screen due ultrasound second blood test quoted pick rate opposed standard afp qs evolving standard care united states ref name carlson ref ref name zhang ref ''down syndrome karyotype'' second trimester msafp quad screen four simultaneous blood tests maternal serum afp inhibin estriol hcg elevations low numbers odd patterns correlate neural tube defect risk increased risks trisomy trisomy ultrasound either abdominal transvaginal assess cervix placenta fluid baby amniocentesis national


pregnancy first trimester bleeding accurate dating first trimester growth foetus significantly influenced factors ultrasound also used detecting congenital anomalies foetal anomalies determining biophysical profiles bpp generally easier detect second trimester foetal structures larger developed specialised ultrasound equipment also evaluate blood flow velocity umbilical cord looking detect decrease absence reversal diastolic blood flow umbilical artery x rays computerized tomography ct used especially

Applied science
Medicine and health
Obstetrics


first trimester due ionizing radiation teratogenic effects foetus effects magnetic resonance imaging mri foetus demonstrated technique expensive routine observation instead obstetric ultrasonography imaging method choice first trimester throughout pregnancy emits radiation portable allows realtime imaging safety frequent ultrasound scanning confirmed despite increasing numbers women choosing additional scans medical purpose gender scans scans


normal gestation would reveal gestational sac yolk sac fetal pole gestational age assessed evaluating mean gestational sac diameter mgd week crown rump length week multiple gestation evaluated number placentae amniotic sacs present tools used assessment include fetal screening used help assess viability fetus well congenital abnormalities fetal karyotype used screening genetic diseases obtained via amniocentesis chorionic villus sampling cvs foetal haematocrit assessment


foetal anemia rh isoimmunization hydrops determined percutaneous umbilical blood sampling pubs done placing needle abdomen uterus taking portion umbilical cord fetal lung maturity associated much surfactant fetus producing reduced production surfactant indicates decreased lung maturity high risk factor infant respiratory distress syndrome typically lecithin sphingomyelin ratio greater associated increased lung maturity nonstress test nst fetal heart rate oxytocin challenge test diseases pregnancy pregnant woman may


pre existing disease may become worse become risk pregnancy postnatal developmentthe offspring diabetes mellitus pregnancy deals interactions diabetes mellitus restricted gestational diabetes pregnancy risks child include miscarriage growth restriction growth acceleration foetal obesity macrosomia polyhydramnios birth defects lupus pregnancy confers increased rate foetal death ''in utero'' spontaneous abortion miscarriage well neonatal lupus thyroid disease pregnancy uncorrected cause adverse effects foetal maternal well deleterious effects thyroid dysfunction also extend


maternal hypertension cause unknown markers sought predict development earliest stages pregnancy unknown factors cause vascular damage endothelium causing hypertension severe progresses eclampsia seizures occur fatal preeclamptic patients hellp syndrome show liver failure disseminated intravascular coagulation dic treatment deliver foetus women may still develop pre eclampsia following delivery placental abruption placenta detaches uterus woman foetus bleed death managed appropriately foetal distress


foetus getting compromised uterine environment shoulder dystocia one foetus' shoulders becomes stuck vaginal birth many risk factors including macrosmic large foetus many also unexplained uterine rupture occur obstructed labour endanger foetal maternal life prolapsed cord happen membranes ruptured umbilical cord delivers presenting part foetus foetus delivered within minutes pressure taken cord foetus dies obstetrical hemorrhage may due number factors


newborn concerned ref name ref postpartum care provided mother following childbirth woman western world gives birth hospital may leave hospital soon medically stable chooses leave early hours later usually averages stay one two days average postnatal stay following delivery caesarean section three four days time mother monitored bleeding bowel bladder function baby care infant 's health also monitored veterinary


obstetrics history two midwives assisting woman labour birthing chair th century work eucharius r lin prior th century caring pregnant women europe confined exclusively women rigorously excluded men expectant mother would invite close female friends family members home keep company childbirth ref name gelis gelis jacques history childbirth boston northeastern university press ref skilled midwives managed aspects labour delivery presence physicians surgeons rare occurred


serious complication taken place midwife exhausted measures disposal calling surgeon much last resort men deliver women era seen offending female modesty ref name bynumporter bynum wf porter roy eds companion encyclopedia history medicine london new york routledge ref th century prior th th centuries midwifery well established obstetrics recognized specific medical specialty however subject matter interest female reproductive system sexual practice


traced back ancient egypt ref name mcgrew mcgrew roderick e encyclopedia medical history new york mcgraw hill book company ref ancient greece ref name hufnagel hufnagel glenda lewin history women 's menstruation ancient greece twenty first century psychological social medical religious educational issues lewiston edwin mellen press ref soranus ephesus sometimes called important figure ancient gynecology living late first century ad early second century studied anatomy opinions techniques abortion contraception nbsp notably ''coitus interruptus'' birth complications death techniques works


gynecology declined little works recorded survived late th century gynecology obstetrics reemerged medical specialism th century th century marked beginning many advances european midwifery based better knowledge physiology pregnancy labour end century medical professionals began understand anatomy uterus physiological changes take place labour introduction forceps childbirth also took place time medical advances obstetrics lever


introduction men arena previously managed run women midwifery addition male midwife man midwife historically significant change profession obstetrics th century medical men began train area childbirth believed advanced knowledge anatomy childbirth could improved france male midwives referred ''accoucheurs'' title later used europe founding lying hospitals also contributed medicalization male dominance obstetrics early maternity hospitals establishments women would come


improve process childbirth men also believed obstetrics would forge ahead continue strengthen ref name bynumporter th century th century physicians expected obstetrics would continue grow opposite happened obstetrics entered stage stagnation th century lasted ref name gelis central explanation lack advancement time rejection obstetrics medical community th century marked era medical reform europe increased regulation profession major european institutions college physicians


surgeons considered delivering babies ungentlemanly work refused anything childbirth whole even medical act introduced stated medical students could qualify doctors midwifery entirely ignored made nearly impossible pursue education midwifery also recognition doctor surgeon obstetrics pushed side late th century foundation modern day obstetrics midwifery began developing delivery babies doctors became popular readily accepted midwives continued play role childbirth midwifery


also changed era due increased regulation eventual need midwives become certified many european countries late th century monitoring training midwives issued certification based competency midwives longer uneducated formal sense ref name drife drife james start life history obstetrics postgraduate medical journal accessed may ref midwifery began develop profession obstetrics near end century childbirth longer unjustifiably despised medical community


beginning century obstetrics underdeveloped compared medical specialities many male physicians would deliver children would referred obstetricians end th century mark significant accomplishment profession advancements asepsis anaesthesia paved way mainstream introduction later success caesarean section ref name drife mortality rates lying hospitals would reach unacceptably high levels became area public concern much maternal deaths due puerperal fever known


childbed fever dr ignaz semmelweis noticed women giving birth home much lower incidence childbed fever giving birth physicians lying hospitals investigation discovered washing hands antiseptic solution delivery reduced childbed fever fatalities concluded physicians spreading disease one labouring mother next despite publication information doctors still would wash th century advancements aseptic technique understanding disease would


solutions accessed february th http wwwourbodiesourselvesorg ref gynaecology obstetrics gained attention american medical field end nineteenth century development procedures ovariotomy procedures shared european surgeons replicated surgeries period antiseptic aseptic anaesthetic measures introduced surgical observational procedures without procedures surgeries dangerous often fatal following two surgeons noted contributions fields include ephraim mcdowell james marion sims ephraim mcdowell developed surgical practice


performed first ovariotomy year old widow lived thirty one years attempted share john bell practiced retired italy bell said died without seeing document published associate ''extractions diseased ovaria'' mid century surgery successfully unsuccessfully performed pennsylvanian surgeons attlee brothers made procedure routine total surgeries john attlee performed successfully brother william reported


years middle nineteenth century procedure successfully performed europe english surgeons sir spencer wells charles clay well french surgeons eug ne koeberl auguste n laton jules p ref name mcgrew mcgrew roderick e encyclopedia medical history new york mcgraw hill book company ref j marion sims surgeon responsible first treating vesicovaginal fistula ref name mcgrew condition linked many caused mainly prolonged pressing foetus pelvis causes rape hysterectomy operations also


th century role physician exclusively held men went university overly male institution would theorize anatomy process reproduction based theological teaching philosophy many beliefs female body menstruation th th centuries inaccurate clearly resulting lack literature practice ref name mcgrew mcgrew roderick e encyclopedia medical history new york mcgraw hill book company ref many theories caused menstruation prevailed hippocratic philosophy midwives time assisted birth


nineteenth century resulted change focus profession gynaecology directly resulted new separate field study obstetrics focused curing illness indispositions female sexual organs relevance conditions menopause uterine cervical problems childbirth could leave mother need extensive surgery repair tissue also large blame uterus completely unrelated conditions led many social consequences nineteenth century ref name mcgrew see also henry jacques garrigues


introduced antiseptic obstetrics north america maternal fetal medicine obstetrical nursing references human pregnancy women 's health


'''gynaecology''' '''gynecology''' see spelling differences medical practice dealing health female reproductive system almost modern gynaecologists also obstetricians see ''obstetrics gynaecology'' many areas specialities gynaecology obstetrics overlap term means science women counterpart andrology deals medical issues specific male reproductive system etymology word gynaecology comes oblique stem greek word ''gyne '' semantically attached woman '' logia'' semantic attachment study history kahun gynaecological papyrus dated

Applied science
Medicine and health
Gynaecology


bc deals women 's health gynaecological diseases fertility pregnancy contraception etc text divided thirty four sections section dealing specific problem containing diagnosis treatment prognosis suggested treatments non surgical comprising applying medicines affected body part swallowing womb times seen source complaints manifesting body parts texts ayurveda indian traditional medical system also provides details concepts techniques related gynaecology ref name govindan ref ref name islam ref hippocratic corpus contains several gynaecological treatises dating th th centuries bc


aristotle another strong source medical texts th century bc descriptions biology primarily found ''history animals parts animals generation animals'' gynaecological treatise ''gynaikeia'' soranus ephesus st nd century ad extant together th century latin paraphrase muscio physician school chief representative school physicians known methodists j marion sims widely considered father modern gynaecology ref name semple ref criticized practices sims developed techniques operating slaves many


given anaesthesia ref name daly ref ref name adekunlewilliams ref sims performed surgeries enslaved women homemade backyard hospital four years performing surgeries invited men physicians students watch invasive painful procedures women exposed one women named anarcha performed surgeries without anesthesia due many enslaved women would rotate one another continuously trying perfect repair fistulas physicians students lost interest assisting sims course backyard practice recruited enslaved


women healing surgeries assist sims went found woman 's hospital new york first hospital specifically female disorders examination female genitalia long inhibited science gynaecology drawing jacques pierre maygrier shows compromise procedure physician kneeling woman cannot see genitalia modern gynaecology longer uses position countries women must first see general practitioner gp also known family practitioner fp prior seeing gynaecologist condition requires


training knowledge surgical procedure equipment unavailable gp patient referred gynaecologist united states however law many health insurance plans allow gynaecologists provide primary care addition aspects specialty option available women opt see gynaecological surgeon non gynaecological problems without another physician 's referral medicine main tools diagnosis clinical history examination gynaecological examination quite intimate routine physical exam also requires unique instrumentation speculum speculum


consists two hinged blades concave metal plastic used retract tissues vagina permit examination cervix lower part uterus located within upper portion vagina gynaecologists typically bimanual examination one hand abdomen one two fingers vagina palpate cervix uterus ovaries bony pelvis uncommon rectovaginal examination complete evaluation pelvis particularly suspicious masses appreciated male gynaecologists may female chaperone


examination abdominal vaginal ultrasound used confirm abnormalities appreciated bimanual examination indicated patient 's history diseases examples conditions dealt gynaecologist cancer pre cancerous diseases reproductive organs including ovaries fallopian tubes uterus cervix vagina vulva incontinence urine amenorrhoea absent menstrual periods dysmenorrhoea painful menstrual periods infertility menorrhagia heavy menstrual periods common indication hysterectomy prolapse pelvic organs infections vagina vaginitis cervix uterus including fungal bacterial viral protozoal uti pelvic inflammatory disease premenstrual syndrome vaginal


diseases crossover areas example woman urinary incontinence may referred urologist therapies surgical specialties gynaecologists may employ medical surgical therapies many times depending exact nature problem treating pre post operative medical management often employ many standard drug therapies antibiotics diuretics antihypertensives antiemetics additionally gynaecologists make frequent use specialized hormone modulating therapies clomifene citrate hormonal contraception treat disorders female genital tract responsive pituitary gonadal


signals surgery however mainstay gynaecological therapy historical political reasons gynaecologists previously considered surgeons although point always source controversy modern advancements general surgery gynaecology however blurred many rigid lines distinction rise sub specialties within gynaecology primarily surgical nature example urogynaecology gynaecological oncology strengthened reputations gynaecologists surgical practitioners many surgeons surgical societies come view gynaecologists comrades sorts proof changing attitude gynaecologists


eligible fellowship american college surgeons royal colleges surgeons many newer surgical textbooks include chapters least basic gynaecological surgery common operations gynaecologists perform include dilation curettage removal uterine contents various reasons including completing partial miscarriage diagnostic sampling dysfunctional uterine bleeding refractive medical therapy hysterectomy removal uterus oophorectomy removal ovaries tubal ligation type permanent sterilization hysteroscopy inspection uterine cavity diagnostic laparoscopy nbsp used


performed part staging operation ovarian cancer cervical excision procedures including cryosurgery nbsp removal surface cervix containing pre cancerous cells previously identified pap smear specialist training uk royal college obstetricians gynaecologists based london encourages study advancement science practice obstetrics gynaecology done postgraduate medical education training development publication clinical guidelines reports aspects specialty service provision rcog international office works international organisations


help lower maternal morbidity mortality resourced countries gynaecologic oncology subspecialty gynaecology dealing gynaecology related cancer urogynaecology subspecialty gynaecology urology dealing urinary fecal incontinence pelvic organ prolapse gender physicians improved access education professions recent decades seen women gynaecologists outnumber men male dominated medical field gynaecology gynaecological sub specialties representation males persists income discrepancies appear show male practitioners earning higher averages speculations decreased numbers male gynaecologist practitioners report perceived lack respect


within medical profession limited future employment opportunities even questions motivations character men choose medical field concerned female sexual organs high profile cases prosecutions male gynaecologists sex assault patients may act deterrent considering whether enter field surveys women 's views issue male doctors conducting intimate examinations show large consistent majority found uncomfortable likely embarrassed less likely talk openly detail personal information discuss


sexual history man findings raised questions ability male gynaecologists offer quality care patients coupled women choosing female physicians decreased employment opportunities men choosing become gynaecologists united states reported students choosing residency gynaecology female several places sweden comply discrimination laws patients may choose doctor regardless specialty based factors ethnicity gender declining see doctor solely preference regarding eg


gynaecology practice columbia maryland claiming form sexual discrimination dr david garfinkel new jersey based ob gyn sued former employer fired due claimed male n't drawing many patients 'd expected ref name nytimescom see also obstetrics gynaecology howard atwood kelly childbirth obstetrics antiquity genital schistosomiasis hydatidiform mole gynography list bacterial vaginosis microbiota pediatric gynaecology references sources https wwwbritannicacom science human reproductive system female reproductive system female reproductive system britannica external links http wwwingeniousorguk see medicineandhealth obstetricsgynaecologyandcontraception ingenious archive historical images related obstetrics gynaecology contraception http wwwwomenshealthgov us federal government website women 's


image px caption emergency physicians registered nurses conducting trauma evaluation focus acute illness injury diseases tests specialist emergency physician education required medical degree training required emergency medicine residency training scheme glossary glossary medicine '''emergency medicine'''

Applied science
Medicine and health
Emergency medicine


medical speciality concerned care illnesses injuries requiring immediate medical attention emergency physicians often called er doctors united states continuously learn care unscheduled undifferentiated patients ages first line providers coordination emergency medical services primarily responsible initiating resuscitation stabilization performing initial investigations interventions necessary diagnose treat illnesses injuries acute phase emergency physicians generally practise hospital emergency departments pre hospital settings via emergency medical services intensive care units still may also work primary care


settings urgent care clinics sub specializations emergency medicine include disaster medicine medical toxicology point care ultrasonography critical care medicine emergency medical services hyperbaric medicine sports medicine palliative care aerospace medicine various models emergency medicine exist internationally countries following anglo american model emergency medicine initially consisted surgeons general practitioners generalist physicians however recent decades become recognised speciality right training programmes academic posts speciality popular choice among medical students newly qualified medical practitioners contrast countries following


franco german model speciality exist emergency medical care instead provided directly anesthesiologists critical resuscitation surgeons specialists internal medicine paediatricians cardiologists neurologists appropriate ref name jaem ref emergency medicine still evolving developing countries international emergency medicine programs offer hope improving primary emergency care resources limited scope emergency medicine medical speciality field practice based knowledge skills required prevent diagnose manage acute urgent aspects illness injury affecting patients age groups full spectrum undifferentiated physical


behavioural disorders encompasses understanding development pre hospital hospital emergency medical systems skills necessary development field emergency medicine encompasses care involving acute care internal medical surgical conditions many modern emergency departments emergency physicians see many patients treating illnesses arranging disposition either admitting hospital releasing treatment necessary also provide episodic primary care patients hours primary care providers patients present emergency departments low acuity conditions


gynaecology control patient mania psychiatry stop severe nosebleed otolaryngology place chest tube cardiothoracic surgery conduct interpret x rays ultrasounds radiology generalist approach obviate barrier care issues seen systems without specialists emergency medicine patients requiring immediate attention instead managed outset speciality doctors surgeons internal physicians however may lead barriers acute critical care specialities disconnecting emergency care ref name flipside emergency medicine may separate urgent care refers primary healthcare less emergent medical issues obvious overlap


emergency medicine often quite different rural areas far fewer specialities healthcare resources areas family physicians additional skills emergency medicine often staff emergency departments rural emergency physicians may health care providers community require skills include primary care obstetrics work patterns patterns vary country region united states employment arrangement emergency physician practices either private co operative group doctors staffing emergency department contract institutional physicians without independent contractor relationship


hospital corporate physicians independent contractor relationship third party staffing company services multiple emergency departments governmental example working within personal service military services public health services veterans' benefit systems government agencies united kingdom consultants emergency medicine work national health service little scope private emergency practice countries like australia new zealand turkey emergency medicine specialists almost always salaried employees government health departments work public hospitals pockets employment private non government aeromedical


practical larrey operated ambulances trained crews drivers corpsmen litter bearers bring wounded centralized field hospitals effectively creating forerunner modern mash units dominique jean larrey sometimes called father emergency medicine strategies french wars emergency medicine independent medical speciality relatively young hospital emergency departments eds generally staffed physicians staff hospital rotating basis among family physicians general surgeons internists variety specialists many smaller emergency departments


nurses would triage patients physicians would called based type injury illness family physicians often call emergency department recognized need dedicated emergency department coverage many pioneers emergency medicine family physicians specialists saw need additional training emergency care period physicians began emerge left respective practices devote work entirely ed uk maurice ellis appointed first casualty consultant leeds general infirmary


casualty surgeons association co established maurice ellis first president us first groups managed dr james dewitt mills along four associate physicians dr chalmers loughridge dr william weaver dr john mcdade dr steven bednar alexandria hospital alexandria virginia established year round emergency care became known alexandria plan maurice ellis blue plaque unveiling establishment american college emergency physicians acep recognition emergency medicine training programs ama aoa


historic vote american board medical specialties emergency medicine became recognized medical speciality us first emergency medicine residency program world began university cincinnati furthermore first department emergency medicine us medical school occurred university southern california second residency program united states soon followed called hennepin county general hospital minneapolis two residents entering program uk 's casualty surgeons association changed name


care centres feature departments emergency medicine patients receive acute care without appointment many patients get treated life threatening injuries others utilize emergency department ed non urgent reasons headaches cold defined visits conditions delay several hours would increase likelihood adverse outcome eds adjust staffing ratios designate area department faster patient turnover accommodate various patient needs volumes policies improved assist better ed staff emergency medical technicians paramedics


mid level providers physicians assistants nurse practitioners direct patients towards appropriate medical settings primary care physician urgent care clinics detoxification facilities emergency department welfare programs healthcare clinics serve critical part healthcare safety net uninsured patients cannot afford medical treatment adequately utilise coverage ref name ref compensation emergency physicians compensated higher rate specialities ranking th physician specialities average salary annually compensated mid range averaging annually


non patient activities speaking engagements acting expert witness also saw increase salary line many physician specialities year emergency physicians work hour shifts tend work call high level stress need diagnostic solid triage capabilities undifferentiated acute patient contributes arguments justifying higher salaries physicians emergency care must available every hour every day requires doctor available site unlike outpatient


clinic hospital departments limited hours may call physician needed necessity physician staff diagnostic services available every hour every day thus costly arrangement hospitals payment systems american health payment systems undergoing significant reform efforts include compensating emergency physicians pay performance incentives penalty measures commercial public health programs including medicare medicaid payment reform aims improve quality care control costs despite differing opinions existing evidence


show payment approach effective emergency medicine ref name referencea ref initially incentives would target primary care providers pcps would argue emergency medicine primary care one refers patients ed ref name referencea one program two specific conditions listed directly tied patients frequently seen emergency medical providers acute myocardial infarction pneumonia see hospital quality incentive demonstration challenges implementing quality based incentives emergency medicine patients often given definitive diagnosis ed making challenging allocate payments


https wwwaapccom medical coding medical codingaspx coding additionally adjustments based patient risk level multiple co morbidities complex patients complicate attribution positive negative health outcomes easy assess whether much costs directly result emergent condition treated acutely care settings also difficult quantify savings due preventive care emergency treatment ie workup stabilizing treatments coordination care discharge rather hospital admission thus ed providers tend support modified fee service model payment systems overutilization patients without health insurance utilize eds


primary form medical care patients utilize insurance primary care emergency medical providers often face overutilization financial loss especially since many patients cannot pay care see ed overuse produces billion wasteful spending year ie care delivery coordination failures treatment administrative complexity pricing failures fraud ref name ref moreover unnecessarily drains departmental resources reducing quality care across patients overuse limited uninsured uninsured constitute growing proportion non urgent ed visits insurance coverage help mitigate overutilization


active labor act emtala discussed obligated treat emergency conditions regardless ability pay faces economic loss uncompensated care fifty five per cent emergency care uncompensated inadequate reimbursement led closure many edspolicy changes affordable care act would decrease number uninsured people drastically lower uncompensated care addition decreasing uninsured rate ed overutilization might reduce improving patient access primary care increasing patient flow alternative care centres non life threatening injuries financial disincentives patient education improved


management patients chronic diseases also reduce overutilization help manage costs care ref name moreover physician knowledge prices treatment analyses discussions costs patients changing culture away defensive medicine improve cost effective use transition towards value based care ed avenue providers contain costs emtala doctors work eds hospitals receiving medicare funding subject provisions emtala ref name ref us congress enacted emtala curtail patient dumping practice whereby patients


refused medical care economic non medical reasons ref name ref since enactment ed visits substantially increased one study showing rise visits double increase population period ref name ref individuals receiving care lack funding ed overcrowding may affecting quality ref name comply provisions emtala hospitals ed physicians must provide medical screening stabilize emergency medical conditions anyone presents hospital ed patient capacity ref name emtala holds


hospital responsible ed physician liable civil penalties help need ref name office inspector general us department health human services oig private citizens bring action emtala courts uniformly held ed physicians held liable case prosecuted oig whereas hospitals subject penalties regardless brings suit additionally centres medicare medicaid services cms discontinue provider status medicare


physicians comply emtala ref name liability also extends call physicians fail respond ed request come hospital provide service ref name goals emtala laudable commentators noted appears created substantial unfunded burden resources hospitals emergency physicians ref name result financial difficulty period eds us closed ref name care delivery different ed settings rural despite practice


emerging past decades delivery emergency medicine significantly increased evolved across diverse settings related cost provider availability overall usage affordable care act aca emergency medicine leveraged primarily uninsured underinsured patients women children minorities frequently face barriers accessing primary care still exists today mentioned critical consider location care delivered understand population system challenges related overutilization high cost rural communities provider ambulatory facility shortages exist


primary care physician pcp ed general knowledge likely source health care population specialists health resources generally unavailable due lack funding desire serve areas result incidence complex co morbidities managed appropriate provider results worse health outcomes eventually costlier care extends beyond rural communities though typically quite separated pcps rural areas must partner larger health systems comprehensively address complex needs community improve population health


implement strategies telemedicine improve health outcomes reduce ed utilization preventable illnesses see rural health urban alternatively emergency medicine urban areas consists diverse provider groups including physicians physician assistants nurse practitioners registered nurses coordinate specialists inpatient outpatient facilities address patients' needs specifically ed systems regardless funding source emtala mandates eds conduct medical examination anyone presents department irrespective paying ability non profit hospitals health systems required aca must


provide certain threshold charity care actively ensuring qualify financial assistance get charging reasonable rates uninsured patients avoiding extraordinary collection practices limitations mandate provides support many need said despite policy efforts increased funding federal reimbursement urban areas triple aim improving patient experience enhancing population health reducing per capita cost care remains challenge without providers' payers' collaboration increase access preventive care decrease ed usage result many experts support


notion emergency medical services serve immediate risks urban rural areas patient provider relationships stated emtala includes provisions protect patients turned away transferred adequate stabilisation upon making contact patient ems providers responsible diagnosing stabilising patient 's condition without regard ability pay pre hospital setting providers must exercise appropriate judgement choosing suitable hospital transport hospitals turn away incoming ambulances diversion incapable providing adequate care however patient


without handoff another qualified provider considered abandonment order initiate outside transfer physician must verify next hospital provide similar higher level care hospitals physicians must also ensure patient condition aggravated transfer process unique setting emergency medicine practice presents challenge delivering high quality patient centered care clear effective communication particularly difficult due noise frequent interruptions high patient turnover ref name ref society academic emergency medicine identified five essential tasks patient physician communication establishing


rapport gathering information giving information providing comfort collaboration ref name miscommunication patient information crucial source medical error minimising shortcoming communication remains topic current future research medical error many circumstances including regular transfer patients emergency treatment crowded noisy chaotic ed environments make emergency medicine particularly susceptible medical error near misses ref name ref ref name ref one study identified error rate per registered patients one particular academic ed ref name another study found lack teamwork ie poor


communication lack team structure lack cross monitoring implicated particular incident ed medical error average teamwork failures occurred per case half deaths permanent disabilities occurred judged avoidable unfortunately particular cultural ie focus errors others blame shame culture structural ie lack standardisation equipment incompatibilities aspects emergency medicine often result lack disclosure medical error near misses patients caregivers ref name concerns malpractice liability one reason


disclosure medical errors made noted disclosing error providing apology mitigate malpractice risk ethicists uniformly agree disclosure medical error causes harm care provider 's duty ref name critical components disclosure include honesty explanation empathy apology chance lessen chance future errors represented mnemonic heeal ref name nature emergency medicine error likely always substantial risk emergency care however maintaining public trust open communication regarding


harmful error help patients physicians constructively address problems occur ref name treatments emergency medicine primary first contact point care patients requiring use health care system specialists emergency medicine required possess specialist skills acute illness diagnosis resuscitation emergency physicians responsible providing immediate recognition evaluation care stabilisation adult pediatric patients response acute illness injury training variety international models emergency medicine training two different models among well developed training


programs specialist model multidisciplinary model additionally countries emergency medicine specialist rides ambulance example france germany physician often anesthesiologist rides ambulance provides stabilising care scene patient directed appropriate hospital department emergency care much multidisciplinary anglo american model countries us united kingdom canada australia ambulances crewed paramedics emergency medical technicians respond hospital emergencies transport patients emergency departments meaning dependence healthcare


providers dependence paramedics emts scene care emergency physicians therefore specialists since patients taken emergency department developing countries follow anglo american model gold standard three year independent residency training programs emergency medicine countries develop training programs based primary care foundation additional emergency medicine training developing countries awareness western models may applicable may best use limited health care resources example speciality training pre hospital care developed


new zealand australasian college emergency medicine acem training program nominally seven years duration trainee awarded fellowship acem conditional upon passing necessary assessments dual fellowship programs also exist paediatric medicine conjunction royal australasian college physicians intensive care medicine conjunction college intensive care medicine programs nominally add one years acem training program medical doctors wishing specialists emergency medicine significant interest workload


programs specialists notably university chile pontifical catholic university chile san sebastian university mue university santiago chile usach currently intending strengthen speciality country level foamed initiatives emerged free open access medical education emergency medicine chileem initiative brings together programs universidad san sebasti n mue universidad cat lica de chile universidad de chile intend hold joint clinical meetings leading training programs regularly open health team working field urgency specialists already


trained grouped chilean society emergency medicine sochimu canada two routes emergency medicine certification summarized follows year residency leads designation frcp em royal college physicians surgeons canada emergency medicine board certification emergency medicine consultant year emergency medicine enhanced skills program following year family medicine residency leading designation ccfp em college family physicians canada advanced competency certification ref name cfpc ref cfpc also allows worked minimum years minimum


called residency training bases approved local health governments bases hospital based residents selected managed municipal associations medical education associations also authoritative body setting residents' training curriculum medical school graduates want practice medicine undergo five years residency training designated training bases first three years general rotation followed two years speciality centred training germany germany emergency medicine handled specialization facharztrichtung licensed physician acquire


additional qualification emergency medicine hour course monitored respective '' rztekammer '' medical association responsible licensing physicians service emergency physician ambulance service part specialization training anaesthesiology emergency physicians usually work volunteering basis often anesthesiologists maybe specialists kind especially specialization training pediatric intensive care india india example family medicine foundation emergency medicine training many private hospitals institutes providing emergency medicine training doctors nurses paramedics


since certification programs varying months years however emergency medicine recognized separate speciality medical council india july malaysia three universities universiti sains malaysia universiti kebangsaan malaysia universiti malaya offer master 's degrees emergency medicine postgraduate training programs four years duration clinical rotations examinations dissertation first cohort locally trained emergency physicians graduated saudi arabia saudi arabia certification emergency medicine takes year saudi board emergency medicine sbem


saudi council accredits health specialties scfhs requires passing two part exam first final part written oral obtain sbem certificate equivalent doctorate switzerland emergency medicine still recognised fully fledged speciality country recently grasped importance organised acute medical speciality covid outbreak many attempts organise speciality resulted subspecialists training pathway day internal medicine anesthesiology surgery still vocally opposed emergency medicine specialist title united states


programs three years duration programs four years long several combined residencies offered programs including family medicine internal medicine paediatrics us well known excellence emergency medicine residency programs leading controversy speciality certification three ways become board certified emergency medicine american board emergency medicine abem either doctor medicine md doctor osteopathic medicine degrees abem authority american board medical specialties american osteopathic board


emergency medicine aobem certifies emergency physicians degree authority american osteopathic association bureau osteopathic specialists board certification emergency medicine bcem grants board certification emergency medicine physicians completed emergency medicine residency completed residency fields internists family practitioners paediatricians general surgeons anesthesiologists bcem authority american board physician specialties several abms fellowships available emergency medicine graduates including pre hospital medicine emergency medical services international medicine advanced resuscitation hospice palliative


care research undersea hyperbaric medicine sports medicine pain medicine ultrasound pediatric emergency medicine disaster medicine wilderness medicine toxicology critical care medicine recent years workforce data led recognition need additional training primary care physicians provide emergency care led several supplemental training programs first hour emergency care fellowships family physicians emergency medicine fellowships family physicians emergency medicine funding training allopathic osteopathic emergency medicine residency programs collectively accept new


residents year studies shown attending emergency physician supervision residents correlates higher quality cost effective practice primarily emergency medicine residency exists medical education primarily funded medicare program payments given hospitals resident fifty five per cent ed payments come medicare fifteen per cent medicaid five per cent private payment twenty five per cent commercially insured patients however choices physician specialities mandated agency program even though emergency departments see many medicare medicaid patients thus receive much funding


training programs still concern shortage speciality trained emergency medicine providers united kingdom united kingdom royal college emergency medicine role setting professional standards assessing trainees emergency medical trainees enter speciality training five six years medical school followed two years foundation training speciality training takes six years complete success assessments set five examinations results award fellowship royal college emergency medicine frcem historically emergency specialists drawn anaesthesia medicine


surgery many established em consultants surgically trained hold fellowship royal college surgeons edinburgh accident emergency frcsed e trainees emergency medicine may dual accredit intensive care medicine seek sub specialisation paediatric emergency medicine turkey emergency medicine residency lasts four years turkey physicians year obligatory service turkey qualified diploma period em specialists choose work private governmental ed 's pakistan college physicians surgeons pakistan accredited training emergency medicine


emergency medicine training pakistan lasts five years initial two years involve trainees sent three major areas medicine allied surgery allied critical care divided six months rest six months first two years spent emergency department last three years trainee residents spend time emergency room senior residents certificate courses include acls pals atls research dissertations required complete training successfully end years candidates become eligible


sitting fcps part ii exam fulfilling requirement become fellows college physicians surgeons pakistan emergency medicine https wwwcpspedupk fcps institutions providing training include shifa international hospitals islamabad aga khan university hospital karachi pof hospital wah lady reading hospital peshawar indus hospital karachi jinnah post graduate medical center karachi mayo hospital lahore iran first residency program iran started iran university medical sciences three year standard residency programs running tehran tabriz mashhad isfahan universities programs work supervision


department post overdose note specifying request interventions highlights dichotomy often exists physicians ethical obligation 'do harm' legality patients right refuse ref name see also physician physician assistant medical emergency first aid emergency medical services pre hospital emergency medicine pediatric emergency medicine rescue squad emergency medical technician paramedic golden hour traumatology international emergency medicine royal college emergency medicine prehospital disaster medicine references reading external links http wwwmuecl emergency medicine mue http wwwifemcc international federation emergency medicine https webarchiveorg web http wwwaeporg association emergency physicians http wwwcaepca canadian association


emergency physicians http wwwaaemorg american academy emergency medicine http wwwaapsusorg american association physician specialists inc http wwwabemorg american board emergency medicine http wwwabpsusorg american board physician specialties http wwwaceporg american college emergency physicians http wwwacadmedorgmy college emergency physician malaysia https webarchiveorg web http wwwcollemergencymedacuk cem defaultasp college emergency medicine united kingdom http wwweusemorg european society emergency medicine http wwwsaemorg society academic emergency medicine http wwwhkcemcom hong kong college emergency medicine http wwwsjtremcom scandinavian journal trauma resuscitation emergency medicine http wwwtatdorgtr emergency medicine association turkey emat http wwwatuderorgtr emergency physicians' association turkey epat http wwwacemorgau australasian college emergency medicine acem http wwweucodimeeu european council


disaster medicine ecdm medical mnemonics


philosopher plato roman copy work silanion academia athens bc '''humanities''' academic disciplines study aspects human society culture renaissance term contrasted divinity referred called classics main area secular study universities time today humanities frequently defined fields study outside professional training mathematics natural social sciences humanities use methods primarily critical speculative significant historical element ref name oed


distinguished mainly empirical approaches natural sciences ref name oed humanity b ''oxford english dictionary'' rd ed ref yet unlike sciences central discipline humanities include study ancient modern languages literature philosophy history archaeology anthropology human geography law religion art scholars humanities humanities scholars ''humanists'' term humanist also describes philosophical position humanism antihumanist scholars humanities reject renaissance scholars artists also known humanists secondary schools offer humanities classes usually consisting literature global studies art human


disciplines like history folkloristics cultural anthropology study subject matters manipulative experimental method apply instead mainly use comparative method ref name wallace p wallace gach https booksgooglecom booksid wtqzs ic pg pa p ref comparative research methods used humanities include hermeneutics source criticism fields anthropology anthropology holistic science humans science totality human existence discipline deals integration different aspects social sciences humanities human biology twentieth century academic disciplines often institutionally divided three broad domains natural ' 'sciences'' seek derive


general laws reproducible verifiable experiments ''humanities'' generally study local traditions history literature music arts emphasis understanding particular individuals events eras ' 'social sciences'' generally attempted develop scientific methods understand social phenomena generalizable way though usually methods distinct natural sciences anthropological social sciences often develop nuanced descriptions rather general laws derived physics chemistry may explain individual cases general principles many fields psychology anthropology like fields history


easily fit one categories different branches anthropology draw one domains within united states anthropology divided four sub fields archaeology physical biological anthropology anthropological linguistics cultural anthropology area offered undergraduate institutions word ancient greek word human person eric wolf described sociocultural anthropology scientific humanities humanistic sciences goal anthropology provide holistic account humans human nature


means though anthropologists generally specialize one sub field always keep mind biological linguistic historic cultural aspects problem since anthropology arose science western societies complex industrial major trend within anthropology methodological drive study peoples societies simple social organization sometimes called primitive anthropological literature without connotation inferior today anthropologists use terms less complex societies refer specific modes subsistence production pastoralist forager horticulturalist discuss humans


living non industrial non western cultures people folk ''ethnos'' remaining great interest within anthropology quest holism leads anthropologists study people detail using biogenetic archaeological linguistic data alongside direct observation contemporary customs calls clarification constitutes culture observer knows culture ends another begins crucial topics writing anthropology heard possible view human cultures part one large evolving global culture integrating research evidence depth detailed


social behaviours actually embedded ways understood particular culture breadth select human aspects' varying manifestations across wide range peoples differing environments growth adoption persistence change abandonment migration material resources products traditions eras evolution development societies peoples humanity hominin species hominid family throughout existence time remains fundamental kind anthropology whether cultural biological linguistic archaeological archaeology archaeology study human activity recovery analysis material culture archaeological record


consists artifacts architecture biofacts ecofacts cultural landscapes archaeology considered social science branch humanities various goals range understanding culture history reconstructing past lifeways documenting explaining changes human societies time archaeology thought branch anthropology united states europe viewed discipline right grouped related disciplines history classics bust homer famous greek poet classics western academic tradition refers


studies cultures classical antiquity namely ancient greek latin ancient greek roman cultures classical studies considered one cornerstones humanities however popularity declined th century nevertheless influence classical ideas many humanities disciplines philosophy literature remains strong history history systematically collected information past used name field study ''history'' refers study interpretation record humans societies institutions topic changed time traditionally study


history considered part humanities modern academia history occasionally classified social science linguistics languages scientific study language known linguistics generally considered social science natural science cognitive science ref name stanford thagard paul http platostanfordedu archives fall entries cognitive science cognitive science stanford encyclopedia philosophy fall edition edward n zalta ed ref study languages still central humanities good deal twentieth century twenty first century philosophy devoted analysis language question whether wittgenstein claimed


many philosophical confusions derive vocabulary use literary theory explored rhetorical associative ordering features language historical linguists studied development languages across time literature covering variety uses language including prose forms novel poetry drama also lies heart modern humanities curriculum college level programs foreign language usually include study important works literature language well language law politics trial criminal court old bailey london


common parlance law means rule unlike rule ethics enforceable institutions study law crosses boundaries social sciences humanities depending one 's view research objectives effects law always enforceable especially international relations context defined system rules ref name hhc ref interpretive concept ref name rdl ref achieve justice authority ref name jra ref mediate people 's interests even command sovereign backed threat sanction ref name jap ref however one likes think


law completely central social institution legal policy incorporates practical manifestation thinking almost every social science discipline humanities laws politics politicians create law philosophy moral ethical persuasions shape ideas law tells many history 's stories statutes case law codifications build time law economics rule contract tort property law labour law company law many long lasting effects productivity organised distribution wealth noun ''law'' derives late


old english ''lagu'' meaning something laid fixed adjective ''legal'' comes latin word ''lex'' literature shakespeare wrote acclaimed works english literature '''literature''' term universally accepted definition variably included written work writing possesses literary merit language foregrounds literariness opposed ordinary language etymologically term derives latin ''literatura litteratura'' writing formed letters although definitions include spoken sung texts literature classified according whether fiction non fiction whether


poetry prose distinguished according major forms novel short story drama works often categorised according historical periods according adherence certain aesthetic features expectations genre philosophy works ren kierkegaard overlap many fields humanities philosophy literature theology music classical studies philosophy etymologically love wisdom generally study problems concerning matters existence knowledge justification truth justice right wrong beauty validity mind language philosophy distinguished ways addressing


issues critical generally systematic approach reliance reasoned argument rather experiments experimental philosophy exception philosophy used comprehensive term including subsequently become separate disciplines physics immanuel kant noted ancient greek philosophy divided three sciences physics ethics logic today main fields philosophy logic ethics metaphysics epistemology still continues overlap disciplines field semantics example brings philosophy contact linguistics since early twentieth century philosophy english speaking universities moved away


humanities closer formal sciences becoming much ''analytic'' analytic philosophy marked emphasis use logic formal methods reasoning conceptual analysis use symbolic mathematical logic contrasted continental style philosophy method inquiry largely indebted work philosophers gottlob frege bertrand russell ge moore ludwig wittgenstein religion present know people tribe either history present day may said altogether devoid religion religion may characterized


available empirical verification '''stories''' myths narratives didactic entertaining necessary understanding human predicament possible characteristics religion pollutions purification sacred profane sacred texts religious institutions organizations sacrifice prayer major problems religions confront attempts answer chaos suffering evil death non founder religions hinduism shinto native folk religions founder religions judaism christianity islam confucianism daoism mormonism jainism zoroastrianism buddhism sikhism baha faith religions must adapt change


generations must remain relevant adherents traditional religions fail address new concerns new religions emerge humanities uses various mediums attempting articulate human predicament prescribe meanings human situation products human imagination discovered created creations characterize humanities religion greatest creation humankindthe compass th century manuscript symbol god 's act creation performing arts performing arts differ visual arts far former uses artist 's


body face presence medium latter uses materials clay metal paint molded transformed create art object performing arts include acrobatics busking comedy dance film magic music opera juggling marching arts brass bands theatre artists participate arts front audience called performers including actors comedians dancers musicians singers performing arts also supported workers related fields songwriting stagecraft performers often adapt appearance costumes stage makeup etc


liberal arts tradition musicology also used broaden skills non musicians teaching skills concentration listening theatre theatre theater greek theatron '' '' branch performing arts concerned acting stories front audience using combinations speech gesture music dance sound spectacle indeed one elements performing arts addition standard narrative dialogue style theatre takes forms opera ballet mime kabuki classical indian dance chinese opera mummers' plays pantomime dance dance old french ' 'dancier''


perhaps frankish generally refers human movement either used form expression presented social spiritual performance setting dance also used describe methods non verbal communication see body language humans animals bee dance mating dance motion inanimate objects ''the leaves danced wind'' choreography art creating dances person called choreographer definitions constitutes dance dependent social cultural aesthetic artistic moral constraints range functional movement folk dance codified virtuoso


techniques ballet visual arts history visual arts emperor gaozong song dynasty fan mounted album leaf silk four columns cursive script great traditions art foundation art one ancient civilizations ancient japan greece rome china india greater nepal mesopotamia mesoamerica ancient greek art saw veneration human physical form development equivalent skills show musculature poise beauty anatomically correct proportions ancient roman art depicted gods idealized humans shown characteristic distinguishing features eg zeus'


colour brought light shade reflection characteristic style local colour often defined outline contemporary equivalent cartoon evident example art india tibet japan religious islamic art forbids iconography expresses religious ideas geometry instead physical rational certainties depicted th century enlightenment shattered new discoveries relativity einstein unseen psychology freud also unprecedented technological development increasing global interaction time saw equivalent influence


cultures western art media types drawing drawing means making picture using wide variety tools techniques generally involves making marks surface applying pressure tool moving tool across surface common tools graphite pencils pen ink inked brushes wax color pencils crayons charcoals pastels markers digital tools simulate effects also used main techniques used drawing line drawing hatching crosshatching random hatching scribbling stippling blending computer aided designer excels


technical drawing referred ' 'draftsman'' ' 'draughtsman'' painting ''mona lisa'' leonardo da vinci one recognizable artistic paintings world painting taken literally practice applying pigment suspended carrier medium binding agent glue surface support paper canvas wall however used artistic sense means use activity combination drawing composition aesthetic considerations order manifest expressive conceptual intention practitioner painting also used


express spiritual motifs ideas sites kind painting range artwork depicting mythological figures pottery sistine chapel human body colour highly subjective observable psychological effects although differ one culture next black associated mourning west elsewhere white may painters theoreticians writers scientists including goethe kandinsky isaac newton written colour theories moreover use language generalization colour equivalent word red example cover wide range


variations pure red spectrum formalized register different colours way agreement different notes music c c music although pantone system widely used printing design industry purpose modern artists extended practice painting considerably include example collage began cubism painting strict sense modern painters incorporate different materials sand cement straw wood texture examples works


jean dubuffet anselm kiefer modern contemporary art moved away historic value craft favour concept led say painting serious art form dead although deterred majority artists continuing practise either whole part work sculpture sculpture involves creating three dimensional forms various materials typically include moldable substances like clay metal may also extend material cut shaved desired form like stone wood


origin term word humanities derived renaissance latin expression ' 'studia humanitatis'' study ''humanitas'' classical latin word meaning addition humanity culture refinement education specifically education befitting cultivated man usage early th century ' 'studia humanitatis'' course studies consisted grammar poetry rhetoric history moral philosophy primarily derived study latin greek classics word ''humanitas'' also gave rise renaissance italian neologism ''umanisti'' whence humanist renaissance humanism history west history humanities


traced ancient greece basis broad education citizens roman times concept seven liberal arts evolved involving grammar rhetoric logic trivium along arithmetic geometry astronomy music quadrivium subjects formed bulk medieval education emphasis humanities skills ways major shift occurred renaissance humanism fifteenth century humanities began regarded subjects study rather practice corresponding shift away traditional fields areas


literature history th century view turn challenged postmodernist movement sought redefine humanities egalitarian terms suitable democratic society since greek roman societies humanities originated democratic today education employment many decades growing public perception humanities education inadequately prepares graduates employment common belief graduates programs face underemployment incomes low humanities education worth investment fact humanities


graduates find employment wide variety management professional occupations britain example humanities majors found employment following occupations education management media literature arts law finance civil service profit marketing medicine many humanities graduates finish university career goals mind ref name ref consequently many spend first years graduation deciding next resulting lower incomes start career meanwhile graduates career oriented programs experience rapid entry labour market however usually within five


years graduation humanities graduates find occupation career path appeals empirical evidence graduates humanities programs earn less graduates university programs however empirical evidence also shows humanities graduates still earn notably higher incomes workers postsecondary education job satisfaction levels comparable peers fields humanities graduates also earn careers progress ten years graduation income difference humanities graduates graduates university programs longer statistically significant ref name humanities graduates boost


united states stem crisis myth statements crisis humanities also misleading ignore data sort collected humanities indicators ''the humanities american life'' united states rockefeller commission humanities described humanities report ''the humanities american life'' blockquote humanities reflect fundamental question mean human humanities offer clues never complete answer reveal people tried make moral spiritual intellectual sense world irrationality


despair loneliness death conspicuous birth friendship hope reason blockquote major little percent year olds united states earned humanities degrees defined degree english language history philosophy doubled half percent part overall rise number americans kind college degree percent four year degree percent one percentage type degrees awarded


study disciplines natural sciences arts well humanities many colleges provide education require university chicago columbia university among first schools require extensive core curriculum philosophy literature arts students colleges nationally recognized mandatory programs liberal arts fordham university st john 's college saint anselm college providence college prominent proponents liberal arts united states included mortimer j adler e hirsch jr digital age researchers


raising generation kids ca n't think write clearly'' http wwwbusinessinsidercom war humanities business insider ref result decline quality college pre college education humanities field ref name bi jun three term louisiana governor edwin edwards acknowledged importance humanities video address academic conference ''revolutions eighteenth century sociability'' edwards said without humanities teach us history succeeded failed directing fruits technology science betterment tribe ''homo sapiens'' without humanities teach us frame discussion


properly debate uses costs technology without humanities teach us safely debate create society fellow man woman technology science would eventually default ownership misuse influential powerful feared among us europe value humanities debate contemporary debate field critical university studies centers around declining value humanities america perceived decline interest within higher education policy research qualitative


produce marketable products threat seen variety forms across europe much critical attention given field research assessment particular example uk research excellence framework subject criticism due assessment criteria across humanities indeed social sciences particular notion impact generated significant debate philosophical history citizenship self reflection since late th century central justification humanities aids encourages self reflection self reflection turn helps develop personal consciousness


active sense civic duty wilhelm dilthey hans georg gadamer centered humanities' attempt distinguish natural sciences humankind 's urge understand experiences understanding claimed ties like minded people similar cultural backgrounds together provides sense cultural continuity philosophical past scholars late th early st centuries extended narrative imagination ability understand records lived experiences outside one 's individual social cultural context narrative imagination claimed humanities scholars students develop conscience


technology practical extension natural sciences politics extension social sciences similarly humanities practical extension sometimes called transformative humanities transhumanities culturonics mikhail epstein 's term nature natural sciences technology nbsp nbsp transformation nature society social sciences nbsp nbsp politics nbsp nbsp transformation society culture human sciences nbsp culturonics nbsp transformation culture technology politics culturonics designed transform respective disciplines study nature society culture field transformative humanities includes various practicies technologies example language planning construction new languages like


esperanto invention new artistic literary genres movements genre manifesto like romanticism symbolism surrealism humanistic invention sphere culture practice complementary scholarship important aspect humanities truth meaning divide humanistic study natural sciences informs arguments meaning humanities well distinguishes humanities natural sciences certain subject matter rather mode approach question humanities focuses understanding meaning purpose goals furthers appreciation singular historical


social phenomena interpretive method finding truth rather explaining causality events uncovering truth natural world apart societal application narrative imagination important tool production understood meaning history culture literature imagination part tool kit artists scholars helps create meaning invokes response audience since humanities scholar always within nexus lived experiences absolute knowledge theoretically possible knowledge instead ceaseless procedure inventing reinventing context text read poststructuralism


problematized approach humanistic study based questions meaning intentionality authorship wake death author proclaimed roland barthes various theoretical currents deconstruction discourse analysis seek expose ideologies rhetoric operative producing purportedly meaningful objects hermeneutic subjects humanistic study exposure opened interpretive structures humanities criticism humanities scholarship unscientific therefore unfit inclusion modern university curricula nature changing contextual meaning pleasure pursuit


knowledge scholarship like stanley fish claimed humanities defend best refusing make claims utility fish may well thinking primarily literary study rather history philosophy attempt justify humanities terms outside benefits social usefulness say increased productivity terms ennobling effects individual greater wisdom diminished prejudice ungrounded according fish simply places impossible demands relevant academic departments furthermore critical thinking arguably result humanistic training


acquired contexts humanities even provide kind social cachet sociologists sometimes call cultural capital helpful succeed western society age mass education following world war ii instead scholars like fish suggest humanities offer unique kind pleasure pleasure based common pursuit knowledge even disciplinary knowledge pleasure contrasts increasing privatization leisure instant gratification characteristic western culture thus meets j rgen habermas' requirements disregard social status


rational problematization previously unquestioned areas necessary endeavor takes place bourgeois public sphere argument academic pursuit pleasure provide link private public realm modern western consumer society strengthen public sphere according many theorists foundation modern democracy others like mark bauerlein argue professors humanities increasingly abandoned proven methods epistemology ''i care quality arguments conclusions'' favor indoctrination ''i care conclusions


quality arguments'' result professors students adhere rigidly limited set viewpoints little interest understanding opposing viewpoints obtain intellectual self satisfaction persistent lapses learning research evaluation common romanticization rejection implicit many arguments supporting humanities makings arguments public support humanities joseph carroll asserts live changing world world cultural capital replaced ' 'scientific literacy'' romantic notion renaissance humanities


scholar obsolete arguments appeal judgments anxieties essential uselessness humanities especially age seemingly vitally important scholars literature history arts engage collaborative work experimental scientists even simply make intelligent use findings empirical science despite many humanities based arguments humanities within exact sciences called return science popularizer bill nye retracted previous claims supposed 'uselessness' philosophy bill nye states people allude socrates plato


aristotle time think many us make references solid grounding said good know history philosophy scholars biologist scott f gilbert make claim fact increasing predominance leading exclusivity scientific ways thinking need tempered historical social context gilbert worries commercialization may inherent ways conceiving science pursuit funding academic prestige etc need examined externally gilbert argues first


successful alternative science commercialized march progress approach taken liberal arts college model takes pride seeing science context integrating science humanities social sciences see also discourse analysis outline humanities humanities topics great books great books programs canada liberal arts social sciences humanities arts social sciences human science ''the two cultures'' list academic disciplines public humanities steam fields tinbergen 's four questions environmental humanities references external links http wwwhistoryofhumanitiesorg society history humanities https webarchiveorg web http icrhstsukubaacjp en


institute comparative research human social sciences icr japan http wwwamacadorg american academy arts sciences us http wwwhumanitiesindicatorsorg humanities indicators us https webarchiveorg web http wwwnhcrtpncus national humanities center us http wwwhumsorguk humanities association uk http wwwnhallianceorg national humanities alliance http wwwnehgov national endowment humanities us http wwwhumanitiesorgau australian academy humanities http wwwnhinetorg national http wwwhumanitiescommissionorg american academy ''commission humanities social sciences'' http journalofdigitalhumanitiesorg games historical narratives jeremy antley games historical narratives jeremy antley journal digital humanities http wwwthevalueofthehumanitiescom film value humanities main topic articles


forms wedding invitations event invitations font design typography original hand lettered logo design religious art announcements graphic design commissioned calligraphic art cut stone inscriptions memorial documents also used props moving images film television also testimonials birth death certificates maps written works tools nib part names principal tools calligrapher pen brush calligraphy pens write nibs may flat round pointed decorative purposes multi nibbed pens steel brushes used however works also

Humanities
Visual arts
Applied arts
Calligraphy


created felt tip ballpoint pens although works employ angled lines styles calligraphy gothic script require stub nib pen writing ink usually water based much less viscous oil based inks used printing certain specialty paper high ink absorption constant texture enables cleaner lines although parchment vellum often used knife used erase imperfections light box needed allow lines pass normally light boxes templates used achieve straight lines


without pencil markings detracting work ruled paper either light box direct use often ruled every quarter half inch although inch spaces occasionally used case ''litterea unciales'' hence name college ruled paper often acts guideline well common calligraphy pens brushes quill dip pen ink brush qalam fountain pen chiselled marker world traditions east asia vietnam chinese calligraphy locally called '''' '''' traditional chinese literally method law writing japanese calligraphy ''''


literally way principle writing korean calligraphy called '''' literally art writing vietnamese calligraphy called ''th ph p'' vietnamese th ph p literally way letters words calligraphy east asian characters important appreciated aspect traditional east asian culture history chinese soldier calligraphy competition ancient china oldest known chinese characters oracle bone script carved ox scapulae tortoise plastrons rulers shang dynasty carved pits animals' bones baked gain auspice


military affairs agricultural harvest even procreating weather divination ceremony cracks made characters written brush shell bone later carved keightley development ''j nw n'' bronzeware script ''d zhu n'' large seal script cursive signs continued mao gong ding one famous typical bronzeware scripts chinese calligraphic history characters bronze largest number bronze inscription discovered far moreover archaic kingdom current china set


characters imperial china graphs old steles dating bce xiaozhuan style still bce emperor qin shi huang first conquer entire chinese basin imposed several reforms among li si 's character unification created set standardized '''' characters despite fact main writing implement time already brush papers survive period main examples style steles l sh style clerical script regularized ways similar


modern text also authorised qin shi huangdi ref name blakney p ref clerical script traditional regular script another transitional type calligraphic work called wei bei started north south dynasties ce ended tang dynasty k ish style traditional regular script still use today attributed wang xizhi followers even regularized ref name blakney p spread encouraged emperor mingzong later tang ordered printing classics using new wooden blocks kaishu printing technologies allowed


shape stabilization kaishu shape characters years ago mostly similar end imperial china ref name blakney p small changes made example shape big big absolutely kangxi dictionary modern books kangxi current shapes tiny differences stroke order still according old style styles survive include b f nsh mix xiaozhuan style lishu style ref name blakney p variant chinese characters


many different parameters influence final result calligrapher 's work physical parameters include shape size stretch hair type ink brush color color density water density ink well paper 's water absorption speed surface texture calligrapher 's technique also influences result look finished characters influenced quantity ink water calligraper lets brush take pressure inclination direction brush changing variables produces thinner bolder strokes smooth toothed borders eventually speed


accelerations decelerations skilled calligrapher 's movements aim give spirit characters greatly influencing final shapes styles cursive styles ''x ngsh '' semi cursive running script ''c osh '' cursive rough script grass script less constrained faster movements made writing implement visible styles' stroke orders vary sometimes creating radically different forms descended clerical script time regular script han dynasty '''' '''' used personal notes never used standard '''' style


highly appreciated emperor wu han reign ce ref name blakney p examples modern printed styles song song dynasty 's printing press sans serif considered traditional styles normally written influences japanese korean vietnamese calligraphy greatly influenced chinese calligraphy calligraphy also influenced ink wash painting accomplished using similar tools techniques calligraphy influenced major art styles east asia including ink wash painting style chinese japanese korean based entirely calligraphy japanese korean


nguy n du th century vietnamese calligraphy quite special since vietnam abolished ch n ch h n old vietnamese writing system based chinese characters replaced latin alphabet however calligraphic traditions continue preserved calligraphy ch qu c ng calligraphy fonts ch qu c ng mongolia mongolian calligraphy also influenced chinese calligraphy tools style tibet b n text tibetan calligraphy central tibetan culture script derived indic scripts nobles tibet high lamas inhabitants


potala palace usually capable calligraphers tibet center buddhism several centuries religion places great deal significance written word provide large body secular pieces although exist usually related way tibetan buddhism almost high religious writing involved calligraphy including letters sent dalai lama religious secular authority calligraphy particularly evident prayer wheels although calligraphy forged rather scribed much like arab roman calligraphy often found buildings


although originally done reed tibetan calligraphers use chisel tipped pens markers well new movement temporary calligraphy practice water calligraphy floor dries within minutes practice especially appreciated new generation retired chinese public parks china often open studio shops tourist towns offering traditional chinese calligraphy tourists writing clients name also sell fine brushes souvenirs limestone carved stamps since late chinese artists branched traditional chinese calligraphy


new territory mingling chinese characters english letters notable new forms calligraphy xu bing 's square calligraphy dannie 's coolligraphy cooligraphy southeast asia except vietnam philippines musical instrument tube zither tagbanwa calligraphy illuminated ''baybayin'' chart stylish version philippines numerous ancient indigenous scripts collectively called '''suyat scripts''' various ethno linguistic groups philippines prior spanish colonization th century independence era st century used scripts various mediums end colonialism four suyat scripts survived


continue used certain communities everyday life four scripts hanun 'o hanunoo hanuno'o mangyan people buhid buid buhid mangyan people tagbanwa script tagbanwa people palaw'an pala'wan palaw'an people four scripts inscribed unesco memory world programme name ''philippine paleographs hanunoo buid tagbanua pala wan '' hanun 'o calligraphy due dissent colonialism many artists cultural experts revived usage suyat scripts went extinct due spanish persecution scripts revived include kulitan script kapampangan


people badlit script various visayan ethnic groups iniskaya script eskaya people baybayin script tagalog people kur itan script ilocano people among many others due diversity suyat scripts calligraphy written suyat scripts collectively called filipino suyat calligraphy although distinct ref name cnnphilippinescom ref calligraphy using western alphabet arabic alphabet also prevalent philippines due colonial past western alphabet arabic alphabet considered suyat therefore western alphabet arabic


buddhist texts mainly derived sanskrit pali africa egypt egyptian hieroglyphs formal writing system used ancient egypt hieroglyphs combined logographic syllabic alphabetic elements total distinct characters ethiopia abyssinia painting susenyos r ge'ez prayer scroll meant dispel evil spirits wellcome collection london ethiopian abyssinian calligraphy began ge'ez script replaced epigraphic south arabian kingdom aksum developed specifically ethiopian semitic languages languages use amharic tigrinya script called ''''


languages usually ones also semitic widespread use amharic ethiopia tigrinya eritrea ethiopia europe history folio r lindisfarne gospels c contains incipit gospel matthew br british library london '''western calligraphy''' recognizable use latin script latin alphabet appeared bce rome first century developed roman imperial capitals carved stones rustic capitals painted walls roman cursive daily use second third centuries uncial lettering style developed writing withdrew


kells charlemagne 's devotion improved scholarship resulted recruiting crowd scribes according alcuin abbot york alcuin developed style known caroline carolingian minuscule first manuscript hand godescalc evangelistary finished gospel book written scribe godescalc carolingian remains one progenitor hand modern booktype descends eleventh century caroline evolved gothic script compact made possible fit text page ref name lovett ref gothic calligraphy styles became dominant throughout europe


johannes gutenberg developed first printing press mainz germany adopted gothic style making first typeface ref name lovett georgian calligraphy centuries old tradition artistic writing georgian language three scripts th century rediscovery old carolingian texts encouraged creation humanist minuscule ''littera antiqua'' th century saw batarde script france th century saw english script spread across europe world books mid french officials flooded documents written various hands


variations today 's contemporary western calligraphy found pages saint john 's bible particularly modern example timothy botts' illustrated edition bible calligraphic images well calligraphy typeface influences several western styles use tools practices differ character set stylistic preferences slavonic lettering history slavonic consequently russian writing systems differs fundamentally one latin language evolved th century today islamic world bismillah'' th century islamic calligraphy ottoman region '''islamic


calligraphy''' ''calligraphy'' arabic '''' evolved alongside islam arabic language based arabic letters call arabic calligraphy however term islamic calligraphy appropriate term comprises works calligraphy muslim calligraphers different national cultures like persian ottoman calligraphy al andalus medieval spain china islamic calligraphy associated geometric islamic art arabesque walls ceilings mosques well page materials contemporary artists islamic world may draw heritage


calligraphy create modern calligraphic inscriptions like corporate logos abstractions instead recalling something related spoken word calligraphy muslims visible expression highest art art spiritual world calligraphy arguably become venerated form islamic art provides link languages muslims religion islam qur'an played important role development evolution arabic language extension calligraphy arabic alphabet proverbs passages qur'an still sources


islamic calligraphy ottoman civilization islamic calligraphy attained special prominence city istanbul open exhibition hall kinds varieties calligraphy inscriptions mosques fountains schools houses etc mayan civilization '''mayan calligraphy''' expressed via mayan hieroglyphs modern mayan calligraphy mainly used seals monuments yucat n peninsula mexico mayan hieroglyphs rarely used government offices however campeche yucat n quintana roo calligraphy mayan languages written latin script rather hieroglyphs commercial companies southern mexico use mayan hieroglyphs symbols


printing became ubiquitous th century onward production illuminated manuscripts began decline however rise printing mean end calligraphy clear distinction handwriting elaborate forms lettering script began make way manuscripts books beginning th century modern revival calligraphy began end th century influenced aesthetics philosophy william morris arts crafts movement edward johnston regarded father modern calligraphy ref name ejf ref studying


modifications credited reviving art modern penmanship lettering single handedly books teachings handbook subject ''writing illuminating lettering'' particularly influential generation british typographers calligraphers including graily hewitt stanley morison eric gill alfred fairbank anna simons johnston also devised simply crafted round calligraphic handwriting style written broad pen known today ''foundational hand'' johnston initially taught students uncial hand using flat pen angle later taught hand using slanted pen angle


illuminators ssi probably world 's foremost calligraphy society example graily hewitt 's calligraphy hewitt without critics supporters rendering cennino cennini 's medieval gesso recipes donald jackson british calligrapher sourced gesso recipes earlier centuries number presently english translation graily hewitt created patent announcing award prince philip title duke edinburgh november day marriage queen elizabeth johnston pupil anna simons instrumental sparking interest calligraphy germany


german translation ''writing illuminating lettering'' ref name ejf austrian rudolf larisch teacher lettering vienna school art published six lettering books greatly influenced german speaking calligraphers german speaking countries abandoned gothic hand printing gothic also powerful effect styles rudolf koch friend younger contemporary larisch koch 's books type designs teaching made one influential calligraphers th century northern europe later us larisch koch taught inspired many european


calligraphers notably karlgeorg hoefer hermann zapf contemporary typefaces used computers word processors like microsoft word apple pages professional design software packages like adobe indesign owe considerable debt past small number professional typeface designers today ref name mediaville ref ref name zapf unicode provides script fraktur latin alphabets used calligraphy see mathematical alphanumeric symbols see also notes references oscar ogg ''three classics italian calligraphy unabridged reissue writing books arrighi giovanni antonio tagliente palatino introduction'' dover


publications inc new york usa john howard benson arthur graham carrey ''the elements lettering'' john stevens newport rhode island printed b updike merrymount press boston john howard benson ''the first writing book english translation fascimile text arrighi 's operina first manual chancery hand'' london oxford university press geoffrey cumberlege new yale university press berthold wolpe ''a newe writing booke copies fascimile unique elisabethan writing book bodleian library oxford'' lion unicorn press london fairbank alfred ''augustino da


siena edition writing book fascimile'' david r godine boston merrion press london osley editor ''calligraphy paleography essays presented alfred fairbank th birthday'' october house inc new york gaze jacobson editors ''an anthology asemic handwriting'' uitgeverij th impression marns fa various copperplate form london annemarie schimmel wolfgang kosack ''islamische schriftkunst des kufischen'' geometrisches kufi schriftbeispielen deutsch kufi arabisch seiten verlag christoph brunner basel external links https wwwlettering dailycom calligraphy alphabets calligraphy alphabets list


major historical scripts simplified version https wwwlettering dailycom lettering daily https paleographylibraryutorontoca french renaissance paleography scholarly maintained site presents carefully selected french manuscripts tools decipher transcribe articles containing video clips book arts penmanship typesetting intangible cultural heritage humanity


hard drives store information binary form considered type physical digital media '''digital media''' means communication media operate use various encoded machine readable data formats digital media created viewed distributed modified listened preserved digital electronics device ''digital'' defined data represented series digits ''media'' refers methods broadcasting communicating information together ' 'digital media'' refers mediums digitized information broadcast us screen speaker also includes text

Journalism, media studies and communication


video tapes digital media significantly broad complex impact society culture combined internet personal computing digital media caused disruptive innovation publishing journalism public relations entertainment education commerce politics digital media also posed new challenges copyright intellectual property laws fostering open content movement content creators voluntarily give legal rights work ubiquity digital media effects society suggest start new era industrial history called


information age perhaps leading paperless society media produced consumed computers ref name infoage ref however challenges digital transition remain including outdated copyright laws censorship digital divide spectre digital dark age older media becomes inaccessible new upgraded information systems ref name darkage ref digital media significant wide ranging complex impact society culture ref name infoage history codes information machines first conceptualized charles babbage early babbage imagined codes would give instructions motor difference


analytical engine machines babbage designed solve problem error calculations ada lovelace mathematics wrote first instructions calculating numbers babbage engines lovelace 's instructions believed first computer program although machines designed perform analysis tasks lovelace anticipated possible social impact computers programming writing distribution combination truths formulas analysis may become easier quickly subjected mechanical combinations engine relationships nature many subjects


science necessarily relates new subjects deeply researched extensions human power additions human knowledge various collateral influences addition primary primary object reached old machine readable media include instructions pianolas weaving machines binary code shown used represent whole alphabet estimated year less world 's media storage capacity digital already ref name hilbertlopez especially http wwwsciencemagorg content suppl science dc hilbert sompdf supporting online material ref year assumed


year human kind able store information digital analog media beginning digital age ref name hilbertvideo ref digital computers binary changed without reconfiguring mechanical parts though used machine readable media babbage 's engines player pianos jacquard looms many early calculating machines analog computers physical mechanical parts first truly digital media came existence rise digital computers ref name stanford ref digital computers use binary code boolean logic store process information allowing one machine one configuration perform many different tasks


could miniaturised mass produced wide range uses ref name moskowitz ref mosfet led development microprocessors memory chips digital telecommunication circuits ref name colinge ref led development personal computer pc beginning microcomputer revolution digital revolution ref name triumph ref ref name raymer ref ref name wong ref may think digital media come common use late th century ''conceptual'' foundation digital media traced work scientist engineer vannevar bush celebrated essay may think published ''the


atlantic monthly'' ref name symposium ref bush envisioned system devices could used help scientists doctors historians others store analyze communicate information ref name symposium calling imaginary device memex bush wrote blockquote owner memex let us say interested origin properties bow arrow specifically studying short turkish bow apparently superior english long bow skirmishes crusades dozens possibly pertinent books articles memex first runs encyclopedia finds


interesting sketchy article leaves projected next history finds another pertinent item ties two together thus goes building trail many items occasionally inserts comment either linking main trail joining side trail particular item becomes evident elastic properties available materials great deal bow branches side trail takes textbooks elasticity tables physical constants inserts page


longhand analysis thus builds trail interest maze materials available ref name awmt ref blockquote bush hoped creation memex would work scientists world war ii ref name awmt though essay predated digital computers several years may think anticipated potential social intellectual benefits digital media provided conceptual framework digital scholarship world wide web wikis even social media ref name symposium recognized significant work even time publication ref name awmt


jpeg image format also based dct algorithm introduced ref name ref development modified discrete cosine transform mdct algorithm led mp audio coding format ref name guckert ref advanced audio coding aac format ref name brandenburg ref impact digital revolution motorola phones first generation production since computing power storage capacity increased exponentially largely result mosfet scaling enables mos transistor counts increase rapid pace predicted moore 's law ref name motoyoshi ref personal computers smartphones put ability


access modify store share digital media hands billions people many electronic devices digital cameras drones ability create transmit view digital media combined world wide web internet digital media transformed st century society way frequently compared cultural economic social impact printing press ref name infoage ref name aclib ref change rapid widespread launched economic transition industrial economy information based economy creating new period human


ability navigate internet evaluate sources create digital content idea moving toward fully digital paperless society accompanied fear may soon currently facing digital dark age older media longer accessible modern devices using modern methods scholarship ref name darkage digital media significant wide ranging complex effect society culture ref name infoage senior engineer motorola named martin cooper first person make phone call april decided first phone call