camera objects also placed directly glass image scanner produce digital pictures types amateur amateur photographers take photos personal use hobby casual interest rather business job quality amateur work comparable many professionals amateurs fill gap subjects topics might otherwise photographed commercially useful salable amateur photography grew late th century due popularization hand held camera twenty first century social media


near ubiquitous camera phones made photographic video recording pervasive everyday life mid smartphone cameras added numerous automatic assistance features like color management autofocus face detection image stabilization significantly decreased skill effort needed take high quality images commercial commercial photography probably best defined photography photographer paid images rather works art light money could paid subject photograph photograph wholesale retail professional uses photography would fall definition

Humanities
Visual arts
Fine arts
Photography


commercial photographic world could include advertising photography photographs made illustrate usually sell service product images packshots generally done advertising agency design firm house corporate design team architectural photography focuses capturing photographs buildings architectural structures aesthetically pleasing accurate terms representations subjects event photography focuses photographing guests occurrences mostly social events fashion glamour photography usually incorporates models form advertising photography fashion photography like work featured ''harper 's bazaar'' emphasizes clothes


products glamour emphasizes model body form glamour photography popular advertising men 's magazines models glamour photography sometimes work nude product photography displays series photos give impression rotating object technique commonly used ecommerce websites help shoppers visualise products concert photography focuses capturing candid images artist band well atmosphere including crowd many photographers work freelance contracted artist management cover specific show concert photographs often


used promote artist band addition venue crime scene photography consists photographing scenes crime robberies murders black white camera infrared camera may used capture specific details still life photography usually depicts inanimate subject matter typically commonplace objects may either natural man made still life broader category food natural photography used advertising purposes real estate photography focuses production photographs showcasing property sale photographs requires use


wide lens extensive knowledge high dynamic range imaging photography example studio made food photograph food photography used editorial packaging advertising use food photography similar still life photography requires special skills photojournalism considered subset editorial photography photographs made context accepted documentation news story paparazzi form photojournalism photographer captures candid images athletes celebrities politicians prominent people portrait wedding photography photographs made sold directly end user images landscape


photography depicts locations wildlife photography demonstrates life wild animals art classic alfred stieglitz photograph ''the steerage'' shows unique aesthetic black white photos th century fine art photography documentary photography became accepted english speaking art world gallery system united states handful photographers including alfred stieglitz edward steichen john szarkowski f holland day edward weston spent lives advocating photography fine art first fine art photographers tried imitate painting styles movement called pictorialism often using soft focus


dreamy 'romantic' look reaction weston ansel adams others formed group f advocate 'straight photography' photograph sharply focused thing imitation something else aesthetics photography matter continues discussed regularly especially artistic circles many artists argued photography mechanical reproduction image photography authentically art photography context art would need redefinition determining component photograph makes beautiful viewer controversy began earliest


images written light nic phore ni pce louis daguerre others among earliest photographers met acclaim questioned work met definitions purposes art clive bell classic essay ''art'' states significant form distinguish art art retrieved september ref february sotheby 's london sold photograph '' cent ii diptychon'' unprecedented anonymous bidder making expensive time conceptual photography turns concept idea photograph even though


depicted photographs real objects subject strictly abstract josef h neumann ''gustav i'' parallel development largely separate interface painting photography closed early work photo artists pierre cordier chimigramm chemigram josef h neumann chemogram chemograms josef h neumann concluded separation painterly background photographic layer showing picture elements symbiosis never existed unmistakable unique specimen simultaneous painterly


time real photographic perspective using lenses within photographic layer united colors shapes neumann chemogram seventies th century thus differs beginning previously created cameraless chemigrams pierre cordier photogram man ray l szl moholy nagy previous decades works art almost simultaneous invention photography various important artists characterized hippolyte bayard thomas wedgwood william henry fox talbot early stages later man ray l szl moholy nagy twenties


painter thirties edmund kesting christian schad draping objects directly onto appropriately sensitized photo paper using light source without camera photojournalism national guardsman washington dc photojournalism particular form photography collecting editing presenting news material publication broadcast employs images order tell news story usually understood refer still images cases term also refers video used broadcast journalism photojournalism distinguished close branches photography eg documentary


photography social documentary photography street photography celebrity photography complying rigid ethical framework demands work honest impartial whilst telling story strictly journalistic terms photojournalists create pictures contribute news media help communities connect one photojournalists must well informed knowledgeable events happening right outside door deliver news creative format informative also entertaining science forensics wootton bridge collapse camera long distinguished history means


recording scientific phenomena first use daguerre fox talbot astronomical events eclipses example small creatures plants camera attached eyepiece microscopes photomicroscopy macro photography larger specimens camera also proved useful recording crime scenes scenes accidents wootton bridge collapse methods used analysing photographs use legal cases collectively known forensic photography crime scene photos taken three vantage point vantage points overview mid range close


francis ronalds honorary director kew observatory invented first successful camera make continuous recordings meteorological geomagnetic parameters different machines produced hour photographic traces minute minute variations atmospheric pressure temperature humidity atmospheric electricity three components geomagnetic forces cameras supplied numerous observatories around world remained use well th century charles brooke little later developed similar instruments greenwich observatory science uses image technology derived design pin hole camera


x ray machines similar design pin hole cameras high grade filters laser radiation photography become universal recording events data science engineering crime scenes accident scenes method much extended using wavelengths infrared photography ultraviolet photography well spectroscopy methods first used victorian era improved much since time first photographed atom discovered physicists griffith university australia used electric field trap ion element ytterbium


used great extent produce artistic effects ''nude composition '' jaan k nnap mus e de l' lys e founded lausanne first photography museum europe many ongoing questions different aspects photography ''on photography'' susan sontag dismisses objectivity photography highly debated subject within photographic community sontag argues photograph appropriate thing photographed means putting one 's self certain relation world feels like knowledge therefore like power ref name sontag sontag ''on photography'' penguin


london pp ref photographers decide take photo elements exclude angle frame photo factors may reflect particular socio historical context along lines argued photography subjective form representation modern photography raised number concerns effect society alfred hitchcock 's ''rear window'' camera presented promoting voyeurism 'although camera observation station act photographing passive observing' ref name sontag blockquote camera n't rape even possess though


may presume intrude trespass distort exploit farthest reach metaphor assassinate activities unlike sexual push shove conducted distance detachment ref name sontag blockquote digital imaging raised ethical concerns ease manipulating digital photographs post processing many photojournalists declared crop pictures forbidden combining elements multiple photos make photomontages passing real photographs today 's technology made image editing relatively simple even novice photographer however recent changes camera processing


allow digital fingerprinting photos detect tampering purposes forensic photography photography one new media forms changes perception changes structure society unease caused around cameras regards desensitization fears disturbing explicit images widely accessible children society large raised particularly photos war pornography causing stir sontag concerned photograph turn people objects symbolically possessed desensitization discussion goes hand hand debates censored images sontag writes


concern ability censor pictures means photographer ability construct reality ref name sontag one practices photography constitutes society tourism tourism photography combine create tourist gaze local inhabitants positioned defined camera lens however also argued exists reverse gaze indigenous photographees position tourist photographer shallow consumer images law photography restricted protected law many jurisdictions protection photographs typically achieved


anything classed national security country different laws see also outline photography science photography list photographers list photography awards astrophotography image editing imaging photolab minilab visual arts references reading introduction barrett criticizing photographs introduction understanding images th edn mcgraw hill new york bate photography key concepts bloomsbury new york berger j dyer g ed understanding photograph penguin classics london bright art photography thames hudson london cotton c photograph


contemporary art rd edn thames hudson new york heiferman photography changes everything aperture foundation us shore nature photographs nd ed phaidon new york wells l ''photography critical introduction'' paperback rd ed routledge london history ''a new history photography'' ed michel frizot k ln k nemann franz xaver schlegel ''das leben der toten dinge studien zur modernen sachfotografie den usa '' b nde stuttgart germany art life reference works hans michael koetzle ''das lexikon der fotografen bis heute'' munich knaur p


john hannavy ed ''encyclopedia nineteenth century photography'' p new york routledge lynne warren hrsg ''encyclopedia twentieth century photography'' p new york routledge ''the oxford companion photograph'' ed robin lenman oxford university press focal encyclopedia photography richard zakia leslie stroebel focal press books ''photography art seeing'' freeman patterson key porter books ''the art photography '' approach personal expression bruce barnbaum rocky nook ''image clarity high resolution photography'' john b williams focal press


external links http artorg history photography html world history photography history art http wwwfloridamemorycom photographiccollection photo exhibits photographic processes daguerreotype digital brief history photographic process state library archives florida french inventions th century inventions imaging audiovisual introductions


forces act upon physical properties materials plasticity tensile strength surface tension liquids reaction kinetics rate reaction identity ions electrical conductivity materials surface science electrochemistry cell membranes interaction one body another terms quantities heat work called thermodynamics transfer heat chemical system surroundings change phase chemical reaction taking place called thermochemistry study colligative properties number species present solution number phases number

Natural science
Chemistry
Physical chemistry


components degree freedom variance correlated one another help phase rule reactions electrochemical cells behaviour microscopic systems using quantum mechanics macroscopic systems using statistical thermodynamics key concepts key concepts physical chemistry ways pure physics applied chemical problems one key concepts classical chemistry chemical compounds described groups atoms bonded together chemical reactions described making breaking bonds predicting properties


chemical compounds description atoms bond one major goals physical chemistry describe atoms bonds precisely necessary know nuclei atoms electrons distributed around ref name atkins atkins peter friedman ronald ''molecular quantum mechanics'' p oxford university press new york ref br quantum chemistry subfield physical chemistry especially concerned application quantum mechanics chemical problems provides tools determine strong shape bonds ref name atkins nuclei move


light absorbed emitted chemical compound spectroscopy related sub discipline physical chemistry specifically concerned interaction electromagnetic radiation matter another set important questions chemistry concerns kind reactions happen spontaneously properties possible given chemical mixture studied chemical thermodynamics sets limits quantities like far reaction proceed much energy converted work internal combustion engine provides links properties like thermal expansion coefficient rate


change entropy pressure gas liquid frequently used assess whether reactor engine design feasible check validity experimental data limited extent quasi equilibrium non equilibrium thermodynamics describe irreversible changes ref name hill hill terrell l ''introduction statistical thermodynamics'' p dover publications new york ref however classical thermodynamics mostly concerned systems equilibrium reversible changes actually happen fast away equilibrium reactions occur fast subject chemical kinetics


another branch physical chemistry key idea chemical kinetics reactants react form products chemical species must go transition states higher energy either reactants products serve barrier reaction general higher barrier slower reaction second chemical reactions occur sequence elementary reactions transition state key questions kinetics include rate reaction depends temperature concentrations reactants catalysts


described variables like pressure temperature concentration precise reasons described statistical mechanics ref name chandler chandler david ''introduction modern statistical mechanics'' p oxford university press new york ref specialty within physical chemistry also shared physics statistical mechanics also provides ways predict properties see everyday life molecular properties without relying empirical correlations based chemical similarities ref name hill history fragment lomonosov 's manuscript 'physical chemistry' term physical chemistry coined mikhail lomonosov


presented lecture course entitled course true physical chemistry russian students petersburg university preamble lectures gives definition physical chemistry science must explain provisions physical experiments reason happening complex bodies chemical operations modern physical chemistry originated work chemical thermodynamics electrolytes solutions chemical kinetics subjects one milestone publication josiah willard gibbs paper ''on equilibrium heterogeneous substances''


paper introduced several cornerstones physical chemistry gibbs energy chemical potentials gibbs' phase rule first scientific journal specifically field physical chemistry german journal ''zeitschrift f r physikalische chemie'' founded wilhelm ostwald jacobus henricus van 't hoff together svante august arrhenius leading figures physical chemistry late th century early th century three awarded nobel prize chemistry developments following decades include application statistical mechanics chemical systems


war ii recent discoveries astrochemistry well development calculation algorithms field additive physicochemical properties practically physicochemical properties boiling point critical point surface tension vapor pressure etc precisely calculated chemical structure alone even chemical molecule remains unsynthesized herein lies practical importance contemporary physical chemistry see group contribution method lydersen method joback method benson group increment theory quantitative structure activity relationship journals journals deal physical chemistry include ''zeitschrift f r physikalische chemie'' ''journal physical chemistry a''


''journal physical chemistry'' renamed ''physical chemistry chemical physics'' formerly ''faraday transactions'' history dating back ''macromolecular chemistry physics'' ''annual review physical chemistry'' ''molecular physics'' ''journal physical organic chemistry'' ''journal physical chemistry b'' ''chemphyschem'' ''journal physical chemistry c'' ''journal physical chemistry letters'' combined letters previously published separate journals historical journals covered chemistry physics include ''annales de chimie et de physique'' started published name given


branches related topics thermochemistry chemical kinetics quantum chemistry electrochemistry photochemistry surface chemistry solid state chemistry spectroscopy biophysical chemistry materials science physical organic chemistry micromeritics see also list important publications chemistry physical chemistry list unsolved problems chemistry physical chemistry problems physical biochemistry physical chemists references external links https booksgooglecom booksid lrlpbh cc world physical chemistry keith j laidler https booksgooglecom booksid uzju wflaoc physical chemistry ostwald pauling john w servos https wwwamazoncom years physical chemistry royal society dp years physical chemistry royal society chemistry http wwwjoachimschummernet jslit physchemhtm physical chemistry neither fish fowl joachim schummer ''the autonomy chemistry'' w rzburg k nigshausen neumann


pp nbsp http wwwoupcom us catalog general subject chemistry view usa ci cathedrals science patrick coffey https booksgooglecom booksid b wvwhjttx c cambridge history science modern physical mathematical sciences mary jo nye


photographs purportedly depicted ghosts spirits popular th century '''parapsychology''' study alleged psychic phenomena extrasensory perception telepathy precognition clairvoyance psychokinesis aka telekinesis psychometry paranormal claims example related near death experiences synchronicity apparitional experiences etc ref name stuckrad ref considered pseudoscience rejected vast majority mainstream scientists ref name alcocksi ref parapsychology research almost never appears mainstream scientific journals papers parapsychology published small number niche journals parapsychology criticised continuing investigation despite unable provide convincing

Social science
Psychology
Parapsychology


evidence existence psychic phenomena century research ref name stuckrad ref name cord n terminology term ''parapsychology'' coined philosopher max dessoir german parapsychologie ref name bringmannl ck ref adopted j b rhine replacement term ''psychical research'' order indicate significant shift toward experimental methodology academic discipline ref name melton ref term originates meaning alongside psychology parapsychology '''psi''' unknown factor extrasensory perception psychokinesis experiences explained known physical biological


mechanisms term derived greek ''psi'' rd letter greek alphabet initial letter greek ''psyche'' mind soul ref name parasoc ref term coined biologist bertold wiesner first used psychologist robert thouless article published ''british journal psychology'' parapsychological association divides psi two main categories psi gamma extrasensory perception psi kappa psychokinesis ref name parasoc popular culture psi become synonymous special psychic mental psionic abilities powers history early psychical research henry slade z llner


chemist robert hare conducted experiments mediums reported positive results researchers frank podmore highlighted flaws experiments lack controls prevent trickery agenor de gasparin conducted early experiments table tipping period five months declared experiments success result ectenic force critics noted conditions insufficient prevent trickery example knees sitters may employed move table experimenter watching table simultaneously german astrophysicist


johann karl friedrich z llner tested medium henry slade according z llner experiments success however flaws experiments discovered critics suggested slade fraud performed trickery experiments society psychical research spr founded london formation first systematic effort organize scientists scholars investigate paranormal phenomena early membership included philosophers scholars scientists educators politicians henry sidgwick arthur balfour william crookes rufus osgood mason nobel laureate charles richet ref name beloff ref presidents


society included addition richet eleanor sidgwick william james subsequently nobel laureates henri bergson lord rayleigh philosopher c broad areas study included telepathy hypnotism reichenbach 's phenomena apparitions hauntings physical aspects spiritualism table tilting materialization apportation society investigated apparitional experiences hallucinations sane among first important works two volume publication ''phantasms living'' largely criticized scholars ''census hallucinations'' published sampled people persons admitted


experienced hallucination apparition spr became model similar societies european countries united states late th century early clairvoyance experiments reported charles richet playing cards enclosed envelopes subject put hypnosis attempted identify subject reported successful series trials results dropped chance level performed group scientists cambridge j peirce e c pickering reported similar experiment tested


subjects trials obtain chance scores ref name hansel c e hansel ''the search demonstration esp'' paul kurtz ''a skeptic 's handbook parapsychology'' prometheus books pp ref eleanor sidgwick revealed fraudulent methods spirit photographers douard isidore buguet frederic hudson william h mumler utilized late nineteenth century many fraudulent mediums exposed spr investigators largely due support psychologist william james american society psychical research aspr opened doors boston moving new


data fail reveal cause beyond chance duke university became second major us academic institution engage critical study esp psychokinesis laboratory guidance psychologist william mcdougall help others department including psychologists karl zener joseph b rhine louisa e rhine laboratory esp experiments using volunteer subjects undergraduate student body began opposed approaches psychical research generally sought qualitative evidence paranormal phenomena experiments duke university proffered quantitative statistical approach using cards


dice consequence esp experiments duke standard laboratory procedures testing esp developed came adopted interested researchers throughout world ref name berger george estabrooks conducted esp experiment using cards harvard students used subjects estabrooks acted sender guesser adjoining room total trials conducted subjects sent distant room insulation scores dropped chance level attempts repeat experiment also failed ref name hansel publication j b rhine 's book ''new


frontiers mind'' brought laboratory 's findings general public book rhine popularized word parapsychology psychologist max dessoir coined years earlier describe research conducted duke rhine also founded autonomous parapsychology laboratory within duke started ''journal parapsychology'' co edited mcdougall ref name berger early parapsychological research employed use zener cards experiments designed test existence telepathic communication clairvoyant precognitive perception rhine along associate karl zener developed statistical system testing esp


involved subjects guessing symbol five possible symbols would appear going special deck cards designed purpose percentage correct guesses hits significantly perceived higher chance indicative psychic ability rhine stated first book ''extrasensory perception'' trials felt esp actual demonstrable occurrence ref name rhine j b rhine extra sensory perception th ed branden publishing company ref irish medium parapsychologist eileen j garrett tested rhine duke university zener cards certain


mrs eileen garrett fail find slightest confirmation j b rhine 's remarkable claims relating alleged powers extra sensory perception fail took charge experiments failed equally four carefully trained experimenters took place parapsychology experiments duke evoked much criticism academics others challenged concepts evidence esp number psychological departments attempted repeat rhine 's experiments failure w cox princeton university subjects produced trials playing card esp experiment


cox concluded evidence extrasensory perception either 'average man' group investigated particular individual group discrepancy results obtained rhine due either uncontrollable factors experimental procedure difference subjects four psychological departments failed replicate rhine 's results thousands card runs james charles crumbaugh failed duplicate results rhine hubert pearce j b rhine psychologist joseph jastrow wrote much evidence extrasensory perception collected


rhine parapsychologists anecdotal biased dubious result faulty observation familiar human frailties rhine 's experiments discredited due discovery sensory leakage cheating could account results subject able read symbols back cards able see hear experimenter note subtle clues illusionist milbourne christopher wrote years later felt least dozen ways subject wished cheat conditions rhine described could deceive investigator rhine took


precautions response criticisms methods unable find high scoring subjects ref name milbourne milbourne christopher ''esp seers psychics'' thomas crowell co pp ref another criticism made chemist irving langmuir among others one selective reporting langmuir stated rhine report scores subjects suspected intentionally guessing wrong felt biased statistical results higher rhine colleagues attempted address criticisms new experiments described book ''extrasensory perception sixty years'' ref name esp rhine jb


took place discovered results could originated use trick could regarded supplying evidence esp rhine joseph gaither pratt wrote ''parapsychology frontier science mind'' methodological problems parapsychologists longer utilize card guessing studies rhine 's experiments psychokinesis pk also criticized john sladek wrote blockquote research used dice subjects 'willing' fall certain way dice drilled shaved falsely numbered manipulated even straight dice often show bias long run casinos reason


retire dice often duke subjects continued try effect dice long experimental runs surprisingly pk appeared duke nowhere else ref name sladek john sladek ''the new apocrypha guide strange sciences occult beliefs'' panther pp ref blockquote mr zirkle miss ownbey ownbey zirkle esp experiment duke criticized parapsychologists skeptics ref name lamont peter lamont ''extraordinary beliefs historical approach psychological problem'' cambridge university press pp ref ownbey would attempt send esp symbols zirkle would guess


communicating zirkle made recording mistakes ref name lamont turner ownbey long distance telepathy experiment discovered contain flaws may frances turner positioned duke parapsychology laboratory whilst sara ownbey claimed receive transmissions miles away experiment turner would think symbol write whilst ownbey would write guesses ref name sladek scores highly successful records supposed sent j b rhine however ownbey sent turner critics pointed invalidated results could simply written record


agree experiment repeated records sent rhine scores dropped average ref name sladek famous esp experiment duke university performed lucien warner mildred raible subject locked room switch controlling signal light elsewhere could signal guess card ten runs esp packs cards used achieved hits chance weaknesses experiment later discovered duration light signal could varied


subject could call specific symbols certain symbols experiment came far often others indicated either poor shuffling card manipulation experiment repeated ref name sladek administration duke grew less sympathetic parapsychology rhine 's retirement parapsychological links university broken rhine later established foundation research nature man frnm institute parapsychology successor duke laboratory ref name berger centenary rhine 's birth frnm renamed rhine research center today rhine


organization stated constitution became advance parapsychology science disseminate knowledge field integrate findings branches science direction anthropologist margaret mead parapsychological association became affiliated american association advancement science aaas largest general scientific society world physicist john wheeler said parapsychology pseudoscientific affiliation pa aaas needed reconsidered ref name wheeler ref challenge parapsychology 's aaas affiliation unsuccessful ref name wheeler today


pa consists three hundred full associate affiliated members worldwide ref name harvey ref stargate project beginning early cia started extensive research behavioral engineering findings experiments led formation stargate project handled esp research us federal government stargate project terminated conclusion never useful intelligence operation information vague included lot irrelevant erroneous data also reason suspect research managers adjusted project reports fit


stanford research institute sri time ref name melton scope parapsychology expanded years psychiatrist ian stevenson conducted much research reincarnation second edition ''twenty cases suggestive reincarnation'' published psychologist thelma moss devoted time study kirlian photography ucla 's parapsychology laboratory influx spiritual teachers asia claims abilities produced meditation led research altered states consciousness american society psychical research director research karlis osis conducted experiments body experiences physicist


russell targ coined term remote viewing use work sri ref name melton surge paranormal research continued parapsychological association reported members working countries example research carried regular conferences held eastern europe former soviet union ref name melton although word parapsychology discarded favour term psychotronics main promoter psychotronics czech scientist zden k rejd k described physical science organizing conferences presiding international association psychotronic research ref name praguepost ref


chair parapsychology established within department psychology university edinburgh given robert morris experimental parapsychologist united states morris research associates phd students pursued research topics related parapsychology modern era alt bernard carr past president society psychical research bernard carr astronomer one time president society psychical research since contemporary parapsychological research waned considerably united states ref name smee odling smee ref early research considered inconclusive parapsychologists faced strong opposition academic colleagues ref name melton


effects thought paranormal example effects kirlian photography thought represent human aura disappeared stringent controls leaving avenues research dead ends ref name melton bulk parapsychology research us confined private institutions funded private sources ref name melton years research princeton engineering anomalies research laboratory pear studied psychokinesis closed ref name smee two universities united states currently academic parapsychology laboratories division perceptual studies unit university virginia 's department psychiatric medicine studies possibility


survival consciousness bodily death near death experiences body experiences gary schwartz university arizona 's ''veritas laboratory'' conducted laboratory investigations mediums criticized scientific skeptics several private institutions including institute noetic sciences conduct promote parapsychological research ref name smee last two decades new sources funding parapsychology europe seen substantial increase european parapsychological research center gravity field swung united states europe ref name hji nations united kingdom largest number active parapsychologists ref name hji harvey


university closed april sophia project university arizona consciousness transpersonal psychology research unit liverpool john moores university center study anomalous psychological processes university northampton anomalistic psychology research unit goldsmiths university london research professional organizations include parapsychological association society psychical research publisher ''journal society psychical research'' american society psychical research publisher ''journal american society psychical research'' last published rhine research center institute


magical thinking'' lawrence erlbaum associates ref research scope parapsychologists study number ostensible paranormal phenomena including limited '''telepathy''' transfer information thoughts feelings individuals means five classical senses '''precognition''' perception information future places events occur '''clairvoyance''' obtaining information places events remote locations means unknown current science '''psychokinesis''' ability mind influence matter time space energy means unknown current science '''near death experiences''' experience reported person nearly died experienced


clinical death revived '''reincarnation''' rebirth soul non physical aspect human consciousness new physical body death '''apparitional experiences''' phenomena often attributed ghosts encountered places deceased individual thought frequented association person 's former belongings definitions terms may reflect mainstream usage opinions parapsychologists critics according parapsychological association parapsychologists study paranormal phenomena concerned astrology ufos cryptozoology paganism vampires alchemy witchcraft ref name faqfile ref journals


dealing parapsychology include ''journal parapsychology'' ''journal near death studies'' ''journal consciousness studies'' ''journal society psychical research'' ''journal scientific exploration'' experimental research ganzfeld ganzfeld german whole field technique used test individuals telepathy technique form moderate sensory deprivation developed quickly quiet mental noise providing mild unpatterned stimuli visual auditory senses visual sense usually isolated creating soft red glow diffused half ping pong balls placed recipient 's eyes auditory sense usually blocked


examined ray hyman charles honorton methodological problems well documented honorton reported studies used duplicate target sets pictures avoid handling cues hyman discovered flaws ganzfeld experiments assess experiment devised set categories flaws six concerned statistical defects six covered procedural flaws inadequate documentation randomization security well possibilities sensory leakage ref name hyman half studies failed safeguard sensory leakage studies contained


least one flaws flaws honorton agreed hyman ganzfeld studies could support claim existence psi ref name hyman possibilities sensory leakage ganzfeld experiments included receivers hearing going sender 's room next door rooms soundproof sender 's fingerprints visible target object receiver see hyman reviewed autoganzfeld experiments discovered pattern data implied visual cue may taken place hyman wrote autoganzfeld experiments


flawed preclude possibility sensory leakage ref name hyman lance storm patrizio tressoldi lorenzo di risio analyzed ganzfeld studies trials produced hits corresponding hit rate hit rate statistically significant participants selected personality traits personal characteristics thought psi conducive found perform significantly better unselected participants ganzfeld condition ref name stormetal ref hyman published rebuttal storm ''et al'' according hyman reliance meta analysis sole basis justifying


claim anomaly exists evidence consistent replicable fallacious distorts scientists mean confirmatory evidence hyman wrote ganzfeld studies independently replicated failed produce evidence psi ref name psychologicalbulletin ref storm ''et al'' published response hyman stating ganzfeld experimental design proved consistent reliable parapsychology struggling discipline received much attention therefore research subject necessary ref name psychologicalbulletin ref rouder ''et al'' wrote critical evaluation storm ''et al'' 's


meta analysis reveals evidence psi plausible mechanism omitted replication failures remote viewing russell targ co founder stargate project remote viewing practice seeking impressions distant unseen target using subjective means particular extrasensory perception typically remote viewer expected give information object event person location hidden physical view separated distance several hundred trials conducted investigators past years including princeton engineering anomalies research laboratory pear scientists sri international


judges targ puthoff 's experiments contained clues order carried referring yesterday 's two targets date session written top page concluded clues reason experiment 's high hit rates marks able achieve per cent accuracy without visiting sites using cues james randi wrote controlled tests collaboration several researchers eliminating several sources cuing extraneous evidence present original tests randi 's


controlled tests produced negative results students also able solve puthoff targ 's locations cues inadvertently included transcripts charles tart claimed rejudging transcripts one targ puthoff experiments revealed chance result targ puthoff refused provide copies transcripts july made available study discovered still contained sensory cues marks christopher scott wrote considering importance remote viewing hypothesis adequate cue removal


tart failure perform basic task seems beyond comprehension previously concluded remote viewing demonstrated experiments conducted puthoff targ repeated failure investigators remove sensory cues pear closed doors end february founder robert g jahn said years done wanted reason stay generate data ref name ny times statistical flaws work proposed others parapsychological community within


random numbers usually experimental design functionally equivalent getting heads tails flipping coin rng experiment design flexibility combined rigorous controls collecting large amount data short period time technique used test individuals psychokinesis test possible influence rngs large groups people ref name dunne ref major meta analyses rng database published every years since appearing journal ''foundations physics'' ref name dunne pear founder robert g jahn


colleague brenda dunne say experiments produced small effect large enough observed brief experiment large number trials resulted tiny statistical deviation chance ref name park according massimo pigliucci results pear explained without invoking paranormal two problems experiment difficulty designing machines capable generating truly random events fact statistical significance good measure importance genuineness phenomenon ref name pigliucci massimo pigliucci ''nonsense


stilts tell science bunk'' university chicago press pp ref pigluicci written statistical analysis used jahn pear group relied quantity called p value problem p values sample size number trials large like pear one guaranteed find artificially low p values indicating statistical significant result even though nothing occurring small biases experimental apparatus ref name pigliucci two german independent scientific groups failed replicate pear results ref name pigliucci pigliucci written


state ref name pmid one type dmils experiment looks commonly reported feeling stared starer staree isolated different locations starer periodically asked simply gaze staree via closed circuit video links meanwhile staree 's nervous system activity automatically continuously monitored parapsychologists interpreted cumulative data similar dmils experiments suggest one person 's attention directed towards remote isolated person significantly activate calm person 's nervous system meta analysis experiments published ''british journal


psychology'' researchers found small significant overall dmils effect however study also found small number highest quality studies one laboratory analyzed effect size significant authors concluded although existence anomaly related distant intentions cannot ruled also shortage independent replications theoretical concepts ref name pmid ref dream telepathy parapsychological studies dream telepathy carried maimonides medical center brooklyn new york led stanley krippner montague ullman concluded


results experiments supported dream telepathy ref name ullmanweb ref however results independently replicated picture target experiments conducted krippner ullman criticized c e hansel according hansel weaknesses design experiments way agent became aware target picture agent known target person judging targets completed however experimenter agent target envelope opened hansel also wrote


poor controls experiment main experimenter could communicate subject krippner denied hansel 's accusations claiming agent communicate experimenter attempt replicate experiments used picture targets carried edward belvedere david foulkes finding neither subject judges matched targets dreams chance level results experiments belvedere foulkes also negative simon sherwood chris roe wrote review claimed support dream telepathy maimonides however james alcock noted


review based extreme messiness data alcock concluded dream telepathy experiments maimonides failed provide evidence telepathy lack replication rampant near death experiences ''ascent blessed'' hieronymus bosch depicts tunnel light spiritual figures similar reported near death experiencers near death experience nde experience reported person nearly died experienced clinical death revived ndes include one following experiences sense dead body experience sensation floating


''reflections life life'' moody appointed chair consciousness studies university nevada las vegas international association near death studies iands founded meet needs early researchers experiencers within field research later researchers psychiatrist bruce greyson psychologist kenneth ring cardiologist michael sabom introduced study near death experiences academic setting ref name mauro reincarnation research psychiatrist ian stevenson university virginia conducted case studies period years published twelve books wrote


childhood memories ostensibly related reincarnation normally occurred ages three seven years fade shortly afterwards compared memories reports people known deceased attempting contact child deceased 's family occurred ref name tucker ref searched disconfirming evidence could provide alternative explanations reports aside reincarnation ref name document ref per cent subjects examined stevenson birthmarks birth defects stevenson believed existence birth marks deformities children occurred location


fatal wounds deceased provided best evidence reincarnation ref name cadoret remi ref however stevenson never claimed proved existence reincarnation cautiously referred cases reincarnation type suggestive reincarnation researchers believe evidence reincarnation unsuccessful getting scientific community consider serious possibility ref name shroderfeb ref ian wilson argued large number stevenson cases consisted poor children remembering wealthy lives belonging higher caste speculated cases may represent scheme


obtain money family alleged former incarnation philosopher keith augustine written vast majority stevenson 's cases come countries religious belief reincarnation strong rarely elsewhere seems indicate cultural conditioning rather reincarnation generates claims spontaneous past life memories according research robert baker many alleged past life experiences investigated stevenson parapsychologists explained terms known psychological factors baker written recalling past lives mixture cryptomnesia confabulation philosopher paul edwards noted reincarnation invokes


logicially dubious assumptions inconsistent modern science scientific reception james alcock notable critic parapsychology evaluation scientific consensus insufficient evidence support existence psi phenomena ref name dalkvist ref ref name drees ref scientists critical parapsychology state extraordinary claims demand extraordinary evidence taken seriously ref name gracely ref scientists evaluated parapsychology written entire body evidence poor quality adequately controlled support view critics cite instances fraud flawed studies cognitive biases clustering illusion availability error confirmation


soal goldney experiments proven fraudulent one subjects smith blackburn experiments confessed fraud brugmans experiment experiments john edgar coover conducted joseph gaither pratt helmut schmidt flaws design experiments rule possibility sensory cues trickery replicated according critics psi negatively defined effect cannot currently explained terms chance normal causes fallacy encourages parapsychologists using peculiarity


presence absence psi ref name hyman persi diaconis written controls parapsychological experiments often loose possibilities subject cheating unconscious sensory cues existence parapsychological phenomena scientific validity parapsychological research disputed independent evaluators researchers us national academy sciences published report subject concluded scientific justification research conducted period years existence parapsychological phenomena ref name nas ref accepted theory parapsychology currently exists many competing often conflicting models advocated


different parapsychologists attempt explain reported paranormal phenomena terence hines book ''pseudoscience paranormal'' wrote many theories proposed parapsychologists explain psi takes place skeptics theory building seems premature phenomena explained theories yet demonstrated convincingly skeptics antony flew cited lack theory reason rejecting parapsychology physics professor michael w friedlander noted parapsychology failed produce clear evidence existence anomalous effects


require us go beyond known region science philosopher skeptic robert todd carroll written research parapsychology characterized deception fraud incompetence setting properly controlled experiments evaluating statistical data psychologist ray hyman pointed parapsychologists dick bierman walter lucadou j e kennedy robert jahn admitted evidence psi inconsistent irreproducible fails meet acceptable scientific standards richard wiseman criticized parapsychological community widespread errors research methods including cherry picking new procedures may produce preferred results explaining


away unsuccessful attempted replications claims experimenter effect data mining retrospective data selection review parapsychological reports hyman wrote randomization often inadequate multiple statistical testing without adjustment significance levels prevalent possibilities sensory leakage uniformly prevented errors use statistical tests much common documentation typically inadequate parapsychology criticized making precise predictions ray hyman standing lee ross daryl bem victor benassi csicop conference buffalo new york james alcock professor psychology york university published


''give null hypothesis chance reasons remain doubtful existence psi'' claimed parapsychologists never seem take seriously possibility psi exist interpret null results indicating unable observe psi particular experiment rather taking support possibility psi failure take null hypothesis serious alternative psi hypotheses leads rely upon number arbitrary effects excuse failures find predicted effects excuse


lack consistency outcomes excuse failures replicate ref name alcock basic endemic problems parapsychological research include amongst others insufficient definition subject matter total reliance negative definitions phenomena eg psi said occur known normal influences ruled failure produce single phenomenon independently replicated neutral researchers invention effects psi experimenter effect explain away inconsistencies data failures achieve predicted outcomes unfalsifiability claims unpredictability effects lack progress century


formal research methodological weaknesses reliance statistical procedures determine psi supposedly occurred even though statistical analysis justify claim psi occurred failure jibe areas science overall argues nothing parapsychological research would ever lead parapsychologists conclude psi exist even search likely continue long time come continue believe parapsychology bottom motivated belief search data rather data


search explanation ref name alcock alcock cognitive psychologist arthur reber criticized parapsychology broadly writing psi effects true would negate fundamental principles science causality time arrow thermodynamics inverse square law according alcock reber parapsychology cannot true unless rest science moreover psi effects real would already fatally disrupted rest body science ref name alcocksi richard land written known human biology highly unlikely evolution provided humans esp


research shown recognized five senses adequate evolution survival species michael shermer article ''psychic drift scientists believe esp psi phenomena'' ''scientific american'' wrote reason skepticism need replicable data viable theory missing psi research january results study using neuroimaging published provide purported favorable experimental conditions study included appropriate emotional stimuli participants biologically emotionally


related twins experiment designed produce positive results telepathy clairvoyance precognition occurred despite distinguishable neuronal responses found psychic stimuli non psychic stimuli variations stimuli showed anticipated effects patterns brain activation researchers concluded findings strongest evidence yet obtained existence paranormal mental phenomena ref name moulton ref studies attempted test psi hypothesis using functional neuroimaging neuroscience review studies acunzo ''et al'' discovered methodological weaknesses could account reported psi


effects study discovered schizophrenic patients belief psi healthy adults researchers become skeptical parapsychology susan blackmore john taylor years study progress demonstrating existence psi scientific method physics ideas psi precognition psychokinesis telepathy violate well established laws physics psychokinesis violates inverse square law second law thermodynamics conservation momentum known mechanism psi subject psychokinesis physicist sean carroll written human brains


spoons try bend made like matter quarks leptons everything else emerges properties behavior quarks leptons quarks leptons interact four forces strong weak electromagnetic gravitational thus either 's one four known forces 's new force new force range millimetre must billionth strength gravity captured experiments already done leaves physical force could possibly account psychokinesis physicist john


g taylor investigated parapsychological claims written unknown fifth force causing psychokinesis would transmit great deal energy energy would overcome electromagnetic forces binding atoms together atoms would need respond strongly fifth force operative electric forces additional force atoms therefore exist time alleged paranormal occurrences taylor wrote scientific trace force physics many orders magnitude thus scientific viewpoint


preserved idea fifth force must discarded taylor concluded possible physical mechanism psychokinesis complete contradiction established science felix planer professor electrical engineering written psychokinesis real would easy demonstrate getting subjects depress scale sensitive balance raise temperature water bath could measured accuracy hundredth degree celsius affect element electrical circuit resistor could monitored


better millionth ampere ref name planer felix planer ''superstition'' cassell p ref planer writes experiments extremely sensitive easy monitor utilized parapsychologists hold remotest hope demonstrating even minute trace pk alleged phenomenon non existent planer written parapsychologists fall back studies involve statistics unrepeatable owing results poor experimental methods recording mistakes faulty statistical mathematics ref name planer according planer research medicine sciences would become


claim quantum mechanics allows possibility mental power influencing randomizers alleged case micro pk ludicrous since theory respects said conservation principles deals exclusively physical things physicist robert l park questioned mind really could influence matter would easy parapsychologists measure phenomenon using alleged psychokinetic power deflect microbalance would require dubious statistics reason course microbalance stubbornly refuses budge ref name park robert l park ''voodoo science road foolishness


bunge ''treatise basic philosophy volume epistemology methodology ii understanding world'' springer pp ref parapsychological theories viewed pseudoscientific scientific community incompatible well established laws science repeatable evidence psi field often regarded pseudoscience philosopher raimo tuomela summarized majority scientists consider parapsychology pseudoscience essay science protoscience pseudoscience parapsychology relies ill defined ontology typically shuns exact thinking hypotheses theories parapsychology proven


bad shape extremely little progress taken place parapsychology whole parapsychology conflicts established science parapsychology poor research problems concerned establishing existence subject matter practically theories create proper research problems parts parapsychology attempts use methods science also unscientific areas case parapsychological research best qualify prescientific poor theoretical foundation parapsychology largely isolated research area methods parapsychologists regarded critics including


wrote science standards california state board education ref name caliboard ref pseudoscientific ref name beyerstein ref specific criticisms state parapsychology clearly defined subject matter easily repeatable experiment demonstrate psi effect demand underlying theory explain paranormal transfer information ref name hyman james alcock stated parapsychology 's experimental results prompted interdisciplinary research mainstream sciences physics biology parapsychology remains isolated science extent legitimacy questionable ref name alcock ref


whole justified labeled scientific ref name alcock ref alcock written parapsychology indistinguishable pseudo science ideas essentially magic ''no'' evidence would lead cautious observer believe parapsychologists paraphysicists track real phenomenon real energy power far escaped attention people engaged normal science scientific community considers parapsychology pseudoscience continues explore hypothesis psychic abilities exist despite century experimental results fail conclusively demonstrate


hypothesis ref name cord n ref panel commissioned united states national research council study paranormal claims concluded despite year record scientific research matters committee could find scientific justification existence phenomena extrasensory perception mental telepathy mind matter exercises evaluation large body best available evidence simply support contention phenomena exist also issue non falsifiability associated psi subject terence hines written ref mario bunge written research parapsychology


hundred years produced single firm finding testable predictions parapsychologists claim alleged data anomalous lying beyond reach ordinary science aim parapsychologists finding laws systematizing theories order understand forecast buttress ancient spiritualist myths serve surrogate lost religions ref name bunge psychologist david marks written parapsychologists failed produce single repeatable demonstration paranormal described psychical research pseudoscience incoherent collection belief


systems steeped fantasy illusion error however chris french convinced parapsychology demonstrated evidence psi argued parapsychological experiments still adhere scientific method completely dismissed pseudoscience sceptics like often point systematic research parapsychology well century far wider scientific community convinced french noted position minority view among critics parapsychology philosopher bradley dowden characterized parapsychology pseudoscience parapsychologists valid theories test


exposed fraudulent ref name mcburney mcburney donald h white theresa l ''research methods'' wadsworth publishing p ref levy reported series successful esp experiments involving computer controlled manipulation non human subjects including rats experiments showed high positive results however levy 's fellow researchers became suspicious methods found levy interfered data recording equipment manually creating fraudulent strings positive results levy confessed fraud resigned ref name mcburney rhine published paper ''security versus deception parapsychology'' journal parapsychology documented cases fraud


detected refused give names participants studies massimo pigliucci written blockquote damning rhine admitted publicly uncovered least twelve instances dishonesty among researchers single decade however flaunted standard academic protocol refusing divulge names fraudsters means unknown number published papers literature claim paranormal effects fact result conscious deception blockquote martin gardner claimed inside information


files rhine 's laboratory contain material suggesting fraud part hubert pearce ref name frazier pp kendrick frazier ''the hundredth monkey paradigms paranormal'' prometheus books pp ref pearce never able obtain chance results persons experimenter present experiment making likely cheating way rhine 's subjects able obtain non chance levels able shuffle cards suggested used tricks arrange order zener cards experiments started


researcher tarkio college missouri james macfarland suspected falsifying data achieve positive psi results ref name frazier pp fraud discovered macfarland published articles journal parapsychology supporting existence esp ref name macfarland ref ref name macfarland ref presumably speaking macfarland louisa rhine wrote reviewing data submitted lab researchers duke parapsychology lab recognized fraud long certain jim consistently falsified records produce extra hits jim resort erasures transpositions


records call series macfarland never published another article journal parapsychology fraud discovered instances fraud amongst spiritualist mediums exposed early psychical researchers richard hodgson harry price magician escapologist harry houdini said researchers observers created experimental procedures absolutely preclude fraud ref name houdini ref criticism experimental results critical analysts including parapsychologists satisfied experimental parapsychology studies ref name hyman ref ref name alcock ref reviewers psychologist ray hyman contend apparently successful experimental results psi research


likely due sloppy procedures poorly trained researchers methodological flaws rather genuine psi effects ref name akers ref fellow psychologist stuart vyse hearkens back time data manipulation recognized p hacking part issue within parapsychology disagreements results methodology well example experiments pear laboratory criticized paper published ''journal parapsychology'' parapsychologists independent pear laboratory concluded experiments depart ed criteria usually expected formal scientific experimentation due p roblems regard randomization statistical baselines


application statistical models agent coding descriptor lists feedback percipients sensory cues precautions cheating felt originally stated significance values meaningless ref name hansen typical measure psi phenomena statistical deviation chance expectation however critics point statistical deviation strictly speaking evidence statistical anomaly cause deviation known hyman contends even psi experiments could designed would regularly reproduce similar deviations chance would necessarily prove psychic functioning ref name hyman ref critics coined term ''the psi assumption''


washington university 's mcdonnell laboratory fooled researchers believing paranormal powers aim expose poor experimental methods credulity thought common parapsychology ref name nytimes randi stated recruits deceived experimenters period three years demonstrations supposedly psychic abilities blowing electric fuses sealed box causing lightweight paper rotor perched atop needle turn inside bell jar bending metal spoons sealed glass bottle etc hoax randi raised ethical concerns scientific parapsychology


communities eliciting criticism even among skeptical communities committee scientific investigation claims paranormal csicop helped found also positive responses president parapsychological association stanley krippner psychologist ray hyman csicop member called results counterproductive ref name nytimes ref selection bias meta analysis selective reporting offered critics explanation positive results reported parapsychologists selective reporting sometimes referred file drawer problem arises positive study results made public studies negative null results


made public ref name pmid selective reporting compounded effect meta analysis statistical technique aggregates results many studies order generate sufficient statistical power demonstrate result individual studies could demonstrate statistically significant level example recent meta analysis combined studies psychokinesis ref name pmid including data pear lab concluded although statistically significant overall effect consistent relatively negative studies would cancel consequently biased publication positive results could cause ref name smee


popularity meta analysis parapsychology criticized numerous researchers ref name uttsstatisticalscience often seen troublesome even within parapsychology ref name uttsstatisticalscience ref critics said parapsychologists misuse meta analysis create incorrect impression statistically significant results obtained indicate existence psi phenomena ref name stenger ref physicist robert park states parapsychology 's reported positive results problematic findings invariably margin statistical significance might explained number confounding effects park states marginal results typical symptom pathological science described


explanations resulting psychological physical factors sometimes given impression paranormal activity people fact none ref name zusne according psychologist chris french ref whilst parapsychology said decline anomalistic psychology reported rise offered option many psychology degree programmes also option psychology syllabus uk skeptics organizations organizations encourage critical examination parapsychology parapsychological research include committee skeptical inquiry publisher


''skeptical inquirer'' james randi educational foundation founded illusionist skeptic james randi occult investigative committee society american magicians society professional magicians illusionists seeks promotion harmony among magicians opposition unnecessary public exposure magical effects see also outline parapsychology list topics characterized pseudoscience references reading alcock james ''parapsychology science magic psychological perspective'' pergamon press hines terence ''pseudoscience paranormal'' prometheus books moore e garth ''believe christianity psychical research'' london mowbray neher andrew


parapsychology http wwwspracuk society psychical research founded spr first society conduct organised scholarly research parapsychology human experiences challenge contemporary scientific models continues work today http csicoporg committee skeptical inquiry organization formed promote scientific skepticism encourage critical investigation paranormal claims parapsychology http wwwrandiorg site james randi educational foundation james randi education foundation jref founded promote critical thinking areas supernatural paranormal jref provided skeptical views area parapsychology https webarchiveorg web http findarticlescom p searchqt parapsychology findarticlescom index large number


articles parapsychology publications ''journal parapsychology'' ''skeptical inquirer'' icd cm icd icdo omim diseasesdb medlineplus emedicinesubj emedicinetopic patientuk


meshid genereviewsnbk genereviewsname nord gardnum gardname orphanet ao rp


wo orthoinfo nci scholia snomed ct pseudoscience psychics paranormal


meshid ops othercodes '''physical therapy''' '''pt''' also known '''physiotherapy''' one allied health professions ref name asahp def ref provided physical therapists promote maintain restore health physical examination diagnosis prognosis patient education physical intervention rehabilitation disease prevention health promotion '''physical therapists''' known '''physiotherapists''' many countries addition clinical practice aspects physical therapist practice include research education consultation health administration physical therapy provided primary care treatment

Applied science
Medicine and health
Physical therapy


alongside conjunction medical services jurisdictions united kingdom physical therapists authority prescribe medication overview physical therapy addresses illnesses injuries limit person 's abilities move perform functional activities daily lives pts use individual 's history physical examination arrive diagnosis establish management plan necessary incorporate results laboratory imaging studies like x rays ct scan mri findings electrodiagnostic testing eg electromyograms nerve conduction velocity testing may also used ref name evalguidelinesapta ref pt management commonly includes


movement central means healthy physical therapy professional career many specialties including musculoskeletal orthopedics cardiopulmonary neurology endocrinology sports medicine geriatrics pediatrics women 's health wound care electromyography neurological rehabilitation particular rapidly emerging field pts practice many settings private owned physical therapy clinics outpatient clinics offices health wellness clinics rehabilitation hospitals facilities skilled nursing facilities extended care facilities private homes education research centers schools hospices industrial workplaces occupational environments fitness centers sports training facilities physical therapists also practice


non patient care roles health policy health insurance health care administration health care executives physical therapists involved medical legal field serving experts performing peer review independent medical examinations education varies greatly country span education ranges countries little formal education others doctoral degrees post doctoral residencies fellowships history exercise shoulder elbow increase motion following fracture dislocation humerus given army therapist soldier patient physicians like hippocrates later galen believed


first practitioners physical therapy advocating massage manual therapy techniques hydrotherapy treat people nbsp bc development orthopedics eighteenth century machines like gymnasticon developed treat gout similar diseases systematic exercise joints similar later developments physical therapy earliest documented origins actual physical therapy professional group date back per henrik ling father swedish gymnastics founded royal central institute gymnastics rcig manipulation exercise swedish word physical therapist


suk gymnast someone involved gymnastics ill title changed fysioterapeut physiotherapist word used scandinavian countries pts given official registration sweden 's national board health welfare countries soon followed four nurses great britain formed chartered society physiotherapy school physiotherapy university otago new zealand united states reed college portland oregon graduated reconstruction aides since profession 's inception spinal manipulative therapy component


used refer individuals practicing physical therapy first school physical therapy established walter reed army hospital washington dc following outbreak world war research catalyzed physical therapy movement first physical therapy research published united states march pt review year mary mcmillan organized american women 's physical therapeutic association called american physical therapy association apta georgia warm springs foundation promoted field touting physical therapy treatment polio treatment


primarily consisted exercise massage traction manipulative procedures spine extremity joints began practiced especially british commonwealth countries early around time polio vaccines developed physical therapists became normal occurrence hospitals throughout north america europe late physical therapists started move beyond hospital based practice outpatient orthopedic clinics public schools colleges universities health centres geriatric settings skilled nursing facilities rehabilitation centers medical centers specialization physical therapy us occurred orthopaedic section apta formed


physical therapists specializing orthopedics year international federation orthopaedic manipulative physical therapists formed ref name ifompt history ref ever since played important role advancing manual therapy worldwide education educational criteria physical therapy providers vary state state country country among various levels professional responsibility us states physical therapy practice acts recognize physical therapists pt physical therapist assistants pta jurisdictions also recognize physical therapy technicians pt techs aides countries licensing bodies require physical therapists


member start practicing independent professionals canada canadian physiotherapy programs offered universities often university 's respective college medicine canada 's physical therapy schools transitioned year bachelor science physical therapy bscpt programs required years prerequisite university courses year bachelor 's degree year master 's physical therapy mpt programs require prerequisite bachelor 's degrees last canadian university follow suit university manitoba transitioned mpt program making mpt credential new entry practice standard


normally requires one half two years study graduates obtain msc must successfully pass membership examination become members ordre professionnel de la physioth rapie du qu bec ppq physiotherapists pursue education fields rehabilitation sciences sports medicine kinesiology physiology province quebec physical rehabilitation therapists health care professionals required complete three year college diploma program physical rehabilitation therapy members ''ordre professionnel de la physioth rapie du qu bec'' oppq practice legally country according specialist


de van gerard physical rehabilitation therapists complete college diploma coll ge montmorency dawson college c gep marie victorin situated around montreal area completing technical college diploma graduates opportunity pursue studies university level perhaps obtain bachelor 's degree physiotherapy kinesiology exercise science occupational therapy universit de montr al universit laval universit de sherbrooke among qu b cois universities admit physical rehabilitation therapists programs study related health sciences rehabilitation credit courses completed college


date bridging programs available facilitate upgrading bscpt mpt credential however research master 's science msc doctor philosophy phd programs available every university aside academic research practitioners upgrade skills qualifications continuing education courses curriculums continuing education requirement provincial regulatory bodies canadian alliance physiotherapy regulators capr offers eligible program graduates apply national physiotherapy competency examination pce passing pce one requirements provinces territories work licensed


physiotherapist canada capr members physiotherapy regulatory organizations recognized respective provinces territories government yukon consumer services college physical therapists british columbia physiotherapy alberta college association saskatchewan college physical therapists college physiotherapists manitoba college physiotherapists ontario ordre professionnel de la physioth rapie du qu bec college physiotherapists new brunswick coll ge des physioth rapeutes du nouveau brunswick nova scotia college physiotherapists prince edward island college physiotherapists newfoundland labrador college physiotherapists canadian physiotherapy association offers curriculum continuing education courses orthopedics manual therapy


canadian academy manipulative physiotherapists fcampt considered leaders field extensive post graduate education orthopedics manual therapy fcampt internationally recognized credential campt member international federation manipulative physiotherapists ifompt branch world confederation physical therapy wcpt world health organization scotland physiotherapy degrees offered three universities robert gordon university aberdeen glasgow caledonian university glasgow queen margaret university edinburgh students qualify physiotherapists completing four year bachelor science degree two year master 's degree


already undergraduate degree related field use title 'physiotherapist' student must register health care professions council uk wide regulatory body qualifying many physiotherapists also members chartered society physiotherapists csp provides insurance professional support united states primary physical therapy practitioner physical therapist pt trained licensed examine evaluate diagnose treat impairment functional limitations disabilities patients clients physical therapist education curricula united states culminate doctor physical therapy


dpt degree ref name pted ref practicing pts holding master physical therapy degree bachelor 's degree master physical therapy master science physical therapy degrees longer offered entry level degree doctor physical therapy degree typically takes years completing bachelor 's degree pts hold masters bachelors pt encouraged get dpt apta 's goal pt 's doctoral level wcpt recommends physical therapist entry level educational programs based university university level studies


eg content cardiovascular pulmonary endocrine metabolic gastrointestinal genitourinary integumentary musculoskeletal neuromuscular systems medical surgical conditions frequently seen physical therapists current training specifically aimed enable physical therapists appropriately recognize refer non musculoskeletal diagnoses may present similarly caused systems appropriate physical therapy intervention resulted direct access physical therapists many states ref name fsbpt direct access guide ref post doctoral residency fellowship education prevalence increasing steadily residency fellowship programs accredited residencies aimed train physical


therapists specialty acute care cardiovascular pulmonary clinical electrophysiology faculty geriatrics neurology orthopaedics pediatrics sports women 's health wound care whereas fellowships train specialists subspecialty eg critical care hand therapy division sports similar medical model residency programs offer eligibility sit specialist certification respective area practice example completion orthopedic physical therapy residency allows graduates apply sit clinical specialist examination orthopedics achieving ocs designation upon passing examination board certification physical therapy specialists aimed


recognize individuals advanced clinical knowledge skill training respective area practice exemplifies trend toward greater education optimally treat individuals movement dysfunction ref name abpts website ref physical therapist assistants may deliver treatment physical interventions patients clients care plan established supervision physical therapist physical therapist assistants united states currently trained associate applied sciences curricula specific profession outlined accredited capte august accredited two year associate degree programs physical therapist


assistants united states america according capte students currently enrolled accredited pta programs united states ref name captequickfacts updated capte statistics list students enrolled accredited pta programs united states ref name capte quick facts curricula physical therapist assistant associate degree include anatomy physiology exercise physiology human biology physics biomechanics kinesiology neuroscience clinical pathology behavioral sciences communication ethics research coursework required individual programs job duties education requirements physical therapy technicians aides


may vary depending employer education requirements range high school diploma equivalent completion year degree program ref name eptech ref net reports pt aides techs high school diploma equivalent completed college hold degree hold associate degree ref name onettech ref jurisdictions allow physical therapists employ technicians aides therapy assistants perform designated routine tasks related physical therapy direct supervision physical therapist jurisdictions require physical therapy technicians aides certified education


certification requirements vary among jurisdictions employment physical therapy related jobs north america shown rapid growth recent years employment rates average wages may vary significantly different countries states provinces regions study states physical therapists globally satisfied jobs ref name gupta ref salary interest work fulfillment job important predictors job satisfaction ref name gupta polish study job burnout among physical therapists manifested increased emotional exhaustion decreased sense personal achievement ref name auto ref emotional exhaustion significantly higher among physical


therapists working adults employed hospitals factors increased burnout include working hospital setting seniority years ref name auto united states according united states department labor 's bureau labor statistics approximately physical therapists employed united states earning average annually per hour growth employment projected year ref name blspt ref bureau labor statistics also reports approximately physical therapist assistants aides employed united states


earning average annually per hour growth employment projected year meet needs many healthcare physical therapy facilities hire travel physical therapists work temporary assignments weeks much higher wages year ref name blspta ref bureau labor statistics data ptas techs difficult decipher due tendency report data job fields collectively rather separately net reports ptas united states earned median wage annually


hourly aides techs earned median wage annually hourly ref name onettech ref name onetpta ref american physical therapy association reports vacancy rates physical therapists outpatient private practice acute care settings skilled nursing facilities apta also reports turnover rates physical therapists outpatient private practice acute care settings skilled nursing facilities specialty areas body knowledge physical therapy large therefore physical therapists may specialize specific clinical area many different


types physical therapy american board physical therapy specialties lists ten current specialist certifications physical therapists practicing specialty undergone training accredited residency program although individuals currently able sit specialist examination hours focused practice respective specialty population addition requirements set respective specialty board cardiovascular pulmonary cardiovascular pulmonary rehabilitation respiratory practitioners physical therapists offer therapy wide variety cardiopulmonary disorders pre post cardiac pulmonary surgery example cardiac surgery


coronary bypass surgery primary goals specialty include increasing endurance functional independence manual therapy used field assist clearing lung secretions experienced cystic fibrosis pulmonary disorders heart attacks post coronary bypass surgery chronic obstructive pulmonary disease pulmonary fibrosis treatments benefit cardiovascular pulmonary specialized physical therapists ref name inverarity clinical electrophysiology specialty area includes electrotherapy physical agents electrophysiological evaluation emg ncv physical agents wound management geriatric geriatric physical therapy covers wide area issues concerning people go normal adult aging usually focused


older adult many conditions affect many people grow older include limited following arthritis osteoporosis cancer alzheimer 's disease hip joint replacement balance disorders incontinence etc geriatric physical therapists specialize providing therapy conditions older adults physical rehabilitation prevent deterioration health activities daily living among care home residents current evidence suggests benefits physical health participating different types physical rehabilitation improve daily living strength flexibility balance mood memory exercise tolerance fear falling injuries death ref name crocker ref


may safe effective improving physical possibly mental state reducing disability adverse events ref name crocker current body evidence suggests physical rehabilitation may effective long term care residents reducing disability adverse events ref name crocker however insufficient conclude whether beneficial effects sustainable cost effective ref name crocker findings based moderate quality evidence wound management wound management physical therapy includes treatment conditions involving skin related organs common conditions managed include wounds burns physical therapists may


utilize surgical instruments wound irrigations dressings topical agents remove damaged contaminated tissue promote tissue healing commonly used interventions include exercise edema control splinting compression garments work done physical therapists integumentary specialty work similar would done medical doctors nurses emergency room triage neurology neurological physical therapy field focused working individuals neurological disorder disease include stroke chronic back pain alzheimer 's disease charcot marie tooth disease cmt als brain injury cerebral palsy multiple sclerosis parkinson 's


disease facial palsy spinal cord injury common impairments associated neurologic conditions include impairments vision balance ambulation activities daily living movement muscle strength loss functional independence ref name inverarity ref techniques involve neurological physical therapy wide ranging often require specialized training neurological physiotherapy also called neurophysiotherapy neurological rehabilitation recommended neurophysiotherapists collaborate psychologists providing physical treatment movement disorders ref name zec ref especially important combining physical therapy psychotherapy improve neurological status patients orthopaedics treatment orthopedic physical therapists orthopedic physical therapists diagnose manage


treat disorders injuries musculoskeletal system including rehabilitation orthopedic surgery acute trauma sprains strains injuries insidious onset tendinopathy bursitis deformities like scoliosis specialty physical therapy often found outpatient clinical setting orthopedic therapists trained treatment post operative orthopedic procedures fractures acute sports injuries arthritis sprains strains back neck pain spinal conditions amputations joint spine mobilization manipulation dry needling similar acupuncture therapeutic exercise neuromuscular techniques muscle reeducation hot cold packs electrical muscle stimulation eg cryotherapy iontophoresis electrotherapy modalities employed


expedite recovery orthopedic setting additionally emerging adjunct diagnosis treatment use sonography diagnosis guide treatments muscle retraining ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref suffered injury disease affecting muscles bones ligaments tendons benefit assessment physical therapist specialized orthopedics pediatrics pediatric physical therapy assists early detection health problems uses variety modalities provide physical therapy disorders pediatric population therapists specialized diagnosis treatment management infants children


adolescents variety congenital developmental neuromuscular skeletal acquired disorders diseases treatments focus mainly improving gross fine motor skills balance coordination strength endurance well cognitive sensory processing integration sports physical therapists closely involved care wellbeing athletes including recreational semi professional paid professional full time employment participants area practice encompasses athletic injury management main categories acute care assessment diagnosis initial injury treatment application specialist advice techniques encourage healing rehabilitation progressive management full return


sport prevention identification address deficiencies known directly result act precursors injury movement assessment education sharing specialist knowledge individual athletes teams clubs assist prevention management injury physical therapists work professional sports teams often specialized sports certification issued national registering organization physical therapists practice sporting environment also active collaborative sports medicine programs see also athletic trainers women 's health women 's health pelvic floor physical therapy mostly addresses women 's


issues related female reproductive system child birth post partum conditions include lymphedema osteoporosis pelvic pain prenatal post partum periods urinary incontinence also addresses incontinence pelvic pain disorders associated pelvic floor dysfunction manual physical therapy demonstrated multiple studies increase rates conception women infertility ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref oncology physical therapy field oncology palliative care continuously evolving developing specialty malignant non malignant diseases physical therapy groups patients recognized


essential part clinical pathway early diagnoses new treatments enabling patients live longer generally accepted patients access appropriate level rehabilitation function minimum level dependency optimize quality life regardless life expectancy intensive care unit '''exercise rehabilitation following intensive care unit discharge recovery critical illness''' following intensive care unit discharge recovery critical illness overall effect exercise rehabilitation currently uncertain research area needed


current body evidence low quality physical therapist patient collaborative relationship systematic review included patients brain injury musculoskeletal conditions cardiac conditions multiple pathologies found alliance patient therapist positively correlates treatment outcome outcomes include ability perform activities daily living manage pain complete specific physical function tasks depression global assessment physical health treatment adherence treatment satisfaction studies explored four themes may influence patient therapist interactions interpersonal communication skills practical skills individualized patient centered care organizational environmental factors ref name physical therapists need


ability clinician provide clear simple explanations problems furthermore patients value physical therapists possess excellent technical skills improve patient effectively ref name ref environmental factors location equipment used parking less important patient physical therapy clinical encounter ref name ref based current understanding important factors contribute patient therapist interactions include physical therapist spends adequate amount time patient possesses strong listening communication skills treats patient respect provides clear explanations treatment


allows patient involved treatment decisions ref name effectiveness physical therapy found effective improving outcomes terms pain function multiple musculoskeletal conditions systematic review found evidence support use spinal manipulation physical therapists safe option improve outcomes lower back pain ref name kuczynski ref according randomized control trials combination manual therapy supervised exercise therapy physiotherapists give functional benefits patients osteoarthritis knee may delay even prevent need surgery


another randomized controlled study shown surgical decompression treatment physiotherapy par lumbar spinal stenosis improving symptoms function several studies suggested physical therapy particularly manual therapy techniques focused neck median nerve combined stretching exercises may equivalent even preferable surgery carpal tunnel syndrome systematic review suggested spine manipulation therapeutic massage effective interventions neck pain electroacupuncture strain counterstrain relaxation massage heat therapy ultrasound therapy effective thus recommended ref name wong ref studies also show physical therapy


informed physical therapy pipt physical therapist treats patients members multidisciplinary care team help preoperative planning patient management pain quality life helps improve patient outcomes especially present utilized spine hip knee surgery telehealth telehealth telerehabilitation developing form physical therapy response increasing demand physical therapy treatment telehealth online communication clinician patient either live pre recorded sessions mixed reviews compared usual person care ref name ref benefits


telehealth include improved accessibility remote areas cost efficiency improved convenience bedridden home restricted physically disabled ref name considerations telehealth include limited evidence prove effectiveness compliance person therapy licensing payment policy issues compromised privacy studies controversial effectiveness telehealth patients serious conditions stroke multiple sclerosis lower back pain covid pandemic need telehealth came fore patients less able safely attend person particularly elderly chronic diseases telehealth


considered proactive step prevent decline individuals could attend classes physical decline risk groups difficult address undo later platform licensing development found substantial cost telehealth telehealth remove need physical therapist still need oversee program united states definitions licensing requirements united states vary among jurisdictions state enacted physical therapy practice act defining profession within jurisdiction federation state boards


physical therapy also drafted model definition limit variation commission accreditation physical therapy education capte responsible accrediting physical therapy education curricula throughout united states america united kingdom title physiotherapist protected professional title united kingdom anyone using title must registered health care professions council hcpc physiotherapists must complete necessary qualifications usually undergraduate physiotherapy degree university intern master rehabilitation degree doctoral degree physiotherapy typically


followed supervised professional experience lasting two three years professionals hcpc register must comply continuing professional development cpd audited evidence intervals see also american board physical therapy specialties american physical therapy association basic body awareness methodology chiropractic doctor title doctor physical therapy exercise physiology exercise prescription frenkel exercises joint manipulation list exercise prescription software neurophysiotherapy occupational therapy physical medicine rehabilitation postural restoration procovery sports medicine therapy world confederation physical therapy references external links europe http eceuropaeu internal market qualifications regprof indexcfmaction profession id profession regulated professions database


'''biological anthropology''' also known '''physical anthropology''' scientific discipline concerned biological behavioral aspects human beings extinct hominin ancestors related non human primates particularly evolutionary perspective subfield anthropology systematically studies human beings biological perspective branches subfield anthropology biological anthropology divided several branches branches united common orientation application evolutionary theory understanding human biology behavior bioarchaeology study past human cultures examination human remains recovered

Social science
Anthropology
Biological anthropology


archaeological context examined human remains usually limited bones may include preserved soft tissue researchers bioarchaeology combine skill sets human osteology paleopathology archaeology often consider cultural mortuary context remains evolutionary biology study evolutionary processes produced diversity life earth starting single common ancestor processes include natural selection common descent speciation evolutionary psychology study psychological structures modern evolutionary perspective seeks identify human psychological traits evolved adaptations


functional products natural selection sexual selection human evolution forensic anthropology application science physical anthropology human osteology legal setting often criminal cases victim 's remains advanced stages decomposition human behavioral ecology study behavioral adaptations foraging reproduction ontogeny evolutionary ecologic perspectives see behavioral ecology focuses human adaptive responses physiological developmental genetic environmental stresses human biology interdisciplinary field biology biological anthropology nutrition medicine concerns international population level perspectives health


study non human primate behavior morphology genetics primatologists use phylogenetic methods infer traits humans share primates human specific adaptations history origins johann friedrich blumenbach franz boas biological anthropology looks different today even twenty years ago name even relatively new 'physical anthropology' century practitioners still applying term biological anthropologists look back work charles darwin major foundation today however one traces intellectual genealogy culture back


physical anthropology 's beginnings going back existence much know hominin fossil record history focuses field 's interest human biological variation editors see rooted field even deeper formal science attempts study classify human beings living organisms date back ancient greece greek philosopher plato bc placed humans ' 'scala naturae'' included things inanimate objects bottom deities top ref name spencer ref became main system scholars thought


nature next roughly years ref name spencer plato 's student aristotle bc observed ''history animals'' human beings animals walk upright ref name spencer argued line teleological view nature humans buttocks tails order give cushy place sit tired standing ref name spencer explained regional variations human features result different climates ref name spencer also wrote physiognomy idea derived writings hippocratic corpus ref name spencer scientific physical anthropology began


th th centuries study racial classification georgius hornius fran ois bernier carl linnaeus johann friedrich blumenbach first prominent physical anthropologist german physician johann friedrich blumenbach g ttingen amassed large collection human skulls ''decas craniorum'' published argued division humankind five major races termed caucasian mongolian aethiopian malayan american th century french physical anthropologists led paul broca focused craniometry german tradition led rudolf virchow emphasized influence environment disease upon human body


physical anthropology prominent debate slavery scientific monogenist works british abolitionist james cowles prichard opposing american polygenist samuel george morton late th century german american anthropologist franz boas strongly impacted biological anthropology emphasizing influence culture experience human form research showed head shape malleable environmental nutritional factors rather stable racial trait however scientific racism still persisted biological anthropology prominent figures earnest hooton ale hrdli ka


livingstone owen lovejoy jonathan marks robert martin russell mittermeier desmond morris douglas w owsley david pilbeam kathy reichs alice roberts pardis sabeti robert sapolsky eugenie c scott meredith small phillip v tobias douglas h ubelaker sherwood washburn david watts tim white milford h wolpoff richard wrangham teuku jacob biraja sankar guha see also anthropometry measurement human individual biocultural anthropology ethology evolutionary anthropology evolutionary biology evolutionary psychology human evolution paleontology primatology sociobiology references reading michael little kenneth ar kennedy eds ''histories american physical anthropology twentieth century''


'''pharmacology''' branch medicine biology pharmaceutical sciences concerned drug medication action drug may defined artificial natural endogenous within body molecule exerts biochemical physiological effect cell tissue organ organism sometimes word ''pharmacon'' used term encompass endogenous exogenous bioactive species specifically study interactions occur living organism chemicals affect normal abnormal biochemical function substances medicinal properties considered pharmaceuticals field