military engineers french marshal vauban dutch military engineer menno van coehoorn developed modern fortification pinnacle refining siege warfare without fundamentally altering ditches would dug walls would protected glacis bastions would enfilade attacker engineers developed ideas independently came similar general rules regarding defensive construction offensive action fortifications skilled conducting sieges defences vauban van coehoorn sieges somewhat slapdash operations vauban van coehoorn refined besieging science methodical process uninterrupted would


break even strongest fortifications examples styles fortifications arras vauban longer existent fortress bergen op zoom van coehoorn main differences two lay difference terrain vauban van coehoorn constructed defences vauban sometimes hilly mountainous terrain france van coehoorn flat floodable lowlands netherlands planning maintaining siege difficult fending one besieging army must prepared repel sorties besieged area also attack may

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics
Siege


try relieve defenders thus usual construct lines trenches defenses facing directions outermost lines known lines contravallation would surround entire besieging army protect attackers would first construction effort besieging army built soon fortress city invested line circumvallation would also constructed facing towards besieged area protect sorties defenders prevent besieged escaping next line vauban usually placed meters


target would contain main batteries heavy cannons could hit target without vulnerable line established work crews would move forward creating another line meters line contained smaller guns final line would constructed meters fortress line would contain mortars would act staging area attack parties walls breached van coehoorn developed small easily movable mortar named coehorn variations used sieges th


century would also line miners working undermine fortress would operate trenches connecting various lines besiegers could built perpendicular walls fortress defenders would clear line fire along whole trench thus lines known saps needed sharply jagged battle vienna took place vienna besieged ottoman empire two months another element fortress citadel usually citadel mini fortress within larger


fortress sometimes designed reduit often means protecting garrison potential revolt city citadel used wartime peacetime keep residents city line ages past sieges decided little fighting opposing armies attacker 's army poorly served incurring high casualties direct assault fortress would entail usually would wait supplies inside fortifications exhausted disease weakened defenders point willing surrender


long time brutally butchered end moreover attacking army reputation killing pillaging regardless surrender cities' defensive efforts would redoubled usually city would surrender honour lost inner lines defence reached attacker case refusal however inner lines would stormed attacker attacking troops would seen justified sacking city siege warfare siege warfare dominated western europe th th


centuries entire campaign longer could used single siege example ostend la rochelle resulted extremely prolonged conflicts balance siege warfare extremely expensive slow successful least encounters field battles arose clashes besiegers relieving armies principle slow grinding victory greater economic power relatively rare attempts forcing pitched battles gustavus adolphus french dutch almost always


expensive failures storming redoubt siege yorktown exception rule english english civil war anything tended prolong struggle seemed like want energy avoidance decision bitterly resented men sides france germany prolongation war meant continued employment soldiers england sides looking end war quickly even end new model army regular professional army developed original decision compelling spirit permeated whole organisation seen


pitched regular professional continental troops battle dunes interregnum badajoz peninsular war experienced commanders sides english civil war recommended abandonment garrisoned fortifications two primary reasons first example proposed royalist sir richard willis king charles abandoning garrisoning strategic locations one 's territory far troops would available field armies field armies would decide conflict argument slighting potential


bonaparte always sought quick end conflict pitched battle military revolution described codified clausewitz industrial advances siege antwerp advances artillery made previously impregnable defences useless example walls vienna held turks mid th century obstacle napoleon early th sieges occurred siege delhi siege cawnpore indian rebellion attackers usually able defeat defences within matter days weeks rather weeks


months previously great swedish white elephant fortress karlsborg built tradition vauban intended reserve capital sweden obsolete completed railways introduced made possible movement supply larger armies fought napoleonic wars also reintroduced siege warfare armies seeking use railway lines enemy territory forced capture fortresses blocked lines franco prussian war battlefield front lines moved rapidly france however prussian german armies


modern citadels improved improvised defences could still resist enemy many months siege plevna russo turkish war proved hastily constructed field defences could resist attacks prepared without proper resources portent trench warfare world war advances firearms technology without necessary advances battlefield communications gradually led defence gaining ascendancy example siege time prolonged days due isolation surrounded troops siege baler reduced group spanish


soldiers besieged small church philippine rebels course philippine revolution spanish american war months treaty paris end conflict furthermore development steamships availed greater speed blockade runners ships purpose bringing cargo eg food cities blockade charleston south carolina american civil war modern warfare first world war sepoy pow shows conditions garrison kut end siege world war mainly result


increasing firepower machine guns available defensive forces first world war trench warfare briefly revived form siege warfare although siege warfare moved urban setting city walls become ineffective modern weapons trench warfare nonetheless able use many techniques siege warfare prosecution sapping mining barrage course attrition much larger scale greatly extended front traditional sieges fortifications took place addition trench sieges siege tsingtao one first major sieges


war inability significant resupply german garrison made relatively one sided battle germans crew austro hungarian protected cruiser put hopeless defence holding week surrendered japanese forcing german east asia squadron steam towards south america new coal source major siege outside europe first world war mesopotamia siege kut failed attempt move baghdad stopped ottomans bloody battle ctesiphon


british large contingent indian sepoy soldiers forced retreat kut ottomans german general baron colmar von der goltz laid siege british attempts resupply force via tigris river failed rationing complicated refusal many indian troops eat cattle products time garrison fell april starvation rampant conditions improve greatly turkish imprisonment along battles tanga sandfontein gallipoli namakura would one britain 's numerous embarrassing colonial defeats war


skoda mm model largest sieges war however took place europe initial german advance belgium produced four major sieges battle li ge battle namur siege maubeuge siege antwerp four would prove crushing german victories li ge namur belgians maubeuge french antwerp combined anglo belgian force weapon made victories possible german big berthas skoda mm model siege mortars one best siege mortars


war loan austria hungary huge guns decisive weapon siege warfare th century taking part przemy l belgian sieges italian front serbian front even reused world war ii siege przemy l second siege przemy l austro hungarian garrison showed excellent knowledge siege warfare waiting relief sending sorties russian lines employing active defence resulted capture russian general lavr kornilov despite excellent performance garrison 's food supply requisitioned earlier


offensives relief expedition stalled weather ethnic rivalries flared defending soldiers breakout attempt failed commander garrison hermann kusmanek finally surrendered troops eating horses first attempt large scale air supply failed one great victories obtained either side war austro hungarian prisoners marched back russia use aircraft siege running bringing supplies areas siege would nevertheless prove useful many sieges come largest siege war arguably


roughest gruesome battle history battle verdun whether battle considered true siege warfare debatable theories erich von falkenhayn distinguishable purely attrition coincidental presence fortifications battlefield considering plans crown prince wilhelm purely concerned taking citadel french casualty figures considered true siege main fortifications fort douaumont fort vaux fortified city verdun germans use huge artillery bombardments flamethrowers infiltration


tactics able capture vaux douaumont never able take city eventually lost gains battle despite french ability fend germans neither side german losses worth potential capture city french casualties worth holding symbol defence development armoured tank improved infantry tactics end world war swung pendulum back favour manoeuvre advent blitzkrieg


end traditional siege warfare hand maginot line would prime example failure immobile post world war fortifications although sieges would continue would totally different style reduced scale second world war blitzkrieg second world war truly showed fixed fortifications easily defeated manoeuvre instead frontal assault long sieges great maginot line bypassed battles would taken weeks siege could avoided careful application air power german paratrooper


capture fort eben emael belgium early world war ii map showing axis encirclement siege leningrad important siege siege leningrad lasted months half duration entire second world war siege leningrad resulted deaths one million city 's inhabitants along battle stalingrad siege leningrad eastern front deadliest siege city history west apart battle atlantic sieges


single shell could disastrous local effect guns susceptible air attack addition slow move airbridge throughout war western allies germans tried supply forces besieged behind enemy lines ad hoc airbridges sometimes attempts failed happened besieged german sixth army siege stalingrad sometimes succeeded happened battle admin box february short siege bastogne december logistics strategic airbridge operations developed americans flying military transport


tons necessities day airbridge used extensively siege dien bien phu first indochina war failed prevent fall vi minh next vietnam war airbridge proved crucial siege american base khe sanh resupply provided kept north vietnamese army capturing base vietnamese cases viet minh nlf able cut opposing army capturing surrounding rugged terrain dien bien phu french unable use air


battle arvn access one nbsp mm howitzer provide close support enemy attack backed entire artillery division arvn tanks nva communist forces two armoured regiments arvn prevailed two months continuous fighting general paul vanuxem french veteran indochina war wrote visiting liberated city l c l c verdun vietnam vietnam received baptism supreme consecration yugoslav wars republika srpska forces besieged sarajevo


capital bosnia herzegovina siege lasted numerous sieges taken place syrian civil war siege homs siege koban siege deir ez zor siege al fu'ah kafriya police activity conflagration mount carmel center final day waco siege siege tactics continue employed police conflicts due number factors primarily risk life whether police besieged bystanders hostages police make use trained negotiators psychologists necessary


force generally able rely support nation 's armed forces required one complications facing police siege involving hostages stockholm syndrome sometimes hostages develop sympathetic rapport captors helps keep safe harm considered good thing cases hostages tried shield captors assault refused cooperate authorities bringing prosecutions police siege branch davidian church waco texas lasted days atypically


breastwork fortification infiltration last stand maneuver warfare medieval warfare sangar fortification siege engines siege equipment tunnel warfare lists list established military terms list sieges notes references reading '''historiography''' external links http musejhuedu demo ethnohistory v keenerhtml native american siege warfare https archivetoday http wwwsunward com woodkitshtm siege kits http wwwredstoneprojectscom trebuchetstore trebuchet illustrationshtml scenes siege warfare http wwwreshafimorgil ad egypt weapons siege warfarehtm three ancient egyptian sieges megiddo dapur hermopolis http wwwkeywayca htm htm siege city biblical perspectives https wwwpbsorg wgbh nova lostempires trebuchet secrets lost empires medieval siege pbs informative interactive webpages medieval siege tactics battles type military strategy warfare middle ages


'''social engineering''' may refer social engineering political science means influencing particular attitudes social behaviors large scale social engineering security obtaining confidential information manipulating deceiving people artificial intelligence see also cultural engineering manufacturing consent disambiguation mass media noble lie propaganda social dynamics social software social technology urban planning social science disambiguation pages

Social science
Sociology
Applied sociology
Social engineering


'''social engineering''' top effort influence particular attitudes social behaviors large scale often undertaken governments also carried media academia private groups order produce desired characteristics target population social engineering also understood philosophically deterministic phenomenon intentions goals architects new social construct realized social engineers use scientific method analyze understand social systems order design appropriate methods achieve desired results human subjects overview decision making affect


safety survival billions people scientific theory expressed german sociologist ferdinand nnies study ''the present problems social structure'' proposes society longer operate successfully using outmoded methods social management achieve best outcomes conclusions decisions must use advanced techniques include reliable statistical data applied social system according social engineering data based scientific system used develop sustainable design achieve intelligent management earth 's resources human capital


highest levels freedom prosperity happiness within population social engineering carried organization without regard scale sponsorship public private sector comprehensive pervasive campaigns social engineering initiated powerful central governments systems authority widely affect individuals cultures within purview result abuse authoritarian regimes term cases imbued negative connotation social engineering used means achieve wide variety different results


illustrated different governments organizations employed discussion possibilities manipulation became especially active following world war ii advent mass television continuing discussion techniques social engineering particularly advertising bias based journalism remains quite pertinent western model consumer capitalism journalism intent report objectively report intent sway popular attitudes social behaviors shape public opinion comes scope social engineering also applies information would


bring question viewpoints social goals journalistic establishment withheld favor information within ethical journalism knowledge personal establishment producer bias allows journalist avoid social engineering correcting reporting factual evidence way promote oppose attitudes social behaviors thereby portray deny popular attitude preferable social behavior virtue establishment 's authority possession national international platform social engineering practiced exclusion cultural elements interacting societies led


ingenieurs'' social engineers essay idea modern employers needed assistance specialists handling ''human'' challenges needed technical expertise traditional engineers deal non human challenges materials machines processes term came america notion social engineering also launched name task social engineer sense social engineering title small journal renamed social service title book journal 's former editor


william h tolman translated french marked end usage terminology sense created van marken social gospel sociologist edwin l earp 's ''the social engineer'' published efficiency craze us new usage term launched since become standard social engineering came refer approach treating social relations machineries ref name knower friend ref dealt manner technical engineer ref name knower friend prerequisite social engineering body


reliable information society engineered effective tools carry engineering availability information dramatically increased within past one hundred years prior invention printing press difficult groups outside wealthy gain access reliable body information media conveying information prohibitively expensive rise information age information distributed produced unprecedented scale similarly digital technology increased variety access effective tools however


also created questionably reliable bodies information cases radical social engineering campaigns occur countries authoritarian governments non authoritarian regimes tend rely sustained social engineering campaigns foster gradual ultimately far reaching change governments also influence behavior subtly incentives disincentives built economic policy tax policy instance done centuries government soviet union embarked campaign fundamentally alter behavior ideals soviet citizens replace old social frameworks russian empire new


soviet culture develop new soviet man commissars became agents social engineering soviets used newspapers books film mass relocations even architectural design tactics serve social condenser change personal values private relationships manner violence political executions example night murdered poets moscow fear becoming victim mass murder played influential role social engineering frameworks soviet russia similar examples include chinese great leap forward mao 's cultural revolution programs


khmer rouge 's deurbanization cambodia singapore ethnic integration policy attempts promote mix races within subsidized housing district order foster social racial cohesion providing citizens affordable housing british canadian jurisprudence changing public attitudes behaviour accepted one key functions laws prohibiting behaviour social theorists frankfurt school weimar germany like theodor adorno observed new phenomenon mass culture commented new manipulative power theorists left germany


around due rise nazi party many became connected institute social research united states consolidation nazi germany onwards new government also made use methods influence political attitudes redefine personal relationships reich ministry public enlightenment propaganda joseph goebbels synchronized sophisticated effective tool shaping public opinion greece greek military junta attempted steer greek public opinion propaganda also inventing new words slogans


sisi president onwards using social engineering controlling media internet providers india social engineering effectively done state bihar grand scale unify different castes coherency voting allegiances based social extremes among upper castes dalits challenged vote poll indian reference karl popper classic political science book ''the open society enemies'' volume ''the spell plato'' karl popper examined application critical rational methods science


york routledge charles arthur willard ''liberalism social grounds knowledge'' chicago university chicago press ''manufacturing consent political economy mass media'' noam chomsky '' https booksgooglecom booksid w semalxwcqc printsec frontcover v onepage q social engineering f false seeing like state '' james c scott '' https booksgooglecom booksid ep lrofjfy c printsec frontcover v onepage q f false social engineering '' adam podg recki influence social political political science terminology political terminology linguistic controversies


exists two fields nevertheless sociological approaches psychology remain important counterpart conventional psychological research ref name ref addition split psychology sociology difference emphasis american european social psychologists former traditionally focused individual whereas latter generally paid attention group level phenomena history although issues social psychology already discussed philosophy much human history writings islamic philosopher al farabi dealt similar issues ref name amber ref modern scientific discipline began united states

Social science
Psychology
Social psychology


american sociological association asa founded th century th century social psychology emerging field larger field psychology time many psychologists concerned developing concrete explanations different aspects human nature attempted discover concrete cause effect relationships explained social interactions order applied scientific method human behavior first published study field norman triplett 's experiment phenomenon social facilitation psychological experiments later went form foundation


much th century social psychological findings early th century many gestalt psychologists notably kurt lewin fled united states nazi germany instrumental developing field area separate dominant behavioral psychoanalytic schools time attitudes small group phenomena topics commonly studied era world war ii social psychologists mostly concerned studies persuasion propaganda us military see also psychological warfare following war researchers became interested variety social problems


including issues gender racial prejudice notable contentious milgram experiments years immediately following world war ii frequent collaborations psychologists sociologists two disciplines however become increasingly specialized isolated recent years sociologists generally focusing macro features whereas psychologists generally focusing micro features ref name late th century modernity growing interest topics cognitive dissonance bystander intervention aggression however social psychology america reached


crisis heated debates emerged issues ethical concerns laboratory experimentation whether attitude could actually predict behavior much science could done cultural context also time situationism came challenge relevance self personality psychology ref name social psychology ref throughout social psychology reached mature level especially regard theory methodology ref name social psychology careful ethical standards regulate research pluralistic multicultural perspectives emerged modern researchers interested many phenomena though attribution social cognition self concept


perhaps areas greatest growth recent years social psychologists also maintained applied interests contributions social psychology health education law workplace intrapersonal phenomena attitudes social psychology ''attitude'' defined learned global evaluations eg people issues influence thought action ref name sison ref attitudes basic expressions approval disapproval bem suggests likes dislikes eg enjoying chocolate ice cream endorsing values particular political party people influenced factors given situation general attitudes always


several areas discipline conformity interpersonal attraction social perception prejudice persuasion persuasion active method influencing attempts guide people toward adoption attitude idea behavior rational emotive means persuasion relies appeals rather strong pressure coercion process persuasion found influenced numerous variables generally fall one five major categories communicator includes credibility expertise trustworthiness attractiveness message includes varying degrees reason emotion eg fear one sided two sided arguments types


peripheral persuasion politician using flag lapel pin smiling wearing crisp clean shirt require motivation persuasive last long central persuasion politician outline believe previous voting record would centrally persuasive resulting longer lasting change expense greater motivation required processing social cognition social cognition studies people perceive think remember information others much research rests assertion people think people differently non social targets assertion


supported social cognitive deficits exhibited people williams syndrome autism person perception study people form impressions others study people form beliefs interacting interpersonal perception major research topic social cognition attribution attributions explain people 's behavior either behavior behavior others one element attribution ascribes cause behavior internal external factors ''internal'' dispositional attribution reasons behavior caused inner traits personality disposition character


ability ''external'' situational attribution reasons behaviour caused situational elements weather ref name aaronson ref second element attribution ascribes cause behavior stable unstable factors ie whether behavior repeated changed similar circumstances individuals also attribute causes behavior controllable uncontrollable factors ie much control one situation hand numerous biases attribution process discovered instance fundamental attribution error tendency make dispositional attributions behavior overestimating influence personality underestimating


influence situational ref name myers ref actor observer bias refinement tendency make dispositional attributions people 's behavior situational attributions ref name aaronson self serving bias tendency attribute dispositional causes successes situational causes failure particularly self esteem threatened leads assuming one 's successes innate traits one 's failures due situations ref name aaronson ways people protect self esteem believing world blaming victims suffering making defensive attributions explain behavior


ways defend us feelings vulnerability mortality ref name aaronson researchers found mildly depressed individuals often lack bias actually realistic perceptions reality measured opinions others ref name andrews ref heuristics heuristics cognitive shortcuts instead weighing evidence making decision people rely heuristics save time energy availability heuristic occurs people estimate probability outcome based easy outcome imagine vivid highly memorable possibilities perceived likely


harder picture difficult understand resulting corresponding cognitive bias representativeness heuristic shortcut people use categorize something based similar prototype know ref name aaronson numerous biases found social cognition researchers hindsight bias false memory predicted events exaggeration actual predictions becoming aware outcome confirmation bias type bias leading tendency search interpret information way confirms one 's preconceptions


schemas another key concept social cognition assumption reality complex easily discern result tend see world according simplified schemas images reality schemas generalized mental representations organize knowledge guide information processing schemas often operate automatically unintentionally lead biases perception memory schemas may induce expectations lead us see something one experiment found people likely misperceive weapon hands black man white man


example civilian may know handle hostile threat well trained marine would marine contains self would enable process information hostile threat react accordingly whereas civilian may contain self lessening civilian 's ability properly assess threat act accordingly self concept comprises multiple self schemas example people whose body image significant self concept aspect considered ' 'schematics'' respect weight contrast people regard weight important part lives ''aschematic''


respect attribute individuals range otherwise mundane events grocery shopping new clothes eating going beach trigger thoughts self ref name ref self special object attention whether one mentally focused memory conversation foul smell song stuck one 's head sentence consciousness like spotlight spotlight shine one object time switch rapidly one object another spotlight self front center things relating


self spotlight often abcs self ref name affect ie emotion people evaluate enhance self image maintain secure sense identity behavior people regulate actions present others according interpersonal demands cognition individuals become build self concept uphold stable sense identity ''affective forecasting'' process predicting one would feel response future emotional events studies done timothy wilson daniel gilbert shown people overestimate strength


reactions anticipated positive negative life events actually feel event occur many theories perception behavior leon festinger 's ' 'social comparison theory'' people evaluate abilities opinions comparing others uncertain ability opinions daryl bem 's ' 'self perception theory'' claims internal cues difficult interpret people gain self insight observing behavior also ''facial feedback hypothesis'' changes facial expression lead corresponding changes emotion ref


name self concept often divided cognitive component known ' 'self schema'' evaluative component ' 'self esteem'' need maintain healthy self esteem recognized central human motivation self efficacy beliefs associated self schema expectations performance task effective successful social psychologists also study self related processes self control self presentation people develop self concepts various means including introspection feedback others self perception social comparison comparing others people gain information make inferences relevant


self esteem social comparisons either upward downward comparisons people either higher lower status ability downward comparisons often made order elevate self esteem self perception specialized form attribution involves making inferences oneself observing one 's behavior psychologists found many extrinsic rewards eg money tend reduce intrinsic motivation self perception process phenomenon known overjustification people 's attention directed reward lose interest task reward longer offered


act think like members group identity members within group ie status similarity expertise well cohesion prior commitment accountability group help determine level conformity individual individual variations among group members plays key role dynamic willing people conform ref name aaronson conformity usually viewed negative tendency american culture certain amount conformity adaptive situations nonconformity situations ref name aaronson ref line matches first line


b c asch conformity experiments people frequently followed majority judgment even majority objectively wrong second major area social influence research compliance refers change behavior due request suggestion another person foot door technique compliance method persuader requests small favor follows requesting larger favor eg asking time asking ten dollars related trick bait switch third major form social influence


obedience change behavior result direct order command another person obedience form compliance dramatically highlighted milgram study wherein people ready administer shocks person distress researcher 's command ref name aaronson unusual kind social influence self fulfilling prophecy prediction made causes become true example stock market widely believed crash imminent investors may lose confidence sell stock thus


groups tend interact influence share common identity number emergent qualities distinguish coincidental temporary gatherings termed social aggregates ref name norms implicit rules expectations group members follow eg saying thank shaking hands roles implicit rules expectations specific members within group eg oldest sibling may additional responsibilities family relations patterns liking within group also differences prestige status eg leaders popular people temporary groups aggregates share none


individuals within interacting groups tendency define oneself membership group may lead intergroup discrimination involves favorable perceptions behaviors directed towards group negative perceptions behaviors directed towards group hand discrimination segregation may sometimes exist partly facilitate diversity strengthens society intergroup discrimination leads prejudicial stereotyping processes social facilitation group polarization encourage extreme behaviors towards group groups often moderate improve decision making frequently relied upon benefits committees juries


directive leader janis offered bay pigs invasion historical case groupthink groups also affect performance productivity social facilitation example tendency work harder faster presence others social facilitation increases ' 'dominant response' 's likelihood tends improve performance simple tasks reduce complex tasks contrast social loafing tendency individuals slack working group social loafing common task considered unimportant individual contributions easy see social psychologists study group related collective


phenomena behavior crowds important concept area deindividuation reduced state self awareness caused feelings anonymity deindividuation associated uninhibited sometimes dangerous behavior common crowds mobs also caused disguise uniform alcohol dark environments online anonymity groups groups individuals interpersonal attraction major area study people 's relations interpersonal attraction refers forces lead people like establish relationships


early stages characterized high levels passion later similarity compatibility factors become important type love people experience shifts ''passionate'' ''companionate'' robert sternberg suggested actually three components love intimacy passion commitment two people experience three said state consummate love according social exchange theory relationships based rational choice cost benefit analysis person may leave relationship partner 's costs begin outweigh benefits especially


good alternatives available theory similar minimax principle proposed mathematicians economists despite fact human relationships zero sum games time long term relationships tend become communal rather simply based exchange research methods social psychology empirical science attempts answer questions human behavior testing hypotheses laboratory field careful attention research design sampling statistical analysis important results published peer reviewed journals ''journal experimental social psychology'' ''personality social psychology bulletin''


''journal personality social psychology'' social psychology studies also appear general science journals ''psychological science'' ''science'' experimental methods involve researcher altering variable environment measuring effect another variable example would allowing two groups children play violent nonviolent video games observing subsequent level aggression free play period valid experiment controlled uses random assignment correlational methods examine statistical association two naturally occurring variables example one could correlate number violent television shows children watch


home number violent incidents children participate school note study would ''not'' prove violent tv causes aggression children quite possible aggressive children choose watch violent tv observational methods purely descriptive include naturalistic observation contrived observation participant observation archival analysis less common social psychology sometimes used first investigating phenomenon example would unobtrusively observe children playground videocamera perhaps record number types aggressive actions displayed whenever possible


social psychologists rely controlled experimentation requires manipulation one independent variables order examine effect dependent variable experiments useful social psychology high internal validity meaning free influence confounding extraneous variables likely accurately indicate causal relationship however small samples used controlled experiments typically low external validity degree results generalized larger population usually trade experimental control internal


validity able generalize population external validity usually impossible test everyone research tends conducted sample persons wider population social psychologists frequently use survey research interested results high external validity surveys use various forms random sampling obtain sample respondents representative population type research usually descriptive correlational experimental control variables psychologists raised concerns social psychological research relying heavily


studies conducted university undergraduates academic settings ref name henrich ref ref name sears ref participants crowdsourcing labor markets amazon mechanical turk ref name anderson ref study david sears ref name sears experiments used north american undergraduates subjects subset population unrepresentative population whole ref name henrich regardless method chosen significance results reviewed accepting evaluating underlying hypothesis two different types tests social psychologists use review results statistics probability testing define


constitutes significant finding low less unlikely due chance replications testing important ensuring results valid due chance false positive conclusions often resulting pressure publish author 's confirmation bias hazard field ref name simmons et al ref famous experiments asch conformity experiments asch conformity experiments demonstrated power impulse conform within small groups use line length estimation task designed easy


assess deliberately wrong answers given least oftentimes participants ref name ref well third trials participants conformed majority even though majority judgment clearly wrong seventy five percent participants conformed least experiment additional manipulations experiment showed participant conformity decreased least one individual failed conform increased individual began conforming withdrew experiment ref name also participant conformity increased substantially number incorrect individuals increased one


three remained high incorrect majority grew participants three incorrect participants made mistakes time one two incorrect participants made mistakes time respectively ref name festinger cognitive dissonance leon festinger 's cognitive dissonance experiment divided two groups participants asked perform boring task later asked dishonestly give opinion task afterwards rewarded according two different pay scales study 's end participants paid say


enjoyed task another group participants paid tell lie first group later reported liking task better second group festinger 's explanation people first group paid sufficient incentive lying paid experienced dissonance could overcome dissonance justifying lies changing previously unfavorable attitudes task paid provides reason boring task resulting dissonance milgram experiment experimenter e persuades


participant give participant believes painful electric shocks another participant l actually actor many participants continued give shocks despite pleas mercy actor milgram experiment milgram experiment designed study far people would go obeying authority figure following events holocaust world war ii experiment showed normal american citizens capable following orders even believed causing innocent person suffer even apparently die stanford prison experiment philip


participants' personalities influenced reactions variety ways including long chose remain study bbc prison study designed replicate conditions stanford study produced conclusions drastically different initial findings ref name reicher haslam ref robber 's cave experiment muzafer sherif 's robbers' cave study divided boys two competing groups explore much hostility aggression would emerge sherif 's explanation results became known realistic group conflict theory intergroup conflict induced competition resources inducing cooperation superordinate goals later reversed


effect bandura 's bobo doll albert bandura 's bobo doll experiment demonstrated aggression learned imitation ethics goal social psychology understand cognition behavior naturally occur social context act observing people influence alter behavior reason many social psychology experiments utilize deception conceal distort certain aspects study deception may include false cover stories false participants known confederates stooges false feedback given participants practice deception challenged psychologists


maintain deception circumstances unethical research strategies eg role playing used instead unfortunately research shown role playing studies produce results deception studies cast doubt validity addition deception experimenters times put people potentially uncomfortable embarrassing situations eg milgram experiment stanford prison experiment also criticized ethical reasons protect rights well research participants time discover meaningful results insights human behavior virtually


social psychology research must pass ethical review colleges universities conducted ethics committee institutional review board examines proposed research make sure harm likely come participants study 's benefits outweigh possible risks discomforts people taking part furthermore process informed consent often used make sure volunteers know asked experiment understand allowed quit experiment time debriefing typically done


experiment 's conclusion order reveal deceptions used generally make sure participants unharmed procedures today research social psychology involves risk harm expected routine psychological testing normal daily activities adolescents social psychology studies plays key roles child 's development time teens faced many issues decisions impact social development faced self esteem issues peer pressure drugs alcohol tobacco sex social media psychologists today fully aware effect


questionable research practices identified common practices necessarily intentionally fraudulent involve converting undesired statistical outcomes desired outcomes via manipulation statistical analyses sample sizes data management systems typically convert non significant findings significant ones ref name simmons et al studies suggested least mild versions practices prevalent one criticisms daryl bem feeling future controversy evidence precognition study could attributed questionable practices secondly social psychologists published fraudulent research entered


resulted renewed attention replication supported daniel kahneman scrutiny many effects shown several core beliefs hard replicate special edition ''social psychology'' focused replication studies number previously held beliefs found difficult replicate likewise special edition ''perspectives psychological science'' focused issues ranging publication bias null aversion contribute replication crisis psychology important note replication crisis mean social psychology unscientific rather reexamination healthy


sometimes acrimonious part scientific process old ideas cannot withstand careful scrutiny pruned consequence areas social psychology considered solid social priming come increased scrutiny due failure replicate findings academic journals ''asian journal social psychology'' ''basic applied social psychology'' ''british journal social psychology'' ''european journal social psychology'' ''journal applied social psychology'' ''journal experimental social psychology'' ''journal personality social psychology'' ''journal social psychology'' ''personality social psychology bulletin'' ''personality social psychology review''


'''software engineering''' systematic application engineering approaches development software ref name bodu ref ref name acm ref ref name laplante ref '' 'software engineer''' person applies principles software engineering design develop maintain test evaluate computer software term ''programmer'' sometimes used synonym may also lack connotations engineering education skills engineering techniques used inform software development process ref name bodu ref name swebookv involves definition implementation assessment measurement management change improvement software life cycle process heavily uses software configuration management ref name bodu

Formal science
Computer science
Software engineering


ref name swebookv systematically controlling changes configuration maintaining integrity traceability configuration code throughout system life cycle modern processes use software versioning history beginning software engineering seen type engineering additionally development software engineering seen struggle difficult keep hardware caused many problems software engineers problems included software budget exceeded deadlines required extensive de bugging maintenance unsuccessfully met needs consumers


also associated title nato conference professor friedrich l bauer first conference software engineering independently margaret hamilton named discipline software engineering apollo missions give legitimacy time perceived software crisis th international conference software engineering icse celebrates years software engineering plenary sessions' keynotes frederick brooks margaret hamilton software engineering institute sei established federally funded research development center headquartered campus


carnegie mellon university pittsburgh pennsylvania united states watts humphrey founded sei software process program aimed understanding managing software engineering process process maturity levels introduced would become capability maturity model integration development cmmi dev defined us government evaluates abilities software development team modern generally accepted best practices software engineering collected iso iec jtc sc subcommittee published software engineering body knowledge swebok software engineering considered one major computing disciplines definitions terminology controversies notable definitions


software engineering include systematic application scientific technological knowledge methods experience design implementation testing documentation software bureau labor statistics ieee ''systems software engineering vocabulary'' ref name ieee ''systems software engineering vocabulary'' iso iec ieee std e ref application systematic disciplined quantifiable approach development operation maintenance software ieee ''standard glossary software engineering terminology'' ref name ieee ''ieee standard glossary software engineering terminology'' ieee std ref engineering discipline concerned aspects software production ian sommerville ref name sommerville ref establishment use sound engineering principles


programming systems analysis broad term aspects ''practice'' computer programming opposed ''theory'' computer programming formally studied sub discipline computer science ref name p mills harlan j r newman c b engle jr undergraduate curriculum software engineering https booksgooglecom booksvid isbn id zuwbyy blmec pg pa lpg pa sig yxs ms xs cngv vysyucfnqm p practical matter regard software engineering necessary preparation practicing software development maintenance professional computer scientist preparing theoretical studies ref term embodying ''advocacy'' specific approach computer programming one


urges treated engineering discipline rather art craft advocates codification recommended practices etymology software engineer margaret hamilton promoted term software engineering work apollo program term engineering used acknowledge work taken seriously contributions toward advancement technology hamilton details use term blockquote first came term one heard least world ongoing joke


long time liked kid radical ideas memorable day one respected hardware gurus explained everyone meeting agreed process building software also considered engineering discipline like hardware acceptance new term per se earned acceptance others room engineering field right blockquote suitability term individual commentators disagreed sharply


requirements software software requirements three different types functional requirements non functional requirements domain requirements operation software performed proper output expected user use non functional requirements deal issues like portability security maintainability reliability scalability performance reusability flexibility classified following types interference constraints performance constraints response time security storage space etc operating constraints life cycle constraints maintainability portability etc economic constraints knowledge system software works needed comes specifying


major components system responsibilities properties interfaces relationships interactions occur detailed design internal elements major system components properties relationships processing usually algorithms data structures software construction software construction main activity software development ref name bodu ref name swebookv ref combination programming unit testing integration testing debugging testing phase generally performed programmer software construction verify written decide code


ready sent next step software testing software testing ref name bodu ref name swebookv empirical technical investigation conducted provide stakeholders information quality product service test different approaches unit testing integration testing one aspect software quality separate phase software development typically performed quality assurance staff developer one wrote code software maintenance software maintenance ref name bodu ref name swebookv refers activities required provide cost effective


support shipping software product software maintenance modifying updating software applications distribution correct faults improve performance software lot real world real world changes software maintenance required software maintenance includes error correction optimization deletion unused discarded features enhancement features already exist usually maintenance takes project cost therefore focusing maintenance keeps costs education knowledge computer programming prerequisite becoming software engineer


ieee computer society produced swebok published iso iec technical report describing body knowledge recommend mastered graduate software engineer four years experience many software engineers enter profession obtaining university degree training vocational school one standard international curriculum undergraduate software engineering degrees defined joint task force computing curricula ieee computer society association computing machinery updated number universities software engineering degree programs


campus bachelor software engineering programs online programs masters level programs doctorate level programs certificate level programs united states addition university education many companies sponsor internships students wishing pursue careers information technology internships introduce student interesting real world tasks typical software engineers encounter every day similar experience gained military service software engineering software engineering degree programs half practitioners today degrees computer science information systems information technology small growing number practitioners software engineering degrees


department computing imperial college london introduced first three year software engineering bachelor 's degree uk world following year university sheffield established similar program rochester institute technology established first software engineering bachelor 's degree program united states however obtain abet accreditation time rice university clarkson university milwaukee school engineering mississippi state university obtained ref name abetaccred ref psg college technology coimbatore india first start five year


universities likewise canada canadian engineering accreditation board ceab canadian council professional engineers recognized several software engineering programs us naval postgraduate school nps established first doctorate program software engineering world additionally many online advanced degrees software engineering appeared master science software engineering mse degree offered computer science engineering department california state university fullerton steve mcconnell opines universities teach computer science rather software engineering shortage true software engineers ets


engineer peng designation information systems professional isp designation europe software engineers obtain european engineer eur ing professional title united states since offered ''ncees'' ''professional engineer'' exam software engineering thereby allowing software engineers licensed recognized ncees end exam april due lack participation mandatory licensing currently still largely debated perceived controversial parts us texas use term engineer regulated law reserved use individuals


professional engineer license ieee computer society acm two main us based professional organizations software engineering publish guides profession software engineering ieee 's ''guide software engineering body knowledge version'' swebok defines field describes knowledge ieee expects practicing software engineer current swebok v updated version released ieee also promulgates software engineering code ethics employment u bureau labor statistics bls counted software developers holding jobs


us due relative newness field study formal education software engineering often taught part computer science curriculum many software engineers hold computer science degrees bls estimates computer software engineering would increase ref name softdev ref bls estimate software engineering ref name cse ref ref name softdev bls estimate ref name cse ref due trend job growth may fast


last decade jobs would gone computer software engineers united states would instead outsourced computer software engineers countries india foreign countries ref name blsgov ref ref name bloomberg ref addition bls job outlook computer programmers predicts decline words ref name blsgov decline job outlook decline program computers furthermore women many software fields also declining years compared engineering fields however trend


may change slow future many current software engineers us market leave profession age market next decades many software engineers work employees contractors software engineers work businesses government agencies civilian military non profit organizations software engineers work freelancers organizations specialists perform tasks software development process organizations require software engineers many large projects people may specialize one role small projects


people may fill several roles time many companies hire interns often university college students summer break externships specializations include analysts architects developers testers technical support middleware analysts project managers educators researchers software engineers programmers work hours week percent software engineers percent programmers worked hours week ref name bloomberg potential injuries occupations possible like workers spend long periods sitting front computer terminal typing keyboard engineers


programmers susceptible eyestrain back discomfort hand wrist problems carpal tunnel syndrome certification software engineering institute offers certifications specific topics like security process improvement software architecture ibm microsoft companies also sponsor certification examinations many certification programs oriented toward specific technologies managed vendors technologies certification programs tailored institutions would employ people use technologies broader certification general software engineering skills available various professional societies ieee certified


members ''mbcs'' software engineers may eligible membership institution engineering technology qualify chartered engineer status canada canadian information processing society developed legally recognized professional certification called ''information systems professional isp '' ontario canada software engineers graduate ''canadian engineering accreditation board ceab '' accredited program successfully complete peo 's ''professional engineers ontario'' professional practice examination ppe least months acceptable engineering experience eligible licensed ''professional engineers ontario'' become professional engineers peng peo recognize


online distance education however consider computer science programs equivalent software engineering programs despite tremendous overlap two sparked controversy certification war also held number peng holders profession exceptionally low vast majority working professionals field hold degree cs se given difficult certification path holders non se degrees never bother pursue license impact globalization initial impact outsourcing relatively lower cost international human resources


developing third world countries led massive migration software development activities corporations north america europe india later china russia developing countries approach flaws mainly distance time zone difference prevented human interaction clients developers massive job transfer negative impact many aspects software engineering profession example students developed world avoid education related software engineering fear offshore outsourcing importing software products services countries


displaced foreign visa workers although statistics currently show threat software engineering related career computer programming appear affected nevertheless ability smartly leverage offshore near shore resources via follow sun workflow improved overall operational capability many organizations north americans leaving work asians arriving work asians leaving work europeans arriving work provides continuous ability human oversight business critical processes hours per day without paying overtime compensation disrupting key human resource


aspects software engineering research ongoing related areas prizes several prizes field software engineering codie awards yearly award issued software information industry association excellence software development within software industry jolt awards awards software industry stevens award software engineering award given memory wayne stevens criticism software engineering sees practitioners individuals follow well defined engineering approaches problem solving approaches specified various software engineering books research papers


always connotations predictability precision mitigated risk professionalism perspective led calls licensing certification codified bodies knowledge mechanisms spreading engineering knowledge maturing field software engineering extends engineering draws engineering model ie engineering process engineering project management engineering requirements engineering design engineering construction engineering validation concept new rarely understood widely misinterpreted including software engineering textbooks papers among communities programmers crafters one core issues software engineering


approaches empirical enough real world validation approaches usually absent limited hence software engineering often misinterpreted feasible theoretical environment edsger dijkstra founder many concepts used within software development today rejected idea software engineering death arguing terms poor analogies called radical novelty computer science ref see also study practice computer science information engineering software craftsmanship software development release engineering roles programmer systems analyst systems architect professional


aspects bachelor science information technology bachelor software engineering list software engineering conferences list computer science journals including software engineering journals software engineering institute references citations sources reading external links http wwwswebokorg guide software engineering body knowledge http opensdlcorg open systems engineering software development life cycle framework opensdlcorg integrated creative commons sdlc http wwwseicmuedu software engineering institute carnegie mellon engineering disciplines


book printed acid paper disintegrating '' 'slow fire''' term used library information science describe paper embrittlement resulting acid decay term taken title terry sanders' film ''slow fires preservation human record'' solutions problem include use acid free paper stocks reformatting brittle books microfilming photocopying digitization variety deacidification techniques see also acid free paper double fold wood pulp paper preservation library archival science external links http wwwceserpcom cp jour indexphpjournal ijls ''international journal library science ''

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Slow fire


right handed three dimensional cartesian coordinate system used indicate positions space '''space''' boundless three dimensional extent objects events relative position direction classical physics physical space often conceived three linear dimensions although modern physicists usually consider time part boundless four dimensional continuum known spacetime concept space considered fundamental importance understanding physical universe however disagreement continues philosophers whether entity relationship entities part conceptual framework

Applied science
Military sciences
Battlespace
Space


debates concerning nature essence mode existence space date back antiquity namely treatises like ''timaeus'' plato socrates reflections greeks called ''kh ra'' ie space ''physics'' aristotle book iv delta definition ''topos'' ie place later geometrical conception place space ''qua'' extension ''discourse place'' ''qawl fi al makan'' th century arab polymath alhazen many classical philosophical questions discussed renaissance reformulated th century particularly


ones derived experiences outside world elements already given systematic framework humans possess use structure experiences kant referred experience space ''critique pure reason'' subjective pure ''a priori'' form intuition th th centuries mathematicians began examine geometries non euclidean space conceived ''curved'' rather ''flat'' according albert einstein 's theory general relativity space around gravitational fields deviates euclidean space experimental tests general relativity confirmed non euclidean geometries provide


better model shape space philosophy space galileo galilean cartesian theories space matter motion foundation scientific revolution understood culminated publication newton 's ''principia'' ref name ref newton 's theories space time helped explain movement objects theory space considered influential physics emerged predecessors' ideas one pioneers modern science galileo revised established aristotelian ptolemaic ideas geocentric


cosmos backed copernican theory universe heliocentric stationary sun center planets including earth revolving around sun earth moved aristotelian belief natural tendency remain rest question galileo wanted prove instead sun moved around axis motion natural object state rest words galileo celestial bodies including earth naturally inclined move circles view displaced another aristotelian idea objects gravitated towards designated natural


matter famously known cogito ergo sum think therefore idea certain fact doubt therefore think therefore exist theories belong rationalist tradition attributes knowledge world ability think rather experiences empiricists believe posited clear distinction body mind referred cartesian dualism leibniz newton gottfried leibniz upright thumb following galileo descartes seventeenth century philosophy


space time revolved around ideas gottfried leibniz german philosopher mathematician isaac newton set two opposing theories space rather entity independently exists matter leibniz held space collection spatial relations objects world space results places taken together unoccupied regions ''could'' objects thus spatial relations places leibniz space idealised abstraction relations individual entities


possible locations therefore could continuous must discrete space could thought similar way relations family members although people family related one another relations exist independently people leibniz argued space could exist independently objects world implies difference two universes exactly alike except location material world universe since would observational way telling universes apart according identity indiscernibles


would real difference according principle sufficient reason theory space implied could two possible universes must therefore wrong isaac newton upright thumb newton took space relations material objects based position observation experimentation relationist real difference inertial motion object travels constant velocity non inertial motion velocity changes time since spatial measurements relative objects motions newton argued


since non inertial motion generates forces must absolute used example water spinning bucket demonstrate argument water bucket hung rope set spin starts flat surface bucket continues spin surface water becomes concave bucket 's spinning stopped surface water remains concave continues spin concave surface therefore apparently result relative motion bucket water instead newton argued must


relation instead came conclusion space time discovered humans objective features world imposed us part framework organizing experience non euclidean geometry spherical geometry similar elliptical geometry sphere surface ball parallel lineseuclid 's ''elements'' contained five postulates form basis euclidean geometry one parallel postulate subject debate among mathematicians many centuries states plane straight


line ''l sub sub '' point ''p'' ''l sub sub '' exactly one straight line ''l sub sub '' plane passes point ''p'' parallel straight line ''l sub sub '' th century doubted truth postulate instead debate centered whether necessary axiom whether theory could derived axioms around though hungarian j nos bolyai russian nikolai ivanovich lobachevsky separately published treatises type geometry include parallel postulate called hyperbolic geometry


geometry infinite number parallel lines pass point ''p'' consequently sum angles triangle less ratio circle 's circumference diameter greater pi bernhard riemann developed equivalent theory elliptical geometry parallel lines pass ''p'' geometry triangles circles ratio circumference diameter less pi class wikitable style margin em auto em auto style text align center style width px type geometry style width px number parallels


curved carl friedrich gauss german mathematician first consider empirical investigation geometrical structure space thought making test sum angles enormous stellar triangle reports actually carried test small scale triangulating mountain tops germany henri poincar french mathematician physicist late th century introduced important insight attempted demonstrate futility attempt discover geometry applies space experiment considered predicament


would face scientists confined surface imaginary large sphere particular properties known sphere world world temperature taken vary way objects expand contract similar proportions different places sphere suitable falloff temperature scientists try use measuring rods determine sum angles triangle deceived thinking inhabit plane rather spherical surface fact scientists cannot principle determine whether


inhabit plane sphere poincar argued true debate whether real space euclidean geometry used describe space matter convention since euclidean geometry simpler non euclidean geometry assumed former would always used describe 'true' geometry world einstein albert einstein albert einstein published special theory relativity led concept space time viewed single construct known ' 'spacetime'' theory


speed light vacuum observers result two events appear simultaneous one particular observer simultaneous another observer observers moving respect one another moreover observer measure moving clock tick slowly one stationary respect objects measured shortened direction moving respect observer subsequently einstein worked general theory relativity theory gravity interacts


spacetime instead viewing gravity force field acting spacetime einstein suggested modifies geometric structure spacetime according general theory time goes slowly places lower gravitational potentials rays light bend presence gravitational field scientists studied behaviour binary pulsars confirming predictions einstein 's theories non euclidean geometry usually used describe spacetime mathematics modern mathematics spaces defined sets added structure frequently described different types manifolds spaces


locally approximate euclidean space properties defined largely local connectedness points lie manifold however many diverse mathematical objects called spaces example vector spaces function spaces may infinite numbers independent dimensions notion distance different euclidean space topological spaces replace concept distance abstract idea nearness physics space one fundamental quantities physics meaning cannot defined via quantities nothing fundamental


known present hand related fundamental quantities thus similar fundamental quantities like time mass space explored via measurement experiment today three dimensional space viewed embedded four dimensional spacetime called minkowski space see special relativity idea behind space time time hyperbolic orthogonal three spatial dimensions relativity albert einstein 's work relativistic physics time space viewed independent dimensions einstein 's discoveries showed due relativity motion space


time mathematically combined one object spacetime turns distances space time separately invariant respect lorentz coordinate transformations distances minkowski space time along space time intervals justifies name addition time space dimensions viewed exactly equivalent minkowski space time one freely move space time thus time space coordinates treated differently special relativity time sometimes considered imaginary coordinate general relativity different signs assigned time space components


spacetime metric furthermore einstein 's general theory relativity postulated space time geometrically distorted ''curved'' near gravitationally significant masses one consequence postulate follows equations general relativity prediction moving ripples space time called gravitational waves indirect evidence waves found motions hulse taylor binary system example experiments attempting directly measure waves ongoing ligo virgo collaborations ligo scientists reported first direct observation gravitational waves september ref name prl ref


cosmology relativity theory leads cosmological question shape universe space came appears space created big bang nbsp billion years ago expanding ever since overall shape space known space known expanding rapidly due cosmic inflation spatial measurement measurement ''physical space'' long important although earlier societies developed measuring systems international system units si common system units used measuring


space almost universally used currently standard space interval called standard meter simply meter defined distance traveled light vacuum time interval exactly second definition coupled present definition second based special theory relativity speed light plays role fundamental constant nature geographical space geography branch science concerned identifying describing places earth utilizing spatial awareness try understand things exist


specific locations cartography mapping spaces allow better navigation visualization purposes act locational device geostatistics apply statistical concepts collected spatial data earth create estimate unobserved phenomena geographical space often considered land relation ownership usage space seen property territory cultures assert rights individual terms ownership cultures identify communal approach land ownership still cultures australian aboriginals rather asserting ownership


rights land invert relationship consider fact owned land spatial planning method regulating use space land level decisions made regional national international levels space also impact human cultural behavior important factor architecture impact design buildings structures farming ownership space restricted land ownership airspace waters decided internationally forms ownership recently asserted spaces example radio


began study way space perceived middle th century concerned studies regard distinct branch psychology psychologists analyzing perception space concerned recognition object 's physical appearance interactions perceived see example visual space specialized topics studied include amodal perception object permanence perception surroundings important due necessary relevance survival especially regards hunting self preservation well simply one 's idea personal space several space related phobias


globalization understanding experience space place topic garnered attention since publication henri lefebvre 's ''the production space '' book lefebvre applies marxist ideas production commodities accumulation capital discuss space social product focus multiple overlapping social processes produce space book ''the condition postmodernity'' david harvey describes terms time space compression effect technological advances capitalism perception time space distance changes


historical social dimensions lived experience neglecting spatial dimension builds henri lefebvre 's work address dualistic way humans understand space either material physical represented imagined lefebvre 's lived space soja 's thridspace terms account complex ways humans understand navigate place firstspace secondspace soja 's terms material imagined spaces respectively fully encompass postcolonial theorist homi bhabha 's concept third space different soja 's thirdspace even though terms offer way think outside terms binary logic bhabha 's


third space space hybrid cultural forms identities exist theories term hybrid describes new cultural forms emerge interaction colonizer colonized see also absolute space time aether theories cosmology general relativity philosophy space time proxemics shape universe social space space exploration spatial analysis spatial temporal reasoning references external links geometry spacetime topology nature


'''space''' boundless three dimensional extent objects events relative position direction '''space''' '''space''' '' 'spacing''' '''the space''' may also refer acronyms small press alternative comics expo annual comic book convention society promotion alternative computing employment space located trivandrum kerala india spectroscopic sky cosmic explorer proposed satellite designed measure baryon acoustic oscillations arts entertainment media film television films ''space'' film ''space'' short film starring karyn dwyer tv series ''space'' tv series bbc production ''space'' miniseries


tv miniseries based michener book ''space '' television show ''space beyond'' american tv series space ''the x files'' episode tv series space episode adult swim television series ''off air'' space time two mini ''doctor who'' episodes tv channels space canadian tv channel space latin american tv channel space tv azerbaijani television channel games ''space'' role playing game series computer role playing game series edu ware ''space i'' videogame ''space ii'' videogame space square location board game literature ''space'' michener novel


novel james michener space baxter novel novel stephen baxter music groups labels space french band french electronic music band space english band english indie rock band tremeloes english band briefly used name space mid releases albums ''space'' arrogant worms album ''space'' bleach album ''space'' devil wears prada ep ''space'' george benson album ''space'' ksi ep ''space'' jimmy cauty album ''space'' modern jazz quartet album songs space song becky hill space


mia song song mia album ''maya'' space prince song song prince album ''come'' space slavko kalezi song song slavko kalezi montenegro 's entry eurovision song contest space song alessi brothers space song blackbirds space song candy flip space song franck pourcel orchestra space guitar piece g bor szab space song grateful dead album ''beyond description '' space song 's immaterial space


song new model army space song singer songwriter norman bedard space song something corporate ''north'' space song sabrina carpenter ''evolution'' space song biffy clyro ''a celebration endings'' venues club space nightclub miami florida evanston space concert hall united states space performance venue national institute dramatic art sydney australia space ibiza nightclub nightclub spain space studios artist studio organisation london england space theatre cape town south africa space theatre within


adelaide festival centre australia space theatre arts venue london england computing keyboard printing address space various hyponyms data code virtual address spaces etc code space character set range code points cyberspace dspace term computational complexity theory space punctuation gap text characters typography space bar part computer keyboard telecommunications signal state see mark space xml html character entities em space en space non breaking space thin space space characters available unicode figure space hair space zero width space people arthur space


american actor zack space born former united states representative science mathematics outer space space area beyond limit earth 's atmosphere space mathematics set added structure spacecom space technology website aether hypothetical physical medium space filling substance transmits electromagnetic waves gravitation solution space set possible candidate solutions optimization problem spatium anatomic space space cavity gap anatomy society psychology mental space term cognitive science personal space space architecture one elements design


architecture public space social space urban space see also blank space disambiguation empty space disambiguation inner space disambiguation spacer disambiguation spaces disambiguation spacing disambiguation void disambiguation white space disambiguation timespace disambiguation spacetime disambiguation


physics '' 'statistical mechanics''' mathematical framework applies statistical methods probability theory large assemblies microscopic entities assume postulate natural laws explains macroscopic behavior nature behavior ensembles statistical mechanics arose development classical thermodynamics field successful explaining macroscopic physical properties temperature pressure heat capacity terms microscopic parameters fluctuate average values characterized probability distributions established fields '' 'statistical thermodynamics''' statistical physics founding

Natural science
Physics
Statistical mechanics


field statistical mechanics generally credited three physicists ludwig boltzmann developed fundamental interpretation entropy terms collection microstates james clerk maxwell developed models probability distribution states josiah willard gibbs coined name field classical thermodynamics primarily concerned thermodynamic equilibrium statistical mechanics applied non equilibrium statistical mechanics issues microscopically modeling speed irreversible processes driven imbalances examples processes include chemical reactions flows particles heat fluctuation dissipation


time hamilton 's equations classical mechanics schr dinger equation quantum mechanics using two concepts state time past future principle calculated however disconnection laws everyday life experiences find necessary even theoretically possible know exactly microscopic level simultaneous positions velocities molecule carrying processes human scale example performing chemical reaction statistical mechanics fills disconnection laws mechanics practical experience incomplete knowledge


adding uncertainty state system whereas ordinary mechanics considers behaviour single state statistical mechanics introduces statistical ensemble large collection virtual independent copies system various states statistical ensemble probability distribution possible states system classical statistical mechanics ensemble probability distribution phase points opposed single phase point ordinary mechanics usually represented distribution phase space canonical coordinates quantum statistical mechanics ensemble probability


distribution pure states compactly summarized density matrix usual probabilities ensemble interpreted different ways ref name gibbs ensemble taken represent various possible states ' 'single system'' could epistemic probability form knowledge members ensemble understood states systems experiments repeated independent systems prepared similar imperfectly controlled manner empirical probability limit infinite number trials two meanings equivalent


many purposes used interchangeably article however probability interpreted state ensemble evolves time according equation motion thus ensemble probability distribution states also evolves virtual systems ensemble continually leave one state enter another ensemble evolution given liouville equation classical mechanics von neumann equation quantum mechanics equations simply derived application mechanical equation motion separately virtual system contained ensemble probability


virtual system conserved time evolves state state one special class ensemble ensembles evolve time ensembles known ''equilibrium ensembles'' condition known ' 'statistical equilibrium'' statistical equilibrium occurs state ensemble ensemble also contains future past states probabilities equal probability state study equilibrium ensembles isolated systems focus statistical thermodynamics non equilibrium statistical mechanics addresses general case ensembles


change time ensembles non isolated systems statistical thermodynamics primary goal statistical thermodynamics also known equilibrium statistical mechanics derive classical thermodynamics materials terms properties constituent particles interactions words statistical thermodynamics provides connection macroscopic properties materials thermodynamic equilibrium microscopic behaviours motions occurring inside material whereas statistical mechanics proper involves dynamics attention focussed ' 'statistical equilibrium'' steady state statistical equilibrium mean particles stopped moving


mechanical equilibrium rather ensemble evolving fundamental postulate sufficient necessary condition statistical equilibrium isolated system probability distribution function conserved properties total energy total particle numbers etc ref name gibbs many different equilibrium ensembles considered correspond thermodynamics ref name gibbs additional postulates necessary motivate ensemble given system one form another common approach found many textbooks take ''equal priori


probability postulate'' ref name tolman postulate states ''for isolated system exactly known energy exactly known composition system found ''equal probability'' microstate consistent knowledge'' equal priori probability postulate therefore provides motivation microcanonical ensemble described various arguments favour equal priori probability postulate ergodic hypothesis ergodic system one evolves time explore accessible states energy composition ergodic system microcanonical ensemble possible


equilibrium ensemble fixed energy approach limited applicability since systems ergodic principle indifference absence information assign equal probabilities compatible situation maximum information entropy elaborate version principle indifference states correct ensemble ensemble compatible known information largest gibbs entropy information entropy fundamental postulates statistical mechanics also proposed ref name uffink three thermodynamic ensembles three equilibrium ensembles simple form defined


isolated system bounded inside finite volume ref name gibbs often discussed ensembles statistical thermodynamics macroscopic limit defined correspond classical thermodynamics microcanonical ensemble describes system precisely given energy fixed composition precise number particles microcanonical ensemble contains equal probability possible state consistent energy composition canonical ensemble describes system fixed composition thermal equilibrium heat bath precise temperature canonical ensemble contains states varying energy


identical composition different states ensemble accorded different probabilities depending total energy grand canonical ensemble describes system non fixed composition uncertain particle numbers thermal chemical equilibrium thermodynamic reservoir reservoir precise temperature precise chemical potentials various types particle grand canonical ensemble contains states varying energy varying numbers particles different states ensemble accorded different probabilities depending total energy total particle numbers systems containing many particles thermodynamic limit three


ensembles listed tend give identical behaviour simply matter mathematical convenience ensemble used ref name reif ref gibbs theorem equivalence ensembles developed theory concentration measure phenomenon applications many areas science functional analysis methods artificial intelligence big data technology important cases thermodynamic ensembles ' 'do not'' give identical results include microscopic systems large systems phase transition large systems long range interactions cases correct thermodynamic ensemble must chosen observable


exactly solved general realistic case complex exact solution various approaches exist approximate true ensemble allow calculation average quantities exact cases allow exact solutions small microscopic systems ensembles directly computed simply enumerating possible states system using exact diagonalization quantum mechanics integral phase space classical mechanics large systems consist many separable microscopic systems subsystems analysed independently notably idealized gases non interacting particles


representative sample whole set states system approximate characteristic function obtained random samples included errors reduced arbitrarily low level metropolis hastings algorithm classic monte carlo method initially used sample canonical ensemble path integral monte carlo also used sample canonical ensemble rarefied non ideal gases approaches cluster expansion use perturbation theory include effect weak interactions leading virial expansion ref name balescu dense fluids another approximate approach


based reduced distribution functions particular radial distribution function ref name balescu molecular dynamics computer simulations used calculate microcanonical ensemble averages ergodic systems inclusion connection stochastic heat bath also model canonical grand canonical conditions mixed methods involving non equilibrium statistical mechanical results see may useful non equilibrium statistical mechanics many physical phenomena involve quasi thermodynamic processes equilibrium example heat transport internal motions material driven temperature imbalance electric currents carried motion charges


conductor driven voltage imbalance spontaneous chemical reactions driven decrease free energy friction dissipation quantum decoherence systems pumped external forces optical pumping etc irreversible processes general processes occur time characteristic rates rates important engineering field non equilibrium statistical mechanics concerned understanding non equilibrium processes microscopic level statistical thermodynamics used calculate final result external imbalances removed ensemble settled back equilibrium principle non equilibrium statistical mechanics could


mathematically exact ensembles isolated system evolve time according deterministic equations liouville 's equation quantum equivalent von neumann equation equations result applying mechanical equations motion independently state ensemble unfortunately ensemble evolution equations inherit much complexity underlying mechanical motion exact solutions difficult obtain moreover ensemble evolution equations fully reversible destroy information ensemble 's gibbs entropy preserved order make headway modelling irreversible processes


necessary consider additional factors besides probability reversible mechanics non equilibrium mechanics therefore active area theoretical research range validity additional assumptions continues explored approaches described following subsections stochastic methods one approach non equilibrium statistical mechanics incorporate stochastic random behaviour system stochastic behaviour destroys information contained ensemble technically inaccurate aside hypothetical situations involving black holes system cannot cause loss information randomness added reflect information interest


precisely related fluctuations occur system total equilibrium essentially system slightly away equilibrium whether put external forces fluctuations relaxes towards equilibrium way since system cannot tell difference know came away equilibrium ref name balescu provides indirect avenue obtaining numbers ohmic conductivity thermal conductivity extracting results equilibrium statistical mechanics since equilibrium statistical mechanics mathematically well defined cases amenable calculations fluctuation dissipation connection


convenient shortcut calculations near equilibrium statistical mechanics theoretical tools used make connection include fluctuation dissipation theorem onsager reciprocal relations green kubo relations landauer b ttiker formalism mori zwanzig formalism hybrid methods advanced approach uses combination stochastic methods linear response theory example one approach compute quantum coherence effects weak localization conductance fluctuations conductance electronic system use green kubo relations inclusion stochastic dephasing interactions various electrons use keldysh method applications outside thermodynamics ensemble formalism also


used analyze general mechanical systems uncertainty knowledge state system ensembles also used propagation uncertainty time ref name gibbs regression analysis gravitational orbits ensemble forecasting weather dynamics neural networks bounded rational potential games game theory economics history swiss physicist mathematician daniel bernoulli published ''hydrodynamica'' laid basis kinetic theory gases work bernoulli posited argument still used day gases consist great numbers molecules moving directions impact


ludwig boltzmann young student vienna came across maxwell 's paper spent much life developing subject statistical mechanics initiated work boltzmann much collectively published ''lectures gas theory'' boltzmann 's original papers statistical interpretation thermodynamics h theorem transport theory thermal equilibrium equation state gases similar subjects occupy pages proceedings vienna academy societies boltzmann introduced concept equilibrium statistical ensemble also investigated first time


mechanics still form foundation statistical mechanics day ref name tolman see also thermodynamics non equilibrium chemical mechanics classical quantum probability statistical ensemble numerical methods monte carlo method molecular dynamics statistical physics quantum statistical mechanics list notable textbooks statistical mechanics list important publications statistical mechanics notes references ref ref name tolman ref ref name balescu ref ref name uffink j uffink http philsci archivepittedu uffinkfinalpdf compendium foundations classical statistical physics ref external links http platostanfordedu entries statphys statmech philosophy statistical mechanics article lawrence sklar stanford encyclopedia philosophy http wwwsklogwikiorg sklogwiki


thermodynamics statistical mechanics computer simulation materials sklogwiki particularly orientated towards liquids soft condensed matter http farsidephutexasedu teaching sm statmechpdf thermodynamics statistical mechanics richard fitzpatrick https arxivorg abs lecture notes statistical mechanics mesoscopics doron cohen taught leonard susskind vu quoc l http clesmmaeufledu wikipub indexphp configuration integral statistical mechanics configuration integral statistical mechanics wiki site see https webarchiveorg web http clesmmaeufledu wikipub indexphp configuration integral statistical mechanics article web archive april statistical mechanics thermodynamics


systems engineering techniques used complex projects spacecraft design computer chip design robotics software integration bridge building systems engineering uses host tools include modeling simulation requirements analysis scheduling manage complexity '''systems engineering''' interdisciplinary field engineering engineering management focuses design integrate manage complex systems life cycles core systems engineering utilizes systems thinking principles organize body knowledge individual outcome efforts '''engineered system''' defined combination components work

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems engineering


likely aspects project system considered integrated whole systems engineering process discovery process quite unlike manufacturing process manufacturing process focused repetitive activities achieve high quality outputs minimum cost time systems engineering process must begin discovering real problems need resolved identifying probable highest impact failures occur systems engineering involves finding solutions problems history qfd house quality enterprise product development processes term ' 'systems engineering''


traced back bell telephone laboratories need identify manipulate properties system whole complex engineering projects may greatly differ sum parts' properties motivated various industries especially developing systems us military apply discipline longer possible rely design evolution improve upon system existing tools sufficient meet growing demands new methods began developed addressed complexity directly continuing evolution systems engineering comprises development


identification new methods modeling techniques methods aid better comprehension design developmental control engineering systems grow complex popular tools often used systems engineering context developed times including usl uml qfd idef professional society systems engineering ''national council systems engineering'' ncose founded representatives number us corporations organizations ncose created address need improvements systems engineering practices education result growing involvement


systems engineers outside us name organization changed international council systems engineering incose schools several countries offer graduate programs systems engineering continuing education options also available practicing engineers ref name edu dir ref concept class toccolours style float right margin left em margin right em font size background ffc color black width cellspacing cellpadding style background ccc definitions style text align left simon ramo considered founder modern systems engineering defined discipline branch engineering concentrates design application whole distinct


parts looking problem entirety taking account facets variables linking social technological ''conquering complexity '' style text align left interdisciplinary approach means enable realization successful systems ''incose handbook '' style text align left system engineering robust approach design creation operation systems simple terms approach consists identification quantification system goals creation alternative system design concepts performance design trades selection implementation best design verification


design properly built integrated post implementation assessment well system meets met goals ''nasa systems engineering handbook '' style text align left art science creating effective systems using whole system whole life principles art science creating optimal solution systems complex issues problems ''derek hitchins prof systems engineering former president incose uk '' style text align left concept engineering standpoint evolution engineering scientist ie scientific generalist maintains broad outlook


method team approach large scale system problems teams scientists engineers generalists well specialists exert joint efforts find solution physically realize itthe technique variously called systems approach team development method ''harry h goode robert e machol '' style text align left systems engineering method recognizes system integrated whole even though composed diverse specialized structures sub functions recognizes system number objectives balance may differ widely


system system methods seek optimize overall system functions according weighted objectives achieve maximum compatibility parts ''systems engineering tools harold chestnut '' systems engineering signifies approach recently discipline engineering aim education systems engineering formalize various approaches simply identify new methods research opportunities similar occurs fields engineering approach systems engineering holistic interdisciplinary flavour origins traditional scope traditional scope engineering


embraces conception design development production operation physical systems systems engineering originally conceived falls within scope systems engineering sense term refers building engineering concepts evolution broader scope use term systems engineer evolved time embrace wider holistic concept systems engineering processes evolution definition subject ongoing controversy term continues apply narrower broader scope traditional systems engineering seen branch engineering


classical sense applied physical systems spacecraft aircraft recently systems engineering evolved take broader meaning especially humans seen essential component system checkland example captures broader meaning systems engineering stating 'engineering' read general sense engineer meeting political agreement ref name checkland ref consistent broader scope systems engineering systems engineering body knowledge sebok defined three types systems engineering product systems engineering pse


traditional systems engineering focused design physical systems consisting hardware software enterprise systems engineering ese pertains view enterprises organizations combinations organizations systems service systems engineering sse engineering service systems checkland ref name checkland defines service system system conceived serving another system civil infrastructure systems service systems holistic view systems engineering focuses analyzing eliciting customer needs required functionality early development cycle documenting requirements proceeding design synthesis system