equal strong states impose weak states strong states also impose limitations upon strong states tend seek strengthened international rules since enforcing consequences broken rules highly beneficial confer comparative advantages external areas external areas maintain socially necessary divisions labor independent capitalist world economy ref name ph interpretation world history th century world system th century europe dominated feudal economies ref name ph european economies grew mid th th century th mid th century


suffered major crisis ref name glob frank lechner http wwwsociologyemoryedu globalization theories html globalization theories world system theory ref ref name ph wallerstein explains crisis caused following stagnation even decline agricultural production increasing burden peasants decreased agricultural productivity caused changing climatological conditions little ice age increase epidemics black death optimum level feudal economy reached economic cycle economy moved beyond entered depression period ref name ph response failure feudal system european society embraced capitalist system ref name ph

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems theory
World-systems theory


europeans motivated develop technology explore trade around world using superior military take control trade routes ref name glob europeans exploited initial small advantages led accelerating process accumulation wealth power europe ref name glob wallerstein notes never economic system encompassed much world trade links crossing many political boundaries ref name ph past geographically large economic systems existed mostly limited spheres domination large empires roman empire development


capitalism enabled world economy extend beyond individual states ref name ph international division labor crucial deciding relationships exists different regions labor conditions political systems ref name ph classification comparison purposes wallerstein introduced categories core semi periphery periphery external countries ref name ph cores monopolized capital intensive production rest world could provide workforce raw resources ref name glob resulting inequality reinforced existing unequal development ref name glob according wallerstein three periods core state dominated modern world system


ref name wallerstein wallerstein immanuel ''the modern world system capitalist agriculture origins european world economy th century'' new york academic press ref dutch fluyts seventeenth century first state gain clear dominance netherlands th century revolution led new financial system many historians consider revolutionary ref name kennedy impressive shipbuilding industry also contributed economic dominance exports countries ref name chirot eventually countries began copy financial methods efficient production created dutch dutch gained


dominant status standard living rose pushing production costs ref name wallerstein dutch bankers began go outside country seeking profitable investments flow capital moved especially england ref name kennedy end th century conflict among core states increased result economic decline dutch dutch financial investment helped england gain productivity trade dominance dutch military support helped england defeat france country competing dominance time map showing british empire th century britain replaced


british dominance resulting diminishing importance agricultural sector ref name ph th century britain europe 's leading industrial agricultural producer england 's population working agricultural sector ref name ph modern world system appeared different century earlier periphery societies already colonised one older core states ref name chirot old european core claimed world 's territory claimed world 's territory scramble


africa closing imperial era ref name kennedy core state wanted periphery areas exploit done dutch british periphery areas taken another core state us way spanish american war germany japan italy attempted leadup world war ii modern world system thus geographically global even remote regions world integrated global economy ref name tb ref name glob countries vied core status


united states american civil war led power northern industrial elites better able pressure government policies helping industrial expansion like dutch bankers british bankers putting investment toward united states us small military budget compared industrial states time ref name kennedy us began take place british new dominant state world war ref name glob japan europe ruins world war ii us able dominate modern


world system country history ussr lesser extent china viewed primary threats ref name glob height us economic reach accounted half world 's industrial production owned two thirds gold reserves world supplied one third world 's exports ref name kennedy however since end cold war future us hegemony questioned scholars hegemonic position decline decades ref name glob end th century


core wealthy industrialized countries composed western europe united states japan rather limited selection countries ref name glob semiperiphery typically composed independent states achieved western levels influence poor former colonies west formed periphery ref name glob criticisms world systems theory attracted criticisms rivals notably focused economy enough culture core centric state centric ref name tb william robinson criticized world systems theory nation state centrism state structuralist approach


inability conceptualize rise globalization ref name ref robinson suggests world systems theory n't account emerging transnational social forces relationships forged global institutions serving interests ref name forces operate global rather state system cannot understood wallerstein 's nation centered approach ref name according wallerstein critique world systems approach comes four directions positivists orthodox marxists state autonomists culturalists ref name iw positivists criticise approach prone generalization lacking quantitative data failing put forth falsifiable proposition ref


name iw orthodox marxists find world systems approach deviating far orthodox marxist principles giving enough weight concept social class ref name iw state autonomists criticize theory blurring boundaries state businesses ref name iw positivists state autonomists argue state central unit analysis ref name iw finally culturalists argue world systems theory puts much importance economy enough culture ref name iw wallerstein 's words one fundamental conceptual problems world system theory assumptions


define actual conceptual units social systems assumptions define need examined well related one changes another essential argument world system theory th century capitalist world economy developed could described world system ref name pieterse jan nederveen pieterse critique world system theory international sociology volume issue ref following theoretical critique concerned basic claims world system theory today socialist systems


core periphery system system coloniality criticizing core centric origin world system economical development coloniality allows conception power still processes colonial way worldwide populations ramon grosfogel epistemic decolonial turn 'colonial situations' mean cultural political sexual spiritual epistemic economic oppression exploitation subordinate racialized ethnic groups dominant racialized ethnic groups without existence colonial administration coloniality covers far several fields coloniality gender maria lugones coloniality maldonado torres coloniality knowledge walter mignolo coloniality power anibal


quijano new developments new developments world systems research include studies cyclical processes specifically refers cycle leading industries products ones new important share overall world market commodities equal dissolution quasi monopolies forms partial monopolies achieved core states forms partial monopolies achievable ownership leading industries products require technological capabilities patents restrictions imports exports government subsidies etc capabilities often found core states accumulate capital


achieving quasi monopolies leading industries products capital accumulated employment wage also increase creating sense prosperity leads increased production sometimes even overproduction causing price competition arise lower production costs production processes leading industries products relocated semi peripheral states competition increases quasi monopolies cease exist owners often core states move new leading industries products cycle continues ref name iw new developments include consequences dissolution soviet union roles gender


culture studies slavery incorporation new regions world system precapitalist world systems ref name tb arguably greatest source renewal world systems analysis since synthesis world system environmental approaches key figures greening world systems analysis include minqi li jason w moore andreas malm stephen bunker alf hornborg richard york time period wallerstein traces origin today 's world system long th century period began discovery americas western european sailors ended english revolution ref name tb ref name glob ref


world system entail integrated production networks instead vast trading network th century world system andre gunder frank goes claims global world system includes asia europe africa existed since th millennium bce centre system asia specifically china andrey korotayev goes even frank dates beginning world system formation th millennium bce connects start neolithic revolution middle east according centre


system originally western asia research wallerstein 's theories recognized throughout world united states one hubs world systems research fernand braudel center study economies historical systems civilizations binghamton university ref name tb among important related periodicals ''journal world systems research'' published american sociological association 's section political economy world system pews ''review'' published braudel center ref name tb related journals ''annales histoire sciences sociales'' ''ecology society'' ''journal world systems research'' see also big history dependency theory


structuralist economics third space theory third place hybridity post colonial theory general systems theory geography cartography medieval islam globalization international relations theory list cycles social cycle theory sociocybernetics systems philosophy systems thinking systemography war cycles hierarchy theory references reading works samir amin especially 'empire chaos' 'le developpement inegal essai sur les formations sociales du capitalisme peripherique' works giovanni arrighi j zsef b r cz https ssrncom abstract 'redistributing global inequality thought experiment' http epworgin ''economic political weekly'' february https ssrncom abstract 'dual dependency property vacuum social change state socialist semiperiphery' theory


society grinin l korotayev tausch ''economic cycles crises global periphery'' springer international publishing heidelberg new york dordrecht london contributions samir amin christopher chase dunn andre gunder frank immanuel wallerstein pre publication download chapter european union global challenge global governance world system hypotheses two scenarios future union pages arno tausch http edocvifapolde opus volltexte pdf pdf korotayev malkov khaltourina https wwwacademiaedu introduction social macrodynamics models world system development moscow komkniga urss ''introduction social macrodynamics compact macromodels world system growth'' moscow urss lenin vladimir 'imperialism


highest stage capitalism' moore jason w http wwwjasonwmoorecom uploads moore environmental crises metabolic rift e pdf environmental crises metabolic rift world historical perspective organization environment raffer k trade transfers development problems prospects twenty first century aldershot hants england brookfield vt usa e elgar pub co raffer k singer hw foreign aid business economic assistance development cooperation cheltenham borookfield edward alger tausch christian ghymers 'from washington towards vienna consensus quantitative analysis globalization development global governance' hauppauge new york nova science external links http fbcbinghamtonedu fernand braudel center


study economies historical systems civilizations closed '' http fbcbinghamtonedu revhtm review journal fernand braudel center '' http irowsucredu institute research world systems irows university california riverside http wsarchucredu world systems archive http wsarchucredu archive papershtm working papers world systems archive http wsarchucredu archive bookshtm world systems archive books http wsarchucredu archive seminarshtm world systems electronic seminars http wsarchucredu archive papers gunder prefreorhtm preface reorient andre gunder frank development economics imperialism studies international relations theory sociological theories theories history political science political science theories schools economic thought political systems economic systems systems theory economic globalization neo marxism


'''italian literature''' written italian language particularly within italy may also refer literature written italians italy languages spoken italy often languages closely related modern italian italian literature begins th century different regions peninsula italian vernacular started used literary manner ritmo laurenziano first extant document italian literature early example italian literature tradition vernacular lyric poetry performed occitan reached italy end

Humanities
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Italian Literature


th century sicilian school notable first style standard italian dante alighieri one greatest italian poets notable ''divine comedy'' petrarch classical research wrote lyric poetry renaissance humanism developed th beginning th centuries humanists sought create citizenry able speak write eloquence clarity early humanists petrarch great collectors antique manuscripts lorenzo de medici shows influence florence renaissance leonardo da vinci wrote treatise painting development


drama th century great fundamental characteristic era following renaissance perfected italian character language niccol machiavelli francesco guicciardini chief originators science history pietro bembo influential figure development italian language influence th century revival interest works petrarch academy arcadia instituted goal restoring literature imitating simplicity ancient shepherds sonnets madrigals ''canzonette'' blank verse


th century strong independent thinkers bernardino telesio lucilio vanini bruno campanella turned philosophical inquiry fresh channels opened way scientific conquests galileo galilei notable scientific discoveries writing th century political condition italy began improve philosophers throughout europe period known enlightenment apostolo zeno metastasio two notable figures age carlo goldoni venetian created comedy character leading figure literary revival th


century giuseppe parini ideas behind french revolution gave special direction italian literature second half th century love liberty desire equality created literature aimed national object patriotism classicism two principles inspired literature began vittorio alfieri patriots included vincenzo monti ugo foscolo romantic school organ ''conciliatore'' established milan main instigator reform alessandro manzoni great poet age giacomo leopardi history returned


spirit learned research literary movement preceded contemporary political revolution may said represented four writers giuseppe giusti francesco domenico guerrazzi vincenzo gioberti cesare balbo ''risorgimento'' political literature becomes less important first part period characterized two divergent trends literature opposed romanticism ''scapigliatura'' ''verismo'' important early th century writers include italo svevo luigi pirandello winner nobel prize literature neorealism developed alberto moravia umberto eco became internationally successful medieval


detective story ''il nome della rosa'' ''the name rose'' nobel prize literature awarded italian language authors six times winners including giosu carducci grazia deledda luigi pirandello salvatore quasimodo eugenio montale dario fo early medieval latin literature depiction boetius teaching students boetius th century christian philosopher helped keep alive classic tradition post roman italy western roman empire declined latin tradition kept alive writers cassiodorus boethius symmachus liberal arts flourished ravenna theodoric


gothic kings surrounded masters rhetoric grammar lay schools remained italy noted scholars included magnus felix ennodius arator venantius fortunatus felix grammarian peter pisa paulinus aquileia many others italians interested theology gravitated towards paris remained typically attracted study roman law furthered later establishment medieval universities bologna padua vicenza naples salerno modena parma helped spread culture prepared ground new vernacular literature developed classical traditions disappear


affection memory rome preoccupation politics preference practice theory combined influence development italian literature high medieval literature trovatori earliest vernacular literary tradition italy occitan language spoken parts northwest italy tradition vernacular lyric poetry arose poitou early th century spread south east eventually reaching italy end th century first troubadours ''trovatori'' italian occitan lyric poets called practise italy elsewhere high


aristocracy lombardy ready patronise long native italians adopted occitan vehicle poetic expression though term occitan really appear year langue d'oc provenzale preferred expressions among early patrons foreign troubadours especially house este da romano house savoy malaspina azzo vi este entertained troubadours aimeric de belenoi aimeric de peguilhan albertet de sestaro peire raimon de tolosa occitania rambertino buvalelli bologna one earliest italian troubadours


influence poets native italians got attention aimeric de peguilhan malaspina court penned poem attacking quintet occitan poets court manfred iii saluzzo peire guilhem de luserna perceval doria nicoletto da torino chantarel trufarel aimeric apparently feared rise native competitors margraves montferrat boniface william vi boniface ii patrons occitan poetry peire de la mula stayed montferrat court around raimbaut de vaqueiras spent career court poet close friend


boniface raimbaut along several troubadours including elias cairel followed boniface fourth crusade established however briefly italo occitan literature thessalonica azzo vi 's daughter beatrice object early poets courtly love azzo 's son azzo vii hosted elias cairel arnaut catalan rambertino named ''podest '' genoa probably three year tenure introduced occitan lyric poetry city later developed flourishing occitan literary culture among genoese troubadours lanfranc cigala judge calega panzan merchant jacme grils also


judge bonifaci calvo knight genoa also place genesis ''podest '' troubadour phenomenon men served several cities ''podest s'' behalf either guelph ghibelline party wrote political poetry occitan rambertino buvalelli first ''podest '' troubadour genoa guelphs luca grimaldi luchetto gattilusio ghibellines perceval simon doria occitan tradition italy broad simply genoa even lombardy bertolome zorzi venice girardo cavallazzi ghibelline novara nicoletto da torino probably turin


ferrara ''duecento'' represented ferrari trogni terramagnino da pisa pisa wrote ''doctrina de cort'' manual courtly love one late th century figures wrote occitan italian paolo lanfranchi da pistoia pistoia another wrote sonnets terramagnino critic tuscan school paolo alleged member hand much common sicilians ''dolce stil novo'' perhaps important aspect italian troubadour phenomenon production chansonniers


composition ''vidas'' ''razos'' uc de saint circ associated da romano malaspina families spent last forty years life italy undertook author entire ''razo'' corpus great many ''vidas'' famous influential italian troubadour however small town goito near mantua sordello praised later poets dante alighieri robert browning oscar wilde ezra pound inventor hybrid genre ' 'sirventes planh'' troubadours


emperor ghibelline faction criticism church establishment flourished chivalric romance ''historia de excidio trojae'' attributed dares phrygius claimed eyewitness account trojan war provided inspiration writers countries beno de sainte maure herbort von fritzlar konrad von w rzburg beno wrote french took material latin history herbort konrad used french source make almost original work language guido delle colonne messina one vernacular poets sicilian school composed ''historia


destructionis troiae'' poetry guido imitator proven als book converted beno 's french romance sounded like serious latin history much thing occurred great legends qualichino arezzo wrote couplets legend alexander great europe full legend king arthur italians contented translating abridging french romances jacobus de voragine collecting ''golden legend'' remained historian seemed doubtful truthfulness stories told intellectual life italy showed


include ''chansons de geste'' ''macaire'' ''entre en espagne'' written niccola padua ''prise de pampelune'' others preceded appearance purely italian literature emergence native vernacular literature french occitan languages gradually gave way native italian hybridism recurred longer predominated ''bovo d'antona'' ''rainaldo e lesengrino'' venetian clearly felt although language influenced french forms writings graziadio isaia ascoli called ''miste'' mixed immediately preceded appearance purely italian works evidence


art north poems giacomino da verona bonvicino da riva specially religious intended recited people written dialect milanese venetian style bore influence french narrative poetry may considered belonging popular kind poetry taking word however broad sense sort composition may encouraged old custom north italy listening piazzas highways songs jongleurs


crowds delighted stories romances wickedness macaire misfortunes blanziflor terrors ''babilonia infernale'' blessedness ''gerusalemme celeste'' singers religious poetry vied ''chansons de geste'' sicilian school year marked beginning sicilian school literature showing uniform traits importance lies language creation first standard italian subject love song partly modeled proven al poetry imported south normans svevs


guido odo delle colonne jacopo d'aquino ruggieri apugliese giacomo da lentini arrigo testa others famous ''io m'aggio posto core'' stated within heart giacomo da lentini head movement also poetry written frederick giacomo da lentini also credited inventing sonnet form later perfected dante petrarch censorship imposed frederick meant political matter entered literary debate respect poetry north still divided communes city states relatively democratic governments provided new ideas


new ideas shown sirventese genre later dante 's commedia full invectives contemporary political leaders popes though conventional love song prevailed frederick 's later manfred 's court spontaneous poetry existed ''contrasto'' attributed cielo d'alcamo ''contrasto'' dispute two lovers sicilian language ancient southern poem popular kind belongs without doubt time emperor frederick ii later important proof existed popular independent literary poetry ''contrasto''


probably scholarly elaboration lost popular rhyme closest kind poetry perished smothered ancient sicilian literature distinguishing point possession qualities opposite poetry rhymers sicilian school though style may betray knowledge frederick 's poetry probably satiric intent mind anonymous poet vigorous expression feelings conceits sometimes bold coarse show subject matter popular everything ''contrasto''


original poems sicilian school written first known standard italian elaborated poets direction frederick ii combines many traits typical sicilian lesser negligible extent apulian dialects southern dialects many words latin french origin dante 's styles ''illustre cardinale aulico curiale'' developed linguistic study sicilian school whose technical features imported guittone d'arezzo tuscany though introduce political issues canzoniere standard changed slightly tuscany


tuscan scriveners perceived five vowel system used southern italian seven vowel one consequence texts italian students read anthology contain lines appears rhyme sometimes sic e u feature known sicilian rhyme rima siciliana widely used later poets dante petrarch display technical skill last resort may account decrease popularity th early th century religious literature th century religious movement took


place italy rise dominican franciscan orders earliest preserved sermons italian language jordan pisa dominican francis assisi mystic reformer catholic church founder franciscans also wrote poetry though educated francis 's poetry beneath refined poetry center frederick 's court according legend francis dictated hymn ''cantico del sole'' eighteenth year penance almost rapt ecstasy doubts remain authenticity first great poetical work northern italy written


possessed give poor jacopone covered rags joined st francis 's third order took pleasure laughed followed crowd people mocked called ''jacopone jacopone'' went raving years subjecting severest sufferings giving vent religious intoxication poems jacopone mystic hermit 's cell looked world specially watched papacy scourging words pope celestine v pope boniface viii imprisoned


drew blood sang ''laudi'' dialogue confraternities ''laudi'' closely connected liturgy first example drama vernacular tongue italy written umbrian dialect verses eight syllables according ''encyclop dia britannica'' artistic value development however rapid early end th century ''devozioni del giovedi e venerdi santo'' appeared mixing liturgy drama later ' 'di un monaco che al servizio di dio'' monk entered service god approached


definite form religious drama would assume following centuries first tuscan literature th century tuscany unique situation tuscans spoke dialect closely resembled latin afterward became almost exclusively language literature already regarded end th century surpassing dialects tuscan tongue better suited letter literature wrote antonio da tempo padua born fall hohenstaufen battle benevento first province italy florence


art work ideas chivalry changed enlarged whose heart pure blessed true love regardless class refuted traditional credo courtly love love subtle philosophy chosen knights princesses could grasp love blind blasons good heart finds one succeeds result spiritual physical affinity two souls guinizzelli 's democratic view better understood light greater equality freedom enjoyed


city states center north rise middle class eager legitimise eyes old nobility still regarded respect admiration fact dispossessed political power guinizelli 's ''canzoni'' make bible dolce stil novo one particular al cor gentil kind heart considered manifesto new movement bloomed florence cavalcanti dante followers poetry faults school d'arezzo nevertheless marks great development history italian art


notary wrote two little allegorical poems ''documenti d'amore'' ''del reggimento e dei costumi delle donne'' poems today generally studied literature historical context fourth allegorical work ''intelligenza'' sometimes attributed compagni probably translation french poems th century humanist publisher aldus manutius published tuscan poets petrarch dante alighieri ''the divine comedy'' creating model became standard modern italian development early prose italian prose th century abundant varied


poetry earliest example dates consists short notices entries expenses mattasala di spinello dei lambertini siena time sign literary prose italian though french halfway century certain aldobrando aldobrandino either florence siena wrote book beatrice savoy countess provence called ''le r gime du corps'' martino da canale wrote history venice old french ''langue d'o l'' rusticiano pisa long court


edward england composed many chivalrous romances derived arthurian cycle subsequently wrote ''travels marco polo'' may dictated polo finally brunetto latini wrote ''tesoro'' french latini also wrote works italian prose ''la rettorica'' adaptation cicero 's ''de inventione'' translated three orations cicero ''pro ligario'' ''pro marcello'' ''pro rege deiotaro'' another important writer florentine judge bono giamboni translated orosius 's ''historiae adversus paganos'' vegetius 's ''epitoma rei militaris'' made translation adaptation cicero 's ''de inventione'' mixed ''rethorica


ad erennium'' translation adaptation innocent iii 's ''de miseria humane conditionis'' also wrote allegorical novel called ''libro de' vizi e delle virtudi'' whose earlier version ''trattato delle virt e dei vizi'' also preserved andrea grosseto translated three treaties albertanus brescia latin tuscan dialect original compositions ''langue d'o l'' came translations adaptations moral narratives taken religious legends romance julius caesar short histories ancient knights ''tavola rotonda'' translations ''viaggi'' marco polo


latini 's ''tesoro'' time translations latin moral ascetic works histories treatises rhetoric oratory appeared works previously regarded oldest italian language shown forgeries much later time oldest prose writing scientific book ''composizione del mondo'' ristoro d'arezzo lived middle th century work copious treatise astronomy geography ristoro careful observer natural phenomena many things relates result personal


investigations consequently works reliable writers time similar subjects another short treatise exists ''de regimine rectoris'' fra paolino minorite friar venice probably bishop pozzuoli also wrote latin chronicle treatise stands close relation egidio colonna ''de regimine principum'' written venetian th century rich tales collection called ''cento novelle antiche'' contains stories drawn many sources including asian greek trojan traditions ancient medieval history legends


brittany provence italy bible local italian traditions histories animals old mythology book distant resemblance spanish collection known ''el conde lucanor'' peculiarity italian book stories short seem mere outlines filled narrator goes along prose novels inserted francesco barberino work ''del reggimento e dei costumi delle donne'' much less importance whole italian novels th century little originality


faint reflection rich legendary literature france attention paid ''lettere'' fra guittone d'arezzo wrote many poems also letters prose subjects moral religious guittone 's love antiquity traditions rome language strong tried write italian latin style letters obscure involved altogether barbarous guittone took special model seneca younger hence prose became bombastic guittone viewed style artistic later scholars


view extravagant grotesque dolce stil novo year period new literature began developing tuscan beginnings school lapo gianni guido cavalcanti cino da pistoia dante alighieri lyric poetry became exclusively tuscan whole novelty poetic power school consisted according dante ''quando amore spira noto ed quel niodo ch'ei detta dentro vo significando'' power expressing feelings soul way love inspires appropriate graceful manner fitting form matter


art fusing one love divine gift redeems man eyes god poet 's mistress angel sent heaven show way salvation neo platonic approach widely endorsed ''dolce stil novo'' although cavalcanti 's case upsetting even destructive nonetheless metaphysical experience able lift man onto higher spiritual dimension gianni 's new style still influenced siculo proven al school cavalcanti 's poems fall two classes portray philosopher ''il sottilissimo dialettico'' lorenzo


magnificent called directly product poetic nature imbued mysticism metaphysics first set belongs famous poem ''sulla natura d'amore'' fact treatise amorous metaphysics annotated later learned way renowned platonic philosophers th century marsilius ficinus others poems cavalcanti tends stifle poetic imagery dead weight philosophy hand ''ballate'' pours ingenuously consciousness art greatest


considered ''ballata'' composed cavalcanti banished florence party bianchi took refuge sarzana third poet among followers new school cino da pistoia family sinibuldi love poems sweet mellow musical th century roots renaissance dante profile portrait dante sandro botticelli dante one greatest italian poets also shows lyrical tendencies wrote ''la vita nuova'' new life english called indicate


first meeting beatrice beginning new life idealizes love collection poems dante added narration explication everything supersensual aerial heavenly real beatrice supplanted idealized vision losing human nature becoming representation divine dante main character work narration purports autobiographical though historical information dante 's life proves poetic license several lyrics ''la vita nuova'' deal theme new


life love poems refer beatrice however pieces philosophical bridge ''convivio'' ''the divine comedy'' first page early printed edition dante 's divine comedy ''divina commedia'' tells poet 's travels three realms dead hell purgatory paradise accompanied latin poet virgil allegorical meaning hides literal one great epic dante travelling hell purgatory paradise symbolizes mankind aiming double object temporal eternal happiness forest poet loses symbolizes civil religious confusion


time passions farinata degli uberti boniface viii count ugolino manfred sordello hugh capet st thomas aquinas cacciaguida st benedict st peter many objective creations stand us life characters feelings habits real chastiser sins rewarder virtues dante personal interest brings bear historical representation three worlds interests us stirs us dante remakes history passions thus ''divina commedia'' lifelike drama


contemporary thoughts feelings also clear spontaneous reflection individual feelings poet indignation citizen exile faith believer ardour philosopher ''divina commedia'' defined destiny italian literature giving artistic lustre forms literature middle ages produced petrarch statue outside uffizi florence two facts characterize literary life petrarch classical research new human feeling introduced lyric poetry facts separate rather former caused latter


petrarch unearthed works great latin writers helps us understand petrarch loved real woman named laura celebrated life death poems full studied elegance petrarch first humanist time first modern lyric poet career long tempestuous lived many years avignon cursing corruption papal court travelled nearly whole europe corresponded emperors popes considered important writer time


''canzoniere'' divided three parts first containing poems written laura 's lifetime second poems written death third ''trionfi'' one subject poems love treatment full variety conception imagery sentiment derived varied impressions nature petrarch 's lyric verse quite different proven al troubadours italian poets also lyrics dante petrarch psychological poet examines feelings renders


italy different conceived people middle ages precursor modern times modern aspirations petrarch decided political idea exalted cola di rienzi invoked emperor charles iv praised visconti fact politics affected impressions principles love italy mind reunited rome great city heroes cicero scipio petrarca say began renaissance humanism boccaccio edition boccaccio 's de casibus virorum illustrium


showing lady fortune spinning wheel boccaccio enthusiastic love antiquity worship new italian literature petrarch first put together latin translation ''iliad'' ''odyssey'' classical learning shown work ''de genealogia deorum'' enumerates gods according genealogical trees various authors wrote pagan divinities ''genealogia deorum'' h heeren said encyclopaedia mythological knowledge precursor humanist movement th


century boccaccio also first historian women ''de mulieribus claris'' first tell story great unfortunates ''de casibus virorum illustrium'' continued perfected former geographical investigations interesting book ''de montibus silvis fontibus lacubus fluminibus stagnis et paludibus et de nominibus maris'' made use vibius sequester italian works lyrics come anywhere near perfection petrarch 's narrative poetry better invent octave stanza first use


italian pastoral romance ''filocopo'' takes earliest place among prose romances boccaccio tells loves florio biancafiore probably work drew materials popular source byzantine romance leonzio pilato may mentioned ''filocopo'' remarkable exuberance mythological part damages romance artistic work contributes history boccaccio 's mind ''fiammetta'' another romance loves boccaccio maria d'aquino supposed natural daughter king robert always called


beautiful studied classic authors strives imitate much possible ''decamerone'' boccaccio delineator character observer passions lies novelty much written sources novels ''decamerone'' probably boccaccio made use written oral sources popular tradition must furnished materials many stories example griselda unlike petrarch always discontented preoccupied wearied life disturbed disappointments find


boccaccio calm serene satisfied surroundings notwithstanding fundamental differences characters two great authors old warm friends affection dante equal petrarch says saw childhood preserve pleasant recollection would useless deny jealous renown ''divina commedia'' sent boccaccio old man confessed never read hand boccaccio felt dante something


love enthusiasm wrote biography critics deprecate accuracy gave public critical lectures poem santa maria del fiore florence others imitators fazio degli uberti federico frezzi imitators ''divina commedia'' external form former wrote ''dittamondo'' long poem author supposes taken geographer solinus different parts world ''commedia'' guide related history legends rise different italian cities importance historically


frezzi bishop native town foligno wrote ''quadriregio'' poem four kingdoms love satan vices virtues poem many points resemblance ''divina commedia'' frezzi pictures condition man rises state vice one virtue describes hell limbo purgatory heaven poet pallas companion ser giovanni fiorentino wrote title ''pecorone'' collection tales supposed related monk nun parlour monastery novelists forli


closely imitated boccaccio drew villani 's chronicle historical stories franco sacchetti wrote tales part subjects taken florentine history book gives lifelike picture florentine society end th century subjects almost always improper evident sacchetti collected anecdotes could draw conclusions moral reflections puts end story point view sacchetti 's work comes near monalisaliones middle ages third novelist giovanni sercambi


lucca wrote book imitation boccaccio party people supposed fly plague go travelling different italian cities stopping telling stories later important names masuccio salernitano tommaso guardato wrote ''novellino'' antonio cornazzano whose ''proverbii'' became extremely popular chronicles chronicles formerly believed th century mainly regarded forgeries end th century chronicle dino compagni probably authentic giovanni villani born


lofty tone kinds people including popes clearest religious utterance made heard th century italy although precise ideas reformation enter head want great moral reform felt heart must take place among prepared way religious movement th century another sienese giovanni colombini founder order jesuati preached poverty precept example going back religious idea st francis assisi letters among remarkable


th bindo bonichi arrigo di castruccio cecco nuccoli andrea orgagna filippo de bardi adriano de rossi antonio pucci lesser writers orgagna specially comic bonichi comic satirical moral purpose pucci superior variety production put triplets chronicle giovanni villani ''centiloquio'' wrote many historical poems called ''serventesi'' many comic poems epico popular compositions various subjects little poem seven cantos treats war florentines pisans


poems drawn legendary source celebrate reina d'oriente apollonio di tiro bel gherardino etc poems meant recited ancestors romantic epic political works many poets th century produced political works fazio degli uberti author ''dittamondo'' wrote ''serventese'' lords people italy poem rome fierce invective charles iv deserves notice francesco di vannozzo frate stoppa matteo frescobaldi may said general following example petrarch many writers devoted


patriotic poetry period also dates literary phenomenon known name petrarchism petrarchists sang love imitating petrarch 's manner found already th century others treated subject originality manner might called semi popular ''ballate'' ser giovanni fiorentino franco sacchetti niccolo soldanieri guido bindo donati ''ballate'' poems sung dancing many songs music th century already stated antonio pucci versified villani 's ''chronicle''


enough notice chronicle arezzo ''terza rima'' gorello de sinigardi history also ''terza rima'' journey pope alexander iii venice pier de natali besides every kind subject whether history tragedy husbandry treated verse neri di landocio wrote life st catherine jacopo gradenigo put gospels triplets th century renaissance humanism renaissance humanism developed th beginning th centuries response challenge medi val scholastic education emphasizing practical pre professional


scientific studies scholasticism focused preparing men doctors lawyers professional theologians taught approved textbooks logic natural philosophy medicine law theology main centers humanism florence naples rather train professionals jargon strict practice humanists sought create citizenry including sometimes women able speak write eloquence clarity thus would capable better engaging civic life communities persuading others virtuous prudent actions accomplished study ' 'studia humanitatis'' today known


amass important libraries cardinal basilios bessarion convert latin church greek orthodoxy considered papacy one learned scholars time five th century humanist popes one aeneas silvius piccolomini pius ii prolific author wrote treatise education boys literature florence medici florence celebrated humanists wrote also vulgar tongue commented dante petrarch defended enemies leone battista alberti learned greek


latin scholar wrote vernacular vespasiano da bisticci constantly absorbed greek latin manuscripts wrote ''vite di uomini illustri'' valuable historical contents rivalling best works th century candour simplicity andrea da barberino wrote beautiful prose ''reali di francia'' giving coloring ''romanit '' chivalrous romances belcari girolamo benivieni returned mystic idealism earlier times lorenzo de medici influence florence renaissance particularly seen mind formed


ancients attended class greek john argyropulos sat platonic banquets took pains collect codices sculptures vases pictures gems drawings ornament gardens san marco form library later named saloons florentine palace villas careggi fiesole anibra stood wonderful chests painted dello di niccol delli stories ovid ''hercules'' pollaiuolo ''pallas'' botticelli works filippino verrocchio de medici lived entirely classical world yet read


poems see man time admirer dante old tuscan poets takes inspiration popular muse succeeds giving poetry colors pronounced realism well loftiest idealism passes platonic sonnet impassioned triplets ''amori di venere'' grandiosity ''salve nencia'' beoni ''canto carnascialesco'' ''lauda'' feeling nature strong one time sweet melancholy another vigorous deep


echo feelings sorrows ambitions deeply agitated life liked look heart severe eye also able pour tumultuous fulness described art sculptor satirized laughed prayed sighed always elegant always florentine florentine read anacreon ovid tibullus wished enjoy life also taste refinements art next lorenzo comes poliziano also united greater art ancient modern popular


classical style ''rispetti'' ''ballate'' freshness imagery plasticity form inimitable great greek scholar poliziano wrote italian verses dazzling colors purest elegance greek sources pervaded art varieties ''orfeo'' well ''stanze per la giostra'' completely new style poetry arose ''canto carnascialesco'' kind choral songs accompanied symbolic masquerades common florence carnival written metre like ''ballate''


part put mouth party workmen tradesmen chaste allusions sang praises art triumphs masquerades directed lorenzo evening set city large companies horseback playing singing songs lorenzo surpass others mastery art entitled ''bacco ed arianna'' famous epic pulci boiardo italy yet true epic poetry however many poems called ''cantari''


contained stories sung people besides romantic poems ''buovo d'antona'' ''regina ancroja'' others first introduce life style luigi pulci grew house medici wrote ''morgante maggiore'' request lucrezia tornabuoni mother lorenzo magnificent material ''morgante'' almost completely taken obscure chivalrous poem th century rediscovered pio rajna pulci erected structure often turning subject ridicule burlesquing


characters introducing many digressions capricious scientific theological pulci raised romantic epic work art united serious comic serious intention matteo boiardo count scandiano wrote ''orlando innamorato'' seems aspired embrace whole range carolingian legends complete task find large vein humour burlesque still boiardo drawn world romance profound sympathy chivalrous manners feelings say love courtesy valour


generosity third romantic poem th century ''mambriano'' francesco bello cieco ferrara drew carolingian cycle romances round table classical antiquity poet common genius ready imagination showed influence boiardo especially use fantasy history neither many good students th century revival belonged following age mostly written latin leonardo bruni arezzo wrote history florence gioviano pontano naples


latin bernardino corio wrote history milan italian rude way leonardo da vinci wrote treatise painting leone battista alberti one sculpture architecture names two men important much authors treatises embodiments another characteristic age renaissance versatility genius power application along many varied lines excellent leonardo architect poet painter hydraulic engineer distinguished mathematician alberti musician studied jurisprudence


architect draughtsman great fame literature deep feeling nature almost unique faculty assimilating saw heard leonardo alberti representatives almost compendium intellectual vigour renaissance age th century took developing individual parts making way called golden age italian literature piero capponi author ''commentari deli acquisto di pisa'' narration ''tumulto dei ciompi'' belonged


th th centuries albertino mussato padua wrote latin history emperor henry vii produced latin tragedy ezzelino da romano henry 's imperial vicar northern italy ''eccerinus'' probably represented stage remained isolated work development drama th century great kind semi popular literature born florence attached certain popular festivities usually held honor st john baptist patron saint city ''sacra rappresentazione''


th century high renaissance baldassare castiglione portrait raphael fundamental characteristic literary epoch following renaissance perfected every kind art particular uniting essentially italian character language classicism style period lasted charles viii descended italy marking beginning italy 's foreign domination political decadence famous men first half th century educated preceding century pietro pomponazzi born marcello adriani virgilio


''discorsi sulla prima deca di tito livio'' ''arte della guerra'' ''principe'' merit consists emphasized experimental side study political action observed facts studied histories drawn principles history sometimes inexact facts rather political historical work peculiarity machiavelli 's genius lay said artistic feeling treatment discussion politics without regard immediate end power abstracting partial appearances transitory


present order thoroughly possess eternal inborn kingdom bring subjection next machiavelli historian statesman comes guicciardini guicciardini observant endeavoured reduce observations science ''storia d'italia'' extends death lorenzo de medici full political wisdom skillfully arranged parts gives lively picture character persons treats written grand style shows profound knowledge human


heart depicts truth temperaments capabilities habits different european nations going back causes events looked explanation divergent interests princes reciprocal jealousies fact witnessed many events related taken part adds authority words political reflections always deep ''pensieri'' gino capponi says seems aim extracting self examination quintessence things observed done thus endeavouring form


political doctrine adequate possible parts machiavelli guicciardini may considered distinguished historians well originators science history founded observation inferior still always worthy note jacopo nardi faithful historian virtuous man defended rights florence medici charles v benedetto varchi giambattista adriani bernardo segni outside tuscany camillo porzio related ''congiura de baroni'' history italy angelo di costanza pietro bembo paolo paruta others


ludovico ariosto page edition ''orlando furioso'' francesco franceschi ariosto 's ''orlando furioso'' continuation boiardo 's ''innamorato'' characteristic assimilated romance chivalry style models classicism romantic ariosto artist love art epic sole aim make romance would please generation ''orlando'' grave serious purpose contrary creates fantastic world poet rambles indulges caprice sometimes smiles work great


desire depict everything greatest possible perfection cultivation style occupies hands style becomes wonderfully plastic every conception whether high low serious sportive octave stanza reached high level grace variety harmony pietro bembo pietro bembo influential figure development italian language specifically tuscan literary medium writings assisted th century revival interest works petrarch writer bembo attempted restore legendary affect


ancient greek hearers tuscan italian instead held model highest example poetic expression ever achieved italian work petrarch boccaccio two th century writers assisted bringing back fashion ''prose della volgar lingua'' set petrarch perfect model discussed verse composition detail including rhyme stress sounds words balance variety bembo 's theory specific placement words poem strict attention consonants vowels rhythm position within lines long


short could produce emotions ranging sweetness grace gravity grief listener work decisive importance development italian madrigal famous secular musical form th century poems carefully constructed case petrarch analyzed according bembo 's ideas primary texts music torquato tasso torquato tasso historians italian literature doubt whether tasso placed period highest development renaissance whether form


period intermediate one following certainly profoundly harmony century religious faith seriousness character deep melancholy settled heart continued aspiration ideal perfection place outside literary epoch represented machiavelli ariosto berni carducci said tasso legitimate heir dante believes reasons faith philosophy loves comments love learned style artist writes dialogues scholastic speculation would considered


platonic eighteen years old tried hand epic poetry wrote ''rinaldo'' said tried reconcile aristotelian rules variety ariosto later wrote ''aminta'' pastoral drama exquisite grace work long turned thoughts heroic poem absorbed powers explains intentions three ''discorsi'' written composed ''gerusalemme'' would choose great wonderful subject ancient lost


bouillon poet follow faithfully historical facts sets us principal causes bringing supernatural agency god satan ''gerusalemme'' best heroic poem italy show approaches classical perfection episodes beautiful profound feeling everything reflects melancholy soul poet regards style however although tasso studiously endeavoured keep close classical models one cannot help noticing makes excessive use metaphor antithesis far fetched conceits


observe rules aristotle imitated homer see one products renaissance although trissino 's work poor invention without original poetical coloring yet helps one understand better conditions mind th century lyric poetry certainly one kinds rose great height th century originality entirely wanting since seemed century nothing better could done copy petrarch still even style


vigorous poets monsignore giovanni guidiccioni lucca showed generous heart fine sonnets expressed grief sad state country francesco molza modena learned greek latin hebrew wrote graceful style spirit giovanni della casa pietro bembo although petrarchists elegant even michelangelo times petrarchist poems bear stamp extraordinary original genius good many ladies placed near poets vittoria colonna loved


michelangelo veronica gambara tullia d'aragona giulia gonzaga poets great delicacy superior genius many literary men time isabella di morra singular example female poetry time whose sorrowful life one poignant tragic stories emerge italian renaissance many tragedies written th century weak cause moral religious indifference italians lack strong passions vigorous characters first occupy tragic stage trissino ''sofonisba''


following rules art scrupulously written sickly verses without warmth feeling ''oreste'' ''rosmunda'' giovanni rucellai better luigi alamanni 's translation ''antigone'' sperone speroni ''canace'' giraldi cintio ''orbecche'' tried become innovators tragic literature provoked criticisms grotesquerie debate role decorum often seen inferior ''torrismondo'' torquato tasso specially remarkable choruses sometimes remind one chorus greek tragedies italian comedy th century


almost entirely modelled latin comedy almost always alike plot characters old man servant waiting maid argument often thus ''lucidi'' agnolo firenzuola ''vecchio amoroso'' donato giannotti modelled comedies plautus ''sporta'' giambattista gelli ''marito'' lodovico dolce others appear three writers distinguished among many wrote comedies machiavelli ariosto giovan maria cecchi ''mandragola'' machiavelli unlike others composed


comedy character creating personalities seem living even copied reality finely observant eye ariosto hand distinguished picture habits time especially ferrarese nobles rather objective delineation character lastly cecchi left comedies treasure spoken language lets us wonderful way acquaint age notorious pietro aretino might also included list best writers comedy th century included humorous poetry


poetry true specially delight praising low disgusting things jeering noble serious bernesque poetry clearest reflection religious moral scepticism characteristic italian social life th century showed works period scepticism stopped religious reformation italy turn effect historical conditions berneschi especially berni sometimes assumed satirical tone could called true satire pure


satirists hand antonio vinciguerra venetian lodovico alamanni ariosto last superior others attic elegance style certain frankness passing malice particularly interesting poet talks th century didactic works poem ''le api'' giovanni rucellai approaches perfection virgil style clear light adds interest book frequent allusions events time important didactic work however castiglione 's ''cortigiano''


often holds ecclesiastics time ridicule time admiration qualities style desire classical elegance strong th century much attention naturally paid translating latin greek authors among numerous translations time ''aeneid'' ''pastorals'' longus sophist annibale caro still famous also translations ovid 's ''metamorphoses'' giovanni andrea dell' anguillara apuleius 's ''the golden ass'' firenzuola plutarch 's ''lives'' ''moralia'' marcello adriani


th century period decadence began period decadence italian literature tommaso campanella tortured inquisition giordano bruno burned stake cesare balbo says happiness masses consists peace without industry nobility 's consists titles without power princes satisfied acquiescence rule without real independence without sovereignty literary men artists content write paint build approbation contemporaries contempt posterity whole nation happy


ease without dignity tranquil progress corruption period ever happy italy years peace cateau cambr sis war spanish succession period known history italian literature ''secentismo'' writers resorted exaggeration tried produce effect art called mannerism barocchism writers vied one another use metaphors affectations hyperbole oddities draw substantial element thought marinism title page ''l'adone'' head


school ''secentisti'' giambattista marino naples born especially known long poem ''adone'' used extravagant metaphors forced antitheses far fetched conceits strings antitheses together one fill whole stanzas without break claudio achillini bologna followed marino 's footsteps peculiarities even extravagant almost poets th century less infected marinism alessandro guidi although attain exaggeration master bombastic


turgid fulvio testi artificial affected yet guidi well testi felt influence another poet gabriello chiabrera born savona enamoured greeks made new metres especially imitation pindar treating religious moral historical amatory subjects chiabrera though elegant form attempts disguise lack substance poetical ornaments every kind nevertheless chiabrera 's school marks improvement sometimes shows lyrical capacities wasted literary environment arcadia belief arose would necessary change form order restore


literature academy arcadia instituted founders giovan maria crescimbeni gian vincenzo gravina ''arcadia'' called chief aim imitate simplicity ancient shepherds supposed lived arcadia golden age ''secentisti'' erred overweening desire novelty arcadians proposed return fields truth always singing subjects pastoral simplicity merely substitution new artifice old one fell bombast effeminacy hyperbolical


petty turgid refined ''arcadia'' reaction ''secentismo'' reaction succeeded impoverishing still completely withering italian literature poems arcadians fill many volumes made sonnets madrigals ''canzonette'' blank verse one distinguished among sonneteers felice zappi among authors songs paolo rolli illustrious innocenzo frugoni famous others man fruitful imagination shallow intellect members arcadia almost exclusively men


least one woman maria antonia scalera stellini managed elected poetical merits vincenzo da filicaja florentine lyric talent particularly songs vienna besieged turks raised vices time even see clearly rhetorical artifice false conceits general lyric poetry th century defects different degrees defects may summed absence feeling exaggeration form independent thinkers whilst political social conditions italy


expression precision ease time elegance galileo 's prose perfect antithesis poetry time regarded best prose italy ever another symptom revival sign rebellion vileness italian social life given us satire particularly salvator rosa alessandro tassoni rosa born near naples painter musician poet poet mourned sad condition country gave vent feeling another satire writer giuseppe giusti


kind georgic poetry later fully developed alamanni ''coltivazione'' girolamo baruffaldi ''canapajo'' rucellai ''le api'' bartolomeo lorenzi ''coltivazione de' monti'' giambattista spolverini ''coltivazione del riso'' revival th century age reason reform th century political condition italy began improve joseph ii holy roman emperor successors princes influenced philosophers turn felt influence general movement ideas large many parts europe


sometimes called enlightenment history society vico muratori beccaria giambattista vico showed awakening historical consciousness italy ''scienza nuova'' investigated laws governing progress human race according events develop psychological study man tried infer ''comune natura delle nazioni'' ie universal laws history civilizations rise flourish fall scientific spirit inspired vico came different kind investigation sources italian civil literary history lodovico antonio muratori collected


''rerum italicarum scriptores'' chronicles biographies letters diaries italian history discussed obscure historical questions ''antiquitates italicae medii aevi'' wrote ''annali d'italia'' minutely narrating facts derived authentic sources muratori 's associates historical research scipione maffei verona apostolo zeno venice ''verona illustrata'' maffei left treasure learning also excellent historical monograph zeno added much erudition literary history ''dissertazioni vossiane'' notes ''biblioteca dell'eloquenza italiana''


truth apostolo zeno metastasio arcadian name pietro trapassi native rome endeavoured make melodrama reason compatible metastasio gave fresh expression affections natural turn dialogue interest plot fallen constant unnatural overrefinement mawkishness frequent anachronisms might considered first dramatic reformer th century carlo goldoni carlo goldoni carlo goldoni venetian overcame resistance old popular form comedy masks ''pantalone'' doctor ''harlequin'' brighella etc


created comedy character following moli 's example goldoni 's characters often superficial wrote lively dialogue produced comedies time polish perfect works comedy character must go straight machiavelli 's ''mandragola'' goldoni 's dramatic aptitude illustrated fact took nearly types venetian society yet managed give inexhaustible variety many comedies written venetian giuseppe parini leading figure literary revival th century giuseppe parini born


showed innovator lyrics rejecting petrarchism ''secentismo'' arcadia three maladies thought weakened italian art preceding centuries ''odi'' satirical note already heard comes strongly ''del giorno'' imagines teaching young milanese patrician habits ways gallant life shows ridiculous frivolities delicate irony unmasks futilities aristocratic habits dividing day four parts ''mattino'' ''mezzogiorno'' ''vespero'' ''notte''


describes trifles made book thus assumes major social historical value artist going straight back classical forms aspiring imitate virgil dante opened way school vittorio alfieri ugo foscolo vincenzo monti work art ''giorno'' wonderful delicate irony verse new harmonies sometimes little hard broken protest arcadian monotony linguistic purism whilst burning political passions raging whilst brilliant men genius


new classical patriotic school purists height influence question arose purism language second half th century italian language specially full french expressions great indifference fitness still elegance style prose needed restored sake national dignity believed could done except going back writers th century ''aurei trecentisti'' called else classics italian literature one


promoters new school antonio cesari verona republished ancient authors brought new edition additions ''vocabolario della crusca'' wrote dissertation ''sopra lo stato presente della lingua italiana'' endeavoured establish supremacy tuscan three great writers dante petrarch boccaccio accordance principle wrote several books taking pains copy ''trecentisti'' closely possible patriotism italy always something municipal tuscan supremacy proclaimed upheld cesari


opposed lombard school would know nothing tuscan dante 's ''de vulgari eloquentia'' returned idea ''lingua illustre'' old question largely bitterly argued ''cinquecento'' th century varchi muzio lodovico castelvetro speroni others question raised afresh head lombard school monti son law count giulio perticari caused monti write ''pro pasta di alcune correzioni ed aggiunte al vocabolario della crusca'' attacked tuscanism crusca graceful easy style


form prose one beautiful italian literature perticari whose intellect inferior narrowed exacerbated question two treatises ''degli scrittori del trecento'' ''dell'amor patrio di dante'' dispute language took place beside literary political disputes italy took part basilio puoti naples paolo costa romagna marc antonio parenti modena salvatore betti rome giovanni gherardini lombardy luigi fornaciari lucca vincenzo nannucci florence patriot classicist purist pietro giordani


born almost compendium literary movement time whole life battle liberty learned greek latin authors italian ''trecentisti'' left writings carefully elaborated point style prose greatly admired time giordani closes literary epoch classicists minor writers gasparo gozzi 's satire less elevated directed towards end parini 's ''osservatore'' something like joseph addison 's ''spectator'' ''gazzetta veneta'' ''mondo morale''


means allegories novelties hit vices delicate touch introducing practical moral gozzi 's satire slight resemblance style lucian 's gozzi 's prose graceful lively imitates writers th century another satirical writer first half th century giuseppe baretti turin journal called ''frusta letteraria'' mercilessly criticized works published italy learnt much travelling long stay britain contributed independent character mind ''frusta'' first book


liberty ''nabucco'' ''antonio foscarini'' ''giovanni da procida'' ''lodovico il moro'' others assailed papal rome ''arnaldo da brescia'' long tragic piece suited acting epic rather dramatic niccolini 's tragedies show rich lyric vein rather dramatic genius merit vindicated liberal ideas opened new path italian tragedy carlo botta born spectator french spoliation italy overbearing rule napoleon wrote ''history italy'' later continued guicciardini 's


''history'' wrote manner latin authors trying imitate livy putting together long sonorous periods style aimed like boccaccio 's caring little constitutes critical material history intent declaiming academic prose country 's benefit botta wanted classical style could longer hence failed completely attain literary goal fame man noble patriotic heart bad two histories italy


''guerra dell'indipendenza americana'' close botta comes pietro colletta neapolitan born nine years also ''storia del reame di napoli dal al '' idea defending independence liberty italy style borrowed tacitus succeeded rather better botta rapid brief nervous style makes book attractive reading said pietro giordani gino capponi corrected lazzaro papi lucca author ''commentari della rivoluzione francese dal al ''


altogether unlike botta colletta also historian classical style treats subject patriotic feeling artist perhaps excels two alberto fortis started morlachist literary movement italian venetian literature work ''viaggio dalmazia'' journey dalmatia revolution patriotism classicism ideas behind french revolution gave special direction italian literature second half th century love liberty desire equality created literature aimed national objects seeking improve


condition country freeing double yoke political religious despotism italians aspired political redemption believed inseparable intellectual revival thought could effected reunion ancient classicism repetition occurred first half th century vittorio alfieri patriotism classicism two principles inspired literature began vittorio alfieri worshipped greek roman idea popular liberty arms tyranny took subjects tragedies


history nations made ancient characters talk like revolutionists time arcadian school verbosity triviality rejected aim brief concise strong bitter aim sublime opposed lowly pastoral saved literature arcadian vacuities leading towards national end armed patriotism classicism vincenzo monti vincenzo monti patriot way one deep feeling ruled rather mobility feelings characteristic


new form patriotism took place old one saw danger country french revolution wrote ''pellegrino apostolico'' ''bassvilliana'' ''feroniade'' napoleon 's victories caused write ''pronreteo'' ''musagonia'' ''fanatismo'' ''superstizione'' attacked papacy afterwards sang praises austrians thus every great event made change mind readiness might seem incredible easily explained monti everything artist everything else liable change


violent one passions ''ortis'' owed origin perhaps best sincere writings still sometimes pompous rhetorical less example lectures ''dell'origine e dell'ufficio della letteratura'' whole foscolo 's prose turgid affected reflects character man always tried pose dramatic attitudes indeed defect napoleonic epoch horror anything common simple natural everything must assume heroic shape foscolo tendency excessive


''sepolcri'' best poem prompted high feeling mastery versification shows wonderful art obscure passages seems even author form clear idea left incomplete three hymns graces sang beauty source courtesy high qualities happiness among prose works high place belongs translation ''sentimental journey'' laurence sterne writer foscolo deeply affected went exile england died


giovanni berchet samuele biava alessandro manzoni influenced ideas especially germany constituted movement called romanticism italy course literary reform took another direction alessandro manzoni main instigator reform manzoni formulated objects new school saying aspired try discover express ''il vero storico'' ''il vero morale'' end widest eternal source beautiful realism art characterizes italian literature manzoni onwards ''promessi sposi'' betrothed


il sarto manzoni dives innermost recesses human heart draws subtle psychological reality greatness lies recognized first companion genius goethe poet gleams genius especially napoleonic ode ''il cinque maggio'' describes human affections stanzas ''inni'' chorus ''adelchi'' giacomo leopardi giacomo leopardi great poet age giacomo leopardi born thirteen years manzoni recanati patrician family


became familiar greek authors used afterwards say greek mode thought clear living mind latin even italian solitude sickness domestic tyranny prepared profound melancholy passed complete religious scepticism sought rest art everything terrible grand poems agonizing cry modern literature uttered solemn quietness elevates terrifies us also admirable prose writer ''operette morali'' dialogues discourses marked


cold bitter smile human destinies freezes reader clearness style simplicity language depth conception perhaps greatest lyrical poet since dante also one perfect writers prose italian literature history politics th realism art gained ground positive method criticism kept pace history returned spirit learned research shown works ''archivio storico italiano'' established florence giampietro vieusseux


''storia d'italia nel medio evo'' carlo troya remarkable treatise manzoni ''sopra alcuni punti della storia longobardica italia'' fine history vespri siciliani michele amari alongside great artists leopardi manzoni alongside learned scholars also first half th century patriotic literature vieusseux distinct political object established monthly review ''antologia'' ''archivio storico italiano'' different form continuation ''antologia'' suppressed owing action


russian government florence days asylum italian exiles exiles met shook hands vieusseux 's rooms literary political talk one thought one animated minds thought italy literary movement preceded contemporary political revolution may said represented four writers giuseppe giusti francesco domenico guerrazzi vincenzo gioberti cesare balbo giusti wrote epigrammatic satires popular language incisive phrases scourged enemies italy telling


political writer mediocre poet guerrazzi great reputation great influence historical novels though avidly read soon forgotten gioberti powerful polemical writer noble heart great mind philosophical works good dead ''primato morale e civile degli italiani'' last important document times ''gesuita moderno'' tremendous indictment jesuits ever written balbo earnest student history made history useful politics like gioberti first period balbo


zealous civil papacy federation italian states presided ''sommario della storia d'italia'' excellent epitome th th century gabriele d'annunzio ''risorgimento'' political literature becomes less important first part period characterized two divergent trends literature opposed romanticism first trend ''scapigliatura'' attempted rejuvenate italian culture foreign influences notably poetry charles baudelaire works american writer edgar allan poe second trend represented giosu carducci


dominant figure period fiery opponent romantics restorer ancient metres spirit great poet scarcely less distinguished literary critic historian influence mile zola evident ''verismo'' luigi capuana notably giovanni verga main exponents authors verismo manifesto capuana published novel ''giacinta'' generally regarded manifesto italian verismo unlike french naturalism based positivistic ideals verga capuana rejected claims scientific nature social usefulness movement instead


novels edmondo de amicis better known moral works travels fiction women novelists matilde serao grazia deledda became popular deledda awarded nobel prize literature works minor writers giovanni prati aleardo aleardi continue romantic traditions classical poets giuseppe chiarini arturo graf guido mazzoni giovanni marradi two last named may perhaps regarded special disciples carducci enrico panzacchi heart still romantic olindo guerrini wrote pseudonym lorenzo stecchetti chief


representative ' 'verismo'' poetry though early works obtained ' 'succ de scandale'' author many lyrics intrinsic value alfredo baccelli mario rapisardi epic poets distinction felice cavallotti author stirring ''marcia de leonida'' among dialect writers great roman poet giuseppe gioacchino belli found numerous successors renato fucini pisa cesare pascarella rome among women poets ada negri socialistic ''fatalit '' ''tempeste'' achieved great reputation others annie vivanti highly esteemed italy among dramatists pietro cossa


tragedy ferdinando martini paolo ferrari comedy represent older schools modern methods adopted giuseppe giacosa fiction historical romance fell disfavour though emilio de marchi produced good examples novel intrigue cultivated salvatore farina th century beyond luigi pirandello umberto eco important early th century writers include italo svevo author ''la coscienza di zeno'' luigi pirandello winner nobel prize literature explored shifting nature reality prose fiction plays ''sei personaggi cerca d'autore'' ''six


characters search author'' federigo tozzi great novelist critically appreciated recent years considered one forerunners existentialism european novel grazia deledda sardinian writer focused life customs traditions sardinian people works gained much recognition feminist writer potentially due themes women 's pain suffering nobel prize literature becoming italy 's first woman recipient sibilla aleramo born milan rina faccio faccio published


published autobiographical work un grido lacerante published antonio feltrinelli prize well successful author banti recognized literary cinematic art critic elsa morante born rome began writing early age self educated developing love music books one central themes morante 's works narcissism also uses love metaphor works saying love passion obsession lead despair destruction premio


viareggio award alba de c spedes cuban italian writer rome anti fascist involved italian resistance work greatly influenced history culture developed around world war ii although books bestsellers alba overlooked recent studies italian women writers poetry represented crepuscolari futurists foremost member latter group filippo tommaso marinetti leading modernist poets later century include salvatore quasimodo winner nobel prize literature giuseppe ungaretti umberto saba


antenati'' ''our ancestors'' post modernism novel ''se una notte d'inverno un viaggiatore'' ''if winter 's night traveller'' carlo emilio gadda author experimental ''quer pasticciaccio brutto de via merulana'' pier paolo pasolini controversial poet novelist giuseppe tomasi di lampedusa wrote one novel ''il gattopardo'' ''the leopard'' one famous italian literature deals life sicilian nobleman th century leonardo sciascia came public attention novel ''il giorno della civetta'' ''the day


owl'' exposing extent mafia corruption modern sicilian society recently umberto eco became internationally successful medieval detective story ''il nome della rosa'' ''the name rose'' dacia maraini one successful contemporary italian women writers novels focus condition women italy works speaks changes women make society aldo busi also one important italian contemporary writers extensive production novels essays travel books manuals provides detailed


julian rabbit olga cloud ref name oxford ref ref name repubblica ref women writers italian women writers always underrepresented academia many collections prominent influential italian literature women 's works included woman writer anna banti said even successful marginalized say great among women writers equate male writers increase inclusion women academic scholarship recent years representation still inequitable italian women writers first acknowledged critics numerous


writing fiction became easiest way women explore determine place society italian war novels alba de c spedes 's ''dalla parte di lei'' best husbands trace women 's awakenings political realities time subsequent psychological social novels italian women writers examine difficult process growing women italian society challenges face including achieving socially satisfactory life using intellectual aspirations gain equality society examples include maria messina 's ''la casa nel vicolo'' house shadows laura


di falco 's ''paura di giorno'' fear day public condemnation women 's abuse italian literature women writers began expressing thoughts sexual difference novels many italian novels focus facets italian identity women writers always leaders genre references bibliography reading important german works besides adolf gaspary berthold wiese erasmo percopo illustrated leipzig tommaso casini grober 's grundr der rom phil strasbourg english students referred john addington symonds 's ''renaissance italy'' especially


exclusively vols iv v new ed london richard garnett 's ''history italian literature'' london short history italian literature j h whitfield pelican books original texts criticism de sanctis f ''storia della letteratura italiana'' napoli morano gardner e g ''the national idea italian literature'' manchester momigliano ''storia della letteratura italiana'' messina milano principato sapegno n ''compendio di storia della letteratura italiana'' la nuova italia croce b ''la letteratura italiana per saggi storicamente disposti'' laterza russo l ''compendio storico della letteratura italiana'' messina firenze d'anna petronio


g ''compendio di storia della letteratura italiana'' palermo palumbo asor rosa ''sintesi di storia della letteratura italiana'' firenze la nuova italia aavv ''antologia della poesia italiana'' ed c segre c ossola torino einaudi de rienzo giorgio ''breve storia della letteratura italiana'' milano tascabili bompiani giudice bruni g ''problemi e scrittori della letteratura italiana'' torino bruni f ''testi e documenti'' torino utet bruni f ''l'italiano nelle regioni'' torino utet ferroni g ''storia della letteratura italiana milano'' mondadori external links http wwwliberliberit liber liber progetto manuzio italian literature texts http wwwstoriadellaletteraturait wwwstoriadellaletteraturait


''storia della letteratura italiana'' history italian literature full text antonio piromalli https webarchiveorg web http wwwinandoutdubaicom unabridged versions italian literaturephp original unabridged italian versions italian literature https webarchiveorg web http wwwspunticomau original italian literature academic journal articles


onlyinclude '''philosophy social science''' study logic methods foundations social sciences psychology economics political science sociology philosophers social science concerned differences similarities social natural sciences causal relationships social phenomena possible existence social laws ontological significance structure agency onlyinclude auguste comte positivism comte first described epistemological perspective positivism ''the course positive philosophy'' series texts published texts followed work

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of social science


science human society ''view positivism'' would therefore set define detail empirical goals sociological method comte offered account social evolution proposing society undergoes three phases quest truth according general 'law three stages' idea bears similarity marx 's view human society would progress toward communist peak perhaps unsurprising profoundly influenced early utopian socialist henri de saint simon one time comte 's teacher mentor comte marx intended develop


scientifically new secular ideology wake european secularisation early sociology herbert spencer came broadly reaction comte writing various developments evolutionary biology spencer attempted vain reformulate discipline might describe socially darwinistic terms although spencer proponent lamarckism rather darwinism modern academic discipline sociology began work mile durkheim durkheim rejected much detail comte 's philosophy retained refined method maintaining social sciences logical continuation


natural ones realm human activity insisting may retain objectivity rationalism approach causality ref name wacquant wacquant loic positivism bottomore tom william outhwaite ed ''the blackwell dictionary twentieth century social thought'' ref durkheim set first european department sociology university bordeaux year argued ''the rules sociological method'' ref name autogenerated gianfranco poggi ''durkheim'' oxford oxford university press ref ur main goal extend scientific rationalism human conduct called positivism


consequence rationalism ref name dinw durkheim emile ''the rules sociological method'' cited wacquant ref durkheim 's seminal monograph ''suicide'' case study suicide rates amongst catholic protestant populations distinguished sociological analysis psychology philosophy positivist perspective however associated 'scientism' view methods natural sciences may applied areas investigation philosophical social scientific otherwise among social scientists historians orthodox positivism long since fallen favor today practitioners social physical sciences recognize


distorting effect observer bias structural limitations scepticism facilitated general weakening deductivist accounts science philosophers thomas kuhn new philosophical movements critical realism neopragmatism positivism also espoused 'technocrats' believe inevitability social progress science technology philosopher sociologist j rgen habermas critiqued pure instrumental rationality meaning scientific thinking becomes something akin ideology durkheim marx weber typically cited fathers contemporary social science psychology positivistic approach historically


favoured behaviourism epistemology discipline always number underlying philosophical predispositions projects scientists predispositions involve nature social knowledge nature social reality locus human control action intellectuals disagreed extent social sciences mimic methods used natural sciences founding positivists social sciences argued social phenomena studied conventional scientific methods position closely allied scientism naturalism physicalism doctrine


epistemologies methodologies including realism critical realism instrumentalism functionalism structuralism interpretivism phenomenology post structuralism though essentially major social scientists since late th century accepted discipline faces challenges different natural sciences ability determine causal relationships invokes discussions held science meta theory positivism sometimes met caricature breed naive empiricism yet word rich history applications stretching comte work vienna circle beyond token positivism able identify causality


open critical rationalist non justificationism presented karl popper may disputed thomas kuhn 's conception epistemic paradigm shift early german hermeneuticians wilhelm dilthey pioneered distinction natural social science 'geisteswissenschaft' tradition greatly informed max weber georg simmel 's antipositivism continued critical theory ref name outhwaite william p outhwaite william ''habermas key contemporary thinkers'' polity press second edition p ref since general weakening deductivist accounts science grown side side critiques scientism 'science ''as ideology''' j rgen habermas argues


''on logic social sciences'' positivist thesis unified science assimilates sciences natural scientific model fails intimate relationship social sciences history fact based situation specific understanding meaning explicated hermeneutically access symbolically prestructured reality cannot gained observation alone ref name outhwaite william p ''verstehende'' social theory concern phenomenological works alfred sch tz ''phenomenology social world'' hans georg gadamer 's ''truth method''


phenomenology would later prove influential subject centred theory post structuralists mid th century linguistic turn led rise highly philosophical sociology well called postmodern perspectives social acquisition knowledge one notable critique social science found peter winch 's wittgensteinian text ''the idea social science relation philosophy'' michel foucault provides potent critique archaeology human sciences though habermas richard rorty argued foucault merely replaces one system thought another one underlying problem social psychologist


whether studies ultimately understood terms meaning consciousness behind social action folk psychology whether objective natural materialist behavioral facts given exclusive study problem especially important within social sciences study qualitative mental phenomena consciousness associative meanings mental representations rejection study meanings would lead reclassification research non scientific influential traditions like psychodynamic theory symbolic interactionism may first victims paradigm shift philosophical


issues lying wait behind different positions led commitments certain kinds methodology sometimes bordered partisan still many researchers indicated lack patience overly dogmatic proponents one method another social research remains extremely common effective ''in practise'' respect political institutions businesses michael burawoy marked difference public sociology focused firmly practical applications ''academic'' ''professional'' sociology involves dialogue amongst social scientists philosophers ontology structure agency forms enduring debate social theory


social structures determine individual 's behaviour human agency context 'agency' refers capacity individuals act independently make free choices whereas 'structure' refers factors limit affect choices actions individuals social class religion gender ethnicity discussions primacy structure agency relate core social ontology social world made cause social world effect one attempt reconcile postmodern critiques overarching project social


conferences https webarchiveorg web http philosophyucscedu roundtablehtml philosophy social science roundtable http enposseu european network philosophy social sciences books https insagepubcom en sas encyclopedia philosophy social sciences book encyclopedia philosophy social sciences byron kaldis sage https booksgooglecom booksid hmbivo pzagc dq philosophy social science printsec frontcover source bn hl en ei wkscn cj etgf gphwba sa x oi book result resnum ct result philosophy social science alexander rosenberg https wwwamazoncom dp philosophy social science introduction martin hollis https wwwamazoncom dp contemporary philosophy social science multicultural approach brian fay https booksgooglecom booksid w qgaacaaj source gbs navlinks philosophy social science methods ideals politics social inquiry michael root external links http www personalumdumichedu delittle encyclopedia entries philosophy social sciencepdf philosophy social sciences robert audi 's ''cambridge encyclopedia philosophy'' http wwwreproutledgecom article r philosophy social sciences routledge encyclopedia


eu languages translates operates within image shows meps adopting position eu budget translator communication '''sociology language''' study relations language society closely related field sociolinguistics focuses effect society language one longest prolific practitioners joshua fishman founding editor ''international journal sociology language'' addition major contributions sociology language studies society relation language whereas sociolinguistics studies language

Social science
Sociology
Sociology of language


idea language reflects among several things attitudes speakers want exchange get reflected language use attitudes speakers sociologist 's information sociology language seeks understand way social dynamics affected individual group language use according national taiwan university science technology chair language center su chiao chen language considered social value within field researches social groups phenomena like multilingualism lingual conflict 'authorized' use language


conditions individual group identity established language available use seeks understand individual expression investment linguistic tools one access order bring oneself people see also anthropological linguistics code mixing code switching linguistic anthropology linguistic relativity language variety sociolinguistics references reading http wwwdegruytercom view j ijsl international journal sociology language mouton de gruyter editor ofelia garcia otheguy issn print syntax philosophy language


'''mass communication''' process imparting exchanging information mass media large segments population usually understood relating various forms media technologies used dissemination information journalism advertising part mass communication differs forms communication interpersonal communication organizational communication focuses particular resources transmitting information numerous receivers study mass communication chiefly concerned content mass communication persuades otherwise affects behavior attitude opinion emotion

Journalism, media studies and communication


rate often politics charged topics major connections media consumed via mass communication culture contributing polarization dividing people based consequential issues field study social science mass communication sub field communication studies mass communication process person group people organization creates message transmits type medium large anonymous heterogeneous audience implies audience mass communication mostly made different cultures behavior belief systems mass


sponsor mass communication channels sponsor promotes adoption products ideas advertisers full control message sent audience ref name curtis ref journalism journalism production distribution reports events presentation media study journalism involves analyzing dissemination information public media outlets newspapers news channels radio stations television stations recently e readers smartphones alternative journalism deviates established dominant types media terms content production distribution alternative journalism utilizes


media outlets mainstream journalism advocate interests excluded mainstream civic journalism also known public journalism idea integrating journalism democratic process media informs public also works towards engaging citizens creating public debate citizen journalism based upon public citizens actively producing news information citizen journalism deals distribution news public often internet public relations public relations process providing information public order present specific


view product organization public relations differs advertising less obtrusive aimed providing comprehensive opinion large audience order shape public opinion unlike advertising public relations professionals control message related media gatekeepers decide pass information audience ref name curtis social media social media modern use refers platforms used mobile devices home computers allow users interact use words images sounds video ref


name social media includes popular sites facebook instagram well sites aid business networking linkedinthe use importance social media communications public relations grown drastically throughout years staple advertisements mass audiences many newer companies businesses geared towards young people social media tool advertising purposes growing brand social media provides additional ways connect reach ones targeted audience multiple social networking sites ability visualize


share ones personal social life even though first social networking sites created several years ago rise myspace facebook took cancelled previous social media sites today facebook one popular social media websites multiple types communication generally facebook used communication relatives friends along people share interests social media introduced new difficulties relationships one way occurred ''catfishing'' term ''catfish'' refers person uses false online profile social


media platform commonly catfish communicates another online profile get fall love false persona created mtv reality show ''catfish tv show'' brought mainstream attention issue ref name goal episodes keep track people fallen love someone interacted online never met person catfishing become mainstream term people wondered continues happen nev schulman host show said think people always looking


fall love people always hope things get better better worse always people may may look take advantage audio media recorded music recordings developed became first non print form mass communication invention phonograph thomas edison late th century graphophone alexander graham bell charles tainter gramophone victor talking machine company first competing mass media forms brought recorded music masses ref name


recording changed invention lp long play vinyl record eight track tapes followed vinyl cassettes compact discs cds followed seen biggest invention recorded arts since edison radio radio considered widely accessible form mass communication world medium used greatest degree united states ref name internet radio become increasingly popular radio stations streaming content websites applications music streaming services apple


music spotify also integrated radio features onto platform spotify radio feature allows spotify continuously create playlist users tracks podcast segments based artist playlist wish convergence convergence refers coming together telecommunications forms mass communication digital media environment clear definition convergence effects however viewed three lenses technological convergence cultural convergence economic convergence ref name ref technological convergence action two media companies merging


digital platform lead companies develop new commodities become part new sectors economies cultural convergence deals blending different beliefs values traditions groups people may occur globalization content ''sex city'' american show set new york city viewed internationally became popular among female workers thailand ref name study consumption youtube conducted information technology department sociology department cornell university concluded cultural convergence occurs frequently advanced cosmopolitan areas integrated


communication integrated communication refers process bringing together several types mass communication function across mediascape usinge paid owned earned media peso shared owned earned paid sope principal framework process considers methods communication distribution strategically film television film film industry began invention kinetoscope thomas edison failure patent resulted two brothers louis auguste lumiere creating portable camera could process film project images ref name invention quickly gained notoriety


lumiere brothers debuted series second clips screened outdoors parisian audience despite ever growing popularity moving images lumiere brothers seek revolutionize style film stuck documenting daily life france set grounds future film revolutionaries including george melies sought create narrative sequences films use special effects ref name television television began change include complicated three dimensional characters plots pbs launched home


programming would suitable network television operates donations little government funding rather commercials january sitcom ''all family'' premiered cbs covered issues day portrayed bigot named archie bunker ref name sales color television sets surpassed black white sets television became geared towards become known mtv generation surge number cable channels photography photography plays role field technology


mass communication demonstrating facts reinforcing ideas although photos altered digitally still considered proof expose communicate ref name history photography camera obscura one first techniques lead creating photos could create image wall piece paper joseph niepce french inventor took first photo required hours exposure louis daguerre introduced daguerreotype reduced exposure time thirty minutes years progressed photography techniques including creating


better image quality adding color image reduced exposure time contemporary photography industry modern industry dramatically changed development digital phones digital cameras made film based cameras niche product kodak discontinued making color film declared bankruptcy companies like fujifilm adapted despite downturn sales ref name interactive media video games video game genres classification assigned video game based game play rather visual storytelling differences video game genre


defined set game play challenges classified independently game takes place ethics interactive media interactive media form communication technique refers services digital computer based systems requires two parties respond text moving images animation video audio video games ethics interactive media mainly focus violence video games advertising influenced different ways behavioral targeting violence video games relates ethics interactive media brings


aggressive attitude behavior impacts social lives people playing video games furthermore behavioral targeting ties ethics interactive media websites apps phones contain personal information allow owners ones running companies receive use interactive media influences advertising society using social media websites able see 's advertising everything view especially scrolling instagram pop ads come screen reading


article computer e books ebooks changed people read people able download books onto devices allows consumers track read annotate search definitions words internet ref name ref e books education increased demand mobile access course materials ebooks students corresponds increased number smartphones e readers amazon kindle advanced years since launch kindle expanded memory gb gb addition kindle