subtracting optical densities https doiorg dmfr resultant image contains time dependent differences two examined radiographs advantage technique precise determination dynamics density changes place occurrence however beforehand geometrical adjustment general alignment optical density done https doiorg dmfr another possibility radiographic image analysis study second order features eg digital texture analysis https doiorg aoms http wwwdmpumedwrocpl en article fractal dimension https doiorg basis possible assess places bio materials implanted bone purpose guided bone


regeneration take intact bone image sample region interest roi reference site sample implantation site second roi test site assessed numerically objectively extent implantation site imitates healthy bone advanced process bone regeneration https doiorg https doiorg also possible check whether bone healing process influenced systemic factors https doiorg teleradiology teleradiology transmission radiographic images one location another interpretation appropriately trained professional usually radiologist reporting radiographer often

Applied science
Medicine and health
Radiology


used allow rapid interpretation emergency room icu emergent examinations hours usual operation night weekends cases images sent across time zones eg spain australia india receiving clinician working normal daylight hours however present large private teleradiology companies us currently provide hours coverage employing night working radiologists us teleradiology also used obtain consultation expert subspecialist complicated puzzling case us many hospitals outsource radiology departments radiologists


india due lowered cost availability high speed internet access teleradiology requires sending station high speed internet connection high quality receiving station transmission station plain radiographs passed digitizing machine transmission ct mri ultrasound nuclear medicine scans sent directly already digital data computer receiving end need high quality display screen tested cleared clinical purposes reports transmitted requesting clinician major advantage teleradiology ability use


different time zones provide real time emergency radiology services around clock disadvantages include higher costs limited contact referrer reporting clinician inability cover procedures requiring onsite reporting clinician laws regulations concerning use teleradiology vary among states requiring license practice medicine state sending radiologic exam us states require teleradiology report preliminary official report issued hospital staff radiologist lastly benefit teleradiology might automated modern machine learning


techniques x ray hand calculation bone age analysis professional training united states radiology field medicine expanded rapidly due advances computer technology closely linked modern imaging techniques applying residency positions radiology relatively competitive applicants often near top medical school classes high usmle board examination scores diagnostic radiologists must complete prerequisite undergraduate education four years medical school earn medical degree md one year internship four years residency


training residency radiologists may pursue one two years additional specialty fellowship training american board radiology abr administers professional certification diagnostic radiology radiation oncology medical physics well subspecialty certification neuroradiology nuclear radiology pediatric radiology vascular interventional radiology board certification diagnostic radiology requires successful completion two examinations core exam given months residency although previously taken chicago tucson arizona beginning february computer test transitioned permanently remote format encompasses categories passing score


fail one five categories previously conditioned exam however beginning june conditioned category longer exist test graded whole certification exam taken months completion radiology residency computer based examination consists five modules graded pass fail given twice year chicago tucson recertification examinations taken every years additional required continuing medical education outlined maintenance certification document certification may also obtained american osteopathic board


radiology aobr american board physician specialties following completion residency training radiologists may either begin practicing general diagnostic radiologist enter subspecialty training programs known fellowships examples subspeciality training radiology include abdominal imaging thoracic imaging cross sectional ultrasound mri musculoskeletal imaging interventional radiology neuroradiology interventional neuroradiology paediatric radiology nuclear medicine emergency radiology breast imaging women 's imaging fellowship training programs radiology usually one two years length medical schools us started incorporate basic radiology introduction core md training new york medical


medical physics anatomy examination following completion part exam required pass six written exams part cover subspecialities successful completion allows complete frcr completing part b includes rapid reporting long case discussion achieving certificate completion training cct many fellowship posts exist specialities neurointervention vascular intervention would allow doctor work interventional radiologist cases cct date deferred year include fellowship programmes


uk radiology registrars represented society radiologists training srt founded auspices royal college radiologists society nonprofit organisation run radiology registrars specifically promote radiology training education uk annual meetings held trainees across country encouraged attend currently shortage radiologists uk created opportunities specialities increased reliance imaging demand expected increase future radiographers less frequently nurses often trained undertake


many opportunities order help meet demand radiographers often may control list particular set procedures approved locally signed consultant radiologist similarly radiographers may simply operate list radiologist physician behalf often radiographer operates list autonomously acting operator practitioner ionising radiation medical exposures regulations radiographers represented variety bodies often society college radiographers collaboration nurses also common


list may jointly organised nurse radiographer germany obtaining medical licensure german radiologists complete five year residency culminating board examination known ''facharztpr fung'' italy italian radiologists complete four year residency program completing six year md program netherlands dutch radiologists complete five year residency program completing six year md program india radiology training course post graduate year program md dnb radiology year diploma dmrd singapore radiologists singapore complete five year undergraduate medicine degree followed one year internship five year


holman pathway already accepted american board radiology including training ir accepted abr widely adopted sir proposed abr accepted another pathway called direct diagnostic interventional radiology enhanced clinical training pathway help trainees coming specialities learn ir widely adopted sir proposed pathway resulting certification ir speciality eventually accepted abr presented american board medical specialities abms


european curriculum syllabus ir see also digital mammography use computer produce images breast global radiology improving access radiology resources poor developing countries medical radiography use ionizing electromagnetic radiation x rays medicine radiation protection science preventing people environment suffering harmful effects ionizing radiation radiosensitivity measure susceptibility organic tissues harmful effects radiation x ray image intensifier equipment uses x rays produce image feed displayed tv screen international day


radiology awareness day medical imaging references external links medical imaging medical physics


grotte des faux monnayeurs mouthiers haute pierre france fondachelli fantina sicily pirunkirkko literally devil 's church paistj rvi peak cave heinola p ij nne tavastia finland '''speleology''' scientific study caves karst features well make structure physical properties history life forms processes form speleogenesis change time speleomorphology term ' 'speleology'' also sometimes applied recreational activity exploring caves properly known ''caving'' ''potholing'' british english ' 'spelunking'' speleology caving often connected physical skills required ''in situ'' study

Natural science
Earth science
Speleology


speleology cross disciplinary field combines knowledge chemistry biology geology physics meteorology cartography develop portraits caves complex evolving systems history modern speleology developed john beaumont wrote detailed descriptions mendip caves term speleology coined mile rivi prior mid nineteenth century scientific value caves considered contribution branches science cave studies considered part larger disciplines geography geology archaeology little cave specific study undertaken


prior work douard alfred martel 'father modern speleology' extensive well publicised cave explorations introduced france concept speleology distinct area study martel founded soci de sp l ologie first organization devoted cave science world early speleologists include herbert e balch international speleological congress proposed meeting valence sur rhone france first held paris international union speleology uis founded growth speleology directly linked


sport caving stimulation public interest awareness fact speleological field work conducted sport cavers cave geology hydrogeology biology karst landscape limestone underneath eroded caves formed majority time chemical corrosion via process dissolution corrosion several ways carbonate rocks chemical reactions gypsum rock salt happen physically silicate rocks warm climate decomposition materials


ecology cave environments fall three general categories endogean parts caves communication surface soils cracks rock seams groundwater seepage root protrusion parahypogean threshold regions near cave mouths extend last penetration sunlight hypogean true cave environments regular contact surface via wind underground rivers migration animals almost entirely isolated deep hypogean environments host autonomous ecologies whose primary source energy sunlight chemical energy liberated limestone minerals


chemoautotrophic bacteria cave organisms fall three basic classes class wikitable cave organisms latin english definition troglobites cave dwellers obligatory ''cavernicoles'' specialized cave life leave caves short periods may complete parts life cycles ground cannot live entire lives outside cave environment examples include chemotrophic bacteria species flatworms glowworms collembola blindfish troglophiles cave lovers live part lives caves also complete life cycle


appropriate environments surface examples include cave crickets bats millipedes pseudoscorpions spiders trogloxenes cave guests frequents caves may require caves portion life cycle must return surface ''parahypogean'' zone least portion life hibernating reptiles mammals widely recognized examples also called ''accidental trogloxenes'' surface organisms enter caves survival reason may even ''troglophobes'' cave haters cannot survive caves extended period examples include deer


fell sinkhole frogs swept cave flash flood etc two factors limit cave ecologies generally energy nutrients degree moisture always available actively forming karst caves cut sunlight steady deposition plant detritus caves poor habitats comparison wet areas surface majority energy cave environments comes surplus ecosystems outside one major source energy nutrients caves dung trogloxenes majority deposited bats sources


speleological society http wwwgoodearthgraphicscom virtcave indexhtml virtual cave online guide speleothems http wwwutexasedu tmm sponsored sites biospeleology biospeleology biology caves karst groundwater texas natural science center university texas austin missouri department conservation https webarchiveorg web http wwwnetworkspeleogenesisinfo indexphp speleogenesis network communication platform physical speleology karst science research http wwwcavesresin national cave research protection organization india https webarchiveorg web http wwwcave biologyorg cave biologyorg cave biology biospeleology india https webarchiveorg web http wwwcavebiotacom cave biota evolving webumentary sponsored hoosier national forest indiana karst conservancy https webarchiveorg web http wwwijsspeleoit ijs home page international journal speleology english italian french german spanish http cavingnewscom caving news daily


news articles caves caving speleology karst information cavers earth sciences caving caves


'''regulation''' management complex systems according set rules trends systems theory types rules exist various fields biology society term slightly different meanings according context example biology gene regulation metabolic regulation allow living organisms adapt environment maintain homeostasis government typically regulation means stipulations delegated legislation drafted subject matter experts enforce primary legislation business industry self regulation occurs self regulatory organizations trade associations allow industries set enforce

Applied science
Public administration
Regulation


rules less government involvement psychology self regulation theory study individuals regulate thoughts behaviors reach goals social regulation social political psychological economic domains take many forms legal restrictions promulgated government authority contractual obligations example contracts insurers insureds self regulation psychology social regulation eg norms co regulation third party regulation certification accreditation market regulation state mandated regulation government intervention private market attempt implement policy produce outcomes might otherwise occur ref name orbach orbach barak https ssrncom abstract


regulation yale journal regulation online ref ranging consumer protection faster growth technological advancement regulations may prescribe proscribe conduct command control regulation calibrate incentives incentive regulation change preferences preferences shaping regulation common examples regulation include limits environmental pollution laws child labor employment regulations minimum wages laws regulations requiring truthful labelling ingredients food drugs food drug safety regulations establishing minimum standards testing quality sold zoning development approvals regulation much less common


controls market entry price regulation one critical question regulation whether regulator government sufficient information make ex ante regulation efficient ex post liability harm whether industry self regulation might preferable economics imposing removing regulations relating markets analysed empirical legal studies law economics political science environmental science health economics regulatory economics power regulate include power enforce regulatory decisions monitoring important tool used national regulatory authorities carrying regulated activities countries particular


scandinavian countries industrial relations high degree regulated labour market parties self regulation contrast state regulation minimum wages etc reasons regulations may create costs well benefits may produce unintended reactivity effects defensive practice efficient regulations defined total benefits exceed total costs regulations advocated variety reasons including market failures regulation due inefficiency intervention due economists call market failure constrain sellers' options markets characterized monopoly means implement collective


action order provide public goods assure adequate information market mitigate undesirable externalities collective desires regulation collective desires considered judgments part significant segment society diverse experiences regulation view eliminating enhancing opportunities formation diverse preferences beliefs social subordination regulation aimed increase reduce social subordination various social groups endogenous preferences regulation intended affect development certain preferences aggregate level professional conduct regulation members professional bodies either acting


statutory contractual powers interest group transfers regulation results efforts self interest groups redistribute wealth favor may disguised one justifications study formal legal official informal extra legal unofficial regulation constitutes one central concerns sociology law history regulation businesses existed ancient early egyptian indian greek roman civilizations standardized weights measures existed extent ancient world gold may operated degree international currency


china national currency system existed paper currency invented sophisticated law existed ancient rome european early middle ages law standardization declined roman empire regulation existed form norms customs privileges regulation aided unified christian identity sense honor regarding contracts modern industrial regulation traced railway regulation act united kingdom succeeding acts beginning late th th centuries much regulation united states administered enforced regulatory agencies


produced administrative law procedures authority statutes legislators created agencies allow experts industry focus attention issue federal level one earliest institutions interstate commerce commission roots earlier state based regulatory commissions agencies later agencies include federal trade commission securities exchange commission civil aeronautics board various institutions institutions vary industry industry federal state level individual agencies necessarily clear life cycles patterns behavior


influenced heavily leadership staff well organic law creating agency lawmakers believed unregulated business often led injustice inefficiency concern shifted regulatory capture led extremely detailed laws creating united states environmental protection agency occupational safety health administration see also references external links http wwwcerreeu centre regulation europe cerre http wwwtobinprojectorg books papers new perspectives regulation new perspectives regulation http tobinprojectorg books papers government markets government markets toward new theory regulation http policyresearchgcca pageasppagenm pub wp us canadian regulatory cooperation schmitz


lessons european union canadian privy council office commissioned study https ssrncom abstract comparative bibliography regulatory competition corporate law wikibooks legal regulatory issues information economy https ssrncom abstract lawrence cunningham prescription retire rhetoric 'principles based systems' corporate law securities regulation accounting economics regulation public policy


dynamics aspect systems theory method understand dynamic behavior complex systems basis method recognition structure system many circular interlocking sometimes time delayed relationships among components often important determining behavior individual components examples chaos theory social dynamics also claimed often properties whole cannot found among properties elements cases behavior whole cannot explained terms behavior parts history

Applied science
Business
Systems science
System dynamics


system dynamics created mid professor jay forrester massachusetts institute technology forrester accepted professorship newly formed mit sloan school management initial goal determine background science engineering could brought bear useful way core issues determine success failure corporations forrester 's insights common foundations underlie engineering led creation system dynamics triggered large degree involvement managers general electric ge


field system dynamics ref name ude michael j radzicki robert taylor http wwwsystemdynamicsorg dl introsysdyn starthtm origin system dynamics jay w forrester history system dynamics ''us department energy 's introduction system dynamics'' retrieved october ref late early forrester team graduate students moved emerging field system dynamics hand simulation stage formal computer modeling stage richard bennett created first system dynamics computer modeling language called simple simulation industrial management problems lots equations spring phyllis fox


alexander pugh wrote first version dynamo dynamic models improved version simple system dynamics language became industry standard thirty years forrester published first still classic book field titled ''industrial dynamics'' ref name ude late late system dynamics applied almost exclusively corporate managerial problems however unexpected occurrence caused field broaden beyond corporate modeling john f collins former mayor boston appointed visiting professor urban affairs mit result


collins forrester collaboration book titled ''urban dynamics'' urban dynamics model presented book first major non corporate application system dynamics ref name ude second major noncorporate application system dynamics came shortly first jay forrester invited club rome meeting bern switzerland club rome organization devoted solving members describe predicament mankind global crisis may appear sometime future due demands placed earth 's carrying capacity sources


refined version model world forrester published world book titled world dynamics ref name ude topics systems dynamics primary elements system dynamics diagrams feedback accumulation flows stocks time delays illustration use system dynamics imagine organisation plans introduce innovative new durable consumer product organisation needs understand possible market dynamics order design marketing production plans causal loop diagrams system dynamics methodology problem system eg ecosystem political system mechanical system may


people already adopted new product stronger word mouth impact references product demonstrations reviews positive feedback generate sales continue grow second feedback loop left negative reinforcement balancing hence labeled b clearly growth cannot continue forever people adopt remain fewer fewer potential adopters feedback loops act simultaneously different times may different strengths thus one might expect growing sales initial


software stock term entity accumulates depletes time flow rate change stock flow rate accumulation stock example two stocks potential adopters adopters one flow new adopters every new adopter stock potential adopters declines one stock adopters increases one frame equations real power system dynamics utilised simulation although possible perform modeling spreadsheet


variety software packages optimised steps involved simulation define problem boundary identify important stocks flows change stock levels identify sources information impact flows identify main feedback loops draw causal loop diagram links stocks flows sources information write equations determine flows estimate parameters initial conditions estimated using statistical methods expert opinion market research data relevant sources information ref name sterman cmr ref simulate model analyse


results example equations change two stocks via flow math mbox potential adopters int mbox new adopters dt math math mbox adopters int mbox new adopters dt math equations discrete time list equations discrete time order execution year years math mbox probability contact yet adopted mbox potential adopters mbox potential adopters mbox adopters math math mbox imitators q cdot mbox adopters cdot mbox probability contact yet adopted math math mbox innovators p cdot mbox potential adopters


math math mbox new adopters mbox innovators mbox imitators math math mbox potential adopters mbox new adopters math math mbox adopters mbox new adopters math math p math math q math dynamic simulation results dynamic simulation results show behaviour system would growth ''adopters'' follows classic curve shape br increase ''adopters'' slow initially exponential growth period followed ultimately saturation frame frame equations continuous time get intermediate values better accuracy model run continuous time multiply number units


time proportionally divide values change stock levels example multiply years obtain quarters divide value flow br dividing value simplest euler method methods could employed instead runge kutta methods list equations continuous time trimesters equations section ''equation discrete time'' except equations '' '' '' '' replaced following math mbox valve new adopters mbox new adopters


cdot timestep math math mbox potential adopters mbox valve new adopters math math mbox adopters mbox valve new adopters math math timestep math stock flow diagram intermediate flow 'valve new adopters' calculates equation math mbox valve new adopters mbox new adopters cdot timestep math frame application system dynamics found application wide range areas example population agriculture ecological economic systems usually interact strongly system dynamics various back envelope management applications potent tool


teach system thinking reflexes persons coached analyze compare assumptions mental models way things work gain qualitative insight workings system consequences decision recognize archetypes dysfunctional systems everyday practice computer software used simulate system dynamics model situation studied running simulations test certain policies model greatly aid understanding system changes time system dynamics similar systems thinking constructs causal loop diagrams systems


feedback however system dynamics typically goes utilises simulation study behaviour systems impact alternative policies ref name sysdynsociety http wwwsystemdynamicsorg system dynamics society ref system dynamics used investigate resource dependencies resulting problems product development ref name repenning kx ref ref name repenning ng nelson p repenning ''resource dependence product development improvement efforts'' mit sloan school management department operations management system dynamics group dec ref system dynamics approach macroeconomics known ''minsky'' developed economist steve keen ref name sforge nbsp http sourceforgenet blog january potm nbsp sourceforge nbsp minsky nbsp nbsp project month january interview minsky development team accessed january ref


negative feedback loops identified ''c 's'' stand ''counteracting'' loops second double slashes used indicate places significant delay causes ie variables tails arrows effects ie variables heads arrows common causal loop diagramming convention system dynamics third thicker lines used identify feedback loops links author wishes audience focus also common system dynamics diagramming convention last clear decision maker would find


impossible think dynamic behavior inherent model inspection figure alone ref name tay feedback michael j radzicki robert taylor http wwwsystemdynamicsorg dl introsysdyn starthtm feedback ''us department energy 's introduction system dynamics'' retrieved october ref example piston motion objective study crank connecting rod system br want model crank connecting rod system system dynamic model two different full descriptions physical system related systems equations found give results example


crank variable radius angular frequency drive piston variable connecting rod length system dynamic modeling system modeled according stock flow system dynamic logic br figure shows stock flow diagram frame simulation behavior crank connecting rod dynamic system simulated br next figure simulation created using procedural animation variables model animate parts animation crank radius angular frequency rod length piston position procedural animation crank connecting rod system modeled


frame see also related subjects causal loop diagram comparison system dynamics software ecosystem model plateau principle system archetypes system dynamics society twelve leverage points wicked problems world population dynamics predator prey interaction related fields dynamical systems theory grey box model operations research social dynamics system identification systems theory systems thinking triz related scientists jay forrester dennis meadows donella meadows peter senge graeme snooks john sterman references reading external links http wwwsystemdynamicsorg system dynamics society http wwwsystemdynamicsorg dl introsysdyn study prepared us department energy 's introducing system dynamics http webmitedu jsterman www didhtml desert island dynamics annotated survey essential system


dynamics literature dynamics operations research problem structuring methods scientific modeling dynamics


''chinese literature'' magazine wuu tson sup sup koh sup sup vhen sup sup oh sup sup j zung sup sup gwok sup sup man sup sup hok sup sup j ng gwok hn hohk tl tiong kok b n ha k c ci altname history '''chinese literature''' extends thousands years earliest recorded dynastic court archives mature vernacular fiction novels arose ming dynasty entertain masses literate chinese introduction widespread woodblock printing tang dynasty invention movable type printing bi sheng song dynasty

Humanities
Languages and literature
Chinese Literature


rapidly spread written knowledge throughout china modern times author lu xun considered influential voice ''baihua'' literature china pre classical period formation earliest layer chinese literature influenced oral traditions different social professional provenance cult lay musical practices ''shijing'' divination ''yi jing'' astronomy exorcism attempt tracing genealogy chinese literature religious spells incantations six ''zhu'' presented da zhu chapter ''rites zhou'' made liu shipei classical texts


wealth early chinese literature dating hundred schools thought occurred eastern zhou dynasty bc important include classics confucianism daoism mohism legalism well works military science chinese history note except books poems songs literature philosophical didactic little way fiction however texts maintained significance ideas prose style confucian works particular key importance chinese


culture history set works known ''four books five classics'' th century ad chosen basis imperial examination government post nine books therefore became center educational system grouped two categories ''five classics'' allegedly commented edited confucius four books ''five classics'' ''i ching'' ''classic changes'' divination manual ''classic poetry'' collection poems folk songs festival ceremonial songs hymns eulogies


''book rites'' ''record rites'' ''book documents'' early chinese prose collection documents speeches allegedly written rulers officials early zhou period earlier ''spring autumn annals'' historical record confucius' native state lu bc ''four books'' ''analects confucius'' book pithy sayings attributed confucius recorded disciples ''mencius'' collection political dialogues ''doctrine mean'' book teaches path confucian virtue


''great learning'' book education self cultivation dao important philosophical works include mohist ''mozi'' taught inclusive love ethical social principle ''hanfeizi'' one central legalist texts important daoist classics include ''dao de jing'' ''zhuangzi'' ''liezi'' later authors combined daoism confucianism legalism liu nd century bc whose ''huainanzi'' ''the philosophers huai nan'' also added fields geography topography among classics military science ''the art war'' sun tzu th century bc


perhaps first outline guidelines effective international diplomacy also first tradition chinese military treatises ''jingling zongyao'' ''collection important military techniques'' ad ''huolongjing'' ''fire dragon manual'' th century ad historical texts dictionaries encyclopedias sima qian laid ground professional chinese historiography years ago chinese kept consistent accurate court records year bc beginning gonghe regency western zhou dynasty earliest known narrative history china


''zuo zhuan'' compiled later bc attributed blind th century bc historian zuo qiuming ''book documents'' thought compiled far back th century bc certainly compiled th century bc latest date writing guodian chu slips unearthed hubei tomb ''book documents'' included early information geography ''yu gong'' chapter ref name needham volume needham volume ref ''bamboo annals'' found ad tomb king


wei interred bc provide another example however unlike ''zuo zhuan'' authenticity early date ''bamboo annals'' doubt another early text political strategy book ''zhan guo ce'' compiled rd st centuries bc partial amounts text found amongst nd century bc tomb site mawangdui oldest extant dictionary china ''erya'' dated rd century bc anonymously written later commentary historian guo pu early dictionaries include ''fangyan''


yang xiong bc nbsp ad ''shuowen jiezi'' xu shen ad one largest ''kangxi dictionary'' compiled auspices kangxi emperor r provides definitions characters although court records independent records existed beforehand definitive work early chinese historical writing ''shiji'' ''records grand historian'' written han dynasty court historian sima qian bc bc groundbreaking text laid foundation chinese historiography many official chinese historical texts compiled


dynasty thereafter sima qian often compared greek herodotus scope method covered chinese history mythical xia dynasty contemporary reign emperor wu han retaining objective non biased standpoint often difficult official dynastic historians used historical works justify reign current dynasty influenced written works many chinese historians including works ban gu ban zhao st nd centuries even sima guang 's th century compilation ''zizhi tongjian'' presented emperor shenzong


song ad overall scope historiographical tradition china termed twenty four histories created successive chinese dynasty ming dynasty china 's last dynasty qing dynasty included large encyclopedias also produced china ages ''yiwen leiju'' encyclopedia completed ouyang xun tang dynasty aid scholars linghu defen chen shuda song dynasty compilation four great books song th century nbsp th century begun li fang completed cefu


yuangui represented massive undertaking written material covering wide range different subjects included ''taiping guangji'' ''taiping yulan'' ''wenyuan yinghua'' ''cefu yuangui'' although song dynasty chinese encyclopedias featured millions written chinese characters aggregate size paled comparison later ''yongle encyclopedia'' ming dynasty contained total million chinese characters ref name ebrey ebrey ref even size trumped later qing dynasty encyclopedias printed ''gujin tushu jicheng'' featured million


written chinese characters pages printed different copies using copper metal chinese movable type printing great encyclopedic writers include polymath scientist shen kuo ''dream pool essays'' agronomist inventor wang zhen fl ''nongshu'' minor scholar official song yingxing ''tiangong kaiwu'' classical poetry bai juyi famous tang dynasty poet statesman rich tradition chinese poetry began two influential collections northern china ''shijing'' ''classic poetry'' approx th th century bc comprises poems


variety styles ranging strong suggestion folk music ceremonial hymns word ' 'shi'' basic meaning poem poetry well use criticism describe one china 's lyrical poetic genres confucius traditionally credited editing ''shijing'' stately verses usually composed couplets lines four characters four syllables chinese characters monosyllabic formal structure end rhymes many early poems establish later tradition starting description nature leads emotionally expressive


history greater part china 's first great period unification begun short lived qin dynasty bc bc followed centuries long han dynasty bc ad ' 'shi'' form poetry underwent little innovation distinctively descriptive erudite ''fu'' form ''fu'' character used bureau music developed called rhyme prose uniquely han offshoot chinese poetry 's tradition equally noteworthy music bureau poetry ''yuefu'' collected presumably refined popular lyrics folk music end han


witnesses resurgence ' 'shi'' poetry anonymous '' old poems'' collection reflects emergence distinctive five character line later became ' 'shi'' poetry 's common line length jian'an reign period ad onward five character line became focus innovations style theme cao family rulers wei dynasty ad post han three kingdoms period distinguished poets writing poems filled sympathy day day struggles soldiery common people taoist philosophy became different common theme


poets genre emphasizing true feeling emerged led ruan ji landscape genre chinese nature poetry emerged brush xie lingyun innovated distinctively descriptive complementary couplets composed five character lines farmland genre born obscurity tao qian also known tao yuanming labored fields wrote extolling influence wine toward close period many later developed themes first experimented xiao family southern liang dynasty engaged highly refined


often denigrated court style poetry lushly describing sensual delights well description objects reunified china 's tang dynasty high culture set high point many things including poetry various schools buddhism religion india flourished represented chan zen beliefs wang wei quatrains ''jueju'' describing natural scenes world famous examples excellence couplet conventionally containing two distinct images thoughts per line tang poetry 's big star li bai also pronounced written li bo worked major styles


wen tingyun listed chronologically li shangyin whose poetry delights allusions often remain obscure whose emphasis seven character line also contributed emerging posthumous fame du fu ranked alongside li bai distinctively different ''ci'' poetry form began development tang central asian musical influences flowed cosmopolitan society china 's song dynasty another reunification era brief period disunity initiated fresh high culture several greatest poets capable government officials well including ouyang xiu su shi


wang anshi ''ci'' form flourished hundred songs became standard templates poems distinctive variously set meters free expressive style song high culture contrasted majestic tang poems centuries subsequent critics engage fierce arguments dynasty best poetry additional musical influences contributed yuan dynasty 's distinctive ''qu'' opera culture spawned ' 'sanqu'' form individual poems based classical chinese poetry composition became conventional skill well educated throughout ming qing dynasties


million poems preserved including women dong xiaowan liu rushi many diverse voices painter poets shen zhou tang yin wen zhengming yun shouping created worthy conspicuous poems combined art poetry calligraphy brush paper poetry composition competitions socially common depicted novels example dessert nice dinner song versus tang debate continues centuries china 's later imperial period seem broken new ground innovative approaches poetry


picking vast body preserved works remains scholarly challenge new treasures may yet restored obscurity notable poets '''tang dynasty''' bai juyi cen shen cao song du mu du fu gao pian gao shi han yu zhizhang jia dao lu zhaolin li liu gongquan luo yin li bai liu zongyuan li shangyin luo binwang liu yuxi liu changqing lu lun meng haoran meng jiao shangguan wan'er song zhiwen wang changling wang wei wang zhihuan wang bo wei yingwu wen tingyun xue tao yang jiong yuan zhen zhang ji hubei zhang ji


jiangnan zhang zhihe zhang jiuling zhang ruoxu '''song dynasty''' fan zhongyan fan chengda jiang kui kou zhun li yu li qingzhao lu liu yong lin sheng ouyang xiu qin guan su xun su shi su zhe sima guang shi dazu wang anshi wang yisun wen tianxiang wu wenying xin qiji yang wanli yan jidao yan shu yue fei ye shaoweng zhang xian zeng gong zhou bangyan classical prose early chinese prose deeply influenced great philosophical writings hundred schools thought bc works mo zi mencius zhuang


zi contain well reasoned carefully developed discourses reveal much stronger organization style predecessors mo zi 's polemic prose built solid effective methodological reasoning mencius contributed elegant diction like zhuang zi relied comparisons anecdotes allegories rd century bc writers developed simple concise economical prose style served model literary form years written classical chinese language spoken spring autumn period wen chang chinese deity literature tang period ornate


artificial style prose developed previous periods replaced simple direct forceful prose based examples hundred schools see han period period great historical works sima tan sima qian published neoclassical style dominated prose writing next years exemplified work han yu master essayist strong advocate return confucian orthodoxy han yu later listed one eight great prose masters tang song


song dynasty saw rise popularity travel record literature ''youji wenxue'' travel literature combined diary narrative prose formats practiced seasoned travelers fan chengda xu xiake seen example su shi 's ''record stone bell mountain'' th century vernacular fiction became popular least outside court circles vernacular fiction covered broader range subject matter longer loosely structured literary fiction one masterpieces chinese vernacular fiction th century domestic novel ''dream


red chamber'' notable contributors '''eight great prose masters tang song''' han yu liu zongyuan ouyang xiu su zhe su shi su xun wang anshi zeng gong two great scientific authors song period shen kuo su song '''ming dynasty''' song lian liu bowen jiao yu gui youguang yuan hongdao xu xiake gao qi zhang dai tu long wen zhenheng '''qing dynasty''' li yu yao nai yuan mei gong zizhen wei yuan classical fiction drama


less formal works either oral using oral conventions bianwen buddhist tale pinghua plain tale huaben novella formed background novel early song dynasty novel extended prose narrative realistically creates believable world evolved china europe th th centuries though little earlier china chinese audiences interested history chinese authors generally present works fictional readers appreciated relative optimism moral humanism relative emphasis group behavior welfare society


notable gong'an fictions ''cases judge bao'' baogong ''the chalk circle'' ''celebrated cases judge dee'' ''cases judge shi'' ''cases judge lan'' ''cases judge peng'' ''cases judge hai'' ''the three heroes five gallants'' shi yukun ''the five younger gallants'' shi yukun three stories two slaps ''illustrious words instruct world'' yushi mingyan ''stories old new'' feng menglong ''stories caution world'' jingshi tongyan feng menglong ''stories awaken world'' xingshi


hengyan feng menglong ''slapping table amazement'' chuke paian jingji ling mengchu ''the second collection slapping table amazement'' erke paian jingji ling mengchu ''a supplement journey west'' x u b c dong yue ''haoqiu zhuan'' ''the pleasing history'' ''the fortunate union'' c ''strange stories chinese studio'' pu songling ''flowers mirror'' ''jing huayuan'' li ruzhen ''fengshen bang'' ''the investiture gods'' ''xingshi yinyuan zhuan'' ''the story marital fate


awaken world'' ''dijing jingwulue'' ''survey scenery monuments imperial capital'' liu tong ''chronicles eastern zhou kingdoms'' feng menglong edited cai yuanfang ''the carnal prayer mat'' erotic novel li yu ''six records floating life'' f sh ng li j shen fu early th century ''ern yingxiong zhuan'' ''the story hero boys hero girls'' wen kang first published series historical fictions regarding tang song dynasties ''stories tang dynasty'' shuo tang


''xue rengui 's expedition east'' ''xue dingshan 's expedition west'' ''xue gang 's uprising tang dynasty'' ''romance sui tang dynasties'' ''general yue fei'' shuo yue quan zhuan ''the generals yang family'' ' ''stories huyan family'' shuo hu quan zhuan ''stories flying dragon'' feilong quanzhuan four great novels exposure late qing dynasty ''the travels lao can'' ''lao youji'' liu e ''bizarre happenings eyewitnessed two decades '' wu jianren ''officialdom unmasked guanchang xianxing ji '' li


baojia ''a flower sinful sea nie hai hua '' jin tianhe zeng pu drama ''romance western chamber'' ''x xi ngj '' wang shifu ''the injustice dou e'' ''dou e yuan'' guan hanqing ''the jade hairpin'' ''yuzanji'' gao lian ''hui lan ji'' li xingdao became basis ''the caucasian chalk circle'' ''the peony pavilion'' ''mudan ting'' tang xianzu ''the peach blossom fan'' ''taohua shan'' kong shangren ''the palace eternal life'' hong sheng ''the orphan zhao''


th century play ji junxiang first chinese play translated european language four great folklores ''legend white snake'' ''baishezhuan'' ''lady meng jiang'' ''mengjiangnv'' ''the cowherd weaver girl'' ''niulangzhinv'' ''butterfly lovers'' ''liangshanboyuzhuyingtai'' myths ''classic mountains seas'' ''shanhaijing'' ''investiture gods'' ''fengshenyanyi'' modern literature late qing scholars tend agree modern chinese literature erupt suddenly new culture movement instead trace origins back least


late qing period late qing period intellectual ferment sparked sense national crisis intellectuals began seek solutions china 's problems outside tradition translated works western expository writing literature enthralled readers new ideas opened windows onto new exotic cultures outstanding translations yan fu lin shu climate boom writing fiction occurred especially abolition civil service examination literati struggled fill new social


cultural roles stylistically fiction shows signs chinese novelistic tradition western narrative modes subject matter strikingly concerned contemporary social problems historical upheaval changing ethical values etc sense late qing fiction modern important novelists period include wu woyao li boyuan liu e zeng pu late qing also saw revolution poetry promoted experimentation new forms incorporation new registers language however poetry scene still dominated


adherents tongguang school named tongzhi guangxu reigns qing whose leaders chen yan chen sanli zheng xiaoxu shen zengzhi promoted song style manner huang tingjian poets would become objects scorn new culturalists like hu shih saw work overly allusive artificial divorced contemporary reality drama late qing saw emergence new civilized drama hybrid chinese operatic drama western style spoken drama peking opera reformed peking opera also popular


time republican era literary scene first years collapse qing dominated popular love stories written classical language vernacular entertainment fiction would later labeled mandarin ducks butterflies fiction new culturalists despised lack social engagement throughout much republican era butterfly fiction would reach many readers progressive counterpart course new culture movement vernacular language largely displaced classical areas literature


writing literary reformers hu shih chen duxiu declared classical language dead promoted vibrant vernacular stead hu shih said dead language never produce living literature terms literary practice lu xun usually said first major stylist new vernacular prose hu shih chen duxiu promoting another female writer words scholar nicole huang persistently experimented new literary language eileen chang though often said less successful counterparts fiction


changes education system made possible emergence large group women writers women writers late imperial period late qing number writers generally tackled domestic issues relations sexes family friendship war eileen chang 's writing uses spatial specificities modern apartment essential construction vision life wartime revolutionary giving direct expression female subjectivity ding ling 's story ''miss sophia 's diary'' exposes thoughts feelings


female diarist complexity saw emergence spoken drama outstanding among playwrights day ouyang yuqian hong shen tian han cao yu popular western style drama however peking opera raised new artistic heights likes mei lanfang late literary journals societies espousing various artistic theories proliferated among major writers period guo moruo poet historian essayist critic mao dun first novelists emerge league


authors still alive cultural revolution either purged forced submit public humiliation league left wing writers founded included lu xun among leadership adopted soviet doctrine socialist realism insistence art must concentrate contemporary events realistic way exposing ills nonsocialist society promoting glorious future communism ref name cam leo oufan lee literary trends road revolution ch https booksgooglecom booksid fxs roaihpmc pg pa link excerpt ref styles literature odds


highly political literature promoted league new sensationists group writers based shanghai influenced varying degrees western japanese modernism wrote fiction concerned unconscious aesthetics politics social problems important among writers mu shiying liu na'ou shi zhecun writers including shen congwen fei ming balked utilitarian role literature writing lyrical almost nostalgic depictions countryside lin yutang studied harvard leipzig introduced concept


''youmo'' humor used trenchant criticism china 's political cultural situation leaving united states communist party china established base long march yan'an literary ideals league simplified enforced writers cultural workers mao zedong gave series lectures called talks yan'an forum art literature clearly made literature subservient politics via yan'an rectification movement document would become national guideline culture establishment people 's republic china


maoist era coming power communists gradually nationalized publishing industry centralized book distribution system brought writers institutional control writers union system strict censorship implemented mao 's yan'an talks guiding force periodic literary campaigns targeted figures hu shih figures new culture period especially hu feng protege lu xun along wife mei zhi toe party line literature ref name sina ref socialist realism became uniform style many soviet works


translated ability satirize expose evils contemporary society made writers useful communist party china accession power longer welcomed party cultural leaders zhou yang used mao 's call literature serve people mount attacks petty bourgeois idealism humanitarianism conflict came head hundred flowers campaign mao zedong initially encouraged writers speak problems new society learned lessons anti hu feng campaign reluctant flurry


arrest jiang qing members gang four especially reforms initiated third plenum eleventh national party congress central committee december led writers take pens much literature would called new era discussed serious abuses power taken place national local levels cultural revolution writers decried waste time talent decade bemoaned abuses held china


back literature often called scar literature literature wounded discussed experiences sent youth great though complete frankness conveyed disquieting views party political system intensely patriotic authors wrote cynically political leadership gave rise extreme chaos disorder cultural revolution many themes attitudes also found fifth generation films directors trained many based published novels short stories fiction cinema extended blame entire


generation leaders political system political authorities faced serious problem could encourage writers criticize discredit abuses cultural revolution without allowing criticism go beyond considered tolerable limits period number literary magazines rose sharply many cultural revolution revived poetry also changed form content four misty poets bei dao gu cheng duo duo yang lian expressed deliberately obscure verse reflected subjective realism rather realism


sort promoted cultural revolution special interest foreign works recent foreign literature translated often without carefully considering interest chinese reader literary magazines specializing translations foreign short stories became popular especially among young leaders government literary art circles feared change happening fast first reaction came calls combat bourgeois liberalism campaign repeated two difficult periods followed anti spiritual pollution campaign late time writers remained


freer write unconventional styles treat sensitive subject matter spirit literary experimentation flourished second half fiction writers wang meng zhang xinxin zong pu dramatists gao xingjian experimented modernist language narrative modes another group writers collectively said constitute xungen movement including han shaogong mo yan ah cheng jia pingwa sought reconnect literature culture chinese traditions century modernization cultural political iconoclasm severed writers yu hua ge fei


su tong experimented avant garde mode writing daring form language showed complete loss faith ideals sort post tiananmen present wake tiananmen massacre intensification market reforms literature culture turned increasingly commercial escapist wang shuo called hooligan writer obvious manifestation commercial shift though fiction without serious intent writers yan lianke continue take seriously role literature exposing social problems novel


liu zhenyun 's ''the pickpockets'' underground literature mian mian 's ''panda sex'' divided historicizing literature yu dan 's ''confucius heart'' 'longing something' literature yi zhongtian tibetan literature alai literature mega cities women 's literature bi shumin 's ''women boxing'' ''the female psychologist'' master narratives narrators like mo yan ''life death wearing out'' oblique social criticism also popular form example han han 's novel ''his land'' written surreal style opposed


uncritical mainstream ranked st chinese bestseller list another example yan ge 's novel ''family joy'' written sichuanese chinese media group new talent award chinese language literature also flourishes diaspora south east asia united states europe china largest publisher books magazines newspapers world book publishing alone new titles books published according general administration press publication literary journals across country living


available online popular novels find millions readers cost average cny roughly tenth average price printed book shanda literature ltd online publishing company claims publish chinese literary works daily book market inside chongwen book city large bookstore wuhan china buys many foreign book rights nearly million copies sixth book harry potter series sold chinese translation ''china book review'' reported rights foreign titles nbsp including many children 's books nbsp


went china china nominated ''guest honour'' frankfurt bookfair book market china traditionally orders books book fairs country lacks national book ordering system million titles sold including unknown number banned titles bootleg copies underground publishing factories seven percent publishers located shanghai industry lacks national distribution system many titles publishers provinces found central publishing houses belonging ministries government institutions


sold open market gapp legal authority screen censor ban print electronic internet publication china publishers china required licensed gapp agency also power deny people right publish completely shut publisher fails follow dictates ref name cecc ref result ratio official unlicensed books said ref name zonaeuropa ref according report zonaeuropa underground publishing factories around china ref name cecc chinese government


continues hold public book burnings ref name oycf ref unapproved yet popular spiritual pollution literature though critics claim spotlight individual titles helps fuel booksales ref name amazoncom ref many new generation chinese authors targeted government action subsequently published english found success western literary markets wei hui 's ''shanghai baby'' anchee min 's controversial memoir ''red azalea'' ''time'' magazine banned book covergirl chun sue 's ''beijing doll'' mian mian 's ''candy'' online bestseller ''ghost blows light'' rewritten remove references supernatural could released print ref name wired https wwwwiredcom techbiz media news online novelscurrentpage


chinese novel finds new life online aventurina king ''wired'' august ref impact translation modern contemporary chinese writers translated literature long played important role modern china writers lu xun yu dafu ba jin others literary translators many present day writers china nobel laureate mo yan listed translated works sources enlightenment inspiration history books chinese literature first two known history books chinese literature published japanese authors japanese language ref name vitellop


cited p ref koj tand wrote page ''shina bungakushi'' history chinese literature published wrote second ever book also called ''shina bungakushi'' ref name thornberp ref first book english ''a history chinese literature'' herbert giles published 's ''zhongguo wenxue shi'' first history chinese ref name vitellop lin quanjia inspired translation sasakawa 's book ref name thornberp contemporary chinese literature translation chinese literature increasingly available translation several well established websites sharing information


example https paper republicorg paper republic https writingchineseleedsacuk writing chinese http wwwchinese shortstoriescom chinese short stories https webarchiveorg web http mychinesebookscom lang en chinese books https chinesebooksforyoungreaderswordpresscom chinese books young readers chinese government started sponsoring program translations government approved chinese works already resulted books translated chinese languages selected modern chinese writers ba jin bei dao bing xin xue cao wenxuan cao yu eileen chang chen zhongshi chiung yao cong weixi feng zikai


gao xingjian guo moruo qifang hu shih jia pingwa jidi majia jin yong pen name louis cha leung yung lao liang qichao liang shiqiu lin haiyin lin yutang liu e lu xun jian mao dun mo yan qian zhongshu qiu miaojin qu bo writer sanmao author shen congwen shi tiesheng


su manshu su tong tian han tie ning wang guowei wang tao wang xiaobo wang zengqi wen yiduo xiao hong xu dishan xu zhimo yan fu yan lianke yang mu ye shengtao yu dafu zhang xianliang zhang xinxin zhang zao zhu ziqing writers chinese heritage write languages '''chinese writers writing


english ''' br see also list asian american writers chinese american literature ha jin chiang yee amy tan yiyun li qiu xiaolong tao lin '''chinese writers writing french ''' chen jitong fran ois cheng dai sijie sa see also censorship people 's republic china chen prophecy chinese classic texts chinese culture chinese dictionary chinese encyclopedias chinese language chinese mythology classical chinese poetry ''dream pool essays'' ''huainanzi'' list chinese authors list hong kong poets list poems chinese chinese


poets literature hong kong society culture han dynasty tea classics women chinese literature notes references citations sources general works specific topics please see particular article cai zong qi ed ''how read chinese poetry guided anthology'' new york columbia university press chaves jonathan ed ''the columbia book later chinese poetry ming ch'ing dynasties '' new york columbia university press cheng fran ois ''chinese poetic writing'' trans donald riggs jerome p seaton bloomington indiana univ


press cui jie zong qi cai ''how read chinese poetry workbook'' new york columbia university press idema wilt l lloyd haft eds ''a guide chinese literature'' ann arbor center chinese studies university michigan michigan monographs chinese studies bibliographical background essays knight sabina ''chinese literature short introduction'' oxford new york oxford university press short introductions series l vy andr ''chinese literature ancient classical'' bloomington indiana university press translated william h nienhauser xi p lin shuen fu stephen owen ''the vitality


lyric voice'' princeton princeton univ press liu james jy ''the art chinese poetry'' chicago univ chicago press mair victor h ''the columbia history chinese literature'' new york columbia university press mair victor h ''the columbia anthology traditional chinese literature'' new york columbia university press translation asian classics mair victor h nancy shatzman steinhardt paul rakita goldin eds ''hawai'i reader traditional chinese culture'' honolulu university hawai'i press nienhauser william h jr ''the indiana companion traditional chinese literature'' v


bloomington indiana university press x kang sun chang stephen owen eds ''the cambridge history chinese literature'' vol cambridge cambridge university press watson burton ''chinese lyricism shih poetry second twelfth century'' new york columbia university press watson burton ed ''the columbia book chinese poetry early times thirteenth century'' new york columbia university press external links https paper republicorg paper republic chinese literature translation nbsp useful site produces annual list translations english https paper republicorg helenwang translations chinese another bumper crop https paper republicorg nickyharman translations chinese bumper crop https paper republicorg nickyharman roll call chinese english fiction poetry translations https paper republicorg nickyharman translations chinese final list http mclcosuedu rc studbibhtm mclc resource


center literature nbsp bibliography scholarly studies translations modern chinese literature https webarchiveorg web http mclcosuedu jou mclchtm modern chinese literature culture nbsp scholarly journal http wwwumichedu dporter sampler samplerhtml chinese text sampler nbsp annotated collection classical modern chinese literary texts http ctextorg chinese text project nbsp early classical texts english modern chinese translations http wwwchina sitecom comicindexphp nbsp manhua retellings old chinese legends https webarchiveorg web http wwwrenditionsorg renditions nbsp english translations modern classical chinese literature https webarchiveorg web http wwwchinapagecom chinahtml china beautiful nbsp chinese art literature nbsp early classical texts http www personalumichedu dporter sampler samplerhtml chinese text sampler readings chinese literature history popular culture nbsp annotated collection digitized chinese texts students chinese language culture columbia


class wikitable floatright ''n'' width px width px width px width px width px width px width px ''n'' align center align center align center align center align center align center sup sup sup sup sup sup sup sup align center colspan busy beaver function ''n'' grows faster computable function br hence computable values known '''computability theory''' also known '' 'recursion theory''' branch

Formal science
Computer science
Theory of computation
Computability theory


mathematical logic computer science theory computation originated study computable functions turing degrees field since expanded include study generalized computability definability areas computability theory overlaps proof theory effective descriptive set theory basic questions addressed computability theory include mean function natural numbers computable noncomputable functions classified hierarchy based level noncomputability although considerable overlap terms knowledge methods mathematical


computability theorists study theory relative computability reducibility notions degree structures computer science field focus theory subrecursive hierarchies formal methods formal languages computable uncomputable sets computability theory originated work kurt g del alonzo church r zsa p ter alan turing stephen kleene emil post fundamental results researchers obtained established turing computability correct formalization informal idea effective calculation results led stephen kleene coin two names church 's thesis kleene turing 's thesis kleene nowadays


often considered single hypothesis church turing thesis states function computable algorithm computable function although initially skeptical g del argued favor thesis tarski stressed lecture think justly great importance concept general recursiveness turing 's computability seems importance largely due fact concept one first time succeeded giving absolute notion interesting epistemological notion ie one depending formalism chosen g del


word problem semigroups cannot effectively decided extending result pyotr novikov william boone showed independently word problem groups effectively solvable effective procedure given word finitely presented group decide whether element represented word identity element group yuri matiyasevich proved using results julia robinson matiyasevich 's theorem implies hilbert 's tenth problem effective solution problem asked whether effective procedure decide whether diophantine equation


given number ''n'' halts output ''n'' set halts output ''n'' set function ''f'' natural numbers natural numbers '' turing computable'' ' 'recursive function'' turing machine input ''n'' halts returns output ''f'' ''n'' use turing machines necessary many models computation computing power turing machines example recursive functions obtained primitive recursion operator terminology


computable functions sets completely standardized definition terms recursive functions well different definition ' 'rekursiv'' functions g del led traditional name ' 'recursive'' sets functions computable turing machine word ' 'decidable'' stems german word ''entscheidungsproblem'' used original papers turing others contemporary use term computable function various definitions according cutland partial recursive function undefined inputs according soare total recursive equivalently


general recursive function article follows second conventions soare gives additional comments terminology every set natural numbers computable halting problem set descriptions turing machines halt input well known example noncomputable set existence many noncomputable sets follows facts countably many turing machines thus countably many computable sets according cantor 's theorem uncountably many sets natural numbers although halting problem computable


field computability theory grown include study many closely related topics independent areas research areas draws ideas results others computability theorists familiar majority relative computability turing degrees computability theory mathematical logic traditionally focused ' 'relative computability'' generalization turing computability defined using oracle turing machines introduced turing nbsp oracle turing machine hypothetical device addition performing actions regular turing machine able


oracle set case set ''a'' also said ' 'relatively'' ''computable from'' ''b'' ' 'recursive in'' ''b'' set ''a'' turing reducible set ''b'' ''b'' turing reducible ''a'' sets said ''turing degree'' also called ' 'degree unsolvability'' turing degree set gives precise measure uncomputable set natural examples sets computable including many different sets encode variants halting problem two properties common


computably enumerable translated via many one reduction given sets ''a'' ''b'' total computable function ''f'' ''a'' ''x'' ''f'' ''x'' ''b'' sets said ''many one equivalent'' ''m equivalent'' many one reductions stronger turing reductions set ''a'' many one reducible set ''b'' ''a'' turing reducible ''b'' converse always hold although natural examples noncomputable sets many one equivalent possible construct computably enumerable sets


enumerable sets like simple hypersimple hyperhypersimple sets post showed sets strictly computable sets halting problem respect many one reducibility post also showed strictly intermediate reducibility notions stronger turing reducibility post left open main problem existence computably enumerable sets intermediate turing degree problem became known ''post 's problem'' ten years kleene post showed intermediate turing degrees computable sets halting problem


failed show degrees contains computably enumerable set soon friedberg muchnik independently solved post 's problem establishing existence computably enumerable sets intermediate degree groundbreaking result opened wide study turing degrees computably enumerable sets turned possess complicated non trivial structure uncountably many sets computably enumerable investigation turing degrees sets central computability theory investigation computably enumerable turing degrees many degrees


set ''a'' ''turing jump'' ''a'' set natural numbers encoding solution halting problem oracle turing machines running oracle ''a'' turing jump set always higher turing degree original set theorem friedburg shows set computes halting problem obtained turing jump another set post 's theorem establishes close relationship turing jump operation arithmetical hierarchy classification certain subsets natural numbers based definability


arithmetic much recent research turing degrees focused overall structure set turing degrees set turing degrees containing computably enumerable sets deep theorem shore slaman states function mapping degree ''x'' degree turing jump definable partial order turing degrees recent survey ambos spies fejer gives overview research historical progression reducibilities ongoing area research computability theory studies reducibility relations turing reducibility


post introduced several ' 'strong reducibilities'' named imply truth table reducibility turing machine implementing strong reducibility compute total function regardless oracle presented ''weak reducibilities'' reduction process may terminate oracles turing reducibility one example strong reducibilities include one one reducibility ''a'' ''one one reducible'' '' reducible'' ''b'' total computable injective function ''f'' ''n'' ''a'' ''f'' ''n'' ''b'' many one reducibility essentially one one reducibility without


constraint ''f'' injective ''a'' ''many one reducible'' ''m reducible'' ''b'' total computable function ''f'' ''n'' ''a'' ''f'' ''n'' ''b'' truth table reducibility ''a'' truth table reducible ''b'' ''a'' turing reducible ''b'' via oracle turing machine computes total function regardless oracle given compactness cantor space equivalent saying reduction presents single list questions depending input oracle simultaneously


seen answers able produce output without asking additional questions regardless oracle 's answer initial queries many variants truth table reducibility also studied reducibilities positive disjunctive conjunctive linear weak bounded versions discussed article reduction computability theory major research strong reducibilities compare theories class computably enumerable sets well class subsets natural numbers furthermore relations reducibilities studied example


known every turing degree either truth table degree union infinitely many truth table degrees reducibilities weaker turing reducibility reducibilities implied turing reducibility also studied well known arithmetical reducibility hyperarithmetical reducibility reducibilities closely connected definability standard model arithmetic rice 's theorem arithmetical hierarchy rice showed every nontrivial class ''c'' contains ce sets index set ''e'' ''e'' ''e''th ce set ''w sub e sub '' ''c'' property


level sub sub index set comp class turing complete sets sub sub hierarchy levels defined inductively sub ''n'' sub contains sets computably enumerable relative sub ''n'' sub sub sub contains computably enumerable sets index sets given even complete levels sets levels many one reduced given index sets reverse mathematics program ' 'reverse mathematics'' asks set existence axioms necessary prove particular theorems mathematics subsystems second order arithmetic study initiated harvey friedman


studied detail stephen simpson others simpson gives detailed discussion program set existence axioms question correspond informally axioms saying powerset natural numbers closed various reducibility notions weakest axiom studied reverse mathematics ' 'recursive comprehension'' states powerset naturals closed turing reducibility numberings numbering enumeration functions two parameters ''e'' ''x'' outputs value ''e'' th function numbering input ''x'' numberings partial computable


although members total computable functions admissible numberings others translated friedberg numbering named discoverer one one numbering partial computable functions necessarily admissible numbering later research dealt also numberings classes like classes computably enumerable sets goncharov discovered example class computably enumerable sets numberings fall exactly two classes respect computable isomorphisms priority method post 's problem solved method called ''priority method'' proof using method


stages stage attempting satisfy one requirements either adding numbers set banning numbers set final set satisfy requirement may happen satisfying one requirement cause another become unsatisfied priority order used decide event priority arguments employed solve many problems computability theory classified hierarchy based complexity soare complex priority arguments technical difficult follow


traditionally considered desirable prove results without priority arguments see results proved priority arguments also proved without example kummer published paper proof existence friedberg numberings without using priority method lattice computably enumerable sets post defined notion simple set ce set infinite complement containing infinite ce set started study structure computably enumerable sets inclusion lattice became well studied structure computable sets defined


structure basic result set computable set complement computably enumerable infinite ce sets always infinite computable subsets hand simple sets exist always coinfinite computable superset post introduced already hypersimple hyperhypersimple sets later maximal sets constructed ce sets every ce superset either finite variant given maximal set co finite post 's original motivation study lattice find structural notion


defined previous paragraph property cannot automorphic non maximal sets automorphism computably enumerable sets structure mentioned every maximal set mapped another maximal set soare showed also converse holds every two maximal sets automorphic maximal sets form orbit every automorphism preserves maximality two maximal sets transformed automorphism harrington gave example automorphic property creative sets


area slaman woodin ambos spies fejer kolmogorov complexity field kolmogorov complexity algorithmic randomness developed chaitin kolmogorov levin martin l f solomonoff names given alphabetical order much research independent unity concept randomness understood time main idea consider universal turing machine ''u'' measure complexity number string ''x'' length shortest input ''p'' ''u'' ''p'' outputs ''x'' approach revolutionized


earlier ways determine infinite sequence equivalently characteristic function subset natural numbers random invoking notion randomness finite objects kolmogorov complexity became subject independent study also applied subjects tool obtaining proofs still many open problems area reason recent research conference area held january list open problems maintained joseph miller andre nies frequency computation branch computability theory analyzed


following question fixed ''m'' ''n'' nbsp lt nbsp ''m'' nbsp lt nbsp ''n'' functions ''a'' possible compute different ''n'' inputs ''x'' sub sub nbsp ''x'' sub sub nbsp nbsp ''x sub n sub '' tuple ''n'' numbers ''y sub sub sub sub sub n sub '' least ''m'' equations ''a'' ''x sub k sub '' ''y sub k sub '' true sets known ''m'' nbsp ''n'' recursive sets first major result branch computability theory trakhtenbrot 's result set computable ''m'' nbsp ''n'' recursive ''m'' nbsp ''n'' ''m'' nbsp gt nbsp ''n'' hand jockusch 's semirecursive sets already known informally jockusch introduced examples set


''m'' nbsp ''n'' recursive ''m'' nbsp lt nbsp ''n'' nbsp nbsp uncountably many sets also computably enumerable noncomputable sets type later degtev established hierarchy computably enumerable sets nbsp ''n'' nbsp nbsp recursive nbsp ''n'' recursive long phase research russian scientists subject became repopularized west beigel 's thesis bounded queries linked frequency computation mentioned bounded reducibilities related notions one major results kummer 's cardinality theory states set ''a'' computable


''n'' algorithm enumerates tuple ''n'' different numbers ''n'' many possible choices cardinality set ''n'' numbers intersected ''a'' choices must contain true cardinality leave least one false one inductive inference computability theoretic branch learning theory based e mark gold 's model learning limit developed since models learning general scenario following given class ''s'' computable functions learner


computable functional outputs input form ''f'' ''f'' ''f'' ''n'' hypothesis learner ''m'' learns function ''f'' almost hypotheses index ''e'' ''f'' respect previously agreed acceptable numbering computable functions ''m'' learns ''s'' ''m'' learns every ''f'' ''s'' basic results computably enumerable classes functions learnable class rec computable functions learnable many related models considered also learning classes computably enumerable sets positive data topic


example set indices computable nonbinary trees without infinite branches complete level math pi math analytical hierarchy turing reducibility hyperarithmetical reducibility important field effective descriptive set theory even general notion degrees constructibility studied set theory continuous computability theory computability theory digital computation well developed computability theory less well developed analog computation occurs analog computers analog signal processing analog electronics neural networks continuous time control theory modelled differential equations continuous dynamical systems orponen moore


relationships definability proof computability close relationships turing degree set natural numbers difficulty terms arithmetical hierarchy defining set using first order formula one relationship made precise post 's theorem weaker relationship demonstrated kurt g del proofs completeness theorem incompleteness theorems g del 's proofs show set logical consequences effective first order theory computably enumerable set theory strong enough set uncomputable similarly tarski 's


indefinability theorem interpreted terms definability terms computability computability theory also linked second order arithmetic formal theory natural numbers sets natural numbers fact certain sets computable relatively computable often implies sets defined weak subsystems second order arithmetic program reverse mathematics uses subsystems measure noncomputability inherent well known mathematical theorems simpson nbsp discusses many aspects second order arithmetic reverse mathematics field proof theory includes study second order arithmetic


peano arithmetic well formal theories natural numbers weaker peano arithmetic one method classifying strength weak systems characterizing computable functions system prove total see fairtlough wainer example primitive recursive arithmetic computable function provably total actually primitive recursive peano arithmetic proves functions like ackermann function primitive recursive total every total computable function provably total peano arithmetic however example function provided


goodstein 's theorem name field mathematical logic dealing computability generalizations called recursion theory since early days robert soare prominent researcher field proposed soare field called computability theory instead argues turing 's terminology using word computable natural widely understood terminology using word recursive introduced kleene many contemporary researchers begun use alternate terminology researchers also use terminology ''partial computable function'' ''computably enumerable '' ''ce'' '' set'' instead ''partial recursive


function'' ' 'recursively enumerable '' ' 're'' '' set'' researchers convinced however explained fortnow simpson commentators argue names ' 'recursion theory'' ''computability theory'' fail convey fact objects studied computability theory computable rogers suggested key property computability theory results structures invariant computable bijections natural numbers suggestion draws ideas erlangen program geometry idea computable bijection merely renames numbers set


rather indicating structure set much rotation euclidean plane change geometric aspect lines drawn since two infinite computable sets linked computable bijection proposal identifies infinite computable sets finite computable sets viewed trivial according rogers sets interest computability theory noncomputable sets partitioned equivalence classes computable bijections natural numbers professional organizations main professional organization computability theory ''association symbolic logic'' holds several


research conferences year interdisciplinary research association ''computability europe'' ''cie'' also organizes series annual conferences see also recursion computer science computability logic transcomputational problem notes references undergraduate level texts advanced texts survey papers collections unpublished preprint research papers collections reprinted reprinted https webarchiveorg web http wwwisrluiucedu amag langev paper gold limithtml reprinted


reprinted http webcomlaboxacuk oucl research areas ieg e library sources tp iepdf pdf comlaboxacuk reprinted external links http wwwaslonlineorg association symbolic logic homepage http wwwmathsleedsacuk cie computability europe homepage http wwwcompnusedusg fstephan recursiontheoryhtml webpage recursion theory course graduate level approximately pages lecture notes http wwwcompnusedusg fstephan learningps german language lecture notes inductive inference c


ariel airiel area disambiguation areal '''aerial''' may refer music ''aerial'' album kate bush ''aerials'' song album ''toxicity'' system bands aerial canadian band aerial scottish band aerial swedish band performance art aerial silk apparatus used aerial acrobatics aerialist acrobat performs air recreation sport aerial dance move aerial skateboarding aerial adventure park ropes course recreational purpose aerial cartwheel side aerial gymnastics move performed acro dance various martial arts aerial skiing discipline freestyle skiing front aerial gymnastics move performed

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image taken backpacking trip europe train travel passengers train bridge nilgiri mountain railway mettupalayam ootacamund tamil nadu india '''travel''' movement people distant geographical locations travel done foot bicycle automobile train boat bus airplane ship means without luggage one way round trip travel also include relatively short stays successive movements case tourism etymology origin word travel likely lost history


term travel may originate old french word ''travail'' means 'work' according merriam webster dictionary first known use word ''travel'' th century also states word comes middle english ''travailen'' ''travelen'' means torment labor strive journey earlier old french ''travailler'' means work strenuously toil english people still occasionally use words ''travail'' means struggle according simon winchester book ''the best travelers' tales '' words ''travel'' ''travail'' share even ancient root


roman instrument torture called ''tripalium'' latin means three stakes impale link may reflect extreme difficulty travel ancient times travel modern times may may much easier depending upon destination travel mount everest amazon rainforest extreme tourism adventure travel difficult forms travel travel also difficult depending method travel bus cruise ship even bullock cart purpose motivation reasons traveling include recreation ref name ufl http plazaufledu hwinger byz purposehtml road travel purpose


airplanes motives travel include pleasure ref name conservancy ref relaxation discovery exploration ref name ufl intercultural communications ref name ufl taking personal time building interpersonal relationships avoiding stress forming memories history travel dates back antiquity wealthy greeks romans would travel leisure summer homes villas cities pompeii baiae ref name matador ref early travel tended slower dangerous dominated trade migration cultural technological advances many years tended mean travel become easier accessible mankind come long way transportation since


christopher columbus sailed new world spain expedition took weeks arrive final destination st century aircraft allow travel spain united states overnight travel middle ages offered hardships challenges however important economy society wholesale sector depended example merchants dealing caravans sea voyagers end user retailing often demanded services many itinerant peddlers wandering village hamlet gyrovagues wandering monks wandering friars brought theology pastoral support neglected areas


end grand tour ref name matador travel water often provided comfort speed land travel least advent network railways th century travel purpose tourism reported started around time people began travel fun travel longer hard challenging task capitalized people like thomas cook selling tourism packages trains hotels booked together ref name dw ref airships airplanes took much role long distance surface travel th century notably


second world war surplus aircraft pilots ref name matador indeed air travel become ubiquitous st century one woman alexis alford visited countries age ref name twsll ref geographic types travel may local regional national domestic international countries non local internal travel may require internal passport international travel typically requires passport visa tours common type travel examples travel tours expedition cruises small group tours river cruises safety travelers


british airways airplane air travel common means transport ms skania ferry port szczecin authorities emphasize importance taking precautions ensure travel safety ref name travelstategov https travelstategov travel tips tips html tips traveling abroad http travelstategov bureau consular affairs us department state accessed july ref traveling abroad odds favor safe incident free trip however travelers subject difficulties crime violence safety considerations include aware one 's surroundings ref name travelstategov avoiding target crime ref name travelstategov leaving copies one 's passport itinerary information trusted people ref name travelstategov


obtaining medical insurance valid country visited ref name travelstategov registering one 's national embassy arriving foreign country ref name travelstategov many countries recognize drivers' licenses countries however countries accept international driving permits ref name travelstategovpermits https travelstategov travel tips safety safety html permits road safety overseas http travelstategov bureau consular affairs us department state accessed july ref automobile insurance policies issued one 's country often invalid foreign countries often requirement obtain temporary auto insurance valid country visited ref name travelstategovpermits also advisable become oriented driving rules


regulations destination countries ref name travelstategovpermits wearing seat belt highly advisable safety reasons many countries penalties violating seatbelt laws ref name travelstategovpermits three main statistics may used compare safety various forms travel based detr survey october class wikitable sortable rowspan mode colspan deaths per billion journeys hours kilometers bus rail air ship van car walking bicycle motorcycle


see also environmental impact aviation layover list travelers mode transport recreational travel science tourism ''the negro motorist green book'' transport references external links tourism tourist activities transport culture


'''dramaturgy''' study dramatic composition representation main elements drama stage term first appears eponymous work ''hamburg dramaturgy'' gotthold ephraim lessing lessing composed collection essays principles drama working world 's first dramaturge hamburg national theatre dramaturgy distinct play writing directing although three may practiced one individual dramatists combine writing dramaturgy creating drama others work specialist called dramaturge adapt work

Humanities
Performing arts
Theatre
Dramaturgy


stage dramaturgy may also broadly defined adapting story actable form dramaturgy gives performance work foundation structure often dramaturge 's strategy manipulate narrative reflect current zeitgeist cross cultural signs theater film historical references genre ideology questions gender racial representation etc dramatization definition history dramaturgy practice based well practice led discipline invented gotthold ephraim lessing author plays ''miss sara sampson'' ''emilia galotti'' ''minna von barnhelm'' ''nathan wise'' th century theater


hamburg engaged years position today known dramaturge first occupy role european theater described task dramatic judge dramatischer richter one must assess compelling appropriate means staging particular theatrical work ref name lb ref lessing published series critical commentaries ''hamburg dramaturgy hamburgische dramaturgie '' works analyzed criticized theorized current state german theater making lessing father modern dramaturgy following lessing 's ''hamburgische dramaturgie'' ref name lb ''laokoon'' hegel 's


''aesthetics'' many subsequent authors including friedrich h lderlin johann von goethe friedrich wilhelm joseph schelling thornton wilder arthur miller tennessee williams reflected stage language plays distinctive art form german playwright gustav freytag attempted synthesize components modern dramaturgy book ''the technique drama'' published english known outline principles dramatic structure including arc dramatic tension resolution referred freytag 's pyramid ''the technique drama'' often considered blueprint first hollywood screenwriting manuals ''the


including moment tragic recognition anagnorisis purgation audience feelings pity fear catharsis perhaps significant successor aristotelian dramaturgy epic theatre developed twentieth century german playwright bertolt brecht many innovations associated brecht theorist writer stage including concept estrangement effect verfremdungseffekt acting technique known gestus intended deliberate revisions values upheld aristotle ''poetics'' earliest surviving western work dramatic theory earliest non western dramaturgic work probably sanskrit


work ''natya shastra'' ''the art theatre'' written around bce ce describes elements forms narrative elements ten major types ancient indian drama practice dramaturgy comprehensive exploration context play resides dramaturge tasked obtain expertise physical social political economic environment action takes place psychological underpinnings characters various metaphorical expressions play thematic concerns well technical consideration play piece writing structure rhythm flow


even individual word choices institutional dramaturges may participate many phases play production including casting play offering house criticism productions progress informing director cast audience play history current importance america type dramaturgy sometimes known production dramaturgy institutional production dramaturges may make files materials play 's history social context prepare program notes lead post production discussions write study guides schools groups actions assist director integrating textual acting criticism performance theory historical


research production opens copyright since dramaturgy defined general way function dramaturge may vary production production copyright issues regarding united states vague borders debate question extent dramaturge claim ownership production case involving estate jonathan larson late author musical ''rent'' lynn thomson dramaturge production thomson claimed co author work


never assigned licensed otherwise transferred rights asked court declare co author ''rent'' grant per cent author 's share royalties although made claim show became broadway hit case without precedent instance per cent royalties ''angels america'' go playwright tony kushner 's dramaturge june united states court appeals second circuit affirmed original court 's ruling thomson entitled credited co authorship ''rent''


part ''built environment'' suburban tract housing colorado springs colorado '''human ecology''' interdisciplinary transdisciplinary study relationship humans natural social built environments philosophy study human ecology diffuse history advancements ecology geography sociology psychology anthropology zoology epidemiology public health home economics among others historical development roots ecology broader discipline traced greeks lengthy list developments natural history science ecology also notably developed cultures traditional knowledge


called includes human propensity intuitive knowledge intelligent relations understanding passing information natural world human experience ref name young ref name huntignton ref ref name turner ref ref name davis ref term ecology coined ernst haeckel defined direct reference ''the economy nature'' ref name odum ref like contemporary researchers time haeckel adopted terminology carl linnaeus human ecological connections evident publication ''specimen academicum de oeconomia naturae'' linnaeus developed science included ''economy polis nature'' polis stems greek roots


political community originally based city states sharing roots word police reference promotion growth maintenance good social order community ref name young ref name pearce ref ref name kricher ref ref name egerton ref linnaeus also first write close affinity humans primates ref name reid ref linnaeus presented early ideas found modern aspects human ecology including balance nature highlighting importance ecological functions ecosystem services natural capital modern terms exchange performing function satisfactorily nature provided species necessaries life ref name foster ref


work linnaeus influenced charles darwin scientists time used linnaeus' terminology ie ''economy polis nature'' direct implications matters human affairs ecology economics ref name haecek ref ref name stauffer ref ref name kormandy ref ecology biological human science well ref name odum early influential social scientist history human ecology herbert spencer spencer influenced reciprocated influence onto works charles darwin herbert spencer coined phrase survival fittest early founder sociology developed idea


society organism created early precedent socio ecological approach subsequent aim link sociology human ecology ref name young ref name catton ref ref name claeys ref ref width align right history human ecology strong roots geography sociology departments late th century ref name young ref name gross ref context major historical development landmark stimulated research ecological relations humans urban environments founded george perkins marsh 's book ''man nature physical geography modified human


action'' published marsh interested active agency human nature interactions early precursor urban ecology human niche construction frequent reference ''economy nature'' ref name jelinski ref ref name stallin ref ref name liu ref influential sociologist university chicago named albion w small collaborated sociologist george e vincent published 'laboratory guide' studying people 'every day occupations' ref name gross guidebook trained students sociology could study society way natural historian would study birds publication explicitly included


rather separate nature ref name merchant ref term made first formal appearance field sociology book introduction science sociology ref name park ref ref name schnore ref published robert e park ernest w burgess also sociology department university chicago student roderick mckenzie helped solidify human ecology sub discipline within chicago school ref name macdonald ref authors emphasized difference human ecology ecology general highlighting cultural evolution human societies ref name young ref human ecology fragmented academic history developments spread throughout range


disciplines including home economics geography anthropology sociology zoology psychology authors argued geography human ecology much historical debate hinged placement humanity part separate nature ref name gross ref name barrows ref ref name bruhn ref light branching debate constitutes human ecology recent interdisciplinary researchers sought unifying scientific field titled coupled human natural systems builds moves beyond previous work eg human ecology ecological anthropology environmental geography ref name liu ref fields branches related historical development human ecology discipline include


cultural ecology urban ecology environmental sociology anthropological ecology ref name orlove ref ref name nettle ref ref name zimmerer ref even though term human ecology' popularized studies field conducted since early nineteenth century england france college atlantic bar harbor maine founded school human ecology since first enrolled class students college grown small liberal arts institution students full time faculty every graduate receives degree human ecology interdisciplinary major student designs


work done rather label ref name sears ref profession learn diagnose total landscape basis culture expression share special knowledge widely need fear work ignored efforts unappreciated ref name sears recently ecological society america added section human ecology indicating increasing openness biological ecologists engage human dominated systems acknowledgement contemporary ecosystems


influenced human action https societyforhumanecologyorg heesa overview human ecology defined type analysis applied relations human beings traditionally applied plants animals ecology ref name park ref toward aim human ecologists include sociologists integrate diverse perspectives broad spectrum disciplines covering wider points view ref name borden ref premier edition editors ''human ecology interdisciplinary journal'' gave introductory statement scope topics human ecology ref name hej ref statement provides broad overview interdisciplinary nature topic genetic physiological


social adaptation environment environmental change role social cultural psychological factors maintenance disruption ecosystems effects population density health social organization environmental quality new adaptive problems urban environments interrelations technological environmental changes development unifying principles study biological cultural adaptation genesis maladaptions human biological cultural evolution relation food quality quantity physical intellectual performance demographic change application computers remote sensing devices new tools techniques ref


name hej forty years later journal daniel g bates ref name bates ref notes lines continuity discipline way changed blockquote today greater emphasis problems facing individuals actors deal consequence much attention decision making individual level people strategize optimize risk costs benefits within specific contexts rather attempting formulate cultural ecology even specifically human ecology model researchers often draw demographic economic evolutionary theory well upon models