premature infants music therapy creates relaxing peaceful environment parents speak spend time babies incubated '''parent infant bonding''' therapists work parents may perform infant directed singing techniques well home care singing lullabies therapeutically promote relaxation decrease heart rate premature infants calming premature babies allows preserve energy creates stable environment growth lullabies twinkle twinkle little star culturally relevant lullabies shown greatly soothe babies techniques also improve overall


sleep quality calorie intake feeding behaviors aid development baby still nicu singing also shown greater results improving oxygen saturation levels infants incubated mothers' speech alone technique promoted high levels oxygen longer periods time infants cardiac icus studies music therapy infants cardiac intensive care unit music therapy used infants hopes improving lives time cicu many infants show decrease average

Applied science
Medicine and health
Music therapy


heart respiratory rates infants' average blood pressure typically decreases music therapy sessions well although individual differences infants infants show improvements music therapy interventions children music therapy multiple benefits contribute maintenance health drive toward rehabilitation children advanced technology monitor cortical activity offers look music engages produces changes brain perception production musical stimuli music therapy used rehabilitation methods increased success rate


sensorimotor cognitive communicative rehabilitation music therapy intervention programs typically include sessions treatment achievement physical rehabilitation goal relies child 's existing motivation feelings towards music commitment engage meaningful rewarding efforts regaining full functioning also confides prognosis recovery condition client environmental resources available techniques use systematic processes therapists assist client using musical experiences connections collaborate dynamic force change toward rehabilitation ref name referenceb ref music motivate provide sense


distraction ref name referenceb rhythmic stimuli found help balance training brain injury ref name referenceb singing form rehabilitation neurological impairments neurological impairments following brain injury form apraxia loss perform purposeful movements dysarthria muscle control disturbances due damage central nervous system aphasia defect expression causing distorted speech language comprehension singing training found improve lung speech clarity coordination speech muscles thus accelerating rehabilitation neurological impairments example melodic intonation therapy


practice communicating others singing enhance speech increase speech production promoting socialization emotional expression ref name referenceb music therapy thought helpful children autism spectrum providing repetitive stimuli aim teach brain possible ways respond might useful grow older studies long term effects music therapy children autism indicate many positive effects children effects include increased communication skills decreased stress increased social interaction ability creative express


music therapy benefits child autism family whole many mothers children autism claim music therapy sessions allowed child interact family world music therapy also beneficial gives children outlet use outside sessions many children participating music therapy want keep making music long sessions end adolescents adults older adults medical disorders autism music played important role


research dealing autism mainly diagnosis therapy behavioral abilities according scientific article written thenille braun janzen michael h thaut article concluded music help autistic patients hone motor attention skills well healthy neurodevelopment socio communication interaction skills music therapy also resulted positive improvement selective attention speech production language processing acquisition autistic patients heart disease according cochrane review listening music may improve heart rate respiratory rate blood pressure coronary heart


disease chd ref name bradt ref stroke music useful recovery motor skills study stroke patients recovery phase music therapy used addition types therapy one group patients used group groups showed increase standard living group used music therapy showed increase group n't group used music therapy also showed less anxiousness depression therapy groups showed increase


strength non dominant hands group music therapy showed much larger increase also patients underwent music therapy able regulate emotions better showed increased communication whole dementia like many disorders mentioned common significant effects disorder seen social behaviors leading improvements interaction conversation skills study subjects showed music therapy produces highly significant improvements social behaviors overt behaviors like wandering restlessness reductions agitated behaviors improvements


cognitive defects measured reality orientation face recognition tests effectiveness treatment seems strongly dependent patient quality length treatment ref name referencea ref group adults suffering dementia participated group music therapy ref name referencea group adults engaged singing drumming improvisation movement activities engaged adults different ways singing aided memory adults improved memorization skills taking specific words chorus song repeating phrases back music therapist


therapist sang phrase song drumming led increased socialization group allowed patients collaborate order create particular rhythms improvisation allowed patients get comfort zone taught better deal anxiety lastly movement either one arm two increased social interaction patients ref name referencea another meta study examined proposed neurological mechanisms behind music therapy 's effects patients many authors suspect music soothing effect patient affecting noise perceived music renders


neurological oddities people trying understand brain works concluded people type frontal lobe damage often produced severe difficulties expressive language aphasia strange access musicality incessant whistling singing passionate interest music example normally suppressed brain functions released damage others sacks genuine interest trying help people affected neurological disorders phenomena associated music provide access otherwise unreachable emotional states revivify neurological avenues


frozen evoke memories earlier lost events states attempts bring neurological disorders back time world much richer firm believer music power heal melodic intonation therapy mit developed neurological researchers sparks helm albert method used music therapists speech language pathologists help people communication disorders caused damage left hemisphere brain engaging singing abilities possibly engaging language capable regions undamaged right hemisphere ref


speech intonation rhythmic patterns ref name manasco ref therapist usually begin introducing intonation patient humming ref name norton accompany humming rhythm produced tapping left hand ref name norton time therapist introduce visual stimuli written phrase learned ref name norton therapist sings phrase patient ideally patient eventually able sing phrase ref name norton much repetition process inner rehearsal practicing internally hearing one 's voice singing patient may eventually


able produce phrase verbally without singing ref name norton patient advances therapy procedure adapted give autonomy teach complex phrases ref name norton use mit non fluent aphasic patient taught numerous phrases aid communicate function daily life mechanisms success yet fully understood commonly agreed speech lateralized mostly left hemisphere right handed left handed individuals speech functionality also distributed right hemisphere mit


thought stimulate right language areas activation music processing areas also right hemisphere ref name zumbansen ref similarly rhythmic tapping left hand stimulates right sensorimotor cortex order engage right hemisphere language production ref name zumbansen overall stimulating right hemisphere language tasks therapists hope decrease dependence left hemisphere language production ref name norton results somewhat contradictory studies fact found increased right hemispheric activation non fluent aphasic patients mit ref name zumbansen change activation


interpreted evidence decreased dependence left hemisphere ref name zumbansen debate however whether changes right hemispheric activation part therapeutic process mit simply side effect non fluent aphasia hopes making mit effective researchers continually studying mechanisms mit non fluent aphasia cancer tentative evidence music interventions led trained music therapist may positive effects psychological physical outcomes adults cancer effectiveness music therapy children cancer


general symptoms research using standardized music therapy programs consistent monitoring protocols necessary understand effectiveness approach adults schizophrenia ref name music therapy may useful tool helping treat people post traumatic stress disorder however rigorous empirical study required adults depressive symptoms weak evidence suggest music therapy may help reduce symptoms recreative music therapy guided imagery music superior methods reducing depressive symptoms children children adolescents major depressive anxiety


disorders moderate low quality evidence music therapy added standard treatment may reduce internalizing symptoms may effective treatment usual without music therapy treatment bereavement bereavement defined webster state bereaved deprived something someone dsm iv tr diagnostic statistical manual mental disorders lists bereavement mental health diagnosis focus clinical attention related loss loved one symptoms major depressive disorder present two months number


music soothe grief used since time david king saul samuel david plays lyre order make king saul feel relieved better since used world treatment various issues though first recorded use official music therapy article titled music physically considered unknown author found ''columbian magazine'' creation expansion music therapy treatment modality thrived early mid number organizations


single largest music therapy organization world american music therapy interventions though music therapy practice employs large number intervention techniques commonly used interventions include improvisation therapeutic singing therapeutic instrumental music playing music facilitated reminiscence life review songwriting music facilitated relaxation lyric analysis conclusive research done comparison interventions jones silverman silverman marcionetti use particular interventions individualized client based upon thorough assessment needs effectiveness treatment may rely


type intervention silverman improvisation music therapy allows clients make alter music see fit improvisation intervention methodical practice allow freedom expression often used improvisation several clinical goals well also found improvisation music therapy page facilitating verbal nonverbal communication self exploration creating intimacy teamwork developing creativity improving cognitive skills bruscia building goals r keith botello dr robert


e krout took steps design cognitive behavioral application improvisation assess improve communication couples research needed use improvisation conclusively proven effective application positive signs study use singing playing instrument often used help clients express thoughts feelings structured manner improvisation also allow participation limited knowledge music singing group facilitate sense community also used


group ritual structure theme group treatment krout research compares types music therapy intervention inconclusive music therapists use lyric analysis variety ways typically lyric analysis used facilitate dialogue clients based lyrics lead discussion addresses goals therapy freed diagnosing bereavement bereavement listed diagnosis dsm iv tr proposed changes dsm v may impact way bereavement diagnosed dsm iv tr


states following bereavement category used focus clinical attention reaction death loved one part reaction loss grieving individuals present symptoms characteristic major depressive episode eg feelings sadness associated symptoms insomnia poor appetite weight loss bereaved individual typically regards depressed mood normal although person may seek professional help relief associated symptoms insomnia anorexia duration expression normal bereavement vary considerably among different cultural


groups diagnosis major depressive disorder generally given unless symptoms still present months loss however presence certain symptoms characteristic normal grief reaction may helpful differentiating bereavement major depressive episode include guilt things actions taken taken survivor time death thoughts death survivor feeling would better dead died deceased person morbid preoccupation


healing grief study three primary themes presented interviews observation participants found firstly music significant connection emotion music used express oneself keep client distracted need distraction help clients reflect past experiences leading changes identity secondly sense community culture spirituality found music used treatment employing ides community culture spirituality shown vital


therapists field also especially important working bereaved kathryn lindenfelser colleagues looked experiences parents terminally ill children music therapy found music therapy effective altering perceptions midst adversity strong component remembrance provided multifaceted treatment study also mentioned increased communication expression adults children lindenfelser grocke mcferran separate study explored effects music therapy pain children families


found music therapy used reduce physical pain anxiety enhance relaxation promote positive moods compliance also inverse relationship found music therapy behavioral distress whitehead pleaux baryza sheridan since bereavement diagnosed elements depression found since music therapy shown effective enhancing mood lowering distress one could conclude elements music therapy could also effective treatment depression adjustment disorders though research would need done make conclusion


empirical evidence since providing evidence based practice becoming important music therapy continuously critiqued regulated order provide desired evidence based practice number research studies meta analyses conducted included music therapy found music therapy least promising effects especially used treatment grief bereavement amta largely supported advancement music therapy research would promote evidenced based practice definition evidence based health care conscientious


use current best evidence making decisions care individual patients delivery health services current best evidence date information relevant valid research effects different forms health care potential harm exposure particular agents accuracy diagnostic tests predictive power prognostic factors cochrane qualitative quantitative studies completed provided evidence support music therapy use bereavement treatment one study evaluated number treatment approaches found music therapy


significant positive outcomes others showed little improvement participants rosner kruse hagl furthermore pilot study consisted experimental control group examined effects music therapy mood behaviors home school communities found significant change grief symptoms behaviors experimental group home conversely found significant change experimental group school community despite fact mean scores depression self rating index behavior rating


index decreased hilliard yet another study completed russel hilliard looked effects orff based music therapy social work groups childhood grief symptoms behaviors using control group consisted wait listed clients employing behavior rating index children bereavement group questionnaire parents guardians measurement tools found children music therapy group showed significant improvement grief symptoms also showed improvement behaviors compared control group whereas social work group also showed significant improvement


grief behaviors compared control group study concludes support music therapy medium bereavement groups children hilliard though research done music therapy though use evaluated remain number limitations studies research completed absolute conclusions made though results using music therapy treatment consistently shown positive cultural aspects ages music integral component rituals ceremonies healing


practices spiritual cultural traditions ref name michael bakan author ''world music traditions transformations'' states music mode cultural production reveal much culture works something ethnomusicologists study cultural considerations music therapy services education research st century culturally pluralistic world countries united states individual may multiple cultural identities quite different music therapist 's include race ethnicity culture heritage religion sex ability disability education socioeconomic status music therapists strive


extensive knowledge culture really needed provide effective treatment providing culturally sensitive music therapy goes beyond knowing language speech country even background culture simply choosing music country origin spoken language effective providing music therapy music genres vary messages piece music sends also different cultures view use music various ways may always therapist views uses music melody


schwantes colleagues wrote article describes effective use mexican corrido bereavement group mexican migrant farm workers schwantes wigram lipscomb richards support group dealing loss two coworkers accident corrido song form traditionally used telling stories deceased important element also mentioned songwriting shown large cultural artifact many cultures many subtle messages thoughts provided songs would


otherwise hard identify lastly authors study stated given position importance songs cultures example therapeutic process demonstrates powerful nature lyrics music contain express difficult often unspoken feelings schwantes ''et al'' history according evan andrews reporting history channel ancient flutes carved ivory bone found archaeologists determined far back years ago also states earliest fragment musical notation found


patients thirteenth century arab hospitals contained music rooms benefit patients united states native american medicine men often employed chants dances method healing patients turco persian psychologist music theorist al farabi known alpharabius europe dealt music healing treatise ''meanings intellect'' discussed therapeutic effects music soul ref name amber ref ''de vita libri tres'' published platonist marsilio ficino gives lengthy account music songs used draw celestial benefits


friedrich erhardt niedten 's ''veritophili'' still tended discuss medical effects music terms bringing soul body harmony mid eighteenth century works subject richard brocklesby 's ''reflections antient modern musick'' ''memoires'' french academy sciences ernst anton nicolai 's ''die verbindung der musik mit der arzneygelahrheit'' connection music medicine stressed power music nerves music therapy th th century books music medicine drew brunonian system


united kingdom united states musicians would travel hospitals play music soldiers suffering war related emotional physical trauma ref name knight ref name ref name ref using music treat mental physical ailments active duty military veterans new use recorded us civil war florence nightingale used decade earlier crimean war ref name ref despite research data observations doctors nurses praise patients willing musicians difficult vastly increase music therapy services establish lasting music therapy education programs organizations


early th century ref name knight ref name however many music therapy leaders time period provided music therapy wwi veterans pioneers field ''eva vescelius'' musician author founder short lived national therapeutic society new york ''music health'' journal creator teacher musicotherapy course ''margaret anderton'' pianist wwi music therapy provider canadian soldiers strong believer training music therapists columbia university musicotherapy teacher ''isa maud ilsen'' nurse musician american


'''''for history early th century present see continents individual countries section''''' usage region african continent first program music therapy africa opened pretoria south africa research shown tanzania patients receive palliative care life threatening illnesses directly diagnosis illnesses different many western countries reserve palliative care patients incurable illness music also viewed differently africa western countries western countries majority


countries throughout world music traditionally seen entertainment whereas many african cultures music used recounting stories celebrating life events sending messages australia music healing ancient times one first groups known heal sound aboriginal people australia modern name healing tool didgeridoo originally called yidaki yidaki produced sounds similar sound healing techniques used modern day least years healing tool believed assist


healing broken bones muscle tears illnesses every kind however reliable sources stating didgeridoo 's exact age archaeological studies rock art northern australia suggest people kakadu region northern territory using didgeridoo less years based dating paintings cave walls shelters period clear rock painting ginga wardelirrhmeng northern edge arnhem land plateau freshwater period begun years ago shows didgeridoo player two songmen participating


ubarr ceremony music therapy modern times allied health profession australia music therapy clinical music therapy understood today started concerts organized australian red cross along red cross music therapy committee key australian body australian music therapy association amta founded canada history ca present '''''for earlier history related western traditions see sub section''''' fran herman one canada 's music therapy pioneers began 'remedial music' program home incurable children


known holland bloorview kids rehabilitation hospital toronto group 'the wheelchair players' continued considered first music therapy group project canada production emperor 's nightingale subject documentary film composer pianist alfred ros professor university western ontario also pioneered use music therapy london ontario westminster hospital london psychiatric hospital two music therapy programs initiated one norma sharpe st thomas psychiatric hospital st thomas ontario


music part therapeutic relationship restore maintain promote mental physical cognitive health musiktherapie ist der gezielte einsatz von musik im rahmen der therapeutischen beziehung zur wiederherstellung erhaltung und f rderung seelischer k rperlicher und geistiger gesundheit india roots musical therapy india traced back ancient hindu mythology vedic texts local folk traditions possible music therapy used hundreds years indian culture another dimension known musopathy postulated indian musician chitravina ravikiran based


music therapy research two major research centers center music health norwegian academy music oslo grieg academy centre music therapy gamut university bergen former mostly developed professor even ruud professor brynjulf stige largely responsible cultivating latter center bergen staff including professors associate professors well lecturers phd students two field 's major international research journals based bergen ''nordic journal music therapy'' ''voices world forum


music therapy'' norway 's main contribution field mostly area community music therapy tends much oriented toward social work individual psychotherapy music therapy research country uses wide variety methods examine diverse methods across array social contexts including community centers medical clinics retirement homes prisons nigeria origins musical therapy practices nigeria unknown however country identified lengthy lineage history musical therapy utilized throughout culture common people associated


rigorous dancing exercise dancing exercise thank healing tribute spiritual greater beings dance accompanied music included among unorthodox medical practices nigerian culture music therapy practices come medical field musical therapy often utilized passing loved one use song dance funeral setting common across continent especially nigeria songs allude idea finally resting place hades hell music helps alleviate


sorrows felt family members friends lost loved one along music therapy practice funeral events also implemented dying last resort tactic healing esan edo state nigeria particular herbalists perform practices oko small aerophone made elephant tusk blown dying patients ears resuscitate nigeria full interesting cultural practices contribute lot music therapy world south africa longstanding traditions music healing


ways may different music therapy ref name ref merc pavlicevic international music therapist along kobie temmingh pioneered music therapy program university pretoria debuted master 's degree program noted differences longstanding traditions ways viewing healing music nigerian colleague felt music africa healing music therapy colonial import ref name pavlicevic noted africa long tradition music healing asked synthesis


two music based practices towards something new ''i'' ''am altogether convinced african music healing music therapy especially closely related'' emphasis added utterly convinced music therapy learn enormous amount african worldview music making africa rather african music healing ref name south african music therapy association provide information public music therapy educational programs south africa south africa selected host th world congress music therapy july triennial world federation music


registered music therapist countries use rmt credential australia different us credential small states georgia north dakota nevada new jersey oklahoma oregon rhode island virginia ref name virginia sb music therapy definition music therapist licensure ref ref name state recognition virginia ref established licenses music therapists ref name national overview state recognition ref wisconsin music therapists must registered utah hold state certification ref name national overview state recognition state new york creative arts therapy license lcat incorporates music therapy credential


within licensure mental health license requires master 's degree post graduate supervision states california connecticut title protection ref name national overview state recognition music therapists meaning mt bc credential use title board certified music therapist call music therapist respectively professional association american music therapy association amta education music therapy degree candidate earn undergraduate master 's doctoral degree music therapy many amta approved programs offer equivalency certificate degrees music therapy students


completed degree related field practicing music therapists held phds fields usually related music therapy music therapist typically incorporates music therapy techniques broader clinical practices psychotherapy rehabilitation practices depending client needs music therapy services rendered within context social service educational health care agency often reimbursable insurance sources funding individuals certain needs degree music therapy requires proficiency guitar piano voice music theory music history reading music improvisation well varying


levels skill assessment documentation counseling health care skills depending focus particular university 's program hours clinical experience required gained approximately six month internship takes place degree requirements met ref name successful completion educational requirements including internship final step becoming music therapist apply take taking passing board certification examination music therapy board certification examination music therapy current national credential mt bc music therapist board certified


eligible apply take board certification examination music therapy individual must successfully complete music therapy degree program accredited amta college university bachelor 's degree complete music therapy course requirements accredited program includes successfully completing music therapy internship maintain credential units continuing education must completed every five years board exam created administered certification board music therapists ref name history ca present '''''for earlier history related western


traditions see sub section''''' western viewpoint music therapy th st centuries evidence based allied healthcare profession grew aftermath world wars ii particularly united kingdom united states musicians would travel hospitals play music soldiers suffering war related emotional physical trauma ref name knight ref name ref name using music treat mental physical ailments active duty military veterans new use recorded us civil war florence nightingale used


decade earlier crimean war ref name despite research data observations doctors nurses praise patients willing musicians difficult vastly increase music therapy services establish lasting music therapy education programs organizations early th century ref name knight ref name however many music therapy leaders time period provided music therapy wwi veterans pioneers field ''eva vescelius'' musician author founder short lived national therapeutic society new york ''music health''


journal creator teacher musicotherapy course ''margaret anderton'' pianist wwi music therapy provider canadian soldiers strong believer training music therapists columbia university musicotherapy teacher ''isa maud ilsen'' nurse musician american red cross director hospital music wwi reconstruction hospitals columbia university musicotherapy teacher founder national association music hospitals author ''harriet ayer seymour'' music therapist wwi veterans author researcher lecturer teacher founder ''national foundation music therapy'' author first music therapy textbook published


us several physicians also promoted music therapeutic agent time period ref name knight ref name changes philosophy regarding care psychiatric patients well influx wwii veterans veterans administration hospitals renewed interest music programs patients ref name knight ref name many musicians volunteered provide entertainment primarily assigned perform psychiatric wards positive changes patients' mental physical health noted nurses volunteer musicians many degrees music education becoming aware powerful effects music could


patients realized specialized training necessary ref name knight ref name first music therapy bachelor 's degree program established three others one master 's degree program quickly following michigan state college university university kansas master 's degree college pacific chicago musical college alverno college ''national association music therapy'' namt professional association formed ref name ref first music therapy credential us registered music therapist rmt instituted namt ref name knight


american association music therapy aamt founded united kingdom live music used hospitals world wars part treatment program recovering soldiers clinical music therapy britain understood today pioneered french cellist juliette alvin whose influence current generation british music therapy lecturers remains strong mary priestley one juliette alvin 's students created analytical music therapy nordoff robbins approach music therapy developed work paul nordoff clive robbins practitioners


registered health professions council starting new registrants must normally hold master 's degree music therapy master 's level programs music therapy manchester bristol cambridge south wales edinburgh london therapists throughout uk professional body uk british association music therapy world congress music therapy coordinated promoted world federation music therapy held oxford theme dialogue debate november dr michael j crawford colleagues found


music therapy helped outcomes schizophrenic patients military active duty veterans family members history music therapy finds roots military united states department war issued technical bulletin described use music recovery military service members army hospitals use music therapy military settings started flourish develop following world war ii research endorsements united states army surgeon general united states although endorsements helped music therapy develop


sponsored music therapy course taught margaret anderton columbia university anderton 's clinical specialty working wounded canadian soldiers world war ii using music based services aid recovery process today operation enduring freedom operation iraqi freedom presented array injuries however two signature injuries posttraumatic stress disorder ptsd traumatic brain injury tbi two signature injuries increasingly common among millennial military service members music therapy programs person diagnosed ptsd associate memory experience song heard


result either good bad experiences bad experience song 's rhythm lyrics bring person 's anxiety fear response good experience song bring feelings happiness peace could bring back positive emotions either way music used tool bring emotions forward help person cope methods music therapists work active duty military personnel veterans service members transition families music therapists strive engage clients music experiences foster


trust complete participation course treatment process music therapists use array music centered tools techniques activities working military associated clients many similar techniques used music therapy settings methods include limited group drumming listening singing songwriting songwriting particularly effective tool military veterans struggling ptsd tbi creates safe space work traumatic experiences transform traumatic memories healthier associations programs music therapy military seen programs


military bases va healthcare facilities military treatment facilities military communities music therapy programs large outreach exist phases military life pre mobilization deployment post deployment recovery case injury among families fallen military service personnel ref name amta http wwwmusictherapyorg assets musictherapymilitarypops pdf music therapy military populations american music therapy association ref resounding joy inc san diego california based music therapy program pioneer use music therapy military semper sound program specializes providing music therapy services active duty military service members veterans diagnosed ptsd tbi


substance abuse trauma related diagnoses features different programs semper sound band based san diego california gi jams band based chelsea massachusetts walter reed army medical center located bethesda maryland another pioneer use music therapy military patients medical center eligible receive music therapy services therefore range clients wide tbi stroke psychological diagnoses anxiety depression ptsd autism spectrum disorder ref name amta exceptional family member program efmp also exists provide music therapy services active


individuals exposed trauma benefit essential rehabilitative tools order follow course recovery stress disorders music therapists certified professionals possess abilities determine appropriate interventions support one recovering physically emotionally mentally traumatic experience ref name musictherapyorg american music therapy association amta website wwwmusictherapyorg language en access date ref addition skills play integral part throughout treatment process service members diagnosed post traumatic stress brain injuries many cases self expression songwriting utilizing instruments help restore emotions lost suffering trauma ref name musictherapyorg music significant


effect troops traveling overseas bases many soldiers view music escape war connection homeland families motivation working certified music therapist marines undergo sessions instituting concepts cognition memory attention emotional processing although programs primarily focus phases military life service members us air force eligible treatment well instance music therapy session man begins play song wounded airmen airmen says music allows talk


something happened without talking music allows active duty airmen open previous experiences reducing anxiety level see also sources izabel chuang ''music therapy'' psychoco ltd izabel chuang ''elders groups music therapy'' bibliography albergato muterspaw francesca role music healing grief processes bereaved adult learners pennsylvania state university proquest dissertations theses american music therapy association retrieved http wwwmusictherapyorg wwwmusictherapyorg american psychiatric association diagnostic statistical manual mental disorders th ed text rev washington dc author


botello r k krout music therapy assessment automatic thoughts developing cognitive behavioral application improvisation assess couple communication music therapy perspectives bruscia kenneth e defining music therapy gilsum nh barcelona publishers cochrane l effectiveness efficiency random reflections health services london nuffield provincial hospitals trust davis w b gfeller k e thaut h introduction music therapy theory practice third edition music therapy treatment process silver spring maryland freed b songwriting chemically dependent music therapy perspectives hilliard


r e effects music therapy based bereavement groups mood behavior grieving children pilot study journal music therapy hilliard r e effects orff based music therapy social work groups childhood grief symptoms behaviors journal music therapy jones j comparison songwriting lyric analysis techniques evoke emotional change single session people chemically dependent journal music therapy krout r e applications music therapist composed songs creating participant connections facilitating goals


rituals one time bereavement support groups programs music therapy perspectives lindenfelser k j grocke mcferran k bereaved parents' experiences music therapy terminally ill child journal music therapy rosner r kruse j hagl meta analysis interventions bereaved children adolescents death studies schwantes wigram mckinney c lipscomb richards c mexican corrido use music therapy bereavement group australian journal music therapy silverman j quantitative


comparison cognitive behavioral therapy music therapy research methodological best practices analysis guide future investigation adult psychiatric patients journal music therapy silverman j use lyric analysis interventions contemporary psychiatric music therapy descriptive results songs objectives clinical practice music therapy perspectives silverman j marcionetti j immediate effects single music therapy intervention persons severely mentally ill arts psychotherapy valentino r e attitudes towards cross cultural empathy music therapy music therapy perspectives


whitehead pleaux baryza mj sheridan rl exploring effects music therapy pediatric pain phase journal music therapy reading aldridge david https booksgooglecom booksid c imm vjac printsec frontcover ''music therapy dementia care'' london jessica kingsley publishers boynton dori ''compiler'' ''lady boynton 's new age dossiers serendipitous digest news articles trends modern day mysticism decadence'' new port richey flor ''lady'' boynton vol ''nb'' anthology reprinted articles pamphlets ''etc'' new age aspects speculation psychology philosophy music especially ''music therapy'' religion sexuality


''etc'' bruscia kenneth e https webarchiveorg web http wwwtempleedu musictherapy home program faqhtm frequently asked questions music therapy boyer college music dance https webarchiveorg web http wwwtempleedu musictherapy home music therapy program temple university bunt leslie stige brynjulf ''music therapy art beyond words'' second edition london routledge davis william b kate e gfeller michael h thaut ''an introduction music therapy theory practice'' third ed silver springs md american music therapy association erlmann veit ed https booksgooglecom booksid wrdj p bpbic printsec frontcover ''hearing cultures essays sound listening modernity'' new york berg publishers cf especially chapter raising spirits restoring souls gold c heldal dahle


music ''international journal music education'' pellizzari patricia colaboradores flavia kinisberg germ n tu candela brusco diego patles vanesa menendez julieta villegas emmanuel barrenechea crear salud aportes de la musicoterapia preventiva comunitaria patricia pellizzari ediciones buenos aires ruud even music therapy perspective humanities barcelona publishers vladimir simosko ''is rock music harmful'' winnipeg vladimir simosko ''jung music music therapy prepared occasion cg jung humanities colloquium'' winnipeg vomberg elizabeth ''music physically disabled child bibliography'' toronto external links rehabilitation


'''population genetics''' subfield genetics deals genetic differences within populations part evolutionary biology studies branch biology examine phenomena adaptation speciation population structure population genetics vital ingredient emergence modern evolutionary synthesis primary founders sewall wright j b haldane ronald fisher also laid foundations related discipline quantitative genetics traditionally highly mathematical discipline modern population genetics encompasses theoretical laboratory field work population genetic models used statistical

Natural science
Biology
Genetics
Population genetics


inference dna sequence data proof disproof concept sets population genetics apart newer phenotypic approaches modelling evolution evolutionary game theory adaptive dynamics emphasis genetic phenomena dominance epistasis degree genetic recombination breaks linkage disequilibrium random phenomena mutation genetic drift makes appropriate comparison population genomics data history population genetics began reconciliation mendelian inheritance biostatistics models natural selection cause evolution enough genetic variation population discovery


book ''the genetical theory natural selection'' fisher showed continuous variation measured biometricians could produced combined action many discrete genes natural selection could change allele frequencies population resulting evolution series papers beginning another british geneticist j b haldane worked mathematics allele frequency change single gene locus broad range conditions haldane also applied statistical analysis real world examples natural selection peppered moth evolution industrial melanism showed selection coefficients


could larger fisher assumed leading rapid adaptive evolution camouflage strategy following increased pollution ref name bowler ref ref name larson ref american biologist sewall wright background animal breeding experiments focused combinations interacting genes effects inbreeding small relatively isolated populations exhibited genetic drift wright introduced concept adaptive landscape argued genetic drift inbreeding could drive small isolated sub population away adaptive peak allowing natural selection drive towards different adaptive peaks work fisher haldane wright founded


discipline population genetics integrated natural selection mendelian genetics critical first step developing unified theory evolution worked ref name bowler ref name larson john maynard smith haldane 's pupil whilst w hamilton influenced writings fisher american george r price worked hamilton maynard smith american richard lewontin japanese motoo kimura influenced wright haldane modern synthesis mathematics population genetics originally developed beginning modern synthesis authors beatty asserted population genetics defines core


modern synthesis first decades th century field naturalists continued believe lamarckism orthogenesis provided best explanation complexity observed living world modern synthesis ideas purged evolutionary causes could expressed mathematical framework population genetics retained ref name provine ref consensus reached evolutionary factors might influence evolution relative importance various factors ref name provine theodosius dobzhansky postdoctoral worker h morgan 's lab influenced


work genetic diversity russian geneticists sergei chetverikov helped bridge divide foundations microevolution developed population geneticists patterns macroevolution observed field biologists book ''genetics origin species'' dobzhansky examined genetic diversity wild populations showed contrary assumptions population geneticists populations large amounts genetic diversity marked differences sub populations book also took highly mathematical work population geneticists put accessible form many


biologists influenced population genetics via dobzhansky able read highly mathematical works original ref name provine ref great britain e b ford pioneer ecological genetics continued throughout empirically demonstrate power selection due ecological factors including ability maintain genetic diversity genetic polymorphisms human blood types ford 's work collaboration fisher contributed shift emphasis modern synthesis towards natural selection dominant force ref name bowler ref name larson neutral theory origin fixation dynamics original modern synthesis view


population genetics assumes mutations provide ample raw material focuses change frequency alleles within populations ref name mccandlish ref main processes influencing allele frequencies natural selection genetic drift gene flow recurrent mutation fisher wright fundamental disagreements relative roles selection drift ref name crow ref availability molecular data genetic differences led neutral theory molecular evolution view many mutations deleterious never observed remainder neutral ie selection fate


population genetics describes natural selection defining fitness propensity probability survival reproduction particular environment fitness normally given symbol '''w''' '' 's''' '' 's''' selection coefficient natural selection acts phenotypes population genetic models assume relatively simple relationships predict phenotype hence fitness allele one small number loci way natural selection converts differences fitness individuals different phenotypes changes allele frequency population successive generations advent population genetics many


biologists doubted small differences fitness sufficient make large difference evolution ref name provine population geneticists addressed concern part comparing selection genetic drift selection overcome genetic drift '' 's''' greater divided effective population size criterion met probability new advantageous mutant becomes fixed approximately equal ''' s''' time fixation allele depends little genetic drift approximately proportional log sn dominance dominance means phenotypic fitness effect one allele locus


depends allele present second copy locus consider three genotypes one locus following fitness values class wikitable genotype sub sub sub sub sub sub sub sub sub sub sub sub relative fitness hs selection coefficient h dominance coefficient value h yields following information class wikitable h sub sub dominant sub sub recessive h sub sub dominant sub sub recessive h incomplete dominance h overdominance h underdominance epistasis logarithm fitness function number deleterious mutations synergistic epistasis represented


individual calculated product contributions loci effectively assuming epistasis fact genotype fitness landscape complex population genetics must either model complexity detail capture simpler average rule empirically beneficial mutations tend smaller fitness benefit added genetic background already high fitness known diminishing returns epistasis deleterious mutations also smaller fitness effect high fitness backgrounds known synergistic epistasis however effect deleterious mutations tends


average close multiplicative even show opposite pattern known antagonistic epistasis synergistic epistasis central theories purging mutation load evolution sexual reproduction mutation ''drosophila melanogaster'' mutation ultimate source genetic variation form new alleles addition mutation may influence direction evolution mutation bias ie different probabilities different mutations occur example recurrent mutation tends opposite direction selection lead mutation selection balance molecular level


mutations extra advantage mutation occurs frequently one likely become fixed population mutation effect alter product gene prevent gene functioning studies fly ''drosophila melanogaster'' suggest mutation changes protein produced gene probably harmful percent mutations damaging effects remainder either neutral weakly beneficial ref name sawyerparsch ref loss function mutations selected


selection weak mutation bias towards loss function affect evolution example pigments longer useful animals live darkness caves tend lost kind loss function occur mutation bias function cost benefit function disappeared natural selection leads loss loss sporulation ability bacterium laboratory evolution appears caused mutation bias rather natural selection cost maintaining sporulation ability selection


alleles offspring random sample parents genetic drift may cause gene variants disappear completely thereby reduce genetic variability contrast natural selection makes gene variants common less common depending reproductive success ref name avers ref changes due genetic drift driven environmental adaptive pressures equally likely make allele common less common effect genetic drift larger alleles present copies allele present many copies population genetics


population genetics perspective ever given genetic drift central role made genetic drift important combination another non selective force shifting balance theory sewall wright held combination population structure genetic drift important motoo kimura 's neutral theory molecular evolution claims genetic differences within populations caused combination neutral mutations genetic drift ref name futuyma ref role genetic drift means sampling error evolution criticized john h gillespie provine argue


population physical barriers migration along limited tendency individuals move spread vagility tendency remain come back natal place philopatry natural populations rarely interbreed may assumed theoretical random models panmixy usually geographic range within individuals closely related one another randomly selected general population described extent population genetically structured great wall china obstacle gene flow terrestrial species ref name su qu


genetic structuring caused migration due historical climate change species range expansion current availability habitat gene flow hindered mountain ranges oceans deserts even man made structures great wall china hindered flow plant genes ref name su qu ref gene flow exchange genes populations species breaking structure examples gene flow within species include migration breeding organisms exchange pollen gene transfer species includes formation hybrid organisms horizontal


gene transfer population genetic models used identify populations show significant genetic isolation one another reconstruct history subjecting population isolation leads inbreeding depression migration population introduce new genetic variants potentially contributing evolutionary rescue significant proportion individuals gametes migrate also change allele frequencies eg giving rise migration load presence gene flow barriers hybridization two diverging populations outcrossing species required populations become new species horizontal gene transfer current tree


life showing vertical horizontal gene transfers horizontal gene transfer transfer genetic material one organism another organism offspring common among prokaryotes ref name boucher douady ref medicine contributes spread antibiotic resistance one bacteria acquires resistance genes rapidly transfer species horizontal transfer genes bacteria eukaryotes yeast ''saccharomyces cerevisiae'' adzuki bean beetle ''callosobruchus chinensis'' may also occurred ref name kondo nikoh ref example larger scale transfers eukaryotic bdelloid rotifers


appear received range genes bacteria fungi plants ref name gladyshev meselson ref viruses also carry dna organisms allowing transfer genes even across biological domains large scale gene transfer also occurred ancestors eukaryotic cells prokaryotes acquisition chloroplasts mitochondria ref name rgruqh ref linkage genes linkage equilibrium effect allele one locus averaged across gene pool loci reality one allele frequently found linkage disequilibrium genes loci especially genes located nearby


chromosome recombination breaks linkage disequilibrium slowly avoid genetic hitchhiking allele one locus rises high frequency linked allele selection nearby locus linkage also slows rate adaptation even sexual populations effect linkage disequilibrium slowing rate adaptive evolution arises combination hill robertson effect delays bringing beneficial mutations together background selection delays separating beneficial mutations deleterious hitchhikers linkage problem population genetic models treat one


gene locus time however exploited method detecting action natural selection via selective sweeps extreme case asexual population linkage complete population genetic equations derived solved terms travelling wave genotype frequencies along simple fitness landscape ref name desai ref microbes bacteria asexual population genetics adaptation two contrasting regimes product beneficial mutation rate population size small asexual populations follow successional regime origin fixation dynamics adaptation rate


strongly dependent product product much larger asexual populations follow concurrent mutations regime adaptation rate less dependent product characterized clonal interference appearance new beneficial mutation last one fixed applications explaining levels genetic variation neutral theory predicts level nucleotide diversity population proportional product population size neutral mutation rate fact levels genetic diversity vary much less population sizes known paradox variation high


levels genetic diversity one original arguments favor neutral theory paradox variation one strongest arguments neutral theory clear levels genetic diversity vary greatly within species function local recombination rate due genetic hitchhiking background selection current solutions paradox variation invoke level selection linked sites ref name ellegren ref example one analysis suggests larger populations selective sweeps remove neutral genetic diversity negative correlation mutation rate population


size may also contribute life history affects genetic diversity population history eg r strategists genetic diversity ref name ellegren detecting selection population genetics models used infer genes undergoing selection one common approach look regions high linkage disequilibrium low genetic variance along chromosome detect recent selective sweeps second common approach mcdonald kreitman test compares amount variation within species polymorphism divergence species substitutions two types sites one assumed neutral typically synonymous sites assumed


neutral ref name charlesworth ref genes undergoing positive selection excess divergent sites relative polymorphic sites test also used obtain genome wide estimate proportion substitutions fixed positive selection ref name eyrewalker ref ref name alpha ref according neutral theory molecular evolution number near zero high numbers therefore interpreted genome wide falsification neutral theory ref name hahn ref demographic inference simplest test population structure sexually reproducing diploid species see whether genotype frequencies follow hardy weinberg proportions function allele frequencies


measure proportion genetic variance explained population structure genetic population structure related geographic structure genetic admixture detected coalescent theory relates genetic diversity sample demographic history population taken normally assumes neutrality sequences neutrally evolving portions genomes therefore selected analyses used infer relationships species phylogenetics well population structure demographic history eg population bottlenecks population growth biological dispersal source sink dynamics introgression within


species another approach demographic inference relies allele frequency spectrum evolution genetic systems assuming loci control genetic system population genetic models created describe evolution dominance forms robustness evolution sexual reproduction recombination rates evolution mutation rates evolution evolutionary capacitors evolution costly signalling traits evolution ageing evolution co operation example mutations deleterious optimal mutation rate species may trade damage


high deleterious mutation rate metabolic costs maintaining systems reduce mutation rate dna repair enzymes ref name sniegowski ref one important aspect models selection strong enough purge deleterious mutations hence overpower mutational bias towards degradation selection coefficient greater inverse effective population size known drift barrier related nearly neutral theory molecular evolution drift barrier theory predicts species large effective population sizes highly streamlined efficient genetic systems


small population sizes bloated complex genomes containing example introns transposable elements however somewhat paradoxically species large population sizes might tolerant consequences certain types errors evolve higher error rates eg transcription translation small populations see also references external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwextensionorg pages population development genetics population genetics tutorials http wwwgeneticsorg content molecular population genetics http alfredmedyaleedu alfred allele frequency database yale university https webarchiveorg web http wwwehstrafdorg ehstrafdorg earth human str allele frequencies database http wwwesporg books sturt history contents sturt history ch pdf history population genetics http wwwcosmolearningcom video lectures selection changes genetic composition population selection changes genetic composition population video lecture


stephen c stearns yale university national geographic https webarchiveorg web https www nationalgeographiccom genographic atlashtml atlas human journey haplogroup based human migration maps population genetics evolutionary biology statistical genetics


'''cryobiology''' branch biology studies effects low temperatures living things within earth 's cryosphere science word cryobiology derived greek words kryos cold bios life logos word hence science practice cryobiology study biological material systems temperatures normal materials systems studied may include proteins cells tissues organs whole organisms temperatures may range moderately hypothermic conditions cryogenic temperatures areas study least six major areas cryobiology identified study cold adaptation


microorganisms plants cold hardiness animals invertebrates vertebrates including hibernation cryopreservation cells tissues gametes embryos animal human origin medical purposes long term storage cooling temperatures freezing point water usually requires addition substances protect cells freezing thawing cryoprotectants preservation organs hypothermic conditions transplantation lyophilization freeze drying pharmaceuticals cryosurgery minimally invasive approach destruction unhealthy tissue using cryogenic gases fluids physics supercooling ice nucleation growth mechanical engineering aspects


heat transfer cooling warming applied biological systems cryobiology would include cryonics low temperature preservation humans mammals intention future revival although part mainstream cryobiology depending heavily speculative technology yet invented several areas study rely cryogenics branch physics engineering studies production use low temperatures cryopreservation nature many living organisms able tolerate prolonged periods time temperatures freezing point water living organisms accumulate cryoprotectants


antinucleating proteins polyols glucose protect frost damage sharp ice crystals plants particular safely reach temperatures minus nbsp c minus nbsp c bacteria three species bacteria ''carnobacterium pleistocenium'' ''chryseobacterium greenlandensis'' ''herminiimonas glaciei'' reportedly revived surviving thousands years frozen ice certain bacteria notably ''pseudomonas syringae'' produce specialized proteins serve potent ice nucleators use force ice formation surface various fruits plants minus nbsp c freezing causes injuries epithelia makes nutrients underlying plant


tissues available bacteria ''listeria'' grows slowly temperatures low nbsp c persists time frozen foods plants many plants undergo process called hardening allows survive temperatures nbsp c weeks months animals invertebrates nematodes survive nbsp c include ''trichostrongylus colubriformis'' ''panagrolaimus davidi'' cockroach nymphs ''periplaneta japonica'' survive short periods freezing nbsp c red flat bark beetle ''cucujus clavipes'' survive frozen nbsp c fungus gnat ''exechia nugatoria'' survive frozen nbsp c unique mechanism whereby


ice crystals form body head another freeze tolerant beetle ''upis ceramboides'' see insect winter ecology antifreeze protein another invertebrate briefly tolerant temperatures nbsp c tardigrade larvae ''haemonchus contortus'' nematode survive weeks frozen nbsp c vertebrates wood frog ''rana sylvatica'' winter much body may freeze turn ice ice crystals form beneath skin become interspersed among body 's skeletal muscles freeze frog 's breathing blood flow heartbeat cease freezing


made possible specialized proteins glucose prevent intracellular freezing dehydration wood frog survive days frozen nbsp c vertebrates survive body temperatures nbsp c include painted turtles ''chrysemys picta'' gray tree frogs ''hyla versicolor'' box turtles ''terrapene carolina'' hours nbsp c spring peeper ''pseudacris crucifer'' garter snakes ''thamnophis sirtalis'' hours nbsp c chorus frog ''pseudacris triseriata'' siberian salamander ''salamandrella keyserlingii'' hours nbsp c european common lizard ''lacerta vivipara'' antarctic fish ''pagothenia borchgrevinki'' antifreeze proteins cloned fish


used confer frost resistance transgenic plants hibernating arctic ground squirrels may abdominal temperatures low nbsp c nbsp f maintaining subzero abdominal temperatures three weeks time although temperatures head neck remain nbsp c applied cryobiology historical background boyle cryobiology history traced back antiquity early bc low temperatures used egypt medicine use cold recommended hippocrates stop bleeding swelling emergence modern science robert boyle studied effects low


controlled rate slow freezing well established techniques pioneered early enabled first human embryo frozen birth zoe leyland since machines freeze biological samples using programmable steps controlled rates used world human animal cell biology 'freezing down' sample better preserve eventual thawing deep frozen cryopreserved liquid nitrogen machines used freezing oocytes skin blood products embryo sperm stem cells general tissue preservation hospitals veterinary practices research labs number


live births 'slow frozen' embryos estimated million ''in vitro'' fertilized births dr christopher chen australia reported world first pregnancy using slow frozen oocytes british controlled rate freezer cryosurgery intended controlled tissue destruction ice formation carried james arnott operation patient cancer cryosurgery common preservation techniques cryobiology applied science primarily concerned low temperature preservation hypothermic storage typically nbsp c normothermic nbsp c nbsp c mammalian temperatures storage


cryopreservation hand minus minus nbsp c temperature range organs tissues frequently objects hypothermic storage whereas single cells common objects cryopreserved rule thumb hypothermic storage every nbsp c reduction temperature accompanied decrease oxygen consumption although hibernating animals adapted mechanisms avoid metabolic imbalances associated hypothermia hypothermic organs tissues maintained transplantation require special preservation solutions counter acidosis depressed sodium pump activity increased intracellular calcium special organ preservation solutions


cells optimum cooling rate rapid nearly nbsp c per second whereas stem cells optimum cooling rate slow nbsp c per minute cryoprotectants dimethyl sulfoxide glycerol used protect cells freezing variety cell types protected dimethyl sulfoxide cryobiologists attempt optimize cryoprotectant concentration minimizing ice formation toxicity cooling rate cells may cooled optimum rate temperature minus minus nbsp c plunged liquid nitrogen slow cooling methods rely fact cells contain nucleating agents


contain naturally occurring vitrifying substances prevent ice formation cells moderately dehydrated cryobiologists seeking mixtures cryoprotectants full vitrification zero ice formation preservation cells tissues organs vitrification methods pose challenge requirement search cryoprotectant mixtures minimize toxicity humans human gametes two four eight cell embryos survive cryopreservation nbsp c years well controlled laboratory conditions cryopreservation humans regards infertility involves preservation embryos sperm oocytes via freezing conception ''in vitro'' attempted


sperm thawed introduced 'fresh' eggs frozen eggs thawed sperm placed eggs together placed back uterus frozen embryo introduced uterus vitrification flaws reliable proven freezing fertilized sperm eggs embryos traditional slow freezing methods eggs alone extremely sensitive temperature many researchers also freezing ovarian tissue conjunction eggs hopes ovarian tissue transplanted back uterus stimulating normal ovulation


cycles donnez louvain belgium reported first successful ovarian birth frozen ovarian tissue samples ovarian cortex taken woman hodgkin 's lymphoma cryopreserved planer uk controlled rate freezer stored liquid nitrogen chemotherapy initiated patient premature ovarian failure freeze thawing orthotopic autotransplantation ovarian cortical tissue done laparoscopy five months reimplantation signs indicated recovery regular ovulatory cycles eleven months reimplantation viable intrauterine pregnancy confirmed resulted first live


birth girl named tamara therapeutic hypothermia eg heart surgery cold heart generated cold perfusion without ice formation allows much longer operations improves recovery rates patients scientific societies society cryobiology founded bring together biological medical physical sciences common interest effects low temperatures biological systems society cryobiology members around world one half us based purpose society


leaf ref name cryobiology ref society organizes annual scientific meeting dedicated aspects low temperature biology international meeting offers opportunities presentation discussion date research cryobiology well reviewing specific aspects symposia workshops members also kept informed news forthcoming meetings society newsletter ''news notes'' president society cryobiology john h crowe society low temperature biology founded became registered charity purpose promoting research effects


low temperatures types organisms constituent cells tissues organs society around mostly british european members holds least one annual general meeting program usually includes symposium topical subject session free communications aspect low temperature biology recent symposia included long term stability preservation aquatic organisms cryopreservation embryos gametes preservation plants low temperature microscopy vitrification glass formation aqueous systems cooling freeze drying tissue banking members informed


society newsletter presently published three times year journals ''cryobiology'' publisher elsevier foremost scientific publication area refereed contributions published year articles concern aspect low temperature biology medicine eg freezing freeze drying hibernation cold tolerance adaptation cryoprotective compounds medical applications reduced temperature cryosurgery hypothermia perfusion organs ''cryo letters'' independent uk based rapid communication journal publishes papers effects produced low temperatures wide variety biophysical biological processes studies involving low temperature techniques investigation biological


ecological topics ''biopreservation biobanking'' formerly cell preservation technology peer reviewed quarterly scientific journal published mary ann liebert inc dedicated diverse spectrum preservation technologies including cryopreservation dry state anhydrobiosis glassy state hypothermic maintenance ''cell preservation technology'' renamed ''biopreservation biobanking'' official journal international society biological environmental repositories see also cryptobiosis references external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwliebertpubcom publicationaspxpub id cell preservation technology http wwwphysunsweduau jw cryoblurbhtml cellular cryobiology anhydrobiology https webarchiveorg web http wwwscqubcca p overview science behind cryobiology science creative quarterly phase transitions cryogenics cryonics


mathematics '''topos''' plural '''topoi''' '''toposes''' category behaves like category sheaves sets topological space generally site topoi behave much like category sets possess notion localization direct generalization point set topology ref name illusie ref '''grothendieck topoi''' find applications algebraic geometry general '''elementary topoi''' used logic grothendieck topos topos geometry since introduction sheaves mathematics major theme study

Formal science
Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Algebra
Topos theory


space studying sheaves space idea expounded alexander grothendieck introducing notion topos main utility notion abundance situations mathematics topological heuristics effective honest topological space lacking sometimes possible find topos formalizing heuristic important example programmatic idea tale topos scheme another illustration capability grothendieck toposes incarnate essence different mathematical situations given use bridges connecting theories


albeit written possibly different languages share common mathematical content equivalent definitions grothendieck topos category ''c'' satisfies one following three properties theorem jean giraud states properties equivalent small category ''d'' inclusion ''c'' presh ''d'' admits finite limit preserving left adjoint ''c'' category sheaves grothendieck site ''c'' satisfies giraud 's axioms presh ''d'' denotes category contravariant functors ''d'' category sets contravariant functor frequently called


presheaf giraud 's axioms giraud 's axioms category ''c'' ''c'' small set generators admits small colimits furthermore fiber products distribute coproducts given set ''i'' ''i'' indexed coproduct mapping ''a'' morphism ''a''' ''a'' pullback ''i'' indexed coproduct pullbacks math left coprod b right times a' cong coprod b times a' math sums ''c'' disjoint words fiber product ''x'' ''y'' sum initial object ''c'' equivalence relations ''c'' effective last axiom needs


explanation ''x'' object ''c'' equivalence relation ''r'' ''x'' map ''r'' ''x'' ''x'' ''c'' object ''y'' ''c'' induced map hom ''y'' ''r'' hom ''y'' ''x'' hom ''y'' ''x'' gives ordinary equivalence relation set hom ''y'' ''x'' since ''c'' colimits may form coequalizer two maps ''r'' ''x'' call ''x'' ''r'' equivalence relation effective canonical map math r x times x r x math isomorphism examples giraud 's theorem already gives


sets category sets similarly topos math bg math group math g math equivalent category math g math sets construct category presheaves category one object set morphisms given group math g math since functor must give math g math action target gives category math g math sets similarly groupoid math mathcal g math category presheaves math mathcal g math gives collection sets indexed set objects math mathcal g math automorphisms object math mathcal g math


action target functor topoi ringed spaces exotic examples ''raison d' tre'' topos theory come algebraic geometry basic example topos comes zariksi topos scheme scheme math x math site math text open x math objects given open subsets morphisms given inclusions whose category presheaves forms zarisksi topos math x zar math distinguished classes morphisms considered multiple generalizations leads non trivial mathematics moreover topoi give foundations studying schemes purely functors


instance example due pierre deligne nontrivial topos points see definition points topos geometric morphisms math x math math math topoi ''geometric morphism'' math u x math pair adjoint functors ''u'' sup sup ''u'' sub sub ''u'' sup sup ''y'' ''x'' left adjoint ''u'' sub sub ''x'' ''y'' ''u'' sup sup preserves finite limits note ''u'' sup sup automatically preserves colimits virtue right adjoint freyd 's adjoint functor theorem give geometric morphism ''x'' ''y'' give functor


''u'' sup sup nbsp ''y'' ''x'' preserves finite limits small colimits thus geometric morphisms topoi may seen analogues maps locales math x math math math topological spaces math u math continuous map pullback pushforward operations sheaves yield geometric morphism associated topoi sites math text open x text open math points topoi point topos math x math defined geometric morphism topos sets math x math ''x'' ordinary space ''x'' point ''x'' functor


takes sheaf ''f'' stalk ''f sub x sub '' right adjoint skyscraper sheaf functor ordinary point ''x'' also determines topos theoretic point may constructed pullback pushforward along continuous map ''x'' nbsp '' '' ''x'' etale topos math x et math space math x math point bit refined object given point math x text spec kappa x x math underlying scheme math x math point math x' math topos math x et math given separable field extension math k math math kappa x math associated map math x' text spec k x math factors


original point math x math factorization map blockquote math text spec k text spec kappa x math blockquote etale morphism schemes precisely ''global'' points adequate displaying space like aspect topos non trivial topos may fail ''generalized'' points geometric morphisms topos ''y'' ' 'stage definition'' ''x'' enough display space like aspect example ''x'' classifying topos ''s'' ''t'' geometric theory ''t'' universal property says points models ''t'' stage


definition ''y'' essential geometric morphisms geometric morphism ''u'' sup sup ''u'' sub sub ''essential'' ''u'' sup sup left adjoint ''u'' sub sub equivalently adjoint functor theorem ''u'' sup sup preserves finite small limits ringed topoi '''ringed topos''' pair '' xr '' ''x'' topos ''r'' commutative ring object ''x'' constructions ringed spaces go ringed topoi category ''r'' module objects ''x'' abelian category enough injectives useful abelian category subcategory quasi coherent ''r'' modules


''r'' modules admit presentation another important class ringed topoi besides ringed spaces tale topoi deligne mumford stacks homotopy theory topoi michael artin barry mazur associated site underlying topos pro simplicial set homotopy 's better consider ho pro ss see edwards using inverse system simplicial sets one may ' 'sometimes'' associate homotopy invariant classical topology inverse system invariants topos theory study pro simplicial set associated tale topos scheme called tale homotopy theory good


cases scheme noetherian geometrically unibranch pro simplicial set pro finite elementary topoi topoi logic introduction since early th century predominant axiomatic foundation mathematics set theory mathematical objects ultimately represented sets including functions map sets recent work category theory allows foundation generalized using topoi topos completely defines mathematical framework category sets forms familiar topos working within topos equivalent using traditional set theoretic mathematics one could instead


choose work many alternative topoi standard formulation axiom choice makes sense topos topoi invalid constructivists interested work topos without law excluded middle symmetry particular group ''g'' importance one use topos consisting ''g'' sets also possible encode algebraic theory theory groups topos form classifying topos individual models theory ie groups


example correspond functors encoding topos category sets respect topos structure formal definition used foundational work topos defined axiomatically set theory treated special case topos theory building category theory multiple equivalent definitions topos following virtue concise topos category following two properties limits taken finite index categories exist every object power object plays role powerset set


theory formally '''power object''' object math x math pair math px ni x math math ni x subseteq px times x math classifies relations following sense first note every object math math morphism math r colon px math family subsets induces subobject math ix x r subseteq times x math formally defined pulling back math ni x math along math r times x times x px times x math universal property power object every relation arises way giving bijective correspondence relations math r subseteq times x math morphisms math r colon px math finite limits power objects one derive


colimits taken finite index categories exist category subobject classifier category cartesian closed applications role subobject classifier pivotal whereas power objects thus definitions reverse roles defined derived logical functors ''logical functor'' functor toposes preserves finite limits power objects logical functors preserve structures toposes particular preserve finite colimits subobject classifiers exponential objects ref name mclarty ref explanation topos defined understood cartesian closed


category notion subobject object elementary first order definition notion natural categorical abstraction notions subset set subgroup group generally subalgebra algebraic structure predates notion topos definable category topoi second order language ie terms classes morphisms instead individual morphisms follows given two monics ''m'' ''n'' respectively ''y'' ''z'' ''x'' say ''m'' ''n'' exists morphism ''p''


''y'' ''z'' ''np'' ''m'' inducing preorder monics ''x'' ''m'' ''n'' ''n'' ''m'' say ''m'' ''n'' equivalent subobjects ''x'' resulting equivalence classes monics topos subobject becomes least implicitly first order notion follows noted topos category ''c'' finite limits hence particular empty limit final object natural treat morphisms form ''x'' ''x''


''elements'' ''x'' ''x'' morphisms ''f'' ''x'' ''y'' thus correspond functions mapping element ''x'' ''x'' element ''fx'' ''y'' application realized composition one might think define subobject ''x'' equivalence class monics ''m'' ''x '' ''x'' image ''mx'' ''x'' ''x '' catch two morphisms may correspond function cannot assume ''c'' concrete sense functor ''c'' ''c'' '''set''' faithful


example category '''grph''' graphs associated homomorphisms topos whose final object graph one vertex one edge self loop concrete elements rarr ''g'' graph ''g'' correspond self loops edges vertices without self loops whereas second order definition makes ''g'' subgraph self loops ''g'' vertices distinct subobjects ''g'' unless every edge every vertex self loop image based one addressed


per figure pullback monic monic elements including ''t'' monics since one morphism given object whence pullback ''t'' along ''f'' ''x'' monic monics ''x'' therefore bijection pullbacks ''t'' along morphisms ''x'' latter morphisms partition monics equivalence classes determined morphism ''f'' ''x'' rarr characteristic morphism class take subobject


domains however bijection summarize first order notion subobject classifier implicitly defines topos equivalence relation monics ''x'' previously defined explicitly second order notion subobject category notion equivalence relation class morphisms intrinsically second order definition topos neatly sidesteps explicitly defining notion subobject ''classifier'' leaving notion subobject ''x'' implicit consequence characterized hence namable associated morphism ''f''


''x'' rarr examples non examples every grothendieck topos elementary topos converse true since every grothendieck topos cocomplete required elementary topos categories finite sets finite ''g'' sets actions group ''g'' finite set finite graphs elementary topoi grothendieck topoi ''c'' small category functor category '''set''' sup ''c'' sup consisting covariant functors ''c'' sets natural transformations morphisms topos instance category '''grph''' graphs


kind permitting multiple directed edges two vertices topos graph consists two sets edge set vertex set two functions ' 'st'' sets assigning every edge ''e'' source ' 's'' ''e'' target ''t'' ''e'' '''grph''' thus equivalent functor category '''set''' sup ''c'' sup ''c'' category two objects ''e'' ''v'' two morphisms ' 'st'' ''e'' rarr ''v'' giving respectively source target edge yoneda lemma asserts ''c'' sup op sup embeds '''set''' sup ''c'' sup full subcategory graph example embedding


represents ''c'' sup op sup subcategory '''set''' sup ''c'' sup whose two objects ''v' '' one vertex edge graph ''e' '' two vertex one edge graph functors whose two nonidentity morphisms two graph homomorphisms ''v' '' ''e' '' natural transformations natural transformations ''v' '' arbitrary graph functor ''g'' constitute vertices ''g'' ''e' '' ''g'' constitute edges although '''set''' sup ''c'' sup identify '''grph''' made concrete either ''v' '' ''e' '' alone functor


topoi allowing object multiple underlying sets multisorted category pointed sets point preserving functions ''not'' topos since n't power objects math px math power object pointed set math x math math math denotes pointed singleton one point preserving function math r colon px math relations math times x math numerous pointed subsets math x math category abelian groups also topos similar reason every group homomorphism must map see also history


topos theory homotopy hypothesis intuitionistic type theory topos quasitopos notes references gentle papers gentle introduction steven vickers http wwwcsbhamacuk sjv papersphp toposes pour les nuls http wwwcsbhamacuk sjv topplvnpdf toposes pour les vraiment nuls elementary even elementary introductions toposes generalized spaces following texts easy paced introductions toposes basics category theory suitable knowing little mathematical logic set theory even non mathematicians introduction categories computer scientists logicians physicists linguists etc cited cover text introduces foundations mathematics categorical perspective grothendieck foundational work


new world british agricultural revolution th century livestock breeds like dishley longhorn cattle lincoln longwool sheep rapidly improved agriculturalists robert bakewell yield meat milk wool wide range species horse water buffalo llama rabbit guinea pig used livestock parts world insect farming well aquaculture fish molluscs crustaceans widespread modern animal husbandry relies production systems adapted type land available subsistence farming superseded

Applied science
Agriculture
Animal husbandry


pelleted cereals pigs poultry cannot digest cellulose forage require high protein foods etymology verb ''to husband'' meaning manage carefully derives older meaning ''husband'' th century referred ownership care household farm today means control judicious use resources agriculture cultivation plants animals farmers ranchers raise livestock considered practice ''animal husbandry'' history birth husbandry domestication ruminants like fat tailed sheep afghanistan provided nomads across middle east


central asia reliable source food alt fat tailed sheep afghanistan domestication livestock driven need food hand hunting unproductive desirable characteristics domestic animal useful domesticator able thrive company breed freely easy tend ref name clutton brock ref domestication single event process repeated various periods different places sheep goats animals accompanied nomads middle east cattle pigs


associated settled communities ref name historyworld ref first wild animal domesticated dog half wild dogs perhaps starting young individuals may tolerated scavengers killers vermin naturally pack hunters predisposed become part human pack join hunt prey animals sheep goats pigs cattle progressively domesticated early history agriculture ref name historyworld pigs domesticated near east bc sheep goats near fertile crescent bc cattle wild aurochs


areas modern turkey pakistan around bc ref name mctavish ref cow great advantage villager produced milk calf needed strength could put use working animal pulling plough increase production crops drawing sledge later cart bring produce home field draught animals first used bc middle east increasing agricultural production immeasurably ref name historyworld southern asia elephant domesticated bc ref name gupta gupta anil k ''origin agriculture domestication


development agriculture new world ref name historyworld horses occur naturally steppes central asia domestication around bc black sea caspian sea region originally source meat use pack animals riding followed around time wild ass tamed egypt camels domesticated soon ref name sapir hen ref bactrian camel mongolia arabian camel becoming beasts burden bc caravans arabian camels linking india mesopotamia mediterranean ref name historyworld ancient civilisations milking


cattle ancient egypt alt egyptian hieroglyphic cattle ancient egypt cattle important livestock sheep goats pigs also kept poultry including ducks geese pigeons captured nets bred farms force fed dough fatten nile provided plentiful source fish honey bees domesticated least old kingdom providing honey wax ancient rome livestock known ancient egypt available addition rabbits domesticated food first century bc help flush


swine left set king 's writ example royal manor earley berkshire one thousands villages recorded book fisheries worth paying tax year acres meadow livestock woodland feeding pigs div improvements animal husbandry medieval period europe went hand hand developments improvements plough allowed soil tilled greater depth horses took oxen main providers traction


new ideas crop rotation developed growing crops winter fodder gained ground peas beans vetches became common increased soil fertility nitrogen fixation allowing livestock kept ref name campbell ref div columbian exchange exploration colonisation north south america resulted introduction europe crops maize potatoes sweet potatoes manioc principal old world livestock cattle horses sheep goats introduced new world first time along wheat barley rice turnips agricultural revolution lincoln longwool breed improved


robert bakewell th century alt lincoln longwool sheep selective breeding desired traits established scientific practice robert bakewell british agricultural revolution th century one important breeding programs sheep using native stock able quickly select large yet fine boned sheep long lustrous wool lincoln longwool improved bakewell turn lincoln used develop subsequent breed named new dishley leicester hornless square meaty body straight top lines sheep


exported widely contributed numerous modern breeds influence english farmers began breed cattle use primarily beef long horned heifers crossed westmoreland bull create dishley longhorn semi natural unfertilised pastures formed traditional agricultural methods europe managed grazing mowing ecological impact land management strategy similar impact natural disturbances wildfire agricultural system shares many beneficial characteristics natural habitat including promotion biodiversity strategy declining europe today due


intensification agriculture mechanized chemical methods used causing biodiversity decline ref name pykala ref husbandry systems herdwick sheep extensive hill farming system lake district england alt herdwick sheep traditionally animal husbandry part subsistence farmer 's way life producing food needed family also fuel fertiliser clothing transport draught power killing animal food secondary consideration wherever possible products wool eggs milk blood maasai harvested animal still alive ref name webster ref traditional system transhumance


people livestock moved seasonally fixed summer winter pastures montane regions summer pasture mountains winter pasture valleys animals kept extensively intensively extensive systems involve animals roaming supervision herdsman often protection predators ranching western united states involves large herds cattle grazing widely public private lands ref name starrs ref similar cattle stations found south america australia places large areas land low rainfall ranching systems used


world animals often intensively managed dairy cows may kept zero grazing conditions forage brought beef cattle may kept high density feedlots pigs may housed climate controlled buildings never go outdoors poultry may reared barns kept cages laying birds lighting controlled conditions two extremes semi intensive often family run farms livestock graze outside much year silage hay made cover times year grass stops growing fertiliser feed inputs


brought onto farm outside ref name blount ref feeding cattle around outdoor feeder alt cattle around outdoor feeder animals used livestock predominantly herbivorous main exceptions pig chicken omnivorous herbivores divided concentrate selectors selectively feed seeds fruits highly nutritious young foliage grazers mainly feed grass intermediate feeders choose diet whole range available plant material cattle sheep goats deer antelopes ruminants digest food two steps chewing swallowing normal way


regurgitating semidigested cud chew thus extract maximum possible food value ref name dryden ref dietary needs animals mostly met eating grass grasses grow base leaf blade enabling thrive even heavily grazed cut many climates grass growth seasonal example temperate summer tropical rainy season areas crop set aside cut preserved either hay dried grass silage fermented grass forage crops also grown many well


crop residues ensiled fill gap nutritional needs livestock lean season cattle feed pellets pressed linseed alt cattle feed pellets extensively reared animals may subsist entirely forage intensively kept livestock require energy protein rich foods addition energy mainly derived cereals cereal products fats oils sugar rich foods protein may come fish meat meal milk products legumes plant foods often products vegetable oil extraction ref name dryden ref pigs poultry non ruminants unable digest cellulose


grass forages fed entirely cereals high energy foodstuffs ingredients animals' rations grown farm bought form pelleted cubed compound foodstuffs specially formulated different classes livestock growth stages specific nutritional requirements vitamins minerals added balance diet ref name fsa ref farmed fish usually fed pelleted food ref name fsa breeding breeding farm animals seldom occurs spontaneously managed farmers view encouraging traits seen desirable include


hardiness fertility docility mothering abilities fast growth rates low feed consumption per unit growth better body proportions higher yields better fibre qualities undesirable traits health defects aggressiveness selected ref name turner ref selective breeding responsible large increases productivity example typical broiler chicken eight weeks old times heavy bird similar age ref name turner thirty years average milk yield dairy cow united states nearly doubled ref name turner animal health vaccinating goat niger alt vaccination


goat good husbandry proper feeding hygiene main contributors animal health farm bringing economic benefits maximised production despite precautions animals still become sick treated veterinary medicines farmer veterinarian european union farmers treat animals required follow guidelines treatment record treatments given animals susceptible number diseases conditions may affect health like classical swine fever scrapie specific one type stock


frowned many countries risk may lead antimicrobial resistance livestock humans alt watercolor drawing farmyard cow horse pigs chickens governments concerned zoonoses diseases humans may acquire animals wild animal populations may harbour diseases affect domestic animals may acquire result insufficient biosecurity outbreak nipah virus malaysia traced back pigs becoming ill contact fruit eating flying foxes faeces urine pigs turn passed infection humans ref name chua ref


parts world livestock includes species buffalo south american camelids alpaca llama authorities use much broader definitions include fish aquaculture micro livestock rabbits rodents like guinea pigs well insects honey bees crickets raised human consumption shearing merino sheep wool alt sheering merino sheep products animals raised wide variety products principally meat wool milk eggs also including tallow isinglass rennet animals also kept specialised purposes produce vaccines


antiserum containing antibodies medical use fodder crops grown alongside animals manure serve fertiliser returning minerals organic matter soil semi closed organic system branches dairy alt rotary milking parlour although mammals produce milk nourish young cow predominantly used throughout world produce milk milk products human consumption animals used lesser extent purpose include sheep goats camels buffaloes yaks reindeer horses donkeys ref name faodairy ref animals domesticated centuries bred desirable


characteristics fecundity productivity docility ability thrive prevailing conditions whereas past cattle multiple functions modern dairy cow breeding resulted specialised holstein friesian type animals produce large quantities milk economically artificial insemination widely available allow farmers select particular traits suit circumstances ref name faobreeding ref whereas past cows kept small herds family farms grazing pastures fed hay winter nowadays trend towards larger herds intensive systems feeding silage zero grazing system


around world alt hereford cow meat mainly farmed animals major source dietary protein around world averaging man 's energy intake actual types eaten depend local preferences availability cost factors cattle sheep pigs goats main species involved cattle generally produce single offspring annually takes year mature sheep goats often twins ready slaughter less year pigs prolific producing one litter piglets year ref name gregory ref


horses donkeys deer buffalo llamas alpacas guanacos vicunas farmed meat various regions desirable traits animals raised meat include fecundity hardiness fast growth rate ease management high food conversion efficiency half world 's meat produced animals grazing open ranges enclosed pastures half produced intensively various factory farming systems mostly cows pigs poultry often reared indoors typically high densities ref name miller ref poultry alt battery hens poultry kept eggs meat include chickens turkeys geese ducks


great majority laying birds used egg production chickens methods keeping layers range free range systems birds roam housed night protection semi intensive systems housed barns perches litter freedom movement intensive systems kept cages battery cages arranged long rows multiple tiers external feeders drinkers egg collection facilities labour saving economical method egg production criticised


animal welfare grounds birds unable exhibit normal behaviours developed world majority poultry reared meat raised indoors big sheds automated equipment environmentally controlled conditions chickens raised way known broilers genetic improvements meant grown slaughter weight within six seven weeks hatching newly hatched chicks restricted small area given supplementary heating litter floor absorbs droppings area occupied expanded grow feed water


supplied automatically lighting controlled birds may harvested several occasions whole shed may cleared one time similar rearing system usually used turkeys less hardy chickens take longer grow often moved separate fattening units finish ducks particularly popular asia australia killed seven weeks commercial conditions aquaculture freshwater fish farming france alt freshwater fish farm aquaculture defined farming aquatic organisms including fish molluscs crustaceans aquatic plants


implies form intervention rearing process enhance production regular stocking feeding protection predators etc farming also implies individual corporate ownership stock cultivated practice take place sea freshwater extensive intensive whole bays lakes ponds may devoted aquaculture farmed animal may retained cages fish artificial reefs racks strings shellfish fish prawns cultivated rice paddies either arriving naturally introduced crops harvested together fish hatcheries


provide larval juvenile fish crustaceans shellfish use aquaculture systems large enough transferred growing tanks sold fish farms reach harvest size species commonly raised hatcheries include shrimps prawns salmon tilapia oysters scallops similar facilities used raise species conservation needs released wild game fish restocking waterways important aspects husbandry early stages include selection breeding stock control water quality nutrition wild massive amount mortality


nursery stage farmers seek minimise time maximising growth rates ref name mosig ref insects crickets raised human consumption thailand alt crickets bees kept hives since least first dynasty egypt five thousand years ago man harvesting honey wild long fixed comb hives used many parts world made locally available material advanced economies modern strains domestic bee selected docility productiveness various designs hive used enable


deciduous tree china korea japan however two generations normal tropics multiple generations expected production silk occurs far east synthetic diet used rear silkworms japan ref name hill ref insects form part human diet many cultures ref name carrington ref thailand crickets farmed purpose north country palm weevil larvae south crickets kept pens boxes drawers fed commercial pelleted poultry food palm weevil larvae live


cabbage palm sago palm trees limits production areas trees grow ref name bangkok ref another delicacy region bamboo caterpillar best rearing harvesting techniques semi natural habitats studied ref name bangkok effects environmental impact alt cattle animal husbandry significant impact world environment part animal industrial complex animal agriculture primary driver climate change ocean acidification biodiversity loss crossing almost every planetary boundary addition killing billion non human land animals annually responsible