history modernism classicism continued foundation art education soviet academies providing foundation expressive figurative art throughout eastern europe parts middle east year european classical tradition retains wide appeal public awaits educational tradition revive contemporary development modern classical became either decorative art deco paul manship jose de creeft carl milles abstractly stylized expressive gothic anton hanak wilhelm lehmbruck ernst barlach arturo martini turned renaissance giacomo manz


venanzo crocetti stayed charles despiau marcel gimond modernism gaston lachaise ''floating figure'' bronze edition national gallery australia modernist sculpture movements include cubism geometric abstraction de stijl suprematism constructivism dadaism surrealism futurism formalism abstract expressionism pop art minimalism land art installation art among others henry moore ''large reclining figure'' based smaller model fitzwilliam museum cambridge david smith ''cubi vi'' israel museum jerusalem early days th century pablo picasso revolutionized art sculpture began creating ''constructions'' fashioned

Humanities
Visual arts
Fine arts
Sculpture


combining disparate objects materials one constructed piece sculpture sculptural equivalent collage two dimensional art advent surrealism led things occasionally described sculpture would previously involuntary sculpture several senses including coulage later years picasso became prolific potter leading interest historic pottery around world revival ceramic art figures george e ohr subsequently peter voulkos kenneth price robert arneson marcel duchamp originated use found object french objet


figure represents clear could bird horse woman totally abstract shape late abstract sculptors began experimenting wide array new materials different approaches creating work surrealist imagery anthropomorphic abstraction new materials combinations new energy sources varied surfaces objects became characteristic much new modernist sculpture collaborative projects landscape designers architects landscape architects expanded outdoor site contextual integration artists isamu noguchi david smith alexander calder jean tinguely richard lippold george


rickey louise bourgeois philip pavia louise nevelson came characterize look modern sculpture abstract expressionism geometric abstraction minimalism reduces sculpture essential fundamental features predominated works period cubi works david smith welded steel works sir anthony caro well welded sculpture large variety sculptors large scale work john chamberlain environmental installation scale works mark di suvero minimalists include tony smith donald judd robert morris anne truitt giacomo benevelli arnaldo pomodoro richard serra


dan flavin carl andre john safer added motion monumentality theme purity line figurative sculpture modernist artists stylized forms made artists leonard baskin ernest trova george segal marisol escobar paul thek robert graham classic articulated style fernando botero bringing painting 's 'oversized figures' monumental sculptures gallery modernist sculpture gallery width px height px file andr derain automne nu debout limestone x x cm mus e national d'art modernejpg andr derain ''nu debout'' limestone mus e national d'art moderne file henri


matisse figure corative bronzejpg henri matisse ''figure corative'' bronze file woman 's head met dt jpg amedeo modigliani ''female head'' metropolitan museum art file joseph csaky deux femme two women plaster lost photo galerie ren reichard frankfurt dpijpg joseph csaky ''groupe de femmes groupe de trois femmes groupe de trois personnages '' plaster lost file alexander archipenko la vie familiale family life jpg alexander archipenko ''la vie familiale'' ''family life'' destroyed file constantin brancusi portrait mlle pogany philadelphia museum modern art philadelphiajpg constantin br ncu ''portrait mademoiselle pogany'' white marble limestone block philadelphia museum art exhibited armory


show file otto gutfreund cellista jpg otto gutfreund ''cellist'' file marcel duchamp fountain photograph alfred stieglitzjpg marcel duchamp ''fountain'' file jacobepstein dayandnightjpg jacob epstein ''day night'' carved london underground 's headquarters file het treurende ouderpaar k kolwitzjpg k kollwitz ''the grieving parents'' world war memorial son peter vladslo german war cemetery file jacques lipchitz birth muses mit campusjpg jacques lipchitz ''birth muses'' file barbara hepworth monolyth empyreanjpg barbara hepworth ''monolith empyrean'' file john chamberlain hirshhornjpg john chamberlain ''s'' hirshhorn museum sculpture garden washington dc file moore threepiecerecliningfigureno jpg henry moore ''three piece reclining figure ''


yorkshire file x chicago picassojpg pablo picasso chicago picasso chicago illinois file george rickey ri gif george rickey ''four squares geviert'' terrace new national gallery berlin germany rickey considered kinetic sculptor file alexander calder crinkly avec disc rouge jpg alexander calder ''crinkly avec disc rouge'' schlossplatz stuttgart file atmos n environ xiijpg louise nevelson ''atmosphere environment xii'' philadelphia museum art file caro jpg sir anthony caro ''black cover flat'' steel tel aviv museum art file dona ocelljpg joan mir ''woman bird'' barcelona spain file spider guggenheim museum bilbaojpg louise bourgeois ''maman'' outside museo guggenheim gallery contemporary movements


christo jeanne claude ''umbrellas'' japan ''device root evil'' sculpture dennis oppenheim br palma de mallorca pla de la porta de santa catalina site specific environmental art works represented artists andy goldsworthy walter de maria richard long richard serra robert irwin george rickey christo jeanne claude led contemporary abstract sculpture new directions artists created environmental sculpture expansive sites 'land art american west' group projects land art 'earth art' environmental scale sculpture works exemplified artists robert smithson michael heizer james


turrell roden crater eva hesse sol lewitt jackie winsor keith sonnier bruce nauman dennis oppenheim among others pioneers postminimalist sculpture also artists diverse eduardo paolozzi chryssa claes oldenburg george segal edward kienholz nam june paik wolf vostell duane hanson john deandrea explored abstraction imagery figuration video art environment light sculpture installation art new ways conceptual art art concept idea involved work take precedence traditional aesthetic material concerns works include ''one three chairs''


joseph kosuth ''an oak tree'' michael craig martin joseph beuys james turrell jacek tylicki minimalism gallery width px height px file tonysmith freeride sculpturejpg tony smith ''free ride'' ' x ' x ' height standard us door opening museum modern art new york file untitledgoldbox jpg larry bell ''untitled'' bismuth chromium gold rhodium gold plated brass hirshhorn museum sculpture garden file judd muensterjpg donald judd ''untitled'' nster germany file richardserra fulcrum jpg richard serra ''fulcrum'' nbsp ft high free standing sculpture cor ten steel near liverpool street station london file donald judd imjjpg donald judd ''untitled'' israel museum art garden


jerusalem gallery postminimalism gallery width px height px file south bank circle richard long tate liverpooljpg richard long ''south bank circle'' tate liverpool england file aile entrav ejean yves lechevallierjpg jean yves lechevallier ''fettered wing'' file twup jerusalem jpg anish kapoor ''turning world upside down'' israel museum file rachel whitereadwien holocaust mahnmal wien judenplatzjpg rachel whiteread ''judenplatz holocaust memorial'' vienna file public contemporary light art sculpture manfred kielnhofer illuminationjpg ''guardians time'' light sculpture manfred kielnhofer light art biennale austria file spire doyler jpg spire dublin officially titled ''monument light'' stainless steel world 's tallest sculpture gallery contemporary genres ''spiral jetty'' robert smithson


tons snow densely packed form produced artificial means collected ground snowfall sound sculptures take form indoor sound installations outdoor installations aeolian harps automatons less near conventional musical instruments sound sculpture often site specific art toys become another format contemporary artists since late produced takashi murakami kid robot designed michael lau hand made michael leavitt artist conservation visible damage due acid rain sculpture sculptures


sensitive environmental conditions temperature humidity exposure light ultraviolet light acid rain also cause damage certain building materials historical monuments results sulfuric acid rain chemically reacts calcium compounds stones limestone sandstone marble granite create gypsum flakes time many contemporary sculptures usually display public places theft problem pieces instantly recognisable early st century value metal rose extent theft massive


bronze sculpture value metal became problem sculpture worth millions stolen melted relatively low value metal tiny fraction value artwork see also list sculptors list female sculptors outline sculpture list stone age art list sculpture parks list expensive sculptures architectural sculpture assemblage butter sculpture cass sculpture foundation collage electrotyping floral design ikebana french sculpture garden sculpture gas sculpture hill figure history asian art hologram inuit art sculpture garden tree shaping living sculpture mask mobiles monumental sculpture


origami plaster cast wax sculpture welded sculpture visual arts notes references boucher bruce ''italian baroque sculpture'' thames hudson world art blunt anthony ''artistic theory italy '' oup refs edn boardman john ed ''the oxford history classical art'' oup briggs philip ''ethiopia'' chalfont st peter bradt travel guides burnett andrew ''coins interpreting past'' university california british museum calkins robert g ''monuments medieval art'' dutton cherry john ''the holy thorn reliquary'' british museum press british museum objects focus cook rm ''greek art'' penguin


reprint de lorenzi james ''guardians tradition historians historical writing ethiopia eritrea'' rochester university rochester press dodwell cr ''anglo saxon art new perspective'' manchester university press frankfort henri ''the art architecture ancient orient'' pelican history art th ed penguin yale history art harkless necia desiree ''nubian pharaohs meroitic kings kingdom kush'' bloomington indiana authorhouse harle j c ''the art architecture indian subcontinent'' nd edn yale university press pelican history art henderson george ''gothic''


penguin henig martin ed ''a handbook roman art'' phaidon paine robert treat paine r soper ''the art architecture japan'' rd edn yale university press pelican history art hugh honour john fleming ''a world history art'' st edn many later editions macmillan london page refs macmillan st edn paperback howgego christopher ''ancient history coins'' routledge kitzinger ernst ''byzantine art making main lines stylistic development mediterranean art rd th century'' faber faber us cambridge olson roberta


j ''italian renaissance sculpture'' thames hudson world art rawson jessica ed ''the british museum book chinese art'' nd edn british museum press piotrovsky b j rogers eds ''heaven earth art islamic lands'' prestel robinson james ''masterpieces medieval art'' british museum press sandars nancy k ''prehistoric art europe'' penguin pelican yale history art nb st edn early datings superseded sickman laurence sickman l soper art architecture china ''pelican history art'' rd edn penguin


yale history art loc simon joshua ''neomaterialism'' berlin sternberg press smith w stevenson simpson william kelly ''the art architecture ancient egypt'' rd edn yale university press penguin yale history art snyder james ''northern renaissance art'' harry n abrams sobania neal w lalibela akyeampong emmanuel gates henry louis jr ''dictionary african biography'' oxford oxford university press p nbsp sobania neal w lalibela akyeampong emmanuel gates henry louis jr ''dictionary african biography'' oxford oxford university press strong donald et al ''roman art'' nd edn yale university


press penguin yale history art williams dyfri ''masterpieces classical art'' british museum press external links http wwwvamacuk page sculpture sculpture hub victoria albert museum http wwwcmogorg corning museum glass http wwwsculptureorguk cass sculpture foundation charity dedicated commissioning monumental sculpture https archiveorg stream encyclopaediabri chisrich page mode archiveorg ''encyclop dia britannica'' eleventh edition sculpture pp nbsp ''please note wikilink article sculpture eb available'' current research polychromy ancient sculpture ny carlsberg glyptotek http wwwtrackingcolourcom visual arts terminology


venn diagram illustrating intersection two sets '''set theory''' branch mathematical logic studies sets informally described collections objects although objects kind collected set set theory branch mathematics mostly concerned relevant mathematics whole modern study set theory initiated german mathematicians richard dedekind georg cantor particular georg cantor commonly considered founder set theory non formalized systems investigated early

Humanities
Philosophy
Logic
Mathematical logic
Set theory


stage go name ''naive set theory'' discovery paradoxes within naive set theory russell 's paradox cantor 's paradox burali forti paradox various axiomatic systems proposed early twentieth century zermelo fraenkel set theory without axiom choice still best known studied set theory commonly employed foundational system whole mathematics particularly form zermelo fraenkel set theory axiom choice besides foundational role set theory also provides framework develop mathematical theory infinity


cantor 's work initially polarized mathematicians day karl weierstrass dedekind supported cantor leopold kronecker seen founder mathematical constructivism cantorian set theory eventually became widespread due utility cantorian concepts one one correspondence among sets proof real numbers integers infinity infinities cantor 's paradise resulting power set operation utility set theory led article mengenlehre contributed arthur schoenflies klein 's encyclopedia next wave excitement set theory came around


discovered interpretations cantorian set theory gave rise several contradictions called antinomies paradoxes bertrand russell ernst zermelo independently found simplest best known paradox called russell 's paradox consider set sets members leads contradiction since must member member cantor posed question cardinal number set sets obtained related paradox russell used paradox theme


review continental mathematics ''the principles mathematics'' rather term ' 'set'' russell used term class subsequently used technically term ' 'set'' appeared book ''theory sets points'' husband wife william henry young grace chisholm young published cambridge university press momentum set theory debate paradoxes lead abandonment work zermelo work abraham fraenkel thoralf skolem resulted set axioms


zfc became commonly used set axioms set theory work analysts henri lebesgue demonstrated great mathematical utility set theory since become woven fabric modern mathematics set theory commonly used foundational system although areas algebraic geometry algebraic topology category theory thought preferred foundation basic concepts notation set theory begins fundamental binary relation object set ''member'' ''element'' notation


used set described listing elements separated commas characterizing property elements within braces since sets objects membership relation relate sets well derived binary relation two sets subset relation also called ' 'set inclusion'' members set also members set ' 'subset'' denoted example math nowiki nowiki subset math nowiki nowiki math nowiki nowiki math nowiki nowiki implied definition


set subset cases possibility unsuitable would make sense rejected term ''proper subset'' defined called ''proper subset'' subset equal also members elements set math nowiki nowiki subsets turn subsets math nowiki nowiki members set math nowiki nowiki arithmetic features binary operations numbers set theory features binary


operations sets following partial list ''union'' sets denoted set objects member example union math nowiki nowiki math nowiki nowiki set math nowiki nowiki ''intersection'' sets denoted set objects members example intersection math nowiki nowiki math nowiki nowiki set math nowiki nowiki ''set difference''


denoted set members members set difference math math nowiki nowiki conversely set difference math nowiki nowiki math nowiki nowiki subset set difference also called ''complement'' case choice clear context notation sometimes used instead particularly universal set study venn diagrams


''symmetric difference'' sets denoted set objects member exactly one elements one sets instance sets math nowiki nowiki math nowiki nowiki symmetric difference set math nowiki nowiki set difference union intersection ''cartesian product'' denoted set whose members possible ordered pairs member


member example cartesian product nowrap red white red white red white ''power set'' set denoted math mathcal p math set whose members possible subsets example power set math nowiki nowiki math nowiki nowiki basic sets central importance set natural numbers set real numbers empty set unique set containing elements empty set also occasionally called ''null set'' though


name ambiguous lead several interpretations ontology initial segment von neumann hierarchy set pure members sets members members sets example set nowiki containing empty set nonempty pure set modern set theory common restrict attention ''von neumann universe'' pure sets many systems axiomatic set theory designed axiomatize pure sets many technical advantages restriction little generality


lost essentially mathematical concepts modeled pure sets sets von neumann universe organized cumulative hierarchy based deeply members members members etc nested set hierarchy assigned transfinite recursion ordinal number math alpha math known ''rank'' rank pure set math x math defined least ordinal strictly greater rank elements example empty set assigned rank set nowiki containing empty set


assigned rank ordinal math alpha math set math v alpha math defined consist pure sets rank less math alpha math entire von neumann universe denoted nbsp math v math formalized set theory elementary set theory studied informally intuitively taught primary schools using venn diagrams intuitive approach tacitly assumes set may formed class objects satisfying particular defining condition assumption gives rise paradoxes simplest best known russell 's paradox burali forti paradox '''axiomatic set


theory''' originally devised rid set theory paradoxes pbk synopsis history written van heijenoort found comments precede von neumann 's paper widely studied systems axiomatic set theory imply sets form cumulative hierarchy systems come two flavors whose ontology consists ''sets alone'' includes common axiomatic set theory '''z'''ermelo '''f'''raenkel set theory axiom '''c'''hoice zfc fragments '''zfc''' include zermelo set theory replaces axiom schema replacement separation general set


theory small fragment zermelo set theory sufficient peano axioms finite sets kripke platek set theory omits axioms infinity powerset choice weakens axiom schemata separation replacement ''sets proper classes'' include von neumann bernays g del set theory strength zfc theorems sets alone morse kelley set theory tarski grothendieck set theory stronger zfc systems modified allow ''urelements'' objects members sets sets


members ''new foundations'' systems '''nfu''' allowing urelements '''nf''' lacking based cumulative hierarchy nf nfu include set everything relative every set complement systems urelements matter nf nfu produces sets axiom choice hold systems constructive set theory cst czf izf embed set axioms intuitionistic instead classical logic yet systems accept classical logic feature nonstandard membership relation include rough set theory fuzzy set theory


value atomic formula embodying membership relation simply '''true''' '''false''' boolean valued models zfc related subject enrichment zfc called internal set theory proposed edward nelson applications many mathematical concepts defined precisely using set theoretic concepts example mathematical structures diverse graphs manifolds rings vector spaces relational algebras defined sets satisfying various axiomatic properties equivalence order relations ubiquitous mathematics theory mathematical relations described set theory


set theory also promising foundational system much mathematics since publication first volume ''principia mathematica'' claimed even mathematical theorems derived using aptly designed set axioms set theory augmented many definitions using first second order logic example properties natural real numbers derived within set theory number system identified set equivalence classes suitable equivalence relation whose field infinite set set theory foundation


mathematical analysis topology abstract algebra discrete mathematics likewise uncontroversial mathematicians accept principle theorems areas derived relevant definitions axioms set theory however remains full derivations complex mathematical theorems set theory formally verified since formal derivations often much longer natural language proofs mathematicians commonly present one verification project metamath includes human written computer verified derivations theorems starting zfc set theory first order logic propositional logic areas study set theory major area


research mathematics many interrelated subfields combinatorial set theory ''combinatorial set theory'' concerns extensions finite combinatorics infinite sets includes study cardinal arithmetic study extensions ramsey 's theorem erd rado theorem double extension set theory dest ''' axiomatic set theory proposed andrzej kisielewicz consisting two separate membership relations universe sets descriptive set theory ''descriptive set theory'' study subsets real line generally subsets polish spaces begins study pointclasses borel hierarchy


extends study complex hierarchies projective hierarchy wadge hierarchy many properties borel sets established zfc proving properties hold complicated sets requires additional axioms related determinacy large cardinals field effective descriptive set theory set theory recursion theory includes study lightface pointclasses closely related hyperarithmetical theory many cases results classical descriptive set theory effective versions cases new results obtained proving effective version first


extending relativizing make broadly applicable recent area research concerns borel equivalence relations complicated definable equivalence relations important applications study invariants many fields mathematics fuzzy set theory set theory cantor defined zermelo fraenkel axiomatized object either member set ''fuzzy set theory'' condition relaxed lotfi zadeh object ' 'degree membership'' set number example degree membership


person set tall people flexible simple yes answer real number inner model theory ''inner model'' zermelo fraenkel set theory zf transitive class includes ordinals satisfies axioms zf canonical example constructible universe ''l'' developed g del one reason study inner models interest used prove consistency results example shown regardless whether model ''v'' zf


satisfies continuum hypothesis axiom choice inner model ''l'' constructed inside original model satisfy generalized continuum hypothesis axiom choice thus assumption zf consistent least one model implies zf together two principles consistent study inner models common study determinacy large cardinals especially considering axioms axiom determinacy contradict axiom choice even fixed model set theory satisfies axiom choice possible


assumptions certain two player games perfect information determined start sense one player must winning strategy existence strategies important consequences descriptive set theory assumption broader class games determined often implies broader class sets topological property axiom determinacy ad important object study although incompatible axiom choice ad implies subsets real line well behaved particular measurable perfect set property ad


used prove wadge degrees elegant structure forcing paul cohen invented method ''forcing'' searching model zfc continuum hypothesis fails model zf axiom choice fails forcing adjoins given model set theory additional sets order create larger model properties determined ie forced construction original model example cohen 's construction adjoins additional subsets natural numbers without changing cardinal numbers original model forcing also


one two methods proving relative consistency finitistic methods method boolean valued models cardinal invariants ''cardinal invariant'' property real line measured cardinal number example well studied invariant smallest cardinality collection meagre sets reals whose union entire real line invariants sense two isomorphic models set theory must give cardinal invariant many cardinal invariants studied relationships often complex related axioms set


theory set theoretic topology ''set theoretic topology'' studies questions general topology set theoretic nature require advanced methods set theory solution many theorems independent zfc requiring stronger axioms proof famous problem normal moore space question question general topology subject intense research answer normal moore space question eventually proved independent zfc objections set theory set theory 's inception mathematicians objected foundation mathematics common


objection set theory one kronecker voiced set theory 's earliest years starts constructivist view mathematics loosely related computation view granted treatment infinite sets naive axiomatic set theory introduces mathematics methods objects computable even principle feasibility constructivism substitute foundation mathematics greatly increased errett bishop 's influential book ''foundations constructive analysis'' different objection put forth henri poincar defining sets using axiom schemas specification replacement well


statement quantifying infinite domains thus almost modern set theory mathematics particular property modern philosophers adopted wittgenstein 's views spectacular blunder ''remarks foundations mathematics'' wittgenstein attempted refute g del 's incompleteness theorems read abstract reviewers kreisel bernays dummett goodstein pointed many critiques apply paper full recently philosophers crispin wright begun rehabilitate wittgenstein 's arguments category theorists proposed topos theory alternative traditional


axiomatic set theory topos theory interpret various alternatives theory constructivism finite set theory computable set theory topoi also give natural setting forcing discussions independence choice zf well providing framework pointless topology stone spaces active area research univalent foundations related homotopy type theory within homotopy type theory set may regarded homotopy type universal properties sets arising inductive recursive properties higher inductive types principles


introduce students logical operators semantic rule description technically intensional definition ref name ruda ref sets eg months starting letter ''a'' may useful learning computer programming since boolean logic used various programming languages likewise sets collection like objects multisets lists common datatypes computer science programming addition sets commonly referred mathematical teaching talking different types numbers defining mathematical function relation one set domain


another set range see also glossary set theory class set theory list set theory topics relational model nbsp borrows set theory notes references reading external links daniel cunningham http wwwieputmedu set theo set theory article ''internet encyclopedia philosophy'' jose ferreiros https platostanfordedu entries settheory early early development set theory article '' stanford encyclopedia philosophy '' foreman matthew akihiro kanamori eds '' http handbookassafrinotcom handbook set theory '' vols chapter surveys aspect contemporary research set theory cover established elementary set theory see devlin schoenflies


arthur https archiveorg stream encyklomath encyrich page n mengenlehre klein 's encyclopedia formal methods georg cantor


'''social science''' branch science devoted study societies relationships among individuals within societies term formerly used refer field sociology original science society established th century addition sociology encompasses wide array academic disciplines including anthropology archaeology economics human geography linguistics management science political science psychology history positivist social scientists use methods resembling natural sciences tools understanding society define science stricter modern sense interpretivist social scientists


contrast may use social critique symbolic interpretation rather constructing empirically falsifiable theories thus treat science broader sense modern academic practice researchers often eclectic using multiple methodologies instance combining quantitative qualitative research term social research also acquired degree autonomy practitioners various disciplines share aims methods history early censuses surveys provided demographic data history social sciences begins age enlightenment saw revolution within natural philosophy changing basic framework individuals


specialized encyclopedias modern period saw ' 'social science'' first used distinct conceptual field social science influenced positivism ref name kuper focusing knowledge based actual positive sense experience avoiding negative metaphysical speculation avoided auguste comte used term ' 'science sociale'' describe field taken ideas charles fourier comte also referred field ' 'social physics'' ref name kuper following period five paths development sprang forth social sciences influenced comte fields ref name kuper one route taken rise


firmly demanded distinction route theory description prescription non overlapping formal discussions subject foundation social sciences west implies conditioned relationships progressive traditional spheres knowledge contexts italian one sociology slowly affirms experiences difficulty affirming strategic knowledge beyond philosophy theology cfr guglielmo rinzivillo ''la scienza e l'oggetto autocritica del sapere strategico'' milan franco angeli editor p nbsp e sg around start th century enlightenment philosophy challenged various quarters use classical


theories since end scientific revolution various fields substituted mathematics studies experimental studies examining equations build theoretical structure development social science subfields became quantitative methodology interdisciplinary cross disciplinary nature scientific inquiry human behaviour social environmental factors affecting made many natural sciences interested aspects social science methodology examples boundary blurring include emerging disciplines like social research medicine sociobiology neuropsychology bioeconomics history sociology science increasingly quantitative research qualitative methods integrated study


human action implications consequences first half th century statistics became free standing discipline applied mathematics statistical methods used confidently contemporary period karl popper talcott parsons influenced furtherance social sciences ref name kuper researchers continue search unified consensus methodology might power refinement connect proposed grand theory various midrange theories considerable success continue provide usable frameworks massive growing data banks see consilience social sciences foreseeable


future composed different zones research sometime distinct approach toward field ref name kuper term social science may refer either specific ' 'sciences society'' established thinkers comte durkheim marx weber generally disciplines outside noble science arts late th century academic social sciences constituted five fields jurisprudence amendment law education health economy trade art ref name socialcolumbian around start st century expanding domain economics social sciences


described economic imperialism ref name imperialism branches class toccolours style float right margin em em width px text align left clear right style background ddd text align center center '''social science areas''' center following problem areas discipline branches within social sciences ref name kuper anthropology area studies business studies civics communication studies criminology demography development studies economics education environmental studies folkloristics gender studies geography history industrial relations information science international relations law library science linguistics media studies political science psychology public administration sociology social work sustainable development social science disciplines branches knowledge taught researched college university


level social science disciplines defined recognized academic journals research published learned social science societies academic departments faculties practitioners belong social science fields study usually several sub disciplines branches distinguishing lines often arbitrary ambiguous anthropology anthropology holistic science man science totality human existence discipline deals integration different aspects social sciences humanities human biology twentieth century academic disciplines often institutionally divided


three broad domains ''natural sciences'' seek derive general laws reproducible verifiable experiments ''humanities'' generally study local traditions history literature music arts emphasis understanding particular individuals events eras ' 'social sciences'' generally attempted develop scientific methods understand social phenomena generalizable way though usually methods distinct natural sciences anthropological social sciences often develop nuanced descriptions rather general laws derived physics chemistry may explain individual cases general principles many


fields psychology anthropology like fields history easily fit one categories different branches anthropology draw one domains within united states anthropology divided four sub fields archaeology physical biological anthropology anthropological linguistics cultural anthropology area offered undergraduate institutions word ''anthropos'' ancient greek means human person eric wolf described sociocultural anthropology scientific humanities humanistic sciences goal anthropology provide


holistic account humans human nature means though anthropologists generally specialize one sub field always keep mind biological linguistic historic cultural aspects problem since anthropology arose science western societies complex industrial major trend within anthropology methodological drive study peoples societies simple social organization sometimes called primitive anthropological literature without connotation inferior today anthropologists use terms less complex societies refer specific modes subsistence production


pastoralist forager horticulturalist refer humans living non industrial non western cultures people folk ''ethnos'' remaining great interest within anthropology quest holism leads anthropologists study people detail using biogenetic archaeological linguistic data alongside direct observation contemporary customs calls clarification constitutes culture observer knows culture ends another begins crucial topics writing anthropology heard possible view human cultures part one large


evolving global culture dynamic relationships observed ground opposed observed compiling many local observations remain fundamental kind anthropology whether cultural biological linguistic archaeological communication studies communication studies deals processes human communication commonly defined sharing symbols create meaning discipline encompasses range topics face face conversation mass media outlets television broadcasting communication studies also examines messages interpreted political cultural economic social dimensions contexts communication institutionalized


many different names different universities including communication communication studies speech communication rhetorical studies communication science media studies communication arts mass communication media ecology communication media science communication studies integrates aspects social sciences humanities social science discipline often overlaps sociology psychology anthropology biology political science economics public policy among others humanities perspective communication concerned rhetoric persuasion traditional graduate programs communication studies trace history rhetoricians ancient greece field applies outside disciplines well including engineering architecture mathematics


information science economics economics social science seeks analyze describe production distribution consumption wealth word economics ancient greek ''oikos'' family household estate ''nomos'' custom law hence means household management management state economist person using economic concepts data course employment someone earned degree subject classic brief definition economics set lionel robbins science studies human behavior relation ends


scarce means alternative uses without scarcity alternative uses economic problem briefer yet study people seek satisfy needs wants study financial aspects human behavior align right buyers bargain good prices sellers put forth best front chichicastenango market guatemala economics two broad branches microeconomics unit analysis individual agent household firm macroeconomics unit analysis economy whole another division subject distinguishes positive economics


seeks predict explain economic phenomena normative economics orders choices actions criterion orderings necessarily involve subjective value judgments since early part th century economics focused largely measurable quantities employing theoretical models empirical analysis quantitative models however traced far back physiocratic school economic reasoning increasingly applied recent decades social situations politics law psychology history religion marriage family life social interactions paradigm crucially assumes resources scarce


sufficient satisfy wants economic value willingness pay revealed instance market arms' length transactions rival heterodox schools thought institutional economics green economics marxist economics economic sociology make grounding assumptions example marxist economics assumes economics primarily deals investigation exchange value human labour source expanding domain economics social sciences described economic imperialism ref name imperialism education depiction world 's oldest university university bologna italy education encompasses teaching


learning specific skills also something less tangible profound imparting knowledge positive judgement well developed wisdom education one fundamental aspects imparting culture generation generation see socialization educate means 'to draw out' latin ''educare'' facilitate realization individual 's potential talents application pedagogy body theoretical applied research relating teaching learning draws many disciplines psychology philosophy computer science linguistics neuroscience sociology anthropology education individual human begins


birth continues throughout life believe education begins even birth evidenced parents' playing music reading baby womb hope influence child 's development struggles triumphs daily life provide far instruction formal schooling thus mark twain 's admonition never let school interfere education geography map earth geography discipline split broadly two main sub fields human geography physical geography former focuses largely built environment


humans ref name hayes bohanan branches geography include social geography regional geography geomatics geographers attempt understand earth terms physical spatial relationships first geographers focused science mapmaking finding ways precisely project surface earth sense geography bridges gaps natural sciences social sciences historical geography often taught college unified department geography modern geography encompassing discipline closely related gisc seeks understand humanity natural environment fields urban planning regional


science planetology closely related geography practitioners geography use many technologies methods collect data gis remote sensing aerial photography statistics global positioning systems gps history history continuous systematic narrative research past human events interpreted historiographical paradigms theories used name field study ''history'' refers study interpretation record humans societies institutions topic changed time traditionally study history considered part humanities modern academia


law jurisprudence common parlance means rule unlike rule ethics capable enforcement institutions ref name crimes humanity however many laws based norms accepted community thus ethical foundation study law crosses boundaries social sciences humanities depending one 's view research objectives effects law always enforceable especially international relations context defined system rules ref name hhc interpretive concept ref name rdl achieve justice authority ref name jra mediate people 's


interests even command sovereign backed threat sanction ref name jap however one likes think law completely central social institution legal policy incorporates practical manifestation thinking almost every social science humanities laws politics politicians create law philosophy moral ethical persuasions shape ideas law tells many history 's stories statutes case law codifications build time law economics rule contract tort property law labour law company law many


long lasting effects distribution wealth noun ''law'' derives late old english ''lagu'' meaning something laid fixed adjective ''legal'' comes latin word ''lex'' linguistics ferdinand de saussure recognized father modern linguistics linguistics investigates cognitive social aspects human language field divided areas focus aspects linguistic signal syntax study rules govern structure sentences semantics study meaning morphology study structure words phonetics study


speech sounds phonology study abstract sound system particular language however work areas like evolutionary linguistics study origins evolution language psycholinguistics study psychological factors human language cut across divisions overwhelming majority modern research linguistics takes predominantly synchronic perspective focusing language particular point time great deal partly owing influence noam chomsky aims formulating theories cognitive processing language however language exist vacuum


brain approaches like contact linguistics creole studies discourse analysis social interactional linguistics sociolinguistics explore language social context sociolinguistics often makes use traditional quantitative analysis statistics investigating frequency features disciplines like contact linguistics focus qualitative analysis certain areas linguistics thus understood clearly falling within social sciences areas like acoustic phonetics neurolinguistics draw natural sciences linguistics draws secondarily humanities played rather greater role linguistic inquiry th early th centuries


ferdinand saussure considered father modern linguistics political science aristotle asserted man political animal ''politics'' political science academic research discipline deals theory practice politics description analysis political systems political behaviour fields subfields political science include political economy political theory philosophy civics comparative politics theory direct democracy apolitical governance participatory direct democracy national systems cross national political analysis political development international relations foreign policy international law politics public administration administrative behaviour public law judicial behaviour public


sources scholarly articles used building testing theories empirical methods include survey research statistical analysis econometrics case studies experiments model building herbert baxter adams credited coining phrase political science teaching history johns hopkins university psychology wilhelm maximilian wundt founder experimental psychology psychology academic applied field involving study behaviour mental processes psychology also refers application knowledge various spheres human activity including problems individuals' daily lives treatment mental illness word ''psychology''


comes ancient greek ''psyche'' soul mind ''logy'' study psychology differs anthropology economics political science sociology seeking capture explanatory generalizations mental function overt behaviour individuals disciplines focus creating descriptive generalizations functioning social groups situation specific human behaviour practice however quite lot cross fertilization takes place among various fields psychology differs biology neuroscience primarily concerned interaction mental processes behaviour overall processes system


simply biological neural processes though subfield neuropsychology combines study actual neural processes study mental effects subjectively produced many people associate psychology clinical psychology focuses assessment treatment problems living psychopathology reality psychology myriad specialties including social psychology developmental psychology cognitive psychology educational psychology industrial organizational psychology mathematical psychology neuropsychology quantitative analysis behaviour psychology broad science rarely tackled whole major block although subfields encompass natural science base


social science application others clearly distinguished little social sciences lot social sciences example biological psychology considered natural science social scientific application clinical medicine social occupational psychology generally speaking purely social sciences whereas neuropsychology natural science lacks application scientific tradition entirely british universities emphasis tenet psychology student studied concentrated communicated degree conferred bpsy indicates balance natural


social sciences bsc indicates strong entire scientific concentration whereas ba underlines majority social science credits always necessarily case however many uk institutions students studying bpsy bsc ba follow curriculum outlined british psychological society options specialism open regardless whether choose balance heavy science basis heavy social science basis degree applied read ba example specialized heavily science based modules still generally


awarded ba sociology mile durkheim considered one founding fathers sociology sociology systematic study society individuals' relationship societies consequences difference aspects human social action meaning word comes suffix logy means study derived ancient greek stem soci latin word ' 'socius'' meaning companion society general auguste comte coined term sociology way apply natural science principles techniques social world ref name ref comte endeavoured


unify history psychology economics descriptive understanding social realm proposed social ills could remedied sociological positivism epistemological approach outlined ''the course positive philosophy'' ''a general view positivism'' though comte generally regarded father sociology discipline formally established another french thinker mile durkheim developed positivism foundation practical social research durkheim set first european department sociology university bordeaux publishing ''rules sociological method''


established journal ''l'ann e sociologique'' durkheim 's seminal monograph ''suicide'' case study suicide rates among catholic protestant populations distinguished sociological analysis psychology philosophy karl marx rejected comte 's positivism nevertheless aimed establish ' 'science society'' based historical materialism becoming recognized founding figure sociology posthumously term gained broader meaning around start th century first wave german sociologists including max weber georg simmel developed sociological antipositivism field may broadly recognized amalgam three modes social thought


particular durkheimian positivism structural functionalism marxist historical materialism conflict theory weberian antipositivism verstehen analysis american sociology broadly arose separate trajectory little marxist influence emphasis rigorous experimental methodology closer association pragmatism social psychology chicago school developed symbolic interactionism meanwhile frankfurt school pioneered idea critical theory interdisciplinary form marxist sociology drawing upon thinkers diverse sigmund freud friedrich nietzsche critical theory would take something life world war ii


influencing literary criticism birmingham school establishment cultural studies sociology evolved academic response challenges modernity industrialization urbanization secularization perceived process enveloping rationalization field generally concerns social rules processes bind separate people individuals members associations groups communities institutions includes examination organization development human social life sociological field interest ranges analysis short contacts anonymous individuals street study global social processes


terms sociologists peter l berger thomas luckmann social scientists seek understanding ''social construction reality'' sociologists work one subfields one useful way describe discipline cluster sub fields examine different dimensions society example social stratification studies inequality class structure demography studies changes population size type criminology examines criminal behaviour deviance political sociology studies interaction society state since inception sociological epistemologies methods frames enquiry significantly expanded diverged ref name giddens intro sociologists


cross disciplinary nature additional fields study additional applied interdisciplinary fields related social sciences include archaeology science studies human cultures recovery documentation analysis interpretation material remains environmental data including architecture artifacts features biofacts landscapes area studies interdisciplinary fields research scholarship pertaining particular geographical national federal cultural regions behavioural science term encompasses disciplines explore activities interactions among organisms natural world computational social science umbrella field encompassing computational approaches within


social sciences demography statistical study human populations development studies multidisciplinary branch social science addresses issues concern developing countries environmental social science broad transdisciplinary study interrelations humans natural environment environmental studies integrate social humanistic natural science perspectives relation humans natural environment gender studies integrates several social natural sciences study gender identity masculinity femininity transgender issues sexuality information science interdisciplinary science primarily concerned collection classification manipulation storage retrieval dissemination information international studies


various levels leadership administration organization business human organizations effective execution getting people together accomplish desired goals objectives adequate planning executing controlling activities marketing identification human needs wants defines measures magnitude demand understanding process consumer buying behaviour formulate products services pricing promotion distribution satisfy needs wants exchange processes building long term relationships political economy study production buying selling relations law custom government


public administration one main branches political science broadly described development implementation study branches government policy pursuit public good enhancing civil society social justice ultimate goal field though public administration historically referred government management increasingly encompasses non governmental organizations ngos also operate similar primary dedication betterment humanity religious studies western esoteric studies incorporate inform social scientific research phenomena broadly deemed religious religious studies western esoteric studies


social sciences developed dialogue one another methodology social research origin survey traced back least early domesday book scholars pinpoint origin demography publication john graunt 's ''natural political observations upon bills mortality'' social research began intentionally however positivist philosophy science th century contemporary usage social research relatively autonomous term encompassing work practitioners various disciplines share aims methods social scientists employ range


methods order analyse vast breadth social phenomena census survey data derived millions individuals depth analysis single agent 's social experiences monitoring happening contemporary streets investigation ancient historical documents methods originally rooted classical sociology statistical mathematics formed basis research disciplines political science media studies marketing market research social research methods may divided two broad schools quantitative designs approach social phenomena quantifiable evidence often rely statistical analysis


many cases across intentionally designed treatments experiment create valid reliable general claims qualitative designs emphasize understanding social phenomena direct observation communication participants analysis texts may stress contextual subjective accuracy generality social scientists commonly combine quantitative qualitative approaches part multi strategy design questionnaires field based data collection archival database information laboratory based data collections measurement techniques used noted importance measurement analysis focusing difficult achieve goal objective research statistical hypothesis testing


mathematical model uses mathematical language describe system process developing mathematical model termed 'mathematical modelling' also modeling eykhoff defined ''mathematical model'' 'a representation essential aspects existing system system constructed presents knowledge system usable form' mathematical models take many forms including limited dynamical systems statistical models differential equations game theoretic models types models overlap given model involving variety abstract structures system set


interacting interdependent entities real abstract forming integrated whole concept ''integrated whole'' also stated terms system embodying set relationships differentiated relationships set elements relationships element set elements part relational regime dynamical system modeled mathematical formalization fixed rule describes time dependence point 's position ambient space small changes state system correspond small changes numbers


''evolution rule'' dynamical system fixed rule describes future states follow current state rule deterministic given time interval one future state follows current state social scientists often conduct program evaluation systematic method collecting analyzing using information answer questions projects policies programs particularly effectiveness efficiency public private sectors stakeholders often want know whether programs funding implementing voting receiving objecting producing intended effect


formulated taking dialectic hegel joining materialism feuerbach feminist theory extension feminism theoretical philosophical discourse aims understand nature gender inequality marxist theories revolutionary theory class theory cover work philosophy strongly influenced karl marx 's materialist approach theory written marxists phronetic social science theory methodology social science focusing ethics political power based contemporary interpretation aristotelian phronesis post colonial theory reaction


cultural legacy colonialism postmodernism refers point departure works literature drama architecture cinema design well marketing business interpretation history law culture religion late th century rational choice theory framework understanding often formally modeling social economic behaviour social constructionism considers social phenomena develop social contexts structuralism approach human sciences attempts analyze specific field instance mythology complex system interrelated parts structural functionalism sociological paradigm


addresses social functions various elements social system perform regard entire system fringe social theorists delve alternative nature research writers share social theory perspectives include various types following anti intellectualism describes sentiment critique towards evaluation intellectuals intellectual pursuits antiscience position critical science scientific method education degrees universities offer degrees social science fields bachelor social science degree targeted social sciences particular often flexible depth


degrees include social science subjects united states university may offer student studies social sciences field bachelor arts degree particularly field within one traditional liberal arts history bsc bachelor science degree given london school economics social sciences constitute one two main branches science natural sciences addition institutions degrees particular social science bachelor economics degree though


specialized degrees relatively rare united states graduate students may get master 's degree master arts master science field specific degree master public administration phd low priority social science social sciences receive less funding natural sciences estimated funding climate related research spent social science climate change mitigation vastly funding spent natural science studies climate change considerable sums also spent studies impact adaptation


franz boas manuel castells confucius wade davis louis dumont norbert elias friedrich engels milton friedman anthony giddens erving goffman maja g pel thomas hobbes arlie hochschild david hume marie jahoda john maynard keynes paul f lazarsfeld john locke john lubbock st baron avebury robert lucas niklas luhmann niccol machiavelli marcel mauss margaret mead john stuart mill baidyanath misra montesquieu monique borgerhoff mulder jean piaget steven pinker plato john rawls david ricardo jean baptiste say alfred schutz bf skinner adam smith herbert spencer deborah tannen victor turner paige west ethology ethnology gulbenkian commission labelling obshestvovedeny periodic table human sciences


tinbergen 's four questions philosophy social sciences notes references ref ref name giddens intro giddens anthony duneier mitchell applebaum richard ''introduction sociology sixth edition'' new york ww norton company chapter ref ref name hayes bohanan ref ref name imperialism ref ref name kuper kuper kuper j ''the social science encyclopaedia'' ref ref name peck peck ht peabody sh richardson cf ''the international cyclopedia compendium human knowledge'' rev large additions new york dodd mead company ref ref name socialcolumbian social sciences ''columbian cyclopedia'' buffalo garretson cox company p ref ref name geography ref ref name hhc ref ref name jap ref ref


name jra ref ref name rdl ref bibliography michie jonathan ed ''reader 's guide social sciences'' vol pages annotating major topics late th century social sciences th st centuries sources neil j smelser paul b baltes ''international encyclopedia social behavioral sciences'' amsterdam elsevier byrne ds https booksgooglecom booksid navszxvdc c ''complexity theory social sciences introduction'' routledge kuper kuper j ''the social science encyclopedia'' london routledge kegan paul ed limited preview https booksgooglecom booksid zz tt gkc version available lave ca march jg


march st louis gi jones co hamilton rs https archiveorg details presentstatusofs hami ''present status social science review historical critical progress thought social philosophy'' new york hl hinton carey hc ''principles social science'' philadelphia jb lippincott co etc https booksgooglecom booksid rswaaaayaaj volume https booksgooglecom booksid lsewaaaayaaj volume ii https booksgooglecom booksid yawaaaayaaj volume iii calvert gh https archiveorg details introductiontos calvgoog ''introduction social science discourse three parts'' new york redfield general sources backhouse roger e philippe fontaine eds ''a historiography modern social sciences'' cambridge university press covers conceptual institutional


wider histories economics political science sociology social anthropology psychology human geography distributed dutton academic resources ''the annals american academy political social science'' electronic paper sage publications efferson c richerson pj press prolegomenon nonlinear empiricism human behavioral sciences ''philosophy biology'' http wwwdesucdavisedu faculty richerson prolegomena pdf full text opponents critics george h smith http wwwlibertarianismorg columns intellectuals libertarianism thomas sowell robert nisbet ''intellectuals libertarianism thomas sowell robert nisbet'' phil hutchinson rupert read wes sharrock https booksgooglecom booksid zvrg ekc ''there 's thing social science'' sabia dr wallulis j https booksgooglecom booksid igdthi sq wc ''changing social science


theory often designed handle relation topics treated differently different theories may considered distinct instead derived ie word order seen result movement rules derived grammatical relations sequencing subject verb object one basic description language 's syntax sequence subject verb v object usually appear sentences languages usually place subject first either sequence svo sequence sov possible sequences

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Syntax


vso vos ovs osv last three rare generative theories syntax surface differences arise complex clausal phrase structure order may compatible multiple derivations however word order also reflect semantics function ordered elements grammatical relations another description language considers set possible grammatical relations language general behave relation morphosyntactic alignment language description grammatical relations also reflect transitivity passivization


consist constituents potentially type early history ''a dhy '' p ini c th century bc ancient india often cited example premodern work approaches sophistication modern syntactic theory works grammar written long modern syntax came west school thought came known traditional grammar began work dionysius thrax centuries framework known first expounded antoine arnauld book


title dominated work syntax basic premise assumption language direct reflection thought processes therefore single natural way express thought however th century development historical comparative linguistics linguists began realize sheer diversity human language question fundamental assumptions relationship language logic became apparent thing natural way express thought therefore logic could longer relied upon basis studying


consider syntax taxonomical device reach broad generalizations across languages syntacticians attempted explain causes word order variation within individual languages cross linguistically much work done within frameworks generative grammar assumes core syntax depends genetic structure common mankind typological research languages world however found absolute universals leading conclude none syntax directly genetic alternative explanations functional linguists sought language processing suggested


brain finds easier parse syntactic patterns either right left branching mixed widely held approach performance grammar correspondence hypothesis john hawkins suggests language non innate adaptation innate cognitive mechanisms cross linguistic tendencies considered based language users' preference grammars organized efficiently avoidance word orderings cause processing difficulty languages however exhibit regular inefficient patterning include vo languages chinese adpositional phrase verb finnish postpositions


profoundly exceptional languages ref name processing ref syntactic models dependency grammar dependency grammar approach sentence structure syntactic units arranged according dependency relation opposed constituency relation phrase structure grammars dependencies directed links words finite verb seen root clause structure words clause either directly indirectly dependent root prominent dependency based theories syntax recursive categorical syntax algebraic syntax functional generative description meaning text theory operator grammar


word grammar lucien tesni widely seen father modern dependency based theories syntax grammar argued vehemently binary division clause subject predicate associated grammars day np vp remains core phrase structure grammars place division positioned verb root clause structure categorial grammar categorial grammar approach constituents combine function argument according combinatory possibilities specified syntactic categories


example approaches might posit rule combines noun phrase np verb phrase vp cg would posit syntactic category ''np'' another ''np s'' read category searches left indicated np element left outputs sentence element right syntactic category intransitive verb complex formula representing fact verb acts function word requiring np input produces sentence level structure output complex category


chomsky building earlier work zellig harris louis hjelmslev among others since numerous theories proposed umbrella transformational grammar tg original theory generative syntax laid chomsky ''syntactic structures'' government binding theory gb revised theory tradition tg developed mainly chomsky minimalist program mp reworking theory gb framework published chomsky theories find origin generative paradigm arc pair grammar generalized phrase structure grammar gpsg generative semantics head driven


phrase structure grammar hpsg lexical functional grammar lfg nanosyntax relational grammar rg harmonic grammar hg cognitive usage based grammars cognitive linguistics framework stems generative grammar adheres evolutionary rather chomskyan linguistics cognitive models often recognise generative assumption object belongs verb phrase cognitive frameworks include cognitive grammar construction grammar cxg emergent grammar see also list syntactic phenomena metasyntax musical syntax semiotics syntactic category ''syntax'' academic journal syntax programming languages syntax semantics interface usage syntactic terms adjective adjective phrase adjunct adpositional phrase adverb anaphora answer ellipsis antecedent


antecedent contained deletion appositive argument article aspect attributive adjective predicative adjective auxiliary verb binding branching c command case category catena clause closed class word comparative complement compound noun adjective conjugation conjunction constituent coordination coreference crossover dangling modifier declension dependency grammar dependent marking determiner discontinuity support dual form two ellipsis endocentric exceptional case marking expletive extraposition finite verb function word gapping gender gerund government head head marking infinitive inverse copular construction inversion lexical item logical form linguistics command measure word classifier merge modal particle modal verb modifier mood movement movement paradox nanosyntax negative inversion non configurational language non finite verb noun noun ellipsis


noun phrase number object open class word parasitic gap part speech particle periphrasis person personal pronoun pied piping phrasal verb phrase phrase structure grammar plural predicate predicative expression preposition postposition pronoun pseudogapping raising grammatical relation restrictiveness right node raising sandhi scrambling selection sentence separable verb shifting singular sluicing small clause stripping subcategorization subject subject auxiliary inversion subject verb inversion subordination superlative tense topicalization tough movement uninflected word v word order valency verb verb phrase verb phrase ellipsis voice wh movement word order x bar theory references citations sources interdisciplinary essay interplay logic


linguistics syntactic theories tesni lucien '' lem nts de syntaxe structurale'' nd edition paris klincksieck reading volumes case studies syntactic phenomena attempts theory neutral introduction companion surveys major theories jointly reviewed ''the canadian journal linguistics'' march http musejhuedu loginuri journals canadian journal linguistics v hewsonhtml pp part ii computational approaches syntax external links http wwwlingupennedu beatrice syntax textbook syntax natural language online introduction using trees program beatrice santorini anthony kroch university pennsylvania grammar language branches linguistics philosophy language semiotics


discontinued latest release version latest release date latest preview version latest preview date frequently updated programming language operating system platform size


science '''syntax''' system used generate lexical syntactic analyzers parsers deterministic non deterministic kinds context free grammars cfgs well classes contextual grammars developed inria france several decades mostly pierre boullier become free software since syntax distributed cecill license context free parsing syntax handles classes deterministic unambiguous grammars lr lalr rlr well general context free grammars deterministic version used operational contexts eg ada currently used domain


compilation non deterministic features include earley parser generator used natural language processing parsers generated syntax include powerful error recovery mechanisms allow execution semantic actions attribute evaluation abstract tree shared parse forest contextual parsing current version syntax version beta includes also parser generators formalisms used natural language processing well bio informatics formalisms context sensitive formalisms tag rcg formalisms rely context free grammars extended thanks attribute evaluation particular natural language processing lfg error recovery


nice feature syntax compared lex yacc built algorithm automatically recovering lexical syntactic errors deleting extra characters tokens inserting missing characters tokens permuting characters tokens etc algorithm default behaviour modified providing custom set recovery rules adapted language lexer parser built notes references external links http syntaxgforgeinriafr syntax web site http vasyinriafr publications garavel lang mateescu html paper construction compilers using syntax traian compiler construction' conference compiling tools parser generators


'''sexology''' scientific study human sexuality including human sexual interests behaviors functions term ' 'sexology'' generally refer non scientific study sexuality social criticism ref name bullough ref name haeberle sexologists apply tools several academic fields biology medicine psychology epidemiology sociology criminology topics study include sexual development puberty sexual orientation gender identity sexual relationships sexual activities paraphilias atypical sexual interests also includes study sexuality across lifespan including child sexuality puberty adolescent sexuality sexuality among elderly sexology also spans sexuality among mentally


physically disabled sexological study sexual dysfunctions disorders including erectile dysfunction anorgasmia also mainstays history early sexual manuals existed since antiquity ovid 's ''ars amatoria'' ''kama sutra'' vatsyayana ''ananga ranga'' ''the perfumed garden soul 's recreation'' ''prostitution city paris'' early study registered prostitutes paris published alexander jean baptiste parent duchatelet published year died called first work modern sex research ref name bullough bullough v l ''the society scientific


study sex brief history'' mt vernon iowa foundation scientific study sexuality ref scientific study sexual behavior human beings began th century heinrich kaan whose book ''psychopathia sexualis'' michel foucault describes marking date birth case date emergence sexuality sexual aberrations psychiatric field term sexology coined first time united states elizabeth osgood goodrich willard roughly simultaneously group homophile activists yet identifying sexologists


responding shifts europe 's national borders crisis brought conflict laws sexually liberal laws criminalized behaviors homosexual activity victorian era wwii havelock ellis pioneering figure movement towards sexual emancipation late th century despite prevailing social attitude sexual repression victorian era movement towards sexual emancipation began towards end nineteenth century england germany richard freiherr von krafft ebing published ''psychopathia sexualis'' work considered established sexology scientific discipline ref name hoenig hoenig


j dramatis personae selected biographical sketches th century pioneers sexology j money h musaph eds ''handbook sexology'' pp elsevier north holland biomedical press ref england founding father sexology doctor sexologist havelock ellis challenged sexual taboos era regarding masturbation homosexuality revolutionized conception sex time seminal work ''sexual inversion'' describes sexual relations homosexual males including men boys ellis wrote first objective study homosexuality term coined karl maria kertbeny


characterize disease immoral crime work assumes sex love transcended age taboos well gender taboos seven twenty one case studies inter generational relationships also developed important psychological concepts autoerotism narcissism later developed sigmund freud ref name google ref ellis pioneered transgender phenomena alongside german magnus hirschfeld established new category separate distinct homosexuality ref name ttp ekins richard king dave ''the transgender phenomenon'' sage pp ref aware hirschfeld 's studies transvestism


disagreeing terminology ellis proposed term ' 'sexo aesthetic inversion'' describe phenomenon ref name ellis ref first scholarly journal field ''journal sexology'' zeitschrift f r sexualwissenschaft began publication published monthly one year issues contained articles freud alfred adler wilhelm stekel ref name haeberle haeberle e j ''the birth sexology brief history documents'' world association sexology ref first academic association founded ''society sexology'' freud developed theory sexuality stages development include oral anal phallic latency genital stages


run infancy puberty onwards ref name gutenberg ref based studies clients late th early th centuries wilhelm reich otto gross disciples freud rejected theories emphasis role sexuality revolutionary struggle emancipation mankind hirschfeld 's books burned nazis berlin un german pre nazi germany sexually liberal napoleonic code organized resisted anti sexual victorian cultural influences momentum groups led coordinate sex research across traditional academic disciplines bringing germany


heterosexual male female represent potential diversity human sexuality credited identifying group people today referred transsexual transgender separate categories homosexuality referred people 'transvestiten' transvestites germany 's dominance sexual behavior research ended nazi regime ref name bullough institute library destroyed nazis less three months took power may ref name haeberle institute shut hirschfeld 's books burned sexologists early gay rights movement included ernst


burchard benedict friedlaender ernst gr fenberg g spot named published initial research developing intrauterine device iud post wwii world war ii sexology experienced renaissance united states europe large scale studies sexual behavior sexual function sexual dysfunction gave rise development sex therapy ref name haeberle post wwii sexology us influenced influx european refugees escaping nazi regime popularity kinsey studies time american sexology consisted primarily groups working end prostitution educate youth


sexually transmitted diseases ref name bullough alfred kinsey founded institute sex research indiana university bloomington called kinsey institute research sex gender reproduction wrote book scientifically known sexual behavior farm animals humans psychologist sexologist john money developed theories sexual identity gender identity work notably david reimer case since regarded controversial even case key development treatment protocols intersex infants


children ref name diamond ref ref name diamond ref kurt freund developed penile plethysmograph czechoslovakia device designed provide objective measurement sexual arousal males currently used assessment pedophilia hebephilia tool since used sex offenders ref name apobit ref ref name kubanobit ref masters johnson released works ''human sexual response'' ''human sexual inadequacy'' respectively volumes sold well founders became known masters johnson institute vern bullough historian sexology era


well researcher field ref name vernbullough ref emergence hiv aids caused dramatic shift sexological research efforts towards understanding controlling spread disease st century technological advances permitted sexological questions addressed studies using behavioral genetics neuroimaging large scale internet based surveys sexology regulated profession jurisdictions quebec sexologists must members ordre professionnel des sexologues du qu bec one professions eligible receive psychotherapy permits ordre des psychologues du qu bec notable contributors


ray blanchard present gilbert herdt present pan suiming present kenneth zucker present ava cadell present carol queen present james cantor present marta crawford present see also certified sex therapist gender sexuality studies list academic journals sexology list sexology organizations philosophy sex sex education sexological testing sexophobia porn studies references external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwissminfo v international society sexual medicine http sexarchiveinfo archive sexology https americanboardofsexologyorg american board sexology human sexuality sexually transmitted diseases infections


depiction siege lisbon '' 'siege''' military blockade city fortress intent conquering attrition well prepared assault derives ref name merriam ref '''siege warfare''' form constant low intensity conflict characterized one party holding strong static defensive position consequently opportunity negotiation combatants uncommon proximity fluctuating advantage encourage diplomacy art conducting resisting sieges called siege warfare '' 'siegecraft''' '''poliorcetics''' siege occurs attacker encounters city fortress cannot

Applied science
Military sciences
Tactics
Siege


easily taken quick assault refuses surrender sieges involve surrounding target block provision supplies reinforcement escape troops tactic known investment typically coupled attempts reduce fortifications means siege engines artillery bombardment mining also known sapping use deception treachery bypass defenses failing military outcome sieges often decided starvation thirst disease afflict either attacker defender form siege though take many months even years


depending upon size stores food fortified position holds attacking force circumvallate besieged place build line earth works consisting rampart trench surrounding process circumvallation attacking force set upon another force ally besieged place due lengthy amount time required force capitulate defensive ring forts outside ring circumvallated forts called contravallation also sometimes used defend attackers outside siege rancagua chilean


war independence ancient cities middle east show archaeological evidence fortified city walls warring states era ancient china textual archaeological evidence prolonged sieges siege machinery used defenders city walls siege machinery also tradition ancient greco roman world renaissance early modern period siege warfare dominated conduct war europe leonardo da vinci gained much renown design fortifications artwork medieval campaigns generally designed around succession sieges


napoleonic era increasing use ever powerful cannons reduced value fortifications th century significance classical siege declined advent mobile warfare single fortified stronghold longer decisive traditional sieges still occur common due changes modes battle principally ease huge volumes destructive power directed onto static target modern sieges commonly result smaller hostage militant extreme resisting arrest


situations ancient period necessity city walls assyrians using siege ladders relief attack enemy town reign tiglath pileser iii bce palace kalhu nimrud assyrians deployed large labour forces build new palaces temples defensive walls settlements indus valley civilization also fortified nbsp bc hundreds small farming villages dotted indus river floodplain many settlements fortifications planned streets stone mud brick houses kot diji clustered behind massive stone flood dikes defensive walls


neighbouring communities quarrelled constantly control prime agricultural land mundigak c nbsp bc present day south east afghanistan defensive walls square bastions sun dried bricks city walls fortifications essential defence first cities ancient near east walls built mudbricks stone wood combination materials depending local availability may also served dual purpose showing potential enemies might kingdom great walls surrounding sumerian city uruk gained widespread reputation walls length


height later walls babylon reinforced towers moats ditches gained similar reputation anatolia hittites built massive stone walls around cities atop hillsides taking advantage terrain shang dynasty china site ao large walls erected th century bc dimensions width base enclosed area squared ref name needham volume part needham volume part ref ancient chinese capital state zhao handan founded bc


also walls wide base tall two separate sides rectangular enclosure length nbsp yd nbsp ref name needham volume part cities indus valley civilization showed less effort constructing defences minoan civilization crete civilizations probably relied defence outer borders sea shores unlike ancient minoan civilization mycenaean greeks emphasized need fortifications alongside natural defences mountainous terrain massive cyclopean walls built mycenae adjacent


late bronze age c bc centers central southern greece archaeological evidence egyptian siege dapur th century bc ramesseum thebes although depictions sieges ancient near east historical sources art examples siege systems found archaeologically examples several noteworthy late th century bc siege system surrounding tell es safi gath israel consists nbsp km long siege trench towers elements earliest evidence circumvallation system known world


apparently built hazael aram damascus part siege conquest philistine gath late th century bc mentioned ii kings late th century bc siege system surrounding site lachish tell el duweir israel built sennacherib assyria bc evident archaeological remains described assyrian biblical sources reliefs sennacherib 's palace nineveh siege alt paphos cyprus persian army th century bc depictions earliest representations siege warfare dated


protodynastic period egypt c bc show symbolic destruction city walls divine animals using hoes first siege equipment known egyptian tomb reliefs th century bc showing egyptian soldiers storming canaanite town walls wheeled siege ladders later egyptian temple reliefs th century bc portray violent siege dapur syrian city soldiers climbing scale ladders supported archers assyrian palace reliefs th th centuries bc display sieges several near eastern cities though simple battering ram come use


previous millennium assyrians improved siege warfare used huge wooden tower shaped battering rams archers positioned top ancient china sieges city walls along naval battles portrayed bronze 'hu' vessels like found chengdu sichuan dated warring states period th rd centuries bc ref name needham volume part needham volume part ref tactics offensive siege machines mid th century attacker 's first act siege might surprise attack attempting overwhelm defenders ready


march away unharmed often retaining weapons however garrison commander thought surrendered quickly might face execution side treason ref name oxford siege progressed surrounding army would build earthworks line circumvallation completely encircle target preventing food water supplies reaching besieged city sufficiently desperate siege progressed defenders civilians might reduced eating anything vaguely edible horses family pets leather shoes even hittite siege rebellious anatolian vassal


biblical account due logistics long lasting sieges involving minor force could seldom maintained besieging army encamped possibly squalid field conditions dependent countryside supply lines food could well threatened disease starvation intended besieged medieval trebuchets could sling two projectiles per hour enemy positions end siege rapidly various methods developed ancient medieval times counter fortifications large variety siege engines developed use besieging armies ladders could used escalade


defenses battering rams siege hooks could also used force gates walls catapults ballistae trebuchets mangonels onagers could used launch projectiles break city 's fortifications kill defenders siege tower substantial structure built equal greater height fortification 's walls could allow attackers fire upon defenders also advance troops wall less danger using ladders addition launching projectiles fortifications defenders also quite common attempt undermine


fortifications causing collapse could accomplished digging tunnel beneath foundations walls deliberately collapsing exploding tunnel process known mining defenders could dig counter tunnels cut attackers' works collapse prematurely fire often used weapon dealing wooden fortifications byzantine empire used greek fire contained additives made hard extinguish combined primitive flamethrower proved effective offensive defensive weapon defensive universal method defending siege use


fortifications principally walls ditches supplement natural features sufficient supply food water also important defeat simplest method siege warfare starvation occasion defenders would drive 'surplus' civilians reduce demands stored food water warring states period china bc warfare lost honorable gentlemen 's duty found previous era spring autumn period became practical competitive cut throat efficient gaining victory chinese invention hand held trigger mechanism crossbow period revolutionized warfare giving greater


emphasis infantry cavalry less traditional chariot warfare philosophically pacifist mohists followers philosopher mozi th century bc believed aiding defensive warfare smaller chinese states hostile offensive warfare larger domineering states mohists renowned smaller states enemies larger states inventions siege machinery scale destroy walls included traction trebuchet catapults eight foot high ballistas wheeled siege ramp grappling hooks known cloud bridge protractible folded ramp slinging forward means counterweight


rope pulley wheeled 'hook carts' used latch large iron hooks onto tops walls pull cahir castle ireland besieged captured three times earl essex lord inchiquin oliver cromwell enemies attempted dig tunnels walls mining entry city defenders used large bellows type chinese commonly used heating blast furnace smelting cast iron pump smoke tunnels order suffocate intruders advances


prosecution sieges ancient medieval times naturally encouraged development variety defensive countermeasures particular medieval fortifications became progressively stronger example advent concentric castle period crusades dangerous attackers witness increasing use machicolations murder holes well preparation hot incendiary substances arrowslits also called arrow loops loopholes sally ports airlock like doors sallies deep water wells also integral means resisting siege time particular attention would paid defending entrances gates protected drawbridges portcullises


barbicans moats water defenses whether natural augmented also vital defenders european middle ages virtually large cities city walls dubrovnik dalmatia well preserved example important cities citadels forts castles great effort expended ensure good water supply inside city case siege cases long tunnels constructed carry water city complex systems tunnels used storage communications medieval cities like bor bohemia similar used much later vietnam vietnam


war invention gunpowder based weapons resulting higher velocity projectiles balance power logistics definitely favored defender invention gunpowder cannon mortars howitzers modern times traditional methods defense became less effective determined siege siege accounts although numerous ancient accounts cities sacked contain clues achieved popular tales existed cunning heroes succeeded sieges best known trojan horse trojan war similar story tells canaanite city


joppa conquered egyptians th century bc biblical book joshua contains story miraculous battle jericho detailed historical account th century bc called piankhi stela records nubians laid siege conquered several egyptian cities using battering rams archers slingers building causeways across moats classical antiquity peloponnesian war one hundred sieges attempted fifty eight ended surrender besieged area ref name oxford handbook ref alexander great 's army successfully besieged many powerful cities conquests two


impressive achievements siegecraft took place siege tyre siege sogdian rock engineers built causeway originally wide reached range torsion powered artillery soldiers pushed siege towers housing stone throwers light catapults bombard city walls conquerors found tyre phoenician island city nbsp km mainland impregnable macedonians built mole raised spit earth across water piling stones natural land bridge extended underwater island


although tyrians rallied sending fire ship destroy towers captured mole swarming frenzy city eventually fell macedonians seven month siege complete contrast tyre sogdian rock captured stealthy attack alexander used commando like tactics scale cliffs capture high ground demoralized defenders surrendered roman siege machines importance siege warfare ancient period underestimated one contributing causes hannibal 's inability defeat rome lack siege engines thus


able defeat roman armies field unable capture rome legionary armies roman republic empire noted particularly skilled determined siege warfare astonishing number variety sieges example formed core julius caesar 's mid st century bc conquest gaul modern france ''commentarii de bello gallico'' ''commentaries gallic war'' caesar describes battle alesia roman legions created two huge fortified walls around city inner circumvallation held vercingetorix 's forces outer contravallation kept


name stillman ref tribe eventually surrendered muhammad initially wanted kill members banu qaynuqa ultimately yielded abdullah ibn ubayy 's insistence agreed expel qaynuqa ref name cook ref second siege invasion banu nadir according ''the sealed nectar'' siege last long banu nadir jews willingly offered comply muhammad 's order leave madinah caravan counted loaded camels including chiefs huyai bin akhtab salam bin abi al huqaiq left khaibar whereas another party shifted syria two embraced


islam yameen bin amr abu sa bin wahab retained personal wealth muhammad seized weapons land houses wealth amongst booty managed capture armours helmets swords booty exclusively muhammad 's fighting involved capturing divided booty discretion among early emigrants two poor helpers abu dujana suhail bin haneef ref name autogenerated http wwwwitness pioneerorg vil books sm tsn ch html online ref examples include invasion banu qurayza february march ref name life mahomet ref siege ta'if


january ref name mubarakpuri note shawwal ah january ad ref mongols chinese middle ages mongol empire 's campaign china comprising western xia dynasty jin dynasty southern song dynasty genghis khan kublai khan eventually established yuan dynasty effective allowing mongols sweep large areas even could enter well fortified cities used innovative battle tactics grab hold land people concentrating field armies strongholds wait course


smaller fortresses ones easily surprised taken came along two effects first cut principal city communicating cities might expect aid secondly refugees smaller cities would flee last stronghold reports cities streaming hordes refugees reduced morale inhabitants garrison principal city also strained resources food water reserves taxed sudden influx refugees soon formidable undertaking became easy mongols


free lay siege without interference field army destroyed siege aleppo hulagu used twenty catapults ''bab al iraq'' gate iraq alone j zj n several episodes mongols constructed hundreds siege machines order surpass number defending city possessed j zj n surely exaggerated improbably high numbers used mongols defenders give one sense large numbers machines used single siege another mongol tactic use catapults


launch corpses plague victims besieged cities disease carrying fleas bodies would infest city plague would spread allowing city easily captured although transmission mechanism known time bodies mongol warriors golden horde died plague thrown walls besieged crimean city kaffa feodosiya speculated operation may responsible advent black death europe black death estimated killed


completely defenseless ad southern song chinese held enormous barrage mongol attacks much success defense lay world 's first use gunpowder ie early flamethrowers grenades firearms cannons land mines fight back khitans tanguts jurchens mongols chinese song period also discovered explosive potential packing hollowed cannonball shells gunpowder written later around ''huo long jing'' manuscript jiao yu recorded earlier song era cast iron cannon known


'flying cloud thunderclap eruptor' fei yun pi li pao manuscript stated wade giles spelling blockquote shells ''phao'' made cast iron large bowl shaped like ball inside contain half pound 'magic' gunpowder ' 'shen huo'' sent flying towards enemy camp eruptor ''mu phao'' get sound like thunder clap heard flashes light appear ten shells fired successfully enemy camp whole place set ablaze ref name needham volume part needham volume


part ref blockquote ming dynasty ad chinese concerned city planning regards gunpowder warfare site constructing walls thickness walls beijing 's forbidden city favoured chinese yongle emperor r pristine position resist cannon volley built thick enough withstand attacks cannon fire ''for see technology song dynasty'' age gunpowder introduction gunpowder use cannons brought new age siege warfare cannons first


used song dynasty china early th century become significant weapons another years early decades cannons could little strong castles fortresses providing little smoke fire th century however essential regularized part campaigning army castle 's defences greatest advantage cannons siege weapons ability fire heavier projectile farther faster often previous weapons could also fire projectiles straight line could destroy


bases high walls thus 'old fashioned' walls high relatively thin excellent targets time easily demolished great walls constantinople capital byzantine empire broken six weeks cannons mehmed ii 's army late th century illustration cannon gabions however new fortifications designed withstand gunpowder weapons soon constructed throughout europe renaissance early modern period siege warfare continued dominate conduct european wars siege guns developed techniques assaulting


town fortress became well known ritualized attacking army would surround town town would asked surrender comply besieging army would surround town temporary fortifications stop sallies stronghold relief getting attackers would next build length trenches parallel defences known first parallel range defending artillery would dig trench known forward towards town zigzag pattern could


treatise entitled ''de aedificatoria'' theorized methods building fortifications capable withstanding new guns proposed walls built uneven lines like teeth saw proposed star shaped fortresses low thick walls however rulers paid attention theories towns italy began building new style late french invasion italian peninsula new fortifications built large scale charles viii invaded italy army men


walls lowered backed front behind earth towers reformed triangular bastions design matured ''trace italienne'' star shaped fortresses surrounding towns even cities outlying defences proved difficult capture even well equipped army fortresses built style throughout th century become fully obsolete th century still use throughout world war though modified th century warfare world war ii ''trace italienne'' fortresses could still present formidable challenge example last days world war ii


battle berlin saw heaviest urban fighting war soviets attempt storm spandau citadel built chose invest negotiate surrender however cost building vast modern fortifications incredibly high often much individual cities undertake many bankrupted process building others siena spent much money fortifications unable maintain armies properly lost wars anyway nonetheless innumerable large impressive


fortresses built throughout northern italy first decades th century resist repeated french invasions became known italian wars many stand day ' new style fortification began spread italy rest europe particularly france netherlands spain italian engineers enormous demand throughout europe especially war torn areas netherlands became dotted towns encircled modern fortifications densely populated areas northern italy united provinces netherlands infamous


high degree fortification cities made campaigns areas hard successfully conduct considering even minor cities captured siege within span campaigning season dutch case possibility flooding large parts land provided additional obstacle besiegers example siege leiden many years defensive offensive tactics well balanced leading protracted costly wars europe never known involving planning government involvement new fortresses ensured war rarely extended beyond


series sieges new fortresses could easily hold men attacking army could ignore powerfully fortified position without serious risk counterattack result virtually towns taken usually long drawn affair potentially lasting several months years members town starved death battles period besieging armies relief columns sent rescue besieged marshal vauban van coehoorn vauban 's star shaped fortified city neuf brisach end th century two influential