sought explore timbres created including instruments often associated typical orchestral ensemble example robert davine explores orchestral timbres accordion included traditional wind trio divertimento accordion flute clarinet bassoon karlheinz stockhausen wrote ''helicopter string quartet'' changes mean future chamber music technological advances come questions aesthetics sociological changes music writes analyst baron changes often resulted accusations technology destroyed chamber music technological


advance inverse proportion musical worth ferocity attacks underscores fundamental changes time tell humankind benefit contemporary society analysts agree role chamber music society changed profoundly last years yet little agreement change one hand baron contends chamber music home nbsp remained important europe america second world war increasing invasion radio recording reduced scope considerably

Humanities
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view supported subjective impressions today many millions people listening music far fewer playing chamber music pleasure says conductor pianist daniel barenboim amateurs play string sextet however recent surveys suggest contrary resurgence home music making radio program amateurs help keep chamber music alive reporter theresa schiavone cites gallup poll showing increase sale stringed instruments america joe lamond president national association music manufacturers namm attributes


chamber music art music according study agreement number chamber music players opportunities amateurs play certainly grown number chamber music camps retreats amateurs meet weekend month play together burgeoned ''music love it'' organization promote amateur playing publishes directory music workshops lists workshops countries amateurs associated chamber music players acmp offers directory amateur players worldwide


welcome partners chamber music sessions regardless whether number amateur players grown shrunk number chamber music concerts west increased greatly last years concert halls largely replaced home venue concerts baron suggests one reasons surge spiraling costs orchestral concerts astronomical fees demanded famous soloists priced range audiences repertoire concerts almost universally classics th century however modern works


increasingly included programs groups like kronos quartet devote almost exclusively contemporary music new compositions ensembles like turtle island string quartet combine classical jazz rock styles create crossover music cello fury project trio offer new spin standard chamber ensemble cello fury consists three cellists drummer project trio includes flutist bassist cellist plays chamber music seattle streetcar several groups classical revolution simple measures taken classical chamber music concert hall


streets simple measures group chamber musicians seattle washington usa gives concerts shopping centers coffee shops streetcars providence rhode island usa string quartet started storefront strings program offering impromptu concerts lessons storefront one providence 's poorer neighborhoods really makes said rajan krishnaswami cellist founder simple measures audience reaction nbsp really get audience feedback performance chamber music performance specialized field requires number skills normally required performance symphonic


solo music many performers authors written specialized techniques required successful chamber musician chamber music playing writes herter norton requires individuals nbsp make unified whole yet remain individuals soloist whole unto orchestra individuality lost numbers nbsp music friends chamber musicians short tempered clavichord illustrator http bonottorobertgooglepagescom robert bonotto many performers contend intimate nature chamber music playing requires certain personality traits david waterman cellist endellion quartet writes chamber musician needs balance assertiveness


flexibility good rapport essential arnold steinhardt first violinist guarneri quartet notes many professional quartets suffer frequent turnover players many musicians cannot take strain going ''mano mano'' three people year year mary norton violinist studied quartet playing kneisel quartet beginning last century goes far players different parts quartet different personality traits tradition first violin leader mean relentless predominance second violinist little


everybody 's servant artistic contribution member measured skill asserting subduing individuality must possess interesting interpretation individual problems interpretation challenging enough writes waterman quartet grappling profound intimate heartfelt compositions music literature communal nature decision making often testing decisions daniel epstein teaching schumann piano quartet manhattan school music br picture ''the music lesson'' jan vermeer problem finding agreement


musical issues complicated fact player playing different part may appear demand dynamics gestures contrary parts passage sometimes differences even specified score example cross dynamics indicated one instrument crescendoing another getting softer one issues must settled rehearsal leads ensemble point piece normally first violin leads ensemble leading means violinist indicates start movement


tempos gesture head bowing hand however passages require instruments lead example john dalley second violinist guarneri quartet says 'll often ask cellist lead pizzicato passages cellist 's preparatory motion pizzicato larger slower violinist players discuss issues interpretation rehearsal often mid performance players things spontaneously requiring players respond real time twenty years guarneri quartet i'm happily surprised occasion find totally wrong


think player 'll react particular passage says violist michael tree ensemble blend balance graphic interpretation burletta movement bart k 's th string quartet artist joel epstein playing together constitutes major challenge chamber music players many compositions pose difficulties coordination figures hemiolas syncopation fast unison passages simultaneously sounded notes form chords challenging play tune beyond challenge merely playing together rhythmic intonation perspective greater challenge sounding good together create


unified chamber music sound blend players must coordinate details technique must decide use vibrato much often need coordinate bowing breathing phrases ensure unified sound need agree special techniques spiccato sul tasto sul ponticello balance refers relative volume instruments chamber music conversation sometimes one instrument must stand sometimes another always simple matter members ensemble determine


proper balance playing frequently require outside listener recording rehearsal tell relations instruments correct intonation chamber music playing presents special problems intonation piano tuned using equal temperament notes scale spaced exactly equally method makes possible piano play key however intervals except octave sound slightly tune string players play intonation play specific intervals fifths exactly


tune moreover string wind players use ''expressive intonation'' changing pitch note create musical dramatic effect string intonation expressive sensitive equal tempered piano intonation however using true expressive intonation requires careful coordination players especially piece going harmonic modulations difficulty string quartet intonation determine degree freedom given moment says steinhardt chamber music experience players chamber music amateur professional attest unique enchantment playing ensemble


every good natured musical confrontation professional gossip latest viola joke playing chamber music inspiration numerous books fiction nonfiction ''an equal music'' vikram seth explores life love second violinist fictional quartet maggiore central story tensions intimacy developed four members quartet strange composite performance maggiore composed many disjunct parts chairs stands music bows instruments musicians nbsp ''the rosendorf quartet'' nathan shaham


describes trials string quartet palestine establishment state israel ''for love it'' wayne booth nonfictional account author 's romance cello playing chamber music chamber music societies numerous societies dedicated encouragement performance chamber music http wwwacmpnet associated chamber music players acmp chamber music network international organization encourages amateur professional chamber music playing acmp fund support chamber music projects publishes directory chamber musicians worldwide http wwwchamber musicorg


chamber music america supports professional chamber music groups grants residencies commissions award programs professional development programs cobbett association chamber music research organization dedicated rediscovery works forgotten chamber music http wwwmusicfortheloveofitcom music love publishes newsletter amateur chamber music activities worldwide well guide music workshops amateurs http wwwottawachamberfestcom ottawa chamber music society non profit organization encourages public involvement appreciation chamber music ocms organized ottawa chamber music festival largest chamber music festival


world since musica viva australia large non profit chamber music promoter working across australia tours local international chamber music artists well managing chamber music festivals young artist development programs addition national international organizations also numerous regional local organizations support chamber music prominent professional american chamber music ensembles organizations http wwwchambermusicsocietyorg chamber music society lincoln center based new york city http wwwswmusicorg southwest chamber music based los angeles http wwwchicagochambermusicorg chicago chamber music based chicago http wwwcanadianbrasscom canadian brass based


new york toronto http wwwjuilliardstringquartetorg juilliard string quartet new york http wwwkronosquartetorg kronos string quartet san francisco emerson string quartet new york festivals ensembles partial list types ensembles found chamber music standard repertoire chamber ensembles rich totality chamber music print sheet music form nearly boundless see articles instrument combination examples repertoire class wikitable number musicians name common ensembles instrumentation ref group instr name instrfn comments rowspan align center rowspan duo piano duo pianos rowspan instrumental


duo instrument piano found especially instrumental sonatas ie violin cello viola horn bassoon clarinet flute sonatas instrument basso continuo common baroque music predating piano basso continuo part always present provide rhythm accompaniment often played harpsichord instruments also used contemporaneously however work called duo solo rowspan duet piano duet piano hands mozart beethoven schubert brahms original pieces many transcriptions works favorite domestic


musical form many transcriptions genres operas symphonies concertos vocal duet voice piano commonly used art song lied instrumental duet instrument either equal mozart 's duets kv vn va sonata kv bsn vc beethoven 's duet va vc bart k 's duets vn rowspan align center rowspan trio string trio vln vla vc mozart 's divertimento kv important example beethoven composed trios near


beginning career vln vla trios written dvo k bridge kod ly piano trio vln vc pno haydn mozart beethoven schubert chopin mendelssohn schumann brahms many others voice viola piano voice vla pno william bolcom 's trio let evening come soprano viola piano brahms' zwei ges nge op contralto viola piano clarinet viola piano trio cl vla pno mozart 's trio k works schumann bruch clarinet cello piano trio cl vc pno beethoven 's trio op


well transcription op septet op trios louise farrenc ferdinand ries brahms 's trio op alexander von zemlinsky 's op robert muczynski 's fantasy trio voice clarinet piano voice cl pno schubert 's shepherd rock spohr 's lieder flute viola harp fl vla hrp famous works debussy bax th century invention surprisingly large repertoire variant flute cello harp flute oboe english horn fl ob e hrn nicholas laucella 's


divertimento flute oboe english horn clarinet violin piano cl vln pno famous compositions bart k ives berg donald martino milhaud khachaturian th century horn trio hrn vln pno two masterpieces brahms ligeti voice horn piano voice hrn pno schubert 's auf dem strom reed trio ob cl bsn th century composers villa lobos established typical combination also well suited transcriptions mozart 's basset horn trios beethoven 's ob english horn trio


rowspan align center rowspan quartet string quartet vln vla vc popular form numerous major examples haydn creator mozart beethoven schubert many leading composers see article piano quartet vln vla vc pno mozart 's kv beethoven youth compositions schumann brahms faur violin clarinet cello piano vln cl vc pno rare famous example messiaen 's quatuor pour la fin du temps less famous hindemith walter rabl op clarinet quartet b clarinets bass clarinet twentieth century composers saxophone quartet


vn va vc fl ob cl bsn mozart 's four flute quartets one oboe quartet krommer 's flute quartets eg op clarinet quartets bassoon quartets eg op set devienne 's bassoon quartet j rg duda 's ''finnish quartets'' accordion wind trio acc fl cl bsn robert davine 's divertimento flute clarinet bassoon accordion piano wind trio pno cl hrn bsn franz berwald 's op voice piano trio voice pno vn vc used beethoven joseph haydn settings lieder based


folk melodies rowspan align center rowspan quintet rowspan piano quintet vln vla vc pno schumann 's op brahms bart k dvo k shostakovich others vln vla vc cb pno uncommon instrumentation used franz schubert trout quintet well johann nepomuk hummel louise farrenc wind quintet fl cl ob bsn hrn th century reicha danzi others th century composers carl nielsen 's op string quintet vln vla vc additional vla vc cb nd vla michael


haydn mozart beethoven brahms bruckner nd vc boccherini schubert cb vagn holmboe dvo k wind strings quintet ob cl vln vla cb prokofiev quintet g minor op six movements brass quintet tr hrn trm tuba mostly rowspan clarinet quintet cl vn va vc mozart 's kv brahms 's op weber 's op samuel coleridge taylor 's op hindemith 's quintet clarinet player must alternate b e instrument milton babbitt 's


clarinet quintet many others cl pno left hand vn va vc schmidt 's chamber pieces dedicated pianist paul wittgenstein played left hand although almost always performed nowadays two hands version arranged friedrich w hrer piano wind quartet pno ob cl bsn hrn mozart 's kv beethoven 's op many others including two nikolai rimsky korsakov anton rubinstein four wind instruments may vary pierrot ensemble fl cl vln vc pno named arnold schoenberg 's ''pierrot lunaire'' first


piece demand instrumentation works include joan tower 's ''petroushkates'' sebastian currier 's ''static'' elliott carter 's triple duo works ''pierrot lunaire'' augment ensemble voice percussion reed quintet ob cl sax bs cl bsn th st centuries wind instrument string quartet wind instrument vn va vc mozart 's quintet clarinet strings franz krommer 's quintet flute strings op bax 's quintet oboe strings rowspan align center rowspan sextet string sextet vln vla


vc less commonly vln vla vc cb popularized mendelssohn 's string octet op others among works bruch woldemar bargiel george enescu 's string octet op pair pieces shostakovich followed double quartet vln vla vc two string quartets arranged antiphonically genre preferred spohr milhaud 's op octet rather couple string quartets th th performed simultaneously wind octet ob cl hrn bsn mozart 's kv beethoven 's op


franz lachner 's op reinecke 's op many written franz krommer including one written stravinsky delightful petite symphonie gounod vocal octet sop alto ten bass robert lucas de pearsall 's ''lay garland'' purcell 's ''hear prayer'' align center nonet wind string nonet fl ob cl hrn bsn vln vla vc cb stanford 's serenade parry 's wind nonet single example composed spohr two bohuslav martin four alois h ba align center decet double wind quintet


ob english hrn cl hrn bsn mozart 's set fl ob eng hrn cl hrn bsn enescu 's set double wind quintets written th century notable exceptions partitas josef reicha antonio rosetti th th centuries plentiful common instrumentation flutes piccolo oboes english horn two clarinets two horns two bassoons best th century compositions mile bernard divertissement arthur bird 's suite salomon jadassohn serenade


harry houdini famous escapologist magician harry houdini one escapology performance boston '''escapology''' practice escaping restraints traps escapologists also classified '''escape artists''' escape handcuffs straitjackets cages coffins steel boxes barrels bags burning buildings fish tanks perils often combination history art escaping restraints confined spaces skill employed performers long time originally displayed overt act instead used secretly create illusions

Human physical performance and recreation


disappearance transmutation ref name dawes ref davenport brothers skilled releasing rope ties used art convey impression restrained created spirit phenomena illusionists including john nevil maskelyne worked davenports act created tricks debunk brothers' claims psychic power however creations involve overt escape merely replication tricks statement accomplished secret magicians' skills rather spirits took another thirty years pure skill escape began


displayed act figure responsible making escapology recognized entertainment harry houdini built career demonstrating ability escape huge variety restraints difficult situations houdini made secret fact expert restraints skills needed overcome often concealed exact details escapes maintain air mystery suspense although many escapes relied technical skills lock picking contortion also performed tricks metamorphosis


chinese water torture cell essentially classic stage illusions reliant cleverly designed props houdini 's feats helped define basic repertoire escapology including escapes handcuffs padlocks straitjackets mail bags beer barrels prison cells succession performers added new ideas created variations old stunts common even best contemporary escapologists dubbed modern day houdinis lifetime houdini argued main escape acts copyrighted sued competitors john clempert apologized settled court st nicholas owen


successfully escaped tower london arranged escape two jesuit inmates prison th century christian martyr considered catholic escapologists patron saint along st john bosco two considered primary patrons catholic gospel magicians societies united kingdom escape artists formed currently organisation united kingdom devoted promotion uk escape artists preservation escapology within uk members made professional escapologists restraint collectors master locksmiths historians ukea meet


year agm international escapologists society online society monthly newsletter dedicated art escape international level escape masters international association escape artists formed renowned escape artist norman bigelow run thomas blacke international president organization editor publisher magazine since newsletter ceased publication passing mr blacke founded february global escapology organisation geo elite group escapologists subject experts


form escape performance popularised norman bigelow sr presented escapes pure tests human skill endurance audience could actually see everything start finish signature escape doors death inspired many escape artists adopt style performance shows one performer jonathon bryce took full view approach buried alive escape encouragement norman bigelow sr made world debut buried alive full view music art festival buffalo


ny help goo goo dolls bassist robby takac mark nelson great markini also performed full view electrified mummy lid torture board escape '''escape die''' form escape performance originated houdini standard top line escapologists least three possible ways escapologist 's life risk possible failure escape '' 'death drowning''' water escapes houdini pioneered '' 'death suffocation''' escapes airtight enclosures containing water coffins '' 'death falling''' also


electrocution''' electrified mummy lid torture board escape required seconds fatal charge electricity would passed chains holding board world records lucas wilson illusionist canada managed fastest ever recorded escape straitjacket suspended escaped seconds hanging upside ankles height fiction ''the grim game'' film stars harry houdini young man bound imprisoned numerous occasions gang


kidnapped fianc e considered many houdini 's best film lost years rediscovered escape artist magician dorothy dietrich ''haldane secret service'' film directed starring harry houdini repeatedly restrained villains murdered detective father filmed beaver kill falls valatie ny novel ''the amazing adventures kavalier clay'' written michael chabon winner pulitzer prize features escapology important plot point ''ragtime'' el doctorow features harry houdini major character uses escapology


metaphor struggles faced american immigrant american superhero comic books many superheroes like batman trained escapology invaluable dealing deathtraps however superheroes escapologists profession include mister miracle ms liberty escapist mister miracle escapist based escapologist turned comic artist jim steranko houdini appeared time space traveler comic book series ''daring escapes featuring houdini'' biographical film ''houdini'' starring tony curtis title role depicted many houdini 's escapology performances curtis' performance artist character


great leslie also performs suspended straight jacket escape start film ''the great race'' christopher george played escape artist named cameron steele tv movie unsold series pilot ''escape'' steele non performing escapologist night club owner like bill bixby 's anthony blake ''the magician'' habitually helped people trouble griffin o'neal played junior escapologist named danny masters film ''the escape artist'' real life escape artist bill shirk played film called ''the escapist'' yorick main character comic book ''y last man''


houdini work dorothy dietrich female escapologist amazing watch got train dorothy dietrich first lady magician catch bullet teeth fisher studied life work dietrich prepare role dorothy real female escapologist working today first woman capture bullet teeth amazing feat 's good misdirection also connects emotionally audience 's better able involve


stunts list notable escape artists harry houdini doc cunningham alan alan antony britton http wwwandrewbassocom andrew basso dean gunnarson frank reno james randi norman bigelow david merlini bill shirk dorothy dietrich http mrescapecom steve baker mr escape criss angel michael griffin kristen johnson jonathan goodwin roslyn walker http wwwcliffescapecom cliff gerstman major zamora gopinath muthukad johnny strange see also illusionist list magicians stunt performer references external links http wwwhoudiniorg houdini museum tour magic show https webarchiveorg web http wwwpro magicnet escapologyphp escapology magic art escape http buskercentralcom videophp magic busker central rare historic videos escapologists magic illusion magic tricks physical restraint de fesselung physisch entfesselungskunst


action divine etymology word ''liturgy'' derived technical term ancient greek ''leitourgia'' literally means work people literal translation two words litos ergos public service origin signified often expensive offerings wealthy greeks made service people thus ''polis'' state ''leitourgia'' rich carried financial burden correspondingly rewarded honours prestige ''leitourgia'' assigned polis state roman empire became obligatory

Applied science
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civic amenities even payment warships eventually roman empire obligations known ''munera'' devolved competitive ruinously expensive burden avoided possible included wide range expenses civic infrastructure amenities imperial obligations highway bridge aqueduct repair supply various raw materials bread baking troops transit name buddhism buddhist liturgy buddhist liturgy formalized service veneration worship performed within buddhist sangha community nearly every traditional denomination sect buddhist


world often done one times day vary among theravada mahayana vajrayana sects liturgy mainly consists chanting reciting ' 'sutra'' passages ' 'sutras'' ''mantra'' especially vajrayana several ''gathas'' depending practice practitioner wishes undertake done temple home liturgy almost always performed front object objects veneration accompanied offerings light incense water food christianity bishop celebrating divine liturgy eastern catholic church


liturgy silence typically christianity however term liturgy normally refers standardised order events observed religious service sacramental service service public prayer usually former referent ancient tradition sacramental liturgy especially participation people work god primarily saving work jesus christ liturgy christ continues work redemption term liturgy greek literally means work people better translation public service public work


made clear origin term described early christians adopted word describe principal act worship sunday service referred various terms including holy eucharist holy communion mass divine liturgy considered sacrifice service liturgy ministry latin ministerium duty christians priestly people baptism christ participation high priestly ministry also god 's ministry service worshippers reciprocal service many christian churches designate


one person participates worship service liturgist liturgist may read announcements scriptures calls worship minister preaches sermon offers prayers blesses sacraments liturgist may either ordained minister lay person entire congregation participates offers liturgy god islam ''sal t'' prayer '''' '''' pl '''' practice physical compulsory prayer islam opposed dua arabic word supplication importance muslims indicated status one


prayers often instructions commentary found ' 'siddur'' traditional jewish prayer book general jewish men obligated pray three times day within specific time ranges ''zmanim'' according modern orthodox authorities women ' 'required'' pray daily generally exempted obligations time dependent public prayer requires minyan quorum adults present traditionally three prayer services recited daily ''shacharit'' ''shaharit'' hebrew ' 'shachar'' ' 'shahar'' morning light ''mincha'' ''minha''


afternoon prayers named flour offering accompanied sacrifices temple jerusalem ''arvit'' ''maariv'' nightfall additional prayers ''musaf'' additional traditionally recited shabbat major jewish holidays including chol hamoed rosh chodesh fifth prayer service ''ne'ila'' closing recited yom kippur day atonement see also book common prayer book common worship divine liturgy divine service eastern orthodoxy divine service lutheran eucharist kesh temple hymn liturgy nintud sumerian clay tablet written early bc liturgical books


roman rite liturgical year mass liturgy sacrament seokjeon daeje siddur references reading baldovin john f sj ''reforming liturgy response critics'' liturgical press bowker john ed ''oxford dictionary world religions'' oxford university press bugnini annibale ''the reform liturgy ndash '' liturgical press dix dom gregory ''the shape liturgy'' donghi antonio ''words gestures liturgy'' liturgical press johnson lawrence j ''worship early church anthology historical sources'' liturgical press jones cheslyn geoffrey wainwright edward


orthodox christian liturgy website liturgy https webarchiveorg web http wwwlutheransonlinecom servlet cpsservlet dbpage dpage mode ddisplay gid pg brief exposition divine service liturgy religious rituals


'''military science''' study military processes institutions behavior along study warfare theory application organized coercive force mainly focused theory method practice producing military capability manner consistent national defense policy military science serves identify strategic political economic psychological social operational technological tactical elements necessary sustain relative advantage military force increase likelihood favorable outcomes victory peace war military scientists include theorists researchers experimental scientists applied scientists designers engineers test

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second world war military science written english starting capital letters thought academic discipline alongside physics philosophy medical science part due general mystique accompanied education world late european population illiterate ability officers make complex calculations required equally complex evolutions troop movements linear warfare increasingly dominated renaissance later history introduction gunpowder weapons equation warfare added


thinking officers brought shadow napoleonic wars younger officers like ardant du picq tended view fighting performance rooted individual 's group psychology suggested detailed analysis set motion eventual fascination military organisations application quantitative qualitative research theories combat attempt translate military thinking philosophic concepts concrete methods combat military implements supply army organization tactics discipline constituted elements military science ages improvement


weapons accoutrements appears lead control rest breakthrough sorts made clausewitz suggesting eight principles methods based europe first time presented opportunity largely remove element chance error command decision making process time emphasis made topography including trigonometry military art military science military history organisation army field artillery science projectiles field fortifications permanent fortifications military legislation military administration manoeuvres military science model


german combat operations built first world war remained largely unaltered napoleonic model took consideration vast improvements firepower ability conduct great battles annihilation rapid concentration force strategic mobility maintenance strategic offensive better known cult offensive key modes thinking war remained analysis military history attempts derive tangible lessons could replicated equal success another battlefield sort bloody laboratory military


science bloodier fields western front fascinatingly man probably understood clausewitz better marshal foch would initially participate events nearly destroyed french army however true say military theorists commanders suffering collective case stupidity quite opposite true analysis military history convinced decisive aggressive strategic offensive doctrine victory feared overemphasis firepower resultant dependence entrenchment would make impossible


required cooperate tanks aircraft new artillery tactics perception military discipline changed morale despite strict disciplinarian attitudes cracked armies war best performing troops found emphasis discipline replaced display personal initiative group cohesiveness found australian corps hundred days offensive military sciences' analysis military history failed european commanders give way new military science less conspicuous appearance aligned processes


science testing experimentation scientific method forever wed idea superiority technology battlefield currently military science still means many things different organisations united kingdom much european union approach relate closely civilian application understanding example belgium 's royal military academy military science remains academic discipline studied alongside social sciences including subjects humanitarian law united states department defense defines military science terms specific systems operational requirements include among


areas civil defense force structure employment military skills first instance military science concerned participate military operations sets skills knowledge require effectively somewhat ingeniously military organization develops optimal methods administration organization military units well military whole addition area studies associated aspects mobilization demobilization military government areas recently conquered liberated enemy control force structuring force structuring method personnel weapons


equipment use organized trained military operations including combat development force structure country based strategic operational tactical needs national defense policy identified threats country technological capabilities threats armed forces force structure development guided doctrinal considerations strategic operational tactical deployment employment formations units territories areas zones expected perform missions tasks force structuring applies armed services supporting organisations


specific unit rd infantry division way units branch infantry follow structural guidelines allows efficient financing training employment like units operationally military education training studies methodology practices involved training soldiers ncos non commissioned officers ie sergeants corporals officers also extends training small large units individually concert one another regular reserve organizations military training especially officers also concerns general education political


engaging combat attempts reduce many factors set principles govern interactions field battle europe principles first defined clausewitz principles war directs planning execution battles operations wars whole two major systems prevail planet today broadly speaking may described western system russian system system reflects supports strengths weakness underlying society modern western military art composed primarily amalgam


french german british american systems russian system borrows systems well either study personal observation form invasion napoleon 's war great patriotic war form unique product suited conditions practitioners system encounter system produced analysis provided military art known doctrine western military doctrine relies heavily technology use well trained empowered nco cadre superior information processing dissemination provide level battlefield awareness opponents


cannot match advantages extreme flexibility extreme lethality focus removing opponent 's c command communications control intelligence paralyze incapacitate rather destroying combat power directly hopefully saving lives process drawbacks high expense reliance difficult replace personnel enormous logistic train difficulty operating without high technology assets depleted destroyed soviet military doctrine descendants cis countries relies heavily masses machinery troops highly educated albeit small officer corps pre planned missions advantages


require well educated troops require large logistic train tight central control rely sophisticated c system initiation course action disadvantages inflexibility reliance shock effect mass resulting high cost lives material overall inability exploit unexpected success respond unexpected loss chinese military doctrine currently state flux people 's liberation army evaluating military trends relevance china chinese military doctrine influenced number sources


including indigenous classical military tradition characterized strategists sun tzu western soviet influences well indigenous modern strategists mao zedong one distinctive characteristic chinese military science places emphasis relationship military society well viewing military force merely one part overarching grand strategy system trains officer corps philosophy regarding military art differences content emphasis illustrative united states army principles war defined us army field manual fm nbsp


divided operational art tactics scientific approach military science thinking soviet union perceived overly rigid tactical level affected training russian federation 's much reduced forces instil greater professionalism initiative forces military principles war people 's liberation army loosely based soviet union significant shift begun seen regionally aware geographically specific strategic operational tactical thinking services pla currently influenced


three doctrinal schools conflict complement people 's war regional war revolution military affairs led substantial increase defense spending rate technological modernisation forces differences specifics military art notwithstanding military science strives provide integrated picture chaos battle illuminate basic insights apply combatants agree formulation principles military geography military geography encompasses much simple protestations take high ground military geography studies


obvious geography theatres war also additional characteristics politics economics natural features locations likely conflict political landscape example example soviet afghan war predicated ability soviet union successfully invade afghanistan also militarily politically flank islamic republic iran simultaneously military systems effectively efficiently militaries accomplish operations missions tasks closely related methods use equipment weapons use military intelligence military intelligence supports


combat commanders' decision making process providing intelligence analysis available data wide range sources provide informed analysis commanders information requirements identified input process gathering analysis protection dissemination information operational environment hostile friendly neutral forces civilian population area combat operations broader area interest intelligence activities conducted levels tactical strategic peacetime period transition war war militaries maintain military intelligence capability provide analytical


information collection personnel specialist units arms services personnel selected intelligence duties whether specialist intelligence officers enlisted soldiers non specialist assigned intelligence may selected analytical abilities intelligence receiving formal training military intelligence serves identify threat provide information understanding best methods weapons use deterring defeating military logistics art science planning carrying movement maintenance military forces comprehensive sense aspects military operations deal


design development acquisition storage distribution maintenance evacuation disposition material movement evacuation hospitalization personnel acquisition construction maintenance operation disposition facilities acquisition furnishing services military technology equipment military technology study various technologies applicable physical sciences used increase military power may also extend study production methods military equipment ways improve performance reduce material technological requirements production example effort expended nazi germany produce artificial


rubbers fuels reduce eliminate dependence imported pol petroleum oil lubricants rubber supplies military technology unique application use basic scientific technological achievements uniqueness use military technological studies strive incorporate evolutionary well rare revolutionary technologies proper place military application military society speciality examines ways military society interact shape dynamic intersection military society meet influenced trends society security environment ref


motivate enlistment reenlistment service members must mental physical ability meet challenges military service adapt military 's values culture ref name sciences studies show enlistment motivation generally incorporates self interest pay non market values like adventure patriotism comradeship veterans study veterans members military leave return society one important subfields military society field study veterans issues represent microcosm field military recruits represent inputs flow community


armed forces veterans outputs leave military reenter society changed time soldiers sailors marines airmen society veteran face multiple layers adaptation adjustment upon reentry definition veteran surprisingly fluid across countries us veteran status established service member completed minimum period service australia requires deployment combat zone uk everyone performed military service least one day drawn day pay termed veteran study veterans focuses


much attention sometimes uneasy transition back civilian society veterans must navigate complex cultural transition moving environments expect positive negative transition outcomes finding good job reestablishing fulfilling family life high resettlement agenda military life often violent dangerous trauma combat often results post traumatic stress disorder well painful physical health challenges often lead homelessness suicide substance excessive alcohol use family dysfunction society recognizes responsibilities veterans offering programs policies


designed redress problems veterans also exert influence society often political process example veterans vote establish party affiliation presidential election veterans basically bipartisan veterans fought croatia war independence voted nationalist parties greater numbers reserve forces reserve forces service members serve armed forces part time basis men women constitute reserve force countries rely defense disaster support day day operations etc united states active reservist spends


weekend month two weeks year training size county reserve force often depends type recruitment method nations volunteer force tend lower reserve percentage recently role reserves changed many countries gone strategic force largely static operational force largely dynamic wwii relatively large standing forces took care operational needs reserves held back strategically deployed times emergency example cuban missile crisis subsequently strategic budget situation


changed result active duty military began rely reserve force particularly combat support combat service support large scale military operation routinely mobilize deploy reservists lomsky feder et al p introduced metaphor reserve forces ''transmigrants'' live betwixt civilian military worlds metaphor captures structural duality suggests dynamic nature reservist experience navigate commitments often conflicting civilian military worlds given greater likelihood lengthy deployment reservists face many stresses active duty often


fewer support services university studies universities colleges around world also offer degree military science belgium royal military academy belgium ba social military science social military science israel tel aviv university security bar ilan university military security intelligence finland national defence university bachelor master phd military science france sciences po paris school international affairs master international security new zealand massey university centre defence security studies ba defence studies victoria university wellington centre strategic studies


master strategic studies mss slovenia university ljubljana faculty social studies ba phd defence studies phd military social sciences united kingdom king 's college london international security strategy mphil phd defence studies university hull strategy international security university st andrews mlitt strategic studies sri lanka sri lanka military academy bachelor masters degree military studies military training school diyatalawa sri lanka south africa south african military academy university stellenbosch bachelor military science bmil master


military science mmil mphil security management united states united states air force academy major military strategic studies minor nuclear weapons strategy united states military academy major defense strategic studies hawaii pacific university major diplomacy military studies missouri state university minor military studies international military sciences studies associations many international associations core purpose bringing scholars field military science together inter disciplinary broad scope whilst others confined specialized focusing specific disciplines


subjects integrated larger scientific communities like international sociological association isa american psychological association apa others grown military institutions individuals particular interest areas military science military defense armed forces oriented associations american psychological association division society military psychology apa div european research group military society ergomas inter university seminar armed forces society ius international congress soldiers physical performance icspp international military testing association imta international society military sciences isms international


sociological association rc armed forces conflict resolution military studies journals following notable journals field ref name googlescholar ref ''armed forces society'' ''european security'' ''international journal intelligence counterintelligence'' ''international peacekeeping'' ''international security'' ''joint forces quarterly'' ''journal strategic studies'' ''military psychology'' ''military review'' ''orbis journal '' ''parameters journal '' quarterly journal us army war college ''security dialogue'' ''security studies journal '' ''survival journal '' ''the rusi journal'' ''the washington quarterly'' see also military doctrine military theory war list basic military science technology topics list military inventions list military writers references '''notes''' '''bibliography''' barnard henry


''military schools courses instruction science art war france prussia austria russia sweden switzerland sardinia england united states part france prussia'' jb lippincott co philadelphia dupuy trevor n ''understanding war history theory combat'' leo cooper london jordan kelly c military science g kurt piehler ed ''encyclopedia military science'' sage reference volume pp nbsp lodge henry cabot ed ''the north american review'' making america project university northern iowa muehlbauer matthew david j ulbrich eds ''the routledge history


global war society'' https wwwroutledgecom routledge history global war society muehlbauer ulbrich p book muehlbauer matthew david j ulbrich ''ways war american military history colonial era twenty first century'' https wwwroutledgecom ways war american military history colonial era twenty first muehlbauer ulbrich p book shields patricia dynamic intersection military society sookermany eds ''handbook military sciences'' springer cham soeters joseph shields patricia rietjens sebastiaan https booksgooglecom bookshl en lr id endpawaaqbaj oi fnd pg pt ots trfdlv qzh sig dp oqinne qzslwdw pbp chm v onepage q f false routledge handbook research methods military studies new york routledge sookermany ed ''handbook military sciences'' springer cham thompson julian ''lifeblood war logistics armed conflict'' brassey 's classics london external links https wwwarmedforces intcom military technology us


military government texts https wwwdodccrporg files kass logicpdf logic warfighting experiments kass ccrp https wwwdodccrporg files smith complexitypdf complexity networking effects based approaches operations smith ccrp https wwwdodccrporg files alberts uc pdf understanding command control alberts hayes ccrp https wwwdodccrporg files atkinson agilepdf agile organization atkinson moffat ccrp https wwwdodccrporg files alberts powerpdf power edge alberts hayes ccrp https wwwdodccrporg files alberts ncwpdf network centric warfare alberts et al ccrp


survey sky energies gev collected fermi gamma ray space telescope five years observation sky energies mev observed energetic gamma ray experiment telescope egret compton gamma ray observatory cgro satellite ndash moon seen energetic gamma ray experiment telescope egret gamma rays greater nbsp mev produced cosmic ray bombardment surface '''gamma ray astronomy''' astronomical observation gamma rays ref group nb astronomical literature generally hyphenates gamma ray used adjective uses

Natural science
Space science
Astronomy
Gamma ray astronomy


gamma ray without hyphen noun ref energetic form electromagnetic radiation photon energies nbsp kev radiation nbsp kev classified x rays subject x ray astronomy known cases gamma rays solar flares earth 's atmosphere generated mev range known gamma rays gev range also generated solar flares believed gamma rays gev range originate solar system gev gamma rays important study extra solar


peta electron volt quadrillion electron volts pev including one pev highest energy photon ever observed authors report named sources pev gamma rays pevatrons detector technology observation gamma rays first became possible observation much problematic x rays visible light gamma rays comparatively rare even bright source needing observation time several minutes even detected gamma rays difficult focus resulting low resolution recent generation gamma ray telescopes


resolution order arc minutes gev range seeing crab nebula single pixel compared arc seconds seen low energy x ray kev range chandra x ray observatory arc minutes high energy x ray kev range seen high energy focusing telescope energetic gamma rays photon energies gev also detected ground based experiments extremely low photon fluxes high energies require detector effective areas impractically large current space based instruments


high energy photons produce extensive showers secondary particles atmosphere observed ground directly radiation counters optically via cherenkov light ultra relativistic shower particles emit imaging atmospheric cherenkov telescope technique currently achieves highest sensitivity gamma radiation tev range emanating crab nebula first detected fred lawrence whipple observatory mt hopkins arizona usa modern cherenkov telescope experiments like hess veritas magic cangaroo iii detect crab nebula minutes energetic photons


tev observed extragalactic object originate blazar markarian mrk measurements done high energy gamma ray astronomy hegra air cherenkov telescopes gamma ray astronomy observations still limited non gamma ray backgrounds lower energies higher energy number photons detected larger area detectors better background suppression essential progress field discovery may allow focusing gamma ray telescopes ref name wogan photon energies greater kev index refraction starts increase ref name wogan ref early history long experiments could


detect gamma rays emitted cosmic sources scientists known universe producing work eugene feenberg henry primakoff sachio hayakawa ib hutchinson especially philip morrison led scientists believe number different processes occurring universe would result gamma ray emission processes included cosmic ray interactions interstellar gas supernova explosions interactions energetic electrons magnetic fields however ability actually detect emissions came pass gamma


rays coming space absorbed earth 's atmosphere gamma ray astronomy could develop possible get detectors atmosphere using balloons spacecraft first gamma ray telescope carried orbit explorer satellite picked fewer cosmic gamma ray photons appeared come directions universe implying sort uniform gamma ray background background would expected interaction cosmic rays energetic charged particles space interstellar gas first true astrophysical gamma ray sources


solar flares revealed strong mev line predicted morrison line results formation deuterium via union neutron proton solar flare neutrons appear secondaries interactions high energy ions accelerated flare process first gamma ray line observations oso oso solar maximum mission latter spacecraft launched solar observations inspired theoretical work reuven ramaty others significant gamma ray emission galaxy first detected detector aboard oso satellite


detected events attributable cosmic gamma rays however field gamma ray astronomy took great leaps forward sas cos b satellites two satellites provided exciting view high energy universe sometimes called 'violent' universe kinds events space produce gamma rays tend high speed collisions similar processes confirmed earlier findings gamma ray background produced first detailed map sky gamma ray wavelengths detected number point sources however resolution instruments insufficient identify


studied since mid instruments board variety satellites space probes including soviet venera spacecraft pioneer venus orbiter sources enigmatic high energy flashes remain mystery appear come far away universe currently likely theory seems least come called ''hypernova'' explosions mdash supernovas creating black holes rather neutron stars nuclear gamma rays observed solar flares august november ref name ramaty ref solar flare explosion solar


atmosphere originally detected visually sun solar flares create massive amounts radiation across full electromagnetic spectrum longest wavelength radio waves high energy gamma rays correlations high energy electrons energized flare gamma rays mostly caused nuclear combinations high energy protons heavier ions gamma rays observed allow scientists determine major results energy released provided emissions wavelengths see also magnetar discovery detection soft gamma repeater


compton released orbit space shuttle june birig ' w ' utc balloon launch occurred carried two nai tl detectors total area air pressure altitude mb total observation time hours ref name figueiredo ref supernova sn large magellanic cloud lmc discovered february progenitor sanduleak blue supergiant luminosity erg ref name figueiredo kev kev gamma ray lines sup sup co decay detected ref


one stabilizing gyroscopes bepposax launched deorbited predominantly studied x rays also observed gamma ray bursts identifying first non gamma ray counterparts gamma ray bursts opened way precise position determination optical observation fading remnants distant galaxies high energy transient explorer hete launched october nominally year mission still operational fading march hete mission ended march ref swift nasa spacecraft launched carries


bat instrument gamma ray burst observations following bepposax hete observed numerous x ray optical counterparts bursts leading distance determinations detailed optical follow established bursts originate explosions massive stars supernovas hypernovas distant galaxies swift remains operational currently main space based gamma ray observatories integral international gamma ray astrophysics laboratory fermi agile astro rivelatore gamma immagini leggero integral launched october esa mission additional contributions czech republic poland us russia agile italian


small mission asi inaf infn collaboration successfully launched indian pslv c rocket sriharikota isro base april fermi launched nasa june includes lat large area telescope gbm gamma ray burst monitor studying gamma ray bursts concept two gigantic gamma ray bubbles heart milky way november using fermi gamma ray space telescope two gigantic gamma ray bubbles spanning light years across detected heart milky way bubbles high energy radiation suspected


erupting massive black hole evidence burst star formations millions years ago discovered scientists filtered fog background gamma rays suffusing sky discovery confirmed previous clues large unknown structure center milky way fermi team released second catalog gamma ray sources detected satellite 's large area telescope lat produced inventory objects shining highest energy form light sources blazars half sources active galaxies


http sourceforgenet projects gammalib gammalib versatile toolbox high level analysis astronomical gamma ray data https webarchiveorg web http pcsaticom apsd tactic tev gamma ray astronomy india astronomical sub disciplines gamma rays observational astronomy


'''sociolinguistics''' descriptive study effect aspects society including cultural norms expectations context way language used society 's effect language differs sociology language focuses effect language society sociolinguistics overlaps considerably pragmatics closely related linguistic anthropology sociolinguistics' historical interrelation anthropology observed studies language varieties differ groups separated social variables eg ethnicity religion status gender level education age etc geographical barriers mountain range desert

Social science
Sociology
Sociolinguistics


river etc studies also examine differences usage differences beliefs usage produce reflect social socioeconomic classes usage language varies place place language usage also varies among social classes ' 'sociolects'' sociolinguistics studies sociolinguistics studied various ways interviews speakers language matched guise tests observations studies related dialects speaking sociolinguistics history beginnings social aspects language modern sense first studied indian


japanese linguists also louis gauchat switzerland early none received much attention west much later study social motivation language change hand foundation wave model late th century first attested use term ' 'sociolinguistics'' thomas callan hodson title article sociolinguistics india published ''man india'' western contributions study sociolinguistics west pioneered linguists william labov


us basil bernstein uk william stewart heinz kloss introduced basic concepts sociolinguistic theory pluricentric languages describes standard language varieties differ nations eg american british canadian australian ''english'' austrian german swiss ''german'' bosnian croatian montenegrin serbian ''serbo croatian'' dell hymes another sociolinguist credited building foundation study sociolinguistics founder journal ''language society'' speaking method acronym setting participants ends act sequence keys instrumentalities norms genres widely recognized tool analyze speech events measure linguistic competence


speech event applications sociolinguist might study social attitudes determine considered appropriate language use inappropriate language use particular setting sociolinguists might also study grammar phonetics vocabulary aspects various sociolects sociolinguists also study language national level among large populations find language used social institution william labov harvard columbia university graduate often regarded one founders study sociolinguistics focuses quantitative analysis variation change within languages making sociolinguistics scientific discipline studies


field sociolinguistics typically take sample population interview assessing realization certain sociolinguistic variables commonly studied source variation regional dialects dialectology studies variations language based primarily geographic distribution associated features sociolinguists concerned grammatical phonological features correspond regional areas often called dialectologists another method matched guise test technique listener listen pair words evaluate based personality dialect groups shared views language attitude sociolinguistic interview '' 'sociolinguistic interview'''


foundational method collecting data sociolinguistic studies allowing researcher collect large amounts speech speakers language dialect studied interview takes form long loosely structured conversation researcher interview subject researcher 's primary goal elicit vernacular style speech ie register associated everyday casual conversation goal complicated observer 's paradox researcher trying elicit style speech would used interviewer present end variety techniques may


used reduce subject 's attention formality artificiality interview setting example researcher may attempt elicit narratives memorable events subject 's life fights near death experiences subject 's emotional involvement telling story thought distract attention formality context researchers interview multiple subjects together order allow converse casually would interviewer alone researcher may study effects style shifting language comparing subject 's speech style


vernacular contexts narratives personal experience conversation subjects careful style produced subject attentive formal interview setting correlations demographic features age gender ethnicity speech behavior may studied comparing speech different interview subjects interviews native language speakers used attempt study dying languages well depicted documentary ''the linguists'' fundamental concepts study sociolinguistics broad fundamental concepts many


sociolinguistic inquiries depend speech community speech community concept sociolinguistics describes distinct group people use language unique mutually accepted way among sometimes referred sprechbund considered part speech community one must communicative competence speaker ability use language way appropriate given situation possible speaker communicatively competent one language ref name deckert deckert sharon k caroline h vikers


https booksgooglecom booksid k ad hbxac printsec frontcover dq introduction sociolinguistics society identity hl en sa x ved ahukewjh sh xcnjahuott khcayb q aeikjaa v onepage q introduction sociolinguistics society identity f false introduction sociolinguistics society identity page ref speech communities members profession specialized jargon distinct social groups like high school students hip hop fans even tight knit groups like families friends members speech communities often develop slang specialized jargon serve group 's special purposes priorities evident use lingo within sports teams community practice allows sociolinguistics examine relationship socialization competence identity since identity complex structure studying language socialization


means examine micro interactional level practical activity everyday activities learning language greatly influenced family supported larger local surroundings school sports teams religion speech communities may exist within larger community practice ref name deckert high prestige low prestige varieties crucial sociolinguistic analysis concept prestige certain speech habits assigned positive negative value applied speaker operate many levels realized level


individual sound phoneme labov discovered investigating pronunciation post vocalic r north eastern usa macro scale language choice realized various diglossia exist throughout world swiss german high german perhaps well known important implication sociolinguistic theory speakers 'choose' variety making speech act whether consciously subconsciously terms acrolectal high basilectal low also used distinguish standard dialect dialect less prestige generally assumed non standard language low prestige language however


certain groups traditional working class neighborhoods standard language may considered undesirable many contexts working class dialect generally considered powerful group marker historically humans tend favor look sound like use non standard varieties even exaggeratedly expresses neighborhood pride group class solidarity thus considerable difference use non standard varieties going pub neighborhood barbecue compared going bank one relaxed setting likely familiar people


business aspect one feels need professional prestige pittsburgh book barbara johnstone refers study christina gagnon analyzed perceptions pittsburghese dialect pittsburgh pennsylvania compared standard english pittsburghers asked read short passages dialect standard english without pittsburgh accent participants listening voice recordings asked rate speakers level success education neighborly etc based voice


way speaking results showed participants pittsburghers preferred standard english terms social status stereotype pittsburghers poor uneducated less motivated showed participants' answers however asked rate readers terms friendliness trustworthiness community involvement participants rated pittsburghese dialect higher likely people generally find trust among sound like involved study social network understanding language society means one also understand social networks


language embedded social network another way describing particular speech community terms relations individual members community network could ''loose'' ''tight'' depending members interact ref name wardhaugh ref instance office factory may considered tight community members interact large course students would looser community students may interact instructor maybe students ''multiplex'' community one members multiple relationships ref name wardhaugh


instance neighborhoods members may live street work employer even intermarry looseness tightness social network may affect speech patterns adopted speaker instance sylvie dubois barbara horvath found speakers one cajun louisiana community likely pronounce english th participated relatively dense social network ie strong local ties interacted many speakers community less likely networks looser ie fewer local ties ref


language variation sociolinguistics focuses sources variation among class class occupation among important linguistic markers found society one fundamental findings sociolinguistics hard disprove class language variety related members working class tend speak less deemed standard language lower middle upper middle class turn speak closer standard however upper class even members upper middle class may often speak 'less' standard middle class


class class aspirations important one may speak differently cover undesirable accent appear different social status fit better either around wish perceived class aspiration studies william labov shown social aspirations influence speech patterns also true class aspirations process wishing associated certain class usually upper class upper middle class people moving direction


socio economically may adjust speech patterns sound like however native upper class speakers often hypercorrect involves overcorrecting speech point introducing new errors true individuals moving socio economic status contact situation power dynamic teacher student employee customer situation power dynamic results hierarchical differentiation languages class wikitable non standard dialect br associated lower classes standard dialect br associated higher classes looks like ai n't gonna rain today looks


codes elaborated restricted ref name bernstein ref restricted code according basil bernstein restricted code exemplified predominance extraverbal communication emphasis interpersonal connection individual expression theory places code within environments operate according established social structures predetermine roles members commonality interests intents due shared local identity creates predictability discrete intent therefore simplification verbal utterances environments may include military religious legal atmospheres criminal prison subcultures long term married relationships friendships children due


restricted code also operates unify speakers foster solidarity ref name bernstein elaborated code basil bernstein defined 'elaborated code' according emphasis verbal communication extraverbal code typical environments variety social roles available individual chosen based upon disposition temperament time speakers elaborated code utilize broader lexicon demonstrate less syntactic predictability speakers restricted code lack predetermined structure solidarity requires explicit verbal communication discrete intent individual order achieve educational career success


bernstein notes caution association code upper classes restricted code associated lower classes abundance available resources allows persons choose social roles warning however studies associating codes separate social classes used small samples subject significant variation also asserts elaborated code originates due differences social context rather intellectual advantages elaborated code differs restricted code according context based emphasis individual advancement assertion social community ties ref name bernstein codes child development bernstein explains


language development according two codes light fundamentally different values instance child exposed solely restricted code learns extraverbal communication verbal therefore may less extensive vocabulary child raised exposure codes inherent lack value restricted code child without exposure elaborated code may encounter difficulties upon entering formal education standard clear verbal communication comprehension necessary learning effective interaction instructors students differing backgrounds may beneficial


children exposed solely restricted code enter pre school training elaborated code order acquire manner speaking considered appropriate widely comprehensible within education environment additionally bernstein notes several studies language development according social class committee higher education conducted study verbal iq showed deterioration individuals lower working classes ages years comparison middle classes exposed restricted elaborated codes additionally studies bernstein venables ravenette


well education council report show relative lack success verbal tasks comparison extraverbal children lower working classes exposed solely restricted code ref name bernstein contradictions idea social language codes bernstein contrast famous linguist noam chomsky 's ideas chomsky deemed father modern linguistics argues universal grammar meaning humans born innate capacity linguistic skills like sentence building theory criticized several scholars linguistic backgrounds lack proven


evolutionary feasibility fact different languages universal characteristics sociolinguistic variations study language variation concerned social constraints determining language contextual environment variations determine aspects language like sound grammar tone people speak even non verbal cues code switching term given use different varieties language depending social situation commonly used among african american population united states several different types age based variation one may see within


population well age range age graded variation indications linguistic change progress use slang variation based age younger people likely recognize use today 's slang older generations may recognize new slang might use slang younger variation may also associated gender men women average tend use slightly different language styles differences tend quantitative rather qualitative say women use particular speaking style men akin


saying men taller women ie men average taller women women taller men variations speech patterns men women include differences pitch tone speech fillers interruptions use euphemisms etc variations language also come ethnicity economic status level education etc see also anthropological linguistics audience design ausbausprache axiom categoricity discourse analysis discursive psychology folk linguistics group interactional sociolinguistics jargon language ideology language planning language policy language secessionism linguistic landscape linguistic marketplace metapragmatics mutual intelligibility raciolinguistics real time sociolinguistics sociocultural linguistics sociohistorical


linguistics sociolinguistics sign languages sociology language style shifting v distinction sociolinguists references references reading bastardas boada albert ''from language shift language revitalization sustainability complexity approach linguistic ecology'' barcelona edicions de la universitat de barcelona kadochnikov denis https wwwpalgravecom us book languages regional conflicts economic development russia ginsburgh v weber eds palgrave handbook economics language london palgrave macmillan pp nbsp external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwrevelinfbr site pdf entrevistas revel interview labovpdf sociolinguistics interview william labov revel vol n interdisciplinary subfields sociology


kelp hazards bay freycinet national park tasmania australia '''phycology''' greek ''phykos'' seaweed '' logia'' scientific study algae also known '''algology''' phycology branch life science algae important primary producers aquatic ecosystems algae eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms live wet environment distinguished higher plants lack true roots stems leaves flower many species single celled microscopic including phytoplankton microalgae many others multicellular one degree another

Natural science
Biology
Botany
Phycology


growing large size example seaweeds kelp ''sargassum'' phycology includes study prokaryotic forms known blue green algae cyanobacteria number microscopic algae also occur symbionts lichens phycologists typically focus either freshwater ocean algae within areas either diatoms soft algae history phycology ancient greeks romans knew algae ancient chinese even cultivated certain varieties food scientific study algae began late th century description naming ''fucus maximus'' ''ecklonia


maxima'' pehr osbeck followed descriptive work scholars dawson turner carl adolph agardh later th century efforts made jv lamouroux william henry harvey create significant groupings within algae harvey called father modern phycology part division algae four major divisions based upon pigmentation late th early th century phycology became recognized field men friedrich


traugott k tzing continued descriptive work japan beginning kintar okamura provided detailed descriptions japanese coastal algae also provided comprehensive analysis distribution although r k greville published ''algae britannicae'' early publication ''a catalogue british marine algae'' edward arthur lionel batters systematic correlation records extensive distribution mapping development identification keys began earnest anna weber van bosse dutch phycologist travelled siboga expedition later published


'' https wwwbiodiversitylibraryorg item page mode corallinaceae siboga expedition '' early jean pierre tienne vaucher published isogamy sexual conjugation algae early th century reproduction development began extensively studied comprehensive volumes felix eugen fritsch consolidated known morphology reproduction algae followed development area checklists led mary parke ''manx algae'' followed preliminary check list british marine algae although


lily newton 's ''handbook'' provided first identification key algae british isles development keys became routine new emphasis ecology saw increased study algal communities place algae larger plant communities provided additional tool explaining geographical variation continent richest diversity seaweeds australia species ref name marine ref notable phycologists isabella abbott carl adolph agardh jacob georg agardh balakrishnan elsie burrows dr margaret constance helen


parke franz josef ruprecht william albert setchell paul silva milton sommerfeld gilbert morgan smith john stackhouse william randolph taylor vittore benedetto antonio trevisan de saint l gavino trono ref name seafdec ref awarded national scientist philippines research seaweeds irin de val ra anna weber van bosse george stephen west carl ludwig willdenow p iyengar see also references external links http ucsdtv search detailsaspxshowid algae world 's important plants video lecture russell chapman http wwwbrphycsocorg british phycological society http wwwintphycsocorg international phycological


society http wwwschweizerbartde j algological studies algological studies international journal phycology publishes peer reviewed scientific papers international significance entire field algology phycology http wwwalgaebaseorg algaebase http wwwseaweedie seaweed site https diatomansporg ansp phycology section


children school '''bilingual education''' involves teaching academic content two languages native secondary language varying amounts language used accordance program model bilingual education refers utilization two languages means instruction students considered part entire school curriculum distinct simply teaching second language subject importance bilingual education children 's bilingual theater dr seuss day bilingual french speaking school trung vuong bilingual education viewed educators pathway bilingualism allows learners develop

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Bilingual education


two languages benefits bilingual education considered improved cognitive performance particularly performance complex tasks controlled executive functioning processes working memory economic advantages increased job education opportunities around world bilingual education program models following section surveys several different types bilingual education program models transitional bilingual education '''transitional bilingual education''' involves education child 's native language ensure students fall behind content areas mathematics science social studies


learning english child 's english proficiency deemed satisfactory transition english eo environment research shown many skills learned native language transferred easily second language later linguistic goal programs help students transition mainstream english classrooms use student 's primary language vehicle develop literacy skills acquire academic knowledge also prevents degeneration child 's native language program model often used united states school system immersion bilingual


education immersion type bilingual education subjects taught student 's second language students immersed classroom subject taught entirely second language non native language different facets immersion schools '''total immersion''' whole class taught second language '''partial immersion''' half class time spent learning second language third type immersion within schools called '''two way immersion''' also known '' 'dual immersion''' dual immersion occurs half


students class natively speak second language half dual immersion encourages group students work together learning language two way dual language immersion dual language two way immersion education refers programs provide grade level content literacy instruction students two languages english partner language programs designed help native non native english speakers become bilingual biliterate four main types dual language programs programs refer student would best learn dual


repeat translate subject matter second language strengthen concepts taught one language across two languages spiral curriculum order provide cognitive challenge thomas collier languages instructions alternated theme content area type immersion required develop dual language proficiency social language mastered couple years higher level competency required read social studies texts solve mathematics word problems roughly around years collier goal gradually increasing


majority language instruction become english partner language second model ''' model''' model english partner language used equally throughout program dual immersion programs us dual immersion classrooms encourage students' native language development making important contribution heritage language maintenance allow language minority students remain classrooms native english speaking peers resulting linguistic socio cultural advantages may dual immersion programs operating elementary schools


united states different languages dual language programs less common us schools although research indicates extremely effective helping students learn english well aiding long term performance english learners school native english speakers benefit learning second language english language learners ells segregated peers students taught mother tongue yet still typical american classroom cognitive social benefits english second language program entails learning english people speak native language esl


supplementary comprehensive english language program students trying learn language better function american society people learning english second language english assigned communicative status country singapore india malawi territories use english part country 's leading institutions plays second language role multilingual society esl different efl english foreign language esl offered many schools accommodate culturally diverse students often found urban areas helps students keep subjects


math science teach esl abroad bachelor 's degree esl teaching qualification typically required minimum late exit developmental bilingual education program model education child 's native language extended duration accompanied education english goal develop literacy child 's native language first transfer skills second language education ideal many english learning students many instances resources education available effects mother tongue instruction continuing foster abilities


children 's mother tongue along languages proven essential personal educational development retain cultural identity gain deeper understanding language two studies mother tongue instruction ethiopia kenya respectively show positive outcomes students countries following list contains multiple benefits researchers found children educated bilingually empathy theory mind connected empathy helps us understand beliefs desires thoughts others researchers studying theory mind bilingual monolingual


preschoolers found bilingual preschoolers performed significantly higher theory mind false belief tasks monolingual peers ref name ref reading researchers found students dual language immersion program portland oregon performed better english reading writing skills peers ref name ref attention many studies shown bilingual children tend better executive function abilities often measured using tasks require inhibition task switching bilingual children typically able hold attention longer without becoming distracted better able switch one task


another ref name nprorg ref school performance engagement researchers wayne thomas virginia collier conducted school program evaluation research across states found students dual language classroom environments better outcomes peers english classrooms regards attendance behavior parent involvement ref name nprorg american congressional acts united states congress introduced bilingual act defines term program bilingual education program instruction intended children fully proficient english language instructions given pupils achieve necessary competence english well


original languages taking consideration children 's cultural heritage integrated subjects courses study intent enable students grow effectively throughout educational system elementary secondary education act another significant measure bilingual education title vii bilingual education act created federal guidelines bilingual education recognized large numbers children limited english speaking ability united states pecial educational needs act specified federal governmental obligation subsidize creative bilingual programs title vii amended numerous times since


introduced became part america schools act myths surrounding bilingual education many myths much prejudice grown around bilingual education researchers uk poland listed entrenched misconceptions ref name paradowskibator ref many myths much prejudice grown around bilingual education due monolingual point view researchers uk poland listed entrenched misconceptions myth bi multilinguals exceptions default monolingual norm bilingual multilingual people actually outnumber monolinguals globally approximately world 's


bilinguals rare balanced bilingualism idealized concept accurately reflect bilinguals multilinguals use four language skills listening speaking reading writing move lives ref name ref instead bilinguals multilinguals varying proficiencies four language skills depending language speaking ref name myth childhood bilingualism may detrimental linguistic cognitive development consequently lead poorer results school bilingual storytime library number children learning language english speak language


english home steadily increasing since early united states due shifts population demographics assessments given children studies appear show students score lower english speaking monolingual peers ref name ref however assessments usually english consider skills languages english cultural skills student may first language ref name ref fact tests measure english proficiency ref name ref additionally many immigrant new american families us struggle poverty effects


different pressures students families frequently considered ref name ref assessments create illusion bilingual students performing poorly compared monolingual peers similar patterns seen countries using monolingual assessments gauge bilingual multilingual students' learning however current studies suggest children capable acquiring multiple languages first years life benefit extra challenge ref name ref exposure multiple languages young age changes way child 's brain organizes language developing two connected language systems access different situations ref name ref developing proficiency


two languages also benefits aspects executive function memory attention ref name ref myth adult learners unable successfully build proficiency language way young child adult learners may hesitant pick language due misconception adult passed critical period cognitive development cannot acquire language successfully young child however current studies call question validity critical theory point ignored adult learners older adult learners


consideration ref name ref learning second third language great benefits adults including expanding cultural literacy slowing cognitive decline due diseases dementia later life ref name ref adult learners may face challenges finding time language studies balancing responsibilities studies suggest adults may need time content acquire language however studies fail account differences adult learners young children children frequently engage second language classroom environment scaffolding structure lesson plans built


help boost language skills ref name ref contrast adult learners usually access structures ability spend amount time classroom ref name adult learners especially older adult learners may also report trouble developing listening skills another language ref name however challenges adult learners also several advantages young children comes language acquisition adult learners know study skills young learner pay closer attention content young learner ref name ref studies


shown brain maintains plasticity throughout one 's lifespan healthy adult acquire language age ref name country region see also english foreign second language intercultural bilingual education literacy multilingual education national association bilingual education secondary level english proficiency test bimodal bilingualism translanguaging references reading anderson barbara brian silver equality efficiency politics soviet bilingual education policy ''american political science review'' vol december pp nbsp baldauf rb coordinating government community support community language teaching australia overview


special attention new south wales ''international journal bilingual education bilingualism '' carter steven november oui 're oregon livecom crawford j educating english learners language diversity classroom th edition los angeles bilingual educational services bes cummins j genzuk analysis final report longitudinal study structured english immersion strategy early exit late exit transitional bilingual education programs language minority children https webarchiveorg web http www rcfuscedu genzuk ramirez reporthtml usc center multilingual multicultural research dean bartholomew ed indigenous education prospects cultural survival ''cultural survival quarterly'' del mazo


pilar multicultural schoolbus bilingual education driving children nation towards failure education law consortium article available https webarchiveorg web http wwweducationlawconsortiumorg forum papers delmazo pdf dutcher n collaboration tucker g r ''the use first second languages education review educational experience'' washington dc world bank east asia pacific region country department iii gao helen november fight bilingual education continues san diego union tribune gonzalez teaching two languages philippine context j cenoz f genesee eds ''beyond bilingualism multilingualism


multilingual education'' pp nbsp clevedon england multilingual matters grimes b f ''ethnologue languages world'' dallas tx summer institute linguistics hakuta k ''mirror language debate bilingualism'' new york basic books harris g devlin b c bilingual programs involving aboriginal languages australia jim cummins david corso eds ''encyclopedia language education'' vol pp nbsp dordrecht kluwer academic publishers hult fm ecology multilingual education c chapelle gen ed ''encyclopedia applied linguistics'' vol pp nbsp malden wiley blackwell kalist david e registered nurses


value bilingualism industrial labor relations review http digitalcommonsilrcornelledu ilrreview vol iss kloss heinz reprinted ''the american bilingual tradition'' language education mchenry il center applied linguistics delta systems krashen ''bilingual education arguments bogus arguments against'' university southern california professor 's article available online nbsp parrish perez merickel linquanti r effects implementation proposition education english learners k findings five year evaluation final report washington dc air san francisco wested complete report available free


https webarchiveorg web http wwwwestedorg cs view rs http wwwwestedorg cs view rs abbreviated accessible summary findings available https webarchiveorg web http wwwwestedorg cs view rs http wwwwestedorg cs view rs seidner stanley ''issues language assessment'' vols springfield il state board education summer institute linguistics ''a survey vernacular education programming provincial level within papua new guinea'' ukarumpa papua new guinea author swain discovering successful second language teaching strategies practices program evaluation classroom experimentation ''journal multilingual multicultural development'' thomas w p collier v p two languages better one ''educational leadership'' external links


http wwwedgov offices oela us department education office english language acquisition https webarchiveorg web http wwwncelagwuedu national clearinghouse english language acquisition http assemblycoeint mainfasplink documents adoptedtext ta erec htm pace recommendation place mother tongue school education education subject linguistic rights multilingualism bilingualism


'''instructional design''' '''id''' also known '''instructional systems design''' '''isd''' practice systematically designing developing delivering instructional materials experiences digital physical consistent reliable fashion toward efficient effective appealing engaging inspiring acquisition knowledge process consists broadly determining state needs learner defining end goal instruction creating intervention assist transition outcome instruction may directly observable scientifically measured completely hidden assumed many instructional design models many based

Applied science
Education
Educational Technology
Instructional design


addie model five phases analysis design development implementation evaluation robert gagn considered one founders isd due great influence work ''the conditions learning'' discipline history origins field instructional design historically traditionally rooted cognitive behavioral psychology though recently constructivism influenced thinking field attributed way emerged period behaviorist paradigm dominating american psychology also cite aside behaviorist psychology


origin concept could traced back systems engineering impact fields difficult quantify argued language look feel early forms instructional design progeny derived engineering discipline specifically linked training development model used us military based systems approach explained idea viewing problem situation entirety ramifications interior interactions exterior connections


concreteness ref name slides clark b '' http wwwslidesharenet benton history instructional design technologyfrom embed history instructional design technology '' ref framework first migrated industrial sector train workers finally found way education field original version bloom 's taxonomy published defined cognitive domain terms six objectives b f skinner 's article ''the science learning art teaching'' suggested effective instructional materials called programmed instructional materials include small steps frequent questions immediate feedback allow self pacing ref name trendsissues robert f mager popularized use


learning objectives article ''preparing objectives programmed instruction '' article describes write objectives including desired behavior learning condition assessment ref name trendsissues committee led benjamin bloom published influential taxonomy three domains learning cognitive one knows thinks psychomotor one physically affective one feels attitudes one taxonomies still influence design instruction ref name slides robert glaser introduced criterion referenced measures contrast norm referenced tests individual 's performance compared group performance criterion referenced


test designed test individual 's behavior relation objective standard used assess learners entry level behavior extent learners developed mastery instructional program ref name trendsissues robert gagn see information described three domains learning outcomes cognitive affective psychomotor five learning outcomes verbal information intellectual skills cognitive strategy attitude motor skills nine events instruction ''the conditions learning'' remain foundations instructional design practices ref name trendsissues gagne 's work learning hierarchies hierarchical analysis led important


notion instruction ensure learners acquire prerequisite skills attempting superordinate ones ref name trendsissues analyzing failure training material michael scriven suggested need formative assessment eg try instructional materials learners revise accordingly declaring finalized ref name trendsissues number instructional design models greatly increased prospered different sectors military academia industry ref name trendsissues many instructional design theorists began adopt information processing based approach design instruction david merrill instance developed component display theory cdt


concentrates means presenting instructional materials presentation techniques although interest instructional design continued strong business military little evolution id schools higher education ref name trendsissues ref name reiserpdf reiser r https filesnyuedu jpd public readings reiser history idpdf history instructional design technology part ii history instructional design etr vol pp ref however educators researchers began consider personal computer could used learning environment learning space ref name trendsissues ref name slides ref name youtube history instructional media uploaded youtube


crozitis jan retrieved ref plato programmed logic automatic teaching operation one example computers began integrated instruction ref name hyperhist http facultycoeuhedu smcneil cuin idhistory indexhtml hypertext history instructional design retrieved april ref many first uses computers classroom drill skill exercises ref name markham markham r http homeutahedu rgm paper html index files page htm history instructional design retrieved april ref growing interest cognitive psychology could applied instructional design ref name slides influence constructivist theory instructional design became prominent


counterpoint traditional cognitive learning theory ref name reiserpdf ref name history http wwwinstructionaldesigncentralcom htm idc instructionaltechnologytimelinehtm history timeline instructional design retrieved april ref constructivists believe learning experiences authentic produce real world learning environments allow learners construct knowledge ref name reiserpdf emphasis learner significant departure away traditional forms instructional design ref name trendsissues ref name slides ref name history performance improvement also seen important outcome learning needed considered design process ref name trendsissues ref name youtube world wide web emerged


complete ref name reiserpdf online learning became common ref name trendsissues ref name braine braine b historical evolution instructional design technology retrieved april ref technology advances permitted sophisticated simulations authentic realistic learning experiences ref name markham association educational communications technology aect changed definition educational technology study ethical practice facilitating learning improving performance creating using managing appropriate technological processes resources academic degrees focused integrating technology internet human computer interaction education gained momentum


world war ii communication medium suggested consider aspects communication process influenced communication theories view point first ignored eventually helped expand focus audiovisual movement mid television growth instructional television instructional television adopted greater extent computer computer assisted instruction cai research started became popular years computers became available general public effect cai


rather small use computer far innovative internet simulation internet offered opportunities train many people long distances desktop simulation gave advent levels interactive multimedia instruction imi online training increased rapidly point entire curriculums given web based training simulations valuable expensive highest level used primarily military medical community mobile devices social media demand training moved people 's personal devices social media allowed collaborative learning smartphones allowed real time


instruction taxonomy robert gagn classified types learning outcomes asking learning might demonstrated domains outcomes learning correspond standard verbs cognitive domain verbal information stated state recite tell declare intellectual skills label classify concepts intellectual skills apply rules principles intellectual skills problem solve generating solutions procedures discrimination discriminate distinguish differentiate concrete concept identify name specify label defined concept classify categorize type sort definition rule demonstrate show solve using one rule higher order rule generate develop solve using two


rules cognitive strategies used learning adopt create originate affective domain attitudes demonstrated preferring options choose prefer elect favor psychomotor domain motor skills enable physical performance execute perform carry nine events according gagn learning occurs series nine learning events condition learning must accomplished moving next order similarly instructional events mirror learning events gaining attention ensure reception coming instruction teacher gives learners stimulus learners


start process new information instructor must gain attention learners might entail using abrupt changes instruction informing learners objectives teacher tells learner able instruction teacher communicates desired outcome group stimulating recall prior learning teacher asks recall existing relevant knowledge presenting stimulus teacher gives emphasis distinctive features providing learning guidance teacher helps students understanding semantic encoding providing organization relevance eliciting