international standard called iso need precise communication preparation functional document distinguishes technical drawing expressive drawing visual arts artistic drawings subjectively interpreted meanings multiply determined technical drawings understood one intended meaning ref name g p ref drafter draftsperson draughtsman person makes drawing technical expressive professional drafter makes technical drawings sometimes called drafting technician methods sketching sketch government building sketch quickly executed freehand drawing usually intended finished


work general sketching quick way record idea later use architect 's sketches primarily serve way try different ideas establish composition finished work especially finished work expensive time consuming architectural sketches example kind diagrams ref name boco richard boland fred collopy ''managing designing'' stanford university press p ref sketches like metaphors used architects means communication aiding design collaboration tool helps architects abstract attributes hypothetical provisional design solutions

Humanities
Visual arts
Applied arts
Technical drawing


edge guaranteed parallel addition drafter uses several technical drawing tools draw curves circles primary among compasses used drawing simple arcs circles french curve drawing curves spline rubber coated articulated metal manually bent curves drafting templates assist drafter creating recurring objects drawing without reproduce object scratch every time especially useful using common symbols ie context stagecraft lighting designer draw


usitt standard library lighting fixture symbols indicate position common fixture across multiple positions templates sold commercially number vendors usually customized specific task also uncommon drafter create templates basic drafting system requires accurate table constant attention positioning tools common error allow triangles push top square slightly thereby throwing angles even tasks simple drawing two angled lines meeting point require


number moves square triangles general drafting time consuming process solution problems introduction mechanical drafting machine application pantograph sometimes referred incorrectly pentagraph situations allowed drafter accurate right angle point page quite quickly machines often included ability change angle thereby removing need triangles well addition mastery mechanics drawing lines arcs circles text onto


computer aided design systems used production technical drawings two dimensions three dimensions example drawing drafted autocad cad systems autocad microstation replace paper drawing discipline lines circles arcs curves created within software technical drawing skill user produce drawing still much scope error drawing producing first third angle orthographic projections auxiliary projections cross section views cad system merely electronic drawing board greatest strength


direct paper technical drawing making revisions whereas conventional hand drawn technical drawing mistake found modification required new drawing must made scratch cad system allows copy original modified saving considerable time cad systems used create plans large projects buildings aircraft provide way check various components fit together cylinder inline crankshaft pistons cad system keycreator autodesk inventor solidworks first


cad systems used produce technical drawings discipline various disciplines electrical electronic pneumatic hydraulic etc industry recognized symbols represent common components bs iso produce standards show recommended practices individuals produce drawings standard definitive standard layout style standard across engineering workshop drawings creation orthographic projections cross section views representing complex three dimensional objects two dimensional drawings objects described least one view plus material thickness note


many views sections required show features object applications architecture plan renovation architect takes measurements later enter computer aided design system art design goes making buildings known architecture communicate aspects shape design detail drawings used field term ''plan'' often used referring full section view drawings viewed three feet finished floor show locations doorways windows stairwells etc


architectural drawings describe document architect 's design engineering engineering broad term stems latin ''ingenerare'' meaning create could apply everything humans create given narrower definition context technical drawing engineering drawings generally deal mechanical engineered items manufactured parts equipment engineering drawing machine tool part engineering drawings usually created accordance standardized conventions layout nomenclature interpretation appearance typefaces line styles size etc purpose accurately unambiguously capture


geometric features product component end goal engineering drawing convey required information allow manufacturer produce component software engineering software engineering practictioners make use diagrams designing software formal standards modeling languages unified modeling language uml exist diagramming happens using informal ad hoc diagrams illustrate conceptual model ref name baltes ref practitioners reported diagramming helped analysing requirements ref name baltes design refactoring documentation onboarding communication stake holders ref name ref diagrams often transient redrawn


required redrawn diagrams acts form shared understanding team ref name related fields technical illustration illustration drum set ''technical illustration'' use illustration visually communicate information technical nature technical illustrations component technical drawings diagrams aim technical illustration generate expressive images effectively convey certain information via visual channel human observer ref name vigr ivan viola meister e gr ller smart visibility visualization ''computational aesthetics graphics visualization imaging'' l neumann et al ed ref main purpose


hatching stippling low abstraction techniques gave greater depth dimension subject matter ref name vigr cutaway drawing cutaway drawing nash american car ''cutaway drawing'' technical illustration part surface three dimensional model removed order show model 's interior relation exterior purpose cutaway drawing allow viewer look otherwise solid opaque object instead letting inner object shine surrounding surface parts outside object


simply removed produces visual appearance someone cutout piece object sliced parts cutaway illustrations avoid ambiguities respect spatial ordering provide sharp contrast foreground background objects facilitate good understanding spatial ordering ref name dwe ref technical drawings types two types technical drawings based graphical projection ref name g p used create image three dimensional object onto two dimensional surface two dimensional representation two dimensional representation uses orthographic projection create image two three


dimensions object seen three dimensional representation three dimensional representation also referred pictorial three dimensions object visible views multiview multiview type orthographic projection two conventions using multiview first angle third angle cases front main side object first angle drawing object sides based land example looking front side rotate object nbsp degrees right seen drawn right front side third angle drawing


size object projection plane must parallel object surface therefore surface line three major axis needs projection plane show features correctly pattern patterns sometimes called developments show size shape flat piece material needed later bending folding three dimensional shape exploded exploded view drawing gear pump ''exploded view drawing'' technical drawing object shows relationship order assembly various parts ref name us pto ref shows components


object slightly separated distance suspended surrounding space case three dimensional exploded diagram object represented small controlled explosion emanating middle object causing object 's parts separated relative distances away original locations exploded view drawing evd show intended assembly mechanical parts mechanical systems component closest center usually assembled first main part inside parts assembled evd also help represent


undertaken construction manufacture ref name businessdictionarycom ref see also circuit diagram linear scale reprography schematic diagram shop drawing technical communication technical lettering specification technical standard references reading peter j booker ''a history engineering drawing'' london northgate franz maria feldhaus ''the history technical drawing'' wolfgang lef vre ed ''picturing machines technical drawings shaped early engineering practice'' mit press external links https historynasagov diagrams diagramshtm historical technical diagrams drawings nasa http wwwcadazzcom cad software historyhtm history cad http wwwdraftspersonnet indexphptitle drafting standards drafting standards architecture occupations engineering occupations infographics


broader definition includes water cycle including snow ice fluid dynamics oceans atmosphere electricity magnetism ionosphere magnetosphere solar terrestrial physics analogous problems associated moon planets ref name sheriff ref name iugg ref ref name aguscience ref ref name gutenberg gutenberg b lehrbuch der geophysik leipzig berlin gebruder borntraeger ref ref name runcorn runcorn sk editor chief international dictionary geophysics pergamon oxford volumes pp fig ref although geophysics recognized separate discipline th century origins date back ancient times first magnetic compasses made

Natural science
Earth science
Geophysics


lodestones modern magnetic compasses played important role history navigation first seismic instrument built ad isaac newton applied theory mechanics tides precession equinox instruments developed measure earth 's shape density gravity field well components water cycle th century geophysical methods developed remote exploration solid earth ocean geophysics played essential role development theory plate tectonics geophysics applied


societal needs mineral resources mitigation natural hazards environmental protection ref name iugg exploration geophysics geophysical survey data used analyze potential petroleum reservoirs mineral deposits locate groundwater find archaeological relics determine thickness glaciers soils assess sites environmental remediation physical phenomena geophysics highly interdisciplinary subject geophysicists contribute every area earth sciences provide clearer idea constitutes geophysics section describes phenomena studied physics relate earth surroundings geophysics principles


physics applied study interior earth depending problem study one decide method applied eg ground water surveys electrical method helpful mineral deposits one adopt gravity magnetic surveys oil natural gas one carry gravity magnetic surveys get rough idea structure rock formations desired structure existing detailed study rock formations one carry seismic magneto telluric surveys gravity alt image globe combining color topography gravitational


tectonic plates geopotential surface called geoid one definition shape earth geoid would global mean sea level oceans equilibrium could extended continents narrow canals ref name lowrie heat flow model thermal convection earth 's mantle thin red columns mantle plumes alt pseudocolor image vertical profile earth cooling resulting heat flow generates earth 's magnetic field geodynamo plate tectonics mantle convection ref name davies ref main sources


wave alt deformed blocks grids surface seismic waves vibrations travel earth 's interior along surface entire earth also oscillate forms called normal modes free oscillations earth ground motions waves normal modes measured using seismographs waves come localized source earthquake explosion measurements one location used locate source locations earthquakes provide information plate tectonics mantle convection ref name shearer ref ref name stein ref recording seismic waves controlled sources provide


information region waves travel density composition rock changes waves reflected reflections recorded using reflection seismology provide wealth information structure earth several kilometers deep used increase understanding geology well explore oil gas ref name telford ref changes travel direction called refraction used infer deep structure earth ref name stein earthquakes pose risk humans understanding mechanisms depend type earthquake eg intraplate


deep focus lead better estimates earthquake risk improvements earthquake engineering ref name bozorgnia ref electricity although mainly notice electricity thunderstorms always downward electric field near surface averages volts per meter ref name harrison ref relative solid earth atmosphere net positive charge due bombardment cosmic rays current amperes flows global circuit ref name harrison flows downward ionosphere earth back upwards thunderstorms flow manifested lightning clouds


electromagnetic waves occur ionosphere magnetosphere well earth 's outer core dawn chorus believed caused high energy electrons get caught van allen radiation belt whistlers produced lightning strikes hiss may generated electromagnetic waves may also generated earthquakes see seismo electromagnetics highly conductive liquid iron outer core magnetic fields generated electric currents electromagnetic induction alfv n waves magnetohydrodynamic waves magnetosphere earth 's core core probably little observable effect earth 's


magnetic field slower waves magnetic rossby waves may one source geomagnetic secular variation ref name merrill electromagnetic methods used geophysical survey include transient electromagnetics magnetotellurics surface nuclear magnetic resonance electromagnetic seabed logging magnetism earth 's magnetic field protects earth deadly solar wind long used navigation originates fluid motions outer core ref name merrill magnetic field upper atmosphere gives rise auroras ref name kivelson ref alt diagram field lines axes magnet lines earth 's field roughly like


tilted dipole changes time phenomenon called geomagnetic secular variation mostly geomagnetic pole stays near geographic pole random intervals averaging million years polarity earth 's field reverses geomagnetic reversals analyzed within geomagnetic polarity time scale contain polarity intervals last million years change frequency time recent brief complete reversal laschamp event occurring years ago last glacial period geologists observed geomagnetic reversal recorded volcanic rocks magnetostratigraphy correlation see natural


remanent magnetization signature seen parallel linear magnetic anomaly stripes seafloor stripes provide quantitative information seafloor spreading part plate tectonics basis magnetostratigraphy correlates magnetic reversals stratigraphies construct geologic time scales ref name opdyke ref addition magnetization rocks used measure motion continents ref name merrill radioactivity example radioactive decay chain see radiometric dating alt diagram compound balls representing nuclei arrows radioactive decay accounts earth 's internal heat powering geodynamo


plate tectonics ref name turcotte ref main heat producing isotopes potassium uranium uranium thorium radioactive elements used radiometric dating primary method establishing absolute time scale geochronology unstable isotopes decay predictable rates decay rates different isotopes cover several orders magnitude radioactive decay used accurately date recent events events past geologic eras ref name renne ref radiometric mapping using ground airborne gamma spectrometry used map concentration distribution radioisotopes near earth 's surface useful mapping lithology alteration


fluid dynamics fluid motions occur magnetosphere atmosphere ocean mantle core even mantle though enormous viscosity flows like fluid long time intervals flow reflected phenomena isostasy post glacial rebound mantle plumes mantle flow drives plate tectonics flow earth 's core drives geodynamo ref name merrill geophysical fluid dynamics primary tool physical oceanography meteorology rotation earth profound effects earth 's fluid dynamics often due coriolis effect atmosphere gives rise


large scale patterns like rossby waves determines basic circulation patterns storms ocean drive large scale circulation patterns well kelvin waves ekman spirals ocean surface ref name pedlosky ref earth 's core circulation molten iron structured taylor columns ref name merrill waves phenomena magnetosphere modeled using magnetohydrodynamics mineral physics physical properties minerals must understood infer composition earth 's interior seismology geothermal gradient sources information mineral physicists study elastic properties minerals


high pressure phase diagrams melting points equations state high pressure rheological properties rocks ability flow deformation rocks creep make flow possible although short times rocks brittle viscosity rocks affected temperature pressure turn determines rates tectonic plates move ref name poirier water complex substance unique properties essential life ref name sadava ref physical properties shape hydrosphere essential part water cycle climate thermodynamic properties determine evaporation


thermal gradient atmosphere many types precipitation involve complex mixture processes coalescence supercooling supersaturation precipitated water becomes groundwater groundwater flow includes phenomena percolation conductivity water makes electrical electromagnetic methods useful tracking groundwater flow physical properties water salinity large effect motion oceans ref name pedlosky many phases ice form cryosphere come forms like ice sheets glaciers sea ice freshwater ice snow frozen ground permafrost regions earth


concentric shells curved paths evidence seismology heat flow surface mineral physics combined earth 's mass moment inertia infer models earth 's interior composition density temperature pressure example earth 's mean specific gravity far higher typical specific gravity rocks surface implying deeper material denser also implied low moment inertia compared sphere constant density however density increase compression enormous


composition mineral properties temperature dependent geotherm must also determined requires physical theory thermal conduction convection heat contribution radioactive elements main model radial structure interior earth preliminary reference earth model prem parts model updated recent findings mineral physics see post perovskite supplemented seismic tomography mantle mainly composed silicates boundaries layers mantle consistent phase transitions ref name poirier mantle acts solid seismic


waves high pressures temperatures deforms millions years acts like liquid makes plate tectonics possible magnetosphere schematic earth 's magnetosphere solar wind flows left right alt diagram colored surfaces lines planet 's magnetic field strong enough interaction solar wind forms magnetosphere early space probes mapped gross dimensions earth 's magnetic field extends earth radii towards sun solar wind stream charged particles streams around terrestrial magnetic


field continues behind magnetic tail hundreds earth radii downstream inside magnetosphere relatively dense regions solar wind particles called van allen radiation belts ref name kivelson methods geodesy geophysical measurements generally particular time place accurate measurements position along earth deformation gravity province geodesy geodesy geophysics separate fields two closely connected many scientific organizations american geophysical union canadian geophysical union international union geodesy geophysics encompass ref name nrc ref absolute positions


frequently determined using global positioning system gps three dimensional position calculated using messages four visible satellites referred geodetic reference system alternative optical astronomy combines astronomical coordinates local gravity vector get geodetic coordinates method provides position two coordinates difficult use gps however useful measuring motions earth nutation chandler wobble relative positions two points determined using long baseline interferometry ref name nrc ref name torge ref gravity measurements became part


two satellites using gps microwave ranging system gravity variations detected grace include caused changes ocean currents runoff ground water depletion melting ice sheets glaciers satellites space probes satellites space made possible collect data visible light region areas electromagnetic spectrum planets characterized force fields gravity magnetic fields studied geophysics space physics measuring changes acceleration experienced spacecraft orbit allowed fine details


zhang heng 's seismoscope possibly first contribution seismology alt picture ornate urn like device spouts shape dragons magnetic compass existed china back far fourth century bc used much feng shui navigation land good steel needles could forged compasses used navigation sea could retain magnetism long enough useful first mention compass europe ad circa bc eratosthenes cyrene deduced


earth round measured circumference earth great precision ref name russo ref developed system latitude longitude ref name eratosthenes ref perhaps earliest contribution seismology invention seismoscope prolific inventor zhang heng ad instrument designed drop bronze ball mouth dragon mouth toad looking eight toads ball one could determine direction earthquake years first design seismoscope published europe jean


de la hautefeuille never built ref name dewey ref beginnings modern science one publications marked beginning modern science william gilbert 's ''de magnete'' report series meticulous experiments magnetism gilbert deduced compasses point north earth magnetic ref name merrill ref isaac newton published ''principia'' laid foundations classical mechanics gravitation also explained variety geophysical phenomena tides precession equinox first seismometer instrument capable keeping continuous


record seismic activity built james forbes ref name dewey see also notes references author link american geophysical union external links http wwwenvironmental geophysicscouk documents ref manual techrefpdf reference manual near surface geophysics techniques applications https webarchiveorg web https wwwiugg georiskorg commission geophysical risk sustainability georisk international union geodesy geophysics iugg http wwwsedigrouporg study earth 's deep interior committee iugg http wwwiuggorg commissions union commissions iugg http geomagusgsgov usgs geomagnetism program https webarchiveorg web http careercratecom video seismic processor career crate seismic processor http wwwsegorg society exploration geophysicists earth sciences subfields geology applied interdisciplinary physics


various dynasties states throughout history china timeline chinese history divisions chinese history corresponding dynasties earliest known written records '''history china''' date early bc shang dynasty c bc king wu ding 's reign ref name william ref mentioned twenty first shang king ref name chinaknowledge ref ref name uniindiana ref ancient historical texts ''book documents'' early chapters th century bc ''bamboo annals'' c bc ''records grand historian'' c bc mention describe

Humanities
History
Asian history
Chinese history


xia dynasty c bc shang writing known period shang writings indicate existence xia ref name ancient dynasties ref shang ruled yellow river valley commonly held cradle chinese civilization however neolithic civilizations originated various cultural centers along yellow river yangtze river yellow river yangtze civilizations arose millennia shang thousands years continuous history china among world 's oldest civilizations regarded one cradles civilization


zhou dynasty bc supplanted shang introduced concept mandate heaven justify rule central zhou government began weaken due external internal pressures th century bc country eventually splintered smaller states spring autumn period states became independent fought one another following warring states period much traditional chinese culture literature philosophy first developed troubled times bc qin shi huang conquered various warring states created title


''huangdi'' emperor qin marking beginning imperial china however oppressive government fell soon death supplanted longer lived han dynasty bc ad successive dynasties developed bureaucratic systems enabled emperor control vast territories directly centuries bc ad routine administrative tasks handled special elite ' 'scholar officials'' young men well versed calligraphy history literature philosophy carefully selected difficult government examinations china 's last dynasty qing replaced republic china


mainland people 's republic china republic china retreated island taiwan prc roc currently claim sole legitimate government china resulting ongoing dispute even united nations recognized prc government represent china un conferences hong kong macau transferred sovereignty china united kingdom portugal respectively becoming special administrative regions sars prc chinese history alternated


discovered fuyan cave dao county hunan evidence middle palaeolithic levallois technology found lithic assemblage guanyindong cave site southwest china dated approximately years ago neolithic neolithic age china traced back bc ref name neolithic period china ref earliest evidence cultivated rice found yangtze river carbon dated years ago ref name pringle early evidence proto chinese millet agriculture radiocarbon dated bc farming gave rise jiahu culture bc damaidi


ningxia cliff carvings dating bc discovered featuring individual characters sun moon stars gods scenes hunting grazing pictographs reputed similar earliest characters confirmed written chinese chinese proto writing existed jiahu around bc ref name earliest writing ref dadiwan bc bc damaidi around bc banpo dating th millennium bc scholars suggested jiahu symbols th millennium bc earliest chinese writing system ref name earliest writing excavation peiligang culture site


xinzheng county henan found community flourished bc evidence agriculture constructed buildings pottery burial dead agriculture came increased population ability store redistribute crops potential support specialist craftsmen administrators ref name pringle ref late neolithic times yellow river valley began establish center yangshao culture bc bc first villages founded archaeologically significant found banpo xi'an later yangshao culture superseded longshan culture also centered


yellow river bc bc bronze age bronze artifacts found majiayao culture site bc bronze age also represented lower xiajiadian culture bc site northeast china sanxingdui located sichuan province believed site major ancient city previously unknown bronze age culture bc site first discovered discovered chinese archaeologists identified sanxingdui culture part


shang dynasty c bc divided two sets first set earlier shang period comes sources erligang zhengzhou shangcheng second set later shang yin period anyang modern day henan confirmed last shang 's nine capitals c bc findings anyang include earliest written record chinese far discovered inscriptions divination records ancient chinese writing bones shells animals oracle bones dating around bc ref name william series


thirty one kings reigned shang dynasty reign according ''records grand historian'' capital city moved six times ref name shiji yinbenji ref final important move yin around bc led dynasty 's golden age ref name shiji yinbenji term yin dynasty synonymous shang dynasty history although lately used refer specifically latter half shang dynasty chinese historians later periods accustomed notion one dynasty succeeding another political situation early china


anyang ruled shang official history coexisted traded numerous culturally diverse settlements area referred china proper gallery mode packed style font size line height border bottom px aaa solid heights bronze square ding cauldron human facesjpg bronze square ding cauldron human faces dinastia shang tipode ding biansato xiii xii sec acjpg ding shang dynasty bronze cmoc treasures ancient china exhibit bronze battle axejpg bronze battle axe shang dynasty bc excavated yidu shandong province la tigresse bronze vessel preserve drink hunan th bc cernuschi museumjpg shang dynasty bronze vessel


preserve drink oracle bones pitjpg oracle bones pit yin jpg golden sun bird ring shaped piece foil made nearly pure gold late sanxingdui culture shang period ritual wine vessel guang th th century bce bronze bjpg guang shang period ritual wine vessel gallery zhou dynasty bc zhou dynasty bc approximately bc longest lasting dynasty chinese history end nd millennium bc zhou dynasty began emerge yellow river valley overrunning territory shang zhou appeared begun rule


semi feudal system zhou lived west shang zhou leader appointed western protector shang ruler zhou king wu assistance brother duke zhou regent managed defeat shang battle muye king zhou time invoked concept mandate heaven legitimize rule concept influential almost every succeeding dynasty like shangdi heaven ''tian'' ruled gods decided would rule china believed


ruler lost mandate heaven natural disasters occurred great number realistically sovereign apparently lost concern people response royal house would overthrown new house would rule granted mandate heaven zhou initially moved capital west area near modern xi'an wei river tributary yellow river would preside series expansions yangtze river valley would first many population migrations north south


powerful principalities dominated china southern states chu wu claimed independence zhou undertook wars wu yue many new cities established period chinese culture slowly shaped powerful rulers firmly established within respective dominions bloodshed focused fully interstate conflict warring states period began three remaining lite families jin state zhao wei han partitioned state many famous individuals laozi confucius sun tzu lived chaotic period


hundred schools thought chinese philosophy blossomed period influential intellectual movements confucianism taoism legalism mohism founded partly response changing political world first two philosophical thoughts would enormous influence chinese culture warring states period bc political consolidation seven prominent states remained end th century bc years states battled known warring states period though remained nominal zhou king bc largely


figurehead held little real power numerous developments made period culture mathematics examples include important literary achievement zuo zhuan ''spring autumn annals'' summarizes preceding spring autumn period bundle bamboo slips tsinghua collection invented period dated bc world 's earliest example two digit decimal multiplication table indicating sophisticated commercial arithmetic already established period neighboring territories warring states including areas modern sichuan liaoning


annexed governed new local administrative system commandery prefecture system use since spring autumn period parts still seen modern system sheng xian province county final expansion period began reign ying zheng king qin unification six powers annexations modern regions zhejiang fujian guangdong guangxi bc enabled proclaim first emperor qin shi huang imperial china imperial china


period divided three sub periods early middle late major events early sub period include qin unification china replacement han first split followed jin unification loss north china middle sub period marked sui unification supplementation tang second split song unification late sub period included yuan ming qing dynasties qin dynasty bc historians often refer period qin dynasty end qing dynasty imperial


event known burning books burying scholars would impetus behind later han synthesis incorporating moderate schools political governance major contributions qin include concept centralized government unification development legal code written language measurement currency china tribulations spring autumn warring states periods even something basic length axles carts need match ruts roads made uniform ensure viable trading system throughout


empire also part centralization qin connected northern border walls states defeated making first though rough version great wall china tribes north collectively called wu hu qin free chinese rule majority dynasty ref name lewis lewis p ref prohibited trading qin dynasty peasants xiongnu tribe living ordos region northwest china often raided instead prompting qin retaliate military campaign led general meng tian region conquered


qin capital captured sacked rebels would ultimately lead establishment new dynasty unified china despite short year duration qin dynasty immensely influential china structure future chinese dynasties han dynasty bc ad western han map showing expansion han dynasty nd century bc han dynasty founded liu bang emerged victorious chu han contention followed fall qin dynasty golden age chinese history han dynasty 's long


period stability prosperity consolidated foundation china unified state central imperial bureaucracy last intermittently next two millennia han dynasty territory china extended china proper areas far west confucianism officially elevated orthodox status shape subsequent chinese civilization art culture science advanced unprecedented heights profound lasting impacts period chinese history dynasty name han taken name chinese


people dominant ethnic group modern china commonly used refer chinese language written characters han dynasty also saw many mathematical innovations invented method gaussian elimination appeared chinese mathematical text chapter eight ''rectangular arrays'' ''the nine chapters mathematical art'' use illustrated eighteen problems two five equations first reference book title dated ad parts written early approximately bc years


european came method th century ref name princeton ref initial laissez faire policies emperors wen jing ambitious emperor wu brought empire zenith consolidate power confucianism emphasizes stability order well structured society given exclusive patronage guiding philosophical thoughts moral principles empire imperial universities established support study development schools thought discouraged major military campaigns launched weaken nomadic xiongnu empire limiting influence north great wall


along diplomatic efforts led zhang qian sphere influence han empire extended states tarim basin opened silk road connected china west stimulating bilateral trade cultural exchange south various small kingdoms far beyond yangtze river valley formally incorporated empire emperor wu also dispatched series military campaigns baiyue tribes han annexed minyue bc bc nanyue bc dian bc migration military expeditions led cultural


assimilation south also brought han contact kingdoms southeast asia introducing diplomacy trade emperor wu empire slipped gradual stagnation decline economically state treasury strained excessive campaigns projects land acquisitions elite families gradually drained tax base various consort clans exerted increasing control strings incompetent emperors eventually dynasty briefly interrupted usurpation wang mang xin dynasty ad usurper wang mang claimed mandate heaven called end han dynasty


rise founded short lived xin dynasty wang mang started extensive program land economic reforms including outlawing slavery land nationalization redistribution programs however never supported landholding families favored peasants instability power brought chaos uprisings loss territories compounded mass flooding yellow river silt buildup caused split two channels displaced large numbers farmers wang mang eventually killed weiyang palace enraged peasant mob


ad eastern han bronze caliper eastern han period emperor guangwu reinstated han dynasty support landholding merchant families luoyang ''east'' former capital xi'an thus new era termed eastern han dynasty capable administrations emperors ming zhang former glories dynasty reclaimed brilliant military cultural achievements xiongnu empire decisively defeated diplomat general ban chao expanded conquests across pamirs shores caspian sea thus reopening silk road bringing


trade foreign cultures along arrival buddhism extensive connections west first several roman embassies china recorded chinese sources coming sea route ad second one ad eastern han dynasty one prolific era science technology ancient china notably historic invention papermaking cai lun numerous scientific mathematical contributions famous polymath zhang heng three kingdoms ad nd century empire declined amidst land acquisitions invasions


han dynasties increase power great families jin dynasty overthrew wei later unified country union short lived jin dynasty ad jin dynasty severely weakened internecine fighting among imperial princes lost control northern china non han chinese settlers rebelled captured luoyang chang'an jin prince modern day nanjing became emperor continued dynasty known eastern jin held southern china another century prior move historians refer


jin dynasty western jin northern china fragmented series independent kingdoms founded xiongnu xianbei jie di qiang rulers non han peoples ancestors turks mongols tibetans many extent sinicized long ascent power fact notably qiang xiongnu already allowed live frontier regions within great wall since late han times period sixteen kingdoms warfare ravaged north prompted large scale han


chinese migration south yangtze river basin delta northern southern dynasties ad early th century china entered period known northern southern dynasties parallel regimes ruled northern southern halves country south eastern jin gave way liu song southern qi liang finally chen southern dynasties led han chinese ruling families used jiankang modern nanjing capital held attacks north preserved many aspects chinese civilization


northern barbarian regimes began sinify north last sixteen kingdoms extinguished northern wei kingdom founded xianbei nomadic people unified northern china northern wei eventually split eastern western wei became northern qi northern zhou regimes dominated xianbei han chinese married xianbei families period xianbei people adopted han surnames eventually leading complete assimilation han despite division country buddhism spread throughout land


southern china fierce debates whether buddhism allowed held frequently royal court nobles end era buddhists taoists become much tolerant sui dynasty ad short lived sui dynasty pivotal period chinese history founded emperor wen succession northern zhou sui went conquer southern chen reunify china ending three centuries political division sui pioneered many new institutions including government system three departments


another route northeast border great wall also expanded series military conquests diplomatic maneuvers pacified borders however massive invasions korean peninsula goguryeo sui war failed disastrously triggering widespread revolts led fall dynasty tang dynasty ad tang dynasty golden age chinese civilization prosperous stable creative period significant developments culture art literature particularly poetry technology buddhism became predominant religion common people chang'an modern xi'an national capital


largest city world time first emperor emperor gaozu came throne june placed son li shimin became second emperor taizong one greatest emperors chinese history combined military conquests diplomatic maneuvers reduced threats central asian tribes extended border brought neighboring states tributary system military victories tarim basin kept silk road open connecting chang'an central asia areas far west south lucrative maritime trade routes port cities guangzhou


connected distant countries foreign merchants settled china encouraging cosmopolitan culture tang culture social systems observed adapted neighboring countries notably japan internally grand canal linked political heartland chang'an agricultural economic centers eastern southern parts empire xuanzang chinese buddhist monk scholar traveller translator travelled india returned six hundred mahayana hinayana texts seven statues buddha hundred sarira relics map six major protectorates


military policy known fubing system policies stimulated rapid growth productivity significant army without much burden state treasury dynasty 's midpoint however standing armies replaced conscription land continuously falling hands private owners religious institutions granted exemptions decorated horse dancing cup wine mouth horses emperor xuanzong trained dynasty continued flourish rule empress wu zetian empress regnant chinese history reached zenith


land tax central imperial government came rely heavily salt monopoly externally former submissive states raided empire vast border territories lost centuries nevertheless civil society recovered thrived amidst weakened imperial bureaucracy late tang period empire worn recurring revolts regional warlords internally scholar officials engaged fierce factional strife corrupted eunuchs amassed immense power catastrophically huang chao rebellion devastated entire empire decade sack southern port guangzhou followed massacre


proper northern nomadic empires south vietnam gained lasting independence chinese prefecture many centuries wars dominated northern china mass southward migrations population enhanced southward shift cultural economic centers china era ended coup later zhou general zhao kuangyin establishment song dynasty eventually annihilated remains ten kingdoms reunified china song liao jin western xia dynasties ad song dynasty founded emperor taizu


early song period ended failure liao cavalry swept exposed north china plain reached outskirts kaifeng forcing song 's submission agreement chanyuan treaty imposed heavy annual tributes song treasury treaty significant reversal chinese dominance traditional tributary system yet annual outflow song 's silver liao paid back purchase chinese goods products expanded song economy replenished treasury dampened incentive song


kaifeng sacked massive catastrophe known jingkang incident ending northern song dynasty later entire north china conquered survived members song court regrouped new capital city hangzhou initiated southern song dynasty ruled territories south huai river ensuing years territory population china divided song dynasty jin dynasty western xia dynasty era ended mongol conquest western xia fell jin dynasty finally southern


song dynasty despite military weakness song dynasty widely considered high point classical chinese civilization song economy facilitated technology advancement reached level sophistication probably unseen world history time population soared nbsp million living standards common people improved tremendously due improvements rice cultivation wide availability coal production capital cities kaifeng subsequently hangzhou populous cities world time encouraged vibrant civil societies unmatched


considered golden age great advancements science technology china thanks innovative scholar officials su song shen kuo inventions hydro mechanical astronomical clock first continuous endless power transmitting chain woodblock printing paper money invented song dynasty court intrigue political reformers conservatives led chancellors wang anshi sima guang respectively mid late th century chinese adopted dogma neo confucian philosophy formulated zhu xi enormous literary works compiled song


siege engines designs southern song dynasty survival hinged decisively guarding yangtze huai river cavalry forces north first standing navy china assembled admiral 's headquarters established dinghai paddle wheel warships equipped trebuchets could launch incendiary bombs made gunpowder lime recorded song 's victory invading jin forces battle tangdao east china sea battle caishi yangtze river advances civilization song dynasty came


abrupt end following devastating mongol conquest population sharply dwindled marked contraction economy despite viciously halting mongol advance three decades southern song capital hangzhou fell followed final annihilation song standing navy battle yamen yuan dynasty ad mongol successor khanates yuan dynasty formally proclaimed great khan mongol kublai khan one grandsons genghis khan assumed additional title emperor china considered inherited part


khan khagan greater mongol empire mongol khanates nonetheless remained de facto autonomous era known ''pax mongolica'' much asian continent ruled mongols first time history silk road controlled entirely single state facilitating flow people trade cultural exchange network roads postal system established connect vast empire lucrative maritime trade developed previous song dynasty continued flourish quanzhou hangzhou emerging largest ports world


adventurous travelers far west notably venetian marco polo would settled china decades upon return detail travel record inspired generations medieval europeans splendors far east yuan dynasty first ancient economy paper currency known time jiaochao used predominant medium exchange unrestricted issuance late yuan dynasty inflicted hyperinflation eventually brought downfall dynasty mongol rulers yuan dynasty adopted substantially chinese culture sinicization lesser extent


compared earlier conquest dynasties chinese history preserving racial superiority conqueror ruling class traditional nomadic customs heritage mongolian steppe held high regard hand mongol rulers also adopted flexibly variety cultures many advanced civilizations within vast empire traditional social structure culture china underwent immense transform mongol dominance large group foreign migrants settled china enjoyed elevated social status majority han chinese enriching chinese culture foreign elements class scholar officials


numbers reflects administrative failure record rather actual decrease others timothy brook argue mongols created system enserfment among huge portion chinese populace causing many disappear census altogether historians including william mcneill david morgan consider plague main factor behind demographic decline period th century china suffered additional depredations epidemics plague estimated killed nbsp million people population china throughout yuan dynasty general sentiment among


markets mainly traded food necessary manufactures pins oil despite xenophobia intellectual introspection characteristic increasingly popular new school neo confucianism china early ming dynasty isolated foreign trade contacts outside world particularly japan increased considerably chinese merchants explored indian ocean reaching east africa voyages zheng hongwu emperor founder chinese dynasty also peasant origin laid foundation state relied fundamentally agriculture commerce trade


palace beijing 's forbidden city reached current splendor also centuries potential south china came fully exploited new crops widely cultivated industries producing porcelain textiles flourished esen tayisi led oirat mongol invasion northern china culminated capture zhengtong emperor tumu since ming became defensive northern frontier led ming great wall built remains great wall china today either built


repaired ming brick granite work enlarged watchtowers redesigned cannons placed along length sea ming became increasingly isolationist death yongle emperor treasure voyages sailed indian ocean discontinued maritime prohibition laws set place banning chinese sailing abroad european traders reached china midst age discovery repeatedly rebuked requests trade portuguese repulsed ming navy tuen mun domestic


foreign demands overseas trade deemed illegal state led widespread ''wokou'' piracy attacking southeastern coastline rule jiajing emperor subsided opening ports guangdong fujian much military suppression portuguese allowed settle macau trade remained portuguese hands dutch entry chinese seas also met fierce resistance dutch chased penghu islands sino dutch conflicts forced settle taiwan instead


dutch taiwan fought ming battle liaoluo bay lost eventually surrendered ming loyalist koxinga fall ming dynasty rule jiajing emperor shaanxi earthquake killed people deadliest earthquake time ming dynasty intervened deeply japanese invasions korea ended withdrawal invading japanese forces korea restoration joseon dynasty traditional ally tributary state regional hegemony ming dynasty


preserved toll resources coincidentally ming 's control manchuria decline manchu jurchen tribes chieftain nurhaci broke away ming 's rule emerged powerful unified state later proclaimed qing dynasty went subdue much weakened korea tributary conquered mongolia expanded territory outskirt great wall elite army ming dynasty station shanhai pass guard last stronghold manchus weakened suppression internal peasants uprisings


qing dynasty ad qing dynasty last imperial dynasty china founded manchus second conquest dynasty rule entirety china proper roughly doubled territory controlled ming manchus formerly known jurchens residing northeastern part ming territory outside great wall emerged major threat late ming dynasty nurhaci united jurchen tribes son hong taiji declared founding qing dynasty qing dynasty set


eight banners system provided basic framework qing military conquest li zicheng 's peasant rebellion captured beijing chongzhen emperor last ming emperor committed suicide manchus allied ming general wu sangui seize beijing made capital qing dynasty proceeded subdue ming remnants south decades manchu conquest caused enormous loss lives economic scale china shrank drastically total qing conquest ming cost many nbsp million lives early manchu emperors


''kangxi dictionary'' complete dictionary chinese characters compiled next half century areas previously ming dynasty consolidated qing conquests central asia eighteenth century extended territorial control kangxi emperor suppressed revolt three feudatories uprising three generals southern china denied hereditary rule large fiefdoms granted previous emperor qing staged amphibious assault southern taiwan bringing rebel kingdom tungning founded


th century empire internally restive externally threatened western powers defeat british empire first opium war led treaty nanking hong kong ceded britain importation opium produced british empire territories allowed opium usage continued grow china adversely affecting societal stability subsequent military defeats unequal treaties western powers continued even fall qing dynasty internally taiping rebellion christian religious movement led heavenly king hong xiuquan swept


south establish taiping heavenly kingdom controlled roughly third china proper decade court desperation empowered han chinese officials zeng guofan raise local armies initial defeats zeng crushed rebels third battle nanking one largest wars th century terms troop involvement massive loss life death toll million string civil disturbances followed including punti hakka clan wars nian rebellion dungan revolt panthay rebellion


official rivalries cynicism quarrels within imperial family defeat yuan shikai 's modernized beiyang fleet first sino japanese war led formation new army guangxu emperor advised kang youwei launched comprehensive reform effort hundred days' reform empress dowager cixi however feared precipitous change would lead bureaucratic opposition foreign intervention quickly suppressed national flag great qing triangular version national flag great qing summer


boxer uprising opposed foreign influence murdered chinese christians foreign missionaries boxers entered beijing qing government ordered foreigners leave many chinese christians besieged foreign legations quarter eight nation alliance sent seymour expedition japanese russian british italian german french american austrian troops relieve siege forced retreat boxer qing troops battle langfang alliance 's attack dagu forts court declared war alliance authorized boxers join imperial armies


fierce fighting tientsin alliance formed second much larger gaselee expedition finally reached beijing empress dowager evacuated xi'an boxer protocol ended war exacting tremendous indemnity qing court instituted new policies administrative legal reform including abolition examination system young officials military officers students debated reform perhaps constitutional monarchy overthrow dynasty creation republic inspired emerging public opinion formed intellectuals liang qichao revolutionary ideas sun yat sen


localised military uprising wuchang uprising began october wuchang today part wuhan soon spread republic china proclaimed january ending years dynastic rule modern china republic china since flag first guangzhou uprising nanjing road xinhai revolution provisional government republic china formed nanking march sun yat sen became president republic china turned power yuan shikai commanded new army next years yuan proceeded


abolish national provincial assemblies declared emperor empire china late yuan 's imperial ambitions fiercely opposed subordinates faced prospect rebellion abdicated march died natural causes june yuan 's death left power vacuum republican government shattered opened way warlord era much china ruled shifting coalitions competing provincial military leaders beiyang government intellectuals disappointed failure republic launched new


intellectual ferment waxed strong throughout according patricia ebrey nationalism patriotism progress science democracy freedom goals imperialism feudalism warlordism autocracy patriarchy blind adherence tradition enemies intellectuals struggled strong modern yet chinese preserve china political entity world competing nations flag republic china flag republic china sun yat sen established revolutionary base guangzhou set unite


fragmented nation welcomed assistance soviet union fresh lenin 's communist takeover entered alliance fledgling chinese communist party ccp sun 's death cancer one prot g chiang kai shek seized control nationalist party kmt succeeded bringing south central china rule northern expedition defeated warlords south central china military force chiang able secure nominal allegiance warlords north establish nationalist government


nanking chiang turned ccp relentlessly purged communists elements nra driven mountain bases chinese soviet republic ccp forces embarked long march across china 's desolate terrain northwest established guerrilla base yan'an shaanxi province long march communists reorganized new leader mao zedong mao tse tung bitter chinese civil war nationalists communists continued openly clandestinely year long japanese occupation various parts country


country odd arne westad says communists civil war made fewer military mistakes chiang search powerful centralized government chiang antagonized many interest groups china furthermore party weakened war japanese meanwhile communists told different groups peasants exactly wanted hear cloaked cover chinese nationalism civil war nationalists communists carried mass atrocities millions non combatants killed sides included deaths forced conscription


account cold war changed prc seated united nations replacing roc kmt ruled taiwan martial law stated goal vigilant communist infiltration preparing retake mainland china therefore political dissent tolerated period roc underwent major democratic reform beginning resignation members legislative yuan national assembly elected groups originally created represent mainland china constituencies also lifted restrictions


use taiwanese languages broadcast media schools culminated first direct presidential election democratic progressive party dpp candidate former dissident peng min ming kmt status ruling party ended dpp took power regain status election ying jeou due controversial nature taiwan 's political status roc currently recognized un member states holy see legitimate government china people 's republic china since people 's


people 's republic china people 's republic china th anniversary parade beijing prc shaped series campaigns five year plans economic social plan known great leap forward caused estimated nbsp million deaths ref name akbar ref mao 's government carried mass executions landowners instituted collectivisation implemented laogai camp system execution deaths forced labor atrocities resulted millions deaths mao mao allies launched cultural revolution continued mao 's death decade later cultural revolution motivated power struggles


within party fear soviet union led major upheaval chinese society peak sino soviet split mao zhou enlai met us president richard nixon beijing establish relations united states year prc admitted united nations place republic china permanent membership security council flag people 's republic china since power struggle followed mao 's death gang four arrested blamed excesses


production addition many free market areas opened successful free market areas shenzhen located guangdong property tax free area still exists today turn events marked china 's transition planned economy mixed economy increasingly open market environment system termed ref name ref e ref market socialism officially ccp socialism chinese characteristics prc adopted current constitution december death former general secretary hu yaobang helped spark tiananmen square protests


year students others campaigned several months speaking corruption favour greater political reform including democratic rights freedom speech however eventually put june army troops vehicles entered forcibly cleared square considerable numbers fatalities event widely reported brought worldwide condemnation sanctions government ref name ref f ref ref name ref g ref filmed incident involving tank man seen worldwide ccp general secretary prc president jiang zemin prc premier zhu rongji former mayors shanghai led post tiananmen


resources environment another concern certain sectors society sufficiently benefiting prc 's economic development one example wide gap urban rural areas result former ccp general secretary president hu jintao premier wen jiabao prc initiated policies address issues equitable distribution resources outcome known ref name ref j ref nbsp million farmers displaced land ref name ref k ref usually economic development contributing demonstrations riots across china ref name ref l ref much prc 's population


living standards improved substantially freedom increased political controls remained tight rural areas poor outbreak novel coronavirus sars coronavirus causes covid disease originally detected wuhan became global covid pandemic virus' origin china led misinformation including conspiracy theories suggest virus originated chinese laboratory genetically engineered world health organization concluded artificial origin coronavirus extremely unlikely see also annexation tibet people 's republic china chinese armour chinese emperors family tree ancient early


middle late chinese exploration chinese historiography chinese sovereign economic history china ethnic groups chinese history foreign relations imperial china four occupations golden ages china history canals china history hong kong history islam china history macau history science technology china history taiwan history great wall china list chinese monarchs list neolithic cultures china list rebellions china list recipients tribute china list tributary states china military history china monarchy


china naval history china outline ancient china population history china religion china timeline chinese history women ancient imperial china references citations sources benjamin elman https webarchiveorg web http wwwprincetonedu chinese historiography indexxml classical historiography chinese history november princeton university extensive lists sinological resources bibliography selective annotated bibliography wilkinson endymion ''chinese history new manual'' fifth edition harvard university asia center harvard yenching institute though aimed research specialists contains summaries major topics useful general readers reading


''berkshire encyclopedia china'' vol https archiveorg details berkshireencyclopediaofchina volumeset online clyde paul h burton f beers ''the far east history western impacts eastern responses '' prentice hall university textbook https archiveorg details lccn online catchpole brian ''a map history modern china'' new maps diagrams elleman bruce ''modern chinese warfare '' pp fairbank john king goldman merle ''china new history'' nd ed harvard pp fenby jonathan ''the penguin history modern china fall rise great power present'' rd ed popular


history gernet jacques j r foster charles hartman ''a history chinese civilization'' one volume survey pp stress china 's encounters successive waves globalization hs immanuel ''the rise modern china'' th ed oxford detailed coverage pp stress diplomacy politics https archiveorg details riseofmodernchin hs online keay john ''china history'' pp popular history pre leung edwin pak wah ''historical dictionary revolutionary china '' https archiveorg details historicaldictio unse online free borrow leung edwin pak wah ''political leaders modern china biographical dictionary'' mote frederick w ''imperial china '' harvard


pp authoritative treatment song yuan ming early qing dynasties perkins dorothy ''encyclopedia china essential reference china history culture'' facts file pp https archiveorg details encyclopediaofch perk online roberts j g ''a concise history china'' harvard u press pp stanford edward ''atlas chinese empire containing separate maps eighteen provinces china'' nd ed legible color maps https archiveorg details cu page n online free schoppa r keith ''the columbia guide modern chinese history'' columbia u press pp spence jonathan ''the search modern


china'' pp scholarly survey https archiveorg details searchformodernc spen online wang ke wen ed ''modern china encyclopedia history culture nationalism'' https archiveorg details modernchinaencyc wang online westad odd arne ''restless empire china world since '' wright david curtis ''history china'' pp wills jr john e ''mountain fame portraits chinese history'' biographical essays important figures external links orville schell john delury http sitesasiasocietyorg chinawealthpower wealth power china 's long march twenty first century asia society website based schell delury 's book name ulrich theobald https webarchiveorg web http wwwchinaknowledgede history historyhtm china


knowledge online encyclopaedia traditional china including literature philosophy art themes https wwwlocgov today cyberlc feature wdescphprec china rediscovers history minute lecture chinese history given yu ying shih emeritus professor east asian studies history princeton university


'''staff''' may refer pole staff weapon used stick fighting quarterstaff european pole weapon staff office pole indicates position staff railway signalling token authorizing locomotive driver use particular stretch single track level staff also called levelling rod graduated rod comparing heights fire staff staff wood metal kevlar used fire dancing performance flagstaff flag flown scout staff tall pole traditionally used boy scouts number uses emergency pilgrim 's staff

Applied science
Military sciences
Organization
Staff


walking stick used pilgrims pilgrimages military staff military organ military command planning united states navy minesweeper smart target activated fire forget xm staff american made experimental mm tank gun shell people staff name list people either surname nickname uses people employment within organization staff music set five horizontal lines upon notes placed written music notation staff building material short ' 'staffieren'' artificial stone product used ornament jack staff british superhero staffordshire county england staff


develop th century eventually regarded th century belonging disciplines psychology biology views establishing foundation mainstream anglo american linguistics ref name joseph ref premise contested early th century ferdinand de saussure established linguistics autonomous discipline within social sciences ref name fpencyclo following saussure 's concept general linguistics consists study language semiotic system includes subfields phonology morphology syntax semantics subfields approached either synchronically diachronicially today linguistics encompasses large number

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
History of linguistics


scientific approaches developed still subfields including applied linguistics psycholinguistics sociolinguistics computational linguistics antiquity across cultures early history linguistics associated need disambiguate discourse especially ritual texts arguments often led explorations sound meaning mappings debate conventional versus naturalistic origins symbols finally led processes larger structures formed units babylonia earliest linguistic texts written cuneiform clay tablets date almost four thousand years present early centuries


facilitate information sumerian recorded writing akkadian speaking scribes centuries lists became standardised sumerian words provided akkadian translations ultimately texts emerged gave akkadian equivalents single words entire paradigms varying forms words one text instance different forms verb '' ar'' place india linguistics ancient india derives impetus need correctly recite interpret vedic texts already oldest indian text rigveda speech deified bce


oral performance texts becomes standardized treatises ritual recitation suggest splitting sanskrit compounds words stems phonetic units providing impetus morphology phonetics earliest activities description language attributed indian grammarian p ini th century bce ref name fpencyclo wrote rule based description sanskrit language ''a dhy '' next centuries clarity reached organization sound units stop consonants organized x square c bce pratisakhyas eventually leading systematic


alphabet br hm rd century bce semantics early sanskrit grammarian ka yana c bce proposes verbs represent ontologically prior categories nouns etymologically derived actions etymologist ska c th century bce posits meaning inheres sentence word meanings derived based sentential usage also provides four categories words nouns verbs pre verbs particles invariants test nouns concrete abstract words indicated pronoun ''that'' p ini c th century bce opposes ska view sentences


primary proposes grammar composing semantics morphemic roots transcending ritual text consider living language p ini specifies comprehensive set aphoristic rules ' 'sutras'' map semantics verb argument structures thematic roles provide morphosyntactic rules creating verb forms nominal forms whose seven cases called ''karaka'' similar case generate morphology take morphological structures consider phonological processes eg root stem modification final phonological form obtained addition p inian school also provides list


modern terms grammarians following p ini include k ty yana c rd century bce wrote aphorisms p ini ''varttika'' advanced mathematics pata jali nd century bce known commentary selected topics p ini 's grammar ''mahabhasya'' k ty yana 's aphorisms well according author ''yoga sutras'' ''pingala'' mathematical approach prosody several debates ranged centuries example whether word meaning mappings conventional ''vaisheshika nyaya'' eternal ''k ty yana pata jali '' ''nyaya sutras'' specified three types meaning individual ''this cow'' type universal ''cowhood'' image ' 'draw


cow'' sound word also forms class sound universal observed bhart hari c ce also posits language universals units thought close nominalist even linguistic determinism position bhart hari also considers sentence ontologically primary word meanings learned given sentential use six canonical texts ''vedangas'' formed core syllabus brahminic education st century ce th century four dealt language ''shiksha'' '''' phonetics phonology sandhi g rgeya commentators ''chandas'' '''' prosody meter


pingala commentators ''vyakarana'' '''' grammar p ini commentators ''nirukta'' '''' etymology ska commentators bhartrihari around ce introduced philosophy meaning ' 'spho a'' doctrine unfortunately p ini 's rule based method linguistic analysis description remained relatively unknown western linguistics recently franz bopp used p ini 's work linguistic source sanskrit grammar disregarded methodology p ini 's system also differs modern formal linguistics since sanskrit free word order language provide syntactic rules ref name kiparsky ref formal linguistics first proposed louis hjelmslev ref name seuren ref


nonetheless based concept expression meaning organised different layers linguistic form including phonology morphology ref name hjelmslev ref pali grammar kacchayana dated early centuries ce describes language buddhist canon greece greeks developed alphabet using symbols phoenicians adding signs vowels extra consonants appropriate idiom see robins phoenicians earlier greek writing systems linear b graphemes indicated syllables sound combinations consonant vowel addition vowels


greeks major breakthrough facilitated writing greek representing vowels consonants distinct graphemes result introduction writing poetry homeric poems became written several editions created commented forming basis philology criticism along written speech greeks commenced studying grammatical philosophical issues philosophical discussion nature origins language found early works plato subject concern whether language man made social artifact supernatural


origin plato ''cratylus'' presents naturalistic view word meanings emerge natural process independent language user arguments partly based examples compounding meaning whole usually related constituents although end admits small role convention sophists socrates introduced dialectics new text genre platonic dialogs contain definitions meters poems tragedy form structure texts see ''republic'' ''phaidros'' ''ion'' etc aristotle supports conventional origins


meaning defined logic speech argument furthermore aristotle 's works rhetoric poetics became utmost importance understanding tragedy poetry public discussions etc text genres aristotle 's work logic interrelates special interest language work area fundamentally important development study language ''logos'' greek means language logic reasoning ''categories'' aristotle defines meant synonymous univocal words meant homonymous equivocal words meant paronymous denominative


words divides forms speech either simple without composition structure man horse fights etc composition structure man fights horse runs etc next distinguishes subject predication namely anything affirmed denied subject inhesion thing said inherent subject though part subject cannot possibly exist without subject eg shape thing shape categories abstract platonic entities


found speech substance quantity quality relation place time position state action affection ' 'de interpretatione'' aristotle analyzes categoric propositions draws series basic conclusions routine issues classifying defining basic linguistic forms simple terms propositions nouns verbs negation quantity simple propositions primitive roots quantifiers modern symbolic logic investigations excluded middle aristotle n't applicable future tense propositions problem future contingents modal propositions stoics made linguistics important part system


cosmos human played important role defining linguistic sign terms adopted later ferdinand de saussure like significant signifi stoics studied phonetics grammar etymology separate levels study phonetics phonology articulators defined syllable became important structure understanding speech organization one important contributions stoics language study gradual definition terminology theory echoed modern linguistics alexandrian grammarians also studied speech sounds prosody defined parts speech


either long syllables short syllables also known heavy light syllables respectively distinguish long short vowels foot often compared musical measure long short syllables whole notes half notes basic unit greek latin prosody mora defined single short syllable long syllable equivalent two moras long syllable contains either long vowel diphthong short vowel followed two consonants various rules elision sometimes prevent grammatical syllable


special words old dialectical special medical words botanic words period early medieval times find categories dictionaries like dictionary suida considered first encyclopedic dictionary etymological dictionaries etc period greek language functioned ''lingua franca'' language spoken throughout known world greeks romans time result modern linguistics struggles overcome greeks tradition commenced study language romans medieval world followed


laborious work considered today part everyday language think example notions word syllable verb subject etc rome th century aelius donatus compiled latin grammar ''ars grammatica'' defining school text middle ages smaller version ''ars minor'' covered eight parts speech eventually books came printed th century one first books printed schoolboys subjected education gave us current meaning grammar


attested english since china similar indian tradition chinese philology ''xiaoxue'' elementary studies began aid understanding classics han dynasty c rd century bce ''xiaoxue'' came divided three branches ''xungu'' exegesis ''wenzi'' script analysis ''yinyun'' study sounds reached golden age th century ce qing dynasty glossary ''erya'' c rd century bce comparable indian ''nighantu'' regarded first linguistic work china ''shuowen jiezi'' c nd century bce first chinese dictionary classifies chinese characters


radicals practice would followed subsequent lexicographers two pioneering works produced han dynasty ''fangyan'' first chinese work concerning dialects ''shiming'' devoted etymology ancient greece early chinese thinkers concerned relationship names reality confucius th century bce famously emphasized moral commitment implicit name ''zhengming'' stating moral collapse pre qin result failure rectify behaviour meet moral commitment inherent names good government consists ruler ruler minister


minister father father son son names correct language accordance truth things ''analects'' however reality implied name later mohists group known school names ming jia bce consider ''ming'' name may refer three kinds ' 'shi'' actuality type universals horse individual john unrestricted thing adopt realist position name reality connection universals arise world fixes patterns similarity difference


things divided kinds philosophical tradition well known conundra resembling sophists eg gongsun longzi th century bce questions copula statements ''x y'' ''x'' ''y'' identical ''x'' subclass ''y'' famous paradox white horse horse xun zi rd century bce revisits principle ''zhengming'' instead rectifying behaviour suit names emphasis rectifying language correctly reflect reality consistent conventional view word origins


method brought china bernard karlgren first scholar reconstruct middle chinese old chinese latin alphabet ipa important modern chinese linguists include r chao luo changpei li fanggui wang li ancient commentators classics paid much attention syntax use particles first chinese grammar modern sense word produced jianzhong late th century grammar based latin prescriptive model middle ages arabic grammar owing rapid expansion islam th century many people


learned arabic lingua franca reason earliest grammatical treatises arabic often written non native speakers earliest grammarian known us abd h ibn ab q al ram died ce ah efforts three generations grammarians culminated book persian linguist sib wayhi c sibawayh made detailed professional description arabic monumental work ''al kitab fi al nahw'' ''the book grammar'' book distinguished phonetics phonology european vernaculars irish ''sanas cormaic'' 'cormac 's


glossary' europe 's first etymological encyclopedic dictionary non classical language modistae speculative grammarians th century introduced notion universal grammar ''de vulgari eloquentia'' eloquence vernacular dante expanded scope linguistic enquiry latin greek include languages day linguistic works period concerning vernaculars include first grammatical treatise icelandic auraicept na n ces irish renaissance baroque period saw intensified interest linguistics ref name fpencyclo notably purpose bible translations jesuits also related


philosophical speculation philosophical languages origin language founding fathers joannes goropius becanus oldest representative dutch linguistics first person publish fragment gothic mainly lord 's prayer franciscus juniuns lambert ten kate amsterdam george hickes england considered founding fathers german linguistics modern linguistics modern linguistics begin late th century romantic animist theses johann gottfried herder johann christoph adelung remained influential well th century history


paradigms languages labelled primitive relative english language within paradigm primitive people could discerned primitive language case hugh blair argued native americans gesticulated wildly compensate poor lexicon primitive language around time james burnett authored volume treatise delved deeply matter savage languages writers theorized native american languages nothing natural instinctive cries animal without grammatical structure thinkers within paradigm connected


correct today ''the sanscrit language'' sir william jones proposed sanskrit persian resemblances classical greek latin gothic celtic languages idea sprung field comparative linguistics historical linguistics th century european linguistics centered comparative history indo european languages concern finding common roots tracing development discovered regular sound corresponded languages spoken europe india persia led conclusion languages


common ancestor th century linguistics devoted figuring nuances parent language discovered parent language started approximately years ago also developed english russian hindi ref name linguisticsocietyorg newmeyer f history modern linguistics retrieved https wwwlinguisticsocietyorg resource history modern linguistics ref wilhelm von humboldt observed human language rule governed system anticipating theme become central formal work syntax semantics language th century observation said allowed language make infinite use


linguistics succeeded grouping approximately languages world number common ancestors ref name linguisticsocietyorg structuralism europe development structural linguistics initiated ferdinand de saussure swiss professor indo european general linguistics whose lectures general linguistics published posthumously students set direction european linguistic analysis approach widely adopted fields broad term structuralism th century attention shifted language change structure governed rules principles structure turned


grammar structural linguistic developing sophisticated methods grammatical analysis ref name linguisticsocietyorg descriptive linguistics second world war north american linguists leonard bloomfield william mandeville austin several students colleagues developed teaching materials variety languages whose knowledge needed war effort work led increasing prominence field linguistics became recognized discipline american universities war william stokoe linguist gallaudet university published analysis https wwwamazoncom dp b dk x proved american sign language fits


criteria natural language generative linguistics subfields roughly onwards pragmatic functional cognitive approaches steadily gained ground united states europe see also history grammar history communication notes references randy allen harris ''the linguistics wars'' oxford university press brigitte nerlich ''semantic theories europe '' amsterdam john benjamins brigitte nerlich david clarke ''language action context'' amsterdam john benjamins linguistics


'''operating system''' '''os''' system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating

Formal science
Computer science
Operating systems


systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant general purpose ref name auto ref personal computer operating system microsoft windows market share around macos apple inc second place varieties linux collectively third place mobile sector including smartphones tablets android 's share year according third quarter data android 's share smartphones dominant percent also growth rate


media ie live cd flash memory ie usb stick types operating systems single tasking multi tasking single tasking system run one program time multi tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task scheduling subsystem operating system multi tasking may characterized preemptive co operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot


programs unix like operating systems linux well non unix like amigaos support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi tasking bit versions windows nt win x used preemptive multi tasking single multi user single user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi user operating system extends basic concept multi tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging


multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed distributed operating system manages group distinct networked computers makes appear single computer computations distributed divided amongst constituent computers templated distributed cloud computing context os ''templating'' refers creating single virtual machine image


guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses ref name operating systems concepts ref embedded embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines less autonomy eg pda nowiki compact extremely efficient design able operate limited amount resources windows ce minix examples embedded operating systems real time real time operating system


operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real time operating system may single multi tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event driven system switches tasks based priorities external events whereas time sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application


configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments history early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early ref name google ref hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became


introduced sped programming process stern os used ibm mainframe computers beginning including computers used apollo program early computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged


time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothesline tapes hung different colored clothes pegs indicate job priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems mainframes many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input output interrupting buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link loading


programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications share operating system released integrated utility ibm later mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys ibjob ibm 's os introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system machines ibm 's


current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system modern machines backwards compatible applications written os os also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking updates process terminated reason resources claimed operating system alternative cp system started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual


machines operating systems used ibm series mainframes included systems developed ibm dos disk operating system tss time sharing system tos tape operating system bos basic operating system acp airline control program well non ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like


many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real time chat multi user graphical games burroughs corporation introduced b mcp master control program operating system b stack machine designed exclusively support high level languages assembler indeed mcp


managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers univac produced real time basic rtb system support large scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops tops time sharing systems bit pdp class systems widespread use unix tops particularly popular system


universities early arpanet community rt single user real time os pdp class minicomputer rsx corresponding multi user os late late several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact except microprogrammed implementations


enormous investment software systems made since caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include burroughs mcp b unisys clearpath mcp present ibm os ibm system ibm z os present ibm cp ibm system ibm z vm univac exec univac os unisys clearpath dorado present microcomputers pc dos early personal computer os featured command line interface mac os apple computer became first widespread os feature


dos apple computer inc apple inc abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel cpu chip october bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating


system continues serve basis microsoft 's operating systems line steve jobs co founder apple inc started next computer inc developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development


gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix


derivative distributed university california berkeley starting freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd examples unix unix like operating systems imagemap file unix history simplepng px thumb evolution unix systems default file unix history simplesvg imagemap unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter related operating systems influential every


modern operating system see history ''unix like'' family diverse group operating systems several major sub categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix


posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants bsd descendants first server world wide web ran nextstep based bsd subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data


network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers unix installed school 's undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer 's hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency


us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley 's version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc formed next inc company manufactured high end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non free code originated bell labs


done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd openbsd netbsd macos '''macos''' formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc latest pre loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple 's primary operating system since unlike predecessor macos unix operating


system built technology developed next second half apple purchased company early operating system first released mac os x server followed march client version mac os x v cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran


linus torvalds picture tux penguin mascot linux ref name linuxonline ref linux kernel originated project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide


range computing machinery supercomputers smart watches although estimates suggest linux used desktop laptop pcs ref name statcounter ref widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top ref name top list ref many computers also green different order linux runs top linux also commonly used small energy efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used


shipped intel architecture personal computers time windows released used ms dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win x could run real mode ms dos bit windows x drivers windows released last version win x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia x arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server r past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely


used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows' usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft 's code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os ibm microsoft classic mac os non unix precursor


apple 's macos beos xts risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development vms software inc yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth z rich


niklaus wirth j rg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute used mainly research teaching daily work wirth 's group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs' plan components components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether


simple mouse keyboard complex internet component kernel kernel connects application software hardware computer aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer 's hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu 's operating states optimal operation times organizes data long term non volatile storage file systems media


execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically


saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer 's hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system 's kernel interrupts may come either computer 's hardware


running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system 's kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system 's kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various


offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types bit processors bit one bit processors bit one power reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded


typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola code trap code instruction software interrupt causes processor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set processor instructions generally cannot execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system 's operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user


mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program memory management among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share