neurons fire muscles contract comprise puzzles confronted epistemologists philosophers mind time ren descartes ref name de dualist solutions mind body problem dualism set views relationship mind matter body begins claim mental phenomena respects non physical ref name du one earliest known formulations mind body dualism expressed eastern samkhya yoga schools hindu philosophy c bce divided world purusha mind spirit prakriti material substance ref


first clearly identify mind consciousness self awareness distinguish brain seat intelligence therefore first formulate mind body problem form still exists today ref name de arguments dualism frequently used argument favor dualism appeals common sense intuition conscious experience distinct inanimate matter asked mind average person would usually respond identifying self personality soul another related entity would almost certainly deny

Humanities
Philosophy
Metaphysics
Philosophy of mind


mind simply brain vice versa finding idea one ontological entity play mechanistic unintelligible ref name du modern philosophers mind think intuitions misleading critical faculties along empirical evidence sciences used examine assumptions determine whether real basis ref name du mental physical seem quite different perhaps irreconcilable properties ref name ja jackson f epiphenomenal qualia reprinted chalmers david ed ''philosophy mind classical


difficult reduce anything physical david chalmers explains argument stating could conceivably know objective information something brain states wavelengths light involved seeing color red still know something fundamental situation like see color red ref name nagel ref consciousness mind exist independently physical reality brain one must explain physical memories created concerning consciousness dualism must therefore explain consciousness affects physical reality one possible explanation miracle proposed


arnold geulincx nicolas malebranche mind body interactions require direct intervention god another argument proposed c lewis argument reason monism implies thoughts effects physical causes reason assuming also consequent reasonable ground knowledge however apprehended reasoning ground consequent therefore monism correct would way knowing anything else could even suppose except fluke zombie argument based


thought experiment proposed todd moody developed david chalmers book ''the conscious mind'' basic idea one imagine one 's body therefore conceive existence one 's body without conscious states associated body chalmers' argument seems possible could exist needed things physical sciences describe zombie must true since none concepts involved sciences make reference consciousness mental


phenomena physical entity definition described scientifically via physics move conceivability possibility large one others dennett argued notion philosophical zombie incoherent ref name dennett daniel ref unlikely concept argued physicalism one must either believe anyone including oneself might zombie one zombie following assertion one 's conviction zombie product physical world therefore


different anyone else 's argument expressed dennett argues zombies think conscious think qualia think suffer pains 'wrong' according lamentable tradition ways neither could ever discover ref name dennett daniel see also problem minds interactionist dualism portrait ren descartes frans hals interactionist dualism simply interactionism particular form dualism first espoused descartes ''meditations'' ref name de th century major defenders karl popper john carew


eccles ref name pope ref view mental states beliefs desires causally interact physical states ref name du descartes' argument position summarized follows seth clear distinct idea mind thinking thing spatial extension ie cannot measured terms length weight height also clear distinct idea body something spatially extended subject quantification able think follows mind body identical


radically different properties ref name de seth 's mental states desires beliefs etc causal effects body vice versa child touches hot stove physical event causes pain mental event makes yell physical event turn provokes sense fear protectiveness caregiver mental event descartes' argument depends premise seth believes clear distinct ideas mind necessarily true many contemporary philosophers doubt ref name ce dennett ''consciousness explained'' boston little brown company ref ref name ss stich ''from folk


psychology cognitive science'' cambridge mit press bradford ref example joseph agassi suggests several scientific discoveries made since early th century undermined idea privileged access one 's ideas freud claimed psychologically trained observer understand person 's unconscious motivations better person duhem shown philosopher science know person 's methods discovery better person malinowski shown anthropologist know person 's customs habits better person whose customs habits also


asserts modern psychological experiments cause people see things provide grounds rejecting descartes' argument scientists describe person 's perceptions better person forms dualism four varieties dualism arrows indicate direction causal interactions occasionalism shown psychophysical parallelism psychophysical parallelism simply '''parallelism''' view mind body distinct ontological statuses causally influence one another instead run along parallel paths mind events causally interact mind events brain events causally interact brain


nicholas malebranche well islamic philosophers abu hamid muhammad ibn muhammad al ghazali asserts supposedly causal relations physical events physical mental events really causal body mind different substances causes whether mental physical related effects act god 's intervention specific occasion property dualism property dualism view world constituted one kind substance physical kind exist two distinct kinds properties physical properties mental properties


view non physical mental properties beliefs desires emotions inhere physical bodies least brains sub varieties property dualism include emergent materialism asserts matter organized appropriate way ie way living human bodies organized mental properties emerge way fully accountable physical laws ref name du emergent properties independent ontological status cannot reduced explained terms physical substrate emerge dependent physical properties


emerge opinions vary coherence top causation ie causal effectiveness properties form emergent materialism espoused david chalmers concept undergone something renaissance recent years ref name chalmers ref already suggested th century william james epiphenomenalism doctrine first formulated thomas henry huxley consists view mental phenomena causally ineffectual one mental states influence physical states mental phenomena effects causes


physical phenomena physical events cause physical mental events mental events cannot cause anything since causally inert products ie epiphenomena physical world ref name dusep view defended frank jackson non reductive physicalism view mental properties form separate ontological class physical properties mental states qualia reducible physical states ontological stance towards qualia case non reductive physicalism imply qualia causally inert distinguishes epiphenomenalism panpsychism view matter


mental aspect alternatively objects unified center experience point view superficially seems form property dualism since regards everything mental physical properties however panpsychists say mechanical behaviour derived primitive mentality atoms molecules sophisticated mentality organic behaviour difference attributed presence absence complex structure compound object long ' 'reduction'' non mental properties mental ones place panpsychism strong form property


experientially apparent one may physically uncomfortable instance engaging strenuous physical workout mentally cheerful conversely one may mentally distraught experiencing physical comfort ref name ref experiential dualism notes subjective experience merely seeing something physical world seems qualitatively different mental processes like grief comes losing loved one philosophy proponent causal dualism defined dual ability mental states physical states affect one another mental states cause changes physical states vice


cartesian dualist view correct rather madhyamaka regards error affirming view fundamental substance reality blockquote denying independent self existence phenomena make world experience madhyamaka view departs substance dualism descartes substance monism namely physicalism characteristic modern science physicalism propounded many contemporary scientists seems assert real world composed physical things mental phenomena regarded mere appearances devoid reality much made difference appearances


appropriate mental events sadness recalled image one 's childhood visual perception rose consciousness sort mental phenomena therefore regarded physical simple reason lack many attributes uniquely characteristic physical phenomena thus buddhism never adopted physicalist principle regards physical things real ref name blockquote monist solutions mind body problem contrast dualism monism accept fundamental divisions fundamentally disparate nature reality central forms


according mental experience properties may foundation physical experience properties espoused philosophers alfred north whitehead david ray griffin ref name chalmers phenomenalism theory representations sense data external objects exist view briefly adopted bertrand russell many logical positivists early th century third possibility accept existence basic substance neither physical mental mental physical would properties neutral


substance position adopted baruch spinoza ref name spin popularized ernst mach th century neutral monism called resembles property dualism physicalistic monisms behaviorism behaviorism dominated philosophy mind much th century especially first half ref name kim psychology behaviorism developed reaction inadequacies introspectionism ref name stol introspective reports one 's interior mental life subject careful examination accuracy cannot used form predictive generalizations without generalizability possibility third person examination behaviorists argued


psychology cannot scientific ref name stol way therefore eliminate idea interior mental life hence ontologically independent mind altogether focus instead description observable behavior parallel developments psychology philosophical behaviorism sometimes called logical behaviorism developed ref name stol characterized strong verificationism generally considers unverifiable statements interior mental life pointless behaviorist mental states interior states one make introspective reports descriptions behavior dispositions behave certain ways made


third parties explain predict another 's behavior philosophical behaviorism fallen favor since latter half th century coinciding rise cognitivism ref name kim identity theory type physicalism type identity theory developed jack smart ref name smart ullin place direct reaction failure behaviorism philosophers reasoned mental states something material behavioral mental states probably identical internal states brain simplified terms mental state ''m'' nothing brain state ''b'' mental


physical events anomalous monism see non reductive physicalisms token identity theories despite problems renewed interest type identity theory today primarily due influence jaegwon kim ref name smart functionalism functionalism formulated hilary putnam jerry fodor reaction inadequacies identity theory ref name pu putnam fodor saw mental states terms empirical computational theory mind ref name block block ned functionalism ''readings philosophy psychology'' vols vol cambridge harvard ref time


change physical causal reducibility mental physical without ontological reducibility non reductive physicalism however irreconcilable self identity time brain goes one moment time another brain thus identity time states awareness go one moment next enduring self capital goes one moment next analogy self would flame candle candle wick go one moment


next flame go different flame moment candle burning flame displays type continuity candle go burning really identity flame one moment another time scenario similar non reductive physicalism states awareness every state brain different times different state awareness related enduring self one moment next similarly


similarities epiphenomenalism brain seen root cause mind mind seems rendered inert epiphenomenalism regards one mental states byproduct physical brain states influence physical states interaction one way solving surfeit explanations puzzle leaving us non reducible mental states byproduct brain states causally reducible ontologically irreducible physical states pain would seen epiphenomenalists caused brain state effects


brain states though might effects mental states ie cause distress weak emergentism weak emergentism form non reductive physicalism involves layered view nature layers arranged terms increasing complexity corresponding special science philosophers hold emergent properties causally interact fundamental levels others maintain higher order properties simply supervene lower levels without direct causal interaction latter group therefore holds less strict weaker definition emergentism rigorously stated follows property p


mental state emergentists try solve notorious mind body gap way one problem emergentism idea causal closure world allow mind body causation eliminative materialism one materialist believes aspects common sense psychology find reduction mature cognitive neuroscience non reductive materialism mistaken one adopt final radical position eliminative materialism several varieties eliminative materialism maintain common sense folk psychology badly misrepresents nature aspect cognition eliminativists


patricia paul churchland argue folk psychology treats cognition fundamentally sentence like non linguistic vector matrix model neural network theory connectionism prove much accurate account brain works ref name pat churchlands often invoke fate erroneous popular theories ontologies arisen course history ref name pat ref name paul example ptolemaic astronomy served explain roughly predict motions planets centuries eventually model solar system eliminated favor copernican model


churchlands believe eliminative fate awaits sentence cruncher model mind thought behavior result manipulating sentence like states called propositional attitudes mysterianism philosophers take epistemic approach argue mind body problem currently unsolvable perhaps always remain unsolvable human beings usually termed new mysterianism colin mcginn holds human beings cognitively closed regards minds according mcginn human minds lack concept forming procedures fully grasp mental properties consciousness arise causal basis example would


elephant cognitively closed regards particle physics moderate conception expounded thomas nagel holds mind body problem currently unsolvable present stage scientific development might take future scientific paradigm shift revolution bridge explanatory gap nagel posits future sort objective phenomenology might able bridge gap subjective conscious experience physical basis linguistic criticism mind body problem attempt answer mind body problem encounters substantial problems philosophers argue


problems thesis physicalism mind part material physical world position faces problem mind certain properties material thing seems possess physicalism must therefore explain possible properties nonetheless emerge material thing project providing explanation often referred naturalization mental ref name stol crucial problems project attempts resolve include existence qualia nature intentionality ref name stol qualia many


mental states seem experienced subjectively different ways different individuals ref name nagel characteristic mental state experiential ''quality'' eg pain hurts however sensation pain two individuals may identical since one perfect way measure much something hurts describing exactly feels hurt philosophers scientists therefore ask experiences come existence cerebral events cannot explain accompanied corresponding qualitative experiences


introspective first person aspects mental states consciousness general terms third person quantitative neuroscience called explanatory gap several different views nature gap among contemporary philosophers mind david chalmers early frank jackson interpret gap ontological nature maintain qualia never explained science physicalism false two separate categories involved one cannot reduced alternative view taken philosophers thomas nagel colin mcginn according gap


epistemological nature nagel science yet able explain subjective experience yet arrived level kind knowledge required even able formulate problem coherently ref name nagel mcginn hand problem one permanent inherent biological limitations able resolve explanatory gap realm subjective experiences cognitively closed us manner quantum physics cognitively closed elephants philosophers liquidate gap purely semantic problem


semantic problem course led famous ''qualia question'' ''does red cause redness'' intentionality john searle one influential philosophers mind proponent biological naturalism berkeley intentionality capacity mental states directed towards ''about'' relation something external world ref name searleint property mental states entails contents semantic referents therefore assigned truth values one tries reduce states natural processes arises problem natural processes true false simply


happen would make sense say natural process true false mental ideas judgments true false mental states ideas judgments natural processes possibility assigning semantic value ideas must mean ideas facts thus example idea herodotus historian refers herodotus fact historian fact true idea true otherwise false relation come brain


bodily processes descriptions natural sciences furnish human beings play important role philosophy mind ref name kim many scientific disciplines study processes related mental list sciences includes biology computer science cognitive science cybernetics linguistics medicine pharmacology psychology ref name pinker pinker ''how mind works'' tr ''come funziona la mente'' milan mondadori ref neurobiology theoretical background biology case modern natural sciences general fundamentally materialistic objects study first place physical processes


relation processes perception stimulation ref name pinel ref cognitive neuroscience studies correlations mental processes neural processes ref name pinel neuropsychology describes dependence mental faculties specific anatomical regions brain ref name pinel lastly evolutionary biology studies origins development human nervous system much basis mind also describes ontogenetic phylogenetic development mental phenomena beginning primitive stages ref name pinker evolutionary biology furthermore places tight constraints philosophical theory mind gene based mechanism natural


groups inspired advances computer science computer science concerns automatic processing information least physical systems symbols information assigned means things computers beginning computer programmers able develop programs permit computers carry tasks organic beings need mind simple example multiplication clear whether computers could said mind could someday come call mind question propelled forefront


much philosophical debate investigations field artificial intelligence ai within ai common distinguish modest research program ambitious one distinction coined john searle terms weak ai strong ai exclusive objective weak ai according searle successful simulation mental states attempt make computers become conscious aware etc objective strong ai contrary computer consciousness similar human beings ref name searle ref program strong ai goes


back one pioneers computation alan turing answer question computers think formulated famous turing test turing believed computer could said think placed room next another room contained human questions asked computer human third party human computer 's responses turned indistinguishable human essentially turing 's view machine intelligence followed behaviourist model mind intelligence


intelligence turing test received many criticisms among famous probably chinese room thought experiment formulated searle ref name searle question possible sensitivity qualia computers robots still remains open computer scientists believe specialty ai still make new contributions resolution mind body problem suggest based reciprocal influences software hardware takes place computers possible someday theories discovered help us understand reciprocal influences human


mind brain wetware psychology psychology science investigates mental states directly uses generally empirical methods investigate concrete mental states like joy fear obsessions psychology investigates laws bind mental states inputs outputs human organism example psychology perception scientists working field discovered general principles perception forms law psychology forms says objects move direction perceived related ref name pinker


law describes relation visual input mental perceptual states however suggest anything nature perceptual states laws discovered psychology compatible answers mind body problem already described cognitive science cognitive science interdisciplinary scientific study mind processes examines cognition works includes research intelligence behavior especially focusing information represented processed transformed faculties perception language memory reasoning emotion within nervous systems human


animal machines eg computers cognitive science consists multiple research disciplines including psychology artificial intelligence philosophy neuroscience linguistics anthropology sociology education spans many levels analysis low level learning decision mechanisms high level logic planning neural circuitry modular brain organisation rowlands argues cognition enactive embodied embedded affective potentially extended position taken classical sandwich cognition sandwiched perception action artificial cognition seen product strongly coupled interaction cannot divided way ref name rowlands ref ref


name ward http philpapersorg archive wareagpdf line version ref near death research field near death research following phenomenon among others occurs example brain operations brain artificially measurably deactivated nevertheless patients report phase perceived happening surroundings ie consciousness patients also report experiences cardiac arrest following problem soon brain longer supplied blood thus oxygen cardiac arrest brain ceases normal operation seconds ie


numerous relation philosophy mind various schools fall label phenomenology existentialism etc globally seen differ analytic school focus less language logical analysis alone also take forms understanding human existence experience reference specifically discussion mind tends translate attempts grasp concepts thought perceptual experience sense merely involve analysis linguistic forms ref name dummett immanuel kant 's ''critique pure reason'' first published


presented major revisions represents significant intervention later become known philosophy mind kant 's first critique generally recognized among significant works modern philosophy west kant figure whose influence marked continental analytic anglo american philosophy kant 's work develops depth study transcendental consciousness life mind conceived universal categories understanding georg wilhelm friedrich hegel 's ''philosophy mind'' frequently translated ''philosophy spirit'' geist third part


''encyclopedia philosophical sciences'' hegel discusses three distinct types mind subjective mind spirit mind individual objective mind spirit mind society state absolute mind spirit position religion art philosophy see also hegel 's ''the phenomenology spirit'' nonetheless hegel 's work differs radically style anglo american philosophy mind henri bergson made ''matter memory'' essay relation body spirit forceful case ontological difference body mind reducing problem definite one


memory thus allowing solution built ''empirical test case'' aphasia modern times two main schools developed response opposition hegelian tradition phenomenology existentialism phenomenology founded edmund husserl focuses contents human mind see noema processes shape experiences existentialism school thought founded upon work ren kierkegaard focuses human predicament people deal situation alive existential phenomenology represents major branch continental philosophy contradictory rooted work


husserl expressed fullest forms work martin heidegger jean paul sartre simone de beauvoir maurice merleau ponty see heidegger 's ''being time'' merleau ponty 's ''phenomenology perception'' sartre 's ''being nothingness'' simone de beauvoir 's ''the second sex'' topics related philosophy mind countless subjects affected ideas developed philosophy mind clear examples nature death definitive character nature emotion perception memory questions person identity


philosophy mind two subjects connection philosophy mind aroused special attention free self ref name kim free context philosophy mind problem free takes renewed intensity case materialistic determinists ref name kim according position natural laws completely determine course material world mental states therefore well would material states means human behavior decisions would completely determined natural laws take reasoning


step people cannot determine want consequently free ref name hond ref argumentation rejected one hand compatibilists adopt position suggest question free answered determined term free means opposite free caused compelled coerced appropriate identify freedom indetermination free act one agent could done otherwise chosen otherwise sense person


free even though determinism true ref name hond important compatibilist history philosophy david hume recently position defended example daniel dennett hand also many incompatibilists reject argument believe free stronger sense called libertarianism ref name hond philosophers affirm course world either completely determined natural law natural law intercepted physically independent agency b determined indeterministic natural law c determined indeterministic natural


concept self self one refers essential immutable nucleus ''person'' modern philosophers mind daniel dennett believe thing exists according dennett contemporaries self considered illusion ref name dhof ref idea self immutable essential nucleus derives idea immaterial soul idea unacceptable modern philosophers physicalist orientations general skepticism concept self postulated david hume could never catch ''not'' thinking


feeling anything however light empirical results developmental psychology developmental biology neuroscience idea essential inconstant material nucleus integrated representational system distributed changing patterns synaptic connections seems reasonable see also animal consciousness artificial consciousness collective intentionality intension intention outline human intelligence outline thought theory mind animals references reading http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg london philosophy study guide offers many suggestions read depending student 's familiarity subject http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg mindhtm philosophy mind richard rorty ''philosophy mirror nature'' princeton p nbsp pedro jes teruel


''mente cerebro antropolog en kant'' madrid david j ungs ''better one two minds'' london alfred north whitehead ''science modern world'' reprinted london pp nbsp edwin burtt ''the metaphysical foundations modern physical science'' nd ed london pp nbsp felix deutsch ed ''on mysterious leap mind body'' new york herbert feigl '' http ditextcom feigl mp mphtml mental physical essay postscript '' h feigl et al eds ''minnesota studies philosophy science'' minneapolis vol pp nbsp p nbsp


links http conscnet guidehtml guide philosophy mind compiled david chalmers https webarchiveorg web http conscnet mindpapers mindpapers bibliography philosophy mind science consciousness compiled david chalmers editor david bourget assistant editor https webarchiveorg web http philosophyuwaterlooca minddict dictionary philosophy mind edited chris eliasmith https webarchiveorg web http galilean libraryorg manuscriptphppostid introduction philosophy mind paul newall aimed beginners http conscnet onlinehtml list online papers consciousness philosophy mind compiled david chalmers http hostuniroma progetti kant field field guide philosophy mind https webarchiveorg web http wwwahymsinorg main indexphp swami veda bharati mind fieldhtml mind field playground gods indian psychology series swami veda bharati abstraction


cognition concepts epistemology concepts metaphysics consciousness consciousness studies dualism philosophy mind emergence epistemological theories idealism mental content metaphysical theories metaphysics mind monism nondualism ontology philosophical problems philosophical theories qualia reasoning thought


chemical engineering '''process design''' choice sequencing units desired physical chemical transformation materials process design central chemical engineering considered summit field bringing together field 's components process design design new facilities modification expansion existing facilities design starts conceptual level ultimately ends form fabrication construction plans process design distinct equipment design closer spirit

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering
Process design


design unit operations processes often include many unit operations documentation process design documents serve define design ensure design components fit together useful communicating ideas plans engineers involved design external regulatory agencies equipment vendors construction contractors order increasing detail process design documents include block flow diagrams bfd simple diagrams composed rectangles lines indicating major material energy flows process flow diagrams pfd typically complex diagrams major unit operations well flow


lines usually include material balance sometimes energy balance showing typical design flowrates stream compositions stream equipment pressures temperatures piping instrumentation diagrams p id diagrams showing every pipeline piping class carbon steel stainless steel pipe size diameter also show valving along instrument locations process control schemes specifications written design requirements major equipment items process designers typically write operating manuals start operate shut process often also develop accident plans projections process operation


environment documents maintained construction process facility operating personnel refer documents also useful modifications facility planned primary method developing process documents process flowsheeting design considerations several considerations need made designing chemical process unit design conceptualization considerations begin product purities yields throughput rates defined '''objectives''' design may strive include throughput rate process yield product purity '''constraints''' include capital cost amount budget investment construct


end end process available space area land build plant safety concerns consideration towards risk analysis industrial accidents hazardous chemicals environmental impact projected effluents emissions waste production recycling manage waste produced side product process harm surroundings operating maintenance costs represent variable cost operational plant factors designers may include reliability redundancy flexibility anticipated variability feed stock allowable variability product sources design information designers usually start scratch especially complex


projects often engineers pilot plant data available data full scale operating facilities sources information include proprietary design criteria provided process licensors published scientific data laboratory experiments suppliers feedstocks utilities design process design starts process synthesis choice technology combinations industrial units achieve goals detailed design proceeds engineers stakeholders sign stage conceptual detailed design simulation software often used design engineers simulations identify weaknesses designs allow engineers choose better


alternatives however engineers still rely heuristics intuition experience designing process human creativity element complex designs see also chemical engineer chemical plant chemical process process integration process simulation chemical process modeling environmental engineering industrial process list chemical process simulators process engineering process safety unit process recommended chemical engineering books references external links https processdesignmccormicknorthwesternedu chemical process design open textbook northwestern university fengqi process engineering


'''quantitative psychology''' field scientific study focuses mathematical modeling research design methodology statistical analysis psychological processes includes tests devices measuring cognitive abilities quantitative psychologists develop analyze wide variety research methods including psychometrics field concerned theory technique psychological measurement psychologists long contributed statistical mathematical analysis quantitative psychology specialty recognized american psychological association doctoral degrees awarded field number universities europe north america

Social science
Psychology
Quantitative psychology


quantitative psychologists high demand industry government academia training social science quantitative methodology provides unique skill set solving applied theoretical problems variety areas history francis galton 's correlation diagram quantitative psychology roots early experimental psychology nineteenth century scientific method first systematically applied psychological phenomena notable contributions included e h weber 's studies tactile sensitivity fechner 's development use psychophysical methods helmholtz 's research vision audition beginning


wilhelm wundt often called founder experimental psychology called psychologist opened psychological laboratory many researchers came study work many others helped put rest assertion theorists immanuel kant psychology could become science precise experiments human mind impossible intelligence testing intelligence testing long important branch quantitative psychology nineteenth century english statistician francis galton pioneer psychometrics first create standardized test intelligence


among first apply statistical methods study human differences inheritance came believe intelligence largely determined heredity also hypothesized measures speed reflexes muscle strength head size correlated intelligence established world 's first mental testing center following year published observations theories inquiries human faculty development statistical techniques iq scores represented normal distribution statistical methods quantitative tools


used psychologists pearson introduced correlation coefficient chi squared test period saw test student anova fisher non parametric correlation coefficient spearman large number tests developed latter half th century eg multivariate tests popular techniques hierarchical linear model arnold structural equation modeling byrne independent component analysis hyvarin n karhunen oja relatively recent psychologist stanley smith stevens organized levels measurement four scales nominal ordinal ratio interval paper


still often cited jacob cohen new york university professor psychology analyzed quantitative methods involving statistical power effect size helped lay foundations current statistical meta analysis methods estimation statistics gave name cohen 's kappa cohen 's influential paper titled graduate training statistics methodology measurement psychology published ''american psychologist'' journal article discussed need increased date training quantitative methods psychology graduate programs united states education training undergraduate training


sciences methodology provides advanced training research methodology applied data analysis practical research experience relevant quantitative psychology coursework computer science also useful mastery object oriented programming language learning write code spss r useful type data analysis performed graduate school graduate peabody college ''pictured'' vanderbilt university houses quantitative methods program quantitative psychologists may possess doctoral degree master 's degree due interdisciplinary nature depending research focus university programs may housed


education others vanderbilt university 's phd psychological sciences jointly housed across two psychology departments universities mathematical focus include mcgill university 's quantitative psychology modeling program purdue university 's mathematical computational cognitive science degrees students interest modeling biological functional data may go related fields biostatistics computational neuroscience doctoral programs typically accept students bachelor 's degrees although schools may require master 's degree applying first two years studies graduate students typically earn master arts psychology master science


statistics applied statistics additionally several universities offer minor concentrations quantitative methods new york university companies produce standardized tests college board educational testing service american college testing biggest private sector employers quantitative psychologists companies also often provide internships students graduate school shortage qualified applicants august american psychological association expressed need quantitative psychologists industry every phd awarded subject quantitative psychologist position openings due lack


applicants field apa created task force study state quantitative psychology predict future domestic us applicants especially lacking majority international applicants come asian countries especially south korea china ref name taskforce ref response lack qualified applicants apa council representatives authorized special task force task force chaired leona aiken arizona state university research areas example social network diagram quantitative psychologists generally main area interest ref name prinstein ref notable research areas


generally regarded superior classical test theory preferred method developing scales united states especially optimal decisions demanded called high stakes tests eg graduate record examination gre graduate management admission test gmat professional organizations quantitative psychology served several scientific organizations include psychometric society division american psychological association evaluation measurement statistics society multivariate experimental psychology european society methodology associated disciplines include statistics mathematics educational measurement educational statistics sociology political science several


scholarly journals reflect efforts scientists areas notably ''psychometrika'' ''multivariate behavioral research'' ''structural equation modeling'' ''psychological methods'' notable people following select list quantitative psychologists people contributed field see also list schools quantitative psychology mathematical psychology ''measuring mind'' network neuroscience psychophysics psychometrics ''psychometrika'' quantitative psychological research winbugs references reading external links https wwwapadivisionsorg division apa division evaluation measurement statistics https wwwpsychometricsocietyorg psychometric society http wwwsmeporg society multivariate experimental psychology http wwwsmabsorg european society


methodology https webarchiveorg web http wwwcogsindianaedu socmathpsych society mathematical psychology psychometrics branches psychology quantitative analysis behavior quantitative research applied statistics


planking'' ohio usa x px '''sociology body''' branch sociology studying representations social uses human body modern societies early theories according thomas laqueur prior eighteenth century predominant model social understanding body one sex model one flesh model followed one model body differed sexes races example vagina simply seen weaker version penis even thought emit sperm changed enlightenment

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of the body


sixteenth century europe began participate slave trade order justify large quantity literature produced showing deviant sexuality savagery african fanon eighteenth century ideas egalitarianism universal inalienable rights becoming intellectual norm however could justify subordination women within theory explain ''biology incommensurability'' created essentially claimed different sexes races better adjusted different tasks could therefore show necessity discrimination subordination example craniometry


used show people african descent less evolved european descent gould also combined technological developments taking place leading people seeing body machine therefore understandable classifiable repairable one first examples work william harvey early seventeenth century another early key area development cartesian dichotomy saw mind body separated led principle interaction two accepted theory body


development structuralist approach twentieth century importance studying body especially important within sociology body tradition sociology health illness illness may obviously reduce level normal functioning body also increasingly people society believe illness prevented fulfilling activities leading healthy body thus changing one 's lifestyle dieting exercise well avoiding anything cause damage body like smoking moreover medical science able alter bodies


specially working topic links words flesh various journals publishing papers domain france staps international journal sport science physical education corps culture corps could consulted web quite works translated english difficult access american english researchers topic body image related disorders sociology body become deeply affected society way society views one another turn results


way people individuals view one end spectrum eating disorders anorexia bulimia end growing epidemic obesity especially us ideals increased widely last decades due part growing mass media coverage norms within society always growing pressure either look feel certain way anorexia disorder often defined markedly reduced appetite total aversion food definition anorexia often along


carr ref name autogenerated giddens duneier appelbaum carr introduction sociology seventh edition new york london w w norton pg ref individual feels inadequate imperfect may anxieties others perceive becomes focus feelings body point shedding weight becomes means making everything right world fact strong personal independence bodies past presents us positive possibilities well new anxieties problems giddens duneier appelbaum carr ref name autogenerated idea


sociologists call socialization nature phenomenon used natural given nature become social depend social decisions ref name autogenerated obesity state well one 's normal weight become end distorted ideas body image definition obesity according centers disease control roughly percent adult americans weight estimated percent american children ages six eleven along percent ages twelve nineteen overweight giddens duneier appelbaum


carr ref name autogenerated reasons thought behind obesity vary widely often debated believe population statistical artifact believe childhood obesity due compositional factors others believe problems due something called obesogenic environment sociologists perplexed mostly persistence negative attitudes towards overweight obese individuals sociological perspective interactions seen show society obese individuals persons obesity likely experience


employment discrimination discrimination health care providers daily experience teasing insult shame giddens duneier appelbaum carr ref name autogenerated people influenced sociology body philippe ari alexandre baril susan bordo pierre bourdieu judith butler peter conrad mary douglas norbert elias frantz fanon mike featherstone michel foucault erving goffman donna haraway julia kristeva thomas w laqueur deborah lupton ann oakley john o'neill susie orbach nikolas rose barbara katz rothman dorothy e smith bryan turner see also sociology health illness subfield sociology one whose characteristics


interacts sociology body medical sociology references references body human body


address present situation perceived need christian theology permeated much western culture especially pre modern europe christian traditions christian theology varies significantly across main branches christian tradition catholic orthodox protestant traditions unique approaches seminaries ministerial formation systematic theology systematic theology discipline christian theology formulates orderly rational coherent account christian faith beliefs systematic theology draws foundational sacred texts christianity simultaneously investigating development christian doctrine course history particularly philosophical evolution


inherent system theological thought development method one apply broadly particularly christian systematic theology typically explore god theology proper attributes god trinity espoused trinitarian christians revelation biblical hermeneutics interpretation biblical texts creation divine providence theodicy accounting benign god 's tolerance evil philosophy hamartiology study sin christology study nature person christ pneumatology study holy spirit soteriology study salvation ecclesiology study


christian church missiology study christian message missions spirituality mysticism sacramental theology eschatology ultimate destiny humankind moral theology christian anthropology afterlife prolegomena scripture basis theology biblical revelation thomas aquinas ''valle romita polyptych'' gentile da fabriano revelation revealing disclosing making something obvious active passive communication god originate directly god agent angel person recognised experienced contact often called prophet christianity generally considers


trinity incarnation revealed teachings scriptures otherwise deduced except special revelation biblical inspiration rembrandt 's ''the evangelist matthew inspired angel'' bible contains many passages authors claim divine inspiration message report effects inspiration others besides direct accounts written revelation moses receiving ten commandments inscribed tablets stone prophets old testament frequently claimed message divine origin prefacing revelation using following phrase thus


says lord example http wwwbiblegatewaycom passage search ikings ichronicles jeremiah ezekiel zechariah kgs chr jer ezek zech etc second epistle peter claims prophecy scripture ever produced man men spoke god carried along holy spirit second epistle peter also implies paul 's writings inspired http wwwbiblegatewaycom passage search peter pet many christians cite verse paul 's letter timothy timothy evidence scripture given inspiration god profitable st paul


referring old testament since scriptures known timothy infancy verse others offer alternative reading passage example theologian c h dodd suggests probably rendered every inspired scripture also useful ref name dodd p ref similar translation appears new english bible revised english bible footnoted alternative new revised standard version latin vulgate read yet others defend traditional interpretation daniel b wallace calls alternative probably best translation modern english


name infallible ref christians infer bible cannot refer divinely inspired also errant fallible bible divinely inspired source inspiration divine would subject fallibility error produced doctrines divine inspiration infallibility inerrancy inseparably tied together idea biblical integrity concept infallibility suggesting current biblical text complete without error integrity biblical text never corrupted degraded ref


name inerrancy historians note claim doctrine bible 's infallibility adopted hundreds years books bible written biblical canon content protestant old testament hebrew bible canon changes division order books catholic old testament contains additional texts known deuterocanonical books protestants recognize books old testament canon roman catholic eastern christians recognize books canonical catholics protestants use book new testament canon early christians used septuagint


koine greek translation hebrew scriptures christianity subsequently endorsed various additional writings would become new testament th century series synods notably synod hippo ad produced list texts equal book canon old testament catholics use today book canon new testament use definitive list come early ecumenical council around jerome produced vulgate definitive latin edition bible contents insistence bishop


rome accorded decisions earlier synods process effectively set new testament canon although examples exist canonical lists use time th century protestant reformation certain reformers proposed different canonical lists old testament texts appear septuagint jewish canon fell favor eventually disappeared protestant canons catholic bibles classify texts deuterocanonical books whereas protestant contexts label apocrypha theology proper god christianity god creator preserver universe god


ascribed god christian theology aseity god independent need us based acts says god served human hands needed anything niv often related god 's ' 'self existence'' ' 'self sufficiency'' eternity god exists beyond temporal realm graciousness god extends favor gifts human beings unconditionally well conditionally holiness god separate sin incorruptible noting refrain holy holy holy isaiah revelation immanence although god transcendent


holy also accessible dynamically experienced immutability god 's essential nature unchangeable impassibility god experience emotion suffering controversial doctrine disputed especially open theism impeccability god incapable error sin incorporeality god without physical composition related concept ' 'spirituality'' god derived jesus' statement john god spirit love god care compassion john says god love mission god supreme liberator mission god traditionally included list david bosch


argued mission primarily activity church attribute god omnibenevolence god omnibenevolent omnibenevolence god refers good omnipotence god supremely powerful omnipresence god supreme existing everywhere times perceiving conceiving foundation reality omniscience god supremely knowing oneness god without peer also every divine attribute instantiated entirety qualitative infinity god see also monotheism divine simplicity providence god watches creation interest dedication providence


laws thus bound also wholly incomprehensible apart general special self revelation triune christian god understood trinitarian christians threeness father son holy spirit fully consistent oneness single infinite within beyond nature persons trinity represent personal relation even level god personal relation toward us relation toward veracity god truth human beings strive


always spirit god granting understanding men able perceive later god visited belief gradually developed modern formulation trinity doctrine god single entity yahweh trinity god 's single meaning always debated mysterious trinity described hypostases greek language subsistences latin persons english nonetheless christians stress believe one god christian churches teach


trinity opposed unitarian monotheistic beliefs historically christian churches taught nature god mystery something must revealed special revelation rather deduced general revelation christian orthodox traditions catholic eastern orthodox protestant follow idea codified reached full development work cappadocian fathers consider god triune entity called trinity comprising three persons god father god son god holy spirit described substance true


christian faith nicene creed among others gives orthodox christian definition trinity begin believe one god rd century tertullian claimed god exists father son holy spirit three personae one substance ref name ucp ''critical terms religious studies'' chicago university chicago press ''credo reference'' july ref trinitarian christians god father separate god god son jesus incarnation holy spirit


''hypostases'' persons christian godhead ref name ucp according nicene creed son jesus christ eternally begotten father indicating divine father son relationship tied event within time human history christianity doctrine trinity states god one exists simultaneously eternally mutual indwelling three persons father son incarnate jesus holy spirit holy ghost since earliest christianity one 's salvation closely related concept triune god although trinitarian doctrine


well attested early christian literature conception purgatory geographically situated place largely achievement medieval christian piety imagination ref doctrine states god triune god existing three ''persons'' greek ''hypostases'' one personhood trinity match common western understanding person used english language imply individual self actualized center free conscious activity ref name olsen ref ancients personhood sense individual always community well ref name olsen ''person'' understood


one identical essence nature merely similar natures since beginning rd century doctrine trinity stated one god exists three persons one substance father son holy spirit ref name odcc doctrine trinitarianism belief trinity mark catholicism eastern oriental orthodoxy well prominent christian sects arising protestant reformation anglicanism methodism lutheranism baptist presbyterianism ''the oxford dictionary christian church'' describes trinity central dogma christian theology ref name odcc doctrine ref doctrine contrasts nontrinitarian


positions include unitarianism oneness modalism small minority christians hold non trinitarian views largely coming heading unitarianism christians believe god spirit uncreated omnipotent eternal creator sustainer things works redemption world son jesus christ background belief divinity christ holy spirit expressed doctrine trinity describes single divine ''ousia'' substance existing three distinct inseparable ''hypostases'' persons father son jesus christ


logos holy spirit trinitarian doctrine considered christians core tenet faith nontrinitarians typically hold god father supreme jesus although still divine lord savior son god holy spirit phenomenon akin god 's earth holy three separate yet son holy spirit still seen originating god father new testament term trinity nowhere discusses trinity emphasize however new


testament repeatedly speak father son holy spirit compel trinitarian understanding god ref name stagg p ref doctrine developed biblical language used new testament passages baptismal formula end th century widely held present form god father many monotheist religions god addressed father part active interest human affairs way father would take interest children dependent


father respond humanity children acting best interests christianity god called father literal sense besides creator nurturer creation provider children father said unique relationship begotten ''monogenes'' son jesus christ implies exclusive intimate familiarity one knows son except father one knows father except son one son chooses reveal christianity god father 's relationship humanity


father children previously unheard sense creator nurturer creation provider children people thus humans general sometimes called ''children god'' christians god father 's relationship humanity creator created beings respect father new testament says sense idea family wherever appears derives name god father thus god model family however deeper legal


sense christians believe made participants special relationship father son jesus christ spiritual bride christians call ''adopted'' children god new testament god father special role relationship person son jesus believed son heir according nicene creed son jesus christ eternally begotten father indicating divine father son relationship tied event within time human history ''see'' christology bible refers


christ called word present beginning god 's creation creation equal personhood trinity eastern orthodox theology god father principium ''beginning'' source origin son holy spirit gives intuitive emphasis threeness persons comparison western theology explains origin three ''hypostases'' persons divine nature gives intuitive emphasis oneness god 's christology christ christology field study within christian theology


primarily concerned nature person works jesus christ held christians son god christology concerned meeting human son man divine god son word god person jesus primary considerations include incarnation relationship jesus' nature person nature person god salvific work jesus christology generally less concerned details jesus' life teaching


various perspectives claim followers since church began ascension controversies ultimately focused whether human nature divine nature co exist one person study inter relationship two natures one preoccupations majority tradition teachings jesus testimonies accomplished three year public ministry found throughout new testament core biblical teachings person jesus christ may summarized jesus christ forever fully god divine fully


rose life scripture asserts jesus conceived holy spirit born virgin mother mary without human father biblical accounts jesus' ministry include miracles preaching teaching healing death resurrection apostle peter become famous proclamation faith among christians since st century said christ son living god christians wait second coming christ believe fulfill remaining messianic prophecies christ christ english term greek ''khrist s''


meaning anointed one translation hebrew ''m '' usually transliterated english ''messiah'' word often misunderstood surname jesus due numerous mentions ''jesus christ'' christian bible word fact used title hence common reciprocal use ''christ jesus'' meaning jesus anointed one jesus messiah followers jesus became known christians believed jesus christ messiah prophesied old testament tanakh trinitarian ecumenical councils christological controversies came


first council constantinople several decades ongoing controversy work athanasius cappadocian fathers influential language used one god exists three persons father son holy spirit particular affirmed son ''homoousios'' one substance father creed nicene council made statements full divinity full humanity jesus thus preparing way discussion exactly divine human come together person christ christology nicaea insisted jesus fully


divine also human make clear one person could divine human divine human related within one person led christological controversies th th centuries christian era chalcedonian creed put end christological debate clarify terms used became point reference christologies major branches christianity catholicism eastern orthodoxy anglicanism lutheranism reformed subscribe chalcedonian christological formulation many branches


eastern christianity syrian orthodoxy assyrian church coptic orthodoxy ethiopian orthodoxy armenian apostolicism reject attributes christ god son according bible second person trinity eternal relation first person god father son god considered trinitarians coequal father holy spirit god human son god divine nature human nature lineage david core jesus' self interpretation filial consciousness relationship


son co eternal god father holy spirit creation end see eschatology jesus always god son though revealed also became ''the'' son god incarnation son god draws attention humanity whereas god son refers generally divinity including pre incarnate existence christian theology jesus always god son though revealed also became son god incarnation exact phrase god son


reversal common term christ doctrinal perversion tending towards tritheism matthew cites jesus saying blessed peacemakers called sons god gospels go document great deal controversy jesus ''the'' son god unique way book acts apostles letters new testament however record early teaching first christians believed jesus ''both'' son god messiah man appointed god


well god evident many places however early part book hebrews addresses issue deliberate sustained argument citing scriptures hebrew bible authorities example author quotes psalm addressed god israel jesus hebrews son says throne god last ever ever author hebrews' description jesus exact representation divine father parallels passage colossians colossians christ fullness


deity lives bodily form john 's gospel quotes jesus length regarding relationship heavenly father also contains two famous attributions divinity jesus john word god context ''word'' jesus see christ logos john thomas said 'my lord god ' direct references jesus god found various letters romans christ god titus great god savior jesus christ peter god savior jesus christ biblical basis later trinitarian


statements creeds early baptism formula found matthew matthew go make disciples nations baptizing name '' ''note singular'' '' father son holy spirit see also great commission person christ various christological positions names divine docetism greek verb ''to seem'' taught jesus fully divine human body illusory early stage various docetic groups arose particular gnostic sects flourished nd century ad tended


docetic theologies docetic teachings attacked st ignatius antioch early nd century appear targeted canonical epistles john dates disputed range late st century among traditionalist scholars late nd century among critical scholars council nicaea rejected theologies entirely ruled humanity christ affirming nicene creed doctrine incarnation part doctrine trinity second person trinity became incarnate person jesus fully human


human early centuries christian history also groups end spectrum arguing jesus ordinary mortal adoptionists taught jesus born fully human adopted god 's son john baptist baptised life lived another group known ebionites taught jesus god human moshiach messiah anointed prophet promised hebrew bible views could described unitarianism although modern term insistence oneness god views


directly affected one understood godhead declared heresies council nicaea throughout much rest ancient history christianity christologies denied christ 's divinity ceased major impact life church sort divinity arianism affirmed jesus divine taught nevertheless created ''there time existence '' therefore less divine god father matter boiled one iota arianism taught ''homo'''i'''ousia'' belief jesus 's


divinity ' 'similar'' god father opposed ''homoousia'' belief jesus 's divinity ' 'same'' god father arius' opponents additionally included term ''arianism'' belief jesus' divinity ' 'different'' god father ''heteroousia'' arianism condemned council nicea remained popular northern western provinces empire continued majority view western europe well th century indeed even christian legend constantine 's death bed baptism involves bishop recorded history


view condemned first council constantinople subsequently nestorius constantinople initiated view effectively separated jesus two persons one divine one human mechanism combination known ''hypostas'''e'' 's'' contrasts ''hypostas'''i'' 's'' view separation nestorius' theology deemed heretical first council ephesus though seen writings babai great christology church east highly similar chalcedon many orthodox christians particularly west consider group perpetuation nestorianism


eutychianism suppressed oblivion chalcedonians miaphysites miaphysite groups dissented chalcedonian formula persisted oriental orthodox church theologians continued search compromise chalcedonian definition monophysites christologies developed partially rejected full humanity christ monothelitism taught one person jesus two natures divine closely related monoenergism held doctrine monothelites different terminology positions declared heresy third council constantinople


god took human body nature became man god bible clearest teaching word became flesh dwelt among us jesus believed man god painting carl heinrich bloch incarnation traditionally defined divine nature son joined mixed human nature one divine person jesus christ truly god truly man incarnation commemorated celebrated year christmas also reference made feast


annunciation different aspects mystery incarnation celebrated christmas annunciation central traditional faith held christians alternative views subject see ebionites gospel according hebrews proposed throughout centuries see rejected mainstream christian bodies recent decades alternative doctrine known oneness espoused among various pentecostal groups see rejected remainder christendom description development traditional doctrine early christian era considerable disagreement


amongst christians regarding nature christ 's incarnation christians believed jesus indeed son god exact nature sonship contested together precise relationship father son holy ghost referred new testament though jesus clearly son exactly mean debate subject raged especially first four centuries christianity involving jewish christians gnostics followers presbyter arius alexandra adherents st athanasius great among others eventually christian church accepted teaching st


athanasius allies christ incarnation eternal second person trinity fully god fully man simultaneously divergent beliefs defined heresies included docetism said jesus divine took human appearance flesh arianism held christ created nestorianism maintained son god man jesus shared body retained two separate natures oneness belief held certain modern pentecostal churches also seen heretical mainstream


christian bodies widely accepted early christian church made definitions incarnation nature jesus first council nicaea council ephesus council chalcedon councils declared jesus fully god begotten created father fully man taking flesh human nature virgin mary two natures human divine hypostatically united one personhood jesus christ fortuitous necessary incarnation link incarnation atonement within


systematic theological thought complex within traditional models atonement substitution satisfaction christus victor christ must divine order sacrifice cross efficacious human sins removed conquered work ''the trinity kingdom god'' jurgen moltmann differentiated called fortuitous necessary incarnation latter gives soteriological emphasis incarnation son god became man could save us sins former hand speaks incarnation


fulfilment love god desire present living amidst humanity walk garden us moltmann favours fortuitous incarnation primarily feels speak incarnation necessity injustice life christ moltmann 's work alongside systematic theologians opens avenues liberation christology hypostatic union depiction jesus mary theotokos vladimir th century short doctrine states two natures one human one divine united one person christ council


taught natures human divine distinct complete view sometimes called dyophysite meaning two natures rejected hypostatic union greek substance technical term christian theology employed mainstream christology describe union two natures humanity divinity jesus christ brief definition doctrine two natures given jesus christ identical son one person one hypostasis two natures human divine first council ephesus


recognised doctrine affirmed importance stating humanity divinity christ made one according nature hypostasis logos first council nicaea declared father son substance co eternal belief expressed nicene creed apollinaris laodicea first use term hypostasis trying understand incarnation apollinaris described union divine human christ single nature single essence single hypostasis nestorian theodore


mopsuestia went direction arguing christ two natures dyophysite human divine two hypostases sense essence person co existed chalcedonian creed agreed theodore two natures incarnation however council chalcedon also insisted hypostasis used trinitarian definition indicate person nature apollinarius thus council declared christ two natures retaining properties together united one subsistence one single person


precise nature union held defy finite human comprehension hypostatic union also referred alternative term mystical union oriental orthodox churches rejected chalcedonian creed known monophysites would accept definition characterized incarnate son one nature chalcedonian two natures formula seen derived akin nestorian christology contrariwise chalcedonians saw oriental orthodox tending towards eutychian monophysitism however oriental orthodox modern ecumenical dialogue specified never believed


doctrines eutyches always affirmed christ 's humanity consubstantial thus prefer term miaphysite refer reference cyrillian christology used phrase mia physis tou theou logou sesarkomene recent times leaders eastern orthodox oriental orthodox churches signed joint statements attempt work towards reunification christological concerns sinlessness christ although christian orthodoxy holds jesus fully human epistle hebrews example states christ 'holy without evil'


jesus commit sin could proven guilty sin vices fact quoted asking prove guilty sin john secondly free inherent sin original sin ancestral sin ref name macleod temptation christ '''the temptation christ''' shown gospels affirms tempted indeed temptations genuine greater intensity normally experienced human beings experienced frail weaknesses humanity jesus tempted hunger thirst pain


love friends thus human weaknesses could engender temptation ref name macleod macleod p ref nevertheless macleod notes one crucial respect christ like us tempted anything within ref name macleod temptations christ faced focused upon person identity incarnate son god macleod writes christ could tempted sonship temptation wilderness gethsemane exemplifies '''arena temptation''' regarding temptation performing sign would affirm sonship throwing pinnacle


temple macleod observes sign temptation seek reassurance say 'the real question sonship must forget else others service clear' ref name macleod macleod p ref macleod places struggle context incarnation become man must accept appearance reality ref name macleod communication attributes communion attributes ''communicatio idiomatum'' christ 's divine human natures understood according chalcedonian theology mean exist together


saint catherine 's monastery mount sinai depicting annunciation c th century gospel according matthew gospel according luke suggest virgin birth jesus christ disregard even argue doctrine denominations christianity ascribe section looks christological issues surrounding belief disbelief virgin birth non virgin birth would seem require form adoptionism human conception birth would seem yield fully human jesus mechanism required make jesus divine well non virgin birth


would seem support full humanity jesus william barclay states supreme problem virgin birth quite undeniably differentiate jesus men leave us incomplete incarnation barth speaks virgin birth divine sign accompanies indicates mystery incarnation son donald macleod gives several christological implications virgin birth highlights salvation supernatural act god rather act human initiative avoids adoptionism virtually required normal birth reinforces sinlessness christ


especially relates christ outside sin adam original sin relationship persons discussion whether three distinct persons godhead trinity greater equal lesser comparison also like many areas early christology subject debate athenagoras athens c writings find developed trinitarian doctrine ref name kesich ref one end spectrum modalism doctrine stating three persons trinity equal point erasing differences distinctions


end spectrum tritheism well radically subordinationist views latter emphasized primacy father creation deity christ jesus 's authority holy spirit council nicea modalist bishops rome alexandria aligned politically athanasius whereas bishops constantinople nicomedia antioch jerusalem sided subordinationists middle ground arius athanasius approaches christology theologians like jurgen moltmann walter kasper characterized christologies anthropological cosmological also termed 'christology below' 'christology


above' respectively anthropological christology starts human person jesus works life ministry toward means divine whereas cosmological christology works opposite direction starting eternal logos cosmological christology works toward humanity theologians typically begin one side choice inevitably colors resultant christology starting point options represent diverse yet complementary approaches poses difficulties christologies 'from above' 'from below' must come terms two natures christ human


divine light perceived wave particle jesus must thought terms divinity humanity cannot talk either must talk ref name greene ref cosmological approaches christologies start logos second person trinity establish eternality agency creation economic sonship jesus' unity god established incarnation divine logos assumes human nature approach common early church eg st paul st john gospels


attribution full humanity jesus resolved stating two natures mutually share properties concept termed ''communicatio idiomatum'' anthropological approaches christologies start human jesus representative new humanity pre existent logos jesus lives exemplary life one aspire religious experience form christology lends mysticism roots go back emergence christ mysticism th century east west flourished th th centuries recent theologian


wolfhart pannenberg contends resurrected jesus eschatological fulfillment human destiny live nearness god political approaches christian faith inherently political allegiance jesus risen lord relativises earthly rule authority jesus called lord times paul 's epistles alone thus principal confession faith pauline epistles nt wright argues pauline confession core gospel salvation achilles' heel approach loss eschatological tension present age future divine


rule yet come happen state co opts christ 's authority often case imperial christology modern political christologies seek overcome imperialist ideologies works christ resurrection jesus resurrection christ carl heinrich bloch resurrection perhaps controversial aspect life jesus christ christianity hinges point christology response particular history confessional response christians claim resurrected future world forever altered christians believe


jesus' resurrection brings reconciliation god ii corinthians destruction death corinthians forgiveness sins followers jesus christ jesus died buried new testament states appeared others bodily form skeptics say appearances perceived followers mind spirit gospels state disciples believed witnessed jesus' resurrected body led beginning faith previously hid fear persecution jesus' death seeing jesus boldly proclaimed message


jesus christ despite tremendous risk obeyed jesus' mandate reconciled god repentance luke baptism obedience matthew offices prophet priest king jesus christ mediator humankind fulfills three offices prophet priest king eusebius early church worked threefold classification reformation played substantial role scholastic lutheran christology john calvin 's john wesley 's christology pneumatology holy spirit pneumatology study holy spirit ''pneuma'' greek breath metaphorically describes non material influence


christian theology pneumatology refers study holy spirit christianity holy spirit holy ghost spirit god within mainstream trinitarian christian beliefs third person trinity part godhead holy spirit equal god father god son christian theology holy spirit last piece trinitarian theology fully developed within mainstream trinitarian christianity holy spirit one three ''persons'' trinity make single substance god


word variously translated ''comforter counselor teacher advocate'' guiding people way truth holy spirit 's action one 's life believed produce positive results known fruit holy spirit holy spirit enables christians still experience effects sin things never could spiritual gifts innate abilities unlocked holy spirit entirely new abilities ability cast demons simply bold speech influence holy spirit person sees


told disciples would baptized holy spirit would receive power event promise fulfilled events recounted second chapter acts first pentecost jesus' disciples gathered jerusalem mighty wind heard tongues fire appeared heads multilingual crowd heard disciples speaking heard speaking native language holy spirit believed perform specific divine functions life christian church include '''conviction


sin''' holy spirit acts convince unredeemed person sinfulness actions moral standing sinners god '''bringing conversion''' action holy spirit seen essential part bringing person christian faith ref name erickson ref new believer born spirit '''enabling christian life''' holy spirit believed dwell individual believers enable live righteous faithful life ref name erickson '''comforter''' ''paraclete'' one intercedes supports acts


advocate particularly times trial '''inspiration interpretation scripture''' holy spirit ''inspires'' writing scriptures ''interprets'' christian church holy spirit also believed active especially life jesus christ enabling fulfil work earth particular actions holy spirit include '''cause birth''' according gospel accounts birth jesus beginning incarnate existence due holy spirit ref name erickson ref '''anointing baptism''' ref name erickson '''empowerment ministry'''


ministry jesus following baptism holy spirit described gospels descending like dove conducted power direction holy spirit ref name erickson fruit spirit christians believe fruit spirit consists virtuous characteristics engendered christian action holy spirit listed fruit spirit love joy peace patience kindness goodness faithfulness gentleness self control roman catholic church adds list generosity modesty chastity gifts


spirit christians believe holy spirit gives 'gifts' christians gifts consist specific abilities granted individual christian ref name erickson frequently known greek word gift ''charisma'' term charismatic derives new testament provides three different lists gifts range supernatural healing prophecy tongues associated specific callings teaching expected christians degree faith consider lists exhaustive compiled lists saint ambrose wrote seven gifts


holy spirit poured believer baptism spirit wisdom spirit understanding spirit counsel spirit strength spirit knowledge spirit godliness spirit holy fear nature occurrence gifts particularly supernatural gifts sometimes called charismatic gifts greatest disagreement christians regard holy spirit exists one view supernatural gifts special dispensation apostolic ages bestowed unique conditions church time extremely rarely


holy spirit'' ''filling holy spirit'' christian needs experience order receive gifts many churches hold ''baptism holy spirit'' identical conversion christians definition baptized holy spirit ref name ericksonworks cosmology things created various authors old new testament provide glimpses insight regarding cosmology cosmos created god divine command best known complete account bible genesis world within broad understanding however number


views regarding exactly doctrine ought interpreted christians particularly young old earth creationists interpret genesis accurate literal account creation others may understand instead spiritual insights vaguely defined tenet christian faith catholic eastern orthodox protestant god creator things nothing made human beings image god direct inference also source human soul chalcedonian christology jesus word god beginning


thus uncreated hence god consequently identical creator world ''ex nihilo'' roman catholicism uses phrase special creation refer doctrine immediate special creation human soul international theological commission presidency cardinal joseph ratzinger published paper accepts current scientific accounts history universe commencing big bang billion years ago evolution life earth including humans micro organisms commencing billion years


ago roman catholic church allows literal allegorical interpretation genesis allow possibility creation means evolutionary process great spans time otherwise known theistic evolution believes creation world work god ''logos'' word idea intelligence reason logic beginning wordand word godall things made without anything made made new testament claims god created everything eternal word


jesus christ beloved son things created heaven earth things created things things hold together anthropology humanity christian anthropology study humanity especially relates divine theological anthropology refers study human anthropology relates god differs social science anthropology primarily deals comparative study physical social characteristics humanity across times places one aspect studies


body spirit dead word usually designates person whole physical life septuagint ''nepes'' mostly translated ''psyche'' exceptionally book joshua ''empneon'' breathing new testament follows terminology septuagint thus uses word ''psyche'' hebrew semantic domain greek invisible power ever platonists immortal immaterial gives life motion body responsible attributes patristic thought towards


end nd century ''psyche'' understood greek hebrew way contrasted body rd century influence origen establishing doctrine inherent immortality soul divine nature origen also taught transmigration souls preexistence views officially rejected fifth ecumenical council inherent immortality soul accepted among western eastern theologians throughout middle ages reformation evidenced westminster confession


spirit spirit hebrew ''ruach'' greek ''pneuma'' also mean breath likewise immaterial component often used interchangeably soul ''psyche'' although trichotomists believe spirit distinct soul paul speaks ''pneuma'' man mean higher principle within special intellectual spiritual faculty simply self questions whether self regarded particular aspect called ''pneuma'' first place apparently regarded way


' 'sheol'' particular jesus teaches luke lazarus dives ''hades'' consists two separate sections one righteous one unrighteous teaching consistent intertestamental jewish thought subject fully developed christian theology goes step basis texts luke philippians traditionally taught souls dead received immediately either heaven hell experience foretaste eternal destiny prior resurrection roman catholicism teaches third possible location purgatory though


denied protestants eastern orthodox souls righteous made perfect holiness received highest heavens behold face god light glory waiting full redemption bodies souls wicked cast hell remain torments utter darkness reserved judgment great day ''westminster confession'' christian groups stress monistic anthropology deny soul exist consciously apart body example seventh day adventist church teaches


intermediate state unconscious sleep teaching informally known soul sleep final state christian belief righteous unrighteous resurrected last judgment righteous receive incorruptible immortal bodies corinthians unrighteous sent hell traditionally christians believed hell place eternal physical psychological punishment last two centuries annihilationism become popular mariology study blessed virgin mary doctrines relates church christ individual christian called


mariology examples mariology include study doctrines regarding perpetual virginity motherhood god extension motherhood intercession christians immaculate conception assumption heaven catholic mariology marian study specifically context catholic church angelology descriptions angels bible describe military terms example terms encampment http wwwbibleorg netbible gen htm gen command structure http bibleorg netbible psa htm ps http bibleorg netbible mat htm matt http bibleorg netbible indexhtmrev htm rev combat http bibleorg netbible indexhtmjdg htm jdg http bibleorg netbible indexhtmjob htm job http bibleorg netbible indexhtmrev htm rev specific hierarchy differs slightly hierarchy angels surrounds


military services whereas hierarchy angels division angels non military services god members heavenly host cherubim depicted accompanying god 's chariot throne http bibleorg netbible psa htm ps refers two cherub statues placed top ark covenant two cherubim usually interpreted guarding throne god guard like duties include posted locations gates eden http bibleorg netbible gen htm gen cherubim mythological winged bulls beasts part ancient near eastern traditions angelic designation might given angels


various ranks example would raphael ranked variously seraph cherub archangel usually result conflicting schemes hierarchies angels known many angels one figure given http bibleorg netbible rev htm revelation number many angels circle around throne well living creatures elders ten thousand times ten thousand would million demonology fallen angels statue fallen angel retiro park madrid spain christianity fallen angel


angel exiled banished heaven often banishment punishment disobeying rebelling god see war heaven best known fallen angel lucifer lucifer name frequently given satan christian belief usage stems particular interpretation reference fallen angel passage bible speaks someone given name day star morning star latin ''lucifer'' fallen heaven greek etymological synonym lucifer ''phosphoros'' light bearer used morning star


elsewhere reference satan satan called lucifer many writings later bible notably milton 's ''paradise lost'' among others according milton satan brighter amidst host angels star stars among allegedly fallen angels committed one seven deadly sins therefore banished heaven suffer hell eternity demons hell would punish fallen angel ripping wings sign insignificance low rank heaven dante beatrice gaze


name transcendental realm wherein human beings transcended human living live afterlife bible english term heaven may refer physical heavens sky seemingly endless expanse universe beyond traditional literal meaning term english christianity maintains entry heaven awaits time form world passed away https wwwvaticanva holy father john paul ii audiences documents hf jp ii aud enhtml jpii one view expressed bible day christ returns righteous dead resurrected first alive judged


righteous brought join taken heaven thess two related often confused concepts heaven christianity better described resurrection body exclusively biblical origin contrasted immortality soul also evident greek tradition first concept soul enter heaven last judgement end time along body resurrected judged second concept soul goes heaven another plane


intermediate state immediately death two concepts generally combined doctrine double judgement soul judged death goes temporary heaven awaiting second final physical judgement end world https wwwvaticanva holy father john paul ii audiences documents hf jp ii aud enhtml jpii also see eschatology afterlife one popular medieval view heaven existed physical place clouds god angels physically watching man heaven physical place survived concept located far space


world come religions teach heaven differ one gets typically afterlife entrance heaven conditional lived good life within terms spiritual system notable exception 'sola fide' belief many mainstream protestants teaches one live perfectly good life one must accept jesus christ one 's saviour jesus christ assume guilt one 's sins believers believed forgiven regardless good


bad works one participated many religions state go heaven go place without presence god hell eternal see annihilationism religions believe afterlives exist addition heaven hell purgatory one belief universalism believes everyone go heaven eventually matter done believed earth forms christianity believe hell termination soul various saints visions heaven eastern orthodox concept life heaven


described one prayers dead place light place green pasture place repose whence sickness sorrow sighing fled away church bases belief heaven main biblical passages hebrew christian scriptures old new testaments collected church wisdom heaven realm blessed trinity angels saints essential joy heaven called beatific vision derived vision god 's essence soul rests perfectly god


cannot desire anything else god last judgment soul reunited body body participates happiness soul becomes incorruptible glorious perfect physical defects body may laboured erased heaven also known paradise cases great gulf separates heaven hell upon dying soul goes called particular judgement afterlife decided ie heaven purgatory straight heaven hell different general judgement also known last judgement


occur christ returns judge living dead term heaven differs kingdom heaven see note applied biblical authors realm god currently resides eternal life contrast occurs renewed unspoilt perfect creation termed heaven since god choose dwell permanently people seen longer separation god man believers exist incorruptible resurrected new bodies sickness


death tears teach death natural part life allowed happen adam eve disobeyed god see original sin mankind would live forever state sin thus state separation god many evangelicals understand future life divided two distinct periods first millennial reign christ one thousand years earth referred secondly new heavens new earth referred revelation millennialism chiliasm


'loving lord god heart soul mind' 'loving neighbour themselves' adapted matthew great commandment place great joy without negative aspects earthly life see also world come purgatory purgatory condition temporary punishment ref name eb purgatory believed souls die state grace made ready heaven theological idea ancient roots well attested early christian literature poetic conception purgatory


place souls faithful dead endure period purification cleansing aided prayers living prior entrance heaven although john wesley believed intermediate state death final judgment idea formally affirmed methodist doctrine reject idea purgatory beyond maintain silence lies death last judgment methodist doctrine essentials ted campbell publisher united methodist church access date march ref ref name wesley ref eastern orthodox churches believe possibility change situation


souls dead prayers living offering divine liturgy ref name orthodox confession faith '' http esoptronumdedu ugc ocf chtml orthodox confession faith '' questions ref many eastern orthodox especially among ascetics hope pray general apocatastasis similar belief least possibility final salvation held mormonism judaism also believes possibility death purification may even use word purgatory present understanding meaning gehenna however concept soul purification may explicitly denied faith


traditions hell hell depicted hieronymus bosch 's triptych ''the garden earthly delights'' c hell christian beliefs place state souls unsaved suffer consequences sin christian doctrine hell derives teaching new testament hell typically described using greek words ''gehenna'' ''tartarus'' unlike hades sheol purgatory eternal damned hell without hope new testament described place state punishment death last judgment


rejected jesus many classical popular depictions also abode satan demons hell generally defined eternal fate unrepentant sinners life ref name hell hell 's character inferred biblical teaching often understood literally ref name hell hell cross f l ed oxford dictionary christian church new york oxford university press ref souls said pass hell god 's irrevocable judgment either immediately death particular judgment general judgment ref name hell modern theologians generally describe hell logical consequence


soul using free reject god ref name hell considered compatible god 's justice mercy god interfere soul 's free choice ref name hell king james version bible word hell used translate certain words ' 'sheol'' hebrew ''hades'' ''gehenna'' greek translations reserve hell use gehenna mentioned generally agreed sheol hades typically refer place eternal punishment underworld temporary abode


die infancy mentally disabled protestants agree augustine people categories damned hell original sin others believe god make exception cases ref name acute significant minority believe doctrine conditional immortality teaches sent hell experience eternal conscious punishment instead extinguished annihilated period limited conscious punishment ref name ndbthell ''new dictionary biblical theology'' ivp leicester hell ref prominent evangelical theologians adopted conditionalist beliefs include john wenham edward fudge clark pinnock


'biblical trinitarian universalism' confused unitarian universalism see universal reconciliation ''apocatastasis'' problem hell theodicy allowance evil theodicy said defense god 's goodness omnipotence view existence evil specifically theodicy specific branch theology philosophy attempts reconcile belief god perceived existence evil theodicy said attempt justify behaviour god least insofar god allows evil responses problem evil sometimes classified ' 'defenses''


''theodicies'' however authors disagree exact definitions ref name stanford stanford encyclopedia philosophy http platostanfordedu entries evil problem evil michael tooley ref ref name iepevidential internet encyclopedia philosophy http wwwieputmedu e evil evihtm evidential problem evil nick trakakis ref generally ' 'defense'' attempts show logical incompatibility existence evil existence god defense need argue probable plausible explanation defense logically possible defense attempts answer ''logical'' problem evil theodicy hand ambitious attempt provide


plausible justification existence evil theodicy attempts answer ''evidential'' problem evil ref name iepevidential richard swinburne maintains make sense assume greater goods unless know ie successful theodicy ref name swinburne ref example authors see arguments including demons fall man logically impossible plausible considering knowledge world thus seen defenses good theodicies ref name iepevidential c lewis writes book problem pain another possible answer


world corrupted due sin mankind answer sin world fallen grace god perfect therefore evils imperfections persist world fallen william dembski argues effects adam 's sin recorded book genesis 'back dated' god hence applied earlier history universe evil sometimes seen test trial humans irenaeus lyons recently john hick argued evil suffering necessary spiritual


growth often combined free argument arguing spiritual growth requires free decisions problem many evils seem cause kind spiritual growth even permit child abused birth becomes seemingly inevitably brutal adult problem evil often phrased form ''why bad things happen good people'' christianity teach people inherently sinful due fall man original sin example calvinist theology follows doctrine called


federal headship argues first man adam legal representative entire human race counterargument basic version principle omniscient god would predicted created world omnipotent god could prevented book isaiah clearly claims god source least natural disasters isaiah n't attempt explain motivation behind creation evil contrast book job one widely known formulations problem evil western


thought satan challenges god regarding servant job claiming job serves god blessings protection receives god allows satan plague job family number ways limitation satan may take job 's life children killed job discusses three friends questions god regarding suffering finds unjust god responds speech restores job 's prior health wealth gives new children bart ehrman argues different parts


bible give different answers one example evil punishment sin consequence sin ehrman writes seems based notion free although argument never explicitly mentioned bible another argument suffering ultimately achieves greater good possibly persons sufferer would possible otherwise book job offers two different answers suffering test rewarded later passing another god might chooses reveal reasons


heart soul mind' first greatest commandment second like 'love neighbor yourself' law prophets hang two commandments hamartiology ''hamartia'' missing mark sin '' logia'' sayings discourse branch christian theology specifically systematic theology study sin view articulating doctrine substantial branches hamartiological understanding subscribe doctrine original sin taught apostle


paul romans popularized saint augustine taught descendants adam eve guilty adam 's sin without personal choice contrast pelagius argued humans enter life essentially ''tabulae rasae'' fall occurred adam eve disobeyed god held group affected humankind minimally theologians continue hold hamartiological viewpoint third branch thinking takes intermediate position arguing fall adam eve humans born impacted sin


decided tendencies toward sinning personal choice accountable humans jesus soon choose indulge degree christian believes humanity impacted either literal metaphorical fall determines understanding related theological concepts like salvation justification sanctification christian views sin mostly understood legal infraction contract violation salvation tends viewed legal terms similar jewish thinking sin sistine chapel fresco depicts expulsion adam eve garden eden sin eating fruit


tree knowledge good evil religion sin concept acts violate rule god term sin may also refer state committed violation commonly moral code conduct decreed divine entity ie divine law sin often used mean action prohibited considered wrong religions notably sects christianity sin refer physical actions taken also thoughts internalized motivations feelings colloquially thought word act considered immoral


shameful harmful alienating might termed sinful elementary concept sin regards acts elements earthly living one cannot take transcendental living food example transcendental living therefore excessive savoring considered sin developed concept sin deals distinction sins death mortal sin sins human living venial sin context mortal sins said dire consequence mortal penalty sins living food casual informal sexuality play inebriation may regarded


essential spice transcendental living even though may destructive context human living obesity infidelity common ideas surrounding sin various religions include punishment sins people god either life afterlife universe general question whether act must intentional sinful idea one 's conscience produce guilt conscious act sin scheme determining seriousness sin repentance expressing regret determining commit sin atonement repayment past deeds


possibility forgiveness sins often communication deity intermediary christianity often referred salvation crime justice related secular concepts western christianity sin lawlessness john salvation tends understood legal terms similar jewish law sin alienates sinner god damaged completely severed relationship humanity god relationship restored acceptance jesus christ death cross sacrifice mankind 's sin see salvation substitutionary atonement eastern christianity