martin luther king letter birmingham jail wrote negative peace absence tension positive peace presence justice terms perhaps first used jane addams book https booksgoogleca booksid gvwravfjyjmc dq william james positive peace source gbs navlinks ''newer ideals peace'' several conceptions models modes peace suggested peace research might prosper crux matter peace natural social condition whereas war premise simple peace researchers present enough information


rational group decision makers seek avoid war conflict second view violence sinful unskillful non violence skillful virtuous cultivated view held variety religious traditions worldwide quakers mennonites peace churches within christianity bah jains satyagraha tradition hinduism buddhism portions indian religion philosophy well certain schools islam third pacifism view peace prime force human behaviour approach multiple modes peace

Social science
Political science
Peace and conflict studies


many offerings various forms peace range well known works kant locke rousseau paine various liberal international constitutional plans peace variations additions developed recently scholars raymond aron edward azar john burton martin ceadal wolfgang dietrich kevin dooley johan galtung michael howard vivienne jabri john paul lederach roger mac ginty pamina firchow hugh miall david mitrany oliver ramsbotham anatol rapoport mikkel vedby rasmussen oliver richmond sp udayakumar tom woodhouse others mentioned many democratic peace liberal peace sustainable peace civil


peace hybrid peace post liberal peace everyday peace trans rational peace concepts regularly used work sustainable peace conceptions peace sustainable peace must regarded important factor future prosperity sustainable peace must priority global society state actors non state actors seek profits near future might violate stable state peace sustainable peace nurturing empowerment communications considered crucial factors throughout world firstly nurturing necessary encourage psychological stability


emotional maturity significance social value adequate nurturing important sustainable peace secondly order achieve real security inner security must secured along arranged social systems protection based firm foundation lastly communications necessary overcome ignorance establish community based reliable useful information prevents isolation take place critical bring sustainable peace conflict triangle johan galtung 's conflict triangle works assumption best way define peace define violence opposite reflects normative aim preventing


managing limiting overcoming violence ref name galtung jacobsen direct overt violence eg direct attack massacre structural violence death avoidable reasons malnutrition structural violence indirect violence caused unjust structure equated act god cultural violence cultural violence occurs result cultural assumptions blind one direct structural violence example one may indifferent toward homeless even consider expulsion extermination good thing corner galtung 's triangle relate two


strategic costs conflict approach considers direct costs conflict instance human deaths expenditure destruction land physical infrastructure well indirect costs impact society instance migration humiliation growth extremism lack civil society strategic foresight group think tank india developed cost conflict series countries regions involved protracted conflicts tool aimed assessing past present future costs looking wide range parameters normative aims peacekeeping efforts armed forces provide one means limit ultimately resolve


conflict normative aims peace studies conflict transformation conflict resolution mechanisms peacekeeping peacebuilding eg tackling disparities rights institutions distribution world wealth peacemaking eg mediation conflict resolution peacekeeping falls aegis negative peace whereas efforts toward positive peace involve elements peace building peacemaking teaching peace conflict studies military one interesting developments within peace conflict studies number military personnel undertaking studies poses challenges military institution overtly committed


combat article teaching peace military published journal ''peace review'' james page argues five principles ought undergird undertaking namely respect privilege military experience teach war theory encourage students aware tradition techniques nonviolence encourage students deconstruct demythologize recognize importance military virtue critical peace conflict studies hybridity trans rational peace elicitive conflict transformation scholars working areas peace conflict studies made significant contributions policies used non governmental


organisations development agencies international financial institutions un system specific areas conflict resolution citizen diplomacy development political social economic reform peacekeeping mediation early warning prevention peacebuilding statebuilding represented shift interest conflict management approaches oriented towards negative peace conflict resolution peacebuilding approaches aimed positive peace emerged rapidly end cold war encapsulated report un secretary general boutros boutros ghali ''an agenda peace'' indeed might said much machinery called


liberal peacebuilding number scholars statebuilding another based largely work carried area many scholars area advocated emancipatory form peacebuilding however based upon responsibility protect r p human security local ownership participation processes especially limited success liberal peacebuilding statebuilding places diverse cambodia balkans east timor sierra leone liberia nepal afghanistan iraq research agenda process establishing nuanced agenda peacebuilding also connects


scruton intellectually incoherent riddled bias unworthy academic status ref name barbarians http wwwbarbarakayca indexphpoption com content view article id barbarians within gate barbara kay national post february ref policies proposed eliminate causes violence uniformly leftist policies necessarily policies would find broad agreement among social scientists ref name bawer bawer ref barbara kay columnist ''national post'' specifically criticized views norwegian professor johan galtung considered leader modern peace research kay wrote galtung written structural fascism rich western christian democracies admires fidel castro opposed resistance


soviet invasion hungary described aleksandr solzhenitsyn andrei sakharov persecuted elite personages galtung also praised mao zedong endlessly liberating china galtung also stated united states killer country guilty neo fascist state terrorism reportedly stated destruction washington dc could justified america 's foreign policy also compared united states nazi germany bombing kosovo nato bombing yugoslavia ref name barbarians summer edition ''city journal'' bruce bawer sharply criticized peace


ideology bawer cited quote '' https webarchiveorg web http searchbarnesandnoblecom peace conflict studies charles p webel e itm peace conflict studies '' widely used textbook written charles p webel david p barash praised vladimir lenin maintained revolution reform could undo capitalism tendency toward imperialism thence war ref name bawer david horowitz argued webel barash 's book implicitly supports violence socialist causes noting book states case cuba indicates violent revolutions sometimes result generally improved living conditions many people horowitz also argued book treats soviet union sponsor peace


movements united states militaristic imperialist power peace movements try keep check authors justify communist policies actions casting america western democracies negative light horowitz also claimed authors discuss cuban missile crisis without mentioning cause ie placement soviet missiles cuba blame john f kennedy praising soviet premier nikita khrushchev ing willing back finally horowitz criticized author 's use marxist writers andre gunder frank frances moore lappe


sole basis study poverty hunger causes human conflict kay bawer also specifically criticized professor gordon fellman chairman brandeis university 's peace conflict coexistence studies program claimed justified palestinian suicide bombings israelis ways inflicting revenge enemy seems unable unwilling respond rational pleas discussion justice ref name bawer katherine kersten senior fellow minneapolis based conservative think tank center american experiment believes peace studies programs dominated people certain ideological bent


thus hard take seriously robert kennedy professor catholic studies management university st thomas criticized university 's peace studies program interview ''minneapolis star tribune'' stating program employs several adjunct professors whose academic qualifications strong would ordinarily look combination ideological bite maybe less full academic credentials faculty would probably raise questions scholarly program responses views strongly opposed scholars claim criticisms underestimate


development detailed interdisciplinary theoretical methodological empirical research causes violence dynamics peace occurred via academic policy networks around world ref name miall ramsbotham woodhouse reply barbara kay 's article group peace studies experts canada responded kay 'sargument field peace studies endorses terrorism nonsense edicated peace theorists researchers distinguished commitment reduce use violence whether committed enemy nations friendly governments warlords stripe also argued blockquote ms kay attempts


portray advocates peace naive idealistic data shows large majority armed conflicts recent decades ended negotiations military solutions contemporary world violence less effective diplomacy ending armed conflict nothing effective reduce tyranny violence domestic foreign strategy needs based evidence rather assumptions misconceptions bygone era blockquote academics area argue accusations peace studies approaches objective derived mainly leftist inexpert sources


practical support violence rather reject led policy developments clearly incorrect note development un major donor policies including eu us uk well many others including japan canada norway etc towards conflict post conflict countries heavily influenced debates range key policy documents responses developed governments last decade un related documentation agenda peace agenda development agenda democratization millennium development


goals responsibility protect high level panel report also significant work world bank international development agencies wide range non governmental organisations influential work among others un undp un peacebuilding commission unhcr world bank eu organization security co operation europe national donors including usaid dfid cida norad danida japan aid gtz international ngos international alert international crisis group well many local ngos major databases generated work scholars


churches peace education peace justice studies association stockholm international peace research institute war war world peace journals ''journal peace research'' ''journal peace justice studies'' ''peace review'' ''the acorn journal gandhi king society'' people camillo mac bica elise boulding glenn paige john maynard keynes michael murphy andregg stanley deetz johan galtung jane addams notes sources aron raymond ''peace war theory international relations'' london transaction avruch kevin peter w black joseph scimecca eds ''conflict resolution cross cultural perspectives'' london greenwood press azar edward e ''the management


protracted social conflict'' hampshire uk dartmouth publishing beer francis ''meanings war peace'' college station texas university press beer francis ''peace war'' san francisco wh freeman boutros ghali ''an agenda peace preventative diplomacy peacemaking peacekeeping'' new york united nations bawer bruce peace racket ''city journal'' summer http city journalorg html peace rackethtml link burton j ea azar ''international conflict resolution theory practice'' wheatsheaf books caplan richard ''international governance war torn territories rule reconstruction'' oxford oup ceadal ''thinking peace war'' oxford oup chandler


''empire denial politics state building'' pluto press churchman ''the origins nature management human conflict'' university press america cooper neil 's point arms transfer controls ''contemporary security policy'' vol april pp nbsp jarat chopra tanja hohe participatory intervention ''global governance'' vol darby john roger macginty ''contemporary peacemaking'' london palgrave wolfgang dietrich josefina eachavarr alvarez norbert koppensteiner eds ''key texts peace studies'' lit nster vienna wolfgang dietrich daniela ingruber josefina echavarr gustavo esteva norbert koppensteiner eds ''the palgrave international handbook


order twenty first century'' ithaca ny cornell university press galtung j structural theory imperialism ''journal peace research'' vol galtung johan carl g jacobsen ''searching peace road transcend'' pluto press london harris ian larry j fisk carol rank portrait university peace studies north america western europe end millennium ''international journal peace studies'' volume number issn http wwwgmuedu academic ijps vol harrishtm link howard ''the invention peace invention war'' london profile jabri vivienne ''discourses


trinn christoph thomas wencker integrating quantitative research onset incidence violent intrastate conflicts ''international studies review'' doiorg isr viaa vayrynen r ''new directions conflict theory conflict resolution conflict transformation'' london sage vedby rasmussen mikkel ''the west civil society construction peace'' london palgrave wallensteen peter ed ''peace research achievements challenges'' boulder co westview press zartman william lewis rasmussen eds ''peacemaking international conflict methods techniques'' washington dc united states institute peace press external links interview werner wintersteiner http wwwbarbarusorg single post interview werner wintersteiner peace education library


guides peace studies http guideslibrarycornelledu peace cornell university new york usa http libguideslibmsuedu pj michigan state university usa http libraryguidesmissouriedu peacestudies university missouri usa https guidesnyuedu polisci conflict peace security new york university usa subfields political science


'''school social work''' specialized area within broad profession social work school social work association america defines school social workers trained mental health professionals assist mental health concerns behavioral concerns positive behavioral support academic classroom support consultation teachers parents administrators well provide individual group counseling therapy school social workers utilize evidence based assessments interventions support children adolescents come diverse backgrounds learning behavioral difficulties mental disorders health social issues improve overall well remove barriers

Applied science
Social work 2
School social work


promote academic success also work crisis intervention group treatment child neglect abuse identification reporting integrating services culturally economically diverse populations working education policy issues history united kingdom margaret frere ran poor school inner london realised despite volunteers handing dinners clothing shoes poor children remained fed badly clothed realised unless homes visited assisted permanent improvement ref name frere london county council decided create school care service would modelled


charitable funds committees frere come believe care service unite home school education ref name frere ref new school care service relied volunteers initially organised two women employed london city council helen nussey one theodora morton boss head new service ref name nussey ref employed staff volunteers servicing every elementary school london ref name nussey united states school social work america began school year established simultaneously new york city boston


equal opportunity individual differences including differences rate learning pupil personnel workers attendance workers replaced visiting teachers later called school based caseworkers made different emphases methods work eg special schools psycho social assessment referrals family based intervention study truancy chicago supported findings need school attendance officers understood social ills community school social workers best equipped responsibility allen meares p nbsp mary richmond one founding figures


needs children later mental hygiene movement school social work concerned treating nervous disorders behavioral problems difficult children prevention social maladjustment beginning therapeutic role school social workers great depression like school counseling school social work also declined fair labor standards act progressive movement saw social work efforts initiated schools community settlement programs also share led growth case work group work


schools become established specialty pupil personnel laws called greater emphasis school social workers development school policies reforms school social workers affected governmental reforms education research like school counselors social workers called upon address student needs also addressing sources student troubles within school school social worker considered expert could help schools varying psychosocial issues school social work gave emphasis family community collaborative approach teachers others


school personnel united states passed education handicapped children act eahc pl gave special importance role school social work services legislation later renamed individuals disabilities education act latter part inflation rising alarming rate budget cuts threatened profession school social work especially many social workers replaced school personnel claiming similar roles national association social work nasw published newsletter bring attention issue


get responses practitioners nasw conducted research replicated findings others' studies roles school social workers models practice school social work continued expand school social workers included qualified personnel many pieces legislation especially elementary secondary school improvement amendments led nasw giving attention profession service meet needs category nasw 's active participation profession eventually led school social worker credential exams


since trend integrative collaborative services school social workers included american education act july school social workers across usa met edwardsville illinois formed school social work association america drafted first constitution laws organization june second national organization incorporated american council school social work reviewing direction profession concluding stronger enhanced national voice would benefit profession germany school social work germany began


german term school social work schulsozialarbeit dealt helping students social skills interpersonal relations personal growth initially institutionalized form school youth welfare providing underprivileged children support regarding healthy socialization adjustment school rising demands school settings german school social workers find solution problems school environment personal ones students german youth institute provided first social work training school social work concentration apart changing social economic paradigms st century


affects lives families wells children rises importance school social work german pedagogy india school social work india officially recognized government india st century school social workers prominent elite schools adopting american model school counseling based client person centered approach carl rogers others main objective whole welfare child central board secondary education refers school social workers health wellness teachers integrated child protection scheme icps strictly enforces requirement


school social worker school counselor psycho social service scheme instituted icps kerala guidance child development center cdc contracted social workers schools provide professional services services limited teenage girls excludes boys equal rights access program school social work values florence poole described school social worker skilled worker required determine needs within school met school social work service school social worker must develop method offering


service fit general organization structure school could identified using social work knowledge skill must define service contribution school personnel accept service contributes major purpose school values school social work upholds pupil valued individual regardless unique characteristic pupil allowed participate learning process individual differences recognized intervention aimed guiding pupils' goals


evidence based practice promising intervention methods supported empirically home school community relations model later school social workers used approach draws components existing multidisciplinary models social interaction model focusing working students social emotional difficulties problems families parents schools flexible dynamic reciprocal interaction model grounded systems theory transactional systems perspective model answer organize methodological diversity inherent role rather limiting individual change systems change school community pupil relations model leading social worker lela b costin


developed model focuses school community student interactions among three model school social workers serve mediators negotiators consultants advocates students school personnel listening student grievances also set informal groups students teachers school personnel model also focuses evaluation school social worker characteristics students school community conditions relational effect availability quality educational opportunities specific target groups students chemical dependency disabilities


role school social workers continues expand knowledge base level student need grows recognition opportunities address student need two examples role expansion include functional behavior assessment efficient empirically supported amenable approach undesirable school behavior accomplished classroom collaboration model teachers waller leadership role helping schools become foundational promoting mental health children adolescents manner similar role schools already play promoting physical health indeed roles played


school social workers grown substantially direct result student needs consultation education collaboration school personnel eg waller practice destined grow means insufficient resources used greatest advantage functions survey published school social work experts categorized five job function dimensions relationships services children families relationships services teachers school staff administrative professional tasks services school personnel community services research roles revealed important areas


frequently addressed consultation teamwork needs assessment program evaluation social work interventions systems developmental programs management role school social work falls short range administering diagnostic psychological tests http wwwsswaaorg school social work association america identifies general roles like psycho social assessment developmental psycho education student family counseling early intervention risk behaviors therapeutic behavioral intervention academic success personality development recreational therapies yearly assessment case management identifying students need help promote systematic change within school system stratify students groups


opportunities consultation special issues crisis intervention conflict resolution social workers deal stressful situations situations might complex others since every family brings different problems education training usa american states regulate school social work practice different ways approximately jurisdictions license certify school social workers require master 's degree social work msw smaller number states also license bachelors social work holders bsw degree national association social workers members also offers certified school social work specialist


c ssws certificate school social work revised school social work credential exam replace license certification individual states require school social workers council social work education cswe american accrediting body social work education bsw msw levels specifies foundational social work program components social work specialties areas defined individual accredited msw programs social work education grounded liberal arts contains coherent integrated professional foundation social work practice advanced practice curriculum


built graduate level associations professional journals school social workers work promote student learning well address academic non academic barriers learning develop comprehensive cohesive academic social supports understand apply diverse frameworks evidence based practice program development educational process work fullest extent major associations north america include school social work association america american council school social work canadian association school social workers attendance counsellors school social work journals published across globe including ''school social


work journal'' sponsored illinois association school social workers journal school social work jssw chennai india canadian journal school psychology sage publications canada see also references reading alderson j j models school social work practice r c sarri f f maple eds school community pp nbsp washington dc nasw allen meares p washington r welsh b l social work services schools nd ed boston allyn bacon http wwwcounselingorg cacrep cacrep standards htm thompson cl donna h


rudolph lb counseling children e cengage learning edward neukrug r charles fawcett essentials testing assessment practical guide counselors social workers psychologists rd edition lyn french reva klein therapeutic practice schools routledge raines j c evidence based practice school mental health new york oxford university press school social worker preparation materials test academic proficiency illinois licensure testing system retrieved november https wwwilnesinccom testviewaspxf html frag il prepmaterialshtml waller r j concise teacher 's guide functional behavioral assessment thousand oaks ca corwin waller r j


educator 's guide solving common behavior problems thousand oaks ca corwin garry martin joseph j pear behavior modification psychology press dombrowski stefan psychoeducational assessment report writing new york springer bell sm keys effective ld teaching practices pp nbsp knoxville tennessee center literacy studies http wwwclsutkedu pdf keys ld chapter papdf massat constable mcdonald flynn school social work practice policy research lyceum books shenk https wwwtheatlanticcom national archive truth iq truth iq atlantic frey aj alvarez dupper dr sabatino ca lindsey bc raines jc streeck f mcinerney norris


https webarchiveorg web http wwwsswaaorg general customasppage school social work practice model sswaa url https wwwadiorg journal fw teasleypdf citeseerx external links http wwwsocialworkercom new social worker online http wwwsswaaorg school social work association america http iesedgov ncee wwc works clearinghouse http wwwmsswaorg minnesota school social workers association founded going strong ever since http iassworg illinois association school social workers founded one oldest largest school social work organizations world http publicationscpa apcorg browse sections canadian journal psychiatry http wwwusergwdgde bbandel gjp homepagehtm german journal psychiatry http jscmontanaedu journal school counseling http wwwsswaaorg resource resmgr imported naswschoolsocialworkstandardspdf nasw standards school social


work services http wwwnaswdcorg practice school defaultasp nasw school social work http wwwacssworg http wwwcsweorg http wwwnaswdcorg http wwwschoolsocialworknoworg http wwwwsswaorg http wwwcacreporg directory https webarchiveorg web http sspwdpiwigov sspw sswguide wisconsin school social work practice guide lina goldman https booksgooglecom booksid jkvkmxkq c pg pa best practices grief work school students oup usa pp nbsp https webarchiveorg web http wwwtqmporg contentphp tutorials quantitative methods assessment social work education training occupations social care united states


'''philosophy biology''' subfield philosophy science deals epistemological metaphysical ethical issues biological biomedical sciences although philosophers science philosophers generally long interested biology eg aristotle descartes even kant philosophy biology emerged independent field philosophy philosophers science began paying increasing attention biology rise neodarwinism discovery structure dna recent advances genetic engineering key

Humanities
Philosophy
Applied philosophy
Philosophy of biology


ideas include reduction life processes biochemical reactions incorporation psychology broader neuroscience overview philosophers biology examine practices theories concepts biologists view toward better understanding biology scientific discipline group scientific fields scientific ideas philosophically analyzed consequences explored philosophers biology also explored understanding biology relates epistemology ethics aesthetics metaphysics whether progress biology compel modern societies rethink traditional values concerning aspects human life sometimes difficult


experiments variety model organisms order create logically tractable bodies data available reasoning search gene ontology species neutral graph theoretical representation biological types joined together formally defined relations philosophy biology today become visible well organized discipline journals conferences professional organizations largest latter international society history philosophy social studies biology ishpssb biological laws autonomy biology prominent question philosophy biology whether


distinct biological laws way distinct physical laws scientific reductionism view higher level biological processes reduce physical chemical processes example biological process respiration explained biochemical process involving oxygen carbon dioxide philosophers biology attempted answer question whether biological processes reduce physical chemical ones reductionist view would distinctly biological laws holism view emphasizes higher level processes phenomena larger level occur due pattern interactions elements


classical physics positivist approach used physics emphasised strict determinism opposed high probability led discovery universally applicable laws testable course experiment difficult biology beyond basic microbiological level use approach standard philosophy science seemed leave lot characterised living organisms namely historical component form inherited genotype philosophers biology also examined notion teleology argued scientists need notion cosmic teleology


explain predict evolution since one provided darwin teleological explanations relating purpose function remained useful biology example explaining structural configuration macromolecules study co operation social systems clarifying restricting use term teleology describe explain systems controlled strictly genetic programmes physical systems teleological questions framed investigated remaining committed physical nature underlying organic processes philosophers claim ideas charles darwin ended last remainders teleology


biology matter continues debated debates areas philosophy biology turn one views reductionism generally ref name ayala ref ref name ayala ayala francisco teleological explanations evolutionary biology ''nature 's purposes analyses function design biology'' mit press ref ethical implications biology sharon street claims contemporary evolutionary biological theory creates calls darwinian dilemma realists argues unlikely evaluative judgements morality tracking anything true world rather says likely moral judgements intuitions


promote reproductive fitness selected reason think true moral intuitions would selected well notes moral intuition people share someone close family member prima facie good reason help happens intuition likely increase reproductive fitness moral intuition almost one someone close family member reason help likely decrease reproductive fitness david copp responded street arguing realists avoid called dilemma


accepting calls quasi tracking position copp explains means quasi tracking likely moral positions given society would evolved least somewhat close truth justifies appealing claim purpose morality allow society meet certain basic needs social stability society successful moral codes would better perspectives overwhelming majority english speaking scholars operating banner ''philosophy biology'' work


within anglo american tradition analytical philosophy stream philosophic work continental philosophy seeks deal issues deriving biological science communication difficulties involved two traditions well known helped differences language gerhard vollmer often thought bridge despite education residence germany largely works anglo american tradition particularly pragmatism famous development konrad lorenz 's willard van orman quine 's idea evolutionary epistemology hand one scholar attempted give


continental account philosophy biology hans jonas ''the phenomenon life'' new york sets boldly offer ''existential interpretation biological facts'' starting organism 's response stimulus ending man confronting universe drawing upon detailed reading phenomenology unlikely much influence mainstream philosophy biology indicates vollmer 's work current powerful influence biological thought philosophy another account given late virginia tech philosopher marjorie grene another perspective philosophy biology


developments modern biological research biotechnologies influenced traditional philosophical ideas distinction biology technology well implications ethics society culture example work philosopher eugene thacker book ''biomedia'' building current research fields bioinformatics biocomputing well work history science particularly work georges canguilhem lily e kay hans j rg rheinberger thacker defines biomedia following way biomedia entail informatic recontextualization biological components processes ends may medical non medicalbiomedia continuously


make dual demand information materialize gene protein compounds point cannot overstated biomedia depend upon understanding biological informational immaterial approaches philosophy biology incorporate perspectives science studies science technology studies anthropology sociology science political economy includes work scholars melinda cooper luciana parisi paul rabinow kaushik sundar rajan nikolas rose catherine waldby philosophy biology historically associated closely theoretical evolutionary biology however recently diverse movements within philosophy biology


extent less strictly formalized physics besides classic mathematical analytical theory physics statistics based computer simulation conceptual verbal analysis ref name less formalized ref dougherty bittner argue biology progress science move rigorous mathematical modeling otherwise risk empty talk ref name dougherty dougherty er bittner ml epistemology cell systems perspective biological knowledge wiley ieee press p ref tumor biology research characterization cellular signaling processes largely focused identifying function individual genes


proteins janes ref name janes ref showed however context dependent nature signaling driving cell decisions demonstrating need system based approach ref name creixell ref lack attention context dependency preclinical research also illustrated observation preclinical testing rarely includes predictive biomarkers advanced clinical trials help distinguish patients likely benefit drug related journals professional organizations journals history philosophy life sciences journal history biology biology philosophy biological theory journal https ptpbioorg philosophy theory practice


biology studies history philosophy science professional organizations international society history philosophy social studies biology ishpssb see also references external links biology


'''mathematical chemistry''' area research engaged novel applications mathematics chemistry concerns principally mathematical modeling chemical phenomena mathematical chemistry also sometimes called '''computer chemistry''' confused computational chemistry major areas research mathematical chemistry include chemical graph theory deals topology mathematical study isomerism development topological descriptors indices find application quantitative structure property relationships chemical aspects group theory finds applications stereochemistry quantum chemistry another important area molecular knot

Natural science
Chemistry
Mathematical chemistry


ante graovac basic models mathematical chemistry molecular graph topological index international academy mathematical chemistry iamc founded dubrovnik croatia milan randi academy members world including six scientists awarded nobel prize see also bibliography molecular descriptors chemoinformatics r todeschini v consonni wiley vch weinheim mathematical chemistry series bonchev h rouvray eds gordon breach science publisher amsterdam chemical graph theory n trinajstic crc press boca raton mathematical concepts


basak c restrepo g villaveces j l bentham science ebooks external links https linkspringercom journal journal mathematical chemistry http wwwpmfkgacrs match match communications mathematical computer chemistry http wwwiamc onlineorg international academy mathematical chemistry chemistry theoretical chemistry application specific graphs cheminformatics


'''cooperative learning''' educational approach aims organize classroom activities academic social learning experiences much cooperative learning merely arranging students groups described structuring positive interdependence ref name team game tounament ref students must work groups complete tasks collectively toward academic goals unlike individual learning competitive nature students learning cooperatively capitalize one another 's resources skills asking one another information evaluating one another 's ideas monitoring one another 's work etc ref name prezicom ref ref name chiu ref furthermore teacher 's role changes

Applied science
Education
Curriculum and instruction
Cooperative learning


giving information facilitating students' learning ref name team game tournament ref ref name eprintsunyacid ref everyone succeeds group succeeds ross smyth describe successful cooperative learning tasks intellectually demanding creative open ended involve higher order thinking tasks cooperative learning also linked increased levels student satisfaction five essential elements identified successful incorporation cooperative learning classroom positive interdependence individual group accountability promotive interaction face face teaching students required interpersonal small group skills group processing according johnson johnson 's meta analysis students cooperative learning settings compared


individualistic competitive learning settings achieve reason better gain higher self esteem like classmates learning tasks perceived social support ref name referencea ref history prior world war ii social theorists allport watson shaw mead began establishing cooperative learning theory finding group work effective efficient quantity quality overall productivity compared working alone ref name gilles gilles rm adrian f cooperative learning social intellectual outcomes learning groups london farmer press ref however n't researchers may doob ref


name maydoob may doob l cooperation competition new york social sciences research council ref found people cooperate work together achieve shared goals successful attaining outcomes strived independently complete goals furthermore found independent achievers greater likelihood displaying competitive behaviors philosophers psychologists john dewey kurt lewin morton deutsh also influenced cooperative learning theory practiced today ref name sharan ref dewey believed important students develop knowledge social skills could used outside


classroom democratic society theory portrayed students active recipients knowledge discussing information answers groups engaging learning process together rather passive receivers information eg teacher talking students listening lewin 's contributions cooperative learning based ideas establishing relationships group members order successfully carry achieve learning goal deutsh 's contribution cooperative learning positive social interdependence idea student responsible contributing group knowledge ref name sharan since david roger johnson


actively contributing cooperative learning theory identified cooperative learning promoted mutual liking better communication high acceptance support well demonstrated increase variety thinking strategies among individuals group ref name johnson johnson johnson r learning together alone cooperation competition individualization englewood cliffs nj prentice hall ref students showed competitive lacked interaction trust others well emotional involvement students johnson johnson published ''five elements'' positive interdependence individual accountability face face interaction social skills


interdependence may differentiated social dependence independence helplessness social dependence exists goal achievement person affected person b 's actions reverse true social independence exists goal achievement person unaffected person b 's actions vice versa social helplessness exists neither person influence goal achievement ref name referencea kurt lewin proposed essence group interdependence among members results group dynamic whole change state member subgroup


changes state member subgroup group members made interdependent common goals members perceive common goals state tension arises motivates movement toward accomplishment goals morton deutsch extended lewin 's notions examining tension systems different people may interrelated conceptualized two types social interdependence positive negative positive interdependence exists positive correlation among individuals' goal attainments individuals perceive attain goal individuals cooperatively linked attain goals


positive interdependence results promotive interaction negative interdependence exists negative correlation among individuals' goal achievements individual perceive obtain goals individuals competitively like fail obtain goals negative interdependence results oppositional content interaction interdependence exists correlation among individuals' goal achievements individuals perceive achievement goals unrelated goal achievement others basic premise social interdependence theory participants' goals structured determines ways interact


interaction pattern determine outcomes situation types formal cooperative learning structured facilitated monitored educator time used achieve group goals task work eg completing unit course material assignment adapted type learning groups vary people discussions lasting minutes entire period types formal cooperative learning strategies include jigsaw technique assignments involve group problem solving decision making laboratory experiment assignments peer review


work eg editing writing assignments experience developing skill type learning often facilitates informal base learning ref name jjh johnson johnson r holubec e advanced cooperative learning edin mn interaction book company ref jigsaw activities wonderful student assumes role teacher given topic charge teaching topic classmate idea students teach something already learned material informal cooperative learning incorporates group learning passive teaching drawing attention material small groups throughout lesson


discussion end lesson typically involves groups two eg turn partner discussions groups often temporary change lesson lesson much unlike formal learning students may lab partners throughout entire semester contributing one another 's knowledge science discussions typically four components include formulating response questions asked educator sharing responses questions asked partner listening partner 's responses question creating new well developed answer type learning enables student


process consolidate retain information ref name jjh group based cooperative learning peer groups gather together long term eg course year several years high school post secondary studies develop contribute one another 's knowledge mastery topic regularly discussing material encouraging one another supporting academic personal success group members base group learning eg long term study group effective learning complex subject matter course semester establishes caring supportive peer relationships turn motivates


strengthens student 's commitment group 's education increasing self esteem self worth base group approaches also make students accountable educating peer group event member absent lesson effective individual learning well social support elements johnson johnson posited five variables mediate effectiveness cooperation ref name referencea brown ciuffetelli parker siltala discuss '' basic essential elements'' cooperative learning ref name brown brown h ciuffetelli dc eds foundational methods understanding teaching learning toronto pearson education ref ref


name siltala siltala r innovativity cooperative learning business life teaching university turku ref positive interdependence students must fully participate put forth effort within group group member task role responsibility therefore must believe responsible learning group face face promotive interaction members promote 's success students explain one another learning assist one another understanding completion assignments individual group accountability student must demonstrate mastery content studied


student accountable learning work therefore eliminating social loafing social skills social skills must taught order successful cooperative learning occur skills include effective communication interpersonal group skills leadership decision making trust building friendship development communication conflict management skills group processing group processing occurs group members reflect member actions helpful b make decision actions continue change purpose group processing clarify improve effectiveness members


carry processes necessary achieve group 's goals order student achievement improve considerably two characteristics must present ref name brown brown h ciuffetelli dc eds foundational methods understanding teaching learning p toronto pearson education ref designing cooperative learning tasks reward structures individual responsibility accountability must identified individuals must know exactly responsibilities accountable group order reach goal group members must involved order group complete task order


occur member must task responsible cannot completed group member great number cooperative learning techniques available cooperative learning techniques utilize student pairing others utilize small groups four five students hundreds techniques created structures use content area among easy implement structures think pair share think pair write variations round robin reciprocal teaching technique ref name schul je schul je revisiting old friend practice promise cooperative learning twenty first


century social studies ref well known cooperative learning technique jigsaw jigsaw ii reverse jigsaw educators think critical thinking creative thinking empathetic thinking activities give students pairs work together ref name referenceb ref think pair share originally developed frank lyman think pair share allows students contemplate posed question problem silently student may write thoughts simply brainstorm head prompted student pairs peer discusses idea listens ideas


partner following pair dialogue teacher solicits responses whole group ref name schul je teachers use technique n't worry students volunteering student already idea heads therefore teacher call anyone increase discussion productivity jigsaw students members two groups home group expert group heterogeneous home group students assigned different topic topic identified students leave home group group students assigned topic


differs original jigsaw teaching portion activity reverse jigsaw technique students expert groups teach whole class rather return home groups teach content inside outside circle cooperative learning strategy students form two concentric circles take turns rotation face new partners answer discuss teacher 's questions method used gather variety information generate new ideas solve problems ref name gregorykuzmich ref reciprocal teaching brown paliscar developed reciprocal teaching


empirical studies show efficacy reciprocal teaching even subjects mathematics instance found children taught using strategy showed higher levels accuracy mathematical computations comparison success obtained cases students learning diverse situations learning disabilities risk academic failure among others studies also cover learners elementary college levels williams students collaborate answer big


question learning objective group differentiated questions increase cognitive demands allow students progress meet learning objective stad student teams achievement divisions students placed small groups teams class entirety presented lesson students subsequently tested individuals graded team 's performance although tests taken individually students encouraged work together improve overall performance group rally table rally table another process cooperative learning process class


bring points study assigned groups since tournament based material specific answer '''characteristics''' ref name team game tounament students working hetrogeneous groups playing games makes students move homogeneous higher level groups understanding 's skills method students compete tournament designated time study forming groups students stronger students compete weaker students winner respective teams moved high level team


students n't score well moved easier level ensures students ability competing ref name utschoolsca ref '''purpose''' tgt enhances student cooperation friendly competition allows different students different capabilities work together acquire mastery topics assigned students independence interactions different students benefit activity holds students responsible material prepare ref name prezicom '''advantages''' involvement students higher learning students get excited learning


knowledge obtained student rather solely teacher fosters positive attitude students cooperation tolerance trains students express convey ideas '''disadvantages''' ref name team game tournament time consuming new teachers requires adequate facilities infrastructure create confusion classroom translate college environment study individualistic allows voice dominant personality individualistic study leaves slower student lowers self esteem lower student constantly


dominated creates classroom behavior problems allows noise classroom making difficult concentration creates negative environment achiever may lowered grade lack group work world already functions groups police force unions etc without teaching collective study tgt effective tool teach mathematics motivates helps students acquire skills mastery help peer healthy competition ref name eprintsunyacid research evidence research missing kagan


structures peer reviewed studies kagan structure learning outcomes research cooperative learning demonstrated overwhelmingly positive results confirmed cooperative modes cross curricular ref name brown brown h ciuffetelli dc eds foundational methods understanding teaching learning p toronto pearson education ref cooperative learning requires students engage group activities increase learning adds important dimensions ref name brown positive outcomes include academic gains improved race relations increased personal social development ref name brown students fully participate group activities exhibit collaborative behaviors provide constructive feedback cooperate groups


higher likelihood receiving higher test scores course grades end semester ref name tsay brady ref cooperative learning active pedagogy fosters higher academic achievement ref name tsay brady cooperative learning also found increase attendance time task enjoyment school classes motivation independence benefits applicability cooperative learning ref name brown students demonstrate academic achievement cooperative learning methods usually equally effective ability levels cooperative learning effective ethnic groups student perceptions one another enhanced given opportunity


cooperative learning many limitations could cause process complicated first perceived sharan describes constant evolution cooperative learning threat cooperative learning constantly changing possibility teachers may become confused lack complete understanding method fact cooperative learning dynamic practice means used effectively many situations also teachers get habit relying cooperative learning way keep students busy cooperative learning consume time


evaluations due bullying eliminate concerns confidential evaluation processes may help increase evaluation strength ref name tsay brady group hate group hate defined feeling dread arises facing possibility work group students develop group hate individual performance group suffers turn group whole suffers many factors lead students experience feelings group hate crucial elements include past bad experience group fatigue overuse cooperative learning simply


liking work alone students given choice choose learning activities group based individual work students often evaluate several factors lead chose would like work groups nbsp three common factors listed likely get good grade difficult task amount effort involved often students choose work individually feel better job individually group factors lead


negative continually work people constantly letting difficult work nbsp unfortunately common group members exhibit signs loafing within group loafing loafing defined students n't take responsibility role even smallest role group ref name ref students expect group based learning fair everyone within group order cooperative learning nbsp fair work load must shared equally within group nbsp many


many ways concern equity warp function group therefore make groups effective important thing instructor defuse student resistance cooperative learning nbsp focus attention issue fairness ref name blockquote order students develop group hate instructors must aware process take steps insure project fair difficult task often difficult gauge students loafing project taking place unless students


group bring problem attention instructor assessment groups common practice groups self assess project complete however assessment achilles heel cooperative learning students often assess group positively hopes return assessed way nbsp often leads inaccurate assessments group nbsp instructors one greatest pedagogical challenges group communication course help students realize benefits cooperative learning nbsp outweigh costs involved ref


problem solving ref name instructors able effectively accomplish positive step towards eliminating group hate nbsp group hate exists almost student groups nbsp whether past bad experiences concerns project play worries group members loafing knowing effectively manage conflict may arise within group nbsp however group based learning important aspect higher education continue used companies turning towards team based models order become efficient work


must endure students reported positive experiences classes utilizing group learning techniques ref name order better understand phenomenon cooperative learning nbsp crucial looked student 's perspective nbsp important understand makes cooperative learning nbsp successful students unsuccessful others nbsp nbsp nbsp cooperation vs competition vs individualistic efforts many reasons competitors tend achieve less would working cooperatively also many studies claiming cooperative learning effective competitive learning


participants expect successful achieving goals directions completing tasks clear specific participants need clarification proceed evaluate work accomplished used subsequently cooperative effort see also st century skills active learning collaborative learning organizational learning learning teaching learning environment thesis circle references reading aldrich h shimazoe j group work gratifying understanding overcoming resistance cooperative learning college teaching avci


f kirbaslar f g sesen b instructional curriculum based cooperative learning related structure matter properties learning achievement motivation attitude ''south african journal education'' '' '' baker clark j https wwwtandfonlinecom doi abs journalcode ceji cooperative learning double edged sword cooperative learning model use diverse student groups intercultural education kose sahin ergu gezer k effects cooperative learning experience eight grade students' achievement attitude toward science education lynch application online discussion cooperative


learning strategies online blended college courses college student journal naested potvin b waldron p understanding landscape teaching toronto pearson education scheurell virtual warrenshburg using cooperative learning internet social studies classroom social studies external links http wwwco operationorg cooperative learning institute nonprofit institute established advance understanding practice cooperation constructive conflict resolution http wwwteampluseducation team commercial software remote designed help instructor course effectively manage student teams education reform educational psychology curricula


philosophy education pedagogy standards based education peer learning educational practices


grouping individuals species arranging species larger groups giving groups names thus producing classification ref name judd ref field science major component systematics encompasses description identification nomenclature classification ref name simpson ref science classification biology arrangement organisms classification science classification applied living organisms including study means formation species etc analysis organism 's characteristics purpose classification ref name henderson ref systematics studies phylogeny provide pattern translated classification

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Classification
Taxonomic classification


names inclusive field taxonomy listed desirable unusual definition varied definitions either place taxonomy sub area systematics definition invert relationship definition appear consider two terms synonymous disagreement whether biological nomenclature considered part taxonomy definitions part systematics outside taxonomy ref name herbarium ref example definition paired following definition systematics places nomenclature outside taxonomy ref name henderson ''systematics'' study identification taxonomy nomenclature organisms including classification


patterns particular taxon analysis may executed basis combination various available kinds characters morphological anatomical palynological biochemical genetic monograph complete revision revision comprehensive taxon information given particular time entire world partial revisions may restricted sense may use available character sets limited spatial scope revision results conformation new insights relationships subtaxa


within taxon study may result change classification subtaxa identification new subtaxa merger previous subtaxa alpha beta taxonomy term '''alpha taxonomy''' primarily used today refer discipline finding describing naming taxa particularly species ref name biologydiscussion earlier literature term different meaning referring morphological taxonomy products research end th century william bertram turrill introduced term alpha taxonomy series papers published


discussed philosophy possible future directions discipline taxonomy blockquote increasing desire amongst taxonomists consider problems wider viewpoints investigate possibilities closer co operation cytological ecological genetics colleagues acknowledge revision expansion perhaps drastic nature aims methods may desirable turrill suggested accepting older invaluable taxonomy based structure conveniently designated alpha possible glimpse far distant taxonomy built upon wide basis morphological


physiological facts possible one place found observational experimental data relating even indirectly constitution subdivision origin behaviour species taxonomic groups ideals may said never completely realized however great value acting permanent stimulants even vague ideal omega taxonomy may progress little way greek alphabet us please thinking groping beta taxonomy blockquote turrill thus explicitly excludes alpha taxonomy


various areas study includes within taxonomy whole ecology physiology genetics cytology excludes phylogenetic reconstruction alpha taxonomy later authors used term different sense mean delimitation species subspecies taxa ranks using whatever investigative techniques available including sophisticated computational laboratory techniques ref name biologydiscussion thus ernst mayr defined '''beta taxonomy''' classification ranks higher species blockquote understanding biological meaning variation evolutionary origin groups related species even


important second stage taxonomic activity sorting species groups relatives taxa arrangement hierarchy higher categories activity term classification denotes also referred beta taxonomy blockquote microtaxonomy macrotaxonomy species defined particular group organisms gives rise practical theoretical problems referred species problem scientific work deciding define species called microtaxonomy ref name biologydiscussion ref extension macrotaxonomy study groups higher taxonomic ranks subgenus


ref name biologydiscussion history descriptions taxonomic history attempt date taxonomy ancient civilizations truly scientific attempt classify organisms occur th century earlier works primarily descriptive focused plants useful agriculture medicine number stages scientific thinking early taxonomy based arbitrary criteria called artificial systems including linnaeus 's system sexual classification plants course linnaeus 's classification animals entitled systema naturae system nature implying least believed


artificial system later came systems based complete consideration characteristics taxa referred natural systems de jussieu de candolle bentham hooker classifications described empirical patterns pre evolutionary thinking publication charles darwin 's ''on origin species'' led new explanation classifications based evolutionary relationships concept phyletic systems onwards approach typified eichler engler advent cladistic methodology


led classifications based sole criterion monophyly supported presence synapomorphies since evidentiary basis expanded data molecular genetics part complements traditional morphology pre linnaean early taxonomists naming classifying human surroundings likely begun onset language distinguishing poisonous plants edible plants integral survival human communities medicinal plant illustrations show egyptian wall paintings c bc indicating uses different species understood basic taxonomy place ref name manktelow manktelow


http atbieu summerschool files summerschool manktelow syllabuspdf history taxonomy lecture dept systematic biology uppsala university ref ancient times ''description rare animals'' song dynasty painter huang quan organisms first classified aristotle greece bc stay island lesbos ref name palaeos ref ref name britannica taxonomy classified beings parts modern terms ''attributes'' live birth four legs laying eggs blood warm bodied ref name roanoke ref divided living things two groups plants animals ref name palaeos groups animals ''anhaima'' animals without


blood translated invertebrates ''enhaima'' animals blood roughly vertebrates well groups like sharks cetaceans still commonly used today student theophrastus greece bc carried tradition mentioning plants uses ''historia plantarum'' several plant groups currently still recognized traced back theophrastus ''cornus'' ''crocus'' ''narcissus'' ref name palaeos medieval taxonomy middle ages largely based aristotelian system ref name roanoke additions concerning philosophical existential order creatures included concepts great


suited abstract philosophy pragmatic taxonomy ref name palaeos renaissance early modern renaissance age enlightenment categorizing organisms became prevalent ref name palaeos taxonomic works became ambitious enough replace ancient texts sometimes credited development sophisticated optical lenses allowed morphology organisms studied much greater detail one earliest authors take advantage leap technology italian physician andrea cesalpino called first taxonomist magnum opus ''de plantis'' came


joseph pitton de tournefort france work ''institutiones rei herbariae'' included species genera directly influenced linnaeus text used young student ref name manktelow linnaean era title page ''systema naturae'' leiden swedish botanist carl linnaeus ref name roanoke ushered new era taxonomy major works ''systema naturae'' st edition ''species plantarum'' ''systema naturae'' th edition revolutionized modern taxonomy works implemented standardized binomial naming system animal plant species ref name britannica


linnaean biology url status live archive url https webarchiveorg web https wwwbritannicacom science taxonomy linnaean system archive date april encyclopedia encyclopedia britannica ref proved elegant solution chaotic disorganized taxonomic literature introduced standard class order genus nbsp species also made possible identify plants animals book using smaller parts flower ref name britannica linnaean thus linnaean system born still used essentially way today th century ref name britannica linnaean currently plant animal taxonomists regard linnaeus' work starting point


valid names respectively names published dates referred pre linnaean considered valid exception spiders published ''svenska spindlar'' even taxonomic names published linnaeus dates considered pre linnaean ref name manktelow modern system classification evolution vertebrates class level width spindles indicating number families spindle diagrams typical evolutionary taxonomy relationship expressed cladogram typical cladistics pattern groups nested within groups specified linnaeus' classifications plants animals patterns began


represented dendrograms animal plant kingdoms toward end th century well charles darwin 's ''on origin species'' published ref name britannica taxonomy pattern natural system entail generating process evolution may implied inspiring early transmutationist thinkers among early works exploring idea transmutation species erasmus darwin 's charles darwin 's grandfather 's ''zo nomia'' jean baptiste lamarck 's ''philosophie zoologique'' ref name biologydiscussion idea popularized anglophone world speculative widely read ''vestiges


natural history creation'' published anonymously robert chambers darwin 's theory general acceptance quickly appeared classification reflect darwinian principle common descent ref name britannica since linnaeus biology url status live archive url https webarchiveorg web https wwwbritannicacom science taxonomy classification since linnaeus archive date april encyclopedia encyclopedia britannica ref tree life representations became popular scientific works known fossil groups incorporated one first modern groups tied fossil ancestors birds using newly discovered fossils ''archaeopteryx'' ''hesperornis'' thomas henry huxley pronounced evolved dinosaurs group formally named richard owen resulting


description dinosaurs giving rise ancestors birds essential hallmark evolutionary taxonomic thinking fossil groups found recognized late th early th centuries palaeontologists worked understand history animals ages linking together known groups modern evolutionary synthesis early essentially modern understanding evolution major groups place evolutionary taxonomy based linnaean taxonomic ranks two terms largely interchangeable modern use cladistic method


called polyphyletic ref name mike taylor ref name ncse monophyletic groups recognized diagnosed basis synapomorphies shared derived character states cladistic classifications compatible traditional linnean taxonomy codes zoological botanical nomenclature alternative system nomenclature ''international code phylogenetic nomenclature'' ''phylocode'' proposed whose intent regulate formal naming clades ref name phylocode taxonomy date july work biology discussion url status live archive url https webarchiveorg web http wwwbiologydiscussioncom angiosperm taxonomy angiosperm phylocode concept history advantages taxonomy archive date april ref linnaean ranks optional ''phylocode'' intended coexist current rank based codes ref name phylocode remains


seen whether systematic community adopt ''phylocode'' reject favor current systems nomenclature employed modified needed years kingdoms domains basic scheme modern classification many levels used domain highest level within life new disputed well linnaeus plants animals considered separate kingdoms ref name kingdom classification ref linnaeus used top rank dividing physical world vegetable animal mineral kingdoms advances microscopy made classification microorganisms possible number


kingdoms increased five six kingdom systems common domains relatively new grouping first proposed carl woese 's three domain system generally accepted later one main characteristic three domain method separation archaea bacteria previously grouped single kingdom bacteria kingdom also sometimes called monera ref name kingdom classification eukaryota organisms whose cells contain nucleus small number scientists include sixth kingdom archaea accept domain method ref name kingdom classification thomas cavalier smith published extensively classification


protists recently proposed neomura clade groups together archaea eucarya would evolved bacteria precisely actinobacteria classification treated archaeobacteria part subkingdom kingdom bacteria ie rejected three domain system entirely ref name cavaliersmith stefan luketa proposed five dominion system adding prionobiota acellular without nucleic acid virusobiota acellular ''with'' nucleic acid traditional three domains ref name luketa ref center center recent comprehensive classifications partial classifications exist many individual groups organisms revised replaced new information becomes available


however comprehensive published treatments life rarer recent examples adl et al ref name adl et al ref ref name adl et al ref covers eukaryotes emphasis protists ruggiero et al ref name ruggiero et al ref covering eukaryotes prokaryotes rank order although exclude fossil representatives ref name ruggiero et al separate compilation ruggiero covers extant taxa rank family database driven treatments include encyclopedia life global biodiversity information facility ncbi taxonomy database interim register marine nonmarine genera open tree life


biological classification uses taxonomic ranks including among others order inclusive least inclusive domain kingdom phylum class order family genus species strain taxonomic descriptions type specimen ''nepenthes smilesii'' tropical pitcher plant definition taxon encapsulated description diagnosis combined set rules governing definition taxa naming publication new taxa governed sets rules ref name herbarium zoology nomenclature commonly used ranks superfamily subspecies regulated ''international


code zoological nomenclature'' ''iczn code'' fields phycology mycology botany naming taxa governed ''international code nomenclature algae fungi plants'' ''icn'' initial description taxon involves five main requirements taxon must given name based letters latin alphabet binomial new species uninomial ranks name must unique ie homonym description must based least one name bearing type specimen include statements appropriate attributes


either describe define taxon differentiate taxa diagnosis ''iczn code'' article ''icn'' article codes deliberately separate defining content taxon circumscription defining name first four requirements must published work obtainable numerous identical copies permanent scientific record however often much information included like geographic range taxon ecological notes chemistry behavior etc researchers arrive taxa varies depending available data resources methods vary simple quantitative


largely superseded cladistic analyses phenetic methods distinguish common ancestral plesiomorphic traits new common apomorphic traits however certain phenetic methods neighbor joining found way cladistics reasonable approximation phylogeny advanced methods bayesian inference computationally expensive databases modern taxonomy uses database technologies search catalogue classifications documentation commonly used database comprehensive databases ''catalogue life'' attempts list every documented species catalogue listed nbsp million species kingdoms


april claiming coverage three quarters estimated species known modern science ref name catalogue life ref see also automated species identification bacterial taxonomy cladogram cladistics cluster analysis consortium barcode life consortium european taxonomic facilities dendrogram genetypes glossary scientific naming identification biology ''incertae sedis'' open tree life parataxonomy phenogram set theory taxonomy general virus classification notes references bibliography external links http wwwnhmacuk nature online science natural history taxonomy systematics taxonomy indexhtml taxonomy http wwwnhmacuk ''natural history museum london'' https wwwncbinlmnihgov taxonomy taxonomy https wwwncbinlmnihgov ncbi ''national center biotechnology


small integer valued eg number occurrences particular word email real valued eg measurement blood pressure classifiers work comparing observations previous observations means similarity distance function algorithm implements classification especially concrete implementation known '''classifier''' term classifier sometimes also refers mathematical function implemented classification algorithm maps input data category terminology across fields quite varied statistics classification often done logistic regression similar procedure properties

Applied science
Library and museum studies
Classification
Statistical classification


observations termed explanatory variables independent variables regressors etc categories predicted known outcomes considered possible values dependent variable machine learning observations often known ''instances'' explanatory variables termed ''features'' grouped feature vector possible categories predicted ''classes'' fields may use different terminology eg community ecology term classification normally refers cluster analysis relation problems classification clustering examples general problem pattern recognition


assignment sort output value given input value examples regression assigns real valued output input sequence labeling assigns class member sequence values example part speech tagging assigns part speech word input sentence parsing assigns parse tree input sentence describing syntactic structure sentence etc common subclass classification probabilistic classification algorithms nature use statistical inference find best class


given instance unlike algorithms simply output best class probabilistic algorithms output probability instance member possible classes best class normally selected one highest probability however algorithm numerous advantages non probabilistic classifiers output confidence value associated choice general classifier known ''confidence weighted classifier'' correspondingly ''abstain'' confidence choosing particular output low probabilities


generated probabilistic classifiers effectively incorporated larger machine learning tasks way partially completely avoids problem ''error propagation'' frequentist procedures early work statistical classification undertaken fisher context two group problems leading fisher 's linear discriminant function rule assigning group new observation ref name g gnanadesikan r ''methods statistical data analysis multivariate observations'' wiley p ndash ref early work assumed data values within two groups multivariate normal distribution extension context


two groups also considered restriction imposed classification rule linear ref name g later work multivariate normal distribution allowed classifier nonlinear several classification rules derived based different adjustments mahalanobis distance new observation assigned group whose centre lowest adjusted distance observation bayesian procedures unlike frequentist procedures bayesian classification procedures provide natural way taking account available information relative sizes different groups within overall population bayesian procedures tend computationally


expensive days markov chain monte carlo computations developed approximations bayesian clustering rules devised bayesian procedures involve calculation group membership probabilities provide informative outcome simple attribution single group label new observation binary multiclass classification classification thought two separate problems binary classification multiclass classification binary classification better understood task two classes involved whereas multiclass classification involves assigning object one several classes since many classification methods developed specifically


binary classification multiclass classification often requires combined use multiple binary classifiers feature vectors algorithms describe individual instance whose category predicted using feature vector individual measurable properties instance property termed feature also known statistics explanatory variable independent variable although features may may statistically independent features may variously binary eg categorical eg b ab blood type ordinal eg large medium small integer valued eg number occurrences


particular word email real valued eg measurement blood pressure instance image feature values might correspond pixels image instance piece text feature values might occurrence frequencies different words algorithms work terms discrete data require real valued integer valued data ' 'discretized'' groups eg less greater linear classifiers large number algorithms classification phrased terms


discrete choice theory instances represent people categories represent choices score considered utility associated person ''i'' choosing category ''k'' algorithms basic setup known linear classifiers distinguishes procedure determining training optimal weights coefficients way score interpreted examples algorithms logistic regression multinomial logistic regression probit regression perceptron algorithm support vector machines linear discriminant analysis algorithms since single form classification appropriate data sets large toolkit classification algorithms


developed commonly used include linear classifiers fisher 's linear discriminant logistic regression naive bayes classifier perceptron support vector machines least squares support vector machines quadratic classifiers kernel estimation k nearest neighbor boosting meta algorithm decision trees random forests neural networks genetic programming gene expression programming multi expression programming linear genetic programming learning vector quantization evaluation classifier performance depends greatly characteristics data classified single classifier works best given problems phenomenon may explained free lunch theorem various empirical tests performed compare classifier


performance find characteristics data determine classifier performance determining suitable classifier given problem however still art science measures precision recall popular metrics used evaluate quality classification system recently receiver operating characteristic roc curves used evaluate tradeoff true false positive rates classification algorithms performance metric uncertainty coefficient advantage simple accuracy affected relative sizes different classes ref name mills ref


penalize algorithm simply ' 'rearranging'' classes application domains classification many applications employed data mining procedure others detailed statistical modeling undertaken computer vision medical imaging medical image analysis optical character recognition video tracking drug discovery development toxicogenomics quantitative structure activity relationship geostatistics speech recognition handwriting recognition biometric identification biological classification statistical natural language processing document classification internet search engines credit scoring pattern recognition recommender system micro array classification see also artificial intelligence binary classification class membership probabilities classification rule compound term processing


data mining data warehouse fuzzy logic information retrieval list datasets machine learning research machine learning recommender system references machine learning


trading status using world system differentiation core countries blue semi periphery countries purple periphery countries red based list dunn kawana brewer '''world systems theory''' also known '''world systems analysis''' '''the world systems perspective''' ref name iw immanuel wallerstein world systems analysis ''world system history'' ed george modelski ''encyclopedia life support systems'' eolss developed auspices unesco eolss publishers oxford uk ref multidisciplinary approach world history social change emphasizes world system nation states primary exclusive unit social analysis ref name iw world system

Applied science
Business
Systems science
Systems theory
World-systems theory


refers inter regional transnational division labor divides world core countries semi periphery countries periphery countries ref name tb ref core countries focus higher skill capital intensive production rest world focuses low skill labor intensive production extraction raw materials ref name glob constantly reinforces dominance core countries ref name glob nonetheless system dynamic characteristics part result revolutions transport technology individual states gain lose core semi periphery periphery status time ref name glob structure unified division


wallerstein world system theory august ref wallerstein traces rise capitalist world economy long th century c rise capitalism view accidental outcome protracted crisis feudalism c europe west used advantages gained control world economy presided development spread industrialization capitalist economy indirectly resulting unequal development ref name tb ref name glob ref name ph though commentators refer wallerstein 's project world systems theory consistently rejects term wallerstein world systems analysis mode


analysis aims transcend structures knowledge inherited th century especially definition capitalism divisions within social sciences social sciences history wallerstein world systems analysis knowledge movement seeks discern totality paraded labels human sciences indeed well beyond must invent new language wallerstein insists transcend illusions three supposedly distinctive arenas society economy politics trinitarian structure knowledge grounded another even grander modernist


architecture distinction biophysical worlds including within bodies social ones one question therefore whether able justify something called social science twenty first century separate sphere knowledge many scholars contributed significant work knowledge movement ref name tb origins influences world systems theory traces emerged ref name iw roots found sociology developed highly interdisciplinary field ref name tb world systems theory aiming replace modernization theory wallerstein criticised three reasons ref name tb focus nation state


unit analysis assumption single path evolutionary development countries disregard transnational structures constrain local national development three major predecessors world systems theory annales school marxist tradition dependency theory ref name tb ref name camv carlos mart nez vela http webmitedu esd www notebook worldsystempdf world systems theory paper prepared http webmitedu esd www notebook newnotebookhtm research seminar engineering systems november ref annales school tradition represented notably fernand braudel influenced wallerstein focus long term processes geo ecological regions units analysis marxism added stress


social conflict focus capital accumulation process competitive class struggles focus relevant totality transitory nature social forms dialectical sense motion conflict contradiction world systems theory also significantly influenced dependency theory neo marxist explanation development processes influences world systems theory come scholars karl polanyi nikolai kondratiev joseph schumpeter particularly research business cycles concepts three basic modes economic organization reciprocal redistributive market modes wallerstein reframed discussion mini systems world


empires world economies wallerstein sees development capitalist world economy detrimental large proportion world 's population wallerstein views period since age transition give way future world system world systems whose configuration cannot determined advance world systems thinkers include oliver cox samir amin giovanni arrighi andre gunder frank immanuel wallerstein major contributions christopher chase dunn beverly silver volker bornschier janet abu lughod thomas hall li minqi kunibert raffer theotonio dos santos dale tomich https jasonwmoorecom jason w moore others ref


abstractly conceived secondly core states exploit poor states dependency theory proposes capitalism organised around inter regional transnational division labor rather international division labour industrial revolution example english capitalists exploited slaves unfree workers cotton zones american south peripheral region within semiperipheral country united states largely weberian perspective fernando henrique cardoso described main tenets dependency theory follows financial technological penetration periphery semi periphery countries developed capitalist core countries produces


unbalanced economic structure within peripheral societies central countries leads limitations upon self sustained growth periphery helps appearance specific patterns class relations require modifications role state guarantee functioning economy political articulation society contains within foci inarticulateness structural imbalance dependency world system theory propose poverty backwardness poor countries caused peripheral position international division labor since capitalist world system evolved


distinction central peripheral states grown diverged recognizing tripartite pattern division labor world systems analysis criticized dependency theory bimodal system cores peripheries immanuel wallerstein best known version world systems approach developed immanuel wallerstein ref name ph wallerstein notes world systems analysis calls unidisciplinary historical social science contends modern disciplines products th century deeply flawed separate logics manifest example ' 'de facto'' overlap analysis among scholars disciplines ref


name iw wallerstein offers several definitions world system defining briefly cited http wwwsociologyemoryedu globalization theories html ref also offered longer definition wallerstein defined wallerstein characterizes world system set mechanisms redistributes surplus value ''periphery'' ''core'' terminology ''core'' developed industrialized part world ''periphery'' underdeveloped typically raw materials exporting poor part world ''market'' means ''core'' exploits ''periphery'' apart wallerstein defines four temporal features world system


circumstances brings end system wallerstein 's view three kinds historical systems across human history mini systems anthropologists call bands tribes small chiefdoms two types world systems one politically unified single state world empires multi polity world economies ref name iw ref name tb world systems larger ethnically diverse modern world system capitalist world economy unique first world system emerged around geographically expanded across entire planet defined


argue theory though ignores local efforts innovation nothing global economy labor patterns implemented caribbean sugar plantations modern global topics easily traced back world systems theory global talk climate change future industrial corporations world systems theory help explain creation g group coalition peripheral semi peripheral states wanting seat global climate discussion table group formed members


advocate multilateral decision making since creation g members collaborated two main aims decreasing vulnerability based relative size economic influence improving outcomes national development world systems theory also utilized trace co sub sub emissions damage ozone layer levels world economic entrance involvement affect damage country earth general scientists make assumptions country 's co sub sub emissions based gdp higher exporting countries countries debt countries social structure turmoil land upper periphery tier


though research must done arena scientists call core semi periphery periphery labels indicators co sub sub intensity health realm studies shown effect less industrialized countries periphery 's acceptance packaged foods beverages loaded sugars preservatives core states benefit dumping large amounts processed fatty foods poorer states recorded increase obesity related chronic conditions diabetes chronic heart disease aspects modernization theory found improve global obesity crisis


world systems theory approach identifies holes progress knowledge economy finance dominate industry core states manufacturing shifted semi periphery periphery ones technology become defining factor placement states core semi periphery versus periphery wallerstein 's theory leaves room poor countries move better economic development also admits always need periphery countries long core states derive resources final mark modernity wallerstein admits advocates heart


world system exploitation refusal accept exploitation either inevitable constitute continuing antinomy modern era research questions world systems theory asks several key questions world system affected changes components eg nations ethnic groups social classes etc ref name tb affect components ref name tb degree core need periphery underdeveloped ref name tb causes world systems change ref name tb system may replace capitalism ref name tb questions specific certain subfields example marxists would concern whether world systems


theory useful unhelpful development marxist theories ref name tb characteristics model core periphery system like used world systems theory world systems analysis argues capitalism historical system always integrated variety labor forms within functioning division labor world economy countries economies part world economy far separate societies worlds world economy manifests tripartite division labor core semiperipheral peripheral zones core zones businesses support states operate within monopolise profitable


activities division labor many ways attribute specific country core semi periphery periphery using empirically based sharp formal definition domination two country relationship piana defined core made free countries dominating others without dominated semi periphery countries dominated usually necessarily core countries time dominating others usually periphery periphery countries dominated based data full list countries three regions together discussion


methodology found late th early th centuries marked great turning point development capitalism capitalists achieved state society power key states furthered industrial revolution marking rise capitalism world systems analysis contends capitalism historical system formed earlier countries develop stages system events different meaning phase development historical capitalism emergence three ideologies national developmental mythology idea countries develop stages


pursue right set policies conservatism liberalism radicalism proponents world systems analysis see world stratification system way karl marx viewed class ownership versus nonownership means production max weber viewed class addition ownership stressed occupational skill level production process core states primarily control major means production world perform higher level production tasks periphery nations little world 's means production even located periphery states provide less skilled labour like


class system states class positions world economy result unequal distribution rewards resources core states receive greatest share surplus production periphery states receive smallest share furthermore core states usually able purchase raw materials goods non core states low prices demand higher prices exports non core states chirot lists five important benefits coming core states domination periphery access large quantity raw material cheap labour enormous profits


direct capital investments market exports skilled professional labor migration people non core core ref name chirot chirot daniel ''social change modern era'' new york harcourt brace jovanovich ref according wallerstein unique qualities modern world system include capitalistic nature truly global nature fact world economy become politically unified world empire ref name tb core states general core states economically diversified wealthy powerful economically militarily ref name tb ref name ph strong central


governments controlling extensive bureaucracies powerful militaries ref name tb ref name ph stronger complex state institutions help manage economic affairs internally externally sufficiently large tax base state institutions provide infrastructure strong economy highly industrialised produce manufactured goods export instead raw materials ref name tb increasingly tend specialise information finance service industries regularly forefront new technologies new industries contemporary examples include electronics biotechnology industries use assembly line historic example trend


strong bourgeois working classes ref name tb significant means influence non core states ref name tb relatively independent outside control throughout history modern world system group core states competed access world 's resources economic dominance hegemony periphery states occasionally one core state possessed clear dominance others ref name glob according immanuel wallerstein core state dominant others lead three forms economic dominance '''''productivity dominance''''' allows country develop higher quality products cheaper price compared


countries productivity dominance may lead '''''trade dominance''''' case favorable balance trade dominant state since countries buying products others trade dominance may lead '''''financial dominance''''' point money flowing country leaving bankers dominant state tend acquire greater control world 's financial resources ref name wallerstein wallerstein immanuel modern world system ii mercantilism consolidation european world economy new york academic press ref military dominance also


likely state reached point however posited throughout modern world system state able use military gain economic dominance past dominant states became dominant fairly small levels military spending began lose economic dominance military expansion later ref name kennedy kennedy paul ''the rise fall great powers economic change military conflict '' new york random house ref historically cores located northwestern europe england france netherlands later appeared parts


world united states canada australia ref name glob ref name ph peripheral states least economically diversified relatively weak governments ref name tb ref name ph relatively weak institutions tax bases small support infrastructural development tend depend one type economic activity often extracting exporting raw materials core states ref name tb ref name ph tend least industrialized ref name ph often targets investments multinational transnational corporations core states come country exploit cheap unskilled labor order export back core states small bourgeois


large peasant classes ref name tb tend populations high percentages poor uneducated people tend high social inequality small upper classes land profitable ties multinational corporations tend extensively influenced core states multinational corporations often forced follow economic policies help core states harm long term economic prospects peripheral states ref name tb historically peripheries found outside europe latin america today sub saharan africa ref name ph semi peripheral states semi peripheral states


midway core periphery ref name ph thus keep falling category peripheral states time strive join category core states therefore tend apply protectionist policies aggressively among three categories states ref name iw wallerstein immanuel maurice modern world system capitalist world economy ''world systems analysis introduction'' durham duke print ref tend countries moving towards industrialization diversified economies regions often relatively developed diversified economies dominant international


trade ref name ph tend export peripheral states import core states trade according scholars chirot subject outside manipulation peripheral societies according others barfield periperial like relations core ref name tb ref name chirot chirot daniel social change twentieth century new york harcourt brace jovanovich ref sphere influence cores semiperipheries also tend exert control peripheries ref name ph semi peripheries act buffers cores peripheries ref name ph thus


states like settler colonies australia canada new zealand semiperipheral status st century states like brazil russia india israel china south korea south africa brics usually considered semiperipheral interstate system core periphery semi periphery countries lies system interconnected state relationships interstate system interstate system arose either concomitant process consequence development capitalist world system course long th century states began recognize 's sovereignty form agreements rules


wallerstein wrote concrete rules exactly constitutes individual state various indicators statehood sovereignty power market control etc could range total nil also clear rules group controlled state various groups located inside outside across states frontiers could seek increase decrease state power order better profit world economy nonetheless relative power continuum stronger weaker states remained relatively unchanged odd years implying universal state system interstate system