''m'' number edges currently fastest run time strongly polynomial algorithm problem weights integers run time improved math mn n log log n math resulting algorithm weakly polynomial weights integers weights ''c'' ''c'' integer problem solved math sqrt n log n cdot c math weakly polynomial time method called ''weight scaling'' addition global methods ''local methods'' based finding local updates rather


full augmenting paths methods worse asymptotic runtime guarantees often work better practice algorithms called auction algorithms push relabel algorithms preflow push algorithms algorithms shown equivalent local methods assume graph admits ''perfect matching'' case methods might run forever ref name simple technical way solve problem extend input graph ''complete bipartite graph'' adding artificial edges large weights weights exceed weights

Applied science
Transportation
Operations research
Assignment problem


existing matchings prevent appearance artificial edges possible solution shown mulmuley vazirani vazirani problem minimum weight perfect matching converted finding minors adjacency matrix graph using isolation lemma minimum weight perfect matching graph found probability least graph ''n'' vertices requires math log n math time unbalanced assignment unbalanced assignment problem larger part bipartite graph ''n'' vertices smaller part ''r'' ''n'' vertices


also constant ' 's'' cardinality maximum matching graph goal find minimum cost matching size exactly ' 's'' common case case graph admits one sided perfect matching ie matching size ''r'' ' 's'' ''r'' unbalanced assignment reduced balanced assignment naive reduction add math n r math new vertices smaller part connect larger part using edges cost however requires math n n r math new edges efficient reduction called ' 'doubling


technique'' new graph ''g' nowiki '' built two copies original graph ''g'' forward copy ''gf'' backward copy ''gb'' backward copy flipped side ''g''' ''n'' ''r'' vertices copies need add two kinds linking edges ref name large large vertex larger part ''gf'' add zero cost edge corresponding vertex ''gb'' small small original graph one sided perfect matching vertex smaller part ''gf'' add high cost


edge corresponding vertex ''gb'' math n r math new edges required resulting graph always perfect matching size math n r math minimum cost perfect matching graph must consist minimum cost maximum cardinality matchings ''gf'' ''gb'' main problem doubling technique speed gain math r n math instead using reduction unbalanced assignment problem solved directly generalizing existing algorithms balanced assignment hungarian algorithm generalized solve problem math ms log r math strongly polynomial time


times w ij x ij math math display block text subject sum j x ij text sum x ij text j math math display block le x ij le text ij math math display block x ij mathbb z text ij math integer linear program however solve without integrality constraints ie drop last constraint using standard methods solving continuous linear programs formulation allows also fractional variable values special case lp always optimal solution variables take integer values constraint matrix fractional lp totally unimodular nbsp


satisfies four conditions hoffman gale also proved directly let ''x'' optimal solution fractional lp total weight number non integral variables done otherwise fractional variable say math display inline x j math sum variables adjacent integer must another variable adjacent ''j'' fractional value say math display inline x j math similar considerations ''i'' must another variable adjacent ''i'' fractional value say


cycle ''e'' sum variables near vertex remains vertex constraints still satisfied moreover ''e'' sufficiently small variables remain domain constraints still satisfied easy find largest ''e'' maintains domain constraints either smallest difference odd variable smallest difference even variable one less fractional variable ''k'' ''x'' decreases objective value remains since otherwise


could increase selecting ''e'' positive negative contradiction assumption maximal repeating cycle removal process arrive ''n'' steps solution variables integral methods approximation algorithms approaches assignment problem exist reviewed duan pettie see table ii work proposes approximation algorithm assignment problem general maximum weight matching problem runs linear time fixed error bound generalization phrased graph


male golden toad '''herpetology''' greek ''herpet n'' meaning reptile creeping animal branch zoology concerned study amphibians including frogs toads salamanders newts caecilians gymnophiona reptiles including snakes lizards amphisbaenids turtles terrapins tortoises crocodilians tuataras birds cladistically included within reptilia traditionally excluded scientific study birds subject ornithology thus definition herpetology precisely stated study ectothermic cold blooded tetrapods definition herps sometimes herptiles herpetofauna exclude fish uncommon

Natural science
Biology
Zoology
Herpetology


herpetological ichthyological scientific societies team publishing joint journals holding conferences order foster exchange ideas fields american society ichthyologists herpetologists many herpetological societies formed promote interest reptiles amphibians captive wild herpetology offers benefits humanity study role amphibians reptiles global ecology especially amphibians often sensitive environmental changes offering visible warning humans significant changes taking place toxins venoms produced reptiles


amphibians useful human medicine currently snake venom used create anti coagulants work treat strokes heart attacks etymology word ''herpetology'' greek ''herpet n'' creeping animal '' logia'' knowledge people avid interest herpetology keep different reptiles amphibians often refer herpers herp vernacular term non avian reptiles amphibians derived old term herpetile roots back linnaeus 's classification animals grouped reptiles amphibians together class


chose use amphibians reptiles model organisms specific questions fields role frogs ecology wetland areas related evolutionary history eg evolution viviparity including behavior reproduction careers career options field herpetology include limited lab research field studies survey zoological staff museum staff college teaching modern academic science rare individuals consider herpetologist first foremost individuals focus particular field


ecology evolution taxonomy physiology molecular biology within field ask questions pertaining best answered examining reptiles amphibians example evolutionary biologist also herpetologist may choose work issue evolution warning coloration coral snakes modern herpetological writers include mark o'shea philip purser modern herpetological showmen include jeff corwin steve irwin popularly known crocodile hunter star austin stevens popularly known austinsna keman tv series ''austin stevens snakemaster'' study colleges universities offer major


herpetology undergraduate even graduate level instead persons interested herpetology select major biological sciences knowledge learned aspects biology animals applied individual study herpetology journals herpetology research published academic journals including ''ichthyology herpetology'' founded name ''copeia'' honor edward drinker cope ''herpetologica'' founded ''contemporary herpetology'' founded see also herping list herpetologists list herpetology academic journals reptile database references reading adler kraig ''contributions history


herpetology'' society study amphibians reptiles eatherley dan ''bushmaster raymond ditmars hunt world 's largest viper'' new york arcade pp goin coleman j goin olive b zug george r ''introduction herpetology third edition'' san francisco w h freeman company xi pp external links https webarchiveorg web https iranian herpir iranian herpetological studies institute ihsi https webarchiveorg web http wwwfield herpetologycouk field herpetology guide http wwwasihorg american society ichthyologists herpetologists http wwwherpconbioorg herpetological conservation biology http wwwseh herpetologyorg societas europaea herpetologica distribution maps european reptiles amphibians https webarchiveorg web http wwwcnahorg indexasp center north american herpetology


species reptiles amphibians https webarchiveorg web http wwweuroherpcom european field herping community http wwwlandcareresearchconz research wildlifeecol herpetology new zealand herpetology http wwwchicagoherporg chicago herpetological society http carlgansorg biology reptilia online biology reptilia online copy full text volume page summary state research reptiles http wwwherpmapperorg herpmapper database reptile amphibian sightings http herpatlassdnhmorg amphibian reptile atlas peninsular california san diego natural history museum https wwwlearnaboutcrittersorg primer primer reptiles amphibians http wwwfieldherpforumcom forum indexphp field herp forum subfields zoology scoutcraft turtle taxonomy


climatology scientific study climate '''climatology''' greek ''klima'' place zone '' logia'' '''climate science''' scientific study earth 's climate typically defined weather conditions averaged period least years modern field study regarded branch atmospheric sciences subfield physical geography one earth sciences climatology includes aspects oceanography biogeochemistry main methods employed climatologists analysis observations modelling physical processes determine climate

Social science
Geography
Physical geography
Climatology


period time climate atmospheric condition extended indefinite period time history greeks began formal study climate fact word climate derived greek word klima meaning slope referring slope inclination earth 's axis arguably influential classic text climate ''on airs water places'' ref name ref written hippocrates around bce work commented effect climate human health cultural differences asia europe ref name


idea climate controls countries excel depending climate ''climatic determinism'' remained influential throughout history ref name chinese scientist shen kuo inferred climates naturally shifted enormous span time observing petrified bamboos found underground near yanzhou modern day yan'an shaanxi province dry climate area unsuitable growth bamboo ref name bowdenburek ref invention thermometer barometer scientific revolution allowed systematic recordkeeping began early england ref name early climate researchers include edmund halley published map trade winds


voyage southern hemisphere benjamin franklin first mapped course gulf stream use sending mail united states europe francis galton invented term ''anticyclone'' helmut landsberg fostered use statistical analysis climatology led evolution physical science early th century climatology mostly focused description regional climates descriptive climatology mainly applied science giving farmers interested people statistics normal weather big chances


extreme events climatologists define ''climate normal'' average weather weather extremes period typically years around middle th century many assumptions meteorology climatology considered climate roughly constant scientists knew past climate change ice ages concept climate unchanging useful development general theory determines climate started change decades followed history climate change science started earlier climate change


became one mean topics study climatologists seventies onward subfields map average temperature years data sets formed long term average historical weather parameters sometimes called climatology various subfields climatology study different aspects climate different categorizations fields climatology american meteorological society instance identifies descriptive climatology scientific climatology applied climatology three subcategories climatology categorization based complexity purpose research ref name ref applied climatologists apply expertise


different industries manufacturing agriculture paleoclimatology seeks reconstruct understand past climates examining records ice cores tree rings dendroclimatology paleotempestology uses records help determine hurricane frequency millennia historical climatology study climate related human history thus focuses last thousand years boundary layer climatology preoccupied exchanges water energy momentum near surface identified subfields physical climatology dynamic climatology tornado climatology regional climatology bioclimatology synoptic climatology study hydrological cycle long


govern climate climate governed physical laws expressed differential equations equations coupled nonlinear approximate solutions obtained using numerical methods create global climate models climate sometimes modeled stochastic process generally accepted approximation processes otherwise complicated analyze climate data collection long record climate variables essential study climate climatology deals aggregate data meteorology collected scientists use direct indirect observations climate


earth observing satellites scientific instrumentation global network thermometers prehistoric ice extracted glaciers measuring technology changes time records data cannot compared directly cities generally warmer surrounding areas urbanization made necessary constantly correct data urban heat island effect models climate models use quantitative methods simulate interactions atmosphere oceans land surface ice used variety purposes study dynamics weather climate system projections


future climate climate models balance nearly balance incoming energy short wave including visible electromagnetic radiation earth outgoing energy long wave infrared electromagnetic radiation earth unbalance results change average temperature earth climate models include radiative effects greenhouse gases carbon dioxide models predict upward trend surface temperatures well rapid increase temperature higher latitudes models range relatively simple complex simple radiant heat transfer model treats


topics climatologists study fall roughly three categories climate variability mechanisms climatic change change modern climate change climatological processes various factors impact average state atmosphere particular location instance midlatitudes pronounced seasonal cycle temperature whereas tropical regions show little variation temperature year another major control climate continentality distance major water bodies oceans oceans act moderating factor land close typically mild winters moderate summers atmosphere interacts


spheres climate system winds generating ocean currents transport heat around globe climate classification classification important aspect many sciences tool simplifying complicated processes different climate classifications developed centuries first ones ancient greece climates classified depends application wind energy producer require different information wind classification somebody interested agriculture precipitation temperature important widely used classification k ppen climate classification developed late


nineteenth century based vegetation uses monthly temperature precipitation data climate variability el ni impacts different modes variability recurring patterns temperature climate variables quantified different indices much way dow jones industrial average based stock prices companies used represent fluctuations stock market whole climate indices used represent essential elements climate climate indices generally devised twin objectives simplicity completeness index


typically represents status timing climate factor represents nature indices simple combine many details generalized overall description atmosphere ocean used characterize factors impact global climate system el ni southern oscillation enso coupled ocean atmosphere phenomenon pacific ocean responsible global variability temperature cycle two seven years north atlantic oscillation mode variability mainly contained lower atmosphere troposphere layer


energy sun climate system also gives energy outer space balance incoming outgoing energy passage energy climate system determines earth 's energy budget incoming energy greater outgoing energy earth 's energy budget positive climate system warming energy goes energy budget negative earth experiences cooling ref name web nasa energybalance ref climate change also influences average sea level modern climate change driven human emissions greenhouse gas burning fossil fuel driving


global mean surface temperatures rising temperatures one aspect modern climate change though includes observed changes precipitation storm tracks cloudiness warmer temperatures driving changes climate system widespread melt glaciers sea level rise shifts flora fauna differences meteorology contrast meteorology focuses short term weather systems lasting weeks climatology studies frequency trends systems studies periodicity weather events years millennia well changes long term average


weather patterns relation atmospheric conditions climatologists study nature climates local regional global natural human induced factors cause climates change climatology considers past help predict future climate change phenomena climatological interest include atmospheric boundary layer circulation patterns heat transfer radiative convective latent interactions atmosphere oceans land surface particularly vegetation land use topography chemical physical composition atmosphere use weather forecasting complicated way making forecast analog


technique requires remembering previous weather event expected mimicked upcoming event makes difficult technique use rarely perfect analog event future call type forecasting pattern recognition remains useful method observing rainfall data voids oceans knowledge satellite imagery relates precipitation rates land well forecasting precipitation amounts distribution future variation theme used medium range forecasting


known teleconnections systems locations used help pin location system within surrounding regime one method using teleconnections using climate indices enso related phenomena see also biogeochemistry climate complex networks climatic geomorphology climate reanalysis geophysics tropical cyclone rainfall climatology urban climatology references books reading jenny uglow weather review sarah dry ''waters world story scientists unraveled mysteries oceans atmosphere ice sheets made


planet whole'' university chicago press pp ''the new york review books'' vol lxvi december pp external links https science globalchangegov climate science special report ndash us global change research program http climexpknminl knmi climate explorer royal netherlands meteorological institute 's climate explorer graphs climatological relationships spatial temporal data http wwwaiporg history climate climogyhtm climatology profession amer inst physics account history discipline climatology th century atmospheric sciences climate weather statistics natural environment


blue gene p massively parallel supercomputer '''parallel computing''' type computation many calculations processes carried simultaneously large problems often divided smaller ones solved time several different forms parallel computing bit level instruction level data task parallelism parallelism long employed high performance computing gained broader interest due physical constraints preventing frequency scaling ref name sv adve ''et al'' november https graphicscsillinoisedu sites default files upcrc wppdf parallel computing research illinois upcrc agenda pdf parallel illinois university illinois urbana champaign

Formal science
Computer science
Parallel computing


main techniques performance benefits increased clock frequency smarter increasingly complex architectures hitting called power wall computer industry accepted future performance increases must largely come increasing number processors cores die rather making single core go faster ref power consumption consequently heat generation computers become concern recent years parallel computing become dominant paradigm computer architecture mainly form multi core processors ref name view power asanovic krste ''et al'' december http wwweecsberkeleyedu pubs techrpts eecs pdf landscape parallel computing research view


berkeley pdf university california berkeley technical report ucb eecs old conventional wisdom increasing clock frequency primary method improving processor performance new conventional wisdom increasing parallelism primary method improving processor performance even representatives intel company generally associated 'higher clock speed better' position warned traditional approaches maximizing performance maximizing clock speed pushed limits ref parallel computing closely related concurrent computing frequently used together often conflated though two distinct possible parallelism without concurrency


bit level parallelism concurrency without parallelism multitasking time sharing single core cpu ref name waza concurrency parallelism ''waza conference'' jan rob pike http talksgolangorg wazaslide slides http vimeocom video ref parallel computing computational task typically broken several often many similar sub tasks processed independently whose results combined afterwards upon completion contrast concurrent computing various processes often address related tasks typical distributed computing separate tasks may varied nature often require inter process communication execution


parallel computers roughly classified according level hardware supports parallelism multi core multi processor computers multiple processing elements within single machine clusters mpps grids use multiple computers work task specialized parallel computer architectures sometimes used alongside traditional processors accelerating specific tasks cases parallelism transparent programmer bit level instruction level parallelism explicitly parallel algorithms particularly use concurrency difficult write sequential ones concurrency introduces several new classes potential software bugs


race conditions common communication synchronization different subtasks typically greatest obstacles getting optimal parallel program performance theoretical upper bound speed single program result parallelization given amdahl 's law background traditionally computer software written serial computation solve problem algorithm constructed implemented serial stream instructions instructions executed central processing unit one computer one instruction may execute time instruction finished


next one executed ref name llnltut ref parallel computing hand uses multiple processing elements simultaneously solve problem accomplished breaking problem independent parts processing element execute part algorithm simultaneously others processing elements diverse include resources single computer multiple processors several networked computers specialized hardware combination ref name llnltut historically parallel computing used scientific computing simulation scientific problems particularly natural engineering sciences meteorology


''c'' capacitance switched per clock cycle proportional number transistors whose inputs change ''v'' voltage ''f'' processor frequency cycles per second increases frequency increase amount power used processor increasing processor power consumption led ultimately intel 's may cancellation tejas jayhawk processors generally cited end frequency scaling dominant computer architecture paradigm deal problem power consumption overheating major central processing unit cpu processor manufacturers started produce power


efficient processors multiple cores core computing unit processor multi core processors core independent access memory concurrently multi core processors brought parallel computing desktop computers thus parallelisation serial programmes become mainstream programming task quad core processors became standard desktop computers servers core processors moore 's law predicted number cores per processor double every months could mean typical processor dozens hundreds


cores operating system ensure different tasks user programmes run parallel available cores however serial software programme take full advantage multi core architecture programmer needs restructure parallelise code speed application software runtime longer achieved frequency scaling instead programmers need parallelise software code take advantage increasing computing power multicore architectures amdahl 's law gustafson 's law graphical representation amdahl 's law speedup program parallelization limited much


program parallelized example program parallelized theoretical maximum speedup using parallel computing would times matter many processors used assume task two independent parts ''a'' ''b'' part ''b'' takes roughly time whole computation working hard one may able make part times faster reduces time whole computation little contrast one may need perform less work make part ''a'' twice


fast make computation much faster optimizing part ''b'' even though part ''b'' 's speedup greater ratio times versus times optimally speedup parallelization would linear doubling number processing elements halve runtime doubling second time halve runtime however parallel algorithms achieve optimal speedup near linear speedup small numbers processing elements flattens constant value large numbers processing elements potential speedup algorithm parallel computing


platform given amdahl 's law math text latency frac p frac p math ''s'' sub latency sub potential speedup latency execution whole task ' 's'' speedup latency execution parallelizable part task ''p'' percentage execution time whole task concerning parallelizable part task ''before parallelization'' since shows small part program cannot parallelized limit overall speedup available parallelization program solving large mathematical engineering problem typically


consist several parallelizable parts several non parallelizable serial parts non parallelizable part program accounts runtime ''p'' get times speedup regardless many processors added puts upper limit usefulness adding parallel execution units task cannot partitioned sequential constraints application effort effect schedule bearing child takes nine months matter many women assigned graphical representation gustafson 's law amdahl 's


entire problem fixed size total amount work done parallel also ''independent number processors'' whereas gustafson 's law assumes total amount work done parallel ''varies linearly number processors'' dependencies understanding data dependencies fundamental implementing parallel algorithms program run quickly longest chain dependent calculations known critical path since calculations depend upon prior calculations chain must executed order however algorithms consist


long chain dependent calculations usually opportunities execute independent calculations parallel let ''p'' sub ''i'' sub ''p'' sub ''j'' sub two program segments bernstein 's conditions describe two independent executed parallel ''p'' sub ''i'' sub let ''i'' sub ''i'' sub input variables ''o'' sub ''i'' sub output variables likewise ''p'' sub ''j'' sub ''p'' sub ''i'' sub ''p'' sub ''j'' sub independent satisfy math j cap varnothing math math cap j varnothing math math cap j varnothing math violation first condition introduces flow dependency corresponding first segment producing result used


second segment second condition represents anti dependency second segment produces variable needed first segment third final condition represents output dependency two segments write location result comes logically last executed segment consider following functions demonstrate several kinds dependencies function dep b c b c end function example instruction cannot executed even parallel instruction instruction uses result


program often called threads parallel computer architectures use smaller lightweight versions threads known fibers others use bigger versions known processes however threads generally accepted generic term subtasks threads often need synchronized access object resource example must update variable shared without synchronization instructions two threads may interleaved order example consider following program class wikitable thread thread b read variable v b read variable v


add variable v b add variable v write back variable v b write back variable v instruction b executed instruction executed b b program produce incorrect data known race condition programmer must use lock provide mutual exclusion lock programming language construct allows one thread take control variable prevent threads reading writing variable unlocked thread


holding lock free execute critical section section program requires exclusive access variable unlock data finished therefore guarantee correct program execution program rewritten use locks class wikitable thread thread b lock variable v b lock variable v read variable v b read variable v add variable v b add variable v write back variable v b write back variable v unlock


variable v b unlock variable v one thread successfully lock variable v thread locked unable proceed v unlocked guarantees correct execution program locks may necessary ensure correct program execution threads must serialize access resources use greatly slow program may affect reliability locking multiple variables using non atomic locks introduces possibility program deadlock atomic lock locks multiple variables cannot lock lock


two threads need lock two variables using non atomic locks possible one thread lock one second thread lock second variable case neither thread complete deadlock results many parallel programs require subtasks act synchrony requires use barrier barriers typically implemented using lock semaphore one class algorithms known lock free wait free algorithms altogether avoids use locks barriers however approach generally difficult implement requires


correctly designed data structures parallelization results speed generally task split threads threads spend ever increasing portion time communicating waiting access resources overhead resource contention communication dominates time spent computation parallelization splitting workload even threads increases rather decreases amount time required finish problem known parallel slowdown improved cases software analysis redesign fine grained coarse grained


embarrassing parallelism applications often classified according often subtasks need synchronize communicate application exhibits fine grained parallelism subtasks must communicate many times per second exhibits coarse grained parallelism communicate many times per second exhibits embarrassing parallelism rarely never communicate embarrassingly parallel applications considered easiest parallelize flynn 's taxonomy michael j flynn created one earliest classification systems parallel sequential computers programs known flynn 's taxonomy flynn classified programs computers


whether operating using single set multiple sets instructions whether instructions using single set multiple sets data single instruction single data sisd classification equivalent entirely sequential program single instruction multiple data simd classification analogous operation repeatedly large data set commonly done signal processing applications multiple instruction single data misd rarely used classification computer architectures deal devised systolic arrays applications fit class materialized multiple instruction multiple data mimd programs far


common type parallel programs according david patterson john l hennessy machines hybrids categories course classic model survived simple easy understand gives good first approximation also perhaps understandability widely used scheme types parallelism bit level parallelism taiwania taiwan parallel supercomputing device joined covid research advent large scale integration vlsi computer chip fabrication technology speed computer architecture driven doubling computer word size amount information


processor manipulate per cycle increasing word size reduces number instructions processor must execute perform operation variables whose sizes greater length word example bit processor must add two bit integers processor must first add nbsp lower order bits integer using standard addition instruction add nbsp higher order bits using add carry instruction carry bit lower order addition thus bit processor requires two instructions complete single operation bit processor would able


complete operation single instruction historically bit microprocessors replaced bit bit bit microprocessors trend generally came end introduction bit processors standard general purpose computing two decades early advent x architectures bit processors become commonplace instruction level parallelism pipeline takes five clock cycles complete one instruction thus processor issue subscalar performance computer program essence stream instructions executed processor without instruction level parallelism processor


issue less one instruction per clock cycle processors known ' 'subscalar'' processors instructions ordered combined groups executed parallel without changing result program known instruction level parallelism advances instruction level parallelism dominated computer architecture mid mid pipelined processor best case scenario takes one clock cycle complete one instruction thus processor issue scalar performance modern processors multi stage instruction pipelines stage pipeline corresponds different action


processor performs instruction stage processor ''n'' stage pipeline ''n'' different instructions different stages completion thus issue one instruction per clock cycle processors known ' 'scalar'' processors canonical example pipelined processor risc processor five stages instruction fetch instruction decode id execute ex memory access mem register write back wb pentium processor stage pipeline pipelined processor two execution units best case scenario takes one clock cycle complete


two instructions thus processor issue superscalar performance modern processors also multiple execution units usually combine feature pipelining thus issue one instruction per clock cycle processors known ' 'superscalar'' processors superscalar processors differ multi core processors several execution units entire processors ie processing units instructions grouped together data dependency scoreboarding tomasulo algorithm similar scoreboarding makes use register renaming two common


techniques implementing order execution instruction level parallelism task parallelism task parallelisms characteristic parallel program entirely different calculations performed either different sets data ref name culler culler et al p nbsp ref contrasts data parallelism calculation performed different sets data task parallelism involves decomposition task sub tasks allocating sub task processor execution processors would execute sub tasks concurrently often cooperatively task parallelism usually scale size


problem ref name culler culler et al p nbsp ref superword level parallelism superword level parallelism vectorization technique based loop unrolling basic block vectorization distinct loop vectorization algorithms exploit parallelism inline code manipulating coordinates color channels loops unrolled hand hardware memory communication main memory parallel computer either shared memory shared processing elements single address space distributed memory processing element local address space ref name ph patterson hennessy p nbsp ref distributed memory refers fact


memory system via high speed interconnect infiniband external shared memory system known burst buffer typically built arrays non volatile memory physically distributed across multiple nodes logical view non uniform memory access numa architecture processors one directory access directory 's memory less latency access memory directory 's memory computer architectures element main memory accessed equal latency bandwidth known uniform memory access uma systems typically achieved shared memory


system memory physically distributed system property known non uniform memory access numa architecture distributed memory systems non uniform memory access computer systems make use caches small fast memories located close processor store temporary copies memory values nearby physical logical sense parallel computer systems difficulties caches may store value one location possibility incorrect program execution computers require cache coherency system keeps track cached values


strategically purges thus ensuring correct program execution bus snooping one common methods keeping track values accessed thus purged designing large high performance cache coherence systems difficult problem computer architecture result shared memory computer architectures scale well distributed memory systems ref name ph processor processor processor memory communication implemented hardware several ways including via shared either multiported multiplexed memory crossbar switch shared bus interconnect network myriad topologies including


star ring tree hypercube fat hypercube hypercube one processor node n dimensional mesh parallel computers based interconnected networks need kind routing enable passing messages nodes directly connected medium used communication processors likely hierarchical large multiprocessor machines classes parallel computers parallel computers roughly classified according level hardware supports parallelism classification broadly analogous distance basic computing nodes mutually exclusive


example clusters symmetric multiprocessors relatively common multi core computing multi core processor processor includes multiple processing units called cores chip processor differs superscalar processor includes multiple execution units issue multiple instructions per clock cycle one instruction stream thread contrast multi core processor issue multiple instructions per clock cycle multiple instruction streams ibm 's cell microprocessor designed use sony playstation prominent multi core processor core multi core processor potentially superscalar well every clock


share memory connect via bus ref name hp hennessy patterson p nbsp ref bus contention prevents bus architectures scaling result smps generally comprise nbsp processors small size processors significant reduction requirements bus bandwidth achieved large caches symmetric multiprocessors extremely cost effective provided sufficient amount memory bandwidth exists ref name hp distributed computing distributed computer also known distributed memory multiprocessor distributed memory computer system processing elements connected network distributed computers highly scalable


terms concurrent computing parallel computing distributed computing lot overlap clear distinction exists system may characterized parallel distributed processors typical distributed system run concurrently parallel cluster computing beowulf cluster cluster group loosely coupled computers work together closely respects regarded single computer clusters composed multiple standalone machines connected network machines cluster symmetric load balancing difficult


common type cluster beowulf cluster cluster implemented multiple identical commercial shelf computers connected tcp ip ethernet local area network beowulf technology originally developed thomas sterling donald becker top supercomputers clusters remaining massively parallel processors explained grid computing systems described easily handle embarrassingly parallel problems modern clusters typically designed handle difficult problems problems require nodes share intermediate results often requires high bandwidth


importantly low latency interconnection network many historic current supercomputers use customized high performance network hardware specifically designed cluster computing cray gemini network current supercomputers use shelf standard network hardware often myrinet infiniband gigabit ethernet massively parallel computing cabinet ibm 's blue gene l massively parallel supercomputer massively parallel processor mpp single computer many networked processors mpps many characteristics clusters mpps specialized interconnect networks whereas clusters use commodity hardware networking mpps also tend larger clusters typically


far nbsp processors mpp cpu contains memory copy operating system application subsystem communicates others via high speed interconnect ibm 's blue gene l fifth fastest supercomputer world according june top ranking mpp grid computing grid computing distributed form parallel computing makes use computers communicating internet work given problem low bandwidth extremely high latency available internet distributed computing typically deals embarrassingly parallel


problems many distributed computing applications created seti home folding home best known examples grid computing applications use middleware software sits operating system application manage network resources standardize software interface common distributed computing middleware berkeley open infrastructure network computing boinc often distributed computing software makes use spare cycles performing computations times computer idling specialized parallel computers within parallel computing specialized parallel devices remain niche areas interest domain specific tend applicable


classes parallel problems reconfigurable computing field programmable gate arrays reconfigurable computing use field programmable gate array fpga co processor general purpose computer fpga essence computer chip rewire given task fpgas programmed hardware description languages vhdl verilog however programming languages tedious several vendors created c hdl languages attempt emulate syntax semantics c programming language programmers familiar best known c


hdl languages mitrion c impulse c dime c handel c specific subsets systemc based c also used purpose amd 's decision open hypertransport technology third party vendors become enabling technology high performance reconfigurable computing ref name damour d'amour michael r chief operating officer drc computer corporation standard reconfigurable computing invited speaker university delaware february ref according michael r d'amour chief operating officer drc computer corporation first walked amd called us 'the socket stealers' call us partners ref name damour general purpose computing graphics


peakstream rapidmind nvidia also released specific products computation tesla series technology consortium khronos group released opencl specification framework writing programs execute across platforms consisting cpus gpus amd apple intel nvidia others supporting opencl application specific integrated circuits several application specific integrated circuit asic approaches devised dealing parallel applications asic definition specific given application fully optimized application result given application asic tends outperform general purpose


computer however asics created uv photolithography process requires mask set extremely expensive mask set cost million us dollars smaller transistors required chip expensive mask meanwhile performance increases general purpose computing time described moore 's law tend wipe gains one two chip generations ref name damour high initial cost tendency overtaken moore 's law driven general purpose computing rendered asics unfeasible parallel computing applications however built one example


pflops riken mdgrape machine uses custom asics molecular dynamics simulation vector processors cray vector processor vector processor cpu computer system execute instruction large sets data vector processors high level operations work linear arrays numbers vectors example vector operation ''a'' ''b'' ''c'' ''a'' ''b'' ''c'' element vectors bit floating point numbers ref name ph patterson hennessy p nbsp ref closely related flynn 's simd classification ref name ph cray computers became famous vector processing computers


however vector processors cpus full computer systems generally disappeared modern processor instruction sets include vector processing instructions freescale semiconductor 's altivec intel 's streaming simd extensions sse software parallel programming languages concurrent programming languages libraries apis parallel programming models algorithmic skeletons created programming parallel computers generally divided classes based assumptions make underlying memory architecture shared memory distributed memory shared distributed memory shared memory programming languages communicate manipulating shared memory variables distributed memory


optimize data movement hardware memory openhmpp directives describe remote procedure call rpc accelerator device eg gpu generally set cores directives annotate c fortran codes describe two sets functionalities offloading procedures denoted codelets onto remote device optimization data transfers cpu main memory accelerator memory rise consumer gpus led support compute kernels either graphics apis referred compute shaders dedicated apis opencl language extensions automatic


technique whereby computer system takes snapshot application record current resource allocations variable states akin core dump information used restore program computer fail application checkpointing means program restart last checkpoint rather beginning checkpointing provides benefits variety situations especially useful highly parallel systems large number processors used high performance computing algorithmic methods parallel computers become larger faster able


solve problems previously taken long run fields varied bioinformatics protein folding sequence analysis economics mathematical finance taken advantage parallel computing common types problems parallel computing applications include dense linear algebra sparse linear algebra spectral methods cooley tukey fast fourier transform ''n'' body problems barnes hut simulation structured grid problems lattice boltzmann methods unstructured grid problems found finite element analysis monte carlo method combinational logic brute force cryptographic techniques graph traversal sorting algorithms dynamic programming branch bound


methods graphical models detecting hidden markov models constructing bayesian networks finite state machine simulation fault tolerance parallel computing also applied design fault tolerant computer systems particularly via lockstep systems performing operation parallel provides redundancy case one component fails also allows automatic error detection error correction results differ methods used help prevent single event upsets caused transient errors although additional measures may required embedded specialized systems method provide cost effective approach achieve n modular redundancy commercial


shelf systems history illiac iv infamous supercomputers ref name infamous origins true mimd parallelism go back luigi federico menabrea ''sketch analytic engine invented charles babbage'' ref name ph patterson hennessy p nbsp ref april stanley gill ferranti discussed parallel programming need branching waiting also ibm researchers john cocke daniel slotnick discussed use parallelism numerical calculations first time ref name g wilson ref burroughs corporation introduced four processor computer accessed memory modules crossbar switch


amdahl slotnick published debate feasibility parallel processing american federation information processing societies conference ref name g wilson debate amdahl 's law coined define limit speed due parallelism honeywell introduced first multics system symmetric multiprocessor system capable running eight processors parallel ref name g wilson cmmp multi processor project carnegie mellon university among first multiprocessors processors first bus connected multiprocessor snooping caches synapse n ref name ph simd parallel


computers traced back motivation behind early simd computers amortize gate delay processor 's control unit multiple instructions slotnick proposed building massively parallel computer lawrence livermore national laboratory ref name g wilson design funded us air force earliest simd parallel computing effort illiac iv ref name g wilson key design fairly high parallelism nbsp processors allowed machine work large datasets would later known vector processing however illiac iv


called infamous supercomputers project one fourth completed took nbsp years cost almost four times original estimate ref name infamous patterson hennessy pp nbsp although successful pushing several technologies useful later projects illiac iv failed computer costs escalated nbsp million estimated nbsp million despite construction quarter planned machine nbsp perhaps infamous supercomputers project started ran first real application ref finally ready run first real application


outperformed existing commercial supercomputers cray biological brain massively parallel computer early mit computer science artificial intelligence laboratory marvin minsky seymour papert started developing ''society mind'' theory views biological brain massively parallel computer minsky published ''the society mind'' claims mind formed many little agents mindless theory attempts explain call intelligence could product interaction non intelligent parts minsky says biggest


source ideas theory came work trying create machine uses robotic arm video camera computer build children 's blocks similar models also view biological brain massively parallel computer ie brain made constellation independent semi independent agents also described thomas r blakeslee michael gazzaniga robert e ornstein ernest hilgard michio kaku george ivanovich gurdjieff neurocluster brain model see also computer multitasking concurrency computer science content addressable parallel processor list distributed computing conferences list


important publications concurrent parallel distributed computing manchester dataflow machine manycore parallel programming model serializability synchronous programming transputer vector processing references reading sechin parallel computing photogrammetry gim international pp nbsp external links http wwwndedu dbalsara numerical pde course instructional videos caf fortran standard john reid see appendix b http wwwllnlgov computing tutorials parallel comp lawrence livermore national laboratory introduction parallel computing http www unixmcsanlgov dbpp designing building parallel programs ian foster https webarchiveorg web http wotugukcacuk parallel internet parallel computing archive https webarchiveorg web http dsonlinecomputerorg portal site dsonline indexjsppageid dso level home path dsonline ftopics fparallel file indexxml xsl genericxsl parallel processing topic area ieee distributed computing online http wwwnew npacorg projects cdroms cewes copywrite pcw bookhtml parallel computing works free line book http arkcdliborg ark ft f n z frontiers supercomputing free line book covering


topics like algorithms industrial applications https webarchiveorg web http wwwupcrcillinoisedu universal parallel computing research center https webarchiveorg web http ppppcourseningcom course parallel programming columbia university collaboration ibm tj watson x project https arxivorg ps cache arxiv pdf v pdf parallel distributed gr bner bases computation jas see also gr bner basis https webarchiveorg web http sbelwiscedu courses indexhtm course parallel computing university wisconsin madison http researchmicrosoftcom en us collaboration parlab contentsaspx berkeley par lab progress parallel computing landscape editors david patterson dennis gannon michael wrinn august https spectrumieeeorg computing software trouble multicore trouble multicore david patterson posted jun https wwwtechsevicom supercomputer parallel computing view techsevi https computingllnlgov tutorials parallel comp introduction parallel computing https wwwcourseraorg learn parprog coursera parallel programming


https wwwgyangrihin parallel computing view gyan grih concurrent computing distributed computing


lake h wea new zealand '''limnology''' greek ''limne'' lake ''logos'' knowledge study inland aquatic ecosystems study limnology includes aspects biological chemical physical geological characteristics functions inland waters running standing waters fresh saline natural man made includes study lakes reservoirs ponds rivers springs streams wetlands groundwater ref name wetzel wetzel rg limnology lake river ecosystems rd ed academic press ref recent sub discipline limnology termed landscape limnology studies manages seeks conserve ecosystems using


landscape perspective explicitly examining connections aquatic ecosystem drainage basin recently need understand global inland waters part earth system created sub discipline called global limnology approach considers processes inland waters global scale like role inland aquatic ecosystems global biogeochemical cycles limnology closely related aquatic ecology hydrobiology study aquatic organisms interactions abiotic non living environment limnology substantial overlap freshwater focused disciplines eg freshwater biology also includes study inland salt lakes history term


limnology coined fran ois alphonse forel established field studies lake geneva interest discipline rapidly expanded august thienemann german zoologist einar naumann swedish botanist co founded international society limnology sil societas internationalis limnologiae forel 's original definition limnology oceanography lakes expanded encompass study inland waters ref name wetzel influenced benedykt dybowski 's work lake baikal prominent early american limnologists included g evelyn hutchinson ed deevey university wisconsin madison edward birge chancey juday charles r


geology area well general velocity water ref name limnology book stream morphometry also influenced topography especially slope well precipitation patterns factors vegetation land development connectivity streams lakes relates landscape drainage density lake surface area lake shape types aquatic systems fall within study limnology estuaries estuaries bodies water classified interaction river ocean sea ref name limnology book wetlands vary size shape pattern however common


types marshes bogs swamps often fluctuate containing shallow freshwater dry depending time year ref name limnology book light interactions light zonation concept amount sunlight penetration water influences structure body water ref name limnology book zones define various levels productivity within aquatic ecosystems lake instance depth water column sunlight able penetrate plant life able grow known photic euphotic zone rest water column


deeper receive sufficient amounts sunlight plant growth known aphotic zone ref name limnology book thermal stratification similar light zonation thermal stratification thermal zonation way grouping parts water body within aquatic system based temperature different lake layers less turbid water light able penetrate thus heat conveyed deeper water ref name water quality book ref heating declines exponentially depth water column water warmest near surface progressively cooler


moving downwards three main sections define thermal stratification lake epilimnion closest water surface absorbs long shortwave radiation warm water surface cooler months wind shear contribute cooling water surface thermocline area within water column water temperatures rapidly decrease ref name water quality book bottom layer hypolimnion tends coldest water depth restricts sunlight reaching ref name water quality book temperate lakes fall season cooling surface water results


turnover water column thermocline disrupted lake temperature profile becomes uniform cold climates water cools sup sup c temperature maximum density many lakes experience inverse thermal stratification winter lakes often dimictic brief spring overturn addition longer fall overturn relative thermal resistance energy needed mix strata different temperatures ref name auto wetzel r g limnology lake river ecosystems san diego academic press ref lake heat budget annual heat budget also shown sub sub total


amount heat needed raise water minimum winter temperature maximum summer temperature calculated integrating area lake depth interval sub z sub multiplied difference summer sub sz sub winter sub wz sub temperatures math displaystyle int math sub z sub sub sz sub sub wz sub ref name auto chemical properties chemical composition water aquatic ecosystems influenced natural characteristics processes including precipitation underlying soil bedrock drainage basin erosion evaporation sedimentation ref name limnology book bodies water certain composition organic inorganic elements compounds biological


reactions also affect chemical properties water addition natural processes human activities strongly influence chemical composition aquatic systems water quality ref name water quality book oxygen carbon dioxide dissolved oxygen dissolved carbon dioxide often discussed together due coupled role respiration photosynthesis dissolved oxygen concentrations altered physical chemical biological processes reaction physical processes including wind mixing increase dissolved oxygen concentrations particularly surface waters aquatic ecosystems dissolved oxygen solubility linked water temperatures changes temperature affect dissolved


oxygen concentrations warmer water lower capacity hold oxygen colder water ref name ref biologically photosynthesis aerobic respiration affect dissolved oxygen concentrations ref name water quality book photosynthesis autotrophic organisms phytoplankton aquatic algae increases dissolved oxygen concentrations simultaneously reducing carbon dioxide concentrations since carbon dioxide taken photosynthesis ref name aerobic organisms aquatic environment take dissolved oxygen aerobic respiration carbon dioxide released byproduct reaction photosynthesis light limited photosynthesis respiration occur daylight hours respiration


occurs dark hours dark portions ecosystem balance dissolved oxygen production consumption calculated aquatic metabolism rate lake cross sectional diagram factors influencing lake metabolic rates concentration dissolved gases within lakes processes gold text consume oxygen produce carbon dioxide processes green text produce oxygen consume carbon dioxide vertical changes concentrations dissolved oxygen affected wind mixing surface waters balance photosynthesis respiration organic matter vertical changes known profiles based


similar principles thermal stratification light penetration light availability decreases deeper water column photosynthesis rates also decrease less dissolved oxygen produced means dissolved oxygen concentrations generally decrease move deeper body water photosynthesis replenishing dissolved oxygen taken respiration ref name water quality book periods thermal stratification water density gradients prevent oxygen rich surface waters mixing deeper waters prolonged periods stratification result depletion bottom water dissolved oxygen dissolved oxygen concentrations


milligrams per liter waters considered hypoxic ref name dissolved oxygen concentrations approximately milligrams per liter conditions anoxic hypoxic anoxic waters reduce available habitat organisms respire oxygen contribute changes chemical reactions water ref name nitrogen phosphorus nitrogen phosphorus ecologically significant nutrients aquatic systems nitrogen generally present gas aquatic ecosystems however water quality studies tend focus nitrate nitrite ammonia levels ref name limnology book dissolved nitrogen compounds follow seasonal pattern


greater concentrations fall winter months compared spring summer ref name limnology book phosphorus different role aquatic ecosystems limiting factor growth phytoplankton generally low concentrations water ref name limnology book dissolved phosphorus also crucial living things often limiting primary productivity freshwater distinctive ecosystem cycling ref name water quality book biological properties lake george new york united states oligotrophic lake lake trophic classification one way classify lakes bodies water


trophic state index ref name wetzel oligotrophic lake characterised relatively low levels primary production low levels nutrients eutrophic lake high levels primary productivity due high nutrient levels eutrophication lake lead algal blooms dystrophic lakes high levels humic matter typically yellow brown tea coloured waters ref name wetzel categories rigid specifications classification system seen spectrum encompassing various levels aquatic productivity professional organizations people study limnology called limnologists many


professional organizations related limnology aspects aquatic science including association sciences limnology oceanography asociaci n ib rica de limnolog international society limnology polish limnological society society canadian limnologists freshwater biological association see also hydrology lentic ecosystems limnological tower lotic ecosystems paleolimnology references reading gerald cole ''textbook limnology'' th ed waveland press stanley dodson ''introduction limnology'' ajhorne cr goldman ''limnology'' g e hutchinson ''a treatise limnology'' vols classic dated


criminal investigation maintenance public order variety law enforcement agencies conduct law enforcement united states state police highway patrol agencies municipal county police sheriff agencies well law enforcement agencies fire rescue services mdash fire suppression technical rescue hazardous materials mitigation services provided need help type emergency fire rescue services agencies also provide emergency medical services ems ambulance mdash emergency medical services technical rescue emergency medical services agencies technical rescue

Applied science
Public administration
Emergency services


services agencies responsible immediate response medical emergency calls well specialized rescue services calls many emergency medical services agencies united states operate technical rescue services vehicles equipment work help need rescue assistance emergency services one dedicated emergency telephone numbers reserved critical emergency calls countries one number used emergency services eg americas uk continental europe australia countries emergency service emergency number fire departments


provide emergency medical services along primary services availability emergency services depends heavily location may cases also rely recipient giving payment holding suitable insurance surety receiving service specialized emergency services aus victorian police ford ranger prisoner transport 'divi van' services provided one core services separate government private body emergency management mdash incident management coordination tactical teams eg swat mdash hostage rescue counter terrorism operations high risk arrests along self defense training civilians hazardous


corrections officers work prisons jails enforcing prison rules working prisoners community services emergency services vaughan ontario groups organizations respond emergencies provide safety related services either part job duties part main mission business concern part hobbies public utilities mdash safeguarding gas electricity water potentially hazardous infrastructure fails public works mdash assessing repairing damage buildings roads bridges clearing removing disposing debris public spaces restoring utility services


managing emergency traffic emergency road service mdash provide repair recovery disabled crashed vehicles civilian traffic officers mdash operated highways england uk facilitate clearup traffic flow road traffic collisions emergency social services community emergency response teams mdash help organize facilities rest centers large emergencies disaster relief mdash services provided red cross salvation army famine relief teams tow truck tows damaged vehicles away scenes responds broken vehicles wrecks amateur radio communications groups mdash provide communications support


emergencies poison control mdash providing specialist support poisoning animal control mdash assist lead response emergencies involving animals voluntary medical services mdash medical first aid support providers services include st john ambulance red cross order malta ambulance corps insurance damage fixes flooded fire damaged buildings tri service units respond police medical fire incidents national guard division military working homeland coroner responds incidents death investigates corpses zookeepers location specific emergency services locations emergency services dedicated whilst


necessarily preclude employees using skills outside area used support emergency services outside area primarily focused safety security given geographical place lifeguards mdash charged reacting emergencies within given remit area usually pool beach open water area park rangers mdash looking many emergencies within given area including fire medical security issues ski patrol mdash provides emergency medical care rescue services within area ski resort backcountry security guards mdash protect assets property


people etc hazards enforce security procedures first aid medic mdash respond medical issues may hired businesses events cooperation epa staff coordinate local agencies environmental disaster simulation effective emergency service management requires agencies many different services work closely together open lines communication services procedures liaisons place ensure although absence severely detrimental good working sometimes tension services number reasons including professional


versus voluntary crew members simply based area division aid effective communications different services may share common practices protocol certain large scale emergencies uk commonly used shared protocols include chalet ethane us department homeland security called nationwide implementation national incident management system nims incident command system ics part disaster response technologies smart emergency response system sers prototype built smartamerica challenge united states government initiative sers created team nine


organizations project featured white house june called exemplary achievement todd park us chief technology officer smartamerica initiative challenges participants build cyber physical systems glimpse future save lives create jobs foster businesses improve economy sers primarily saves lives system provides survivors emergency personnel information locate assist disaster sers allows organization submit help requests matlab based mission center connecting first responders apps search rescue dogs feet tall humanoid robots drones autonomous


aircraft ground vehicles command control center optimizes available resources serve every incoming requests generates action plan mission wi fi network created fly drones equipped antennas addition autonomous rotorcrafts planes ground vehicles simulated simulink visualized environment google earth unlock ability observe operations mass scale response time response time essential emergency services toronto fire truck speeds call common measurement benchmarking efficacy emergency


services response time amount time takes emergency responders arrive scene incident emergency response system activated due nature emergencies fast response times often crucial component emergency service system ref name minutes ref see also civil air patrol civil defense common alerting protocol emergency management emergency service response codes incident response team public safety rescue squad rural fire service country fire authority sources


platoon commander st marine logistics group battalion interpreter gather intelligence local afghans combat logistics patrol area may '''military intelligence''' military discipline uses information collection analysis approaches provide guidance direction assist commanders decisions aim achieved providing assessment data range sources directed towards commanders' mission requirements responding questions part operational campaign planning provide analysis commander 's information requirements first identified

Applied science
Military sciences
Military intelligence


refers design practical manifestation formally defined intelligence required planning conducting campaigns major operations accomplish strategic objectives within theaters operational areas ref name us dod ref aligns operational level warfare defined level warfare campaigns major operations planned conducted sustained achieve strategic objectives within theaters operational areas ref name us dod term ''operation intelligence'' used within law enforcement refer intelligence supports long term investigations multiple similar targets operational intelligence discipline law enforcement intelligence


concerned primarily identifying targeting detecting intervening criminal activity use within law enforcement law enforcement intelligence scaled use general intelligence military naval intelligence narrowed scope tactical tactical intelligence focused support operations tactical level would attached battlegroup tactical level briefings delivered patrols current threats collection priorities patrols debriefed elicit information analysis communication reporting chain tactical intelligence formally defined intelligence required planning


conduct tactical operations corresponds tactical level warfare defined level warfare battles engagements planned executed achieve military objectives assigned tactical units task forces tasking intelligence respond needs leadership based military objective operational plans military objective provides focus estimate process number information requirements derived information requirements may related terrain impact vehicle personnel movement disposition hostile forces sentiments local population


capabilities hostile order battle response information requirements analysts examine existing information identifying gaps available knowledge gaps knowledge exist staff may able task collection assets target requirement analysis reports draw available sources information whether drawn existing material collected response requirement analysis reports used inform remaining planning staff influencing planning seeking predict adversary intent process described collection co ordination intelligence requirement management ccirm process process


intelligence four phases collection analysis processing dissemination united kingdom known direction collection processing dissemination us military joint publication jp states six categories intelligence operations planning direction collection processing exploitation analysis production dissemination integration evaluation feedback collection many important facts well known may gathered public sources form information collection known open source intelligence example population ethnic make main industries region extremely


important military commanders information usually public however imperative collector information understands collected information become intelligence analyst evaluated verified information collection read materials composition units elements disposition strength training tactics personalities leaders units elements contribute overall intelligence value ''after'' careful analysis tonnage basic weaponry capital ships aircraft also public speeds ranges often reasonably estimated experts often


photographs ordinary facts like lunar phase particular days ballistic range common military weapons also valuable planning habitually collected intelligence library great deal useful intelligence gathered photointerpretation detailed high altitude pictures country photointerpreters generally maintain catalogs munitions factories military bases crate designs order interpret munition shipments inventories intelligence services maintain support groups whose purpose keep maps since maps also valuable civilian uses agencies often publicly associated identified


official intelligence service may still patriotically pass tidbits information gather carry legitimate business also much public information nation may unavailable outside country intelligence services attach members foreign service offices industrialized nations also eavesdrop continuously entire radio spectrum interpreting real time includes broadcasts national local radio television also local military traffic radar emissions even microwaved telephone telegraph traffic including satellite traffic us particular known


capabilities vulnerabilities real sense threats opportunities analysts generally look least defended fragile resource necessary important military capabilities flagged critical vulnerabilities example modern mechanized warfare logistics chain military unit 's fuel supply often vulnerable part nation 's order battle human intelligence gathered spies usually carefully tested unrelated sources notoriously prone inaccuracy cases sources make imaginative stories pay may try settle


grudges identifying personal enemies enemies state paying intelligence however human intelligence often form intelligence provides information opponent 's intentions rationales therefore often uniquely valuable successful negotiation diplomatic solutions intelligence organizations analysis follows procedure first general media sources screened locate items groups interest location capabilities inputs environment systematically assessed vulnerabilities using continuously updated list typical vulnerabilities filing critical vulnerabilities indexed


way makes easily available advisors line intelligence personnel package information policy makers war fighters vulnerabilities usually indexed nation military unit list possible attack methods critical threats usually maintained prioritized file important enemy capabilities analyzed schedule set estimate enemy 's preparation time example nuclear threats ussr us analyzed real time continuously duty staffs contrast analysis tank army deployments usually triggered accumulations fuel munitions


monitored every days cases automated analysis performed real time automated data traffic packaging threats vulnerabilities decision makers crucial part military intelligence good intelligence officer stay close policy maker war fighter anticipate information requirements tailor information needed good intelligence officer also ask fairly large number questions order help anticipate needs important policy maker intelligence officer staff research projects assigned developing plan attack


different decision makers bulletins may also include consequently resulting information requirements thus conclude intelligence cycle see also intelligence gathering disciplines list intelligence gathering disciplines national defence intelligence organisation australia intelligence branch canadian forces military intelligence czech republic direction du renseignement militaire france bundesnachrichtendienst bnd german federal intelligence service milit rischer abschirmdienst mad german military counter intelligence strategic intelligence agency indonesia inter services intelligence military intelligence pakistan centro de informa es e seguran militares cismil portugal glavnoye razvedyvatel'noye upravleniye gru russian military intelligence military intelligence agency voa serbia secret intelligence service


mi defence intelligence intelligence corps united kingdom united states intelligence community defense intelligence agency g us army unit footnotes references n j e austin n b rankov ''exploratio military political intelligence roman world second punic war battle adrianople'' london routledge julius caesar ''the civil war'' translated jane f mitchell baltimore md penguin books cassius dio ''dio 's roman history'' translated earnest cary new york gp putnam 's sons francis dvornik ''origins intelligence services'' new brunswick nj rutgers university press terrance finnegan


highlonesome books ishmael jones ''the human factor inside cia 's dysfunctional intelligence culture'' new york encounter books henry landau ''the enemy within inside story german sabotage america'' g p putnam sons sidney f mashbir ''i american spy'' vantage nathan miller ''spying america hidden history us intelligence'' dell publishing ian sayer douglas botting ''america 's secret army untold story counter intelligence corps'' franklin watts publishers barbara w tuchman ''the zimmermann telegram'' ballantine books coast guard intelligence looking good men


women commandant 's bulletin jun p nbsp coast guard investigative service coast guard dec pp nbsp coast guard war volume xii intelligence washington dc historical section public information division us coast guard headquarters january hinsley francis h british intelligence second world war influence strategy operations cambridge university press alfred rolington ''strategic intelligence st century mosaic method'' oxford university press http wwws companycom indexphptopic creating intelligence neil garra external links http odnigov office director national intelligence https webarchiveorg web http wwwfasorg main contentjspformaction projectid intelligence resource program federation american scientists reference


https webarchiveorg web http wwwdticmil doctrine new pubs jp pdf joint publication http wwws companycom indexphptopic creating intelligence types espionage combat support occupations intelligence gathering disciplines


conduct assessments develop interventions solve social problems personal problems bring social change social work practice often divided micro work involves working directly individuals small groups macro work involves working communities fostering change larger scale social policy starting universities began social work management programmes prepare students management social human service organisations addition classical social work education social work professiondeveloped th century roots voluntary philanthropy grassroots


organizing however responses social needs existed long primarily public almshouses private charities religious organizations effects industrial revolution great depression placed pressure social work become defined discipline social workers responded child welfare concerns related widespread poverty reliance child labor industrial settings definition '''social work''' broad profession intersects several disciplines social work organizations offer following definitions blockquote social work practice based profession academic discipline promotes social


change development social cohesion empowerment liberation people principles social justice human rights collective responsibility respect diversities central social work underpinned theories social work social sciences humanities indigenous knowledge social work'' ''engages people structures address life challenges enhance well international federation social workers blockquote blockquote social work profession concerned helping individuals families groups communities enhance individual collective well aims help people develop skills ability use resources community


resolve problems social work concerned individual personal problems also broader social issues poverty unemployment domestic violence canadian association social workers


blockquote blockquote social work practice consists professional application social principles techniques one following ends helping people obtain tangible services counseling psychotherapy individuals families groups helping communities groups provide improve


social health services participating legislative processes practice social work requires knowledge human development behavior social economic cultural institutions interaction factors national association social workers blockquote blockquote social workers work individuals families help improve outcomes lives may helping protect vulnerable people harm abuse supporting people live independently social workers support people act advocates direct people services may require social workers often work multi disciplinary teams alongside health education professionals british


association social workers blockquote history marylebone slum th century practice profession social work relatively modern scientific origin ref name boisestatei ref generally considered developed three strands first individual casework strategy pioneered charity organization society mid th century founded helen bosanquet octavia hill london england historians identify cos pioneering organization social theory led emergence social work professional occupation ref name lymbery cos main focus


accompanied less easily defined movement development institutions deal entire range social problems rapid growth nineteenth century laid foundation basis modern social work theory practice ref name popple philip r popple philip r leighninger leslie social work social welfare american society boston allyn bacon print ref professional social work originated th century england roots social economic upheaval wrought industrial revolution particular societal struggle deal


resultant mass urban based poverty related problems poverty main focus early social work intricately linked idea charity work ref name popple philip r important historical figures shaped growth social work profession jane addams founded hull house chicago nobel peace prize mary ellen richmond wrote ''social diagnosis'' one first social workbooks incorporate law medicine psychiatry psychology history william beveridge created social welfare state framing debate social work


within context social welfare provision united states dorothea lynde dix retired boston teacher considered founder mental health movement began crusade would change way people mental disorders viewed treated dix social worker profession established died however life work embraced early psychiatric social workers considered one pioneers psychiatric social work along elizabeth horton first psychiatric social worker


new york hospital system others early twentieth century time progressive change attitudes towards mental illness community mental health centers act passed policy encouraged deinstitutionalisation people mental illness later mental health consumer movement came consumer defined person received currently receiving services psychiatric condition people mental disorders families became advocates better care building public understanding awareness consumer advocacy helped bring mental illness treatment mainstream medicine


social services saw managed care movement aimed health care delivery system eliminate unnecessary inappropriate care reduce costs recovery movement principle acknowledges many people serious mental illness spontaneously recover others recover improve proper treatment social workers made impact invasion iraq war afghanistan present social workers worked nato hospitals afghanistan iraqi bases made visits provide counseling services forward operating bases twenty two percent clients diagnosed posttraumatic stress


disorder percent depression percent alcohol use disorder high level suicides among active duty soldiers confirmed suspected army suicides marine corps record suicides stress long repeated deployments war zones dangerous confusing nature wars wavering public support wars reduced troop morale contributed escalating mental health issues military civilian social workers served critical role veterans' health care system mental health services loose network services ranging


highly structured inpatient psychiatric units informal support groups psychiatric social workers indulges diverse approaches multiple settings along paraprofessional workers canada role psychiatric social workers established early canada 's history service delivery field population health native north americans understood mental trouble indication individual lost equilibrium sense place belonging general rest group particular native healing beliefs health mental health inseparable similar combinations natural


spiritual remedies often employed relieve mental physical illness communities families greatly valued holistic approaches preventive health care indigenous peoples canada faced cultural oppression social marginalization actions european colonizers institutions since earliest periods contact culture contact brought many forms depredation economic political religious institutions european settlers contributed displacement oppression indigenous people first officially recorded treatment practices quebec opened wards mentally ill social services


active charity organizations church parishes social gospel movement asylums insane opened saint john new brunswick toronto care mentally ill became institutionally based canada became self governing dominion retaining ties british crown period age industrial capitalism began led social economic dislocation many forms asylums converted hospitals nurses attendants employed care mentally ill first social work training began university


toronto dr clarence hincks clifford beers founded canadian national committee mental hygiene later became canadian mental health association hincks promoted prevention treating sufferers mental illness incapacitated early detection world war ii profoundly affected attitudes towards mental health medical examinations recruits revealed thousands apparently healthy adults suffered mental difficulties knowledge changed public attitudes towards mental health stimulated research preventive measures methods treatment mental health week introduced across canada first


half twentieth century period deinstitutionalisation beginning late psychiatric social work succeeded current emphasis community based care psychiatric social work focused beyond medical model 's aspects individual diagnosis identify address social inequities structural issues mental health act amended give consumers right choose treatment alternatives later focus shifted workforce mental health issues environmental root causes ontario regulator ontario college social workers social service workers ocswssw regulates two professions registered social workers rsw


registered social service workers rssw ontario association social workers oasw professional body social workers ontario social service worker association osswa professional body social service workers india earliest citing mental disorders india vedic era bc ad charaka samhita ayurvedic textbook believed bc describes various factors mental stability also instructions regarding set care delivery system era siddha medical system south india great sage


agastya one siddhas contributing system medicine system included agastiyar kirigai nool compendium psychiatric disorders recommended treatments atharva veda descriptions resolutions mental health afflictions mughal period unani system medicine introduced indian physician unhammad existing form psychotherapy known ilaj nafsani unani medicine th century unstable period indian history contributed psychological social chaos indian subcontinent lunatic asylums


also persuaded government change term 'asylum' 'hospital' techniques similar current token economy first started called name 'habit formation chart' cip ranchi first post psychiatric social worker created child guidance clinic run dhorabji tata school social work established considered first documented evidence social work practice indian mental health field independence general hospital psychiatry units ghpus established improve conditions existing hospitals


time encouraging outpatient care units amritsar dr vidyasagar instituted active involvement families care persons mental illness advanced practice ahead times regarding treatment care methodology greater impact social work practice mental health field especially reducing stigmatisation gauri rani banerjee trained united states started master 's course medical psychiatric social work dhorabji tata school social work tiss later first trained psychiatric social worker appointed


adult psychiatry unit yerwada mental hospital pune various parts country mental health service settings social workers employed mental hospital amritsar child guidance clinic college nursing delhi india institute medical sciences ram manohar lohia hospital madras mental hospital institute mental health employed social workers bridge gap doctors patients social work post created nimhans


settings took care psychosocial aspect treatment system enabled social service practices stronger long term impact mental health care recommendation mental health advisory committee ministry health government india nimhans commenced department psychiatric social work started two year postgraduate diploma psychiatric social work introduced nomenclature course changed mphil psychiatric social work subsequently phd programme introduced recommendations mudaliar committee diploma psychiatric social work started


european mental hospital ranchi cip program upgraded higher training courses added subsequently new initiative integrate mental health general health services started india ministry health government india formulated national mental health programme nmhp launched reviewed based district mental health program dmhp launched sought integrate mental health care public health care model implemented states currently


dmhp sites india national human rights commission nhrc carried systematic intensive critical examinations mental hospitals india resulted recognition human rights persons mental illness nhrc nhrc 's report part nmhp funds provided upgrading facilities mental hospitals result study revealed positive changes decade joint report nhrc nimhans compared last years


mental health care bill passed ensures legally entitles access treatments coverage insurance safeguarding dignity afflicted person improving legal healthcare access allows free medications december disabilities act repealed rights persons disabilities act rpwd bill ensures benefits wider population disabilities bill becoming act pushed amendments stakeholders mainly alarming clauses equality non discrimination section diminishes power act allows establishments overlook


universally accepted single licensing authority compared foreign countries puts social workers general risk general bodies councils accepts automatically university qualified social worker professional licensed practice qualified clinician lack centralized council tie schools social work also makes decline promotion scope social workers mental health professionals though midst service social workers given facelift mental health sector country allied professionals transtheoretical models social work interdisciplinary profession meaning


draws number areas limited psychology sociology politics criminology economics ecology education health law philosophy anthropology counseling including psychotherapy field work distinctive attribution social work pedagogy equips trainee understanding theories models within field work professional practitioners multicultural aspects roots social work immersion engagements early th century western countries example models theories used within social work practice empathy social case work social group work community organization


behavioral school social worker leadership management crisis intervention mental health cognitive behavioral critical radical social insurance ecological equity theory financial social work motivational interviewing medical social work person centered therapy psychoanalytic psychodynamic existential humanistic sociotherapy brief psychotherapy solution focused approach recovery approach reflexivity social exchange welfare economics anti oppressive practice psychosocial rehabilitation cognitive behavioral therapy dialectical behavior therapy systems theory strength based practice task centered family therapy advocacy prevention science project management program evaluation performance measurement systems thinking community development intervention positive psychology social actions profession american educator abraham flexner lecture social work profession delivered


national conference charities corrections examined characteristics profession concerning social work 'single model' health followed medical professions nurses doctors integrated profession likeness medical profession social work requires continued study professional development retain knowledge skills evidence based practice standards social work professional 's services lead toward aim providing beneficial services individuals dyads families groups organizations communities achieve optimum psychosocial functioning seven core functions described


popple leighninger engagement social worker must first engage client early meetings promote collaborative relationship assessment data must gathered guide direct plan action help client planning negotiate formulate action plan implementation promote resource acquisition enhance role performance monitoring evaluation going documentation short term goal attainment extent client following supportive counseling affirming challenging encouraging informing exploring options graduated disengagement seeking replace social


unemployment insurance disability benefits assist individuals families building savings acquiring assets improve financial security long term manage large operations etc requires social workers know financial management skills help clients organization 's financially self sufficient ref name auto ref ref name auto ref financial social work also helps clients low income low middle income people either unbanked banking account underbanked individuals bank account tend rely high cost non bank providers financial transactions better mediation financial institutions


induction money management skills another area social workers focusing risk management risk social work taken knight defined n't even know sure happen know odds risk n't even know odds uncertainty risk management social work means minimizing risks increasing potential benefits clients analyzing risks benefits duty care decisions united states according substance abuse mental health services administration samhsa branch


us department health human services professional social workers largest group mental health services providers clinically trained social workers psychiatrists psychologists psychiatric nurses combined federal law national institutes health recognize social work one five core mental health professions examples fields social worker may employed poverty relief life skills education community organizing community organization community development rural development forensics corrections legislation industrial relations project management child protection elder protection women 's rights human rights systems optimization finance addictions rehabilitation child


development cross cultural mediation occupational safety health disaster management mental health psychosocial therapy disabilities etc roles functions social workers play many roles mental health settings including case manager advocate administrator therapist major functions psychiatric social worker promotion prevention treatment rehabilitation social workers may also practice counseling psychotherapy case management support services crisis intervention psychoeducation psychiatric rehabilitation recovery care coordination monitoring program management administration program policy resource development research evaluation psychiatric social workers conduct psychosocial assessments patients work enhance patient


university school social work 's earliest entity began offering formal social philanthropy courses marking beginning date social work education united states well launching professional social work several countries jurisdictions require registration licensure people working social workers mandated qualifications places professional association sets academic requirements admission profession success professional bodies' efforts demonstrated requirements recognized employers necessary employment professional associations social workers several professional associations provide


ethical guidance forms support members social work general associations may international continental semi continental national regional main international associations international federation social workers ifsw international association schools social work iassw largest professional social work association united states national association social workers also exist organizations represent clinical social workers american association psychoanalysis clinical social work aapcsw national organization representing social workers practice psychoanalytic social work psychoanalysis


also several states clinical social work societies represent social workers conduct psychotherapy variety theoretical frameworks families groups individuals association community organization social administration acosa professional organization social workers practice within community organizing policy political spheres uk professional association british association social workers basw members august code ethics us based national association social workers provides code daily conduct set principles


rooted six core values ref name ref service social justice dignity worth person importance human relationships integrity competence trade unions representing social workers united kingdom half social workers employed local authorities many represented unison public sector employee union smaller numbers members unite union gmb british union social work employees buswe section trade union community since stage union british association social workers operated


professional advice representation service early social work qualified staff also experienced employment law industrial relations provide kind representation would expect trade union event grievance discipline conduct matters specifically respect professional conduct practice however service depended goodwill employers allow representatives present meetings trade unions legal right entitlement representation workplace several councils realized


permit basw access challenged skilled professional representation staff withdrawing permission reason basw took trade union status forming arms length trade union section social workers union swu gives legal right represent members whether employer trades union congress tuc recognizes swu tuc still resisting swu application admission congress membership employers making formal statements recognition tuc may change policy legally required


permit swu basw representation internal discipline hearings etc use information technology social work information technology vital social work transforms documentation part work electronic media makes process transparent accessible provides data analytics observation tool used social work developing solutions anabel quan haase technology society defines term surveillance watching quan haase p continues explain observation others socially behaviorally natural becomes like surveillance purpose observation


keep guard someone quan haase p often surface level use surveillance surveillance technologies within social work profession seemingly unethical invasion privacy engaging social work code ethics little deeply becomes obvious line ethical unethical becomes blurred within social work code ethics multiple mentions use technology within social work practice one seems applicable surveillance artificial intelligence article f using electronic technology facilitate