behavioral neuroscience experiments however great deal experimental literature behavioral neuroscience comes study non human species frequently rats mice monkeys result critical assumption behavioral neuroscience organisms share biological behavioral similarities enough permit extrapolations across species allies behavioral neuroscience closely comparative psychology evolutionary psychology evolutionary biology neurobiology behavioral neuroscience also paradigmatic methodological similarities neuropsychology relies heavily study behavior humans nervous system dysfunction ie non experimentally based biological manipulation synonyms behavioral neuroscience


include biopsychology biological psychology psychobiology ref name breedlove et al marc breedlove mark rosenzweig neil v watson biological psychology introduction behavioral cognitive neuroscience e sinauer associates ref physiological psychology subfield behavioral neuroscience appropriately narrower definition research methods distinguishing characteristic behavioral neuroscience experiment either independent variable experiment biological dependent variable biological words nervous system organism study permanently temporarily altered aspect nervous system measured usually

Social science
Psychology
Biological psychology


related behavioral variable disabling decreasing neural function lesions classic method brain region interest naturally intentionally destroyed observe resulting changes degraded enhanced performance behavioral measure lesions placed relatively high accuracy thanks variety brain 'atlases' provide map brain regions dimensional stereotactic coordinatesthe part picture emphasized shows lesion brain type lesion removed surgery '''surgical''' lesions neural tissue destroyed removing


surgically '''electrolytic''' lesions neural tissue destroyed application electrical shock trauma '''chemical''' lesions neural tissue destroyed infusion neurotoxin '''temporary''' lesions neural tissue temporarily disabled cooling use anesthetics tetrodotoxin transcranial magnetic stimulation new technique usually used human subjects magnetic coil applied scalp causes unsystematic electrical activity nearby cortical neurons experimentally analyzed functional lesion synthetic ligand injection receptor activated solely synthetic ligand rassl designer


receptor exclusively activated designer drugs dreadd permits spatial temporal control g protein signaling vivo systems utilize g protein coupled receptors gpcr engineered respond exclusively synthetic small molecules ligands like clozapine n oxide cno natural ligand rassl 's represent gpcr based chemogenetic tool synthetic ligands upon activation decrease neural function g protein activation potassium attenuating neural activity '''psychopharmacological''' manipulations chemical receptor antagonist induces neural activity interfering neurotransmission antagonists delivered systemically intravenous injection locally intracerebrally surgical procedure


ventricles specific brain structures example nmda antagonist ap shown inhibit initiation long term potentiation excitatory synaptic transmission rodent fear conditioning believed vital mechanism learning memory optogenetic inhibition light activated inhibitory protein expressed cells interest powerful millisecond timescale neuronal inhibition instigated upon stimulation appropriate frequency light delivered via fiber optics implanted leds case vertebrates via external illumination small sufficiently translucent invertebrates bacterial halorhodopsins proton pumps


two classes proteins used inhibitory optogenetics achieving inhibition increasing cytoplasmic levels halides decreasing cytoplasmic concentration protons respectively enhancing neural function electrical stimulation classic method neural activity enhanced application small electric current small cause significant cell death psychopharmacological manipulations chemical receptor agonist facilitates neural activity enhancing replacing endogenous neurotransmitters agonists delivered systemically intravenous injection locally intracerebrally surgical procedure synthetic ligand injection likewise g sub q sub dreadds used


modulate cellular function innervation brain regions hippocampus innervation results amplification rhythms increases motor activity transcranial magnetic stimulation cases example studies motor cortex technique analyzed stimulatory effect rather functional lesion optogenetic excitation light activated excitatory protein expressed select cells channelrhodopsin chr light activated cation channel first bacterial opsin shown excite neurons response light though number new excitatory optogenetic tools generated improving


imparting novel properties chr measuring neural activity optical techniques optical methods recording neuronal activity rely methods modify optical properties neurons response cellular events associated action potentials neurotransmitter release voltage sensitive dyes vsds among earliest method optically detecting neuronal activity vsds commonly changed fluorescent properties response voltage change across neuron 's membrane rendering membrane sub threshold supra threshold action potentials electrical activity detectable genetically encoded voltage sensitive fluorescent proteins also developed calcium imaging relies dyes genetically encoded


proteins fluoresce upon binding calcium transiently present action potential synapto phluorin technique relies fusion protein combines synaptic vesicle membrane protein ph sensitive fluorescent protein upon synaptic vesicle release chimeric protein exposed higher ph synaptic cleft causing measurable change fluorescence single unit recording method whereby electrode introduced brain living animal detect electrical activity generated neurons adjacent electrode tip normally performed sedated


animals sometimes performed awake animals engaged behavioral event thirsty rat whisking particular sandpaper grade previously paired water order measure corresponding patterns neuronal firing decision point multielectrode recording use bundle fine electrodes record simultaneous activity hundreds neurons fmri functional magnetic resonance imaging technique frequently applied human subjects changes cerebral blood flow detected mri apparatus taken indicate relative activity


larger scale brain regions ie order hundreds thousands neurons pet brain scans show chemical differences brain addicts non addicts see normal images top row come non addict people addicting disorders scans look abnormalpet positron emission tomography detects particles called photons using nuclear medicine examination particles emitted injections radioisotopes fluorine pet imaging reveal pathological processes predict anatomic changes making important detecting diagnosing characterising many pathologies electroencephalography


eeg derivative technique event related potentials scalp electrodes monitor average activity neurons cortex used frequently human subjects technique uses different types electrodes recording systems needle electrodes saline based electrodes eeg allows investigation mental disorders sleep disorders physiology monitor brain development cognitive engagement functional neuroanatomy complex counterpart phrenology expression anatomical marker taken reflect neural activity example expression immediate early genes thought


mapping influence gene behavior statistically inferred studying inbred strains species commonly mice recent sequencing genome many species notably mice facilitated technique selective breeding organisms often mice may bred selectively among inbred strains create recombinant congenic strain might done isolate experimentally interesting stretch dna derived one strain background genome another strain allow stronger inferences role stretch dna genetic engineering genome may


researchers psychology enhance understanding functions developments nervous systems examples methods include modelling neurons networks brain systems theoretical analysis computational methods wide variety roles including clarifying experiments hypothesis testing generating new insights techniques play increasing role advancement biological psychology limitations advantages different manipulations advantages limitations neural tissue destroyed primary consequence surgery electric shock neurotoxin confound results physical trauma masks changes fundamental neurophysiological processes


interest example using electrolytic probe create purposeful lesion distinct region rat brain surrounding tissue affected change behavior exhibited experimental group post surgery degree result damage surrounding neural tissue rather lesion distinct brain region ref name abel lattal genetic manipulation techniques also considered permanent ref name abel lattal temporary lesions achieved advanced genetic manipulations example certain genes switched diet ref name abel


lattal pharmacological manipulations also allow blocking certain neurotransmitters temporarily function returns previous state drug metabolized ref name abel lattal ref topic areas general behavioral neuroscientists study similar themes issues academic psychologists though limited need use nonhuman animals result bulk literature behavioral neuroscience deals mental processes behaviors shared across different animal models sensation perception motivated behavior hunger thirst sex control movement learning memory sleep biological rhythms emotion however


increasing technical sophistication development precise noninvasive methods applied human subjects behavioral neuroscientists beginning contribute classical topic areas psychology philosophy linguistics language reasoning decision making consciousness behavioral neuroscience also strong history contributing understanding medical disorders including fall purview clinical psychology biological psychopathology also known abnormal psychology although animal models exist mental illnesses field contributed important therapeutic data variety conditions


including parkinson 's disease degenerative disorder central nervous system often impairs sufferer 's motor skills speech huntington 's disease rare inherited neurological disorder whose obvious symptoms abnormal body movements lack coordination also affects number mental abilities aspects personality alzheimer 's disease neurodegenerative disease common form found people age characterized progressive cognitive deterioration together declining activities daily living neuropsychiatric symptoms behavioral changes clinical depression common psychiatric


disorder characterized persistent lowering mood loss interest usual activities diminished ability experience pleasure schizophrenia psychiatric diagnosis describes mental illness characterized impairments perception expression reality commonly manifesting auditory hallucinations paranoid bizarre delusions disorganized speech thinking context significant social occupational dysfunction autism brain development disorder impairs social interaction communication causes restricted repetitive behavior starting child three years old anxiety physiological state characterized cognitive somatic emotional behavioral


components components combine create feelings typically recognized fear apprehension worry drug abuse including alcoholism awards '''nobel laureates''' following nobel prize winners could reasonably considered behavioral neuroscientists neurobiologists list omits winners almost exclusively neuroanatomists neurophysiologists ie measure behavioral neurobiological variables '''kavli prize neuroscience''' ann graybiel cornelia bargmann winfried denk see also references external links http wwwbiopsychologycom news biological psychology links http homepageuibkacat c humanethologie ws medicus block inhalthtml theory biological psychology documents english https webarchiveorg web http ibroinfo ibro international brain research organization


'''health informatics''' field science engineering aims developing methods technologies acquisition processing study patient data come different sources modalities electronic health records diagnostic test results medical scans health domain provides extremely wide variety problems tackled using computational techniques ref name ref health informatics spectrum multidisciplinary fields includes study design development application computational innovations improve health care disciplines involved combines medicine fields computing fields particular computer engineering software

Applied science
Medicine and health
Health informatics


engineering information engineering bioinformatics bio inspired computing theoretical computer science information systems data science information technology autonomic computing behavior informatics academic institutions medical informatics research focus applications artificial intelligence healthcare designing medical devices based embedded systems ref name countries term informatics also used context applying library science data management hospitals subspecialities example application informatics medicine bioimage informaticsaccording jan van bemmel medical informatics comprises theoretical practical aspects information processing communication based knowledge experience derived


tools promote patient care safe efficient effective timely patient centered equitable many clinical informaticists also computer scientists october american board medical specialties abms organization overseeing certification specialist mds united states announced creation md physician certification clinical informatics first examination board certification subspecialty clinical informatics offered october american board preventive medicine abpm passing become inaugural class diplomates clinical informatics fellowship programs exist physicians wish become board certified


clinical informatics physicians must graduated medical school united states canada school located elsewhere approved abpm addition must complete primary residency program internal medicine subspecialties recognized abms eligible become licensed practice medicine state fellowship program located fellowship program months length fellows dividing time informatics rotations didactic method research clinical work primary specialty integrated data repository example idr


schema one fundamental elements biomedical translation research use integrated data repositories survey conducted defined integrated data repository idr data warehouse incorporating various sources clinical data support queries range research like functions ref name pmid ref integrated data repositories complex systems developed solve variety problems ranging identity management protection confidentiality semantic syntactic comparability data different sources importantly convenient flexible query ref name pmid ref development field clinical informatics led creation large data sets


electronic health record data integrated data genomic data types data repositories include operational data stores odss clinical data warehouses cdws clinical data marts clinical registries ref name nadkarni p pp doi b pages title clinical research computing practitioner 's handbook publisher academic press isbn ref operational data stores established extracting transferring loading creating warehouse data marts ref name nadkarni p pp clinical registries repositories long existence contents disease specific sometimes considered archaic ref name nadkarni p pp clinical data stores clinical


data warehouses considered fast reliable though large integrated repositories impacted clinical research significantly still faces challenges barriers one big problem requirement ethical approval institutional review board irb research analysis meant publication ref name huser v pmc ref research resources require irb approval example cdws data deceased patients de identified irb approval required usage ref name huser v pmc ref name pmid ref name nadkarni p pp ref name pmid another challenge data quality methods adjust bias


using propensity score matching methods assume complete health record captured tools examine data quality eg point missing data help discovering data quality problems data science knowledge representation healthcare clinical research informatics clinical research informatics cri sub field health informatics tries improve efficiency clinical research using informatics methods problems tackled cri creation data warehouses health care data used research support data collection clinical trials use electronic data


capture systems streamlining ethical approvals renewals us responsible entity local institutional review board maintenance repositories past clinical trial data de identified cri fairly new branch informatics met growing pains coming field issue cri faces ability statisticians computer system architects work clinical research staff designing system lack funding support development new system researchers informatics team difficult time coordinating plans ideas


order design system easy use research team yet fits system requirements computer team lack funding hindrance development cri many organizations performing research struggling get financial support conduct research much less invest money informatics system provide income improve outcome research embi ability integrate data multiple clinical trials important part clinical research informatics initiatives


phenx patient reported outcomes measurement information system triggered general effort improve secondary use data collected past human clinical trials cde initiatives example try allow clinical trial designers adopt standardized research instruments electronic case report forms ref name pm ref parallel effort standardizing data collected initiatives offer de identified patient level clinical study data downloaded researchers wish use data examples platforms project data sphere dbgap immport clinical study data request informatics issues data formats sharing results plain csv files


fda endorsed formats cdisc study data tabulation model important challenges within field clinical research informatics number activities within clinical research cri supports including efficient effective data collection acquisition improved recruitment clinical trials optimal protocol design efficient management patient recruitment management adverse event reporting regulatory compliance data storage transfer ref name odm ref processing analysis repositories data completed clinical trials secondary analyses translational bioinformatics translational bioinformatics tbi relatively new field surfaced year human genome sequence


outcomes patients ceo california based cognitive computing firm apixio darren schutle explains care better fitted patient data could collected various medical records merged analyzed combination similar profiles serve basis personalized medicine pointing works certain condition marr genomics clinical care br genomic data used identify genes involvement unknown rare conditions syndromes currently vigorous area using genomics oncology identification genomic sequencing cancer may


define reasons drug sensitivity resistance oncological treatment processes ref name omics drugs discovery repurposing br repurposing drug appealing idea allows pharmaceutical companies sell already approved drug treat different condition disease drug initially approved fda observation molecular signatures disease compare signatures observed cells points possibility drug ability cure relieve symptoms disease ref name personalized genomic testing br us several companies offer direct consumer dtc genetic testing


company performs majority testing called andme utilizing genetic testing health care raises many ethical legal social concerns one main questions whether health care providers ready include patient supplied genomic information providing care unbiased despite intimate genomic knowledge high quality documented examples incorporating information health care delivery showed positive negative impacts overall health care related outcomes ref name artificial intelligence healthcare x ray hand automatic calculation bone age


computer software pioneer use artificial intelligence healthcare american biomedical informatician edward h shortliffe field deals utilization machine learning algorithms artificial intelligence emulate human cognition analysis interpretation comprehension complicated medical healthcare data specifically ai ability computer algorithms approximate conclusions based solely input data ai programs applied practices diagnosis processes treatment protocol development drug development personalized medicine patient monitoring care large part industry focus implementation ai healthcare sector


clinical decision support systems data collected machine learning algorithms adapt allow robust responses solutions ref name ref numerous companies exploring possibilities incorporation big data healthcare industry many companies investigate market opportunities realms data assessment storage management analysis technologies crucial parts healthcare industry ref name ref following examples large companies contributed ai algorithms use healthcare ibm 's watson oncology development memorial sloan kettering cancer center cleveland clinic ibm


also working cvs health ai applications chronic disease treatment johnson johnson analysis scientific papers find new connections drug development may ibm rensselaer polytechnic institute began joint project entitled health empowerment analytics learning semantics heals explore using ai technology enhance healthcare microsoft 's hanover project partnership oregon health science university 's knight cancer institute analyzes medical research predict effective cancer drug treatment options patients projects include medical image analysis tumor progression development programmable


cells google 's deepmind platform used uk national health service detect certain health risks data collected via mobile app second project nhs involves analysis medical images collected nhs patients develop computer vision algorithms detect cancerous tissues tencent working several medical systems services include ai medical innovation system aimis ai powered diagnostic medical imaging service wechat intelligent healthcare tencent doctorwork intel 's venture capital arm intel capital recently invested startup lumiata uses ai identify risk patients develop care options kheiron


medical developed deep learning software detect breast cancers mammograms fractal analytics incubated qureai focuses using deep learning ai improve radiology speed analysis diagnostic x rays elon musk premiering surgical robot implants neuralink brain chip neuralink come next generation neuroprosthetic intricately interfaces thousands neural pathways brain ref name process allows chip roughly size quarter inserted place chunk skull precision surgical robot avoid accidental injury ref


name digital consultant apps like babylon health 's gp hand ada health alihealth doctor karexpert yourmd use ai give medical consultation based personal medical history common medical knowledge users report symptoms app uses speech recognition compare database illnesses babylon offers recommended action taking account user 's medical history entrepreneurs healthcare effectively using seven business model archetypes take ai solution nowiki buzzword marketplace archetypes depend value generated target user eg patient focus vs healthcare provider


payer focus value capturing mechanisms eg providing information connecting stakeholders iflytek launched service robot xiao man integrated artificial intelligence technology identify registered customer provide personalized recommendations medical areas also works field medical imaging similar robots also made companies ubtech cruzr softbank robotics pepper indian startup haptik recently developed whatsapp chatbot answers questions associated deadly coronavirus india market ai expanding constantly large tech companies apple google amazon baidu


ai research divisions well millions dollars allocated acquisition smaller ai based companies ref name many automobile manufacturers beginning use machine learning healthcare cars well ref name companies bmw ge tesla toyota volvo new research campaigns find ways learning driver 's vital statistics ensure awake paying attention road influence substances emotional distress ref name examples projects computational health informatics include coach project ref name mihailidis ref telehealth telemedicine federal


center neurosurgery tyumen '' telehealth distribution health related services information via electronic information telecommunication technologies allows long distance patient clinician contact care advice reminders education intervention monitoring remote admissions telemedicine sometimes used synonym used limited sense describe remote clinical services diagnosis monitoring remote monitoring also known self monitoring testing enables medical professionals monitor patient remotely using various technological devices method primarily used managing chronic diseases specific conditions heart disease diabetes mellitus


asthma services provide comparable health outcomes traditional person patient encounters supply greater satisfaction patients may cost effective telerehabilitation e rehabilitation delivery rehabilitation services telecommunication networks internet types services fall two categories clinical assessment patient 's functional abilities environment clinical therapy fields rehabilitation practice explored telerehabilitation neuropsychology speech language pathology audiology occupational therapy physical therapy telerehabilitation deliver therapy people cannot travel clinic patient disability


travel time telerehabilitation also allows experts rehabilitation engage clinical consultation distance medical signal processing important application information engineering medicine medical signal processing ref name refers generation analysis use signals could take many forms image sound electrical biological medical image computing imaging informatics mid axial slice icbm diffusion tensor image template voxel 's value tensor represented ellipsoid color denotes principal orientation red left right blue inferior superior green posterior anterior imaging informatics medical image computing


develops computational mathematical methods solving problems pertaining medical images use biomedical research clinical care fields aims extract clinically relevant information knowledge medical images computational analysis images methods grouped several broad categories image segmentation image registration image based physiological modeling others fields healthcare technology medical robotics autonomic computing medical robot robot used medical sciences include surgical robots telemanipulators use surgeon 's activators one side control effector


side following types medical robots surgical robots either allow surgical operations carried better precision unaided human surgeon allow remote surgery human surgeon physically present patient rehabilitation robots facilitate support lives infirm elderly people dysfunction body parts affecting movement robots also used rehabilitation related procedures training therapy biorobots group robots designed imitate cognition humans animals telepresence robots allow site medical professionals


move look around communicate participate remote locations pharmacy automation robotic systems dispense oral solids retail pharmacy setting preparing sterile iv admixtures hospital pharmacy setting companion robot capability engage emotionally users keeping company alerting problem health disinfection robot capability disinfect whole room mere minutes generally using pulsed ultraviolet light used fight ebola virus disease computer engineering healthcare field computer engineering known europe technical informatics


closely related engineering informatics includes also information engineering computer engineers create computer based devices health service particular embedded systems neuroengineering neuroinformatics schematic illustration digital tracing neuron 's morphology neuroinformatics scientific study information flow processing nervous system institute scientists utilize brain imaging techniques magnetic resonance imaging reveal organization brain networks involved human thought brain simulation concept creating functioning computer model brain part brain three main directions neuroinformatics applied


development computational models nervous system neural processes development tools analyzing data devices neurological diagnostic devices development tools databases management sharing patients brain data healthcare institutions brain mapping simulation brain simulation concept creating functioning computational model brain part brain december blue brain project completed simulation rat 's neocortical column neocortical column considered smallest functional unit neocortex neocortex part brain


thought responsible higher order functions like conscious thought contains neurons rat brain sup sup synapses november project reported end first phase delivering data driven process creating validating researching neocortical column artificial neural network described big complex half mouse brain run ibm blue gene supercomputer university nevada 's research team second simulated time took ten seconds computer time researchers claimed observe biologically consistent nerve impulses


flowed virtual cortex however simulation lacked structures seen real mice brains intend improve accuracy neuron synapse models mind uploading mind uploading process scanning physical structure brain accurately enough create emulation mental state including long term memory self copying computer digital form computer would run simulation brain 's information processing would respond essentially way original brain experience


sentient conscious mind ref name simmeuk ref ref name kajsotalafi ref substantial mainstream research related areas conducted animal brain mapping simulation development faster supercomputers virtual reality brain computer interfaces connectomics information extraction dynamically functioning brains according supporters many tools ideas needed achieve mind uploading already exist currently active development however admit others yet speculative say still realm engineering possibility history worldwide use computer technology medicine began early rise computers


gustav wagner established first professional organization informatics germany prehistory history future medical information health information technology discussed reference ref name robson first ref specialized university departments informatics training programs began france germany belgium netherlands medical informatics research units began appear poland us ref name nyu ref since development high quality health informatics research education infrastructure goal us european union early names health informatics included medical computing biomedical computing medical computer


science computer medicine medical electronic data processing medical automatic data processing medical information processing medical information science medical software engineering medical computer technology health informatics community still growing means mature profession work uk voluntary registration body uk council health informatics professions suggested eight key constituencies within domain information management knowledge management portfolio program project management ict education research clinical informatics health records service business related health informatics service management constituencies accommodate professionals nhs academia commercial service solution providers


since prominent international coordinating body international medical informatics association imia united states even though idea using computers medicine emerged technology advanced early th century informatics began effect united states ref name univ ref earliest use electronic digital computers medicine dental projects united states national bureau standards robert ledley mid united states air force usaf carried several medical projects


computers also encouraging civilian agencies national academy sciences national research council nas nrc national institutes health nih sponsor work ref name november ref ledley lee b lusted published reasoning foundations medical diagnosis widely read article ''science'' introduced computing especially operations research techniques medical workers ledley lusted 's article remained influential decades especially within field medical decision making ref name pyle ref guided ledley 's late survey computer use biology medicine carried nas nrc lusted 's


articles nih undertook first major effort introduce computers biology medicine effort carried initially nih 's advisory committee computers research accr chaired lusted spent nbsp million order establish dozens large small biomedical research centers us ref name november one early non accr use computers help quantify normal human movement precursor scientifically measuring deviations normal design prostheses ref name pmid ref use computers ibm allowed analysis large sample


size measurements subgroups previously practical mechanical calculators thus allowing objective understanding human locomotion varies age body characteristics study co author dean marquette university college engineering work led discrete biomedical engineering departments elsewhere next steps mid development sponsored largely nih expert systems mycin internist national library medicine started use medline medlars around time neil pappalardo curtis marble robert greenes developed mumps


field medical informatics kaiser permanente growing number commercial vendors began market practice management electronic medical records systems although many products exist small number health practitioners use fully featured electronic health care records systems warner v slack md howard l bleich md co founded academic division clinical informatics beth israel deaconess medical center harvard medical school warner slack pioneer development electronic patient medical history dr bleich created first user friendly search engine


worlds biomedical literature ref name pmid ref dr slack dr bleich awarded morris f collen award pioneering contributions medical informatics computerized systems involved patient care led number changes changes led improvements electronic health records capable sharing medical information among multiple health care stakeholders zahabi kaber swangnetr thereby supporting flow patient information various modalities care one opportunity electronic health records ehr even effectively used utilize natural language processing searching analyzing


notes text would otherwise inaccessible review developed ongoing collaboration software developers end users natural language processing tools within electronic health ehrs computer use today involves broad ability includes n't limited physician diagnosis documentation patient appointment scheduling billing many researchers field identified increase quality health care systems decreased errors health care workers lastly savings time money zahabi kaber swangnetr system however perfect continue require


improvement frequently cited factors concern involve usability safety accessibility user friendliness zahabi kaber swangnetr leaders field medical informatics improve upon aforementioned factors concern overall provision health care continue improve ref name reference ref ref name referencea ref homer r warner one fathers medical informatics founded department medical informatics university utah american medical informatics association amia award named application informatics medicine informatics certifications available help informatics professionals stand recognized


american nurses credentialing center ancc offers board certification nursing informatics radiology informatics ciip certified imaging informatics professional certification created abii american board imaging informatics founded siim society imaging informatics medicine arrt american registry radiologic technologists ciip certification requires documented experience working imaging informatics formal testing limited time credential requiring renewal every five years exam tests combination technical knowledge clinical understanding project management experience thought represent typical workload


pacs administrator radiology clinical support role certifications parca pacs administrators registry certifications association also recognized five parca certifications tiered entry level architect level american health information management association offers credentials medical coding analytics data administration registered health information administrator certified coding associate certifications widely requested employers health informatics overall demand certified informatics workers united states outstripping supply american health information management association reports applicants pass certification exams


first try consortium health informatics trainers composed measure evaluation public health foundation india university pretoria kenyatta university university ghana identified following areas knowledge curriculum digital health workforce especially low middle income countries clinical decision support telehealth privacy security confidentiality workflow process improvement technology people processes process engineering quality process improvement health information technology computer hardware software databases data warehousing information networks information systems information exchange data analytics usability methods uk broad history health informatics


captured book ''uk health computing recollections reflections'' hayes g barnett eds bcs may active field predominantly members bcs health constituent groups book describes path taken 'early development health informatics unorganized idiosyncratic' early prompted involved nhs finance early solutions including pathology radiotherapy immunization primary care emerge many solutions even early developed


house pioneers field meet requirements part due areas health services example immunization vaccination children still provided local authorities coalition government proposed broadly return strategy equity excellence liberating nhs july stating put patients heart nhs information revolution greater choice control' shared decision making becoming norm 'no decision without me' patients access information want make choices


care increased control care records bcs via fedip provides different professional registration levels health care informatics professionals practitioner senior practitioner advanced practitioner leading practitionerfedip federation informatics professionals health social care collaboration leading professional bodies health care informatics supporting development informatics profession current state policy initiatives america argentina since buenos aires biomedical informatics group nonprofit group represents interests broad range clinical non clinical professionals working within


health informatics sphere purposes promote implementation computer tool health care activity scientific research health administration areas related health sciences biomedical research support promote disseminate content related activities management health information tools used name biomedical informatics promote cooperation exchange actions generated field biomedical informatics public private national international level interact scientists recognized academic stimulating creation new instances goal


inspired purpose promote organize sponsor participate events activities training computer information disseminating developments area might useful team members health related activities argentinian health system heterogeneous function informatics developments show heterogeneous stage many private health care centers developed systems hospital aleman buenos aires hospital italiano de buenos aires also residence program health informatics brazil first applications computers


medicine health care brazil started around installation first mainframes public university hospitals use programmable calculators scientific research applications minicomputers ibm installed several universities first applications developed hospital census school medicine ribeir preto patient master files hospital das cl nicas da universidade de paulo respectively cities ribeir preto paulo campuses university paulo several digital corporation


hewlett packard minicomputers acquired public armed forces hospitals intensively used intensive care unit cardiology diagnostics patient monitoring applications early arrival cheaper microcomputers great upsurge computer applications health ensued brazilian society health informatics founded first brazilian congress health informatics held first ''brazilian journal health informatics'' published brazil two universities pioneers teaching research medical informatics university sao paulo federal university sao


paulo offer undergraduate programs highly qualified area well extensive graduate programs msc phd universidade federal de ci ncias da sa de de porto alegre rio grande sul also started offer undergraduate program canada health informatics projects canada implemented provincially different provinces creating different systems national federally funded profit organization called canada health infoway created foster development adoption electronic health records across canada december ehr projects way canadian hospitals health care


facilities pharmacies laboratories investment value billion canada health infoway provincial territorial programmes include following ehealth ontario created ontario provincial government agency september plagued delays ceo fired multimillion dollar contracts scandal alberta netcare created government alberta today netcare portal used daily thousands clinicians provides access demographic data prescribed dispensed drugs known allergies intolerances immunizations laboratory test results diagnostic imaging reports diabetes registry medical reports netcare interface


capabilities included electronic medical record products funded provincial government united states president george w bush signed executive order creating office national coordinator health information technology onchit division us department health human services hhs mission office widespread adoption interoperable electronic health records ehrs us within years see quality improvement organizations information federal initiatives area department education approved advanced health informatics


undergraduate program submitted university south alabama program designed provide specific health informatics education program country health informatics lab program housed school computing shelby hall recently completed nbsp million state art teaching facility university south alabama awarded david l loeser may first health informatics degree program currently scheduled students awarded certification commission healthcare information technology cchit private nonprofit group


funded us department health human services develop set standards electronic health records ehr supporting networks certify vendors meet july cchit released first list certified ambulatory ehr products two different announcements harvard medical school added department biomedical informatics university cincinnati partnership cincinnati children 's hospital medical center created biomedical informatics bmi graduate certificate program began bmi phd program joint program allows researchers students observe


impact work patient care directly discoveries translated bench bedside europe european union 's member states committed sharing best practices experiences create european ehealth area thereby improving access quality health care time stimulating growth promising new industrial sector european ehealth action plan plays fundamental role european union 's strategy work initiative involves collaborative approach among several parts commission services european institute health records involved promotion high


quality electronic health record systems european union uk different models health informatics delivery home countries england scotland northern ireland wales bodies like ukchip see operate 'in for' home countries beyond nhs informatics england contracted several vendors national health informatics solutions national programme information technology npfit label early mid auspices nhs connecting health part health social care information centre


paper 'liberating nhs' initiative provided little way innovative thinking primarily stating existing strategies within proposed new context coalition 's vision nhs degree computerization nhs secondary care quite high npfit programme stagnated development install base original npfit regional approach provided neither single nationwide solution local health community agility autonomy purchase systems instead tried deal hinterland middle almost general practices england wales computerized gp systems


choice programme patients relatively extensive computerized primary care clinical records system choice responsibility individual general practices single standardized gp system sets relatively rigid minimum standards performance functionality vendors adhere interoperation primary secondary care systems rather primitive hoped focus interworking interfacing integration standards stimulate synergy primary secondary care sharing necessary information support care individuals notable successes date electronic requesting viewing


test results areas gps access digital x ray images secondary care systems gp systems choice framework replaced gp futures framework main vehicle used clinical commissioning groups buy services gps intended increase competition area dominated emis tpp technology companies offering solutions accepted new framework wales dedicated health informatics function supports nhs wales leading


new integrated digital information services promoting health informatics career netherlands netherlands health informatics currently priority research implementation netherlands federation university medical centers nfu created ''citrienfonds'' includes programs ehealth registration source netherlands also national organizations society healthcare informatics vmbi nictiz national center standardization ehealth european research development european commission 's preference exemplified th framework well currently pursued pilot projects free libre open source


regarded major umbrella group member international medical informatics association imia nursing informaticians driving force behind formation hisa company limited guarantee members membership comes across informatics spectrum students corporate affiliates hisa number branches queensland new south wales victoria western australia well special interest groups nursing nia pathology aged community care industry medical imaging conrick china years china performed successful transition


planned economy socialist market economy along change china 's health care system also experienced significant reform follow adapt historical revolution data released ministry health people 's republic china moh indicated national health care involved expenditure rmb nbsp billion totally accounted nationwide gross domestic products entire health care costs covered central government annual budget since construct health care expended supporters started change gradually expenditure


contributed health insurance schemes private spending corresponded total expenditure respectively meanwhile financially governmental contribution decreased hand health care facilities recorded statistic summary moh average clinical beds per people mentioned well ref name ijmi p ref proportion nationwide hospitals china along development information technology since health care providers realized information could generate significant benefits improve services computerized cases


northwest china equivalent moreover centers disease control prevention cdc rural level approximately health care organisations rural level hospitals town level ability perform transmission reports real time epidemic situation public health information system analysis infectious diseases dynamic statistics china four tiers health care system first tier street health workplace clinics cheaper hospitals terms medical billing act prevention


clinics reason clinics prevention centers chinese people like using traditional chinese medicine opposed western medicine usually works minor cases china also improving higher education regards health informatics end medical universities medical colleges university medical colleges offered bachelor master doctorate degrees medicine higher medical specialty institutions offered diploma degrees total higher medical educational institutions since joining wto china


working hard improve education system bring international standards sars played large role china quickly improving health care system back outbreak sars made china hurry spread hospital information system hospitals china comparing korea 's health care system figuring better system study done surveyed six hospitals china results doctors n't use computers


much concluded n't used much clinical practice administrative purposes survey asked hospitals created websites concluded four created websites three third party company create one created hospital staff conclusion agreed strongly agreed providing health information internet utilized collected information different times different participants systems could frequently lead issues misunderstanding dis comparing dis exchanging


design issues minor system health care providers realized certain standards basis sharing information interoperability however system lacking standards would large impediment interfere improvement corresponding information systems given standardization health informatics depends authorities standardization events must involved government subsequently relevant funding supports critical ministry health released development lay national health informatics indicating identification standardization health informatics 'combining adoption international standards development national standards'


china establishment standardization initially facilitated development vocabulary classification coding conducive reserve transmit information premium management national level international domestic standards vocabulary classification coding served hospital information system th revision international statistical classification diseases related health problems icd icd clinical modification icd cm adopted standards diagnostic classification acute care procedure classification simultaneously international classification primary care icpc translated tested china 's local applied


environment another coding standard named logical observation identifiers names codes loinc applied serve general identifiers clinical observation hospitals personal identifier codes widely employed different information systems involving name sex nationality family relationship educational level job occupation however codes within different systems inconsistent sharing different regions considering large quantity vocabulary classification coding standards different jurisdictions health care provider realized using multiple systems could generate issues resource wasting non conflicting national level standard beneficial necessary therefore late


health informatics group ministry health released three projects deal issues lacking national health information standards chinese national health information framework standardization basic data set standards hospital information system basic data set standards public health information system objectives chinese national health information framework standardization project ref name ijmi p establish national health information framework identify areas standards guidelines required identify classes relationships attributes national health information framework produce conceptual health data model


cover scope health information framework create logical data model specific domains depicting logical data entities data attributes relationships entities according conceptual health data model establish uniform represent standard data elements according data entities attributes conceptual data model logical data model circulate completed health information framework health data model partnership members review acceptance develop process maintain refine china model align influence international health


data models comparing china 's ehr standard astm e researchers local universities evaluated performance china 's electronic health record ehr standard compared american society testing materials standard practice content structure electronic health records united states astm e standard withdrawn deficiencies found listed following lack supporting privacy security iso ts specifies ehr must support ethical legal use personal information accordance established privacy principles frameworks


complex ehr standard constructed medical domains however specific time frequent attributes clinical data elements value sets templates identified purpose cannot lead practical consequence ref name l vy ref hong kong computerized patient record system called clinical management system cms developed hospital authority since system deployed sites authority hospitals clinics used nbsp million transactions daily clinical staff comprehensive records nbsp million patients available line electronic


patient record epr data integrated sites since radiology image viewing added epr radiography images ha site available part epr hong kong hospital authority placed particular attention governance clinical systems development input hundreds clinicians incorporated structured process health informatics section hospital authority close relationship information technology department clinicians develop health care systems organization support service public hospitals clinics


region hong kong society medical informatics hksmi established promote use information technology health care ehealth consortium formed bring together clinicians private public sectors medical informatics professionals industry promote health care hong kong india ehcf school medical informatics ehealth care foundation malaysia since ministry health moh working malaysian health data warehouse myhdw project myhdw aims meet diverse needs timely health information provision


hospital area medical informatics aim hospital information system achieve best possible support patient care administration electronic data processing plays vital role planning initiating organizing controlling operations subsystems hospital thus provides synergistic organization process new zealand health informatics taught five new zealand universities mature established programme offered decade otago health informatics new zealand hinz national organisation advocates health informatics


population socially protected basis current government health care system consists several directions preventive health care primary health care specialized medical care obstetrical gynecologic medical care pediatric medical care surgery rehabilitation health resort treatment one main issues post soviet medical health care system absence united system providing optimization work medical institutes one single database structured appointment schedule hence hours long lines efficiency medical workers might also doubtful paperwork administrating lost book records along development


information systems health care departments moscow agreed design system would improve public services health care institutes tackling issues appearing existing system moscow government ordered design system would provide simplified electronic booking public clinics automate work medical workers first level system designed purposes called emias united medical information analysis system presents electronic health record ehr majority services set system manages flow patients


apply information technology health related fields addresses privacy ethical operational issues invariably arise electronic tools information media used health care delivery health informatics law also applies matters involve information technology health care interaction information deals circumstances data records shared fields areas support enhance patient care many health care systems making effort patient records readily available via internet important providers implement


security standards order ensure patients' information safe able assure confidentiality integrity security people process technology since also possibility payments made system vital aspect private information also protected cryptography use technology health care settings become popular trend expected continue various health care facilities instigated different kinds health information technology systems provision patient care electronic health


records ehrs computerized charting etc ref name pmid ref growing popularity health information technology systems escalation amount health information exchanged transferred electronically increased risk potential infringement patients' privacy confidentiality concern triggered establishment strict measures policymakers individual facility ensure patient privacy confidentiality one federal laws enacted safeguard patient 's health information medical record billing information treatment plan etc guarantee patient 's privacy health insurance portability accountability act hipaa ref name hhsgov rights hipaa


nd text retrieved september ref hipaa gives patients autonomy control health records ref name hhsgov furthermore according us department health human services nd law enables patients ref name hhsgov view health records request copy medical records request correction incorrect health information know access health record request cannot view access health information health medical informatics journals impact factors scholarly journals publishing digital health ehealth mhealth work ''computers biomedical research'' published


journals medical informatics ''journal medical internet research'' impact factor ''jmir mhealth uhealth'' ''journal american medical informatics association'' ref name wos ref see also related concepts references reading external links


'''automotive engineering''' along aerospace engineering naval architecture branch vehicle engineering incorporating elements mechanical electrical electronic software safety engineering applied design manufacture operation motorcycles automobiles trucks respective engineering subsystems also includes modification vehicles manufacturing domain deals creation assembling whole parts automobiles also included automotive engineering field research intensive involves direct application mathematical models formulas study automotive engineering design develop fabricate test vehicles vehicle components

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Automotive engineering


concept stage production stage production development manufacturing three major functions field disciplines automobile engineering automobile engineering branch study engineering teaches manufacturing designing mechanical mechanisms well operations automobiles introduction vehicle engineering deals motorcycles cars buses trucks etc includes branch study mechanical electronic software safety elements engineering attributes disciplines importance automotive engineer include '''safety engineering''' safety engineering assessment various crash scenarios impact


vehicle occupants tested stringent governmental regulations requirements include seat belt air bag functionality testing front side impact testing tests rollover resistance assessments done various methods tools including computer crash simulation typically finite element analysis crash test dummy partial system sled full vehicle crashes visualization car deforms asymmetrical crash using finite element analysis http impactsourceforgenet '''fuel economy emissions''' fuel economy measured fuel efficiency vehicle miles per gallon kilometers per liter emissions testing covers measurement


vehicle emissions including hydrocarbons nitrogen oxides nox carbon monoxide co carbon dioxide co evaporative emissions '''nvh engineering noise vibration harshness ''' nvh involves customer feedback tactile felt audible heard concerning vehicle sound interpreted rattle squeal hot tactile response seat vibration buzz steering wheel feedback generated components either rubbing vibrating rotating nvh response classified various ways powertrain nvh road noise wind noise component noise squeak rattle note good bad nvh


qualities nvh engineer works either eliminate bad nvh change bad nvh good ie exhaust tones '''vehicle electronics''' automotive electronics increasingly important aspect automotive engineering modern vehicles employ dozens electronic systems systems responsible operational controls throttle brake steering controls well many comfort convenience systems hvac infotainment lighting systems would possible automobiles meet modern safety fuel economy requirements without electronic controls '''performance''' performance measurable testable value vehicle 's ability perform


various conditions performance considered wide variety tasks 's generally associated quickly car accelerate eg standing start mile elapsed time nbsp mph etc top speed disambiguation top speed short quickly car come complete stop set speed eg nbsp mph much g force car generate without losing grip recorded lap times cornering speed brake fade etc performance also reflect amount control inclement weather snow ice rain '''shift quality''' shift quality driver 's perception vehicle


automatic transmission shift event influenced powertrain engine transmission vehicle driveline suspension engine powertrain mounts etc shift feel tactile felt audible heard response vehicle shift quality experienced various events transmission shifts felt upshift acceleration downshift maneuver passing shift engagements vehicle also evaluated park reverse etc '''durability corrosion engineering''' durability corrosion engineering evaluation testing vehicle useful life tests include mileage accumulation


design must support development manufacturing schedule model '''assembly feasibility''' easy design module hard assemble either resulting damaged units poor tolerances skilled product development engineer works assembly manufacturing engineers resulting design easy cheap make assemble well delivering appropriate functionality appearance '''quality management''' quality control important factor within production process high quality needed meet customer requirements avoid expensive recall campaigns complexity components involved production process requires


combination different tools techniques quality control therefore international automotive task force iatf group world 's leading manufacturers trade organizations developed standard iso ts standard defines design development production relevant installation service requirements furthermore combines principles iso aspects various regional national automotive standards avsq italy eaqf france vda germany qs usa order minimize risks related product failures liability claims automotive electric electronic systems quality discipline functional safety according


interactions systems complete automobile multiple components systems automobile function designed must also work harmony complete automobile example brake system 's main function provide braking functionality automobile along must also provide acceptable level pedal feel spongy stiff brake system noise squeal shudder etc interaction abs anti lock braking system another aspect development engineer 's job trade process required deliver


automobile attributes certain acceptable level example trade engine performance fuel economy customers looking maximum power engine automobile still required deliver acceptable level fuel economy engine 's perspective opposing requirements engine performance looking maximum displacement bigger power fuel economy looking smaller displacement engine ex l vs l engine size however contributing factor fuel economy automobile


studies indicate substantial part modern vehicle 's value comes intelligent systems represent current automotive innovation facilitate modern automotive engineering process handle increased use mechatronics configuration performance optimization system integration control component subsystem system level validation intelligent systems must become intrinsic part standard vehicle engineering process case structural vibro acoustic kinematic design requires vehicle development process typically highly simulation driven v approach one way effectively deal


inherent multi physics control systems development involved including intelligent systems adopt v model approach systems development widely used automotive industry twenty years v approach system level requirements propagated v via subsystems component design system performance validated increasing integration levels engineering mechatronic systems requires application two interconnected v cycles one focusing multi physics system engineering like mechanical electrical components electrically powered steering system including sensors actuators


focuses controls engineering control logic software realization control hardware embedded software references


relation literature broadly defined spheres human activity including history politics philosophy art science unlike forms literary study comparative literature places emphasis interdisciplinary analysis social cultural production within economy political dynamics cultural movements historical shifts religious differences urban environment international relations public policy sciences overview students instructors field usually called comparatists traditionally proficient several languages acquainted literary traditions literary criticism major literary texts languages many newer sub fields however

Humanities
Languages and literature
Comparative literature


influenced critical theory literary theory stressing theoretical acumen ability consider different types art concurrently proficiency multiple languages interdisciplinary nature field means comparatists typically exhibit acquaintance sociology history anthropology translation studies critical theory cultural studies religious studies result comparative literature programs within universities may designed scholars drawn several departments eclecticism led critics within without charge comparative literature insufficiently well defined comparatists easily fall dilettantism scope work


necessity broad question whether breadth affects ability phds find employment highly specialized environment academia career market large although concerns seem borne placement data shows comparative literature graduates hired similar higher rates english literature graduates terms comparative literature world literature often used designate similar course study scholarship comparative literature widely used term united states many universities comparative literature departments comparative


literature programs comparative literature interdisciplinary field whose practitioners study literature across national borders time periods languages genres boundaries literature arts music painting dance film etc across disciplines literature psychology philosophy science history architecture sociology politics etc defined broadly comparative literature study literature without borders scholarship comparative literature includes example studying literacy social status americas medieval epic romance links literature folklore mythology colonial postcolonial writings different parts world asking fundamental questions definition


remarkable representative comparative literary study russian european scholarship nineteenth century zhirmunsky qtd rachel polonsky ''english literature russian aesthetic renaissance'' cambridge see also david damrosch late th century comparatists fyodor buslaev chiefly concerned deducing purported zeitgeist spirit times assumed embodied literary output nation although many comparative works period would judged chauvinistic eurocentric even racist present day standards intention scholars period


world war ii discipline developed large extent owing one scholar particular peter szondi hungarian taught free university berlin szondi 's work allgemeine und vergleichende literaturwissenschaft german general comparative literary studies included genre drama lyric particular hermetic poetry hermeneutics szondi 's vision allgemeine und vergleichende literaturwissenschaft became evident policy inviting international guest speakers berlin introductions talks szondi welcomed among others jacques derrida attained worldwide recognition pierre bourdieu lucien goldman france paul


de man z rich gershom sholem jerusalem theodor w adorno frankfurt hans robert jauss young university konstanz us ren wellek geoffrey hartman peter demetz yale along liberal publicist lionel trilling names visiting scholars form programmatic network methodological canon epitomise szondi 's conception comparative literature german comparatists working east germany however invited recognised colleagues france netherlands yet oriented towards west new allies west germany


paid little attention comparatists eastern europe conception transnational transatlantic comparative literature much influenced east european literary theorists russian prague schools structuralism whose works ren wellek derived many concepts concepts continue profound implications comparative literary theory today manual published http wwwkomparatistikuni muenchende indexhtml department comparative literature lmu munich lists german departments offer diploma comparative literature germany albeit 'minor' augsburg bayreuth free university berlin technical university


berlin bochum bonn chemnitz zwickau erfurt erlangen n rnberg essen frankfurt main frankfurt der oder gie en g ttingen jena karlsruhe kassel konstanz leipzig mainz http wwwkomparatistikuni muenchende indexhtml nchen nster osnabr ck paderborn potsdam rostock saarbr cken siegen stuttgart https webarchiveorg web http wwwgermuni tuebingende abteilungen komparatistik indexhtml bingen wuppertal der kleine komparatist situation undergoing rapid change however since many universities adapting new requirements recently introduced bachelor master arts german comparative literature squeezed traditional philologies one hand vocational programmes study seek offer students practical knowledge need working


world eg 'applied literature' german universities longer educating students primarily academic market necessity vocational approach becoming ever evident american us school reacting french school postwar scholars collectively termed american school sought return field matters directly concerned literary criticism de emphasising detective work detailed historical research french school demanded american school closely aligned original internationalist visions goethe posnett arguably reflecting postwar desire international cooperation looking examples universal


human truths based literary archetypes appeared throughout literatures times places prior advent american school scope comparative literature west typically limited literatures western europe anglo america predominantly literature english german french literature occasional forays italian literature primarily dante spanish literature primarily miguel de cervantes one monument approach period erich auerbach 's book ''mimesis representation reality western literature'' survey techniques realism texts whose origins span several


continents three thousand years approach american school would familiar current practitioners cultural studies even claimed forerunner cultural studies boom universities field today highly diverse example comparatists routinely study chinese literature arabic literature literatures major world languages regions well english continental european literatures current developments movement among comparativists united states elsewhere focus discipline away nation based approach


previously associated towards cross cultural approach pays heed national borders works nature include alamgir hashmi 's ''the commonwealth comparative literature world'' gayatri chakravorty spivak 's ''death discipline'' david damrosch 's ''what world literature'' steven sy de zepetnek 's concept comparative cultural studies pascale casanova 's ''the world republic letters'' remains seen whether approach prove successful given comparative literature roots nation based thinking much literature study still concerns issues nation state given


lasana sekou recent post colonial studies north america see george elliott clarke ''directions home approaches african canadian literature'' university toronto press joseph pivato ''echo essays literatures'' guernica editions sherbrooke school comparative canadian literature ''inquire'' area comparative studies literature arts see linda hutcheon 's work opera ''a theory adaptation'' nd ed routledge canadian scholar joseph pivato carrying campaign revitalize comparative study book ''comparative literature new century'' eds giulia de gasperi


joseph pivato response pivato canadian comparatists susan ingram irene sywenky co edited ''comparative literature canada contemporary scholarship pedagogy publishing review'' initiative canadian comparative literature association see also comparative linguistics literary criticism literary translation translation criticism references citations general sources sy de zepetnek steven https docslibpurdueedu clcweblibrary comparativeliteraturebooks multilingual bibliography text books comparative literature world literature comparative cultural studies ''clcweb comparative literature culture'' ''library'' https docslibpurdueedu clcweb ''clcweb comparative literature culture'' ''companion comparative literature world literatures comparative cultural studies'' ed steven sy de zepetnek


tutun mukherjee new delhi cambridge university press india new work comparative literature europe marina grishakova lucia boldrini matthew arnolds eds special issue clcweb https docslibpurdueedu clcweb vol iss comparative literature culture ''comparative literature new century'' giulia de gasperi joseph pivato eds montreal mcgill queen 's external links http wwwcomparativeliteraturenet list comparative literature departments programs us canada uk https webarchiveorg web http wwwailc iclaorg site ailc icla association internationale de litt rature compar e international comparative literature association https webarchiveorg web http wwweurolitnet reelc encls r seau europ en d' tudes litt raires compar es european network comparative literary studies https webarchiveorg web http wwwbclaorg indexhtm bcla british comparative literature association


lists national comparative literature associations worldwide http complitca ccla aclc canadian comparative literature association association canadienne de litt rature compar e http sdpksi slovenian comparative literature association


malacology study mollusca bigfin reef squid '''malacology''' branch invertebrate zoology deals study mollusca mollusks molluscs second largest phylum animals terms described species arthropods mollusks include snails slugs clams octopuses squid numerous kinds many shells one division malacology conchology devoted study mollusk shells malacology derives greek ''malakos'' soft '' logia'' fields within malacological research include taxonomy ecology evolution applied malacology studies medical veterinary

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Malacology


agricultural applications example mollusks vectors disease schistosomiasis archaeology employs malacology understand evolution climate biota area usage site filippo bonanni wrote first book ever published solely seashells shells marine mollusks book entitled german malacological society founded zoological methods used malacological research malacological field methods laboratory methods collecting documenting archiving molecular techniques summarized sturm et al ref name dillon r ref malacologists


study malacology known malacologists study primarily exclusively shells mollusks known conchologists societies american malacological society association polish malacologists stowarzyszenie malakolog w polskich belgian malacological society soci belge de malacologie french speaking belgian society conchology belgische vereniging voor conchyliologie dutch speaking brazilian malacological society sociedade brasileira de malacologia conchological society great britain ireland conchologists america dutch malacological society nederlandse malacologische vereniging estonian malacological society eesti malakoloogia hing european quaternary malacologists freshwater mollusk conservation society german malacological society deutsche malakozoologische gesellschaft hungarian malacological society


magyar malakol giai rsas g italian malacological society societ italiana di malacologia malacological society australasia malacological society london malacological society philippines inc mexican malacological society sociedad mexicana de malacolog conquiliolog spanish malacological society sociedad espa ola de malacolog western society malacologists journals journals within field malacology published countries producing overwhelming amount scientific articles include ''american journal conchology'' ''american malacological bulletin'' ''archiv f r molluskenkunde international journal malacology'' ''basteria'' ''bulletin russian far east malacological society'' ''fish shellfish immunology'' ''folia conchyliologica''


''folia malacologica'' ''heldia'' ''johnsonia'' ''journal de conchyliologie'' volumes biodiversity heritage library volumes biblioth que nationale de france ''journal conchology'' ''journal medical applied malacology'' ''journal molluscan studies'' ''malacologia'' ''malacologica bohemoslovaca'' ''malacological review'' volume today contents volume volume ''soosiana'' ''zeitschrift f r malakozoologie'' ''malakozoologische bl tter'' ''miscellanea malacologica'' ''mollusca'' ''molluscan research'' impact factor ''mitteilungen der deutschen malakozoologischen gesellschaft'' ''occasional molluscan papers'' since ''occasional papers mollusks'' volumes ''ruthenica'' ''strombus'' ''tentacle'' newsletter mollusc specialist


group species survival commission international union conservation nature ''the conchologist'' ''the journal malacology'' ''the festivus'' peer reviewed journal started club newsletter published san diego shell club ''the nautilus'' since published bailey matthews shell museum first two volumes published name ''the conchologists exchange'' impact factor ''the veliger'' impact factor ''venus'' japanese journal malacology ''vita malacologica'' dutch journal published english one themed issue year ''vita marina'' discontinued may


museums malacological museum makarska croatia entrance museums either exceptional malacological research collections behind scenes exceptional public exhibits mollusks academy natural sciences philadelphia american museum natural history bailey matthews shell museum cau del cargol shell museum maria mitchell association museum comparative zoology harvard national museum natural history france natural history museum london rinay royal belgian institute natural sciences brussels collection million shells mainly collection philippe dautzenberg smithsonian institution see also invertebrate paleontology history invertebrate


paleozoology '' treatise invertebrate paleontology'' references reading cox l r peake j f eds ''proceedings first european malacological congress'' september text english black white photographic reproductions also maps diagrams published conchological society great britain ireland malacological society london isbn heppel long dawn malacology brief history malacology prehistory year ''archives natural history'' ''' ''' external links http wwwworldcatorg searchq su amollusks periodicals qt hot subject periodicals molluscs worldcat subfields zoology marine biology


alberto baumann inheritance twentieth century mixed media art adam niklewicz visual art '''mixed media''' describes artwork one medium material employed ref name vaughan ref assemblages collages sculpture three common examples art using different media materials used create mixed media art include limited paint cloth paper wood found objects mixed media art distinguished multimedia art combines visual art non visual elements recorded sound literature drama dance motion graphics music interactivity ref name rosenoer ref history mixed media

Humanities
Visual arts
Applied arts
Mixed media


first modern artwork considered mixed media pablo picasso 's collage ''still life chair caning'' used paper cloth paint rope create pseudo effect influence movements like cubism dada contributed mixed media 's growth popularity throughout th century artists like henri matisse joseph cornell jean dubuffet ellsworth kelly adopting led innovations like installations late th century mixed media continues popular form artists different forms like wet media markings explored types


mixed media art mixed media art differentiated distinct types ref name ref collage art form involves combining different materials like ribbons newspaper clippings photographs etc create new whole sporadic practice antiquity became fundamental part modern art early th century due efforts braque picasso assemblage dimensional variant collage elements jutting defined substrate entirely arrangement objects sculptures found object


art objects found used artists incorporated artworks perceived artistic value popularized conceptual artist marcel duchamp altered books specific form artist reuse book modifying altering physically use work involve physically cutting pasting pages change contents book using materials book contents art piece ref name wet dry media wet media consists materials paints inks use


sort liquidity usage composition dry materials pencils charcoal crayons lacking inherent liquidity using wet dry media conjunction considered mixed media combination inherently differing media create finalized piece examples mixed media artwork mixed media artists able take material want last century produce artwork whole new dimension ref name altenew altenew ref process crucial creative minds evolves along art mediums 's beauty


mixed media artwork constantly changing anything goes ''still life chair caning'' picasso 's piece depicts seen table cut lemon knife napkin newspaper among discernible objects elliptical speculation work could depicting porthole uses piece rope form edge paper cloth used objects present table ''angel anarchy'' eileen agar 's sculpture modified bust joseph bard covered paper fur


lost made variation shrouded blinded figure feathers beads cloth creating entirely different perspective sculpture see also altered book artist trading cards collage collage intermedia list mixed media artists modular art multimedia new media art quilt art visual focus depth art references visual arts media contemporary art painting


analysis bible flourished hindu buddhist texts first translated european languages early influential scholars included friedrich max ller england cornelius p tiele netherlands today religious studies practiced scholars worldwide early years known comparative religion '' 'science religion''' us today also know field history religion associated methodological traditions traced university chicago general particular mircea eliade late late


different interests intentions instance seek defend religion others seek explain away others wish use religion example prove theory scholars religious studies interested primarily studying religion belong scholars religion argued study subject useful individuals provide knowledge pertinent inter personal professional contexts within increasingly globalised world also argued studying religion useful appreciating


first ' 'substantive'' seeking identify specific core heart religion belief god gods emphasis power second ''functional'' seeking define religion terms humans instance defining argument exists assuage fear death unite community reinforce control one group another forms definition ''polythetic'' producing list characteristics common religion definition one characteristic need


common every form religion causing complications fact various secular world views nationalism marxism bear many characteristics commonly associated religion rarely consider religious conversely scholars religious studies argued discipline reject term religion altogether cease trying define perspective religion argued western concept forced upon cultures act intellectual imperialism according scholar religion russell


comparative philology oxford university author ''introduction science religion''interest general study religion dates back least hecataeus miletus bce c bce herodotus c bce bce later middle ages islamic scholars ibn hazm ce studied persian jewish christian indian religions among others first history religion ''treatise religious philosophical sects'' ce written muslim scholar muhammad al shahrastani peter venerable also working twelfth century studied islam


made possible latin translation qur'an notwithstanding long interest study religion academic discipline religious studies relatively new dr christopher partridge notes first professorships established recently final quarter nineteenth century http wwwuccforguk yourcourse rtsf docs academicstudyofreligionpdf nineteenth century study religion done eyes science max ller first professor comparative philology oxford university chair created especially ''introduction science religion'' wrote duty devoted


life study principal religions world original documents value reverence whatever form may present take possession new territory name true science many key scholars helped establish study religion regard scholars religious studies rather theologians philosophers anthropologists sociologists psychologists historians partridge writes second half twentieth century study religion emerged prominent important field academic enquiry


cites growing distrust empiricism nineteenth century growing interest non christian religions spirituality coupled convergence work social scientists scholars religion factors involved rise religious studies one earliest academic institutions religious studies presented distinct subject university college ibadan university ibadan geoffrey parrinder appointed lecturer religious studies term religious studies became common interest field increased new departments


claims ''eg'' augustine pelagius 's debate concerning original sin rise scholasticism eleventh century represented search order intellectual life russell fully integrated western philosophical tradition introduction translations aristotle religious study amount overlap subcategories religious studies discipline religious studies seeks study religious phenomena whole rather limited approaches subcategories anthropology religion anthropology religion principally concerned common basic human needs religion fulfills


cultural anthropology religion cultural anthropology religion principally concerned cultural aspects religion primary concern cultural anthropologist religions rituals beliefs religious art practices piety economics religion gallup surveys found world 's poorest countries may religious countries average per capita incomes reported religion played important role daily lives contrasted average richest countries incomes united states breaking trend reporting


ref name gallupe ref social scientists suggested religion plays functional role helping people cope poorer nations ref name gallupe new york times offers graphic illustrating correlation necessarily causation http wwwritholtzcom blog religions correlation poverty religion poverty geography religion geography religion principally concerned spatial elements religious practice embodiment geographers religion wilbur zelinsky david sopher mostly associated berkeley school cultural geography focused mostly cultural imprints religion landscape since turn new


cultural geography religion work james duncan city text geographers religion focused lily kong called politics poetics religion especially relation political geographies secular nation states recent interest geography religion focused religious practitioners enact sacred space embodied sacred practices well relationship religion geopolitics history religion history religions concerned theological claims apart historical significance topics discipline historicity


religious figures events evolution doctrinal matters literary approaches many approaches study sacred texts one approaches interpret text literary object metaphor thematic elements nature motivations characters interest approach example approach ''god biography'' jack miles neurological approaches temporal lobe interest termed god center brain ramachandran ch neurological findings regard religious experience widely accepted discipline


within religious studies scientific investigators used spectscanner analyze brain activity christian contemplatives buddhist meditators finding quite similar origin religion origin religion refers emergence religious behavior prehistory written records psychology religion psychology religion concerned psychological principles operative religious communities practitioners william james 's varieties religious experience analyzed personal experience contrasted social phenomenon religion issues concern psychologist religions psychological nature religious conversion


making religious decisions religion happiness psychological factors evaluating religious claims sigmund freud another figure field psychology religion used psychoanalytic theory explain religious beliefs practices rituals order justify role religion development human culture sociology religion sociology religion concerns dialectical relationship religion society practices historical backgrounds developments universal themes roles religion society particular emphasis recurring role religion societies throughout recorded history


research found secular democracies like france scandinavia outperform theistic democracies various measures societal health authors explains pressing questions include reasons whether theistic non theistic exceptionally wealthy us inefficient experiencing much higher degree societal distress less religious less wealthy prosperous democracies conversely latter achieve superior societal health little way religious values institutions law religion vogel reports new law religion approach progressively built


contribution religious studies dozen scholarly organizations committees formed scholarly quarterly ''journal law religion'' first published year ''ecclesiastical law journal'' opened many departments centers created around world last decades major law religion organizations us included law professors political scientists specialists numerous fields history religious studies field saw publication books scholarly


articles scholars focused strictly legal issues religious freedom non establishment also study religions qualified judicial discourses legal understanding religious phenomena exponents look canon law natural law state law often comparative perspective specialists explored themes western history regarding christianity justice mercy rule equity discipline love common topics interest include marriage family human rights moving beyond christianity scholars looked law religion interrelations law religion


methodologies used religious studies methodologies hermeneutics interpretive models provide structure analysis religious phenomena phenomenology phenomenology arguably influential approach study religion twentieth century partridge term first found title work influential philosopher german idealism georg wilhelm friedrich hegel entitled phenomenology spirit phenomenology practiced long made explicit philosophical method edmund husserl considered founder context


phenomenology religion however term first used pierre daniel chantepie de la saussaye work lehrbuch der religiongeschichte chantepie 's phenomenology catalogued observable characteristics religion much like zoologist would categorize animals entomologist would categorize insects part due husserl 's influence phenomenology came refer method complex claims rather chantepie mere cataloguing facts partridge husserl argued foundation knowledge consciousness recognized easy prior beliefs interpretations unconsciously influence one


thinking husserl phenomenological method sought shelve presuppositions interpretations partridge husserl introduced term eidetic vision describe ability observe without prior beliefs interpretations influencing understanding perception main conceptual contribution idea epoche setting aside metaphysical questions observing phenomena without bias commitments part investigator epoche also known phenomenological reduction bracketing involves approaching phenomenon phenomena neutral standpoint instead particular attitudes performing reduction


whatever phenomenon phenomena approach understood rather perspectives field religious studies contemporary advocate phenomenological method ninian smart suggests perform epoche means engage cross cultural studies take beliefs symbols rituals etc within perspective rather imposing another earlier scholar employs phenomenological method studying religion gerardus van der leeuw ''religion essence manifestation''


outlines phenomenology religion look like blockquote firstly argues van der leeuw student religion needs classify religious phenomena distinct categories eg sacrifice sacrament sacred space sacred time sacred word festivals myth secondly scholars need interpolate phenomena lives say need empathetically einf hlung try understand religion within nbsp life examined religious studies scholar insists van der leeuw needs acquire place life student understand


inner self thirdly van der leeuw stresses perhaps fundamental phenomenological principle namely epoch suspension value judgements adoption neutral stance fourthly scholars needs clarify apparent structural relationships make sense information move towards holistic understanding various aspects religion relate function together fifthly leads naturally stage activities undertaken together simultaneously constitute genuine understanding verstehen chaotic obstinate 'reality' thus becomes manifestation revelation eidetic vision sixthly thus attained


general grasp continual need make sure tallies date research disciplines archaeology history philology etc van der leeuw phenomenologists continual checking one results crucial maintenance scholarly objectivity order avoid degeneration fantasy phenomenology must always feed facts finally gone six stages phenomenologist close anyone understanding 'meaning' religious phenomena studied position relate understanding


others blockquote subjectivity inherent phenomenological study religion makes complete comprehensive understanding highly difficult however phenomenologists aim separate formal study religion theological worldview eliminate far possible personal biases eg christian phenomenologist would avoid studying hinduism lens christianity number theoretical methodological attitudes common among phenomenologists https webarchiveorg web http wwwphenomenologycenterorg phenomhtm source blockquote phenomenologists tend oppose acceptance unobservable matters grand systems erected speculative thinking phenomenologists tend oppose naturalism also called objectivism positivism


ought focus upon might called encountering directed objects correlatively upon objects encountered terminology widely shared emphasis dual problematics reflective approach requires phenomenologists tend recognize role description universal priori eidetic terms prior explanation means causes purposes grounds phenomenologists tend debate whether husserl calls transcendental phenomenological epoch reduction useful even possible blockquote many scholars religious studies argued phenomenology


distinctive method discipline phenomenologist religion thomas ryba noted approach study religion entered period dormancy phenomenological approaches largely taxonomical robert segal stating amounted data gathering alongside classification data gathered functionalism functionalism regard religious studies analysis religions various communities adherents using functions particular religious phenomena interpret structure religious communities beliefs approach introduced british anthropologist alfred radcliffe brown


twentieth century religious study scholars like robert orsi david hall study lived religion come include wide range subject areas means exploring emphasizing religious person believe today field lived religion expanding include many topics scholars religious studies theology western philosophy religion basic ancestor modern religious studies differentiated theology many eastern philosophical traditions generally written third party perspective scholar need believer


theology methodology study religion approach focuses religious content community might study includes study beliefs literatures stories practices criticism group scholars criticized religious studies beginning theological project actually imposes views onto people aims survey prominent voices critical view include jonathan z smith timothy fitzgerald talal asad tomoko masuzawa geoffrey oddie richard e king russell mccutcheon daniel dubuisson areas research overlap heavily postcolonial studies


jonathan z smith wrote chapter ''critical terms religious studies'' traced history term religion argued contemporary understanding world religions modern christian european term roots european colonial expansion sixteenth century timothy fitzgerald argued comparative religion twentieth century fact disguised theological agenda distorts practices societies outside western world interprets according christian norms fitzgerald argues theological agenda overcome recent efforts


religious studies move beyond comparative religion scholarly journals much latest scholarship appears scholarly journals also typically review evaluate new monographs large numbers peer reviewed scholarly journals discipline religious studies many journals focus historical sociological topics concentrate particular religious traditions judaism islam religious studies journals laggard gaining accessibility internet libraries specializing religious history started catch among prominent journals published english ''american jewish history'' ''anglican episcopal history'' ''british catholic