nature education authority several authorities looking education cannot implemented education policies reforms defined either federal state local level cases focuses authority overlap one another form authority led many believe inefficiency within education governance compared oecd countries educational governance us decentralized autonomy found within state district levels reason us citizens put emphasis individual rights fear federal


government overreach recent report national center education economy believes education system neither coherent likely see improvements due nature state texas th legislature several education reform bills filed sponsored many education reform groups texans education reform lawmakers want create involvement local level transparency public schools groups pressured opposed teachers' unions saying accountability transparency policies targeting educators

Applied science
Public administration
Education policy


trying hold responsible education system teacher policy teacher policy education policy addresses preparation recruitment retention teachers teacher policy guided overall vision essential characteristics wider education policy strategic holistic feasible sustainable context sensitive overall objectives major challenges addressed funding achieve objectives demographic parameters learner population human resources required achieve universally accessible quality education addressed comprehensive teacher policy ref name ref


form web based workshops lectures helpful school administrators district officials must push teachers make use available resources opportunities continue learning process conferences workshops also valuable activities provide teachers tools integration technology classrooms continuing professional development units boosting careers gender equality twenty countries whose education sector plans reviewed gender equality perspective quality timely data evidence key factors policy making planning delivery advance gender equality education


help countries identify analyse gendered patterns trends better plan target resources address gender inequalities also help identify inform interventions influence participation learning empowerment early childhood tertiary education beyond ref name ref though sdg monitoring framework step forward policy process complete monitoring framework gender equality education include indicators consider social gender norms values attitudes many influenced education education laws policies well legislation policies


outside education system resource distribution teaching learning practices environments efforts also needed track disparities informal non formal learning contexts lifelong learning approach ensure data collected excluded ref name see also education policy brazil higher education policy sources references references http wwwoecdorg edu policyoutlookhtm information education policy oecd contains indicators information education policy oecd countries external links http gpseducationoecdorg oecd 's education gps review education policy analysis statistics


meshid ops othercodes hcpcslevel '''prosthodontics''' also known '' 'dental prosthetics''' '''prosthetic dentistry''' area dentistry focuses dental prostheses one dental specialties recognized american dental association ada royal college surgeons england royal college surgeons edinburgh royal college surgeons ireland royal college surgeons glasgow royal college dentists canada royal australasian college dental surgeons ada defines

Applied science
Medicine and health
Dentistry
Prosthodontics


dental specialty pertaining diagnosis treatment planning rehabilitation maintenance oral function comfort appearance health patients clinical conditions associated missing deficient teeth oral maxillofacial tissues using biocompatible substitutes history dental prostheory pioneered french surgeon pierre fauchard late th early th century despite limitations primitive surgical instruments fauchard discovered many methods replace lost teeth using substitutes made carved blocks ivory bone also introduced dental braces correct position teeth using gold wires


silk threads ref name besombes ref ref name weinberger ref training according american college prosthodontists prosthodontist dentist ref name prosthodonticsorg ref specializes aesthetic cosmetic restoration replacement teeth receives three four years additional training dental school restores optimal appearance function smile planning surgical placement subcrestal prosthodontics restoration implants rehabilitation occlusion prostheses fall field prosthodontics american college prosthodontists acp ref name prosthodonticsorg ensures standards maintained field becoming prosthodontist requires additional three years


training remaining two oral examinations taken following completion speciality training board eligibility starts application approved abp lasts six years diplomates abp ethically required practice limited prosthodontics fellows american college prosthodontists facp required dental degree completed three years prosthodontic speciality training board certified abp according ada specialties recognized areas advanced knowledge skills essential maintain restore oral health principles ethics


code professional conduct areas dentistry satisfy requirements specialty recognition acknowledged profession contributions endeavors encouraged american dental association recognize cosmetic dentistry speciality ref name maihofer ref prosthodontics dental speciality concentration cosmetic esthetic dentistry falls ref name ada ref general dentists may perform simple cosmetic procedures consequently questions regarding whether ethical general dentists treat smile makeovers complex cosmetic full mouth reconstruction cases qualified address complex needs


patient ref name maihofer likewise specialty recognized ada dental implants maxillofacial prosthodontics prosthetics maxillofacial prosthetics oral maxillofacial prosthodontics sub specialty super specialty prosthodontics maxillofacial prosthodontists first specialize prosthodontics super specialize one year fellowship exclusively maxillofacial prosthetics fellowship provides intensive clinical hospital laboratory training ref name ada ref name maxillofacialprosth ref maxillofacial prosthodontists treat patients acquired congenital defects head neck maxillofacial region due cancer surgery trauma birth defects maxillary obturators speech aid prosthesis formerly called pharyngeal soft palate obturators


mandibular resection prostheses common intra oral prostheses planned fabricated maxillofacial prosthodontists ref name maxillofacialprosth facial prostheses include artificial eyes nose ears facial prostheses fabricated clinician conjunction anaplastologist treatment multidisciplinary involving oral maxillofacial surgeons plastic surgeons head neck surgeons ent doctors medical oncologists radiation oncologists hospital dentists speech pathologies speech therapists clinical psychologist occupational therapists physiotherapists healthcare professionals american academy maxillofacial prosthetics academy discipline https wwwmaxillofacialprostheticsorg conditions bisphosphonate associated osteonecrosis jaw bruxism edentulism occlusal trauma temporomandibular joint disorder


treatment modalities bridge centric relation crown veneer dental surgery complete dentures fixed prosthodontics inlays onlays removable partial denture implant dentistry full mouth rehabilitation see also american college prosthodontists british society restorative dentistry commonly used terms relationship comparison dentistry craniofacial prosthesis dental fear dental restoration dental braces mandibular advancement splint oral maxillofacial surgery dental implant ''european journal prosthodontics restorative dentistry'' references prosthodontology


illustration 'willermoz' pear alexandre bivort ''album de pomologie'' '''pomology''' latin fruit branch botany studies fruit cultivation term '''fruticulture''' introduced romance languages whose incarnations term descend latin also used pomological research mainly focused development enhancement cultivation physiological studies fruit trees goals fruit tree improvement include enhancement fruit quality regulation production periods reduction production cost one involved science pomology called '''pomologist'''

Applied science
Agriculture
Plant science
Pomology


history pomology important area research centuries united states mid th century united states farmers expanding fruit orchard programs response growing markets time horticulturists usda agricultural colleges bringing new varieties united states foreign expeditions developing experimental lots fruits response increased interest activity usda established division pomology named henry e van deman chief pomologist important focus division publish illustrated accounts new varieties


disseminate research findings fruit growers breeders special publications annual reports period andrew jackson downing brother charles prominent pomology horticulture producing ''the fruits fruit trees america'' introduction new varieties required exact depiction fruit plant breeders could accurately document disseminate research results since use scientific photography widespread late th century usda commissioned artists create watercolor illustrations newly introduced cultivars many watercolors used lithographic reproductions


usda publications ''report pomologist'' ''yearbook agriculture'' today collection approximately watercolors preserved national agricultural library 's special collections serves major historic botanic resource variety researchers including horticulturists historians artists publishers see also arboriculture floriculture horticulture olericulture trophort viticulture references external links https webarchiveorg web http americanpomologicalorg american pomological society ''oldest fruit organization north america'' http wwwobstbauorg german pomological society ''german fruit organization'' branches botany agronomy horticulture


'''records management''' also known '' 'records information management''' organizational function devoted management information organization throughout life cycle time creation receipt eventual disposition includes identifying classifying storing securing retrieving tracking destroying permanently preserving records iso standard iso defines ' 'records management'' field management responsible efficient systematic control creation receipt maintenance use disposition records including processes capturing maintaining evidence information business activities transactions

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Records management


observers transactional view emphasizes importance context process determination meaning records contrast previous definitions emphasized evidential informational properties records organizational contexts records materials created received organization transaction business pursuit compliance legal obligations organizational definition record stems early theorization archives organic aggregations records written documents drawings printed matter officially received produced administrative body one officials key records management


terminology documents records ' 'record'' document consciously retained evidence action records management systems generally distinguish records non records convenience copies rough drafts duplicates need formal management many systems especially electronic records require documents formally ' 'declared record'' managed declared record cannot changed disposed within rules system records may covered ''access controls'' regulate access circumstances physical controls may used


owner designee records repository clerk records may managed centralized location records center repository control records may decentralized across various departments locations within entity records may formally discretely identified coding housed folders specifically designed optimum protection storage capacity may casually identified filed apparent indexing organizations manage records casually find difficult access retrieve information needed inefficiency filing maintenance storage systems prove


management records longer everyday use still needed kept semi current inactive records often stored basements offsite modern usage tends refer entire lifecycle records point creation right eventual disposal format media records generally irrelevant purposes records management perspective records must identified managed regardless form iso considers management physical electronic records ref name iso also section dl united states


department defense standard dod std defines records management planning controlling directing organizing training promoting managerial activities involving life cycle information including creation maintenance use storage retrieval disposal regardless media ref name dodstd ref records management theory records life cycle records life cycle consists discrete phases covering life span record creation final disposition creation phase records growth expounded modern electronic systems records continue created captured organization explosive rate conducts


business organization correspondence regarding product failure written internal leadership financial statements reports generated public regulatory scrutiny old corporate logo retired new one including color scheme approved corporate font takes place organization 's history examples records phases include ''creation'' record ''modification'' record ''movement'' record different states existence ' 'destruction'' record throughout records life cycle issues security privacy disaster recovery emerging technologies mergers


addressed records information management professional responsible organizational programs records information management professionals instrumental controlling safeguarding information assets entity understand manage creation access distribution storage disposition records information efficient cost effective manner using records information management methodology principles best practices compliance records information laws regulations records continuum theory records continuum theory abstract conceptual model helps understand explore recordkeeping activities relation multiple contexts space


time records management practices concepts records manager someone responsible records management organization section iso states records management includes ref name iso setting policies standards assigning responsibilities authorities establishing promulgating procedures guidelines providing range services relating management use records designing implementing administering specialized systems managing records integrating records management business systems processes thus practice records management may involve planning information needs organization identifying information requiring capture creating approving enforcing


archive records management principles automated records management systems aid capture classification ongoing management records throughout lifecycle arma international defines records management field management responsible establishing implementing policies systems procedures capture create access distribute use store secure retrieve ensure disposition organization 's records information system may paper based index cards used library may involve computer system electronic records management application defensible solutions ' 'defensible solution'' one supported clearly


documented policies processes procedures drive work performed well one clearly documented proof behavior patterns proving organization follows documented constraints best ability ref name defensible solutions ref ' 'defensibility'' applies aspects records life cycle considered important context records destruction known ' 'defensible disposition'' ' 'defensible destruction'' helps organization explicitly justify prove things like destroys records destroy destroy destroy destroy


ref name defensible disposition ref classification records managers use classification categorization record types logically organize records created maintained institution classifications assist functions creation organization storage retrieval movement destruction records highest level classification physical versus electronic records disputable records defined regardless media iso best practices promulgate functions based rather media based classification law defines records certain kinds information regardless media '''physical records''' records paper


touched take physical space '''electronic records''' also often referred '' 'digital records''' records generated used information technology devices classification records achieved design maintenance application taxonomies allow records managers perform functions categorization tagging segmenting grouping records according various traits enterprise records ''enterprise records'' represent records common enterprises regardless function purpose sector records often revolve around day day operations enterprise cover areas


limited litigation employee management consultant contractor management customer engagements purchases sales contracts types enterprises produce work records include limited profit companies non profit companies government agencies industry records ''industry records'' represent records common apply specific industry set industries examples include limited medical industry records eg health insurance portability accountability act pharmaceutical industry records food industry records legal hold records ''legal hold'' records


records mandated usually legal counsel compliance personnel held period time either government enterprise purposes addressing potential issues associated compliance audits litigation records assigned ''legal hold'' traits addition classifications result enterprise industry classifications legal hold data traits may include limited things legal hold flags eg legal hold true false organization driving legal hold descriptions records must


draw variety forms expertise identifying records item presented legal record needs authenticated forensic experts may need examine document artifact determine forgery damage alteration missing content documented extreme cases items may subjected microscope x ray radiocarbon dating chemical analysis level authentication rare requires special care taken creation retention records organization storing records records must


weight shelves file cabinets filled paper historically military vessels designed take account weight operating procedures paper part ballast equation modern record keeping technologies transferred much information electronic storage addition site storage records many organizations operate site records centers contract commercial records centres retrieval records addition able store records enterprises must also establish proper capabilities retrieval records event needed purpose


audit litigation case destruction record retrieval capabilities become complex dealing electronic records especially adequately tagged classified discovery circulating records tracking record away normal storage area referred circulation often handled simple written recording procedures however many modern records environments use computerized system involving bar code scanners radio frequency identification technology rfid track movement records also used periodic auditing identify unauthorized movement


record disposal records disposal records always mean destruction also include transfer historical archive museum private individual large volumes paper records inaccessibility active paper records reasons drive organizations dispose destroy records destruction records ought authorized law statute regulation operating procedure records disposed care avoid inadvertent disclosure information process needs well documented starting records retention schedule policies procedures


content context structure records preserved protected records physical existence important implications authenticity reliability trustworthiness records much research conducted management digital records https webarchiveorg web http wwwinterparesorg welcomecfm international research permanent authentic records electronic systems interpares project one example initiative based school library archival information studies university british columbia vancouver british columbia canada interpares project collaborative project researchers across world committed developing


theories methodologies ensure reliability accuracy authenticity digital records functional requirements computer systems manage digital records produced us department defense ref name dodstd united kingdom 's national archives european commission whose moreq model requirements management electronic records specification translated least twelve languages funded european commission particular concerns exist ability access read digital records time since rapid pace change technology make software used create records obsolete leaving records


unreadable considerable amount research undertaken address heading digital preservation public record office victoria prov located melbourne australia published victorian electronic records strategy vers includes standard preservation long term storage access permanent electronic records vers standard adopted victorian government departments digital archive established prov enable general public access permanent records archives new zealand also setting digital archive electronic tax records electronic tax records computer based non paper versions records required


tax agencies like internal revenue service substantial confusion constitutes acceptable digital records irs concept relatively new subject discussed https wwwirsgov pub irs pdf p pdf publication https wwwirsgov pub irs irbs irb pdf bulletin specific detail businesses individuals wishing convert paper records scanned copies may risk example unclear irs auditor would accept jpeg png pdf format scanned copy purchase receipt deducted expense item current issues compliance legal issues


public administration healthcare legal profession long history records management corporate sector generally shown less interest changed recent years due new compliance requirements driven part scandals enron andersen affair recent problems morgan stanley corporate records compliance issues including retention period requirements need disclose information result litigation come seen important statutes us sarbanes oxley act resulted greater standardization records management practices since shift towards electronic records


seen need close working relations records managers managers particularly including legal aspects focused compliance risk management security privacy data protection identity theft become issues increasing interest role records manager protection organization 's records grown result need ensure personal information retained unnecessarily brought greater focus retention schedules records disposal transparency increased importance transparency accountability public administration marked widespread adoption freedom information laws led


focus need manage records easily accessed public instance united kingdom section freedom information act required government publish code practice records management public authorities similarly european union legislation data protection environmental information requiring organisations disclose information request create need effective management records adoption implementation implementing required changes organisational culture major challenge since records management often seen unnecessary low


priority administrative task performed lowest levels within organization reputational damage caused poor records management demonstrated records management responsibility individuals within organization issue controversial among records managers uncritical adoption electronic document records management systems impact internet social media another issue great interest records managers impact internet related social media wikis blogs forums companies facebook twitter traditional records management practices principles


world becomes digital nature ever growing issue records management community conversion existing incoming paper records electronic form conversions often performed intent saving storage costs storage space hopes reducing records retrieval time tools document scanners optical character recognition software electronic document management systems used facilitate conversions education certification many colleges universities offer degree programs library information sciences cover records management furthermore professional organizations provide separate non degreed


managing records automated environment increasingly characterizes creation use records records management vendors certified compliant dod std verification joint interoperability test command builds test case procedures writes detailed summary final reports certified products performs site inspection software national archives uk published two sets functional requirements promote development electronic records management software market ran program evaluate products requirements requirements initially formulated


collaboration central government taken enthusiasm many parts wider public sector uk parts world testing program closed national archives longer accepting applications testing national archives requirements remain current european commission published moreq model requirements electronic records document management although formal standard widely regarded referred standard funded commission 's ida program developed instigation


dlm forum major update moreq known moreq published february initiated dlm forum funded european commission occasion idabc program successor ida software testing framework xml schema accompany moreq software compliance testing regime agreed dlm forum conference toulouse december national archives australia naa published functional specifications electronic records management systems software erms associated guidelines implementing functional specifications electronic records management systems software


exposure drafts february archives new zealand published 'discretionary best practice' electronic recordkeeping systems standard standard june issued authority section public records act commercial records centers commercial records centers facilities provide services storage paper records organizations cases also offer storage records maintained electronic formats commercial records centers provide high density storage paper records offer climate controlled storage sensitive non paper critical vital paper media trade organization commercial records


centers example prism international however service providers members see also corporate memory design implementation record keeping systems dirks design criteria standard electronic records management software applications dod document imaging document management enterprise content management ecm content management information records management society machine readable documents paperless office picture archiving communication system records life cycle records management taxonomy records manager relational database management system retention schedule united kingdom national archives united states national archives records administration references external links http wwwarmaorg r generally accepted br recordkeeping principles arma 's generally accepted recordkeeping principles https listsufledu cgi bin waa recmgmt l records management listserv information


technology management content management systems public records


'''indology''' '''indian studies''' academic study history cultures languages literature india subset asian studies term ''indology'' german ''indologie'' often associated german scholarship used commonly departmental titles german continental european universities anglophone academy netherlands term ''indologie'' used designate study indian history culture preparation colonial service dutch east indies specifically indology includes study sanskrit literature hinduism along

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Indology


indian religions jainism buddhism sikhism p li literature dravidology separate branch dedicated dravidian languages south india hindu texts dravidian languages considered disciplines indology scholars distinguish ''classical indology'' ''modern indology'' former focussed sanskrit ancient language sources latter contemporary india politics sociology recently indology declined academic circles due various reasons history precursors beginnings study india travellers outside subcontinent date back least megasthenes ca


bc greek ambassador seleucids court chandragupta ruled bc founder mauryan empire ref name bosworth based life india megasthenes composed four volume ''indica'' fragments still exist influenced classical geographers arrian diodor strabo ref name bosworth ref megasthenes reported caste system dominated essentially illiterate india islamic golden age scholar mu ammad ibn mad al biruni tarikh al hind ''researches india'' recorded political military history india covered india 's cultural scientific social religious history detail ref name khan ref studied anthropology india


engaging extensive participant observation various indian groups learning languages studying primary texts presenting findings objectivity neutrality using cross cultural comparisons ref name ahmed ref academic discipline indology generally understood practitioners began later early modern period incorporates essential features modernity including critical self reflexivity disembedding mechanisms globalization reflexive appropriation knowledge important feature indology since beginnings late eighteenth century development networks academic communication trust creation learned societies like asiatic


society bengal creation learned journals like ''journal royal asiatic society'' ''annals bhandarkar oriental research institute'' one defining features indology application scholarly methodologies developed european classical studies classics languages literatures cultures south asia wake eighteenth century pioneers like william jones henry thomas colebrooke gerasim lebedev august wilhelm schlegel indology academic subject emerged nineteenth century context british india together asian studies general affected romantic orientalism


time asiatic society founded calcutta soci asiatique founded royal asiatic society american oriental society german oriental society deutsche morgenl ndische gesellschaft japanese association indian buddhist studies sanskrit literature included many pre modern dictionaries especially ''n mali g nu sana'' amarasi ha milestone indological study sanskrit literature publication st petersburg ''sanskrit w rterbuch'' translations major hindu texts sacred books east began otto von b htlingk 's


edition p ini 's grammar appeared max ller 's edition rigveda appeared albrecht weber commenced publishing pathbreaking journal ''indologische studien'' sergey oldenburg launched systematic edition key sanskrit texts bibliotheca buddhica professional literature associations indologists typically attend conferences american association asian studies american oriental society annual conference world sanskrit conference national level meetings uk germany india japan france elsewhere may routinely read write journals ''indo iranian journal'' ''journal royal asiatic society'' ''journal


american oriental society'' ''journal asiatique'' ''journal german oriental society'' zdmg ''wiener zeitschrift f r die kunde dasiens'' ''journal indian philosophy'' ''bhandarkar oriental research institute'' ''journal indian buddhist studies'' indogaku bukkyogaku kenkyu ''bulletin de l' cole fran aise d'extr orient'' others may members professional bodies american oriental society royal asiatic society great britain ireland soci asiatique deutsche morgenl ndische gesellschaft others list indologists following list prominent academically qualified indologists historical scholars megasthenes bc al biruni gaston laurent c urdoux anquetil


duperron william jones charles wilkins colin mackenzie dimitrios galanos henry thomas colebrooke jean antoine dubois august wilhelm schlegel james mill horace hayman wilson franz bopp duncan forbes linguist james prinsep hermann grassmann john muir indologist edward balfour robert caldwell alexander cunningham hermann gundert otto von bohtlingk monier monier williams henry yule rudolf roth theodor aufrecht max ller albrecht weber ralph h griffith william dwight whitney ferdinand kittel edwin arnold johan hendrik


caspar kern gustav solomon oppert georg b hler chintaman vinayak vaidya ramakrishna gopal bhandarkar arthur coke burnell julius eggeling paul deussen vincent arthur smith james darmesteter hermann jacobi kashinath trimbak telang alois anton f hrer jacob wackernagel arthur anthony macdonell hermann oldenberg arthur anthony mcdonell maurice bloomfield e hultzsch mark aurel stein p srinivasa iyengar moriz winternitz fyodor shcherbatskoy fw thomas jadunath sarkar krishnaswami aiyangar percy brown john hubert marshall arthur berriedale keith


pandurang vaman kane pierre johanns andrzej gawronski willibald kirfel johannes nobel betty heimann alice boner heinrich zimmer ervin baktay mortimer wheeler b r ambedkar k nilakanta sastri mahapandit rahul sankrityayan vasudev vishnu mirashi v r ramachandra dikshitar dasharatha sharma shakti gupta srikanta sastri joseph campbell murray barnson emeneau jan gonda paul thieme jean filliozat alain danielou f b j kuiper thomas burrow jagdish chandra jain ramchandra narayan dandekar


arthur llewellyn basham richard de smet p n pushp ahmad hasan dani frank richard hamm madeleine biardeau awadh k ak narain v pathak kamil zvelebil j b van buitenen tatyana elizarenkova bettina baumer anncharlott eschmann william dalrymple present arvind sharma present harilal dhruv ram swarup mikhail konstantinovich kudryavtsev daniel h h ingalls sr wales professor sanskrit harvard university sita ram goel natalya romanovna guseva ram sharan sharma founding chairperson indian council historical research professor emeritus patna


university bhadriraju krishnamurti osmania university fida hassnain sri pratap college srinagar heinrich von stietencron university bingen germany iravatham mahadevan indian council historical research stanley wolpert university california los angeles emeritus karel werner stanley insler edward e salisbury professor sanskrit comparative philology yale university bannanje govindacharya well versed scholar tatva vada school philosophy well known scholar vedic tradition contemporary scholars university posts romila thapar present professor ancient history emerita jawaharlal nehru university hermann kulke present asko parpola present professor emeritus indology


south asian studies university helsinki michael witzel present wales professor sanskrit harvard university ronald inden professor emeritus history south asian languages civilizations university chicago george l hart present professor emeritus tamil university california berkeley stephanie jamison present distinguished professor asian languages cultures indo european studies university california los angeles alexis sanderson present emeritus fellow former spalding professor eastern religion ethics souls college oxford patrick olivelle present professor emeritus asian studies


university texas austin michael willis british museum edwin bryant present rutgers university new jersey g rard fussman present coll ge de france wendy doniger university chicago divinity school mircea eliade distinguished service professor history religions thomas trautmann former head center south asian studies university michigan kapil kapoor well known scholar english literature linguistics paninan grammar sanskrit arts aesthetics director indian institute advanced studies shimla indologists contributors indology michel danino indian hindutva author historical negationist ref name rediff ref koenraad elst present hindutva


pondicherry https webarchiveorg web http ochsorguk oxford centre hindu studies see also buddhism west history india greater india bibliography india sanskrit sanskrit studies roja muthiah research library area studies references reading balagangadhara sn heathen blindness asia west dynamic religion leiden new york e j brill balagangadhara n reconceptualizing india studies new delhi oxford university press vishwa adluri joydeep bagchee ''the nay science history german indology'' oxford university press new york https wwwacademiaedu introduction nay science ''introduction'' p nbsp joydeep bagchee vishwa adluri https wwwacademiaedu passion paul hacker indology orientalism evangelism passion paul hacker


indology orientalism evangelism joanne miyang cho eric kurlander douglas mcgetchin eds ''transcultural encounters germany india kindred spirits nineteenth century'' routledge new york p nbsp joydeep bagchee https webarchiveorg web http wwwoxfordbibliographiescom view document obo obo xmlrskey lhgg result german indology alf hiltebeitel ed ''oxford bibliographies online hinduism'' oxford university press new york chakrabarti dilip k colonial indology munshiram manoharlal new delhi jean filliozat louis renou ''l'inde classique'' isbn b dlb halbfass w india europe essay understanding suny press albany inden r b imagining india bloomington ind indiana university press vishwa adluri joydeep bagchee


nay science history german indology oxford university press new york gauri viswanathan masks conquest rajiv malhotra ''battle sanskrit dead alive oppressive liberating political sacred'' publisher harper collins india rajiv malhotra academic hinduphobia ''a critique wendy doniger 's erotic school indology'' publisher voice india antonio de nicolas krishnan ramaswamy aditi banerjee eds ''invading sacred analysis hinduism studies america'' publisher rupa co shourie arun eminent historians technology line fraud harpercollins trautmann thomas aryans


institute pondicherry https uni tuebingende indologie bingen https webarchiveorg web http wwwindologieunizhch z rich https webarchiveorg web http wwworinstoxacuk isa oxford library guides asian studies


subdivisions diseases tests musculoskeletal tests specialist sports physician glossary glossary medicine formation '''sports medicine''' branch medicine deals physical fitness treatment prevention injuries related sports exercise although sports teams employed team physicians many years since late th century sports medicine emerged distinct field health care countries sports medicine sport

Human physical performance and recreation


exercise medicine recognized medical specialty similar training standards medical specialties whereas countries special interest area actual specialty scope sports medicine refer specific medical specialty subspecialty sports medicines sport exercise medicine sem well established many countries broadly also refer doctors paramedical practitioners work broad setting various sports medicine experts often work together team ensure best recovery plan individual team members


include orthopedic surgeons certified athletic trainers sports physical therapists physical medicine rehabilitation specialists well specialty sem physicians specializing treatment athletes physically active individuals sports exercise medicine sem physicians extensive education musculoskeletal medicine sem doctors treat injuries muscle ligament tendon bone problems may also treat chronic illnesses affect physical performance asthma diabetes sem doctors also advise managing preventing injuries sem consultants also deliver clinical physical activity interventions negating burden disease directly attributable physical inactivity


compelling evidence effectiveness exercise primary secondary tertiary prevention disease european templates sem specialisation generally recommend years https wwwuemseu data assets pdf file etr sports medicinepdf specialist training internal medicine special emphasis cardiology emergency medicine clinical nutrition orthopaedics traumatology physical rehabilitation medicine fellowship recognised sports medicine centre establishment medical specialty sports exercise medicine sem recognized medical specialty countries worldwide recognized subspecialty many others italian version page medicina dello sport states sports medicine societies


australasian college sport exercise physicians one australia 's recognized medical specialty colleges anomaly respect medical specialty recognition sem yet occurred countries strong pedigrees academic publication sports medicine field including sweden norway south africa sports medicine subspecialty field rather stand alone specialty usa canada countries strong research publication records sem field class wikitable sortable country specialist sports physician association fully


recognized specialty year training requirements general sports medicine association australia australasian college sport exercise physicians yes year training program sports medicine australia austria austrian society sports medicine osmv subspecialty ref name jenoure ref year diploma belarus belarus sports medicine association yes ref name pigozzi ref belgium belgian federation sport exercise medicine subspecialty ref name pigozzi year bosnia herzegovina sports medicine association bosnia herzegovina yes ref name pigozzi


years brazil brazilian society exercise sports medicine yes years bulgaria bulgarian scientific society sports medicine kinesitherapy yes ref name pigozzi years canada canadian academy sport exercise medicine subspecialty china chinese association sports medicine croatia croatian sports medicine society subspecialty occupational medicine cuba yes ref name frontera ref czech republic czech society


sports medicine yes ref name pigozzi years denmark danish association sports medicine finland finnish society sports medicine yes ref name pigozzi years france sport exercise medicine french association sfmes yes ref name jenoure georgia georgian association sports medicine yes ref name pigozzi germany german federation sports medicine dgsm subspecialty ref name jenoure hungary national institute sports medicine


subspecialty ref name pigozzi india indian society sports exercise medicine issem yes pg diploma md years indian association sports medicine indian federation sports medicine indonesia indonesia sports medicine association pdsko ref name idi ref yes ref name universitas indonesia ref years ref name universitas indonesia indonesian sports health supervisory association ireland faculty sports exercise medicine yes israel israel society sports medicine yes italy federazione medico sportiva italiana fmsi


yes ref name jenoure years japan japan medical association certified sports health medical system yes japanese federation physical fitness sports medicine latvia latvian sports medicine association yes ref name pigozzi years mexico yes ref name frontera netherlands netherlands association sports medicine nasm vsg yes ref name pigozzi years new zealand australasian college sport exercise physicians yes


years sports medicine new zealand norway norwegian sports medicine association poland yes portugal sociedade portuguesa de medicina desportiva yes ref name pigozzi qatar aspetar yes russia russian association sports medicine rehabilitation patients disabled yes ref name pigozzi years serbia sport medicine association serbia yes years slovakia slovak society sports medicine


subspecialty years slovenia slovenian sports medicine association yes ref name pigozzi south africa south africa sports medicine association sasma south korea subspecialty korean society sports medicine kssm spain smd sociedad espa ola de medicina del deporte yes years sri lanka sri lanka sports medicine association yes years sweden swedish society physical activity sports medicine


switzerland swiss society sports medicine sgsm subspecialty ref name pigozzi turkey turkish sports medicine association yes ref name pigozzi ukraine ukrainian sport medicine physical exercises specialists association usmpesa yes ref name pigozzi united kingdom faculty sport exercise medicine uk yes years british association sport exercise medicine united states america american medical society sports medicine american orthopaedic society sports medicine physiatric association spine sports occupational rehabilitation


american osteopathic academy sports medicine subspeciality emergency medicine family practice orthopedics pediatrics physical medicine rehabilitation year fellowships american college sports medicine uruguay yes ref name frontera public health sem physicians frequently involved promoting therapeutic benefits physical activity exercise sport individuals communities sem physicians uk spend period training public health advise public health physicians matters relating physical activity promotion thumb common sports injuries common sports injuries result


seeing sports medicine specialist knee shoulder injuries fractures ankle sprains concussions cartilage injuries sports medicine specialist also seen advice areas health like nutrition exercise supplements prevent injuries occur sports medicine specialist works help make performance athlete advanced well ensuring safety performing activity ref name ref allied health team members athletic trainers athletic trainers typically part sports medicine team usa providing primary care injury illness prevention wellness promotion emergency


'''accounting scholarship''' academic discipline oriented towards profession accounting usually taught business school since accounting highly technical standards oriented profession practitioners academics may claim experts accounting directly impacts many specialties business closely linked finance theoretical underpinnings accounting finance derived economics accounting academia requirements appointment professor vary considerably worldwide appointed professor next step awarded tenure institutions step competitive many institutions value academic

Applied science
Business
Accounting
Accounting scholarship


credentials professional certifications real world experience accounting generally oriented towards practical knowledge opposed theoretical abstractions students entering field immediate practical knowledge adult learner executive students often expect professors practical experience accountant commercial organizations students expect practical examples mba case study approach education contrast phd students prefer research professors earned phd accounting types research two broad types accounting research positive accounting normative accounting areas research accounting scholarship deals


performed rank accounting institutions individual faculty members based research performance order provide decision makers useful information empirical studies documented leading accounting journals publish total fewer research articles comparable journals economics business disciplines ref name jae ref consequently accounting scholars relatively less successful academic publishing business school peers ref name car ref due different publication rates accounting business disciplines recent study based academic author rankings concludes competitive value single publication top ranked journal highest


accounting lowest marketing ref name jbr ref difference scholarship finance finance another specialization business schools related accounting however accounting scholarship focuses strongly distinctive bodies knowledge financial reporting financial management auditing information management taxation finance hand oriented towards management investments liquid assets others differences scholarship finance accounting include number citations articles receive word count length publication process accounting economics theoretical basis central concepts accounting


licensed certified public accountant also strongly recommended outlook accounting programs united states looking number accounting students dropped peak students enrolled accounting programs undergraduate degrees awarded represents increase previous year also graduate degrees awarded increase causes increase ascribed loss jobs information technology due recent dot com crash well


'''business english''' part english specific purposes considered specialism within english language learning teaching variant international english many non native english speakers study subject goal business english speaking countries companies located outside english speaking world nonetheless use english shared language lingua franca much english communication takes place within business circles world occurs non native speakers cases object exercise efficient effective communication

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Business English


strict rules grammar cases sometimes ignored example stressed negotiator 's goal reach agreement quickly possible see linguist braj kachru 's theory expanding circle business english means different things different people focuses vocabulary topics used worlds business trade finance international relations others refers communication skills used workplace focuses language skills needed typical business communication presentations negotiations meetings small talk socializing correspondence report writing


online journal english specific purposes http wwwesl guidecom links searchcgispecial features business special sub business english business courses http wwwwritingforresultsnet member text text cnt text cnthtm write briefing notes briefing books http wwwgrammarchecknet business english writing golden standard business english writing golden standard english language education english english global language


command better known combat command may combination groups soviet russian armed forces soviet russian armed forces classify large geographic subdivision continental geographic territories bordering maritime areas islands adjacent coasts airspace theater russian language term military theater ''teatr voennykh deistvii'' literally theater military operations abbreviated ''tvd'' division large continental maritime areas assists determining limits within develop plans operations strategic military groups forces allowing military operations

Applied science
Military sciences
Other Military
Theater (warfare)


specific significant strategic directions known fronts originally named accordance theater operations example southwestern front russian empire st ukrainian front fought ukraine poland germany czechoslovakia northern front soviet union june august peacetime lacking urgencies strategic direction fronts transformed military regions districts responsible assigned section operations united states unified combatant command united states chart typical organization theater operations envisaged war department doctrine


term ''theater operations'' defined american field manuals land sea areas invaded defended including areas necessary administrative activities incident military operations chart accordance experience world war nbsp usually conceived large land mass continuous operations would take place divided two chief areas combat zone area active fighting communications zone area required administration theater armies advanced zones areas


divided would shift forward new geographic areas control see also battlespace china burma india theater european theater operations european theatre world war ii locus control unified combatant command western theater american civil war formations soviet army references warfare


'''philosophy chemistry''' considers methodology underlying assumptions science chemistry explored philosophers chemists philosopher chemist teams much history philosophy science dominated philosophy physics philosophical questions arise chemistry received increasing attention since latter part th century ref name weisberg weisberg http wwwamericanscientistorg bookshelf pub philosophy chemistry philosophy chemistry ''american scientist'' retrieved april ref ref name scerri scerri er mcintyre l http wwwchemuclaedu dept faculty scerri pdf case pocpdf case philosophy chemistry ''synthese'' retrieved april

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of chemistry


mason oh cenage learning ref additionally chemists frequently use non existent chemical entities like resonance structures ref name gammon ref name plk explain structure reactions different substances explanatory tools use language graphical representations molecules describe behavior chemicals chemical reactions reality behave straightforward molecules chemists philosophers chemistry prefer think substances rather microstructures fundamental units study chemistry always one one correspondence two methods classifying substances ref name schummer example many rocks


exist mineral complexes composed multiple ions occur fixed proportions spatial relationships one another ref name gammon related philosophical problem whether chemistry study substances reactions ref name schummer atoms even solid perpetual motion right conditions many chemicals react spontaneously form new products variety environmental variables contribute substance 's properties including temperature pressure proximity molecules presence magnetic field ref name schummer ref name gammon ref name plk schummer puts substance


philosophers define chemical reaction change certain substances whereas process philosophers define substance characteristic chemical reactions ref name schummer philosophers chemistry discuss issues symmetry chirality nature organic ie carbon based molecules often chiral amino acids nucleic acids sugars found exclusively single enantiomer organisms basic chemical units life chemists biochemists biologists alike debate origins homochirality philosophers debate facts regarding origin phenomenon namely whether emerged contingently amid lifeless racemic environment


processes play speculate answers found comparison extraterrestrial life ever found philosophers question whether exists bias toward assumptions nature symmetrical thereby causing resistance evidence contrary one topical issues determining extent physics specifically quantum mechanics explains chemical phenomena chemistry fact reduced physics assumed many inexplicable gaps authors example roald hoffmann recently suggested number difficulties exist


reductionist program concepts like aromaticity ph reactivity nucleophilicity example philosophers chemistry friedrich wilhelm joseph schelling among first philosophers use term philosophy chemistry several philosophers scientists focused philosophy chemistry recent years notably dutch philosopher jaap van brakel wrote ''the philosophy chemistry'' maltese born philosopher chemist eric scerri editor journal foundations chemistry author ''normative descriptive philosophy science role chemistry philosophy chemistry'' among articles scerri especially interested


philosophical foundations periodic table physics chemistry intersect relation contends merely matter science philosophy although fields science students method generally practitioners field chemistry particularly synthetic organic chemistry intellectual method philosophical foundations often explored investigators active research programmes elias james corey developed concept retrosynthesis published seminal work logic chemical synthesis deconstructs thought processes speculates computer assisted synthesis chemists


k c nicolaou co author ''classics total synthesis'' followed lead see also history chemistry central science references reading review articles http platostanfordedu entries chemistry philosophy chemistry article stanford encyclopedia philosophy journals http wwwspringeronlinecom sgw cda frontpage htmlreferer wwwwkapnl foundations chemistry international peer reviewed journal history philosophy chemistry well chemical education published springer http wwwhyleorg journal concepthtm hyle international journal philosophy chemistry english language peer reviewed journal associated university karlsruhe germany books '' http uperskuleuvenbe nl book philosophy chemistry '' j van brakel leuven university press ''philosophy chemistry synthesis


new discipline'' davis baird eric scerri lee mcintyre eds dordrecht springer ''the periodic table story significance'' er scerri oxford university press new york ''collected papers philosophy chemistry'' er scerri imperial college press london https webarchiveorg web http wwwamericanscientistorg template bookreviewtypedetail assetid jsessionid aaaei wzucz ''of minds molecules new philosophical perspectives chemistry'' nalini bhushan stuart rosenfeld eds oxford university press reviewed michael weisberg ''philosophy chemistry growth new discipline'' eric scerri lee mcintyre eds heidelberg springer external links http wwwieputmedu red chem reduction emergence chemistry ''internet encyclopedia philosophy'' http ispcsasupennedu international society


philosophy chemistry https sitesgooglecom site intsocphilchem international society philosophy chemistry summer symposium https sitesgooglecom site ispc international society philosophy chemistry summer symposium http wwwericscerricom website eric scerri author founder editor foundations chemistry philosophy science chemistry


december challenges digital preservation presentation library parliament ottawa ref association library collections technical services preservation reformatting section american library association defined digital preservation combination policies strategies actions ensure access digital content time according ''harrod 's librarian glossary'' digital preservation method keeping digital material alive remain usable technological advances render original hardware software specification obsolete need digital preservation mainly arises relatively short lifespan digital media widely used hard drives

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Digital preservation


proprietary format sold two japanese companies sony panasonic disc dvd based format claims retain data years writing requires special optical disc drives reading data contains requires increasingly uncommon optical disc drives addition company behind format went bankrupt data stored lto tapes require periodic migration older tapes cannot read newer lto tape drives raid arrays could used protect failure single hard drives although care needs taken mix drives


one array another fundamentals appraisal archival appraisal alternatively selection refers process identifying records materials preserved determining permanent value several factors usually considered making decision difficult critical process remaining selected records shape researchers' understanding body records fonds appraisal identified within chain preservation cop model created interpares project archival appraisal monetary appraisal determines fair market value archival appraisal may


performed various stages acquisition processing macro appraisal functional analysis records high level may performed even records acquired determine records acquire detailed iterative appraisal may performed records processed appraisal performed archival materials digital proposed digital context might desirable retain records traditionally retained appraisal analog records primarily due combination declining cost storage


availability sophisticated discovery tools allow researchers find value records low information density analog context records may discarded representative sample kept however selection appraisal prioritization materials must carefully considered relation ability organization responsibly manage totality materials often libraries lesser extent archives offered materials several different digital analog formats prefer select format feel greatest potential long term preservation


content library congress created set recommended formats long term preservation would used example library offered items copyright deposit directly publisher identification identifiers descriptive metadata digital preservation collection management discovery identification objects aided use assigned identifiers accurate descriptive metadata identifier unique label used reference object record usually manifested number string numbers letters crucial element metadata included


database record inventory used tandem descriptive metadata differentiate objects various instantiations ref name nisoorg greenberg jane http wwwnisoorg publications press understandingmetadatapdf understanding metadata metadata schemes cataloging classification quarterly national information standards organization ref descriptive metadata refers information object 's content title creator subject date etc ref name nisoorg determination elements used describe object facilitated use metadata schema extensive descriptive metadata digital object helps minimize risks digital object becoming inaccessible another common type file identification


specific location system modified without affecting bit level profile digital file integrity cornerstone digital preservation data integrity refers assurance data complete unaltered essential respects program designed maintain integrity aims ensure data recorded exactly intended upon later retrieval ensure data originally recorded unintentional changes data avoided responsible strategies put place detect unintentional changes react appropriately determined however digital


preservation efforts may necessitate modifications content metadata responsibly developed procedures well documented policies organizations individuals may choose retain original integrity checked versions content modified versions appropriate preservation metadata data integrity practices also apply modified versions state capture must maintained resistant unintentional modifications integrity record preserved bit level preservation fixity checking capturing full audit trail preservation actions performed record strategies ensure protection unauthorised accidental alteration fixity file fixity property


digital collection management fixity characterization characterization digital materials identification description file defining technical characteristics often captured technical metadata records technical attributes like creation production environment sustainability digital sustainability encompasses range issues concerns contribute longevity digital information unlike traditional temporary strategies permanent solutions digital sustainability implies active continuous process digital sustainability concentrates less solution technology building infrastructure approach flexible emphasis


interoperability continued maintenance continuous development digital sustainability incorporates activities present facilitate access availability future ongoing maintenance necessary digital preservation analogous successful centuries old community upkeep uffington white horse according stuart shieber ise grand shrine according jeffrey schnapp ref name schnappbattles ref renderability renderability refers continued ability use access digital object maintaining inherent significant properties physical media obsolescence physical media obsolescence occur access digital content requires external dependencies longer manufactured maintained


supported external dependencies refer hardware software physical carriers example dlt tape used backups data preservation longer used format obsolescence file format obsolescence occur adoption new encoding formats supersedes use existing formats associated presentation tools longer readily available use file formats vary among archival institutions given capabilities documented acceptance among field chosen file formats open standard non proprietary well established enable long term archival use ref name ref factors enter consideration


unicode jpeg likely readable future significant properties significant properties refer essential attributes digital object affect appearance behavior quality usability must preserved time digital object remain accessible meaningful proper understanding significant properties digital objects critical establish best practice approaches digital preservation assists appraisal selection processes choices made significant properties digital objects worth preserving helps development preservation metadata assessment different


preservation strategies informs future work developing common standards across preservation community authenticity whether analog digital archives strive maintain records trustworthy representations originally received authenticity defined trustworthiness record record ie quality record purports free tampering corruption authenticity confused accuracy inaccurate record may acquired archives authenticity preserved content meaning inaccurate record remain


unchanged combination policies security procedures documentation used ensure provide evidence meaning records altered archives' custody access digital preservation efforts largely enable decision making future archive library choose particular strategy enact content associated metadata must persist allow actions taken taken discretion controlling party preservation metadata preservation metadata key enabler digital preservation includes technical information digital objects information


digital object 's components computing environment well information documents preservation process underlying rights basis allows organizations individuals understand chain custody preservation metadata implementation strategies premis de facto standard defines implementable core preservation metadata needed repositories institutions includes guidelines recommendations usage developed shared community vocabularies intellectual foundations ''preserving digital information'' challenges long term preservation digital information recognized archival community years ref name tibbo ref december research libraries group


rlg commission preservation access cpa formed task force archiving digital information main purpose investigating needed done ensure long term preservation continued access digital records final report published task force garrett j waters ed preserving digital information report task force archiving digital information became fundamental document field digital preservation helped set key concepts requirements challenges ref name tibbo task force proposed development national system digital archives


would take responsibility long term storage access digital information introduced concept trusted digital repositories defined roles responsibilities identified five features digital information integrity content fixity reference provenance context subsequently incorporated definition preservation description information open archival information system reference model defined migration crucial function digital archives concepts recommendations outlined report laid foundation subsequent research digital preservation initiatives oais standardize digital preservation practice provide set recommendations preservation


program implementation reference model open archival information system oais developed published oais concerned technical aspects digital object 's life cycle ingest archival storage data management administration access preservation planning model also addresses metadata issues recommends five types metadata attached digital object reference identification information provenance including preservation history context fixity authenticity indicators representation formatting file structure imparts meaning object 's bitstream ref name cornell cornell university library http dpworkshoporg dpm eng eng indexhtml digital preservation management implementing short term strategies long term problems ref


trusted digital repository model march research libraries group rlg online computer library center oclc began collaboration establish attributes digital repository research organizations building incorporating emerging international standard reference model open archival information system oais published trusted digital repositories attributes responsibilities document trusted digital repository tdr defined one whose mission provide reliable long term access managed digital resources designated community future tdr must include following seven


since incorporate record maintaining use change history allows future users verify contents object valid interpares international research permanent authentic records electronic systems interpares collaborative research initiative led university british columbia focused addressing issues long term preservation authentic digital records research conducted focus groups various institutions north america europe asia australia objective developing theories methodologies provide basis strategies standards policies procedures necessary


ensure trustworthiness reliability accuracy digital records time direction archival science professor luciana duranti project began first phase interpares ran focused establishing requirements authenticity inactive records generated maintained large databases document management systems created government agencies interpares concentrated issues reliability accuracy authenticity records throughout whole life cycle examined records produced dynamic environments course artistic scientific online government activities third five year phase interpares


initiated goal utilize theoretical methodological knowledge generated interpares preservation research projects developing guidelines action plans training programs long term preservation authentic records small medium sized archival organizations challenges society 's heritage presented many different materials including stone vellum bamboo silk paper large quantity information exists digital forms including emails blogs social networking websites national elections websites web photo albums sites change content time digital media easier create content


keep date time many challenges preservation content technical economic unlike traditional analog objects books photographs user unmediated access content digital object always needs software environment render environments keep evolving changing rapid pace threatening continuity access content physical storage media data formats hardware software become obsolete time posing significant threats survival content ref name evans process referred


digital obsolescence case born digital content eg institutional archives websites electronic audio video content born digital photography art research data sets observational data enormous growing quantity content presents significant scaling issues digital preservation efforts rapidly changing technologies hinder digital preservationists work techniques due outdated antiquated machines technology become common problem one constant worry digital archivist prepare future digital content also present challenges preservation complex dynamic nature eg interactive web


pages virtual reality gaming environments ref name videogaem preservation learning objects social media sites many cases emergent technological advances substantial difficulties maintaining authenticity fixity integrity objects time deriving fundamental issue experience particular digital storage medium particular technologies may prove robust terms storage capacity issues securing framework measures ensure object remains fixed stewardship ref name day michael pp preservation software digital content specific challenge


typically non availability source code commercial software normally distributed compiled binary form without source code adaption porting modern computing hardware operating system often impossible therefore original hardware software context needs emulated another potential challenge software preservation copyright prohibits often bypassing copy protection mechanisms digital millennium copyright act case software become orphaned work abandonware exemption united states digital millennium copyright act permit bypass copy protection approved


content resides issue scale amount digital information created along proliferation format types ref name day michael pp makes creating trusted digital repositories adequate sustainable resources challenge web one example might considered data deluge ref name day michael pp example library congress currently amassed billion tweets totaling nbsp terabytes tweet composed fields metadata economic challenges digital preservation also great preservation programs require significant


front investment create along ongoing costs data ingest data management data storage staffing one key strategic challenges programs fact require significant current ongoing funding benefits accrue largely future generations layers archiving various levels security may represented three layers hot accessible online repositories warm eg internet archive layers weakness founded upon electronics would wiped repeat th century powerful geomagnetic storm known carrington


metadata needed object type associated objects providing access content several additional strategies individuals organizations may use actively combat loss digital information refreshing ''refreshing'' transfer data two types storage medium bitrot changes alteration data ref name cornell example transferring census data old preservation cd new one strategy may need combined migration software hardware required read data longer


available unable understand format data refreshing likely always necessary due deterioration physical media migration ''migration'' transferring data newer system environments garrett et al may include conversion resources one file format another eg conversion microsoft word pdf opendocument one operating system another eg windows linux resource remains fully accessible functional two significant problems face migration plausible method digital preservation long terms due


fact digital objects subject state near continuous change migration may cause problems relation authenticity migration proven time consuming expensive large collections heterogeneous objects would need constant monitoring intervention ref name day michael pp migration useful strategy preserving data stored external storage media eg cds usb flash drives floppy disks types devices generally recommended long term use data become inaccessible due media hardware obsolescence degradation replication creating


duplicate copies data one systems called ' 'replication'' data exists single copy one location highly vulnerable software hardware failure intentional accidental alteration environmental catastrophes like fire flooding etc digital data likely survive replicated several locations replicated data may introduce difficulties refreshing migration versioning access control since data located multiple places understanding digital preservation means comprehending digital information produced reproduced digital information eg file exactly replicated


bit level possible create identical copies data exact duplicates allow archives libraries manage store provide access identical copies data across multiple systems environments emulation ''emulation'' replicating functionality obsolete system according van der hoeven emulation focus digital object hard software environment object rendered aims creating environment digital object originally created examples ability replicate imitate another operating system ref name rothenberg ref


examples include emulating atari windows system emulating wordperfect macintosh emulators may built applications operating systems hardware platforms emulation popular strategy retaining functionality old video game systems mame project feasibility emulation catch solution debated academic community granger raymond lorie suggested universal virtual computer uvc could used run software future yet unknown platform uvc strategy uses combination emulation


migration uvc strategy yet widely adopted digital preservation community jeff rothenberg major proponent emulation digital preservation libraries working partnership koninklijke bibliotheek national archief netherlands developed software program called dioscuri modular emulator succeeds running ms dos wordperfect dos games ref name hoeven ref another example emulation form digital preservation seen example emory university salman rushdie 's papers rushdie donated outdated computer emory university library old


library unable extract papers harddrive order procure papers library emulated old software system able take papers old computer encapsulation method maintains preserved objects self describing virtually linking content information required deciphered understood ref name day michael pp files associated digital object would details interpret object using logical structures called containers wrappers provide relationship information components could


digital files may affected file format obsolescence ascii considered durable format metadata widespread backwards compatible used unicode utilizes human readable characters numeric codes retains information structure information presented higher functionality sgml xml used markup languages stored ascii format contain tags denote structure format preservation repository assessment certification major frameworks digital preservation repository assessment certification described


detailed list maintained us center research libraries specific tools methodologies trac crl oclc published trustworthy repositories audit certification criteria checklist trac document allowing digital repositories assess capability reliably store migrate provide access digital content trac based upon existing standards best practices trustworthy digital repositories incorporates set audit certification criteria arranged three sections organizational infrastructure digital object management technologies technical infrastructure security trac provides tools audit assessment potential certification digital repositories


establishes documentation requirements required audit delineates process certification establishes appropriate methodologies determining soundness sustainability digital repositories drambora digital repository audit method based risk assessment drambora introduced digital curation centre dcc digitalpreservationeurope dpe offers methodology toolkit digital repository risk assessment ref name drambora ref tool enables repositories either conduct assessment house self assessment outsource process drambora process arranged six stages concentrates definition mandate characterization asset base identification risks assessment


certification working group framework intended help organizations obtaining appropriate certification trusted digital repository establishes three increasingly demanding levels assessment basic certification self assessment using criteria data seal approval dsa extended certification basic certification additional externally reviewed self audit iso din requirements formal certification validation self certification third party official audit based iso din ''nestor'' catalogue criteria german initiative http wwwlangzeitarchivierungde subsites nestor de home home nodehtml ''nestor'' network expertise long term storage digital resources sponsored german


ministry education research developed catalogue criteria trusted digital repositories second version document published catalogue aiming primarily german cultural heritage higher education institutions establishes guidelines planning implementing self evaluation trustworthy long term digital repositories ''nestor'' catalogue criteria conforms oais reference model terminology consists three sections covering topics related organizational framework object management infrastructure security planets project ''preservation long term access networked services'' planets project part eu framework programmes


research technological development addressed core digital preservation challenges primary goal ''planets'' build practical services tools help ensure long term access digital cultural scientific assets open planets project ended may outputs project sustained follow organisation open planets foundation october open planets foundation announced would renamed open preservation foundation align organization 's current direction platter planning tool trusted electronic repositories platter tool released digitalpreservationeurope dpe help digital


repositories identifying self defined goals priorities order gain trust stakeholders platter intended used complementary tool drambora nestor trac based ten core principles trusted repositories defines nine strategic objective plans covering areas acquisition preservation dissemination content finance staffing succession planning technical infrastructure data metadata specifications disaster planning tool enables repositories develop maintain documentation required audit ref name ball ref iso system audit certification trustworthy digital repositories developed


consultative committee space data systems ccsds published iso standard february ref name iso ref extending oais reference model based largely trac checklist standard designed types digital repositories provides detailed specification criteria trustworthiness digital repository evaluated ccsds repository audit certification working group also developed submitted second standard defining operational requirements organizations intending provide repository auditing certification specified iso standard published iso requirements


point ingest digital repository well processes performed preserved files post ingest time best practices may also apply process digitizing analog material may include creation specialized metadata technical administrative rights metadata addition standard descriptive metadata preservation born digital content may include format transformations facilitate long term preservation provide better access one institution afford develop software tools needed ensure accessibility digital materials long term thus problem arises


maintaining repository shared tools library congress years role assumed community owned digital preservation tool registry audio preservation various best practices guidelines digital audio preservation developed including ''guidelines production preservation digital audio objects iasa tc '' sets international standards optimal audio signal extraction variety audio source materials analogue digital conversion target formats audio preservation ''capturing analog sound digital preservation report roundtable discussion


projects initiatives documents developed international association sound audiovisual archives iasa european broadcasting union ebu library congress digital library federation dlf audio engineering society aes also issues variety standards guidelines relating creation archival audio content technical metadata moving image preservation term moving images includes analog film video born digital forms digital video digital motion picture materials digital cinema analog videotape film become obsolete digitization become key preservation strategy although many archives continue perform


photochemical preservation film stock digital preservation double meaning audiovisual collections analog originals preserved digital reformatting resulting digital files preserved born digital content collected often proprietary formats pose problems future digital preservation currently broadly accepted standard target digital preservation format analog moving images ref name science technology council ref complexity digital video well varying needs capabilities archival institution reasons one size fits format standard long term preservation exists digital video like


types digital records eg word processing converted pdf tiff images ref name ref ref name scart website audiovisual heritage packed website wwwscartbe access date ref library archival institutions library congress new york university made significant efforts preserve moving images however national movement preserve video yet materialized ref name ref preservation audiovisual materials requires much merely putting objects cold storage ref name moving image media must projected played moved shown born digital materials require similar approach ref name following resources offer information


analog digital reformatting preserving born digital audiovisual content library congress tracks sustainability digital formats including moving images ''the digital dilemma perspectives independent filmmakers documentarians nonprofit audiovisual archives '' ref name science technology council section nonprofit archives reviews common practices digital reformatting metadata storage four case studies http wwwdigitizationguidelinesgov federal agencies digitization guidelines initiative fadgi started collaborative effort federal agencies define common guidelines methods practices digitizing historical content part two working groups studying issues specific


australia produced preservation digitisation standards set technical requirements digitisation outputs produced national digitisation plan includes video audio formats well non audiovisual formats smithsonian institution archives published guidelines regarding file formats used long term preservation electronic records regarded open standard non proprietary well established guidelines used video audio formats non audiovisual materials ref name codecs containers moving images require codec decoding process therefore determining codec essential digital preservation ref name ref ref name


'' primer codecs moving image sound archives recommendations codec selection management '' written chris lacinak published audiovisual preservation solutions lacinak stresses importance archivists choosing correct codec impact ability preserve digital object ref name ref ref name therefore codec selection process critical whether dealing born digital content reformatting older content converting analog materials ref name ref name lacinak 's ten recommendations codec selection management following adoption disclosure transparency external dependencies documentation metadata pre planning maintenance obsolescence monitoring maintenance


chosen carefully like codec ref name ref according international survey conducted institutions involved film video reformatting three main choices preservation products avi quicktime mov mxf material exchange format ref name ref examples containers national archives records administration nara chosen avi wrapper standard container format several reasons including avi files compatible numerous open source tools vlc ref name uncertainty formats become obsolete become future


standard makes difficult commit one codec one container ref name scart website audiovisual heritage packed website wwwscartbe access date ref choosing format trade best quality requirements long term sustainability ensured ref name considerations content creators considering following steps content creators archivists ensure better accessibility preservation moving images long term create uncompressed video possible create large files quality retained storage must considered approach ref name ref ref name ref ref name scart


website audiovisual heritage packed website wwwscartbe access date ref uncompressed video possible use lossless instead lossy compression compressed data gets restored lossy compression alters data quality lost ref name ref name ref ref name ref name use higher bit rates affects resolution image size file ref name ref name use technical descriptive metadata ref name ref name use containers codecs stable widely used within archival digital preservation communities ref name ref name ref ref name ref ref name email preservation email poses special challenges preservation email client


software varies widely common structure email messages email often communicates sensitive information individual email accounts may contain business personal messages intermingled email may include attached documents variety file formats email messages also carry viruses spam content email transmission standardized formal standard long term preservation email messages approaches preserving email may vary according purpose preserved businesses government entities email preservation may driven need meet retention supervision


requirements regulatory compliance allow legal discovery additional information email archiving approaches business institutional purposes may found separate article email archiving research libraries archives preservation email part born digital hybrid archival collections goal ensuring long term availability part historical cultural record ref name prom ref several projects developing tools methodologies email preservation conducted based various preservation strategies normalizing email xml format migrating email new version software emulating email environments


http mobisocialstanfordedu muse memories using email muse http siarchivessiedu cerp collaborative electronic records project cerp https webarchiveorg web http wwwrecordsncdcrgov emailpreservation defaulthtm e mail collection preservation emcap http sourceforgenet projects pedalsemailextr pedals email extractor software pedals http xenasourceforgenet xml electronic normalizing archives tool xena best practices guidelines email preservation found following resources ''curating e mails life cycle approach management preservation e mail messages'' maureen pennock ''technology watch report preserving email'' christopher j prom ref name prom ''best practices email archiving'' jo maitland video game preservation ''keeping emulation environments portable'' keep project part eu framework


french national library ref name cordis fp ref community project mame aims emulate historic computer game including arcade games console games like hardware level future archiving january pocos project funded jisc organised workshop preservation gaming environments virtual worlds personal archiving many things consumers artists help care collections home software preservation society group computer enthusiasts concentrating finding old software disks mostly games taking snapshot disks


format preserved future resource center caring treasures american institute conservation historic artistic works details simple strategies artists consumers care preserve work library congress also hosts list self preserver includes direction toward programs guidelines institutions help user preserve social media email formatting general guidelines caring cds programs listed include httrack software tool allows user download world wide web site


internet local directory building recursively directories getting html images files server computer muse muse short memories using email program helps users revive memories using long term email archives run stanford university scientific research researchers reported preprint found open access journals lack comprehensive open archives vanished web spanning major research disciplines geographic regions world third doaj indexed journals


ensured long term preservation content scientific research output located scientific journal 's website sites like source code repositories gitlab internet archive archived many lost academic publications makes available web ref name claburn ref according analysis internet archive per cent open access articles since three million independently archived us another preservation organization publishers ref name claburn sci hub academic archiving outside bounds


laser scanning work attempted national taiwan university science technology goal build built computer models historical building nan kuan house fulfill need digital preservation rather great success capable scanning nan kuan house bulky kg lbs cameras minor touch ups scanners detailed enough recently calw germany team conducted scanning historic church st peter paul collecting data via laser scanning


photogrammetry current church 's tower high architectonic style neo gothic late nineteenth century church counts main nave chorus two lateral naves side tribunes height church shows rich history visible different elements architectonic styles used two small windows choir tower oldest parts preserved date thirteenth century church reconstructed extended sixteenth expansion nave seventeenth centuries construction tribunes destruction


caused thirty years war however church burned french army general lac end seventeenth century current organ pulpit preserved time late nineteenth century church rebuilt old dome welsch replaced current neo gothic tower works period upper section pulpit choir seats organ case stained glass windows choir late nineteenth early twentieth centuries nave 's windows


management professionals working cultural heritage institutions composed library congress staff national trainer network dpoe steering committee community digital preservation education advocates dpoe working trainers across six regions united states ref name library congress ref dpoe conducted assessment reaching archivists librarians information professionals around country working group dpoe instructors developed curriculum based assessment results similar digital preservation curricula designed training programs lyrasis educopia


pioneering program field examples initiatives digitization british library dunhuang manuscript international dunhuang project library congress founded http wwwdigitalpreservationgov ndsa national digital stewardship alliance hosted https wwwdigliborg digital library federation british library responsible several programmes area digital preservation founding member digital preservation coalition http openpreservationorg open preservation foundation http wwwbluk aboutus stratpolprog collectioncare digitalpreservation strategy dpstrategyhtml digital preservation strategy publicly available national archives united kingdom also pioneered various initiatives field digital


preservation centre excellence digital preservation established c dac pune india flagship project national digital preservation program ndpp sponsored ministry electronics information technology government india number open source products developed assist digital preservation including archivematica dspace fedora commons opus sobekcm eprints commercial sector also offers digital preservation software tools ex libris ltd 's ''rosetta'' preservica 's cloud standard enterprise editions contentdm digital commons equella intralibrary open repository vital large scale initiatives many research libraries archives begun


begin large scale digital preservation initiatives lsdis main players lsdis cultural institutions commercial companies google microsoft non profit groups including open content alliance oca million book project mbp hathitrust primary motivation groups expand access scholarly resources approximately cultural entities including member committee institutional cooperation cic signed digitization agreements either google microsoft several cultural entities participating open content alliance million book project libraries involved one initiative others


diversified digitization strategies participation multiple initiatives three main reasons library participation lsdis access preservation research development hoped digital preservation ensure library materials remain accessible future generations libraries responsibility guarantee perpetual access materials commitment archive digital materials libraries plan use digitized copies backups works case go print deteriorate lost damaged arctic world archive arctic world archive facility data preservation historical cultural


data several countries including open source code ref name buried ref see also backup charles dollar data curation data preservation database preservation digital artifactual value digital asset management digital curation digital continuity digital dark age digital library digital obsolescence digital reformatting digitization drambora enterprise content management enumerate file format hd rosetta information lifecycle management list digital preservation initiatives new media art preservation margaret hedstrom preservation metadata section study group seamus ross slow fire trustworthy repositories audit certification uvc based preservation web archiving footnotes references expanded version ''ensuring longevity digital documents'' https webarchiveorg web http wwwlibumichedu mdp symposium economicshtml milne ronald moderator webcast panel


discussion economics ''scholarship libraries transition dialogue impacts mass digitization projects'' symposium sponsored university michigan library national commission libraries information science us external links worf write read forever http wwwdigitalpreservationgov national digital information infrastructure preservation program library congress http wwwdigitalpreservationgov education dpoe digital preservation outreach education library congress https webarchiveorg web http digliborg preservehtm digital preservation page digital library federation http dliborg dlib july lavoie lavoiehtml thirteen ways looking atdigital preservation http wwwlibrarycornelledu preservation tutorial contentshtml cornell university library 's ''digital imaging tutorial'' http wwwdigitalpreservationeuropeeu digital preservation digital preservation introduction digital


preservation digital preservation europe http wwwsciencemagorg cgi content abstract macroscopic terabit per square inch arrays block copolymers lateral order science magazine article prospective usage sapphire digital storage media technology https wwwyoutubecom watchv pbba oam w animations introducing digital preservation curation https webarchiveorg web http wwwprorcip chingcca sommaire summary planification numerisation digitization planning engjsp capture collections planning implementing digitization projects chin canadian heritage information network resource https landesarchivhessende dienststellen digitales archiv digitales archiv hessen digital preservation page hessisches hauptstaatsarchiv wiesbaden http wwwnlagovau openpublish indexphp nlasp article viewarticle land lost discussion preserved digital preservation nick del pozo andrew stawowczyk long david pearson https webarchiveorg web http wwwhkiuni koelnde preservation various activities digital preservation university cologne professorship applied


'''information economics''' '''economics information''' branch microeconomic theory studies information information systems affect economy economic decisions information special characteristics easy create hard trust easy spread hard control influences many decisions special characteristics compared types goods complicate many standard economic theories subject information economics treated ''journal economic literature'' classification code jel information knowledge uncertainty present article reflects topics included

Social science
Economics
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