biofouling ie undesirable accumulation adhesion growth microorganisms plants algae tubeworms barnacles mollusks organisms inhibiting microbial growth copper alloy aquaculture cages avoid costly net changes necessary materials resistance organism growth copper alloy nets also provides cleaner healthier environment farmed fish grow thrive issues performed without consideration potential local environmental impacts aquaculture inland waters result environmental damage wild fisheries though less waste produced per kg global scale local concerns aquaculture inland waters


may include waste handling side effects antibiotics competition farmed wild animals potential introduction invasive plant animal species foreign pathogens particularly unprocessed fish used feed marketable carnivorous fish non local live feeds used aquaculture may introduce exotic plants animals disastrous effects improvements methods resulting advances research availability commercial feeds reduced concerns since greater prevalence fish waste organic composed nutrients necessary components aquatic food webs


ocean aquaculture often produces much higher normal fish waste concentrations waste collects ocean bottom damaging eliminating bottom dwelling life waste also decrease dissolved oxygen levels water column putting pressure wild animals alternative model food added ecosystem installation artificial reef structures increase habitat niches available without need add ambient feed nutrient used ranching abalone western australia ref name abcnetau impacts wild fish carnivorous omnivorous farmed fish species


fish accumulated omega fatty acids microalgae satisfy requirement percent world fish oil production fed farmed salmon farmed salmon consume wild fish generate final product although efficiency production improving produce one pound farmed salmon products several pounds wild fish fed described fish fish fifo ratio salmon fifo ratio meaning pounds wild fish feed required produce pound salmon


ratio fallen additionally growing share fish oil fishmeal come residues byproducts fish processing rather dedicated whole fish percent fish oil percent fishmeal came residues however fishmeal oil residues instead whole fish different composition ash less protein may limit potential use aquaculture salmon farming industry expands requires wild forage fish feed time seventy five percent world 's monitored fisheries already near


exceeded maximum sustainable yield ref name alliance seafood choices alliance http wwwseafoodchoicescom resources afishianado pdfs salmon spring pdf 's salmon ref industrial scale extraction wild forage fish salmon farming impacts survivability wild predator fish rely food important step reducing impact aquaculture wild fish shifting carnivorous species plant based feeds salmon feeds example gone containing fishmeal oil containing percent plant protein usda also experimented using grain based feeds farmed trout properly formulated often mixed fishmeal


well animal 's physical mental state defined five freedoms freedom hunger thirst freedom discomfort freedom pain disease injury freedom express normal behaviour freedom fear distress however controversial issue aquaculture whether fish farmed marine invertebrates actually sentient perception awareness experience suffering although evidence found marine invertebrates ref name hastein ref recent studies conclude fish necessary receptors nociceptors sense noxious stimuli likely experience states


pain fear stress ref name hastein consequently welfare aquaculture directed vertebrates finfish particular ref name conte ref common welfare concerns welfare aquaculture impacted number issues stocking densities behavioural interactions disease parasitism major problem determining cause impaired welfare issues often interrelated influence different times ref name huntingford ref optimal stocking density often defined carrying capacity stocked environment amount individual space needed fish species specific although behavioural interactions


shoaling may mean high stocking densities beneficial species ref name hastein ref name ashley ref many cultured species high stocking densities may concern crowding constrain normal swimming behaviour well increase aggressive competitive behaviours cannibalism feed competition territoriality dominance subordination hierarchies ref name ellis ref potentially increases risk tissue damage due abrasion fish fish contact fish cage contact ref name hastein fish suffer reductions food intake food conversion efficiency ref name ellis addition high stocking densities result water flow insufficient creating inadequate oxygen supply


waste product removal ref name ashley dissolved oxygen essential fish respiration concentrations critical levels induce stress even lead asphyxiation ref name ellis ammonia nitrogen excretion product highly toxic fish accumulated levels particularly oxygen concentrations low many interactions effects cause stress fish major factor facilitating fish disease ref name conte many parasites infestation depends host 's degree mobility density host population vulnerability host 's defence system sea lice primary parasitic problem


finfish aquaculture high numbers causing widespread skin erosion haemorrhaging gill congestion increased mucus production also number prominent viral bacterial pathogens severe effects internal organs nervous systems improving welfare key improving welfare marine cultured organisms reduce stress minimum prolonged repeated stress cause range adverse effects attempts minimise stress occur throughout culture process understanding providing required environmental enrichment vital reducing stress benefit aquaculture objects improved growth


body condition reduced damage aggression grow important keep stocking densities appropriate levels specific species well separating size classes grading reduce aggressive behavioural interactions keeping nets cages clean assist positive water flow reduce risk water degradation surprisingly disease parasitism major effect fish welfare important farmers manage infected stock also apply disease prevention measures however prevention methods vaccination also induce stress extra handling


injection ref name ashley methods include adding antibiotics feed adding chemicals water treatment baths biological control using cleaner wrasse remove lice farmed salmon ref name ashley many steps involved transport including capture food deprivation reduce faecal contamination transport water transfer transport vehicle via nets pumps plus transport transfer delivery location transport water needs maintained high quality regulated temperature sufficient oxygen minimal waste products ref name conte ref name ashley cases anaesthetics may used small


abandoned within decade toxin build nutrient loss pollution sea cage aquaculture salmon aquaculture norway salmon farms typically sited pristine coastal ecosystems pollute farm salmon discharges fecal waste city people waste discharged directly surrounding aquatic environment untreated often containing antibiotics pesticides ref name alliance also accumulation heavy metals benthos seafloor near salmon farms particularly copper zinc ref name fao coho fao cultured aquatic species information programme http wwwfaoorg fishery culturedspecies oncorhynchus kisutch en ''oncorhynchus kisutch''


water depth important considerations locating sea cages order minimize impacts nutrient enrichment coastal ecosystems extent effects pollution sea cage aquaculture varies depending cages located species kept densely cages stocked fish fed important species specific variables include species' food conversion ratio fcr nitrogen retention freshwater ecosystems whole lake experiments carried experimental lakes area ontario canada displayed potential cage aquaculture source numerous changes freshwater ecosystems following initiation


experimental rainbow trout cage farm small boreal lake dramatic reductions mysis concentrations associated decrease dissolved oxygen observed significant increases ammonium total phosphorus driver eutrophication freshwater systems measured hypolimnion lake annual phosphorus inputs aquaculture waste exceeded natural inputs atmospheric deposition inflows phytoplankton biomass fourfold annual increase following initiation experimental farm genetic modification type salmon called aquadvantage salmon genetically modified faster growth although


approved commercial use due controversy altered salmon incorporates growth hormone chinook salmon allows reach full size months instead normal months atlantic salmon consuming percent less feed us food drug administration reviewed aquadvantage salmon draft environmental assessment determined would significant impact fonsi us environment fish diseases parasites vaccines major difficulty aquaculture tendency towards monoculture associated risk widespread disease aquaculture


also associated environmental risks instance shrimp farming caused destruction important mangrove forests throughout southeast asia disease wiped china 's farmed farrer 's scallop white shrimp required replacement species needs aquaculture sector vaccines aquaculture average annual growth rate however success continued expansion fish farming sector highly dependent control fish pathogens including wide range viruses bacteria fungi parasites estimated parasites cost global salmon farming industry


vaccines resulted immediate permanent reduction use antibiotics beginning fish immersion vaccines efficient vibriosis proved ineffective furunculosis hence arrival injectable vaccines first water based oil based much efficient sommerset development new vaccines important mortality cages among farmed fish debates around dna injection vaccines although effective safety side effects also societal expectations cleaner fish security lead research new vaccine vectors several initiatives financed european


union develop rapid cost effective approach using bacteria feed make vaccines particular thanks lactic bacteria whose dna modified boudinot fact vaccinating farmed fish injection time consuming costly vaccines administered orally immersion added feed directly water allows vaccinating many individuals time limiting associated handling stress indeed many tests necessary antigens vaccines must adapted species present certain level variability


effect example tests done species lepeophtheirus salmonis antigens collected caligus rogercresseyi vaccinated antigens although homology two species important level variability made protection ineffective fisheries oceans canada recent vaccines development aquaculture vaccines available one lobsters first vaccine used usa enteric red mouth however companies small stakeholders producing vaccines aquaculture nowadays novel approaches


canada licensed dna vaccine infectious hematopoietic necrosis launched industry use fish large mucosal surfaces preferred route immersion intraperitoneal oral respectively nanoparticles progress delivery purposes common antibodies produced igm igt normally booster required ifn fish memory cells produced response booster rather increased level antibodies mrna vaccines alternative dna vaccines safe stable easily producible large scale mass immunization potential recently used cancer prevention


vaccines breakthrough dna vaccines sunk cost vaccines adams alternative vaccines would antibiotics chemotherapy expensive bigger drawbacks dna vaccines become cost efficient method preventing infectious diseases bouts well dna vaccines becoming new standard fish vaccines general vaccines ragnar thorarinsson salinization acidification soils sediment abandoned aquaculture farms remain hypersaline acidic eroded material remain unusable aquaculture purposes long periods thereafter various chemical treatments adding lime aggravate problem


modify physicochemical characteristics sediment ecological benefits forms aquaculture devastating ecosystems shrimp farming mangroves forms beneficial shellfish aquaculture adds substantial filter feeding capacity environment significantly improve water quality single oyster filter gallons water day removing microscopic algal cells removing cells shellfish removing nitrogen nutrients system either retaining releasing waste sinks bottom harvesting shellfish nitrogen retained completely


crustaceans potentially increase abundance maintain biodiversity increased shelter raises stocks prey fish small crustaceans increasing recruitment opportunities turn providing prey higher trophic levels one study estimated square meters oyster reef could enhance ecosystem 's biomass nbsp kg shellfish acting herbivores also preyed moves energy directly primary producers higher trophic levels potentially skipping multiple energetically costly trophic jumps would increase biomass ecosystem seaweed farming carbon negative crop high potential climate change mitigation ref


name ref ipcc special report ocean cryosphere changing climate recommends research attention mitigation tactic ref name display authors chapter url https wwwipccch site assets uploads sites srocc ch finalpdf first l last williamson first p last tagliabue first last suga last purca cuicapusa last rinkevich first b first r last o'donoghue first last levin first ref regenerative ocean farming polyculture farming system grows mix seaweeds shellfish sequestering carbon decreasing nitrogen water increasing oxygen helping regenerate restore local habitat like reef ecosystems prospects global wild fisheries decline valuable habitat estuaries critical condition aquaculture farming piscivorous fish like salmon help problem need eat products


fish fish meal fish oil studies shown salmon farming major negative impacts wild salmon well forage fish need caught feed ref name salmon run knapp g roheim ca anderson jl http searchworldwildlifeorg cshtmlurl http wwwworldwildlifeorg globalmarkets wildlifetrade wwfbinaryitem pdf qt great salmon run col n ''the great salmon run competition wild farmed salmon'' world wildlife fund ref fish higher food chain less efficient sources food energy apart fish shrimp aquaculture undertakings seaweed filter feeding bivalve mollusks like oysters clams mussels scallops relatively benign


even environmentally restorative ref name uscnewsuscedu filter feeders filter pollutants well nutrients water improving water quality seaweeds extract nutrients inorganic nitrogen phosphorus directly water ref name chopin et al filter feeding mollusks extract nutrients feed particulates phytoplankton detritus ref name rice ref profitable aquaculture cooperatives promote sustainable practices new methods lessen risk biological chemical pollution minimizing fish stress fallowing netpens applying integrated pest management vaccines used reduce antibiotic use disease control onshore recirculating aquaculture


systems facilities using polyculture techniques properly sited facilities example offshore areas strong currents examples ways manage negative environmental effects recirculating aquaculture systems ras recycle water circulating filters remove fish waste food recirculating back tanks saves water waste gathered used compost cases could even treated used land ras developed freshwater fish mind scientists associated agricultural research service found way rear saltwater fish using ras


low salinity waters ref name growing premium seafood inland ref although saltwater fish raised shore cages caught nets water typically salinity parts per thousand ppt scientists able produce healthy pompano saltwater fish tanks salinity ppt commercializing low salinity ras predicted positive environmental economical effects unwanted nutrients fish food would added ocean risk transmitting diseases wild farm raised fish would greatly reduced price expensive saltwater fish pompano


combia used experiments would reduced however done researchers must study every aspect fish 's lifecycle including amount ammonia nitrate fish tolerate water feed fish stage lifecycle stocking rate produce healthiest fish etc ref name growing premium seafood inland countries use geothermal energy aquaculture including china israel united states ref name earth policy http wwwearth policyorg books pb pb ch pdf stabilizing climate lester r brown ''plan b rescuing planet stress civilization


trouble'' ny ww norton co p ref california example fish farms produce tilapia bass catfish warm water underground warmer water enables fish grow year round mature quickly collectively california farms produce million kilograms fish year ref name earth policy national laws regulations management laws governing aquaculture practices vary greatly country often closely regulated easily traceable united states land based nearshore aquaculture regulated federal state levels however national laws govern


offshore aquaculture us exclusive economic zone waters june department commerce national oceanic atmospheric administration released national aquaculture policies address issue meet growing demand healthy seafood create jobs coastal communities restore vital ecosystems large aquaculture facilities ie producing per year discharge wastewater required obtain permits pursuant clean water act facilities produce least fish molluscs crustaceans year subject specific national discharge standards permitted facilities subject effluent limitations


developed case case basis country aquaculture country history diameter equally tall half full fish suspended crane boom four workers around larger ring shaped structure water gunditjmara local aboriginal australian people south western victoria australia may raised short finned eels early bce ref name bbnhl see also attached documents national heritage list ''location boundary map'' ''government gazette'' july ref evidence indicates developed volcanic floodplains vicinity lake condah complex channels


dams used woven traps capture eels preserve eat year round budj bim cultural landscape world heritage site thought one oldest aquaculture sites world ref name bbwhl ref oral tradition china tells culture common carp ''cyprinus carpio'' long ago bce around years bp earliest significant evidence lies literature earliest monograph fish culture called ''the classic fish culture'' fan li written around bce c bp another ancient chinese guide


aquaculture yang yu jing written around bce showing carp farming becoming sophisticated jiahu site china circumstantial archeological evidence possibly oldest aquaculture locations dating bce years bp speculative ref name jiahu ref waters subsided river floods fish mainly carp trapped lakes early aquaculturists fed brood using nymphs silkworm faeces ate ref name sr ref ancient egyptians might farmed fish especially gilt head bream lake bardawil bce years bp traded canaan ref name sr ''gim''


cultivation oldest aquaculture korea ref name gang ref early cultivation methods used bamboo oak sticks ref name gang replaced newer methods utilized nets th century ref name gang ref name eb ref floating rafts used mass production since ref name gang japanese cultivated seaweed providing bamboo poles later nets oyster shells serve anchoring surfaces spores romans bred fish ponds farmed oysters coastal lagoons ce central europe early christian monasteries adopted roman aquacultural practices aquaculture spread europe middle ages since


away seacoasts big rivers fish salted rot improvements transportation th century made fresh fish easily available inexpensive even inland areas making aquaculture less popular th century fishponds trebon basin czech republic maintained unesco world heritage site hawaiians constructed oceanic fish ponds remarkable example menehune fishpond dating least nbsp years ago alekoko legend says constructed mythical menehune dwarf people first half th century german


th century becoming associated primarily cultivation aquatic plant animal species stephen ainsworth west bloomfield new york began experiments brook trout seth green established commercial fish hatching operation caledonia springs near rochester new york involvement dr w w fletcher concord massachusetts artificial fish hatcheries underway canada united states dildo island fish hatchery opened newfoundland largest advanced world word aquaculture used descriptions


hatcheries experiments cod lobster american fish culture company carolina rhode island founded one leading producers trout perfected method manipulating day night cycle fish could artificially spawned year around californians harvested wild kelp attempted manage supply around later labeling wartime resource see also agroecology alligator farm aquaponics blue revolution copper alloys aquaculture maggots used food fish fish hatchery fisheries science industrial


aquaculture list commercially important fish species recirculating aquaculture system resource decoupling sources notes references http podcastsaaasorg science podcast sciencepodcast mp podcast gesamp http wwwfaoorg docrep e e htm ''assessment communication environmental risks coastal aquaculture'' fao reports studies hepburn j ''taking aquaculture seriously'' organic farming winter soil association https webarchiveorg web http wwwscotlandgovuk cru kd green reia asp scottish association marine science napier university review synthesis environmental impacts aquaculture higginbotham james ''piscinae artificial fishponds roman italy'' university north carolina press june wyban carol araki ''tide current fishponds hawai'i'' university hawaii press timmons


mb ebeling jm wheaton fw summerfelt st vinci bj recirculating aquaculture systems nd edition cayuga aqua ventures external links https wwwwhoiedu aquaculture aquaculture topic page woods hole oceanographic institution http wwwcrcuriedu indexphpthemeid coastal resources center https webarchiveorg web http aquaculturenoaagov noaa aquaculture http wwwaquaculturehuborg university hawaii 's aquaculturehub http edtedcom h ruyhkf ted ed lesson aquaculture domesticated animals buildings structures used confine animals sustainable food system


much perceived effect alternative practice arises belief effective placebo effect treated condition resolving natural course disease exacerbated tendency turn alternative therapies upon failure medicine point condition worst likely spontaneously improve absence bias especially diseases expected get better cancer hiv infection multiple studies shown significantly worse outcomes

Applied science
Medicine and health
Alternative medicine


patients turn alternative therapies may patients avoid effective treatment alternative therapies actively harmful eg cyanide poisoning amygdalin intentional ingestion hydrogen peroxide actively interfere effective treatments alternative sector highly profitable industry strong lobby faces far less regulation use marketing unproven treatments marketing often advertises treatments natural holistic comparison offered medical science billions dollars spent studying alternative medicine positive results


successful practices considered alternative specific definitions include physical activity umbrella alternative medicine definitions terminology terms ''alternative medicine'' ''complementary medicine'' ''integrative medicine'' ''holistic medicine'' ''natural medicine'' ''unorthodox medicine'' ''fringe medicine'' ''unconventional medicine'' ''new age medicine'' used interchangeably meaning almost synonymous contexts ref name shapiro ref ref name bombardieri ref name shuval ref name freedman terminology shifted time reflecting preferred branding practitioners ref name sbm brand https sciencebasedmedicineorg integrative medicine brand specialty integrative medicine brand specialty ''science based medicine'' ref example


united states national institutes health department studying alternative medicine currently named national center complementary integrative health nccih established ''office alternative medicine'' oam renamed ''national center complementary alternative medicine'' nccam obtaining current name therapies often framed natural holistic implicitly intentionally suggesting conventional medicine artificial narrow scope ref name consumerhealth th marcia angell cannot two kinds medicine nbsp conventional alternative meaning term alternative expression alternative medicine effective alternative


medical science although alternative medicine promoters may use loose terminology give appearance effectiveness ref name atramm ref name kolata ref loose terminology may also used suggest meaning dichotomy exists eg use expressions western medicine eastern medicine suggest difference cultural difference asiatic east european west rather difference evidence based medicine treatments work ref name atramm alternative medicine '''alternative medicine''' defined loosely set products practices


practice unlike medicine alternative product practice originate using scientific methods may instead based hearsay religion tradition superstition belief supernatural energies pseudoscience errors reasoning propaganda fraud unscientific sources ref name atramm ref name nsf ref name hines sampson coulter sagan ref name amcer definitions seek specify alternative medicine terms social political marginality mainstream healthcare ref name saks refer lack support alternative therapies receive medical scientists regarding access research funding sympathetic coverage medical press inclusion standard


medical curriculum ref name saks example widely used definition devised us nccih calls '' group diverse medical health care systems practices products generally considered part conventional medicine '' ref name nccih however descriptive definitions inadequate present day conventional doctors offer alternative medical treatments introductory courses modules offered part standard undergraduate medical training ref name hol kopelman wieland astin pelletier alternative medicine taught half us medical schools us health insurers increasingly willing provide reimbursement alternative therapies


complementary integrative medicine '''complementary medicine''' '''cm''' '''integrative medicine''' '''im''' alternative medicine used together functional medical treatment belief improves effect treatments ref name nsf ref name ernst ref name joyce ref name bmj may example acupuncture piercing body needles influence flow supernatural energy might believed increase effectiveness complement science based medicine used time ref name nci pdq cam ref name borkan ref name whatiscam instead significant drug interactions caused alternative therapies may make treatments less effective notably cancer therapy ref name autogenerated ref ref name arye ref ref


name li et al besides usual issues alternative medicine integrative medicine described attempt bring pseudoscience academic science based medicine ref name gorski leading pejorative term quackademic medicine due many names field criticized intense rebranding essentially practices ref name shapiro '''cam''' abbreviation phrase ''complementary alternative medicine'' ref name ernstinterview ref name cassilethdeng also called scam scam addition called supplements ref name skepdiccom ref ref name tyreman ref terms traditional medicine refers pre scientific


practices certain culture contrast typically practiced cultures medical science dominates eastern medicine typically refers traditional medicines asia evidence based medicine penetrated much later '''holistic medicine''' another rebranding alternative medicine case words ''balance'' ''holism'' often used alongside ''complementary'' ''integrative'' claiming take account whole person contrast supposed reductionism medicine ref name beresford pp ref ref name zucker pp ref challenges defining alternative medicine prominent members science ref name offit ref name dawkins biomedical science community ref


thing alternative medicine medicine works medicine n't ref name dawkins ref name jeffrey ref notion later echoed paul offit truth 's thing conventional alternative complementary integrative holistic medicine 's medicine works medicine n't best way sort carefully evaluating scientific studies visiting internet chat rooms reading magazine articles talking friends comedian tim minchin also taken issue viral animation short ''storm'' definition alternative medicine either


based traditional medicinal practices particular culture folk knowledge superstition spiritual beliefs belief supernatural energies antiscience pseudoscience errors reasoning propaganda fraud new different concepts health disease bases proven scientific methods ref name nsf ref name atramm ref name hines sampson coulter sagan ref name amcer different cultures may unique traditional belief based practices developed recently thousands years specific practices entire systems practices unscientific belief systems alternative medicine using naturopathy homeopathy place conventional medicine based belief systems


grounded science ref name nccih class wikitable proposed mechanism issues naturopathy naturopathic medicine based belief body heals using supernatural vital energy guides bodily processes ref name sarriswardle conflict paradigm evidence based medicine ref name jagtenberg many naturopaths opposed vaccination ref name ernst scientific evidence support claims naturopathic medicine cure cancer disease ref name acs homeopathy belief substance causes symptoms disease healthy people cures similar symptoms sick people''


employed name hahnemannquote group n developed knowledge atoms molecules basic chemistry shows repeated dilution practiced homeopathy produces water homeopathy scientifically valid ref name ernst ref name hcreport ref name shang ref name nccih homeopathy ''they told took pills night quite another thing morning'' early th century satire morison 's vegetable pills alternative medicine supplement traditional ethnic systems ready drink traditional chinese medicine mixture right x px alternative medical systems may based traditional medicine practices traditional chinese medicine tcm ayurveda india


practices cultures around world ref name nccih useful applications traditional medicines researched accepted within ordinary medicine however underlying belief systems seldom scientific accepted traditional medicine considered alternative used outside home region used together instead known functional treatment reasonably expected patient practitioner knows know work knowing practice based superstition class wikitable claims issues traditional


chinese medicine traditional practices beliefs china together modifications made communist party make tcm common practices include herbal medicine acupuncture insertion needles body specified points massage tui na exercise qigong dietary therapy practices based belief supernatural energy called qi considerations chinese astrology chinese numerology traditional use herbs substances found china belief tongue contains map body reflects changes body incorrect model anatomy physiology internal organs ref


name atramm ref name beyersteinsampson ref name luneedham ref name maciocia ref name matuk ref name deshpande ayurveda traditional medicine india ayurveda believes existence three elemental substances doshas called vata pitta kapha states balance doshas results health imbalance results disease disease inducing imbalances adjusted balanced using traditional herbs minerals heavy metals ayurveda stresses use plant based medicines treatments animal products added minerals including sulfur arsenic lead copper sulfate safety concerns raised ayurveda two us studies finding


percent ayurvedic indian manufactured patent medicines contained toxic levels heavy metals lead mercury arsenic study users united states also found elevated blood lead levels percent tested concerns include use herbs containing toxic compounds lack quality control ayurvedic facilities incidents heavy metal poisoning attributed use compounds united states ref name daguptahstabler ref name valiathan ref name cdc ref name saper supernatural energies bases belief may include belief existence supernatural


energies undetected science physics biofields belief properties energies physics inconsistent laws physics energy medicine ref name nccih class wikitable claims issues biofield therapy intended influence energy fields purported surround penetrate body ref name nccih advocates scientific skepticism carl sagan described lack empirical evidence support existence putative energy fields therapies predicated bioelectromagnetic therapy use verifiable electromagnetic fields pulsed fields alternating current


direct current fields unconventional manner ref name nccih asserts magnets used defy laws physics influence health disease chiropractic spinal manipulation aims treat vertebral subluxations claimed put pressure nerves chiropractic developed belief manipulating spine affects flow supernatural vital energy thereby affects health disease vertebral subluxation pseudoscientific concept proven exist reiki practitioners place palms patient near chakras believe centers supernatural energies


intervention healing lack evidence effectiveness ref name pearce simpson ref unwanted outcomes death disability occurred faith healing elected instead medical care serious injuries illnesses double blind study discharged coronary surgery patients found intercessory prayer significant effect medical outcomes hospitalization coronary care unit ref name aviles et al ref nccih classification us agency national center complementary integrative health nccih created classification system branches complementary alternative medicine divides five major groups groups


overlap distinguish two types energy medicine ' 'veritable'' involves scientifically observable energy including magnet therapy colorpuncture light therapy ''putative'' invokes physically undetectable unverifiable energy ref name nccih emed none energies evidence support effect body positive health promoting way ref name consumerhealth th whole medical systems cut across one groups examples include traditional chinese medicine naturopathy homeopathy ayurveda mind body interventions explore interconnection mind body spirit premise affect bodily functions symptoms connection


mind body conventional medical fact classification include therapies proven function cognitive behavioral therapy biology based practices use substances found nature herbs foods vitamins natural substances note used biology ''not'' refer science biology usage newly coined nccih primary source used article biology based coined nccih may refer chemicals nonbiological source use poison lead traditional chinese medicine nonbiological substances


manipulative body based practices feature manipulation movement body parts done bodywork chiropractic osteopathic manipulation energy medicine domain deals putative verifiable energy fields biofield therapies intended influence energy fields purported surround penetrate body existence energy fields disproven bioelectromagnetic based therapies use verifiable electromagnetic fields pulsed fields alternating current direct current fields non scientific manner history history alternative medicine may refer history group diverse medical


practices collectively promoted alternative medicine beginning collection individual histories members group history western medical practices labeled irregular practices western medical establishment ref name atramm ref name qmhchf ref name chbhama countercultural healing brief history alternavie medicine america james whorton pbs november https wwwpbsorg wgbh pages frontline shows altmed clash historyhtml ref ref name nchama nature cures nbsp history alternative medicine america james c whorton oxford university press ref ref name rrcam rise rise complementary alternative medicine sociological perspective ian coulter evan willis medical


journal australia ref includes histories complementary medicine integrative medicine western practitioners part increasingly science based medical establishment referred irregular practitioners dismissed medical establishment unscientific practicing quackery ref name qmhchf ref name chbhama irregular practice became increasingly marginalized quackery fraud western medicine increasingly incorporated scientific methods discoveries corresponding increase success treatments ref name nchama irregular practices grouped traditional practices nonwestern


using chemicals challenging establishment authority kind sensitivity giving equal measure beliefs practices cultures cultural relativism growing frustration desperation patients limitations side effects science based medicine ref name atramm ref name chbhama ref name nchama ref name rrcam ref name frontlineaf ref name enab ref name ambmj time american medical association played central role fighting quackery united states abolished quackery committee closed department investigation ref name qmhchf ref name ambmj ref early mid expression


alternative medicine came widespread use expression became mass marketed collection natural effective treatment alternatives science based biomedicine ref name atramm ref name ambmj mass marketing alternative medicine pervasive british medical journal bmj pointed apparently endless stream books articles radio television programmes urge public virtues alternative medicine treatments ranging meditation drilling hole skull let oxygen ref name ambmj analysis trends criticism complementary alternative medicine cam five


prestigious american medical journals period reorganization within medicine reported showing medical profession responded growth cam three phases phase changes medical marketplace influenced type response journals ref name winnick changes included relaxed medical licensing development managed care rising consumerism establishment usa office alternative medicine later national center complementary alternative medicine currently national center complementary integrative health ref medical education mainly result reforms following


flexner report ref name flexner report medical education established medical schools us generally included alternative medicine teaching topic typically teaching based current practice scientific knowledge anatomy physiology histology embryology neuroanatomy pathology pharmacology microbiology immunology ref name bianco medical schools' teaching includes topics doctor patient communication ethics art medicine ref name stanford curriculum engaging complex clinical reasoning medical decision making ref name yale curriculum writing snyderman weil remarked early twentieth century flexner model helped create th century academic health


integrative medicine member entity cochrane collaboration ref name um cam field ref name um cim medical schools responsible conferring medical degrees physician typically may legally practice medicine licensed local government authority licensed physicians us attended one established medical schools usually graduated doctor medicine md ref name medline md states require applicants md licensure graduates approved medical school complete united states medical licensing exam usmle ref name medline md efficacy general scientific consensus alternative therapies lack


otherwise ineffective therapy taking something placebo effect natural recovery cyclical nature illness regression fallacy gets misattributed alternative medicine taken person diagnosed science based medicine may never originally true illness diagnosed alternative disease category ref name alcock edzard ernst characterized evidence many alternative techniques weak nonexistent negative ref name goodbadugly published estimate based sound evidence although believes may overestimate ref name ernst ernst concluded


alternative therapies team studied including acupuncture herbal medicine homeopathy reflexology statistically indistinguishable placebo treatments also believes something conventional doctors usefully learn chiropractors homeopath therapeutic value placebo effect one strangest phenomena medicine ref name economist ref name hhh project funded cdc identified condition treatment pairs studied least one randomized controlled trial rct assessed meta analysis ref name katz according


book us institute medicine panel number rcts focused cam risen dramatically cochrane library cam related cochrane systematic reviews non cochrane systematic reviews analysis conclusions cochrane reviews done two readers cases readers agreed disagreed third reader agreed one initial readers set rating studies found cam concluded positive effect possibly positive concluded effect concluded harmful


effect concluded insufficient evidence assessment conventional treatments found concluded positive possibly positive effect concluded effect concluded net harmful effects concluded insufficient evidence however cam review used developed cochrane database conventional review used initial cochrane database alternative therapies complement improve effect mitigate side effects functional medical treatment ref name nsf ref name ernst ref name joyce ref name bmj may significant drug interactions caused alternative therapies may instead negatively impact functional treatment making prescription drugs less effective interference


herbal preparations warfarin ref name ref name arye way conventional therapies drugs interventions difficult test efficacy alternative medicine clinical trials instances established effective treatment condition already available helsinki declaration states withholding treatment unethical circumstances use standard care treatment addition alternative technique tested may produce confounded difficult interpret results ref name bodeker cancer researcher andrew j vickers stated perceived mechanism effect anything classified alternative medicine definition


healing medical effect ref name angell ref name atramm ref name hines sampson coulter sagan ref name igpiamayp ref name np however different mechanisms perceived work common denominator mechanisms effects mis attributed alternative treatment natural course''' individual gets better without treatment br b '''placebo effect false treatment effect''' individual receives alternative therapy convinced help conviction makes likely get better br c '''nocebo effect''' individual convinced standard treatment work alternative


therapies work decreases likelihood standard treatment work placebo effect alternative remains br '''no adverse effects''' standard treatment replaced alternative treatment getting rid adverse effects also improvement br e '''interference''' standard treatment complemented something interferes effect cause worse effect also decreased even increased side effects may interpreted helping researchers epidemiologists clinical statisticians pharmacologists use clinical trials reveal effects allowing physicians offer therapeutic solution best known


work alternative treatments often refuse use trials make deliberately hard placebo effect placebo treatment intended therapeutic value example placebo inert pill include dramatic interventions like sham surgery ''placebo effect'' concept patients perceive improvement treated inert treatment opposite placebo effect ''nocebo effect'' patients expect treatment harmful perceive harmful effects taking placebos


physical effect diseases improve overall outcomes patients may report improvements subjective outcomes pain nausea ref name cochranehrob ref study suggested substantial part medicine 's impact due placebo effect ref name hrob ref name cochranehrob however reassessments found study flawed methodology ref name hrob ref ref name kienle kiene modern reviews suggest factors like natural recovery reporting bias also considered ref name cochranehrob ref name kienle kiene reasons alternative therapies may credited improving patient 's condition even though objective effect


non existent even harmful ref name ref name gorski ref name novella david gorski argues alternative treatments treated placebo rather medicine ref name gorski almost none performed significantly better placebo clinical trials ref name atramm ref name skep dic comp med ref name billion ref name abdulla furthermore distrust conventional medicine may lead patients experiencing nocebo effect taking effective medication ref name regression mean patient receives inert treatment may report improvements afterwards cause ref name cochranehrob ref name kienle kiene ref assuming cause without evidence example regression


fallacy may due natural recovery illness fluctuation symptoms long term condition ref name kienle kiene concept regression toward mean implies extreme result likely followed less extreme result factors also reasons placebo treatment group may outperform treatment group test related patient 's experience include patients reporting favourable results really felt due politeness experimental subordination observer bias misleading wording


questions ref name kienle kiene systematic review studies placebos asbj rn hr bjartsson peter c g tzsche write even true effect placebo one would expect record differences placebo treatment groups due bias associated lack blinding ref name cochranehrob alternative therapies may also credited perceived improvement decreased use effect medical treatment therefore either decreased side effects nocebo effects towards standard treatment ref name ref use regulation appeal practitioners complementary medicine usually discuss advise patients available alternative therapies patients often


express interest mind body complementary therapies offer non drug approach treating health conditions ref name sobel addition social cultural underpinnings popularity alternative medicine several psychological issues critical growth notably psychological effects believe ref name beyerstein cognitive biases help maintain self esteem promote harmonious social functioning ref name beyerstein ''post hoc ergo propter hoc'' fallacy ref name beyerstein marketing edzard ernst leading authority scientific study alternative therapies diagnoses first university professor complementary alternative medicine


promoting book ''trick treatment'' co written simon singh alternative medicine profitable industry large media advertising expenditures accordingly alternative practices often portrayed positively compared favorably big pharma ref name consumerhealth th popularity complementary alternative medicine cam may related factors edzard ernst mentioned interview ''the independent'' ref paul offit proposed alternative medicine becomes quackery four ways recommending conventional therapies helpful promoting potentially harmful therapies without adequate warning draining patients' bank accounts promoting magical thinking ref name offit promoting


vigorous marketing ref name weber extravagant claims alternative medical community combined inadequate media scrutiny attacks critics ref name beyerstein ref name beyerstein alternative medicine criticized taking advantage least fortunate members society ref name consumerhealth th also increase conspiracy theories toward conventional medicine pharmaceutical companies ref name li et al mistrust traditional authority figures physician dislike current delivery methods scientific biomedicine led patients seek alternative medicine treat variety ailments ref name beyerstein many


patients lack access contemporary medicine due lack private public health insurance leads seek lower cost alternative medicine ref name barnes medical doctors also aggressively marketing alternative medicine profit market ref name weber patients averse painful unpleasant sometimes dangerous side effects biomedical treatments treatments severe diseases cancer hiv infection well known significant side effects even low risk medications antibiotics potential cause life threatening anaphylactic reactions individuals many medications may cause minor bothersome symptoms


cough upset stomach cases patients may seeking alternative therapies avoid adverse effects conventional treatments ref name beyerstein ref name beyerstein prevalence use according recent research increasing popularity cam needs explained moral convictions lifestyle choices rather economic reasoning developing nations access essential medicines severely restricted lack resources poverty traditional remedies often closely resembling forming basis alternative remedies may comprise primary healthcare integrated healthcare system africa traditional medicine


used primary healthcare developing nations whole one third population lack access essential medicines ref name tradmed fact proposed adopting prize system reward medical research ref name horrobin however public funding research exists us increasing funding research alternative medicine purpose us national center complementary alternative medicine nccam nccam spent us billion research since research demonstrated efficacy alternative therapies ref name billion ref name nccih ref name atwood


nccam 's sister organization nic office cancer complementary alternative medicine gives grants around million every year ref name ref testing alternative medicine scientific basis called waste scarce research resources ref name wadman ref alternative medicine rise countries western science scientific method generally accepted major foundations healthcare 'evidence based' practice dominant paradigm described enigma medical journal australia ref name coulter us united states child abuse prevention treatment


act capta required states receive federal money grant religious exemptions child neglect abuse laws regarding religion based healing practices thirty one states child abuse religious exemptions use alternative medicine us increased ref name nsf ref name eisenberg doi access free ref percent increase expenditures percent increase use alternative therapies america ref name eisenberg according national survey conducted percent us adults aged years use form complementary alternative medicine ref name cdc ref americans spend


many billions therapies annually ref name eisenberg americans used cam treat prevent musculoskeletal conditions conditions associated chronic recurring pain ref name barnes america women likely men use cam biggest difference use mind body therapies including prayer specifically health reasons ref name barnes american hospitals offered alternative therapies percent ref name warner ref name aha hospitals offering cam urban areas ref name aha survey americans


nine year old child school science project ref name nsf ref name rosa prevalence use specific therapies common cam therapies used us prayer herbalism breathing meditation meditation chiropractic medicine yoga body work diet based therapy progressive relaxation mega vitamin therapy visualization ref name barnes ref name barnes britain often used alternative therapies alexander technique aromatherapy bach flower remedies body work therapies including massage counseling stress therapies hypnotherapy meditation reflexology shiatsu ayurvedic medicine nutritional medicine yoga ayurvedic


medicine remedies mainly plant based use animal materials safety concerns include use herbs containing toxic compounds lack quality control ayurvedic facilities ref name valiathan ref name saper according national health service england commonly used complementary alternative medicines cam supported nhs uk acupuncture aromatherapy chiropractic homeopathy massage osteopathy clinical hypnotherapy ref name nhs careers cam palliative care complementary therapies often used palliative care practitioners attempting manage chronic pain patients integrative medicine considered acceptable interdisciplinary


approach used palliative care areas medicine early experiences care dying palliative care took granted necessity placing patient values lifestyle habits core design delivery quality care end life patient desired complementary therapies long treatments provided additional support endanger patient considered acceptable ref name kellhear non pharmacologic interventions complementary medicine employ mind body interventions designed reduce pain concomitant mood disturbance increase quality life ref


name menefee regulation health campaign flyers example food drug administration warn public unsafe products alternative medicine lobby successfully pushed alternative therapies subject far less regulation conventional medicine ref name consumerhealth th professions complementary traditional alternative medicine chiropractic achieved full regulation north america parts world regulated manner similar governing science based medicine contrast approaches may partially recognized others regulation cases promotion alternative


therapies allowed demonstrably effect tradition use despite laws making illegal market promote alternative therapies use cancer treatment many practitioners promote regulation licensing alternative medicine ranges widely country country state state austria germany complementary alternative medicine mainly hands doctors mds ref name ernstinterview half american alternative practitioners licensed mds ref name cassileth germany herbs tightly regulated half prescribed doctors covered health insurance ref name jama book review government bodies


us elsewhere published information guidance alternative medicine us food drug administration fda issued online warnings consumers medication health fraud includes section alternative medicine fraud warning ayurvedic products generally approved fda marketing risks problems negative outcomes according institute medicine use alternative medical techniques may result several types harm '''economic harm''' results monetary loss presents health hazard '''indirect harm''' results delay


potential possess dangerous biological psychological side effects attempts refute fact regard alternative therapies sometimes use ''appeal nature'' fallacy ie natural cannot harmful specific groups patients patients impaired hepatic renal function susceptible side effects alternative remedies exception normal thinking regarding side effects homeopathy since us food drug administration fda regulated homeopathic products several significantly different ways drugs ref name stehlin homeopathic preparations termed remedies extremely dilute often far beyond point


single molecule original active possibly toxic ingredient likely remain thus considered safe count products exempt good manufacturing practice requirements related expiration dating finished product testing identity strength alcohol concentration may much higher allowed conventional drugs ref name stehlin treatment delay alternative medicine may discourage people getting best possible treatment ref name mhtg experienced perceived success one alternative therapy minor ailment may convinced efficacy persuaded extrapolate success


alternative therapy serious possibly life threatening illness ref name navarro reason critics argue therapies rely placebo effect define success dangerous according mental health journalist scott lilienfeld unvalidated scientifically unsupported mental health practices lead individuals forgo effective treatments refers opportunity cost individuals spend large amounts time money ineffective treatments may left precious little either may forfeit opportunity obtain treatments could helpful short even innocuous treatments


indirectly produce negative outcomes ref name lilienfeld four children died australia parents chose ineffective naturopathic homeopathic alternative medicines diets rather conventional therapies ref name hughes unconventional cancer cures always many therapies offered outside conventional cancer treatment centers based theories found biomedicine alternative cancer cures often described 'unproven' suggesting appropriate clinical trials conducted therapeutic value treatment unknown however many alternative cancer treatments investigated good quality clinical trials


shown ineffective nbsp label 'unproven' inappropriate therapies time assert many alternative cancer therapies 'disproven' ref name vickers edzard ernst stated ref rejection science complementary alternative medicine cam well researched conventional medicine undergoes intense research release public ref name ernst cohen practitioners science based medicine also discard practices treatments shown ineffective alternative practitioners ref name consumerhealth th ref funding research also sparse making difficult research effectiveness cam ref name ernst


funding cam funded government agencies ref name ernst cohen proposed research cam rejected private funding agencies results research reliable ref name ernst cohen research cam meet certain standards research ethics committees cam researchers find almost impossible meet ref name ernst cohen even little research done cam proven effective ref name ernst studies done cited cam practitioners attempt claim basis science studies tend


healthcare practices classified based solely scientific evidence treatment rigorously tested found safe effective science based medicine adopt regardless whether considered alternative begin ref name angell possible method change categories proven vs unproven based increased knowledge effectiveness lack thereof prominent supporter position george lundberg former editor ''journal american medical association'' ''jama'' ref name fontanarosa writing ''ca cancer journal clinicians'' barrie r cassileth mentioned


letter us senate subcommittee public health safety deplored lack critical thinking scientific rigor oam supported research signed four nobel laureates prominent scientists supported national institutes health nih ref name cassileth march staff writer ''the washington post'' reported impending national discussion broadening access health care improving medical practice saving money giving group scientists opening propose shutting national center complementary alternative medicine quoted


one scientists steven salzberg genome researcher computational biologist university maryland saying one concerns nih funding pseudoscience noted vast majority studies based fundamental misunderstandings physiology disease shown little effect ref name brown writers carl sagan noted astrophysicist advocate scientific skepticism author ''the demon haunted world science candle dark'' lambasted lack empirical evidence support existence putative energy fields


therapies predicated sampson also pointed cam tolerated contradiction without thorough reason experiment ref name sampsonatwood barrett pointed policy nih never saying something work different version dose might give different results ref name billion barrett also expressed concern alternatives merit impression rest deserve equal consideration respect even though worthless since classified one heading alternative medicine ref name quackwatch wary critics alternative


medicine focused upon health fraud misinformation quackery public health problems notably wallace sampson paul kurtz founders scientific review alternative medicine stephen barrett co founder national council health fraud webmaster quackwatch ref name ncahf mission grounds opposing alternative medicine include usually based religion tradition superstition belief supernatural energies pseudoscience errors reasoning propaganda fraud ref name beyerstein ref name nsf ref name atramm ref name sources alternative therapies typically lack scientific validation effectiveness either unproved disproved ref name atramm ref name kent ref name goldrosen treatments


part conventional science based healthcare system ref name trad med defs ref name nccih ref name zollman research alternative medicine frequently low quality methodologically flawed ref name nccih alternative therapies replaced conventional science based medicine even safest alternative medicines failure use delay using conventional science based medicine caused deaths ref name lilienfeld ref name hughes methods may incorporate base traditional medicine folk knowledge spiritual beliefs ignorance misunderstanding scientific principles errors reasoning newly conceived approaches claiming heal ref name beyerstein ref name atramm ref name acharya many alternative medical treatments


cam also often less regulated conventional medicine ref name ernst cohen ethical concerns whether people perform cam proper knowledge treat patients ref name ernst cohen cam often done non physicians operate medical licensing laws govern conventional medicine ref name ernst cohen often described issue non maleficence ref name ernst according two writers wallace sampson k butler marketing part training required alternative medicine propaganda methods alternative medicine traced back used hitler


goebels promotion pseudoscience medicine ref name atramm ref name butlerbarrett november edzard ernst stated level misinformation alternative medicine reached point become dangerous unethical far alternative medicine remained ethics free zone time change ref name ernst guardian conflicts interest commentators said special consideration must given issue conflicts interest alternative medicine edzard ernst said researchers alternative medicine risk unidirectional bias generally


uncritical belief chosen subject ref name unid ref ernst cites evidence phenomenon whereby sample acupuncture trials originating china positive conclusions ref name unid david gorski contrasts evidence based medicine researchers try disprove hyphotheses says frequent practice pseudoscience based research striving confirm pre existing notions ref name gorski ref harriet hall writes contrast circumstances alternative medicine practitioners disinterested scientists case acupuncture example acupuncturist would great deal lose acupuncture rejected research


disinterested skeptic would lose anything effects confirmed rather change mind would enhance skeptical credentials ref name hall ref use health research resources research alternative therapies criticized diverting research time money resources fruitful lines investigation order pursue theory basis biology ref name novella ref name gorski research methods expert author ''snake oil science'' r barker bausell stated 's become politically correct investigate nonsense ref name billion commonly cited statistic us national


institute health spent billion investigating alternative therapies prior none found effective ref name billion gallery gallery file fallerjfajpg christian laying hands prayer intervention faith healing file dhanvantari ayurveda expojpg indian ayurvedic medicine includes belief spiritual balance mind influences disease file hierbas medicinales mercado medievaljpg medicinal herbs traditional spanish market file market pharmacy tana ms jpg traditional medicines madagascar file traditional chinese medicine xi'an marketjpg assorted dried plant animal parts used traditional chinese medicine file ramonajpg shaman healer sonora mexico file american medical botany collection native


medicinal plants united states containing botanical history chemical analysis properties uses medicine diet jpg phytotherapy herbal medicine engraving ''magnolia glauca'' jacob bigelow 's ''american medical botany'' gallery see also allopathic medicine conservation medicine ethnomedicine gallbladder flush homeopathy hypnotherapy osteopathic medicine psychic surgery siddha medicine vertebral subluxation notes references ref ref name acharya ref ref name acs ref ref name aha access date ref ref name alcock ref ref name amcer ref ref name angell ref ref name atramm ref ref name atwood ref ref name barnes ref ref name barnes ref ref name berman ref ref name beyerstein ref ref name beyerstein ref ref name beyersteinsampson ref ref name bianco ref ref ref name bmj may ref ref name bodeker ref ref


name bombardieri ref ref name borkan ref ref name brown ref ref name sampsonatwood ref ref name butlerbarrett ref ref name cassileth ref ref name cassileth ref ref name cassilethdeng ref ref name cdc ref ref name coulter display authors doi j tb x cid ref ref name daguptahstabler ref ref name dawkins p https booksgooglecom booksid lovmmlxc xoc pg pa us ed ref ref name dawkins diamond j quoted p https booksgooglecom booksid nbryztouqzcc pg pa us ed ref ref name deshpande ref ref name economist ref ref name ernst ref ref name ernst ref ref name ernst ref ref name ernst ref ref name ernst ref ref name ernst ref ref name ernst ref ref name ernstinterview ref ref name ernst ref ref name ernst cohen ref ref name ernst guardian ref ref name flexner report title link flexner report available cfat http wwwcarnegiefoundationorg sites default files elibrary carnegie flexner reportpdf flexner report ref ref name fontanarosa first e last molloy first gr last


tamm first last darnell first je cid display authors ref ref name freedman ref ref name goldrosen ref ref name goodbadugly ref ref name gorski ref ref name hcreport ref ref name hhh ref ref name hills ref ref name hines sampson coulter sagan ref ref name holloway ref ref name hol kopelman wieland astin pelletier br br br br ref ref name horrobin ref ref name hughes ref ref name igpiamayp ref ref name jagtenberg ref ref name jama book review ref ref name joyce ref ref name katz ref ref name kellhear ref ref name kent ref ref name lilienfeld ref ref name ludmerer ref ref name luneedham ref ref name maciocia ref ref name matuk ref ref name medline md ref ref name menefee ref ref name navarro ref ref name ncahf mission ref ref name nccih ref ref name nccih ref ref name nccihsurvey ref ref name nccih ref ref name nccih emed ref ref name nccih homeopathy ref ref name nci pdq cam ref ref name nhs careers cam ref ref name nissen display authors ref ref name novella ref ref name np ref ref name nsf ref


ref name offit also published uk ref ref name sources br br br br br ref ref name quackwatch wary ref ref name saks ref ref name saper ref ref name sarris ref ref name sarriswardle ref ref name shang ref ref name shuval ref ref name skep dic comp med ref ref name snyderman ref ref name sobel ref ref name stanford curriculum ref ref name stehlin ref ref name swanabc ref ref name um cam field ref ref name um cim ref ref name valiathan ref ref name vickers ref ref name warner ref ref name weber ref ref name webmd ref ref name whatiscam ref ref name whccamphhsgov chapter https webarchiveorg web http whccamphhsgov fr html archived ref ref name tradmed fact ref ref name trad med defs extracted ref ref name li et al ref ref name winnick br ref ref name yale curriculum ref ref name zollman display authors ref bibliography display authors reading reprinted


world health organization https webarchiveorg web http appswhoint bookorders anglais detart jspcodlan codcol codcch summary https webarchiveorg web http wwwwhoint medicines areas traditional trm benchmarks en benchmarks training traditional complementary alternative medicine journals alternative therapies health medicine aliso viejo california innovision communications c nlm id http locatorplusgov cgi bin pwebreconcgidb local v ti search arg search code cnt sid http altmedrevcom alternative medicine review journal clinical therapeutics sandpoint idaho thorne research c nlm id http locatorplusgov cgi bin pwebreconcgidb local v ti search arg search code cnt sid http wwwbiomedcentralcom bmc complementary alternative medicine london biomed central nlm id http locatorplusgov cgi bin pwebreconcgidb local v ti search arg search code cnt sid complementary therapies medicine edinburgh new york churchill livingstone c nlm id http locatorplusgov cgi bin pwebreconcgidb local v ti search arg search code cnt sid https webarchiveorg web http ecamoxfordjournalsorg evidence based complementary alternative medicine ecam new york hindawi c


nlm id http locatorplusgov cgi bin pwebreconcgiv ti search arg evidence based complementary alternative medicine search code tkey cnt pid fpudgdbanywr tdjwdrxtvhm seq sid http contentkargercom produktedb produkteaspaktion journalhome produktnr forschende komplement rmedizin research complementary medicine http wwwliebertpubcom products productaspxpid journal alternative complementary medicine new york mary ann liebert c http wwwsramorg indexhtml scientific review alternative medicine sram external links pseudoscience


togliatti surface algebraic surface degree five picture represents portion real locus '''algebraic geometry''' branch mathematics classically studying zeros multivariate polynomials modern algebraic geometry based use abstract algebraic techniques mainly commutative algebra solving geometrical problems sets zeros fundamental objects study algebraic geometry algebraic varieties geometric manifestations solutions systems polynomial equations examples studied classes algebraic varieties plane algebraic curves include lines circles parabolas ellipses

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
Algebraic geometry


hyperbolas cubic curves like elliptic curves quartic curves like lemniscates cassini ovals point plane belongs algebraic curve coordinates satisfy given polynomial equation basic questions involve study points special interest like singular points inflection points points infinity advanced questions involve topology curve relations curves given different equations algebraic geometry occupies central place modern mathematics multiple conceptual connections diverse fields complex analysis topology number theory initially


study systems polynomial equations several variables subject algebraic geometry starts equation solving leaves becomes even important understand intrinsic properties totality solutions system equations find specific solution leads deepest areas mathematics conceptually terms technique th century algebraic geometry split several subareas mainstream algebraic geometry devoted study complex points algebraic varieties generally points


coordinates algebraically closed field real algebraic geometry study real points algebraic variety diophantine geometry generally arithmetic geometry study points algebraic variety coordinates fields algebraically closed occur algebraic number theory field rational numbers number fields finite fields function fields ''p'' adic fields large part singularity theory devoted singularities algebraic varieties computational algebraic geometry area emerged intersection algebraic geometry computer


algebra rise computers consists mainly algorithm design software development study properties explicitly given algebraic varieties much development mainstream algebraic geometry th century occurred within abstract algebraic framework increasing emphasis placed intrinsic properties algebraic varieties dependent particular way embedding variety ambient coordinate space parallels developments topology differential complex geometry one key achievement abstract algebraic geometry grothendieck 's scheme theory allows one use sheaf theory


classical algebraic geometry mainly concerned complex points algebraic number theory wiles' proof longstanding conjecture called fermat 's last theorem example power approach basic notions zeros simultaneous polynomials sphere slanted circle classical algebraic geometry main objects interest vanishing sets collections polynomials meaning set points simultaneously satisfy one polynomial equations instance two dimensional sphere radius three dimensional euclidean space '''r''' sup sup could defined set points ''x''''y''''z'' math x z math


slanted circle '''r''' sup sup defined set points ''x''''y''''z'' satisfy two polynomial equations math x z math math x z math affine varieties first start field ''k'' classical algebraic geometry field always complex numbers '''c''' many results true assume ''k'' algebraically closed consider affine space dimension ''n'' ''k'' denoted '''a''' sup n sup ''k'' simply '''a''' sup ''n'' sup ''k'' clear context one fixes coordinate system one may identify '''a''' sup n sup ''k'' ''k'' sup ''n'' sup purpose


working ''k'' sup ''n'' sup emphasize one forgets vector space structure ''k'' sup n sup carries function ''f'' '''a''' sup ''n'' sup '''a''' sup sup said ''polynomial'' ' 'regular'' written polynomial polynomial ''p'' ''k'' ''x'' sub sub ''x'' sub ''n'' sub ''f'' ''m'' ''p'' ''t'' sub sub ''t'' sub ''n'' sub every point ''m'' coordinates ''t'' sub sub ''t'' sub ''n'' sub '''a''' sup ''n'' sup property function polynomial regular depend choice coordinate system '''a''' sup ''n'' sup coordinate system chosen regular functions affine ''n'' space may


identified ring polynomial functions ''n'' variables ''k'' therefore set regular functions '''a''' sup ''n'' sup ring denoted ''k'' '''a''' sup ''n'' sup say polynomial ''vanishes'' point evaluating point gives zero let ''s'' set polynomials ''k'' '''a''' sup n sup ''vanishing set s'' ''vanishing locus'' ''zero set'' set ''v'' ''s'' points '''a''' sup ''n'' sup every polynomial ''s'' vanishes symbolically math v dotst n mid p dotst n text p math subset '''a''' sup ''n'' sup


polynomial ring ''k'' '''a''' sup ''n'' sup two natural questions ask given subset ''u'' '''a''' sup ''n'' sup ''u'' ''v'' ''i'' ''u'' given set ''s'' polynomials ''s'' ''i'' ''v'' ''s'' answer first question provided introducing zariski topology topology '''a''' sup ''n'' sup whose closed sets algebraic sets directly reflects algebraic structure ''k'' '''a''' sup ''n'' sup ''u'' ''v'' ''i'' ''u'' ''u'' algebraic set equivalently zariski closed set answer second question given hilbert 's nullstellensatz one forms


algebraic set finite union irreducible algebraic sets decomposition unique thus elements called ''irreducible components'' algebraic set irreducible algebraic set also called ''variety'' turns algebraic set variety may defined vanishing set prime ideal polynomial ring authors make clear distinction algebraic sets varieties use ''irreducible variety'' make distinction needed regular functions continuous functions natural


maps topological spaces smooth functions natural maps differentiable manifolds natural class functions algebraic set called ' 'regular functions'' ''polynomial functions'' regular function algebraic set ''v'' contained '''a''' sup ''n'' sup restriction ''v'' regular function '''a''' sup ''n'' sup algebraic set defined field complex numbers regular functions smooth even analytic may seem unnaturally restrictive require regular function always extend ambient space similar situation


normal topological space tietze extension theorem guarantees continuous function closed subset always extends ambient topological space regular functions affine space regular functions ''v'' form ring denote ''k'' ''v'' ring called ''coordinate ring v'' since regular functions v come regular functions '''a''' sup ''n'' sup relationship coordinate rings specifically regular function ''v'' restriction two functions ''f'' ''g'' ''k'' '''a''' sup ''n'' sup ''f'' nbsp minus nbsp ''g'' polynomial function


null ''v'' thus belongs ''i'' ''v'' thus ''k'' ''v'' may identified ''k'' '''a''' sup ''n'' sup ''i'' ''v'' morphism affine varieties using regular functions affine variety '''a''' sup sup define regular maps one affine variety another first define regular map variety affine space let ''v'' variety contained '''a''' sup ''n'' sup choose ''m'' regular functions ''v'' call ''f'' sub sub ''f'' sub ''m'' sub define ' 'regular map'' ''f'' ''v'' '''a''' sup ''m'' sup letting words ''f'' sub ''i'' sub determines one coordinate range ''f''


''v'' variety contained '''a''' sup ''m'' sup say ''f'' ' 'regular map'' ''v'' ''v'' range ''f'' contained ''v'' definition regular maps apply also algebraic sets regular maps also called ''morphisms'' make collection affine algebraic sets category objects affine algebraic sets morphisms regular maps affine varieties subcategory category algebraic sets given regular map ''g'' ''v'' ''v'' regular


function ''f'' ''k'' ''v'' map ring homomorphism ''k'' ''v'' ''k'' ''v'' conversely every ring homomorphism ''k'' ''v'' ''k'' ''v'' defines regular map ''v'' ''v'' defines equivalence categories category algebraic sets opposite category finitely generated reduced ''k'' algebras equivalence one starting points scheme theory rational function birational equivalence contrast preceding sections section concerns varieties algebraic sets hand definitions extend naturally projective varieties next


section affine variety projective completion field functions ''v'' affine variety coordinate ring integral domain thus field fractions denoted ''k'' ''v'' called ''field rational functions'' ''v'' shortly ''function field'' ''v'' elements restrictions ''v'' rational functions affine space containing ''v'' domain rational function ''f'' ''v'' complement subvariety hypersurface denominator ''f'' vanishes regular


maps one may define ''rational map'' variety ''v'' variety ''v'' nowiki ' nowiki regular maps rational maps ''v'' ''v'' nowiki ' nowiki may identified field homomorphisms ''k'' ''v'' nowiki ' nowiki ''k'' ''v'' two affine varieties ''birationally equivalent'' two rational functions inverse one regions defined equivalently birationally equivalent function fields isomorphic affine variety ''rational variety'' birationally equivalent affine space means variety admits


''rational parameterization'' parametrization rational functions example circle equation math x math rational curve parametric equation math x frac math math frac math may also viewed rational map line circle problem resolution singularities know every algebraic variety birationally equivalent variety whose projective completion nonsingular see also smooth completion solved affirmative characteristic heisuke hironaka yet unsolved finite characteristic projective variety ''y'' ''x'' sup sup blue


projective space formulas roots second third fourth degree polynomials suggest extending real numbers algebraically complete setting complex numbers many properties algebraic varieties suggest extending affine space geometrically complete projective space whereas complex numbers obtained adding number ''i'' root polynomial projective space obtained adding appropriate points infinity points parallel lines may meet see might come consider variety draw get parabola


''x'' goes positive infinity slope line origin point ''x'' nbsp ''x'' sup sup also goes positive infinity ''x'' goes negative infinity slope line goes negative infinity compare variety ''v'' ''y'' nbsp minus nbsp ''x'' sup sup cubic curve ''x'' goes positive infinity slope line origin point ''x'' nbsp ''x'' sup sup goes positive infinity unlike ''x'' goes negative infinity slope line goes positive infinity well exact opposite


parabola behavior infinity ''v'' ''y'' nbsp minus nbsp ''x'' sup sup different behavior infinity ''v'' ''y'' nbsp minus nbsp ''x'' sup sup consideration ''projective completion'' two curves prolongation infinity projective plane allows us quantify difference point infinity parabola regular point whose tangent line infinity point infinity cubic curve cusp also curves rational parameterized ''x'' riemann roch theorem implies cubic curve must singularity must


infinity points affine space regular thus many properties algebraic varieties including birational equivalence topological properties depend behavior infinity natural study varieties projective space furthermore introduction projective techniques made many theorems algebraic geometry simpler sharper example b zout 's theorem number intersection points two varieties stated sharpest form projective space reasons projective space plays fundamental role algebraic geometry nowadays


''projective space'' '''p''' sup ''n'' sup dimension ''n'' usually defined set lines passing point considered origin affine space dimension equivalently set vector lines vector space dimension coordinate system chosen space dimension points line set coordinates multiplication element ''k'' defines homogeneous coordinates point '''p''' sup ''n'' sup sequence elements base field


''k'' defined multiplication nonzero element ''k'' whole sequence polynomial variables vanishes points line passing origin homogeneous case one says polynomial ''vanishes'' corresponding point '''p''' sup ''n'' sup allows us define ''projective algebraic set'' '''p''' sup ''n'' sup set finite set homogeneous polynomials nowrap ''f'' sub sub ''f'' sub ''k'' sub vanishes like affine algebraic sets bijection projective algebraic sets reduced


homogeneous ideals define ''projective varieties'' projective algebraic sets whose defining ideal prime words projective variety projective algebraic set whose homogeneous coordinate ring integral domain ''projective coordinates ring'' defined quotient graded ring polynomials variables homogeneous reduced ideal defining variety every projective algebraic set may uniquely decomposed finite union projective varieties regular functions may defined properly projective variety constant functions thus notion


used projective situations hand ''field rational functions'' ''function field '' useful notion similarly affine case defined set quotients two homogeneous elements degree homogeneous coordinate ring real algebraic geometry real algebraic geometry study real points algebraic varieties fact field real numbers ordered field cannot ignored study example curve equation math x math circle math math


real point math math follows real algebraic geometry study real algebraic varieties generalized study ' 'semi algebraic sets'' solutions systems polynomial equations polynomial inequalities example branch hyperbola equation math x math algebraic variety semi algebraic set defined math x math math x math math x math math x math one challenging problems real algebraic geometry unsolved hilbert 's sixteenth problem decide


respective positions possible ovals nonsingular plane curve degree computational algebraic geometry one may date origin computational algebraic geometry meeting eurosam' international symposium symbolic algebraic manipulation held marseille france june meeting dennis arnon showed george e collins 's cylindrical algebraic decomposition cad allows computation topology semi algebraic sets bruno buchberger presented gr bner bases algorithm compute daniel lazard presented new algorithm solving systems homogeneous polynomial equations computational complexity


example model floating point computation solving problems algebraic geometry gr bner basis gr bner basis system generators polynomial ideal whose computation allows deduction many properties affine algebraic variety defined ideal given ideal ''i'' defining algebraic set ''v'' ''v'' empty algebraically closed extension basis field gr bner basis monomial ordering reduced means hilbert series one may compute dimension degree ''v'' gr bner


basis ''i'' monomial ordering refining total degree dimension ''v'' one may compute points finite number ''v'' gr bner basis ''i'' see systems polynomial equations gr bner basis computation allows one remove ''v'' irreducible components contained given hypersurface gr bner basis computation allows one compute zariski closure image ''v'' projection ''k'' first coordinates subset image projection proper generally gr bner basis computations


allow one compute zariski closure image critical points rational function ''v'' another affine variety gr bner basis computations allow one compute directly primary decomposition ''i'' prime ideals defining irreducible components ''v'' algorithms involve gr bner basis computation algorithms based gr bner bases use regular chains may need gr bner bases exceptional situations gr bner bases deemed difficult compute fact may contain worst case polynomials whose degree


doubly exponential number variables number polynomials also doubly exponential however worst case complexity complexity bound lazard 's algorithm may frequently apply faug f algorithm realizes complexity may viewed improvement lazard 's algorithm follows best implementations allow one compute almost routinely algebraic sets degree means presently difficulty computing gr bner basis strongly related intrinsic difficulty problem cylindrical algebraic decomposition


cad cad algorithm introduced g collins implement acceptable complexity tarski seidenberg theorem quantifier elimination real numbers theorem concerns formulas first order logic whose atomic formulas polynomial equalities inequalities polynomials real coefficients formulas thus formulas may constructed atomic formulas logical operators ''and'' ''or'' ''not'' ''for all'' ''exists'' tarski 's theorem asserts formula one may compute equivalent formula without quantifier


complexity cad doubly exponential number variables means cad allows theory solve every problem real algebraic geometry may expressed formula almost every problem concerning explicitly given varieties semi algebraic sets gr bner basis computation doubly exponential complexity rare cases cad almost always high complexity implies unless polynomials appearing input linear may solve problems four variables since research subject devoted either


improving cad finding alternative algorithms special cases general interest example state art efficient algorithms find least point every connected component semi algebraic set thus test semi algebraic set empty hand cad yet practice best algorithm count number connected components asymptotic complexity vs practical efficiency basic general algorithms computational geometry double exponential worst case complexity precisely ' 'd'' maximal degree input


algorithms rarely implemented entries faug 's f f algorithms better practical efficiency probably similar better complexity ''probably'' evaluation complexity gr bner basis algorithms particular class entries difficult task done special cases main algorithms real algebraic geometry solve problem solved cad related topology semi algebraic sets one may cite ''counting number connected components'' ''testing two points components'' ''computing


whitney stratification real algebraic set'' complexity math n math constant involved ''o'' notation high using solve nontrivial problem effectively solved cad impossible even one could use existing computing power world therefore algorithms never implemented active research area search algorithms together good asymptotic complexity good practical efficiency abstract modern viewpoint modern approaches algebraic geometry redefine effectively extend range basic objects


various levels generality schemes formal schemes ind schemes algebraic spaces algebraic stacks need arises already useful ideas within theory varieties eg formal functions zariski accommodated introducing nilpotent elements structure rings considering spaces loops arcs constructing quotients group actions developing formal grounds natural intersection theory deformation theory lead extensions remarkably late algebraic varieties subsumed alexander grothendieck 's concept scheme local objects affine schemes


prime spectra locally ringed spaces form category antiequivalent category commutative unital rings extending duality category affine algebraic varieties field ''k'' category finitely generated reduced ''k'' algebras gluing along zariski topology one glue within category locally ringed spaces also using yoneda embedding within abstract category presheaves sets category affine schemes zariski topology set theoretic sense replaced grothendieck topology grothendieck introduced grothendieck topologies


mind exotic geometrically finer sensitive examples crude zariski topology namely tale topology two flat grothendieck topologies fppf fpqc nowadays examples became prominent including nisnevich topology sheaves furthermore generalized stacks sense grothendieck usually additional representability conditions leading artin stacks even finer deligne mumford stacks often called algebraic stacks sometimes algebraic sites replace category affine schemes example nikolai durov introduced commutative algebraic monads generalization local objects generalized algebraic geometry


versions tropical geometry absolute geometry field one element algebraic analogue arakelov 's geometry realized setup another formal generalization possible universal algebraic geometry every variety algebras algebraic geometry term ''variety algebras'' confused ''algebraic variety'' language schemes stacks generalizations proved valuable way dealing geometric concepts became cornerstones modern algebraic geometry algebraic stacks generalized many practical questions like deformation theory


intersection theory often natural approach one extend grothendieck site affine schemes higher categorical site derived affine schemes replacing commutative rings infinity category differential graded commutative algebras simplicial commutative rings similar category appropriate variant grothendieck topology one also replace presheaves sets presheaves simplicial sets infinity groupoids presence appropriate homotopic machinery one develop notion derived stack presheaf infinity category derived


affine schemes satisfying certain infinite categorical version sheaf axiom algebraic inductively sequence representability conditions quillen model categories segal categories quasicategories often used tools formalize yielding ' 'derived algebraic geometry'' introduced school carlos simpson including andre hirschowitz bertrand n gabrielle vezzosi michel vaqui others developed jacob lurie bertrand n gabriele vezzosi another noncommutative version derived algebraic geometry using infinity categories developed early maxim kontsevich followers history


th century roots algebraic geometry date back work hellenistic greeks th century bc delian problem instance construct length ''x'' cube side ''x'' contained volume rectangular box ''a'' sup sup ''b'' given sides ''a'' ''b'' menaechmus circa bc considered problem geometrically intersecting pair plane conics ''ay'' nbsp nbsp ''x'' sup sup ''xy'' nbsp nbsp ''ab'' ref name dieudonn ref rd century bc archimedes apollonius systematically studied additional problems conic sections using coordinates ref name dieudonn medieval muslim mathematicians including ibn


al haytham th century ad solved certain cubic equations purely algebraic means interpreted results geometrically persian mathematician omar khayy born ad discovered method solving cubic equations intersecting parabola circle seems first conceive general theory cubic equations years omar khayy sharaf al din al tusi 's ''treatise equations'' described roshdi rashed inaugurating beginning algebraic geometry criticized jeffrey oaks claims study curves means equations originated


descartes seventeenth century renaissance techniques applying geometrical constructions algebraic problems also adopted number renaissance mathematicians gerolamo cardano niccol fontana tartaglia studies cubic equation geometrical approach construction problems rather algebraic one favored th th century mathematicians notably blaise pascal argued use algebraic analytical methods geometry french mathematicians franciscus vieta later ren descartes pierre de fermat revolutionized conventional way thinking construction problems introduction


coordinate geometry interested primarily properties ''algebraic curves'' defined diophantine equations case fermat algebraic reformulation classical greek works conics cubics case descartes period blaise pascal g rard desargues approached geometry different perspective developing synthetic notions projective geometry pascal desargues also studied curves purely geometrical point view analog greek ''ruler compass construction'' ultimately analytic geometry descartes fermat


supplied th century mathematicians concrete quantitative tools needed study physical problems using new calculus newton leibniz however end th century algebraic character coordinate geometry subsumed ''calculus infinitesimals'' lagrange euler th early th century took simultaneous th century developments non euclidean geometry abelian integrals order bring old algebraic ideas back geometrical fold first new developments seized edmond laguerre arthur cayley attempted ascertain


generalized metric properties projective space cayley introduced idea ''homogeneous polynomial forms'' specifically quadratic forms projective space subsequently felix klein studied projective geometry along types geometry viewpoint geometry space encoded certain class transformations space end th century projective geometers studying general kinds transformations figures projective space rather projective linear transformations normally regarded giving fundamental kleinian geometry projective space concerned also


higher degree birational transformations weaker notion congruence would later lead members th century italian school algebraic geometry classify algebraic surfaces birational isomorphism second early th century development abelian integrals would lead bernhard riemann development riemann surfaces period began algebraization algebraic geometry commutative algebra prominent results direction hilbert 's basis theorem hilbert 's nullstellensatz basis connexion algebraic geometry commutative algebra macaulay 's multivariate resultant basis elimination


theory probably size computation implied multivariate resultants elimination theory forgotten middle th century renewed singularity theory computational algebraic geometry th century b l van der waerden oscar zariski andr weil developed foundation algebraic geometry based contemporary commutative algebra including valuation theory theory ideals one goals give rigorous framework proving results italian school algebraic geometry particular school used systematically notion generic point without


directly defining equations abelian varieties projective varieties whose points form abelian group prototypical examples elliptic curves rich theory instrumental proof fermat 's last theorem also used elliptic curve cryptography parallel abstract trend algebraic geometry concerned general statements varieties methods effective computation concretely given varieties also developed lead new area computational algebraic geometry one founding methods area theory


gr bner bases introduced bruno buchberger another founding method specially devoted real algebraic geometry cylindrical algebraic decomposition introduced george e collins see also derived algebraic geometry analytic geometry '''analytic variety''' defined locally set common solutions several equations involving analytic functions analogous included concept real complex algebraic variety complex manifold analytic variety since analytic varieties may singular points analytic varieties manifolds modern analytic geometry essentially equivalent real complex algebraic geometry


shown jean pierre serre paper ''gaga'' name french ''algebraic geometry analytic geometry'' nevertheless two fields remain distinct methods proof quite different algebraic geometry includes also geometry finite characteristic applications algebraic geometry finds applications statistics control theory robotics error correcting codes phylogenetics geometric modelling also connections string theory game theory graph matchings solitons integer programming see also algebraic statistics differential geometry complex geometry geometric algebra glossary classical algebraic geometry intersection theory important publications algebraic geometry


list algebraic surfaces noncommutative algebraic geometry diffiety theory differential algebraic geometry real algebraic geometry nonlinear algebra geometrically algebraic geometry notes references sources reading classic textbooks predate schemes modern textbooks use language schemes textbooks computational algebraic geometry textbooks references schemes external links http mathstanfordedu vakil blog foagnov publicpdf ''foundations algebraic geometry'' ravi vakil pp https webarchiveorg web http planetmathorg encyclopedia algebraicgeometryhtml ''algebraic geometry'' entry http planetmathorg planetmath http neo classical physicsinfo uploads van der waerden algebraic geometrypdf english translation van der waerden textbook http stacksmathcolumbiaedu stacks project open source textbook reference work algebraic stacks algebraic geometry fields


french stage early film actress sarah bernhardt hamlet actors samurai r nin costume kyoto eigamura film set '''acting''' activity story told means enactment actor actress adopts character theatre television film radio medium makes use mimetic mode acting involves broad range skills including well developed imagination emotional facility physical expressivity vocal projection clarity speech ability interpret drama acting also demands ability employ dialects accents improvisation observation

Humanities
Performing arts
Theatre
Acting


emulation mime stage combat many actors train length specialist programs colleges develop skills vast majority professional actors undergone extensive training actors actresses often many instructors teachers full range training involving singing scene work audition techniques acting camera early sources west examine art acting ''hypokrisis'' discuss part rhetoric history one first known actors ancient greek called thespis icaria athens writing two centuries event aristotle


''poetics'' suggests thespis stepped dithyrambic chorus addressed separate character thespis chorus narrated example dionysus dionysus said thespis stepped chorus spoke character example dionysus distinguish different modes storytelling enactment narration aristotle uses terms mimesis via enactment diegesis via narration thespis' name derives word thespian training stanislavski began develop 'system' actor training forms basis professional


training west conservatories drama schools typically offer two four year training aspects acting universities mostly offer three four year programs student often able choose focus acting whilst continuing learn aspects theatre schools vary approach north america popular method taught derives 'system' konstantin stanislavski developed popularised america method acting lee strasberg stella adler sanford meisner others approaches may include physically based orientation


promoted theatre practitioners diverse anne bogart jacques lecoq jerzy grotowski vsevolod meyerhold classes may also include psychotechnique mask work physical theatre improvisation acting camera regardless school 's approach students expect intensive training textual interpretation voice movement applications drama programmes conservatories usually involve extensive auditions anybody age usually apply training may also start young age acting classes professional schools targeted widespread classes introduce young actors different aspects acting theatre including scene study increased


training exposure public speaking allows humans maintain calmer relaxed physiologically measuring public speaker 's heart rate maybe one easiest ways judge shifts stress heart rate increases anxiety actors increase performances heart rate evidence stress decrease important training actors adaptive strategies gained increased exposure public speaking regulate implicit explicit anxiety attending institution specialization acting increased opportunity act lead relaxed physiology decrease


stress effects body effects vary hormonal cognitive health impact quality life performance improvisation two masked characters ''commedia dell'arte'' whose ''lazzi'' involved significant degree improvisation classical forms acting involve substantial element improvised performance notable use troupes ''commedia dell'arte'' form masked comedy originated italy improvisation approach acting formed important part russian theatre practitioner konstantin stanislavski 's 'system' actor training developed