derived field ecology ref name bates blockquote theoretical discussions continue research published ''human ecology review'' suggests recent discourse shifted toward applying principles human ecology applications focus instead addressing problems cross disciplinary boundaries transcend boundaries altogether scholarship increasingly tended away gerald l young 's idea unified theory human ecological knowledge human ecology may emerge discipline toward pluralism best espoused paul shepard human ecology healthiest running directions ref name shepard ref human ecology neither anti discipline


strengthened publication ''epidemiology medical ecology'' publication textbook ''public health human ecology'' ecosystem health perspective emerged thematic movement integrating research practice fields environmental management public health biodiversity economic development drawing turn application concepts social ecological model health human ecology converged mainstream global public health literature connection home economics addition links disciplines human ecology strong historical


human ecology university alberta 's department human ecology among others niche anthropocene ref width align right changes earth human activities great new geological epoch named anthropocene proposed ref name zalasiewicz ref human niche ecological ''polis'' human society known historically created entirely new arrangements ecosystems convert matter technology human ecology created anthropogenic biomes called anthromes ref name ellis ref habitats within anthromes reach road networks create


energy climate soil nutrients water turn support grow natural capital including environmental physiological cognitive cultural spiritual dimensions life ultimately every manufactured product human environments comes natural systems ref name liu ecosystems considered common pool resources ecosystems exclude beneficiaries depleted degraded ref name becker ref example green space within communities provides sustainable health services reduce mortality regulate spread vector borne disease ref name mcmichael ref research shows people engaged regular access natural areas benefit lower rates


diabetes heart disease psychological disorders ref name hartig ref ecological health services regularly depleted urban development projects factor common pool value ecosystems ref name pickett ref ref name termorshuizen ref ecological commons delivers diverse supply community services sustains well human society ref name diaz ref ref name ostrom ref millennium ecosystem assessment international un initiative involving experts worldwide identifies four main ecosystem service types sub categories stemming natural capital ecological commons includes provisioning eg food raw materials medicine water supplies regulating eg climate water soil retention flood retention cultural eg


science education artistic spiritual supporting eg soil formation nutrient cycling water cycling services ref name mea ref ref name de groot ref sixth mass extinction global assessments biodiversity indicate current epoch holocene anthropocene ref name zalasiewicz ref sixth mass extinction species loss accelerating times faster average background rates fossil record ref name wake ref ref name may ref ref name mccallum ref field conservation biology involves ecologists researching confronting searching solutions sustain planet 's ecosystems future generations ref name ehrlich ref blockquote human activities associated directly indirectly nearly every aspect current extinction spasm ref name wake


global warming investments nature conservation provide regulatory feedback store regulate carbon greenhouse gases ref name mooney ref ref name chapin ref ecological footprint width align right william rees developed ecological footprint concept ecological footprint close analog water footprint become popular way accounting level impact human society imparting earth 's ecosystems ref name rees ref ref name hoekstra ref indications human enterprise unsustainable footprint society placing much stress ecology


planet ref name moran wwf living planet report researchers report human civilization exceeded bio regenerative capacity planet ref name moran ref means footprint human consumption extracting natural resources replenished ecosystems around world ecological economics ecological economics economic science extends methods valuation onto nature effort address inequity market growth biodiversity loss ref name de groot natural capital stock materials information stored biodiversity generates services enhance welfare


communities ref name costanza ref population losses sensitive indicator natural capital species extinction accounting ecosystem services prospect recovery economic crisis nature grim populations local ponds patches forest cleared away lost rates exceed species extinctions ref name ceballos ref mainstream growth based economic system adopted governments worldwide include price markets natural capital type economic system places ecological debt onto future generations ref name wackernagel ref ref name pastor ref width align left human societies


increasingly placed stress ecological commons diminished accounting system incorrectly assumed nbsp nature fixed indestructible capital asset ref name dasgupta ref current wave threats including massive extinction rates concurrent loss natural capital detriment human society happening rapidly called biodiversity crisis worlds species predicted go extinct within next nbsp years ref name koh ref ref name western ref conventional monetary analyses unable detect deal sorts ecological problems ref name rees ref multiple global ecological economic initiatives promoted


solve problem example governments g met set forth economics ecosystems biodiversity teeb initiative blockquote global study initiate process analyzing global economic benefit biological diversity costs loss biodiversity failure take protective measures versus costs effective conservation blockquote work kenneth e boulding notable building integration ecology economic origins boulding drew parallels ecology economics generally studies individuals members


system indicated household man household nature could somehow integrated create perspective greater value interdisciplinary approaches width align right human ecology expands functionalism ecology human mind people 's perception complex world function ability able comprehend beyond immediate time space concept manifested popular slogan promoting sustainability think global act local moreover people 's conception community stems physical location mental


look like art bill carpenter calls human ecology possibility aesthetic science renewing dialogue art fits human ecological perspective according carpenter human ecology aesthetic science counters disciplinary fragmentation knowledge examining human consciousness education reputation human ecology institutions higher learning growing human ecology primary secondary education levels one notable exception syosset high school long island new york educational theorist sir kenneth robinson called diversification education promote creativity


academic non academic ie educate whole activities implement new conception human ecology bioregionalism urban ecology late ecological concepts started become integrated applied fields namely architecture landscape architecture planning ian mcharg called future planning would human ecological planning default always bound humans' relationships environments emphasized local place based planning takes consideration layers information geology botany zoology cultural history proponents new urbanism movement like james howard kunstler


andres duany embraced term human ecology way describe problem prescribe solutions landscapes lifestyles automobile oriented society duany called human ecology movement agenda years ahead mchargian planning still widely respected landscape urbanism movement seeks new understanding human environment relations among theorists frederich steiner published ''human ecology following nature 's lead'' focuses relationships among landscape culture planning work highlights beauty scientific inquiry revealing


purely human dimensions underlie concepts ecology steiner discusses specific ecological settings cityscapes waterscapes relationships socio cultural environmental regions also takes diverse approach ecology considering even unique synthesis ecology political geography deiter steiner 's ''human ecology fragments anti fragmentary'' view world important expose recent trends human ecology part literature review book divided four sections human ecology implicit explicit structuration regional dimension much work stresses need transciplinarity


antidualism wholeness perspective key journals ''ecology society'' ''human ecology interdisciplinary journal'' '' https pressanueduau publications journals human ecology review human ecology review '' ''journal political ecology'' see also agroecology collaborative intelligence college atlantic contact zone environmental communication environmental economics environmental racism ecology espc ecology human ecology environmental psychology environmental sociology ecological systems theory ecosemiotics family consumer science green economy home economics human behavioral ecology human ecosystem industrial ecology integrated landscape management otium political ecology rural sociology sociobiology social ecology spome urie bronfenbrenner ernest burgess john paul goode robert e park louis wirth rights nature anthropogenic metabolism


''human ecology basic concepts sustainable development'' sterling va earthscan mcdonnell mj st pickett ''humans components ecosystems ecology subtle human effects populated areas'' new york springer verlag miller jr rm lerner lb schiamberg pm anderson ''encyclopedia human ecology'' santa barbara ca abc clio polunin n jh burnett ''maintenance biosphere proceedings rd international conference environmental future icef '' edinburgh university edinburgh press quinn ja ''human ecology'' new york prentice hall sargent f ed ''human ecology'' new york american elsevier suzuki rj borden


l hens eds ''human ecology coming age international overview'' brussels belgium vrije universiteit brussel vub press tengstrom e ''human ecology new discipline short tentative description institutional intellectual history human ecology'' g teborg sweden humanekologiska skrifter theodorson ga ''studies human ecology'' evanston il row peterson co wyrostkiewicz https depotceonpl handle human ecology outline concept relationship man nature lublin poland wydawnictwo kul young gl ed ''origins human ecology'' stroudsburg pa hutchinson ross external links environmental studies ecology


'''puppetry''' form theatre performance involves manipulation puppets inanimate objects often resembling type human animal figure animated manipulated human called puppeteer performance also known puppet production script puppet production called puppet play puppeteers use movements hands arms control devices rods strings move body head limbs cases mouth eyes puppet puppeteer sometimes speaks voice

Humanities
Performing arts
Theatre
Puppetry


character puppet times perform recorded soundtrack many different varieties puppets made wide range materials depending form intended use extremely complex simple construction simplest puppets finger puppets tiny puppets fit onto single finger sock puppets formed sock operated inserting one 's hand inside sock opening closing hand simulating movement puppet 's mouth hand


puppet glove puppet controlled one hand occupies interior puppet moves puppet around punch judy puppets familiar examples hand glove puppets larger require two puppeteers puppet japanese bunraku puppets example marionettes suspended controlled number strings plus sometimes central rod attached control bar held puppeteer rod puppets made head attached central rod rod body form arms attached controlled


separate rods movement possibilities consequence simple hand glove puppet puppetry ancient form theatre first recorded th century bc ancient greece forms puppetry may originated long ago years bc ref name blumenthal puppetry takes many forms share process animating inanimate performing objects tell story puppetry occurs almost human societies puppets used purpose entertainment performance sacred objects rituals symbolic effigies celebrations


carnivals catalyst social psychological change transformative arts ref name referencea ''strings hands shadows modern puppet history'' john bell detroit institute art ref history wayang golek performance wooden puppet indonesia puppetry ancient art form thought originated years ago ref name blumenthal blumenthal eileen ''puppetry puppets'' thames hudson ref puppets used since earliest times animate communicate ideas needs human societies ref name referenceb dugan ea ''emotions motion'' ref historians claim pre date actors theatre evidence


used egypt early bce string operated figures wood manipulated perform action kneading bread wire controlled articulated puppets made clay ivory also found egyptian tombs hieroglyphs also describe walking statues used ancient egyptian religious dramas ref name blumenthal puppetry practiced ancient greece oldest written records puppetry found works herodotus xenophon dating th century bc africa sub saharan africa may inherited puppet traditions ancient egypt ref name blumenthal certainly secret societies


many african ethnic groups still use puppets masks ritual dramas well healing hunting ceremonies today puppetry continues popular form often within ceremonial context part wide range folk forms including dance storytelling masked performance throughout rural africa puppetry still performed function transmitting cultural values ideas large african cities increasingly undertaken formal education books cinema television asia east asia ganesh puppet nepal slight evidence puppetry


perform various stunts example somersaults air japan many forms puppetry including bunraku bunraku developed shinto temple rites gradually became highly sophisticated form puppetry chikamatsu monzaemon considered many japan 's greatest playwright gave writing kabuki plays focused exclusively puppet bunraku plays initially consisting one puppeteer three puppeteers used operate puppet full view audience ref name blumenthal puppeteers dressed black would become invisible standing black background torches illuminated


name sangsu ref korean word puppet ''kkoktugakshi'' ref name sangsu ''gagsi'' means bride young woman common form dolls took kkoktugakshi puppet play eight scenes ref name sangsu southeast asia wayang kulit show three main components wayang kulit show including dalang gamelan music sindhen wayang kulit indonesian ''wayang'' theater influenced indian traditions ref name bell puppet bell page ref scholars trace origin puppets india years ago main character sanskrit plays known ''sutradhara'' holder strings ref name referenceb ''wayang''


strong tradition puppetry native indonesia especially java bali java ''wayang kulit'' elaborate form shadow puppetry popular javanese rod puppets long history used tell fables javanese history another popular puppetry form indonesia ''wayang golek'' thailand ''hun krabok'' popular form rod puppet theatre vietnam developed art form water puppetry unique country puppets built wood shows performed waist high pool large rod water used


royal patronage probable date origin burmese marionettes given around reign king singu min introduction credited minister royal entertainment u thaw inception marionettes enjoyed great popularity courts konbaung dynasty little changed since creation art u thaw set characters developed still use today gallery mode packed heights collectie tropenmuseum wajang kulit pop voorstellende kumbakarna tmnr jpg thumb wayang kulit shadow puppet kumbakarna tropenmuseum collections indonesia collectie tropenmuseum wajangfiguur


van perkament voorstellende gatot kaca tmnr jpg thumb wayang kulit shadow puppet gatot kaca tropenmuseum collections indonesia collectie tropenmuseum wajangpop van karbouwenhuid voorstellende wibisana tmnr ajpg thumb wayang kulit shadow puppet wibisana tropenmuseum collections indonesia collectie tropenmuseum wajangpop tmnr jpg wayang kulit shadow puppet princess shinta tropenmuseum collections indonesia collectie tropenmuseum wajang kulit pop voorstellende yudhistira tmnr jpg wayang kulit shadow puppet yudhishthira tropenmuseum collections indonesia collectie tropenmuseum wajangfiguur voorstellende de hemelnymf dewi tari tmnr jpg wayang kulit shadow puppet princess tari tropenmuseum collections indonesia file wayang pandawajpg wayang kulit puppet shadow play java bali lombok


indonesia file yokethe bagan jpg yoke th puppets depicting royal patronage myanmar file hemsquentin flickr abhisit vejjajiva jpg hun krabok puppets handled three performers thailand higantes giant papier ch puppets paraded higantes festival philippines file thang long water puppet theatre jpg water puppetry unique art originating vietnam gallery india puppeteer rajasthan india india long tradition puppetry ancient indian epic ''mahabharata'' references puppets kathputli form string puppet performance native rajasthan notable many indian ventriloquists puppeteers first indian ventriloquist


professor k padhye introduced form puppetry india son ramdas padhye subsequently popularised ventriloquism puppetry almost types puppets found india ref name ref string puppets sakhi kandhei string puppets odisha india rich ancient tradition string puppets marionettes marionettes jointed limbs controlled strings allow far greater flexibility therefore articulate puppets rajasthan orissa karnataka tamil nadu regions form puppetry flourished traditional marionettes rajasthan known


''kathputli'' carved single piece wood puppets like large dolls colourfully dressed string puppets orissa known ''kundhei'' string puppets karnataka called ''gombeyatta'' puppets tamil nadu known ''bommalattam'' combine techniques rod string puppets shadow puppets tholpavakoothu kerala india variety types styles shadow puppets shadow puppets flat figures cut leather treated make translucent shadow puppets pressed screen strong source light behind manipulation


religious characters smaller size common people servants rod puppets rod puppets extension glove puppets often much larger supported manipulated rods form puppetry found mostly west bengal orissa traditional rod puppet form west bengal known ''putul nautch'' carved wood follow various artistic styles particular region traditional rod puppet bihar known ''yampuri'' glove puppets glove puppets also known sleeve hand palm puppets head


made either papier ch cloth wood two hands emerging neck rest figure consists long flowing skirt puppets like limp dolls hands able puppeteer capable producing wide range movements manipulation technique simple movements controlled human hand first finger inserted head middle finger thumb two arms puppet help three fingers glove puppet comes alive tradition


glove puppets india popular uttar pradesh orissa west bengal kerala uttar pradesh glove puppet plays usually present social themes whereas orissa plays based stories radha krishna orissa puppeteer plays ' 'dholak'' hand drum one hand manipulates puppet delivery dialogue movement puppet beat dholak well synchronised create dramatic atmosphere kerala traditional glove puppet play called ''pavakoothu'' gallery mode packed file indonesian puppets puppeteerjpg traditional indonesian puppets puppeteer


file wayang balijpg ''wayang'' puppet bali indonesia file elephant und junger mann marionetten ende jh burma myanmar jpg elephant young man late th century burma file bodleian ms burm fol jpg burmese puppet theatre musicians foreground th century watercolour gallery afghanistan afghanistan produced form puppetry known buz baz performance puppeteer simultaneously operate marionette markhor playing dambura long necked lute west asia karagoz turkish shadow puppetry middle eastern puppetry like theatre forms influenced islamic culture karagoz turkish shadow theatre widely influenced puppetry


honour said impressed took puppeteer back palace istanbul year old son later sultan suleyman magnificent developed interest plays areas style shadow puppetry known ''khayal al zill'' metaphor translated shadows imagination shadow fancy still survives shadow play live music accompaniment drums tambourines flutesalso special effects smoke fire thunder rattles squeaks thumps whatever else might elicit laugh shudder audience


iran puppets known existed much earlier ad initially glove string puppets popular genres puppetry emerged qajar era th th centuries influences turkey spread region ''kheimeh shab bazi'' traditional persian puppet show performed small chamber musical performer storyteller called ''morshed'' ''naghal'' shows often take place alongside storytelling traditional tea coffee houses ''ghahve khane'' dialogue takes place morshed puppets recent example puppetry


iran touring opera ''rostam sohrab'' europe ancient greece rome ancient greek terracotta puppet dolls th th century bc national archaeological museum athens although remaining examples puppets ancient greece historical literature archaeological findings shows existence puppetry greek word translated puppet ''nevrospastos'' literally means drawn strings string pulling ''nevron'' meaning either sinew tendon muscle string wire ' 'spa '' meaning draw pull aristotle referred pulling strings control heads hands eyes shoulders legs plato 's work also contains references puppetry


''iliad'' ''odyssey'' presented using puppetry roots european puppetry probably extend back greek plays puppets played common people th century bc rd century bc plays would appear theatre dionysus acropolis ref name blumenthal ancient greece ancient rome clay dolls ivory dated around bc found children 's tombs dolls articulated arms legs cases iron rod extending tops heads rod used


manipulate doll done today sicilian puppetry dolls strings place rods researchers believe ancient figures simply toys puppets due small size right italy middle ages renaissance italy considered many early home marionette due influence roman puppetry xenophon plutarch refer ref name binyon binyon helen ''puppetry today'' p ref christian church used marionettes perform morality plays ref name binyon believed word '''marionette''' originates little


figures virgin mary hence word marionette mary doll comedy introduced plays time went ultimately led church edict banning puppetry puppeteers responded setting stages outside cathedrals became even ribald slapstick grew italian comedy called commedia dell'arte puppets used times form theatre sometimes shakespeare 's plays performed using marionettes instead actors sicily sides donkey carts decorated intricate painted scenes frankish romantic poems ''the song


roland'' tales enacted traditional puppet theatres featuring hand made marionettes wood sicilian called opera dei pupi opera puppets opera dei pupi sicilian tradition cantastorie word storyteller rooted proven al troubadour tradition sicily reign frederick ii holy roman emperor first half th century th th centuries th century vital period development italian theatre including marionette theatre rod puppet mainly lower class origin


marionette theatre popular aristocratic circles celebration age enlightenment effects artful complex construction puppets puppet theatres puppet narratives popular particularly venice th century marionettes pietro radillo became complex instead rod two strings radillo 's marionettes controlled many eight strings increased control individual body parts marionettes france guignol main character french puppet show come bear name although


often thought children 's entertainment guignol 's sharp wit linguistic verve always appreciated adults well shown motto prominent lyon troupe guignol amuses children witty adults laurent mourguet guignol 's creator fell hard times french revolution started practice dentistry days simply pulling teeth attract patients started setting puppet show front dentist 's chair guignol de lyon first shows featured polichinelle character borrowed italian commedia dell'arte


success gave dentistry altogether became professional puppeteer creating scenarios drawing concerns working class audience improvising references news day developed characters closer daily lives lyon audience first gnafron wine loving cobbler guignol characters including guignol 's wife madelon gendarme flag olet soon followed never much foils two heroes guignol 's inevitable victory always triumph good evil great britain british puppet theatre punch judy style


c traditional british ''punch judy'' puppetry traces roots th century italian commedia dell'arte ref name binyon binyon helen ''puppetry today'' p ref character punch derives character pulcinella anglicized ''punchinello'' manifestation lord misrule trickster figures deep rooted mythologies punch 's wife originally joan later became judy late th early th centuries familiar ''punch judy'' puppet show existed britain performed easily transportable booth british puppet model theatre guild early


th century instigated resurgence puppetry two guild 's founders h w whanslaw waldo lanchester worked promote develop puppetry publications books literature mainly focusing art marionette lanchester touring theatre permanent venue malvern worcestershire regularly taking part malvern festival attracting attention george bernard shaw one shaw 's last plays ''shakes versus shav'' written first performed company gerry anderson produced many television series starring marionettes starting roberta


leigh 's ''the adventures twizzle'' ending ''the secret service'' many series famous ''thunderbirds'' employed technique called supermarionation automatically synchronized pre recorded character dialogue puppets' mouth movements anderson returned puppetry ''terrahawks'' unaired pilot ''space police'' current british puppetry theatres include little angel theatre islington london puppet theatre barge london norwich puppet theatre harlequin puppet theatre rhos sea wales biggar puppet theatre biggar lanarkshire scotland british puppetry covers wide range styles approaches


also number british theatre companies including horse bamboo theatre green ginger integrate puppetry highly visual productions puppetry used vehicle political satire british television series ''spitting image'' puppetry also influencing mainstream theatre several recent productions combine puppetry live action including ''warhorse'' royal national theatre ''madam butterfly'' english national opera netherlands denmark romania russia many regional variants pulcinella developed character spread across europe netherlands ''jan klaassen''


judy ''katrijn'' denmark ''mester jackel'' russia ''petrushka'' romania ''vasilache'' russia central puppet theatre moscow branches every part country enhanced reputation puppeteer puppetry general gallery mode packed heights pereduchesneillustre png polichinelle caricature france teatro dei burattinijpg puppet theater gioppino brighella bergamo italy tchantchesjpg traditional puppets li ge belgium gallery germany austria long tradition puppetry germany austria much derives th century tradition italian commedia dell'arte ref name binyon german version british


character 'punch' called kasperle kaspar judy called grete ref name binyon th century operas specifically composed marionette puppets gluck haydn de falla respighi composed adult operas marionettes count franz pocci founded munich marionette theatre german dramatist poet painter composer pocci wrote puppet plays theatre albrecht roser made considerable impact marionettes stuttgart characters ''clown gustaf'' ''grandmother'' well known ''grandmother'' outwardly charming savagely humorous observations aspects society absurdities


presenting full length opera using marionettes purpose built theatre recently direction gretl aicher performs mainly operas ''die fledermaus'' ''the magic flute'' small number ballets ''the nutcracker'' salzburg marionette theatre productions aimed adults although children course welcome also marionette theatre schoenbrunn palace vienna founded christine hierzer riedler werner hierzer years ago marionette theatre performs world famous operas musicals fairy tales czech republic slovakia marionette theatre prague puppet theatre


ostrava marionette puppet theatre long history entertainment prague elsewhere former czechoslovakia czech republic slovakia traced deep early part middle ages ref name dubska ''czech puppet theatre'' alice dubsk jan nov k nina mal kov marie zde kov p ref marionettes first appeared around time thirty years' war ref name dubska first noted czech puppeteer jan ji brat born son local carpenter created puppet theatre ref name dubska mat j kopeck


puppetry developed separately emerging mainstream actor theatres 'ragged' puppeteers performed outside theatre buildings fairs markets etc continuing classified along bandits gypsies ref name blumenthal th century puppetry faced competition forms theatre vaudeville music hall adapted challenges example developing stage acts participating new forms popular theatre reinventing ways finding audiences newly fashionable seaside resorts north america teotihuacan culture central mexico ad made figurines


moveable arms legs part funerary rites native americans also used ceremonial puppets ref name blumenthal two puppeteers accompanied hernando cortez first journey mexico europeans brought puppet traditions gradually distinctive styles forms puppet characters developed north america ref name referencea depression folk puppeteers traveled carnivals working scripts dioramas marionettes manufacture advances th century puppetry originated united states marionette puppetry combined television early howdy doody


united states notable marionette field bil baird worked revitalising marionette theatre puppetry united states wife cora eisenberg marionette theatre new york ventriloquist edgar bergen also made major contribution peter schumann 's bread puppet theater developed political artistic possibilities puppet theatre distinctive powerful immediately recognizable way roughly time jim henson creating type soft foam rubber cloth puppet became known collectively muppets initially children 's television show


bergen puppet charlie mccarthy file bread puppet puppets glover vermontjpg puppets bread puppet theater museum glover vermont usa file mallory lewis lamb chopjpg mallory lewis lamb chop file puppet bleeckie leslie fleming cjpg leslie madeline fleming bleeckie character series web videos gallery australia aboriginal peoples australia long tradition oral storytelling goes back many thousands years used masks objects convey deep meaningful themes morality nature masks carved wood heavily decorated paint feathers


lyrics hal saunders story broadly told captain james cook 's south sea island voyage botanist joseph banks hms ''endeavour'' edmiston went tour queensland throughout numerous productions new company queensland marionette theatre bilbar puppet theatre established barbara turnbull husband bill turnbull toured australia extensively auspices queensland arts council shows included ''the lucky charm'' ''funnybone'' mozart 's opera ''bastien bastienne'' ''lazy liza'' bilbar puppet theatre 's puppets held queensland performing arts


centre brisbane david poulton toured marionette shows via queensland arts council along 'strings things' wife sally many years late gwen peter iliffe also toured puppet people one shows ''bees hey'' using music bizet another successful group ehmer puppets david hamilton one last remaining marionette puppeteers australia tours independently formerly toured auspices queensland arts council puppets displayed special puppet exhibition mounted queensland performing arts complex


comedian radio broadcaster jamie dunn famous muppet style character agro featured several seven network television programs throughout formally trained united states puppeteers jim henson company brett hansen brisbane based larrikin puppets company one muppet style puppeteers actively performing australia cabaret puppet theatre based brisbane 's redlands area also tours productions children adults melbourne handspan theatre evolved humble collective beginnings large design rich theatre format dubbed 'visual theatre' became hothouse innovative


projects multimedia collaborations within australia around world post graduate course existed victorian college arts university melbourne late since discontinued australian puppeteer norman hetherington famous marionette mr squiggle featured australian broadcasting commission television program july july every episode would create several pictures squiggles sent children around country richard bradshaw oam another famous australian puppeteer past president unima australia former artistic director


marionette theatre company australia shadow puppetry writing field rod hull also made contribution puppet emu hull presented children 's breakfast television programme australia snuff puppets one australia 's modern puppet theatre troupes based melbourne work full wild black humour political sexual satire handmade aesthetic snuff puppets performed countries including tours major festivals asia south america europe annual winter festival puppets city melbourne 's artplay


federation square melbourne sydney jeral puppets founded john jackie lewis regularly performs puppeteria puppet theatre tour spare parts puppet theatre fremantle western australia founded peter wilson cathryn robinson beverley campbell jackson ref name ta ref part artist residency program initiated wa institute technology curtin university technology company 's first project puppet adaptation christopher marlowe 's ''doctor faustus'' festival perth ref name ta contemporary era early th century puppetry began inspire artists 'high art'


'puppetness' despite joseph stalin 's insistence realism pioneers including edward gordon craig erwin piscator influenced puppetry crusade regalvanise mainstream maeterlinck shaw lorca others wrote puppet plays artists picasso jarry l ger began work theatre ref name blumenthal craig 's concept bermarionette director treats actors like objects highly influential contemporary object theatre physical theatre tadeusz kantor frequently substituted actors puppets combined two conducted performance edge stage ways similar puppeteer


companies like peter schumann bread puppet theatre bob frith horse bamboo theatre sandy speiler heart beast puppet mask theatre also combined mask puppet theatre performer puppets objects integrated within largely visual theatre world minimises use spoken language jim henson foundation founded puppeteer muppet creator jim henson philanthropic charitable organization created promote develop puppetry united states bestowed grants innovative puppet theatre artists puppetry troupes


early st century homegrown theatre boise idaho continue avant garde satirical tradition millennials ref name early st century puppetry ref ref name millennial avant garde puppetry ref gallery mode packed heights snuff scarey skulliesjpg snuff puppets skullies scarey puppentheater moskaujpg puppet theatre moscow russia c kstovo puppet theatre auchanjpg performance kstovo puppet theatre puppets photo lithograph xerographic direct imaging two th century hand puppetspng two th century hand puppets little amal barnsley october jpg animatronic puppet little amal gallery events international puppet festival pif taken place annually mid september zagreb croatia since ref name zagrebfests ref see also digital


puppetry hand puppet list highest grossing puppet films puppet puppeteer russian puppet theater shadow puppetry unima international puppetry association ventriloquism wayang world puppetry day state puppet theatre fairy tales notes references books articles external links http wwwpuppetorg center puppetry arts puppetry museum theater atlanta ga us http wwwpuppetryinfo puppetry homepage contains links information types puppets puppetry http wwwunimaorg union internationale de la marionnette international organization puppeteers puppet enthusiasts http wwwunimaorguk puppet notebook articles puppet history theory contemporary international puppetry magazine published


british unima http wwwpuppetsinpragueeu puppets prague traditional czech marionette making workshops conducted mirek tretjnar master puppeteer http wwwbritishpuppetguildorguk british puppet model theatre guild puppet collection information regular articles puppets puppetry publishing hard copy online journal http wwwcabaretpuppettheatrecom cabaret puppet theatre information puppet making workshops australia conducted david logan master puppeteer https wwwtorontopubliclibraryca books video music specialized collections childrens marguerite bagshawjsp marguerite g bagshaw collection research collection puppetry resources part toronto public library


'''analytic philosophy''' branch tradition philosophy using analysis popular western world particularly anglosphere began around turn th century contemporary era united kingdom united states canada australia new zealand scandinavia continues today central figures historical development analytic philosophy gottlob frege bertrand russell g e moore ludwig wittgenstein important figures history include logical positivists particularly rudolf carnap w v quine saul kripke karl popper analytic philosophy characterized emphasis language

Humanities
Philosophy
Philosophical traditions and schools
Analytic philosophy


known linguistic turn clarity rigor arguments making use formal logic mathematics lesser degree natural sciences ref name leiterweb brian leiter webpage https webarchiveorg web https wwwphilosophicalgourmetcom analyticasp '' analytic continental philosophy'' quote definition 'analytic' philosophy today names ' 'style'' philosophy philosophical program set substantive views analytic philosophers crudely speaking aim argumentative clarity precision draw freely tools logic often identify professionally intellectually closely sciences mathematics humanities ref also takes things piecemeal


conceptual clarity ref name penguindicp mautner thomas editor ''the penguin dictionary philosophy'' entry analytic philosophy pp ref name moore russell rejected hegelianism obscure see example moore 's defence common sense russell 's critique doctrine internal relations inspired developments modern formal logic early russell claimed problems philosophy solved showing simple constituents complex notions ref name penguindicp important aspect british idealism logical holism opinion aspects world known


philosopher mathematics germany beginning th century contrast edmund husserl 's book ''philosophie der arithmetik'' argued concept cardinal number derived psychical acts grouping objects counting frege argued mathematics logic validity independent judgments mental states individual mathematicians logicians basis arithmetic according psychologism husserl 's ''philosophie'' frege developed philosophy logic mathematics ''the foundations arithmetic'' ''the basic laws arithmetic''


provided alternative psychologistic accounts concept number like frege russell argued mathematics reducible logical fundamentals ''the principles mathematics'' later book written whitehead ''principia mathematica'' encouraged many philosophers renew interest development symbolic logic additionally russell adopted frege 's predicate logic primary philosophical method method russell thought could expose underlying structure philosophical problems example english word three distinct meanings predicate logic express follows sentence 'the cat ''is'' asleep'


''is'' predication means x p denoted p x sentence 'there ''is'' cat' ''is'' existence means x x sentence 'three ''is'' half six' ''is'' identity means x x russell sought resolve various philosophical problems applying logical distinctions famously analysis definite descriptions denoting ideal language analytic philosophers like russell ludwig wittgenstein emphasized creating ideal language philosophical analysis would


free ambiguities ordinary language opinion often made philosophy invalid phase russell wittgenstein sought understand language hence philosophical problems using logic formalize philosophical statements made logical atomism russell became advocate logical atomism wittgenstein developed comprehensive system logical atomism ''tractatus logico philosophicus'' thereby argued universe totality actual states affairs states affairs expressed language first order predicate logic thus ''picture'' universe


constructed expressing facts form atomic propositions linking using logical operators logical positivism late group philosophers vienna circle berlin circle developed russell wittgenstein 's formalism doctrine known logical positivism logical empiricism logical positivism used formal logical methods develop empiricist account knowledge philosophers rudolf carnap hans reichenbach along members vienna circle claimed truths logic mathematics tautologies science verifiable empirical claims


two constituted entire universe meaningful judgments anything else nonsense claims ethics aesthetics theology consequently reduced pseudo statements neither empirically true false therefore meaningless reaction considered excesses logical positivism karl popper insisted role falsification philosophy science although general method also part analytic tradition coming power adolf hitler nazism many members vienna berlin circles fled britain us helped reinforce dominance logical


two main trends one continued wittgenstein 's later philosophy differed dramatically early work ''tractatus'' known oxford philosophy involved j l austin contrast earlier analytic philosophers including early wittgenstein thought philosophers avoid deceptive trappings natural language constructing ideal languages ordinary language philosophers claimed ordinary language already represents many subtle distinctions recognized formulation traditional philosophical theories problems schools logical positivism emphasize logical terms supposed universal separate contingent factors culture language historical conditions


ordinary language philosophy emphasizes use language ordinary people prominent ordinary language philosophers aforementioned austin gilbert ryle ordinary language philosophers often sought dissolve philosophical problems showing result ordinary misunderstanding language examples include ryle tried dispose descartes' myth wittgenstein contemporary analytic philosophy although contemporary philosophers self identify analytic widely divergent interests assumptions methods often rejected fundamental premises defined analytic philosophy analytic philosophy today usually considered determined particular style ref name leiterweb characterized


precision thoroughness specific topic resistance imprecise cavalier discussions broad topics ref name autogenerated logical positivism challenged influentially wittgenstein ''philosophical investigations'' quine two dogmas empiricism sellars ''empiricism philosophy mind'' anglophone philosophy began incorporate wider range interests opinions methods ref name autogenerated still many philosophers britain america still consider analytic philosophers ref name searle p without exception best philosophy departments united states dominated analytic philosophy among leading philosophers united


states tiny handful would classified analytic philosophers practitioners types philosophizing analytic tradition phenomenology classical pragmatism existentialism marxism feel necessary define position relation analytic philosophy john searle ''contemporary philosophy united states'' n bunnin e p tsui james eds ''the blackwell companion philosophy'' nd ed blackwell p ref ref name leiterweb done largely expanding notion analytic philosophy specific programs dominated anglophone philosophy much general notion


analytic style ref name autogenerated ref many philosophers historians attempted define describe analytic philosophy definitions often include emphasis conceptual analysis ap martinich draws analogy analytic philosophy 's interest conceptual analysis analytic chemistry aims determine chemical compositions steven hales described analytic philosophy one three types philosophical method practiced west n roughly reverse order number proponents phenomenology ideological philosophy analytic philosophy scott soames agrees clarity important analytic philosophy says implicit commitment albeit faltering imperfect ideals


clarity rigor argumentation aims truth knowledge opposed moral spiritual improvement goal analytic philosophy discover true provide useful recipe living one 's life soames also states analytic philosophy characterized piecemeal approach think widespread presumption within tradition often possible make philosophical progress intensively investigating small circumscribed range philosophical issues holding broader systematic questions abeyance ref name soames ref important active topics


brain states period topics philosophy mind often related strongly topics cognitive science modularity innateness finally analytic philosophy featured certain number philosophers dualists recently forms property dualism resurgence prominent representative david chalmers john searle suggests obsession philosophy language th century superseded emphasis philosophy mind functionalism currently dominant theory recent years central focus research philosophy


period early analytic philosophers often thought inquiry ethical domain could made rigorous enough merit attention ref name ref emergence ordinary language philosophers ethics started become acceptable area inquiry analytic philosophers ref name philosophers working analytic tradition gradually come distinguish three major types moral philosophy meta ethics investigates moral terms concepts normative ethics examines produces normative ethical judgments applied ethics investigates existing normative principles applied difficult borderline cases often cases created


new technology new scientific knowledge meta ethics twentieth century meta ethics two origins first ge moore 's investigation nature ethical terms eg good ''principia ethica'' identified naturalistic fallacy along hume 's famous ought distinction naturalistic fallacy major topic investigation analytical philosophers second logical positivism attitude unverifiable statements meaningless although attitude adopted originally promote scientific investigation rejecting grand metaphysical systems side effect making ethical aesthetic value judgments well religious


statements beliefs meaningless value judgments significant importance human life became incumbent logical positivism develop explanation nature meaning value judgments result analytic philosophers avoided normative ethics instead began meta ethical investigations nature moral terms statements judgments logical positivists opined statements value including ethical aesthetic judgments non cognitive cannot objectively verified falsified instead logical positivists adopted emotivist theory value judgments expressed attitude speaker example


view saying killing wrong equivalent saying boo murder saying word murder particular tone disapproval analytic philosophers generally accepted non cognitivism emotivism many deficiencies evolved sophisticated non cognitivist theories expressivism charles stevenson universal prescriptivism rm hare based jl austin 's philosophy speech acts theories without critics philippa foot contributed several essays attacking theories jo urmson 's article grading called ought distinction question non cognitivism ought distinction naturalistic


fallacy began called question analytic philosophers showed renewed interest traditional questions moral philosophy perhaps influential elizabeth anscombe whose monograph ''intention'' called donald davidson important treatment action since aristotle favorite student friend ludwig wittgenstein article modern moral philosophy introduced term consequentialism philosophical lexicon declared ought impasse unproductive resulted revival virtue ethics normative ethics first half th century marked skepticism toward neglect normative ethics related


feature analytic philosophy since approximately emergence applied ethics interest application moral principles specific practical issues philosophers following orientation view ethics involving humanistic values involve practical implications applications way people interact lead lives socially topics special interest applied ethics include environmental issues animal rights many challenges created advancing medical science education applied ethics addressed themes punishment schools equality educational opportunity education democracy analytic philosophy religion ''analytic philosophy


evil see existence god rationality belief god concepts nature god many plantinga mackie flew debated logical validity ''free defense'' way solve problem evil alston grappling consequences analytic philosophy language worked nature religious language adams worked relationship faith morality analytic epistemology metaphysics formed basis philosophically sophisticated theistic arguments like reformed epistemologists like plantinga analytic philosophy religion also preoccupied wittgenstein


well interpretation ren kierkegaard 's philosophy religion using first hand remarks later published ''philosophical investigations'' ''culture value'' works philosophers peter winch norman malcolm developed come known ''contemplative philosophy'' wittgensteinian school thought rooted swansea tradition includes wittgensteinians rush rhees peter winch dz phillips among others name contemplative philosophy first coined dz phillips ''philosophy 's cool place'' rests interpretation passage wittgenstein 's culture value interpretation


first labeled wittgensteinian fideism kai nielsen consider wittgensteinians swansea tradition relentlessly repeatedly rejected construal caricature wittgenstein 's considered position especially true dz phillips responding interpretation kai nielsen dz phillips became two prominent philosophers wittgenstein 's philosophy religion political philosophy liberalism current analytic political philosophy owes much john rawls series papers onward notably two concepts rules justice fairness book ''a theory justice'' produced


sophisticated defense generally liberal egalitarian account distributive justice followed soon rawls 's colleague robert nozick 's book ''anarchy state utopia'' defence free market libertarianism isaiah berlin also lasting influence analytic political philosophy liberalism lecture two concepts liberty recent decades also several critiques liberalism including feminist critiques catharine mackinnon andrea dworkin communitarian critiques michael sandel alasdair macintyre although neither endorses term multiculturalist critiques amy gutmann charles taylor although


analytic philosopher j rgen habermas another prominent controversial author contemporary analytic political philosophy whose social theory blend social science marxism neo kantianism american pragmatism consequentialist libertarianism also derives analytic tradition analytical marxism another development political philosophy emergence school analytical marxism members school seek apply techniques analytic philosophy modern social science rational choice theory clarify theories karl marx successors best known member school g cohen whose work ''karl marx 's theory


socialist theory justice contrasts traditional marxism theories advanced rawls nozick particular indicates marx 's principle according ability according need communitarianism communitarians alasdair macintyre charles taylor michael walzer michael sandel advance critique liberalism uses analytic techniques isolate main assumptions liberal individualists rawls challenges assumptions particular communitarians challenge liberal assumption individual considered fully autonomous community lives


brought instead argue conception individual emphasizes role community plays forming values thought processes opinions analytic metaphysics one striking difference respect early analytic philosophy revival metaphysical theorizing second half th century philosophers david kellogg lewis david armstrong developed elaborate theories range topics universals causation possibility necessity abstract objects among developments resulted revival metaphysical theorizing quine 's attack analytic synthetic distinction


generally considered weaken carnap 's distinction existence questions internal framework external important also revival metaphysics development modal logic including work saul kripke argued ''naming necessity'' elsewhere existence essences possibility necessary posteriori truths metaphysics remains fertile topic research recovered attacks aj ayer logical positivists although many discussions continuations old ones previous decades centuries debate remains active philosophy


fiction problem empty names debate existence 's status property become major concerns perennial issues free possible worlds philosophy time revived ref name inwagenetall van inwagen peter dean zimmerman eds ''metaphysics big questions'' ref science also increasingly significant role metaphysics theory special relativity profound effect philosophy time quantum physics routinely discussed free debate ref name inwagenetall weight given scientific evidence largely due widespread commitments among philosophers


scientific realism naturalism philosophy language philosophy language topic decreased activity last four decades evidenced fact major philosophers today treat primary research topic indeed debate remains fierce still strongly influenced authors first half century gottlob frege bertrand russell ludwig wittgenstein jl austin alfred tarski wvo quine saul kripke 's publication ''naming necessity'' argued influentially flaws common theories proper names indicative larger misunderstandings


metaphysics necessity possibility wedding techniques modal logic causal theory reference kripke widely regarded reviving theories essence identity respectable topics philosophical discussion another influential philosopher pavel tich initiated transparent intensional logic original theory logical analysis natural languages theory devoted problem saying exactly learn know communicate come understand sentence means philosophy science reacting verificationism logical positivists well critiques


defends neo darwinism stand foreground debate epistemology owing largely gettier 's paper justified true belief knowledge epistemology resurged topic analytic philosophy last years large portion current epistemological research intended resolve problems gettier 's examples presented traditional justified true belief model knowledge including developing theories justification deal gettier 's examples giving alternatives justified true belief model related topics contemporary research include debates internalism externalism basic knowledge nature evidence value


knowledge epistemic luck virtue epistemology role intuitions justification treating knowledge primitive concept aesthetics result attacks traditional aesthetic notions beauty sublimity post modern thinkers analytic philosophers slow consider art aesthetic judgment susanne langer nelson goodman addressed problems analytic style since goodman aesthetics discipline analytic philosophers flourished rigorous efforts pursue analyses traditional aesthetic concepts performed guy sircello resulting new analytic theories


love sublimity beauty see also analytic phenomenology analytical thomism logicism philosophical analysis postanalytic philosophy scientism notes references aristotle ''metaphysics'' geach p ''mental acts'' london kenny ajp ''wittgenstein'' london wittgenstein ''tractatus logico philosophicus'' reading http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg london philosophy study guide offers many suggestions read depending student 's familiarity subject http wwwuclacuk philosophy lpsg frwhtm frege russell wittgenstein dummett michael ''the origins analytical philosophy'' cambridge harvard university press hirschberger johannes ''a short history western philosophy'' ed clare hay https webarchiveorg web http wwwlutterworthcom lp titles shwphilhtm short history western philosophy hylton peter ''russell idealism emergence


analytic philosophy'' oxford oxford university press soames scott ''philosophical analysis twentieth century volume dawn analysis'' princeton princeton university press passmore john ''a hundred years philosophy'' revised ed new york basic books weitz morris ed ''twentieth century philosophy analytic tradition'' new york free press external links th century philosophy contemporary philosophy history logic philosophical movements philosophical traditions


'''missiology''' academic study christian mission history methodology began developed academic discipline th century ref name kollman ref history missiology academic discipline appeared th century scottish missionary alexander duff first developed systematic theory mission appointed new chair evangelistic theology edinburgh chair short lived closed duff 's departure gustav warneck often recognized founder protestant missiology discipline founded first scientific missionary periodical

Applied science
Divinity
Field ministry
Missiology


''allgemeine missions zeitschrift'' appointed chair missionary science university halle germany three volume work protestant mission theory ''evangelische missionlehre'' survey history protestant missionary work extremely important young discipline ref name kollman influenced warneck 's work catholic church historian began lecturing missiology university munster appointed first chair catholic missiology university scope study missiology became recognizable first within study christian theology


geography communication theory comparative religious studies social studies education psychology inter religious relations etc core new discipline remains teaching church inherent discipline study nature god created world church well interaction among three missiology academic discipline broader term encompasses variety subtopics ethnodoxology diaspora missiology urban missiology biblical missiology etc definition wide scope study discipline missiology makes difficult missiologists agree upon unified definition


missiology one approach reflect mission define ways mission explained theologically mission participation people god god action world theological critical reflection mission called missiology johannes verkuyl states missiology task every age investigate scientifically critically presuppositions motives structures methods patterns cooperation leadership churches bring mandate every mission needs strategy employed specific environment among specific cultural context adds definition


missiology three dimensional area study missiology made three interdependent areas study theology social sciences strategy theology explains foundations mission culture social sciences elaborates arena mission strategy explicitly points ways missions implemented defining missiology continues even today continue near future definition acceptable missiologists coined current developments today missiology taught many christian theological schools scope study relations theological social


sciences differ great extent continues considered christian theological discipline time argued whether missiology strictly church discipline academic one several academic societies discipline two note https asmweborg american society missiology asm https wwwemsweborg evangelical missiological society ems european academy especially german speaking contexts growing dominance term intercultural theology close interaction missiology social sciences culture made scholars shape discipline within framework history sociology remind


olive baboon '''primatology''' scientific study primates diverse discipline boundary mammalogy anthropology researchers found academic departments anatomy anthropology biology medicine psychology veterinary sciences zoology well animal sanctuaries biomedical research facilities museums zoos primatologists study living extinct primates natural habitats laboratories conducting field studies experiments order understand aspects evolution behavior sub disciplines science primatology many different sub disciplines vary terms theoretical methodological approaches

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Primatology


experiments chimpanzees order gauge primate intelligence limits brainpower theory study primatology looks biological psychological aspects non human primates focus studying common links humans primates practitioners believe understanding closest animal relatives might better understand nature shared ancestors methods primatology science general belief scientific observation nature must either extremely limited completely controlled either way observers must neutral subjects allows data


unbiased subjects uninfluenced human interference three methodological approaches primatology field study realistic approach laboratory study controlled approach semi free ranging primate habitat wild social structure replicated captive setting field study done natural environments scientific observers watch primates natural habitat laboratory study done controlled lab settings lab settings scientists able perform controlled experimentation learning capabilities behavioral patterns animals semi free ranging studies scientists able


watch primates might act wild easier access ability control environments facilities include living links center yerkes national primate research center georgia us elgin center lion country safari florida us types primate study western methodology meant neutral although certain western primatologists subjective research emphasis discipline objective early field primatology tended focus individual researchers researchers dian fossey jane goodall


birute galdikas examples jane goodall traveled forest gombe stream tanzania determination skill allowed observe behaviors chimpanzees researcher seen prior chimpanzees used tools made twigs extract termites nests additionally dian fossey 's work conducted karisoke research station rwanda proved possibility habituation among mountain gorillas fossey learned female gorillas often transferred groups gorillas eat dung recycle nutrients third trimate birute galdikas spent


years becoming habituated orangutans borneo indonesia galdikas utilized statistics modern data collection conclude doctoral thesis regarding orangutan behavior interactions notable western primatologists jeanne altmann irwin bernstein sarah blaffer hrdy christophe boesch geoffrey bourne josep call c r carpenter colin chapman dorothy cheney scientist frans de waal thomas defler alejandro estrada linda fedigan dian fossey agustin fuentes birut galdikas paul garber richard lynch garner jane goodall colin groves harry harlow philip hershkovitz alison jolly nadezhda ladygina kohts louis leakey robert martin emil wolfgang menzel jr russell mittermeier john r napier carlos


peres anne e russon jordi sabater pi robert sapolsky carel van schaik robert seyfarth scientist meredith small barbara smuts craig stanford karen b strier robert w sussman michael tomasello sherwood washburn david p watts richard wrangham japanese primatology origins discipline japanese primatology developed animal ecology mainly credited kinji imanishi junichiro itani imanishi animal ecologist began studying wild horses focusing primate ecology helped found primate research group junichiro renowned anthropologist professor kyoto university co founder


primate research institute centre african area studies theory japanese discipline primatology tends interested social aspects primates ref name bezerademelodaly social evolution anthropology primary interest japanese theory believes studying primates give us insight duality human nature individual self vs social self one particular japanese primatologist kawai masao introduced concept ''kyokan'' theory way attain reliable scientific knowledge attain mutual relation personal attachment shared life animal


subjects though kawai japanese primatologist associated use term underlying principle part foundation japanese primate research ref name herzfeld ref methods japanese primatology carefully disciplined subjective science believed best data comes identification subject neutrality eschewed favour casual atmosphere researcher subject mingle freely domestication nature desirable necessary study japanese primatologists renowned ability recognise animals sight indeed primates research group


usually named numbered comprehensive data every single subject group uniquely japanese trait primate research member primate community part play japanese researchers interested complex interaction japanese researchers primatology findings team emphasised individual study primates group effort group get credit team researchers may observe group primates several years order gather detailed demographic social histories notable japanese primatologists


kinji imanishi junichiro itani kawai masao tetsuro matsuzawa toshisada nishida satsue mito primatology sociobiology sociobiology attempts understand actions animal species within context advantageous disadvantageous behaviors primatology takes exclusive look order primates includes ''homo sapiens'' interface primatology sociobiology examines detail evolution primate behavioral processes studying closest living primate relatives tell minds american anthropologist earnest albert hooton used say primate nothing primates outside bailiwick


meeting point two disciplines become nexus discussion key issues concerning evolution sociality development purpose language deceit development propagation culture additionally interface particular interest science watchers science technology studies examine social conditions incite mould eventually react scientific discoveries knowledge sts approach primatology sociobiology stretches beyond studying apes realm observing people studying apes taxonomic basis darwin molecular biology father modern


taxonomy carl linnaeus organized natural objects kinds know reflect evolutionary relatedness sorted kinds morphology shape object animals gorillas chimpanzees orangutans resemble humans closely linnaeus placed ''homo sapiens'' together similar looking organisms taxonomic order ''primates'' modern molecular biology reinforced humanity 's place within primate order humans simians share vast majority dna chimpanzees sharing genetic identity humans grooming speaking although social grooming observed many animal species grooming activities undertaken primates


size outlined cognitive limitations group undergoes schism set evolutionary context dunbar number shows drive development method bonding less labor intensive grooming language monkeysphere grows amount time would need spent grooming troopmates soon becomes unmanageable furthermore possible bond one troopmate time grooming evolution vocal communication solves time constraint one one problem price language allows bonding multiple people


time distance bonding produced language less intense view language evolution covers general biological trends needed language development takes another hypothesis uncover evolution cognitive processes necessary language modularity primate mind noam chomsky 's concept innate language addresses existence universal grammar suggests special kind device humans born whose sole purpose language fodor 's modular mind hypothesis expands concept suggesting existence preprogrammed modules dealing many aspects


cognition although modules need physically distinct must functionally distinct experiment teach language orangutans smithsonian national zoo using computer system developed primatologist dr francine neago conjunction ibm massive modularity theory thesis posits huge number tremendously interlinked specialized modules running programs called darwinian algorithms da da selected gene eventually improving cognition contrary theory generalist mind suggests brain big computer runs one


program mind mind general computer instance ability use reasoning identical regardless context observed faced abstract numbers letters real world significance respondents wason card test generally poorly however exposed test identical rule set socially relevant content respondents score markedly higher difference especially pronounced content reward payment test strongly suggests human logic based module originally developed


social environment root cheaters either module huge disadvantage abstract thinking involved less effective modules used faced abstract logic evidence supporting modular mind steadily emerged startling revelations concerning primates recent study indicated human babies grown monkeys approach process numbers similar fashion suggesting evolved set da mathematics jordan conceptualization human infants primate adults cross sensory meaning add red dots beeps


mind primate behavior like human behavior highly social ripe intrigue kingmaking powerplays deception cuckoldry apology order understand staggeringly complex nature primate interactions look theory mind theory mind asks whether individual recognizes keep track information asymmetry amongst individuals group whether attribute folk psychological states peers primates tell others know want act accordingly gain advantage status recently chimpanzee theory mind


advanced felix warneken max planck institute studies shown chimpanzees recognize whether researcher desires dropped object act accordingly picking even compelling observation chimps act object dropped accidental looking manner researcher drops object way appears intentional chimp ignore object related experiment groups chimps given rope pulling problems could solve individually warneken 's subjects rapidly figured individual group best rope puller


assigned bulk task research highly indicative ability chimps detect folk psychological state desire well ability recognize individuals better certain tasks however primates always fare well situations requiring theory mind one experiment pairs chimpanzees close grooming partners offered two levers pressing one lever would bring food another would bring grooming partner food pressing lever clearly give grooming partner much wanted food


would take away much food got reason chimps unwilling depress lever would give long time chums food plausible unlikely chimps figured finite food would eventually decrease food reward experiments open interpretations making hard establish anything certain one phenomenon would indicate possible fragility theory mind primates occurs baboon gets lost circumstances lost baboon generally makes call barks announce


lost previous thought call barks would returned baboons similar case vervet monkeys however researchers studied formally past years found something surprising baboons lost would ever give call barks even infant wailing agony hundred meters away mother would clearly recognise voice would frantic safety alternatively run towards infant depending perceived safety would often simply


stare direction visibly agitated anguishing baboon mother made type call infant would instantly recognise run position type logic appears lost baboon suggesting serious gap theory mind otherwise seemingly intelligent primate species however also possible baboons return call barks ecological reasons example returning call bark might call attention lost baboon putting greater risk predators criticisms scientific studies concerning primate human


behavior subject set political social complications biases every scientific discipline borderline multidisciplinary nature primatology sociobiology make ripe fields study amalgams objective subjective sciences current scientific practice especially hard sciences requires total dissociation personal experience finished scientific product bauchspies strategy incompatible observational field studies weakens eyes hard science mentioned western school primatology tries minimize subjectivity


japanese school primatology tends embrace closeness inherent studying nature social critics science operating within field critical primatology sociobiology claims made researchers bring pre existing opinions issues concerning human sociality studies seek evidence agrees worldview otherwise furthers sociopolitical agenda particular use primatological studies assert gender roles promote subvert feminism point contention several research papers primate cognition retracted lead author primatologist marc hauser


dismissed harvard university internal investigation found evidence scientific misconduct laboratory data supporting authors' conclusion cottontop tamarin monkeys displayed pattern learning behavior similar human infants reportedly could located three year investigation women primatology women receive majority phds primatology londa schiebinger writing estimated women made percent graduate students pursuing phds primatology percent high number women schiebinger even asserted primatology widely celebrated feminist science ref


characterize contemporary primatology fedigan reflexivity sensitivity context cultural bias scientific work female point view respect nature ethic cooperation nature move away reductionism promote humanitarian values rather national interests diverse community accessible egalitarian schiebinger suggests two six features characteristic feminism one discussion politics participation attention placed females subjects research ref name schiebinger londa evolution primatology jeanne altmann drew attention representative sampling methods


individuals dominant powerful observed equal periods time prior primatologists used opportunistic sampling recorded caught attention sarah hrdy self identified feminist among first apply became known sociobiological theory primates studies focuses need females win males parental care offspring linda fedigan views reporter translator working intersection gender studies science mainstream study primatology influential women challenged fundamental paradigms


schiebinger suggests science constituted numerous factors varying gender roles domestic issues surround race class economic relations researchers developed world countries developing world countries nonhuman primates reside ref name schiebinger londa academic resources societies american society primatologists european federation primatology international primatological society journals ''american journal primatology'' ref name ajp ref ''folia primatologica'' ''international journal primatology'' ref name ijp ref ''journal medical primatology'' ref name jws ref ''journal human evolution'' ref name jhe ref ''primates'' see also physical anthropology primatologists human genetics human evolutionary genetics primate research centers references sources external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwprimatewiscedu pin idp wdp world directory


primatologists https webarchiveorg web http wwwprimatewiscedu pin biohtml primatologist biographies http wwwprimatologynet primatologynet community run blog contributions primatology academics enthusiasts around world


'''psycholinguistics''' '''psychology language''' study interrelation linguistic factors psychological aspects discipline mainly concerned mechanisms language processed represented mind brain psychological neurobiological factors enable humans acquire use comprehend produce language psycholinguistics concerned cognitive faculties processes necessary produce grammatical constructions language also concerned perception constructions listener initial forays psycholinguistics philosophical educational fields due mainly

Humanities
Languages and literature
Linguistics
Psycholinguistics


location departments applied sciences eg cohesive data human brain functioned modern research makes use biology neuroscience cognitive science linguistics information science study mind brain processes language less known processes social sciences human development communication theories infant development among others several subdisciplines non invasive techniques studying neurological workings brain example neurolinguistics become field right developmental psycholinguistics branch psycholinguistics concerns child 's ability learn language areas


extraction orthographic morphological phonological semantic information patterns printed text researcher interested language production might study words prepared spoken starting conceptual semantic level concerns connotation possibly examined conceptual framework concerned semantic differential developmental psycholinguists study infants' children 's ability learn process language psycholinguistics divide studies according different components make human language linguistics related areas include phonetics phonology study speech sounds within psycholinguistics research focuses brain


origin psycholinguistics theoretical framework psycholinguistics began developed end th century psychology language work edward thorndike frederic bartlett laid foundations would come known science psycholinguistics jacob kantor prominent psychologist time used term psycholinguistic description within book ''an objective psychology grammar'' ref name ref however term psycholinguistics came widespread usage kantor 's student nicholas pronko published article entitled psycholinguistics review ref name ref


pronko 's desire unify myriad related theoretical approaches single name ref name ref name psycholinguistics used first time talk interdisciplinary science could coherent well title ''psycholinguistics survey theory research problems'' book charles e osgood thomas sebeok theories language acquisition though still much debate two primary theories childhood language acquisition behaviorist perspective whereby language must learned child innatist perspective believes abstract system


bound 'stopping' constraint cases ordinary deferring deferring normally done reason rational person always disposed defer good reason theory semantic differential supposes universal distinctions typicality included scales regular rare typical exclusive reality imaginary real evident fantastic abstract concrete complexity complex simple unlimited limited mysterious usual improvement organization regular spasmodic constant changeable organized disorganized precise indefinite stimulation interesting boring trivial new reading one question realm language comprehension people understand sentences read ie sentence processing experimental research spawned several theories architecture


mechanisms sentence comprehension theories typically concerned types information contained sentence reader use build meaning point reading information becomes available reader issues modular versus interactive processing theoretical divides field modular view sentence processing assumes stages involved reading sentence function independently separate modules modules limited interaction one another example one influential theory sentence processing garden path theory states syntactic analysis takes place first


theory reader reading sentence creates simplest structure possible minimize effort cognitive load done without input semantic analysis context dependent information hence sentence evidence examined lawyer turned unreliable time reader gets word examined committed reading sentence evidence examining something simplest parsing commitment made even though results implausible situation evidence cannot examine


something syntax first theory semantic information processed later stage later reader recognize needs revise initial parsing one evidence examined example readers typically recognize mistake time reach lawyer must go back reevaluate sentence reanalysis costly contributes slower reading times contrast modular view interactive theory sentence processing constraint based lexical approach assumes available information contained


within sentence processed time interactive view semantics sentence plausibility come play early help determine structure sentence hence sentence reader would able make use plausibility information order assume evidence examined instead examining data support modular interactive views view correct debatable reading saccades cause mind skip words see


analyzing instances speech errors include speech disfluencies like false starts repetition reformulation constant pauses words sentences well slips tongue like blendings substitutions exchanges eg spoonerism various pronunciation errors speech errors significant implications understanding language produced reflect speech planned advance speech errors substitution exchanges show one plan entire sentence speak rather language faculty constantly tapped speech production process accounted limitation


morphologically complex words merging morphemes rather retrieving chunks useful differentiate three separate phases language production ref name psycholinguistics ref conceptualization determining say formulation translating intention say something linguistic form execution detailed articulatory planning articulation psycholinguistic research largely concerned study formulation conceptualization phase remains largely elusive mysterious ref name psycholinguistics methodologies behavioral tasks many experiments conducted psycholinguistics especially early behavioral nature types studies subjects presented


linguistic stimuli asked respond example may asked make judgment word lexical decision reproduce stimulus say visually presented word aloud reaction times respond stimuli usually order milliseconds proportion correct responses often employed measures performance behavioral tasks experiments often take advantage priming effects whereby priming word phrase appearing experiment speed lexical decision related target word later ref name packard example behavioral methods


used psycholinguistics research fischler investigated word encoding using lexical decision task ref name asked participants make decisions whether two strings letters english words sometimes strings would actual english words requiring yes response times would non words requiring response subset licit words related semantically eg cat dog others unrelated eg bread stem fischler found related word pairs responded faster compared unrelated word pairs suggests semantic relatedness facilitate word encoding ref name ref eye movements recently eye tracking


used study online language processing beginning rayner importance understanding eye movements reading established later tanenhaus et al used visual world paradigm study cognitive processes related spoken language assuming eye movements closely linked current focus attention language processing studied monitoring eye movements subject listening spoken language language production errors analysis systematic errors speech well writing typing language provide evidence process generated errors speech


particular grant insight mind produces language speaker mid utterance speech errors tend occur lexical morpheme phoneme encoding steps language production seen ways errors manifest ref name linguisticsociety linguistic society america website wwwlinguisticsocietyorg access date ref nbsp types speech errors examples include ref name linguisticsociety substitutions phoneme lexical replacing sound unrelated sound word antonym saying verbal nbsp '''outfit''' instead verbal nbsp '''output''' rode bike nbsp '''tomorrow''' instead '''yesterday''' respectively blends mixing two synonyms saying nbsp '' 'stummy''' nbsp hurts place


either stomach tummy exchanges phoneme aka spoonerisms morpheme swapping two onset sounds two root words saying nbsp '''h'''issed nbsp '''m'''ystery lectures instead nbsp missed nbsp history lectures 're nbsp '''turk'''ing nbsp '''talk'''ish instead 're nbsp talking nbsp turkish respectively morpheme shifts moving function morpheme ly ed different word saying easy enough'''ly''' instead easily nbsp enough perseveration incorrectly starting word sound part previous utterance saying john nbsp '''g'''ave nbsp '''g'''oy ball instead john gave nbsp boy ball anticipation replacing sound one belongs later


utterance saying drank '''c'''ot '''c'''up tea instead drank u h u ot cup tea speech errors usually occur stages involve lexical morpheme phoneme encoding usually first step semantic encoding attributed speaker still conjuring idea say unless changes mind mistaken wanted say neuroimaging recent advent non invasive medical techniques brain surgery preferred way language researchers discover language


affects brain example severing corpus callosum bundle nerves connects two hemispheres brain one time treatment forms epilepsy researchers could study ways comprehension production language affected drastic surgery illness made brain surgery necessary language researchers opportunity pursue research newer non invasive techniques include brain imaging positron emission tomography pet functional magnetic resonance imaging fmri event related potentials erps electroencephalography eeg magnetoencephalography meg transcranial magnetic stimulation tms brain


theoretical models complex discursive analysis unreliable examples computational modelling mcclelland elman 's trace model speech perception franklin chang 's dual path model sentence production areas research psycholinguistics concerned nature processes brain undergoes order comprehend produce language example cohort model seeks describe words retrieved mental lexicon individual hears sees linguistic input ref name packard ref using new non invasive imaging techniques recent research seeks shed light areas brain


involved language processing another unanswered question psycholinguistics whether human ability use syntax originates innate mental structures social interaction whether animals taught syntax human language two major subfields psycholinguistics investigate first language acquisition process infants acquire language second language acquisition much difficult adults acquire second languages infants learn first language infants able learn one native language easily thus sensitive periods may exist language


learned readily great deal research psycholinguistics focuses ability develops diminishes time also seems case languages one knows easier learn field aphasiology deals language deficits arise brain damage studies aphasiology offer advances therapy individuals suffering aphasia insight brain processes language see also animal language communication determiner phrase educational psychology interpersonal communication linguistic relativity psychological nativism reconstructive memory references


reading short list books deal psycholinguistics written language accessible non expert includes external links neologisms


'''civil service''' collective term sector government composed mainly career civil servants hired professional merit rather appointed elected whose institutional tenure typically survives transitions political leadership '''civil servant''' person employed public sector government department agency public sector undertakingscivil servants peon higher post officers civil servants work central government state governments answer government political party extent civil servants state part civil service varies

Applied science
Public administration
Civil service


statistics possibly terms conditions collectively state 's civil servants form civil service public service concept arose china modern civil service developed britain th century international civil servant international staff member civilian employee employed intergovernmental organization international civil servants resort national legislation immunity jurisdiction governed internal staff regulations disputes related international civil service brought special tribunals created international organizations


instance administrative tribunal ilo specific referral made international civil service commission icsc united nations independent expert body established united nations general assembly mandate regulate coordinate conditions service staff united nations common system promoting maintaining high standards international civil service history china imperial civil service examination hall cells guangdong emperor wen sui r established first civil service examination system china painting


chancellor artist yan liben origin modern meritocratic civil service traced back imperial examination founded imperial china ref name china imperial ref imperial exam based merit designed select best administrative officials state 's bureaucracy ref name imperial china ref system huge influence society culture imperial china directly responsible creation class scholar bureaucrats irrespective family pedigree ref name confucian civil service ref originally appointments bureaucracy based patronage aristocrats han dynasty emperor wu


han established xiaolian system recommendation superiors appointments office areas administration especially military appointments based solely merit early form imperial examinations transitioning inheritance patronage merit local officials would select candidates take part examination confucian classics ref name confucian civil service fall han dynasty chinese bureaucracy regressed semi merit system known nine rank system system reversed short lived sui dynasty initiated civil service bureaucracy recruited


written examinations recommendation first civil service examination system established emperor wen sui emperor yang sui established new category recommended candidates mandarinate ad following tang dynasty adopted measures drafting officials decreasingly relied aristocratic recommendations promotion based results written examinations structure examination system extensively expanded reign wu zetian system reached apogee song dynasty theory chinese civil service system provided one


main avenues social mobility chinese society although practice due time consuming nature study examination generally taken sons landed gentry ref name china civil service ref examination tested candidate 's memorization nine classics confucianism ability compose poetry using fixed traditional forms calligraphy ideally suited literary candidates thus toward end ming dynasty system attracted candidature tang xianzu tang passed imperial examination county level


provincial level pass national level however already become well known poet age among things went distinction profound literati dramatist would far fetched regard china 's answer william shakespeare wang rongpei zhang ling eds complete works tang xianzu late th century however system increasingly engendered internal dissatisfaction criticized reflecting candidates' ability govern well giving


undue weight style content originality thought indeed long abandonment notion imperial system route social mobility somewhat mythical tang 's magnum opus peony pavilion sc leaving home male lead liu mengmei laments twenty years studies still hope getting office point tang may speaking liu alter ego system finally abolished qing government part new policies reform package chinese system often admired


european commentators th century onward however chinese imperial examination system hardly universally admired europeans knew debate unelected chamber uk parliament march john browne 'pointed clearly disdain precedent appointing civil servants literary exams chinese government' coolican ch northcote trevelyan report pp modern civil service th century response economic changes growth british empire bureaucracy institutions office


works navy board greatly expanded system general staff appointed patronage outright purchase th century became increasingly clear arrangements falling short origins british civil service better known eighteenth century number englishmen wrote praise chinese examination system going far urge adoption england something similar first concrete step direction taken british east india company ref name bodde


year honourable east india company established college east india company college near london train examine administrators company 's territories india proposal establishing college came significantly members east india company 's trading post canton china ref name bodde examinations indian civil service term coined company introduced british efforts reform influenced imperial examinations system meritocratic system china thomas taylor meadows britain 's consul guangzhou china argued ''desultory notes government people china'' published


long duration chinese empire solely altogether owing good government consists advancement men talent merit british must reform civil service making institution meritocratic ref name bodde ref hand john browne debate mentioned 'argued elegant writing become end stultifying effect chinese civil service contributed small measure china 's failure develop early lead western civilisations' coolican p charles trevelyan


also recommended clear division staff responsible routine mechanical work engaged policy formulation implementation administrative class ref name aph kazin edwards rothman ref report well timed bureaucratic chaos crimean war causing clamour change report 's conclusions immediately implemented permanent unified politically neutral civil service introduced majesty 's civil service civil service commission also set oversee open recruitment end patronage northcote trevelyan recommendations implemented years


one version story goes however nuanced ways tell tale model imperial civil service implemented british india demise east india company 's rule india indian rebellion came close toppling british rule country northcote trevelyan model remained essentially stable hundred years tribute success removing corruption delivering public services even stress two world wars responding effectively political change also


great international influence adapted members commonwealth pendleton civil service reform act established modern civil service united states turn th century almost western governments implemented similar reforms country americas brazil civil servants brazil working executive legislative judicial branches federal state federal district municipal governments including congressmen senators mayors ministers president republic workers government owned corporations career civil servants temporary workers politicians hired externally


basis entrance examinations usually consists written test posts may require physical tests policemen oral tests professors judges prosecutors attorneys rank according examination score used filling vacancies entrance examinations conducted several institutions government mandate cespe belongs university bras lia cesgranrio foundation part federal university rio de janeiro labor laws social insurance civil servants different private workers even government branches like


different states cities law insurance differ posts usually ranked titles common ''technician'' high school literates ''analyst'' undergraduates 's also higher post ranks like auditor fiscal chief police prosecutor judge attorney etc law allow servants upgrade downgrade posts internally need selected separate external entrance examinations canada historians explored powerful role civil service since canada civil service federal level known public service canada


ten provincial governments well three territorial governments also separate civil services federal civil service consists employees crown except ministers' exempt staff members royal canadian mounted police members canadian armed forces civil servants ref name pop ref approximately federal civil servants ref name pop employees provincial territorial levels united states united states federal civil service established civil service defined appointive positions


civil service positions including heads diplomatic missions executive agencies filled political appointees hatch act civil servants allowed engage political activities performing duties us civil service includes competitive service excepted service majority civil service appointments us made competitive service foreign service fbi national security positions made excepted service us code title v us state local government entities often competitive civil service systems modeled


national system varying degrees january federal government excluding postal service employed million civilian workers federal government nation 's single largest employer although employs government employees compared state level local level although federal agencies based washington dc region federal government workforce employed region currently federal executive branch agencies hundreds subagencies asia


cambodia civil service ''sevakamm civil'' cambodia policy implementing arm royal government cambodia executing important role civil servant ''montrey reachkar'' obligated act according law guided public policy pronouncements ''common statute civil servants'' primary legislative framework civil service cambodia china history one oldest examples civil service based meritocracy imperial bureaucracy china traced far back qin dynasty bc however


civil service examinations practiced much smaller scale comparison stronger centralized bureaucracy song dynasty response regional military rule jiedushi loss civil authority late tang period five dynasties song emperors eager implement system civil officials would owe social prestige central court gain salaries strictly central government ideal fully achieved since many scholar officials affluent landowners engaged many anonymous business affairs


age economic revolution china nonetheless gaining degree three levels examination prefectural exams provincial exams prestigious palace exams far desirable goal society becoming merchant mercantile class traditionally regarded disdain scholar official class class state bureaucrats song period far less aristocratic tang predecessors examinations carefully structured order ensure people lesser means available candidates born wealthy landowning families given greater chance pass


exams obtain official degree included employment bureau copyists would rewrite candidates' exams order mask handwriting thus prevent favoritism graders exams might otherwise recognize candidate 's handwriting advent widespread printing song period allowed many examination candidates access confucian texts whose mastery required passing exams current hong kong macau separate civil service systems hong kong civil service secretariat administration justice responsible civil service


macau india india civil service defined appointive positions government connection affairs union includes civilian defence service except positions indian armed forces members civil service serve pleasure president india article constitution protects politically motivated vindictive action civil services india classified three types india services central civil services group b state provincial civil services recruits university graduates selected