineering primarily uses computer aided design cad software sometimes called cae tools cae tools used example analyse robustness performance components assemblies term encompasses simulation validation optimisation products manufacturing tools

Formal science
Mathematics
Computer-aided engineering


cae systems aim major providers information help support design teams decision making computer aided engineering used many fields automotive aviation space shipbuilding industries ref name saracoglu regard information networks cae systems individually considered single node total information network node may interact nodes network cae systems provide support businesses achieved use reference architectures ability place information views business process reference architecture basis information model especially


product manufacturing models term cae also used past describe use computer technology within engineering broader sense engineering analysis context term coined jason lemon founder sdrc late definition however better known today terms cax plm cae fields phases cae areas covered include stress analysis components assemblies using finite element analysis fea thermal fluid flow analysis computational fluid dynamics cfd multibody dynamics mbd


kinematics analysis tools process simulation operations casting molding die press forming optimization product process general three phases computer aided engineering task pre processing ndash defining model environmental factors applied typically finite element model facet voxel thin sheet methods also used analysis solver usually performed high powered computers post processing results using visualization tools cycle iterated often many times either manually use commercial optimization software cae automotive industry cae tools


widely used automotive industry fact use enabled automakers reduce product development cost time improving safety comfort durability vehicles produce predictive capability cae tools progressed point much design verification done using computer simulations diagnosis rather physical prototype testing cae dependability based upon proper assumptions inputs must identify critical inputs bj even though many advances cae widely used engineering field physical testing


new lightweight materials engineers often less familiar cae software companies manufacturers constantly looking tools process improvements change situation software side constantly looking develop powerful solvers better use computer resources include engineering knowledge pre post processing process side try achieve better alignment cae system simulation physical testing increase modeling realism calculation speed top try better integrate cae overall product lifecycle management way


e group group theory may done without focusing concrete applications concepts physical world '''pure mathematics''' study mathematical concepts independently application outside mathematics concepts may originate real world concerns results obtained may later turn useful practical applications pure mathematicians primarily motivated applications instead appeal attributed intellectual challenge aesthetic beauty working logical consequences basic principles pure mathematics existed activity since least ancient

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics


greece concept elaborated upon around year introduction theories counter intuitive properties non euclidean geometries cantor 's theory infinite sets discovery apparent paradoxes continuous functions nowhere differentiable russell 's paradox introduced need renew concept mathematical rigor rewrite mathematics accordingly systematic use axiomatic methods led many mathematicians focus mathematics sake pure mathematics nevertheless almost mathematical theories remained motivated problems coming real world


less abstract mathematical theories also many mathematical theories seemed totally pure mathematics eventually used applied areas mainly physics computer science famous early example isaac newton 's demonstration law universal gravitation implied planets move orbits conic sections geometrical curves studied antiquity apollonius another example problem factoring large integers basis rsa cryptosystem widely used secure internet communications follows presently distinction pure applied mathematics philosophical point


view mathematician 's preference rigid subdivision mathematics particular uncommon members department applied mathematics describe pure mathematicians history ancient greece ancient greek mathematicians among earliest make distinction pure applied mathematics plato helped create gap arithmetic called number theory logistic called arithmetic plato regarded logistic arithmetic appropriate businessmen men war must learn art numbers know array troops arithmetic number


theory appropriate philosophers arise sea change lay hold true euclid alexandria asked one students use study geometry asked slave give student threepence since must make gain learns greek mathematician apollonius perga asked usefulness theorems book iv ''conics'' proudly asserted ref name apollonius ref blockquote worthy acceptance sake demonstrations way


emerged time generation gauss made sweeping distinction kind ''pure'' ''applied'' following years specialisation professionalisation particularly weierstrass approach mathematical analysis started make rift apparent th century start twentieth century mathematicians took axiomatic method strongly influenced david hilbert 's example logical formulation '''pure mathematics''' suggested bertrand russell terms quantifier structure propositions seemed plausible large parts mathematics became axiomatised thus subject simple criteria


''rigorous proof'' pure mathematics according view ascribed bourbaki group proved '''pure mathematician''' became recognized vocation achievable training case made pure mathematics useful engineering education training habits thought points view intellectual comprehension ordinary engineering problems study higher mathematics give generality abstraction illustration banach tarski paradox famous result pure mathematics although proven possible convert one sphere two using nothing


cuts rotations transformation involves objects cannot exist physical world one central concept pure mathematics idea generality pure mathematics often exhibits trend towards increased generality uses advantages generality include following generalizing theorems mathematical structures lead deeper understanding original theorems structures generality simplify presentation material resulting shorter proofs arguments easier follow one use generality avoid duplication effort proving general result instead prove separate cases independently using


results areas mathematics generality facilitate connections different branches mathematics category theory one area mathematics dedicated exploring commonality structure plays areas math generality 's impact intuition dependent subject matter personal preference learning style often generality seen hindrance intuition although certainly function aid especially provides analogies material one already good intuition prime example generality erlangen program


involved expansion geometry accommodate non euclidean geometries well field topology forms geometry viewing geometry study space together group transformations study numbers called algebra beginning undergraduate level extends abstract algebra advanced level study functions called calculus college freshman level becomes mathematical analysis functional analysis advanced level branches ''abstract'' mathematics many sub specialties fact many connections


pure mathematics applied mathematics disciplines steep rise abstraction seen mid th century practice however developments led sharp divergence physics particularly later criticised example vladimir arnold much hilbert enough poincar point yet seem settled string theory pulls one way discrete mathematics pulls back towards proof central pure vs applied mathematics mathematicians always differing opinions regarding distinction pure applied mathematics one famous perhaps misunderstood


modern examples debate found gh hardy 's ''a mathematician 's apology'' widely believed hardy considered applied mathematics ugly dull although true hardy preferred pure mathematics often compared painting poetry hardy saw distinction pure applied mathematics simply applied mathematics sought express ''physical'' truth mathematical framework whereas pure mathematics expressed truths independent physical world hardy made separate distinction mathematics called real mathematics permanent aesthetic value


friedrich engels argued ''anti hring'' true pure mathematics mind deals creations imaginations concepts number figure invented source world reality ref name engels ref argued one came upon idea deducing form cylinder rotation rectangle one sides number real rectangles cylinders however imperfect form must examined like sciences mathematics arose needs


traditional medicine market antananarivo madagascar bot nicas one jamaica plain boston cater latino community sell folk medicine alongside statues saints candles decorated prayers lucky bamboo items '''traditional medicine''' also known '''indigenous''' '''folk medicine''' comprises medical aspects traditional knowledge developed generations within folk beliefs various societies era modern medicine world health organization defines traditional medicine sum total knowledge skills practices based theories beliefs experiences indigenous different

Applied science
Medicine and health
Traditional medicine


cultures whether explicable used maintenance health well prevention diagnosis improvement treatment physical mental illness ref name ref traditional medicine often contrasted scientific medicine asian african countries population relies traditional medicine primary health care needs adopted outside traditional culture traditional medicine often considered form alternative medicine ref name practices known traditional medicines include traditional european medicine traditional chinese medicine traditional korean medicine traditional african medicine ayurveda siddha medicine unani ancient iranian


medicine traditional iranian medicine medieval islamic medicine muti scientific disciplines study traditional medicine include herbalism ethnomedicine ethnobotany medical anthropology notes however inappropriate use traditional medicines practices negative dangerous effects research needed ascertain efficacy safety practices medicinal plants used traditional medicine systems ref name result implemented nine year strategy support member states developing proactive policies implementing action plans strengthen role traditional medicine plays keeping populations


healthy usage history classical history written record study herbs dates back years ancient sumerians described well established medicinal uses plants ancient egyptian medicine ebers papyrus c bc records list folk remedies magical medical practices old testament also mentions herb use cultivation regards kashrut many herbs minerals used ayurveda described ancient indian herbalists charaka sushruta st millennium bc first chinese herbal book ''shennong bencao jing'' compiled


centuries ref name blunt ref latin manuscripts ''de materia medica'' combined latin herbal apuleius platonicus ''herbarium apuleii platonici'' incorporated anglo saxon codex ''cotton vitellius ciii'' early greek roman compilations became backbone european medical theory translated persian avicenna ibn n ndash persian rhazes r zi ndash jewish maimonides ref name kay fossils used traditional medicine since antiquity medieval later arabic indigenous medicine developed conflict magic based medicine bedouins arabic translations hellenic


ayurvedic medical traditions spanish medicine influenced arabs islamic physicians muslim botanists al dinawari ref name fahd ref ibn al baitar ref name diane diane boulanger islamic contribution science mathematics technology ''oise papers'' ''stse education'' vol ref significantly expanded earlier knowledge materia medica famous persian medical treatise avicenna 's ''the canon medicine'' early pharmacopoeia introduced clinical trials ref name tschanz ref ref name eldredge ref ref name bloom ref ''canon'' translated latin th century remained medical authority europe th century unani


system traditional medicine also based ''canon'' translations early roman greek compilations made german hieronymus bock whose herbal published called ''kreuter buch'' book translated dutch ''pemptades'' rembert dodoens ndash dutch english carolus clusius ndash published henry lyte ''a nievve herball'' became john gerard 's ndash ''herball general historie plantes'' ref name kay ref name blunt new work compilation existing texts new additions women 's folk knowledge existed undocumented parallel


moist clear aztecs used categories juan de esteyneffer 's ''florilegio medicinal de todas las enfermedas'' compiled european texts added mexican plants mart n de la cruz wrote herbal nahuatl translated latin juan badiano ''libellus de medicinalibus indorum herbis'' ''codex barberini latin '' given king carlos v spain ref name heinrich ref apparently written haste influenced european occupation previous years fray bernardino de sahag n 's used ethnographic methods compile codices became


''historia general de las cosas de nueva espa a'' published ref name heinrich castore durante published ''herbario nuovo'' describing medicinal plants europe east west indies translated german italian editions published next century colonial america th th century america traditional folk healers frequently women used herbal remedies cupping leeching native american traditional herbal medicine introduced cures malaria dysentery scurvy non venereal syphilis goiter problems many herbal folk remedies continued th th


specific role healer shaman midwife three factors legitimize role healer ndash beliefs success actions beliefs community claims indigenous medicine become rejected culture generally three types adherents still use ndash born socialized become permanent believers temporary believers turn crisis times believe specific aspects definition terminology traditional medicine may sometimes considered


distinct folk medicine considered include formalized aspects folk medicine definition folk medicine longstanding remedies passed practiced lay people folk medicine consists healing practices ideas body physiology health preservation known culture transmitted informally general knowledge practiced applied anyone culture prior experience folk medicine curandera performing ''limpieza'' cuenca ecuador many countries practices described folk medicine may coexist formalized science based institutionalized systems medical practice represented


conventional medicine ref name ref examples folk medicine traditions traditional chinese medicine traditional korean medicine arabic indigenous medicine uyghur traditional medicine japanese kamp medicine traditional aboriginal bush medicine native hawaiian l au lapa au georgian folk medicine among others ref name ref australian bush medicine generally bush medicine used aboriginal torres strait islander people australia made plant materials bark leaves seeds although animal products may used well ref name aao ref major component traditional medicine herbal medicine use natural plant substances treat prevent illness native american


medicine american native alaska native medicine traditional forms healing around thousands years nattuvaidyam nattuvaidyam set indigenous medical practices existed india advent allopathic western medicine practices different set principles ideas body health disease overlaps borrowing ideas medicinal compounds used techniques within practices practices written texts vernacular languages like malayalam tamil telugu etc others handed orally various mnemonic devices ayurveda


one kind nattuvaidyam practised south india others kalarichikitsa related bone setting musculature marmachikitsa vital spot massaging ottamoolivaidyam single dose medicine single time medication chintamanivaidyam medical system revamped twentieth century india many practices techniques specific diverse nattuvaidyam included ayurveda home remedies '''home remedy''' sometimes also referred '''granny cure''' treatment cure disease ailment employs certain spices herbs vegetables common items home remedies may may


medicinal properties treat cure disease ailment question typically passed along laypersons facilitated recent years internet many merely used result tradition habit effective inducing placebo effect one popular examples home remedy use chicken soup treat respiratory infections cold mild flu examples home remedies include duct tape help setting broken bones duct tape superglue treat plantar


warts kogel mogel treat sore throat earlier times mothers entrusted serious remedies historic cookbooks frequently full remedies dyspepsia fevers female complaints components aloe vera plant used treat skin disorders many european liqueurs digestifs originally sold medicinal remedies chinese folk medicine medicinal congees long cooked rice soups herbs foods soups part treatment practices criticism safety concerns although countries regulations folk medicines risks associated use ie zoonosis mainly traditional


medicines still use animal based substances often assumed supposed medicines natural safe numerous precautions associated using herbal remedies use endangered species sometimes traditional medicines include parts endangered species slow loris southeast asia endangered animals slow loris sometimes killed make traditional medicines shark fins also used traditional medicine although effectiveness proven hurting shark populations ecosystem illegal ivory trade partially traced back buyers traditional


'''paleoecology''' also spelled '''palaeoecology''' study interactions organisms interactions organisms environments across geologic timescales discipline paleoecology interacts depends informs variety fields including paleontology ecology climatology biology paleoecology emerged field paleontology though paleontologists conducted paleoecological studies since creation paleontology combining investigative approach searching fossils theoretical approach charles darwin alexander von humboldt paleoecology began paleontologists began examining ancient organisms discovered

Natural science
Earth science
Paleontology
Paleoecology