detroit ref name autogenerated ref indianapolis milwaukee chicago ref name autogenerated cincinnati portland adult education movement emerged public libraries frequently discussed american library association professional publications report ''the american public library diffusion knowledge'' william learned carnegie corporation sought establish adult education focus public library personalized readers' advisory service adult readers reference experts would make community intelligence service ref name autogenerated american library association book length commission report


''libraries adult education'' placed high importance readers' advisory services adult education judson jennings provided summary work observing library 's contribution adult education resolved three major activities ref name autogenerated ref blockquote information service regarding local opportunities adult students br service agencies engaged adult education br service individual readers students ref name autogenerated blockquote new professional interest spurred creation specialized full time readers' advisory positions major public libraries ref name autogenerated estiminated public libraries

Applied science
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established readers' advisory services ref name autogenerated early readers' advisory focused non fiction materials continuing adult education librarians consider early beginning revival readers' advisory praise inclusion fiction including genre fiction fantasy mystery romance etc write historically readers' advisory biased favor nonfiction others disapprove new approaches changes service dilevko magowan write post readers' advisory thus became opportunity converse patrons 'light quick escapist' books popular ephemeral


fiction nonfiction entertainment pleasure recreation conversations 'too burdensome' term genreflecting first coined betty rosenberg authored genreflecting guide reading interests genre fiction libraries unlimited another major influence spread revival readers' advisory adult reading round table arrt founded group chicago public librarians group organized workshops seminars genre study groups current interest interest readers' advisory continues grow libraries unlimited genreflecting advisory series grown titles july


personal preferences reader series questions called readers advisory conversation assessment focuses reader likes dislikes regard number factors including subject reading level genre writing style level characterization plot elements storyline pace tone frame setting hoped outcome interview identification three appropriate suggestions sometimes referred readalikes especially interview initiated patron interest new authors titles similar one enjoyed past identifying suitable suggestions readers' advisor combines


elements ie pace subject tone writing style etc example patron tells readers' advisor humorous mystery novel sharp tongued female protagonist readers' advisor also learns patron prefers fast paced dialogue excessive descriptive passages appeal elements identified ie humorous mystery featuring snappy dialogue female protagonist readers' advisor suggest appropriate titles collection drawing personal knowledge consulting appropriate print online resources even though patron requested mystery skilled readers advisor often


offer suggestion two point reader new new vista outside mentioned genre milieu readers' advisory also performed across multiple media example patron likes movie ''matilda'' might unaware based book roald dahl patrons enjoy audio books may introduced titles read person questions consider asking readers' advisory interview edition ''readers' advisory services public library'' joyce saricks lists questions advisors


consider characters plot quickly revealed slowly unveiled identifying pacing dialogue description identifying pacing focus single character several whose lives intertwined identify characterization focus story interior psychological exterior action oriented identifying story line indirect readers' advisory indirect readers' advisory display looking good book could ask one fabulous librarians try ''nifty reading guides'' indirect readers' advisory involves creation displays


bookmarks annotated book lists reader patron pick peruse without actively engaging readers' advisor indirect readers' advisory aids particularly annotated book lists focus appeal elements rather providing extensive plot summaries recently public libraries like http wwwwrlorg bookweb ra williamsburg regional library virginia begun experimenting form based readers' advisory allows richer indirect readers advisory experience maintaining staff recommendations display another way improve library 's readers' advisory service since many readers browsers staff recommendations make easier select book ref name autogenerated


content available gnu free documentation license ref article reader 's advisory matching mood material ross chelton recommend placing books four areas library order make merchandising four areas entrance ends stacks high traffic areas circulation desk placing display areas ensure patrons see hopefully utilize books display ross chelton also note books posters announcements merchandised titles circulate quickly ref name autogenerated discussion readers'


advisory resources numerous books online subscription databases websites dedicated readers' advisory australia new zealand libraries alive provide guide http wwwlibrariesalivecomau ra siteshtm readers' advisory resources australian new zealand readers authors http wwwbetterreadingcomau better reading website aims great source independent book recommendations australian readers families site focusses sharing great stories helping people discover new books authors print resources popular print resources include ''what read next'' series reference books published thomson gale ''genreflecting'' series published


libraries unlimited ''readers' advisory guides'' published american library association seattle librarian nancy pearl achieved broad fame recognition readers guides ''book lust'' ''more book lust'' recommend reading every mood moment reason popular general public found book stores libraries also note pearl 's guides contemporary fiction ''now read guide mainstream fiction '' ''now read ii guide mainstream fiction '' ''bookpage'' periodical available many public libraries containing


book reviews recommended reading lists author interviews internet resources http wwwmgplorg read listen view fl flmenu fiction l morton grove public library 's electronic mailing list readers' advisory discussions developed roberta johnson reader 's services staff library june fiction l managed cuyahoga county public library visit new https listservercuyahogalibrarynet scripts waexehome fiction l web page list encompasses fiction well aspects reader 's advisory children young adults adults including non fiction materials many booklists discussed listerv indexed library website following categories genre character setting subject author


audience best miscellaneous list powerful resource worldwide community librarians readers accessibility searchable archives given basic information almost every inquiry receives response often within minutes http wwwalaorg ala aboutala offices publishing booklist publications booklist online booklistonlinecom booklistonlinecfm booklist online delivers highly searchable creatively linked reviews columns features designed help users find exactly right book http wwwebscohostcom novelist novelist database reading recommendations available libraries around world comprehensive source information books genres includes read alikes expert recommendations recommended reads lists professional reviews feature


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ten newly published titles nominated voted public library workers around united states non profit service served inspiration https wwwloanstarsca loan stars list canada http wwwlibrarianschoiceorg librarians' choice list australia librarything social networking website cataloging sharing personal institutional library collections site contains suggester feature provides book recommendations based user catalogs similar books broader catalog specific suggestions receive http wwwebscohostcom novelist products nextreads nextreads email newsletter service delivers themed book recommendation


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series fiction series two books linked character settings common traits http wwwopeningthebookcom whichbook whichbook allows customize book search choosing characteristics story range using sliders sliders dragged one end one extreme order find desirable combination base site 's recommendations results limited specific format ebooks audiobooks large print editions option sign website save results create book


lists search features accessible without creating account http wwwfantasticfictioncouk fantastic fiction maintains bibliographies authors easy way track series authors authors write different pseudonyms http bookspotcom bookspotcom free resource simplifies search best book related content web directs users find audiobooks free first chapters specific lists award winners top bestsellers week libraries developed online indirect readers' advisory websites based specific titles series authors


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librarians patrons gain access book reviews recommendations librarians stay current new releases improve readers advisory skills https wwwbookadeptcom blog book adept blog written readers' advisory professor ucla gse consultant melissa elliott mlis includes reviews variety fiction adults young adults many times advisory related commentary http wwwearlywordcom early word blog run nora rawlinson fred ciporen includes loads reading lists well links news upcoming releases reviews july earlyword ceased blogging regular


basis promoting galley chats monthly twitter discussions new upcoming books adults ewgc young adults ewgcya occasional posts http wwwreadersadvisoronlinecom blog readers' advisor online blog libraries unlimited offers essential news tips fun stuff community exploring ra issues http raforallblogspotcom readers' advisory blog http wwwreadingrantsorg reading rants ordinary teen booklists booklist teens written middle school librarian jennifer hubert swan designed andrew mutch teens also post book reviews http wwwsljcom slj blog network slj blog network variety blogs curated school


library journal http wwwblogleeandlowcom lee low books open book blog race diversity education children 's books highlights diverse titles children http wwwyalsaalaorg thehub hub connection teen reads hosted young adult library services association blog provides resources audio video books related young adult literature http noflyingnotightscom flying tights graphic novel review website kids teens adults wikis http mssvnet wiki indexphp readme read http booklustwetpaintcom book lust community http wwwreadersadvisoryorg ala reader 's advisory committee http readersadvisorywetpaintcom readers' advisory services http wikisalaorg professionaltips indexphp readers' advisory readers' advisory professionaltips ala chat https webarchiveorg web http wwwaskalibrarianorg aalasp florida ask


public libraries magazine jan feb resources adults ''genreflecting guide popular reading interests'' th ed herald diana tixier wayne wiegand englewood co libraries unlimited ''reading matters'' ''reading still matters'' catherine sheldrick ross others libraries unlimited ''readers' advisory services public library'' joyce g saricks american library association rd ed recommended readers' advisory tools ''reference user services quarterly'' april ''reader 's advisory service north america public libraries history critical analysis'' juris dilevko candice fc magowan mcfarland ''the readers' advisory guide


nonfiction'' neal wyatt chicago ala editions ''non fiction readers' advisory'' robert burgin ed westport ct libraries unlimited ''the reader 's advisor 's companion'' kenneth shearer robert burgin westport ct libraries unlimited children 's young adult reading ''best books children preschool grade '' catherine barr th ed westport ct libraries unlimited ''best books high school readers grades '' john gillespie catherine barr westport ct libraries unlimited ''best books middle school junior high readers grades '' john gillespie catherine barr westport ct libraries


unlimited ''best books middle school junior high readers grades supplement first edition'' john gillespie catherine barr westport ct libraries unlimited ''best books young adults young adult library services association yalsa '' ''beyond picture books subject access best books beginning readers'' barbara barstow judith riggle leslie molnar rd ed westport ct libraries unlimited ''outstanding books college bound young adult library services association yalsa '' chicago ala ''naked reading uncovering tweens need become lifelong readers'' teri lesesne portland stenhouse


publishers newbery medal honor books present chicago ala revised annually caldecott medal honor books present chicago ala revised annually ''serving teens readers' advisory'' heather booth american library association older adults gi generation silent generation baby boomers ahlvers older adults readers' advisory ''reference user services quarterly'' references book promotion library science


called adopt measures necessary prohibit forms human cloning much incompatible human dignity protection human life world health organization opposed ban cloning techniques stem cell research council europe 's convention human rights biomedicine seems ban creation embryos solely research purposes signed countries ratified bulgaria croatia cyprus czech republic denmark estonia georgia greece hungary iceland lithuania moldova portugal romania san marino slovakia slovenia spain

Applied science
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pursue research elsewhere ref name hinxton light controversy surrounding hwang woo suk hinxton group additionally recommended number measures intended prevent fraud stem cell research group requested authors embryonic stem cell papers submit statement authenticity new cell lines source stem cells clearly specified ref name hinxton ethical issues surrounding embryonic stem cell research group additionally recommended international database created containing guidelines ethical practice research protocols consent forms information provided donors ref name hinxton


however potential international consensus matters seems remote given complexity diversity regulatory frameworks controversial area science within nations nations isscr international society stem cell research developing guidelines conduct stem cell research nations embryonic stem cell research divided international community european union stem cell research using human embryo permitted sweden finland belgium greece britain denmark netherlands however illegal germany austria ireland italy portugal issue similarly divided


united states several states enforcing complete ban others giving financial support ref name mlsna issn http wwwworldcatorg issn lccn http lccnlocgov ref elsewhere japan india iran israel south korea china supportive australia partially supportive exempting reproductive cloning yet allowing research embryonic stem cells derived process ivf however new zealand africa excepting south africa south america excepting brazil restrictive references external links http wwwhinxtongrouporg hinxton group http wwwemboorg scisoc stemcellhtml european molecular biology organization publication https wwwunorg news press docs ga dochtm united nations declaration human cloning http conventionscoeint treaty en treaties html htm council europe 's convention human rights


biomedicine http wwwmbbnetumnedu scmaphtml world stem cell policy map http wwwmbbnetumnedu scmap scresearchmaphtml world map stem cell research centers http wwwworldstemcellsummitcom world stem cell report world stem cell report https wwwsciencedailycom releases htm stem cell research reveals clues disease 's origins http wwwcellmedicinesocietyorg international cellular medicine society http wwwisscrorg international society stem cell research https webarchiveorg web http wwwnationalacademiesorg stemcells stem cell information united states national academies http stemcellsnihgov policy pages defaultaspx federal policy verbatim use stem cells us http wwwhinxtongrouporg hinxton group international consortium stem cells ethics law http wwwhinxtongrouporg wphtml world stem cell policies https webarchiveorg web http wwwbioethicsinstituteorg web page sectionid pagelevel interiorasp johns hopkins stem cell policy policy science policy


'''dual inheritance theory''' '''dit''' also known '''gene culture coevolution''' '''biocultural evolution''' developed early explain human behavior product two different interacting evolutionary processes genetic evolution cultural evolution genes culture continually interact feedback loop changes genes lead changes culture influence genetic selection vice versa one theory 's central claims culture evolves partly darwinian selection process dual inheritance theorists often describe analogy genetic evolution 'culture' context

Social science
Anthropology
Gene-Culture Coevolution


bias disproportionately picking behaviors people performing etc understanding social learning system pattern replication understanding different rates survival different socially learned cultural variants sets definition evolutionary structure cultural evolution genetic evolution relatively well understood dit examines cultural evolution interactions cultural evolution genetic evolution theoretical basis dit holds genetic cultural evolution interacted evolution ''homo sapiens'' dit recognizes natural selection genotypes important component evolution


human behavior cultural traits constrained genetic imperatives however dit also recognizes genetic evolution endowed human species parallel evolutionary process cultural evolution dit makes three main claims ref name mcelreath ref culture capacities adaptations human capacity store transmit culture arose genetically evolved psychological mechanisms implies point evolution human species type social learning leading cumulative cultural evolution evolutionarily advantageous culture evolves social learning processes give rise cultural evolution cultural traits transmitted differently


genetic traits therefore result different population level effects behavioral variation genes culture co evolve cultural traits alter social physical environments genetic selection operates example cultural adoptions agriculture dairying humans caused genetic selection traits digest starch lactose respectively another example likely culture became adaptive genetic selection caused refinement cognitive architecture stores transmits cultural information refinement may influenced way culture stored biases govern


transmission dit also predicts certain situations cultural evolution may select traits genetically maladaptive example demographic transition describes fall birth rates within industrialized societies dual inheritance theorists hypothesize demographic transition may result prestige bias individuals forgo reproduction gain influence industrial societies likely chosen cultural models view culture people defined word culture describe large set different phenomena definition sums


meant culture dit view culture emphasizes population thinking focusing process culture generated maintained also views culture dynamic property individuals opposed view culture superorganic entity individuals must conform view 's main advantage connects individual level processes population level outcomes genetic influence cultural evolution genes affect cultural evolution via psychological predispositions cultural learning genes encode much information needed form human brain genes constrain brain 's structure


hence ability brain acquire store culture genes may also endow individuals certain types transmission bias described cultural influences genetic evolution culture profoundly influence gene frequencies population '''lactase persistence''' one best known examples prevalence genotype adult lactose absorption human populations northern europeans african societies long history raising cattle milk around years ago ref name ref lactase production stopped shortly weaning societies develop dairying


east asians amerindians still true today areas lactase persistence believed domesticating animals source milk became available adult thus strong selection lactase persistence could occur ref name ref name ref scandinavian population estimated selection coefficient ref name implies cultural practice raising cattle first meat later milk led selection genetic traits lactose digestion recently analysis natural selection human genome suggests civilization accelerated genetic change humans


past years '''food processing''' culture driven changes human digestive systems making many digestive organs like teeth stomach smaller expected primates similar size ref name ref attributed one reasons humans large brains compared great apes ref name fonseca azevedo ref due food processing early examples food processing include pounding marinating notably cooking pounding meat breaks muscle fibres hence taking away job mouth teeth jaw marinating emulates action stomach


ref name ref humans living cooked diets spend fraction day chewing compared extant primates living raw diets american girls boys spent average percent day chewing respectively compared chimpanzees spend hours day chewing frees time used hunting raw diet means hunting constrained since time spent hunting time spent eating chewing plant material cooking reduces time required get day 's energy requirements allowing subsistence activities digestibility


engage food processing ref name fonseca azevedo cooking food influenced genes extent research suggests humans cannot live without cooking ref name ref ref name fonseca azevedo study individuals consuming long term raw diets found percentage diet made raw food length diet raw food increased bmi decreased ref name despite access many non thermal processing like grinding pounding heating deg c deg f ref name approximately billion neurons


human brain nbsp kg body mass exclusively raw diet close extant primates would viable modelled argued would require infeasible level nine hours feeding everyday ref name fonseca azevedo however contested alternative modelling showing enough calories could obtained within hours per day ref name scientists anthropologists point evidence brain size homo lineage started increase well advent cooking due increased consumption meat ref name ref name ref


basic food processing slicing accounts size reduction organs related chewing corn lio et al argues improving cooperative abilities varying diet meat seeds improved foraging hunting efficiency allowed brain expansion independent cooking argue came much later consequence complex cognition developed ref name yet still example cultural shift diet resulting genetic evolution criticism comes controversy archaeological evidence available claim lack


evidence fire control brain sizes first started expanding ref name wrangham argues anatomical evidence around time origin ''homo erectus'' million years ago indicates control fire hence cooking occurred ref name time largest reductions tooth size entirety human evolution occurred indicating softer foods became prevalent diet also time narrowing pelvis indicating smaller gut also evidence loss ability climb wrangham argues


indicates control fire since sleeping ground needs fire ward predators proposed increases brain size food processing led greater mental capacity cultural innovation food processing increased digestive efficiency providing energy gains brain size positive feedback loop argued led rapid brain size increases seen ''homo'' lineage ref name mechanisms cultural evolution dit evolution maintenance cultures described five major mechanisms natural selection cultural


variants random variation cultural drift guided variation transmission bias natural selection cultural differences among individuals lead differential survival individuals patterns selective process depend transmission biases result behavior adaptive given environment random variation random variation arises errors learning display recall cultural information roughly analogous process mutation genetic evolution cultural drift cultural drift process roughly analogous genetic drift evolutionary biology ref name cavallisfornza cavalli sfornza l feldman ''cultural transmission evolution


quantitative approach'' princeton new jersey princeton university press ref ref name artsciwustl ref cultural drift frequency cultural traits population may subject random fluctuations due chance variations traits observed transmitted sometimes called sampling error ref name duke ref fluctuations might cause cultural variants disappear population effect especially strong small populations model hahn bentley shows cultural drift gives reasonably good approximation changes popularity american baby names ref name duke drift processes also suggested explain


henrich mcelreath content bias content biases result situations aspect cultural variant 's content makes likely adopted ref name henrich henrich j r mcelreath dual inheritance theory evolution human cultural capacities cultural evolution oxford handbook evolutionary psychology r dunbar l barrett eds ch oxford oxford university press ref content biases result genetic preferences preferences determined existing cultural traits combination two example food preferences result genetic preferences sugary fatty foods socially learned eating practices


taboos ref name henrich content biases sometimes called direct biases ref name boyd context bias context biases result individuals using clues social structure population determine cultural variants adopt determination made without reference content variant two major categories context biases model based biases frequency dependent biases model based biases model based biases result individual biased choose particular cultural model imitate four major categories model based biases prestige bias skill bias success bias similarity bias ref name mcelreath


prestige bias results individuals likely imitate cultural models seen prestige measure prestige could amount deference shown potential cultural model individuals skill bias results individuals directly observe different cultural models performing learned skill likely imitate cultural models perform better specific skill success bias results individuals preferentially imitating cultural models determine generally successful opposed successful specific skill


skill bias similarity bias results individuals likely imitate cultural models perceived similar individual based specific traits frequency dependent biases frequency dependent biases result individual biased choose particular cultural variants based perceived frequency population explored frequency dependent bias conformity bias conformity biases result individuals attempt copy mean mode cultural variant population another possible frequency dependent bias rarity bias rarity bias results individuals preferentially


occur innate behaviour able deal constant environment fast changing environments cultural learning would useful previous generation knew outdated provide benefit changed environment hence individual learning beneficial moderately changing environment cultural learning becomes useful since generation shares mostly similar environment genes insufficient time change changes environment ref name species social learning thus level culture humans birds chimpanzees


known cumulative culture boyd richerson argue evolution cumulative culture depends observational learning uncommon species ineffective rare population propose environmental changes occurring pleistocene may provided right environmental conditions ref name ref michael tomasello argues cumulative cultural evolution results ratchet effect began humans developed cognitive architecture understand others mental agents furthermore tomasello proposed disparities observational learning mechanisms


found humans great apes go way explain observable difference great ape traditions human types culture see emulation observational learning cultural group selection although group selection commonly thought nonexistent unimportant genetic evolution dit predicts due nature cultural inheritance may important force cultural evolution group selection occurs cultural evolution conformist biases make difficult novel cultural traits spread population see section transmission biases conformist bias also helps maintain variation


cultural phylogenetics historical development idea human cultures undergo similar evolutionary process genetic evolution goes back least darwin donald campbell published first theoretical work adapted principles evolutionary theory evolution cultures two developments cultural evolutionary theory set stage dit year richard dawkins 's ''the selfish gene'' introduced ideas cultural evolution popular audience although one best selling science books time lack mathematical rigor little effect


development dit also geneticists marcus feldman luigi luca cavalli sforza published first dynamic models gene culture coevolution models form basis subsequent work dit heralded publication three seminal books first charles lumsden eo wilson 's ''genes mind culture'' book outlined series mathematical models genetic evolution might favor selection cultural traits cultural traits might turn affect speed genetic evolution first book published


describing genes culture might coevolve relatively little effect development dit ref name laland laland k g brown ''sense nonsense evolutionary perspectives human behavior'' oxford oxford university press ref critics felt models depended heavily genetic mechanisms expense cultural mechanisms controversy surrounding wilson 's sociobiological theories may also decreased lasting effect book ref name laland second book cavalli sforza feldman 's ''cultural transmission evolution quantitative approach'' ref name cavallisfornza borrowing heavily population genetics epidemiology book built


mathematical theory concerning spread cultural traits describes evolutionary implications vertical transmission passing cultural traits parents offspring oblique transmission passing cultural traits member older generation younger generation horizontal transmission passing traits members population next significant dit publication robert boyd peter richerson 's ''culture evolutionary process'' ref name boyd book presents standard mathematical models evolution social learning different environmental conditions population effects social learning various forces selection cultural learning


expressed disappointment little attention afforded dit ref kevin laland gillian ruth brown attribute lack attention dit 's heavy reliance formal modeling economist herbert gintis disagrees critique citing empirical work well recent work using techniques behavioral economics behavioral economic techniques adapted test predictions cultural evolutionary models laboratory settings well studying differences cooperation fifteen small scale societies field ref name henrich henrich j r boyd bowles c camerer e fehr h gintis eds ''foundations human sociality economic experiments


ethnographic evidence fifteen small scale societies'' oxford oxford university press ref since one goals dit explain distribution human cultural traits ethnographic ethnologic techniques may also useful testing hypothesis stemming dit although findings traditional ethnologic studies used buttress dit arguments thus far little ethnographic fieldwork designed explicitly test hypotheses ref name soltis ref name henrich herb gintis named dit one two major conceptual theories potential unifying behavioral sciences including economics biology anthropology sociology psychology political science


addresses genetic cultural components human inheritance gintis sees dit models providing best explanations ultimate cause human behavior best paradigm integrating disciplines evolutionary theory review competing evolutionary perspectives human behavior laland brown see dit best candidate uniting evolutionary perspectives one theoretical umbrella ref name laland laland k n g r brown ''sense nonsense evolutionary perspectives human behavior'' oxford oxford university press p ref relation fields sociology cultural


anthropology two major topics study sociology cultural anthropology human cultures cultural variation however dual inheritance theorists charge disciplines often treat culture static superorganic entity dictates human behavior ref name richerson richerson p r boyd http wwwdesucdavisedu faculty richerson cultureisbiologypdf culture part human biology superorganic concept serves human sciences badly goodman moffat eds ''probing human origins'' cambridge massachusetts american academy arts sciences ref cultures defined suite common traits shared large group people dit theorists argue


n't sufficiently explain variation cultural traits individual level contrast dit models human culture individual level views culture result dynamic evolutionary process population level ref name richerson human sociobiology evolutionary psychology evolutionary psychologists study evolved architecture human mind see composed many different programs process information assumptions procedures specialized natural selection solve different adaptive problem faced hunter gatherer ancestors eg choosing mates hunting avoiding predators cooperating using aggression evolved


programs contain content rich assumptions world people work ideas passed mind mind changed evolved inference systems much like messages get changed game telephone changes random evolved programs add subtract information reshaping ideas ways make intuitive memorable attention grabbing words memes ideas like genes genes copied faithfully replicated ideas 's ideas mutate every awhile like genes ideas


transformed every time passed mind mind sender 's message interpreted evolved inference systems receiver necessary contradiction evolutionary psychology dit evolutionary psychologists argue psychology implicit many dit models simple evolved programs rich inferential structure captured idea content bias also argue phenomena dit models attribute cultural evolution cases evoked culture situations different evolved programs activated different places response cues


hbe concerned ecological process dit focused historical process one difference human behavioral ecologists often assume culture system produces adaptive outcome given environment implies similar behavioral traditions found similar environments however always case study african cultures showed cultural history better predictor cultural traits local ecological conditions memetics memetics comes meme idea described dawkins 's ''the selfish gene'' similar dit


label influential popular culture academia critics memetics argue lacking empirical support conceptually ill founded question whether hope memetic research program succeeding proponents point many cultural traits discrete many existing models cultural inheritance assume discrete cultural units hence involve memes shortcomings criticisms psychologist liane gabora criticised dit argues use term dual inheritance refer traits transmitted way self assembly code genetic evolution


also traits ''not'' transmitted way self assembly code cultural evolution misleading second use capture algorithmic structure makes inheritance system require particular kind mathematical framework criticisms effort frame culture darwinian terms leveled richard lewontin niles eldredge stuart kauffman see also references reading books lumsden c j e wilson ''genes mind culture coevolutionary process'' cambridge massachusetts harvard university press cavalli sforza l l feldman ''cultural transmission


evolution quantitative approach'' princeton new jersey princeton university press boyd r p j richerson '' culture evolutionary process'' chicago university chicago press durham w h ''coevolution genes culture human diversity'' stanford california stanford university press tomasello ''the cultural origins human cognition'' cambridge massachusetts cambridge university press shennan j '' genes memes human history darwinian archaeology cultural evolution'' london thames hudson laland k n g r brown ''sense nonsense evolutionary perspectives human behavior''


b marler darwinian archaeologies ra bentley hdg maschner c chippendale eds ''handbook archaeological theories'' lanham md altamira press mcelreath r henrich j https webarchiveorg web http arbeitucdavisedu mcelreath files mcelreath henrich mce finalpdf modeling cultural evolution r dunbar l barrett eds ''oxford handbook evolutionary psychology'' oxford oxford university press mcelreath r henrich j https webarchiveorg web http arbeitucdavisedu mcelreath files henrich mcelreath finalpdf dual inheritance theory evolution human cultural capacities cultural evolution r dunbar l barrett eds ''oxford handbook evolutionary psychology'' oxford oxford university press journal articles external links current dit researchers http wwwsscnetuclaedu anthro faculty boyd rob boyd department anthropology ucla


http www evostanfordedu marchtml marcus feldman department biological sciences stanford http wwwpsychubcca henrich homehtml joe henrich departments psychology economics university british columbia https archivetoday http arbeitucdavisedu mcelreath richard mcelreath anthropology department uc davis http wwwdesucdavisedu faculty richerson richersonhtm peter j richerson department environmental science policy uc davis related researchers https peopleokubcca lgabora liane gabora department psychology university british columbia http wwwpsychaucklandacnz people rd gray russell gray max planck institute science human history jena germany http peopleumassedu gintis herb gintis emeritus professor economics university massachusetts santa fe institute http lalandlabst andrewsacuk kevin laland school biology university st andrews http wwwuclacuk heeg ruth mace department anthropology university college london https webarchiveorg web https sitesgooglecom site amesoudi


'''structural equation modeling''' '''sem''' label diverse set methods used scientists experimental observational research across sciences ref name boslaugh business fields used social behavioral sciences definition sem difficult without reference highly technical language good starting place name sem involves construction ''model'' informative representation observable theoretical phenomenon model different aspects phenomenon theorized related one another ' 'structure'' structure

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Statistics
Structural Equation Model


system equations usually designed paper using computer arrows symbols also known path notation shown figure structure implies statistical often causal relationships variables error terms include multiple equations ''equation'' equations sem mathematical statistical properties implied model structural features estimated statistical algorithms usually based matrix algebra generalized linear models using experimental observational data criticisms sem methods hint mathematical formulation problems tendency


accept models without establishing external validity philosophical bias inherent standard procedures although always clear boundaries sem generally involves ''path models'' see also path analysis ''measurement models'' see also factor analysis always employs statistical models computer programs investigate structural connections latent variables underlying actual variables taken observed data ref name kline ref sem toolkit includes confirmatory factor analysis confirmatory composite analysis path analysis multi group modeling longitudinal modeling partial least squares path modeling latent growth modeling hierarchical multi level modeling ref name kline


measured four questions predict academic performance measured sat act high school gpa shown figure concept human intelligence cannot measured directly way one could measure height weight instead researchers theory conceptualization intelligence design measurement instruments questionnaire test provides multiple indicators intelligence indicators combined model create plausible way measuring intelligence latent variable circle intelligence figure indicators square


boxes scale figure ref name salkind sem diagrams latent variables commonly shown ovals observed variables rectangles diagram shows error e influences intelligence question sat act gpa scores influence latent variables applying model observed data generated instruments researcher recover measure intelligence academic individual observed instruments margin error implied instruments researcher use intelligence test hypothesis example


intelligence causes academic performance another latent variable figure defined path model drawing arrow intelligence performance figure therefore general example sem involving measurement latent variables estimation hypothesized effect least one latent variable another observed latent variable case latent academic performance great advantage sem measurements tests occur simultaneously one statistical estimation procedure errors throughout model calculated using information model means


errors accurate researcher calculate part model separately history structural equation modeling sem roots work sewall wright applied explicit causal interpretations regression equations based direct indirect effects observed variables population genetics lee wolfle compiled annotated bibliographic history sewall wright 's path coefficient method know today path modeling wright added two important elements standard practice using regression predict outcome combine information


one regression equation using causal approach regression modeling rather merely predictive sewall wright consolidated method path analysis article method path coefficients otis dudley duncan introduced sem social sciences flourished throughout different yet mathematically related modeling approaches developed psychology sociology economics convergence two developmental streams factor analysis psychology path analysis sociology via duncan produced current core sem although great overlap econometric practices employing simultaneous equations


least squares regression nothing path analysis pls pa falsely promoted method works small datasets estimation approaches fail fact shown minimum required sample sizes method consistent required multiple regression lisrel pls pa conceived iterative computer algorithms emphasis start creating accessible graphical data entry interface extension wright 's path analysis early cowles commission work simultaneous equations estimation centered koopman hood 's algorithms


economics transportation optimal routing maximum likelihood estimation closed form algebraic calculations iterative solution search techniques limited days computers anderson rubin developed limited information maximum likelihood estimator parameters single structural equation indirectly included two stage least squares estimator asymptotic distribution anderson farebrother two stage least squares originally proposed method estimating parameters single structural equation system linear simultaneous equations introduced theil b less


independently basmann sargan anderson 's limited information maximum likelihood estimation eventually implemented computer search algorithm competed iterative sem algorithms two stage least squares far widely used method early systems regression equation approaches developed cowles commission extending transportation modeling tjalling koopmans sewall wright statisticians attempted promote path analysis methods cowles university chicago university chicago statisticians identified many faults path analysis


applications social sciences faults pose significant problems identifying gene transmission wright 's context made path methods pls pa lisrel problematic social sciences freedman summarized objections path analyses failure distinguish among causal assumptions statistical implications policy claims one main reasons suspicion confusion surrounding quantitative methods social sciences see also wold 's response wright 's path analysis never gained large following among us econometricians successful influencing hermann wold student karl j reskog


j reskog 's student claes fornell promoted lisrel us advances computers made simple novices apply structural equation methods computer intensive analysis large datasets complex unstructured problems popular solution techniques fall three classes algorithms ordinary least squares algorithms applied independently path applied called pls path analysis packages estimate ols covariance analysis algorithms evolving seminal work wold student karl j reskog implemented lisrel amos eqs simultaneous equations regression algorithms developed cowles commission


tjalling koopmans pearl ref name pearl extended sem linear nonparametric models proposed causal counterfactual interpretations equations example excluding variable z arguments equation asserts dependent variable independent interventions excluded variable hold constant remaining arguments nonparametric sems permit estimation total direct indirect effects without making commitment form equations distributions error terms extends mediation analysis systems involving categorical variables presence nonlinear interactions bollen


pearl ref name bollen pearl survey history causal interpretation sem become source confusions controversies sem path analysis methods popular social sciences accessibility packaged computer programs allow researchers obtain results without inconvenience understanding experimental design control effect sample sizes numerous factors part good research design supporters say reflects holistic less blatantly causal interpretation many real world phenomena especially psychology social interaction may adopted


natural sciences detractors suggest many flawed conclusions drawn lack experimental control direction directed network models sem arises presumed cause effect assumptions made reality social interactions artifacts often epiphenomena secondary phenomena difficult directly link causal factors example physiological epiphenomenon example time complete meter sprint person may able improve sprint speed seconds seconds difficult attribute improvement direct causal factors like


diet attitude weather etc second improvement sprint time epiphenomenon holistic product interaction many individual factors general approach sem although technique sem family different following aspects common many sem methods summarized e framework many sem scholars like alex liu equaltion model equation specification estimation free parameters evaluation models model fit explanation communication well execution results model specification two main


components models distinguished sem ' 'structural model'' showing potential causal dependencies endogenous exogenous variables ''measurement model'' showing relations latent variables indicators exploratory confirmatory factor analysis models example contain measurement part path diagrams viewed sems contain structural part specifying pathways model modeler posit two types relationships ''free'' pathways hypothesized causal fact counterfactual relationships variables tested therefore left 'free' vary relationships variables


already estimated relationship usually based previous studies 'fixed' model modeler often specify set theoretically plausible models order assess whether model proposed best set possible models must modeler account theoretical reasons building model modeler must also take account number data points number parameters model must estimate identify model identified model model specific parameter value


reference points account variance model solution constrain one paths zero means longer part model estimation free parameters parameter estimation done comparing actual covariance matrices representing relationships variables estimated covariance matrices best fitting model obtained numerical maximization via expectation maximization ''fit criterion'' provided maximum likelihood estimation quasi maximum likelihood estimation weighted least squares asymptotically distribution free methods often accomplished using specialized


sem analysis program several exist evaluation models model fit estimated model analysts want interpret model estimated paths may tabulated presented graphically path model impact variables assessed using path tracing rules see path analysis important examine fit estimated model determine well models data basic task sem modeling forming basis accepting rejecting models usually accepting one competing model another output sem programs


includes matrices estimated relationships variables model assessment fit essentially calculates similar predicted data matrices containing relationships actual data formal statistical tests fit indices developed purposes individual parameters model also examined within estimated model order see well proposed model fits driving theory though estimation methods make tests model possible course statistical hypothesis tests sem model tests based assumption


correct complete relevant data modeled sem literature discussion fit led variety different recommendations precise application various fit indices hypothesis tests differing approaches assessing fit traditional approaches modeling start null hypothesis rewarding parsimonious models ie fewer free parameters others aic focus little fitted values deviate saturated model ie well reproduce measured values taking account number free parameters used different measures


fit capture different elements fit model appropriate report selection different fit measures guidelines ie cutoff scores interpreting fit measures including ones listed subject much debate among sem researchers commonly used measures fit include chi squared fundamental measure fit used calculation many fit measures conceptually function sample size difference observed covariance matrix model covariance matrix akaike information criterion aic test relative model


hu bentler suggested smaller guideline good fit kline suggested smaller guideline good fit comparative fit index cfi examining baseline comparisons cfi depends large part average size correlations data average correlation variables high cfi high cfi value higher desirable measure fit decision represents good enough fit model data must reflect


contextual factors sample size ratio indicators factors overall complexity model example large samples make chi squared test overly sensitive likely indicate lack model data fit model modification model may need modified order improve fit thereby estimating likely relationships variables many programs provide modification indices may guide minor modifications modification indices report change result freeing fixed parameters usually therefore adding path model currently set


zero modifications improve model fit may flagged potential changes made model modifications model especially structural model changes theory claimed true modifications therefore must make sense terms theory tested acknowledged limitations theory changes measurement model effectively claims items data impure indicators latent variables specified theory ref name loehlin models led mi maccallum demonstrated even favorable conditions models arising specification searches must


viewed caution ref name maccallum sample size power researchers agree large sample sizes required provide sufficient statistical power precise estimates using sem general consensus appropriate method determining adequate sample size ref name westland generally considerations determining sample size include number observations per parameter number observations required fit indexes perform adequately number observations per degree freedom researchers proposed guidelines based simulation studies ref name chou professional experience ref name bentler mathematical formulas ref name westland ref


assumptions necessarily model produces validated causal conclusions collecting data multiple time points using experimental quasi experimental design help rule certain rival hypotheses even randomized experiment cannot rule threats causal inference good fit model consistent one causal hypothesis invariably entails equally good fit another model consistent opposing causal hypothesis research design matter clever help distinguish rival hypotheses save interventional experiments ref name pearl science subsequent replication perhaps modification proceed


initial finding advanced uses measurement invariance multiple group modelling technique allowing joint estimation multiple models different sub groups applications include behavior genetics analysis differences groups eg gender cultures test forms written different languages etc latent growth modeling nonlinear mixed effects model hierarchical multilevel models item response theory models mixture model latent class sem alternative estimation testing techniques robust inference survey sampling analyses multi method multi trait models structural equation model trees sem specific software several software packages exist fitting structural equation models lisrel first software


latent variables'' causal map references ref ref name pearl ref ref name westland ref ref name maccallum ref ref name maccallum ref ref name bentler ref ref name browne ref ref name loehlin loehlin j c ''latent variable models introduction factor path structural equation analysis'' psychology press ref ref name chou ref ref name bollen pearl ref ref name westland ref ref name salkind ref ref name boslaugh ref bibliography reading bartholomew j knott ''latent variable models factor analysis'' kendall 's library statistics vol edward arnold publishers bentler pm bonett dg significance tests goodness fit analysis covariance structures ''psychological bulletin''


bollen k ''structural equations latent variables'' wiley byrne b ''structural equation modeling amos basic concepts applications programming''lea goldberger ''structural equation models social sciences'' ''econometrica'' hoyle r h ed ''structural equation modeling concepts issues applications'' sage pages isbn external links http archivewikiwixcom cache http www chassncsuedu garson pa structurhtm structural equation modeling page david garson 's statnotes ncsu http disc ntcbauhedu chin ais issues opinion structural equation modeling sem research http bayescsuclaedu book k jwhtml causal interpretation structural equations sem survival kit judea pearl http archivewikiwixcom cache http wwwupapdxedu ioa newsom semrefshtm structural


equation modeling reference list jason newsom journal articles book chapters structural equation models handbook management scales collection previously used multi item scales measure constructs sem graphical models latent variable models regression models structural equation models


'''poetics''' theory literary forms literary discourse history term ''poetics'' derives ancient greek ''poietikos'' pertaining poetry also creative productive western world development evolution poetics featured three artistic movements concerned poetical composition formalist objectivist iii aristotelian see ''poetics'' ref name brogan ref romantic era poetics tended toward expressionism emphasized perceiving subject twentieth century poetics returned aristotelian paradigm followed trends toward meta criticality establishment contemporary theory poetics ref name preminger ref eastern poetics developed lyric

Humanities
Languages and literature
Literary theory
Poetics


poetry rather representational mimetic poetry western world ref name brogan literary criticism poetics distinguished hermeneutics focus meaning text rather understanding text 's different elements come together produce certain effects reader literary criticism combines poetics hermeneutics single analysis however one may predominate given text aims one reading see also list basic poetry topics cognitive poetics descriptive poetics historical poetics figure speech stylistic device rhetorical device


'''leisure studies''' branch social sciences focuses understanding analyzing leisure recreation tourism common topics leisure research national recreation park association national organization united states leisure studies offers accreditation many universities offer courses study degree programs leisure studies ''journal leisure research'' ''journal park recreation administration'' scholarly us academic journals leisure studies history leisure studies existed much longer first centralized organization directing leisure studies established

Human physical performance and recreation


birmingham england may known leisure studies association first international conference held lsa university sussex brighton also set record largest lsa event held date attendees lsa conferences widely regarded attended events leisure researchers world education pursuing degree leisure studies give students opportunity learn incorporate leisure recreational activities tourism students take wide variety classes ranging psychology


social sciences biology anatomy students learn improve foster healthy life leisure leisure activities leisure activities people work leisure studies deal include broad range activities activities separated sub categories sport recreation tourism leisure sport recreation activities one broadest categories leisure studies includes sports traditional non traditional indoor outdoor physical activities done recreational purposes sport recreation activities includes limited swimming running hiking weight


variety leisure recreational sport settings age groups populations diverse geographical locations us bureau labor statistics report recreation worker jobs existed us mean annual wage recreation worker leisure studies field expected grow ref name blsgov ref growing fast average jobs potentially due increasing childhood obesity rates aging baby boomers generation '''work settings include ''' rehabilitation centers state municipal parks schools camps coaching athletic programs


fitness centers sporting organizations businesses correctional facilities non profit organizations community centers hospitality services nursing homes '''industries employed recreation leisure workers average annual salary ''' class wikitable industry percent employed avg annual salary local government nursing residential care facilities religious grantmaking civic professional orgs arts entertainment recreation social assistance ref name blsgov see also hospitality management studies sociology


leisure digital leisure studies references bibliography blackshaw tony crawford garry ''the sage dictionary leisure studies'' sage london blackshaw tony ''leisure'' key ideas routledge london academia education subject leisure


ref impact impact year website link link name link link name issn eissn oclc lccn jstor coden '''''leisure studies''''' academic journal publishes original research related field leisure studies journal established ref name blackshaw ref overseen leisure studies association references external links http wwwleisurestudiesorg lsa journal journal page entry leisure studies association http wwwtandfonlinecom action journalinformationshow aimsscope journalcode rlst aims scope taylor francis online publications established


'''library instruction''' also called '''bibliographic instruction''' '''user education''' '''library orientation''' consists instructional programs designed teach library users locate information need quickly effectively usually covers library 's system organizing materials structure literature field research methodologies appropriate academic discipline specific resources finding tools library catalog indexes abstracting services bibliographic databases etc prepares individuals make immediate lifelong use information effectively teaching concepts logic information access evaluation fostering information independence critical

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Library instruction


thinking aimed equipping library users skills locate library sources use effectively satisfy information needs history library instruction began nineteenth century instruction library use offered number libraries united states ramped early twentieth century justin winsor president american library association ala redefined role librarian also teacher ala survey respondents offered required elective library instruction courses academic library instruction


part dormant library profession late early librarians still participating classroom instruction literature shows little activity topic academic library instruction mushroomed early resulted founding library orientation exchange loex non profit self supporting educational clearinghouse early first conference held eastern michigan held annually around united states ever since loex borrowing collection consists print materials one page handouts bibliographies


subject guides instructional videos audio tapes cd roms loex members united states canada caribbean europe australia israel lebanon south africa prior widespread public use computers library instruction went far beyond teaching mechanics identifying locating materials physical library also included critical thinking active participatory learning teaching concepts controlled vocabularies focused physical library part users could try instruction


effective respond changing information environment new methods library instruction cephalonian method reflect changes instructional technology education theory information communication technology literacy ict example modern approach library instruction ict extends information literacy use computer technology variety forms manipulate deliver receive information ideas model library instruction program utilizes complementary tools resources deliver memorable interactive instruction resources necessary engage attention contemporary patrons immersed media environment relationship


information literacy according presidential committee information literacy information literacy set skills person needs able recognize information needed ability locate evaluate use effectively needed information academic setting instruction information literacy take variety forms long class project integrated course related subject matter literacy competency standards outlined association college research libraries currently debates whether instruction use library systems necessary


efforts better spent making systems easier use require instruction particular study published journal academic librarianship indicates predominant model teaching information literacy one shot session model ineffective n't really make perceptible difference grades students however study also indicated students attended longer class library instruction session scored significantly higher indicating may idea instruction flawed rather method formats library instruction occurs


libraries offer specialized instructional sessions sessions librarian works one one user assist specific research goals sessions sometimes referred term paper clinic research consultation another option library instruction consists ''one shot'' instruction sessions slang term refers formal instruction given single session opposed instruction extended two sessions class meetings often held term paper assigned goal librarian orient class best


library sources use term paper webinars began part library instruction programs covid pamdemic form teaching became norm university libraries around world library instruction also benefit utilization video games gaming designed information literacy incorporating design principles gaming information literacy instruction instructional librarians teach students succeed long complex difficult tasks still keeping learning experience engaging library instruction active learning information literacy workshops also facilitated theater


techniques rules hospitality humor critical library instruction critical library instruction rooted idea knowledge culturally situated thus instruction must well characterized praxis based approach deeply connected context information needs learner critical library instruction always begins assessment learner 's context information needs critical library instruction problematizes traditional methods teaching information literacy skills privileging particular ways knowing academic contexts instead advocates method teaching emphasizes learner 's


frame reference information needs influenced critical pedagogy educational philosophy address problems questions particular relevance lives students critical library instruction aims provide approach students information needs practices critical literacy critical library instruction approaches literacy political literacy instruction political act thus critical library instruction requires instructors maintain awareness power dynamics identity intersections challenge definitions literacy order provide meaningful instruction particular students see also craap test information cycle information literacy cephalonian method


map language divisions within justinian 's byzantine empire '''language geography''' branch human geography studies geographic distribution language constituent elements linguistic geography also refer studies people talk landscape example toponymy study place names ref name toponymy ref landscape ethnoecology also known ethnophysiography study landscape ontologies expressed language two principal fields study within geography language ''geography languages'' deals distribution history space languages

Social science
Geography
Human geography
Language geography


concerned 'the analysis distribution patterns spatial structures languages contact' ''geolinguistics'' used sub discipline geography study 'political economic cultural processes affect status distribution languages ref name ref perceived sub discipline linguistics incorporates contact linguistics one definition appearing 'the study languages dialects contact conflict various societal economic ideological political contemporary trends regard particular geographic location planetary scale' various terms subdisciplines


suggested none gained much currency ref name dict withers charles wj johnson rj ''the dictionary human geography'' gregory derek smith david second edition oxford blackwell ref including ''linguistic geography'' deals regional linguistic variations within languages ref name trud trudgill p ''on dialect social geographical perspectives'' oxford basil blackwell new york new york university press ref ref name trud trudgill p ''linguistic geography geographical linguistics'' progress geography ref ref name dict also called 'dialect geography' consider subdivision geolinguistics ref name division within examination linguistic geography separating studies change


time space many studies called contact linguistics researched effect language contact languages dialects varieties peoples interacted ref name dict territorial expansion language groups usually resulted overlaying languages upon existing speech areas rather replacement one language another example norman conquest england old french became language aristocracy middle english remained language majority population linguistic geography linguistic geography field dominated linguists rather


geographers ref name trud charles w j withers describes difference resulting focus elements language geographical social variation opposed investigation processes making change extent language areas ref name dict peter trudgill says linguistic geography geographical sense concerned spatial distribution linguistic phenomena ref name trud greater emphasis laid upon explanation rather mere description patterns linguistic change ref name trud ref name dict move paralleled similar concerns geography language studies


studies paid attention social use language variations dialect within languages regard social class occupation regarding variations lexicographer robert burchfield notes nature matter perpetual discussion disagreement notes professional linguistic scholars regard axiomatic varieties english sufficiently large vocabulary expression distinctions important society using contrasts view historian john vincent regards view burchfield concludes resolution


studies cognition communication etc see also dialect continuum language policy linguistic ecology linguistic landscape linguistic map linguistic rights sprachbund references external links http wwwgeolectoscom atlashtm linguistic atlas world http wwwgeolinguisticsinfo american society geolinguistics human geography


'''theories political behavior''' aspect political science attempt quantify explain influences define person 's political views ideology levels political participation political behavior subset human behavior involves politics power theorists influence field include karl deutsch theodor adorno long term influences political orientation interaction political views parental figures often thought primary long term influence political orientation willingness take part political system teachers educational authority figures also

Social science
Political science
Political behavior


often thought significant impact political orientation school year united states students spent average days primary secondary education year school day defined approximately class hours means average student spend around hours class year post secondary education appears impact voting rates political identification study college students found voted rate presidential election compared average


citizens aged voted peers also affect political orientation friends often necessarily advantage part generation collectively develops unique set societal issues eric l dey argued socialisation process individuals acquire knowledge habits value orientations useful future ability relate common level fuels enables future ideological growth sociologists political scientists debate relationship age formation political attitudes impressionable years hypothesis postulates political


individuals specific political ideology formed long term factors political scientists agree mass media profound impact voting behavior one author asserts would argue notion institutions mass media important contemporary politics transition liberal democratic politics soviet union eastern europe media key battleground second election issues include campaign issues debates commercials election years political campaigns shift certain political behaviors based candidates involved different degrees


effectiveness influencing voters influence social groups political outcomes recently political scientists interested many studies aimed analyze relation behavior social groups political outcomes social groups included studies age demographics gender ethnic groups understood lenses pluralism social identity theory example us politics effect ethnic groups gender great influence political outcomes hispanic americans profound social impact political outcome


vote emerging strong coming political force noticeable increase hispanic american voting presidential election although votes share socially common political view time election hispanic american vote aided tremendously election florida senator mel martinez although presidential election latin americans voted republican president george w bush however hispanic americans lowest voting rate united states voting presidential election united states


currently illegal immigration claiming attention hispanic americans although completely unanimous concerned education employment deportation illegal immigrants united states although majority hispanic americans vote democratic candidates cuban americans likely conservative latinos cuban american voters casting ballots donald trump presidential election compared average latinos voted although represents net decrease support republican party among cuban americans continues trend created


exile many cubans cuban revolution african americans second highest voting rates united states even surpassed white voters presidential election although declined presidential election presidential election presidential election african americans voted overwhelmingly democratic candidate barack obama trend african americans voting candidates democratic party continued presidential election women united states past years surpassed male voting rates presidential election ratio females


males trend often referred gender gap combined tendency women vote democratic candidates effect political outcomes extremely important biology political science interdisciplinary studies biology political science aim identify correlates political behavior biological aspects example linkage biology political orientation also aspects like partisanship voting behavior ref name somitpeterson ref field study typically referred genopolitics although sometimes referred biopolitics ref name blank ref although


term also meanings originating work michel foucault study possible genetic bases political behavior grown since term genopolitics coined political scientist james fowler early describe research identifying specific transporter receptor genes responsible ideological orientation beyond sociopsychological realm political socialisation political participation political scientists also aim understand drives individuals participate democratic process either voting volunteering campaigns signing petitions protesting participation cannot always explained rational behavior voting paradox example points


cannot citizen 's self interest vote effort takes vote almost always outweigh benefits voting particularly considering single vote unlikely change electoral outcome political scientists instead propose citizens vote psychological social reasons studies show example individuals likely vote see friends voted someone household received nudge vote political psychology political psychology aims explain political behavior psychological analysis examples theories include right wing authoritarianism social dominance orientation


system justification theory see also political parties references external links '' https wwwspringercom social sciences political science journal political behavior '' academic journal political culture political science theories


'''''political behavior''''' quarterly peer reviewed academic journal published springer science business media covering political behavior institutions processes policies editors chief geoffrey layman benjamin radcliff university notre dame abstracting indexing according ''journal citation reports'' journal impact factor ranking th journals category political science see also list political science journals references external links english language journals political science journals publications established quarterly journals springer science business media academic journals


'''systems immunology''' research field systems biology uses mathematical approaches computational methods examine interactions within cellular molecular networks immune system immune system thoroughly analyzed regards components function using reductionist approach overall function ca n't easily predicted studying characteristics isolated components strongly rely interactions among numerous constituents focuses ''in silico'' experiments rather ''in vivo'' recent studies experimental clinical immunology led development mathematical models

Natural science
Biology
Systems biology
Systems immunology


discuss dynamics innate adaptive immune system mathematical models used examine processes ''in silico'' ca n't done ''in vivo'' processes include activation cells cancer immune interactions migration death various immune cells eg cells b cells neutrophils immune system respond certain vaccine drug without carrying clinical trial techniques modelling immune cells scheme describes mathematical models used immunology techniques used immunology modelling


model complex represented equations six signalling proteins software tool used research bionetgen outcome model according ''in vivo'' experiment epstein barr virus ebv mathematically modeled equations investigate three hypotheses explain higher occurrence mononucleosis younger people running numerical simulations first two hypotheses supported model partial differential equation model partial differential equation pde models extended version ode model describes time evolution


variable time space pdes used microscopic level modeling continuous variables sensing recognition pathogens pathway also applied physiological modeling describe proteins interact movement directed immunological synapse derivatives partial calculated respect time also respect space sometimes physiological variable age cell division used instead spatial variables comparing pde models take account spatial distribution cells


ode ones pdes computationally demanding spatial dynamics important aspect cell signalling describes motion cells within three dimensional compartment cells move around three dimensional lymph node tcrs located surface cell membranes therefore move within two dimensional compartment spatial distribution proteins important especially upon cell stimulation immunological synapse made therefore model used study cell activated weak agonist peptide particle based stochastic model particle based stochastic models


obtained based dynamics ode model differs model others considers components model discrete variables continuous like previous ones examine particles microscopic mesoscopic level immune specific transduction pathways immune cells cancer interactions respectively dynamics model determined markov process case expresses probability possible state system upon time form differential equations equations difficult solve analytically simulations computer performed


role earliest stages cell activation stochastic simulation used explain interactions well model migrating cells lymph node model used examine cell proliferation lymphoid system agent based models summary interactions cd cells beta cells diabetes agent based modeling abm type modelling components system observed treated discrete agents represent individual molecule cell components agents called system interact


node network finite number discrete states usually two example high low active inactive usually logic models two states considered boolean models molecule state means molecule n't present high enough level make change system zero concentration therefore state reached high enough amount initiate reaction method first introduced kauffman limit model


provide qualitative approximations system perfectly model concurrent events method used explore special pathways immune system affinity maturation hypermutation humoral immune system tolerance pathologic rheumatoid factors simulation tools support model ddlab cell devs immsim c immsim c used often others require knowledge computer programming field platform available public web application finds usage undergraduate immunology courses various universities princeton genoa etc modelling statecharts


rhapsody used far systems immunology translate statechart executable java c codes method also used build model influenza virus infection results accordance earlier research papers boolean network showed amount activated macrophages increased young old mice others suggest decrease sbml systems biology markup language supposed cover models ordinary differential equations recently upgraded boolean models could


applied almost modeling tools compatible sbml software packages modeling boolean models boolnet ginsim cell collective computer tools model system using differential equations computer tool perform various tasks model construction calibration verification analysis simulation visualization single software tool satisfies mentioned criteria multiple tools need used ginsim ginsim computer tool generates simulates genetic networks based discrete variables based regulatory graphs logical parameters ginsim calculates temporal


evolution system returned state transition graph stg states represented nodes transitions arrows br used examine cells respond upon activation tcr tlr pathway processes observed separately combination first molecular maps logic models tcr tlr pathways built merged molecular maps produced celldesigner based data literature various databases kegg reactome logical models generated ginsim component


value either additional values modified logical rules applied component called logical nodes network merging final model consists nodes results modelling accordance experimental ones demonstrated tlr costimulatory receptor cd cells boolnet boolnet r package contains tools reconstruction analysis visualization boolean networks cell collective cell collective scientific platform enables scientists build analyse simulate biological models without formulating


mathematical equations coding knowledge base component built extends knowledge individual entities proteins genes cells etc dynamical models data qualitative takes account dynamical relationship interacting species models simulated real time everything done web bionetgen bionetgen bng open source software package used rule based modeling complex systems gene regulation cell signaling metabolism software uses graphs represent different molecules functional domains rules explain


interactions terms immunology used model intracellular signalling pathways tlr cascade dsairm dsairm dynamical systems approach immune response modeling r package designed studying infection immune response dynamics without prior knowledge coding useful applications learning environments gepasi copasi biouml simbiology matlab bio spice conferences first conference synthetic systems immunology hosted ascona csf eth zurich took place first days may fifty researchers different scientific fields involved among


presentations held best went dr govinda sharma invented platform screening tcr epitopes cold spring harbor laboratory cshl new york march hosted meeting focus exchange ideas experimental computational mathematical biologists study immune system depth topics meeting modelling regulatory networks future synthetic systems biology immunoreceptors reading plaidoyer systems immunology systems synthetic immunology systems biology current topics microbiology immunology frind model multiscale systems immunology project


modelling bionetgen references branches immunology bioinformatics systems biology computational fields study


'''''lex mercatoria''''' latin merchant law often referred law merchant english body commercial law used merchants throughout europe medieval period evolved similar english common law system custom best practice enforced system merchant courts along main trade routes developed integrated body law voluntarily produced adjudicated enforced voluntary basis alleviating friction stemming diverse backgrounds local traditions participants due international background

Humanities
Law
Legal management
Mercantile law


local state law always applicable merchant law provided leveled framework conduct transactions reducing preliminary trusted second party emphasized contractual freedom inalienability property shunning legal technicalities deciding cases ''ex aequo et bono'' ''lex mercatoria'' professional merchants revitalized almost nonexistent commercial activities europe plummeted fall roman empire last years new theories changed understanding medieval treatise considering proposal legal reform document used instructional purposes theories consider


treatise cannot described body laws applicable time desire legal scholar improve facilitate litigation merchants text composed sections annex sections described procedural matters presence witnesses relation body law common law considered false statement define system exclusively based custom structures elements existent legal system ordinances even concepts proper romano canonical


also required merchant customs proven court even early chief justice edward coke described ''lex mercatoria'' part common law william blackstone would later concur tradition continued especially lord mansfield said father english commercial law precepts ''lex mercatoria'' also kept alive equity admiralty courts maritime affairs us traditions ''lex mercatoria'' prevailed general principles doctrines commercial jurisprudence lord mansfield champion fusing ''lex mercatoria''


common law sir john holt chief justice lord mansfield chief justice leading proponents incorporating ''lex mercatoria'' common law holt complete task possibly conservatism see ''clerke v martin'' lord mansfield became known 'founder commercial law country great britain whilst sitting guildhall lord mansfield created blockquote body substantive commercial law logical modern character time harmony principles


common law due lord mansfield 's genius harmonisation commercial custom common law carried almost complete understanding requirements commercial community fundamental principles old law marriage idea proved acceptable merchants lawyers blockquote statute merchants edw edw aka statute acton burnell international commercial law arbitration ''lex mercatoria'' precepts reaffirmed new international mercantile law new commercial law grounded commercial practice directed market efficiency


privacy dispute resolution also evolved functional methods like international commercial arbitration available developments also attracted interest empirical sociology law present future commercial law ''lex mercatoria'' sometimes used international disputes commercial entities often disputes decided arbitrators sometimes allowed explicitly implied apply ''lex mercatoria'' principles see also international commercial terms law sea unidroit uncitral statute staple edw iii stat c references bibliography jh baker law merchant common law ''cambridge law


journal'' mary elizabeth basile et al ''lex mercatoria legal pluralism late thirteenth century treatise afterlife'' cambridge ames foundation wyndham beawes ''lex mercatoria complete code commercial law'' f c j rivington bruce l benson spontaneous evolution commercial law ''southern economic journal'' lisa bernstein francesco parisi eds ''customary law economics'' cheltenham uk northampton edward elgar publishing limited daniel r coquillette https lawdigitalcommonsbcedu cgi viewcontentcgiarticle context lsfp legal ideology incorporation ii sir thomas ridley charles molloy literary battle


w mitchell ''the early history law merchant'' cambridge theodore plucknett ''a concise history common law'' th edn getzville ny william hein company js rogers ''the early history law bills notes'' chapter john william smith ''mercantile law'' ed hart simey leon e trakman ''the law merchant evolution commercial law'' littleton colo fb rothman external links http wwwjusuiono lm lex mercatoria line http wwwstevesachscom papers paper thesishtml 'law merchant' fair court st ives stephen edward


sachs http wwwecontalkorg archives boudreaux lahtml boudreaux law legislation podcast law vs legislation including modern applications ''lex mercatoria'' economic theory econtalk econlib http wwwtrans lexorg trans lex research codification platform transnational law ''lex mercatoria'' gesa baron '' http wwwcisglawpaceedu cisg biblio baronhtml unidroit principles international commercial contracts form new lex mercatoria '' bernard audit '' http wwwcisglawpaceedu cisg biblio audithtml vienna sales convention lex mercatoria '' cisg http translexuni koelnde text https wwwtrans lexorg lex mercatoria translex principles id history current implications lex mercatoria history contract law customary legal systems history international trade


'''enterprise systems engineering''' '''ese''' discipline applies systems engineering design enterprise ref name regdes giachetti design enterprise systems theory architecture methods crc press boca raton florida p ref discipline includes body knowledge principles processes tailored design enterprise systems enterprise complex socio technical system comprises interdependent resources people information technology must interact fulfill common mission ref name regdes accomplishes tasks traditional systems engineering informed expansive view

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems engineering
Enterprise systems engineering


context poet political operational economic technological system consideration developed acquired modified maintained disposed enterprise systems engineering may required complexity faced breaks assumptions upon textbook systems engineering based requirements relatively stable well understood system configuration controlled small easily discernible set stakeholders enterprise must produce different kind analysis people technology components company see whole picture enterprise nowadays enterprise becomes complex


problems people deal important integrate system reach higher standard level business ref name joannou elements four important elements enterprise system engineering work includes development adaption strategic technical planning enterprise governance ese processes different stages development adaptation development adaptation way compromise problems obstacles complex systems time goes environment change needs adaptation develop continuously develop adaption something experiences different


stages example mobile phone gone quite adaptations evolutionary development past first released size mobile phone enormous passed generations development phones became smaller development mobile data g g made using phones faster convenient sum refers process creating diverse innovative ideas choices enterprise selecting one successful next generation strategic technical planning strategic technical


planning stp gives enterprise picture aim objectives future also assessment process organization brings balance assimilation modernization enterprise different components stp mission statement needs assessment technology descriptions goal statement hardware software requirement budget plan human resources enterprise governance defined 'the set responsibilities practices exercised board executive management provide strategic direction ensure objectives achieved ascertain risks managed appropriately verify organization resources


used responsibly' according cima official terminology enterprise governance includes two aspects corporate governance conformance business governance performance essential understand company know must done succeed allows one make right decision choice ceo executives company also identify risks company processes four different steps enterprise system engineering process includes technology planning tp capabilities based engineering analysis cbea enterprise architecture ea enterprise analysis assessment ea ref name joannou ref


technology planning step searches looks key technologies enterprise step aims determine associate innovative ideas choose technology useful enterprise develop sustainable way technology needs one must identify look trend technology decide technology company needs important understand technology achieved character technology fits company well loads technology based decisions need


taken company deciding computers use software suitable useful company build system back customer data essential statistics company high security capabilities based engineering analysis analysis method focus essential elements whole enterprise needs scheme target innovation evolution capabilities set essential steps analysis activities dependent conducted iteratively purpose formulation


assess stakeholders interest understand stakeholders want like specify outcome spaces find solutions several conditions goal operations frame capability portfolios collect fundamental elements exploratory analysis assess performance cost identify performance cost different conditions find solutions improve explore concepts search new concepts transform advanced capabilities determine need variety examine risks chances decide whether new ways needed evolutionary planning assess enterprise impacts


investigate effects enterprise technical capability aspects examine evolution strategies explore construct strategies evolution route develop capability road map road map plan capability area includes analysis decision making tool assessment development enterprise enterprise architecture prospective enterprise architecture model illustrates vision network framework organization four aspects according microsoft 's michael platt prospective business application information technology


order build infrastructure enterprise analysis assessment enterprise analysis assessment aim find enterprise going right direction help correct decisions organization strongly advised link enterprise opportunity risk assessment qualities required step aware suitable capable technologies knowing understand c command control issues also background picture modeling simulation various activities actions event multi scale analysis


early continuous war fighter operational assessment lightweight portable based c capability representations developmental software versions available assessment minimal infrastructure flexible modeling simulation operator loop oitl hardware loop hwil capabilities line continuous performance monitoring selective forensics traditional systems engineering tse tse refers traditional systems engineering term defined engineering sub system tse tse composed constructed external designer stable system wo n't change automatically operation development independent


components exclude people therefore people play important role massive machines expected conduct differences tse ese survey results comparing survey result shown tse ese complementary interdependent ese higher rating tse could also hidden element ese combination tse ese ideal enterprise generation applications two types ese application information enterprise systems engineering social


framework involves planning analyzing mapping drawing network process enterprises stakeholders moreover creates social value entrepreneurship explores focuses social societal issues forms connection social enterprise system engineering social enterprise systems engineering v model two social elements established based system engineering framework example social interface analysis reviews stakeholders' requirements activities interactions stakeholders exchange opinion opportunity risk management opportunities risks ese


aggressive seeking opportunities also finding ways avoid minimize risks opportunity trigger element may lead accomplishment objectives risk potential occurrence affect performance entire system several reasons importance risk management identify risks head prepare actions prevent minimize risks since risks cost enterprise determining risk events reduce amount loss help know allocate human


technology resources order avoid critical risks steps enterprise risk opportunity management process prepare risk opportunity plan select team representatives identify risks complete risks statements risk identify opportunities people work tactical level manager must understand opportunities order take action evaluate enterprise risks opportunities decide critical vital develop plan develop identification evaluation different strategies see also enterprise architecture enterprise engineering enterprise life cycle


map scandinavia map nordic countries includes scandinavia countries cultural political ties scandinavia '''scandinavian studies''' interdisciplinary academic field area studies mainly united states germany primarily focuses scandinavian languages also known north germanic languages cultural studies pertaining scandinavia scandinavian language culture nordic countries scandinavia defined denmark norway sweden term ''scandinavian'' ethnic cultural linguistic sense often used synonymously north germanic also refers peoples

Social science
Sociology
Area studies
Scandinavian studies