specialization occurred engineering automotive chemicals computers automation telecommunications biotechnology scientific technical cooperation cmea member states facilitated establishment international centre scientific technical information moscow trade cmea member states divided hard goods soft goods former could sold world markets latter could commodities food energy products raw materials tended hard goods traded within cmea area world market prices manufactures tended soft goods prices negotiable often


adjusted make bilateral payment flows balance countries privileged affiliation cmea included algeria benin burma congo finland madagascar mali mexico nigeria seychelles syria tanzania zimbabwe soviet union also provided substantial economic aid technical assistance developing countries including egypt india iraq iran somalia turkey supported developing countries calling new international economic order backed un charter economic rights obligations states adopted general assembly achievements socialist planned economies officially sanctioned textbooks describing socialist planned

Social science
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enterprise region republic country lived including rights free speech assembly demonstrate data collected united nations indicators human development early show high level social development achieved former socialist planned economies central eastern europe commonwealth independent states cee cis life expectancy cee cis area period years countries organization economic cooperation development oecd years infant mortality cee cis area


every live births compared oecd area terms education two areas enjoyed universal adult literacy full enrolment children primary secondary schools tertiary education cee cis university students per population oecd comparable figure students overall enrolment primary secondary tertiary levels percent cee cis region percent oecd countries housing main problem crowding rather homelessness socialist planned economies ussr


area residential accommodation square meters per person urban areas percent population without separate accommodation live communal apartments according census housing generally good quality cee cis region oecd countries percent population oecd countries access safe drinking water improved sanitation respectively compared percent cee cis area unemployment exist officially socialist planned economies though


fault numbered hundred year gdp per person measured purchasing power parity us dollars russia ussr highest income found slovenia estonia lowest albania tajikistan across whole cee cis area gdp per person estimated compared us germany year oecd area whole estimated gdp per person thus basis


imf estimates national income gdp per person cee cis area percent oecd area economic problems socialist planned economies onwards cmea countries beginning east germany attempted intensive growth strategies aiming raise productivity labour capital however practice meant investment shifted towards new branches industry including electronics computing automotive nuclear power sectors leaving traditional heavy industries dependent upon older technologies despite rhetoric modernization innovation remained weak enterprise managers preferred routine production


avoided sub contracting intermediate production activities preferring retain work house enterprise according theory promulgated j nos kornai constrained resources demand goods services constrained finances since government likely shut failed meet financial targets enterprises socialist planned economies operated within soft budget constraint unlike enterprises capitalist market economies demand constrained operate within hard budget constraints face bankruptcy costs exceed sales producers


working resource constrained economy perpetually short supply shortages could never eliminated leading chronic disruption production schedules effect preserve high level employment supply consumer goods failed match rising incomes workers still received pay even fully productive household savings accumulated indicating official terminology postponed demand western economists called monetary overhang repressed inflation prices black market several times higher official price controlled outlets reflecting scarcity possible


illegality sale items therefore although consumer welfare reduced shortages prices households paid regular consumption lower would case prices set market clearing levels course became clear cmea area crisis although remained viable economically expected collapse extensive growth model retarding growth cmea whole member countries dependent upon supplies raw materials ussr upon soviet market sales goods


often undertaken trans national corporations international bank economic cooperation means converting country 's trade surplus option buy goods services cmea members transition market economies dissolution soviet union eastern bloc many remaining socialist states presiding centrally planned economies began introducing reforms shifted economies away centralized planning central eastern europe ussr transition planned economy market economy accompanied transformation socialist mode


production capitalist mode production asia china laos north korea vietnam cuba market mechanisms introduced ruling communist parties planning system reformed without systemic transformation transformation socialism capitalism involved political shift people 's democracy see people 's republic communist state constitutionally entrenched leading role communist workers' parties society liberal representative democracy separation legislative executive judicial authorities centres private power act brake state 's activity vietnam


adopted economic model formally titled ' 'socialist oriented market economy'' economic system form mixed economy consisting state private co operative individual enterprises coordinated market mechanism system intended transitional stage development socialism transition economies transformation economic system socialist planned economy capitalist market economy central eastern europe former soviet union mongolia involved series institutional changes included control means production removed state privatization


private property rights established several countries property restored former owners legal successors actual property could returned former owners received compensation occurred eastern germany czechoslovakia hungary estonia countries commonwealth independent states government decided restoration compensation grounds much time elapsed many cases compensation already made bilateral treaties ussr foreign governments representing former owners voucher privatization citizens workers enterprises


received free cheap shares undertaken transition economies decision making system de centralized ending central planning privatization enterprises work collectives trade unions lost much influence enterprise decision making markets became dominant coordination mechanism following price liberalization de control foreign trade permitted less unrestricted importation goods queues retail outlets disappeared hoarded inventories factories stock exchanges established anti monopoly legislation introduced workers lost jobs found wages


unpaid informal labour markets sprang along certain streets particularly construction trades incentive system modified legalization private enterprise alteration employment laws large informal sphere developed estimated comprising percent official calculations gdp organizational forms prevailing socialist planned economies restructured breaking vertically integrated industrial agricultural concerns closing non viable undertakings hardening enterprise budget constraints significant driving industrial restructuring privatization according studies distribution system became unequal price controls necessities


removed fuelling growth poverty among people fixed incomes pensioners unemployed redistributive measures taxation social safety nets proved unable counteract growth poverty end income scale emergence rich business elite see also business oligarch public choice mechanism overhauled rescind communist party 's leading role introduce liberal constitution entrenching civil rights representative democracy almost transition economies except belarus turkmenistan uzbekistan people 's republic china china embraced socialist planned economy


communist victory civil war private property private ownership capital abolished various forms wealth made subject state control workers' councils chinese economy broadly adopted similar system production quotas full employment fiat russian model great leap forward saw remarkably large scale experiment rapid collectivisation agriculture ambitious goals results less expected eg food shortages mass starvation program abandoned three years common program set chinese people 's political


consultative conference effect country 's interim constitution state capitalism meant economic system corporatism provided follows whenever necessary possible private capital shall encouraged develop direction state capitalism recent decades china opened economy foreign investment market based trade continued experience strong economic growth carefully managed transition socialist planned economy market economy officially referred ' 'socialist commodity market economy'' likened state capitalism outside observers current chinese


economic system characterized state ownership combined strong private sector privately owned enterprises generate people 's daily online gdp businessweek article estimating gdp figure might even greater considering chengbao system western observers note private sector likely underestimated state officials calculation gdp due propensity ignore small private enterprises registered state private sectors economy governed free market practices including stock


exchange trading equity free market arbitrator economic activity left management state private firms significant amount privately owned firms exist especially consumer service sector ref name adborg http wwwadborg documents events prc planning system reform chow pdf role planning china 's market economy retrieved june ref state sector concentrated commanding heights economy growing private sector engaged primarily commodity production light industry centralized directive planning based mandatory output requirements production quotas superseded free market mechanism


economy directive planning utilized large state industries ref name adborg major difference old planned economy privatization state institutions state owned enterprises remain report directly central government number subsidiaries state owned corporations become increasingly dynamic largely contributing increase revenue state state sector led economic recovery process increased economic growth financial crises proponents model distinguish market socialists believe economic planning unattainable undesirable ineffective distributing


goods viewing market solution rather temporary phase development socialist planned economy type economic system defended marxist leninist perspective states socialist planned economy possible first establishing necessary comprehensive commodity market economy letting fully develop exhausts historical stage gradually transforms planned economy cuba republic cuba leadership raul castro began encourage co operatives worker ownership self employment move reduce central role state


enterprise state management within economy goal building deeper co operative form socialism co operatives cuba many previously state owned enterprises vietnam socialist republic vietnam pursued similar economic reforms china though less extensively resulting socialist oriented market economy mixed economy state plays dominant role intended transitional phase establishment socialist economy social democratic mixed economies many industrialized open countries western europe experimented one


democratic welfare states sweden mixed economies major percentage gdp comes state sector norway ranks among highest countries quality life equality opportunity citizens elements efforts persist throughout europe even repealed aspects public control ownership typically characterized following features nationalization key industries mining oil steel energy transportation common model sector taken state one


taxation regarding wage business income wealth inheritance capital gains property spending side set social policies typically provides free access public services education health care child care subsidized access housing food pharmaceutical goods water supply waste management electricity also common social security schemes workers contribute mandatory public insurance program insurance typically include monetary provisions retirement pensions survivor benefits permanent temporary disabilities unemployment parental leave unlike private insurance governmental schemes based public statutes contracts


contributions benefits may change time based solidarity among participants funding done ongoing basis without direct relationship future liabilities minimum wages employment protection trade union recognition rights benefit workers objectives policies guarantee living wages help produce full employment number different models trade union protection evolved guarantee right workers form unions negotiate benefits participate strikes germany appointed union representatives high levels corporations much


less industrial strife united kingdom whose laws encouraged strikes rather negotiation national planning industrial development demand management keynesian fashion help ensure economic growth employment state capitalism various social democratic mixed economies state capitalist consisting large commercial state enterprises operate according laws capitalism pursue profits evolved countries influenced various elected socialist political parties economic reforms policies reforms change fundamental aspect capitalism non socialist elements within countries supported


china today india often characterized free market economy combines economic planning free market however adopt firm focus national planning series broad five year plans norway modern norwegian state capitalism origins public ownership country 's oil reserves country 's post world war ii social democratic reforms government norway ownership stakes many country 's largest publicly listed companies owning oslo stockmarket ref name economist ref operates country 's largest non listed companies including statoil statkraft


profits explicit intention cultivate ownership mindset state also provides substantial public housing free education health recreational services well comprehensive public transportation today singapore often characterized state capitalist economy combines economic planning free market government linked companies generate majority singapore 's gdp moderate state planning economy reduced recent decades nonetheless right wing singaporean parties pap described centre left adopted left tack certain areas order remain


future socialist society karl marx private property means production abolished individuals co operative associations producers owned productive property introduced democratic measures elected officials received compensation average worker could recalled time anarchists also participated actively establishment paris commune george woodcock manifests notable contribution activities commune particularly organization public services made members various anarchist factions including mutualists courbet longuet vermorel libertarian collectivists


varlin malon lefrangais bakuninists elie elis e reclus louise michel ref name anarchism george woodcock ''anarchism history libertarian ideas movements'' ref social ownership peer peer production various forms socialist organization based co operative decision making workplace democracy cases production directly use existed within broader context capitalist mode production since paris commune new forms socialist institutional arrangements began take form end th century advancement proliferation internet tools allow


produced solely use value wikipedia based collaboration cooperation freely associated individuals cited template socialism might operate modern example paris commune template possible future organization marx time socialist federal republic yugoslavia socialist federal republic yugoslavia pursued socialist economy based autogestion worker self management rather implementing centrally planned economy yugoslavia developed market socialist system enterprises firms socially owned rather publicly owned state


organizations management elected directly workers firm later organized according edvard kardelj 's theory associated labor self managed enterprises mondragon corporation federation cooperatives basque region spain organizes employee owned employee managed enterprise similar styles decentralized management embrace cooperation collaboration place traditional hierarchical management structures adopted various private corporations cisco systems unlike mondragon cisco remains firmly private ownership fundamentally employee owned self managed enterprises still operate within broader context capitalism subject


large areas rural spain collectivised land ref name 'bolloten p ' ref even fascist victory anarchists losing ground bitter struggle stalinists controlled distribution military aid republican cause soviet union events known spanish revolution workers' social revolution began outbreak spanish civil war resulted widespread implementation anarchist broadly libertarian socialist organizational principles throughout various portions country two three years primarily


catalonia aragon andalusia parts levante much spain 's economy put worker control anarchist strongholds catalonia figure high although lower areas heavy communist party spain influence soviet allied party actively resisted attempts collectivization enactment factories run worker committees agrarian areas became collectivised run libertarian communes anarchist historian sam dolgoff estimated eight million people participated directly least indirectly spanish revolution ref name dolgoff ref claimed came closer realizing ideal


free stateless society vast scale revolution history criticism criticism socialist economics comes market economists classicals neoclassicals austrians well anarchist economists besides socialist economic theories criticized socialists libertarian socialist mutualist market socialist economists criticize centralized economic planning propose participatory economics decentralized socialism market economists generally criticize socialism eliminating free market price signals consider necessary rational economic calculation also consider causes lack


incentive believe problems lead slower rate technological advance slower rate growth gdp austrian school economists friedrich hayek ludwig von mises argued elimination private ownership means production would inevitably create worse economic conditions general populace would found market economies argue without price signals market impossible calculate rationally allocate resources mises called economic calculation problem polish economist oskar lange abba lerner responded


mises' argument developing lange model economic calculation debate lange model argues economy production performed state functioning price mechanism similar properties market economy perfect competition achieves pareto efficiency neoclassical view lack incentive lack information planned economy argue within socialist planned economy lack incentive act information therefore crucial missing element much information


austrian school argued motivation act information see also basic income complexity economics fair trade feminist economics gandhian economics history economic thought job guarantee labour economics list socialist economists post capitalism welfare economics references reading albert michael hahnel robin '' https zcommorg wp content uploads zbooks www books polparhtm political economy participatory economics '' princeton university press '' available online '' amin samir ''spectres capitalism critique current intellectual fashions'' monthly review press carson kevin ''studies mutualist political economy'' booksurge publishing cole g h ''socialist economics'' london


monthly review press veblen thorstein ''the theory leisure class economic study institutions'' new york macmillan company von mises ludwig ''socialism'' makoto itoh ''political economy socialism'' various authors '' http wwwakpressorg accumulationoffreedomhtml accumulation freedom writings anarchist economics '' ak press schools economic thought economics


'''ecological systems theory''' also called '' 'development context''' '''human ecology theory''' developed urie bronfenbrenner offers framework community psychologists examine individuals' relationships within communities wider society theory also commonly referred ecological systems framework identifies five environmental systems individual interacts five systems bronfenbrenner 's ecological systems theory ''microsystem'' refers institutions groups immediately directly impact child 's development including family school religious institutions neighborhood peers ''mesosystem '' consists interconnections microsystems example

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family teachers child peers family ''exosystem '' involves links social settings involve child example child 's experience home may influenced parent 's experiences work parent might receive promotion requires travel turn increases conflict parent resulting changes patterns interaction child ''macrosystem '' describes overarching culture influences developing child well microsystems mesosystems embedded cultures cultural contexts differ based geographic


women pursue career last thirty years ref name development santrock john w ''a topical approach life span development'' new york ny mcgraw hill ref later work bronfenbrenner considered role biology model well thus theory sometimes called bioecological model per theoretical construction system contains roles norms rules may shape psychological development example inner city family faces many challenges affluent family gated community vice versa inner city family likely experience environmental hardships like crime


squalor hand sheltered family likely lack nurturing support extended family since publication bronfenbrenner 's major statement theory ''the ecology human development'' widespread influence way psychologists others approach study human beings environments result groundbreaking work ''human ecology'' environments family economic political structures come viewed part life course childhood adulthood bronfenbrenner identified soviet developmental psychologist lev


school medical systems reading urie bronfenbrenner ''the ecology human development experiments nature design'' cambridge massachusetts harvard university press dede paquette john ryan https webarchiveorg web http pt nledu paquetteryanwebquestpdf ''bronfenbrenner ecological systems theory'' marlowe e trance kerstin flores child adolescent development vol ecological systems review ecological framework facilitates organizing information people environment order understand interconnectedness individuals move series life transitions necessitate environmental support coping skills social problems involving health care family relations inadequate income mental


'''library technical services''' ongoing maintenance activities library 's collection including three broad areas collection development cataloging processing technical services infrastructure enable user 's experience many library services typically performed behind scenes collection development identification locating potentially worthwhile items add collection selection deciding identified items add collection acquisitions securing items collection including purchase books databases e books multimedia materials library 's collection cataloging description creating adapting records library materials licensed

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content allowing users search discover resources library catalog records often based marc standards available online public access include descriptive elements author title subject assist users identifying relevant resources meet needs classification indexing arranging items acquired manner aid end user locating materials collection materials often organized established classification systems dewey decimal classification library congress classification processing physical processing labeling binding repairing otherwise preparing items storage manner allows


easy retrieval maintenance time preservation maintaining repairing print electronic materials former includes repairing damaged books binding journals hardcover volumes reformatting print materials digital latter includes digital curation archivists work preserve electronic materials data deterioration periodically migrate data older formats newer one related systems services technical services may also include range activities broadly related core functions security processing using rfid tags similar interlibrary loan services maintaining library 's technology resources servers staff


public computers scanners integrated library system software facilitates circulation see also association library collections technical services resource description access references reading external links http wwwalaorg educationcareers libcareers jobs technical technical services librarian via librarycareersorg https wwwwebjunctionorg documents webjunction evaluating technical services departmenthtml evaluating technical services department oclc webjunction http wwwwebjunctionorg content dam webjunction documents pennsylvania technical services pdf technical services trends oclc webjunction http wwwalaorg advocacy diversity outreachtounderservedpopulations servicesgay resources technical services gay lesbian bisexual transgender people american library association library management


'''ethnochoreology''' also '' 'dance ethnology''' '' 'dance anthropology''' study dance application number disciplines anthropology musicology ethnomusicology ethnography word relatively recent etymologically means study ethnic dance though exclusive research formalized dance forms classical ballet example thus ethnochoreology reflects relatively recent attempt apply academic thought people dance means ethnochoreology study cataloguing thousands external forms dances dance moves

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music costumes etc various parts world attempt come grips dance existing within social events given community well within cultural history community dance static representation history repository meaning producer meaning time produced living mirror culture shaping part culture power within culture power dance rests acts performance dancers spectators alike process


making sense dance linking dance experience sets ideas social experiences dance whether social ritual even theatrical inherent complex web relationships interprets socially predetermined meaningful ways movement course history dance groups specific societies way dance social text complex multifaceted constantly evolving additionally dance social practice acts according space time becoming expressions everyday life respective social structure comes contact moreover dance apart allowing people express


focal social cultural process related human identity contributes structure diffuse cultural meaning cultivate interactive practical narrative imbued political views ethnochoreology dance ethnology dance anthropology closely related fields study slightly varying often overlapping histories methodologies history ethnochoreology dance anthropology study dance anthropology developed work colonizers missionaries researchers disciplines anthropology musicology first observations dance indigenous non western societies necessarily due dedicated study rather


emerging byproducts anthropological research many cultures studied observations dance could ignored due dance importance indigenous ceremonial life many observations speculative lacking qualitative quantitative analysis assumed false dichotomies civilized primitive societies musicologist curt sachs wrote ''eine weltgeschichte des tanzes ''world history dance attempt provide analytical framework study dance based cultural evolution however data often insufficient misleading therefore work longer considered viable basis


study dance anthropology ref name ref international council traditional music established working group laid foundations field defined ethnochoreology science anca giurchescu would later serve chair study group ethnochoreology member committee ethnochoreology originally focused national dance traditions folk dances specific european countries since expanded include new urban folk groups dance traditions immigrants ref name modern dancer anthropologist gertrude prokosch kurath pioneered specific


field dance ethnology developed america parallel development ethnochoreology europe kurath considered dance ethnology branch dance anthropology laid foundations work ''panorama dance ethnology'' outlining dance ethnology methods documentation analysis opening discussions dance transmission diffusion tradition innovation relation aspects culture whereas dance anthropology focused study culture dance dance ethnology focused questions dance specifically employing insights human behavior answer questions pearl primus katherine dunham


notable dancers bridged gap dance performance dance ethnography ref name methodological ethical issues many methodological ethical issues arise research ethnochoreology anthropological research general source contention suspicion many indigenous peoples historically used tool colonization rather benefit indigenous societies ref name ref early anthropologists missionaries research non western cultures subsequent categorization western terms canon method colonization example many cultures generic word art


dance ref name ref name ref western dichotomies art dance vs non art dance professional vs hobbyist religious vs secular necessarily apply societies assumed transference concepts method western concepts imposed non western societies anthropologists art collectors etc ref name dance ethnologists tried rectify issue changing field inquiry term dance broader ideas movement systems human movement historically dance anthropology often also fell larger category primitivist thought suggesting evolutionary progressive


art literature digital culture today several departments declared specialized areas research digital arts culture university bergen socio cultural communication without technology university aalborg digital humanities primary topic several universities us uk digital arts humanities research development centers one aspect digital humanities grow intersection new digital media humanities particularly gaming industry developed casual serious gaming game

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design strategies foster learning humanities academic disciplines key principle digital interactive media games storyline narrative quest goal game primary literary works games characters players go quest playing game becomes narrative game design principles also relevant literature fine arts include visual literacy empowering players learners align great artists writers believe creative process digital humanities computational fields study


comprehensibility interpretability justified use english international intra national language teachers english speakers languages tesol conference honolulu hawaii international committee study world englishes icwe formed icwe formally launched international association world englishes iawe conference world englishes today university illinois usa ref name web international association world englishes http wwwiaweworksorg historyphp retrieved november ref two academic journals devoted study topic titled ''english world wide'' since ''world

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Linguistics
World Englishes


englishes'' since number published handbooks textbooks subject currently approximately territories english spoken either first language l unofficial institutionalized second language l fields government law education difficult establish total number englishes world new varieties english constantly developed discovered ref name crystal crystal ''english global language'' cambridge cambridge university press ref world english vs world englishes vs global englishes notions world english world englishes


far similar although terms often mistakenly used interchangeably ''world english'' refers english language lingua franca used business trade diplomacy spheres global activity ''world englishes'' refers different varieties english english based creoles developed different regions world alternatively term ''global englishes'' used scholars field emphasise recent spread english due globalization resulted increased usage english lingua franca historical context history english english west


germanic language originated anglo frisian dialects brought germanic invaders britain initially old english diverse group dialects reflecting varied origins anglo saxon kingdoms england eventually one dialects late west saxon came dominate ref name intro baugh c cable ''a history english language'' routledge ref original old english influenced two waves invasion first speakers scandinavian branch germanic language family conquered colonized parts britain th th centuries second


normans th century spoke old norman ultimately developed norman variety called anglo norman two centuries norman conquest french became language everyday life among upper classes england although language masses remained english bilingual character england period thus formed ref name intro middle english period france england experienced process separation period conflicting interests feelings resentment later termed hundred years' war beginning th century english regained universal use


usage refine language removing supposed defects introducing certain improvements fix english permanently desired form desire system regularity language contrasted individualism spirit independence characterized previous age ref name intro th century expansion british empire well global trade led spread english around world rising importance england 's larger colonies former colonies rapidly developing united states enhanced value english varieties spoken


colonial africa history english distinct west east africa english west africa began trade particularly slave trade english soon gained official status today gambia sierra leone ghana nigeria cameroon pidgin creoles developed english contact including krio sierra leone cameroon pidgin large numbers speakers east africa extensive british settlements established kenya uganda tanzania malawi zambia zimbabwe english became crucial language government education law


early six countries achieved independence succession english remained official language large numbers second language speakers uganda zambia zimbabwe malawi along chewa english formally introduced sub continent south asia india bangladesh pakistan sri lanka nepal bhutan second half eighteenth century india english given status implementation macaulay 'minute' proposed introduction english educational system india time process 'indianisation' led development distinctive national character english


indian sub continent british influence south east asia south pacific began late eighteenth century involving primarily territories known singapore malaysia hong kong papua new guinea also british protectorate exemplified english based pidgin tok pisin americans came late south east asia influence spread like wildfire reforms education philippines progressed less half century colonization islands english taught since american period one official languages philippines ever since english became


official language localized variety gradually emerged philippine english lately linguist wilkinson daniel wong gonzales argued variety varieties suggesting move towards philippine englishes paradigm progress schneider 's dynamic model gathering evidences happening nowadays english also learnt countries neighbouring areas notably taiwan japan korea latter two begun consider possibility making english official second language ref name jenkins classification englishes spread english around world often discussed terms


three distinct groups users english used respectively native language enl primary language majority population country united states united kingdom australia second language esl additional language ''intra''national well ''inter''national communication communities multilingual india pakistan nigeria singapore englishes developed result imperial expansion brought language various parts world foreign language efl used almost exclusively international communication


japan kachru 's three circles english braj kachru 's three circles english'' influential model spread english braj kachru 's model world englishes model diffusion english captured terms three concentric circles language inner circle outer circle expanding circle '''''inner circle''''' refers english originally took shape spread across world first diaspora transplantation english speakers england carried language australia new zealand north america inner circle thus


represents traditional historical sociolinguistic bases english regions used primary language united kingdom united states australia new zealand ireland anglophone canada south africa caribbean territories english native language mother tongue people countries total number english speakers inner circle high million million outside united states '''''outer circle''''' english produced second diaspora english spread language imperial


inner circle english becomes often used home language see languages singapore much ireland earlier countries people speak english based creole retain standard english official purposes jamaica papua new guinea also outer circle finally '''''expanding circle''''' encompasses countries english plays historical governmental role nevertheless widely used medium international communication includes much rest world 's population categorized including territories china nepal russia japan non anglophone europe especially


netherlands nordic countries south korea egypt total expanding circle difficult estimate especially english may employed specific limited purposes usually business context estimates users range million one billion inner circle uk us etc 'norm providing' means english language norms developed countries outer circle mainly new commonwealth countries 'norm developing' expanding circle includes much rest world 'norm dependent' relies standards set native speakers


inner circle schneider 's dynamic model postcolonial englishes edgar werner schneider tries avoid purely geographical historical approach evident 'circles' models incorporates sociolinguistic concepts pertaining acts identity ref name le page r b tabouret keller ''acts identity creole based approaches language ethnicity'' new york cambridge university press ref model suggests despite differences geography history fundamentally uniform process underlying instances emergence new world englishes motivated changing social relationship region 's indigenous population settlers came


region relationship historical social conditions linguistic developments viewed unilateral implicational relationship among four components '''''political history''''' country typically colony independent nationhood reflected '''''identity writings''''' groups involved indigenous population settlers turn determine '''''sociolinguistic conditions''''' language contact like acquisition party language linguistic usage eg amount kind mutual interaction language attitudes affect '''''linguistic developments''''' structural changes varieties concerned model outlines five characteristic stages


fauna flora adopted english ref name schneider e w ''postcolonial english varieties around world'' cambridge university press ref '''''phase exonormative stabilization''''' stage settler communities tend stabilize politically british rule english increases prominence though colloquial english colonial koin speakers look england formal norms local vocabulary continues adopted bilingualism increases amongst indigenous population education increased contacts english settlers knowledge english becomes asset new indigenous elite develops ref name '''''phase nativisation''''' according


schneider stage transition occurs english settler population starts accept new identity based present local realities rather sole allegiance 'mother country' time indigenous strand also stabilized l system synthesis substrate effects interlanguage processes features adopted settlers' koin english neologisms stabilize english made adapt local sociopolitical cultural practices ref name '''''phase endonormative stabilization''''' stage characterized gradual acceptance local norms supported


new locally rooted linguistic self confidence time political events made clear settler indigenous strands inextricably bound sense nationhood independent britain acceptance local english es expresses new identity national dictionaries enthusiastically supported least new lexis always localized grammar literary creativity local english begins flourish ref name mesthrie rajend bhatt rakesh ''world englishes study new linguistic varieties'' cambridge university press ref '''''phase differentiation''''' stage change dynamics identity young


nation sees less defined differences former colonial power composite subgroups defined regional social ethnic lines coupled simple effects time effecting language change aid social differentiation new english koin starts show greater differentiation ref name models classification strevens 's world map english oldest map spread english strevens 's world map english world map even predating kachru 's three circles showed since american english became separate variety


members four groups variations varieties world englishes paradigm static neither rapidly changing realities language use worldwide use english outer expanding circle societies refer '''kachru 's three circles english''' continues rapid spread time new patterns language contact variety differentiation emerge different varieties range english inner circle societies united states canada south africa australia new zealand outer circle post colonial societies asia africa ''world englishes''


initiative recognizing describing new englishes caribbean africa asia partly motivated consideration local linguistic factors partly consideration wider cultural political contexts language acquisition use turn involved creative rewriting discourses towards recognition pluralism multiple possibilities scholarship notion varieties context similarly dynamic new contexts new realities new discourses new varieties continue emerge terms ''language'' ' 'dialect'' easily defined concepts often suggested


languages autonomous dialects heteronomous also said dialects contrast languages mutually intelligible though always case dialects characteristically spoken codified form used certain domains ref name melchers melchers g shaw p world englishes ''the english language series'' department english stockholm university sweden ref order avoid difficult dialect language distinction linguists tend prefer neutral term ''variety'' covers concepts butted popular usage term generally used discussing world


englishes future world englishes two scenarios advanced english 's future status major world language ultimately fragment large number mutually unintelligible varieties effect languages converge differences across groups speakers largely eliminated ref name jenkins english language 'others' english numerically speaking language 'others' center gravity language almost certain shift direction 'others' words widdowson likely paradigm shift


one language distribution one language spread new paradigm english spreads adapts according linguistic cultural preferences users outer expanding circles refer kachru 's three circles english however english genuinely become language 'others' 'others' accorded nbsp perhaps likely accord nbsp least english language rights claimed mother tongue speakers ref name jenkins different world language potential shift linguistic center gravity english could lose


international role altogether come share number equals although would happen mainly result native speaker resistance spread non native speaker englishes consequent abandoning english large numbers non native speakers latter could play part ref name jenkins evidence english may eventually give way another language languages world 's lingua franca david crystal cites internet data hand least languages present internet figure likely increase


nevertheless crystal predicts english retain dominant presence see also language shift list countries english speaking population list macaronic forms english list english based pidgins standard english vulgar latin hinglish euro english pseudo english references reading ''english global language'' ''oxford guide world englishes'' http wwwblackwellpublishingcom journalaspref ''world englishes'' https benjaminscom catalog journals eww main ''english world wide'' http journalscambridgeorg action displayjournaljid eng ''english today'' bolton kingsley braj b kachru eds ''world englishes critical concepts linguistics'' london routledge http wwwiaweworksorg ''international association world englishes'' linguistics english languages language comparison linguistics articles needing expert attention english english global language


c sar pelli 's ratner athletic center uses cables masts load bearing devices '''architectural engineering''' also known '''building engineering''' '''architecture engineering''' engineering discipline deals technological aspects multi disciplinary approach planning design construction operation buildings analysis integrated design environmental systems energy conservation hvac plumbing lighting fire protection acoustics vertical horizontal transportation electrical power systems structural systems behavior properties building components materials construction management reduction greenhouse gas emissions construction resilient buildings architectural engineers forefront

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addressing several major challenges st century apply latest scientific knowledge technologies design buildings architectural engineering relatively new licensed profession emerged th century result rapid technological developments architectural engineers forefront two major historical opportunities today 's world immersed rapidly advancing computer technology parallel revolution arising need create sustainable planet distinguished architecture art design architectural engineering art science engineering construction practiced


practiced specialty works closely architects engineering specialists mechanical electrical plumbing mep mep room building mechanical engineering electrical engineering engineers specialists engaged building design fields known mechanical electrical plumbing mep throughout united states building services engineering united kingdom canada australia mechanical engineers often design oversee heating ventilation air conditioning hvac plumbing rainwater systems plumbing designers often include design specifications simple active fire protection systems complicated projects fire protection engineers


often separately retained electrical engineers responsible building 's power distribution telecommunication fire alarm signalization lightning protection control systems well lighting systems architectural engineer pe united states many jurisdictions united states architectural engineer licensed engineering professional usually graduate eac abet accredited architectural engineering university program preparing students perform whole building design competition architect engineer teams practice one structural mechanical electrical fields building design appreciation integrated architectural requirements although states require bs degree


eac abet accredited engineering program exceptions two thirds states accept bs degrees etac abet accredited architectural engineering technology programs become licensed engineering professionals architectural engineering technology graduates applied engineering skills often gain learning ms degree engineering naab accredited masters architecture become licensed engineer architect path requires individual pass state licensing exams disciplines states handle situation differently experienced gained working licensed engineer registered architect prior taking examinations education model line


educational system united kingdom accredited meng ms degree engineering learning required engineering council registered chartered engineer national council architectural registration boards ncarb facilitate licensure credentialing architects requirements registration often vary states state new jersey registered architect allowed sit pe exam professional engineer allowed take design portions architectural registration exam become registered architect becoming common


highly educated architectural engineers united states become licensed engineer architect formal architectural engineering education following engineering model earlier disciplines developed late th century became widespread united states mid th century establishment specific architectural engineering ncees professional engineering registration examination first offering april architectural engineering became recognized distinct engineering discipline united states date ncees account allows engineers apply states pe license comity license regulated


jurisdictions architectural engineers entitled practice architecture unless also licensed architects practice structural engineering high risk locations eg due strong earthquakes specific types higher importance buildings hospitals may require separate licensing well regulations customary practice vary widely state city architect architectural engineer countries practice architecture includes planning designing overseeing building 's construction architecture profession providing architectural services referred architectural engineering japan first class architect plays dual role


architect building engineer although services licensed structural design first class architect required buildings certain scale ref name japaninfocenter ref languages korean arabic architect literally translated architectural engineer countries architectural engineer ''ingegnere edile'' italy entitled practice architecture often referred architect individuals often also structural engineers countries germany austria iran arab countries architecture graduates receive engineering degree ''dipl ing diplom ingenieur'' spain architect


technical university education legal powers carry building structure facility projects brazil architects engineers used share accreditation process conselho federal de engenheiros arquitetos e agr nomos confea federal council engineering architecture agronomy brazilian architects urbanists accreditation process cau architecture urbanism council besides traditional architecture design training brazilian architecture courses also offer complementary training engineering disciplines structural electrical hydraulic mechanical engineering graduation architects focus architectural planning yet responsible whole building


concerns small buildings except electric wiring architect autonomy limited systems kva done electrical engineer applied buildings urban environment built cultural heritage landscape planning interiorscape planning regional planning greece licensed architectural engineers graduates architecture faculties belong polytechnic university obtaining engineering diploma graduate years studies fully entitled architects become members technical chamber greece tee technical chamber greece


members encompassing engineering disciplines well architecture prerequisite member licensed qualified engineer architect graduate engineering architecture schools greek university equivalent school abroad technical chamber greece authorized body provide work licenses engineers disciplines well architects graduated greece abroad license awarded examinations examinations take place three four times year engineering diploma equals master 's degree


integrated separate single field study compared engineering disciplines training appreciation architecture field seeks integration building systems within overall building design architectural engineering includes design building systems including heating ventilation air conditioning hvac plumbing fire protection electrical lighting architectural acoustics structural systems university programs students required concentrate one systems others receive generalist architectural building engineering degree see also architectural drawing architectural technologist architectural technology building engineer building officials civil engineering construction engineering


'''conflict theories''' perspectives sociology social psychology emphasize materialist interpretation history dialectical method analysis critical stance toward existing social arrangements political program revolution least reform conflict theories draw attention power differentials class conflict generally contrast historically dominant ideologies therefore macro level analysis society karl marx regarded father social conflict theory component four major paradigms sociology certain conflict theories set highlight ideological aspects inherent traditional thought many

Social science
Sociology
Conflict theory


perspectives hold parallels conflict theory ' 'does not'' refer unified school thought confused instance peace conflict studies specific theory social conflict classical sociology classical founders social science conflict theory commonly associated karl marx based dialectical materialist account history marxism posited capitalism like previous socioeconomic systems would inevitably produce internal tensions leading destruction marx ushered radical change advocating proletarian revolution freedom ruling classes well


critiqued political economy time karl marx aware people living capitalist societies see system shaped entire operation society modern individuals see private property right pass property children natural many members capitalistic societies see rich earned wealth hard work education seeing poor lacking skill initiative marx rejected type thinking viewing something friedrich engels termed ''false consciousness''


use misdirection ruling class obfuscate exploitation intrinsic relationship proletariat ruling class marx wanted replace false consciousness something friedrich engels termed ''class consciousness'' workers' recognition class unified opposition capitalists ultimately capitalist system general marx wanted proletarians rise capitalists overthrow capitalist system ref two early conflict theorists polish austrian sociologist political theorist ludwig gumplowicz american sociologist paleontologist lester f ward


although ward gumplowicz developed theories independently much common approached conflict comprehensive anthropological evolutionary point view opposed marx 's rather exclusive focus economic factors gumplowicz ''grundriss der soziologie'' ''outlines sociology'' describes civilization shaped conflict cultures ethnic groups gumplowicz theorized large complex human societies evolved war conquest winner war would enslave losers eventually complex caste system develops horowitz says gumplowicz understood conflict forms class conflict race conflict ethnic conflict


calls one fathers conflict theory ward directly attacked attempted systematically refute elite business class' laissez faire philosophy espoused hugely popular social philosopher herbert spencer ward 's ''dynamic sociology'' extended thesis reduce conflict competition society thus optimize human progress basic level ward saw human nature deeply conflicted self altruism emotion intellect male female conflicts would reflected society ward assumed perpetual vigorous


struggle among various social forces shaped civilization ward optimistic marx gumplowicz believed possible build reform present social structures help sociological analysis mile durkheim saw society functioning organism functionalism concerns effort impute rigorously possible feature custom practice effect functioning supposedly stable cohesive system ref name bourricaud bourricaud f 'the sociology talcott parsons' chicago university press p ref chief form social conflict durkheim addressed crime durkheim saw


crime factor public health integral part healthy societies collective conscience defines certain acts criminal crime thus plays role evolution morality law implies way remains open necessary changes certain cases directly prepares changes max weber 's approach conflict contrasted marx marx focused way individual behavior conditioned social structure weber emphasized importance social action ie ability individuals affect social relationships modern


approaches c wright mills called founder ''modern conflict theory'' ref name knapp knapp p ''one world many worlds contemporary sociological theory'' nd ed harpercollins college div pp http www homepagevillanovaedu peterknapp thgreatshtm online summary ref mills 's view social structures created conflict people differing interests resources individuals resources turn influenced structures unequal distribution power resources society ref name knapp power elite american society ie military industrial complex emerged fusion corporate elite pentagon


executive branch government mills argued interests elite opposed people theorized policies power elite would result increased escalation conflict production weapons mass destruction possibly annihilation human race ref name knapp gene sharp professor emeritus political science university massachusetts dartmouth known extensive writings nonviolent struggle influenced numerous anti government resistance movements around world founded albert einstein institution non profit


organization devoted studies promotion use nonviolent action conflicts worldwide sharp 's key theme power monolithic derive intrinsic quality power sharp political power power state regardless particular structural organization ultimately derives subjects state fundamental belief power structure relies upon subjects' obedience orders ruler rulers subjects obey leaders power sharp called machiavelli nonviolence


clausewitz nonviolent warfare sharp 's scholarship influenced resistance organizations around world recently protest movement toppled president mubarak egypt drew extensively ideas well youth movement tunisia earlier ones eastern european colour revolutions previously inspired sharp 's work recent articulation conflict theory found canadian sociologist alan sears' book ''a good book theory guide theoretical thinking'' societies defined inequality produces conflict rather produces order consensus conflict based


inequality overcome fundamental transformation existing relations society productive new social relations disadvantaged structural interests run counter ' 'status quo'' assumed lead social change thus viewed agents change rather objects one feel sympathy human potential eg capacity creativity suppressed conditions exploitation oppression necessary society unequal division labour qualities necessarily stunted due


requirements called civilizing process functional necessity creativity actually engine economic development change role theory realizing human potential transforming society rather maintaining power structure opposite aim theory would objectivity detachment associated positivism theory neutral explanatory tool consensus euphemism ideology genuine consensus achieved rather powerful societies able impose conceptions others accept discourses consensus preserve social order entrenches stratification


although sears associates conflict theory approach marxism argues foundation much feminist post modernist anti racist lesbian gay liberationist theories conflict theory three assumptions humans self interested societies operate perpetual scarcity resources conflict pervasive unavoidable within social groups social groups types conflict theory commonly associated marxism reaction functionalism positivist method may also associated number perspectives including critical theory feminist theory approach recognizes women 's political social economic equality men


postmodern theory approach critical modernism mistrust grand theories ideologies ref name macionis j macionis j gerber l sociology th edition ref post structural theory postcolonial theory queer theory growing body research findings challenges heterosexual bias western society ref name macionis j world systems theory race conflict approach point view focuses inequality conflict people different racial ethnic categories ref name macionis j critical realism philosophy social sciences criticism conflict theory criticised politicised association marx


widespread use advocates numerous causes movements critics also argue downplays unity society taking negative view society one filled conflicts tension coercion see also conflict management game theory pure sociology social defeat sociology peace war social conflict socionics notes references social change sociological theories theories history identity politics


'''speech language pathology''' '' 'speech language pathology''' field expertise practiced clinician known '' 'speech language pathologist''' '''slp''' '' 'speech language therapist''' may known shortened description '' 'speech therapist''' speech language pathology considered related health profession allied health profession along audiology optometry occupational therapy rehabilitation psychology physical therapy behavior analysis others slps specialize evaluation diagnosis treatment communication disorders speech language impairments cognitive communication disorders voice disorders swallowing disorders slps also play important role diagnosis treatment

Applied science
Medicine and health
Speech–language pathology


autism spectrum disorder often team pediatricians psychologists profession speech language pathologists slps provide wide range services mainly individual basis also support individuals families support groups providing information general public slps work prevent assess diagnose treat speech language social communication cognitive communication voice fluency swallowing disorders children adults speech services begin initial screening communication swallowing disorders continue assessment diagnosis consultation provision advice regarding management intervention treatment providing counseling follow


services disorders services provided following areas cognitive aspects communication eg attention memory problem solving executive functions speech phonation articulation fluency resonance voice including aeromechanical components respiration language phonology morphology syntax semantics pragmatic social aspects communication including comprehension expression oral written graphic manual modalities language processing preliteracy language based literacy skills phonological awareness augmentative alternative communication individuals severe language communication impairments swallowing upper aerodigestive functions infant feeding aeromechanical events evaluation esophageal function purpose referral medical


professionals voice hoarseness dysphonia poor vocal volume hypophonia abnormal eg rough breathy strained vocal quality research demonstrates voice therapy especially helpful certain patient populations individuals parkinson 's disease often develop voice issues result disease sensory awareness related communication swallowing upper aerodigestive functions speech language swallowing disorders result variety causes stroke brain injury hearing loss developmental delay cleft palate cerebral palsy emotional issues common misconception speech language pathology restricted treatment articulation disorders eg helping english speaking individuals


enunciate traditionally difficult ''r'' treatment individuals stutter fact speech language pathology concerned broad scope speech language literacy swallowing voice issues involved communication ref name scope practice speech language pathology ref include word finding semantic issues either result specific language impairment sli language delay secondary characteristic general issue dementia social communication difficulties involving people communicate interact others pragmatics language impairments including difficulties creating sentences grammatical syntax


modifying word meaning morphology literacy impairments reading writing related letter sound relationship phonics word meaning relationship semantics understanding ideas presented text reading comprehension voice difficulties raspy voice voice soft voice difficulties negatively impact person 's social professional performance cognitive impairments eg attention memory executive function extent interfere communication '''the components speech production include''' phonation producing sound ii resonance iii fluency iv intonation iv pitch variance v voice including aeromechanical components respiration '''the components language


include''' phonology manipulating sound according rules language ii morphology understanding components words modify meaning iii syntax constructing sentences according grammatical rules target language iv semantics interpreting signs symbols communication words signs construct meaning v pragmatics social aspects communication primary pediatric speech language disorders include receptive ii expressive language disorders iii speech sound disorders iv childhood apraxia speech cas v stuttering vi language based learning disabilities speech pathologists work people ages swallowing disorders


include difficulties system swallowing process ie oral pharyngeal esophageal well functional dysphagia feeding disorders swallowing disorders occur age stem multiple causes ref name scope practice speech language pathology multi discipline collaboration slps collaborate health care professionals often working part multidisciplinary team provide information referrals audiologists physicians dentists nurses nurse practitioners occupational therapists rehabilitation psychologists dietitians educators behavior consultants applied behavior analysis parents dictated individual client 's needs example treatment patients cleft lip


palate often requires multidisciplinary collaboration speech language pathologists beneficial help resolve speech problems associated cleft lip palate research indicated children receive early language intervention less likely develop compensatory error patterns later life although speech therapy outcomes usually better surgical treatment performed earlier ref name revistaomf ref another area collaboration relates auditory processing disorders slps collaborate assessments provide intervention evidence speech language cognitive communication disorders working environments slps work variety clinical educational settings


week cannot earn cfy hours beyond hours week receive american speech language hearing association asha certificate clinical competence ccc full state licensure practice following successful completion clinical fellowship year cfy states responsible licensure clinicians professionals far new slp requirements often similar cfy following state licensure procedures national certification requirements usually done simultaneously maintain licensure slps required participate periodic earning continuing educational units ceu continuing education training obligations educate


supervise mentor future slps participate continuing education educate provide service training families caregivers professionals train supervise manage speech language pathology assistants slpa support personnel educating counseling individuals families co workers educators persons community regarding acceptance adaptation decisions communication swallowing professional suffix credentials clinical fellow typically read ms med cf slp eg jane doe cf slp credentials fully licensed slp commonly read ms med ccc slp eg jane doe ccc slp indicating practitioner 's graduate degree successful


completion fellowship year board exams obtain three cs certification clinical competence speech language pathology methods assessment many parents decision whether enroll students school based speech therapy privately practiced therapy challenging speech language pathologists work part team alongside teachers counselors social workers parents school setting school based speech therapy run state guidelines funds process assessment qualification strict qualify school speech therapy students must meet state 's criteria language testing


speech standardization due requirements students may assessed efficient time frame needs may undermined criteria private clinic students likely qualify therapy paid service availability clients patients speech language pathologists work clients patients may present wide range issues infants children infants injuries due complications birth feeding swallowing difficulties including dysphagia children mild moderate severe genetic disorders adversely affect speech language cognitive development including cleft


palate syndrome digeorge syndrome attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ref name bellani ref ref name icd ref autism spectrum disorders including asperger syndrome developmental delay feeding disorders including oral motor deficits cranial nerve damage hearing loss craniofacial anomalies adversely affect speech language cognitive development language delay specific language impairment specific difficulties producing sounds called articulation disorders including vocalic r lisps pediatric traumatic brain injury developmental verbal dyspraxia cleft palate united states us children eligible receive speech therapy services including assessment lessons public school system private therapy readily available personal lessons


qualified speech language pathologist growing field telepractice teleconferencing tools skype used commonly means access remote locations private therapy practice geographically diverse south island new zealand home combination treatments become readily available address specific types articulation disorders use mobile applications speech therapy also growing avenue bring treatment home united kingdom uk children entitled assessment local nhs speech language therapy teams usually referral


health visitors education settings parents also entitled request assessment directly treatment appropriate educational plan drawn speech therapists often play role multi disciplinary teams child speech delay disorder part wider health condition children 's commissioner england reported june postcode lottery year per head spent services areas budget areas less children english primary schools special


educational needs register needing speech therapy services children adults puberphonia cerebral palsy head injury traumatic brain injury hearing loss impairments learning difficulties including dyslexia specific language impairment sli auditory processing disorder physical disabilities speech disorders oral dyspraxia stammering stuttering disfluency stroke voice disorders dysphonia language delay motor speech disorders dysarthria developmental verbal dyspraxia naming difficulties anomia dysgraphia agraphia cognitive communication disorders pragmatics laryngectomies tracheostomies oncology ear nose throat cancer adults adults mild moderate severe eating feeding swallowing difficulties including dysphagia adults mild moderate severe language difficulties result


motor neuron diseases alzheimer 's disease dementia huntington 's disease hearing loss multiple sclerosis parkinson 's disease traumatic brain injury mental health issues stroke progressive neurological conditions cancer head neck throat including laryngectomy aphasic adults seeking transgender specific voice training including voice feminization voice masculinization see also india institute speech hearing aiims applied linguistics communicative disorders assistant list university speech language pathology departments list voice disorders motor theory speech perception neurolinguistics oral myology origin speech speech acquisition speech perception speech processing speech repetition references reading external links http wwwashaorg public american speech language hearing association


asha communication lifetime https wwwnidcdnihgov health voice speech language national institutes health voice speech language https wwwrcsltorg royal college speech language therapists applied linguistics dyslexia health care occupations medical terminology rehabilitation medicine rehabilitation team special education vocal skills speech


'''psychological anthropology''' interdisciplinary subfield anthropology studies interaction cultural mental processes subfield tends focus ways humans' development enculturation within particular cultural group history language practices conceptual categories shape processes human cognition emotion perception motivation mental health also examines understanding cognition emotion motivation similar psychological processes inform constrain models cultural social processes school within psychological anthropology approach history psychological anthropology interwoven anthropology since beginning wilhelm wundt

Social science
Anthropology
Psychological Anthropology


german psychologist pioneer folk psychology objectives form psychological explanations using reports ethnologists made different contracting stages 'totemic' stage 'age heroes gods' 'enlightened age humanity' unlike wundt believed mind 'primitive' civilised groups equivalent learning capabilities simply used capacity different ways though intimately connected many ways fields anthropology psychology generally remained separate anthropology traditionally geared towards historical evolutionary trends psychology concerned


ahistorical acultural nature psychoanalysis joined two fields together francis l k hsu suggested field culture personality renamed 'psychological anthropology' hsu considered original title old fashioned given many anthropologists regarded personality culture need better explanations psychological anthropology began shift focus towards study human behaviour natural setting schools psychoanalytic anthropology school based upon insights sigmund freud psychoanalysts applied social cultural


phenomena adherents approach often assumed techniques child rearing shaped adult personality cultural symbols including myths dreams rituals could interpreted using psychoanalytical theories techniques latter included interviewing techniques based clinical interviewing use projective tests tat rorschach tendency towards including case studies individual interviewees ethnographies major example approach six cultures study john beatrice whiting harvard 's department social relations study examined child rearing six different cultures new england baptist community


philippine barrio okinawan village indian village mexico northern indian caste group rural tribal group kenya practitioners look specifically mental illness cross culturally george devereux ways social processes oppression ethnic minorities affect mental health abram kardiner others focus ways cultural symbols social institutions provide defense mechanisms melford spiro otherwise alleviate psychological conflicts gananath obeyesekere also examined cross cultural applicability psychoanalytic concepts oedipus complex melford spiro others might considered


part school number scholars although psychoanalysts conducted fieldwork erich fromm used psychoanalytic techniques analyze materials gathered anthropologists sigmund freud erik erikson g za r heim many american social scientists first two thirds th century least passing familiarity psychoanalytic theory hard determine precisely ones considered primarily psychoanalytic anthropologists many anthropologists studied personality cora dubois clyde kluckhohn geoffrey gorer drew heavily psychoanalysis members culture personality school psychological anthropology recent years


inkeles anthropologist clyde kluckhohn ethnopsychology major figures vincent crapanzano georges devereux tobie nathan catherine lutz michelle zimbalist rosaldo renato rosaldo charles nuckolls bradd shore dorinne k kondo cognitive anthropology cognitive anthropology takes number methodological approaches generally draws insights cognitive science model mind basic premise people think aid schemas units culturally shared knowledge hypothesized represented brain networks neural connections entails certain properties cultural models may explain part observed


naming brent berlin paul kay work cognitive anthropology carried yale university pennsylvania stanford berkeley university california irvine harvard department social relations third phase looked types categories eleanor rosch cultural models drawing schema theory linguistic work metaphor george lakoff mark johnson current phase beginning seen focus problem cultural models shared distributed well motivation significant work taking place uc san


diego ucla uc berkeley university connecticut australian national university among others currently different cognitive anthropologists concerned groups individuals able coordinate activities thinking edwin hutchins distribution cultural models knows people access knowledge within culture dorothy holland kimball romney dan sperber marc swartz conflicting models within culture naomi quinn holly mathews ways cultural models internalized come motivate behavior roy d'andrade naomi quinn charles nuckolls bradd shore claudia strauss cognitive anthropologists continue work ethnoscience


scott atran notably collaborative field projects cognitive social psychologists culturally universal versus culturally particular models human categorization inference mental models hinder help social adaptations natural environments others focus methodological issues identify cultural models related work cognitive linguistics semantics also carries forward research sapir whorf hypothesis looks relationship language thought maurice bloch john lucy anna wierzbicka psychiatric anthropology forming school sense particular methodological approach number prominent


psychological anthropologists addressed significant attention interaction culture mental health mental illness jenkins barrett ranging description analysis culture bound syndromes pow meng yap ronald simons charles hughes relationship cultural values culturally mediated experiences development expression mental illness among immigrants instance particularly thomas csordas george devereux robert edgerton sue estroff arthur kleinman roberto beneduce robert lemelson theresa o'nell marvin opler training mental health practitioners cultural construction mental health profession charles w nuckolls tanya luhrmann


history modern anthropology possible exception influential approach within american social thought psychological anthropology relatively small though productive subfield d'andrade instance estimates core group scholars engaged active research cognitive anthropology one smaller sub subfields numbered anthropologists linguists total number scholars identifying subfield likely less one time present relatively universities active graduate training programs psychological anthropology include http wwwethnopsychiatrienet centre


georges devreux paris university https webarchiveorg web http artsanueduau languages linguistics linguistics homepageasp australian national university linguistics applied linguistics program http wwwbrunelacuk courses postgraduate l ppsypsya brunel university west london msc program psychological psychiatric anthropology case western reserve university phd cultural anthropology http wwwculturalanthropologydukeedu duke university cultural anthropology http wwwanthropologyemoryedu emory university anthropology http wwwlseacuk collections anthropology defaulthtm london school economics anthropology http uglesvfuibno antro kategori versjon true university bergen norway social anthropology http anthropologyberkeleyedu university california berkeley anthropology http linguisticsberkeleyedu linguistics http wwwanthrouciedu university california irvine anthropology http wwwanthrouclaedu university california los angeles anthropology https webarchiveorg web http anthropologyucsdedu divisions psych anthhtml university california san diego anthropology http wwwcogsciucsdedu cognitive


science https webarchiveorg web http humdevuchicagoedu university chicago human development http wwwanthuconnedu university connecticut anthropology http anthropologyuncedu university north carolina chapel hill anthropology also social medicine cross cultural transcultural psychiatry programs http wwwhmsharvardedu dsm harvard department global health social medicine https wwwmcgillca tcpsych mcgill division social transcultural psychiatry https webarchiveorg web http etnopsicologiacl pontificia universidad catolica de valparaiso master ethnopsychology http wwwunivtriesteit universit degli studi di trieste department ethnopsychology see also cognitive anthropology cognitive science cultural psychology egocentrism enculturation development religion harvard department social relations social psychology symbolic interactionism references bibliography selected historical works textbooks bock


philip k ''rethinking psychological anthropology nd ed'' new york w h freeman d'andrade roy g ''the development cognitive anthropology'' cambridge uk cambridge university press hsu francis l k ed ''psychological anthropology'' cambridge schenkman publishing company inc wilhelm max wundt ''v lkerpsychologie eine untersuchung der entwicklungsgesetze von sprache mythus und sitte'' leipzig reprint selected theoretical works psychological anthropology bateson gregory ''steps ecology mind'' new york ballantine books kilborne benjamin l l langness eds ''culture human nature theoretical papers melford e spiro'' chicago university chicago press


https wwwamazoncom cultural dialectics knowledge directions anthropological dp nuckolls charles w ''the cultural dialectics knowledge desire'' madison university wisconsin press nuckolls charles w ''culture problem cannot solved'' madison university wisconsin press sapir edward ''culture language personality selected essays'' edited g mandelbaum berkeley ca university california press schwartz theodore geoffrey white catherine lutz eds ''new directions psychological anthropology'' cambridge uk cambridge university press shore bradd ''culture mind cognition culture problem meaning'' new york oxford university press shweder richard robert levine eds


''culture theory essays mind self emotion'' cambridge uk cambridge university press strauss claudia naomi quinn ''a cognitive theory cultural meaning'' cambridge uk cambridge university press selected ethnographic works psychological anthropology benedict ruth ''the chrysanthemum sword patterns japanese culture'' boston houghton mifflin company boddy janice wombs alien spirits women men zar cult northern sudan univ wisconsin press briggs jean ''never anger portrait eskimo family'' cambridge massachusetts harvard university press crapanzano vincent hamadsha study moroccan ethnopsychiatry university


california pr crapanzano vincent tuhami portrait moroccan university chicago press dubois cora alice ''the people alor social psychological study east indian island'' analyses abram kardiner emil oberholzer new york harper herdt gilbert ''guardians flutes'' chicago university chicago press levy robert ''tahitians mind experience society islands'' chicago university chicago press scheper hughes nancy ''saints scholars schizophrenics mental illness rural ireland'' berkeley ca university california press swartz marc j ''the way world cultural processes


social relations among swahili mombasa'' berkeley university california press selected works psychiatric anthropology beneduce roberto ''etnopsichiatria sofferenza mentale e alterit fra storia dominio e cultura'' roma carocci jenkins janis h robert j barrett ''schizophrenia culture subjectivity edge experience'' new york cambridge university press jenkins janis h ''pharmaceutical self global shaping experience age psychopharmacology'' santa fe nm school advanced research l z samuel https wwwacademiaedu anthropology mental illness anthropology mental illness andrew scull ed ''cultural sociology mental illness z guide''


sage pp nbsp kardiner abram collaboration ralph linton cora du bois james west pseud ''the psychological frontiers society'' new york columbia university press kleinman arthur ''patients healers context culture exploration borderland anthropology medicine psychiatry'' berkeley ca university california press kleinman arthur ''social origins distress disease depression neurasthenia pain modern china'' new ct yale university press kleinman arthur good byron eds ''culture depression studies anthropology cross cultural psychology affect disorder'' berkeley


psychological anthropology essay indiana university http gezaroheimpagesperso orangefr html iatricahtm georges devereux introduction ethnopsychiatry http wwwindianaedu wanthro theory pages psychologicalhtm psychological anthropology indiana university anthropology


stm image quinacridone adsorbate self assembled supramolecular chains organic semiconductor adsorbed graphite surface '''surface science''' study physical chemical phenomena occur interface two phases including solid liquid interfaces solid gas interfaces solid vacuum interfaces liquid gas interfaces includes fields ' 'surface chemistry'' ' 'surface physics'' related practical applications classed surface engineering science encompasses concepts heterogeneous catalysis semiconductor device fabrication fuel cells self assembled monolayers adhesives surface science closely related interface colloid science interfacial chemistry physics

Natural science
Chemistry
Surface chemistry


gerhard ertl described first time adsorption hydrogen palladium surface using novel technique called leed similar studies platinum nickel iron followed recent developments surface sciences include nobel prize chemistry winner gerhard ertl 's advancements surface chemistry specifically investigation interaction carbon monoxide molecules platinum surfaces chemistry surface chemistry roughly defined study chemical reactions interfaces closely related surface engineering aims modifying chemical composition


surface incorporation selected elements functional groups produce various desired effects improvements properties surface interface surface science particular importance fields heterogeneous catalysis electrochemistry geochemistry catalysis adhesion gas liquid molecules surface known adsorption due either chemisorption physisorption strength molecular adsorption catalyst surface critically important catalyst 's performance see sabatier principle however difficult study phenomena real catalyst particles complex structures instead


also clarified due atomic scale precision surface science measurements electrochemistry electrochemistry study processes driven applied potential solid liquid liquid liquid interface behavior electrode electrolyte interface affected distribution ions liquid phase next interface forming electrical double layer adsorption desorption events studied atomically flat single crystal surfaces function applied potential time solution conditions using spectroscopy scanning probe microscopy surface x ray scattering studies link traditional electrochemical techniques cyclic voltammetry


direct observations interfacial processes geochemistry geologic phenomena iron cycling soil contamination controlled interfaces minerals environment atomic scale structure chemical properties mineral solution interfaces studied using ''in situ'' synchrotron x ray techniques x ray reflectivity x ray standing waves x ray absorption spectroscopy well scanning probe microscopy example studies heavy metal actinide adsorption onto mineral surfaces reveal molecular scale details adsorption enabling accurate predictions contaminants travel soils disrupt natural dissolution precipitation cycles physics surface physics roughly defined


study physical interactions occur interfaces overlaps surface chemistry topics investigated surface physics include friction surface states surface diffusion surface reconstruction surface phonons plasmons epitaxy emission tunneling electrons spintronics self assembly nanostructures surfaces techniques investigate processes surfaces include surface x ray scattering scanning probe microscopy surface enhanced raman spectroscopy x ray photoelectron spectroscopy xps analysis techniques study analysis surfaces involves physical chemical analysis techniques several modern methods probe topmost nbsp nm surfaces exposed vacuum


include angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy arpes x ray photoelectron spectroscopy xps auger electron spectroscopy aes low energy electron diffraction leed electron energy loss spectroscopy eels thermal desorption spectroscopy tpd ion scattering spectroscopy iss secondary ion mass spectrometry dual polarization interferometry surface analysis methods included list materials analysis methods many techniques require vacuum rely detection electrons ions emitted surface study moreover general ultra high vacuum range sup sup pascal pressure better necessary reduce surface contamination residual gas reducing number


molecules reaching sample given time period mpa sup sup torr partial pressure contaminant standard temperature takes order second cover surface one one monolayer contaminant surface atoms much lower pressures needed measurements found order magnitude estimate number specific surface area materials impingement rate formula kinetic theory gases purely optical techniques used study interfaces wide variety conditions reflection absorption infrared dual


polarisation interferometry surface enhanced raman spectroscopy sum frequency generation spectroscopy used probe solid vacuum well solid gas solid liquid liquid gas surfaces multi parametric surface plasmon resonance works solid gas solid liquid liquid gas surfaces detect even sub nanometer layers probes interaction kinetics well dynamic structural changes liposome collapse swelling layers different ph dual polarization interferometry used quantify order disruption birefringent thin films used example study formation lipid bilayers interaction membrane proteins x ray scattering spectroscopy techniques


also used characterize surfaces interfaces measurements performed using laboratory x ray sources many require high intensity energy tunability synchrotron radiation x ray crystal truncation rods ctr x ray standing wave xsw measurements probe changes surface adsorbate structures sub ngstr resolution surface extended x ray absorption fine structure sexafs measurements reveal coordination structure chemical state adsorbates grazing incidence small angle x ray scattering gisaxs yields size shape orientation nanoparticles surfaces crystal structure texture thin films investigated using grazing incidence x ray diffraction gixd


gixrd x ray photoelectron spectroscopy xps standard tool measuring chemical states surface species detecting presence surface contamination surface sensitivity achieved detecting photoelectrons kinetic energies ev corresponding inelastic mean free paths nanometers technique extended operate near ambient pressures ambient pressure xps ap xps probe realistic gas solid liquid solid interfaces performing xps hard x rays synchrotron light sources yields photoelectrons kinetic energies several kev hard x ray photoelectron spectroscopy haxpes enabling access chemical information


buried interfaces modern physical analysis methods include scanning tunneling microscopy stm family methods descended including atomic force microscopy afm microscopies considerably increased ability desire surface scientists measure physical structure many surfaces example make possible follow reactions solid gas interface real space proceed time scale accessible instrument see also references reading external links http wwwvegaorguk video programme ram rao materials surface science video vega science trust http wwwsurfchemnet surface chemistry discoveries https guidedigitalsurfcom en guidehtml surface metrology


circulation desk university texas arlington 's central library '''library circulation''' '''library lending''' comprises activities around lending library books material users lending library circulation lending department one key departments library main public service point circulation desk loans desk usually found near main entrance library provides lending services facilities return loaned items renewal materials payment fines also handled circulation desk circulation staff may provide

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Library circulation


ie patron transactions material checkouts etc creation borrowers pockets ie using browne issue system charging receipting overdue fines send overdue notices borrower operating automated filing recovery system technology adapt new software equipment perform moderate physical work including ability carry pull lift pounds bend stand long periods time ability conduct reconcile financial reports communicate via telephone email ability see read materials assist patrons circulation reserve desk assist circulation supervisor training student employee


academic environment maintain stacks shelving materials library call number whether dewey decimal system library congress system resolve issues inappropriate patron conduct including limited cell phone usages open drink containers inappropriate noise levels intellectual freedom committee public service librarians must look law determine legal obligations potential liability relating privacy library use potential liability punishment librarians fail protect confidentiality individual library use largely matter state law without record prosecution civil suit remedies


individuals whose information deliberately shared unknowingly collected third parties vary widely sometimes unclear established december office intellectual freedom charged implementing american library association ala policies policies concerning concept intellectual freedom embodied library bill rights association basic policy free access libraries library materials p library bill rights american library association affirms libraries forums information ideas following basic policies guide services books


library resources provided interest information enlightenment people community library serves materials excluded origin background views contributing creation ii libraries provide materials information presenting points view current historical issues materials proscribed removed partisan doctrinal disapproval iii libraries challenge censorship fulfillment responsibility provide information enlightenment iv libraries cooperate persons groups concerned resisting abridgment free expression


free access ideas v person right use library denied abridged origin age background views vi libraries make exhibit spaces meeting rooms available public serve make facilities available equitable basis regardless beliefs affiliations individuals groups requesting use vii people regardless origin age background views possess right privacy confidentiality library use libraries advocate educate protect people privacy safeguarding library use data including


personally identifiable information adopted june ala council amended october june february june january january inclusion age reaffirmed january p see also controlled digital lending interlibrary loan library reference desk references code ethics american library association november american library association retrieved http wwwalaorg advocacy proethics codeofethics codeethics federal libraries intellectual freedom november retrieved http wwwalaorg advocacy intfreedom iftoolkits ifmanual fifthedition federallibraries library bill rights november american library association retrieved http wwwalaorg advocacy intfreedom librarybill montana front desk circulation assistant august


plus media solutions us official news retrieved lexisnexis academic https wwwlexisnexiscom hottopics lnacademic weingand e customer service excellence concise guide librarians american library association


'''readers' advisory''' sometimes spelled '' 'readers advisory''' '' 'reader 's advisory''' service involves suggesting fiction nonfiction titles reader direct indirect means service fundamental library service however readers' advisory also occurs commercial contexts bookstores currently almost north american public libraries offer form readers' advisory history north america blockquote setting date start call readers advisory service particularly readers advisory public library best frustrating almost arbitrary exercise efforts historical precision founder

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Readers' advisory


basic issues absence common definitions example answers questions 'what exactly public library really readers advisory long disputed bill crowley journal article rediscovering history readers advisory service blockquote opposing viewpoints merits different types readers' advisory historical period divisions merits different types readers' advisory services hotly debated topic among librarians bill crowley article rediscovering history readers advisory service breaks historical period divisions service four


eras inventing readers' advisory privileging nonfiction readers' advisory readers' advisory 'lost' adult services current time article reviving readers' advisory juris dilevko candice magowan question merits current readers' advisory emphasis popular fiction materials book readers' advisory service north american public libraries subdivide history ref name autogenerated ref formative years commitment systematic adult education devolution


entertainment dilevko mogowan write readers' advisory systematically committ ing meaningful adult education serious purposeful reading emphasis popular culture resulted 'give 'em want' approach ref name autogenerated devolution entertainment ala president stated personal influence librarians assisted advised readers potent force molding community reading organized readers' advisory programs documented dating back readers' advisory programs experimentally introduced seven urban libraries cleveland