rival telecommunications company saying i'm speaking via mobile phone ref name ref however first commercial mobile phone released motorola early nokia came succession nokia first mass produced mobile phone ref name nokia communicator became first smartphone inputed intel nbsp mhz cpu mb ram smartphone users increased lot years currently highest countries users include china million users india million users


currently billion smartphone users across world figure exceed billion smart tablet users reached total billion world 's population statistics evidence impact digital media communications today also relevance fact numbers smart device users rising rapidly yet amount functional uses increase daily smartphone tablet used hundreds daily needs currently million apps apple app store opportunities digital marketing

Journalism, media studies and communication


efforts smartphone user impacted digital advertising every second open apple android device evidences digital revolution impact revolution resulted total billion dollars paid various app developers years growth fueled development millions software applications apps able generate income via app advertising ref name gross revenue projected million ref name disruption industry compared print media mass media


industries hollywood ref name switch ref imposed painful costs small movie theaters survive transition digital effect digital media media industries similarly sweeping complex ref name switch print newspaper advertising revenue fallen billion nearly billion even one popular days papers sunday seen circulation decrease lowest since ref name ref journalism digital media citizen journalism led loss thousands jobs


society ref name aclib every major media communications academic endeavor facing period transition uncertainty related digital media often time magazine publisher digital edition referred electronic formatted version identical print version ref name huge benefit publisher 's cost avoiding expense print deliver brings additional benefit company decline print ads years us economic problem since decrease newspaper industry employment


people working workforce currently ref name state news media website pew research center 's journalism project language en us access date ref alliance audited media publishers information recession print sales diminished certain magazines hardship coming sales advertisements ref name however major newspapers advertising revenue digital ads ref name contrast mobile versions newspapers magazines came second huge growth new york times noted year year rise digital subscriptions


well conduct business online dramatic reduction costs required create share content led democratization content creation well creation new types content like blogs memes video essays activities also labelled citizen journalism spike user created content due development internet well way users interact media today release technologies mobile devices allow easier quicker access things media many media creation tools


available free easy use cost devices access internet steadily falling personal ownership multiple digital devices becoming standard elements significantly affected political participation digital media seen many scholars role arab spring crackdowns use digital social media embattled governments increasingly common many governments restrict access digital media way either prevent obscenity broader form political censorship years


social networks people report viewing television shows news via streaming service ref name platforms netflix gained attraction due adorability accessibility original content companies netflix even bought previously cancelled shows ''designated survivor'' ''lucifer'' ''arrested development'' internet becomes prevalent companies beginning distribute content internet means loss viewers loss revenue bad would expected copyright challenges digital media


numerical networks interactive systems link databases allow users navigate one bit content webpage another ease digital media poses several challenges current copyright intellectual property laws effortlessness creating modifying sharing digital media make copyright enforcement challenging many copyright laws widely seen outdated example current copyright law common internet memes generally illegal share many countries legal rights unclear many common internet activities include posting pictures someone else 's social media account writing


fanfiction covering using popular songs content youtube videos last decade concepts fair use copyright applied different types online media copyright challenges spreading parts digital media content creators platforms youtube must follow guidelines set copyright ip laws platform 's copyright guidelines guidelines followed content likely get demonetized deleted criticized ref name ref oftentimes see digital creators loose monetization content get content deleted get criticized content


instances content creators sued online times situation occurs creators accidentally use audio tracks background scenes copyright ref name avoid resolve issues content creators voluntarily adopt open copyleft licenses release work public domain creators giving legal rights associated content fair use doctrine us copyright law allows limited use copyrighted materials without need obtain permission four factors make fair


last factor use copyrighted content earn money effect value content wikipedia uses common open licenses creative commons licenses gnu free documentation license open licenses part broader open content movement pushes reduction removal copyright restrictions software data digital media facilitate collection consumption licensing information availability status tools developed like creative commons search engine used mostly web images unpaywall used scholarly communication additional


software developed order restrict access digital media digital rights management drm used lock material allows users apply media content specific cases example drm allows movie producers rent lower price instead selling movie higher one restricts movie rental license length rather selling movie full price additionally drm prevent unauthorized modification sharing media youtube copyright claim takedown digital media copyright protection technologies fall umbrella intellectual property protection technology


series computer technologies protect digital content created transmitted ref name ref ''the digital millennium copyright act'' dmca provides safe harbor intermediaries host user content youtube held liable copyright infringement long meet required conditions notable notice take policy ref name ref policy requires online intermediaries remove disable access content question court orders allegations illegal use content site result youtube continues develop


policies standards go far past dmca requires youtube also created algorithm continuously scans cite make sure content follows policies ref name one digital media platform known copyright concerns short video sharing app tiktok tiktok social media app allows users share short videos one minute length using variety visual effects audio according loyola university chicago school law music used platform somewhere realm


published smartphones prime example thanks improvements tablets personal electronic devices digital magazines become much readable enticing use graphic art time evolution online magazines began focus becoming social media entertainment platforms online piracy become one larger issues occurred regards digital media copyright piracy digital media film television directly impact copyright party owner copyright action impact health digital media


forestry work austria '''forestry''' science craft creating managing planting using conserving repairing forests woodlands associated resources human environmental benefits ref name dictionaryofforestry ref forestry practiced plantations natural stands science forestry elements belong biological physical social political managerial sciences forest management play essential role creation modification habitats affect ecosystem services provisioning modern forestry generally embraces broad range concerns known multiple use management including provision timber fuel wood wildlife habitat natural water quality management


recreation landscape community protection employment aesthetically appealing landscapes biodiversity management watershed management erosion control preserving forests sinks atmospheric carbon dioxide practitioner forestry known forester another common term silviculturist silviculture narrower forestry concerned forest plants often used synonymously forestry forest ecosystems come seen important component biosphere forestry emerged vital applied science craft technology people depend upon forests biodiversity others ref name ref forestry important economic


segment various industrial countries forests provide million green jobs support livelihoods many people ref name example germany forests cover nearly third land area ref name bwi http wwwbundeswaldinventurde enid e c b e e b dff b c ab f qhtml ''bundeswaldinventur '' bundesministerium f r ern hrung landwirtschaft und verbraucherschutz bmelv retrieved january ref wood important renewable resource forestry supports million jobs billion value german economy year worldwide estimated million people spend part time collecting fuelwood producing charcoal many women ref name


human populations tend low areas low income countries high forest cover high forest biodiversity poverty rates areas tend high ref name million people living forests savannahs incomes less us per day ref name deciduous beech forest slovenia history background preindustrial age dubbed werner sombart others 'wooden age' timber firewood basic resources energy construction housing development modern forestry closely connected rise


capitalism economy science varying notions land use property roman latifundiae large agricultural estates quite successful maintaining large supply wood necessary roman empire ref name yale nature mediterranean europe ecological history alfred thomas grove oliver rackham yale university press http yalepressyaleedu bookaspisbn review yale university press https musejhuedu loginauth type summary url journals journal interdisciplinary history v faganpdfthe nature mediterranean europe ecological history review brian fagan journal interdisciplinary history volume number winter pp ref large deforestations came decline romans ref name yale however already


th century monks byzantine romagna adriatic coast able establish stone pine plantations provide fuelwood food ref name pines ref beginning massive forest mentioned dante alighieri poem divine comedy ref name pines similar sustainable formal forestry practices developed visigoths th century faced ever increasing shortage wood instituted code concerned preservation oak pine forests ref name pines use management many forest resources long history china well dating back


han dynasty taking place landowning gentry similar approach used japan also later written ming dynasty chinese scholar xu guangqi europe land usage rights medieval early modern times allowed different users access forests pastures plant litter resin extraction important pitch resin essential caulking ships falking hunting rights firewood building timber gathering wood pastures grazing animals forests notion commons german allmende refers underlying traditional legal term


common land idea enclosed private property came modern times however hunting rights retained members nobility preserved right nobility access use common land recreation like fox hunting early modern forestry development timber harvesting finland golden steinrueck vogelsberg hans carl von carlowitz german miner systematic management forests sustainable yield timber began portugal th century king afonso iii planted pinhal rei king 's pine forest near leiria prevent coastal erosion soil degradation


sustainable source timber used naval construction ref name livermore ref successor king denis portugal continued practice forest exists still today forest management also flourished german states th century eg nuremberg th century japan typically forest divided specific sections mapped harvest timber planned eye regeneration timber rafting allowed connecting large continental forests south western germany via main neckar danube rhine coastal cities states early modern forestry remote trading


closely connected large firs black forest called holl nder traded dutch ship yards large timber rafts rhine length width consisted several thousand logs crew consisted men including shelter bakeries ovens livestock stables timber rafting infrastructure allowed large interconnected networks continental europe still importance finland starting th century enhanced world maritime trade boom housing construction europe success berggeschrey rushes


mining industry increased timber consumption sharply notion 'nachhaltigkeit' sustainability forestry closely connected work hans carl von carlowitz mining administrator saxony book ''sylvicultura oeconomica oder hau wirthliche nachricht und naturm ige anweisung zur wilden baum zucht'' first comprehensive treatise sustainable yield forestry uk extent continental europe enclosure movement clearances favored strictly enclosed private property ref name rad radkau joachim nature power global history environment cambridge university press ref agrarian reformers early economic writers scientists tried


get rid traditional commons ref name rad nature power global history environment joachim radkau p ref time alleged tragedy commons together fears holznot imminent wood shortage played watershed role controversies cooperative land use patterns ref name ws end commons watershed' ''the age ecology'' joachim radkau john wiley sons p ff ref practice establishing tree plantations british isles promoted john evelyn though already acquired popularity louis xiv 's minister jean baptiste


colbert 's oak forest tron ais planted future use french navy matured expected mid th century colbert thought everything except steamship fernand braudel observed parallel schools forestry established beginning late th century hesse russia austria hungary sweden france elsewhere europe forest conservation early globalization starting modern scientific forestry developed france german speaking countries context natural history scholarship state administration inspired physiocracy cameralism main traits centralized management


professional foresters adherence sustainble yield concepts bias towards fuelwood timber production artificial afforestation critical view pastoral agricultural uses forests late th early th centuries forest preservation programs established british india united states europe many foresters either continental europe like sir dietrich brandis educated like gifford pinchot sir dietrich brandis considered father tropical forestry european concepts practices adapted tropical semi arid climate zones development plantation forestry one


controversial answers specific challenges tropical colonies enactment evolution forest laws binding regulations occurred western nations th century response growing conservation concerns increasing technological capacity logging companies tropical forestry separate branch forestry deals mainly equatorial forests yield woods teak mahogany mechanization forestry mechanization always close connection metal working development mechanical tools cut transport timber destination rafting belongs earliest means transport


steel saws came th century th century widely increased availability steel whipsaws introduced forest railways railways general transport forestry customer human induced changes however came since world war ii respectively line syndrome first portable chainsaw invented canada large impact mechanization forestry started world war ii forestry harvesters among recent developments although drones planes laser scanning satellites robots also play part forestry early journals still present


''sylwan'' first published ref name rponline ''schweizerische zeitschrift f r forstwesen'' first published ref name rponline ''erd szeti lapok'' first published hungary present ''the indian forester'' first published ref name rponline '' umarski list'' forestry review croatia published croatian forestry society ref name rponline ''montes'' forestry spain first published ref name rponline ''revista p durilor'' journal forests romania present oldest extant magazine romania ref name rponline webpage translation button ref ref name years webpage translation button ref ''forestry quarterly'' first published new york state college forestry '' umarstvo'' forestry serbia first published


ministry forestry democratic federal yugoslavia since organ society forestry engineers technicians republic serbia succeeding former '' umarski glasnik'' published forestry st century modern sawmill today strong body research exists regarding management forest ecosystems genetic improvement tree species varieties forestry studies also include development better methods planting protecting thinning controlled burning felling extracting processing timber one applications modern forestry


college bachelor 's degrees phds highly specialized work industrial foresters plan forest regeneration starting careful harvesting urban foresters manage trees urban green spaces foresters work tree nurseries growing seedlings woodland creation regeneration projects foresters improve tree genetics forest engineers develop new building systems professional foresters measure model growth forests tools like geographic information systems foresters may combat insect infestation disease forest grassland wildfire increasingly allow natural aspects forest ecosystems run course likelihood epidemics risk life property low


increasingly foresters participate wildlife conservation planning watershed protection foresters mainly concerned timber management especially reforestation maintaining forests prime conditions fire control ref name galegroup ref forestry plans foresters develop implement forest management plans relying mapped resource inventories showing area 's topographical features well distribution trees species plant cover plans also include landowner objectives roads culverts proximity human habitation water features hydrological conditions soils information forest management plans typically include recommended silvicultural treatments timetable implementation application digital maps


geographic informations systems gis extracts integrates different information forest terrains soil type tree covers etc using eg laser scanning enhances forest management plans modern systems forest management plans include recommendations achieve landowner 's objectives desired future condition property subject ecological financial logistical eg access resources constraints properties plans focus producing quality wood products processing sale hence tree species quantity form central value harvested products quality quantity tend important components silvicultural plans


good management plans include consideration future conditions stand recommended harvests treatments including future treatments particularly intermediate stand treatments plans natural artificial regeneration final harvests objectives landowners leaseholders influence plans harvest subsequent site treatment britain plans featuring good forestry practice must always consider needs stakeholders nearby communities rural residents living within adjacent woodland areas foresters consider tree felling environmental legislation developing plans plans instruct sustainable harvesting replacement trees indicate whether road


material good quality high genetic diversity ref name vries ref generally forest management practices including natural regeneration systems may impact genetic diversity trees term describes differences dna sequence individuals distinct variation caused environmental influences unique genetic composition individual genotype determine performance phenotype particular site ref name konnert ref genetic diversity needed maintain vitality forests provide resilience pests diseases genetic diversity also ensures forest trees survive adapt evolve changing environmental conditions


furthermore genetic diversity foundation biological diversity species ecosystem levels forest genetic resources therefore important consider forest management ref name vries genetic diversity forests threatened forest fires pests diseases habitat fragmentation poor silvicultural practices inappropriate use forest reproductive material million hectares forest affected fire mainly tropical domain fire burned percent total forest area year two thirds total forest area affected africa south america insects diseases


university giessen hesse darmstadt spain first forestry school forest engineering school madrid escuela cnica superior de ingenieros de montes founded first north america biltmore forest school established near asheville north carolina carl schenck september grounds george w vanderbilt 's biltmore estate another early school new york state college forestry established cornell university weeks later september early th century north american foresters went germany study forestry early german foresters also


emigrated north america south america first forestry school established brazil vi osa minas gerais moved next year become faculty federal university paran curitiba forestry education today prescribed burning used foresters reduce fuel loads today forestry education typically includes training general biology ecology botany genetics soil science climatology hydrology economics forest management education basics sociology political science often considered advantage professional skills conflict resolution communication also important training programs india


bologna process european higher education area international union forest research organizations international organization coordinates forest science efforts worldwide continuing education order keep changing demands environmental factors forestry education stop graduation increasingly forestry professionals engage regular training maintain improve management practices increasingly popular tool marteloscopes one hectare large rectangular forest sites trees numbered mapped recorded sites used virtual thinnings test one 's wood quality volume estimations


well tree http iplusefiint marteloscopes datahtml microhabitats system mainly suitable regions small scale multi functional forest management systems miscellaneous forestry research education list forest research institutes list forestry technical schools list forestry universities colleges list historic journals forestry imperial forestry institute disambiguation see also afforestation agroforestry arboriculture close nature forestry community forestry deforestation deforestation climate change dendrology forest dynamics forest farming forest informatics forestry literature history forest central europe international year forests list forest research institutes list forestry journals lumberjack miyawaki method nonindustrial private


forests sustainable forest management silviculture silvology sources references reading eyle alexandra ''charles lathrop pack timberman forest conservationist pioneer forest education'' syracuse ny esf college foundation college environmental science forestry distributed syracuse university press available https archiveorg details charleslathroppa eyle internet archive hammond herbert ''seeing forest among trees'' winlaw vancouver polestar press hart c ''practical forestry agent surveyor'' stroud sutton publishing hibberd bg ed ''forestry practice'' forestry commission handbook london hmso https webarchiveorg web http farpointforestryubcca fp jkimmins kimmins hammish ''balancing act environmental issues forestry'' vancouver university


british columbia press maser chris ''sustainable forestry philosophy science economics'' delray beach st lucie press miller g tyler ''resource conservation management'' belmont wadsworth publishing nyland ralph ''silviculture concepts applications'' nd ed prospect heights waveland press oosthoek k jan richard h lzl eds managing northern europe 's forests histories age improvement age ecology new york oxford berghahn publ radkau joachim wood history november polity stoddard charles h ''essentials forestry'' new york ronald press http wwwopenbookpublisherscom product forests food addressing hunger nutrition across sustainable landscapes vira b et al ''forests food addressing hunger


nutrition across sustainable landscapes'' cambridge open book publishers scott james c ''seeing like state nature space'' yale university press external links


kinesin uses protein domain dynamics nanoscales walk along microtubule '''biophysics''' interdisciplinary science applies approaches methods traditionally used physics study biological phenomena biophysics covers scales biological organization molecular organismic populations biophysical research shares significant overlap biochemistry molecular biology physical chemistry physiology nanotechnology bioengineering computational biology biomechanics developmental biology systems biology term ''biophysics'' originally introduced karl pearson ref name glaser roland glaser '' https booksgooglecom booksid xxsye z ia c biophysics introduction '' springer april ref term ''biophysics'' also regularly used academia indicate


distances nanoscale molecular biophysicists often consider complex biological events systems interacting entities understood eg statistical mechanics thermodynamics chemical kinetics drawing knowledge experimental techniques wide variety disciplines biophysicists often able directly observe model even manipulate structures interactions individual molecules complexes molecules addition traditional ie molecular cellular biophysical topics like structural biology enzyme kinetics modern biophysics encompasses extraordinarily broad range research bioelectronics quantum biology involving experimental theoretical tools


becoming increasingly common biophysicists apply models experimental techniques derived physics well mathematics statistics larger systems tissues organs populations ecosystems biophysical models used extensively study electrical conduction single neurons well neural circuit analysis tissue whole brain medical physics branch biophysics application physics medicine healthcare ranging radiology microscopy nanomedicine example physicist richard feynman theorized future nanomedicine wrote idea ''medical'' use


biological machines see nanomachines feynman albert hibbs suggested certain repair machines might one day reduced size point would possible feynman put swallow doctor idea discussed feynman 's essay ''there 's plenty room bottom history earlier studies biophysics conducted group known berlin school physiologists among members pioneers hermann von helmholtz ernst heinrich weber carl f w ludwig johannes peter ller ref name franceschetti ref biophysics


might even seen dating back studies luigi galvani popularity field rose book ''what life'' erwin schr dinger published since biophysicists organized biophysical society members world ref name rosengothard ref authors robert rosen criticize biophysics ground biophysical method take account specificity biological phenomena focus subfield colleges universities dedicated departments biophysics usually graduate level many university level biophysics


departments instead groups related departments biochemistry cell biology chemistry computer science engineering mathematics medicine molecular biology neuroscience pharmacology physics physiology depending strengths department university differing emphasis given fields biophysics follows list examples department applies efforts toward study biophysics list hardly inclusive subject study belong exclusively particular department academic institution makes rules much overlap departments biology molecular


biology gene regulation single protein dynamics bioenergetics patch clamping biomechanics virophysics structural biology ngstrom resolution structures proteins nucleic acids lipids carbohydrates complexes thereof biochemistry chemistry biomolecular structure sirna nucleic acid structure structure activity relationships computer science neural networks biomolecular drug databases computational chemistry molecular dynamics simulation molecular docking quantum chemistry bioinformatics sequence alignment structural alignment protein structure prediction mathematics graph network theory population modeling dynamical systems phylogenetics medicine biophysical research emphasizes medicine medical biophysics field closely related physiology explains various aspects systems


body physical mathematical perspective examples fluid dynamics blood flow gas physics respiration radiation diagnostics treatment much biophysics taught preclinical subject many medical schools mainly europe neuroscience studying neural networks experimentally brain slicing well theoretically computer models membrane permittivity pharmacology physiology channelomics electrophysiology biomolecular interactions cellular membranes polyketides physics negentropy stochastic processes development new physical techniques instrumentation well application quantum biology field quantum biology applies quantum mechanics biological objects


problems decohered isomers yield time dependent base substitutions studies imply applications quantum computing agronomy agriculture many biophysical techniques unique field research efforts biophysics often initiated scientists biologists chemists physicists training see also biophysical society index biophysics articles list publications biology ndash biophysics list publications physics ndash biophysics list biophysicists outline biophysics biophysical chemistry european biophysical societies' association medical biophysics membrane biophysics molecular biophysics neurophysics physiomics virophysics single particle trajectory references sources external links


http wwwbiophysicsorg biophysical society journal physiology virtual issue http jpphysocorg site misc virtualissuebiophystocxhtml biophysics beyond http wwwbio physicsat bio physics wiki link archive learning resources students http wwwbiophysikade biophysikade english german applied interdisciplinary physics


'''agnosticism''' view existence god divine supernatural unknown unknowable ref name hepburn page edition ref ref name roweroutledge ref another definition provided view human reason incapable providing sufficient rational grounds justify either belief god exists belief god exist ref name roweroutledge english biologist thomas henry huxley coined word ''agnostic'' said simply means man shall say knows believes scientific grounds professing know believe


earlier thinkers however written works promoted agnostic points view sanjaya belatthaputta th century bce indian philosopher expressed agnosticism afterlife ref name bhaskar bhaskar ref ref name ridgeon ref protagoras th century bce greek philosopher expressed agnosticism existence gods ref name protagoras ref ref name patri ref ref name treharne ref defining agnosticism wikisource full text article ref ref name dawkins ref thomas henry huxley scientist else huxley presented agnosticism form demarcation hypothesis supporting objective testable evidence objective scientific claim would


narrow definition atheist common usage definition word admitting broad definition agnostic common usage definition word promoted broadening definition atheist narrowing definition agnostic smith rejects agnosticism third alternative theism atheism promotes terms agnostic atheism view hold belief existence deity claim existence deity unknown inherently unknowable agnostic theism view believe existence


deity claim existence deity unknown inherently unknowable ref name smith ref ref name barker agnostic atheism ref etymology ''agnostic'' used thomas henry huxley speech meeting metaphysical society describe philosophy rejects claims spiritual mystical knowledge ref name eb agnosticism ref early christian church leaders used greek word ''gnosis'' knowledge describe spiritual knowledge agnosticism confused religious views opposing ancient religious movement gnosticism particular huxley used term broader abstract sense ref name nknxjx ref huxley


identified agnosticism creed rather method skeptical evidence based inquiry term ''agnostic'' also cognate sanskrit word ''aj asi'' translates literally knowable relates ancient indian philosophical school aj ana proposes impossible obtain knowledge metaphysical nature ascertain truth value philosophical propositions even knowledge possible useless disadvantageous final salvation recent years scientific literature dealing neuroscience psychology used word mean knowable technical marketing literature agnostic


also mean independence parameters example platform agnostic referring cross platform software ref name sparksheet ref hardware agnostic ref name datacenterdynamics ref qualifying agnosticism scottish enlightenment philosopher david hume contended meaningful statements universe always qualified degree doubt asserted fallibility human beings means cannot obtain absolute certainty except trivial cases statement true definition eg tautologies bachelors unmarried triangles three corners types strong agnosticism also called hard closed strict permanent agnosticism view question existence


nonexistence deity deities nature ultimate reality unknowable reason natural inability verify experience anything another subjective experience strong agnostic would say cannot know whether deity exists neither ref name oppy ref ref name barnes ref ref name poidevin ref weak agnosticism also called soft open empirical temporal agnosticism view existence nonexistence deities currently unknown necessarily unknowable therefore one withhold judgment evidence becomes available weak agnostic would say


n't know whether deities exist maybe one day evidence find something ref name oppy ref name barnes ref name poidevin apathetic agnosticism view amount debate prove disprove existence one deities one deities exist appear concerned fate humans therefore existence little impact personal human affairs little interest apathetic agnostic would say n't know whether deity exists


existential philosophy ren kierkegaard convinced many later philosophers abandon attempts regarding impossible construct unassailable proof existence non existence god ref name roweroutledge online ref book ''philosophical fragments'' kierkegaard writes hume huxley 's favourite philosopher calling prince agnostics diderot wrote mistress telling visit hume baron d'holbach describing word position huxley would later describe agnosticism n't seem exist least n't common knowledge time united kingdom charles darwin charles darwin raised


religious environment charles darwin studied anglican clergyman eventually doubting parts faith darwin continued help church affairs even avoiding church attendance darwin stated would absurd doubt man might ardent theist evolutionist ref name fordyce http wwwdarwinprojectacuk entry letter darwin c r fordyce john may https webarchiveorg web http wwwdarwinprojectacuk entry archived original june ref ref name spencer https wwwtheguardiancom commentisfree belief sep darwin evolution religion darwin 's complex loss faith ''the guardian'' september https webarchiveorg web http wwwtheguardiancom commentisfree belief sep darwin evolution religion archived original june ref although reticent religious views


wrote never atheist sense denying existence god think generally agnostic would correct description state mind ref name fordyce ref name belief ref thomas henry huxley thomas henry huxley agnostic views old philosophical skepticism terms agnostic agnosticism created huxley sum thoughts contemporary developments metaphysics unconditioned william hamilton unknowable herbert spencer though huxley began use term agnostic opinions


taken shape time date letter september charles kingsley huxley discussed views extensively ref name huxley ref ref name huxley ref correspondent may ref name huxleyhuxley ref origin name agnostic describe attitude huxley gave following account less successfully solved problem existence quite sure pretty strong conviction problem insoluble hume kant side could think presumptuous holding fast


opinion nbsp took thought invented conceived appropriate title agnostic came head suggestively antithetic gnostic church history professed know much things ignorant nbsp great satisfaction term took huxley wrote blockquote therefore although believe demonstrable real knowledge authorship date composition gospels come us nothing better less probable guesses


arrived subject blockquote william stewart ross william stewart ross wrote name saladin associated victorian freethinkers organization british secular union edited ''secular review'' renamed ''agnostic journal eclectic review'' closed ross championed agnosticism opposition atheism charles bradlaugh open ended spiritual exploration ''why agnostic'' c claims agnosticism reverse atheism ref name rosstaylor ref bertrand russell bertrand russell bertrand russell declared ''why


christian'' classic statement agnosticism ref name usersdrewedu ref ref name russell ref calls upon readers stand two feet look fair square world fearless attitude free intelligence ref name russell russell gave lecture ''the existence nature god'' characterized atheist said however later lecture discussing modern non anthropomorphic concepts god russell states russell 's pamphlet ''am atheist agnostic'' subtitled ''a plea tolerance face new dogmas''


ruminates problem call ref name russell ref essay ''what agnostic'' russell states ref name russell ref later essay russell adds leslie weatherhead christian theologian leslie weatherhead published ''the christian agnostic'' argues ref name weatherhead ref although radical unpalatable conventional theologians weatherhead 's ''agnosticism'' falls far short huxley 's short even ''weak agnosticism'' ref name weatherhead united states robert g ingersoll robert g ingersoll robert g ingersoll illinois lawyer politician evolved well known sought orator th century america


referred great agnostic lecture titled ''why agnostic'' ingersoll related agnostic ref name infidels ref conclusion speech simply sums agnostic position ref name infidels ingersoll explained comparative view agnosticism atheism follows bernard iddings bell canon bernard iddings bell popular cultural commentator episcopal priest author lauded necessity agnosticism ''beyond agnosticism book tired mechanists'' calling foundation intelligent christianity ref name ref agnosticism temporary mindset


one rigorously questioned truths age including way one believed god view robert ingersoll thomas paine denouncing true christianity rather gross perversion ref name part misunderstanding stemmed ignorance concepts god religion historically god real perceivable force ruled lives humans inspired admiration love fear homage religion practice ancient peoples worshiped gods real counterparts mammon money material things nabu rationality ba'al


violent weather bell argued modern peoples still paying homage lives children 's lives old gods wealth physical appetites self deification thus one attempted agnostic passively would incidentally join worship world 's gods ''unfashionable convictions '' criticized enlightenment 's complete faith human sensory perception augmented scientific instruments means accurately grasping reality firstly fairly new innovation western world aristotle invented thomas aquinas revived among scientific community secondly divorce pure science


human experience manifested american industrialization completely altered environment often disfiguring suggest insufficiency human needs thirdly scientists constantly producing data point single human could grasp followed human intelligence incapable attaining complete understanding universe therefore admit mysteries unobserved universe ''actually'' scientific bell believed two ways humans could perceive interact world ''artistic experience'' one expressed meaning speaking writing painting gesturing


sort communication shared insight human 's inner reality ''mystical experience'' one could read people harmonize commonly call love ref name ref summary man scientist artist lover without exercising three person became lopsided bell considered humanist person cannot rightly ignore ways knowing however humanism like agnosticism also temporal would eventually lead either scientific materialism theism lays following thesis truth cannot discovered reasoning evidence scientific data


surface sun show us undefinable reality nevertheless intimate personal reveal qualities lovelier truer detached facts provide religious christian sense live whole reality god rather small part gods treating whole reality person good true perfect rather impersonal force come closer truth ultimate person loved cosmic force cannot scientist discover peripheral truths lover


reason throughout history millions people arrived wholeness reality religious experience aforementioned reasons may warm one toward religion fall short convincing however one presupposes god fact knowable loving person experiment lives according religion suddenly come face face experiences previously unknown one 's life becomes full meaningful fearless face death defy reason ''exceeds'' god experienced love orders


prayer fellowship devotion matter create order within one 's life continually renewing missing piece previously felt lost empower one compassionate humble small minded arrogant truth denied outright questioned science reveals ever growing vision universe discounted due bias toward older understandings reason trusted cultivated believe god forego reason deny scientific facts step unknown discover fullness life demographics nonreligious


population country url status dead ref demographic research services normally differentiate various types non religious respondents agnostics often classified category atheists non religious people survey published ''encyclop dia britannica'' found non religious people agnostics made world 's population ref name eb ref november december poll published ''financial times'' gives rates united states five european countries rates agnosticism united states rates agnosticism european countries surveyed


considerably higher italy spain great britain germany france ref name harris ref study conducted pew research center found world 's people third largest group christianity islam religious affiliation according report pew research center agnostics made us adult population ref name pew ref ''us religious landscape survey'' conducted pew research center agnostic respondents expressed belief god universal spirit ref name demographics ref whereas stated thought felt


tension non religious society people religious ref name demographics ref according australian bureau statistics australians religion category includes agnostics ref name abs ref ref name martin ref japanese ref name intelligence ref vietnamese atheists agnostics believe god official european union survey reported eu population unsure belief god spirit ref name eu ref criticism agnosticism criticized variety standpoints atheists criticize use term


agnosticism functionally indistinguishable atheism results frequent criticisms adopt term avoiding atheist label ref name eb agnosticism theistic theistic critics claim agnosticism impossible practice since person live either god exist ''etsi deus non daretur'' god exist ''etsi deus daretur'' ref name sm ref ref name ff ref ref name ccc ref christian according pope benedict xvi strong agnosticism particular contradicts affirming power reason know scientific truth ref name yojc ref name tt blames exclusion reasoning religion ethics dangerous pathologies


agnosticism specifically systems aim constructing complete philosophy unknowable excluding special kinds truth notably religious domain knowledge ref name cenc ref however church historically opposed full denial capacity human reason know god council vatican declares god beginning end natural light human reason known certainty works creation ref name cenc blaise pascal argued even truly evidence god agnostics consider


known pascal 's wager infinite expected value acknowledging god always greater finite expected value acknowledging existence thus safer bet choose god ref name pkpw ref atheistic according richard dawkins distinction agnosticism atheism unwieldy depends close zero person willing rate probability existence given god like entity dawkins continues agnostic extent agnostic fairies bottom garden dawkins also identifies two categories


agnostics temporary agnostics practice taps permanent agnostics principle paps states agnosticism existence god belongs firmly temporary tap category either exists n't scientific question one day may know answer meanwhile say something pretty strong probability considers pap deeply inescapable kind fence sitting ignosticism related concept ignosticism view coherent definition deity must put forward question existence deity meaningfully discussed


chosen definition coherent ignostic holds noncognitivist view existence deity meaningless empirically untestable nbsp j ayer theodore drange philosophers see atheism agnosticism incompatible ignosticism grounds atheism agnosticism accept deity exists meaningful proposition argued ref name drange drange ''atheism'' ref see also references reading alexander nathan g https thehumanistcom magazine march april philosophically speaking philosophically speaking atheist tall hat forgotten history agnosticism atheist tall hat forgotten history agnosticism ''the humanist'' february annan noel ''leslie stephen godless victorian'' u chicago press


cockshut aoj ''the unbelievers english thought '' dawkins richard poverty agnosticism ''the god delusion'' black swan lightman bernard ''the origins agnosticism'' royle edward ''radicals secularists republicans popular freethought britain '' manchester external links http wwwshapellorg manuscriptaspxagnostic einstein religion science nature still jewish albert einstein religion shapell manuscript foundation https webarchiveorg web http wwwagnosticuniverseorg ingersoll agnostichtml agnostic robert g ingersoll '' https webarchiveorg web http etextlibvirginiaedu cgi local dhi dhicgiid dv dictionary history ideas '' agnosticism http intersorg agnosticism agnosticism inters nbsp interdisciplinary encyclopedia religion science http wwwreligioustoleranceorg agnostichtm agnosticism nbsp http wwwreligioustoleranceorg religioustoleranceorg http wwwchabadorg library article cdo aid jewish agnostics believehtm agnostics believe nbsp jewish perspective fides et


ratio https webarchiveorg web http wwwvaticanva holy father john paul ii encyclicals documents hf jp ii enc fides et ratio enhtml '' nbsp relationship faith reason'' karol wojtyla https webarchiveorg web http thenaturalreligionorg natural religion dr brendan connolly epistemological theories philosophy religion skepticism irreligion doubt


jubal pythagoras philolaus engaged theoretical investigations woodcut franchinus gaffurius ''theorica music '' '''music theory''' study practices possibilities music ''the oxford companion music'' describes three interrelated uses term music theory first rudiments needed understand music notation key signatures time signatures rhythmic notation second learning scholars' views music antiquity present third sub topic musicology seeks define processes general principles music musicological approach theory differs

Humanities
Performing arts
Music
Music theory


music analysis takes starting point individual work performance fundamental materials built music theory frequently concerned describing musicians composers make music including tuning systems composition methods among topics ever expanding conception constitutes music see definition music inclusive definition could consideration sonic phenomena including silence absolute guideline however example study music ''quadrivium'' liberal arts university curriculum common medieval europe


abstract system proportions carefully studied distance actual musical practice disdains musica instrumentalis beneath true musician studies music abstract ''multo enim est maius atque auctius scire quod quisque faciat quam ipsum illud efficere quod sciat'' much better know one one knows group n medieval discipline became basis tuning systems later centuries generally included modern scholarship history music theory music theory practical discipline encompasses methods


cultures also considered music theory formal ways written treatises music notation practical scholarly traditions overlap many practical treatises music place within tradition treatises cited regularly scholarly writing cites earlier research modern academia music theory subfield musicology wider study musical cultures history etymologically ''music theory'' act contemplation music greek word meaning looking viewing contemplation speculation theory sight spectacle often concerned


abstract musical aspects tuning tonal systems scales consonance dissonance rhythmic relationships addition also body theory concerning practical aspects creation performance music orchestration ornamentation improvisation electronic sound production person researches teaches music theory music theorist university study typically phd level required teach tenure track music theorist us canadian university methods analysis include mathematics graphic analysis especially analysis enabled western music notation comparative descriptive statistical


legend ling lun order yellow emperor ling lun collected twelve bamboo lengths thick even nodes blowing one like pipe found sound agreeable named ''huangzhong'' yellow bell heard phoenixes singing male female phoenix sang six tones ling lun cut bamboo pipes match pitches phoenixes producing twelve pitch pipes two sets six male phoenix six female called ''l l '' later ' 'shierl '' blockquote apart technical structural


aspects ancient chinese music theory also discusses topics nature functions music ''yueji'' record music c st nd centuries bce example manifests confucian moral theories understanding music social context studied implemented confucian scholar officials theories helped form musical confucianism overshadowed erase rival approaches include assertion mozi c c nbsp bce music wasted human material resources laozi 's claim greatest music sounds even music ''qin'' zither genre closely


affiliated confucian scholar officials includes many works daoist references ''tianfeng huanpei'' heavenly breeze sounds jade pendants ref name lam blockquote india samaveda yajurveda c nbsp bce among earliest testimonies indian music contain theory properly speaking natya shastra written nbsp bce nbsp ce discusses intervals '' rutis'' scales ''gr mas'' consonances dissonances classes melodic structure ''m rchan s'' modes melodic types ''j tis'' instruments etc greece early preserved greek writings music theory include two types works technical manuals describing greek musical system including notation scales consonance dissonance rhythm


types musical compositions treatises way music reveals universal patterns order leading highest levels knowledge understanding several names theorists known works including pythagoras c c nbsp bce philolaus c c nbsp bce archytas nbsp bce others works first type technical manuals include anonymous erroneously attributed euclid ''division canon'' th rd century bce theon smyrna ''on mathematics useful understanding plato'' v nbsp ce nicomachus gerasa ''manual


harmonics'' nbsp ce cleonides ''introduction harmonics'' nd century ce gaudentius ''harmonic introduction'' th century ce bacchius geron ''introduction art music'' th century ce later alypius ''introduction music'' th th century ce philosophical treatises second type include aristoxenus ''harmonic elements'' nbsp bce aristoxenus ''rhythmic elements'' claudius ptolemy ''harmonics'' nbsp ce porphyrius ''on ptolemy 's harmonics'' c nbsp ce post classical china pipa instrument carried theory musical modes


damas nbsp ce author ''kitab al musiqa al kabir'' great book music 'ali ibn al husayn ul isfah n known abu al faraj al isfahani author ''kit b al agh n '' book songs ab 'al al usayn ibn abd h ibn n known avicenna c whose contribution music theory consists mainly chapter section mathematics ''kitab al shifa'' book healing al asan ibn mad ibn 'ali al k tib author kam l adab al ghin ' perfection musical knowledge copied istanbul topkapi museum ms safi al din al urmawi nbsp ce author


''kitabu al adw r'' treatise musical cycles ''ar ris lah arafiyyah'' epistle araf mub rak h commentator safi al din 's ''kit b al adw r'' british museum ms anon lxi anonymous commentary safi al din 's ''kit b al adw r'' shams al n al sayd w al dhahab th century ce music theorist author ''urj za fi'l q '' didactic poem music ref name ref europe latin treatise ''de institutione musica'' roman philosopher boethius written c translated ''fundamentals music'' touchstone writings music medieval europe boethius represented classical authority music middle ages greek writings


entitled ''epistola de ignoto cantu'' introduced practice using syllables describe notes intervals source hexachordal solmization used end middle ages guido also wrote emotional qualities modes phrase structure plainchant temporal meaning neumes etc chapters polyphony come closer describing illustrating real music previous account western tradition thirteenth century new rhythm system called mensural notation grew earlier limited method


notating rhythms terms fixed repetitive patterns called rhythmic modes developed france around early form mensural notation first described codified treatise ''ars cantus mensurabilis'' art measured chant franco cologne c mensural notation used different note shapes specify different durations allowing scribes capture rhythms varied instead repeating fixed pattern proportional notation sense note value equal two three times shorter value half third


longer value notation transformed various extensions improvements renaissance forms basis rhythmic notation european classical music today modern middle eastern central asian countries b qiy n yin uzbekistan th century ce uzbek author music theorist author ''zamzama e wahdat q '' chanting unity music ref name baron francois rodolphe d'erlanger tunis tunisia nbsp ce french musicologist author ''la musique arabe'' ''ta'r kh al q al arabiyya wa us luha wa tatawwur tuha'' history arabian music principles development d'erlanger divulges arabic music scale derived greek music scale


arabic music connected certain features arabic culture astrology ref name europe ''' u renaissance u ''' ''' u baroque u ''' ''' u u ''' western musical influence spread throughout world musicians adopted western theory international standard theoretical traditions textual oral traditions remain use example long rich musical traditions unique ancient current cultures africa primarily oral describe specific forms genres performance practices tunings aspects music theory sacred harp music uses different kind scale theory practice music


focuses solfege fa sol la music scale sacred harp also employs different notation involving shape notes notes shaped correspond certain solfege syllable music scale sacred harp music music theory originated reverend thomas symmes developed system singing note help church members note accuracy contemporary fundamentals music music composed aural phenomena music theory considers phenomena apply music music theory considers melody rhythm counterpoint harmony form tonal systems scales tuning intervals


consonance dissonance durational proportions acoustics pitch systems composition performance orchestration ornamentation improvisation electronic sound production etc pitch middle c nbsp hz file middle cmid pitch lowness highness tone example difference middle c higher c frequency sound waves producing pitch measured precisely perception pitch complex single notes natural sources usually complex mix many frequencies accordingly theorists often describe pitch subjective sensation rather objective measurement sound specific frequencies often assigned letter


names today orchestras assign concert middle c piano frequency nbsp hz assignment somewhat arbitrary example france tuned nbsp hz differences noticeable effect timbre instruments phenomena thus historically informed performance older music tuning often set match tuning used period written additionally many cultures attempt standardize pitch often considering allowed vary depending genre style mood etc


difference pitch two notes called interval basic interval unison simply two notes pitch octave interval two pitches either double half frequency one another unique characteristics octaves gave rise concept pitch class pitches letter name occur different octaves may grouped single class ignoring difference octave example high c low c members pitch class class contains


c 's musical tuning systems temperaments determine precise size intervals tuning systems vary widely within world cultures western culture long several competing tuning systems different qualities internationally system known equal temperament commonly used today considered satisfactory compromise allows instruments fixed tuning eg piano sound acceptably tune keys scales modes pattern whole half steps ionian mode major scale cfile ionian mode cmid notes arranged


variety scales modes western music theory generally divides octave series twelve pitches called chromatic scale within interval adjacent tones called half step semitone selecting tones set arranging patterns semitones whole tones creates scales commonly encountered scales seven toned major harmonic minor melodic minor natural minor examples scales octatonic scale pentatonic five tone scale common folk music blues non western


cultures often use scales correspond equally divided twelve tone division octave example classical ottoman persian indian arabic musical systems often make use multiples quarter tones half size semitone name indicates instance 'neutral' seconds three quarter tones 'neutral' thirds seven quarter tones normally use quarter tone direct interval traditional western notation scale used composition usually indicated key signature beginning designate pitches make scale


relationship overall pitch range compared range instruments voices perform music often affects music 's overall sound well technical implications performers interrelationship keys commonly used western tonal music conveniently shown circle fifths unique key signatures also sometimes devised particular composition baroque period emotional associations specific keys known doctrine affections important topic music theory unique tonal colorings keys gave rise


doctrine largely erased adoption equal temperament however many musicians continue feel certain keys appropriate certain emotions others indian classical music theory continues strongly associate keys emotional states times day extra musical concepts notably employ equal temperament consonance dissonance consonance dissonance subjective qualities sonority intervals vary widely different cultures ages consonance concord quality interval chord seems stable complete dissonance discord


opposite feels incomplete wants resolve consonant interval dissonant intervals seem clash consonant intervals seem sound comfortable together commonly perfect fourths fifths octaves major minor thirds sixths considered consonant others dissonant greater lesser degree context many aspects affect apparent dissonance consonance example debussy prelude major second may sound stable consonant interval may sound dissonant bach fugue common practice era perfect fourth considered


dissonant supported lower third fifth since early th century arnold schoenberg 's concept emancipated dissonance traditionally dissonant intervals treated higher remote consonances become widely accepted rhythm metric levels beat level shown middle division levels multiple levels rhythm produced sequential arrangement sounds silences time meter measures music regular pulse groupings called measures bars time signature meter signature specifies many beats measure value written note


counted felt single beat increased stress variations duration articulation particular tones may accented conventions musical traditions regular hierarchical accentuation beats reinforce given meter syncopated rhythms contradict conventions accenting unexpected parts beat playing simultaneous rhythms one time signature called polyrhythm recent years rhythm meter become important area research among music scholars highly cited recent scholars maury yeston fred lerdahl ray jackendoff jonathan kramer justin


antecedent consequent phrase period sentence period may considered complete melody however examples combine two periods use combinations constituents create larger form melodies chord c major triad represented staff notation br intonation br equal temperament br comma meantone br young temperament br pythagorean tuning chord music harmonic set three notes heard sounding simultaneously need actually played together arpeggios broken chords may many practical theoretical purposes constitute


chords chords sequences chords frequently used modern western west african oceanian music whereas absent music many parts world frequently encountered chords triads called consist three distinct notes notes may added give seventh chords extended chords added tone chords common chords ''major'' ''minor triads'' ''augmented'' ' 'diminished triads'' descriptions ''major'' ''minor'' ''augmented'' ' 'diminished'' sometimes referred collectively chordal ''quality'' chords also commonly classed


root note instance chord '''c''' major may described triad major quality built note '''c''' chords may also classified inversion order notes stacked series chords called chord progression although chord may principle followed chord certain patterns chords accepted establishing key common practice harmony describe chords numbered using roman numerals upward key note per diatonic function common ways notating representing chords western music


study harmony involves chords construction chord progressions principles connection govern harmony often said refer vertical aspect music distinguished melodic line horizontal aspect counterpoint refers interweaving melodic lines polyphony refers relationship separate independent voices thus sometimes distinguished harmony popular jazz harmony chords named root plus various terms characters indicating qualities example lead sheet may indicate chords c major minor


g dominant seventh many types music notably baroque romantic modern jazz chords often augmented tensions tension additional chord member creates relatively dissonant interval relation bass part chord one chord tones typically classical common practice period dissonant chord chord tension resolves consonant chord harmonization usually sounds pleasant ear balance consonant dissonant sounds simple words occurs


balance tense relaxed moments timbre spectrogram first second e chord played fender stratocaster guitar noiseless pickups e chord audio file guitarz clean e guitar chord mike tribulas ogg timbre sometimes called color tone color principal phenomenon allows us distinguish one instrument another play pitch volume quality voice instrument often described terms like bright dull shrill etc considerable interest music theory especially one component


timbre varies widely different instruments voices lesser degree instruments type due variations construction significantly performer 's technique timbre instruments changed employing different techniques playing example timbre trumpet changes mute inserted bell player changes embouchure volume voice change timbre way performer manipulates vocal apparatus eg shape vocal cavity mouth musical notation frequently specifies alteration timbre changes sounding


technique volume accent means indicated variously symbolic verbal instruction example word ' 'dolce'' sweetly indicates non specific commonly understood soft sweet timbre ''sul tasto'' instructs string player bow near fingerboard produce less brilliant sound ''cuivre'' instructs brass player produce forced stridently brassy sound accent symbols like ''marcato'' dynamic indications ''pp'' also indicate changes timbre dynamics illustration hairpins musical notation music dynamics normally refers variations intensity volume may measured


physicists audio engineers decibels phons music notation however dynamics treated absolute values relative ones usually measured subjectively factors besides amplitude affect performance perception intensity timbre vibrato articulation conventional indications dynamics abbreviations italian words like ''forte'' '''''f''''' loud ''piano'' '''''p''''' soft two basic notations modified indications including ''mezzo piano'' '''''mp''''' moderately soft literally half soft ''mezzo forte'' '''''mf''''' moderately loud ' 'sforzando'' ' 'sforzato'' '''' 'sfz'''''


surging pushed attack ''fortepiano'' '''''fp''''' loud attack sudden decrease soft level full span markings usually range nearly inaudible ''pianissississimo'' '''''pppp''''' loud possible ''fortissississimo'' '''''ffff''''' greater extremes '''''pppppp''''' '''''fffff''''' nuances '''''p ''''' ''pi piano'' sometimes found systems indicating volume also used notation analysis db decibels numerical scales colored different sized notes words languages italian symbols progressively increasing volume ''crescendo'' decreasing volume ' 'diminuendo'' ' 'decrescendo'' often


called hairpins indicated diverging converging lines shown graphic articulation examples articulation marks left right staccato staccatissimo martellato accent tenuto articulation way performer sounds notes example ' 'staccato'' shortening duration compared written note value ''legato'' performs notes smoothly joined sequence separation articulation often described rather quantified therefore room interpret execute precisely articulation example ' 'staccato'' often referred separated detached rather defined numbered


detached ''martel '' heavily accented hammered many combined create certain articulations example ''portato'' combination ''tenuto'' ' 'staccato'' instruments unique methods produce sounds ' 'spicatto'' bowed strings bow bounces string texture sousa 's washington post march mm features octave doubling homorhythmic texturefile sousa washington post march mid music texture melodic rhythmic harmonic materials combined composition thus determining overall quality sound piece texture


often described regard density thickness range width lowest highest pitches relative terms well specifically distinguished according number voices parts relationship voices example thick texture contains many layers instruments one layers could string section another brass thickness also affected number richness instruments playing piece thickness varies light thick lightly textured piece light sparse scoring thickly heavily


textured piece scored many instruments piece 's texture may affected number character parts playing timbre instruments voices playing parts harmony tempo rhythms used types categorized number relationship parts analyzed determined labeling primary textural elements primary melody secondary melody parallel supporting melody static support harmonic support rhythmic support harmonic rhythmic support common types included monophonic texture single melodic voice piece solo soprano solo flute biphonic texture


two melodic voices duo bassoon flute bassoon plays drone note flute plays melody polyphonic texture homophonic texture chords accompanying melody form structure canon ''encyclopaedia britannica'' calls canon compositional technique musical form ref name britannica ref term musical form musical architecture refers overall structure plan piece music describes layout composition divided sections tenth edition ''the oxford companion music'' percy scholes defines musical form


series strategies designed find successful mean opposite extremes unrelieved repetition unrelieved alteration according richard middleton musical form shape structure work describes difference distance moved repeat latter smallest difference difference quantitative qualitative ''how far'' ''of type'' different many cases form depends statement restatement unity variety contrast connection expression violinist performing musical expression art playing singing music emotional communication elements music


role breath singing voice 's natural ability express feelings sentiment deep emotions whether somehow categorized perhaps realm academics view expression element musical performance embodies consistently recognizable emotion ideally causing sympathetic emotional response listeners emotional content musical expression distinct emotional content specific sounds eg startlingly loud 'bang' learned associations eg national anthem rarely completely separated context components musical expression continue


subject extensive unresolved dispute notation tibetan musical score th century musical notation written symbolized representation music often achieved use commonly understood graphic symbols written verbal instructions abbreviations many systems music notation different cultures different ages traditional western notation evolved middle ages remains area experimentation innovation stone loc computer file formats become important well spoken language hand signs also used symbolically represent music primarily teaching standard


western music notation tones represented graphically symbols notes placed staff staves vertical axis corresponding pitch horizontal axis corresponding time note head shapes stems flags ties dots used indicate duration additional symbols indicate keys dynamics accents rests etc verbal instructions conductor often used indicate tempo technique aspects western music range different music notation systems used western classical music conductors use printed scores show instruments' parts orchestra members read parts musical


lines written popular styles music much less music may notated rock band may go recording session handwritten chord chart indicating song 's chord progression using chord names eg c major minor g etc chord voicings rhythms accompaniment figures improvised band members music theory academic discipline scholarly study music theory twentieth century number different subfields takes different perspective primary phenomenon interest


useful methods investigation analysis typically given work analyzed one person different divergent analyses created instance first two bars prelude claude debussy 's ''pell et melisande'' analyzed differently leibowitz laloy van appledorn christ leibowitz analyses succession harmonically minor vii v ignoring melodic motion laloy analyses succession v seeing g second measure ornament van appledorn christ analyses succession vii musical analysis attempt answer question ''how music work''


method employed answer question indeed exactly meant question differs analyst analyst according purpose analysis according ian bent analysis pursuit right came established late th century emergence approach method traced back however existed scholarly tool albeit auxiliary one middle ages onwards adolf bernhard marx influential formalising concepts composition music understanding towards second half


th century principle analysis variously criticized especially composers edgard var se 's claim explain means analysis decompose mutilate spirit work schenkerian analysis method musical analysis tonal music based theories heinrich schenker goal schenkerian analysis interpret underlying structure tonal work help reading score according structure theory 's basic tenets viewed way defining tonality music schenkerian analysis


schenker usually presents analyses generative direction starting fundamental structure ''ursatz'' reach score practice schenkerian analysis often reductive starting score showing reduced fundamental structure graph ''ursatz'' arrhythmic strict counterpoint cantus firmus exercise even intermediate levels reduction rhythmic notation open closed noteheads beams flags shows rhythm hierarchical relationships pitch events schenkerian analysis ' 'subjective'' mechanical procedure involved analysis reflects musical


intuitions analyst analysis represents way hearing reading piece music transformational theory branch music theory developed david lewin formally introduced work ''generalized musical intervals transformations'' theory models musical transformations elements mathematical group used analyze tonal atonal music goal transformational theory change focus musical objects c major chord g major chord relations objects thus instead saying c major chord


followed g major transformational theorist might say first chord transformed second dominant operation symbolically one might write dominant c major g major traditional musical set theory focuses makeup musical objects transformational theory focuses intervals types musical motion occur according lewin 's description change emphasis transformational attitude ask observed measure extension reified 'points' rather asks 'if ''at'' wish get characteristic ''gesture''


perform order arrive there' music perception cognition music psychology psychology music may regarded branch psychology musicology aims explain understand musical behavior experience including processes music perceived created responded incorporated everyday life modern music psychology primarily empirical knowledge tends advance basis interpretations data collected systematic observation interaction human participants music psychology field research practical relevance many areas including music performance


composition education criticism therapy well investigations human aptitude skill intelligence creativity social behavior music psychology shed light non psychological aspects musicology musical practice example contributes music theory investigations perception computational modelling musical structures melody harmony tonality rhythm meter form research music history benefit systematic study history musical syntax psychological analyses composers compositions relation perceptual affective social responses music ethnomusicology benefit psychological approaches


study music cognition different cultures genre technique classical piano trio group plays chamber music including sonatas term piano trio also refers works composed group music genre conventional category identifies pieces music belonging shared tradition set conventions distinguished ''musical form'' ''musical style'' although practice terms sometimes used interchangeably music divided different genres many different ways artistic nature music means classifications


often subjective controversial genres may overlap even varying academic definitions term ''genre ''itself book ''form tonal music'' douglass green distinguishes genre form lists madrigal motet canzona ricercar dance examples genres renaissance period clarify meaning ''genre'' green writes beethoven 's op mendelssohn 's op identical genre violin concertos different form however mozart 's rondo piano k ''agnus dei'' mass k quite different genre happen


similar form like peter van der merwe treat terms ''genre'' ' 'style'' saying ''genre'' defined pieces music came style basic musical language others allan f moore state ''genre'' ' 'style'' two separate terms secondary characteristics subject matter also differentiate genres music genre subgenre may also defined musical techniques style cultural context content spirit themes geographical origin sometimes used


identify music genre though single geographical category often include wide variety subgenres timothy laurie argues since early genre graduated subset popular music studies almost ubiquitous framework constituting evaluating musical research objects musical technique ability instrumental vocal musicians exert optimal control instruments vocal cords produce precise musical effects improving technique generally entails practicing exercises improve muscular sensitivity agility improve technique musicians often practice fundamental patterns notes natural


study also frequently used improvement technique mathematics music theorists sometimes use mathematics understand music although music axiomatic foundation modern mathematics mathematics basis sound sound musical aspects exhibits remarkable array number properties simply nature amazingly mathematical attempt structure communicate new ways composing hearing music led musical applications set theory abstract algebra number theory composers incorporated golden ratio fibonacci numbers work long history


examining relationships music mathematics though ancient chinese egyptians mesopotamians known studied mathematical principles sound pythagoreans particular philolaus archytas ancient greece first researchers known investigated expression musical scales terms numerical ratios first harmonics names frequencies showing exponential nature octave simple fractional nature non octave harmonics modern era musical set theory uses language mathematical set theory elementary way organize musical objects describe


relationships analyze structure piece typically atonal music using musical set theory one usually starts set tones could form motives chords applying simple operations transposition inversion one discover deep structures music operations transposition inversion called isometries preserve intervals tones set expanding methods musical set theory theorists used abstract algebra analyze music example pitch classes equally tempered octave form abelian group elements


possible describe intonation terms free abelian group serial composition set theory tone row alban berg 's ''lyric suite'' movement ifile berg 's lyric suite mov tone row b pmid music theory serialism method technique composition uses series values manipulate different musical elements serialism began primarily arnold schoenberg 's twelve tone technique though contemporaries also working establish serialism one example post tonal thinking twelve tone technique orders twelve notes chromatic scale forming row series providing unifying basis


composition 's melody harmony structural progressions variations types serialism also work sets collections objects necessarily fixed order series extend technique musical dimensions often called parameters duration dynamics timbre idea serialism also applied various ways visual arts design architecture integral serialism total serialism use series aspects duration dynamics register well pitch terms used especially europe distinguish post world war ii serial music twelve tone music


american extensions general serialism multiple serialism musical set theory provides concepts categorizing musical objects describing relationships many notions first elaborated howard hanson connection tonal music mostly developed connection atonal music theorists allen forte drawing work twelve tone theory milton babbitt concepts set theory general applied tonal atonal styles equally tempered tuning system extent generally one branch musical set


theory deals collections sets permutations pitches pitch classes pitch class set theory may ordered unordered related musical operations transposition inversion complementation methods musical set theory sometimes applied analysis rhythm well musical semiotics semiotician roman jakobson music semiology semiotics study signs pertain music variety levels following roman jakobson kofi agawu adopts idea musical semiosis introversive extroversive musical signs within text without topics various musical


roland barthes semiotician skilled amateur pianist wrote music ''image music text'' ''the responsibilities form'' ''eiffel tower'' though consider music semiotic system signs meanings music happen essentially connotations sounds social construction appropriation amplification certain meanings associated connotations work philip tagg ''ten little tunes'' ''fernando flute'' ''music 's meanings'' provides one complete systematic analysis relation musical structures connotations western especially popular television film music work


leonard b meyer ''style music'' theorizes relationship ideologies musical structures phenomena style change focuses romanticism case study education careers columbia university music theorist pat carpenter photo music theory practical sense part education conservatories music schools centuries status music theory currently within academic institutions relatively recent universities dedicated music theory programs many music theorists trained composers historians belief among


theorists teaching music theory inadequate subject properly recognised scholarly discipline right growing number scholars began promoting idea music theory taught theorists rather composers performers music historians led founding society music theory united states europe french ''soci d'analyse musicale'' founded called first european conference music analysis resulted foundation ''soci belge d'analyse musicale''


belgium ''gruppo analisi e teoria musicale'' italy year ''society music analysis'' uk ''vereniging voor muziektheorie'' netherlands ''gesellschaft f r musiktheorie'' germany later followed russian society music theory polish society music analysis ''sociedad de lisis teor musical'' spain others construction societies coordinate publication music theory scholarship support professional development music theory researchers part


initial training music theorists typically complete bmus ba music related field many cases music theory individuals apply directly bachelor 's degree phd cases may receive given increasingly interdisciplinary nature university graduate programs applicants music theory phd programs may academic training music outside music eg student may apply bmus masters music composition philosophy music music theorists


work instructors lecturers professors colleges universities conservatories job market tenure track professor positions competitive average around tenure track positions advertised per year past decade phd graduates produced year according survey earned doctorates compete positions job seekers received phd 's previous years still searching tenure track job applicants must hold completed phd equivalent degree expect receive one within year hired called


abd dissertation stage senior positions strong record publishing peer reviewed journals phd holding music theorists able find insecure positions sessional lecturers job tasks music theorist professor humanities discipline teaching undergraduate graduate classes area specialization many cases general courses music appreciation introduction music theory conducting research area expertise publishing research articles peer reviewed journals authoring book chapters books textbooks traveling


conferences present papers learn research field program includes graduate school supervising phd students giving guidance preparation theses dissertations music theory professors may take senior administrative positions institution dean chair school music see also ap music theory list music theorists music psychology musicology theory painting notes references sources reference avison charles ''an essay musical expression'' london c davis reference bandur markus ''aesthetics total serialism contemporary research music


architecture'' basel boston berlin birkh user reference baroni mario concept musical grammar translated simon maguire william drabkin ''music analysis'' reference bartlette christopher steven g laitz ''graduate review tonal theory'' new york oxford university press reference benward bruce marilyn nadine saker ''music theory practice'' seventh edition volumes boston mcgraw hill reference bernard jonathan pitch register music edgar var se ''music theory spectrum'' reference brandt anthony http cnxorg content musical form ''connexions'' january accessed september reference castan gerd http wwwmusic notationinfo en compmus notationformatshtml musical notation codes ''music notationinfo''


accessed may reference christiani adolph friedrich ''the principles expression pianoforte playing'' new york harper brothers reference dahlhaus carl harmony ''grove music online'' edited deane root reviewed december accessed july reference darwin charles '' https booksgooglecom booksid krulaaaaiaaj expression emotions man animals '' new york appleton company reference davies stephen ''musical meaning expression'' ithaca cornell university press reference d'erlanger rodolphe ed trans ''la musique arabe'' six volumes paris p geuthner reference ekwueme laz e n concepts african musical theory ''journal black studies''


september reference forsyth cecil ''orchestration'' second edition new york dover publications reference garland trudi hammel charity vaughan kahn ''math music harmonious connections'' palo alto dale seymour publications reference gerstner karl ''designing programmes four essays introduction'' introduction introduction paul gredinger english version q stephenson teufen switzerland arthur niggli enlarged new edition reference ghrab anas http anasghrabtn fichiers pdf pdf commentaire anonyme du kit b al adw r dition critique traduction et pr sentation des lectures arabes de l' uvre de af al n al urmaw phd thesis paris university paris sorbonne reference grant orag j osephine ''serial music serial


aesthetics compositional theory post war europe'' music twentieth century arnold whittall general editor cambridge new york cambridge university press reference green douglass ''form tonal music'' fort worth harcourt brace jovanovich college publishers new york london holt rinehart winston reference hartmann william ''signals sound sensation'' corrected fifth printing modern acoustics signal processing woodbury new york american institute physics new york springer reference jamini deborah ''harmony composition basics intermediate'' dvd video victoria bc trafford reference k rolyi otto ''introducing music'' penguin books reference kilmer anne


discovery ancient mesopotamian theory music ''proceedings american philosophical society'' reference kilmer anne sam mirelman nd http wwwoxfordmusiconlinecom subscriber article grove music mesopotamia theory practice ''grove music online'' oxford music online accessed november reference kivy peter ''the fine art repetition essays philosophy music'' cambridge new york cambridge university press cloth pbk reference kliewer vernon melody linear aspects twentieth century music ''aspects twentieth century music'' edited gary wittlich englewood cliffs new jersey prentice hall reference kubik gerhard ''theory african music''


broughton mark ellingham james mcconnachie orla duane rough guides penguin books reference london justin nd https wwwescomorg proceedings icmpc tue londonhtm musical expression musical meaning context icmpc proceedings papers reference lussy mathis ''musical expression accents nuances tempo vocal instrumental music'' translated miss e von glehn novello ewer co 's music primers london novello ewer co new york h w gray reference mcadams stephen albert bregman hearing musical streams ''computer music journal'' december reference mccreless patrick nd society music theory ''grove music online'' oxford university


culture '' edited bruce horner thomas swiss malden massachusetts blackwell publishing reference mirelman sam new fragment music theory ancient iraq ''archiv f r musikwissenschaft'' reference mirelman sam http wwwaawmjournalcom articles b mirelman aawm vol pdf tuning procedures ancient iraq ''analytical approaches world music'' reference mitchell barry http theoryofmusicwordpresscom explanation emergence jazz explanation emergence jazz ''theory music'' january reference moore allan f https wwwjstororg stable categorical conventions music discourse style genre ''music letters'' august reference nattiez jean jacques ''fondements d'une miologie de la musique'' collection esth tique paris union


g n rale d' ditions reference nattiez jean jacques ''proust musician'' translated derrick puffett cambridge new york cambridge university press reference nattiez jean jacques ''music discourse toward semiology music'' translated carolyn abbate ''musicologie generale et semiologie'' princeton princeton university press cloth pbk reference palisca claude v ian bent nd theory theorists ''grove music online'' edited deane root oxford university press accessed december reference purwins hendrik https ccrmastanfordedu purwins purwinsphdpdf profiles pitch classes circularity relative pitch key experiments models computational music analysis perspectives doktor der naturwissenschaften diss berlin technischen


music'' tenth edition oxford new york oxford university press reference service jonathan http wwwhcsharvardedu soundingchina servicehtml chinese music theory ''transmission transformation sounding china enlightenment europe'' cambridge harvard university department music web accessed december reference shiloah amnon http wwwperseefr doc ephe num la perfection des connaissances musicales traduction annot e du trait de musique arabe d'al asan ibn mad ibn 'ali al k tib '' cole pratique des hautes tudes e section sciences historiques et philologiques annuaire '' reference smith brindle reginald ''the new music avant garde since '' second edition oxford new york oxford university press cloth pbk reference snarrenberg robert


''schenker 's interpretive practice'' cambridge studies music theory analysis cambridge university press reference sorantin erich '' https booksgooglecom booksid b dfaaaamaaj problem musical expression philosophical psychological study '' nashville marshall bruce reference stefani gino miotique en musicologie ''versus'' reference stefani gino ''introduzione alla semiotica della musica'' palermo sellerio editore reference tan siu lan pfordresher peter harr rom ''psychology music sound significance'' new york psychology press reference thompson william forde nd ''music thought feeling understanding psychology music'' second edition new york oxford university press reference touma habib hassan ''the


music arabs'' new expanded edition translated laurie schwartz portland oregon amadeus press reference whittall arnold ''the cambridge introduction serialism'' cambridge introductions music new york cambridge university press cloth pbk reference wohl gennady http sonantometryblogspotcom archivehtml algebra tonal functions translated mykhaylo khramov sonantometry blogspot june accessed july reference wong janice http mastersofmediahumuvanl visualising music problems genre classification visualising music problems genre classification masters media blog site accessed august reference wright owen munajjim al ya ibn ''the new grove dictionary music musicians'' second edition edited stanley sadie john


tyrrell london macmillan reprinted ''grove music online'' oxford music online reference wright owen b http wwwoxfordmusiconlinecom subscriber article grove music pg arab music art music early period ce iv early theory ''the new grove dictionary music musicians'' second edition edited stanley sadie john tyrrell london macmillan reprinted ''grove music online'' oxford music online reference wulstan david tuning babylonian harp ''iraq'' reading anon http philadelphiajobingcom adjunct affiliate music theory job employment job adjunct affiliate music theory philadelphia st josephs university anon http wwwmusicbuffaloedu content full time tenure track position music theory rank assistant professor beginning fall full time tenure track position music theory rank assistant professor


beginning fall buffalo university buffalo department music anon http wwwmtosmtorg mto jobsphpid college william mary assistant professor music theory composition tenure eligible job listings mto accessed august apel willi ralph daniel ''the harvard brief dictionary music'' new york simon schuster inc aristoxenus ''aristoxenou harmonika stoicheia harmonics aristoxenus'' greek text edited english translation notes henry marcam oxford clarendon press bakkegard b elizabeth ann morris seventh century flutes arizona ''ethnomusicology'' september bakshi haresh


'' raga st century beyond music lover 's guide hindustani music'' victoria british columbia trafford ebook barnes latham ''the complete works aristotle'' princeton princeton university press baur john ''practical music theory'' dubuque kendall hunt publishing company benade arthur h ''horns strings harmony'' science study series garden city new york doubleday bent ian anthony pople analysis ''the new grove dictionary music musicians'' second edition edited stanley sadie john tyrrell london macmillan benward bruce barbara garvey jackson bruce r jackson


''practical beginning theory fundamentals worktext'' th edition boston mcgraw hill first edition benward bruce marilyn nadine saker ''music theory practice'' eighth edition vol boston mcgraw hill billmeier uschi ''mamady ke ta life djemb traditional rhythms malink '' fourth edition kirchhasel uhlst dt arun verlag boretz benjamin ''meta variations studies foundations musical thought'' red hook new york open space arnd adje music archaeology methodological theoretical considerations ''yearbook traditional music'' bregman albert ''auditory scene analysis perceptual organization sound'' cambridge mit


idioms'' chicago university chicago press civil miguel lexical texts sch yen collection ''cornell university studies assyriology sumerology'' confucius ''the analects confucius'' edited roger ames henry rosemont jr ballantine books conrad nicholas j maria malina susanne c nzel new flutes document earliest musical tradition southwestern germany ''nature'' august crease robert p ''world balance historic quest absolute system measurement'' new york london w w norton crickmore leon musicological interpretation


guide music art language life'' rochester mn factum musicae haas shady r j w creamer https wwwncbinlmnihgov dating caral pre ceramic site supe valley central coast peru ''science'' harnsberger lindsey c articulation ''essential dictionary music definitions composers theory instrument vocal ranges'' second edition essential dictionary series los angeles alfred publishing hewitt michael ''music theory computer musicians'' united states cengage learning houtsma adrianus j http webmitedu hst www themepapers pitch houtsma pdf pitch perception ''hearing'' handbook perception cognition volume second


edition edited brian c j moore san diego london academic press huang xiang peng wuyang jiahu gudi de ceyin yanjiu pitch measurement studies bone flutes jiahu wuyang county ''wenwu'' cultural relics nbsp reprinted collected essays huang xiang peng vols edited zhongguo yishu yanjiuyuan yinyue yanjiusuo ji'nan china shandong wenyi chubanshe hung eric http wwwmuscanorg en news job postings job western university music theory western university wright faculty music tenure track appointment music theory toronto muscan jackendoff ray fred lerdahl generative music theory relation psychology


''journal music theory'' josephs jess l ''the physics musical sound'' princeton toronto london van nostrand company kostka stefan dorothy payne ''tonal harmony'' fifth edition new york mcgraw hill kubik gerhard ''kalimba nsansi mbira lamellophone afrika'' berlin museum fur volkerkunde laroche emmanuel ''le palais royal d' ugarit textes accadiens et hourrites des archives est ouest et centrales'' paris c klincksieck lawn richard j jeffrey l hellmer ''jazz theory practice'' np alfred publishing co lee yuan yuan sin yan shen ''chinese musical instruments'' chinese music monograph series


mcgraw hill higher education mirelman sam theo krispijn old babylonian tuning text uet vi ''iraq'' nave r nd http hyperphysicsphy astrgsuedu hbase sound maxsenshtml frequencies maximum sensitivity human hearing hyperphysics website georgia state university accessed december olson steve http pawprincetonedu issues pages indexxml grand unified theory music ''princeton alumni weekly'' february online edition accessed september owen harold ''music theory resource book'' oxford university press ptolemy ''harmonics'' translation commentary jon solomon mnemosyne bibliotheca classica batava supplementum leiden boston brill academic publications randel michael


ed ''the harvard dictionary music'' fourth edition cambridge belknap press harvard university press seashore carl ''approaches science music speech'' iowa city university seashore carl https booksgooglecom booksid p guknyfpjyc printsec frontcover ''psychology music'' new york london mcgraw hill book company inc sorce richard ''music theory music professional'' np ardsley house stevens j volkmann e b newman scale measurement psychological magnitude pitch ''journal acoustical society america'' taruskin richard ''music earliest notations


sixteenth century oxford history western music'' oxford university press taylor eric ''ab guide music theory part '' london associated board royal schools music taylor eric ''ab guide music theory part '' london associated board royal schools music thrasher alan ''chinese musical instruments'' london new york oxford university press tracey hugh mbira class african instruments rhodesia ''african music society journal'' nbsp tymoczko dmitri ''a geometry music harmony counterpoint extended common practice''


masaya ''the complete thesaurus musical scales'' revised edition new york masaya music services zhang juzhong garman harboolt cahngsui wang zhaochen kong http wwwnaturecom nature journal v n pdf pdf oldest playable musical instrument found jiahu early neolithic site china ''nature'' september zhang juzhong l k kuem magic flutes ''natural history'' zhang juzhong x xiao k lee early development music analysis jiahu bone flutes ''antiquity'' nbsp external links https wwwpiano composer teacher londoncouk music theory composition resources music theory resources dillen oscar van http wwwoscarvandillencom outline basic music theory outline basic music theory http londonmusicacademycom little bit theory matters little bit


technical drawing cad drafter work copying technical drawings '''technical drawing''' '' 'drafting''' '' 'drawing''' act discipline composing drawings visually communicate something functions constructed technical drawing essential communicating ideas industry engineering make drawings easier understand people use familiar symbols perspectives units measurement notation systems visual styles page layout together conventions constitute visual language help ensure drawing unambiguous relatively easy understand many symbols principles technical drawing codified

Humanities
Visual arts
Applied arts
Technical drawing