applying different types suicide types egoistic altruistic anomic similar forms suicidal terrorism types contemporary example theoretical application durheimian thinking visible book chapter written sociologist mahmoud sadri applies suicide types suicidal homicides whether egoistic altruistic anomic visible frequency western non western cultural domains ref name ref according chapter written mahmoud sadri western non western cultures egoistic suicidal homicides often resemble suicide pacts simple murder suicides whereas altruistic suicidal homicides found western


non western cultures might consist suicide missions ideological suicide missions acts terrorism ex kamikaze attacks finally anomic suicidal homicides also frequently produce acts terrorism western non westerns cultures likely involve mass suicide pacts mass murder suicides ex western cultures example columbine murders heaven 's gate jonestown branch davidian mass suicides non western cultures example isi pakistan pkk activities endorsed pmo ref name hence terrorists like criminals become known reference point individuals use reference point standard

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of terrorism


evaluation norms rules society become clearer seen necessary comparison terrorism order protect ' 'status quo'' society uses terrorism way reassert importance social norms lives individuals thus individuals see terrorism threat social equilibrium life functioning society ref name auto functionalists believe social change required keep healthy society slow well planned evolutionary method types change healthy society socially social changes often come drastic need change


preceded social shock terrorism might seen bringing social shock moves society towards change direction enables find new ways protect however tenant faulty since name terrorism inspires fear retrogression progressive development stability conflict theory conflict theory idea conflict competing interests basic animating force social change society general conflict theorist generally sees control conflict equals ability one group suppress group


opposing civil law technique defining maintaining social order benefits expense others conflict theorists view terrorism reaction injustice probably created minds terrorists due misguidance illiteracy unrealistic goals violent behaviors expressed terrorist organizations result individual frustration aggression showing readiness fight majority terrorist acts committed people religious suicide attackers worldwide identifiably religious ref name auto ref ref


name auto ref terrorists use violence believe use violence would lose power struggle lead many conflict theorists view weapon weak iraq march february suicide missions took place belonging al qaeda justified actions religious terms viewing shi'a control iraq abandoning religious principles terror establishments pakistan formally used state since inception exemplifies terorrosim cannot simply explained disoriented groups seeking express win


certain rights state state funds supports groups international terrorism activism suicide attacks iraqi regime american british supporters seen means accomplish yet certain political conditions suicide bombings spiked first condition relation counterinsurgency american british militaries second strategic response shi'a control becoming stabilized iraq ref name auto ref name auto terrorists money political


appear self constituting group membership one major determinations individual interpretations reality enables symbolic interactionism explain crime thus terrorism ref name auto especially terrorist identity formation socialization process frequently studied lenses social identity theory identity theory personal identity theory deviance terrorism falls explained labeling theory labeling theory belief individuals subconsciously notice others see label reactions labels time form basis self identity social groups create rules


according symbolic interactionism terrorism treated learned behaviors person learns commit terrorism interactions terrorists involvement group important learning process members upon joining resocialized group 's version reality best way accomplish involve new members terrorist acts leads terrorist organization become reference point members ref name auto social learning theory plays part socialization terroristic behaviors learning theory states person becomes deviant abundance definitions favor


deviant behavior versus definitions unfavorable behaviors theory broken four learning mechanisms differential association definitions differential reinforcement imitation first learning mechanism differential association refers direct association interaction others engage certain kinds behaviors express norms values attitudes supportive behavior well indirect association identification distant reference groups groups individual differentially associated provides context social learning operated greater priority intensity duration frequency


moral values specific definitions seen align individual particular acts crime greater number definitions likely person engage criminal behavior definitions individual favor terroristic behavior greater chance person committing terroristic acts third learning mechanism differential reinforcement differential reinforcement refers balance anticipated actual rewards punishments follow behavior individual refraining committing crime depends balance past present anticipated future rewards punishments


actions regards terrorism direct indirect social interaction person towards terrorism likely commit terroristic act fourth final learning mechanism imitation imitation notion individuals engage behaviors previously witnessed others characters observed behaviors witnessed consequences behaviors determine much individual imitates behavior things need fall place order individual imitate terrorist see also sociology conflict sociology


peace war social conflict critical terrorism studies staircase model references external links http wwwtandfonlinecom toc ftpv current terrorism political violence terrorism terrorism


arts '''the arts''' wide range human practices creative expression storytelling cultural participation encompass multiple diverse plural modes thinking extremely broad range media highly dynamic characteristically constant feature human life developed innovative stylized sometimes intricate forms often achieved sustained deliberate study training theorizing within particular tradition across generations even civilizations arts vehicle human beings cultivate distinct social cultural individual identities transmitting values


impressions judgments ideas visions spiritual meanings patterns life experiences across time space prominent examples arts include architecture visual arts including ceramics drawing filmmaking painting photography sculpting literary arts including fiction drama poetry prose performing arts including dance music theatre textiles fashion folk art handicraft oral storytelling conceptual installation art criticism culinary arts including cooking chocolate making winemaking employ skill imagination produce objects performances convey insights experiences construct new environments spaces arts refer common popular everyday practices


well sophisticated systematic institutionalized ones discrete self contained combine interweave art forms combination artwork written word comics also develop contribute particular aspect complex art form cinematography definition arts open continually defined practice modern art example testament shifting boundaries improvisation experimentation reflexive nature self criticism questioning art conditions production reception possibility


undergo means developing capacities attention sensitivity ends arts simultaneously form response world way responses deem worthwhile goals pursuits transformed prehistoric cave paintings ancient contemporary forms ritual modern day films art served register embody preserve ever shifting relationships world definition hans rottenhammer ''allegory arts'' second half th century gem ldegalerie berlin several possible meanings


definitions terms ''art'' ''arts'' first meaning word ''art'' way basic present meaning defines arts specific activities produce sensitivity humans ref name editions larousse ref arts also referred bringing together creative imaginative activities without including science ref name working definitions ref ref name collins ref basic abstract definition art documented expression sentient accessible medium anyone view hear experience act producing expression also referred


certain art art general whether solidified expression act producing good value depends access rate public rating dependent various subjective factors merriam webster defines arts painting sculpture music theatre literature etc considered group activities done people skill imagination ref name merriam webster ref similarly united states congress national foundation arts humanities act defined arts follows art global activity large number disciplines included


fine arts liberal arts visual arts decorative arts applied arts design crafts performing arts ref name working definitions talking arts several mentioned arts enjoyment increases knowledge art arts divided several areas fine arts bring together broad sense arts whose aim produce true aesthetic pleasure ref name beaux arts ref decorative arts applied arts relate aesthetic side everyday life ref name applied arts ref history venus brassempouy earliest surviving form


arts cave paintings possibly bce definitely least bce oldest known musical instrument purported divje babe flute made young cave bear femur dated bce whether truly musical instrument object created animals remains extremely controversial earliest objects whose designations musical instruments widely accepted eight bone flutes swabian jura germany three geissenkl sterle dated oldest bp earliest surviving literature appears much later instructions shuruppak


kesh temple hymn among sumerian cuneiform tablets thought bce ancient greece art craft referred word ''techne'' thus distinction among arts ancient greek art brought veneration animal form development equivalent skills show musculature poise beauty anatomically correct proportions ancient roman art depicted gods idealized humans shown characteristic distinguishing features eg zeus' thunderbolt byzantine gothic art middle ages dominance church insisted expression biblical


truths eastern art generally worked style akin western medieval art namely concentration surface patterning local colour meaning plain colour object basic red red robe rather modulations colour brought light shade reflection characteristic style local colour often defined outline contemporary equivalent cartoon evident example art india tibet japan religious islamic art forbids iconography instead expresses religious ideas calligraphy


geometrical designs classifications lawrence alma tadema 's ''catullus lesbia 's'' middle ages ''artes liberales'' liberal arts taught universities part trivium introductory curriculum involving grammar rhetoric logic quadrivium curriculum involving mathematical arts arithmetic geometry music astronomy ''artes mechanicae'' consisting ' 'vestiaria'' tailoring weaving ''agricultura'' agriculture ''architectura'' architecture masonry ''militia'' ' 'venatoria'' warfare hunting military education martial arts ''mercatura'' trade ''coquinaria'' cooking ''metallaria'' blacksmithing metallurgy practised developed guild environments


modern distinction artistic non artistic skills develop renaissance modern academia arts usually grouped subset humanities subjects humanities history linguistics literature theology philosophy logic arts also classified seven painting architecture sculpture literature music performing cinema view literature painting sculpture music main four arts others derivative drama literature acting dance music expressed motion song music literature voice film sometimes called


user cyclopaedia'' modern usage architecture art discipline creating inferring implied apparent plan complex object system term used connote ''implied architecture'' abstract things music mathematics ''apparent architecture'' natural things geological formations structure biological cells explicitly ''planned architectures'' human made things software computers enterprises databases addition buildings every usage architecture may seen ' 'subjective mapping'' human perspective ''user''


case abstract physical artifacts elements components kind structure system preserves relationships among elements components planned architecture manipulates space volume texture light shadow abstract elements order achieve pleasing aesthetics distinguishes applied science engineering usually concentrate functional feasibility aspects design constructions structures field building architecture skills demanded architect range complex hospital stadium apparently simpler


planning residential houses many architectural works may seen also cultural political symbols works art role architect though changing central successful sometimes less successful design implementation pleasingly built environments people live ceramics ceramic art art made ceramic materials including clay may take forms pottery tile figurines sculpture tableware ceramic products considered fine art considered decorative industrial applied art objects ceramics may also considered artefacts


archaeology ceramic art made one person group people pottery ceramic factory group people design manufacture decorate pottery products pottery sometimes referred art pottery one person pottery studio ceramists potters produce studio pottery modern ceramic engineering usage ceramics art science making objects inorganic non metallic materials action heat excludes glass mosaic made glass ''tesserae'' conceptual art conceptual art art wherein concept idea involved work


take precedence traditional aesthetic material concerns inception term referred strict focused practice idea based art often defied traditional visual criteria associated visual arts presentation text association young british artists turner prize popular usage particularly united kingdom developed synonym contemporary art practise traditional skills painting sculpture drawing drawing means making image using wide variety


tools techniques generally involves making marks surface applying pressure tool moving tool across surface common tools graphite pencils pen ink inked brushes wax colour pencils crayons charcoals pastels markers digital tools simulate effects also used main techniques used drawing line drawing hatching crosshatching random hatching scribbling stippling blending artist excels drawing referred ' 'drafter'' ' 'draftswoman'' ' 'draughtsman'' drawing used create art used cultural industries illustrations


comics animation comics often called ninth art le neuvi art francophone scholarship adding traditional seven arts painting ''mona lisa'' leonardo da vinci painting mode creative expression done numerous forms drawing gesture gestural painting composition narration narrative art abstraction abstract art among aesthetic modes may serve manifest expressive conceptual intention practitioner paintings naturalistic representational still life landscape painting photographic abstract narrative symbolistic symbolist art


emotive expressionism political nature artivism modern painters extended practice considerably include example collage collage painting strict sense since includes materials modern painters incorporate different materials sand cement straw wood strands hair artwork texture examples works elito circa jean dubuffet anselm kiefer photography photography art form refers photographs created accordance creative vision photographer art photography stands contrast photojournalism provides


visual account news events commercial photography primary focus advertise products services sculpture sculpture branch visual arts operates three dimensions one plastic arts durable sculptural processes originally used carving removal material modelling addition material clay stone metal ceramics wood materials since modernism shifts sculptural process led almost complete freedom materials process wide variety materials may worked removal carving assembled welding


modelling moulded cast literary arts literature literally acquaintance letters first sense given ''oxford english dictionary'' noun literature comes latin word ''littera'' meaning individual written character letter term generally come identify collection writings western culture mainly prose fiction non fiction drama poetry much world artistic linguistic expression oral well include genres epic legend myth ballad forms oral poetry folktale comics


combination drawings visual arts narrating literature often called ninth art le neuvi art francophone scholarship performing arts performing arts comprise dance music theatre opera mime art forms human performance principal product performing arts distinguished performance element contrast disciplines visual literary arts product object require performance observed experienced discipline performing arts temporal nature meaning product performed period


presented social spiritual performance setting ''dance'' also used describe methods non verbal communication see body language humans animals eg bee dance mating dance motion inanimate objects eg ''the leaves danced wind'' certain musical forms genres choreography art making dances person called choreographer definitions constitutes dance dependent social cultural aesthetic artistic moral constraints range functional movement folk dance codified virtuoso techniques ballet sports gymnastics figure skating


synchronized swimming dance disciplines martial arts kata often compared dances music musical score mozart music art form whose medium sound silence occurring time common elements music pitch governs melody harmony rhythm associated concepts tempo metre articulation dynamics sonic qualities timbre texture creation performance significance even definition music vary according culture social context music ranges strictly organized compositions reproduction performance improvisational music aleatoric pieces music


divided genres subgenres although dividing lines relationships music genres often subtle sometimes open individual interpretation occasionally controversial within arts music may classified performing art fine art auditory art theatre theatre theater greek ''theatron'' '' '' ''theasthai'' behold branch performing arts concerned acting stories front audience using combinations speech gesture music dance sound spectacle indeed one elements performing arts addition standard narrative dialogue


non melodic objects found living room typical house hence title arts clear line art culture cultural fields like gastronomy sometimes considered arts applied arts applied arts application design decoration everyday functional objects make aesthetically pleasing applied arts includes fields industrial design illustration commercial art ref name dictionarycom ref term applied art used distinction fine arts latter defined arts aims produce objects beautiful


provide intellectual stimulation primary everyday function practice two often overlap video games debate exists fine arts video game cultures whether video games counted art form game designer hideo kojima professes video games type service art form meant entertain attempt entertain many people possible rather single artistic voice despite kojima considered gaming auteur mixed opinions games typically receive however acknowledged since video


games made artistic elements example visuals game designers could considered museum curators creating artistic pieces arranging way displays artistry sells tickets within social sciences cultural economists show video games playing conducive involvement traditional art forms cultural practices suggests complementarity video games arts may national endowment arts included video games redefinition considered work art applying grant


smithsonian american art museum presented exhibit ''the art video game'' reviews exhibit mixed including questioning whether video games belong art museum arts criticism architecture criticism art criticism dance criticism film criticism music criticism television criticism theatre criticism literary criticism see also arts education arts politics notes references sources reading external links https wwwoxfordlearnersdictionariescom topic art topic dictionaries oxford learner 's dictionaries https wwwlexicocom en definition art definition art lexico aesthetics culture humanities


writing dance dramatic writing drawing fiber film production fashion design visual effects animation graphic design illustration industrial design visual arts technical arts interior design metalworking music new media painting photography printmaking sculpture stage management television production schools instead give students broad education many disciplines arts ref name although bachelor fine arts traditionally considered four year degree ref name bfa program may take shorter longer complete amount studio course work required completing degree learner may acquire postgraduate degree master fine


arts bfa countries us typical bfa program united states consists two thirds study arts one third general liberal arts studies ba art ratio might reversed ref name national association schools art design nasad accredits bachelor 's fine arts programs visual art design united states states professional degree bfa focuses intensive work visual arts supported program general studies whereas liberal arts degree ba focuses art design


context broad program general studies uk united kingdom ba fine arts equivalent bfa specific degrees bachelor dance bachelor drama used performing arts institutions '''australia''' us much europe india india fine arts undergraduate degree may also known bva bachelor visual arts usually four year program first year preparatory session second year learners specialization painting photography


however institutions year curriculum students already opted specialization specializations acting dancing singing etc would come bachelor performing arts bpa countries degree bfa called bachelor creative arts bca see also master fine arts undergraduate degree photography visual arts performing arts references external links https nasadarts accreditorg nasad official website fine arts bachelor performing arts education visual arts education


local african ceremony benin featuring zangbeto traditional beliefs practices african people highly diverse beliefs include various ethnic religions ref name mol encyclopedia african religion sage molefi kete asante ref generally traditions oral rather scriptural passed one generation another folk tales songs festivals include belief amount higher lower gods sometimes including supreme creator force belief spirits veneration dead use magic traditional african medicine religions described animistic various polytheistic pantheistic


university giving mid figure muslims africa still total numbers estimates remain matter conjecture see amadu jacky kaba spread christianity islam africa survey analysis numbers percentages christians muslims practice indigenous religions ''the western journal black studies'' vol number june discusses estimations various almanacs encyclopedias placing britannica 's estimate agreed figure notes figure presented http wwwafrikaworldnet afrel statisticshtm ''world christian encyclopedia'' summarized


recent times religions yoruba religion rise religion yoruba finding roots islands caribbean portions central south america united states voodoo predominant states along gulf mexico basics animism builds core concept traditional african religions includes worship tutelary deities nature worship ancestor worship belief afterlife religions adopted pantheistic worldview follow polytheistic system various gods spirits supernatural beings traditional


priests persons essential spiritual religious survival community mystics responsible healing 'divining' kind fortune telling counseling similar shamans traditional healers called ancestors gods undergo strict training learn many necessary skills including use natural herbs healing mystical skills like finding hidden object without knowing traditional african religion believe ancestors maintain spiritual connection living relatives ancestral spirits generally


good kind negative actions taken ancestral spirits cause minor illnesses warn people gotten onto wrong path suggested ancient traditional african religions like indigenous folk religions around world strictly polytheistic lacked belief monotheistic concepts single supreme creator god native african religions centered ancestor worship belief spirit world supernatural beings free unlike later developed concept faith deceased humans animals important objects still exist spirit world


influence interact physical world polytheism widespreaded ancient african regions world introduction islam christianity judaism exception short lived monotheistic religion created pharaoh akhenaten made mandatory pray personal god aton see atenism remarkable changes traditional egyptian religion however reverted next pharao egypt ref name okwu ref high gods along specialized deities ancestor spirits territorial spirits beings common theme among traditional african religions highlighting complex advanced culture


ancient africa ref name okwu researchers including historical ethnolinguist christopher ehret suggest certain monotheistic concepts belief high god force next many gods deities spirits present within africa introduction abrahamic religions however indigenous concepts substantially different monotheism found abrahamic religions ref name convehret citation date provided https worldhistoryconnectedpressuillinoisedu cgi bin citecgi ref ref name okwu traditional koku dancer bearing strong similarities religious dancers dravidian folk religion southern india traditional african medicine also directly linked traditional african religions according clemmont e


vontress various religious traditions africa united basic animism according belief spirits ancestors important element african religions gods either self created evolved spirits ancestors got worshiped people also notes modern african folk religions strongly influenced non african religions mostly christianity islam thus may differ ancient forms nigerian american professor indigenous african religions harvard university jacob olupona summarized many traditional african religions complex animistic religious traditions beliefs


african people christian islamic colonization africa ancestor veneration always played significant part traditional african cultures may considered central african worldview ancestors ancestral ghosts spirits integral part reality ancestors generally believed reside ancestral realm spiritworld believe ancestors became equal power deities olupona rejects western islamic definition monotheism says concepts could reflect complex african traditions simplistic traditions supreme next deities


others monotheism reflect multiplicity ways traditional african spirituality conceived deities gods spirit beings summarizes traditional african religions religions worldview way life ceremonies west central african religious practices generally manifest communal ceremonies divinatory rites members community overcome ''force'' ''ashe'' ''nyama'' etc excited point going meditative trance response rhythmic driving drumming singing one religious ceremony practiced gabon cameroon okuyi


practiced several bantu ethnic groups state depending upon region drumming instrumental rhythms played respected musicians unique given deity ancestor participants embody deity ancestor energy state mind performing distinct ritual movements dances enhance elevated consciousness ref name karade b pages karade b ''the handbook yoruba religious concepts'' pages nbsp samuel weiser inc ref trance like state witnessed understood adherents privy way contemplating pure symbolic embodiment particular mindset frame


reference builds skills separating feelings elicited mindset situational manifestations daily life separation subsequent contemplation nature sources pure energy feelings serves help participants manage accept arise mundane contexts facilitates better control transformation energies positive culturally appropriate behavior thought speech also practice give rise trances uttering words interpreted culturally educated initiate diviner provide insight appropriate directions community individual


important basic concept mostly african religions african religions adopted different views influence islam even hinduism practices rituals bakongo masks kongo central similarities differences traditional african religions deities spirits honored libation sacrifice animals vegetables cooked food flowers semi precious stones precious metals gods spirits sought believer also consultation divinities divination traditional african religions embrace natural phenomena nbsp ebb tide waxing waning moon rain drought nbsp


rhythmic pattern agriculture according gottlieb mbiti blockquote environment nature infused every aspect traditional african religions culture largely cosmology beliefs intricately intertwined natural phenomena environment aspects weather thunder lightning rain day moon sun stars may become amenable control cosmology african people natural phenomena responsible providing people daily needs blockquote example serer religion one sacred stars cosmos called yoonir star sirius


long farming tradition serer high priests priestesses saltigue deliver yearly sermons xooy ceremony divination ceremony fatick yoonir 's phase order predict winter months enable farmers start planting traditional healers common areas practices include religious element varying degrees divination yoruba divination board since africa large continent many ethnic groups cultures one single technique casting divination practice casting may done small objects bones cowrie shells stones strips leather flat


pieces wood traditional healer south africa performing divination reading bones castings done using sacred divination plates made wood performed ground often within circle traditional african societies many people seek diviners regular basis generally prohibitions practice diviner also known priest also sought wisdom counselors life knowledge herbal medicine ubuntu ubuntu nguni bantu term meaning humanity sometimes translated also


humanity towards others zulu ''umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu '' xhosa latter term used often meant philosophical sense mean belief universal bond sharing connects humanity collection values practices people africa african origin view making people authentic human beings nuances values practices vary across different ethnic groups point one thing authentic individual human part larger significant


relational communal societal environmental spiritual world virtue vice virtue traditional african religion often connected carrying obligations communal aspect life examples include social behaviors respect parents elders raising children appropriately providing hospitality honest trustworthy courageous traditional african religions morality associated obedience disobedience god regarding way person community lives kikuyu according primary supreme creator ngai acting lesser deities believed speak capable guiding


virtuous person one 's conscience many cases africans converted religions still kept traditional customs practices combining syncretic way sacred places sacred holy locations traditional religions include nri igbo point sangomar yaboyabo fatick ife oyo dahomey benin city ouidah nsukka kanem bornu igbo ukwu tulwap kipsigis among others religious persecution traditions region list limited well known traditions central africa bantu mythology central southeast southern africa bushongo mythology congo kongo religion congo lugbara mythology congo baluba mythology congo mbuti mythology congo dinka


religion south sudan hausa animism chad gabon lotuko mythology south sudan east africa bantu mythology central southeast southern africa gikuyu mythology kenya akamba mythology kenya maasai mythology kenya tanzania ouebian kalenjin mythology kenya uganda tanzania dini ya msambwa bungoma trans nzoia kenya horn africa waaqeffanna oromia waaqism somali north africa ancient egyptian religion egypt sudan kemetism punic religion tunisia algeria libya traditional berber religion morocco including western sahara algeria tunisia libya egypt mauritania mali niger chad burkina faso hausa animism sudan southern africa bantu mythology central southeast southern africa lozi mythology zambia tumbuka mythology malawi xhosa mythology southern africa


mali african diaspora afro american religions involve ancestor worship include creator deity along pantheon divine spirits orisha loa vodun nkisi alusi among others addition religious syncretism various african traditions many also incorporate elements folk catholicism including folk saints forms folk religion native american religion spiritism spiritualism shamanism sometimes including use entheogens european folklore various doctoring spiritual traditions also exist obeah hoodoo focus spiritual health african religious traditions americas vary


non prominent african roots almost wholly african nature religions like trinidad orisha notes references information presented gleaned ''world eras encyclopaedia'' volume edited pierre damien mvuyekure new york thomson gale particular pp nbsp baldick j ''black god afroasiatic roots jewish christian muslim religions'' new york syracuse university press doumbia doumbia n ''the way elders west african spirituality tradition'' saint paul mn llewellyn publications ehret christopher https booksgooglecom booksid ga qqzw vpyc dq civilizations africa history printsec frontcover source bn hl en ei rueus qjlyy lafb zyraw sa x oi book result ct result resnum ved cbwq aewba v onepage q f false''the civilizations africa history '' charlottesville university press virginia ehret


fragment gold coast ethics religion'' second edition london cass einstein carl https wwwkeyandonet african legends carl einstein hg ''african legends'' first english edition pandavia berlin gbadagesin segun ''african philosophy traditional yoruba philosophy contemporary african realities'' new york peter lang gleason judith ''oya praise african goddess'' harper collins griaule marcel dietterlen germaine ''le mythe cosmogonique'' paris institut d'ethnologie idowu bolaji ''god yoruba belief'' plainview original publications rev enlarged ed lugira aloysius muzzanganda ''african traditional religion'' infobase publishing mbiti john ''african religions philosophy'' african writers series heinemann opoku kofi


asare https wwwamazoncom dp b ee west african traditional religion kofi asare opoku publisher fep international private limited asin b ee parrinder geoffrey ''african traditional religion'' third ed london sheldon press pbk parrinder geoffrey traditional religion ''africa 's three religions'' second ed london sheldon press p peavy kings magic medicine raleigh nc si peavy benin monarchy olokun iha ominigbon umewaen journal benin edoid studies osweego ny popoola solagbade ''ikunle abiyamo bent knees gave birth'' asefin media publication soyinka wole ''myth literature


cigi campus previously housed former seagram museum balsillie school international affairs bsia '''public policy schools''' typically university programs teach students policy analysis policy studies public policy political economy urban planning public administration public affairs public management public policy schools typically train students two streams practical stream treats master 's degree terminal degree trains students work policy analysts practitioners governments think tanks consulting firms theoretical stream aims train students aiming go complete doctoral studies

Applied science
Public administration
Public policy school


eg phd goal becoming professors public policy researchers public policy schools offer wide range public policy degrees undergraduate level universities offer bachelor arts major public policy policy studies undergrad degrees typically offered university 's public administration political science faculties master public policy mpp master public administration mpa master public affairs mpaff master public service mps master urban planning mup master international affairs mia schools international


background public administration political science may required qualifying courses areas universities allow students complete degrees concurrently north american public policy programs generally located autonomous graduate professional school within larger university curriculum public policy programs combine elements political science economics statistics law international relations international development public finance leadership studies ethics sociology public administration recently public policy schools applied quantitative analysis management information systems organizational behavior project management operations research public sector degrees public policy


generally graduate level masters phd undergraduate degree programs still exist admission contrast many graduate level programs applicants various sometimes unrelated educational backgrounds admitted public policy schools applicants' backgrounds range programs significant content overlap public administration economics political science undergraduate majors related social sciences undergraduate programs may little content overlap eg physical sciences engineering students without undergraduate major related field may required complete qualifying undergraduate courses


public policy admissions requirements including standardized testing requirements vary widely schools second language requirement due global orientation united states applicants must graduated accredited university generally required take graduate record examination gre many schools also accept law school admission test lsat graduate management admission test gmat lieu gre notable institutions north america canada balsillie school international affairs joint initiative cigi university waterloo wilfrid laurier university waterloo master public service university


waterloo waterloo munk school global affairs public policy university toronto toronto norman paterson school international affairs carleton university ottawa university ottawa 's graduate school public international affairs ottawa school public policy global affairs university british columbia vancouver bc https wwwmcgillca maxbellschool max bell school public policy mcgill university montr al qc school policy studies queen 's university kingston school public policy university calgary calgary ab school public administration dalhousie university halifax ns


policy simon fraser university vancouver bc school public administration university victoria victoria bc united states public policy schools united states tackle policy analysis differently harris school public policy studies university chicago quantitative economics approach policy heinz college carnegie mellon uses computational technology driven methods john f kennedy school government harvard university political science leadership based approach indiana university school public environmental affairs provides traditional public policy training multidisciplinary


concentrations available environmental sciences nonprofit management moreover university illinois chicago offers public policy training emphasizes stages decision making formulating policy eg agenda setting well importance framing effects cognitive limits policy formation schools public policy met professional standards education quality united states accredited network schools public policy affairs administration naspaa johns hopkins institute policy studies graduate program public management johns hopkins university princeton school public international affairs


princeton university mccourt school public policy georgetown university ford dorsey master 's international policy stanford university john f kennedy school government harvard university school international public affairs columbia university school international service school public affairs american university institute public affairs cornell university harris school public policy studies university chicago goldman school public policy university california berkeley luskin school public affairs university california los angeles robert f wagner graduate school public service


new york university robert la follette school public affairs university wisconsin madison gerald r ford school public policy university michigan harry truman school public affairs university missouri daniel j evans school public affairs university washington edward j bloustein school planning public policy rutgers university ucr school public policy university california riverside center public administration policy virginia tech andrew young school policy studies georgia state university fels institute government


university pennsylvania frank batten school leadership public policy university virginia george mason university school public policy h john heinz iii college information systems public policy carnegie mellon university hubert h humphrey school public affairs university minnesota ivan allen college liberal arts georgia institute technology o'neill school public environmental affairs indiana university bloomington john glenn school public affairs ohio state university arkansas state university college liberal arts communication frederick pardee rand graduate school


rand corporation lyndon b johnson school public affairs university texas austin martin school public policy administration university kentucky master public administration program umpa university miami marxe school public international affairs baruch college maxine goodman levin college urban affairs cleveland state university maxwell school citizenship public affairs syracuse university mills college lokey school business public policy mills college monterey institute international studies middlebury college rockefeller college public affairs policy


university albany suny sanford school public policy duke university school public policy university massachusetts amherst helms school government liberty university sol price school public policy university southern california school public policy oregon state university bush school government public service texas university trachtenberg school public policy public administration george washington university clinton school public service university arkansas school public international affairs university georgia department public policy


university maryland baltimore county school public policy university maryland college park school public policy pepperdine university university pittsburgh graduate school public international affairs school public policy urban affairs northeastern university mexico public administration division centro de investigaci n docencia econ micas mexico city instituto tecnol gico aut nomo de xico mexico city center international studies el colegio de xico mexico city universidad nacional aut noma de xico mexico city national institute public administration mexico city school government public transformation instituto tecnol gico


de estudios superiores de monterrey campus monterrey mexico city department social sciences politics universidad iberoamericana mexico city universidad aut noma de la ciudad de xico uacm colegio de de ciencias sociales humanidades ciencias pol tica administraci n urbana universidad aut noma de sinaloa uas facultad de estudios internacionales pol ticas p blicas south america brazil fgv eaesp paulo fgv ebape rio de janeiro professor paulo neves de carvalho government school belo horizonte europe europe luiss school government offers multidisciplinary approach public policy combining economics political science new public management policy


policy charles university prague france school public affairs sciences po paris institut d' tudes politiques de strasbourg universit de strasbourg institut d' tudes politiques de bordeaux institut d' tudes politiques de toulouse institut d' tudes politiques de grenoble institut d' tudes politiques de lyon institut d' tudes politiques d'aix en provence institut d' tudes politiques de lille institut d' tudes politiques de rennes institut d' tudes politiques de saint germain en laye germany hertie school governance berlin department politics administration university konstanz department political social science freie universit berlin willy brandt school public erfurt german university administrative sciences speyer


nrw school governance duisburg bavarian school public policy munich department politics administration international relations zeppelin university hungary school public policy central european university budapest http kozpoluni corvinushu indexphplang en corvinus university budapest department public policy management eapaa accredited italy luiss school government libera universit internazionale degli studi sociali guido carli rome kazakhstan https gsppnuedukz en home graduate school public policy nazarbayev university nur sultan netherlands maastricht graduate school governance maastricht university united nations university international institute social studies erasmus university rotterdam united kingdom blavatnik school


government department social policy intervention university oxford department politics international studies university cambridge department politics international studies university warwick institute public affairs london school economics political science school public policy university college london faculty social science public policy king 's college london university london school policy studies university bristol school government international affairs durham university university edinburgh academy government university edinburgh


centre financial management studies soas university london school government public policy university strathclyde department politics university york russia russian presidential academy national economy public administration president russian federation spain ie school global public affairs ie university asia brunei darussalam http ipsubdedubn institute policy studies university brunei darussalam china school government peking university school public policy management tsinghua university india http wwwispporgin indian school public policy https wwwispporgin programme one year programme


public policy design management prepares policy leaders policy professionals skills wisdom ethics imagine design implement relevant solutions india policy governance challenges founded commitment world class faculty extensive industry linkages innovative approach towards design management policy ispp aims transform art policymaking designed asset light talent heavy ispp focuses bringing together best minds public policy create unique high quality programme aims create next generation policy leaders ispp scholars undergo


comprehensive https wwwispporgin academics academic programme public policy also rigorously trained management communication leadership skills one year academic session divided terms weeks tata institute social sciences hyderabad launched masters public policy governance hyderabad campus national law school india university bangalore launched mpp programme top faculty india special focus law interface development public policy postgraduate programme public policy management course offered indian institutes management


multidisciplinary course special emphasis select policy areas health policy environment policy developed economic quantitative approach indian school business hyderabad mohali launched executive master 's level management programme public policy mppp consultation one world 's leading public policy schools fletcher school law diplomacy tufts university institute rural manangement anand center dedicated public policy governance offers courses like public policy decentralization public policy analysis public systems management institute actively involved


development consulting school international relations politics mahatma gandhi university first start master 's public policy governance interdisciplinary nature jindal school government public policy india offers interdisciplinary training public policy focus policy making processes developing bric countries takshashila institution india offers semester long graduate certificate public policy instead focusing developing public policy academic discipline india well making public policy education accessible working professionals management development institute mdi gurugram offers public


indian institute management calcutta school public policy governance mdi gurgaon institute rural management anand national law school india university bangalore kautilya school public policy hyderabad school public policy governance tata institute social sciences hyderabad jindal school government public policy sonipat haryana school government public affairs xavier university bhubaneswar st xavier 's college mumbai teri university new delhi takshashila institution independent think tank school public policy faculty planning cept university ahmedabad central university rajasthan department public policy law governance central university


jammu department public policy public administration sri sri university department good governance public policy cuttack odisha fms wisdom banasthali vidyapith rajasthan hong kong department politics public administration faculty social science university hong kong hong kong israel federmann school public policy government hebrew university jerusalem japan national graduate institute policy studies tokyo graduate school public policy university tokyo tokyo school international public policy hitotsubashi university tokyo graduate school media governance keio university tokyo graduate school public management waseda university tokyo graduate


school public policy chuo university tokyo graduate school public policy social governance hosei university tokyo graduate school governance studies meiji university tokyo school government kyoto university kyoto graduate school public policy kyoto prefectural university kyoto graduate school policy management doshisha university kyoto graduate school policy science ritsumeikan university kyoto osaka school international public policy osaka university osaka graduate school governance kansai university osaka school graduate school public studies kwansei gakuin university hy go prefecture hokkaido university public policy school sapporo school public policy tohoku university sendai


graduate school policy studies chiba university commerce chiba graduate school policy studies iwate prefectural university iwate nepal central department public administration cdpa public administration campus pac mahendra morang multiple campus mmc philippines ateneo school government ateneo de manila university national college public administration governance university philippines diliman college economics finance politics polytechnic university philippines qatar department public policy islam qatar faculty islamic studies hamad bin khalifa university singapore lee kuan yew school public policy national university


singapore rajaratnam school international studies nanyang technological university south korea kdi school public policy management thailand http wwwsppcmuacth school public policy chiang mai university united arab emirates dubai school government dubai africa egypt school global affairs public policy american university cairo south africa school government university western cape ref name uwc ref oceania australia crawford school public policy australian national university university queensland australia new zealand school government university tasmania sir walter murdoch school


public policy international affairs murdoch university see also list public administration schools public administration schools references public policy research types university college


brachiopods bryozoans ordovician limestone southern minnesota '''paleobiology''' '''palaeobiology''' interdisciplinary field combines methods findings found earth sciences life sciences confused geobiology focuses interactions biosphere physical earth paleobiological research uses biological field research current biota fossils millions years old answer questions molecular evolution evolutionary history life scientific quest macrofossils microfossils trace fossils typically analyzed however st century biochemical analysis dna


rna samples offers much promise biometric construction phylogenetic trees investigator field known '''paleobiologist''' important research areas paleobotany applies principles methods paleobiology flora especially green land plants also including fungi seaweeds algae see also mycology phycology dendrochronology paleozoology uses methods principles paleobiology understand fauna vertebrates invertebrates see also vertebrate invertebrate paleontology well paleoanthropology micropaleontology applies paleobiologic principles methods archaea bacteria protists microscopic pollen spores see also microfossils palynology


ecology stratigraphic paleobiology studies long term secular changes well short term bed bed sequence changes organismal characteristics behaviors see also stratification sedimentary rocks geologic time scale evolutionary developmental paleobiology examines evolutionary aspects modes trajectories growth development evolution life clades extinct extant see also adaptive radiation cladistics evolutionary biology developmental biology phylogenetic tree paleobiologists founder father modern paleobiology baron franz nopcsa hungarian scientist trained university vienna initially termed


discipline paleophysiology however credit coining word ''paleobiology'' go professor charles schuchert proposed term initiate broad new science joining traditional paleontology evidence insights geology isotopic chemistry hand charles doolittle walcott smithsonian adventurer cited founder precambrian paleobiology although best known discoverer mid cambrian burgess shale animal fossils american curator found first precambrian fossil cells known science stromatolite reef known ''cryptozoon'' algae


discovered first acritarch fossil cells precambrian algal phytoplankton named ''chuaria'' lastly walcott reported minute cells chains cell like bodies belonging precambrian purple bacteria later th century paleobiologists also figured prominently finding archaean proterozoic eon microfossils stanley tyler elso barghoorn described billion year old cyanobacteria fungi like microflora gunflint chert fossil site eleven years later barghoorn j william schopf reported finely preserved precambrian microflora bitter springs site amadeus basin central australia finally schopf discovered sub sub producing blue green bacteria


billion year old apex chert site pilbara craton marble bar northwestern part western australia paleobiologists last homing origins precambrian oxygen catastrophe paleobiologic journals ''acta palaeontologica polonica'' ''biology geology'' ''historical biology'' ''palaios'' ''palaeogeography palaeoclimatology palaeoecology'' ''paleobiology journal '' ''paleoceanography'' see also history biology history paleontology history invertebrate paleozoology molecular paleontology taxonomy commonly fossilised invertebrates treatise invertebrate paleontology references footnotes references derek eg briggs peter r crowther eds ''palaeobiology ii'' malden massachusetts blackwell publishing second edition acclaimed


british textbook robert l carroll ''patterns processes vertebrate evolution'' cambridge paleobiology series cambridge england cambridge university press applies paleobiology adaptive radiation fishes quadrupeds matthew carrano timothy gaudin richard blob john wible eds ''amniote paleobiology perspectives evolution mammals birds reptiles'' chicago university chicago press new book describes paleobiological research land vertebrates mesozoic cenozoic eras robert b eckhardt ''human paleobiology'' cambridge studies biology evolutionary anthropology cambridge england cambridge university press


book connects paleoanthropology archeology field paleobiology douglas h erwin ''extinction life earth nearly ended million years ago'' princeton princeton university press investigation paleobiologist many theories happened catastrophic permian triassic transition brian keith hall wendy olson eds ''keywords concepts evolutionary biology'' cambridge massachusetts harvard university press david jablonski douglas h erwin jere h lipps ''evolutionary paleobiology'' chicago university chicago press pages


fine american textbook masatoshi nei sudhir kumar ''molecular evolution phylogenetics'' oxford england oxford university press text links dna rna analysis evolutionary tree life paleobiology donald r prothero ''bringing fossils life introduction paleobiology'' new york mcgraw hill acclaimed book novice fossil hunter young adults mark ridley ed ''evolution'' oxford england oxford university press anthology analytical studies paleobiology raymond rogers david eberth tony fiorillo ''bonebeds genesis analysis


paleobiological significance'' chicago university chicago press new book regarding fossils vertebrates especially tetrapods land mesozoic cenozoic eras thomas j schopf ed ''models paleobiology'' san francisco freeman cooper much cited seminal classic field discussing methodology quantitative analysis thomas jm schopf ''paleoceanography'' cambridge massachusetts harvard university press later book noted paleobiologist text discusses ancient marine ecology j william schopf ''cradle life discovery earth 's earliest


national museum natural history smithsonian washington dc http paleodborg paleobiology database developmental biology evolutionary biology subfields paleontology


moments wikimedia education conference '' 'sociology education''' study public institutions individual experiences affect education outcomes mostly concerned public schooling systems modern industrial societies including expansion higher adult continuing education ref name dictionary gordon marshall ed ''a dictionary sociology'' article sociology education oxford university press ref education seen fundamentally optimistic human endeavour characterised aspirations progress betterment ref name schofield schofield k http wwwaspaasnau papers eqfinalcpdf ''the purposes education queensland state education '' accessed oct ref understood many

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of education


means overcoming handicaps achieving greater equality acquiring wealth social status ref name sargent sargent ''the new sociology australians'' rd ed longman cheshire melbourne ref education perceived place children develop according unique needs potential ref name schofield children develop young older adults social interactions people education always causing development matter age also perceived one best means achieving greater social equality ref name sargent many would say purpose education


develop every individual full potential give chance achieve much life natural abilities allow meritocracy would argue education system accomplishes goal perfectly take particularly critical view arguing education system designed intention causing social reproduction inequality foundations systematic sociology education began work mile durkheim moral education basis organic solidarity studies max weber chinese literati instrument


challenged class stratification racial sexual discrimination ref name dictionary general collapse functionalism late onwards idea education unmitigated good even profoundly challenged neo marxists argued school education simply produced docile labour force essential late capitalist class relations theoretical perspectives sociology education contains number theories main theories presented political arithmetic political arithmetic tradition within sociology education began hogben denotes tradition politically critical quantitative research dealing social


inequalities especially generated social stratification heath important works tradition glass floud et al halsey et al works concerned way school structures implicated social class inequalities britain recent work tradition broadened focus include gender ethnic differentials international differences researchers tradition engaged sociological theories rational choice theory cultural reproduction theory political arithmetic tradition tended remain rather sceptical 'grand theory'


much concerned empirical evidence social policy political arithmetic tradition attacked 'new sociology education' rejected quantitative research methods heralded period methodological division within sociology education however political arithmetic tradition rooted quantitative methods increasingly engaged mixed methods approaches structural functionalism structural functionalists believe society leans towards social equilibrium social order see society like human body institutions education like important organs keep society body healthy well ref name bessant bessant


j watts r ''sociology australia'' nd ed allen unwin sydney ref social reality structured differentiated provides social science subject matter explains individuals act role incumbents perform specific tasks regular basis manifested level observable event relation teacher student lies heart realist conception social structure internal relation roles distinct individual people fill casually affect relation teacher student closely internal could exist without


functionalists view education one important social institutions society emphasize education contributes two types functions manifest functions intended visible functions education latent functions hidden unintended functions '''manifest functions''' several major manifest functions associated education first socialization french sociologist mile durkheim established academic discipline sociology characterized schools socialization agencies teach children get along others prepare adult economic roles durkheim socialization involves learning rules


norms society whole one roles schools teach students conformity law respect authority education also important tool used students towards upward mobility higher learning institutions viewed vehicles moving students closer careers help become successful '''latent functions''' education also fulfills latent functions much goes school little formal education educational setting introduces students social networks might last years help people find jobs schooling completed


another latent function ability work others small groups skill transferable workplace might learned home school setting socialization social health means social order guaranteed nearly everyone accepts general moral values society hence structural functionalists believe aim key institutions education socialize children teenagers socialization process new generation learns knowledge attitudes values need productive citizens education 's primary role convey


basic knowledge skills future generations ref name ref although aim stated formal curriculum mainly achieved hidden curriculum ref name harper harper g society culture socialization individual stafford c furze b eds ''society change'' nd ed macmillan education australia melbourne ref subtler nonetheless powerful indoctrination norms values wider society students learn values behavior school regulated durkheim ref name sargent gradually internalize accept additionally education important tool transmission core values


social esteem focusing bringing honor group rather self esteem ref name filling roles society education must also perform another function various jobs become vacant must filled appropriate people therefore purpose education sort rank individuals placement labor market munro high achievement trained important jobs reward given highest incomes achieve least given least demanding intellectually rate physically jobs hence


least income according sennet cobb however believe ability alone decides rewarded deceived ref name sargent meighan agrees stating large numbers capable students working class backgrounds fail achieve satisfactory standards school therefore fail obtain status deserve ref name meighan meighan r siraj blatchford ''a sociology educating'' rd ed cassell london ref jacob believes middle class cultural experiences provided school may contrary experiences working class children receive home ref name jacob jacob ''research links poverty literacy'' abc


radio transcript http wwwabcnetau pm stories htm ref words working class children adequately prepared cope school therefore cooled ref name foster foster l e ''australian education sociological perspective'' nd ed prentice hall sydney ref school least qualifications hence get least desirable jobs remain working class sargent confirms cycle arguing schooling supports continuity turn supports social order ref name sargent talcott parsons believed process whereby students identified labelled educational failures necessary activity one part social system education performed


whole ref name meighan yet structural functionalist perspective maintains social order continuity people desire ref name bessant one critical thing sociology education social reproduction perspective conflict theory contrary structural functionalist perspective believes society full vying social groups different aspirations different access life chances gain different social rewards ref name furze furze b healy p understanding society change stafford c furze b eds ''society change'' nd ed macmillan education australia melbourne ref conflict theory


sees purpose education way maintain social inequality way preserve power dominate society ref name relations society view mainly based exploitation oppression domination subordination ref name sargent ref name connell connell r w white v 'child poverty educational action' edgar keane mcdonald p eds ''child poverty'' allen unwin sydney ref many teachers assume students particular middle class experiences home children assumption n't necessarily true ref name jacob children expected help


parents school carry considerable domestic responsibilities often single parent home ref name wilson wilson b wyn j ''shaping futures youth action livelihood'' allen unwin hong kong ref demands domestic labour often make difficult find time homework thus affects academic performance teachers softened formality regular study integrated student 's preferred working methods curriculum noted particular students displayed strengths aware ref name wilson however teachers deviate traditional curriculum curriculum


conveys constitutes knowledge determined state power young ref name sargent knowledge n't meaningful many students see pointless ref name jacob wilson wyn state students realise little direct link subjects perceived future labour market ref name wilson anti school values displayed children often derived consciousness real interests sargent believes working class students striving succeed absorbing school 's middle class values accepting inferior


social position much determined fail ref name sargent fitzgerald states irrespective academic ability desire learn students poor families relatively little chance securing success ref name henry henry knight j lingard r taylor ''understanding schooling introductory sociology australian education'' routledge sydney ref hand middle especially upper class children maintaining superior position society requires little effort federal government subsidises 'independent' private schools enabling rich obtain 'good education' paying ref name sargent 'good education' rich children perform


better achieve higher obtain greater rewards way continuation privilege wealth elite made possible ''in continuum'' conflict theorists believe social reproduction continues occur whole education system overlain ideology provided dominant group effect perpetuate myth education available provide means achieving wealth status anyone fails achieve goal according myth blame ref name sargent wright agrees stating effect myth stop seeing


personal troubles part major social issues ref name sargent duplicity successful many parents endure appalling jobs many years believing sacrifice enable children opportunities life ref name wilson conflict theorists believe educational system maintaining status quo dulling lower classes obedient workers ref name people poor disadvantaged victims societal confidence trick encouraged believe major goal schooling strengthen equality reality


theorist viewpoint educational system simply perpetuator status quo ref name additionally conflict theorists including bowles gintis argued schools directly reproduce social economic inequalities embedded capitalist economy believed conflict played classrooms students marked larger highly stratified economic structure whether current leaders sociology agreed bowles gintis undeniably came operate fields guided ideas ref name ref perspective criticised deterministic pessimistic evidence social mobility among


disadvantaged students recognised however model aspect reality important part picture structure agency bourdieu cultural capital theory social reproduction significantly theorised pierre bourdieu aimed analyzing social class inequalities education ref name however bourdieu social theorist always concerned dichotomy objective subjective put another way structure agency bourdieu therefore built theoretical framework around important concepts habitus field


cultural capital concepts based idea objective structures determine individuals' chances mechanism habitus individuals internalise structures however habitus also formed example individual 's position various fields family everyday experiences therefore one 's class position determine one 's life chances although play important part alongside factors bourdieu used idea cultural capital explore differences outcomes students different classes french educational system explored tension conservative reproduction


innovative production knowledge experience ref name harker harker r education cultural capital harker r mahar c wilkes c eds ''an introduction work pierre bourdieu practice theory'' macmillan press london ref found tension intensified considerations particular cultural past present conserved reproduced schools bourdieu argues culture dominant groups therefore cultural capital embodied schools leads social reproduction ref name harker james coleman also focused lot


themes social reproduction inequality coleman inspired many current leaders sociology education work also led heightened focus empiricism ref name cultural capital dominant group form practices relation culture assumed school natural proper type cultural capital therefore legitimated demands uniformly students give bourdieu ref name swartz swartz pierre bourdieu cultural transmission social inequality robbins ''pierre bourdieu volume


found one journeys levels system process social reproduction neither perfect complete ref name harker still small number less privileged students achieve success majority students succeed school internalise values dominant classes use detriment original habitus cultural values therefore bourdieu 's perspective reveals objective structures play important role determining individual achievement school allows exercise individual 's agency overcome


importance areas self efficacy confidence resilience shaping educational identity level agent subsequently educational attainment aspirations central recent work notable sociologists education mile durkheim randall collins jim coleman john w meyer raymond boudon pierre bourdieu see also educational technology references archer r education policy realist social theory primary teachers child centred philosophy new managerialism london new york routledge block aa ''i'm bleeding education practice violence children'' peter lang new york bourdieu


p outline theory practice cambridge university press cambridge bourdieu p distinction social critique judgement taste harvard university press cambridge bourdieu p https webarchiveorg web http wwwviet studiesorg bourdieu capitalhtm forms capital bourdieu p reproduction education society culture sage publications london bourdieu p state nobility polity press cambridge gabbard saltman ken eds ''education enforcement militarization corporatization schooling'' grenfell ed pierre bourdieu key concepts london acumen press r r mahar c wilkes c eds ''an introduction work pierre


bourdieu practice theory'' macmillan press london lampert k prolegomena radical schooling university press america maryland lampert khen meritocratic education social worthlessness palgrave macmillan paulo freire ''pedagogy oppressed'' rd ed continuum press new york maton k knowledge knowers towards realist sociology education london routledge schofield k purposes education ''queensland state education conference papers '' scuola di barbiana school barbiana lettera una professoressa letter teacher florence libreria editrice fiorentina spring j ''deculturalization struggle equality brief history


'''''sociology education''''' peer reviewed academic journal publishes papers fields sociology education journal 's editor linda renzulli purdue university publication since currently published sage publications association american sociological association publication history journal originally named ''the journal educational sociology'' began publication sponsored payne educational sociology foundation phi delta kappa title changed ''sociology education'' became sponsored american sociological association publication changed


quarterly distribution schedule continued volume numbering predecessor scope ''sociology education'' publishes research aims examine social institutions individuals' experiences within institutions affect educational processes social development journal provides forum studies sociology education human social development abstracting indexing ''sociology education'' abstracted indexed among databases scopus social sciences citation index according ''journal citation reports'' impact factor ranked journals


antennas sandia peak near albuquerque new mexico us fm television transmitting antennas often located high towers mountain peaks maximize transmission range antennas kinds shown along round dishes drums point point microwave communications example studio transmitter '''radio''' technology signaling communicating using radio waves ref name oed ref ref name pcmag ref ref name ellingson ref radio waves electromagnetic waves frequency nbsp hertz hz nbsp gigahertz ghz generated electronic device called transmitter connected antenna radiates waves received another

Journalism, media studies and communication


antenna connected radio receiver radio widely used modern technology radio communication radar radio navigation remote control remote sensing applications '''radio communication''' used radio television broadcasting cell phones two way radios wireless networking satellite communication among numerous uses radio waves used carry information across space transmitter receiver modulating radio signal impressing information signal radio wave varying aspect wave transmitter radar used locate track objects like aircraft ships spacecraft


missiles beam radio waves emitted radar transmitter reflects target object reflected waves reveal object 's location radio navigation systems gps vor mobile receiver accepts radio signals navigational radio beacons whose position known precisely measuring arrival time radio waves receiver calculate position earth wireless radio remote control devices like drones garage door openers keyless entry systems radio signals transmitted controller device control actions remote device applications radio waves


involve transmitting waves significant distances rf heating used industrial processes microwave ovens medical uses diathermy mri machines usually called ''radio'' noun ''radio'' also used mean broadcast radio receiver radio waves first identified studied german physicist heinrich hertz first practical radio transmitters receivers developed around italian guglielmo marconi radio began used commercially around prevent interference users emission radio waves regulated law coordinated


international body called international telecommunication union itu allocates frequency bands radio spectrum different uses technology radio waves radiated electric charges undergoing acceleration ref name kraus ref ref name serway ref generated artificially time varying electric currents consisting electrons flowing back forth metal conductor called antenna ref name balanis ref ref name ellingson ref thus accelerating transmission transmitter generates alternating current radio frequency applied antenna antenna radiates power current radio waves waves strike antenna radio receiver push


electrons metal back forth inducing tiny alternating current radio receiver connected receiving antenna detects oscillating current amplifies travel farther transmitting antenna radio waves spread signal strength intensity watts per square meter decreases radio transmissions received within limited range transmitter distance depending transmitter power antenna radiation pattern receiver sensitivity noise level presence obstructions transmitter receiver omnidirectional antenna transmits receives radio waves directions


wide use radio waves telecommunication mainly due desirable propagation properties stemming large wavelength ref name ellingson radio waves ability pass atmosphere foliage building materials diffraction bend around obstructions unlike electromagnetic waves tend scattered rather absorbed objects larger wavelength radio communication radio communication information sound converted transducer microphone electrical signal modulates radio wave produced transmitter receiver intercepts


radio wave extracts information bearing modulation signal converted back human usable form another transducer loudspeaker comparison fm modulated radio waves radio communication systems information carried across space using radio waves sending end information sent converted type transducer time varying electrical signal called modulation signal ref name ellingson ref name howstuffworks ref modulation signal may audio signal representing sound microphone video signal representing moving images video camera digital signal


varied modulation signal fm frequency modulation fm transmitter frequency radio carrier wave varied modulation signal fsk frequency shift keying used wireless digital devices transmit digital signals frequency carrier wave shifted periodically two frequencies represent two binary digits transmit sequence bits ofdm orthogonal frequency division multiplexing family complicated digital modulation methods widely used high bandwidth systems wi fi networks cellphones digital television broadcasting digital audio broadcasting dab transmit


digital data using minimum radio spectrum bandwidth higher spectral efficiency resistance fading fm ofdm multiple radio carrier waves closely spaced frequency transmitted within radio channel carrier modulated bits incoming bitstream multiple bits sent simultaneously parallel receiver carriers demodulated bits combined proper order one bitstream many types modulation also used types carrier wave transmitted one


modulation sidebands modulated carrier amplified transmitter applied transmitting antenna radiates energy radio waves radio waves carry information receiver location receiver radio wave induces tiny oscillating voltage receiving antenna weaker replica current transmitting antenna ref name ellingson ref name howstuffworks voltage applied radio receiver amplifies weak radio signal stronger demodulates extracting original modulation signal modulated carrier wave


modulation signal converted transducer back human usable form audio signal converted sound waves loudspeaker earphones video signal converted images display digital signal applied computer microprocessor interacts human users radio waves many transmitters pass air simultaneously without interfering transmitter 's radio waves oscillate different rate words transmitter different frequency measured kilohertz khz megahertz mhz gigahertz ghz receiving


antenna typically picks radio signals many transmitters receiver uses ''tuned circuits'' select radio signal desired signals picked antenna reject others tuned circuit also called resonant circuit tank circuit acts like resonator similarly tuning fork ref name howstuffworks natural resonant frequency oscillates resonant frequency receiver 's tuned circuit adjusted user frequency desired radio station called tuning oscillating radio signal


desired station causes tuned circuit resonate oscillate sympathy passes signal rest receiver radio signals frequencies blocked tuned circuit passed bandwidth frequency spectrum typical modulated fm radio signal consists component ''c'' carrier wave frequency math f c math information modulation contained two narrow bands frequencies called sidebands ''sb'' carrier frequency modulated radio wave carrying information signal occupies range frequencies


see diagram information modulation radio signal usually concentrated narrow frequency bands called sidebands ''sb'' carrier frequency width hertz frequency range radio signal occupies highest frequency minus lowest frequency called bandwidth ''bw'' ref name spectrum p ref given signal noise ratio amount bandwidth carry amount information data rate bits per second regardless radio frequency spectrum located bandwidth measure information carrying capacity bandwidth


required radio transmission depends data rate information modulation signal sent spectral efficiency modulation method used much data transmit kilohertz bandwidth different types information signals carried radio different data rates example television video signal greater data rate audio signal radio spectrum total range radio frequencies used communication given area limited resource ref name spectrum ref name ellingson radio transmission occupies portion


greater data rate given bandwidth analog modulation using data compression algorithms reduce redundancy data sent efficient modulation reasons transition digital modulation greater noise immunity analog digital signal processing chips power flexibility analog circuits wide variety types information transmitted using digital modulation fixed resource demand increasing number users radio spectrum become increasingly congested recent decades


need use effectively driving many additional radio innovations trunked radio systems spread spectrum ultra wideband transmission frequency reuse dynamic spectrum management frequency pooling cognitive radio itu frequency bands itu arbitrarily divides radio spectrum bands beginning wavelength power ten sup n sup nbsp metres corresponding frequency times power ten covering decade frequency wavelength ref name ellingson ref name itu article section p ref bands traditional name class wikitable style text align left band name


abbreviation frequency wavelength band name abbreviation frequency wavelength style text align center extremely low frequency elf nbsp hz nbsp km high frequency hf nbsp mhz style text align center super low frequency slf nbsp hz nbsp km high frequency vhf nbsp mhz style text align center ultra low frequency ulf nbsp hz nbsp km ultra high frequency uhf nbsp mhz nbsp cm style text align center


control prevent interference different users emission radio waves strictly regulated national laws coordinated international body international telecommunication union itu allocates bands radio spectrum different uses ref name spectrum ref name ellingson radio transmitters must licensed governments variety license classes depending use restricted certain frequencies power levels classes radio television broadcasting stations transmitter given unique identifier consisting string letters numbers called ''call sign'' must


used transmissions radio operator must hold government license general radiotelephone operator license us obtained taking test demonstrating adequate technical legal knowledge safe radio operation exceptions rules allow unlicensed operation public low power short range transmitters consumer products cell phones cordless phones wireless devices walkie talkies citizens band radios wireless microphones garage door openers baby monitors us fall part federal communications commission fcc regulations many devices use


received entire country continent older terrestrial radio television paid commercial advertising governments subscription systems like satellite television satellite radio customer pays monthly fee systems radio signal encrypted decrypted receiver controlled company deactivated customer n't pay bill broadcasting uses several parts radio spectrum depending type signals transmitted desired target audience longwave medium wave signals give reliable


coverage areas several hundred kilometers across limited information carrying capacity work best audio signals speech music sound quality degraded radio noise natural artificial sources shortwave bands greater potential range subject interference distant stations varying atmospheric conditions affect reception high frequency band greater megahertz earth 's atmosphere less effect range signals line sight propagation becomes principal mode higher frequencies permit great


bandwidth required television broadcasting since natural artificial noise sources less present frequencies high quality audio transmission possible using frequency modulation audio radio broadcasting radio broadcasting means transmission audio sound radio receivers belonging public audience analog audio earliest form radio broadcast broadcasting began around fm broadcasting introduced late improved fidelity broadcast radio receiver called ''radio'' radios receive fm called fm receivers amplitude modulation


amplitude strength radio carrier wave varied audio signal broadcasting oldest broadcasting technology allowed broadcast bands nbsp khz low frequency lf band nbsp khz medium frequency mf band waves bands travel ground waves following terrain radio stations received beyond horizon hundreds miles distance lower fidelity fm radiated power erp stations us usually limited maximum nbsp kw although


clear channel stations allowed transmit nbsp kw stations broadcast monaural audio stereo broadcast standards exist countries radio industry failed upgrade due lack demand shortwave broadcasting broadcasting also allowed shortwave bands legacy radio stations since radio waves bands travel intercontinental distances reflecting ionosphere using skywave skip propagation shortwave used international stations broadcasting countrieskwnr las vegas transmits nbsp mhz power nbsp kw fm frequency


modulation fm frequency radio carrier signal varied slightly audio signal fm broadcasting permitted fm broadcast bands nbsp mhz high frequency vhf range radio waves band travel line sight fm reception limited visual horizon blocked hills however less susceptible interference radio noise rfi sferics static higher fidelity better frequency response less audio distortion us radiated power erp


fm stations varies nbsp kw digital audio broadcasting dab debuted countries transmits audio digital signal rather analog signal fm ref name baker ref dab potential provide higher quality sound fm although many stations choose transmit high quality greater immunity radio noise interference makes better use scarce radio spectrum bandwidth provides advanced user features electronic program guides disadvantage incompatible previous radios


new dab receiver must purchased countries plan eventual switchover fm dab united states canada chosen implement dab single dab station transmits nbsp khz bandwidth signal carries channels digital audio modulated ofdm listener choose broadcasters transmit channel range different bit rates different channels different audio quality different countries dab stations broadcast either band iii nbsp mhz l band nbsp ghz uhf range


like fm reception limited visual horizon digital radio mondiale drm competing digital terrestrial radio standard developed mainly broadcasters higher spectral efficiency replacement legacy fm broadcasting ''mondiale'' means worldwide french italian drm developed currently supported countries adopted european eastern broadcasters beginning drm mode uses broadcast bands nbsp mhz intended replacement shortwave broadcasting drm mode uses vhf frequencies


replaced satellite radio subscription radio service broadcasts cd quality digital audio direct subscribers' receivers using microwave downlink signal direct broadcast communication satellite geostationary orbit miles earth mostly intended car radios vehicles satellite radio uses nbsp ghz band north america parts world uses nbsp ghz l band allocated dab television receiver video television broadcasting television broadcasting transmission moving images radio consist sequences still images displayed


screen television receiver television tv along synchronized audio sound channel television video signals occupy wider bandwidth broadcast radio audio signals analog television original television technology required nbsp mhz television frequency bands divided nbsp mhz channels called rf channels current television standard introduced beginning digital format called high definition television hdtv transmits pictures higher resolution typically pixels high pixels wide rate frames per second digital television dtv transmission


systems replaced older analog television transition beginning use image compression high efficiency digital modulation ofdm vsb transmit hdtv video within smaller bandwidth old analog channels saving scarce radio spectrum space therefore nbsp mhz analog rf channels carries dtv channels called virtual channels digital television receivers different behavior presence poor reception noise analog television called digital cliff effect unlike analog television increasingly poor reception causes picture quality


gradually degrade digital television picture quality affected poor reception certain point receiver stops working screen goes black terrestrial television ''over air ota television'' ''broadcast television'' oldest television technology transmission television signals land based television stations television receivers called ''televisions'' tvs viewer 's homes terrestrial television broadcasting uses bands nbsp mhz vhf low band band carrying rf channels nbsp mhz vhf high band band iii carrying rf channels nbsp mhz uhf band


iv band v carrying rf channels exact frequency boundaries vary different countries propagation line sight reception limited visual horizon us effective radiated power erp television transmitters limited nbsp kw vhf low band nbsp kw vhf high band nbsp kw uhf band tv stations operate limit areas viewers use simple rabbit ears dipole antenna top tv viewers fringe reception areas


miles station usually use outdoor antenna mounted roof get adequate reception satellite television dish residence satellite television set top box receives subscription direct broadcast satellite television displays ordinary television direct broadcast satellite geostationary orbit earth 's equator transmits many channels modulated nbsp ghz k sub u sub band microwave downlink signal rooftop satellite dish antenna subscriber 's residence microwave signal converted lower intermediate frequency dish conducted


building coaxial cable set top box connected subscriber 's tv demodulated displayed subscriber pays monthly fee time government standard frequency time signal services operate time radio stations continuously broadcast extremely accurate time signals produced atomic clocks reference synchronize clocks examples bpc dcf jjy msf rtz tdf wwv yvto one use radio clocks watches include automated receiver periodically usually weekly receives decodes time signal resets watch 's internal quartz clock


correct time thus allowing small watch desk clock accuracy atomic clock government time stations declining number gps satellites internet network time protocol ntp provide equally accurate time standards two way voice communication two way radio audio transceiver receiver transmitter device used bidirectional person person voice communication users similar radios older term mode communication ''radiotelephony'' radio link may half duplex walkie talkie using single radio channel


one radio transmit time different users take turns talking pressing push talk button radio switches receiver switches transmitter radio link may full duplex bidirectional link using two radio channels people talk time cell phone cell phone portable wireless telephone connected telephone network radio signals exchanged local antenna cellular base station cell tower ref name howcellphoneswork ref service area covered


cell tower nbsp w near tower nbsp w farther away cell tower channel transmitter power nbsp w current generation phones called smartphones many functions besides making telephone calls therefore several radio transmitters receivers connect networks usually wi fi modem bluetooth modem gps receiver p g cellular network next generation cellular networks began deployment major advantage much higher data rates previous cellular networks nbsp gbps times faster previous cellular technology g lte


higher data rates achieved partly using higher frequency radio waves higher microwave band nbsp ghz millimeter wave band around nbsp ghz since frequencies shorter range previous cellphone bands cells smaller cells previous cellular networks could many miles across millimeter wave cells blocks long instead cell base station antenna tower many small antennas attached utility poles buildings satellite phones showing large antennas needed


communicate satellite satellite phone ' 'satphone'' portable wireless telephone similar cell phone connected telephone network radio link orbiting communications satellite instead cell towers expensive cell phones advantage unlike cell phone limited areas covered cell towers satphones used geographical area earth order phone communicate satellite using small omnidirectional antenna first generation systems use satellites low earth


terrestrial interference cordless phone landline telephone handset portable communicates rest phone short range full duplex radio link instead attached cord handset base station low power fm radio transceivers operating uhf band handles short range bidirectional radio link firefighter using walkie talkie land mobile radio system short range mobile portable half duplex radio transceivers operating vhf uhf band used without license often installed vehicles mobile


units communicating dispatcher fixed base station special systems reserved frequencies used first responder services police fire ambulance emergency services government services systems made use commercial firms taxi delivery services vhf systems use channels range nbsp mhz nbsp mhz uhf systems use nbsp mhz band areas nbsp mhz range general vhf systems longer range uhf require longer antennas fm modulation mainly used


digital systems dmr introduced radiated power typically limited watts ref name howcellphoneswork systems fairly limited range usually depending terrain repeaters installed tall buildings hills mountain peaks often used increase range desired cover larger area line sight examples land mobile systems cb frs gmrs murs modern digital systems called trunked radio systems digital channel management system using control channel automatically assigns frequency channels user groups walkie talkie


battery powered portable handheld half duplex two way radio used land mobile radio systems airband half duplex radio system used aircraft pilots talk aircraft ground based air traffic controllers vital system main communication channel air traffic control communication overland flights air corridors vhf system using channels nbsp mhz vhf band used system typical transmission range aircraft flying cruising altitude flights remote areas transoceanic airline flights aircraft use


hf band channels inmarsat iridium satphone satellites military aircraft also use dedicated uhf band nbsp mhz vhf marine radio ship marine radio medium range transceivers ships used ship ship ship air ship shore communication harbormasters use fm channels nbsp mhz vhf band watts power giving range channels half duplex full duplex compatible telephone network allow users make telephone calls marine


operator amateur radio long range half duplex two way radio used hobbyists non commercial purposes recreational radio contacts amateurs volunteer emergency communication disasters contests experimentation radio amateurs must hold amateur radio license given unique callsign must used identifier transmissions amateur radio restricted small frequency bands amateur radio bands spaced throughout radio spectrum nbsp khz nbsp ghz within bands amateurs allowed freedom transmit frequency wide variety modulation methods addition radiotelephony


amateurs radio operators still using morse code radiotelegraphy one way voice communication one way unidirectional radio transmission called ' 'simplex'' baby monitor crib side appliance parents infants transmits baby 's sounds receiver carried parent monitor baby parts house transmit fm nbsp mhz low power many baby monitors duplex channels parent talk baby video cameras show picture baby


called ''baby cam'' wireless microphone battery powered microphone short range transmitter handheld worn person 's body transmits sound radio nearby receiver unit connected sound system wireless microphones used public speakers performers television personalities move freely without trailing microphone cord analog models transmit fm unused portions television broadcast frequencies vhf uhf bands models transmit two frequency channels diversity reception prevent nulls interrupting transmission


performer moves around models use digital modulation prevent unauthorized reception scanner radio receivers operate nbsp mhz nbsp ghz nbsp ghz ism bands data communication wireless networking automated radio links transmit digital data computers wireless devices using radio waves linking devices together transparently computer network computer networks transmit form data addition email web pages also carry phone calls voip audio video content called streaming media security issue wireless networks


internet wire cable connection wireless routers public places like libraries hotels coffee shops create wireless access points hotspots allow public access internet portable devices like smartphones tablets laptops device exchanges data using wireless modem wireless network interface controller automated microwave transmitter receiver omnidirectional antenna works background exchanging data packets router wi fi uses channels nbsp ghz nbsp ghz ism bands ofdm orthogonal frequency division multiplexing modulation transmit data high rates