women particular effects relate socially outcomes often country case studies used data ref name berik feminist economists focus policies involving development globalization example lourdes bener argues economic development global south depends large part improved reproductive rights gender equitable laws ownership inheritance policies sensitive proportion women informal economy ref name gdgeaipm http appwebcortlandedu ojs indexphp wagadu article viewfile book review ref additionally nalia kabeer discusses impacts social clause would enforce global labor standards international trade agreements drawing


fieldwork bangladesh ref name kabeer ref argues although jobs may appear exploitative many workers areas present opportunities ways avoid exploitative situations informal economy alternatively suzanne bergeron example raises examples studies illustrate multifaceted effects globalization women including kumudhini rosa 's study sri lankan malaysian philippine workers free trade zones example local resistance globalization ref name bergeron ref women use wages create women 's centers aimed providing legal medical services libraries cooperative housing local community members

Social science
Economics
Feminist economics


efforts bergeron highlights allow women chance take control economic conditions increase sense individualism alter pace direction globalization cases feminist economists work removing gender biases theoretical bases globalization suzanne bergeron example focuses typical theories globalization rapid integration world one economic space flow goods capital money order show exclude women disadvantaged ref name bergeron argues traditional understandings globalization emphasize power global


capital flows uniformity globalization experiences across populations technical abstract economic processes therefore depict political economy globalization inappropriately highlights alternative views globalization created feminists first describes feminists may de emphasize idea market natural unstoppable force instead depicting process globalization alterable movable individual economic actors including women also explains concept globalization gender biased depiction dominant unified intentional inherently masculinized misleading suggests feminists critique


narratives showing global economy highly complex de centered unclear degrowth ecological economics feminist ecological economics far engaged one another much argue degrowth approach useful critique devaluation care nature growth based capitalist economic paradigm argue growth paradigm perpetuates existing gender environmental injustices seek mitigate degrowth work sharing proposal scholars paradigm degrowth point contemporary economic imaginary considers time scarce resource allocated efficiently


domestic care sector time use depends rhythm life alisa et al degrowth vocabulary new era new york ny routledge joan tronto moral boundaries political argument ethic care new york ny routledge divides care process four phases caring taking care care giving care receiving acquire different meanings used describing actions males females degrowth proposes put care center society thus calling radical rethinking human relations pointed degrowth


concept originated global north mainly directed towards reduction economic therefore material throughput affluent societies environmental injustices linked gender injustices embedded green growth due inability dematerialize production processes injustices perpetuated green growth narrative consequences ecological processes well caring activities similarly systematically devalued dominating industrial economic paradigms explained arbitrary boundary monetized maintaining remains largely unchallenged degrowth presents alternative


dualistic view designed gender sensitive way recenters society around care could potential alleviate environmental injustices promoting greater gender equality methodology interdisciplinary data collection many feminist economists challenge perception objective often presumed quantitative data valid ref name nelson instead say economists enrich analysis using data sets generated disciplines increased use qualitative methods additionally many feminist economists propose utilizing non traditional data collection strategies utilizing growth accounting frameworks conducting empirical tests economic theories developing country case studies pursuing


research conceptual empirical levels ref name berik interdisciplinary data collection looks systems specific moral position viewpoint instead attempting perspective neutral observer intention create subjective methodology counter biases existing methodologies recognizing explanations world phenomena arise socially influenced viewpoints feminist economists say many theories claim present universal principles actually present masculine viewpoint guise view nowhere varied sources data collection needed mediate issues ethical judgment feminist


economists depart traditional economics say ethical judgments valid inescapable fact desirable part economic analysis ref name power marilyn example lourdes beneria argues judgments policies leading greater well central economic analysis ref name gdgeaipm similarly shahra razavi says better understanding care work would allow us shift priorities 'making money' 'making stuff' 'making livable lives' 'enriching networks care relationship' central economics ref name razavi country case studies often feminist economists use country level smaller case studies focused


developing often understudied countries populations ref name berik example michael kevane leslie c gray examine gendered social norms central understanding agricultural activities burkina faso cristina carrasco arantxa rodriquez examine care economy spain suggest women 's entrance labor market requires equitable caregiving responsibilities studies show importance local social norms government policies cultural situations feminist economists see variation crucial factor included economics alternative measures success feminist economists call shift economic success measured


literacy education standards living countries worldwide gender related development index gdi '''gender related development index''' gdi introduced human development report written united nations development program order add gender sensitive dimension human development index gdi takes account average general level well wealth within given country also wealth well distributed different groups within society especially genders ref name gender available econlit full text ipswich accessed september ref however feminist economists


universally agree use gdi offer improvements social institutions gender index sigi social institutions gender index sigi recently developed measure gender inequality calculated analyzing social institutions societal practices legal norms factors largely frame gender norms within society combining sources inequality sigi able penalize high levels inequality applicable dimensions allowing partial compensation gaps remaining dimensions highly inequitable one analysis


institutional sources gender inequality countries sigi proven add new insights outcomes women even factors religion region world controlled sigi rankings largely mirror hdi countries portugal argentina leading pack countries like afghanistan sudan significantly behind organizations feminist economics continues become widely recognized reputed evidenced numerous organizations dedicated widely influenced principles international association feminist economics formed international


association feminist economics iaffe independent american economic association aea seeks challenge masculine biases neoclassical economics ref name beyond ref majority members economists open female male economists academics fields well activists academics currently members countries although founding members mostly based us majority iaffe 's current members based outside us iaffe gained non governmental organization status united nations ''feminist economics'' journal


''feminist economics'' edited diana strassmann rice university g nseli berik university utah peer reviewed journal established provide open forum dialogue debate feminist economic perspectives journal endorses normative agenda promote policies better lives world 's people women men journal awarded council editors learned journals celj award best new journal ref name celj ref isi social science citation index ranked journal ''feminist economics'' th among economics journals nd


among women 's studies journals ref name rice ref relation disciplines green economics incorporates ideas feminist economics greens list feminism explicit goal political measures seeking greater economic general gender equality feminist economics also often linked welfare economics labour economics since emphasizes child welfare value labour opposed traditional focus exclusively production marketplace graduate programs small growing number graduate programs around world offer courses concentrations feminist economics unless otherwise noted


offerings departments economics see also references reading books foreword julie nelson journal articles external links http wwwiaffeorg international association feminist economics iaffe '' http wwwfeministeconomicsorg feminist economics '' peer reviewed journal feminism education feminism social class schools economic thought


'''human development''' involves studies human condition core capability approach inequality adjusted human development index used way measuring actual progress human development united nations alternative approach single focus economic growth focused social justice way understanding progress united nations development programme defines human development process enlarging people 's choices said choices allowing lead long healthy life educated enjoy decent standard living well

Social science
Economics
Human development theory


political freedom guaranteed human rights various ingredients self respect ref name programme ref thus human development much economic growth means enlarging people 's choices ref name undp ref fundamental enlarging choices building human capabilities range things people life capabilities substantive freedoms person enjoys lead kind life reason value ref name human development capability association ref history human development theory roots ancient philosophy early economic theory aristotle noted wealth evidently good


seeking merely useful something else adam smith karl marx concerned human capabilities theory grew importance work amartya sen human capabilities perspective played role receiving nobel prize economics notable early active economists formulated modern concept human development theory mahbub ul haq ner kirdar amartya sen human development index developed united nations development programme undp stems early research sen sudhir anand published


notable development theory address issues sustainability ref name welzel ref martha nussbaum 's publications late pushed theorists pay attention ''human'' theory particularly human emotion separate approach stems part needs theories psychology part started abraham maslow representative human scale development approach developed manfred max neef mid late addresses human needs satisfiers less static across time context anthropologists sociologists also challenged perspectives human development theory


stem neoclassical economics examples scholars include diane elson raymond apthorpe irene van staveren ananta giri elson proposes human development move towards diverse approach individual incentives involve shift seeing people agents control choices selecting set possibilities utilizing human capital one many assets instead theorists see people mutable choices influenced social structures changeable capacities using humanistic approach theory including factors relating individual 's culture age gender family roles


extensions express dynamic approach theory dynamism advocated ul haq sen spite implicit criticism two figures ref name gasper ref measurement one measure human development human development index hdi formulated united nations development programme ref name undp index encompasses statistics life expectancy birth education index calculated using mean years schooling expected years schooling gross national income per capita though index capture every aspect contributes human capability standardized way


offers people development opportunities freely safely confidence disappear suddenly future ref name undp ref human rights seeking something else human development shares common vision human rights goal human freedom therefore human development interconnected human rights human freedom well managed prisons life expectancy literacy measured human development index could quite high ref name streeten paul ref pursuing capabilities realizing rights freedom vital people must free exercise choices participate decision making affects lives


human development human rights mutually reinforcing helping secure well dignity people building self respect respect others ref name undp days fast globalization human rights issues surface relation multilateral corporations poverty issues idea human development stipulates need education better conditions work choices individuals idea goes human rights two concepts simultaneously promoted first good governance implementation human rights policy formation participation community decision making processes second promotion


civil political rights economic social rights components level development instance right education relates intellectual development political rights relates level political development society ref name hrad ref health axis development may harm benefit human health eventually human development proceeds concern health divided disease poverty issues june world health organization presented report preventing disease healthy environments one world


without environmental health issues wealth problems development first approached future cure hope however criticism argues side effects environmental pollution gap increasing wealth poor ineffectiveness many public health policies terms health inequality issues social problems held global community therefore ultimate goal achieve environmental sustainability critics say development undermined health concerns directly indirectly influences growth lower hiv aids addition malaria negatively influenced


development increased poverty many places especially africa achieving adequate health standards important success development abolition poverty ref name ref human development report global human development reports hdr annual publication released undp 's human development report office contains human development index within global hdr four main indexes human development index gender related development index gender empowerment measure human poverty index ref name undp global human development reports also regional national reports regional national subnational


portions countries hdrs take various approaches according strategic thinking individual authorship groups craft individual reports united states example measure america publishing human development reports since modified index http wwwmeasureofamericaorg human development american human development index american human development index measures three basic dimensions uses slightly different indicators better reflect us context maximize use available data human development index way people nations see policy flaws regions countries although


releasing information believed encourage countries alter policies evidence demonstrating changes motivation countries ref name srinivasan tn ref human development index oecd valign top '''human development index''' '''hdi''' normalized measure life expectancy education per capita income countries worldwide improved standard means measuring well especially child welfare thus human development ref name although index makes effort simplify human development much complex index set indicators ref name streeten


decent standard living hpi meant provide broader view human development adapted developed countries reveal social exclusion ref name social progress index social progress index published non profit social progress imperative combines indicators related social welfare equality personal freedom sustainability earth summits agenda millennium development goals sustainable development goals attempt promote human development united nations supports decennial earth summits members un bring together best humanity several rounds discuss


short term planning endeavour supports agenda named millennium development goals mdgs ran united nations made commitment accomplish goals thus make attempt promote human development experience exercise perceived successful follow program developed named sustainable development goals sdgs rethinking human development international science council isc human development programme undp started initiative rethinking human development exploring multiple dimensions viewpoints regarding human development means


today world augmented human development index leandro prados de la escosura alternative dataset human development calls augmented human development index see also human security international development progress social change references external links http hdrundporg en humandev human development hdr office international development development economics


'''islamic economics''' refers knowledge economics economic activities processes terms islamic principles teachings islam set special moral norms values individual social economic behavior therefore economic system based philosophical views compatible islamic organization aspects human behavior social political systems term used refer '''islamic commercial jurisprudence''' ''fiqh al mu' mal t'' also ideology economics based teachings islam mostly similar

Social science
Economics
Islamic economics


labour theory value labour based exchange exchange based labour ref name roy p ref name idea philipp ref islamic commercial jurisprudence entails rules transacting finance economic activity ''shari'a'' compliant manner ref name mat ref ie manner conforming islamic scripture quran sunnah islamic jurisprudence ''fiqh'' traditionally dealt determining required prohibited encouraged discouraged permissible ref name saleem according revealed word god quran religious practices established muhammad sunnah applied issues like property money employment taxes loans along everything else social science economics ref


name saleem ref hand works describe analyse understand production distribution consumption goods services ref name mw ref studied best achieve policy goals full employment price stability economic equity productivity growth ref name goals ref early forms mercantilism capitalism thought developed islamic golden age ref name banaji ref th century later became dominant european muslim territories like al andalus emirate sicily ref name page ref islamic economic concepts taken applied states age islamic gunpowders various islamic kingdoms


sultanates led systemic changes economy particularly mughal india ref name voss ref wealthiest region bengal major trading nation medieval world signaled period proto industrialization making direct contribution world 's first industrial revolution british conquests ref name tong ref ref name esposito ref ref name rayb ref mid twentieth century campaigns began promoting idea specifically islamic patterns economic thought behavior ref name kuran x islamic economics introduced academic discipline number institutions higher learning throughout muslim world west ref name mat central


features islamic economy often summarized behavioral norms moral foundations derived quran sunnah collection ''zakat'' islamic taxes prohibition interest ''riba'' charged loans ref name kuraneconsys ref advocates islamic economics generally describe neither socialist capitalist third way ideal mean none drawbacks two systems ref name allacademiccom http wwwallacademiccom meta p indexhtml islam economic justice 'third way' capitalism socialism ref ref name gemsofislamismtripodcom http gemsofislamismtripodcom muhammad qutb islamhtml welfare know islam solve problems poverty inequality ref ref name ishaque ref among


claims made islamic economic system islamic activists revivalists gap rich poor reduced prosperity enhanced ref name ibssce ''international business success strange cultural environment'' mamarinta p mababaya p ref means discouraging hoarding wealth taxing wealth ''zakat'' trade exposing lenders risk profit sharing venture capital ref name ibssce international business success strange cultural environment mamarinta p mababaya p ref discouraging hoarding food speculation activities islam regards sinful


unlawful confiscation land however critics like timur kuran described primarily vehicle asserting primacy islam economic reform secondary motive ref name tkiam el gamal ''islam mammon'' p ref ref name fkibp khan ''islamic banking pakistan'' p ref definitions descriptions according hasan raza six decades formal informal existence consensus definition islamic economics yet emerged definitions offered include branch knowledge helps realize human well allocation distribution scarce resources


conformity islamic teachings without unduly curbing individual freedom creating continued macroeconomic ecological imbalances umar chapra ref name wiee ref similarly study human behavior regard acquiring using resources satisfaction necessities needs desires based assumptions islamic outlook life humanity monzer kahf ref name mkrdmie kahf relevance definition methodology p ref study economy abides rules shariah ie islamic economy definition used according anas zarqa ref name zarqa http islamiccenterkaauedusa iecon indexhtml zarqa anas ''duality sources


islamic economics methodological consequences'' paper presented th international conference islamic economics king abdulaziz university april jeddah p ref ref name wiwwie khan ''what wrong islamic economics'' p ref discipline goes beyond practice western economics seeks make positive analysis give objective description ''what is'' provide normative policy prescriptions ''what ought be'' ''can be'' ref name fkibp seeks achieve transformation human beings followers base desires people concerned achieving higher goals ref name zaman feisal khan ref name fkibp khan ''islamic banking pakistan''


p ref describing ideas mr zaman ref name zaman ref also mu chapra ref name chapra ref mn khan mi bhatti ref name khan bhatti ref discipline guided shariah studies human societies definition used others according anas zarqa ref name zarqa ref name wiwwie restatements islamic economic teachings using modern economic jargon knowledge content body islamic economics amounts according economist muhammad akram khan ref name wiwwie xv khan ''what wrong islamic economics'' pxv ref ideology revolutionary ideology change corrupt reality


pure one science political economy objective analysis existing reality ayatollah murtaza mutahhari ref name ptam ref ideological construct developed th century islamists abul a'la maududi ayatollah muhammad baqir al sadr abolhassan banisadr etc taking basic prescriptions sharia islamic law systematizing conceptualizing construct coherent functional ensemble offering middle ground two systems twentieth century marxism capitalism social scientist olivier roy ref name roy p ref zaman ref name zaman ref argues confusion regarding appropriate definition islamic economics arisen


attempts mix western economics concepts islamic ideals two diametrically opposed many dimensions proposes definition based purely islamic sources islamic economics effort struggle implement orders allah pertaining economic affairs individual lives micro communities meso level ummah macro fiqh islamic economics fiqh religious law developed several traditional concepts economics included ''zakat'' charitable taxing certain assets currency gold harvest eye


allocating taxes eight expenditures also explicitly defined quran aid need ''gharar'' uncertainty presence element excessive uncertainty contract prohibited ''riba'' referred usury modern islamic economists reached consensus riba kind interest rather usury ref name roy p ref prohibited another source lists general rules include prohibition ''riba'' ''gharar'' also ''qimar'' gambling ref name tabari encouragement ''taa won'' mutual cooperation ref name tabari overriding doctrine fairness commercial dealings established ref name tabari


concepts like others islamic law came study quran ahadith one observer put blockquote constructed basis isolated prescriptions anecdotes examples words prophet gathered together systematized commentators according inductive casuistic method ref name roy ref blockquote addition quran ahadith sometimes sources ''al urf'' custom ''al ijma'' consensus jurists employed create laws determine whether actions forbidden discouraged allowed encouraged obligatory muslims different school fiqh ''madhhab'' vary slightly rulings works fiqh


one pilgrimage present economic questions individual acts open moral analysis `to lend without interest note lender among good works particularly recommended verses quran traditions` ref name roy ref blockquote works divided subjects fiqh four quarters ref name itofm jalil et al ''four introductory theories fiqh muamalat'' p ref typically worship al `ibadat marriage family law al munakahat criminal law jinayat commercial transaction law ''mu'amalat'' ref name odi muamala ref least one author kahf writes ''mu'amalat'' closely related islamic economics ref


name mkrdmie kahf relevance definition methodology p ref however even quarters division fiqh topics ''mu'amalat'' would include inheritance wedding dower ''mahr'' least often comes marriage family law calculation alms ''zakat'' comes ''al `ibadat'' number scholars olivier roy timur kuran omar norman noted recentness reflecting economic issues islamic world ref name kuran x ref name roy ref name norman difference economics social science based data islamic jurisprudence based revealed truth salman ahmed shaikh monzer kahf insist


clear distinction roles ''fiqh'' islamic economics shaikh saying blockquote meritorious separate field inquiry islamic economics cannot confine explaining deducing laws economic matters based core principles since function already performed discipline islamic jurisprudence blockquote kahf writes ''mu'amalat'' islamic economics often intermingle ref name mkrdmie kahf relevance definition methodology p ref ''mu'amalat'' sets terms conditions conduct economic financial relationships islamic economy provides grounds new instruments islamic financing


utilize faq h islamic jurisprudence supporting material grounded upon ethical teachings within qu'r n shar ah 's basic tenets involve gharar fadl l bil 'iwad gharar insists knowledge trade transaction known two individuals complete transaction fadl l bil 'iwad warns unjustified enrichment trade business tenets among first economic regulations philosophy seen today modern capitalism within shar ah el sheikh states gharar functions divine deterrent asymmetric information allows trade prosper riba ensures transaction


ibn al ukhuwwah ibn al qayyim sayyid ali hamadani al shatibi ibn khaldun al maqrizi dawwani muhammad aurangzeb alamgir shah waliullah dehlawi abu yusuf author book ''al kharaj'' mdash literally return revenue used author mean public revenues taxation mdash policy guide harun al rashid fifth abbasid caliph ref name mkrdmie kahf relevance definition methodology p ref muhammad bin al hasan wrote ''al iktisab fi al rizq al mustatab'' earned desired income intended


advice businessmen endeavors create income opportunities ref name mkrdmie abu 'ubaid al qasim bin sallam author ''al amwal'' plural wealth ref name mkrdmie perhaps well known islamic scholar wrote economical issues ibn khaldun ref schumpeter p mentions sociology others including hosseini emphasize well group note called father modern economics im oweiss ibn khaldun wrote called economic political theory introduction ''muqaddimah'' ''prolegomena'' ''history world'' ''kitab al ibar''


discussed called ''asabiyya'' social cohesion cited cause advancement civilizations ibn khaldun felt many social forces cyclic although could sudden sharp turns break pattern ideas benefits division labor also relate ''asabiyya'' greater social cohesion complex successful division may greater economic growth noted growth development positively stimulates supply demand forces supply demand determines prices goods


also noted macroeconomic forces population growth human capital development technological developments effects development fact ibn khaldun thought population growth directly function wealth medieval islamic economics appears somewhat resembled form capitalism arguing laid foundations development modern capitalism early modern period economic policies based sharia introduced throughout gunpowder empires led commercial expansion chiefly ottoman empire mughal india underwent substantial increases per capita income population sustained pace technological innovation significant


muslim india 's fatawa 'alamgiri compiled mughal emperor aurangzeb alamgir shah waliullah dehlawi 's family indian subcontinent surpassed qing china become world 's largest economy valued world gdp region mughal bengal waved period proto industrialization making direct contribution england 's first industrial revolution battle plassey ref name tong ref ref name esposito ref ref name rayb ref development islamic economics according turkish american economist timur kuran mid twentieth century body thought could called islamic economics recognizable coherent self contained doctrine around


campaigns launched identify self consciously also exclusively islamic patterns economic thought behavior ref name kuran x ref famous early th century muslim nationalist author muhammad iqbal example refer religion treatise economics ref name norman ref islamic economics grew naturally islamic revival political islam whose adherents considered islam complete system life aspects rather spiritual formula believed logically followed islam must economic system unique superior non islamic economic systems islamic economics emerged according


encyclopedia islam muslim world ref name eoimw ref maulana ala maududi 's address economic problem man islamic solution ''insaan ka maashi maslah aur aus ka islami hul'' generally considered one founding documents modern islamic economics ref name fkibp khan ''islamic banking pakistan'' pp ref ref name nasr ref ref name kuran ref conservative salafi shown less interest socioeconomic issues asking question prophet companions n't study `laws` economics look patterns strive understanding happens commerce production consumption ref name roy maududi


also dismissed need new science economics embodied voluminous books high sounding terminology large organisation true economic problem man along social political problems easily understood simply failure follow islamic law ref name epom ref ref name maududi esoi ref shi'a thinkers worked describe islamic economics' answers contemporary economic problems several works particularly influential ''eslam va malekiyyat'' islam property mahmud taleqani ''iqtisaduna'' economics mohammad baqir al sadr ''eqtesad e towhidi''


economics divine harmony abolhassan banisadr ''some interpretations property rights capital labor islamic perspective'' habibullah peyman ref name internationaluclaedu http wwwinternationaluclaedu cms files behdadtxtpdf revolutionary surge quiet demise islamic economics iran ref al sadr particular described almost single handedly developed notion islamic economics writings sadr authors sought depict islam religion committed social justice equitable distribution wealth cause deprived classes doctrines acceptable islamic jurists refuting existing non islamic theories capitalism marxism mohammad baqir


al sadr also cleric mahmoud taleghani developed islamic economics emphasizing major role state matters circulation equitable distribution wealth reward participants marketplace exposed risk liability version islamic economics influenced iranian revolution called public ownership land large industrial enterprises private economic activity continued within reasonable limits ideas informed large public sector public subsidy policies iranian revolution sunni cleric taqiuddin al nabhani proposed economic system ''nidham ul iqtisad fil islam'' economic


system islam taqiuddin nabhani combined public ownership large chunks economy utilities public transport health care energy resources oil unused farm land use gold standard specific instructions gold silver weights coins arguing would demolish american control control dollar international currency sunni world first international conference islamic economics held king abdulaziz university jeddah since international association islamic economics collaboration islamic development


bank held conferences islamabad kuala lumpur loughborough bahrain jakarta jeddah iqbal addition hundreds seminars workshops discussion groups around world islamic economics finance ref name wiwwie khan ''what wrong islamic economics'' p ref us small number patent applications filed sharia compliant financial service methods khomeini era called one two versions islamic economy existed first ten years islamic republic iran life supreme leader


revolution founder ayatollah ruhollah khomeini islamist socialist state run little little supplanted liberal economic policy ref name roy roy olivier ''the failure political islam'' olivier roy translated carol volk harvard university press p ref post socialist trend islamic revolution failed reach per capita income level achieved regime overthrew communist states socialist parties non muslim world turned away socialism muslim interest shifted away government ownership regulation iran ''eqtesad e eslami'' meaning islamic


use sales transactions focusing fixed rate return modes support investing without interest bearing debt many modern writers strongly criticized approach means covering conventional banking islamic facade sohrab behada argued economic system proposed islam essentially capitalist one ref name behada ref academic discipline achievements eight magazines recently started exclusively devoted islamic economics finance ref name ali ali nazim islamic finance economics reflected research publications ''review islamic economics'' ref


research projects various universities ten countries including us uk germany ref name ali phd dissertations completed different universities world ref name ali ali nazim islamic finance economics reflected research publications ''review islamic economics'' ref literature published english arabic urdu bahasa malaysia turkish regional languages ref name wiwwie thousand unique titles islamic economics finance ifp databank ref name ali conferences whose proceedings available ifp databank ref name wiwwie khan ''what wrong islamic economics'' p ref one school kulliyyah economics management


sciences international islamic university malaysia iium produced graduates years ref name haneef haneef mohamed ''research islamic economics missing fard 'ayn component'' paper presented rd islamic economics congress january kuala lumpur p ref ref name wiwwie khan ''what wrong islamic economics'' p ref king abdulaziz university jeddah hosted first international conference islamic economics thereafter international association islamic economics collaboration islamic development bank held conferences islamabad kuala lumpur loughborough bahrain jakarta jeddah iqbal


ref name wiwwie challenges along achievements islamic economists complained problems academic discipline shift interest away islamic economics islamic finance since shortage university courses reading materials either scant poor quality ref name wiwwie khan ''what wrong islamic economics'' p ref lack intellectual freedom ref name wiwwie khan ''what wrong islamic economics'' p ref narrow focus interest free banking zakat without data based research substantiate claim made interest causes economic problems zakat solves ref name wiwwie khan ''what wrong islamic


economics'' p ref number economists lamented islamic finance originally subset islamic economics economics research pure islamic economics shifted back burner ref name kayed kayed rasem n '' http islmiccenterkaauedusa iecon indexhtml appraisal status research labor economics islamic framework '' paper presented th international conference islamic economics king abdulaziz university april jeddah ref funding research gone islamic finance ref name haneef haneef mohamed ''research islamic economics missing fard 'ayn component'' paper presented rd islamic economics congress


international conference islamic economics king abdulaziz university april jeddah p ref interest economists field 's grand idea providing alternative capitalism socialism yielded needs industry islamic finance ref name siddiqi b ref name wiwwie khan ''what wrong islamic economics'' p ref according economist rasem kayed number universities institutes higher learning offer courses islamic economics finance courses offered institutions pertain islamic finance rather islamic economics ref name kayed kayed rasem n '' http islmiccenterkaauedusa iecon indexhtml appraisal status


islamic economics called still infancy ref name haneef ref name wiwwie curricula frames course structures reading materials research mostly anchored mainstream tradition ref name wiwwie ref name hasan ref lacking sufficiency depth coordination direction teaching faculties many cases found short needed knowledge scholarship commitment ref name hasan hasan zubair islamic finance education graduate level current state challenges ''islamic economic studies'' january ref ref name wiwwie khan ''what wrong islamic economics'' p ref distinct textbooks teaching materials required found neither exist easy create ref name wiwwie


despite shortcomings academic writing books cohesive best extended papers specific topics constructive evaluations common response even less common ref name hasan hasan zubair islamic finance education graduate level current state challenges ''islamic economic studies'' january ref lack islamic economics textbook looms large muslim economists scholars despite holding workshop november arrange writing textbook participation number eminent muslim economists international


institute islamic thought london appointment noted muslim economist coordinate production textbook standard textbook islamic economics available ref name wiwwie khan ''what wrong islamic economics'' p ref islamic economic institutes known intellectual freedom according muhammad akram khan unlikely allow criticism ideas policies founding leaders governments centre research islamic economics organ jeddah university saudi arabia example cannot allow publication work goes


orthodox thinking influential saudi religious leadership ref name wiwwie despite tall talk ijtehad islamic economists shy suggesting innovative ideas fear antagonizing religious clerics ref name wiwwie use islamic terminology distinctive islamic concepts ''riba zakat mudaraba'' also concepts specific islamic connotation ''adl'' justice ''hukuma'' government locking non muslim even arabic speaking readers content islamic economics even giving legitimacy pendantry field ref name wiwwie khan ''what wrong islamic economics'' p ref property according authors f


nomani rahnema qur'an states god sole owner matter heavens earth man god 's viceregent earth holds god 's possessions trust ''amanat'' islamic jurists divide properties public state private categories ref name nomanip f nomani rahnema ''islamic economic systems'' zed press pp ref muslims believe shariah provides specific laws standards regarding use allocation resources including land water animals minerals manpower ref name hamed ref public property according makhan islam introduced distinction private property public property


made rulers accountable people ref name iie mak ref scholars f nomani rahnema state public property islam refers natural resources forests pastures uncultivated land water mines oceanic resources etc humans equal right resources considered common property community property placed guardianship control islamic state used citizen long use undermine rights citizens according nomani rahnema ref name nomanip owner previously public property privatized


pays ''zakat'' according shi'ite scholars ''khums'' well general privatization nationalization public property subject debate amongst islamic scholars according analysis walid el malik maliki school took position kinds natural resources state owned hanafi school took opposite view held mineral ownership followed surface ownership two schools shafi'i hanbali drew distinction hidden unhidden minerals state property state property includes certain natural resources well property ca n't immediately privatized islamic


used general good property remained occupation cultivators taxes collected state treasury ref name nomanip muhammad said old fallow lands god messenger ie state property jurists draw conclusion ultimately private ownership takes state property ref name nomanip private property consensus amongst islamic jurists social scientists islam recognizes upholds individual 's right private ownership qur'an extensively discusses taxation inheritance prohibition stealing legality ownership recommendation give


charity topics related private property islam also guarantees protection private property imposing stringent punishments thieves muhammad said dies defending property like martyr ref name nomanip ref islamic economists classify acquisition private property involuntary contractual non contractual categories involuntary means inheritances bequests gifts non contractual acquisition involves collection exploitation natural resources previously claimed private property contractual acquisition includes activities trading buying renting hiring labor etc ref name nomanip tradition attributed muhammad sunni


shi'a jurists agree cases right private ownership causes harm others islam favors curtailing right cases maliki hanbali jurists argue private ownership endangers public interest state limit amount individual allowed view however debated others ref name nomanip muhammad migrated madinah many muslims owned agricultural land muhammad confirmed ownership allocated land individuals land allotted would used housing farming gardening example bilal b harith given land


responsibility carrying spirit system setting conditions preserve enhance public health interests protect consumers solve business labor disputes promote good market behavior ensure observance ref name kahf chapter p monzer kahf principles islamic economics iium ref khan states institution ''hisbah'' established supervise markets provide municipal services settle petty disputes ref name iiemak khan ''introduction islamic economics'' p ref contemporary era pakistan attempted create institution although jurisdiction administrative excesses


federal government departments agencies provincial ones private companies ref name iiemak according nomani rahnema islam accepts markets basic coordinating mechanism economic system islamic teaching holds market given perfect competition allows consumers obtain desired goods producers sell goods mutually acceptable price ref name nomanim ref three necessary conditions operational market said nomani rahnema upheld islamic primary sources ref name nomanim freedom exchange qur'an calls believers engage trade rejects contention trade


forbidden private ownership see security contract qur'an calls fulfillment observation contracts longest verse qur'an deals commercial contracts involving immediate future payments another author nima mersadi tabari claims general doctrine fairness sharia law creates ethical economic model forbids market manipulation inflating price commodities creating artificial shortages ''ihtekar'' overbidding sole purpose driving prices ''najash'' concealment vital information transaction party ''ghish'' ref name tabari uninformed speculation based


proper analysis available information forbidden form ''qimar'' gambling results accumulating ''maysir'' unearned income ref name tabari commercial contracting conditions excessive uncertainty however defined form ''gharar'' also forbidden ref name tabari interference proponents makhan ref name iiemak khan ''introduction islamic economics'' p ref nomani rahnema also contend islamic economy forbids least discourages market manipulation price fixing hoarding bribery government intervention economy tolerated specific circumstances ref name nomanim another author nima mersadi tabari


states islam everything ''halal'' allowed unless declared ''haram'' forbidden consequently islamic economic model based freedom trade freedom contract far limits shari ah allow ref name tabari ref nomani rahnema say islam prohibits price fixing dominating handful buyers sellers days muhammad small group merchants met agricultural producers outside city bought entire crop thereby gaining monopoly market produce later sold higher price within city muhammad condemned


practice since caused injury producers absence numerous customers forced sell goods lower price inhabitants ref name nomanim mentioned reports also used justify argument islamic market characterized free information producers consumers denied information demand supply conditions producers expected inform consumers quality quantity goods claim sell scholars hold inexperienced buyer swayed seller consumer may nullify transaction upon realizing


seller 's unfair treatment qur'an also forbids discriminatory transactions ref name nomanim bribery also forbidden islam therefore used secure deal gain favor transaction narrated muhammad cursed one offers bribe one receives one arranges nomani rahnema say government interference market justified exceptional circumstances protection public interest normal circumstances governmental non interference upheld muhammad asked set price goods market


responded set precedent let people carry activities benefit mutually ref name nomanim banking finance islamic banking called visible practical achievement islamic economics ref name kuran x visible mark islamic revivalism ref name mofriei farooq ''riba interest equation islam'' p ref shariah compliant banks mutual funds around world ref name economist ref around trillion sharia compliant ref name economist ref ref name blme company profile ref however domination industry debt like instruments ''murabaha'' rather risk sharing products


provisioned salaries government employees stipend poor needy people along social security unemployed retirement pensions concept public financial institution played historic role islamic economy idea state collected wealth made available needy general public relatively new resources bayt al mal considered god 's resources trust money paid shared bank common property muslims ruler trustee shared bank treated financial institution therefore subjected


prohibitions regarding interest caliph umar spoke shared bank saying find betterment wealth except three ways received right ii given right iii stopped wrong regards position vis vis wealth like guardian orphan well shall leave hard pressed shall take genuinely permissible proposals savings investment alternative islamic savings investment model built around venture capital


investment banks restructured corporations restructured stock market model looks removing interest based banking replacing market inefficiencies subsidization loans profit sharing investments due double taxation restrictions investment private equity hybrids islamic banks grown recently muslim world small share global economy compared western debt banking paradigm hybrid approaches applies classical islamic values uses conventional lending practices much lauded proponents modern human development theory criticism dispute islamic economics disparaged


alleged incoherence incompleteness impracticality irrelevance driven cultural identity rather problem solving timur kuran john foster ref name fostermm ref name tobin ref hodgepodge populist socialist ideas theory nothing inefficient state control economy almost equally ineffective redistribution policies practice fred halliday ref name halliday fred p halliday fred '' myths middle east'' saqi books p ref blockquote political regional context islamist ulema claim opinion everything striking little say central


timur kuran ref name kuran x islamic banking finance one significant result islamic economics target criticism creation islamic banking finance industry ref name mofrie farooq ''riba interest equation islam'' p ref according several scholars bred new power alliance wealth shari'ah scholarship ref name mofrie farooq ''riba interest equation islam'' p ref ref name wiwwie khan ''what wrong islamic economics'' p ref wealthy banks clients paying islamic scholars provide bank products islamic shariah compliance journalist john foster quotes investment banker based islamic banking hub dubai practice fatwa


shopping blockquote create type products conventional markets phone sharia scholar fatwa seal approval confirming product shari'ah compliant n't give us phone another scholar offer sum money services ask fatwa get sharia compliance free distribute product islamic ref name fostermm ref blockquote foster explains fee services provided top scholars often six figures ie us ref name fostermm one


critic muhammad farooq argues unfortunate situation arisen preoccupation among supporters islamic economics interest loans ''riba'' forbidden islam risk sharing alternatives interest bearing loans originally envisioned islamic banking proven feasible elimination interest basis industry impractical shari'a scholars become entrapped situation forced approve transactions fundamentally similar conventional loans using ''hiyal'' manipulation maintain islamic veneer ref name mofrie farooq ''riba interest equation islam'' p ref justice


instead fixating interest farooq urges focus larger picture justice economics fighting exploitation greed profit concentration wealth quotes ayat support god bestowed messenger taken away people townships belongs god messenger kindred orphans needy wayfarer ''in order may merely make circuit wealthy among you'' ref name mofrie farooq ''riba interest equation islam'' p ref example


neglect issue farooq complains one rather comprehensive bibliography islamic economics finance contains single citation exploitation injustice among entries ref name mofrie farooq ''riba interest equation islam'' p ref former director pakistan institute development economics head pakistan 's economic affairs division syed nawab haider naqvi also called comprehensive islamic reform establish exploitation free economic system mechanical substitution profit interest zakat issue ''zakat'' one pillars islam makhan also criticizes conservatism islamic economics complaining


insistence muslim scholars implementing form vogue days prophet first four caliphs made irrelevant needs contemporary society ref name wiwwie xvi khan ''what wrong islamic economics'' pxvi ref practicality supporter islamic economics asad zaman describes major difficulty faced islamic reformers islamic economics pointed authors namely financial system integrated coherent structure create islamic system based trust community interest


requires changes interventions several different fronts simultaneously ref name zaman ref see also islamic economics pakistan islamic philosophy economy oic female labor force muslim world law economics state capitalism corporatism dirigisme economics fascism economy malaysia economy brunei economy azerbaijan economy kazakhstan economy iran economy jordan economy saudi arabia islamic banking finance economic history ottoman empire christian finance zakat people muhammad taqi usmani nathif jama adam references notes citations books articles br https docsgooglecom document cffqioc hmyypzhkzrf naptd cdqsld vmtkxwsli editusp drivesdk nowiki chaney e religion political power human capital formation evidence


islamic history carvalho jp iyer rubin j eds advances economics religion international economic association series palgrave macmillan el gamal mahmoud islamic finance ''the new palgrave dictionary economics online edition http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde edition current q islamic topicid result number abstract '' islamic economic institutions ''the new palgrave dictionary economics'' nd edition http wwwdictionaryofeconomicscom articleid pde edition current q islamic topicid result number abstract https wwwaeaweborg articles pdf doi jel return path doi pdfplus jel etoc kuran timur islam economic performance historical contemporary links journal economic literature naghavi islam trade innovation carvalho jp iyer rubin j eds advances economics religion international economic association series palgrave macmillan platteau jp


strategic interactions religion politics case islam carvalho jp iyer rubin j eds advances economics religion international economic association series palgrave macmillan presley john r john g sessions islamic economics emergence new paradigm ''economic journal'' pp https wwwjstororg discover uid uid uid uid sid torts basir bin mohamad islamic law tort study owner possessor animals special reference civil codes united arab emirates lebanon tunisia morocco sudan iraq ''arab law quarterly'' v n vicarious liability study


liability guardian ward islamic law tort ''arab law quarterly'' v n immanuel naveh tort injury dissolution marriage wife 's initiative egyptian mahkamat al naqd rulings ''islamic law society'' volume number ''islamic law tort'' liaquat ali khan niazi ''an outline islamic law tort'' abdul qadir zubair external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwgrandestrategycom economic insaf islamic economichtml economic insaf islamic economics framework grandestrategy https webarchiveorg web http hsbcnetcom country ae islamic bankinghtml putting faith finance hsbc article islamic finance shamshad akhtar et al http wwwnbrorg publications elementaspxid understanding islamic finance local


innovation global integration ''asia policy'' july mohammad omar farooq http ssrncom abstract riba interest six hadiths definition conundrum mahmoud el gamal http wwwrufriceedu eelgamal files ribapdf economic explanation prohibition riba classical islamic jurisprudence rice university houston texas http mpraubuni muenchende methodology economics secular versus islamic https webarchiveorg web http wwwsoundvisioncom info money booklistislamiceconomicsasp islamic economics booklist economic ideologies economic law schools economic thought


historiography ranke th century bce thucydides highly concerned relations among states however leopold von ranke leading german historian th century ce codified modern form diplomatic history ranke wrote largely history early modern europe using diplomatic archives european powers particularly venetians construct detailed understanding history europe ''wie es eigentlich gewesen'' actually happened ranke saw diplomatic history important kind history write idea primacy foreign


affairs ''primat der aussenpolitik'' arguing concerns international relations drive internal development state ranke 's understanding diplomatic history relied using sources large number official documents produced modern western governments argued historians examine sources objective neutral spirit ref name matusumoto pages th century scholars early th centuries work prominent diplomatic historians charles webster harold temperley alfred pribram rh lord schmitt mostly concerned events napoleonic wars congress vienna origins


franco german war ref name matusumoto pages notable event diplomatic history occurred french government start publish archives relating war bolsheviks russia published key secret papers allies ranke 's understanding dominance foreign policy hence emphasis diplomatic history remained dominant paradigm historical writing first half twentieth century emphasis combined effects war guilt clause treaty versailles ended first world war


led huge amount historical writing subject origins war involved governments printing huge carefully edited collections documents numerous historians writing multi volume histories origins war interwar period diplomatic historians tended blame great powers first world war arguing war effect everybody 's responsibility general early works vein fit fairly comfortably ranke 's emphasis ''aussenpolitik'' historian muriel chamberlain notes first world war


diplomatic history replaced constitutional history flagship historical investigation important exact sophisticated historical studies adds trend reversed allowing political intellectual social history displace diplomatic history first half th century diplomatic history working within narrow confines ''primat der aussenpolitik'' approach narrowly concerned foreign policy making elites little reference broader historical forces notable exceptions tendency j p taylor william medlicott britain pierre renouvin


france william l langer united states examined economic domestic political forces ref name matusumoto pages causes world war two j k paasikivi middle th president republic finland remembered main architect finland 's foreign policy especially soviet union time war enemy finland sir winston churchill 's multi volume ''the second world war'' especially first volume ''the gathering storm'' set framework interpretation much later historiography interpretation echoing position war


world war ii caused mad ambitions adolf hitler churchill damned cowardly weak willed british french leaders used appeasement futile effort avoid war churchill consider argument alternative appeasement premature war germany would win british historian j p taylor 's book ''the origins second world war'' challenged churchill 's viewpoint argued hitler master plan conquering world instead ordinary statesman opportunistic leader seizing whatever chances expansionism


fact world war started poland due diplomatic miscalculation countries concerned instead case german aggression british historians dc watt paul kennedy george peden david dilks argued appeasement aberration old british tradition case flowed numerous structural economic military factors historians christopher thorne harry hinsley abandoned previous focus individual leaders discuss broader societal influences public opinion narrower ones like intelligence


diplomatic relations recent years debates regarding continued new approaches use analysis terms britain 's national identity french approaches group french historians centered around pierre renouvin ''prot g s'' jean baptiste duroselle maurice baumont started new type international history included taking account renouvin called '''' profound forces influence domestic politics french foreign policy however renouvin followers still followed concept '''' renouvin arguing french society


third republic sorely lacking initiative dynamism baumont arguing french politicians allowed personal interests override sense general interest duroselle 's book ''la cadence'' offered total condemnation entire third republic weak cowardly degenerate fischer debate world war one time german historian fritz fischer published ''griff nach der weltmacht'' established germany caused first world war led fierce fischer controversy tore apart west german historical profession ref name referencea matusumoto saho diplomatic history


pages ''the encyclopedia historians historical writing'' page ref one result fischer 's book rise ''primat der innenpolitik'' primacy domestic politics approach ref name referencea result rise ''primat der innenpolitik'' school diplomatic historians increasing started pay attention domestic politics ref name referencea conservative german historian andreas hillgruber together close associate klaus hildebrand involved acrimonious debate leftish german historian hans ulrich wehler merits ''primat der aussenpolitik'' primacy foreign politics ''primat der innenpolitik''


primacy domestic politics schools hillgruber hildebrand made case traditional ''primat der aussenpolitik'' approach diplomatic history stress examining records relevant foreign ministry studies foreign policy decision making elite wehler favored ''primat der innenpolitik'' approach part contended diplomatic history treated sub branch social history calling theoretically based research argued real focus study society question ref name kershaw kershaw pp ref moreover influence ''primat der innenpolitik'' approach


diplomatic historians start borrow models social sciences ref name referencea mason overy debate internal pressures inside nazi germany notable example ''primat der innenpolitik'' approach claim british marxist historian timothy mason claimed launch world war ii best understood barbaric variant social imperialism mason argued nazi germany always bent ''at time'' upon major war expansion ref name kaillis aristotle page kaillis aristotle ''fascist ideology'' london routledge page ref however mason argued


timing war determined domestic political pressures especially relating failing economy nothing hitler wanted ref name kaillis aristotle page mason 's view period state german economy hitler 's intentions important determinate german decision making foreign policy ref name kershaw ian' page kershaw ian'' nazi dictatorship'' london arnold page ref mason argued nazi leaders deeply haunted november revolution unwilling


see fall working class living standards fear might provoke another november revolution ref name kershaw ian' page according mason overheating german economy caused rearmament failure various rearmament plans produced shortages skilled workers industrial unrest caused breakdown german social policies sharp drop living standards german working class forced hitler going war time place choosing mason contended faced deep socio economic crisis nazi


leadership decided embark upon ruthless smash grab foreign policy seizing territory eastern europe could pitilessly plundered support living standards germany mason 's theory flight war imposed hitler generated much controversy conducted series debates economic historian richard overy matter overy maintained decision attack poland caused structural economic problems rather result hitler wanting localized war particular time history overy major problem


mason thesis rested assumption way unrecorded records information passed hitler ''reich'' economic problems ref name mason tim page mason tim overy rj debate germany `domestic crisis war ''the origins second world war'' edited patrick finney edward arnold london united kingdom page ref overy argued major difference economic pressures inducted problems four year plan economic motives seize raw materials industry foreign reserve neighboring


states way accelerating four year plan moreover overy asserted repressive capacity german state way dealing domestic unhappiness somewhat downplayed mason ref name mason tim page japanese american relations addition world war ii global war diplomatic historians start focus japanese american relations understand japan attacked united states turn led diplomatic historians start abandon previous euro centric approach favor global approach sign changing times


rise prominence diplomatic historians japanese historian chihiro hosoya british historian ian nish american historian akira iriye first time asian specialists became noted diplomatic historians vietnam war revisionism cold war decolonization greatly added tendency global diplomatic history vietnam war led rise revisionist school united states led many american historians gabriel kolko william appleman williams reject traditional diplomatic history favor ''primat der innenpolitik'' approach saw


widespread examination influence american domestic politics together various social economic cultural forces foreign policy making general american cold war revisionists tended focus american foreign policy decision making respect genesis cold war united states became involved vietnam starting ferocious debate taken place within cold war historiography advocates orthodox school saw cold war case soviet aggression vojtech mastny proponents


diplomacy new approach differs previous perspectives wholesale incorporation perspectives political science sociology history mentalities cultural history us since discipline diplomatic history become relevant better integrated mainstream academic history profession taken lead internationalization american historical studies since explores interaction domestic international forces field become increasingly important study culture identity exploration political ideologies applied foreign affairs


major influences new approaches orientalism globalism well gender racial history history human rights become important well despite innovations however core endeavor diplomatic history remains study state interacting states also key broadening appeal since considerations america 's superpower status essential understanding world internationally early historian jeffrey kimball surveyed ideological preferences active diplomatic historians united states well active military historians


reports historians field diplomatic history socialist liberal none conservative military historians socialist liberal none conservative historical studies europe diplomatic history fell favor late cold war era since collapse communism renaissance led especially historians early modern era history diplomacy new approach differs previous perspectives wholesale incorporation perspectives


political science sociology history mentalities cultural history us since discipline diplomatic history become relevant integrated mainstream historiographic profession forefront internationalization american historical studies field explores meeting domestic international forces study us foreign relations become increasingly important examination study culture identity exploration political ideologies particularly shaped influence studies orientalism globalism gender studies race


considerations national identity diplomatic history often cutting edge historical research despite innovations however core endeavor diplomatic history remains study state also key broadening appeal since considerations us state power essential understanding world internationally prominent diplomatic historians henry brooks adams us henry adams us charles beard revisionist history coming world war ii michael beschloss born world war ii cold war samuel flagg bemis us charles howard carter western europe winston churchill world


world diplomatic history john lukacs world war ii thomas j mccormick us walter mcdougall us european diplomatic history margaret macmillan th century charles maier th century europe william mcneill world history garrett mattingly early modern europe arno j mayer world war lewis bernstein namier coming world war ii geoffrey parker born early modern bradford perkins anglo american relationships leopold von ranke european pierre renouvin paul w schroeder modern europe jean edward smith cold war justin harvey smith mexican american war hew strachan world war david tal historian israel ajp


taylor modern europe world wars harold temperley british arnold j toynbee th century voltaire european charles webster british gerhard weinberg world war two germany john wheeler bennett british german william appleman williams american randall woods th century us ernest llewellyn woodward british karl w schweizer th century britain europe sergio romano writer italy russia see also references '''citations''' '''works cited''' matusumoto saho diplomatic history international relations pages ''the encyclopedia historians historical writing'' ed kelly boyd volume chicago fitzroy dearborn reading world view anderson ms ''the rise


modern diplomacy '' https wwwamazoncom rise modern diplomacy dp excerpt diplomats operated black jeremy ''a history diplomacy'' kissinger henry ''diplomacy'' historical studies diplomatic crises stearns peter n ''an encyclopedia world history'' th ed pp detailed outline see also previous editions edited wiliam l langer even detail european diplomacy albrecht carri ren ''a diplomatic history europe since congress vienna'' pp basic introduction https archiveorg details diplomatichistor albr b c online free borrow black jeremy '' european international relations '' https wwwamazoncom european international relations ebook dp b f ziyve excerpt text search hill david jayne


''a history diplomacy international development europe'' vol https booksgooglecom bookshl en lr lang en lang fr id ltabaaaayaaj online v also https archiveorg details ahistorydiploma hillgoog online https archiveorg details historyofdiploma hill vol online langer william ''european alliances alignments '' nd ed advanced coverage bismarckian system langer william l '' diplomacy imperialism '' vol advanced analysis mowat r b ''a history european diplomacy '' basic introduction mowat r b ''history european diplomacy '' pp https archiveorg details historyofeuropea mowa online free petrie charles ''earlier diplomatic history '' covers europe https hdlhandlenet mdp online petrie charles


''diplomatic history '' broad summary https archiveorg details diplomatichistor petr online roosen william j functioning ambassadors louis xiv ''french historical studies'' https wwwjstororg stable online schroeder paul ''the transformation european politics '' https wwwquestiacom library transformation european politics online advanced diplomatic history schweizer karl w matt schuman ''the seven years war'' steiner zara ''the lights failed european international history '' https wwwamazoncom lights failed international dp excerpt text search steiner zara ''the triumph dark european international history '' https wwwamazoncom triumph dark international ebook dp b x sakq excerpt text search taylor j p ''the struggle mastery europe '' https wwwamazoncom struggle mastery europe history dp


excerpt text search advanced coverage major powers historiography carri invernizzi diana new diplomatic history networks spanish diplomacy baroque era ''international history review'' crapol edward p coming terms empire historiography late nineteenth century american foreign relations ''diplomatic history'' pp elman colin miriam fendius elman diplomatic history international relations theory respecting difference crossing boundaries ''international security'' http mtw ippljhuedu journals international security v elmanpdf online gaddis john lewis new conceptual approaches study american foreign relations interdisciplinary perspectives ''diplomatic history'' pp


hogan michael j thomas g paterson eds ''explaining history american foreign relations'' articles originally appeared ''diplomatic history'' cover main fields american diplomatic history plummer brenda gayle changing face diplomatic history literature review ''history teacher'' pp nbsp http wwwjstororg stable online focus united states schweizer kw mj schumann revitalisation diplomatic history renewed reflections ''diplomacy statecraft'' sowerby tracey early modern diplomatic history ''history compass'' pp doi hic europe watkins john toward new diplomatic history


medieval early modern europe ''journal medieval early modern studies'' zeiler thomas w ed ''american foreign relations since guide literature'' https webarchiveorg web http guidetoamericanforeignrelationsabc cliocom ebscripts toc asp online zelikow philip niall ferguson francis j gavin anne karalekas daniel sargent forum importance scholarship ernest may ''h diplo'' dec https issforumorg forums online external links http wwwh netorg diplo h diplo free daily discussion group scholars students dedicated diplomatic history international affairs book reviews q discussions pella john erik ringmar http wwwirhistoryinfo history international relations open textbook project


cambridge open book forthcoming https academicoupcom dh scholarly journal ''diplomatic history'' http wwwmtholyokeedu acad intrel irhistryhtm documents diplomatic history http wwwshafrorg official society historians american foreign relations shafr website https shafrorg research us diplomatic history resources index us diplomatic history resources index sponsored society historians american foreign relations shafr index https wwwwashingtonpostcom wp srv style columns navigator htm recommended ''the washington post'' oct diplomacy


'''civics''' study rights obligations citizens society term derives latin word ''civicus'' meaning relating citizen term relates behavior affecting citizens particularly context urban development civic education study theoretical political practical aspects citizenship well rights duties ref name kennedy p includes study civil law civil codes study government attention role citizens opposed external factors operation oversight government ref name beachrines


term also refer ''corona civica'' garland oak leaves worn head like crown practice ancient rome wherein someone saved another roman citizen death war rewarded ''corona civica'' right wear ref name oxfor philosophical views ancient sparta archidamus ''history peloponnesian war'' thucydides ascribes speech archidamus ii stresses importance sparta civic education spartan virtues toughness obedience cunning simplicity preparedness blockquote wise


educated little learning despise laws severe self control disobey brought knowing useless matters knowledge give specious criticism enemy 's plans theory fails assail equal success practice taught consider schemes enemies dissimilar freaks chance determinable calculation practice always base preparations enemy assumption


plans good indeed right rest hopes belief blunders soundness provisions ought believe much difference man man think superiority lies reared severest school blockquote french essayist michel de montaigne commended agesilaus ii son archidamus followed father 's approach closely blockquote one asking purpose agesilaus thought proper boys learn ought come men said blockquote


simonides plutarch relates comparison made simonides spartan education citizens horse husbandry blockquote simonides called sparta tamer men early strictness education nation trained citizens obedience laws made tractable patient subjection horses broken colts blockquote lycurgus according roman historian plutarch semi legendary lycurgus sparta considered education citizenry main priority framer spartan constitution plutarch observes 'the whole course spartan education one


continued exercise ready perfect obedience' 'there scarcely time place without someone present put mind duty punish neglected it' also describes spartans limited civic education maintain social control young blockquote reading writing gave enough serve turn chief care make good subjects teach endure pain conquer battle blockquote however youth also required express forcefully succinctly well


think reflect matters civic virtue including questions good citizen sparta montaigne would later praise particular technique education admiring way spartan citizens spent time learning acquire virtues courage temperance exclusion studying subject spartan boys also taught music songs praise courage condemnation cowardice essentially spartan ideal civic education process whereby interest citizen becomes totally united interest polity


spirit perfect patriotism 'to conclude lycurgus bred citizens way neither would could live make one public good clustering like bees around commander zeal public spirit carried devoted wholly country civic education toughness martial prowess within purview spartan men plutarch recounts lycurgus 'ordered maidens exercises wrestling running throwing quoit chasing dart' view


creating healthy children state ancient athens pericles pericles' funeral oration provides insight athens' sharply contrasting form civic education sparta personal freedom rather blind obedience boasts athens 'the school hellas' since blockquote education rivals cradles painful discipline seek manliness athens live exactly please yet ready encounter every legitimate danger blockquote however english philosopher thomas hobbes believed athenians taught think personal freedom


order discourage seeking reform crito socratic dialogue ''crito'' crito alopece learns socrates importance civic education following expert opinion rather majority opinion socrates uses analogy training gymnast implies ought follow gymnastics trainer whatever majority people think gymnastics crito also hears socrates' argument citizen ought obey city 's laws partly city educated citizenship aeschyslus aristophanes comedy ''the frogs'' character playwright aeschylus


scolds fellow tragedian euripides writing scenes pernicious proper ideals citizenship blockquote poem crimes guilty put display pimps women giving birth holy shrines sex brothers claim living life city crammed bureaucratic types stupid democratic apes always cheat people nobody carries torch one 's trained days poem blockquote diatribe emphasises importance poetry civic education blockquote poem small children teacher


martial skill service state blockquote another hippomedon third band boyhood refrained turning towards allurements muses lead life ease home fields gladly would school nature hardships view manliness aye hasting chase rejoicing steeds straining bow would make use unto state blockquote adrastus also describes parthenopeus received education citizenship adopted city blockquote next behold huntress atalanta 's son parthenopaeus


youth peerless beauty arcady came even streams inachus argos spent boyhood grew man 's estate first duty strangers settled another land showed pique jealousy state became quibbler chiefest source annoyance citizen stranger give took stand amid host fought argos son glad heart whenso city prospered deeply grieved e'er reverses came many lover though midst men maids yet


careful avoid offence blockquote ancient rome aurelius ''meditations'' marcus aurelius tells educated citizen value free speech refrain rhetoric giving hortatory lectures perceive defects tyranny brother imbibed specific ideal roman state blockquote also put first conceit desire equal commonwealth administered justice equality kingdom wherein regarded nothing good welfare subjects blockquote also


followed example adopted father antoninus pius said kept careful watch government administration finances open hearing ideas serve common good cared neither neither ambition pandering popular blockquote secrets neither many often concerned public matters discretion moderation exhibiting public sights shows pleasure pastime people public buildings ' 'sic'' congiaries like things respect unto men men


equity things unto glory might follow blockquote aurelius also taught father live public figure restrained modesty blockquote lived government lord father would take away pride vainglory reduce conceit opinion impossible prince live court without troop guards followers extraordinary apparel torches statues like particulars state magnificence


man may reduce contract almost state private man yet become base remiss public matters affairs wherein power authority requisite blockquote early modern england hobbes treatise ''leviathan'' english philosopher thomas hobbes heavily criticised emphasis contemporary civic education studying athenian democracy roman republicanism saying wrongly encouraged monarchical subjects restrain actions monarchs thought citizens imbibed value democracy classic works likely


oppose monarchy manner rabid dogs avoid water hobbes deeply uncomfortable aristotelian civic education said advised popular governance instead monarchical rule bacon english philosopher francis bacon aware relevance civic education termed 'civil merit' however essay ''the advancement learning'' bacon also argues civic education preceded religious moral education judge policy influence moral relativism criticism civic education sudbury schools contend values social justice


type education often alluded deliberative democracy literature fulfilling necessary fundamental social institutional changes necessary develop democracy involves intensive participation group decision making negotiation social life consequence see also references ref ref name beachrines frederick converse beach george edwin rines ''the americana universal reference library comprising arts sciences literature history biography geography commerce etc world'' volume scientific american compiling department p ref ref name googr greenberg education america view sudbury valley https booksgooglecom booksid yqn ba tf c pg pa lpg pa dq e dethics e course taught life experience daniel greenberg education america view sudbury valley source bl ots mg gisvcwd sig k nrx sr yrek fp ymui jrgto hl en ei xvbksf unnkrjaee tpaw sa x oi book result resnum ct result v onepage q f false 'ethics'


course taught life experience retrieved june ref ref name sudva greenberg sudbury valley school experience https booksgooglecom booksid umqvlech wc pg pa lpg pa dq greenberg sudbury valley school experience teaching justice experience source bl ots v ksui gxz sig mulxhlodkabczpyzmgujowqvhca hl en ei lhjfssptfir mqojocimag sa x oi book result ct result resnum ved cbiq aewaa v onepage q f false teaching justice experience retrieved june ref ref name greenberg greenberg education america view sudbury valley https booksgooglecom booksid yqn ba tf c pg pa lpg pa dq greenberg education america view sudbury valley democracy must experienced learned source bl ots mg famtbzg sig ru ysv affwxfnmqkazq xhhp hl en ei qxnfsuckb mwox vwmag sa x oi book result ct result resnum ved ca q aewag v onepage q f false democracy must experienced learned retrieved june ref ref name sudv greenberg http wwwsudvalcom onepersononevotehtml chapter liberty justice free last sudbury valley school retrieved june ref ref name oxsci bynum wf porter r eds ''oxford dictionary scientific quotations'' oxford university press ref ref name sudv greenberg


sudbury valley school experience http wwwsudvalcom underlyingideashtml back basics moral basics retrieved june ref ref name curr curren r ''philosophy education anthology'' blackwell publishing p ref


topologist 's sine curve useful example point set topology connected path connected mathematics '''general topology''' branch topology deals basic set theoretic definitions constructions used topology foundation branches topology including differential topology geometric topology algebraic topology another name general topology '''point set topology''' fundamental concepts point set topology ''continuity'' ''compactness'' ''connectedness'' continuous functions intuitively take nearby points nearby points compact sets covered finitely many sets arbitrarily small size

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Geometry
General topology


connected sets sets cannot divided two pieces far apart terms 'nearby' 'arbitrarily small' 'far apart' made precise using concept open sets change definition 'open set' change continuous functions compact sets connected sets choice definition 'open set' called ''topology'' set topology called ''topological space'' ''metric spaces'' important class topological spaces real non negative distance also called ''metric'' defined pairs points


set metric simplifies many proofs many common topological spaces metric spaces history general topology grew number areas importantly following detailed study subsets real line known ''topology point sets'' usage obsolete introduction manifold concept study metric spaces especially normed linear spaces early days functional analysis general topology assumed present form around captures one might say almost everything intuition continuity


technically adequate form applied area mathematics topology set let ''x'' set let '' '' family subsets ''x'' '' '' called ''topology x'' empty set ''x'' elements '' '' union elements '' '' element '' '' intersection finitely many elements '' '' element '' '' '' '' topology ''x'' pair ''x'' '' '' called ''topological space'' notation ''x sub sub ''


may used denote set ''x'' endowed particular topology '' '' members '' '' called ''open sets'' ''x'' subset ''x'' said closed complement '' '' ie complement open subset ''x'' may open closed clopen set neither empty set ''x'' always closed open basis topology '''base''' '''basis''' ''b'' topological space ''x'' topology ''t'' collection open sets ''t'' every open set


''t'' written union elements ''b'' say base ''generates'' topology ''t'' bases useful many properties topologies reduced statements base generates topology many topologies easily defined terms base generates subspace quotient every subset topological space given subspace topology open sets intersections open sets larger space subset indexed family topological spaces product


given product topology generated inverse images open sets factors projection mappings example finite products basis product topology consists products open sets infinite products additional requirement basic open set finitely many projections entire space quotient space defined follows ''x'' topological space ''y'' set ''f'' ''x'' ''y'' surjective function quotient topology ''y''


collection subsets ''y'' open inverse images ''f'' words quotient topology finest topology ''y'' ''f'' continuous common example quotient topology equivalence relation defined topological space ''x'' map ''f'' natural projection onto set equivalence classes examples topological spaces given set may many different topologies set given different topology viewed different topological space discrete trivial topologies


set given discrete topology every subset open convergent sequences nets topology eventually constant also set given trivial topology also called indiscrete topology empty set whole space open every sequence net topology converges every point space example shows general topological spaces limits sequences need unique however often topological spaces must hausdorff spaces limit points unique


cofinite cocountable topologies set given cofinite topology open sets empty set sets whose complement finite smallest sub sub topology infinite set set given cocountable topology set defined open either empty complement countable set uncountable topology serves counterexample many situations topologies real complex numbers many ways define topology '''r''' set


real numbers standard topology '''r''' generated open intervals set open intervals forms base basis topology meaning every open set union collection sets base particular means set open exists open interval non zero radius every point set generally euclidean spaces '''r''' sup ''n'' sup given topology usual topology '''r''' sup ''n'' sup basic open sets open balls similarly '''c'''


set complex numbers '''c''' sup ''n'' sup standard topology basic open sets open balls real line also given lower limit topology basic open sets half open intervals nowiki nowiki ''a'' ''b'' topology '''r''' strictly finer euclidean topology defined sequence converges point topology converges euclidean topology example shows set may many distinct topologies defined metric topology every metric space


given metric topology basic open sets open balls defined metric standard topology normed vector space finite dimensional vector space topology norms examples exist numerous topologies given finite set spaces called finite topological spaces finite spaces sometimes used provide examples counterexamples conjectures topological spaces general every manifold natural topology since locally euclidean similarly every simplex every simplicial complex inherits natural topology


extended vector spaces field sierpi ski space simplest non discrete topological space important relations theory computation semantics ordinal number set nbsp may endowed order topology generated intervals ''a'' nbsp ''b'' nbsp ''b'' ''a'' nbsp ''a'' ''b'' elements continuous functions continuity expressed terms neighborhoods continuous point neighborhood neighborhood intuitively


continuity means matter small becomes always containing maps inside whose image contains equivalent condition preimages open closed sets open closed metric spaces definition equivalent ndash definition often used analysis extreme example set given discrete topology functions math f colon x rightarrow math topological space continuous hand equipped indiscrete topology


space set least sub sub continuous functions constant functions conversely function whose range indiscrete continuous alternative definitions several equivalent definitions topological structure exist thus several equivalent ways define continuous function neighborhood definition definitions based preimages often difficult use directly following criterion expresses continuity terms neighborhoods ''f'' continuous point ''x'' nbsp nbsp ''x'' neighborhood ''v'' ''f'' ''x'' neighborhood ''u'' ''x'' ''f'' ''u'' nbsp nbsp ''v'' intuitively continuity means


matter small ''v'' becomes always ''u'' containing ''x'' maps inside ''v'' ''x'' ''y'' metric spaces equivalent consider neighborhood system open balls centered ''x'' ''f'' ''x'' instead neighborhoods gives back definition continuity context metric spaces however general topological spaces notion nearness distance note however target space hausdorff still true ''f'' continuous ''a'' limit ''f''


''x'' approaches ''a'' ''f'' ''a'' isolated point every function continuous sequences nets several contexts topology space conveniently specified terms limit points many instances accomplished specifying point limit sequence spaces large sense one specifies also point limit general sets points indexed directed set known nets function continuous takes limits sequences


limits sequences former case preservation limits also sufficient latter function may preserve limits sequences yet still fail continuous preservation nets necessary sufficient condition detail function ''f'' ''x'' ''y'' '' 'sequentially continuous''' whenever sequence ''x'' sub ''n'' sub ''x'' converges limit ''x'' sequence ''f'' ''x'' sub ''n'' sub converges ''f'' ''x'' thus sequentially continuous functions preserve sequential limits every continuous function sequentially continuous ''x'' first countable space countable choice holds converse also


holds function preserving sequential limits continuous particular ''x'' metric space sequential continuity continuity equivalent non first countable spaces sequential continuity might strictly weaker continuity spaces two properties equivalent called sequential spaces motivates consideration nets instead sequences general topological spaces continuous functions preserve limits nets fact property characterizes continuous functions closure operator definition instead specifying open subsets topological space topology also determined closure operator


denoted cl assigns subset ''a'' ''x'' closure interior operator denoted int assigns subset ''a'' ''x'' interior terms function math f colon x mathrm cl x' mathrm cl ' math topological spaces continuous sense subsets ''a'' ''x'' math f mathrm cl subseteq mathrm cl ' f math say given element ''x'' ''x'' closure subset ''a'' ''f'' ''x'' belongs closure ''f'' ''a'' equivalent requirement subsets ''a'' nowiki ' nowiki ''x'' nowiki ' nowiki


math f mathrm cl ' a' supseteq mathrm cl f a' math moreover math f colon x mathrm int x' mathrm int ' math continuous math f mathrm int ' subseteq mathrm int f math subset ''a'' ''x'' properties ''f'' ''x'' ''y'' ''g'' ''y'' ''z'' continuous composition ''g'' ''f'' ''x'' ''z'' ''f'' ''x'' ''y'' continuous ''x'' compact ''f'' ''x'' compact ''x'' connected ''f'' ''x'' connected ''x'' path connected ''f'' ''x'' path connected ''x'' lindel f ''f'' ''x'' lindel f ''x'' separable ''f'' ''x'' separable possible topologies fixed set


''x'' partially ordered topology sub sub said coarser another topology sub sub notation sub sub sub sub every open subset respect sub sub also open respect sub sub identity map id sub x sub ''x'' sub sub ''x'' sub sub continuous sub sub sub sub see also comparison topologies generally continuous function math x tau x rightarrow tau math stays continuous topology sub ''y'' sub replaced coarser topology sub ''x'' sub replaced finer topology homeomorphisms symmetric concept continuous map


open map ''images'' open sets open fact open map ''f'' inverse function inverse continuous continuous map ''g'' inverse inverse open given bijective function ''f'' two topological spaces inverse function ''f'' sup minus sup need continuous bijective continuous function continuous inverse function called ''homeomorphism'' continuous bijection domain compact space codomain hausdorff homeomorphism defining topologies via continuous functions given function math f colon x rightarrow


quotient topology equivalence relation defined ''f'' dually function ''f'' set ''s'' topological space initial topology ''s'' open subsets ''a'' ''s'' subsets ''f'' ''a'' open ''x'' ''s'' existing topology ''f'' continuous respect topology existing topology finer initial topology ''s'' thus initial topology characterized coarsest topology ''s'' makes ''f'' continuous ''f'' injective topology


canonically identified subspace topology ''s'' viewed subset ''x'' topology set ''s'' uniquely determined class continuous functions math rightarrow x math topological spaces ''x'' dually similar idea applied maps math x rightarrow math compact sets formally topological space ''x'' called ''compact'' open covers finite subcover otherwise called ''non compact'' explicitly means every arbitrary collection math u alpha alpha math open subsets math x bigcup alpha u alpha math


finite subset math x bigcup j u math branches mathematics algebraic geometry typically influenced french school bourbaki use term ''quasi compact'' general notion reserve term ''compact'' topological spaces hausdorff ''quasi compact'' compact set sometimes referred ''compactum'' plural ''compacta'' every closed interval '''r''' finite length compact true '''r''' sup var n var sup set compact closed bounded see heine borel theorem every continuous image


compact space compact compact subset hausdorff space closed every continuous bijection compact space hausdorff space necessarily homeomorphism every sequence points compact metric space convergent subsequence every compact finite dimensional manifold embedded euclidean space '''r''' sup var n var sup connected sets topological space ''x'' said '' 'disconnected''' union two disjoint nonempty open sets otherwise ''x'' said '''connected''' subset topological space said connected connected


subspace topology authors exclude empty set unique topology connected space article follow practice topological space ''x'' following conditions equivalent ''x'' connected ''x'' cannot divided two disjoint nonempty closed sets subsets ''x'' open closed clopen sets ''x'' empty set subsets ''x'' empty boundary ''x'' empty set ''x'' cannot written union two nonempty separated sets continuous functions ''x''


two point space endowed discrete topology constant every interval '''r''' connected continuous image connected space connected connected components maximal connected subsets ordered inclusion nonempty topological space called '''connected components''' space components topological space ''x'' form partition nbsp ''x'' disjoint nonempty union whole space every component closed subset original space follows case number finite component also open subset however


number infinite might case instance connected components set rational numbers one point sets open let math gamma x math connected component ''x'' topological space ''x'' math gamma x' math intersection open closed sets containing ''x'' called quasi component ''x'' math gamma x subset gamma' x math equality holds ''x'' compact hausdorff locally connected disconnected spaces space components one point sets called totally disconnected related property space ''x'' called '''totally separated'''


two distinct elements ''x'' ''y'' ''x'' exist disjoint open neighborhoods ''u'' ''x'' ''v'' ''y'' ''x'' union ''u'' ''v'' clearly totally separated space totally disconnected converse hold example take two copies rational numbers '''q''' identify every point except zero resulting space quotient topology totally disconnected however considering two copies zero one sees space totally separated fact even hausdorff


condition totally separated strictly stronger condition hausdorff path connected sets subspace '''r''' path connected path drawn two points space '''path''' point ''x'' point ''y'' topological space ''x'' continuous function ''f'' unit interval ''x'' ''f'' ''x'' ''f'' ''y'' '''path component''' ''x'' equivalence class ''x'' equivalence relation makes ''x'' equivalent ''y'' path


''x'' ''y'' space ''x'' said '''path connected''' '''pathwise connected''' ''' connected''' one path component ie path joining two points ''x'' many authors exclude empty space every path connected space connected converse always true examples connected spaces path connected include extended long line ''l'' ''topologist 's sine curve'' however subsets real line '''r''' connected path connected subsets intervals '''r''' also open subsets


'''r''' sup ''n'' sup '''c''' sup ''n'' sup connected path connected additionally connectedness path connectedness finite topological spaces products spaces given ''x'' math x prod x math cartesian product topological spaces ''x sub sub '' indexed math math '''canonical projections''' ''p sub sub '' ''x'' rarr ''x sub sub '' '''product topology''' ''x'' defined coarsest topology ie topology fewest open sets projections ''p sub sub '' continuous product topology sometimes called '''tychonoff topology''' open sets


product topology unions finite infinite sets form math prod u math ''u sub sub '' open ''x sub sub '' ''u'' sub ''i'' sub nbsp nbsp ''x'' sub ''i'' sub finitely many times particular finite product particular product two topological spaces products base elements ''x sub sub '' gives basis product math prod x math product topology ''x'' topology generated sets form ''p sub sub '' sup minus sup ''u'' ''i'' ''i '' ''u'' open subset ''x sub sub '' words sets ''p sub sub '' sup minus sup ''u'' form


subbase topology ''x'' subset ''x'' open possibly infinite union intersections finitely many sets form ''p sub sub '' sup minus sup ''u'' ''p sub sub '' sup minus sup ''u'' sometimes called open cylinders intersections cylinder sets general product topologies ''x sub sub '' forms basis called box topology ''x'' general box topology finer product topology finite products coincide related compactness tychonoff 's theorem arbitrary product compact spaces compact separation axioms


following definitions ''x'' topological space ''x'' ''t sub sub '' ''kolmogorov'' two distinct points ''x'' topologically distinguishable common theme among separation axioms one version axiom requires sub sub one version n't ''x'' ''t sub sub '' ''accessible'' ''fr chet'' two distinct points ''x'' separated thus ''x'' sub sub sub sub r sub sub though may say things ''t sub sub space'' ''fr chet topology'' ''suppose topological space ''x'' fr chet'' avoid