well lyric poetry epic poetry dithyramb examines first principles identifies genres basic elements analysis tragedy constitutes core discussion aristotle argues tragedy consists six qualitative parts order importance ''mythos'' plot ''ethos'' character ' 'dianoia'' thought ''lexis'' diction ''melos'' song ''opsis'' spectacle although aristotle 's ''poetics'' universally acknowledged western critical tradition marvin carlson explains almost every detail seminal work aroused divergent opinions important theatre practitioners th century include konstantin stanislavski


vsevolod meyerhold jacques copeau edward gordon craig bertolt brecht antonin artaud joan littlewood peter brook jerzy grotowski augusto boal eugenio barba dario fo viola spolin keith johnstone robert wilson director stanislavski treated theatre art form autonomous literature one playwright 's contribution respected one ensemble creative artists innovative contribution modern acting theory remained core mainstream western performance training much last century many precepts system actor training seem


manager technical director depending production team may also include composer dramaturg video designer fight director rotating auditorium open air pyynikki summer theatre tampere finland stagecraft generic term referring technical aspects theatrical film video production includes limited constructing rigging scenery hanging focusing lighting design procurement costumes makeup procurement props stage management recording mixing sound stagecraft distinct wider umbrella term scenography considered technical rather artistic


field relates primarily practical implementation designer 's artistic vision basic form stagecraft managed single person often stage manager smaller production arranges scenery costumes lighting sound organizes cast professional level example modern broadway houses stagecraft managed hundreds skilled carpenters painters electricians stagehands stitchers wigmakers like modern form stagecraft highly technical specialized comprises many sub disciplines vast trove history tradition majority stagecraft lies


two extremes regional theatres larger community theatres generally technical director complement designers direct hand respective designs sub categories organization many modern theatre movements go producing theatre variety ways theatrical enterprises vary enormously sophistication purpose people involved vary novices hobbyists community theatre professionals broadway similar productions theatre performed shoestring budget grand scale multimillion dollar budgets diversity manifests abundance


theatre sub categories include broadway theatre west end theatre street theatre community theatre playback theatre dinner theater fringe theatre broadway west end broadway regional theatre united states touring theatre summer stock theatre repertory companies theatre royal drury lane london c modern theatre companies rehearse one piece theatre time perform piece set run retire piece begin rehearsing new show repertory companies rehearse multiple shows one time companies able perform various pieces upon request often perform works years


retiring dance companies operate repertory system royal national theatre london performs repertory system repertory theatre generally involves group similarly accomplished actors relies reputation group individual star actor also typically relies less strict control director less adherence theatrical conventions since actors worked together multiple productions respond without relying much convention external direction producing vs presenting interior teatro col n modern theater


order put piece theatre theatre company theatre venue needed theatre company sole company residence theatre venue theatre corresponding theatre company called resident theatre producing theatre venue produces work theatre companies well dance companies theatre venue perform rental theatres presenting theatres rental presenting theatres full time resident companies however sometimes one part time resident companies


addition independent partner companies arrange use space available rental theatre allows independent companies seek space presenting theatre seeks independent companies support work presenting stage performance groups perform non theatrical spaces performances take place outside inside non traditional performance space include street theatre site specific theatre non traditional venues used create immersive meaningful environments audiences sometimes modified heavily traditional theatre venues


accommodate different kinds equipment lighting sets touring company independent theatre dance company travels often internationally presented different theatre city unions many theatre unions including actors' equity association actors stage managers stage directors choreographers society sdc international alliance theatrical stage employees iatse designers technicians many theatres require staff members organizations see also acting antitheatricality black light theatre culinary theatre illusionistic tradition list awards theatre list playwrights list theatre personnel


oxford focal p bryant jye writing staging new musical handbook kindle direct publishing carnicke sharon marie stanislavsky 's system pathways actor hodge dacre kathy paul fryer eds ''stanislavski stage'' sidcup kent stanislavski centre rose bruford college deleuze gilles f lix guattari ''anti dipus'' trans robert hurley mark seem helen r lane london new york continuum vol new accents ser london new york methuen felski rita ed ''rethinking tragedy'' baltimore johns hopkins harrison martin ''the language


''stanislavski practise'' london routledge rayner alice ''to act perform drama phenomenology action'' theater theory text performance ser ann arbor university michigan press roach joseph r ''the player 's passion studies science acting'' theater theory text performance ser ann arbor u michigan p speirs ronald trans ''the birth tragedy writings'' friedrich nietzsche ed raymond geuss ronald speirs cambridge texts history philosophy ser cambridge cambridge external links http soundsbluk arts literature performance theatre archive project theatre archive project uk british library university sheffield http wwwbrisacuk theatrecollection university


bristol theatre collection http wwwarthurlloydcouk music hall theatre history britain ireland stage terminology performing arts


religion ancient mesopotamian religion later syriac christian government type monarchy title leader king year leader c bc leader tudiya first year leader bc leader ashur uballit ii last era bronze age event start kikkiya overthrown date start event date event event end decline assyria date end bc currency mina stat area ref name ragozin zenaide ragozin https booksgooglecom booksid upj dwaaqbaj pg pt ''the rise fall assyrian empire lost empire chaldean gabareh'' ozymandias press chapter section aturia assyria proper

Humanities
History
Ancient history
Assyrian Civilization


small district square miles period greatest expansion however name 'assyria' 'land chaldeans' covered far greater territory filling space two rivers mountains armenia alluvial line gives length miles breadth euphrates zagros varying miles 'the area probably less square miles' ref demonym area km area rank gdp ppp gdp ppp year hdi hdi year map showing approximate location geographical region referred assyria '''assyria'''


also times called '''assyrian empire''' mesopotamian kingdom empire ancient near east existed state perhaps early th century bc form assur city state collapse bc bc thereby spanning periods early middle bronze age late iron age ref name edwards ref vast span time divided early period bc old assyrian empire bc middle assyrian empire bc neo assyrian empire bc


stretching eastern libya east mediterranean across iran 's transcaucasia arabian peninsula well southern egypt south constant war ref name albert kirk grayson ref assyrian empire fell end th century bc assyria survived geopolitical region mid th century ad time region assyria ruled foreign powers achaemenid empire seleucid empire parthian sasanian empires mid nd century bc late rd century ad assyrian revival occurred number


independent assyrian states adiabene osroene beth nuhadra beth garmai hatra perhaps assur arose final part period saw mesopotamia become major centre syriac christianity birthplace assyrian church east including offshoot chaldean catholic church syriac orthodox church ref name winkler p winkler ''church east concise history'' p ref greeks romans subsequently arabs ottomans also took control assyrian lands region assyria fell successive control median empire bc


achaemenid empire bc macedonian empire late th century bc seleucid empire bc parthian empire bc ad roman empire ad sasanian empire ad arab islamic conquest area mid th century finally dissolved assyria assuristan region also included former babylonia single entity remnants assyrian people almost christians gradually became ethnic linguistic cultural religious minority


rist n middle persian today assyria may refer ancient empire geographic region empire situated descendants assyrian people still reside indigenous modern eastern aramaic speaking assyrian christian ethnic minority northern iraq northeast syria southeast turkey northwest iran descendants ancient assyrians see assyrian continuity ref name hwf saggs saggs notes destruction assyrian empire wipe population predominantly peasant farmers since assyria contains best wheat land near east descendants would


opportunity permitted build new villages old cities carry agricultural life remembering traditions former cities seven eight centuries various vicissitudes people became christians ref babylonia called city babylon assyria means land asshur ref name ragozin etymologically ''assyria'' connected name ''syria'' ref name renan syria contraction assyria assyrian according greek pronunciation greeks later applied name levant well assyria proper cited sa grandeur mgr david archev que syrien de damas ref


king lagash maybe urukagina informing son 's death combat c bc found girsu prehistoric times region would later known assyria subartu home neanderthal culture one found shanidar cave earliest neolithic sites region home jarmo culture c bc halaf culture c bc hassuna culture c bc akkadian speaking people earliest historically attested semitic speaking people ref name christopher woods p john huehnergard christopher woods


akkadian eblaite roger woodard ed ''the ancient languages mesopotamia'' egypt aksum cambridge university press p ref founded assyria appear entered mesopotamia latter part th millennium bc c bc eventually intermingled sumerian speaking population come area northern mesopotamia akkadian names appear written records early th century bc ref name christopher woods p rd millennium bc intimate cultural symbiosis developed sumerians akkadians throughout mesopotamia including widespread bilingualism ref name deutscher ref sumerian


writing origins culture'' chicago http oiuchicagoedu pdf ois pdf ref sumerian along akkadian cuneiform continued used sacred ceremonial literary scientific writings mesopotamia st century ad cities assur nineveh gasur arbela together number towns cities known existed middle rd millennium bc c bc perhaps earlier although early appear sumerian ruled administrative centres rather independent states greco roman classical writers julius africanus marcus velleius paterculus diodorus siculus assigned various dates founding


assyria anywhere bc bc identify earliest king variously either belus ninus contrast biblical generations noah genesis chapter identifies founder city ur ashur son shem defined later generations city 's patron god assyrians tradition attested much older identifies first king assyria tudiya th century bc identifies later urbanised assyrian king ushpia c bc dedicated first temple god


ashur city mid st century bc highly likely city named honour patron assyrian god name history early period bc city ur together number assyrian cities seem established bc however likely initially sumerian dominated administrative centres late th century bc eannatum lagash dominant sumerian ruler mesopotamia mentions smiting subartu subartu sumerian name assyria similarly c early th century bc lugal anne mundu


king sumerian state adab lists subartu paying tribute early history kingdom assyria little known assyrian king list earliest king recorded tudiya archaeological reports ebla appeared tudiya 's activities confirmed discovery tablet concluded treaty operation ''karum'' trading colony eblaite territory king ibrium ebla known vizier ebla king ishar damu tudiya succeeded list adamu


first known reference semitic name ''adam'' thirteen rulers yangi suhlamu harharu mandaru imsu harsu didanu hanu zuabu nuabu abazu belus azarah nothing concrete yet known names although noted much later babylonian tablet listing ancestral lineage hammurabi amorite king babylon seems copied names tudiya nuabu though heavily corrupted form earliest kings tudiya recorded ''kings lived tents'' independent semi nomadic pastoralist rulers kings point


became fully urbanised founded ''city state'' ur mid st century bc akkadian empire neo sumerian empires bc map akkadian empire brown directions military campaigns conducted yellow arrows akkadian empire bc assyrians like akkadian speaking mesopotamians also sumerians became subject dynasty city state akkad centered central mesopotamia akkadian empire founded sargon great claimed encompass surrounding four quarters region assyria north seat empire central mesopotamia also


known subartu sumerians name azuhinum akkadian records also seems refer assyria proper sumerians eventually absorbed akkadian assyro babylonian population ref name deutscher ref name woods assyrian rulers subject sargon successors city ashur became regional administrative center empire implicated nuzi tablets ref name shendge ref period akkadian speaking semites mesopotamia came rule empire encompassing mesopotamia large swathes asia minor ancient iran elam arabian peninsula canaan syria assyria seems


already firmly involved trade asia minor time earliest known reference anatolian ''karu'' hatti found later cuneiform tablets describing early period akkadian empire c bc tablets assyrian traders burushanda implored help ruler sargon great appellation continued exist throughout assyrian empire years name hatti even appears later accounts grandson naram sin campaigning anatolia assyrian akkadian traders spread use writing form mesopotamian cuneiform


script asia minor levant modern syria lebanon however towards end reign sargon great assyrian faction rebelled tribes assyria upper country turn attacked submitted arms sargon settled habitations smote grievously ref name shendge empire third dynasty ur west top north right akkadian empire destroyed economic decline internal civil war followed attacks barbarian gutian people bc rulers assyria period


c bc bc became fully independent gutians known administered southern mesopotamia however king list information assyria period assyria briefly became part neo sumerian empire rd dynasty ur founded c bc sumerian domination extended far city ashur appears reached nineveh far north assyria one local ruler ' 'shakkanakku'' named z riqum appear assyrian king list listed paying tribute amar sin


ur ashur 's rulers appear remained largely sumerian domination mid st century bc c bc king list names assyrian rulers period several known references also borne title ' 'shakkanakka'' vassal governors neo sumerians old assyrian empire bc year end p early assyrian kingdom flag p


contemporary record time leaving inscriptions archaic form akkadian addition expansions anatolia ilu shuma c bc middle chronology appears conducted military campaigns southern mesopotamia either conquest city states south order protect fellow akkadian speakers incursions elamites east amorites west ref known built old temple ishtar assur succeeded another powerful king long reigning erishum bc notable one


earliest examples written legal codes introducing limmu eponym lists continue throughout assyrian history known greatly expanded assyrian trading colonies anatolia twenty one listed reign karum traded tin textiles lapis lazuli iron antimony copper bronze wool grain exchange gold silver erishum also kept numerous written records conducted major building works assyria including building temples ashur ishtar adad policies continued ikunum bc sargon bc likely named predecessor


sargon akkad ref name bromiley ref sargon 's later reign babylon founded small city state puzur ashur ii bc naram sin bc repelled attempted usurpation throne future king shamshi adad late reign however successor erishum ii deposed shamshi adad bc bringing end dynasty founded either ushpia puzur ashur shamshi adad bc already ruler terqa although claimed assyrian ancestry descendant ushpia regarded foreign amorite usurper later assyrian tradition


hammurabi mut ashkur bc rimush asinum subservient hammurabi also took ownership assyrian trading colonies thus bringing end old assyrian empire however babylonian empire proved short lived rapidly collapsing death hammurabi c bc assyrian governor named puzur sin deposed asinum regarded foreign amorite puppet new ineffectual babylonian king sumuabum babylonian amorite presence expunged assyria puzur sin successor ashur dugul reigned six years king called adasi bc


finally restored strength stability assyria ending civil unrest followed ejection babylonians amorites founding new ''adaside dynasty'' ref name auto georges roux ''ancient iraq'' ref bel bani bc succeeded adasi strengthened assyria potential threats remained revered figure even time ashurbanipal thousand years later followed long prosperous peaceful period assyrian history rulers libaya bc sharma adad iptar sin bazaya lullaya shu ninua sharma adad ii appear peaceful largely uneventful reigns assyria remained strong secure


babylon sacked amorite rulers deposed hittite empire subsequently fell kassites bc powers unable make inroads assyria seems trouble first kassite ruler babylon agum ii erishum iii bc assyria mutually beneficial treaty signed two rulers shamshi adad ii bc ishme dagan ii bc shamshi adad iii bc seem also peaceful tenures although records thus far discovered reigns similarly ashur nirari


bc seems troubled newly founded mitanni empire asia minor hittite empire babylon year reign successor puzur ashur iii bc known active kings improving infrastructure dedicating temples conducting various building projects throughout kingdom enlil nasir nur ili ashur shaduni ashur rabi deposed predecessor followed decline bc emergence hurri mitanni empire allied hittite empire th century bc eventually lead short period sporadic mitannian hurrian domination latter half


th century bc mitannians indo aryan speaking people thought entered anatolia north conquered formed ruling class indigenous hurrians eastern anatolia indigenous hurrians spoke hurrian language language wholly extinct hurro urartian language family ashur nadin ahhe bc courted egyptians rivals mitanni attempting gain foothold near east amenhotep ii sent assyrian king gift gold seal alliance hurri mitannian empire likely alliance prompted saushtatar


emperor mitanni invade assyria sack city ashur assyria became sometime vassal state ashur nadin ahhe deposed either shaustatar brother enlil nasir ii bc bc paid tribute mitanni ashur nirari ii bc uneventful reign appears also paid tribute mitanni empire assyrian monarchy survived mitannian influence appears short lived appear always willing indeed able interfere assyrian internal international affairs ashur bel nisheshu bc


seems independent mitannian influence evidenced signing mutually beneficial treaty karaindash kassite king babylonia late th century bc also undertook extensive rebuilding work ashur assyria appears redeveloped former highly sophisticated financial economic systems reign ashur rim nisheshu bc also undertook building work strengthening city walls capital ashur nadin ahhe ii bc also received gift gold diplomatic overtures egypt probably attempt gain assyrian military support egypt 's mitannian hittite rivals


region however assyrian king appears strong enough position challenge mitanni hittites eriba adad bc son ashur bel nisheshu ascended throne bc finally broke ties mitanni empire instead turned tables began exert assyrian influence mitanni middle assyrian empire bc map ancient near east showing extent '''middle assyrian empire''' orange mesopotamia middle assyrian empire c bc middle period bc saw reigns great kings


ashur uballit arik den ili tukulti ninurta tiglath pileser period assyria overthrew empire hurri mitanni annexed much hittite empire eclipsed egyptian empire babylonia elam canaan phrygia near east assyrian troops return victory reign eriba adad bc mitanni influence assyria wane eriba adad became involved dynastic battle tushratta brother artatama ii artatama 's son shuttarna iii called king hurri seeking support assyrians thus turning tables


mitanni hurrians ashur uballit bc went defeating shuttarna iii bringing end mitanni empire assyrian king annexing territories anatolia levant turning assyria major empire ambitious assyrian king went still attacking conquering babylonia imposing puppet ruler loyal upon throne assyria annexed hitherto babylonian territory central mesopotamia enlil nirari bc also defeated babylonia 's kassite kings hittites failed save mitanni allied babylon unsuccessful economic war assyria many years assyria


large powerful empire major threat egyptian hittite interests region perhaps reason two powers fearful assyrian ambitions made peace one another arik den ili bc campaigned still entering northern ancient iran subjugating 'pre iranic' gutians turukku nigimhi campaigning deeper levant subjugating suteans ahlamu yauru successor adad nirari bc another highly successful military leader conquered hanigalbat rest independent hurro mitanni kingdoms anatolia despite hittite support allies also


city kalhu biblical calah nimrud shalmaneser 's son successor tukulti ninurta bc major victory hittites king tudhaliya iv battle nihriya took thousands prisoners rather content simply subjugate babylonian kings predecessors conquered babylonia directly took kashtiliash iv captive ruled babylonia king seven years taking old title king sumer akkad first used sargon akkad tukulti ninurta thus became first akkadian speaking native mesopotamian rule state


babylonia founders foreign amorites succeeded equally foreign kassites tukulti ninurta petitioned god shamash beginning counter offensive ref name edwards ref kashtiliash iv captured single handed tukulti ninurta according ''his'' account trod feet upon lordly neck though footstool ref name albert kirk grayson deported ignominiously chains assyria victorious assyrians demolished walls babylon massacred many defenders pillaged plundered way across city esagila temple made statue marduk middle assyrian texts recovered


ancient r katlimmu include letter tukulti ninurta ' 'sukkal rabi'u'' grand vizier ashur iddin advising approach general shulman mushabshu escorting captive kashtiliash wife retinue incorporated large number women way exile defeat process defeated elamites coveted babylon also wrote epic poem documenting victorious wars babylon elam progressed south today saudi arabia conquering ''pre arab'' kingdom dilmun fellow akkadian speaking east semitic


kingdom meluhha central semitic speaking state babylonian revolt raided plundered temples babylon regarded act sacrilege relations priesthood ashur began deteriorating tukulti ninurta built new capital city kar tukulti ninurta series short reigning kings followed ashur nadin apli bc ashur nirari iii bc enlil kudurri usur bc ninurta apal ekur bc significant expansions empire short tenures babylonia seems freed assyrian yoke time ashur dan bc conquered huge swathes babylonia subjugating


king taking much booty home assyria however led conflict powerful elamites southwest ancient iran preying upon babylonia elamites took assyrian city arrapha modern kirkuk finally defeated driven assyrian empire civil unrest ensued assyria ashur dan 's death ninurta tukulti ashur mutakkil nusku followed quick succession bc ashur resh ishi bc restored tradition powerful conquering kings campaigned east taking zagros region ancient iran subjugated amorites ahlamu newly


mountains south lake van turned westward receive submission malatia urartu fifth year tiglath pileser attacked cilicia comana cappadocia placed record victories engraved copper plates fortress built secure cilician conquests aramaeans northwestern central syria next targets assyrian king made way far sources tigris control high road mediterranean secured possession hittite town pitru junction


euphrates sajur proceeded conquer canaanite phoenician city states byblos tyre sidon simyra berytus beirut aradus finally arvad embarked onto ship sail mediterranean killed ''nahiru'' sea horse leo oppenheim translates narwhal sea passionately fond hunting also great builder general view restoration temple gods ashur hadad assyrian capital assur ashur one initiatives succeeded asharid apal ekur reigned


short time ashur bel kala bc kept vast empire together campaigning successfully urartu phrygia north arameans west maintained friendly relations marduk shapik zeri babylon however upon death king invaded babylonia deposed new ruler kada man buria appointing adad apla iddina vassal babylon built earliest examples zoological gardens botanical gardens ashur collecting manner animals plants empire receiving collection exotic animals gifts egypt late reign


middle assyrian empire erupted civil war due rebellion tukulti mer pretender throne assyria ashur bel kala eventually defeated tukulti mer however civil war assyria allowed hordes arameans neo hittites invade assyrian controlled territory west ashur bel kala counterattacked conquered far carchemish source khabur river end reign syria phoenicia canaan west far mediterranean previously firm assyrian control lost society law middle assyrian period assyrian quartet middle


landed nobility supplied horses needed assyria 's military documents letters illustrate importance latter assyrian society assyria needed less artificial irrigation babylonia horse breeding extensive portions elaborate texts care training found trade carried directions mountain country north west assyria major source metal ore well lumber economic factors common ''casus belli'' free male citizens obliged serve army time system


sex crimes punished identically whether homosexual heterosexual ref name nissinen ref individual faced punishment penetrating cult prostitute someone equal lower social class slaves someone whose gender roles considered solidly masculine sexual relations even seen good fortune however homosexual relationships royal attendants soldiers social better submissive penetrated either treated rape seen bad omens punishments applied ref name nissinen furthermore article 'homosexualit t' ''reallexicon der assyriologie'' states homosexuality thus


east north africa asia minor caucasus mediterranean balkan regions great upheavals mass movements people assyria empire unduly affected tumultuous events years perhaps ancient power fact thrived period however upon death ashur bel kala bc assyria went ''comparative'' decline next years empire shrank significantly bc assyria appears controlled areas close assyria essential keeping trade routes open eastern


aramea south eastern asia minor central mesopotamia north western iran new west semitic speaking peoples arameans suteans moved areas west south assyria including overrunning much babylonia south indo european speaking iranic peoples medes persians sarmatians parthians moved lands east assyria displacing native kassites gutians pressuring elam mannea ancient non indo european civilisations ancient iran north asia minor phrygians overran part hittites already destroyed assyria


modern term sea peoples refers peoples appear several new kingdom egyptian texts originating islands tables adams cohen volume see eg drews summary use quotation marks association term sea peoples title intended draw attention problematic nature commonly used term noteworthy designation sea appears relation sherden shekelesh eqwesh subsequently term applied somewhat indiscriminately several additional ethnonyms including philistines portrayed


reign ramesses iii yet inscriptions migration nowhere appears reviewing egyptian texts say 'the sea peoples' one egyptologist wolfgang helck recently remarked although things unclear eins ist aber sicher nach den agyptischen texten haben wir es nicht mit einer 'volkerwanderung' zu tun thus migration hypothesis based inscriptions interpretation ref control southern canaan dorian greeks usurped earlier mycenaean greeks western asia minor sea peoples ravaged eastern mediterranean new peoples


chaldeans sarmatians arabs nubians kushites emerge later neo assyrian empire bc assyrian relief depicting battle camel riders kalhu nimrud central palace tiglath pileser iii bc british museum despite apparent weakness assyria comparison former might heart fact remained solid well defended nation whose warriors best world ref name auto assyria stable monarchy powerful army secure borders stronger position time potential rivals egypt babylonia elam phrygia urartu persia lydia


media kings eriba adad ii ashur rabi ii ashurnasirpal tiglath pileser ii ashur dan ii successfully defended assyria 's borders upheld stability tumultuous time assyrian kings period appear adopted policy maintaining defending compact secure nation satellite colonies immediately surrounding interspersed sporadic punitive raids invasions neighbouring territories need arose including campaigning far mediterranean sacking babylonia neo assyrian empire neo assyrian empire usually considered begun ascension adad nirari ii bc lasting


took arms assyrian king none assyrian kings neo assyrian empire preceding middle assyrian empire conducted genocides massacres ethnic cleansings civilian populations non combatant men women children however monument ashurnasirpal ii describing conquest one city states cut feet hands others cut ears noses lips young men 's ears made heap old men 's heads made minaret male children female children burned


flames city claims though seen prominent assyriologists saggs propaganda pieces designed strike fear enemies act deterrent rebellion opposed true accounts expansion bc assyria began expand rise adad nirari ii bc cleared aramean tribal peoples assyria 's borders began expand directions anatolia ancient iran levant babylonia ashurnasirpal ii bc continued expansion apace subjugating much levant west newly arrived


persians medes east annexed central mesopotamia babylon south expanded deep asia minor north moved capital ashur kalhu calah nimrud undertook impressive building works throughout assyria shalmaneser iii bc projected assyrian power even conquering foothills caucasus israel aram damascus subjugating persia arabs dwelt south mesopotamia well driving egyptians canaan reign shalmaneser iii arabs chaldeans first enter pages recorded history little


expansion took place shamshi adad v successor regent queen semiramis however adad nirari iii bc came age took reins power mother set relentless campaign conquest subjugated arameans phoenicians philistines israelites neo hittites edomites persians medes manneans penetrating far caspian sea invaded subjugated babylonia migrant chaldean sutean tribes settled south eastern mesopotamia conquered reduced vassalage reign adad nirari iii assyria entered period instability decline losing


hold vassal tributary territories middle th century bc reign tiglath pileser iii bc created world 's first professional army introduced imperial aramaic lingua franca assyria vast empire reorganised empire drastically tiglath pileser iii conquered far east mediterranean bringing greeks cyprus phoenicia judah philistia samaria whole aramea assyrian control satisfied merely holding babylonia vassalage tiglath pileser deposed king crowned king babylon imperial economic political military


administrative reforms tiglath pileser iii prove blueprint future empires persians greeks romans carthaginians byzantines arabs turks shalmaneser v reigned briefly drove egyptians southern canaan fomenting revolt assyria sargon ii quickly took samaria effectively ending northern kingdom israel carrying people away captivity israelite diaspora forced fight war drive scythians cimmerians attempted invade assyria 's vassal states persia media neo hittite states


northern syria conquered well cilicia lydia commagene king midas phrygia fearful assyrian power offered hand friendship elam defeated babylonia chaldea reconquered made new capital city named dur sharrukin succeeded son sennacherib moved capital nineveh made deported peoples work improving nineveh 's system irrigation canals nineveh transformed largest city world time esarhaddon babylon rebuilt imposed ''vassal treaty'' upon persian median parthian subjects


defeated scythes cimmerians tiring egyptian interference assyrian empire esarhaddon decided conquer egypt bc crossed sinai desert invaded divided egypt speed drove foreign nubian kushite rulers destroying kushite empire process esarhaddon declared king egypt libya kush esarhaddon stationed small army northern egypt describes ethiopians read nubians kushites deported egypt leaving one left homage installed native egyptian princes throughout land rule behalf assyrian empire


death ashurbanipal dark green ''pahitu'' ''pahutu'' provinces yellow ''matu'' subjects kingdoms cream colour babylon kingdom yellow points show subjects kingdoms black points show ''pahitu'' ''pahutu'' provinces babylon kingdom brown letters provinces existed previously ashurbanipal bc unusually well educated king time could speak read write sumerian akkadian aramaic assyrian domination spanned caucasus mountains modern armenia georgia azerbaijan north nubia arabia south east mediterranean libya egypt cyprus


antioch west persia cissia caspian sea east ashurbanipal 's brutal campaign elam bc recorded relief destruction city hamanu ultimately assyria conquered babylonia chaldea elam media persia urartu armenia phoenicia aramea syria phrygia neo hittite states hurrian lands arabia gutium israel judah samarra moab edom corduene cilicia mannea cyprus defeated exacted tribute scythia cimmeria lydia nubia ethiopia others height empire encompassed whole modern nations iraq syria egypt lebanon israel jordan kuwait


bahrain cyprus together large swathes iran saudi arabia turkey sudan libya armenia georgia azerbaijan downfall bc assyrian empire severely crippled following death ashurbanipal bc nation empire descending prolonged brutal series civil wars involving three rival kings ashur etil ilani sin shumu lishir sin shar ishkun egypt 's th dynasty installed assyrians vassals quietly detached assyria although careful retain friendly relations assyria 's babylonian relations rebelled circa bc leadership nabopolassar believed


migrant chaldean people settled far south east mesopotamia bc nabopolassar possession much babylonia bar pro assyrian cities nippur attempts invade assyria met failure assyrian counterattack saw bitter fighting ensue babylonia scythians cimmerians took advantage bitter fighting among assyrians raid assyrian colonies hordes horse borne marauders ravaging parts asia minor caucasus vassal kings urartu lydia begged assyrian overlord help vain also raided


levant israel judah ashkelon sacked scythians way egypt whose coasts ravaged looted impunity iranic peoples medes aided previous assyrian destruction hitherto dominant elamites ancient iran also took advantage upheavals assyria coalesce powerful median dominated force destroyed ''pre iranic'' kingdom mannea absorbed remnants pre iranic elamites southern iran equally pre iranic gutians manneans kassites zagros mountains caspian sea cyaxares technically vassal


assyria alliance scythians cimmerians launched surprise attack civil war beleaguered assyria bc sacking kalhu biblical calah nimrud taking arrapha modern kirkuk gasur nabopolassar still pinned southern mesopotamia assyrian forces completely uninvolved major breakthrough assyria despite sorely depleted state assyria bitter fighting ensued throughout bc medes continued gradually make hard fought inroads assyria scoring decisive devastating victory assyrian forces battle assur ref name companion assyria https booksgooglefr booksid nhsmdwaaqbaj pg pa lpg pa dq assur uballit ii failed attempt harran companion assyria source bl ots gabgmwugsp sig ycls mljlckrszhc vvy hl fr sa x ved ahukewjrwlgrpyhbahwlxhqkhtveaomq aeiodab v onepage q assur uballit ii failed attempt harran companion assyria f false companion


assyria p ref bc however assyrians scored number counterattacking victories medes persians babylonians chaldeans scythians cimmerians led unification forces ranged assyria launched massive combined attack finally besieging entering nineveh late bc sin shar ishkun slain bitter street street fighting despite loss almost major cities face overwhelming odds assyrian resistance continued ashur uballit ii bc fought way nineveh coalesced assyrian forces around harran finally fell


bc year ashur uballit ii besieged harran help egyptian army failed last defeat ended assyrian empire ref name companion assyria aftermath egypt along remnants assyrian army suffered defeat battle carchemish bc assyria seems ceased independent entity although imperial records assyrian style continued dur katlimmu bc perhaps indicating resistance endured years assyria launch major rebellions achaemenid empire


bc bc remained geo political region ethnic entity colonised province various empires th century ad assyria empire achaemenid assyria osroene rist n athura hatra athura achaemenid period assyria initially ruled short lived median empire bc fall twist fate nabonidus last king babylon together son co regent belshazzar assyrian harran overthrown short lived chaldean dynasty babylonia chaldeans disappeared history fully absorbed native


population babylonia however apart plans dedicate religious temples city harran nabonidus showed little interest rebuilding assyria nineveh kalhu remained ruins small numbers assyrians living within conversely number towns cities arrapkha guzana nohadra harran remained intact assur arbela irbil completely destroyed attested later revival however assyria spent much short period degree devastation following fall achaemenid assyria bc medes overthrown persians


dominant force ancient iran assyria ruled persian achaemenid empire athura bc see achaemenid assyria bc assyria rebelled new persian dynasty usurped previous median dynasty rebellion centered around tyareh eventually quashed cyrus great assyria seems recovered dramatically flourished period became major agricultural administrative centre achaemenid empire soldiers mainstay persian army fact assyria even became powerful enough raise another full scale revolt


persian empire bc persians spent centuries assyrian domination first ruler achaemenes successors vassals assyria assyrian influence seen achaemenid art infrastructure administration early persian rulers saw successors ashurbanipal mesopotamian aramaic retained ''lingua franca'' empire two hundred years greek writers thucydides still referred ''the assyrian language'' nineveh never rebuilt however years sacked xenophon reported small numbers assyrians living amongst


ruins conversely ancient city assur became rich prosperous entity th century bc assyria syriac language syriac script evolved five centuries later later global influence liturgical language written script syriac christianity accompanying syriac literature also emerged assyria spreading throughout near east asia minor caucasus central asia indian subcontinent china macedonian seleucid assyria bc assyria fell alexander great macedonian emperor called inhabitants ''assyrioi''


macedonian empire partitioned bc thereafter became part seleucid empire bc period later ''syria'' vs ''assyria'' naming controversy arises seleucids applied name 'syria' th century bc indo anatolian derivation 'assyria' see etymology syria assyria also levantine lands west historically known aram eber nari part assyrian empire north east corner aside never part assyria proper seleucids lost control assyria proper


name ''syria'' survived erroneously applied land assyria also aramea lead assyrians mesopotamia arameans phoenicians levant collectively dubbed ''syrians'' later also ''syriacs'' greco roman later european culture regardless ethnicity history geography seleucid rule assyrians ceased hold senior military economic civil positions enjoyed achaemenids largely replaced greeks greek language also replaced mesopotamian east aramaic lingua franca empire although


affect assyrian population hellenised seleucid era retaining language religion culture seleucid period southern mesopotamia babylon gradually abandoned favour new city named seleucia tigris effectively bringing end ''babylonia'' geo political entity parthian assyria bc ad bc assyria largely control parthian empire parthians seem exercised loose control assyria mid nd century bc th century ad number


revival temples assyrian national gods ashur sin hadad ishtar ninurta tammuz shamash dedicated throughout assyria upper mesopotamia period addition christianity arrived assyria soon death christ assyrians began gradually convert christianity ancient mesopotamian religion period early first rd centuries assyria became important centre syriac christianity syriac literature church east including offshoots assyrian church east chaldean catholic church evolving assyria


syriac orthodox church partly also osroene becoming first independent christian state history ref name winkler p roman assyria however trajan assyria independent states briefly taken rome province assyria assyrian kingdom adiabene destroyed independent state period roman rule lasted years parthians regained control help assyrians incited overthrow roman garrisons parthian king however number assyrians conscripted roman


army many serving region hadrian 's wall roman britain inscriptions aramaic made soldiers discovered northern england dating nd century ad loose parthian rule restored assyria patchwork states continued much roman interregnum although assyria mesopotamia whole became front line roman parthian empires new religious movements also emerged form gnostic sects mandeanism well extinct manichean religion christian period sassanid assyria c


centre syriac orthodox church flourishing syriac assyrian christian culture exists day temples still dedicated national god ashur well mesopotamian gods home city harran elsewhere th th centuries ad indicating ancient pre christian assyrian identity still extant degree sasanian period much babylonia southern mesopotamia incorporated assyria effect whole mesopotamia came known rist n parts assyria appear


semi independent late latter part th century ad king named sennacherib ii reputedly ruling northern reaches ad arab islamic conquest centuries constant warfare byzantine empire sassanid empire left empires exhausted made open loss war muslim arab army newfound rashidun caliphate early islamic conquests assyria dissolved official administrative entity empire arab rule mesopotamia whole underwent gradual process arabisation beginning


anatolia arabian peninsula homeland mesopotamia evidence massive church structure nestorian stele artifact found china documented years christian history china ad assyrian christians maintained relations fellow christians armenia georgia throughout middle ages th century ad assyrian priests interceded behalf persecuted arab muslims georgia mongol empire first signs trouble assyrians started th century mongols first invaded near east fall baghdad


hulagu khan assyrians first well mongol rule shamanist mongols sympathetic assyrian priests traveled mongolia centuries mongols fact spent time oppressing muslims jews outlawing practice circumcision halal butchery found repulsive violent therefore one groups region looked good light assyrians given special privileges powers h leg even appointing assyrian christian governor erbil arbela allowing syriac orthodox church build


church ref name novacek ref aramaic language syriac christianity middle east central asia largely annihilated tamerlane th century however mongol rulers near east eventually converted islam sustained persecutions christians throughout entirety ilkhanate began earnest rule rat amir nauruz affected indigenous christians greatly reign ilkhan ljeit inhabitants erbil seized control citadel much city rebellion muslims spring mongol malik governor


region attempted seize help kurds arabs defeated defeat decided siege city assyrians held three months citadel last taken ilkhanate troops arab turkic kurdish tribesmen july defenders citadel fought last man many inhabitants lower town subsequently massacred regardless hardships assyrian people remained numerically dominant north mesopotamia late th century ad


city assur functioned religious cultural capital seat catholicos church east seleucia ctesiphon assur mid th century muslim turkish ruler tamurlane conducted religiously motivated massacre indigenous christians entirely destroyed vast church east structure established throughout far east outside sasanid empire exception st thomas christians malabar coast india numbered million census kerala timur 's campaign ancient assyria 's cultural religious capital


assur fell entirely ruins part used graveyard breakup church east around years massacres timur religious schism known schism occurred among assyrian christians northern mesopotamia large number followers church east dissatisfied leadership assyrian church point based rabban hormizd monastery near alqosh nineveh plains particular system hereditary succession patriarch three bishops elected


known traditionally amid assyrians set residence mardin merida assyrians killed turkish ottoman authorities denounced traditionalist patriarch metropolitans ordained elected successor initiating shimun line patriarchs took name shimun simon patriarchs line requested obtained confirmation rome rome withdrew recognition clearly broke communion rome returned assyrian church continued line


patriarchs independent alqosh seat assyrian town qodchanis hakkari mountains letter june years shimun line broke relations rome shimun xi eshuyow called patriarch chaldean catholics record response rome confirming catholic patriarch biblical aramaic sometimes erroneously called chaldaic chaldee western sources although language first introduced assyria tiglath pileser iii th century bc ingrained


assyria came known assyrian greek writers thucydides xenophon assyrian christians whose liturgical language form aramaic continued referred assyrians fall empire see assyrian continuity hormuzd rassam applied term chaldeans assyrians communion rome stated present chaldeans exceptions speak dialect used targum parts ezra daniel called 'chaldee' long shimun line


gradually returned traditional worship assyrian church east thereby losing allegiance western regions moved turkish controlled diyarbak r urmia persia long established assyrian presence bishopric diyarbak r became subject alqosh patriarch bishop joseph diyarbak r converted catholic faith obtained recognition turkish authorities invested independent power diyarbak r mardin recognized rome patriarch chaldeans deprived patriarch thus instituted


josephite line third line patriarchs alqosh line eliya vii eliya viii eliya ix contacted rome various times without establishing union union achieved eliya xi died successor eliya xii sending profession faith rome receiving confirmation catholic patriarch adopted traditionalist position opponents elected yohannan hormizd young nephew eliya xi eliya xi intended successor although yohannan hormizd support followers alqosh


augustine hindi died rome appointed yohannan hormizd patriarch catholics shimun line first enter union rome remained head original traditionalist assyrian church east continued hands family death shimun xxi eshai time alqosh line continues without hereditary succession head chaldean catholic church term chaldean properly taken denominational term like nestorian rather ethnic one


chaldean catholic church emerged northern mesopotamia assyrian church northern mesopotamia southeastern anatolia 's followers hailed assyrian homeland far north mesopotamia rather historic chaldea existed th th centuries bc far southeast mesopotamia disappearing chaldean catholics speak dialects hail towns villages family names genetic profiles traditionally historically known assyrians https cnewaorg eastern christian churches toc ecumenical relations relations catholic church assyrian church east modern history ottoman empire website wwwainaorg ref splits assyrians suffered


number religiously ethnically motivated massacres throughout th th th centuries massacres badr khan resulted massacre assyrians culminating large scale hamidian massacres unarmed men women children turks kurds hands ottoman empire associated largely kurdish arab militias greatly reduced numbers particularly southeastern turkey assyrians murdered adana massacre largely aimed armenian christians also accounted murder


assyrians assyrians suffered catastrophic series events world war form religiously ethnically motivated assyrian genocide hands ottomans kurdish arab allies sources claim highest number assyrians killed period assyrian assessment set assyrian genocide ran largely conjunction similarly ethno religiously motivated armenian genocide greek genocide great famine mount lebanon reaction ottoman cruelty assyrians took arms


assyrian independence movement began turbulent events world war time assyrians fought successfully overwhelming numbers scoring number victories ottomans kurds also hostile arab iranian groups however due collapse russian empire due russian revolution similar collapse armenian defense assyrians left without allies result assyrians vastly outnumbered outgunned surrounded cut without supplies option flee region northwest iran fight way around


civilians tow british train lines going mandatory iraq sizable assyrian presence south eastern anatolia endured four millennia thus reduced end world war many remained forcibly expelled display ethnic cleansing turkish government many leaving later founding villages sapna nahla valleys dohuk governorate iraq assyrian settlements mindan baquba attacked iraqi arabs assyrian tribesmen


displayed military prowess successfully defeating driving arab forces ref name referenceb ref assyrians also sided british iraqi revolt british assyrian levies founded british ancient assyrian military rankings rab shakeh rab talia turtanu revived first time millennia force assyrians prized british rulers fighting qualities loyalty bravery discipline used help british put insurrections among arabs kurds turcoman guard borders iran turkey


protect british military installations assyrian levies saw action effectively defeating arab kurdish forces anti british rebellions iraq ref name referenceb simele massacre world war ii iraq granted independence british assyrians suffered simele massacre thousands unarmed villagers men women children slaughtered joint arab kurdish forces iraqi army massacres civilians followed clash armed assyrian tribesmen iraqi army iraqi forces suffered defeat trying disarm assyrians feared would attempt


secede iraq armed assyrian levies prevented british going aid civilians british government whitewashed massacres league nations despite betrayals assyrians allied british world war ii eleven assyrian companies seeing action palestine israel another four serving greece cyprus albania assyrians played major role victory arab iraqi forces battle habbaniya elsewhere iraqi government decided join world war ii side nazi germany


period respite assyrians northern iraq north east syria regime iraqi president kassim particular saw assyrians accepted mainstream society many urban assyrians became successful businessmen number assyrians moved south cities baghdad basra nasiriyah enhance economic prospects others well represented politics military arts entertainment assyrian towns villages farmsteads assyrian quarters major cities flourished undisturbed assyrians came excel represented sports boxing football athletics


wrestling swimming however ba'ath party took power force iraq came power syria year baathists though secular arab nationalists set attempting arabize many non arab peoples iraq syria including assyrians policy included refusing acknowledge assyrians ethnic group banning publication written material assyrian eastern aramaic banning teaching schools together attempt ''arabize'' ancient pre arab heritage mesopotamian civilisation policies baathists also ready long mirrored


turkey whose nationalist governments refused acknowledge assyrians ethnic group since attempted turkify assyrians calling semitic turks forcing adopt turkish names language repressing assyrian language iran assyrians continued enjoy cultural religious ethnic rights time due islamic revolution community experienced continuous decline due religious intolerance persecution aftermath iraq war assyrians became targets islamist terrorist attacks intimidation sunni


mayor jahwareh syrian civil war present recent years assyrians northern iraq northeast syria become target attacks amounting genocide islamist militants like isil nusra front isil attacked unarmed assyrian towns villages assyrian homelands northern iraq north east syria assyrians forced homes cities mosul houses possessions stolen isil also former arab kurdish muslim neighbours ref name newyorknewsgriocom ref assyrian bronze age iron age monuments archaeological sites


well numerous assyrian churches monasteries ref name newyorknewsgriocom systematically vandalised destroyed isil include ruins nineveh kalhu nimrud assur dur sharrukin arrapha hatra isil destroyed year old ziggurat isil destroyed virgin mary church st markourkas church destroyed cemetery bulldozed ref name militia iraq ref assyrians northern iraq north east syria responded forming armed assyrian militias defend territories despite heavily outnumbered outgunned notable success driving isil assyrian towns villages defending others attack armed assyrian


militias also fought isil alongside armed groups kurds turcoman yezidis shabaks armenian christians kawilya mandeans circassians shia muslim arabs iranians ''dewkh nawsha'' translates sacrifice militia formed days isil took mosul military force made assyrian volunteers come nineveh plains dewkh nawsha supported assyrian patriotic party led wilson khammu ref name militia iraq estimated percent iraqi assyrians fled ancient homelands since assyrians


fled ended world although returned others plan us census bureau survey reported roughly relocated united states culture assyria continued exist geopolitical entity arab islamic conquest mid th century assyrian identity personal family tribal names spoken written evolution mesopotamian aramaic still contains many akkadian loan words akkadian grammatical structure survived among assyrian people ancient times day assyrian calendar revived language ''the


ancient assyrians also used sumerian literature liturgy ref name georges roux ancient iraq p although limited extent middle neo assyrian periods akkadian became main literary language ref name georges roux ancient iraq p rd millennium bc intimate cultural symbiosis developed sumerians akkadian speakers included widespread bilingualism ref name deutscher influence sumerian akkadian vice versa evident areas lexical borrowing massive scale syntactic morphological phonological convergence ref name deutscher prompted scholars refer sumerian


akkadian rd millennium bc ''sprachbund'' ref name deutscher akkadian gradually replaced sumerian spoken language mesopotamia somewhere around turn rd nd millennium bc exact dating matter debate ref name woods sumerian continued used sacred ceremonial literary scientific language mesopotamia st century ad neo assyrian period aramaic language became increasingly common ref name roux ref akkadian thought largely due mass deportations undertaken assyrian kings ref name georges roux ancient iraq


p ref large aramaic speaking populations conquered assyrians relocated assyria interbred assyrians due fact tiglath pileser ii made lingua franca assyria empire th century bc destruction assyrian capitals nineveh assur babylonians medes allies ensured much bilingual elite wiped th century bc much assyrian population used distinct akkadian influenced eastern aramaic varieties akkadian last akkadian inscriptions mesopotamia date


st century ad syriac language also emerged assyria th century bc christian era syriac literature syriac script become hugely influential however descendant akkadian influenced eastern aramaic dialects neo assyrian empire well akkadian mesopotamian aramaic personal tribal family place names still survive day among assyrian people spoken fluently assyrians number lesser varying degrees fluency ref name georges roux ancient iraq p dialects contain many akkadian loan words grammatical features


different almost extinct western aramaic arameans levant trans jordan akkadian grammatical structure loan words years effort university chicago completed assyrian dictionary style like encyclopedia dictionary religion ancient assyrian religion assyrians like rest mesopotamian peoples followed ancient mesopotamian religion national god ashur importance assyrian empire religion gradually declined advent syriac christianity


first tenth centuries primary religion syriac christianity directly connected disciple peter ref name ninevehcom major deities worshipped assyria various points history include god yahweh god abraham christianity adad hadad storm rain god anu god heaven sky lord constellations father gods name derived sumero akkadian ana means heaven considered father great gods stories mentioned father creator god believed


supreme ref name pinches ref dagan dagon god fertility enki ea god abzu crafts water intelligence mischief creation divine ruler earth humans ereshkigal goddess irkalla underworld ishtar inanna astarte goddess fertility love war marduk patron deity babylon eventually became regarded head babylonian pantheon nabu god wisdom writing nanshe goddess prophecy fertility fishing nergal god plague war sun destructive capacity later husband ereshkigal ninhursag


mami belet ili ki ninmah nintu aruru earth mother goddess ninlil goddess air consort enlil ninurta champion gods epitome youthful vigour god agriculture nusku messenger gods offspring abyss creation likeness father first born bel nusku also considered great commander counselor gods protector gods heaven assyrian kings mention nusku many times especially wars nusku fearless battle ref name pinches shamash utu


god sun arbiter justice patron travellers sin nanna god moon considered prince gods described perfect body everything beard horns perfect name believed come zu ena changed point zu ena means knowledge lord sin also mentioned religions babylonia ref name pinches tammuz dumuzi god food vegetation original polytheistic religion assyrians widely adhered around th century survived pockets least


century founding episcopal see seleucia ctesiphon became church 's primatial see clear evidence presence christianity osroene nd century time christians persecuted roman empire peace expanding persian empire shapur second ' 'shahinshah'' king kings sasanian dynasty occupied roman territory advancing far antioch deported eastward much population strengthen economy empire one deported bishop demetrius antioch


became first bishop beth lapat constantine great legalized christianity roman empire christians persia came suspicion pro roman sympathies persecuted especially shapur ii yazdegerd situation christian minority improved considerably recommendation several western bishops signatories included bishops antioch aleppo edessa amid yazdegerd called council seleucia ctesiphon organized persian church model approved first council nicea church roman empire church


east arranged six ecclesiastical provinces bishops grouped around metropolitan bishop seleucia ctesiphon capital city referred acts council grand metropolitan held authority throughout church reason called probably later date catholicos papa bar aggai almost years council suffered sudden stroke synod held depose looked first catholicos church east although may mean


reason thinking saying catholicos east judged superiors another patriarch judge subjects judgment reserved christ chosen raised placed head church six years council ephesus enforcement within byzantine empire whose condemnation nestorianism sometimes given led break church east western churches catholicos babowai wrote


western bishops asking get byzantine emperor intercede persian king peroz behalf persecuted christians letter intercepted reportedly barsauma metropolitan nisibis babowai heated dispute shown king babowai executed barsauma called synod beth lapat well condemning babowai 's policies permitted marriage clergy vowed monks reputedly adopted nestorian teaching babowai 's successor acacius seleucia ctesiphon synod held capital revoked decrees


miaphysites persia particularly strong tagrit appointed metropolitan east ahudemmeh convert church east khosrow freedom worship miaphysites unlike chalcedonian christians ahudemmeh made many converts among arabs miaphysites persia united syriac orthodox church patriarch athanasius gammolo placed head marutha tagrit title maphrian wide ranging autonomy would allay persian suspicion spiritual subjects patriarch lived byzantine rule miaphysites would


tend disloyal ref name varghese ref metropolitan sees missionary activity church east middle ages weakened long struggle byzantines persians unable withstand arab conquest seleucia ctesiphon fell last persian king yazdegerd iii became fugitive murdered money christians persia change zoroastrian islamic rulers worsen situation rather bettered especially nestorians east syrians time increased missionary activity church east whose success


china missionary alopen attested nestorian stele india continued maintenance liturgy syro malabar church patriarchate timothy high point church 's expansion general destruction wrought genghis khan church east fared worse mongols ilkhanate arabs end th century timur brought disaster exterminating many regions survived kurdistan mountains india account


divisions within church east mid th early th century given separate patriarchates one stage grew four reduced two numerous chaldean catholic church assyrian church east latter divided th century split assyrian church east ancient church east reforms shimun xxi eshai arab conquest removed previously existing frontier byzantine persian empires


syriac orthodox church longer needed maintain clear distinction part direct rule patriarch part care maphrian maphrian longer elected eastern bishops simply appointed patriarch maphrianate thus became abolished mere title second dignity within church church like east underwent divisions william taylor states years two rival series patriarchs one mardin


tur abdin syrian orthodox church allegiance third saint thomas christians southwestern india whose traditional liturgy church east however due anglican influence lost many th th centuries setting evangelical mar thoma syrian church st thomas evangelical church india half remaining th century declared church malankara orthodox syrian church autocephalous remaining obedience patriarch jacobite


syrian christian church granted autonomy within syrian orthodox church granted maphran headed part church persia time syriac orthodox church expanding india three quarters membership live ref name pro orienteat https wwwpro orienteat syrisch katholische kirche pro oriente syrisch katholische kirche ref capuchin jesuit missionaries union rome majority syriac orthodox aleppo including bishop andrew akijan elected patriarch syriac orthodox church death two strong factions emerged elected


patriarch one pro anti rome ottoman civil authorities recognized non catholic patriarch suppressed catholic faction eventually forcing underground newly elected syriac orthodox patriarch declared catholic moved lebanon replaced patriarch syriac orthodox church initiated series catholic patriarchs recognized ottoman authorities heading distinct catholic syriac church catholic patriarchal seat moved mardin many faithful massacred first world war patriarchal seat beirut


moved patriarch ignatius peter iv made attempt set latin rite branch syriac orthodox church goan antonio francisco xavier alvares ordained religious name mar julius archbishop ceylon goa india may alvares consent patriarch ordained ren vilatte archbishop america later years vilatte consecrated number men episcopal ancestors enormous variety descendants called independent sacramental movement independent catholicism


seat patriarchate syriac orthodox church moved saffron monastery mor hananyo monastery tur abdin kilometres north mardin turkey homs syria bab tuma literally meaning thomas gate damascus capital syria patriarch actually resides mar aphrem monastery maarat saidnaya kilometres north damascus ref name encrel syriac orthodox church today million followers three quarters belong autonomous jacobite syrian christian church india syriac catholic church faithful


syria iraq well lebanon united states ref name pro orienteat study sargon donabed shamiran mako cites remark made horatio southgate learning armenians called syrians ''assouri'' ''asorestants i'' armenian word assyrian syrians call sons asshur also mention dispute syrian orthodox writer mosul protested application co religionists name assyrians editor publication supported say rejection


assyrian label favour syrian aramean promoted church later became prevalent modern scholarship thus jf coakley described bogus ethnology assyrians description donabeg mako deplore argue judgment academics attribute prevalence part political considerations continuing trend towards identification arameans evidenced also government israel 's recognition september arameans israel distinct nationality architecture assyrian architecture like babylonia influenced sumero akkadian styles degree mitanni


early developed distinctive style palaces sported colourful wall decorations seal cutting art learned mittani developed apace schools scribes taught babylonian assyrian dialects akkadian sumerian akkadian literary works often copied assyrian flavour assyrian dialect akkadian used legal official religious practical texts medicine instructions manufacturing items th th centuries picture tales appeared new art form continuous series images carved square stone steles somewhat reminiscent comic book show


events warfare hunting placed order upper left lower right corner stele captions written underneath excellent cut seals show assyrian art beginning surpass babylon architecture saw introduction new style ziggurat two towers colorful enameled tiles arts sciences ''lamassu'' entrance kings private apartments bc british museum london assyrian art preserved present day predominantly dates neo assyrian period art depicting battle scenes occasionally impaling


whole villages gory detail intended show power emperor generally made propaganda purposes stone reliefs lined walls royal palaces foreigners received king stone reliefs depict king different deities conducting religious ceremonies many stone reliefs discovered royal palaces nimrud kalhu khorsabad dur sharrukin rare discovery metal plates belonging wooden doors made balawat imgur enlil assyrian sculpture reached high level refinement neo assyrian period one prominent example winged bull


lamassu shedu guard entrances king 's court apotropaic meaning intended ward evil cw ceram states ''the march archaeology'' lamassi typically sculpted five legs four legs always visible whether image viewed frontally profile although works precious gems metals usually survive ravages time fine pieces assyrian jewelry found royal tombs nimrud ongoing discussion among academics nature nimrud lens piece quartz unearthed


austen henry layard nimrud palace complex northern iraq small minority believe evidence existence ancient assyrian telescopes could explain great accuracy assyrian astronomy suggestions include use magnifying glass jewellers decorative furniture inlay nimrud lens held british museum ref name mu eum https wwwbritishmuseumorg collection object w nimrud lens british museum ref assyrians also innovative military technology use heavy cavalry sappers siege engines gallery widths px heights px hermitage nimrud jpg winged figure near sacred tree


capital dur sharrukin showing transport lebanese cedar bc height width nbsp cm louvre genie benisseur jpg relief winged man bc height width palace king sargon ii louvre lion shaped weight sb p gradientjpg lion weight th th century bce bronze height nbsp cm width nbsp cm louvre ancient egyptian assyrian persian costumes decorations jpg assyrian ornaments patterns illustrated book ancient times assyrian costumes nations jpg illustrations drawn people dressed assyrian clothing gallery legacy austen henry layard nineveh


achaemenid assyria bc retained separate identity official correspondence imperial aramaic even determined revolt two assyrian provinces mada athura bc seleucid rule however aramaic gave way greek official administrative language aramaic marginalised official language remained spoken assyria babylonia general populace also remained spoken tongue indigenous assyrian babylonian citizens mesopotamia persian greek roman rule indeed well arab period still language


majority particularly north mesopotamia surviving day among assyrian christians bc ad assyria changed hands parthian empire romans coming rule sasanian empire known rist n number assyrian kingdoms existed area late classical early christian period circa bc ad also adiabene hatra osroene assur beth nuhadra beth garmai classical historiographers biblical writers retained fragmented dim often inaccurate


picture assyria remembered assyrian empire predating persian one particulars lost thus jerome 's ''chronicon'' lists kings assyrians beginning ninus son belus sardanapalus last king assyrians empire fell arbaces median almost none substantiated historical exception neo assyrian babylonian rulers listed ''canon kings'' beginning nabonassar assyrians began form adopt distinct eastern christianity accompanying syriac literature st


rd centuries ce however ancient mesopotamian religion still alive well th century pockets survived th century possibly late th century mardin however religion dead assyrian people though still retaining eastern aramaic dialects mother tongue wholly christian modern discovery babylonia assyria begins excavations nineveh revealed library ashurbanipal decipherment cuneiform script formidable task took decade royal asiatic society


great britain ireland convinced reliable reading cuneiform texts possible assyriology since pieced together formerly largely forgotten history mesopotamia wake archaeological philological rediscovery ancient assyria assyrian nationalism became increasingly popular among surviving remnants assyrian people come strongly identify ancient assyria see also achaemenid assyria adiabene akkadian empire akkadian language ancient church east assur assuristan assyrian christians assyrian church east assyrian continuity assyrian culture assyrian diaspora assyrian evangelical church assyrian genocide assyrian homeland assyrian king list


assyrian levies assyrian music disambiguation assyrian nationalism assyrian pentecostal church assyrian people assyrian struggle independence athura beth garmai beth nuhadra babylonia chaldea chaldean catholic church chaldo assyrians church east cuneiform script eastern aramaic hatra imperial aramaic list assyrians list assyrian settlements list assyrian tribes mesopotamia mesopotamian religion middle assyrian empire name syria neo assyrian empire nineveh old assyrian empire osroene sumer sumerian language syriac christianity syriac language syriac orthodox church syriac script terms syriac christians notes references sources external links https wwwworldhistoryorg assyria assyria world history encyclopedia http lexicorientcom eo assyriahtm assyria ''looklex encyclopedia'' https webarchiveorg web http wwwthird millennium librarycom readinghall universalhistory old world religion babilonia assyria theophilus g pinches forewordhtml theophilus g


pinches ''the religion babylonia assyria'' btm format morris jastrow jr https webarchiveorg web http faxlibsugaedu ds xj c ''the civilization babylonia assyria remains language history religion commerce law art literature'' london lippincott searchable facsimile university georgia libraries also available https webarchiveorg web http faxlibsugaedu ds xj c f civilization babylonia assyriapdf layered pdf format ancient levant ancient mesopotamia ancient near east bronze age countries asia iron age countries asia th century bc th century bc th century bc states territories established rd millennium bc states territories disestablished th century bc th century bc disestablishments eastern mediterranean


adding dome florence cathedral italy early th century architect filippo brunelleschi transformed building city also role status architect '''architecture''' latin ''architectura'' greek ''arkhitekton'' architect chief creator process product planning designing constructing buildings structures architectural works material form buildings often perceived cultural symbols works art historical civilizations often identified surviving architectural achievements practice

Applied science
Architecture and design
Architecture


began prehistoric era used way expressing culture civilizations seven continents reason architecture considered form art texts architecture written since ancient time earliest surviving text architectural theory st century ad treatise ''de architectura'' roman architect vitruvius according good building embodies durability utility beauty centuries later leon battista alberti developed ideas seeing beauty objective quality buildings found proportions giorgio vasari


wrote ''lives excellent painters sculptors architects'' put forward idea style western arts th century th century louis sullivan declared form follows function function began replace classical utility understood include practical also aesthetic psychological cultural dimensions idea sustainable architecture introduced late th century architecture began rural oral vernacular architecture developed trial error successful replication ancient urban architecture preoccupied building religious structures buildings symbolizing political


power rulers greek roman architecture shifted focus civic virtues indian chinese architecture influenced forms asia buddhist architecture particular took diverse local flavors european middle ages pan european styles romanesque gothic cathedrals abbeys emerged renaissance favored classical forms implemented architects known name later roles architects engineers became separated modern architecture began world war avant garde movement sought develop completely new style appropriate new post war social economic order focused meeting needs


middle working classes emphasis put modern techniques materials simplified geometric forms paving way high rise superstructures many architects became disillusioned modernism perceived ahistorical anti aesthetic postmodern contemporary architecture developed years field architectural construction branched include everything ship design interior decorating definitions architecture mean general term describe buildings physical structures ref name oed ''shorter oxford english dictionary'' oxford ref art science designing buildings nonbuilding structures ref name oed style


design method construction buildings physical structures ref name oed unifying coherent form structure knowledge art science technology humanity ref name oed design activity architect ref name oed macro level urban design landscape architecture micro level construction details furniture practice architect architecture means offering rendering professional services connection design construction buildings built environments theory architecture bracket arm clusters containing cantilevers ''yingzao fashi'' text architecture li jue plan second floor attic storey


h tel de brionne paris philosophy architecture branch philosophy art dealing aesthetic value architecture semantics relations development culture many philosophers theoreticians plato michel foucault gilles deleuze robert venturi ludwig wittgenstein concerned nature architecture whether architecture distinguished building historic treatises earliest surviving written work subject architecture ''de architectura'' roman architect vitruvius early st century ad ref name vitruvius rowland tn howe vitruvius ten books


architecture cambridge university press cambridge ref according vitruvius good building satisfy three principles ref name elements ref commonly known original translation ''firmness commodity delight'' equivalent modern english would durability building stand robustly remain good condition utility suitable purposes used beauty aesthetically pleasing according vitruvius architect strive fulfill three attributes well possible leon battista alberti elaborates ideas


translated italian french spanish english th century italian mannerist architect painter theorist sebastiano serlio wrote ''tutte l opere architettura et prospetiva'' ''complete works architecture perspective'' treatise exerted immense influence throughout europe first handbook emphasized practical rather theoretical aspects architecture first catalog five orders early th century augustus welby northmore pugin wrote ''contrasts'' titled suggested contrasted modern industrial world disparaged idealized image neo medieval world gothic architecture pugin believed


true christian form architecture th century english art critic john ruskin ''seven lamps architecture'' published much narrower view constituted architecture architecture art disposes adorns edifices raised men sight contributes mental health power pleasure ref name ruskin john ruskin ''the seven lamps architecture'' g allen reprinted dover ref ruskin aesthetic overriding significance work goes state building truly work architecture unless


two bricks together begins national congress brazil designed oscar niemeyer modern concepts notable th century architect skyscrapers louis sullivan promoted overriding precept architectural design form follows function notion structural aesthetic considerations entirely subject functionality met popularity skepticism effect introducing concept function place vitruvius' utility function came seen encompassing criteria use perception enjoyment building practical also aesthetic psychological cultural nunzia rondanini


stated aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond functional aspects common human sciences particular way expressing values architecture stimulate influence social life without presuming promote social development restrict meaning architectural formalism art art 's sake reactionary also purposeless quest perfection originality degrades form mere instrumentality among philosophies influenced modern architects approach building design rationalism empiricism structuralism poststructuralism


deconstruction phenomenology late th century new concept added included compass structure function consideration sustainability hence sustainable architecture satisfy contemporary ethos building constructed manner environmentally friendly terms production materials impact upon natural built environment surrounding area demands makes upon non sustainable power sources heating cooling water waste management lighting history origins vernacular architecture gallery mode packed file st rnes ndre loft rollagjpg norway wood


process trial error progressively less trial replication results process proved increasingly satisfactory termed vernacular architecture continues produced many parts world prehistoric architecture gallery mode packed file g bekli tepe urfajpg g bekli tepe turkey founded th millennium bc abandoned th millennium bc file trypillian house jpg pottery miniature cucuteni trypillian house file cucuteni mnir img jpg miniature regular cucuteni trypillian house full ceramic vessels file orkney skara braejpg excavated dwellings skara brae mainland orkney scotland uk gallery early human settlements mostly rural expending economies resulted


creation urban areas cases grew evolved rapidly atal h k anatolia mohenjo daro indus valley civilization modern day pakistan neolithic settlements cities include g bekli tepe atalh k turkey jericho levant mehrgarh pakistan knap howar skara brae orkney islands scotland cucuteni trypillian culture settlements romania moldova ukraine ancient architecture gallery mode packed file ishtar gate pergamon museum berlinjpg mesopotamian architecture reconstruction ishtar gate pergamon museum berlin germany circa bc kheops pyramidjpg ancient egyptian


europe buddhist hindu sikh architecture different characteristics indian chinese architecture great influence surrounding regions japanese architecture buddhist architecture particular showed great regional diversity hindu temple architecture developed around th century ce theory governed concepts laid shastras concerned expressing macrocosm microcosm many asian countries pantheistic religion led architectural forms designed specifically enhance natural landscape many parts asia even grandest houses relatively


lightweight structures mainly using wood recent times survivals great age buddhism associated move stone brick religious structures probably beginning rock cut architecture often survived well early asian writings architecture include ''kao gong ji'' china th th centuries bce shilpa shastras ancient india manjusri vasthu vidya sastra sri lanka araniko nepal islamic architecture gallery mode packed file c rdoba jpg moorish architecture grand arches mosque cathedral c rdoba c rdoba spain file img interior jpg persian architecture jameh


mosque isfahan iran file taj mahal agra india edit jpg mughal architecture taj mahal agra india selimiye mosque domejpg ottoman architecture interior side view main dome selimiye mosque edirne turkey gallery islamic architecture began th century ce incorporating architectural forms ancient middle east byzantium also developing features suit religious social needs society examples found throughout middle east turkey north africa indian sub continent parts europe spain albania balkan states result


expansion ottoman empire ref name metmuseumorg ottoman europe ref ref name brillcom book lory ref middle ages gallery mode packed file basilica di santa maria maggiore abside romajpg byzantine architecture apse santa maria maggiore rome decorated th century glamorous mosaic file durham cathedral navejpg romanesque architecture interior durham cathedral durham uk file sainte chapelle interior stained glassjpg gothic architecture stained glass windows sainte chapelle paris completed mostly constructed file strada stavropoleos bucharest romania jpg br ncovenesc architecture stavropoleos church downtown bucharest romania elaborate paintings fa ade gallery europe medieval period guilds


formed craftsmen organize trades written contracts survived particularly relation ecclesiastical buildings role architect usually one master mason ''magister lathomorum'' sometimes described contemporary documents major architectural undertakings buildings abbeys cathedrals ce onward movements clerics tradesmen carried architectural knowledge across europe resulting pan european styles romanesque gothic also significant part middle ages architectural heritage numerous fortifications across continent balkans spain malta


estonia buildings represent important part european heritage renaissance architect gallery mode packed florence duomo jpeg florence cathedral florence italy arnolfo di cambio filippo brunelleschi emilio de fabris tempietto del bramante vorderseitejpg tempietto rome donato bramante le salon des perspectives villa farnesina rome jpg hall perspective villa farnesina rome baldassare peruzzi villa rotonda palladiojpg villa la rotonda vicenza italy andrea palladio schloss chenonceaujpg ch teau de chenonceau france philibert de l'orme gallery renaissance europe onwards revival


classical learning accompanied development renaissance humanism placed greater emphasis role individual society case medieval period buildings ascribed specific architects brunelleschi alberti michelangelo palladio cult individual begun still dividing line artist architect engineer related vocations appellation often one regional preference revival classical style architecture accompanied burgeoning science engineering affected proportions structure


buildings stage still possible artist design bridge level structural calculations involved within scope generalist early modern industrial age gallery mode packed ch teau de maisons laffitte jpg baroque architecture ch teau de maisons france fran ois mansart petit appartement du roi pi ce de la vaisselle d'or jpg rococo architecture pi ce de la vaisselle d'or palace versailles versailles france west facade petit trianon jpg neoclassical architecture west facade petit trianon versailles ange jacques gabriel saints margaret street interior london


uk diliffjpg historicist architecture case gothic revival interior saints london william butterfield museum agesjpg th century eclectic classicist architecture museum ages victory avenue bucharest romania late th century unknown architect vedere halelor din paris de pe biserica saint eustachejpg th century industrial architecture les halles paris destroyed victor baltard den th tre paris chauveau p jpg orientalist architecture den th tre paris early demolished william klein albert duclos bulevardul dacia bucharest romania jpg revivalist architecture national style case romanian revival


also rise gentleman architect usually dealt wealthy clients concentrated predominantly visual qualities derived usually historical prototypes typified many country houses great britain created neo gothic scottish baronial styles formal architectural training th century example cole des beaux arts france gave much emphasis production beautiful drawings little context feasibility meanwhile industrial revolution laid open door mass production consumption aesthetics became criterion middle class ornamented products


within province expensive craftsmanship became cheaper machine production vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental housebuilders could use current architectural design work combining features found pattern books architectural journals modernism gallery mode packed alfeld fagus jul jpg early modern architecture fagus factory alfeld germany walter gropius einsteinturm ajpg expressionist architecture einstein tower potsdam near berlin germany erich mendelsohn th tre des champs lys es april jpg art deco architecture th tre des champs lys es paris auguste perret overzicht voorgevel heerlen rcejpg international style glaspaleis heerlen netherlands


frits peutz philip johnson gallery around beginning th century general dissatisfaction emphasis revivalist architecture elaborate decoration gave rise many new lines thought served precursors modern architecture notable among deutscher werkbund formed produce better quality machine made objects rise profession industrial design usually placed following lead bauhaus school founded weimar germany redefined architectural bounds prior set throughout history viewing creation building ultimate synthesis apex art craft


structural elements exposing steel beams concrete surfaces instead hiding behind decorative forms architects frank lloyd wright developed organic architecture form defined environment purpose aim promote harmony human habitation natural world prime examples robie house fallingwater architects mies van der rohe philip johnson marcel breuer worked create beauty based inherent qualities building materials modern construction techniques trading traditional historic forms simplified geometric forms celebrating new means methods made


possible industrial revolution including steel frame construction gave birth high rise superstructures fazlur rahman khan 's development tube structure technological break building ever higher mid century modernism morphed international style aesthetic epitomized many ways twin towers new york 's world trade center designed minoru yamasaki postmodernism gallery mode packed piazzaditalia jpg piazza d'italia new orleans usa charles moore walt disney company officejpg team disney building los angeles usa michael graves cambridge university judge business school interiorjpg multicolour interior cambridge judge business school cambridge


uk john outram case danzantijpg dancing house prague czech republic vlado miluni frank gehry gallery many architects resisted modernism finding devoid decorative richness historical styles first generation modernists began die world war ii second generation architects including paul rudolph marcel breuer eero saarinen tried expand aesthetics modernism brutalism buildings expressive sculptural fa ades made unfinished concrete even new younger postwar generation critiqued modernism brutalism austere standardized monotone taking


account richness human experience offered historical buildings across time different places cultures one reaction cold aesthetic modernism brutalism school metaphoric architecture includes things biomorphism zoomorphic architecture using nature primary source inspiration design considered merely aspect postmodernism others consider school right later development expressionist architecture ref name metaphor ref beginning late architectural phenomenology emerged


ordinary building functionally designed inside embellished outside upheld modernist brutalist ducks buildings unnecessarily expressive tectonic forms architecture today gallery mode packed dallas meadows museum jpg meadows museum dallas texas usa hbra architects file beijing national stadiumjpg beijing national stadium beijing china herzog de meuron campus wu lc tc dsc wjpg library learning center university vienna vienna austria zaha hadid file isbjergetjpg isbjerget housing project aarhus denmark inspired form color icebergs cebra jds architects louis paillard


search gallery since complexity buildings began increase terms structural systems services energy technologies field architecture became multi disciplinary specializations project type technological expertise project delivery methods moreover increased separation 'design' architect ref group notes design architect one responsible design ref 'project' architect ensures project meets required standards deals matters liability ref group notes project architect one responsible ensuring design built correctly administers


building contracts non specialist architectural practices project architect also design architect term refers differing roles architect plays differing stages process ref preparatory processes design large building become increasingly complicated require preliminary studies matters durability sustainability quality money compliance local laws large structure longer design one person must work many modernism postmodernism criticised members architectural profession feel successful architecture


personal philosophical aesthetic pursuit individualists rather consider everyday needs people use technology create liveable environments design process informed studies behavioral environmental social sciences environmental sustainability become mainstream issue profound effect architectural profession many developers support financing buildings become educated encourage facilitation environmentally sustainable design rather solutions based primarily immediate cost major examples found passive solar building design greener roof designs biodegradable materials


attention structure 's energy usage major shift architecture also changed architecture schools focus environment acceleration number buildings seek meet green building sustainable design principles sustainable practices core vernacular architecture increasingly provide inspiration environmentally socially sustainable contemporary techniques us green building council 's leed leadership energy environmental design rating system instrumental concurrently recent movements new urbanism metaphoric architecture complementary architecture new classical architecture promote sustainable


approach towards construction appreciates develops smart growth architectural tradition classical design contrast modernist globally uniform architecture well leaning solitary housing estates suburban sprawl glass curtain walls hallmark ultra modern urban life many countries surfaced even developing countries like nigeria international styles represented since mid th century mostly leanings foreign trained architects types architecture stourhead wiltshire england designed henry hoare landscape architecture landscape architecture design outdoor public areas


landmarks structures achieve environmental social behavioral aesthetic outcomes involves systematic investigation existing social ecological soil conditions processes landscape design interventions produce desired outcome scope profession includes landscape design site planning stormwater management environmental restoration parks recreation planning visual resource management green infrastructure planning provision private estate residence landscape master planning design varying scales design planning management practitioner profession landscape architecture called landscape architect interior architecture charles


rennie mackintosh music room interior architecture design space created structural boundaries human interaction within boundaries also initial design plan use later redesigned accommodate changed purpose significantly revised design adaptive reuse building shell ref name intarrisd ref latter often part sustainable architecture practices conserving resources recycling structure adaptive redesign generally referred spatial art environmental design form practice interior architecture process


interiors buildings designed concerned aspects human uses structural spaces put simply interior architecture design interior architectural terms naval architecture body plan ship showing hull form naval architecture also known naval engineering engineering discipline dealing engineering design process shipbuilding maintenance operation marine vessels structures naval architecture involves basic applied research design development design evaluation calculations stages life marine vehicle preliminary design vessel detailed design construction


trials operation maintenance launching dry docking main activities involved ship design calculations also required ships modified means conversion rebuilding modernization repair naval architecture also involves formulation safety regulations damage control rules approval certification ship designs meet statutory non statutory requirements urban design urban design process designing shaping physical features cities towns villages contrast architecture focuses design individual buildings urban design deals larger scale groups buildings streets


public spaces whole neighborhoods districts entire cities goal making urban areas functional attractive sustainable ref name berkeley ref urban design interdisciplinary field utilizes elements many built environment professions including landscape architecture urban planning architecture civil engineering municipal engineering common professionals disciplines practice urban design recent times different sub subfields urban design emerged strategic urban design landscape urbanism water sensitive urban design sustainable urbanism metaphorical architectures architecture used metaphor many modern techniques fields structuring


abstractions include computer architecture set rules methods describe functionality organization implementation computer systems software architecture hardware architecture network architecture covering specific aspects business architecture defined blueprint enterprise provides common understanding organization used align strategic objectives tactical demands ref name omg bawg definition omg business architecture special interest group http wwwomgorg bawg business architecture ''bawgomgorg'' https webarchiveorg web http bawgomgorg archiveorg accessed cited william ulrich philip newcomb ''information systems transformation architecture driven modernization case studies'' p ref enterprise


architecture another term cognitive architecture theories structure human mind system architecture conceptual model defines structure behavior views type system seismic architecture term 'seismic architecture' 'earthquake architecture' first introduced robert reitherman phrase earthquake architecture used describe degree architectural expression earthquake resistance implication architectural configuration form style earthquake resistance also used describe buildings seismic design considerations impacted architecture may considered new aesthetic approach


designing structures seismic prone areas wide breadth expressive possibilities ranges metaphorical uses seismic issues straightforward exposure seismic technology outcomes earthquake architecture diverse physical manifestations architectural expression seismic principles also take many forms levels sophistication see also architectural engineering architectural technology index architecture articles outline architecture philosophy architecture reverse architecture timeline architecture notes references external links http wwwworldarchitectureorg world architecture community http wwwarchitecturecom architecturecom published royal institute british architects https webarchiveorg web http wwwuia architectesorg texte england menu museeshtml architectural centers museums


agar plate streaked microorganisms '''microbiology''' greek ''m kros'' small ''bios'' life '' logia'' scientific study microorganisms unicellular single cell multicellular cell colony acellular lacking cells ref name brock ref microbiology encompasses numerous sub disciplines including virology bacteriology protistology mycology immunology parasitology eukaryotic microorganisms possess membrane bound organelles include fungi protists whereas prokaryotic organisms microorganisms conventionally classified lacking membrane bound organelles include bacteria archaea microbiologists traditionally relied culture staining microscopy however less microorganisms present common environments cultured