overcoming wayward selfish inclinations offers detailed analyses standard virtues courage self control vices avarice mendacity servility pride although general portrays inclination inimical virtue also recognizes sympathetic inclinations offer crucial support virtue urges deliberate cultivation ref name nussbaum ref nussbaum also points considerations virtue utilitarians henry sidgwick ''the methods ethics'' jeremy bentham ''the principles morals legislation'' john stuart mill writes moral development part argument


moral equality women ''the subjection women'' argues contemporary virtue ethicists alasdair macintyre bernard williams philippa foot john mcdowell points agreement common core work represent break kant kantian critique immanuel kant 's position virtue ethics contested argue kantian deontology conflicts virtue ethics include alasdair macintyre philippa foot bernard williams groundwork metaphysics morals critique practical reason immanuel kant offers many different criticisms ethical frameworks

Humanities
Philosophy
Ethics
Virtue ethics


moral theories kant rarely mentioned aristotle name exclude moral philosophy virtue ethics critique many kantian arguments virtue ethics claim virtue ethics inconsistent sometimes n't real moral theory kantian arguments often come notion virtue ethics provide enough significance idea duty kant spent time writing utopianism pluralism robert b louden criticizes virtue ethics basis promotes form unsustainable utopianism trying


ethics category virtue ethics contrasted deontological ethics consequentialist ethics examination two three together predominant contemporary normative ethical theories deontological ethics sometimes referred duty ethics places emphasis adhering ethical principles duties duties defined however often point contention debate deontological ethics one predominant rule schemes utilized deontologists divine command theory deontology also depends upon meta ethical realism postulates existence moral absolutes


murder causes undesirable effects main contention outcomes identified objectively desirable greatest happiness principle john stuart mill one commonly adopted criteria mill asserts determinant desirability action net amount happiness brings number people brings duration happiness also tries delineate classes happiness preferable others great deal difficulty classifying concepts virtue ethics


differs deontology consequentialism focuses virtue ethicist identifies virtues desirable characteristics moral virtuous person embodies possessing virtues makes one moral one 's actions mere reflection one 's inner morality virtue philosopher action cannot used demarcation morality virtue encompasses simple selection action instead way would cause person exhibiting virtue make certain virtuous choice consistently situation


great deal disagreement within virtue ethics virtues also difficulties identifying virtuous action take circumstances define virtue consequentialist deontological theories often still employ term ''virtue'' restricted sense namely tendency disposition adhere system 's principles rules different senses constitutes virtue hidden behind word potential source confusion disagreement meaning virtue points


larger conflict virtue theory philosophical rivals system virtue theory intelligible teleological includes account purpose ''telos'' human life popular language meaning life obviously strong claims purpose human life good life human beings highly controversial virtue theory 's necessary commitment teleological account human life thus puts tradition sharp tension dominant approaches normative ethics focus


actions bear burden virtue ethics mainly deals honesty morality person states practicing good habits honesty generosity makes moral virtuous person guides person without specific rules resolving ethical complexity virtue politics virtue theory emphasises aristotle 's belief polis acme political organisation role virtues enabling human beings flourish environment classical republicanism contrast emphasises tacitus' concern power luxury corrupt individuals destroy liberty tacitus


perceived transformation roman republic roman empire virtue classical republicans shield sort corruption means preserve good life one rather means achieve good life one yet another way put distinction two traditions virtue ethics relies aristotle 's fundamental distinction human human classical republicanism relies tacitean distinction risk becoming virtue ethics number contemporary applications social political philosophy within


field social ethics deirdre mccloskey argues virtue ethics provide basis balanced approach understanding capitalism capitalist societies education within field philosophy education james page argues virtue ethics provide rationale foundation peace education health care medical ethics thomas alured faunce argued whistleblowing healthcare setting would respected within clinical governance pathways firmer academic foundation virtue ethics called whistleblowing expressly supported unesco universal declaration bioethics human rights


barry schwartz argues practical wisdom antidote much inefficient inhumane bureaucracy modern health care systems technology virtues book ''technology virtues'' shannon vallor proposed series 'technomoral' virtues people need cultivate order flourish socio technological world honesty respecting truth self control becoming author desires humility knowing know justice upholding rightness courage intelligent fear hope empathy compassionate concern others care loving service others civility making common cause flexibility skillful adaptation change perspective holding


moral whole magnanimity moral leadership nobility spirit see also ''arete'' applied ethics buddhist ethics discipline confucianism cynicism philosophy environmental virtue ethics modern stoicism phronesis rule according higher law seven virtues stoicism tirukku virtue epistemology virtue jurisprudence virtue signalling notes references reading https wwwjstororg stable virtue confucius aristotle jiyuan yu external links http wwwrsrevisioncom alevel ethics virtue ethics virtue ethics summary criticisms apply theory http lsolumblogspotcom archives lsolum archivehtml legal theory lexicon virtue ethics larry solum https wwwvirtuesciencecom virtue ethics research hub https wwworionphilosophycom stoic blog stoic virtues four stoic virtues analytic philosophy aristotelianism philosophy aristotle concepts ethics


ethical theories ethics justice morality normative ethics virtue


homologous bones upper limb various vertebrates '''comparative anatomy''' study similarities differences anatomy different species closely related evolutionary biology phylogeny evolution species science began classical era continuing early modern times work pierre belon noted similarities skeletons birds humans comparative anatomy provided evidence common descent assisted classification animals history skeletons sharks birds compared pierre belon first specifically anatomical investigation

Natural science
Biology
Anatomy
Comparative anatomy


separate surgical medical procedure associated alcmaeon croton ref name blits ref leonardo da vinci made notes planned anatomical treatise intended compare hands various animals including bears pierre belon french naturalist born conducted research held discussions dolphin embryos well comparisons skeletons birds skeletons humans research led modern comparative anatomy andreas vesalius around time andreas vesalius also making strides young anatomist flemish descent made famous


penchant amazing charts systematically investigating correcting anatomical knowledge greek physician galen noticed many galen 's observations even based actual humans instead based animals apes monkeys oxen fact entreated students following substitution human skeletons cited edward tyson ca n't happen see dissect ape carefully view bone c advises sort apes make choice resembling


man conclude one ought know structure bones either humane body apes tis best go anatomy muscles edward tyson orang outang p point galen teachings authority human anatomy irony galen emphasized fact one make one 's observations instead using another advice lost numerous translations work vesalius began


monkeys arms marco aurelio severino also compared various animals including birds ''zootomia democritaea'' one first works comparative anatomy th th century great anatomists like george cuvier richard owen thomas henry huxley revolutionized understanding basic build systematics vertebrates laying foundation charles darwin 's work evolution example th century comparative anatomist victor negus worked structure evolution larynx advent genetic techniques like dna sequencing comparative anatomy together embryology


primary tools understanding phylogeny exemplified work alfred romer concepts two major concepts comparative anatomy homologous structures structures body parts anatomy similar different species species common descent evolved usually divergently shared ancestor may may perform function example forelimb structure shared cats whales analogous structures structures similar different organisms convergent evolution evolved ' 'similar environment'' rather inherited recent common ancestor usually


structures forelimbs cats whales bats humans appendages consist basic parts yet serve completely different functions skeletal parts form structure used swimming fin would ideal form wing better suited flight one explanation forelimbs' similar composition descent modification random mutations natural selection organism 's anatomical structures gradually adapted suit respective habitats rules development ' 'special'' characteristics differ significantly general homology listed karl ernst von baer


laws named see also cladistics comparative physiology evolutionary developmental biology phylogenetics transcendental anatomy outline human anatomy anatomical model references reading external links


'''creative nonfiction''' also known '''literary nonfiction''' '''narrative nonfiction''' '''literary journalism''' '' 'verfabula''' genre writing uses literary styles techniques create factually accurate narratives creative nonfiction contrasts nonfiction academic technical writing journalism also rooted accurate fact written entertain based prose style many writers view creative nonfiction overlapping essay characteristics definition text considered creative nonfiction must factually accurate written attention literary style technique

Humanities
Languages and literature
Creative Nonfiction


lee gutkind founder creative nonfiction magazine writes ultimately primary goal creative nonfiction writer communicate information like reporter shape way reads like fiction ref name gutkindxi ref forms within genre include memoir diary travel writing food writing literary journalism chronicle personal essays hybridized essays well biography autobiography according pages https archiveorg details artoffact barb page xiii isbn pp true url https archiveorg details artoffact barb page ref means topics events discussed text verifiably exist natural world second characteristic exhaustive research ref name louxiii


claims allows writers novel perspectives subjects also permits establish credibility narratives verifiable references texts ref name louxiii xiv lounsberry page xiii xiv ref third characteristic lounsberry claims crucial defining genre scene stresses importance describing revivifying context events contrast typical journalistic style objective reportage ref name louxiv xv lounsberry page xiv xv ref fourth final feature suggests fine writing literary prose style verifiable subject matter exhaustive research guarantee nonfiction side literary nonfiction narrative form


structure disclose writer 's artistry finally polished language reveals goal along literature ref name louxv lounsberry page xv ref essayist critic phillip lopate describes reflection necessary element genre offering advice best literary nonfiction captures mind work creative nonfiction may structured like traditional fiction narratives true fenton johnson 's story love loss ''geography heart'' virginia holman 's ''rescuing patty hearst'' book length works creative nonfiction follow story like arc sometimes called ''narrative nonfiction'' books daniel


levitin 's ''this brain music'' ''the world six songs'' use elements narrative momentum rhythm poetry convey literary quality creative nonfiction often escapes traditional boundaries narrative altogether happens bittersweet banter natalia ginzburg 's essay john mcphee 's hypnotic tour atlantic city ''in search marvin gardens'' ander monson 's playful experimental essays ''neck deep predicaments'' creative nonfiction writers embraced new ways forming texts including online technologies genre leads grand experimentation dozens new journals sprung


print online feature creative nonfiction prominently offerings ethics accuracy writers creative narrative non fiction often discuss level limits creative invention works limitations memory justify approaches taken relating true events melanie mcgrath whose book ''silvertown'' account grandmother 's life written novelist 's idiom writes follow ''hopping'' known facts stories canvas embroidered facts slipped holes longer know


means verifying cases reimagined scenes reconstructed events way believe reflects essence scene event minds hearts people lived mind literary tinkering alter profound truth story concept fact vs fiction elaborated upon brenda miller suzanne paola 's book ''tell slant'' nuala calvi authors ''the sugar girls'' novelistic story based interviews former sugar factory workers make similar


point although tried remain faithful interviewees told us distance half century many memories understandably incomplete necessary used research imaginations fill gaps however essence stories related true told us experienced first hand recent years several well publicized incidents memoir writers exaggerated fabricated certain facts work ref name creativenonfiction ref example swiss writer


journalist daniel ganzfried revealed binjamin wilkomirski 's memoir ''fragments memories wartime childhood'' detailing experiences child survivor holocaust contained factual inaccuracies james frey controversy hit ''the smoking gun'' website revealed frey 's memoir ''a million little pieces'' contained experiences turned fabrications ''the new york times'' featured article memoirist margaret seltzer whose pen name margaret b jones publisher riverhead books canceled publication seltzer 's book ''love consequences'' revealed seltzer 's story alleged


fact checker jim fingal intense debate boundaries creative nonfiction literary nonfiction literary criticism little published literary criticism creative nonfiction works despite fact genre often published respected publications ''the new yorker'' ''vanity fair'' ''harper 's'' ''esquire'' handful widely recognized writers genre robert caro gay talese joseph mitchell tom wolfe john mcphee joan didion john perkins ryszard kapu ci ski helen garner norman mailer seen criticism prominent works critics date


however tended focus one two writer 's works illustrate particular critical points ref name louxvi lounsberry page xvi ref analyses key pieces popularity genre continues expand many nonfiction authors handful literary critics calling extensive literary analysis genre genre person essay periodically subject predictions demise ref see also docufiction documentary film essay ethnofiction gonzo journalism nonfiction novel roman clef references reading small chronological order publication oldest first small external


links http wwwcreativenonfictionorg ''creative nonfiction'' magazine resource devoted creative nonfiction genre http wwwhippocampusmagazinecom ''hippocampus magazine'' online magazine focusing solely creative nonfiction founded https wwwriverteethjournalcom ''river teeth'' journal nonfiction narrative https msupressorg journals fourth genre ''fourth genre'' explorations nonfiction http wwwshadowboxmagazineorg ''shadowbox magazine'' biannual journal creative nonfiction http wwwpworg ''poets writers'' nonprofit literary organization serving poets fiction creative nonfiction writers https webarchiveorg web http wwwthecharlestaylorprizeca charles taylor prize literary non fiction canada http wwwclassuidahoedu druker nonfichtml creative non fiction phil druker university idaho http wwwozcrowncrystalcom beautifultruthshtm creative nonfiction resources australian writers https webarchiveorg web http prescottedu faculty staff faculty jclingan documents creativenonfiction doc creative nonfiction bibliography joan clingan prescott college http creativenonfictionlibsyncom


''podlit'' creative nonfiction podcast http wwwhumanitiesuciedu litjourn uc irvine literary journalism degree program https webarchiveorg web http wwwusmmaineedu stonecoastmfa faculty nonfictionhtml stonecoast main mfa creative non fiction writing http wwwthesugargirlscom ''the sugar girls'' website http italiaanse toestandenduepadroniit italy expat memoir book ''living italy'' website http www journalorg journal creative nonfiction literary magazine devoted creative nonfiction genre https wwwhippocampusmagazinecom resources resources cnf writers list resources creative nonfiction writers audio video links https webarchiveorg web http wwwcreativenonfictionorg thejournal sound gutkind cnfis cnfis ram audio cspan interview lee gutkind gives definition genre https webarchiveorg web http wwwcreativenonfictionorg thejournal sound gutkind cnfexamples cnfexamplesram audio cspan interview lee gutkind gives examples authors write genre non fiction genres types journalism newswriting non fiction


finite affine plane order containing points lines lines color parallel centre figure point affine plane hence two green lines n't intersect '''finite geometry''' geometric system finite number points familiar euclidean geometry finite euclidean line contains infinitely many points geometry based graphics displayed computer screen pixels considered points would finite geometry many systems

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
Finite geometry


could called finite geometries attention mostly paid finite projective affine spaces regularity simplicity significant types finite geometry finite bius inversive planes laguerre planes examples general type called benz planes higher dimensional analogs higher finite inversive geometries finite geometries may constructed via linear algebra starting vector spaces finite field affine projective planes constructed called galois geometries finite geometries also defined purely axiomatically common finite geometries galois


geometries since finite projective space dimension three greater isomorphic projective space finite field projectivization vector space finite field however dimension two affine projective planes isomorphic galois geometries namely non desarguesian planes similar results hold kinds finite geometries finite planes finite affine plane order containing points lines following remarks apply finite ''planes'' two main kinds finite plane geometry affine projective affine plane


normal sense parallel lines applies projective plane contrast two lines intersect unique point parallel lines exist finite affine plane geometry finite projective plane geometry may described fairly simple axioms finite affine planes affine plane geometry nonempty set ''x'' whose elements called points along nonempty collection ''l'' subsets ''x'' whose elements called lines every two distinct points exactly one line contains points playfair 's axiom given


line math ell math point math p math math ell math exists exactly one line math ell' math containing math p math math ell cap ell' varnothing math exists set four points three belong line last axiom ensures geometry ''trivial'' either empty simple interest single line arbitrary number points first two specify nature geometry simplest affine plane contains four points called ''affine plane order''


order affine plane number points line see since three collinear pair points determines unique line plane contains six lines corresponds tetrahedron non intersecting edges considered parallel square opposite sides also diagonals considered parallel generally finite affine plane order ''n'' ''n'' sup sup points lines line contains ''n'' points point lines affine plane order known hesse


configuration finite projective planes projective plane geometry nonempty set ''x'' whose elements called points along nonempty collection ''l'' subsets ''x'' whose elements called lines every two distinct points exactly one line contains points intersection two distinct lines contains exactly one point exists set four points three belong line duality fano plane point corresponds line vice versa examination first


two axioms shows nearly identical except roles points lines interchanged suggests principle duality projective plane geometries meaning true statement valid geometries remains true exchange points lines lines points smallest geometry satisfying three axioms contains seven points simplest projective planes also seven lines point three lines line contains three points fano plane particular projective plane sometimes called '''fano plane'''


lines removed plane along points line resulting geometry affine plane order fano plane called '''the''' ''projective plane order'' unique isomorphism general projective plane order ''n'' ''n'' sup sup nbsp nbsp ''n'' nbsp nbsp points number lines line contains ''n'' nbsp nbsp points point ''n'' nbsp nbsp lines permutation fano plane 's seven points carries collinear points points line collinear points called collineation plane


''n'' exist whenever ''n'' prime power prime number raised positive integer exponent using affine projective planes finite field elements planes derived finite fields also exist eg math n math known examples order prime power best general result date bruck ryser theorem states ''n'' positive integer form ''n'' equal sum two integer squares ''n'' occur order finite plane


smallest integer prime power covered bruck ryser theorem form equal sum squares non existence finite plane order proven computer assisted proof finished see details next smallest number consider neither positive negative result proved history individual examples found work thomas penyngton kirkman systematic development finite projective geometry


pg ''n q'' arises synthetic geometry associated transformation group finite spaces dimensions important differences finite ''plane'' geometry geometry higher dimensional finite spaces see axiomatic projective space discussion higher dimensional finite spaces general see instance works jwp hirschfeld study higher dimensional spaces many important applications advanced mathematical theories axiomatic definition '''projective space''' ''s'' defined axiomatically set ''p'' set points together set ''l'' subsets ''p''


set ''p'' points set ''l'' lines incidence relation ''i'' stating points lie lines obtaining ''finite'' projective space requires one axiom set points ''p'' finite set finite projective space line contains number points ''order'' space defined one less common number subspace projective space subset ''x'' line containing two points ''x'' subset ''x'' completely contained ''x''


two independent generators subspaces closed vector addition vector space incidence containment ''d'' finite must finite field gf ''q'' since wedderburn 's little theorem finite division rings fields case construction produces finite projective space furthermore geometric dimension projective space least three division ring space constructed manner consequently finite projective spaces geometric dimension least three defined finite fields finite projective space


defined finite field points line two concepts order coincide finite projective space denoted pg stands projective geometry ''n'' geometric dimension geometry ''q'' size order finite field used construct geometry general number ''k'' dimensional subspaces given product math n choose k q prod k frac q n q math gaussian binomial coefficient ''q'' analogue binomial coefficient classification finite projective spaces geometric


dimension dimension lines space single point degenerate usually ignored dimension exactly one line points lie unique line called ''projective line'' dimension least lines two lines meet projective space projective plane much harder classify isomorphic desarguesian planes isomorphic satisfy desargues 's theorem projective planes finite fields


many non desarguesian planes dimension least two non intersecting lines exist veblen young theorem states finite case every projective space geometric dimension isomorphic ''n'' dimensional projective space finite field gf ''q'' smallest projective three space pg lines drawn smallest dimensional projective space field gf denoted pg points lines planes plane contains points lines line contains points


geometries planes isomorphic fano plane square model fano space every point contained lines every pair distinct points contained exactly one line every pair distinct planes intersects exactly one line gino fano first consider finite geometry kirkman 's schoolgirl problem pg arises background solution kirkman 's schoolgirl problem states fifteen schoolgirls walk day five groups three arrange girls walk week time pair


girls walks together group different combinations girls walk together also days week girls group two seven non isomorphic solutions problem stated terms structures fano space pg known ''packings'' ' 'spread'' projective space partition points disjoint lines packing partition lines disjoint spreads pg spread would partition points disjoint


lines points line thus corresponding arrangement schoolgirls particular day packing pg consists seven disjoint spreads corresponds full week arrangements see also block design generalization finite projective plane generalized polygon incidence geometry linear space geometry near polygon partial geometry polar space notes references external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwuwyoedu moorhouse handouts incidence geometrypdf incidence geometry eric moorhouse https arxivorg abs algebraic combinatorial geometry terence tao http fogccsfedu mgreenbe finitegeometriespdf essay finite geometry michael greenberg http wwwmathmtuedu jbierbra homezeugs finitegeom ps finite geometry script http cageugentbe geometry linksphp finite geometry resources http wwwmathssussexacuk staff jwph j w


'''public finance''' study role government economy ref name public finance public policy ref branch economics assesses government revenue government expenditure public authorities adjustment one achieve desirable effects avoid undesirable ones ref name economics public finance ref purview public finance considered threefold consisting governmental effects efficient allocation available resources distribution income among citizens stability economy economist jonathan gruber put


assess empirical direct indirect effects specific government intervention finally governments choose intervene way question centrally concerned study political economy theorizing governments make public policy overview proper role government provides starting point analysis https wwweconomicstoolcom public financehtml public finance theory certain circumstances private markets allocate goods services among individuals efficiently sense waste occurs individual tastes matching economy 's productive abilities private markets able


provide efficient outcomes distribution income socially acceptable would little scope government many cases however conditions private market efficiency violated example many people enjoy good moment good produced sold starts give utility every one free time non rival non excludable consumption private markets may supply little good national defense one example non rival consumption public good market failure occurs private markets


allocate goods services efficiently existence market failure provides efficiency based rationale collective governmental provision goods services ref name hewettr ref externalities public goods informational advantages strong economies scale network effects cause market failures public provision via government voluntary association however subject inefficiencies termed government failure broad assumptions government decisions efficient scope level activities efficiently separated decisions design taxation systems diamond mirrlees separation view public sector programs designed maximize social benefits minus costs


cost benefit analysis revenues needed pay expenditures raised taxation system creates fewest efficiency losses caused distortion economic activity possible practice government budgeting public budgeting substantially complicated often results inefficient practices government pay spending borrowing example government bonds although borrowing method distributing tax burdens time rather replacement taxes deficit difference government spending revenues accumulation deficits time total public debt deficit


finance allows governments smooth tax burdens time gives governments important fiscal policy tool deficits also narrow options successor governments also difference public private finance public finance source income indirect eg various taxes specific taxes value added taxes private finance sources income direct public finance management collection sufficient resources economy appropriate manner along allocating use resources efficiently effectively constitute good financial management resource generation resource allocation expenditure management resource utilization


essential components '''public financial management''' system following subdivisions form subject matter public finance public expenditure public revenue public debt financial administration federal finance government expenditures economists classify government expenditures three main types government purchases goods services current use classed government consumption government purchases goods services intended create future benefits nbsp infrastructure investment research spending nbsp classed government investment government expenditures purchases goods services instead represent transfers money nbsp


social security payments nbsp called transfer payments government operations government operations activities involved running state functional equivalent state example tribes secessionist movements revolutionary movements purpose producing value citizens government operations power make authority enforce rules laws within civil corporate religious academic organization group ref name columbia columbia encyclopedia ''government' ref income distribution income distribution nbsp forms government expenditure specifically intended transfer income groups others example governments sometimes


transfer income people suffered loss due natural disaster likewise public pension programs transfer wealth young old forms government expenditure represent purchases goods services also effect changing income distribution example engaging war may transfer wealth certain sectors society public education transfers wealth families children schools public road construction transfers wealth people use roads people build roads income security employment insurance


health care public financing campaigns financing government expenditures budgeted revenues governments government expenditures financed primarily three ways government revenue taxes non tax revenue revenue government owned corporations sovereign wealth funds sales assets seigniorage government borrowing money creation government chooses finance activities important effects distribution income wealth income redistribution efficiency markets effect taxes market prices efficiency issue taxes affect income distribution closely related tax incidence examines distribution tax


burdens market adjustments taken account public finance research also analyzes effects various types taxes types borrowing well administrative concerns tax enforcement taxes taxation central part modern public finance significance arises fact far important revenues also gravity problems created present day tax burden main objective taxation raising revenue high level taxation necessary welfare state fulfill


obligations taxation used instrument attaining certain social objectives ie means redistribution wealth thereby reducing inequalities taxation modern government thus needed merely raise revenue required meet expenditure administration social services also reduce inequalities income wealth taxation might also needed draw away money would otherwise go consumption cause inflation rise tax financial charge levy imposed individual legal entity state


functional equivalent state example tribes secessionist movements revolutionary movements taxes could also imposed subnational entity taxes consist direct tax indirect tax may paid money ''corv e'' labor tax may defined pecuniary burden laid upon individuals property support government nbsp nbsp nbsp payment exacted legislative authority tax voluntary payment donation enforced contribution exacted pursuant legislative authority contribution imposed government nbsp nbsp nbsp whether name toll tribute


tallage gabel impost duty custom excise subsidy aid supply name various types taxes broadly divided two heads nbsp direct proportional indirect tax differential nature stamp duty levied documents excise tax tax levied production sale sale certain good sales tax tax business transactions especially sale goods services value added tax vat type sales tax services taxes specific services road tax vehicle excise duty uk registration fee usa regco australia vehicle licensing fee brazil etc gift


tax duties taxes importation levied customs corporate income tax corporations incorporated entities wealth tax personal income tax may levied individuals families hindu joint family india unincorporated associations etc debt governments like legal entity take loans issue bonds make financial investments government debt also known public debt national debt money credit owed level government either central federal government municipal government local government local governments issue bonds based taxing authority tax increment bonds


government liabilities including future pension payments payments goods services government contracted yet paid government debt approach called accrual accounting meaning obligations recognized acquired accrued rather paid constitutes public debt seigniorage seigniorage net revenue derived issuing currency arises difference face value coin banknote cost producing distributing eventually retiring circulation seigniorage important source revenue national banks


'' internationally accepted methodology compiling fiscal data consistent regionally accepted methodologies https webarchiveorg web http circaeuropaeu irc dsis nfaccount info data esa esa newhtm ''european system accounts '' consistent methodology https webarchiveorg web http unstatsunorg unsd sna toctopaspl ''system national accounts sna '' broadly line recent update http unstatsunorg unsd nationalaccount sna asp ''sna '' measuring public sector size governments institutional composition complexity ability carry large sophisticated operations impact sectors economy warrant well articulated system measure government economic operations ''gfsm '' addresses


institutional complexity government defining various levels government main focus ''gfsm '' general government sector defined group entities capable implementing public policy provision primarily non market goods services redistribution income wealth activities supported mainly compulsory levies sectors ''gfsm '' disaggregates general government subsectors central government state government local government see figure concept general government include public corporations general government plus public corporations comprise


non market producers whose output intended individual collective consumption mainly financed compulsory payments made units belonging sectors institutional units principally engaged redistribution national income wealth ref name gen therefore main functions general government units organize redirect flows money goods services assets among corporations among households corporations households purpose social justice increased efficiency aims legitimized citizens examples redistribution national income wealth


corporate income tax paid companies finance unemployment benefits social contributions paid employees finance pension systems produce goods services satisfy households' needs eg state health care collectively meet needs whole community eg defense public order safety ref name gen general government sector european system accounts four sub sectors central government state government local government social security funds central government consists administrative departments state central agencies whose responsibilities cover whole economic territory


country except administration social security funds state government defined separate institutional units exercise government functions units central government level units local government level excluding administration social security funds local government consists types public administration whose responsibility covers local part economic territory apart local agencies social security funds social security fund central state local institutional unit whose main activity provide social benefits fulfils two following criteria


law regulation except government employees certain population groups must take part scheme pay contributions general government responsible management institutional unit payment approval level contributions benefits independent role supervisory body employer ''gfsm '' framework similar financial accounting businesses example recommends governments produce full set financial statements including statement government operations akin income statement balance sheet cash


flow statement two similarities gfsm business financial accounting recommended use accrual accounting basis recording presentations stocks assets liabilities market value improvement prior methodology nbsp ''government finance statistics manual '' based cash flows without balance sheet statement users gfs ''gfsm '' recommends standard tables including standard fiscal indicators meet broad group users including policy makers researchers investors sovereign debt government finance statistics offer data topics


fiscal architecture measurement efficiency effectiveness government expenditures economics taxation structure public financing ''gfsm '' provides blueprint compilation recording presentation revenues expenditures stocks assets stocks liabilities ''gfsm '' also defines indicators effectiveness government 's expenditures example compensation employees percentage expense ''gfsm '' includes functional classification expense defined classification functions government cofog functional classification allows policy makers analyze expenditures


categories health education social protection environmental protection financial statements provide investors necessary information assess capacity government service repay debt key element determining sovereign risk risk premia like risk default private corporation sovereign risk function level debt ratio liquid assets revenues expenditures expected growth volatility revenues expenditures cost servicing debt government 's financial statements contain relevant information analysis government 's balance


sheet presents level debt government 's liabilities memorandum items balance sheet provide additional information debt including maturity whether owed domestic external residents balance sheet also presents disaggregated classification financial non financial assets data help estimate resources government potentially access repay debt statement operations income statement contains revenue expense accounts government revenue accounts divided subaccounts including different types taxes social contributions dividends


public sector royalties natural resources finally interest expense account one necessary inputs estimate cost servicing debt fiscal data using ''gfsm '' methodology gfs accessible several sources international monetary fund publishes gfs two publications ''international financial statistics'' ''government finance statistics yearbook'' world bank gathers information external debt regional level organization economic co operation development dibidami compiles general government account data members eurostat following methodology compatible gfsm compiles


gfs members european union see also constitutional economics efficiency dividend fiscal incidence government budget henry george theorem personal finance public economics public choice notes references anthony b atkinson joseph e stiglitz ''lectures public economics'' mcgraw hill economics handbook series alan blinder robert solow ''et al'' ''the economics public finance'' brookings institution https wwwquestiacom library economics public finance table contents james buchanan ''public finance democratic process fiscal institutions individual choice'' unc press richard musgrave ''public finance public choice two contrasting visions


state'' mit press http mitpressmitedu books public finance public choice description scrollable preview https booksgooglecom booksid jenjn dkrzcc printsec find pg pr v onepage q f false links ferguson e james ''the power purse history american public finance '' unc press books richard musgrave ''the theory public finance study public economy'' mcgraw hill st page reviews jm buchanan https wwwjstororg pss cs shoup https wwwjstororg discover uid uid uid uid sid public finance ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' nd edition http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde p edition current q public finance topicid result number abstract peggy b musgrave ''public finance theory practice'' mcgraw hill richard musgrave alan peacock ed ''classics theory public finance'' palgrave


macmillan https booksgooglecom booksid pzuelgeacaaj source gbs viewapi description http wwwpalgravecom products titleprintaspxpid contents edwin j perkins ''american public finance financial services '' pp https scholargooglecom scholarq war finance btng hl en sdt c complete text line free joseph e stiglitz ''economics public sector'' rd ed norton https booksgooglecom books economics public sectorhtmlid dwe qgaacaaj description external links http harrisschooluchicagoedu programs courses descriptionhtmlcourse taxation public finance course harris school public policy studies http dsbbimforg applications web sddsnsdppage imf nbsp dissemination standards bulletin board nbsp subscribing see fiscal sector


senior coach ross lyon addresses st kilda football club players australian football league prior afl grand final '' 'sports coach''' person coaching sport involved direction instruction training sports team sports person history original sense word ''coach'' horse drawn carriage deriving ultimately hungarian city kocs vehicles first made students university oxford early nineteenth century used slang word refer private tutor would drive

Human physical performance and recreation


less able student examinations like horse driving britain took lead upgrading status sports th century sports become professionalized coacher become established gradually professionalized victorian era role well established first world war military units sought coaches supervise physical conditioning develop morale building teams effective sport coaching john wooden philosophy coaching encouraged planning organization understanding knowledge important everything effective coach traditionally


coaching expertise effectiveness measured win loss percentage satisfaction players years coaching experience ref name ref like teacher expertise metrics highly ambiguous ref name o'sullivan ref coaching expertise effectiveness describes good coaching ref name ref looks coaching behaviour dispositions education experience knowledge widely used definition effective coaching consistent application integrated professional interpersonal intrapersonal knowledge improve athletes competence confidence connection character specific coaching contexts ref name coaching knowledge coaches require descriptive knowledge procedural knowledge relate aspects coaching expert


coaches using tacit knowledge freely teachers knowledge categorized like coaches knowledge various terms used many categories falling content knowledge pedagogical knowledge pedagogical content knowledge however considering need build relationships others athletes ref name ref interpersonal knowledge included ref name considering professional development requiring skills learn experience utilizing reflective practice intrapersonal knowledge included ref name ref rare professional sport team hire former professional player playing coaching different knowledge bases combination


effective coach coaching sport specific skills ref name ref education especially taking holistic approach keeping sports people safe healthy participating responsibilities coach well awareness social factors like relative age effect interpersonal knowledge much coaching involves interacting players staff community opposition family members youth sport ref name relationships built sports team influence social interactions affect player performance development fan culture professional sport financial backing effective coaches knowledge


helps social contexts make best situation coach athlete relationship one crucial get right intrapersonal knowledge coaches ability improve relies professional development continued learning uses combination evaluation reflective practice recognition personal ethical views disposition individual also elements intrapersonal knowledge ref name understanding oneself ability use introspection reflection skills take time develop using deliberate practice changing context coaching expertise requires


effective individuals work improving expert coaches able sustain extended period time ref name various areas development categorized first done c 's model competence confidence connection character compassion later shortened c 's model combining character compassion ref name ref individuals competence relate sport specific technical tactical skills performance skills improved health fitness overall training habits confidence relating internal


sense overall positive self worth good connections positive bonds social relationships people inside outside sporting context character respect sport participating showing good levels morality integrity empathy responsibility ref name competence individual linked leadership ''' ref name ref ''' centered around becoming self reliant member sports team society sport coaching context ref name competency individual guided much sport psychology supporting positive youth development self determination theory suggests


environment supports autonomous decision making help develop competence confidence connection others affecting motivation effective coaches therefore create supportive environments building good relationships individuals coaching coaching context sport environment context coaching changes like teaching critical understand differences sport recreational developmental elite suggested categories ref name reduced participation performance ref name different coaching context alter trajectories long term athlete development


affecting prescription training patterns management social influences integrating suggested participation performance contexts age categories suggested represent various coaching contexts ' 'sampling years'' participation coaches children ' 'recreational years'' participation coaches adolescents adults ' 'specializing years'' performance coaches young adolescents ''investment years'' coaches older adolescents adults ref name ref support staff professional sports coach usually supported one assistant coaches specialist team including sports scientists


efforts made governing bodies various countries overhaul coaching structures youth level aim encouraging coaches put player development enjoyment ahead winning matches professional football role coach trainer limited training development club 's first team countries coach aided number assistant coaches one carries responsibility training preparation goalkeepers coach also assisted medical staff athletic trainers medium long term strategy


football club regard transfer policies youth development sporting matters business coach football countries presence sporting director designed give medium term development club full attention one professional allowing coach focus improving producing performances players charge system also provides certain level protection overspending players search instant success english football director professional football team commonly awarded position manager


role combines duties coach sporting director responsibilities european football manager tend divided north american professional sports teams usually separate general manager head coach although occasionally person may fill roles general manager head coach first team coach football usually assistant manager actually holds real power american style general manager head coach clearly distinct areas responsibilities example typical european football manager would final say


player lineups contract negotiations american sports duties would handled separately head coach general manager respectively baseball baseball least professional level north america individual heads coaching staff use title head coach instead called field manager baseball coaches level members coaching staff overall supervision manager coach specialized role baseball field manager essentially equivalent head coach american professional sports leagues player


transactions handled general manager term ''manager'' used without qualification almost always refers field manager general manager often called gm amateur levels terminology similar sports person known manager professional leagues generally called head coach amateur leagues terminology standard us college baseball cricket coaches much less role cricket matches sports team captain making strategic decisions team game cricket coaches generally


focus occasionally sending messages feedback team especially breaks play time outs otherwise coaches auxiliary role helping players practice one generally specializing improving batting bowling skills players recent years fielding coaches received priority shorter formats game made good fielding valuable american football american football like many sports many coaches assistant coaches american football includes head coach assistant head coach offensive coordinator defensive


england county sports partnership csp funded sport england supports local coaching networks bring coaches different sports together share best practice gain continuing professional development cpd similar arrangements exist across northern ireland scotland wales safeguarding protection children sport major focus sports coach uk nspcc many years short workshops safeguarding popular cpd sessions organised sports coach uk delivered across csp network uk government dcms highlighted need detailed research


require termination without payment settlement coach found serious violation named rules usually regard recruiting retention players violation amateur status nfl head coaches association called nfl coaches association nflca includes coaches nfl except new england patriots head coach bill belichick many coaching contracts allow termination coach little notice without specific cause usually case high profile coaches payment financial settlement coaching fickle profession


reversal team 's fortune often finds last year 's coach year seeking employment next many coaches former players sport coaches professional sports teams sometimes retired players teams principal coach usually referred ''head coach'' little development details techniques play placement players playing surface leaving assistants concentrating larger issues recruitment organizational development successful coaches often become well even better known


athletes coach recent years come command high salaries agents negotiate contracts teams often head coach well known team radio television programs becomes primary face associated team collegiate professional level coaches may contracts millions dollars year head coach professional level time devote tactics playbooks combed staff usually paid college


level pro level head coaching due extensive time road long hours stressful job since money good high levels many coaches retire early fifties also professional staffs limited number assistants hired ncaa division fbs teams limited nine full time assistant coaches many factors part nfl coaches' contracts involve nfl 's billion highest revenue sport north america topping major league baseball 's mlb billion holding non taxpaying exemption


coaches nfl teams owners nfl demanded provisions coaches' employment contracts authorize employing nfl teams withhold part coach 's salary league operations suspended lockouts television contract negotiations see also head coach american football fitness professional manager association football coach baseball manager baseball coach basketball manager gaelic games coach ice hockey player coach player manager coaching staff coaching tree coach year personal trainer sports trainer strength conditioning coach references education training occupations leadership positions sports


'''computational neuroscience''' also known '''theoretical neuroscience''' '''mathematical neuroscience''' branch nbsp neuroscience nbsp employs mathematical models theoretical analysis abstractions brain understand principles govern development structure physiology cognitive abilities nervous system ref name ref computational neuroscience employs computational simulations validate solve mathematical models seen sub field theoretical neuroscience however two fields often synonymous term mathematical neuroscience also used sometimes stress quantitative nature field computational neuroscience focuses description biologically plausible neurons neural

Formal science
Mathematics
Computational neuroscience


systems physiology dynamics therefore directly concerned biologically unrealistic models used connectionism control theory cybernetics quantitative psychology machine learning artificial neural networks artificial intelligence computational learning theory although mutual inspiration exists sometimes strict limit fields model abstraction computational neuroscience depending research scope granularity biological entities analyzed models theoretical neuroscience aimed capturing essential features biological system multiple spatial temporal scales membrane currents chemical coupling via network oscillations columnar topographic architecture


nuclei way psychological faculties like memory learning behavior computational models frame hypotheses directly tested biological psychological experiments history term 'computational neuroscience' introduced eric l schwartz organized conference held carmel california request systems development foundation provide summary current status field point referred variety names neural modeling brain theory neural networks proceedings definitional meeting published


model still popular artificial neural networks studies simplicity see recent review years later hodgkin huxley developed voltage clamp created first biophysical model action potential hubel wiesel discovered neurons primary visual cortex first cortical area process information coming retina oriented receptive fields organized columns david marr 's work focused interactions neurons suggesting computational approaches study functional groups neurons within hippocampus neocortex interact store process


transmit information computational modeling biophysically realistic neurons dendrites began work wilfrid rall first multicompartmental model using cable theory major topics research computational neuroscience roughly categorized several lines inquiry computational neuroscientists collaborate closely experimentalists analyzing novel data synthesizing new models biological phenomena single neuron modeling even single neuron complex biophysical characteristics perform computations eg hodgkin huxley 's original model employed two voltage sensitive currents voltage sensitive ion channels glycoprotein molecules extend lipid bilayer allowing ions


traverse certain conditions axolemma fast acting sodium inward rectifying potassium though successful predicting timing qualitative features action potential nevertheless failed predict number important features adaptation shunting scientists believe wide variety voltage sensitive currents implications differing dynamics modulations sensitivity currents important topic computational neuroscience computational functions complex dendrites also intense investigation large body literature regarding different currents interact geometric properties


neurons models also tracking biochemical pathways small scales spines synaptic clefts many software packages genesis neuron allow rapid systematic ''in silico'' modeling realistic neurons blue brain project founded henry markram cole polytechnique f rale de lausanne aims construct biophysically detailed simulation cortical column blue gene supercomputer modeling richness biophysical properties single neuron scale supply mechanisms serve building blocks network dynamics however detailed neuron descriptions computationally


expensive handicap pursuit realistic network investigations many neurons need simulated result researchers study large neural circuits typically represent neuron synapse artificially simple model ignoring much biological detail hence drive produce simplified neuron models retain significant biological fidelity low computational overhead algorithms developed produce faithful faster running simplified surrogate neuron models computationally expensive detailed neuron models development axonal patterning guidance computational neuroscience aims address wide array questions


axons dendrites form development axons know target reach targets neurons migrate proper position central peripheral systems synapses form know molecular biology distinct parts nervous system release distinct chemical cues growth factors hormones modulate influence growth development functional connections neurons theoretical investigations formation patterning synaptic connection morphology still nascent one hypothesis recently garnered attention ''minimal wiring hypothesis''


postulates formation axons dendrites effectively minimizes resource allocation maintaining maximal information storage sensory processing early models sensory processing understood within theoretical framework credited horace barlow somewhat similar minimal wiring hypothesis described preceding section barlow understood processing early sensory systems form efficient coding neurons encoded information minimized number spikes experimental computational work since supported hypothesis one form another example visual processing efficient coding manifested


forms efficient spatial coding color coding temporal motion coding stereo coding combinations along visual pathway even efficiently coded visual information much capacity information bottleneck visual attentional bottleneck subsequent theory v saliency hypothesis v sh developed exogenous attentional selection fraction visual input processing guided bottom saliency map primary visual cortex ref name li li z https wwwsciencedirectcom science article abs pii saliency map primary visual cortex trends cognitive sciences vol pages zhaoping l


https wwwoxfordscholarshipcom view acprof oso acprof chapter v hypothesis creating bottom saliency map preattentive selection segmentation book https wwwoxfordscholarshipcom view acprof oso acprof understanding vision theory models data ref current research sensory processing divided among biophysical modelling different subsystems theoretical modelling perception current models perception suggested brain performs form bayesian inference integration different sensory information generating perception physical world motor control many models way brain controls movement developed includes models processing brain


cerebellum 's role error correction skill learning motor cortex basal ganglia control vestibulo ocular reflex also includes many normative models bayesian optimal control flavor built idea brain efficiently solves problems memory synaptic plasticity earlier models memory primarily based postulates hebbian learning biologically relevant models hopfield net developed address properties associative also known content addressable style memory occur biological systems attempts


primarily focusing formation medium long term memory localizing hippocampus models working memory relying theories network oscillations persistent activity built capture features prefrontal cortex context related memory additional models look close relationship basal ganglia prefrontal cortex contributes working memory one major problems neurophysiological memory maintained changed multiple time scales unstable synapses easy train also prone stochastic disruption stable synapses forget less easily


also harder consolidate one recent computational hypothesis involves cascades plasticity allow synapses function multiple time scales stereochemically detailed models acetylcholine receptor based synapse monte carlo method working time scale microseconds built likely computational tools contribute greatly understanding synapses function change relation external stimulus coming decades behaviors networks biological neurons connected complex recurrent fashion connections unlike artificial neural networks sparse usually


specific known information transmitted sparsely connected networks although specific areas brain visual cortex understood detail also unknown computational functions specific connectivity patterns interactions neurons small network often reduced simple models ising model statistical mechanics simple systems well characterized theoretically recent evidence suggests dynamics arbitrary neuronal networks reduced pairwise interactions known however whether


descriptive dynamics impart important computational function emergence two photon microscopy calcium imaging powerful experimental methods test new theories regarding neuronal networks cases complex interactions ''inhibitory'' ''excitatory'' neurons simplified using mean field theory gives rise population model neural networks many neurotheorists prefer models reduced complexity others argue uncovering structural functional relations depends including much neuronal network structure possible models type typically built large simulation platforms like genesis neuron


attempts provide unified methods bridge integrate levels complexity visual attention identification categorization visual attention described set mechanisms limit processing subset incoming stimuli attentional mechanisms shape see act upon allow concurrent selection preferably relevant information inhibition information order concrete specification mechanism underlying visual attention binding features number computational models proposed aiming explain psychophysical


findings general models postulate existence saliency priority map registering potentially interesting areas retinal input gating mechanism reducing amount incoming visual information limited computational resources brain handle example theory extensively tested behaviorally physiologically v saliency hypothesis bottom saliency map created primary visual cortex guide attention exogenously ref name li computational neuroscience provides mathematical framework studying mechanisms involved brain function allows


complete simulation prediction neuropsychological syndromes cognition discrimination learning computational modeling higher cognitive functions recently begun experimental data comes primarily single unit recording primates frontal lobe parietal lobe function integrators information multiple sensory modalities tentative ideas regarding simple mutually inhibitory functional circuits areas may carry biologically relevant computation brain seems able discriminate adapt particularly well certain contexts instance human beings seem enormous capacity memorizing recognizing faces one


visual representations decision making consciousness one ultimate goals psychology neuroscience able explain everyday experience conscious life francis crick giulio tononi christof koch made attempts formulate consistent frameworks future work neural correlates consciousness ncc though much work field remains speculative specifically crick cautioned field neuroscience approach topics traditionally left philosophy religion computational clinical neuroscience computational clinical neuroscience field brings together experts neuroscience neurology psychiatry decision sciences computational modeling


quantitatively define investigate problems neurological psychiatric diseases train scientists clinicians wish apply models diagnosis treatment technology neuromorphic computing neuromorphic computer chip device uses physical artificial neurons made silicon computations see neuromorphic computing physical neural network one advantages using physical model computer takes computational load processor sense structural functional elements n't programmed since hardware recent times


neuromorphic technology used build supercomputers used international neuroscience collaborations examples include human brain project spinnaker supercomputer brainscales computer see also action potential biological neuron models bayesian brain brain simulation computational anatomy connectomics differentiable programming electrophysiology fitzhugh nagumo model galves l cherbach model goldman equation hodgkin huxley model information theory mathematical model nonlinear dynamics neural coding neural decoding neural oscillation neuroinformatics neuroplasticity neurophysiology noogenesis systems neuroscience theoretical biology theta model notes references bibliography see also software brian python based simulator budapest reference connectome web based visualization tool browse


computational neuroscience meeting https ccneuroorg computational cognitive neuroscience yearly computational neuroscience meeting focus cognitive phenomena http wwwnipscc neural information processing systems nips leading annual conference covering mostly machine learning https webarchiveorg web http wwwiccn org international conference cognitive neurodynamics iccn yearly conference https webarchiveorg web http wwwicmsorguk workshops mathneuro uk mathematical neurosciences meeting yearly conference focused mathematical aspects https webarchiveorg web http wwwnncnde aktuelles en bernsteinsymposium symposium viewset language en bernstein conference computational neuroscience bccn yearly computational neuroscience conference http wwwareadneorg indexhtml areadne conferences biennial meeting includes theoretical experimental results websites http wwwscholarpediaorg article encyclopedia computational neuroscience encyclopedia computational neuroscience part scholarpedia online expert curated encyclopedia computational neuroscience dynamical


systems neuroscience cognitive neuroscience mathematical theoretical biology computational fields study


'''survey methodology''' study survey methods field applied statistics concentrating human research surveys survey methodology studies sampling individual units population associated techniques survey data collection questionnaire construction methods improving number accuracy responses surveys survey methodology targets instruments procedures ask one questions may may answered researchers carry '' 'statistical surveys''' view towards making statistical inferences population studied inferences depend strongly survey questions used polls

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Survey Methodology


public opinion public health surveys market research surveys government surveys censuses exemplify quantitative research uses survey methodology answer questions population although censuses include sample include aspects survey methodology like questionnaires interviewers non response follow techniques surveys provide important information kinds public information research fields marketing research psychology health care provision sociology overview single survey made least sample full population case census method data collection eg questionnaire individual questions


items become data analyzed statistically single survey may focus different types topics preferences eg presidential candidate opinions eg abortion legal behavior smoking alcohol use factual information eg income depending purpose since survey research almost always based sample population success research dependent representativeness sample respect target population interest researcher target population range general population given country specific


groups people within country membership list professional organization list students enrolled school system see also sampling statistics survey sampling persons replying survey called respondents depending questions asked answers may represent individuals households employers organization represent survey methodology scientific field seeks identify principles sample design data collection instruments statistical adjustment data data processing final data analysis create systematic random survey errors survey errors


sometimes analyzed connection survey cost cost constraints sometimes framed improving quality within cost constraints alternatively reducing costs fixed level quality survey methodology scientific field profession meaning professionals field focus survey errors empirically others design surveys reduce survey designers task involves making large set decisions thousands individual features survey order improve ref name groves ref important methodological challenges survey methodologist include making decisions ref


name groves identify select potential sample members contact sampled individuals collect data hard reach reluctant respond evaluate test questions select mode posing questions collecting responses train supervise interviewers involved check data files accuracy internal consistency adjust survey estimates correct identified errors selecting samples sample chosen sampling frame consists list members population interest ref name shaughnessy ref goal survey describe sample larger


population generalizing ability dependent representativeness sample stated member population termed element frequent difficulties one encounters choosing representative sample one common error results selection bias selection bias results procedures used select sample result representation representation significant aspect population instance population interest consists females males sample consists females males females represented males overrepresented


order minimize selection biases stratified random sampling often used population divided sub populations called strata random samples drawn strata elements drawn sample proportional basis modes data collection several ways administering survey choice administration modes influenced several factors including costs coverage target population flexibility asking questions respondents' willingness participate response accuracy different methods create mode effects change respondents answer


name shaughnessy cross sectional studies cross sectional studies sample samples drawn relevant population studied ref name shaughnessy cross sectional study describes characteristics population one time cannot give insight causes population characteristics predictive correlational design successive independent samples studies successive independent samples design draws multiple random samples population one times ref name shaughnessy design study changes within population changes within individuals individuals surveyed studies cannot therefore


identify causes change time necessarily successive independent samples designs effective samples must drawn population must equally representative samples comparable changes samples may due demographic characteristics rather time addition questions must asked way responses compared directly longitudinal studies longitudinal studies take measure random sample multiple time points ref name shaughnessy unlike successive independent samples design design measures differences individual


participants responses time means researcher potentially assess reasons response changes assessing differences respondents experiences longitudinal studies easiest way assess effect naturally occurring event divorce cannot tested experimentally however longitudinal studies expensive difficult 's harder find sample commit months years long study minute interview participants frequently leave study final assessment addition studies sometimes require data collection confidential anonymous


creates additional difficulty linking participants' responses time one potential solution use self generated identification code sgic codes usually created elements like 'month birth' 'first letter mother 's middle name' recent anonymous sgic approaches also attempted minimize use personalized data even instead using questions like 'name first pet depending approach used ability match portion sample lost addition overall attrition participants random samples become less representative


successive assessments account researcher compare respondents left survey see statistically different populations respondents may also try self consistent spite changes survey answers questionnaires basic questionnaire thai language questionnaires commonly used tool survey research however results particular survey worthless questionnaire written inadequately ref name shaughnessy questionnaires produce valid reliable demographic variable measures yield valid reliable individual disparities self report scales generate ref name shaughnessy questionnaires


tools variable category often measured survey research demographic variables used depict characteristics people surveyed sample ref name shaughnessy demographic variables include measures ethnicity socioeconomic status race age ref name shaughnessy surveys often assess preferences attitudes individuals many employ self report scales measure people 's opinions judgements different items presented scale ref name shaughnessy self report scales also used examine disparities among people scale items ref name shaughnessy self report scales usually presented questionnaire form one


measures originally planned measure ref name shaughnessy construct validity measure degree measures theoretical construct originally supposed measure ref name shaughnessy composing questionnaire six steps employed construct questionnaire produce reliable valid results ref name shaughnessy first one must decide kind information collected ref name shaughnessy second one must decide conduct questionnaire ref name shaughnessy thirdly one must construct first draft questionnaire ref name shaughnessy fourth questionnaire revised ref name shaughnessy next questionnaire


pretested ref name shaughnessy finally questionnaire edited procedures use specified ref name shaughnessy guidelines effective wording questions way question phrased large impact research participant answer question ref name shaughnessy thus survey researchers must conscious wording writing survey questions ref name shaughnessy important researchers keep mind different individuals cultures subcultures interpret certain words phrases differently one another ref name shaughnessy two different types questions survey researchers use


writing questionnaire free response questions closed questions ref name shaughnessy free response questions open ended whereas closed questions usually multiple choice ref name shaughnessy free response questions beneficial allow responder greater flexibility also difficult record score requiring extensive coding ref name shaughnessy contrastingly closed questions scored coded easily diminish expressivity spontaneity responder ref name shaughnessy general vocabulary questions simple direct less twenty words ref name shaughnessy question edited readability


avoid leading loaded questions ref name shaughnessy finally multiple items used measure one construct wording items worded opposite direction evade response bias ref name shaughnessy respondent 's answer open ended question coded response scale afterwards ref name mellenbergh gj pp analysed using qualitative methods order questions survey researchers carefully construct order questions questionnaire ref name shaughnessy questionnaires self administered interesting questions beginning questionnaire catch respondent 's


attention demographic questions near end ref name shaughnessy contrastingly survey administered telephone person demographic questions administered beginning interview boost respondent 's confidence ref name shaughnessy another reason mindful question order may cause survey response effect one question may affect people respond subsequent questions result priming nonresponse reduction following ways recommended reducing nonresponse ref name lyn lynn p problem non response chapter ''international handbook survey methodology'' eds edith


de leeuw joop hox dillman erlbaum ref telephone face face surveys ref name dill dillman da ''mail telephone surveys total design method'' wiley ref advance letter short letter sent advance inform sampled respondents upcoming survey style letter personalized overdone first announces phone call made interviewer wants make appointment survey face face second research topic described last allows expression surveyor 's appreciation cooperation


opening ask questions survey training interviewers thoroughly trained ask respondents questions work computers making schedules callbacks respondents reached short introduction interviewer always start short introduction give name institute working length interview goal interview also useful make clear selling anything shown lead slightly higher responding rate respondent friendly


survey questionnaire questions asked must clear non offensive easy respond subjects study brevity also often cited increasing response rate literature review found mixed evidence support claim written verbal surveys concluding factors may often important study looking online surveys found response rate dropped questions questions drop slowing example reduction questions studies showed quality response degraded toward


gender relative body weight bmi interviewer effects particularly operant questions related interviewer trait hence race interviewer shown affect responses measures regarding racial attitudes interviewer sex responses questions involving gender issues interviewer bmi answers eating dieting related questions interviewer effects investigated mainly face face surveys also shown exist interview modes visual contact telephone surveys video enhanced web surveys explanation typically provided interviewer effects social desirability bias survey participants may attempt


consultant 's companion'' huizen netherlands johannes van kessel publishing andres lesley http wwwuksagepubcom books book siteid sage uk prodtypes q andres designing survey research london sage dillman da ''mail telephone surveys total design method'' new york wiley engel u jann b lynn p scherpenzeel sturgis p ''improving survey methods lessons recent research'' new york routledge groves rm ''survey errors survey costs'' wiley griffith james survey research military settings https booksgooglecom bookshl en lr id endpawaaqbaj oi fnd pg pt ots trfdlv qzh sig dp oqinne qzslwdw pbp chm v onepage q f false routledge handbook research methods military studies edited joseph soeters patricia shields sebastiaan rietjenspp nbsp new york routledge leung wai ching http archivestudentbmjcom back issues education html


conducting survey student bmj british medical journal student edition may ornstein md survey research ''current sociology'' iii prince adamo k b hamel hardt j connor gorber tremblay comparison direct versus self report measures assessing physical activity adults systematic review international journal behavioral nutrition physical activity http doiorg shaughnessy j j zechmeister e b zechmeister j ''research methods psychology seventh edition ed '' mcgraw hill higher education pp nbsp singh advanced sampling theory applications


michael selected amy kluwer academic publishers netherlands soeters joseph shields patricia rietjens sebastiaan https booksgooglecom bookshl en lr id endpawaaqbaj oi fnd pg pt ots trfdlv qzh sig dp oqinne qzslwdw pbp chm v onepage q f false routledge handbook research methods military studies new york routledge shackman g https papersssrncom sol paperscfmabstract id program evaluation beginners guide external links psychometrics quantitative research product testing


survey methodology publications established multilingual journals biannual journals open access journals statistics journals academic journals published governments english language journals french language journals hijacked journals


'''private military company''' '''pmc''' private company providing armed combat security services financial gain pmcs refer operationally deployed personnel '' 'security contractors''' '''private military contractors''' services expertise offered pmcs typically similar governmental security military police forces often smaller scale pmcs often provide services train supplement official armed forces service governments also employed private companies provide bodyguards key staff protection company premises especially hostile territories however contractors

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Private military company


use armed force war zone considered unlawful combatants reference concept outlined geneva conventions explicitly specified american military commissions act services private contractors used around world p w singer author ''corporate warriors rise privatized military industry'' says geographic terms operates countries operated every single continent antarctica singer states used military personnel every contractor ratio


also points contractors number duties depending hired developing countries natural resources oil refineries iraq hired guard area also hired guard companies contract services reconstruction efforts general electric apart securing companies secure officials government affiliates private military companies carry many missions jobs examples include close protection afghan president hamid karzai piloting reconnaissance airplanes helicopters part plan colombia ref name autogenerated '' http wwwcolectivodeabogadosorg articlephp id article private


security transnational enterprises colombia '' jos alvear restrepo lawyers' collective february ref according study pmc industry worth billion year time ref name soldiers good fortune ref according study office director national intelligence private contractors make workforce united states intelligence community cost equivalent personnel budgets ref name topsecretamerica ref history sir david stirling sas veteran founded pmc modern pmcs trace origins back group ex sas veterans


leadership founder sas sir david stirling john woodhouse founded '''watchguard international''' formerly offices sloane street moving south audley street mayfair private company could contracted security military purposes company 's first assignment go yemen report state royalist forces cease fire declared time stirling cultivating contacts iranian government exploring chances obtaining work africa company eventually operated zambia


larger corporations vinnell military professional resources inc united states g keeni meeny services united kingdom lordan levdan israel executive outcomes south africa exodus million military personnel western militaries expanded recruiting pool pmcs commentators argued exodus many special operations forces across globe towards private military corporations units allegedly severely affected included british special air service us special operations forces canadian joint task force


usace awarded first contract logcap brown root services kbr august cost plus award fee contract used december year support united nations forces somalia contractors served advisory roles help train local militaries fight effectively instead intervening directly much peacekeeper training western governments provided african militaries done private firms increasing absence western military support international peace operations private sector commonly utilized provide services peace stability operations


haiti darfur center public integrity reported since defense department entered contracts worth billion us based pmcs specifically initial response hurricane katrina new orleans domestic operations generally auspice state federal agencies department energy department homeland security rather department defense driven increasingly greater fears domestic terror attacks civil unrest disruption wake disasters conventional security companies moving operations arenas would fall


within definition pmc united states state department also employs several companies provide support danger zones would difficult conventional us forces october uss ''cole'' bombing proved pivotal moment private military companies sea directly led first contract blackwater us military pmcs iraq international green zone baghdad iraq december estimated least contractors working directly united states department defense iraq tenfold increase use private


left iraq l paul bremer signed order giving americans associated cpa american government immunity iraqi law ref name 'newsweek ' ref july report american congressional research service indicates iraqi government still authority private security firms contracted us government ref name 'cnncom ' ref uniform code military justice amended allow prosecution military contractors deployed declared war contingency operation pmcs supplied support us military bases throughout persian gulf operating mess halls


percent abu ghraib proven incidents identified employees individually culpable ref name pws p w singer march april ''outsourcing war'' foreign affairs council foreign relations new york city ny ref although none faced prosecution unlike us military personnel ref name pws march four american private contractors belonging company blackwater usa killed insurgents fallujah drove town dragged car one violent attacks us contractors conflict following attack angry mob mutilated burned bodies dragging


streets hung bridge ''see also'' march fallujah ambush operation vigilant resolve march american contractors three iraqi aides zapata engineering contract us army corps engineers manage ammunition storage depot detained following two incidents allegedly fired upon us marine checkpoint later released contractors levied complaints mistreatment marines detained june colonel theodore westhusing committed suicide writing report exonerating us investigations services allegations


victory roc tried fire heydenreycher team threatened resign aegis us army us state department conducted formal inquiry issue army determined probable cause believe crime committed september iraqi government announced revoking license american security firm blackwater usa firm 's involvement deaths seventeen iraqis firefight followed car bomb explosion near state department motorcade company allowed continue


march sallyport global fired two investigators alleged sex trafficking alcohol smuggling security lapses sallyport employees balad air base iraq pmcs somalia another area saw large involvement private military companies past decades somalia seas surrounding less publicity scrutiny compared pmc involvement iraq western media role pmcs area underestimated till today pmcs active region provide support un amisom mission


provide security private shipping organizations sail gulf aden seas pmcs hired deter pirates attacking vessels taking shipping crew transport hostage large variety international naval missions goals eu 's atalanta nato 's ocean shield one ctf active region still necessary shipping companies security personnel deck service could almost solely provided pmcs pmcs seem successful


providing de centralized form security also large downside since inherent de centralized nature hard un international organizations provide effective oversight happens seas whereas un showed encounters national sovereign navies participated missions resulting detained pirates one pmc published information period since pmcs much active area covering larger part activities


battlefield losses since beginning wars iraq afghanistan ref name schoonerswan ref class wikitable contractor fatalities employer employer subsidiaries fatalities l communications titan corporation mpri supreme group supreme food services compass security service employees international dyncorp dyncorp technical services aegis aegis defense service mission essential personnel international legal issues october united nations released two year study reported although hired security guards private contractors performed military duties many countries including united states united kingdom


signatories ''united nations mercenary convention'' banning use mercenaries spokesman american mission un office geneva unog said accusations us government contracted security guards whatever nationality mercenaries inaccurate ref name higgins higgins alexander g https wwwusatodaycom news world xhtm us rejects un mercenary report usa today october syndicated article associated press ref observer noted difficulty separating private public troops means legal proceedings violent non state actors complicated stated contracted combatants carry legitimacy state hires ref


control diamond fields forming negotiated peace sierra leone croatia bosnia hired military professional resources inc mpri equip train professionalize armed forces ref name auto ref incident involving dyncorp bosnia followed racketeer influenced corrupt organizations act rico lawsuit filed dyncorp employees stationed bosnia alleged employees supervisors dyncorp engaging perverse illegal inhumane behavior illegally purchasing women weapons forged passports participating immoral acts australian broadcasting corporation 's abc television


international affairs program foreign correspondent broadcast special report sierra leone soldiers fortune focusing exploits south african pilot neall ellis mi hind gunship ref name abcfc ref report also investigated failures un peacekeeping force involvement mercenaries private military contractors providing vital support un operations british military special operations sierra leone ref name sl sof ref april jamie smith ceo scg international risk announced expansion services traditional roles pmcs protection intelligence military aviation support scg international air would


provide air support medevac medical evacuation rotary fixed wing transportation heavy lift cargo armed escort executive air travel location earth marked unique addition expansion services rival capabilities country 's armies air forces march j cofer black vice chairman blackwater usa announced attendees special operations exhibition jordan company could provide brigade size force low intensity conflicts according black clear potential conduct security operations fraction cost nato operations comments


later denied mid may police democratic republic congo arrested alleged mercenaries different nationalities south africans nigerians three americans half worked south african company named omega security solutions americans aqmi strategy corp men accused plotting overthrow government charges pressed men deported home countries us congressional report listed number pmcs enterprises signed contracts carry anti narcotics operations related activities part


plan colombia dyncorp among contracted state department others signed contracts defense department companies different countries including israel also signed contracts colombian defense ministry carry security military activities ref name autogenerated december congressional research service provides background information members united states congress announced deployment extra us troops afghanistan could accompanied surge contractors would expand presence personnel us private sector afghanistan


anywhere crs study said contractors made percent pentagon 's personnel afghanistan december proportion apparently represented highest recorded percentage contractors used defense department conflict history united states september presence dropped percent us military troop strength increased modestly also december house oversight subcommittee said begun wide ranging investigation allegations american private security companies hired protect defense department convoys afghanistan would


paying warlords taliban ensure safe passage would mean united states unintentionally indirectly engaged protection racket may indirectly funding insurgents trying fight preliminary inquiry determined allegations warranted deeper inquiry focused initially eight trucking companies share billion defense department contract carry goods material main supply points inside afghanistan primarily bagram air base forward operating bases military facilities country sttep international '''s'''pecialised '''t'''asks '''t'''raining '''e'''quipment


'''p'''rotection credited providing support nigerian military proved decisive containing boko haram activities nigeria chairman sttep eeben barlow former ceo founder executive outcomes since united arab emirates hired estimated latin american contractors eritrean troops training combat support yemeni government efforts houthi rebels yemeni civil war contractors frontier services group fsg established close ties chinese state owned firms since providing security logistics aviation chinese companies


dozens countries across asia africa europe connection china belt road initiative february fsg signed preliminary deal chinese government establish training base kashgar xinjiang pmc wildlife preservation central african based park ranger organization african wildlife defence force contracting former servicemen law enforcement personnel protect national parks private game ranches africa candidates must undergo additional retraining become park ranger also referred ''private ranger contractors'' prc relation non governmental organizations use private security contractors


ngos dangerous regions highly sensitive subject ref name odi abby stoddard adele harmer victoria didomenico http wwwodiorg publications private security contractors humanitarian operations private security providers services humanitarian operations overseas development institute ref many ngos sought services private security contractors dangerous areas operation afghanistan somalia sudan due following reasons ref name odi lack knowledge skills time adequately meet challenges deteriorating security environments administrative costs managing security house potential outsource liability quite often contractors hired local companies mostly unarmed personnel guarding facilities


rarely international contractors mobile armed security personnel used ref name odi class wikitable contracted security services used humanitarians organizations contracting international psps organizations contracting local psps unarmed guards facilities residences project sites physical security premises security management consulting security training staff risk assessment threat analysis information services armed guards facilities residences project sites


subject needed improve ngos decisions regarding issue though notable exceptions afghanistan ngo security office anso ngo coordination committee iraq ncci ref name odi private security contractor fulfills many different needs private public sectors nations rely heavily input governments us countries trust us tend look private contractors fiduciary obligation according joel vargas director operations contingent security services ltd assistant director interport police


impossible build democracies without assistance private sector performing activities clients future withdrawal us troops iraq us state department reportedly planning double number private security guards many defending five fortified compounds across country security contractors would operate radars warn enemy rocket attacks search roadside bombs fly reconnaissance drones even staff quick reaction forces aid civilians distress helicopter fleet piloted contractors grow


due strain united states armed forces us state department pentagon also outsourced expanded military training africa three companies military professional resources inc mpri dfi international logicon owned northrop grumman ref name auto regulation demands specific psc services grown record levels recent decades private firm 's capabilities include array services vital success ground war fighting well traditional stability operations contingency contracting past calls corporate responsibility heralded successes


kimberley process extractive industries transparency initiative widespread international operations also move within psc contingency contracting industries call accountability implement code ethics retention services operations service providers existing credible accountability initiatives form skeleton governing conduct contractors much remains fleshed form coherent standardized framework oversee organizations activities last decade number initiatives regulate private security industry


include iso pas guidelines private maritime security companies ansi asis psc psc standards asis commission standards founded asis society individual security professionals dedicated increasing effectiveness productivity security professionals developing educational programs materials asis ansi accredited standards developing organization within asis asis commission standards guidelines works national international standards setting organizations industry representatives develop voluntary standards guidelines security professionals funding us department defense asis commission standards


currently promulgating four sets standards private security companies ref name psmduedu ref psc management system quality private security company operations requirements guidance ref name psmduedu standard provides auditable criteria quality assurance private security company psc operations services consistent pertinent legal human rights obligations good practices recognized montreux document international code conduct private security service providers development standard facilitated us department defense consensus based process dod required congress section national defense authorization