categories intellectual strengths interpersonal strengths temperance strengths alternatively interpersonal strengths fortitude vitality cautiousness strengths classifications emerged independently elsewhere literature values paul thagard described examples included jeff shrager 's workshops discover habits highly creative people research indicates well effects appear due spirituality actually better described due virtue ref name referenceb ref flow csikszentmihalyi hungarian american psychologist began studying ''flow'' state absorption one 's abilities well matched demands hand flow characterized


intense concentration loss self awareness feeling perfectly challenged neither bored overwhelmed sense time flying flow intrinsically rewarding also assist achievement goals eg winning game improving skills eg becoming better chess player ref name csikszentmihalyi ref anyone experience flow felt different domains play creativity work flow achieved challenge situation meets one 's personal abilities mismatch challenge someone low skills results state anxiety feeling overwhelmed insufficient challenge

Social science
Psychology
Positive psychology


psychology global area study various national indices tracking citizens' happiness ratings research findings research positive psychology well eudaimonia happiness theories diener ryff keyes seligman cover broad range topics including biological personal relational institutional cultural global dimensions life meta analysis studies showed positive psychology interventions ppi produced improvements well lower depression levels ppis studied included writing gratitude letters learning optimistic thinking replaying positive life experiences socializing others later meta analysis


studies participants outcomes positive three six months ppi effects subjective well psychological well still significant however positive effect weaker meta analysis authors concluded used higher quality studies ppis considered included counting blessings kindness practices making personal goals showing gratitude focusing personal strengths another review ppis published found intervention studies conducted western countries textbook ''positive psychology science happiness''


p minus engagement significant p one aims study make rewarding positive psychology interventions stay participants lives authors stated students learn get credit also good chance many reap benefits important health happiness well ref name academic methods quantitative quantitative methods positive psychology include p technique factor analysis dynamic factor analysis interindividual differences structural equation modeling spectral analysis item response models


dynamic systems analysis latent growth analysis latent class models hierarchical linear modeling measurement invariance experimental methods behavior genetics integration quantitative qualitative approaches qualitative ''journal positive psychology'' article published grant j rich usage qualitative methodology study positive psychology explored considered ref name ref author rich addresses popularity quantitative methods studying empirical questions positive psychology presents argues overemphasis quantitative methods suggests implementing qualitative methods semi structured interviews observations fieldwork creative artwork focus groups rich states


qualitative approaches valuable approaches studying positive psychology writes usage qualitative methods promote flourishing positive psychology encourages practice ref name behavioral interventions changing happiness levels interventions methodological advancement study positive psychology enhancing happiness behavioral interventions focus various academic scientific psychological publications happiness enhancing interventions include expressing kindness gratitude optimism humility awe mindfulness sonja lyubomirsky kennon sheldon david schkade co authored academic paper published journal ''review general psychology''


research created behavioral experiment using two week interventions one intervention studied performance acts kindness focused gratitude emphasized counting one 's blessings study participants went behavioral interventions reported higher levels happiness well participate either intervention paper provides experimental support effect gratitude kindness enhancing subjective well happiness research conducted sonja lyubomirsky rene dickerhoof julia k boehm kennon sheldon published academic journal ''emotion''


personality science'' ref name ref research study interaction effects gratitude humility behavior interventions interventions studied writing gratitude letter writing day diary interventions kruse et al found gratitude humility connected mutually reinforcing ref name article also discusses gratitude associated humility may lead positive emotional states subjective well researchers melanie rudd kathleen vohs jennifer aaker conducted series experiments showed positive effect awe subjective well publishing results


academic journal ''psychological science'' research found individuals felt awe also reported feeling higher availability time preference experiential expenditures material expenditures greater life satisfaction experiences heighten awe may lead higher levels life satisfaction turn higher levels happiness subjective well mindfulness interventions may also increase happiness ''mindfulness'' article published torbj rn josefsson pernilla larsman anders g broberg lars gunnar lundh found meditation improves subjective well individuals mindfully meditate researchers note mindful meditation


includes awareness observation one 's meditation practice non reaction non judgmental sentiments meditation national indices happiness creation various national indices happiness broadened expanded field positive psychology global scale january academic article published ''american psychologist'' psychologist ed diener proposed argued creation national happiness index united states ref name ref index would provide measurements happiness subjective well within united states across many countries world diener argued national indices would


helpful markers indicators population happiness providing sense current ratings tracker happiness across time diener proposed national index include various sub measurements subjective well including pleasant affect unpleasant affect life satisfaction fulfillment specific states stress affection trust joy ref name un general assembly june first world happiness report published world happiness report initiated un general assembly june passed bhutanese resolution ref name ref bhutanese resolution called nations across world give


importance happiness well determining achieve measure social economic development ref name data world happiness reports collected partnership gallup world poll 's life evaluations annual happiness rankings world happiness report bases national rankings happy constituents self report believe first world happiness report published page report details state world happiness causes happiness misery policy implications happiness reports three case studies subjective well bhutan


gross national happiness index uk office national statistics experience happiness member countries within oecd world happiness report published th publication series reports first world happiness report include happiness rankings cities across world addition rankings countries city helsinki finland reported city highest subjective well ranking country finland reported country highest subjective well ranking third year


well policy report happy planet index indigo wellness index oecd better life index un human development reports influences academic fields positive psychology influenced variety academic fields study scholarship applied various areas scholarship notably organizational behavior psychiatry positive organizational scholarship pos positive organizational scholarship pos also referred positive organizational behavior pob began direct application positive psychology field organizational behavior one first times term officially defined published


text ''positive organizational scholarship foundations new discipline'' edited university michigan ross school business professors kim cameron jane e dutton robert e quinn ref name ref first chapter text cameron dutton quinn promote best human condition goodness compassion resilience positive human potential organizational goal important financial organizational success ref name goal pos study factors create positive work experiences successful people oriented organizational outcomes large collection pos research


contained volume ''the oxford handbook positive organizational scholarship'' edited university michigan ross school business professors kim cameron gretchen spreitzer ref name ref page volume encompasses nine sections chapters spanning various topics major topics include positive human resource practices positive organizational practices positive leadership change much volume expands upon applies core concepts positive psychology workplace context covering areas positive individual attributes positive emotions strengths virtues positive relationships definition pos written editors cameron


spreitzer blockquote class templatequote positive organizational scholarship rigorously seeks understand represents best human condition based scholarly research theory positive psychology focuses exploring optimal individual psychological states rather pathological ones organizational scholarship focuses attention generative dynamics organizations lead development human strength foster resiliency employees enable healing restoration cultivate extraordinary individual organizational performance pos emphasizes elevates individuals organizations addition challenges goes right organizations addition goes wrong life giving addition


problematic life depleting experienced good addition objectionable inspiring addition difficult arduous div class templatequotecite kim cameron gretchen spreitzer chapter introduction positive positive organizational scholarship ''the oxford handbook positive organizational scholarship'' ref name div blockquote psychiatry positive psychology influenced psychiatry providing additional therapeutic cognitive behavior shifts including well therapy positive psychotherapy practicing integration positive psychology therapeutic practice academic article published ''journal occupational rehabilitation'' mills


kreutzer argue principles positive psychology implemented assist recovering traumatic brain injury tbi make case tbi rehabilitation practices rely betterment individual engaging everyday practices practice significantly related tenets positive psychology proposal connect positive psychology tbi vocational rehabilitation vr also looks happiness correlation improvements mental health including increased confidence productivity well others authors point empirical evidence positive psychology limited clarify positive psychology 's focus


small successes optimism prosocial behavior promising improvements social emotional well tbi patients popular culture study positive psychology translated various popular media outlets including books films influencing factor wellness industry books several popular psychology books written positive psychologists general audience ilona boniwell book ''positive psychology nutshell'' provided summary current research according boniwell well related optimism extraversion social connections ie close friendships married


according ''the happiness'' individuals create new habits seek new emotions use variety timing prevent hedonic adaptation enlist others motivate support creation new habits lyubomirsky gives happiness activities including savoring life learning forgive living present ''stumbling happiness'' daniel gilbert another popular book shares positive psychology research findings general readership audience gilbert presents research suggesting individuals often poor predicting make happy future individuals prone misevaluating


causes happiness ref name ref also notes subjectivity subjective well happiness often difficult challenge overcome predicting future happiness noting future selves may different subjective perspectives life current selves films coverage positive psychology entered film industry similarly films provided basis new research within positive psychology happy film full length documentary film covering overviewing fields positive psychology neuroscience also highlights various case studies happiness across diverse cultures geographies


film features interviews notable positive psychologists scholars including daniel gilbert ed diener sonja lyubomirsky mihaly csikszentmihalyi positive psychology news website includes section annual positive psychology movie awards positive psychology movie awards ranks short list feature films annually feature powerful messages positive psychology rankings according website 's author ryan niemiec psyd psychologist coach education director via institute character positive psychology movie awards presents separate awards categories including best positive psychology


film award positive relationships award meaning award achievement award mindfulness award happiness signature strengths use among others research done positive psychology represented feature films done association via institute contemporary popular films promote represent character strengths basis various academic articles wellness industry growing popularity attention given positive psychology research influenced industry growth development consumption products services meant cater wellness well according global wellness institute


psychology criticized many different aspects conception continuing present day reality distortion psychologists shelley e taylor jonathan brown co authored ''psychological bulletin'' article coined phrase positive illusions positive illusions cognitive processes individuals engage self aggrandizing self enhancing unrealistically positive self affirming attitudes individuals hold position environment essence positive illusions attitudes extreme optimism endure even face facts real conditions taylor brown suggested positive illusions protect


individuals negative feedback might receive turn preserves psychological adaptation subjective well however later research found engaging positive illusions related attitudes led psychological maladaptive conditions conditions include poorer social relationships expressions narcissism negative workplace outcomes thus reducing positive effects positive illusions subjective well overall happiness life satisfaction kirk schneider editor journal humanistic psychology said positive psychology fails explain past heinous behaviors perpetrated nazi party stalinist marches klan


better promote flourishing overall schneider provided perspective perhaps genuine happiness something aim isa product life well lived life well lived settle programmed neatly calibrated narrow focus ian sample writing ''the guardian'' noted positive psychologists also stand accused burying heads sand ignoring depressed even merely unhappy people real problems need dealing also quoted steven wolin clinical psychiatrist george washington university saying study positive psychology


reiteration older ways thinking much scientific research support efficacy method gable responds criticism pollyanna view world saying bringing balance side psychology glaringly understudied defend point gable points imbalances favoring research negative psychological well cognitive psychology health psychology social psychology martin jack also maintained positive psychology unique optimistic approach looking optimal emotional well stating


forms psychology counseling educational psychology also interested positive human fulfillment goes mention positive psychology pushed schools student centered able foster positive self images children worries lack focus self control may prevent children making full contributions society positive psychology implemented correctly cause harm good case example interventions school coercive sense imposed everyone without regard individual child 's reason


negativity fail take student 's context account ref name ciarrochi ref role negativity barbara held professor bowdoin college argued positive psychology makes contributions field psychology faults offered insight topics including negative side effects positive psychology negativity within positive psychology movement current division field psychology caused differing opinions psychologists positive psychology addition noted movement 's lack consistency regarding role negativity also raised issues simplistic


approach taken psychologists application positive psychology one size fits approach arguably beneficial advancement field positive psychology suggested need individual differences incorporated application teaching young people confident optimistic leads success unsuccessful begin believe insecure pessimistic could lead believe negative internal thought feeling may experience damaging happiness steered clear completely ref


name ciarrochi toxic positivity recent critical response field positive psychology around toxic positivity toxic positivity phenomenon individuals fully acknowledge process manage entire spectrum emotions including anger sadness genre criticism positive psychology argues field positive psychology places much importance upbeat thinking shunting challenging difficult experiences side individuals engage constant chase positive experiences states high subjective well may inadvertently stigmatizing negative emotional conditions


depression may suppressing natural emotional responses sadness regret stress furthermore allowing negative emotional states experienced suppressing hiding negative emotional responses individuals may experience harmful physical cardiovascular respiratory consequences proponents combating toxic positivity advocate allowing oneself accept fully experience negative emotional states methodological philosophical critiques richard lazarus well known psychology cognitive motivational relational theory emotions thoroughly critiqued methodological philosophical components positive psychology holds giving detail insight positive


bad thing expense negative aspect two positive negative inseparable first methodological issue noted positive psychology 's use correlational cross sectional research designs indicate causality movement 's ideas healthy lives could factors researched time differences account healthier lives researchers account secondly considers emotions cannot categorized dichotomously positive negative nature emotions subjective rich social relational meaning additionally claims emotions fluid meaning


context appear changes time states emotions potential either one different occasions even occasion emotion experienced different persons third issue neglect individual differences social science research many research designs focus statistical significance groups overlooking differences among individuals lazarus 's final methodological complain tendency social science researchers adequately define measure emotions assessments quick checklists provide adequate


debriefing many researchers differentiate fluid emotional states relatively stable personality traits lazarus holds positive psychology claims new innovative although majority research stress coping theory make much claims positive psychology movement attempts uplift reinforce positive aspects one 's life everyone life experiences stress hardship coping events looked adapting failures regarded successfully navigating stress movement n't hold perspective us army 's comprehensive


soldier fitness program contract martin seligman 's positive psychology center university pennsylvania united states army began comprehensive soldier fitness program order address psychological issues among soldiers comprehensive soldier fitness csf program established chief staff united states army general george w casey jr effort address increasing rates drug abuse family violence ptsd suicide among soldiers army contracted martin seligman 's positive psychology center university pennsylvania supply program closely based center 's


penn resiliency program designed year old children ref name singal ref although seligman proposed starting small scale pilot test general casey insisted immediately rolling csf entire army interviewed journal ''monitor psychology'' american psychological association seligman said largest study million soldiers psychology ever involved according journalist jesse singal would become one largest mental health interventions geared single population history humanity possibly expensive ref name singal psychologists criticized csf various reasons


nicholas j l brown wrote idea techniques demonstrated best marginal effects reducing depressive symptoms school age children could also prevent onset condition associated extreme situations humans confronted remarkable one seem backed empirical evidence ref name brown ref stephen soldz boston graduate school psychoanalysis cited seligman 's acknowledgment csf gigantic study rather program based proven techniques questioned ethics requiring soldiers participate


positive psychology techniques criticized army 's reports methodologically unsound lacking peer review ref name singal seligman said singal misinterpreted studies ignored army 's positive feedback soldiers one told seligman training years ago would saved marriage see also precursors new thought maslow 's hierarchy needs needs motives henry murray self determination theory various ''anatomy epidemic'' aversion happiness louise burfitt dons community psychology culture positive psychology happiness economics meaning life positive education positive neuroscience positive psychotherapy positive


youth development posttraumatic growth pragmatism psychological resilience rational ignorance second wave positive psychology sex positive movement theory humor notes references footnotes bibliography year title positive psychology journal reclaiming children youth volume issue pages year title authentic happiness using new positive psychology realize potential lasting fulfillment location new york publisher free press isbn url https archiveorg details authentichappine seli year title happiness taught journal daedalus volume issue pages doi cid url https wwwsemanticscholarorg paper fce e da b e b effcd year title flourish visionary new understanding happiness well location new york publisher free press isbn


reading external links origins christopher peterson https wwwpsychologytodaycom blog good life positive psychology ''what positive psychology not'' https positivepsychologyprogramcom founding fathers ''the founding fathers history positive psychology'' http wwwhuffingtonpostcom david sze father positive ps b html ''the father positive psychology two theories happiness'' resources university pennsylvania https wwwauthentichappinesssasupennedu home authentic happiness website martin seligman various http wwwtedcom indexphp talks martin seligman state psychologyhtml martin seligman presentation positive psychology video ted conference http wwwdhammatalksorg archive writings crossindexed uncollected miscessays karma happinesspdf karma happiness buddhist monk looks positive psychology thanissaro bhikkhu happiness psychological schools positive criminology well


border crossing '''border control''' refers measures taken governments monitor regulate movement people animals goods across land air maritime borders border control typically associated international borders also encompasses controls imposed internal borders within single state border control measures serve variety purposes ranging enforcing customs sanitary phytosanitary biosecurity regulations restricting migration borders including states' internal borders international borders within schengen area open completely unguarded others including vast majority borders countries

Applied science
Public administration
Immigration policy


well internal borders subject degree control may crossed legally designated checkpoints border controls st century tightly intertwined intricate systems travel documents visas increasingly complex policies vary countries history purpose great wall china stop barbarians crossing northern border china states rulers always regarded ability determine enters remains territories key test sovereignty prior world war border controls


sporadically implemented medieval europe example boundaries rival countries centres power largely symbolic consisted amorphous borderlands 'marches' 'debatable lands' indeterminate contested status real 'borders' consisted fortified walls surrounded towns cities authorities could exclude undesirable incompatible people gates vagrants beggars 'wandering poor' 'masterless women' lepers romani jews arabic papyrus exit permit dated january ad pointing regulation travel activities hermopolis magna egypt qing dynasty th year


guangxu reign concept border controls origins antiquity asia existence border controls evidenced classical texts arthashastra make mentions passes issued rate one ''masha'' per pass enter exit country chapter second book arthashastra concerns duties must issue sealed passes person could enter leave countryside passports resembling issued today important part chinese bureaucracy early western han bce ce


different regions caliphate thus ''bara'a'' receipt basic passport medieval europe passports issued since least reign henry v england means helping subjects prove foreign lands earliest reference documents found act parliament ref name brief history https wwwtheguardiancom travel nov travelnews brief history passport ''the guardian'' ref granting travel documents england became role privy council england around time term passport used issuing british passports


became job office secretary state ref name brief history imperial diet augsburg required public hold imperial documents travel risk permanent exile world war european governments introduced border passport requirements security reasons control emigration people useful skills controls remained place war becoming standard though controversial procedure british tourists complained especially attached photographs physical descriptions considered led nasty dehumanisation starting mid th century ottoman empire


established quarantine stations many borders control disease example along greek turkish border travellers entering exiting ottoman empire would quarantined days stations would often manned armed guards plague appeared ottoman army would deployed enforce border control monitor disease one earliest systematic attempts modern nation states implement border controls restrict entry particular groups policies adopted canada australia america curtail immigration asians white settler states late th early th


centuries first anti east asian policy implemented era chinese exclusion act america followed suit chinese immigration act canada imposed came called chinese head tax policies sign injustice unfair treatment chinese workers jobs engaged mostly menial jobs similar policies adopted various british colonies australia latter half th century targeting asian immigrants arriving result region 's series gold rushes


well kanakas pacific islanders brought australia indentured labourers alongside asians perceived trade unionists white blue collar workers threat wages white settlers ref name markey ref following establishment commonwealth australia discriminatory border control measures quickly expanded white australia policy subsequent legislation america eg immigration act naturalisation act immigration act resulted even stricter policy targeting immigrants asia parts southern eastern europe bn passports sported


burgundy red cover identical british citizen passports albeit without words european union text top part cover march even following adoption measures white australia policy chinese exclusion act english speaking settler colonies pervasive control international borders remained relatively rare phenomenon early th century prior many states open international borders either practice due lack legal restriction john maynard keynes identified world war particular point


controls became commonplace decolonisation twentieth century saw emergence mass emigration nations global south thus leading former colonial occupiers introduce stricter border controls ref name newint ref united kingdom process took place stages british nationality law eventually shifting recognising commonwealth citizens british subjects today 's complex british nationality law distinguishes british citizens modern british subjects british overseas citizens overseas nationals non standard category created result attempts balance border control need mitigate statelessness aspect


rise border control th century proven controversial british nationality law criticised experts ref ms dummett also said nationality act effect gave full british citizenship group least white people less favourable forms british nationality groups least non white well committee elimination racial discrimination united nations ref grounds different classes british nationality created fact closely related


ethnic origins holders creation british nationality overseas status instance fewer privileges british citizen status met criticism many hong kong residents felt british citizenship would appropriate light moral debt owed uk british politicians magazines also criticised creation bn status british government boris johnson announced programme bn would leave remain uk rights work study five years may apply


settled status would eligible full citizenship holding settled status months ref name govuk ref implemented eponymously named british national overseas visa residence permit bn dependent family members able apply since january ref name bnovisa ref ref name bnovisafamily ref bn dependents arrived uk new immigration route became available granted leave outside rules discretion border force remain country six months temporary measure effect retroactively granted


bn path right abode united kingdom despite covid pandemic people entered uk scheme july january ethnic tensions created colonial occupation also resulted discriminatory policies adopted newly independent african nations uganda idi amin banned asians uganda thus creating mass exodus largely gujarati ref name toi ref asian community uganda ethnically driven border control policies took forms ranging anti asian sentiment east africa apartheid policies south africa namibia known


southwest africa south african rule created bantustans ref tbvc state extended recognition independent bantustans south africa showed commitment notion tbvc sovereignty building embassies tbvc capitals pass laws ref south african republic brought two pass laws required africans carry metal badge employed master permitted remain rand entering labour district needed special pass entitled remain three days natives urban areas act deemed urban


areas south africa white required black african men cities towns carry around permits called passes times anyone found without pass would arrested immediately sent rural area replaced natives urban areas consolidation act imposed influx control black men also set guidelines removing people deemed living idle lives urban areas act outlined requirements african peoples' qualification reside legally white metropolitan areas ref name omalley ref segregate impose border controls non whites


encouraged immigration whites expense blacks well indians asians whilst border control europe east pacific tightened time ref name newint largely liberalised africa yoweri museveni 's reversal idi amin 's anti asian border controls ref fall apartheid thus racialised border controls south africa development border control policies course th century also saw standardisation refugee travel documents convention relating status refugees ref convention travel document


stateless people similar statelessness convention noinclude covid noinclude pandemic produced drastic tightening border controls across globe many countries regions imposed quarantines entry bans restrictions citizens recent travellers affected areas countries regions imposed global restrictions apply foreign countries territories prevent citizens travelling overseas imposition border controls curtailed spread virus first implemented community spread established multiple countries different regions


median point states' baselines unless states question agree otherwise state also choose claim smaller territorial sea territorial sea regarded sovereign territory state although foreign ships military civilian allowed innocent passage transit passage straits sovereignty also extends airspace seabed result unclos states exercise similar degree control territorial sea land territory may thus utilise coast guard naval patrols enforce border control measures provided


prevent innocent transit passage contiguous zone state 's contiguous zone band water extending farther outer edge territorial sea kilometres baseline within state implement limited border control measures purpose preventing punishing infringement customs fiscal immigration sanitary laws regulations within territory territorial sea typically kilometres wide could state chosen claim territorial sea less kilometres less


surface sea compliance laws regulations adopted coastal state accordance provisions un convention within portion exclusive economic zone beyond territorial sea authority state eez therefore ability regulate extraction spoliation resources contained therein border control measures implemented effect focus suppression unauthorised commercial activity vessels complying state 's maritime policies may subject ship arrest enforcement action


state 's authorities maritime border control measures controversial context international trade disputes case following france 's detention british fishermen october aftermath brexit indonesian navy detained crew ''seven seas conqueress'' alleging vessel unlawfully fishing within indonesian territorial waters singaporean government claimed vessel singaporean waters near pedra branca similarly international law accords state control airspace land territory internal waters territorial sea consequently states authority regulate flyover rights


tax foreign aircraft utilising airspace additionally international civil aviation organization designates states administer international airspace including airspace waters forming part state 's territorial sea aircraft unlawfully entering country 's airspace may grounded crews may detained country sovereignty international waters including associated airspace states freedom fishing navigation overflight laying cables pipelines well research oceans seas waters outside national jurisdiction also referred high seas latin ''mare liberum'' meaning ''free sea'' convention


high seas defined high seas mean parts sea included territorial sea internal waters state state may validly purport subject part sovereignty ships sailing high seas generally jurisdiction flag state one however ship involved certain criminal acts piracy nation exercise jurisdiction doctrine universal jurisdiction regardless maritime borders part air maritime border control


policies countries restrict regulate ability foreign airlines vessels transport goods passengers sea ports airports jurisdiction known cabotage restrictions maritime cabotage apply exist countries territorial internal waters protect domestic shipping industry foreign competition preserve domestically owned shipping infrastructure national security purposes ensure safety congested territorial waters example america jones act provides extremely strict restrictions cabotage similarly china permit foreign flagged vessels conduct domestic transport domestic transhipments


without prior approval ministry transport ref name ukpandi ref hong kong macau maintain distinct internal cabotage regimes mainland maritime cabotage either territory mainland considered domestic carriage accordingly limits foreign vessels ref name ukpandi similarly maritime crossings across taiwan strait requires special permits people 's republic china republic china usually limits foreign vessels ref name ukpandi india foreign vessels engaging coasting trade require licence generally issued local vessel available ref name ukpandi similarly


foreign vessel may issued licence engage cabotage brazil brazilian flagged vessels available intended transport ref name ukpandi maritime cabotage jurisdictions heavily restrict cabotage passenger aviation though rules regarding air cargo typically lax passenger cabotage usually granted open skies agreements air cabotage policies european union uniquely liberal insofar carriers licensed one member state permitted engage cabotage eu member state limitations chile liberal air cabotage rules


world enacted allow foreign airlines operate domestic flights conditional upon reciprocal treatment chilean carriers foreign airline 's country countries apply special provisions ability foreign airlines carry passengers two domestic destinations offshore hub ref services currently considered constitute cabotage permitted american authorities fined asiana airlines selling tickets mainland us guam saipan via seoul many countries implement air defence identification zones adizs requiring aircraft approaching within specified distance airspace contact seek


prior authorisation military transport authorities ref name abeyratne adiz may extend beyond country 's territory give country time respond possibly hostile aircraft ref name wsjnov concept adiz defined international treaty regulated international body ref name wsjnov ref ref name globsec ref nevertheless well established aerial border control measure ref japan pakistan bangladesh finland norway united kingdom people 's republic china south korea republic china america sweden iceland iran russia north korea unofficial adizs well ref name abeyratne ref ref name wsjnov usually zones


livestock pests invasive species organisms conducive welfare human population term includes biological threats people including pandemic diseases bioterrorism definition sometimes broadened embrace concepts used different purposes different contexts common category biosecurity policies quarantine measures adopted counteract spread disease applied component border control focus primarily mitigating entry infected individuals plants animals country aspects biosecurity related border


control include mandatory vaccination policies inbound travellers measures curtail risk posed bioterrorism invasive species quarantine measures frequently implemented regard mobility animals including pets livestock notably order reduce risk introducing rabies continental europe united kingdom used require dogs animals introduced country spend six months quarantine hm customs excise pound policy abolished favour scheme generally known pet passports animals avoid quarantine


documentation showing date appropriate vaccinations past quarantine measures implemented european countries order curtail bubonic plague cholera british isles example quarantine act '' ann'' established maritime quarantine policies era strict border control measures whole yet become mainstream first act called due fears plague might imported poland baltic states second act due prevalence plague


marseille places provence france renewed new outbreak continental europe due epidemic messina rigorous quarantine clause introduced act regulating trade levant various arbitrary orders issued next twenty years meet supposed danger infection baltic states although plague cases ever came england period restrictions traffic became stringent strict quarantine act passed provisions affecting cargoes


particular act revised elaborate inquiry followed act making quarantine discretion privy council recognised yellow fever highly infectious diseases calling quarantine along plague threat cholera last occasion england use quarantine restrictions cholera affected every country europe despite efforts keep cholera returned england attempt made seal ports privy council


ordered arrivals clean bill health black sea levant admitted provided case plague voyage afterwards practice quarantine discontinued ref name booker ref modern maritime law biosecurity measures arriving vessels centre around 'pratique' licence border control officials permitting ship enter port assurance captain vessel free contagious disease clearance granted commonly referred 'free pratique' ship signal request 'pratique' flying solid yellow


square shaped flag yellow flag '''q''' flag set international maritime signal flags event 'free pratique' granted vessel held quarantine according biosecurity rules prevailing port entry border control officer inspects vessel covid pandemic controversy arose granted pratique ''ruby princess'' related concept 'bill health' document issued officials port departure indicating officials port arrival whether likely


ship carrying contagious disease either literally board fomites via crewmen passengers defined consul 's handbook blockquote bill health document issued consul public authorities port ship sails descriptive health port time vessel 's clearance ''clean'' bill health certifies date issue infectious disease known exist either port neighbourhood ' 'suspected'' ''touched'' bill health reports rumours


present international certificate vaccination prophylaxis carte jaune certifying received yellow fever vaccine variety countries require travellers visited areas yellow fever endemic present certificate order clear border checkpoints means preventing spread disease prior emergence covid yellow fever primary human disease subjected de facto vaccine passport measures border control authorities around world similar measures place regard polio meningococcal meningitis regions diseases


endemic countries bordering regions prior eradication smallpox similar carte jaune requirements force disease around world road sign exit interstate vermont advising individuals entering state quarantine policy adopted response covid photographed november slovakia otherwise maintains open borders schengen area jurisdictions closed borders non residents covid pandemic result covid pandemic biosecurity measures become highly visible aspect border control across globe notably quarantine


cases conducted upon arrival without follow minimum day quarantine may beneficial preventing spread covid may effective combined additional control measure like border screening ref name b study ''science'' found travel restrictions could delay initial arrival covid country produced modest overall effects unless combined domestic infection prevention control measures considerably reduce transmissions consistent prior research influenza communicable diseases ref name ref travel bans early pandemic effective


isolated locations small island nations ref name covid pandemic many jurisdictions across globe introduced biosecurity measures internal borders ranged quarantine measures imposed upon individuals crossing state lines within america prohibitions interstate travel australia customs north korean customs officer pyongyang sunan international airport southern edge customs border captain cook wharf ports auckland new zealand electric fence faintly visible behind historical fence country laws regulations import export goods country


green channels order prioritise customs enforcement within european union 's common customs area airports may operate additional blue channels passengers arriving within area passengers border control may focus specifically prohibited items goods covered common policy luggage tags checked luggage travelling within eu green edged may identified eu member states travellers coming eu countries within schengen area use green lane although airports outside schengen area frequent flights arriving jurisdictions


within schengen outside european union may use blue channels convenience efficiency customs area area designated storage commercial goods cleared border controls commercial goods yet cleared customs often stored type customs area known bonded warehouse processed exported ref name antw http wwwhavenantwerpenbe html faq page faq html port antwerp faq official website port antwerp accessed june ref ports authorised handle international cargo generally include recognised bonded warehouses purpose customs duties goods within customs area


treated outside country allows easy transshipment third country without customs authorities involved ref name antw reason customs areas usually carefully controlled fenced prevent smuggling however area still territorially part country goods within area subject local laws example drug laws biosecurity regulations thus may searched impounded turned back term also sometimes used define area usually composed several countries form customs union customs territory describe area


foreign agricultural products order protect domestic ecosystems example australian border controls restrict food products certain wooden products similar items similar restrictions exist canada america new zealand capital punishment drug offences border control many countries asia americas prioritises enforcing customs laws pertaining narcotics instance india malaysia focusing resources eliminating drug smuggling myanmar thailand respectively issue stems largely high output dangerous illegal drugs golden triangle well regions west


afghanistan similar problem exists east pacific resulted countries mexico america tightening border control response northward flow illegal substances regions colombia mexican drug war similar cartel activity neighbouring areas exacerbated problem certain countries illegal importing exporting sale possession drugs constitute capital offences may result death sentence march report harm reduction international says least countries territories prescribe death penalty drug offences


law january december least people known executed drug related offences article ''the economist'' says laws countries provide capital punishment drug smuggling six countries china iran saudi arabia vietnam malaysia singapore drug offenders known routinely executed additionally singapore malaysia indonesia impose mandatory death sentences individuals caught smuggling restricted substances across borders example muhammad ridzuan ali executed


singapore may drug trafficking according article lawyers collective ngo india countries impose capital punishment offences involving narcotic drugs psychotropic substances south korean law provides capital punishment drug offences south korea de facto moratorium capital punishment executions since even though still people death row new death sentences continue handed border security border security refers measures taken one governments enforce border control policies


prevent infiltration indian territory terrorists pakistan countries west afghanistan iraq syria etc contrast india 's border myanmar porous military coup myanmar saw influx refugees seeking asylum border states including mizoram refoulement rohingya refugees contentious aspect india 's border control policy vis vis myanmar meanwhile american border security policy largely centred country 's border mexico security along border composed many distinct elements including physical barriers patrol routes lighting border patrol personnel


contrast border canada primarily composed joint border patrol security camera programmes forming longest undefended border world remote areas along border canada staffed border crossings available hidden sensors roads trails railways wooded areas located near crossing points border security schengen area 's external borders especially restrictive members schengen agreement required apply strict checks travellers entering exiting area checks co ordinated european union 's frontex agency subject common


right free movement third country nationals well known border guards initial check shown alert record relating schengen information system national databases subject occasional 'random' checks rather systematic checks every time cross border additionally border security europe increasingly outsourced private companies border security market growing rate per year border wars series transnational institute showed arms security industry helps


shape european border security policy lobbying regular interactions eu 's border institutions shaping research policy institute criticises border security industry vested interest increasing border militarisation order increase profits furthermore companies also often involved arms trade thus profit twice first fuelling conflicts repression human rights abuses led refugees flee homes later intercepting along migration routes border walls border walls common aspect border security measures across world border walls


mexico iran constructed wall frontier pakistan wall aims reduce unauthorised border crossings stem flow drugs also response terrorist attacks notably one iranian border town zahedan february killed thirteen people including nine iranian revolutionary guard officials former president donald trump 's proposal build new wall along border formed major feature presidential campaign course presidency administration spent approximately us billion project us billion appropriated


us customs border protection us billion appropriated anti narcotics initiative funded congress us billion appropriated american military members democratic republican parties opposed president trump 's border control policies regarded border wall unnecessary undesirable arguing measures would effective reducing illegal immigration building wall including tackling economic issues lead immigration relevant issue altogether border surveillance increase number customs agents additionally august united states constructed nbsp km short cable fencing along


border abbotsford british columbia whatcom county washington border walls formed major component european border control policy following european migrant crisis walls melilla ceuta spain 's border morocco designed curtail ability refugees migrants enter european union via two spanish cities moroccan coast similar measures taken schengen area 's borders turkey response refugee crisis created syria terrorist organisations daesh syrian free army creation european union 's


collective border security organisation frontex another aspect bloc 's growing focus border security within schengen area border security become especially prominent priority hungarian government right wing strongman viktor orb n ref april hungarian government announced construction reinforcements barrier described temporary july nearly migrants stuck serbian side border august orb n announced hungary build another larger barrier southern border april hungarian government announced completed second fence


kilometres long serbia september hungary began building fence border slovenia area around tornyiszentmikl pince border crossing razor wire obstacle removed two days later similarly saudi arabia begun construction border barrier fence territory yemen prevent unauthorized movement people goods difference countries' economic situations means many yemenis head saudi arabia find work saudi arabia barrier neighbours gulf cooperation council whose economies similar


saudi arabia proposed constructing security fence along entire length kilometre long desert border iraq july reported saudis pay nbsp billion security fence ref name infoprod ref combined wall ditch kilometres long include five layers fencing watch towers night vision cameras radar cameras manned troops elsewhere europe republic macedonia began erecting fence border greece november botswana began building kilometre long electric fence along border zimbabwe


border station bangladeshi side file hungary serbia border barrierjpg hungarian border barrier serbia gallery border checkpoints ref ref name ref image sultaniskandarciqjpg alt sultan iskandar building johor bahru malaysia caption sultan iskandar building image woodlands checkpoint singapore jpg alt woodlands checkpoint singapore caption woodlands checkpoint international terminal san francisco international airport airport entry travellers entering america border checkpoint facilities arriving passengers like north american airports sterile international transit area domestic international passengers


immigration facilities seaports international airports ports entry checkpoints generally serve two purposes prevent entrance individuals either undesirable eg criminals others pose threats simply unauthorised enter prevent entrance goods illegal subject restriction collect tariffs accordance customs quarantine policies border checkpoint travellers permitted enter jurisdiction known port entry international airports usually ports entry road rail crossings land border seaports


used ports entry dedicated customs presence posted choice whether become port entry civil authority controlling port airport entry airport provides customs immigration services incoming flights services allow airport serve initial port entry foreign visitors arriving country terms airport entry international airport generally used interchangeably international airports qualify airports entry since international airports without immigration customs facilities


exist schengen area whose members eliminated border controls airports entry usually larger domestic airports often feature longer runways facilities accommodate heavier aircraft commonly used international intercontinental travel international airports often also host domestic flights often help feed passengers cargo international ones vice versa buildings operations management become increasingly sophisticated since mid th century international airports began provide infrastructure international civilian flights detailed technical standards developed ensure safety common coding systems implemented


provide global consistency physical structures serve millions individual passengers flights among complex interconnected world second decade st century international airports almost two billion international passengers along million tonnes cargo passing annually 'quilantan' 'wave through' entry phenomenon american border checkpoints authorising form non standard legal entry without inspection travel documents occurs border security personnel present border crossing choose summarily admit number


persons without performing standard interview document examination individual prove waved immigration manner considered entered inspection despite answered questions received passport entry stamp definition legal entry extends foreigners entered america official border crossings provide path legal residency enter recognised crossing gallery file transitareajpg sterile lounge changi airport terminal singapore passengers transitting international flights terminals


sea port entry hong kong example internal border checkpoint travellers arriving departing cities pearl river delta subjected border control measures file ocean terminal cruise jpg cruise ship pier ocean terminal also sea port entry hong kong hk macau ferry terminal port entry travellers chinese cities pearl river delta ocean terminal port entry visitors arriving via cruise ship wider variety jurisdictions gallery border zones


border zones areas near borders special restrictions movement governments may forbid unauthorised entry exit border zones restrict property ownership area zones function buffer zones specifically monitored border patrols order prevent unauthorised cross border travel border zones enable authorities detain prosecute individuals suspected aiding undocumented migrants smugglers spies without necessarily prove individuals question actually engaged suspected unauthorised activity since unauthorised presence area forbidden mere presence individual


permits authorities arrest border zones hostile states heavily militarised minefields barbed wire watchtowers border zones designed prevent illegal immigration emigration many restrictions may operate checkpoints check immigration status places border vista usually included required nations movement inside border zone without licence offence result arrest probable cause required mere presence inside zone offence intentional even licence enter photography


making fires carrying firearms hunting prohibited examples international border zones border security zone russia finnish border zone finnish russian border also intra country zones cactus curtain surrounding guantanamo bay naval base cuba korean demilitarised zone along north korea south korea demarcation line frontier closed area hong kong important historical examples wire death set german empire control belgium netherlands border iron curtain set border zones maintained soviet


union satellite states along borders western states one militarised parts restricted zone inner german border initially officially zone border security eventually engineered prevent escape soviet sphere west ultimately eastern bloc governments resorted using lethal countermeasures trying cross border mined fences orders shoot anyone trying cross west restrictions building habitation made area green corridor today established european green


belt area stretching inwards internal border mainland hong kong maintains frontier closed area bounds without special authorisation area established hong kong british administration consequence convention extension hong kong territory prior transfer sovereignty hong kong purposes area prevent illegal immigration smuggling smuggling become prevalent consequence korean war today one country two systems policy area continues


army ordered creation ccl activated first became effective february buffer zone falls south southern limit line called civilian control zone barbed wire fences manned military guard posts mark ccle south korean soldiers typically accompany tourist busses cars travelling north ccl armed guards monitor civilians well protect north korean intruders tourist media photos demilitarised zone fence actually photos ccl fence actual demilitarised zone


fence southern limit line completely limits everybody except soldiers illegal take pictures demilitarised zone fence similarly whole estuary han river korean peninsula deemed neutral zone officially limits civilian vessels military vessels allowed within neutral zone article section retrieved march ref however koreas unc failed make happen south korean government ordered construction ara canal finally connect seoul yellow sea completed


seoul effectively landlocked ocean biggest limitation ara canal narrow handle vessels except small tourist boats recreational boats seoul still cannot receive large commercial ships passenger ships port recent years chinese fishing vessels taken advantage tense situation han river estuary neutral zone illegally fished area due north korean south korean navies never patrolling area due fear naval battles breaking led


firefights sinkings boats chinese fishermen south korean coast guard january north korean south korean military officials signed landmark agreement would open han river estuary civilian vessels first time since armistice agreement agreement scheduled take place april failure hanoi summit indefinitely postponed plans green line separating southern cyprus northern cyprus demilitarised border zone operated united nations peacekeeping force cyprus operate patrol within buffer zone


buffer zone established due ethnic tensions greek turkish cypriots green line similar nature th parallel separating republic korea north korea border zones referred border vistas composed legally mandated cleared space two areas foliage located international border intended provide clear demarcation line two jurisdictions border vistas commonly found along undefended international boundary lines border security much necessity built barrier undesired


treaty requirement certain borders example border vista six metre cleared space around unguarded portions canada united states border similar clearings along border line provided many international treaties example border management treaty russia china provides metre cleared strip along two nations' border gallery file border vistajpg border vista along canada united states border seen wayside alaska highway file civilian control line imjingak paju south korea jpg control line imjingak paju south korea file korea dmz sentryjpg south korean checkpoint civilian control line located outside demilitarised


zone file dmz north korea side jpg korean demilitarised zone seen north file lo wu restricted area signjpg frontier closed area signboard lo wu file jpg border zone brest security electric fence ploughed trace control strip pillbox file finnish border zone sign treejpg border zone marked tree finland russia border entry gallery immigration law policy immigration law refers national statutes regulations legal precedents governing immigration deportation country strictly speaking distinct matters


civil political rights mandates countries allow entry citizens principle always respected practice instance covid pandemic australia adopted policy denying entry individuals particularly affected jurisdictions including australian citizens permanent residents ref name abcausban ref name f ausban similarly states within schengen area typically permit freedom movement across borders many states within area implemented ad hoc border controls pandemic immigration policy aspect border control concerning transit people country especially intend stay


work country taxation tariff trade rules set goods immigrants may bring services may perform temporarily country agricultural policy may make exemptions migrant farm workers typically enter country harvest season return home country region global south mexico jamaica america canada respectively often import temporary agricultural labour important aspect immigration policy treatment refugees less helpless stateless people throw


mercy state try enter seeking refuge actual purported poor treatment country origin asylum sometimes granted face persecution well founded fear persecution account race religion nationality membership particular social group political opinion result investment oriented immigration policies states sometimes implement border control measures known immigrant investor programmes offer permanent residence citizenship return investment immigrant investor programmes originated tax havens pacific caribbean began cash passport programmes facilitated visa free


travel tax avoidance programmes sparked controversy several countries lack demonstrable economic benefits security concerns among common criticisms canadian government suspended golden visa programme although quebec maintains golden visa programme implementation programmes europe criticised european parliament approved non binding resolution declaring eu passport definition provides bearer right reside eu eea jurisdiction price tag diaspora communities


oci booklet exempting bearer usual immigration controls india ''karta polaka'' specimen document certain countries adopt immigration policies designed favourable towards members diaspora communities connection country example indian government confers overseas citizenship india oci status foreign citizens indian origin live work indefinitely india oci status introduced response demands dual citizenship indian diaspora particularly countries large populations indian origin introduced ''the citizenship amendment act '' august similar


ghana members african diaspora regardless citizenship similarly israel maintains policy permitting members jewish diaspora immigrate israel regardless prior nationality south korean immigration policy relatively unique consequence claim territory currently administered north korea citizens north korea regarded south citizens birth consequently north korean refugees china often attempt travel countries thailand offering asylum north koreans classifies unauthorised immigrants deports


feasible industrialised nations open borders norm borders subdivisions within boundaries sovereign states though countries maintain internal border controls example people 's republic china mainland special administrative regions hong kong macau american mainland unincorporated territories puerto rico hawaii ref open borders also usual member states federations though rarely movement member states may controlled exceptional circumstances federations confederations similar multi national unions typically maintain external border controls collective border control


system though sometimes open borders non member states special international agreements schengen agreement countries mentioned presently open border agreements various types force several areas around world outlined ''asia oceania'' indo nepal treaty peace friendship india nepal maintain similar arrangement cta union state indians nepalis subject migration controls 's countries controls land travel citizens across border india bhutan also


similar programme place border jaigaon indian state west bengal city phuentsholing essentially open although internal checkpoints indians outlined visa policy bhutan allowed proceed throughout bhutan voter 's id identity slip indian consulate phuentsholing similarly bhutanese passport holders enjoy free movement india thailand cambodia whilst liberal policies concerning indo nepalese indo bhutanese borders thailand cambodia begun issuing combined visas certain categories tourists applying


specific thai cambodian embassies consulates order enable freer border crossings two countries ref name nationmultimedia ref policy currently force nationals america several european primarily eu eea gcc oceanian countries well indian chinese nationals residing singapore australia new zealand similar agreement india nepal trans tasman travel arrangement australia new zealand free movement agreement citizens country travel freely allowing citizens permanent residents reside visit work study


country indefinite period restrictions arrangement came effect allows citizens country reside work country restrictions details arrangement varied time july people entering australia including new zealand citizens required carry passport since september australia universal visa requirement specifically cater continued free movement new zealanders australia special category visa introduced new zealanders ''central america'' central america border


control agreement abolishes border controls land travel el salvador honduras nicaragua guatemala however apply air travel ''europe middle east'' union state russia belarus union state russia belarus supranational union russia belarus eliminates border controls two nations visa agreement signed country maintained visa policies thus resulting non citizens two countries generally barred travelling directly two however since visa agreement signed side recognises


's visas means third country citizens enter countries visa either country western europe two significant free travel areas western europe schengen area little border control generally visible common travel area cta partially eliminates controls nationals united kingdom ireland countries schengen area extent within cta british isles internal border control often virtually unnoticeable often performed means random car train searches


hinterland controls borders non member states may rather strict gulf cooperation council members gulf cooperation council gcc allow 's citizens freedom movement arrangement similar cta india nepal june january freedom movement saudi arabia uae bahrain suspended qataris result saudi led blockade country gallery file visa policy bhutanpng visa policy bhutan showing free movement arrangement india bhutan file visa policy nepalpng visa policy


abandoned rain shelter file schengengrenzebayern tiroljpg schengen internal border crossing marked blue sign indicating country entered smaller white sign announces entry state bavaria alt two road signs side open stretch two lane highway file new zealand resident visa stamp australian travel documentjpg new zealand visa stamp issued trans tasman travel arrangement australian travel document file border killeen school road geographorguk jpg irish border killeen within cta marked metric speed sign republic ireland uses metric system whilst british road


signs use imperial units gallery hostile environment policies certain jurisdictions gear immigration policies toward creating hostile environment undocumented migrants order deter migration creating unwelcoming atmosphere potential existing immigrants notably british home office adopted set administrative legislative measures designed make staying united kingdom difficult possible people without leave remain hope may voluntarily leave home office policy first announced conservative liberal democrat coalition policy implemented pursuant conservative party


election manifesto policy criticised unclear led many incorrect threats deportation called byzantine england wales court appeal complexity similarly anti immigration movements america advocated policies aimed creating hostile environment intended existing immigrants various points history historical examples include nativist know nothing movement mid th century advocated hostile policies catholic immigrants workingman 's party promoted xenophobic attitudes toward asians california late th century sentiment ultimately led


chinese exclusion act immigration restriction league advocated xenophobic policies southern eastern europe late th early th centuries joint congressional dillingham commission following world war cumulatively resulted highly restrictive emergency quota act immigration act first two decades th century republican party adopted increasingly nativist platform advocating sanctuary cities favour building wall mexico reducing number immigrants permitted settle country ultimately president donald trump 's administration


furthered many policy goals including adoption harsh policies remain mexico family separation policies vis vis refugees migrants arriving central america via mexico islamophobic policies travel ban targeted primarily muslim majority countries also feature prominently attempts create hostile environment immigrants perceived populists belonging predominant wasp culture america india 's citizenship registration policy serves create hostile environment country 's muslim community regions implemented indian government presently


process building several detention camps throughout india order detain people listed register january union government released ' model detention manual' stated every city district major immigration check post must detention centre guidelines suggest detention centres high boundary walls covered barbed wires international zones international zone area fully subject border control policies state located several types international zones ranging special


economic zones sterile zones ports entry exempt customs rules concessions administration ceded one foreign states international zones may also maintain distinct visa policies rest surrounding state internal border controls internal border controls measures implemented control flow people goods within given country measures take variety forms ranging imposition border checkpoints issuance internal travel documents vary depending circumstances implemented circumstances resulting internal border controls


include increasing security around border areas eg internal checkpoints america bhutan near border regions preserving autonomy autonomous minority areas eg border controls peninsular malaysia sabah sarawak border controls hong kong macau mainland china preventing unrest ethnic groups eg northern ireland 's peace walls border controls tibet northeastern india disputes rival governments eg republic china people 's republic china covid pandemic temporary internal border controls introduced jurisdictions across globe instance travel australian states territories


prohibited restricted state governments various points pandemic either conjunction sporadic lockdowns stand alone response covid outbreaks neighbouring states internal border controls also introduced various stages malaysia 's movement control order per interstate travel restricted depending severity ongoing outbreaks similarly internal controls introduced national authorities within schengen area though european union ultimately rejected idea suspending schengen agreement per se asia internal border controls exist many parts asia example travellers visiting minority regions


india china often require special permits enter two categories permits issued tibet travel permits ''foreigners' entrance letter'' required foreigners well chinese citizens republic china enter region alien travel permit required holders tibet travel permit travel outside major urban tourist areas region military permit border permit ref name aittpp required travel ngari tibetan nyingchi tibetan nagqu tibetan additionally special permits issued nationals


india bhutan religious pilgrimages hindu buddhist holy sites tibet autonomous region ref name aittpp https wwwadventuresintibetcom travel permit pilgrims ref internal air rail travel within non autonomous portions india mainland china also generally require travel documents checked government officials form interior border checkpoint travel within india indian citizens may utilise voter id national identity card passport proof indian citizenship whilst nepali nationals may present similar proof napali citizenship meanwhile travel within mainland china chinese nationals mainland required use


national identity cards within china extensive border controls maintained travelling mainland special administrative regions hong kong macau areas controlled republic china penghu kinmen matsu islands nearby islands foreign nationals need present passports required types travel documents travelling areas chinese nationals including british national overseas status special documents required hong kong macau permanent residents chinese citizens cross border whilst mainlanders require two way permit


travel territories similar arrangements exist travel territories controlled republic china territories controlled people 's republic china issued prc entry mainland also valid mandatory entry hong kong macau taiwan entry permit issued mainlanders roc kinmen matsu permit issued residents kinmen matsu roc administered territories fujian well penghu travel mainland internal border controls china also resulted creation special


permits allowing chinese citizens immigrate reside immigration areas within country policy designed curtail emigration mainland rather immigration either sar issuance exclusively responsibility authorities mainland since september authorities mainland issued residence permit hong kong macao taiwan residents authorising chinese citizens hong kong macau areas administered republic china reside mainland permit designed resemble national identity card issued individuals household registration


mainland enables holders access public private sector services require national identity card number china also maintains distinct relaxed border control policies special economic zones shenzhen zhuhai xiamen ref name voa ref nationals countries ref obtain limited area visa upon arrival regions permit stay within cities without proceeding parts mainland china visas shenzhen valid days visas xiamen zhuhai valid days duration stay starts next day


arrival visa obtained upon arrival luohu port huanggang port control point fuyong ferry terminal shekou passenger terminal shenzhen gongbei port entry hengqin port jiuzhou port zhuhai xiamen gaoqi international airport xiamen similarly china permits nationals non visa exempt asean countries visit guilin without visa maximum days travel approved tour group enter china guilin liangjiang international airport may visit cities within guangxi parts mainland china meanwhile bhutan microstate


accessible road india interior border checkposts primarily lateral road additionally certain areas require special permits enter whilst visitors proceeding beyond border city phuentsholing need permits enter day although visitors de facto subject indian visa policy since must proceed jaigaon individuals citizens india bangladesh maldives must obtain visa regional permits required licensed tour operator prior arriving country citizens india bangladesh maldives


may apply regional permits restricted areas online generally authorities mainland china maintain system residency registration known ''hukou'' government permission needed formally change one 's place residence enforced identity cards system internal border control measures effectively limited internal migration subsequent market reforms caused collapse means migration control estimated million people part blind flow unofficially migrated generally poor rural areas wealthy urban ones however unofficial


residence vietnam together citizen identification card ''gi ch ng minh nh n n c n c c c ng n'' ' 's h kh u'' constitutes important legal identification document vietnam modelled chinese ''hukou'' system originally used urban areas ''h kh u'' functioned way manage urban growth limit many people moved well moved cities ref name vtjsoutheast hardy andrew rules resources negotiating household registration system vietnam reform ''sojourn journal social issues southeast asia'' october ref gradually


system became universal method control application expanded countryside ref name vtrowman hardy andrew state visions migrant decisions population movements since end vietnam war postwar vietnam dynamics transforming society edited hy v luong lanham md rowman littlefield publishers ref presently system defines four types residence kt kt kt primary permanent type residence denotes person 's primary residential address person moves semi permanent basis another place within province national municipality within saigon example


appropriate residential permit restrictive internal border controls north korea citizens allowed travel outside areas residence without explicit authorisation access capital city pyongyang heavily restricted similar restrictions imposed tourists allowed leave pyongyang government authorised tours approved tourist sites gallery file rap immigration stampjpg domestic immigration stamp permitting entry andaman nicobar islands india file people 's republic china permit proceeding hong kong macaojpg sample one way travel permit internal emigration mainland china


hong kong macau file chinese special economy zone tourism visa version jpg sample special economic zone visa issued arrival china file republic china multiple exit entry permit china mainland citizen jpg data page booklet type internal travel document issued taiwan authorities mainland chinese resident file malaysia entry stampjpg malaysian entry stamps specify jurisdictions ie west peninsular malaysia sabah sarawak bearer permitted enter immigration checks entering file entrance shenzhen bay port passenger terminaljpg entrance building shenzhen bay control point


internal border checkpoint hong kong chinese mainland file tibet travel permit foreigners cropped jpg tibet travel permit required enter tibet autonomous region example internal border controls minority regions china india similar documents include restricted area permits protected area permits primarily issued enter india 's northeast file hong kong macao taiwan residents' residence permitjpg front back mainland residence permits chinese citizens hong kong macau left chinese citizens areas administered republic china right file biometric two way permit front jpg internal travel


document issued chinese citizens mainland travel hong kong macau file biometric two way permit back jpg exit endorsements affixed back internal travel document issued chinese citizens mainland travel hong kong macau file mainland travel permit taiwan residents front jpg internal travel document issued chinese citizens areas administered republic china travel mainland file home return permit newjpg internal travel document chinese citizens hong kong macau enter mainland file inside pages hukou bookletpng inside pages hukou


booklet china gallery europe example europe implementation border controls travel svalbard maintains policy free migration result svalbard treaty schengen area includes rest norway examples effective internal border controls europe include closed cities certain cis members areas turkmenistan require special permits enter restrictions travel gorno badakhshan autonomous region tajikistan depending whether northern southern cyprus considered separate countries cypriot border similarly iraq 's kurdistan region maintains


separate liberal visa customs area rest country even allowing visa free entry israelis whilst rest country bans entering denmark also maintains complex system subnational countries unlike danish mainland outside european union maintain autonomous customs policies addition numerous closed cities russia parts subjects russian federation closed foreigners without special permits consequently subject internal border controls another complex border control situation europe pertains united kingdom whilst


crown dependencies within common travel area neither gibraltar sovereign british military exclaves akrotiri dhekelia former maintains border control policies thus requiring physical border security border schengen area well implementation border controls travellers proceeding directly gibraltar british mainland latter maintains relatively open border southern cyprus though northern cyprus consequently de facto member schengen area travel british mainland requires border controls december


spain united kingdom reached agreement principle gibraltar would join schengen area clearing way european union uk start formal negotiations matter aftermath brexit border controls goods flowing great britain northern ireland introduced accordance protocol ireland northern ireland agreed part uk 's withdrawal agreement eu ref name nipa ref due thirty year internecine conflict northern ireland uk ireland border special status since conflict ended belfast


agreement good friday agreement part northern ireland peace process border largely invisible without physical barrier custom checks many crossing points arrangement made possible countries' common membership eu 's single market customs union common travel area upon uk 's withdrawal european union border ireland became land border uk eu eu single market uk internal market provisions require certain customs checks trade controls external borders northern ireland


protocol intended protect eu single market avoiding imposition 'hard border' might incite recurrence conflict destabilise relative peace held since end troubles protocol northern ireland formally outside eu single market eu free movement goods rules eu customs union rules still apply ensures customs checks controls northern ireland rest island place ireland northern ireland land border protocol created ' 'de facto'' customs border


irish sea customs purposes separating northern ireland island great britain disquiet prominent unionists ref name bbc ref operate terms protocol united kingdom must provide border control posts northern ireland 's ports ref name bbc actual provision facilities responsibility northern ireland 's department agriculture environment rural affairs daera ref name bbc temporary buildings put place january february responsible northern ireland minister gordon lyons dup ordered officials stop work new permanent facilities stop


recruiting staff half yearly financial report august irish continental group operates ferries great britain republic ireland expressed concern lack implementation checks goods arriving northern ireland great britain required protocol company said continued absence checks goods destined republic ireland causing distortion level playing field since goods arrive directly republic ireland ports great britain checked arrival implementation border controls


serious threat state 's public policy internal security control external border longer ensured due exceptional circumstances risks arise foreseeable events state question must notify european commission advance consult schengen states since implementation schengen agreement provision invoked frequently member states especially response european migrant crisis ref reimposed checks weeks surrounding commonwealth heads government meeting response european migrant crisis several countries set


internal controls denmark worried bombings sweden introduced passport controls swedish citizens first time since israeli military maintains intricate network internal border controls within israeli palestinian territory restricting freedom movement palestinians composed permanent temporary random manned checkpoints west bank west bank barrier restrictions usage roads palestinians spread throughout state israel areas state palestine ' 'de facto'' israeli control internal border control measures key feature


states gaza west bank constitute single geographic unit much like relations jewish settlers israel native palestinian population strained intercommunal relations northern ireland irish catholics descendants protestant settlers england scotland resulted ' 'de facto'' internal checkpoints peace lines internal border security measure separate predominantly republican nationalist catholic neighbourhoods predominantly loyalist unionist protestant neighbourhoods place form another since end troubles good friday agreement majority


peace walls located belfast also exist derry portadown lurgan ref name nif kilometres walls northern ireland peace lines range length hundred metres kilometres may made iron brick steel combination three metres high ref name nif ref gates sometimes staffed police allow passage daylight closed night gallery file sandy row banner march jpg banner opposing post brexit border controls great britain northern ireland seen


sandy row march file stroud street belfast jpg graffiti belfast opposing irish sea border february file peace line belfast geograph jpg high peace line along springmartin road belfast fortified police station one end file belfast peace line cupar wayjpg peace line along cupar way belfast seen predominantly protestant side file belfast peaceline bombay streetjpg peace line bombay street cupar way belfast seen predominantly catholic side file gates 'peace line'jpg gates peace line west belfast file ramallahcheckpointjpg israeli checkpoint outside palestinian city ramallah august


immigration policies utilises euro national currency yet part european union vat customs areas file valico ch brogedajpg italy switzerland border internal schengen border seen border crossing chiasso border control facilities since switzerland maintains customs tax area gallery north america contemporary american samoa entry stamp hyder alaska border controls travellers entering canada travellers flying hyder alaskan cities seaplane undergo internal border control multiple types internal border controls exist united


states american territories guam northern mariana islands follow visa policy mainland together also maintain visa waiver programme certain nationalities since two territories outside customs territory united states customs inspections travelling rest us american samoa customs immigration regulations thus travelling american jurisdictions involves customs immigration inspections virgin islands special case falling within american immigration zone solely following american visa


policy customs free territory result immigration checks two travellers arriving puerto rico american mainland directly virgin islands subject border control customs inspection united states also maintains interior checkpoints similar maintained bhutan along borders mexico canada subjecting people border controls even entered country akwesasne nation territory ontario quebec new york features several de facto internal border controls result protests akwesasne residents


akwesasne nation requires driving state new york meaning individuals required clear american controls leaving quebec proper clear canadian border controls entering quebec proper though canada impose border controls entering quebec portion akwesasne nation nevertheless residents assert haudenosaunee national identity distinct canadian american citizenship intricate network canadian american border controls seen foreign imposed system internal border controls similar israeli checkpoints palestinian territory city hyder alaska also


hyder required complete canadian immigration formalities return stewart despite never cleared american immigration historical past internal border control measures utilised authorities north america control movements indigenous enslaved persons systems typically took form internal passport required indigenous enslaved individuals travel beyond reserve plantation pass system internal border controls targeting indigenous peoples instituted canada introduced time north west rebellion remained force indigenous person


caught outside indian reserve without pass issued indian agent returned reserve incarcerated throughout thirteen colonies revolutionary war slaves confined homes agricultural plantations whose movements limited curfews could required furnish written evidence owner granted exemption permit free movement example new hampshire assembly passed act prevent disorders night ref name black portsmouth ref ref name nhacts ref notices emphasizing curfew published ''the new hampshire gazette'' ref name black portsmouth internal passports


required african americans southern slave states american civil war example authenticated internal passport dated presented massachusetts citizen george barker allow freely travel free black man visit relatives slave states many states seceded forming confederate states america confederate government introduced internal passports whites well realm new zealand niue entry stamp issued hanan international airport tokelau niue cook islands cook islands ori ''k ki ' irani'' maintain independent less restrictive border controls


new zealand cook islands maintain separate nationality law additionally border controls tokelau complicated fact territory part accessible via samoa apartheid era south africa demonstrators discarding passbooks protest apartheid south africa prior end apartheid pass laws form internal passport system designed segregate population manage urbanisation allocate migrant labour also known natives' law pass laws severely limited movements black african citizens people well requiring


designated areas legislation largely applied african men attempts apply women met significant protests pass laws one dominant features country 's apartheid system effectively ended first internal passports south africa introduced june earl macartney attempt prevent africans entering cape colony ref name report b ref cape colony merged two afrikaners republics southern africa form union south africa


time versions pass laws existed elsewhere major boost utilization rise mining sector pass laws provided convenient means controlling workers' mobility enforcing contracts south african republic brought two pass laws required africans carry metal badge employed master permitted remain rand entering labour district needed special pass entitled remain three days natives urban areas act deemed urban areas


co ordination documents act commonly known pass laws act repealed many regional pass laws instituted one nationwide pass law made compulsory black south africans age carry passbook times within white areas law stipulated long person could remain ref name apartheid leg ref document similar internal passport containing details bearer fingerprints photograph name employer address long bearer employed well


despised symbols apartheid resistance pass law led many thousands arrests spark ignited sharpeville massacre march led arrest robert sobukwe day specific requirements american canadian border officers vancouver airport degree strictness border controls varies across countries borders countries controls may targeted traveller 's religion ethnicity nationality countries visited others may need certain traveller paid appropriate fees visas future


travel planned country yet others may concentrate contents traveller 's baggage imported goods ensure nothing carried might bring biosecurity risk country biometrics fingerprint scanner dulles international airport collects biometric data visitors used confirming identities several countries ref brunei cambodia china ethiopia ref name auswaertiges amtde ref ghana guinea india japan kenya fingerprints photo taken malaysia upon entry departure ref name countryrep ref paraguay saudi arabia singapore south korea taiwan thailand uganda require travellers foreign travellers fingerprinted


arrival refuse admission arrest travellers refuse comply countries america may apply even transit passengers proceeding third country many countries also require photo taken people entering country america fully implement exit control formalities land frontiers although long mandated domestic legislation intends implement facial recognition passengers departing international airports identify people overstay visa together fingerprint face recognition iris scanning one three biometric identification technologies internationally standardised since


international civil aviation organization icao use e passports united arab emirates conducts iris scanning visitors need apply visa section end full section begin bad department homeland security announced plans greatly increase biometric data collects american borders singapore began trials iris scanning three land maritime immigration checkpoints immigration stamps immigration stamp inked impression passport travel document typically made rubber stamp upon entering exiting territory depending jurisdiction stamp


stamps countries issue entry stamps including canada el salvador ireland mexico new zealand singapore united kingdom america australia hong kong israel macau south korea stamp passports upon entry exit countries regions issue landing slips instead exception australia issue form physical evidence entry visas may also take form passport stamps immigration authorities usually different styles stamps entries exits make easier identify movements people ink colour might used designate


mode transportation air land sea hong kong prior border styles thing macau variations include changing size stamp indicate length stay singapore many cases passengers cruise ships receive passport stamps entire vessel cleared port often possible get souvenir stamp although requires finding immigration office dock many cases officials used requests cooperate also noted


smallest european countries give stamp request either border tourist office charging nominal fee gallery file china immigration stramps beijingjpg entry exit stamps issued beijing capital international airport republic korea passport file chengdu shuangliu international airport entry stampjpg entry stamp issued chengdu shuangliu international airport chinese passport file dongguan passport stampjpg old entry exit stamps issued dongguan chinese passport br noted english stamps file fuzhou stampsjpg entry exit stamps issued fuzhou changle international airport thai passport file us stamp png american stamp


john f kennedy international airport us passport file isr denied stampjpg entry denied stamp israeli taba border crossing jurisdictions germany israel historically stamped entry denied passports file bom enjpg thumb upright entry stamp issued chhatrapati shivaji international airport indian passport file india passport entry stampjpg thumb upright entry stamp issued indira gandhi international airport citizen germany file del exojpg thumb upright exit stamp indian passport issued indira gandhi international airport file india e visajpg thumb upright indian e visa issued indira gandhi international airport romanian passport file hong kong landing slipjpg landing slip replacing


south korea eliminated exit stamps even though continue implement brief border control checks upon exit foreign nationals countries formal control immigration officials travel documents upon departure exit information may recorded immigration authorities using information provided transport operators ''no exit control'' united states america canada mexico air entrance declaration coupon collected bahamas ireland united kingdom ref ''formal exit control without passport stamping'' albania entry exit stamp may issued upon request australia exit stamp issued upon explicit request ref name australia 's arrival


exit stamps issued instead landing slips issued upon arrival new zealand south korea since november panama panamanian airports different entry exit stamps made border crossing costa rica republic china exit stamp issued upon request using e gate singapore exit stamps since april saint kitts nevis schengen area countries entry exit system becomes operational anticipated passports third country nationals stamped enter leave schengen area exit permits


trip abroad valid exit return foreign citizens subject requirement citizens germany example require exit visa cold war countries eastern bloc maintained strict controls citizens ability travel abroad citizens soviet union east germany communist states typically required obtain permission prior engaging international travel unlike states citizens yugoslavia enjoyed significant freedom international movement certain asian countries policies similarly require certain categories citizens seek official


authorisation prior travelling emigrating usually either way enforce national service obligations protect migrant workers travelling places may abused employers singapore instance operates exit permit scheme order enforce national service obligations male citizens permanent residents restrictions vary according age status south korea taiwan similar policies india hand requires citizens met certain educational requirements thus may targeted human traffickers coerced modern slavery


apply approval prior leaving country endorses passports emigration check required nepal similarly requires citizens emigrating america h b visa present exit permit issued ministry labour document called work permit needs presented immigration leave country bid increase protection large amount indian bangladeshi chinese nepali citizens smuggled indian airports middle east underpaid labourers many indian airline companies require travellers obtain 'ok board' confirmation sent directly


visa authorities certain gcc countries directly airline bar anyone obtained endorsement clearing exit immigration eritrea requires vast majority citizens apply special authorisation wish leave even travel within country travel documents automated travel document inspection dubai airport border control policies typically require travellers present valid travel documents order ascertain identity nationality permanent residence status eligibility enter given jurisdiction common form travel document passport booklet form identity