power especially electrification ref name devine ref strong correlation per capita electricity consumption economic development possibility infinite economic growth economic system subsystem environment natural resources flow economy end waste pollution ecological economics criticizes possibility infinite economic growth current economic models suggest economy grow continuously perpetual motion machine however according laws thermodynamics perpetual motion machines exist ref name daly herman e p daly herman e joshua c farley ecological economics principles applications washington


island print p ref first laws says matter energy cannot created destroyed second laws says matter energy move low entropy useful state towards less useful higher entropy state thus system continue without inputs new energy exit high entropy waste animal live waste economy recycle waste produces without input new energy reproduce ref name daly herman e p matter energy enter economy

Social science
Economics
Growth economics


form low entropy natural capital solar energy oil wells fisheries mines materials energy used households firms like create products wealth material used energy matter leaves economy form high entropy waste longer valuable economy natural materials power motion economic system environment waste must absorbed larger ecosystem economy exists cannot ignored economy intrinsically


growth example republic armenia let 's consider armenia example examine economic fluctuations growth armenia got independence ussr year gdp per capita country armenia war neighbouring azerbaijan economic situation country improving gdp per capita situation got much better afterwards big rapid economic growth occurred country due boom construction gdp per capita reached due great


recession value gdp per capita declined year continued rising afterwards final decline gdp per capita seen resulted covid pandemic second artsakh war currently gdp per capita country see also american exceptionalism civilizing mission climate change degrowth development theory economic development export oriented industrialization greed green growth green new deal growth accounting limits growth list countries real gdp growth rate manifest destiny orthodox development post growth productivism progress propaganda prosperity without growth status quo sufficiency economy sustainability


sustainable development uneconomic growth unified growth theory universal basic income wealth redistribution white man 's burden world view references reading argyrous g forstater mongiovi g eds ''growth distribution effective demand essays honor edward j nell'' new york sharpe barro robert j ''determinants economic growth cross country empirical study'' mit press cambridge galor ''from stagnation growth unified growth theory'' handbook economic growth elsevier halevi joseph laibman david nell edward j eds beyond steady state essays revival growth theory edited


london uk jones charles ''introduction economic growth'' nd ed w w norton company new york ny lucas robert e jr ''the industrial revolution past future'' federal reserve bank minneapolis ''annual report'' https webarchiveorg web http minneapolisfedorg pubs region essaycfm online edition schumpeter jospeph ''the theory economic development'' reprint transaction publishers weil david n ''economic growth'' nd ed addison wesley external links articles lectures http wwwbritannicacom eb article economic growth economic growth encyclop dia britannic encyclop dia britannica online november https webarchiveorg web http wwwgsbstanfordedu research faculty news releases romerpaul london speechhtml beyond classical keynesian macroeconomic policy paul romer 's plain english explanation endogenous growth theory http wwwceprnet indexphp economics seminar series cepr economics seminar


series two seminars importance growth economists dean baker mark weisbrot http wwwiisgnl research jvz researchpdf global economic history jan luiten van zanden explores idea inevitability industrial revolution http wwwsciamcom articlecfmid economist clothes economist clothes essay robert nadeau scientific american basic assumptions behind current economic theory world growth institute organization dedicated helping developing world realize full potential via economic growth https wwwstlouisfedorg economy february economic growth slowing growth keep slowing st louis federal reserve bank data http wwwggdcnet maddison angus maddison 's historical dataseries series almost countries


gdp population gdp per capita year http statsoecdorg wbos indexaspxqueryid oecd economic growth statistics http gsociologyicaaporg datauploadhtml multinational data sets easy use dataset showing gdp per capita population country region updated regularly economic development macroeconomic indicators


meshid ops othercodes hcpcslevel dental implant illustration '' 'dental implant''' also known '''endosseous implant''' '''fixture''' surgical component interfaces bone jaw skull support dental prosthesis crown bridge denture facial prosthesis act orthodontic anchor basis modern dental implants biologic process called osseointegration materials titanium

Applied science
Medicine and health
Dentistry
Implantology


zirconia form intimate bond bone implant fixture first placed likely osseointegrate dental prosthetic added variable amount healing time required osseointegration either dental prosthetic tooth bridge denture attached implant abutment placed hold dental prosthetic crown success failure implants depends health person receiving treatment drugs affect chances osseointegration health tissues mouth amount stress


put implant fixture normal function also evaluated planning position number implants key long term health prosthetic since biomechanical forces created chewing significant position implants determined position angle adjacent teeth lab simulations using computed tomography cad cam simulations surgical guides called stents prerequisites long term success osseointegrated dental implants healthy bone gingiva since atrophy tooth extraction pre prosthetic procedures sinus lifts gingival grafts sometimes required


recreate ideal bone gingiva final prosthetic either fixed person cannot remove denture teeth mouth removable remove prosthetic case abutment attached implant fixture prosthetic fixed crown bridge denture fixed abutment either lag screws dental cement prosthetic removable corresponding adapter placed prosthetic two pieces secured together risks complications related implant therapy divide


occur surgery excessive bleeding nerve injury occur first six months infection failure osseointegrate occur long term peri implantitis mechanical failures presence healthy tissues well integrated implant appropriate biomechanical loads year plus survival rates percent ref name main ref ref name main ref ref name main ref year lifespans prosthetic teeth ref name bozini long term studies show year success implants surviving without complications revisions complications occurring


time medical uses primary use dental implants support dental prosthetics ie false teeth modern dental implants make use osseointegration biologic process bone fuses tightly surface specific materials titanium ceramics integration implant bone support physical loads decades without failure ref name misch ref us seen increasing use dental implants usage increasing patients missing least one tooth projected potentially reach implants


used replace missing individual teeth single tooth restorations multiple teeth restore edentulous dental arches implant retained fixed bridge implant supported overdenture ref name ref note alternative treatments tooth loss available see missing tooth replacement tooth loss dental implants also used orthodontics provide anchorage orthodontic mini implants evolving field use implants retain obturators removable prosthesis used fill communication oral maxillary nasal cavities ref name facial prosthetics used correct facial deformities eg cancer treatment injuries use connections implants


placed facial bones ref name sinn ref depending situation implant may used retain either fixed removable prosthetic replaces part face ref name arcuri ref single tooth implant restoration single tooth restorations individual freestanding units connected teeth implants used replace missing individual teeth ref name individual tooth replacement ''implant abutment'' first secured implant abutment screw crown dental prosthesis connected abutment dental cement small screw fused abutment one piece fabrication ref


time tooth supported fpds replacement one missing tooth major disadvantage dental implant surgery need surgical procedure ref name ref implant retained fixed bridge implant supported bridge implant supported bridge fixed denture group teeth secured dental implants prosthetic cannot removed user similar conventional bridges except prosthesis supported retained one implants instead natural teeth bridges typically connect one implant may also connect teeth anchor points


wearer ref name branemark implant supported overdenture removable implant supported denture also implant supported overdenture ref name jokstad ref removable prosthesis replaces teeth using implants improve support retention stability commonly complete dentures opposed partial used restore edentulous dental arches ref name dental prosthesis disconnected implant abutments finger pressure wearer enable abutment shaped small connector button ball bar magnet connected analogous adapters underside dental prosthesis orthodontic mini implants tad dental


implants used orthodontic patients replace missing teeth temporary anchorage device tad facilitate orthodontic movement providing additional anchorage point ref name ref name miniimplant ref teeth move force must applied direction desired movement force stimulates cells periodontal ligament cause bone remodeling removing bone direction travel tooth adding space created order generate force tooth anchor point something move needed since


implants periodontal ligament bone remodelling stimulated tension applied ideal anchor points orthodontics typically implants designed orthodontic movement small fully osseointegrate allowing easy removal following treatment ref name lee ref indicated needing shorten treatment time alternative extra oral anchorage mini implants frequently placed roots teeth may also sited roof mouth connected fixed brace help move teeth small diameter implants mini implants


introduction small diameter implants provided dentists means providing edentulous partially edentulous patients immediate functioning transitional prostheses definitive restorations fabricated many clinical studies done success long term usage implants based findings many studies mini dental implants exhibit excellent survival rates short medium term years appear reasonable alternative treatment modality retain mandibular complete overdentures available evidence composition typical ''conventional implant'' consists titanium screw resembling tooth root


roughened smooth surface majority dental implants made commercially pure titanium available four grades depending upon amount carbon nitrogen oxygen iron contained cold work hardened cp maximum impurity limits n percent c percent h percent fe percent percent commonly used titanium implants grade titanium titanium al v signifying titanium alloy containing percent aluminium percent vanadium alloy slightly harder cp used industry mostly abutment screws abutments ref name ferracane ref


modern dental implants also textured surface etching anodic oxidation various media blasting increase surface area osseointegration potential implant ref name reza ref cp titanium titanium alloy titanium content form titanium biocompatible titanium oxide surface layer veneer encloses metals preventing contacting bone ref name guomatinlinna ref ceramic zirconia based implants exist one piece combining screw abutment two piece systems abutment either cemented screwed might lower risk peri implant diseases long term data success


rates missing technique planning general considerations planning dental implants focuses general health condition patient local health condition mucous membranes jaws shape size position bones jaws adjacent opposing teeth health conditions absolutely preclude placing implants although certain conditions increase risk failure poor oral hygiene heavy smokers diabetics greater risk variant gum disease affects implants called peri implantitis increasing chance long term failures


long term steroid use osteoporosis diseases affect bones increase risk early failure implants ref name branemark suggested radiotherapy negatively affect survival implants nevertheless systemic study published concluded dental implants installed irradiated area oral cavity may high survival rate provided patient maintains oral hygiene measures regular follow ups prevent complications biomechanical considerations long term success implants determined part forces support implants periodontal ligament


upper jaw people grind teeth also increase force implants increase likelihood failures ref name branemark design implants account lifetime real world use person 's mouth regulators dental implant industry created series tests determine long term mechanical reliability implants person 's mouth implant struck repeatedly increasing forces similar magnitude biting fails exacting plan needed beyond clinical judgment dentist make acrylic guide called stent prior


surgery guides optimal positioning implant increasingly dentists opt get ct scan jaws existing dentures plan surgery cad cam software stent made using stereolithography following computerized planning case ct scan use ct scanning complex cases also helps surgeon identify avoid vital structures inferior alveolar nerve sinus ref name spector ref ref name lindhej ref bisphosphonate drugs use bone building drugs like bisphosphonates anti rankl drugs require special consideration implants associated


disorder called medication associated osteonecrosis jaw mronj drugs change bone turnover thought put people risk death bone minor oral surgery routine doses example used treat routine osteoporosis effects drugs linger months years risk appears low duality uncertainty exists dental community best manage risk bronj placing implants position paper american association oral maxillofacial surgeons discussed risk


bronj low dose oral therapy slow release injectable percent procedure done jaws implant extraction etc risk higher intravenous therapy procedures lower jaw people medical issues steroids potent bisphosphonates people taken drug three years position paper recommends placing implants people taking high dose high frequency intravenous therapy cancer care otherwise implants generally placed ref name ruggiero ref use bisphosphonates


appear affect implant survival ref name kumar ref main surgical procedures placing implant implant systems five basic steps placement implant ref name branemark soft tissue reflection incision made crest bone splitting thicker attached gingiva roughly half final implant thick band tissue around edges tissue referred ''flap'' pushed back expose bone flapless surgery alternate technique small punch tissue diameter implant removed implant placement rather


raising flaps drilling high speed reflecting soft tissue using surgical guide stent necessary pilot holes placed precision drills highly regulated speed prevent burning pressure necrosis bone drilling low speed pilot hole expanded using progressively wider drills typically three seven successive drilling steps depending implant width length care taken damage osteoblast bone cells overheating cooling saline water spray keeps temperature low placement implant


implant screw placed self tapping ref name lindhej otherwise prepared site tapped implant analog screwed place torque controlled wrench ref name mccrackenmitchell ref precise torque overload surrounding bone overloaded bone die condition called osteonecrosis may lead failure implant fully integrate bond jawbone tissue adaptation gingiva adapted around entire implant provide thick band healthy tissue around ''healing abutment'' contrast implant buried


top implant sealed ''cover screw'' tissue closed completely cover second procedure would required uncover implant later date timing implants extraction teeth different approaches placement dental implants tooth extraction ref name esposito ref approaches immediate post extraction implant placement delayed immediate post extraction implant placement two weeks three months extraction late implantation three months tooth extraction increasingly common strategy preserve bone reduce treatment times includes placement dental implant


recent extraction site one hand shortens treatment time improve aesthetics soft tissue envelope preserved hand implants may slightly higher rate initial failure conclusions topic difficult draw however studies compared immediate delayed implants scientifically rigorous manner ref name esposito one versus two stage surgery implant placed internal components covered either healing abutment cover screw healing abutment passes mucosa surrounding mucosa adapted around


survive long term needs thick healthy soft tissue gingiva envelope around common either bone soft tissue deficient surgeon needs reconstruct either implant placement ref name lindhej hard tissue bone reconstruction ''bone grafting'' necessary lack bone also helps stabilize implant increasing survival implant decreasing marginal bone level loss always new implant types short implants techniques allow compromise general treatment goal


minimum nbsp mm bone height nbsp mm width alternatively bone defects graded nbsp mm bone b nbsp mm c nbsp mm nbsp mm implant 's likelihood osseointegrating related grade bone ref name buser ref achieve adequate width height bone various bone grafting techniques developed frequently used called guided bone graft augmentation defect filled either natural harvested autograft bone allograft donor bone synthetic bone substitute covered semi permeable membrane allowed heal healing phase


natural bone replaces graft forming new bony base implant ref name peterson three common procedures ref name buser sinus lift lateral alveolar augmentation increase width site vertical alveolar augmentation increase height site invasive procedures also exist larger bone defects including mobilization inferior alveolar nerve allow placement fixture onlay bone grafting using iliac crest another large source bone microvascular bone graft blood supply bone transplanted source bone reconnected


tissue adjacent implant referred palatal roll moved towards lip buccal gingiva palate transplanted deeper connective tissue palate transplanted larger piece tissue needed finger tissue based blood vessel palate called vascularized interpositional periosteal connective tissue vip ct flap repositioned area ref name sclar additionally implant look esthetic band full plump gingiva needed fill space either side implant common soft tissue


complication called black triangle papilla small triangular piece tissue two teeth shrinks back leaves triangular void implant adjacent teeth dentists expect nbsp mm papilla height underlying bone black triangle expected distance teeth touch bone greater ref name lindhej recovery steps taken secure dental crowns implant fixture including placement abutment crown prosthetic phase begins implant well integrated reasonable assurance


integrate abutment place bring mucosa even event early loading less months many practitioners place temporary teeth osseointegration confirmed prosthetic phase restoring implant requires equal amount technical expertise surgical biomechanical considerations especially multiple teeth restored dentist work restore vertical dimension occlusion esthetics smile structural integrity teeth evenly distribute forces implants ref name branemark healing time


various options attach teeth dental implants ref name loadtimes classified immediate loading procedure early loading one week twelve weeks delayed loading three months implant become permanently stable body must grow bone surface implant osseointegration based biologic process thought loading implant osseointegration period would result movement would prevent osseointegration thus increase implant failure rates result three six months integrating time depending various factors allowed placing teeth


immediately three months six months ref name loadtimes corollary single implants even solid bone require period load minimize risk initial failure ref name atieh ref single teeth bridges fixed dentures abutment selected depending application many single crown fixed partial denture scenarios bridgework custom abutments used impression top implant made adjacent teeth gingiva dental lab simultaneously fabricates abutment crown abutment seated implant screw passes abutment


secure internal thread implant lag screw variations abutment implant body one piece ' 'stock'' prefabricated abutment used custom abutments made hand cast metal piece custom milled metal zirconia similar success rates ref name lindhej platform implant abutment flat buttress conical fit conical fit abutments collar abutment sits inside implant allows stronger junction implant abutment


internal thread implant appear benefit terms success cement versus screw retained prosthetics although latter believed easier maintain change prosthetic fractures former offers high esthetic performance ref name lindhej prosthetic procedures removable dentures removable denture worn retainers hold denture place either custom made shelf stock abutments custom retainers used four implant fixtures placed impression implants taken dental lab creates


custom metal bar attachments hold denture place significant retention created multiple attachments use semi precision attachments small diameter pin pushes denture bar allows little movement denture remains removable ref name jokstad however four implants angled way distribute occlusal forces may able safely hold fixed denture place comparable costs number procedures giving denture wearer fixed solution ref name patzelt ref alternatively stock abutments


used retain dentures using male adapter attached implant female adapter denture two common types adapters ball socket style retainer button style adapter types stock abutments allow movement denture enough retention improve quality life denture wearers compared conventional dentures ref name assuncao ref regardless type adapter female portion adapter housed denture require periodic replacement however number adapter type seem affect patient satisfaction prosthetic various removable


alternatives ref name leejy ref maintenance placement implants need cleaned similar natural teeth periodontal scaler remove plaque precarious blood supply gingiva care taken dental floss implants lose bone rate similar natural teeth mouth eg someone suffers periodontal disease implant affected similar disorder otherwise last porcelain crowns expected discolour fracture require repair approximately every ten years although significant variation service life


dental crowns based position mouth forces applied opposing teeth restoration material implants used retain complete denture depending type attachment connections need changed refreshed every one two years ref name branemark oral irrigator may also useful cleaning around implants kinds techniques used cleaning teeth recommended maintaining hygiene around implants manually professionally administered ref name ref examples would using soft toothbrushes nylon coated interproximal brushes ref name one


implication professional treatment metal instruments may cause damage metallic surface implant abutment lead bacterial colonisation ref name avoid specially designed instruments made hard plastic rubber additionally rinsing twice daily antimicrobial mouthwashes shown beneficial ref name evidence one type antimicrobial better ref name peri implantitis condition may occur implants due bacteria plaque design rise ref name ref name ref ref name ref


disease begins reversible condition called peri implant mucositis progress peri implantitis left untreated lead implant failure ref name ref name people encouraged discuss oral hygiene maintenance implants dentists ref name ref name ref name different interventions peri implantitis occurs mechanical debridement antimicrobial irrigation antibiotics also surgery open flap debridement remove bacteria assess smooth implant surface decontaminate implant surface ref name enough evidence know intervention best case peri implantitis ref name


risks complications surgery placement dental implants surgical procedure carries normal risks surgery including infection excessive bleeding necrosis flap tissue around implant nearby anatomic structures inferior alveolar nerve maxillary sinus blood vessels also injured osteotomy created implant placed ref name greenstein ref even lining maxillary sinus perforated implant long term sinusitis rare ref name ferguson ref inability place implant bone provide stability implant referred


first weeks surgery leading secondary stability secondary stability different initial stabilization results ongoing process bone regrowth implant osseointegration healing process complete initial mechanical stability becomes biological stability primary stability critical implantation success bone regrowth maximizes mechanical biological support implant regrowth usually occurs weeks implantation insufficient primary stability high initial implant mobility lead failure immediate post operative risks infection pre op antibiotics reduce risk implant failure percent


affect risk infection excessive bleeding ref name branemark flap breakdown less percent ref name branemark failure integrate implant tested weeks determine integrated significant variation criteria used determine implant success commonly cited criteria implant level absence pain mobility infection gingival bleeding radiographic lucency peri implant bone loss greater nbsp mm ref name criteria ref dental implant success related operator skill quality quantity bone available site patient 's oral hygiene


important factor primary implant stability ref name javed ref significant variation rate implants fail integrate due individual risk factors approximate values percent ref name branemark ref name loadtimes ref integration failure rare particularly dentist 's oral surgeon 's instructions followed closely patient immediate loading implants may higher rate failure potentially due loaded immediately trauma extraction difference proper care maintenance well within statistical variance type procedure often osseointegration failure occurs patient


either unhealthy receive implant engages behavior contraindicates proper dental hygiene including smoking drug use long term long term complications result restoring teeth implants relate directly risk factors patient technology risks associated appearance including high smile line poor gingival quality missing papillae difficulty matching form natural teeth may unequal points contact uncommon shapes bone missing atrophied otherwise shaped unsuitable manner unrealistic expectations patient


poor oral hygiene risks related biomechanical factors geometry implants support teeth way natural teeth cantilevered extensions fewer implants roots teeth longer implants support poor crown root ratio similarly grinding teeth lack bone low diameter implants increase biomechanical risk ref name renouard finally technological risks implants fail due fracture loss retention teeth intended


teeth screws recent advancements allowed placement crowns abutments dental cement akin placing crown tooth created potential cement escapes crown cementation get caught gingiva create peri implantitis see picture complication occur appear additional peri implantitis cement retained crowns compared screw retained crowns overall ref name debrandao ref compound implants two stage implants actual implant superstructure abutment gaps cavities bacteria


soft tissues occurrence technical complications prosthetic maintenance adequate function esthetics prosthetic addition patient ideally free pain paraesthesia able chew taste pleased esthetics ref name criteria rates complications vary implant use prosthetic type listed single crown implants year implant survival percent ref name singlecompl ref crown survival metal ceramic percent ceramic percent cumulative rate ceramic acrylic veneer fracture percent ref name singlecompl peri implantitis percent ref name singlecompl percent ref name ref peri implant mucositis


percent ref name implant fracture percent ref name singlecompl screw abutment loosening percent ref name singlecompl screw abutment fracture percent ref name singlecompl fixed complete dentures progressive vertical bone loss still function peri implantitis percent ref name main failure first year percent five years percent ten years ref name main incidence veneer fracture '' year'' ref name main percent ref name bozini ref '' year'' percent percent confidence interval percent ref name bozini '' year'' percent percent


confidence interval percent ref name bozini year incidence framework fracture percent percent confidence interval percent ref name bozini year incidence esthetic deficiency percent percent confidence interval percent ref name bozini prosthetic screw loosening percent five years ref name main percent ten years ref name bozini common complication fracture wear tooth structure especially beyond ten years ref name main ref name bozini fixed dental prostheses made metal ceramic significantly higher ten year


survival compared made gold acrylic ref name main removable dentures overdentures loosening removable denture retention percent ref name overdentcompl ref dentures needing relined retentive clip fracture percent ref name overdentcompl history greenfield 's basket one earliest examples successful endosseous implant greenfield 's implant system studying bone cells rabbit tibia using titanium chamber branemark unable remove bone realization bone would adhere titanium led concept osseointegration development modern dental implants original


x ray film chamber embedded rabbit tibia shown made available branemark panoramic radiograph historic dental implants taken archeological evidence humans attempted replace missing teeth root form implants thousands years remains ancient china dating years ago carved bamboo pegs tapped bone replace lost teeth year old remains ancient egypt similarly shaped pegs made precious metals egyptian mummies found transplanted human teeth instances teeth made ivory ref name misch ref name balaji ref ref name anusavice ref etruscans


ref name balaji modern times tooth replica implant reported early polymethacrylate tooth analogue encapsulated soft tissue rather osseointegrated early part th century saw number implants made variety materials one earliest successful implants greenfield implant system also known greenfield crib basket ref name greenfield 's implant ref greenfield 's implant iridioplatinum implant attached gold crown showed evidence osseointegration lasted number years ref name greenfield 's implant first use titanium


implantable material bothe beaton davenport observed close bone grew titanium screws difficulty extracting ref name bothe ref bothe et al first researchers describe would later called osseointegration name would marketed later per ingvar br nemark gottlieb leventhal implanted titanium rods rabbits ref name gottlieb ref leventhal 's positive results led believe titanium represented ideal metal surgery ref name gottlieb research conducted cambridge university england blood flow living


organisms workers devised method constructing chamber titanium embedded soft tissue ears rabbits swedish orthopaedic surgeon per ingvar br nemark interested studying bone healing regeneration research time lund university adopted cambridge designed rabbit ear chamber use rabbit femur following study attempted retrieve expensive chambers rabbits found unable remove br nemark observed bone grown close proximity titanium effectively


adhered metal br nemark carried studies phenomenon using animal human subjects confirmed unique property titanium leonard linkow one first insert titanium metal implants bones jaw artificial teeth attached pieces metal br nemark placed first titanium dental implant human volunteer began working mouth accessible continued observations high rate missing teeth general population offered


subjects widespread study termed clinically observed adherence bone titanium osseointegration ref name newman since implants evolved three basic types root form implants common type implant indicated uses within root form type implant roughly variants made titanium different shapes surface textures limited evidence showing implants relatively smooth surfaces less prone peri implantitis implants rougher surfaces evidence showing particular type dental implant superior long term success


zygoma implant long implant anchor cheek bone passing maxillary sinus retain complete upper denture bone absent https samedaymecom zygomaticimplants zygomatic implants offer novel approach severe bone loss upper jaw shown offer advantage bone grafting functionally although may offer less invasive option depending size reconstruction required ref name esposito ref small diameter implants implants low diameter one piece construction implant abutment sometimes used denture retention orthodontic anchorage ref name miniimplant


see also carl e misch dennis p tarnow leonard linkow per ingvar br nemark references reading implants medicine dentistry restorative dentistry prosthetics oral surgery dental equipment prosthodontology


'''user experience evaluation''' '''uxe''' '''user experience assessment''' '''uxa''' refers collection methods skills tools utilized uncover person perceives system product service non commercial item combination interacting non trivial assess user experience since user experience subjective context dependent dynamic time uxa study successful researcher select right dimensions constructs methods target research specific area interest game transportation mobile etc dimensions many different

Applied science
Architecture and design
User experience design
User experience evaluation


also differ measure momentary episodic experience ie assessing person feels specific interaction episode executing task experience time also known longitudinal experience uxa methods classified three categories implicit explicit creative methods implicit methods implicit methods ux research focus users say also user cannot express verbally many available tools assist implicit evaluation particular gather implicit objective data available ux researchers utilize state


art equipment uncover aspects experience examples implicit evaluation methods tools eye tracking attention tracking user tracking task reaction measurement galvanic skin response skin conductance electroencephalography eeg observation studies participant observation observers monitor participant 's reactions facial gestures tone voice body language cues explicit methods explicit methods ux research explore user consciously aware getting reflect feelings thoughts gather views opinions important aspect explicit methods includes usability


testing emotion evaluation emotion assessment investigating momentary user experiences evaluate level positive affect negative affect joy surprise frustration etc measures emotions bound methods used emotion assessment typical emotion measures eg valence arousal objective emotion data collected psychophysiological measurements observing expressed emotions subjective emotional data collected using self report methods verbal non verbal examples emotion assessment methods psychophysiological emotion measurements aim identify emotions physiological changes muscles eg face pupils skin heart brains


etc expression think aloud protocol used reporting emotions real time verbal self report positive negative affect schedule panas retrospective verbal self report geneva emotion wheel retrospective verbal self report photographic affect meter pam emotion slider continuous non verbal self report sensual evaluation instrument sei snapshot non verbal self report premo new version emocards assessing emotion snapshot non verbal self report creative methods equally important implicit explicit methods creative methods user researcher utilize order bring together design team 's view well target market 's dreams aspirations ideas optimal design activities


open allow people either co create engineers designers use imagination express ideal system examples creative assessment methods co design activities creativity workshops paper prototyping wireframing mind mapping card sorting personas longitudinal contrast identifying momentary emotion longitudinal uxa investigates person feels system whole using examples longitudinal uxa methods excluding traditional usability methods diary methods self reporting experiences field studies experience sampling method esm self reporting field studies day reconstruction method drm story telling reveal


meaningful experiences field studies attrakdiff questionnaire overall ux evaluation user experience questionnaire ueq available several language versions ladder interviews eg find attitudes values behind behaviour experience holistic user experience hux identifying relevant product factors holistic user experience areas uxa research transportation automobiles come long way since beginning late th century one major things helped automobiles provide safety convenience electronics advances technology electronics car manufacturers able offer wide


variety services conveniences creation electronic fuel injection popular global positioning system found standard many cars today auto industry revolutionized way people travel place place understanding people interact vehicles today contributes great driving experience current relationship car placement lives key development technologies information ensures user centered design practices generate cohesive predictive desirable designs specific design concepts ideas table uxa


new pursuit video game play testing ux usability research increasing number companies including world 's biggest publishers begun outsourcing ux evaluation opening house labs researchers use variety hci psychological techniques examine effectiveness user experience games design process also companies starting use biometrics measure relationship game events player 's emotions feelings ux player research serco experiencelab uk valve electronic arts boltpeters vmc labs


us canada interest area comes academia industry sometimes enabling collaborative work game ux work featured professional venues game developers conference gdc web design user experience evaluation become common practice web design especially within organizations implementing user centered design practices user testing user experience constantly evaluated throughout whole product design life cycle see also user experience design experience modifier microsoft reaction card method references human computer interaction user interfaces evaluation methods


united nations paris conference '''politics climate change''' results different perspectives respond climate change global warming driven largely emissions greenhouse gases due human economic activity especially burning fossil fuels certain industries like cement steel production land use agriculture forestry since industrial revolution fossil fuels provided main source energy economic technological development centrality fossil fuels carbon intensive industries resulted much resistance climate friendly policy despite widespread scientific consensus

Applied science
Public administration
Science policy
Climate change policy


policy necessary efforts mitigate climate change prominent international political agenda since also increasingly addressed national local level climate change complex global problem greenhouse gas ghg emissions contribute global warming across world regardless emissions originate yet impact global warming varies widely depending vulnerable location economy effects global warming whole negative impact predicted worsen heating increases regions benefited climate change ability


benefit fossil fuels renewable energy sources vary substantially nation nation different responsibilities benefits climate related threats faced world 's nations contributed early climate change conferences producing little beyond general statements intent address problem non binding commitments developed countries reduce emissions st century increased attention mechanisms like climate finance order vulnerable nations adapt climate change nations local jurisdictions climate friendly policies adopted go well beyond committed international


could worsened possible triggering irreversible climate tipping points worst case feedback mutually reinforcing cascading tipping points could lead runaway climate change beyond human ability control though considered highly unlikely ref group note michael e mann says mainstream scientific evidence runaway global warming imminent threat see mann chpt esp p however mainstream climate scientists steffen author ippc c report considers risk significant warnings runaway warming threat appear various books


politics climate change published example liven figures chomsky ref considerable economic disruption predicted even political agreement strong enough achieve rcp pathway likely keep warming nbsp c nbsp c among risks nbsp c warming sea level rises could devastate various island nations along vulnerable countries regions much low lying land bangladesh florida nbsp c rise would sharply increase occurrences deadly wet bulb temperatures potentially leading deaths tens millions people live


tropics unless able migrate seek shelter reliably air conditioned areas various disruptive impacts rise nbsp c projected threaten ongoing existence human civilisation ref name challenge ref ref name mckibbin ref policy debate like policy debates political debate climate change fundamentally action ref name dessler loc chpt p ref various distinct arguments underpin politics climate change different assessments urgency threat feasibility advantages disadvantages various responses essentially relate potential responses climate change ref


name dessler loc chpt p statements form political arguments divided two types positive normative statements positive statements generally clarified refuted careful definition terms scientific evidence whereas normative statements one ought often relate least partly morality essentially matter judgement experience indicated better progress often made debates participants attempt disentangle positive normative parts arguments reaching agreement positive statements first early stages debate


magnify differences developed less developed nations ref actions response climate change divided three classes mitigation actions reduce greenhouse gas emissions adaptation actions defend negative results global warming climate engineering direct human intervention climate aimed reducing average global temperature ref name dessler loc chpt ref th century international debate climate change focused almost entirely mitigation sometimes considered defeatist pay much attention adaptation also compared mitigation adaptation local matter different parts


world facing vastly different threats opportunities climate change early st century mitigation still receives attention political debates longer sole focus degree adaptation widely considered essential discussed internationally least high level though specific actions take remain mostly local matter commitment provide billion per year worth funding developing countries made copenhagen summit paris clarified allocation funding involve balanced split


adaptation mitigation though funding provided delivered going mainly mitigation projects possibilities geoengineering also increasingly discussed expected become prominent future debates ref name dessler loc chpt ref name challenge political debate concerning specific courses action achieving effective mitigation tends vary depending scale governance concerned different considerations apply international debate compared national municipal level discussion climate change first became prominent political agenda


optimism problem could successfully tackled recent signing montreal protocol protect ozone layer indicated world able act collectively address threat warned scientists even yet causing significant harm humans yet early ghg emissions continued rise little sign agreement penalise emitters reward climate friendly behaviour become clear achieving global agreement effective action limit global warming would much challenging ref group note addition


reach agreements could accepted versus desirability agreement significant practical effect human activity see eg dryzek chpt dessler chpt ref ref name dessler loc chpt ref name kamarck ref multilateral carbon dioxide emissions jurisdiction climate change became fixture global political agenda early united nations climate change conferences set run yearly annual events also called conferences parties cops major landmark cops kyoto protocol


creating largely voluntary set processes encourage emission reduction include sharing information progress reviews approaches largely complementary though various conferences much focus often single approach international negotiations focused largely emissions targets success montreal treaty reducing emissions damaged ozone layer suggested targets could effective yet case greenhouse gas reductions targets general led substantial cuts emissions ambitious targets usually met attempts impose severe penalties


jurisdiction jobs revenue benefit emissions released elsewhere nonetheless percentage worlds' emissions covered carbon price rose reach china 's carbon price comes fully force existing carbon price regimes implemented mostly independently european union nations sub national jurisdictions acting autonomously largely voluntary pledge review system states make plans emissions reduction introduced abandoned kyoto treaty


focus securing agreement top emissions targets approach revived copenhagen gained prominence paris agreement though pledges came called nationally determined contributions ndcs meant submitted enhanced form every years effective approach remains seen first submission nations elevated ndcs due take place glasgow conference plans agree international system carbon price related trading also glasgow cop meeting regional national sub


electrical power generation renewables actual decisions reduce emissions deploy clean technologies mostly made governments individuals businesses organisations yet national local governments set policies encourage climate friendly activity broadly policies divided four types firstly implementation carbon price mechanism financial incentives secondly prescriptive regulations example mandating certain percentage electricity generation must renewables thirdly direct government spending climate friendly activity research fourthly approaches based information


sharing education encouraging voluntary climate friendly behaviour ref name dessler loc chpt non governmental actors individuals businesses ngos affect politics climate change directly indirectly mechanisms include individual rhetoric aggregate expression opinion means polls mass protests historically significant proportion protests climate friendly policies since uk fuel protests dozens protests across world fuel taxes ending fuel subsidies since advent school strike extinction rebellion pro climate protests


become prominent indirect channels apolitical actors effect politics climate change include funding working green technologies fossil fuel divestment movement ref name dessler loc chpt special interests lobbying non country actors global warming attracted attention left wing groups democratic socialists america numerous special interest groups organizations corporations public private positions multifaceted topic global warming following partial list types special interest parties shown interest


politics global warming '''fossil fuel companies''' traditional fossil fuel corporations stand lose stricter global warming regulations though exceptions fact fossil fuel companies engaged energy trading might mean participation trading schemes mechanisms could give unique advantage unclear whether every traditional fossil fuel companies would always stricter global warming policies example enron traditional gas pipeline company large trading desk heavily lobbied united states government regulate co thought would dominate


energy industry could center energy trading ref name michaels david michaels ''doubt product industry 's assault science threatens health'' ref ref name hoggan see eg p ''ff'' describing industry based advocacy strategies context climate change denial p ''ff'' describing involvement free market think tanks climate change denial ref '''farmers agribusiness''' important lobby vary views climate change agriculture example role eu common agricultural policy '''financial institutions''' financial institutions generally support policies global warming particularly implementation carbon trading schemes


creation market mechanisms associate price carbon new markets require trading infrastructures banking institutions provide financial institutions also well positioned invest trade develop various financial instruments could profit speculative positions carbon prices use brokerage financial functions like insurance derivative instruments '''environmental groups''' environmental advocacy groups generally favor strict restrictions emissions environmental groups activists engage raising awareness '''renewable energy energy efficiency companies''' companies wind solar energy efficiency generally support stricter global warming


policies expect share energy market expand fossil fuels made expensive trading schemes taxes '''nuclear power companies''' support benefit carbon pricing subsidies low carbon energy production nuclear power produces minimal greenhouse gas emissions '''electricity distribution companies''' may lose solar panels benefit electric vehicles '''traditional retailers marketers''' traditional retailers marketers general corporations respond adopting policies resonate customers green provides customer appeal could undertake modest programs please better align customers however


since general corporation make profit particular position unlikely would strongly lobby either stricter global warming policy position '''medics''' often say climate change air pollution tackled together save millions lives ref name shindell et al ref '''information communications technology companies''' say products help others combat climate change tend benefit reductions travel many purchase green electricity various interested parties sometimes align one another reinforce message example electricity companies fund purchase electric school buses


benefit medics reducing load health service whilst time selling electricity sometimes industries fund specialty nonprofit organizations raise awareness lobby behest combinations tactics various interested parties use nuanced sometimes unlimited variety approaches promote positions onto general public collective action current climate politics influenced number social political movements focused different parts building political climate action includes climate justice movement youth climate movement


movements divest fossil fuel industries divestment movement youth movement current outlook historical political attempts agree policies limit global warming largely failed commentators expressed optimism successful due various recent developments opportunities present earlier periods commentators expressed warnings little time act order chance keeping warming nbsp c even good chance keeping global heating nbsp c ref name dessler loc chpt ref


driven factors growing recognition global warming threat resulting recent extreme weather events greta effect ippc c report secretary general opec recognised school strike movement greatest threat faced fossil fuel industry according christiana figueres population start participating non violent protest always successful sparking political change success greta thunberg 's fridays future movement suggesting reaching threshold may obtainable reduced influence climate change denial outright climate


change denial become much less influential force previous years reasons include increasing frequency extreme weather events effective communication part climate scientists greta effect example cato institute closed climate shop ref name clark ref ref name unherd ref growth renewable energy renewable energy inexhaustible source naturally replenishing energy major renewable energy sources wind hydropower solar geothermal biomass renewable energy accounted primary energy consumption sources united states


deployment policies clear policies must created way build upon effective group women world leaders cop glasgow november th united nation conference parties cop took place glasgow scotland almost nations agreed accelerate fight climate change commit effective climate pledges new pledges included reforms methane gas pollution deforestation coal financing surprisingly usa china two largest carbon emitters


also agreed work together efforts prevent global warming surpassing degrees celsius scientists politicians activist arguing enough done summit still reach degree tipping point independent report climate action tracker said commitments lip service emit roughly twice much required degrees according iea renewable energy capacity set expand many main five types renewable energy set


make immense growth future solar energy cheaper making much accessible onshore wind energy capacity increase hydroelectric capacity rise finally geothermal capacity set jump continual rise renewable energy needed edge fossil fuels reduce harmful greenhouse gas emissions fight towards final goal reversing climate change feasibility replacing energy fossil fuel nuclear especially renewable energy much increased dozens countries generating


beginning catastrophic impact localities major policy changes need implemented soon risk escalating environmental impact avoided ref name dessler loc chpt ref name mann loc chpt ref name figueres loc chpt chpt centrality fossil fuel energy fossil fuels remains central worlds economy accounting energy generation reducing emissions raising cost energy consumers often found cause riots making energy expensive industry


reduce amount economic activity within jurisdiction knock effects jobs revenue clean energy sometimes cheaper ref group note whether actually cheaper depends various factors like fluctuating price fossil fuels global market endowments jurisdiction enjoys sunlight amount flowing water etc new renewable energy infrastructure replacing existing fossil fuel plant timescale consideration determines whether construction costs offset ref provisioning large amounts renewable energy short period time tends


challenging ref name dessler loc chpt ref name challenge ref name kamarck according report international energy agency energy related emissions fossil fuels set rise would second highest rise ever expected driven largely increased burning coal inactivism outright denial climate change much less prevalent compared preceding decades many arguments continue made taking action limit ghg emissions arguments include view better ways


spend available funds would better wait new technology developed would make mitigation cheaper future negative effects climate change heavily discounted compared current needs fossil fuel lobby political spending largest oil gas corporations comprise big oil industry lobbyist arm american petroleum institute api spend large amounts money lobbying political campaigns employ hundreds lobbyists obstruct delay government action address climate change fossil fuel lobby considerable clout washington dc


agenda brussels big oil companies often adopt sustainability principles odds policy agenda lobbyists advocate often entails sewing doubt reality impacts climate change forestalling government efforts address api launched public relations disinformation campaign aim creating doubt public mind climate change becomes non issue ref name theguardiancom ref name reuterseventscom industry also spends lavishly american political campaigns approximately political contributions past several decades fueling republican party politicians outspending many fold political


american public began become aware climate change issue administrations united states presidents scorned scientists spoke publicly threat fossil fuels posed climate us administrations silenced climate scientists muzzled government whistleblowers political appointees number federal agencies prevented scientists reporting findings regarding aspects climate crisis changed data modeling arrive conclusions set ''a prior'' prove shut input career scientists agencies targeting climate activists climate environmental activists including increasingly


defending woodlands logging industry killed several countries colombia brazil philippines perpetrators killings punished record number killings recorded year indigenous environmental activists disproportionately targeted comprising many fatalities worldwide domestic intelligence services several governments us government targeted environmental activists climate change organizations domestic terrorists surveilling investigating questioning placing national watchlists could make difficult


board airplanes could instigate local law enforcement monitoring us tactics included preventing media coverage american citizen assemblies protests climate change partnering private security companies monitor activists doomism context climate change politics doomism refers pessimistic narratives claim late anything climate change doomism include exaggeration probability cascading climate tipping points likelihood triggering runaway global heating beyond human ability control even humanity able immediately stop burning fossil fuels


climate tax bill saw lacking social justice attempts impose carbon price us states blocked left wing politicians implemented cap trade mechanism rather tax multi sector governance issue climate change usually fits various sectors means integration climate change policies policy areas frequently called thus problem difficult needs addressed multiple scales diverse actors involved complex


big role carbon dioxide removal one two main forms climate engineering commentators across political spectrum tend welcome removal sceptical ever able remove enough slow global warming without also rapid cuts emissions warn much optimism technology may make harder mitigation policies enacted ref name dessler loc chpt ref name mann loc chpt somewhat opposite view towards main form climate engineering


solar radiation management least sulphur based aerosol variant broad agreement would effective bringing average global temperatures yet prospect considered unwelcome many climate scientists warn side effects would include possible health impacts humans reductions agricultural yields due reduced sunlight rainfall possible localised temperature rises weather disruptions according michael mann prospect using solar management reduce temperatures another argument used reduce willingness enact emissions reduction policy ref name mann loc chpt different responses


political spectrum discontinuity resulted survey changing reciting global warming climate change ref image survey existence global warming responsibility climate change bar chartsvg caption sharp divide existence responsibility global warming climate change falls largely along political lines ref name guardian overall americans surveyed said oil gas companies completely mostly responsible climate change ref name guardian ref climate friendly policies generally supported across political spectrum though many exceptions among voters politicians


leaning towards right even politicians left rarely made addressing climate change top priority th century right wing politicians led much significant action climate change internationally domestically richard nixon margaret thatcher prominent examples yet especially english speaking countries especially us issue began polarised ref name kamarck ref name dessler loc chpt right wing media started arguing climate change invented least exaggerated left justify expansion


size government ref group note much media coverage lines paid fossil fuel industry koch industries one prominent companies involved yet early koch brothers pushed taxes households solar panels selling excess energy back grid leading michael mann suggest preference small government may primary motivation see mann chpt p ref right wing governments enacted increased climate friendly policies various surveys indicated slight trend even us right wing


voters become less sceptical global warming though view anatol lieven right wing us voters sceptical climate change become part identity position matter easily shifted rational argument ref name lieven loc passim esp chpt ref ref name unherd study university dortmund concluded countries centre left wing governments higher emission reductions right wing governments oecd countries time period ref name garmann ref historically nationalist governments among worst performers enacting policies


though according lieven climate change increasingly seen threat ongoing existence nation states nationalism likely become one effective forces drive determined mitigation efforts growing trend securitize climate change threat may especially effective increasing support among nationalist conservatives ref name lieven loc passim esp chpt ref name pewsurvey ref name dessler loc chpt relationship climate science global warming attracted attention central bank governors mark carney appointed un envoy climate action


scientific literature overwhelming consensus global surface temperatures increased recent decades trend caused primarily human induced emissions greenhouse gases ref name oreskesbeyondtheivorytower ref ref name americasclimatechoices scipanel ref ref name usnas climatechoices ref politicization science sense manipulation science political gains part political process part controversies intelligent design ref name aaas http wwwaaasorg news releases pdf boardstatementpdf american association advancement science statement teaching evolution ref ref name nejm http contentnejmorg cgi content full intelligent judging evolution classroom courtroom george j annas new england journal medicine


volume may ref compare wedge strategy merchants doubt scientists suspicion willingly obscure findings eg issues like tobacco smoke ozone depletion global warming acid rain ref name merchants doubt ref however eg case ozone depletion global regulation based montreal protocol successful climate high uncertainty strong resistance ref name rg case climate change kyoto protocol failed ref name cass http lawvanderbiltedu files archive sunstein pdf montreal kyoto tale two protocols cass r sunstein elr ref ipcc process tries find


impact adaptation climate change ref name argued misallocation resources urgent puzzle current juncture work change human behavior mitigate climate change whereas natural science climate change already well established decades centuries handle adaptation ref name see also business action climate change carbon emission trading carbon footprint climate action climate change policy united states climate movement clean development mechanism climate legislation economics global warming environmental


agreements environmental law environmental politics fossil fuel phase green new deal green politics list climate change initiatives list international environmental agreements low carbon economy sustainability notes citations references reading naomi klein ''on fire burning case green new deal'' allen lane vox cepr policy portal url https voxeuorg content brainers low hanging fruit national climate policy access date website voxeuorg external links https webarchiveorg web http wwwidsacuk go idspublication political economy climate change political economy climate change environmental groups http wwwpandaorg climate panda world wide fund nature wwf http wwwgreenpeaceorg international campaigns climate change greenpeace greenpeace http stopclimatechaosorg stop climate chaos coalition uk charities business http wwwcdpnet carbon disclosure project carbon disclosure project supported institutional investors aims transparency companies' greenhouse gas


emissions environmental terminology climate change environmental social science political economy


'''human sexual activity''' '''human sexual practice''' '''human sexual behaviour''' manner humans experience express sexuality people engage variety sexual acts ranging activities done alone eg masturbation acts another person eg sexual intercourse non penetrative sex oral sex etc ref name itp ref varying patterns frequency wide variety reasons sexual activity usually results sexual arousal physiological changes aroused person pronounced others subtle sexual activity may also include conduct activities intended arouse

Social science
Sociology
Sexology
Human sexual behavior


sexual interest another enhance sex life another strategies find attract partners courtship display behaviour personal interactions individuals instance foreplay bdsm sexual activity may follow sexual arousal human sexual activity sociological cognitive emotional behavioural biological aspects include personal bonding sharing emotions physiology reproductive system sex drive sexual intercourse sexual behaviour forms cultures sexual activity considered acceptable within marriage premarital extramarital sex taboo sexual activities illegal either universally


masturbation ref name edhs penetrative sex two people may described sexual intercourse definitions vary two participants sex act may referred group sex autoerotic sexual activity involve use dildos vibrators butt plugs sex toys though devices also used partner sexual activity classified gender sexual orientation participants well relationship participants relationships ones marriage intimate partners casual sex partners anonymous sexual activity


regarded conventional alternative involving example fetishism bdsm activities ref name tab ref ref name spsw ref fetishism take many forms including desire certain body parts partialism breasts navels feet ref name efmt ref object desire shoes boots lingerie clothing leather rubber items non conventional autoerotic practices dangerous include erotic asphyxiation self bondage ref name ccibk ref potential injury even death exists engaging partnered versions fetishes choking bondage respectively becomes drastically increased autoerotic case due isolation lack


assistance event problem ref name ccibk sexual activity consensual sexual activity participants agree take part age consent ref name mss ref sexual activity takes place force duress rape another form sexual assault different cultures countries various sexual activities may lawful illegal regards age gender marital status factors participants otherwise contrary social norms generally accepted sexual morals ref name mss mating strategies evolutionary psychology behavioral


ecology human mating strategies set behaviors used individuals attract select retain mates mating strategies overlap reproductive strategies encompass broader set behaviors involving timing reproduction trade quantity quality offspring see life history theory relative animals human mating strategies unique relationship cultural variables institution marriage humans may seek individuals intention forming long term intimate relationship marriage casual relationship friendship human desire companionship one strongest human


drives innate feature human nature may related sex drive human mating process encompasses social cultural processes whereby one person may meet another assess suitability courtship process process forming interpersonal relationship commonalities however found humans nonhuman animals mating behavior stages physiological arousal sexual stimulation indian kama sutra illustration shows woman top man depicts male erection one physiological responses sexual arousal men physiological responses


sexual stimulation fairly similar men women four phases ref name schacter ref excitement phase muscle tension blood flow increase around sexual organs heart respiration increase blood pressure rises men women experience sex flush skin upper body face typically woman 's vagina becomes lubricated clitoris becomes swollen ref name schacter man 's penis become erect plateau phase heart rate muscle tension increase man 's urinary bladder closes prevent urine mixing semen woman 's


relax blood pressure drops body returns resting state though generally reported women experience refractory period thus experience additional orgasm multiple orgasms soon first ref name rosenthal ref ref name soc ref sources state men women experience refractory period women may also experience period orgasm sexual stimulation produce excitement ref name schacter ref name weiner craighead ref period may last minutes days typically longer men women ref name schacter sexual dysfunction inability react emotionally physically


sexual stimulation way projected average healthy person affect different stages sexual response cycles desire excitement orgasm media sexual dysfunction often associated men actuality commonly observed females percent males percent psychological aspects sexual activity lower blood pressure overall stress levels ref name ssm ref serves release tension elevate mood possibly create profound sense relaxation especially postcoital period biochemical perspective sex causes release oxytocin endorphins


boosts immune system ref name ssm motivations people engage sexual activity multitude possible reasons although primary evolutionary purpose sexual activity reproduction research college students suggested people sex four general reasons ''physical attraction'' ''means end'' increase ''emotional connection'' ''alleviate insecurity'' people engage sexual activity pleasure derive arousal sexuality especially achieve orgasm sexual arousal also experienced foreplay flirting fetish bdsm activities erotic


sexual activity purely monetary considerations obtain advantage either partner activity man woman may engage sexual intercourse objective conception people engage hate sex occurs two people strongly dislike annoy related idea opposition two people heighten sexual tension attraction interest ref name holbrook ref self determination theory research found people also engage sexual activity reasons associated self determination theory self determination theory applied sexual relationship


participants positive feelings associated relationship participants feel guilty coerced partnership researchers proposed model self determined sexual motivation purpose model connect self determination sexual motivation ref name brunell ab ref model helped explain people sexually motivated involved self determined dating relationships model also links positive outcomes satisfying need autonomy competence relatedness gained sexual motivations ref name brunell ab according completed research associated model found people sexes


engaged sexual activity self determined motivation positive psychological well ref name brunell ab engaging sexual activity self determined reasons participants also higher need fulfillment need satisfied felt better correlated greater closeness partner higher overall satisfaction relationship ref name brunell ab though sexes engaged sexual activity self determined reasons differences found males females concluded females motivation males engage sexual activity self determined reasons ref name brunell ab


females also higher satisfaction relationship quality males sexual activity ref name brunell ab overall research concluded psychological well sexual motivation sexual satisfaction positively correlated dating couples partook sexual activity self determined reasons ref name brunell ab frequency frequency sexual activity might range zero times week ref name edhs ref frequency intercourse declines age ref name cpes ref post menopausal women experience declines frequency sexual intercourse others ref name hsfdpr ref according kinsey institute average frequency sexual intercourse


us individuals partners times per year age times per year age times per year age adolescents age adolescents tend become sexually active varies considerably different cultures time time see prevalence virginity first sexual act child adolescent sometimes referred sexualization child may considered milestone change status loss virginity innocence youth legally free intercourse reach


age consent survey students indicated approximately ninth graders across united states report sexual intercourse figure rises grade males sexually active females grade levels surveyed sexual activity young adolescents differs ethnicity well higher percent african american hispanic adolescents shown sexually active white adolescents research sexual frequency also conducted solely female adolescents engage sexual activity female adolescents tended engage sexual activity due


positive mood female teenagers engaging sexual activity directly positively correlated older greater sexual activity previous week prior day positive mood previous day day sexual activity occurred ref name fortenberry dj temkit tu w graham ca katz b ref decreased sexual activity associated prior current day negative mood menstruating ref name fortenberry dj temkit tu w graham ca katz b although opinions differ others suggest sexual activity essential part humans teenagers need


experience sex according research study sexual experiences help teenagers understand pleasure satisfaction ref name vrangalova z ref relation hedonic eudaimonic well stated teenagers positively benefit sexual activity cross sectional study conducted rural upstate new york community teenagers first sexual experience age revealed higher well sexually inexperienced first sexually active later age ref name vrangalova z furthermore teenagers first sexual experience age younger


many sexual partners negatively affected associated lower well ref name vrangalova z health safety sexual activity innately physiological function like physical activity comes risks four main types risks may arise sexual activity unwanted pregnancy contracting sexually transmitted infection sti std physical injury psychological injury unwanted pregnancy sexual activity involves introduction semen woman 's vagina sexual intercourse contact semen vulva may result pregnancy reduce risk


asymptomatic show symptoms ref name king b king b human sexuality today sixth ed upper saddle river pearson education inc ref ref name sternak ref risk stis reduced safe sex practices using condoms partners may opt tested stis engaging sex ref name sexinfo sti overview ref exchange body fluids necessary contract infestation crab lice crab lice typically found attached hair pubic area sometimes found coarse hair elsewhere body example eyebrows eyelashes beard mustache chest armpits


etc pubic lice infestations pthiriasis spread direct contact someone infested louse stis like hiv aids also contracted using iv drug needles use infected person well childbirth breastfeeding ref name echl ref aging factors biological psychological factors diseases mental conditions boredom relationship widowhood found contribute decrease sexual interest activity old age older age eliminate ability enjoy sexual activity ref name ihontdos ref orientations society heterosexuality sexual intercourse


sexual attraction sex people homosexual orientation express sexuality variety ways may may express behaviors ref name apahelp ref research indicates many gay men lesbians want succeed committed durable relationships example survey data indicate gay men lesbians currently involved romantic relationship ref name whatisnature http wwwapaorg topics lgbt orientationaspx accordion content nature sex relationships american psychological association retrieved december ref possible person whose sexual identity


mainly heterosexual engage sexual acts people sex gay lesbian people pretend heterosexual often referred closeted hiding sexuality closet closet case derogatory term used refer people hide sexuality making orientation public called coming closet case voluntary disclosure outing case disclosure others subject 's wishes without knowledge among communities called men dl low sex sexual behavior


sometimes viewed solely physical pleasure men sex men well women sex women men low may engage sex acts members sex continuing sexual romantic relationships opposite sex gerda wegener painting les delassements d'eros recreations eros two women engaged sexual activity bed people engage exclusively sex sexual practices may identify gay lesbian sex segregated environments individuals may seek relationships others gender known


situational homosexuality cases people may experiment explore sexuality different sex sexual activity defining sexual identity despite stereotypes common misconceptions forms sexual acts exclusive sex sexual behavior cannot also found opposite sex sexual behavior except involving meeting genitalia sex partners nbsp tribadism generally vulva vulva rubbing commonly known scissoring position frot generally penis penis rubbing bisexuality pansexuality people romantic sexual attraction sexes referred bisexual ref name apahelp ref ref name glaad ref people


gender blind gender sex insignificant irrelevant determining whether sexually attracted others defined ''oxford english dictionary'' pansexuality encompasses kinds sexuality limited inhibited sexual choice regards gender practice social aspects general attitudes alex comfort others propose three potential social aspects sexual intercourse humans mutually exclusive reproductive relational recreational development contraceptive pill highly effective forms contraception mid late th century increased people 's ability segregate


three functions still overlap great deal complex patterns example fertile couple may intercourse using contraception experience sexual pleasure recreational also means emotional intimacy relational thus deepening bonding making relationship stable capable sustaining children future deferred reproductive couple may emphasize different aspects intercourse different occasions playful one episode intercourse recreational experiencing deep emotional connection another occasion relational later discontinuing contraception seeking achieve pregnancy reproductive likely reproductive


relational religious ethical human sexual activity generally influenced social rules culturally specific vary widely ref name euab ref sexual ethics morals norms relate issues including deception honesty legality fidelity consent activities known sex crimes locations illegal jurisdictions including conducted among consenting competent adults examples include sodomy law adult adult incest people relationship want hide polygamous activity possibly opposite sexual orientation partner may solicit consensual sexual activity others personal contacts online chat


rooms advertising select media swinging involves singles partners committed relationship engaging sexual activities others recreational social activity ref name matf ref increasing popularity swinging regarded arising upsurge sexual activity sexual revolution people engage various sexual activities business transaction involves sex performing certain actual sexual acts another person exchange money something value called prostitution aspects adult industry include phone sex operators


accept responsibility consequences sexual behaviour responsible sexual behaviour sensitivity equity gender relations particularly instilled formative years enhance promote respectful harmonious partnerships men women bdsm man handcuffed bed blindfolded bdsm variety erotic practices roleplaying involving bondage dominance submission sadomasochism interpersonal dynamics ref name matf given wide range practices may engaged people consider practicing bdsm inclusion bdsm community subculture usually dependent


self identification shared experience ref name etfs ref bdsm communities generally welcome anyone non normative streak identifies community may include cross dressers extreme body modification enthusiasts animal players latex rubber aficionados others b bondage discipline part bdsm bondage includes restraint body mind ref name ref means dominant submissive dominant one takes control person wishes surrender control submissive one surrenders control person wishes take control ref name sadism masochism pat


bdsm sadist individual takes pleasure pain humiliation others masochist individual takes pleasure pain humiliation ref name unlike usual power neutral relationships play styles commonly followed couples activities relationships within bdsm context often characterized participants' taking complementary unequal roles thus idea informed consent partners becomes essential participants exert dominance sexual otherwise partners known dominants tops participants take passive


receiving obedient role known submissives bottoms terms sometimes shortened dominant person may referred dom woman may choose use feminine domme submissive may referred sub individuals change top dominant bottom submissive roles ndash whether relationship relationship within given relationship ndash known ' 'switches'' precise definition roles self identification common subject debate within community ref name terms ref study researchers stated bdsm sexual act


participants play role games use restraint use power exchange use suppression pain sometimes involved depending individual ref name ref study serves challenge widespread notion bdsm could way linked psychopathology according findings one participates bdsm may greater strength socially mentally well greater independence practice bdsm ref name suggests people participate bdsm play higher subjective well might due fact bdsm play requires extensive communication act


occurs partners must discuss agreement relationship discuss long play last intensity actions participant needs desires sexual activities may included acts must consensual pleasurable parties ref name study interviewed bdsm participants mentioned activities helped create higher levels connection intimacy trust communication partners ref name study suggests dominants submissives exchange control 's pleasure satisfy need participants remarked


things giving psychological release ref name legal issues many laws social customs prohibit way affect sexual activities laws customs vary country country varied time cover example prohibition non consensual sex sex outside marriage sexual activity public besides many others many restrictions non controversial subject public debate societies consider serious crime force someone engage sexual acts engage sexual activity someone


consent called sexual assault sexual penetration occurs called rape serious kind sexual assault details distinction may vary among different legal jurisdictions also constitutes effective consent sexual matters varies culture culture frequently debated laws regulating minimum age person consent sex age consent frequently subject debate adolescent sexual behavior general societies forced marriage consent may required sex laws many locales laws


limit prohibit sex sexual activity sex outside marriage west sex marriage illegal social taboos many religions condemn pre marital sex many muslim countries saudi arabia pakistan afghanistan ref name travelstategov ref iran ref name travelstategov kuwait maldives morocco oman mauritania united arab emirates sudan yemen form sexual activity outside marriage illegal found guilty especially women may forced wed sexual partner publicly beaten stoned death many african native tribes sexual activity viewed privilege right married couple


rather unification bodies thus frowned upon studies analyzed changing attitudes sex american adolescents outside marriage adolescents asked felt oral vaginal sex relation health social emotional well overall teenagers felt oral sex viewed socially positive amongst demographic ref name halpern feisher bl ref results stated teenagers believed oral sex dating non dating adolescents less threatening overall values beliefs vaginal sex ref name halpern feisher bl asked teenagers participated


research viewed oral sex acceptable peers personal values vaginal sex ref name halpern feisher bl minimum age sexual activity age consent laws jurisdiction set minimum age young person allowed engage sexual activity ref name waites ref age consent typically years laws vary many jurisdictions age consent person 's mental functional age ref name kopple wolf ref ref name supremecourt ref ref name lawphil ref result set age consent may still considered unable legally consent


due mental immaturity ref name kopple wolf ref name supremecourt ref name lawphil many jurisdictions regard sexual activity adult involving child child sexual abuse age consent may vary type sexual act sex actors restrictions abuse position trust jurisdictions also make allowances young people engaged sexual acts incestuous relationships jurisdictions prohibit sexual activity certain close relatives laws vary extent acts called incestuous incest laws may involve restrictions marriage rights also vary jurisdictions


incest involves adult child considered form child sexual abuse ref name levesque ref ref name unchildren ref sexual abuse non consensual sexual activity subjecting unwilling person witnessing sexual activity forms sexual abuse well many countries certain non consensual paraphilias frotteurism telephone scatophilia indecent phonecalls non consensual exhibitionism voyeurism known indecent exposure peeping tom respectively prostitution survival sex people sometimes exchange sex money access resources work takes place many varied circumstances person receives payment sexual services


known prostitute person receives services referred multitude terms client prostitution one branches sex industry legal status prostitution varies country country punishable crime regulated profession estimates place annual revenue generated global prostitution industry nbsp billion prostitution sometimes referred world 's oldest profession prostitution may voluntary individual activity facilitated forced pimps survival sex form prostitution engaged


people need usually homeless otherwise disadvantaged people trade sex food place sleep basic needs drugs term used sex trade poverty researchers aid workers see also child sexuality erotic plasticity history human sexuality human female sexuality human male sexuality lesbian sexual practices mechanics human sexuality orgasm control orgastic potency sexual activity pregnancy sociosexual orientation transgender sexuality references reading https webarchiveorg web http data org pdf global sex surveypdf durex global sex survey pdf https webarchiveorg web http wwwdata org indexaspx data org ryan christopher jetha cacilda ''sex dawn


prehistoric origins modern sexuality'' new york harper human sexual activity intimate relationships


explained solely socioeconomic variables age income occupation education type leisure activity substantially influenced numerous complex factors presence lack family religious beliefs general cultural values one adheres definitions theoretical concerns john wilson others noted difficult define leisure ref name scraton sheila scraton leisure george ritzer ed ''blackwell encyclopedia sociology'' https onlinelibrarywileycom doi book query sociology leisure widen result number search id g chunk g ss type std fuzzy slop online last accessed january ref ref name wilson john wilson sociology leisure ''annual review sociology'' vol august pp https wwwannualreviewsorg doi abs annurevso online https wwwjstororg stable jstor ref

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of leisure


definitions numerous often mutually contradictory example discrete portion one 's time quality experience irrespective time ref name wilson joffre dumazedier distinguished four distinct definitions leisure begin broadly gradually narrow scope ref name parker stanley parker sociology leisure progress problems ''the british journal sociology'' vol march pp https wwwjstororg stable jstor ref first broadest defines leisure style behavior may occur even work second defines non work activity third excludes family household obligations


finally narrowest defines leisure activities dedicated self fulfillment dumazedier 's four definitions exhaustive ref name parker incompatible definitions measures seen major factor accounting occasionally contradictory research findings ref name wilson unresolved questions concerning definition work particular whether unpaid endeavors volunteering studying work ref name scraton non work time equated free time comprises free time dedicated leisure also time dedicated certain obligatory activities housework ref name wilson dividing activities free dedicated time


easy example brushing one 's teeth neither work leisure scholars differ classifications activities eating meal shopping repairing car attending religious ceremony showering various individuals may may classify activities leisure ref name wilson relation work leisure also unclear research indicates individuals find skills acquired work useful hobbies vice versa individuals used leisure activities advance work careers ref name wilson sociologists also disagree whether political


spiritual activities included studies leisure ref name parker sr parker sociology leisure ''sociology'' oxford p http socsagepubcom pdf online ref among occupational communities police officers miners common colleagues time friends share similar work based leisure activities ref name wilson apart definition leisure questions theoretical concern sociologist leisure example quantifying results difficult time budget studies noted given amount time example hour may different values depending


focusing qualitative methods research interviews ref name scraton history thorstein veblen one first sociologists study leisure sociology leisure fairly recent subfield sociology compared traditional subfields sociology work sociology family sociology education saw development second half th century ref name parker ref name scraton ref name gordon gordon marshall leisure sociological studies ''a dictionary sociology'' encyclopediacom http wwwencyclopediacom doc leisuresociologicalstudsfhtml online last accessed january ref leisure often seen


would see leisure time excuse unproductivity something n't deserve n't attained n't get way economics therein lies current structures marx 's theories remained relevant criticisms time remain true day marx 's criticism capitalism rooted exploitation worker conflict worker class warfare effect marx engels reader overview writings theories marxism realm freedom realm necessity


two approaches study leisure formal historical theoretical ref name gordon formal approach focuses empirical questions shifting leisure patterns individual 's life cycle relation leisure work specific forms leisure sociology sport ref name gordon historical theoretical approach studies relation leisure social change often structural functionalist neo marxist perspectives ref name gordon sheila scraton provided different analysis comparing north american british studies ref name scraton british approaches focus input pluralism critical marxism feminism american approaches concentrate social psychological tradition ref


involving social leisure activities profound ref name wilson type leisure activity also depends individual 's current place life cycle ref name wilson within framework family leisure time researched measure effect families weekend work found families parents work weekend negative effect family particularly children written many parents work weekend less educated lower income could implications


generally consensus moderation tend various positive effects example going movies alone friends improve health well pay work leisure individuals make trade offs pay work leisure however timing scale trade offs varies occupations incomes individuals also vary time society society societies substantial across board rises pay increase working hours male blue collar workers young children reduce middle class women husbands


well paid full time jobs see also sociological investigations leisure internet rhona rapoport ikigai notes '''a''' sociological studies leisure second half th century one earliest celebrated thorstein veblen 's ''the theory leisure class'' ref name scraton references reading abbott lewis f ''theories labour market employment review'' isr google books chapter educational family leisure influences bennet bergero sociology leisure suggestions ''industrial relations journal economy society'' vol issue may


pp nbsp john robert kelly geoffrey godbey ''the sociology leisure'' venture pub review book margaret carlisle duncan sociology leisure ''journal leisure research'' vol fall http findarticlescom p articles mi qa n v ai n online stanley r parker ''leisure work'' allen unwin orlov alexandr ''the sociology recreation'' nauka moscow gilles pronovost ''the sociology leisure trend report'' sage publications rhona rapoport robert n rapoport four themes sociology leisure ''the british journal sociology'' vol june pp nbsp https wwwjstororg stable jstor kenneth roberts


''leisure contemporary society'' cabi chris rojek leisure tourism craig j calhoun chris rojek bryan turner eds ''the sage handbook sociology'' sage chris rojek ''decentring leisure rethinking leisure theory'' sage snape r pussard h 'theorisations leisure interwar britain' leisure studies pp nbsp stebbins robert serious leisure perspective time new brunswick nj transaction paperback edition new preface stebbins robert idea leisure first principles new brunswick nj transaction marx engels reader new york norton


'''physical metallurgy''' one two main branches scientific approach metallurgy considers systematic way physical properties metals alloys basically fundamentals applications theory phase transformations metal alloys title classic challenging monograph subject title http wwwsciencedirectcom science book chemical metallurgy involves domain reduction oxidation metals physical metallurgy deals mainly mechanical magnetic electric thermal properties metals treated discipline solid state physics calphad methodology able produce phase diagrams

Applied science
Engineering and technology
Materials Science and Engineering
Physical Metallurgy


basis evaluating estimating physical properties metals relies computational thermodynamics ie chemical thermodynamics could considered common useful field two sub disciplines see also extractive metallurgy metallurgical materials transactions peer review journal covering physical metallurgy materials science scientific journals ''metallurgical materials transactions a'' https linkspringercom searchquery search within journal facet journal id package openaccessarticles open access articles ''metallurgical materials transactions b'' https linkspringercom searchquery search within journal facet journal id package openaccessarticles open access articles ''acta materialia'' http wwwsciencedirectcom science journal open access open access articles ''journal alloys compounds'' http wwwsciencedirectcom science journal open access articles external links https ocwmitedu courses materials science engineering j physical metallurgy fall mit ocw mit opencourseware course physical


engineering physics chemistry study '''transport phenomena''' concerns exchange mass energy charge momentum angular momentum observed studied systems draws fields diverse continuum mechanics thermodynamics places heavy emphasis commonalities topics covered mass momentum heat transport share similar mathematical framework parallels exploited study transport phenomena draw deep mathematical connections often provide useful tools analysis one field directly derived others

Natural science
Chemistry
Chemical Engineering
Transport phenomena


throughout engineering disciplines common examples transport analysis engineering seen fields process chemical biological mechanical engineering subject fundamental component curriculum disciplines involved way fluid mechanics heat transfer mass transfer considered part engineering discipline much thermodynamics mechanics electromagnetism transport phenomena encompass agents physical change universe moreover considered fundamental building blocks developed universe responsible


success life earth however scope limited relationship transport phenomena artificial engineered systems ref name j l plawsky ref overview physics '''transport phenomena''' irreversible processes statistical nature stemming random continuous motion molecules mostly observed fluids every aspect transport phenomena grounded two primary concepts conservation laws constitutive equations conservation laws context transport phenomena formulated continuity equations describe quantity studied must conserved constitutive equations describe quantity


question responds various stimuli via transport prominent examples include fourier 's law heat conduction navier stokes equations describe respectively response heat flux temperature gradients relationship fluid flux forces applied fluid equations also demonstrate deep connection transport phenomena thermodynamics connection explains transport phenomena irreversible almost physical phenomena ultimately involve systems seeking lowest energy state keeping principle minimum energy approach state tend achieve true thermodynamic equilibrium


point longer driving forces system transport ceases various aspects equilibrium directly connected specific transport heat transfer system 's attempt achieve thermal equilibrium environment mass momentum transport move system towards chemical mechanical equilibrium examples transport processes include heat conduction energy transfer fluid flow momentum transfer molecular diffusion mass transfer radiation electric charge transfer semiconductors transport phenomena wide application example solid state physics motion interaction electrons holes phonons studied


diffusion rain drop loses momentum surrounding air viscous stresses decelerates molecular transfer equations newton 's law fluid momentum fourier 's law heat fick 's law mass similar one convert one transport coefficient another order compare three different transport phenomena center class wikitable style text align center width comparison diffusion phenomena transported quantity physical phenomenon equation momentum viscosity br newtonian fluid math tau nu frac partial rho upsilon partial x math energy heat conduction br fourier 's law math frac q k frac dt dx math mass molecular diffusion br fick 's law math j frac partial c partial x math definitions formulas