autonomous self reliant confident ref name toddlerplay ref caretaker overprotective disapproving independent actions toddler may begin doubt abilities feel ashamed desire independence child 's autonomic development inhibited leaving less prepared deal world future toddlers also begin identify gender roles acting according perception man woman ref name upton ref socially period toddler hood commonly called terrible twos ref name newman ref toddlers often use new found language abilities voice desires often misunderstood


parents due language skills beginning develop person stage testing independence another reason behind stage 's infamous label tantrums fit frustration also common childhood erik erikson divides childhood four stages distinct social crisis ref name bernardo j carducci bernardo j carducci ''the psychology personality viewpoints research applications'' john wiley sons ref stage infancy psychosocial crisis trust vs mistrust stage early childhood psychosocial crisis

Social science
Psychology
Developmental psychology


autonomy vs shame doubt stage play age psychosocial crisis initiative vs guilt stage also called pre school age exploratory age toy age stage school age psychosocial crisis industry vs inferiority '''play preschool ages ''' br earliest years children completely dependent care others therefore develop social relationship care givers later family members preschool years enlarge social horizons include people outside


family preoperational operational thinking develops means actions reversible egocentric thought diminishes motor skills preschoolers increase things become independent longer completely dependent care others world age group expands people role shaping individual personalities preschoolers explore question world jean piaget child ''a little scientist'' exploring reflecting explorations increase competence done independent way ref name halpenny ref play


major activity ages piaget play child reaches higher levels cognitive development ref name halpenny expanded world children age group attempt find way done socially acceptable way child develops initiative child develops guilt children develop guilt rather initiative failed erikson 's psychosocial crisis age group '''middle childhood ages ''' br erik erikson psychosocial crisis middle childhood industry vs inferiority successfully met instills sense


competency child ref name bernardo j carducci cultures middle childhood time developing skills needed society ref name barbara engler barbara engler ''personality theories th edition'' cengage learning ref school offers arena children gain view industrious worthy graded school work often industry also develop industry outside school sports games volunteer work ref name marc h bornstein marc h bornstein deborah lowe vandell karen rook ''lifespan development infancy adulthood''


cengage learning ref children achieve success school games might develop feeling competence peril period feelings inadequacy inferiority develop ref name barbara engler parents teachers undermine child 's development failing recognize accomplishments overly critical child 's efforts ref name marc h bornstein children encouraged praised develop belief competence lack encouragement ability excel lead feelings inadequacy inferiority centers disease control cdc divides middle childhood two stages


years years gives developmental milestones stage ref name cdc cd ref ref name cdc cd ref ''middle childhood '' br entering elementary school children age group begin thinks future place world working students wanting friendship acceptance become important leads independence parents family students develop mental verbal skills describe experiences talk thoughts feelings become less self centered show concern others ref name cdc cd ''middle childhood '' br


children ages friendships peer relationships increase strength complexity importance results greater peer pressure grow even less dependent families challenged academically meet challenge increase attention span learn see points view ref name cdc cd adolescence adolescence period life onset puberty full commitment adult social role worker parent citizen period known formation personal social identity see erik erikson discovery


must explore test limits become autonomous commit identity sense self different roles behaviors ideologies must tried select identity role confusion inability choose vocation result failure achieve sense identity example friends early adulthood early adulthood generally refers period ages according theorists erik erikson stage development mainly focused maintaining relationships examples include creating bond intimacy sustaining friendships starting family theorists state


development intimacy skills rely resolution previous developmental stages sense identity gained previous stages also necessary intimacy develop skill learned alternative alienation isolation fear commitment inability depend others related framework studying part lifespan emerging adulthood scholars emerging adulthood jeffrey arnett necessarily interested relationship development instead concept suggests people transition teenage years period characterized relationship building


hormone estrogen men experience equivalent endocrine system event menopause andropause males hormone fluctuation physical psychological effects similar seen menopausal females men age lowered testosterone levels contribute mood swings decline sperm count sexual responsiveness also affected including delays erection longer periods penile stimulation required achieve ejaculation important influence biological social changes experienced women men middle adulthood reflected fact depression highest age around


world old age world health organization finds general agreement age person becomes old developed countries set age however developing countries inability make active contribution society chronological age marks beginning old age according erikson 's stages psychosocial development old age stage individuals assess quality lives reflecting lives people age group develop feeling integrity deciding lives successful feeling despair


evaluation one 's life indicates failure achieve goals ref name miller ref physically older people experience decline muscular strength reaction time stamina hearing distance perception sense smell ref name deary ref also susceptible diseases cancer pneumonia due weakened immune system programs aimed balance muscle strength mobility shown reduce disability among mildly severely disabled elderly ref name gill ref sexual expression depends large part upon emotional physical health individual many older adults continue sexually active satisfied


sexual activity mental disintegration may also occur leading dementia ailments alzheimer 's disease average age onset dementia males women generally believed crystallized intelligence increases old age fluid intelligence decreases age whether normal intelligence increases decreases age depends measure study longitudinal studies show perceptual speed inductive reasoning spatial orientation decline ref name learn longitudinal ref article adult cognitive development reports cross sectional studies show abilities remained stable


early old age ref name learn longitudinal parenting parenting variables alone typically accounted percent variance child outcomes ref name flaherty ref parents parenting styles parenting styles according kimberly kopko based upon two aspects parenting behavior control warmth parental control refers degree parents manage children 's behavior parental warmth refers degree parents accepting responsive children 's behavior parenting styles following parenting styles described child development literature authoritative parenting characterized


anxiety less likely engage antisocial behavior like delinquency drug use authoritarian parenting characterized low levels warmth responsiveness high levels demandingness firm control ref name taylor parents focus obedience monitor children regularly ref name baumrind general style parenting associated maladaptive outcomes outcomes harmful middle class boys girls preschool white girls preschool black girls white boys hispanic boys ref name baumrind permissive parenting characterized high levels responsiveness combined low levels


demandingness ref name baumrind parents lenient necessarily require mature behavior ref name baumrind allow high degree self regulation typically avoid confrontation ref name baumrind compared children raised using authoritative style preschool girls raised permissive families less assertive ref name baumrind additionally preschool children sexes less cognitively competent children raised authoritative parenting styles ref name baumrind rejecting neglectful parenting final category characterized low levels demandingness responsiveness parents typically disengaged child 's lives lacking


natural father significant factor reducing rates early sexual activity rates teenage pregnancy girls furthermore another argument neither mother father actually essential successful parenting single parents well homosexual couples support positive child outcomes ref name silverstein ref according set research children need least one consistently responsible adult child positive emotional connection one figures contributes higher likelihood positive child outcomes ref name silverstein divorce another parental factor


often debated terms effects child development divorce divorce determining factor negative child outcomes fact majority children divorcing families fall normal range measures psychological cognitive functioning ref name whiteside ref number mediating factors play role determining effects divorce child example divorcing families young children often face harsher consequences terms demographic social economic changes families older children ref name whiteside positive coparenting divorce part pattern


associated positive child coping hostile parenting behaviors lead destructive pattern leaving children risk ref name whiteside additionally direct parental relationship child also affects development child divorce overall protective factors facilitating positive child development divorce maternal warmth positive father child relationship cooperation parents ref name whiteside see also journals autism research child development development psychopathology developmental neuropsychology developmental psychology developmental review developmental science human development journal journal abnormal child psychology journal adolescent health journal autism developmental disorders journal


child psychology psychiatry journal clinical child adolescent psychology journal pediatric psychology journal research adolescence journal youth adolescence journal american academy child adolescent psychiatry psychology aging research autism spectrum disorders references reading external links http wwwsrcdorg society research child development https wwwbpsorguk member microsites developmental psychology section british psychological society developmental psychology section http wwwdevpsyorg developmental psychology lessons teaching learning developmental psychology https webarchiveorg web http classwebgmuedu awinsler ordp topichtml gmu 's line resources developmental psychology web directory developmental psychology organizations http hearthlibrarycornelledu home economics archive research tradition


history hearth br e book collection books spanning created cornell university 's https mannlibrarycornelledu mann library includes several hundred works human development child raising family studies itemized https webarchiveorg web http hearthlibrarycornelledu h hearth bibs childpdf specific bibliography https journalsplosorg plosone browse developmental psychology developmental psychology subject area page plos behavioural sciences


supply demand model describes prices vary result balance product availability demand alt graph depicting quantity x axis price axis '''economics''' ref name mw ref ref name oed ref social science studies production distribution consumption goods services economics focuses behaviour interactions economic agents economies work within mainstream economics microeconomics field analyzes 's viewed basic elements economy including individual agents markets interactions outcomes interactions individual agents may include example


households firms buyers sellers macroeconomics analyzes economy system production consumption saving investment interact factors affecting employment resources labour capital land currency inflation economic growth public policies impact elements broad distinctions within economics include positive economics describing normative economics advocating ought economic theory applied economics rational behavioural economics mainstream economics heterodox economics economic analysis applied throughout society including real estate business finance health care engineering ref name dharmaraj dharmaraj


e engineering economics mumbai himalaya publishing house proquest ebrary web november ref government also applied diverse subjects crime education family feminism law philosophy politics religion social institutions war science environment definitions economics time earlier term discipline 'political economy'since late th century commonly called 'economics' cited ancient greek ''oikonomikos'' practiced management household family therefore frugal thrifty turn comes ''oikonomia'' household management turn


comes '''' house '''' custom law ref name etymology ref ref name free ref ref name marshallmarshall ref ref name jevons ref variety modern definitions economics reflect evolving views subject different views among economists ref name backhouse ref ref name backhousemedema ref scottish philosopher adam smith defined called political economy inquiry nature causes wealth nations particular book iv quoted ref jean baptiste say distinguishing subject public policy uses defines science ''of'' production distribution consumption wealth ref name say ref satirical side


thomas carlyle coined dismal science epithet classical economics context commonly linked pessimistic analysis malthus ref name dismal br nbsp nbsp br nbsp nbsp ref john stuart mill defines subject social context ref alfred marshall provides still widely cited definition textbook ''principles economics'' extends analysis beyond wealth societal microeconomic level ref lionel robbins developed implications termed p erhaps commonly accepted current definition subject ref name backhousemedema ref robbins describes


benefits '' 'resources''' human life costs used attain goal war winnable expected costs outweigh benefits deciding '''actors''' assuming rational may never go war '' 'decision''' rather explore alternatives cannot define economics science studies wealth war crime education field economic analysis applied science studies particular common aspect subjects use scarce resources attain sought end subsequent comments


criticized definition overly broad failing limit subject matter analysis markets however comments abated economic theory maximizing behaviour rational choice modelling expanded domain subject areas previously treated fields ref name backhouse stigler br nbsp nbsp ref criticisms well scarcity accounting macroeconomics high unemployment gary becker contributor expansion economics new areas describes approach favours combin ing assumptions maximizing behaviour stable preferences market equilibrium used


relentlessly unflinchingly one commentary characterizes remark making economics approach rather subject matter great specificity choice process type social interaction analysis involves source reviews range definitions included principles economics textbooks concludes lack agreement need affect subject matter texts treat among economists generally argues particular definition presented may reflect direction toward author believes economics evolving evolve ref name backhousemedema according economist ha joon chang economics


anatomy still others might build game theoretic models animal behavior called biology study living organisms according ha joon chang view study economy one way example studying rational choices going even one step basically redefining economics theory everything peculiar history thought regarding distribution resources antiquity physiocrats economic writings date earlier mesopotamian greek roman indian subcontinent chinese persian arab civilizations questions regarding


distribution resources found throughout writings boeotian poet hesiod several economic historians described hesiod first economist however word oikos greek word word economy derives used issues regarding manage household rather refer normative societal system distribution resources much recent phenomenon notable writers antiquity renaissance include aristotle xenophon chanakya also known kautilya qin shi huang ibn khaldun thomas aquinas joseph schumpeter described th th


century scholastic writers including tom de mercado luis de molina juan de lugo coming nearer group 'founders' scientific economics monetary interest value theory within natural law perspective painting french seaport heyday mercantilism alt seaport ship arriving two groups later called mercantilists physiocrats directly influenced subsequent development subject groups associated rise economic nationalism modern capitalism europe mercantilism economic doctrine flourished th


th century prolific pamphlet literature whether merchants statesmen held nation 's wealth depended accumulation gold silver nations without access mines could obtain gold silver trade selling goods abroad restricting imports gold silver doctrine called importing cheap raw materials used manufacturing goods could exported state regulation impose protective tariffs foreign manufactured goods prohibit manufacturing colonies physiocrats group th century french thinkers writers developed idea


economy circular flow income output physiocrats believed agricultural production generated clear surplus cost agriculture basis wealth thus opposed mercantilist policy promoting manufacturing trade expense agriculture including import tariffs physiocrats advocated replacing administratively costly tax collections single tax income land owners reaction copious mercantilist trade regulations physiocrats advocated policy ''laissez faire'' called minimal government intervention economy adam smith early economic theorist smith


major contributors nation 's wealth distinct physiocratic idea agriculture productive smith discusses potential benefits specialization division labour including increased labour productivity gains trade whether town country across countries theorem division labor limited extent market described core theory functions firm industry fundamental principle economic organization smith also ascribed important substantive proposition economics foundation


value produce rev thomas robert malthus used concept diminishing returns explain low living standards human population argued tended increase geometrically outstripping production food increased arithmetically force rapidly growing population limited amount land meant diminishing returns labour result claimed chronically low wages prevented standard living population rising subsistence level economist julian lincoln simon criticized malthus 's conclusions adam smith emphasized production income


david ricardo focused distribution income among landowners workers capitalists ricardo saw inherent conflict landowners one hand labour capital posited growth population capital pressing fixed supply land pushes rents holds wages profits ricardo first state prove principle comparative advantage according country specialize producing exporting goods lower ' 'relative'' cost production rather relying production


termed fundamental analytical explanation gains trade coming end classical tradition john stuart mill parted company earlier classical economists inevitability distribution income produced market system mill pointed distinct difference market 's two roles allocation resources distribution income market might efficient allocating resources distributing income wrote making necessary society intervene value theory important classical theory smith wrote real price every thing nbsp


toil trouble acquiring smith maintained rent profit costs besides wages also enter price commodity classical economists presented variations smith termed 'labour theory value' classical economics focused tendency market economy settle final stationary state made constant stock physical wealth capital constant population size marxist critique political economy comes work german philosopher karl marx alt photograph karl marx facing viewer marxian economics marxist later marxian economics descends


classical economics derives work karl marx first volume marx 's major work ''das kapital'' published german marx focused labour theory value theory surplus value believed explained exploitation labour capital ref name roemer br nbsp nbsp ref labour theory value held value exchanged commodity determined labour went production theory surplus value demonstrated workers got paid proportion value


work created ref name thomas fuller ref neoclassical economics dawn social science '''economics''' defined discussed length study production distribution consumption wealth jean baptiste say ''treatise political economy production distribution consumption wealth'' three items considered science relation increase diminution wealth reference processes execution say 's definition prevailed time saved substituting word wealth goods services meaning wealth


may include non material objects well one hundred thirty years later lionel robbins noticed definition longer sufficed many economists making theoretical philosophical inroads areas human activity ''essay nature significance economic science'' proposed definition economics study particular aspect human behaviour one falls influence scarcity forces people choose allocate scarce resources competing ends economize seeking greatest welfare avoiding wasting scarce resources robbins


insufficiency solved definition allows us proclaim easy conscience education economics safety security economics health economics war economics course production distribution consumption economics valid subjects economic science citing robbins economics science studies human behavior relationship ends scarce means alternative uses discussing decades robbins' definition became widely accepted mainstream economists opened way current textbooks although far unanimous mainstream economists would accept version robbins' definition even though


subject mathematical methods used natural sciences ref name clark ref neoclassical economics systematized supply demand joint determinants price quantity market equilibrium affecting allocation output distribution income dispensed labour theory value inherited classical economics favour marginal utility theory value demand side general theory costs supply side th century neoclassical theorists moved away earlier notion suggesting total utility society could measured favour


ordinal utility hypothesizes merely behaviour based relations across persons ref name hicks microeconomics neoclassical economics represents incentives costs playing pervasive role shaping decision making immediate example consumer theory individual demand isolates prices costs income affect quantity demanded ref name hicks macroeconomics reflected early lasting neoclassical synthesis keynesian macroeconomics ref name blanchard ref name hicks ref neoclassical economics occasionally referred ''orthodox economics'' whether critics sympathizers modern mainstream economics builds neoclassical economics many refinements either supplement generalize earlier analysis


econometrics game theory analysis market failure imperfect competition neoclassical model economic growth analysing long run variables affecting national income neoclassical economics studies behaviour individuals households organizations called economic actors players agents manage use scarce resources alternative uses achieve desired ends agents assumed act rationally multiple desirable ends sight limited resources obtain ends set stable preferences definite overall guiding objective capability making choice exists economic problem subject study


interplay exchange trade done economic actors markets sets prices goods services turn make rational managing scarce resources possible time decisions choices made actors pursuing interest determine level output production consumption savings investment economy well remuneration distribution paid owners labour form wages capital form profits land form rent period


giant feedback system economic players influence pricing processes economy turn influenced steady state equilibrium variables involved reached external shock throws system toward new equilibrium point autonomous actions rational interacting agents economy complex adaptive system keynesian economics john maynard keynes right key theorist economics keynesian economics derives john maynard keynes particular book ''the general theory employment interest money'' ushered contemporary macroeconomics


generally associated university cambridge work joan robinson new keynesian economics also associated developments keynesian fashion within group researchers tend share economists emphasis models employing micro foundations optimizing behaviour narrower focus standard keynesian themes price wage rigidity usually made endogenous features models rather simply assumed older keynesian style ones chicago school economics chicago school economics best known free market advocacy


monetarist ideas according milton friedman monetarists market economies inherently stable money supply greatly expand contract ben bernanke former chairman federal reserve among economists today generally accepting friedman 's analysis causes great depression ref name fed ref milton friedman effectively took many basic principles set forth adam smith classical economists modernized one example article september issue ''the new york times magazine'' claims social responsibility business


chicago school approach within macroeconomics general order historical appearance literature classical economics neoclassical economics keynesian economics neoclassical synthesis monetarism new classical economics new keynesian economics new neoclassical synthesis general alternative developments include ecological economics constitutional economics institutional economics evolutionary economics dependency theory structuralist economics world systems theory econophysics econodynamics feminist economics biophysical economics methodology theoretical research ''economic theory'' journal mainstream economic theory relies upon ''a priori'' quantitative economic models employ variety concepts theory typically proceeds assumption ''ceteris paribus''


means holding constant explanatory variables one consideration creating theories objective find ones least simple information requirements precise predictions fruitful generating additional research prior theories neoclassical economic theory constitutes dominant orthodox theoretical well methodological framework economic theory also take form schools thought heterodox economic theories microeconomics principal concepts include supply demand marginalism rational choice theory opportunity cost budget constraints utility theory firm


early macroeconomic models focused modelling relationships aggregate variables relationships appeared change time macroeconomists including new keynesians reformulated models microfoundations ref name dixon aforementioned microeconomic concepts play major part macroeconomic models nbsp instance monetary theory quantity theory money predicts increases growth rate money supply increase inflation inflation assumed influenced rational expectations development economics slower growth developed nations sometimes predicted declining marginal returns investment capital


economic theories frequently tested empirically largely use econometrics using economic data controlled experiments common physical sciences difficult uncommon economics instead broad data observationally studied type testing typically regarded less rigorous controlled experimentation conclusions typically tentative however field experimental economics growing increasing use made natural experiments statistical methods regression analysis common practitioners use methods estimate size economic significance statistical significance signal strength hypothesized relation


adjust noise variables means hypothesis may gain acceptance although probabilistic rather certain sense acceptance dependent upon falsifiable hypothesis surviving tests use commonly accepted methods need produce final conclusion even consensus particular question given different tests data sets prior beliefs criticisms based professional standards non replicability results serve checks bias errors generalization although much economic research accused non replicable prestigious journals accused facilitating replication


provision code data ref name mccullough ref like theories uses test statistics open critical analysis although critical commentary papers economics prestigious journals ''american economic review'' declined precipitously past years attributed journals' incentives maximize citations order rank higher social science citation index ssci ref name whaples ref applied economics input output models employing linear programming methods quite common large amounts data run computer programs analyse impact certain policies implan one well known example experimental


economics promoted use scientifically controlled experiments reduced long noted distinction economics natural sciences allows direct tests previously taken axioms cases found axioms entirely correct example ultimatum game revealed people reject unequal offers behavioural economics psychologist daniel kahneman nobel prize economics amos tversky 's empirical discovery several cognitive biases heuristics similar empirical testing occurs neuroeconomics another example assumption narrowly selfish preferences versus


model tests selfish altruistic cooperative preferences techniques led argue economics genuine science branches economics microeconomics economists study trade production consumption decisions occur traditional marketplace alt vegetable vendor marketplace electronic trading brings together buyers sellers electronic trading platform network create virtual market places pictured paulo stock exchange brazil alt two traders sit computer monitors financial information microeconomics examines entities forming market structure interact within market create


market system entities include private public players various classifications typically operating scarcity tradable units light government regulation item traded may tangible product apples service repair services legal counsel entertainment theory free market aggregates sum ''quantity demanded'' buyers ''quantity supplied'' sellers may reach economic equilibrium time reaction price changes practice various issues may prevent equilibrium equilibrium reached may necessarily morally equitable example supply healthcare


services limited external factors equilibrium price may unaffordable many desire cannot pay various market structures exist perfectly competitive markets participants large enough market power set price homogeneous product words every participant price taker participant influences price product real world markets often experience imperfect competition forms include monopoly one seller good duopoly two sellers good oligopoly


sellers good monopolistic competition many sellers producing highly differentiated goods monopsony one buyer good oligopsony buyers good unlike perfect competition imperfect competition invariably means market power unequally distributed firms imperfect competition potential price makers means holding disproportionately high share market power influence prices products microeconomics studies individual markets simplifying economic system assuming activity


market analysed affect markets method analysis known partial equilibrium analysis supply demand method aggregates sum activity one market general equilibrium theory studies various markets behaviour aggregates sum activity across ''all'' markets method studies changes markets interactions leading towards equilibrium production cost efficiency microeconomics production conversion inputs outputs economic process uses inputs create commodity service exchange direct use


production flow thus rate output per period time distinctions include production alternatives consumption food haircuts etc vs investment goods new tractors buildings roads etc public goods national defence smallpox vaccinations etc private goods new computers bananas etc guns vs butter opportunity cost economic cost production value next best opportunity foregone choices must made desirable yet mutually exclusive actions described expressing basic relationship scarcity choice example baker uses sack flour


make pretzels one morning baker cannot use either flour morning make bagels instead part cost making pretzels neither flour morning available longer use way opportunity cost activity element ensuring scarce resources used efficiently cost weighed value activity deciding less opportunity costs restricted monetary financial costs could measured


real cost output forgone leisure anything else provides alternative benefit utility inputs used production process include primary factors production labour services capital durable produced goods used production existing factory land including natural resources inputs may include intermediate goods used production final goods steel new car economic efficiency measures well system generates desired output given set inputs available technology efficiency improved output generated without changing inputs


words amount waste reduced widely accepted general standard pareto efficiency reached change make someone better without making someone else worse example production possibility frontier illustrative points marked production possibility frontier ppf expository figure representing scarcity cost efficiency simplest case economy produce two goods say guns butter ppf table graph right showing different quantity combinations two goods producible given technology total factor inputs


limit feasible total output point curve shows potential total output economy maximum feasible output one good given feasible output quantity good scarcity represented figure people willing unable aggregate consume ''beyond ppf'' ''x'' negative slope curve production one good ''increases'' along curve production good ' 'decreases'' inverse relationship increasing output one good requires transferring inputs production


good decreasing latter slope curve point gives trade two goods measures additional unit one good costs units forgone good example ' 'real opportunity cost'' thus one gun costs units butter opportunity cost one gun butter ''along ppf'' scarcity implies choosing ''more'' one good aggregate entails ''less'' good still market economy movement along curve may indicate


choice increased output anticipated worth cost agents construction point curve shows ''productive efficiency'' maximizing output given total inputs point ''inside'' curve ''a'' feasible represents ''production inefficiency'' wasteful use inputs output ''one goods'' could increase moving northeast direction point curve examples cited inefficiency include high unemployment business cycle recession economic organization country discourages full use resources


curve might still fully satisfy allocative efficiency also called pareto efficiency produce mix goods consumers prefer points much applied economics public policy concerned determining efficiency economy improved recognizing reality scarcity figuring organize society efficient use resources described essence economics subject makes unique contribution specialization map showing main trade routes goods within late medieval europe specialization considered


gain trading region lacks absolute advantage comparative advantage producing something else observed high volume trade occurs among regions even access similar technology mix factor inputs including high income countries led investigation economies scale agglomeration explain specialization similar differentiated product lines overall benefit respective trading parties regions general theory specialization applies trade among individuals farms manufacturers service providers economies among production systems


may corresponding ' 'division labour'' different work groups specializing correspondingly different types capital equipment differentiated land uses example combines features country specializes production high tech knowledge products developed countries trades developing nations goods produced factories labour relatively cheap plentiful resulting different opportunity costs production total output utility thereby results specializing production trading country produced high tech low tech products theory observation set


conditions market prices outputs productive inputs select allocation factor inputs comparative advantage relatively low cost inputs go producing low cost outputs process aggregate output may increase product design specialization production creates opportunities gains trade whereby resource owners benefit trade sale one type output highly valued goods measure gains trade ''increased income levels'' trade may facilitate supply demand supply demand model describes


prices vary result balance product availability demand graph depicts increase right shift demand sub sub sub sub along consequent increase price quantity required reach new equilibrium point supply curve alt graph depicting quantity x axis price axis prices quantities described directly observable attributes goods produced exchanged market economy theory supply demand organizing principle explaining prices coordinate amounts produced consumed


microeconomics applies price output determination market perfect competition includes condition buyers sellers large enough price setting power given market commodity ' 'demand'' relation quantity buyers would prepared purchase unit price good demand often represented table graph showing price quantity demanded figure demand theory describes individual consumers rationally choosing preferred quantity good given income prices tastes etc term


constrained utility maximization income wealth constraints demand utility refers hypothesized relation individual consumer ranking different commodity bundles less preferred law demand states general price quantity demanded given market inversely related higher price product less people would prepared buy things unchanged price commodity falls consumers move toward relatively expensive goods substitution effect addition purchasing power


price decline increases ability buy income effect factors change demand example increase income shift demand curve normal good outward relative origin figure determinants predominantly taken constant factors demand supply ''supply'' relation price good quantity available sale price may represented table graph relating price quantity supplied producers example business firms hypothesized ''profit maximizers'' meaning attempt


produce supply amount goods bring highest profit supply typically represented function relating price quantity factors unchanged higher price good sold producers supply figure higher price makes profitable increase production demand side position supply shift say change price productive input technical improvement law supply states general


rise price leads expansion supply fall price leads contraction supply well determinants supply price substitutes cost production technology applied various factors inputs production taken constant specific time period evaluation supply market equilibrium occurs quantity supplied equals quantity demanded intersection supply demand curves figure price equilibrium shortage quantity supplied compared quantity demanded posited


bid price price equilibrium surplus quantity supplied compared quantity demanded pushes price model supply demand predicts given supply demand curves price quantity stabilize price makes quantity supplied equal quantity demanded similarly demand supply theory predicts new price quantity combination shift demand figure supply firms people frequently trade directly markets instead supply side may work produce ''firms''


obvious kinds firms corporations partnerships trusts according ronald coase people begin organize production firms costs business becomes lower market firms combine labour capital achieve far greater economies scale average cost per unit declines units produced individual market trading perfectly competitive markets studied theory supply demand many producers none significantly influence price industrial organization generalizes special case study strategic behaviour


firms significant control price considers structure markets interactions common market structures studied besides perfect competition include monopolistic competition various forms oligopoly monopoly managerial economics applies microeconomic analysis specific decisions business firms management units draws heavily quantitative methods operations research programming statistical methods regression analysis absence certainty perfect knowledge unifying theme attempt optimize business decisions including unit cost minimization profit maximization given firm 's objectives constraints imposed


technology market conditions uncertainty game theory uncertainty economics unknown prospect gain loss whether quantifiable risk without household behaviour would unaffected uncertain employment income prospects financial capital markets would reduce exchange single instrument market period would communications industry given different forms various ways representing uncertainty modelling economic agents' responses game theory branch applied mathematics considers strategic interactions agents one kind uncertainty


provides mathematical foundation industrial organization discussed model different types firm behaviour example solipsistic industry sellers equally applicable wage negotiations bargaining contract design situation individual agents enough perceptible effects behavioural economics used model strategies agents choose interacting others whose interests least partially adverse generalizes maximization approaches developed analyse market actors supply demand model allows incomplete


information actors field dates classic ''theory games economic behavior'' john von neumann oskar morgenstern significant applications seemingly outside economics diverse subjects formulation nuclear strategies ethics political science evolutionary biology risk aversion may stimulate activity well functioning markets smooths risk communicates information risk markets insurance commodity futures contracts financial instruments financial economics simply finance describes allocation financial resources also analyses pricing financial instruments financial structure companies efficiency


fragility financial markets financial crises related government policy regulation market organizations may give rise inefficiencies associated uncertainty based george akerlof 's market lemons article paradigm example dodgy second hand car market customers without knowledge whether car lemon depress price quality second hand car would information asymmetry arises seller relevant information buyer incentive disclose related problems insurance adverse selection risk likely


insure say reckless drivers moral hazard insurance results riskier behaviour say reckless driving ref name sciencedirect ref problems may raise insurance costs reduce efficiency driving otherwise willing transactors market incomplete markets moreover attempting reduce one problem say adverse selection mandating insurance may add another say moral hazard information economics studies problems relevance subjects insurance contract law mechanism design monetary economics health care ref name sciencedirect applied subjects include market legal remedies spread reduce risk warranties government mandated partial insurance restructuring


bankruptcy law inspection regulation quality information disclosure market failure pollution simple example market failure costs production borne producers environment accident victims others prices distorted alt smokestack releasing smoke environmental scientist sampling water alt woman takes samples water river term market failure encompasses several problems may undermine standard economic assumptions although economists categorize market failures differently following categories emerge main texts br nbsp nbsp joseph e stiglitz classifies market failures failure


competition including natural monopoly information asymmetries incomplete markets externalities public good situations macroeconomic disturbances authors critical economics tend view talk market failiures term used economic theories n't correspond reality making theories paradigms terms used unfalsifiable ref name ankarloo ''nationalekonomiskr et en insider outsiderteori om den nationalekonomiska disciplinen'' ''goda sanningar debattklimatet och den kritiska forskningens villkor '' nordic academic press ref information asymmetries incomplete markets may result economic inefficiency also possibility improving efficiency market legal


regulatory remedies discussed natural monopoly overlapping concepts practical technical monopoly extreme case ''failure competition'' restraint producers extreme economies scale one possible cause public goods goods supplied typical market defining features people consume public goods without pay one person consume good time externalities occur significant social costs benefits production consumption reflected market prices


short run changes demand side supply side includes standard analysis business cycle macroeconomics analysis often revolves around causes price stickiness implications reaching hypothesized long run equilibrium examples price stickiness particular markets include wage rates labour markets posted prices markets deviating perfect competition specialized fields economics deal market failure others economics public sector one example much environmental economics concerns externalities public bads policy options include regulations reflect cost benefit


welfare associated individual units macroeconomics circulation money economy macroeconomic model model use natural resources generation waste like greenhouse gases included macroeconomics examines economy whole explain broad aggregates interactions top using simplified form general equilibrium theory aggregates include national income output unemployment rate price inflation subaggregates like total consumption investment spending components also studies effects monetary policy fiscal policy since


least macroeconomics characterized integration micro based modelling sectors including rationality players efficient use market information imperfect competition addressed long standing concern inconsistent developments subject macroeconomic analysis also considers factors affecting long term level growth national income factors include capital accumulation technological change labour force growth growth ''growth economics'' studies factors explain economic growth nbsp increase output ''per capita'' country long period time factors used explain


differences ''level'' output ''per capita'' ''between'' countries particular countries grow faster others whether countries converge rates growth much studied factors include rate investment population growth technological change represented theoretical empirical forms neoclassical endogenous growth models growth accounting business cycle economic business cycles economics depression spur creation macroeconomics separate discipline great depression john maynard keynes authored book entitled ''the general


theory employment interest money'' outlining key theories keynesian economics keynes contended aggregate demand goods might insufficient economic downturns leading unnecessarily high unemployment losses potential output therefore advocated active policy responses public sector including monetary policy actions central bank fiscal policy actions government stabilize output business cycle thus central conclusion keynesian economics situations strong automatic mechanism moves output employment towards full employment levels john hicks' lm model


influential interpretation ''the general theory'' years understanding business cycle branched various research programmes mostly related distinct keynesianism neoclassical synthesis refers reconciliation keynesian economics neoclassical economics stating keynesianism correct short run qualified neoclassical like considerations intermediate long run ref name blanchard ref new classical macroeconomics distinct keynesian view business cycle posits market clearing imperfect information includes friedman 's permanent income hypothesis consumption rational expectations theory led robert lucas real business cycle


theory contrast new keynesian approach retains rational expectations assumption however assumes variety market failures particular new keynesians assume prices wages sticky means adjust instantaneously changes economic conditions ref name dixon ref thus new classicals assume prices wages adjust automatically attain full employment whereas new keynesians see full employment automatically achieved long run hence government central bank policies needed long run may long unemployment us unemployment rate amount


unemployment economy measured unemployment rate percentage workers without jobs labour force labour force includes workers actively looking jobs people retired pursuing education discouraged seeking work lack job prospects excluded labour force unemployment generally broken several types related different causes ref name dwivedi ref classical models unemployment occurs wages high employers willing hire workers consistent classical unemployment frictional unemployment occurs appropriate job vacancies exist


worker length time needed search find job leads period unemployment ref name dwivedi structural unemployment covers variety possible causes unemployment including mismatch workers' skills skills required open jobs large amounts structural unemployment occur economy transitioning industries workers find previous set skills longer demand structural unemployment similar frictional unemployment since reflect problem matching workers job vacancies structural unemployment covers time needed acquire new


skills short term search process types unemployment may occur regardless condition economy cyclical unemployment occurs growth stagnates okun 's law represents empirical relationship unemployment economic growth original version okun 's law states increase output would lead decrease unemployment inflation monetary policy money ''means final payment'' goods price system economies unit account prices typically stated money general acceptability relative consistency value


divisibility durability portability elasticity supply longevity mass public confidence includes currency held nonbank public checkable deposits described social convention like language useful one largely useful others words francis amasa walker well known th century economist money money money ''that'' money original ref name walker ref medium exchange money facilitates trade essentially measure value importantly store value basis credit creation economic function


contrasted barter non monetary exchange given diverse array produced goods specialized producers barter may entail hard locate double coincidence wants exchanged say apples book money reduce transaction cost exchange ready acceptability less costly seller accept money exchange rather buyer produces level economy theory evidence consistent positive relationship running total money supply nominal value total output general price


level reason management money supply key aspect monetary policy fiscal policy governments implement fiscal policy influence macroeconomic conditions adjusting spending taxation policies alter aggregate demand aggregate demand falls potential output economy output gap productive capacity left unemployed governments increase spending cut taxes boost aggregate demand resources idled used government example unemployed home builders hired expand highways tax cuts allow consumers increase


spending boosts aggregate demand tax cuts spending multiplier effects initial increase demand policy percolates economy generates additional economic activity effects fiscal policy limited crowding output gap economy producing full capacity excess productive resources government increases spending situation government uses resources otherwise would used private sector increase overall output economists think crowding always


issue others think major issue output depressed sceptics fiscal policy also make argument ricardian equivalence argue increase debt paid future tax increases cause people reduce consumption save money pay future tax increase ricardian equivalence boost demand tax cuts offset increased saving intended pay future higher taxes public economics public economics field economics deals


economic activities public sector usually government subject addresses matters tax incidence really pays particular tax cost benefit analysis government programmes effects economic efficiency income distribution different kinds spending taxes fiscal politics latter aspect public choice theory models public sector behaviour analogously microeconomics involving interactions self interested voters politicians bureaucrats much economics positive seeking describe predict economic phenomena normative economics seeks identify economies ''ought'' like welfare economics normative branch economics uses microeconomic


techniques simultaneously determine allocative efficiency within economy income distribution associated attempts measure social welfare examining economic activities individuals comprise society international economics list countries gdp ppp per capita international trade studies determinants goods services flows across international boundaries also concerns size distribution gains trade policy applications include estimating effects changing tariff rates trade quotas international finance macroeconomic field examines flow capital across international borders effects


movements exchange rates increased trade goods services capital countries major effect contemporary globalization labor economics labor economics seeks understand functioning dynamics markets wage labor '''labor markets''' function interaction workers employers labor economics looks suppliers labor services workers demands labor services employers attempts understand resulting pattern wages employment income economics '''labor''' measure work done human beings conventionally contrasted


many issues currently also subject debate dispute smith repeatedly attacks groups politically aligned individuals attempt use collective influence manipulate government bidding smith 's day referred factions commonly called special interests term comprise international bankers corporate conglomerations outright oligopolies monopolies trade unions groups smith 's emphasis class conflict wealth nations economics ''per se'' social science independent political acts government decision making organization


however many policymakers individuals holding highly ranked positions influence people 's lives known arbitrarily using plethora economic concepts rhetoric vehicles legitimize agendas value systems limit remarks matters relevant responsibilities ref name dismal science get real ref close relation economic theory practice politics focus contention may shade distort unpretentious original tenets economics often confused specific social agendas value systems notwithstanding economics legitimately role informing government policy


indeed ways outgrowth older field political economy academic economic journals increased efforts gauge consensus economists regarding certain policy issues hopes effecting informed political environment often exists low approval rate professional economists regarding many public policies policy issues featured one survey american economic association economists include trade restrictions social insurance put work international competition genetically modified foods curbside recycling health insurance several questions medical malpractice barriers entering medical profession organ donations


unhealthy foods mortgage deductions taxing internet sales wal mart casinos ethanol subsidies inflation targeting issues like central bank independence central bank policies rhetoric central bank governors discourse premises macroeconomic policies monetary fiscal policy state focus contention criticism deirdre mccloskey argued many empirical economic studies poorly reported stephen ziliak argue although critique well received practice improved ref name ziliak ref latter contention controversial criticisms assumptions economics historically subject criticism relies unrealistic


unverifiable highly simplified assumptions cases assumptions simplify proofs desired conclusions examples assumptions include perfect information profit maximization rational choices axioms neoclassical economics criticisms often conflate neoclassical economics contemporary economics field information economics includes mathematical economical research also behavioural economics akin studies behavioural psychology confounding factors neoclassical assumptions subject substantial study many areas economics ref name hodgson ref prominent historical mainstream economists keynes joskow observed much economics time


conceptual rather quantitative difficult model formalize quantitatively discussion oligopoly research paul joskow pointed practice serious students actual economies tended use informal models based upon qualitative factors specific particular industries joskow strong feeling important work oligopoly done informal observations formal models trotted ''ex post'' argued formal models largely important empirical work either fundamental factor behind theory firm behaviour neglected michael woodford


noted macroeconomics longer case modelling improved significantly theoretical rigour empiricism strong focus testable quantitative work feminist critiques neoclassical economic models gained prominence leading formation feminist economics feminist economists call attention social construction economics claims highlight ways models methods reflect masculine preferences primary criticisms focus alleged failures account selfish nature actors homo economicus exogenous tastes impossibility utility comparisons exclusion


ronald coase published suggested well defined property rights could overcome problems externalities political economy interdisciplinary study combines economics law political science explaining political institutions political environment economic system capitalist socialist mixed influence studies questions monopoly rent seeking behaviour externalities impact government policy historians employed ''political economy'' explore ways past persons groups common economic interests used politics effect changes beneficial interests energy economics broad scientific subject area


includes topics related energy supply energy demand georgescu roegen reintroduced concept entropy relation economics energy thermodynamics distinguished viewed mechanistic foundation neoclassical economics drawn newtonian physics work contributed significantly thermoeconomics ecological economics also foundational work later developed evolutionary economics sociological subfield economic sociology arose primarily work mile durkheim max weber georg simmel approach analysing effects economic phenomena relation overarching social paradigm ie modernity


classic works include max weber 's ''the protestant ethic spirit capitalism'' georg simmel 's ''the philosophy money'' recently works james coleman mark granovetter peter hedstrom richard swedberg influential field gary becker presented economic theory social interactions whose applications included family charity merit goods multiperson interactions envy hatred kevin murphy authored book analyzed market behavior social environment profession professionalization economics reflected growth graduate programmes


economics awards socioeconomics general glossary economics index economics articles jel classification codes classifying articles economics journals books economics subject matter present outline economics notes references reading anderson david ''survey economics'' new york worth https wwwmacmillanlearningcom college us product survey economics p survey economics st edition macmillan learning instructors mccann charles robert jr ''the elgar dictionary economic quotations'' edward elgar https booksgooglecom booksid ffnv jg ljic printsec frontcover cad v onepage preview external links general information http wwwoswegoedu economic journalshtm economic journals web https wwwbritannicacom topic economics economics ''encyclop dia britannica'' https wwweconomicsonlinecouk economics online uk based drop menus top incl


definitions https webarchiveorg web http wwwintuteacuk socialsciences economics intute economics internet directory uk universities http repecorg research papers economics repec http rfeorg resources economists american economic association sponsored guide internet resources data neat stuff updated quarterly institutions organizations http edircrepecorg economics departments institutes research centers world https webarchiveorg web http wwwoecdorg statistics organization co operation economic development oecd statistics http unstatsunorg united nations statistics division http dataworldbankorg world bank data https wwwaeaweborg american economic association study resources http economicsaboutcom economics aboutcom economics textbooks wikibooks http wwwmerlotorg merlot materialshtmcategory merlot learning materials economics us based database learning materials http wwweconomicsnetworkacuk links othertlhtm online learning teaching materials uk economics network 's database


'''epistemology''' branch philosophy concerned knowledge epistemologists study nature origin scope knowledge epistemic justification rationality belief various related issues epistemology considered major subfield philosophy along major subfields ethics logic metaphysics ref name britannica ref debates epistemology generally clustered around four core areas ref name sep epistemology ref ref name iep ref philosophical analysis nature knowledge conditions required belief constitute knowledge truth justification potential sources knowledge justified belief perception


reason memory testimony structure body knowledge justified belief including whether justified beliefs must derived justified foundational beliefs whether justification requires coherent set beliefs philosophical skepticism questions possibility knowledge related problems whether skepticism poses threat ordinary knowledge claims whether possible refute skeptical arguments debates others epistemology aims answer questions know mean say know something makes justified beliefs


justified know know ref name britannica ref name sep epistemology ref name sep epistemology current ref background etymology word ''epistemology'' derived ancient greek ''epist '' meaning knowledge suffix '' logia'' meaning logical discourse derived greek word ''logos'' meaning discourse word 's appearance english predated german term ''wissenschaftslehre'' literally theory science introduced philosophers johann fichte bernard bolzano late th century word epistemology first appeared review new york 's ''eclectic magazine'' first used translation


word ''wissenschaftslehre'' appears philosophical novel german author jean paul ref word epistemology properly introduced anglophone philosophical literature scottish philosopher james frederick ferrier used ''institutes metaphysics'' ref important note french term '' pist mologie'' used different far narrower meaning english term epistemology used french philosophers refer solely philosophy science instance mile meyerson opened ''identity reality'' written remark word 'is becoming current'


equivalent 'the philosophy sciences' history epistemology epistemology distinct field inquiry predates introduction term lexicon philosophy john locke instance described efforts ''essay concerning human understanding'' inquiry original certainty extent human knowledge together grounds degrees belief opinion assent ren descartes often credited father modern philosophy often preoccupied epistemological questions work almost every major historical philosopher considered questions know


judgment regarding non evident matters pyrrhonism particularly concerned undermining epistemological dogmas stoicism epicureanism ref name britannica major school hellenistic skepticism academic skepticism notably defended carneades arcesilaus predominated platonic academy almost two centuries ref name britannica ancient india aj ana school ancient indian philosophy promoted skepticism aj ana rama movement major rival early buddhism jainism j vika school held impossible obtain knowledge metaphysical nature ascertain truth value philosophical propositions even knowledge


possible useless disadvantageous final salvation specialized refutation without propagating positive doctrine ancient philosophical era modern philosophical era number medieval philosophers also engaged epistemological questions length notable among medievals contributions epistemology thomas aquinas john duns scotus william ockham ref name britannica islamic epistemology islamic golden age booming prior age enlightenment europe one prominent influential philosophers theologians jurists logicians mystics abu hamid


al ghazali wrote books including best known work ce spiritual autobiography deliverance error al munqidh min al dalal book al ghazali seeking know certain true knowledge opinion accomplish goal would first consider kinds things know involves study epistemology theory knowledge epistemology largely came fore philosophy early modern period historians philosophy traditionally divide dispute empiricists including francis bacon john locke david hume


number different methods contemporary scholars use trying understand relationship past epistemology contemporary epistemology one contentious questions assume problems epistemology perennial trying reconstruct evaluate plato 's hume 's kant 's arguments meaningful current debates ref name sturm ref similarly also question whether contemporary philosophers aim ''rationally reconstruct evaluate'' historical views epistemology ''merely describe'' ref name sturm barry stroud claims epistemology competently requires historical study


past attempts find philosophical understanding nature scope human knowledge ref name history epistemology ref argues since inquiry may progress time may realize different questions contemporary epistemologists ask questions asked various different points history philosophy ref name history epistemology central concepts epistemology knowledge bertrand russell famously brought attention distinction propositional knowledge knowledge acquaintance nearly debates epistemology way related knowledge generally knowledge familiarity awareness understanding someone


respectively whereas 'to know something ' translated using portuguese spanish modern greek verbs italian verbs nouns 'knowledge' german verbs former implies knowing fact latter knowing sense acquainted working knowledge also noun derived namely said imply knowledge form recognition acknowledgment


verb implies process go one state another state state true verb seems appropriate terms describing episteme one modern european languages hence german name theoretical interpretation significance linguistic issues remains controversial paper ''on denoting'' later book ''problems philosophy'' bertrand russell brought great deal attention distinction knowledge description knowledge acquaintance gilbert ryle similarly credited bringing


attention distinction knowing knowing ''the concept mind'' ''personal knowledge'' michael polanyi argues epistemological relevance knowledge knowledge using example act balance involved riding bicycle suggests theoretical knowledge physics involved maintaining state balance cannot substitute practical knowledge ride important understand established grounded position essentially ryle 's argued failure acknowledge distinction knowledge


knowledge leads infinite regress ''a priori'' ''a posteriori'' knowledge one important distinctions epistemology known ''a priori'' independently experience known ''a posteriori'' experience terms originate analytic methods aristotle 's organon may roughly defined follows ref name sep priori ref ''a priori'' knowledge knowledge known independently experience non empirical arrived experience usually reason henceforth acquired anything independent experience ''a posteriori'' knowledge


person actively thinking snow white ' 'dispositional'' eg person asked color snow would assert snow white universal agreement nature belief contemporary philosophers hold view disposition express belief ''b'' qualifies holding belief ''b'' ref name sep belief various different ways contemporary philosophers tried describe beliefs including representations ways world could jerry fodor dispositions act certain things true roderick chisholm interpretive schemes


making sense someone 's actions daniel dennett donald davidson mental states fill particular function hilary putnam ref name sep belief also attempted offer significant revisions notion belief including eliminativists belief argue phenomenon natural world corresponds folk psychological concept belief paul churchland formal epistemologists aim replace bivalent notion belief either belief n't belief permissive probabilistic notion credence entire spectrum degrees


belief simple dichotomy belief non belief ref name sep belief ref name sep formal belief ref belief plays significant role epistemological debates surrounding knowledge justification also many philosophical debates right notable debates include rational way revise one 's beliefs presented various sorts evidence content beliefs entirely determined mental states relevant facts bearing beliefs eg believe i'm holding glass water non mental fact water h sub sub


part content belief fine grained coarse grained beliefs must possible belief expressible language non linguistic beliefs ref name sep belief truth truth property state accordance facts reality ref name sep truth ref views truth correspondence language thought mind independent world called correspondence theory truth among philosophers think possible analyze conditions necessary knowledge virtually accept truth condition


much less agreement extent knower must know ''why'' something true order know views something known implies true however confused contentious view one must know one knows order know kk principle ref name sep epistemology epistemologists disagree whether belief truth bearer common suggestions things bear property true include propositions sentences thoughts utterances judgments plato gorgias argues belief


commonly invoked truth bearer many debates regarding truth crossroads epistemology logic ref name sep truth contemporary debates regarding truth include define truth even possible give informative definition truth things truth bearers therefore capable true false truth falsity bivalent truth values criteria truth allow us identify distinguish falsity role truth play constituting knowledge truth absolute merely relative


one 's perspective ref name sep truth justification term justification used epistemology belief justified one good reason holding loosely speaking justification ' 'reason'' someone holds rationally admissible belief assumption ''good reason'' holding sources justification might include perceptual experience evidence senses reason authoritative testimony among others importantly however belief justified ''not'' guarantee belief true since person could justified forming beliefs based convincing evidence nonetheless


deceiving plato 's ''theaetetus'' socrates considers number theories knowledge first excluding merely true belief adequate account example ill person medical training generally optimistic attitude might believe recover illness quickly nevertheless even belief turned true patient would ''known'' would get well since belief lacked justification last account plato considers knowledge true belief account explains defines way according


edmund gettier view plato describing knowledge ''justified true belief'' truth view would entail order know given proposition true one must believe relevant true proposition must also good reason one implication would one would gain knowledge believing something happened true edmund gettier 's famous paper justified true belief knowledge popularized claim definition knowledge justified true belief widely accepted


whether set conditions succeeds providing set necessary sufficient conditions knowledge many contemporary epistemologists come conclusion exception free definition possible ref name aok however even justification fails condition knowledge philosophers claim question whether person good reasons holding particular belief particular set circumstances remains topic interest contemporary epistemology unavoidably linked questions rationality ref name aok internalism externalism central debate nature justification


say justified true belief count knowledge must link dependency belief state external world usually understood causal link causation extent outside mind would count external knowledge yielding condition internalists hand assert knowledge yielding conditions within psychological states gain knowledge though unfamiliar internalist externalist debate many point ren descartes early example internalist path justification


wrote method perceive external world senses senses infallible consider concept knowledge infallible way find anything could described indubitably true advocates would see things clearly distinctly ref name regulae ref argued omnipotent good made world 's reasonable believe people made ability know however mean man 's ability know perfect god gave


must making statement first place descartes could doubt senses body world around could deny existence able doubt must exist manifest doubt even evil genius deceiving would exist deceived one sure point provided called archimedean point order develop foundation knowledge simply put descartes' epistemological justification depended indubitable belief existence clear distinct knowledge


god ref name refutations ref defining knowledge gettier problem euler diagram representing version traditional definition knowledge adapted gettier problem problem gives us reason think justified true beliefs constitute knowledge edmund gettier best known paper entitled justified true belief knowledge called question common conception knowledge justified true belief ref name gettier ref two half pages gettier argued situations one 's belief may justified true yet fail count knowledge


gettier contended justified belief true proposition necessary proposition known sufficient according gettier certain circumstances one knowledge even conditions met gettier proposed two thought experiments become known ''gettier cases'' counterexamples classical account knowledge ref name aok ref one cases involves two men smith jones awaiting results applications job man ten coins pocket smith excellent


reasons believe jones get job head company told furthermore smith knows jones ten coins pocket recently counted smith infers man get job ten coins pocket however smith unaware ''also'' ten coins pocket furthermore turns smith jones going get job smith strong evidence believe jones get job wrong smith therefore justified true belief


man get job ten coins pocket however according gettier smith ''know'' man get job ten coins pocket smith 's belief true virtue number coins ''jones 's'' pocket smith know many coins smith 's pocket bases belief count coins jones 's pocket falsely believes man get job ref name gettier cases fail knowledge


subject 's belief justified happens true virtue luck words made correct choice believing man get job ten coins pocket wrong reasons gettier goes offer second similar case providing means specifics examples generalized broader problem defining knowledge terms justified true belief various notable responses gettier problem typically involved substantial attempts provide new definition knowledge


susceptible gettier style objections either providing additional fourth condition justified true beliefs must meet constitute knowledge proposing completely new set necessary sufficient conditions knowledge far many published responses mentioned notable responses discussed false premises response one earliest suggested replies gettier perhaps intuitive ways respond gettier problem false premises response sometimes also called false lemmas


response notably reply defended david malet armstrong book ''belief truth knowledge'' basic form response assert person holds justified true belief instance smith gettier 's first case made mistake inferring true belief eg person get job ten coins pocket false belief eg jones get job proponents response therefore propose add fourth necessary sufficient condition knowledge namely justified true belief must


inferred false belief reply gettier problem simple direct appears isolate goes wrong forming relevant beliefs gettier cases however general consensus fails ref name aok original formulation gettier includes person infers true belief false belief many alternate formulations case take instance case observer sees appears dog walking park forms belief dog


park fact turns observer looking dog rather lifelike robotic facsimile dog however unbeknownst observer ''is'' fact dog park albeit one standing behind robotic facsimile dog since belief dog park involve faulty inference instead formed result misleading perceptual information inference made false premise therefore seems observer fact


true belief perceptual experience provides justification holding actually ''know'' dog park instead seems formed lucky justified true belief ref name aok reliabilist response reliabilism significant line response gettier problem among philosophers originating work alvin goldman according reliabilism belief justified otherwise supported way count towards knowledge produced processes typically yield sufficiently high ratio true


false beliefs words theory states true belief counts knowledge produced reliable belief forming process examples reliable processes include standard perceptual processes remembering good reasoning introspection one commonly discussed challenge reliabilism case henry barn fa ades ref name aok thought experiment man henry driving along sees number buildings resemble barns based perception one concludes looking barn indeed looking barn turns


barn like buildings saw fa ades according challenge henry ''know'' seen barn despite belief true despite belief formed basis reliable process ie vision since acquired reliably formed true belief accident words since could easily looking barn fa ade formed false belief reliability perception general mean belief n't merely formed luckily luck seems


preclude knowledge ref name aok infallibilist response one less common response gettier problem defended richard kirkham argued definition knowledge could ever immune counterexamples infallibilist definition qualify item knowledge goes theory belief must true justified justification belief must ''necessitate'' truth words justification belief must infallible infallibilism indeed internally coherent response gettier problem incompatible everyday knowledge


holding everyday beliefs would need completely exclude possibility beliefs false consequently belief must infallibly justified order constitute knowledge must case mistaken instances claim knowledge everyday situations ref name sep certainty ref indeed possible bite bullet accept conclusion philosophers find implausible suggest know nothing almost nothing therefore reject infallibilist response collapsing radical skepticism ref name sep contextualism indefeasibility condition another


possible candidate fourth condition knowledge ''indefeasibility'' defeasibility theory maintains overriding defeating truths reasons justify one 's belief example suppose person ''s'' believes saw tom grabit steal book library uses justify claim tom grabit stole book library possible defeater overriding proposition claim could true proposition like tom grabit 's identical twin sam currently town tom defeaters one 's justification exist subject


regarded knowledge simpliciter view question justification arises second level one considers knowledge hood acquired belief initially lack uncertainty becomes true belief next moment hearer embark upon venture ''knowing whether knows p'' doubts may arise gettier like cases wrong inference knowledge hood given occurrent belief evidence may pseudo evidence mistaken truth belief


accordance nyaya fallibilism knowledge claims sustained ref name matilal gettier problem dealt chapter ''knowledge mental episode'' thread continues next chapter ''knowing one knows'' also discussed matilal 's ''word world'' p ref tracking condition robert nozick offered definition knowledge according ''s'' knows ''p'' ''p'' true ''s'' believes ''p'' ''p'' false ''s'' would believe ''p'' ''p'' true ''s'' would believe ''p'' ref name nozick philosophical explanations chapter


knowledge skepticism knowledge ''conditions knowledge'' pp ref nozick argues third conditions serves address cases sort described gettier nozick claims condition addresses case sort described dm armstrong ref name armstrong ref father believes daughter innocent committing particular crime faith baby girl seen presented courtroom conclusive demonstration daughter 's innocence belief via method courtroom satisfies four subjunctive conditions faith based belief


conditions ref name think compelling introduction philosophy ref addition externalist accounts knowledge nozick 's often forced reject closure cases intuitively valid account similar nozick 's also offered fred dretske although view focuses relevant alternatives might obtained things turned differently views nozick variety dretske variety faced serious problems suggested saul kripke ref name aok knowledge first response timothy williamson advanced theory knowledge according knowledge justified true belief


knowledge valuable mere true belief explanation formulation value problem epistemology first occurs plato 's meno socrates points meno man knew way larissa could lead others correctly could man true beliefs get even gone knowledge larissa socrates says seems knowledge true opinion guide action meno wonders knowledge valued true belief


knowledge true belief different socrates responds knowledge valuable mere true belief tethered justified justification working reason true belief locks true belief problem identify anything makes knowledge valuable mere true belief makes knowledge valuable mere minimal conjunction components justification safety sensitivity statistical likelihood anti gettier conditions particular analysis knowledge conceives knowledge divided components knowledge first epistemological theories posit knowledge


fundamental notable exceptions ref name sepvalue ref value problem emerged philosophical literature epistemology twenty first century following rise virtue epistemology partly obvious link concept value ethics ref name pritchard apq ref virtue epistemology contemporary philosophy epistemologists including ernest sosa john greco jonathan kvanvig linda zagzebski duncan pritchard defended virtue epistemology solution value problem argue epistemology also evaluate properties people epistemic agents ie intellectual virtues rather merely properties propositions propositional mental attitudes


value problem presented argument epistemic reliabilism linda zagzebski wayne riggs richard swinburne among others zagzebski analogizes value knowledge value espresso produced espresso maker liquid cup improved fact comes reliable espresso maker espresso tastes good makes difference comes unreliable machine zagzebski value knowledge deflates value mere true belief assumes reliability value disvalue goldman


olsson disagree point zagzebski 's conclusion rests assumption veritism matters acquisition true belief contrary argue reliable process acquiring true belief adds value mere true belief making likely future beliefs similar kind true analogy reliable espresso maker produced good cup espresso would valuable unreliable one luckily produced good cup reliable one would likely produce good future cups


compared unreliable one value problem important assessing adequacy theories knowledge conceive knowledge consisting true belief components according kvanvig adequate account knowledge resist counterexamples allow explanation value knowledge mere true belief theory knowledge fail would prove inadequate one influential responses problem knowledge particularly valuable ought main focus epistemology instead epistemologists ought focus


mental states understanding advocates virtue epistemology argued value knowledge comes internal relationship knower mental state believing ref name sepvalue acquiring knowledge sources knowledge many proposed sources knowledge justified belief take actual sources knowledge everyday lives commonly discussed include perception reason memory testimony ref name iep ref name sep epistemology current important distinctions ''a priori'' ''a posteriori'' distinction mentioned epistemologists draw distinction known ''a priori'' independently


experience known ''a posteriori'' experience much call ''a priori'' knowledge thought attained reason alone featured prominently rationalism might also include non rational faculty intuition defended proponents innatism contrast ''a posteriori'' knowledge derived entirely experience result experience emphasized empiricism also includes cases knowledge traced back earlier experience memory testimony ref name sep priori way look difference two


example bruce russell gives two propositions reader decides one believes option crows birds option b crows black believe option priori justified believing n't see crow know 's bird believe option b posteriori justified believe seen many crows therefore knowing black goes say n't matter statement true


psychology takes novel approach problem says innate predisposition certain types learning small parts brain resemble tabula rasa true even human beings remainder like exposed negative waiting dipped developer fluid analytic synthetic distinction analytic synthetic distinction first proposed immanuel kant immanuel kant ''critique pure reason'' drew distinction analytic synthetic propositions contended propositions know true understanding meaning


relevant philosophy language distinction significant epistemological consequences seen prominently works logical positivists ref name sep analytic synthetic ref particular set propositions known ''a posteriori'' coextensive set propositions synthetically true set propositions known ''a priori'' coextensive set propositions analytically true words true definition two kinds successful inquiry logico mathematical inquiry investigates true


definition empirical inquiry investigates true world notably would exclude possibility branches philosophy like metaphysics could ever provide informative accounts actually exists ref name sep priori ref name sep analytic synthetic american philosopher willard van orman quine paper two dogmas empiricism famously challenged analytic synthetic distinction arguing boundary two blurry provide clear division propositions true definition propositions contemporary philosophers take offered sustainable accounts


distinction vulnerable quine 's objections consensus whether succeed science knowledge acquisition science often considered refined formalized systematic institutionalized form pursuit acquisition empirical knowledge philosophy science may viewed variously application principles epistemology foundation epistemological inquiry regress problem regress problem also known agrippa 's trilemma problem providing complete logical foundation human knowledge traditional way supporting


rational argument appeal rational arguments typically using chains reason rules logic classic example goes back aristotle deducing ''socrates mortal'' logical rule says ''all humans mortal'' assertion ''socrates human'' deduce ''socrates mortal'' example know socrates human presumably apply rules ''all born human females human'' leaves open question know born humans human


theory rock bottom justification justification meanders network beliefs stopping nowhere ref name pollock p ref blockquote apparent impossibility completing infinite chain reasoning thought support skepticism also impetus descartes' famous dictum ''i think therefore am'' descartes looking logical statement could true without appeal statements responses regress problem many epistemologists studying justification attempted argue various types chains reasoning escape regress problem foundationalism


pattern linear justification avoid charge circularity coherentists hold individual belief justified circularly way fits together coheres rest belief system part theory advantage avoiding infinite regress without claiming special possibly arbitrary status particular class beliefs yet since system coherent also wrong coherentists face difficulty ensuring whole system corresponds reality additionally logicians agree argument circular best


trivially valid illuminating arguments must operate information multiple premises simply conclude reiterating premise nigel warburton writes ''thinking z'' c ircular arguments invalid words logical point view nothing intrinsically wrong however viciously circular spectacularly uninformative infinitism alternative resolution regress problem known infinitism infinitists take infinite series merely potential sense individual may indefinitely many reasons available without consciously


haack argued chains properly justified beliefs look like crossword puzzle various different lines mutually supporting thus haack 's view leaves room chains beliefs vertical terminating foundational beliefs chains horizontal deriving justification coherence beliefs also members foundationalist chains belief philosophical skepticism epistemic skepticism questions whether knowledge possible generally speaking skeptics argue knowledge requires certainty beliefs fallible meaning grounds holding always almost


always fall short certainty would together entail knowledge always almost always impossible us ref name skepticism ref characterizing knowledge strong weak dependent person 's viewpoint characterization knowledge ref name skepticism much modern epistemology derived attempts better understand address philosophical skepticism ref name klein ref pyrrhonism one oldest forms epistemic skepticism found agrippa 's trilemma named pyrrhonist philosopher agrippa skeptic demonstrates certainty achieved regard beliefs ref name ancientskepticism ref pyrrhonism dates back pyrrho elis


th century bce although know pyrrhonism today surviving works sextus empiricus ref name ancientskepticism pyrrhonists claim argument non evident proposition equally convincing argument contradictory proposition produced pyrrhonists dogmatically deny possibility knowledge instead point beliefs non evident matters cannot substantiated cartesian skepticism cartesian evil demon problem first raised ren descartes supposes sensory impressions may controlled external power rather result ordinary veridical perception ref name descartes ref scenario


nothing sense would actually exist would instead mere illusion result would never able know anything world since would systematically deceived everything conclusion often drawn evil demon skepticism even completely deceived information provided senses still ''compatible'' skeptical scenarios completely deceived must therefore either able exclude possibility deception else must deny possibility ''infallible'' knowledge knowledge completely


certain beyond immediate sensory impressions ref name descartes ref view beliefs beyond doubt immediate sensory impressions often ascribed descartes fact thought ''can'' exclude possibility systematically deceived although reasons thinking based highly contentious ontological argument existence benevolent god would allow deception occur ref name descartes responses philosophical skepticism epistemological skepticism classified either mitigated unmitigated skepticism mitigated skepticism rejects strong strict knowledge claims approve weaker ones


role experience especially experience based perceptual observations senses generation knowledge certain forms exempt disciplines mathematics logic requirements ref name uebel ref many variants empiricism including british empiricism logical empiricism phenomenalism versions common sense philosophy forms empiricism give epistemologically privileged status sensory impressions sense data although plays differently different cases famous historical empiricists include john locke david hume george berkeley francis bacon john stuart mill rudolf carnap bertrand russell rationalism rationalism


epistemological view reason chief source knowledge main determinant constitutes knowledge broadly also refer view appeals reason source knowledge justification rationalism one two classical views epistemology empiricism rationalists claim mind use reason directly grasp certain truths various domains including logic mathematics ethics metaphysics rationalist views range modest views mathematics logic gottlob frege ambitious metaphysical systems


baruch spinoza famous rationalists include plato ren descartes baruch spinoza gottfried leibniz skepticism skepticism position questions possibility human knowledge either particular domains general level ref name klein skepticism refer one specific school philosophy rather thread runs many epistemological debates ancient greek skepticism began hellenistic period philosophy featured pyrrhonism notably defended pyrrho sextus empiricus academic skepticism notably defended arcesilaus carneades among ancient indian philosophers skepticism


notably defended aj ana school buddhist madhyamika tradition modern philosophy ren descartes' famous inquiry mind body began exercise skepticism started trying doubt purported cases knowledge order search something known absolute certainty pragmatism pragmatism fallibilist epistemology emphasizes role action knowing ref name pragmatismsep ref different interpretations pragmatism variously emphasize truth final outcome ideal scientific inquiry experimentation truth closely related usefulness experience transacting instead representing nature


practical consequences different sides argument process resolve dispute dispute idle ref name pragmatismjames contemporary versions pragmatism developed thinkers richard rorty hilary putnam rorty proposed values historically contingent dependent upon utility within given historical period contemporary philosophers working pragmatism called neopragmatists also include nicholas rescher robert brandom susan haack cornel west naturalized epistemology certain respects intellectual descendant pragmatism naturalized epistemology considers evolutionary role knowledge agents living


evolving world ref name epistemology naturalized ref de emphasizes questions around justification truth instead asks empirically reliable beliefs formed role evolution played development processes suggests empirical approach subject whole leaving behind philosophical definitions consistency arguments instead using psychological methods study understand knowledge actually formed used natural world attempt answer analytic questions traditional epistemology rather replace new empirical ones ref name kim ref naturalized


epistemology first proposed epistemology naturalized seminal paper wvo quine ref name epistemology naturalized less radical view defended hilary kornblith ''knowledge place nature'' seeks turn epistemology towards empirical investigation without completely abandoning traditional epistemic concepts ref name kornblith feminist epistemology feminist epistemology subfield epistemology applies feminist theory epistemological questions began emerge distinct subfield th century prominent feminist epistemologists include miranda fricker developed concept epistemic injustice donna haraway first proposed concept


situated knowledge sandra harding elizabeth anderson ref name sep feminist epistemology ref harding proposes feminist epistemology broken three distinct categories feminist empiricism standpoint epistemology postmodern epistemology feminist epistemology also played significant role development many debates social epistemology ref name sep feminist social ref epistemic relativism epistemic relativism view true rational justified one person need true rational justified another person epistemic relativists therefore assert ' 'relative'' facts truth rationality justification ''perspective independent'' fact


matter ref name boghossian ref note distinct epistemic contextualism holds ''meaning'' epistemic terms vary across contexts eg know might mean something different everyday contexts skeptical contexts contrast epistemic relativism holds relevant ''facts'' vary linguistic meaning relativism truth may also form ontological relativism insofar relativists truth hold facts ''exists'' vary based perspective ref name boghossian epistemic constructivism constructivism view philosophy according knowledge compilation human made constructions neutral discovery


objective truth whereas objectivism concerned object knowledge constructivism emphasizes construct knowledge constructivism proposes new definitions knowledge truth emphasize intersubjectivity rather objectivity viability rather truth constructivist point view many ways comparable certain forms pragmatism epistemic idealism idealism broad term referring ontological view world sense mind dependent corresponding epistemological view everything know reduced mental phenomena first foremost idealism metaphysical doctrine epistemological doctrine


mind plato 's theory forms famous forms idealism include transcendental idealism developed immanuel kant subjective idealism developed george berkeley absolute idealism developed georg wilhelm friedrich hegel friedrich schelling bayesian epistemology bayesian epistemology formal approach various topics epistemology roots thomas bayes' work field probability theory one advantage formal method contrast traditional epistemology concepts theorems defined high degree precision based