cc chang leon henkin bjarni j nsson roger lyndon others late edward marczewski emphasized importance free algebras leading publication papers algebraic theory free algebras marczewski together jan mycielski w adys aw narkiewicz witold nitka j p onka wierczkowski k urbanik others starting william lawvere 's thesis techniques category theory become important universal algebra see also graph algebra term algebra clone universal algebraic geometry simple universal algebra footnotes references bergman george '' http mathberkeleyedu gbergman invitation general algebra


'''polish literature''' literary tradition poland polish literature written polish language though languages used poland centuries also contributed polish literary traditions including latin yiddish lithuanian russian german esperanto according czes aw mi osz centuries polish literature focused drama poetic self expression fiction dominant english speaking world reasons manifold mostly rested historical circumstances nation polish writers typically profound range choices motivate write including past cataclysms

Humanities
Languages and literature
Polish Literature


extraordinary violence swept poland crossroads europe also poland 's collective incongruities demanding adequate reaction writing communities given period ref name mi osz czes aw mi osz https booksgooglecom booksid r mkt vavwic lpg pp pg pr v onepage q f false ''the history polish literature'' google books preview ''university california press'' berkeley ref ref name polska http enpolandgovpl culture html experience poland polish culture '' polska official promotional website republic poland'' ministry foreign affairs ref period polish enlightenment began peaked second half th century one leading polish enlightenment authors included ignacy krasicki jan


potocki polish romanticism unlike romanticism elsewhere europe largely movement independence foreign occupation early polish romantics heavily influenced european romantics notable writers included adam mickiewicz seweryn goszczy ski tomasz zan maurycy mochnacki second period many polish romantics worked abroad influential poets included adam mickiewicz juliusz owacki zygmunt krasi ski aftermath failed january uprising new period polish positivism began advocate skepticism exercise reason modernist period known young poland movement visual arts literature music came


around concluded poland 's return independence notable authors included kazimierz przerwa tetmajer stanis aw przybyszewski jan kasprowicz neo romantic era exemplified works stefan eromski w adys aw reymont gabriela zapolska stanis aw wyspia ski henryk sienkiewicz received nobel prize literature ''quo vadis'' inspiring new sense hope literature second polish republic encompasses short though exceptionally dynamic period polish literary consciousness socio political reality changed radically poland 's return independence new avant garde writers included julian tuwim stanis aw ignacy witkiewicz witold gombrowicz


czes aw mi osz maria browska zofia na kowska years german soviet occupation poland artistic life dramatically compromised cultural institutions lost clandestine publications poland devoted literature much polish literature written occupation poland appeared print conclusion world war ii including books na kowska rudnicki borowski others ref name jb situation began worsen dramatically around introduction stalinist doctrine minister sokorski poland three nobel prize winning authors later th


century isaac bashevis singer czes aw mi osz wis awa szymborska early st century yet another writer awarded prize olga tokarczuk middle ages almost nothing remains polish literature prior country 's christianization poland 's pagan inhabitants certainly possessed oral literature extending slavic songs legends beliefs early christian writers deem worthy mention obligatory latin perished ref name mi osz within polish literary tradition customary include works dealt poland even written ethnic


poles case gallus anonymus first historian described poland work entitled ''cronicae et gesta ducum sive principum polonorum'' deeds princes poles composed sophisticated latin gallus foreign monk accompanied king boles aw iii wrymouth return hungary poland important tradition polish historiography continued wincenty kad ubek thirteenth century bishop krak w well jan ugosz polish priest secretary bishop zbigniew ole nicki ref name mi osz first recorded sentence polish language reads ''day ut ia pobrusa


ti poziwai'' let grind take rest paraphrase latin ''sine ut ego etiam molam'' work phrase appeared reflects culture early poland sentence written within latin language chronicle ''liber fundationis'' history cistercian monastery henryk w silesia recorded abbot known simply piotr peter referring event almost hundred years earlier sentence supposedly uttered bohemian settler bogwal bogwalus boemus subject boles aw tall expressing compassion


wife often stood grinding quern stone ref name mikos ref notable early medieval polish works latin old polish language include oldest extant manuscript fine prose polish language entitled ''holy cross sermons'' well earliest polish language ''bible queen zofia'' ''chronicle janko czarnk w'' th century mention ''pu awy psalter'' ref name mi osz early texts polish vernacular influenced heavily latin sacred literature include ''bogurodzica'' mother god hymn praise virgin mary


written th century though popular least century earlier ''bogurodzica'' served national anthem one first texts reproduced polish printing press ''master polikarp 's conversation death'' rozmowa mistrza polikarpa ze mierci ref name mi osz early one first printing houses poland set kasper straube krak w see spread printing press kasper elyan g og w glogau set printing shop wroc aw breslau silesia twenty years later first cyrillic printing house


founded krak w schweipolt fiol eastern orthodox church hierarchs notable texts produced period include ''saint florian 's breviary'' printed partially polish late th century ''statua synodalia wratislaviensia'' printed collection polish latin prayers well jan ugosz 's ''chronicle'' th century ''catalogus archiepiscoporum gnesnensium'' ref name mi osz renaissance advent renaissance polish language finally accepted equal footing latin polish culture art flourished jagiellonian rule many foreign poets writers settled poland bringing


new literary trends writers included kallimach filippo buonaccorsi conrad celtis many polish writers studied abroad krak w academy became melting pot new ideas currents world 's first literary society ''sodalitas litterarum vistulana'' vistula literary society founded krak w notable members included conrad celtes albert brudzewski filip callimachus laurentius corvinus ref name mi osz polish writer used latin principal vehicle expression klemens janicki ''ianicius'' became one notable latin poets time laureled


pope writers miko aj rej ref name polonapl http wwwpolonapl dlibra collectiondescription dirids miko aj rej collection biography body works ''national digital library'' cyfrowa biblioteka narodowa ''polona'' ref jan kochanowski laid foundations polish literary language modern polish grammar first book written entirely polish language appeared period prayer book biernat lublin c called ''raj duszny'' ''hortulus animae'' eden soul printed krak w one poland 's first printing establishments operated florian ungler originally bavaria


notable polish writers poets active th century include width width valign top miko aj hussowski hussowczyk andrzej krzycki johannes dantiscus jan aski ''communae poloniae regni privilegium'' andrzej frycz modrzewski ''de republica emendanda'' miko aj rej ''kr tka rozprawa'' klemens janicki ianicius width valign top ukasz g rnicki jan kochanowski ''laments'' piotr skarga bartosz paprocki historiographer genealogist szymon szymonowic daniel naborowski maciej kazimierz sarbiewski baroque literature period polish baroque ref name bookinstitutepl stanis aw bara czak http wwwbookinstitutepl eniksite php baroque polish poetry th century


''instytut ksi ki'' poland retrieved september ref significantly influenced great popularization jesuit high schools offered education based latin classics part preparation political career studies poetry required practical knowledge writing latin polish poems radically increased number poets versifiers countrywide soil humanistic education exceptional writers grew well piotr kochanowski gave translation torquato tasso 's ''jerusalem delivered'' maciej kazimierz sarbiewski poet laureate became known among european nations ''horatius


christianus '' christian horace latin writings jan andrzej morsztyn epicurean courtier diplomat extolled sophisticated poems valors earthly delights wac aw potocki productive writer polish baroque unified typical opinions polish szlachta deeper reflections existential experiences notable polish writers poets active period include width width valign top sebastian grabowiecki miko aj p szarzy ski ''rymy'' kasper miaskowski piotr kochanowski daniel naborowski hieronim morsztyn szymon starowolski kasper twardowski c c ''lekcyje


kupidynowe'' cupid 's lessons maciej kazimierz sarbiewski j zef bart omiej zimorowic nbsp valign top samuel twardowski szymon zimorowic ''roksolanki'' krzysztof opali ski ukasz opali ski jan andrzej morsztyn leading baroque poet wac aw potocki ''wojna chocimska'' zbigniew morsztyn morstyn stanis aw grochowski jan chryzostom pasek ''pamietniki'' memoirs jan z kijan dzwonowski early ref name kb karol badecki http wwwzwoje scrollscom zwoje text phtm pisma jana dzwonowskiego wydawnictwa akademii umiej tno ci w krakowie biblioteka pisarz w polskich krak w nak adem akademii umiej tno ci ref enlightenment period polish enlightenment began peaked second


half th century reign poland 's last king stanis aw august poniatowski ref name bookinstitutepl jacek adamczyk book review http wwwbookinstitutepl eniksite php ''regina libertas liberty polish eighteenth century political thought'' anna grze kowiak krwawicz ''instytut ksi ki'' poland retrieved september ref went sharp decline third final partition poland followed political cultural economic destruction country leading great emigration polish elites enlightenment ended around replaced polish romanticism home abroad ref name mi osz one leading polish enlightenment poets ignacy krasicki


known locally prince poets poland 's la fontaine author first polish novel called ''the adventures mr nicholas wisdom'' miko aja wiadczy skiego przypadki also playwright journalist encyclopedist translator french greek another prominent writer period jan potocki polish nobleman egyptologist linguist adventurer whose travel memoirs made legendary homeland outside poland known chiefly novel ''the manuscript found saragossa'' drawn comparisons celebrated works ''decameron'' ''the arabian nights'' notable polish writers


poets enlightenment period include width width valign top stanis aw leszczy ski g os wolny el bieta dru backa stanis aw konarski skutecznym rad sposobie barbara sanguszko franciszek bohomolec magazine ''monitor'' stanis aw august poniatowski adam naruszewicz ignacy krasicki ''fables parables'' onufry kopczy ski stanis aw trembecki franciszek salezy jezierski franciszek karpi ski jan piotr norblin izabela czartoryska czartoryski museum width valign top franciszek knia nin hugo ko taj ''ku nica ko tajowska'' franciszek zab ocki ''towarzystwo ksi g elementarnych'' stanis aw staszic ''constitution '' jan niadecki julian ursyn


niemcewicz ''constitution '' jakub jasi ski tadeusz czacki ''towarzystwo przyjaci nauk'' j drzej niadecki first polish chemistry text book samuel linde ''towarzystwo ksi g elementarnych'' j zef maksymilian ossoli ski ''zak ad narodowy im ossoli skich'' andrzej stanis aw za uski j zef za uski ''biblioteka za uskich'' romanticism due partitions carried neighboring empires ended existence sovereign polish state polish romanticism unlike romanticism elsewhere europe largely movement independence foreign occupation expressed ideals traditional way life polish


people period romanticism poland ended tsarist suppression january uprising marked public executions russians deportations siberia literature polish romanticism falls two distinct periods defined insurgencies first around ending november uprising second giving birth polish positivism first period polish romantics heavily influenced european romantics art featured emotionalism imagination folklore country life well propagation ideals independence


famous writers period adam mickiewicz seweryn goszczy ski tomasz zan maurycy mochnacki second period january uprising many polish romantics worked abroad often banished polish soil occupying power work became dominated ideals freedom struggle regaining country 's lost sovereignty elements mysticism became prominent also period idea ''poeta wieszcz'' nation 's bard developed ''wieszcz'' functioned spiritual leader suppressed people notable poet among ''leading bards romanticism recognized periods


adam mickiewicz two national poets juliusz owacki zygmunt krasi ski polish writers poets romantic period include width width valign top maria wirtemberska adam jerzy czartoryski antoni gorecki aleksander fredro ''zemsta'' kazimierz brodzi ski henryk rzewuski antoni malczewski jan czeczot tomasz zan klementyna hoffmanowa adam mickiewicz ''dziady'' ''pan tadeusz'' franciszek salezy dmochowski seweryn goszczy ski j zef bohdan zaleski maurycy mochnacki nbsp valign top micha czajkowski lucjan siemie ski wincenty pol juliusz owacki ''balladyna'' ''kordian'' zygmunt krasi ski


''nie boska komedia'' j zef ignacy kraszewski ''stara ba '' gustaw ehrenberg narcyza michowska cyprian kamil norwid ''vade mecum'' teofil lenartowicz w adys aw syrokomla kornel ujejski teodor tomasz je mieczys aw romanowski jadwiga uszczewska positivism aftermath failed january uprising russian occupation new period polish positivism took name auguste comte 's philosophy positivism advocated skepticism exercise reason questions addressed poland 's positivist writers revolved around organic work included establishment equal rights members society including feminists assimilation


poland 's jewish minority defense polish population german ruled part poland ''kulturkampf'' germanization displacement polish population german settlers writers worked educate public constructive patriotism would enable polish society function fully integrated social organism regardless adverse circumstances poland 's positivist period lasted turn th century advent young poland movement prominent writers poets polish positivism included width width valign top narcyza michowska precursor feminism poland edmund chojecki


maria ilnicka j zef szujski micha ba ucki adam asnyk adolf dygasi ski eliza orzeszkowa ''nad niemnem'' nbsp valign top maria konopnicka ''rota'' henryk sienkiewicz ''quo vadis'' small nobel prize small boles aw prus ''the doll'' ''pharaoh'' kazimierz zalewski aleksander wi tochowski gabriela zapolska maria rodziewicz wna young poland modernist period known young poland movement visual arts literature music came around concluded poland 's return independence period based two concepts early


stage characterized strong aesthetic opposition ideals predecessor promoting ''organic work'' face foreign occupation artists following early philosophy young poland believed decadence symbolism conflict human values civilization existence art art 's sake prominent authors followed trend included kazimierz przerwa tetmajer stanis aw przybyszewski jan kasprowicz later ideology emerged conjunction socio political upheavals across europe revolution nicholas ii russia norwegian independence moroccan crisis others continuation romanticism


often called neo romanticism artists writers following idea covered large variety topics sense personal mission pole exemplified stefan eromski 's prose condemnation social inequality works w adys aw reymont gabriela zapolska criticism polish society polish revolutionary history stanis aw wyspia ski henryk sienkiewicz received nobel prize literature patriotic trilogy inspiring new sense hope writers period include ref name b j maurin bia ostocka j derwojed ''s ownik artyst w polskich obcych w polsce dzia aj cych'' warszawska drukarnia naukowa pan wroc aw ossolineum ref


width width valign top wac aw sieroszewski jan kasprowicz antoni lange stefan eromski ''przedwio nie'' small trilogy small franciszek nowicki kazimierz przerwa tetmajer w adys aw reymont ''ch opi'' small nobel prize literature small nbsp valign top stanis aw wyspia ski tadeusz mici ski tadeusz rittner tadeusz boy ele ski ''zielony balonik'' w adys aw orkan wac aw berent leopold staff interbellum literature second polish republic encompasses short though exceptionally dynamic period polish literary consciousness socio political reality changed radically poland 's return independence large part derivative


changes collective unobstructed development programs artists writers new avant garde trends emerged period spanning twenty years full notable individualities saw exponents changing european civilization including tuwim witkacy gombrowicz mi osz browska na kowska pal contributed new model twentieth century polish culture echoing language everyday life ref name klppl http dwudziestolecie miedzywojenneklppl ser html g wne gatunki literackie uprawiane w dwudziestoleciu mi dzywojennym ''kulturalna polska'' retrieved september ref ref name dwutygodnikcom prof marian stala jagiellonian university http wwwdwutygodnikcom artykul dwa dwudziestolecia jednej epokihtml dwa dwudziestolecia jednej epoki ''dwutygodnik literatura'' retrieved september


ref ref name wydawnictwoliterackiepl marta wyka http wwwwydawnictwoliterackiepl ksiazkaphpid literatura dwudziestolecia okupacji ''wydawnictwo literackie'' krakow ref two decades interbellum marked rapid development field poetry undivided undiminished first time century gradual successive introduction new ideas resulted formation separate distinct trends first decade polish interwar poetry clear constructive optimistic opposed second decade marked dark visions impending war internal conflicts within polish society growing pessimism whole period amazingly


rich nevertheless polish academy literature pal founded decree council ministers republic rada ministr w rp highest opinion forming authority country awarded gold silver laurels z oty srebrny wawrzyn two highest national honors contributions literature invasion poland ref name lerski ref one prominent poets interwar period boles aw le mian member pal whose creative personality developed large part influenced interbellum decades death literary life


contemporaries revolved mostly around issues independence polish poets treated concept freedom extreme seriousness many patriotic works emerged time mention particular variant poetic cult pi sudski width width valign top andrzej strug ferdynand antoni ossendowski ''lenin god godless'' boles aw le mian c pal kornel makuszy ski ''kozio ek mato ek'' pal stanis aw ignacy witkiewicz ''nienasycenie'' stefan grabi ski maria browska ''noce dnie'' nights days zofia kossak szczucka ''krzy owcy'' small trilogy small maria pawlikowska jasnorzewska bruno schulz


''sanatorium pod klepsydr '' clepsydra sanatorium julian tuwim kazimierz wierzy ski pal nbsp valign top jaros aw iwaszkiewicz ''the maids wilko'' stanis aw odo eniec antoni onimski jan lecho maria kuncewiczowa jan brzechwa aleksander wat bruno jasie ski julian przybo j zef mackiewicz witold gombrowicz ''ferdydurke'' zuzanna ginczanka ''o centaurach'' centaurs world war ii years german soviet occupation poland artistic life dramatically compromised cultural institutions lost environment chaotic writers scattered found concentration


labor camps nazi era ghettos others deported country emigrated tuwim wierzy ski many joined ranks polish underground resistance movement baczy ski borowski gajcy literary outlets forced cease operation writers remained home began organizing literary life conspiracy including lectures evenings poetry secret meetings homes writers art facilitators polish cities meetings held frequently warsaw krak w lw w writers participated setting underground presses clandestine publications poland devoted


literature many fought polish army exile resisted holocaust civil capacity generation ''kolumbs'' born around active warsaw uprising ref name streszczeniapl http streszczeniapl epoka literatura ii wojny swiatowej literatura ii wojny wiatowej opis epoki ''streszczeniapl'' retrieved september ref ref name klppl dorota blednicka http medalionyklppl html medaliony na tle wczesnej literatury wojennej ''kulturalna polska'' klppl retrieved september ref ref name pisarzepl janusz termer http pisarzepl publicystyka janusz termer komu jest dzi potrzebny pisarzhtml komu jest dzi potrzebny pisarz portal artystyczno literacki ''pisarze pl'' retrieved september ref ref name republikapl http gacek onlinerepublikapl tematy wojnahtml heroizacja deheroizacja postaci w literaturze wojennej powojennej ''literatura online'' gacekprvpl ref best known representatives war years


width width valign top zofia na kowska ''medallions'' melchior wa kowicz ''bitwa monte cassino'' krystyna krahelska gustaw herling grudzi ski ''a world apart memoir'' krzysztof kamil baczy ski tadeusz r ewicz nbsp valign top tadeusz gajcy tadeusz borowski ''this way gas'' miron bia oszewski wis awa szymborska small nobel prize literature small zbigniew herbert jerzy ficowski stanis aw lem texts published soviet rules strictly censored much polish literature written occupation poland appeared print conclusion world


war ii including books na kowska rudnicki borowski others ref name jb soviet takeover country discourage migr exiles returning especially advent stalinism indeed many writers attempted recreate polish literary scene often touch nostalgia prewar reality including jerzy andrzejewski author ''ashes diamonds'' describing according communist design anti communist resistance poland novel adapted film decade later wajda new emerging prose writers stanis aw dygat stefan kisielewski approached catastrophe war


perspective kazimierz wyka coined term borderline novel documentary fiction ref name jb jean albert b william benbow edgerton https booksgooglecom booksid jll rzrkc lpg pa dq jerzy andrzejewski pg pa v onepage q jerzy andrzejewski f false ''columbia dictionary modern european literature'' page ''columbia university press'' ref situation began worsen dramatically around introduction stalinist doctrine minister sokorski behalf increasingly violent communist regime engaged gross violations human rights ref name jb years around polish citizens arrested many thousands sentenced long term imprisonment death sentences pronounced political prisoners majority


name canadafreepresscom david dastych https webarchiveorg web http wwwcanadafreepresscom dastych htm devil 's choice high ranking communist agents polish catholic church ''canada free press'' cfp january ref ref name naszawitrynapl dr stanis aw krajski http wwwnaszawitrynapl jedwabne html zabi ksi ''katolicka gazeta internetowa'' december ref priest friars already ref name marecki j zef marecki http wwwteologiapolitycznapl assets stories okladki ksiazek zakonypdf ko ci w okowach page ''instytut pami ci narodowej'' wydawnictwo wam krak w ref likewise writer kazimierz moczarski armia krajowa home army tortured jail romkowski 's subordinates several years sentenced death pardoned released end period ref name sc mk st phane courtois mark kramer https booksgooglecom booksid h jsgycorioc pg pa dq roman romkowski cd v onepage q roman romkowski f false


'''surgery''' ''cheirourgik '' composed hand work via meaning hand work medical dental specialty uses operative manual instrumental techniques person investigate treat pathological condition disease injury help improve bodily function appearance repair unwanted ruptured areas act performing surgery may called '' 'surgical procedure''' '''operation''' simply surgery context verb operate means perform surgery adjective '' 'surgical''' means pertaining surgery eg surgical instruments surgical nurse person subject

Applied science
Medicine and health
Surgery


surgery performed person animal surgeon person practices surgery surgeon 's assistant person practices surgical assistance surgical team made surgeon surgeon 's assistant anaesthetist circulating nurse surgical technologist surgery usually spans minutes hours typically ongoing periodic type treatment term surgery also refer place surgery performed british english simply office physician dentist veterinarian definitions surgery


suturing stapling forms surgery considered invasive procedures called noninvasive surgery usually refers excision penetrate structure excised eg laser ablation cornea radiosurgical procedure eg irradiation tumor types surgery surgical procedures commonly categorized urgency type procedure body system involved degree invasiveness special instrumentation based timing elective surgery done correct non life threatening condition carried person 's request subject surgeon 's surgical facility 's availability


semi elective surgery one must done avoid permanent disability death postponed short time emergency surgery surgery must done without delay prevent death serious disabilities loss limbs functions based purpose exploratory surgery performed aid confirm diagnosis therapeutic surgery treats previously diagnosed condition cosmetic surgery done subjectively improve appearance otherwise normal structure type procedure amputation involves cutting body part usually limb digit castration also example


'''resection''' removal internal organ body part key part lung lobe liver quadrant organ body part name code designation segmental resection smaller region organ hepatic segment bronchopulmonary segment ref name nci ref '''excision''' cutting removal part organ tissue body part person '''extirpation''' complete excision surgical destruction body part replantation involves reattaching severed body part reconstructive surgery


accessory organs orthopedic surgery performed bones muscles degree invasiveness surgical procedures minimally invasive surgery involves smaller outer incisions insert miniaturized instruments within body cavity structure laparoscopic surgery angioplasty contrast open surgical procedure laparotomy requires large incision access area interest equipment used laser surgery involves use laser cutting tissue instead scalpel similar surgical instruments microsurgery involves use operating microscope surgeon see small structures robotic surgery makes use


called laparoscopy procedures formation permanent semi permanent opening called stoma body end ''' ostomy''' reconstruction plastic cosmetic surgery body part starts name body part reconstructed ends ''' oplasty''' ''rhino'' used prefix nose therefore ''rhinoplasty'' reconstructive cosmetic surgery nose repair damaged congenital abnormal structure ends ''' rraphy''' reoperation return operating room refers return operating theater initial surgery performed address aspect


patient care best treated surgically reasons reoperation include persistent bleeding surgery development persistence infection description surgical procedure location inpatient surgery performed hospital person undergoing surgery stays least one night hospital surgery outpatient surgery occurs hospital outpatient department freestanding ambulatory surgery center person surgery discharged working day ref name lemosiaas ref office surgery occurs physician 's office person discharged working day ref name twersky ref hospital modern surgery


often performed operating theater using surgical instruments operating table equipment among united states hospitalizations non maternal non neonatal conditions one fourth stays half hospital costs involved stays included operating room procedures environment procedures used surgery governed principles aseptic technique strict separation sterile free microorganisms things unsterile contaminated things surgical instruments must sterilized instrument must replaced sterilized becomes contaminated ie handled unsterile manner allowed


touch unsterile surface operating room staff must wear sterile attire scrubs scrub cap sterile surgical gown sterile latex non latex polymer gloves surgical mask must scrub hands arms approved disinfectant agent procedure preoperative care prior surgery person given medical examination receives certain pre operative tests physical status rated according asa physical status classification system results satisfactory person requiring surgery signs consent form given surgical clearance procedure


expected result significant blood loss autologous blood donation may made weeks prior surgery surgery involves digestive system person requiring surgery may instructed perform bowel prep drinking solution polyethylene glycol night procedure people preparing surgery also instructed abstain food drink npo order midnight night procedure minimize effect stomach contents pre operative medications reduce risk aspiration person vomits procedure


medical systems practice routinely performing chest x rays surgery premise behind practice physician might discover unknown medical condition would complicate surgery upon discovering chest x ray physician would adapt surgery practice accordingly ref name acrfive citing last reviewed ref however medical specialty professional organizations recommend routine pre operative chest x rays people unremarkable medical history presented physical exam indicate chest x ray ref name acrfive routine x ray examination likely result problems like misdiagnosis


overtreatment negative outcomes result benefit person ref name acrfive likewise tests including complete blood count prothrombin time partial thromboplastin time basic metabolic panel urinalysis done unless results tests help evaluate surgical risk ref name ascpfive cites ref staging surgery pre operative holding area important surgical phase since family members see staff surgery also area nurses charge


give information family members patient pre operative holding area person preparing surgery changes street clothes asked confirm details surgery set vital signs recorded peripheral iv line placed pre operative medications antibiotics sedatives etc given person enters operating room skin surface operated called operating field cleaned prepared applying antiseptic ideally chlorhexidine gluconate alcohol twice effective povidone iodine


reducing risk infection hair present surgical site clipped prior prep application person assisted anesthesiologist resident make specific surgical position sterile drapes used cover surgical site least wide area surrounding operating field drapes clipped pair poles near head bed form ether screen separates anesthetist anesthesiologist 's working area unsterile surgical site sterile anesthesia administered prevent pain incision tissue manipulation


suturing depending kind operation anesthesia may provided locally general anesthesia spinal anesthesia may used surgical site large deep local block general anesthesia may desirable local spinal anesthesia surgical site anesthetized person remain conscious minimally sedated contrast general anesthesia renders person unconscious paralyzed surgery person intubated placed mechanical ventilator anesthesia produced combination injected inhaled


agents choice surgical method anesthetic technique aims reduce risk complications shorten time needed recovery minimise surgical stress response intraoperative phase intraoperative phase begins surgery subject received surgical area operating theater surgical department lasts subject transferred recovery area post anesthesia care unit incision made access surgical site blood vessels may clamped cauterized prevent bleeding retractors may used expose site keep


incision open approach surgical site may involve several layers incision dissection abdominal surgery incision must traverse skin subcutaneous tissue three layers muscle peritoneum certain cases bone may cut access interior body example cutting skull brain surgery cutting sternum thoracic chest surgery open rib cage whilst surgery aseptic technique used prevent infection spreading disease surgeons' assistants' hands wrists forearms


washed thoroughly least minutes prevent germs getting operative field sterile gloves placed onto hands antiseptic solution applied area person 's body operated sterile drapes placed around operative site surgical masks worn surgical team avoid germs droplets liquid mouths noses contaminating operative site work correct problem body proceeds work may involve excision cutting organ tumor tissue resection partial


removal organ bodily structure reconnection organs tissues etc particularly severed resection organs intestines involves reconnection internal suturing stapling may used surgical connection blood vessels tubular hollow structures loops intestine called anastomosis reduction movement realignment body part normal position eg reduction broken nose involves physical manipulation bone cartilage displaced state back original position restore normal airflow aesthetics ligation


tying blood vessels ducts tubes grafts may severed pieces tissue cut different body flaps tissue still partly connected body resewn rearranging restructuring area body question although grafting often used cosmetic surgery also used surgery grafts may taken one area person 's body inserted another area body example bypass surgery clogged blood vessels bypassed graft another part


body alternatively grafts may persons cadavers animals insertion prosthetic parts needed pins screws set hold bones may used sections bone may replaced prosthetic rods parts sometimes plate inserted replace damaged area skull artificial hip replacement become common heart pacemakers valves may inserted many types prostheses used creation stoma permanent semi permanent opening body transplant surgery donor organ


taken donor 's body inserted recipient 's body reconnected recipient necessary ways blood vessels ducts etc arthrodesis surgical connection adjacent bones bones grow together one spinal fusion example adjacent vertebrae connected allowing grow together one piece modifying digestive tract bariatric surgery weight loss repair fistula hernia prolapse repair according icd pcs medical surgical section root operation q means restoring extent possible body part


normal anatomic structure function definition repair used method used accomplish repair one root operations examples would colostomy takedown herniorrhaphy hernia surgical suture laceration procedures including clearing clogged ducts blood vessels removal calculi stones draining accumulated fluids debridement removal dead damaged diseased tissue blood blood expanders may administered compensate blood lost surgery procedure complete sutures staples used close incision


judged recovered anesthesia either transferred surgical ward elsewhere hospital discharged home post operative period person 's general function assessed outcome procedure assessed surgical site checked signs infection several risk factors associated postoperative complications immune deficiency obesity obesity long considered risk factor adverse post surgical outcomes linked many disorders obesity hypoventilation syndrome atelectasis pulmonary embolism adverse cardiovascular effects wound healing complications


removable skin closures used removed days post operatively healing incision well way uncommon surgical drains required remove blood fluid surgical wound recovery mostly drains stay volume tapers removed drains become clogged leading abscess postoperative therapy may include adjuvant treatment chemotherapy radiation therapy administration medication anti rejection medication transplants postoperative nausea vomiting ponv solutions like saline water


controlled breathing placebo aromatherapy used addition medication follow studies rehabilitation may prescribed recovery period use topical antibiotics surgical wounds reduce infection rates questioned ref name aadfive cites ref antibiotic ointments likely irritate skin slow healing could increase risk developing contact dermatitis antibiotic resistance ref name aadfive also suggested topical antibiotics used person shows signs infection preventative ref name aadfive systematic review published cochrane organisation


friday weekend procedure weekday effect postulated several factors including poorer availability services weekend also decrease number level experience weekend postoperative pain affects estimated people underwent surgery ref name ref pain expected surgery growing evidence pain may inadequately treated many people acute period immediately surgery reported incidence inadequately controlled pain surgery ranged across surgical disciplines insufficient evidence


determine giving opioid pain medication pre emptively surgery reduces postoperative pain amount medication needed surgery ref name postoperative recovery defined energy requiring process decrease physical symptoms reach level emotional well regain functions establish activities moreover identified patients undergone surgery often fully recovered discharge epidemiology united states nbsp million hospital stays us hospitals included least one operating room procedure stays accounted total nbsp billion hospital costs overall number


procedures remained stable million operating room procedures performed us hospitals data showed us hospital costs highest surgical service line surgical service line costs projected hospital stays united states private insurance highest percentage surgical expenditure ref name moore b levit k elixhauser ref mean hospital costs united states highest surgical stays ref name moore b levit k elixhauser special


time hospital three times likely discharged skilled nursing facility instead homes ref name frailty people frail elderly score even worse outcomes risk discharged nursing home rising twenty times rate non frail elderly people children surgery children requires considerations common adult surgery children adolescents still developing physically mentally making difficult make informed decisions give consent surgical treatments bariatric surgery


youth among controversial topics related surgery children vulnerable populations doctors perform surgery consent person undergoing surgery people able give better informed consent others populations incarcerated persons people living dementia mentally incompetent persons subject coercion people able make decisions authority others special needs making decisions personal healthcare including surgery 'global surgery' low middle income countries surgery remains grossly neglected global health famously described halfdan mahler


services low middle income countries study two primary conclusions reached five billion people worldwide lack access safe timely affordable surgical anesthesia care areas especially large proportions population lack access include sub saharan africa indian subcontinent central asia lesser extent russia china estimated million surgical procedures undertaken worldwide done countries comprising poorest world 's population additional million surgical procedures needed year prevent unnecessary death disability globally


million people estimated die within days surgery year half occurring low middle income countries prospective study adults undergoing emergency abdominal surgery centres across countries found mortality three times higher low compared high human development index hdi countries even adjusted prognostic factors ref name globalsurg ref study overall global mortality rate per cent hours high hdi per cent middle hdi per cent low hdi per cent increasing per cent days high


variety facilities goods services conditions necessary realization highest attainable health ref name comment un committee economic social cultural rights cescr general comment right highest attainable standard health art ref surgical care thereby viewed positive right entitlement protective healthcare ref name comment woven international human health rights literature right free surgical disease icescr article described need provision reduction stillbirth rate


infant mortality healthy development child subsequently interpreted mean requiring measures improve emergency obstetric services ref name comment article icescr stipulates need creation conditions would assure medical service medical attention event sickness interpreted comment include timely access basic preventative curative services appropriate treatment injury disability ref name cultural rights un committee economic social cultural rights cescr general comment right highest attainable standard


surgical care anesthesia component universal health coverage lancet commission global surgery outlined need access available affordable timely safe surgical anesthesia care dimensions paralleled icescr general comment similarly outlines need available accessible affordable timely healthcare ref name comment history plates vi vii edwin smith papyrus egyptian surgical treatise trepanation surgical treatments date back prehistoric era oldest evidence trepanation hole drilled scraped skull thus exposing


dura mater order treat health problems related intracranial pressure diseases ancient egypt prehistoric surgical techniques seen ancient egypt mandible dated approximately bc shows two perforations root first molar indicating draining abscessed tooth surgical texts ancient egypt date back years ago surgical operations performed priests specialized medical treatments similar today ref name cossurg ref used sutures close wounds infections treated honey india sushruta author sushruta samhita one oldest texts


surgery remains early harappan periods indus valley civilization c bc show evidence teeth drilled dating back years susruta ancient indian surgeon commonly credited author treatise sushruta samhita well known father surgery period usually placed around bc ref name singhguide ref one earliest known mentions name ''bower manuscript'' sushruta listed one ten sages residing himalayas ref name kutumbian pages xxxii xxxiii kutumbian pp xxxii xxxiii ref texts suggest


prognosis healing asclepieion epidaurus surgical cures listed opening abdominal abscess removal traumatic foreign material realistic enough taken place ref name booksgooglecom greek galen one greatest surgeons ancient world performed many audacious operations nbsp including brain eye surgery nbsp tried almost two millennia researchers adelphi university discovered paliokastro thasos ten skeletal remains four women six men buried fourth seventh centuries ad


bones illuminated physical activities traumas even complex form brain surgery according researchers serious trauma cases sustained males females treated surgically orthopedically experienced physician surgeon great training trauma care believe military physician researchers impressed complexity brain surgical operation islamic world islamic golden age largely based upon paul aegina 's ''pragmateia'' writings abulcasis abu al qasim khalaf ibn al abbas al zahrawi andalusian arab physician scientist practiced


zahra suburb c rdoba influential al zahrawi specialized curing disease cauterization invented several surgical instruments purposes inspection interior urethra removing foreign bodies throat ear body organs also first illustrate various cannulae treat warts iron tube caustic metal boring instrument describes thought first attempt reduction mammaplasty management gynaecomastia ref name anzjournal ref first mastectomy treat breast cancer ref name aramco ref credited


performance first thyroidectomy al zahrawi pioneered techniques neurosurgery neurological diagnosis treating head injuries skull fractures spinal injuries hydrocephalus subdural effusions headache first clinical description operative procedure hydrocephalus given al zahrawi clearly describes evacuation superficial intracranial fluid hydrocephalic children early modern europe ambroise par c father modern military surgery th century medieval eye surgery italy europe demand grew surgeons formally study many years practicing universities montpellier padua bologna particularly renowned th century


rogerius salernitanus composed ''chirurgia'' laying foundation modern western surgical manuals barber surgeons generally bad reputation improve development academic surgery specialty medicine rather accessory field basic surgical principles asepsis etc known halsteads principles important advances art surgery period professor anatomy university padua andreas vesalius pivotal figure renaissance transition classical medicine anatomy based works galen empirical approach 'hands on'


dissection anatomic treaties ''de humani corporis fabrica'' exposed many anatomical errors galen advocated surgeons train engaging practical dissections second figure importance era ambroise par sometimes spelled ambrose french army surgeon death practice cauterizing gunshot wounds battlefield use boiling oil extremely dangerous painful procedure par began employ less irritating emollient made egg yolk rose oil turpentine also described efficient techniques


effective ligation blood vessels amputation modern surgery discipline surgery put sound scientific footing age enlightenment europe important figure regard scottish surgical scientist john hunter generally regarded father modern scientific surgery brought empirical experimental approach science renowned around europe quality research written works hunter reconstructed surgical knowledge scratch refusing rely testimonies others conducted surgical experiments determine


truth matter aid comparative analysis built collection specimens separate organ systems simplest plants animals humans greatly advanced knowledge venereal disease introduced many new techniques surgery including new methods repairing damage achilles tendon effective method applying ligature arteries case aneurysm also one first understand importance pathology danger spread infection problem inflammation wound bone lesions


ankle joint successfully carried first hip disarticulation modern pain control anesthesia discovered mid th century advent anesthesia surgery traumatically painful procedure surgeons encouraged swift possible minimize patient suffering also meant operations largely restricted amputations external growth removals beginning surgery began change dramatically character discovery effective practical anaesthetic chemicals ether first used american surgeon crawford long chloroform discovered scottish obstetrician james young


simpson later pioneered john snow physician queen victoria addition relieving patient suffering anaesthesia allowed intricate operations internal regions human body addition discovery muscle relaxants curare allowed safer applications infection antisepsis unfortunately introduction anesthetics encouraged surgery inadvertently caused dangerous patient post operative infections concept infection unknown relatively modern times first progress combating infection made hungarian doctor ignaz semmelweis noticed medical students fresh dissecting


room causing excess maternal death compared midwives semmelweis despite ridicule opposition introduced compulsory handwashing everyone entering maternal wards rewarded plunge maternal fetal deaths however royal society dismissed advice joseph lister pioneer antiseptic surgery pioneering work british surgeon joseph lister medical men believed chemical damage exposures bad air see miasma responsible infections wounds facilities washing hands patient 's wounds available ref name storyof medicine ref lister became aware work


published results ''the lancet'' later august read paper british medical association dublin ''antiseptic principle practice surgery'' reprinted ''british medical journal'' ref name fusourcebook modernized version text ref ref name pg jl e text audio project gutenberg ref work groundbreaking laid foundations rapid advance infection control saw modern antiseptic operating theatres widely used within years lister continued develop improved methods antisepsis asepsis realised infection could better avoided preventing bacteria getting


wounds first place led rise sterile surgery lister introduced steam steriliser sterilize equipment instituted rigorous hand washing later implemented wearing rubber gloves three crucial advances adoption scientific methodology toward surgical operations use anaesthetic introduction sterilised equipment laid groundwork modern invasive surgical techniques today use x rays important medical diagnostic tool began discovery german physicist wilhelm r ntgen noticed rays could penetrate skin allowing


skeletal structure captured specially treated photographic plate gallery widths px heights px image acquapendente operationes chirurgicae tif hieronymus fabricius ''operationes chirurgicae'' file john syng dorseyjpg john syng dorsey wrote first american textbook surgery file traversi operation anagoriajpg operation painted gaspare traversi gallery surgical specialties general surgery breast cardiothoracic colorectal craniofacial surgery dental surgery endocrine gynaecology neurosurgery ophthalmology oncological oral maxillofacial surgery transplant orthopaedic surgery hand surgery otolaryngology paediatric pediatric plastic podiatric surgery skin trauma urology vascular learned societies world federation neurosurgical societies american college surgeons


american college osteopathic surgeons american academy orthopedic surgeons american college foot ankle surgeons royal australasian college surgeons royal australasian college dental surgeons royal college physicians surgeons canada royal college surgeons ireland royal college surgeons edinburgh royal college physicians surgeons glasgow royal college surgeons england see also ndash outpatient surgical procedures medical coding family health care databases etc us international classification diseases th edition procedural coding system inpatient surgical procedures medical coding list


world gdp per capita '''economic history''' academic study economies economic events past research conducted using combination historical methods statistical methods application economic theory historical situations institutions field encompass wide variety topics including equality finance technology labour business emphasizes historicizing economy analyzing dynamic force attempting provide insights way structured conceived using quantitative data qualitative sources economic historians emphasize understanding historical context major


economic events take place often focus institutional dynamics systems production labor capital well economy 's impact society culture language scholars discipline may approach analysis perspective different schools economic thought mainstream economics marxian economics chicago school economics keynesian economics sub disciplines field include financial business history overlaps areas social history demographic labor history quantitative econometric study economic history also known cliometrics historians recently engaged


study economic history new field calling history capitalism early history discipline economic history department london school economics arnold toynbee made case combining economics history pioneering study industrial revolution toynbee declared believe economics today much dissociated history smith malthus historical minds however ricardo set pattern modern textbooks mind entirely unhistorical several advantages combining economics history according toynbee begin


improved economic understanding see abstract propositions new light studying relation historical facts propositions become vivid truthful meanwhile studying history economics makes history easier understand economics teaches us look right facts reading history makes matters introducing enclosures machinery new currencies intelligible economics also teaches careful deductive reasoning habits mind instils even valuable knowledge principles gives without habits mass materials overwhelm


students historical facts late nineteenth century germany scholars number universities led gustav von schmoller developed historical school economic history argued universal truths history emphasizing importance historical context without quantitative analysis historical approach dominated german french scholarship th century historical school economics included economists max weber joseph schumpeter reasoned careful analysis human actions cultural norms historical context mathematical support key historical analysis approach spread great britain


william ashley university oxford dominated british economic history much th century britain 's first professor subject george unwin university manchester ref name maxbodnb berg maxine l 'knowles lilian charlotte anne ' ''oxford dictionary national biography'' oxford university press http wwwoxforddnbcom view article accessed feb ref ref name mberg berg first women economic historians ''the economic history review'' ref meanwhile france economic history heavily influenced annales school early th century present exerts worldwide influence journal ''annales histoire sciences sociales''


treating economic history discrete academic discipline contentious issue many years academics london school economics university cambridge numerous disputes separation economics economic history interwar era cambridge economists believed pure economics involved component economic history two inseparably entangled lse believed economic history warranted courses research agenda academic chair separated mainstream economics initial period subject 's development lse position separating economic history economics


many universities uk developed independent programmes economic history rooted lse model indeed economic history society inauguration lse university cambridge eventually established economic history programme united states field economic history largely subsumed fields economics following cliometric revolution many became seen form applied economics rather stand alone discipline cliometrics also known new economic history refers systematic use economic theory econometric


techniques study economic history term originally coined jonathan r hughes stanley reiter refers clio muse history heroic poetry greek mythology one famous cliometric economic historians douglass north argued task economic history elucidate historical dimensions economies time cliometricians argue approach necessary application theory crucial writing solid economic history historians generally oppose view warning risk generating anachronisms early cliometrics


type counterfactual history however counterfactualism distinctive feature combines neoclassical economics quantitative methods order explain human choices based constraints argued cliometrics heyday neglected economists historians response north robert fogel 's nobel memorial prize economics harvard university economist claudia goldin argued blockquote economic history handmaiden economics distinct field scholarship economic history scholarly discipline long became cliometrics practitioners economists


historians studying histories economies new economic history cliometrics formalized economic history manner similar injection mathematical models statistics rest economics blockquote relationship economic history economics history long subject intense discussion debates recent years echo early contributors long school thought among economic historians splits economic history study economic phenomena evolved past historical economics testing generality economic theory using historical episodes us economic historian charles p kindleberger explained


position book ''historical economics art science'' economic historian robert skidelsky university cambridge argued economic theory often employs ahistorical models methodologies take account historical context yale university economist irving fisher already wrote relationship economics economic history debt deflation theory great depressions blockquote study dis equilibrium may proceed either two ways may take unit study actual historical case great dis equilibrium say panic may take


past three decades witnessed widespread closure separate economic history departments programmes uk integration discipline either history economics departments lse retains separate economic history department stand alone undergraduate graduate programme economic history cambridge glasgow lse oxford queen 's warwick together train vast majority economic historians coming british higher education system today part economics history degrees meanwhile never specialist economic history graduate programs universities anywhere us however economic


history remains special field component leading economics phd programs including university california berkeley harvard university northwestern university princeton university university chicago yale university despite pessimistic view state discipline espoused many practitioners economic history remains active field social scientific inquiry indeed seen something resurgence interest since perhaps driven research conducted universities continental europe rather uk us overall number economic historians world estimated japan


china well uk us ranking highest numbers less developed countries however sufficiently integrated world economic history community among others senegal brazil vietnam part growth economic history driven continued interest big policy relevant questions history economic growth development mit economist peter temin noted development economics intricately connected economic history explores growth economies different technologies innovations institutions studying economic growth popular years among economists historians


sought understand economies grown faster others early texts field include walt whitman rostow 's ''the stages economic growth non communist manifesto'' described advanced economies grow overcoming certain hurdles advancing next stage development another economic historian alexander gerschenkron complicated theory works economies develop non western countries discussed ''economic backwardness historical perspective book essays'' recent work daron acemoglu james robinson 's ''why nations fail origins power prosperity


poverty'' pioneered new field persistence studies emphasizing path dependent stages growth notable books topic include kenneth pomeranz 's ''the great divergence china europe making modern world economy'' david landes 's ''the wealth poverty nations rich poor'' recent decades notably since global financial crisis scholars recently become interested field may called ''new'' new economic history scholars tended move away narrowly quantitative studies toward institutional


social cultural history affecting evolution economies ref group example br nbsp nbsp gregory clark ''a farewell alms brief economic history world'' http pressprincetonedu titles html description http pressprincetonedu tocs c html contents ch http pressprincetonedu chapters pdf link https booksgooglecom bookshl en lr id plg psnd c oi fnd pg pt dq long run equilibrium ots ff gxnciym sig zpucxastipxccacizvowfh acm v onepage q f false google preview br nbsp nbsp e aerts h van der wee economic history ''international encyclopedia social behavioral sciences'' pp http wwwsciencedirectcom science article pii b abstract ref focus studies frequently persistence past events linked present outcomes columbia university economist charles calomiris argued new field showed 'how historical path dependent processes governed changes


institutions markets' however trend criticized forcefully francesco boldizzoni form economic imperialism extending neoclassical explanatory model realm social relations conversely economists specializations started write new kind economic history makes use historical data understand present day ref group example carmen reinhart kenneth rogoff ''this time different eight centuries financial folly'' princeton http pressprincetonedu titles html description ch varieties crises dates pp http pressprincetonedu chapters pdf chapter preview https booksgooglecom booksid ak flb ircc printsec frontcover source find pg pr gbs atb v onepage q f false links ref major development


genre publication thomas piketty 's ''capital twenty first century'' book described rise wealth income inequality since th century arguing large concentrations wealth lead social economic instability piketty also advocated system global progressive wealth taxes correct rising inequality book selected ''new york times'' best seller received numerous awards book well received world 's major economists including paul krugman robert solow ben bernanke books response piketty 's book include ''after piketty agenda


economics inequality'' heather boushey j bradford delong marshall steinbaum eds ''pocket piketty'' jesper roine ''anti piketty capital st century'' jean philippe delsol nicolas lecaussin emmanuel martin one economist argued piketty 's book nobel prize worthy noted changed global discussion economic historians study inequality also sparked new conversations disciplines public policy addition mainstream economic history parallel development field influenced karl marx marxian economics marx used historical analysis


interpret role class class central issue history debated classical economists term coined including adam smith david ricardo turn marx 's legacy economic history critique findings neoclassical economists marxist analysis also confronts economic determinism theory economic relationships foundation political societal institutions marx abstracted idea capitalist mode production way identifying transition feudalism capitalism influenced scholars maurice dobb argue feudalism declined


peasants' struggles freedom growing inefficiency feudalism system production turn later coined brenner debate paul sweezy marxian economist challenged dob' 's definition feudalism focus western europe'' thomas piketty economist author ''capital twenty first century'' history capitalism new field calling history capitalism emerged us history departments since year includes many topics traditionally associated field economic history insurance banking regulation political dimension business


impact capitalism middle classes poor women minorities field particularly focused contribution slavery rise us economy nineteenth century field utilizes existing research business history sought make relevant concerns history departments united states including limited discussion individual business enterprises historians capitalism countered critiques citing issues economic history university chicago professor history jonathan levy states modern economic history


began industrialization urbanization even environmental considerations subsidiary nonexistent scholars critiqued history capitalism focus systems production circulation distribution criticized lack social scientific methods ideological biases result new academic journal ''capitalism journal history economics'' founded university pennsylvania direction marc flandreau university pennsylvania julia ott new school new york francesca trivellato institute advanced study princeton widen scope field


economics history disciplines 'an adequate equipment two skills historian economist easily acquired experience shows necessary possible' related academic journals broadened lens economic history studied interdisciplinary journals include ''business history review'' ''european review economic history'' ''enterprise society'' ''financial history review'' ''international economic history association'' association close member organizations recognizes major academic organizations dedicated study economic history business history conference economic history association economic


history society european association business historians international social history association nobel memorial prize winning economic historians ref simon kuznets nobel memorial prize economic sciences nobel memorial prize empirically founded interpretation economic growth led new deepened insight economic social structure process development john hicks whose early writing field economic history nobel memorial prize contributions general equilibrium theory welfare theory arthur lewis nobel memorial prize


contributions field economic development historical context milton friedman nobel memorial prize achievements fields consumption analysis monetary history theory demonstration complexity stabilization policy robert fogel douglass north nobel memorial prize renewed research economic history applying economic theory quantitative methods order explain economic institutional change merton miller started academic career teaching economic history lse nobel memorial prize


harry markowitz william f sharpe notable works economic history karl marx ''capital critique political economy'' foundational works milton friedman anna schwartz ''a monetary history united states '' friedrich hayek ''the road serfdom'' karl marx ''capital critique political economy'' karl polanyi ''the great transformation origins time'' david ricardo ''on principles political economy taxation'' adam smith ''an inquiry nature causes wealth nations'' general robert c allen ''global economic


history short introduction'' gregory clark ''a farewell alms brief economic history world'' kevin o'rourke ronald findlay ''power plenty trade war world economy second millennium'' robert heilbroner ''the worldly philosophers lives times ideas great economic thinkers'' ancient economies moses finley ''the ancient economy'' walter scheidel ''the great leveler violence history inequality stone age twenty first century'' peter temin ''the roman market economy'' economic growth development daron acemoglu


economic growth non communist manifesto'' jeffrey sachs ''the end poverty economic possibilities time'' amartya sen ''development freedom'' william easterly '' https wwwamazoncom dp b qjlqxu ref dp kindle redirect encoding utf btkr white man 's burden west 's efforts aid rest done much ill little good '' abhijit v banerjee esther duflo ''poor economics'' history money christine desan ''making money coin currency coming capitalism'' william n goetzmann ''money changes everything finance made civilization possible'' david graeber ''debt first years'' business history david


cannadine ''mellon american life'' alfred chandler jr ''the visible hand managerial revolution american business'' ron chernow ''the house morgan american banking dynasty rise modern finance'' ron chernow ''titan life john rockefeller sr'' william cohan ''money power goldman sachs came rule world'' naomi lamoreaux ''the great merger movement american business '' david nasaw ''andrew carnegie'' jean strouse ''morgan american financier'' financial history thomas piketty ''capital twenty first century'' liaquat ahamed ''lords


finance bankers broke world'' mark blyth ''austerity history dangerous idea'' charles w calomiris stephen h haber ''fragile design political origins banking crises scarce credit'' barry eichengreen ''exorbitant privilege rise fall dollar future international monetary system'' barry eichengreen ''globalizing capital history international monetary system'' niall ferguson ''the ascent money financial history world'' harold james ''international monetary cooperation since bretton woods'' carmen reinhart kenneth rogoff ''this


economics american negro slavery'' claudia goldin ''understanding gender gap economic history american women'' harold james ''the end globalization lessons great depression'' thomas piketty ''capital twenty first century'' thomas piketty ''the economics inequality'' thomas piketty ''capital ideology'' emmanuel saez gabriel zucman ''the triumph injustice rich dodge taxes make pay'' jeffrey g williamson kevin o'rourke ''globalization history evolution nineteenth century atlantic economy'' gabriel zucman ''the hidden wealth nations scourge


fisher brian fitzpatrick roderick floud robert fogel milton friedman celso furtado alexander gerschenkron claudia goldin jack goldstone john habakkuk earl j hamilton eli heckscher eric hobsbawm susan howson leo huberman jane humphries harold james geoffrey jones ibn khaldun charles p kindleberger john komlos nikolai kondratiev simon kuznets emmanuel le roy ladurie naomi lamoreaux david landes tim leunig friedrich list robert sabatino lopez angus maddison karl marx peter mathias ellen mcarthur deirdre mccloskey jacob kobi metzer joel mokyr douglass north nathan nunn avner offer cormac gr da patrick k o'brien thomas piketty henri pirenne karl polanyi erik reinert christina romer


w w rostow murray rothbard tirthankar roy joseph schumpeter anna jacobson schwartz larry schweikart ram sharan sharma robert skidelsky adam smith graeme snooks richard h steckel r h tawney peter temin adam tooze francesca trivellato eberhard w chtler jeffrey williamson tony wrigley jan luiten van zanden see also capitalism cliometrics critical juncture theory economic history association economic history society history economic thought business history history capitalism history industrialisation notes references reading https wwwpalgravecom us book blum matthias colvin christopher l eds ''an economist 's guide economic history'' palgrave gerold bl mle ''wirtschaftsgeschichte


und konomisches denken ausgew hlte aufs tze'' metropolis marburg kadish alon ''historians economists economic history'' pp nbsp https wwwamazoncom historians economists economic routledge revivals dp excerpt o'rourke k https wwwcambridgeorg core journals journal economic history article economic history contemporary challenges globalization b edfde c economic history contemporary challenges globalization journal economic history solow robert economic history economics american economic review wwwjstororg stable kt rammohan 'pathways india 's economic past' narayana raman mahadevan eds 'shaping india economic change historical perspective' london new york new delhi routledge pp nbsp schools economic thought history economic thought academic disciplines


demography world population data source united nations world population prospects '''demography''' prefix ' 'demo '' ancient greek ' 'd mos'' meaning 'the people' '' graphy'' ''graph '' meaning 'writing description measurement' statistical study populations especially human beings demographic analysis cover whole societies groups defined criteria education nationality religion ethnicity educational institutions usually treat demography field sociology though number independent demography departments ref name ub ref '''patient demographics''' form core data medical


institution patient emergency contact information patient medical record data allow identification patient categorization categories purpose statistical analysis patient demographics include date birth gender ref google health date death postal code ethnicity blood type ref microsoft healthvault personal demographic information basic demographic information emergency contact information family doctor insurance provider data allergies major diagnoses major medical history ref name patient demographics ref '''formal demography''' limits object study measurement population processes broader field '' 'social demography''' population


columella also expressed important ideas ground ref name srivastava middle ages christian thinkers devoted much time refuting classical ideas demography important contributors field william conches ref name biller peter biller''the measure multitude population medieval thought'' https booksgooglecom booksid lnqlgqeyhwyc pg pa lpg pa dq nicole oresme demographics source bl ots rb hpqrvy sig rtvi juq sgr qyfa ptb edw w hl es ei kdlrs sjbco gbwg jndw sa x oi book result ct result resnum ved cbkq aewaa v onepage q f false ref bartholomew lucca ref name biller william auvergne ref name biller william pagula ref name biller muslim sociologists like ibn khaldun one earliest demographic studies modern period ''natural political observations made upon bills mortality'' john graunt contains primitive form life table


among study 's findings one third children london died sixteenth birthday mathematicians edmond halley developed life table basis life insurance mathematics richard price credited first textbook life contingencies published followed later augustus de morgan application probabilities life contingencies benjamin franklin published essay ''observations concerning increase mankind peopling countries etc'' projecting exponential growth british colonies ref name valtier ref work influenced thomas robert malthus writing end th


century feared unchecked population growth would tend outstrip growth food production leading ever increasing famine poverty see malthusian catastrophe malthus seen intellectual father ideas overpopulation limits growth later sophisticated realistic models presented benjamin gompertz verhulst belgian scholar achille guillard defined demography natural social history human species mathematical knowledge populations general changes physical civil intellectual moral condition period characterized period


transition demography emerged statistics separate field interest period included panoply international great demographers like adolphe qu telet william farr louis adolphe bertillon son jacques joseph k r si anders nicolas kaier richard b ckh mile durkheim wilhelm lexis luigi bodio contributed development demography toolkit methods techniques demographic analysis methods two types data collection direct indirect several different methods type direct methods direct data comes vital statistics


registries track births deaths well certain changes legal status marriage divorce migration registration place residence developed countries good registration systems united states much europe registry statistics best method estimating number births deaths census common direct method collecting demographic data census usually conducted national government attempts enumerate every person country contrast vital statistics data typically collected continuously summarized


case much developing world historical demography one techniques contemporary demography sister method survey researchers ask women many sisters died children age surveys researchers indirectly estimate birth death rates entire population indirect methods contemporary demography include asking people siblings parents children indirect methods necessary historical demography variety demographic methods modelling population processes include models mortality including


followed lives samples people typically beginning around study many years still continuing samples drawn nationally representative way inferences drawn studies differences four distinct generations british people terms health education attitudes childbearing employment patterns common rates ratios '''crude birth rate''' annual number live births per people '''general fertility rate''' annual number live births per women childbearing age often taken


years old sometimes '''age specific fertility''' rates annual number live births per women particular age groups usually age etc '''crude death rate''' annual number deaths per people '''infant mortality rate''' annual number deaths children less year old per live births '''expectation life''' life expectancy number years individual given age could expect live present mortality levels '''total fertility rate''' number live


daughters per newborn prospective mother may may survive ages childbearing '' 'stable population''' one constant crude birth death rates long period time percentage people every age class remains constant equivalently population pyramid unchanging structure ref name ela '' 'stationary population''' one stable unchanging size difference crude birth rate crude death rate zero ref name ela stable population necessarily remain fixed size expanding


shrinking ref name ela note crude death rate defined applied whole population give misleading impression example number deaths per people higher developed nations less developed countries despite standards health better developed countries developed countries proportionally older people likely die given year overall mortality rate higher even mortality rate given age lower complete picture mortality given


also applied subpopulations example population size ethnic groups nationalities within given society country subject sources change dealing ethnic groups however net migration might subdivided physical migration ethnic reidentification assimilation individuals change ethnic self labels whose ethnic classification government statistics changes time may thought migrating moving one population subcategory another generally basic demographic equation holds true definition practice recording counting


nbsp billion throughout st century average age population likely continue rise science population populations change three processes fertility mortality migration fertility involves number children women contrasted fecundity woman 's childbearing potential mortality study causes consequences measurement processes affecting death members population demographers commonly study mortality using life table statistical device provides information mortality conditions notably life expectancy


population migration refers movement persons locality origin destination place across predefined political boundary migration researchers designate movements 'migrations' unless somewhat permanent thus demographers consider tourists travellers migrating demographers study migration typically census data place residence indirect sources data including tax forms labour force surveys also important demography today widely taught many universities across world attracting students initial training social sciences statistics health studies


crossroads several disciplines sociology economics epidemiology geography anthropology history demography offers tools approach large range population issues combining technical quantitative approach represents core discipline many methods borrowed social sciences demographic research conducted universities research institutes well statistical departments several international agencies population institutions part cicred international committee coordination demographic research network individual scientists engaged demographic research members international union


scientific study population national association population association america united states affiliates federation canadian demographers canada see also biodemography biodemography human longevity demographics world demographic economics gompertz makeham law mortality linguistic demography list demographics articles medieval demography national security study memorandum nrs social grade political demography population biology population dynamics population geography population reconstruction population statistics religious demography replacement migration reproductive health social surveys current population survey cps demographic health surveys dhs european social survey ess general social survey


gss german general social survey allbus multiple indicator cluster surveys mics national longitudinal survey nls panel study income dynamics psid performance monitoring accountability pma socio economic panel soep german world values survey wvs organizations global social change research project united states institut national d' tudes mographiques ined france max planck institute demographic research germany office population research princeton university united states population council united states population studies center university michigan united states vienna institute demography vid austria wittgenstein centre demography global human capital austria scientific journals ''brazilian journal population studies''


''cahiers qu b cois de mographie'' ''demography'' ''population development review'' references reading josef ehmer jens ehrhardt martin kohli eds https webarchiveorg web http wwwgesisorg en hsr current issues current issues fertility ''fertility history th century trends theories policies discourses'' historical social research glad john '' http wwwwhatwemaybeorg txt txt gladjohn fhemeisenberg abridgementenpdf future human evolution eugenics twenty first century '' hermitage publishers gavrilova ns gavrilov la ageing longevity mortality laws mortality forecasts ageing populations czech st rnut dlouhov kost z kony progn zy mrtnosti pro st rnouc populace demografie preston samuel patrick heuveline michel guillot ''demography measuring modeling population


processes'' blackwell publishing gavrilov la gavrilova ns demographic consequences defeating aging rejuvenation research paul r ehrlich ''the population bomb'' controversial neo malthusianist pamphlet leonid gavrilov natalia gavrilova ''the biology life span quantitative approach'' new york harwood academic publisher uhlenberg p editor international handbook demography aging new york springer verlag pp nbsp paul demeny geoffrey mcnicoll eds encyclopedia population new york macmillan reference usa vol phillip longman ''the empty cradle falling birth rates threaten global prosperity


it'' sven kunisch stephan boehm michael boppel eds ''from grey silver managing demographic change successfully'' springer verlag berlin heidelberg joe mcfalls '' http prborg pdf livelyintroductionpdf population lively introduction '' population reference bureau ben j wattenberg ''how new demography depopulation shape future'' chicago r dee external links https webarchiveorg web https wwwpeeparoundcom quick demography data lookup http wwwhistoricalstatisticsorg historicalstatisticsorg links historical demographic economic statistics https wwwunorg esa population unpophtm united nations population division homepage https webarchiveorg web http esaunorg unpd wpp indexhtm world population prospects revision population estimates projections countries areas http esaunorg unpd wup indexhtm world urbanization prospects revision estimates


projections urban rural populations urban agglomerations https webarchiveorg web http esaunorg unpd ppp indexhtm probabilistic population projections nd revision probabilistic population projections based revision world population prospects http wwwaethelingcom nl sim population population html java simulation population dynamics http gsociologyicaaporg basicguidehtml basic guide world population changes trends http gsociologyicaaporg report demsumhtml brief review world basic demographic trends http wwwuneceorg pau ffs ffshtm family fertility surveys ffs http wwwunpopulationorg population division desa united nations actuarial science environmental social science interdisciplinary subfields sociology human geography market segmentation human populations


'''forensic science''' also known '''criminalistics''' application science criminal civil laws mainly criminal side criminal investigation governed legal standards admissible evidence criminal procedure forensic scientists collect preserve analyze scientific evidence course investigation forensic scientists travel scene crime collect evidence others occupy laboratory role performing analysis objects brought individuals ref name job desc ref still others involved analysis financial banking numerical data use financial crime

Humanities
Law
Criminal law
Forensic science


public carries strong judicial connotation second science derived latin word 'knowledge' today closely tied scientific method systematic way acquiring knowledge taken together forensic science means use scientific methods processes crime solving etymology word ''forensic'' comes latin term '''' meaning forum history term originates roman times criminal charge meant presenting case group public individuals forum person accused


crime accuser would give speeches based sides story case would decided favor individual best argument delivery origin source two modern usages word ''forensic'' form legal evidence category public presentation modern use term ''forensics'' place ''forensic science'' considered incorrect term ''forensic'' effectively synonym ''legal'' ' 'related courts'' however term closely associated scientific field many


dictionaries include meaning equates word ''forensics'' ''forensic science'' history origins forensic science early methods ancient world lacked standardized forensic practices enabled criminals escape punishment criminal investigations trials relied heavily forced confessions witness testimony however ancient sources contain several accounts techniques foreshadow concepts forensic science developed centuries later first written account using medicine entomology solve criminal cases attributed book ''xi yuan lu'' translated ''washing away wrongs'' written china song ci


director justice jail supervision song dynasty song ci introduced regulations concerning autopsy reports court protect evidence examining process explained forensic workers must demonstrate impartiality public devised methods making antiseptic promoting reappearance hidden injuries dead bodies bones using sunlight vinegar red oil umbrella calculating time death allowing weather insect activity described wash examine dead body ascertain reason death time book


metal rods briefly thought tests validity since guilty person would produce less saliva thus drier mouth accused would considered guilty rice sticking mouths abundance tongues severely burned due lack shielding saliva development forensic science ambroise par 's surgical work laid groundwork development forensic techniques following centuries th century europe medical practitioners army university settings began gather information cause manner death ambroise par


french army surgeon systematically studied effects violent death internal organs ref name gab ref two italian surgeons fortunato fidelis paolo zacchia laid foundation modern pathology studying changes occurred structure body result disease ref name thsc ref late th century writings topics began appear included ''a treatise forensic medicine public health'' french physician francois immanuele fod r ref name hofm ref ''the complete system police medicine'' german medical expert johann peter frank ref name masiem ref rational values enlightenment era


increasingly permeated society th century criminal investigation became evidence based rational procedure use torture force confessions curtailed belief witchcraft powers occult largely ceased influence court 's decisions two examples english forensic science individual legal proceedings demonstrate increasing use logic procedure criminal investigations time lancaster john toms tried convicted murdering edward culshaw pistol dead body culshaw examined pistol wad crushed paper used secure powder


balls muzzle found head wound matched perfectly torn newspaper found toms 's pocket leading conviction ref name sw ref example explanation extractor ejector marks casings warwick farm laborer tried convicted murder young maidservant drowned shallow pool bore marks violent assault police found footprints impression corduroy cloth sewn patch damp earth near pool also scattered grains wheat chaff breeches


farm labourer threshing wheat nearby examined corresponded exactly impression earth near pool article appearing scientific american describes use microscopy distinguish blood two persons criminal case chicago toxicology method detecting arsenious oxide simple arsenic corpses devised swedish chemist carl wilhelm scheele ref name dpac ref work expanded upon german chemist valentin ross learned detect poison walls victim 's stomach james


marsh james marsh first apply new science art forensics called prosecution murder trial give evidence chemist defendant john bodle accused poisoning grandfather arsenic laced coffee marsh performed standard test mixing suspected sample hydrogen sulfide hydrochloric acid able detect arsenic yellow arsenic trisulfide shown jury deteriorated allowing suspect acquitted due reasonable doubt annoyed marsh developed


london wallflower press ref dissatisfied ''ad hoc'' methods used identify captured criminals france began work developing reliable system anthropometrics human classification bertillon created many forensics techniques including forensic document examination use galvanoplastic compounds preserve footprints ballistics dynamometer used determine degree force used breaking entering although central methods soon supplanted fingerprinting contributions like mug shot systematization crime scene photography remain place day ref name kirsten


tokyo hospital published first paper subject scientific journal ''nature'' discussing usefulness fingerprints identification proposing method record printing ink established first classification also first identify fingerprints left vial ref name faulds ref returning uk offered concept metropolitan police london dismissed time ref name reid see also line article henry faulds ref faulds wrote charles darwin description method old ill


work darwin gave information cousin francis galton interested anthropology thus inspired study fingerprints ten years galton published detailed statistical model fingerprint analysis identification encouraged use forensic science book ''finger prints'' calculated chance false positive two different individuals fingerprints billion ref name galtonfps ref la police department getting fingerprinted photographed juan vucetich argentine chief police officer created first method recording fingerprints


individuals file studying galton 's pattern types vucetich set world 's first fingerprint bureau year francisca rojas necochea found house neck injuries whilst two sons found dead throats cut rojas accused neighbour despite brutal interrogation neighbour would confess crimes inspector alvarez colleague vucetich went scene found bloody thumb mark door compared rojas' prints found identical right thumb confessed


murder sons fingerprint bureau established calcutta kolkata india council governor general approved committee report fingerprints used classification criminal records working calcutta anthropometric bureau became fingerprint bureau azizul haque hem chandra bose haque bose indian fingerprint experts credited primary development fingerprint classification system eventually named supervisor sir edward richard henry henry classification system co devised haque bose accepted england


uhlenhuth could distinguish human blood animal blood based discovery blood different species one characteristic proteins test represented major breakthrough came tremendous importance forensic science test refined forensic use swiss chemist maurice ller dna forensic dna analysis first used developed sir alec jeffreys realized variation genetic sequence could used identify individuals tell individuals apart one another first application


dna profiles used jefferys double murder mystery small english town narborough leicestershire year old school girl name lynda mann raped murdered carlton hayes psychiatric hospital police find suspect able obtain semen sample dawn ashworth years old also raped strangled nearby village enderby forensic evidence showed killers blood type richard buckland became suspect worked carlton hayes psychiatric hospital


spotted near dawn ashworth 's murder scene knew unreleased details body later confessed dawn 's murder lynda 's jefferys brought case analyze semen samples concluded match samples buckland became first person exonerated using dna jefferys confirmed dna profiles identical two murder semen samples find perpetrator dna samples entire male population aged town collected compared semen


samples crime friend colin pitchfork heard saying given sample police claiming colin colin pitchfork arrested found dna profile matched semen samples murder case dna databases developed national fbi international databases well european countries enfsi european network forensic science institutes searchable databases used match crime scene dna profiles already database maturation police brought bear


latest techniques forensic science attempts identify capture serial killer jack ripper turn th century science forensics become largely established sphere criminal investigation scientific surgical investigation widely employed metropolitan police pursuit mysterious jack ripper killed number women case watershed application forensic science large teams policemen conducted house house inquiries throughout whitechapel forensic material collected examined suspects identified traced


either examined closely eliminated inquiry police work follows pattern today ref name canter canter david ''criminal shadows inside mind serial killer'' london harpercollins pp ref people interviewed upwards people investigated people detained investigation initially conducted criminal investigation department cid headed detective inspector edmund reid later detective inspectors frederick abberline henry moore walter andrews sent central office scotland yard assist initially butchers surgeons physicians suspected manner mutilations


alibis local butchers slaughterers investigated result eliminated inquiry contemporary figures thought pattern murders indicated culprit butcher cattle drover one cattle boats plied london mainland europe whitechapel close london docks usually boats docked thursday friday departed saturday sunday cattle boats examined dates murders coincide single boat 's movements transfer crewman boats


also ruled end october robert anderson asked police surgeon thomas bond give opinion extent murderer 's surgical skill knowledge opinion offered bond character whitechapel murderer earliest surviving offender profile ref name canter canter pp ref bond 's assessment based examination extensively mutilated victim post mortem notes four previous canonical murders ref name bond letter thomas bond robert anderson ho c quoted evans skinner ''the ultimate jack ripper sourcebook'' pp


rumbelow pp ref opinion killer must man solitary habits subject periodical attacks homicidal erotic mania character mutilations possibly indicating satyriasis ref name bond bond also stated homicidal impulse may developed revengeful brooding condition mind religious mania may original disease think either hypothesis likely ref name bond popular fictional character sherlock holmes many ways ahead time use forensic analysis ''handbook coroners police officials


military policemen'' written austrian criminal jurist hans gross generally acknowledged birth field criminalistics work combined one system fields knowledge previously integrated psychology physical science could successfully used crime gross adapted fields needs criminal investigation crime scene photography went found institute criminalistics part university graz' law school institute followed many similar institutes


reasoning detective work popularity fictional character sherlock holmes written arthur conan doyle late th century remains great inspiration forensic science especially way acute study crime scene yielded small clues precise sequence events made great use trace evidence shoe tire impressions well fingerprints ballistics handwriting analysis known questioned document examination evidence used test theories conceived police example investigator


body used anthropometry identification stating since individual unique measuring aspects physical difference could personal identification system created bertillon system around way identifying criminals citizens measuring parts body repeat offenders caught using bertillon system system largely superseded fingerprinting frances glessner lee known mother forensic science instrumental development forensic science us lobbied coroners replaced medical professionals endowed harvard


associates police science conducted many seminars educate homicide investigators also created nutshell studies unexplained death intricate crime scene dioramas used train investigators still use today th century alec jeffreys invented dna profiling technique later th century several british pathologists mikey rochman francis camps sydney smith keith simpson pioneered new forensic science methods alec jeffreys pioneered use dna profiling forensic science realized scope dna fingerprinting uses variations genetic code identify individuals method


since become important forensic science assist police detective work also proved useful resolving paternity immigration disputes ref name welcome ref dna fingerprinting first used police forensic test identify rapist killer two teenagers lynda mann dawn ashworth murdered narborough leicestershire respectively colin pitchfork identified convicted murder samples taken matched semen samples taken two dead girls forensic science fostered number national international forensic science learned bodies


including chartered society forensic sciences founded known forensic science society publisher ''science justice'' american academy forensic sciences founded publishers ''journal forensic sciences'' canadian society forensic science founded publishers ''journal canadian society forensic science'' british academy forensic sciences founded publishers ''medicine science law'' australian academy forensic sciences founded publishers ''australian journal forensic sciences'' european network forensic science institutes founded st century


past decade documenting forensics scenes become efficient forensic scientists started using laser scanners drones photogrammetry obtain point clouds accidents crime scenes reconstruction accident scene highway using drones involves data acquisition time minutes performed without shutting traffic results accurate centimeters measurement presented court also easy digitally preserve long term st century much forensic science 's future discussion national institute standards


technology nist offered community guidelines upon science build nist recommends forensic science rethinks system local laboratories abide guidelines st century forensics dramatically different till one recent additions nist document called nistir titled forensic science laboratories handbook facility planning design construction relocation handbook provides clear blueprint approaching forensic science details even include type staff hired certain positions subdivisions agents


united states army criminal investigation division investigate crime scene police forensic investigation ashton lyne england using tent protect crime scene art forensics concerns art authentication cases help research work 's authenticity art authentication methods used detect identify forgery faking copying art works eg paintings bloodstain pattern analysis scientific examination blood spatter patterns found crime scene reconstruct events crime comparative forensics application visual comparison techniques verify similarity physical evidence includes fingerprint analysis toolmark analysis