end cell ref name hillisetal complex allows apicomplexans invade hosts' tissues ciliates alveolates possess numerous hair like structure called cilia defining characteristic ciliates presence two types nuclei ciliate cell commonly studied ciliate ''paramecium'' ref name hillisetal excavates groups protists began diversify approximately billion years ago shortly origin eukaryotes ref name hillisetal excavates possess mitochondria thought lost course evolution protists still possess nuclear genes associated


lobe shaped pseudopods help move ref name hillisetal include groups loboseans slime molds eg plasmodial slime mold cellular slime molds ref name hillisetal plant diversity diversity plants plants mainly multicellular organisms predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes kingdom plantae would exclude fungi algae shared derived trait synapomorphy plantae primary endosymbiosis cyanobacterium early eukaryote one billion years ago gave rise chloroplasts ref name hillisetal u ref first several clades emerged following primary endosymbiosis aquatic aquatic photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms


collectively described algae term convenience algae closely related ref name hillisetal u algae comprise several distinct clades glaucophytes microscopic freshwater algae may resembled form early unicellular ancestor plantae ref name hillisetal u unlike glaucophytes algal clades red green algae multicellular green algae comprise three major clades chlorophytes coleochaetophytes stoneworts ref name hillisetal u land plants embryophytes first appeared terrestrial environments approximately million years ago ref name hillisetal u synapomorphy land plants embryo develops protection


tissues parent plant ref name hillisetal u land plants comprise ten major clades seven constitute single clade known vascular plants tracheophytes tracheids fluid conducting cells well developed system transports materials throughout bodies ref name hillisetal u contrast three clades nonvascular plants tracheids ref name hillisetal u also constitute single clade ref name hillisetal u nonvascular plants include liverworts mosses hornworts tend found areas water readily available ref name hillisetal u live soil even vascular plants


grow bare rock tree trunks dead fallen even buildings ref name hillisetal u nonvascular plants terrestrial living freshwater environments none living oceans ref name hillisetal u seven clades divisions make vascular plants include horsetails ferns together grouped single clade called monilophytes ref name hillisetal u seed plants spermatophyte comprise five divisions four grouped gymnosperms one angiosperms gymnosperms includes conifers cycads ''ginkgo'' gnetophytes gymnosperm seeds develop either surface scales


leaves often modified form cones solitary yew ''torreya'' ''ginkgo'' ref name tpl ref angiosperms diverse group land plants orders families approximately known genera known species ref name christenhusz byng ref like gymnosperms angiosperms seed producing plants distinguished gymnosperms characteristics flowers endosperm within seeds production fruits contain seeds fungi diversity fungi clockwise top left amanita muscaria basidiomycete sarcoscypha coccinea ascomycete bread covered mold chytrid aspergillus conidiophore fungi eukaryotic organisms digest foods outside


bodies ref name hillisetal v ref process called absorptive heterotrophy whereby would first secrete digestive enzymes break large food molecules absorbing cell membranes many fungi also saprobes able take nutrients dead organic matter hence principal decomposers ecological systems ref name hillisetal v fungi parasites absorbing nutrients living hosts others mutualists ref name hillisetal v fungi along two lineages choanoflagellates animals grouped opisthokonts synapomorphy distinguishes fungi two opisthokonts presence


chitin cell walls ref name hillisetal v fungi multicellular unicellular yeasts live liquid moist environments able absorb nutrients directly cell surfaces ref name hillisetal v multicellular fungi hand body called mycelium composed mass individual tubular filaments called hyphae allows nutrient absorption occur ref name hillisetal v fungi divided six major groups based life cycles microsporidia chytrids zygospore fungi zygomycota arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi glomeromycota sac fungi ascomycota club fungi basidiomycota ref name hillisetal v fungus


kingdom encompasses enormous diversity taxa varied ecologies life cycle strategies morphologies ranging unicellular aquatic chytrids large mushrooms however little known true biodiversity kingdom fungi estimated nbsp million nbsp million species ref name lucking ref described ref name cheek et al ref species known detrimental plants least pathogenic humans animal diversity imagemap file animal diversitypng right thumb diversity animals top bottom first column echinoderm cnidaria bivalve tardigrade crustacean arachnid second


column sponge insect mammal bryozoa acanthocephala flatworm third column cephalopod annelid tunicate fish bird phoronida rect echinoderm rect cnidaria rect bivalve rect tardigrade rect crustacean rect arachnid rect sponge rect insect rect mammal rect bryozoa rect acanthocephala rect flatworm rect cephalopod rect


annelid rect tunicate rect fish rect bird rect phoronida imagemap animals multicellular eukaryotic organisms form kingdom animalia exceptions animals consume organic material breathe oxygen able move reproduce sexually grow hollow sphere cells blastula embryonic development million living animal species described around million insects estimated million animal species total complex interactions


environments forming intricate food webs animals distinguished two groups based developmental characteristics ref name hillisetal w ref instance embryos diploblastic animals ctenophores placeozoans cnidarians two cell layers ectoderm endoderm whereas embryos triploblastic animals three tissue layers ectoderm mesoderm endoderm synapomorphy animals ref name hillisetal w triploblastic animals divided two major clades based based pattern gastrulation whereby cavity called blastopore formed indentation blastula protostomes blastopore gives


rise mouth followed formation anus ref name hillisetal w deuterostomes blastopore gives rise anus followed formation mouth ref name hillisetal w animals also differentiated based body plan specifically respect four key features symmetry body cavity segmentation appendages ref name hillisetal w bodies animals symmetrical symmetry either radial bilateral ref name hillisetal w triploblastic animals divided three types based body cavity acoelomate pseudocoelomate coelomate ref name hillisetal w segmentation observed bodies many animals


allows specialization different parts body well allowing animal change shape body control movements ref name hillisetal w finally animals distinguished based type location appendages antennae sensing environment claws capturing prey ref name hillisetal w sponges members phylum porifera basal metazoa animal clade sister diploblasts ref name feuda ref ref name simion ref multicellular organisms bodies full pores channels allowing water circulate consisting jelly like


mesohyl sandwiched two thin layers cells majority animal species invertebrates animals vertebral column backbone spine derived notochord includes animals apart subphylum vertebrata familiar examples invertebrates include sponges cnidarians hydras jellyfishes sea anemones corals mollusks chitons snail bivalves squids octopuses annelids earthworms leeches arthropods insects arachnids crustaceans myriapods many invertebrate taxa greater number variety species entire subphylum vertebrata ref name isbn ref contrast vertebrates comprise species animals


within subphylum vertebrata chordates vertebral columns animals four key features anterior skull brain rigid internal skeleton supported vertebral column encloses spinal cord internal organs suspended coelom well developed circulatory system driven single large heart ref name hillisetal w vertebrates represent overwhelming majority phylum chordata currently species described vertebrates comprise different major groups include jawless fishes including hagfishes jawed vertebrates cartilaginous fishes sharks rays ratfish bony fishes tetrapods amphibians reptiles


birds mammals ref name hillisetal w two remaining groups jawless fishes survived beyond devonian period hagfishes lamprey collectively known cyclostomes ''circled mouths'' ref name hillisetal w groups animals elongated eel like bodies paired fins ref name hillisetal w however hagfishes weak circulatory system three accessory hearts partial skull cerebellum jaws stomach jointed vertebrae biologists classify vertebrates instead sister group vertebrates ref name hillisetal w contrast lampreys complete skull distinct vertebrae


cartilaginous ref name hillisetal w mammals four key features distinguish animals sweat glands mammary glands hair four chambered heart ref name hillisetal w small medium sized mammals used co exist large dinosaurs much mesozoic era soon radiated following mass extinction dinosaurs end cretaceous period ref name hillisetal w approximately mammal species divided two primary groups prototherians therians prototherians possess nipples mammary instead secrete milk onto skin allowing offspring lap furs ref


name hillisetal w also lack placenta lays eggs sprawling legs currently five known species prototherians platypus four species echidnas ref name hillisetal w therian clade viviparous divided two groups marsupials eutherians ref name hillisetal w marsupial females ventral pouch carry feed offspring eutherians form majority mammals include major groups rodents bats even toed ungulates cetaceans shrews moles primates carnivores rabbits african insectivores spiny insectivores armadillos treeshrews odd toed ungulates long nosed insectivores anteaters sloths pangolins hyraxes sirenians elephants colugos aardvark ref


name hillisetal w viruses bacteriophages attached bacterial cell wall viruses submicroscopic infectious agents replicate inside cells organisms ref name ng ref viruses infect types life forms animals plants microorganisms including bacteria archaea ref name pmid ref ref name nyt ref virus species described detail ref name ictv ref viruses found almost every ecosystem earth numerous type biological entity ref name lawrence ref infected host cell forced rapidly produce thousands identical copies original virus inside infected cell


process infecting cell viruses exist form independent particles ''virions'' consisting genetic material dna rna protein coat called ''capsid'' cases outside envelope lipids shapes virus particles range simple helical icosahedral forms complex structures virus species virions small seen optical microscope one hundredth size bacteria origins viruses evolutionary history life unclear may evolved plasmids pieces dna move


cells others may evolved bacteria evolution viruses important means horizontal gene transfer increases genetic diversity way analogous sexual reproduction ref name canchaya ref viruses possess characteristics life described organisms edge life ref name referencea ref self replicators ref name kooninstarokadomskyy ref viruses spread many ways one transmission pathway disease bearing organisms known vectors example viruses often transmitted plant plant insects feed plant sap aphids viruses animals carried


blood sucking insects influenza viruses spread coughing sneezing norovirus rotavirus common causes viral gastroenteritis transmitted faecal oral route passed hand mouth contact food water viral infections animals provoke immune response usually eliminates infecting virus immune responses also produced vaccines confer artificially acquired immunity specific viral infection plant form function plant body root shoot systems eudicot plant body made organs organized two major organ systems root


established embryogenesis ref name hillisetal x cells tissues arranged along apical basal axis root shoot whereas three tissue systems dermal ground vascular make plant 's body arranged concentrically around radial axis ref name hillisetal x dermal tissue system forms epidermis outer covering plant usually single cell layer consists cells differentiated three specialized structures stomata gas exchange leaves trichomes leaf hair protection insects solar radiation root hairs increased surface areas absorption


water nutrients ground tissue makes virtually tissue lies dermal vascular tissues shoots roots consists three cell types parenchyma collenchyma sclerenchyma cells finally vascular tissues made two constituent tissues xylem phloem xylem made two conducting cells called tracheids vessel elements whereas phloem characterized presence sieve tube elements companion cells ref name hillisetal x plant nutrition transport xylem blue transports water minerals roots upwards whereas phloem


orange transports carbohydrates organs like organisms plants primarily made water molecules containing elements essential life ref name hillisetal ref absence specific nutrients essential elements many identified hydroponic experiments disrupt plant growth reproduction majority plants able obtain nutrients solutions surrounds roots soil ref name hillisetal continuous leaching harvesting crops deplete soil nutrients restored use fertilizers carnivorous plants venus flytraps


able obtain nutrients digesting arthropods whereas parasitic plants mistletoes parasitize plants water nutrients plants need water conduct photosynthesis transport solutes organs cool leaves evaporation maintain internal pressures support bodies ref name hillisetal water able diffuse plant cells osmosis direction water movement across semipermeable membrane determined water potential across membrane ref name hillisetal water able diffuse across root cell 's membrane aquaporins whereas solutes transported across membrane


ion channels pumps vascular plants water solutes able enter xylem vascular tissue way apoplast symplast xylem water minerals distributed upward transpiration soil aerial parts plant ref name hillisetal u ref name hillisetal contrast phloem another vascular tissue distributes carbohydrates eg sucrose solutes hormones translocation source eg mature leaf root produced sink eg root flower developing fruit


used stored ref name hillisetal sources sinks switch roles depending amount carbohydrates accumulated mobilized nourishment organs plant development plant development regulated environmental cues plant 's receptors hormones genome ref name hillisetal aa ref morever several characteristics allow obtain resources growth reproduction meristems post embryonic organ formation differential growth development begins seed embryonic plant enclosed protective outer covering plant seeds usually dormant condition seed 's normal activity suspended ref


name hillisetal aa seed dormancy may last may last weeks months years even centuries dormancy broken conditions favorable growth seed begin sprout process called germination imbibition first step germination whereby water absorbed seed water absorbed seed undergoes metabolic changes whereby enzymes activated rna proteins synthesized seed germinates obtains carbohydrates amino acids small lipids serve building blocks development monomers obtained hydrolysis starch proteins lipids


stored either cotyledons endosperm germination completed embryonic roots called radicle emerged seed coat point developing plant called seedling growth regulated photoreceptor proteins hormones ref name hillisetal aa unlike animals growth determinate ie ceases adult state reached plant growth indeterminate open ended process could potentially lifelong ref name hillisetal x plants grow two ways primary secondary primary growth shoots roots formed lengthened apical meristem


produces primary plant body found seed plants secondary growth thickness plant increases lateral meristem produces secondary plant body found woody eudicots trees shrubs monocots go secondary growth ref name hillisetal x plant body generated hierarchy meristems apical meristems root shoot systems give rise primary meristems protoderm ground meristem procambium turn give rise three tissue systems dermal ground vascular plant reproduction reproduction development


sporophytes angiosperms flowering plants engage sexual reproduction ref name hillisetal ab ref flowers organs facilitate reproduction usually providing mechanism union sperm eggs flowers may facilitate two types pollination self pollination cross pollination self pollination occurs pollen anther deposited stigma flower another flower plant cross pollination transfer pollen anther one flower stigma another flower different individual species self pollination happened flowers stamen carpel


mature time positioned pollen land flower 's stigma pollination require investment plant provide nectar pollen food pollinators plant responses like animals plants produce hormones one part body signal cells another part respond ripening fruit loss leaves winter controlled part production gas ethylene plant stress water loss changes air chemistry crowding plants lead changes


way plant functions changes may affected genetic chemical physical factors function survive plants produce wide array chemical compounds found organisms cannot move plants must also defend chemically herbivores pathogens competition plants producing toxins foul tasting smelling chemicals compounds defend plants disease permit survival drought prepare plants dormancy compounds used attract pollinators herbivores spread ripe seeds many plant organs contain different types photoreceptor


proteins reacts specifically certain wavelengths light ref name pmid ref photoreceptor proteins relay information whether day night duration day intensity light available source light shoots generally grow towards light roots grow away responses known phototropism skototropism respectively brought light sensitive pigments like phototropins phytochromes plant hormone auxin many flowering plants bloom appropriate time light sensitive compounds respond length night phenomenon known photoperiodism addition


light plants respond types stimuli instance plants sense direction gravity orient correctly respond mechanical stimulation animal form function general features negative feedback necessary maintaining homeostasis keeping body temperature constant cells animal body bathed interstitial fluid make cell 's environment fluid characteristics eg temperature ionic composition described animal 's internal environment contrast external environment encompasses animal 's outside world ref name hillisetal ac ref animals


classified either regulators conformers animals mammals birds regulators able maintain constant internal environment body temperature despite environments changing animals also described homeotherms exhibit thermoregulation keeping internal body temperature constant contrast animals fishes frogs conformers adapt internal environment eg body temperature match external environments animals also described poikilotherms ectotherms allow body temperatures match external environments terms energy regulation


costly conformity animal expands energy maintain constant internal environment increasing basal metabolic rate rate energy consumption ref name hillisetal ac similarly homeothermy costly poikilothermy homeostasis stability animal 's internal environment maintained negative feedback loops ref name hillisetal ac body size terrestrial animals vary across different species use energy scale linearly according size ref name hillisetal ac mice example able consume three times food rabbits proportion


speeds flight metabolic rate decreases aid air rapidly flows wings however increases speed even high metabolic rates rises due increased effort associated rapid flight speeds basal metabolic rates measured based animal 's rate heat production water salt balance diffusion water ions freshwater fish animal 's body fluids three properties osmotic pressure ionic composition volume ref name hillisetal aj ref osmotic pressures determine direction diffusion water


osmosis moves region osmotic pressure total solute concentration low region osmotic pressure total solute concentration high aquatic animals diverse respect body fluid compositions environments example invertebrate animals ocean body fluids isosmotic seawater contrast ocean bony fishes body fluids hyposmotic seawater finally freshwater animals body fluids hyperosmotic fresh water typical ions found animal 's body fluids sodium potassium calcium chloride volume


body fluids regulated excretion vertebrate animals kidneys excretory organs made tiny tubular structures called nephrons make urine blood plasma kidneys' primary function regulate composition volume blood plasma selectively removing material blood plasma ability xeric animals kangaroo rats minimize water loss producing urine times concentrated blood plasma allows adapt desert environments receive little precipitation ref name hillisetal aj nutrition digestion different digestive systems marine fishes


animals heterotrophs feed organisms obtain energy organic compounds ref name hillisetal ad ref able obtain food three major ways targeting visible food objects collecting tiny food particles depending microbes critical food needs amount energy stored food quantified based amount heat measured calories kilojoules emitted food burnt presence oxygen animal consume food contains excess amount chemical energy store energy


form lipids future use energy glycogen immediate use eg meeting brain 's energy needs ref name hillisetal ad molecules food chemical building blocks needed growth development molecules include nutrients carbohydrates fats proteins vitamins minerals eg calcium magnesium sodium phosphorus also essential digestive system typically consist tubular tract extends mouth anus involved breakdown digestion food small molecules travels peristaltically gut


lumen shortly ingested small food molecules absorbed blood lumen distributed rest body building blocks eg amino acids sources energy eg glucose ref name hillisetal ad addition digestive tracts vertebrate animals accessory glands liver pancreas part digestive systems ref name hillisetal ad processing food animals begins foregut includes mouth esophagus stomach mechanical digestion food starts mouth esophagus serving


passageway food reach stomach stored disintegrated stomach 's acid processing upon leaving stomach food enters midgut first part intestine small intestine mammals principal site digestion absorption food get absorbed stored indigestible waste feces hindgut second part intestine large intestine mammals hindgut completes reabsorption needed water salt prior eliminating feces


rich blood supply thus bringing air close contact blood ref name hsia ref air sacs communicate external environment via system airways hollow tubes largest trachea branches middle chest two main bronchi enter lungs branch progressively narrower secondary tertiary bronchi branch numerous smaller tubes bronchioles birds bronchioles termed parabronchi bronchioles parabronchi generally open microscopic alveoli mammals atria birds air


pumped environment alveoli atria process breathing involves muscles respiration circulation circulatory systems arthropods fish reptiles birds mammals circulatory system usually consists muscular pump heart fluid blood system blood vessels deliver ref name hillisetal af ref principal function transport blood substances cell biology tissues two types circulatory systems open closed open circulatory systems blood exits blood vessels circulates throughout body whereas closed


circulatory system blood contained within blood vessels circulates open circulatory systems observed invertebrate animals arthropods eg insects spiders lobsters whereas closed circulatory systems found vertebrate animals fishes amphibians mammals circulation animals occur two types tissues systemic tissues breathing pulmonary organs ref name hillisetal af systemic tissues tissues organs make animal 's body breathing organs systemic tissues take oxygen adds carbon dioxide blood whereas breathing organs takes


carbon dioxide add oxygen blood ref name pubmed ref birds mammals systemic pulmonary systems connected series circulatory system blood important means oxygen carbon dioxide nutrients hormones agents immune system heat wastes commodities transported ref name hillisetal af annelids earthworms leeches blood propelled peristaltic waves contractions heart muscles make blood vessels animals crustaceans eg crayfish lobsters one heart propel blood throughout bodies vertebrate


hearts multichambered able pump blood ventricles contract cardiac cycle propels blood blood vessels ref name hillisetal af although vertebrate hearts myogenic rate contraction heart rate modulated neural input body 's autonomic nervous system muscle movement asynchronous muscles power flight insects wings b wing joint c dorsoventral muscles power upstrokes dorsolongitudinal muscles power downstrokes vertebrates muscular system consists skeletal smooth cardiac muscles permits movement body maintains posture circulates blood throughout


body ref name ross ref together skeletal system forms musculoskeletal system responsible movement vertebrate animals skeletal muscle contractions neurogenic require synaptic input motor neurons single motor neuron able innervate multiple muscle fibers thereby causing fibers contract time innervated protein filaments within skeletal muscle fiber slide past produce contraction explained sliding filament theory contraction produced described twitch summation tetanus depending frequency action potentials


unlike skeletal muscles contractions smooth cardiac muscles myogenic initiated smooth heart muscle cells instead motor neuron nevertheless strength contractions modulated input autonomic nervous system mechanisms contraction similar three muscle tissues invertebrates earthworms leeches circular longitudinal muscles cells form body wall animals responsible movement ref name hillis ref earthworm moving soil example contractions circular longitudinal muscles occur


gabaergic neurons red multicellular animals nervous systems ref name columbia ref allow sense respond environments nervous system network cells processes sensory information generates behaviors cellular level nervous system defined presence neurons cells specialized handle information ref name aidley ref transmit receive information sites contacts called synapses ref name aidley specifically neurons conduct nerve impulses action potentials travel along thin fibers called axons transmitted directly


glial cells provide structural metabolic support vertebrates nervous system comprises central nervous system cns includes brain spinal cord peripheral nervous system pns consists nerves connect cns every part body nerves transmit signals cns called motor nerves efferent nerves nerves transmit information body cns called sensory nerves afferent nerves spinal nerves mixed nerves serve functions pns divided three separate subsystems somatic autonomic


enteric nervous systems somatic nerves mediate voluntary movement autonomic nervous system subdivided sympathetic parasympathetic nervous systems sympathetic nervous system activated cases emergencies mobilize energy parasympathetic nervous system activated organisms relaxed state enteric nervous system functions control gastrointestinal system autonomic enteric nervous systems function involuntarily nerves exit directly brain called cranial nerves exiting spinal cord called spinal nerves many animals sense organs detect


environment sense organs contain sensory receptors sensory neurons convert stimuli electrical signals ref name hillisetal ah ref mechanoreceptors example found skin muscle hearing organs generate action potentials response changes pressures ref name hillisetal ah ref name freeman ar ref photoreceptor cells rods cones part vertebrate retina respond specific wavelengths light ref name hillisetal ah ref name freeman ar chemoreceptors detect chemicals mouth taste air smell ref name freeman ar hormonal control hormones signaling molecules transported blood distant organs


regulate function ref name hillisetal ai ref hormones secreted internal glands part animal 's endocrine system vertebrates hypothalamus neural control center endocrine systems humans specifically major endocrine glands thyroid gland adrenal glands many organs part body systems secondary endocrine functions including bone kidneys liver heart gonads example kidneys secrete endocrine hormone erythropoietin hormones amino acid complexes steroids eicosanoids leukotrienes prostaglandins ref name marieb ref endocrine system contrasted exocrine glands secrete hormones


outside body paracrine signaling cells relatively short distance endocrine glands ducts vascular commonly intracellular vacuoles granules store hormones contrast exocrine glands salivary glands sweat glands glands within gastrointestinal tract tend much less vascular ducts hollow lumen animal reproduction sexual reproduction dragonflies animals reproduce one two ways asexual sexual nearly animals engage form sexual reproduction produce haploid gametes meiosis smaller motile gametes


spermatozoa larger non motile gametes ova fuse form zygotes develop via mitosis hollow sphere called blastula sponges blastula larvae swim new location attach seabed develop new sponge groups blastula undergoes complicated rearrangement first invaginates form gastrula digestive chamber two separate germ layers external ectoderm internal endoderm cases third germ layer mesoderm also develops germ layers differentiate form tissues


organs animals capable asexual reproduction often results genetic clone parent may take place fragmentation budding ''hydra'' cnidarians parthenogenesis fertile eggs produced without mating aphids animal development cleavage zebrafish embryo animal development begins formation zygote results fusion sperm egg fertilization zygote undergoes rapid multiple rounds mitotic cell period cell divisions called cleavage forms ball similar cells called blastula gastrulation occurs


whereby morphogenetic movements convert cell mass three germ layers comprise ectoderm mesoderm endoderm end gastrulation signals beginning organogenesis whereby three germ layers form internal organs organism ref name gilbert ref cells three germ layers undergo differentiation process less specialized cells become specialized expression specific set genes cellular differentiation influenced extracellular signals growth factors exchanged adjacent cells called juxtracrine signaling neighboring cells short distances called


paracrine signaling intracellular signals consist cell signaling autocrine signaling also play role organ formation signaling pathways allows cell rearrangement ensures organs form specific sites within organism ref name gilbert immune system processes primary immune response immune system network biological processes detects responds wide variety pathogens many species two major subsystems immune system innate immune system provides preconfigured response broad groups situations stimuli adaptive immune system provides tailored response


stimulus learning recognize molecules previously encountered use molecules cells perform functions nearly organisms kind immune system bacteria rudimentary immune system form enzymes protect virus infections basic immune mechanisms evolved ancient plants animals remain modern descendants mechanisms include phagocytosis antimicrobial peptides called defensins complement system jawed vertebrates including humans even sophisticated defense mechanisms including ability adapt recognize pathogens efficiently adaptive acquired immunity creates immunological


behaviors control nervous system quite elaborate ref name hillisetal examples include pecking kelp gull chicks red dot mother 's beak behaviors emerged result natural selection include foraging mating altruism ref name urry ay ref addition evolved behavior animals evolved ability learn modifying behaviors result early individual experiences ref name hillisetal ecology ecosystems terrestrial biomes shaped temperature precipitation ecology study distribution abundance life interaction


organisms environment community living biotic organisms conjunction nonliving abiotic components eg water light radiation temperature humidity atmosphere acidity soil environment called ecosystem ref name habitats world ref ref name hillisetal ao ref biotic abiotic components linked together nutrient cycles energy flows ref name odum ref energy sun enters system photosynthesis incorporated plant tissue feeding plants one another animals play important role movement matter energy system also influence quantity plant microbial biomass present


weather typically averaged period years ref name ipcc ref ref name nasa ref variation topography also produces environmental heterogeneity windward side mountain example air rises cools water changing gaseous liquid solid form resulting precipitation rain snow ref name hillisetal ao result wet environments allow lush vegetation grow contrast conditions tend dry leeward side mountain due lack precipitation air descends warms moisture remains water vapor atmosphere temperature precipitation


main factors shape terrestrial biomes populations reaching carrying capacity logistic growth curve population number organisms species occupy area reproduce generation generation ref name hillisetal ap ref ref name urry ba ref abundance measured using population density number individuals per unit area eg land tree volume eg sea air ref name hillisetal ap given usually impractical count every individual within large population determine size population size estimated multiplying population density area


volume population growth short term intervals determined using population growth rate equation takes consideration birth death immigration rates longer term exponential growth population tends slow reaches carrying capacity modeled using logistic equation ref name urry ba carrying capacity environment maximum population size species sustained specific environment given food habitat water resources available ref name ref carrying capacity population affected


changing environmental conditions changes availability resources cost maintaining human populations new technologies green revolution helped increase earth 's carrying capacity humans time stymied attempted predictions impending population decline famous thomas malthus th century ref name hillisetal ap communities archive date ref community group populations two different species occupying geographical area time biological interaction effect pair organisms living together


primary producers autotrophs plants algae convert energy inorganic material organic compounds used rest community ref name bryantfrigaard next level heterotrophs species obtain energy breaking apart organic compounds organisms ref name hillisetal aq heterotrophs consume plants primary consumers herbivores whereas heterotrophs consume herbivores secondary consumers carnivores eat secondary consumers tertiary consumers omnivorous heterotrophs able consume multiple levels finally decomposers


feed waste products dead bodies organisms ref name hillisetal aq average total amount energy incorporated biomass trophic level per unit time one tenth energy trophic level consumes waste dead material used decomposers well heat lost metabolism make ninety percent energy consumed next trophic level ref name hillisetal ar ref biosphere fast carbon cycle showing movement carbon land atmosphere oceans billions tons per year yellow numbers


natural fluxes red human contributions white stored carbon effects slow carbon cycle volcanic tectonic activity included ref name nasacc ref global ecosystem biosphere matter exist different interacting compartments biotic abiotic well accessible inaccessible depending forms locations ref name hillisetal ref example matter terrestrial autotrophs biotic accessible organisms whereas matter rocks minerals abiotic inaccessible biogeochemical cycle pathway specific elements matter turned moved


greenhouse gases carbon dioxide methane fossil fuel burning coal oil natural gas energy consumption main source emissions additional contributions agriculture deforestation manufacturing temperature rise accelerated tempered climate feedbacks loss sunlight reflecting snow ice cover increased water vapor greenhouse gas changes land ocean carbon sinks conservation efforts made preserve natural characteristics hopetoun falls australia without affecting visitors' access conservation biology study conservation earth 's biodiversity


aim protecting species habitats ecosystems excessive rates extinction erosion biotic interactions ref name sahneybenton recoveryfromprofoundextinction ref ref name consbiol ref concerned factors influence maintenance loss restoration biodiversity science sustaining evolutionary processes engender genetic population species ecosystem diversity ref name hunter ref ref name groom ref ref name dyke ref ref name sahneybentonferry linksdiversityvertebrates ref concern stems estimates suggesting species planet disappear within next years ref name koh ref contributed poverty starvation reset course evolution planet ref name jackson ref biodiversity affects


functioning ecosystems provide variety services upon people depend conservation biologists research educate trends biodiversity loss species extinctions negative effect capabilities sustain well human society organizations citizens responding current biodiversity crisis conservation action plans direct research monitoring education programs engage concerns local global scales ref name soule ref ref name hunter ref name groom ref name dyke see also biology fiction glossary biology list biological websites list biologists list biology journals list


biology topics list life sciences list omics topics biology national association biology teachers outline biology periodic table life sciences tinbergen 's four questions reproduction science tourism terminology biology notes references reading external links http wwwohioedu phylocode indexhtml osu 's phylocode http wwwbiology onlineorg dictionary main page biology online wiki dictionary http ocwmitedu courses biology introduction biology fall mit video lecture series biology https wwwonezoomorg onezoom tree life '''journal links''' http biologyplosjournalsorg perlserv request index html issn plos biology peer reviewed open access journal published public library science http wwwcellcom current biology ''current biology'' general journal publishing original research areas biology http rsblroyalsocietypublishingorg ''biology letters''


high impact royal society journal publishing peer reviewed biology papers general interest http sciencesciencemagorg content collections ''science'' internationally renowned aaas science journal see sections life sciences http wwwbiolsciorg ''international journal biological sciences'' biological journal publishing significant peer reviewed scientific papers http wwwpressjhuedu journals perspectives biology medicine indexhtml ''perspectives biology medicine'' interdisciplinary scholarly journal publishing essays broad relevance


public housing bishan singapore singapore 's public residential developments range studio units executive condominiums contributing home ownership rate one highest world public housing complex tseung kwan hong kong kin ming estate comprises ten housing blocks providing housing approximately people nearly half hong kong 's nbsp million population lives public housing ref name census housing http wwwcenstatdgovhk hong kong statistics statistical tables indexjspcharsetid subjectid tableid hong kong census statistics department population type housing government provides public housing flats rented lower price market rate home ownership

Applied science
Public administration
Housing policy


scheme sold lower price hong kong housing authority hong kong housing society build administer homes ref local authority storey tower block cwmbran south wales alt '''public housing''' form housing tenure property usually owned government authority either central local '''social housing''' rental housing may owned managed state non profit organizations combination two usually aim providing affordable housing social housing generally rationed government form


use th century fuggerei augsburg bavaria origins modern municipal housing lie dramatic urban population increase caused industrial revolution th century large cities period many social commentators octavia hill charles booth reported squalor sickness immorality arose henry mayhew visiting bethnal green wrote ''the morning chronicle'' ref philanthropists began provide housing tenement blocks factory owners built entire villages workers saltaire port sunlight


report royal commission england state first took interest led housing working classes act empowered local government boards shut unhealthy properties encouraged improve housing areas city london corporation built tenements farringdon road world 's first large scale housing project built london replace one capital 's notorious slums old nichol nearly individuals crammed packed streets one child four died


first birthday arthur morrison wrote influential ''a child jago'' account life child slum sparked public outcry construction boundary estate begun metropolitan board works completed recently formed london county council success project spurred many local councils embark similar construction schemes early th century arts crafts movement ebenezer howard 's garden city ideas led leafy london county council cottage estates


firstly totterdown fields later wormholt old oak first world war indirectly provided new impetus poor physical health condition many urban recruits british army noted alarm conscripts unfit serve led campaign known ''homes fit heroes'' government first compelled councils provide housing helping provision subsidies housing act ref name hollow ref public housing projects tried european countries united states


estimated million units department human settlements facilitates national housing development sought transition housing focused development model holistic view including services americas brazil alt house life brazilian federal government 's social housing program launched march budget r nbsp billion us nbsp billion build one million homes second stage program included within government growth acceleration program pac announced march stage foresaw construction two million homes


funds properties provided brazilian public bank bank financed development provided mortgages qualifying families million homes built distributed population project criticized placement quality houses houses built far city centre reduce housing costs consequently reduces access labor market study randomly selected houses mcmv project rio de janeiro showed reduced likelihood formally employed job seekers income affected already


employed canada moss park downtown toronto alt habitations jeanne mance downtown montreal alt canada public housing usually block purpose built subsidized housing operated government agency often simply referred community housing easier manage townhouses canada especially toronto still maintains large high rise clustered developments working class neighborhoods system fallen disfavour united states united kingdom however toronto community housing second largest public housing agency north america variety buildings communities ranging individual houses townhouse communities mid rise high rise


apartments working class middle class neighborhoods house significant number low income canadians following decentralisation public housing local municipalities social housing services corporation shsc created province ontario provide group services social housing providers public housing non profit housing co operative housing non profit corporation provides ontario housing providers service managers bulk purchasing insurance investment information services add significant value operations recently move toward integration public housing market housing uses revitalization


plans properties notorious downtown eastside vancouver regent park lawrence heights alexandra park toronto aim provide better accommodations low income residents connect greater community toronto instance aims reconstruction plans regent park better integrate traditional grid streets improve leisure cultural amenities force poor people downtown toronto however residents communities little effective input plans mixed reactions construction vancouver


long considered one least affordable cities world changed definition social housing mean rental housing minimum percent dwelling units occupied households cannot pay market rents due lack income mexico alt end second world war enriched us investments oil boom mexico first demographic boom primary destination rural immigrants mexico city famous architect time charged build first large scale public housing project built


national pensions office today issste colonia del valle introduced formal ideas le corbusier 's urban fabric later project nocat built meant develop one poorest parts city nocat becoming slum unfortunately instead giving residences previous residents corruption took place dwellings handed state employees earthquake


type housing land developed lots often private developer single family homes built recently non single family units condominiums townhouses built also fall category ref name primerahoracom puerto rico condominium housing unit located high rise building popularly called english 'apartment' whether resident owns unit lives renter public housing hand housing units built government funding primarily programs us department housing


urban development hud us department agriculture usda traditionally consisted multi family dwellings housing complexes called recently exterior grounds consist shared areas increasingly however public housing developments built consist traditional multi family dwellings exterior grounds consisting shared outside area example public housing may consist single family garden apartments units finally home located neither public housing development said located


part ref name primerahoracom puerto rico also second different meaning official meaning geographical area divided official administrative purposes sense well public housing developments well one several popular sense may located one official geographic areas united states john f hylan houses bushwick section brooklyn new york city alt ramona gardens projects los angeles california alt nineteenth early twentieth centuries


government involvement housing poor chiefly introduction building standards atlanta georgia 's techwood homes dedicated nation 's first public housing project housing communities developed onward initial public housing largely slum clearance requirement insisted upon private builders every unit public housing constructed unit private housing would demolished also eased concerns establishment eliminating altering neighborhoods commonly considered source disease reflected progressive era sanitation initiatives moreover public housing along federal


highway program demolished older substandard housing communities color across united states however advent makeshift tent communities great depression caused concern administration federal public housing program created act operations sustained primarily tenant rents result public housing earliest decades usually much working class middle class white many americans associate large multi story towers public housing early projects actually low rise though le corbusier superblocks caught world war ii


unique us public housing initiative development subsidized middle class housing late new deal auspices mutual ownership defense housing division federal works agency direction colonel lawrence westbrook eight projects purchased residents second world war seven projects continue operate mutual housing corporations owned residents projects among definitive success stories history us public housing effort public housing built blessing


local government projects almost never built suburban greenfields regeneration older neighborhoods destruction tenements eviction low income residents consistently created problems nearby neighborhoods soft real estate markets houses apartments residential units usually subsidized rent geared income rgi basis communities embraced mixed income assisted market rents allocating homes become available significant change program took place passage brooke amendment rents became set


law enabling eviction tenants convicted crimes especially drug related merely result tried crimes attempts solve problems include section housing program encourages private sector construct affordable homes subsidized public housing assistance project based subsidizing properties tenant based provides tenants voucher accepted landlords asia china old public house pengpu xincun shanghai low rent house ningnan county sichuan public owned housing system established communist party


china started planned economy part great leap forward system funded central government 's budget administered distributed state owned enterprises occupants public housing usually employees enterprises family subject pay rent low price size type room households received dependent job title administrative level central government found difficult upkeep public housing due low rent received distribution policy


intended equalitarianism actually corrupt ref name gongfang ref chinese government commercialized housing market economic reform started deng xiaoping public houses constructed economic reforms categorized old public houses old public houses principle supposed privately sold household could sell purchasing ownership building property transactions subject review local housing authorities state owned assets supervision administration commission however informal filing system unclear


policies resulted problems corruption family dispute recent years government provides public housing various sources new housing abandoned properties old flats rented low price called lian zu fang literally 'low rent house' 'low rent housing' additional housing built providing free land exemption fees estate developers resulting houses called jing ji shi yong fang literally 'the economically applicable housing' concept low cost rental housing traced policy statement truly take


due limited funding administrative problems provision affordable housing one key components china 's twelfth five year plan targets construction million homes program 's costs split private public sector estimated five trillion yuan china international capital corporation hong kong clague garden estate public housing estate tsuen wan hong kong alt hong kong public housing one major housing policies government nearly half hong kong 's nbsp million population lives


public housing ref name census housing two main public housing providers housing authority housing society common types public housing hong kong public rental housing prh subsidised sale flats produced home ownership scheme hos approximately per cent hong kong households lived prh flats per cent resided subsidised sale flats types ref name hklegco ref origin large scale public housing hong kong traced resettlement programme launched hong kong government response


increasing prevalence squatter settlements emerged result great influx refugees following communist revolution china squatter villages considered unsafe susceptible disastrous fires including blaze shek kip mei rendered people homeless overnight ref name quietrevolution ref large scale resettlement estates built throughout government sir murray maclehose launched ten year housing programme aimed provide entire population satisfactory housing within decade government also launched home ownership scheme hos


enable lower income households purchase flats ref name hkhadevelopment ref many public housing estates built part new town development programmes earliest resettlement estates early also rebuilt modern standards public housing remains key concern hong kong government plans construct units ref name hkpolicyaddress ref indonesia indonesia undertaken ''one million houses program'' low income people program implementing since achieve ambitious target building million houses proportion housing percent


low income people percent non low income people program joint movement central government regional governments real estate developers community program targeted reach one million housing units annually homes built increasing approximately around end japan japanese word large cluster apartment buildings houses particular style design typically built public housing government authorities japan housing corporation jhc known urban renaissance


agency ur founded jhc built many suburban areas offset increasing housing demand post world war ii economic boom introduced japanese salaryman life around nuclear family contrast multi generation homes war ref name nyt ref rent payment much cheaper apartment mortgage public prospective tenant must usually participate lottery assigned open apartment residents ur danchi


pay key money contract renewal fees making residences cheaper comparable housing even monthly rents equivalent singapore singapore public housing program particularly planning development new public housing allocation rental units resale existing ownership units managed housing development board day day management public housing communities delegated town councils headed local members parliament singaporeans live public residential developments ranging studio units executive condominiums provided hdb


major factor singapore one highest home ownership rates resident population world vietnam vietnam built ''khu p th '' ktt socialist modeled apartment blocks periphery cities civil servants state owned companies' workers military personnel market reforms late resulted partial privatization ktt sold low low middle income populations ktt since become dilapidated due lack municipal funding repairs maintenance target


demolition displacement redevelopment high income populations vietnam experienced surge property prices affordable housing stock shrinking entire housing stock apartment prices rising developers interested social housing projects since profitable even amidst rising demand workers ministry construction requires funding build social housing units period europe european union according discussion paper


european commission eu population lived households spent disposable income housing january former european commission president romano prodi declared public investment social infrastructure eurocrisis reached year low current investment social infrastructure eu estimated billion euros per year minimum infrastructure investment gap sectors estimated billion euros representing total gap least trillion euros ref name housingeuropeeu january ref housing projects europe


found urban areas well suburban areas especially central eastern europe eu moving support affordable energy efficient accessible housing financial contribution ceb eib european fund strategic investments public funding planned directed primarily affordable housing secondly education lifelong learning health long term care sectors ref name housingeuropeeu january austria karl marx hof italic classical public housing vienna alt public housing important issue right foundation republic german austria


city parliament gave rise red vienna part programme provision decent homes viennese working class made core supporters hence german word plural municipality building austria refers residential buildings erected municipality usually provide public housing important part architecture culture vienna since belgium social housing responsibility regions belgium regions n't directly houses semi private social housing corporations government


regulates mostly finances corporations certain income limit people eligible social housing major shortage social housing belgium priority conditions often imposed children care social housing accounts approximately belgian housing market much lower neighbouring countries netherlands france flanders wallonia brussels responsible social houses people waiting list people waiting list possibilities subsidies


sociale rental agencies flanders denmark denmark public housing called owned administered approximately self governing democratic non profit organizations tenants many public housing organizations denmark rooted early history labor unions currently forms total housing stock departments countrywide membership housing organization usually required obtain rental granted regard length membership ref name factsheet ref ref name retsinformation ref although buildings owned administered


self governing economically independent organizations state denmark strongly regulating public housing country law municipalities access rentals usually reserving poor unemployed disabled mentally ill group dependent social benefits municipality years regulations created many 'especially vulnerable residential areas' called ghettos within country danish public housing never income restrictions recent years new state regulations made mandatory several favor fully employed


renters disfavor unemployed part time employed people relatively new effort state counter ghettoisation officially recognized problem countrywide ref name factsheet ref name retsinformation sweden state municipal policies carried throughout first decade st century led increased privatization public housing many areas residents offered buy flats thereby effectively changing status property privatization public housing initiated part ideological program right wing governments early st century


launched years closure former ministry housing affairs former ministry opened ministry housing urban rural affairs october new coalition government led social democrats formed finland public housing apartment building sandelsinkatu street siilinj rvi finland earliest public housing project finland helsinki four wooden houses designed architect built formerly city 's workers residents mainly working class families several children apartments


average five people per room sometimes eight tiny apartments equipped running water pantry attic cupboard every apartment toilet cellar electric lighting installed homes lives worker families helsinki presented museum near amusement park helsinki launched housing first policy goal ending homelessness prioritizing unconditional housing municipal state ngo support coupled health medical services program reduced homelessness


winter necessary laws gradually mobilized producing high levels construction almost continuously social landlords major source expertise well construction actors links national local bodies ref name jean marc st b ref construction industry time inadequate political support needed incorrect refer french social housing public housing origins french social housing lie private sector first state aid provided limited profit companies originally socialist idea promoted


built huge housing complexes hundreds apartments quality also effectively regulated resulting decent even top quality housing standard construction hlms subject much political debate much smaller developments norm housing generally referred slightly wider sphere housing france still retains system recent law making obligation every town least hlm nowadays hlm represents roughly half rental market social housing


disadvantaged people one target groups part funding provided employer employee groups provide housing local employees target include intermediate housing better groups although object produce social mix gentrification basis social housing allocation divisive issues well extent local control housing housing always multi actor activity recent local government reorganization continues change political landscape succeeded giving lower income families place live


drive provide popular housing system also led creation suburban ghettos problem disrepair long term problem gradual impoverishment social tenants deprived strata population mostly immigrant origin suffering massive employment might past left simmer away affluent urban centres sometimes becoming rife social tensions violence affects minority social housing high profile still produces serious tension tackling problem roots simple


social mix policies break populations seen difficult redevelopment hoped results also sought resolve problem access system disadvantaged people new system certain groups apply court housed refused right housing tends intensify controversy social housing allocation housed french tradition 'universal' social housing allocation housing everyone called question eu competition law restricting subsidy except disadvantaged


suburban settings residents provided access light air sun size shape orientation architectural style germany 's public housing informed recent experience viennese dutch anti urban garden city movement britain new industrialized mass production pre fabrication building techniques novel use steel glass progressive liberal policies social democrats industrial city 'houses balcony access' designed bauhaus director housing cooperative wanted apartments could let


quarter occupant 's income working tight budget inspired money space saving innovations using balcony walkways access apartments rather internal corridors clever use internal space apartments bruno taut italic uncle tom 's cabin estate berlin x px architects others built berlin modernism housing estates world heritage site consisting thousands homes built around berlin including horseshoe estate named shape ''uncle tom 's cabin'' estate named local restaurant frankfurt


architect lead new frankfurt public housing project apartments built may ran sizable research facility investigate instance air flow various floorplan configurations construction techniques etc austrian architect applied principles taylorism kitchen workspace developed frankfurt kitchen working berlin marzahn italic largest east german '' new development area '' alt beyond technical research may also published two magazines embarked significant public relations project films classes public exhibitions make acceptable public


late principles equal access 'light air sun' social effects state guaranteed minimum subsistence level became matter lively popular debate germany one indirect result publicity american housing movement young catherine bauer attended one may 's conferences wrote influential book ''modern housing'' based research done frankfurt dutch architect increasing pressure rising nazis brought era end majority german public housing experts


housing type built socialist era panel flats built hungary million people one fifth country 's total population live flats hungarian government local municipalities began renovation program program insulated buildings replaced old doors windows multi layer thermo glass renewed heating system colored buildings pleasant way ireland ireland public housing halting sites sites used semi nomadic traveller communities built local authorities


known local authority accommodation dublin corporation former dublin county council provided lion 's share irish local authority housing county longford largest ratio local authority private housing state large scale social housing erected cases following slum clearance critics argue national building agency focused much housing delivery failed deliver retail services government promoted tenant purchase favourable terms many former social housing areas completely almost completely privately


owned housing associations independent nonprofit charities play significant role rental social housing provision irish state 's ability borrow diminished government policy favours increased role private financing housing associations instead capital grants local authorities ireland currently faces severe shortage social council housing experiencing housing homelessness crisis netherlands netherlands rent cheaper rental homes kept low governmental oversight regulation types homes known practice accomplished


non profit private housing foundations associations due frequent mergers number organizations dropped around manage nbsp million dwellings majority low rent apartments netherlands owned organisations since policy changed social housing organizations become financially independent focusing role social entrepreneurs dutch municipalities came exist certain minimum capacity social housing throughout last decades many cities amsterdam hague rotterdam utrecht percentage social housing approaches even


passes percent public financial supervision done central fund housing dutch housing policy based concept universal access affordable housing prevention segregation dutch government attempting build housing units homeless homeownership guarantee fund support national mortgage guarantee provides access finance purchase owner occupied housing romania government built housing bucharest romania alt skyline many romanian cities became dominated standardized apartment blocks


former communist government 's policy tower bloc construction beginning systematization consisted largely demolition reconstruction existing villages towns cities whole part stated goal turning romania multilaterally developed socialist society nbsp million flats date communist period accounting total housing romania cities towns subsequent post communist privatization homeownership rate form housing reached new home owner associations hoas challenged internally cumulative effect defaulting contributions


lack affordability established practice casual resident service hoas often triggered mismanagement hand hoas challenged outside non effective mechanisms address internal problems non existent fast court procedures defaulting poor financial assistance socially disadvantaged households private sector unprepared take condominium management spain public housing winner environmental design award spain spaniards' reluctance home rental government spending cuts reduced rented public housing spain minimum rented public houses relatively common


known 'privately developed' opposed 'publicly developed' whole property owned managed government authority publicly developed housing made almost exclusively owner occupation rent made housing stock new plan put forward government aiming make near million homes available public housing relying new construction refurbishment unused houses major parts spanish cities expanded last years projects heavily dependent public


collective housing projects stressed importance inside main architecture schools answered challenge development several specialized courses formation plans madrid upm eth zurich combined mch master collective housing sweden roseng rd malm swedish public housing called consists mostly flats owned local council unlike counterparts great britain instance swedish public housing never income restrictions instead large parts period instance era million programme


public housing companies major operators housing projects well projects aiming acquire old worn buildings although carrying house building acquisition projects recent times policies lead ubiquitous presence publicly owned buildings throughout cities sweden including attractive urban areas rather wide range income among tenants policies carried swedish cities throughout first decade st century led tenants public housing bought publicly owned buildings live


turn led significant decrease publicly owned buildings attractive urban areas slovakia czechia dlisko iii pre ov slovakia forms housing projects may vary slovakia former czechoslovakia czech republic slovakia communist era construction large housing estates important part building plans former czechoslovakia government wanted provide large quantities fast affordable housing slash costs employing uniform designs whole country also sought foster collectivist nature


operating increasing share social housing properties united kingdom also known registered social landlords rsls public housing referred social housing encompass councils rsls despite non profit based rsls generally charge higher rents councils however westminster government introduced rent structuring policy housing associations england aimed bring council rsl rents line england local planning departments may require private sector developers offer affordable housing condition planning


permission section agreement accounts another government funding year tenants part united kingdom housing associations also referred private registered providers social housing prps haringey north london local authorities discouraged building council housing since following election conservative leader margaret thatcher prime minister parker morris standard abolished built resulting smaller room sizes fewer facilities right buy introduced resulting move


best stock public tenanted private owner occupation since year choice based lettings cbl introduced help ensure social housing occupied speedily tenants moved still favour local non local prospective tenant number local authority areas due shortage council housing three four properties may designated priority cases living poor overcrowded conditions medical welfare needs needing family support homeless applicants order meet councils' legal obligations rehouse people need


percentage properties set aside vulnerable groups vary dependent demand council housing area local authorities housing strategy ensure council houses let fairly fulfil council 's legal obligations deal people need contribute sustainability housing estates neighbourhood regeneration social inclusion labour government wished move council housing away local authority management first large scale voluntary transfers lsvt stock councils housing associations council property could transferred


local authorities housing stock poor condition capital value less remaining debts construction costs effect council stock negative equity local authority areas tenants rejected transfer option labour government introduced third way arms length management organisation almo housing stock stays local authority managed profit organisation arm 's length local authority also introduced decent homes programme capital fund bring social housing modern physical


standard use fund manager whether almo ha achieve star rating inspection audit commission intended drive management standards council landlords cannot access funding another incentive transfer management council housing almo ha governments since early also encouraged mixed tenure regeneration areas new build housing estates offering range ownership rental options view engineering social harmony including social housing affordable housing options recent research


report argued evidence base tenure mixing remains thin social housing occupants may stigmatised forced use poor door separate less convenient door unsubsidised occupants use social housing may less desirably situated adoption austerity policies traditional safety net model maintained devolved administrations like scottish parliament welsh northern ireland assemblies uk social housing tenants right swap homes another tenant even landlords different called


mutual exchange england local authorities destinate homeless households local tenancies whereas scotland social housing remained first chosen policy according museum homelessness uk recorded least deaths among homeless people england wales estimated deaths increase previous year former soviet union soviet union houses built world war ii usually stories high small apartments boroughs goal saving space creating many apartments


possible construction starting favored story concrete panel municipal housing major cities stories smaller urban areas housing projects still used countries especially countries central eastern europe slowly renovated oceania australia inner city sydney sydney suburb waterloo two eleven towers three different estates spread across inner city sydney suburbs waterloo redfern surry hills public housing australia provided departments state governments funding provided state


federal government public housing dwellings australia consisting low density housing master planned estates located suburban areas also inner city high rise apartments melbourne sydney recent decades rooming relief housing homeless privatised recent years housing sold avoid maintenance costs capitalise sales booming property market melbourne public housing stocks decline time sparking recent bendigo street housing campaign homeless people housed community campaign homes


left empty state government australia characterized enforced minimum standards rental properties private sector ref name doi ije dyy capped rents stronger leasing contracts within social housing benefit mental outcome people living social housing regime ref name doi ije dyy ref new zealand unlike many countries much new zealand state housing th century form detached single family houses similar private housing development oranga auckland private companies new zealand company fostered early organised european settlement new zealand


constructed immigration barracks serve temporary accommodation new arrivals workers' dwellings act resulted government new zealand commissioning building houses first labour government launched major public housing system became known state housing citizens unable afford private rents state housing built mid consisted detached two three bedroom cottage style houses state houses formed part apartment blocks auckland greater wellington world war ii ended local authorities also


started providing social housing mainly elderly people low incomes see also fuggerei world 's oldest social housing complex still use right housing housing estate affordable housing subsidized housing subsidized housing united states section panel k dlisko czech republic slovakia social welfare welfare state tavros references external links house types social programs urban renewal government aid programs


'''protistology''' scientific discipline devoted study protists highly diverse group eukaryotic organisms eukaryotes apart animals plants fungi considered protists ref name geisen et al ref field study therefore overlaps traditional disciplines phycology mycology protozoology protists embrace mostly unicellular organisms described algae organisms regarded previously primitive fungi protozoa animal motile protists lacking chloroplasts ref name geisen et al paraphyletic group diverse morphologies lifestyles sizes range unicellular picoeukaryotes micrometres

Natural science
Biology
Microbiology
Protistology


diameter multicellular marine algae several metres long ref name geisen et al history term protozoology become dated understanding evolutionary relationships eukaryotes improved frequently replaced term protistology example society protozoologists founded renamed international society protistologists however older term retained cases eg polish journal ''acta protozoologica'' journals societies dedicated academic journals include ''archiv f r protistenkunde'' germany renamed ''protist'' ''archives de la societe russe de protistologie'' russia ''journal protozoology''


usa renamed ''journal eukaryotic microbiology'' ''acta protozoologica'' poland ''protistologica'' france renamed ''european journal protistology'' ''japanese journal protozoology'' japan renamed ''journal protistology'' ''protistology'' russia less specialized journals important protistology appearance specialized ''comptes rendus de l'acad mie des sciences'' france ''quarterly journal microscopical science'' uk renamed ''journal cell science'' ''archiv f r mikroskopische anatomie'' germany ''transactions microscopical society'' uk renamed ''journal microscopy'' ''transactions american microscopical society'' usa renamed ''invertebrate biology'' ''mem rias


instituto oswaldo cruz'' brazil societies society protozoloogists usa renamed international society protistologists many affiliates international society evolutionary protistology usa protistology uk previously british society protist biology international society protistologists previously society protozoologists notable protistologists sorted alphabetical order surnames field protistology idealized haeckel widespread recognition recent fact many researchers cited considered protozoologists phycologists mycologists microbiologists microscopists parasitologists limnologists biologists naturalists zoologists botanists etc made significant contributions field


carlos chagas douard chatton tyge ahrengot christensen lev tsenkovsky cienkowski herbert copeland pierre dangeard yves delage karl moriz diesing clifford dobell franz theodor doflein valentin dogiel f lix dujardin cg ehrenberg faur fremiet felix eugen fritsch wendy gibson douard de fromentel pierre paul grass battista grassi karl gottlieb grell ernst haeckel max hartmann edgard h rouard richard hertwig bronislaw honigberg alfred kahl patrick john keeling georg klebs c kofoid friedrich traugott k tzing ray lankester ernst lemmermann rudolf leuckart gustav lindau alfred r loeblich jr andr lwoff lynn margulis mile maupas michael melkonian konstantin mereschkowski walter migula edward alfred minchin jvind moestrup


ller carl n geli alcide d'orbigny adolf pascher david j patterson eug ne penard maximilian perty ernst pringsheim jr andrew pritchard von prowazek gottlob ludwig rabenhorst eduard reichenow muriel robertson julius von sachs william saville kent fritz schaudinn joseph schr ter max schultze f e schulze vladimir shevyakov schewiakoff c von siebold pc silva heinrich leonhards skuja gilbert morgan smith frederick kroeber sparrow friedrich von stein helen tappan c wenyon george stephen west robert whittaker heinrich georg winter otto zacharias friedrich wilhelm zopf references external links http protozoaugaedu portal portalhtml portal protistology http protozoaugaedu international society protistologists branches


meshid ops othercodes hcpcslevel according american therapeutic recreation association atra '' 'recreational therapy''' '''therapeutic recreation''' '''tr''' systematic process utilizes recreation leisure activities interventions address assessed needs individuals illnesses disabling conditions means psychological physical health recovery well recreational therapy may also simply referred ' 'recreation therapy'' short utilization enhancement leisure work

Applied science
Medicine and health
Recreational therapy


recreational therapists differ professionals basis using leisure activities alone meet well goals work clients enhance motor social cognitive functioning build confidence develop coping skills integrate skills learned treatment settings community settings intervention areas vary widely based upon enjoyable rewarding interests client examples intervention modalities include creative arts eg crafts music dance drama among others games sports like adventure programming exercises like dance movement skill enhancement activities motor locomotion sensory cognition communication behavior approaches simon recreational


therapy session four approaches therapeutic recreation '''recreation services''' providing recreation services people disabilities experiencing leisure benefits often takes rehabilitation tone approach helping clients reach optimal level health well '''therapeutic approach''' purpose approach curative nature attempts lessen ameliorate effects illness' disabilities also prescriptive improving certain functional capacities '''umbrella combined approach''' use recreation subjective continuation enjoyable activities well recreation service bringing purposeful


change '''leisure ability approach''' approach operates leisure activities therapeutically engages clients fully participation good dissemination benefits structured leisure leisure awareness education gun peterson eight domains leisure leisure awareness leisure attitudes leisure skills community integration skills community participation cultural social behaviors interpersonal skills educational programs bachelor 's degree recreational therapy required entry level positions programs typically cover areas treatment program planning human body physiology kinesiology professional ethics programs offer opportunity specialize occupational therapy


outside tr paid work experience successful completion written exam continuing education recreation therapists certified therapeutic recreation specialist ctrs credential required complete clock hours ceus continuing education within year span part overall requirements renew national certification nctrc nctrc outlined several ways ctrs earn continuing education http nctrcorg wp content uploads mm continuing education information pdf continuing education include '''academic courses''' b '''teleconferences audio seminars''' like atra 's webinar series c '''internet course programs''' online programs identified therapeutic recreation directory website https wwwrecreationtherapycom ceuhtm therapeutic recreation


ctra ref name auto ref largest national membership organizations representing interests needs recreational therapists u canada ref name auto credentialing certification national council therapeutic recreation certification charter member national organization competency assurance noca also provides certification expires years certified must apply certification end expiration period specialty certification available five areas health human service professionals acquire higher level knowledge advanced skills provide consumer greater depth


service compared individuals practice less advanced levels specialization well recognized within professional practice become norm within health human service delivery system today median salary recreational therapists united states estimated year number may vary slightly based specific geographic region years experience type employing agency licensure currently four states recreational therapy licensure utah north carolina new hampshire oklahoma practice recreational therapy states professionals must possess current valid state license


addition four currently licensed states numerous states currently moving toward developing licensure joint task force recreational therapy licensure sponsored american therapeutic recreation association national council therapeutic recreation certification significant progress made licensure arena licensure pursued profession means protecting public potential harm references references reading robertson long eds foundations therapeutic recreation champaign il human kinetics stumbo n j peterson c therapeutic recreation program


design principles procedures toronto pearson benjamin cummings dattilo j mckenney facilitation techniques therapeutic recreation nd ed state college pa venture publishing carter van andel g robb g therapeutic recreation practical approach prospect heights il waveland press inc austin r crawford mccormick bp van puymbroeck recreational therapy introduction thed urbana il sagamore publishing kunstler r stavola daly f therapeutic recreation leadership programming champaign il human kinetics external links http wwwrecreationtherapycom therapeutic recreation directory http wwwonetonlineorg link summary onet online summary report recreational therapists


url status live ref costs declined notably energy generated solar panels ref name popscilazard lcoe chodosh 's graphic derived data ref br levelized cost energy lcoe measure average net present cost electricity generation generating plant lifetime '''renewable energy commercialization''' involves deployment three generations renewable energy technologies dating back years first generation technologies already mature economically competitive include biomass hydroelectricity geothermal power heat second generation technologies market ready deployed present time include solar heating photovoltaics

Applied science
Public administration
Energy policy
Renewable energy policy


wind power solar thermal power stations modern forms bioenergy third generation technologies require continued r efforts order make large contributions global scale include advanced biomass gasification hot dry rock geothermal power ocean energy ref name iea international energy agency https wwwieaorg publications freepublications publication renewable factsheetpdf ''renewables global energy supply iea facts sheet'' pdf oecd pages ref renewable energy accounts half new nameplate electrical capacity installed costs continuing fall ref name irena public policy political leadership helps level playing field drive wider acceptance renewable energy technologies ref name renewableenergyfocuscom donald w


wind photovoltaic capacity gw gw new high us billion global renewables investment key benefit investment growth brings growth jobs top countries investment recent years china germany spain united states italy brazil ref name mapren net ren http wwwmapren net gsr gsr pdf renewables global status report p ref ref name ren ref renewable energy companies include brightsource energy first solar gamesa ge energy goldwind sinovel targray trina solar vestas yingli ref name top top list ''renewable energy world'' january ref ref name keith keith johnson https blogswsjcom environmentalcapital wind shear ge wins vestas loses wind power market race wind shear ge wins vestas


loses wind power market race ''wall street journal'' march accessed january ref climate change concerns ref name ieapress international energy agency http wwwieaorg textbase press pressdetailasppress rel id iea urges governments adopt effective policies based key design principles accelerate exploitation large potential renewable energy september ref ref name unep ren http wwwrisoedk rispubl art reportpdf ''changing climates role renewable energy carbon constrained world'' pdf p ref ref name stern hm treasury ''stern review economics climate change'' ref also driving increasing growth renewable energy industries ref name unnews https wwwunorg apps news storyaspnewsid cr climate new un report points power renewable energy


mitigate carbon emissions ''un news centre'' december ref ref name mak joel makower ron pernick clint wilder http wwwcleanedgecom reports pdf trends pdf ''clean energy trends '' clean edge p ref according projection iea international energy agency solar power generators may produce world 's electricity within years reducing harmful greenhouse gas emissions ref name ieaiea ref renewable power effective creating jobs coal oil united states background global public support energy sources based survey ipsos ref name ipsos preference renewables ref rationale renewables


climate change pollution energy insecurity significant problems addressing requires major changes energy infrastructures ref name wws ref renewable energy technologies essential contributors energy supply portfolio contribute world energy security reduce dependency fossil fuels also provide opportunities mitigating greenhouse gases ref name iea climate disrupting fossil fuels replaced clean climate stabilizing non depletable sources energy blockquote transition coal oil gas wind solar geothermal energy well way old economy energy produced burning something oil coal natural gas


leading carbon emissions come define economy new energy economy harnesses energy wind energy coming sun heat within earth blockquote international public opinion surveys strong support variety methods addressing problem energy supply methods include promoting renewable sources solar power wind power requiring utilities use renewable energy providing tax incentives encourage development use technologies expected renewable energy investments pay


economically long term eu member countries shown support ambitious renewable energy goals eurobarometer polled twenty seven eu member states target increase share renewable energy eu percent people twenty seven countries either approved target called go across eu percent thought proposed goal right percent thought modest comparison percent said ambitious ref name worldpublicopinionorg ref new evidence emerged


considerable risks associated traditional energy sources major changes mix energy technologies needed blockquote several mining tragedies globally underscored human toll coal supply chain new epa initiatives targeting air toxics coal ash effluent releases highlight environmental impacts coal cost addressing control technologies use fracking natural gas exploration coming scrutiny evidence groundwater contamination greenhouse gas emissions concerns increasing vast amounts water used coal fired nuclear power plants particularly


regions country facing water shortages events fukushima nuclear plant renewed doubts ability operate large numbers nuclear plants safely long term cost estimates next generation nuclear units continue climb lenders unwilling finance plants without taxpayer guarantees blockquote ren global status report says renewable energies longer energy sources ways address pressing social political economic environmental problems blockquote today renewables seen sources energy also tools address many


pressing needs including improving energy security reducing health environmental impacts associated fossil nuclear energy mitigating greenhouse gas emissions improving educational opportunities creating jobs reducing poverty increasing gender equality renewables entered mainstream blockquote growth renewables ref image bp world energy consumption gif caption comparing trends worldwide energy use growth renewable energy green line url status live ref first time renewable energy conventional power capacity added european union united states demonstrating fundamental


transition world 's energy markets towards renewables according report released ren global renewable energy policy network based paris ref name mart eric martinot janet sawin http wwwrenewableenergyworldcom rea news article renewables global status report update renewables global status report update ''renewable energy world'' september ref renewable power consisted third newly built power generation capacities ref name unep gt fig http wwwfs unep centreorg publications global trends renewable energy investment unep bloomberg frankfurt school global trends renewable energy investment figure ref end total renewable power capacity worldwide exceeded gw renewables producing electricity accounted almost half gw capacity added


globally wind solar photovoltaics pv accounted almost ref name referencea http wwwmapren net gsr gsr pdf renewables global status report executive summary ren ref based ren 's report renewables contributed percent energy consumption percent electricity generation respectively energy consumption divided coming traditional biomass heat energy non biomass hydro electricity electricity wind solar geothermal biomass ref name ria gsr ref five years end worldwide renewable energy capacity grew rates percent annually


many technologies actual production grew overall ref name ren ren http wwwren net portals documents gsr ren gsr full revised sept pdf renewables global status report p ref un secretary general achim steiner said continuing growth core segment green economy happening chance combination government target setting policy support stimulus funds underpinning renewable industry 's rise bringing much needed transformation global energy system within reach added renewable energies expanding terms investment projects geographical spread making increasing contribution combating climate


change countering energy poverty energy insecurity ref name invest according projection international energy agency solar power plants may produce world 's electricity within years significantly reducing emissions greenhouse gases harm environment iea said photovoltaic solar thermal plants may meet world 's demand electricity half energy needs wind hydropower biomass plants supplying much remaining generation photovoltaic concentrated solar power together become major source electricity ref name ieaiea class wikitable style text align right


selected renewable energy global indicators colspan style text align left investment align left investment new renewable capacity br annual billion usd colspan style text align left power align left renewables power capacity existing gwe


align left hydropower capacity existing gwe align left solar pv capacity grid connected gwe align left wind power capacity existing gwe


colspan style text align left heat align left solar hot water capacity existing br gw sub th sub ej gw sub th sub br ej colspan style text align left transport align left ethanol production annual billion litres


align left biodiesel production fatty acid methyl ester br annual billion litres colspan style text align left policy align left countries renewable energy targets colspan style font weight


normal font size em text align left padding px px px ''source '' ren china led world renewable energy production total capacity gw mainly hydroelectric wind power china leads world production use wind power solar photovoltaic power smart grid technologies generating almost much water wind solar energy france germany 's power plants combined china 's renewable energy sector growing faster fossil fuels nuclear power capacity since production solar cells china


expanded fold chinese renewable manufacturing grown costs renewable energy technologies dropped innovation helped main driver reduced costs market expansion ref name chinaen ref see also renewable energy united states us figures economic trends url status live https wwwirenaorg newsroom articles jun low renewable costs allow power past coal infographic numerical data https webarchiveorg web https wwwirenaorg newsroom articles jun low renewable costs allow power past coal archive thereof ref renewable energy technologies getting cheaper technological change benefits mass production market competition iea report said portfolio renewable energy technologies becoming cost competitive increasingly broad range circumstances cases providing investment


last two years reflecting solar fierce competition supply chain improvements levelised cost energy solar wind technologies lie ahead posing growing threat dominance fossil fuel generation sources next years ref name invest ref blockquote hydro electricity geothermal electricity produced favourable sites cheapest way generate electricity renewable energy costs continue drop levelised cost electricity lcoe declining wind power solar photovoltaic pv concentrated solar power csp biomass technologies ref name irena ref renewable energy


also economic solution new grid connected capacity areas good resources cost renewable power falls scope economically viable applications increases renewable technologies often economic solution new generating capacity oil fired generation predominant power generation source eg islands grid countries lower cost renewable solution almost always exists today ref name irena renewable power generation technologies accounted around half new power generation capacity additions globally additions included gigawatt gw new wind power capacity gw


pv gw hydro electricity gw biomass gw csp gw geothermal power ref name irena three generations technologies renewable energy includes number sources technologies different stages commercialization international energy agency iea defined three generations renewable energy technologies reaching back nbsp years ''first generation technologies'' emerged industrial revolution end th century include hydropower biomass combustion geothermal power heat technologies quite widely used ref name iea ''second generation technologies'' include solar heating cooling wind power modern forms


bioenergy solar photovoltaics entering markets result research development demonstration rd investments since initial investment prompted energy security concerns linked oil crises enduring appeal technologies due least part environmental benefits many technologies reflect significant advancements materials ref name iea ''third generation technologies'' still development include advanced biomass gasification biorefinery technologies concentrating solar thermal power hot dry rock geothermal power ocean energy advances nanotechnology may also play major role ref name iea first generation technologies


well established second generation technologies entering markets third generation technologies heavily depend long term research development commitments public sector role play ref name iea first generation technologies biomass heating plant austria total heat power kw first generation technologies widely used locations abundant resources future use depends exploration remaining resource potential particularly developing countries overcoming challenges related environment social acceptance biomass biomass burning organic materials heat power fully mature technology


unlike renewable sources biomass hydropower supply stable base load power generation ref name carneiro ref biomass produces co sub sub emissions combustion issue whether biomass ''carbon neutral'' contested ref name harvey ref material directly combusted cook stoves produces pollutants leading severe health environmental consequences improved cook stove programs alleviating effects industry remained relatively stagnant decade demand biomass mostly wood continues grow many developing countries well brazil germany economic viability biomass dependent regulated tariffs


due high costs infrastructure ingredients ongoing operations ref name carneiro biomass offer ready disposal mechanism burning municipal agricultural industrial organic waste products first generation biomass technologies economically competitive may still require deployment support overcome public acceptance small scale issues ref name iea part food vs fuel debate several economists iowa state university found evidence disprove primary objective biofuel policy support farm income hydroelectricity mw three gorges dam people 's republic china


largest hydroelectric power station world hydroelectricity term referring electricity generated hydropower production electrical power use gravitational force falling flowing water hydropower generated worlds total electricity renewable electricity expected increase year next years hydroelectric plants advantage long lived many existing plants operated years hydropower produced countries asia pacific region generating percent global hydropower


china largest hydroelectricity producer terawatt hours production representing around percent domestic electricity use three hydroelectricity plants larger gw three gorges dam china itaipu dam across brazil paraguay border guri dam venezuela ref name wi ref cost hydroelectricity low making competitive source renewable electricity average cost electricity hydro plant larger megawatts us cents per kilowatt hour ref name wi geothermal power heat one many power plants geysers