bronze statues including antikythera youth discovered greek sponge divers ship probably sank st century bc may dispatched roman general sulla carry booty back rome sponge divers also recovered wreck famous antikythera mechanism believed astronomical calculator examples fabulous works art recovered sea floor two bronzi found riace calabria italy cases antikythera riace however artifacts recovered without direct participation maritime archaeologists recent studies


sarno river near pompeii show interesting elements ancient life sarno projects suggests tyrrhenian shore little towns palafittes similar ancient venice area submerged town puteoli pozzuoli close naples contains portus julius created marcus vipsanius agrippa bc later sunk due bradyseism sea floor elsewhere mediterranean holds countless archaeological sites israel herod great 's port caesarea maritima extensively studied finds consistent passages bible like called jesus boat

Social science
Archaeology
Maritime archaeology


appears use first century ad australia maritime archaeology australia commenced advent jeremy green due concerns expressed academics politicians rampant destruction dutch british east india ships lost west coast commonwealth legislation enacted enforced states enacted legislation sub discipline spread throughout australia concentrating initially shipwrecks due going funding states commonwealth shipwreck legislation studies include element


underwater archaeology whole study submerged indigenous sites nautical archaeology specialised study boat ship construction also practised region often sites relics studied australia rest world inundated study historic submerged aircraft better known sub discipline aviation archaeology underwater aviation archaeology also practised region states maritime underwater archaeology practised museums others cultural heritage management units


practitioners operate aegis australasian institute maritime archaeology aima see also australasian underwater cultural heritage database maritime archaeology east africa nautical archaeology society maritime archaeology trust lighthouse archaeological maritime program lamp rpm nautical foundation sea research society institute nautical archaeology unesco convention protection underwater cultural heritage international treaty fighting increasing looting destruction underwater cultural heritage regulates heritage protection facilitates state cooperation however regulate ownership cultural property submerged historic pre historic sites bouldnor cliff alexandria port royal


maritime heritage trail battle saipan port julius http wwwulixesit italiano pg htmlhttp wwwulixesit english e pg bfr ahtml puteoli coastal foreshore archaeology seahenge ships boats antikythera c bc includes astronomical computer antikythera mechanism cape gelidonya late bronze age shipwreck c bc city adelaide th century clipper scotland north ferriby site discovery bronze age sewn plank boats dated radiocarbon bc bc belle shipwreck french explorer la salle 's ship lost texas batavia shipwreck dutch east indies ship lost western australia hunley


first submarine sink enemy ship lost charleston south carolina half moon shipwreck racing sailboat sank near miami florida united states one sites http wwwflheritagecom archaeology underwater maritime indexcfm florida maritime heritage trail ma'agan michael ship th century bc boat discovered coast israel madrague de giens c bc roman merchantman sunk coast la madrague de giens east toulon nineteenth century boat discovered leamington wharf union canal ss xantho iron hulled steamship lost western australia


'''medical psychology''' '''medico psychology''' application psychological principles practice medicine primarily drug oriented physical mental disorders medical psychologist holds prescriptive authority specific psychiatric medications pharmaceutical drugs must first obtain specific qualifications psychopharmacology trained medical psychologist clinical psychopharmacologist prescriptive authority equated mid level provider authority prescribe psychotropic medication antidepressants mental health disorders ref name moore b moore b muse handbook clinical psychopharmacology psychologists wiley ref however medical psychologist

Social science
Psychology
Medical psychology


automatically equate psychologist authority prescribe medication fact medical psychologists prescribe medication authority ref name moore b medical psychologists apply psychological theories scientific psychological findings techniques psychotherapy behavior modification cognitive interpersonal family lifestyle therapy improve psychological physical health patient psychologists postdoctoral specialty training medical psychologists practitioners refined skills clinical psychology health psychology behavioral medicine psychopharmacology medical science highly qualified postgraduate specialized doctors trained service


primary care centers hospitals residential care centers long term care facilities multidisciplinary collaboration team treatment ref name defs ref medical psychology specialty field medical psychology may include predoctoral training disciplines health psychology rehabilitation psychology pediatric psychology neuropsychology https wwwapaorg ed graduate specialize clinical psychopharmacology ga clinical psychopharmacology well subspecialties pain management primary care psychology hospital based medical school based psychology foundation psychological training qualify proceeding required postdoctoral specialty training qualify become diplomate specialist medical psychology specialist medical psychology psychologist must hold board certification


american board medical psychology abmp requires doctorate degree psychology license practice psychology postdoctoral graduate degree acceptable postdoctoral didactic training residency medical psychology submission work product examination written oral examination american board medical psychology american board medical psychology maintains distinction specialists psychopharmacological psychologists interested practicing one related psychological disciplines primary care centers term medical psychologist umbrella term many specialties psychology


health psychology embracing biopsychosocial paradigm engel mental physical health extending paradigm clinical practice research application evidenced based diagnostic treatment procedures akin specialty prepared practice integrated primary care settings adopting biopsychosocial paradigm field medical psychology recognized cartesian assumption body mind separate entities inadequate representing arbitrary dichotomy works detriment healthcare biopsychosocial approach reflects concept psychology individual cannot understood without


reference individual 's social environment medical psychologist medical model disease cannot explain complex health concerns strict psychosocial levine orabona foster explanation mental physical health comprehensive duties medical psychologists psychopharmacologists trained equipped modify physical disease states actual cytoarchitecture functioning central nervous related systems using psychological pharmacological techniques allowed statute provide prevention progression disease poor personal lifestyle


choices conceptualization behavioral patterns chronic exposure effects negative thinking choosing attitudes negative contexts specialty medical psychology includes training psychopharmacology states providing statutory authority may prescribe psychoactive substances one technique larger treatment plan includes psychological interventions medical psychologists psychopharmacologists serve states yet modernized psychology prescribing laws may evaluate patients recommend appropriate psychopharmacological techniques collaboration state authorized prescriber medical psychologists psychopharmacologists board certified strive integrate major components individual 's


psychological biological social functioning designed contribute person 's well way respects natural interface among components whole greater sum parts comes providing comprehensive sensible behavioral healthcare medical psychologist uniquely qualified collaborate physicians treating patient 's physical illnesses certifications academy medical psychology defines medical psychology specialty trained postdoctoral level designed deliver advanced diagnostic clinical interventions medical healthcare facilities utilizing knowledge


skills clinical psychology health psychology behavioral medicine psychopharmacology basic medical science academy medical psychology makes distinction prescribing psychologist psychologist advanced training psychopharmacology may prescribe medicine consult physician prescriber diagnose mental illness select recommend appropriate psychoactive medicines medical psychologists prepared psychopharmacology consulting prescribing also must training prepares functioning behavioral lifestyle components physical disease functioning consultation multidisciplinary healthcare teams primary care centers


community hospitals addition traditional roles treatment mental illness substance abuse disorders specialty medical psychology distinction psychopharmacologist recognized national alliance professional psychology providers psychology national practitioner association see wwwnappporg ref name defs specialty medical psychology established specialty board certification american board medical psychology academy medical psychology wwwamphomeorg requiring doctoral degree psychology extensive postdoctoral training specialty passage oral written examination although academy medical psychology defines medical psychology


specialty established specialty board certification recognized national psychology practitioner association wwwnappporg split nappp american psychological association currently recognize specialties apa represents scientists academics practitioners nappp represents practitioners however louisiana unique definition medical psychology recognize national distinction medical psychology specialty https wwwapaorg ed graduate specialize clinical psychopharmacology ga clinical psychopharmacology specialty restricts term practice medical psychology statute medical psychology practice act profession health sciences


prescriptive authority equally important note american psychological association recognize term '''medical psychology''' prerequisite term equated prescriptive authority established specialty clinical psychopharmacology apa recommended education training psychologists specifically pursuing one several prerequisites prescribing medication integrate instruction biological sciences clinical medicine pharmacology formalized program postdoctoral education national alliance professional providers psychology recognized education training specified


american board medical psychology wwwamphomeorg abmp academy medical psychology approved standards postgraduate training examination qualifications nationally recognized specialty medical psychology since numerous hospitals primary care centers health facilities recognized abmp standards qualifications privileges healthcare facilities verification specialty status following ''clinical competencies'' identified essential education training psychologists wishing pursue prescriptive authority recommended prerequisites required specifically recommended apa training education medical psychologists


pursuing prerequisites prescribing medication basic science anatomy physiology biochemistry neurosciences neuroanatomy neurophysiology neurochemistry physical assessment laboratory exams physical assessment laboratory radiological assessment medical terminology clinical medicine pathophysiology pathophysiology emphasis principal physiological systems clinical medicine differential diagnosis clinical correlation case studies chemical dependency chronic pain management clinical research pharmacology psychopharmacology pharmacology clinical pharmacology pharmacogenetics psychopharmacology developmental psychopharmacology clinical pharmacotherapeutics professional ethical legal issues combined therapies interactions computer based aids practice pharmacoepidemiology research methodology design psychopharmacology research interpretation


recognize training specialized skills aspects treatment behavioral aspects medical illness mental illness affecting physical illness essential practice specialty level medical psychology see also prescriptive authority psychologists movement health psychology rehabilitation psychology psychiatry pain psychology medical ethics references external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwhealth psychorg medpsychcfm https wwwapadivisionsorg division american psychological association division society prescribing psychology http nappporg national alliance professional psychology providers http wwwamphomeorg academy medical psychology http wwwabbhporg american board behavioral health practice http wwwnibhqorg national institute


behavioral health quality https wwwapadivisionsorg division councils training council postdoctoral training programs clinical psychopharmacology https wwwapaorg ed graduate specialize clinical psychopharmacology ga specialty clinical psychopharmacology https wwwasppbnet page pepexam psychopharmacology examination psychologists pep https wwwapadivisionsorg division publications division newsletter tablet http wwwmedicalpsychologynl department medical psychology tilburg university netherlands branches psychology


class wikitable align right border px border cellpadding cellspacing width style background white '''examples individual content forms combined multimedia''' link sound recording reproduction link image center audio center center still images center link footage link interactivity center video footage center center interactivity center '''multimedia''' form communication combines different content forms text audio images animations video single interactive presentation contrast traditional mass media featured little interaction users printed material

Formal science
Computer science
Social sciences
Multimedia


american artist named dick higgins two years previously discussed new approach art making called intermedia term n't exist yet idea ''multimedia'' could taken back th century composer richard wagner believed concept ''gesamtkunstwerk'' meaning 'total artwork' wagner strived combine multiple art forms opera drama music create perfect synthesis stage looked grand opera time emphasized individual talent rather complete work whole combining art forms wagner believed


profound art could made august richard albarino ''variety'' borrowed terminology reporting brainchild songscribe comic bob 'washington square' goldstein 'lightworks' latest ''multi media'' music cum visuals debut discoth que fare two years later term multimedia appropriated describe work political consultant david sawyer husband iris sawyer one goldstein 's producers l'oursin multimedia multi image setup ford new car announcement show august detroit mi intervening forty years word taken different meanings late term referred


presentations consisting multi projector slide shows timed audio track however 'multimedia' took current meaning first edition ''multimedia making work'' tay vaughan declared multimedia combination text graphic art sound animation video delivered computer allow user viewer project control elements delivered ''interactive multimedia'' provide structure linked elements user navigate interactive multimedia becomes ''hypermedia'' german language society gesellschaft


f r deutsche sprache recognized word 's significance ubiquitousness awarding title german 'word year' institute summed rationale stating multimedia become central word wonderful new media world common usage ''multimedia'' refers electronically delivered combination media including video still images audio text way accessed interactively much content web today falls within definition understood millions computers marketed called multimedia


computers incorporated cd rom drive allowed delivery several hundred megabytes video picture audio data era saw also boost production educational multimedia cd roms standard cd rom hold average megabytes data maximum size inch floppy disk hold megabytes average megabytes term video used exclusively describe motion photography ambiguous multimedia terminology ''video'' often used describe file format delivery format presentation format instead '' footage ''


based solutions particularly streaming major characteristics '''multimedia presentations''' may viewed person stage projected transmitted played locally media player broadcast may live recorded multimedia presentation broadcasts recordings either analog digital electronic media technology digital online multimedia may downloaded streamed streaming multimedia may live demand '''multimedia games simulations''' may used physical environment special effects multiple users online network locally offline computer game system simulator various formats technological


digital multimedia may intended enhance users' experience example make easier faster convey information entertainment art combine array artistic insights includes elements different art forms engage inspire captivate audience lasershow live multimedia performance enhanced levels interactivity made possible combining multiple forms media content online multimedia increasingly becoming object oriented data driven enabling applications collaborative end user innovation personalization multiple forms content time examples range multiple forms content


web sites like photo galleries images pictures title text user updated simulations whose co efficients events illustrations animations videos modifiable allowing multimedia experience altered without reprogramming addition seeing hearing haptic technology enables virtual objects felt emerging technology involving illusions taste smell may also enhance multimedia experience categorization multimedia may broadly divided linear non linear categories linear active content progresses often without navigational control focusing user watch entire piece involving higher levels emotional


sensory stimulation based 's shown cinema presentation non linear uses interactivity control progress video game self paced computer based training actions made based user interacts within simulated world hypermedia example non linear content multimedia presentations live recorded recorded presentation may allow interactivity via navigation system live multimedia presentation may allow interactivity via interaction presenter performer usage application powerpoint corporate presentations may combine forms media content multimedia finds application


production companies graphic designers multimedia advertising companies rely heavily social interfaces television promote products using platforms able express message persuade targeted audience business business interoffice communications often developed creative services firms advanced multimedia presentations beyond simple slide shows sell ideas liven training commercial multimedia developers may hired design governmental services nonprofit services applications well entertainment fine arts multimedia heavily used entertainment industry especially develop special effects


movies animations vfx animation etc multimedia games popular pastime software programs available either cd roms online video games class multimedia games meld animation audio importantly interactivity allow player immersive experience video games vary terms animation style audio type even lack thereof element interactivity makes striking example ''interactive multimedia'' ''interactive multimedia'' defines multimedia applications allow users actively participate instead sitting passive recipients information arts


multimedia artists whose minds able blend techniques using different media way incorporates interaction viewer another approach entails creation multimedia displayed traditional fine arts arena art gallery although multimedia display material may volatile survivability content strong traditional media digital recording material may durable infinitely reproducible perfect copies every time education education multimedia used produce computer based training courses popularly called cbts reference books like encyclopedia


almanacs cbt lets user go series presentations text particular topic associated illustrations various information formats learning theory past decade expanded dramatically introduction multimedia several lines research evolved eg cognitive load multimedia learning multimedia learning mml theory david roberts developed large group lecture practice using powerpoint based use full slide images conjunction reduction visible text text placed notes view section powerpoint method applied


education implementing use social media applications twitter youtube facebook etc increase student collaboration develop new processes information conveyed students educational technology interactive multimedia educational game multimedia provides students alternate means acquiring knowledge designed enhance teaching learning various mediums platforms technology began expand classrooms devices screens telewriters technology allows students learn pace gives teachers ability observe individual needs


student capacity multimedia used multi disciplinary settings structured around idea creating hands learning environment use technology lessons tailored subject matter well personalized students' varying levels knowledge topic learning content managed activities utilize take advantage multimedia platforms kind usage modern multimedia encourages interactive communication students teachers opens feedback channels introducing active learning process especially prevalence new media social media technology


impacted multimedia largely associated use computers electronic devices digital media due capabilities concerning research communication problem solving simulations feedback opportunities innovation technology education use multimedia allows diversification among classrooms enhance overall learning experience students social work multimedia robust education methodology within social work context five different multimedia supports education process narrative media interactive media communicative media adaptive media productive media contrary long standing belief multimedia technology social


technology students study elizabeth cauble linda p thurston conducted research building family foundations bff interactive multimedia training platform utilized assess social work students reactions multimedia technology variables knowledge attitudes self efficacy results states respondents show substantial increase academic knowledge confidence attitude multimedia also benefits students brings expert students online fits students schedule allows students choose courses suit mayer 's cognitive theory multimedia learning suggests people learn words pictures words alone according


mayer scholars multimedia technology stimulates people 's brains implementing visual auditory effects thereby assists online users learn efficiently researchers suggest users establish dual channels learning tend understand memorize better mixed literature theory still present field multimedia social work language communication spread development english language around world multimedia become important way communicating different people cultures multimedia technology creates platform language taught traditional form teaching


english second language esl classrooms drastically changed prevalence technology making easier students obtain language learning skills multimedia motivates students learn languages audio visual animation support also helps create english contexts since important aspect learning language developing grammar vocabulary knowledge pragmatics genres addition cultural connections terms forms contexts meanings ideologies constructed improving thought patterns multimedia develops students communicative competence improving capacity understand language one studies


carried izquierdo simard pulido presented correlation multimedia instruction mi learners second language l effects learning behavior findings based gardner theory socio educational model learner motivation attitudes study shows easier access language learning materials well increased motivation mi along use computer assisted language learning journalism newspaper companies trying embrace new phenomenon implementing practices work slow come around major newspapers like


''the new york times'' ''usa today'' ''the washington post'' setting precedent positioning newspaper industry globalized world keep changing world multimedia journalistic practices adopting utilizing different functions multimedia inclusions visuals varying audio video text etc writings news reporting limited traditional media outlets freelance journalists make use different new media produce multimedia pieces news stories engages global audiences tells stories technology develops new communication techniques


media producers consumers common language project later renamed seattle globalist example type multimedia journalism production multimedia reporters mobile usually driving around community cameras audio video recorders laptop computers often referred mojos ''mo''bile ''jo''urnalist engineering software engineers may use multimedia computer simulations anything entertainment training military industrial training multimedia software interfaces often done collaboration creative professionals software engineers multimedia helps expand teaching practices


found engineering allow innovated methods educated future engineers help evolve scope understanding multimedia used specialized engineer careers like software engineers multimedia also allowing major car manufactures ford general motors expand design safety standards cars using game engine vr glasses companies able test safety features design car prototype even made building car virtually reduces time takes produce


virtual labs interactive diagrams knowledge human body happen someone 's health compromised also simulate human body affected diseases multimedia medicine could also used create new ways prevent spread diseases vaccines cures especially using already help advance experimentation order access new information world science medicine virtual reality virtual reality platform multimedia


merges categories multimedia one virtual environment gained much attention recent years following technological advancements becoming much commonly used nowadays various uses like virtual showrooms video games virtual reality first introduced cinematographer morton heilig form arcade style booth called sensorama first virtual reality headset created american computer scientist ivan sutherland bob sproull student virtual reality used educational also recreational purposes like watching movies interactive video games simulations etc ford motor


company uses technology show customers interior exterior cars via immersion lab pima county arizona police force trained using virtual reality create scenarios police practice many video game platforms support vr technology including sony 's playstation nintendo 's switch part labo project well oculus vr headsets used xbox pc gaming augmented reality virtual reality vr strives totally immersive multimedia experience completely replacing reality digital simulation augmented reality ar


limits overlaying digital output content onto real world ar defined enhanced version reality created use technology overlay digital information image something viewed device smartphone camera ar systems used tasks overlaying speed altitude heading information aircraft heads display hud projecting images animations real life scene game pok mon go sony uses ar technology playstation controllers haptic feedback feature give


users greater sense immersion playing video games example users playing call duty want shoot gun enemy triggers controller provide tension player make feel like actually pulling trigger gun game astro 's playroom comes playstation console showcases different ways game make players feel immersed depth potential haptic feedback feature future gaming associations conferences europe


reference organisation multimedia industry european multimedia associations convention emmac scholarly conferences multimedia include acm multimedia ieee international conference multimedia expo icme see also artmedia multi image multimedia messaging service multimedia search new media art non linear media postliterate society transmedia storytelling social media universal multimedia access video game web documentary references external links http wwwacsucalgaryca edtech histhtm history multimedia university calgary http wwwanswerscom topic multimedia multimedia answerscom communication design design film video terminology film production neologisms


'''mass transfer''' net movement mass one location usually meaning stream phase fraction component another mass transfer occurs many processes absorption evaporation drying precipitation membrane filtration distillation mass transfer used different scientific disciplines different processes mechanisms phrase commonly used engineering physical processes involve diffusive convective transport chemical species within physical systems common examples mass transfer processes evaporation water pond atmosphere purification blood kidneys liver

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Mass transfer


distillation alcohol industrial processes mass transfer operations include separation chemical components distillation columns absorbers scrubbers stripping adsorbers activated carbon beds liquid liquid extraction mass transfer often coupled additional transport processes instance industrial cooling towers towers couple heat transfer mass transfer allowing hot water flow contact air water cooled expelling content form water vapour astrophysics astrophysics mass transfer process matter gravitationally bound body usually


star fills roche lobe becomes gravitationally bound second body usually compact object white dwarf neutron star black hole eventually accreted onto common phenomenon binary systems may play important role types supernovae pulsars chemical engineering mass transfer finds extensive application chemical engineering problems used reaction engineering separations engineering heat transfer engineering many sub disciplines chemical engineering like electrochemical engineering driving force mass transfer usually difference chemical potential


defined though thermodynamic gradients may couple flow mass drive well chemical species moves areas high chemical potential areas low chemical potential thus maximum theoretical extent given mass transfer typically determined point chemical potential uniform single phase systems usually translates uniform concentration throughout phase multiphase systems chemical species often prefer one phase others reach uniform chemical potential chemical species absorbed


preferred phase liquid liquid extraction thermodynamic equilibrium determines theoretical extent given mass transfer operation actual rate mass transfer depend additional factors including flow patterns within system diffusivities species phase rate quantified calculation application mass transfer coefficients overall process mass transfer coefficients typically published terms dimensionless numbers often including p clet numbers reynolds numbers sherwood numbers schmidt numbers among others ref name basictext ref ref name bsl ref ref name taylorkrishna ref analogies heat mass momentum


transfer notable similarities commonly used approximate differential equations momentum heat mass transfer ref name basictext molecular transfer equations newton 's law fluid momentum low reynolds number stokes flow fourier 's law heat fick 's law mass similar since linear approximations transport conserved quantities flow field higher reynolds number analogy mass heat transfer momentum transfer becomes less useful due nonlinearity navier stokes equation fundamentally general momentum conservation equation analogy heat


mass transfer remains good great deal effort devoted developing analogies among three transport processes allow prediction one others references references see also crystal growth heat transfer fick 's laws diffusion distillation column mccabe thiele method vapor liquid equilibrium liquid liquid extraction separation process binary star type ia supernova thermodiffusion accretion astrophysics transport phenomena mechanical engineering heating ventilation air conditioning


'''musicology''' greek ' ' mousik 'music' ' ' logos 'domain study' scholarly analysis research based study music musicology departments traditionally belong humanities although music research scientific focus psychological sociological acoustical neurological computational geographers anthropologists interest musicology social sciences also academic interest scholar participates musical research '''musicologist''' musicology traditionally divided three main branches historical musicology systematic musicology ethnomusicology historical musicologists mostly study history called western classical tradition though

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Musicology


study music history need limited ethnomusicologists draw anthropology particularly field research understand people make music systematic musicology includes music theory aesthetics pedagogy musical acoustics science technology musical instruments musical implications physiology psychology sociology philosophy computing cognitive musicology set phenomena surrounding cognitive modeling music musicologists carry research using computers research often falls field computational musicology music therapy specialized form applied musicology sometimes considered closely affiliated health


arts architecture linguistics literature theatre religion theology sport musical knowledge applied medicine education music therapy effectively parent disciplines applied musicology subdisciplines historical musicology music history historical musicology concerned composition performance reception criticism music time historical studies music example concerned composer 's life works developments styles genres ''eg'' baroque concertos social function music particular group people ''eg'' court music modes performance particular place time ''eg'' johann sebastian


bach 's choir leipzig like comparable field art history different branches schools historical musicology emphasize different types musical works approaches music also national differences various definitions historical musicology theory music history could refer study history type genre music ''eg'' history indian music history rock practice research topics often considered within ethnomusicology see historical musicology typically assumed imply western art music european tradition methods


historical musicology include source studies especially manuscript studies palaeography philology especially textual criticism style criticism historiography choice historical method musical analysis analysis music find inner coherence iconography application musical analysis goals often part music history though pure analysis development new tools music analysis likely seen field music theory music historians create number written products ranging journal articles describing current research new editions musical works biographies composers musicians book length


studies university textbook chapters entire textbooks music historians may examine issues close focus case scholars examine relationship words music given composer 's art songs hand scholars take broader view assess place given type music symphony society using techniques drawn fields economics sociology philosophy new musicology ''new musicology'' term applied since late wide body work emphasizing cultural study analysis criticism


music work may based feminist gender studies queer theory postcolonial theory work theodor w adorno although new musicology emerged within historical musicology emphasis cultural study within western art music tradition places new musicology junction historical ethnological sociological research music new musicology reaction traditional historical musicology according susan mcclary fastidiously declares issues musical signification limits engaged legitimate scholarship charles rosen however retorts mcclary sets like many 'new musicologists' straw man


knock dogma music meaning political social significance ref name rosen ref today many musicologists longer distinguish musicology new musicology since recognized many scholarly concerns associated new musicology already mainstream musicology term new longer applies ethnomusicology ethnomusicology formerly comparative musicology study music cultural context often considered anthropology ethnography music jeff todd titon called study people making music although often concerned


study non western music also includes study western music anthropological sociological perspective cultural studies sociology well disciplines social sciences humanities ethnomusicologists primarily conduct historical studies majority involved long term participant observation combine ethnographic musicological historical approaches fieldwork therefore ethnomusicological scholarship characterized featuring substantial intensive fieldwork component often involving long term residence within community studied closely related ethnomusicology emerging branch sociomusicology instance ko proposed hypothesis biliterate


trimusical hong kong sociomusicology popular music studies popular music studies known misleadingly ''popular musicology'' emerged increasing number musicologists ethnomusicologists varieties historians american european culture began write popular music past present first journal focusing popular music studies ''popular music'' began publication year academic society solely devoted topic formed international association study popular music association 's founding partly motivated interdisciplinary agenda popular musicology though group


experience listening performing music though extremely diverse interests commitments many western music theorists united belief acts composing performing listening music may explicated high degree detail opposed conception musical expression fundamentally ineffable except musical sounds generally works music theory descriptive prescriptive attempting define practice influence later practice musicians study music theory understand structural relationships nearly always notated music composers study music theory


understand produce effects structure works composers may study music theory guide precompositional compositional decisions broadly speaking music theory western tradition focuses harmony counterpoint uses explain large scale structure creation melody music psychology music psychology applies content methods subdisciplines psychology perception cognition motivation etc understand music created perceived responded incorporated individuals' societies' daily lives ref name tan ref primary branches include cognitive musicology emphasizes use computational models


human musical abilities cognition cognitive neuroscience music studies way music perception production manifests brain using methodologies cognitive neuroscience aspects field highly theoretical much modern music psychology seeks optimize practices professions music performance composition education therapy performance practice research performance practice draws many tools historical musicology answer specific question music performed various places various times past although previously confined early music recent


research performance practice embraced questions early history recording affected use vibrato classical music instruments klezmer within rubric musicology performance practice tends emphasize collection synthesis evidence music performed important side learning sing authentically perform historical instrument usually part conservatory performance training however many top researchers performance practice also excellent musicians music performance research music performance science strongly associated music psychology aims document


explain psychological physiological sociological cultural details music actually performed rather performed approach research tends systematic empirical involve collection analysis quantitative qualitative data findings music performance research often applied music education education careers music historian jack stewart lectures conference musicologists tenure track professor positions typically hold phd musicology musicologists obtained professor positions highest degree


humanities discipline teaching undergraduate graduate classes area specialization many cases general courses music appreciation introduction music history conducting research area expertise publishing articles research peer reviewed journals authors book chapters books textbooks traveling conferences give talks research learn research field program includes graduate school supervising phd students giving guidance preparation theses dissertations musicology professors may take senior administrative positions


institution dean chair school music notable journals '' th century music'' present ''acta musicologica'' international musicological society ''asian music'' ''bach journal riemenschneider bach institute'' present ''black music research journal'' ''early music history'' ''ethnomusicology'' society ethnomusicology ''journal music theory'' ''the journal musicology'' ''journal american musicological society'' present american musicological society ''journal society american music'' ''musica disciplina'' present ''music educators journal'' ''music theory spectrum'' present society music theory ''the musical quarterly'' present ''perspectives new music'' ''the


world music'' present ''yearbook traditional music'' role women rosetta reitz american jazz historian established record label producing albums music early women jazz blues vast majority major musicologists music historians past generations men th century early th century women 's involvement teaching music mainly elementary secondary music teaching nevertheless women musicologists reached top ranks profession carolyn abbate born american musicologist


g nther maud cuney hare amelia ishmael tammy l kernodle liudmila kovnatskaya elizabeth eva leach carol j oja rosetta reitz elaine sisman hedi stadlen rose rosengard subotnik anahit tsitsikian sherrie tucker see also acoustics aesthetics music choreomusicology computational musicology list musicologists list musicology topics music emotion music mathematics music education musical analysis musical temperament musical tuning organology prehistoric music psychoanalysis music scale music set theory music sociomusicology tonality world music virtual library musicology references reading allen warren dwight ''philosophies music history study general histories music '' new


ed new york dover publications ''nb'' first published expanded updated republication babich babette http fordhambepresscom phil babich postmodern musicology victor e taylor charles winquist eds ''routledge encyclopedia postmodernism'' london routledge pp nbsp brackett david ''interpreting popular music'' cook nicholas musicology ''bbc music magazine'' may everett walter ed ''expression pop rock music'' mccollum jonathan david hebert eds ''theory method historical ethnomusicology'' lanham maryland lexington honing henkjan https kbosuedu dspace bitstream emr honingpdf growing role observation formalization experimental method


pruett james w thomas p slavens ''research guide musicology'' chicago american library association randel michael ed th ed ''harvard dictionary music'' pp nbsp belknap press harvard university press sorce keller marcello emperor 's new clothes musicologies always wish know could know victoria lindsay levine philip v bohlman ''this thing called music'' essays honor bruno nettl lanham boulder new york london rowman littlefield pp nbsp tagg philip ed ''kojak seconds television music toward analysis affect


study popular music https wwwethnomusicologyorg society ethnomusicology https societymusictheoryorg society music theory https europeanmusictheorywordpresscom european network theory analysis music line journals many musicology journals available print pay access portals list however contains sample peer reviewed open access journals various subfields examples musicological writings http wwwmusicstudiesorg jims journal interdisciplinary music studies http wwwechouclaedu echo music centered journal empirical musicology review http emusicologyorg website http ethnomusicologyreviewuclaedu ethnomusicology review http wwwmusicstudiesorg journal interdisciplinary music studies http wwwmusicandmeaningnet indexphp jmm journal music meaning http mtosocietymusictheoryorg music theory online https webarchiveorg web http sscm jscmpressuiucedu jscm journal seventeenth century


music http wwwbiuacil hu mu ims min ad min ad israel studies musicology online https webarchiveorg web http wwwmusicucsbedu projects musicandpolitics music politics http volumerevuesorg ''volume '' french journal popular music studies list open access european journals domains music theory analysis available website https europeanmusictheorywordpresscom journals line european network theory analysis music complete list open access journals theory analysis found website http wwwsbambe revuesphp soci belge d'analyse musicale french music history philosophy music aesthetics humanities occupations occupations music


''the black crook'' hit musical '''musical theatre''' form theatrical performance combines songs spoken dialogue acting dance story emotional content musical nbsp humor pathos love anger nbsp communicated words music movement technical aspects entertainment integrated whole although musical theatre overlaps theatrical forms like opera dance may distinguished equal importance given music compared dialogue movement elements since early th century musical theatre stage works generally called

Humanities
Performing arts
Theatre
Musical theatre


simply '''musicals''' although music part dramatic presentations since ancient times modern western musical theatre emerged th century many structural elements established works gilbert sullivan britain harrigan hart america followed numerous edwardian musical comedies musical theatre works american creators like george cohan turn th century princess theatre musicals artistic steps forward beyond revues frothy entertainments early th century led groundbreaking works


''show boat'' ''of thee sing'' ''oklahoma '' famous musicals decades followed include ''my fair lady'' ''the fantasticks'' ''hair'' ''a chorus line'' ''les mis rables'' ''the phantom opera'' ''rent'' ''the producers'' ''wicked'' ''hamilton'' many musical theatre productions shut due covid pandemic musicals performed around world may presented large venues big budget broadway west end productions new york city london alternatively musicals may


staged smaller venues fringe theatre broadway broadway regional theatre community theatre productions tour musicals often presented amateur school groups churches schools performance spaces addition united states britain vibrant musical theatre scenes continental europe asia australasia canada latin america definitions scope span id definitions span book musicals ''a gaiety girl'' one first hit musicals since th century book musical defined musical play songs dances fully


musical scenes theatrical sequence set music often combining song spoken dialogue ref name continuum ref interpretation musical responsibility creative team includes director musical director usually choreographer sometimes orchestrator musical 's production also creatively characterized technical aspects set design costumes stage properties props lighting sound creative team designs interpretations generally change original production succeeding productions production elements however may retained original production example bob fosse 's choreography ''chicago''


fixed length musical range short one act entertainment several acts several hours length even multi evening presentation musicals range one half three hours musicals usually presented two acts one short intermission first act frequently longer second first act generally introduces nearly characters music often ends introduction dramatic conflict plot complication second act may introduce new songs usually contains


reprises important musical themes resolves conflict complication book musical usually built around four six main theme tunes reprised later show although sometimes consists series songs directly musically related spoken dialogue generally interspersed musical numbers although sung dialogue recitative may used especially called sung musicals ''jesus christ superstar'' ''falsettos'' ''les mis rables'' ''evita'' ''hamilton'' several shorter musicals broadway west end presented one act recent decades moments greatest dramatic intensity


book musical often performed song proverbially emotion becomes strong speech sing becomes strong song dance book musical song ideally crafted suit character characters situation within story although times history musical eg integration music story tenuous ''the new york times'' critic ben brantley described ideal song theatre reviewing revival ''gypsy''


separation song character happens uncommon moments musicals reach upward achieve ideal reasons typically many fewer words sung five minute song spoken five minute block dialogue therefore less time develop drama musical straight play equivalent length since musical usually devotes time music dialogue within compressed nature musical writers must develop characters plot material presented


musical may original may adapted novels ''wicked'' ''man la mancha'' plays ''hello dolly '' ''carousel'' classic legends ''camelot'' historical events ''evita'' films ''the producers'' ''billy elliot'' hand many successful musical theatre works adapted musical films ''west side story'' ''my fair lady'' ''the sound music'' ''oliver '' ''chicago'' comparisons opera george gershwin musical theatre closely related theatrical form opera two usually distinguished weighing number factors first musicals generally


greater focus spoken dialogue ref name cohen cohen sherman p ref musicals however entirely accompanied sung operas ''die zauberfl te'' operettas unaccompanied dialogue ref name cohen second musicals usually include dancing essential part storytelling particularly principal performers well chorus third musicals often use various genres popular music least popular singing musical styles finally musicals usually avoid certain operatic conventions particular musical almost always performed language audience musicals produced broadway


west end instance invariably sung english even originally written another language opera singer primarily singer secondarily actor rarely needs dance musical theatre performer often actor first must also singer dancer someone equally accomplished three referred triple threat composers music musicals often consider vocal demands roles musical theatre performers mind today large theatres stage musicals generally use microphones amplification


forms chinese opera performers various eastern traditions theatre include music chinese opera taiwanese opera japanese noh indian musical theatre including sanskrit drama indian classical dance parsi theatre yakshagana ref name gok gokulsing p ref india since th century produced numerous musical films referred bollywood musicals japan series musicals based popular anime manga comics developed recent decades shorter simplified junior versions many musicals available schools youth groups short works created


adapted performance children sometimes called minimusicals history early antecedents antecedents musical theatre europe traced back theatre ancient greece music dance included stage comedies tragedies th century bce music ancient forms lost however little influence later development musical theatre ref name kenrickshort kenrick john http wwwmusicals com stagecaphtm capsule history musicals com accessed october ref th th centuries religious dramas taught liturgy groups actors would use outdoor pageant wagons


stages wheels tell part story poetic forms sometimes alternated prose dialogues liturgical chants gave way new melodies john webb painted backshutter first performance ''the siege rhodes'' european renaissance saw older forms evolve two antecedents musical theatre commedia dell'arte raucous clowns improvised familiar stories later opera buffa england elizabethan jacobean plays frequently included music short musical plays began included evenings' dramatic entertainments court masques developed tudor period involved


play broke performances record soon reached late ref name dgillanscreamingnet gillan http wwwstagebeautynet th frameshtmlhttp wwwstagebeautynet th longrhtml longest running plays london new york stage beauty accessed may ref musical theatre forms developed england th century music hall melodrama burletta popularized partly london theatres licensed music halls allowed present plays without music colonial america significant theatre presence london entrepreneur william hallam sent company actors colonies managed brother


lewis ref name wilmethp wilmeth miller p ref new york summer performed ballad operas ''the beggar 's opera'' ballad farces ref name wilmethp p barnum operating entertainment complex lower manhattan early musical theatre america consisted british forms burletta pantomime ref name kenrickshort piece called necessarily define broadway extravaganza ''the magic deer'' advertised serio comico tragico operatical historical extravaganzical burletical tale enchantment ref name kenrick kenrick john http wwwmusicals com erastagehtm history stage musicals musicals com accessed may


ref theatre new york moved downtown gradually midtown around arrive times square area new york runs lagged far behind london laura keene 's musical burletta ''seven sisters'' shattered previous new york musical theatre record run performances poster c around french composer herv experimenting form comic musical theatre called op rette ref name lubbock lubbock mark https wwwjstororg stable music 'musicals' ''the musical times'' vol september


ref america mid th century musical theatre entertainments included crude variety revue eventually developed vaudeville minstrel shows soon crossed atlantic britain victorian burlesque first popularized us british troupes ref name kenrickshort hugely successful musical premiered new york ''the black crook'' original musical theatre piece conformed many modern definitions musical including dance original music helped tell story spectacular production famous skimpy costumes ran record breaking performances year ''the black domino


post'' first show call musical comedy comedians edward harrigan tony hart produced starred musicals broadway ''the mulligan guard picnic'' musical comedies featured characters situations taken everyday life new york 's lower classes represented significant step forward towards legitimate theatrical form starred high quality singers lillian russell vivienne segal fay templeton instead ladies questionable repute starred earlier musical forms transportation improved poverty london new york


ref name lubbock sensations sides atlantic australia helped raise standard considered successful show ref name weall kenrick john http wwwmusicals com usafterhtm g usa musicals website ''the cyber encyclopedia musical theatre tv film'' retrieved may ref shows designed family audiences marked contrast risqu burlesques bawdy music hall shows french operettas sometimes drew crowd seeking less wholesome entertainment ref name bond th century musical pieces exceeded run ''the mikado'' ''dorothy''


opened set new record run performances gilbert sullivan 's influence later musical theatre profound creating examples integrate musicals lyrics dialogue advanced coherent story ref name jones jones https booksgooglecom booksid wqqh qkynoc pg pa pp ref works admired copied early authors composers musicals britain america ref name weall new century sidney jones' ''the geisha'' ''a trip chinatown'' broadway 's long run champion ''irene'' running performances new york runs continued relatively


short exceptions compared london runs ref name dgillanscreamingnet gilbert sullivan widely pirated also imitated new york productions reginald de koven 's ''robin hood'' john philip sousa 's ''el capitan'' ''a trip coontown'' first musical comedy entirely produced performed african americans broadway largely inspired routines minstrel shows followed ragtime tinged shows hundreds musical comedies staged broadway early th century composed songs written new york 's tin pan alley


including george cohan worked create american style distinct gilbert sullivan works successful new york shows often followed extensive national tours meanwhile musicals took london stage gay nineties led producer george edwardes perceived audiences wanted new alternative savoy style comic operas intellectual political absurdist satire experimented modern dress family friendly musical theatre style breezy popular songs snappy romantic banter stylish spectacle gaiety theatres drew traditions


earlier musical forms comic opera operetta ''the geisha'' one successful running two years achieving great international success ''the belle new york'' became first american musical run year london british musical comedy ''florodora'' popular success sides atlantic ''a chinese honeymoon'' ran record setting performances london new york turn th century seymour hicks joined forces edwardes


american producer charles frohman create another decade popular shows enduring edwardian musical comedy hits included ''the arcadians'' ''the quaker girl'' early th century victor herbert virtually eliminated english speaking stage competition ubiquitous edwardian musical comedies operettas returned london broadway ''the merry widow'' adaptations continental operettas became direct competitors musicals franz leh r oscar straus composed new operettas popular english world war america victor herbert produced string enduring operettas including ''the fortune teller''


''babes toyland'' ''mlle modiste'' ''the red mill'' ''naughty marietta'' team p g wodehouse guy bolton jerome kern following footsteps gilbert sullivan created princess theatre shows paved way kern 's later work showing musical could combine light popular entertainment continuity story songs ref name jones historian gerald bordman wrote theatre going public needed escapist entertainment dark times world war flocked theatre hit musical ''irene'' ran


florenz ziegfeld imitators america also extraordinarily popular ref name kenrick sally'' musicals roaring twenties borrowing vaudeville music hall light entertainments tended emphasize big dance routines popular songs expense plot typical decade lighthearted productions like ''sally'' ''lady good'' ''no nanette'' ''oh kay '' ''funny face'' despite forgettable stories musicals featured stars marilyn miller fred astaire produced dozens enduring popular songs kern george ira gershwin irving berlin cole porter rodgers hart


popular music dominated musical theatre standards fascinating rhythm tea two someone watch many shows revues series sketches songs little connection best known annual ''ziegfeld follies'' spectacular song dance revues broadway featuring extravagant sets elaborate costumes beautiful chorus girls ref name kenrickshort spectacles also raised production values mounting musical generally became expensive ref name kenrick ''shuffle along'' african american show hit broadway new generation composers operettas also emerged


rudolf friml sigmund romberg create series popular broadway hits london writer stars ivor novello l coward became popular primacy british musical theatre th century gradually replaced american innovation especially world war kern tin pan alley composers began bring new musical styles ragtime jazz theatres shubert brothers took control broadway theatres musical theatre writer andrew lamb notes operatic theatrical styles nineteenth century social structures replaced


theatre musicals dramatic themes told music dialogue setting movement accomplished combining lyricism kern 's music skillful libretto oscar hammerstein ii one historian wrote come completely new genre musical play distinguished musical comedy everything else subservient play came complete integration song humor production numbers single inextricable artistic entity ref name history lubbock ref rodgers hart great depression set post broadway national tour ''show boat'' public turned


back mostly light escapist song dance entertainment ref name quarterly audiences sides atlantic little money spend entertainment stage shows anywhere exceeded run performances decade revue ''the band wagon'' starred dancing partners fred astaire sister adele porter 's ''anything goes'' confirmed ethel merman 's position first lady musical theatre title maintained many years coward novello continued deliver old fashioned sentimental musicals ''the dancing years'' rodgers hart returned hollywood create


pulitzer prize ref name kenrickshort ''as thousands cheer'' revue irving berlin moss hart song sketch based newspaper headline marked first broadway show african american ethel waters starred alongside white actors waters' numbers included supper time woman 's lament husband lynched gershwins' ''porgy bess'' featured african american cast blended operatic folk jazz idioms ''the cradle rock'' directed orson welles highly political pro union piece despite controversy surrounding ran performances ref


survived fact continued evolve thematically beyond gags showgirls musicals ''gay nineties'' ''roaring twenties'' sentimental romance operetta adding technical expertise fast paced staging naturalistic dialogue style led director george abbott ref name kenrickshort golden age rodgers hammerstein left right irving berlin center would begin hits porter irving berlin rodgers hart weill gershwin runs performances economy rebounded artistic change air rodgers


hammerstein 's ''oklahoma '' completed revolution begun ''show boat'' tightly integrating aspects musical theatre cohesive plot songs furthered action story featured dream ballets dances advanced plot developed characters rather using dance excuse parade scantily clad women across stage ref name rubin rodgers hammerstein hired ballet choreographer agnes de mille used everyday motions help characters express ideas defied musical conventions raising first act curtain bevy chorus girls


rather woman churning butter stage voice singing opening lines ''oh beautiful mornin''' unaccompanied drew rave reviews set box office frenzy received pulitzer prize brooks atkinson wrote ''the new york times'' show 's opening number changed history musical theater verse like sung buoyant melody banalities old musical stage became intolerable ref name heritage gordon john steele http wwwamericanheritagecom articles magazine ah shtml ''oklahoma' ' retrieved june ref first blockbuster broadway show running total performances made


hit film remains one frequently produced team 's projects william everett paul r laird wrote show like ''show boat'' became milestone later historians writing important moments twentieth century theatre would begin identify eras according relationship ''oklahoma '' mary martin starred several broadway hits era ''oklahoma '' rodgers hammerstein important contributors musical play form examples set creating vital plays often rich social thought provided necessary encouragement


''the king i'' dies onstage show 's creativity stimulated rodgers hammerstein 's contemporaries ushered golden age american musical theatre ref name heritage americana displayed broadway golden age wartime cycle shows began arrive example ''on town'' written betty comden adolph green composed leonard bernstein choreographed jerome robbins story set wartime concerns three sailors hour shore leave new york city falls love show also gives


impression country uncertain future sailors women also irving berlin used sharpshooter annie oakley 's career basis ''annie get gun'' performances burton lane e harburg fred saidy combined political satire irish whimsy fantasy ''finian 's rainbow'' performances cole porter found inspiration william shakespeare 's ''the taming shrew'' ''kiss kate'' performances american musicals overwhelmed old fashioned british coward novello style shows one last big successes novello 's ''perchance dream''


development american musical damon runyon 's eclectic characters core frank loesser 's abe burrows' ''guys dolls'' performances gold rush setting alan jay lerner frederick loewe 's ''paint wagon'' relatively brief seven month run show n't discourage lerner loewe collaborating time ''my fair lady'' adaptation george bernard shaw 's ''pygmalion'' starring rex harrison julie andrews performances held long run record many years popular hollywood films made


musicals two hits british creators decade ''the boy friend'' ran performances london marked andrews' american debut ''salad days'' run performances ref name salad another record set ''the threepenny opera'' ran performances becoming longest running broadway musical ''the fantasticks'' production also broke ground showing musicals could profitable broadway small scale small orchestra format confirmed revival jerome kern p g wodehouse 's ''leave jane'' ran


two years broadway season included dozen musicals revues including ''little mary sunshine'' ''the fantasticks'' ''ernest love'' musical adaptation oscar wilde 's hit ''the importance earnest'' leonard bernstein ''west side story'' transported ''romeo juliet'' modern day new york city converted feuding montague capulet families opposing ethnic gangs jets sharks book adapted arthur laurents music leonard bernstein lyrics newcomer stephen sondheim embraced critics failed popular choice


blue haired matinee ladies preferred small town river city iowa meredith willson 's ''the music man'' alleys manhattan 's upper west side apparently tony award voters similar mind since favored former latter ''west side story'' respectable run performances west end ''the music man'' ran nearly twice long performances however film ''west side story'' extremely successful laurents sondheim teamed ''gypsy'' performances jule styne providing music


backstage story driven stage mother time stripper gypsy rose lee 's mother rose original production ran performances given four subsequent revivals angela lansbury tyne daly bernadette peters patti lupone later tackling role made famous ethel merman although directors choreographers major influence musical theatre style since least th century george abbott collaborators successors took central role integrating movement dance fully musical theatre productions golden age ref name kenrickdance kenrick john http wwwmusicals com dancestage htm dance stage


musicals part iii musicals com accessed august ref abbott introduced ballet story telling device ''on toes'' followed agnes de mille 's ballet choreography ''oklahoma '' abbott collaborated jerome robbins ''on town'' shows robbins combined roles director choreographer emphasizing story telling power dance ''west side story'' ''a funny thing happened way forum'' ''fiddler roof'' bob fosse choreographed abbott ''the pajama game'' ''damn yankees'' injecting playful sexuality


hits later director choreographer ''sweet charity'' ''pippin'' ''chicago'' notable director choreographers included gower champion tommy tune michael bennett gillian lynne susan stroman prominent directors included hal prince also got start abbott ref name kenrickdance trevor nunn golden age automotive companies large corporations began hire broadway talent write corporate musicals private shows seen employees customers ended rodgers hammerstein 's last hit ''the sound music'' also became another hit mary martin


ran performances shared tony award best musical together extremely successful film version become one popular musicals history ''the fantasticks'' first produced broadway intimate allegorical show would quietly run years sullivan street theatre greenwich village becoming far longest running musical history authors produced innovative works ''celebration'' ''i '' first two character broadway musical would see number blockbusters like


''fiddler roof'' performances ''hello dolly '' performances ''funny girl'' performances ''man la mancha'' performances risqu pieces like ''cabaret'' ending emergence rock musical two men considerable impact musical theatre history beginning decade stephen sondheim jerry herman bernadette peters shown starred five sondheim musicals first project sondheim wrote music lyrics ''a funny thing happened way forum'' performances book based


works plautus burt shevelove larry gelbart starring zero mostel sondheim moved musical beyond concentration romantic plots typical earlier eras work tended darker exploring grittier sides life present past early sondheim works include ''anyone whistle'' ran nine performances despite stars lee remick angela lansbury successful ''company'' ''follies'' ''a little night music'' later sondheim found inspiration unlikely sources opening japan western trade ''pacific overtures'' legendary murderous


barber seeking revenge industrial age london ''sweeney todd'' paintings georges seurat ''sunday park george'' fairy tales ''into woods'' collection presidential assassins ''assassins'' critics argued sondheim 's musicals lack commercial appeal others praised lyrical sophistication musical complexity well interplay lyrics music shows sondheim 's notable innovations include show presented reverse ''merrily roll along'' mentioned ''anyone whistle''


herman 's show tunes become popular standards including hello dolly need little christmas mame best times parade passes put sunday clothes takes moment bosom buddies wo n't send roses recorded artists louis armstrong eydie gorm barbra streisand petula clark bernadette peters herman 's songbook subject two popular musical revues ''jerry 's girls'' broadway ''showtune'' broadway musical started diverge relatively narrow confines rock music would


used several broadway musicals beginning ''hair'' featured rock music also nudity controversial opinions vietnam war race relations social issues social themes ''show boat'' ''porgy bess'' struggle america elsewhere minorities' civil rights progressed hammerstein harold arlen yip harburg others emboldened write musicals operas aimed normalize societal toleration minorities urged racial harmony early golden age works focused racial tolerance included ''finian 's rainbow'' ''south pacific'' towards end


golden age several shows tackled jewish subjects issues ''fiddler roof'' ''milk honey'' ''blitz '' later ''rags'' original concept became ''west side story'' set lower east side easter passover celebrations rival gangs jewish italian catholic creative team later decided polish white vs puerto rican conflict fresher tolerance important theme musicals continued recent decades final expression ''west side story'' left message racial tolerance end musicals became


racially integrated black white cast members even covering 's roles ''hair'' homosexuality also explored musicals starting ''hair'' even overtly ''la cage aux folles'' ''falsettos'' ''rent'' ''hedwig angry inch'' shows recent decades ''parade'' sensitive exploration anti semitism historical american racism ''ragtime'' similarly explores experience immigrants minorities america present success ''hair'' rock musicals flourished ''jesus christ superstar'' ''godspell'' ''the rocky


horror show'' ''evita'' ''two gentlemen verona'' began concept albums adapted stage notably ''jesus christ superstar'' ''evita'' others dialogue otherwise reminiscent opera dramatic emotional themes sometimes started concept albums referred rock operas shows like ''raisin'' ''dreamgirls'' ''purlie'' ''the wiz'' brought significant african american influence broadway varied musical genres styles incorporated musicals especially broadway time stephen sondheim found success musicals


mentioned ''a chorus line'' one productions joseph papp 's public theatre brought broadway dance musical ''a chorus line'' emerged recorded group therapy style sessions michael bennett conducted gypsies nbsp sing dance support leading players nbsp broadway community hundreds hours tapes james kirkwood jr nick dante fashioned book audition musical incorporating many real life stories sessions attended sessions eventually played variations show music


marvin hamlisch lyrics edward kleban ''a chorus line'' first opened joseph papp 's public theater lower manhattan initially planned limited engagement eventually moved shubert theatre broadway run performances becoming longest running production broadway history time show swept tony awards pulitzer prize hit song ''what love'' became standard broadway audiences welcomed musicals varied golden age style substance john kander fred ebb explored rise nazism


germany ''cabaret'' murder media prohibition era ''chicago'' relied old vaudeville techniques ''pippin'' stephen schwartz set days charlemagne federico fellini 's autobiographical film '' '' became maury yeston 's ''nine'' end decade ''evita'' ''sweeney todd'' precursors darker big budget musicals depended dramatic stories sweeping scores spectacular effects time old fashioned values still embraced hits ''annie'' '' nd street'' ''my one only'' popular revivals ''no nanette'' ''irene'' although many


film versions musicals made critical box office successes notable exceptions ''fiddler roof'' ''cabaret'' ''grease'' cameron mackintosh saw influence european megamusicals broadway west end elsewhere typically feature pop influenced score large casts spectacular sets special effects falling chandelier ''the phantom opera'' helicopter landing stage ''miss saigon'' big budgets based novels works literature british team composer


andrew lloyd webber producer cameron mackintosh started megamusical phenomenon musical ''cats'' based poems eliot overtook ''a chorus line'' become longest running broadway show lloyd webber followed ''starlight express'' performed roller skates ''the phantom opera'' also mackintosh derived novel name ''sunset boulevard'' film name ''phantom'' would surpass ''cats'' become longest running show broadway history record still holds ref name el everett laird pp ref ref name ah allain


harvie pp ref french team claude michel sch nberg alain boublil wrote ''les mis rables'' based novel name whose london production produced mackintosh became still longest running musical west end broadway history team produced another hit ''miss saigon'' inspired puccini opera ''madama butterfly'' ref name el ref name ah megamusicals' huge budgets redefined expectations financial success broadway west end earlier years possible show considered hit run


several hundred performances multimillion dollar production costs show must run years simply turn profit megamusicals also reproduced productions around world multiplying profit potential expanding global audience musical theatre ref name ah audra mcdonald new generation theatrical composers emerged including jason robert brown michael john lachiusa began productions broadway conspicuous success artists jonathan larson 's show ''rent'' rock musical based opera ''la boh me'' struggling community artists


manhattan cost tickets broadway west end musicals escalating beyond budget many theatregoers ''rent'' marketed increase popularity musicals among younger audience featured young cast heavily rock influenced score musical became hit young fans many students calling rentheads camped nederlander theatre hopes winning lottery front row tickets saw show dozens times shows broadway followed ''rent'' 's lead offering heavily discounted day performance standing room tickets although often


discounts offered students also saw influence large corporations production musicals important disney theatrical productions began adapting disney 's animated film musicals stage starting ''beauty beast'' ''the lion king'' ''aida'' latter two music elton john ''the lion king'' highest grossing musical broadway history ''the 's tommy'' theatrical adaptation rock opera ''tommy'' achieved healthy run performances criticized sanitizing story


route revivals familiar fare ''fiddler roof'' ''a chorus line'' ''south pacific'' ''gypsy'' ''hair'' ''west side story'' ''grease'' adaptations proven material literature ''the scarlet pimpernel'' ''wicked'' ''fun home'' hoping shows would built audience result trend especially persistent film adaptations including ''the producers'' ''spamalot'' ''hairspray'' ''legally blonde'' ''the color purple'' ''xanadu'' ''billy elliot'' ''shrek'' ''waitress'' ''groundhog day'' critics argued reuse film plots especially disney ''mary poppins'' ''the little


mermaid'' equate broadway west end musical tourist attraction rather creative outlet ref name kenrick hamilton'' meets president obama today less likely sole producer david merrick cameron mackintosh backs production corporate sponsors dominate broadway often alliances formed stage musicals require investment nbsp million credits ''thoroughly modern millie'' listed ten producers among names entities composed several individuals typically broadway regional theatres tend produce smaller therefore less expensive musicals development


new musicals increasingly taken place outside new york london smaller venues example ''spring awakening'' ''fun home'' ''hamilton'' developed broadway launched broadway several musicals returned spectacle format successful recalling extravaganzas presented times throughout theatre history since ancient romans staged mock sea battles examples include musical adaptations ''lord rings'' ''gone wind'' ''spider man turn dark'' musicals involved songwriters little theatrical experience expensive


productions generally lost money conversely ''the drowsy chaperone'' ''avenue q'' ''the th annual putnam county spelling bee'' ''xanadu'' ''fun home'' among others presented smaller scale productions mostly uninterrupted intermission short running times enjoyed financial success ''time'' magazine reported trend broadway immersive theatre citing shows ''natasha pierre great comet '' ''here lies love'' staging takes place around within audience shows set joint record receiving nominations lucille lortel awards feature


contemporary scores cyndi lauper first female composer win tony best score without male collaborator writing music lyrics ''kinky boots'' first time female writing team lisa kron jeanine tesori tony award best original score best book kron ''fun home'' although work male songwriters continues produced often jukebox musicals another trend create minimal plot fit collection songs already hits following earlier


success ''buddy buddy holly story'' included ''movin' out'' based tunes billy joel ''jersey boys'' four seasons ''rock ages'' featuring classic rock many others style often referred jukebox musical ref name trends kaye kimberly http wwwbroadwaycom buzz broadwaycom biggest broadway trends decade broadwaycom biggest broadway trends decade broadwaycom may accessed august ref similar plot driven musicals built around canon particular pop group including ''mamma mia '' based songs abba ''our house''


based songs madness ''we rock you'' based songs queen film tv musicals zac efron zendaya pictured along hugh jackman brought star power ''the greatest showman'' live action film musicals nearly dead early exceptions ''victor victoria'' ''little shop horrors'' film ''evita'' ref name kenrick kenrick john http wwwmusicals com filmhtm history musical film musicals com accessed july kenrick john http wwwmusicals com filmhtm disney beyond history musical film musicals com accessed july ref


new century baz luhrmann began revival film musical ''moulin rouge '' followed ''chicago'' ''phantom opera'' ''rent'' ''dreamgirls'' ''hairspray'' ''enchanted'' ''sweeney todd'' ''mamma mia '' ''nine'' ''les mis rables'' ''pitch perfect'' ''into woods'' ''the last five years'' ''la la land'' ''the greatest showman'' ''a star born'' ''mary poppins returns'' ''rocketman'' ''in heights'' steven spielberg 's version ''west side story'' among others dr seuss 's ''how


grinch stole christmas '' ''the cat hat'' turned children 's books live action film musicals immense success disney houses animated film musicals beginning ''the little mermaid'' running throughout including adult themed films like ''south park bigger longer uncut'' fewer animated film musicals released first decade st century ref name kenrick genre made comeback beginning ''tangled'' ''rio'' ''frozen'' asia india continues produce numerous bollywood film musicals japan


produces anime manga film musicals made tv musical films popular ''gypsy'' ''cinderella'' ''annie'' several made tv musicals first decade st century adaptations stage version ''south pacific'' ''the music man'' ''once upon mattress'' televised version stage musical ''legally blonde'' additionally several musicals filmed stage broadcast public television example ''contact'' ''kiss kate'' ''oklahoma '' made tv musical ''high


including broadway west end theatres ref name west end ref many performing arts institutions attempted adapt reduce losses offering new expanded digital services particular resulted online streaming previously recorded performances many companies well bespoke crowdsourcing projects example sydney theatre company commissioned actors film home discussing performing monologue one characters previously played stage casts musicals ''hamilton'' ''mamma mia '' united zoom calls entertain individuals public performances


west end theatres postponing reopening june july broadway starting september throughout however spikes pandemic caused closures even markets reopened international musicals us britain active sources book musicals th century much th century although europe produced various forms popular light opera operetta example spanish zarzuela period even earlier however light musical stage countries become active recent decades musicals english speaking countries notably australia


among countries germany ''elixier'' ''ludwig ii'' austria ''tanz der vampire'' ''elisabeth'' ''mozart '' ''rebecca'' czech republic ''dracula'' france ''starmania'' ''notre dame de paris'' ''les mis rables'' ''rom et juliette'' ''mozart l'op ra rock'' spain ''hoy puedo levantar'' ''the musical sancho panza'' japan recently seen growth indigenous form musical theatre animated live action mostly based anime manga ''kiki 's delivery service'' ''tenimyu'' popular ''sailor moon'' metaseries twenty nine sailor moon musicals spanning thirteen years beginning series popular revues


mandarin chinese cast first chinese production style western musical theatre ''the gold sand'' ref name zhou addition li dun well known chinese producer produced ''butterflies'' based classic chinese love tragedy well ''love u teresa'' ref name zhou amateur school productions naples players' teen ''thoroughly modern millie'' musicals often presented amateur school groups churches schools performance spaces although amateur theatre existed centuries even new world ref name lynch lynch twink http wwwaactorg community theatre history community theatre history american association


community theatre accessed march ref fran ois cellier cunningham bridgeman wrote prior late th century amateur actors treated contempt professionals formation amateur gilbert sullivan companies licensed perform savoy operas professionals recognized amateur societies support culture music drama accepted useful training schools legitimate stage volunteer ranks sprung many present day favourites ref name cellier bridgeman ref national operatic dramatic association founded uk reported


nearly amateur dramatic societies producing gilbert sullivan works britain year ref name cellier bridgeman similarly community theatres founded us early th century number grown estimated us ref name lynch educational theater association us nearly member schools relevance lion king'' broadway broadway league announced season nbsp million tickets purchased broadway shows gross sale amount almost billion dollars league reported


season approximately broadway tickets purchased tourists foreign tourists attendees society london theatre reported set record attendance london total attendees major commercial grant aided theatres central london nbsp million total ticket revenues nbsp million international musicals scene increasingly active recent decades nevertheless stephen sondheim commented year however noting success recent decades original material creative imaginings film plays literature theatre historian john kenrick countered blockquote musical


dead absolutely changing always musical changing ever since offenbach first rewrite change clearest sign musical still living growing genre ever return called 'golden age' musicals center popular culture probably public taste undergone fundamental changes commercial arts flow paying public allows ref name kenrick blockquote see also cast recording lists musicals long running musical theatre productions music theatre parsi theatre musical notes references cited


books reading bauch marc '' https booksgooglecom booksid ueahsvd jqac american musical '' marburg germany tectum verlag bordman gerald ''american musical theatre chronicle'' new york oxford university press viii p citron stephen ''the musical inside out'' chicago illinois ir dee p ewen david ''the story american musical theater'' first ed philadelphia chilton v p g nzl kurt ''the encyclopedia musical theatre'' volumes new york schirmer books stempel larry ''showtime history broadway musical theater'' w w norton pages comprehensive history since mid th


linguistics '''morphology''' study words formed relationship words language analyzes structure words parts words stems root words prefixes suffixes morphology also looks parts speech intonation stress ways context change word 's pronunciation meaning morphology differs morphological typology classification languages based use words lexicology study words make language 's vocabulary words along

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Morphology (linguistics)


clitics generally accepted smallest units syntax languages many words related words rules collectively describe grammar language example english speakers recognize words ' 'dog'' ' 'dogs'' closely related differentiated plurality morpheme found bound noun phrases speakers english fusional language recognize relations innate knowledge english 's rules word formation infer intuitively ' 'dog'' ' 'dogs'' ''cat'' ''cats'' similar fashion ' 'dog''


' 'dog catcher'' ' 'dish'' ' 'dishwasher'' contrast classical chinese little morphology using almost exclusively unbound morphemes free morphemes depending word order convey meaning words modern standard chinese mandarin however compounds roots bound understood grammars represent morphology language rules understood speaker reflect specific patterns regularities way words formed smaller units language using smaller units interact speech way morphology branch


linguistics studies patterns word formation within across languages attempts formulate rules model knowledge speakers languages phonological orthographic modifications base word origin may partial literacy skills studies indicated presence modification phonology orthography makes morphologically complex words harder understand absence modification base word origin makes morphologically complex words easier understand morphologically complex words easier comprehend include base word polysynthetic languages chukchi


words composed many morphemes example chukchi word mey levtp rk n meaning fierce headache composed eight morphemes ''t mey levt p rk n'' may glossed morphology languages allows consonant vowel understood morphemes grammar language indicates usage understanding morpheme discipline deals specifically sound changes occurring within morphemes morphophonology history history morphological analysis dates back ancient indian linguist p ini formulated rules sanskrit morphology text ''a dhy '' using


constituency grammar greco roman grammatical tradition also engaged morphological analysis studies arabic morphology conducted mar al arw mad b al mas date back least ce linguistic term morphology coined august schleicher fundamental concepts lexemes word forms term word well defined meaning instead two related terms used morphology lexeme word form generally lexeme set inflected word forms often represented citation form small capitals instance lexeme contains word forms ''eat eats eaten'' ''ate''


''eat'' ''eats'' thus considered different word forms belonging lexeme ''eat'' ''eater'' hand different lexemes refer two different concepts prosodic word vs morphological word examples languages failure single phonological word coincide single morphological word form latin one way express concept ' span style font variant small caps text transform lowercase noun phrase span sub sub span style font variant small caps text transform lowercase noun phrase span sub sub ' apples oranges suffix ' que' second noun phrase apples oranges extreme level theoretical quandary posed


phonological words provided kwak'wala language kwak'wala great many languages meaning relations nouns including possession semantic case formulated affixes instead independent words three word english phrase club 'with' identifies dependent noun phrase instrument 'his' denotes possession relation would consist two words even one word many languages unlike languages kwak'wala semantic affixes phonologically attach lexeme pertain semantically preceding lexeme consider following example kwak'wala sentences


begin corresponds english verb using modified transcription phenomenon kwak'wala reported jacobsen cited kwix id da b gwan sub sub q'asa sub sub t'alwagwayu morpheme morpheme translation kwix id da clubbed span style font variant small caps text transform lowercase pivot determiner span b gwan man span style font variant small caps text transform lowercase accusative determiner span q'asa otter span style font variant small caps text transform lowercase instrumental sg possessive span t'alwagwayu club man clubbed otter club notation notes accusative case marks entity something done


da b gwan q'asa sub sub t'alwagwayu clubbed pivot man sub sub hit otter sub sub club central publication topic volume edited dixon aikhenvald examining mismatch prosodic phonological grammatical definitions word various amazonian australian aboriginal caucasian eskimo indo european native north american west african sign languages apparently wide


english plural ' 'dogs'' ' 'dog'' inflectional rule compound phrases words like ' 'dog catcher'' ' 'dishwasher'' examples word formation informally word formation rules form new words accurately new lexemes inflection rules yield variant forms word lexeme distinction inflection word formation clear cut many examples linguists fail agree whether given rule inflection word formation next section attempt clarify distinction word formation process one combines two complete words whereas inflection


combine suffix verb change form subject sentence example present indefinite use go subject plural nouns whereas third person singular pronouns singular nouns use goes es inflectional marker used match subject difference word formation resultant word may differ source word 's grammatical category whereas process inflection word never changes grammatical category types word formation


distinction two primary kinds morphological word formation derivation compounding compounding process word formation involves combining complete word forms single compound form ''dog catcher'' therefore compound ' 'dog'' ''catcher'' complete word forms right subsequently treated parts one form derivation involves affixing bound ie non independent forms existing lexemes whereby addition affix derives new lexeme word ''independent'' example derived word ' 'dependent'' using prefix ''in '' ' 'dependent'' derived


verb ' 'depend'' also word formation processes clipping portion word removed create new one blending two parts different words blended one acronyms letter new word represents specific word representation ie nato north atlantic treaty organization borrowing words one language taken used another finally coinage new word created represent new object concept paradigms morphosyntax linguistic paradigm


complete set related word forms associated given lexeme familiar examples paradigms conjugations verbs declensions nouns also arranging word forms lexeme tables classifying according shared inflectional categories tense aspect mood number gender case organizes example personal pronouns english organized tables using categories person first second third number singular vs plural gender masculine feminine neuter case nominative oblique genitive inflectional categories used group word forms paradigms cannot


chosen arbitrarily must categories relevant stating syntactic rules language person number categories used define paradigms english english grammatical agreement rules require verb sentence appear inflectional form matches person number subject therefore syntactic rules english care difference ' 'dog'' ' 'dogs'' choice two forms determines form verb used however 's syntactic rule difference ' 'dog'' ' 'dog


catcher'' ' 'dependent'' ''independent'' first two nouns second two adjectives important difference inflection word formation inflected word forms lexemes organized paradigms defined requirements syntactic rules corresponding syntactic rules word formation relationship syntax morphology way interact called morphosyntax ref name dufter dufter stark '' https booksgoogleit booksid vbkdwaaqbaj pg pt introduction syntax morphosyntax basic notions '' dufter andreas stark elisabeth eds '' https booksgoogleit booksid vbkdwaaqbaj pg pt manual romance morphosyntax syntax ''


walter de gruyter gmbh co kg ref term also used underline fact syntax morphology interrelated ref name vanvalin van valin r van valin jr r van valin jr r lapolla r j lapolla r j '' https booksgoogleit booksid dxcrbgt omc syntax structure meaning function '' p cambridge university press ref study morphosyntax concerns inflection paradigms approaches morphosyntax exclude domain phenomena word formation compounding derivation ref name dufter within morphosyntax fall study agreement government ref name dufter allomorphy morphological rules described analogies


word forms ' 'dog'' ' 'dogs'' ''cat'' ''cats'' ' 'dish'' ' 'dishes'' case analogy applies form words meaning pair first word means one x second two x difference always plural form '' s'' '' es'' affixed second word signaling key distinction singular plural entities one largest sources complexity morphology one one correspondence meaning form scarcely applies every


case language english word form pairs like ''ox oxen'' ''goose geese'' ' 'sheep sheep'' difference singular plural signaled way departs regular pattern signaled even cases regarded regular '' s'' simple '' s'' ' 'dogs'' pronounced way '' s'' ''cats'' plurals ' 'dishes'' vowel added '' s'' cases distinction effected alternative forms word constitute allomorphy phonological


rules constrain sounds appear next language morphological rules applied blindly would often violate phonological rules resulting sound sequences prohibited language question example form plural ' 'dish'' simply appending '' s'' end word would result form permitted phonotactics english order rescue word vowel sound inserted root plural marker results similar rules apply pronunciation


'' s'' ' 'dogs'' ''cats'' depends quality voiced vs unvoiced final preceding phoneme lexical morphology lexical morphology branch morphology deals lexicon morphologically conceived collection lexemes language concerns primarily word formation derivation compounding models three principal approaches morphology tries capture distinctions different ways morpheme based morphology makes use item arrangement approach lexeme based morphology normally makes use item process approach word based morphology normally makes use


word paradigm approach associations indicated concepts item list strong absolute morpheme based morphology morpheme based morphology tree word independently morpheme based morphology word forms analyzed arrangements morphemes morpheme defined minimal meaningful unit language word ''independently'' morphemes said ''in '' ' 'de '' ''pend'' '' ent'' '' ly'' ''pend'' bound root morphemes case derivational affixes words ' 'dogs'' ' 'dog'' root '' s''


inflectional morpheme simplest na form way analyzing word forms called item arrangement treats words made morphemes put concatenated like beads string recent sophisticated approaches distributed morphology seek maintain idea morpheme accommodating non concatenated analogical processes proven problematic item arrangement theories similar approaches morpheme based morphology presumes three basic axioms baudouin single morpheme hypothesis roots affixes status morphemes bloomfield sign base morpheme hypothesis morphemes


dualistic signs since phonological form meaning bloomfield 's lexical morpheme hypothesis morphemes affixes roots alike stored lexicon morpheme based morphology comes two flavours one bloomfieldian one hockettian bloomfield morpheme minimal form meaning meaning hockett morphemes meaning elements form elements morpheme plural using allomorphs '' s'' '' en'' '' ren'' within much morpheme based morphological theory two views mixed unsystematic ways writer may refer morpheme plural morpheme


'' s'' sentence lexeme based morphology lexeme based morphology usually takes called item process approach instead analyzing word form set morphemes arranged sequence word form said result applying rules alter word form stem order produce new one inflectional rule takes stem changes required rule outputs word form derivational rule takes stem changes per requirements outputs derived stem compounding rule takes word forms


given piece word morpheme based theory would call inflectional morpheme corresponds combination grammatical categories example third person plural morpheme based theories usually problems situation since one says given morpheme two categories item process theories hand often break cases like often assume two separate rules one third person plural distinction turns artificial approaches treat whole words


related analogical rules words categorized based pattern fit applies existing words new ones application pattern different one used historically give rise new word ''older'' replacing ''elder'' ''older'' follows normal pattern adjectival superlatives ''cows'' replacing ''kine'' ''cows'' fits regular pattern plural formation morphological typology th century philologists devised classic classification languages according morphology languages isolating little