century anton chekhov emerged master short story well leading international dramatist important th century developments included fabulist ivan krylov non fiction writers critic vissarion belinsky political reformer alexander herzen playwrights aleksandr griboyedov aleksandr ostrovsky alexander sukhovo kobylin satirist kozma prutkov collective pen name gallery widths px heights px perrow image bryullov portrait zhukovskyjpg vasily zhukovsky image griboyedovjpg alexander griboyedov image kiprensky pushkinjpg alexander pushkin image fyodor tyutchevjpg fyodor tyutchev image jpg nikolai gogol image herzen ge detailjpg alexander herzen image ivan goncharov jpg ivan goncharov image mikhail lermontovjpg mikhail lermontov image sukhovo kobylin tropininjpg alexander sukhovo kobylin image aktolstoy repinjpg k tolstoy image turgenev


repinjpg ivan turgenev image fet repinjpg afanasy fet image nikolay gay portrait poet nikolay nekrasovjpg nikolai nekrasov image dostoevskij jpg fyodor dostoyevsky image wassilij grigorjewitsch perow jpg alexander ostrovsky image kramskoj saltykov schedrinjpg mikhail saltykov schedrin image ilya efimovich repin portrait leo tolstoy jpg leo tolstoy image serov leskovjpg nikolai leskov image chekhov osip brazjpg anton chekhov gallery th century silver age beginning th century ranks silver age russian poetry well known poets period include alexander blok sergei yesenin valery bryusov konstantin balmont mikhail kuzmin igor severyanin sasha chorny nikolay gumilyov maximilian voloshin innokenty annensky zinaida gippius poets often associated

Humanities
Languages and literature
Russian Literature


heights px perrow image alexander ivanovich kuprin jpg aleksandr kuprin image gippius sjpg zinaida gippius file andreyev repin jpg leonid andreyev image sologub jpg fyodor sologub image brusov jpg valery bryusov image blokjpg alexander blok tsvetaevajpg marina tsvetaeva image sergey yeseninjpg sergei yesenin image chlebnikowjpg velemir khlebnikov gallery lenin era first years soviet regime october revolution featured proliferation avant garde literature groups one important oberiu movement included famous russian absurdist daniil kharms konstantin vaginov alexander vvedensky nikolay zabolotsky famous authors experimenting language included novelists yuri olesha andrei platonov boris pilnyak


short story writers isaak babel mikhail zoshchenko opojaz group literary critics also known russian formalism founded close connection russian futurism two members also produced influential literary works namely viktor shklovsky whose numerous books ''a sentimental journey'' ''zoo letters love'' defy genre present novel mix narration autobiography aesthetic well social commentary yury tynyanov used knowledge russia 's literary history produce set historical novels mainly set


pushkin era eg ''lieutenant kij '' following establishment bolshevik rule mayakovsky worked interpreting facts new reality works ode revolution left march brought innovations poetry left march mayakovsky calls struggle enemies russian revolution poem '' '' discusses leading role played masses revolution poem ''vladimir ilyich lenin'' mayakovsky looks life work leader russia 's revolution depicts broad historical background


poem ''all right '' mayakovsky writes socialist society springtime humanity mayakovsky instrumental producing new type poetry politics played major part stalin era socialist realism became predominant trend russia writers like serapion brothers group insisted right author write independently political ideology forced authorities reject views accept socialist realist principles writers osip mandelstam daniil kharms leader oberiu leonid dobychin mikhail bulgakov


author ''the white guard'' ''the master margarita'' andrei platonov author novels ''chevengur'' ''the foundation pit'' attacked official critics formalists ideological enemies wrote little hope published isaac babel boris pilnyak writers continued publish works could get used socrealist principles end executed fabricated charges return russia maxim gorky proclaimed soviet authorities founder socialist realism novel


''mother'' gorky considered one biggest failures inspired proletarian writers found socrealist movement gorky defined socialist realism realism people rebuilding world pointed looks past heights future 's goals although defined strict style studied andrei sinyavsky 's essay ''on socialist realism'' label union writers styles write one purpose help development new man socialist society gorky became initiator


creating writer 's union state organization intended unite socrealist writers despite official reputation gorky 's post revolutionary works novel ''the life klim samgin'' ca n't defined socrealist andrei bely author ''petersburg'' well known modernist writer also member writer 's union tried become true socrealist writing series articles making ideological revisions memoirs also planned begin study socialist realism however continued writing unique techniques although actively published


lifetime major works would reissued end mikhail sholokhov one significant figures official soviet literature main socrealist work ''virgin soil upturned'' novel sholokhov glorifies collectivization however best known significant literary achievement ''quiet flows don'' epic novel realistically depicts life cossacks first world war russian revolution russian civil war nikolai ostrovsky 's novel ''how steel tempered'' among popular works


fadeyev also well known socialist realism writer ref name compuart novel ''the rout'' deals partisan struggle russia 's far east russian revolution civil war fadeyev described theme novel one revolution significantly transforming masses '' migr '' writers meanwhile '' migr '' writers poets vladislav khodasevich georgy ivanov vyacheslav ivanov novelists aleksandr kuprin aleksei remizov dmitry merezhkovsky ageyev mark aldanov gaito gazdanov vladimir nabokov short story nobel prize winning writer ivan bunin continued write


exile emigration bunin wrote significant works novel ''the life arseniev'' short story cycle ''dark avenues'' bunin writes pre revolutionary russia life '' migr s'' described nabokov 's ''mary'' '' gift'' gazdanov 's ''an evening claire'' ''the specter alexander wolf'' georgy ivanov 's novel ''disintegration atom'' later soviet era end world war ii nobel prize winning boris pasternak wrote novel ''doctor zhivago'' publication novel italy


caused scandal soviet authorities forced pasternak renounce nobel prize denounced internal white emigre fascist fifth columnist pasternak expelled writer 's union khrushchev thaw brought fresh wind literature poetry became mass cultural phenomenon bella akhmadulina robert rozhdestvensky andrei voznesensky yevgeny yevtushenko read poems stadiums attracted huge crowds writers dared oppose soviet ideology like short story writer varlam shalamov nobel prize winning novelist aleksandr solzhenitsyn wrote life gulag camps


vasily grossman description world war ii events countering soviet official historiography epic novel ''life fate'' published soviet union perestroika writers dubbed dissidents could publish major works thaw last long prominent authors banned publishing also prosecuted anti soviet sentiments parasitism solzhenitsyn expelled country others nobel prize winning poet joseph brodsky novelists vasily aksyonov eduard limonov


image mayakovsky jpg vladimir mayakovsky image petrov vodkin akhmatovajpg anna akhmatova image osip mandelstam russian writerjpg osip mandelstam image kustodiev zamyatinjpg yevgeny zamyatin image bulgakov sjpg mikhail bulgakov image vladimir nabokov jpg vladimir nabokov image andrej platonovic platonov jpg andrei platonov image varlam shalamov nkvd rightjpg varlam shalamov image aleksandr solzhenitsyn cropjpg aleksandr solzhenitsyn image cropped jpg vasily aksyonov image josef brodsky cropjpg joseph brodsky gallery popular soviet genres children 's literature soviet union counted major genre educational role large share early soviet children 's books poems korney chukovsky samuil marshak agnia barto among read poets adult poets mayakovsky sergey mikhalkov contributed genre well


early soviet children 's prose consisted loose adaptations foreign fairy tales unknown contemporary russia alexey n tolstoy wrote ''buratino'' light hearted shortened adaptation carlo collodi 's ''pinocchio'' alexander volkov introduced fantasy fiction soviet children loose translation l frank baum 's ''the wonderful wizard oz'' published ''the wizard emerald city'' wrote series five sequels unrelated baum notable authors include nikolay nosov lazar lagin vitaly bianki vladimir suteev fairy tales relatively free ideological


oppression realistic children 's prose stalin era highly ideological pursued goal raise children patriots communists notable writer vein arkady gaydar red army commander colonel russian civil war stories plays timur describe team young pioneer volunteers help elderly resist hooligans genre hero pioneer story bore similarities christian genre hagiography times khrushchov first secretary central committee communist party soviet union


brezhnev power however pressure lightened mid late soviet children 's books eduard uspensky yuri entin viktor dragunsky bear signs propaganda many books well stories foreign children 's writers adapted animation soviet science fiction inspired scientistic revolution industrialisation country 's space pioneering flourishing albeit limits allowed censors early science fiction authors alexander belyaev grigory adamov vladimir obruchev aleksey nikolayevich tolstoy stuck hard science fiction regarded h g wells jules verne


examples follow two notable exclusions trend yevgeny zamyatin author dystopian novel ''we'' mikhail bulgakov using science fiction instrumentary ''heart dog'' ''the fatal eggs'' ''ivan vasilyevich'' interested social satire rather scientistic progress two problems publishing books soviet union since thaw soviet science fiction began form style philosophy ethics utopian dystopian ideas became core social science fiction popular subgenre although view earth 's future


utopian communist society welcome liberties genre still offered loophole free expression books brothers arkady boris strugatsky kir bulychev among others reminiscent social problems often include satire contemporary soviet society ivan yefremov contrary arose fame utopian views future well ancient greece historical novels strugatskies also credited soviet 's first science fantasy monday begins saturday trilogy notable science fiction writers included vladimir savchenko georgy gurevich alexander kazantsev georgy martynov yeremey parnov space


nikolay nosov books dwarf neznayka evgeny veltistov wrote robot boy electronic vitaly melentyev vladislav krapivin vitaly gubarev mystery another popular genre detectives brothers arkady georgy vayner spy novels yulian semyonov best selling ref name khagi https webarchiveorg web http wwwutorontoca tsq khagi shtml sofya khagi boris akunin retro mode contemporary russian culture toronto slavic quarterly ref many adapted film tv village prose genre conveys nostalgic descriptions rural life valentin rasputin 's novel ''proshchaniye matyoroy'' ''farewell matyora'' depicted village faced destruction


make room hydroelectric plant historical fiction early soviet era included large share memoirs fictionalized valentin katayev lev kassil wrote semi autobiographic books children 's life tsarist russia vladimir gilyarovsky wrote ''moscow muscovites'' life pre revolutionary moscow also attempts write epic novel revolution similar leo tolstoy 's ''war peace'' based writers' experience aleksey tolstoy 's ''the road calvary'' mikhail sholokhov 's ''and quiet flows don'' depict russia start revolution end


civil war ''the road calvary'' demonstrates victory socialist ideas ''and quiet flows don'' gives realist brutal image maxim gorky 's andrei bely 's experimental novels ''the life klim samgin'' ''moscow'' trace relationship russian ''intelligentsia'' revolutionary movement mikhail bulgakov conceived write trilogy civil war wrote first part ''the white guard'' late soviet historical fiction dominated world war ii novels short stories authors representatives lieutenant prose


vasil bykov vasily grossman konstantin simonov boris vasilyev viktor astafyev boris polevoy among many others based authors' war experience vasily yan konstantin badygin best known novels medieval rus yury tynyanov writing russian empire valentin pikul wrote many different epochs countries alexander dumas inspired style appeared relatively independent village prose whose prominent representatives viktor astafyev valentin rasputin sort fiction dealt occult either horror adult oriented fantasy magic realism unwelcome soviet russia


short stories novels novelist playwright vladimir sorokin poet dmitry prigov relatively new trend russian literature female short story writers tatyana tolstaya lyudmila petrushevskaya novelists lyudmila ulitskaya dina rubina come prominence tradition classic russian novel continues authors mikhail shishkin vasily aksyonov detective stories thrillers proven successful genre new russian literature serial detective novels alexandra marinina polina dashkova darya dontsova published millions copies next decade boris


akunin wrote sophisticated popular fiction eg series novels th century sleuth erast fandorin eagerly read across country science fiction always well selling albeit second fantasy relatively new russian readers genres boomed late authors like sergey lukyanenko nick perumov maria semenova vera kamsha alexey pekhov anton vilgotsky vadim panov good share modern russian science fiction fantasy written ukraine especially kharkiv home h l oldie alexander zorich yuri nikitin andrey valentinov many others hail


kyiv including marina sergey dyachenko vladimir arenev significant contribution russian horror literature done ukrainians andrey dashkov alexander vargo russian poetry period produced number avant garde greats members lianosovo group poets notably genrikh sapgir igor kholin vsevolod nekrasov previously chose refrain publication soviet periodicals became influential especially moscow goes another masterful experimental poet gennady aigi also popular poets following poetic trends eg vladimir aristov ivan zhdanov ''poetry club'' konstantin kedrov


ulitskaya image eduard limonovjpg eduard limonov image vladimir sorokin jpg vladimir sorokin image boris akunin jpg boris akunin image sergey lukyanenko mow jpg sergei lukyanenko gallery st century st century new generation russian authors appeared differing greatly postmodernist russian prose late th century lead critics speak new realism grown fall soviet union new realists write every day life without using mystical surrealist elements predecessors new realists writers assume place preaching journalism social


political writing media direct action responsibility civil society leading new realists include ilja stogoff zakhar prilepin alexander karasyov arkady babchenko vladimir lorchenkov alexander snegiryov ref name popov ref gallery image michaelshishkin njpg mikhail shishkin image zakhar prilepin nizhny novgorod rally february jpg zakhar prilepin image alexander karasyov jpg alexander karasyov image dmitry glukhovsky mow jpg dmitry glukhovsky gallery external influences british romantic poetry scottish poet robert burns became people 's poet russia imperial times russian aristocracy touch peasantry burns translated russian became symbol ordinary russian people


new translation burns begun samuil marshak proved enormously popular selling copies lord byron major influence almost russian poets golden era including pushkin vyazemsky zhukovsky batyushkov baratynsky delvig especially lermontov french literature writers victor hugo honor de balzac widely influential also jules verne inspired several generations russian science fiction writers abroad russian literature written russians soviet times popular writers belarusian vasil byka kyrgyz chinghiz aitmatov abkhaz fazil iskander wrote books


west europe north america israel themes russian books suffering often means redemption recurrent theme russian literature fyodor dostoyevsky particular noted exploring suffering works ''notes underground'' ''crime punishment'' christianity christian symbolism also important themes notably works dostoyevsky tolstoy chekhov th century suffering mechanism evil explored authors solzhenitsyn ''the gulag archipelago'' leading russian literary critic th century viktor shklovsky book ''zoo letters


love'' wrote russian literature bad tradition russian literature devoted description unsuccessful love affairs russian nobel laureates literature see also references bibliography terras victor ''handbook russian literature'' new ct yale university press external links http wwwsovlitnet encyclopedia soviet writers http wwwlibru maxim moshkov 's e library russian literature russian http russianpoetsdatabaseblogspotcom contemporary russian poets database english http russianpoetsblogspotcom contemporary russian poets english translation http maxmmlcnorthwesternedu mdenner demo indexhtml bilingual anthology russian verse http wwwrussiacristianaorg russiacristiananehtm la nuova europa international cultural journal russia east europe http wwwprofessorandycom russianliteratureshtml information critique russian literature http russia iccom culture art literature


history russian literature brief summary https webarchiveorg web http wwwlibraryuiucedu spx webct subjectresources subsourrus ruslitbib htm russian literary resources slavic reference service http wwwbookleru search russian books russian http rutheniaru tiutcheviana search en drevnerushtml philology runet special search sites devoted old russian literature http refleksiya absurdaru russian literary magazine reflection absurd http public libraryru


'''computational physics''' study implementation numerical analysis solve problems physics quantitative theory already exists ref name thijssenbook historically computational physics first application modern computers science subset computational science sometimes regarded subdiscipline offshoot theoretical physics others consider intermediate branch theoretical experimental physics area study supplements theory experiment ref name comphyspy overview representation multidisciplinary nature computational physics overlap physics applied

Natural science
Physics
Computational physics


mathematics computer science bridge among ref name surveycompsci physics different theories based mathematical models provide precise predictions systems behave unfortunately often case solving mathematical model particular system order produce useful prediction feasible occur instance solution closed form expression complicated cases numerical approximations required computational physics subject deals numerical approximations approximation solution written finite typically


computers used experiments measurement recording storage data clearly constitute computational approach challenges computational physics computational physics problems general difficult solve exactly due several mathematical reasons lack algebraic analytic solvability complexity chaos example even apparently simple problems calculating wavefunction electron orbiting atom strong electric field stark effect may require great effort formulate practical algorithm one found cruder brute force techniques


graphical methods root finding may required advanced side mathematical perturbation theory also sometimes used working shown particular example addition computational cost computational complexity many body problems classical counterparts tend grow quickly macroscopic system typically size order math math constituent particles somewhat problem solving quantum mechanical problems generally exponential order size system classical n body order n squared finally many physical systems inherently


nonlinear best worst chaotic means difficult ensure numerical errors grow point rendering 'solution' useless ref name sauer methods algorithms computational physics uses broad class problems generally divided amongst different mathematical problems numerically solves methods applies one consider root finding using eg newton raphson method system linear equations using eg lu decomposition ordinary differential equations using eg runge kutta methods integration using eg romberg method monte carlo integration partial differential equations


large processing power need memory requests divisions possible find corresponding computational branch every major field physics example computational mechanics computational electrodynamics computational mechanics consists computational fluid dynamics cfd computational solid mechanics computational contact mechanics one subfield confluence cfd electromagnetic modelling computational magnetohydrodynamics quantum many body problem leads naturally large rapidly growing field computational chemistry computational solid state physics important division computational physics dealing directly material science field related computational


condensed matter computational statistical mechanics deals simulation models theories percolation spin models difficult solve otherwise computational statistical physics makes heavy use monte carlo like methods broadly particularly use agent based modeling cellular automata also concerns finds application use techniques social sciences network theory mathematical models propagation disease notably sir model spread forest fires numerical relativity relatively new field interested


finding numerical solutions field equations general special relativity computational particle physics deals problems motivated particle physics computational astrophysics application techniques methods astrophysical problems phenomena computational biophysics branch biophysics computational biology applying methods computer science physics large complex biological problems applications due broad class problems computational physics deals essential component modern research different areas physics namely accelerator physics astrophysics fluid mechanics computational fluid dynamics lattice field theory lattice gauge


advanced simulation library cecam centre europ en de calcul atomique et mol culaire division computational physics dcomp american physical society important publications computational physics mathematical theoretical physics open source physics computational physics libraries pedagogical tools timeline computational physics car parrinello molecular dynamics references ref ref name surveycompsci ref ref name comphyspy ref ref name sauer ref reading ak hartmann https webarchiveorg web http worldscibookscom physics html practical guide computer simulations world scientific http wwwworldscinetcom ijmpc ijmpcshtml international journal modern physics c ijmpc physics computers world scientific steven e koonin computational physics addison wesley pang introduction computational


physics cambridge university press b stickler e schachinger basic concepts computational physics springer verlag e winsberg ''science age computer simulation'' chicago university chicago press external links http phycomptechnionacil c c iupap commission computational physics http wwwapsorg units dcomp indexcfm american physical society division computational physics http wwwioporg activity groups subject comp indexhtml institute physics computational physics group https webarchiveorg web http wwwscidacgov physics physicshtml scidac scientific discovery advanced computing http wwwcompadreorg osp open source physics http wwwobacscom scinet scientific software framework http wwwphysicsrutgersedu haule computational physics course youtube videos computational fields study


ventriloquist great lester frank byron jr knee c '''ventriloquism''' '' 'ventriloquy''' performance act stagecraft person '' 'ventriloquist''' creates illusion voice coming elsewhere usually puppeteered prop known dummy act ventriloquism '' 'ventriloquizing''' ability commonly called english ability throw one 's voice history origins newspaper article gef talking mongoose claiming involved ventriloquism voirrey irving originally ventriloquism religious practice name comes latin ''to

Humanities
Performing arts
Theatre
Ventriloquism


speak stomach'' ie ' 'venter'' belly ''loqui'' speak greeks called gastromancy noises produced stomach thought voices unliving took residence stomach ventriloquist ventriloquist would interpret sounds thought able speak dead well foretell future one earliest recorded group prophets use technique pythia priestess temple apollo delphi acted conduit delphic oracle one


successful early gastromancers eurykles prophet athens gastromancers came referred ''euryklides'' honour ref name eb ''encyclop dia britannica eleventh edition'' ''ventriloquism'' ref parts world also tradition ventriloquism ritual religious purposes historically adepts practice among zulu inuit ori peoples ref name eb emergence entertainment sadler 's wells theatre early th century time ventriloquist acts becoming increasingly popular shift ventriloquism manifestation spiritual forces toward ventriloquism entertainment happened eighteenth century


travelling funfairs market towns early depiction ventriloquist dates england sir john parnell depicted painting ''an election entertainment'' william hogarth speaking via hand austrian baron de mengen performed small doll ref name baron ref late th century ventriloquist performances established form entertainment england although performers threw voice make appear emanated far away rather modern method using puppet well known ventriloquist period joseph askins


act routine nottingham fred russell regarded father modern ventriloquism offered professional engagement palace theatre london took stage career permanently act based cheeky boy dummy coster joe would sit lap 'engage dialogue' highly influential entertainment format adopted next generation performers blue plaque embedded former residence russell british heritage society


reads 'fred russell father ventriloquism lived here' ventriloquist edgar bergen best known sidekick charlie mccarthy film ''stage door canteen'' fred russell 's successful comedy team format applied next generation ventriloquists taken forward british arthur prince dummy sailor jim became one highest paid entertainers music hall circuit americans great lester frank byron jr edgar bergen bergen popularized idea comedic ventriloquist bergen together favourite figure charlie mccarthy hosted radio program


broadcast program nights aired bergen continued performing death popularity inspired many famous ventriloquists followed including paul winchell jimmy nelson david strassman jeff dunham terry fator ronn lucas wayland flowers shari lewis willie tyler jay johnson nina conti paul zerdin darci lynne another ventriloquist act popular united states se wences art ventriloquism popularized k padhye roy south india believed


pioneers field india k padhye 's son ramdas padhye borrowed made art popular amongst masses performance television ramdas padhye 's name synonymous puppet characters like ardhavatrao tatya vinchu bunny funny features lijjat papad commercial ramdas padhye 's son satyajit padhye also ventriloquist similarly indusree female ventriloquist bangalore contributed lot art performs dummies simultaneously venky monkey shanthakumar dr k rao equine veterinary surgeon serving reputed stud farm india


mimicry srinivos disciples roy popularized art giving shows india abroad thousands numbers mimicry srinivos particular several experiments ventriloquism popularized art calling sound illusion topic interest pertaining late roy goes audience without microphone entertains point blank sound illusion addition entertaining stage dummies popularity ventriloquism fluctuates uk full time professional ventriloquists around


number modern ventriloquists developed following public taste live comedy grows zillah totte first season ''sweden 's got talent'' became one sweden 's popular family children entertainers feature length documentary ventriloquism ''i'm dummy'' released three ventriloquists ''america 's got talent'' terry fator paul zerdin darci lynne vocal technique swedish ventriloquist act zillah totte one difficulty ventriloquists face sounds make must made lips slightly


separated labial sounds ''f'' ''v'' ''b'' ''p'' ''m'' choice replace others widely parodied example difficulty gottle o' gear reputed inability less skilled practitioners pronounce bottle beer variations sounds ''th'' ' 'd'' ''t'' ''n'' spoken quickly difficult listeners notice difference ventriloquist 's dummy ventriloquist entertaining children pueblo colorado buell children 's museum modern ventriloquists use multiple types puppets presentations ranging soft cloth foam puppets verna finly 's


work pioneering example flexible latex puppets steve axtell 's creations traditional familiar hard headed knee figure tim selberg 's mechanized carvings classic dummies used ventriloquists technical name '' 'ventriloquial figure''' vary size anywhere twelve inches tall human size larger height usually falling thirty four forty two inches traditionally type puppet made papier ch wood modern times materials often employed including fiberglass reinforced resins urethanes filled rigid latex neoprene great names history dummy making include jeff


dunham frank marshall chicago creator bergen 's charlie mccarthy ref name talkingcomedy ref nelson 's danny o'day ref name talkingcomedy winchell 's jerry mahoney theo mack son mack carved charlie mccarthy 's head revello petee kenneth spencer cecil gough glen george mcelroy mcelroy brothers' figures still considered many ventriloquists apex complex movement mechanics many fifteen facial head movements controlled interior finger keys switches jeff dunham referred mcelroy figure skinny duggan stradivarius dummies juro novelty company also manufactured dummies phobia antique


keir cross music nrbq 's video song https wwwyoutubecom watchv qsqgeh l g ''dummy'' features four ventriloquist dummies modelled band members 'lip sync' song wandering around dark abandoned house see also lip reading list ventriloquists multisensory integration visual capture ''the shari lewis show'' notes references vox valentine ''i see lips moving history art ventriloquism'' pages year history practice plato publishing empire publications leigh eric schmidt http wwwmaterialreligionorg journal magichtml demon possession magic show ventriloquism religion enlightenment ''church history''


description programming language usually split two components syntax form semantics meaning languages defined specification document example c programming language specified iso standard languages perl dominant implementation treated reference languages basic language defined standard extensions taken dominant implementation common programming language theory subfield computer science deals design implementation analysis characterization classification programming languages definitions programming

Formal science
Computer science
Programming languages


language notation writing programs specifications computation algorithm ref name aaby ref authors restrict term programming language languages express possible algorithms ref name aaby traits often considered important constitutes programming language include function target ''computer programming language'' language used write computer programs involves computer performing kind computation ref name sigplan scope sigplan theory design implementation description application computer programming languages languages permit specification variety different


computations thereby providing user significant control immediate delayed computer 's operation ref algorithm possibly control external devices printers disk drives robots ref name robots ref example postscript programs frequently created another program control computer printer display generally programming language may describe computation possibly abstract machine generally accepted complete specification programming language includes description possibly idealized machine processor language ref name nara r narasimahan programming languages computers unified metatheory pp franz


alt morris rubinoff eds advances computers volume academic press p complete specification programming language must definition include specification processor idealized language source cites many references support statement ref practical contexts programming language involves computer consequently programming languages usually defined studied way programming languages differ natural languages natural languages used interaction people programming languages also allow humans communicate instructions machines abstractions programming languages usually contain


abstractions defining manipulating data structures controlling flow execution practical necessity programming language support adequate abstractions expressed abstraction principle principle sometimes formulated recommendation programmer make proper use abstractions expressive power theory computation classifies languages computations capable expressing turing complete languages implement set algorithms ansi iso sql charity examples languages turing complete yet often called programming languages markup languages like xml html


troff define structured data usually considered programming languages programming languages may however share syntax markup languages computational semantics defined xslt example turing complete language entirely using xml syntax moreover latex mostly used structuring documents also contains turing complete subset ref name oetiker et al ref term ''computer language'' sometimes used interchangeably programming language however usage terms varies among authors including exact scope one usage describes programming languages subset computer languages similarly languages used computing


numbers opcode selects add operation two memory locations programs decimal binary form read punched cards paper tape magnetic tape toggled switches front panel computer machine languages later termed ''first generation programming languages'' gl next step development called ' 'second generation programming languages'' gl assembly languages still closely tied instruction set architecture specific computer served make program much human readable relieved programmer tedious error prone address calculations


first ''high level programming languages'' ''third generation programming languages'' gl written early high level programming language designed computer plankalk l developed german z konrad zuse however implemented john mauchly 's short code proposed one first high level languages ever developed electronic computer ref name sebesta sebesta ws concepts programming languages pp ref unlike machine code short code statements represented mathematical expressions understandable form however program translated machine


code every time ran making process much slower running equivalent machine code university manchester alick glennie developed autocode early programming language used compiler automatically convert language machine code first code compiler developed mark computer university manchester considered first compiled high level programming language second autocode developed mark r brooker called mark autocode brooker also developed


autocode ferranti mercury conjunction university manchester version edsac devised f hartley university cambridge mathematical laboratory known edsac autocode straight development mercury autocode adapted local circumstances noted object code optimisation source language diagnostics advanced time contemporary separate thread development atlas autocode developed university manchester atlas machine fortran invented ibm john backus


first widely used high level general purpose programming language functional implementation opposed design paper still popular language high performance computing ref name hpc ref used programs benchmark rank world 's fastest supercomputers another early programming language devised grace hopper us called flow matic developed univac remington rand period hopper found business data processing customers uncomfortable mathematical notation early team wrote specification


english programming language implemented prototype flow matic compiler became publicly available early substantially complete flow matic major influence design cobol since direct descendant aimaco actual use time refinement increased use high level languages introduced requirement ''low level programming languages'' ' 'system programming languages'' languages varying degrees provide facilities assembly languages high level languages used perform tasks require direct access hardware facilities still provide higher level control structures


error checking period late brought development major language paradigms use apl introduced ''array programming'' influenced functional programming algol refined ' 'structured procedural programming'' discipline language specification revised report algorithmic language algol became model later language specifications written lisp implemented first dynamically typed ''functional programming'' language simula first language designed support ''object oriented programming'' mid smalltalk followed first purely object oriented language c developed


system programming language unix operating system remains popular prolog designed first ''logic programming'' language ml built polymorphic type system top lisp pioneering ' 'statically typed functional programming'' languages languages spawned descendants modern programming languages count least one ancestry also saw considerable debate merits ' 'structured programming'' whether programming languages designed support edsger dijkstra famous letter published communications


acm argued goto statements eliminated higher level programming languages consolidation growth selection textbooks teach programming languages popular obscure thousands programming languages dialects designed history years relative consolidation c combined object oriented systems programming united states government standardized ada systems programming language derived pascal intended use defense contractors japan elsewhere vast sums spent investigating called fifth generation languages incorporated logic


programming constructs functional languages community moved standardize ml lisp rather inventing new paradigms movements elaborated upon ideas invented previous decades one important trend language design programming large scale systems increased focus use ''modules'' large scale organizational units code modula ada ml developed notable module systems often wedded generic programming constructs rapid growth internet mid created opportunities new languages perl originally unix scripting tool first released


became common dynamic websites java came used server side programming bytecode virtual machines became popular commercial settings promise write run anywhere ucsd pascal popular time early developments fundamentally novel rather refinements many existing languages paradigms although syntax often based c family programming languages programming language evolution continues industry research current directions include security reliability verification new kinds modularity mixins delegates aspects database integration


microsoft 's linq ''fourth generation programming languages'' gl computer programming languages aim provide higher level abstraction internal computer hardware details gls ''fifth generation programming languages'' gl programming languages based solving problems using constraints given program rather using algorithm written programmer elements programming languages primitive building blocks description data processes transformations applied like addition two numbers selection item collection primitives defined syntactic semantic


rules describe structure meaning respectively syntax parse tree python code inset tokenization syntax highlighting often used aid programmers recognizing elements source code language python programming language 's surface form known syntax programming languages purely textual use sequences text including words numbers punctuation much like written natural languages hand programming languages graphical nature using visual relationships symbols specify program syntax language describes possible combinations


symbols form syntactically correct program meaning given combination symbols handled semantics either formal hard coded reference implementation since languages textual article discusses textual syntax programming language syntax usually defined using combination regular expressions lexical structure backus naur form grammatical structure simple grammar based lisp syntaxhighlight lang bnf expression atom list atom number symbol number ' ' ' ' symbol 'a' 'z''a' 'z' list


b c code syntactically correct programs semantically correct many syntactically correct programs nonetheless ill formed per language 's rules may depending language specification soundness implementation result error translation execution cases programs may exhibit undefined behavior even program well defined within language may still meaning intended person wrote using natural language example may possible assign meaning grammatically correct sentence sentence


may false colorless green ideas sleep furiously grammatically well formed generally accepted meaning john married bachelor grammatically well formed expresses meaning cannot true following c language fragment syntactically correct performs operations semantically defined operation code p code meaning value complex type code p im code defined value code p code null pointer syntaxhighlight lang c complex p null complex abs p sqrt p p im syntaxhighlight type declaration first


line omitted program would trigger error undefined variable code p code compilation however program would still syntactically correct since type declarations provide semantic information grammar needed specify programming language classified position chomsky hierarchy syntax programming languages specified using type grammar ie context free grammars languages including perl lisp contain constructs allow execution parsing phase languages constructs allow programmer alter behavior parser make syntax analysis


every identifier declared used languages require declarations labels arms case statement distinct many important restrictions type like checking identifiers used appropriate context eg adding integer function name subroutine calls appropriate number type arguments enforced defining rules logic called type system forms static analyses like data flow analysis may also part static semantics newer programming languages like


java c definite assignment analysis form data flow analysis part static semantics dynamic semantics data specified machine must instructed perform operations data example semantics may define strategy expressions evaluated values manner control structures conditionally execute statements ' 'dynamic semantics'' also known ''execution semantics'' language defines various constructs language produce program behavior many ways defining execution semantics natural language often


used specify execution semantics languages commonly used practice significant amount academic research went formal semantics programming languages allow execution semantics specified formal manner results field research seen limited application programming language design implementation outside academia type system type system defines programming language classifies values expressions ''types'' manipulate types interact goal type system verify usually enforce certain level correctness programs written


language detecting certain incorrect operations decidable type system involves trade rejects many incorrect programs also prohibit correct albeit unusual programs order bypass downside number languages ''type loopholes'' usually unchecked casts may used programmer explicitly allow normally disallowed operation different types typed languages type system used type check programs number languages usually functional ones infer types relieving programmer need write type annotations formal design


study type systems known ''type theory'' typed versus untyped languages language ''typed'' specification every operation defines types data operation applicable ref name typing ref example data represented code text quotes code string many programming languages dividing number string meaning executed invalid operation may detected program compiled static type checking rejected compiler compilation error message may detected


name typing high level untyped languages include bcpl tcl varieties forth practice languages considered typed type theory verifying rejecting operations modern languages offer degree typing ref name typing many production languages provide means bypass subvert type system trading type safety finer control program 's execution see casting static versus dynamic typing ' 'static typing'' expressions types determined prior program executed typically compile time example integer expressions cannot passed function


expects string stored variable defined hold dates ref name typing statically typed languages either ''manifestly typed'' ''type inferred'' first case programmer must explicitly write types certain textual positions example variable declarations second case compiler ''infers'' types expressions declarations based context mainstream statically typed languages c c java manifestly typed complete type inference traditionally associated less mainstream languages haskell ml however many manifestly typed languages support partial type inference


example c java c infer types certain limited cases additionally programming languages allow types automatically converted types example int used program expects float ''dynamic typing'' also called ''latent typing'' determines type safety operations run time words types associated ''run time values'' rather ''textual expressions'' ref name typing type inferred languages dynamically typed languages require programmer write explicit type annotations expressions among things may permit single variable refer values


different types different points program execution however type errors cannot automatically detected piece code actually executed potentially making debugging difficult lisp smalltalk perl python javascript ruby examples dynamically typed languages weak strong typing ''weak typing'' allows value one type treated another example treating string number ref name typing occasionally useful also allow kinds program faults go undetected compile time even run time ''strong typing'' prevents


program faults attempt perform operation wrong type value raises error ref name typing strongly typed languages often termed ''type safe'' ' 'safe'' alternative definition weakly typed refers languages perl javascript permit large number implicit type conversions javascript example expression code x code implicitly converts code x code number conversion succeeds even code x code code null code code undefined code code array code string letters implicit conversions often useful mask programming errors ''strong'' ' 'static'' generally


considered orthogonal concepts usage literature differs use term ' 'strongly typed'' mean ' 'strongly statically typed'' even confusingly mean simply ' 'statically typed'' thus c called strongly typed weakly statically typed may seem odd professional programmers c could weakly statically typed however notice use generic pointer '''void''' pointer allow casting pointers pointers without needing explicit cast extremely similar somehow casting array bytes kind datatype


c without using explicit cast code int code code char code standard library run time system programming languages associated core library sometimes known 'standard library' especially included part published language standard conventionally made available implementations language core libraries typically include definitions commonly used algorithms data structures mechanisms input output line language core library differs language language cases language designers may treat library separate entity


language however language 's core library often treated part language users language specifications even require library made available implementations indeed languages designed meanings certain syntactic constructs cannot even described without referring core library example java string literal defined instance code javalangstring code class similarly smalltalk anonymous function expression block constructs instance library 's code blockcontext code class conversely scheme contains multiple coherent subsets suffice construct


rest language library macros language designers even bother say portions language must implemented language constructs must implemented parts library design implementation programming languages share properties natural languages related purpose vehicles communication syntactic form separate semantics showing ''language families'' related languages branching one another ref name fischer steven r fischer ''a history language'' reaktion books p ref ref name levenez ref artificial constructs also differ fundamental ways


languages evolved usage significant difference programming language fully described studied entirety since precise finite definition contrast natural languages changing meanings given users different communities constructed languages also artificial languages designed ground specific purpose lack precise complete semantic definition programming language many programming languages designed scratch altered meet new needs combined languages many eventually fallen disuse although


attempts design one universal programming language serves purposes failed generally accepted filling role need diverse programming languages arises diversity contexts languages used programs range tiny scripts written individual hobbyists huge systems written hundreds programmers programmers range expertise novices need simplicity else experts may comfortable considerable complexity programs must balance speed size simplicity systems ranging microcontrollers supercomputers programs may written


change generations may undergo continual modification programmers may simply differ tastes may accustomed discussing problems expressing particular language one common trend development programming languages add ability solve problems using higher level abstraction earliest programming languages tied closely underlying hardware computer new programming languages developed features added let programmers express ideas remote simple translation underlying hardware instructions programmers


taken structured english sql language 's designers users must construct number artifacts govern enable practice programming important artifacts language ' 'specification'' ''implementation'' specification specification programming language artifact language users implementors use agree upon whether piece source code valid program language behavior shall programming language specification take several forms including following explicit definition syntax static


semantics execution semantics language syntax commonly specified using formal grammar semantic definitions may written natural language eg c language formal semantics eg standard ml scheme specifications description behavior translator language eg c fortran specifications syntax semantics language inferred description may written natural formal language ' 'reference'' ''model'' implementation sometimes written language specified eg prolog ansi rexx


syntax semantics language explicit behavior reference implementation implementation ''implementation'' programming language provides way write programs language execute one configurations hardware software broadly two approaches programming language implementation ''compilation'' ''interpretation'' generally possible implement language using either technique output compiler may executed hardware program called interpreter implementations make use interpreter approach distinct boundary compiling


proprietary programming languages implementation available single vendor may claim proprietary language intellectual property proprietary programming languages commonly domain specific languages internal scripting languages single product proprietary languages used internally within vendor others available external users programming languages exist border proprietary open example oracle corporation asserts proprietary rights aspects java programming language microsoft 's c programming language open implementations parts system also


common language runtime clr closed environment many proprietary languages widely used spite proprietary nature examples include matlab vbscript wolfram language languages may make transition closed open example erlang originally ericsson 's internal programming language use thousands different programming languages created mainly computing field individual software projects commonly use five programming languages programming languages differ forms human expression require greater degree precision completeness using natural language communicate


people human authors speakers ambiguous make small errors still expect intent understood however figuratively speaking computers exactly told cannot understand code programmer intended write combination language definition program program 's inputs must fully specify external behavior occurs program executed within domain control program hand ideas algorithm communicated humans without precision required execution using pseudocode


interleaves natural language code written programming language programming language provides structured mechanism defining pieces data operations transformations may carried automatically data programmer uses abstractions present language represent concepts involved computation concepts represented collection simplest elements available called primitives ''programming'' process programmers combine primitives compose new programs adapt existing ones new uses changing environment programs computer might executed


batch process without human interaction user might type commands interactive session interpreter case commands simply programs whose execution chained together language run commands interpreter unix shell command line interface without compiling called scripting language measuring language usage determining widely used programming language difficult since definition usage varies context one language may occupy greater number programmer hours different one lines code


third may consume cpu time languages popular particular kinds applications example cobol still strong corporate data center often large mainframes fortran scientific engineering applications ada aerospace transportation military real time embedded applications c embedded applications operating systems languages regularly used write many different kinds applications various methods measuring language popularity subject different bias measured proposed counting number job advertisements mention language number


books sold teach describe language estimates number existing lines code written language may underestimate languages often found public searches counts language references ie name language found using web search engine combining averaging information various internet sites stackifycom reported ten popular programming languages descending order overall popularity java c c python c javascript vb net r php matlab dialects flavors implementations '' 'dialect''' programming language data exchange language


relatively small variation extension language change intrinsic nature languages scheme forth standards may considered insufficient inadequate illegitimate implementors often deviate standard making new dialect cases dialect created use domain specific language often subset lisp world languages use basic expression syntax lisp like semantics considered lisp dialects although vary wildly say racket clojure common one language several dialects


become quite difficult inexperienced programmer find right documentation basic programming language many dialects explosion forth dialects led saying 've seen one forth 've seen ''one'' forth taxonomies overarching classification scheme programming languages given programming language usually single ancestor language languages commonly arise combining elements several predecessor languages new ideas circulation time ideas originate one language diffuse throughout family related languages leap suddenly across familial gaps


appear entirely different family task complicated fact languages classified along multiple axes example java object oriented language encourages object oriented organization concurrent language contains built constructs running multiple threads parallel python object oriented scripting language broad strokes programming languages divide ''programming paradigms'' classification ''intended domain use'' general purpose programming languages distinguished domain specific programming languages traditionally programming languages regarded describing computation terms imperative sentences ie issuing commands


generally called imperative programming languages great deal research programming languages aimed blurring distinction program set instructions program assertion desired answer main feature declarative programming refined paradigms include procedural programming object oriented programming functional programming logic programming languages hybrids paradigms multi paradigmatic assembly language much paradigm direct model underlying machine architecture purpose programming languages might considered general purpose system programming languages scripting


languages domain specific languages concurrent distributed languages combination general purpose languages designed largely educational goals programming language may also classified factors unrelated programming paradigm instance programming languages use english language keywords minority languages may classified deliberately esoteric see also comparison programming languages basic instructions comparison programming languages computer programming computer science outline computer science domain specific language domain specific modelling educational programming language esoteric programming language extensible programming extensible syntax programming languages invariant based programming list


basic dialects lists programming languages list programming language researchers programming languages used popular websites language oriented programming logic programming literate programming metaprogramming modeling language programming language theory pseudocode reflection scientific programming language scripting language software engineering list software engineering topics references reading raphael finkel '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwnondotorg sabre mirrored advproglangdesign advanced programming language design '' addison wesley daniel p friedman mitchell wand christopher haynes ''essentials programming languages'' mit press maurizio gabbrielli simone martini programming languages principles paradigms springer david gelernter suresh jagannathan ''programming linguistics'' mit press ellis horowitz ed


''programming languages grand tour'' rd ed ellis horowitz ''fundamentals programming languages'' shriram krishnamurthi ''programming languages application interpretation'' http wwwcsbrownedu sk publications books proglangs online publication bruce j maclennan ''principles programming languages design evaluation implementation'' oxford university press john c mitchell ''concepts programming languages'' cambridge university press benjamin c pierce ''types programming languages'' mit press terrence w pratt marvin v zelkowitz ''programming languages design implementation'' th ed prentice hall peter h salus ''handbook programming languages'' vols macmillan ravi sethi ''programming languages concepts constructs'' nd ed addison wesley


michael l scott ''programming language pragmatics'' morgan kaufmann publishers robert w sebesta ''concepts programming languages'' th ed addison wesley franklyn turbak david gifford mark sheldon ''design concepts programming languages'' mit press peter van roy seif haridi ''concepts techniques models computer programming'' mit press david watt ''programming language concepts paradigms'' prentice hall david watt muffy thomas ''programming language syntax semantics'' prentice hall david watt ''programming language processors'' prentice hall david watt ''programming language design concepts'' john wiley


sons external links programming language classification notation articles example c code


japanese depiction portuguese trading carrack advances shipbuilding technology late middle ages would pave way global european presence characteristic early modern pogo '''early modern period''' modern history follows late middle ages post classical era although chronological limits period open debate timeframe spans period late post classical middle ages c beginning age revolutions c variously demarcated historians beginning ottoman conquest constantinople

Applied science
Military sciences
Military history
Early modern


renaissance period europe timurid central asia muslim conquests indian subcontinent end crusades age discovery especially voyages christopher columbus beginning also vasco da gama 's discovery sea route india ending around french revolution napoleon 's rise power historians recent decades argued worldwide standpoint important feature early modern period spreading globalizing character new economies institutions emerged becoming sophisticated globally articulated course


period process began medieval north italian city states maritime republics particularly genoa venice milan west india 's bengal east early modern period also included rise dominance economic theory mercantilism americas pre columbian peoples built large varied civilization including aztec empire inca civilization maya civilization cities muisca european colonization americas began early modern period establishment european trading hubs asia africa


contributed spread christianity around world rise sustained contacts previously isolated parts globe particular columbian exchange linked old world new world greatly altered human environment notably atlantic slave trade colonization native americans began period ottoman empire conquered southeastern europe parts west asia north africa russia reached pacific coast consolidated control russian far east th century great divergence took place western europe greatly surpassed china


technology per capita wealth ref maddison angus ''the world economy volume millennial perspective'' oecd publishing p ref islamic world fall timurid renaissance powers ottoman suri safavid mughal empires grew strength three known gunpowder empires military technology enabled particularly indian subcontinent mughal architecture culture art reached zenith empire believed world 's largest economy bigger entirety western europe worth global gdp ref name booksgooglecom maddison angus


'' https booksgooglecom booksid rhjgz hijbcc pg pa development centre studies world economy historical statistics historical statistics '' oecd publishing pages ref signalling period proto industrialization ref name voss ref various chinese dynasties japanese shogunates controlled asian sphere japan edo period also referred early modern period korea early modern period considered lasted rise joseon dynasty enthronement king gojong th century asian economies ming dynasty mughal bengal stimulated trade portuguese spanish dutch


japan engaged nanban trade arrival first european portuguese azuchi momoyama period early modern trends various regions world represented shift away medieval modes organization politically economically feudalism declined europe christians christendom saw end crusades religious unity roman catholic church old order destabilized protestant reformation caused backlash expanded inquisition sparked disastrous european wars religion included especially bloody thirty years' war ended


establishment modern international system peace westphalia along european colonization americas period also contained commercial revolution golden age piracy notable trends early modern period include development experimental science increasingly rapid technological progress secularized civic politics accelerated travel due improvements mapping ship design emergence nation states historians typically date end early modern period french revolution began late modern period early modern timeline timeline imagesize width


till text early discoveries till text liberalism bar spain color age till shift text spanish empire till text spanish renaissance till text spanish enlightenment bar spain color filler till text reconquista till text nationalism bar britain color age till shift text early modern britain till text great britain bar britain color filler till text house york till shift text industrial revolution till shift text united kingdom bar france color age till text ancien r gime till text french renaissance till


shift text kingdom france bar france color filler till text medieval france till shift text french revolution till shift text modern france bar scandinavia color age till shift text denmark norway till shift text sweden bar scandinavia color filler till text kalmar union till shift text denmark till shift text sweden norway bar germany color age till shift text holy roman empire till text german renaissance till shift text reformation till text thirty years war till text kleinstaaterei till


shift text afsharid dynasty till text zand dynasty bar persia color filler till shift text timurid dynasty till shift text aq qoyunlu till text qajar dynasty bar russia color age till text tsardom russia till text russian empire bar russia color filler till text muscovy bar casia color age till text chagatai khanate till text zunghar khanate till text russian empire bar casia color filler till text golden horde bar india color age till text mughal empire till text maratha


empire bar india color filler till text delhi sultanate till text company raj bar china color age till text ming dynasty till text qing dynasty bar korea color age till text joseon dynasty bar japan color age till text sengoku till text azuchi momoyama till text edo period bar japan color filler till bar namerica color age till text new france till text british america till shift text british canada till shift text united states bar namerica color filler till text mississippian bar camerica color age


till shift text spanish conquest till text new spain bar camerica color filler till text late postclassic till text mexico bar brazil color age till text colonial brazil till shift text united brazil bar brazil color filler till text indigenous cultures till shift text brazil timeline ''dates approximate consult particular article details'' early modern themes significant events modern era includes early period called early modern period lasted c around c often particular facets


early modernity include rise ottoman empire reformation counter reformation sengoku period spanish reconquista age discovery spread islam indonesia columbian exchange european colonization americas atlantic slave trade rise mercantilism capitalism golden age piracy important events early modern period include spread printing press thirty years' war peace westphalia europe english civil war glorious revolution union great britain seven years'


war europe north america development watt steam engine american war independence british empire french revolution napoleonic wars europe congress vienna end napoleonic wars latin american wars independence class toccolours style float right margin em em width px text align left clear right div style background f eaba text align center modern age characteristics div concept modern world distinct ancient medieval world rests sense modern world another era history rather result


new type change usually conceived progress driven deliberate human efforts better situation advances areas human activity politics industry society economics commerce transport communication mechanization automation science medicine technology culture appear transformed ''old world'' ''modern'' ''new world'' ref name grosvenormodern ''contemporary history world'' edwin augustus grosvenor ref ref name micheletandsimpson ''a summary modern history'' jules michelet mary charlotte mair simpson ref case identification old revolutionary change used demarcate old old fashioned modern ref name grosvenormodern ref name micheletandsimpson


countries partly result upheavals napoleonic wars impact thought thinking concepts nationalism organizing armies early period ended time political economic change result mechanization society american revolution first french revolution factors included redrawing map europe final act congress vienna peace established second treaty paris ended napoleonic wars east asia early modern times major nations east asia


attempted pursue course isolationism outside world policy always enforced uniformly successfully however end early modern period china korea japan mostly closed disinterested europeans even trading relationships grew port cities guangzhou dejima chinese dynasties cishou temple pagoda built chinese believed building pagodas certain sites according geomantic principles brought auspicious events merchant funding projects needed late ming period around beginning ethnically han ming


dynasty china leading world mathematics well science however europe soon caught china 's scientific mathematical achievements surpassed many scholars speculated reason behind china 's lag advancement historian named colin ronan claims though one specific answer must connection china 's urgency new discoveries weaker europe 's china 's inability capitalize early advantages ronan believes china 's confucian bureaucracy traditions led china scientific revolution led china fewer scientists


order maintain days per year painting depecting qing chinese celebrating victory kingdom tungning taiwan work collaboration chinese european painters early ming dynasty urbanization increased population grew division labor grew complex large urban centers nanjing beijing also contributed growth private industry particular small scale industries grew often specializing paper silk cotton porcelain goods part however relatively small urban centers markets proliferated around


country town markets mainly traded food necessary manufactures pins oil th century ming dynasty flourished maritime trade portuguese spanish dutch empires trade brought massive amount silver china time needed desperately prior china 's global trade economy ran paper money however th century china 's paper money system suffered crisis mid th century crashed silver imports helped fill void left broken paper money system helps explain value


silver china twice high value silver spain end th century china later ming dynasty became isolated prohibiting construction ocean going sea vessels despite isolationist policies ming economy still suffered inflation due overabundance spanish new world silver entering economy new european colonies macau ming china strained victorious costly wars protect korea japanese invasion european trade depression also hurt chinese economy sunk


point china 's trading partners cut ties philip iv restricted shipments exports acapulco japanese cut trade macau dutch severed connections gao macau damage economy compounded effects agriculture incipient little ice age natural calamities crop failure sudden epidemics ensuing breakdown authority people 's livelihoods allowed rebel leaders li zicheng challenge ming authority ming dynasty fell around ethnically manchu qing dynasty would last dynasty china


qing ruled brief abortive restoration reign qing dynasty adopted many outward features chinese culture establishing rule necessarily assimilate instead adopting universalist style governance manchus formerly known jurchens beijing captured li zicheng 's peasant rebels chongzhen emperor last ming emperor committed suicide manchus allied former ming general wu sangui seized control beijing became new capital qing dynasty manchus


adopted confucian norms traditional chinese government rule china proper schoppa editor ''the columbia guide modern chinese history'' argues blockquote date around beginning modern china thus closer know today historical 'reality' also allows us better baseline understand precipitous decline chinese polity nineteenth twentieth centuries blockquote japanese shogunates ''the great wave kanagawa'' c hokusai example art flourishing edo period sengoku period began around


nobunaga 's entry kyoto led army imperial capital order install ashikaga yoshiaki th ultimately final sh gun ashikaga shogunate lasts coming power tokugawa ieyasu victory supporters toyotomi clan battle sekigahara tokugawa received title ' 'sh gun'' establishing tokugawa shogunate edo period characterized early modern japan tokugawa shogunate feudalist regime japan established tokugawa ieyasu ruled ' 'sh guns''


tokugawa clan period gets name capital city edo called tokyo tokugawa shogunate ruled edo castle abolished meiji restoration late edo period often called late tokugawa shogunate society japanese tokugawa period edo society unlike shogunates based strict class hierarchy originally established toyotomi hideyoshi ' 'daimy s'' feudal lords top followed warrior caste samurai farmers artisans traders ranking country strictly closed


two kings korea 's history earn title great posthumous titles reclaimed korean territory north created korean alphabet end th century korea invaded twice japan first japan failed times due admiral yi sun sin korea 's revered naval genius lead korean navy using advanced metal clad ships called turtle ships ships armed cannons admiral yi 's navy able demolish japanese invading fleets destroying hundreds ships japan 's second invasion ref name


th century korea invaded time manchurians would later take china qing dynasty king injo forced surrender qing forces ordered send princesses concubines qing prince dorgon invasions manchuria joseon enjoyed nearly years peace however whatever power kingdom recovered isolation waned th century came close korea faced internal strife power struggles international pressure rebellions home joseon dynasty declined rapidly


late th century south asia map gunpowder empires mughal empire orange one indian empires mughal ambassador khan'alam negotiating shah abbas great iran indian subcontinent lodi dynasty ruled delhi sultanate last phase dynasty founded bahlul lodi ruled dynasty 's last ruler ibrahim lodhi defeated killed babur first battle panipat vijayanagara empire based deccan plateau power diminished major military defeat


deccan sultanates empire named capital city vijayanagara rise mughal empire usually dated around end middle ages islamic persianate imperial power ruled area hindustan late th early th centuries ref name sscnetuclaedu ref empire dominated south southwestern asia ref name sscnetuclaedu becoming biggest global economy manufacturing power ref name parthasarathi ref nominal gdp valued quarter world gdp superior combination europe 's gdp ref name booksgooglecom ref name harrison ref classic period ended


death mughal emperor aurangzeb ref name bbc ref although dynasty continued another years period empire marked highly centralized administration connecting different regions significant monuments mughals visible legacy date period characterised expansion persian cultural influence indian subcontinent brilliant literary artistic architectural results maratha empire located south west present day india expanded greatly rule peshwas prime ministers maratha empire maratha army lost


third battle panipat halted imperial expansion empire divided confederacy maratha states british dutch colonization development new imperialism saw conquest nearly eastern hemisphere territories colonial powers commercial colonization india commenced battle plassey nawab bengal surrendered dominions british east india company company granted ' 'diwani'' right collect revenue bengal bihar company established capital


calcutta appointed first governor general warren hastings became directly involved governance robert clive mir jafar battle plassey francis hayman maratha states following anglo maratha wars eventually lost british east india company third anglo maratha war rule lasted indian rebellion consequent government india act british government assumed task directly administering india new british raj ref name wdl ref stamford raffles established singapore key trading post britain


rivalry dutch however rivalry cooled anglo dutch treaty demarcated respective interests southeast asia onwards pace colonization shifted significantly higher gear dutch east india company british east india company dissolved respective governments took direct administration colonies thailand never colonized european power although thailand also greatly affected power politics western powers colonial rule profound effect southeast asia colonial powers


profited much region 's vast resources large market colonial rule develop region varying extent commercial agriculture mining export based economy developed rapidly period southeast asia start modern era spice route india china crossed majapahit ref name ricklefs mc ricklefs ''a history modern indonesia since c '' nd ed stanford stanford university press page ref archipelagic empire based island java last major hindu empires maritime southeast asia considered one


greatest states indonesian history ref name ricklefs influence extended states sumatra malay peninsula borneo eastern indonesia effectiveness influence subject debate majapahit found unable control rising power sultanate malacca grew stretch muslim malay settlements bukit phuket setol satun pantai ni pattani bordering ayutthaya kingdom siam thailand north sumatra southwest portuguese invaded capital sultanate johor established malaccan prince succeed malacca


middle east north africa ottoman empire ottoman empire early modern era ottoman empire enjoyed expansion consolidation power leading ''pax ottomana'' perhaps golden age empire ottomans expanded southwest north africa battling emergent persian shi'a safavid empire east north africa ottoman sphere turks seized egypt established regencies algeria tunisia tripolitania morocco remaining independent arabized berber state sharifan dynasty


safavid iran safavid empire great shia persianate empire islamic conquest persia established islam marking important point history islam east safavid dynasty founded base ardabil safavids established control persia reasserted iranian identity region thus becoming first native dynasty since sassanids establish unified iranian state problematic safavids powerful ottoman empire ottomans sunni dynasty fought several campaigns safavids fueled


growth safavid economy position burgeoning civilizations europe west islamic central asia east north silk road led europe east asia revived th century leaders also supported direct sea trade europe particularly england netherlands sought persian carpet silk textiles exports horses goat hair pearls inedible bitter almond hadam talka used spice india main imports spice textiles woolens europe cotton gujarat metals coffee sugar despite demise


safavids left mark establishing spreading shi'a islam major parts caucasus west asia uzbeks afghan pashtuns th early th centuries central asia rule uzbeks far eastern portions ruled local pashtuns th th centuries various nomadic tribes arrived steppes including kipchaks naimans kangly khongirad manghuds groups led muhammad shaybani khan uzbeks lineage afghan pashtuns stretches back hotaki dynasty ref name us


late th century early th century significant dates transitional phase medieval early modern europe noted conquest ceuta portuguese johannes gutenberg 's movable type conquest constantinople ottomans england 's last plantagenet king richard iii dies giovanni pico della mirandola publishes theses christopher columbus leads spanish fleet america french king charles viii invaded italy portuguese fleet led vasco da gama arrives india reformation begins martin


luther first circumnavigation globe spanish explorer juan sebasti n elcano machiavelli 's ''the prince'' nicolaus copernicus 's ''de revolutionibus'' council trent convened peace westphalia ends thirty years war ferdinand pauwels martin luther hammers theses door alt many major events caused europe change around start th century starting fall constantinople fall muslim spain discovery americas martin luther 's protestant reformation england


modern period often dated start tudor period victory henry vii richard iii battle bosworth early modern european history usually seen span start th century age enlightenment th th centuries beginning industrial revolution late th century early modern period taken end french revolution napoleonic wars dissolution holy roman empire congress vienna end


early modern period british russian empires emerged world powers multipolar contest colonial empires three great asian empires early modern period ottoman turkey mughal india qing china entered period stagnation decline renaissance vs early modern period expression early modern times used substitute term renaissance however renaissance properly used relation diverse series cultural developments occurred several hundred years many different parts europe especially central northern italy


spans transition late medieval civilization opening early modern period visual arts architecture term early modern common designation renaissance period clearly distinct came later study literature early modern period standard designation european music period generally divided renaissance baroque similarly philosophy divided renaissance philosophy enlightenment fields far continuity period warfare science gunpowder firearms gunpowder


introduced europe immediately used almost exclusively weapons explosives warfare though invented china gunpowder arrived europe already formulated military use european countries took advantage first create classic firearms ref name advances made gunpowder firearms directly tied decline use plate armor inability armor protect one bullets european kingdoms movements early modern period holy roman empire union territories


central europe holy roman emperor first otto last francis ii abdicated dissolved empire napoleonic wars despite name much history empire include rome within borders renaissance cultural movement spanned roughly th th century beginning italy late middle ages later spreading rest europe term also used loosely refer historic era since changes renaissance


uniform across europe general use term cultural movement encompassed rebellion learning based classical sources development linear perspective painting gradual widespread educational reform notable individuals gutenberg reviewing press proof colored engraving created probably th century johannes gutenberg credited first european use movable type printing around global inventor mechanical printing press nicolaus copernicus formulated comprehensive heliocentric cosmology displaced earth center


universe book ''de revolutionibus orbium coelestium'' ''on revolutions celestial spheres'' began modern astronomy sparked scientific revolution another notable individual machiavelli italian political philosopher considered founder modern political science machiavelli famous short political treatise prince work realist political theory among notable royalty time charles bold known ''charles bold rash '' enemies last valois duke burgundy early death pivotal recognized moment european history charles often


regarded last representative feudal spirit man possessed quality blind bravery upon death charles left unmarried nineteen year old daughter mary burgundy heir marriage would enormous implications political balance europe habsburg emperor secured match son future maximilian holy roman emperor aid mary 's stepmother margaret territory duchy burgundy annexed france year mary married maximilian archduke austria giving habsburgs control remainder


burgundian inheritance cuenca spain early renaissance early modern period claude de lorraine first duke guise death claude distinguished battle marignano long recovering twenty two wounds received battle fought fuenterrabia louise savoy ascribed capture place efforts became governor champagne burgundy defeating neufch teau imperial troops invaded province destroyed anabaptist peasant army


overrunning lorraine lupstein near saverne zabern return francis captivity claude made duke guise peerage france though time princes royal house held title duke peer france guises cadets sovereign house lorraine descendants house anjou claimed precedence bourbon princes cond conti rd duke alba nobleman importance early modern period nicknamed iron duke protestants


low countries harsh rule cruelty tales atrocities committed military operations flanders became part dutch english folklore forming central component spanish black legend england henry viii king england significant figure history english monarchy although greater part reign brutally suppressed influence protestant reformation england see also ''martyrdom william tyndale'' movement roots john wycliffe th century popularly known


major battle hunyadi led sudden counterattack overran turkish camp ultimately compelling wounded sultan mehmet ii lift siege retreat siege belgrade characterized decided fate christendom noon bell ordered pope callixtus iii commemorates victory throughout christian world day nearly hundred years later peace augsburg officially ended idea christians could united one church principle ''cuius regio eius religio'' whose region shall religion established religious


utrecht concept sovereign national state born ''corpus christianum'' since existed modern idea tolerant diverse society consisting many different communities inquisitions reformations modern inquisition refers one several institutions charged trying convicting heretics offenders canon law within catholic church modern era first manifestation spanish inquisition ref name fordhaminquisition ref inquisition prosecuted individuals accused wide array crimes related heresy including sorcery blasphemy judaizing witchcraft


well censorship printed literature objective combating heresy inquisition jurisdiction baptized members church however encompassed vast majority population catholic countries secular courts could still try non christians blasphemy witch trials went secular courts bourgeoisie takes importance throughout modern era protestant reformation rise modernity early th century entailed start series changes ''corpus christianum'' martin luther challenged catholic church ninety five theses generally accepted beginning


reformation christian reform movement europe though precursors jan hus predate protestant movement th century occurred protection electorate saxony independent hereditary electorate holy roman empire elector frederick iii established university wittenberg augustinian monk martin luther became professor philosophy time became one preachers castle church wittenberg october luther posted ''ninety five theses'' door saints' church served


notice board university related announcements ref name simon ref points debate criticized church pope controversial points centered practice selling indulgences especially johann tetzel church 's policy purgatory reform movement soon split along certain doctrinal lines religious disagreements various leading figures led emergence rival protestant churches important denominations emerge directly reformation lutherans reformed calvinists presbyterians process reform decidedly different causes effects countries england gave rise


anglicanism period became known english reformation subsequent protestant denominations generally trace roots back initial reforming movements diet worms presided emperor charles v declared martin luther heretic outlaw although charles v preoccupied maintaining vast empire arresting luther result charles v 's distractions east europe spain agreed diet speyer allow german princes effectively decide whether enforce edict worms time


returning empire charles v attended diet augsburg order protestants empire revert catholicism response protestant territories around germany formed schmalkaldic league fight catholic holy roman empire charles v left handle advance ottoman turks returned launch military campaign schmalkaldic league issue imperial law requiring protestants return catholic practices superficial concessions protestant practices warfare ended charles v relented


peace passau peace augsburg formalized law rulers land decide religion late inquisitions modern era two different manifestations ref name fordhaminquisition portuguese inquisition roman inquisition c portuguese inquisition local analogue famous spanish inquisition roman inquisition covered italian peninsula well malta also existed isolated pockets papal jurisdiction parts europe including avignon catholic reformation began


officially crowned first tsar caesar russia tsar promulgated new code laws sudebnik established first russian feudal representative body zemsky sobor introduced local self management rural regions long reign ivan iv nearly doubled already large russian territory annexing three tatar khanates parts disintegrated golden horde kazan astrakhan along volga river sibirean khanate south western siberia thus end th century russia transformed multiethnic multiconfessional transcontinental state russia experienced territorial growth


th century age cossacks cossacks warriors organized military communities resembling pirates pioneers new world native land cossacks defined line russian ruthenian town fortresses located border steppe stretching middle volga ryazan tula breaking abruptly south extending dnieper via pereyaslavl area settled population free people practicing various trades crafts cossacks became backbone early russian army peasants ukraine joined zaporozhian


cossacks rebellion poland lithuania khmelnytsky uprising social religious oppression suffered polish rule ukrainian leader bohdan khmelnytsky offered place ukraine protection russian tsar aleksey aleksey 's acceptance offer led another russo polish war finally ukraine split along river dnieper leaving western part right bank ukraine polish rule eastern part left bank ukraine kiev russian later cossacks led stenka razin initiated major uprising volga region tsar 's


troops successful defeating rebels east rapid russian exploration colonisation huge territories siberia led mostly cossacks hunting valuable furs ivory russian explorers pushed eastward primarily along siberian river routes mid th century russian settlements eastern siberia chukchi peninsula along amur river pacific coast bering strait asia north america passed first time fedot popov semyon dezhnyov discovery trade cantino planisphere


oldest surviving portuguese nautical chart showing results explorations vasco da gama india columbus central america gaspar corte real newfoundland pedro lvares cabral brazil meridian tordesillas separating portuguese spanish halves world also depicted age discovery period early th century continuing early th century european ships traveled around world search new trading routes partners feed burgeoning capitalism europe also search trading goods gold


silver spices process europeans encountered peoples mapped lands previously unknown factor early european modern period globalizing character 'discovery' americas rise sustained contacts previously isolated parts globe important historical event search new routes based fact silk road controlled ottoman empire impediment european commercial interests eastern trade routes available europeans due muslim control ability outflank muslim


states north africa seen crucial european survival time iberians learnt much arab neighbors northwestern region eurasia long coastline arguably influenced ''maritime history'' continent europe uniquely situated several navigable seas intersected navigable rivers running way greatly facilitated influence maritime traffic commerce maritime history europe carrack caravel incorporated lateen sail made ships far maneuverable translating


arab versions lost ancient greek geographical works latin european navigators acquired deeper knowledge shape africa asia mercantile capitalism mercantilism dominant school economic thought throughout early modern period th th century led first instances significant government intervention control economy period much modern capitalist system established internationally mercantilism encouraged many european wars period fueled european imperialism belief mercantilism began fade


late th century arguments adam smith classical economists commercial revolution period economic expansion colonialism mercantilism lasted approximately th century early th century beginning crusades europeans rediscovered spices silks commodities rare europe development created new desire trade expanded second half middle ages european nations voyages discovery looking new trade routes fifteenth sixteenth centuries allowed european powers build vast new


international trade networks nations also sought new sources wealth deal new found wealth new economic theories practices created competing national interest nations desire increased world power colonial empires commercial revolution marked increase general commerce growth non manufacturing pursuits banking insurance investing trade new economy old world desired trading goods gold silver spices western europeans used compass new sailing ship technologies new maps advances astronomy


seek viable trade route asia valuable spices mediterranean powers could contest align center class toccolours style background f eaba desired trading goods gallery file native gold nuggetsjpg gold fueled european exploration americas explorers reported native americans central america peru ecuador colombia large amounts file silverusgovjpg silver valued precious metal used make expensive ornaments fine jewelry high value tableware utensils silverware currency coins file indianspicesherbsjpg spices among luxurious products common black pepper cinnamon cheaper alternative cassia cumin nutmeg ginger cloves


gallery terms shipping advances important developments creation carrack caravel designs portugal vessels evolved medieval european designs north sea christian islamic mediterranean first ships could leave relatively placid calm mediterranean baltic north sea sail safely open atlantic carrack caravel developed iberia european thoughts returned fabled east explorations number causes monetarists believe main reason age exploration


began severe shortage bullion europe european economy dependent gold silver currency low domestic supplies plunged much europe recession another factor centuries long conflict iberians muslims south piracy 's golden age golden age piracy designation given one outbursts piracy early modern period spanning mid th century mid th century buccaneering period covers approximately late th century period characterized anglo french seamen based


jamaica tortuga attacking spanish colonies shipping caribbean eastern pacific sailing route known pirate round followed certain anglo american pirates turn th century associated long distance voyages bermuda americas rob muslim east india company targets indian ocean red sea post spanish succession period extending early th century anglo american sailors privateers left unemployed end war spanish succession turned en masse piracy caribbean american eastern seaboard


west african coast indian ocean european states politics th th century period marked first european colonies rise strong centralized governments beginnings recognizable european nation states direct antecedents today 's states although renaissance included revolutions many intellectual pursuits well social political upheaval perhaps best known european artistic developments contributions polymaths leonardo da vinci michelangelo inspired term renaissance man baroque period thirty years' war


central europe decimated population peace westphalia consisting treaties osnabr ck nster signed may october respectively ended several wars europe established beginning sovereign states treaties involved holy roman emperor ferdinand iii habsburg kingdoms spain france sweden netherlands respective allies among princes republican imperial states holy roman empire peace westphalia resulted first modern diplomatic congress regulations became part


constitutional laws holy roman empire treaty pyrenees signed ended war france spain often considered part overall accord absolutism age absolutism describes monarchical power unrestrained institutions churches legislatures social elites european monarchs transition feudalism capitalism monarchs described absolute especially found th century th century nations adopted absolutism include france prussia russia nobles tended trade privileges allegiance


throughout eighteenth century interests nobility aligned crown absolutism characterized ending feudal partitioning consolidation power monarch rise state power unification state laws drastic increase tax revenue collected monarch decrease influence nobility french power much reign louis xiv known ''sun king'' french ''le roi soleil'' france stood leading power europe engaging three major wars franco dutch war war


league augsburg war spanish succession two minor conflicts war devolution war reunions louis ruled according divine right kings theory king crowned god accountable alone consequently long considered archetypal absolute monarch louis xiv continued work predecessor create centralized state governed capital sweep away remnants feudalism persisted parts france succeeded breaking power provincial nobility much risen


revolt minority called fronde forced many leading nobles live lavish palace versailles men featured prominently political military life france period include mazarin jean baptiste colbert turenne vauban french culture likewise flourished era producing number figures great renown including moli racine boileau la fontaine lully le brun rigaud louis le vau jules hardouin mansart claude perrault le n tre early english revolutions age revolution english civil war series armed conflicts


political machinations parliamentarians royalists first second civil wars pitted supporters king charles supporters long parliament third war saw fighting supporters king charles ii supporters rump parliament civil war ended parliamentary victory battle worcester monopoly church england christian worship england ended victors consolidating established protestant ascendancy ireland constitutionally wars established precedent english monarch cannot govern without parliament 's consent english restoration