fitted use capitalist systems instance joseph schumpeter 's notion creative destruction marx 's magnum opus critique political economy ''das kapital'' ''capital critique political economy'' three volumes first volume published lifetime others published friedrich engels marx 's notes one marx 's early works ''critique political economy'' mostly incorporated ''das kapital'' especially beginning volume marx 's notes made preparation writing ''das kapital'' published title ''grundrisse'' marx 's criticism


classical economics marx 's critique political economy took starting point work best known economists day british moral philosopher turn economist adam smith well david ricardo ''the wealth nations'' smith argued important characteristic market economy permitted rapid growth productive abilities smith claimed growing market stimulated greater division labor ie specialization businesses workers turn led greater productivity although smith generally said little laborers note

Social science
Economics
Marxian economics


increased division labor could point cause harm whose jobs became narrower narrower division labor expanded smith maintained ''laissez faire'' economy would naturally correct time marx followed smith claiming important beneficial economic consequence capitalism rapid growth productivity abilities marx also expanded greatly notion laborers could come harm capitalism became productive additionally marx noted ''theories surplus value'' see great advance made adam smith beyond physiocrats analysis


surplus value hence capital view one definite kind concrete labour agricultural labour creates surplus value adam smith general social labour matter use values manifests mere quantity necessary labour creates value surplus value whether takes form profit rent secondary form interest nothing part labour appropriated owners material conditions labour exchange living labour malthus' claim ''an essay principle population'' population


growth primary cause subsistence level wages laborers provoked marx develop alternative theory wage determination whereas malthus presented historical theory population growth marx offered theory relative surplus population capitalism tended push wages subsistence levels marx saw relative surplus population coming economic causes biological causes malthus economic based theory surplus population often labeled marx 's theory reserve army labour ricardo developed theory distribution within capitalism theory


output society distributed classes within society mature version theory presented ''on principles political economy taxation'' based labour theory value value produced object equal labor embodied object smith presented labor theory value incompletely realized also notable ricardo 's economic theory profit deduction society 's output wages profit inversely related increase profit came expense


reduction wages marx built much formal economic analysis found ''capital'' ricardo 's theory economy marx also criticized two features bourgeois economy perceived main factors preventing full realization society 's production power ownership means production allegedly irrational operation economy leads disturbances surplus ref name ref marx 's critique political economy according marxist economists according marx employed labour theory value holds value commodity socially necessary labour time invested model capitalists


pay workers full value commodities produce rather compensate worker necessary labor worker 's wage cover necessary means subsistence order maintain working present family future group necessary labor necessarily fraction full working day rest surplus labor would pocketed capitalist profit marx theorized gap value worker produces wage form unpaid labour known surplus value


moreover marx argues markets tend obscure social relationships processes production called commodity fetishism people highly aware commodities usually n't think relationships labor represent marx 's analysis leads consideration economic crisis propensity crisis would call ''business cycles'' recognised inherent feature capitalism economist marx 's time observed robert heilbroner ''the worldly philosophers'' although future events certainly indicated prediction successive boom crash ref name heilbroner ref marx 's theory economic cycles


hegel dialectics focuses relation change tries avoid seeing universe composed separate objects essentially stable unchanging characteristics one component dialectics abstraction undifferentiated mass data system conceived organic whole one abstracts portions think refer one may abstract objects also typically relations processes change abstraction may extensive narrow may focus generalities specifics may made various points view example sale may abstracted buyer 's


seller 's point view one may abstract particular sale sales general another component dialectical deduction categories marx uses hegel 's notion ''categories'' ''forms'' economics commodity ''form'' money ''form'' capital ''form'' etc systematically deduced instead grasped outward way done bourgeois economists corresponds hegel 's critique kant 's transcendental philosophy marx regarded history passed several stages details periodisation vary somewhat works essentially primitive communism


slave societies feudalism capitalism socialism communism capitalism present stage communism future marx occupied primarily describing capitalism historians place beginning capitalism time sombart time th century hobsbawm marx defines commodity product human labour produced sale market many products human labour commodities marx began major work economics ''capital'' discussion commodities chapter one called commodities commodities div style float right width div style margin em border em


solid black padding em background color fdf dc wealth societies capitalist mode production prevails presents 'an immense accumulation commodities' unit single commodity first sentence ''capital'' volume div div style margin em border em solid black padding em background color fdfaf common substance manifests exchange value commodities whenever exchanged value ''capital'' chap section div div worth commodity conceived two different ways marx calls use value value commodity 's use value


usefulness fulfilling practical purpose example use value piece food provides nourishment pleasurable taste use value hammer drive nails value hand measure commodity 's worth comparison commodities closely related exchange value ratio commodities traded one another identical value general level abstraction exchange value realisation form marx argued value property common commodities


whatever derived whatever determines must common commodities relevant thing marx 's view common commodities human labour produced human labour marx concluded value commodity simply amount human labour required produce thus marx adopted labour theory value predecessors ricardo macculloch marx traced existence theory least far back anonymous work ''some thoughts interest money general particularly


publick funds c'' published london around marx placed restrictions validity value theory said order hold commodity must useless item actual amount labour went producing particular individual commodity determines value amount labour worker average energy ability working average intensity using prevailing techniques day would need produce formal statement law value


commodity equal average socially necessary labour time required production capital chap p nbsp progress publishers moscow ed'n marx 's contention commodities tend fairly general level abstraction exchange value commodity whose value v traded commodity b tend fetch amount commodity b whose value v particular circumstances cause divergence rule however money marx held metallic money gold commodity value labour time


personal activity man capital vii subject labour thing worked instruments labour tools labouring domestic animals like horses chemicals used modifying subject etc subjects labour available directly nature uncaught fish unmined coal etc others results previous stage production known raw materials flour yarn workshops canals roads considered instruments labour ''capital'' vii coal boilers oil wheels hay draft horses considered raw material instruments


labour div style float right width margin em border em solid black padding em background color fdf hand subject labour say filtered previous labour call raw material nbsp nbsp nbsp ''capital'' chap vii section div subjects labour instruments labour together called means production nbsp relations production relations human beings adopt toward part production process capitalism wage labour private property part relations production calculation value product price confused


imparts value product rate per year style margin left em border none style width em vertical align top math value mp lt math style padding right em style padding right em math value math value product math mp math value means production math lt math labour time effect technical progress according marx amount actual product ie use value typical worker produces given amount time productivity labour tended increase


capitalism due increase scale enterprise specialisation labour introduction machinery immediate result value given item tends decrease labour time necessary produce becomes less given amount time labour produces items unit less value total value created per time remains means means subsistence become cheaper therefore value labour power necessary labour time becomes less length working


day remains results increase surplus labour time rate surplus value technological advancement tends increase amount capital needed start business tends result increasing preponderance capital spent means production constant capital opposed labour variable capital marx called ratio two kinds capital composition capital current theorizing marxian economics marxian economics built upon many others beginning almost moment marx 's death second third


volumes ''das kapital'' edited close associate friedrich engels based marx 's notes marx 's ''theories surplus value'' edited karl kautsky marxian value theory perron frobenius theorem positive eigenvector positive matrix fundamental mathematical treatments marxian economics relation exploitation surplus labour profit modeled increased sophistication universities offering one courses marxian economics teach one economics courses topics perspective designate marxian marxist include colorado state university new


school social research school oriental african studies maastricht university university bremen university california riverside university leeds university maine university manchester university massachusetts amherst university massachusetts boston university missouri kansas city university sheffield university utah york university toronto english language journals include ''capital class'' ''historical materialism'' ''monthly review'' ''rethinking marxism'' ''review radical political economics'' ''studies political economy'' criticism much critique classical marxian economics came marxian economists revised marx 's original theory austrian school economics v


k dmitriev writing ladislaus von bortkiewicz writing subsequent critics claimed marx 's labor theory value law tendency rate profit fall internally inconsistent words critics allege marx drew conclusions actually follow theoretical premises alleged errors corrected conclusion aggregate price profit determined equal aggregate value surplus value longer holds true result calls question theory exploitation workers sole source


post marxian radical political economics first used refer distinct tradition economic theory stems marxian economic thought many leading figures associated leftist ''monthly review'' school neo marxist approach development economics connected dependency world systems theories cases 'exploitation' classifies marxist external one rather normal 'internal' exploitation classical marxism ref name nitzan jonathan shimshon bichler '' https booksgooglecom booksid qrkipvto ic dq capital power study order creorder '' taylor francis p ref


industrial economics neo marxian approach stresses monopolistic oligarchical rather competitive nature capitalism ref name nitzan jonathan shimshon bichler '' https booksgooglecom booksid qrkipvto ic dq capital power study order creorder '' taylor francis p ref approach associated micha kalecki josef steindl paul baran paul sweezy theorists marc fleurbaey samuel bowles david gordon john roemer herbert gintis jon elster adam przeworski adopted techniques neoclassical economics including game theory mathematical modeling demonstrate marxian concepts exploitation class conflict neo marxian approach integrated non marxist


bourgeois economics post keynesians like joan robinson neo ricardian school piero sraffa polish economists micha kalecki rosa luxemburg henryk grossman adam przeworski oskar lange influential school particularly developing theories underconsumption official communist parties denounced neo marxian theories bourgeois economics neo marxians served advisers socialist third world developing governments neo marxist theories also influential study imperialism among critics pointing internal inconsistencies former current marxian sraffian economists paul sweezy nobuo okishio ian steedman john roemer gary mongiovi


david laibman propose field grounded correct versions marxian economics instead marx 's critique political economy original form presented developed ''capital'' proponents temporal single system interpretation tssi marx 's value theory claim supposed inconsistencies actually result misinterpretation argue marx 's theory understood temporal single system alleged internal inconsistencies disappear recent survey debate proponent tssi concludes ''proofs'' inconsistency longer defended


entire case marx reduced ''interpretive'' issue despite orthodox marxist economist maurice dobb also associated current concepts big business maintain selling prices high levels still competing cut costs advertise market products however competition generally limited large capital formations sharing various markets exception actual monopolies bell system time economic surpluses result cannot absorbed consumers spending concentration surplus hands


restraints neo colonial domination labor theory value paul baran introduced concept potential ''economic surplus'' deal novel complexities raised dominance monopoly capital particular theoretical prediction monopoly capitalism would associated low capacity utilization hence potential surplus would typically much larger realized surplus paul sweezy baran elaborated importance innovation consistency marx 's labor concept value supplementary relation marx 's category surplus value according baran 's categories actual economic surplus difference


society 's actual current output actual current consumption hence equal current savings accumulation potential economic surplus difference output could produced given natural technical environment help employable productive resources might regarded essential consumption baran also introduced concept planned surplus category could operationalized rationally planned socialist society defined difference society 's 'optimum' output available historically given natural technological environment conditions planned 'optimal' utilization available


productive resources chosen 'optimal' volume consumption ref name ref baran used surplus concept analyze underdeveloped economies optimistically called developing economies ''political economy growth'' ref name see also list marxian economists capitalist mode production capital accumulation evolutionary economics surplus labour labour power law value unequal exchange value product productive unproductive labour regulation school socialist economics ''the accumulation capital'' material product critique political economy footnotes references john e roemer socialism new perspectives ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' nd edition


http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde edition current q marxian topicid result number abstract diane flaherty radical economics ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' nd edition http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde r edition current q marxian topicid result number abstract lenny flank 'contradictions capitalism introduction marxist economics' st petersburg florida red black publishers thomas sekine ''the dialectic capital study inner logic capitalism'' volumes preliminary edition tokyo vol vol marc fleurbaey economics economic justice reading althusser louis balibar tienne ''reading capital'' london verso bottomore tom ed ''a dictionary marxist thought'' oxford blackwell fine ben ''marx 's capital'' th ed


london pluto harvey david ''a companion marx 's capital'' london verso harvey david ''the limits capital'' london verso mandel ernest ''marxist economic theory'' new york monthly review press mandel ernest ''the formation economic thought karl marx'' new york monthly review press morishima michio ''marx 's economics dual theory value growth'' cambridge cambridge university press postone moishe ''time labor social domination reinterpretation marx 's critical theory'' cambridge england cambridge university press saad filho alfredo ''the value marx political economy contemporary capitalism'' london routledge wolff


theory capitalism profitability would decline https webarchiveorg web http homepagenewschooledu het schools neomarxhtm neo marxian schools radical political economy http monthlyrevieworg youre smart arent rich ''if 're smart n't rich'' monthly review article detailing degeneration marxian economics eponymous economic ideologies schools economic thought


'''bryozoology''' branch zoology specializing bryozoa organizations international bryozoology association journals annals bryozoology bryozoologists samantha hill eliza jelly randolph kirkpatrick raymond c osburn timothy wood references external links subfields zoology

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Bryozoology


philosophy '''nomology''' refers science laws based theory possible elaborate descriptions dedicated particular aspects reality inspired scientific vision universal validity expressed scientific laws etymology nomology derives greek ''law'' ' 'reason'' term nomology may come aristotle ' ology' suffix implies 'order' 'word' 'reason' subjectively reasonable 'logical' sociology psychology 'nom ' part implies 'rule' 'law' objectively lawful 'nomic' economics


nomology mind nomology mind branch science philosophy concerned laws principles governing thought processes operation mind especially defined custom culture mid th century described one two grand divisions philosophy metaphysics example nomological networks nomological approach requires taking account subjective objective aspects decision nomology provides framework building nomological network relationships constructs decision making see also deductive nomological model


nomological determinism nomothetic references branches philosophy philosophy science philosophy mind


watt co sub sub laser used otorhinolaryngology royal national throat nose ear hospital founded london '''otorhinolaryngology''' abbreviated '''orl''' also known '''otolaryngology''' '''otolaryngology head neck surgery''' '''orl h n''' '''ohns''' '''ear nose throat''' '''ent''' surgical subspecialty within medicine deals surgical medical management conditions head neck doctors specialize area called otorhinolaryngologists otolaryngologists head neck surgeons ent surgeons physicians patients seek treatment otorhinolaryngologist diseases ear nose throat base

Applied science
Medicine and health
Otolaryngology


skull head neck commonly include functional diseases affect senses activities eating drinking speaking breathing swallowing hearing addition ent surgery encompasses surgical management reconstruction cancers benign tumors head neck well plastic surgery face neck etymology term combination new latin combining forms ''oto '' ''rhino '' ''laryngo '' '' logy'' derived four ancient greek words ''ous'' gen ''otos'' ear ''rhis'' nose ''larynx'' larynx ''logia'' study cf greek otorhinolaryngologist training otorhinolaryngologists


physicians md mbbs mbchb etc complete medical school years post graduate surgical training orl h n united states trainees complete least five years surgical residency training comprises three six months general surgical training four half years orl h n specialist surgery canada united states practitioners complete five year residency training medical school following residency training otolaryngologist head neck surgeons complete advanced sub specialty fellowship training one two years duration fellowships include head neck surgical oncology


subspecialty '''head neck surgery''' head neck surgical oncology field surgery treating cancer malignancy head neck head neck mucosal malignancy cancer pink lining upper aerodigestive tract oral cancer cancer lips gums tongue hard palate cheek floor mouth oropharyngeal cancer cancer oropharynx soft palate tonsil base tongue larynx cancer voice box cancer hypopharynx cancer lower throat cancer sinonasal cancer nasopharyngeal cancer skin cancer head neck thyroid cancer salivary gland cancer head neck sarcoma endocrine surgery head neck thyroid surgery parathyroid


surgery microvascular free flap reconstructive surgery skull base surgery otology neurotology study diseases outer ear middle ear mastoid inner ear surrounding structures facial nerve lateral skull base outer ear diseases otitis externa outer ear ear canal inflammation middle ear mastoid diseases otitis media middle ear inflammation perforated eardrum hole eardrum due infection trauma explosion loud noise mastoiditis inner ear diseases bppv benign paroxysmal positional vertigo labyrinthitis vestibular neuronitis ni 's disease endolymphatic hydrops perilymphatic fistula acoustic neuroma vestibular schwannoma facial nerve disease idiopathic


spasmodic dysphonia tracheostomy cancer larynx vocology science practice voice habilitation facial plastic reconstructive surgery facial plastic reconstructive surgery one year fellowship open otorhinolaryngologists plastic surgeons wish specialize aesthetic reconstructive surgery head face neck rhinoplasty septoplasty facelift rhytidectomy browlift blepharoplasty otoplasty genioplasty injectable cosmetic treatments trauma face nasal bone fracture mandible fracture orbital fracture frontal sinus fracture complex lacerations soft tissue damage skin cancer eg basal cell carcinoma microvascular reconstruction repair microvascular reconstruction repair common


decision moved determined reconstructive needs transfer tissue head neck allows surgeons rebuild patient 's jaw optimize tongue function reconstruct throat pieces tissue moved require blood supply chance survival new location surgery completed blood vessels feed tissue transplant reconnected new blood vessels neck blood vessels typically millimeters diameter means connections need made


microscope procedure called microvascular surgery see also plastic reconstructive surgery audiology head neck anatomy head neck cancer head mirror oral maxillofacial surgery surgeon speech language pathology references surgical specialties


px '''cognitive geography''' interdisciplinary study cognitive science geography aims understand humans view space place environment involves formalization factors influence spatial cognition create effective representation space improved models assist variety issues example developing maps communicate better providing navigation instructions easier follow utilizing space practically accounting cultural differences spatial thinking effective cross cultural information exchange overall increased understanding environment notable researchers branch

Social science
Geography
Human geography
Cognitive geography


language researchers ignored fascinating issues around time geographers studying people perceived remembered geographical world cognitive geography behavioral geography draw early behaviorist works tolman 's concepts cognitive maps cognitively oriented geographers focus cognitive processes underlying spatial reasoning decision making behavior behaviorally oriented geographers materialists look role basic learning processes influence landscape patterns even group identity ref name norton norton w human geography behavior analysis application behavior analysis evolution human landscapes


''the psychological record'' ref examples early works cognitive geography include tolman cognitive maps rats men compared behavior laboratory rats navigation wayfinding abilities humans similar work period dealt peoples perception direction spatial relations example americans typically think south america aligned directly south north america fact south america much east early focus improve maps providing useful information delivering understandable message making aesthetically


pleasing ref name research cognitive geography interaction humans environment major focus among geographers objective research area minimize disparity environment geometric representation removal spatial cognitive biases inherent examples spatial cognitive biases include overestimation distance two locations large number intersections nodes path tendency recollect irregular streets rivers straighter parallel perpendicular david mark


research illustrates spatial features like inland water bodies lakes ponds lagoons categorized differently english french speaking population therefore could cause issues cross cultural geographical information exchange studies done wayfinding navigation wayfinding defined mental processes involved determining route two points following route involves planning trips optimizing routes exploring different places researchers trying find perfect amount information less making navigation efficient landmarks play important factor wayfinding navigation


therefore researchers looking automate selection landmarks would make maps easier follow displaying information maps shaped humans sense space direction communicating effectively maps challenge many cartographers example symbols color relative size important role play interaction map mapmaker study geo ontology also interest researchers field geo ontology involves study variations among different cultures view sense landforms communicate spatial


study cognitive geography involves volunteers responding questionnaire shown spatial information researchers use data find spectrum interpretations volunteers subject focus see also behavioral geography cognitive psychology spatial cognition geovisualization wayfinding references notes references reading downs roger david stea ''maps minds reflections cognitive mapping'' harpercollins publishers kitchin rob scott freundschuh eds ''cognitive mapping past present future'' vol psychology press mark david et al https wwwresearchgatenet profile barbara tversky publication cognitive models geographical space links fcfd e f abdb pdf cognitive


'''logic''' interdisciplinary field studies truth reasoning informal logic seeks characterize valid arguments informally instance listing varieties fallacies formal logic represents statements argument patterns symbolically using formal systems first order logic within formal logic mathematical logic studies mathematical characteristics formal logical systems philosophical logic applies philosophical problems nature meaning knowledge existence systems formal logic also applied fields including linguistics cognitive science computer science logic studied since antiquity early approaches including aristotelian logic


stoic logic anviksiki mohists modern formal logic roots work late th century mathematicians gottlob frege definition word logic originates greek word logos variety translations reason discourse language logic traditionally defined study laws thought correct reasoning ref name britannica ref usually understood terms inferences arguments reasoning may seen activity drawing inferences whose outward expression given arguments ref name britannica ref name haacklogics ref inference argument


set premises together conclusion logic interested whether arguments good inferences valid ie whether premises support conclusions ref name hintikka ref ref name cambridge ref ref name mckeon ref general characterizations apply logic widest sense since true formal informal logic ref name blair ref many definitions logic focus formal logic paradigmatic form logic narrower sense logic formal science studies conclusions follow premises topic neutral way ref name macfarlane ref ref name corkum ref formal science contrasts empirical sciences like


physics biology tries characterize inferential relations premises conclusions based structured ref name magnus ref means actual content propositions ie specific topic important whether inference valid ref name macfarlane ref name corkum expressed distinguishing logical non logical vocabulary inferences valid logical terms used independent meanings non logical terms ref name macfarlane ref ref name britannica valid inferences characterized fact truth premises ensures truth conclusion


means impossible premises true conclusion false ref name routledgeformalinformal ref ref name mckeon general logical structures characterizing valid inferences called rules inference ref name hintikka sense logic often defined study valid inference ref name haacklogics contrasts another prominent characterization logic science logical truths ref name hintikka proposition logically true truth depends logical vocabulary used means true possible worlds interpretations non logical terms ref name g mez torrente ref two


characterizations logic closely related inference valid material conditional premises conclusion logically true ref name hintikka term logic also used slightly different sense countable noun sense ''a logic'' logical formal system different logics differ concerning formal languages used express importantly concerning rules inference accept valid ref name jacquette ref ref name hintikka ref name haacklogics starting th century many new formal systems proposed ongoing debate


conjunction introduction states two propositions math p math math q math together imply conjunction math p q math rule formal since symbols math p math math q math stand two statements regardless content ref name macfarlane ref name corkum formal logic often considered paradigmatic form logic ref name macfarlane ref name corkum ref name magnus ref name macfarlane ref name britannica ref name hintikka informal approach inferences sort would characterized using particular statements informal logic often part courses critical thinking informal approaches dialectical logic argumentation theory continue areas research ref name blair ref


subfields philosophical logic philosophical logic study logic within philosophy includes applications problems epistemology ethics philosophy mathematics natural language semantics mathematical logic mathematical logic study formal logic within mathematics major subareas include model theory proof theory set theory computability theory ref name scribdcom logic argument free day trial url https wwwscribdcom document notes logic website scribd language en access date may ref research mathematical logic commonly addresses mathematical properties formal systems logic however also include attempts use logic analyze mathematical reasoning establish logic based foundations mathematics ref


refined problem complexity classes problem efficiently solvable classification degrees unsolvability ref name theory computation formal languages automata complexity computational logic simple toggling circuit expressed using logic gate synchronous register computer science logic studied part theory computation key areas logic relevant computing include computability theory modal logic category theory early computer machinery based ideas logic lambda calculus computer scientists also apply concepts logic problems computing vice versa


instance modern artificial intelligence builds logicians' work argumentation theory automated theorem proving assist logicians finding checking proofs logic programming languages prolog program computes consequences logical axioms rules answer query formal semantics natural language formal semantics subfield linguistics philosophy uses logic analyze meaning natural language empirical field seeks characterize denotations linguistic expressions explain denotations composed meanings parts field


developed richard montague barbara partee remains active area research central questions include scope binding linguistic modality ref name parteehndbk ref concepts argument terminology used logic varieties reasoning arguments often divided ' 'deductive'' ''inductive'' ''abductive'' prominent conception logic deductive reasoning counts logic strict sense ref name abduction group lower roman abductive reasoning see magnani l ''abduction reason science processes discovery explanation'' new york kluwer academic plenum publishers xvii josephson john r susan g


josephson ''abductive inference computation philosophy technology'' new york cambridge university press viii bunt h w black ''abduction belief context dialogue studies computational pragmatics'' ''natural language processing'' amsterdam john benjamins vi ref ' 'deductive argument'' one whose premises intended guarantee truth conclusion words deductive argument seeks reach conclusion logical necessity instance following argument deductive deductive argument ''victoria tall'' ''victoria brown hair'' ''therefore victoria tall brown hair'' ''inductive arguments''


logics notion understood equivalently truth possible worlds ref name g mez torrente formal system formal system logic consists language proof system semantics ref name classicallogicsep ref system 's language proof system sometimes grouped together system 's ' 'syntax'' since concern form rather content system 's expressions term logic often used countable noun refer particular formal system logic different logics differ language proof system semantics ref name jacquette ref ref name hintikka ref name haacklogics


starting th century many new formal systems proposed ref name jacquette ref name haacklogics ref name hintikka formal language ''language'' set well formed formulas instance propositional logic math p q math formula math p q math languages typically defined providing ''alphabet'' basic expressions recursive syntactic rules build formulas ref name classicallogicsep proof system ''proof system'' collection formal rules define conclusion follows given premises instance classical rule conjunction introduction states


math p q math follows premises math p math math q math rules proof systems always defined terms formulas' syntactic form never terms meanings rules applied sequentially giving mechanical procedure generating conclusions premises number different types proof systems including natural deduction sequent calculi ref name classicallogicsep proof systems closely linked philosophical work characterizes logic study valid inference ref name haacklogics semantics ' 'semantics'' system mapping expressions formal language denotations many


systems logic denotations truth values instance semantics classical propositional logic assigns formula math p q math denotation true whenever math p math true math q math entailment semantic relation holds formulas first cannot true without second true well ref name classicallogicsep ref semantics closely tied philosophical characterization logic study logical truth ref name hintikka metalogic metalogic study properties formal systems two central metalogical properties ' 'soundness'' ''completeness'' system logic ' 'sound''


propositional logic propositional logic comprises formal systems formulae built atomic propositions using logical connectives instance propositional logic represents conjunction two atomic propositions math p math math q math complex formula math p q math unlike predicate logic terms predicates smallest units propositional logic takes full propositions truth values basic component ref name brody ref thus propositional logics represent logical relationships arise way complex propositions built simpler ones cannot represent inferences results inner structure proposition predicate


logic gottlob frege 's ''begriffschrift'' introduced notion quantifier graphical notation represents judgement math forall x f x math true predicate logic generic term symbolic formal systems first order logic second order logic many sorted logic infinitary logic provides account quantifiers general enough express wide set arguments occurring natural language example bertrand russell 's famous barber paradox man shaves men shave formalised sentence math exists x text man x wedge forall


text man rightarrow text shaves x leftrightarrow neg text shaves math using non logical predicate math text man x math indicate ''x'' man non logical relation math text shaves x math indicate ''x'' shaves ''y'' symbols formulae logical expressing universal existential quantifiers conjunction implication negation biconditional development predicate logic usually attributed gottlob frege also credited one founders analytic philosophy formulation predicate logic often used today first order logic presented principles mathematical logic david hilbert wilhelm


ackermann analytical generality predicate logic allowed formalization mathematics drove investigation set theory allowed development alfred tarski 's approach model theory provides foundation modern mathematical logic modal logic modal logic study formal systems originally developed represent statements necessity possibility instance modal formula math diamond p math read possibly math p math math box p math read necessarily math p math modal logics used represent different phenomena depending ''flavor'' necessity possibility consideration


math box math used represent epistemic necessity math box p math states math p math known math box math used represent deontic necessity math box p math states math p math moral legal obligation within philosophy modal logics widely used formal epistemology formal ethics metaphysics within linguistic semantics systems based modal logic used analyze linguistic modality natural languages earliest formal system modal logic developed avicenna ultimately developed theory temporally modalized syllogistic ref name britannica ref study necessity possibility remained important philosophers little logical innovation


happened landmark investigations c lewis formulated family rival axiomatizations alethic modalities work unleashed torrent new work topic expanding kinds modality treated include deontic logic epistemic logic seminal work arthur prior applied formal language treat temporal logic paved way marriage two subjects saul kripke jaakko hintikka built work develop frame semantics standard semantics modal logic graph theoretic way


pursued gerhard gentzen kurt g del michael dummett among others intuitionistic logic great interest computer scientists constructive logic sees many applications extracting verified programs proofs influencing design programming languages formulae types correspondence closely related nonclassical systems g del dummett logic inquisitive logic multi valued logics depart classicality rejecting principle bivalence requires propositions either true false instance jan ukasiewicz stephen cole kleene proposed ternary logics third truth


value representing statement 's truth value indeterminate logics seen applications including presupposition linguistics fuzzy logics multivalued logics infinite number degrees truth represented real number ref name stanford controversies logic empirical epistemological status laws logic sort argument appropriate criticizing purported principles logic influential paper entitled logic empirical ref name logic empirical hilary putnam building suggestion w v quine argued general facts propositional


logic similar epistemological status facts physical universe example laws mechanics general relativity particular physicists learned quantum mechanics provides compelling case abandoning certain familiar principles classical logic want realists physical phenomena described quantum theory abandon principle distributivity substituting classical logic quantum logic proposed garrett birkhoff john von neumann ref name logic quantum mechanics another paper name michael dummett argues


putnam 's desire realism mandates law distributivity ref name truth enigmas distributivity logic essential realist 's understanding propositions true world way argued principle bivalence way question logic empirical seen lead naturally fundamental controversy metaphysics realism versus anti realism tolerating impossible georg wilhelm friedrich hegel deeply critical simplified notion law non contradiction based gottfried wilhelm leibniz 's idea law


logic also requires sufficient ground specify point view time one says something cannot contradict building example moves move ground first solar system second earth hegelian dialectic law non contradiction identity relies upon difference independently assertable closely related questions arising paradoxes implication comes suggestion logic ought tolerate inconsistency relevance logic paraconsistent logic important approaches though concerns


different key consequence classical logic rivals intuitionistic logic respect principle explosion means logic collapses capable deriving contradiction graham priest main proponent dialetheism argued paraconsistency grounds fact true contradictions ref name stanford conceptions logic logic arose concern correctness argumentation modern logicians usually wish ensure logic studies arguments arise appropriately general forms inference example thomas hofweber writes


''stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' logic however cover good reasoning whole job theory rationality rather deals inferences whose validity traced back formal features representations involved inference linguistic mental representations ref name stanford logic onthology idea logic treats special forms argument deductive argument rather argument general history logic dates back least logicism mathematics th th centuries advent influence mathematical logic


philosophy consequence taking logic treat special kinds argument leads identification special kinds truth logical truths logic equivalently study logical truth excludes many original objects study logic treated informal logic robert brandom argued idea logic study special kind logical truth arguing instead one talk logic material inference terminology wilfred sellars logic making explicit commitments originally implicit


idealization led reject truth nbsp mobile army metaphors metonyms anthropomorphisms short nbsp metaphors worn without sensuous power coins lost pictures matter metal longer coins ref name nietzsche rejection truth lead reject idea either inference logic completely rather suggested logic came existence man 's head illogic whose realm originally must immense innumerable beings made inferences way different perished ref name nietzsche thus


idea logical inference use tool human survival existence support existence truth reality beyond instrumental logic also rests assumptions correspond anything real world ref name nietzsche position held nietzsche however come extreme scrutiny several reasons philosophers j rgen habermas claim position self refuting accuse nietzsche even coherent perspective let alone theory knowledge ref name nietzsche georg luk cs book ''the destruction


reason'' asserts study nietzsche 's statements area logico philosophical angle would confronted dizzy chaos lurid assertions arbitrary violently incompatible ref name marxists bertrand russell described nietzsche 's irrational claims fond expressing paradoxically view shocking conventional readers book ''a history western philosophy'' history aristotle nbsp bce logic developed independently several cultures antiquity one major early contributor aristotle developed term logic ''organon'' ''prior analytics'' ref name achievement ref name aristotle


approach ''judgements'' broken ''propositions'' consisting two terms related one fixed number relation inferences expressed means syllogisms consist two propositions sharing common term premise conclusion proposition involving two unrelated terms premises aristotle 's monumental insight notion arguments characterized terms form later logician ukasiewicz described insight one aristotle 's greatest inventions ref name aristotle aristotle 's system logic also responsible introduction hypothetical syllogism ref name google


temporal modal logic ref name google ref name google inductive logic ref name google well influential vocabulary terms predicables syllogisms propositions aristotelian logic highly regarded classical medieval times europe middle east remained wide use west early th century ref name mtu superseded later work though many key insights live modern systems logic depiction th century square opposition expresses fundamental dualities syllogistic ibn sina avicenna


ce founder avicennian logic replaced aristotelian logic dominant system logic islamic world ref name hasse ref also important influence western medieval writers albertus magnus william ockham avicenna wrote hypothetical syllogism ref name goodman propositional calculus developed original temporally modalized syllogistic theory involving temporal logic modal logic ref name britannica also made use inductive logic methods agreement difference concomitant variation critical scientific method ref name goodman goodman lenn evan ''islamic humanism'' p oxford


university press ref fakhr al din al razi b criticised aristotle 's first figure formulated early system inductive logic foreshadowing system inductive logic developed john stuart mill ref name iqbal muhammad iqbal ''the reconstruction religious thought islam'' spirit muslim culture cf http wwwallamaiqbalcom works prose english reconstruction http wwwwitness pioneerorg vil books mi rrti chapter htm ref europe later medieval period major efforts made show aristotle 's ideas compatible christian faith high middle ages logic became main focus philosophers would engage critical logical analyses philosophical arguments often using variations methodology


scholasticism initially medieval christian scholars drew classics preserved latin commentaries figures boethius later work islamic philosophers avicenna averroes drawn expanded range ancient works available medieval christian scholars since greek work available muslim scholars preserved latin commentaries william ockham 's influential ''summa logicae'' released th century structured approach arguments degenerated fallen favour depicted holberg 's satirical play ''erasmus montanus''


chinese logical philosopher gongsun long proposed paradox one one cannot become two since neither becomes two ref name scribdcom ref group lower roman four catu ko logical divisions formally close four opposed propositions greek ''tetralemma'' turn analogous four truth values modern relevance logic cf belnap nuel useful four valued logic ''modern uses multiple valued logic'' edited dunn eppstein boston reidel jayatilleke k n logic four alternatives ''philosophy east west'' university hawaii press ref china tradition scholarly investigation logic


however repressed qin dynasty following legalist philosophy han feizi india anviksiki school logic founded medh tithi c th century bce innovations scholastic school called nyaya continued ancient times early th century navya ny ya school th century developed theories resembling modern logic gottlob frege 's distinction sense reference proper names definition number well theory restrictive conditions universals anticipating developments modern set theory ref group lower roman chakrabarti kisor kumar


comparisons frege 's logic navya nyaya logic ''philosophy phenomenological research'' paper consists three parts first part deals frege 's distinction sense reference proper names similar distinction navya nyaya logic second part compared frege 's definition number navya nyaya definition number third part shown study called 'restrictive conditions universals' navya nyaya logic anticipated developments modern set theory ref since indian logic attracted attention many western scholars


influence important th century logicians charles babbage augustus de morgan george boole ref name indian logic reader th century western philosophers like stanislaw schayer klaus glashoff explored indian logic extensively syllogistic logic developed aristotle predominated west mid th century interest foundations mathematics stimulated development symbolic logic called mathematical logic george boole published ''the laws thought'' introducing symbolic logic principles known boolean logic gottlob frege published ''begriffsschrift''


inaugurated modern logic invention quantifier notation reconciling aristotelian stoic logics broader system solving problems aristotelian logic impotent problem multiple generality alfred north whitehead bertrand russell published ''principia mathematica'' ref name principia foundations mathematics attempting derive mathematical truths axioms inference rules symbolic logic g del raised serious problems foundationalist program logic ceased focus issues development logic since frege russell wittgenstein profound


influence practice philosophy perceived nature philosophical problems see analytic philosophy philosophy mathematics logic especially sentential logic implemented computer logic circuits fundamental computer science logic commonly taught university philosophy sociology advertising literature departments often compulsory discipline see also also known ' 'digital logic'' logic gates notes references ref ref name aristotle ref ref name brandom ref ref name google jonathan lear '' https booksgooglecom booksid lxi aaaaiaaj pg pa dq hl en v onepage q f false aristotle logical theory '' cambridge university press p ref ref name google simo knuuttila '' https booksgooglecom booksid iccuf ota ac pg pa dq hl en v onepage q f false reforging great chain studies


history modal theories '' springer science business p ref ref name google michael fisher dov gabbay llu vila '' https booksgooglecom booksid ajsvo jwnhgc pg pa dq hl en v onepage q f false handbook temporal reasoning artificial intelligence '' elsevier p ref ref name google harold joseph berman '' https booksgooglecom booksid fibvgcqyc pg pa dq hl en v onepage q f false law revolution formation western legal tradition '' harvard university press p ref ref name indian logic reader ref ref name introduction elementary mathematical logic ref ref name logic empirical ref ref name marxists ref ref name mtu http chemistrymtuedu epcharles scihistory aristotlehtml aristotle mtu department chemistry ref ref name nietzsche nietzsche truth lies nonmoral sense ref ref name nietzsche babette babich habermas nietzsche critical theory ref


ref name nietzsche nietzsche ''the gay science'' ref ref name nietzsche nietzsche ''human human'' ref ref name principia ref ref name stanford logic onthology ref ref name stanford ref ref name stanford ref ref name logic quantum mechanics ref ref name theory computation formal languages automata complexity ref ref name theory computation formal languages automata complexity ref ref name truth enigmas ref bibliography barwise j ''handbook mathematical logic'' elsevier belnap n useful four valued logic dunn eppstein ''modern uses multiple valued logic'' reidel boston boche ski jm ''a pr cis mathematical logic'' translated french german editions


otto bird reidel dordrecht south holland boche ski jm ''a history formal logic'' nd edition translated edited german edition ivo thomas chelsea publishing new york cohen rs wartofsky mw ''logical epistemological studies contemporary physics'' boston studies philosophy science reidel publishing company dordrecht netherlands finkelstein matter space logic rs cohen mw wartofsky eds gabbay dm guenthner f eds ''handbook philosophical logic'' vols nd edition kluwer publishers dordrecht haack susan


'' deviant logic fuzzy logic beyond formalism'' university chicago press hilbert ackermann w ''grundz ge der theoretischen logik'' ''principles mathematical logic'' springer verlag hodges w ''logic introduction elementary logic'' penguin books hofweber http platostanfordedu entries logic ontology logic ontology ''stanford encyclopedia philosophy'' edward n zalta ed hughes rig ed ''a philosophical companion first order logic'' hackett publishing kneale william kneale martha ''the development logic'' oxford university press london uk mendelson elliott ''introduction mathematical logic'' wadsworth brooks cole advanced books software monterey calif smith b


logic sachverhalt ''the monist'' whitehead alfred north bertrand russell ''principia mathematica'' cambridge university press cambridge england external links https docsgooglecom document dhtrapcmwjmiqnbdmfchwaoddq kuqqdnwp lzcglny editusp sharing outline verbal logic introductions tutorials aimed beginners http wwwfecunditycom logic forall x introduction formal logic pd magnus covers sentential quantified logic https webarchiveorg web http wwwfilozofiauwedupl kpaprzycka publ xlogicselftaughthtml logic self taught workbook originally prepared line logic instruction nicholas rescher ''introduction logic'' st martin 's press essays https webarchiveorg web http durendalorg lcsl symbolic logic https wwwgutenbergorg ebooks game logic lewis carroll http etextlibvirginiaedu dichist analytic anaviihtml math logic history formal mathematical logical linguistic methodological ideas


''the dictionary history ideas'' online tools https webarchiveorg web http wwwthefirstscienceorg syllogistic machine interactive syllogistic machine web based syllogistic machine exploring fallacies figures terms modes syllogisms http somerbynet mack logic logic calculator web based application evaluating simple statements symbolic logic reference material http legacyearlhamedu peters courses log transtiphtm translation tips peter suber translating english logical notation http wwwontologyco history logichtm ontology history logic introduction annotated bibliography reading lists http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg london philosophy study guide offers many suggestions read depending student 's familiarity subject http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg l mhtm logic metaphysics http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg settheoryhtm set theory


logic http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg mathlogichtm mathematical logic abstraction critical thinking formal sciences philosophical logic philosophy logic reasoning thought


nato military ceremony pabrade lithuania november '''military''' also known collectively '''armed forces''' heavily armed highly organized force primarily intended warfare typically authorized maintained sovereign state members identifiable distinct military uniform may consist one military branches army navy air force space force marines coast guard main task military usually defined defence state interests external armed threats broad usage terms ''armed forces'' ''military''

Applied science
Military sciences
Strategy
Defensive


often treated synonymous although technical usage distinction sometimes made country 's armed forces may include military paramilitary forces various forms irregular military forces belonging recognized state though share many attributes regular military forces less often referred simply ''military'' countries number active soldiers nation 's military may function discrete social subculture dedicated infrastructure military housing schools utilities logistics hospitals legal services food production finance banking services beyond warfare


military may employed additional sanctioned non sanctioned functions within state including internal security threats population control promotion political agenda emergency services reconstruction protecting corporate economic interests social ceremonies national honour guards profession soldiering part military older recorded history enduring images classical antiquity portray power feats military leaders battle kadesh bc one defining points pharaoh ramses ii 's reign monuments commemorate bas relief thousand


years later first emperor unified china qin shi huang determined impress gods military might buried army terracotta soldiers ref name referencea terra cotta massed ranks qin shi huang 's terra cotta soldiers ref romans paid considerable attention military matters leaving posterity many treatises writings subject well many lavishly carved triumphal arches victory columns etymology definitions ancient egyptian military formation first recorded use word military english spelled ref


differs somewhat history war military history focusing people institutions war making history war focuses evolution war face changing technology governments geography military history number facets one main facet learn past accomplishments mistakes effectively wage war future another create sense military tradition used create cohesive military forces still another may learn prevent wars effectively human knowledge


em data max label data label data label data label data label data label data label data label data


label data label data label data label data label data label data label data rank role military organization characterized strict command hierarchy divided


military rank ranks normally grouped descending order authority officers eg colonel non commissioned officers eg sergeant personnel lowest rank eg private soldier senior officers make strategic decisions subordinated military personnel soldiers sailors marines airmen fulfil although rank titles vary military branch country rank hierarchy common state armed forces worldwide addition rank personnel occupy one many trade roles often grouped according nature role 's military tasks combat operations combat roles eg infantry combat support roles


eg combat engineers combat service support roles eg logistical support past armed forces communist states soviet union china albania attempted abolish military ranks later reintroduced due operational difficulties relating command control recruitment personnel may recruited conscripted depending system chosen state military personnel males minority proportion female personnel varies internationally approximately india uk sweden us south africa


two thirds states recruit conscript adults states still relied partly children age usually aged staff armed forces ref name ref whereas recruits join officers tend upwardly mobile ref name ref enlisted personnel childhood background relative socio economic deprivation ref name brett rachel irma specht young soldiers choose fight boulder lynne rienner publishers ref nbsp example us suspended conscription military disproportionately attracted african american men men lower status socioeconomic backgrounds men


obligations obligations military employment many full time military employment normally requires minimum period service several years two six years typical armed forces australia uk us example depending role branch rank ref name ref ref name ref armed forces allow short discharge window normally training recruits may leave armed force right ref name ref alternatively part time military employment known reserve service allows recruit maintain civilian job training military discipline weekends may


called deploy operations supplement full time personnel complement leaving armed forces recruits may remain liable compulsory return full time military employment order train deploy operations ref name ref name military law introduces offences recognised civilian courts absence without leave awol desertion political acts malingering behaving disrespectfully disobedience see example offences military law united kingdom ref name ref penalties range summary reprimand imprisonment several years following court martial ref name certain fundamental rights also restricted suspended


including freedom association eg union organizing freedom speech speaking media ref name military personnel countries right conscientious objection believe order immoral unlawful cannot good conscience carry personnel may posted bases home country overseas according operational need may deployed bases exercises operations anywhere world peacetime military personnel generally stationed garrisons permanent military facilities mostly conduct administrative tasks training education


activities technology maintenance recruitment training finnish american soldiers train together arctic conditions lapland finland part cold weather basic operation course january initial training conditions recruits demands military life including preparedness injure kill people face mortal danger without fleeing physically psychologically intensive process resocializes recruits unique nature military demands example individuality suppressed eg shaving head new recruits issuing uniforms denying privacy prohibiting use first names ref name ref ref name ref


daily routine tightly controlled eg recruits must make beds polish boots stack clothes certain way mistakes punished ref name ref ref name continuous stressors deplete psychological resistance demands instructors eg depriving recruits sleep food shelter shouting insults giving orders intended humiliate ref name ref ref name ref name frequent punishments serve condition group conformity discourage poor performance ref name disciplined drill instructor presented role model ideal soldier intelligence next requirement comes fairly basic need military


identify possible threats may called upon face purpose commanding forces military well often civilian personnel participate identification threats organization system process collectively called military intelligence mi difficulty using military intelligence concepts military intelligence methods nature secrecy information seek clandestine nature intelligence operatives work obtaining may plans conflict escalation initiation combat invasion important part


military intelligence role military analysis performed assess military capability potential future aggressors provide combat modelling helps understand factors comparison forces made helps quantify qualify statements china india maintain largest armed forces world us military considered world 's strongest guerrilla structure although groups engaged combat militants resistance movements refer using military terminology notably 'army' 'front' none structure national military


data label data label data label data label data label data label data label data label data label


data label data gdp country pie chart showing global military expenditures country us billions according sipri military expenditure usd defense economics financial monetary efforts made resource sustain militaries finance military operations including war process allocating resources conducted determining military budget administered military finance organization within military military procurement authorized purchase contract provision


goods services military whether peacetime permanent base combat zone local population capability development capability development often referred military 'strength' arguably one complex activities known humanity requires determining strategic operational tactical capability requirements counter identified threats strategic operational tactical doctrines acquired capabilities used identifying concepts methods systems involved executing doctrines creating design specifications manufacturers would produce adequate quantity quality


stocks surplus peacetime requirements development military doctrine perhaps important capability development activities determines military forces used conflicts concepts methods used command employ appropriately military skilled armed equipped personnel achievement tangible goals objectives war campaign battle engagement action ref name p dupuy dupuy tn ''understanding war history theory combat'' leo cooper london p ref line strategy tactics easily blurred although deciding discussed sometimes matter


concerned research military psychology particularly combat stress affect troop morale often bulk military science activities directed military intelligence technology military communications improving military capability research design development prototyping weapons military support equipment military technology general also area much effort invested includes everything global communication networks aircraft carriers paint food logistics kawasaki c tactical military transport japan air self defense force red ball express convoy france possessing military capability


sufficient capability cannot deployed employed combat operations achieve military logistics used logistics management logistics planning forces military supply chain management consumables capital equipment troops although mostly concerned military transport means delivery using different modes transport military trucks container ships operating permanent military base also involves creating field supply dumps rear combat zone even forward supply points specific unit 's tactical area responsibility supply


win represents organisational goal military primary focus military thought military history victory achieved shape assumes studied military groups three levels strategic victory maratha navy considered foundation modern indian navy often employed land sea coordination tactics attacking many battles mughals portuguese military strategy management forces wars military campaigns commander chief employing large military forces either national allied


canadian army liberates netherlands nazi occupation operational victory operational mobility within warfare military doctrine level command coordinates minute details tactics overarching goals strategy common synonym operational art operational level scale bigger one line sight time day important smaller strategic level production politics considerations formations operational level able conduct operations sufficient size directly handled


battalions regiments brigades divisions naval air force equivalents ref name p dupuy one oldest military publications ''the art war'' chinese philosopher sun tzu written th century bce chapter book intended military instruction military theory huge influence asian military doctrine late th century european united states military planning even used formulate business tactics even applied social political areas battle formation tactics macedon classical


qui desiderat pacem praeparet bellum'' let desires peace prepare war due changing nature combat introduction artillery european middle ages infantry firearms renaissance attempts made define identify strategies grand tactics tactics would produce victory often achieved romans praying gods battle later became known military science later still would adopt scientific method approach conduct military operations influence industrial revolution thinking


strategy one triumvirate 'arts' 'sciences' governed conduct warfare others military tactics execution plans manoeuvring forces battle maintenance army meaning military tactics changed time deployment manoeuvring entire land armies fields ancient battles galley fleets modern use small unit ambushes encirclements bombardment attacks frontal assaults air assaults hit run tactics used mainly guerrilla forces cases suicide attacks land sea evolution aerial warfare introduced


air combat tactics often military deception form military camouflage misdirection using decoys used confuse enemy tactic major development infantry tactics came increased use trench warfare th th centuries mainly employed world war gallipoli campaign western front trench warfare often turned stalemate broken large loss life order attack enemy entrenchment soldiers run exposed 'no man 's land' heavy fire


opposing entrenched enemy technology arrow head bronze th century bc olynthus chalcidice occupation since ancient times military distinguished members society tools military weapons military equipment used combat stone age humans first took sliver flint tip spear first example applying technology improve weapon since advances made human societies weapons irretrievably linked stone weapons gave way bronze age weapons later iron age weapons


medieval china gunpowder invented increasingly used military combat use gunpowder early vase like mortars europe advanced versions long bow cross bow armour piercing arrowheads put end dominance armoured knight long bow required great skill strength use next significant technological advance musket could used effectively little training time successors muskets cannon form rifles artillery would become core battlefield


technology speed technological advances accelerated civilian applications warfare became industrialized newly invented machine gun repeating rifle redefined firepower battlefield part explains high casualty rates american civil war next breakthrough conversion artillery parks muzzle loading guns quicker loading breech loading guns recoiling barrel allowed quicker aimed fire use shield widespread introduction low smoke smokeless propellant powders since also allowed great improvement artillery ranges naval military


forces france britain exchange fire battle chesapeake development breech loading greatest effect naval warfare first time since middle ages altering way weapons mounted warships therefore naval tactics divorced reliance sails invention internal combustion advance military naval technology design submarine weapon torpedo main battle tanks heavy equipment armoured fighting vehicles military aircraft ships characteristic organized military forces


world war need break deadlock trench warfare saw rapid development many new technologies particularly tanks military aviation extensively used bombers became decisive many battles world war ii marked frantic period weapons development history many new designs concepts used combat existing technologies warfare improved war significant advances made military communications increased use radio military intelligence use radar military medicine use penicillin


air guided missile jet aircraft helicopters seen first time perhaps infamous military technologies creation atomic bomb although exact effects radiation unknown early far greater use military vehicles finally eliminated cavalry military force structure aim sparrow medium range air air missile f eagle world war ii onset cold war constant technological development new weapons institutionalized participants engaged constant 'arms race'


capability development constant state weapons development continues present remains constant drain national resources blame military industrial complex significant technological developments influenced combat guided missiles used branches armed services recently information technology use surveillance including space based reconnaissance systems played increasing role military operations impact information warfare focuses attacking command communication systems military databases coupled new development military technology


use robotic systems intelligence combat hardware software applications recently also particular focus towards use renewable fuels running military vehicles unlike fossil fuels renewable fuels produced country creating strategic advantage us military committed energy consumption come alternative sources part society samurai member japanese warrior caste much military history armed forces considered use heads societies recently crowned heads


states democracy political system run public interest public force relationship military society serves complicated ever evolving one much depends nature society whether sees military important example time threat war burdensome expense typified defence cuts time peace one difficult matter relation military society control transparency countries limited information military operations budgeting accessible


gustavus adolphus leading cavalry charge militarist ideology society 's social attitude best served beneficiary government guided concepts embodied military ''culture doctrine system'' ''leaders'' either cultural memory national history potentiality military threat militarist argument asserts civilian population dependent upon thereby subservient needs goals military continued independence militarism sometimes contrasted concepts comprehensive national power soft power hard power nations separate military laws


regulate conduct war peacetime early exponent hugo grotius whose ''on law war peace'' major impact humanitarian approach warfare development theme echoed gustavus adolphus ethics warfare developed since create constraints military treatment prisoners civilians primarily geneva conventions rarely apply use military forces internal security troops times political conflict results popular protests incitement popular uprising international protocols restrict use even


created international bans types weapons notably weapons mass destruction wmd international conventions define constitutes war crime provides war crimes prosecution individual countries also elaborate codes military justice example united states' uniform code military justice lead court martial military personnel found guilty war crimes military actions sometimes argued justified furthering humanitarian cause disaster relief operations defence refugees term military humanism used refer actions see also arms industry


list countries number military paramilitary personnel list countries military strength index list countries level military equipment list countries global militarization index list countries without armed forces list countries military expenditures list countries past military expenditure list countries military expenditure per capita list air forces list armies list navies references external links http lebanese economy forumcom wdi gdf advanced data display show ms mil xpnd gd zs military expenditure gdp hosted lebanese economy forum extracted world bank public data defense government institutions international security national security main


'''financial social work''' interactive introspective multidisciplinary approach helps individuals explore address unconscious feelings thoughts attitudes money ref name despard chowa despard chowa g n social workers' interest building individuals' financial capabilities ''journal financial therapy'' ref self examination process enables people improve relationship money thus establish healthier money habits lead improved financial circumstances ref name wolfsohn michaeli wolfsohn r michaeli financial social work ''encyclopedia social work'' article superseded completely different version different authors referenced

Social science
Social work
Financial social work


statements may need updated reflect new version article ref ref name wolfsohn wolfsohn r linking policy practice e f hoffler e j clark eds ''social work matters power linking policy practice'' pp washington dc nasw press ref ref name vitt vitt l values centered financial education understanding cultural influences learners' financial behaviors denver national endowment financial education retrieved http wwwsmartaboutmoneyorg portals lifevalue financialeducationpdf ref history reeta wolfsohn cmsw created financial social work founder president center financial social work ref name wolfsohn michaeli ref name cfsw center financial social work


https webarchiveorg web https wwwfinancialsocialworkcom ref financial social work originally evolved wolfsohn 's work women term femonomics term coined ref name wolfsohn michaeli femonomics expanded financial social work approach leads men women direction financial wellbeing ref name wolfsohn michaeli wolfsohn brought behavioral financial social work model university maryland continuing education training graduate level course january ref name cfsw university maryland school social work developed financial social work initiative fswi prepare social work graduates help clients improve


financial capability continuing education courses graduate level elective course classroom offerings paid field placements address financial issues individual community level ref name birkenmaier birkenmaier j et al role social work financial capability shaping curricular approaches birkenmaier curley sherraden eds ''financial capability asset development research education policy practice'' pp ny oxford university press ref ref name jacobson jacobson j sander r svoboda elkinson defining role contributions social workers advancement economic stability capability individuals families communities center


financial security research brief university wisconsin madison center financial security ref center financial social work 's certification curriculum taught online elective class university kentucky since ref name cfsw disconnect money consumerism features increasingly cashless society payment options including checks credit cards debit cards money orders small dollar loans store value cards well various direct deposit methods income benefits ref name raghubir srivastava raghubir p srivastava j monopoly money effect payment coupling form spending behavior ''journal experimental psychology applied'' ref


individuals less direct physical contact money disconnect prevents knowing understanding much money spending impacts financial circumstances ref name raghubir srivastava ref name wolfsohn michaeli determinants financial behavior individuals' financial behavior influenced many internal external factors internal elements include individual psychology family history environment ref name xiao xiao j j collins ford keller p kim j robles b nefe quarter century project years research financial education theme review financial behavior research implications


financial education denver national endowment financial education ref parents' values beliefs importance saving vs spending overall materialism impact children 's money values beliefs transmit money lessons primarily modeling discussion external factors include media markets peers culture social mood ref name xiao addition self worth net worth social signaling play role individuals' purchasing habits people limited funds trying keep another 's lifestyle often suffer low self esteem results feeling unworthy better financial future behaving self sabotaging ways


overspending high status items improved financial circumstances require increased self awareness every financial decision impacted individual 's thoughts feelings attitudes money often unconscious conscious ref name vitt financial social work model incorporates transformative learning approach expand self awareness sense self provide financial knowledge individuals gain insight thoughts attitudes money developed likely make deep long lasting financial choices positively impact future ref name vitt pursue individual path financial wellbeing according


maryland 's financial social work initiative ref name birkenmaier ref name jacobson center financial social work 's self study certification process recognized national association social workers nasw launch council social work education cswe clearinghouse economic well social work education support efforts see also financial deepening financial inclusion references reading personal finance education


'''occupational toxicology''' application toxicology chemical hazards workplace focuses substances conditions occur workplaces inhalation exposure dermal exposure important often exposure mixtures chemicals whose interactions complex health effects influenced confounded environmental individual factors focus identifying early adverse affects subtle presented clinical medicine occupational toxicology interfaces heavily subfields occupational safety health occupational epidemiology studies may inspire toxicological study causative

Applied science
Medicine and health
Occupational toxicology


agents toxicological investigations important establishing biomarkers workplace health surveillance occupational toxicology studies may suggest evaluate hazard controls used industrial hygienists toxicological studies also important input performing occupational risk assessment establishing standards regulation occupational exposure limits background around chemical compounds considered occupational consequence ref name ref certain sectors increased potential exposure chemical biological agents including manufacturing construction mining logging agriculture well service sector workplaces automobile repair


gasoline stations pipelines truck rail transportation waste management remediation botanical gardens ref name toxicological studies experimental laboratory studies response organisms biological pathways substance generate data used occupational safety health activities ref name goals occupational toxicology generates data used identify hazards physiological effects quantify dose response relationships ref name ref major use data establishing standards regulation may take form occupational exposure limits based ambient concentration


levels toxicants also include biological exposure indices based biomonitoring toxicant metabolites biomarkers ref name toxicologists large role determining biomarkers may used biomonitoring exposure assessment workplace health surveillance activities ref name occupational toxicology complementary occupational epidemiology greater degree toxicology epidemiology general example outbreaks identified epidemiological studies exposure assessment case studies workplace health surveillance may inspire toxicological study suspected confirmed causative agents ref name ref name


conversely results toxicological investigation important establishing biomarkers workplace health surveillance identify overexposure test validity occupational exposure limits biomarkers intended aid prevention identifying early adverse affects unlike diagnostics clinical medicine designed reveal advanced pathological states ref name toxicological studies benefit epidemiology study new substances exposure commerce ref name epidemiological data available ref name toxicology also advantage elucidating overt health outcomes


intermediate biochemical steps biotransformation processes well early cellular changes aid developing measures prevent treat toxicity ref name occupational toxicology studies may also suggest evaluate hazard controls used industrial hygienists ref name occupational toxicology differs environmental toxicology former smaller number exposed individuals wider range exposure levels environmental toxicology tends focus situations low exposure levels larger numbers people adverse effects may concentrated people especially susceptible given toxicant


due genetic factors challenges occupational toxicology challenge performing studies mimic actual workplace conditions inhalation exposure dermal exposure important ref name ref name although medical industries injection exposure needlestick injuries hazard ref name particular experimental inhalation exposure studies require complex methodology equipment oral administration experiments example measurement control particle size distribution important degree location particle retention within respiratory tract ref name inhalation injection exposure


often dangerous dermal exposure major function skin provide barrier outside toxins ingestion exposure toxins may broken gastrointestinal tract liver ref name often exposure mixtures chemicals whose effects may simply additive different toxins may interact way enhances reduces toxicity relative toxin alone ref name mixtures may include undesired contaminants product products deviate manufacturer specifications exposures always acute may low


levels prolonged decades ref name workers may exposed toxic substances higher levels general public mainly exposed consumer products environment establishing causal relationship worker 's illness work conditions often difficult work related illnesses often indistinguishable causes may long interval exposure onset disease ref name dose toxicant strong predictor health outcomes occupational diseases often influenced confounded environmental factors personal


host factors preexisting health conditions host genetics patterns worker behavior affect relationship concentration duration frequency exposure actual toxicant dose reaches target tissue interacts metabolic processes example ultimate dose inhalation exposure depends respiratory rate breathing volume dose dermal exposure depends absorption rate skin influenced chemical properties chemical thickness skin exposed location body whether skin


animal studies translate humans ref name many types measurements may made occupational toxicology include external measurements exposure internal dose measured via tissues bodily fluids biologically effective dose measuring compound actually interacted host biomolecules dna proteins measuring downstream effects mutations cytogenetic effects aberrant gene expression ref name ref experimentation may focus operation regulation biotransformation processes may detoxify activate toxins processes subject difference individuals studied field toxicogenomics ref


name history health hazards substances used workplace recognized since antiquity first experimental studies hazardous substances came late th early th centuries including work john scott haldane mine gases karl bernhard lehmann organic substances ernest kennaway occupational skin cancer biomarkers began used occupational toxicology epidemiology showed increasing focus molecular mechanisms identifying specific enzymes interact toxicants studying variation across individuals ref name references


'''industrial relations''' '''employment relations''' multidisciplinary academic field studies employment relationship complex interrelations employers employees labor trade unions employer organizations state newer name employment relations increasingly taking precedence industrial relations often seen relatively narrow connotations nevertheless industrial relations frequently concerned employment relationships broadest sense including non industrial employment relationships sometimes seen paralleling trend separate related discipline human resource management scholars regard treat industrial employment relations synonymous

Applied science
Business
Industrial and labor relations


'''employee relations''' labour relations controversial narrower focus employee labour relations ie employees labour perspective employers managers officials addition employee relations often perceived dealing non unionized workers whereas labour relations seen dealing organized labour ie unionized workers ref name ogilviecooper ref academics universities institutions regard human resource management synonymous one disciplines although controversial overview industrial relations examines various employment situations ones unionized workforce however according


bruce e kaufman large degree scholars regard trade unionism collective bargaining labour management relations national labour po initiated united states end th century took field conjunction new deal however generally regarded separate field study english speaking countries direct equivalent continental europe recent times industrial relations decline field correlation decline importance trade unions also increasing preference business schools


human resource management paradigm protest industrial relations legislation melbourne industrial relations three faces science building problem solving ethical science building phase industrial relations part social sciences seeks understand employment relationship institutions high quality rigorous research vein industrial relations scholarship intersects scholarship labour economics industrial sociology labour social history human resource management political science law areas industrial relations scholarship assumes labour markets perfectly competitive thus contrast mainstream economic theory employers typically


levels public policy labour law regimes varieties capitalism corporatism social democracy neoliberalism labour markets seen imperfect employment relationship includes conflicts interest one cannot rely markets managers always serve workers' interests extreme cases prevent worker exploitation industrial relations scholars practitioners therefore support institutional interventions improve workings employment relationship protect workers' rights nature institutional interventions however differ two camps within industrial relations pluralist camp sees employment relationship


mixture shared interests conflicts interests largely limited employment relationship workplace pluralists therefore champion grievance procedures employee voice mechanisms works councils trade unions collective bargaining labour management partnerships policy arena pluralists advocate minimum wage laws occupational health safety standards international labour standards employment labour laws public policies institutional interventions seen methods balancing employment relationship generate economic efficiency also employee equity voice contrast marxist inspired critical camp sees


employer employee conflicts interest sharply antagonistic deeply embedded socio political economic system perspective pursuit balanced employment relationship gives much weight employers' interests instead deep seated structural reforms needed change sharply antagonistic employment relationship inherent within capitalism militant trade unions thus frequently supported history industrial relations roots industrial revolution created modern employment relationship spawning free labour markets large scale industrial organizations thousands wage workers society wrestled massive economic social changes labour


problems arose low wages long working hours monotonous dangerous work abusive supervisory practices led high employee turnover violent strikes threat social instability intellectually industrial relations formed end th century middle ground classical economics marxism sidney webb beatrice webb 's ''industrial democracy'' key intellectual work industrial relations thus rejected classical econ institutionally industrial relations founded john r commons created first academic industrial relations program university wisconsin another scholarly pioneer industrial


arbitration powers national war labor board cornell university school industrial labor relations however second world war drew close anticipation renewal labour management conflict war wave creations new academic institutes degree programs sought analyse conflicts role collective bargaining known cornell university school industrial labor relations founded ref name nyt counting various forms seventy five others ref name nyt ref included yale labor management


center directed e wight bakke began ref name nyt ref influential industrial relations scholar neil w chamberlain yale columbia universities industrial relations formalized distinct academic discipline emergence uk called oxford school including allan flanders hugh clegg alan fox lord william mccarthy sir george bain taught nuffield college oxford well otto kahn freund brasenose college oxford industrial relations formed strong problem solving orientation rejected classical economists' ''laissez faire'' solutions


labour problems marxist solution class revolution approach underlies new deal legislation united states national labor relations act fair labor standards act early st century academic field industrial relations often described crisis academia traditional positions threatened one side dominance mainstream economics organizational behaviour postmodernism policy making circles industrial relations emphasis institutional intervention trumped neoliberal emphasis ''laissez faire'' promotion


workplace relations three views generally known unitarism pluralism radical critical school offers particular perception workplace relations therefore interpret events workplace conflict role unions job regulation differently perspective critical school sometimes referred ''conflict model'' although somewhat ambiguous pluralism also tends see conflict inherent workplaces radical theories strongly identified marxist theories although limited pluralist perspective pluralism organization perceived


bad thing managed could fact channeled towards evolution positive change unitarist perspective unitarism organization perceived integrated harmonious whole idea one happy family management members staff share common purpose emphasizing mutual co operation furthermore unitarism paternalistic approach demands loyalty employees managerial emphasis application consequently trade unions deemed unnecessary since loyalty employees organizations considered mutually exclusive cannot two


sides industry conflict perceived result poor management radical critical perspective view industrial relations looks nature capitalist society fundamental division interest capital labour sees workplace relations background perspective sees inequalities power economic wealth roots nature capitalist economic system conflict therefore seen natural outcome capitalism thus inevitable trade unions natural response workers exploitation capital


whilst may periods acquiescence marxist view would institutions joint regulation would enhance rather limit management 's position presume continuation capitalism rather challenge references bibliography year title global evolution industrial relations events ideas iira url https wwwiloorg public libdoc ilo b englpdf location geneva publisher international labour office isbn access date july year chapter original industrial relations paradigm foundation revitalizing field editor last whalen editor first charles j title new directions study work employment revitalizing industrial relations academic enterprise location cheltenham england publisher edward elgar publishing pages isbn


al battani arab astronomer astrologer mathematician '''arab studies''' '''arabic studies''' academic discipline centered study arabs arab world consists several disciplines anthropology sociology linguistics historiography archaeology anthropology cultural studies economics geography history international relations law literature philosophy psychology political science public administration sociology field draws old arabic chronicles records oral literature addition written accounts traditions arabs explorers geographers arab world middle east north africa history arab studies talk history middle

Social science
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Area studies
Arab studies


east north africa rise islam present time covering wide range topics methods approaches colonial history gender environmental legal dimensions depends political economic social cultural history region linguistic arabic calligraphy arabic language spoken million people ocean gulf arabs say includes morocco mauritania western sahara west extends iraq gulf states somalia east official language countries one


arab world structures institutions art poetry letters practices definitions identity based anthropology sociology literature religious studies development development political economy arab world focusing economic social development education humanitarian aid gender environmental dimensions development concentration based economic history political economy sociology politics politics contemporary political developments arab world middle east program covers study domineering nationalism local institutions politics war peacemaking identity security policies environmental security relies comparative policies international relations


th century depicting socrates soqr discussion pupils arabic philosophy part arab studies longstanding attempt create harmony faith reason philosophy religious teachings arabs muslim engaged field called arab philosopher divided fields like early arabic philosophy avicennism averroism modern arabic philosophy transcendent theosophy list arab philosophers illuminationist philosophy sciences arabic science science context traditional ideas arabs including ethics prohibitions arab engaged field called


muslim scientist science conducted muslim secular context literature ali baba maxfield parrish arabic literature arabic epic literature arabic poetry architecture arabic architecture entire range architecture evolved within arab culture course history arabs hence term encompasses religious buildings well secular ones historic well modern expressions production places come varying levels islamic influence art arabic calligraphy arabic pottery arabic music


notable arabists william granara george grigore beatrice gr ndler gustave e von grunebaum juli n ribera charles pierre henri rieu andrew rippin maxime rodinson franz rosenthal cheryl rubenberg gordiy sablukov w montgomery watt hans wehr michael scott weir julius wellhausen abraham wheelocke franz woepcke william wright orientalist see also center contemporary arab studies american legation tangier arabic language academies centre advanced study arab world college islamic arabic studies dubai college islamic arabic studies afghanistan genetic studies arabs jerusalem studies arabic islam journal arabic islamic studies middle


east centre arab studies middle east forum middle eastern studies orient institut beirut pontifical institute arab islamic studies school arabic studies tribes flags references middle eastern studies semitic studies


states washington dc defined southern region united states census bureau states solid red usually considered part south inclusion states stripes sometimes disputed census bureau include missouri parts state considered culturally southern delaware another state colored stripes census bureau includes southern region southern literary studies questions geographic boundaries '''southern united states literature''' consists american literature written southern united

Humanities
Languages and literature
Southern Literature


states writers region literature written american south first begun colonial era developed significantly period slavery united states traditional historiography southern united states literature emphasized unifying history region significance family south 's culture sense community role individual justice dominance christianity positive negative impacts religion racial tensions social class usage local dialects ref name autogenerated patricia evans http falconjmuedu ramseyil southwomenhtm southern literature women writers accessed feb ref


however recent decades scholarship new southern studies decentralized conventional tropes favor geographically politically ideologically expansive south souths ref name name jon smith deborah cohn https wwwdukeupressedu look away look away us south new world studies ref overview simplest form southern literature consists writing american south often south defined historical well geographical reasons states south carolina georgia florida alabama north carolina virginia tennessee mississippi louisiana texas oklahoma kentucky west virginia arkansas pre civil war definitions south