class wikitable collapsible collapsed colspan top agricultural products crop types br million tonnes data cereals style text align right vegetables melons style text align right roots tubers style text align right milk style text align right fruit style text align right meat style text align right oilcrops style text align right fish estimate style text align right eggs style text align right pulses style text align right vegetable fiber style text align right colspan ''source food agriculture organization'' ref name fao ref class wikitable collapsible collapsed colspan top agricultural products individual crops br million tonnes data sugar cane style text align right maize style text align right rice style text align right wheat style text align right potatoes style text align right sugar beet


style text align right soybeans style text align right cassava style text align right tomatoes style text align right barley style text align right colspan ''source food agriculture organization'' ref name fao livestock production systems intensively farmed pigs animal husbandry breeding raising animals meat milk eggs wool work transport ref name clutton brock year publisher cambridge university press isbn pages ref working animals including horses mules oxen water buffalo camels llamas alpacas donkeys dogs centuries used help cultivate fields harvest crops wrangle animals transport farm products buyers livestock production systems defined based feed


source grassland based mixed landless ref name fao lps ref earth 's ice water free area used producing livestock sector employing approximately nbsp billion people significant increase livestock production numbers carcass weight especially among beef pigs chickens latter production increased almost factor non meat animals milk cows egg producing chickens also showed significant production increases global cattle sheep goat populations expected continue increase sharply ref name lp ref aquaculture


fish farming production fish human consumption confined operations one fastest growing sectors food production growing average year second half th century producers using selective breeding focused creating livestock breeds crossbreeds increased production mostly disregarding need preserve genetic diversity trend led significant decrease genetic diversity resources among livestock breeds leading corresponding decrease disease resistance local adaptations previously found among traditional breeds raising chickens intensively


meat broiler house grassland based livestock production relies upon plant material shrubland rangeland pastures feeding ruminant animals outside nutrient inputs may used however manure returned directly grassland major nutrient source system particularly important areas crop production feasible climate soil representing nbsp million pastoralists ref name cs mixed production systems use grassland fodder crops grain feed crops feed ruminant monogastric one stomach mainly chickens pigs livestock manure typically recycled mixed systems fertilizer


farming much growth happening developing countries asia much smaller amounts growth africa ref name lp practices used commercial livestock production including usage growth hormones controversial production practices tilling arable field tillage practice breaking soil tools plow harrow prepare planting nutrient incorporation pest control tillage varies intensity conventional till may improve productivity warming soil incorporating fertilizer controlling weeds also renders soil


prone erosion triggers decomposition organic matter releasing co sub sub reduces abundance diversity soil organisms ref name soil nutrient ref name pcp tillage land preparation farm energy pp acquaah ref pest control includes management weeds insects mites diseases chemical pesticides biological biocontrol mechanical tillage cultural practices used cultural practices include crop rotation culling cover crops intercropping composting avoidance resistance integrated pest management attempts use methods keep pest populations number would cause economic loss recommends pesticides last resort ref name pcp pest pesticide


use us crop production pp acquaah ref nutrient management includes source nutrient inputs crop livestock production method use manure produced livestock nutrient inputs chemical inorganic fertilizers manure green manure compost minerals ref name pcp soil soil land pp acquaah ref crop nutrient use may also managed using cultural techniques crop rotation fallow period manure used either holding livestock feed crop growing managed intensive rotational grazing spreading either dry liquid formulations


manure cropland pastures ref name soil nutrient brady n c weil r r practical nutrient management pp ''elements nature properties soils'' pearson prentice hall upper saddle river nj ref ref name cs nutrient nutrition soil pp chrispeels ref center pivot irrigation system water management needed rainfall insufficient variable occurs degree regions world ref name cs farmers use irrigation supplement rainfall areas great plains us canada farmers use fallow year conserve


soil moisture use growing crop following year ref name pcp water plants soil water pp acquaah ref agriculture represents freshwater use worldwide ref name pimentel water ref according report international food policy research institute agricultural technologies greatest impact food production adopted combination using model assessed eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity food security trade international food policy research institute found number people risk hunger could reduced much


food prices could reduced almost half ref name ifpri ref payment ecosystem services method providing additional incentives encourage farmers conserve aspects environment measures might include paying reforestation upstream city improve supply fresh water crop alteration biotechnology plant breeding wheat cultivar tolerant high salinity left compared non tolerant variety crop alteration practiced humankind thousands years since beginning civilization altering crops breeding practices changes genetic make plant develop crops


beneficial characteristics humans example larger fruits seeds drought tolerance resistance pests significant advances plant breeding ensued work geneticist gregor mendel work dominant recessive alleles although initially largely ignored almost years gave plant breeders better understanding genetics breeding techniques crop breeding includes techniques plant selection desirable traits self pollination cross pollination molecular techniques genetically modify organism domestication plants centuries increased yield improved disease resistance drought tolerance eased harvest improved taste


nutritional value crop plants careful selection breeding enormous effects characteristics crop plants plant selection breeding improved pasture grasses clover new zealand extensive x ray ultraviolet induced mutagenesis efforts ie primitive genetic engineering produced modern commercial varieties grains wheat corn maize barley green revolution popularized use conventional hybridization sharply increase yield creating high yielding varieties example average yields corn maize us increased around tons per hectare ha


bushels per acre ha bushels per acre similarly worldwide average wheat yields increased less ha ha south american average wheat yields around ha african ha egypt arabia ha irrigation contrast average wheat yield countries france ha variations yields due mainly variation climate genetics level intensive farming techniques use fertilizers chemical pest


control growth control avoid lodging genetic engineering genetically modified potato plants left resist virus diseases damage unmodified plants right genetically modified organisms gmo organisms whose genetic material altered genetic engineering techniques generally known recombinant dna technology genetic engineering expanded genes available breeders use creating desired germlines new crops increased durability nutritional content insect virus resistance herbicide tolerance attributes bred crops genetic engineering gmo crops cause food safety food labeling concerns numerous countries


farmers worldwide increasing use herbicide tolerant crops comes increase use glyphosate based herbicide sprays areas glyphosate resistant weeds developed causing farmers switch herbicides ref name farmers guide gmos ref studies also link widespread glyphosate usage iron deficiencies crops crop production nutritional quality concern potential economic health implications gmo crops used growers include insect resistant crops gene soil bacterium ''bacillus thuringiensis'' bt produces toxin specific insects crops resist damage


insects believe similar better pest resistance traits acquired traditional breeding practices resistance various pests gained hybridization cross pollination wild species cases wild species primary source resistance traits tomato cultivars gained resistance least diseases crossing wild populations tomatoes environmental impact effects costs water pollution rural stream due runoff farming activity new zealand agriculture cause sensitive environmental degradation


biodiversity loss desertification soil degradation global warming cause decrease crop yield agriculture one important drivers environmental pressures particularly habitat change climate change water use toxic emissions agriculture main source toxins released environment including insecticides especially used cotton unep green economy report stated agricultural operations produced per cent anthropogenic global greenhouse gas emissions includes gases use inorganic fertilizers agro chemical pesticides herbicides well fossil fuel energy inputs ref name uneporg ref agriculture imposes multiple external


costs upon society effects pesticide damage nature especially herbicides insecticides nutrient runoff excessive water usage loss natural environment assessment agriculture uk determined total external costs nbsp million per hectare ref name pretty ref analysis costs us concluded cropland imposes approximately nbsp billion per hectare livestock production imposes nbsp million ref name tegtmeier ref studies focused solely fiscal impacts concluded done internalize external costs neither included subsidies analysis


noted subsidies also influence cost agriculture society ref name pretty ref name tegtmeier agriculture seeks increase yield reduce costs yield increases inputs fertilisers removal pathogens predators competitors weeds costs decrease increasing scale farm units making fields larger means removing hedges ditches areas habitat pesticides kill insects plants fungi measures cut biodiversity low levels intensively farmed land effective yields fall farm losses may caused poor production practices


harvesting handling storage livestock issues farmyard anaerobic digester converts waste plant material manure livestock biogas fuel senior un official henning steinfeld said livestock one significant contributors today 's serious environmental problems livestock production occupies land used agriculture land surface planet one largest sources greenhouse gases responsible world 's greenhouse gas emissions measured co sub sub equivalents comparison transportation emits co sub sub produces


nitrogen phosphorus runoff leaching agricultural land nutrients major nonpoint pollutants contributing eutrophication aquatic ecosystems pollution groundwater harmful effects human populations ref name eutr ref fertilisers also reduce terrestrial biodiversity increasing competition light favouring species able benefit added nutrients ref name hautier niklaus hector ref agriculture accounts percent withdrawals freshwater resources agriculture major draw water aquifers currently draws underground water sources unsustainable rate long known aquifers areas diverse northern


china upper ganges western us depleted new research extends problems aquifers iran mexico saudi arabia increasing pressure placed water resources industry urban areas meaning water scarcity increasing agriculture facing challenge producing food world 's growing population reduced water resources agricultural water usage also cause major environmental problems including destruction natural wetlands spread water borne diseases land degradation salinization waterlogging irrigation performed incorrectly pesticides spraying


crop pesticide pesticide use increased since million short tons annually worldwide yet crop loss pests remained relatively constant ref name pimentel pesticide ref world health organization estimated three million pesticide poisonings occur annually causing deaths ref name ''our planet health report commission health environment'' geneva world health organization ref pesticides select pesticide resistance pest population leading condition termed pesticide treadmill pest resistance warrants development new pesticide ref name cs pest strategies pest control pp chrispeels ref


alternative argument way save environment prevent famine using pesticides intensive high yield farming view exemplified quote heading center global food issues website 'growing per acre leaves land nature' ref name davery ref however critics argue trade environment need food inevitable ref name wh lappe f collins j rosset p http oregonstateedu instruct bi fs documents b devel world world hunger twelve mythspdf myth food vs environment pp ''world hunger twelve myths'' grove press new york ref pesticides simply replace good agronomic practices


crop rotation ref name cs pest push pull agricultural pest management technique involves intercropping using plant aromas repel pests crops push lure place removed pull ref name pushpull ref climate change winnowing grain global warming probably harm crop yields low latitude countries like ethiopia climate change agriculture interrelated global scale global warming affects agriculture changes average temperatures rainfall weather extremes like storms heat waves changes pests diseases changes atmospheric carbon dioxide ground level ozone concentrations


changes nutritional quality foods ref name science news ref changes sea level global warming already affecting agriculture effects unevenly distributed across world ref name porter summary porter j r ''et al'' executive summary http ipcc wg gov ar images uploads wgiiar chap finalpdf chapter food security food production systems archived https webarchiveorg web https ipcc wg gov ar images uploads wgiiar chap finalpdf november ref future climate change probably negatively affect crop production low latitude countries effects northern latitudes may positive negative ref name porter summary global warming probably increase risk food insecurity vulnerable groups poor animal husbandry also


responsible greenhouse gas production co sub sub percentage world 's methane future land infertility displacement wildlife agriculture contributes climate change anthropogenic emissions greenhouse gases conversion non agricultural land forest agricultural use agriculture forestry land use change contributed around global annual emissions range policies reduce risk negative climate change impacts agriculture greenhouse gas emissions agriculture sector sustainability terraces conservation tillage conservation buffers reduce soil erosion water


pollution farm iowa current farming methods resulted stretched water resources high levels erosion reduced soil fertility enough water continue farming using current practices therefore critical water land ecosystem resources used boost crop yields must reconsidered solution would give value ecosystems recognizing environmental livelihood tradeoffs balancing rights variety users interests inequities result measures adopted would need addressed reallocation water poor rich


clearing land make way productive farmland preservation wetland system limits fishing rights technological advancements help provide farmers tools resources make farming sustainable technology permits innovations like conservation tillage farming process helps prevent land loss erosion reduces water pollution enhances carbon sequestration potential practices include conservation agriculture agroforestry improved grazing avoided grassland conversion biochar current mono crop farming practices united states preclude widespread adoption sustainable practices crop rotations incorporate grass hay annual crops unless


negative emission goals soil carbon sequestration become policy international food policy research institute states agricultural technologies greatest impact food production adopted combination using model assessed eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity food security trade found number people risk hunger could reduced much food prices could reduced almost half ref name ifpri food demand earth 's projected population current climate change predictions could satisfied improvement


agricultural methods expansion agricultural areas sustainability oriented consumer mindset energy dependence mechanised agriculture first models tools like cotton picker could replace farm workers price increased use fossil fuel since agricultural productivity increased dramatically due largely increased use energy intensive mechanization fertilizers pesticides vast majority energy input comes fossil fuel sources green revolution transformed agriculture around globe world grain production increasing significantly


wheat rice depending geographic area world population doubled heavy reliance petrochemicals raised concerns oil shortages could increase costs reduce agricultural output ref name ncseonlineorg industrialized agriculture depends fossil fuels two fundamental ways direct consumption farm manufacture inputs used farm direct consumption includes use lubricants fuels operate farm vehicles machinery ref name ncseonlineorg ref class wikitable floatright text align center colspan agriculture food system share total energy br consumption three industrialized nations country year agriculture br direct


indirect food br system style text align left united kingdom style text align left united states ref name ersusdagov ref style text align left sweden ref name wallgrenh jer ref indirect consumption includes manufacture fertilizers pesticides farm machinery ref name ncseonlineorg particular production nitrogen fertilizer account half agricultural energy usage together direct indirect consumption us farms accounts nation 's energy use direct indirect energy consumption us farms peaked since gradually declined ref name ncseonlineorg food systems encompass agriculture farm processing packaging transporting


marketing consumption disposal food food related items agriculture accounts less one fifth food system energy use us ref name ersusdagov ref name csssnreumichedu ref disciplines agricultural economics th century britain protectionist corn laws led high prices widespread protest meeting anti corn law league agricultural economics economics relates production distribution consumption agricultural goods services combining agricultural production general theories marketing business discipline study began late grew significantly


th century although study agricultural economics relatively recent major trends agriculture significantly affected national international economies throughout history ranging tenant farmers sharecropping post american civil war southern united states european feudal system manorialism united states elsewhere food costs attributed food processing distribution agricultural marketing sometimes referred value chain risen costs attributed farming declined related greater efficiency farming combined increased level value addition eg highly processed


products provided supply chain market concentration increased sector well although total effect increased market concentration likely increased efficiency changes redistribute economic surplus producers farmers consumers may negative implications rural communities ref name sexton ref national government policies significantly change economic marketplace agricultural products form taxation subsidies tariffs measures ref name lloydcroseranderson ref since least combination trade restrictions exchange rate policies subsidies affected farmers developing developed world


seen greater decrease among livestock products crops worldwide reforms agricultural policy ref name lloydcroseranderson despite progress certain crops cotton still see subsidies developed countries artificially deflating global prices causing hardship developing countries non subsidized farmers unprocessed commodities corn soybeans cattle generally graded indicate quality affecting price producer receives commodities generally reported production quantities volume number weight agricultural science agronomist mapping plant genome agricultural science broad multidisciplinary field biology encompasses parts


exact natural economic social sciences used practice understanding agriculture covers topics agronomy plant breeding genetics plant pathology crop modelling soil science entomology production techniques improvement study pests management study adverse environmental effects soil degradation waste management bioremediation ref name bosso ref ref name boucher ref scientific study agriculture began th century johann friedrich mayer conducted experiments use gypsum hydrated calcium sulphate fertilizer ref name jb john armstrong jesse buel ''a treatise agriculture present condition


art abroad home theory practice husbandry added dissertation kitchen garden'' p ref research became systematic john lawes henry gilbert began set long term agronomy field experiments rothamsted research station england park grass experiment still running america hatch act provided funding first call agricultural science driven farmers' interest fertilizers agricultural entomology usda began research biological control


instituted first large program searching europe japan natural enemies gypsy moth brown tail moth establishing parasitoids solitary wasps predators pests usa ref name coulson j r coulson j r vail p v dix e nordlund kauffman w c eds years biological control research development united states department agriculture us department agriculture agricultural research service pages ref ref name berkeley ref policy class wikitable floatright direct subsidies animal products feed oecd countries


billions us dollars product subsidy beef veal milk pigs poultry soybeans eggs sheep agricultural policy set government decisions actions relating domestic agriculture imports foreign agricultural products governments usually implement agricultural policies goal achieving specific outcome domestic agricultural product markets overarching themes include risk management adjustment including policies related climate change food safety natural disasters economic stability including policies related taxes natural


resources environmental sustainability especially water policy research development market access domestic commodities including relations global organizations agreements countries agricultural policy also touch food quality ensuring food supply consistent known quality food security ensuring food supply meets population 's needs conservation policy programs range financial programs subsidies encouraging producers enroll voluntary quality assurance programs many influences creation agricultural policy including consumers agribusiness trade lobbies groups agribusiness interests hold


large amount influence policy making form lobbying campaign contributions political action groups including interested environmental issues labor unions also provide influence lobbying organizations representing individual agricultural commodities food agriculture organization united nations fao leads international efforts defeat hunger provides forum negotiation global agricultural regulations agreements samuel jutzi director fao 's animal production health division states lobbying large corporations stopped reforms would improve human health environment example proposals


voluntary code conduct livestock industry would provided incentives improving standards health environmental regulations number animals area land support without long term damage successfully defeated due large food company pressure see also aeroponics agricultural aircraft agricultural engineering agricultural robot agroecology agrominerals building integrated agriculture contract farming corporate farming crofting ecoagriculture hill farming list documentary films agriculture pharming genetics remote sensing subsistence economy vertical farming vegetable farming references cited sources external links http wwwfaoorg home en food


agriculture organization http wwwusdagov united states department agriculture http wwwworldbankorg en topic agriculture agriculture material world bank group agriculture agronomy food industry


one large detailed illustrations andreas vesalius 's ''de humani corporis fabrica'' th century marking rebirth anatomy x px '''anatomy''' greek ''anatom '' 'dissection' branch biology concerned study structure organisms parts anatomy branch natural science deals structural organization living things old science beginnings prehistoric times anatomy inherently tied developmental biology embryology comparative anatomy evolutionary biology phylogeny ref name intro hgray ref processes anatomy generated immediate long term


timescales anatomy physiology study structure function organisms parts respectively make natural pair related disciplines often studied together human anatomy one essential basic sciences applied medicine discipline anatomy divided macroscopic microscopic macroscopic anatomy gross anatomy examination animal 's body parts using unaided eyesight gross anatomy also includes branch superficial anatomy microscopic anatomy involves use optical instruments study tissues various structures known histology also


study cells history anatomy characterized progressive understanding functions organs structures human body methods also improved dramatically advancing examination animals dissection carcasses cadavers corpses th century medical imaging techniques including x ray ultrasound magnetic resonance imaging definition dissected body lying prone table charles landseer derived greek ''anatom '' dissection ''anat mn '' cut cut open ''an '' ''t mn '' cut anatomy scientific study


regulation bodily functions ref name everyman ref discipline anatomy subdivided number branches including gross macroscopic anatomy microscopic anatomy gross anatomy study structures large enough seen naked eye also includes superficial anatomy surface anatomy study sight external body features microscopic anatomy study structures microscopic scale along histology study tissues embryology study organism immature condition ref name intro hgray anatomy studied using invasive non invasive methods


goal obtaining information structure organization organs systems ref name intro hgray methods used include dissection body opened organs studied endoscopy video camera equipped instrument inserted small incision body wall used explore internal organs structures angiography using x rays magnetic resonance angiography methods visualize blood vessels term anatomy commonly taken refer human anatomy however substantially structures tissues found throughout rest animal kingdom


term also includes anatomy animals term ''zootomy'' also sometimes used specifically refer non human animals structure tissues plants dissimilar nature studied plant anatomy ref name everyman animal tissues stylized cutaway diagram animal cell flagella kingdom animalia contains multicellular organisms heterotrophic motile although secondarily adopted sessile lifestyle animals bodies differentiated separate tissues animals also known eumetazoans internal digestive chamber one two


openings gametes produced multicellular sex organs zygotes include blastula stage embryonic development metazoans include sponges undifferentiated cells ref name dorit ref unlike plant cells animal cells neither cell wall chloroplasts vacuoles present number much smaller plant cell body tissues composed numerous types cell including found muscles nerves skin typically cell membrane formed phospholipids cytoplasm nucleus different cells animal


derived embryonic germ layers simpler invertebrates formed two germ layers ectoderm endoderm called diploblastic developed animals whose structures organs formed three germ layers called triploblastic ref name ruppert ref triploblastic animal 's tissues organs derived three germ layers embryo ectoderm mesoderm endoderm animal tissues grouped four basic types connective epithelial muscle nervous tissue hyaline cartilage high magnification h e stain connective tissue connective tissues fibrous made cells scattered among


present developed animals well many less developed ref name ruppert epithelium gastric mucosa low magnification h e stain epithelial tissue composed closely packed cells bound cell adhesion molecules little intercellular space epithelial cells squamous flat cuboidal columnar rest basal lamina upper layer basement membrane lower layer reticular lamina lying next connective tissue extracellular matrix secreted epithelial cells many different types epithelium modified suit


particular function respiratory tract type ciliated epithelial lining small intestine microvilli epithelial lining large intestine intestinal villi skin consists outer layer keratinized stratified squamous epithelium covers exterior vertebrate body keratinocytes make cells skin epithelial cells external surface body typically secrete extracellular matrix form cuticle simple animals may coat glycoproteins ref name ruppert


advanced animals many glands formed epithelial cells muscle tissue cross section skeletal muscle small nerve high magnification h e stain muscle cells myocytes form active contractile tissue body muscle tissue functions produce force cause motion either locomotion movement within internal organs muscle formed contractile filaments separated three main types smooth muscle skeletal muscle cardiac muscle smooth muscle striations examined microscopically contracts slowly maintains contractibility wide range stretch lengths found organs


sea anemone tentacles body wall sea cucumbers skeletal muscle contracts rapidly limited range extension found movement appendages jaws obliquely striated muscle intermediate two filaments staggered type muscle found earthworms extend slowly make rapid contractions ref name ruppert ref higher animals striated muscles occur bundles attached bone provide movement often arranged antagonistic sets smooth muscle found walls uterus bladder intestines stomach oesophagus respiratory airways


blood vessels cardiac muscle found heart allowing contract pump blood round body nervous tissue nervous tissue composed many nerve cells known neurons transmit information slow moving radially symmetrical marine animals ctenophores cnidarians including sea anemones jellyfish nerves form nerve net animals organized longitudinally bundles simple animals receptor neurons body wall cause local reaction stimulus complex animals specialized receptor cells chemoreceptors photoreceptors found


groups send messages along neural networks parts organism neurons connected together ganglia ref name ruppert ref higher animals specialized receptors basis sense organs central nervous system brain spinal cord peripheral nervous system latter consists sensory nerves transmit information sense organs motor nerves influence target organs ref name ruppert ref peripheral nervous system divided somatic nervous system conveys sensation controls voluntary muscle autonomic nervous system involuntarily controls smooth muscle certain glands


internal organs including stomach vertebrate anatomy mouse skull vertebrates similar basic body plan point lives mostly embryonic stage share major chordate characteristics stiffening rod notochord dorsal hollow tube nervous material neural tube pharyngeal arches tail posterior anus spinal cord protected vertebral column notochord gastrointestinal tract nervous tissue derived ectoderm connective tissues derived mesoderm gut derived


endoderm posterior end tail continues spinal cord vertebrae gut mouth found anterior end animal anus base tail defining characteristic vertebrate vertebral column formed development segmented series vertebrae vertebrates notochord becomes nucleus pulposus intervertebral discs however vertebrates sturgeon coelacanth retain notochord adulthood jawed vertebrates typified paired appendages fins legs may


secondarily lost limbs vertebrates considered homologous underlying skeletal structure inherited last common ancestor one arguments put forward charles darwin support theory evolution fish anatomy cutaway diagram showing various organs fish body fish divided head trunk tail although divisions three always externally visible skeleton forms support structure inside fish either made cartilage cartilaginous fish bone bony


fish main skeletal element vertebral column composed articulating vertebrae lightweight yet strong ribs attach spine limbs limb girdles main external features fish fins composed either bony soft spines called rays exception caudal fins direct connection spine supported muscles compose main part trunk ref name dorit heart two chambers pumps blood respiratory surfaces gills round


body single circulatory loop eyes adapted seeing underwater local vision inner ear external middle ear low frequency vibrations detected lateral line system sense organs run along length sides fish respond nearby movements changes water pressure ref name dorit ref sharks rays basal fish numerous primitive anatomical features similar ancient fish including skeletons composed cartilage bodies tend dorso ventrally flattened usually five pairs


flattened five pairs gills protected operculum mouth near tip snout dermis covered overlapping scales bony fish swim bladder helps maintain constant depth water column cloaca mostly spawn large number small eggs little yolk broadcast water column ref name kotpal amphibian anatomy skeleton surinam horned frog ''ceratophrys cornuta'' plastic model frog amphibians class animals comprising frogs salamanders caecilians tetrapods


caecilians species salamander either limbs limbs much reduced size main bones hollow lightweight fully ossified vertebrae interlock articular processes ribs usually short may fused vertebrae skulls mostly broad short often incompletely ossified skin contains little keratin lacks scales contains many mucous glands species poison glands hearts amphibians three chambers two atria one ventricle


urinary bladder nitrogenous waste products excreted primarily urea amphibians breathe means buccal pumping pump action air first drawn buccopharyngeal region nostrils closed air forced lungs contraction throat supplement gas exchange skin needs kept moist ref name dorit ref frogs pelvic girdle robust hind legs much longer stronger forelimbs feet four five digits toes often webbed


swimming suction pads climbing frogs large eyes tail salamanders resemble lizards appearance short legs project sideways belly close contact ground long tail caecilians superficially resemble earthworms limbless burrow means zones muscle contractions move along body swim undulating body side side reptile anatomy skeleton diamondback rattlesnake '''reptiles''' class animals comprising turtles tuataras lizards snakes crocodiles tetrapods


completely separates oxygenated deoxygenated bloodstreams reproductive system evolved internal fertilization copulatory organ present species eggs surrounded amniotic membranes prevents drying laid land develop internally species bladder small nitrogenous waste excreted uric acid ref name dorit ref '''turtles''' notable protective shells inflexible trunk encased horny carapace plastron formed bony plates embedded dermis overlain horny ones


partially fused ribs spine neck long flexible head legs drawn back inside shell turtles vegetarians typical reptile teeth replaced sharp horny plates aquatic species front legs modified flippers ref name dorit ref '''tuataras''' superficially resemble lizards lineages diverged triassic period one living species ''sphenodon punctatus'' skull two openings fenestrae either side jaw rigidly attached skull one row teeth lower jaw


fits two rows upper jaw animal chews teeth merely projections bony material jaw eventually wear brain heart primitive reptiles lungs single chamber lack bronchi tuatara well developed parietal eye forehead ref name dorit '''lizards''' skulls one fenestra side lower bar bone second fenestra lost results jaws less rigidly attached allows mouth open wider


second fenestra also lost jaws extreme flexibility allowing snake swallow prey whole snakes lack moveable eyelids eyes covered transparent spectacle scales eardrums detect ground vibrations bones skull forked tongues used organs taste smell species sensory pits heads enabling locate warm blooded prey ref name dorit ref '''crocodilians''' large low slung aquatic reptiles long snouts large numbers teeth head trunk dorso ventrally flattened


tail laterally compressed undulates side side force animal water swimming tough keratinized scales provide body armour fused skull nostrils eyes ears elevated top flat head enabling remain surface water animal floating valves seal nostrils ears submerged unlike reptiles crocodilians hearts four chambers allowing complete separation oxygenated deoxygenated blood ref name dorit ref bird anatomy part wing albrecht rer


c nbsp birds tetrapods though hind limbs used walking hopping front limbs wings covered feathers adapted flight birds endothermic high metabolic rate light skeletal system powerful muscles long bones thin hollow light air sac extensions lungs occupy centre bones sternum wide usually keel caudal vertebrae fused teeth narrow jaws adapted horn covered beak eyes relatively large particularly nocturnal


species owls face forwards predators sideways ducks ref name dorit ref feathers outgrowths epidermis found localized bands fan skin large flight feathers found wings tail contour feathers cover bird 's surface fine occurs young birds contour feathers water birds cutaneous gland single uropygial gland near base tail produces oily secretion waterproofs feathers bird preens scales legs


feet claws tips toes ref name dorit mammal anatomy mammals diverse class animals mostly terrestrial aquatic others evolved flapping gliding flight mostly four limbs aquatic mammals limbs limbs modified fins forelimbs bats modified wings legs mammals situated trunk held well clear ground bones mammals well ossified teeth usually differentiated coated layer prismatic


enamel teeth shed milk teeth animal 's lifetime case cetaceans mammals three bones middle ear cochlea inner ear clothed hair skin contains glands secrete sweat glands specialized mammary glands producing milk feed young mammals breathe lungs muscular diaphragm separating thorax abdomen helps draw air lungs mammalian heart four chambers oxygenated deoxygenated blood


mammal humans head neck trunk includes thorax abdomen two arms hands two legs feet generally students certain biological sciences paramedics prosthetists orthotists physiotherapists occupational therapists nurses podiatrists medical students learn gross anatomy microscopic anatomy anatomical models skeletons textbooks diagrams photographs lectures tutorials addition medical students generally also learn gross anatomy practical experience dissection inspection cadavers study microscopic anatomy histology aided practical experience examining histological preparations slides microscope human anatomy physiology


biochemistry complementary basic medical sciences generally taught medical students first year medical school human anatomy taught regionally systemically respectively studying anatomy bodily regions head chest studying specific systems nervous respiratory systems ref name intro hgray major anatomy textbook gray 's anatomy reorganized systems format regional format line modern teaching methods thorough working knowledge anatomy required physicians especially surgeons doctors working diagnostic specialties


histopathology radiology ref name aaa ref academic anatomists usually employed universities medical schools teaching hospitals often involved teaching anatomy research certain systems organs tissues cells ref name aaa invertebrate anatomy head male ''daphnia'' planktonic crustacean invertebrates constitute vast array living organisms ranging simplest unicellular eukaryotes ''paramecium'' complex multicellular animals octopus lobster dragonfly constitute animal species definition none creatures backbone cells single cell protozoans


basic structure multicellular animals parts specialized equivalent tissues organs locomotion often provided cilia flagella may proceed via advance pseudopodia food may gathered phagocytosis energy needs may supplied photosynthesis cell may supported endoskeleton exoskeleton protozoans form multicellular colonies metazoans multicellular organism different groups cells serving different functions basic types metazoan tissues epithelium connective tissue present nearly invertebrates


outer surface epidermis normally formed epithelial cells secretes extracellular matrix provides support organism endoskeleton derived mesoderm present echinoderms sponges cephalopods exoskeletons derived epidermis composed chitin arthropods insects spiders ticks shrimps crabs lobsters calcium carbonate constitutes shells molluscs brachiopods tube building polychaete worms silica forms exoskeleton microscopic diatoms radiolaria invertebrates may rigid structures epidermis may secrete variety surface coatings


pinacoderm sponges gelatinous cuticle cnidarians polyps sea anemones jellyfish collagenous cuticle annelids outer epithelial layer may include cells several types including sensory cells gland cells stinging cells may also protrusions microvilli cilia bristles spines tubercles marcello malpighi father microscopical anatomy discovered plants tubules similar saw insects like silk worm observed ring like portion bark removed trunk swelling occurred tissues ring unmistakably interpreted


growth stimulated food coming leaves captured ring ref name arberagnes ref arthropod anatomy arthropods comprise largest phylum animal kingdom million known invertebrate species insects possess segmented bodies supported hard jointed outer covering exoskeleton made mostly chitin segments body organized three distinct parts head thorax abdomen head typically bears pair sensory antennae pair compound eyes one three simple eyes ocelli three sets modified appendages form


called chelicerae often connected venom glands spiders venomous second pair appendages called pedipalps attached cephalothorax similar segmentation legs function taste smell organs end male pedipalp spoon shaped cymbium acts support copulatory organ branches anatomy superficial surface anatomy important study anatomical landmarks readily seen exterior contours body ref name intro hgray enables physicians veterinary surgeons gauge


position anatomy associated deeper structures superficial directional term indicates structures located relatively close surface body comparative anatomy relates comparison anatomical structures gross microscopic different animals ref name intro hgray artistic anatomy relates anatomic studies artistic reasons history ancient image early rendition anatomy findings bce edwin smith papyrus ancient egyptian medical text described heart vessels liver spleen kidneys hypothalamus uterus bladder showed blood vessels diverging


heart ebers papyrus c bce features treatise heart vessels carrying body 's fluids every member body ancient greek anatomy physiology underwent great changes advances throughout early medieval world time medical practice expanded continually developing understanding functions organs structures body phenomenal anatomical observations human body made contributed towards understanding brain eye liver reproductive organs nervous system hellenistic egyptian city alexandria stepping stone


greek anatomy physiology alexandria housed biggest library medical records books liberal arts world time greeks also home many medical practitioners philosophers great patronage arts sciences ptolemy rulers helped raise alexandria rivalling cultural scientific achievements greek states ref name longrigg ref anatomy thangka part desi sangye gyatso 's blue beryl th century striking advances early anatomy physiology took place hellenistic alexandria ref name longrigg two


famous anatomists physiologists third century herophilus erasistratus two physicians helped pioneer human dissection medical research also conducted vivisections cadavers condemned criminals considered taboo renaissance herophilus recognized first person perform systematic dissections herophilus became known anatomical works making impressing contributions many branches anatomy many aspects medicine works included classifying system pulse discovery human arteries thicker walls veins atria parts


heart herophilus 's knowledge human body provided vital input towards understanding brain eye liver reproductive organs nervous system characterizing course disease erasistratus accurately described structure brain including cavities membranes made distinction cerebrum cerebellum study alexandria erasistratus particularly concerned studies circulatory nervous systems able distinguish sensory motor nerves human body believed air entered lungs heart carried throughout body


distinction arteries veins arteries carrying air body veins carried blood heart great anatomical discovery erasistratus also responsible naming describing function epiglottis valves heart including tricuspid third century greek physicians able differentiate nerves blood vessels tendons realize nerves convey neural impulses ref name longrigg herophilus made point damage motor nerves induced paralysis herophilus named meninges ventricles brain appreciated


division cerebellum cerebrum recognized brain seat intellect cooling chamber propounded aristotle herophilus also credited describing optic oculomotor motor division trigeminal facial vestibulocochlear hypoglossal nerves ref name cambridge university press ref surgical instruments invented first time history abulcasis th century anatomy eye first time history hunayn ibn ishaq th century th century anatomical illustration great feats made third century bce digestive reproductive systems


herophilus able discover describe salivary glands small intestine liver ref name cambridge university press showed uterus hollow organ described ovaries uterine tubes recognized spermatozoa produced testes first identify prostate gland ref name cambridge university press anatomy muscles skeleton described ''hippocratic corpus'' ancient greek medical work written unknown authors aristotle described vertebrate anatomy based animal dissection praxagoras identified difference arteries veins also th


de luzzi alessandro achillini antonio benivieni bologna carried first systematic human dissections since ancient times ref name zimmermanveith ref ref name crombie ref ref name thorndike ref mondino 's ''anatomy'' first textbook medieval rediscovery human anatomy describes body order followed mondino 's dissections starting abdomen thorax head limbs standard anatomy textbook next century ref name boas leonardo da vinci trained anatomy andrea del verrocchio ref name boas made use anatomical knowledge artwork making many sketches skeletal structures


muscles organs humans vertebrates dissected ref name boas andreas vesalius latinized andries van wezel professor anatomy university padua considered founder modern human anatomy originally brabant vesalius published influential book ''de humani corporis fabrica'' structure human body large format book seven volumes accurate intricately detailed illustrations often allegorical poses italianate landscapes thought made artist jan van calcar pupil titian england anatomy subject


first public lectures given science given company barbers surgeons th century joined lumleian lectures surgery royal college physicians ref name boas ref late modern united states medical schools began set towards end th century classes anatomy needed continual stream cadavers dissection difficult obtain philadelphia baltimore new york renowned body snatching activity criminals raided graveyards night removing newly buried corpses


coffins ref name trafficdead ref similar problem existed britain demand bodies became great grave raiding even anatomy murder practised obtain cadavers ref name rosner lisa rosner lisa anatomy murders true spectacular history edinburgh 's notorious burke hare man science abetted commission heinous crimes university pennsylvania press ref graveyards consequence protected watchtowers practice halted britain anatomy act united states similar legislation enacted physician william


forbes jefferson medical college found guilty complicity resurrectionists despoliation graves lebanon cemetery teaching anatomy britain transformed sir john struthers regius professor anatomy university aberdeen responsible setting system three years pre clinical academic teaching sciences underlying medicine including especially anatomy system lasted reform medical training well teaching collected many vertebrate skeletons museum comparative anatomy published


research papers became famous public dissection tay whale ref name pmid ref ref name pmid ref royal college surgeons regulated teaching anatomy medical schools ref name mclachlan j p ref medical museums provided examples comparative anatomy often used teaching ignaz semmelweis investigated puerperal fever discovered caused noticed frequently fatal fever occurred often mothers examined medical students midwives students went dissecting room hospital ward examined women childbirth semmelweis showed


trainees washed hands chlorinated lime clinical examination incidence puerperal fever among mothers could reduced dramatically electron microscope modern medical era main means studying internal structures body dissection dead inspection palpation auscultation living advent microscopy opened understanding building blocks constituted living tissues technical advances development achromatic lenses increased resolving power microscope around matthias jakob schleiden theodor


schwann identified cells fundamental unit organization living things study small structures involved passing light microtome invented provide sufficiently thin slices tissue examine staining techniques using artificial dyes established help distinguish different types tissue advances fields histology cytology began late th century ref name britmicro ref along advances surgical techniques allowing painless safe removal biopsy specimens invention electron microscope brought great advance resolution power allowed research


internal structures unprecedented detail degree far beyond imagination earlier generations see also anatomical model outline human anatomy plastination notes bibliography http wwwbartlebycom anatomy human body th edition henry gray external links http wwwbbccouk podcasts series iots playepisode anatomy ''in time'' bbc radio melvyn bragg guests ruth richardson andrew cunningham harold ellis https anatomialibraryutorontoca anatomia collection anatomical plates digitized books images lyman henry munson '' https digitalsciencehistoryorg works bg g book health '' https digitalsciencehistoryorg science history institute digital collections gunther von hagens '' https vonhagens plastinationcom pages medical teaching specimens von hagens plastinationphp silicone plastinates true


anatomy new ways teaching '' branches biology morphology biology


pyramids giza among recognizable symbols ancient egypt civilization '''ancient egypt''' civilization ancient africa concentrated along lower reaches nile river situated place country egypt ancient egyptian civilization followed prehistoric egypt coalesced around bc according conventional egyptian chronology political unification upper lower egypt menes often identified narmer history ancient egypt occurred series stable kingdoms separated periods relative instability known intermediate periods old kingdom early bronze

Humanities
History
Ancient history
Ancient Egypt


age middle kingdom middle bronze age new kingdom late bronze age egypt reached pinnacle power new kingdom ruling much nubia sizable portion near east entered period slow decline course history egypt invaded conquered number foreign powers including hyksos libyans nubians assyrians achaemenid persians macedonians command alexander great greek ptolemaic kingdom formed aftermath alexander 's death


ruled egypt bc cleopatra fell roman empire became roman province success ancient egyptian civilization came partly ability adapt conditions nile river valley agriculture predictable flooding controlled irrigation fertile valley produced surplus crops supported dense population social development culture resources spare administration sponsored mineral exploitation valley surrounding desert regions early development independent writing system organization collective construction agricultural projects trade surrounding


regions military intended assert egyptian dominance motivating organizing activities bureaucracy elite scribes religious leaders administrators control pharaoh ensured cooperation unity egyptian people context elaborate system religious beliefs many achievements ancient egyptians include quarrying surveying construction techniques supported building monumental pyramids temples obelisks system mathematics practical effective system medicine irrigation systems agricultural production techniques first known planked boats egyptian faience glass


technology new forms literature earliest known peace treaty made hittites ancient egypt left lasting legacy art architecture widely copied antiquities carried far corners world monumental ruins inspired imaginations travelers writers millennia newfound respect antiquities excavations early modern period europeans egyptians led scientific investigation egyptian civilization greater appreciation cultural legacy history bc nbsp bc nile lifeline region


much human history fertile floodplain nile gave humans opportunity develop settled agricultural economy sophisticated centralized society became cornerstone history human civilization nomadic modern human hunter gatherers began living nile valley end middle pleistocene years ago late paleolithic period arid climate northern africa became increasingly hot dry forcing populations area concentrate along river region predynastic period typical naqada ii jar decorated gazelles predynastic period predynastic


early dynastic times egyptian climate much less arid today large regions egypt covered treed savanna traversed herds grazing ungulates foliage fauna far prolific environs nile region supported large populations waterfowl hunting would common egyptians also period many animals first domesticated nbsp bc small tribes living nile valley developed series cultures demonstrating firm control agriculture animal husbandry identifiable pottery personal


items combs bracelets beads largest early cultures upper southern egypt badarian culture probably originated western desert known high quality ceramics stone tools use copper early tomb painting nekhen naqada possibly gerzeh culture badari followed naqada culture amratian naqada gerzeh naqada ii semainean naqada iii brought number technological improvements early naqada period predynastic egyptians imported obsidian ethiopia used shape blades objects


cultures eastern mediterranean near east east initiating period egypt mesopotamia relations naqada culture manufactured diverse selection material goods reflective increasing power wealth elite well societal personal use items included combs small statuary painted pottery high quality decorative stone vases cosmetic palettes jewelry made gold lapis ivory also developed ceramic glaze known faience used well roman period decorate cups amulets figurines last predynastic phase naqada culture began using written symbols


eventually developed full system hieroglyphs writing ancient egyptian language early dynastic period c bc early dynastic period approximately contemporary early sumerian akkadian civilisation mesopotamia ancient elam third centurybc egyptian priest manetho grouped long line kings menes time dynasties system still used today began official history king named meni menes greek believed united two kingdoms upper lower egypt narmer palette depicts unification


lucrative critical trade routes levant increasing power wealth kings early dynastic period reflected elaborate mastaba tombs mortuary cult structures abydos used celebrate deified king death strong institution kingship developed kings served legitimize state control land labour resources essential survival growth ancient egyptian civilization old kingdom bc major advances architecture art technology made old kingdom fueled increased


agricultural productivity resulting population made possible well developed central administration ancient egypt 's crowning achievements giza pyramids great sphinx constructed old kingdom direction vizier state officials collected taxes coordinated irrigation projects improve crop yield drafted peasants work construction projects established justice system maintain peace order khafre enthroned rising importance central administration egypt new class educated scribes officials arose granted estates king payment services kings also made land


grants mortuary cults local temples ensure institutions resources worship king death scholars believe five centuries practices slowly eroded economic vitality egypt economy could longer afford support large centralized administration power kings diminished regional governors called nomarchs began challenge supremacy office king coupled severe droughts bc believed caused country enter year period famine strife known


first intermediate period first intermediate period bc egypt 's central government collapsed end old kingdom administration could longer support stabilize country 's economy regional governors could rely king help times crisis ensuing food shortages political disputes escalated famines small scale civil wars yet despite difficult problems local leaders owing tribute king used new found independence establish thriving culture provinces control resources provinces became economically richer demonstrated


larger better burials among social classes bursts creativity provincial artisans adopted adapted cultural motifs formerly restricted royalty old kingdom scribes developed literary styles expressed optimism originality period free loyalties king local rulers began competing territorial control political power bc rulers herakleopolis controlled lower egypt north rival clan based thebes intef family took control upper egypt south intefs grew power expanded


control northward clash two rival dynasties became inevitable around bc northern theban forces nebhepetre mentuhotep ii finally defeated herakleopolitan rulers reuniting two lands inaugurated period economic cultural renaissance known middle kingdom middle kingdom bc amenemhat iii last great ruler middle kingdom kings middle kingdom restored country 's stability prosperity thereby stimulating resurgence art literature monumental building projects mentuhotep ii eleventh dynasty successors ruled thebes vizier amenemhat upon assuming kingship


beginning twelfth dynasty around bc shifted kingdom 's capital city itjtawy located faiyum itjtawy kings twelfth dynasty undertook far sighted land reclamation irrigation scheme increase agricultural output region moreover military reconquered territory nubia rich quarries gold mines laborers built defensive structure eastern delta called walls ruler defend foreign attack kings secured country militarily politically vast agricultural mineral wealth disposal


mining activities however combined severe nile floods later reign strained economy precipitated slow decline second intermediate period later thirteenth fourteenth dynasties decline canaanite settlers began assume greater control delta region eventually coming power egypt hyksos second intermediate period bc hyksos around bc power middle kingdom kings weakened western asian people called hyksos already settled delta seized control egypt established capital avaris


forcing former central government retreat thebes king treated vassal expected pay tribute hyksos foreign rulers retained egyptian models government identified kings thereby integrating egyptian elements culture invaders introduced new tools warfare egypt notably composite bow horse drawn chariot retreating south native theban kings found trapped canaanite hyksos ruling north hyksos' nubian allies kushites south years vassalage thebes gathered enough strength challenge hyksos


conflict lasted years bc kings seqenenre tao ii kamose ultimately able defeat nubians south egypt failed defeat hyksos task fell kamose 's successor ahmose successfully waged series campaigns permanently eradicated hyksos' presence egypt established new dynasty new kingdom followed military became central priority kings sought expand egypt 's borders attempted gain mastery near east new kingdom bc c


bc new kingdom pharaohs established period unprecedented prosperity securing borders strengthening diplomatic ties neighbours including mitanni empire assyria canaan military campaigns waged tuthmosis grandson tuthmosis iii extended influence pharaohs largest empire egypt ever seen beginning merneptah rulers egypt adopted title pharaoh reigns hatshepsut queen established pharaoh launched many building projects including restoration temples damaged hyksos sent trading expeditions punt sinai


tuthmosis iii died bc egypt empire extending niya north west syria fourth cataract nile nubia cementing loyalties opening access critical imports bronze wood new kingdom pharaohs began large scale building campaign promote god amun whose growing cult based karnak also constructed monuments glorify achievements real imagined karnak temple largest egyptian temple ever built around bc stability new kingdom threatened amenhotep iv ascended throne


instituted series radical chaotic reforms changing name akhenaten touted previously obscure sun deity aten supreme deity suppressed worship deities moved capital new city akhetaten modern day amarna devoted new religion artistic style death cult aten quickly abandoned traditional religious order restored subsequent pharaohs tutankhamun ay horemheb worked erase mention akhenaten 's heresy known amarna period four colossal statues ramesses ii flank


conjectured confederation seafarers aegean sea first coined french egyptologist g maspero somewhat misleading term sea peoples encompasses ethnonyms lukka sherden shekelesh teresh eqwesh denyen sikil tjekker weshesh peleset philistines footnote modern term sea peoples refers peoples appear several new kingdom egyptian texts originating islands use quotation marks association term sea peoples title intended draw attention problematic nature commonly used term noteworthy designation sea


temple amun thebes accumulated vast tracts land wealth expanded power splintered country third intermediate period third intermediate period bc following death ramesses xi bc smendes assumed authority northern part egypt ruling city tanis south effectively controlled high priests amun thebes recognized smendes name time libyans settling western delta chieftains settlers began increasing autonomy libyan princes took control delta


th dynasty pharaoh taharqa created empire nearly large new kingdom 's twenty fifth dynasty pharaohs built restored temples monuments throughout nile valley including memphis karnak kawa jebel barkal period nile valley saw first widespread construction pyramids many modern sudan since middle kingdom assyrian siege egyptian fortified city scene assyrian conquest egypt probably referring capture memphis bc sculpted bc ashurbanipal british museum egypt 's far reaching prestige declined considerably toward end


third intermediate period foreign allies fallen assyrian sphere influence bc war two states became inevitable bc assyrians began assyrian conquest egypt reigns taharqa successor tanutamun filled constant conflict assyrians egypt enjoyed several victories ultimately assyrians pushed kushites back nubia occupied memphis sacked temples thebes late period bc assyrians left control egypt series vassals became known saite kings


formal title pharaoh ruled egypt iran leaving egypt control satrap successful revolts persians marked th centurybc egypt never able permanently overthrow persians following annexation persia egypt joined cyprus phoenicia sixth satrapy achaemenid persian empire first period persian rule egypt also known twenty seventh dynasty ended bc egypt regained independence series native dynasties last dynasties thirtieth proved last native royal


house ancient egypt ending kingship nectanebo ii brief restoration persian rule sometimes known thirty first dynasty began bc shortly bc persian ruler mazaces handed egypt alexander great without fight ptolemaic period bc portrait ptolemy vi philometor wearing double crown egypt bc alexander great conquered egypt little resistance persians welcomed egyptians deliverer administration established alexander 's successors macedonian ptolemaic kingdom based egyptian model based


new capital city alexandria city showcased power prestige hellenistic rule became seat learning culture centered famous library alexandria lighthouse alexandria lit way many ships kept trade flowing city ptolemies made commerce revenue generating enterprises papyrus manufacturing top priority hellenistic culture supplant native egyptian culture ptolemies supported time honored traditions effort secure loyalty populace built new temples egyptian style supported traditional cults portrayed


pharaohs traditions merged greek egyptian gods syncretized composite deities serapis classical greek forms sculpture influenced traditional egyptian motifs despite efforts appease egyptians ptolemies challenged native rebellion bitter family rivalries powerful mob alexandria formed death ptolemy iv addition rome relied heavily imports grain egypt romans took great interest political situation country continued egyptian revolts ambitious politicians powerful opponents near east made situation


unstable leading rome send forces secure country province empire roman period bc ad fayum mummy portraits epitomize meeting egyptian roman cultures egypt became province roman empire bc following defeat mark antony ptolemaic queen cleopatra vii octavian later emperor augustus battle actium romans relied heavily grain shipments egypt roman army control prefect appointed emperor quelled rebellions strictly enforced collection heavy taxes prevented


attacks bandits become notorious problem period alexandria became increasingly important center trade route orient exotic luxuries high demand rome although romans hostile attitude greeks towards egyptians traditions mummification worship traditional gods continued art mummy portraiture flourished roman emperors depicted pharaohs though extent ptolemies former lived outside egypt perform ceremonial functions egyptian kingship local


administration became roman style closed native egyptians mid first century ad christianity took root egypt originally seen another cult could accepted however uncompromising religion sought win converts pagan egyptian greco roman religions threatened popular religious traditions led persecution converts christianity culminating great purges diocletian starting eventually christianity christian emperor theodosius introduced legislation banned pagan rites closed temples alexandria became scene great


anti pagan riots public private religious imagery destroyed consequence egypt 's native religious culture continually decline native population continued speak language ability read hieroglyphic writing slowly disappeared role egyptian temple priests priestesses diminished temples sometimes converted churches abandoned desert fourth century roman empire divided egypt found eastern empire capital constantinople waning years empire egypt fell sasanian persian army sasanian conquest


egypt recaptured byzantine emperor heraclius finally captured muslim rashidun army ending byzantine rule government economy administration commerce pharaoh usually depicted wearing symbols royalty power pharaoh absolute monarch country least theory wielded complete control land resources king supreme military commander head government relied bureaucracy officials manage affairs charge administration second command


vizier acted king 's representative coordinated land surveys treasury building projects legal system archives regional level country divided many administrative regions called nomes governed nomarch accountable vizier jurisdiction temples formed backbone economy places worship also responsible collecting storing kingdom 's wealth system granaries treasuries administered overseers redistributed grain goods much economy centrally organized


strictly controlled although ancient egyptians use coinage late period use type money barter system standard sacks grain ' 'deben'' weight roughly copper silver forming common denominator workers paid grain simple laborer might earn nbsp sacks nbsp kg nbsp lb grain per month foreman might earn nbsp sacks nbsp kg nbsp lb prices fixed across country recorded lists facilitate trading example shirt cost five copper deben cow cost deben grain could


nobility priests physicians engineers specialized training field unclear whether slavery understood today existed ancient egypt difference opinions among authors punishment ancient egypt ancient egyptians viewed men women including people social classes essentially equal law even lowliest peasant entitled petition vizier court redress ref name ucjohnson ref although slaves mostly used indentured servants able buy sell servitude work way freedom nobility usually


treated doctors workplace men women right sell property make contracts marry divorce receive inheritance pursue legal disputes court married couples could property jointly protect divorce agreeing marriage contracts stipulated financial obligations husband wife children marriage end compared counterparts ancient greece rome even modern places around world ancient egyptian women greater range personal choices legal rights opportunities achievement women hatshepsut


cleopatra vii even became pharaohs others wielded power divine wives amun despite freedoms ancient egyptian women often take part official roles administration aside royal high priestesses apparently served secondary roles temples much data many dynasties likely educated men ref name ucjohnson legal system seated scribe saqqara fifth dynasty egypt scribes elite well educated assessed taxes kept records responsible administration head legal system officially


pharaoh responsible enacting laws delivering justice maintaining law order concept ancient egyptians referred ma'at although legal codes ancient egypt survive court documents show egyptian law based common sense view right wrong emphasized reaching agreements resolving conflicts rather strictly adhering complicated set statutes ref name ucjohnson local councils elders known ''kenbet'' new kingdom responsible ruling court cases involving small claims minor disputes serious cases involving murder major land transactions tomb robbery


referred ''great kenbet'' vizier pharaoh presided plaintiffs defendants expected represent required swear oath told truth cases state took role prosecutor judge could torture accused beatings obtain confession names co conspirators whether charges trivial serious court scribes documented complaint testimony verdict case future reference punishment minor crimes involved either imposition fines beatings facial mutilation


exile depending severity offense serious crimes murder tomb robbery punished execution carried decapitation drowning impaling criminal stake punishment could also extended criminal 's family beginning new kingdom oracles played major role legal system dispensing justice civil criminal cases procedure ask god yes question concerning right wrong issue god carried number priests rendered judgement choosing one moving


forward backward pointing one answers written piece papyrus ostracon agriculture nakht menna thebes eighteenth dynasty combination favorable geographical features contributed success ancient egyptian culture important rich fertile soil resulting annual inundations nile river ancient egyptians thus able produce abundance food allowing population devote time resources cultural technological artistic pursuits land management crucial ancient egypt taxes assessed based amount


land person owned farming egypt dependent cycle nile river egyptians recognized three seasons ''akhet'' flooding ''peret'' planting ''shemu'' harvesting flooding season lasted june september depositing river 's banks layer mineral rich silt ideal growing crops floodwaters receded growing season lasted october february farmers plowed planted seeds fields irrigated ditches canals egypt received little rainfall farmers relied nile water crops march may farmers used sickles


harvest crops threshed flail separate straw grain winnowing removed chaff grain grain ground flour brewed make beer stored later use ancient egyptians cultivated emmer barley several cereal grains used make two main food staples bread beer flax plants uprooted started flowering grown fibers stems fibers split along length spun thread used


force fed dough fatten nile provided plentiful source fish bees also domesticated least old kingdom provided honey wax ancient egyptians used donkeys oxen beasts burden responsible plowing fields trampling seed soil slaughter fattened ox also central part offering ritual horses introduced hyksos second intermediate period camels although known new kingdom used beasts burden late period


also evidence suggest elephants briefly utilized late period largely abandoned due lack grazing land cats dogs monkeys common family pets exotic pets imported heart africa sub saharan african lions reserved royalty herodotus observed egyptians people keep animals houses late period worship gods animal form extremely popular cat goddess bastet ibis god thoth animals kept


maps known gold mine region wadi hammamat notable source granite greywacke gold flint first mineral collected used make tools flint handaxes earliest pieces evidence habitation nile valley nodules mineral carefully flaked make blades arrowheads moderate hardness durability even copper adopted purpose ancient egyptians among first use minerals sulfur cosmetic substances egyptians worked deposits lead ore galena gebel rosas


make net sinkers plumb bobs small figurines copper important metal toolmaking ancient egypt smelted furnaces malachite ore mined sinai workers collected gold washing nuggets sediment alluvial deposits labor intensive process grinding washing gold bearing quartzite iron deposits found upper egypt utilized late period high quality building stones abundant egypt ancient egyptians quarried limestone along nile valley granite aswan basalt sandstone wadis eastern desert


deposits decorative stones porphyry greywacke alabaster carnelian dotted eastern desert collected even first dynasty ptolemaic roman periods miners worked deposits emeralds wadi sikait amethyst wadi el hudi trade hatshepsut 's trading expedition land punt ancient egyptians engaged trade foreign neighbors obtain rare exotic goods found egypt predynastic period established trade nubia obtain gold incense also established trade palestine evidenced palestinian style oil jugs found burials


first dynasty pharaohs egyptian colony stationed southern canaan dates slightly first dynasty narmer egyptian pottery produced canaan exported back egypt second dynasty latest ancient egyptian trade byblos yielded critical source quality timber found egypt fifth dynasty trade punt provided gold aromatic resins ebony ivory wild animals monkeys baboons egypt relied trade anatolia essential quantities tin well supplementary supplies copper metals necessary manufacture


bronze ancient egyptians prized blue stone lapis lazuli imported far away afghanistan egypt 's mediterranean trade partners also included greece crete provided among goods supplies olive oil language historical development egyptian language northern afro asiatic language closely related berber semitic languages second longest known history language sumerian written c bc middle ages remaining spoken language longer phases ancient egyptian old egyptian middle egyptian classical egyptian late egyptian demotic


coptic egyptian writings show dialect differences coptic probably spoken regional dialects around memphis later thebes ancient egyptian synthetic language became analytic later late egyptian developed prefixal definite indefinite articles replaced older inflectional suffixes change older verb subject object word order subject verb object egyptian hieroglyphic hieratic demotic scripts eventually replaced phonetic coptic alphabet coptic still used liturgy egyptian orthodox church traces found modern egyptian


arabic sounds grammar ancient egyptian consonants similar afro asiatic languages include pharyngeal emphatic consonants voiced voiceless stops voiceless fricatives voiced voiceless affricates three long three short vowels expanded late egyptian nine basic word egyptian similar semitic berber triliteral biliteral root consonants semiconsonants suffixes added form words verb conjugation corresponds person example triconsonantal skeleton '''''' semantic core word 'hear' basic conjugation


'''' 'he hears' subject noun suffixes added verb '''' 'the woman hears' adjectives derived nouns process egyptologists call ''nisbation'' similarity arabic word order verbal adjectival sentences nominal adverbial sentences subject moved beginning sentences long followed resumptive pronoun verbs nouns negated particle ''n'' ''nn'' used adverbial adjectival sentences stress falls ultimate


cursive form writing called hieratic quicker easier formal hieroglyphs may read rows columns either direction though typically written right left hieratic always written right left usually horizontal rows new form writing demotic became prevalent writing style form writing along formal hieroglyphs accompany greek text rosetta stone around first century ad coptic alphabet started used alongside demotic script coptic modified greek alphabet addition demotic


signs although formal hieroglyphs used ceremonial role fourth century towards end small handful priests could still read traditional religious establishments disbanded knowledge hieroglyphic writing mostly lost attempts decipher date byzantine islamic periods egypt discovery rosetta stone years research thomas young jean fran ois champollion hieroglyphs substantially deciphered literature writing first appeared association kingship labels tags items found royal tombs


primarily occupation scribes worked ''per ankh'' institution house life latter comprised offices libraries called house books laboratories observatories best known pieces ancient egyptian literature pyramid coffin texts written classical egyptian continued language writing bc late egyptian spoken new kingdom onward represented ramesside administrative documents love poetry tales well demotic coptic texts period tradition writing evolved


new kingdom vernacular language often employed write popular pieces like story wenamun instruction former tells story noble robbed way buy cedar lebanon struggle return egypt bc narrative stories instructions popular instructions onchsheshonqy well personal business documents written demotic script phase egyptian many stories written demotic greco roman period set previous historical eras egypt


independent nation ruled great pharaohs ramesses ii culture daily life ostrakon hunting lion spear dog lower class occupations ancient egyptians farmers tied land dwellings restricted immediate family members constructed mudbrick designed remain cool heat day home kitchen open roof contained grindstone milling grain small oven baking bread ceramics served household wares storage preparation transport consumption food drink raw materials walls


painted white could covered dyed linen wall hangings floors covered reed mats wooden stools beds raised floor individual tables comprised furniture egyptians celebrated feasts festivals accompanied music dance ancient egyptians placed great value hygiene appearance bathed nile used pasty soap made animal fat chalk men shaved entire bodies cleanliness perfumes aromatic ointments covered bad odors soothed skin clothing made simple linen sheets bleached white men


women upper classes wore wigs jewelry cosmetics children went without clothing maturity age age males circumcised heads shaved mothers responsible taking care children father provided family 's income music dance popular entertainments could afford early instruments included flutes harps instruments similar trumpets oboes pipes developed later became popular new kingdom egyptians played bells cymbals tambourines drums imported lutes lyres asia sistrum


rattle like musical instrument especially important religious ceremonies ruins deir el medina unesco world heritage site ancient egyptians enjoyed variety leisure activities including games music senet board game pieces moved according random chance particularly popular earliest times another similar game mehen circular gaming board hounds jackals also known holes another example board games played ancient egypt first complete set game discovered theban tomb egyptian pharaoh amenemhat iv


dates th dynasty juggling ball games popular children wrestling also documented tomb beni hasan wealthy members ancient egyptian society enjoyed hunting fishing boating well excavation workers' village deir el medina resulted one thoroughly documented accounts community life ancient world spans almost four hundred years comparable site organization social interactions working living conditions community studied detail cuisine egyptian cuisine remained


remarkably stable time indeed cuisine modern egypt retains striking similarities cuisine ancients staple diet consisted bread beer supplemented vegetables onions garlic fruit dates figs wine meat enjoyed feast days upper classes indulged regular basis fish meat fowl could salted dried could cooked stews roasted grill architecture architecture ancient egypt includes famous structures world


great pyramids giza temples thebes building projects organized funded state religious commemorative purposes also reinforce wide ranging power pharaoh ancient egyptians skilled builders using simple effective tools sighting instruments architects could build large stone structures great accuracy precision still envied today domestic dwellings elite ordinary egyptians alike constructed perishable materials mudbricks wood survived peasants lived simple homes palaces elite


pharaoh elaborate structures surviving new kingdom palaces malkata amarna show richly decorated walls floors scenes people birds water pools deities geometric designs important structures temples tombs intended last forever constructed stone instead mudbricks architectural elements used world 's first large scale stone building djoser 's mortuary complex include post lintel supports papyrus lotus motif earliest preserved ancient egyptian temples giza consist single enclosed halls roof slabs supported


columns new kingdom architects added pylon open courtyard enclosed hypostyle hall front temple 's sanctuary style standard greco roman period earliest popular tomb architecture old kingdom mastaba flat roofed rectangular structure mudbrick stone built underground burial chamber step pyramid djoser series stone mastabas stacked top pyramids built old middle kingdoms later rulers abandoned favor less conspicuous rock cut


tombs use pyramid form continued private tomb chapels new kingdom royal pyramids nubia gallery widths px heights px model porch garden met dp jpg model household porch garden c bc temple dendur met dt jpg temple dendur completed bc made aeolian sandstone temple proper height width length metropolitan museum art new york city philae temple nightjpg well preserved temple isis philae example egyptian architecture architectural sculpture


sense order balance within composition images text intimately interwoven tomb temple walls coffins stelae even statues narmer palette example displays figures also read hieroglyphs rigid rules governed highly stylized symbolic appearance ancient egyptian art served political religious purposes precision clarity ancient egyptian artisans used stone medium carving statues fine reliefs used wood cheap easily carved substitute paints obtained minerals iron ores red


activities living afterlife models show laborers houses boats even military formations scale representations ideal ancient egyptian afterlife despite homogeneity ancient egyptian art styles particular times places sometimes reflected changing cultural political attitudes invasion hyksos second intermediate period minoan style frescoes found avaris striking example politically driven change artistic forms comes amarna period figures radically altered conform akhenaten 's revolutionary religious ideas style known amarna


probably granite height nbsp cm egyptian museum berlin file falcon box wrapped contents met b egdp jpg falcon box wrapped contents nbsp bc painted gilded wood linen resin feathers nbsp cm metropolitan museum art new york city gallery religious beliefs book dead guide deceased 's journey afterlife beliefs divine afterlife ingrained ancient egyptian civilization inception pharaonic rule based divine right kings egyptian pantheon populated gods supernatural powers called


help protection however gods always viewed benevolent egyptians believed appeased offerings prayers structure pantheon changed continually new deities promoted hierarchy priests made effort organize diverse sometimes conflicting myths stories coherent system various conceptions divinity considered contradictory rather layers multiple facets reality ka statue provided physical place ka manifest gods worshiped cult temples administered priests acting


king 's behalf center temple cult statue shrine temples places public worship congregation select feast days celebrations shrine carrying statue god brought public worship normally god 's domain sealed outside world accessible temple officials common citizens could worship private statues homes amulets offered protection forces chaos new kingdom pharaoh 's role spiritual intermediary de emphasized religious customs


shifted direct worship gods result priests developed system oracles communicate gods directly people egyptians believed every human composed physical spiritual parts ''aspects'' addition body person '' wt'' shadow ''ba'' personality soul ''ka'' life force ''name'' heart rather brain considered seat thoughts emotions death spiritual aspects released body could move required physical remains


customs anubis ancient egyptian god associated mummification burial rituals attends mummy ancient egyptians maintained elaborate set burial customs believed necessary ensure immortality death customs involved preserving body mummification performing burial ceremonies interring body goods deceased would use afterlife old kingdom bodies buried desert pits naturally preserved desiccation arid desert conditions boon throughout history ancient egypt burials poor could afford


elaborate burial preparations available elite wealthier egyptians began bury dead stone tombs use artificial mummification involved removing internal organs wrapping body linen burying rectangular stone sarcophagus wooden coffin beginning fourth dynasty parts preserved separately canopic jars golden mask mummy tutankhamun new kingdom ancient egyptians perfected art mummification best technique took days involved removing internal organs removing brain nose desiccating body


shabti statues believed perform manual labor afterlife rituals deceased magically animated accompanied burials burial living relatives expected occasionally bring food tomb recite prayers behalf deceased military chariot ancient egyptian military responsible defending egypt foreign invasion maintaining egypt 's domination ancient near east military protected mining expeditions sinai old kingdom fought civil wars first second intermediate periods military responsible maintaining


fortifications along important trade routes found city buhen way nubia forts also constructed serve military bases fortress sile base operations expeditions levant new kingdom series pharaohs used standing egyptian army attack conquer kush parts levant typical military equipment included bows arrows spears round topped shields made stretching animal skin wooden frame new kingdom military began using chariots earlier


pigment known egyptian blue also called blue frit produced fusing sintering silica copper lime alkali natron product ground used pigment ancient egyptians could fabricate wide variety objects glass great skill clear whether developed process independently also unclear whether made raw glass merely imported pre made ingots melted finished however technical expertise making objects well adding trace elements control


color finished glass range colors could produced including yellow red green blue purple white glass could made either transparent opaque medicine medical problems ancient egyptians stemmed directly environment living working close nile brought hazards malaria debilitating schistosomiasis parasites caused liver intestinal damage dangerous wildlife crocodiles hippos also common threat lifelong labors farming building put stress spine joints traumatic injuries construction warfare took


anatomy medical treatments ancient egyptian physicians renowned ancient near east healing skills imhotep remained famous long deaths herodotus remarked high degree specialization among egyptian physicians treating head stomach others eye doctors dentists training physicians took place ''per ankh'' house life institution notably headquartered per bastet new kingdom abydos sa late period medical papyri show empirical knowledge anatomy injuries practical


treatments wounds treated bandaging raw meat white linen sutures nets pads swabs soaked honey prevent infection opium thyme belladona used relieve pain earliest records burn treatment describe burn dressings use milk mothers male babies prayers made goddess isis moldy bread honey copper salts also used prevent infection dirt burns garlic onions used regularly promote good health thought relieve asthma symptoms ancient egyptian surgeons stitched wounds set broken bones amputated


diseased limbs recognized injuries serious could make patient comfortable death occurred maritime technology early egyptians knew assemble planks wood ship hull mastered advanced forms shipbuilding early bc archaeological institute america reports oldest planked ships known abydos boats group discovered ships abydos constructed wooden planks sewn together discovered egyptologist david o'connor new york university woven straps found used lash planks


together reeds grass stuffed planks helped seal seams ships buried together near mortuary belonging pharaoh khasekhemwy originally thought belonged one ships dates bc associated pottery jars buried vessels also suggest earlier dating ship dating bc long thought perhaps belonged earlier pharaoh perhaps one early hor aha early egyptians also knew assemble planks wood treenails


fasten together using pitch caulking seams khufu ship vessel sealed pit giza pyramid complex foot great pyramid giza fourth dynasty around bc full size surviving example may filled symbolic function solar barque early egyptians also knew fasten planks ship together mortise tenon joints seagoing ship hateshepsut 's deir el bahari temple relief punt expeditionlarge seagoing ships known heavily used egyptians trade


back years time king cheops red sea coast near wadi el jarf miles south suez mathematics astronomical chart senemut 's tomb th dynasty earliest attested examples mathematical calculations date predynastic naqada period show fully developed numeral system importance mathematics educated egyptian suggested new kingdom fictional letter writer proposes scholarly competition another scribe regarding everyday calculation tasks accounting land labor grain texts rhind mathematical papyrus


eighty eight hundred symbol ten one hundred written eight times respectively methods calculation could handle fractions numerator greater one write fractions sum several fractions example resolved fraction ''two fifths'' sum ''one third'' ''one fifteenth'' standard tables values facilitated common fractions however written special glyph equivalent modern two thirds shown right ancient egyptian mathematicians knew pythagorean theorem empirical formula aware example


triangle right angle opposite hypotenuse sides ratio able estimate area circle subtracting one ninth diameter squaring result area ''d'' sup sup ''r'' sup sup ''r'' sup sup reasonable approximation formula golden ratio seems reflected many egyptian constructions including pyramids use may unintended consequence ancient egyptian practice combining use knotted ropes intuitive sense proportion harmony population estimates


size population range million rd millennium bce possibly million st millennium bce growing significantly towards end millennium dna dna th dynasty mummies ramesses iii another mummy believed ramesses iii 's son pentawer analyzed albert zink yehia z gad team researchers zahi hawass secretary general supreme council antiquities egypt genetic kinship analyses revealed identical haplotypes mummies using whit athey 's haplogroup predictor identified chromosomal


haplogroup e b e team led led researchers university tuebingen max planck institute science human history jena tested maternal dna mitochondrial mummies abusir el meleq northern egypt near cairo first reliable data using high throughput dna sequencing methods additionally three mummies also analyzed dna two assigned west asian j one haplogroup e b b common north africa researchers cautioned affinities examined ancient egyptian specimens may


representative ancient egyptians since single archaeological site whilst conclusive since relatively older mummies go back th th dynasty rest late roman period authors study said abusir el meleq mummies closely resembled ancient modern near eastern populations especially levant genetics mummies remained remarkably consistent within range even different powers including nubians greeks romans conquered empire wide range mtdna haplogroups found including clades j u h


hv r r k l n x w authors study noted mummies abusir el meleq maternal sub saharan dna modern egyptians little sub saharan ancestry suggesting degree influx end empire genetic studies show greater levels sub saharan african ancestry modern southern egyptian populations anticipate mummies southern egypt would show greater levels sub saharan african ancestry year old mummified head djehutynakht governor middle kingdom th th


dynasty analyzed mitochondrial dna sequence mummy closely resembles u lineage sample jk much recent year old skeleton abusir el meleq site egypt although direct matches djehutynakht sequence reported haplogroup u also found modern day berbers siwa oasis egypt article c coudray complex diversified mitochondrial gene pool berber populations recorded haplogroup u siwa whereas haplogroup u common berber populations west egypt yehia


z gad researchers hawass team published results analysis maternal paternal haplogroups several th dynasty mummies including tutankhamun genetic analysis indicated following haplogroups '''tutankhamun''' ydna '''r b''' mtdna '''k''' '''akhenaten''' ydna '''r b''' mtdna '''k''' '''amenhotep iii''' ydna '''r b''' mtdna '''k''' '''yuya''' '''g a''' mtdna '''k''' '''tiye''' mtdna '''k''' '''thuya''' mtdna '''k''' clade r b determined high frequency r b r v observed among berbers siwa oasis legacy culture monuments ancient egypt left lasting legacy


world egyptian civilization significantly influenced kingdom kush mero adopting egyptian religious architectural norms hundreds pyramids meters high built egypt sudan well using egyptian writing basis meroitic script ref name torok ref meroitic oldest written language africa egyptian used nd century bc early th century ad ref name torok cult goddess isis example became popular roman empire obelisks relics transported back rome romans also imported building


materials egypt erect egyptian style structures early historians herodotus strabo diodorus siculus studied wrote land romans came view place mystery middle ages renaissance egyptian pagan culture decline rise christianity later islam interest egyptian antiquity continued writings medieval scholars dhul nun al misri al maqrizi seventeenth eighteenth centuries european travelers tourists brought back antiquities wrote stories journeys leading wave egyptomania across europe renewed


interest sent collectors egypt took purchased given many important antiquities napoleon arranged first studies egyptology brought scientists artists study document egypt 's natural history published ''description de l' gypte'' th century egyptian government archaeologists alike recognized importance cultural respect integrity excavations ministry tourism antiquities formerly supreme council antiquities approves oversees excavations aimed finding information rather treasure council also supervises museums monument reconstruction programs designed


world history encyclopedia egypt https archiveorg details bub gb c qyoga uc ancient egyptian science source book door marshall clagett http wwwaldokkancom science metallurgyhtm ancient egyptian metallurgy site shows history egyptian metalworking ''napoleon nile soldiers artists rediscovery egypt'' https webarchiveorg web http arthistoryaboutcom od exhibitions ig napoleon nile joseph htm art history http wwwdigitalegyptuclacuk digital egypt universities scholarly treatment broad coverage cross references internal external artifacts used extensively illustrate topics http wwwancient egypt priestscom priests ancient egypt depth information ancient egypt 's priests religious services temples much picture material bibliography english german http wwwhistorycom topics ancient egypt ancient egypt historycom http escholarshiporg uc nelc ueermode showall ucla encyclopedia egyptology https wwwbbccouk history ancient egyptians women shtml


ancient egypt role women dr joann fletcher http wwwcivilizationorguk egypt full length account ancient egypt part history world ancient egypt civilizations egypt former empires asia ancient peoples history egypt history mediterranean