consistently met opposition wine making regions southern australia government also waged war illegal drugs particularly heroin became widely used pain reliever ref name lewis experts believe many health problems pacific islands traced back european colonization subsequent globalization modernization island communities ref name otsuka ref see history pacific islands european colonization late independence meant modernization also slow economic growth enormous effect health care particularly nutrition pacific islands end colonization


meant loss medical resources fledgling independent governments could afford continue health policies put place colonial governments ref name otsuka nutrition changed radically contributing various health problems prosperous urban areas could afford food chose poor diets causing 'overnourishment' leading extremely high levels obesity type diabetes cardiovascular diseases poorer rural communities hand continue suffer malnutrition malaria ref name otsuka traditional diets pacific low fat since world war ii

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of health and illness


significant increase fat protein pacific diets native attitudes towards weight contribute obesity problem tongan natives see obesity positive thing especially men also believe women little physical work possible men provide meaning get little exercise ref name otsuka europe largest endeavors improve health across europe world health organization european region ref name nosikov ref goal improve health poor disadvantaged populations promoting healthy lifestyles including environmental economic social providing health care ref name nosikov overall


health europe high compared rest world ref name nosikov average life expectancy around eu countries wide gap western eastern europe low russia balkan states ref name nosikov europe seeing increase spread hiv aids eastern europe worsening socioeconomic situation ref name nosikov cardiovascular disease cancer diabetes mellitus prevalent eastern europe ref name nosikov claims poverty important factor bringing ill health across europe ref name nosikov


low socioeconomic status levels many young people also risk increased tobacco alcohol non medical substance use ref name nosikov health illness prevention europe largely funded governmental services including regulating health care insurance social programs ref name nosikov role religion traditional medicine however often left unexamined reports study hypertension within united kingdom turned examining role beliefs play diagnosis treatment hypertension essential topic study since linked increased risk stroke


others still argued side effects medication made end prescribed regimen ref name morgan west indian respondents whose lay culture teaches reject long term drug therapy opted instead folk remedies higher numbers 'white' respondents seen people choose ignore doctor 's expert advice employ 'lay consultation' instead ref name morgan regions people seek medical help try interpret symptoms often consult people lives use 'self help' measures ref name punamaki ref study 'everyday


illness' finland including influenza infections musculo skeletal problems focused reasons consulting medical experts explanations illness common illness examined seriousness frequency researchers explain five possible triggers people seek medical aid occurrence interpersonal crisis perceived interference social personal relations perceived interference vocational physical activity sanctioning people sufferers ideas long certain complaints last kind explanatory models part process people use construct medical


culture ref name punamaki give meaning illness health answer questions personal responsibility health importantly part dialogue patients' professionals' illness explanations help explore patients follow doctors instructions letter others ignore completely patient 's explanation understanding illness much broader physician 's dynamic become major criticism modern medical practice since normally excludes social psychological experiential dimensions illness ref name punamaki finnish study examined patients results


different findings countries 'lay consultation' half respondents lay consultation coming doctors office one third try self treatment three quarters sample consulted doctor within three days symptoms developing ref name punamaki possible explanations finland aspect protectiveness within health care system many might conclude finnish people dependent helpless researchers study found people chose consult professionals trusted lay explanation results


echo similar studies ireland explain phenomenon based strong work ethic illness countries affect work finnish people quickly get treatment return work research finland also describes relationship patient doctor based national municipal administrative bureaucracies demand output satisfied patients public demanding better care nurses criticizing physicians taking holistic view patients hospital specialists wanting better earlier screening serious illnesses eg cancer ref name punamaki


conflict medical lay worlds prominent one hand many patients believe expert body view doctor patient relationship authoritarian people often use knowledge outside medical field deal health illness others see doctor expert shy describing symptoms therefore rely doctor diagnosis treatment ref name punamaki europe sociology health illness represented http wwweshmseu european society health medical sociology eshms north america compares figures population oecd countries


percentage total population aged body mass index greater data collected north america fairly recent settled continent made united states canada mexico central america caribbean built amalgamation wealth ideas culture practices north america highly advanced intellectually technologically traditionally advantageous character north american nations caused high average life expectancy years males years females leads conclusion north america


cultivated comparatively healthy society north america contains several core nations growing economies nations able maintain develop medical institutions subsequently provides access health care american citizens health care universal north america known leading nation regards industrialization modernization united states lacks federal laws regarding health care basic human right lag health care security causes subsequent issues pharmaceutical competition lack care elderly little attention alternative medicine ref name conrad health care


education plentiful price illness still persists many reasons ref name world health statistics ref main reason lower middle class population still exists plentiful numbers maintaining group highly vulnerable physical ailment world map showing alcohol consumption around world north america 's primary risk factors illness currently excessive alcohol use malnutrition obesity tobacco use water sanitation ref name world health statistics obesity recent epidemic north america brought rise average body mass index bmi beginning


end decade median percent adults obese rose ref name world health statistics alcoholism addiction consumption alcohol highly prevalent us high incidence rates many world regions roughly american adults drank current drinkers consumed five drinks one point last year also alcohol induced deaths united states past year related liver disease


alcoholism many risk factors ingrained north american culture heredity stress competition availability swine flu also known h n epidemic recent disease emerging early st century april early days outbreak molecular biologist named dr henry miller wrote ''wall street journal'' new york city high school students students apparently brought virus back mexico infected classmates ref name miller miller henry wall street journal understanding swine flu april ref six cases far reported canada connected


accessibility drugs dependent upon access medical care financial situation literature malaria treatment typically focused toward people tourists sources written native mind malaria first sign hepatitis detected strange unrecognizable internuclear antigen discovered liver biopsy several italians suffered hbv infection scientists initially thought antigenic specificity hbv soon found protein another disease altogether called hepatitis delta virus hdv


new virus found defective hdv needed hbv act helper function order detected normally hepatitis b transmitted blood type blood product south america hepatitis found fatal scientists still unsure way disease transmitted throughout certain south american countries sexual contact drug use common means transmission hdv still considered unusual form hepatitis agents virus resemble plant viroids still hard tell


many stereotypes exist hdv umbrella hbv hdv causes high titers blood people infected incubation hepatitis typically lasts thirty five days often hepatitis co infection hepatitis b super infection chronic hepatitis terms super infections high mortality rates ranging seventy eighty percent contrast co infections one three percent mortality rate little information ecology hepatitis epidemics found venezuela peru columbia brazil people


treated hepatitis b able control hepatitis people chronic hdb continue get hdv another disease affects south america hiv aids roughly two million people hiv aids end one hundred seventy thousand people infected aids hiv seventy seven thousand people died disease end year brazil people affected aids hiv south america forty three percent people brazil hiv brazil sixty


percent inhabitants use drugs hiv positive hiv positive drug use usually disease transmitted either drug use involving needles unprotected sex sharing needles infected hiv aids common paraguay uruguay south america trying get treatment thousands people infected disease brazil offering generic aids prescriptions much less expensive name brand drugs one hundred eighty one thousand inhabitants brazil infected treated accounts eighty percent


needed immediate help aid government positive results statistics show fifty percent decrease mortality rates approximately sixty eighty percent decrease morbidity rates seventy percent decrease hospitalization infected people remote areas south america traditional healers forms health care people north aymara south mapuche indigenous groups strongest voices still heavily use traditional medicine government chile implemented indigenous health system help strengthen health care system


even chile 's indigenous groups chile still best public health services south america also lowest mortality rates area health care policies centered around family community wellbeing focusing strategies prevention health strategies reports shown increase mental health issues diabetes cardiovascular diseases south america 's economy developing rapidly great deal industries major industry south america agriculture industries fishing handicrafts natural resources trade import export market continually thriving past south


american countries moved slowly regards economic development south america began build economy ever since world war ii south america 's largest economies brazil chile argentina columbia venezuela peru argentina 's economy growing rapidly journals see also references reading seale gabe wainwright williams http wwwwileyonlinelibrarycom journal shil sociology health illness vol alternative medical systems medical sociology


'''''sociology health illness''''' nbsp shi nbsp peer reviewed nbsp academic journal nbsp covers nbsp sociological nbsp aspects nbsp health nbsp illness nbsp medicine nbsp health care published nbsp wiley blackwell nbsp behalf '''foundation sociology health illness''' established journal originally published nbsp routledge kegan paul nbsp editorial team currently led karen lowton university sussex flis henwood university brighton joint editors chief members team dr catherine dr ben fincham dr catherine theodosius professor gillian bendelow dr sasha scambler years annual number issues risen three


four five six seven eight times year since according nbsp ''journal citation reports'' journal nbsp impact factor nbsp currently stands journal ranked follows isi journal citation reports ranking public environmental occupational health social science isi journal citation reports ranking social sciences biomedical isi journal citation reports ranking sociology see also sociology health illness references references external links http wwwshifoundationorguk foundation


sociology health illness wiley blackwell academic journals english language journals publications established sociology journals


'''humanistic sociology''' domain sociology originated mainly work university chicago polish philosopher turned sociologist florian znaniecki methodology treats objects study students humans composites values systems values certain contexts term related sociological domains antipositivism humanistic sociology seeks shed light questions relationship man principle man opportunism origins humanistic sociology domain sociology grew antipositivism originated

Social science
Sociology
Humanistic sociology


initial work florian witold znaniecki w thomas co authored ''the polish peasant europe america'' thomas due multi ethnic background fluent polish developed ''life history'' methodology data obtained letters materials archives polish emigrants protective association znaniecki director znaniecki philosopher opposed idealism naturalism proposing instead methodology social research based around humanistic coefficient sometimes known humanist principle outbreak world war led znaniecki join thomas


spared tragic history motherland became professor university illinois stayed death mantle passed gifted student stanis aw ossowski revived polish sociological institute liquidated stalinist authorities polish sociological association ossowski maintained noted considerable resistance znaniecki ideological control science principle analytic induction analytic induction method social research inductive theories concepts modified result research see scientific method


philosophical foundations analytic induction originate aristotle concept induction analytic induction thought phenomenological process phenomena cannot occur understood separate process similar socratic method karl popper 's falsification researcher sets disprove theory maximizing chance producing negative evidence analytic induction znaniecki 's answer problem induction znaniecki believed analytic induction new process conducting social research capable universal precise results structuralism vs functionalism debate


two competing schools sociological thought structuralism functionalism debate inherited european philosophical roots humanistic sociology husserl 's attempt via reflexion extract essence experience opposed heidegger 's existential phenomenology school lays claim legitimate theory leads quite different approaches interpreting results research developing conclusions genesis debate relates primacy conceptual objects involved researcher consider structural objects relation system priority researcher consider function


object priority problems found school lead static analysis structuralism znaniecki 's model derived independently max weber mile durkheim concept ''agency'' derived claude l vi strauss provided foundations structuralism later work sociologists pierre bourdieu structuralists influenced humanistic sociology interpret data terms opposing valuations contrasts relations interpretation data must contextual structuralism allows realist analysis structures represent organized reality relation larger social system understanding larger social system


differentiating post modernism seeks describe society lack structure fragmentation functionalism functionalists seek objective understanding social world positivist view social science believing objective results obtained techniques like surveys interviews discount inherent bias intellectual believing results value free functionalism grew work max weber mile durkheim functionalism popular us period humanistic sociology role decline functionalism seen


rise later models returned focus subjective nature human experience example later popularity post modern thinking highlighting subjective basis semantics humanistic sociology also differentiates functionalism promoting need freedom thinking practices research functionalists reject idea realist structural analysis seeking instead observable explanation external validation outside social system structural functionalism functionalists actually regard proponents structural functionalism structural functionalism close humanistic sociology understanding society shared


norms values structural functionalism arose functionalism attempt explain dominance social groups others known conflict theory conflict theory contradicts functionalism structural functionalism usually associated work talcott parsons humanistic sociology role decline structural functionalism humanistic model exist dynamical systems values obtained social actions evolutionary sense symbolic interactionism many claim symbolic interactionism grown directly work thomas znaniecki symbolic interactionism grew structural functionalism symbolic interactionism views society


model culture system values sense humanistic sociology transcended structure vs function debate focusing instead value based world culture researcher working humanistic sociologist scientific objectification values using analytic induction context humanistic coefficient unduly influenced questions structure function objective order social world found character social world derived sociological sources discount scientific conclusion humanistic sociologist models experience humanity span


social action humanistic sociologist derives dual structure space axiological constructions mapped symbolic expressions humanistic sociologist follow path pointed znaniecki reject naturalistic view post modernism post modernism emphasis subjectivity implies one set values better criticised moral relativism however quite possible equate scientific analysis value systems post modernism analysis globalisation one application analysis within post modernism focus subjective nature experience


humanistic sociologist post modern thinker however humanistic sociologist core values beliefs possible assign positive negative evaluation value example priority inner dignity man practices humanistic research humanistic social work ref name payne payne ''humanistic social work core principles practice'' chicago lyceum basingstoke palgrave macmillan ref ref name stefaroi stefaroi petru ''humane spiritual qualities professional humanistic social work humanistic social work third way theory practice'' charleston createspace usa ref value


positive extent leads creative constructive social activity therefore wrong equate post modernism humanistic sociology seeks irreducible representation human world see also education poland world war ii ''verstehen'' ''humanity society'' association humanist sociology references external links el bieta ha https webarchiveorg web http wwwlrz muenchende profhelle znaniecki htm humanistic approach florian znaniecki https doiorg fbf internal bolshevisation elite social science training stalinist poland edith kurzweil reviewed work humanistic sociology florian znaniecki american journal sociology vol varieties political expression sociology jul


pp nbsp https wwwjstororg pss jstor main page http kspanpanpl indexphpoption com content task view id itemid conference florian znaniecki humanistic sociology message contemporaneity april warsaw sociological theories


'''political geography''' concerned study spatially uneven outcomes political processes ways political processes affected spatial structures conventionally purposes analysis political geography adopts three scale structure study state centre study international relations geopolitics study localities primary concerns subdiscipline summarized inter relationships people state territory history origins political geography lie origins human geography

Social science
Geography
Human geography
Political geography


early practitioners concerned mainly military political consequences relationships physical geography state territories state power particular close association regional geography focus unique characteristics regions environmental determinism emphasis influence physical environment human activities association found expression work german geographer friedrich ratzel book ''politische geographie'' developed concept lebensraum living space explicitly linked cultural growth nation territorial


expansion later used provide academic legitimisation imperialist expansion german third reich british geographer halford mackinder also heavily influenced environmental determinism developing concept 'geographical pivot history' heartland theory argued era sea power coming end land based powers ascendant particular whoever controlled heartland 'euro asia' would control world theory involved concepts diametrically opposed ideas alfred


thayer mahan significance ' 'sea power'' world conflict heartland theory hypothesized possibility huge empire created n't need use coastal transoceanic transport supply military industrial complex empire could defeated rest world allied perspective proved influential throughout period cold war underpinning military thinking creation buffer states east west central europe heartland theory depicted world divided ''heartland'' eastern europe western russia ''world island'' eurasia


africa ''peripheral islands'' british isles japan indonesia australia ''new world'' americas mackinder argued whoever controlled heartland would control world used ideas politically influence events treaty versailles buffer states created ussr germany prevent either controlling heartland time ratzel creating theory states based around concepts lebensraum social darwinism argued states analogous 'organisms' needed sufficient room live


writers created idea political geographical science objective view world prior world war ii political geography concerned largely issues global power struggles influencing state policy theories taken board german geopoliticians see geopolitik karl haushofer perhaps inadvertently greatly influenced nazi political theory form politics seen legitimated 'scientific' theories close association environmental determinism freezing political boundaries cold war led


significant decline perceived importance political geography described brian berry 'moribund backwater' although time areas human geography new approaches including quantitative spatial science behavioural studies structural marxism invigorating academic research largely ignored political geographers whose main point reference remained regional approach result political geography texts produced period descriptive richard muir could argue political geography longer dead duck


electoral geography relied heavily adoption quantitative spatial science robert sack 's work territoriality based behavioural approach henry bakis showed impact information telecommunications networks political geography peter taylor 's eg work world systems theory owed much developments within structural marxism however recent growth vitality importance sub discipline also related changes world result end cold war emergence new world order yet


poorly defined development new research agendas recent focus social movements political struggles going beyond study nationalism explicit territorial basis also increasing interest geography green politics see example david pepper 's work including geopolitics environmental protest capacity existing state apparatus wider political institutions address contemporary future environmental problems competently political geography extended scope traditional political science approaches acknowledging exercise power restricted


states bureaucracies part everyday life resulted concerns political geography increasingly overlapping human geography sub disciplines economic geography particularly social cultural geography relation study politics place see example books david harvey joe painter although contemporary political geography maintains many traditional concerns see multi disciplinary expansion related areas part general process within human geography involves blurring boundaries


formerly discrete areas study discipline whole enriched particular contemporary political geography often considers states organized regional groupings formally eg european union informally eg third world relationship states former colonies propagated time example neo colonialism relationship government people relationships states including international trades treaties functions demarcations policing boundaries imagined geographies political implications influence political power geographical space


political implications modern media eg radio tv ict internet social networks study election results electoral geography critical political geography critical political geography mainly concerned criticism traditional political geographies vis vis modern trends much move towards 'critical geographies' arguments drawn largely postmodern post structural postcolonial theories examples include feminist geography argues recognition power relations patriarchal attempts theorise alternative conceptions identity identity politics alongside related concerns queer theory youth studies postcolonial theories recognise


imperialistic universalising nature much political geography especially development geography notable political geographers john agnew simon dalby klaus dodds derek gregory richard hartshorne karl haushofer ron j johnston reece jones cindi katz peter kropotkin yves lacoste halford mackinder doreen massey joe painter friedrich ratzel ellen churchill semple peter j taylor see also list geography topics list countries geography reference tables feminist geography notes references bakis h ''g opolitique de l'information'' presses universitaires de france paris harvey ''justice nature geography difference'' oxford blackwell johnston rj ''political


electoral spatial systems'' oxford clarendon press painter j ''politics geography 'political geography' critical perspective'' london arnold pepper ''modern environmentalism'' london routledge ratzel f ''politische geographie'' munich oldenbourg sack rd ''human territoriality theory history'' cambridge cambridge university press reading agnew j ''political geography reader'' london arnold bakis h communication political geography changing world ''revue internationale de science politique'' pp http ipssagepubcom content toc buleon p 'the state political geography france


''american indian culture research journal'' pp taylor pj flint c ''political geography world economy nation state locality'' harlow pearson education lim external links branches geography human geography


philosophers space time shared scope philosophy theories physical cosmology may include scientific non scientific propositions may depend upon assumptions cannot tested cosmology differs astronomy former concerned universe whole latter deals individual celestial objects modern physical cosmology dominated big bang theory attempts bring together observational astronomy particle physics ref name nyt ref specifically standard parameterization big bang dark matter dark energy known lambda cdm model theoretical astrophysicist


david n spergel described cosmology historical science look space look back time due finite nature speed light disciplines physics astrophysics played central role shaping understanding universe scientific observation experiment physical cosmology shaped mathematics observation analysis whole universe universe generally understood begun big bang followed almost instantaneously cosmic inflation expansion space universe thought emerged


billion years ago ref name planck ref cosmogony studies origin universe cosmography maps features universe diderot 's encyclop die cosmology broken uranology science heavens aerology science air geology science continents hydrology science waters metaphysical cosmology also described placing humans universe relationship entities exemplified marcus aurelius 's observation man 's place relationship know world


know know purpose world exists know world discoveries physical cosmology physical cosmology branch physics astrophysics deals study physical origins evolution universe also includes study nature universe large scale earliest form known celestial mechanics study heavens greek philosophers aristarchus samos aristotle ptolemy proposed different cosmological theories geocentric


ptolemaic system prevailing theory th century nicolaus copernicus subsequently johannes kepler galileo galilei proposed heliocentric system one famous examples epistemological rupture physical cosmology isaac newton 's ''principia mathematica'' published first description law universal gravitation provided physical mechanism kepler 's laws also allowed anomalies previous systems caused gravitational interaction planets resolved fundamental difference newton 's cosmology preceding copernican principle bodies earth obey


physical laws celestial bodies crucial philosophical advance physical cosmology modern scientific cosmology usually considered begun albert einstein 's publication final modification general relativity paper cosmological considerations general theory relativity although paper widely available outside germany end world war nbsp general relativity prompted cosmogonists willem de sitter karl schwarzschild arthur eddington explore astronomical ramifications enhanced ability astronomers study distant objects physicists began changing


assumption universe static unchanging alexander friedmann introduced idea expanding universe contained moving matter parallel dynamic approach cosmology one long standing debate structure cosmos coming climax great debate early cosmologists heber curtis ernst pik determining nebulae seen telescopes separate galaxies far distant heber curtis argued idea spiral nebulae star systems right island universes


mount wilson astronomer harlow shapley championed model cosmos made milky way star system difference ideas came climax organization great debate april meeting us national academy sciences washington dc debate resolved edwin hubble detected cepheid variables andromeda galaxy distance established spiral nebulae well beyond edge milky way subsequent modelling universe explored possibility cosmological constant introduced einstein


paper may result expanding universe depending value thus big bang model proposed belgian priest georges lema tre subsequently corroborated edwin hubble 's discovery redshift later discovery cosmic microwave background radiation arno penzias robert woodrow wilson findings first step rule many alternative cosmologies since around several dramatic advances observational cosmology transformed cosmology largely speculative science predictive science precise agreement theory


observation advances include observations microwave background cobe wmap planck satellites large new galaxy redshift surveys including dfgrs sdss observations distant supernovae gravitational lensing observations matched predictions cosmic inflation theory modified big bang theory specific version known lambda cdm model led many refer modern times golden age cosmology march astronomers harvard smithsonian center astrophysics announced detection gravitational waves providing strong evidence inflation big bang ref name bicep ref ref


totality space time phenomena historically quite broad scope many cases found religion modern use metaphysical cosmology addresses questions universe beyond scope science distinguished religious cosmology approaches questions using philosophical methods like dialectics modern metaphysical cosmology tries address questions ref name bicep origin universe first cause existence necessary see monism pantheism emanationism creationism ultimate material components universe see


remains manifest billion years unmanifest equal length innumerable universes exist simultaneously cycles last forever driven desires jain cosmology jain agamas written around ad per teachings mahavira bc cyclical oscillating eternal finite jain cosmology considers ''loka'' universe uncreated entity existing since infinity shape universe similar man standing legs apart arm resting waist universe according jainism broad top narrow


ignorance derived sense experience temporal spatial limits arbitrary relative parmenidean whole samkhya cosmic evolution kapila th century bc pupil asuri prakriti matter purusha consiouness relation prakriti matter source world becoming pure potentiality evolves successively twenty four tattvas principles evolution possible ''prakriti'' always state tension among constituent strands known ''gunas'' ''sattva'' lightness purity ''rajas'' passion activity ''tamas'' inertia heaviness cause effect theory sankhya called


''satkaarya vaada'' theory existent causes holds ''nothing really created destroyed nothingness'' evolution simply transformation primal nature one form another biblical cosmology genesis creation narrative earth floating infinite waters chaos earth heavens form unit within infinite waters chaos firmament keeps outer chaos ocean atomist universe anaxagoras nbsp bc later epicurus infinite extent universe contains two things infinite number tiny seeds atoms void infinite


extent atoms made substance differ size shape objects formed atom aggregations decay back atoms incorporates leucippus' principle causality nothing happens random everything happens reason necessity universe ruled gods pythagorean universe philolaus bc existence central fire center universe center universe central fire around earth sun moon planets revolve uniformly sun revolves around central fire


fire ether make whole universe ref name demundo ref stoic universe stoics nbsp bc nbsp nbsp nbsp ad island universe cosmos finite surrounded infinite void state flux pulsates size undergoes periodic upheavals conflagrations aristotelian universe aristotle nbsp bc geocentric static steady state finite extent infinite time spherical earth surrounded concentric celestial spheres universe exists unchanged throughout eternity contains fifth element called aether added four classical elements aristarchean universe aristarchus circa nbsp nbsp bc


heliocentric earth rotates daily axis revolves annually sun circular orbit sphere fixed stars centered sun ptolemaic model ptolemy nd century nbsp ad geocentric based aristotelian universe universe orbits around stationary earth planets move circular epicycles center moved larger circular orbit called eccentric deferent around center point near earth use equants added another level complexity allowed astronomers predict positions planets successful universe model


time using criterion longevity almagest great system aryabhatan model aryabhata geocentric heliocentric earth rotates planets move elliptical orbits around either earth sun uncertain whether model geocentric heliocentric due planetary orbits given respect earth sun medieval universe medieval philosophers finite time universe finite time beginning proposed christian philosopher john philoponus argues ancient greek notion


infinite past logical arguments supporting finite universe developed early muslim philosopher al kindi jewish philosopher saadia gaon muslim theologian al ghazali non parallel multiverse bhagvata puran multiverse non parallel innumerable universes comparable multiverse theory except nonparallel universe different individual ''jiva atmas'' embodied souls exist exactly one universe time universes manifest matter follow parallel time cycles manifesting unmanifesting time multiversal cosmology fakhr al din al razi multiverse multiple worlds universes


exists infinite outer space beyond known world god power fill vacuum infinite number universes maragha models maragha school geocentric various modifications ptolemaic model aristotelian universe including rejection equant eccentrics maragheh observatory introduction tusi couple al tusi alternative models later proposed including first accurate lunar model ibn al shatir model rejecting stationary earth favour earth 's rotation ali ku u planetary model incorporating circular inertia al birjandi nilakanthan model nilakantha


somayaji geocentric heliocentric universe planets orbit sun orbits earth similar later tychonic system copernican universe nicolaus copernicus heliocentric circular planetary orbits first described ''de revolutionibus orbium coelestium'' tychonic system tycho brahe geocentric heliocentric universe planets orbit sun sun orbits earth similar earlier nilakanthan model bruno 's cosmology giordano bruno infinite extent infinite time homogeneous isotropic non hierarchical rejects


idea hierarchical universe earth sun special properties comparison heavenly bodies void stars filled aether matter composed four elements water earth fire air atomistic animistic intelligent keplerian johannes kepler heliocentric elliptical planetary orbits kepler 's discoveries marrying mathematics physics provided foundation present conception solar system distant stars still seen objects thin fixed celestial sphere static newtonian isaac newton


static evolving steady state infinite every particle universe attracts every particle matter large scale uniformly distributed gravitationally balanced unstable cartesian vortex universe ren descartes th century static evolving steady state infinite system huge swirling whirlpools aethereal fine matter produces would call gravitational effects vacuum empty space filled matter hierarchical universe immanuel kant johann lambert th century static evolving steady state infinite matter clustered ever larger scales


macmillan universe william duncan macmillan static steady state new matter created radiation starlight perpetually recycled new matter particles friedmann universe spherical space alexander friedmann spherical expanding space ''k'' positive curvature curvature constant ''k'' expands recollapses spatially closed finite friedmann universe hyperbolic space alexander friedmann hyperbolic expanding space ''k'' negative curvature said infinite ambiguous unbounded expands forever dirac large numbers hypothesis


paul dirac expanding demands large variation ''g'' decreases time gravity weakens universe evolves friedmann zero curvature einstein de sitter expanding flat space ''k'' critical density curvature constant ''k'' said infinite ambiguous unbounded cosmos limited extent expands forever simplest known universes named considered friedmann deceleration term ''q'' means expansion rate slows original big bang friedmann lema tre georges lema tre


expansion gravity positive magnitude greater gravity universe initial high density state primeval atom followed two stage expansion used destabilize universe lema tre considered father big bang model oscillating universe friedmann einstein favored friedmann expanding contracting cycles time endless beginningless thus avoids beginning time paradox perpetual cycles big bang followed big crunch einstein 's first choice rejected model eddington universe


arthur eddington first static expands static einstein universe instability disturbed expansion mode relentless matter dilution becomes de sitter universe dominates gravity milne universe kinematic relativity edward milne william h mccrea kinematic expansion without space expansion rejects general relativity expanding space paradigm gravity included initial assumption obeys cosmological principle special relativity consists finite spherical cloud particles galaxies expands within infinite otherwise empty flat space center


cosmic edge surface particle cloud expands light speed explanation gravity elaborate unconvincing friedmann lema tre robertson walker class models howard robertson arthur walker uniformly expanding class universes homogeneous isotropic spacetime separates uniformly curved space cosmic time common co moving observers formulation system known flrw robertson walker metrics cosmic time curved space steady state hermann bondi thomas gold expanding steady state infinite matter creation rate maintains constant density continuous creation


nothing nowhere exponential expansion deceleration term ''q'' steady state fred hoyle expanding steady state unstable matter creation rate maintains constant density since matter creation rate must exactly balanced space expansion rate system unstable ambiplasma hannes alfv n oskar klein cellular universe expanding means matter antimatter annihilation based concept plasma cosmology universe viewed meta galaxies divided double layers thus bubble like nature universes formed bubbles ongoing cosmic matter antimatter


separated moving apart eternal inflation multiple universe model andre linde big bang cosmic inflation multiverse based concept cold inflation inflationary events occur random independent initial conditions expand bubble universes supposedly like entire cosmos bubbles nucleate spacetime foam cyclic model paul steinhardt neil turok expanding contracting cycles theory two parallel orbifold planes branes collide periodically higher dimensional space quintessence dark energy cyclic model lauris


baum paul frampton solution tolman 's entropy problem phantom dark energy fragments universe large number disconnected patches patch contracts containing dark energy zero entropy table notes term static simply means expanding contracting symbol ''g'' represents newton 's gravitational constant lambda cosmological constant see also earth science lambda cdm model absolute time space galaxy formation evolution illustris project list astrophysicists big history non standard cosmology jainism non creationism taiji philosophy universal rotation curve warm inflation references external links http nedipaccaltechedu nasa ipac extragalactic database ned http nedipaccaltechedu library distances ned distances


http wwwaiporg history cosmology indexhtm cosmic journey history scientific cosmology american institute physics https webarchiveorg web http arxivorg abs astro ph introduction cosmology david lyth 's lectures ictp summer school high energy physics cosmology sophia centre sophia centre study cosmology culture university wales trinity saint david http genesismissionjplnasagov educate scimodule cosmogony cosmogonypdf coscosmolttpdf genesis ''cosmic chemistry'' module http wwwbbccouk programmes p universe 's shape bbc radio discussion sir martin rees julian barbour janna levin ''in time'' february


'''neuro ophthalmology''' academically oriented subspecialty merges fields neurology ophthalmology often dealing complex systemic diseases manifestations visual system neuro ophthalmologists initially complete residency either neurology ophthalmology fellowship complementary field since diagnostic studies normal patients significant neuro ophthalmic disease ref name lessell ref detailed medical history physical exam essential neuro ophthalmologists often spend significant amount time patients common pathology referred neuro ophthalmologist includes afferent visual system disorders eg optic neuritis optic neuropathy papilledema brain tumors strokes

Applied science
Medicine and health
Ophthalmology
Neuro-ophthalmology


efferent visual system disorders eg anisocoria diplopia ophthalmoplegia ptosis nystagmus blepharospasm seizures eye eye muscles hemifacial spasm largest international society neuro ophthalmologists north american neuro ophthalmological society nanos organizes annual meeting publishes journal neuro ophthalmology neuro ophthalmologists often faculty large university based medical centers patients often co existing diseases fields rheumatology endocrinology oncology cardiology etc thus neuro ophthalmologist often liaison ophthalmology department departments medical center description neuro ophthalmology focuses diseases nervous system affect vision control


eye movements pupillary reflexes neuro ophthalmologists often see patients complex multi system disease zebras uncommon neuro ophthalmologists often active teachers academic institution first four winners prestigious straatsma american academy ophthalmology teaching awards neuro ophthalmologists ref name frohman ref neuro ophthalmology mostly non procedural however neuro ophthalmologists may trained perform eye muscle surgery treat adult strabismus optic nerve fenestration idiopathic intracranial hypertension botulinum injections blepharospasm hemifacial spasm historical developments turn th century textbook english language neuro ophthalmology


dr william campbell posey professor ophthalmology philadelphia polyclinic dr william g spiller professor neurology university pennsylvania edited ''the eye nervous system diagnostic relations various authors'' jb lippincott co according preface book although generally conceded knowledge neurology indispensable ophthalmologist acquaintanceship ophthalmology greatest service neurologist book english language covers ground two specialties meet frank b walsh


pioneer neuro ophthalmology helping popularize develop field walsh born oxbow saskatchewan earned degree university manitoba joined wilmer ophthalmological institute johns hopkins university began organizing saturday morning neuro ophthalmology conferences walsh compiled first neuro ophthalmology textbook published updated years generations students future improved functional neuroimaging paving way better understanding assessment management many neurologic neuro ophthalmologic conditions understanding neuroscience evolves neuro ophthalmologists becoming increasingly better


treatment rather diagnosis novel therapies emerging treat traditionally vision devastating disease example clinical trials began february use gene therapy treat leber hereditary optic neuropathy one first uses gene therapy central nervous system progress also made understanding retinal ganglion cell regeneration establishing synaptic connections optic nerve brain ref name lessell regions central nervous system one goals national institutes health use visual system


window understand neural plasticity regenerative medicine central nervous system area neuroscience promising future intimately intertwined neuro ophthalmology references external links http librarymedutahedu novel neuro ophthalmology virtual education library novel neuroscience ophthalmology neurology


'''critical management studies''' '''cms''' loose extensive grouping theoretically informed critiques management business organisation grounded originally critical theory perspective today encompasses wide range perspectives critical traditional theories management business schools generate theories history generally accepted cms began mats alvesson hugh willmott 's edited collection ''critical management studies'' critical management studies cms initially brought together critical theory post structuralist writings since developed diverse directions dominant narrative within cms perhaps

Social science
Sociology
Critical management studies


important development stimulation global expansion business schools american invention especially europe decreases state funding narrative social sciences increases funding business schools resulted many academics graduate training sociology history philosophy related fields study ending jobs training managers academics brought different theoretical tools political perspectives business schools began question politics managerialism link techniques management neo liberalism new voices drew frankfurt school


critical theory work michel foucault jacques derrida gilles deleuze later feminism queer theory post colonial theory anarchism ecological philosophies radical democratic theory also influence see alvesson willmott survey field roots cms also came series uk labour process conferences began reflected impact braverman 's attempt make marxist categories central understanding work organisations industrial relations labor studies scholars joined cms fold us seeking new opportunities employment labor related programs


intention connect experiences broader explanations theorizing leads people cms geographical base main home cms organisation theory behaviour parts british australian scandinavian business schools though strong contributions related fields sociology sociology education critical pedagogy contributions stem accounting growing interest management specialisms marketing international business operational research logistics etc since academics north america parts world also engaging body writing research


cms division within american academy management aom membership around larger international divisions many heterodox scholars various parts world inspired international activities standing conference organisational symbolism latter grouping developed work drew variously post structuralism symbolic interactionism order develop cultural anthropological understanding contemporary organizations others though without affiliation seeking new formations alliances since bi annual cms conference held uk


well workshops bi annual conference held us academy management today significant concentrations cms scholars uk school business management queen mary university london school management university leicester essex business school university essex alliance manchester business school university manchester marketing research group royal holloway elsewhere copenhagen business school lund school economics management lund university istanbul bilgi university clusters cms scholars many cms scholars


globally rely conferences journals like ''tamara journal critical organization studies'' ''ephemera theory politics organization'' ''culture organization'' ''organization critical journal organization theory society'' affiliations controversy debate major points debate focused cms 's relationship orthodox forms marxism nature purposes cms critique questions inclusion exclusion fournier grey possibilities social transformation within business schools parker development alternative models globalisation one trend cms seen incorporation


autonomist marxist theory first introduced english speaking world work michael hardt antonio negri new cms scholars using theories interests proposing alternative non capitalist forms organizing work life often built around notion collective responsibility commons developments include engagements post colonial theory critical race theory investigate way management business schools contribute cedric robinson called racial capitalism recent critical works referred bourdieusian theory structuralist constructivism point risks


detailed information found https webarchiveorg web http dialspacedialpipexcom town close hr hcwhome links siteshtm links critical management resources https webarchiveorg web http groupaomonlineorg cms critical management studies interest group us academy management http wwwcomiesorguk critical organisation management information education sources comies critical theory management marxism postmodern theory postmodernism


'''marxism''' method socioeconomic analysis uses materialist interpretation historical development better known historical materialism understand class relations social conflict well dialectical perspective view social transformation originates works th century german philosophers karl marx friedrich engels marxism developed time various branches schools thought currently single definitive marxist theory exists marxist schools thought place greater emphasis certain aspects classical marxism rejecting modifying aspects schools sought combine marxian concepts

Humanities
Philosophy
Social philosophy
Marxism


non marxian concepts led widely varying conclusions marxism profound impact global academia influenced many fields including anthropology archaeology art theory criminology cultural studies economics education ethics film theory geography historiography literary criticism media studies philosophy political science psychology science studies sociology urban planning theater overview karl marx marxism seeks explain social phenomena within given society analyzing material conditions economic activities required fulfill human material needs assumes form economic organization mode production influences social phenomena


including wider social relations political institutions legal systems cultural systems aesthetics ideologies social relations together economic system form base superstructure forces production ie technology improve existing forms organizing production become obsolete hinder progress karl marx wrote certain stage development material productive forces society come conflict existing relations production merely expresses thing legal terms property relations within framework operated hitherto forms development productive forces relations turn


fetters begins era social revolution inefficiencies manifest social contradictions society turn fought level class struggle ref name comparingeconomic gregory paul r robert c stuart marx 's theory change ''comparing economic systems twenty first century'' th ed p ref capitalist mode production struggle materializes minority means production bourgeoisie vast majority population produce goods services proletariat starting conjectural premise social change occurs


result struggle different classes within society contradict one another marxist would conclude capitalism exploits oppresses proletariat therefore capitalism inevitably lead proletarian revolution socialist society private property means production would replaced co operative ownership socialist economy would base production creation private profits criteria satisfying human needs production use friedrich engels explained capitalist mode appropriation product enslaves first producer appropriator replaced mode


appropriation products based upon nature modern means production upon one hand direct social appropriation means maintenance extension production direct individual appropriation means subsistence enjoyment marxian economics proponents view capitalism economically unsustainable incapable improving living standards population due need compensate falling rate profit cutting employees' wages social benefits pursuing military aggression socialist mode production would succeed capitalism humanity 's mode


production revolution workers according marxian crisis theory socialism inevitability economic necessity etymology term ''marxism'' popularized karl kautsky considered ''orthodox marxist'' dispute orthodox ' 'revisionist'' followers marx ref name georges haupt pp haupt georges peter fawcett eric hobsbawm ''aspects international socialism essays georges haupt'' paperback ed cambridge cambridge university press ref kautsky 's revisionist rival eduard bernstein also later adopted use term ref name georges haupt pp engels support use term


''marxism'' describe either marx 's views ref name georges haupt pp claimed term abusively used rhetorical qualifier attempting cast real followers marx casting others different terms ''lassallians'' ref name georges haupt pp engels claimed marx criticized self proclaimed marxist paul lafargue saying lafargue 's views considered marxist one thing certain marxist ref name georges haupt pp historical materialism p ref marxism


uses materialist methodology referred marx engels materialist conception history later better known historical materialism analyse underlying causes societal development change perspective collective ways humans make living marx 's account theory ''the german ideology'' preface ''a contribution critique political economy'' constituent features society social classes political pyramid ideologies assumed stem economic activity forming considered base superstructure base


superstructure metaphor describes totality social relations humans produce produce social existence according marx sum total forces production accessible men determines condition society forms society 's economic base base includes material forces production labour means production relations production ie social political arrangements regulate production distribution base rises superstructure legal political forms social consciousness derive economic base conditions superstructure


dominant ideology society conflicts development material productive forces relations production provokes social revolutions whereby changes economic base leads social transformation superstructure relationship reflexive base initially gives rise superstructure remains foundation form social organization newly formed social organizations act upon parts base superstructure rather static relationship dialectic expressed driven conflicts contradictions engels clarified history hitherto


existing society history class struggles freeman slave patrician plebeian lord serf guild master journeyman word oppressor oppressed stood constant opposition one another carried uninterrupted hidden open fight fight time ended either revolutionary reconstitution society large common ruin contending classes marx considered recurring class conflicts driving force human history conflicts manifested distinct transitional stages development western europe accordingly marx designated human history encompassing four


stages development relations production primitive communism co operative tribal societies slave society development tribal city state aristocracy born feudalism aristocrats ruling class merchants evolve bourgeoisie capitalism capitalists ruling class create employ proletariat historical materialism referred materialist theory history marx claim produced master key history materialist conception history historico philosophic theory ''marche g n rale'' imposed fate upon every people whatever


historic circumstances finds letter editor russian newspaper paper ''otetchestvennye zapiskym'' explained ideas based upon concrete study actual conditions europe criticism capitalism according marxist theoretician revolutionary socialist vladimir lenin principal content marxism marx 's economic doctrine marx believed capitalist bourgeoisie economists promoting saw lie interests capitalist worker one believed


purporting concept fastest possible growth productive capital best wealthy capitalists also workers provided employment exploitation matter surplus labour amount labour performed beyond received goods exploitation socioeconomic feature every class society one principal features distinguishing social classes power one social class control means production enables exploitation classes capitalism labour theory value operative concern whereby


value commodity equals socially necessary labour time required produce condition surplus value difference value produced value received labourer synonymous term ' 'surplus labour'' capitalist exploitation thus realised deriving surplus value worker pre capitalist economies exploitation worker achieved via physical coercion capitalist mode production results subtly achieved workers means production must voluntarily enter exploitive work relationship capitalist order earn


necessities life worker 's entry employment voluntary choose capitalist work however worker must work starve thus exploitation inevitable voluntary nature worker participating capitalist society illusory production circulation causes exploitation marx emphasised capitalism ''per se'' cheat worker alienation german ''entfremdung'' estrangement people humanity systematic result capitalism capitalism fruits production belong employers expropriate surplus created others generate


alienated labourers marx 's view alienation objective characterization worker 's situation capitalism self awareness condition prerequisite social classes marx distinguishes social classes basis two criteria ie ownership means production control labour power others following criterion class based property relations marx identified social stratification capitalist mode production following social groups proletariat class modern wage labourers means production reduced selling labour


power order live capitalist mode production establishes conditions enable bourgeoisie exploit proletariat worker 's labour generates surplus value greater worker 's wage lumpenproletariat outcasts society criminals vagabonds beggars prostitutes without political class consciousness interest national let alone international economic affairs marx claimed specific sub division proletariat would play part eventual social revolution bourgeoisie means production buy labour power proletariat thus exploiting proletariat


social world social class possesses well capacity rationally act best interests class consciousness required social class effect successful revolution thus dictatorship proletariat without defining ''ideology'' marx used term describe production images social reality according engels ideology process accomplished called thinker consciously true false consciousness real motive forces impelling remain unknown otherwise simply would ideological process hence imagines false


seeming motive forces ruling class controls society 's means production superstructure society ie ruling social ideas determined best interests ruling class ''the german ideology'' marx says ideas ruling class every epoch ruling ideas ie class ruling material force society time ruling intellectual force term ''political economy'' initially referred study material conditions economic production capitalist system marxism political economy study


means production specifically capital manifests economic activity new way thinking invented socialists believed common ownership means production ie industries land wealth nature trade apparatus wealth society would abolish exploitative working conditions experienced capitalism working class revolution state marxists saw weapon subjugation one class another seized used suppress hitherto ruling class capitalists implementing commonly owned democratically controlled workplace create society


communism marxists see true democracy economy based co operation human need social betterment rather competition profit many independently acting profit seekers would also end class society marx saw fundamental division hitherto existing history marx saw work effort humans transform environment needs fundamental feature human kind capitalism product worker 's labour taken sold market rather part worker 's life therefore alienating


worker additionally worker compelled various means nicer others work harder faster longer hours happening employer constantly trying save labour costs paying workers less figuring use cheaper equipment allows employer extract largest amount work therefore potential wealth workers fundamental nature capitalist society different slave society one small group society exploits larger group common ownership means production


profit motive eliminated motive furthering human flourishing introduced surplus produced workers property society whole classes producers appropriators additionally state origins bands retainers hired first ruling classes protect economic privilege wither away conditions existence disappeared ref name origins family chapter ix ref ref name zhaodickson ref ref name cq kurian george thomas withering away state p ''the encyclopedia political science'' washington dc cq press ref


communism revolution socialism red flag raised fist symbols revolutionary socialism according ''the oxford handbook karl marx'' marx used many terms refer post capitalist society positive humanism socialism communism realm free individuality free association producers etc used terms completely interchangeably notion 'socialism' 'communism' distinct historical stages alien work entered lexicon marxism death according orthodox marxist theory overthrow capitalism socialist revolution contemporary society inevitable inevitability


disunited production collective improved labour failure russian revolution along failure socialist movements resist outbreak world war led renewed theoretical effort valuable contributions lenin rosa luxemburg towards appreciation marx 's crisis theory efforts formulate theory imperialism schools thought classical classical marxism denotes collection socio eco political theories expounded karl marx friedrich engels ernest mandel remarked marxism always open always critical always self critical classical marxism distinguishes ''marxism'' broadly perceived


marx believed marx wrote son law paul lafargue french labour leader jules guesde claimed represent marxist principles accusing revolutionary phrase mongering denying value reformist struggle marx 's letter derives paraphrase marxism marxist accusing guesde lafargue revolutionary phrase mongering denying value reformist struggles marx made famous remark politics represented marxism 'ce qu'il de certain c'est que moi je ne suis pas marxiste' 'what certain


marxist belief ability working class forge destiny without need vanguard party mediate aid liberation along anarchism libertarian marxism one main currents libertarian socialism libertarian marxism includes currents autonomism council communism de leonism lettrism parts new left situationism socialisme ou barbarie workerism ref name map ref libertarian marxism often strong influence post left social anarchists notable theorists libertarian marxism included maurice brinton cornelius castoriadis guy debord raya dunayevskaya daniel gu rin c l r james


rosa luxemburg antonio negri anton pannekoek fredy perlman ernesto screpanti e p thompson raoul vaneigem yanis varoufakis latter claiming marx libertarian marxist humanist marxist humanism born publication marx 's ''economic philosophic manuscripts '' reached degree prominence marxist humanists contend continuity early philosophical writings marx develops theory alienation structural description capitalist society found later works ''capital'' hold


australian archaeologist one th century 's prominent marxist academics according survey american professors neil gross solon simmons social science professors humanities professors identify marxists professors disciplines identify marxists archaeology theoretical development marxist archaeology first developed soviet union young archaeologist named vladislav ravdonikas published report entitled soviet history material culture within work discipline archaeology


stood criticised inherently bourgeois therefore anti socialist part academic reforms instituted soviet union administration general secretary joseph stalin great emphasis placed adoption marxist archaeology throughout country theoretical developments subsequently adopted archaeologists working capitalist states outside leninist bloc notably australian academic v gordon childe used marxist theory understandings development human society sociology marxist sociology study sociology marxist perspective ref name black johnson


allan g ''the blackwell dictionary sociology user 's guide sociological language'' wiley blackwell https booksgooglecom booksid v kiw x j mc pg pa pp ref form conflict theory associated marxism 's objective developing positive empirical science capitalist society part mobilization revolutionary working class ref name encofsoc http wwwbookragscom research marxist sociology eos marxist sociology ''encyclopedia sociology'' macmillan reference ref american sociological association section dedicated issues marxist sociology interested examining insights marxist methodology marxist analysis help explain complex dynamics modern society ref name section http www asanetorg sectionmarxist abouthtml section marxist


sociology ref influenced thought karl marx marxist sociology emerged late th early th century well marx max weber mile durkheim considered seminal influences early sociology first marxist school sociology known austro marxism carl gr nberg antonio labriola among notable members western marxist school became accepted within western academia subsequently fracturing several different perspectives frankfurt school critical theory due former state supported position backlash marxist thought


post communist states see sociology poland remains dominant sociological research sanctioned supported communist states remain see sociology china economics marxian economics school economic thought tracing foundations critique classical political economy first expounded upon karl marx friedrich engels marxian economics concerns analysis crisis capitalism role distribution surplus product surplus value various types economic systems nature origin economic value impact class class struggle


economic political processes process economic evolution although marxian school considered heterodox ideas come marxian economics contributed mainstream understanding global economy certain concepts marxian economics especially related capital accumulation business cycle creative destruction fitted use capitalist systems education marxist education develops marx 's works movements influenced various ways addition educational psychology lev vygotsky pedagogy paulo freire samuel bowles herbert gintis' ''schooling


capitalist america'' study educational reform us relationship reproduction capitalism possibilities utilizing contradictions revolutionary movement work peter mclaren especially since turn st century developed marxist educational theory developing revolutionary critical pedagogy work glenn rikowski dave hill paula allman marxists analyzed forms pedagogical processes capitalist communist education tyson e lewis noah de lissovoy gregory bourassa derek r ford curry malott developed


marxist history education us marvin gettleman 's examined history communist education sandy grande synthesized marxist educational theory indigenous pedagogy 's like john holt analyze adult education marxist perspective developments include educational aesthetics marxist education marxist analyses role fixed capital capitalist education educational psychology capital educational theory lenin pedagogical function communist party latest field research examines develops marxist pedagogy postdigital era historiography marxist historiography school historiography


influenced marxism chief tenets centrality social class economic constraints determining historical outcomes marxist historiography made contributions history working class oppressed nationalities methodology history friedrich engels' important historical contribution ''der deutsche bauernkrieg'' german peasants' war analysed social warfare early protestant germany terms emerging capitalist classes ''the german peasants' war'' indicate marxist interest history class analysis attempts dialectical analysis engels' short treatise ''the condition working class


black jacobins'' anti stalinist marxist outside cpgb india b n datta kosambi considered founding fathers marxist historiography today senior scholars marxist historiography r sharma irfan habib romila thapar n jha k n panikkar years old literary criticism marxist literary criticism loose term describing literary criticism based socialist dialectic theories marxist criticism views literary works reflections social institutions originate according marxists


even literature social institution specific ideological function based background ideology author notable marxist literary critics include mikhail bakhtin walter benjamin terry eagleton fredric jameson aesthetics marxist aesthetics theory aesthetics based derived theories karl marx involves dialectical materialist dialectical materialist approach application marxism cultural sphere specifically areas related taste art beauty among others marxists believe economic social conditions especially class relations


derive affect every aspect individual 's life religious beliefs legal systems cultural frameworks notable marxist aestheticians include anatoly lunacharsky mikhail lifshitz william morris theodor w adorno bertolt brecht herbert marcuse walter benjamin antonio gramsci georg luk cs ernst fischer louis althusser jacques ranci maurice merleau ponty raymond williams history karl marx friedrich engels friedrich engels marx addressed matters alienation exploitation working class capitalist mode production historical materialism famous analysing history terms class struggle summarised


initial line introducing ''the communist manifesto'' history hitherto existing society history class struggles together marx engels co developed communist theory marx engels first met september discovering similar views philosophy socialism collaborated wrote works ''die heilige familie'' ''the holy family'' marx deported france january moved belgium permitted greater freedom expression european countries january returned brussels establish communist correspondence committee


marriage guaranteeing male social domination women concept analogous communist theory capitalist class 's economic domination working class engels made intellectually significant contributions feminist theory marxist feminism russian revolution soviet union vladimir lenin joseph stalin october revolution bolsheviks took power russian provisional government bolsheviks established first socialist state based ideas soviet democracy leninism newly formed federal state promised end russian involvement world war establish revolutionary worker 's state following


october revolution soviet government involved struggle white movement several independence movements russian civil war period marked establishment many socialist policies development new socialist ideas mainly form marxism leninism nascent soviet government established communist academy marx engels lenin institute doctrinal marxist study well publish official ideological research documents russian communist party lenin 's death internal struggle soviet communist movement mainly joseph stalin


leon trotsky form right opposition left opposition respectively struggles based sides different interpretations marxist leninist theory based situation soviet union time chinese revolution ref right width px bgcolor c dbf end second sino japanese war widely world war ii chinese communist revolution took place within context chinese civil war chinese communist party founded conflict kuomintang future country throughout civil war mao zedong developed


theory marxism chinese historical context mao found large base support peasantry opposed russian revolution found primary support urban centers russian empire major ideas contributed mao ideas new democracy mass line people 's war people 's republic china prc declared new socialist state founded ideas marx engels lenin stalin stalin 's death late increasing conflict china soviet union de stalinization


first began nikita khrushchev policy detente seen revisionist insufficiently marxist ideological confrontation spilled wider global crisis centered around nation lead international socialist movement following mao 's death ascendancy deng xiaoping maoism official marxism china reworked new model newer dynamic form marxism leninism maoism china commonly referred socialism chinese characteristics new path centered around deng 's four cardinal principles sought uphold central role chinese communist party


uphold principle china primary stage socialism still working build communist society based marxist principles late th century fidel castro united nations general assembly cuban revolution led victory fidel castro july movement although revolution explicitly socialist upon victory castro ascended position prime minister adopted leninist model socialist development forging alliance soviet union one leaders revolution


argentine marxist revolutionary che guevara subsequently went aid revolutionary socialist movements congo kinshasa bolivia eventually killed bolivian government possibly orders central intelligence agency cia although cia agent sent search guevara felix rodriguez expressed desire keep alive possible bargaining tool cuban government posthumously went become internationally recognised icon people 's republic china maoist government undertook cultural revolution purge chinese society capitalist elements achieve socialism upon


laos north korea vietnam remained officially marxist leninist states remaining although maoist government led prachanda elected power nepal following long guerrilla struggle early st century also saw election socialist governments several latin american nations come known pink tide dominated venezuelan government hugo ch vez trend also saw election evo morales bolivia rafael correa ecuador daniel ortega nicaragua forging political economic alliances international organisations like bolivarian alliance


americas socialist governments allied marxist leninist cuba although none espoused stalinist path directly admitted significantly influenced marxist theory venezuelan president hugo ch vez declared trotskyist swearing cabinet two days inauguration january venezuelan trotskyist organizations regard ch vez trotskyist describing bourgeois nationalist others consider honest revolutionary leader made major mistakes due lacking marxist analysis italian marxist gianni vattimo santiago zabala


communist party general secretary xi jinping announced deepening commitment chinese communist party ideas marx event celebrating th anniversary marx 's birth xi said must win advantages win initiative win future must continuously improve ability use marxism analyse solve practical problems adding marxism powerful ideological weapon us understand world grasp law seek truth change world xi stressed importance examining continuing tradition cpc


embrace revolutionary past fidelity varied revolutionaries leaders parties work karl marx highly contested rejected many marxists socialists alike socialists general socialist writers including dimitri volkogonov acknowledge actions authoritarian socialist leaders damaged enormous appeal socialism generated october revolution criticism criticism marxism come various political ideologies academic disciplines includes general criticism lack internal consistency criticisms related historical materialism type historical determinism


necessity suppression individual rights issues implementation communism economic issues distortion absence price signals reduced incentives addition empirical epistemological problems frequently identified ref name popper ref marxists criticised academic institutionalisation marxism shallow detached political action zimbabwean trotskyist alex callinicos professional academic stated practitioners remind one narcissus greek legend fell love reflection sometimes necessary devote time clarifying developing concepts use


indeed western marxists become end result body writings incomprehensible tiny minority highly qualified scholars additionally intellectual critiques marxism contest certain assumptions prevalent marx 's thought marxism without exactly rejecting marxist politics contemporary supporters marxism argue many aspects marxist thought viable corpus incomplete outdated regards certain aspects economic political social theory may combine marxist concepts ideas theorists


max weber frankfurt school one example general philosopher historian ideas leszek ko akowski pointed marx 's theory incomplete ambiguous many places could 'applied' many contradictory ways without manifestly infringing principles specifically considers laws dialectics fundamentally erroneous stating truisms specific marxist content others philosophical dogmas cannot proved scientific means nonsense believes marxist laws interpreted differently interpretations still general fall one two categories


error okishio 's theorem shows capitalists use cost cutting techniques real wages increase rate profit must rise casts doubt marx 's view rate profit would tend fall allegations inconsistency large part marxian economics debates around since andrew kliman argues undermines marx 's critiques correction alleged inconsistencies internally inconsistent theories cannot right definition ref name kliman states marx value theory would ''necessarily wrong'' internally inconsistent internally inconsistent theories


may appealing intuitively plausible even obvious consistent available empirical evidence cannot right necessary reject correct thus alleged proofs inconsistency trump considerations disqualifying marx theory starting gate provide principal justification suppression theory well suppression denial resources needed carry present day research based upon greatly inhibits development charge inconsistency person intellectual integrity would want


join research program founded believes theory internally inconsistent therefore false andrew kliman ''reclaiming marx 's capital refutation myth inconsistency'' lanham md lexington books p emphasis original however book kliman presents interpretation inconsistencies eliminated connection inconsistency allegations lack study marx theories argued john cassidy return karl marx ''the new yorker'' oct p mathematical model economy depended


idea labor source value riven internal inconsistencies rarely studied days ref epistemological empirical marx 's predictions criticized allegedly failed pointing towards gdp per capita increasing generally capitalist economies compared less market oriented economics capitalist economies suffering worsening economic crises leading overthrow capitalist system communist revolutions occurring advanced capitalist nations instead undeveloped regions books ''the poverty historicism'' ''conjectures refutations'' philosopher


science karl popper criticized explanatory power validity historical materialism ref name ref popper believed marxism initially scientific marx postulated genuinely predictive theory predictions fact borne popper argues theory avoided falsification addition ad hoc hypotheses made compatible facts popper asserted theory initially genuinely scientific degenerated pseudoscientific dogma ref name ref socialist democratic socialists social democrats reject idea socialism accomplished extra legal class conflict


proletarian revolution relationship marx socialist thinkers organizations rooted marxism 's scientific anti utopian socialism among factors divided marxists socialists since marx 's life marx 's death emergence marxism also dissensions within marxism notable example splitting russian social democratic labour party bolsheviks mensheviks orthodox marxists became opposed less dogmatic innovative even revisionist marxism anarchist libertarian anarchism strained relationship marxism since marx 's life anarchists many non marxist libertarian socialists reject


need transitory state phase claiming socialism established decentralized non coercive organization anarchist mikhail bakunin criticized marx authoritarian bent ref name bakunin ref phrases barracks socialism barracks communism became shorthand critique evoking image citizens' lives regimented lives conscripts barracks ref name sperber ref noam chomsky critical marxism 's dogmatic strains idea marxism still appreciates marx 's contributions political thought unlike anarchists chomsky consider bolshevism marxism practice recognize marx complicated


allege marx drew conclusions actually follow theoretical premises alleged errors corrected conclusion aggregate price profit determined equal aggregate value surplus value longer holds true result calls question theory exploitation workers sole source profit marxism socialism received considerable critical analysis multiple generations austrian economists terms scientific methodology economic theory political implications marginal revolution subjective value theory rediscovered carl menger development


economic calculation problem arguing without price signals capital goods opinion aspects market economy irrational led declare rational economic activity impossible socialist commonwealth ref name mises ref daron acemoglu james robinson argue marx 's economic theory fundamentally flawed attempted simplify economy general laws ignored impact institutions economy see also communism analytical marxism austromarxism democracy marxism freudo marxism hegelian marxism influences karl marx instrumental marxism legal marxism marx 's notebooks


history technology marx 's theory human nature marxian class theory marxism religion marxist international relations theory marxists internet archive open marxism outline marxism post marxism pre marx socialists reification marxism ''karl marx 's theory history defence'' ''the marxism che guevara'' ''marxism freedom today'' ''marxism usa'' ''rethinking marxism'' ''specters marx'' references citations bibliography reading agar jolyon ''rethinking marxism kant hegel marx engels'' london new york routledge jon elster ''an introduction karl marx'' cambridge


england michael evans ''karl marx'' london robinson cedric j ''black marxism making black radical tradition'' reissue univ north carolina press rummel rj '' http wwwhawaiiedu powerkills note htm conflict perspective '' chap '' http wwwhawaiiedu powerkills cipchap htm marxism class conflict conflict helix '' sheehan helena ''marxism philosophy science critical history'' london verso books external links communism criticism religion democratic socialism eponymous economic ideologies eponymous political ideologies karl marx left wing ideologies materialism naturalism philosophy philosophical movements philosophical traditions sociological theories socialism social democracy social theories theories history types


ceiling mosque madrassa sultan barquq '''middle eastern studies''' sometimes referred '''near eastern studies''' name given number academic programs associated study history culture politics economies geography middle east area generally interpreted cover range nations including egypt iran iraq israel jordan lebanon oman palestine saudi arabia syria turkey yemen considered form area studies taking overtly interdisciplinary approach study region sense middle eastern studies far broader

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Middle Eastern studies


attacks us middle eastern studies programs criticized inattentive issues islamic terrorism israeli american historian martin kramer published book ''ivory towers sand failure middle eastern studies america'' ''wall street journal'' article claiming middle eastern studies courses part problem remedy ''foreign affairs'' review book f gregory gause said analysis part serious substantive far often valid points overshadowed academic score settling major inconsistencies ref name fgregorygause ref american writer daniel pipes established organisation called


campus watch combat perceived serious problems within discipline including analytical failures mixing politics scholarship intolerance alternative views apologetics abuse power students encouraged students advise organization problems campuses turn critics within discipline john esposito accused mccarthyism professors denounced pipes left wing extremists often harassed hate speech pipes appointed united states institute peace board directors george w bush despite protests arab american community


foreign policy analyst mitchell bard claimed book ''the arab lobby invisible alliance undermines america 's interests middle east'' elements arab lobby particularly saudi arabia pro palestinian advocates hijacking academic field middle eastern studies within several prominent american universities including georgetown university harvard university columbia university involved saudi arabia gulf states funding centers chairs universities promote pro arabist agenda bard also accused several prominent middle eastern studies academics including john esposito rashid khalidi abusing positions advancing


pro palestinian political agenda addition bard criticized middle eastern studies association mesa adopting pro palestinian standpoint bard also alleged mesa marginalizes non israel related topics including kurdish turkish conflict persecution religious minorities like christians ethnic minorities non arabs jews kurds finally bard contended since september attacks arab lobby working middle eastern studies university departments sought influence pre university education tailoring education programs resources reflect pro arabist agenda academic centers center arab middle eastern studies american


university beirut centre arab islamic studies middle east central asia australian national university canberra australia center contemporary arab studies georgetown university center middle eastern studies metropolitan university prague center middle eastern studies university chicago center middle eastern studies university arizona center middle eastern studies lund university http mideastshisueducn middle east studies institute http globalshisueducn shanghai international studies university china center middle eastern north african studies university michigan center modern oriental studies humboldt university berlin


henry jackson school international studies middle eastern islamic studies new york university middle east south asian studies program uc davis middle east studies center american university cairo moshe dayan center middle eastern african studies tel aviv university sakarya university middle east institute school oriental african studies university london https webarchiveorg web http wwwutexasedu cola depts mes center cmesphp middle eastern studies university texas ucla center near east studies brigham young university jerusalem center near eastern studies department middle eastern studies king 's college london university london center


middle eastern studies harvard university european centre middle east studies ecmes see also ancient near east studies orientalism references external links http wwwlancsacuk jais journal arabic islamic studies http wwwmesanaorg middle east studies association http wwwmideastiorg middle east institute library guides middle eastern studies middle east area studies judaic studies arab studies asian studies


map world population density map world population density '''population geography''' relates spatial variations distribution composition migration growth populations terrain population geography involves demography geographical perspective focuses characteristics population distributions change spatial context often involves factors population found size composition population regulated demographic processes fertility mortality migration ref name ref contributions population geography cross disciplinary geographical epistemologies related environment place space

Social science
Geography
Human geography
Population geography


developed various times ref name gresh ref related disciplines include geography demography sociology economics history since inception population geography taken least three distinct related forms recent appears increasingly integrated human geography general earliest enduring form population geography emerged part spatial science pioneered glenn trewartha wilbur zelinsky william v clark others united states well jacqueline beujeau garnier pierre george france focused systematic study distribution


population whole spatial variation population characteristics fertility mortality ref name population geography defined systematic study simple description location population numbers characteristics explanation spatial configuration numbers characteristics geographic analysis population phenomena inter relations among real differences population certain elements within geographic study area accordingly categorized populations groups synonymous political jurisdictions representing gender religion age disability generation sexuality race variables go


beyond vital statistics births deaths marriages ref name given rapidly growing global population well baby boom affluent countries united states geographers studied relation demographic growth displacement access resources international scale ref name topics population geography demographic phenomena natality mortality growth rates etc space time increases decreases population numbers movements mobility populations occupational structure way places turn react population phenomena eg immigration research topics geographic


sub disciplines settlement geography also population geography dimension grouping people within settlements way geographical places eg settlement patterns looked space time population geography also studies human environment interactions including problems relationships overpopulation pollution others types maps show spatial layout population choropleth isoline dot maps see also geodemography geodemographic segmentation notes references bibliography clarke john ''population geography'' london pergamon press population geography


map paris '''historical geography''' branch geography studies ways geographic phenomena changed time synthesizing discipline shares topical methodological similarities history anthropology ecology geology environmental studies literary studies fields although majority work historical geography considered human geography field also encompasses studies geographic change primarily anthropogenic historical geography often major component school university curricula geography social studies current research historical geography performed

Social science
Geography
Human geography
Historical geography


scholars forty countries themes historical geography seeks determine cultural features various societies across planet emerged evolved understanding interaction local environment surroundings development discipline early days historical geography difficult define subject textbook cites previous definition 'unsound attempt geographers explain history' author j b mitchell came firmly side geography 'the historical geographer geographer first last time' first number


''journal historical geography'' widened discipline broader church 'the writings scholars disciplinary provenance something say matters geographical interest relating past time' united states america term ''historical geography'' specialized meaning name given carl ortwin sauer university california berkeley program reorganizing cultural geography say geography along regional lines beginning first decades th century sauer landscape cultures could


understood influences history taken account physical cultural economic political environmental sauer stressed regional specialization means gaining sufficient expertise regions world sauer 's philosophy principal shaper american geographic thought mid th century regional specialists remain academic geography departments day despite geographers feel harmed discipline much effort spent data collection classification little analysis explanation studies became area specific later geographers struggled find


places make names factors may led turn crisis geography raised serious questions geography academic discipline usa sub branch human geography closely related history environmental history historical ecology list historical geographers major institutions http communityaagorg communities community homecommunitykey e c b e fedf c historical geography specialty group american association geographers https hgrgorguk historical geography research group royal geographical society major journals http wwwjournalselseviercom journal historical geography ''journal historical geography'' https ejournalsunmedu indexphp historicalgeography ''historical geography'' references references reading catchpole brian ''a map history modern world


present day'' ed agincourt ont bellhaven house ''nb'' first ed published earlier revision corrections appeared partly atlas historical geography partly atlas illustrating historical events trends baker arh geography history bridging divide cambridge university press human geography


old fire burning san bernardino mountains image taken international space station '''fire ecology''' scientific discipline concerned natural processes involving fire ecosystem ecological effects interactions fire abiotic biotic components ecosystem role ecosystem process many ecosystems particularly prairie savanna chaparral coniferous forests evolved fire essential contributor habitat vitality renewal many plant species fire affected environments require fire germinate establish reproduce wildfire suppression eliminates

Applied science
Public administration
Fire ecology


species also animals depend upon campaigns united states historically molded public opinion believe wildfires always harmful nature view based outdated beliefs ecosystems progress toward equilibrium disturbance fire disrupts harmony nature recent ecological research shown however fire integral component function biodiversity many natural habitats organisms within communities adapted withstand even exploit natural wildfire generally fire regarded


method combination photos taken photo point florida panther nwr photos panoramic cover degree view monitoring point photos range pre burn two years post burn fire components fire regime describes characteristics fire interacts particular ecosystem ref name whitlock ref severity term ecologists use refer impact fire ecosystem ecologists define many ways one way estimate plant mortality fire burn three levels


ground fires burn soil rich organic matter surface fires burn dead plant material lying ground crown fires burn tops shrubs trees ecosystems generally experience mix three ref name bondkeeley fires often break dry season areas wildfires may also commonly occur time year lightning prevalent frequency span years fire occur particular location measure common wildfires


given ecosystem either defined average interval fires given site average interval fires equivalent specified area ref name bondkeeley bond keeley ref defined energy released per unit length fireline kw sup sup wildfire intensity estimated either product linear spread rate sup sup low heat combustion kj kg sup sup combusted fuel mass per unit area estimated flame length ref name byram byram ref radiata pine plantation burnt eastern victorian alpine bushfires australia abiotic responses fires


affect soils heating combustion processes depending temperatures soils caused combustion processes different effects happen evaporation water lower temperature ranges combustion soil organic matter formation pyrogenic organic matter otherwise known charcoal ref name ref fires cause changes soil nutrients variety mechanisms include oxidation volatilization erosion leaching water event must usually high temperatures order significant loss nutrients occur however quantity nutrients available soils usually increased


due ash generated made quickly available opposed slow release nutrients decomposition ref name ref rock spalling thermal exfoliation accelerates weathering rock potentially release nutrients increase ph soil following fire commonly observed likely due formation calcium carbonate subsequent decomposition calcium carbonate calcium oxide temperatures get even higher ref name could also due increased cation content soil due ash temporarily increases


soil ph microbial activity soil might also increase due heating soil increased nutrient content soil though studies also found complete loss microbes top layer soil fire ref name overall soils become basic higher ph following fires acid combustion driving novel chemical reactions high temperatures fire even alter texture structure soils affecting clay content soil 's porosity removal vegetation following fire cause several effects soil increasing