onwards late playwright maxim gorky invited stanislavski join capri discussed training stanislavski 's emerging grammar acting inspired popular theatre performance naples utilised techniques ''commedia dell'arte'' gorky suggested form company modelled medieval strolling players playwright group young actors would devise new plays together means improvisation stanislavski would develop use improvisation work first studio moscow art theatre stanislavski 's use extended approaches


know improvised situation turn improvisation demands open mind order maintain spontaneity rather pre planning response character created actor often without reference dramatic text drama developed spontaneous interactions actors approach creating new drama developed substantially british filmmaker mike leigh films ''secrets lies'' ''vera drake'' ''another year'' ''mr turner'' improvisation also used cover actor actress makes

Humanities
Performing arts
Theatre
Acting


mistake physiological effects speaking acting front audience stressful situation causes increased heart rate ref name audienceheartrate ref study american university students actors various experience levels showed similarly elevated heart rates throughout performances agrees previous studies professional amateur actors' heart rates ref name emotionprocesses ref actors experienced stress causing elevated heart rate experienced actors displayed less heart rate variability less experienced actors play experienced actors experienced less stress performing therefore


smaller degree variability less experienced stressed actors experienced actor stable heart rate performing still experience elevated heart rates semiotics antonin artaud compared effect actor 's performance audience theatre cruelty way snake charmer affects snakes semiotics acting involves study ways aspects performance come operate audience signs process largely involves production meaning whereby elements


actor 's performance acquire significance within broader context dramatic action relations establishes real world following ideas proposed surrealist theorist antonin artaud however may also possible understand communication audience occurs 'beneath' significance meaning semiotician f lix guattari described process involving transmission signifying signs ''the theatre double'' artaud compared interaction way snake charmer communicates snake process identified mimesis term


aristotle ''poetics'' c bce used describe mode drama communicates story virtue embodiment actor enacting distinct diegesis way narrator may describe vibrations passing actor audience may necessarily precipitate significant elements consciously perceived meanings rather may operate means circulation affects approach acting adopted theatre practitioners involve varying degrees concern semiotics acting konstantin stanislavski example addresses


ways actor building calls experiencing role also shape adjust performance order support overall significance drama process calls establishing perspective role semiotics acting plays far central role bertolt brecht 's epic theatre actor concerned bring clearly socio historical significance behaviour action means specific performance choices process describes establishing element performed physical ''gestus'' within context


moved distance convey role detached manner answer varies according one sees effect produced audience social function theatre ref name pavis pavis ref blockquote elements semiotics acting include actor 's gestures facial expressions intonation vocal qualities rhythm ways aspects individual performance relate drama theatrical event film television programme radio broadcast involves different semiotic systems considered whole ref name pavis semiotics


acting recognises forms acting involve conventions codes means performance behaviour acquires significance including approaches stanislvaski 's closely related method acting developed united states offer natural kind acting without conventions received self evident universal ref name pavis pavis goes argue blockquote acting based codified system even audience see behaviour actions considered believable realistic artificial theatrical advocate


natural spontaneous instinctive attempt produce natural effects governed ideological code determines particular historical time given audience natural believable declamatory theatrical ref name pavis blockquote conventions govern acting general related structured forms play involve specific experience rules game ref name pavis pavis ref aspect first explored johan huizinga ''homo ludens'' roger caillois ''man play games'' caillois example distinguishes four aspects play relevant


acting ''mimesis'' simulation ''agon'' conflict competition ''alea'' chance ''illinx'' vertigo vertiginous psychological situations involving spectator 's identification catharsis ref name pavis connection play activity first proposed aristotle ''poetics'' defines desire imitate play essential part human first means learning children blockquote instinct human beings childhood engage mimesis indeed distinguishes animals man mimetic mimesis develops


earliest understanding equally natural everyone enjoys mimetic objects iv b blockquote connection play also informed words used english analogous case many european languages drama word play game translating anglo saxon ''pl ga'' latin ''ludus'' standard term used william shakespeare 's time dramatic entertainment creator play maker rather dramatist person acting known player elizabethan era specific buildings acting built known play houses rather theatres


resumes auditions actors actresses need make resume applying roles acting resume different normal resume generally shorter lists instead paragraphs head shot back usually resume also contains short second minute reel person casting director see previous performances auditioning act performing either monologue sides lines one character sent casting director auditioning entails showing actor 's skills


present different person may brief two minutes theater auditions longer two minutes may perform one monologue casting director different requirements actors actors go auditions dressed part make easier casting director visualize character television film undergo one audition oftentimes actors called another audition last minute sent sides either morning


night auditioning stressful part acting especially one trained audition rehearsal rehearsal process actors prepare practice performance exploring vicissitudes conflict characters testing specific actions scene finding means convey particular sense actors continue rehearse scene throughout run show order keep scene fresh minds exciting audience audience critical audience evaluative spectators known induce stress actors


performance see bode brutten front audience sharing story makes actors intensely vulnerable shockingly actor typically rate quality performance higher spectators ref name emotionprocesses heart rates generally always higher performance audience compared rehearsal however 's interesting audience also seems induce higher quality performance simply put public performances cause extremely high stress levels actors amateur ones stress actually improves performance supporting idea positive stress challenging


situations heart rate depending actor heart rate vary body 's way responding stress prior show one see increase heart rate due anxiety performing actor increased sense exposure increase performance anxiety associated physiological arousal heart rate ref name ncbinlmnihgov ref heart rates increases shows compared rehearsals increased pressure due fact performance potentially greater impact actors career ref


name ncbinlmnihgov show decrease heart rate due conclusion stress inducing activity seen often heart rate return normal show performance done ref name journalsplosorg ref however applause performance rapid spike heart rate seen actors also public speaking musicians ref name journalsplosorg stress sam gibbs su thomas hendrickson oresteia aeschylus adapted ryan castalia stairwell theater correlation heart rate stress actors'


performing front audience actors claim audience change stress level soon come stage heart rate rises quickly study done american university looking actors' stress measuring heart rate showed individual heart rates rose right performance began actors opening many factors add actors' stress example length monologues experience level actions done stage including moving set throughout performance heart rate rises actor speaking


stress thus heart rate actor drops significantly end monologue big action scene performance ref name audienceheartrate see also biomechanics meisner technique method acting presentational representational acting stanislavski 's system viewpoints lists actors references sources boleslavsky richard ''acting first six lessons'' new york theatre arts benedetti jean ''stanislavski life art'' revised edition original edition published london methuen brustein robert ''letters young actor'' new york basic books csapo eric william j slater ''the context ancient drama'' ann


arbor university michigan press elam keir ''the semiotics theatre drama'' new accents ser london new york methuen hagen uta haskel frankel ''respect acting'' new york macmillan halliwell stephen ed trans ''aristotle ''poetics loeb classical library ser aristotle vol cambridge harvard university press hodge alison ed ''twentieth century actor training'' london new york routledge magarshack david ''stanislavsky life'' london boston faber meisner sanford dennis longwell ''sanford meisner acting'' new york vintage pavis patrice


''dictionary theatre terms concepts analysis'' trans christine shantz toronto buffalo university toronto press stanislavski konstantin ''an actor work student diary'' trans ed jean benedetti london new york routledge stanislavski konstantin ''an actor 's work role'' trans ed jean benedetti london new york routledge wickham glynne ''early english stages '' vol london routledge wickham glynne ''shakespeare 's dramatic heritage collected studies mediaeval tudor shakespearean drama'' london routledge wickham glynne ''early english stages '' vol london


routledge zarrilli phillip b ed ''acting considered theoretical practical guide'' worlds performance ser nd edition london new york routledge external links https exchangeummaumichedu resources collection history acting gestural acting realism university michigan museum art role playing


space shuttle ''atlantis'' shuttle carrier aircraft '''aeronautics''' science art involved study design manufacturing air flight capable machines techniques operating aircraft rockets within atmosphere british royal aeronautical society identifies aspects aeronautical art science engineering profession aeronautics expression includes astronautics term originally referred solely ''operating'' aircraft since expanded include technology business aspects related aircraft ref name americana ref term aviation sometimes used interchangeably aeronautics although aeronautics includes lighter air craft

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Mechanical Engineering
Aerospace engineering
Aeronautics


airships includes ballistic vehicles aviation technically ref name americana significant part '''aeronautical science''' branch dynamics called aerodynamics deals motion air way interacts objects motion aircraft history early ideas designs flying machines leonardo da vinci circa attempts fly without real aeronautical understanding made earliest times typically constructing wings jumping tower crippling lethal results wiser investigators sought gain rational understanding


study bird flight medieval islamic golden age scientists abbas ibn firnas also made studies ref name ei ref ref name lienhard ref ref name lynn white f lynn townsend white jr spring eilmer malmesbury eleventh century aviator case study technological innovation context tradition ''technology culture'' ''' ''' p f ref founders modern aeronautics leonardo da vinci renaissance cayley began investigations studies bird flight man carrying kites believed used extensively ancient china italian explorer marco polo described


chinese techniques current ref name pelham pelham ''the penguin book kites'' penguin ref chinese also constructed small hot air balloons lanterns rotary wing toys early european provide scientific discussion flight roger bacon described principles operation lighter air balloon flapping wing ornithopter envisaged would constructed future lifting medium balloon would aether whose composition know late fifteenth century leonardo da vinci followed study birds designs earliest flying machines


death reappear overtaken work george cayley balloon flight francesco lana de terzi 's flying boat concept c modern era lighter air flight began early th century galileo 's experiments showed air weight around cyrano de bergerac wrote fantasy novels described principle ascent using substance dew supposed lighter air descending releasing controlled amount substance francesco lana de terzi measured pressure air sea


level proposed first scientifically credible lifting medium form hollow metal spheres air pumped would lighter displaced air able lift airship proposed methods controlling height still use today carrying ballast may dropped overboard gain height venting lifting containers lose height practice de terzi 's spheres would collapsed air pressure developments wait practicable lifting gases montgolfier brothers flight


mid th century montgolfier brothers france began experimenting balloons balloons made paper early experiments using steam lifting gas short lived due effect paper condensed mistaking smoke kind steam began filling balloons hot smoky air called electric smoke despite fully understanding principles work made successful launches invited give demonstration french ''acad mie des sciences'' meanwhile discovery hydrogen led joseph black c propose


use lifting gas though practical demonstration awaited gas tight balloon material hearing montgolfier brothers' invitation french academy member jacques charles offered similar demonstration hydrogen balloon charles two craftsmen robert brothers developed gas tight material rubberised silk envelope hydrogen gas generated chemical reaction filling process montgolfier designs several shortcomings least need dry weather tendency sparks fire set light paper balloon manned design


elongated dirigible balloon notable outer envelope gas contained second inner ballonet september completed first flight nbsp km paris beuvry despite man powered propulsive devices proving useless attempt next year provide endurance controllability de rozier developed balloon hot air hydrogen gas bags design soon named ''rozi re'' principle use hydrogen section constant lift navigate vertically heating allowing cool


principles forces flight began publication landmark three part treatise titled aerial navigation ref name aernav ''cayley george'' aerial navigation http wwwaeronauticsnasagov fap onaerialnavigationpt pdf part http wwwaeronauticsnasagov fap onaerialnavigationpt pdf part http wwwaeronauticsnasagov fap onaerialnavigationpt pdf part ''nicholson 's journal natural philosophy'' via nasa http inventionpsychologymsstateedu cayley cayleyhtml raw text retrieved may ref wrote first scientific statement problem whole problem confined within limits viz make surface support given weight application power resistance air identified four vector


forces influence aircraft ''thrust'' ''lift'' ' 'drag'' ''weight'' distinguished stability control designs developed modern conventional form fixed wing aeroplane stabilising tail horizontal vertical surfaces flying gliders unmanned manned introduced use whirling arm test rig investigate aerodynamics flight using discover benefits curved cambered aerofoil flat wing used first glider also identified described importance dihedral diagonal bracing drag reduction contributed


balloons airships aeronautical engineering aeronautical engineering covers design construction aircraft including powered used controlled safe operation major part aeronautical engineering aerodynamics science passing air increasing activity space flight nowadays aeronautics astronautics often combined aerospace engineering aerodynamics science aerodynamics deals motion air way interacts objects motion aircraft study aerodynamics falls broadly three areas ''incompressible


flow'' occurs air simply moves avoid objects typically subsonic speeds sound mach ''compressible flow'' occurs shock waves appear points air becomes compressed typically speeds mach ''transonic flow'' occurs intermediate speed range around mach airflow object may locally subsonic one point locally supersonic another rocketry launch apollo saturn v rocket ''t'' ''t'' rocket rocket vehicle missile spacecraft aircraft


vehicle obtains thrust rocket engine rockets exhaust formed entirely propellants carried within rocket use ref name rpe ref rocket engines work action reaction rocket engines push rockets forwards simply throwing exhaust backwards extremely fast rockets military recreational uses date back least th century china ref name nasaearly ref significant scientific interplanetary industrial use occur th century rocketry enabling technology space age including setting foot moon rockets used fireworks weaponry ejection seats launch vehicles artificial


mathematics '''associative algebra''' ''a'' algebraic structure compatible operations addition multiplication assumed associative scalar multiplication elements field addition multiplication operations together give ''a'' structure ring addition scalar multiplication operations together give ''a'' structure vector space ''k'' article also use term ''k'' algebra''' mean associative algebra field ''k'' standard first example ''k'' algebra ring square matrices field ''k'' usual matrix

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Associative algebra


multiplication '''commutative algebra''' associative algebra commutative multiplication equivalently associative algebra also commutative ring article associative algebras assumed multiplicative identity denoted sometimes called '''unital associative algebras''' clarification areas mathematics assumption made call structures non unital associative algebras also assume rings unital ring homomorphisms unital many authors consider general concept associative algebra commutative ring ''r'' instead


''r'' ''r'' ''x'' ''y'' algebra definition implies algebra unital since rings supposed multiplicative identity equivalently associative algebra ''a'' ring together ring homomorphism ''r'' center ''a'' ''f'' homomorphism scalar multiplication math rx mapsto f r x math multiplication ring multiplication scalar multiplication given ring homomorphism given math r mapsto r cdot r math see also every ring associative math mathbb z math algebra math mathbb z math denotes ring integers


'''''' associative algebra also commutative ring monoid object category modules definition equivalent saying unital associative ''r'' algebra monoid object '''''r'' mod''' monoidal category ''r'' modules definition ring monoid object category abelian groups thus notion associative algebra obtained replacing category abelian groups category modules pushing idea authors introduced generalized ring monoid object category


behaves like category modules indeed reinterpretation allows one avoid making explicit reference elements algebra ''a'' example associativity expressed follows universal property tensor product modules multiplication ''r'' bilinear map corresponds unique ''r'' linear map math otimes r math associativity refers identity math circ operatorname id otimes circ otimes operatorname id math ring homomorphisms associative algebra amounts ring homomorphism whose image lies center indeed starting ring ''a''


ring homomorphism '' '' appearing often called structure map commutative case one consider category whose objects ring homomorphisms ''r'' ''a'' ie commutative ''r'' algebras whose morphisms ring homomorphisms ''a'' ''a'' ''r'' ie ''r'' ''a'' ''a'' ''r'' ''a'' ie coslice category category commutative rings ''r'' prime spectrum functor spec determines anti equivalence category category affine schemes spec ''r'' weaken commutativity assumption subject matter


noncommutative algebraic geometry recently derived algebraic geometry see also generic matrix ring algebra homomorphisms homomorphism two ''r'' algebras ''r'' linear ring homomorphism explicitly math varphi math '''associative algebra homomorphism''' math begin align varphi r cdot x r cdot varphi x varphi x varphi x varphi varphi xy varphi x varphi varphi end align math class ''r'' algebras together algebra homomorphisms form category sometimes denoted '''''r'' alg''' subcategory commutative ''r'' algebras characterized coslice category ''r'' '''cring''' '''cring''' category


commutative rings examples basic example ring algebra center subring lying center particular commutative ring algebra subrings examples abound algebra fields mathematics algebra ring ''a'' considered '''z''' algebra unique ring homomorphism '''z''' ''a'' determined fact must send identity ''a'' therefore rings '''z''' algebras equivalent concepts way abelian groups '''z''' modules


algebra reals algebra complex numbers since complex numbers center quaternions polynomials real coefficients form commutative algebra reals every polynomial ring ''r'' ''x'' sub sub ''x sub n sub '' commutative ''r'' algebra fact free commutative ''r'' algebra set ''x'' sub sub ''x sub n sub '' free ''r'' algebra set ''e'' algebra polynomials coefficients ''r'' noncommuting indeterminates taken set ''e'' tensor algebra ''r'' module naturally associative ''r'' algebra true


circ bt abt math determined condition ring axioms additive identity multiplicative identity math math math math canonical structure math g math algebra given ring homomorphism math display block begin cases g sum mapsto end cases math hand ''a'' ring ring homomorphism math display block begin cases g mapsto sum lambda end cases math giving math g math structure ''a'' algebra representation theory


universal enveloping algebra lie algebra associative algebra used study given lie algebra ''g'' group ''r'' commutative ring set functions ''g'' ''r'' finite support form ''r'' algebra convolution multiplication called group algebra ''g'' construction starting point application study discrete groups ''g'' algebraic group eg semisimple complex lie group coordinate ring ''g'' hopf algebra ''a'' corresponding


''g'' many structures ''g'' translate ''a'' quiver algebra path algebra directed graph free associative algebra field generated paths graph analysis given banach space ''x'' continuous linear operators ''a'' ''x'' ''x'' form associative algebra using composition operators multiplication banach algebra given topological space ''x'' continuous real complex valued functions ''x'' form real complex associative algebra functions added multiplied pointwise set semimartingales defined


filtered probability space omega nbsp ''f'' nbsp ''f sub sub '' sub ''t'' nbsp ge nbsp sub nbsp p forms ring stochastic integration weyl algebra azumaya algebra geometry combinatorics clifford algebras useful geometry physics incidence algebras locally finite partially ordered sets associative algebras considered combinatorics constructions subalgebras subalgebra ''r'' algebra ''a'' subset ''a'' subring submodule ''a'' must closed addition ring multiplication scalar multiplication must contain identity element ''a'' quotient algebras let ''a'' ''r'' algebra ring theoretic ideal ''i''


math action math x cdot otimes b axb math definition ''a'' said separable multiplication map math otimes r x otimes mapsto xy math splits math e math linear map math otimes math math e math module math x otimes cdot otimes b ax otimes yb math equivalently math math separable projective module math e math thus math e math projective dimension ''a'' sometimes called '''bidimension''' ''a'' measures failure separability finite dimensional algebra let ''a'' finite dimensional algebra field


''k'' ''a'' artinian ring commutative case ''a'' artinian commutative finite product artinian local rings whose residue fields algebras base field ''k'' reduced artinian local ring field thus following equivalent math math separable math otimes overline k math reduced math overline k math algebraic closure ''k'' math otimes overline k overline k n math ''n'' math dim k math number math k math algebra homomorphisms math overline k math noncommutative case since simple artinian ring


intersection left maximal ideals intersection right maximal ideals '''wedderburn principal theorem''' states finite dimensional algebra ''a'' nilpotent ideal ''i'' projective dimension math math math e math module one natural surjection math p math splits ie math math contains subalgebra math b math math p b b overset sim math isomorphism taking ''i'' jacobson radical theorem says particular jacobson radical complemented semisimple algebra theorem analog levi 's theorem lie algebras


lattices orders let ''r'' noetherian integral domain field fractions ''k'' example math mathbb z mathbb q math ''lattice'' ''l'' finite dimensional ''k'' vector space ''v'' finitely generated ''r'' submodule ''v'' spans ''v'' words math l otimes r k v math let math k math finite dimensional ''k'' algebra ''order'' math k math ''r'' subalgebra lattice general lot fewer orders lattices eg math mathbb z math lattice math mathbb q math order since algebra ''maximal


''a'' endowed two morphisms one form ''a'' nbsp otimes nbsp ''a'' nbsp nbsp ''a'' one form ''k'' nbsp nbsp ''a'' satisfying certain conditions boil algebra axioms two morphisms dualized using categorial duality reversing arrows commutative diagrams describe algebra axioms defines structure coalgebra also abstract notion ''f'' coalgebra ''f'' functor vaguely related notion coalgebra discussed representations representation algebra ''a'' algebra homomorphism '' '' nbsp ''a'' end ''v'' ''a'' endomorphism algebra


vector space module ''v'' property '' '' algebra homomorphism means '' '' preserves multiplicative operation '' '' ''xy'' nbsp nbsp '' '' ''x'' '' '' ''y'' ''x'' ''y'' ''a'' '' '' sends unit ''a'' unit end ''v'' identity endomorphism ''v'' ''a'' ''b'' two algebras '' '' nbsp ''a'' end ''v'' '' tau '' nbsp ''b'' end ''w'' two representations canonical representation ''a'' math otimes math ''b'' end ''v'' math otimes math ''w'' tensor product algebra ''a math otimes math b'' vector space ''v math otimes math


w'' however natural way defining tensor product two representations single associative algebra way result still representation algebra tensor product without somehow imposing additional conditions ''tensor product representations'' usual meaning intended result linear representation algebra product vector space imposing additional structure typically leads idea hopf algebra lie algebra demonstrated motivation hopf algebra


consider example two representations math sigma rightarrow mathrm end v math math tau rightarrow mathrm end w math one might try form tensor product representation math rho x mapsto sigma x otimes tau x math according acts product vector space math rho x v otimes w sigma x v otimes tau x w math however map would linear since one would math rho kx sigma kx otimes tau kx k sigma x otimes k tau x k sigma x otimes tau x k rho x math ''k'' ''k'' one rescue attempt restore linearity imposing additional structure defining algebra homomorphism ''a'' ''a'' otimes


''a'' defining tensor product representation math rho sigma otimes tau circ delta math homomorphism called comultiplication satisfies certain axioms resulting structure called bialgebra consistent definitions associative algebra coalgebra must co associative algebra unital co algebra must co unital well hopf algebra bialgebra additional piece structure called antipode allows define tensor product two representations also hom module two representations


similarly done representation theory groups motivation lie algebra one try clever defining tensor product consider example math x mapsto rho x sigma x otimes mbox id w mbox id v otimes tau x math action tensor product space given math rho x v otimes w sigma x v otimes w v otimes tau x w math map clearly linear ''x'' problem earlier definition however fails preserve multiplication math rho xy sigma x


sigma otimes mbox id w mbox id v otimes tau x tau math general equal math rho x rho sigma x sigma otimes mbox id w sigma x otimes tau sigma otimes tau x mbox id v otimes tau x tau math shows definition tensor product naive obvious fix define antisymmetric middle two terms cancel leads concept lie algebra non unital algebras authors use term associative algebra refer structures necessarily multiplicative identity hence consider homomorphisms


necessarily unital one example non unital associative algebra given set functions ''f'' '''r''' '''r''' whose limit ''x'' nears infinity zero another example vector space continuous periodic functions together convolution product see also abstract algebra algebraic structure algebra field sheaf algebras sort algebra ringed space notes references nathan jacobson structure rings james byrnie shaw http ebookslibrarycornelledu cgi text text idxc math cc math view toc subview short idno synopsis linear associative algebra link cornell university historical math monographs ross street '' https webarchiveorg web http www texdevicsmqeduau quantum quantumps quantum groups


entr e modern algebra '' overview index free notation algebras algebraic geometry


create perform works art well people use enjoy criticize art aesthetics considers people like works art others well art affect moods even beliefs aesthetics philosophy art ask questions like ''art'' ''work'' art makes ''good'' art scholars field defined aesthetics critical reflection art culture nature modern english term aesthetic also refer set principles underlying works particular art


movement theory one speaks example renaissance aesthetic etymology word ''aesthetic'' derived greek ''aisthetikos'' meaning aesthetic sensitive sentient pertaining sense perception turn derived ''aisthanomai'' meaning perceive feel sense related ''aisth sis'' sensation aesthetics central sense said start series articles pleasures imagination journalist joseph addison wrote early issues magazine ''the spectator'' term aesthetics appropriated coined new meaning german


philosopher alexander baumgarten dissertation ''meditationes philosophicae de nonnullis ad poema pertinentibus'' philosophical considerations matters pertaining poem ref name guyer ref baumgarten chose aesthetics wished emphasize experience art means knowing baumgarten 's definition aesthetics fragment ''aesthetica'' occasionally considered first definition modern aesthetics history aesthetics philosophy art ref separate aesthetics philosophy art claiming former study beauty taste latter study works art aesthetics


also define art common point disagreement concerns whether art independent moral political purpose aestheticians weigh culturally contingent conception art versus one purely theoretical study varieties art relation physical social culture environments aestheticians also use psychology understand people see hear imagine think learn act relation materials problems art aesthetic psychology studies creative process aesthetic experience aesthetic judgment universals ethics aesthetic judgment aesthetics examines affective domain response object phenomenon judgments


aesthetic value rely ability discriminate sensory level however '''aesthetic judgments''' usually go beyond sensory discrimination david hume delicacy taste merely ability detect ingredients composition also sensitivity pains well pleasures escape rest mankind thus sensory discrimination linked capacity pleasure immanuel kant ''critique judgment'' enjoyment result pleasure arises sensation judging something beautiful third requirement sensation must give rise pleasure engaging


reflective contemplation judgments beauty sensory emotional intellectual kant observed man says canary wine agreeable quite content someone else corrects terms reminds say instead agreeable ''me'' everyone sense taste case beauty different mere agreeableness proclaims something beautiful requires liking others judges everyone speaks beauty


property things viewer interpretations beauty may occasion observed possess two concepts value aesthetics taste aesthetics philosophical notion beauty taste result education process awareness elite cultural values learned exposure mass culture bourdieu examined elite society define aesthetic values like taste varying levels exposure values result variations class cultural background education according kant beauty subjective universal thus certain things beautiful everyone opinion w adys aw


darwin pointed seeing stripe soup man 's beard disgusting even though neither soup beards disgusting aesthetic judgments may linked emotions like emotions partially embodied physical reactions example awe inspired sublime landscape might physically manifest increased heart rate pupil dilation seen emotions conformed 'cultural' reactions therefore aesthetics always characterized 'regional responses' francis grose first affirm 'rules drawing caricaturas essay comic painting' published w hogarth analysis


desirable status symbol may judged repulsive partly signifies consumption offends political moral values context presentation also affects perception artwork artworks presented classical museum context liked rated interesting presented sterile laboratory context specific results depend heavily style presented artwork overall effect context proved important perception artwork effect genuineness whether artwork presented original


facsimile copy aesthetic judgments often fine grained internally contradictory likewise aesthetic judgments seem often least partly intellectual interpretative thing means symbolizes often judged modern aestheticians asserted desire almost dormant aesthetic experience yet preference choice seemed important aesthetics th century thinkers point already made hume see mary mothersill beauty critic 's judgment ''the blackwell guide aesthetics'' thus aesthetic judgments might seen based senses emotions intellectual opinions


dutton 's ''aesthetic universals'' summarized steven pinker ''the blank slate'' ref expertise virtuosity humans cultivate recognize admire technical artistic skills nonutilitarian pleasure people enjoy art art 's sake demand keep warm put food table style artistic objects performances satisfy rules composition place recognizable style criticism people make point judging appreciating interpreting works art imitation important exceptions like abstract painting works art simulate experiences world special focus art


set aside ordinary life made dramatic focus experience artists thomas hirschhorn indicated many exceptions dutton 's categories example hirschhorn 's installations deliberately eschew technical virtuosity people appreciate renaissance madonna aesthetic reasons objects often sometimes still specific devotional functions rules composition might read duchamp 's ''fountain'' john cage 's '' '' locate works recognizable style certainly style recognizable time works' realization moreover dutton 's categories seem


broad physicist might entertain hypothetical worlds imagination course formulating theory another problem dutton 's categories seek universalize traditional european notions aesthetics art forgetting andr malraux others pointed large numbers cultures ideas including idea art non existent aesthetic ethics aesthetic ethics refers idea human conduct behaviour ought governed beautiful attractive john dewey pointed unity aesthetics ethics


fact reflected understanding behaviour fair word double meaning attractive morally acceptable recently james page suggested aesthetic ethics might taken form philosophical rationale peace education beauty beauty one main subjects aesthetics together art taste ref name stanfordbeauty ref name britannica ref many definitions include idea object beautiful perceiving accompanied aesthetic pleasure among examples beautiful objects landscapes sunsets humans works art beauty positive aesthetic value contrasts


ugliness negative counterpart ref name beautyandugliness ref different intuitions commonly associated beauty nature conflict poses certain difficulties understanding ref name zangwill ref name declercq ref one hand beauty ascribed things objective public feature hand seems depend subjective emotional response observer said example beauty eye beholder ref name phrase ref ref name stanfordbeauty ref may possible reconcile intuitions affirming depends objective features beautiful thing


subjective response observer one way achieve hold object beautiful power bring certain aesthetic experiences perceiving subject often combined view subject needs ability correctly perceive judge beauty sometimes referred sense taste ref name stanfordbeauty ref name zangwill ref ref name declercq various conceptions define understand beauty suggested ''classical conceptions'' emphasize objective side beauty defining terms relation beautiful object whole


parts parts stand right proportion thus compose integrated harmonious whole ref name stanfordbeauty ref name beautyandugliness ref name declercq ''hedonist conceptions'' hand focus subjective side drawing necessary connection pleasure beauty eg object beautiful cause disinterested pleasure ref name gorodeisky ref conceptions include defining beautiful objects terms value loving attitude towards function ref name routledgebeauty ref ref name beautyandugliness ref name stanfordbeauty new criticism intentional fallacy first half twentieth century


significant shift general aesthetic theory took place attempted apply aesthetic theory various forms art including literary arts visual arts resulted rise new criticism school debate concerning ''the intentional fallacy'' issue question whether aesthetic intentions artist creating work art whatever specific form associated criticism evaluation final product work art work art evaluated merits independent


intentions artist william k wimsatt monroe beardsley published classic controversial new critical essay entitled intentional fallacy argued strongly relevance author 's intention intended meaning analysis literary work wimsatt beardsley words page mattered importation meanings outside text considered irrelevant potentially distracting another essay affective fallacy served kind sister essay intentional fallacy wimsatt beardsley also discounted reader 's


personal emotional reaction literary work valid means analyzing text fallacy would later repudiated theorists reader response school literary theory one leading theorists school stanley fish trained new critics fish criticizes wimsatt beardsley essay literature reader summarized berys gaut livingston essay creation art structuralist post structuralists theorists critics sharply critical many aspects new criticism beginning emphasis aesthetic appreciation called autonomy art


reiterated attack biographical criticisms' assumption artist 's activities experience privileged critical topic authors contend anti intentionalists formalists hold intentions involved making art irrelevant peripheral correctly interpreting art details act creating work though possibly interest bearing correct interpretation work ref name gaut livingston p gaut livingston p ref gaut livingston define intentionalists distinct formalists stating intentionalists unlike formalists hold reference intentions


essential fixing correct interpretation works quote richard wollheim stating task criticism reconstruction creative process creative process must turn thought something stopping short terminating work art ref name gaut livingston p derivative forms aesthetics large number derivative forms aesthetics developed contemporary transitory forms inquiry associated field aesthetics include post modern psychoanalytic scientific mathematical among others post modern aesthetics psychoanalysis early twentieth century artists poets composers


challenged existing notions beauty broadening scope art aesthetics eli siegel american philosopher poet founded aesthetic realism philosophy reality aesthetic world art self explain aesthetic oneness opposites various attempts made define post modern aesthetics challenge assumption beauty central art aesthetics thought original actually continuous older aesthetic theory aristotle first western tradition classify beauty types theory drama


kant made distinction beauty sublime new refusal credit higher status certain types taxonomy implied preference tragedy sublime comedy rococo croce suggested expression central way beauty thought central george dickie suggested sociological institutions art world glue binding art sensibility unities marshall mcluhan suggested art always functions counter environment designed make visible usually invisible society theodor adorno felt


enable us see making impossible see please causing pain sigmund freud inaugurated aesthetical thinking psychoanalysis mainly via uncanny aesthetical affect following freud merleau ponty jacques lacan theorized aesthetics terms sublimation thing relation marxist aesthetics post modern aesthetics still contentious area debate recent aesthetics guy sircello pioneered efforts analytic philosophy develop rigorous theory aesthetics focusing concepts beauty love sublimity contrast romantic theorists sircello argued objectivity beauty


practice' gregory loewen suggested subject key interaction aesthetic object work art serves vehicle projection individual 's identity world objects well irruptive source much uncanny modern life well art used memorialize individuated biographies manner allows persons imagine part something greater aesthetics science mandelbrot set continuously coloured environment field experimental aesthetics founded gustav theodor


fechner th century experimental aesthetics times characterized subject based inductive approach analysis individual experience behaviour based experimental methods central part experimental aesthetics particular perception works art music modern items websites products studied experimental aesthetics strongly oriented towards natural sciences modern approaches mostly come fields cognitive psychology neuroscience neuroaesthetics abraham moles frieder nake among first analyze links aesthetics information processing information


theory j rgen schmidhuber described algorithmic theory beauty takes subjectivity observer account postulates among several observations classified comparable given subjective observer aesthetically pleasing one one shortest description given observer 's previous knowledge particular method encoding data closely related principles algorithmic information theory minimum description length one examples mathematicians enjoy simple proofs short description formal language another concrete example describes aesthetically pleasing human face


whose proportions described bits information drawing inspiration less detailed th century proportion studies leonardo da vinci albrecht rer schmidhuber 's theory explicitly distinguishes 's beautiful 's interesting stating interestingness corresponds first derivative subjectively perceived beauty premise observer continually tries improve predictability compressibility observations discovering regularities repetitions symmetries fractal self similarity whenever observer 's learning process may predictive artificial neural network see also neuroesthetics leads improved data compression


analysis theoretical aesthetics different aesthetic considerations applied aesthetics used study mathematical beauty aesthetic considerations symmetry simplicity used areas philosophy ethics theoretical physics cosmology define truth outside empirical considerations beauty truth argued nearly synonymous reflected statement beauty truth truth beauty poem ode grecian urn john keats hindu motto satyam shivam sundaram satya truth shiva god shiva sundaram beautiful


fact judgments beauty judgments truth influenced processing fluency ease information processed presented explanation beauty sometimes equated truth recent research found people use beauty indication truth mathematical pattern tasks however scientists including mathematician david orrell physicist marcelo gleiser argued emphasis aesthetic criteria symmetry equally capable leading scientists astray computational approaches computational approaches aesthetics emerged amid efforts use computer science methods predict


convey evoke emotional response piece art field aesthetics considered dependent taste matter cognition consequently learning mathematician george david birkhoff created aesthetic measure ''m c'' ratio order complexity ref name akiba ref since computer scientists attempted develop automated methods infer aesthetic quality images ref name faria aesthetics ref typically approaches follow machine learning approach large numbers manually rated photographs used teach computer visual properties relevance


aesthetic quality study li cj hu employed birkhoff 's measurement statistical learning approach order complexity image determined aesthetic value ref name ref image complexity computed using information theory order determined using fractal compression ref name also case acquine engine developed penn state university rates natural photographs uploaded users also relatively successful attempts regard chess music computational approaches also attempted film making demonstrated software model developed chitra dorai


group researchers ibm tj watson research center ref name ref tool predicted aesthetics based values narrative elements ref name relation max bense 's mathematical formulation aesthetics terms redundancy complexity theories musical anticipation offered using notion information rate evolutionary aesthetics evolutionary aesthetics refers evolutionary psychology theories basic aesthetic preferences ''homo sapiens'' argued evolved order enhance survival reproductive success one example humans argued find beautiful prefer landscapes


good habitats ancestral environment another example body symmetry proportion important aspects physical attractiveness may due indicating good health body growth evolutionary explanations aesthetical preferences important parts evolutionary musicology darwinian literary studies study evolution emotion applied aesthetics well applied art aesthetics also applied cultural objects crosses tools example aesthetic coupling art objects medical topics made speakers working us information agency art slides linked


slides pharmacological data improved attention retention simultaneous activation intuitive right brain rational left also used topics diverse cartography mathematics gastronomy fashion website design criticism philosophy aesthetics practice criticized sociologists writers art society raymond williams example argues unique individual aesthetic object extrapolated art world rather continuum cultural forms experience ordinary speech experiences may signal


art art may frame several artistic works creations though reference remains within institution special event creates leaves works possible art outside frame work interpretations phenomenon may considered art pierre bourdieu disagrees kant 's idea aesthetic argues kant 's aesthetic merely represents experience product elevated class habitus scholarly leisure opposed possible equally valid aesthetic experiences lay outside kant 's narrow definition


timothy laurie argues theories musical aesthetics framed entirely terms appreciation contemplation reflection risk idealizing implausibly unmotivated listener defined solely musical objects rather seeing person complex intentions motivations produce variable attractions cultural objects practices see also art theosophy art periods history aesthetics th century medieval aesthetics mise en sc ne theological aesthetics theory art references reading mario perniola '' th century aesthetics towards theory feeling'' translated massimo verdicchio london new delhi new york sydney bloomsbury


''handbook phenomenological aesthetics'' edited hans rainer sepp lester embree series contributions phenomenology vol springer dordrecht heidelberg london new york theodor w adorno ''aesthetic theory'' minneapolis university minnesota press ayn rand ''the romantic manifesto philosophy literature'' new york ny new american library https webarchiveorg web http wwwhomenetspeedcomau derekallan defaulthtm derek allan ''art human adventure andre malraux 's theory art'' rodopi derek allan https webarchiveorg web http wwwc porg flyers art time htm art time cambridge scholars augros robert stanciu george n ''the new story science mind universe'' lake bluff ill regnery gateway


armstrong catherine de zegher eds ''women artists millennium'' massachusetts october books mit press kant immanuel critique judgement translated werner pluhar hackett publishing co kelly michael editor chief ''encyclopedia aesthetics'' new york oxford oxford university press vol pp nbsp xvii pp nbsp pp nbsp pp nbsp total pages b w photos covers philosophical historical sociological biographical aspects art aesthetics worldwide ren kierkegaard ''either or'' translated alastair hannay london penguin peter kivy ed ''the blackwell guide aesthetics'' carolyn korsmeyer ed ''aesthetics big questions'' lyotard


jean fran ois ''the postmodern condition'' manchester university press merleau ponty maurice ''the visible invisible'' northwestern university press david novitz ''the boundaries art'' mario perniola ''the art shadow'' foreword hugh j silverman translated massimo verdicchio london new york continuum griselda pollock art think dana arnold margaret iverson eds ''art thought'' oxford basil blackwell griselda pollock ''encounters virtual feminist museum time space archive'' routledge griselda pollock ''generations geographies visual arts'' routledge george santayana ''the


sense beauty outlines aesthetic theory'' new york modern library elaine scarry ''on beauty just'' princeton friedrich schiller ''on aesthetic education man'' dover publications alan singer allen dunn eds ''literary aesthetics reader'' blackwell publishing limited jadranka skorin kapov ''the intertwining aesthetics ethics exceeding expectations ecstasy sublimity'' lexington books w adys aw tatarkiewicz ''a history six ideas essay aesthetics'' hague w adys aw tatarkiewicz ''history aesthetics'' vols hague mouton markand thakar ''looking 'harp' quartet


investigation musical beauty'' university rochester press leo tolstoy ''what art'' penguin classics roger scruton ''beauty short introduction'' oxford university press roger scruton ''the aesthetic understanding essays philosophy art culture'' http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg london philosophy study guide offers many suggestions read depending student 's familiarity subject http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg aestheticshtm aesthetics john valentine ''beginning aesthetics introduction philosophy art'' mcgraw hill von vacano diego art power machiavelli nietzsche making aesthetic political theory lanham md lexington


thomas wartenberg ''the nature art'' john whitehead ''grasping wind'' ludwig wittgenstein ''lectures aesthetics psychology religious belief'' oxford blackwell richard wollheim ''art objects'' nd edn cambridge university press gino zaccaria ''the enigma art'' leiden boston brill https brillcom view title indian aesthetics external links http wwwieputmedu aes cont aesthetics continental philosophy article ''internet encyclopedia philosophy'' http wwwieputmedu aesthe medieval theories aesthetics article ''internet encyclopedia philosophy'' https webarchiveorg web http revuesmshparisnordorg appareil indexphpid revue online ''appareil'' http wwwditextcom anka beardsley posthtml postscript old problems new perspectives http wwwericdigestsorg pre arthtm aesthetics art education look toward implementation https webarchiveorg web http knowledgeworldcombd art


western xia mail armour '''armour''' british english '''armor''' american english see spelling differences covering used protect object individual vehicle physical injury damage especially direct contact weapons projectiles combat potentially dangerous environment activity eg cycling construction sites etc personal armour used protect soldiers war animals vehicle armour used warships armoured fighting vehicles mostly ground attack combat aircraft second use term ''armour'' describes armoured forces armoured weapons role combat development

Applied science
Military sciences
Military weapons
Armor


armoured warfare tanks mechanised infantry combat formations came referred collectively armour etymology ''portrait gentleman armour two pages'' paris bordone word armour began appear middle ages derivative old french dated mail defensive covering worn combat word originates old french derived latin meaning arms equipment root meaning arms gear personal armour used throughout recorded history


made variety materials beginning use leathers fabrics protection evolving chain mail metal plate today 's modern composites much military history manufacture metal personal armour dominated technology employment armour armour drove development many important technologies ancient world including wood lamination mining metal refining vehicle manufacture leather processing later decorative metal working production influential industrial revolution furthered commercial development metallurgy engineering armour single influential factor development


firearms turn revolutionised warfare history dendra panoply mycenaean greek armour c bc significant factors development armour include economic technological necessities production instance plate armour first appeared medieval europe water powered trip hammers made formation plates faster cheaper also modern militaries usually equip forces best armour available would prohibitively expensive times development armour paralleled development increasingly effective weaponry battlefield armourers seeking create better protection


without sacrificing mobility well known armour types european history include lorica hamata lorica squamata lorica segmentata roman legions mail hauberk early medieval age full steel plate harness worn later medieval renaissance knights breast back plates worn heavy cavalry several european countries first year world war samurai warriors feudal japan utilised many types armour hundreds years th century early wooden statue guan yu mountain pattern armour th c


ming dynasty cuirasses helmets manufactured japan early th century ''tank '' worn foot soldiers ''keik '' worn horsemen pre samurai types early japanese armour constructed iron plates connected together leather thongs japanese lamellar armour ''keiko'' passed korea reached japan around th century early japanese lamellar armours took form sleeveless jacket leggings helmet armour always cover body sometimes helmet leg plates worn rest body generally protected


means large shield examples armies equipping troops fashion aztecs th th century ce east asia many types armour commonly used different times various cultures including scale armour lamellar armour laminar armour plated mail mail plate armour brigandine around dynastic tang song early ming period cuirasses plates mingguangjia also used elaborate versions officers war chinese time used partial plates important body parts instead covering whole body since much plate armour


hinders martial arts movement body parts covered cloth leather lamellar mountain pattern pre qin dynasty times leather armour made various animals exotic ones rhinoceros mail sometimes called chainmail made interlocking iron rings believed first appeared time bc invention credited celts romans thought adopted design gradually small additional plates discs iron added mail protect vulnerable areas hardened leather splinted construction used arm


leg pieces coat plates developed armour made large plates sewn inside textile leather coat th th century europe royal equestrian seal early th century depicting owain glynd r prince wales full armour riding full barded steed wearing gold dragon headgear symbolising arthurian legend early plate italy elsewhere th th century made iron iron armour could carburised case hardened give surface harder steel plate armour became cheaper mail th century


required much less labour labour become much expensive black death though require larger furnaces produce larger blooms mail continued used protect joints could adequately protected plate armpit crook elbow groin another advantage plate lance rest could fitted breast plate small skull cap evolved bigger true helmet bascinet lengthened downward protect back neck sides head additionally


several new forms fully enclosed helmets introduced late th century barded war horses th century probably recognised style armour world became plate armour associated knights european late middle ages continuing early th century age enlightenment european countries full harness plate armour developed armouries lombardy heavy cavalry dominated battlefield centuries part armour early th century advances weaponry allowed infantry defeat armoured knights


battlefield quality metal used armour deteriorated armies became bigger armour made thicker necessitating breeding larger cavalry horses th centuries armour seldom weighed nbsp kg late th century weighed nbsp kg increasing weight thickness late th century armour therefore gave substantial resistance early years low velocity firearms full suits armour breast plates actually stopped bullets fired modest distance crossbow bolts still used would seldom penetrate good plate would bullet unless fired


plate barding gave horse protection enhanced visual impression mounted knight late era elaborate barding used parade armour later ''elements light cavalry armor'' c https commonswikimediaorg wiki file elements light cavalry armor met dt jpg metropolitan museum art gradually starting mid th century one plate element another discarded save weight foot soldiers back breast plates continued used throughout entire period th century napoleonic times many european heavy cavalry units early th century introduction muskets could pierce plate armour


cavalry far mindful fire japan armour continued used end samurai era last major fighting armour used happening samurai armour one last short lived use satsuma rebellion though age knight armour continued used many capacities soldiers american civil war bought iron steel vests peddlers sides considered rejected body armour standard issue effectiveness vests varied widely successfully


deflected bullets saved lives others poorly made resulted tragedy soldiers case vests abandoned many soldiers due weight long marches well stigma got cowards fellow troops start world war thousands french cuirassiers rode engage german cavalry period shiny armour plate covered dark paint canvas wrap covered elaborate napoleonic style helmets armour meant protection edged weapons


rated stop range ammunition including hits nato ap round range dragon skin another ballistic vest currently testing mixed results deemed heavy expensive unreliable comparison tradition plates outdated protection compared modern us iotv armour even testing deemed downgrade iba british armed forces also armour known osprey rated general equivalent standard


us counterpart improved outer tactical vest soldier plate carrier system modular tactical vest russian armed forces also armour known b way b depending variant armour runs gost system due regional conditions resulted technically higher protective level overall gallery mode packed heights file ancient german armour helmetjpg medieval germanic helmet file armors man horse syrian iranian turkish comprehensively metropolitan museum art new yorkjpg early modern horse armor display metropolitan museum art new york file rustning gustav


troops combat evolution armoured warfare mechanised infantry mounted armoured fighting vehicles replaced light infantry many situations modern armoured warfare armoured units equipped tanks infantry fighting vehicles serve historic role heavy cavalry light cavalry dragoons belong armoured branch warfare history ships hms ''warrior'' third commission first ironclad battleship iron armour wooden hull ''la gloire'' launched french navy prompting british royal navy


build counter following year launched hms ''warrior'' twice size iron armour iron hull first battle two ironclads took place american civil war became clear ironclad replaced unarmoured line battle ship powerful warship afloat ironclads designed several roles including high seas battleships coastal defence ships long range cruisers rapid evolution warship design late th century transformed ironclad wooden hulled vessel carried sails supplement steam engines


steel built turreted battleships cruisers familiar th century change pushed forward development heavier naval guns ironclads carried heaviest guns ever mounted sea sophisticated steam engines advances metallurgy made steel shipbuilding possible rapid pace change ironclad period meant many ships obsolete soon complete naval tactics state flux many ironclads built make use ram torpedo number


naval designers considered crucial weapons naval combat clear end ironclad period towards end term ''ironclad'' dropped use new ships increasingly constructed standard pattern designated battleships armoured cruisers trains armoured train armoured trains saw use th century american civil war franco prussian war first second boer wars polish soviet war first second world wars first indochina war


intensive use armoured trains russian civil war armoured cars saw use world wars second boer war november winston churchill war correspondent travelling board armoured train ambushed boer commandos churchill many train 's garrison captured though many others escaped including wounded placed train 's engine armoured fighting vehicles ancient siege engines usually protected wooden armour often covered wet hides thin metal prevent easily burned medieval war


wagons horse drawn wagons similarly armoured contained guns crossbowmen could fire gun slits first modern afvs armoured cars developed circa started ordinary wheeled motor cars protected iron shields typically mounting machine gun world war stalemate trench warfare western front spurred development tank envisioned armoured machine could advance fire enemy rifles machine guns respond heavy guns utilized caterpillar tracks cross ground broken


showing sides plastic deformation defeating projectiles ballistics testing note exposed fire steel first expands loses strength exceeding critical temperature c f per https wwwastmorg standards e htm astm e unless treated fireproofing tank armour progressed second world war armour forms incorporating harder composites also reactive armour designed defeat shaped charges result main battle tank mbt conceived cold war era survive multiple rpg strikes minimal effect crew operation vehicle


light tanks last descendants light cavalry second world war almost completely disappeared world 's militaries due increased lethality weapons available vehicle mounted infantry armoured personnel carrier apc devised world war allows safe rapid movement infantry combat zone minimising casualties maximising mobility apcs fundamentally different previously used armoured half tracks offer higher level protection artillery burst fragments greater mobility terrain types basic apc design


substantially expanded infantry fighting vehicle ifv properties armoured personnel carrier light tank combined one vehicle naval armour fundamentally changed second world war doctrine thicker plating defend shells bombs torpedoes passive defence naval armour limited kevlar steel either single layer spaced armour protecting particularly vital areas effects nearby impacts since ships cannot carry enough armour completely protect anti ship missiles depend defensive weapons destroying incoming missiles causing miss confusing


guidance systems electronic warfare although role ground attack aircraft significantly diminished korean war emerged vietnam war recognition us air force authorised design production became dedicated anti armour ground attack aircraft first saw action gulf war high voltage transformer fire barriers often required defeat ballistics small arms well projectiles transformer bushings lightning arresters form part large electrical transformers per https wwwnfpaorg codes standards codes standards list codes standards detailcode nfpa fire barriers may designed


inherently function armour may passive fire protection materials ''augmented armour'' care must taken ensure armour 's reaction fire cause issues regards fire barrier armoured defeat explosions projectiles addition fire especially since functions must provided simultaneously meaning must fire tested together provide realistic evidence fitness purpose combat drones use little vehicular armour manned vessels results lightweight small size animal armour horse


armour th century knight horse full barding '''barding''' also spelled ''bard'' ''barb'' body armour war horses especially used european knights late middle ages armour protection knights became effective mounts became targets vulnerability exploited scots battle bannockburn th century horses killed infantry english battle cr cy century longbowmen shot horses dismounted french knights killed heavy infantry barding developed


response events examples armour horses could found far back classical antiquity cataphracts scale armour rider horse believed many historians influenced later european knights via contact byzantine empire ref name nell grant nell grant ''the savaran original knights'' university oklahoma press ref surviving period examples barding rare however complete sets display philadelphia museum art wallace collection london royal armouries leeds metropolitan museum art new york


'''''armor''''' professional journal us army armor branch published chief armor fort benning georgia training center army 's tank cavalry forces united states army armor school '''''armor''''' magazine us army 's oldest professional journal founded us cavalry officers originally titled '''''the cavalry journal''''' history '''''cavalry journal''''' originally created cavalry officers american frontier forum discussing doctrine tactics equipment among soldiers geographically separated great distances american west creation us


armored forces '''''the cavalry journal''''' renamed '''''armor magazine mobile warfare''''' prior armor association private organization published magazine us army armor school began publishing '''''armor''''' march april edition publication professional bulletin published authority army regulation current name '''''armor''''' subtitled ''mounted maneuver journal'' see also field artillery magazine infantry magazine notes references zaloga steven j ''armored thunderbolt us army sherman world war ii'' mechanicsville pa usa stackpole books external links https wwwdvidshubnet publication armor magazine alternate


gas chromatography laboratory '''analytical chemistry''' studies uses instruments methods used separate identify quantify matter ref name isbn ref practice separation identification quantification may constitute entire analysis combined another method separation isolates analytes qualitative analysis identifies analytes quantitative analysis determines numerical amount concentration analytical chemistry '' 'science obtaining processing communicating information composition structure matter''' words art science determining matter much exists one popular

Natural science
Chemistry
Analytical chemistry


fields work acs chemists analytical chemistry consists classical wet chemical methods modern instrumental methods ref name isbn ref classical qualitative methods use separations precipitation extraction distillation identification may based differences color odor melting point boiling point solubility radioactivity reactivity classical quantitative analysis uses mass volume changes quantify amount instrumental methods may used separate samples using chromatography electrophoresis field flow fractionation qualitative quantitative analysis performed often instrument may use light interaction heat interaction electric fields magnetic fields often


instrument separate identify quantify analyte analytical chemistry also focused improvements experimental design chemometrics creation new measurement tools analytical chemistry broad applications medicine science engineering history gustav kirchhoff left robert bunsen right analytical chemistry important since early days chemistry providing methods determining elements chemicals present object question period significant contributions analytical chemistry included development systematic elemental analysis justus von liebig systematized organic analysis based specific reactions


functional groups first instrumental analysis flame emissive spectrometry developed robert bunsen gustav kirchhoff discovered rubidium rb caesium cs major developments analytical chemistry take place period instrumental analysis becomes progressively dominant field particular many basic spectroscopic spectrometric techniques discovered early th century refined late th century separation sciences follow similar time line development also become increasingly transformed high performance instruments many techniques


began used together hybrid techniques achieve complete characterization samples starting approximately present day analytical chemistry progressively become inclusive biological questions bioanalytical chemistry whereas previously largely focused inorganic small organic molecules lasers increasingly used chemistry probes even initiate influence wide variety reactions late th century also saw expansion application analytical chemistry somewhat academic chemical questions forensic environmental industrial medical questions histology modern


analytical chemistry dominated instrumental analysis many analytical chemists focus single type instrument academics tend either focus new applications discoveries new methods analysis discovery chemical present blood increases risk cancer would discovery analytical chemist might involved effort develop new method might involve use tunable laser increase specificity sensitivity spectrometric method many methods developed kept purposely static data compared long


periods time particularly true industrial quality assurance qa forensic environmental applications analytical chemistry plays increasingly important role pharmaceutical industry aside qa used discovery new drug candidates clinical applications understanding interactions drug patient critical classical methods presence copper qualitative analysis indicated bluish green color flame although modern analytical chemistry dominated sophisticated instrumentation roots analytical chemistry principles used modern instruments


series reactions eliminate ranges possibilities confirms suspected ions confirming test sometimes small carbon containing ions included schemes modern instrumentation tests rarely used useful educational purposes fieldwork situations access state art instruments available expedient quantitative analysis quantitative analysis measurement quantities particular chemical constituents present substance quantities measured mass gravimetric analysis volume volumetric analysis gravimetric analysis gravimetric analysis involves determining amount material present


weighing sample transformation common example used undergraduate education determination amount water hydrate heating sample remove water difference weight due loss water volumetric analysis titration involves addition reactant solution analyzed equivalence point reached often amount material solution analyzed may determined familiar taken chemistry secondary education acid base titration involving color changing indicator


many types titrations example potentiometric titrations titrations may use different types indicators reach equivalence point instrumental methods block diagram analytical instrument showing stimulus measurement response spectroscopy spectroscopy measures interaction molecules electromagnetic radiation spectroscopy consists many different applications atomic absorption spectroscopy atomic emission spectroscopy ultraviolet visible spectroscopy x ray spectroscopy fluorescence spectroscopy infrared spectroscopy raman spectroscopy dual polarization interferometry nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy photoemission spectroscopy ssbauer spectroscopy mass spectrometry accelerator mass spectrometer used radiocarbon dating analysis mass


spectrometry measures mass charge ratio molecules using electric magnetic fields several ionization methods electron ionization chemical ionization electrospray ionization fast atom bombardment matrix assisted laser desorption ionization others also mass spectrometry categorized approaches mass analyzers magnetic sector quadrupole mass analyzer quadrupole ion trap time flight fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance electrochemical analysis electroanalytical methods measure potential volts current amps electrochemical cell containing analyte methods categorized according aspects cell controlled measured four main categories


potentiometry difference electrode potentials measured coulometry transferred charge measured time amperometry cell 's current measured time voltammetry cell 's current measured actively altering cell 's potential thermal analysis calorimetry thermogravimetric analysis measure interaction material heat separation separation black ink thin layer chromatography plate separation processes used decrease complexity material mixtures chromatography electrophoresis field flow fractionation representative field hybrid techniques combinations techniques produce hybrid hyphenated technique ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref ref


name pmid ref ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref several examples popular use today new hybrid techniques development example gas chromatography mass spectrometry gas chromatography infrared spectroscopy liquid chromatography mass spectrometry liquid chromatography nmr spectroscopy liquid chromagraphy infrared spectroscopy capillary electrophoresis mass spectrometry hyphenated separation techniques refer combination two techniques detect separate chemicals solutions often technique form chromatography hyphenated techniques widely used chemistry biochemistry slash sometimes used instead hyphen especially name one methods contains hyphen microscopy fluorescence


microscope image two mouse cell nuclei prophase scale bar visualization single molecules single cells biological tissues nanomaterials important attractive approach analytical science also hybridization traditional analytical tools revolutionizing analytical science microscopy categorized three different fields optical microscopy electron microscopy scanning probe microscopy recently field rapidly progressing rapid development computer camera industries lab chip devices integrate multiple laboratory functions single chip millimeters square centimeters


variables therefore propagation uncertainty must calculated order know error math f math math varepsilon rm f approx sum n left frac partial f partial x right varepsilon rm x left frac partial f partial x right varepsilon rm x left frac partial f partial x right varepsilon rm x ldots left frac partial f partial x n right varepsilon rm x n math standards standard curve limit detection lod limit quantification loq dynamic range limit linearity lol general method analysis concentration involves creation calibration curve allows


determination amount chemical material comparing results unknown sample series known standards concentration element compound sample high detection range technique simply diluted pure solvent amount sample instrument 's range measurement method addition used method known quantity element compound study added difference concentration added


concentration observed amount actually sample internal standards sometimes internal standard added known concentration directly analytical sample aid quantitation amount analyte present determined relative internal standard calibrant ideal internal standard isotopically enriched analyte gives rise method isotope dilution standard addition method standard addition used instrumental analysis determine concentration substance analyte unknown sample comparison set samples known concentration similar using


calibration curve standard addition applied analytical techniques used instead calibration curve solve matrix effect problem signals noise one important components analytical chemistry maximizing desired signal minimizing associated noise ref name isbn ref analytical figure merit known signal noise ratio n snr noise arise environmental factors well fundamental physical processes thermal noise thermal noise results motion charge carriers usually electrons electrical circuit generated thermal motion thermal noise


white noise meaning power spectral density constant throughout frequency spectrum root mean square value thermal noise resistor given ref name isbn math v rm rms sqrt k rm b r delta f math ''k'' sub b sub boltzmann 's constant ''t'' temperature ''r'' resistance math delta f math bandwidth frequency math f math shot noise shot noise type electronic noise occurs finite number particles electrons electronic circuit photons optical device


small enough give rise statistical fluctuations signal shot noise poisson process charge carriers make current follow poisson distribution root mean square current fluctuation given ref name isbn math rm rms sqrt e delta f math ''e'' elementary charge ''i'' average current shot noise white noise flicker noise flicker noise electronic noise '' '' frequency spectrum ''f'' increases noise decreases flicker noise arises variety sources impurities conductive channel generation


recombination noise transistor due base current noise avoided modulation signal higher frequency example use lock amplifier environmental noise noise thermogravimetric analysis lower noise middle plot results less human activity environmental noise night environmental noise arises surroundings analytical instrument sources electromagnetic noise power lines radio television stations wireless devices compact fluorescent lamps electric motors many noise sources narrow bandwidth therefore


avoided temperature vibration isolation may required instruments noise reduction noise reduction accomplished either computer hardware software examples hardware noise reduction use shielded cable analog filtering signal modulation examples software noise reduction digital filtering ensemble average boxcar average correlation methods ref name isbn applications us food drug administration scientist uses portable near infrared spectroscopy device detect potentially illegal substances analytical chemistry applications including forensic science bioanalysis clinical analysis environmental analysis materials analysis analytical chemistry research largely driven


optical cavities increased effective absorption pathlength expected expand use plasma laser based methods increasing interest towards absolute standardless analysis revived particularly emission spectrometry great effort put shrinking analysis techniques chip size although examples systems competitive traditional analysis techniques potential advantages include size portability speed cost micro total analysis system tas lab chip microscale chemistry reduces amounts chemicals used many developments improve analysis biological systems examples rapidly expanding fields


area genomics dna sequencing related research genetic fingerprinting dna microarray proteomics analysis protein concentrations modifications especially response various stressors various developmental stages various parts body metabolomics deals metabolites transcriptomics including mrna associated fields lipidomics lipids associated fields peptidomics peptides associated fields metalomics dealing metal concentrations especially binding proteins molecules analytical chemistry played critical roles understanding basic science variety practical applications


area development nanotechnology surface characterization instruments electron microscopes scanning probe microscopes enable scientists visualize atomic structures chemical characterizations see also important publications analytical chemistry list chemical analysis methods list materials analysis methods measurement uncertainty metrology sensory analysis field food science virtual instrumentation microanalysis quality analytical results working range references reading gurdeep chatwal anand ''instrumental methods chemical analysis'' himalaya publishing house india ralph l shriner reynold c fuson david curtin terence c morill ''the systematic identification organic compounds


laboratory manual'' verlag wiley new york edition bettencourt da silva r bulska e godlewska zylkiewicz b hedrich majcen n magnusson b marincic papadakis patriarca vassileva e taylor p analytical measurement measurement uncertainty statistics external links http wwwlacke und farbende fileadmin migrated media infographic analytical chemistry detection limits pdf infografik https wwwyoutubecom watchv kl imi avry animation showing progress analytical chemistry https wwwanalytik jenain products elemental analysis aas aas atomic absorption spectrophotometer materials science


soldiers royal artillery firing mm light howitzers exercise '''artillery''' class heavy military ranged weapons built launch munitions far beyond range power infantry firearms early artillery development focused ability breach defensive walls fortifications sieges led heavy fairly immobile siege engines technology improved lighter mobile field artillery cannons developed battlefield use development continues today modern self propelled artillery vehicles highly mobile weapons great versatility generally providing largest share army 's total firepower originally word artillery

Applied science
Military sciences
Artillery


referred group soldiers primarily armed form manufactured weapon armor since introduction gunpowder cannon artillery largely meant cannons contemporary usage usually refers shell firing guns howitzers mortars rocket artillery common speech word artillery often used refer individual devices along accessories fittings although assemblages properly called equipment however generally recognized generic term gun howitzer mortar forth united states uses artillery piece english speaking armies use gun mortar


projectiles fired typically either shot solid shell solid historically variants solid shot including canister chain shot grapeshot also used shell widely used generic term projectile component munitions association artillery may also refer arm service customarily operates engines armies artillery arm operated field coastal anti aircraft anti tank artillery others separate arms nations coastal naval marine responsibility th century technology based target acquisition


devices radar systems sound ranging flash spotting emerged order acquire targets primarily artillery usually operated one artillery arms widespread adoption indirect fire early th century introduced need specialist data field artillery notably survey meteorological armies provision responsibility artillery arm artillery used since least early industrial revolution majority combat deaths napoleonic wars world war world war ii


caused artillery ref name bellamy ref joseph stalin said speech artillery god war ref name bellamy artillery piece french soldiers franco prussian war british pounder rifled muzzle loaded rml gun moncrieff disappearing mount scaur hill fort bermuda part fixed battery meant protect land attack serve coastal artillery although called siege engines performing role recognizable artillery employed warfare since antiquity first known catapult developed syracuse bc introduction


pieces land moved horse drawn gun carriages contemporary era artillery pieces crew relied wheeled tracked vehicles transportation land versions artillery dwarfed railway guns largest large calibre guns ever conceived project babylon supergun affair theoretically capable putting satellite orbit artillery used naval forces also changed significantly missiles generally replacing guns surface warfare course military history projectiles manufactured wide variety materials wide variety shapes using


many different methods target structural defensive works inflict enemy casualties engineering applications ordnance delivery likewise changed significantly time encompassing complex advanced technologies use today armies weapon artillery projectile equipment fires process delivering fire onto target called gunnery actions involved operating artillery piece collectively called serving gun detachment gun crew constituting either direct indirect artillery fire manner gunnery crews formations


employed called artillery support different periods history may refer weapons designed fired ground sea even air based weapons platforms crew armed forces use term gunners soldiers sailors primary function using artillery light towed howitzer war afghanistan gunners guns usually grouped teams called either crews detachments several crews teams functions combined unit artillery usually called battery although sometimes called company gun detachments


role numbered starting detachment commander highest number coverer second command gunner also lowest rank junior non commissioned officers bombardiers artillery arms batteries roughly equivalent company infantry combined larger military organizations administrative operational purposes either battalions regiments depending army may grouped brigades russian army also groups brigades artillery divisions people 's liberation army artillery corps term artillery also designates combat arm military


services used organizationally describe units formations national armed forces operate weapons tactics military operations field artillery role providing support arms combat attacking targets particularly depth broadly effects fall two categories aiming either suppress neutralize enemy cause casualties damage destruction mostly achieved delivering high explosive munitions suppress inflict casualties enemy casing fragments debris blast destroying enemy positions equipment vehicles non lethal


mini ball range almost long field artillery gunners' increasing proximity participation direct combat combat arms attacks aircraft made introduction gun shield necessary problems employ fixed horse towed gun mobile warfare necessitated development new methods transporting artillery combat two distinct forms artillery developed towed gun used primarily attack defend fixed line self propelled gun intended accompany mobile force provide continuous fire


support suppression influences guided development artillery ordnance systems organizations operations present artillery systems capable providing support ranges little nbsp intercontinental ranges ballistic missiles combat artillery unable take part close quarters combat possible exception artillery reconnaissance teams etymology word used current context originated middle ages one suggestion comes old french ''atelier'' meaning arrange ''attillement'' meaning equipment th century


like catapult onager trebuchet ballista also referred military historians artillery invention gunpowder depiction early vase shaped cannon shown long range awe inspiring cannon complete crude sight ignition port dated around ad illustration th century ming dynasty book ''huolongjing'' ref name needham early chinese artillery vase like shapes includes long range awe inspiring cannon dated found th century ming dynasty treatise ''huolongjing'' ref name needham ref development better metallurgy techniques later cannons abandoned vase shape


early chinese artillery change seen bronze thousand ball thunder cannon early example field artillery ref name science civilisation china ref small crude weapons diffused middle east ''madfaa'' reached europe th century limited manner asia mongols adopted chinese artillery used effectively great conquest late th century chinese rebels used organized artillery cavalry push mongols usage cannons mongol invasion java led deployment cetbang cannons majapahit fleet


subsequent near universal use swivel gun cannons nusantara archipelago ref name ref ref name thomas stamford raffles thomas stamford raffles ''the history java'' oxford university press pages ref small smooth bore tubes initially cast iron bronze around core first drilled bore ordnance recorded operation near seville fired lead iron stone balls sometimes large arrows occasions simply handfuls whatever scrap came hand hundred years' war weapons became common initially bombard later


cannon cannon always muzzle loaders many early attempts breech loading designs lack engineering knowledge rendered even dangerous use muzzle loaders expansion artillery use french gunner th century illustration first battle panipat siege ranthambore portuguese invaded mediterranean port town ceuta difficult confirm use firearms siege city known portuguese defended thereafter firearms namely ''bombardas'' ''colebratas'' ''falconetes'' sultan abu sa'id led army reconquer


fallen city marinids brought cannons used assault ceuta finally hand held firearms riflemen appear morocco expedition people tangiers clear weapons developed several different forms small guns large artillery pieces artillery revolution europe caught hundred years' war changed way battles fought preceding decades english even used gunpowder like weapon military campaigns scottish however time cannons used battle


small particularly powerful cannons useful defense castle demonstrated breteuil besieged english used cannon destroy attacking french assault tower end th century cannon powerful enough knock roofs could penetrate castle walls however major change occurred artillery became much powerful could batter strongholds fortresses quite efficiently english french burgundians advanced military technology result traditional advantage went


defense siege lost cannon period elongated recipe gunpowder improved make three times powerful changes led increased power artillery weapons time austrian pumhart von steyr earliest extant large calibre gun joan arc encountered gunpowder weaponry several times led french english battle tourelles faced heavy gunpowder fortifications yet troops prevailed battle addition led assaults english held towns


jargeau meung beaugency support large artillery units led assault paris joan faced stiff artillery fire especially suburb st denis ultimately led defeat battle april went battle burgundians whose support purchased english time burgundians strongest largest gunpowder arsenal among european powers yet french joan arc 's leadership able beat back burgundians defend result battles


hundred years' war joan arc participated fought gunpowder artillery army mehmet conqueror conquered constantinople included artillery foot soldiers armed gunpowder weapons ref name nicolle ref ottomans brought siege sixty nine guns fifteen separate batteries trained walls city barrage ottoman cannon fire lasted forty days estimated fired times ref name nicolle ref artillery also played decisive role battle st jakob der birs early cannon


always reliable king james ii scotland killed accidental explosion one cannon imported flanders siege roxburgh castle three large korean artillery chongtong jinju national museum cannons made mid th century closest cheonja chongtong second jija chongtong third hyeonja chongtong new ming dynasty established divine engine battalion specialized various types artillery light cannons cannons multiple volleys developed


campaign suppress local minority rebellion near today 's burmese border ming army used line method arquebuses muskets destroy elephant formation portuguese spanish arrived southeast asia found local kingdoms already using cannons one earliest reference cannon artillerymen java year portuguese spanish invaders unpleasantly surprised even outgunned occasion duarte barbosa ca said inhabitants java great masters casting artillery good artillerymen make many one pounder cannons cetbang rentaka long


cannons varied pounders weighing anywhere tons length korean chinese troops fought japan korea actively used heavy artillery siege field combat korean forces mounted artillery ships naval guns providing advantage japanese navy used ''kunikuzushi'' japanese breech loading swivel gun '' zutsu'' large size tanegashima largest firearms smoothbores artillery gabion fortification bombards value mainly sieges famous turkish example used siege


constantinople weighed tons took men sixty oxen emplace could fire seven times day fall constantinople perhaps first event supreme importance whose result determined use artillery huge bronze cannons mehmed ii breached city 's walls ending byzantine empire according sir charles oman bombards developed europe massive smoothbore weapons distinguished lack field carriage immobility emplaced highly individual design noted unreliability james ii king scots killed


one exploded siege roxburgh large size precluded barrels cast constructed metal staves rods bound together hoops like barrel giving name gun barrel ref name warkeegan ref use word cannon marks introduction th century dedicated field carriage axle trail animal drawn limber produced mobile field pieces could move support army action rather found siege static defenses reduction size barrel due improvements


iron technology gunpowder manufacture development trunnions projections side cannon integral part cast allowed barrel fixed movable base also made raising lowering barrel much easier ref name warkeegan tsar cannon caliber mm cast moscow largest bombard world first land based mobile weapon usually credited jan ka deployed oxen hauled cannon hussite wars bohemia however cannons still large cumbersome rise musketry


th century cannon largely though entirely displaced battlefield cannon slow cumbersome used easily lost rapid enemy advance combining shot powder single unit cartridge occurred simple fabric bag quickly adopted nations speeded loading made safer unexpelled bag fragments additional fouling gun barrel new tool worm introduced remove gustavus adolphus identified general made cannon effective


work used europe basic artillery manual one significant effects artillery period however somewhat indirect easily reducing rubble medieval type fortification city wall stood since roman times abolished millennia siege warfare strategies styles fortification building ref name warkeegan led among things frenzy new bastion style fortifications built europe colonies also strong integrating effect emerging nation states kings able use newfound artillery superiority force


local dukes lords submit setting stage absolutist kingdoms come ref name warkeegan modern rocket artillery trace heritage back mysorean rockets india first recorded use battles second third fourth mysore wars wars fought british east india company kingdom mysore india made use rockets weapon battle pollilur siege seringapatam battle seringapatam rockets used considerable effect


british ref name r ms ref wars several mysore rockets sent england experiments heavier payloads unsuccessful william congreve considering mysorian rockets short range less yards developed rockets numerous sizes ranges yards eventually utilizing iron casing congreve rocket used effectively napoleonic wars war napoleonic artillery acre commemorate city 's resistance siege napoleon 's troops napoleonic wars artillery experienced changes physical design


operation rather overseen mechanics artillery viewed service branch capability dominating battlefield success french artillery companies least part due presence specifically artillery officers leading coordinating chaos battle napoleon former artillery officer perfected tactic massed artillery batteries unleashed upon critical point enemies' line prelude decisive infantry cavalry assault physically cannons continued become smaller lighter frederick ii prussia deployed first genuine light artillery


seven years' war jean baptiste de gribeauval french artillery engineer introduced standardization cannon design mid th century developed inch nbsp mm field howitzer whose gun barrel carriage assembly ammunition specifications made uniform french cannons standardized interchangeable parts cannons nuts bolts screws made mass production repair much easier gribeauval system made efficient production assembly carriages used heavy gunners forced march foot instead riding limber gun


british system cannon named weight projectiles giving us variants indicating weight pounds projectiles included solid balls canister containing lead bullets material canister shots acted massive shotguns peppering target hundreds projectiles close range solid balls known round shot effective fired shoulder height across flat open area ball would tear ranks enemy bounce along ground breaking legs ankles modern artillery prussian artillery


battle langensalza development modern artillery occurred mid late th century result convergence various improvements underlying technology advances metallurgy allowed construction breech loading rifled guns could fire much greater muzzle velocity british artillery shown crimean war barely changed since napoleonic wars industrialist william armstrong awarded contract government design new piece artillery production started elswick ordnance company


widespread use crimean war cast iron shell armstrong gun similar shape mini ball thin lead coating made fractionally larger gun 's bore engaged gun 's rifling grooves impart spin shell spin together elimination windage result tight fit enabled gun achieve greater range accuracy existing smooth bore muzzle loaders smaller powder charge inch armstrong gun american civil war fort fisher gun also breech loader


although attempts breech loading mechanisms made since medieval times essential engineering problem mechanism could withstand explosive charge advances metallurgy precision engineering capabilities industrial revolution armstrong able construct viable solution gun combined properties make effective artillery piece gun mounted carriage way return gun firing position recoil made gun really revolutionary lay technique construction


gun barrel allowed withstand much powerful explosive forces built method involved assembling barrel wrought iron later mild steel used tubes successively smaller diameter tube would heated allow expand fit previous tube cooled gun would contract although back original size allowed even pressure along walls gun directed inward outward forces gun 's firing exerted barrel another innovative feature usually associated th century guns