''europe nineteenth century history'' https archiveorg details europeinnineteen gooc online kertesz ga ed ''documents political history european continent '' pp several hundred short documents primary sources mason david ''a concise history modern europe liberty equality solidarity'' since merriman john jm winter eds ''europe encyclopedia age industry empire'' vol ramm agatha ''europe nineteenth century '' https archiveorg details inernetdli edition online richardson hubert nb ''a dictionary napoleon times'' online free pp steinberg jonathan ''bismarck


victory'' dear icb mrd foot eds ''the oxford companion world war ii'' frank matthew ''making minorities history population transfer twentieth century europe'' oxford pp http wwwh netmsuedu reviews showrevphpid online review grenville jas ''a history world twentieth century'' https archiveorg details historyofworldin gren online free hallock stephanie ''the world th century thematic approach'' judt tony ''postwar history europe since '' martel gordon ed ''a companion europe '' essays scholars emphasis historiography mazower mark ''dark continent europe 's twentieth century'' pp merriman john


jay winter eds ''europe since encyclopedia age war reconstruction'' vol paxton robert julie hessler ''europe twentieth century'' th edition pollard sidney ed ''wealth poverty economic history th century'' pp global perspective https archiveorg details wealthpovertyeco poll online free sontag raymond james ''a broken world '' wide ranging history interwar europe https archiveorg details brokenworld sont page n online free borrow stone dan ed ''the oxford handbook postwar european history'' ther philipp ''europe since history'' princeton excerpt pp toynbee arnold ed ''survey international


free pounds njg ''an economic history medieval europe'' slicher van bath bh ''the agrarian history western europe ad '' thorp william long ''business annals united states england france germany austria russia sweden netherlands italy argentina brazil canada south africa australia india japan china'' capsule summary conditions country quarter year diplomacy albrecht carri ren ''a diplomatic history europe since congress vienna'' pp basic introduction https archiveorg details diplomatichistor albr b c online free borrow black jeremy ''a history diplomacy'' kertesz ga ed ''documents political history


european continent '' pp several hundred short documents langer william ''an encyclopedia world history'' th ed detailed outline macmillan margaret ''the war ended peace road '' cover mowat rb ''history european diplomacy '' pages petrie charles ''earlier diplomatic history '' covers europe https webarchiveorg web http babelhathitrustorg cgi ptid mdp view seq online petrie charles ''diplomatic history '' broad summary online free schroeder paul ''the transformation european politics '' online advanced diplomatic history sontag raymond james ''european diplomatic history '' https archiveorg details inernetdli online free steiner zara ''the lights


british empire'' poddar prem lars jensen eds ''a historical companion postcolonial literatures continental europe empires'' edinburgh excerpt also https wwwjstororg stable jctt g b vw entire text online ideas science heilbron john l ed ''the oxford companion history modern science'' wiener philip p ''dictionary history ideas'' vol religion forlenza rosario new perspectives twentieth century catholicism ''contemporary european history'' doi https doiorg latourette kenneth scott ''christianity revolutionary age history christianity nineteenth twentieth centuries'' vol vol


detailed country country coverage macculloch diarmaid ''christianity first three thousand years'' social maynes mary jo ''schooling western europe social history'' patel klaus kiran http ieg egoeu en threads theories methods transnational history transnational history ego european history online mainz institute european history retrieved march schmale wolfgang http ieg egoeu en threads theories methods transcultural history wolfgang schmale transcultural history europe perspectives history migrationset language en c transcultural history europe perspectives history migration ego european history online mainz institute european history retrieved march stearns peter n ed ''encyclopedia european social history'' vol pp comprehensive coverage stearns peter n herrick chapman ''european


society upheaval social history since '' tipton f robert aldrich ''an economic social history europe'' two volumes warfare archer christon john r ferris holger h herwig ''world history warfare'' ''the cambridge history first world war'' vol http universitypublishingonlineorg cambridge histories subject title listjsfsubjectcode heading warfare tsort title closed asort author default list ysort year default list online ''the cambridge history second world war'' vol http universitypublishingonlineorg cambridge histories subject title listjsfsubjectcode heading warfare tsort title closed asort author default list ysort year default list online cruttwell c r f ''a history great war '' general military history https archiveorg details inernetdli online free dupuy r ernest ''the harper encyclopedia military history bc present'' gerwarth


war society'' routledge paret peter ed ''makers modern strategy'' ideas warfare sharman jason c myths military revolution european expansion eurocentrism ''european journal international relations'' https journalssagepubcom doi pdf online stevenson david ''cataclysm first world war political tragedy'' major reinterpretation pp strachan hew ''the first world war volume arms'' major scholarly synthesis thorough coverage pp comprehensive overview emphasis diplomacy winter j ''the experience world war i'' nd ed topical essays winter jay antoine prost nd ed


''the great war history debates controversies present'' new york cambridge university press winter jay ''remembering war great war memory history twentieth century'' yale university press winter jay ed ''the cambridge history first world war'' vol cambridge university press zeiler thomas w daniel dubois eds ''a companion world war ii'' vol pp comprehensive overview scholars women gender anderson bonnie judith p zinsser ''a history women europe prehistory present''


nd ed bridenthal renate et al eds ''becoming visible women european history'' rd ed pp essays scholars frey linda marsha frey joanne schneider ''women western european history select chronological geographical topical bibliography'' hufton olwen ''the prospect history women western europe '' external links http hsozkultgeschichtehu berlinde eurhistxxasp eurhistxx network contemporary history europe edited english berlin http bookshopeuropaeu en eurostat yearbook pbca contains information historical trends living standards various european countries http primary sourceseuieu european history primary sources online access primary sources historians https webarchiveorg web http wwwvistoricacom eng persongroups c ceuropean callhtml vistorica


example map used reservoir engineers determine drill well screenshot structure map generated contour map software ft deep gas oil reservoir earth field vermilion parish erath louisiana left right gap near top contour map indicates fault line fault line blue green contour lines purple red yellow contour lines thin red circular contour line middle map indicates top oil reservoir gas floats oil thin red

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering
Process design
Petroleum engineering


contour line marks gas oil contact zone '''petroleum engineering''' field engineering concerned activities related production hydrocarbons either crude oil natural gas ref name pet eng ref exploration production deemed fall within ''upstream'' sector oil gas industry exploration earth scientists petroleum engineering oil gas industry 's two main subsurface disciplines focus maximizing economic recovery hydrocarbons subsurface reservoirs petroleum geology geophysics focus provision static description hydrocarbon reservoir rock petroleum engineering


production engineering recruitment industry historically disciplines physics mechanical engineering chemical engineering mining engineering subsequent development training usually done within oil companies overview profession got start within american institute mining metallurgical petroleum engineers aime first petroleum engineering degree conferred university pittsburgh since profession evolved solve increasingly difficult situations improvements computer modeling materials application statistics probability analysis new technologies like horizontal drilling enhanced oil recovery


drastically improved toolbox petroleum engineer recent decades automation sensors robots used propel industry efficiency safety deep water arctic desert conditions usually contended high temperature high pressure hthp environments become increasingly commonplace operations require petroleum engineer savvy topics wide ranging thermo hydraulics geomechanics intelligent systems society petroleum engineers spe largest professional society petroleum engineers publishes much technical information resources support oil gas industry provides free online


education webinars mentoring access spe connect exclusive platform members discuss technical issues best practices topics spe members also able access spe competency management tool find knowledge skill strengths opportunities growth spe publishes peer reviewed journals books magazines spe members receive complimentary subscription ''journal petroleum technology'' discounts spe 's publications ref name spe benefits society petroleum engineers website wwwspeorg access date ref spe members also receive discounts registration fees spe organized events training courses ref name spe benefits spe provides scholarships fellowships undergraduate


difference ref name also ''us news world report'' named petroleum engineering top college major terms highest median annual wages college educated workers age national association colleges employers survey showed petroleum engineers highest paid graduates average annual salary individuals experience salaries range make average year per hour article forbescom reported petroleum engineering th best paying job united states


sub disciplines petroleum engineers divide several types ref name pet eng reservoir engineers work optimize production oil gas via proper placement production rates enhanced oil recovery techniques drilling engineers manage technical aspects drilling exploratory production injection wells drilling fluid engineers mud engineer correctly called drilling fluids engineer often referred mud man works oil well gas well drilling rig responsible ensuring properties drilling fluid also known drilling mud within designed specifications completion engineers also known


subsurface engineers work design oversee implementation techniques aimed ensuring wells drilled stably maximum opportunity oil gas production production engineers manage interface reservoir well including perforations sand control downhole flow control downhole monitoring equipment evaluate artificial lift methods select surface equipment separates produced fluids oil natural gas water petrophysicists gather information subsurface properties build wellbore stability models study rock properties education petroleum engineering like forms engineering requires strong foundation physics


chemistry mathematics ref name ref fields pertinent petroleum engineering include geology formation evaluation fluid flow porous media well drilling technology economics geostatistics etc ref name petroleum geostatistics geostatistics applied petroleum engineering uses statistical analysis characterize reservoirs create flow simulations quantify uncertainties location oil gas petroleum geology petroleum geology interdisciplinary field composed geophysics geochemistry paleontology ref name ref main focus petroleum geology exploration appraisal reservoirs containing hydrocarbons via technical forms analysis ref name well drilling technology


well drilling technology primarily focus drilling engineers two forms well drilling percussion rotary drilling rotary common two important aspect dilling drill bit creates borehole approximately three half thirty inches diameter three classes drill bits roller cone fixed cutter hybrid use teeth break rock optimize drilling efficiency cost drilling engineers make use drilling simulators allow identify drilling conditions drilling technologies including horizontal drilling


directional drilling developed obtain hydrocarbons profitably impermeable coal bed methane accumulations professional associations society petroleum engineers american institute mining metallurgical petroleum engineers see also petroleum industry petroleum geology seismic simulation society petroleum engineers spe certified petroleum professional references bibliography external links http wwwspeorg society petroleum engineers http wwwglossaryoilfieldslbcom schlumberger oilfield glossary online glossary oilfield terms http wwwspeeorg society petroleum evaluation engineers http wwwunivsourcecom petroleumhtm petroleum engineering schools https webarchiveorg web http pieglobalcom blog forensic petroleum engineering forensic petroleum engineering https wwwtoppetroleumengineeringschoolscom petroleum engineering best petroleum engineering schools colleges


'''solid state chemistry''' also sometimes referred '''materials chemistry''' study synthesis structure properties solid phase materials particularly necessarily exclusively non molecular solids therefore strong overlap solid state physics mineralogy crystallography ceramics metallurgy thermodynamics materials science electronics focus synthesis novel materials characterisation solids classified crystalline amorphous basis nature order present arrangement constituent particles ref name west ref history silicon wafer use electronic devices direct relevance products

Natural science
Chemistry
Solid-state chemistry


commerce solid state inorganic chemistry strongly driven technology progress field often fueled demands industry sometimes collaboration academia applications discovered th century include zeolite platinum based catalysts petroleum processing high purity silicon core component microelectronic devices high temperature superconductivity invention x ray crystallography early william lawrence bragg enabling innovation understanding reactions proceed atomic level solid state advanced considerably


carl wagner 's work oxidation rate theory counter diffusion ions defect chemistry contributions sometimes referred ''father solid state chemistry'' synthetic methods given diversity solid state compounds equally diverse array methods used preparation ref name west oven techniques thermally robust materials high temperature methods often employed example bulk solids prepared using tube furnaces allow reactions conducted ca c special equipment eg ovens consisting tantalum tube electric current


passed used even higher temperatures nbsp c high temperatures times required induce diffusion reactants tube furnace used synthesis aluminium chloride melt methods one method often employed melt reactants together later anneal solidified melt volatile reactants involved reactants often put ampoule evacuated mixture keeping bottom ampoule liquid nitrogen sealed sealed ampoule put oven given certain heat treatment


presence molten flux certain grain may grow rapidly within matrix finer crystallites produces abnormal grain growth agg may desired detrimental produced solid solution methods possible use solvents prepare solids precipitation evaporation times solvent used hydrothermal pressure temperatures higher normal boiling point variation theme use flux methods salt relatively low melting point added mixture act high


temperature solvent desired reaction take place useful gas reactions chemical vapour deposition reaction chamber many solids react vigorously reactive gas species like chlorine iodine oxygen etc others form adducts gases eg co ethylene reactions often conducted tube open ended sides gas passed variation let reaction take place inside measuring device tga case stoichiometric information obtained reaction helps identify


products chemical transport reactions used purify grow crystals materials process often carried sealed ampoule transport process entails addition small amount transport agent eg iodine generates volatile intermediate species migrates transports ampoule placed oven two temperature zones chemical vapour deposition method widely employed preparation coatings semiconductors molecular precursors characterization new phases phase diagrams structures synthetic methodology characterization often go hand hand sense


one series reaction mixtures prepared subjected heat treatment stoichiometry typically ''varied'' systematic way find stoichiometries lead new solid compounds solid solutions known ones prime method characterize reaction products powder diffraction many solid state reactions produce polycristalline ingots powders powder diffraction facilitate identification known phases mixture pattern found known diffraction data libraries attempt made index pattern ie identify


symmetry size unit cell product crystalline characterization typically much difficult scanning electron microscope sem unit cell new phase known next step establish stoichiometry phase done number ways sometimes composition original mixture give clue one finds one product single powder pattern one trying make phase certain composition analogy known materials rare often


considerable effort refining synthetic methodology required obtain pure sample new material possible separate product rest reaction mixture elemental analysis used another way involves sem generation characteristic x rays electron beam x ray diffraction also used due imaging capabilities speed data generation latter often requires ' 'revisiting'' refining preparative procedures linked question phases stable composition stoichiometry words


phase diagram looks like important tool establishing thermal analysis techniques like dsc dta increasingly also thanks advent synchrotrons temperature dependent powder diffraction increased knowledge phase relations often leads x ray diffractometer xrd refinement synthetic procedures iterative way new phases thus characterized melting points stoichiometric domains latter important many solids non stoichiometric compounds cell parameters obtained xrd particularly helpful characterize homogeneity ranges latter local structure contrast


large structures crystals local structure describes interaction nearest neighbour atoms methods nuclear spectroscopy use specific nuclei probe electric magnetic fields around nucleus eg electric field gradients sensitive small changes caused lattice expansion compression thermal pressure phase changes local defects common methods ssbauer spectroscopy perturbed angular correlation characterization many certainly cases new solid compounds characterized variety techniques straddle fine line hardly separates solid state chemistry solid state physics see characterisation


material science optical properties non metallic materials often possible obtain uv vis spectra case semiconductors give idea band gap citations references external links http ocwmitedu courses materials science engineering sc introduction solid state chemistry fall indexhtm sadoway donald sc introduction solid state chemistry fall massachusetts institute technology mit opencourseware materials science


'''epidemiology''' study analysis distribution patterns determinants health disease conditions defined populations cornerstone public health shapes policy decisions evidence based practice identifying risk factors disease targets preventive healthcare epidemiologists help study design collection statistical analysis data amend interpretation dissemination results including peer review occasional systematic review epidemiology helped develop methodology used clinical research public health studies lesser extent basic research biological sciences major areas

Applied science
Medicine and health
Epidemiology


epidemiological study include disease causation transmission outbreak investigation disease surveillance environmental epidemiology forensic epidemiology occupational epidemiology screening biomonitoring comparisons treatment effects clinical trials epidemiologists rely scientific disciplines like biology better understand disease processes statistics make efficient use data draw appropriate conclusions social sciences better understand proximate distal causes engineering exposure assessment ''epidemiology'' literally meaning study upon people derived suggesting applies human populations however term widely used studies zoological populations


veterinary epidemiology although term epizoology available also applied studies plant populations botanical plant disease epidemiology distinction epidemic endemic first drawn hippocrates distinguish diseases visited upon population epidemic reside within population endemic ref name carol buck p carol buck alvaro llopis enrique n jera milton terris ''the challenge epidemiology issues selected readings'' scientific publication pan american health organization washington dc p ref term epidemiology appears first used describe study


greek physician hippocrates known father medicine sought logic sickness first person known examined relationships occurrence disease environmental influences hippocrates believed sickness human body caused imbalance four humors black bile yellow bile blood phlegm cure sickness remove add humor question balance body belief led application bloodletting dieting medicine ref name merril ray merril ray phd mph ''an introduction epidemiology''


fifth edition chapter historic developments epidemiology jones bartlett publishing ref coined terms ''endemic'' diseases usually found places others ''epidemic'' diseases seen times others ref name hip ref modern era middle th century doctor verona named girolamo fracastoro first propose theory small unseeable particles cause disease alive considered able spread air multiply destroyable fire way


refuted galen 's miasma theory poison gas sick people wrote book ''de contagione et contagiosis morbis'' first promote personal environmental hygiene prevent disease development sufficiently powerful microscope antonie van leeuwenhoek provided visual evidence living particles consistent germ theory disease ming dynasty wu youke developed idea diseases caused transmissible agents called ''li qi'' pestilential factors observed various epidemics rage around


book ''wen yi lun'' treatise pestilence treatise epidemic diseases regarded main etiological work brought forward concept concepts still considered analysing sars outbreak context traditional chinese medicine another pioneer thomas sydenham first distinguish fevers londoners later theories cures fevers met much resistance traditional physicians time able find initial cause smallpox fever researched treated ref name merril ray


john graunt haberdasher amateur statistician published ''natural political observations upon bills mortality'' analysed mortality rolls london great plague presented one first life tables reported time trends many diseases new old provided statistical evidence many theories disease also refuted widespread ideas john snow showing clusters cholera cases london epidemic john snow famous investigations causes th century cholera epidemics also


known father modern epidemiology began noticing significantly higher death rates two areas supplied southwark company identification broad street pump cause soho epidemic considered classic example epidemiology snow used chlorine attempt clean water removed handle ended outbreak perceived major event history public health regarded founding event science epidemiology helped shape public health policies around world however snow 's research


important pioneer hungarian physician ignaz semmelweis brought infant mortality vienna hospital instituting disinfection procedure findings published work ill received colleagues discontinued procedure disinfection become widely practiced british surgeon joseph lister 'discovered' antiseptics light work louis pasteur early th century mathematical methods introduced epidemiology ronald ross janet lane claypon anderson gray mckendrick others parallel development german swiss pathologist max askanazy others founded


international society geographical pathology systematically investigate geographical pathology cancer non infectious diseases across populations different regions world war ii richard doll non pathologists joined field advanced methods study cancer disease patterns mode occurrences could suitably studied methods developed epidemics infectious diseases geography pathology eventually combined infectious disease epidemiology make field epidemiology today ref name cancer ref another breakthrough publication results british doctors study led richard doll austin


since genome wide association studies gwas commonly performed identify genetic risk factors many diseases health conditions molecular epidemiology studies still using conventional disease diagnosis classification systems increasingly recognized disease progression represents inherently heterogeneous processes differing person person conceptually individual unique disease process different individual unique disease principle considering uniqueness exposome totality endogenous exogenous environmental exposures unique influence molecular pathologic process individual studies examine relationship


exposure molecular pathologic signature disease particularly cancer became increasingly common throughout however use molecular pathology epidemiology posed unique challenges including lack research guidelines standardized statistical methodologies paucity interdisciplinary experts training programs furthermore concept disease heterogeneity appears conflict long standing premise epidemiology individuals disease name similar etiologies disease processes resolve issues advance population health science era molecular precision medicine molecular pathology epidemiology integrated create new interdisciplinary


field molecular pathological epidemiology mpe defined epidemiology molecular pathology heterogeneity disease mpe investigators analyze relationships environmental dietary lifestyle genetic factors b alterations cellular extracellular molecules c evolution progression disease better understanding heterogeneity disease pathogenesis contribute elucidate etiologies disease mpe approach applied neoplastic diseases also non neoplastic diseases concept paradigm mpe become widespread recognized many pathogens' evolution rapid enough


equated clinical community trials treatments interventions observational studies nature allowed take course epidemiologists observe sidelines conversely experimental studies epidemiologist one control factors entering certain case study ref name epidemiology principles epidemiology key concepts public health london sage uk credo reference august web september ref epidemiological studies aimed possible revealing unbiased relationships exposures alcohol smoking biological agents stress chemicals mortality morbidity identification causal


relationships exposures outcomes important aspect epidemiology modern epidemiologists use informatics tool observational studies two components descriptive analytical descriptive observations pertain health related state occurrence however analytical observations deal health related event ref name epidemiology experimental epidemiology contains three case types randomized controlled trials often used new medicine drug testing field trials conducted high risk contracting disease community trials research social originating diseases ref name epidemiology term 'epidemiologic triad'


used describe intersection ''host'' ''agent'' ''environment'' analyzing outbreak case series case series may refer qualitative study experience single patient small group patients similar diagnosis statistical factor potential produce illness periods unexposed former type study purely descriptive cannot used make inferences general population patients disease types studies astute clinician identifies unusual feature disease


patient 's history may lead formulation new hypothesis using data series analytic studies could done investigate possible causal factors include case control studies prospective studies case control study would involve matching comparable controls without disease cases series prospective study would involve following case series time evaluate disease 's natural history latter type formally described self controlled case series studies divide individual patient follow time exposed unexposed periods use fixed effects poisson regression processes compare incidence rate


given outcome exposed unexposed periods technique extensively used study adverse reactions vaccination shown circumstances provide statistical power comparable available cohort studies case control studies case control studies select subjects based disease status retrospective study group individuals disease positive case group compared group disease negative individuals control group control group ideally come population gave rise cases case control


study looks back time potential exposures groups cases controls may encountered table constructed displaying exposed cases exposed controls b unexposed cases c unexposed controls statistic generated measure association odds ratio ratio odds exposure cases c odds exposure controls b ie ad bc class wikitable cases controls exposed b unexposed c


significantly greater conclusion disease likely exposed whereas close exposure disease likely associated far less one suggests exposure protective factor causation disease case control studies usually faster cost effective cohort studies sensitive bias recall bias selection bias main challenge identify appropriate control group distribution exposure among control group


representative distribution population gave rise cases achieved drawing random sample original population risk consequence control group contain people disease study disease high attack rate population major drawback case control studies order considered statistically significant minimum number cases required confidence interval related odds ratio equation math text total cases c


controls exposed unexposed cohort studies cohort studies select subjects based exposure status study subjects risk outcome investigation beginning cohort study usually means disease free cohort study starts cohort followed time assess later outcome status example cohort study would investigation cohort smokers non smokers time estimate incidence lung


cancer table constructed case control study however point estimate generated relative risk rr probability disease person exposed group ''p'' sub e sub nbsp nbsp ''a'' nbsp nbsp ''a'' nbsp nbsp ''b'' probability disease person unexposed group ''p'' sub ''u'' sub nbsp nbsp ''c'' nbsp nbsp ''c'' nbsp nbsp ''d'' ie ''rr'' nbsp nbsp ''p'' sub e sub nbsp nbsp ''p'' sub u sub class wikitable case non case total exposed ''a'' ''b'' ''a'' nbsp nbsp ''b'' unexposed ''c'' ''d'' ''c'' nbsp nbsp ''d'' rr greater shows association conclusion read


exposure likely develop disease prospective studies many benefits case control studies rr powerful effect measure estimation rr since true incidence cannot calculated case control study subjects selected based disease status temporality established prospective study confounders easily controlled however costly greater chance losing subjects follow based long time period cohort


followed cohort studies also limited equation number cases cohort studies base incidence rate study population low number cases required reduced nbsp causal inference although epidemiology sometimes viewed collection statistical tools used elucidate associations exposures health outcomes deeper understanding science discovering ''causal'' relationships correlation imply causation common theme much epidemiological literature epidemiologists key term inference


correlation least association two variables necessary sufficient criterion inference one variable causes epidemiologists use gathered data broad range biomedical psychosocial theories iterative way generate expand theory test hypotheses make educated informed assertions relationships causal exactly causal epidemiologists emphasize '''one cause one effect''' understanding simplistic mis belief outcomes whether disease death caused chain web consisting many component causes causes


distinguished necessary sufficient probabilistic conditions necessary condition identified controlled eg antibodies disease agent energy injury harmful outcome avoided robertson one tool regularly used conceptualize multicausality associated disease causal pie model bradford hill criteria austin bradford hill proposed series considerations help assess evidence causation ref name bh ref come commonly known bradford hill criteria contrast explicit intentions author hill 's considerations sometimes taught


checklist implemented assessing causality hill said none nine viewpoints bring indisputable evidence cause effect hypothesis none required ' 'sine qua non'' ref name bh '''strength association''' small association mean causal effect though larger association likely causal ref name bh '''consistency data''' consistent findings observed different persons different places different samples strengthens likelihood effect ref name bh '''specificity''' causation likely


specific population specific site disease likely explanation specific association factor effect bigger probability causal relationship ref name bh '''temporality''' effect occur cause expected delay cause expected effect effect must occur delay ref name bh '''biological gradient''' greater exposure generally lead greater incidence effect however cases mere presence factor trigger effect cases


agent determined epidemiology addresses whether agent cause disease whether agent cause specific plaintiff 's disease ref name green ref blockquote united states law epidemiology alone cannot prove causal association exist general conversely circumstances taken us courts individual case justify inference causal association exist based upon balance probability subdiscipline forensic epidemiology directed investigation specific causation disease injury individuals groups individuals


issues examples organizations use population based health management leverage work results epidemiological practice include canadian strategy cancer control health canada tobacco control programs rick hansen foundation canadian tobacco control research initiative organizations uses population based health management framework called life risk combines epidemiological quantitative analysis demographics health agency operational research economics perform ''population life impacts simulations'' measurement future potential impact disease upon population respect new disease cases prevalence premature death well potential years life lost disability


death ''labour force life impacts simulations'' measurement future potential impact disease upon labour force respect new disease cases prevalence premature death potential years life lost disability death ''economic impacts disease simulations'' measurement future potential impact disease upon private sector disposable income impacts wages corporate profits private health care costs public sector disposable income impacts personal income tax corporate income tax consumption taxes publicly funded health care costs applied field epidemiology applied epidemiology practice using epidemiological methods protect


mortality surveys prone selection reporting biases methods developed common practice yet validity precision bias different fields epidemiology different levels validity one way assess validity findings ratio false positives claimed effects correct false negatives studies fail support true effect take field genetic epidemiology candidate gene studies produced false positive findings false negative contrast genome wide association appear close reverse one false positive every


false negatives ref name ioannides ref ratio improved time genetic epidemiology field adopted stringent criteria contrast epidemiological fields required rigorous reporting much less reliable result ref name ioannides random error random error result fluctuations around true value sampling variability random error random occur data collection coding transfer analysis examples random error include poorly worded questions misunderstanding interpreting individual answer particular respondent typographical error coding random error


difference true value population observed value study cause sampling variability example systematic error unknown pulse oximeter using set incorrectly adds two points true value time measurement taken measuring device could precise accurate error happens every instance systematic conclusions draw based data still incorrect error reproduced future eg


using mis set instrument mistake coding affects ''all'' responses particular question another example systematic error validity study dependent degree systematic error validity usually separated two components internal validity dependent amount error measurements including exposure disease associations variables good internal validity implies lack error measurement suggests inferences may drawn least pertain subjects study external validity pertains process generalizing


findings study population sample drawn even beyond population universal statement requires understanding conditions relevant irrelevant generalization internal validity clearly prerequisite external validity selection bias selection bias occurs study subjects selected become part study result third unmeasured variable associated exposure outcome interest ref name hern n instance repeatedly noted cigarette smokers non smokers tend differ


typical example provided sackett discussion study examining effect specific exposures fetal health questioning mothers whose recent pregnancies ended fetal death malformation cases matched group mothers whose pregnancies ended normally controls found former latter reported exposure drugs could substantiated either earlier prospective interviews health records ref name sackett bias analytic research j chron dis vol example recall bias probably


occurred result women miscarriages apparent tendency better recall therefore report previous exposures confounding confounding traditionally defined bias arising co occurrence mixing effects extraneous factors referred confounders main effect interest ref name rothman ref name greenland ref recent definition confounding invokes notion ''counterfactual'' effects ref name greenland according view one observes outcome interest say opposed given population entirely exposed ie exposure ''x'' nbsp nbsp every unit


population risk event ''r'' sub sub counterfactual unobserved risk ''r'' sub sub corresponds risk would observed individuals unexposed ie ''x'' nbsp nbsp every unit population true effect exposure therefore ''r'' sub sub nbsp nbsp ''r'' sub sub one interested risk differences ''r'' sub sub ''r'' sub sub one interested relative risk since counterfactual risk ''r'' sub sub unobservable approximate using second population b actually measure following relations ''r'' sub sub nbsp nbsp ''r'' sub b sub ''r'' sub sub ''r'' sub b sub situation confounding occurs ''r'' sub sub nbsp nbsp ''r'' sub b sub ref name greenland nb example


assumes binary outcome exposure variables epidemiologists prefer think confounding separately common categorizations bias since unlike selection information bias confounding stems real causal effects ref name hern n ref profession universities offered epidemiology course study undergraduate level one notable undergraduate program exists johns hopkins university students major public health take graduate level courses including epidemiology senior year bloomberg school public health although epidemiologic research conducted individuals diverse disciplines including clinically trained professionals


physicians formal training available masters doctoral programs including master public health mph master science epidemiology msc doctor public health drph doctor pharmacy pharmd doctor philosophy phd doctor science scd many graduate programs eg doctor social work dsw doctor clinical practice dclinp doctor podiatric medicine dpm doctor veterinary medicine dvm doctor nursing practice dnp doctor physical therapy dpt clinically trained physicians doctor medicine md bachelor medicine surgery mbbs mbchb doctor osteopathic medicine include


larger government entities state local health departments various ministries health doctors without borders centers disease control prevention cdc health protection agency world health organization public health agency canada epidemiologists also work profit organizations pharmaceutical medical device companies groups market research clinical development covid april university southern california article noted coronavirus epidemic thrust epidemiology study incidence distribution control disease population forefront scientific


disciplines across globe even made temporary celebrities practitioners see also references citations sources clayton david michael hills ''statistical models epidemiology'' oxford university press miquel porta editor dictionary epidemiology th edn new york oxford university press http globaloupcom academic product dictionary epidemiology cc us lang en morabia alfredo editor history epidemiologic methods concepts basel birkhauser verlag part https booksgooglecom booksid hgnnhu ym c dq morabia alfredo ed history epidemiologic methods printsec frontcover source bn https wwwspringercom public health book smetanin p kobak p moyer c maley risk management tobacco control research policy programs world conference tobacco health


conference july washington dc szklo nieto fj epidemiology beyond basics aspen publishers robertson ls injury epidemiology fourth edition free online code nanleenet code rothman k sander greenland lash editors modern epidemiology rd edition lippincott williams wilkins https webarchiveorg web https skydrivelivecom cid ec f ec id ec f ec olsen j christensen k murray j ekbom introduction epidemiology health professionals new york springer science business media external links http wwwhpaorguk health protection agency https biostatsbepresscom collection biostatistics research archive https webarchiveorg web http wwwiea europeorg indexhtm european epidemiological federation http wwwbmjcom bmj resources readers publications epidemiology uninitiated 'epidemiology uninitiated' coggon g rose djp barker ''british medical


journal'' http wwwepidemcom epidemcom ''epidemiology'' peer reviewed scientific journal publishes original research epidemiologic topics https wwwncbinlmnihgov books nbk 'epidemiology' philip brachman ''medical microbiology'' fourth edition us national center biotechnology information https webarchiveorg web http vlabinfotechmonasheduau simulations cellular automata epidemic monash virtual laboratory simulations epidemic spread across landscape http dcegcancergov division cancer epidemiology genetics national cancer institute national institutes health http wwwcredbe centre research epidemiology disasters collaborating centre https webarchiveorg web http wwwepidemiologych history peopleepidemiologylibraryhtml people 's epidemiology library https wwwncbinlmnihgov pubmed epidemiology covid outbreak environmental social science


ionized hydrogen known astronomers h nbsp ii old spectroscopic terminology parts galactic interstellar medium visible earth 's northern hemisphere observed wisconsin h mapper astronomy '''interstellar medium''' '''ism''' matter radiation exist space star systems galaxy matter includes gas ionic atomic molecular form well dust cosmic rays fills interstellar space blends smoothly surrounding intergalactic space energy occupies volume form electromagnetic radiation

Natural science
Space science
Interstellar medium


'''interstellar radiation field''' interstellar medium composed multiple phases distinguished whether matter ionic atomic molecular temperature density matter interstellar medium composed primarily hydrogen followed helium trace amounts carbon oxygen nitrogen comparatively hydrogen thermal pressures phases rough equilibrium one another magnetic fields turbulent motions also provide pressure ism typically important dynamically thermal pressure phases interstellar medium extremely tenuous terrestrial standards cool


dense regions ism matter primarily molecular form reaches number densities sup sup molecules per cm sup sup million molecules per cm sup sup hot diffuse regions ism matter primarily ionized density may low sup sup ions per cm sup sup compare number density roughly sup sup molecules per cm sup sup air sea level sup sup molecules per cm sup sup billion molecules per cm sup sup laboratory high vacuum chamber mass ism gas form dust ref name boulanger ref gas


ism number atoms hydrogen helium atoms elements heavier hydrogen helium ref name ferriere ref known metals astronomical parlance mass amounts hydrogen helium heavier elements hydrogen helium primarily result primordial nucleosynthesis heavier elements ism mostly result enrichment process stellar evolution ism plays crucial role astrophysics precisely intermediate role stellar galactic scales stars form within densest regions


first artificial object reach ism interstellar matter table shows breakdown properties components ism milky way class wikitable '''table components interstellar medium''' ref name ferriere align center bgcolor eeeeee component fractional br volume scale height br pc temperature br k density br particles cm sup sup state hydrogen primary observational techniques align center molecular clouds sup sup sup sup molecular radio infrared molecular emission absorption lines align center cold neutral medium cnm neutral atomic h nbsp nbsp cm line absorption


align center warm neutral medium wnm neutral atomic h nbsp nbsp cm line emission align center warm ionized medium wim ionized h emission pulsar dispersion align center h nbsp ii regions sup sup sup sup ionized h emission pulsar dispersion align center coronal gas br hot ionized medium sup sup sup sup sup sup sup sup ionized br metals also highly ionized x ray emission absorption lines highly ionized metals primarily ultraviolet three phase model put forward static


two ''phase'' equilibrium model explain observed properties ism modeled ism included cold dense phase ''t'' nbsp nbsp nbsp k consisting clouds neutral molecular hydrogen warm intercloud phase ''t'' nbsp nbsp sup sup nbsp k consisting rarefied neutral ionized gas added dynamic third phase represented hot ''t'' nbsp nbsp sup sup nbsp k gas shock heated supernovae constituted volume ism phases temperatures heating cooling reach stable equilibrium paper formed basis study past three decades


however relative proportions phases subdivisions still well understood ref name ferriere atomic hydrogen model model takes account atomic hydrogen temperature higher k breaks molecules lower k leaves atoms ground state assumed influence atoms negligible pressure assumed low durations free paths atoms longer nanosecond duration light pulses constitute ordinary temporally incoherent light


collisionless gas einstein 's theory coherent light matter interactions applies gas light interactions spatially coherent suppose monochromatic light pulsed scattered molecules quadrupole raman resonance frequency length light pulses shorter involved time constants lamb impulsive stimulated raman scattering isrs yan gamble nelson applies light generated incoherent raman scattering shifted frequency phase independent phase exciting light thus generating new spectral line coherence incident scattered light facilitates interference


single frequency thus shifting incident frequency assume star radiates continuous light spectrum x rays lyman frequencies absorbed light pump atoms mainly first excited state state hyperfine periods longer ns isrs may redshift light frequency populating high hyperfine levels another isrs may transfer energy hyperfine levels thermal electromagnetic waves redshift permanent temperature light beam defined frequency spectral radiance planck 's formula entropy must increase may becomes


beam along path dx di bidx b einstein amplification coefficient depends medium modulus poynting vector field absorption occurs opposed vector corresponds change sign b factor formula shows intense rays amplified weak ones competition modes emission flare requires sufficient radiance provided random zero point field emission flare weak b increases pumping remains close zero de excitation coherent emission involves stochastic parameters


zero point field observed close quasars polar auroras structures three dimensional structure pillars creation map showing sun located near edge local interstellar cloud alpha centauri light years away neighboring g cloud complex ism turbulent therefore full structure spatial scales stars born deep inside large complexes molecular clouds typically parsecs size lives deaths stars interact physically ism stellar winds young clusters stars often giant supergiant hii regions surrounding


shock waves created supernovae inject enormous amounts energy surroundings leads hypersonic turbulence resultant structures varying sizes observed stellar wind bubbles superbubbles hot gas seen x ray satellite telescopes turbulent flows observed radio telescope maps sun currently traveling local interstellar cloud denser region low density local bubble october astronomers reported significant unexpected increase density space beyond solar system detected ''voyager '' ''voyager '' space


termination shock december later entered interstellar space crossed heliopause august providing first direct probe conditions ism interstellar extinction ism also responsible extinction reddening decreasing light intensity shift dominant observable wavelengths light star effects caused scattering absorption photons allow ism observed naked eye dark sky apparent rifts seen band milky way uniform disk


stars caused absorption background starlight molecular clouds within thousand light years earth far ultraviolet light absorbed effectively neutral components ism example typical absorption wavelength atomic hydrogen lies nanometers lyman alpha transition therefore nearly impossible see light emitted wavelength star farther hundred light years earth absorbed trip earth intervening neutral hydrogen heating cooling ism usually far


thermodynamic equilibrium collisions establish maxwell boltzmann distribution velocities 'temperature' normally used describe interstellar gas 'kinetic temperature' describes temperature particles would observed maxwell boltzmann velocity distribution thermodynamic equilibrium however interstellar radiation field typically much weaker medium thermodynamic equilibrium often roughly star surface temperature k highly diluted therefore bound levels within atom molecule ism rarely populated according boltzmann formula depending temperature density ionization


state portion ism different heating cooling mechanisms determine temperature gas heating mechanisms heating low energy cosmic rays first mechanism proposed heating ism heating low energy cosmic rays cosmic rays efficient heating source able penetrate depths molecular clouds cosmic rays transfer energy gas ionization excitation free electrons coulomb interactions low energy cosmic rays mev important far numerous high energy cosmic rays photoelectric heating grains


ultraviolet radiation emitted hot stars remove electrons dust grains photon absorbed dust grain energy used overcome potential energy barrier remove electron grain potential barrier due binding energy electron work function charge grain remainder photon 's energy gives ejected electron kinetic energy heats gas collisions particles typical size distribution dust grains ''n'' ''r'' nbsp nbsp ''r'' ''r'' radius dust


particle assuming projected grain surface area distribution '' r''''n'' ''r'' nbsp nbsp ''r'' indicates smallest dust grains dominate method heating photoionization electron freed atom typically absorption uv photon carries kinetic energy away order ''e'' nbsp nbsp ''e'' heating mechanism dominates h nbsp ii regions negligible diffuse ism due relative lack neutral carbon atoms x ray heating x rays remove electrons atoms ions photoelectrons provoke secondary ionizations intensity often low heating efficient


warm less dense atomic medium column density small example molecular clouds hard x rays penetrate x ray heating ignored assuming region near x ray source supernova remnant chemical heating molecular hydrogen h sub sub formed surface dust grains two h atoms travel grain meet process yields nbsp ev energy distributed rotational vibrational modes kinetic energy h sub sub molecule well heating dust grain kinetic energy


well energy transferred de excitation hydrogen molecule collisions heats gas grain gas heating collisions high densities gas atoms molecules dust grains transfer thermal energy important hii regions uv radiation important also less important diffuse ionized medium due low density neutral diffuse medium grains always colder effectively cool gas due low densities grain heating thermal exchange important supernova remnants densities temperatures


high gas heating via grain gas collisions dominant deep giant molecular clouds especially high densities far infrared radiation penetrates deeply due low optical depth dust grains heated via radiation transfer thermal energy collisions gas measure efficiency heating given accommodation coefficient math alpha frac math ''t'' gas temperature ''t sub sub '' dust temperature ''t'' sub sub post collision temperature gas atom molecule coefficient measured '' '' nbsp nbsp heating mechanisms variety


macroscopic heating mechanisms present including gravitational collapse cloud supernova explosions stellar winds expansion h nbsp ii regions magnetohydrodynamic waves created supernova remnants cooling mechanisms fine structure cooling process fine structure cooling dominant regions interstellar medium except regions hot gas regions deep molecular clouds occurs efficiently abundant atoms fine structure levels close fundamental level c nbsp ii nbsp neutral medium nbsp ii nbsp iii n nbsp ii n nbsp iii ne nbsp ii ne nbsp iii h nbsp ii


regions collisions excite atoms higher levels eventually de excite photon emission carry energy region cooling permitted lines lower temperatures levels fine structure levels populated via collisions example collisional excitation ''n'' nbsp nbsp level hydrogen release ly photon upon de excitation molecular clouds excitation rotational lines co important molecule excited eventually returns lower energy state emitting photon leave region cooling cloud radiowave propagation


db km function frequency ehf band peaks absorption specific frequencies problem due atmosphere constituents water vapor h sub sub carbon dioxide co sub sub radio waves nbsp khz low frequency nbsp ghz extremely high frequency propagate differently interstellar space earth 's surface many sources interference signal distortion exist earth great deal radio astronomy depends compensating different propagation effects uncover desired signal discoveries potsdam great refractor double telescope cm


cm lenses inaugurated used discover interstellar calcium william huggins used spectroscopy determine nebula made gas huggins private observatory inch telescope lens alvin clark equipped spectroscopy enabled breakthrough observations one discoveries made using potsdam great refractor telescope calcium interstellar medium ref name ref astronomer johannes frank hartmann determined spectrograph observations binary star mintaka orion element calcium


intervening space ref name interstellar gas confirmed slipher interstellar dust confirmed slipher ref name azarchivesonlineorg ref way overall nature interstellar medium confirmed series discoveries postulizations nature ref name azarchivesonlineorg september evidence presented solid state water interstellar medium particularly water ice mixed silicate grains cosmic dust grains ref name nat ref history knowledge interstellar space herbig haro object hh ejects gas interstellar space nature interstellar medium received


carry lightwaves assumed aether extended interstellar space wrote efflux occasions thrill vibratory motion ether fills interstellar spaces advent deep photographic imaging allowed edward barnard produce first images dark nebulae silhouetted background star field galaxy first actual detection cold diffuse matter interstellar space made johannes hartmann use absorption line spectroscopy historic study spectrum orbit delta orionis hartmann observed light


isolated cloud matter residing somewhere along line sight star discovery launched study interstellar medium series investigations viktor ambartsumian introduced commonly accepted notion interstellar matter occurs form clouds following hartmann 's identification interstellar calcium absorption interstellar sodium detected observation stationary absorption atom 's lines nanometres towards delta orionis beta scorpii subsequent observations h k lines calcium revealed double asymmetric profiles spectra


led others speculate whether also pervaded interstellar space following year norwegian explorer physicist kristian birkeland wrote seems natural consequence points view assume whole space filled electrons flying electric ions kinds assumed stellar system evolutions throws electric corpuscles space seem unreasonable therefore think greater part material masses universe found solar systems nebulae 'empty' space noted


could scarcely believed enormous gaps stars completely void terrestrial aurorae improbably excited charged particles emitted sun millions stars also ejecting ions undoubtedly true absolute vacuum exist within galaxy september nasa scientists reported polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons pahs subjected ''interstellar medium ism '' conditions transformed hydrogenation oxygenation hydroxylation complex organics step along path toward amino acids nucleotides raw materials proteins dna respectively ref name space ref ref


name ajl ref result transformations pahs lose spectroscopic signature could one reasons lack pah detection interstellar ice grains particularly outer regions cold dense clouds upper molecular layers protoplanetary disks ref name space ref name ajl february nasa announced greatly upgraded database tracking polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons pahs universe according scientists carbon universe may associated pahs possible starting materials formation life pahs seem formed


shortly big bang widespread throughout universe associated new stars exoplanets ref name nasa ref april scientists working hubble space telescope reported confirmed detection large complex ionized molecules buckminsterfullerene c sub sub also known buckyballs interstellar medium spaces stars ref name sa ref ref name ajl ref see also astrophysical maser diffuse interstellar band fossil stellar magnetic field heliosphere list interstellar circumstellar molecules list plasma physics articles photodissociation region references citations sources http wwwastrowiscedu wham wisconsin h mapper funded


national science foundation external links http wwwvegaorguk video programme freeview video 'chemistry interstellar space' william klemperer harvard university royal institution discourse vega science trust http www ssgsrunhedu ism introhtml interstellar medium online tutorial astrochemistry medium interstellar articles containing video clips concepts astronomy


'''word usage''' way word phrase concept used language language variety lexicographers gather samples written instances word used analyze determine patterns regional social usage well meaning word example english word donny round rock size man 's head may rare regional usage word may used worldwide standard english speakers one several evolving definitions word usage may also involve grammar see also list english words

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Word usage


disputed usage text mining predictive analytics lexicology syntactic entities


ology mid th century illustration showing eggs number bird species '''oology''' '''o logy''' branch ornithology studying bird eggs nests breeding behaviour word derived greek ''oion'' meaning egg oology also refer hobby collecting wild birds' eggs sometimes called '''egg collecting''' '''birdnesting''' '''egging''' illegal many jurisdictions ref name henderson ref history science oology became increasingly popular britain united states observing birds afar difficult high quality binoculars readily available ref name henderson


thus often practical shoot birds collect eggs collection eggs wild birds amateurs considered respectable scientific pursuit th century early th century mid th century onwards increasingly regarded hobby rather scientific discipline naturalist derek ratcliffe compared peregrine falcon eggs historical collections recent egg shell samples able demonstrate decline shell thickness ref name barkham found cause link use


farmers pesticides ddt dieldrin decline british populations birds prey hobby egg collecting still popular early th century even scientific value became less prominent egg collectors built large collections traded one another frequently collectors would go extreme lengths obtain eggs rare birds example charles bendire willing teeth broken remove rare egg became stuck mouth placed egg mouth climbing tree ref name henderson


british oological association founded baron rothschild prominent naturalist reverend francis jourdain group renamed jourdain society jourdain 's death rothschild jourdain founded breakaway group egg collecting members british ornithologists' union denounced earl buxton meeting royal society protection birds ref name rubinstein ref poaching laws uk legislation protection birds act wildlife countryside act united kingdom made impossible collect wild birds'


eggs legally united kingdom legal possess wild bird 's egg taken permit scientific research selling wild birds' eggs regardless age illegal ref name rspb however practice egg collecting egging continues underground illegal activity uk elsewhere ref name barkham fines allowed law moderate deterrent egg collectors ref name barkham ref however countryside rights way act allowed six months' imprisonment possession


eggs wild birds ref name rspb ref since came force number individuals imprisoned possessing attempting buy egg collections ref name barkham jourdain society continued meet although membership dwindled dinner society raided police assisted royal society protection birds rspb resulted six members convicted fined ref name rubinstein despite engage egg collecting show considerable recidivism activity one colin watson convicted six times


fell death attempting climb nest high tree another individual convicted nine times imprisoned twice royal society protection birds particularly active fighting illegal egg collection maintains investigative unit collects intelligence egg collectors assists police mounting prosecutions addition investigating wildlife crimes ref name rubinstein one point rspb staff trained soldiers brigade gurkhas camouflage skills surveillance map radio techniques better


collections without reliable collection data ie date place collected gives scientific value ref name rspb disposing ref us united states collection possession wild bird eggs also restricted cases criminal act depending species migratory bird treaty act lacey act endangered species act laws may apply collecting methods collecting eggs normally whole clutch eggs taken eggs rot contents left inside must blown remove contents although collectors


jourdain colin watson oology related publications numerous books one point journal published egg collecting identification ref name henderson thomas mayo brewer american ornithologist wrote biographical sketches ''history north american birds'' baird brewer ridgway called father american logy wrote ''north american logy'' partially published william chapman hewitson ''illustrations eggs british birds'' third edition london archibald james campbell ''nests eggs australian birds embracing papers oology australian birds


took place bristol museum towner gallery eastbourne leeds art gallery explored social history oology britain exhibition included vast recreation illegal egg collection well film narrating history egg collecting britain see also jourdain society references external links http wwwscricciolocom eggs indexhtml alberto masi egg gallery ornithology


'''hermeneutics''' theory methodology interpretation ref name ahd ref ref name mw ref especially interpretation biblical texts wisdom literature philosophical texts hermeneutics interpretative principles methods used immediate comprehension fails includes art understanding communication modern hermeneutics includes verbal non verbal communication ref name routledge ''the routledge companion philosophy organization studies'' routledge p ref ref name jmn joann mcnamara ''from dance text back dance hermeneutics dance interpretive discourse'' phd thesis texas woman 's university ref well semiotics presuppositions pre understandings hermeneutics broadly applied


humanities especially law history theology hermeneutics initially applied interpretation exegesis scripture later broadened questions general interpretation ref name p ref terms ''hermeneutics'' ''exegesis'' sometimes used interchangeably hermeneutics wider discipline includes written verbal non verbal ref name routledge ref name jmn communication exegesis focuses primarily upon word grammar texts hermeneutic count noun singular refers particular method interpretation see contrast double hermeneutic etymology ''hermeneutics'' derived greek word ''herm neu '' translate interpret


''hermeneus'' translator interpreter uncertain etymology r p beekes suggests pre greek origin technical term ''hermeneia'' interpretation explanation introduced philosophy mainly title aristotle 's work peri hermeneias commonly referred latin title ''de nbsp interpretatione'' translated english ''on interpretation'' one earliest c nbsp nbsp small bce small extant philosophical works western tradition deal relationship language logic comprehensive explicit formal way ref divine message must received implicit uncertainty regarding truth ambiguity irrationality


sort madness inflicted upon receiver message one possesses rational method interpretation ie hermeneutic could determine truth falsity message ref name grondin folk etymology ''hermes'' messenger gods folk etymology places origin hermes mythological greek deity 'messenger gods' ref name couzen hoy hoy david couzens ''the critical circle'' university california press ref besides mediator gods gods men led souls underworld upon death hermes also considered


inventor language speech interpreter liar thief trickster ref name couzen hoy multiple roles made hermes ideal representative figure hermeneutics socrates noted words power reveal conceal deliver messages ambiguous way ref name couzen hoy greek view language consisting signs could lead truth falsehood essence hermes said relish uneasiness received messages delivered religious traditions mesopotamian hermeneutics islamic hermeneutics talmudic hermeneutics summaries


rabbis considered tanakh jewish biblical canon without error apparent inconsistencies understood means careful examination given text within context texts different levels interpretation used arrive plain meaning text expounded law given text others found secret mystical levels understanding vedic hermeneutics vedic hermeneutics involves exegesis vedas earliest holy texts hinduism mimamsa leading hermeneutic school primary purpose understanding


dharma righteous living involved detailed hermeneutic study vedas also derived rules various rituals performed precisely foundational text mimamsa sutra jaimini ca rd st century bce major commentary abara ca th th century ce mimamsa sutra summed basic rules vedic interpretation buddhist hermeneutics buddhist hermeneutics deals interpretation vast buddhist literature particularly texts said spoken buddha buddhavacana enlightened beings buddhist hermeneutics


hermeneutics homiletics ''de doctrina christiana'' stresses importance humility study scripture also regards duplex commandment love matthew heart christian faith augustine hermeneutics signs important role god communicate believer signs scriptures thus humility love knowledge signs essential hermeneutical presupposition sound interpretation scriptures although augustine endorses teaching platonism time recasts according theocentric doctrine bible similarly


linguistic construction historical context intention authors believed correspond literal meaning literal hermeneutics often associated verbal inspiration bible ref name hermeneutics 'hermeneutics' encyclop dia britannica research starters ebscohost viewed march ref moral moral interpretation searches moral lessons understood writings within bible allegories often placed category ref name hermeneutics allegorical allegorical interpretation states biblical narratives second level reference people events things explicitly mentioned one type allegorical interpretation


known typological key figures events establishments old testament viewed types patterns new testament also include foreshadowing people objects events according theory readings like noah ark could understood using ark type christian church god designed start ref name hermeneutics anagogical type interpretation often known mystical interpretation claims explain events bible relate predict future holds evident


text thus hermeneutics expanded medieval role explaining true meaning bible however biblical hermeneutics die example protestant reformation brought renewed interest interpretation bible took step away interpretive tradition developed middle ages back texts martin luther john calvin emphasized ' 'scriptura sui ipsius interpres'' scripture interprets calvin used ''brevitas et facilitas'' aspect theological hermeneutics rationalist enlightenment led hermeneutists especially protestant exegetists view scriptural texts secular classical texts


interpreted scripture responses historical social forces example apparent contradictions difficult passages new testament might clarified comparing possible meanings contemporary christian practices friedrich schleiermacher explored nature understanding relation problem deciphering sacred texts human texts modes communication interpretation text must proceed framing content terms overall organization work schleiermacher distinguished grammatical interpretation psychological interpretation former studies work composed


general ideas latter studies peculiar combinations characterize work whole said every problem interpretation problem understanding even defined hermeneutics art avoiding misunderstanding misunderstanding avoided means knowledge grammatical psychological laws schleiermacher 's time fundamental shift occurred understanding merely exact words objective meaning understanding writer 's distinctive character point view ref name ramberg ref nineteenth twentieth century hermeneutics emerged theory understanding ''verstehen'' work friedrich schleiermacher '''romantic


hermeneutics''' '''methodological hermeneutics''' august b ckh methodological hermeneutics wilhelm dilthey '''epistemological hermeneutics''' martin heidegger '''ontological hermeneutics''' hermeneutic phenomenology transcendental hermeneutic phenomenology ref name stanford ref hans georg gadamer ontological hermeneutics leo strauss '''straussian hermeneutics''' paul ric ur hermeneutic phenomenology walter benjamin marxist hermeneutics ref name erasmus ''erasmus speculum scientarium'' ''' ''' p different versions marxist hermeneutics examples walter benjamin 's ''origins german tragedy'' also ernst bloch 's ''hope principle'' ref ernst bloch marxist hermeneutics ref name al richard e amacher victor lange '' ew perspectives german literary criticism collection essays'' princeton university press p ref ref name erasmus jacques


derrida '''radical hermeneutics''' namely deconstruction ref name iih international institute hermeneutics http wwwiihermeneuticsorg hermeneutics hermeneutics retrieved ref richard kearney diacritical hermeneutics fredric jameson marxist hermeneutics ref name mohanty mohanty satya p jameson 's marxist hermeneutics need adequate epistemology ''literary theory claims history postmodernism objectivity multicultural politics'' ithaca cornell university press pp ref john thompson critical hermeneutics regarding relation hermeneutics problems analytic philosophy particularly among analytic heideggerians working heidegger philosophy science attempt try situate heidegger 's hermeneutic project debates concerning realism


anti realism arguments presented heidegger 's '''hermeneutic idealism''' thesis meaning determines reference equivalently understanding entities determines entities entities heidegger 's '''hermeneutic realism''' thesis nature science give us explanation nature works b compatible ontological implications everyday practices philosophers worked combine analytic philosophy hermeneutics include georg henrik von wright peter winch roy j howard termed approach '''analytic hermeneutics'''


contemporary philosophers influenced hermeneutic tradition include charles taylor ref name ramberg '''engaged hermeneutics''' dagfinn f llesdal ref name ramberg dilthey wilhelm dilthey broadened hermeneutics even relating interpretation historical objectification understanding moves outer manifestations human action productivity exploration inner meaning last important essay understanding persons manifestations life dilthey made clear move outer inner expression expressed based empathy empathy involves direct identification interpretation involves


indirect mediated understanding attained placing human expressions historical context thus understanding process reconstructing state mind author one articulating expressed work dilthey divided sciences mind human sciences three structural levels experience expression comprehension experience means feel situation thing personally dilthey suggested always grasp meaning unknown thought try experience understanding experience similar phenomenologist edmund husserl expression converts


experience meaning discourse appeal someone outside oneself every saying expression dilthey suggested one always return expression especially written form practice objective value experiment science possibility returning makes scientific analysis possible therefore humanities may labeled science moreover assumed expression may saying speaker intends expression brings forward meanings individual consciousness may fully understand last structural level science


minds putting issue context human relatedness heidegger complete inquiry advocates approach claim texts people produce cannot studied means using scientific methods used natural sciences thus drawing upon arguments similar antipositivism moreover claim texts conventionalized expressions experience author thus interpretation texts reveal something social context formed significantly


provide reader means sharing experiences author reciprocity text context part heidegger called hermeneutic circle among key thinkers elaborated idea sociologist max weber gadamer hans georg gadamer 's hermeneutics development hermeneutics teacher heidegger gadamer asserted methodical contemplation opposite experience reflection reach truth understanding mastering experience according gadamer understanding fixed rather changing always indicating new perspectives important


thing unfold nature individual understanding gadamer pointed prejudice element understanding ''per se'' without value indeed prejudices sense pre judgements thing want understand unavoidable alien particular tradition condition understanding said never step outside tradition try understand elaborates idea hermeneutic circle new hermeneutic new hermeneutic theory methodology interpretation understand biblical texts existentialism


essence new hermeneutic emphasizes existence language also fact language eventualized history individual life called event language ernst fuchs gerhard ebeling james robinson scholars represent new hermeneutics marxist hermeneutics method '''marxist hermeneutics''' developed work primarily walter benjamin fredric jameson benjamin outlines theory allegory study ''ursprung des deutschen trauerspiels'' ref name erasmus trauerspiel literally means mourning play often translated tragic drama fredric jameson draws


biblical hermeneutics ernst bloch ref name kaufmann david kaufmann thanks memory bloch benjamin philosophy history ''not yet reconsidering ernst bloch'' ed jamie owen daniel tom moylan london new york verson p ref work northrop frye advance theory marxist hermeneutics influential ''the political unconscious'' jameson 's marxist hermeneutics outlined first chapter book titled interpretation jameson interprets secularizes fourfold system four levels biblical exegesis literal moral allegorical anagogical relate interpretation mode production eventually history


objective hermeneutics karl popper first used term '''objective hermeneutics''' ''objective knowledge'' https objective hermeneuticscom association objective hermeneutics agoh founded frankfurt main scholars various disciplines humanities social sciences goal provide scholars use methodology objective hermeneutics means exchanging information one translated texts german school hermeneutics founders declared recent developments bernard lonergan 's hermeneutics less well known case considering work culmination


northern european hermeneutics main statement regarding symbolic understanding world meaning symbolic healing injury two important hermeneutic scholars jean grondin b maurizio ferraris b mauricio beuchot coined term discipline analogic hermeneutics type hermeneutics based upon interpretation takes account plurality aspects meaning drew categories analytic continental philosophy well history thought two scholars published criticism gadamer 's hermeneutics italian jurist emilio betti


american literary theorist e hirsch applications archaeology archaeology hermeneutics means interpretation understanding material analysis possible meanings social uses proponents argue interpretation artifacts unavoidably hermeneutic cannot know certain meaning behind apply modern values interpreting commonly seen stone tools descriptions scraper highly subjective actually unproven development microwear analysis thirty years ago opponents argue hermeneutic approach relativist interpretations


based common sense evaluation architecture several traditions architectural scholarship draw upon hermeneutics heidegger gadamer christian norberg schulz nader el bizri circles phenomenology lindsay jones examines way architecture received reception changes time context eg building interpreted critics users historians dalibor vesely situates hermeneutics within critique application overly scientific thinking architecture tradition fits within critique enlightenment also informed design studio teaching adrian snodgrass sees study history


asian cultures architects hermeneutical encounter otherness also deploys arguments hermeneutics explain design process interpretation along richard coyne extends argument nature architectural education design environment environmental hermeneutics applies hermeneutics environmental issues conceived broadly subjects including nature wilderness terms matters hermeneutical contention landscapes ecosystems built environments overlaps architectural hermeneutics inter species relationships relationship body world international relations insofar hermeneutics basis critical theory constitutive


theory made important inroads postpositivist branch international relations theory political science applied international relations steve smith refers hermeneutics principal way grounding foundationalist yet postpositivist theory international relations radical postmodernism example postpositivist yet anti foundationalist paradigm international relations law scholars argue law theology particular forms hermeneutics need interpret legal tradition scriptural texts moreover problem interpretation central legal theory since least th nbsp century


middle ages italian renaissance schools ''glossatores'' ''commentatores'' ''usus modernus'' distinguished approach interpretation laws mainly justinian 's corpus juris civilis university bologna gave birth legal renaissance th nbsp century corpus juris civilis rediscovered systematically studied men irnerius johannes gratian interpretative renaissance subsequently fully developed thomas aquinas alberico gentili since interpretation always center legal thought friedrich carl von savigny emilio betti among others made significant contributions


general hermeneutics legal interpretivism famously ronald dworkin 's may seen branch philosophical hermeneutics phenomenology qualitative research beginnings phenomenology stem german philosopher researcher edmund husserl ref name ref early days husserl studied mathematics time disinterest empirical methods led philosophy eventually phenomenology husserl phenomenology inquires specifics certain experience experiences attempts unfold meaning experience everyday life ref name phenomenology started philosophy developed methodology time american researcher ihde contributed


phenomenological research methodology described experimental phenomenology phenomenology first instance like investigative science essential component experiment ref name ref work contributed heavily implementation phenomenology methodology ref name ref name ref beginnings hermeneutic phenomenology stem german researcher student husserl martin heidegger ref name researchers attempted pull lived experiences others philosophical concepts heidegger main difference husserl belief consciousness separate world formation living


individuals ref name hermeneutic phenomenology stresses every event encounter involves type interpretation individual background cannot separate individual development life ref name ihde also focuses hermeneutic phenomenology within early work draws connections husserl french philosopher paul ricoeur work field ref name ricoeur focuses importance symbols linguistics within hermeneutic phenomenology ref name overall hermeneutic phenomenological research focuses historical meanings experiences developmental social effects individuals political philosophy italian philosopher gianni vattimo spanish


philosopher santiago zabala book ''hermeneutic communism'' discussing contemporary capitalist regimes stated politics descriptions impose power order dominate philosophy rather functional continued existence society dominion pursues truth form imposition violence conservation realism triumph history vattimo zabala also stated view interpretation anarchy affirmed existence interpretation hermeneutics weak thought psychoanalysis psychoanalysts made ample use hermeneutics since sigmund freud first gave birth discipline


freud wrote title chose ''the interpretation dreams'' 'makes plain traditional approaches problem dreams inclined follow ''ie'' interpreting dream implies assigning meaning it' french psychoanalyst jacques lacan later extended freudian hermeneutics psychical realms early work particularly influenced heidegger maurice merleau ponty 's hermeneutical phenomenology psychology psychologists computer scientists recently become interested hermeneutics especially alternative cognitivism hubert dreyfus 's critique conventional artificial intelligence influential among psychologists interested


hermeneutic approaches meaning interpretation discussed philosophers martin heidegger cf embodied cognition ludwig wittgenstein cf discursive psychology hermeneutics also influential humanistic psychology ref name rennie ref religion theology understanding theological text depends upon reader 's particular hermeneutical viewpoint theorists paul ric ur applied modern philosophical hermeneutics theological texts ric ur 's case bible mircea eliade hermeneutist understands religion 'experience sacred' interprets sacred relation profane romanian scholar underlines relation sacred


profane opposition complementarity interpreted profane hierophany hermeneutics myth part hermeneutics religion myth interpreted illusion lie truth myth rediscovered myth interpreted mircea eliade 'sacred history' introduces concept 'total hermeneutics' safety science field safety science especially study human reliability scientists become increasingly interested hermeneutic approaches proposed ergonomist donald taylor mechanist models


human behaviour take us far terms accident reduction safety science must look meaning accidents human beings ref name taylor ref scholars field attempted create safety taxonomies make use hermeneutic concepts terms categorisation qualitative data ref name wallace ref sociology sociology hermeneutics interpretation understanding social events analysis meanings human participants events enjoyed prominence differs interpretive schools sociology emphasizes


context form within given social behaviour central principle sociological hermeneutics possible know meaning act statement within context discourse world view originates context critical comprehension action event carries substantial weight one person culture may viewed meaningless entirely different another example giving thumbs gesture widely accepted sign job well done united states cultures view insult similarly


historical poetics narrative inquiry parallelomania pesher philology principle charity quranic hermeneutics reader response criticism structuration theory symbolic anthropology tafsir talmudical hermeneutics text criticism theosophy truth theory notable precursors johann august ernesti johann gottfried herder friedrich august wolf ref name gadamer hans georg gadamer ''truth method'' bloomsbury p ref georg anton friedrich ast ref name gadamer references bibliography aristotle ''on interpretation'' harold p cooke trans ''aristotle'' vol nbsp loeb classical library pp nbsp london william heinemann clingerman f b treanor drenthen ustler ''interpreting nature emerging field environmental hermeneutics'' new york fordham university press de la torre miguel reading


bible margins orbis books fellmann ferdinand symbolischer pragmatismus hermeneutik nach dilthey ''rowohlts deutsche enzyklop die'' forster michael n ''after herder philosophy language german tradition'' oxford university press ginev dimitri ''essays hermeneutics science'' routledge khan ali hermeneutics sexual order https ssrncom abstract eprint k chler hans zum gegenstandsbereich der hermeneutik ''perspektiven der philosophie'' vol pp nbsp k chler hans philosophical foundations civilizational dialogue hermeneutics cultural self comprehension versus paradigm civilizational conflict ''international seminar civilizational dialogue rd september kuala lumpur '' bp iscd kertas


eprint plato ''ion'' paul woodruff trans plato ''complete works'' ed john cooper indianapolis hackett publishing company pp nbsp quintana paz miguel ngel http wwwunedes dpto fil revista polemos articulos quintana hermeneutical ethics education internet doc hermeneutical ethics education paper relevance gadamer 's hermeneutics understanding music ethics education szesnat holger philosophical hermeneutics http biblicalhermeneuticswordpresscom hermeneutics links philosophical hermeneutics webpage philosophical methodology literary criticism martin heidegger religious terminology continental philosophy


'''astrochemistry''' study abundance reactions molecules universe interaction radiation discipline overlap astronomy chemistry word astrochemistry may applied solar system interstellar medium study abundance elements isotope ratios solar system objects meteorites also called cosmochemistry study interstellar atoms molecules interaction radiation sometimes called molecular astrophysics formation atomic chemical composition evolution fate molecular gas clouds special

Natural science
Chemistry
Astrochemistry


interest clouds solar systems form history offshoot disciplines astronomy chemistry history astrochemistry founded upon shared history two fields development advanced observational experimental spectroscopy allowed detection ever increasing array molecules within solar systems surrounding interstellar medium turn increasing number chemicals discovered advancements spectroscopy technologies increased size scale chemical space available astrochemical study history spectroscopy observations


solar spectra performed athanasius kircher jan marek marci robert boyle francesco maria grimaldi predated newton 's work established spectral nature light resulted first spectroscope spectroscopy first used astronomical technique experiments william hyde wollaston built spectrometer observe spectral lines present within solar radiation ref name timeline site ref spectral lines later quantified work joseph von fraunhofer spectroscopy first used distinguish different materials release charles wheatstone 's


simple empirical relationship came known balmer series series special case general rydberg formula developed johannes rydberg created describe spectral lines observed hydrogen rydberg 's work expanded upon formula allowing calculation spectral lines multiple different chemical elements theoretical importance granted spectroscopic results greatly expanded upon development quantum mechanics theory allowed results compared atomic molecular emission spectra calculated ''a priori'' history


astrochemistry radio astronomy developed substantial evidence arose conclusive identification interstellar ''molecule'' point chemical species known exist interstellar space atomic findings confirmed mckellar et al identified attributed spectroscopic lines unidentified radio observation ch cn molecules interstellar space thirty years afterwards small selection molecules discovered interstellar space important oh discovered


certain wavelengths colors light often visible human eye however measurements limitations various types radiation radio infrared visible ultraviolet etc able detect certain types species depending chemical properties molecules interstellar formaldehyde first organic molecule detected interstellar medium perhaps powerful technique detection individual chemical species radio astronomy resulted detection hundred interstellar species including radicals ions organic ie carbon based compounds alcohols acids aldehydes ketones one


abundant interstellar molecules among easiest detect radio waves due strong electric dipole moment co carbon monoxide fact co common interstellar molecule used map molecular regions radio observation perhaps greatest human interest claim interstellar glycine ref name kuan ref simplest amino acid considerable accompanying controversy ref name snyder ref one reasons detection controversial although radio methods like rotational spectroscopy good identification simple species large dipole


light hydrogen easily detected ultraviolet uv visible ranges absorption emission light hydrogen line moreover organic compounds absorb emit light infrared ir example detection methane atmosphere mars ref name mumma ref achieved using ir ground based telescope nasa 's meter infrared telescope facility atop mauna kea hawaii nasa 's researchers use airborne ir telescope sofia space telescope spitzer observations researches scientific operations somewhat related recent detection methane atmosphere mars christopher oze


university canterbury new zealand colleagues reported june measuring ratio hydrogen methane levels mars may help determine likelihood life mars ref name pnas ref ref name space ref according scientists low h sub sub ch sub sub ratios less approximately indicate life likely present active ref name pnas scientists recently reported methods detecting hydrogen methane extraterrestrial atmospheres ref name nature ref ref name wired ref infrared astronomy also revealed interstellar medium contains suite complex gas phase carbon compounds called polyaromatic hydrocarbons often abbreviated pahs pacs


molecules composed primarily fused rings carbon either neutral ionized state said common class carbon compound galaxy also common class carbon molecule meteorites cometary asteroidal dust cosmic dust compounds well amino acids nucleobases many compounds meteorites carry deuterium isotopes carbon nitrogen oxygen rare earth attesting extraterrestrial origin pahs thought form hot circumstellar environments around dying carbon rich red giant


stars infrared astronomy also used assess composition solid materials interstellar medium including silicates kerogen like carbon rich solids ices unlike visible light scattered absorbed solid particles ir radiation pass microscopic interstellar particles process absorptions certain wavelengths characteristic composition grains ref name astrochem ref radio astronomy certain limitations eg n sub sub difficult detect either ir radio astronomy ir observations determined dense clouds


mixed molecular ices exposed ultraviolet radiation cosmic rays results complex radiation driven chemistry ref name astrochem lab experiments photochemistry simple interstellar ices produced amino acids similarity interstellar cometary ices well comparisons gas phase compounds invoked indicators connection interstellar cometary chemistry somewhat supported results analysis organics comet samples returned stardust mission minerals also indicated surprising contribution high temperature chemistry solar nebula research


cannot occur except longest timescales reason molecules molecular ions unstable earth highly abundant space example h sub sub sup sup ion astrochemistry overlaps astrophysics nuclear physics characterizing nuclear reactions occur stars well structure stellar interiors star develops largely convective envelope dredge events occur bringing products nuclear burning surface star experiencing significant mass loss expelled material may contain molecules whose rotational vibrational spectral transitions observed


radio infrared telescopes interesting example set carbon stars silicate water ice outer envelopes molecular spectroscopy allows us see stars transitioning original composition oxygen abundant carbon carbon star phase carbon produced helium burning brought surface deep convection dramatically changes molecular content stellar wind ref name waller ref ref name suh ref october scientists reported cosmic dust contains organic matter amorphous organic solids mixed aromatic aliphatic structure could created naturally


rapidly stars ref name space ref ref name sciencedaily ref ref name nature ref august world first astronomers copenhagen university reported detection specific sugar molecule glycolaldehyde distant star system molecule found around protostellar binary ''iras '' located earth ref name ng ref ref name ap ref glycolaldehyde needed form ribonucleic acid rna similar function dna finding suggests complex organic molecules may form stellar systems prior formation planets eventually arriving young planets early formation september nasa scientists


creation improved spectral database tracking polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons pahs universe according scientists carbon universe may associated pahs possible starting materials formation life pahs seem formed shortly big bang widespread throughout universe associated new stars exoplanets ref name nasa ref august astronomers released studies using atacama large millimeter submillimeter array alma first time detailed distribution hcn hnc h sub sub co dust inside comae comets c


f lemmon c ison ref name nasa ref ref name ajl ref study recourses chemical elements molecules universe developed mathematical model molecules composition distribution interstellar environment thermodynamic potentials professor myu dolomatov using methods probability theory mathematical physical statistics equilibrium thermodynamics ref name abundance chemical elements ref ref name abundance chemical elements ref ref name abundance chemical elements ref based model estimated resources life related molecules amino acids nitrogenous bases interstellar medium possibility oil hydrocarbons molecules formation


shown given calculations confirm sokolov 's hoyl 's hypotheses possibility oil hydrocarbons formation space results confirmed data astrophysical supervision space researches july scientists reported upon first touchdown ''philae'' lander comet p surface measurements cosac ptolemy instruments revealed sixteen organic compounds four seen first time comet including acetamide acetone methyl isocyanate propionaldehyde ref name wapo ref ref name esa ref ref name sci ref chemical diversity different types astronomical object noteworthy infographic astronomical objects different


type scale show distinguishing chemical features see also references external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwstrwleidenunivnl iau astrochemistry division international astronomical union https webarchiveorg web http wwwchemarizonaedu faculty ziur ziur grouphtml university arizona astrochemistry group https webarchiveorg web http wwwastrochemistryeu astrophysics astrochemistry astrochemistryeu https webarchiveorg web http wwwastrochemistryorg astrochemistry lab nasa ames research center https webarchiveorg web http www gsfcnasagov astrochemistry lab nasa goddard space flight center https webarchiveorg web http wwwstrwleidenunivnl lab university leiden laboratory astrophysics https webarchiveorg web http wwwastrochymistorg astrochemist resources astrochemists interested bystanders chemistry astronomical sub disciplines


rice terraces located cang ch district n b province vietnam '''integrated geography''' also referred '''integrative geography''' '''environmental geography''' '''human environment geography''' branch geography describes explains spatial aspects interactions human individuals societies natural environment interactions called coupled human environment system summed environmental geography humans nature affect environment planet origins requires understanding dynamics physical geography well ways human societies conceptualize environment human geography

Social science
Geography
Integrated geography


thus certain degree may seen successor ''physische anthropogeographie'' english physical anthropogeography term coined university vienna geographer albrecht penck geographical cultural human ecology harlan h barrows integrated geography united states principally influenced schools carl sauer berkeley whose perspective rather historical gilbert f white chicago developed applied view integrated geography also integrative geography environmental geography human environment geography branch geography describes explains spatial aspects interactions human individuals societies