university research named afam alta formazione artistica musicale e coreutica france france art schools long history oldest paris fine art school established present public art schools two centuries old nancy toulouse rouen etc schools called academies prestigious institutions devoted education great painters sculptors others called '' cole gratuite de dessin'' free school drawing devoted education arts craft artists br currently france national


territorial public schools art deliver bachelor dna master dnsep degrees belong universities germany academy fine arts nuremberg german ''akademie der bildenden k nste n rnberg'' founded jacob von sandrart oldest art academy german speaking central europe fine applied arts since formed key sectors learning although emphasises shifted one direction centuries today learning takes form interdisciplinary interaction dialogue fine applied disciplines flanked new degree courses

Humanities
Visual arts
Applied arts
Studio art


isbi indonesian art culture institute every major islands cities like isi surakarta isi denpasar isbi aceh isbi papua isbi kalimantan isbi bandung also prominent private art school program indonesia namely institut kesenian jakarta jakarta arts institute visual arts program telkom university bandung also maranatha university asia aichi prefectural university arts public university bulbul lalitakaka academy china academy art government college art craft kala bhavana kanazawa college art public university kyoto city university arts public university kyoto university


arts okinawa prefectural university arts public university painting school fine arts rabindra bharati university shanto mariam university creative technology srishti school art design technology tsinghua university telkom university tokyo university arts public university kyoto university arts japan ref name africa michaelis school fine art national school arts pan african school art ruth prowse school fine art university nairobi queensland college art australia australia art schools australia mostly located within australian universities result


dawkins higher education reforms late prior dawkins reforms mix university based art schools single discipline colleges art art schools represented peak body australian council university art design schools acuads founded originally called national council heads art design schools acuads members adelaide central school art adelaide college arts tafe sa anu school art design australian national university fashion design studio sydney tafe nsw school creative arts


technology design vertical torrens university faculty arts design university canberra victorian college arts university melbourne unsw art design school art architecture design university south australia school arts communication university southern queensland sydney college arts university sydney school creative arts university tasmania school design university technology sydney school design university western australia school humanities communication arts university western sydney school arts english media university wollongong art schools australia


julian ashton art school either accredited teqsa award degrees private profit institutions sit outside university system see also academy figure visual arts education kunstgewerbeschule list art schools list art schools europe list artist initiated schools references references external links https acuadscomau acuads


emphasis storage preservation rather use reject notion preservation storage important asserted purpose activities promote use without user access materials little value items emphasizing use dr ranganathan refocused attention field access related issues ref name rubin library 's location loan policies hours days operation quality staffing mundane matters library furniture temperature control first law library science books use

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Five laws of library science


books place library even small demographic might choose read fourth law save time reader fourth law library science save time user means patrons able easily locate materials desire quickly efficiently fifth law library growing organism fifth law library science library growing organism means library dynamic institution never static outlook books methods physical library updated


time variants michael gorman past president american library association recommended following laws addition ranganathan 's five libraries serve humanity respect forms knowledge communicated use technology intelligently enhance service protect free access knowledge honor past create future gorman repeated laws chapter book ''future libraries dreams madness realities'' co written walt crawford ''our singular strengths meditations librarians'' librarian alireza noruzi recommended application ranganathan 's laws web web resources


use every user web resource every web resource user save time user web growing organism librarian carol simpson recommended following edits ranganathan 's laws reflect richness media media use every patron information every medium user save time patron library growing organism dr achala munigal recommended following edits ranganathan 's laws due introduction application social tools libraries social media use increasingly


forms every citizen right access forms knowledge every knowledge ' 'sic'' access without discrimination kind save time knowledge seekers knowledge system one evolves time achieve laws references reading external links full text http hdlhandlenet uc b ''the five laws library science'' hathitrust digital library https wwwoclcorg content dam research publications library oclcresearch reordering ranganathan pdf reordering ranganathan shifting user behaviors shifting priorities oclc research library science information science librarianship human rights codes conduct documents


organizational context generating novel innovative science engineering ideas core concern science policy science policy topics include weapons development health care environmental monitoring science policy thus deals entire domain issues involve science large complex web factors influences development science engineering includes government science policy makers private firms including national multi national firms social movements media non governmental organizations universities research institutions addition science policy increasingly international defined global operations firms research institutions well

Applied science
Public administration
Science policy


collaborative networks non governmental organizations nature scientific inquiry history state policy influenced funding public works science thousands years dating least time mohists inspired study logic period hundred schools thought study defensive fortifications warring states period china general levies labor grain collected fund great public works china including accumulation grain distribution times famine building levees


control flooding great rivers china building canals locks connect rivers china flowed opposite directions building bridges across rivers projects required civil service scholars demonstrated great mastery hydraulics italy galileo noted individual taxation minute amounts could fund large sums state could fund research trajectory cannonballs noting individual soldier paid coin collected general tax


pennies farthings even million gold would suffice pay entire army great britain lord chancellor sir francis bacon formative effect science policy identification experiments light penetrating nature others know today call crucial experiment governmental approval royal society recognized scientific community exists day british prizes research spurred development accurate portable chronometer directly enabled reliable navigation sailing high seas also funded babbage 's computer


professionalization science begun nineteenth century partly enabled creation scientific organizations national academy sciences kaiser wilhelm institute state funding universities respective nations united states member national academy sciences sponsor direct submission publication ''proceedings national academy sciences'' ''pnas'' serves channel recognize research importance least one member national academy sciences public policy directly affect funding capital equipment intellectual infrastructure


knowledge physics led directly cern 's sponsorship development world wide web standard internet access philosophies science policy basic versus applied research programs funded often divided four basic categories basic research applied research development facilities equipment ref name aaaspresentation ref translational research newer concept seeks bridge gap basic science practical applications basic science attempts stimulate breakthroughs breakthroughs often lead explosion new technologies approaches basic result developed widely published however conversion


practical product left free market however many governments developed risk taking research development organizations take basic theoretical research edge practical engineering us function performed darpa contrast technology development policy engineering application science supported rather basic science emphasis usually given projects increase important strategic commercial engineering knowledge extreme success story undoubtedly manhattan project developed nuclear weapons another remarkable success story x vehicle studies


gave us lasting lead aerospace technologies exemplify two disparate approaches manhattan project huge spent freely risky alternative approaches project members believed failure would result enslavement destruction nazi germany x project built aircraft whose purpose develop particular technology plan build cheap aircraft type fly test series often destruction aircraft never design aircraft practical mission mission technology development number


high profile technology developments failed us space shuttle failed meet cost flight schedule goals observers explain project constrained cost goals aggressive technology mission underpowered undefined japanese fifth generation computer systems project met every technological goal failed produce commercially important artificial intelligence many observers believe japanese tried force engineering beyond available science brute investment half amount spent basic research rather might produced ten times result utilitarian versus monumental science policy utilitarian policies prioritize scientific


program produces unexpected practical outcome laser coherent light principle behind lasing first predicted einstein created charles h townes maser breakthrough maser led creation laser theodore maiman delay theory coherent light production laser partially due assumption would practical use scholastic conservation policy approach prioritizes efficiently teaching available science use rather


investing new science particular goal ''lose'' existing knowledge find new practical ways apply available knowledge classic success stories method occurred th century us land grant universities established strong tradition research practical agricultural engineering methods recently green revolution prevented mass famine last thirty years focus unsurprisingly usually developing robust curriculum inexpensive practical methods meet local needs country developed countries usually


specific national body overseeing national science including technology innovation policy many developing countries follow fashion many governments developed countries provide considerable funds primarily universities scientific research fields physics geology well social science research fields economics history much intended provide concrete results may commercialisable although research scientific fields may lead results potential university research aimed gaining publication peer reviewed academic journals funding body organisation


provides research funding form research grants scholarships research councils funding bodies government funded agencies engaged support research different disciplines postgraduate funding funding research councils typically competitive general rule funding available science engineering disciplines arts social sciences australia australia two main research councils australian research council national health medical research council canada canada three main research councils tri council social sciences humanities research council sshrc


located state paulo brazil european union science policy european union carried european research area system integrates scientific resources member nations acts common market research innovation european union 's executive body european commission directorate general research responsible union 's science policy addition joint research centre provides independent scientific technical advice european commission member states european union eu support eu policies ref name ref also


recently established european research council first european union funding body set support investigator driven research also european science agencies operate independently european union european science foundation european space agency european higher education area created bologna process european environmental research innovation policy addresses global challenges pivotal importance well european citizens within context sustainable development environmental protection research innovation europe financially supported programme horizon also open participation worldwide


germany german research funding agencies include deutsche forschungsgemeinschaft covers science humanities india research funding government india comes number sources basic science technology research include council scientific industrial research csir department science technology dst university grants commission ugc medical research include indian council medical research icmr csir dst department biotechnology dbt applied research include csir dbt science engineering research council serc funding authorities


defence research development organisation drdo indian council agricultural research icar indian space research organisation isro department ocean development dod indian council social science research icssr ministry environment forests mef etc ireland irish funding councils include irish research council irc science foundation ireland prior irish research council science engineering technology ircset irish research council humanities social sciences irchss merged form irc march ref name irc ref netherlands dutch research funding agencies


include nederlandse organisatie voor wetenschappelijk onderzoek nwo http nwonl agentschap nl http wwwagentschapnlnl netherlands began trials self organized funding allocation sofa novel method distributing research funds proponents believe may advantages compared grant system pakistan government pakistan mandated certain percentage gross revenue generated telecom service providers allocated development research information communication technologies national ict r fund established january russia soviet union much research routinely suppressed science russia supported


state private funds state russian humanitarian scientific foundation http wwwrfhru russian foundation basic research wwwrfbrru russian science foundation http rscfru switzerland swiss research funding agencies include swiss national science foundation snsf innovation promotion agency cti cti kti ressortforschung des bundes http wwwressortforschungadminch eidgen ssische stiftungsaufsicht http wwwediadminch esv united kingdom united kingdom haldane principle decisions spend research funds made researchers rather politicians still influential research policy several university departments focus science policy


science policy research unit seven grant awarding research councils arts humanities research council ahrc biotechnology biological sciences research council bbsrc economic social research council esrc engineering physical sciences research council epsrc medical research council mrc natural environment research council nerc science technology facilities council stfc united states united states long history government support science technology science policy united states responsibility many organizations throughout federal government much large scale policy made legislative budget process enacting


yearly federal budget decisions made various federal agencies spend funds allocated congress either house research granting funds outside organizations researchers research funding agencies united states spread among many different departments include defense advanced research projects agency darpa united states department energy office science national institutes health biomedical research national science foundation fundamental research education non medical fields science engineering office naval research see also big science evidence based policy funding bias funding science history


military science history science policy list books politics science list funding opportunity databases metascience open access operations research office science technology policy patent politicization science right science culture science science policy small science self organized funding allocation reading books science endless frontier pasteur 's quadrant basic science technological innovation beyond sputnik us science policy st century honest broker making sense science policy politics economics shapes science frontiers illusion science technology politics


may associated formal cultural literary scholarship well non academic journalistic forms writing ref name auto definitions x px '''social theory''' definition used make distinctions generalizations among different types societies analyze modernity emerged past centuries ref name callinicos ref social theory recognized today emerged th century distinct discipline largely equated attitude critical thinking desire knowledge ''a posteriori'' methods discovery rather ''a priori'' methods tradition


'''social thought''' provides general theories explain actions behavior society whole encompassing sociological political philosophical ideas classical social theory generally presented perspective western philosophy often regarded eurocentric '''theory construction''' according blackwell encyclopedia sociology instrumental goal promote accurate communication rigorous testing high accuracy broad applicability include following absence contradictions absence ambivalence abstractness generality precision parsimony conditionality therefore social theory consists well defined terms statements arguments scope conditions history ancient confucius bce envisaged


society went beyond contemporary society warring states later also china mozi ''circa'' ''circa'' bce recommended pragmatic sociology ethical base west saint augustine concerned exclusively idea ''just society'' st augustine describes late ancient roman society lens hatred contempt saw false gods reaction theorized city god ancient greek philosophers including aristotle bc plato bc see distinction politics


history first advance social philosophy social science formulating theories social cohesion social conflict ibn khaldun thus considered many forerunner sociology ref name mowlana h mowlana information arab world ''cooperation south journal'' ''' ''' ref ref name akhtar dr w akhtar islamic concept knowledge ''al tawhid quarterly journal islamic thought culture'' ''' ''' ref khaldun 's treatise described ''muqaddimah'' '' introduction history '' published two types societies city town dweller mobile nomadic societies european social thought modernity arose


enlightenment period emergence world economy exchange among diverse societies bringing sweeping changes new challenges society many french scottish intellectuals philosophers embraced idea progress ideas modernity enlightenment period marked idea new discoveries challenging traditional way thinking scientists required find new normativity process allowed scientific knowledge society progress french thought period focused moral critique criticisms monarchy ref name callinicos ideas draw ideas


immanuel wallerstein th century brought questions involving social order french revolution freed french society control monarchy effective means maintaining social order napoleon came power three great classical theories social historical change emerged social evolutionism theory social darwinism forms part social cycle theory marxist historical materialism theory th century classical social theory expanded upon create newer contemporary social theories multilineal theories evolution neoevolutionism sociobiology theory modernization theory post industrial society various strains


neo marxism late th early th centuries social theory became closely related academic sociology related studies anthropology philosophy social work branched disciplines subjects like philosophy history multi disciplinary subject matter became part social theory taught sociology revival discussion free disciplines began late early frankfurt institute social research historical example committee social thought university chicago followed programs social political


scientific method introduced study society significant advance leading development sociology discipline th century pre classical period social theories developed new form provides basic ideas social theory evolution philosophy history social life social contract public general competition social space organismic pattern social description montesquieu ''the spirit laws'' established social elements influence human nature possibly first suggest universal explanation history montesquieu included changes mores


historical materialism becoming recognised founding figure sociology posthumously turn th century first german sociologists including max weber georg simmel developed sociological antipositivism field may broadly recognized amalgam three modes social scientific thought particular durkheimian sociological positivism structural functionalism marxist historical materialism conflict theory weberian antipositivism verstehen critique another early modern theorist herbert spencer coined term survival fittest vilfredo pareto pitirim sorokin argued history goes cycles presented social


cycle theory illustrate point ferdinand nnies made ''community'' ' 'society'' ''gemeinschaft gesellschaft'' special topics new science sociology based different modes social actors th century pioneers social theory sociology like saint simon comte marx john stuart mill spencer never held university posts broadly regarded philosophers emile durkheim endeavoured formally established academic sociology university bordeaux published ''rules sociological method'' established journal ''l'ann e sociologique''


durkheim 's seminal monograph ''suicide'' case study suicide rates amongst catholic protestant populations distinguished sociological analysis psychology philosophy post modern social theory term postmodernism brought social theory arab american theorist ihab hassan book ''the dismemberment orpheus toward postmodern literature'' jean fran ois lyotard wrote short influential work ''the postmodern condition report knowledge'' jean baudrillard michel foucault roland barthes influential developing postmodern theory scholars commonly hold ''postmodernism'' movement ideas arising


also critical elements modernism wide range uses term resulted different elements modernity chosen continuous different uses rooted argument nature knowledge known philosophy epistemology individuals use term arguing either something fundamentally different transmission meaning modernism fundamental flaws system knowledge argument necessity term states economic technological conditions age given rise decentralized media dominated


society ideas simulacra inter referential representations copies real original stable objective source communication meaning globalization brought innovations communication manufacturing transportation cited one force decentralized modern life creating culturally pluralistic interconnected global society lacking single dominant center political power communication intellectual production postmodern view inter subjective knowledge objective knowledge dominant form discourse ubiquity copies dissemination alters relationship reader read


necessity rational choice theory symbolic interactionism false necessity examples recent developments view among contemporary sociologists great unifying 'laws history' rather smaller specific complex laws govern society philosopher politician roberto mangabeira unger recently attempted revise classical social theory exploring things fit together rather provide encompassing single explanation universal reality begins recognizing key insight classical social theory society artifact discarding law like characteristics forcibly attached


history society unger without subsuming deep structure analysis indivisible repeatable type social organization recourse law like constraints tendencies ref name unger articulation theory ''false necessity anti necessitarian social theory service radical democracy'' uses deep logic practice theorize human social activity anti necessitarian analysis unger begins formulating theory false necessity claims social worlds artifact human endeavors pre set institutional arrangement societies must adhere necessary historical


mold development follow free choose create forms paths societies take however give license absolute contingency unger finds groups institutional arrangements work together bring certain institutional forms liberal democracy example forms basis social structure unger calls formative context order explain move one formative context another without conventional social theory constraints historical necessity eg feudalism capitalism


remaining true key insight individual human empowerment anti necessitarian social thought unger recognized infinite number ways resisting social institutional constraints lead infinite number outcomes variety forms resistance empowerment make change possible unger calls empowerment negative capability however unger adds outcomes always reliant forms spring new world built upon existing one ref name fn ref schools thought chicago school chicago school developed work albion


theories centered around capitalism effect class struggle proletariat bourgeoisie postmodernism postmodernism defined jean fran ois lyotard incredulity towards metanarratives contrasted modern described science legitimates reference metadiscourse making explicit appeal grand narrative dialectics spirit hermeneutics meaning emancipation rational working subject creation wealth transrationality perspectives theories include social constructionist theory rational choice theory structural functionalism influenced spencer durkheim social action


thinkers included immanuel kant georg wilhelm friedrich hegel karl marx max weber georg simmel theodor w adorno max horkheimer herbert marcuse niklas luhmann chinese social thought important chinese philosophers social thinkers included shang yang lao zi confucius mencius wang chong wang yangming li zhi zhu xi gu yanwu gong zizhen wei yuan kang youwei lu xun mao zedong zhu ming italian sociology important italian social scientists include antonio gramsci gaetano mosca vilfredo pareto franco ferrarotti academic practices social theory seeks question humans inhabit world way came


looking power relations social structures social norms ref name ref also examining humans relate society find changed time different cultures tools used measure things social theory looks interdisciplinarity combining knowledge multiple academic disciplines order enlighten complex issues ref name draw ideas fields diverse anthropology media studies social theory guides scientific inquiry promoting scientists think topics suitable investigation


measure selecting creating appropriate theory use examining issue important skill researcher important distinctions ''theoretical orientation'' paradigm worldview lens one organizes experience ie thinking human interaction terms power exchange ''theory'' attempt explain predict behavior particular contexts theoretical orientation cannot proven disproven theory theoretical orientation sees world terms power control one could create theory violent human behavior includes specific causal


statements eg victim physical abuse leads psychological problems could lead hypothesis prediction one expects see particular sample eg battered child grow shy violent one test hypothesis looking see consistent data one might instance review hospital records find children abused track administer personality test see show signs violent shy selection appropriate ie useful theoretical orientation within


develop potentially helpful theory bedrock social science example questions posed social theorists philosophical questions addressed social thinkers often centered around modernity including human reason make sense social world shape better development modern societies vast inequalities wealth among citizens constitute progress particular government interventions regulations impact natural social processes economy market regulated issues relating modernity addressed social thinkers include social atomization alienation loneliness social disorganization


without significant loss quality modern terms film preservation includes concepts handling duplication storage access archivist seeks protect film share content public ref name national film preservation foundation ref film preservation confused film revisionism ref name peters ref long completed films subjected outtakes never previously seen inserted newly inserted music scores sound effects added black white film colorized converted dolby stereo minor edits cosmetic changes made ref name green ref becoming apparent

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Film preservation


collections motion picture heritage risk becoming lost preservation nitrate film ongoing problem discovery safety film used replacement volatile nitrate stock beginning affected unique form decay known vinegar syndrome color film manufactured particular eastman kodak found risk fading time best known solution duplicate original film onto secure medium ref name distillations common estimate percent american silent films


era considered lost forever ref name melville movies first half th century filmed unstable highly flammable cellulose nitrate film base required careful storage slow inevitable process decomposition time ref name distillations films made nitrate stock preserved years negatives prints crumbled powder dust ref name edmondson ref many recycled silver content destroyed studio vault fires largest cause however intentional destruction ref name borde ref film preservationist robert harris explains early


films survive wholesale junking studios thought ever saving films simply needed vault space materials expensive house ref name hart ref silent films little commercial value advent sound films kept result preserving rare silent films proposed high priority amongst film historians ref name pierce ref fragility film stock proper preservation film usually involves storing original negatives survived prints


climate controlled facilities vast majority films stored manner resulted widespread decay film stocks ref name dowlatshahi problem film decay limited films made cellulose nitrate film industry researchers specialists found color films made using processes technicolor successors also decaying increasingly rapid rate number well known films exist copies original film productions exhibition elements originals decomposed beyond use cellulose acetate film initial replacement nitrate found


suffer vinegar syndrome ref name dowlatshahi polyester film base replaced acetate also suffers fading colors ref name distillations storage carefully controlled low temperatures low humidity inhibit color fading onset vinegar syndrome however degradation begins occur chemical reactions involved promote deterioration indication ever find way arrest decomposition started inhibit says director amia association moving image archivists board leo enticknap ref name davies ref film decay art form filmmaker


bill morrison produced ''decasia'' film solely based fragments old unrestored nitrate based films various states decay disrepair providing somewhat eerie aesthetic film film created accompany symphony name composed michael gordon performed orchestra footage used old newsreel archive film obtained morrison several sources george eastman house archives museum modern art ref name jones ref fox movietone news film archives university south carolina ref name welch ref preservation


careful storage packard humanities institute santa clarita nitrate film film vault ''preservation'' film usually refers physical storage film climate controlled vault sometimes actual repair copying film element preservation different ' 'restoration'' restoration act returning film version faithful initial release public often involves combining various fragments film elements ref name distillations film best preserved proper protection external forces storage along controlled temperatures ref name mcgreevey tom ref name davies


film materials image permanence institute finds storing film media frozen temperatures relative humidity rh greatly extends useful life measures inhibit deterioration better methods cheaper solution replicating deteriorating films ref name curr ref ref name national film preservation foundation ref name distillations preparing film preservation restoration cases film chosen preservation restoration work new prints created original camera negative composite restoration negative made combination elements general screening


cycle ref name distillations ref name kroon ref traditional photochemical restorations image polarity considerations must observed recombining surviving materials final lowest generation restoration master may either duplicate negative fine grain master positive ref name enticknap ref preservation elements fine grain master positives duplicate printing negatives generated restoration master element make duplication masters access projection prints available future generations ref name enticknap choosing archival medium film archival medium film preservationists would prefer film images whether restored photochemical digital processes eventually transferred film stock


digital media exists proven truly archival rapidly evolving shifting data formats well developed stored modern film print last upwards years ref name gan ref archival community feel conversion film digital image results loss quality make difficult create high quality print based upon digital image digital imaging technology become increasingly advanced point k scanners capture full resolution images filmed high mm ref name postmagazinecom ref mm imax film


theoretical resolution k highest possible resolution given sensor ref name inouye ref ref name mcgowan ref ref name wilson ref ref name o'falt ref course intermediate digital stage followed forming new film master lasering digital results onto new film stock represent extra generation would intermediate film master restored frame frame hand choice film vs digital restoration driven amount restoration required taste skill set restorer economics film restoration vs digital restoration ref name peters ref name melville ref name distillations digital archival medium


digital scanners capture images large mm full resolution ref name postmagazinecom typical image size traditional opposed imax process mm film used portion film surface multitrack magnetic sound stripe mm print two half hour film ran upwards hard disk capable storing movie hundred dollars archival optical disk less problem transfer data new generations equipment come along continue however


true archival standards put place digital film preservation context film preservation term digital preservation highlights use digital technology transfer films mm mm size digital carriers well practices ensuring longevity access digitized digitally born film materials purely technical practical terms digital film preservation stands domain specific subset digital curation practices ref name dowlatshahi ref ref name dilemma ref ref name conrad ref aesthetic ethical implications use digital technology film preservation major subjects debate


instance senior curator george eastman house paolo cherchi usai decried shift analogue digital preservation film ethically unacceptable arguing philosophical terms medium film essential ontological precondition existence cinema ref name usai ref senior curator eye film institute netherlands giovanna fossati discussed use digital technologies restoration preservation film optimistic way form remediation cinematic medium positively reflected digital technologies' ability broaden restoration possibilities improve quality


reduce costs ref name fossati ref according cinema scholar leo enticknap views held usai fossati could seen representative two poles digital debate film preservation ref name hughes ref kept mind however usai fossati 's arguments highly complex nuanced likewise debate utility digital technologies film preservation complex continually evolving ref name dowlatshahi advancements new york 's museum modern art began one earliest institutional attempts collect preserve motion pictures obtaining original negatives biograph


edison companies world 's largest collection w griffith films following year henri langlois founded cin math que fran aise paris would become world 's largest international film collection thousands early silent films stored library congress mostly existing copies printed rolls paper submitted copyright registrations optical printer used copy images onto safety film stock project began continues today library hosts national film preservation board whose national film registry


annually selects us films showcasing range diversity american film heritage george eastman house international museum photography film chartered collect preserve present history photography film opened louis b mayer conservation center one four film conservation centers united states american film institute founded train next generation filmmakers preserve american film heritage collection includes titles dawson city yukon territory canada construction excavation inadvertently found


forgotten collection discarded films early th century buried preserved permafrost fortunate discovery shared moved united states' library congress library archives canada transfer safety stock archiving however move highly flammable material distance ultimately required assistance canadian armed forces make delivery ottawa story discovery well excerpts films seen documentary film ''dawson city frozen time'' another high profile restoration


staff british film institute 's national film television archive mitchell kenyon collection consists almost entirely actuality films commissioned traveling fairground operators showing local fairgrounds venues across uk early part twentieth century collection stored many decades two large barrels following winding firm discovered blackburn early restored films offer unique social record early th century british life individual preservationists contributed cause include robert


process schoolboys year ad may learn us beginning metro goldwyn mayer aware original negatives many golden age films destroyed fire began preservation program restore preserve films using whatever negatives survived many cases next best available elements whether fine grain master positive mint archival print onset determined films preserved would ''all''


ted turner acquired mgm 's library included warner bros' pre ref group nb warner bros retained pair features merely distributed short subjects released september addition cartoons released august ref mgm 's pre may majority rko radio pictures catalogs vowed continue preservation work mgm started time warner current owner turner entertainment continues work today cause film preservation came forefront early famous


influential film directors steven spielberg martin scorsese contributed cause spielberg became interested film preservation went view master film ''jaws'' find badly decomposed deteriorated mere fifteen years filmed scorsese drew attention film industry 's use color fading film stock use black white film stock film ''raging bull'' film ''hugo'' included key scene many film pioneer georges li s' silent films melted raw material recycled shoes


carefully archive preserve complete library films video aids film preservation group video aids film preservation vafp became active internet vafp site funded part institute museum library services imls grant folkstreams project purpose site supplement already existing film preservation guides provided national film preservation foundation video demonstrations preservation guides provided origination thoroughly depicting accurate methods preservation mostly text based films clips copyrighted creative


digital restoration produce stunning results gathering bits pieces buildings adjacent frames restoration damaged frame predicting entire frames based characters' movements prior subsequent frames etc time goes digital capability improve ultimately require sufficient information original film make proper restorations predictions cost another obstacle ref name dowlatshahi martin scorsese 's non profit film foundation dedicated film preservation estimates average cost photochemical restoration color feature sound dollars


digital k k restoration several hundred thousand dollars degrees physical chemical damage film influence incentive preserve ie business perspective states film longer commercially viable stops generating profit becomes financial liability films would benefit digital restoration high cost digitally restoring films still prevents method broadly applied might ref name distillations ref demand new media digital cinema constantly evolving consumer digital formats continues change film restoration facilities must keep pace


maintain audience acceptance classic films today must near mint condition reshown resold demand perfection rising theaters move k k projection consumer media continues shift sd hd ultrahd beyond digital restoration steps film inspected cleaned transferred via telecine motion picture film scanner digital tape disk audio synced create new master common defects needing restoration include dirt dust scratches tears burned frames color fade color change


excessive film grain copy existing film film grain original well film grain copy missing scenes sound censored edited release shrinkage ref group nb linear across web width well localized puckering around large perforation film cement splices common silent early sound films highly shrunken film higher must copied modified equipment film likely damaged case flammable nitrate film could prove dangerous


film jam duplicator become idle methods duplication illumination sources enough heat ignite film exposed light source long period time ref modern digital film restoration takes following steps ol type li expertly clean film dirt dust li li repair film tears clear polyester tape splicing cement li li scan frame digital file li li restore film frame frame comparing frame adjacent frames done somewhat computer algorithms human checking result li


ol type li fix frame alignment jitter weave misalignment adjacent film frames due movement film within sprockets corrects issue holes side frame distorted time causes frames slightly center li fix color lighting changes corrects flickering slight color changes one frame another due aging film li restore areas blocked dirt dust using parts images frames li li restore scratches using parts images frames li li enhance frames reducing


film grain noise film foreground background detail size film grain smaller blurred lost making film comparing frame adjacent frames allows detail information reconstructed since given small detail may split film grains one frame another ol ol photochemical restoration steps modern photochemical restoration follows roughly path digital restoration extensive research done determine version film restored existing material often extensive efforts taken search alternative


material film archives located around world comprehensive restoration plan mapped allows preservationists designate elements key elements upon base polarity map ensuing photochemical work since many alternative elements actually salvaged release prints duplication masters foreign domestic care must taken plot course negative master positive release print elements arrive back common polarity ie negative positive assembly subsequent printing test prints struck existing elements evaluate contrast resolution color color


sound quality audio element exists elements duplicated using shortest possible duplication path minimize analog duplication artifacts build contrast grain loss resolution sources assembled single master restoration element often duplicate negative master restoration element duplication masters composite fine grain masters generated used generate additional printing negatives actual release prints struck festival screenings dvd mastering education practice film preservation craft science early


dedicated academic programs film preservation practitioners often entered field related education eg library archival science related technical experience eg film lab work driven sheer passion working film last two decades universities globally began offering graduate degrees film preservation film archiving often taught conjointly latter focusing skills related description cataloguing indexing broadly speaking management film media collections recent years rapid incursion digital technologies field somewhat redefined vocational scope


image university amsterdam http wwwcsueduau courses postgraduate audiovisual archiving gc course overview graduate certificate audiovisual archiving charles sturt university australia https isgseisuclaedu moving image archive studies moving image archive studies ucla https wwwryersonca graduate film photography preservation collections management film preservation ryerson university canada offered since specialization graduate program film photography preservation collection management see also lut academy film archive conservation restoration film digital cinematography digital intermediate direct disk recording film recorder film inpainting list film formats list national archives media preservation foundation museum moving image new york city national archives records administration usa orphan film post


barbara cohen stratyner ''film preservation'' preserving america 's performing arts papers conference preservation management performing arts collection april may washington dc theater library association kula sam ''appraising moving images assessing archival monetary value film video records'' scarecrow press mcgreevey tom ''our movie heritage'' rutgers university press paul read mark paul meyer editors ''restoration motion picture film'' oxford slide anthony ''nitrate wo n't wait history film preservation united states'' mcfarland company walsh preserve films forever ''the


fiaf http wwwiasa weborg international association sound audiovisual archives http wwwfilmforeverorg film forever home film preservation guide http wwwnlagovau anica australian network information cellulose acetate film video technology conservation restoration cultural heritage


criticism concerned establishing relative artistic value upon individual works respect others comparable style sanctioning entire style movement art theory philosophy art concerned fundamental nature art one branch area study aesthetics includes investigating enigma sublime determining essence beauty technically art history things art historian uses historical method answer questions artist come create work patrons


teachers audience disciples historical forces shaped artist 's oeuvre creation turn affect course artistic political social events however questionable whether many questions kind answered satisfactorily without also considering basic questions nature art current disciplinary gap art history philosophy art aesthetics often hinders inquiry methodologies art history interdisciplinary practice analyzes various factors cultural political religious economic artistic contribute visual appearance


historians also often examine work analysis form creator 's use line shape color texture composition approach examines artist uses two dimensional picture plane three dimensions sculptural architectural space create art way individual elements employed results representational non representational art artist imitating object image found nature representational closer art hews perfect imitation art ' 'realistic'' artist imitating instead relying


symbolism important way striving capture nature 's essence rather copy directly art non representational also called abstract realism abstraction exist continuum impressionism example representational style directly imitative strove create impression nature work representational expression artist 's feelings longings aspirations search ideals beauty form work non representational work expressionism iconographical analysis one focuses particular design elements


application non artistic analytical framework study art objects feminist marxist critical race queer postcolonial theories well established discipline literary studies interest among scholars nature environment direction take discipline yet determined timeline prominent methods pliny elder ancient precedents earliest surviving writing art classified art history passages pliny elder 's ''natural history'' c ad concerning development greek sculpture


painting possible trace ideas xenokrates sicyon c bc greek sculptor perhaps first art historian pliny 's work mainly encyclopaedia sciences thus influential renaissance onwards passages techniques used painter apelles c bc especially well known similar though independent developments occurred th century china canon worthy artists established writers scholar official class writers necessarily proficient calligraphy artists artists described ''six


principles painting'' formulated xie vasari artists' biographies giorgio vasari ''self portrait'' c anton von maron ''portrait johann joachim winckelmann'' personal reminiscences art artists long written read see lorenzo ghiberti ''commentarii'' best early example giorgio vasari tuscan painter sculptor author ''lives excellent painters sculptors architects'' wrote first true ''history'' art emphasized art 's progression development milestone field personal historical account featuring biographies individual


italian artists many contemporaries personal acquaintances renowned michelangelo vasari 's account enlightening though biased places vasari 's ideas art enormously influential served model many including north europe karel van mander 's ''schilder boeck'' joachim von sandrart 's ''teutsche akademie'' vasari 's approach held sway th century criticism leveled biographical account history winckelmann art criticism scholars johann joachim winckelmann criticized vasari 's cult artistic personality argued real emphasis


study art views learned beholder unique viewpoint charismatic artist winckelmann 's writings thus beginnings art criticism two notable works introduced concept art criticism ''gedanken ber die nachahmung der griechischen werke der malerei und bildhauerkunst'' published shortly left rome fuseli published english translation title ''reflections painting sculpture greeks'' ''geschichte der kunst des altertums'' ''history art antiquity'' published


german culture winckelmann read avidly johann wolfgang goethe friedrich schiller began write history art account laoco n group occasioned response lessing emergence art major subject philosophical speculation solidified appearance immanuel kant 's ''critique judgment'' furthered hegel 's ''lectures aesthetics'' hegel 's philosophy served direct inspiration karl schnaase 's work schnaase 's ''niederl ndische briefe'' established theoretical foundations art history autonomous discipline ''geschichte der bildenden k nste''


one first historical surveys history art antiquity renaissance facilitated teaching art history german speaking universities schnaase 's survey published contemporaneously similar work franz theodor kugler w lfflin stylistic analysis ''see formal analysis'' heinrich w lfflin studied burckhardt basel father modern art history w lfflin taught universities berlin basel munich zurich number students went distinguished careers art history including jakob rosenberg frida schottmuller introduced scientific approach history art


focusing three concepts firstly attempted study art using psychology particularly applying work wilhelm wundt argued among things art architecture good resemble human body example houses good fa ades looked like faces secondly introduced idea studying art comparison comparing individual paintings able make distinctions style book ''renaissance baroque'' developed idea first show stylistic periods differed one another contrast giorgio vasari


w lfflin uninterested biographies artists fact proposed creation art history without names finally studied art based ideas nationhood particularly interested whether inherently italian inherently german style last interest fully articulated monograph german artist albrecht rer riegl wickhoff vienna school contemporaneous w lfflin 's career major school art historical thought developed university vienna first generation vienna school dominated alois riegl franz wickhoff students


moritz thausing characterized tendency reassess neglected disparaged periods history art riegl wickhoff wrote extensively art late antiquity considered period decline classical ideal riegl also contributed revaluation baroque next generation professors vienna included max dvo k julius von schlosser hans tietze karl maria swoboda josef strzygowski number important twentieth century art historians including ernst gombrich received degrees vienna time term second


vienna school new vienna school usually refers following generation viennese scholars including hans sedlmayr otto p cht guido kaschnitz von weinberg scholars began return work first generation particularly riegl concept ''kunstwollen'' attempted develop full blown art historical methodology sedlmayr particular rejected minute study iconography patronage approaches grounded historical context preferring instead concentrate aesthetic qualities work art result second vienna school gained reputation unrestrained


irresponsible formalism furthermore colored sedlmayr 's overt racism membership nazi party latter tendency however means shared members school p cht example jewish forced leave vienna panofsky iconography photographer unknown aby warburg c st century understanding symbolic content art comes group scholars gathered hamburg prominent among erwin panofsky aby warburg fritz saxl gertrud bing together developed much vocabulary


continues used st century art historians iconography roots meaning symbols writing refers subject matter art derived written sources especially scripture mythology iconology broader term referred symbolism whether derived specific text today art historians sometimes use terms interchangeably panofsky early work also developed theories riegl became eventually preoccupied iconography particular transmission themes related classical antiquity middle ages renaissance respect interests coincided


warburg son wealthy family assembled impressive library hamburg devoted study classical tradition later art culture saxl 's auspices library developed research institute affiliated university hamburg panofsky taught warburg died saxl panofsky jewish forced leave hamburg saxl settled london bringing warburg 's library establishing warburg institute panofsky settled princeton institute advanced study respect part


extraordinary influx german art historians english speaking academy scholars largely responsible establishing art history legitimate field study english speaking world influence panofsky 's methodology particular determined course american art history generation freud psychoanalysis heinrich w lfflin scholar invoke psychological theories study art psychoanalyst sigmund freud wrote book artist leonardo da vinci used leonardo 's paintings interrogate artist 's psyche sexual orientation freud inferred analysis


leonardo probably homosexual group photo front clark university front row sigmund freud granville stanley hall carl jung back row abraham brill ernest jones ndor ferenczi though use posthumous material perform psychoanalysis controversial among art historians especially since sexual mores leonardo 's time freud 's different often attempted one best known psychoanalytic scholars laurie schneider adams wrote popular textbook ''art across time'' book ''art psychoanalysis'' unsuspecting turn history art criticism came sigmund freud


freud originally published article anonymously jung archetypes carl jung also applied psychoanalytic theory art cg jung swiss psychiatrist influential thinker founder analytical psychology jung 's approach psychology emphasized understanding psyche exploring worlds dreams art mythology world religion philosophy much life 's work spent exploring eastern western philosophy alchemy astrology sociology well literature arts notable contributions include concept psychological archetype collective unconscious theory synchronicity jung believed many experiences perceived coincidence


merely due chance instead suggested manifestation parallel events circumstances reflecting governing dynamic argued collective unconscious archetypal imagery detectable art ideas particularly popular among american abstract expressionists work inspired surrealist concept drawing imagery dreams unconscious jung emphasized importance balance harmony cautioned modern humans rely heavily science logic would benefit integrating spirituality appreciation unconscious realm work triggered analytical work


art historians became integral part art making jackson pollock example famously created series drawings accompany psychoanalytic sessions jungian psychoanalyst dr joseph henderson henderson later published drawings text devoted pollock 's sessions realized powerful drawings therapeutic tool legacy psychoanalysis art history profound extends beyond freud jung prominent feminist art historian griselda pollock example draws upon psychoanalysis reading contemporary art rereading modernist art griselda


pollock 's reading french feminist psychoanalysis particular writings julia kristeva bracha l ettinger rosalind krauss readings jacques lacan jean fran ois lyotard catherine de zegher 's curatorial rereading art feminist theory written fields french feminism psychoanalysis strongly informed reframing men women artists art history marx ideology mid th century art historians embraced social history using critical approaches goal show art interacts power structures society one critical approach art historians used marxism


marxist art history attempted show art tied specific classes images contain information economy images make status quo seem natural ideology marcel duchamp dada movement jump started anti art style various artist want create artwork everyone conforming time two movements helped artist create pieces viewed traditional art examples styles branched anti art movement would neo dadaism surrealism constructivism styles artist want surrender traditional


ways art way thinking provoked political movements russian revolution communist ideals artist isaak brodsky work art 'shock worker dneprstroi' shows political involvement within art piece art analysed show internal troubles soviet russia experiencing time perhaps best known marxist clement greenberg came prominence late essay avant garde kitsch essay greenberg claimed avant garde arose order defend aesthetic standards decline taste involved consumer society


seeing kitsch art opposites greenberg claimed avant garde modernist art means resist leveling culture produced capitalist propaganda greenberg appropriated german word 'kitsch' describe consumerism although connotations since changed affirmative notion leftover materials capitalist culture greenberg later became well known examining formal properties modern art meyer schapiro one best remembered marxist art historians mid th century although wrote numerous time periods themes art best remembered commentary


sculpture late middle ages early renaissance time saw evidence capitalism emerging feudalism declining arnold hauser wrote first marxist survey western art entitled ''the social history art'' attempted show class consciousness reflected major art periods book controversial published since makes generalizations entire eras strategy called vulgar marxism marxist art history refined department art history ucla scholars tj clark ok werckmeister david kunzle theodor w adorno


max horkheimer tj clark first art historian writing marxist perspective abandon vulgar marxism wrote marxist art histories several impressionist realist artists including gustave courbet douard manet books focused closely political economic climates art created feminist art history linda nochlin 's essay great women artists helped ignite feminist art history remains one widely read essays female artists followed college art association panel chaired nochlin


entitled eroticism image woman nineteenth century art within decade scores papers articles essays sustained growing momentum fueled second wave feminist movement critical discourse surrounding women 's interactions arts artists subjects pioneering essay nochlin applies feminist critical framework show systematic exclusion women art training arguing exclusion practicing art well canonical history art consequence cultural conditions curtailed restricted women art producing fields succeed treated


anomalies provide model subsequent success griselda pollock another prominent feminist art historian whose use psychoanalytic theory described feminist art history focus time period location much attention given modern era scholarship centers feminist art movement referred specifically experience women often feminist art history offers critical reading western art canon carol duncan 's interpretation les demoiselles d'avignon two pioneers field mary garrard norma broude


anthologies ''feminism art history questioning litany'' ''the expanding discourse feminism art history'' ''reclaiming feminist agency feminist art history postmodernism'' substantial efforts bring feminist perspectives discourse art history pair also co founded feminist art history conference barthes semiotics opposed iconography seeks identify meaning semiotics concerned meaning created roland barthes 's connoted denoted meanings paramount examination particular work art interpretation depends identification denoted meaning recognition visual sign


connoted meaning instant cultural associations come recognition main concern semiotic art historian come ways navigate interpret connoted meaning semiotic art history seeks uncover codified meaning meanings aesthetic object examining connectedness collective consciousness art historians commonly commit one particular brand semiotics rather construct amalgamated version incorporate collection analytical tools example meyer schapiro borrowed saussure 's differential meaning effort read signs exist within system according


schapiro understand meaning frontality specific pictorial context must differentiated viewed relation alternate possibilities profile three quarter view schapiro combined method work charles sanders peirce whose object sign interpretant provided structure approach alex potts demonstrates application peirce 's concepts visual representation examining relation ''mona lisa'' seeing ''mona lisa'' example something beyond materiality identify sign recognized referring


object outside woman ''mona lisa'' image seem denote religious meaning therefore assumed portrait interpretation leads chain possible interpretations sitter relation leonardo da vinci significance maybe icon womankind chain interpretation unlimited semiosis endless art historian 's job place boundaries possible interpretations much reveal new possibilities ref name potts pp potts


'sign' rs nelson r shiff ''critical terms art history'' nd edn chicago pp ref semiotics operates theory image understood viewer 's perspective artist supplanted viewer purveyor meaning even extent interpretation still valid regardless whether creator intended ref name potts pp rosalind krauss espoused concept essay name picasso denounced artist 's monopoly meaning insisted meaning derived


work removed historical social context mieke bal argued similarly meaning even exist image observed viewer acknowledging meaning become opened possibilities feminism psychoanalysis museum studies collecting aspects subject come fore recent decades include interest patronage consumption art including economics art market role collectors intentions aspirations commissioning works reactions contemporary later


viewers owners museum studies including history museum collecting display specialized field study history collecting new materialism scientific advances made possible much accurate investigation materials techniques used create works especially infra red x ray photographic techniques allowed many underdrawings paintings seen proper analysis pigments used paint possible upset many attributions dendrochronology panel paintings radio carbon dating old objects organic materials allowed scientific methods dating objects confirm


upset dates derived stylistic analysis documentary evidence development good colour photography held digitally available internet means transformed study many types art especially covering objects existing large numbers widely dispersed among collections illuminated manuscripts persian miniatures many types archaeological artworks concurrent technological advances art historians shown increasing interest new theoretical approaches nature artworks objects thing theory actor network theory object oriented ontology played increasing role art


historical literature nationalist art history making art academic history art history art museums closely intertwined rise nationalism art created modern era fact often attempt generate feelings national superiority love one 's country russian art especially good example russian avant garde later soviet art attempts define country 's identity art historians working today identify specialty art particular culture time period often cultures also


national gallery explicit mission preserving cultural patrimony owned government regardless cultures created art often implicit mission bolster country 's cultural heritage national gallery art thus showcases art made united states also owns objects across world divisions period discipline art history traditionally divided specializations concentrations based eras regions sub division based media thus someone might specialize th century german architecture th century tuscan sculpture sub fields often included


toronto press carrier ''principles art history writing'' university park pa pennsylvania state university press kemal salim ivan gaskell ''the language art history'' cambridge university press fitzpatrick v l n v ''art history contextual inquiry course'' point view series reston va national art education association minor vernon hyde ''critical theory art history'' englewood cliffs nj prentice hall nelson r shiff r ''critical terms art history'' chicago university chicago press adams l ''the methodologies art introduction'' new york ny iconeditions frazier


institutions foundations discipline'' routledge murray chris ''key writers art'' vols routledge key guides london routledge harrison charles paul wood ''art theory anthology changing ideas'' nd ed malden blackwell shiner larry ''the invention art cultural history'' chicago university chicago press pollock griselda ed ''psychoanalysis image'' oxford blackwell emison patricia ''the shaping art history'' university park pennsylvania state university press charlene spretnak ''the spiritual dynamic modern art art history reconsidered present'' gauvin alexander


bailey ''the spiritual rococo cor divinity salons paris missions patagonia'' farnham ashgate external links https webarchiveorg web http witcombesbcedu arthlinkshtml art history resources web depth directory web links divided period dictionary art historians database notable art historians maintained duke university http riclibguidescom sbphpsubject id rhode island college libguide art art history resources art criticism fields history humanities


two dimensional visualisation hamming distance critical measure coding theory '''coding theory''' study properties codes respective fitness specific applications codes used data compression cryptography error detection correction data transmission data storage codes studied various scientific disciplines information theory electrical engineering mathematics linguistics computer science purpose designing efficient reliable data transmission methods typically involves removal redundancy correction detection errors transmitted data four types coding

Formal science
Mathematics
Applied mathematics
Combinatorics
Coding theory


compact disc cd uses reed solomon code correct scratches dust application transmission channel cd cell phones also use coding techniques correct fading noise high frequency radio transmission data modems telephone transmissions nasa deep space network employ channel coding techniques get bits example turbo code ldpc codes history coding theory claude shannon published mathematical theory communication article two parts july october issues ''bell system technical journal''


work focuses problem best encode information sender wants transmit fundamental work used tools probability theory developed norbert wiener nascent stages applied communication theory time shannon developed information entropy measure uncertainty message essentially inventing field information theory binary golay code developed error correcting code capable correcting three errors bit word detecting fourth richard hamming


turing award work bell labs numerical methods automatic coding systems error detecting error correcting codes invented concepts known hamming codes hamming windows hamming numbers hamming distance nasir ahmed proposed discrete cosine transform dct developed natarajan k r rao ref name ahmed ref dct widely used lossy compression algorithm basis multimedia formats jpeg mpeg mp source coding aim source coding take source data make smaller definition data


seen random variable math x omega mathcal x math math x mathcal x math appears probability math mathbb p x x math data encoded strings words alphabet math sigma math code function math c mathcal x sigma math math sigma math empty string part alphabet math c x math code word associated math x math length code word written math l c x math expected length code math l c sum x mathcal x l c x mathbb p x x math concatenation code words math c x ldots x k c x c x cdots c x k math code word empty string empty string math c epsilon epsilon math properties math c mathcal x sigma math


non singular injective math c mathcal x sigma math uniquely decodable injective math c mathcal x sigma math instantaneous math c x math prefix math c x math vice versa principle entropy source measure information basically source codes try reduce redundancy present source represent source fewer bits carry information data compression explicitly tries minimize average length messages according particular assumed probability model called entropy encoding various techniques used source coding schemes try achieve limit entropy source ''c'' ''x''


n't merely send bits order interleave block data bits first divided smaller blocks cycle block send one bit first second etc done three times spread data surface disk context simple repeat code may appear effective however powerful codes known effective correcting burst error scratch dust spot interleaving technique used


codes appropriate different applications deep space communications limited thermal noise receiver continuous nature bursty nature likewise narrowband modems limited noise present telephone network also modeled better continuous disturbance cell phones subject rapid fading high frequencies used cause rapid fading signal even receiver moved inches class channel codes designed combat fading linear codes term '''algebraic coding theory'''


denotes sub field coding theory properties codes expressed algebraic terms researched algebraic coding theory basically divided two major types codes linear block codes convolutional codes analyzes following three properties code mainly code word length total number valid code words minimum distance two valid code words using mainly hamming distance sometimes also distances like lee distance linear block codes linear block codes property linearity ie sum two codewords also code


word applied source bits blocks hence name linear block codes block codes linear difficult prove code good one without property ref name terras linear block codes summarized symbol alphabets eg binary ternary parameters ''n''''m''' 'd sub min sub '' ref name blahut n length codeword symbols number source symbols used encoding ' 'd sub min sub '' minimum hamming distance code many types


linear block codes cyclic codes eg hamming codes repetition codes parity codes polynomial codes eg bch codes reed solomon codes algebraic geometric codes reed muller codes perfect codes block codes tied sphere packing problem received attention years two dimensions easy visualize take bunch pennies flat table push together result hexagon pattern like bee 's nest block codes rely dimensions cannot easily visualized powerful


golay code used deep space communications uses dimensions used binary code usually dimensions refer length codeword defined theory coding uses ''n'' dimensional sphere model example many pennies packed circle tabletop dimensions many marbles packed globe considerations enter choice code example hexagon packing constraint rectangular box leave empty space corners dimensions get larger


percentage empty space grows smaller certain dimensions packing uses space codes called perfect codes nontrivial useful perfect codes distance hamming codes parameters satisfying sup ''r'' sup sup ''r'' sup ''r'' binary ternary golay codes ref name terras ref ref name blahut ref another code property number neighbors single codeword may ref name schlegel ref consider pennies example first pack pennies rectangular grid penny near neighbors


corners farther away hexagon penny near neighbors increase dimensions number near neighbors increases rapidly result number ways noise make receiver choose neighbor hence error grows well fundamental limitation block codes indeed codes may harder cause error single neighbor number neighbors large enough total error probability actually suffers ref name schlegel properties linear block codes


results low noise environments convolutional codes used voiceband modems v v v gsm mobile phones well satellite military communication devices cryptographic coding cryptography cryptographic coding practice study techniques secure communication presence third parties called adversaries ref name rivest ref generally constructing analyzing protocols block adversaries ref name modern crypto ref various aspects information security data confidentiality data integrity authentication non repudiation ref name hac ref central modern cryptography modern cryptography exists intersection disciplines mathematics computer science


electrical engineering applications cryptography include atm cards computer passwords electronic commerce cryptography prior modern age effectively synonymous ''encryption'' conversion information readable state apparent nonsense originator encrypted message shared decoding technique needed recover original information intended recipients thereby precluding unwanted persons since world war nbsp advent computer methods used carry cryptology become increasingly complex application widespread modern cryptography heavily based mathematical theory computer science practice


cryptographic algorithms designed around computational hardness assumptions making algorithms hard break practice adversary theoretically possible break system infeasible known practical means schemes therefore termed computationally secure theoretical advances eg improvements integer factorization algorithms faster computing technology require solutions continually adapted exist information theoretically secure schemes cannot broken even unlimited computing power example one time pad schemes difficult implement best theoretically breakable computationally


secure mechanisms line coding line code also called digital baseband modulation digital baseband transmission method code chosen use within communications system baseband transmission purposes line coding often used digital data transport line coding consists representing digital signal transported amplitude time discrete signal optimally tuned specific properties physical channel receiving equipment waveform pattern voltage current used represent digital data transmission link called ''line encoding''


common types line encoding unipolar polar bipolar manchester encoding applications coding theory another concern coding theory designing codes help synchronization code may designed phase shift easily detected corrected multiple signals sent channel another application codes used mobile phone systems code division multiple access cdma phone assigned code sequence approximately uncorrelated codes phones transmitting code word used modulate data bits


representing voice message receiver demodulation process performed recover data properties class codes allow many users different codes use radio channel time receiver signals users appear demodulator low level noise another general class codes automatic repeat request arq codes codes sender adds redundancy message error checking usually adding check bits check bits consistent rest message


arrives receiver ask sender retransmit message simplest wide area network protocols use arq common protocols include sdlc ibm tcp internet x international many others extensive field research topic problem matching rejected packet new packet new one retransmission typically numbering schemes used tcp group testing group testing uses codes different way consider large group items different


information represented brain networks neurons main goal studying neural coding characterize relationship stimulus individual ensemble neuronal responses relationship among electrical activity neurons ensemble ref name brown ref thought neurons encode digital analog information neurons follow principles information theory compress information detect correct errors signals sent throughout brain wider nervous system see also coding gain covering code error correction code folded reed solomon


code group testing hamming distance hamming weight lee distance list algebraic coding theory topics spatial coding mimo multiple antenna research spatial diversity coding spatial coding transmits replicas information signal along different spatial paths increase reliability data transmission spatial interference cancellation coding spatial multiplex coding timeline information theory data compression error correcting codes notes references elwyn r berlekamp ''algebraic coding theory'' world scientific publishing revised edition mackay david j c '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwinferencephycamacuk mackay itila bookhtml information theory inference learning algorithms '' cambridge cambridge university press vera pless


''introduction theory error correcting codes'' john wiley sons inc randy yates '' https webarchiveorg web http wwwdigitalsignallabscom tutorialpdf coding theory tutorial '' error detection correction


beekeeping tacuinum sanitatis casanatensis th century '''beekeeping''' '''apiculture''' maintenance bee colonies commonly man made hives humans bees honey bees genus ''apis'' honey producing bees ''melipona'' stingless bees also kept beekeeper apiarist keeps bees order collect honey products hive produce including beeswax propolis flower pollen bee pollen royal jelly pollinate crops produce bees sale beekeepers location bees kept called apiary bee yard history

Applied science
Agriculture
Animal husbandry
Beekeeping


movable comb hive honey could harvested without destroying entire colony point humans began attempt maintain colonies wild bees artificial hives made hollow logs wooden boxes pottery vessels woven straw baskets skeps traces beeswax found potsherds throughout middle east beginning bce ref name kya honeybees kept egypt antiquity walls sun temple nyuserre ini fifth dynasty bce workers depicted blowing smoke hives removing honeycombs ref name bodenheimer ref inscriptions detailing


production honey found tomb pabasa twenty sixth dynasty c bce depicting pouring honey jars cylindrical hives sealed pots honey found grave goods pharaohs tutankhamun inscription records introduction honey bees land suhum mesopotamia previously unknown stele showing shamash resh u ur praying gods adad ishtar inscription beekeeping babylonian cuneiform ref oldest archaeological finds directly relating beekeeping discovered rehov bronze iron age archaeological site


jordan valley israel thirty intact hives made straw unbaked clay discovered archaeologist amihai mazar ruins city dating bce hives found orderly rows three high manner could accommodated around hives held million bees potential annual yield kilograms honey kilograms beeswax according mazar evidence advanced honey industry existed ancient israel years ago ref name honey hunting' crane eva ''the world history beekeeping


honey hunting'' routledge pp ref ''the beekeepers'' pieter bruegel elder ancient greece crete mycenae existed system high status apiculture concluded finds hives smoking pots honey extractors beekeeping paraphernalia knossos beekeeping considered highly valued industry controlled beekeeping overseers owners gold rings depicting apiculture scenes rather religious ones reinterpreted recently contra sir arthur evans aspects lives bees beekeeping discussed length aristotle beekeeping also documented roman writers


virgil gaius julius hyginus varro columella beekeeping also practiced ancient china since antiquity book written fan li tao zhu gong spring autumn period sections describing art beekeeping stressing importance quality wooden box used affect quality honey chinese word honey ''m '' reconstructed old chinese pronunciation borrowed indo european proto tocharian language source honey proto tocharian '' '' '' '' palatalized cf tocharian b ''mit'' cognate english ''''


swammerdam ren antoine ferchault de r aumur charles bonnet fran ois huber swammerdam r aumur among first use microscope dissection understand internal biology honey bees r aumur among first construct glass walled observation hive better observe activities within hives observed queens laying eggs open cells still idea queen fertilized nobody ever witnessed mating queen drone many theories held queens self fertile others believed vapor miasma emanating drones


destroyed brood nest strained sieve basket destructive unhygienic hunter gatherer societies matter since honey generally consumed immediately always wild colonies exploit settled societies destruction bee colony meant loss valuable resource drawback made beekeeping inefficient something stop start activity could continuity production possibility selective breeding since bee colony destroyed harvest time along precious queen medieval


bees longer killed harvest honey wildman example fixed parallel array wooden bars across top straw hive skep separate straw top fixed later seven bars deal hive bees fix combs also described using hives multi storey configuration foreshadowing modern use supers described adding proper time successive straw hives eventually removing ones free brood


filled honey bees could separately preserved harvest following season wildman also described development using hives sliding frames bees build comb foreshadowing modern uses movable comb hives wildman 's book acknowledged advances knowledge bees previously made swammerdam maraldi de r aumur included lengthy translation r aumur 's account natural history bees also described initiatives others designing hives preservation bee life taking harvest citing particular reports


brittany dating due comte de la bourdonnaye another example hive design invented rev john thorley hive placed bell jar screwed onto wicker basket bees free move basket jar honey produced stored jar hive designed keep bees swarming much would hive designs however forerunners modern hives movable frames mainly used today considered


space'' bees block wax keep free passage determined bee space langstroth designed series wooden frames within rectangular hive box carefully maintaining correct space successive frames found bees would build parallel honeycombs box without bonding hive walls enables beekeeper slide frame hive inspection without harming bees comb protecting eggs larvae pupae contained within cells also meant


movable comb hives seized upon apiarists inventors sides atlantic wide range moveable comb hives designed perfected england france germany united states classic designs evolved country dadant hives langstroth hives still dominant us france de layens trough hive became popular uk british national hive became standard late although scotland smaller smith hive still popular scandinavian countries russia traditional trough hive persisted late


th century still kept areas however langstroth dadant designs remain ubiquitous us also many parts europe though sweden denmark germany france italy national hive designs regional variations hive evolved reflect climate floral productivity reproductive characteristics various subspecies native honey bee bio region honey laden honeycomb wooden frame differences hive dimensions insignificant comparison common factors hives square rectangular use


hive honey pouring jars western honey bee honeycomb flow hive system invented australia cedar anderson father stuart anderson allowing honey extracted without expensive centrifuge equipment pioneers practical commercial beekeeping th century produced explosion innovators inventors improved design production beehives systems management husbandry stock improvement selective breeding honey extraction marketing preeminent among innovators petro prokopovych used frames channels side woodwork packed


side side boxes stacked one top bees traveled frame frame box box via channels channels similar cutouts sides modern wooden sections jan dzier father modern apiology apiculture modern beehives descendants design fran ois huber made significant discoveries regarding bee life cycle communication bees despite blind huber brought light large amount information regarding queen bee 's mating habits contact rest


distribution bee packages united states j cook author ''the bee keepers' guide manual apiary'' dr cc miller one first entrepreneurs actually make living apiculture made beekeeping sole business activity book ''fifty years among bees'' remains classic influence bee management persists day honey extractor franz hruschka austrian italian military officer made one important invention catalyzed commercial honey industry invented simple machine extracting honey


clothing went manufacture items well equipment company sold via catalog worldwide book ''how keep bees sell honey'' introductory book apiculture marketing allowed boom beekeeping following world war ii uk practical beekeeping led early th century men pre eminently brother adam buckfast bee rob manley author many titles including ''honey production british isles'' inventor manley frame still universally popular uk notable british pioneers


include william herrod hempsall gale dr ahmed zaky abushady egyptian poet medical doctor bacteriologist bee scientist active england egypt early part twentieth century abushady patented removable standardized aluminum honeycomb also founded apis club benson oxfordshire periodical bee world edited annie betts later dr eva crane apis club transitioned international bee research association ibra archives held national library wales egypt


honeybee haryana standardized management practices semi arid subtropical climates based practices beekeeping honeybee could extended rest country beekeeping ''apis mellifera'' predominates india traditional beekeeping wooden hives stripeikiai honeymaking museum lithuania beekeeping kawah ijen mountain indonesia fixed comb hives fixed comb hive hive combs cannot removed manipulated management harvesting without permanently damaging comb almost hollow structure used purpose log gum skep


wooden box clay pot tube fixed comb hives longer common use industrialized countries illegal places require movable combs inspect problems varroa american foulbrood many developing countries fixed comb hives widely used made locally available material beekeeping using fixed comb hives essential part livelihoods many communities poor countries charity bees development recognizes local skills manage bees fixed comb hives widespread africa asia


south america internal size fixed comb hives range liters cubic inches typical clay tube hives used egypt liters cubic inches perone hive straw skeps bee gums unframed box hives unlawful us states comb brood cannot inspected diseases however skeps still used collecting swarms hobbyists uk moving standard hives quinby used box hives produce much honey saturated new york market


writings contain excellent advice management bees fixed comb hives commercial beekeeping commercial beekeeping occurs company possesses upwards hives sells honey beeswax bee products profit non commercial beekeeper would typically keep fewer hives one time commercial beekeeping companies usually owned family passed next generation commercial beekeepers sell massive amounts honey production output categorized state united states produced million pound honey top production


output states north dakota montana south dakota florida california honey often imported meet consumer demands million pounds honey consumed demand honey continued rise modern beekeeping horizontal hives initial costs equipment requirements typically much less hive designs scrap wood often used build good hive including top bars require frequent lifting heavy boxes easy inspect remove combs disadvantages include usually unsupported combs


langstroth first successful top opened hive movable frames many hive designs based principle bee space first described langstroth descendant jan dzierzon 's polish hive designs langstroth hives common size united states much world british national common size united kingdom dadant modified dadant hives widely used france italy layens beekeepers large size advantage square dadant hives often called frame dadant brother adam


hives used large parts germany parts europe commercial beekeepers hanging frame hive design built sliding frame design az hive original sliding frame design integrates hives using langstroth sized frames honey house streamline workflow honey harvest localization labor similar cellular manufacturing honey house portable trailer allowing beekeeper haul hives site provide pollination services top bar stackable hives simply use top bars instead full frames


common type warre hive although hive hanging frames made top bar stackable hive using top bar whole frame may work less well larger frames crosscomb attachment occur readily thumb protective clothing beekeepers also wear protective clothing novice beekeepers usually wear gloves hooded suit hat veil experienced beekeepers sometimes elect use gloves inhibit delicate manipulations face neck important areas protect beekeepers


wear least veil defensive bees attracted breath sting face lead much pain swelling sting elsewhere sting bare hand usually quickly removed fingernail scrape reduce amount venom injected traditionally beekeeping clothing pale colored still common today natural color cotton cost coloring expense warranted workwear though consider provide better differentiation colony 's natural predators


bears skunks tend dark colored known bees see ultraviolet also attracted scent type fabric conditioner used impact color fabric 'stings' retained clothing fabric continue pump alarm pheromone attracts aggressive action stinging attacks washing suits regularly rinsing gloved hands vinegar minimizes attraction smoker x px smoke beekeeper 's third line defense beekeepers use smoker device designed generate smoke incomplete combustion


various fuels although exact mechanism disputed clear smoke calms bees claim initiates feeding response anticipation possible hive abandonment due fire also thought smoke masks alarm pheromones released guard bees bees squashed inspection ensuing confusion creates opportunity beekeeper open hive work without triggering defensive reaction addition bee consumes honey bee 's abdomen distends theorized make difficult make necessary flexes sting though


using liquid smoke safer convenient alternative water based solution sprayed onto bees plastic spray bottle torpor may also induced introduction chilled air hive chilled carbon dioxide may harmful long term effects effects stings protective measures beekeepers believe stings beekeeper receives less irritation causes consider important safety beekeeper stung times season beekeepers high levels antibodies mainly igg


reacting major antigen bee venom phospholipase pla antibodies correlate frequency bee stings entry venom body bee stings may also hindered reduced protective clothing allows wearer remove stings venom sacs simple tug clothing although stinger barbed worker bee 's stinger less likely become lodged clothing human skin symptoms stung include redness swelling itching around site sting mild cases take hours


pain swelling subside moderate cases red welt sting site become slightly larger days beginning heal severe reaction rare among beekeepers results anaphylactic shock ref name beekeeper stung bee many protective measures taken order make sure affected area become irritated first cautionary step taken following bee sting removing stinger without squeezing attached venom glands quick scrape fingernail


effective intuitive step effective making sure venom injected spread side effects sting go away sooner washing affected area soap water also good way stop spread venom last step needs taken apply ice cold compress stung area ref name ref location hives considerable debate best location hives virgil thought located near clear springs ponds shallow brooks wildman thought face


south west one thing writers agreed hives sheltered strong winds hot climates often placed shade trees summer researchers found domestic honey bees placed national parks usa competed native bee species resources review literature concluded large concentrations beehives continents native north south america could compete native bees however strongly observed areas domestic bees native


europe africa different bee species adapted millennia narrower overlapping forage preferences natural beekeeping natural beekeeping movement believes bee hives weakened modern beekeeping agricultural practices crop spraying hive movement frequent hive inspections artificial insemination queens routine medication sugar water feeding practitioners natural beekeeping tend use variations top bar hive simple design retains concept movable comb without use frames foundation horizontal top bar hive championed


marty hardison michael bush philip chandler dennis murrell others seen modernization hollow log hives addition wooden bars specific width bees hang combs widespread adoption recent years attributed publication ''the barefoot beekeeper'' philip chandler challenged many aspects modern beekeeping offered horizontal top bar hive viable alternative ubiquitous langstroth style movable frame hive popular vertical top bar hive warr hive based design french priest abb mile


reasons space monitoring season season large commercial beekeepers may move colonies wintering warehouses fixed temperature light humidity helps bees remain healthy relatively dormant relatively dormant wintered bees survive stored honey new bees born experiments raising bees longer durations indoors looked precise varying environment controls mit 's ''synthetic apiary'' project simulated springtime inside closed environment several hives throughout winter provided food sources simulated long days


saw activity reproduction levels comparable levels seen outdoors warm weather concluded indoor apiary could sustained year round needed bee colonies species species wild bees many species solitary eg mason bees leafcutter bees megachilidae carpenter bees ground nesting bees many others rear young burrows small colonies eg bumblebees stingless bees honey bees wild eg little honeybee ''apis florea'' giant honeybee ''apis dorsata'' rock bee ''apis laboriosa'' beekeeping apiculture concerned


practical management social species honey bees live large colonies individuals europe america species universally managed beekeepers western honey bee ''apis mellifera'' species several sub species italian bee ''apis mellifera ligustica'' european dark bee ''apis mellifera mellifera'' carniolan honey bee ''apis mellifera carnica'' tropics species social bees managed honey production including asiatic honey bee ''apis cerana'' castes bee castes refer social colonies bees made


individuals look different depending specialized function colony bees consists three castes bee queen bee normally breeding female colony large number female worker bees typically number number male drones ranging thousands strong hive spring dearth cold season queen bee center queen sexually mature female hive female worker bees male drones offspring queen may live three


years may capable laying half million eggs lifetime peak breeding season late spring summer good queen may capable laying eggs one day body weight would exceptional however prolific queen might peak eggs day average queen might lay eggs per day queen raised normal worker egg fed larger amount royal jelly normal worker bee resulting


radically different growth metamorphosis queen influences colony production dissemination variety pheromones queen substances one chemicals suppresses development ovaries female worker bees hive prevents laying eggs mating queens queen emerges cell days development remains hive days venturing mating flight mating flight otherwise known nuptial flight first orientation flight may last seconds enough


mark position hive subsequent mating flights may last minutes minutes may mate number male drones flight several matings possibly dozen queen receives stores enough sperm succession drones fertilize hundreds thousands eggs manage leave hive mate possibly due bad weather trapped part hive remains infertile becomes ' 'drone layer'' incapable producing female worker bees worker bees sometimes kill non performing